diff --git a/TaskB01/description.txt b/TaskB01/description.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..366c40f --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB01/description.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +Write a program to find lines containing the word "Hamlet". +Make use of regular expressions. + +POINTS: 1 +DEADLINE: 08-12-2024 23:59:59 diff --git a/TaskB01/shakespeare.exp b/TaskB01/shakespeare.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..69f6f7d --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB01/shakespeare.exp @@ -0,0 +1,106 @@ +CLAUDIUS, King of Denmark, Hamlet’s uncle. +The GHOST of the late king, Hamlet’s father. +GERTRUDE, the Queen, Hamlet’s mother, now wife of Claudius. +HORATIO, Friend to Hamlet. +Dar’d to the combat; in which our valiant Hamlet, +His fell to Hamlet. Now, sir, young Fortinbras, +Unto young Hamlet; for upon my life, + Enter Claudius King of Denmark, Gertrude the Queen, Hamlet, Polonius, +Though yet of Hamlet our dear brother’s death +But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son— +Good Hamlet, cast thy nighted colour off, +’Tis sweet and commendable in your nature, Hamlet, +Let not thy mother lose her prayers, Hamlet. +This gentle and unforc’d accord of Hamlet + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet._] +For Hamlet, and the trifling of his favour, +So please you, something touching the Lord Hamlet. +Than a command to parley. For Lord Hamlet, +As to give words or talk with the Lord Hamlet. + Enter Hamlet, Horatio and Marcellus. +That I will speak to thee. I’ll call thee Hamlet, + [_Ghost beckons Hamlet._] + [_Exeunt Ghost and Hamlet._] + Enter Ghost and Hamlet. +Wouldst thou not stir in this. Now, Hamlet, hear. +O Hamlet, what a falling off was there, +Adieu, adieu, adieu. Hamlet, remember me. +[_Within._] Lord Hamlet. +And what so poor a man as Hamlet is +Lord Hamlet, with his doublet all unbrac’d, +Of Hamlet’s transformation; so I call it, +And bring these gentlemen where Hamlet is. +The very cause of Hamlet’s lunacy. +Came this from Hamlet to her? +‘Lord Hamlet is a prince, out of thy star. + Enter Hamlet, reading. +How does my good Lord Hamlet? +You go to seek the Lord Hamlet; there he is. +For we have closely sent for Hamlet hither, +Of Hamlet’s wildness: so shall I hope your virtues + Enter Hamlet. +You need not tell us what Lord Hamlet said, + Enter Hamlet and certain Players. +How fares our cousin Hamlet? +I have nothing with this answer, Hamlet; these words are not mine. +Come hither, my dear Hamlet, sit by me. + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet and Horatio._] + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet._] + Enter Hamlet. + Enter Hamlet. +Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. +Why, how now, Hamlet? +O Hamlet, speak no more. +No more, sweet Hamlet. +Speak to her, Hamlet. +O Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain. + [_Exit Hamlet dragging out Polonius._] +What, Gertrude? How does Hamlet? +Hamlet in madness hath Polonius slain, + Enter Hamlet. +[_Within._] Hamlet! Lord Hamlet! +What noise? Who calls on Hamlet? O, here they come. + Enter Hamlet and Guildenstern. +Now, Hamlet, where’s Polonius? +Hamlet, this deed, for thine especial safety,— +Ay, Hamlet. +Thy loving father, Hamlet. +The present death of Hamlet. Do it, England; + Enter Hamlet, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern &c. + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet._] +I should be greeted, if not from Lord Hamlet. +Letters, my lord, from Hamlet. +From Hamlet! Who brought them? +’Tis Hamlet’s character. ’Naked!’ +And that in Hamlet’s hearing, for a quality +Did Hamlet so envenom with his envy +Hamlet comes back: what would you undertake +Hamlet return’d shall know you are come home: + Enter Hamlet and Horatio, at a distance. +Hamlet o’ercame Fortinbras. +that young Hamlet was born,—he that is mad, and sent into England. +I hop’d thou shouldst have been my Hamlet’s wife; +Hamlet the Dane. +Hamlet! Hamlet! + Enter Hamlet and Horatio. + [_Hamlet moves him to put on his hat._] +Come, Hamlet, come, and take this hand from me. + [_The King puts Laertes’s hand into Hamlet’s._] +Was’t Hamlet wrong’d Laertes? Never Hamlet. +If Hamlet from himself be ta’en away, +Then Hamlet does it not, Hamlet denies it. +Hamlet is of the faction that is wrong’d; +His madness is poor Hamlet’s enemy. +Give them the foils, young Osric. Cousin Hamlet, +If Hamlet give the first or second hit, +The King shall drink to Hamlet’s better breath, +‘Now the King drinks to Hamlet.’ Come, begin. +Stay, give me drink. Hamlet, this pearl is thine; +Here, Hamlet, take my napkin, rub thy brows. +The Queen carouses to thy fortune, Hamlet. + [_Laertes wounds Hamlet; then, in scuffling, they change rapiers, and + Hamlet wounds Laertes._] +No, no, the drink, the drink! O my dear Hamlet! +It is here, Hamlet. Hamlet, thou art slain. +Exchange forgiveness with me, noble Hamlet. +Bear Hamlet like a soldier to the stage, diff --git a/TaskB01/shakespeare.in b/TaskB01/shakespeare.in new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b5fcb58 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB01/shakespeare.in @@ -0,0 +1,169442 @@ +Project Gutenberg’s The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, by William Shakespeare + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you’ll +have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using +this ebook. + + +Title: The Complete Works of William Shakespeare + +Author: William Shakespeare + +Release Date: January 1994 [EBook #100] +Last Updated: August 6, 2020 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMPLETE WORKS OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE *** + + + + +The Complete Works of William Shakespeare + + + +by William Shakespeare + + + + + Contents + + + + THE SONNETS + + ALL’S WELL THAT ENDS WELL + + THE TRAGEDY OF ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA + + AS YOU LIKE IT + + THE COMEDY OF ERRORS + + THE TRAGEDY OF CORIOLANUS + + CYMBELINE + + THE TRAGEDY OF HAMLET, PRINCE OF DENMARK + + THE FIRST PART OF KING HENRY THE FOURTH + + THE SECOND PART OF KING HENRY THE FOURTH + + THE LIFE OF KING HENRY THE FIFTH + + THE FIRST PART OF HENRY THE SIXTH + + THE SECOND PART OF KING HENRY THE SIXTH + + THE THIRD PART OF KING HENRY THE SIXTH + + KING HENRY THE EIGHTH + + KING JOHN + + THE TRAGEDY OF JULIUS CAESAR + + THE TRAGEDY OF KING LEAR + + LOVE’S LABOUR’S LOST + + THE TRAGEDY OF MACBETH + + MEASURE FOR MEASURE + + THE MERCHANT OF VENICE + + THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR + + A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM + + MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING + + THE TRAGEDY OF OTHELLO, MOOR OF VENICE + + PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE + + KING RICHARD THE SECOND + + KING RICHARD THE THIRD + + THE TRAGEDY OF ROMEO AND JULIET + + THE TAMING OF THE SHREW + + THE TEMPEST + + THE LIFE OF TIMON OF ATHENS + + THE TRAGEDY OF TITUS ANDRONICUS + + THE HISTORY OF TROILUS AND CRESSIDA + + TWELFTH NIGHT; OR, WHAT YOU WILL + + THE TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA + + THE TWO NOBLE KINSMEN + + THE WINTER’S TALE + + A LOVER’S COMPLAINT + + THE PASSIONATE PILGRIM + + THE PHOENIX AND THE TURTLE + + THE RAPE OF LUCRECE + + VENUS AND ADONIS + + + + + + +THE SONNETS + + 1 + +From fairest creatures we desire increase, +That thereby beauty’s rose might never die, +But as the riper should by time decease, +His tender heir might bear his memory: +But thou contracted to thine own bright eyes, +Feed’st thy light’s flame with self-substantial fuel, +Making a famine where abundance lies, +Thy self thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel: +Thou that art now the world’s fresh ornament, +And only herald to the gaudy spring, +Within thine own bud buriest thy content, +And, tender churl, mak’st waste in niggarding: + Pity the world, or else this glutton be, + To eat the world’s due, by the grave and thee. + + + 2 + +When forty winters shall besiege thy brow, +And dig deep trenches in thy beauty’s field, +Thy youth’s proud livery so gazed on now, +Will be a tattered weed of small worth held: +Then being asked, where all thy beauty lies, +Where all the treasure of thy lusty days; +To say, within thine own deep sunken eyes, +Were an all-eating shame, and thriftless praise. +How much more praise deserv’d thy beauty’s use, +If thou couldst answer ‘This fair child of mine +Shall sum my count, and make my old excuse,’ +Proving his beauty by succession thine. + This were to be new made when thou art old, + And see thy blood warm when thou feel’st it cold. + + + 3 + +Look in thy glass and tell the face thou viewest, +Now is the time that face should form another, +Whose fresh repair if now thou not renewest, +Thou dost beguile the world, unbless some mother. +For where is she so fair whose uneared womb +Disdains the tillage of thy husbandry? +Or who is he so fond will be the tomb +Of his self-love to stop posterity? +Thou art thy mother’s glass and she in thee +Calls back the lovely April of her prime, +So thou through windows of thine age shalt see, +Despite of wrinkles this thy golden time. + But if thou live remembered not to be, + Die single and thine image dies with thee. + + + 4 + +Unthrifty loveliness why dost thou spend, +Upon thy self thy beauty’s legacy? +Nature’s bequest gives nothing but doth lend, +And being frank she lends to those are free: +Then beauteous niggard why dost thou abuse, +The bounteous largess given thee to give? +Profitless usurer why dost thou use +So great a sum of sums yet canst not live? +For having traffic with thy self alone, +Thou of thy self thy sweet self dost deceive, +Then how when nature calls thee to be gone, +What acceptable audit canst thou leave? + Thy unused beauty must be tombed with thee, + Which used lives th’ executor to be. + + + 5 + +Those hours that with gentle work did frame +The lovely gaze where every eye doth dwell +Will play the tyrants to the very same, +And that unfair which fairly doth excel: +For never-resting time leads summer on +To hideous winter and confounds him there, +Sap checked with frost and lusty leaves quite gone, +Beauty o’er-snowed and bareness every where: +Then were not summer’s distillation left +A liquid prisoner pent in walls of glass, +Beauty’s effect with beauty were bereft, +Nor it nor no remembrance what it was. + But flowers distilled though they with winter meet, + Leese but their show, their substance still lives sweet. + + + 6 + +Then let not winter’s ragged hand deface, +In thee thy summer ere thou be distilled: +Make sweet some vial; treasure thou some place, +With beauty’s treasure ere it be self-killed: +That use is not forbidden usury, +Which happies those that pay the willing loan; +That’s for thy self to breed another thee, +Or ten times happier be it ten for one, +Ten times thy self were happier than thou art, +If ten of thine ten times refigured thee: +Then what could death do if thou shouldst depart, +Leaving thee living in posterity? + Be not self-willed for thou art much too fair, + To be death’s conquest and make worms thine heir. + + + 7 + +Lo in the orient when the gracious light +Lifts up his burning head, each under eye +Doth homage to his new-appearing sight, +Serving with looks his sacred majesty, +And having climbed the steep-up heavenly hill, +Resembling strong youth in his middle age, +Yet mortal looks adore his beauty still, +Attending on his golden pilgrimage: +But when from highmost pitch with weary car, +Like feeble age he reeleth from the day, +The eyes (fore duteous) now converted are +From his low tract and look another way: + So thou, thy self out-going in thy noon: + Unlooked on diest unless thou get a son. + + + 8 + +Music to hear, why hear’st thou music sadly? +Sweets with sweets war not, joy delights in joy: +Why lov’st thou that which thou receiv’st not gladly, +Or else receiv’st with pleasure thine annoy? +If the true concord of well-tuned sounds, +By unions married do offend thine ear, +They do but sweetly chide thee, who confounds +In singleness the parts that thou shouldst bear: +Mark how one string sweet husband to another, +Strikes each in each by mutual ordering; +Resembling sire, and child, and happy mother, +Who all in one, one pleasing note do sing: + Whose speechless song being many, seeming one, + Sings this to thee, ‘Thou single wilt prove none’. + + + 9 + +Is it for fear to wet a widow’s eye, +That thou consum’st thy self in single life? +Ah, if thou issueless shalt hap to die, +The world will wail thee like a makeless wife, +The world will be thy widow and still weep, +That thou no form of thee hast left behind, +When every private widow well may keep, +By children’s eyes, her husband’s shape in mind: +Look what an unthrift in the world doth spend +Shifts but his place, for still the world enjoys it; +But beauty’s waste hath in the world an end, +And kept unused the user so destroys it: + No love toward others in that bosom sits + That on himself such murd’rous shame commits. + + + 10 + +For shame deny that thou bear’st love to any +Who for thy self art so unprovident. +Grant if thou wilt, thou art beloved of many, +But that thou none lov’st is most evident: +For thou art so possessed with murd’rous hate, +That ’gainst thy self thou stick’st not to conspire, +Seeking that beauteous roof to ruinate +Which to repair should be thy chief desire: +O change thy thought, that I may change my mind, +Shall hate be fairer lodged than gentle love? +Be as thy presence is gracious and kind, +Or to thy self at least kind-hearted prove, + Make thee another self for love of me, + That beauty still may live in thine or thee. + + + 11 + +As fast as thou shalt wane so fast thou grow’st, +In one of thine, from that which thou departest, +And that fresh blood which youngly thou bestow’st, +Thou mayst call thine, when thou from youth convertest, +Herein lives wisdom, beauty, and increase, +Without this folly, age, and cold decay, +If all were minded so, the times should cease, +And threescore year would make the world away: +Let those whom nature hath not made for store, +Harsh, featureless, and rude, barrenly perish: +Look whom she best endowed, she gave thee more; +Which bounteous gift thou shouldst in bounty cherish: + She carved thee for her seal, and meant thereby, + Thou shouldst print more, not let that copy die. + + + 12 + +When I do count the clock that tells the time, +And see the brave day sunk in hideous night, +When I behold the violet past prime, +And sable curls all silvered o’er with white: +When lofty trees I see barren of leaves, +Which erst from heat did canopy the herd +And summer’s green all girded up in sheaves +Borne on the bier with white and bristly beard: +Then of thy beauty do I question make +That thou among the wastes of time must go, +Since sweets and beauties do themselves forsake, +And die as fast as they see others grow, + And nothing ’gainst Time’s scythe can make defence + Save breed to brave him, when he takes thee hence. + + + 13 + +O that you were your self, but love you are +No longer yours, than you your self here live, +Against this coming end you should prepare, +And your sweet semblance to some other give. +So should that beauty which you hold in lease +Find no determination, then you were +Your self again after your self’s decease, +When your sweet issue your sweet form should bear. +Who lets so fair a house fall to decay, +Which husbandry in honour might uphold, +Against the stormy gusts of winter’s day +And barren rage of death’s eternal cold? + O none but unthrifts, dear my love you know, + You had a father, let your son say so. + + + 14 + +Not from the stars do I my judgement pluck, +And yet methinks I have astronomy, +But not to tell of good, or evil luck, +Of plagues, of dearths, or seasons’ quality, +Nor can I fortune to brief minutes tell; +Pointing to each his thunder, rain and wind, +Or say with princes if it shall go well +By oft predict that I in heaven find. +But from thine eyes my knowledge I derive, +And constant stars in them I read such art +As truth and beauty shall together thrive +If from thy self, to store thou wouldst convert: + Or else of thee this I prognosticate, + Thy end is truth’s and beauty’s doom and date. + + + 15 + +When I consider every thing that grows +Holds in perfection but a little moment. +That this huge stage presenteth nought but shows +Whereon the stars in secret influence comment. +When I perceive that men as plants increase, +Cheered and checked even by the self-same sky: +Vaunt in their youthful sap, at height decrease, +And wear their brave state out of memory. +Then the conceit of this inconstant stay, +Sets you most rich in youth before my sight, +Where wasteful time debateth with decay +To change your day of youth to sullied night, + And all in war with Time for love of you, + As he takes from you, I engraft you new. + + + 16 + +But wherefore do not you a mightier way +Make war upon this bloody tyrant Time? +And fortify your self in your decay +With means more blessed than my barren rhyme? +Now stand you on the top of happy hours, +And many maiden gardens yet unset, +With virtuous wish would bear you living flowers, +Much liker than your painted counterfeit: +So should the lines of life that life repair +Which this (Time’s pencil) or my pupil pen +Neither in inward worth nor outward fair +Can make you live your self in eyes of men. + To give away your self, keeps your self still, + And you must live drawn by your own sweet skill. + + + 17 + +Who will believe my verse in time to come +If it were filled with your most high deserts? +Though yet heaven knows it is but as a tomb +Which hides your life, and shows not half your parts: +If I could write the beauty of your eyes, +And in fresh numbers number all your graces, +The age to come would say this poet lies, +Such heavenly touches ne’er touched earthly faces. +So should my papers (yellowed with their age) +Be scorned, like old men of less truth than tongue, +And your true rights be termed a poet’s rage, +And stretched metre of an antique song. + But were some child of yours alive that time, + You should live twice in it, and in my rhyme. + + + 18 + +Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? +Thou art more lovely and more temperate: +Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, +And summer’s lease hath all too short a date: +Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, +And often is his gold complexion dimmed, +And every fair from fair sometime declines, +By chance, or nature’s changing course untrimmed: +But thy eternal summer shall not fade, +Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st, +Nor shall death brag thou wand’rest in his shade, +When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st, + So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, + So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. + + + 19 + +Devouring Time blunt thou the lion’s paws, +And make the earth devour her own sweet brood, +Pluck the keen teeth from the fierce tiger’s jaws, +And burn the long-lived phoenix, in her blood, +Make glad and sorry seasons as thou fleet’st, +And do whate’er thou wilt swift-footed Time +To the wide world and all her fading sweets: +But I forbid thee one most heinous crime, +O carve not with thy hours my love’s fair brow, +Nor draw no lines there with thine antique pen, +Him in thy course untainted do allow, +For beauty’s pattern to succeeding men. + Yet do thy worst old Time: despite thy wrong, + My love shall in my verse ever live young. + + + 20 + +A woman’s face with nature’s own hand painted, +Hast thou the master mistress of my passion, +A woman’s gentle heart but not acquainted +With shifting change as is false women’s fashion, +An eye more bright than theirs, less false in rolling: +Gilding the object whereupon it gazeth, +A man in hue all hues in his controlling, +Which steals men’s eyes and women’s souls amazeth. +And for a woman wert thou first created, +Till nature as she wrought thee fell a-doting, +And by addition me of thee defeated, +By adding one thing to my purpose nothing. + But since she pricked thee out for women’s pleasure, + Mine be thy love and thy love’s use their treasure. + + + 21 + +So is it not with me as with that muse, +Stirred by a painted beauty to his verse, +Who heaven it self for ornament doth use, +And every fair with his fair doth rehearse, +Making a couplement of proud compare +With sun and moon, with earth and sea’s rich gems: +With April’s first-born flowers and all things rare, +That heaven’s air in this huge rondure hems. +O let me true in love but truly write, +And then believe me, my love is as fair, +As any mother’s child, though not so bright +As those gold candles fixed in heaven’s air: + Let them say more that like of hearsay well, + I will not praise that purpose not to sell. + + + 22 + +My glass shall not persuade me I am old, +So long as youth and thou are of one date, +But when in thee time’s furrows I behold, +Then look I death my days should expiate. +For all that beauty that doth cover thee, +Is but the seemly raiment of my heart, +Which in thy breast doth live, as thine in me, +How can I then be elder than thou art? +O therefore love be of thyself so wary, +As I not for my self, but for thee will, +Bearing thy heart which I will keep so chary +As tender nurse her babe from faring ill. + Presume not on thy heart when mine is slain, + Thou gav’st me thine not to give back again. + + + 23 + +As an unperfect actor on the stage, +Who with his fear is put beside his part, +Or some fierce thing replete with too much rage, +Whose strength’s abundance weakens his own heart; +So I for fear of trust, forget to say, +The perfect ceremony of love’s rite, +And in mine own love’s strength seem to decay, +O’ercharged with burthen of mine own love’s might: +O let my looks be then the eloquence, +And dumb presagers of my speaking breast, +Who plead for love, and look for recompense, +More than that tongue that more hath more expressed. + O learn to read what silent love hath writ, + To hear with eyes belongs to love’s fine wit. + + + 24 + +Mine eye hath played the painter and hath stelled, +Thy beauty’s form in table of my heart, +My body is the frame wherein ’tis held, +And perspective it is best painter’s art. +For through the painter must you see his skill, +To find where your true image pictured lies, +Which in my bosom’s shop is hanging still, +That hath his windows glazed with thine eyes: +Now see what good turns eyes for eyes have done, +Mine eyes have drawn thy shape, and thine for me +Are windows to my breast, where-through the sun +Delights to peep, to gaze therein on thee; + Yet eyes this cunning want to grace their art, + They draw but what they see, know not the heart. + + + 25 + +Let those who are in favour with their stars, +Of public honour and proud titles boast, +Whilst I whom fortune of such triumph bars +Unlooked for joy in that I honour most; +Great princes’ favourites their fair leaves spread, +But as the marigold at the sun’s eye, +And in themselves their pride lies buried, +For at a frown they in their glory die. +The painful warrior famoused for fight, +After a thousand victories once foiled, +Is from the book of honour razed quite, +And all the rest forgot for which he toiled: + Then happy I that love and am beloved + Where I may not remove nor be removed. + + + 26 + +Lord of my love, to whom in vassalage +Thy merit hath my duty strongly knit; +To thee I send this written embassage +To witness duty, not to show my wit. +Duty so great, which wit so poor as mine +May make seem bare, in wanting words to show it; +But that I hope some good conceit of thine +In thy soul’s thought (all naked) will bestow it: +Till whatsoever star that guides my moving, +Points on me graciously with fair aspect, +And puts apparel on my tattered loving, +To show me worthy of thy sweet respect, + Then may I dare to boast how I do love thee, + Till then, not show my head where thou mayst prove me. + + + 27 + +Weary with toil, I haste me to my bed, +The dear respose for limbs with travel tired, +But then begins a journey in my head +To work my mind, when body’s work’s expired. +For then my thoughts (from far where I abide) +Intend a zealous pilgrimage to thee, +And keep my drooping eyelids open wide, +Looking on darkness which the blind do see. +Save that my soul’s imaginary sight +Presents thy shadow to my sightless view, +Which like a jewel (hung in ghastly night) +Makes black night beauteous, and her old face new. + Lo thus by day my limbs, by night my mind, + For thee, and for my self, no quiet find. + + + 28 + +How can I then return in happy plight +That am debarred the benefit of rest? +When day’s oppression is not eased by night, +But day by night and night by day oppressed. +And each (though enemies to either’s reign) +Do in consent shake hands to torture me, +The one by toil, the other to complain +How far I toil, still farther off from thee. +I tell the day to please him thou art bright, +And dost him grace when clouds do blot the heaven: +So flatter I the swart-complexioned night, +When sparkling stars twire not thou gild’st the even. + But day doth daily draw my sorrows longer, + And night doth nightly make grief’s length seem stronger + + + 29 + +When in disgrace with Fortune and men’s eyes, +I all alone beweep my outcast state, +And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries, +And look upon my self and curse my fate, +Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, +Featured like him, like him with friends possessed, +Desiring this man’s art, and that man’s scope, +With what I most enjoy contented least, +Yet in these thoughts my self almost despising, +Haply I think on thee, and then my state, +(Like to the lark at break of day arising +From sullen earth) sings hymns at heaven’s gate, + For thy sweet love remembered such wealth brings, + That then I scorn to change my state with kings. + + + 30 + +When to the sessions of sweet silent thought, +I summon up remembrance of things past, +I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought, +And with old woes new wail my dear time’s waste: +Then can I drown an eye (unused to flow) +For precious friends hid in death’s dateless night, +And weep afresh love’s long since cancelled woe, +And moan th’ expense of many a vanished sight. +Then can I grieve at grievances foregone, +And heavily from woe to woe tell o’er +The sad account of fore-bemoaned moan, +Which I new pay as if not paid before. + But if the while I think on thee (dear friend) + All losses are restored, and sorrows end. + + + 31 + +Thy bosom is endeared with all hearts, +Which I by lacking have supposed dead, +And there reigns love and all love’s loving parts, +And all those friends which I thought buried. +How many a holy and obsequious tear +Hath dear religious love stol’n from mine eye, +As interest of the dead, which now appear, +But things removed that hidden in thee lie. +Thou art the grave where buried love doth live, +Hung with the trophies of my lovers gone, +Who all their parts of me to thee did give, +That due of many, now is thine alone. + Their images I loved, I view in thee, + And thou (all they) hast all the all of me. + + + 32 + +If thou survive my well-contented day, +When that churl death my bones with dust shall cover +And shalt by fortune once more re-survey +These poor rude lines of thy deceased lover: +Compare them with the bett’ring of the time, +And though they be outstripped by every pen, +Reserve them for my love, not for their rhyme, +Exceeded by the height of happier men. +O then vouchsafe me but this loving thought, +’Had my friend’s Muse grown with this growing age, +A dearer birth than this his love had brought +To march in ranks of better equipage: + But since he died and poets better prove, + Theirs for their style I’ll read, his for his love’. + + + 33 + +Full many a glorious morning have I seen, +Flatter the mountain tops with sovereign eye, +Kissing with golden face the meadows green; +Gilding pale streams with heavenly alchemy: +Anon permit the basest clouds to ride, +With ugly rack on his celestial face, +And from the forlorn world his visage hide +Stealing unseen to west with this disgrace: +Even so my sun one early morn did shine, +With all triumphant splendour on my brow, +But out alack, he was but one hour mine, +The region cloud hath masked him from me now. + Yet him for this, my love no whit disdaineth, + Suns of the world may stain, when heaven’s sun staineth. + + + 34 + +Why didst thou promise such a beauteous day, +And make me travel forth without my cloak, +To let base clouds o’ertake me in my way, +Hiding thy brav’ry in their rotten smoke? +’Tis not enough that through the cloud thou break, +To dry the rain on my storm-beaten face, +For no man well of such a salve can speak, +That heals the wound, and cures not the disgrace: +Nor can thy shame give physic to my grief, +Though thou repent, yet I have still the loss, +Th’ offender’s sorrow lends but weak relief +To him that bears the strong offence’s cross. + Ah but those tears are pearl which thy love sheds, + And they are rich, and ransom all ill deeds. + + + 35 + +No more be grieved at that which thou hast done, +Roses have thorns, and silver fountains mud, +Clouds and eclipses stain both moon and sun, +And loathsome canker lives in sweetest bud. +All men make faults, and even I in this, +Authorizing thy trespass with compare, +My self corrupting salving thy amiss, +Excusing thy sins more than thy sins are: +For to thy sensual fault I bring in sense, +Thy adverse party is thy advocate, +And ’gainst my self a lawful plea commence: +Such civil war is in my love and hate, + That I an accessary needs must be, + To that sweet thief which sourly robs from me. + + + 36 + +Let me confess that we two must be twain, +Although our undivided loves are one: +So shall those blots that do with me remain, +Without thy help, by me be borne alone. +In our two loves there is but one respect, +Though in our lives a separable spite, +Which though it alter not love’s sole effect, +Yet doth it steal sweet hours from love’s delight. +I may not evermore acknowledge thee, +Lest my bewailed guilt should do thee shame, +Nor thou with public kindness honour me, +Unless thou take that honour from thy name: + But do not so, I love thee in such sort, + As thou being mine, mine is thy good report. + + + 37 + +As a decrepit father takes delight, +To see his active child do deeds of youth, +So I, made lame by Fortune’s dearest spite +Take all my comfort of thy worth and truth. +For whether beauty, birth, or wealth, or wit, +Or any of these all, or all, or more +Entitled in thy parts, do crowned sit, +I make my love engrafted to this store: +So then I am not lame, poor, nor despised, +Whilst that this shadow doth such substance give, +That I in thy abundance am sufficed, +And by a part of all thy glory live: + Look what is best, that best I wish in thee, + This wish I have, then ten times happy me. + + + 38 + +How can my muse want subject to invent +While thou dost breathe that pour’st into my verse, +Thine own sweet argument, too excellent, +For every vulgar paper to rehearse? +O give thy self the thanks if aught in me, +Worthy perusal stand against thy sight, +For who’s so dumb that cannot write to thee, +When thou thy self dost give invention light? +Be thou the tenth Muse, ten times more in worth +Than those old nine which rhymers invocate, +And he that calls on thee, let him bring forth +Eternal numbers to outlive long date. + If my slight muse do please these curious days, + The pain be mine, but thine shall be the praise. + + + 39 + +O how thy worth with manners may I sing, +When thou art all the better part of me? +What can mine own praise to mine own self bring: +And what is’t but mine own when I praise thee? +Even for this, let us divided live, +And our dear love lose name of single one, +That by this separation I may give: +That due to thee which thou deserv’st alone: +O absence what a torment wouldst thou prove, +Were it not thy sour leisure gave sweet leave, +To entertain the time with thoughts of love, +Which time and thoughts so sweetly doth deceive. + And that thou teachest how to make one twain, + By praising him here who doth hence remain. + + + 40 + +Take all my loves, my love, yea take them all, +What hast thou then more than thou hadst before? +No love, my love, that thou mayst true love call, +All mine was thine, before thou hadst this more: +Then if for my love, thou my love receivest, +I cannot blame thee, for my love thou usest, +But yet be blamed, if thou thy self deceivest +By wilful taste of what thy self refusest. +I do forgive thy robbery gentle thief +Although thou steal thee all my poverty: +And yet love knows it is a greater grief +To bear greater wrong, than hate’s known injury. + Lascivious grace, in whom all ill well shows, + Kill me with spites yet we must not be foes. + + + 41 + +Those pretty wrongs that liberty commits, +When I am sometime absent from thy heart, +Thy beauty, and thy years full well befits, +For still temptation follows where thou art. +Gentle thou art, and therefore to be won, +Beauteous thou art, therefore to be assailed. +And when a woman woos, what woman’s son, +Will sourly leave her till he have prevailed? +Ay me, but yet thou mightst my seat forbear, +And chide thy beauty, and thy straying youth, +Who lead thee in their riot even there +Where thou art forced to break a twofold truth: + Hers by thy beauty tempting her to thee, + Thine by thy beauty being false to me. + + + 42 + +That thou hast her it is not all my grief, +And yet it may be said I loved her dearly, +That she hath thee is of my wailing chief, +A loss in love that touches me more nearly. +Loving offenders thus I will excuse ye, +Thou dost love her, because thou know’st I love her, +And for my sake even so doth she abuse me, +Suff’ring my friend for my sake to approve her. +If I lose thee, my loss is my love’s gain, +And losing her, my friend hath found that loss, +Both find each other, and I lose both twain, +And both for my sake lay on me this cross, + But here’s the joy, my friend and I are one, + Sweet flattery, then she loves but me alone. + + + 43 + +When most I wink then do mine eyes best see, +For all the day they view things unrespected, +But when I sleep, in dreams they look on thee, +And darkly bright, are bright in dark directed. +Then thou whose shadow shadows doth make bright +How would thy shadow’s form, form happy show, +To the clear day with thy much clearer light, +When to unseeing eyes thy shade shines so! +How would (I say) mine eyes be blessed made, +By looking on thee in the living day, +When in dead night thy fair imperfect shade, +Through heavy sleep on sightless eyes doth stay! + All days are nights to see till I see thee, + And nights bright days when dreams do show thee me. + + + 44 + +If the dull substance of my flesh were thought, +Injurious distance should not stop my way, +For then despite of space I would be brought, +From limits far remote, where thou dost stay, +No matter then although my foot did stand +Upon the farthest earth removed from thee, +For nimble thought can jump both sea and land, +As soon as think the place where he would be. +But ah, thought kills me that I am not thought +To leap large lengths of miles when thou art gone, +But that so much of earth and water wrought, +I must attend, time’s leisure with my moan. + Receiving nought by elements so slow, + But heavy tears, badges of either’s woe. + + + 45 + +The other two, slight air, and purging fire, +Are both with thee, wherever I abide, +The first my thought, the other my desire, +These present-absent with swift motion slide. +For when these quicker elements are gone +In tender embassy of love to thee, +My life being made of four, with two alone, +Sinks down to death, oppressed with melancholy. +Until life’s composition be recured, +By those swift messengers returned from thee, +Who even but now come back again assured, +Of thy fair health, recounting it to me. + This told, I joy, but then no longer glad, + I send them back again and straight grow sad. + + + 46 + +Mine eye and heart are at a mortal war, +How to divide the conquest of thy sight, +Mine eye, my heart thy picture’s sight would bar, +My heart, mine eye the freedom of that right, +My heart doth plead that thou in him dost lie, +(A closet never pierced with crystal eyes) +But the defendant doth that plea deny, +And says in him thy fair appearance lies. +To side this title is impanelled +A quest of thoughts, all tenants to the heart, +And by their verdict is determined +The clear eye’s moiety, and the dear heart’s part. + As thus, mine eye’s due is thy outward part, + And my heart’s right, thy inward love of heart. + + + 47 + +Betwixt mine eye and heart a league is took, +And each doth good turns now unto the other, +When that mine eye is famished for a look, +Or heart in love with sighs himself doth smother; +With my love’s picture then my eye doth feast, +And to the painted banquet bids my heart: +Another time mine eye is my heart’s guest, +And in his thoughts of love doth share a part. +So either by thy picture or my love, +Thy self away, art present still with me, +For thou not farther than my thoughts canst move, +And I am still with them, and they with thee. + Or if they sleep, thy picture in my sight + Awakes my heart, to heart’s and eye’s delight. + + + 48 + +How careful was I when I took my way, +Each trifle under truest bars to thrust, +That to my use it might unused stay +From hands of falsehood, in sure wards of trust! +But thou, to whom my jewels trifles are, +Most worthy comfort, now my greatest grief, +Thou best of dearest, and mine only care, +Art left the prey of every vulgar thief. +Thee have I not locked up in any chest, +Save where thou art not, though I feel thou art, +Within the gentle closure of my breast, +From whence at pleasure thou mayst come and part, + And even thence thou wilt be stol’n I fear, + For truth proves thievish for a prize so dear. + + + 49 + +Against that time (if ever that time come) +When I shall see thee frown on my defects, +When as thy love hath cast his utmost sum, +Called to that audit by advised respects, +Against that time when thou shalt strangely pass, +And scarcely greet me with that sun thine eye, +When love converted from the thing it was +Shall reasons find of settled gravity; +Against that time do I ensconce me here +Within the knowledge of mine own desert, +And this my hand, against my self uprear, +To guard the lawful reasons on thy part, + To leave poor me, thou hast the strength of laws, + Since why to love, I can allege no cause. + + + 50 + +How heavy do I journey on the way, +When what I seek (my weary travel’s end) +Doth teach that case and that repose to say +’Thus far the miles are measured from thy friend.’ +The beast that bears me, tired with my woe, +Plods dully on, to bear that weight in me, +As if by some instinct the wretch did know +His rider loved not speed being made from thee: +The bloody spur cannot provoke him on, +That sometimes anger thrusts into his hide, +Which heavily he answers with a groan, +More sharp to me than spurring to his side, + For that same groan doth put this in my mind, + My grief lies onward and my joy behind. + + + 51 + +Thus can my love excuse the slow offence, +Of my dull bearer, when from thee I speed, +From where thou art, why should I haste me thence? +Till I return of posting is no need. +O what excuse will my poor beast then find, +When swift extremity can seem but slow? +Then should I spur though mounted on the wind, +In winged speed no motion shall I know, +Then can no horse with my desire keep pace, +Therefore desire (of perfect’st love being made) +Shall neigh (no dull flesh) in his fiery race, +But love, for love, thus shall excuse my jade, + Since from thee going, he went wilful-slow, + Towards thee I’ll run, and give him leave to go. + + + 52 + +So am I as the rich whose blessed key, +Can bring him to his sweet up-locked treasure, +The which he will not every hour survey, +For blunting the fine point of seldom pleasure. +Therefore are feasts so solemn and so rare, +Since seldom coming in that long year set, +Like stones of worth they thinly placed are, +Or captain jewels in the carcanet. +So is the time that keeps you as my chest +Or as the wardrobe which the robe doth hide, +To make some special instant special-blest, +By new unfolding his imprisoned pride. + Blessed are you whose worthiness gives scope, + Being had to triumph, being lacked to hope. + + + 53 + +What is your substance, whereof are you made, +That millions of strange shadows on you tend? +Since every one, hath every one, one shade, +And you but one, can every shadow lend: +Describe Adonis and the counterfeit, +Is poorly imitated after you, +On Helen’s cheek all art of beauty set, +And you in Grecian tires are painted new: +Speak of the spring, and foison of the year, +The one doth shadow of your beauty show, +The other as your bounty doth appear, +And you in every blessed shape we know. + In all external grace you have some part, + But you like none, none you for constant heart. + + + 54 + +O how much more doth beauty beauteous seem, +By that sweet ornament which truth doth give! +The rose looks fair, but fairer we it deem +For that sweet odour, which doth in it live: +The canker blooms have full as deep a dye, +As the perfumed tincture of the roses, +Hang on such thorns, and play as wantonly, +When summer’s breath their masked buds discloses: +But for their virtue only is their show, +They live unwooed, and unrespected fade, +Die to themselves. Sweet roses do not so, +Of their sweet deaths, are sweetest odours made: + And so of you, beauteous and lovely youth, + When that shall fade, my verse distills your truth. + + + 55 + +Not marble, nor the gilded monuments +Of princes shall outlive this powerful rhyme, +But you shall shine more bright in these contents +Than unswept stone, besmeared with sluttish time. +When wasteful war shall statues overturn, +And broils root out the work of masonry, +Nor Mars his sword, nor war’s quick fire shall burn: +The living record of your memory. +’Gainst death, and all-oblivious enmity +Shall you pace forth, your praise shall still find room, +Even in the eyes of all posterity +That wear this world out to the ending doom. + So till the judgment that your self arise, + You live in this, and dwell in lovers’ eyes. + + + 56 + +Sweet love renew thy force, be it not said +Thy edge should blunter be than appetite, +Which but to-day by feeding is allayed, +To-morrow sharpened in his former might. +So love be thou, although to-day thou fill +Thy hungry eyes, even till they wink with fulness, +To-morrow see again, and do not kill +The spirit of love, with a perpetual dulness: +Let this sad interim like the ocean be +Which parts the shore, where two contracted new, +Come daily to the banks, that when they see: +Return of love, more blest may be the view. + Or call it winter, which being full of care, + Makes summer’s welcome, thrice more wished, more rare. + + + 57 + +Being your slave what should I do but tend, +Upon the hours, and times of your desire? +I have no precious time at all to spend; +Nor services to do till you require. +Nor dare I chide the world-without-end hour, +Whilst I (my sovereign) watch the clock for you, +Nor think the bitterness of absence sour, +When you have bid your servant once adieu. +Nor dare I question with my jealous thought, +Where you may be, or your affairs suppose, +But like a sad slave stay and think of nought +Save where you are, how happy you make those. + So true a fool is love, that in your will, + (Though you do any thing) he thinks no ill. + + + 58 + +That god forbid, that made me first your slave, +I should in thought control your times of pleasure, +Or at your hand th’ account of hours to crave, +Being your vassal bound to stay your leisure. +O let me suffer (being at your beck) +Th’ imprisoned absence of your liberty, +And patience tame to sufferance bide each check, +Without accusing you of injury. +Be where you list, your charter is so strong, +That you your self may privilage your time +To what you will, to you it doth belong, +Your self to pardon of self-doing crime. + I am to wait, though waiting so be hell, + Not blame your pleasure be it ill or well. + + + 59 + +If there be nothing new, but that which is, +Hath been before, how are our brains beguiled, +Which labouring for invention bear amis +The second burthen of a former child! +O that record could with a backward look, +Even of five hundred courses of the sun, +Show me your image in some antique book, +Since mind at first in character was done. +That I might see what the old world could say, +To this composed wonder of your frame, +Whether we are mended, or whether better they, +Or whether revolution be the same. + O sure I am the wits of former days, + To subjects worse have given admiring praise. + + + 60 + +Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore, +So do our minutes hasten to their end, +Each changing place with that which goes before, +In sequent toil all forwards do contend. +Nativity once in the main of light, +Crawls to maturity, wherewith being crowned, +Crooked eclipses ’gainst his glory fight, +And Time that gave, doth now his gift confound. +Time doth transfix the flourish set on youth, +And delves the parallels in beauty’s brow, +Feeds on the rarities of nature’s truth, +And nothing stands but for his scythe to mow. + And yet to times in hope, my verse shall stand + Praising thy worth, despite his cruel hand. + + + 61 + +Is it thy will, thy image should keep open +My heavy eyelids to the weary night? +Dost thou desire my slumbers should be broken, +While shadows like to thee do mock my sight? +Is it thy spirit that thou send’st from thee +So far from home into my deeds to pry, +To find out shames and idle hours in me, +The scope and tenure of thy jealousy? +O no, thy love though much, is not so great, +It is my love that keeps mine eye awake, +Mine own true love that doth my rest defeat, +To play the watchman ever for thy sake. + For thee watch I, whilst thou dost wake elsewhere, + From me far off, with others all too near. + + + 62 + +Sin of self-love possesseth all mine eye, +And all my soul, and all my every part; +And for this sin there is no remedy, +It is so grounded inward in my heart. +Methinks no face so gracious is as mine, +No shape so true, no truth of such account, +And for my self mine own worth do define, +As I all other in all worths surmount. +But when my glass shows me my self indeed +beated and chopt with tanned antiquity, +Mine own self-love quite contrary I read: +Self, so self-loving were iniquity. + ’Tis thee (my self) that for my self I praise, + Painting my age with beauty of thy days. + + + 63 + +Against my love shall be as I am now +With Time’s injurious hand crushed and o’erworn, +When hours have drained his blood and filled his brow +With lines and wrinkles, when his youthful morn +Hath travelled on to age’s steepy night, +And all those beauties whereof now he’s king +Are vanishing, or vanished out of sight, +Stealing away the treasure of his spring: +For such a time do I now fortify +Against confounding age’s cruel knife, +That he shall never cut from memory +My sweet love’s beauty, though my lover’s life. + His beauty shall in these black lines be seen, + And they shall live, and he in them still green. + + + 64 + +When I have seen by Time’s fell hand defaced +The rich-proud cost of outworn buried age, +When sometime lofty towers I see down-rased, +And brass eternal slave to mortal rage. +When I have seen the hungry ocean gain +Advantage on the kingdom of the shore, +And the firm soil win of the watery main, +Increasing store with loss, and loss with store. +When I have seen such interchange of State, +Or state it self confounded, to decay, +Ruin hath taught me thus to ruminate +That Time will come and take my love away. + This thought is as a death which cannot choose + But weep to have, that which it fears to lose. + + + 65 + +Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea, +But sad mortality o’ersways their power, +How with this rage shall beauty hold a plea, +Whose action is no stronger than a flower? +O how shall summer’s honey breath hold out, +Against the wrackful siege of batt’ring days, +When rocks impregnable are not so stout, +Nor gates of steel so strong but time decays? +O fearful meditation, where alack, +Shall Time’s best jewel from Time’s chest lie hid? +Or what strong hand can hold his swift foot back, +Or who his spoil of beauty can forbid? + O none, unless this miracle have might, + That in black ink my love may still shine bright. + + + 66 + +Tired with all these for restful death I cry, +As to behold desert a beggar born, +And needy nothing trimmed in jollity, +And purest faith unhappily forsworn, +And gilded honour shamefully misplaced, +And maiden virtue rudely strumpeted, +And right perfection wrongfully disgraced, +And strength by limping sway disabled +And art made tongue-tied by authority, +And folly (doctor-like) controlling skill, +And simple truth miscalled simplicity, +And captive good attending captain ill. + Tired with all these, from these would I be gone, + Save that to die, I leave my love alone. + + + 67 + +Ah wherefore with infection should he live, +And with his presence grace impiety, +That sin by him advantage should achieve, +And lace it self with his society? +Why should false painting imitate his cheek, +And steal dead seeming of his living hue? +Why should poor beauty indirectly seek, +Roses of shadow, since his rose is true? +Why should he live, now nature bankrupt is, +Beggared of blood to blush through lively veins, +For she hath no exchequer now but his, +And proud of many, lives upon his gains? + O him she stores, to show what wealth she had, + In days long since, before these last so bad. + + + 68 + +Thus is his cheek the map of days outworn, +When beauty lived and died as flowers do now, +Before these bastard signs of fair were born, +Or durst inhabit on a living brow: +Before the golden tresses of the dead, +The right of sepulchres, were shorn away, +To live a second life on second head, +Ere beauty’s dead fleece made another gay: +In him those holy antique hours are seen, +Without all ornament, it self and true, +Making no summer of another’s green, +Robbing no old to dress his beauty new, + And him as for a map doth Nature store, + To show false Art what beauty was of yore. + + + 69 + +Those parts of thee that the world’s eye doth view, +Want nothing that the thought of hearts can mend: +All tongues (the voice of souls) give thee that due, +Uttering bare truth, even so as foes commend. +Thy outward thus with outward praise is crowned, +But those same tongues that give thee so thine own, +In other accents do this praise confound +By seeing farther than the eye hath shown. +They look into the beauty of thy mind, +And that in guess they measure by thy deeds, +Then churls their thoughts (although their eyes were kind) +To thy fair flower add the rank smell of weeds: + But why thy odour matcheth not thy show, + The soil is this, that thou dost common grow. + + + 70 + +That thou art blamed shall not be thy defect, +For slander’s mark was ever yet the fair, +The ornament of beauty is suspect, +A crow that flies in heaven’s sweetest air. +So thou be good, slander doth but approve, +Thy worth the greater being wooed of time, +For canker vice the sweetest buds doth love, +And thou present’st a pure unstained prime. +Thou hast passed by the ambush of young days, +Either not assailed, or victor being charged, +Yet this thy praise cannot be so thy praise, +To tie up envy, evermore enlarged, + If some suspect of ill masked not thy show, + Then thou alone kingdoms of hearts shouldst owe. + + + 71 + +No longer mourn for me when I am dead, +Than you shall hear the surly sullen bell +Give warning to the world that I am fled +From this vile world with vilest worms to dwell: +Nay if you read this line, remember not, +The hand that writ it, for I love you so, +That I in your sweet thoughts would be forgot, +If thinking on me then should make you woe. +O if (I say) you look upon this verse, +When I (perhaps) compounded am with clay, +Do not so much as my poor name rehearse; +But let your love even with my life decay. + Lest the wise world should look into your moan, + And mock you with me after I am gone. + + + 72 + +O lest the world should task you to recite, +What merit lived in me that you should love +After my death (dear love) forget me quite, +For you in me can nothing worthy prove. +Unless you would devise some virtuous lie, +To do more for me than mine own desert, +And hang more praise upon deceased I, +Than niggard truth would willingly impart: +O lest your true love may seem false in this, +That you for love speak well of me untrue, +My name be buried where my body is, +And live no more to shame nor me, nor you. + For I am shamed by that which I bring forth, + And so should you, to love things nothing worth. + + + 73 + +That time of year thou mayst in me behold, +When yellow leaves, or none, or few do hang +Upon those boughs which shake against the cold, +Bare ruined choirs, where late the sweet birds sang. +In me thou seest the twilight of such day, +As after sunset fadeth in the west, +Which by and by black night doth take away, +Death’s second self that seals up all in rest. +In me thou seest the glowing of such fire, +That on the ashes of his youth doth lie, +As the death-bed, whereon it must expire, +Consumed with that which it was nourished by. + This thou perceiv’st, which makes thy love more strong, + To love that well, which thou must leave ere long. + + + 74 + +But be contented when that fell arrest, +Without all bail shall carry me away, +My life hath in this line some interest, +Which for memorial still with thee shall stay. +When thou reviewest this, thou dost review, +The very part was consecrate to thee, +The earth can have but earth, which is his due, +My spirit is thine the better part of me, +So then thou hast but lost the dregs of life, +The prey of worms, my body being dead, +The coward conquest of a wretch’s knife, +Too base of thee to be remembered, + The worth of that, is that which it contains, + And that is this, and this with thee remains. + + + 75 + +So are you to my thoughts as food to life, +Or as sweet-seasoned showers are to the ground; +And for the peace of you I hold such strife +As ’twixt a miser and his wealth is found. +Now proud as an enjoyer, and anon +Doubting the filching age will steal his treasure, +Now counting best to be with you alone, +Then bettered that the world may see my pleasure, +Sometime all full with feasting on your sight, +And by and by clean starved for a look, +Possessing or pursuing no delight +Save what is had, or must from you be took. + Thus do I pine and surfeit day by day, + Or gluttoning on all, or all away. + + + 76 + +Why is my verse so barren of new pride? +So far from variation or quick change? +Why with the time do I not glance aside +To new-found methods, and to compounds strange? +Why write I still all one, ever the same, +And keep invention in a noted weed, +That every word doth almost tell my name, +Showing their birth, and where they did proceed? +O know sweet love I always write of you, +And you and love are still my argument: +So all my best is dressing old words new, +Spending again what is already spent: + For as the sun is daily new and old, + So is my love still telling what is told. + + + 77 + +Thy glass will show thee how thy beauties wear, +Thy dial how thy precious minutes waste, +These vacant leaves thy mind’s imprint will bear, +And of this book, this learning mayst thou taste. +The wrinkles which thy glass will truly show, +Of mouthed graves will give thee memory, +Thou by thy dial’s shady stealth mayst know, +Time’s thievish progress to eternity. +Look what thy memory cannot contain, +Commit to these waste blanks, and thou shalt find +Those children nursed, delivered from thy brain, +To take a new acquaintance of thy mind. + These offices, so oft as thou wilt look, + Shall profit thee, and much enrich thy book. + + + 78 + +So oft have I invoked thee for my muse, +And found such fair assistance in my verse, +As every alien pen hath got my use, +And under thee their poesy disperse. +Thine eyes, that taught the dumb on high to sing, +And heavy ignorance aloft to fly, +Have added feathers to the learned’s wing, +And given grace a double majesty. +Yet be most proud of that which I compile, +Whose influence is thine, and born of thee, +In others’ works thou dost but mend the style, +And arts with thy sweet graces graced be. + But thou art all my art, and dost advance + As high as learning, my rude ignorance. + + + 79 + +Whilst I alone did call upon thy aid, +My verse alone had all thy gentle grace, +But now my gracious numbers are decayed, +And my sick muse doth give an other place. +I grant (sweet love) thy lovely argument +Deserves the travail of a worthier pen, +Yet what of thee thy poet doth invent, +He robs thee of, and pays it thee again, +He lends thee virtue, and he stole that word, +From thy behaviour, beauty doth he give +And found it in thy cheek: he can afford +No praise to thee, but what in thee doth live. + Then thank him not for that which he doth say, + Since what he owes thee, thou thy self dost pay. + + + 80 + +O how I faint when I of you do write, +Knowing a better spirit doth use your name, +And in the praise thereof spends all his might, +To make me tongue-tied speaking of your fame. +But since your worth (wide as the ocean is) +The humble as the proudest sail doth bear, +My saucy bark (inferior far to his) +On your broad main doth wilfully appear. +Your shallowest help will hold me up afloat, +Whilst he upon your soundless deep doth ride, +Or (being wrecked) I am a worthless boat, +He of tall building, and of goodly pride. + Then if he thrive and I be cast away, + The worst was this, my love was my decay. + + + 81 + +Or I shall live your epitaph to make, +Or you survive when I in earth am rotten, +From hence your memory death cannot take, +Although in me each part will be forgotten. +Your name from hence immortal life shall have, +Though I (once gone) to all the world must die, +The earth can yield me but a common grave, +When you entombed in men’s eyes shall lie, +Your monument shall be my gentle verse, +Which eyes not yet created shall o’er-read, +And tongues to be, your being shall rehearse, +When all the breathers of this world are dead, + You still shall live (such virtue hath my pen) + Where breath most breathes, even in the mouths of men. + + + 82 + +I grant thou wert not married to my muse, +And therefore mayst without attaint o’erlook +The dedicated words which writers use +Of their fair subject, blessing every book. +Thou art as fair in knowledge as in hue, +Finding thy worth a limit past my praise, +And therefore art enforced to seek anew, +Some fresher stamp of the time-bettering days. +And do so love, yet when they have devised, +What strained touches rhetoric can lend, +Thou truly fair, wert truly sympathized, +In true plain words, by thy true-telling friend. + And their gross painting might be better used, + Where cheeks need blood, in thee it is abused. + + + 83 + +I never saw that you did painting need, +And therefore to your fair no painting set, +I found (or thought I found) you did exceed, +That barren tender of a poet’s debt: +And therefore have I slept in your report, +That you your self being extant well might show, +How far a modern quill doth come too short, +Speaking of worth, what worth in you doth grow. +This silence for my sin you did impute, +Which shall be most my glory being dumb, +For I impair not beauty being mute, +When others would give life, and bring a tomb. + There lives more life in one of your fair eyes, + Than both your poets can in praise devise. + + + 84 + +Who is it that says most, which can say more, +Than this rich praise, that you alone, are you? +In whose confine immured is the store, +Which should example where your equal grew. +Lean penury within that pen doth dwell, +That to his subject lends not some small glory, +But he that writes of you, if he can tell, +That you are you, so dignifies his story. +Let him but copy what in you is writ, +Not making worse what nature made so clear, +And such a counterpart shall fame his wit, +Making his style admired every where. + You to your beauteous blessings add a curse, + Being fond on praise, which makes your praises worse. + + + 85 + +My tongue-tied muse in manners holds her still, +While comments of your praise richly compiled, +Reserve their character with golden quill, +And precious phrase by all the Muses filed. +I think good thoughts, whilst other write good words, +And like unlettered clerk still cry Amen, +To every hymn that able spirit affords, +In polished form of well refined pen. +Hearing you praised, I say ’tis so, ’tis true, +And to the most of praise add something more, +But that is in my thought, whose love to you +(Though words come hindmost) holds his rank before, + Then others, for the breath of words respect, + Me for my dumb thoughts, speaking in effect. + + + 86 + +Was it the proud full sail of his great verse, +Bound for the prize of (all too precious) you, +That did my ripe thoughts in my brain inhearse, +Making their tomb the womb wherein they grew? +Was it his spirit, by spirits taught to write, +Above a mortal pitch, that struck me dead? +No, neither he, nor his compeers by night +Giving him aid, my verse astonished. +He nor that affable familiar ghost +Which nightly gulls him with intelligence, +As victors of my silence cannot boast, +I was not sick of any fear from thence. + But when your countenance filled up his line, + Then lacked I matter, that enfeebled mine. + + + 87 + +Farewell! thou art too dear for my possessing, +And like enough thou know’st thy estimate, +The charter of thy worth gives thee releasing: +My bonds in thee are all determinate. +For how do I hold thee but by thy granting, +And for that riches where is my deserving? +The cause of this fair gift in me is wanting, +And so my patent back again is swerving. +Thy self thou gav’st, thy own worth then not knowing, +Or me to whom thou gav’st it, else mistaking, +So thy great gift upon misprision growing, +Comes home again, on better judgement making. + Thus have I had thee as a dream doth flatter, + In sleep a king, but waking no such matter. + + + 88 + +When thou shalt be disposed to set me light, +And place my merit in the eye of scorn, +Upon thy side, against my self I’ll fight, +And prove thee virtuous, though thou art forsworn: +With mine own weakness being best acquainted, +Upon thy part I can set down a story +Of faults concealed, wherein I am attainted: +That thou in losing me, shalt win much glory: +And I by this will be a gainer too, +For bending all my loving thoughts on thee, +The injuries that to my self I do, +Doing thee vantage, double-vantage me. + Such is my love, to thee I so belong, + That for thy right, my self will bear all wrong. + + + 89 + +Say that thou didst forsake me for some fault, +And I will comment upon that offence, +Speak of my lameness, and I straight will halt: +Against thy reasons making no defence. +Thou canst not (love) disgrace me half so ill, +To set a form upon desired change, +As I’ll my self disgrace, knowing thy will, +I will acquaintance strangle and look strange: +Be absent from thy walks and in my tongue, +Thy sweet beloved name no more shall dwell, +Lest I (too much profane) should do it wronk: +And haply of our old acquaintance tell. + For thee, against my self I’ll vow debate, + For I must ne’er love him whom thou dost hate. + + + 90 + +Then hate me when thou wilt, if ever, now, +Now while the world is bent my deeds to cross, +join with the spite of fortune, make me bow, +And do not drop in for an after-loss: +Ah do not, when my heart hath ’scaped this sorrow, +Come in the rearward of a conquered woe, +Give not a windy night a rainy morrow, +To linger out a purposed overthrow. +If thou wilt leave me, do not leave me last, +When other petty griefs have done their spite, +But in the onset come, so shall I taste +At first the very worst of fortune’s might. + And other strains of woe, which now seem woe, + Compared with loss of thee, will not seem so. + + + 91 + +Some glory in their birth, some in their skill, +Some in their wealth, some in their body’s force, +Some in their garments though new-fangled ill: +Some in their hawks and hounds, some in their horse. +And every humour hath his adjunct pleasure, +Wherein it finds a joy above the rest, +But these particulars are not my measure, +All these I better in one general best. +Thy love is better than high birth to me, +Richer than wealth, prouder than garments’ costs, +Of more delight than hawks and horses be: +And having thee, of all men’s pride I boast. + Wretched in this alone, that thou mayst take, + All this away, and me most wretchcd make. + + + 92 + +But do thy worst to steal thy self away, +For term of life thou art assured mine, +And life no longer than thy love will stay, +For it depends upon that love of thine. +Then need I not to fear the worst of wrongs, +When in the least of them my life hath end, +I see, a better state to me belongs +Than that, which on thy humour doth depend. +Thou canst not vex me with inconstant mind, +Since that my life on thy revolt doth lie, +O what a happy title do I find, +Happy to have thy love, happy to die! + But what’s so blessed-fair that fears no blot? + Thou mayst be false, and yet I know it not. + + + 93 + +So shall I live, supposing thou art true, +Like a deceived husband, so love’s face, +May still seem love to me, though altered new: +Thy looks with me, thy heart in other place. +For there can live no hatred in thine eye, +Therefore in that I cannot know thy change, +In many’s looks, the false heart’s history +Is writ in moods and frowns and wrinkles strange. +But heaven in thy creation did decree, +That in thy face sweet love should ever dwell, +Whate’er thy thoughts, or thy heart’s workings be, +Thy looks should nothing thence, but sweetness tell. + How like Eve’s apple doth thy beauty grow, + If thy sweet virtue answer not thy show. + + + 94 + +They that have power to hurt, and will do none, +That do not do the thing, they most do show, +Who moving others, are themselves as stone, +Unmoved, cold, and to temptation slow: +They rightly do inherit heaven’s graces, +And husband nature’s riches from expense, +Tibey are the lords and owners of their faces, +Others, but stewards of their excellence: +The summer’s flower is to the summer sweet, +Though to it self, it only live and die, +But if that flower with base infection meet, +The basest weed outbraves his dignity: + For sweetest things turn sourest by their deeds, + Lilies that fester, smell far worse than weeds. + + + 95 + +How sweet and lovely dost thou make the shame, +Which like a canker in the fragrant rose, +Doth spot the beauty of thy budding name! +O in what sweets dost thou thy sins enclose! +That tongue that tells the story of thy days, +(Making lascivious comments on thy sport) +Cannot dispraise, but in a kind of praise, +Naming thy name, blesses an ill report. +O what a mansion have those vices got, +Which for their habitation chose out thee, +Where beauty’s veil doth cover every blot, +And all things turns to fair, that eyes can see! + Take heed (dear heart) of this large privilege, + The hardest knife ill-used doth lose his edge. + + + 96 + +Some say thy fault is youth, some wantonness, +Some say thy grace is youth and gentle sport, +Both grace and faults are loved of more and less: +Thou mak’st faults graces, that to thee resort: +As on the finger of a throned queen, +The basest jewel will be well esteemed: +So are those errors that in thee are seen, +To truths translated, and for true things deemed. +How many lambs might the stern wolf betray, +If like a lamb he could his looks translate! +How many gazers mightst thou lead away, +if thou wouldst use the strength of all thy state! + But do not so, I love thee in such sort, + As thou being mine, mine is thy good report. + + + 97 + +How like a winter hath my absence been +From thee, the pleasure of the fleeting year! +What freezings have I felt, what dark days seen! +What old December’s bareness everywhere! +And yet this time removed was summer’s time, +The teeming autumn big with rich increase, +Bearing the wanton burden of the prime, +Like widowed wombs after their lords’ decease: +Yet this abundant issue seemed to me +But hope of orphans, and unfathered fruit, +For summer and his pleasures wait on thee, +And thou away, the very birds are mute. + Or if they sing, ’tis with so dull a cheer, + That leaves look pale, dreading the winter’s near. + + + 98 + +From you have I been absent in the spring, +When proud-pied April (dressed in all his trim) +Hath put a spirit of youth in every thing: +That heavy Saturn laughed and leaped with him. +Yet nor the lays of birds, nor the sweet smell +Of different flowers in odour and in hue, +Could make me any summer’s story tell: +Or from their proud lap pluck them where they grew: +Nor did I wonder at the lily’s white, +Nor praise the deep vermilion in the rose, +They were but sweet, but figures of delight: +Drawn after you, you pattern of all those. + Yet seemed it winter still, and you away, + As with your shadow I with these did play. + + + 99 + +The forward violet thus did I chide, +Sweet thief, whence didst thou steal thy sweet that smells, +If not from my love’s breath? The purple pride +Which on thy soft check for complexion dwells, +In my love’s veins thou hast too grossly dyed. +The lily I condemned for thy hand, +And buds of marjoram had stol’n thy hair, +The roses fearfully on thorns did stand, +One blushing shame, another white despair: +A third nor red, nor white, had stol’n of both, +And to his robbery had annexed thy breath, +But for his theft in pride of all his growth +A vengeful canker eat him up to death. + More flowers I noted, yet I none could see, + But sweet, or colour it had stol’n from thee. + + + 100 + +Where art thou Muse that thou forget’st so long, +To speak of that which gives thee all thy might? +Spend’st thou thy fury on some worthless song, +Darkening thy power to lend base subjects light? +Return forgetful Muse, and straight redeem, +In gentle numbers time so idly spent, +Sing to the ear that doth thy lays esteem, +And gives thy pen both skill and argument. +Rise resty Muse, my love’s sweet face survey, +If time have any wrinkle graven there, +If any, be a satire to decay, +And make time’s spoils despised everywhere. + Give my love fame faster than Time wastes life, + So thou prevent’st his scythe, and crooked knife. + + + 101 + +O truant Muse what shall be thy amends, +For thy neglect of truth in beauty dyed? +Both truth and beauty on my love depends: +So dost thou too, and therein dignified: +Make answer Muse, wilt thou not haply say, +’Truth needs no colour with his colour fixed, +Beauty no pencil, beauty’s truth to lay: +But best is best, if never intermixed’? +Because he needs no praise, wilt thou be dumb? +Excuse not silence so, for’t lies in thee, +To make him much outlive a gilded tomb: +And to be praised of ages yet to be. + Then do thy office Muse, I teach thee how, + To make him seem long hence, as he shows now. + + + 102 + +My love is strengthened though more weak in seeming, +I love not less, though less the show appear, +That love is merchandized, whose rich esteeming, +The owner’s tongue doth publish every where. +Our love was new, and then but in the spring, +When I was wont to greet it with my lays, +As Philomel in summer’s front doth sing, +And stops her pipe in growth of riper days: +Not that the summer is less pleasant now +Than when her mournful hymns did hush the night, +But that wild music burthens every bough, +And sweets grown common lose their dear delight. + Therefore like her, I sometime hold my tongue: + Because I would not dull you with my song. + + + 103 + +Alack what poverty my muse brings forth, +That having such a scope to show her pride, +The argument all bare is of more worth +Than when it hath my added praise beside. +O blame me not if I no more can write! +Look in your glass and there appears a face, +That over-goes my blunt invention quite, +Dulling my lines, and doing me disgrace. +Were it not sinful then striving to mend, +To mar the subject that before was well? +For to no other pass my verses tend, +Than of your graces and your gifts to tell. + And more, much more than in my verse can sit, + Your own glass shows you, when you look in it. + + + 104 + +To me fair friend you never can be old, +For as you were when first your eye I eyed, +Such seems your beauty still: three winters cold, +Have from the forests shook three summers’ pride, +Three beauteous springs to yellow autumn turned, +In process of the seasons have I seen, +Three April perfumes in three hot Junes burned, +Since first I saw you fresh which yet are green. +Ah yet doth beauty like a dial hand, +Steal from his figure, and no pace perceived, +So your sweet hue, which methinks still doth stand +Hath motion, and mine eye may be deceived. + For fear of which, hear this thou age unbred, + Ere you were born was beauty’s summer dead. + + + 105 + +Let not my love be called idolatry, +Nor my beloved as an idol show, +Since all alike my songs and praises be +To one, of one, still such, and ever so. +Kind is my love to-day, to-morrow kind, +Still constant in a wondrous excellence, +Therefore my verse to constancy confined, +One thing expressing, leaves out difference. +Fair, kind, and true, is all my argument, +Fair, kind, and true, varying to other words, +And in this change is my invention spent, +Three themes in one, which wondrous scope affords. + Fair, kind, and true, have often lived alone. + Which three till now, never kept seat in one. + + + 106 + +When in the chronicle of wasted time, +I see descriptions of the fairest wights, +And beauty making beautiful old rhyme, +In praise of ladies dead, and lovely knights, +Then in the blazon of sweet beauty’s best, +Of hand, of foot, of lip, of eye, of brow, +I see their antique pen would have expressed, +Even such a beauty as you master now. +So all their praises are but prophecies +Of this our time, all you prefiguring, +And for they looked but with divining eyes, +They had not skill enough your worth to sing: + For we which now behold these present days, + Have eyes to wonder, but lack tongues to praise. + + + 107 + +Not mine own fears, nor the prophetic soul, +Of the wide world, dreaming on things to come, +Can yet the lease of my true love control, +Supposed as forfeit to a confined doom. +The mortal moon hath her eclipse endured, +And the sad augurs mock their own presage, +Incertainties now crown themselves assured, +And peace proclaims olives of endless age. +Now with the drops of this most balmy time, +My love looks fresh, and death to me subscribes, +Since spite of him I’ll live in this poor rhyme, +While he insults o’er dull and speechless tribes. + And thou in this shalt find thy monument, + When tyrants’ crests and tombs of brass are spent. + + + 108 + +What’s in the brain that ink may character, +Which hath not figured to thee my true spirit, +What’s new to speak, what now to register, +That may express my love, or thy dear merit? +Nothing sweet boy, but yet like prayers divine, +I must each day say o’er the very same, +Counting no old thing old, thou mine, I thine, +Even as when first I hallowed thy fair name. +So that eternal love in love’s fresh case, +Weighs not the dust and injury of age, +Nor gives to necessary wrinkles place, +But makes antiquity for aye his page, + Finding the first conceit of love there bred, + Where time and outward form would show it dead. + + + 109 + +O never say that I was false of heart, +Though absence seemed my flame to qualify, +As easy might I from my self depart, +As from my soul which in thy breast doth lie: +That is my home of love, if I have ranged, +Like him that travels I return again, +Just to the time, not with the time exchanged, +So that my self bring water for my stain, +Never believe though in my nature reigned, +All frailties that besiege all kinds of blood, +That it could so preposterously be stained, +To leave for nothing all thy sum of good: + For nothing this wide universe I call, + Save thou my rose, in it thou art my all. + + + 110 + +Alas ’tis true, I have gone here and there, +And made my self a motley to the view, +Gored mine own thoughts, sold cheap what is most dear, +Made old offences of affections new. +Most true it is, that I have looked on truth +Askance and strangely: but by all above, +These blenches gave my heart another youth, +And worse essays proved thee my best of love. +Now all is done, have what shall have no end, +Mine appetite I never more will grind +On newer proof, to try an older friend, +A god in love, to whom I am confined. + Then give me welcome, next my heaven the best, + Even to thy pure and most most loving breast. + + + 111 + +O for my sake do you with Fortune chide, +The guilty goddess of my harmful deeds, +That did not better for my life provide, +Than public means which public manners breeds. +Thence comes it that my name receives a brand, +And almost thence my nature is subdued +To what it works in, like the dyer’s hand: +Pity me then, and wish I were renewed, +Whilst like a willing patient I will drink, +Potions of eisel ’gainst my strong infection, +No bitterness that I will bitter think, +Nor double penance to correct correction. + Pity me then dear friend, and I assure ye, + Even that your pity is enough to cure me. + + + 112 + +Your love and pity doth th’ impression fill, +Which vulgar scandal stamped upon my brow, +For what care I who calls me well or ill, +So you o’er-green my bad, my good allow? +You are my all the world, and I must strive, +To know my shames and praises from your tongue, +None else to me, nor I to none alive, +That my steeled sense or changes right or wrong. +In so profound abysm I throw all care +Of others’ voices, that my adder’s sense, +To critic and to flatterer stopped are: +Mark how with my neglect I do dispense. + You are so strongly in my purpose bred, + That all the world besides methinks are dead. + + + 113 + +Since I left you, mine eye is in my mind, +And that which governs me to go about, +Doth part his function, and is partly blind, +Seems seeing, but effectually is out: +For it no form delivers to the heart +Of bird, of flower, or shape which it doth latch, +Of his quick objects hath the mind no part, +Nor his own vision holds what it doth catch: +For if it see the rud’st or gentlest sight, +The most sweet favour or deformed’st creature, +The mountain, or the sea, the day, or night: +The crow, or dove, it shapes them to your feature. + Incapable of more, replete with you, + My most true mind thus maketh mine untrue. + + + 114 + +Or whether doth my mind being crowned with you +Drink up the monarch’s plague this flattery? +Or whether shall I say mine eye saith true, +And that your love taught it this alchemy? +To make of monsters, and things indigest, +Such cherubins as your sweet self resemble, +Creating every bad a perfect best +As fast as objects to his beams assemble: +O ’tis the first, ’tis flattery in my seeing, +And my great mind most kingly drinks it up, +Mine eye well knows what with his gust is ’greeing, +And to his palate doth prepare the cup. + If it be poisoned, ’tis the lesser sin, + That mine eye loves it and doth first begin. + + + 115 + +Those lines that I before have writ do lie, +Even those that said I could not love you dearer, +Yet then my judgment knew no reason why, +My most full flame should afterwards burn clearer, +But reckoning time, whose millioned accidents +Creep in ’twixt vows, and change decrees of kings, +Tan sacred beauty, blunt the sharp’st intents, +Divert strong minds to the course of alt’ring things: +Alas why fearing of time’s tyranny, +Might I not then say ‘Now I love you best,’ +When I was certain o’er incertainty, +Crowning the present, doubting of the rest? + Love is a babe, then might I not say so + To give full growth to that which still doth grow. + + + 116 + +Let me not to the marriage of true minds +Admit impediments, love is not love +Which alters when it alteration finds, +Or bends with the remover to remove. +O no, it is an ever-fixed mark +That looks on tempests and is never shaken; +It is the star to every wand’ring bark, +Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken. +Love’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and cheeks +Within his bending sickle’s compass come, +Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, +But bears it out even to the edge of doom: + If this be error and upon me proved, + I never writ, nor no man ever loved. + + + 117 + +Accuse me thus, that I have scanted all, +Wherein I should your great deserts repay, +Forgot upon your dearest love to call, +Whereto all bonds do tie me day by day, +That I have frequent been with unknown minds, +And given to time your own dear-purchased right, +That I have hoisted sail to all the winds +Which should transport me farthest from your sight. +Book both my wilfulness and errors down, +And on just proof surmise, accumulate, +Bring me within the level of your frown, +But shoot not at me in your wakened hate: + Since my appeal says I did strive to prove + The constancy and virtue of your love. + + + 118 + +Like as to make our appetite more keen +With eager compounds we our palate urge, +As to prevent our maladies unseen, +We sicken to shun sickness when we purge. +Even so being full of your ne’er-cloying sweetness, +To bitter sauces did I frame my feeding; +And sick of welfare found a kind of meetness, +To be diseased ere that there was true needing. +Thus policy in love t’ anticipate +The ills that were not, grew to faults assured, +And brought to medicine a healthful state +Which rank of goodness would by ill be cured. + But thence I learn and find the lesson true, + Drugs poison him that so feil sick of you. + + + 119 + +What potions have I drunk of Siren tears +Distilled from limbecks foul as hell within, +Applying fears to hopes, and hopes to fears, +Still losing when I saw my self to win! +What wretched errors hath my heart committed, +Whilst it hath thought it self so blessed never! +How have mine eyes out of their spheres been fitted +In the distraction of this madding fever! +O benefit of ill, now I find true +That better is, by evil still made better. +And ruined love when it is built anew +Grows fairer than at first, more strong, far greater. + So I return rebuked to my content, + And gain by ills thrice more than I have spent. + + + 120 + +That you were once unkind befriends me now, +And for that sorrow, which I then did feel, +Needs must I under my transgression bow, +Unless my nerves were brass or hammered steel. +For if you were by my unkindness shaken +As I by yours, y’have passed a hell of time, +And I a tyrant have no leisure taken +To weigh how once I suffered in your crime. +O that our night of woe might have remembered +My deepest sense, how hard true sorrow hits, +And soon to you, as you to me then tendered +The humble salve, which wounded bosoms fits! + But that your trespass now becomes a fee, + Mine ransoms yours, and yours must ransom me. + + + 121 + +’Tis better to be vile than vile esteemed, +When not to be, receives reproach of being, +And the just pleasure lost, which is so deemed, +Not by our feeling, but by others’ seeing. +For why should others’ false adulterate eyes +Give salutation to my sportive blood? +Or on my frailties why are frailer spies, +Which in their wills count bad what I think good? +No, I am that I am, and they that level +At my abuses, reckon up their own, +I may be straight though they themselves be bevel; +By their rank thoughts, my deeds must not be shown + Unless this general evil they maintain, + All men are bad and in their badness reign. + + + 122 + +Thy gift, thy tables, are within my brain +Full charactered with lasting memory, +Which shall above that idle rank remain +Beyond all date even to eternity. +Or at the least, so long as brain and heart +Have faculty by nature to subsist, +Till each to razed oblivion yield his part +Of thee, thy record never can be missed: +That poor retention could not so much hold, +Nor need I tallies thy dear love to score, +Therefore to give them from me was I bold, +To trust those tables that receive thee more: + To keep an adjunct to remember thee + Were to import forgetfulness in me. + + + 123 + +No! Time, thou shalt not boast that I do change, +Thy pyramids built up with newer might +To me are nothing novel, nothing strange, +They are but dressings Of a former sight: +Our dates are brief, and therefore we admire, +What thou dost foist upon us that is old, +And rather make them born to our desire, +Than think that we before have heard them told: +Thy registers and thee I both defy, +Not wond’ring at the present, nor the past, +For thy records, and what we see doth lie, +Made more or less by thy continual haste: + This I do vow and this shall ever be, + I will be true despite thy scythe and thee. + + + 124 + +If my dear love were but the child of state, +It might for Fortune’s bastard be unfathered, +As subject to time’s love or to time’s hate, +Weeds among weeds, or flowers with flowers gathered. +No it was builded far from accident, +It suffers not in smiling pomp, nor falls +Under the blow of thralled discontent, +Whereto th’ inviting time our fashion calls: +It fears not policy that heretic, +Which works on leases of short-numbered hours, +But all alone stands hugely politic, +That it nor grows with heat, nor drowns with showers. + To this I witness call the fools of time, + Which die for goodness, who have lived for crime. + + + 125 + +Were’t aught to me I bore the canopy, +With my extern the outward honouring, +Or laid great bases for eternity, +Which proves more short than waste or ruining? +Have I not seen dwellers on form and favour +Lose all, and more by paying too much rent +For compound sweet; forgoing simple savour, +Pitiful thrivers in their gazing spent? +No, let me be obsequious in thy heart, +And take thou my oblation, poor but free, +Which is not mixed with seconds, knows no art, +But mutual render, only me for thee. + Hence, thou suborned informer, a true soul + When most impeached, stands least in thy control. + + + 126 + +O thou my lovely boy who in thy power, +Dost hold Time’s fickle glass his fickle hour: +Who hast by waning grown, and therein show’st, +Thy lovers withering, as thy sweet self grow’st. +If Nature (sovereign mistress over wrack) +As thou goest onwards still will pluck thee back, +She keeps thee to this purpose, that her skill +May time disgrace, and wretched minutes kill. +Yet fear her O thou minion of her pleasure, +She may detain, but not still keep her treasure! + Her audit (though delayed) answered must be, + And her quietus is to render thee. + + + 127 + +In the old age black was not counted fair, +Or if it were it bore not beauty’s name: +But now is black beauty’s successive heir, +And beauty slandered with a bastard shame, +For since each hand hath put on nature’s power, +Fairing the foul with art’s false borrowed face, +Sweet beauty hath no name no holy bower, +But is profaned, if not lives in disgrace. +Therefore my mistress’ eyes are raven black, +Her eyes so suited, and they mourners seem, +At such who not born fair no beauty lack, +Slandering creation with a false esteem, + Yet so they mourn becoming of their woe, + That every tongue says beauty should look so. + + + 128 + +How oft when thou, my music, music play’st, +Upon that blessed wood whose motion sounds +With thy sweet fingers when thou gently sway’st +The wiry concord that mine ear confounds, +Do I envy those jacks that nimble leap, +To kiss the tender inward of thy hand, +Whilst my poor lips which should that harvest reap, +At the wood’s boldness by thee blushing stand. +To be so tickled they would change their state +And situation with those dancing chips, +O’er whom thy fingers walk with gentle gait, +Making dead wood more blest than living lips, + Since saucy jacks so happy are in this, + Give them thy fingers, me thy lips to kiss. + + + 129 + +Th’ expense of spirit in a waste of shame +Is lust in action, and till action, lust +Is perjured, murd’rous, bloody full of blame, +Savage, extreme, rude, cruel, not to trust, +Enjoyed no sooner but despised straight, +Past reason hunted, and no sooner had +Past reason hated as a swallowed bait, +On purpose laid to make the taker mad. +Mad in pursuit and in possession so, +Had, having, and in quest, to have extreme, +A bliss in proof and proved, a very woe, +Before a joy proposed behind a dream. + All this the world well knows yet none knows well, + To shun the heaven that leads men to this hell. + + + 130 + +My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun, +Coral is far more red, than her lips red, +If snow be white, why then her breasts are dun: +If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head: +I have seen roses damasked, red and white, +But no such roses see I in her cheeks, +And in some perfumes is there more delight, +Than in the breath that from my mistress reeks. +I love to hear her speak, yet well I know, +That music hath a far more pleasing sound: +I grant I never saw a goddess go, +My mistress when she walks treads on the ground. + And yet by heaven I think my love as rare, + As any she belied with false compare. + + + 131 + +Thou art as tyrannous, so as thou art, +As those whose beauties proudly make them cruel; +For well thou know’st to my dear doting heart +Thou art the fairest and most precious jewel. +Yet in good faith some say that thee behold, +Thy face hath not the power to make love groan; +To say they err, I dare not be so bold, +Although I swear it to my self alone. +And to be sure that is not false I swear, +A thousand groans but thinking on thy face, +One on another’s neck do witness bear +Thy black is fairest in my judgment’s place. + In nothing art thou black save in thy deeds, + And thence this slander as I think proceeds. + + + 132 + +Thine eyes I love, and they as pitying me, +Knowing thy heart torment me with disdain, +Have put on black, and loving mourners be, +Looking with pretty ruth upon my pain. +And truly not the morning sun of heaven +Better becomes the grey cheeks of the east, +Nor that full star that ushers in the even +Doth half that glory to the sober west +As those two mourning eyes become thy face: +O let it then as well beseem thy heart +To mourn for me since mourning doth thee grace, +And suit thy pity like in every part. + Then will I swear beauty herself is black, + And all they foul that thy complexion lack. + + + 133 + +Beshrew that heart that makes my heart to groan +For that deep wound it gives my friend and me; +Is’t not enough to torture me alone, +But slave to slavery my sweet’st friend must be? +Me from my self thy cruel eye hath taken, +And my next self thou harder hast engrossed, +Of him, my self, and thee I am forsaken, +A torment thrice three-fold thus to be crossed: +Prison my heart in thy steel bosom’s ward, +But then my friend’s heart let my poor heart bail, +Whoe’er keeps me, let my heart be his guard, +Thou canst not then use rigour in my gaol. + And yet thou wilt, for I being pent in thee, + Perforce am thine and all that is in me. + + + 134 + +So now I have confessed that he is thine, +And I my self am mortgaged to thy will, +My self I’ll forfeit, so that other mine, +Thou wilt restore to be my comfort still: +But thou wilt not, nor he will not be free, +For thou art covetous, and he is kind, +He learned but surety-like to write for me, +Under that bond that him as fist doth bind. +The statute of thy beauty thou wilt take, +Thou usurer that put’st forth all to use, +And sue a friend, came debtor for my sake, +So him I lose through my unkind abuse. + Him have I lost, thou hast both him and me, + He pays the whole, and yet am I not free. + + + 135 + +Whoever hath her wish, thou hast thy will, +And Will to boot, and Will in overplus, +More than enough am I that vex thee still, +To thy sweet will making addition thus. +Wilt thou whose will is large and spacious, +Not once vouchsafe to hide my will in thine? +Shall will in others seem right gracious, +And in my will no fair acceptance shine? +The sea all water, yet receives rain still, +And in abundance addeth to his store, +So thou being rich in will add to thy will +One will of mine to make thy large will more. + Let no unkind, no fair beseechers kill, + Think all but one, and me in that one Will. + + + 136 + +If thy soul check thee that I come so near, +Swear to thy blind soul that I was thy Will, +And will thy soul knows is admitted there, +Thus far for love, my love-suit sweet fulfil. +Will will fulfil the treasure of thy love, +Ay, fill it full with wills, and my will one, +In things of great receipt with case we prove, +Among a number one is reckoned none. +Then in the number let me pass untold, +Though in thy store’s account I one must be, +For nothing hold me, so it please thee hold, +That nothing me, a something sweet to thee. + Make but my name thy love, and love that still, + And then thou lov’st me for my name is Will. + + + 137 + +Thou blind fool Love, what dost thou to mine eyes, +That they behold and see not what they see? +They know what beauty is, see where it lies, +Yet what the best is, take the worst to be. +If eyes corrupt by over-partial looks, +Be anchored in the bay where all men ride, +Why of eyes’ falsehood hast thou forged hooks, +Whereto the judgment of my heart is tied? +Why should my heart think that a several plot, +Which my heart knows the wide world’s common place? +Or mine eyes seeing this, say this is not +To put fair truth upon so foul a face? + In things right true my heart and eyes have erred, + And to this false plague are they now transferred. + + + 138 + +When my love swears that she is made of truth, +I do believe her though I know she lies, +That she might think me some untutored youth, +Unlearned in the world’s false subtleties. +Thus vainly thinking that she thinks me young, +Although she knows my days are past the best, +Simply I credit her false-speaking tongue, +On both sides thus is simple truth suppressed: +But wherefore says she not she is unjust? +And wherefore say not I that I am old? +O love’s best habit is in seeming trust, +And age in love, loves not to have years told. + Therefore I lie with her, and she with me, + And in our faults by lies we flattered be. + + + 139 + +O call not me to justify the wrong, +That thy unkindness lays upon my heart, +Wound me not with thine eye but with thy tongue, +Use power with power, and slay me not by art, +Tell me thou lov’st elsewhere; but in my sight, +Dear heart forbear to glance thine eye aside, +What need’st thou wound with cunning when thy might +Is more than my o’erpressed defence can bide? +Let me excuse thee, ah my love well knows, +Her pretty looks have been mine enemies, +And therefore from my face she turns my foes, +That they elsewhere might dart their injuries: + Yet do not so, but since I am near slain, + Kill me outright with looks, and rid my pain. + + + 140 + +Be wise as thou art cruel, do not press +My tongue-tied patience with too much disdain: +Lest sorrow lend me words and words express, +The manner of my pity-wanting pain. +If I might teach thee wit better it were, +Though not to love, yet love to tell me so, +As testy sick men when their deaths be near, +No news but health from their physicians know. +For if I should despair I should grow mad, +And in my madness might speak ill of thee, +Now this ill-wresting world is grown so bad, +Mad slanderers by mad ears believed be. + That I may not be so, nor thou belied, + Bear thine eyes straight, though thy proud heart go wide. + + + 141 + +In faith I do not love thee with mine eyes, +For they in thee a thousand errors note, +But ’tis my heart that loves what they despise, +Who in despite of view is pleased to dote. +Nor are mine cars with thy tongue’s tune delighted, +Nor tender feeling to base touches prone, +Nor taste, nor smell, desire to be invited +To any sensual feast with thee alone: +But my five wits, nor my five senses can +Dissuade one foolish heart from serving thee, +Who leaves unswayed the likeness of a man, +Thy proud heart’s slave and vassal wretch to be: + Only my plague thus far I count my gain, + That she that makes me sin, awards me pain. + + + 142 + +Love is my sin, and thy dear virtue hate, +Hate of my sin, grounded on sinful loving, +O but with mine, compare thou thine own state, +And thou shalt find it merits not reproving, +Or if it do, not from those lips of thine, +That have profaned their scarlet ornaments, +And sealed false bonds of love as oft as mine, +Robbed others’ beds’ revenues of their rents. +Be it lawful I love thee as thou lov’st those, +Whom thine eyes woo as mine importune thee, +Root pity in thy heart that when it grows, +Thy pity may deserve to pitied be. + If thou dost seek to have what thou dost hide, + By self-example mayst thou be denied. + + + 143 + +Lo as a careful huswife runs to catch, +One of her feathered creatures broke away, +Sets down her babe and makes all swift dispatch +In pursuit of the thing she would have stay: +Whilst her neglected child holds her in chase, +Cries to catch her whose busy care is bent, +To follow that which flies before her face: +Not prizing her poor infant’s discontent; +So run’st thou after that which flies from thee, +Whilst I thy babe chase thee afar behind, +But if thou catch thy hope turn back to me: +And play the mother’s part, kiss me, be kind. + So will I pray that thou mayst have thy Will, + If thou turn back and my loud crying still. + + + 144 + +Two loves I have of comfort and despair, +Which like two spirits do suggest me still, +The better angel is a man right fair: +The worser spirit a woman coloured ill. +To win me soon to hell my female evil, +Tempteth my better angel from my side, +And would corrupt my saint to be a devil: +Wooing his purity with her foul pride. +And whether that my angel be turned fiend, +Suspect I may, yet not directly tell, +But being both from me both to each friend, +I guess one angel in another’s hell. + Yet this shall I ne’er know but live in doubt, + Till my bad angel fire my good one out. + + + 145 + +Those lips that Love’s own hand did make, +Breathed forth the sound that said ‘I hate’, +To me that languished for her sake: +But when she saw my woeful state, +Straight in her heart did mercy come, +Chiding that tongue that ever sweet, +Was used in giving gentle doom: +And taught it thus anew to greet: +‘I hate’ she altered with an end, +That followed it as gentle day, +Doth follow night who like a fiend +From heaven to hell is flown away. + ‘I hate’, from hate away she threw, + And saved my life saying ‘not you’. + + + 146 + +Poor soul the centre of my sinful earth, +My sinful earth these rebel powers array, +Why dost thou pine within and suffer dearth +Painting thy outward walls so costly gay? +Why so large cost having so short a lease, +Dost thou upon thy fading mansion spend? +Shall worms inheritors of this excess +Eat up thy charge? is this thy body’s end? +Then soul live thou upon thy servant’s loss, +And let that pine to aggravate thy store; +Buy terms divine in selling hours of dross; +Within be fed, without be rich no more, + So shall thou feed on death, that feeds on men, + And death once dead, there’s no more dying then. + + + 147 + +My love is as a fever longing still, +For that which longer nurseth the disease, +Feeding on that which doth preserve the ill, +Th’ uncertain sickly appetite to please: +My reason the physician to my love, +Angry that his prescriptions are not kept +Hath left me, and I desperate now approve, +Desire is death, which physic did except. +Past cure I am, now reason is past care, +And frantic-mad with evermore unrest, +My thoughts and my discourse as mad men’s are, +At random from the truth vainly expressed. + For I have sworn thee fair, and thought thee bright, + Who art as black as hell, as dark as night. + + + 148 + +O me! what eyes hath love put in my head, +Which have no correspondence with true sight, +Or if they have, where is my judgment fled, +That censures falsely what they see aright? +If that be fair whereon my false eyes dote, +What means the world to say it is not so? +If it be not, then love doth well denote, +Love’s eye is not so true as all men’s: no, +How can it? O how can love’s eye be true, +That is so vexed with watching and with tears? +No marvel then though I mistake my view, +The sun it self sees not, till heaven clears. + O cunning love, with tears thou keep’st me blind, + Lest eyes well-seeing thy foul faults should find. + + + 149 + +Canst thou O cruel, say I love thee not, +When I against my self with thee partake? +Do I not think on thee when I forgot +Am of my self, all-tyrant, for thy sake? +Who hateth thee that I do call my friend, +On whom frown’st thou that I do fawn upon, +Nay if thou lour’st on me do I not spend +Revenge upon my self with present moan? +What merit do I in my self respect, +That is so proud thy service to despise, +When all my best doth worship thy defect, +Commanded by the motion of thine eyes? + But love hate on for now I know thy mind, + Those that can see thou lov’st, and I am blind. + + + 150 + +O from what power hast thou this powerful might, +With insufficiency my heart to sway, +To make me give the lie to my true sight, +And swear that brightness doth not grace the day? +Whence hast thou this becoming of things ill, +That in the very refuse of thy deeds, +There is such strength and warrantise of skill, +That in my mind thy worst all best exceeds? +Who taught thee how to make me love thee more, +The more I hear and see just cause of hate? +O though I love what others do abhor, +With others thou shouldst not abhor my state. + If thy unworthiness raised love in me, + More worthy I to be beloved of thee. + + + 151 + +Love is too young to know what conscience is, +Yet who knows not conscience is born of love? +Then gentle cheater urge not my amiss, +Lest guilty of my faults thy sweet self prove. +For thou betraying me, I do betray +My nobler part to my gross body’s treason, +My soul doth tell my body that he may, +Triumph in love, flesh stays no farther reason, +But rising at thy name doth point out thee, +As his triumphant prize, proud of this pride, +He is contented thy poor drudge to be, +To stand in thy affairs, fall by thy side. + No want of conscience hold it that I call, + Her love, for whose dear love I rise and fall. + + + 152 + +In loving thee thou know’st I am forsworn, +But thou art twice forsworn to me love swearing, +In act thy bed-vow broke and new faith torn, +In vowing new hate after new love bearing: +But why of two oaths’ breach do I accuse thee, +When I break twenty? I am perjured most, +For all my vows are oaths but to misuse thee: +And all my honest faith in thee is lost. +For I have sworn deep oaths of thy deep kindness: +Oaths of thy love, thy truth, thy constancy, +And to enlighten thee gave eyes to blindness, +Or made them swear against the thing they see. + For I have sworn thee fair: more perjured I, + To swear against the truth so foul a be. + + + 153 + +Cupid laid by his brand and fell asleep, +A maid of Dian’s this advantage found, +And his love-kindling fire did quickly steep +In a cold valley-fountain of that ground: +Which borrowed from this holy fire of Love, +A dateless lively heat still to endure, +And grew a seeting bath which yet men prove, +Against strange maladies a sovereign cure: +But at my mistress’ eye Love’s brand new-fired, +The boy for trial needs would touch my breast, +I sick withal the help of bath desired, +And thither hied a sad distempered guest. + But found no cure, the bath for my help lies, + Where Cupid got new fire; my mistress’ eyes. + + + 154 + +The little Love-god lying once asleep, +Laid by his side his heart-inflaming brand, +Whilst many nymphs that vowed chaste life to keep, +Came tripping by, but in her maiden hand, +The fairest votary took up that fire, +Which many legions of true hearts had warmed, +And so the general of hot desire, +Was sleeping by a virgin hand disarmed. +This brand she quenched in a cool well by, +Which from Love’s fire took heat perpetual, +Growing a bath and healthful remedy, +For men discased, but I my mistress’ thrall, + Came there for cure and this by that I prove, + Love’s fire heats water, water cools not love. + + +THE END + + + +ALL’S WELL THAT ENDS WELL + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. +Scene II. Paris. A room in the King’s palace. +Scene III. Rossillon. A Room in the Palace. + + +ACT II +Scene I. Paris. A room in the King’s palace. +Scene II. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. +Scene III. Paris. The King’s palace. +Scene IV. Paris. The King’s palace. +Scene V. Another room in the same. + + +ACT III +Scene I. Florence. A room in the Duke’s palace. +Scene II. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. +Scene III. Florence. Before the Duke’s palace. +Scene IV. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. +Scene V. Without the walls of Florence. +Scene VI. Camp before Florence. +Scene VII. Florence. A room in the Widow’s house. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. Without the Florentine camp. +Scene II. Florence. A room in the Widow’s house. +Scene III. The Florentine camp. +Scene IV. Florence. A room in the Widow’s house. +Scene V. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + +ACT V +Scene I. Marseilles. A street. +Scene II. Rossillon. The inner court of the Countess’s palace. +Scene III. The same. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + + Dramatis Personæ + +KING OF FRANCE. +THE DUKE OF FLORENCE. +BERTRAM, Count of Rossillon. +LAFEW, an old Lord. +PAROLLES, a follower of Bertram. +Several young French Lords, that serve with Bertram in the Florentine +War. +RYNALDO, servant to the Countess of Rossillon. +Clown, servant to the Countess of Rossillon. +A Page, servant to the Countess of Rossillon. +COUNTESS OF ROSSILLON, mother to Bertram. +HELENA, a Gentlewoman protected by the Countess. +An old WIDOW of Florence. +DIANA, daughter to the Widow. +VIOLENTA, neighbour and friend to the Widow. +MARIANA, neighbour and friend to the Widow. + +Lords attending on the KING; Officers; Soldiers, &c., French and +Florentine. + +SCENE: Partly in France, and partly in Tuscany. + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + Enter Bertram, the Countess of Rossillon, Helena, and Lafew, all in + black. + +COUNTESS. +In delivering my son from me, I bury a second husband. + +BERTRAM. +And I in going, madam, weep o’er my father’s death anew; but I must +attend his majesty’s command, to whom I am now in ward, evermore in +subjection. + +LAFEW. +You shall find of the king a husband, madam; you, sir, a father. He +that so generally is at all times good, must of necessity hold his +virtue to you, whose worthiness would stir it up where it wanted, +rather than lack it where there is such abundance. + +COUNTESS. +What hope is there of his majesty’s amendment? + +LAFEW. +He hath abandon’d his physicians, madam; under whose practices he hath +persecuted time with hope, and finds no other advantage in the process +but only the losing of hope by time. + +COUNTESS. +This young gentlewoman had a father—O that “had!”, how sad a passage +’tis!—whose skill was almost as great as his honesty; had it stretch’d +so far, would have made nature immortal, and death should have play for +lack of work. Would for the king’s sake he were living! I think it +would be the death of the king’s disease. + +LAFEW. +How called you the man you speak of, madam? + +COUNTESS. +He was famous, sir, in his profession, and it was his great right to be +so: Gerard de Narbon. + +LAFEW. +He was excellent indeed, madam; the king very lately spoke of him +admiringly, and mourningly; he was skilful enough to have liv’d still, +if knowledge could be set up against mortality. + +BERTRAM. +What is it, my good lord, the king languishes of? + +LAFEW. +A fistula, my lord. + +BERTRAM. +I heard not of it before. + +LAFEW. +I would it were not notorious. Was this gentlewoman the daughter of +Gerard de Narbon? + +COUNTESS. +His sole child, my lord, and bequeathed to my overlooking. I have those +hopes of her good that her education promises her dispositions she +inherits, which makes fair gifts fairer; for where an unclean mind +carries virtuous qualities, there commendations go with pity, they are +virtues and traitors too. In her they are the better for their +simpleness; she derives her honesty, and achieves her goodness. + +LAFEW. +Your commendations, madam, get from her tears. + +COUNTESS. +’Tis the best brine a maiden can season her praise in. The remembrance +of her father never approaches her heart but the tyranny of her sorrows +takes all livelihood from her cheek. No more of this, Helena; go to, no +more, lest it be rather thought you affect a sorrow than to have. + +HELENA. +I do affect a sorrow indeed, but I have it too. + +LAFEW. +Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive grief the +enemy to the living. + +COUNTESS. +If the living be enemy to the grief, the excess makes it soon mortal. + +BERTRAM. +Madam, I desire your holy wishes. + +LAFEW. +How understand we that? + +COUNTESS. +Be thou blest, Bertram, and succeed thy father +In manners, as in shape! Thy blood and virtue +Contend for empire in thee, and thy goodness +Share with thy birthright! Love all, trust a few, +Do wrong to none. Be able for thine enemy +Rather in power than use; and keep thy friend +Under thy own life’s key. Be check’d for silence, +But never tax’d for speech. What heaven more will, +That thee may furnish and my prayers pluck down, +Fall on thy head! Farewell. My lord, +’Tis an unseason’d courtier; good my lord, +Advise him. + +LAFEW. +He cannot want the best +That shall attend his love. + +COUNTESS. +Heaven bless him! Farewell, Bertram. + + [_Exit Countess._] + +BERTRAM. +The best wishes that can be forg’d in your thoughts be servants to you! +[_To Helena._] Be comfortable to my mother, your mistress, and make +much of her. + +LAFEW. +Farewell, pretty lady, you must hold the credit of your father. + + [_Exeunt Bertram and Lafew._] + +HELENA. +O, were that all! I think not on my father, +And these great tears grace his remembrance more +Than those I shed for him. What was he like? +I have forgot him; my imagination +Carries no favour in’t but Bertram’s. +I am undone: there is no living, none, +If Bertram be away. ’Twere all one +That I should love a bright particular star, +And think to wed it, he is so above me. +In his bright radiance and collateral light +Must I be comforted, not in his sphere. +Th’ambition in my love thus plagues itself: +The hind that would be mated by the lion +Must die for love. ’Twas pretty, though a plague, +To see him every hour; to sit and draw +His arched brows, his hawking eye, his curls, +In our heart’s table,—heart too capable +Of every line and trick of his sweet favour. +But now he’s gone, and my idolatrous fancy +Must sanctify his relics. Who comes here? + + Enter Parolles. + +One that goes with him: I love him for his sake, +And yet I know him a notorious liar, +Think him a great way fool, solely a coward; +Yet these fix’d evils sit so fit in him +That they take place when virtue’s steely bones +Looks bleak i’ th’ cold wind: withal, full oft we see +Cold wisdom waiting on superfluous folly. + +PAROLLES. +Save you, fair queen! + +HELENA. +And you, monarch! + +PAROLLES. +No. + +HELENA. +And no. + +PAROLLES. +Are you meditating on virginity? + +HELENA. +Ay. You have some stain of soldier in you; let me ask you a question. +Man is enemy to virginity; how may we barricado it against him? + +PAROLLES. +Keep him out. + +HELENA. +But he assails; and our virginity, though valiant, in the defence, yet +is weak. Unfold to us some warlike resistance. + +PAROLLES. +There is none. Man setting down before you will undermine you and blow +you up. + +HELENA. +Bless our poor virginity from underminers and blowers-up! Is there no +military policy how virgins might blow up men? + +PAROLLES. +Virginity being blown down, man will quicklier be blown up; marry, in +blowing him down again, with the breach yourselves made, you lose your +city. It is not politic in the commonwealth of nature to preserve +virginity. Loss of virginity is rational increase, and there was never +virgin got till virginity was first lost. That you were made of is +metal to make virgins. Virginity, by being once lost, may be ten times +found; by being ever kept, it is ever lost. ’Tis too cold a companion. +Away with it! + +HELENA. +I will stand for’t a little, though therefore I die a virgin. + +PAROLLES. +There’s little can be said in’t; ’tis against the rule of nature. To +speak on the part of virginity is to accuse your mothers; which is most +infallible disobedience. He that hangs himself is a virgin: virginity +murders itself, and should be buried in highways out of all sanctified +limit, as a desperate offendress against nature. Virginity breeds +mites, much like a cheese; consumes itself to the very paring, and so +dies with feeding his own stomach. Besides, virginity is peevish, +proud, idle, made of self-love, which is the most inhibited sin in the +canon. Keep it not; you cannot choose but lose by’t. Out with’t! Within +the year it will make itself two, which is a goodly increase, and the +principal itself not much the worse. Away with it! + +HELENA. +How might one do, sir, to lose it to her own liking? + +PAROLLES. +Let me see. Marry, ill, to like him that ne’er it likes. ’Tis a +commodity will lose the gloss with lying; the longer kept, the less +worth. Off with’t while ’tis vendible; answer the time of request. +Virginity, like an old courtier, wears her cap out of fashion, richly +suited, but unsuitable, just like the brooch and the toothpick, which +wear not now. Your date is better in your pie and your porridge than in +your cheek. And your virginity, your old virginity, is like one of our +French wither’d pears; it looks ill, it eats drily; marry, ’tis a +wither’d pear; it was formerly better; marry, yet ’tis a wither’d pear. +Will you anything with it? + +HELENA. +Not my virginity yet. +There shall your master have a thousand loves, +A mother, and a mistress, and a friend, +A phoenix, captain, and an enemy, +A guide, a goddess, and a sovereign, +A counsellor, a traitress, and a dear: +His humble ambition, proud humility, +His jarring concord, and his discord dulcet, +His faith, his sweet disaster; with a world +Of pretty, fond, adoptious christendoms +That blinking Cupid gossips. Now shall he— +I know not what he shall. God send him well! +The court’s a learning-place; and he is one. + +PAROLLES. +What one, i’ faith? + +HELENA. +That I wish well. ’Tis pity— + +PAROLLES. +What’s pity? + +HELENA. +That wishing well had not a body in’t +Which might be felt, that we, the poorer born, +Whose baser stars do shut us up in wishes, +Might with effects of them follow our friends, +And show what we alone must think, which never +Returns us thanks. + + Enter a Page. + +PAGE. +Monsieur Parolles, my lord calls for you. + + [_Exit Page._] + +PAROLLES. +Little Helen, farewell. If I can remember thee, I will think of thee at +court. + +HELENA. +Monsieur Parolles, you were born under a charitable star. + +PAROLLES. +Under Mars, I. + +HELENA. +I especially think, under Mars. + +PAROLLES. +Why under Mars? + +HELENA. +The wars hath so kept you under, that you must needs be born under +Mars. + +PAROLLES. +When he was predominant. + +HELENA. +When he was retrograde, I think rather. + +PAROLLES. +Why think you so? + +HELENA. +You go so much backward when you fight. + +PAROLLES. +That’s for advantage. + +HELENA. +So is running away, when fear proposes the safety: but the composition +that your valour and fear makes in you is a virtue of a good wing, and +I like the wear well. + +PAROLLES. +I am so full of business I cannot answer thee acutely. I will return +perfect courtier; in the which my instruction shall serve to naturalize +thee, so thou wilt be capable of a courtier’s counsel, and understand +what advice shall thrust upon thee; else thou diest in thine +unthankfulness, and thine ignorance makes thee away. Farewell. When +thou hast leisure, say thy prayers; when thou hast none, remember thy +friends. Get thee a good husband, and use him as he uses thee. So, +farewell. + + [_Exit._] + +HELENA. +Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie, +Which we ascribe to heaven: the fated sky +Gives us free scope; only doth backward pull +Our slow designs when we ourselves are dull. +What power is it which mounts my love so high, +That makes me see, and cannot feed mine eye? +The mightiest space in fortune nature brings +To join like likes, and kiss like native things. +Impossible be strange attempts to those +That weigh their pains in sense, and do suppose +What hath been cannot be. Who ever strove +To show her merit that did miss her love? +The king’s disease,—my project may deceive me, +But my intents are fix’d, and will not leave me. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. Paris. A room in the King’s palace. + + Flourish of cornets. Enter the King of France, with letters; Lords and + others attending. + +KING. +The Florentines and Senoys are by th’ ears; +Have fought with equal fortune, and continue +A braving war. + +FIRST LORD. +So ’tis reported, sir. + +KING. +Nay, ’tis most credible, we here receive it, +A certainty, vouch’d from our cousin Austria, +With caution, that the Florentine will move us +For speedy aid; wherein our dearest friend +Prejudicates the business, and would seem +To have us make denial. + +FIRST LORD. +His love and wisdom, +Approv’d so to your majesty, may plead +For amplest credence. + +KING. +He hath arm’d our answer, +And Florence is denied before he comes: +Yet, for our gentlemen that mean to see +The Tuscan service, freely have they leave +To stand on either part. + +SECOND LORD. +It well may serve +A nursery to our gentry, who are sick +For breathing and exploit. + +KING. +What’s he comes here? + + Enter Bertram, Lafew and Parolles. + +FIRST LORD. +It is the Count Rossillon, my good lord, +Young Bertram. + +KING. +Youth, thou bear’st thy father’s face; +Frank nature, rather curious than in haste, +Hath well compos’d thee. Thy father’s moral parts +Mayst thou inherit too! Welcome to Paris. + +BERTRAM. +My thanks and duty are your majesty’s. + +KING. +I would I had that corporal soundness now, +As when thy father and myself in friendship +First tried our soldiership. He did look far +Into the service of the time, and was +Discipled of the bravest. He lasted long, +But on us both did haggish age steal on, +And wore us out of act. It much repairs me +To talk of your good father; in his youth +He had the wit which I can well observe +Today in our young lords; but they may jest +Till their own scorn return to them unnoted +Ere they can hide their levity in honour +So like a courtier, contempt nor bitterness +Were in his pride or sharpness; if they were, +His equal had awak’d them, and his honour, +Clock to itself, knew the true minute when +Exception bid him speak, and at this time +His tongue obey’d his hand. Who were below him +He us’d as creatures of another place, +And bow’d his eminent top to their low ranks, +Making them proud of his humility, +In their poor praise he humbled. Such a man +Might be a copy to these younger times; +Which, followed well, would demonstrate them now +But goers backward. + +BERTRAM. +His good remembrance, sir, +Lies richer in your thoughts than on his tomb; +So in approof lives not his epitaph +As in your royal speech. + +KING. +Would I were with him! He would always say,— +Methinks I hear him now; his plausive words +He scatter’d not in ears, but grafted them +To grow there and to bear,—“Let me not live,” +This his good melancholy oft began +On the catastrophe and heel of pastime, +When it was out,—“Let me not live” quoth he, +“After my flame lacks oil, to be the snuff +Of younger spirits, whose apprehensive senses +All but new things disdain; whose judgments are +Mere fathers of their garments; whose constancies +Expire before their fashions.” This he wish’d. +I, after him, do after him wish too, +Since I nor wax nor honey can bring home, +I quickly were dissolved from my hive +To give some labourers room. + +SECOND LORD. +You’re lov’d, sir; +They that least lend it you shall lack you first. + +KING. +I fill a place, I know’t. How long is’t, Count, +Since the physician at your father’s died? +He was much fam’d. + +BERTRAM. +Some six months since, my lord. + +KING. +If he were living, I would try him yet;— +Lend me an arm;—the rest have worn me out +With several applications; nature and sickness +Debate it at their leisure. Welcome, Count; +My son’s no dearer. + +BERTRAM. +Thank your majesty. + + [_Exeunt. Flourish._] + +SCENE III. Rossillon. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Countess, Steward and Clown. + +COUNTESS. +I will now hear. What say you of this gentlewoman? + +STEWARD. +Madam, the care I have had to even your content, I wish might be found +in the calendar of my past endeavours; for then we wound our modesty, +and make foul the clearness of our deservings, when of ourselves we +publish them. + +COUNTESS. +What does this knave here? Get you gone, sirrah. The complaints I have +heard of you I do not all believe; ’tis my slowness that I do not; for +I know you lack not folly to commit them, and have ability enough to +make such knaveries yours. + +CLOWN. +’Tis not unknown to you, madam, I am a poor fellow. + +COUNTESS. +Well, sir. + +CLOWN. +No, madam, ’tis not so well that I am poor, though many of the rich are +damned; but if I may have your ladyship’s good will to go to the world, +Isbel the woman and I will do as we may. + +COUNTESS. +Wilt thou needs be a beggar? + +CLOWN. +I do beg your good will in this case. + +COUNTESS. +In what case? + +CLOWN. +In Isbel’s case and mine own. Service is no heritage, and I think I +shall never have the blessing of God till I have issue of my body; for +they say barnes are blessings. + +COUNTESS. +Tell me thy reason why thou wilt marry. + +CLOWN. +My poor body, madam, requires it; I am driven on by the flesh, and he +must needs go that the devil drives. + +COUNTESS. +Is this all your worship’s reason? + +CLOWN. +Faith, madam, I have other holy reasons, such as they are. + +COUNTESS. +May the world know them? + +CLOWN. +I have been, madam, a wicked creature, as you and all flesh and blood +are; and indeed I do marry that I may repent. + +COUNTESS. +Thy marriage, sooner than thy wickedness. + +CLOWN. +I am out of friends, madam, and I hope to have friends for my wife’s +sake. + +COUNTESS. +Such friends are thine enemies, knave. + +CLOWN. +Y’are shallow, madam, in great friends; for the knaves come to do that +for me which I am a-weary of. He that ears my land spares my team, and +gives me leave to in the crop: if I be his cuckold, he’s my drudge. He +that comforts my wife is the cherisher of my flesh and blood; he that +cherishes my flesh and blood loves my flesh and blood; he that loves my +flesh and blood is my friend; ergo, he that kisses my wife is my +friend. If men could be contented to be what they are, there were no +fear in marriage; for young Charbon the puritan and old Poysam the +papist, howsome’er their hearts are sever’d in religion, their heads +are both one; they may jowl horns together like any deer i’ the herd. + +COUNTESS. +Wilt thou ever be a foul-mouth’d and calumnious knave? + +CLOWN. +A prophet I, madam; and I speak the truth the next way: + _For I the ballad will repeat, + Which men full true shall find; + Your marriage comes by destiny, + Your cuckoo sings by kind._ + +COUNTESS. +Get you gone, sir; I’ll talk with you more anon. + +STEWARD. +May it please you, madam, that he bid Helen come to you; of her I am to +speak. + +COUNTESS. +Sirrah, tell my gentlewoman I would speak with her; Helen I mean. + +CLOWN. +[_Sings._] +_ Was this fair face the cause, quoth she, + Why the Grecians sacked Troy? + Fond done, done fond, + Was this King Priam’s joy? + With that she sighed as she stood, + With that she sighed as she stood, + And gave this sentence then: + Among nine bad if one be good, + Among nine bad if one be good, + There’s yet one good in ten._ + +COUNTESS. +What, one good in ten? You corrupt the song, sirrah. + +CLOWN. +One good woman in ten, madam, which is a purifying o’ the song. Would +God would serve the world so all the year! We’d find no fault with the +tithe-woman, if I were the parson. One in ten, quoth ’a! And we might +have a good woman born but or every blazing star, or at an earthquake, +’twould mend the lottery well; a man may draw his heart out ere he +pluck one. + +COUNTESS. +You’ll be gone, sir knave, and do as I command you! + +CLOWN. +That man should be at woman’s command, and yet no hurt done! Though +honesty be no puritan, yet it will do no hurt; it will wear the +surplice of humility over the black gown of a big heart. I am going, +forsooth; the business is for Helen to come hither. + + [_Exit._] + +COUNTESS. +Well, now. + +STEWARD. +I know, madam, you love your gentlewoman entirely. + +COUNTESS. +Faith I do. Her father bequeath’d her to me, and she herself, without +other advantage, may lawfully make title to as much love as she finds; +there is more owing her than is paid, and more shall be paid her than +she’ll demand. + +STEWARD. +Madam, I was very late more near her than I think she wish’d me; alone +she was, and did communicate to herself her own words to her own ears; +she thought, I dare vow for her, they touch’d not any stranger sense. +Her matter was, she loved your son. Fortune, she said, was no goddess, +that had put such difference betwixt their two estates; Love no god, +that would not extend his might only where qualities were level; Diana +no queen of virgins, that would suffer her poor knight surpris’d, +without rescue in the first assault or ransom afterward. This she +deliver’d in the most bitter touch of sorrow that e’er I heard virgin +exclaim in, which I held my duty speedily to acquaint you withal; +sithence, in the loss that may happen, it concerns you something to +know it. + +COUNTESS. +You have discharg’d this honestly; keep it to yourself; many +likelihoods inform’d me of this before, which hung so tottering in the +balance that I could neither believe nor misdoubt. Pray you leave me; +stall this in your bosom; and I thank you for your honest care. I will +speak with you further anon. + + [_Exit Steward._] + + Enter Helena. + +Even so it was with me when I was young; +If ever we are nature’s, these are ours; this thorn +Doth to our rose of youth rightly belong; +Our blood to us, this to our blood is born; +It is the show and seal of nature’s truth, +Where love’s strong passion is impress’d in youth. +By our remembrances of days foregone, +Such were our faults, or then we thought them none. +Her eye is sick on’t; I observe her now. + +HELENA. +What is your pleasure, madam? + +COUNTESS. +You know, Helen, +I am a mother to you. + +HELENA. +Mine honourable mistress. + +COUNTESS. +Nay, a mother. +Why not a mother? When I said a mother, +Methought you saw a serpent. What’s in mother, +That you start at it? I say I am your mother, +And put you in the catalogue of those +That were enwombed mine. ’Tis often seen +Adoption strives with nature, and choice breeds +A native slip to us from foreign seeds. +You ne’er oppress’d me with a mother’s groan, +Yet I express to you a mother’s care. +God’s mercy, maiden! does it curd thy blood +To say I am thy mother? What’s the matter, +That this distempered messenger of wet, +The many-colour’d Iris, rounds thine eye? +—Why, that you are my daughter? + +HELENA. +That I am not. + +COUNTESS. +I say, I am your mother. + +HELENA. +Pardon, madam; +The Count Rossillon cannot be my brother. +I am from humble, he from honoured name; +No note upon my parents, his all noble, +My master, my dear lord he is; and I +His servant live, and will his vassal die. +He must not be my brother. + +COUNTESS. +Nor I your mother? + +HELENA. +You are my mother, madam; would you were— +So that my lord your son were not my brother,— +Indeed my mother! or were you both our mothers, +I care no more for than I do for heaven, +So I were not his sister. Can’t no other, +But, I your daughter, he must be my brother? + +COUNTESS. +Yes, Helen, you might be my daughter-in-law. +God shield you mean it not! daughter and mother +So strive upon your pulse. What! pale again? +My fear hath catch’d your fondness; now I see +The mystery of your loneliness, and find +Your salt tears’ head. Now to all sense ’tis gross +You love my son; invention is asham’d, +Against the proclamation of thy passion +To say thou dost not. Therefore tell me true; +But tell me then, ’tis so; for, look, thy cheeks +Confess it, t’one to th’other; and thine eyes +See it so grossly shown in thy behaviours, +That in their kind they speak it; only sin +And hellish obstinacy tie thy tongue, +That truth should be suspected. Speak, is’t so? +If it be so, you have wound a goodly clew; +If it be not, forswear’t: howe’er, I charge thee, +As heaven shall work in me for thine avail, +To tell me truly. + +HELENA. +Good madam, pardon me. + +COUNTESS. +Do you love my son? + +HELENA. +Your pardon, noble mistress. + +COUNTESS. +Love you my son? + +HELENA. +Do not you love him, madam? + +COUNTESS. +Go not about; my love hath in’t a bond +Whereof the world takes note. Come, come, disclose +The state of your affection, for your passions +Have to the full appeach’d. + +HELENA. +Then I confess, +Here on my knee, before high heaven and you, +That before you, and next unto high heaven, +I love your son. +My friends were poor, but honest; so’s my love. +Be not offended; for it hurts not him +That he is lov’d of me; I follow him not +By any token of presumptuous suit, +Nor would I have him till I do deserve him; +Yet never know how that desert should be. +I know I love in vain, strive against hope; +Yet in this captious and inteemable sieve +I still pour in the waters of my love +And lack not to lose still. Thus, Indian-like, +Religious in mine error, I adore +The sun that looks upon his worshipper, +But knows of him no more. My dearest madam, +Let not your hate encounter with my love, +For loving where you do; but if yourself, +Whose aged honour cites a virtuous youth, +Did ever, in so true a flame of liking, +Wish chastely, and love dearly, that your Dian +Was both herself and love; O then, give pity +To her whose state is such that cannot choose +But lend and give where she is sure to lose; +That seeks not to find that her search implies, +But riddle-like, lives sweetly where she dies! + +COUNTESS. +Had you not lately an intent,—speak truly,— +To go to Paris? + +HELENA. +Madam, I had. + +COUNTESS. +Wherefore? tell true. + +HELENA. +I will tell truth; by grace itself I swear. +You know my father left me some prescriptions +Of rare and prov’d effects, such as his reading +And manifest experience had collected +For general sovereignty; and that he will’d me +In heedfull’st reservation to bestow them, +As notes whose faculties inclusive were +More than they were in note. Amongst the rest +There is a remedy, approv’d, set down, +To cure the desperate languishings whereof +The king is render’d lost. + +COUNTESS. +This was your motive +For Paris, was it? Speak. + +HELENA. +My lord your son made me to think of this; +Else Paris, and the medicine, and the king, +Had from the conversation of my thoughts +Haply been absent then. + +COUNTESS. +But think you, Helen, +If you should tender your supposed aid, +He would receive it? He and his physicians +Are of a mind; he, that they cannot help him; +They, that they cannot help. How shall they credit +A poor unlearned virgin, when the schools, +Embowell’d of their doctrine, have let off +The danger to itself? + +HELENA. +There’s something in’t +More than my father’s skill, which was the great’st +Of his profession, that his good receipt +Shall for my legacy be sanctified +By th’ luckiest stars in heaven; and would your honour +But give me leave to try success, I’d venture +The well-lost life of mine on his grace’s cure. +By such a day, an hour. + +COUNTESS. +Dost thou believe’t? + +HELENA. +Ay, madam, knowingly. + +COUNTESS. +Why, Helen, thou shalt have my leave and love, +Means and attendants, and my loving greetings +To those of mine in court. I’ll stay at home, +And pray God’s blessing into thy attempt. +Be gone tomorrow; and be sure of this, +What I can help thee to, thou shalt not miss. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT II. + +SCENE I. Paris. A room in the King’s palace. + + Flourish. Enter the King with young Lords taking leave for the + Florentine war; Bertram, Parolles and Attendants. + +KING. +Farewell, young lords; these warlike principles +Do not throw from you; and you, my lords, farewell; +Share the advice betwixt you; if both gain all, +The gift doth stretch itself as ’tis receiv’d, +And is enough for both. + +FIRST LORD. +’Tis our hope, sir, +After well-ent’red soldiers, to return +And find your grace in health. + +KING. +No, no, it cannot be; and yet my heart +Will not confess he owes the malady +That doth my life besiege. Farewell, young lords. +Whether I live or die, be you the sons +Of worthy Frenchmen; let higher Italy,— +Those bated that inherit but the fall +Of the last monarchy—see that you come +Not to woo honour, but to wed it, when +The bravest questant shrinks: find what you seek, +That fame may cry you loud. I say farewell. + +SECOND LORD. +Health, at your bidding serve your majesty! + +KING. +Those girls of Italy, take heed of them; +They say our French lack language to deny +If they demand; beware of being captives +Before you serve. + +BOTH. +Our hearts receive your warnings. + +KING. +Farewell.—Come hither to me. + + [_The King retires to a couch._] + +FIRST LORD. +O my sweet lord, that you will stay behind us! + +PAROLLES. +’Tis not his fault; the spark. + +SECOND LORD. +O, ’tis brave wars! + +PAROLLES. +Most admirable! I have seen those wars. + +BERTRAM. +I am commanded here, and kept a coil with, +“Too young”, and “the next year” and “’tis too early”. + +PAROLLES. +An thy mind stand to’t, boy, steal away bravely. + +BERTRAM. +I shall stay here the forehorse to a smock, +Creaking my shoes on the plain masonry, +Till honour be bought up, and no sword worn +But one to dance with. By heaven, I’ll steal away. + +FIRST LORD. +There’s honour in the theft. + +PAROLLES. +Commit it, count. + +SECOND LORD. +I am your accessary; and so farewell. + +BERTRAM. +I grow to you, and our parting is a tortur’d body. + +FIRST LORD. +Farewell, captain. + +SECOND LORD. +Sweet Monsieur Parolles! + +PAROLLES. +Noble heroes, my sword and yours are kin. Good sparks and lustrous, a +word, good metals. You shall find in the regiment of the Spinii one +Captain Spurio, with his cicatrice, an emblem of war, here on his +sinister cheek; it was this very sword entrench’d it. Say to him I +live; and observe his reports for me. + +FIRST LORD. +We shall, noble captain. + +PAROLLES. +Mars dote on you for his novices! + + [_Exeunt Lords._] + +What will ye do? + +BERTRAM. +Stay the king. + +PAROLLES. +Use a more spacious ceremony to the noble lords; you have restrain’d +yourself within the list of too cold an adieu. Be more expressive to +them; for they wear themselves in the cap of the time; there do muster +true gait; eat, speak, and move, under the influence of the most +receiv’d star; and though the devil lead the measure, such are to be +followed. After them, and take a more dilated farewell. + +BERTRAM. +And I will do so. + +PAROLLES. +Worthy fellows, and like to prove most sinewy sword-men. + + [_Exeunt Bertram and Parolles._] + + Enter Lafew. + +LAFEW. +Pardon, my lord [_kneeling_], for me and for my tidings. + +KING. +I’ll fee thee to stand up. + +LAFEW. +Then here’s a man stands that has brought his pardon. +I would you had kneel’d, my lord, to ask me mercy, +And that at my bidding you could so stand up. + +KING. +I would I had; so I had broke thy pate, +And ask’d thee mercy for’t. + +LAFEW. +Good faith, across; +But, my good lord, ’tis thus: will you be cur’d +Of your infirmity? + +KING. +No. + +LAFEW. +O, will you eat +No grapes, my royal fox? Yes, but you will +My noble grapes, and if my royal fox +Could reach them. I have seen a medicine +That’s able to breathe life into a stone, +Quicken a rock, and make you dance canary +With sprightly fire and motion; whose simple touch +Is powerful to araise King Pippen, nay, +To give great Charlemain a pen in’s hand +And write to her a love-line. + +KING. +What ‘her’ is this? + +LAFEW. +Why, doctor ‘she’! My lord, there’s one arriv’d, +If you will see her. Now, by my faith and honour, +If seriously I may convey my thoughts +In this my light deliverance, I have spoke +With one that in her sex, her years, profession, +Wisdom, and constancy, hath amaz’d me more +Than I dare blame my weakness. Will you see her, +For that is her demand, and know her business? +That done, laugh well at me. + +KING. +Now, good Lafew, +Bring in the admiration; that we with thee +May spend our wonder too, or take off thine +By wond’ring how thou took’st it. + +LAFEW. +Nay, I’ll fit you, +And not be all day neither. + + [_Exit Lafew._] + +KING. +Thus he his special nothing ever prologues. + + Enter Lafew with Helena. + +LAFEW. +Nay, come your ways. + +KING. +This haste hath wings indeed. + +LAFEW. +Nay, come your ways. +This is his majesty, say your mind to him. +A traitor you do look like, but such traitors +His majesty seldom fears; I am Cressid’s uncle, +That dare leave two together. Fare you well. + + [_Exit._] + +KING. +Now, fair one, does your business follow us? + +HELENA. +Ay, my good lord. +Gerard de Narbon was my father, +In what he did profess, well found. + +KING. +I knew him. + +HELENA. +The rather will I spare my praises towards him. +Knowing him is enough. On his bed of death +Many receipts he gave me; chiefly one, +Which, as the dearest issue of his practice, +And of his old experience the only darling, +He bade me store up as a triple eye, +Safer than mine own two; more dear I have so, +And hearing your high majesty is touch’d +With that malignant cause, wherein the honour +Of my dear father’s gift stands chief in power, +I come to tender it, and my appliance, +With all bound humbleness. + +KING. +We thank you, maiden, +But may not be so credulous of cure, +When our most learned doctors leave us, and +The congregated college have concluded +That labouring art can never ransom nature +From her inaidable estate. I say we must not +So stain our judgment, or corrupt our hope, +To prostitute our past-cure malady +To empirics, or to dissever so +Our great self and our credit, to esteem +A senseless help, when help past sense we deem. + +HELENA. +My duty then shall pay me for my pains. +I will no more enforce mine office on you, +Humbly entreating from your royal thoughts +A modest one to bear me back again. + +KING. +I cannot give thee less, to be call’d grateful. +Thou thought’st to help me; and such thanks I give +As one near death to those that wish him live. +But what at full I know, thou know’st no part; +I knowing all my peril, thou no art. + +HELENA. +What I can do can do no hurt to try, +Since you set up your rest ’gainst remedy. +He that of greatest works is finisher +Oft does them by the weakest minister. +So holy writ in babes hath judgment shown, +When judges have been babes. Great floods have flown +From simple sources, and great seas have dried +When miracles have by the great’st been denied. +Oft expectation fails, and most oft there +Where most it promises; and oft it hits +Where hope is coldest, and despair most fits. + +KING. +I must not hear thee. Fare thee well, kind maid. +Thy pains, not us’d, must by thyself be paid; +Proffers, not took, reap thanks for their reward. + +HELENA. +Inspired merit so by breath is barr’d. +It is not so with Him that all things knows +As ’tis with us that square our guess by shows; +But most it is presumption in us when +The help of heaven we count the act of men. +Dear sir, to my endeavours give consent; +Of heaven, not me, make an experiment. +I am not an impostor, that proclaim +Myself against the level of mine aim, +But know I think, and think I know most sure, +My art is not past power nor you past cure. + +KING. +Art thou so confident? Within what space +Hop’st thou my cure? + +HELENA. +The greatest grace lending grace. +Ere twice the horses of the sun shall bring +Their fiery torcher his diurnal ring, +Ere twice in murk and occidental damp +Moist Hesperus hath quench’d her sleepy lamp; +Or four and twenty times the pilot’s glass +Hath told the thievish minutes how they pass; +What is infirm from your sound parts shall fly, +Health shall live free, and sickness freely die. + +KING. +Upon thy certainty and confidence +What dar’st thou venture? + +HELENA. +Tax of impudence, +A strumpet’s boldness, a divulged shame, +Traduc’d by odious ballads; my maiden’s name +Sear’d otherwise; ne worse of worst extended +With vildest torture, let my life be ended. + +KING. +Methinks in thee some blessed spirit doth speak +His powerful sound within an organ weak; +And what impossibility would slay +In common sense, sense saves another way. +Thy life is dear, for all that life can rate +Worth name of life in thee hath estimate: +Youth, beauty, wisdom, courage, all +That happiness and prime can happy call. +Thou this to hazard needs must intimate +Skill infinite, or monstrous desperate. +Sweet practiser, thy physic I will try, +That ministers thine own death if I die. + +HELENA. +If I break time, or flinch in property +Of what I spoke, unpitied let me die, +And well deserv’d. Not helping, death’s my fee; +But if I help, what do you promise me? + +KING. +Make thy demand. + +HELENA. +But will you make it even? + +KING. +Ay, by my sceptre and my hopes of heaven. + +HELENA. +Then shalt thou give me, with thy kingly hand +What husband in thy power I will command: +Exempted be from me the arrogance +To choose from forth the royal blood of France, +My low and humble name to propagate +With any branch or image of thy state; +But such a one, thy vassal, whom I know +Is free for me to ask, thee to bestow. + +KING. +Here is my hand; the premises observ’d, +Thy will by my performance shall be serv’d; +So make the choice of thy own time, for I, +Thy resolv’d patient, on thee still rely. +More should I question thee, and more I must, +Though more to know could not be more to trust: +From whence thou cam’st, how tended on; but rest +Unquestion’d welcome, and undoubted bless’d. +Give me some help here, ho! If thou proceed +As high as word, my deed shall match thy deed. + + [_Flourish. Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + Enter Countess and Clown. + +COUNTESS. +Come on, sir; I shall now put you to the height of your breeding. + +CLOWN. +I will show myself highly fed and lowly taught. I know my business is +but to the court. + +COUNTESS. +To the court! Why, what place make you special, when you put off that +with such contempt? But to the court! + +CLOWN. +Truly, madam, if God have lent a man any manners, he may easily put it +off at court: he that cannot make a leg, put off’s cap, kiss his hand, +and say nothing, has neither leg, hands, lip, nor cap; and indeed such +a fellow, to say precisely, were not for the court; but for me, I have +an answer will serve all men. + +COUNTESS. +Marry, that’s a bountiful answer that fits all questions. + +CLOWN. +It is like a barber’s chair, that fits all buttocks—the pin-buttock, +the quatch-buttock, the brawn-buttock, or any buttock. + +COUNTESS. +Will your answer serve fit to all questions? + +CLOWN. +As fit as ten groats is for the hand of an attorney, as your French +crown for your taffety punk, as Tib’s rush for Tom’s forefinger, as a +pancake for Shrove-Tuesday, a morris for May-day, as the nail to his +hole, the cuckold to his horn, as a scolding quean to a wrangling +knave, as the nun’s lip to the friar’s mouth; nay, as the pudding to +his skin. + +COUNTESS. +Have you, I say, an answer of such fitness for all questions? + +CLOWN. +From below your duke to beneath your constable, it will fit any +question. + +COUNTESS. +It must be an answer of most monstrous size that must fit all demands. + +CLOWN. +But a trifle neither, in good faith, if the learned should speak truth +of it. Here it is, and all that belongs to’t. Ask me if I am a +courtier; it shall do you no harm to learn. + +COUNTESS. +To be young again, if we could: I will be a fool in question, hoping to +be the wiser by your answer. I pray you, sir, are you a courtier? + +CLOWN. +O Lord, sir! There’s a simple putting off. More, more, a hundred of +them. + +COUNTESS. +Sir, I am a poor friend of yours, that loves you. + +CLOWN. +O Lord, sir! Thick, thick; spare not me. + +COUNTESS. +I think, sir, you can eat none of this homely meat. + +CLOWN. +O Lord, sir! Nay, put me to’t, I warrant you. + +COUNTESS. +You were lately whipp’d, sir, as I think. + +CLOWN. +O Lord, sir! Spare not me. + +COUNTESS. +Do you cry ‘O Lord, sir!’ at your whipping, and ‘spare not me’? Indeed +your ‘O Lord, sir!’ is very sequent to your whipping. You would answer +very well to a whipping, if you were but bound to’t. + +CLOWN. +I ne’er had worse luck in my life in my ‘O Lord, sir!’ I see things may +serve long, but not serve ever. + +COUNTESS. +I play the noble housewife with the time, to entertain it so merrily +with a fool. + +CLOWN. +O Lord, sir! Why, there’t serves well again. + +COUNTESS. +An end, sir! To your business. Give Helen this, +And urge her to a present answer back. +Commend me to my kinsmen and my son. +This is not much. + +CLOWN. +Not much commendation to them? + +COUNTESS. +Not much employment for you. You understand me? + +CLOWN. +Most fruitfully. I am there before my legs. + +COUNTESS. +Haste you again. + + [_Exeunt severally._] + +SCENE III. Paris. The King’s palace. + + Enter Bertram, Lafew and Parolles. + +LAFEW. +They say miracles are past; and we have our philosophical persons to +make modern and familiar things supernatural and causeless. Hence is it +that we make trifles of terrors, ensconcing ourselves into seeming +knowledge when we should submit ourselves to an unknown fear. + +PAROLLES. +Why, ’tis the rarest argument of wonder that hath shot out in our +latter times. + +BERTRAM. +And so ’tis. + +LAFEW. +To be relinquish’d of the artists,— + +PAROLLES. +So I say; both of Galen and Paracelsus. + +LAFEW. +Of all the learned and authentic fellows,— + +PAROLLES. +Right; so I say. + +LAFEW. +That gave him out incurable,— + +PAROLLES. +Why, there ’tis; so say I too. + +LAFEW. +Not to be helped. + +PAROLLES. +Right; as ’twere a man assur’d of a— + +LAFEW. +Uncertain life and sure death. + +PAROLLES. +Just; you say well. So would I have said. + +LAFEW. +I may truly say, it is a novelty to the world. + +PAROLLES. +It is indeed; if you will have it in showing, you shall read it in what +do you call there? + +LAFEW. +A showing of a heavenly effect in an earthly actor. + +PAROLLES. +That’s it; I would have said the very same. + +LAFEW. +Why, your dolphin is not lustier; fore me, I speak in respect— + +PAROLLES. +Nay, ’tis strange, ’tis very strange; that is the brief and the tedious +of it; and he’s of a most facinerious spirit that will not acknowledge +it to be the— + +LAFEW. +Very hand of heaven. + +PAROLLES. +Ay, so I say. + +LAFEW. +In a most weak— + +PAROLLES. +And debile minister, great power, great transcendence, which should +indeed give us a further use to be made than alone the recov’ry of the +king, as to be— + +LAFEW. +Generally thankful. + +PAROLLES. +I would have said it; you say well. Here comes the king. + + Enter King, Helena and Attendants. + +LAFEW. +Lustique, as the Dutchman says. I’ll like a maid the better, whilst I +have a tooth in my head. Why, he’s able to lead her a coranto. + +PAROLLES. +_Mor du vinager!_ is not this Helen? + +LAFEW. +Fore God, I think so. + +KING. +Go, call before me all the lords in court. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + +Sit, my preserver, by thy patient’s side, +And with this healthful hand, whose banish’d sense +Thou has repeal’d, a second time receive +The confirmation of my promis’d gift, +Which but attends thy naming. + + Enter several Lords. + +Fair maid, send forth thine eye. This youthful parcel +Of noble bachelors stand at my bestowing, +O’er whom both sovereign power and father’s voice +I have to use. Thy frank election make; +Thou hast power to choose, and they none to forsake. + +HELENA. +To each of you one fair and virtuous mistress +Fall, when love please! Marry, to each but one! + +LAFEW. +I’d give bay curtal and his furniture +My mouth no more were broken than these boys’, +And writ as little beard. + +KING. +Peruse them well. +Not one of those but had a noble father. + + She addresses her to a Lord. + +HELENA. +Gentlemen, +Heaven hath through me restor’d the king to health. + +ALL. +We understand it, and thank heaven for you. + +HELENA. +I am a simple maid, and therein wealthiest +That I protest I simply am a maid. +Please it, your majesty, I have done already. +The blushes in my cheeks thus whisper me: +“We blush that thou shouldst choose; but, be refused, +Let the white death sit on thy cheek for ever, +We’ll ne’er come there again.” + +KING. +Make choice; and, see, +Who shuns thy love shuns all his love in me. + +HELENA. +Now, Dian, from thy altar do I fly, +And to imperial Love, that god most high, +Do my sighs stream. [_To first Lord._] Sir, will you hear my suit? + +FIRST LORD. +And grant it. + +HELENA. +Thanks, sir; all the rest is mute. + +LAFEW. +I had rather be in this choice than throw ames-ace for my life. + +HELENA. +[_To second Lord._] The honour, sir, that flames in your fair eyes, +Before I speak, too threat’ningly replies. +Love make your fortunes twenty times above +Her that so wishes, and her humble love! + +SECOND LORD. +No better, if you please. + +HELENA. +My wish receive, +Which great Love grant; and so I take my leave. + +LAFEW. +Do all they deny her? An they were sons of mine I’d have them whipp’d; +or I would send them to th’ Turk to make eunuchs of. + +HELENA. +[_To third Lord._] Be not afraid that I your hand should take; +I’ll never do you wrong for your own sake. +Blessing upon your vows, and in your bed +Find fairer fortune, if you ever wed! + +LAFEW. +These boys are boys of ice, they’ll none have her. Sure, they are +bastards to the English; the French ne’er got ’em. + +HELENA. +[_To fourth Lord._] You are too young, too happy, and too good, +To make yourself a son out of my blood. + +FOURTH LORD. +Fair one, I think not so. + +LAFEW. +There’s one grape yet. I am sure thy father drank wine. But if thou +beest not an ass, I am a youth of fourteen; I have known thee already. + +HELENA. +[_To Bertram._] I dare not say I take you, but I give +Me and my service, ever whilst I live, +Into your guiding power. This is the man. + +KING. +Why, then, young Bertram, take her; she’s thy wife. + +BERTRAM. +My wife, my liege! I shall beseech your highness, +In such a business give me leave to use +The help of mine own eyes. + +KING. +Know’st thou not, Bertram, +What she has done for me? + +BERTRAM. +Yes, my good lord, +But never hope to know why I should marry her. + +KING. +Thou know’st she has rais’d me from my sickly bed. + +BERTRAM. +But follows it, my lord, to bring me down +Must answer for your raising? I know her well; +She had her breeding at my father’s charge: +A poor physician’s daughter my wife! Disdain +Rather corrupt me ever! + +KING. +’Tis only title thou disdain’st in her, the which +I can build up. Strange is it that our bloods, +Of colour, weight, and heat, pour’d all together, +Would quite confound distinction, yet stands off +In differences so mighty. If she be +All that is virtuous, save what thou dislik’st, +A poor physician’s daughter,—thou dislik’st— +Of virtue for the name. But do not so. +From lowest place when virtuous things proceed, +The place is dignified by the doer’s deed. +Where great additions swell’s, and virtue none, +It is a dropsied honour. Good alone +Is good without a name; vileness is so: +The property by what it is should go, +Not by the title. She is young, wise, fair; +In these to nature she’s immediate heir; +And these breed honour: that is honour’s scorn +Which challenges itself as honour’s born, +And is not like the sire. Honours thrive +When rather from our acts we them derive +Than our fore-goers. The mere word’s a slave, +Debauch’d on every tomb, on every grave +A lying trophy, and as oft is dumb +Where dust and damn’d oblivion is the tomb +Of honour’d bones indeed. What should be said? +If thou canst like this creature as a maid, +I can create the rest. Virtue and she +Is her own dower; honour and wealth from me. + +BERTRAM. +I cannot love her, nor will strive to do ’t. + +KING. +Thou wrong’st thyself, if thou shouldst strive to choose. + +HELENA. +That you are well restor’d, my lord, I am glad. +Let the rest go. + +KING. +My honour’s at the stake, which to defeat, +I must produce my power. Here, take her hand, +Proud scornful boy, unworthy this good gift, +That dost in vile misprision shackle up +My love and her desert; that canst not dream +We, poising us in her defective scale, +Shall weigh thee to the beam; that wilt not know +It is in us to plant thine honour where +We please to have it grow. Check thy contempt; +Obey our will, which travails in thy good; +Believe not thy disdain, but presently +Do thine own fortunes that obedient right +Which both thy duty owes and our power claims; +Or I will throw thee from my care for ever +Into the staggers and the careless lapse +Of youth and ignorance; both my revenge and hate +Loosing upon thee in the name of justice, +Without all terms of pity. Speak! Thine answer! + +BERTRAM. +Pardon, my gracious lord; for I submit +My fancy to your eyes. When I consider +What great creation, and what dole of honour +Flies where you bid it, I find that she, which late +Was in my nobler thoughts most base, is now +The praised of the king; who, so ennobled, +Is as ’twere born so. + +KING. +Take her by the hand, +And tell her she is thine; to whom I promise +A counterpoise; if not to thy estate, +A balance more replete. + +BERTRAM. +I take her hand. + +KING. +Good fortune and the favour of the king +Smile upon this contract; whose ceremony +Shall seem expedient on the now-born brief, +And be perform’d tonight. The solemn feast +Shall more attend upon the coming space, +Expecting absent friends. As thou lov’st her, +Thy love’s to me religious; else, does err. + + [_Exeunt King, Bertram, Helena, Lords, and Attendants._] + +LAFEW. +Do you hear, monsieur? A word with you. + +PAROLLES. +Your pleasure, sir. + +LAFEW. +Your lord and master did well to make his recantation. + +PAROLLES. +Recantation! My lord! My master! + +LAFEW. +Ay. Is it not a language I speak? + +PAROLLES. +A most harsh one, and not to be understood without bloody succeeding. +My master! + +LAFEW. +Are you companion to the Count Rossillon? + +PAROLLES. +To any count; to all counts; to what is man. + +LAFEW. +To what is count’s man: count’s master is of another style. + +PAROLLES. +You are too old, sir; let it satisfy you, you are too old. + +LAFEW. +I must tell thee, sirrah, I write man; to which title age cannot bring +thee. + +PAROLLES. +What I dare too well do, I dare not do. + +LAFEW. +I did think thee, for two ordinaries, to be a pretty wise fellow; thou +didst make tolerable vent of thy travel; it might pass. Yet the scarfs +and the bannerets about thee did manifoldly dissuade me from believing +thee a vessel of too great a burden. I have now found thee; when I lose +thee again I care not. Yet art thou good for nothing but taking up, and +that thou art scarce worth. + +PAROLLES. +Hadst thou not the privilege of antiquity upon thee— + +LAFEW. +Do not plunge thyself too far in anger, lest thou hasten thy trial; +which if—Lord have mercy on thee for a hen! So, my good window of +lattice, fare thee well; thy casement I need not open, for I look +through thee. Give me thy hand. + +PAROLLES. +My lord, you give me most egregious indignity. + +LAFEW. +Ay, with all my heart; and thou art worthy of it. + +PAROLLES. +I have not, my lord, deserv’d it. + +LAFEW. +Yes, good faith, every dram of it; and I will not bate thee a scruple. + +PAROLLES. +Well, I shall be wiser. + +LAFEW. +Ev’n as soon as thou canst, for thou hast to pull at a smack o’ th’ +contrary. If ever thou beest bound in thy scarf and beaten, thou shalt +find what it is to be proud of thy bondage. I have a desire to hold my +acquaintance with thee, or rather my knowledge, that I may say in the +default, “He is a man I know.” + +PAROLLES. +My lord, you do me most insupportable vexation. + +LAFEW. +I would it were hell-pains for thy sake, and my poor doing eternal; for +doing I am past, as I will by thee, in what motion age will give me +leave. + + [_Exit._] + +PAROLLES. +Well, thou hast a son shall take this disgrace off me; scurvy, old, +filthy, scurvy lord! Well, I must be patient; there is no fettering of +authority. I’ll beat him, by my life, if I can meet him with any +convenience, an he were double and double a lord. I’ll have no more +pity of his age than I would have of—I’ll beat him, and if I could but +meet him again. + + Enter Lafew. + +LAFEW. +Sirrah, your lord and master’s married; there’s news for you; you have +a new mistress. + +PAROLLES. +I most unfeignedly beseech your lordship to make some reservation of +your wrongs. He is my good lord; whom I serve above is my master. + +LAFEW. +Who? God? + +PAROLLES. +Ay, sir. + +LAFEW. +The devil it is that’s thy master. Why dost thou garter up thy arms o’ +this fashion? Dost make hose of thy sleeves? Do other servants so? Thou +wert best set thy lower part where thy nose stands. By mine honour, if +I were but two hours younger, I’d beat thee. Methink’st thou art a +general offence, and every man should beat thee. I think thou wast +created for men to breathe themselves upon thee. + +PAROLLES. +This is hard and undeserved measure, my lord. + +LAFEW. +Go to, sir; you were beaten in Italy for picking a kernel out of a +pomegranate; you are a vagabond, and no true traveller. You are more +saucy with lords and honourable personages than the commission of your +birth and virtue gives you heraldry. You are not worth another word, +else I’d call you knave. I leave you. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Bertram. + +PAROLLES. +Good, very good, it is so then. Good, very good; let it be conceal’d +awhile. + +BERTRAM. +Undone, and forfeited to cares for ever! + +PAROLLES. +What’s the matter, sweetheart? + +BERTRAM. +Although before the solemn priest I have sworn, +I will not bed her. + +PAROLLES. +What, what, sweetheart? + +BERTRAM. +O my Parolles, they have married me! +I’ll to the Tuscan wars, and never bed her. + +PAROLLES. +France is a dog-hole, and it no more merits +The tread of a man’s foot: to the wars! + +BERTRAM. +There’s letters from my mother; what th’ import is +I know not yet. + +PAROLLES. +Ay, that would be known. To th’ wars, my boy, to th’ wars! +He wears his honour in a box unseen +That hugs his kicky-wicky here at home, +Spending his manly marrow in her arms, +Which should sustain the bound and high curvet +Of Mars’s fiery steed. To other regions! +France is a stable; we that dwell in’t, jades, +Therefore, to th’ war! + +BERTRAM. +It shall be so; I’ll send her to my house, +Acquaint my mother with my hate to her, +And wherefore I am fled; write to the king +That which I durst not speak. His present gift +Shall furnish me to those Italian fields +Where noble fellows strike. War is no strife +To the dark house and the detested wife. + +PAROLLES. +Will this caprichio hold in thee, art sure? + +BERTRAM. +Go with me to my chamber and advise me. +I’ll send her straight away. Tomorrow +I’ll to the wars, she to her single sorrow. + +PAROLLES. +Why, these balls bound; there’s noise in it. ’Tis hard: +A young man married is a man that’s marr’d. +Therefore away, and leave her bravely; go. +The king has done you wrong; but hush ’tis so. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Paris. The King’s palace. + + Enter Helena and Clown. + +HELENA. +My mother greets me kindly: is she well? + +CLOWN. +She is not well, but yet she has her health; she’s very merry, but yet +she is not well. But thanks be given, she’s very well, and wants +nothing i’ the world; but yet she is not well. + +HELENA. +If she be very well, what does she ail that she’s not very well? + +CLOWN. +Truly, she’s very well indeed, but for two things. + +HELENA. +What two things? + +CLOWN. +One, that she’s not in heaven, whither God send her quickly! The other, +that she’s in earth, from whence God send her quickly! + + Enter Parolles. + +PAROLLES. +Bless you, my fortunate lady! + +HELENA. +I hope, sir, I have your good will to have mine own good fortune. + +PAROLLES. +You had my prayers to lead them on; and to keep them on, have them +still. O, my knave how does my old lady? + +CLOWN. +So that you had her wrinkles and I her money, I would she did as you +say. + +PAROLLES. +Why, I say nothing. + +CLOWN. +Marry, you are the wiser man; for many a man’s tongue shakes out his +master’s undoing. To say nothing, to do nothing, to know nothing, and +to have nothing, is to be a great part of your title; which is within a +very little of nothing. + +PAROLLES. +Away! Thou art a knave. + +CLOWN. +You should have said, sir, before a knave thou art a knave; that is +before me thou art a knave. This had been truth, sir. + +PAROLLES. +Go to, thou art a witty fool; I have found thee. + +CLOWN. +Did you find me in yourself, sir? or were you taught to find me? The +search, sir, was profitable; and much fool may you find in you, even to +the world’s pleasure and the increase of laughter. + +PAROLLES. +A good knave, i’ faith, and well fed. +Madam, my lord will go away tonight; +A very serious business calls on him. +The great prerogative and right of love, +Which, as your due, time claims, he does acknowledge; +But puts it off to a compell’d restraint; +Whose want, and whose delay, is strew’d with sweets; +Which they distil now in the curbed time, +To make the coming hour o’erflow with joy +And pleasure drown the brim. + +HELENA. +What’s his will else? + +PAROLLES. +That you will take your instant leave o’ the king, +And make this haste as your own good proceeding, +Strengthen’d with what apology you think +May make it probable need. + +HELENA. +What more commands he? + +PAROLLES. +That, having this obtain’d, you presently +Attend his further pleasure. + +HELENA. +In everything I wait upon his will. + +PAROLLES. +I shall report it so. + +HELENA. +I pray you. Come, sirrah. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Another room in the same. + + Enter Lafew and Bertram. + +LAFEW. +But I hope your lordship thinks not him a soldier. + +BERTRAM. +Yes, my lord, and of very valiant approof. + +LAFEW. +You have it from his own deliverance. + +BERTRAM. +And by other warranted testimony. + +LAFEW. +Then my dial goes not true; I took this lark for a bunting. + +BERTRAM. +I do assure you, my lord, he is very great in knowledge, and +accordingly valiant. + +LAFEW. +I have, then, sinned against his experience and transgressed against +his valour; and my state that way is dangerous, since I cannot yet find +in my heart to repent. Here he comes; I pray you make us friends; I +will pursue the amity + + Enter Parolles. + +PAROLLES. +[_To Bertram._] These things shall be done, sir. + +LAFEW. +Pray you, sir, who’s his tailor? + +PAROLLES. +Sir! + +LAFEW. +O, I know him well, I, sir; he, sir, is a good workman, a very good +tailor. + +BERTRAM. +[_Aside to Parolles._] Is she gone to the king? + +PAROLLES. +She is. + +BERTRAM. +Will she away tonight? + +PAROLLES. +As you’ll have her. + +BERTRAM. +I have writ my letters, casketed my treasure, +Given order for our horses; and tonight, +When I should take possession of the bride, +End ere I do begin. + +LAFEW. +A good traveller is something at the latter end of a dinner; but one +that lies three-thirds and uses a known truth to pass a thousand +nothings with, should be once heard and thrice beaten.— God save you, +Captain. + +BERTRAM. +Is there any unkindness between my lord and you, monsieur? + +PAROLLES. +I know not how I have deserved to run into my lord’s displeasure. + +LAFEW. +You have made shift to run into ’t, boots and spurs and all, like him +that leapt into the custard; and out of it you’ll run again, rather +than suffer question for your residence. + +BERTRAM. +It may be you have mistaken him, my lord. + +LAFEW. +And shall do so ever, though I took him at his prayers. Fare you well, +my lord; and believe this of me, there can be no kernal in this light +nut; the soul of this man is his clothes; trust him not in matter of +heavy consequence; I have kept of them tame, and know their natures. +Farewell, monsieur; I have spoken better of you than you have or will +to deserve at my hand; but we must do good against evil. + + [_Exit._] + +PAROLLES. +An idle lord, I swear. + +BERTRAM. +I think so. + +PAROLLES. +Why, do you not know him? + +BERTRAM. +Yes, I do know him well; and common speech +Gives him a worthy pass. Here comes my clog. + + Enter Helena. + +HELENA. +I have, sir, as I was commanded from you, +Spoke with the king, and have procur’d his leave +For present parting; only he desires +Some private speech with you. + +BERTRAM. +I shall obey his will. +You must not marvel, Helen, at my course, +Which holds not colour with the time, nor does +The ministration and required office +On my particular. Prepared I was not +For such a business; therefore am I found +So much unsettled: this drives me to entreat you; +That presently you take your way for home, +And rather muse than ask why I entreat you: +For my respects are better than they seem; +And my appointments have in them a need +Greater than shows itself at the first view +To you that know them not. This to my mother. + + [_Giving a letter._] + +’Twill be two days ere I shall see you; so +I leave you to your wisdom. + +HELENA. +Sir, I can nothing say +But that I am your most obedient servant. + +BERTRAM. +Come, come, no more of that. + +HELENA. +And ever shall +With true observance seek to eke out that +Wherein toward me my homely stars have fail’d +To equal my great fortune. + +BERTRAM. +Let that go. +My haste is very great. Farewell; hie home. + +HELENA. +Pray, sir, your pardon. + +BERTRAM. +Well, what would you say? + +HELENA. +I am not worthy of the wealth I owe; +Nor dare I say ’tis mine, and yet it is; +But, like a timorous thief, most fain would steal +What law does vouch mine own. + +BERTRAM. +What would you have? + +HELENA. +Something; and scarce so much; nothing indeed. +I would not tell you what I would, my lord. Faith, yes, +Strangers and foes do sunder and not kiss. + +BERTRAM. +I pray you, stay not, but in haste to horse. + +HELENA. +I shall not break your bidding, good my lord. +Where are my other men, monsieur? +Farewell, + + [_Exit Helena._] + +BERTRAM. +Go thou toward home, where I will never come +Whilst I can shake my sword or hear the drum. +Away, and for our flight. + +PAROLLES. +Bravely, coragio! + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT III. + +SCENE I. Florence. A room in the Duke’s palace. + + Flourish. Enter the Duke of Florence attended; two French Lords, and + Soldiers. + +DUKE. +So that, from point to point, now have you heard +The fundamental reasons of this war, +Whose great decision hath much blood let forth, +And more thirsts after. + +FIRST LORD. +Holy seems the quarrel +Upon your Grace’s part; black and fearful +On the opposer. + +DUKE. +Therefore we marvel much our cousin France +Would, in so just a business, shut his bosom +Against our borrowing prayers. + +SECOND LORD. +Good my lord, +The reasons of our state I cannot yield, +But like a common and an outward man +That the great figure of a council frames +By self-unable motion; therefore dare not +Say what I think of it, since I have found +Myself in my incertain grounds to fail +As often as I guess’d. + +DUKE. +Be it his pleasure. + +FIRST LORD. +But I am sure the younger of our nature, +That surfeit on their ease, will day by day +Come here for physic. + +DUKE. +Welcome shall they be; +And all the honours that can fly from us +Shall on them settle. You know your places well; +When better fall, for your avails they fell. +Tomorrow to the field. + + [_Flourish. Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + Enter Countess and Clown. + +COUNTESS. +It hath happen’d all as I would have had it, save that he comes not +along with her. + +CLOWN. +By my troth, I take my young lord to be a very melancholy man. + +COUNTESS. +By what observance, I pray you? + +CLOWN. +Why, he will look upon his boot and sing; mend the ruff and sing; ask +questions and sing; pick his teeth and sing. I know a man that had this +trick of melancholy sold a goodly manor for a song. + +COUNTESS. +Let me see what he writes, and when he means to come. + + [_Opening a letter._] + +CLOWN. +I have no mind to Isbel since I was at court. Our old lings and our +Isbels o’ th’ country are nothing like your old ling and your Isbels o’ +th’ court. The brains of my Cupid’s knock’d out, and I begin to love, +as an old man loves money, with no stomach. + +COUNTESS. +What have we here? + +CLOWN. +E’en that you have there. + + [_Exit._] + +COUNTESS. +[_Reads._] _I have sent you a daughter-in-law; she hath recovered the +king and undone me. I have wedded her, not bedded her, and sworn to +make the “not” eternal. You shall hear I am run away; know it before +the report come. If there be breadth enough in the world, I will hold a +long distance. My duty to you. + Your unfortunate son,_ + BERTRAM. + +This is not well, rash and unbridled boy, +To fly the favours of so good a king, +To pluck his indignation on thy head +By the misprizing of a maid too virtuous +For the contempt of empire. + + Enter Clown. + +CLOWN. +O madam, yonder is heavy news within between two soldiers and my young +lady. + +COUNTESS. +What is the matter? + +CLOWN. +Nay, there is some comfort in the news, some comfort; your son will not +be kill’d so soon as I thought he would. + +COUNTESS. +Why should he be kill’d? + +CLOWN. +So say I, madam, if he run away, as I hear he does; the danger is in +standing to’t; that’s the loss of men, though it be the getting of +children. Here they come will tell you more. For my part, I only hear +your son was run away. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Helena and the two Gentlemen. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Save you, good madam. + +HELENA. +Madam, my lord is gone, for ever gone. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Do not say so. + +COUNTESS. +Think upon patience. Pray you, gentlemen,— +I have felt so many quirks of joy and grief +That the first face of neither on the start +Can woman me unto ’t. Where is my son, I pray you? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Madam, he’s gone to serve the Duke of Florence; +We met him thitherward, for thence we came, +And, after some despatch in hand at court, +Thither we bend again. + +HELENA. +Look on this letter, madam; here’s my passport. + +[_Reads._] _When thou canst get the ring upon my finger, which never +shall come off, and show me a child begotten of thy body that I am +father to, then call me husband; but in such a “then” I write a +“never”._ +This is a dreadful sentence. + +COUNTESS. +Brought you this letter, gentlemen? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Ay, madam; And for the contents’ sake, are sorry for our pains. + +COUNTESS. +I pr’ythee, lady, have a better cheer; +If thou engrossest all the griefs are thine, +Thou robb’st me of a moiety. He was my son, +But I do wash his name out of my blood, +And thou art all my child. Towards Florence is he? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Ay, madam. + +COUNTESS. +And to be a soldier? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Such is his noble purpose, and, believe’t, +The duke will lay upon him all the honour +That good convenience claims. + +COUNTESS. +Return you thither? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Ay, madam, with the swiftest wing of speed. + +HELENA. +[_Reads._] _Till I have no wife, I have nothing in France._ +’Tis bitter. + +COUNTESS. +Find you that there? + +HELENA. +Ay, madam. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +’Tis but the boldness of his hand haply, which his heart was not +consenting to. + +COUNTESS. +Nothing in France until he have no wife! +There’s nothing here that is too good for him +But only she, and she deserves a lord +That twenty such rude boys might tend upon, +And call her hourly mistress. Who was with him? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +A servant only, and a gentleman which I have sometime known. + +COUNTESS. +Parolles, was it not? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Ay, my good lady, he. + +COUNTESS. +A very tainted fellow, and full of wickedness. +My son corrupts a well-derived nature +With his inducement. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Indeed, good lady, +The fellow has a deal of that too much, +Which holds him much to have. + +COUNTESS. +Y’are welcome, gentlemen. +I will entreat you, when you see my son, +To tell him that his sword can never win +The honour that he loses: more I’ll entreat you +Written to bear along. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +We serve you, madam, +In that and all your worthiest affairs. + +COUNTESS. +Not so, but as we change our courtesies. +Will you draw near? + + [_Exeunt Countess and Gentlemen._] + +HELENA. +“Till I have no wife, I have nothing in France.” +Nothing in France until he has no wife! +Thou shalt have none, Rossillon, none in France; +Then hast thou all again. Poor lord, is’t I +That chase thee from thy country, and expose +Those tender limbs of thine to the event +Of the none-sparing war? And is it I +That drive thee from the sportive court, where thou +Wast shot at with fair eyes, to be the mark +Of smoky muskets? O you leaden messengers, +That ride upon the violent speed of fire, +Fly with false aim; move the still-peering air, +That sings with piercing; do not touch my lord. +Whoever shoots at him, I set him there; +Whoever charges on his forward breast, +I am the caitiff that do hold him to’t; +And though I kill him not, I am the cause +His death was so effected. Better ’twere +I met the ravin lion when he roar’d +With sharp constraint of hunger; better ’twere +That all the miseries which nature owes +Were mine at once. No; come thou home, Rossillon, +Whence honour but of danger wins a scar, +As oft it loses all. I will be gone; +My being here it is that holds thee hence. +Shall I stay here to do’t? No, no, although +The air of paradise did fan the house, +And angels offic’d all. I will be gone, +That pitiful rumour may report my flight +To consolate thine ear. Come, night; end, day; +For with the dark, poor thief, I’ll steal away. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. Florence. Before the Duke’s palace. + + Flourish. Enter the Duke of Florence, Bertram, drum and trumpets, + Soldiers, Parolles. + +DUKE. +The general of our horse thou art, and we, +Great in our hope, lay our best love and credence +Upon thy promising fortune. + +BERTRAM. +Sir, it is +A charge too heavy for my strength; but yet +We’ll strive to bear it for your worthy sake +To th’extreme edge of hazard. + +DUKE. +Then go thou forth; +And fortune play upon thy prosperous helm, +As thy auspicious mistress! + +BERTRAM. +This very day, +Great Mars, I put myself into thy file; +Make me but like my thoughts, and I shall prove +A lover of thy drum, hater of love. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + Enter Countess and Steward. + +COUNTESS. +Alas! and would you take the letter of her? +Might you not know she would do as she has done, +By sending me a letter? Read it again. + +STEWARD. +[_Reads._] _I am Saint Jaques’ pilgrim, thither gone. +Ambitious love hath so in me offended +That barefoot plod I the cold ground upon, +With sainted vow my faults to have amended. +Write, write, that from the bloody course of war +My dearest master, your dear son, may hie. +Bless him at home in peace, whilst I from far +His name with zealous fervour sanctify. +His taken labours bid him me forgive; +I, his despiteful Juno, sent him forth +From courtly friends, with camping foes to live, +Where death and danger dog the heels of worth. +He is too good and fair for death and me; +Whom I myself embrace to set him free._ + +COUNTESS. +Ah, what sharp stings are in her mildest words! +Rynaldo, you did never lack advice so much +As letting her pass so; had I spoke with her, +I could have well diverted her intents, +Which thus she hath prevented. + +STEWARD. +Pardon me, madam; +If I had given you this at over-night, +She might have been o’erta’en; and yet she writes +Pursuit would be but vain. + +COUNTESS. +What angel shall +Bless this unworthy husband? He cannot thrive, +Unless her prayers, whom heaven delights to hear +And loves to grant, reprieve him from the wrath +Of greatest justice. Write, write, Rynaldo, +To this unworthy husband of his wife; +Let every word weigh heavy of her worth, +That he does weigh too light; my greatest grief, +Though little he do feel it, set down sharply. +Dispatch the most convenient messenger. +When haply he shall hear that she is gone +He will return; and hope I may that she, +Hearing so much, will speed her foot again, +Led hither by pure love. Which of them both +Is dearest to me I have no skill in sense +To make distinction. Provide this messenger. +My heart is heavy, and mine age is weak; +Grief would have tears, and sorrow bids me speak. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Without the walls of Florence. + + Enter an old Widow of Florence, Diana, Violenta, Mariana and other + Citizens. + +WIDOW. +Nay, come; for if they do approach the city, we shall lose all the +sight. + +DIANA. +They say the French count has done most honourable service. + +WIDOW. +It is reported that he has taken their great’st commander, and that +with his own hand he slew the duke’s brother. + + [_A tucket afar off._] + +We have lost our labour; they are gone a contrary way. Hark! you may +know by their trumpets. + +MARIANA. +Come, let’s return again, and suffice ourselves with the report of it. +Well, Diana, take heed of this French earl; the honour of a maid is her +name; and no legacy is so rich as honesty. + +WIDOW. +I have told my neighbour how you have been solicited by a gentleman his +companion. + +MARIANA. +I know that knave; hang him! one Parolles; a filthy officer he is in +those suggestions for the young earl. Beware of them, Diana; their +promises, enticements, oaths, tokens, and all these engines of lust, +are not the things they go under; many a maid hath been seduced by +them; and the misery is, example, that so terrible shows in the wreck +of maidenhood, cannot for all that dissuade succession, but that they +are limed with the twigs that threaten them. I hope I need not to +advise you further; but I hope your own grace will keep you where you +are, though there were no further danger known but the modesty which is +so lost. + +DIANA. +You shall not need to fear me. + + Enter Helena in the dress of a pilgrim. + +WIDOW. +I hope so. Look, here comes a pilgrim. I know she will lie at my house; +thither they send one another; I’ll question her. God save you, +pilgrim! Whither are bound? + +HELENA. +To Saint Jaques le Grand. +Where do the palmers lodge, I do beseech you? + +WIDOW. +At the Saint Francis here, beside the port. + +HELENA. +Is this the way? + + [_A march afar._] + +WIDOW. +Ay, marry, is’t. Hark you, they come this way. +If you will tarry, holy pilgrim, +But till the troops come by, +I will conduct you where you shall be lodg’d; +The rather for I think I know your hostess +As ample as myself. + +HELENA. +Is it yourself? + +WIDOW. +If you shall please so, pilgrim. + +HELENA. +I thank you, and will stay upon your leisure. + +WIDOW. +You came, I think, from France? + +HELENA. +I did so. + +WIDOW. +Here you shall see a countryman of yours +That has done worthy service. + +HELENA. +His name, I pray you. + +DIANA. +The Count Rossillon. Know you such a one? + +HELENA. +But by the ear, that hears most nobly of him; +His face I know not. + +DIANA. +Whatsome’er he is, +He’s bravely taken here. He stole from France, +As ’tis reported, for the king had married him +Against his liking. Think you it is so? + +HELENA. +Ay, surely, mere the truth; I know his lady. + +DIANA. +There is a gentleman that serves the count +Reports but coarsely of her. + +HELENA. +What’s his name? + +DIANA. +Monsieur Parolles. + +HELENA. +O, I believe with him, +In argument of praise, or to the worth +Of the great count himself, she is too mean +To have her name repeated; all her deserving +Is a reserved honesty, and that +I have not heard examin’d. + +DIANA. +Alas, poor lady! +’Tis a hard bondage to become the wife +Of a detesting lord. + +WIDOW. +Ay, right; good creature, wheresoe’er she is, +Her heart weighs sadly. This young maid might do her +A shrewd turn, if she pleas’d. + +HELENA. +How do you mean? +Maybe the amorous count solicits her +In the unlawful purpose. + +WIDOW. +He does indeed, +And brokes with all that can in such a suit +Corrupt the tender honour of a maid; +But she is arm’d for him, and keeps her guard +In honestest defence. + + Enter, with a drum and colours, a party of the Florentine army, + Bertram and Parolles. + +MARIANA. +The gods forbid else! + +WIDOW. +So, now they come. +That is Antonio, the Duke’s eldest son; +That Escalus. + +HELENA. +Which is the Frenchman? + +DIANA. +He; +That with the plume; ’tis a most gallant fellow. +I would he lov’d his wife; if he were honester +He were much goodlier. Is’t not a handsome gentleman? + +HELENA. +I like him well. + +DIANA. +’Tis pity he is not honest. Yond’s that same knave +That leads him to these places. Were I his lady +I would poison that vile rascal. + +HELENA. +Which is he? + +DIANA. +That jack-an-apes with scarfs. Why is he melancholy? + +HELENA. +Perchance he’s hurt i’ the battle. + +PAROLLES. +Lose our drum! Well. + +MARIANA. +He’s shrewdly vex’d at something. Look, he has spied us. + +WIDOW. +Marry, hang you! + +MARIANA. +And your courtesy, for a ring-carrier! + + [_Exeunt Bertram, Parolles, Officers and Soldiers._] + +WIDOW. +The troop is past. Come, pilgrim, I will bring you +Where you shall host; of enjoin’d penitents +There’s four or five, to great Saint Jaques bound, +Already at my house. + +HELENA. +I humbly thank you. +Please it this matron and this gentle maid +To eat with us tonight; the charge and thanking +Shall be for me; and, to requite you further, +I will bestow some precepts of this virgin, +Worthy the note. + +BOTH. +We’ll take your offer kindly. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Camp before Florence. + + Enter Bertram and the two French Lords. + +FIRST LORD. +Nay, good my lord, put him to’t; let him have his way. + +SECOND LORD. +If your lordship find him not a hilding, hold me no more in your +respect. + +FIRST LORD. +On my life, my lord, a bubble. + +BERTRAM. +Do you think I am so far deceived in him? + +FIRST LORD. +Believe it, my lord, in mine own direct knowledge, without any malice, +but to speak of him as my kinsman, he’s a most notable coward, an +infinite and endless liar, an hourly promise-breaker, the owner of no +one good quality worthy your lordship’s entertainment. + +SECOND LORD. +It were fit you knew him; lest, reposing too far in his virtue, which +he hath not, he might at some great and trusty business, in a main +danger fail you. + +BERTRAM. +I would I knew in what particular action to try him. + +SECOND LORD. +None better than to let him fetch off his drum, which you hear him so +confidently undertake to do. + +FIRST LORD. +I with a troop of Florentines will suddenly surprise him; such I will +have whom I am sure he knows not from the enemy; we will bind and +hoodwink him so that he shall suppose no other but that he is carried +into the leaguer of the adversaries when we bring him to our own tents. +Be but your lordship present at his examination; if he do not for the +promise of his life, and in the highest compulsion of base fear, offer +to betray you, and deliver all the intelligence in his power against +you, and that with the divine forfeit of his soul upon oath, never +trust my judgment in anything. + +SECOND LORD. +O, for the love of laughter, let him fetch his drum; he says he has a +stratagem for’t. When your lordship sees the bottom of his success +in’t, and to what metal this counterfeit lump of ore will be melted, if +you give him not John Drum’s entertainment, your inclining cannot be +removed. Here he comes. + + Enter Parolles. + +FIRST LORD. +O, for the love of laughter, hinder not the honour of his design: let +him fetch off his drum in any hand. + +BERTRAM. +How now, monsieur! This drum sticks sorely in your disposition. + +SECOND LORD. +A pox on ’t; let it go; ’tis but a drum. + +PAROLLES. +But a drum! Is’t but a drum? A drum so lost! There was excellent +command, to charge in with our horse upon our own wings, and to rend +our own soldiers. + +SECOND LORD. +That was not to be blam’d in the command of the service; it was a +disaster of war that Caesar himself could not have prevented, if he had +been there to command. + +BERTRAM. +Well, we cannot greatly condemn our success: some dishonour we had in +the loss of that drum, but it is not to be recovered. + +PAROLLES. +It might have been recovered. + +BERTRAM. +It might, but it is not now. + +PAROLLES. +It is to be recovered. But that the merit of service is seldom +attributed to the true and exact performer, I would have that drum or +another, or _hic jacet_. + +BERTRAM. +Why, if you have a stomach, to’t, monsieur, if you think your mystery +in stratagem can bring this instrument of honour again into his native +quarter, be magnanimous in the enterprise, and go on; I will grace the +attempt for a worthy exploit; if you speed well in it, the duke shall +both speak of it and extend to you what further becomes his greatness, +even to the utmost syllable of your worthiness. + +PAROLLES. +By the hand of a soldier, I will undertake it. + +BERTRAM. +But you must not now slumber in it. + +PAROLLES. +I’ll about it this evening; and I will presently pen down my dilemmas, +encourage myself in my certainty, put myself into my mortal +preparation; and by midnight look to hear further from me. + +BERTRAM. +May I be bold to acquaint his grace you are gone about it? + +PAROLLES. +I know not what the success will be, my lord, but the attempt I vow. + +BERTRAM. +I know th’art valiant; and to the possibility of thy soldiership, will +subscribe for thee. Farewell. + +PAROLLES. +I love not many words. + + [_Exit._] + +FIRST LORD. +No more than a fish loves water. Is not this a strange fellow, my lord, +that so confidently seems to undertake this business, which he knows is +not to be done; damns himself to do, and dares better be damn’d than to +do’t. + +SECOND LORD. +You do not know him, my lord, as we do; certain it is that he will +steal himself into a man’s favour, and for a week escape a great deal +of discoveries, but when you find him out, you have him ever after. + +BERTRAM. +Why, do you think he will make no deed at all of this, that so +seriously he does address himself unto? + +FIRST LORD. +None in the world; but return with an invention, and clap upon you two +or three probable lies; but we have almost embossed him; you shall see +his fall tonight; for indeed he is not for your lordship’s respect. + +SECOND LORD. +We’ll make you some sport with the fox ere we case him. He was first +smok’d by the old Lord Lafew; when his disguise and he is parted, tell +me what a sprat you shall find him; which you shall see this very +night. + +FIRST LORD. +I must go look my twigs. He shall be caught. + +BERTRAM. +Your brother, he shall go along with me. + +FIRST LORD. +As’t please your lordship. I’ll leave you. + + [_Exit._] + +BERTRAM. +Now will I lead you to the house, and show you +The lass I spoke of. + +SECOND LORD. +But you say she’s honest. + +BERTRAM. +That’s all the fault. I spoke with her but once, +And found her wondrous cold, but I sent to her +By this same coxcomb that we have i’ the wind +Tokens and letters which she did re-send, +And this is all I have done. She’s a fair creature; +Will you go see her? + +SECOND LORD. +With all my heart, my lord. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. Florence. A room in the Widow’s house. + + Enter Helena and Widow. + +HELENA. +If you misdoubt me that I am not she, +I know not how I shall assure you further, +But I shall lose the grounds I work upon. + +WIDOW. +Though my estate be fall’n, I was well born, +Nothing acquainted with these businesses, +And would not put my reputation now +In any staining act. + +HELENA. +Nor would I wish you. +First give me trust, the count he is my husband, +And what to your sworn counsel I have spoken +Is so from word to word; and then you cannot, +By the good aid that I of you shall borrow, +Err in bestowing it. + +WIDOW. +I should believe you, +For you have show’d me that which well approves +Y’are great in fortune. + +HELENA. +Take this purse of gold, +And let me buy your friendly help thus far, +Which I will over-pay, and pay again +When I have found it. The count he woos your daughter +Lays down his wanton siege before her beauty, +Resolv’d to carry her; let her in fine consent, +As we’ll direct her how ’tis best to bear it. +Now his important blood will naught deny +That she’ll demand; a ring the county wears, +That downward hath succeeded in his house +From son to son, some four or five descents +Since the first father wore it. This ring he holds +In most rich choice; yet, in his idle fire, +To buy his will, it would not seem too dear, +Howe’er repented after. + +WIDOW. +Now I see +The bottom of your purpose. + +HELENA. +You see it lawful then; it is no more +But that your daughter, ere she seems as won, +Desires this ring; appoints him an encounter; +In fine, delivers me to fill the time, +Herself most chastely absent. After, +To marry her, I’ll add three thousand crowns +To what is pass’d already. + +WIDOW. +I have yielded. +Instruct my daughter how she shall persever, +That time and place with this deceit so lawful +May prove coherent. Every night he comes +With musics of all sorts, and songs compos’d +To her unworthiness: it nothing steads us +To chide him from our eaves; for he persists +As if his life lay on ’t. + +HELENA. +Why then tonight +Let us assay our plot; which, if it speed, +Is wicked meaning in a lawful deed, +And lawful meaning in a lawful act, +Where both not sin, and yet a sinful fact. +But let’s about it. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT IV. + +SCENE I. Without the Florentine camp. + + Enter first Lord with five or six Soldiers in ambush. + +FIRST LORD. +He can come no other way but by this hedge-corner. When you sally upon +him, speak what terrible language you will; though you understand it +not yourselves, no matter; for we must not seem to understand him, +unless someone among us, whom we must produce for an interpreter. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Good captain, let me be th’ interpreter. + +FIRST LORD. +Art not acquainted with him? Knows he not thy voice? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +No sir, I warrant you. + +FIRST LORD. +But what linsey-woolsey has thou to speak to us again? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +E’en such as you speak to me. + +FIRST LORD. +He must think us some band of strangers i’ the adversary’s +entertainment. Now he hath a smack of all neighbouring languages, +therefore we must every one be a man of his own fancy; not to know what +we speak one to another, so we seem to know, is to know straight our +purpose: choughs’ language, gabble enough, and good enough. As for you, +interpreter, you must seem very politic. But couch, ho! Here he comes; +to beguile two hours in a sleep, and then to return and swear the lies +he forges. + + Enter Parolles. + +PAROLLES. +Ten o’clock. Within these three hours ’twill be time enough to go home. +What shall I say I have done? It must be a very plausive invention that +carries it. They begin to smoke me, and disgraces have of late knock’d +too often at my door. I find my tongue is too foolhardy, but my heart +hath the fear of Mars before it, and of his creatures, not daring the +reports of my tongue. + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] This is the first truth that e’er thine own tongue was +guilty of. + +PAROLLES. +What the devil should move me to undertake the recovery of this drum, +being not ignorant of the impossibility, and knowing I had no such +purpose? I must give myself some hurts, and say I got them in exploit; +yet slight ones will not carry it. They will say “Came you off with so +little?” and great ones I dare not give. Wherefore, what’s the +instance? Tongue, I must put you into a butter-woman’s mouth, and buy +myself another of Bajazet’s mule, if you prattle me into these perils. + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] Is it possible he should know what he is, and be that he is? + +PAROLLES. +I would the cutting of my garments would serve the turn, or the +breaking of my Spanish sword. + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] We cannot afford you so. + +PAROLLES. +Or the baring of my beard, and to say it was in stratagem. + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] ’Twould not do. + +PAROLLES. +Or to drown my clothes, and say I was stripped. + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] Hardly serve. + +PAROLLES. +Though I swore I leap’d from the window of the citadel,— + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] How deep? + +PAROLLES. +Thirty fathom. + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] Three great oaths would scarce make that be believed. + +PAROLLES. +I would I had any drum of the enemy’s; I would swear I recover’d it. + +FIRST LORD. +[_Aside._] You shall hear one anon. + +PAROLLES. +A drum now of the enemy’s! + + [_Alarum within._] + +FIRST LORD. +_Throca movousus, cargo, cargo, cargo._ + +ALL. +_Cargo, cargo, cargo, villianda par corbo, cargo._ + + [_They seize and blindfold him._] + +PAROLLES. +O, ransom, ransom! Do not hide mine eyes. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +_Boskos thromuldo boskos._ + +PAROLLES. +I know you are the Muskos’ regiment, +And I shall lose my life for want of language. +If there be here German, or Dane, Low Dutch, +Italian, or French, let him speak to me, +I’ll discover that which shall undo the Florentine. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +_Boskos vauvado._ I understand thee, and can speak thy tongue. +_Kerelybonto._ Sir, Betake thee to thy faith, for seventeen poniards +are at thy bosom. + +PAROLLES. +O! + +FIRST SOLDIER. +O, pray, pray, pray! +_Manka revania dulche._ + +FIRST LORD. +_Oscorbidulchos volivorco._ + +FIRST SOLDIER. +The General is content to spare thee yet; +And, hoodwink’d as thou art, will lead thee on +To gather from thee. Haply thou mayst inform +Something to save thy life. + +PAROLLES. +O, let me live, +And all the secrets of our camp I’ll show, +Their force, their purposes; nay, I’ll speak that +Which you will wonder at. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +But wilt thou faithfully? + +PAROLLES. +If I do not, damn me. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +_Acordo linta._ +Come on; thou art granted space. + + [_Exit, with Parolles guarded._] + + A short alarum within. + +FIRST LORD. +Go tell the Count Rossillon and my brother +We have caught the woodcock, and will keep him muffled +Till we do hear from them. + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Captain, I will. + +FIRST LORD. +’A will betray us all unto ourselves; +Inform on that. + +SECOND SOLDIER. +So I will, sir. + +FIRST LORD. +Till then I’ll keep him dark, and safely lock’d. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Florence. A room in the Widow’s house. + + Enter Bertram and Diana. + +BERTRAM. +They told me that your name was Fontybell. + +DIANA. +No, my good lord, Diana. + +BERTRAM. +Titled goddess; +And worth it, with addition! But, fair soul, +In your fine frame hath love no quality? +If the quick fire of youth light not your mind, +You are no maiden but a monument; +When you are dead, you should be such a one +As you are now; for you are cold and stern, +And now you should be as your mother was +When your sweet self was got. + +DIANA. +She then was honest. + +BERTRAM. +So should you be. + +DIANA. +No. +My mother did but duty; such, my lord, +As you owe to your wife. + +BERTRAM. +No more a’ that! +I pr’ythee do not strive against my vows; +I was compell’d to her; but I love thee +By love’s own sweet constraint, and will for ever +Do thee all rights of service. + +DIANA. +Ay, so you serve us +Till we serve you; but when you have our roses, +You barely leave our thorns to prick ourselves, +And mock us with our bareness. + +BERTRAM. +How have I sworn? + +DIANA. +’Tis not the many oaths that makes the truth, +But the plain single vow that is vow’d true. +What is not holy, that we swear not by, +But take the highest to witness: then, pray you, tell me, +If I should swear by Jove’s great attributes +I lov’d you dearly, would you believe my oaths +When I did love you ill? This has no holding, +To swear by him whom I protest to love +That I will work against him. Therefore your oaths +Are words and poor conditions; but unseal’d,— +At least in my opinion. + +BERTRAM. +Change it, change it. +Be not so holy-cruel. Love is holy; +And my integrity ne’er knew the crafts +That you do charge men with. Stand no more off, +But give thyself unto my sick desires, +Who then recovers. Say thou art mine, and ever +My love as it begins shall so persever. + +DIANA. +I see that men make hopes in such a case, +That we’ll forsake ourselves. Give me that ring. + +BERTRAM. +I’ll lend it thee, my dear, but have no power +To give it from me. + +DIANA. +Will you not, my lord? + +BERTRAM. +It is an honour ’longing to our house, +Bequeathed down from many ancestors, +Which were the greatest obloquy i’ the world +In me to lose. + +DIANA. +Mine honour’s such a ring; +My chastity’s the jewel of our house, +Bequeathed down from many ancestors, +Which were the greatest obloquy i’ the world +In me to lose. Thus your own proper wisdom +Brings in the champion honour on my part +Against your vain assault. + +BERTRAM. +Here, take my ring; +My house, mine honour, yea, my life be thine, +And I’ll be bid by thee. + +DIANA. +When midnight comes, knock at my chamber window; +I’ll order take my mother shall not hear. +Now will I charge you in the band of truth, +When you have conquer’d my yet maiden-bed, +Remain there but an hour, nor speak to me. +My reasons are most strong; and you shall know them +When back again this ring shall be deliver’d; +And on your finger in the night, I’ll put +Another ring, that what in time proceeds +May token to the future our past deeds. +Adieu till then; then fail not. You have won +A wife of me, though there my hope be done. + +BERTRAM. +A heaven on earth I have won by wooing thee. + + [_Exit._] + +DIANA. +For which live long to thank both heaven and me! +You may so in the end. +My mother told me just how he would woo, +As if she sat in’s heart. She says all men +Have the like oaths. He had sworn to marry me +When his wife’s dead; therefore I’ll lie with him +When I am buried. Since Frenchmen are so braid, +Marry that will, I live and die a maid. +Only, in this disguise, I think’t no sin +To cozen him that would unjustly win. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. The Florentine camp. + + Enter the two French Lords and two or three Soldiers. + +FIRST LORD. +You have not given him his mother’s letter? + +SECOND LORD. +I have deliv’red it an hour since; there is something in’t that stings +his nature; for on the reading it, he chang’d almost into another man. + +FIRST LORD. +He has much worthy blame laid upon him for shaking off so good a wife +and so sweet a lady. + +SECOND LORD. +Especially he hath incurred the everlasting displeasure of the king, +who had even tun’d his bounty to sing happiness to him. I will tell you +a thing, but you shall let it dwell darkly with you. + +FIRST LORD. +When you have spoken it, ’tis dead, and I am the grave of it. + +SECOND LORD. +He hath perverted a young gentlewoman here in Florence, of a most +chaste renown, and this night he fleshes his will in the spoil of her +honour; he hath given her his monumental ring, and thinks himself made +in the unchaste composition. + +FIRST LORD. +Now, God delay our rebellion! As we are ourselves, what things are we! + +SECOND LORD. +Merely our own traitors. And as in the common course of all treasons, +we still see them reveal themselves till they attain to their abhorr’d +ends; so he that in this action contrives against his own nobility, in +his proper stream, o’erflows himself. + +FIRST LORD. +Is it not meant damnable in us to be trumpeters of our unlawful +intents? We shall not then have his company tonight? + +SECOND LORD. +Not till after midnight; for he is dieted to his hour. + +FIRST LORD. +That approaches apace. I would gladly have him see his company +anatomized, that he might take a measure of his own judgments, wherein +so curiously he had set this counterfeit. + +SECOND LORD. +We will not meddle with him till he come; for his presence must be the +whip of the other. + +FIRST LORD. +In the meantime, what hear you of these wars? + +SECOND LORD. +I hear there is an overture of peace. + +FIRST LORD. +Nay, I assure you, a peace concluded. + +SECOND LORD. +What will Count Rossillon do then? Will he travel higher, or return +again into France? + +FIRST LORD. +I perceive by this demand, you are not altogether of his council. + +SECOND LORD. +Let it be forbid, sir! So should I be a great deal of his act. + +FIRST LORD. +Sir, his wife some two months since fled from his house. Her pretence +is a pilgrimage to Saint Jaques le Grand; which holy undertaking with +most austere sanctimony she accomplished; and there residing, the +tenderness of her nature became as a prey to her grief; in fine, made a +groan of her last breath, and now she sings in heaven. + +SECOND LORD. +How is this justified? + +FIRST LORD. +The stronger part of it by her own letters, which makes her story true, +even to the point of her death. Her death itself, which could not be +her office to say is come, was faithfully confirm’d by the rector of +the place. + +SECOND LORD. +Hath the count all this intelligence? + +FIRST LORD. +Ay, and the particular confirmations, point from point, to the full +arming of the verity. + +SECOND LORD. +I am heartily sorry that he’ll be glad of this. + +FIRST LORD. +How mightily sometimes we make us comforts of our losses! + +SECOND LORD. +And how mightily some other times we drown our gain in tears! The great +dignity that his valour hath here acquir’d for him shall at home be +encountered with a shame as ample. + +FIRST LORD. +The web of our life is of a mingled yarn, good and ill together; our +virtues would be proud if our faults whipped them not; and our crimes +would despair if they were not cherish’d by our virtues. + + Enter a Messenger. + +How now? Where’s your master? + +MESSENGER. +He met the duke in the street, sir; of whom he hath taken a solemn +leave: his lordship will next morning for France. The duke hath offered +him letters of commendations to the king. + +SECOND LORD. +They shall be no more than needful there, if they were more than they +can commend. + + Enter Bertram. + +FIRST LORD. +They cannot be too sweet for the king’s tartness. Here’s his lordship +now. How now, my lord, is’t not after midnight? + +BERTRAM. +I have tonight despatch’d sixteen businesses, a month’s length apiece; +by an abstract of success: I have congied with the duke, done my adieu +with his nearest; buried a wife, mourn’d for her, writ to my lady +mother I am returning, entertained my convoy, and between these main +parcels of despatch effected many nicer needs: the last was the +greatest, but that I have not ended yet. + +SECOND LORD. +If the business be of any difficulty and this morning your departure +hence, it requires haste of your lordship. + +BERTRAM. +I mean the business is not ended, as fearing to hear of it hereafter. +But shall we have this dialogue between the Fool and the Soldier? Come, +bring forth this counterfeit module has deceiv’d me like a +double-meaning prophesier. + +SECOND LORD. +Bring him forth. + + [_Exeunt Soldiers._] + +Has sat i’ the stocks all night, poor gallant knave. + +BERTRAM. +No matter; his heels have deserv’d it, in usurping his spurs so long. +How does he carry himself? + +FIRST LORD. +I have told your lordship already; the stocks carry him. But to answer +you as you would be understood: he weeps like a wench that had shed her +milk; he hath confessed himself to Morgan, whom he supposes to be a +friar, from the time of his remembrance to this very instant disaster +of his setting i’ the stocks. And what think you he hath confessed? + +BERTRAM. +Nothing of me, has he? + +SECOND LORD. +His confession is taken, and it shall be read to his face; if your +lordship be in’t, as I believe you are, you must have the patience to +hear it. + + Enter Soldiers with Parolles. + +BERTRAM. +A plague upon him! muffled! he can say nothing of me; hush, hush! + +FIRST LORD. +Hoodman comes! _Portotartarossa._ + +FIRST SOLDIER. +He calls for the tortures. What will you say without ’em? + +PAROLLES. +I will confess what I know without constraint. If ye pinch me like a +pasty I can say no more. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +_Bosko chimurcho._ + +FIRST LORD. +_Boblibindo chicurmurco._ + +FIRST SOLDIER. +You are a merciful general. Our general bids you answer to what I shall +ask you out of a note. + +PAROLLES. +And truly, as I hope to live. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +‘First demand of him how many horse the duke is strong.’ What say you +to that? + +PAROLLES. +Five or six thousand; but very weak and unserviceable: the troops are +all scattered, and the commanders very poor rogues, upon my reputation +and credit, and as I hope to live. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Shall I set down your answer so? + +PAROLLES. +Do. I’ll take the sacrament on ’t, how and which way you will. + +BERTRAM. +All’s one to him. What a past-saving slave is this! + +FIRST LORD. +You are deceived, my lord; this is Monsieur Parolles, the gallant +militarist (that was his own phrase), that had the whole theoric of war +in the knot of his scarf, and the practice in the chape of his dagger. + +SECOND LORD. +I will never trust a man again for keeping his sword clean, nor believe +he can have everything in him by wearing his apparel neatly. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Well, that’s set down. + +PAROLLES. +‘Five or six thousand horse’ I said—I will say true—or thereabouts, set +down,—for I’ll speak truth. + +FIRST LORD. +He’s very near the truth in this. + +BERTRAM. +But I con him no thanks for’t in the nature he delivers it. + +PAROLLES. +Poor rogues, I pray you say. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Well, that’s set down. + +PAROLLES. +I humbly thank you, sir; a truth’s a truth, the rogues are marvellous +poor. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +‘Demand of him of what strength they are a-foot.’ What say you to that? + +PAROLLES. +By my troth, sir, if I were to live this present hour, I will tell +true. Let me see: Spurio, a hundred and fifty, Sebastian, so many; +Corambus, so many; Jaques, so many; Guiltian, Cosmo, Lodowick, and +Gratii, two hundred fifty each; mine own company, Chitopher, Vaumond, +Bentii, two hundred fifty each: so that the muster-file, rotten and +sound, upon my life, amounts not to fifteen thousand poll; half of the +which dare not shake the snow from off their cassocks lest they shake +themselves to pieces. + +BERTRAM. +What shall be done to him? + +FIRST LORD. +Nothing, but let him have thanks. Demand of him my condition, and what +credit I have with the duke. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Well, that’s set down. ‘You shall demand of him whether one Captain +Dumaine be i’ the camp, a Frenchman; what his reputation is with the +duke, what his valour, honesty and expertness in wars; or whether he +thinks it were not possible with well-weighing sums of gold to corrupt +him to a revolt.’ What say you to this? What do you know of it? + +PAROLLES. +I beseech you, let me answer to the particular of the inter’gatories. +Demand them singly. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Do you know this Captain Dumaine? + +PAROLLES. +I know him: he was a botcher’s ’prentice in Paris, from whence he was +whipped for getting the shrieve’s fool with child, a dumb innocent that +could not say him nay. + + [_First Lord lifts up his hand in anger._] + +BERTRAM. +Nay, by your leave, hold your hands; though I know his brains are +forfeit to the next tile that falls. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Well, is this captain in the Duke of Florence’s camp? + +PAROLLES. +Upon my knowledge, he is, and lousy. + +FIRST LORD. +Nay, look not so upon me; we shall hear of your lordship anon. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +What is his reputation with the duke? + +PAROLLES. +The duke knows him for no other but a poor officer of mine, and writ to +me this other day to turn him out o’ the band. I think I have his +letter in my pocket. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Marry, we’ll search. + +PAROLLES. +In good sadness, I do not know; either it is there or it is upon a +file, with the duke’s other letters, in my tent. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Here ’tis; here’s a paper; shall I read it to you? + +PAROLLES. +I do not know if it be it or no. + +BERTRAM. +Our interpreter does it well. + +FIRST LORD. +Excellently. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +[_Reads._] _Dian, the Count’s a fool, and full of gold._ + +PAROLLES. +That is not the duke’s letter, sir; that is an advertisement to a +proper maid in Florence, one Diana, to take heed of the allurement of +one Count Rossillon, a foolish idle boy, but for all that very ruttish. +I pray you, sir, put it up again. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Nay, I’ll read it first by your favour. + +PAROLLES. +My meaning in’t, I protest, was very honest in the behalf of the maid; +for I knew the young count to be a dangerous and lascivious boy, who is +a whale to virginity, and devours up all the fry it finds. + +BERTRAM. +Damnable both sides rogue! + +FIRST SOLDIER. +[_Reads._] +_When he swears oaths, bid him drop gold, and take it; +After he scores, he never pays the score. +Half won is match well made; match, and well make it; +He ne’er pays after-debts, take it before. +And say a soldier, ‘Dian,’ told thee this: +Men are to mell with, boys are not to kiss; +For count of this, the count’s a fool, I know it, +Who pays before, but not when he does owe it. +Thine, as he vow’d to thee in thine ear,_ + PAROLLES. + +BERTRAM. +He shall be whipped through the army with this rhyme in’s forehead. + +SECOND LORD. +This is your devoted friend, sir, the manifold linguist, and the +armipotent soldier. + +BERTRAM. +I could endure anything before but a cat, and now he’s a cat to me. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +I perceive, sir, by our general’s looks we shall be fain to hang you. + +PAROLLES. +My life, sir, in any case. Not that I am afraid to die, but that, my +offences being many, I would repent out the remainder of nature. Let me +live, sir, in a dungeon, i’ the stocks, or anywhere, so I may live. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +We’ll see what may be done, so you confess freely. Therefore, once more +to this Captain Dumaine: you have answer’d to his reputation with the +duke, and to his valour. What is his honesty? + +PAROLLES. +He will steal, sir, an egg out of a cloister: for rapes and ravishments +he parallels Nessus. He professes not keeping of oaths; in breaking +them he is stronger than Hercules. He will lie, sir, with such +volubility that you would think truth were a fool: drunkenness is his +best virtue, for he will be swine-drunk, and in his sleep he does +little harm, save to his bedclothes about him; but they know his +conditions and lay him in straw. I have but little more to say, sir, of +his honesty; he has everything that an honest man should not have; what +an honest man should have, he has nothing. + +FIRST LORD. +I begin to love him for this. + +BERTRAM. +For this description of thine honesty? A pox upon him for me, he’s more +and more a cat. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +What say you to his expertness in war? + +PAROLLES. +Faith, sir, has led the drum before the English tragedians,—to belie +him I will not,—and more of his soldiership I know not, except in that +country he had the honour to be the officer at a place there called +Mile-end, to instruct for the doubling of files. I would do the man +what honour I can, but of this I am not certain. + +FIRST LORD. +He hath out-villain’d villainy so far that the rarity redeems him. + +BERTRAM. +A pox on him! He’s a cat still. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +His qualities being at this poor price, I need not to ask you if gold +will corrupt him to revolt. + +PAROLLES. +Sir, for a quart d’ecu he will sell the fee-simple of his salvation, +the inheritance of it, and cut the entail from all remainders, and a +perpetual succession for it perpetually. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +What’s his brother, the other Captain Dumaine? + +SECOND LORD. +Why does he ask him of me? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +What’s he? + +PAROLLES. +E’en a crow o’ the same nest; not altogether so great as the first in +goodness, but greater a great deal in evil. He excels his brother for a +coward, yet his brother is reputed one of the best that is. In a +retreat he outruns any lackey; marry, in coming on he has the cramp. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +If your life be saved, will you undertake to betray the Florentine? + +PAROLLES. +Ay, and the captain of his horse, Count Rossillon. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +I’ll whisper with the general, and know his pleasure. + +PAROLLES. +[_Aside._] I’ll no more drumming; a plague of all drums! Only to seem +to deserve well, and to beguile the supposition of that lascivious +young boy the count, have I run into this danger: yet who would have +suspected an ambush where I was taken? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +There is no remedy, sir, but you must die. The general says you that +have so traitorously discovered the secrets of your army, and made such +pestiferous reports of men very nobly held, can serve the world for no +honest use; therefore you must die. Come, headsman, off with his head. + +PAROLLES. +O Lord! sir, let me live, or let me see my death. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +That shall you, and take your leave of all your friends. + + [_Unmuffling him._] + +So, look about you; know you any here? + +BERTRAM. +Good morrow, noble captain. + +SECOND LORD. +God bless you, Captain Parolles. + +FIRST LORD. +God save you, noble captain. + +SECOND LORD. +Captain, what greeting will you to my Lord Lafew? I am for France. + +FIRST LORD. +Good Captain, will you give me a copy of the sonnet you writ to Diana +in behalf of the Count Rossillon? And I were not a very coward I’d +compel it of you; but fare you well. + + [_Exeunt Bertram, Lords &c._] + +FIRST SOLDIER. +You are undone, captain: all but your scarf; that has a knot on’t yet. + +PAROLLES. +Who cannot be crushed with a plot? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +If you could find out a country where but women were that had received +so much shame, you might begin an impudent nation. Fare ye well, sir. I +am for France too; we shall speak of you there. + + [_Exeunt._] + +PAROLLES. +Yet am I thankful. If my heart were great +’Twould burst at this. Captain I’ll be no more, +But I will eat, and drink, and sleep as soft +As captain shall. Simply the thing I am +Shall make me live. Who knows himself a braggart, +Let him fear this; for it will come to pass +That every braggart shall be found an ass. +Rust, sword; cool, blushes; and, Parolles live +Safest in shame; being fool’d, by foolery thrive. +There’s place and means for every man alive. +I’ll after them. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Florence. A room in the Widow’s house. + + Enter Helena, Widow and Diana. + +HELENA. +That you may well perceive I have not wrong’d you +One of the greatest in the Christian world +Shall be my surety; fore whose throne ’tis needful, +Ere I can perfect mine intents, to kneel. +Time was I did him a desired office, +Dear almost as his life; which gratitude +Through flinty Tartar’s bosom would peep forth, +And answer thanks. I duly am inform’d +His grace is at Marseilles; to which place +We have convenient convoy. You must know +I am supposed dead. The army breaking, +My husband hies him home, where, heaven aiding, +And by the leave of my good lord the king, +We’ll be before our welcome. + +WIDOW. +Gentle madam, +You never had a servant to whose trust +Your business was more welcome. + +HELENA. +Nor you, mistress, +Ever a friend whose thoughts more truly labour +To recompense your love. Doubt not but heaven +Hath brought me up to be your daughter’s dower, +As it hath fated her to be my motive +And helper to a husband. But, O strange men! +That can such sweet use make of what they hate, +When saucy trusting of the cozen’d thoughts +Defiles the pitchy night; so lust doth play +With what it loathes, for that which is away. +But more of this hereafter. You, Diana, +Under my poor instructions yet must suffer +Something in my behalf. + +DIANA. +Let death and honesty +Go with your impositions, I am yours +Upon your will to suffer. + +HELENA. +Yet, I pray you; +But with the word the time will bring on summer, +When briers shall have leaves as well as thorns, +And be as sweet as sharp. We must away; +Our waggon is prepar’d, and time revives us. +All’s well that ends well; still the fine’s the crown. +Whate’er the course, the end is the renown. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Rossillon. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + Enter Clown, Countess and Lafew. + +LAFEW. +No, no, no, your son was misled with a snipt-taffeta fellow there, +whose villanous saffron would have made all the unbak’d and doughy +youth of a nation in his colour. Your daughter-in-law had been alive at +this hour, and your son here at home, more advanc’d by the king than by +that red-tail’d humble-bee I speak of. + +COUNTESS. +I would I had not known him; it was the death of the most virtuous +gentlewoman that ever nature had praise for creating. If she had +partaken of my flesh and cost me the dearest groans of a mother, I +could not have owed her a more rooted love. + +LAFEW. +’Twas a good lady, ’twas a good lady. We may pick a thousand salads ere +we light on such another herb. + +CLOWN. +Indeed, sir, she was the sweet marjoram of the salad, or, rather, the +herb of grace. + +LAFEW. +They are not herbs, you knave; they are nose-herbs. + +CLOWN. +I am no great Nebuchadnezzar, sir; I have not much skill in grass. + +LAFEW. +Whether dost thou profess thyself,—a knave or a fool? + +CLOWN. +A fool, sir, at a woman’s service, and a knave at a man’s. + +LAFEW. +Your distinction? + +CLOWN. +I would cozen the man of his wife, and do his service. + +LAFEW. +So you were a knave at his service indeed. + +CLOWN. +And I would give his wife my bauble, sir, to do her service. + +LAFEW. +I will subscribe for thee; thou art both knave and fool. + +CLOWN. +At your service. + +LAFEW. +No, no, no. + +CLOWN. +Why, sir, if I cannot serve you, I can serve as great a prince as you +are. + +LAFEW. +Who’s that? a Frenchman? + +CLOWN. +Faith, sir, ’a has an English name; but his phisnomy is more hotter in +France than there. + +LAFEW. +What prince is that? + +CLOWN. +The black prince, sir; alias the prince of darkness; alias the devil. + +LAFEW. +Hold thee, there’s my purse. I give thee not this to suggest thee from +thy master thou talk’st of; serve him still. + +CLOWN. +I am a woodland fellow, sir, that always loved a great fire, and the +master I speak of ever keeps a good fire. But sure he is the prince of +the world; let his nobility remain in’s court. I am for the house with +the narrow gate, which I take to be too little for pomp to enter: some +that humble themselves may, but the many will be too chill and tender, +and they’ll be for the flow’ry way that leads to the broad gate and the +great fire. + +LAFEW. +Go thy ways, I begin to be a-weary of thee; and I tell thee so before, +because I would not fall out with thee. Go thy ways; let my horses be +well look’d to, without any tricks. + +CLOWN. +If I put any tricks upon ’em, sir, they shall be jades’ tricks, which +are their own right by the law of nature. + + [_Exit._] + +LAFEW. +A shrewd knave, and an unhappy. + +COUNTESS. +So he is. My lord that’s gone made himself much sport out of him; by +his authority he remains here, which he thinks is a patent for his +sauciness; and indeed he has no pace, but runs where he will. + +LAFEW. +I like him well; ’tis not amiss. And I was about to tell you, since I +heard of the good lady’s death, and that my lord your son was upon his +return home, I moved the king my master to speak in the behalf of my +daughter; which, in the minority of them both, his majesty out of a +self-gracious remembrance did first propose. His highness hath promis’d +me to do it; and, to stop up the displeasure he hath conceived against +your son, there is no fitter matter. How does your ladyship like it? + +COUNTESS. +With very much content, my lord, and I wish it happily effected. + +LAFEW. +His highness comes post from Marseilles, of as able body as when he +number’d thirty; he will be here tomorrow, or I am deceived by him that +in such intelligence hath seldom fail’d. + +COUNTESS. +It rejoices me that I hope I shall see him ere I die. I have letters +that my son will be here tonight. I shall beseech your lordship to +remain with me till they meet together. + +LAFEW. +Madam, I was thinking with what manners I might safely be admitted. + +COUNTESS. +You need but plead your honourable privilege. + +LAFEW. +Lady, of that I have made a bold charter; but, I thank my God, it holds +yet. + + Enter Clown. + +CLOWN. +O madam, yonder’s my lord your son with a patch of velvet on’s face; +whether there be a scar under’t or no, the velvet knows; but ’tis a +goodly patch of velvet. His left cheek is a cheek of two pile and a +half, but his right cheek is worn bare. + +LAFEW. +A scar nobly got, or a noble scar, is a good livery of honour; so +belike is that. + +CLOWN. +But it is your carbonado’d face. + +LAFEW. +Let us go see your son, I pray you. I long to talk with the young noble +soldier. + +CLOWN. +Faith, there’s a dozen of ’em, with delicate fine hats, and most +courteous feathers, which bow the head and nod at every man. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT V. + +SCENE I. Marseilles. A street. + + Enter Helena, Widow and Diana with two Attendants. + +HELENA. +But this exceeding posting day and night +Must wear your spirits low. We cannot help it. +But since you have made the days and nights as one, +To wear your gentle limbs in my affairs, +Be bold you do so grow in my requital +As nothing can unroot you. In happy time;— + + Enter a Gentleman. + +This man may help me to his majesty’s ear, +If he would spend his power. God save you, sir. + +GENTLEMAN. +And you. + +HELENA. +Sir, I have seen you in the court of France. + +GENTLEMAN. +I have been sometimes there. + +HELENA. +I do presume, sir, that you are not fallen +From the report that goes upon your goodness; +And therefore, goaded with most sharp occasions, +Which lay nice manners by, I put you to +The use of your own virtues, for the which +I shall continue thankful. + +GENTLEMAN. +What’s your will? + +HELENA. +That it will please you +To give this poor petition to the king, +And aid me with that store of power you have +To come into his presence. + +GENTLEMAN. +The king’s not here. + +HELENA. +Not here, sir? + +GENTLEMAN. +Not indeed. +He hence remov’d last night, and with more haste +Than is his use. + +WIDOW. +Lord, how we lose our pains! + +HELENA. +All’s well that ends well yet, +Though time seem so adverse and means unfit. +I do beseech you, whither is he gone? + +GENTLEMAN. +Marry, as I take it, to Rossillon; +Whither I am going. + +HELENA. +I do beseech you, sir, +Since you are like to see the king before me, +Commend the paper to his gracious hand, +Which I presume shall render you no blame, +But rather make you thank your pains for it. +I will come after you with what good speed +Our means will make us means. + +GENTLEMAN. +This I’ll do for you. + +HELENA. +And you shall find yourself to be well thank’d, +Whate’er falls more. We must to horse again. +Go, go, provide. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Rossillon. The inner court of the Countess’s palace. + + Enter Clown and Parolles. + +PAROLLES. +Good Monsieur Lavache, give my Lord Lafew this letter; I have ere now, +sir, been better known to you, when I have held familiarity with +fresher clothes; but I am now, sir, muddied in Fortune’s mood, and +smell somewhat strong of her strong displeasure. + +CLOWN. +Truly, Fortune’s displeasure is but sluttish, if it smell so strongly +as thou speak’st of. I will henceforth eat no fish of Fortune’s +buttering. Pr’ythee, allow the wind. + +PAROLLES. +Nay, you need not to stop your nose, sir. I spake but by a metaphor. + +CLOWN. +Indeed, sir, if your metaphor stink, I will stop my nose, or against +any man’s metaphor. Pr’ythee, get thee further. + +PAROLLES. +Pray you, sir, deliver me this paper. + +CLOWN. +Foh, pr’ythee stand away. A paper from Fortune’s close-stool to give to +a nobleman! Look here he comes himself. + + Enter Lafew. + +Here is a pur of Fortune’s, sir, or of Fortune’s cat, but not a +musk-cat, that has fallen into the unclean fishpond of her displeasure, +and as he says, is muddied withal. Pray you, sir, use the carp as you +may, for he looks like a poor, decayed, ingenious, foolish, rascally +knave. I do pity his distress in my similes of comfort, and leave him +to your lordship. + + [_Exit._] + +PAROLLES. +My lord, I am a man whom Fortune hath cruelly scratch’d. + +LAFEW. +And what would you have me to do? ’Tis too late to pare her nails now. +Wherein have you played the knave with Fortune that she should scratch +you, who of herself is a good lady, and would not have knaves thrive +long under her? There’s a quart d’ecu for you. Let the justices make +you and Fortune friends; I am for other business. + +PAROLLES. +I beseech your honour to hear me one single word. + +LAFEW. +You beg a single penny more. Come, you shall ha’t; save your word. + +PAROLLES. +My name, my good lord, is Parolles. + +LAFEW. +You beg more than word then. Cox my passion! Give me your hand. How +does your drum? + +PAROLLES. +O my good lord, you were the first that found me. + +LAFEW. +Was I, in sooth? And I was the first that lost thee. + +PAROLLES. +It lies in you, my lord, to bring me in some grace, for you did bring +me out. + +LAFEW. +Out upon thee, knave! dost thou put upon me at once both the office of +God and the devil? One brings the in grace, and the other brings thee +out. + + [_Trumpets sound._] + +The king’s coming; I know by his trumpets. Sirrah, inquire further +after me. I had talk of you last night; though you are a fool and a +knave, you shall eat. Go to; follow. + +PAROLLES. +I praise God for you. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. A room in the Countess’s palace. + + Flourish. Enter King, Countess, Lafew, Lords, Gentlemen, Guards &c. + +KING. +We lost a jewel of her, and our esteem +Was made much poorer by it; but your son, +As mad in folly, lack’d the sense to know +Her estimation home. + +COUNTESS. +’Tis past, my liege, +And I beseech your majesty to make it +Natural rebellion, done i’ the blaze of youth, +When oil and fire, too strong for reason’s force, +O’erbears it and burns on. + +KING. +My honour’d lady, +I have forgiven and forgotten all, +Though my revenges were high bent upon him, +And watch’d the time to shoot. + +LAFEW. +This I must say,— +But first, I beg my pardon,—the young lord +Did to his majesty, his mother, and his lady, +Offence of mighty note; but to himself +The greatest wrong of all. He lost a wife +Whose beauty did astonish the survey +Of richest eyes; whose words all ears took captive; +Whose dear perfection hearts that scorn’d to serve +Humbly call’d mistress. + +KING. +Praising what is lost +Makes the remembrance dear. Well, call him hither; +We are reconcil’d, and the first view shall kill +All repetition. Let him not ask our pardon; +The nature of his great offence is dead, +And deeper than oblivion do we bury +Th’ incensing relics of it. Let him approach +A stranger, no offender; and inform him +So ’tis our will he should. + +GENTLEMAN. +I shall, my liege. + + [_Exit Gentleman._] + +KING. +What says he to your daughter? Have you spoke? + +LAFEW. +All that he is hath reference to your highness. + +KING. +Then shall we have a match. I have letters sent me +That sets him high in fame. + + Enter Bertram. + +LAFEW. +He looks well on ’t. + +KING. +I am not a day of season, +For thou mayst see a sunshine and a hail +In me at once. But to the brightest beams +Distracted clouds give way; so stand thou forth; +The time is fair again. + +BERTRAM. +My high-repented blames +Dear sovereign, pardon to me. + +KING. +All is whole. +Not one word more of the consumed time. +Let’s take the instant by the forward top; +For we are old, and on our quick’st decrees +Th’inaudible and noiseless foot of time +Steals ere we can effect them. You remember +The daughter of this lord? + +BERTRAM. +Admiringly, my liege. At first +I stuck my choice upon her, ere my heart +Durst make too bold herald of my tongue: +Where the impression of mine eye infixing, +Contempt his scornful perspective did lend me, +Which warp’d the line of every other favour, +Scorn’d a fair colour, or express’d it stolen, +Extended or contracted all proportions +To a most hideous object. Thence it came +That she whom all men prais’d, and whom myself, +Since I have lost, have lov’d, was in mine eye +The dust that did offend it. + +KING. +Well excus’d: +That thou didst love her, strikes some scores away +From the great compt: but love that comes too late, +Like a remorseful pardon slowly carried, +To the great sender turns a sour offence, +Crying, That’s good that’s gone. Our rash faults +Make trivial price of serious things we have, +Not knowing them until we know their grave. +Oft our displeasures, to ourselves unjust, +Destroy our friends, and after weep their dust: +Our own love waking cries to see what’s done, +While shameful hate sleeps out the afternoon. +Be this sweet Helen’s knell, and now forget her. +Send forth your amorous token for fair Maudlin. +The main consents are had, and here we’ll stay +To see our widower’s second marriage-day. + +COUNTESS. +Which better than the first, O dear heaven, bless! +Or, ere they meet, in me, O nature, cesse! + +LAFEW. +Come on, my son, in whom my house’s name +Must be digested; give a favour from you, +To sparkle in the spirits of my daughter, +That she may quickly come. + + [_Bertram gives a ring to Lafew._] + +By my old beard, +And ev’ry hair that’s on ’t, Helen that’s dead +Was a sweet creature: such a ring as this, +The last that e’er I took her leave at court, +I saw upon her finger. + +BERTRAM. +Hers it was not. + +KING. +Now, pray you, let me see it; for mine eye, +While I was speaking, oft was fasten’d to it. +This ring was mine; and when I gave it Helen +I bade her, if her fortunes ever stood +Necessitied to help, that by this token +I would relieve her. Had you that craft to ’reave her +Of what should stead her most? + +BERTRAM. +My gracious sovereign, +Howe’er it pleases you to take it so, +The ring was never hers. + +COUNTESS. +Son, on my life, +I have seen her wear it; and she reckon’d it +At her life’s rate. + +LAFEW. +I am sure I saw her wear it. + +BERTRAM. +You are deceiv’d, my lord; she never saw it. +In Florence was it from a casement thrown me, +Wrapp’d in a paper, which contain’d the name +Of her that threw it. Noble she was, and thought +I stood engag’d; but when I had subscrib’d +To mine own fortune, and inform’d her fully +I could not answer in that course of honour +As she had made the overture, she ceas’d, +In heavy satisfaction, and would never +Receive the ring again. + +KING. +Plutus himself, +That knows the tinct and multiplying medicine, +Hath not in nature’s mystery more science +Than I have in this ring. ’Twas mine, ’twas Helen’s, +Whoever gave it you. Then if you know +That you are well acquainted with yourself, +Confess ’twas hers, and by what rough enforcement +You got it from her. She call’d the saints to surety +That she would never put it from her finger +Unless she gave it to yourself in bed, +Where you have never come, or sent it us +Upon her great disaster. + +BERTRAM. +She never saw it. + +KING. +Thou speak’st it falsely, as I love mine honour, +And mak’st conjectural fears to come into me +Which I would fain shut out. If it should prove +That thou art so inhuman,—’twill not prove so: +And yet I know not, thou didst hate her deadly. +And she is dead; which nothing but to close +Her eyes myself, could win me to believe +More than to see this ring. Take him away. + + [_Guards seize Bertram._] + +My fore-past proofs, howe’er the matter fall, +Shall tax my fears of little vanity, +Having vainly fear’d too little. Away with him. +We’ll sift this matter further. + +BERTRAM. +If you shall prove +This ring was ever hers, you shall as easy +Prove that I husbanded her bed in Florence, +Where she yet never was. + + [_Exit, guarded._] + +KING. +I am wrapp’d in dismal thinkings. + + Enter a Gentleman. + +GENTLEMAN. +Gracious sovereign, +Whether I have been to blame or no, I know not: +Here’s a petition from a Florentine, +Who hath for four or five removes come short +To tender it herself. I undertook it, +Vanquish’d thereto by the fair grace and speech +Of the poor suppliant, who by this, I know, +Is here attending: her business looks in her +With an importing visage, and she told me +In a sweet verbal brief, it did concern +Your highness with herself. + +KING. +[_Reads._] _Upon his many protestations to marry me when his wife was +dead, I blush to say it, he won me. Now is the Count Rossillon a +widower; his vows are forfeited to me, and my honour’s paid to him. He +stole from Florence, taking no leave, and I follow him to his country +for justice. Grant it me, O king, in you it best lies; otherwise a +seducer flourishes, and a poor maid is undone._ + DIANA CAPILET. + +LAFEW. +I will buy me a son-in-law in a fair, and toll for this. I’ll none of +him. + +KING. +The heavens have thought well on thee, Lafew, +To bring forth this discovery. Seek these suitors. +Go speedily, and bring again the count. + + [_Exeunt Gentleman and some Attendants._] + +I am afeard the life of Helen, lady, +Was foully snatch’d. + +COUNTESS. +Now, justice on the doers! + + Enter Bertram, guarded. + +KING. +I wonder, sir, since wives are monsters to you, +And that you fly them as you swear them lordship, +Yet you desire to marry. What woman’s that? + + Enter Widow and Diana. + +DIANA. +I am, my lord, a wretched Florentine, +Derived from the ancient Capilet; +My suit, as I do understand, you know, +And therefore know how far I may be pitied. + +WIDOW. +I am her mother, sir, whose age and honour +Both suffer under this complaint we bring, +And both shall cease, without your remedy. + +KING. +Come hither, count; do you know these women? + +BERTRAM. +My lord, I neither can nor will deny +But that I know them. Do they charge me further? + +DIANA. +Why do you look so strange upon your wife? + +BERTRAM. +She’s none of mine, my lord. + +DIANA. +If you shall marry, +You give away this hand, and that is mine, +You give away heaven’s vows, and those are mine, +You give away myself, which is known mine; +For I by vow am so embodied yours +That she which marries you must marry me, +Either both or none. + +LAFEW. +[_To Bertram_] Your reputation comes too short for my daughter; you are +no husband for her. + +BERTRAM. +My lord, this is a fond and desperate creature +Whom sometime I have laugh’d with. Let your highness +Lay a more noble thought upon mine honour +Than for to think that I would sink it here. + +KING. +Sir, for my thoughts, you have them ill to friend +Till your deeds gain them; fairer prove your honour +Than in my thought it lies! + +DIANA. +Good my lord, +Ask him upon his oath, if he does think +He had not my virginity. + +KING. +What say’st thou to her? + +BERTRAM. +She’s impudent, my lord, +And was a common gamester to the camp. + +DIANA. +He does me wrong, my lord; if I were so +He might have bought me at a common price. +Do not believe him. O, behold this ring, +Whose high respect and rich validity +Did lack a parallel; yet for all that +He gave it to a commoner o’ the camp, +If I be one. + +COUNTESS. +He blushes, and ’tis it. +Of six preceding ancestors, that gem +Conferr’d by testament to th’ sequent issue, +Hath it been owed and worn. This is his wife; +That ring’s a thousand proofs. + +KING. +Methought you said +You saw one here in court could witness it. + +DIANA. +I did, my lord, but loath am to produce +So bad an instrument; his name’s Parolles. + +LAFEW. +I saw the man today, if man he be. + +KING. +Find him, and bring him hither. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + +BERTRAM. +What of him? +He’s quoted for a most perfidious slave, +With all the spots o’ the world tax’d and debauch’d: +Whose nature sickens but to speak a truth. +Am I or that or this for what he’ll utter, +That will speak anything? + +KING. +She hath that ring of yours. + +BERTRAM. +I think she has. Certain it is I lik’d her +And boarded her i’ the wanton way of youth. +She knew her distance, and did angle for me, +Madding my eagerness with her restraint, +As all impediments in fancy’s course +Are motives of more fancy; and in fine, +Her infinite cunning with her modern grace, +Subdu’d me to her rate; she got the ring, +And I had that which any inferior might +At market-price have bought. + +DIANA. +I must be patient. +You that have turn’d off a first so noble wife +May justly diet me. I pray you yet,— +Since you lack virtue, I will lose a husband— +Send for your ring, I will return it home, +And give me mine again. + +BERTRAM. +I have it not. + +KING. +What ring was yours, I pray you? + +DIANA. +Sir, much like +The same upon your finger. + +KING. +Know you this ring? This ring was his of late. + +DIANA. +And this was it I gave him, being abed. + +KING. +The story then goes false you threw it him +Out of a casement. + +DIANA. +I have spoke the truth. + + Enter Attendant with Parolles. + +BERTRAM. +My lord, I do confess the ring was hers. + +KING. +You boggle shrewdly; every feather starts you. +Is this the man you speak of? + +DIANA. +Ay, my lord. + +KING. +Tell me, sirrah, but tell me true I charge you, +Not fearing the displeasure of your master, +Which on your just proceeding, I’ll keep off,— +By him and by this woman here what know you? + +PAROLLES. +So please your majesty, my master hath been an honourable gentleman. +Tricks he hath had in him, which gentlemen have. + +KING. +Come, come, to the purpose. Did he love this woman? + +PAROLLES. +Faith, sir, he did love her; but how? + +KING. +How, I pray you? + +PAROLLES. +He did love her, sir, as a gentleman loves a woman. + +KING. +How is that? + +PAROLLES. +He lov’d her, sir, and lov’d her not. + +KING. +As thou art a knave and no knave. +What an equivocal companion is this! + +PAROLLES. +I am a poor man, and at your majesty’s command. + +LAFEW. +He’s a good drum, my lord, but a naughty orator. + +DIANA. +Do you know he promised me marriage? + +PAROLLES. +Faith, I know more than I’ll speak. + +KING. +But wilt thou not speak all thou know’st? + +PAROLLES. +Yes, so please your majesty. I did go between them as I said; but more +than that, he loved her, for indeed he was mad for her, and talked of +Satan, and of Limbo, and of furies, and I know not what: yet I was in +that credit with them at that time that I knew of their going to bed; +and of other motions, as promising her marriage, and things which would +derive me ill will to speak of; therefore I will not speak what I know. + +KING. +Thou hast spoken all already, unless thou canst say they are married; +but thou art too fine in thy evidence; therefore stand aside. This +ring, you say, was yours? + +DIANA. +Ay, my good lord. + +KING. +Where did you buy it? Or who gave it you? + +DIANA. +It was not given me, nor I did not buy it. + +KING. +Who lent it you? + +DIANA. +It was not lent me neither. + +KING. +Where did you find it then? + +DIANA. +I found it not. + +KING. +If it were yours by none of all these ways, +How could you give it him? + +DIANA. +I never gave it him. + +LAFEW. +This woman’s an easy glove, my lord; she goes off and on at pleasure. + +KING. +This ring was mine, I gave it his first wife. + +DIANA. +It might be yours or hers for ought I know. + +KING. +Take her away, I do not like her now. +To prison with her. And away with him. +Unless thou tell’st me where thou hadst this ring, +Thou diest within this hour. + +DIANA. +I’ll never tell you. + +KING. +Take her away. + +DIANA. +I’ll put in bail, my liege. + +KING. +I think thee now some common customer. + +DIANA. +By Jove, if ever I knew man, ’twas you. + +KING. +Wherefore hast thou accus’d him all this while? + +DIANA. +Because he’s guilty, and he is not guilty. +He knows I am no maid, and he’ll swear to’t: +I’ll swear I am a maid, and he knows not. +Great King, I am no strumpet, by my life; +I am either maid, or else this old man’s wife. + + [_Pointing to Lafew._] + +KING. +She does abuse our ears; to prison with her. + +DIANA. +Good mother, fetch my bail. Stay, royal sir; + + [_Exit Widow._] + +The jeweller that owes the ring is sent for, +And he shall surety me. But for this lord +Who hath abus’d me as he knows himself, +Though yet he never harm’d me, here I quit him. +He knows himself my bed he hath defil’d; +And at that time he got his wife with child. +Dead though she be, she feels her young one kick; +So there’s my riddle: one that’s dead is quick, +And now behold the meaning. + + Enter Widow with Helena. + +KING. +Is there no exorcist +Beguiles the truer office of mine eyes? +Is’t real that I see? + +HELENA. +No, my good lord; +’Tis but the shadow of a wife you see, +The name, and not the thing. + +BERTRAM. +Both, both. O, pardon! + +HELENA. +O, my good lord, when I was like this maid; +I found you wondrous kind. There is your ring, +And, look you, here’s your letter. This it says, +‘When from my finger you can get this ring, +And is by me with child, &c.’ This is done; +Will you be mine now you are doubly won? + +BERTRAM. +If she, my liege, can make me know this clearly, +I’ll love her dearly, ever, ever dearly. + +HELENA. +If it appear not plain, and prove untrue, +Deadly divorce step between me and you! +O my dear mother, do I see you living? + +LAFEW. +Mine eyes smell onions; I shall weep anon. +[_to Parolles_] Good Tom Drum, lend me a handkercher. +So, I thank thee. Wait on me home, I’ll make sport with thee. +Let thy courtesies alone, they are scurvy ones. + +KING. +Let us from point to point this story know, +To make the even truth in pleasure flow. +[_To Diana._] If thou beest yet a fresh uncropped flower, +Choose thou thy husband, and I’ll pay thy dower; +For I can guess that by thy honest aid, +Thou kept’st a wife herself, thyself a maid. +Of that and all the progress more and less, +Resolvedly more leisure shall express. +All yet seems well, and if it end so meet, +The bitter past, more welcome is the sweet. + + [_Flourish._] + +[EPILOGUE] + +_The king’s a beggar, now the play is done; +All is well ended if this suit be won, +That you express content; which we will pay +With strife to please you, day exceeding day. +Ours be your patience then, and yours our parts; +Your gentle hands lend us, and take our hearts._ + + [_Exeunt omnes._] + + + + +ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. +Alexandria. A Room in Cleopatra’s palace. +Scene II. +Alexandria. Another Room in Cleopatra’s palace. +Scene III. +Alexandria. A Room in Cleopatra’s palace. +Scene IV. +Rome. An Apartment in Caesar’s House +Scene V. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + +ACT II +Scene I. +Messina. A Room in Pompey’s house. +Scene II. +Rome. A Room in the House of Lepidus. +Scene III. +Rome. A Room in Caesar’s House. +Scene IV. +Rome. A street. +Scene V. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. +Scene VI. +Near Misenum. +Scene VII. +On board Pompey’s Galley, lying near Misenum. + +ACT III +Scene I. +A plain in Syria. +Scene II. +Rome. An Ante-chamber in Caesar’s house. +Scene III. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. +Scene IV. +Athens. A Room in Antony’s House. +Scene V. +Athens. Another Room in Antony’s House. +Scene VI. +Rome. A Room in Caesar’s House. +Scene VII. +Antony’s Camp near the Promontory of Actium. +Scene VIII. +A plain near Actium. +Scene IX. +Another part of the Plain. +Scene X. +Another part of the Plain. +Scene XI. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. +Scene XII. +Caesar’s camp in Egypt. +Scene XIII. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + +ACT IV +Scene I. +Caesar’s Camp at Alexandria. +Scene II. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. +Scene III. +Alexandria. Before the Palace. +Scene IV. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. +Scene V. +Antony’s camp near Alexandria. +Scene VI. +Alexandria. Caesar’s camp. +Scene VII. +Field of battle between the Camps. +Scene VIII. +Under the Walls of Alexandria. +Scene IX. +Caesar’s camp. +Scene X. +Ground between the two Camps. +Scene XI. +Another part of the Ground. +Scene XII. +Another part of the Ground. +Scene XIII. +Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. +Scene XIV. +Alexandria. Another Room. +Scene XV. +Alexandria. A monument. + +ACT V +Scene I. +Caesar’s Camp before Alexandria. +Scene II. +Alexandria. A Room in the Monument. + + +Dramatis Personæ + +MARK ANTONY, Triumvir +OCTAVIUS CAESAR, Triumvir +LEPIDUS, Triumvir +SEXTUS POMPEIUS, +DOMITIUS ENOBARBUS, friend to Antony +VENTIDIUS, friend to Antony +EROS, friend to Antony +SCARUS, friend to Antony +DERCETUS, friend to Antony +DEMETRIUS, friend to Antony +PHILO, friend to Antony +MAECENAS, friend to Caesar +AGRIPPA, friend to Caesar +DOLABELLA, friend to Caesar +PROCULEIUS, friend to Caesar +THIDIAS, friend to Caesar +GALLUS, friend to Caesar +MENAS, friend to Pompey +MENECRATES, friend to Pompey +VARRIUS, friend to Pompey +TAURUS, Lieutenant-General to Caesar +CANIDIUS, Lieutenant-General to Antony +SILIUS, an Officer in Ventidius’s army +EUPHRONIUS, an Ambassador from Antony to Caesar +ALEXAS, attendant on Cleopatra +MARDIAN, attendant on Cleopatra +SELEUCUS, attendant on Cleopatra +DIOMEDES, attendant on Cleopatra +A SOOTHSAYER +A CLOWN + +CLEOPATRA, Queen of Egypt +OCTAVIA, sister to Caesar and wife to Antony +CHARMIAN, Attendant on Cleopatra +IRAS, Attendant on Cleopatra + +Officers, Soldiers, Messengers, and other Attendants + +SCENE: Dispersed, in several parts of the Roman Empire. + + + + +ACT I + + +SCENE I. Alexandria. A Room in Cleopatra’s palace. + + Enter Demetrius and Philo. + +PHILO. +Nay, but this dotage of our general’s +O’erflows the measure. Those his goodly eyes, +That o’er the files and musters of the war +Have glowed like plated Mars, now bend, now turn +The office and devotion of their view +Upon a tawny front. His captain’s heart, +Which in the scuffles of great fights hath burst +The buckles on his breast, reneges all temper +And is become the bellows and the fan +To cool a gipsy’s lust. + + Flourish. Enter Antony and Cleopatra, her Ladies, the Train, with + Eunuchs fanning her. + +Look where they come: +Take but good note, and you shall see in him +The triple pillar of the world transform’d +Into a strumpet’s fool. Behold and see. + +CLEOPATRA. +If it be love indeed, tell me how much. + +ANTONY. +There’s beggary in the love that can be reckoned. + +CLEOPATRA. +I’ll set a bourn how far to be beloved. + +ANTONY. +Then must thou needs find out new heaven, new earth. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +News, my good lord, from Rome. + +ANTONY. +Grates me, the sum. + +CLEOPATRA. +Nay, hear them, Antony. +Fulvia perchance is angry; or who knows +If the scarce-bearded Caesar have not sent +His powerful mandate to you: “Do this or this; +Take in that kingdom and enfranchise that. +Perform’t, or else we damn thee.” + +ANTONY. +How, my love? + +CLEOPATRA. +Perchance! Nay, and most like. +You must not stay here longer; your dismission +Is come from Caesar; therefore hear it, Antony. +Where’s Fulvia’s process?—Caesar’s I would say? Both? +Call in the messengers. As I am Egypt’s queen, +Thou blushest, Antony, and that blood of thine +Is Caesar’s homager; else so thy cheek pays shame +When shrill-tongued Fulvia scolds. The messengers! + +ANTONY. +Let Rome in Tiber melt, and the wide arch +Of the ranged empire fall! Here is my space. +Kingdoms are clay. Our dungy earth alike +Feeds beast as man. The nobleness of life +Is to do thus [_Embracing_]; when such a mutual pair +And such a twain can do’t, in which I bind, +On pain of punishment, the world to weet +We stand up peerless. + +CLEOPATRA. +Excellent falsehood! +Why did he marry Fulvia, and not love her? +I’ll seem the fool I am not. Antony +Will be himself. + +ANTONY. +But stirred by Cleopatra. +Now, for the love of Love and her soft hours, +Let’s not confound the time with conference harsh. +There’s not a minute of our lives should stretch +Without some pleasure now. What sport tonight? + +CLEOPATRA. +Hear the ambassadors. + +ANTONY. +Fie, wrangling queen! +Whom everything becomes—to chide, to laugh, +To weep; whose every passion fully strives +To make itself, in thee fair and admired! +No messenger but thine, and all alone +Tonight we’ll wander through the streets and note +The qualities of people. Come, my queen, +Last night you did desire it. Speak not to us. + + [_Exeunt Antony and Cleopatra with the Train._] + +DEMETRIUS. +Is Caesar with Antonius prized so slight? + +PHILO. +Sir, sometimes when he is not Antony, +He comes too short of that great property +Which still should go with Antony. + +DEMETRIUS. +I am full sorry +That he approves the common liar who +Thus speaks of him at Rome, but I will hope +Of better deeds tomorrow. Rest you happy! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Alexandria. Another Room in Cleopatra’s palace. + + Enter Enobarbus, a Soothsayer, Charmian, Iras, Mardian and Alexas. + +CHARMIAN. +Lord Alexas, sweet Alexas, most anything Alexas, almost most absolute +Alexas, where’s the soothsayer that you praised so to th’ queen? O, +that I knew this husband which you say must charge his horns with +garlands! + +ALEXAS. +Soothsayer! + +SOOTHSAYER. +Your will? + +CHARMIAN. +Is this the man? Is’t you, sir, that know things? + +SOOTHSAYER. +In nature’s infinite book of secrecy +A little I can read. + +ALEXAS. +Show him your hand. + +ENOBARBUS. +Bring in the banquet quickly; wine enough +Cleopatra’s health to drink. + +CHARMIAN. +Good, sir, give me good fortune. + +SOOTHSAYER. +I make not, but foresee. + +CHARMIAN. +Pray, then, foresee me one. + +SOOTHSAYER. +You shall be yet far fairer than you are. + +CHARMIAN. +He means in flesh. + +IRAS. +No, you shall paint when you are old. + +CHARMIAN. +Wrinkles forbid! + +ALEXAS. +Vex not his prescience. Be attentive. + +CHARMIAN. +Hush! + +SOOTHSAYER. +You shall be more beloving than beloved. + +CHARMIAN. +I had rather heat my liver with drinking. + +ALEXAS. +Nay, hear him. + +CHARMIAN. +Good now, some excellent fortune! Let me be married to three kings in a +forenoon and widow them all. Let me have a child at fifty, to whom +Herod of Jewry may do homage. Find me to marry me with Octavius Caesar, +and companion me with my mistress. + +SOOTHSAYER. +You shall outlive the lady whom you serve. + +CHARMIAN. +O, excellent! I love long life better than figs. + +SOOTHSAYER. +You have seen and proved a fairer former fortune +Than that which is to approach. + +CHARMIAN. +Then belike my children shall have no names. Prithee, how many boys and +wenches must I have? + +SOOTHSAYER. +If every of your wishes had a womb, +And fertile every wish, a million. + +CHARMIAN. +Out, fool! I forgive thee for a witch. + +ALEXAS. +You think none but your sheets are privy to your wishes. + +CHARMIAN. +Nay, come, tell Iras hers. + +ALEXAS. +We’ll know all our fortunes. + +ENOBARBUS. +Mine, and most of our fortunes tonight, shall be drunk to bed. + +IRAS. +There’s a palm presages chastity, if nothing else. + +CHARMIAN. +E’en as the o’erflowing Nilus presageth famine. + +IRAS. +Go, you wild bedfellow, you cannot soothsay. + +CHARMIAN. +Nay, if an oily palm be not a fruitful prognostication, I cannot +scratch mine ear. Prithee, tell her but workaday fortune. + +SOOTHSAYER. +Your fortunes are alike. + +IRAS. +But how, but how? give me particulars. + +SOOTHSAYER. +I have said. + +IRAS. +Am I not an inch of fortune better than she? + +CHARMIAN. +Well, if you were but an inch of fortune better than I, where would you +choose it? + +IRAS. +Not in my husband’s nose. + +CHARMIAN. +Our worser thoughts heavens mend! Alexas—come, his fortune! his +fortune! O, let him marry a woman that cannot go, sweet Isis, I beseech +thee, and let her die too, and give him a worse, and let worse follow +worse, till the worst of all follow him laughing to his grave, +fiftyfold a cuckold! Good Isis, hear me this prayer, though thou deny +me a matter of more weight; good Isis, I beseech thee! + +IRAS. +Amen. Dear goddess, hear that prayer of the people! For, as it is a +heartbreaking to see a handsome man loose-wived, so it is a deadly +sorrow to behold a foul knave uncuckolded. Therefore, dear Isis, keep +decorum and fortune him accordingly! + +CHARMIAN. +Amen. + +ALEXAS. +Lo now, if it lay in their hands to make me a cuckold, they would make +themselves whores but they’d do’t! + + Enter Cleopatra. + +ENOBARBUS. +Hush, Here comes Antony. + +CHARMIAN. +Not he, the queen. + +CLEOPATRA. +Saw you my lord? + +ENOBARBUS. +No, lady. + +CLEOPATRA. +Was he not here? + +CHARMIAN. +No, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +He was disposed to mirth; but on the sudden +A Roman thought hath struck him. Enobarbus! + +ENOBARBUS. +Madam? + +CLEOPATRA. +Seek him and bring him hither. Where’s Alexas? + +ALEXAS. +Here, at your service. My lord approaches. + + Enter Antony with a Messenger. + +CLEOPATRA. +We will not look upon him. Go with us. + + [_Exeunt Cleopatra, Enobarbus, Charmian, Iras, Alexas and + Soothsayer._] + +MESSENGER. +Fulvia thy wife first came into the field. + +ANTONY. +Against my brother Lucius. + +MESSENGER. +Ay. +But soon that war had end, and the time’s state +Made friends of them, jointing their force ’gainst Caesar, +Whose better issue in the war from Italy +Upon the first encounter drave them. + +ANTONY. +Well, what worst? + +MESSENGER. +The nature of bad news infects the teller. + +ANTONY. +When it concerns the fool or coward. On. +Things that are past are done with me. ’Tis thus: +Who tells me true, though in his tale lie death, +I hear him as he flattered. + +MESSENGER. +Labienus— +This is stiff news—hath with his Parthian force +Extended Asia from Euphrates +His conquering banner shook from Syria +To Lydia and to Ionia, +Whilst— + +ANTONY. +“Antony”, thou wouldst say— + +MESSENGER. +O, my lord! + +ANTONY. +Speak to me home; mince not the general tongue. +Name Cleopatra as she is called in Rome; +Rail thou in Fulvia’s phrase, and taunt my faults +With such full licence as both truth and malice +Have power to utter. O, then we bring forth weeds +When our quick minds lie still, and our ills told us +Is as our earing. Fare thee well awhile. + +MESSENGER. +At your noble pleasure. + + [_Exit Messenger._] + + Enter another Messenger. + +ANTONY. +From Sicyon, ho, the news? Speak there! + +SECOND MESSENGER. +The man from Sicyon— + +ANTONY. +Is there such a one? + +SECOND MESSENGER. +He stays upon your will. + +ANTONY. +Let him appear. + + [_Exit second Messenger._] + +These strong Egyptian fetters I must break, +Or lose myself in dotage. + + Enter another Messenger with a letter. + +What are you? + +THIRD MESSENGER. +Fulvia thy wife is dead. + +ANTONY. +Where died she? + +THIRD MESSENGER. +In Sicyon: +Her length of sickness, with what else more serious +Importeth thee to know, this bears. + + [_Gives a letter._] + +ANTONY. +Forbear me. + + [_Exit third Messenger._] + +There’s a great spirit gone! Thus did I desire it. +What our contempts doth often hurl from us, +We wish it ours again. The present pleasure, +By revolution lowering, does become +The opposite of itself. She’s good, being gone. +The hand could pluck her back that shoved her on. +I must from this enchanting queen break off. +Ten thousand harms, more than the ills I know, +My idleness doth hatch. How now, Enobarbus! + + Enter Enobarbus. + +ENOBARBUS. +What’s your pleasure, sir? + +ANTONY. +I must with haste from hence. + +ENOBARBUS. +Why then we kill all our women. We see how mortal an unkindness is to +them. If they suffer our departure, death’s the word. + +ANTONY. +I must be gone. + +ENOBARBUS. +Under a compelling occasion, let women die. It were pity to cast them +away for nothing, though, between them and a great cause they should be +esteemed nothing. Cleopatra, catching but the least noise of this, dies +instantly. I have seen her die twenty times upon far poorer moment. I +do think there is mettle in death which commits some loving act upon +her, she hath such a celerity in dying. + +ANTONY. +She is cunning past man’s thought. + +ENOBARBUS. +Alack, sir, no; her passions are made of nothing but the finest part of +pure love. We cannot call her winds and waters sighs and tears; they +are greater storms and tempests than almanacs can report. This cannot +be cunning in her; if it be, she makes a shower of rain as well as +Jove. + +ANTONY. +Would I had never seen her! + +ENOBARBUS. +O, sir, you had then left unseen a wonderful piece of work, which not +to have been blest withal would have discredited your travel. + +ANTONY. +Fulvia is dead. + +ENOBARBUS. +Sir? + +ANTONY. +Fulvia is dead. + +ENOBARBUS. +Fulvia? + +ANTONY. +Dead. + +ENOBARBUS. +Why, sir, give the gods a thankful sacrifice. When it pleaseth their +deities to take the wife of a man from him, it shows to man the tailors +of the earth; comforting therein that when old robes are worn out, +there are members to make new. If there were no more women but Fulvia, +then had you indeed a cut, and the case to be lamented. This grief is +crowned with consolation; your old smock brings forth a new petticoat: +and indeed the tears live in an onion that should water this sorrow. + +ANTONY. +The business she hath broached in the state +Cannot endure my absence. + +ENOBARBUS. +And the business you have broached here cannot be without you, +especially that of Cleopatra’s, which wholly depends on your abode. + +ANTONY. +No more light answers. Let our officers +Have notice what we purpose. I shall break +The cause of our expedience to the Queen, +And get her leave to part. For not alone +The death of Fulvia, with more urgent touches, +Do strongly speak to us, but the letters too +Of many our contriving friends in Rome +Petition us at home. Sextus Pompeius +Hath given the dare to Caesar, and commands +The empire of the sea. Our slippery people, +Whose love is never linked to the deserver +Till his deserts are past, begin to throw +Pompey the Great and all his dignities +Upon his son, who, high in name and power, +Higher than both in blood and life, stands up +For the main soldier; whose quality, going on, +The sides o’ th’ world may danger. Much is breeding +Which, like the courser’s hair, hath yet but life +And not a serpent’s poison. Say our pleasure +To such whose place is under us, requires +Our quick remove from hence. + +ENOBARBUS. +I shall do’t. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Alexandria. A Room in Cleopatra’s palace. + + Enter Cleopatra, Charmian, Alexas and Iras. + +CLEOPATRA. +Where is he? + +CHARMIAN. +I did not see him since. + +CLEOPATRA. +See where he is, who’s with him, what he does. +I did not send you. If you find him sad, +Say I am dancing; if in mirth, report +That I am sudden sick. Quick, and return. + + [_Exit Alexas._] + +CHARMIAN. +Madam, methinks, if you did love him dearly, +You do not hold the method to enforce +The like from him. + +CLEOPATRA. +What should I do I do not? + +CHARMIAN. +In each thing give him way; cross him in nothing. + +CLEOPATRA. +Thou teachest like a fool: the way to lose him. + +CHARMIAN. +Tempt him not so too far; I wish, forbear. +In time we hate that which we often fear. +But here comes Antony. + + Enter Antony. + +CLEOPATRA. +I am sick and sullen. + +ANTONY. +I am sorry to give breathing to my purpose— + +CLEOPATRA. +Help me away, dear Charmian! I shall fall. +It cannot be thus long; the sides of nature +Will not sustain it. + +ANTONY. +Now, my dearest queen— + +CLEOPATRA. +Pray you, stand farther from me. + +ANTONY. +What’s the matter? + +CLEOPATRA. +I know by that same eye there’s some good news. +What, says the married woman you may go? +Would she had never given you leave to come! +Let her not say ’tis I that keep you here. +I have no power upon you; hers you are. + +ANTONY. +The gods best know— + +CLEOPATRA. +O, never was there queen +So mightily betrayed! Yet at the first +I saw the treasons planted. + +ANTONY. +Cleopatra— + +CLEOPATRA. +Why should I think you can be mine and true, +Though you in swearing shake the throned gods, +Who have been false to Fulvia? Riotous madness, +To be entangled with those mouth-made vows +Which break themselves in swearing! + +ANTONY. +Most sweet queen— + +CLEOPATRA. +Nay, pray you seek no colour for your going, +But bid farewell and go. When you sued staying, +Then was the time for words. No going then, +Eternity was in our lips and eyes, +Bliss in our brows’ bent; none our parts so poor +But was a race of heaven. They are so still, +Or thou, the greatest soldier of the world, +Art turned the greatest liar. + +ANTONY. +How now, lady! + +CLEOPATRA. +I would I had thy inches, thou shouldst know +There were a heart in Egypt. + +ANTONY. +Hear me, queen: +The strong necessity of time commands +Our services awhile, but my full heart +Remains in use with you. Our Italy +Shines o’er with civil swords; Sextus Pompeius +Makes his approaches to the port of Rome; +Equality of two domestic powers +Breed scrupulous faction; the hated, grown to strength, +Are newly grown to love; the condemned Pompey, +Rich in his father’s honour, creeps apace +Into the hearts of such as have not thrived +Upon the present state, whose numbers threaten; +And quietness, grown sick of rest, would purge +By any desperate change. My more particular, +And that which most with you should safe my going, +Is Fulvia’s death. + +CLEOPATRA. +Though age from folly could not give me freedom, +It does from childishness. Can Fulvia die? + +ANTONY. +She’s dead, my queen. +Look here, and at thy sovereign leisure read +The garboils she awaked; at the last, best, +See when and where she died. + +CLEOPATRA. +O most false love! +Where be the sacred vials thou shouldst fill +With sorrowful water? Now I see, I see, +In Fulvia’s death how mine received shall be. + +ANTONY. +Quarrel no more, but be prepared to know +The purposes I bear; which are, or cease, +As you shall give th’ advice. By the fire +That quickens Nilus’ slime, I go from hence +Thy soldier, servant, making peace or war +As thou affects. + +CLEOPATRA. +Cut my lace, Charmian, come! +But let it be; I am quickly ill and well, +So Antony loves. + +ANTONY. +My precious queen, forbear, +And give true evidence to his love, which stands +An honourable trial. + +CLEOPATRA. +So Fulvia told me. +I prithee, turn aside and weep for her, +Then bid adieu to me, and say the tears +Belong to Egypt. Good now, play one scene +Of excellent dissembling, and let it look +Like perfect honour. + +ANTONY. +You’ll heat my blood. No more. + +CLEOPATRA. +You can do better yet, but this is meetly. + +ANTONY. +Now, by my sword— + +CLEOPATRA. +And target. Still he mends. +But this is not the best. Look, prithee, Charmian, +How this Herculean Roman does become +The carriage of his chafe. + +ANTONY. +I’ll leave you, lady. + +CLEOPATRA. +Courteous lord, one word. +Sir, you and I must part, but that’s not it; +Sir, you and I have loved, but there’s not it; +That you know well. Something it is I would— +O, my oblivion is a very Antony, +And I am all forgotten. + +ANTONY. +But that your royalty +Holds idleness your subject, I should take you +For idleness itself. + +CLEOPATRA. +’Tis sweating labour +To bear such idleness so near the heart +As Cleopatra this. But, sir, forgive me, +Since my becomings kill me when they do not +Eye well to you. Your honour calls you hence; +Therefore be deaf to my unpitied folly, +And all the gods go with you! Upon your sword +Sit laurel victory, and smooth success +Be strewed before your feet! + +ANTONY. +Let us go. Come. +Our separation so abides and flies +That thou, residing here, goes yet with me, +And I, hence fleeting, here remain with thee. +Away! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Rome. An Apartment in Caesar’s House. + + Enter Octavius [Caesar], Lepidus and their train. + +CAESAR. +You may see, Lepidus, and henceforth know, +It is not Caesar’s natural vice to hate +Our great competitor. From Alexandria +This is the news: he fishes, drinks, and wastes +The lamps of night in revel: is not more manlike +Than Cleopatra, nor the queen of Ptolemy +More womanly than he; hardly gave audience, or +Vouchsafed to think he had partners. You shall find there +A man who is the abstract of all faults +That all men follow. + +LEPIDUS. +I must not think there are +Evils enough to darken all his goodness. +His faults in him seem as the spots of heaven, +More fiery by night’s blackness; hereditary +Rather than purchased; what he cannot change +Than what he chooses. + +CAESAR. +You are too indulgent. Let’s grant it is not +Amiss to tumble on the bed of Ptolemy, +To give a kingdom for a mirth, to sit +And keep the turn of tippling with a slave, +To reel the streets at noon, and stand the buffet +With knaves that smell of sweat. Say this becomes him— +As his composure must be rare indeed +Whom these things cannot blemish—yet must Antony +No way excuse his foils when we do bear +So great weight in his lightness. If he filled +His vacancy with his voluptuousness, +Full surfeits and the dryness of his bones +Call on him for’t. But to confound such time +That drums him from his sport, and speaks as loud +As his own state and ours, ’tis to be chid +As we rate boys who, being mature in knowledge, +Pawn their experience to their present pleasure +And so rebel to judgment. + + Enter a Messenger. + +LEPIDUS. +Here’s more news. + +MESSENGER. +Thy biddings have been done, and every hour, +Most noble Caesar, shalt thou have report +How ’tis abroad. Pompey is strong at sea, +And it appears he is beloved of those +That only have feared Caesar. To the ports +The discontents repair, and men’s reports +Give him much wronged. + +CAESAR. +I should have known no less. +It hath been taught us from the primal state +That he which is was wished until he were, +And the ebbed man, ne’er loved till ne’er worth love, +Comes deared by being lacked. This common body, +Like to a vagabond flag upon the stream, +Goes to and back, lackeying the varying tide, +To rot itself with motion. + + Enter a second Messenger. + +SECOND MESSENGER. +Caesar, I bring thee word +Menecrates and Menas, famous pirates, +Make the sea serve them, which they ear and wound +With keels of every kind. Many hot inroads +They make in Italy—the borders maritime +Lack blood to think on’t—and flush youth revolt. +No vessel can peep forth but ’tis as soon +Taken as seen; for Pompey’s name strikes more +Than could his war resisted. + +CAESAR. +Antony, +Leave thy lascivious wassails. When thou once +Was beaten from Modena, where thou slew’st +Hirtius and Pansa, consuls, at thy heel +Did famine follow, whom thou fought’st against, +Though daintily brought up, with patience more +Than savages could suffer. Thou didst drink +The stale of horses and the gilded puddle +Which beasts would cough at. Thy palate then did deign +The roughest berry on the rudest hedge. +Yea, like the stag when snow the pasture sheets, +The barks of trees thou browsed. On the Alps +It is reported thou didst eat strange flesh +Which some did die to look on. And all this— +It wounds thine honour that I speak it now— +Was borne so like a soldier that thy cheek +So much as lanked not. + +LEPIDUS. +’Tis pity of him. + +CAESAR. +Let his shames quickly +Drive him to Rome. ’Tis time we twain +Did show ourselves i’ th’ field, and to that end +Assemble we immediate council. Pompey +Thrives in our idleness. + +LEPIDUS. +Tomorrow, Caesar, +I shall be furnished to inform you rightly +Both what by sea and land I can be able +To front this present time. + +CAESAR. +Till which encounter +It is my business too. Farewell. + +LEPIDUS. +Farewell, my lord. What you shall know meantime +Of stirs abroad, I shall beseech you, sir, +To let me be partaker. + +CAESAR. +Doubt not, sir. +I knew it for my bond. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Cleopatra, Charmian, Iras and Mardian. + +CLEOPATRA. +Charmian! + +CHARMIAN. +Madam? + +CLEOPATRA. +Ha, ha! +Give me to drink mandragora. + +CHARMIAN. +Why, madam? + +CLEOPATRA. +That I might sleep out this great gap of time +My Antony is away. + +CHARMIAN. +You think of him too much. + +CLEOPATRA. +O, ’tis treason! + +CHARMIAN. +Madam, I trust not so. + +CLEOPATRA. +Thou, eunuch Mardian! + +MARDIAN. +What’s your highness’ pleasure? + +CLEOPATRA. +Not now to hear thee sing. I take no pleasure +In aught an eunuch has. ’Tis well for thee +That, being unseminared, thy freer thoughts +May not fly forth of Egypt. Hast thou affections? + +MARDIAN. +Yes, gracious madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +Indeed? + +MARDIAN. +Not in deed, madam, for I can do nothing +But what indeed is honest to be done. +Yet have I fierce affections, and think +What Venus did with Mars. + +CLEOPATRA. +O, Charmian, +Where think’st thou he is now? Stands he, or sits he? +Or does he walk? Or is he on his horse? +O happy horse, to bear the weight of Antony! +Do bravely, horse, for wot’st thou whom thou mov’st? +The demi-Atlas of this earth, the arm +And burgonet of men. He’s speaking now, +Or murmuring “Where’s my serpent of old Nile?” +For so he calls me. Now I feed myself +With most delicious poison. Think on me +That am with Phœbus’ amorous pinches black, +And wrinkled deep in time? Broad-fronted Caesar, +When thou wast here above the ground, I was +A morsel for a monarch. And great Pompey +Would stand and make his eyes grow in my brow; +There would he anchor his aspect, and die +With looking on his life. + + Enter Alexas. + +ALEXAS. +Sovereign of Egypt, hail! + +CLEOPATRA. +How much unlike art thou Mark Antony! +Yet, coming from him, that great medicine hath +With his tinct gilded thee. +How goes it with my brave Mark Antony? + +ALEXAS. +Last thing he did, dear queen, +He kissed—the last of many doubled kisses— +This orient pearl. His speech sticks in my heart. + +CLEOPATRA. +Mine ear must pluck it thence. + +ALEXAS. +“Good friend,” quoth he, +“Say, the firm Roman to great Egypt sends +This treasure of an oyster; at whose foot, +To mend the petty present, I will piece +Her opulent throne with kingdoms. All the east, +Say thou, shall call her mistress.” So he nodded +And soberly did mount an arm-gaunt steed, +Who neighed so high that what I would have spoke +Was beastly dumbed by him. + +CLEOPATRA. +What, was he sad or merry? + +ALEXAS. +Like to the time o’ th’ year between the extremes +Of hot and cold, he was nor sad nor merry. + +CLEOPATRA. +O well-divided disposition!—Note him, +Note him, good Charmian, ’tis the man; but note him: +He was not sad, for he would shine on those +That make their looks by his; he was not merry, +Which seemed to tell them his remembrance lay +In Egypt with his joy; but between both. +O heavenly mingle!—Be’st thou sad or merry, +The violence of either thee becomes, +So does it no man else.—Met’st thou my posts? + +ALEXAS. +Ay, madam, twenty several messengers. +Why do you send so thick? + +CLEOPATRA. +Who’s born that day +When I forget to send to Antony +Shall die a beggar.—Ink and paper, Charmian.— +Welcome, my good Alexas.—Did I, Charmian, +Ever love Caesar so? + +CHARMIAN. +O that brave Caesar! + +CLEOPATRA. +Be choked with such another emphasis! +Say “the brave Antony.” + +CHARMIAN. +The valiant Caesar! + +CLEOPATRA. +By Isis, I will give thee bloody teeth +If thou with Caesar paragon again +My man of men. + +CHARMIAN. +By your most gracious pardon, +I sing but after you. + +CLEOPATRA. +My salad days, +When I was green in judgment, cold in blood, +To say as I said then. But come, away, +Get me ink and paper. +He shall have every day a several greeting, +Or I’ll unpeople Egypt. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + +ACT II + + +SCENE I. Messina. A Room in Pompey’s house. + + Enter Pompey, Menecrates and Menas in warlike manner. + +POMPEY. +If the great gods be just, they shall assist +The deeds of justest men. + +MENECRATES. +Know, worthy Pompey, +That what they do delay they not deny. + +POMPEY. +Whiles we are suitors to their throne, decays +The thing we sue for. + +MENECRATES. +We, ignorant of ourselves, +Beg often our own harms, which the wise powers +Deny us for our good; so find we profit +By losing of our prayers. + +POMPEY. +I shall do well. +The people love me, and the sea is mine; +My powers are crescent, and my auguring hope +Says it will come to th’ full. Mark Antony +In Egypt sits at dinner, and will make +No wars without doors. Caesar gets money where +He loses hearts. Lepidus flatters both, +Of both is flattered; but he neither loves +Nor either cares for him. + +MENAS. +Caesar and Lepidus +Are in the field. A mighty strength they carry. + +POMPEY. +Where have you this? ’Tis false. + +MENAS. +From Silvius, sir. + +POMPEY. +He dreams. I know they are in Rome together, +Looking for Antony. But all the charms of love, +Salt Cleopatra, soften thy waned lip! +Let witchcraft join with beauty, lust with both; +Tie up the libertine in a field of feasts; +Keep his brain fuming. Epicurean cooks +Sharpen with cloyless sauce his appetite, +That sleep and feeding may prorogue his honour +Even till a Lethe’d dullness— + + Enter Varrius. + +How now, Varrius! + +VARRIUS. +This is most certain that I shall deliver: +Mark Antony is every hour in Rome +Expected. Since he went from Egypt ’tis +A space for farther travel. + +POMPEY. +I could have given less matter +A better ear.—Menas, I did not think +This amorous surfeiter would have donned his helm +For such a petty war. His soldiership +Is twice the other twain. But let us rear +The higher our opinion, that our stirring +Can from the lap of Egypt’s widow pluck +The ne’er lust-wearied Antony. + +MENAS. +I cannot hope +Caesar and Antony shall well greet together. +His wife that’s dead did trespasses to Caesar; +His brother warred upon him, although I think, +Not moved by Antony. + +POMPEY. +I know not, Menas, +How lesser enmities may give way to greater. +Were’t not that we stand up against them all, +’Twere pregnant they should square between themselves, +For they have entertained cause enough +To draw their swords. But how the fear of us +May cement their divisions, and bind up +The petty difference, we yet not know. +Be’t as our gods will have’t! It only stands +Our lives upon to use our strongest hands. +Come, Menas. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Rome. A Room in the House of Lepidus. + + Enter Enobarbus and Lepidus. + +LEPIDUS. +Good Enobarbus, ’tis a worthy deed, +And shall become you well, to entreat your captain +To soft and gentle speech. + +ENOBARBUS. +I shall entreat him +To answer like himself. If Caesar move him, +Let Antony look over Caesar’s head +And speak as loud as Mars. By Jupiter, +Were I the wearer of Antonius’ beard, +I would not shave’t today. + +LEPIDUS. +’Tis not a time +For private stomaching. + +ENOBARBUS. +Every time +Serves for the matter that is then born in’t. + +LEPIDUS. +But small to greater matters must give way. + +ENOBARBUS. +Not if the small come first. + +LEPIDUS. +Your speech is passion; +But pray you stir no embers up. Here comes +The noble Antony. + + Enter Antony and Ventidius. + +ENOBARBUS. +And yonder Caesar. + + Enter Caesar, Maecenas and Agrippa. + +ANTONY. +If we compose well here, to Parthia. +Hark, Ventidius. + +CAESAR. +I do not know, Maecenas. Ask Agrippa. + +LEPIDUS. +Noble friends, +That which combined us was most great, and let not +A leaner action rend us. What’s amiss, +May it be gently heard. When we debate +Our trivial difference loud, we do commit +Murder in healing wounds. Then, noble partners, +The rather for I earnestly beseech, +Touch you the sourest points with sweetest terms, +Nor curstness grow to th’ matter. + +ANTONY. +’Tis spoken well. +Were we before our armies, and to fight, +I should do thus. + +CAESAR. +Welcome to Rome. + +ANTONY. +Thank you. + +CAESAR. +Sit. + +ANTONY. +Sit, sir. + +CAESAR. +Nay, then. + +ANTONY. +I learn you take things ill which are not so, +Or being, concern you not. + +CAESAR. +I must be laughed at +If, or for nothing or a little, I +Should say myself offended, and with you +Chiefly i’ th’ world; more laughed at that I should +Once name you derogately when to sound your name +It not concerned me. + +ANTONY. +My being in Egypt, Caesar, +What was’t to you? + +CAESAR. +No more than my residing here at Rome +Might be to you in Egypt. Yet if you there +Did practise on my state, your being in Egypt +Might be my question. + +ANTONY. +How intend you, practised? + +CAESAR. +You may be pleased to catch at mine intent +By what did here befall me. Your wife and brother +Made wars upon me, and their contestation +Was theme for you; you were the word of war. + +ANTONY. +You do mistake your business. My brother never +Did urge me in his act. I did inquire it, +And have my learning from some true reports +That drew their swords with you. Did he not rather +Discredit my authority with yours, +And make the wars alike against my stomach, +Having alike your cause? Of this my letters +Before did satisfy you. If you’ll patch a quarrel, +As matter whole you have not to make it with, +It must not be with this. + +CAESAR. +You praise yourself +By laying defects of judgment to me; but +You patched up your excuses. + +ANTONY. +Not so, not so. +I know you could not lack—I am certain on’t— +Very necessity of this thought, that I, +Your partner in the cause ’gainst which he fought, +Could not with graceful eyes attend those wars +Which fronted mine own peace. As for my wife, +I would you had her spirit in such another. +The third o’ th’ world is yours, which with a snaffle +You may pace easy, but not such a wife. + +ENOBARBUS. +Would we had all such wives, that the men +Might go to wars with the women. + +ANTONY. +So much uncurbable, her garboils, Caesar, +Made out of her impatience—which not wanted +Shrewdness of policy too—I grieving grant +Did you too much disquiet. For that you must +But say I could not help it. + +CAESAR. +I wrote to you +When rioting in Alexandria; you +Did pocket up my letters, and with taunts +Did gibe my missive out of audience. + +ANTONY. +Sir, +He fell upon me ere admitted, then. +Three kings I had newly feasted, and did want +Of what I was i’ th’ morning. But next day +I told him of myself, which was as much +As to have asked him pardon. Let this fellow +Be nothing of our strife; if we contend, +Out of our question wipe him. + +CAESAR. +You have broken +The article of your oath, which you shall never +Have tongue to charge me with. + +LEPIDUS. +Soft, Caesar! + +ANTONY. +No, Lepidus, let him speak. +The honour is sacred which he talks on now, +Supposing that I lacked it. But on, Caesar: +The article of my oath? + +CAESAR. +To lend me arms and aid when I required them, +The which you both denied. + +ANTONY. +Neglected, rather; +And then when poisoned hours had bound me up +From mine own knowledge. As nearly as I may +I’ll play the penitent to you. But mine honesty +Shall not make poor my greatness, nor my power +Work without it. Truth is that Fulvia, +To have me out of Egypt, made wars here, +For which myself, the ignorant motive, do +So far ask pardon as befits mine honour +To stoop in such a case. + +LEPIDUS. +’Tis noble spoken. + +MAECENAS. +If it might please you to enforce no further +The griefs between ye; to forget them quite +Were to remember that the present need +Speaks to atone you. + +LEPIDUS. +Worthily spoken, Maecenas. + +ENOBARBUS. +Or, if you borrow one another’s love for the instant, you may, when you +hear no more words of Pompey, return it again. You shall have time to +wrangle in when you have nothing else to do. + +ANTONY. +Thou art a soldier only. Speak no more. + +ENOBARBUS. +That truth should be silent I had almost forgot. + +ANTONY. +You wrong this presence; therefore speak no more. + +ENOBARBUS. +Go to, then. Your considerate stone! + +CAESAR. +I do not much dislike the matter, but +The manner of his speech; for’t cannot be +We shall remain in friendship, our conditions +So differing in their acts. Yet if I knew +What hoop should hold us staunch, from edge to edge +O’ th’ world I would pursue it. + +AGRIPPA. +Give me leave, Caesar. + +CAESAR. +Speak, Agrippa. + +AGRIPPA. +Thou hast a sister by the mother’s side, +Admired Octavia. Great Mark Antony +Is now a widower. + +CAESAR. +Say not so, Agrippa. +If Cleopatra heard you, your reproof +Were well deserved of rashness. + +ANTONY. +I am not married, Caesar. Let me hear +Agrippa further speak. + +AGRIPPA. +To hold you in perpetual amity, +To make you brothers, and to knit your hearts +With an unslipping knot, take Antony +Octavia to his wife; whose beauty claims +No worse a husband than the best of men; +Whose virtue and whose general graces speak +That which none else can utter. By this marriage +All little jealousies, which now seem great, +And all great fears, which now import their dangers, +Would then be nothing. Truths would be tales, +Where now half-tales be truths. Her love to both +Would each to other, and all loves to both, +Draw after her. Pardon what I have spoke, +For ’tis a studied, not a present thought, +By duty ruminated. + +ANTONY. +Will Caesar speak? + +CAESAR. +Not till he hears how Antony is touched +With what is spoke already. + +ANTONY. +What power is in Agrippa, +If I would say “Agrippa, be it so,” +To make this good? + +CAESAR. +The power of Caesar, and +His power unto Octavia. + +ANTONY. +May I never +To this good purpose, that so fairly shows, +Dream of impediment! Let me have thy hand. +Further this act of grace; and from this hour +The heart of brothers govern in our loves +And sway our great designs! + +CAESAR. +There’s my hand. +A sister I bequeath you, whom no brother +Did ever love so dearly. Let her live +To join our kingdoms and our hearts; and never +Fly off our loves again! + +LEPIDUS. +Happily, amen! + +ANTONY. +I did not think to draw my sword ’gainst Pompey, +For he hath laid strange courtesies and great +Of late upon me. I must thank him only, +Lest my remembrance suffer ill report; +At heel of that, defy him. + +LEPIDUS. +Time calls upon ’s. +Of us must Pompey presently be sought, +Or else he seeks out us. + +ANTONY. +Where lies he? + +CAESAR. +About the Mount Misena. + +ANTONY. +What is his strength by land? + +CAESAR. +Great and increasing; but by sea +He is an absolute master. + +ANTONY. +So is the fame. +Would we had spoke together! Haste we for it. +Yet, ere we put ourselves in arms, dispatch we +The business we have talked of. + +CAESAR. +With most gladness, +And do invite you to my sister’s view, +Whither straight I’ll lead you. + +ANTONY. +Let us, Lepidus, not lack your company. + +LEPIDUS. +Noble Antony, not sickness should detain me. + + [_Flourish. Exeunt all except Enobarbus, Agrippa and Maecenas._] + +MAECENAS. +Welcome from Egypt, sir. + +ENOBARBUS. +Half the heart of Caesar, worthy Maecenas! My honourable friend, +Agrippa! + +AGRIPPA. +Good Enobarbus! + +MAECENAS. +We have cause to be glad that matters are so well digested. You stayed +well by ’t in Egypt. + +ENOBARBUS. +Ay, sir, we did sleep day out of countenance and made the night light +with drinking. + +MAECENAS. +Eight wild boars roasted whole at a breakfast, and but twelve persons +there. Is this true? + +ENOBARBUS. +This was but as a fly by an eagle. We had much more monstrous matter of +feast, which worthily deserved noting. + +MAECENAS. +She’s a most triumphant lady, if report be square to her. + +ENOBARBUS. +When she first met Mark Antony, she pursed up his heart upon the river +of Cydnus. + +AGRIPPA. +There she appeared indeed, or my reporter devised well for her. + +ENOBARBUS. +I will tell you. +The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne, +Burned on the water. The poop was beaten gold; +Purple the sails, and so perfumed that +The winds were love-sick with them; the oars were silver, +Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made +The water which they beat to follow faster, +As amorous of their strokes. For her own person, +It beggared all description: she did lie +In her pavilion, cloth-of-gold of tissue, +O’erpicturing that Venus where we see +The fancy outwork nature. On each side her +Stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids, +With divers-coloured fans, whose wind did seem +To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool, +And what they undid did. + +AGRIPPA. +O, rare for Antony! + +ENOBARBUS. +Her gentlewomen, like the Nereides, +So many mermaids, tended her i’ th’ eyes, +And made their bends adornings. At the helm +A seeming mermaid steers. The silken tackle +Swell with the touches of those flower-soft hands +That yarely frame the office. From the barge +A strange invisible perfume hits the sense +Of the adjacent wharfs. The city cast +Her people out upon her, and Antony, +Enthroned i’ th’ market-place, did sit alone, +Whistling to th’ air, which, but for vacancy, +Had gone to gaze on Cleopatra too, +And made a gap in nature. + +AGRIPPA. +Rare Egyptian! + +ENOBARBUS. +Upon her landing, Antony sent to her, +Invited her to supper. She replied +It should be better he became her guest, +Which she entreated. Our courteous Antony, +Whom ne’er the word of “No” woman heard speak, +Being barbered ten times o’er, goes to the feast, +And, for his ordinary, pays his heart +For what his eyes eat only. + +AGRIPPA. +Royal wench! +She made great Caesar lay his sword to bed. +He ploughed her, and she cropped. + +ENOBARBUS. +I saw her once +Hop forty paces through the public street +And, having lost her breath, she spoke and panted, +That she did make defect perfection, +And, breathless, pour breath forth. + +MAECENAS. +Now Antony must leave her utterly. + +ENOBARBUS. +Never. He will not. +Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale +Her infinite variety. Other women cloy +The appetites they feed, but she makes hungry +Where most she satisfies. For vilest things +Become themselves in her, that the holy priests +Bless her when she is riggish. + +MAECENAS. +If beauty, wisdom, modesty can settle +The heart of Antony, Octavia is +A blessed lottery to him. + +AGRIPPA. +Let us go. +Good Enobarbus, make yourself my guest +Whilst you abide here. + +ENOBARBUS. +Humbly, sir, I thank you. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Rome. A Room in Caesar’s House. + + Enter Antony, Caesar, Octavia between them. + +ANTONY. +The world and my great office will sometimes +Divide me from your bosom. + +OCTAVIA. +All which time +Before the gods my knee shall bow my prayers +To them for you. + +ANTONY. +Good night, sir.—My Octavia, +Read not my blemishes in the world’s report. +I have not kept my square, but that to come +Shall all be done by th’ rule. Good night, dear lady. + +OCTAVIA. +Good night, sir. + +CAESAR. +Good night. + + [_Exeunt Caesar and Octavia._] + + Enter Soothsayer. + +ANTONY. +Now, sirrah, you do wish yourself in Egypt? + +SOOTHSAYER. +Would I had never come from thence, nor you thither! + +ANTONY. +If you can, your reason. + +SOOTHSAYER. +I see it in my motion, have it not in my tongue. +But yet hie you to Egypt again. + +ANTONY. +Say to me, +Whose fortunes shall rise higher, Caesar’s or mine? + +SOOTHSAYER. +Caesar’s. +Therefore, O Antony, stay not by his side. +Thy dæmon—that thy spirit which keeps thee—is +Noble, courageous, high, unmatchable, +Where Caesar’s is not. But near him, thy angel +Becomes afeard, as being o’erpowered. Therefore +Make space enough between you. + +ANTONY. +Speak this no more. + +SOOTHSAYER. +To none but thee; no more but when to thee. +If thou dost play with him at any game, +Thou art sure to lose; and of that natural luck +He beats thee ’gainst the odds. Thy lustre thickens +When he shines by. I say again, thy spirit +Is all afraid to govern thee near him; +But, he away, ’tis noble. + +ANTONY. +Get thee gone. +Say to Ventidius I would speak with him. + + [_Exit Soothsayer._] + +He shall to Parthia. Be it art or hap, +He hath spoken true. The very dice obey him, +And in our sports my better cunning faints +Under his chance. If we draw lots, he speeds; +His cocks do win the battle still of mine +When it is all to naught, and his quails ever +Beat mine, inhooped, at odds. I will to Egypt: +And though I make this marriage for my peace, +I’ th’ East my pleasure lies. + + Enter Ventidius. + +O, come, Ventidius, +You must to Parthia. Your commission’s ready. +Follow me and receive ’t. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Rome. A street. + + Enter Lepidus, Maecenas and Agrippa. + +LEPIDUS. +Trouble yourselves no further. Pray you hasten +Your generals after. + +AGRIPPA. +Sir, Mark Antony +Will e’en but kiss Octavia, and we’ll follow. + +LEPIDUS. +Till I shall see you in your soldier’s dress, +Which will become you both, farewell. + +MAECENAS. +We shall, +As I conceive the journey, be at the Mount +Before you, Lepidus. + +LEPIDUS. +Your way is shorter; +My purposes do draw me much about. +You’ll win two days upon me. + +BOTH. +Sir, good success! + +LEPIDUS. +Farewell. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Cleopatra, Charmian, Iras, Alexas. + +CLEOPATRA. +Give me some music—music, moody food +Of us that trade in love. + +ALL. +The music, ho! + + Enter Mardian, the eunuch. + +CLEOPATRA. +Let it alone. Let’s to billiards. Come, Charmian. + +CHARMIAN. +My arm is sore. Best play with Mardian. + +CLEOPATRA. +As well a woman with an eunuch played +As with a woman. Come, you’ll play with me, sir? + +MARDIAN. +As well as I can, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +And when good will is showed, though’t come too short, +The actor may plead pardon. I’ll none now. +Give me mine angle; we’ll to the river. There, +My music playing far off, I will betray +Tawny-finned fishes. My bended hook shall pierce +Their slimy jaws, and as I draw them up +I’ll think them every one an Antony, +And say “Ah, ha! You’re caught.” + +CHARMIAN. +’Twas merry when +You wagered on your angling; when your diver +Did hang a salt fish on his hook, which he +With fervency drew up. + +CLEOPATRA. +That time?—O times!— +I laughed him out of patience; and that night +I laughed him into patience, and next morn, +Ere the ninth hour, I drunk him to his bed, +Then put my tires and mantles on him, whilst +I wore his sword Philippan. + + Enter Messenger. + +O! from Italy! +Ram thou thy fruitful tidings in mine ears, +That long time have been barren. + +MESSENGER. +Madam, madam— + +CLEOPATRA. +Antony’s dead! If thou say so, villain, +Thou kill’st thy mistress. But well and free, +If thou so yield him, there is gold, and here +My bluest veins to kiss, a hand that kings +Have lipped, and trembled kissing. + +MESSENGER. +First, madam, he’s well. + +CLEOPATRA. +Why, there’s more gold. +But sirrah, mark, we use +To say the dead are well. Bring it to that, +The gold I give thee will I melt and pour +Down thy ill-uttering throat. + +MESSENGER. +Good madam, hear me. + +CLEOPATRA. +Well, go to, I will. +But there’s no goodness in thy face if Antony +Be free and healthful. So tart a favour +To trumpet such good tidings! If not well, +Thou shouldst come like a Fury crowned with snakes, +Not like a formal man. + +MESSENGER. +Will’t please you hear me? + +CLEOPATRA. +I have a mind to strike thee ere thou speak’st. +Yet if thou say Antony lives, is well, +Or friends with Caesar, or not captive to him, +I’ll set thee in a shower of gold and hail +Rich pearls upon thee. + +MESSENGER. +Madam, he’s well. + +CLEOPATRA. +Well said. + +MESSENGER. +And friends with Caesar. + +CLEOPATRA. +Th’ art an honest man. + +MESSENGER. +Caesar and he are greater friends than ever. + +CLEOPATRA. +Make thee a fortune from me. + +MESSENGER. +But yet, madam— + +CLEOPATRA. +I do not like “But yet”, it does allay +The good precedence. Fie upon “But yet”! +“But yet” is as a gaoler to bring forth +Some monstrous malefactor. Prithee, friend, +Pour out the pack of matter to mine ear, +The good and bad together: he’s friends with Caesar, +In state of health, thou say’st; and, thou say’st, free. + +MESSENGER. +Free, madam? No. I made no such report. +He’s bound unto Octavia. + +CLEOPATRA. +For what good turn? + +MESSENGER. +For the best turn i’ th’ bed. + +CLEOPATRA. +I am pale, Charmian. + +MESSENGER. +Madam, he’s married to Octavia. + +CLEOPATRA. +The most infectious pestilence upon thee! + + [_Strikes him down._] + +MESSENGER. +Good madam, patience. + +CLEOPATRA. +What say you? + + [_Strikes him again._] + +Hence, horrible villain, or I’ll spurn thine eyes +Like balls before me! I’ll unhair thy head! + + [_She hales him up and down._] + +Thou shalt be whipped with wire and stewed in brine, +Smarting in ling’ring pickle. + +MESSENGER. +Gracious madam, +I that do bring the news made not the match. + +CLEOPATRA. +Say ’tis not so, a province I will give thee, +And make thy fortunes proud. The blow thou hadst +Shall make thy peace for moving me to rage, +And I will boot thee with what gift beside +Thy modesty can beg. + +MESSENGER. +He’s married, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +Rogue, thou hast lived too long. + + [_Draws a knife._] + +MESSENGER. +Nay then I’ll run. +What mean you, madam? I have made no fault. + + [_Exit._] + +CHARMIAN. +Good madam, keep yourself within yourself. +The man is innocent. + +CLEOPATRA. +Some innocents ’scape not the thunderbolt. +Melt Egypt into Nile, and kindly creatures +Turn all to serpents! Call the slave again. +Though I am mad, I will not bite him. Call! + +CHARMIAN. +He is afeard to come. + +CLEOPATRA. +I will not hurt him. + + [_Exit Charmian._] + +These hands do lack nobility that they strike +A meaner than myself, since I myself +Have given myself the cause. + + Enter the Messenger again with Charmian. + +Come hither, sir. +Though it be honest, it is never good +To bring bad news. Give to a gracious message +An host of tongues, but let ill tidings tell +Themselves when they be felt. + +MESSENGER. +I have done my duty. + +CLEOPATRA. +Is he married? +I cannot hate thee worser than I do +If thou again say “Yes.” + +MESSENGER. +He’s married, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +The gods confound thee! Dost thou hold there still! + +MESSENGER. +Should I lie, madam? + +CLEOPATRA. +O, I would thou didst, +So half my Egypt were submerged and made +A cistern for scaled snakes! Go, get thee hence. +Hadst thou Narcissus in thy face, to me +Thou wouldst appear most ugly. He is married? + +MESSENGER. +I crave your highness’ pardon. + +CLEOPATRA. +He is married? + +MESSENGER. +Take no offence that I would not offend you. +To punish me for what you make me do +Seems much unequal. He’s married to Octavia. + +CLEOPATRA. +O, that his fault should make a knave of thee +That art not what thou’rt sure of! Get thee hence! +The merchandise which thou hast brought from Rome +Are all too dear for me. Lie they upon thy hand, +And be undone by ’em! + + [_Exit Messenger._] + +CHARMIAN. +Good your highness, patience. + +CLEOPATRA. +In praising Antony I have dispraised Caesar. + +CHARMIAN. +Many times, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +I am paid for’t now. +Lead me from hence; +I faint. O Iras, Charmian! ’Tis no matter. +Go to the fellow, good Alexas, bid him +Report the feature of Octavia, her years, +Her inclination; let him not leave out +The colour of her hair. Bring me word quickly. + + [_Exit Alexas._] + +Let him for ever go—let him not, Charmian. +Though he be painted one way like a Gorgon, +The other way ’s a Mars. [_To Mardian_] Bid you Alexas +Bring me word how tall she is. Pity me, Charmian, +But do not speak to me. Lead me to my chamber. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Near Misenum. + + Flourish. Enter Pompey and Menas at one door, with drum and trumpet; + at another, Caesar, Lepidus, Antony, Enobarbus, Maecenas, Agrippa, + with Soldiers marching. + +POMPEY. +Your hostages I have, so have you mine, +And we shall talk before we fight. + +CAESAR. +Most meet +That first we come to words, and therefore have we +Our written purposes before us sent, +Which if thou hast considered, let us know +If ’twill tie up thy discontented sword +And carry back to Sicily much tall youth +That else must perish here. + +POMPEY. +To you all three, +The senators alone of this great world, +Chief factors for the gods: I do not know +Wherefore my father should revengers want, +Having a son and friends, since Julius Caesar, +Who at Philippi the good Brutus ghosted, +There saw you labouring for him. What was’t +That moved pale Cassius to conspire? And what +Made the all-honoured, honest Roman, Brutus, +With the armed rest, courtiers of beauteous freedom, +To drench the Capitol, but that they would +Have one man but a man? And that is it +Hath made me rig my navy, at whose burden +The angered ocean foams, with which I meant +To scourge th’ ingratitude that despiteful Rome +Cast on my noble father. + +CAESAR. +Take your time. + +ANTONY. +Thou canst not fear us, Pompey, with thy sails. +We’ll speak with thee at sea. At land thou know’st +How much we do o’ercount thee. + +POMPEY. +At land indeed +Thou dost o’ercount me of my father’s house; +But since the cuckoo builds not for himself, +Remain in’t as thou mayst. + +LEPIDUS. +Be pleased to tell us— +For this is from the present—how you take +The offers we have sent you. + +CAESAR. +There’s the point. + +ANTONY. +Which do not be entreated to, but weigh +What it is worth embraced. + +CAESAR. +And what may follow +To try a larger fortune. + +POMPEY. +You have made me offer +Of Sicily, Sardinia; and I must +Rid all the sea of pirates; then to send +Measures of wheat to Rome. This ’greed upon, +To part with unhacked edges and bear back +Our targes undinted. + +CAESAR, ANTONY, and LEPIDUS. +That’s our offer. + +POMPEY. +Know, then, +I came before you here a man prepared +To take this offer. But Mark Antony +Put me to some impatience. Though I lose +The praise of it by telling, you must know +When Caesar and your brother were at blows, +Your mother came to Sicily and did find +Her welcome friendly. + +ANTONY. +I have heard it, Pompey, +And am well studied for a liberal thanks +Which I do owe you. + +POMPEY. +Let me have your hand. +I did not think, sir, to have met you here. + +ANTONY. +The beds i’ th’ East are soft; and thanks to you, +That called me timelier than my purpose hither, +For I have gained by ’t. + +CAESAR. +Since I saw you last, +There is a change upon you. + +POMPEY. +Well, I know not +What counts harsh Fortune casts upon my face, +But in my bosom shall she never come +To make my heart her vassal. + +LEPIDUS. +Well met here. + +POMPEY. +I hope so, Lepidus. Thus we are agreed. +I crave our composition may be written +And sealed between us. + +CAESAR. +That’s the next to do. + +POMPEY. +We’ll feast each other ere we part, and let’s +Draw lots who shall begin. + +ANTONY. +That will I, Pompey. + +POMPEY. +No, Antony, take the lot. +But, first or last, your fine Egyptian cookery +Shall have the fame. I have heard that Julius Caesar +Grew fat with feasting there. + +ANTONY. +You have heard much. + +POMPEY. +I have fair meanings, sir. + +ANTONY. +And fair words to them. + +POMPEY. +Then so much have I heard. +And I have heard Apollodorus carried— + +ENOBARBUS. +No more of that. He did so. + +POMPEY. +What, I pray you? + +ENOBARBUS. +A certain queen to Caesar in a mattress. + +POMPEY. +I know thee now. How far’st thou, soldier? + +ENOBARBUS. +Well; +And well am like to do, for I perceive +Four feasts are toward. + +POMPEY. +Let me shake thy hand. +I never hated thee. I have seen thee fight +When I have envied thy behaviour. + +ENOBARBUS. +Sir, +I never loved you much, but I ha’ praised ye +When you have well deserved ten times as much +As I have said you did. + +POMPEY. +Enjoy thy plainness; +It nothing ill becomes thee. +Aboard my galley I invite you all. +Will you lead, lords? + +CAESAR, ANTONY, and LEPIDUS. +Show’s the way, sir. + +POMPEY. +Come. + + [_Exeunt all but Enobarbus and Menas._] + +MENAS. +[_Aside_.] Thy father, Pompey, would ne’er have made this treaty.— +You and I have known, sir. + +ENOBARBUS. +At sea, I think. + +MENAS. +We have, sir. + +ENOBARBUS. +You have done well by water. + +MENAS. +And you by land. + +ENOBARBUS. +I will praise any man that will praise me, though it cannot be denied +what I have done by land. + +MENAS. +Nor what I have done by water. + +ENOBARBUS. +Yes, something you can deny for your own safety: you have been a great +thief by sea. + +MENAS. +And you by land. + +ENOBARBUS. +There I deny my land service. But give me your hand, Menas. If our eyes +had authority, here they might take two thieves kissing. + +MENAS. +All men’s faces are true, whatsome’er their hands are. + +ENOBARBUS. +But there is never a fair woman has a true face. + +MENAS. +No slander. They steal hearts. + +ENOBARBUS. +We came hither to fight with you. + +MENAS. +For my part, I am sorry it is turned to a drinking. Pompey doth this +day laugh away his fortune. + +ENOBARBUS. +If he do, sure he cannot weep ’t back again. + +MENAS. +You have said, sir. We looked not for Mark Antony here. Pray you, is he +married to Cleopatra? + +ENOBARBUS. +Caesar’s sister is called Octavia. + +MENAS. +True, sir. She was the wife of Caius Marcellus. + +ENOBARBUS. +But she is now the wife of Marcus Antonius. + +MENAS. +Pray you, sir? + +ENOBARBUS. +’Tis true. + +MENAS. +Then is Caesar and he for ever knit together. + +ENOBARBUS. +If I were bound to divine of this unity, I would not prophesy so. + +MENAS. +I think the policy of that purpose made more in the marriage than the +love of the parties. + +ENOBARBUS. +I think so too. But you shall find the band that seems to tie their +friendship together will be the very strangler of their amity. Octavia +is of a holy, cold, and still conversation. + +MENAS. +Who would not have his wife so? + +ENOBARBUS. +Not he that himself is not so; which is Mark Antony. He will to his +Egyptian dish again. Then shall the sighs of Octavia blow the fire up +in Caesar, and, as I said before, that which is the strength of their +amity shall prove the immediate author of their variance. Antony will +use his affection where it is. He married but his occasion here. + +MENAS. +And thus it may be. Come, sir, will you aboard? I have a health for +you. + +ENOBARBUS. +I shall take it, sir. We have used our throats in Egypt. + +MENAS. +Come, let’s away. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. On board Pompey’s Galley, lying near Misenum. + + Music. Enter two or three Servants with a banquet. + +FIRST SERVANT. +Here they’ll be, man. Some o’ their plants are ill-rooted already; the +least wind i’ th’ world will blow them down. + +SECOND SERVANT. +Lepidus is high-coloured. + +FIRST SERVANT. +They have made him drink alms-drink. + +SECOND SERVANT. +As they pinch one another by the disposition, he cries out “no more”, +reconciles them to his entreaty and himself to th’ drink. + +FIRST SERVANT. +But it raises the greater war between him and his discretion. + +SECOND SERVANT. +Why, this it is to have a name in great men’s fellowship. I had as lief +have a reed that will do me no service as a partisan I could not heave. + +FIRST SERVANT. +To be called into a huge sphere, and not to be seen to move in ’t, are +the holes where eyes should be, which pitifully disaster the cheeks. + + A sennet sounded. Enter Caesar, Antony, Pompey, Lepidus, Agrippa, + Maecenas, Enobarbus, Menas with other Captains. + +ANTONY. +[_To Caesar_.] Thus do they, sir: they take the flow o’ th’ Nile +By certain scales i’ th’ pyramid; they know +By th’ height, the lowness, or the mean, if dearth +Or foison follow. The higher Nilus swells, +The more it promises. As it ebbs, the seedsman +Upon the slime and ooze scatters his grain, +And shortly comes to harvest. + +LEPIDUS. +You’ve strange serpents there? + +ANTONY. +Ay, Lepidus. + +LEPIDUS. +Your serpent of Egypt is bred now of your mud by the operation of your +sun; so is your crocodile. + +ANTONY. +They are so. + +POMPEY. +Sit, and some wine! A health to Lepidus! + +LEPIDUS. +I am not so well as I should be, but I’ll ne’er out. + +ENOBARBUS. +Not till you have slept. I fear me you’ll be in till then. + +LEPIDUS. +Nay, certainly, I have heard the Ptolemies’ pyramises are very goodly +things. Without contradiction I have heard that. + +MENAS. +[_Aside to Pompey_.] Pompey, a word. + +POMPEY. +[_Aside to Menas_.] Say in mine ear what is ’t? + +MENAS. +[_Whispers in ’s ear._] Forsake thy seat, I do beseech thee, captain, +And hear me speak a word. + +POMPEY. +[_Aside to Menas._] Forbear me till anon.— +This wine for Lepidus! + +LEPIDUS. +What manner o’ thing is your crocodile? + +ANTONY. +It is shaped, sir, like itself, and it is as broad as it hath breadth. +It is just so high as it is, and moves with it own organs. It lives by +that which nourisheth it, and the elements once out of it, it +transmigrates. + +LEPIDUS. +What colour is it of? + +ANTONY. +Of its own colour too. + +LEPIDUS. +’Tis a strange serpent. + +ANTONY. +’Tis so, and the tears of it are wet. + +CAESAR. +Will this description satisfy him? + +ANTONY. +With the health that Pompey gives him, else he is a very epicure. + +POMPEY. +[_Aside to Menas._] Go hang, sir, hang! Tell me of that? Away! +Do as I bid you.—Where’s this cup I called for? + +MENAS. +[_Aside to Pompey_.] If for the sake of merit thou wilt hear me, +Rise from thy stool. + +POMPEY. +[_Aside to Menas_.] I think thou’rt mad. + + [_Rises and walks aside._] + +The matter? + +MENAS. +I have ever held my cap off to thy fortunes. + +POMPEY. +Thou hast served me with much faith. What’s else to say?— +Be jolly, lords. + +ANTONY. +These quicksands, Lepidus, +Keep off them, for you sink. + +MENAS. +Wilt thou be lord of all the world? + +POMPEY. +What sayst thou? + +MENAS. +Wilt thou be lord of the whole world? +That’s twice. + +POMPEY. +How should that be? + +MENAS. +But entertain it, +And though you think me poor, I am the man +Will give thee all the world. + +POMPEY. +Hast thou drunk well? + +MENAS. +No, Pompey, I have kept me from the cup. +Thou art, if thou dar’st be, the earthly Jove. +Whate’er the ocean pales or sky inclips +Is thine, if thou wilt have’t. + +POMPEY. +Show me which way. + +MENAS. +These three world-sharers, these competitors, +Are in thy vessel. Let me cut the cable, +And when we are put off, fall to their throats. +All then is thine. + +POMPEY. +Ah, this thou shouldst have done +And not have spoke on ’t! In me ’tis villainy; +In thee ’t had been good service. Thou must know +’Tis not my profit that does lead mine honour; +Mine honour it. Repent that e’er thy tongue +Hath so betray’d thine act. Being done unknown, +I should have found it afterwards well done, +But must condemn it now. Desist, and drink. + +MENAS. +[_Aside_.] For this, +I’ll never follow thy palled fortunes more. +Who seeks, and will not take when once ’tis offered, +Shall never find it more. + +POMPEY. +This health to Lepidus! + +ANTONY. +Bear him ashore. I’ll pledge it for him, Pompey. + +ENOBARBUS. +Here’s to thee, Menas! + +MENAS. +Enobarbus, welcome! + +POMPEY. +Fill till the cup be hid. + +ENOBARBUS. +There’s a strong fellow, Menas. + + [_Pointing to the servant who carries off Lepidus._] + +MENAS. +Why? + +ENOBARBUS. +’A bears the third part of the world, man. Seest not? + +MENAS. +The third part, then, is drunk. Would it were all, +That it might go on wheels! + +ENOBARBUS. +Drink thou. Increase the reels. + +MENAS. +Come. + +POMPEY. +This is not yet an Alexandrian feast. + +ANTONY. +It ripens towards it. Strike the vessels, ho! +Here is to Caesar! + +CAESAR. +I could well forbear’t. +It’s monstrous labour when I wash my brain +And it grows fouler. + +ANTONY. +Be a child o’ the time. + +CAESAR. +Possess it, I’ll make answer. +But I had rather fast from all, four days, +Than drink so much in one. + +ENOBARBUS. +[_To Antony_.] Ha, my brave emperor, +Shall we dance now the Egyptian Bacchanals +And celebrate our drink? + +POMPEY. +Let’s ha’t, good soldier. + +ANTONY. +Come, let’s all take hands +Till that the conquering wine hath steeped our sense +In soft and delicate Lethe. + +ENOBARBUS. +All take hands. +Make battery to our ears with the loud music, +The while I’ll place you; then the boy shall sing. +The holding every man shall beat as loud +As his strong sides can volley. + + Music plays. Enobarbus places them hand in hand. + + THE SONG. + Come, thou monarch of the vine, + Plumpy Bacchus with pink eyne! + In thy vats our cares be drowned, + With thy grapes our hairs be crowned. + Cup us till the world go round, + Cup us till the world go round! + +CAESAR. +What would you more? Pompey, good night. Good brother, +Let me request you off. Our graver business +Frowns at this levity.—Gentle lords, let’s part. +You see we have burnt our cheeks. Strong Enobarb +Is weaker than the wine, and mine own tongue +Splits what it speaks. The wild disguise hath almost +Anticked us all. What needs more words. Good night. +Good Antony, your hand. + +POMPEY. +I’ll try you on the shore. + +ANTONY. +And shall, sir. Give’s your hand. + +POMPEY. +O Antony, +You have my father’s house. +But, what? We are friends. Come, down into the boat. + +ENOBARBUS. +Take heed you fall not. + + [_Exeunt Pompey, Caesar, Antony and Attendants._] + +Menas, I’ll not on shore. + +MENAS. +No, to my cabin. These drums, these trumpets, flutes! What! +Let Neptune hear we bid a loud farewell +To these great fellows. Sound and be hanged, sound out! + + [_Sound a flourish with drums._] + +ENOBARBUS. +Hoo, says ’a! There’s my cap! + +MENAS. +Hoo! Noble captain, come. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + +ACT III + + +SCENE I. A plain in Syria. + + Enter Ventidius as it were in triumph, with Silius and other Romans, + Officers and Soldiers; the dead body of Pacorus borne before him. + +VENTIDIUS. +Now, darting Parthia, art thou struck, and now +Pleased Fortune does of Marcus Crassus’ death +Make me revenger. Bear the king’s son’s body +Before our army. Thy Pacorus, Orodes, +Pays this for Marcus Crassus. + +SILIUS. +Noble Ventidius, +Whilst yet with Parthian blood thy sword is warm, +The fugitive Parthians follow. Spur through Media, +Mesopotamia, and the shelters whither +The routed fly. So thy grand captain Antony +Shall set thee on triumphant chariots, and +Put garlands on thy head. + +VENTIDIUS. +O Silius, Silius, +I have done enough. A lower place, note well, +May make too great an act. For learn this, Silius: +Better to leave undone than by our deed +Acquire too high a fame when him we serve’s away. +Caesar and Antony have ever won +More in their officer, than person. Sossius, +One of my place in Syria, his lieutenant, +For quick accumulation of renown, +Which he achieved by th’ minute, lost his favour. +Who does i’ th’ wars more than his captain can +Becomes his captain’s captain; and ambition, +The soldier’s virtue, rather makes choice of loss +Than gain which darkens him. +I could do more to do Antonius good, +But ’twould offend him, and in his offence +Should my performance perish. + +SILIUS. +Thou hast, Ventidius, that +Without the which a soldier and his sword +Grants scarce distinction. Thou wilt write to Antony? + +VENTIDIUS. +I’ll humbly signify what in his name, +That magical word of war, we have effected; +How, with his banners, and his well-paid ranks, +The ne’er-yet-beaten horse of Parthia +We have jaded out o’ th’ field. + +SILIUS. +Where is he now? + +VENTIDIUS. +He purposeth to Athens, whither, with what haste +The weight we must convey with ’s will permit, +We shall appear before him.—On there, pass along! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Rome. An Ante-chamber in Caesar’s house. + + Enter Agrippa at one door, Enobarbus at another. + +AGRIPPA. +What, are the brothers parted? + +ENOBARBUS. +They have dispatched with Pompey; he is gone. +The other three are sealing. Octavia weeps +To part from Rome. Caesar is sad, and Lepidus, +Since Pompey’s feast, as Menas says, is troubled +With the greensickness. + +AGRIPPA. +’Tis a noble Lepidus. + +ENOBARBUS. +A very fine one. O, how he loves Caesar! + +AGRIPPA. +Nay, but how dearly he adores Mark Antony! + +ENOBARBUS. +Caesar? Why he’s the Jupiter of men. + +AGRIPPA. +What’s Antony? The god of Jupiter. + +ENOBARBUS. +Spake you of Caesar? How, the nonpareil! + +AGRIPPA. +O, Antony! O thou Arabian bird! + +ENOBARBUS. +Would you praise Caesar, say “Caesar”. Go no further. + +AGRIPPA. +Indeed, he plied them both with excellent praises. + +ENOBARBUS. +But he loves Caesar best, yet he loves Antony. +Hoo! Hearts, tongues, figures, scribes, bards, poets, cannot +Think, speak, cast, write, sing, number—hoo!— +His love to Antony. But as for Caesar, +Kneel down, kneel down, and wonder. + +AGRIPPA. +Both he loves. + +ENOBARBUS. +They are his shards, and he their beetle. + + [_Trumpets within._] + +So, +This is to horse. Adieu, noble Agrippa. + +AGRIPPA. +Good fortune, worthy soldier, and farewell. + + Enter Caesar, Antony, Lepidus and Octavia. + +ANTONY. +No further, sir. + +CAESAR. +You take from me a great part of myself. +Use me well in’t. Sister, prove such a wife +As my thoughts make thee, and as my farthest bond +Shall pass on thy approof. Most noble Antony, +Let not the piece of virtue which is set +Betwixt us, as the cement of our love +To keep it builded, be the ram to batter +The fortress of it. For better might we +Have loved without this mean, if on both parts +This be not cherished. + +ANTONY. +Make me not offended +In your distrust. + +CAESAR. +I have said. + +ANTONY. +You shall not find, +Though you be therein curious, the least cause +For what you seem to fear. So the gods keep you, +And make the hearts of Romans serve your ends. +We will here part. + +CAESAR. +Farewell, my dearest sister, fare thee well. +The elements be kind to thee, and make +Thy spirits all of comfort! Fare thee well. + +OCTAVIA. +My noble brother! + +ANTONY. +The April’s in her eyes. It is love’s spring, +And these the showers to bring it on.—Be cheerful. + +OCTAVIA. +Sir, look well to my husband’s house, and— + +CAESAR. +What, Octavia? + +OCTAVIA. +I’ll tell you in your ear. + +ANTONY. +Her tongue will not obey her heart, nor can +Her heart inform her tongue—the swan’s-down feather, +That stands upon the swell at the full of tide, +And neither way inclines. + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside to Agrippa_.] Will Caesar weep? + +AGRIPPA. +[_Aside to Enobarbus_.] He has a cloud in ’s face. + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside to Agrippa_.] He were the worse for that were he a horse; +So is he, being a man. + +AGRIPPA. +[_Aside to Enobarbus_.] Why, Enobarbus, +When Antony found Julius Caesar dead, +He cried almost to roaring, and he wept +When at Philippi he found Brutus slain. + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside to Agrippa_.] That year, indeed, he was troubled with a rheum; +What willingly he did confound he wailed, +Believe ’t, till I weep too. + +CAESAR. +No, sweet Octavia, +You shall hear from me still. The time shall not +Outgo my thinking on you. + +ANTONY. +Come, sir, come, +I’ll wrestle with you in my strength of love. +Look, here I have you, thus I let you go, +And give you to the gods. + +CAESAR. +Adieu, be happy! + +LEPIDUS. +Let all the number of the stars give light +To thy fair way! + +CAESAR. +Farewell, farewell! + + [_Kisses Octavia._] + +ANTONY. +Farewell! + + [_Trumpets sound. Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Cleopatra, Charmian, Iras and Alexas. + +CLEOPATRA. +Where is the fellow? + +ALEXAS. +Half afeared to come. + +CLEOPATRA. +Go to, go to. + + Enter a Messenger as before. + +Come hither, sir. + +ALEXAS. +Good majesty, +Herod of Jewry dare not look upon you +But when you are well pleased. + +CLEOPATRA. +That Herod’s head +I’ll have! But how, when Antony is gone, +Through whom I might command it?—Come thou near. + +MESSENGER. +Most gracious majesty! + +CLEOPATRA. +Didst thou behold Octavia? + +MESSENGER. +Ay, dread queen. + +CLEOPATRA. +Where? + +MESSENGER. +Madam, in Rome +I looked her in the face, and saw her led +Between her brother and Mark Antony. + +CLEOPATRA. +Is she as tall as me? + +MESSENGER. +She is not, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +Didst hear her speak? Is she shrill-tongued or low? + +MESSENGER. +Madam, I heard her speak. She is low-voiced. + +CLEOPATRA. +That’s not so good. He cannot like her long. + +CHARMIAN. +Like her? O Isis! ’Tis impossible. + +CLEOPATRA. +I think so, Charmian: dull of tongue and dwarfish! +What majesty is in her gait? Remember, +If e’er thou look’dst on majesty. + +MESSENGER. +She creeps. +Her motion and her station are as one. +She shows a body rather than a life, +A statue than a breather. + +CLEOPATRA. +Is this certain? + +MESSENGER. +Or I have no observance. + +CHARMIAN. +Three in Egypt +Cannot make better note. + +CLEOPATRA. +He’s very knowing; +I do perceive’t. There’s nothing in her yet. +The fellow has good judgment. + +CHARMIAN. +Excellent. + +CLEOPATRA. +Guess at her years, I prithee. + +MESSENGER. +Madam, +She was a widow. + +CLEOPATRA. +Widow! Charmian, hark! + +MESSENGER. +And I do think she’s thirty. + +CLEOPATRA. +Bear’st thou her face in mind? Is’t long or round? + +MESSENGER. +Round even to faultiness. + +CLEOPATRA. +For the most part, too, they are foolish that are so. +Her hair, what colour? + +MESSENGER. +Brown, madam, and her forehead +As low as she would wish it. + +CLEOPATRA. +There’s gold for thee. +Thou must not take my former sharpness ill. +I will employ thee back again; I find thee +Most fit for business. Go make thee ready; +Our letters are prepared. + + [_Exit Messenger._] + +CHARMIAN. +A proper man. + +CLEOPATRA. +Indeed, he is so. I repent me much +That so I harried him. Why, methinks, by him, +This creature’s no such thing. + +CHARMIAN. +Nothing, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +The man hath seen some majesty, and should know. + +CHARMIAN. +Hath he seen majesty? Isis else defend, +And serving you so long! + +CLEOPATRA. +I have one thing more to ask him yet, good Charmian. +But ’tis no matter; thou shalt bring him to me +Where I will write. All may be well enough. + +CHARMIAN. +I warrant you, madam. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Athens. A Room in Antony’s House. + + Enter Antony and Octavia. + +ANTONY. +Nay, nay, Octavia, not only that— +That were excusable, that and thousands more +Of semblable import—but he hath waged +New wars ’gainst Pompey; made his will, and read it +To public ear; +Spoke scantly of me; when perforce he could not +But pay me terms of honour, cold and sickly +He vented them; most narrow measure lent me; +When the best hint was given him, he not took ’t, +Or did it from his teeth. + +OCTAVIA. +O, my good lord, +Believe not all, or if you must believe, +Stomach not all. A more unhappy lady, +If this division chance, ne’er stood between, +Praying for both parts. +The good gods will mock me presently +When I shall pray “O, bless my lord and husband!” +Undo that prayer by crying out as loud +“O, bless my brother!” Husband win, win brother, +Prays and destroys the prayer; no midway +’Twixt these extremes at all. + +ANTONY. +Gentle Octavia, +Let your best love draw to that point which seeks +Best to preserve it. If I lose mine honour, +I lose myself; better I were not yours +Than yours so branchless. But, as you requested, +Yourself shall go between’s. The meantime, lady, +I’ll raise the preparation of a war +Shall stain your brother. Make your soonest haste, +So your desires are yours. + +OCTAVIA. +Thanks to my lord. +The Jove of power make me, most weak, most weak, +Your reconciler! Wars ’twixt you twain would be +As if the world should cleave, and that slain men +Should solder up the rift. + +ANTONY. +When it appears to you where this begins, +Turn your displeasure that way, for our faults +Can never be so equal that your love +Can equally move with them. Provide your going; +Choose your own company, and command what cost +Your heart has mind to. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Athens. Another Room in Antony’s House. + + Enter Enobarbus and Eros meeting. + +ENOBARBUS. +How now, friend Eros? + +EROS. +There’s strange news come, sir. + +ENOBARBUS. +What, man? + +EROS. +Caesar and Lepidus have made wars upon Pompey. + +ENOBARBUS. +This is old. What is the success? + +EROS. +Caesar, having made use of him in the wars ’gainst Pompey, presently +denied him rivality; would not let him partake in the glory of the +action, and, not resting here, accuses him of letters he had formerly +wrote to Pompey; upon his own appeal, seizes him. So the poor third is +up, till death enlarge his confine. + +ENOBARBUS. +Then, world, thou hast a pair of chaps, no more, +And throw between them all the food thou hast, +They’ll grind the one the other. Where’s Antony? + +EROS. +He’s walking in the garden, thus, and spurns +The rush that lies before him; cries “Fool Lepidus!” +And threats the throat of that his officer +That murdered Pompey. + +ENOBARBUS. +Our great navy’s rigged. + +EROS. +For Italy and Caesar. More, Domitius: +My lord desires you presently. My news +I might have told hereafter. + +ENOBARBUS. +’Twill be naught, +But let it be. Bring me to Antony. + +EROS. +Come, sir. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Rome. A Room in Caesar’s House. + + Enter Agrippa, Maecenas and Caesar. + +CAESAR. +Contemning Rome, he has done all this, and more +In Alexandria. Here’s the manner of ’t: +I’ th’ market-place, on a tribunal silvered, +Cleopatra and himself in chairs of gold +Were publicly enthroned. At the feet sat +Caesarion, whom they call my father’s son, +And all the unlawful issue that their lust +Since then hath made between them. Unto her +He gave the stablishment of Egypt; made her +Of lower Syria, Cyprus, Lydia, +Absolute queen. + +MAECENAS. +This in the public eye? + +CAESAR. +I’ th’ common showplace where they exercise. +His sons he there proclaimed the kings of kings: +Great Media, Parthia, and Armenia +He gave to Alexander; to Ptolemy he assigned +Syria, Cilicia, and Phoenicia. She +In th’ habiliments of the goddess Isis +That day appeared, and oft before gave audience, +As ’tis reported, so. + +MAECENAS. +Let Rome be thus informed. + +AGRIPPA. +Who, queasy with his insolence already, +Will their good thoughts call from him. + +CAESAR. +The people knows it and have now received +His accusations. + +AGRIPPA. +Who does he accuse? + +CAESAR. +Caesar, and that, having in Sicily +Sextus Pompeius spoiled, we had not rated him +His part o’ th’ isle. Then does he say he lent me +Some shipping, unrestored. Lastly, he frets +That Lepidus of the triumvirate +Should be deposed and, being, that we detain +All his revenue. + +AGRIPPA. +Sir, this should be answered. + +CAESAR. +’Tis done already, and messenger gone. +I have told him Lepidus was grown too cruel, +That he his high authority abused, +And did deserve his change. For what I have conquered +I grant him part; but then in his Armenia +And other of his conquered kingdoms, I +Demand the like. + +MAECENAS. +He’ll never yield to that. + +CAESAR. +Nor must not then be yielded to in this. + + Enter Octavia with her train. + +OCTAVIA. +Hail, Caesar, and my lord! Hail, most dear Caesar! + +CAESAR. +That ever I should call thee castaway! + +OCTAVIA. +You have not called me so, nor have you cause. + +CAESAR. +Why have you stolen upon us thus? You come not +Like Caesar’s sister. The wife of Antony +Should have an army for an usher, and +The neighs of horse to tell of her approach +Long ere she did appear. The trees by th’ way +Should have borne men, and expectation fainted, +Longing for what it had not. Nay, the dust +Should have ascended to the roof of heaven, +Raised by your populous troops. But you are come +A market-maid to Rome, and have prevented +The ostentation of our love, which, left unshown, +Is often left unloved. We should have met you +By sea and land, supplying every stage +With an augmented greeting. + +OCTAVIA. +Good my lord, +To come thus was I not constrained, but did it +On my free will. My lord, Mark Antony, +Hearing that you prepared for war, acquainted +My grieved ear withal, whereon I begged +His pardon for return. + +CAESAR. +Which soon he granted, +Being an abstract ’tween his lust and him. + +OCTAVIA. +Do not say so, my lord. + +CAESAR. +I have eyes upon him, +And his affairs come to me on the wind. +Where is he now? + +OCTAVIA. +My lord, in Athens. + +CAESAR. +No, my most wronged sister. Cleopatra +Hath nodded him to her. He hath given his empire +Up to a whore, who now are levying +The kings o’ th’ earth for war. He hath assembled +Bocchus, the king of Libya; Archelaus +Of Cappadocia; Philadelphos, king +Of Paphlagonia; the Thracian king, Adallas; +King Manchus of Arabia; King of Pont; +Herod of Jewry; Mithridates, king +Of Comagene; Polemon and Amyntas, +The kings of Mede and Lycaonia, +With a more larger list of sceptres. + +OCTAVIA. +Ay me, most wretched, +That have my heart parted betwixt two friends +That does afflict each other! + +CAESAR. +Welcome hither. +Your letters did withhold our breaking forth +Till we perceived both how you were wrong led +And we in negligent danger. Cheer your heart. +Be you not troubled with the time, which drives +O’er your content these strong necessities, +But let determined things to destiny +Hold unbewailed their way. Welcome to Rome, +Nothing more dear to me. You are abused +Beyond the mark of thought, and the high gods, +To do you justice, make their ministers +Of us and those that love you. Best of comfort, +And ever welcome to us. + +AGRIPPA. +Welcome, lady. + +MAECENAS. +Welcome, dear madam. +Each heart in Rome does love and pity you. +Only th’ adulterous Antony, most large +In his abominations, turns you off +And gives his potent regiment to a trull +That noises it against us. + +OCTAVIA. +Is it so, sir? + +CAESAR. +Most certain. Sister, welcome. Pray you +Be ever known to patience. My dear’st sister! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. Antony’s Camp near the Promontory of Actium. + + Enter Cleopatra and Enobarbus. + +CLEOPATRA. +I will be even with thee, doubt it not. + +ENOBARBUS. +But why, why, why? + +CLEOPATRA. +Thou hast forspoke my being in these wars +And say’st it is not fit. + +ENOBARBUS. +Well, is it, is it? + +CLEOPATRA. +Is ’t not denounced against us? Why should not we +Be there in person? + +ENOBARBUS. +Well, I could reply: +If we should serve with horse and mares together, +The horse were merely lost. The mares would bear +A soldier and his horse. + +CLEOPATRA. +What is’t you say? + +ENOBARBUS. +Your presence needs must puzzle Antony, +Take from his heart, take from his brain, from ’s time, +What should not then be spared. He is already +Traduced for levity, and ’tis said in Rome +That Photinus, an eunuch, and your maids +Manage this war. + +CLEOPATRA. +Sink Rome, and their tongues rot +That speak against us! A charge we bear i’ th’ war, +And, as the president of my kingdom, will +Appear there for a man. Speak not against it. +I will not stay behind. + + Enter Antony and Canidius. + +ENOBARBUS. +Nay, I have done. +Here comes the Emperor. + +ANTONY. +Is it not strange, Canidius, +That from Tarentum and Brundusium +He could so quickly cut the Ionian sea +And take in Toryne?—You have heard on ’t, sweet? + +CLEOPATRA. +Celerity is never more admired +Than by the negligent. + +ANTONY. +A good rebuke, +Which might have well becomed the best of men +To taunt at slackness.—Canidius, we +Will fight with him by sea. + +CLEOPATRA. +By sea, what else? + +CANIDIUS. +Why will my lord do so? + +ANTONY. +For that he dares us to ’t. + +ENOBARBUS. +So hath my lord dared him to single fight. + +CANIDIUS. +Ay, and to wage this battle at Pharsalia, +Where Caesar fought with Pompey. But these offers, +Which serve not for his vantage, he shakes off, +And so should you. + +ENOBARBUS. +Your ships are not well manned, +Your mariners are muleteers, reapers, people +Engrossed by swift impress. In Caesar’s fleet +Are those that often have ’gainst Pompey fought. +Their ships are yare, yours heavy. No disgrace +Shall fall you for refusing him at sea, +Being prepared for land. + +ANTONY. +By sea, by sea. + +ENOBARBUS. +Most worthy sir, you therein throw away +The absolute soldiership you have by land; +Distract your army, which doth most consist +Of war-marked footmen; leave unexecuted +Your own renowned knowledge; quite forgo +The way which promises assurance; and +Give up yourself merely to chance and hazard +From firm security. + +ANTONY. +I’ll fight at sea. + +CLEOPATRA. +I have sixty sails, Caesar none better. + +ANTONY. +Our overplus of shipping will we burn, +And with the rest full-manned, from th’ head of Actium +Beat th’ approaching Caesar. But if we fail, +We then can do ’t at land. + + Enter a Messenger. + +Thy business? + +MESSENGER. +The news is true, my lord; he is descried. +Caesar has taken Toryne. + +ANTONY. +Can he be there in person? ’Tis impossible; +Strange that his power should be. Canidius, +Our nineteen legions thou shalt hold by land, +And our twelve thousand horse. We’ll to our ship. +Away, my Thetis! + + Enter a Soldier. + +How now, worthy soldier? + +SOLDIER. +O noble emperor, do not fight by sea. +Trust not to rotten planks. Do you misdoubt +This sword and these my wounds? Let th’ Egyptians +And the Phoenicians go a-ducking. We +Have used to conquer standing on the earth +And fighting foot to foot. + +ANTONY. +Well, well, away. + + [_Exeunt Antony, Cleopatra and Enobarbus._] + +SOLDIER. +By Hercules, I think I am i’ th’ right. + +CANIDIUS. +Soldier, thou art. But his whole action grows +Not in the power on ’t. So our leader’s led, +And we are women’s men. + +SOLDIER. +You keep by land +The legions and the horse whole, do you not? + +CANIDIUS. +Marcus Octavius, Marcus Justeius, +Publicola, and Caelius are for sea, +But we keep whole by land. This speed of Caesar’s +Carries beyond belief. + +SOLDIER. +While he was yet in Rome, +His power went out in such distractions as +Beguiled all spies. + +CANIDIUS. +Who’s his lieutenant, hear you? + +SOLDIER. +They say one Taurus. + +CANIDIUS. +Well I know the man. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +The Emperor calls Canidius. + +CANIDIUS. +With news the time’s with labour, and throes forth +Each minute some. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VIII. A plain near Actium. + + Enter Caesar with his army and Taurus marching. + +CAESAR. +Taurus! + +TAURUS. +My lord? + +CAESAR. +Strike not by land; keep whole; provoke not battle +Till we have done at sea. Do not exceed +The prescript of this scroll. Our fortune lies +Upon this jump. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IX. Another part of the Plain. + + Enter Antony and Enobarbus. + +ANTONY. +Set we our squadrons on yon side o’ th’ hill +In eye of Caesar’s battle, from which place +We may the number of the ships behold +And so proceed accordingly. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE X. Another part of the Plain. + +Canidius marching with his land army one way over the stage, and +Taurus, the Lieutenant of Caesar, with his Army, the other way. After +their going in, is heard the noise of a sea fight. + + Alarum. Enter Enobarbus. + +ENOBARBUS. +Naught, naught, all naught! I can behold no longer. +Th’ Antoniad, the Egyptian admiral, +With all their sixty, fly and turn the rudder. +To see ’t mine eyes are blasted. + + Enter Scarus. + +SCARUS. +Gods and goddesses, +All the whole synod of them! + +ENOBARBUS. +What’s thy passion? + +SCARUS. +The greater cantle of the world is lost +With very ignorance. We have kissed away +Kingdoms and provinces. + +ENOBARBUS. +How appears the fight? + +SCARUS. +On our side like, the tokened pestilence, +Where death is sure. Yon ribaudred nag of Egypt, +Whom leprosy o’ertake, i’ th’ midst o’ th’ fight, +When vantage like a pair of twins appeared, +Both as the same—or, rather, ours the elder— +The breeze upon her, like a cow in June, +Hoists sails and flies. + +ENOBARBUS. +That I beheld. +Mine eyes did sicken at the sight and could not +Endure a further view. + +SCARUS. +She once being loofed, +The noble ruin of her magic, Antony, +Claps on his sea-wing and, like a doting mallard, +Leaving the fight in height, flies after her. +I never saw an action of such shame. +Experience, manhood, honour, ne’er before +Did violate so itself. + +ENOBARBUS. +Alack, alack! + + Enter Canidius. + +CANIDIUS. +Our fortune on the sea is out of breath +And sinks most lamentably. Had our general +Been what he knew himself, it had gone well. +O, he has given example for our flight +Most grossly by his own! + +ENOBARBUS. +Ay, are you thereabouts? +Why, then, good night indeed. + +CANIDIUS. +Toward Peloponnesus are they fled. + +SCARUS. +’Tis easy to’t, and there I will attend +What further comes. + +CANIDIUS. +To Caesar will I render +My legions and my horse. Six kings already +Show me the way of yielding. + +ENOBARBUS. +I’ll yet follow +The wounded chance of Antony, though my reason +Sits in the wind against me. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE XI. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Antony with attendants. + +ANTONY. +Hark, the land bids me tread no more upon’t. +It is ashamed to bear me. Friends, come hither. +I am so lated in the world that I +Have lost my way for ever. I have a ship +Laden with gold. Take that, divide it. Fly, +And make your peace with Caesar. + +ALL. +Fly? Not we. + +ANTONY. +I have fled myself, and have instructed cowards +To run and show their shoulders. Friends, be gone. +I have myself resolved upon a course +Which has no need of you. Be gone. +My treasure’s in the harbour. Take it. O, +I followed that I blush to look upon. +My very hairs do mutiny, for the white +Reprove the brown for rashness, and they them +For fear and doting. Friends, be gone. You shall +Have letters from me to some friends that will +Sweep your way for you. Pray you, look not sad, +Nor make replies of loathness. Take the hint +Which my despair proclaims. Let that be left +Which leaves itself. To the sea-side straightway. +I will possess you of that ship and treasure. +Leave me, I pray, a little—pray you, now, +Nay, do so; for indeed I have lost command. +Therefore I pray you. I’ll see you by and by. + + [_Sits down._] + + Enter Cleopatra led by Charmian, Iras and Eros. + +EROS. +Nay, gentle madam, to him! Comfort him. + +IRAS. +Do, most dear queen. + +CHARMIAN. +Do! Why, what else? + +CLEOPATRA. +Let me sit down. O Juno! + +ANTONY. +No, no, no, no, no. + +EROS. +See you here, sir? + +ANTONY. +O, fie, fie, fie! + +CHARMIAN. +Madam. + +IRAS. +Madam, O good empress! + +EROS. +Sir, sir! + +ANTONY. +Yes, my lord, yes. He at Philippi kept +His sword e’en like a dancer, while I struck +The lean and wrinkled Cassius, and ’twas I +That the mad Brutus ended. He alone +Dealt on lieutenantry, and no practice had +In the brave squares of war. Yet now—no matter. + +CLEOPATRA. +Ah, stand by. + +EROS. +The Queen, my lord, the Queen! + +IRAS. +Go to him, madam; speak to him. +He is unqualitied with very shame. + +CLEOPATRA. +Well then, sustain me. O! + +EROS. +Most noble sir, arise. The Queen approaches. +Her head’s declined, and death will seize her but +Your comfort makes the rescue. + +ANTONY. +I have offended reputation, +A most unnoble swerving. + +EROS. +Sir, the Queen. + +ANTONY. +O, whither hast thou led me, Egypt? See +How I convey my shame out of thine eyes +By looking back what I have left behind +’Stroyed in dishonour. + +CLEOPATRA. +O my lord, my lord, +Forgive my fearful sails! I little thought +You would have followed. + +ANTONY. +Egypt, thou knew’st too well +My heart was to thy rudder tied by th’ strings, +And thou shouldst tow me after. O’er my spirit +Thy full supremacy thou knew’st, and that +Thy beck might from the bidding of the gods +Command me. + +CLEOPATRA. +O, my pardon! + +ANTONY. +Now I must +To the young man send humble treaties, dodge +And palter in the shifts of lowness, who +With half the bulk o’ th’ world played as I pleased, +Making and marring fortunes. You did know +How much you were my conqueror, and that +My sword, made weak by my affection, would +Obey it on all cause. + +CLEOPATRA. +Pardon, pardon! + +ANTONY. +Fall not a tear, I say; one of them rates +All that is won and lost. Give me a kiss. +Even this repays me. +We sent our schoolmaster. Is he come back? +Love, I am full of lead. Some wine +Within there, and our viands! Fortune knows +We scorn her most when most she offers blows. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE XII. Caesar’s camp in Egypt. + + Enter Caesar, Agrippa, Dolabella with others. + +CAESAR. +Let him appear that’s come from Antony. +Know you him? + +DOLABELLA. +Caesar, ’tis his schoolmaster— +An argument that he is plucked, when hither +He sends so poor a pinion of his wing, +Which had superfluous kings for messengers +Not many moons gone by. + + Enter Ambassador from Anthony. + +CAESAR. +Approach, and speak. + +AMBASSADOR. +Such as I am, I come from Antony. +I was of late as petty to his ends +As is the morn-dew on the myrtle leaf +To his grand sea. + +CAESAR. +Be’t so. Declare thine office. + +AMBASSADOR. +Lord of his fortunes he salutes thee, and +Requires to live in Egypt, which not granted, +He lessens his requests, and to thee sues +To let him breathe between the heavens and earth, +A private man in Athens. This for him. +Next, Cleopatra does confess thy greatness, +Submits her to thy might, and of thee craves +The circle of the Ptolemies for her heirs, +Now hazarded to thy grace. + +CAESAR. +For Antony, +I have no ears to his request. The queen +Of audience nor desire shall fail, so she +From Egypt drive her all-disgraced friend, +Or take his life there. This if she perform, +She shall not sue unheard. So to them both. + +AMBASSADOR. +Fortune pursue thee! + +CAESAR. +Bring him through the bands. + + [_Exit Ambassador, attended._] + +[_To Thidias_.] To try thy eloquence now ’tis time. Dispatch. +From Antony win Cleopatra. Promise, +And in our name, what she requires; add more, +From thine invention, offers. Women are not +In their best fortunes strong, but want will perjure +The ne’er-touch’d vestal. Try thy cunning, Thidias; +Make thine own edict for thy pains, which we +Will answer as a law. + +THIDIAS. +Caesar, I go. + +CAESAR. +Observe how Antony becomes his flaw, +And what thou think’st his very action speaks +In every power that moves. + +THIDIAS. +Caesar, I shall. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE XIII. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Cleopatra, Enobarbus, Charmian and Iras. + +CLEOPATRA. +What shall we do, Enobarbus? + +ENOBARBUS. +Think, and die. + +CLEOPATRA. +Is Antony or we in fault for this? + +ENOBARBUS. +Antony only, that would make his will +Lord of his reason. What though you fled +From that great face of war, whose several ranges +Frighted each other? Why should he follow? +The itch of his affection should not then +Have nicked his captainship, at such a point, +When half to half the world opposed, he being +The mered question. ’Twas a shame no less +Than was his loss, to course your flying flags +And leave his navy gazing. + +CLEOPATRA. +Prithee, peace. + + Enter the Ambassador with Antony. + +ANTONY. +Is that his answer? + +AMBASSADOR. +Ay, my lord. + +ANTONY. +The Queen shall then have courtesy, so she +Will yield us up. + +AMBASSADOR. +He says so. + +ANTONY. +Let her know’t.— +To the boy Caesar send this grizzled head, +And he will fill thy wishes to the brim +With principalities. + +CLEOPATRA. +That head, my lord? + +ANTONY. +To him again. Tell him he wears the rose +Of youth upon him, from which the world should note +Something particular: his coin, ships, legions, +May be a coward’s; whose ministers would prevail +Under the service of a child as soon +As i’ th’ command of Caesar. I dare him therefore +To lay his gay comparisons apart, +And answer me declined, sword against sword, +Ourselves alone. I’ll write it. Follow me. + + [_Exeunt Antony and Ambassador._] + +ENOBARBUS. +Yes, like enough high-battled Caesar will +Unstate his happiness, and be staged to th’ show +Against a sworder! I see men’s judgments are +A parcel of their fortunes, and things outward +Do draw the inward quality after them +To suffer all alike. That he should dream, +Knowing all measures, the full Caesar will +Answer his emptiness! Caesar, thou hast subdued +His judgment too. + + Enter a Servant. + +SERVANT. +A messenger from Caesar. + +CLEOPATRA. +What, no more ceremony? See, my women, +Against the blown rose may they stop their nose +That kneeled unto the buds. Admit him, sir. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside_.] Mine honesty and I begin to square. +The loyalty well held to fools does make +Our faith mere folly. Yet he that can endure +To follow with allegiance a fallen lord +Does conquer him that did his master conquer, +And earns a place i’ th’ story. + + Enter Thidias. + +CLEOPATRA. +Caesar’s will? + +THIDIAS. +Hear it apart. + +CLEOPATRA. +None but friends. Say boldly. + +THIDIAS. +So haply are they friends to Antony. + +ENOBARBUS. +He needs as many, sir, as Caesar has, +Or needs not us. If Caesar please, our master +Will leap to be his friend. For us, you know +Whose he is we are, and that is Caesar’s. + +THIDIAS. +So.— +Thus then, thou most renowned: Caesar entreats +Not to consider in what case thou stand’st +Further than he is Caesar. + +CLEOPATRA. +Go on; right royal. + +THIDIAS. +He knows that you embrace not Antony +As you did love, but as you feared him. + +CLEOPATRA. +O! + +THIDIAS. +The scars upon your honour, therefore, he +Does pity as constrained blemishes, +Not as deserved. + +CLEOPATRA. +He is a god and knows +What is most right. Mine honour was not yielded, +But conquered merely. + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside_.] To be sure of that, +I will ask Antony. Sir, sir, thou art so leaky +That we must leave thee to thy sinking, for +Thy dearest quit thee. + + [_Exit Enobarbus._] + +THIDIAS. +Shall I say to Caesar +What you require of him? For he partly begs +To be desired to give. It much would please him +That of his fortunes you should make a staff +To lean upon. But it would warm his spirits +To hear from me you had left Antony, +And put yourself under his shroud, +The universal landlord. + +CLEOPATRA. +What’s your name? + +THIDIAS. +My name is Thidias. + +CLEOPATRA. +Most kind messenger, +Say to great Caesar this in deputation: +I kiss his conqu’ring hand. Tell him I am prompt +To lay my crown at’s feet, and there to kneel. +Tell him, from his all-obeying breath I hear +The doom of Egypt. + +THIDIAS. +’Tis your noblest course. +Wisdom and fortune combating together, +If that the former dare but what it can, +No chance may shake it. Give me grace to lay +My duty on your hand. + +CLEOPATRA. +Your Caesar’s father oft, +When he hath mused of taking kingdoms in, +Bestowed his lips on that unworthy place +As it rained kisses. + + Enter Antony and Enobarbus. + +ANTONY. +Favours, by Jove that thunders! +What art thou, fellow? + +THIDIAS. +One that but performs +The bidding of the fullest man and worthiest +To have command obeyed. + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside_.] You will be whipped. + +ANTONY. +Approach there.—Ah, you kite!—Now, gods and devils, +Authority melts from me. Of late when I cried “Ho!” +Like boys unto a muss, kings would start forth +And cry “Your will?” Have you no ears? I am +Antony yet. + + Enter Servants. + +Take hence this jack and whip him. + +ENOBARBUS. +’Tis better playing with a lion’s whelp +Than with an old one dying. + +ANTONY. +Moon and stars! +Whip him. Were’t twenty of the greatest tributaries +That do acknowledge Caesar, should I find them +So saucy with the hand of she here—what’s her name +Since she was Cleopatra? Whip him, fellows, +Till like a boy you see him cringe his face +And whine aloud for mercy. Take him hence. + +THIDIAS. +Mark Antony— + +ANTONY. +Tug him away. Being whipp’d, +Bring him again. This jack of Caesar’s shall +Bear us an errand to him. + + [_Exeunt Servants with Thidias._] + +You were half blasted ere I knew you. Ha! +Have I my pillow left unpressed in Rome, +Forborne the getting of a lawful race, +And by a gem of women, to be abused +By one that looks on feeders? + +CLEOPATRA. +Good my lord— + +ANTONY. +You have been a boggler ever. +But when we in our viciousness grow hard— +O misery on’t!—the wise gods seal our eyes, +In our own filth drop our clear judgments, make us +Adore our errors, laugh at’s while we strut +To our confusion. + +CLEOPATRA. +O, is’t come to this? + +ANTONY. +I found you as a morsel cold upon +Dead Caesar’s trencher; nay, you were a fragment +Of Gneius Pompey’s, besides what hotter hours, +Unregistered in vulgar fame, you have +Luxuriously pick’d out. For I am sure, +Though you can guess what temperance should be, +You know not what it is. + +CLEOPATRA. +Wherefore is this? + +ANTONY. +To let a fellow that will take rewards +And say “God quit you!” be familiar with +My playfellow, your hand, this kingly seal +And plighter of high hearts! O that I were +Upon the hill of Basan, to outroar +The horned herd! For I have savage cause, +And to proclaim it civilly were like +A haltered neck which does the hangman thank +For being yare about him. + + Enter a Servant with Thidias. + +Is he whipped? + +SERVANT. +Soundly, my lord. + +ANTONY. +Cried he? And begged he pardon? + +SERVANT. +He did ask favour. + +ANTONY. +If that thy father live, let him repent +Thou wast not made his daughter; and be thou sorry +To follow Caesar in his triumph, since +Thou hast been whipped for following him. Henceforth +The white hand of a lady fever thee; +Shake thou to look on’t. Get thee back to Caesar; +Tell him thy entertainment. Look thou say +He makes me angry with him; for he seems +Proud and disdainful, harping on what I am, +Not what he knew I was. He makes me angry, +And at this time most easy ’tis to do’t, +When my good stars that were my former guides +Have empty left their orbs and shot their fires +Into th’ abysm of hell. If he mislike +My speech and what is done, tell him he has +Hipparchus, my enfranched bondman, whom +He may at pleasure whip, or hang, or torture, +As he shall like, to quit me. Urge it thou. +Hence with thy stripes, be gone. + + [_Exit Thidias._] + +CLEOPATRA. +Have you done yet? + +ANTONY. +Alack, our terrene moon is now eclipsed, +And it portends alone the fall of Antony. + +CLEOPATRA. +I must stay his time. + +ANTONY. +To flatter Caesar, would you mingle eyes +With one that ties his points? + +CLEOPATRA. +Not know me yet? + +ANTONY. +Cold-hearted toward me? + +CLEOPATRA. +Ah, dear, if I be so, +From my cold heart let heaven engender hail +And poison it in the source, and the first stone +Drop in my neck; as it determines, so +Dissolve my life! The next Caesarion smite, +Till, by degrees the memory of my womb, +Together with my brave Egyptians all, +By the discandying of this pelleted storm, +Lie graveless, till the flies and gnats of Nile +Have buried them for prey! + +ANTONY. +I am satisfied. +Caesar sits down in Alexandria, where +I will oppose his fate. Our force by land +Hath nobly held; our severed navy too +Have knit again, and fleet, threat’ning most sea-like. +Where hast thou been, my heart? Dost thou hear, lady? +If from the field I shall return once more +To kiss these lips, I will appear in blood. +I and my sword will earn our chronicle. +There’s hope in’t yet. + +CLEOPATRA. +That’s my brave lord! + +ANTONY. +I will be treble-sinewed, hearted, breathed, +And fight maliciously. For when mine hours +Were nice and lucky, men did ransom lives +Of me for jests. But now I’ll set my teeth +And send to darkness all that stop me. Come, +Let’s have one other gaudy night. Call to me +All my sad captains. Fill our bowls once more +Let’s mock the midnight bell. + +CLEOPATRA. +It is my birthday. +I had thought t’have held it poor, but since my lord +Is Antony again, I will be Cleopatra. + +ANTONY. +We will yet do well. + +CLEOPATRA. +Call all his noble captains to my lord. + +ANTONY. +Do so; we’ll speak to them; and tonight I’ll force +The wine peep through their scars. Come on, my queen, +There’s sap in’t yet. The next time I do fight +I’ll make Death love me, for I will contend +Even with his pestilent scythe. + + [_Exeunt all but Enobarbus._] + +ENOBARBUS. +Now he’ll outstare the lightning. To be furious +Is to be frighted out of fear, and in that mood +The dove will peck the estridge; and I see still +A diminution in our captain’s brain +Restores his heart. When valour preys on reason, +It eats the sword it fights with. I will seek +Some way to leave him. + + [_Exit._] + + + + +ACT IV + + +SCENE I. Caesar’s Camp at Alexandria. + + Enter Caesar, Agrippa, and Maecenas, with his army. +Caesar reading a letter. + +CAESAR. +He calls me boy, and chides as he had power +To beat me out of Egypt. My messenger +He hath whipped with rods; dares me to personal combat, +Caesar to Antony. Let the old ruffian know +I have many other ways to die; meantime +Laugh at his challenge. + +MAECENAS. +Caesar must think, +When one so great begins to rage, he’s hunted +Even to falling. Give him no breath, but now +Make boot of his distraction. Never anger +Made good guard for itself. + +CAESAR. +Let our best heads +Know that tomorrow the last of many battles +We mean to fight. Within our files there are, +Of those that served Mark Antony but late, +Enough to fetch him in. See it done, +And feast the army; we have store to do’t, +And they have earned the waste. Poor Antony! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Antony, Cleopatra, Enobarbus, Charmian, Iras, Alexas with + others. + +ANTONY. +He will not fight with me, Domitius? + +ENOBARBUS. +No. + +ANTONY. +Why should he not? + +ENOBARBUS. +He thinks, being twenty times of better fortune, +He is twenty men to one. + +ANTONY. +Tomorrow, soldier, +By sea and land I’ll fight. Or I will live, +Or bathe my dying honour in the blood +Shall make it live again. Woo’t thou fight well? + +ENOBARBUS. +I’ll strike, and cry “Take all.” + +ANTONY. +Well said. Come on. +Call forth my household servants. Let’s tonight +Be bounteous at our meal.— + + Enter Servants. + +Give me thy hand. +Thou has been rightly honest; so hast thou, +Thou, and thou, and thou. You have served me well, +And kings have been your fellows. + +CLEOPATRA. +[_Aside to Enobarbus_.] What means this? + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside to Cleopatra_.] ’Tis one of those odd tricks which sorrow +shoots +Out of the mind. + +ANTONY. +And thou art honest too. +I wish I could be made so many men, +And all of you clapped up together in +An Antony, that I might do you service +So good as you have done. + +ALL THE SERVANTS. +The gods forbid! + +ANTONY. +Well, my good fellows, wait on me tonight. +Scant not my cups, and make as much of me +As when mine empire was your fellow too +And suffered my command. + +CLEOPATRA. +[_Aside to Enobarbus_.] What does he mean? + +ENOBARBUS. +[_Aside to Cleopatra_.] To make his followers weep. + +ANTONY. +Tend me tonight; +May be it is the period of your duty. +Haply you shall not see me more, or if, +A mangled shadow. Perchance tomorrow +You’ll serve another master. I look on you +As one that takes his leave. Mine honest friends, +I turn you not away, but, like a master +Married to your good service, stay till death. +Tend me tonight two hours, I ask no more, +And the gods yield you for’t! + +ENOBARBUS. +What mean you, sir, +To give them this discomfort? Look, they weep, +And I, an ass, am onion-eyed. For shame, +Transform us not to women. + +ANTONY. +Ho, ho, ho! +Now the witch take me if I meant it thus! +Grace grow where those drops fall! My hearty friends, +You take me in too dolorous a sense, +For I spake to you for your comfort, did desire you +To burn this night with torches. Know, my hearts, +I hope well of tomorrow, and will lead you +Where rather I’ll expect victorious life +Than death and honour. Let’s to supper, come, +And drown consideration. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Alexandria. Before the Palace. + + Enter a Company of Soldiers. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Brother, good night. Tomorrow is the day. + +SECOND SOLDIER. +It will determine one way. Fare you well. +Heard you of nothing strange about the streets? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Nothing. What news? + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Belike ’tis but a rumour. Good night to you. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Well, sir, good night. + + Enter two other Soldiers. + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Soldiers, have careful watch. + +THIRD SOLDIER. +And you. Good night, good night. + + [_They place themselves in every corner of the stage._] + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Here we. And if tomorrow +Our navy thrive, I have an absolute hope +Our landmen will stand up. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +’Tis a brave army, and full of purpose. + + [_Music of the hautboys under the stage._] + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Peace, what noise? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +List, list! + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Hark! + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Music i’ th’ air. + +THIRD SOLDIER. +Under the earth. + +FOURTH SOLDIER. +It signs well, does it not? + +THIRD SOLDIER. +No. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Peace, I say! What should this mean? + +SECOND SOLDIER. +’Tis the god Hercules, whom Antony loved, +Now leaves him. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Walk. Let’s see if other watchmen +Do hear what we do. + + [_They advance to another post._] + +SECOND SOLDIER. +How now, masters! + +ALL. +How now! How now! Do you hear this? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Ay. Is’t not strange? + +THIRD SOLDIER. +Do you hear, masters? Do you hear? + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Follow the noise so far as we have quarter. +Let’s see how it will give off. + +ALL. +Content. ’Tis strange. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Antony and Cleopatra with others. + +ANTONY. +Eros! Mine armour, Eros! + +CLEOPATRA. +Sleep a little. + +ANTONY. +No, my chuck.—Eros! Come, mine armour, Eros! + + Enter Eros with armour. + +Come, good fellow, put thine iron on. +If fortune be not ours today, it is +Because we brave her. Come. + +CLEOPATRA. +Nay, I’ll help too. +What’s this for? + +ANTONY. +Ah, let be, let be! Thou art +The armourer of my heart. False, false. This, this! + +CLEOPATRA. +Sooth, la, I’ll help. Thus it must be. + +ANTONY. +Well, well, +We shall thrive now. Seest thou, my good fellow? +Go put on thy defences. + +EROS. +Briefly, sir. + +CLEOPATRA. +Is not this buckled well? + +ANTONY. +Rarely, rarely. +He that unbuckles this, till we do please +To daff’t for our repose, shall hear a storm. +Thou fumblest, Eros, and my queen’s a squire +More tight at this than thou. Dispatch. O love, +That thou couldst see my wars today, and knew’st +The royal occupation, thou shouldst see +A workman in’t. + + Enter an Officer, armed. + +Good morrow to thee. Welcome. +Thou look’st like him that knows a warlike charge. +To business that we love we rise betime +And go to’t with delight. + +OFFICER. +A thousand, sir, +Early though’t be, have on their riveted trim +And at the port expect you. + + [_Shout. Trumpets flourish._] + + Enter other Captains and Soldiers. + +CAPTAIN. +The morn is fair. Good morrow, general. + +ALL. +Good morrow, general. + +ANTONY. +’Tis well blown, lads. +This morning, like the spirit of a youth +That means to be of note, begins betimes. +So, so. Come, give me that. This way. Well said. +Fare thee well, dame. +Whate’er becomes of me, +This is a soldier’s kiss. [_Kisses her._] Rebukeable +And worthy shameful check it were, to stand +On more mechanic compliment. I’ll leave thee +Now like a man of steel.—You that will fight, +Follow me close, I’ll bring you to’t. Adieu. + + [_Exeunt Antony, Eros, Captains and Soldiers._] + +CHARMIAN. +Please you, retire to your chamber. + +CLEOPATRA. +Lead me. +He goes forth gallantly. That he and Caesar might +Determine this great war in single fight! +Then Antony—but now—. Well, on. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Antony’s camp near Alexandria. + + Trumpets sound. Enter Antony and Eros, a Soldier meeting them. + +SOLDIER. +The gods make this a happy day to Antony! + +ANTONY. +Would thou and those thy scars had once prevailed +To make me fight at land! + +SOLDIER. +Hadst thou done so, +The kings that have revolted and the soldier +That has this morning left thee would have still +Followed thy heels. + +ANTONY. +Who’s gone this morning? + +SOLDIER. +Who? +One ever near thee. Call for Enobarbus, +He shall not hear thee, or from Caesar’s camp +Say “I am none of thine.” + +ANTONY. +What sayest thou? + +SOLDIER. +Sir, +He is with Caesar. + +EROS. +Sir, his chests and treasure +He has not with him. + +ANTONY. +Is he gone? + +SOLDIER. +Most certain. + +ANTONY. +Go, Eros, send his treasure after. Do it. +Detain no jot, I charge thee. Write to him— +I will subscribe—gentle adieus and greetings. +Say that I wish he never find more cause +To change a master. O, my fortunes have +Corrupted honest men! Dispatch.—Enobarbus! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Alexandria. Caesar’s camp. + + Flourish. Enter Agrippa, Caesar with Enobarbus and Dolabella. + +CAESAR. +Go forth, Agrippa, and begin the fight. +Our will is Antony be took alive; +Make it so known. + +AGRIPPA. +Caesar, I shall. + + [_Exit._] + +CAESAR. +The time of universal peace is near. +Prove this a prosp’rous day, the three-nooked world +Shall bear the olive freely. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +Antony +Is come into the field. + +CAESAR. +Go charge Agrippa +Plant those that have revolted in the van +That Antony may seem to spend his fury +Upon himself. + + [_Exeunt Caesar and his Train._] + +ENOBARBUS. +Alexas did revolt and went to Jewry on +Affairs of Antony; there did dissuade +Great Herod to incline himself to Caesar +And leave his master Antony. For this pains +Casaer hath hanged him. Canidius and the rest +That fell away have entertainment but +No honourable trust. I have done ill, +Of which I do accuse myself so sorely +That I will joy no more. + + Enter a Soldier of Caesar’s. + +SOLDIER. +Enobarbus, Antony +Hath after thee sent all thy treasure, with +His bounty overplus. The messenger +Came on my guard, and at thy tent is now +Unloading of his mules. + +ENOBARBUS. +I give it you. + +SOLDIER. +Mock not, Enobarbus. +I tell you true. Best you safed the bringer +Out of the host. I must attend mine office, +Or would have done’t myself. Your emperor +Continues still a Jove. + + [_Exit._] + +ENOBARBUS. +I am alone the villain of the earth, +And feel I am so most. O Antony, +Thou mine of bounty, how wouldst thou have paid +My better service, when my turpitude +Thou dost so crown with gold! This blows my heart. +If swift thought break it not, a swifter mean +Shall outstrike thought, but thought will do’t, I feel. +I fight against thee! No, I will go seek +Some ditch wherein to die; the foul’st best fits +My latter part of life. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE VII. Field of battle between the Camps. + + Alarum. Drums and Trumpets. Enter Agrippa and others. + +AGRIPPA. +Retire! We have engaged ourselves too far. +Caesar himself has work, and our oppression +Exceeds what we expected. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Alarums. Enter Antony and Scarus wounded. + +SCARUS. +O my brave emperor, this is fought indeed! +Had we done so at first, we had droven them home +With clouts about their heads. + +ANTONY. +Thou bleed’st apace. + +SCARUS. +I had a wound here that was like a T, +But now ’tis made an H. + + _Sounds retreat far off._ +ANTONY. +They do retire. + +SCARUS. +We’ll beat ’em into bench-holes. I have yet +Room for six scotches more. + + Enter Eros. + +EROS. +They are beaten, sir, and our advantage serves +For a fair victory. + +SCARUS. +Let us score their backs +And snatch ’em up as we take hares, behind. +’Tis sport to maul a runner. + +ANTONY. +I will reward thee +Once for thy sprightly comfort, and tenfold +For thy good valour. Come thee on. + +SCARUS. +I’ll halt after. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VIII. Under the Walls of Alexandria. + + Alarum. Enter Antony again in a march; Scarus with others. + +ANTONY. +We have beat him to his camp. Run one before +And let the Queen know of our gests. +Tomorrow, +Before the sun shall see’s, we’ll spill the blood +That has today escaped. I thank you all, +For doughty-handed are you, and have fought +Not as you served the cause, but as’t had been +Each man’s like mine. You have shown all Hectors. +Enter the city, clip your wives, your friends, +Tell them your feats; whilst they with joyful tears +Wash the congealment from your wounds and kiss +The honoured gashes whole. + + Enter Cleopatra. + +[_To Scarus_.] Give me thy hand. +To this great fairy I’ll commend thy acts, +Make her thanks bless thee. O thou day o’ th’ world, +Chain mine armed neck. Leap thou, attire and all, +Through proof of harness to my heart, and there +Ride on the pants triumphing. + +CLEOPATRA. +Lord of lords! +O infinite virtue, com’st thou smiling from +The world’s great snare uncaught? + +ANTONY. +Mine nightingale, +We have beat them to their beds. What, girl! Though grey +Do something mingle with our younger brown, yet ha’ we +A brain that nourishes our nerves and can +Get goal for goal of youth. Behold this man. +Commend unto his lips thy favouring hand.— +Kiss it, my warrior. He hath fought today +As if a god, in hate of mankind, had +Destroyed in such a shape. + +CLEOPATRA. +I’ll give thee, friend, +An armour all of gold. It was a king’s. + +ANTONY. +He has deserved it, were it carbuncled +Like holy Phœbus’ car. Give me thy hand. +Through Alexandria make a jolly march; +Bear our hacked targets like the men that owe them. +Had our great palace the capacity +To camp this host, we all would sup together +And drink carouses to the next day’s fate, +Which promises royal peril.—Trumpeters, +With brazen din blast you the city’s ear; +Make mingle with our rattling tabourines, +That heaven and earth may strike their sounds together, +Applauding our approach. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IX. Caesar’s camp. + + Enter a Sentry and his company. Enobarbus follows. + +SENTRY. +If we be not relieved within this hour, +We must return to th’ court of guard. The night +Is shiny, and they say we shall embattle +By th’ second hour i’ th’ morn. + +FIRST WATCH. +This last day was a shrewd one to’s. + +ENOBARBUS. +O, bear me witness, night.— + +SECOND WATCH. +What man is this? + +FIRST WATCH. +Stand close and list him. + +ENOBARBUS. +Be witness to me, O thou blessed moon, +When men revolted shall upon record +Bear hateful memory, poor Enobarbus did +Before thy face repent. + +SENTRY. +Enobarbus? + +SECOND WATCH. +Peace! Hark further. + +ENOBARBUS. +O sovereign mistress of true melancholy, +The poisonous damp of night disponge upon me, +That life, a very rebel to my will, +May hang no longer on me. Throw my heart +Against the flint and hardness of my fault, +Which, being dried with grief, will break to powder +And finish all foul thoughts. O Antony, +Nobler than my revolt is infamous, +Forgive me in thine own particular, +But let the world rank me in register +A master-leaver and a fugitive. +O Antony! O Antony! + + [_Dies._] + +FIRST WATCH. +Let’s speak to him. + +SENTRY. +Let’s hear him, for the things he speaks may concern Caesar. + +SECOND WATCH. +Let’s do so. But he sleeps. + +SENTRY. +Swoons rather, for so bad a prayer as his +Was never yet for sleep. + +FIRST WATCH. +Go we to him. + +SECOND WATCH. +Awake, sir, awake! Speak to us. + +FIRST WATCH. +Hear you, sir? + +SENTRY. +The hand of death hath raught him. + + [_Drums afar off._] + +Hark! The drums +Demurely wake the sleepers. Let us bear him +To th’ court of guard; he is of note. Our hour +Is fully out. + +SECOND WATCH. +Come on, then. He may recover yet. + + [_Exeunt with the body._] + +SCENE X. Ground between the two Camps. + + Enter Antony and Scarus with their army. + +ANTONY. +Their preparation is today by sea; +We please them not by land. + +SCARUS. +For both, my lord. + +ANTONY. +I would they’d fight i’ th’ fire or i’ th’ air; +We’d fight there too. But this it is: our foot +Upon the hills adjoining to the city +Shall stay with us—order for sea is given; +They have put forth the haven— +Where their appointment we may best discover +And look on their endeavour. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE XI. Another part of the Ground. + + Enter Caesar and his army. + +CAESAR. +But being charged, we will be still by land, +Which, as I take’t, we shall, for his best force +Is forth to man his galleys. To the vales, +And hold our best advantage. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE XII. Another part of the Ground. + + Alarum afar off, as at a sea fight. Enter Antony and Scarus. + +ANTONY. +Yet they are not joined. Where yond pine does stand +I shall discover all. I’ll bring thee word +Straight how ’tis like to go. + + [_Exit._] + +SCARUS. +Swallows have built +In Cleopatra’s sails their nests. The augurs +Say they know not, they cannot tell; look grimly, +And dare not speak their knowledge. Antony +Is valiant and dejected, and by starts +His fretted fortunes give him hope and fear +Of what he has and has not. + + Enter Antony. + +ANTONY. +All is lost! +This foul Egyptian hath betrayed me. +My fleet hath yielded to the foe, and yonder +They cast their caps up and carouse together +Like friends long lost. Triple-turned whore! ’Tis thou +Hast sold me to this novice, and my heart +Makes only wars on thee. Bid them all fly; +For when I am revenged upon my charm, +I have done all. Bid them all fly! Be gone! + + [_Exit Scarus._] + +O sun, thy uprise shall I see no more. +Fortune and Antony part here; even here +Do we shake hands. All come to this! The hearts +That spanieled me at heels, to whom I gave +Their wishes, do discandy, melt their sweets +On blossoming Caesar, and this pine is barked +That overtopped them all. Betray’d I am: +O this false soul of Egypt! This grave charm, +Whose eye becked forth my wars and called them home, +Whose bosom was my crownet, my chief end, +Like a right gypsy hath at fast and loose +Beguiled me to the very heart of loss. +What, Eros, Eros! + + Enter Cleopatra. + +Ah, thou spell! Avaunt! + +CLEOPATRA. +Why is my lord enraged against his love? + +ANTONY. +Vanish, or I shall give thee thy deserving +And blemish Caesar’s triumph. Let him take thee +And hoist thee up to the shouting plebeians! +Follow his chariot, like the greatest spot +Of all thy sex; most monster-like be shown +For poor’st diminutives, for dolts, and let +Patient Octavia plough thy visage up +With her prepared nails. + + [_Exit Cleopatra._] + +’Tis well thou’rt gone, +If it be well to live; but better ’twere +Thou fell’st into my fury, for one death +Might have prevented many.—Eros, ho!— +The shirt of Nessus is upon me. Teach me, +Alcides, thou mine ancestor, thy rage. +Let me lodge Lichas on the horns o’ th’ moon, +And with those hands that grasped the heaviest club +Subdue my worthiest self. The witch shall die. +To the young Roman boy she hath sold me, and I fall +Under this plot. She dies for’t.—Eros, ho! + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE XIII. Alexandria. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Cleopatra, Charmian, Iras and Mardian. + +CLEOPATRA. +Help me, my women! O, he is more mad +Than Telamon for his shield; the boar of Thessaly +Was never so embossed. + +CHARMIAN. +To th’ monument! +There lock yourself and send him word you are dead. +The soul and body rive not more in parting +Than greatness going off. + +CLEOPATRA. +To th’ monument! +Mardian, go tell him I have slain myself. +Say that the last I spoke was “Antony”, +And word it, prithee, piteously. Hence, Mardian, +And bring me how he takes my death.—To th’ monument! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE XIV. Alexandria. Another Room. + + Enter Antony and Eros. + +ANTONY. +Eros, thou yet behold’st me? + +EROS. +Ay, noble lord. + +ANTONY. +Sometime we see a cloud that’s dragonish, +A vapour sometime like a bear or lion, +A towered citadel, a pendant rock, +A forked mountain, or blue promontory +With trees upon’t, that nod unto the world +And mock our eyes with air. Thou hast seen these signs. +They are black vesper’s pageants. + +EROS. +Ay, my lord. + +ANTONY. +That which is now a horse, even with a thought +The rack dislimns and makes it indistinct +As water is in water. + +EROS. +It does, my lord. + +ANTONY. +My good knave Eros, now thy captain is +Even such a body. Here I am Antony, +Yet cannot hold this visible shape, my knave. +I made these wars for Egypt, and the Queen, +Whose heart I thought I had, for she had mine, +Which, whilst it was mine, had annexed unto’t +A million more, now lost—she, Eros, has +Packed cards with Caesar, and false-played my glory +Unto an enemy’s triumph. +Nay, weep not, gentle Eros. There is left us +Ourselves to end ourselves. + + Enter Mardian. + +O, thy vile lady! +She has robbed me of my sword. + +MARDIAN. +No, Antony, +My mistress loved thee and her fortunes mingled +With thine entirely. + +ANTONY. +Hence, saucy eunuch! Peace! +She hath betrayed me and shall die the death. + +MARDIAN. +Death of one person can be paid but once, +And that she has discharged. What thou wouldst do +Is done unto thy hand. The last she spake +Was “Antony! Most noble Antony!” +Then in the midst a tearing groan did break +The name of Antony; it was divided +Between her heart and lips. She rendered life, +Thy name so buried in her. + +ANTONY. +Dead, then? + +MARDIAN. +Dead. + +ANTONY. +Unarm, Eros. The long day’s task is done, +And we must sleep.—That thou depart’st hence safe +Does pay thy labour richly. Go. + + [_Exit Mardian._] + +Off, pluck off! +The sevenfold shield of Ajax cannot keep +The battery from my heart. O, cleave, my sides! +Heart, once be stronger than thy continent; +Crack thy frail case! Apace, Eros, apace! +No more a soldier. Bruised pieces, go; +You have been nobly borne. From me awhile. + + [_Exit Eros._] + +I will o’ertake thee, Cleopatra, and +Weep for my pardon. So it must be, for now +All length is torture. Since the torch is out, +Lie down, and stray no farther. Now all labour +Mars what it does; yea, very force entangles +Itself with strength. Seal then, and all is done. +Eros!—I come, my queen.—Eros!—Stay for me. +Where souls do couch on flowers, we’ll hand in hand, +And with our sprightly port make the ghosts gaze. +Dido and her Aeneas shall want troops, +And all the haunt be ours.—Come, Eros, Eros! + + Enter Eros. + +EROS. +What would my lord? + +ANTONY. +Since Cleopatra died, +I have lived in such dishonour that the gods +Detest my baseness. I, that with my sword +Quartered the world, and o’er green Neptune’s back +With ships made cities, condemn myself to lack +The courage of a woman; less noble mind +Than she which, by her death, our Caesar tells +“I am conqueror of myself.” Thou art sworn, Eros, +That when the exigent should come, which now +Is come indeed, when I should see behind me +Th’ inevitable prosecution of +Disgrace and horror, that on my command +Thou then wouldst kill me. Do’t. The time is come. +Thou strik’st not me; ’tis Caesar thou defeat’st. +Put colour in thy cheek. + +EROS. +The gods withhold me! +Shall I do that which all the Parthian darts, +Though enemy, lost aim and could not? + +ANTONY. +Eros, +Wouldst thou be windowed in great Rome and see +Thy master thus with pleached arms, bending down +His corrigible neck, his face subdued +To penetrative shame, whilst the wheeled seat +Of fortunate Caesar, drawn before him, branded +His baseness that ensued? + +EROS. +I would not see’t. + +ANTONY. +Come, then, for with a wound I must be cured. +Draw that thy honest sword, which thou hast worn +Most useful for thy country. + +EROS. +O, sir, pardon me! + +ANTONY. +When I did make thee free, swor’st thou not then +To do this when I bade thee? Do it at once, +Or thy precedent services are all +But accidents unpurposed. Draw, and come. + +EROS. +Turn from me then that noble countenance +Wherein the worship of the whole world lies. + +ANTONY. +Lo thee! + + [_Turning from him._] + +EROS. +My sword is drawn. + +ANTONY. +Then let it do at once +The thing why thou hast drawn it. + +EROS. +My dear master, +My captain and my emperor, let me say, +Before I strike this bloody stroke, farewell. + +ANTONY. +’Tis said, man, and farewell. + +EROS. +Farewell, great chief. Shall I strike now? + +ANTONY. +Now, Eros. + +EROS. +Why, there then! [_kills himself_] +Thus do I escape the sorrow +Of Antony’s death. + + [_Dies._] + +ANTONY. +Thrice nobler than myself! +Thou teachest me, O valiant Eros, what +I should and thou couldst not. My queen and Eros +Have by their brave instruction got upon me +A nobleness in record. But I will be +A bridegroom in my death and run into’t +As to a lover’s bed. Come then, and, Eros, +Thy master dies thy scholar. To do thus + + [_Falling on his sword._] + +I learned of thee. How? Not dead? Not dead? +The guard, ho! O, dispatch me! + + Enter a company of the Guard, one of them Dercetus. + +FIRST GUARD. +What’s the noise? + +ANTONY. +I have done my work ill, friends. O, make an end +Of what I have begun. + +SECOND GUARD. +The star is fallen. + +FIRST GUARD. +And time is at his period. + +ALL. +Alas, and woe! + +ANTONY. +Let him that loves me strike me dead. + +FIRST GUARD. +Not I. + +SECOND GUARD. +Nor I. + +THIRD GUARD. +Nor anyone. + + [_Exeunt guard._] + +DERCETUS. +Thy death and fortunes bid thy followers fly. +This sword but shown to Caesar with this tidings, +Shall enter me with him. + + Enter Diomedes. + +DIOMEDES. +Where’s Antony? + +DERCETUS. +There, Diomed, there. + +DIOMEDES. +Lives he? Wilt thou not answer, man? + + [_Exit Dercetus._] + +ANTONY. +Art thou there, Diomed? Draw thy sword and give me +Sufficing strokes for death. + +DIOMEDES. +Most absolute lord, +My mistress Cleopatra sent me to thee. + +ANTONY. +When did she send thee? + +DIOMEDES. +Now, my lord. + +ANTONY. +Where is she? + +DIOMEDES. +Locked in her monument. She had a prophesying fear +Of what hath come to pass. For when she saw— +Which never shall be found—you did suspect +She had disposed with Caesar, and that your rage +Would not be purged, she sent you word she was dead; +But fearing since how it might work, hath sent +Me to proclaim the truth, and I am come, +I dread, too late. + +ANTONY. +Too late, good Diomed. Call my guard, I prithee. + +DIOMEDES. +What, ho! The emperor’s guard! The guard, what ho! +Come, your lord calls! + + Enter four or five of the Guard of Antony. + +ANTONY. +Bear me, good friends, where Cleopatra bides. +’Tis the last service that I shall command you. + +FIRST GUARD. +Woe, woe are we, sir, you may not live to wear +All your true followers out. + +ALL. +Most heavy day! + +ANTONY. +Nay, good my fellows, do not please sharp fate +To grace it with your sorrows. Bid that welcome +Which comes to punish us, and we punish it, +Seeming to bear it lightly. Take me up. +I have led you oft; carry me now, good friends, +And have my thanks for all. + + [_Exeunt, bearing Antony._] + +SCENE XV. Alexandria. A monument. + + Enter Cleopatra and her maids aloft, with Charmian and Iras. + +CLEOPATRA. +O Charmian, I will never go from hence. + +CHARMIAN. +Be comforted, dear madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +No, I will not. +All strange and terrible events are welcome, +But comforts we despise. Our size of sorrow, +Proportioned to our cause, must be as great +As that which makes it. + + Enter, below Diomedes. + +How now! Is he dead? + +DIOMEDES. +His death’s upon him, but not dead. +Look out o’ th’ other side your monument; +His guard have brought him thither. + + Enter, below Antony borne by the Guard. + +CLEOPATRA. +O sun, +Burn the great sphere thou mov’st in! Darkling stand +The varying shore o’ th’ world. O Antony, +Antony, Antony! Help, Charmian! Help, Iras, help! +Help, friends below! Let’s draw him hither. + +ANTONY. +Peace! +Not Caesar’s valour hath o’erthrown Antony, +But Antony’s hath triumphed on itself. + +CLEOPATRA. +So it should be, that none but Antony +Should conquer Antony, but woe ’tis so! + +ANTONY. +I am dying, Egypt, dying. Only +I here importune death awhile until +Of many thousand kisses the poor last +I lay upon thy lips. + +CLEOPATRA. +I dare not, dear +Dear my lord, pardon. I dare not, +Lest I be taken. Not th’ imperious show +Of the full-fortuned Caesar ever shall +Be brooched with me; if knife, drugs, serpents, have +Edge, sting, or operation, I am safe. +Your wife Octavia, with her modest eyes +And still conclusion, shall acquire no honour +Demuring upon me. But come, come, Antony— +Help me, my women—we must draw thee up. +Assist, good friends. + +ANTONY. +O, quick, or I am gone. + +CLEOPATRA. +Here’s sport indeed! How heavy weighs my lord! +Our strength is all gone into heaviness; +That makes the weight. Had I great Juno’s power, +The strong-winged Mercury should fetch thee up +And set thee by Jove’s side. Yet come a little; +Wishers were ever fools. O come, come come, + + [_They heave Antony aloft to Cleopatra._] + +And welcome, welcome! Die where thou hast lived; +Quicken with kissing. Had my lips that power, +Thus would I wear them out. + +ALL. +A heavy sight! + +ANTONY. +I am dying, Egypt, dying. +Give me some wine, and let me speak a little. + +CLEOPATRA. +No, let me speak, and let me rail so high +That the false huswife Fortune break her wheel, +Provoked by my offence. + +ANTONY. +One word, sweet queen: +Of Caesar seek your honour, with your safety. O! + +CLEOPATRA. +They do not go together. + +ANTONY. +Gentle, hear me. +None about Caesar trust but Proculeius. + +CLEOPATRA. +My resolution and my hands I’ll trust; +None about Caesar. + +ANTONY. +The miserable change now at my end +Lament nor sorrow at, but please your thoughts +In feeding them with those my former fortunes +Wherein I lived the greatest prince o’ th’ world, +The noblest; and do now not basely die, +Not cowardly put off my helmet to +My countryman; a Roman by a Roman +Valiantly vanquished. Now my spirit is going; +I can no more. + +CLEOPATRA. +Noblest of men, woo’t die? +Hast thou no care of me? Shall I abide +In this dull world, which in thy absence is +No better than a sty? O, see, my women, + + [_ Antony dies._] + +The crown o’ th’ earth doth melt.—My lord! +O, withered is the garland of the war, +The soldier’s pole is fallen; young boys and girls +Are level now with men. The odds is gone, +And there is nothing left remarkable +Beneath the visiting moon. + + [_Faints._] + +CHARMIAN. +O, quietness, lady! + +IRAS. +She is dead too, our sovereign. + +CHARMIAN. +Lady! + +IRAS. +Madam! + +CHARMIAN. +O madam, madam, madam! + +IRAS. +Royal Egypt, Empress! + +CHARMIAN. +Peace, peace, Iras! + +CLEOPATRA. +No more but e’en a woman, and commanded +By such poor passion as the maid that milks +And does the meanest chares. It were for me +To throw my sceptre at the injurious gods, +To tell them that this world did equal theirs +Till they had stolen our jewel. All’s but naught; +Patience is sottish, and impatience does +Become a dog that’s mad. Then is it sin +To rush into the secret house of death +Ere death dare come to us? How do you, women? +What, what! good cheer! Why, how now, Charmian? +My noble girls! Ah, women, women! Look, +Our lamp is spent, it’s out! Good sirs, take heart. +We’ll bury him; and then, what’s brave, what’s noble, +Let’s do it after the high Roman fashion +And make death proud to take us. Come, away. +This case of that huge spirit now is cold. +Ah, women, women! Come, we have no friend +But resolution and the briefest end. + + [_Exeunt, bearing off Antony’s body._] + + + + +ACT V + + +SCENE I. Caesar’s Camp before Alexandria. + + Enter Caesar, Agrippa, Dolabella, Maecenas, Gallus, Proculeius with + his council of war. + +CAESAR. +Go to him, Dolabella, bid him yield. +Being so frustrate, tell him, he mocks +The pauses that he makes. + +DOLABELLA. +Caesar, I shall. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Dercetus with the sword of Antony. + +CAESAR. +Wherefore is that? And what art thou that dar’st +Appear thus to us? + +DERCETUS. +I am called Dercetus. +Mark Antony I served, who best was worthy +Best to be served. Whilst he stood up and spoke, +He was my master, and I wore my life +To spend upon his haters. If thou please +To take me to thee, as I was to him +I’ll be to Caesar; if thou pleasest not, +I yield thee up my life. + +CAESAR. +What is’t thou say’st? + +DERCETUS. +I say, O Caesar, Antony is dead. + +CAESAR. +The breaking of so great a thing should make +A greater crack. The round world +Should have shook lions into civil streets, +And citizens to their dens. The death of Antony +Is not a single doom; in the name lay +A moiety of the world. + +DERCETUS. +He is dead, Caesar, +Not by a public minister of justice, +Nor by a hired knife, but that self hand +Which writ his honour in the acts it did +Hath, with the courage which the heart did lend it, +Splitted the heart. This is his sword. +I robbed his wound of it. Behold it stained +With his most noble blood. + +CAESAR. +Look you sad, friends? +The gods rebuke me, but it is tidings +To wash the eyes of kings. + +AGRIPPA. +And strange it is +That nature must compel us to lament +Our most persisted deeds. + +MAECENAS. +His taints and honours +Waged equal with him. + +AGRIPPA. +A rarer spirit never +Did steer humanity, but you gods will give us +Some faults to make us men. Caesar is touched. + +MAECENAS. +When such a spacious mirror’s set before him, +He needs must see himself. + +CAESAR. +O Antony, +I have followed thee to this, but we do lance +Diseases in our bodies. I must perforce +Have shown to thee such a declining day +Or look on thine. We could not stall together +In the whole world. But yet let me lament +With tears as sovereign as the blood of hearts, +That thou, my brother, my competitor +In top of all design, my mate in empire, +Friend and companion in the front of war, +The arm of mine own body, and the heart +Where mine his thoughts did kindle, that our stars, +Unreconciliable, should divide +Our equalness to this. Hear me, good friends— + + Enter an Egyptian. + +But I will tell you at some meeter season. +The business of this man looks out of him; +We’ll hear him what he says. Whence are you? + +EGYPTIAN. +A poor Egyptian yet. The queen, my mistress, +Confined in all she has, her monument, +Of thy intents desires instruction, +That she preparedly may frame herself +To the way she’s forced to. + +CAESAR. +Bid her have good heart. +She soon shall know of us, by some of ours, +How honourable and how kindly we +Determine for her. For Caesar cannot lean +To be ungentle. + +EGYPTIAN. +So the gods preserve thee! + + [_Exit._] + +CAESAR. +Come hither, Proculeius. Go and say +We purpose her no shame. Give her what comforts +The quality of her passion shall require, +Lest, in her greatness, by some mortal stroke +She do defeat us, for her life in Rome +Would be eternal in our triumph. Go, +And with your speediest bring us what she says +And how you find of her. + +PROCULEIUS. +Caesar, I shall. + + [_Exit Proculeius._] + +CAESAR. +Gallus, go you along. + + [_Exit Gallus._] + +Where’s Dolabella, to second Proculeius? + +ALL. +Dolabella! + +CAESAR. +Let him alone, for I remember now +How he’s employed. He shall in time be ready. +Go with me to my tent, where you shall see +How hardly I was drawn into this war, +How calm and gentle I proceeded still +In all my writings. Go with me and see +What I can show in this. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Alexandria. A Room in the Monument. + + Enter Cleopatra, Charmian and Iras. + +CLEOPATRA. +My desolation does begin to make +A better life. ’Tis paltry to be Caesar; +Not being Fortune, he’s but Fortune’s knave, +A minister of her will. And it is great +To do that thing that ends all other deeds, +Which shackles accidents and bolts up change, +Which sleeps and never palates more the dung, +The beggar’s nurse and Caesar’s. + + Enter Proculeius. + +PROCULEIUS. +Caesar sends greetings to the queen of Egypt, +And bids thee study on what fair demands +Thou mean’st to have him grant thee. + +CLEOPATRA. +What’s thy name? + +PROCULEIUS. +My name is Proculeius. + +CLEOPATRA. +Antony +Did tell me of you, bade me trust you, but +I do not greatly care to be deceived +That have no use for trusting. If your master +Would have a queen his beggar, you must tell him +That majesty, to keep decorum, must +No less beg than a kingdom. If he please +To give me conquered Egypt for my son, +He gives me so much of mine own as I +Will kneel to him with thanks. + +PROCULEIUS. +Be of good cheer. +You are fallen into a princely hand; fear nothing. +Make your full reference freely to my lord, +Who is so full of grace that it flows over +On all that need. Let me report to him +Your sweet dependency, and you shall find +A conqueror that will pray in aid for kindness +Where he for grace is kneeled to. + +CLEOPATRA. +Pray you tell him +I am his fortune’s vassal and I send him +The greatness he has got. I hourly learn +A doctrine of obedience, and would gladly +Look him i’ th’ face. + +PROCULEIUS. +This I’ll report, dear lady. +Have comfort, for I know your plight is pitied +Of him that caused it. + + Enter Gallus and Roman Soldiers. + +You see how easily she may be surprised. +Guard her till Caesar come. + +IRAS. +Royal queen! + +CHARMIAN. +O Cleopatra, thou art taken, queen! + +CLEOPATRA. +Quick, quick, good hands. + + [_Drawing a dagger._] + +PROCULEIUS. +Hold, worthy lady, hold! + + [_Seizes and disarms her._] + +Do not yourself such wrong, who are in this +Relieved, but not betrayed. + +CLEOPATRA. +What, of death too, +That rids our dogs of languish? + +PROCULEIUS. +Cleopatra, +Do not abuse my master’s bounty by +Th’ undoing of yourself. Let the world see +His nobleness well acted, which your death +Will never let come forth. + +CLEOPATRA. +Where art thou, Death? +Come hither, come! Come, come, and take a queen +Worth many babes and beggars! + +PROCULEIUS. +O, temperance, lady! + +CLEOPATRA. +Sir, I will eat no meat; I’ll not drink, sir; +If idle talk will once be necessary, +I’ll not sleep neither. This mortal house I’ll ruin, +Do Caesar what he can. Know, sir, that I +Will not wait pinioned at your master’s court, +Nor once be chastised with the sober eye +Of dull Octavia. Shall they hoist me up +And show me to the shouting varletry +Of censuring Rome? Rather a ditch in Egypt +Be gentle grave unto me! Rather on Nilus’ mud +Lay me stark-naked, and let the water-flies +Blow me into abhorring! Rather make +My country’s high pyramides my gibbet +And hang me up in chains! + +PROCULEIUS. +You do extend +These thoughts of horror further than you shall +Find cause in Caesar. + + Enter Dolabella. + +DOLABELLA. +Proculeius, +What thou hast done thy master Caesar knows, +And he hath sent for thee. For the queen, +I’ll take her to my guard. + +PROCULEIUS. +So, Dolabella, +It shall content me best. Be gentle to her. +[_To Cleopatra._] To Caesar I will speak what you shall please, +If you’ll employ me to him. + +CLEOPATRA. +Say I would die. + + [_Exeunt Proculeius and Soldiers._] + +DOLABELLA. +Most noble empress, you have heard of me? + +CLEOPATRA. +I cannot tell. + +DOLABELLA. +Assuredly you know me. + +CLEOPATRA. +No matter, sir, what I have heard or known. +You laugh when boys or women tell their dreams; +Is’t not your trick? + +DOLABELLA. +I understand not, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +I dreamt there was an Emperor Antony. +O, such another sleep, that I might see +But such another man! + +DOLABELLA. +If it might please you— + +CLEOPATRA. +His face was as the heavens, and therein stuck +A sun and moon, which kept their course, and lighted +The little O, the earth. + +DOLABELLA. +Most sovereign creature— + +CLEOPATRA. +His legs bestrid the ocean; his reared arm +Crested the world; his voice was propertied +As all the tuned spheres, and that to friends; +But when he meant to quail and shake the orb, +He was as rattling thunder. For his bounty, +There was no winter in’t; an autumn ’twas +That grew the more by reaping. His delights +Were dolphin-like; they showed his back above +The element they lived in. In his livery +Walked crowns and crownets; realms and islands were +As plates dropped from his pocket. + +DOLABELLA. +Cleopatra— + +CLEOPATRA. +Think you there was or might be such a man +As this I dreamt of? + +DOLABELLA. +Gentle madam, no. + +CLEOPATRA. +You lie up to the hearing of the gods! +But if there be nor ever were one such, +It’s past the size of dreaming. Nature wants stuff +To vie strange forms with fancy; yet t’ imagine +An Antony were nature’s piece ’gainst fancy, +Condemning shadows quite. + +DOLABELLA. +Hear me, good madam. +Your loss is, as yourself, great; and you bear it +As answering to the weight. Would I might never +O’ertake pursued success, but I do feel, +By the rebound of yours, a grief that smites +My very heart at root. + +CLEOPATRA. +I thank you, sir. +Know you what Caesar means to do with me? + +DOLABELLA. +I am loath to tell you what I would you knew. + +CLEOPATRA. +Nay, pray you, sir. + +DOLABELLA. +Though he be honourable— + +CLEOPATRA. +He’ll lead me, then, in triumph. + +DOLABELLA. +Madam, he will. I know it. + + Flourish. Enter Caesar, Proculeius, Gallus, Maecenas and others of his + train. + +ALL. +Make way there! Caesar! + +CAESAR. +Which is the Queen of Egypt? + +DOLABELLA. +It is the Emperor, madam. + + [_Cleopatra kneels._] + +CAESAR. +Arise, you shall not kneel. +I pray you, rise. Rise, Egypt. + +CLEOPATRA. +Sir, the gods +Will have it thus. My master and my lord +I must obey. + +CAESAR. +Take to you no hard thoughts. +The record of what injuries you did us, +Though written in our flesh, we shall remember +As things but done by chance. + +CLEOPATRA. +Sole sir o’ th’ world, +I cannot project mine own cause so well +To make it clear, but do confess I have +Been laden with like frailties which before +Have often shamed our sex. + +CAESAR. +Cleopatra, know +We will extenuate rather than enforce. +If you apply yourself to our intents, +Which towards you are most gentle, you shall find +A benefit in this change; but if you seek +To lay on me a cruelty by taking +Antony’s course, you shall bereave yourself +Of my good purposes, and put your children +To that destruction which I’ll guard them from +If thereon you rely. I’ll take my leave. + +CLEOPATRA. +And may, through all the world. ’Tis yours, and we, +Your scutcheons and your signs of conquest, shall +Hang in what place you please. Here, my good lord. + +CAESAR. +You shall advise me in all for Cleopatra. + +CLEOPATRA. +This is the brief of money, plate, and jewels +I am possessed of. ’Tis exactly valued, +Not petty things admitted. Where’s Seleucus? + + Enter Seleucus. + +SELEUCUS. +Here, madam. + +CLEOPATRA. +This is my treasurer. Let him speak, my lord, +Upon his peril, that I have reserved +To myself nothing. Speak the truth, Seleucus. + +SELEUCUS. +Madam, I had rather seal my lips +Than to my peril speak that which is not. + +CLEOPATRA. +What have I kept back? + +SELEUCUS. +Enough to purchase what you have made known. + +CAESAR. +Nay, blush not, Cleopatra. I approve +Your wisdom in the deed. + +CLEOPATRA. +See, Caesar! O, behold, +How pomp is followed! Mine will now be yours +And should we shift estates, yours would be mine. +The ingratitude of this Seleucus does +Even make me wild. O slave, of no more trust +Than love that’s hired! What, goest thou back? Thou shalt +Go back, I warrant thee! But I’ll catch thine eyes +Though they had wings. Slave, soulless villain, dog! +O rarely base! + +CAESAR. +Good queen, let us entreat you. + +CLEOPATRA. +O Caesar, what a wounding shame is this, +That thou vouchsafing here to visit me, +Doing the honour of thy lordliness +To one so meek, that mine own servant should +Parcel the sum of my disgraces by +Addition of his envy! Say, good Caesar, +That I some lady trifles have reserved, +Immoment toys, things of such dignity +As we greet modern friends withal; and say +Some nobler token I have kept apart +For Livia and Octavia, to induce +Their mediation, must I be unfolded +With one that I have bred? The gods! It smites me +Beneath the fall I have. +[_To Seleucus_.] Prithee go hence, +Or I shall show the cinders of my spirits +Through th’ ashes of my chance. Wert thou a man, +Thou wouldst have mercy on me. + +CAESAR. +Forbear, Seleucus. + + [_Exit Seleucus._] + +CLEOPATRA. +Be it known that we, the greatest, are misthought +For things that others do; and when we fall, +We answer others’ merits in our name, +Are therefore to be pitied. + +CAESAR. +Cleopatra, +Not what you have reserved nor what acknowledged +Put we i’ th’ roll of conquest. Still be’t yours; +Bestow it at your pleasure, and believe +Caesar’s no merchant to make prize with you +Of things that merchants sold. Therefore be cheered; +Make not your thoughts your prisons. No, dear queen; +For we intend so to dispose you as +Yourself shall give us counsel. Feed and sleep. +Our care and pity is so much upon you +That we remain your friend; and so, adieu. + +CLEOPATRA. +My master and my lord! + +CAESAR. +Not so. Adieu. + + [_Flourish. Exeunt Caesar and his train._] + +CLEOPATRA. +He words me, girls, he words me, that I should not +Be noble to myself. But hark thee, Charmian! + + [_Whispers to Charmian._] + +IRAS. +Finish, good lady. The bright day is done, +And we are for the dark. + +CLEOPATRA. +Hie thee again. +I have spoke already, and it is provided. +Go put it to the haste. + +CHARMIAN. +Madam, I will. + + Enter Dolabella. + +DOLABELLA. +Where’s the Queen? + +CHARMIAN. +Behold, sir. + + [_Exit._] + +CLEOPATRA. +Dolabella! + +DOLABELLA. +Madam, as thereto sworn by your command, +Which my love makes religion to obey, +I tell you this: Caesar through Syria +Intends his journey, and within three days +You with your children will he send before. +Make your best use of this. I have performed +Your pleasure and my promise. + +CLEOPATRA. +Dolabella, +I shall remain your debtor. + +DOLABELLA. +I your servant. +Adieu, good queen. I must attend on Caesar. + +CLEOPATRA. +Farewell, and thanks. + + [_Exit Dolabella._] + +Now, Iras, what think’st thou? +Thou an Egyptian puppet shall be shown +In Rome as well as I. Mechanic slaves +With greasy aprons, rules, and hammers shall +Uplift us to the view. In their thick breaths, +Rank of gross diet, shall we be enclouded, +And forced to drink their vapour. + +IRAS. +The gods forbid! + +CLEOPATRA. +Nay, ’tis most certain, Iras. Saucy lictors +Will catch at us like strumpets, and scald rhymers +Ballad us out o’ tune. The quick comedians +Extemporally will stage us and present +Our Alexandrian revels; Antony +Shall be brought drunken forth, and I shall see +Some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness +I’ th’ posture of a whore. + +IRAS. +O the good gods! + +CLEOPATRA. +Nay, that’s certain. + +IRAS. +I’ll never see’t, for I am sure mine nails +Are stronger than mine eyes. + +CLEOPATRA. +Why, that’s the way +To fool their preparation and to conquer +Their most absurd intents. + + Enter Charmian. + +Now, Charmian! +Show me, my women, like a queen. Go fetch +My best attires. I am again for Cydnus +To meet Mark Antony. Sirrah, Iras, go. +Now, noble Charmian, we’ll dispatch indeed, +And when thou hast done this chare, I’ll give thee leave +To play till doomsday. Bring our crown and all. + + [_Exit Iras. A noise within._] + +Wherefore’s this noise? + + Enter a Guardsman. + +GUARDSMAN. +Here is a rural fellow +That will not be denied your highness’ presence. +He brings you figs. + +CLEOPATRA. +Let him come in. + + [_Exit Guardsman._] + +What poor an instrument +May do a noble deed! He brings me liberty. +My resolution’s placed, and I have nothing +Of woman in me. Now from head to foot +I am marble-constant. Now the fleeting moon +No planet is of mine. + + Enter Guardsman and Clown with a basket. + +GUARDSMAN. +This is the man. + +CLEOPATRA. +Avoid, and leave him. + + [_Exit Guardsman._] + +Hast thou the pretty worm of Nilus there +That kills and pains not? + +CLOWN. +Truly, I have him, but I would not be the party that should desire you +to touch him, for his biting is immortal. Those that do die of it do +seldom or never recover. + +CLEOPATRA. +Remember’st thou any that have died on’t? + +CLOWN. +Very many, men and women too. I heard of one of them no longer than +yesterday—a very honest woman, but something given to lie; as a woman +should not do but in the way of honesty—how she died of the biting of +it, what pain she felt. Truly she makes a very good report o’ th’ worm; +but he that will believe all that they say shall never be saved by half +that they do. But this is most falliable, the worm’s an odd worm. + +CLEOPATRA. +Get thee hence. Farewell. + +CLOWN. +I wish you all joy of the worm. + + [_Sets down the basket._] + +CLEOPATRA. +Farewell. + +CLOWN. +You must think this, look you, that the worm will do his kind. + +CLEOPATRA. +Ay, ay, farewell. + +CLOWN. +Look you, the worm is not to be trusted but in the keeping of wise +people; for indeed there is no goodness in the worm. + +CLEOPATRA. +Take thou no care; it shall be heeded. + +CLOWN. +Very good. Give it nothing, I pray you, for it is not worth the +feeding. + +CLEOPATRA. +Will it eat me? + +CLOWN. +You must not think I am so simple but I know the devil himself will not +eat a woman. I know that a woman is a dish for the gods if the devil +dress her not. But truly, these same whoreson devils do the gods great +harm in their women, for in every ten that they make, the devils mar +five. + +CLEOPATRA. +Well, get thee gone. Farewell. + +CLOWN. +Yes, forsooth. I wish you joy o’ th’ worm. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Iras with a robe, crown, &c. + +CLEOPATRA. +Give me my robe. Put on my crown. I have +Immortal longings in me. Now no more +The juice of Egypt’s grape shall moist this lip. +Yare, yare, good Iras; quick. Methinks I hear +Antony call. I see him rouse himself +To praise my noble act. I hear him mock +The luck of Caesar, which the gods give men +To excuse their after wrath. Husband, I come! +Now to that name my courage prove my title! +I am fire and air; my other elements +I give to baser life.—So, have you done? +Come then, and take the last warmth of my lips. +Farewell, kind Charmian. Iras, long farewell. + + [_Kisses them. Iras falls and dies._] + +Have I the aspic in my lips? Dost fall? +If thou and nature can so gently part, +The stroke of death is as a lover’s pinch, +Which hurts and is desired. Dost thou lie still? +If thus thou vanishest, thou tell’st the world +It is not worth leave-taking. + +CHARMIAN. +Dissolve, thick cloud, and rain, that I may say +The gods themselves do weep! + +CLEOPATRA. +This proves me base. +If she first meet the curled Antony, +He’ll make demand of her, and spend that kiss +Which is my heaven to have.—Come, thou mortal wretch, + + [_To an asp, which she applies to her breast._] + +With thy sharp teeth this knot intrinsicate +Of life at once untie. Poor venomous fool, +Be angry and dispatch. O couldst thou speak, +That I might hear thee call great Caesar ass +Unpolicied! + +CHARMIAN. +O eastern star! + +CLEOPATRA. +Peace, peace! +Dost thou not see my baby at my breast +That sucks the nurse asleep? + +CHARMIAN. +O, break! O, break! + +CLEOPATRA. +As sweet as balm, as soft as air, as gentle— +O Antony!—Nay, I will take thee too. + + [_Applying another asp to her arm._] + +What should I stay— + + [_Dies._] + +CHARMIAN. +In this vile world? So, fare thee well. +Now boast thee, Death, in thy possession lies +A lass unparalleled. Downy windows, close, +And golden Phœbus never be beheld +Of eyes again so royal! Your crown’s awry; +I’ll mend it and then play. + + Enter the Guard rustling in. + +FIRST GUARD. +Where’s the queen? + +CHARMIAN. +Speak softly. Wake her not. + +FIRST GUARD. +Caesar hath sent— + +CHARMIAN. +Too slow a messenger. + + [_Applies an asp._] + +O, come apace, dispatch! I partly feel thee. + +FIRST GUARD. +Approach, ho! All’s not well. Caesar’s beguiled. + +SECOND GUARD. +There’s Dolabella sent from Caesar. Call him. + +FIRST GUARD. +What work is here, Charmian? Is this well done? + +CHARMIAN. +It is well done, and fitting for a princess +Descended of so many royal kings. +Ah, soldier! + + [_Charmian dies._] + + Enter Dolabella. + +DOLABELLA. +How goes it here? + +SECOND GUARD. +All dead. + +DOLABELLA. +Caesar, thy thoughts +Touch their effects in this. Thyself art coming +To see performed the dreaded act which thou +So sought’st to hinder. + + Enter Caesar and all his train, marching. + +ALL. +A way there, a way for Caesar! + +DOLABELLA. +O sir, you are too sure an augurer: +That you did fear is done. + +CAESAR. +Bravest at the last, +She levelled at our purposes and, being royal, +Took her own way. The manner of their deaths? +I do not see them bleed. + +DOLABELLA. +Who was last with them? + +FIRST GUARD. +A simple countryman that brought her figs. +This was his basket. + +CAESAR. +Poisoned then. + +FIRST GUARD. +O Caesar, +This Charmian lived but now; she stood and spake. +I found her trimming up the diadem +On her dead mistress; tremblingly she stood, +And on the sudden dropped. + +CAESAR. +O noble weakness! +If they had swallowed poison ’twould appear +By external swelling; but she looks like sleep, +As she would catch another Antony +In her strong toil of grace. + +DOLABELLA. +Here on her breast +There is a vent of blood, and something blown. +The like is on her arm. + +FIRST GUARD. +This is an aspic’s trail, and these fig leaves +Have slime upon them, such as th’ aspic leaves +Upon the caves of Nile. + +CAESAR. +Most probable +That so she died, for her physician tells me +She hath pursued conclusions infinite +Of easy ways to die. Take up her bed, +And bear her women from the monument. +She shall be buried by her Antony. +No grave upon the earth shall clip in it +A pair so famous. High events as these +Strike those that make them; and their story is +No less in pity than his glory which +Brought them to be lamented. Our army shall +In solemn show attend this funeral, +And then to Rome. Come, Dolabella, see +High order in this great solemnity. + + [_Exeunt omnes._] + + + + +AS YOU LIKE IT + + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE. + + DUKE, living in exile + FREDERICK, his brother, and usurper of his dominions + AMIENS, lord attending on the banished Duke + JAQUES, " " " " " " + LE BEAU, a courtier attending upon Frederick + CHARLES, wrestler to Frederick + OLIVER, son of Sir Rowland de Boys + JAQUES, " " " " " " + ORLANDO, " " " " " " + ADAM, servant to Oliver + DENNIS, " " " + TOUCHSTONE, the court jester + SIR OLIVER MARTEXT, a vicar + CORIN, shepherd + SILVIUS, " + WILLIAM, a country fellow, in love with Audrey + A person representing HYMEN + + ROSALIND, daughter to the banished Duke + CELIA, daughter to Frederick + PHEBE, a shepherdes + AUDREY, a country wench + + Lords, Pages, Foresters, and Attendants + +SCENE: OLIVER'S house; FREDERICK'S court; and the Forest of Arden + +ACT I. SCENE I. Orchard of OLIVER'S house + +Enter ORLANDO and ADAM + + ORLANDO. As I remember, Adam, it was upon this fashion bequeathed me + by will but poor a thousand crowns, and, as thou say'st, charged my + brother, on his blessing, to breed me well; and there begins my + sadness. My brother Jaques he keeps at school, and report speaks + goldenly of his profit. For my part, he keeps me rustically at home, + or, to speak more properly, stays me here at home unkept; for call + you that keeping for a gentleman of my birth that differs not from + the stalling of an ox? His horses are bred better; for, besides that + they are fair with their feeding, they are taught their manage, and + to that end riders dearly hir'd; but I, his brother, gain nothing + under him but growth; for the which his animals on his dunghills are + as much bound to him as I. Besides this nothing that he so + plentifully gives me, the something that nature gave me his + countenance seems to take from me. He lets me feed with his hinds, + bars me the place of a brother, and as much as in him lies, mines my + gentility with my education. This is it, Adam, that grieves me; and + the spirit of my father, which I think is within me, begins to mutiny + against this servitude. I will no longer endure it, though yet I know + no wise remedy how to avoid it. + + Enter OLIVER + + ADAM. Yonder comes my master, your brother. + ORLANDO. Go apart, Adam, and thou shalt hear how he will shake me + up. [ADAM retires] + OLIVER. Now, sir! what make you here? + ORLANDO. Nothing; I am not taught to make any thing. + OLIVER. What mar you then, sir? + ORLANDO. Marry, sir, I am helping you to mar that which God made, a + poor unworthy brother of yours, with idleness. + OLIVER. Marry, sir, be better employed, and be nought awhile. + ORLANDO. Shall I keep your hogs, and eat husks with them? What + prodigal portion have I spent that I should come to such penury? + OLIVER. Know you where you are, sir? + ORLANDO. O, sir, very well; here in your orchard. + OLIVER. Know you before whom, sir? + ORLANDO. Ay, better than him I am before knows me. I know you are + my eldest brother; and in the gentle condition of blood, you + should so know me. The courtesy of nations allows you my better + in that you are the first-born; but the same tradition takes not + away my blood, were there twenty brothers betwixt us. I have as + much of my father in me as you, albeit I confess your coming + before me is nearer to his reverence. + OLIVER. What, boy! [Strikes him] + ORLANDO. Come, come, elder brother, you are too young in this. + OLIVER. Wilt thou lay hands on me, villain? + ORLANDO. I am no villain; I am the youngest son of Sir Rowland de + Boys. He was my father; and he is thrice a villain that says such + a father begot villains. Wert thou not my brother, I would not + take this hand from thy throat till this other had pull'd out thy + tongue for saying so. Thou has rail'd on thyself. + ADAM. [Coming forward] Sweet masters, be patient; for your father's + remembrance, be at accord. + OLIVER. Let me go, I say. + ORLANDO. I will not, till I please; you shall hear me. My father + charg'd you in his will to give me good education: you have + train'd me like a peasant, obscuring and hiding from me all + gentleman-like qualities. The spirit of my father grows strong in + me, and I will no longer endure it; therefore allow me such + exercises as may become a gentleman, or give me the poor + allottery my father left me by testament; with that I will go buy + my fortunes. + OLIVER. And what wilt thou do? Beg, when that is spent? Well, sir, + get you in. I will not long be troubled with you; you shall have + some part of your will. I pray you leave me. + ORLANDO. I no further offend you than becomes me for my good. + OLIVER. Get you with him, you old dog. + ADAM. Is 'old dog' my reward? Most true, I have lost my teeth in + your service. God be with my old master! He would not have spoke + such a word. + Exeunt ORLANDO and ADAM + OLIVER. Is it even so? Begin you to grow upon me? I will physic + your rankness, and yet give no thousand crowns neither. Holla, + Dennis! + + Enter DENNIS + + DENNIS. Calls your worship? + OLIVER. not Charles, the Duke's wrestler, here to speak with me? + DENNIS. So please you, he is here at the door and importunes access + to you. + OLIVER. Call him in. [Exit DENNIS] 'Twill be a good way; and + to-morrow the wrestling is. + + Enter CHARLES + + CHARLES. Good morrow to your worship. + OLIVER. Good Monsieur Charles! What's the new news at the new + court? + CHARLES. There's no news at the court, sir, but the old news; that + is, the old Duke is banished by his younger brother the new Duke; + and three or four loving lords have put themselves into voluntary + exile with him, whose lands and revenues enrich the new Duke; + therefore he gives them good leave to wander. + OLIVER. Can you tell if Rosalind, the Duke's daughter, be banished + with her father? + CHARLES. O, no; for the Duke's daughter, her cousin, so loves her, + being ever from their cradles bred together, that she would have + followed her exile, or have died to stay behind her. She is at + the court, and no less beloved of her uncle than his own + daughter; and never two ladies loved as they do. + OLIVER. Where will the old Duke live? + CHARLES. They say he is already in the Forest of Arden, and a many + merry men with him; and there they live like the old Robin Hood + of England. They say many young gentlemen flock to him every day, + and fleet the time carelessly, as they did in the golden world. + OLIVER. What, you wrestle to-morrow before the new Duke? + CHARLES. Marry, do I, sir; and I came to acquaint you with a + matter. I am given, sir, secretly to understand that your younger + brother, Orlando, hath a disposition to come in disguis'd against + me to try a fall. To-morrow, sir, I wrestle for my credit; and he + that escapes me without some broken limb shall acquit him well. + Your brother is but young and tender; and, for your love, I would + be loath to foil him, as I must, for my own honour, if he come + in; therefore, out of my love to you, I came hither to acquaint + you withal, that either you might stay him from his intendment, + or brook such disgrace well as he shall run into, in that it is + thing of his own search and altogether against my will. + OLIVER. Charles, I thank thee for thy love to me, which thou shalt + find I will most kindly requite. I had myself notice of my + brother's purpose herein, and have by underhand means laboured to + dissuade him from it; but he is resolute. I'll tell thee, + Charles, it is the stubbornest young fellow of France; full of + ambition, an envious emulator of every man's good parts, a secret + and villainous contriver against me his natural brother. + Therefore use thy discretion: I had as lief thou didst break his + neck as his finger. And thou wert best look to't; for if thou + dost him any slight disgrace, or if he do not mightily grace + himself on thee, he will practise against thee by poison, entrap + thee by some treacherous device, and never leave thee till he + hath ta'en thy life by some indirect means or other; for, I + assure thee, and almost with tears I speak it, there is not one + so young and so villainous this day living. I speak but brotherly + of him; but should I anatomize him to thee as he is, I must blush + and weep, and thou must look pale and wonder. + CHARLES. I am heartily glad I came hither to you. If he come + to-morrow I'll give him his payment. If ever he go alone again, + I'll never wrestle for prize more. And so, God keep your worship! + Exit + OLIVER. Farewell, good Charles. Now will I stir this gamester. I + hope I shall see an end of him; for my soul, yet I know not why, + hates nothing more than he. Yet he's gentle; never school'd and + yet learned; full of noble device; of all sorts enchantingly + beloved; and, indeed, so much in the heart of the world, and + especially of my own people, who best know him, that I am + altogether misprised. But it shall not be so long; this wrestler + shall clear all. Nothing remains but that I kindle the boy + thither, which now I'll go about. Exit + +SCENE II. A lawn before the DUKE'S palace + +Enter ROSALIND and CELIA + + CELIA. I pray thee, Rosalind, sweet my coz, be merry. + ROSALIND. Dear Celia, I show more mirth than I am mistress of; and + would you yet I were merrier? Unless you could teach me to forget + a banished father, you must not learn me how to remember any + extraordinary pleasure. + CELIA. Herein I see thou lov'st me not with the full weight that I + love thee. If my uncle, thy banished father, had banished thy + uncle, the Duke my father, so thou hadst been still with me, I + could have taught my love to take thy father for mine; so wouldst + thou, if the truth of thy love to me were so righteously temper'd + as mine is to thee. + ROSALIND. Well, I will forget the condition of my estate, to + rejoice in yours. + CELIA. You know my father hath no child but I, nor none is like to + have; and, truly, when he dies thou shalt be his heir; for what + he hath taken away from thy father perforce, I will render thee + again in affection. By mine honour, I will; and when I break that + oath, let me turn monster; therefore, my sweet Rose, my dear + Rose, be merry. + ROSALIND. From henceforth I will, coz, and devise sports. + Let me see; what think you of falling in love? + CELIA. Marry, I prithee, do, to make sport withal; but love no man + in good earnest, nor no further in sport neither than with safety + of a pure blush thou mayst in honour come off again. + ROSALIND. What shall be our sport, then? + CELIA. Let us sit and mock the good housewife Fortune from her + wheel, that her gifts may henceforth be bestowed equally. + ROSALIND. I would we could do so; for her benefits are mightily + misplaced; and the bountiful blind woman doth most mistake in her + gifts to women. + CELIA. 'Tis true; for those that she makes fair she scarce makes + honest; and those that she makes honest she makes very + ill-favouredly. + ROSALIND. Nay; now thou goest from Fortune's office to Nature's: + Fortune reigns in gifts of the world, not in the lineaments of + Nature. + + Enter TOUCHSTONE + + CELIA. No; when Nature hath made a fair creature, may she not by + Fortune fall into the fire? Though Nature hath given us wit to + flout at Fortune, hath not Fortune sent in this fool to cut off + the argument? + ROSALIND. Indeed, there is Fortune too hard for Nature, when + Fortune makes Nature's natural the cutter-off of Nature's wit. + CELIA. Peradventure this is not Fortune's work neither, but + Nature's, who perceiveth our natural wits too dull to reason of + such goddesses, and hath sent this natural for our whetstone; for + always the dullness of the fool is the whetstone of the wits. How + now, wit! Whither wander you? + TOUCHSTONE. Mistress, you must come away to your father. + CELIA. Were you made the messenger? + TOUCHSTONE. No, by mine honour; but I was bid to come for you. + ROSALIND. Where learned you that oath, fool? + TOUCHSTONE. Of a certain knight that swore by his honour they were + good pancakes, and swore by his honour the mustard was naught. + Now I'll stand to it, the pancakes were naught and the mustard + was good, and yet was not the knight forsworn. + CELIA. How prove you that, in the great heap of your knowledge? + ROSALIND. Ay, marry, now unmuzzle your wisdom. + TOUCHSTONE. Stand you both forth now: stroke your chins, and swear + by your beards that I am a knave. + CELIA. By our beards, if we had them, thou art. + TOUCHSTONE. By my knavery, if I had it, then I were. But if you + swear by that that not, you are not forsworn; no more was this + knight, swearing by his honour, for he never had any; or if he + had, he had sworn it away before ever he saw those pancackes or + that mustard. + CELIA. Prithee, who is't that thou mean'st? + TOUCHSTONE. One that old Frederick, your father, loves. + CELIA. My father's love is enough to honour him. Enough, speak no + more of him; you'll be whipt for taxation one of these days. + TOUCHSTONE. The more pity that fools may not speak wisely what wise + men do foolishly. + CELIA. By my troth, thou sayest true; for since the little wit that + fools have was silenced, the little foolery that wise men have + makes a great show. Here comes Monsieur Le Beau. + + Enter LE BEAU + + ROSALIND. With his mouth full of news. + CELIA. Which he will put on us as pigeons feed their young. + ROSALIND. Then shall we be news-cramm'd. + CELIA. All the better; we shall be the more marketable. Bon jour, + Monsieur Le Beau. What's the news? + LE BEAU. Fair Princess, you have lost much good sport. + CELIA. Sport! of what colour? + LE BEAU. What colour, madam? How shall I answer you? + ROSALIND. As wit and fortune will. + TOUCHSTONE. Or as the Destinies decrees. + CELIA. Well said; that was laid on with a trowel. + TOUCHSTONE. Nay, if I keep not my rank- + ROSALIND. Thou losest thy old smell. + LE BEAU. You amaze me, ladies. I would have told you of good + wrestling, which you have lost the sight of. + ROSALIND. Yet tell us the manner of the wrestling. + LE BEAU. I will tell you the beginning, and, if it please your + ladyships, you may see the end; for the best is yet to do; and + here, where you are, they are coming to perform it. + CELIA. Well, the beginning, that is dead and buried. + LE BEAU. There comes an old man and his three sons- + CELIA. I could match this beginning with an old tale. + LE BEAU. Three proper young men, of excellent growth and presence. + ROSALIND. With bills on their necks: 'Be it known unto all men by + these presents'- + LE BEAU. The eldest of the three wrestled with Charles, the Duke's + wrestler; which Charles in a moment threw him, and broke three of + his ribs, that there is little hope of life in him. So he serv'd + the second, and so the third. Yonder they lie; the poor old man, + their father, making such pitiful dole over them that all the + beholders take his part with weeping. + ROSALIND. Alas! + TOUCHSTONE. But what is the sport, monsieur, that the ladies have + lost? + LE BEAU. Why, this that I speak of. + TOUCHSTONE. Thus men may grow wiser every day. It is the first time + that ever I heard breaking of ribs was sport for ladies. + CELIA. Or I, I promise thee. + ROSALIND. But is there any else longs to see this broken music in + his sides? Is there yet another dotes upon rib-breaking? Shall we + see this wrestling, cousin? + LE BEAU. You must, if you stay here; for here is the place + appointed for the wrestling, and they are ready to perform it. + CELIA. Yonder, sure, they are coming. Let us now stay and see it. + + Flourish. Enter DUKE FREDERICK, LORDS, ORLANDO, + CHARLES, and ATTENDANTS + + FREDERICK. Come on; since the youth will not be entreated, his own + peril on his forwardness. + ROSALIND. Is yonder the man? + LE BEAU. Even he, madam. + CELIA. Alas, he is too young; yet he looks successfully. + FREDERICK. How now, daughter and cousin! Are you crept hither to + see the wrestling? + ROSALIND. Ay, my liege; so please you give us leave. + FREDERICK. You will take little delight in it, I can tell you, + there is such odds in the man. In pity of the challenger's youth + I would fain dissuade him, but he will not be entreated. Speak to + him, ladies; see if you can move him. + CELIA. Call him hither, good Monsieur Le Beau. + FREDERICK. Do so; I'll not be by. + [DUKE FREDERICK goes apart] + LE BEAU. Monsieur the Challenger, the Princess calls for you. + ORLANDO. I attend them with all respect and duty. + ROSALIND. Young man, have you challeng'd Charles the wrestler? + ORLANDO. No, fair Princess; he is the general challenger. I come + but in, as others do, to try with him the strength of my youth. + CELIA. Young gentleman, your spirits are too bold for your years. + You have seen cruel proof of this man's strength; if you saw + yourself with your eyes, or knew yourself with your judgment, the + fear of your adventure would counsel you to a more equal + enterprise. We pray you, for your own sake, to embrace your own + safety and give over this attempt. + ROSALIND. Do, young sir; your reputation shall not therefore be + misprised: we will make it our suit to the Duke that the + wrestling might not go forward. + ORLANDO. I beseech you, punish me not with your hard thoughts, + wherein I confess me much guilty to deny so fair and excellent + ladies any thing. But let your fair eyes and gentle wishes go + with me to my trial; wherein if I be foil'd there is but one + sham'd that was never gracious; if kill'd, but one dead that is + willing to be so. I shall do my friends no wrong, for I have none + to lament me; the world no injury, for in it I have nothing; only + in the world I fill up a place, which may be better supplied when + I have made it empty. + ROSALIND. The little strength that I have, I would it were with + you. + CELIA. And mine to eke out hers. + ROSALIND. Fare you well. Pray heaven I be deceiv'd in you! + CELIA. Your heart's desires be with you! + CHARLES. Come, where is this young gallant that is so desirous to + lie with his mother earth? + ORLANDO. Ready, sir; but his will hath in it a more modest working. + FREDERICK. You shall try but one fall. + CHARLES. No, I warrant your Grace, you shall not entreat him to a + second, that have so mightily persuaded him from a first. + ORLANDO. You mean to mock me after; you should not have mock'd me + before; but come your ways. + ROSALIND. Now, Hercules be thy speed, young man! + CELIA. I would I were invisible, to catch the strong fellow by the + leg. [They wrestle] + ROSALIND. O excellent young man! + CELIA. If I had a thunderbolt in mine eye, I can tell who should + down. + [CHARLES is thrown. Shout] + FREDERICK. No more, no more. + ORLANDO. Yes, I beseech your Grace; I am not yet well breath'd. + FREDERICK. How dost thou, Charles? + LE BEAU. He cannot speak, my lord. + FREDERICK. Bear him away. What is thy name, young man? + ORLANDO. Orlando, my liege; the youngest son of Sir Rowland de + Boys. + FREDERICK. I would thou hadst been son to some man else. + The world esteem'd thy father honourable, + But I did find him still mine enemy. + Thou shouldst have better pleas'd me with this deed, + Hadst thou descended from another house. + But fare thee well; thou art a gallant youth; + I would thou hadst told me of another father. + Exeunt DUKE, train, and LE BEAU + CELIA. Were I my father, coz, would I do this? + ORLANDO. I am more proud to be Sir Rowland's son, + His youngest son- and would not change that calling + To be adopted heir to Frederick. + ROSALIND. My father lov'd Sir Rowland as his soul, + And all the world was of my father's mind; + Had I before known this young man his son, + I should have given him tears unto entreaties + Ere he should thus have ventur'd. + CELIA. Gentle cousin, + Let us go thank him, and encourage him; + My father's rough and envious disposition + Sticks me at heart. Sir, you have well deserv'd; + If you do keep your promises in love + But justly as you have exceeded all promise, + Your mistress shall be happy. + ROSALIND. Gentleman, [Giving him a chain from her neck] + Wear this for me; one out of suits with fortune, + That could give more, but that her hand lacks means. + Shall we go, coz? + CELIA. Ay. Fare you well, fair gentleman. + ORLANDO. Can I not say 'I thank you'? My better parts + Are all thrown down; and that which here stands up + Is but a quintain, a mere lifeless block. + ROSALIND. He calls us back. My pride fell with my fortunes; + I'll ask him what he would. Did you call, sir? + Sir, you have wrestled well, and overthrown + More than your enemies. + CELIA. Will you go, coz? + ROSALIND. Have with you. Fare you well. + Exeunt ROSALIND and CELIA + ORLANDO. What passion hangs these weights upon my tongue? + I cannot speak to her, yet she urg'd conference. + O poor Orlando, thou art overthrown! + Or Charles or something weaker masters thee. + + Re-enter LE BEAU + + LE BEAU. Good sir, I do in friendship counsel you + To leave this place. Albeit you have deserv'd + High commendation, true applause, and love, + Yet such is now the Duke's condition + That he misconstrues all that you have done. + The Duke is humorous; what he is, indeed, + More suits you to conceive than I to speak of. + ORLANDO. I thank you, sir; and pray you tell me this: + Which of the two was daughter of the Duke + That here was at the wrestling? + LE BEAU. Neither his daughter, if we judge by manners; + But yet, indeed, the smaller is his daughter; + The other is daughter to the banish'd Duke, + And here detain'd by her usurping uncle, + To keep his daughter company; whose loves + Are dearer than the natural bond of sisters. + But I can tell you that of late this Duke + Hath ta'en displeasure 'gainst his gentle niece, + Grounded upon no other argument + But that the people praise her for her virtues + And pity her for her good father's sake; + And, on my life, his malice 'gainst the lady + Will suddenly break forth. Sir, fare you well. + Hereafter, in a better world than this, + I shall desire more love and knowledge of you. + ORLANDO. I rest much bounden to you; fare you well. + Exit LE BEAU + Thus must I from the smoke into the smother; + From tyrant Duke unto a tyrant brother. + But heavenly Rosalind! Exit + +SCENE III. The DUKE's palace + +Enter CELIA and ROSALIND + + CELIA. Why, cousin! why, Rosalind! Cupid have mercy! + Not a word? + ROSALIND. Not one to throw at a dog. + CELIA. No, thy words are too precious to be cast away upon curs; + throw some of them at me; come, lame me with reasons. + ROSALIND. Then there were two cousins laid up, when the one should + be lam'd with reasons and the other mad without any. + CELIA. But is all this for your father? + ROSALIND. No, some of it is for my child's father. O, how full of + briers is this working-day world! + CELIA. They are but burs, cousin, thrown upon thee in holiday + foolery; if we walk not in the trodden paths, our very petticoats + will catch them. + ROSALIND. I could shake them off my coat: these burs are in my + heart. + CELIA. Hem them away. + ROSALIND. I would try, if I could cry 'hem' and have him. + CELIA. Come, come, wrestle with thy affections. + ROSALIND. O, they take the part of a better wrestler than myself. + CELIA. O, a good wish upon you! You will try in time, in despite of + a fall. But, turning these jests out of service, let us talk in + good earnest. Is it possible, on such a sudden, you should fall + into so strong a liking with old Sir Rowland's youngest son? + ROSALIND. The Duke my father lov'd his father dearly. + CELIA. Doth it therefore ensue that you should love his son dearly? + By this kind of chase I should hate him, for my father hated his + father dearly; yet I hate not Orlando. + ROSALIND. No, faith, hate him not, for my sake. + CELIA. Why should I not? Doth he not deserve well? + + Enter DUKE FREDERICK, with LORDS + + ROSALIND. Let me love him for that; and do you love him because I + do. Look, here comes the Duke. + CELIA. With his eyes full of anger. + FREDERICK. Mistress, dispatch you with your safest haste, + And get you from our court. + ROSALIND. Me, uncle? + FREDERICK. You, cousin. + Within these ten days if that thou beest found + So near our public court as twenty miles, + Thou diest for it. + ROSALIND. I do beseech your Grace, + Let me the knowledge of my fault bear with me. + If with myself I hold intelligence, + Or have acquaintance with mine own desires; + If that I do not dream, or be not frantic- + As I do trust I am not- then, dear uncle, + Never so much as in a thought unborn + Did I offend your Highness. + FREDERICK. Thus do all traitors; + If their purgation did consist in words, + They are as innocent as grace itself. + Let it suffice thee that I trust thee not. + ROSALIND. Yet your mistrust cannot make me a traitor. + Tell me whereon the likelihood depends. + FREDERICK. Thou art thy father's daughter; there's enough. + ROSALIND. SO was I when your Highness took his dukedom; + So was I when your Highness banish'd him. + Treason is not inherited, my lord; + Or, if we did derive it from our friends, + What's that to me? My father was no traitor. + Then, good my liege, mistake me not so much + To think my poverty is treacherous. + CELIA. Dear sovereign, hear me speak. + FREDERICK. Ay, Celia; we stay'd her for your sake, + Else had she with her father rang'd along. + CELIA. I did not then entreat to have her stay; + It was your pleasure, and your own remorse; + I was too young that time to value her, + But now I know her. If she be a traitor, + Why so am I: we still have slept together, + Rose at an instant, learn'd, play'd, eat together; + And wheresoe'er we went, like Juno's swans, + Still we went coupled and inseparable. + FREDERICK. She is too subtle for thee; and her smoothness, + Her very silence and her patience, + Speak to the people, and they pity her. + Thou art a fool. She robs thee of thy name; + And thou wilt show more bright and seem more virtuous + When she is gone. Then open not thy lips. + Firm and irrevocable is my doom + Which I have pass'd upon her; she is banish'd. + CELIA. Pronounce that sentence, then, on me, my liege; + I cannot live out of her company. + FREDERICK. You are a fool. You, niece, provide yourself. + If you outstay the time, upon mine honour, + And in the greatness of my word, you die. + Exeunt DUKE and LORDS + CELIA. O my poor Rosalind! Whither wilt thou go? + Wilt thou change fathers? I will give thee mine. + I charge thee be not thou more griev'd than I am. + ROSALIND. I have more cause. + CELIA. Thou hast not, cousin. + Prithee be cheerful. Know'st thou not the Duke + Hath banish'd me, his daughter? + ROSALIND. That he hath not. + CELIA. No, hath not? Rosalind lacks, then, the love + Which teacheth thee that thou and I am one. + Shall we be sund'red? Shall we part, sweet girl? + No; let my father seek another heir. + Therefore devise with me how we may fly, + Whither to go, and what to bear with us; + And do not seek to take your charge upon you, + To bear your griefs yourself, and leave me out; + For, by this heaven, now at our sorrows pale, + Say what thou canst, I'll go along with thee. + ROSALIND. Why, whither shall we go? + CELIA. To seek my uncle in the Forest of Arden. + ROSALIND. Alas, what danger will it be to us, + Maids as we are, to travel forth so far! + Beauty provoketh thieves sooner than gold. + CELIA. I'll put myself in poor and mean attire, + And with a kind of umber smirch my face; + The like do you; so shall we pass along, + And never stir assailants. + ROSALIND. Were it not better, + Because that I am more than common tall, + That I did suit me all points like a man? + A gallant curtle-axe upon my thigh, + A boar spear in my hand; and- in my heart + Lie there what hidden woman's fear there will- + We'll have a swashing and a martial outside, + As many other mannish cowards have + That do outface it with their semblances. + CELIA. What shall I call thee when thou art a man? + ROSALIND. I'll have no worse a name than Jove's own page, + And therefore look you call me Ganymede. + But what will you be call'd? + CELIA. Something that hath a reference to my state: + No longer Celia, but Aliena. + ROSALIND. But, cousin, what if we assay'd to steal + The clownish fool out of your father's court? + Would he not be a comfort to our travel? + CELIA. He'll go along o'er the wide world with me; + Leave me alone to woo him. Let's away, + And get our jewels and our wealth together; + Devise the fittest time and safest way + To hide us from pursuit that will be made + After my flight. Now go we in content + To liberty, and not to banishment. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE I. The Forest of Arden + +Enter DUKE SENIOR, AMIENS, and two or three LORDS, like foresters + + DUKE SENIOR. Now, my co-mates and brothers in exile, + Hath not old custom made this life more sweet + Than that of painted pomp? Are not these woods + More free from peril than the envious court? + Here feel we not the penalty of Adam, + The seasons' difference; as the icy fang + And churlish chiding of the winter's wind, + Which when it bites and blows upon my body, + Even till I shrink with cold, I smile and say + 'This is no flattery; these are counsellors + That feelingly persuade me what I am.' + Sweet are the uses of adversity, + Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, + Wears yet a precious jewel in his head; + And this our life, exempt from public haunt, + Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, + Sermons in stones, and good in everything. + I would not change it. + AMIENS. Happy is your Grace, + That can translate the stubbornness of fortune + Into so quiet and so sweet a style. + DUKE SENIOR. Come, shall we go and kill us venison? + And yet it irks me the poor dappled fools, + Being native burghers of this desert city, + Should, in their own confines, with forked heads + Have their round haunches gor'd. + FIRST LORD. Indeed, my lord, + The melancholy Jaques grieves at that; + And, in that kind, swears you do more usurp + Than doth your brother that hath banish'd you. + To-day my Lord of Amiens and myself + Did steal behind him as he lay along + Under an oak whose antique root peeps out + Upon the brook that brawls along this wood! + To the which place a poor sequest'red stag, + That from the hunter's aim had ta'en a hurt, + Did come to languish; and, indeed, my lord, + The wretched animal heav'd forth such groans + That their discharge did stretch his leathern coat + Almost to bursting; and the big round tears + Cours'd one another down his innocent nose + In piteous chase; and thus the hairy fool, + Much marked of the melancholy Jaques, + Stood on th' extremest verge of the swift brook, + Augmenting it with tears. + DUKE SENIOR. But what said Jaques? + Did he not moralize this spectacle? + FIRST LORD. O, yes, into a thousand similes. + First, for his weeping into the needless stream: + 'Poor deer,' quoth he 'thou mak'st a testament + As worldlings do, giving thy sum of more + To that which had too much.' Then, being there alone, + Left and abandoned of his velvet friends: + ''Tis right'; quoth he 'thus misery doth part + The flux of company.' Anon, a careless herd, + Full of the pasture, jumps along by him + And never stays to greet him. 'Ay,' quoth Jaques + 'Sweep on, you fat and greasy citizens; + 'Tis just the fashion. Wherefore do you look + Upon that poor and broken bankrupt there?' + Thus most invectively he pierceth through + The body of the country, city, court, + Yea, and of this our life; swearing that we + Are mere usurpers, tyrants, and what's worse, + To fright the animals, and to kill them up + In their assign'd and native dwelling-place. + DUKE SENIOR. And did you leave him in this contemplation? + SECOND LORD. We did, my lord, weeping and commenting + Upon the sobbing deer. + DUKE SENIOR. Show me the place; + I love to cope him in these sullen fits, + For then he's full of matter. + FIRST LORD. I'll bring you to him straight. Exeunt + +SCENE II. The DUKE'S palace + +Enter DUKE FREDERICK, with LORDS + + FREDERICK. Can it be possible that no man saw them? + It cannot be; some villains of my court + Are of consent and sufferance in this. + FIRST LORD. I cannot hear of any that did see her. + The ladies, her attendants of her chamber, + Saw her abed, and in the morning early + They found the bed untreasur'd of their mistress. + SECOND LORD. My lord, the roynish clown, at whom so oft + Your Grace was wont to laugh, is also missing. + Hisperia, the Princess' gentlewoman, + Confesses that she secretly o'erheard + Your daughter and her cousin much commend + The parts and graces of the wrestler + That did but lately foil the sinewy Charles; + And she believes, wherever they are gone, + That youth is surely in their company. + FREDERICK. Send to his brother; fetch that gallant hither. + If he be absent, bring his brother to me; + I'll make him find him. Do this suddenly; + And let not search and inquisition quail + To bring again these foolish runaways. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Before OLIVER'S house + +Enter ORLANDO and ADAM, meeting + + ORLANDO. Who's there? + ADAM. What, my young master? O my gentle master! + O my sweet master! O you memory + Of old Sir Rowland! Why, what make you here? + Why are you virtuous? Why do people love you? + And wherefore are you gentle, strong, and valiant? + Why would you be so fond to overcome + The bonny prizer of the humorous Duke? + Your praise is come too swiftly home before you. + Know you not, master, to some kind of men + Their graces serve them but as enemies? + No more do yours. Your virtues, gentle master, + Are sanctified and holy traitors to you. + O, what a world is this, when what is comely + Envenoms him that bears it! + ORLANDO. Why, what's the matter? + ADAM. O unhappy youth! + Come not within these doors; within this roof + The enemy of all your graces lives. + Your brother- no, no brother; yet the son- + Yet not the son; I will not call him son + Of him I was about to call his father- + Hath heard your praises; and this night he means + To burn the lodging where you use to lie, + And you within it. If he fail of that, + He will have other means to cut you off; + I overheard him and his practices. + This is no place; this house is but a butchery; + Abhor it, fear it, do not enter it. + ORLANDO. Why, whither, Adam, wouldst thou have me go? + ADAM. No matter whither, so you come not here. + ORLANDO. What, wouldst thou have me go and beg my food, + Or with a base and boist'rous sword enforce + A thievish living on the common road? + This I must do, or know not what to do; + Yet this I will not do, do how I can. + I rather will subject me to the malice + Of a diverted blood and bloody brother. + ADAM. But do not so. I have five hundred crowns, + The thrifty hire I sav'd under your father, + Which I did store to be my foster-nurse, + When service should in my old limbs lie lame, + And unregarded age in corners thrown. + Take that, and He that doth the ravens feed, + Yea, providently caters for the sparrow, + Be comfort to my age! Here is the gold; + All this I give you. Let me be your servant; + Though I look old, yet I am strong and lusty; + For in my youth I never did apply + Hot and rebellious liquors in my blood, + Nor did not with unbashful forehead woo + The means of weakness and debility; + Therefore my age is as a lusty winter, + Frosty, but kindly. Let me go with you; + I'll do the service of a younger man + In all your business and necessities. + ORLANDO. O good old man, how well in thee appears + The constant service of the antique world, + When service sweat for duty, not for meed! + Thou art not for the fashion of these times, + Where none will sweat but for promotion, + And having that do choke their service up + Even with the having; it is not so with thee. + But, poor old man, thou prun'st a rotten tree + That cannot so much as a blossom yield + In lieu of all thy pains and husbandry. + But come thy ways, we'll go along together, + And ere we have thy youthful wages spent + We'll light upon some settled low content. + ADAM. Master, go on; and I will follow the + To the last gasp, with truth and loyalty. + From seventeen years till now almost four-score + Here lived I, but now live here no more. + At seventeen years many their fortunes seek, + But at fourscore it is too late a week; + Yet fortune cannot recompense me better + Than to die well and not my master's debtor. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. The Forest of Arden + +Enter ROSALIND for GANYMEDE, CELIA for ALIENA, and CLOWN alias +TOUCHSTONE + + ROSALIND. O Jupiter, how weary are my spirits! + TOUCHSTONE. I Care not for my spirits, if my legs were not weary. + ROSALIND. I could find in my heart to disgrace my man's apparel, + and to cry like a woman; but I must comfort the weaker vessel, as + doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat; + therefore, courage, good Aliena. + CELIA. I pray you bear with me; I cannot go no further. + TOUCHSTONE. For my part, I had rather bear with you than bear you; + yet I should bear no cross if I did bear you; for I think you + have no money in your purse. + ROSALIND. Well,. this is the Forest of Arden. + TOUCHSTONE. Ay, now am I in Arden; the more fool I; when I was at + home I was in a better place; but travellers must be content. + + Enter CORIN and SILVIUS + + ROSALIND. Ay, be so, good Touchstone. Look you, who comes here, a + young man and an old in solemn talk. + CORIN. That is the way to make her scorn you still. + SILVIUS. O Corin, that thou knew'st how I do love her! + CORIN. I partly guess; for I have lov'd ere now. + SILVIUS. No, Corin, being old, thou canst not guess, + Though in thy youth thou wast as true a lover + As ever sigh'd upon a midnight pillow. + But if thy love were ever like to mine, + As sure I think did never man love so, + How many actions most ridiculous + Hast thou been drawn to by thy fantasy? + CORIN. Into a thousand that I have forgotten. + SILVIUS. O, thou didst then never love so heartily! + If thou rememb'rest not the slightest folly + That ever love did make thee run into, + Thou hast not lov'd; + Or if thou hast not sat as I do now, + Wearing thy hearer in thy mistress' praise, + Thou hast not lov'd; + Or if thou hast not broke from company + Abruptly, as my passion now makes me, + Thou hast not lov'd. + O Phebe, Phebe, Phebe! Exit Silvius + ROSALIND. Alas, poor shepherd! searching of thy wound, + I have by hard adventure found mine own. + TOUCHSTONE. And I mine. I remember, when I was in love, I broke my + sword upon a stone, and bid him take that for coming a-night to + Jane Smile; and I remember the kissing of her batler, and the + cow's dugs that her pretty chopt hands had milk'd; and I remember + the wooing of peascod instead of her; from whom I took two cods, + and giving her them again, said with weeping tears 'Wear these + for my sake.' We that are true lovers run into strange capers; + but as all is mortal in nature, so is all nature in love mortal + in folly. + ROSALIND. Thou speak'st wiser than thou art ware of. + TOUCHSTONE. Nay, I shall ne'er be ware of mine own wit till I break + my shins against it. + ROSALIND. Jove, Jove! this shepherd's passion + Is much upon my fashion. + TOUCHSTONE. And mine; but it grows something stale with me. + CELIA. I pray you, one of you question yond man + If he for gold will give us any food; + I faint almost to death. + TOUCHSTONE. Holla, you clown! + ROSALIND. Peace, fool; he's not thy Ensman. + CORIN. Who calls? + TOUCHSTONE. Your betters, sir. + CORIN. Else are they very wretched. + ROSALIND. Peace, I say. Good even to you, friend. + CORIN. And to you, gentle sir, and to you all. + ROSALIND. I prithee, shepherd, if that love or gold + Can in this desert place buy entertainment, + Bring us where we may rest ourselves and feed. + Here's a young maid with travel much oppress'd, + And faints for succour. + CORIN. Fair sir, I pity her, + And wish, for her sake more than for mine own, + My fortunes were more able to relieve her; + But I am shepherd to another man, + And do not shear the fleeces that I graze. + My master is of churlish disposition, + And little recks to find the way to heaven + By doing deeds of hospitality. + Besides, his cote, his flocks, and bounds of feed, + Are now on sale; and at our sheepcote now, + By reason of his absence, there is nothing + That you will feed on; but what is, come see, + And in my voice most welcome shall you be. + ROSALIND. What is he that shall buy his flock and pasture? + CORIN. That young swain that you saw here but erewhile, + That little cares for buying any thing. + ROSALIND. I pray thee, if it stand with honesty, + Buy thou the cottage, pasture, and the flock, + And thou shalt have to pay for it of us. + CELIA. And we will mend thy wages. I like this place, + And willingly could waste my time in it. + CORIN. Assuredly the thing is to be sold. + Go with me; if you like upon report + The soil, the profit, and this kind of life, + I will your very faithful feeder be, + And buy it with your gold right suddenly. Exeunt + +SCENE V. Another part of the forest + +Enter AMIENS, JAQUES, and OTHERS + + SONG + AMIENS. Under the greenwood tree + Who loves to lie with me, + And turn his merry note + Unto the sweet bird's throat, + Come hither, come hither, come hither. + Here shall he see + No enemy + But winter and rough weather. + + JAQUES. More, more, I prithee, more. + AMIENS. It will make you melancholy, Monsieur Jaques. + JAQUES. I thank it. More, I prithee, more. I can suck melancholy + out of a song, as a weasel sucks eggs. More, I prithee, more. + AMIENS. My voice is ragged; I know I cannot please you. + JAQUES. I do not desire you to please me; I do desire you to sing. + Come, more; another stanzo. Call you 'em stanzos? + AMIENS. What you will, Monsieur Jaques. + JAQUES. Nay, I care not for their names; they owe me nothing. Will + you sing? + AMIENS. More at your request than to please myself. + JAQUES. Well then, if ever I thank any man, I'll thank you; but + that they call compliment is like th' encounter of two dog-apes; + and when a man thanks me heartily, methinks have given him a + penny, and he renders me the beggarly thanks. Come, sing; and you + that will not, hold your tongues. + AMIENS. Well, I'll end the song. Sirs, cover the while; the Duke + will drink under this tree. He hath been all this day to look + you. + JAQUES. And I have been all this day to avoid him. He is to + disputable for my company. I think of as many matters as he; but + I give heaven thanks, and make no boast of them. Come, warble, + come. + + SONG + [All together here] + + Who doth ambition shun, + And loves to live i' th' sun, + Seeking the food he eats, + And pleas'd with what he gets, + Come hither, come hither, come hither. + Here shall he see + No enemy + But winter and rough weather. + + JAQUES. I'll give you a verse to this note that I made yesterday in + despite of my invention. + AMIENS. And I'll sing it. + JAQUES. Thus it goes: + + If it do come to pass + That any man turn ass, + Leaving his wealth and ease + A stubborn will to please, + Ducdame, ducdame, ducdame; + Here shall he see + Gross fools as he, + An if he will come to me. + + AMIENS. What's that 'ducdame'? + JAQUES. 'Tis a Greek invocation, to call fools into a circle. I'll + go sleep, if I can; if I cannot, I'll rail against all the + first-born of Egypt. + AMIENS. And I'll go seek the Duke; his banquet is prepar'd. + Exeunt severally + +SCENE VI. The forest + +Enter ORLANDO and ADAM + + ADAM. Dear master, I can go no further. O, I die for food! Here lie + I down, and measure out my grave. Farewell, kind master. + ORLANDO. Why, how now, Adam! No greater heart in thee? Live a + little; comfort a little; cheer thyself a little. If this uncouth + forest yield anything savage, I will either be food for it or + bring it for food to thee. Thy conceit is nearer death than thy + powers. For my sake be comfortable; hold death awhile at the + arm's end. I will here be with the presently; and if I bring thee + not something to eat, I will give thee leave to die; but if thou + diest before I come, thou art a mocker of my labour. Well said! + thou look'st cheerly; and I'll be with thee quickly. Yet thou + liest in the bleak air. Come, I will bear thee to some shelter; + and thou shalt not die for lack of a dinner, if there live + anything in this desert. Cheerly, good Adam! Exeunt + +SCENE VII. The forest + +A table set out. Enter DUKE SENIOR, AMIENS, and LORDS, like outlaws + + DUKE SENIOR. I think he be transform'd into a beast; + For I can nowhere find him like a man. + FIRST LORD. My lord, he is but even now gone hence; + Here was he merry, hearing of a song. + DUKE SENIOR. If he, compact of jars, grow musical, + We shall have shortly discord in the spheres. + Go seek him; tell him I would speak with him. + + Enter JAQUES + + FIRST LORD. He saves my labour by his own approach. + DUKE SENIOR. Why, how now, monsieur! what a life is this, + That your poor friends must woo your company? + What, you look merrily! + JAQUES. A fool, a fool! I met a fool i' th' forest, + A motley fool. A miserable world! + As I do live by food, I met a fool, + Who laid him down and bask'd him in the sun, + And rail'd on Lady Fortune in good terms, + In good set terms- and yet a motley fool. + 'Good morrow, fool,' quoth I; 'No, sir,' quoth he, + 'Call me not fool till heaven hath sent me fortune.' + And then he drew a dial from his poke, + And, looking on it with lack-lustre eye, + Says very wisely, 'It is ten o'clock; + Thus we may see,' quoth he, 'how the world wags; + 'Tis but an hour ago since it was nine; + And after one hour more 'twill be eleven; + And so, from hour to hour, we ripe and ripe, + And then, from hour to hour, we rot and rot; + And thereby hangs a tale.' When I did hear + The motley fool thus moral on the time, + My lungs began to crow like chanticleer + That fools should be so deep contemplative; + And I did laugh sans intermission + An hour by his dial. O noble fool! + A worthy fool! Motley's the only wear. + DUKE SENIOR. What fool is this? + JAQUES. O worthy fool! One that hath been a courtier, + And says, if ladies be but young and fair, + They have the gift to know it; and in his brain, + Which is as dry as the remainder biscuit + After a voyage, he hath strange places cramm'd + With observation, the which he vents + In mangled forms. O that I were a fool! + I am ambitious for a motley coat. + DUKE SENIOR. Thou shalt have one. + JAQUES. It is my only suit, + Provided that you weed your better judgments + Of all opinion that grows rank in them + That I am wise. I must have liberty + Withal, as large a charter as the wind, + To blow on whom I please, for so fools have; + And they that are most galled with my folly, + They most must laugh. And why, sir, must they so? + The why is plain as way to parish church: + He that a fool doth very wisely hit + Doth very foolishly, although he smart, + Not to seem senseless of the bob; if not, + The wise man's folly is anatomiz'd + Even by the squand'ring glances of the fool. + Invest me in my motley; give me leave + To speak my mind, and I will through and through + Cleanse the foul body of th' infected world, + If they will patiently receive my medicine. + DUKE SENIOR. Fie on thee! I can tell what thou wouldst do. + JAQUES. What, for a counter, would I do but good? + DUKE SENIOR. Most Mischievous foul sin, in chiding sin; + For thou thyself hast been a libertine, + As sensual as the brutish sting itself; + And all th' embossed sores and headed evils + That thou with license of free foot hast caught + Wouldst thou disgorge into the general world. + JAQUES. Why, who cries out on pride + That can therein tax any private party? + Doth it not flow as hugely as the sea, + Till that the wearer's very means do ebb? + What woman in the city do I name + When that I say the city-woman bears + The cost of princes on unworthy shoulders? + Who can come in and say that I mean her, + When such a one as she such is her neighbour? + Or what is he of basest function + That says his bravery is not on my cost, + Thinking that I mean him, but therein suits + His folly to the mettle of my speech? + There then! how then? what then? Let me see wherein + My tongue hath wrong'd him: if it do him right, + Then he hath wrong'd himself; if he be free, + Why then my taxing like a wild-goose flies, + Unclaim'd of any man. But who comes here? + + Enter ORLANDO with his sword drawn + + ORLANDO. Forbear, and eat no more. + JAQUES. Why, I have eat none yet. + ORLANDO. Nor shalt not, till necessity be serv'd. + JAQUES. Of what kind should this cock come of? + DUKE SENIOR. Art thou thus bolden'd, man, by thy distress? + Or else a rude despiser of good manners, + That in civility thou seem'st so empty? + ORLANDO. You touch'd my vein at first: the thorny point + Of bare distress hath ta'en from me the show + Of smooth civility; yet arn I inland bred, + And know some nurture. But forbear, I say; + He dies that touches any of this fruit + Till I and my affairs are answered. + JAQUES. An you will not be answer'd with reason, I must die. + DUKE SENIOR. What would you have? Your gentleness shall force + More than your force move us to gentleness. + ORLANDO. I almost die for food, and let me have it. + DUKE SENIOR. Sit down and feed, and welcome to our table. + ORLANDO. Speak you so gently? Pardon me, I pray you; + I thought that all things had been savage here, + And therefore put I on the countenance + Of stern commandment. But whate'er you are + That in this desert inaccessible, + Under the shade of melancholy boughs, + Lose and neglect the creeping hours of time; + If ever you have look'd on better days, + If ever been where bells have knoll'd to church, + If ever sat at any good man's feast, + If ever from your eyelids wip'd a tear, + And know what 'tis to pity and be pitied, + Let gentleness my strong enforcement be; + In the which hope I blush, and hide my sword. + DUKE SENIOR. True is it that we have seen better days, + And have with holy bell been knoll'd to church, + And sat at good men's feasts, and wip'd our eyes + Of drops that sacred pity hath engend'red; + And therefore sit you down in gentleness, + And take upon command what help we have + That to your wanting may be minist'red. + ORLANDO. Then but forbear your food a little while, + Whiles, like a doe, I go to find my fawn, + And give it food. There is an old poor man + Who after me hath many a weary step + Limp'd in pure love; till he be first suffic'd, + Oppress'd with two weak evils, age and hunger, + I will not touch a bit. + DUKE SENIOR. Go find him out. + And we will nothing waste till you return. + ORLANDO. I thank ye; and be blest for your good comfort! + Exit + DUKE SENIOR. Thou seest we are not all alone unhappy: + This wide and universal theatre + Presents more woeful pageants than the scene + Wherein we play in. + JAQUES. All the world's a stage, + And all the men and women merely players; + They have their exits and their entrances; + And one man in his time plays many parts, + His acts being seven ages. At first the infant, + Mewling and puking in the nurse's arms; + Then the whining school-boy, with his satchel + And shining morning face, creeping like snail + Unwillingly to school. And then the lover, + Sighing like furnace, with a woeful ballad + Made to his mistress' eyebrow. Then a soldier, + Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard, + Jealous in honour, sudden and quick in quarrel, + Seeking the bubble reputation + Even in the cannon's mouth. And then the justice, + In fair round belly with good capon lin'd, + With eyes severe and beard of formal cut, + Full of wise saws and modern instances; + And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts + Into the lean and slipper'd pantaloon, + With spectacles on nose and pouch on side, + His youthful hose, well sav'd, a world too wide + For his shrunk shank; and his big manly voice, + Turning again toward childish treble, pipes + And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, + That ends this strange eventful history, + Is second childishness and mere oblivion; + Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans every thing. + + Re-enter ORLANDO with ADAM + + DUKE SENIOR. Welcome. Set down your venerable burden. + And let him feed. + ORLANDO. I thank you most for him. + ADAM. So had you need; + I scarce can speak to thank you for myself. + DUKE SENIOR. Welcome; fall to. I will not trouble you + As yet to question you about your fortunes. + Give us some music; and, good cousin, sing. + + SONG + Blow, blow, thou winter wind, + Thou art not so unkind + As man's ingratitude; + Thy tooth is not so keen, + Because thou art not seen, + Although thy breath be rude. + Heigh-ho! sing heigh-ho! unto the green holly. + Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly. + Then, heigh-ho, the holly! + This life is most jolly. + + Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky, + That dost not bite so nigh + As benefits forgot; + Though thou the waters warp, + Thy sting is not so sharp + As friend rememb'red not. + Heigh-ho! sing, &c. + + DUKE SENIOR. If that you were the good Sir Rowland's son, + As you have whisper'd faithfully you were, + And as mine eye doth his effigies witness + Most truly limn'd and living in your face, + Be truly welcome hither. I am the Duke + That lov'd your father. The residue of your fortune, + Go to my cave and tell me. Good old man, + Thou art right welcome as thy master is. + Support him by the arm. Give me your hand, + And let me all your fortunes understand. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. The palace + +Enter DUKE FREDERICK, OLIVER, and LORDS + + FREDERICK. Not see him since! Sir, sir, that cannot be. + But were I not the better part made mercy, + I should not seek an absent argument + Of my revenge, thou present. But look to it: + Find out thy brother wheresoe'er he is; + Seek him with candle; bring him dead or living + Within this twelvemonth, or turn thou no more + To seek a living in our territory. + Thy lands and all things that thou dost call thine + Worth seizure do we seize into our hands, + Till thou canst quit thee by thy brother's mouth + Of what we think against thee. + OLIVER. O that your Highness knew my heart in this! + I never lov'd my brother in my life. + FREDERICK. More villain thou. Well, push him out of doors; + And let my officers of such a nature + Make an extent upon his house and lands. + Do this expediently, and turn him going. Exeunt + +SCENE II. The forest + +Enter ORLANDO, with a paper + + ORLANDO. Hang there, my verse, in witness of my love; + And thou, thrice-crowned Queen of Night, survey + With thy chaste eye, from thy pale sphere above, + Thy huntress' name that my full life doth sway. + O Rosalind! these trees shall be my books, + And in their barks my thoughts I'll character, + That every eye which in this forest looks + Shall see thy virtue witness'd every where. + Run, run, Orlando; carve on every tree, + The fair, the chaste, and unexpressive she. Exit + + Enter CORIN and TOUCHSTONE + + CORIN. And how like you this shepherd's life, Master Touchstone? + TOUCHSTONE. Truly, shepherd, in respect of itself, it is a good + life; but in respect that it is a shepherd's life, it is nought. + In respect that it is solitary, I like it very well; but in + respect that it is private, it is a very vile life. Now in + respect it is in the fields, it pleaseth me well; but in respect + it is not in the court, it is tedious. As it is a spare life, + look you, it fits my humour well; but as there is no more plenty + in it, it goes much against my stomach. Hast any philosophy in + thee, shepherd? + CORIN. No more but that I know the more one sickens the worse at + ease he is; and that he that wants money, means, and content, is + without three good friends; that the property of rain is to wet, + and fire to burn; that good pasture makes fat sheep; and that a + great cause of the night is lack of the sun; that he that hath + learned no wit by nature nor art may complain of good breeding, + or comes of a very dull kindred. + TOUCHSTONE. Such a one is a natural philosopher. Wast ever in + court, shepherd? + CORIN. No, truly. + TOUCHSTONE. Then thou art damn'd. + CORIN. Nay, I hope. + TOUCHSTONE. Truly, thou art damn'd, like an ill-roasted egg, all on + one side. + CORIN. For not being at court? Your reason. + TOUCHSTONE. Why, if thou never wast at court thou never saw'st good + manners; if thou never saw'st good manners, then thy manners must + be wicked; and wickedness is sin, and sin is damnation. Thou art + in a parlous state, shepherd. + CORIN. Not a whit, Touchstone. Those that are good manners at the + court are as ridiculous in the country as the behaviour of the + country is most mockable at the court. You told me you salute not + at the court, but you kiss your hands; that courtesy would be + uncleanly if courtiers were shepherds. + TOUCHSTONE. Instance, briefly; come, instance. + CORIN. Why, we are still handling our ewes; and their fells, you + know, are greasy. + TOUCHSTONE. Why, do not your courtier's hands sweat? And is not the + grease of a mutton as wholesome as the sweat of a man? Shallow, + shallow. A better instance, I say; come. + CORIN. Besides, our hands are hard. + TOUCHSTONE. Your lips will feel them the sooner. Shallow again. A + more sounder instance; come. + CORIN. And they are often tarr'd over with the surgery of our + sheep; and would you have us kiss tar? The courtier's hands are + perfum'd with civet. + TOUCHSTONE. Most shallow man! thou worm's meat in respect of a good + piece of flesh indeed! Learn of the wise, and perpend: civet is + of a baser birth than tar- the very uncleanly flux of a cat. Mend + the instance, shepherd. + CORIN. You have too courtly a wit for me; I'll rest. + TOUCHSTONE. Wilt thou rest damn'd? God help thee, shallow man! God + make incision in thee! thou art raw. + CORIN. Sir, I am a true labourer: I earn that I eat, get that I + wear; owe no man hate, envy no man's happiness; glad of other + men's good, content with my harm; and the greatest of my pride is + to see my ewes graze and my lambs suck. + TOUCHSTONE. That is another simple sin in you: to bring the ewes + and the rams together, and to offer to get your living by the + copulation of cattle; to be bawd to a bell-wether, and to betray + a she-lamb of a twelvemonth to crooked-pated, old, cuckoldly ram, + out of all reasonable match. If thou beest not damn'd for this, + the devil himself will have no shepherds; I cannot see else how + thou shouldst scape. + CORIN. Here comes young Master Ganymede, my new mistress's brother. + + Enter ROSALIND, reading a paper + + ROSALIND. 'From the east to western Inde, + No jewel is like Rosalinde. + Her worth, being mounted on the wind, + Through all the world bears Rosalinde. + All the pictures fairest lin'd + Are but black to Rosalinde. + Let no face be kept in mind + But the fair of Rosalinde.' + TOUCHSTONE. I'll rhyme you so eight years together, dinners, and + suppers, and sleeping hours, excepted. It is the right + butter-women's rank to market. + ROSALIND. Out, fool! + TOUCHSTONE. For a taste: + If a hart do lack a hind, + Let him seek out Rosalinde. + If the cat will after kind, + So be sure will Rosalinde. + Winter garments must be lin'd, + So must slender Rosalinde. + They that reap must sheaf and bind, + Then to cart with Rosalinde. + Sweetest nut hath sourest rind, + Such a nut is Rosalinde. + He that sweetest rose will find + Must find love's prick and Rosalinde. + This is the very false gallop of verses; why do you infect + yourself with them? + ROSALIND. Peace, you dull fool! I found them on a tree. + TOUCHSTONE. Truly, the tree yields bad fruit. + ROSALIND. I'll graff it with you, and then I shall graff it with a + medlar. Then it will be the earliest fruit i' th' country; for + you'll be rotten ere you be half ripe, and that's the right + virtue of the medlar. + TOUCHSTONE. You have said; but whether wisely or no, let the forest + judge. + + Enter CELIA, with a writing + + ROSALIND. Peace! + Here comes my sister, reading; stand aside. + CELIA. 'Why should this a desert be? + For it is unpeopled? No; + Tongues I'll hang on every tree + That shall civil sayings show. + Some, how brief the life of man + Runs his erring pilgrimage, + That the streching of a span + Buckles in his sum of age; + Some, of violated vows + 'Twixt the souls of friend and friend; + But upon the fairest boughs, + Or at every sentence end, + Will I Rosalinda write, + Teaching all that read to know + The quintessence of every sprite + Heaven would in little show. + Therefore heaven Nature charg'd + That one body should be fill'd + With all graces wide-enlarg'd. + Nature presently distill'd + Helen's cheek, but not her heart, + Cleopatra's majesty, + Atalanta's better part, + Sad Lucretia's modesty. + Thus Rosalinde of many parts + By heavenly synod was devis'd, + Of many faces, eyes, and hearts, + To have the touches dearest priz'd. + Heaven would that she these gifts should have, + And I to live and die her slave.' + ROSALIND. O most gentle pulpiter! What tedious homily of love have + you wearied your parishioners withal, and never cried 'Have + patience, good people.' + CELIA. How now! Back, friends; shepherd, go off a little; go with + him, sirrah. + TOUCHSTONE. Come, shepherd, let us make an honourable retreat; + though not with bag and baggage, yet with scrip and scrippage. + Exeunt CORIN and TOUCHSTONE + CELIA. Didst thou hear these verses? + ROSALIND. O, yes, I heard them all, and more too; for some of them + had in them more feet than the verses would bear. + CELIA. That's no matter; the feet might bear the verses. + ROSALIND. Ay, but the feet were lame, and could not bear themselves + without the verse, and therefore stood lamely in the verse. + CELIA. But didst thou hear without wondering how thy name should be + hang'd and carved upon these trees? + ROSALIND. I was seven of the nine days out of the wonder before you + came; for look here what I found on a palm-tree. I was never so + berhym'd since Pythagoras' time that I was an Irish rat, which I + can hardly remember. + CELIA. Trow you who hath done this? + ROSALIND. Is it a man? + CELIA. And a chain, that you once wore, about his neck. + Change you colour? + ROSALIND. I prithee, who? + CELIA. O Lord, Lord! it is a hard matter for friends to meet; but + mountains may be remov'd with earthquakes, and so encounter. + ROSALIND. Nay, but who is it? + CELIA. Is it possible? + ROSALIND. Nay, I prithee now, with most petitionary vehemence, tell + me who it is. + CELIA. O wonderful, wonderful, most wonderful wonderful, and yet + again wonderful, and after that, out of all whooping! + ROSALIND. Good my complexion! dost thou think, though I am + caparison'd like a man, I have a doublet and hose in my + disposition? One inch of delay more is a South Sea of discovery. + I prithee tell me who is it quickly, and speak apace. I would + thou could'st stammer, that thou mightst pour this conceal'd man + out of thy mouth, as wine comes out of narrow-mouth'd bottle- + either too much at once or none at all. I prithee take the cork + out of thy mouth that I may drink thy tidings. + CELIA. So you may put a man in your belly. + ROSALIND. Is he of God's making? What manner of man? + Is his head worth a hat or his chin worth a beard? + CELIA. Nay, he hath but a little beard. + ROSALIND. Why, God will send more if the man will be thankful. Let + me stay the growth of his beard, if thou delay me not the + knowledge of his chin. + CELIA. It is young Orlando, that tripp'd up the wrestler's heels + and your heart both in an instant. + ROSALIND. Nay, but the devil take mocking! Speak sad brow and true + maid. + CELIA. I' faith, coz, 'tis he. + ROSALIND. Orlando? + CELIA. Orlando. + ROSALIND. Alas the day! what shall I do with my doublet and hose? + What did he when thou saw'st him? What said he? How look'd he? + Wherein went he? What makes he here? Did he ask for me? Where + remains he? How parted he with thee? And when shalt thou see him + again? Answer me in one word. + CELIA. You must borrow me Gargantua's mouth first; 'tis a word too + great for any mouth of this age's size. To say ay and no to these + particulars is more than to answer in a catechism. + ROSALIND. But doth he know that I am in this forest, and in man's + apparel? Looks he as freshly as he did the day he wrestled? + CELIA. It is as easy to count atomies as to resolve the + propositions of a lover; but take a taste of my finding him, and + relish it with good observance. I found him under a tree, like a + dropp'd acorn. + ROSALIND. It may well be call'd Jove's tree, when it drops forth + such fruit. + CELIA. Give me audience, good madam. + ROSALIND. Proceed. + CELIA. There lay he, stretch'd along like a wounded knight. + ROSALIND. Though it be pity to see such a sight, it well becomes + the ground. + CELIA. Cry 'Holla' to thy tongue, I prithee; it curvets + unseasonably. He was furnish'd like a hunter. + ROSALIND. O, ominous! he comes to kill my heart. + CELIA. I would sing my song without a burden; thou bring'st me out + of tune. + ROSALIND. Do you not know I am a woman? When I think, I must speak. + Sweet, say on. + CELIA. You bring me out. Soft! comes he not here? + + Enter ORLANDO and JAQUES + + ROSALIND. 'Tis he; slink by, and note him. JAQUES. I thank you for + your company; but, good faith, I had as lief have been myself alone. + ORLANDO. And so had I; but yet, for fashion sake, I thank you too for + your society. JAQUES. God buy you; let's meet as little as we can. + ORLANDO. I do desire we may be better strangers. JAQUES. I pray you + mar no more trees with writing love songs in their barks. ORLANDO. I + pray you mar no more of my verses with reading them ill-favouredly. + JAQUES. Rosalind is your love's name? ORLANDO. Yes, just. JAQUES. I + do not like her name. ORLANDO. There was no thought of pleasing you + when she was christen'd. JAQUES. What stature is she of? ORLANDO. + Just as high as my heart. JAQUES. You are full of pretty answers. + Have you not been acquainted with goldsmiths' wives, and conn'd them + out of rings? ORLANDO. Not so; but I answer you right painted cloth, + from whence you have studied your questions. JAQUES. You have a + nimble wit; I think 'twas made of Atalanta's heels. Will you sit down + with me? and we two will rail against our mistress the world, and all + our misery. ORLANDO. I will chide no breather in the world but + myself, against whom I know most faults. JAQUES. The worst fault you + have is to be in love. ORLANDO. 'Tis a fault I will not change for + your best virtue. I am weary of you. JAQUES. By my troth, I was + seeking for a fool when I found you. ORLANDO. He is drown'd in the + brook; look but in, and you shall see him. JAQUES. There I shall see + mine own figure. ORLANDO. Which I take to be either a fool or a + cipher. JAQUES. I'll tarry no longer with you; farewell, good Signior + Love. ORLANDO. I am glad of your departure; adieu, good Monsieur + Melancholy. Exit JAQUES ROSALIND. [Aside to CELIA] I will speak to + him like a saucy lackey, and under that habit play the knave with + him.- Do you hear, forester? ORLANDO. Very well; what would you? + ROSALIND. I pray you, what is't o'clock? ORLANDO. You should ask me + what time o' day; there's no clock in the forest. ROSALIND. Then + there is no true lover in the forest, else sighing every minute and + groaning every hour would detect the lazy foot of Time as well as a + clock. ORLANDO. And why not the swift foot of Time? Had not that been + as proper? ROSALIND. By no means, sir. Time travels in divers paces + with divers persons. I'll tell you who Time ambles withal, who Time + trots withal, who Time gallops withal, and who he stands still + withal. ORLANDO. I prithee, who doth he trot withal? ROSALIND. Marry, + he trots hard with a young maid between the contract of her marriage + and the day it is solemniz'd; if the interim be but a se'nnight, + Time's pace is so hard that it seems the length of seven year. + ORLANDO. Who ambles Time withal? ROSALIND. With a priest that lacks + Latin and a rich man that hath not the gout; for the one sleeps + easily because he cannot study, and the other lives merrily because + he feels no pain; the one lacking the burden of lean and wasteful + learning, the other knowing no burden of heavy tedious penury. These + Time ambles withal. ORLANDO. Who doth he gallop withal? ROSALIND. + With a thief to the gallows; for though he go as softly as foot can + fall, he thinks himself too soon there. ORLANDO. Who stays it still + withal? ROSALIND. With lawyers in the vacation; for they sleep + between term and term, and then they perceive not how Time moves. + ORLANDO. Where dwell you, pretty youth? ROSALIND. With this + shepherdess, my sister; here in the skirts of the forest, like fringe + upon a petticoat. ORLANDO. Are you native of this place? ROSALIND. As + the coney that you see dwell where she is kindled. ORLANDO. Your + accent is something finer than you could purchase in so removed a + dwelling. ROSALIND. I have been told so of many; but indeed an old + religious uncle of mine taught me to speak, who was in his youth an + inland man; one that knew courtship too well, for there he fell in + love. I have heard him read many lectures against it; and I thank God + I am not a woman, to be touch'd with so many giddy offences as he + hath generally tax'd their whole sex withal. ORLANDO. Can you + remember any of the principal evils that he laid to the charge of + women? ROSALIND. There were none principal; they were all like one + another as halfpence are; every one fault seeming monstrous till his + fellow-fault came to match it. ORLANDO. I prithee recount some of + them. ROSALIND. No; I will not cast away my physic but on those that + are sick. There is a man haunts the forest that abuses our young + plants with carving 'Rosalind' on their barks; hangs odes upon + hawthorns and elegies on brambles; all, forsooth, deifying the name + of Rosalind. If I could meet that fancy-monger, I would give him some + good counsel, for he seems to have the quotidian of love upon him. + ORLANDO. I am he that is so love-shak'd; I pray you tell me your + remedy. ROSALIND. There is none of my uncle's marks upon you; he + taught me how to know a man in love; in which cage of rushes I am + sure you are not prisoner. ORLANDO. What were his marks? ROSALIND. A + lean cheek, which you have not; a blue eye and sunken, which you have + not; an unquestionable spirit, which you have not; a beard neglected, + which you have not; but I pardon you for that, for simply your having + in beard is a younger brother's revenue. Then your hose should be + ungarter'd, your bonnet unbanded, your sleeve unbutton'd, your shoe + untied, and every thing about you demonstrating a careless + desolation. But you are no such man; you are rather point-device in + your accoutrements, as loving yourself than seeming the lover of any + other. ORLANDO. Fair youth, I would I could make thee believe I love. + ROSALIND. Me believe it! You may as soon make her that you love + believe it; which, I warrant, she is apter to do than to confess she + does. That is one of the points in the which women still give the lie + to their consciences. But, in good sooth, are you he that hangs the + verses on the trees wherein Rosalind is so admired? ORLANDO. I swear + to thee, youth, by the white hand of Rosalind, I am that he, that + unfortunate he. ROSALIND. But are you so much in love as your rhymes + speak? ORLANDO. Neither rhyme nor reason can express how much. + ROSALIND. Love is merely a madness; and, I tell you, deserves as well + a dark house and a whip as madmen do; and the reason why they are not + so punish'd and cured is that the lunacy is so ordinary that the + whippers are in love too. Yet I profess curing it by counsel. + ORLANDO. Did you ever cure any so? ROSALIND. Yes, one; and in this + manner. He was to imagine me his love, his mistress; and I set him + every day to woo me; at which time would I, being but a moonish + youth, grieve, be effeminate, changeable, longing and liking, proud, + fantastical, apish, shallow, inconstant, full of tears, full of + smiles; for every passion something and for no passion truly + anything, as boys and women are for the most part cattle of this + colour; would now like him, now loathe him; then entertain him, then + forswear him; now weep for him, then spit at him; that I drave my + suitor from his mad humour of love to a living humour of madness; + which was, to forswear the full stream of the world and to live in a + nook merely monastic. And thus I cur'd him; and this way will I take + upon me to wash your liver as clean as a sound sheep's heart, that + there shall not be one spot of love in 't. ORLANDO. I would not be + cured, youth. ROSALIND. I would cure you, if you would but call me + Rosalind, and come every day to my cote and woo me. ORLANDO. Now, by + the faith of my love, I will. Tell me where it is. ROSALIND. Go with + me to it, and I'll show it you; and, by the way, you shall tell me + where in the forest you live. Will you go? ORLANDO. With all my + heart, good youth. ROSALIND. Nay, you must call me Rosalind. Come, + sister, will you go? + Exeunt + +SCENE III. The forest + +Enter TOUCHSTONE and AUDREY; JAQUES behind + + TOUCHSTONE. Come apace, good Audrey; I will fetch up your goats, + Audrey. And how, Audrey, am I the man yet? Doth my simple feature + content you? + AUDREY. Your features! Lord warrant us! What features? + TOUCHSTONE. I am here with thee and thy goats, as the most + capricious poet, honest Ovid, was among the Goths. + JAQUES. [Aside] O knowledge ill-inhabited, worse than Jove in a + thatch'd house! + TOUCHSTONE. When a man's verses cannot be understood, nor a man's + good wit seconded with the forward child understanding, it + strikes a man more dead than a great reckoning in a little room. + Truly, I would the gods had made thee poetical. + AUDREY. I do not know what 'poetical' is. Is it honest in deed and + word? Is it a true thing? + TOUCHSTONE. No, truly; for the truest poetry is the most feigning, + and lovers are given to poetry; and what they swear in poetry may + be said as lovers they do feign. + AUDREY. Do you wish, then, that the gods had made me poetical? + TOUCHSTONE. I do, truly, for thou swear'st to me thou art honest; + now, if thou wert a poet, I might have some hope thou didst + feign. + AUDREY. Would you not have me honest? + TOUCHSTONE. No, truly, unless thou wert hard-favour'd; for honesty + coupled to beauty is to have honey a sauce to sugar. + JAQUES. [Aside] A material fool! + AUDREY. Well, I am not fair; and therefore I pray the gods make me + honest. + TOUCHSTONE. Truly, and to cast away honesty upon a foul slut were + to put good meat into an unclean dish. + AUDREY. I am not a slut, though I thank the gods I am foul. + TOUCHSTONE. Well, praised be the gods for thy foulness; + sluttishness may come hereafter. But be it as it may be, I will + marry thee; and to that end I have been with Sir Oliver Martext, + the vicar of the next village, who hath promis'd to meet me in + this place of the forest, and to couple us. + JAQUES. [Aside] I would fain see this meeting. + AUDREY. Well, the gods give us joy! + TOUCHSTONE. Amen. A man may, if he were of a fearful heart, stagger + in this attempt; for here we have no temple but the wood, no + assembly but horn-beasts. But what though? Courage! As horns are + odious, they are necessary. It is said: 'Many a man knows no end + of his goods.' Right! Many a man has good horns and knows no end + of them. Well, that is the dowry of his wife; 'tis none of his + own getting. Horns? Even so. Poor men alone? No, no; the noblest + deer hath them as huge as the rascal. Is the single man therefore + blessed? No; as a wall'd town is more worthier than a village, so + is the forehead of a married man more honourable than the bare + brow of a bachelor; and by how much defence is better than no + skill, by so much is horn more precious than to want. Here comes + Sir Oliver. + + Enter SIR OLIVER MARTEXT + + Sir Oliver Martext, you are well met. Will you dispatch us here + under this tree, or shall we go with you to your chapel? + MARTEXT. Is there none here to give the woman? + TOUCHSTONE. I will not take her on gift of any man. + MARTEXT. Truly, she must be given, or the marriage is not lawful. + JAQUES. [Discovering himself] Proceed, proceed; I'll give her. + TOUCHSTONE. Good even, good Master What-ye-call't; how do you, sir? + You are very well met. Goddild you for your last company. I am + very glad to see you. Even a toy in hand here, sir. Nay; pray be + cover'd. + JAQUES. Will you be married, motley? + TOUCHSTONE. As the ox hath his bow, sir, the horse his curb, and + the falcon her bells, so man hath his desires; and as pigeons + bill, so wedlock would be nibbling. + JAQUES. And will you, being a man of your breeding, be married + under a bush, like a beggar? Get you to church and have a good + priest that can tell you what marriage is; this fellow will but + join you together as they join wainscot; then one of you will + prove a shrunk panel, and like green timber warp, warp. + TOUCHSTONE. [Aside] I am not in the mind but I were better to be + married of him than of another; for he is not like to marry me + well; and not being well married, it will be a good excuse for me + hereafter to leave my wife. + JAQUES. Go thou with me, and let me counsel thee. + TOUCHSTONE. Come, sweet Audrey; + We must be married or we must live in bawdry. + Farewell, good Master Oliver. Not- + O sweet Oliver, + O brave Oliver, + Leave me not behind thee. + But- + Wind away, + Begone, I say, + I will not to wedding with thee. + Exeunt JAQUES, TOUCHSTONE, and AUDREY + MARTEXT. 'Tis no matter; ne'er a fantastical knave of them all + shall flout me out of my calling. Exit + +SCENE IV. The forest + +Enter ROSALIND and CELIA + + ROSALIND. Never talk to me; I will weep. + CELIA. Do, I prithee; but yet have the grace to consider that tears + do not become a man. + ROSALIND. But have I not cause to weep? + CELIA. As good cause as one would desire; therefore weep. + ROSALIND. His very hair is of the dissembling colour. + CELIA. Something browner than Judas's. + Marry, his kisses are Judas's own children. + ROSALIND. I' faith, his hair is of a good colour. + CELIA. An excellent colour: your chestnut was ever the only colour. + ROSALIND. And his kissing is as full of sanctity as the touch of + holy bread. + CELIA. He hath bought a pair of cast lips of Diana. A nun of + winter's sisterhood kisses not more religiously; the very ice of + chastity is in them. + ROSALIND. But why did he swear he would come this morning, and + comes not? + CELIA. Nay, certainly, there is no truth in him. + ROSALIND. Do you think so? + CELIA. Yes; I think he is not a pick-purse nor a horse-stealer; but + for his verity in love, I do think him as concave as covered + goblet or a worm-eaten nut. + ROSALIND. Not true in love? + CELIA. Yes, when he is in; but I think he is not in. + ROSALIND. You have heard him swear downright he was. + CELIA. 'Was' is not 'is'; besides, the oath of a lover is no + stronger than the word of a tapster; they are both the confirmer + of false reckonings. He attends here in the forest on the Duke, + your father. + ROSALIND. I met the Duke yesterday, and had much question with him. + He asked me of what parentage I was; I told him, of as good as + he; so he laugh'd and let me go. But what talk we of fathers when + there is such a man as Orlando? + CELIA. O, that's a brave man! He writes brave verses, speaks brave + words, swears brave oaths, and breaks them bravely, quite + traverse, athwart the heart of his lover; as a puny tilter, that + spurs his horse but on one side, breaks his staff like a noble + goose. But all's brave that youth mounts and folly guides. Who + comes here? + + Enter CORIN + + CORIN. Mistress and master, you have oft enquired + After the shepherd that complain'd of love, + Who you saw sitting by me on the turf, + Praising the proud disdainful shepherdess + That was his mistress. + CELIA. Well, and what of him? + CORIN. If you will see a pageant truly play'd + Between the pale complexion of true love + And the red glow of scorn and proud disdain, + Go hence a little, and I shall conduct you, + If you will mark it. + ROSALIND. O, come, let us remove! + The sight of lovers feedeth those in love. + Bring us to this sight, and you shall say + I'll prove a busy actor in their play. Exeunt + +SCENE V. Another part of the forest + +Enter SILVIUS and PHEBE + + SILVIUS. Sweet Phebe, do not scorn me; do not, Phebe. + Say that you love me not; but say not so + In bitterness. The common executioner, + Whose heart th' accustom'd sight of death makes hard, + Falls not the axe upon the humbled neck + But first begs pardon. Will you sterner be + Than he that dies and lives by bloody drops? + + Enter ROSALIND, CELIA, and CORIN, at a distance + + PHEBE. I would not be thy executioner; + I fly thee, for I would not injure thee. + Thou tell'st me there is murder in mine eye. + 'Tis pretty, sure, and very probable, + That eyes, that are the frail'st and softest things, + Who shut their coward gates on atomies, + Should be call'd tyrants, butchers, murderers! + Now I do frown on thee with all my heart; + And if mine eyes can wound, now let them kill thee. + Now counterfeit to swoon; why, now fall down; + Or, if thou canst not, O, for shame, for shame, + Lie not, to say mine eyes are murderers. + Now show the wound mine eye hath made in thee. + Scratch thee but with a pin, and there remains + Some scar of it; lean upon a rush, + The cicatrice and capable impressure + Thy palm some moment keeps; but now mine eyes, + Which I have darted at thee, hurt thee not; + Nor, I am sure, there is not force in eyes + That can do hurt. + SILVIUS. O dear Phebe, + If ever- as that ever may be near- + You meet in some fresh cheek the power of fancy, + Then shall you know the wounds invisible + That love's keen arrows make. + PHEBE. But till that time + Come not thou near me; and when that time comes, + Afflict me with thy mocks, pity me not; + As till that time I shall not pity thee. + ROSALIND. [Advancing] And why, I pray you? Who might be your + mother, + That you insult, exult, and all at once, + Over the wretched? What though you have no beauty- + As, by my faith, I see no more in you + Than without candle may go dark to bed- + Must you be therefore proud and pitiless? + Why, what means this? Why do you look on me? + I see no more in you than in the ordinary + Of nature's sale-work. 'Od's my little life, + I think she means to tangle my eyes too! + No faith, proud mistress, hope not after it; + 'Tis not your inky brows, your black silk hair, + Your bugle eyeballs, nor your cheek of cream, + That can entame my spirits to your worship. + You foolish shepherd, wherefore do you follow her, + Like foggy south, puffing with wind and rain? + You are a thousand times a properer man + Than she a woman. 'Tis such fools as you + That makes the world full of ill-favour'd children. + 'Tis not her glass, but you, that flatters her; + And out of you she sees herself more proper + Than any of her lineaments can show her. + But, mistress, know yourself. Down on your knees, + And thank heaven, fasting, for a good man's love; + For I must tell you friendly in your ear: + Sell when you can; you are not for all markets. + Cry the man mercy, love him, take his offer; + Foul is most foul, being foul to be a scoffer. + So take her to thee, shepherd. Fare you well. + PHEBE. Sweet youth, I pray you chide a year together; + I had rather hear you chide than this man woo. + ROSALIND. He's fall'n in love with your foulness, and she'll fall + in love with my anger. If it be so, as fast as she answers thee + with frowning looks, I'll sauce her with bitter words. Why look + you so upon me? + PHEBE. For no ill will I bear you. + ROSALIND. I pray you do not fall in love with me, + For I am falser than vows made in wine; + Besides, I like you not. If you will know my house, + 'Tis at the tuft of olives here hard by. + Will you go, sister? Shepherd, ply her hard. + Come, sister. Shepherdess, look on him better, + And be not proud; though all the world could see, + None could be so abus'd in sight as he. + Come, to our flock. Exeunt ROSALIND, CELIA, and CORIN + PHEBE. Dead shepherd, now I find thy saw of might: + 'Who ever lov'd that lov'd not at first sight?' + SILVIUS. Sweet Phebe. + PHEBE. Ha! what say'st thou, Silvius? + SILVIUS. Sweet Phebe, pity me. + PHEBE. Why, I arn sorry for thee, gentle Silvius. + SILVIUS. Wherever sorrow is, relief would be. + If you do sorrow at my grief in love, + By giving love, your sorrow and my grief + Were both extermin'd. + PHEBE. Thou hast my love; is not that neighbourly? + SILVIUS. I would have you. + PHEBE. Why, that were covetousness. + Silvius, the time was that I hated thee; + And yet it is not that I bear thee love; + But since that thou canst talk of love so well, + Thy company, which erst was irksome to me, + I will endure; and I'll employ thee too. + But do not look for further recompense + Than thine own gladness that thou art employ'd. + SILVIUS. So holy and so perfect is my love, + And I in such a poverty of grace, + That I shall think it a most plenteous crop + To glean the broken ears after the man + That the main harvest reaps; loose now and then + A scatt'red smile, and that I'll live upon. + PHEBE. Know'st thou the youth that spoke to me erewhile? + SILVIUS. Not very well; but I have met him oft; + And he hath bought the cottage and the bounds + That the old carlot once was master of. + PHEBE. Think not I love him, though I ask for him; + 'Tis but a peevish boy; yet he talks well. + But what care I for words? Yet words do well + When he that speaks them pleases those that hear. + It is a pretty youth- not very pretty; + But, sure, he's proud; and yet his pride becomes him. + He'll make a proper man. The best thing in him + Is his complexion; and faster than his tongue + Did make offence, his eye did heal it up. + He is not very tall; yet for his years he's tall; + His leg is but so-so; and yet 'tis well. + There was a pretty redness in his lip, + A little riper and more lusty red + Than that mix'd in his cheek; 'twas just the difference + Betwixt the constant red and mingled damask. + There be some women, Silvius, had they mark'd him + In parcels as I did, would have gone near + To fall in love with him; but, for my part, + I love him not, nor hate him not; and yet + I have more cause to hate him than to love him; + For what had he to do to chide at me? + He said mine eyes were black, and my hair black, + And, now I am rememb'red, scorn'd at me. + I marvel why I answer'd not again; + But that's all one: omittance is no quittance. + I'll write to him a very taunting letter, + And thou shalt bear it; wilt thou, Silvius? + SILVIUS. Phebe, with all my heart. + PHEBE. I'll write it straight; + The matter's in my head and in my heart; + I will be bitter with him and passing short. + Go with me, Silvius. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE I. The forest + +Enter ROSALIND, CELIA, and JAQUES + + JAQUES. I prithee, pretty youth, let me be better acquainted with + thee. + ROSALIND. They say you are a melancholy fellow. + JAQUES. I am so; I do love it better than laughing. + ROSALIND. Those that are in extremity of either are abominable + fellows, and betray themselves to every modern censure worse than + drunkards. + JAQUES. Why, 'tis good to be sad and say nothing. + ROSALIND. Why then, 'tis good to be a post. + JAQUES. I have neither the scholar's melancholy, which is + emulation; nor the musician's, which is fantastical; nor the + courtier's, which is proud; nor the soldier's, which is + ambitious; nor the lawyer's, which is politic; nor the lady's, + which is nice; nor the lover's, which is all these; but it is a + melancholy of mine own, compounded of many simples, extracted + from many objects, and, indeed, the sundry contemplation of my + travels; in which my often rumination wraps me in a most humorous + sadness. + ROSALIND. A traveller! By my faith, you have great reason to be + sad. I fear you have sold your own lands to see other men's; then + to have seen much and to have nothing is to have rich eyes and + poor hands. + JAQUES. Yes, I have gain'd my experience. + + Enter ORLANDO + + ROSALIND. And your experience makes you sad. I had rather have a + fool to make me merry than experience to make me sad- and to + travel for it too. + ORLANDO. Good day, and happiness, dear Rosalind! + JAQUES. Nay, then, God buy you, an you talk in blank verse. + ROSALIND. Farewell, Monsieur Traveller; look you lisp and wear + strange suits, disable all the benefits of your own country, be + out of love with your nativity, and almost chide God for making + you that countenance you are; or I will scarce think you have + swam in a gondola. [Exit JAQUES] Why, how now, Orlando! where + have you been all this while? You a lover! An you serve me such + another trick, never come in my sight more. + ORLANDO. My fair Rosalind, I come within an hour of my promise. + ROSALIND. Break an hour's promise in love! He that will divide a + minute into a thousand parts, and break but a part of the + thousand part of a minute in the affairs of love, it may be said + of him that Cupid hath clapp'd him o' th' shoulder, but I'll + warrant him heart-whole. + ORLANDO. Pardon me, dear Rosalind. + ROSALIND. Nay, an you be so tardy, come no more in my sight. I had + as lief be woo'd of a snail. + ORLANDO. Of a snail! + ROSALIND. Ay, of a snail; for though he comes slowly, he carries + his house on his head- a better jointure, I think, than you make + a woman; besides, he brings his destiny with him. + ORLANDO. What's that? + ROSALIND. Why, horns; which such as you are fain to be beholding to + your wives for; but he comes armed in his fortune, and prevents + the slander of his wife. + ORLANDO. Virtue is no horn-maker; and my Rosalind is virtuous. + ROSALIND. And I am your Rosalind. + CELIA. It pleases him to call you so; but he hath a Rosalind of a + better leer than you. + ROSALIND. Come, woo me, woo me; for now I am in a holiday humour, + and like enough to consent. What would you say to me now, an I + were your very very Rosalind? + ORLANDO. I would kiss before I spoke. + ROSALIND. Nay, you were better speak first; and when you were + gravell'd for lack of matter, you might take occasion to kiss. + Very good orators, when they are out, they will spit; and for + lovers lacking- God warn us!- matter, the cleanliest shift is to + kiss. + ORLANDO. How if the kiss be denied? + ROSALIND. Then she puts you to entreaty, and there begins new + matter. + ORLANDO. Who could be out, being before his beloved mistress? + ROSALIND. Marry, that should you, if I were your mistress; or I + should think my honesty ranker than my wit. + ORLANDO. What, of my suit? + ROSALIND. Not out of your apparel, and yet out of your suit. + Am not I your Rosalind? + ORLANDO. I take some joy to say you are, because I would be talking + of her. + ROSALIND. Well, in her person, I say I will not have you. + ORLANDO. Then, in mine own person, I die. + ROSALIND. No, faith, die by attorney. The poor world is almost six + thousand years old, and in all this time there was not any man + died in his own person, videlicet, in a love-cause. Troilus had + his brains dash'd out with a Grecian club; yet he did what he + could to die before, and he is one of the patterns of love. + Leander, he would have liv'd many a fair year, though Hero had + turn'd nun, if it had not been for a hot midsummer night; for, + good youth, he went but forth to wash him in the Hellespont, and, + being taken with the cramp, was drown'd; and the foolish + chroniclers of that age found it was- Hero of Sestos. But these + are all lies: men have died from time to time, and worms have + eaten them, but not for love. + ORLANDO. I would not have my right Rosalind of this mind; for, I + protest, her frown might kill me. + ROSALIND. By this hand, it will not kill a fly. But come, now I + will be your Rosalind in a more coming-on disposition; and ask me + what you will, I will grant it. + ORLANDO. Then love me, Rosalind. + ROSALIND. Yes, faith, will I, Fridays and Saturdays, and all. + ORLANDO. And wilt thou have me? + ROSALIND. Ay, and twenty such. + ORLANDO. What sayest thou? + ROSALIND. Are you not good? + ORLANDO. I hope so. + ROSALIND. Why then, can one desire too much of a good thing? Come, + sister, you shall be the priest, and marry us. Give me your hand, + Orlando. What do you say, sister? + ORLANDO. Pray thee, marry us. + CELIA. I cannot say the words. + ROSALIND. You must begin 'Will you, Orlando'- + CELIA. Go to. Will you, Orlando, have to wife this Rosalind? + ORLANDO. I will. + ROSALIND. Ay, but when? + ORLANDO. Why, now; as fast as she can marry us. + ROSALIND. Then you must say 'I take thee, Rosalind, for wife.' + ORLANDO. I take thee, Rosalind, for wife. + ROSALIND. I might ask you for your commission; but- I do take thee, + Orlando, for my husband. There's a girl goes before the priest; + and, certainly, a woman's thought runs before her actions. + ORLANDO. So do all thoughts; they are wing'd. + ROSALIND. Now tell me how long you would have her, after you have + possess'd her. + ORLANDO. For ever and a day. + ROSALIND. Say 'a day' without the 'ever.' No, no, Orlando; men are + April when they woo, December when they wed: maids are May when + they are maids, but the sky changes when they are wives. I will + be more jealous of thee than a Barbary cock-pigeon over his hen, + more clamorous than a parrot against rain, more new-fangled than + an ape, more giddy in my desires than a monkey. I will weep for + nothing, like Diana in the fountain, and I will do that when you + are dispos'd to be merry; I will laugh like a hyen, and that when + thou are inclin'd to sleep. + ORLANDO. But will my Rosalind do so? + ROSALIND. By my life, she will do as I do. + ORLANDO. O, but she is wise. + ROSALIND. Or else she could not have the wit to do this. The wiser, + the waywarder. Make the doors upon a woman's wit, and it will out + at the casement; shut that, and 'twill out at the key-hole; stop + that, 'twill fly with the smoke out at the chimney. + ORLANDO. A man that had a wife with such a wit, he might say 'Wit, + whither wilt?' ROSALIND. Nay, you might keep that check for it, + till you met your + wife's wit going to your neighbour's bed. + ORLANDO. And what wit could wit have to excuse that? + ROSALIND. Marry, to say she came to seek you there. You shall never + take her without her answer, unless you take her without her + tongue. O, that woman that cannot make her fault her husband's + occasion, let her never nurse her child herself, for she will + breed it like a fool! + ORLANDO. For these two hours, Rosalind, I will leave thee. + ROSALIND. Alas, dear love, I cannot lack thee two hours! + ORLANDO. I must attend the Duke at dinner; by two o'clock I will be + with thee again. + ROSALIND. Ay, go your ways, go your ways. I knew what you would + prove; my friends told me as much, and I thought no less. That + flattering tongue of yours won me. 'Tis but one cast away, and + so, come death! Two o'clock is your hour? + ORLANDO. Ay, sweet Rosalind. + ROSALIND. By my troth, and in good earnest, and so God mend me, and + by all pretty oaths that are not dangerous, if you break one jot + of your promise, or come one minute behind your hour, I will + think you the most pathetical break-promise, and the most hollow + lover, and the most unworthy of her you call Rosalind, that may + be chosen out of the gross band of the unfaithful. Therefore + beware my censure, and keep your promise. + ORLANDO. With no less religion than if thou wert indeed my + Rosalind; so, adieu. + ROSALIND. Well, Time is the old justice that examines all such + offenders, and let Time try. Adieu. Exit ORLANDO + CELIA. You have simply misus'd our sex in your love-prate. We must + have your doublet and hose pluck'd over your head, and show the + world what the bird hath done to her own nest. + ROSALIND. O coz, coz, coz, my pretty little coz, that thou didst + know how many fathom deep I am in love! But it cannot be sounded; + my affection hath an unknown bottom, like the Bay of Portugal. + CELIA. Or rather, bottomless; that as fast as you pour affection + in, it runs out. + ROSALIND. No; that same wicked bastard of Venus, that was begot of + thought, conceiv'd of spleen, and born of madness; that blind + rascally boy, that abuses every one's eyes, because his own are + out- let him be judge how deep I am in love. I'll tell thee, + Aliena, I cannot be out of the sight of Orlando. I'll go find a + shadow, and sigh till he come. + CELIA. And I'll sleep. Exeunt + +SCENE II. The forest + + Enter JAQUES and LORDS, in the habit of foresters + + JAQUES. Which is he that killed the deer? + LORD. Sir, it was I. + JAQUES. Let's present him to the Duke, like a Roman conqueror; and + it would do well to set the deer's horns upon his head for a + branch of victory. Have you no song, forester, for this purpose? + LORD. Yes, sir. + JAQUES. Sing it; 'tis no matter how it be in tune, so it make noise + enough. + + SONG. + + What shall he have that kill'd the deer? + His leather skin and horns to wear. + [The rest shall hear this burden:] + Then sing him home. + + Take thou no scorn to wear the horn; + It was a crest ere thou wast born. + Thy father's father wore it; + And thy father bore it. + The horn, the horn, the lusty horn, + Is not a thing to laugh to scorn. Exeunt + +SCENE III. The forest + +Enter ROSALIND and CELIA + + ROSALIND. How say you now? Is it not past two o'clock? + And here much Orlando! + CELIA. I warrant you, with pure love and troubled brain, he hath + ta'en his bow and arrows, and is gone forth- to sleep. Look, who + comes here. + + Enter SILVIUS + + SILVIUS. My errand is to you, fair youth; + My gentle Phebe did bid me give you this. + I know not the contents; but, as I guess + By the stern brow and waspish action + Which she did use as she was writing of it, + It bears an angry tenour. Pardon me, + I am but as a guiltless messenger. + ROSALIND. Patience herself would startle at this letter, + And play the swaggerer. Bear this, bear all. + She says I am not fair, that I lack manners; + She calls me proud, and that she could not love me, + Were man as rare as Phoenix. 'Od's my will! + Her love is not the hare that I do hunt; + Why writes she so to me? Well, shepherd, well, + This is a letter of your own device. + SILVIUS. No, I protest, I know not the contents; + Phebe did write it. + ROSALIND. Come, come, you are a fool, + And turn'd into the extremity of love. + I saw her hand; she has a leathern hand, + A freestone-colour'd hand; I verily did think + That her old gloves were on, but 'twas her hands; + She has a huswife's hand- but that's no matter. + I say she never did invent this letter: + This is a man's invention, and his hand. + SILVIUS. Sure, it is hers. + ROSALIND. Why, 'tis a boisterous and a cruel style; + A style for challengers. Why, she defies me, + Like Turk to Christian. Women's gentle brain + Could not drop forth such giant-rude invention, + Such Ethiope words, blacker in their effect + Than in their countenance. Will you hear the letter? + SILVIUS. So please you, for I never heard it yet; + Yet heard too much of Phebe's cruelty. + ROSALIND. She Phebes me: mark how the tyrant writes. + [Reads] + + 'Art thou god to shepherd turn'd, + That a maiden's heart hath burn'd?' + + Can a woman rail thus? + SILVIUS. Call you this railing? + ROSALIND. 'Why, thy godhead laid apart, + Warr'st thou with a woman's heart?' + + Did you ever hear such railing? + + 'Whiles the eye of man did woo me, + That could do no vengeance to me.' + + Meaning me a beast. + + 'If the scorn of your bright eyne + Have power to raise such love in mine, + Alack, in me what strange effect + Would they work in mild aspect! + Whiles you chid me, I did love; + How then might your prayers move! + He that brings this love to the + Little knows this love in me; + And by him seal up thy mind, + Whether that thy youth and kind + Will the faithful offer take + Of me and all that I can make; + Or else by him my love deny, + And then I'll study how to die.' + SILVIUS. Call you this chiding? + CELIA. Alas, poor shepherd! + ROSALIND. Do you pity him? No, he deserves no pity. Wilt thou love + such a woman? What, to make thee an instrument, and play false + strains upon thee! Not to be endur'd! Well, go your way to her, + for I see love hath made thee tame snake, and say this to her- + that if she love me, I charge her to love thee; if she will not, + I will never have her unless thou entreat for her. If you be a + true lover, hence, and not a word; for here comes more company. + Exit SILVIUS + + Enter OLIVER + + OLIVER. Good morrow, fair ones; pray you, if you know, + Where in the purlieus of this forest stands + A sheep-cote fenc'd about with olive trees? + CELIA. West of this place, down in the neighbour bottom. + The rank of osiers by the murmuring stream + Left on your right hand brings you to the place. + But at this hour the house doth keep itself; + There's none within. + OLIVER. If that an eye may profit by a tongue, + Then should I know you by description- + Such garments, and such years: 'The boy is fair, + Of female favour, and bestows himself + Like a ripe sister; the woman low, + And browner than her brother.' Are not you + The owner of the house I did inquire for? + CELIA. It is no boast, being ask'd, to say we are. + OLIVER. Orlando doth commend him to you both; + And to that youth he calls his Rosalind + He sends this bloody napkin. Are you he? + ROSALIND. I am. What must we understand by this? + OLIVER. Some of my shame; if you will know of me + What man I am, and how, and why, and where, + This handkercher was stain'd. + CELIA. I pray you, tell it. + OLIVER. When last the young Orlando parted from you, + He left a promise to return again + Within an hour; and, pacing through the forest, + Chewing the food of sweet and bitter fancy, + Lo, what befell! He threw his eye aside, + And mark what object did present itself. + Under an oak, whose boughs were moss'd with age, + And high top bald with dry antiquity, + A wretched ragged man, o'ergrown with hair, + Lay sleeping on his back. About his neck + A green and gilded snake had wreath'd itself, + Who with her head nimble in threats approach'd + The opening of his mouth; but suddenly, + Seeing Orlando, it unlink'd itself, + And with indented glides did slip away + Into a bush; under which bush's shade + A lioness, with udders all drawn dry, + Lay couching, head on ground, with catlike watch, + When that the sleeping man should stir; for 'tis + The royal disposition of that beast + To prey on nothing that doth seem as dead. + This seen, Orlando did approach the man, + And found it was his brother, his elder brother. + CELIA. O, I have heard him speak of that same brother; + And he did render him the most unnatural + That liv'd amongst men. + OLIVER. And well he might so do, + For well I know he was unnatural. + ROSALIND. But, to Orlando: did he leave him there, + Food to the suck'd and hungry lioness? + OLIVER. Twice did he turn his back, and purpos'd so; + But kindness, nobler ever than revenge, + And nature, stronger than his just occasion, + Made him give battle to the lioness, + Who quickly fell before him; in which hurtling + From miserable slumber I awak'd. + CELIA. Are you his brother? + ROSALIND. Was't you he rescu'd? + CELIA. Was't you that did so oft contrive to kill him? + OLIVER. 'Twas I; but 'tis not I. I do not shame + To tell you what I was, since my conversion + So sweetly tastes, being the thing I am. + ROSALIND. But for the bloody napkin? + OLIVER. By and by. + When from the first to last, betwixt us two, + Tears our recountments had most kindly bath'd, + As how I came into that desert place- + In brief, he led me to the gentle Duke, + Who gave me fresh array and entertainment, + Committing me unto my brother's love; + Who led me instantly unto his cave, + There stripp'd himself, and here upon his arm + The lioness had torn some flesh away, + Which all this while had bled; and now he fainted, + And cried, in fainting, upon Rosalind. + Brief, I recover'd him, bound up his wound, + And, after some small space, being strong at heart, + He sent me hither, stranger as I am, + To tell this story, that you might excuse + His broken promise, and to give this napkin, + Dy'd in his blood, unto the shepherd youth + That he in sport doth call his Rosalind. + [ROSALIND swoons] + CELIA. Why, how now, Ganymede! sweet Ganymede! + OLIVER. Many will swoon when they do look on blood. + CELIA. There is more in it. Cousin Ganymede! + OLIVER. Look, he recovers. + ROSALIND. I would I were at home. + CELIA. We'll lead you thither. + I pray you, will you take him by the arm? + OLIVER. Be of good cheer, youth. You a man! + You lack a man's heart. + ROSALIND. I do so, I confess it. Ah, sirrah, a body would think + this was well counterfeited. I pray you tell your brother how + well I counterfeited. Heigh-ho! + OLIVER. This was not counterfeit; there is too great testimony in + your complexion that it was a passion of earnest. + ROSALIND. Counterfeit, I assure you. + OLIVER. Well then, take a good heart and counterfeit to be a man. + ROSALIND. So I do; but, i' faith, I should have been a woman by + right. + CELIA. Come, you look paler and paler; pray you draw homewards. + Good sir, go with us. + OLIVER. That will I, for I must bear answer back + How you excuse my brother, Rosalind. + ROSALIND. I shall devise something; but, I pray you, commend my + counterfeiting to him. Will you go? Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE I. The forest + +Enter TOUCHSTONE and AUDREY + + TOUCHSTONE. We shall find a time, Audrey; patience, gentle Audrey. + AUDREY. Faith, the priest was good enough, for all the old + gentleman's saying. + TOUCHSTONE. A most wicked Sir Oliver, Audrey, a most vile Martext. + But, Audrey, there is a youth here in the forest lays claim to + you. + AUDREY. Ay, I know who 'tis; he hath no interest in me in the + world; here comes the man you mean. + + Enter WILLIAM + + TOUCHSTONE. It is meat and drink to me to see a clown. By my troth, + we that have good wits have much to answer for: we shall be + flouting; we cannot hold. + WILLIAM. Good ev'n, Audrey. + AUDREY. God ye good ev'n, William. + WILLIAM. And good ev'n to you, sir. + TOUCHSTONE. Good ev'n, gentle friend. Cover thy head, cover thy + head; nay, prithee be cover'd. How old are you, friend? + WILLIAM. Five and twenty, sir. + TOUCHSTONE. A ripe age. Is thy name William? + WILLIAM. William, sir. + TOUCHSTONE. A fair name. Wast born i' th' forest here? + WILLIAM. Ay, sir, I thank God. + TOUCHSTONE. 'Thank God.' A good answer. + Art rich? + WILLIAM. Faith, sir, so so. + TOUCHSTONE. 'So so' is good, very good, very excellent good; and + yet it is not; it is but so so. Art thou wise? + WILLIAM. Ay, sir, I have a pretty wit. + TOUCHSTONE. Why, thou say'st well. I do now remember a saying: 'The + fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be + a fool.' The heathen philosopher, when he had a desire to eat a + grape, would open his lips when he put it into his mouth; meaning + thereby that grapes were made to eat and lips to open. You do + love this maid? + WILLIAM. I do, sir. + TOUCHSTONE. Give me your hand. Art thou learned? + WILLIAM. No, sir. + TOUCHSTONE. Then learn this of me: to have is to have; for it is a + figure in rhetoric that drink, being pour'd out of cup into a + glass, by filling the one doth empty the other; for all your + writers do consent that ipse is he; now, you are not ipse, for I + am he. + WILLIAM. Which he, sir? + TOUCHSTONE. He, sir, that must marry this woman. Therefore, you + clown, abandon- which is in the vulgar leave- the society- which + in the boorish is company- of this female- which in the common is + woman- which together is: abandon the society of this female; or, + clown, thou perishest; or, to thy better understanding, diest; + or, to wit, I kill thee, make thee away, translate thy life into + death, thy liberty into bondage. I will deal in poison with thee, + or in bastinado, or in steel; I will bandy with thee in faction; + will o'er-run thee with policy; I will kill thee a hundred and + fifty ways; therefore tremble and depart. + AUDREY. Do, good William. + WILLIAM. God rest you merry, sir. Exit + + Enter CORIN + + CORIN. Our master and mistress seeks you; come away, away. + TOUCHSTONE. Trip, Audrey, trip, Audrey. I attend, I attend. + Exeunt + +SCENE II. The forest + +Enter ORLANDO and OLIVER + + ORLANDO. Is't possible that on so little acquaintance you should + like her? that but seeing you should love her? and loving woo? + and, wooing, she should grant? and will you persever to enjoy + her? + OLIVER. Neither call the giddiness of it in question, the poverty + of her, the small acquaintance, my sudden wooing, nor her sudden + consenting; but say with me, I love Aliena; say with her that she + loves me; consent with both that we may enjoy each other. It + shall be to your good; for my father's house and all the revenue + that was old Sir Rowland's will I estate upon you, and here live + and die a shepherd. + ORLANDO. You have my consent. Let your wedding be to-morrow. + Thither will I invite the Duke and all's contented followers. Go + you and prepare Aliena; for, look you, here comes my Rosalind. + + Enter ROSALIND + + ROSALIND. God save you, brother. + OLIVER. And you, fair sister. Exit + ROSALIND. O, my dear Orlando, how it grieves me to see thee wear + thy heart in a scarf! + ORLANDO. It is my arm. + ROSALIND. I thought thy heart had been wounded with the claws of a + lion. + ORLANDO. Wounded it is, but with the eyes of a lady. + ROSALIND. Did your brother tell you how I counterfeited to swoon + when he show'd me your handkercher? + ORLANDO. Ay, and greater wonders than that. + ROSALIND. O, I know where you are. Nay, 'tis true. There was never + any thing so sudden but the fight of two rams and Caesar's + thrasonical brag of 'I came, saw, and overcame.' For your brother + and my sister no sooner met but they look'd; no sooner look'd but + they lov'd; no sooner lov'd but they sigh'd; no sooner sigh'd but + they ask'd one another the reason; no sooner knew the reason but + they sought the remedy- and in these degrees have they made pair + of stairs to marriage, which they will climb incontinent, or else + be incontinent before marriage. They are in the very wrath of + love, and they will together. Clubs cannot part them. + ORLANDO. They shall be married to-morrow; and I will bid the Duke + to the nuptial. But, O, how bitter a thing it is to look into + happiness through another man's eyes! By so much the more shall I + to-morrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I + shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for. + ROSALIND. Why, then, to-morrow I cannot serve your turn for + Rosalind? + ORLANDO. I can live no longer by thinking. + ROSALIND. I will weary you, then, no longer with idle talking. Know + of me then- for now I speak to some purpose- that I know you are + a gentleman of good conceit. I speak not this that you should + bear a good opinion of my knowledge, insomuch I say I know you + are; neither do I labour for a greater esteem than may in some + little measure draw a belief from you, to do yourself good, and + not to grace me. Believe then, if you please, that I can do + strange things. I have, since I was three year old, convers'd + with a magician, most profound in his art and yet not damnable. + If you do love Rosalind so near the heart as your gesture cries + it out, when your brother marries Aliena shall you marry her. I + know into what straits of fortune she is driven; and it is not + impossible to me, if it appear not inconvenient to you, to set + her before your eyes to-morrow, human as she is, and without any + danger. + ORLANDO. Speak'st thou in sober meanings? + ROSALIND. By my life, I do; which I tender dearly, though I say I + am a magician. Therefore put you in your best array, bid your + friends; for if you will be married to-morrow, you shall; and to + Rosalind, if you will. + + Enter SILVIUS and PHEBE + + Look, here comes a lover of mine, and a lover of hers. + PHEBE. Youth, you have done me much ungentleness + To show the letter that I writ to you. + ROSALIND. I care not if I have. It is my study + To seem despiteful and ungentle to you. + You are there follow'd by a faithful shepherd; + Look upon him, love him; he worships you. + PHEBE. Good shepherd, tell this youth what 'tis to love. + SILVIUS. It is to be all made of sighs and tears; + And so am I for Phebe. + PHEBE. And I for Ganymede. + ORLANDO. And I for Rosalind. + ROSALIND. And I for no woman. + SILVIUS. It is to be all made of faith and service; + And so am I for Phebe. + PHEBE. And I for Ganymede. + ORLANDO. And I for Rosalind. + ROSALIND. And I for no woman. + SILVIUS. It is to be all made of fantasy, + All made of passion, and all made of wishes; + All adoration, duty, and observance, + All humbleness, all patience, and impatience, + All purity, all trial, all obedience; + And so am I for Phebe. + PHEBE. And so am I for Ganymede. + ORLANDO. And so am I for Rosalind. + ROSALIND. And so am I for no woman. + PHEBE. If this be so, why blame you me to love you? + SILVIUS. If this be so, why blame you me to love you? + ORLANDO. If this be so, why blame you me to love you? + ROSALIND. Why do you speak too, 'Why blame you me to love you?' + ORLANDO. To her that is not here, nor doth not hear. + ROSALIND. Pray you, no more of this; 'tis like the howling of Irish + wolves against the moon. [To SILVIUS] I will help you if I can. + [To PHEBE] I would love you if I could.- To-morrow meet me all + together. [ To PHEBE ] I will marry you if ever I marry woman, + and I'll be married to-morrow. [To ORLANDO] I will satisfy you if + ever I satisfied man, and you shall be married to-morrow. [To + Silvius] I will content you if what pleases you contents you, and + you shall be married to-morrow. [To ORLANDO] As you love + Rosalind, meet. [To SILVIUS] As you love Phebe, meet;- and as I + love no woman, I'll meet. So, fare you well; I have left you + commands. + SILVIUS. I'll not fail, if I live. + PHEBE. Nor I. + ORLANDO. Nor I. Exeunt + +SCENE III. The forest + +Enter TOUCHSTONE and AUDREY + + TOUCHSTONE. To-morrow is the joyful day, Audre'y; to-morrow will we + be married. + AUDREY. I do desire it with all my heart; and I hope it is no + dishonest desire to desire to be a woman of the world. Here come + two of the banish'd Duke's pages. + + Enter two PAGES + + FIRST PAGE. Well met, honest gentleman. + TOUCHSTONE. By my troth, well met. Come sit, sit, and a song. + SECOND PAGE. We are for you; sit i' th' middle. + FIRST PAGE. Shall we clap into't roundly, without hawking, or + spitting, or saying we are hoarse, which are the only prologues + to a bad voice? + SECOND PAGE. I'faith, i'faith; and both in a tune, like two gipsies + on a horse. + + SONG. + It was a lover and his lass, + With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino, + That o'er the green corn-field did pass + In the spring time, the only pretty ring time, + When birds do sing, hey ding a ding, ding. + Sweet lovers love the spring. + + Between the acres of the rye, + With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino, + These pretty country folks would lie, + In the spring time, &c. + + This carol they began that hour, + With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino, + How that a life was but a flower, + In the spring time, &c. + + And therefore take the present time, + With a hey, and a ho, and a hey nonino, + For love is crowned with the prime, + In the spring time, &c. + + TOUCHSTONE. Truly, young gentlemen, though there was no great + matter in the ditty, yet the note was very untuneable. + FIRST PAGE. YOU are deceiv'd, sir; we kept time, we lost not our + time. + TOUCHSTONE. By my troth, yes; I count it but time lost to hear such + a foolish song. God buy you; and God mend your voices. Come, + Audrey. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. The forest + +Enter DUKE SENIOR, AMIENS, JAQUES, ORLANDO, OLIVER, and CELIA + + DUKE SENIOR. Dost thou believe, Orlando, that the boy + Can do all this that he hath promised? + ORLANDO. I sometimes do believe and sometimes do not: + As those that fear they hope, and know they fear. + + Enter ROSALIND, SILVIUS, and PHEBE + + ROSALIND. Patience once more, whiles our compact is urg'd: + You say, if I bring in your Rosalind, + You will bestow her on Orlando here? + DUKE SENIOR. That would I, had I kingdoms to give with her. + ROSALIND. And you say you will have her when I bring her? + ORLANDO. That would I, were I of all kingdoms king. + ROSALIND. You say you'll marry me, if I be willing? + PHEBE. That will I, should I die the hour after. + ROSALIND. But if you do refuse to marry me, + You'll give yourself to this most faithful shepherd? + PHEBE. So is the bargain. + ROSALIND. You say that you'll have Phebe, if she will? + SILVIUS. Though to have her and death were both one thing. + ROSALIND. I have promis'd to make all this matter even. + Keep you your word, O Duke, to give your daughter; + You yours, Orlando, to receive his daughter; + Keep your word, Phebe, that you'll marry me, + Or else, refusing me, to wed this shepherd; + Keep your word, Silvius, that you'll marry her + If she refuse me; and from hence I go, + To make these doubts all even. + Exeunt ROSALIND and CELIA + DUKE SENIOR. I do remember in this shepherd boy + Some lively touches of my daughter's favour. + ORLANDO. My lord, the first time that I ever saw him + Methought he was a brother to your daughter. + But, my good lord, this boy is forest-born, + And hath been tutor'd in the rudiments + Of many desperate studies by his uncle, + Whom he reports to be a great magician, + Obscured in the circle of this forest. + + Enter TOUCHSTONE and AUDREY + + JAQUES. There is, sure, another flood toward, and these couples are + coming to the ark. Here comes a pair of very strange beasts which + in all tongues are call'd fools. + TOUCHSTONE. Salutation and greeting to you all! + JAQUES. Good my lord, bid him welcome. This is the motley-minded + gentleman that I have so often met in the forest. He hath been a + courtier, he swears. + TOUCHSTONE. If any man doubt that, let him put me to my purgation. + I have trod a measure; I have flatt'red a lady; I have been + politic with my friend, smooth with mine enemy; I have undone + three tailors; I have had four quarrels, and like to have fought + one. + JAQUES. And how was that ta'en up? + TOUCHSTONE. Faith, we met, and found the quarrel was upon the + seventh cause. + JAQUES. How seventh cause? Good my lord, like this fellow. + DUKE SENIOR. I like him very well. + TOUCHSTONE. God 'ild you, sir; I desire you of the like. I press in + here, sir, amongst the rest of the country copulatives, to swear + and to forswear, according as marriage binds and blood breaks. A + poor virgin, sir, an ill-favour'd thing, sir, but mine own; a + poor humour of mine, sir, to take that that man else will. Rich + honesty dwells like a miser, sir, in a poor house; as your pearl + in your foul oyster. + DUKE SENIOR. By my faith, he is very swift and sententious. + TOUCHSTONE. According to the fool's bolt, sir, and such dulcet + diseases. + JAQUES. But, for the seventh cause: how did you find the quarrel on + the seventh cause? + TOUCHSTONE. Upon a lie seven times removed- bear your body more + seeming, Audrey- as thus, sir. I did dislike the cut of a certain + courtier's beard; he sent me word, if I said his beard was not + cut well, he was in the mind it was. This is call'd the Retort + Courteous. If I sent him word again it was not well cut, he would + send me word he cut it to please himself. This is call'd the Quip + Modest. If again it was not well cut, he disabled my judgment. + This is call'd the Reply Churlish. If again it was not well cut, + he would answer I spake not true. This is call'd the Reproof + Valiant. If again it was not well cut, he would say I lie. This + is call'd the Countercheck Quarrelsome. And so to the Lie + Circumstantial and the Lie Direct. + JAQUES. And how oft did you say his beard was not well cut? + TOUCHSTONE. I durst go no further than the Lie Circumstantial, nor + he durst not give me the Lie Direct; and so we measur'd swords + and parted. + JAQUES. Can you nominate in order now the degrees of the lie? + TOUCHSTONE. O, sir, we quarrel in print by the book, as you have + books for good manners. I will name you the degrees. The first, + the Retort Courteous; the second, the Quip Modest; the third, the + Reply Churlish; the fourth, the Reproof Valiant; the fifth, the + Countercheck Quarrelsome; the sixth, the Lie with Circumstance; + the seventh, the Lie Direct. All these you may avoid but the Lie + Direct; and you may avoid that too with an If. I knew when seven + justices could not take up a quarrel; but when the parties were + met themselves, one of them thought but of an If, as: 'If you + said so, then I said so.' And they shook hands, and swore + brothers. Your If is the only peace-maker; much virtue in If. + JAQUES. Is not this a rare fellow, my lord? + He's as good at any thing, and yet a fool. + DUKE SENIOR. He uses his folly like a stalking-horse, and under the + presentation of that he shoots his wit: + + Enter HYMEN, ROSALIND, and CELIA. Still MUSIC + + HYMEN. Then is there mirth in heaven, + When earthly things made even + Atone together. + Good Duke, receive thy daughter; + Hymen from heaven brought her, + Yea, brought her hither, + That thou mightst join her hand with his, + Whose heart within his bosom is. + ROSALIND. [To DUKE] To you I give myself, for I am yours. + [To ORLANDO] To you I give myself, for I am yours. + DUKE SENIOR. If there be truth in sight, you are my daughter. + ORLANDO. If there be truth in sight, you are my Rosalind. + PHEBE. If sight and shape be true, + Why then, my love adieu! + ROSALIND. I'll have no father, if you be not he; + I'll have no husband, if you be not he; + Nor ne'er wed woman, if you be not she. + HYMEN. Peace, ho! I bar confusion; + 'Tis I must make conclusion + Of these most strange events. + Here's eight that must take hands + To join in Hymen's bands, + If truth holds true contents. + You and you no cross shall part; + You and you are heart in heart; + You to his love must accord, + Or have a woman to your lord; + You and you are sure together, + As the winter to foul weather. + Whiles a wedlock-hymn we sing, + Feed yourselves with questioning, + That reason wonder may diminish, + How thus we met, and these things finish. + + SONG + Wedding is great Juno's crown; + O blessed bond of board and bed! + 'Tis Hymen peoples every town; + High wedlock then be honoured. + Honour, high honour, and renown, + To Hymen, god of every town! + + DUKE SENIOR. O my dear niece, welcome thou art to me! + Even daughter, welcome in no less degree. + PHEBE. I will not eat my word, now thou art mine; + Thy faith my fancy to thee doth combine. + + Enter JAQUES de BOYS + + JAQUES de BOYS. Let me have audience for a word or two. + I am the second son of old Sir Rowland, + That bring these tidings to this fair assembly. + Duke Frederick, hearing how that every day + Men of great worth resorted to this forest, + Address'd a mighty power; which were on foot, + In his own conduct, purposely to take + His brother here, and put him to the sword; + And to the skirts of this wild wood he came, + Where, meeting with an old religious man, + After some question with him, was converted + Both from his enterprise and from the world; + His crown bequeathing to his banish'd brother, + And all their lands restor'd to them again + That were with him exil'd. This to be true + I do engage my life. + DUKE SENIOR. Welcome, young man. + Thou offer'st fairly to thy brothers' wedding: + To one, his lands withheld; and to the other, + A land itself at large, a potent dukedom. + First, in this forest let us do those ends + That here were well begun and well begot; + And after, every of this happy number, + That have endur'd shrewd days and nights with us, + Shall share the good of our returned fortune, + According to the measure of their states. + Meantime, forget this new-fall'n dignity, + And fall into our rustic revelry. + Play, music; and you brides and bridegrooms all, + With measure heap'd in joy, to th' measures fall. + JAQUES. Sir, by your patience. If I heard you rightly, + The Duke hath put on a religious life, + And thrown into neglect the pompous court. + JAQUES DE BOYS. He hath. + JAQUES. To him will I. Out of these convertites + There is much matter to be heard and learn'd. + [To DUKE] You to your former honour I bequeath; + Your patience and your virtue well deserves it. + [To ORLANDO] You to a love that your true faith doth merit; + [To OLIVER] You to your land, and love, and great allies + [To SILVIUS] You to a long and well-deserved bed; + [To TOUCHSTONE] And you to wrangling; for thy loving voyage + Is but for two months victuall'd.- So to your pleasures; + I am for other than for dancing measures. + DUKE SENIOR. Stay, Jaques, stay. + JAQUES. To see no pastime I. What you would have + I'll stay to know at your abandon'd cave. Exit + DUKE SENIOR. Proceed, proceed. We will begin these rites, + As we do trust they'll end, in true delights. [A dance] Exeunt + +EPILOGUE + EPILOGUE. + ROSALIND. It is not the fashion to see the lady the epilogue; but + it is no more unhandsome than to see the lord the prologue. If it + be true that good wine needs no bush, 'tis true that a good play + needs no epilogue. Yet to good wine they do use good bushes; and + good plays prove the better by the help of good epilogues. What a + case am I in then, that am neither a good epilogue, nor cannot + insinuate with you in the behalf of a good play! I am not + furnish'd like a beggar; therefore to beg will not become me. My + way is to conjure you; and I'll begin with the women. I charge + you, O women, for the love you bear to men, to like as much of + this play as please you; and I charge you, O men, for the love + you bear to women- as I perceive by your simp'ring none of you + hates them- that between you and the women the play may please. + If I were a woman, I would kiss as many of you as had beards that + pleas'd me, complexions that lik'd me, and breaths that I defied + not; and, I am sure, as many as have good beards, or good faces, + or sweet breaths, will, for my kind offer, when I make curtsy, + bid me farewell. + + + +THE COMEDY OF ERRORS + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. A hall in the Duke’s palace. +Scene II. A public place. + + +ACT II +Scene I. A public place. +Scene II. The same. + + +ACT III +Scene I. The same. +Scene II. The same. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. The same. +Scene II. The same. +Scene III. The same. +Scene IV. The same. + + +ACT V +Scene I. The same. + +Dramatis Personæ + +SOLINUS, Duke of Ephesus. +EGEON, a Merchant of Syracuse. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS, Twin brothers and sons to Egeon and +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE, Emilia, but unknown to each other. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS, Twin brothers, and attendants on +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE, the two Antipholuses. + +BALTHASAR, a Merchant. +ANGELO, a Goldsmith. +A MERCHANT, friend to Antipholus of Syracuse. +PINCH, a Schoolmaster and a Conjurer. +EMILIA, Wife to Egeon, an Abbess at Ephesus. +ADRIANA, Wife to Antipholus of Ephesus. +LUCIANA, her Sister. +LUCE, her Servant. +A COURTESAN +Messenger, Jailer, Officers, Attendants + +SCENE: Ephesus + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. A hall in the Duke’s palace. + + Enter Duke, Egeon, Jailer, Officers and other Attendants. + +EGEON. +Proceed, Solinus, to procure my fall, +And by the doom of death end woes and all. + +DUKE. +Merchant of Syracusa, plead no more. +I am not partial to infringe our laws. +The enmity and discord which of late +Sprung from the rancorous outrage of your Duke +To merchants, our well-dealing countrymen, +Who, wanting guilders to redeem their lives, +Have seal’d his rigorous statutes with their bloods, +Excludes all pity from our threat’ning looks. +For since the mortal and intestine jars +’Twixt thy seditious countrymen and us, +It hath in solemn synods been decreed, +Both by the Syracusians and ourselves, +To admit no traffic to our adverse towns; +Nay more, if any born at Ephesus +Be seen at Syracusian marts and fairs; +Again, if any Syracusian born +Come to the bay of Ephesus, he dies, +His goods confiscate to the Duke’s dispose, +Unless a thousand marks be levied +To quit the penalty and to ransom him. +Thy substance, valued at the highest rate, +Cannot amount unto a hundred marks; +Therefore by law thou art condemn’d to die. + +EGEON. +Yet this my comfort; when your words are done, +My woes end likewise with the evening sun. + +DUKE. +Well, Syracusian, say in brief the cause +Why thou departedst from thy native home, +And for what cause thou cam’st to Ephesus. + +EGEON. +A heavier task could not have been impos’d +Than I to speak my griefs unspeakable; +Yet, that the world may witness that my end +Was wrought by nature, not by vile offence, +I’ll utter what my sorrow gives me leave. +In Syracusa was I born, and wed +Unto a woman happy but for me, +And by me, had not our hap been bad. +With her I liv’d in joy; our wealth increas’d +By prosperous voyages I often made +To Epidamnum, till my factor’s death, +And the great care of goods at random left, +Drew me from kind embracements of my spouse; +From whom my absence was not six months old +Before herself (almost at fainting under +The pleasing punishment that women bear) +Had made provision for her following me, +And soon and safe arrived where I was. +There had she not been long but she became +A joyful mother of two goodly sons, +And, which was strange, the one so like the other +As could not be distinguish’d but by names. +That very hour, and in the self-same inn, +A mean woman was delivered +Of such a burden, male twins, both alike. +Those, for their parents were exceeding poor, +I bought, and brought up to attend my sons. +My wife, not meanly proud of two such boys, +Made daily motions for our home return. +Unwilling I agreed; alas, too soon +We came aboard. +A league from Epidamnum had we sail’d +Before the always-wind-obeying deep +Gave any tragic instance of our harm; +But longer did we not retain much hope; +For what obscured light the heavens did grant +Did but convey unto our fearful minds +A doubtful warrant of immediate death, +Which though myself would gladly have embrac’d, +Yet the incessant weepings of my wife, +Weeping before for what she saw must come, +And piteous plainings of the pretty babes, +That mourn’d for fashion, ignorant what to fear, +Forc’d me to seek delays for them and me. +And this it was (for other means was none). +The sailors sought for safety by our boat, +And left the ship, then sinking-ripe, to us. +My wife, more careful for the latter-born, +Had fast’ned him unto a small spare mast, +Such as sea-faring men provide for storms. +To him one of the other twins was bound, +Whilst I had been like heedful of the other. +The children thus dispos’d, my wife and I, +Fixing our eyes on whom our care was fix’d, +Fast’ned ourselves at either end the mast, +And, floating straight, obedient to the stream, +Was carried towards Corinth, as we thought. +At length the sun, gazing upon the earth, +Dispers’d those vapours that offended us, +And by the benefit of his wished light +The seas wax’d calm, and we discovered +Two ships from far, making amain to us, +Of Corinth that, of Epidaurus this. +But ere they came—O, let me say no more! +Gather the sequel by that went before. + +DUKE. +Nay, forward, old man, do not break off so, +For we may pity, though not pardon thee. + +EGEON. +O, had the gods done so, I had not now +Worthily term’d them merciless to us. +For, ere the ships could meet by twice five leagues, +We were encountered by a mighty rock, +Which being violently borne upon, +Our helpful ship was splitted in the midst; +So that, in this unjust divorce of us, +Fortune had left to both of us alike +What to delight in, what to sorrow for. +Her part, poor soul, seeming as burdened +With lesser weight, but not with lesser woe, +Was carried with more speed before the wind, +And in our sight they three were taken up +By fishermen of Corinth, as we thought. +At length another ship had seiz’d on us; +And, knowing whom it was their hap to save, +Gave healthful welcome to their ship-wrack’d guests, +And would have reft the fishers of their prey, +Had not their bark been very slow of sail; +And therefore homeward did they bend their course. +Thus have you heard me sever’d from my bliss, +That by misfortunes was my life prolong’d +To tell sad stories of my own mishaps. + +DUKE. +And for the sake of them thou sorrowest for, +Do me the favour to dilate at full +What have befall’n of them and thee till now. + +EGEON. +My youngest boy, and yet my eldest care, +At eighteen years became inquisitive +After his brother, and importun’d me +That his attendant, so his case was like, +Reft of his brother, but retain’d his name, +Might bear him company in the quest of him; +Whom whilst I laboured of a love to see, +I hazarded the loss of whom I lov’d. +Five summers have I spent in farthest Greece, +Roaming clean through the bounds of Asia, +And, coasting homeward, came to Ephesus, +Hopeless to find, yet loath to leave unsought +Or that or any place that harbours men. +But here must end the story of my life; +And happy were I in my timely death, +Could all my travels warrant me they live. + +DUKE. +Hapless Egeon, whom the fates have mark’d +To bear the extremity of dire mishap; +Now, trust me, were it not against our laws, +Against my crown, my oath, my dignity, +Which princes, would they, may not disannul, +My soul should sue as advocate for thee. +But though thou art adjudged to the death, +And passed sentence may not be recall’d +But to our honour’s great disparagement, +Yet will I favour thee in what I can. +Therefore, merchant, I’ll limit thee this day +To seek thy health by beneficial help. +Try all the friends thou hast in Ephesus; +Beg thou, or borrow, to make up the sum, +And live; if no, then thou art doom’d to die. +Jailer, take him to thy custody. + +JAILER. +I will, my lord. + +EGEON. +Hopeless and helpless doth Egeon wend, +But to procrastinate his lifeless end. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A public place. + + Enter Antipholus and Dromio of Syracuse and a Merchant. + +MERCHANT. +Therefore give out you are of Epidamnum, +Lest that your goods too soon be confiscate. +This very day a Syracusian merchant +Is apprehended for arrival here, +And, not being able to buy out his life, +According to the statute of the town +Dies ere the weary sun set in the west. +There is your money that I had to keep. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Go bear it to the Centaur, where we host, +And stay there, Dromio, till I come to thee. +Within this hour it will be dinnertime; +Till that, I’ll view the manners of the town, +Peruse the traders, gaze upon the buildings, +And then return and sleep within mine inn, +For with long travel I am stiff and weary. +Get thee away. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Many a man would take you at your word, +And go indeed, having so good a mean. + + [_Exit Dromio._] + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +A trusty villain, sir, that very oft, +When I am dull with care and melancholy, +Lightens my humour with his merry jests. +What, will you walk with me about the town, +And then go to my inn and dine with me? + +MERCHANT. +I am invited, sir, to certain merchants, +Of whom I hope to make much benefit. +I crave your pardon. Soon, at five o’clock, +Please you, I’ll meet with you upon the mart, +And afterward consort you till bedtime. +My present business calls me from you now. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Farewell till then: I will go lose myself, +And wander up and down to view the city. + +MERCHANT. +Sir, I commend you to your own content. + + [_Exit Merchant._] + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +He that commends me to mine own content +Commends me to the thing I cannot get. +I to the world am like a drop of water +That in the ocean seeks another drop, +Who, failing there to find his fellow forth, +Unseen, inquisitive, confounds himself. +So I, to find a mother and a brother, +In quest of them, unhappy, lose myself. + + Enter Dromio of Ephesus. + +Here comes the almanac of my true date. +What now? How chance thou art return’d so soon? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Return’d so soon? rather approach’d too late. +The capon burns, the pig falls from the spit; +The clock hath strucken twelve upon the bell; +My mistress made it one upon my cheek. +She is so hot because the meat is cold; +The meat is cold because you come not home; +You come not home because you have no stomach; +You have no stomach, having broke your fast; +But we that know what ’tis to fast and pray, +Are penitent for your default today. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Stop in your wind, sir, tell me this, I pray: +Where have you left the money that I gave you? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +O, sixpence that I had o’ Wednesday last +To pay the saddler for my mistress’ crupper: +The saddler had it, sir, I kept it not. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I am not in a sportive humour now. +Tell me, and dally not, where is the money? +We being strangers here, how dar’st thou trust +So great a charge from thine own custody? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I pray you jest, sir, as you sit at dinner: +I from my mistress come to you in post; +If I return, I shall be post indeed, +For she will score your fault upon my pate. +Methinks your maw, like mine, should be your clock, +And strike you home without a messenger. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Come, Dromio, come, these jests are out of season, +Reserve them till a merrier hour than this. +Where is the gold I gave in charge to thee? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +To me, sir? why, you gave no gold to me! + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Come on, sir knave, have done your foolishness, +And tell me how thou hast dispos’d thy charge. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +My charge was but to fetch you from the mart +Home to your house, the Phoenix, sir, to dinner. +My mistress and her sister stay for you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Now, as I am a Christian, answer me +In what safe place you have bestow’d my money, +Or I shall break that merry sconce of yours +That stands on tricks when I am undispos’d; +Where is the thousand marks thou hadst of me? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I have some marks of yours upon my pate, +Some of my mistress’ marks upon my shoulders, +But not a thousand marks between you both. +If I should pay your worship those again, +Perchance you will not bear them patiently. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Thy mistress’ marks? what mistress, slave, hast thou? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Your worship’s wife, my mistress at the Phoenix; +She that doth fast till you come home to dinner, +And prays that you will hie you home to dinner. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What, wilt thou flout me thus unto my face, +Being forbid? There, take you that, sir knave. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +What mean you, sir? for God’s sake hold your hands. +Nay, an you will not, sir, I’ll take my heels. + + [_Exit Dromio._] + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Upon my life, by some device or other +The villain is o’er-raught of all my money. +They say this town is full of cozenage, +As nimble jugglers that deceive the eye, +Dark-working sorcerers that change the mind, +Soul-killing witches that deform the body, +Disguised cheaters, prating mountebanks, +And many such-like liberties of sin: +If it prove so, I will be gone the sooner. +I’ll to the Centaur to go seek this slave. +I greatly fear my money is not safe. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. A public place. + + Enter Adriana, wife to Antipholus (of Ephesus) with Luciana her + sister. + +ADRIANA. +Neither my husband nor the slave return’d +That in such haste I sent to seek his master? +Sure, Luciana, it is two o’clock. + +LUCIANA. +Perhaps some merchant hath invited him, +And from the mart he’s somewhere gone to dinner. +Good sister, let us dine, and never fret; +A man is master of his liberty; +Time is their master, and when they see time, +They’ll go or come. If so, be patient, sister. + +ADRIANA. +Why should their liberty than ours be more? + +LUCIANA. +Because their business still lies out o’ door. + +ADRIANA. +Look when I serve him so, he takes it ill. + +LUCIANA. +O, know he is the bridle of your will. + +ADRIANA. +There’s none but asses will be bridled so. + +LUCIANA. +Why, headstrong liberty is lash’d with woe. +There’s nothing situate under heaven’s eye +But hath his bound in earth, in sea, in sky. +The beasts, the fishes, and the winged fowls +Are their males’ subjects, and at their controls. +Man, more divine, the masters of all these, +Lord of the wide world and wild wat’ry seas, +Indued with intellectual sense and souls, +Of more pre-eminence than fish and fowls, +Are masters to their females, and their lords: +Then let your will attend on their accords. + +ADRIANA. +This servitude makes you to keep unwed. + +LUCIANA. +Not this, but troubles of the marriage-bed. + +ADRIANA. +But, were you wedded, you would bear some sway. + +LUCIANA. +Ere I learn love, I’ll practise to obey. + +ADRIANA. +How if your husband start some other where? + +LUCIANA. +Till he come home again, I would forbear. + +ADRIANA. +Patience unmov’d! No marvel though she pause; +They can be meek that have no other cause. +A wretched soul bruis’d with adversity, +We bid be quiet when we hear it cry; +But were we burd’ned with like weight of pain, +As much, or more, we should ourselves complain: +So thou, that hast no unkind mate to grieve thee, +With urging helpless patience would relieve me: +But if thou live to see like right bereft, +This fool-begg’d patience in thee will be left. + +LUCIANA. +Well, I will marry one day, but to try. +Here comes your man, now is your husband nigh. + + Enter Dromio of Ephesus. + +ADRIANA. +Say, is your tardy master now at hand? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Nay, he’s at two hands with me, and that my two ears can witness. + +ADRIANA. +Say, didst thou speak with him? know’st thou his mind? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Ay, ay, he told his mind upon mine ear. +Beshrew his hand, I scarce could understand it. + +LUCIANA. +Spake he so doubtfully thou couldst not feel his meaning? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Nay, he struck so plainly I could too well feel his blows; and withal +so doubtfully that I could scarce understand them. + +ADRIANA. +But say, I prithee, is he coming home? +It seems he hath great care to please his wife. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Why, mistress, sure my master is horn-mad. + +ADRIANA. +Horn-mad, thou villain? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I mean not cuckold-mad, +But sure he’s stark mad. +When I desir’d him to come home to dinner, +He ask’d me for a thousand marks in gold. +“’Tis dinner time,” quoth I. “My gold,” quoth he. +“Your meat doth burn” quoth I. “My gold,” quoth he. +“Will you come home?” quoth I. “My gold,” quoth he. +“Where is the thousand marks I gave thee, villain?” +“The pig” quoth I “is burn’d”. “My gold,” quoth he. +“My mistress, sir,” quoth I. “Hang up thy mistress; +I know not thy mistress; out on thy mistress!” + +LUCIANA. +Quoth who? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Quoth my master. +“I know,” quoth he, “no house, no wife, no mistress.” +So that my errand, due unto my tongue, +I thank him, I bare home upon my shoulders; +For, in conclusion, he did beat me there. + +ADRIANA. +Go back again, thou slave, and fetch him home. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Go back again, and be new beaten home? +For God’s sake, send some other messenger. + +ADRIANA. +Back slave, or I will break thy pate across. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +And he will bless that cross with other beating. +Between you I shall have a holy head. + +ADRIANA. +Hence, prating peasant. Fetch thy master home. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Am I so round with you, as you with me, +That like a football you do spurn me thus? +You spurn me hence, and he will spurn me hither. +If I last in this service, you must case me in leather. + + [_Exit._] + +LUCIANA. +Fie, how impatience loureth in your face. + +ADRIANA. +His company must do his minions grace, +Whilst I at home starve for a merry look. +Hath homely age th’ alluring beauty took +From my poor cheek? then he hath wasted it. +Are my discourses dull? barren my wit? +If voluble and sharp discourse be marr’d, +Unkindness blunts it more than marble hard. +Do their gay vestments his affections bait? +That’s not my fault; he’s master of my state. +What ruins are in me that can be found +By him not ruin’d? Then is he the ground +Of my defeatures. My decayed fair +A sunny look of his would soon repair; +But, too unruly deer, he breaks the pale +And feeds from home; poor I am but his stale. + +LUCIANA. +Self-harming jealousy! fie, beat it hence. + +ADRIANA. +Unfeeling fools can with such wrongs dispense. +I know his eye doth homage otherwhere, +Or else what lets it but he would be here? +Sister, you know he promis’d me a chain; +Would that alone, a love he would detain, +So he would keep fair quarter with his bed. +I see the jewel best enamelled +Will lose his beauty; yet the gold bides still +That others touch, yet often touching will +Wear gold; and no man that hath a name +By falsehood and corruption doth it shame. +Since that my beauty cannot please his eye, +I’ll weep what’s left away, and weeping die. + +LUCIANA. +How many fond fools serve mad jealousy! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. + + Enter Antipholus of Syracuse. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +The gold I gave to Dromio is laid up +Safe at the Centaur, and the heedful slave +Is wander’d forth in care to seek me out. +By computation and mine host’s report. +I could not speak with Dromio since at first +I sent him from the mart. See, here he comes. + + Enter Dromio of Syracuse. + +How now, sir! is your merry humour alter’d? +As you love strokes, so jest with me again. +You know no Centaur? you receiv’d no gold? +Your mistress sent to have me home to dinner? +My house was at the Phoenix? Wast thou mad, +That thus so madly thou didst answer me? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +What answer, sir? when spake I such a word? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Even now, even here, not half an hour since. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I did not see you since you sent me hence, +Home to the Centaur with the gold you gave me. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Villain, thou didst deny the gold’s receipt, +And told’st me of a mistress and a dinner, +For which I hope thou felt’st I was displeas’d. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I am glad to see you in this merry vein. +What means this jest, I pray you, master, tell me? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Yea, dost thou jeer and flout me in the teeth? +Think’st thou I jest? Hold, take thou that, and that. + + [_Beats Dromio._] + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Hold, sir, for God’s sake, now your jest is earnest. +Upon what bargain do you give it me? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Because that I familiarly sometimes +Do use you for my fool, and chat with you, +Your sauciness will jest upon my love, +And make a common of my serious hours. +When the sun shines let foolish gnats make sport, +But creep in crannies when he hides his beams. +If you will jest with me, know my aspect, +And fashion your demeanour to my looks, +Or I will beat this method in your sconce. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Sconce, call you it? so you would leave battering, I had rather have it +a head. And you use these blows long, I must get a sconce for my head, +and ensconce it too, or else I shall seek my wit in my shoulders. But I +pray, sir, why am I beaten? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Dost thou not know? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Nothing, sir, but that I am beaten. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Shall I tell you why? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Ay, sir, and wherefore; for they say, every why hath a wherefore. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Why, first, for flouting me; and then wherefore, +For urging it the second time to me. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Was there ever any man thus beaten out of season, +When in the why and the wherefore is neither rhyme nor reason? +Well, sir, I thank you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Thank me, sir, for what? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, sir, for this something that you gave me for nothing. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I’ll make you amends next, to give you nothing for something. +But say, sir, is it dinner-time? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +No, sir; I think the meat wants that I have. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +In good time, sir, what’s that? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Basting. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Well, sir, then ’twill be dry. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +If it be, sir, I pray you eat none of it. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Your reason? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Lest it make you choleric, and purchase me another dry basting. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Well, sir, learn to jest in good time. +There’s a time for all things. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I durst have denied that before you were so choleric. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +By what rule, sir? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, sir, by a rule as plain as the plain bald pate of Father Time +himself. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Let’s hear it. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +There’s no time for a man to recover his hair that grows bald by +nature. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +May he not do it by fine and recovery? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Yes, to pay a fine for a periwig, and recover the lost hair of another +man. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Why is Time such a niggard of hair, being, as it is, so plentiful an +excrement? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Because it is a blessing that he bestows on beasts, and what he hath +scanted men in hair he hath given them in wit. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Why, but there’s many a man hath more hair than wit. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Not a man of those but he hath the wit to lose his hair. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Why, thou didst conclude hairy men plain dealers without wit. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +The plainer dealer, the sooner lost. Yet he loseth it in a kind of +jollity. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +For what reason? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +For two, and sound ones too. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Nay, not sound, I pray you. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Sure ones, then. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Nay, not sure, in a thing falsing. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Certain ones, then. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Name them. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +The one, to save the money that he spends in tiring; the other, that at +dinner they should not drop in his porridge. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +You would all this time have proved there is no time for all things. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, and did, sir; namely, e’en no time to recover hair lost by +nature. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +But your reason was not substantial why there is no time to recover. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Thus I mend it: Time himself is bald, and therefore, to the world’s end +will have bald followers. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I knew ’twould be a bald conclusion. +But soft! who wafts us yonder? + + Enter Adriana and Luciana. + +ADRIANA. +Ay, ay, Antipholus, look strange and frown, +Some other mistress hath thy sweet aspects. +I am not Adriana, nor thy wife. +The time was once when thou unurg’d wouldst vow +That never words were music to thine ear, +That never object pleasing in thine eye, +That never touch well welcome to thy hand, +That never meat sweet-savour’d in thy taste, +Unless I spake, or look’d, or touch’d, or carv’d to thee. +How comes it now, my husband, O, how comes it, +That thou art then estranged from thyself? +Thyself I call it, being strange to me, +That, undividable, incorporate, +Am better than thy dear self’s better part. +Ah, do not tear away thyself from me; +For know, my love, as easy mayst thou fall +A drop of water in the breaking gulf, +And take unmingled thence that drop again +Without addition or diminishing, +As take from me thyself, and not me too. +How dearly would it touch thee to the quick, +Should’st thou but hear I were licentious? +And that this body, consecrate to thee, +By ruffian lust should be contaminate? +Wouldst thou not spit at me, and spurn at me, +And hurl the name of husband in my face, +And tear the stain’d skin off my harlot brow, +And from my false hand cut the wedding-ring, +And break it with a deep-divorcing vow? +I know thou canst; and therefore, see thou do it. +I am possess’d with an adulterate blot; +My blood is mingled with the crime of lust; +For if we two be one, and thou play false, +I do digest the poison of thy flesh, +Being strumpeted by thy contagion. +Keep then fair league and truce with thy true bed, +I live distain’d, thou undishonoured. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Plead you to me, fair dame? I know you not. +In Ephesus I am but two hours old, +As strange unto your town as to your talk, +Who, every word by all my wit being scann’d, +Wants wit in all one word to understand. + +LUCIANA. +Fie, brother, how the world is chang’d with you. +When were you wont to use my sister thus? +She sent for you by Dromio home to dinner. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +By Dromio? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +By me? + +ADRIANA. +By thee; and this thou didst return from him, +That he did buffet thee, and in his blows +Denied my house for his, me for his wife. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Did you converse, sir, with this gentlewoman? +What is the course and drift of your compact? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I, sir? I never saw her till this time. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Villain, thou liest, for even her very words +Didst thou deliver to me on the mart. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I never spake with her in all my life. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +How can she thus, then, call us by our names? +Unless it be by inspiration. + +ADRIANA. +How ill agrees it with your gravity +To counterfeit thus grossly with your slave, +Abetting him to thwart me in my mood; +Be it my wrong, you are from me exempt, +But wrong not that wrong with a more contempt. +Come, I will fasten on this sleeve of thine. +Thou art an elm, my husband, I a vine, +Whose weakness, married to thy stronger state, +Makes me with thy strength to communicate: +If aught possess thee from me, it is dross, +Usurping ivy, brier, or idle moss, +Who all, for want of pruning, with intrusion +Infect thy sap, and live on thy confusion. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +To me she speaks; she moves me for her theme. +What, was I married to her in my dream? +Or sleep I now, and think I hear all this? +What error drives our eyes and ears amiss? +Until I know this sure uncertainty +I’ll entertain the offer’d fallacy. + +LUCIANA. +Dromio, go bid the servants spread for dinner. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +O, for my beads! I cross me for a sinner. +This is the fairy land; O spite of spites! +We talk with goblins, owls, and sprites; +If we obey them not, this will ensue: +They’ll suck our breath, or pinch us black and blue. + +LUCIANA. +Why prat’st thou to thyself, and answer’st not? +Dromio, thou drone, thou snail, thou slug, thou sot. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I am transformed, master, am I not? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I think thou art in mind, and so am I. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Nay, master, both in mind and in my shape. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Thou hast thine own form. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +No, I am an ape. + +LUCIANA. +If thou art chang’d to aught, ’tis to an ass. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +’Tis true; she rides me, and I long for grass. +’Tis so, I am an ass; else it could never be +But I should know her as well as she knows me. + +ADRIANA. +Come, come, no longer will I be a fool, +To put the finger in the eye and weep +Whilst man and master laughs my woes to scorn. +Come, sir, to dinner; Dromio, keep the gate. +Husband, I’ll dine above with you today, +And shrive you of a thousand idle pranks. +Sirrah, if any ask you for your master, +Say he dines forth, and let no creature enter. +Come, sister; Dromio, play the porter well. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Am I in earth, in heaven, or in hell? +Sleeping or waking, mad, or well-advis’d? +Known unto these, and to myself disguis’d! +I’ll say as they say, and persever so, +And in this mist at all adventures go. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Master, shall I be porter at the gate? + +ADRIANA. +Ay; and let none enter, lest I break your pate. + +LUCIANA. +Come, come, Antipholus, we dine too late. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. The same. + + Enter Antipholus of Ephesus, his man Dromio of Ephesus, Angelo the + goldsmith and Balthasar the merchant. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Good Signior Angelo, you must excuse us all, +My wife is shrewish when I keep not hours. +Say that I linger’d with you at your shop +To see the making of her carcanet, +And that tomorrow you will bring it home. +But here’s a villain that would face me down. +He met me on the mart, and that I beat him, +And charg’d him with a thousand marks in gold, +And that I did deny my wife and house. +Thou drunkard, thou, what didst thou mean by this? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Say what you will, sir, but I know what I know. +That you beat me at the mart I have your hand to show; +If the skin were parchment, and the blows you gave were ink, +Your own handwriting would tell you what I think. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I think thou art an ass. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Marry, so it doth appear +By the wrongs I suffer and the blows I bear. +I should kick, being kick’d; and being at that pass, +You would keep from my heels, and beware of an ass. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +You’re sad, Signior Balthasar; pray God our cheer +May answer my good will and your good welcome here. + +BALTHASAR. +I hold your dainties cheap, sir, and your welcome dear. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +O, Signior Balthasar, either at flesh or fish +A table full of welcome makes scarce one dainty dish. + +BALTHASAR. +Good meat, sir, is common; that every churl affords. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +And welcome more common, for that’s nothing but words. + +BALTHASAR +Small cheer and great welcome makes a merry feast. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Ay, to a niggardly host and more sparing guest. +But though my cates be mean, take them in good part; +Better cheer may you have, but not with better heart. +But soft; my door is lock’d. Go bid them let us in. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Maud, Bridget, Marian, Cicely, Gillian, Ginn! + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +[_Within._] Mome, malt-horse, capon, coxcomb, idiot, patch! +Either get thee from the door or sit down at the hatch: +Dost thou conjure for wenches, that thou call’st for such store +When one is one too many? Go, get thee from the door. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +What patch is made our porter? My master stays in the street. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Let him walk from whence he came, lest he catch cold on’s feet. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Who talks within there? Ho, open the door. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Right, sir, I’ll tell you when an you’ll tell me wherefore. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Wherefore? For my dinner. I have not dined today. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Nor today here you must not; come again when you may. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +What art thou that keep’st me out from the house I owe? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +The porter for this time, sir, and my name is Dromio. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +O villain, thou hast stolen both mine office and my name; +The one ne’er got me credit, the other mickle blame. +If thou hadst been Dromio today in my place, +Thou wouldst have chang’d thy face for a name, or thy name for an ass. + + Enter Luce concealed from Antipholus of Ephesus and his companions. + +LUCE. +[_Within._] What a coil is there, Dromio, who are those at the gate? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Let my master in, Luce. + +LUCE. +Faith, no, he comes too late, +And so tell your master. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +O Lord, I must laugh; +Have at you with a proverb:—Shall I set in my staff? + +LUCE. +Have at you with another: that’s—When? can you tell? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +If thy name be called Luce,—Luce, thou hast answer’d him well. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Do you hear, you minion? you’ll let us in, I hope? + +LUCE. +I thought to have ask’d you. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +And you said no. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +So, come, help. Well struck, there was blow for blow. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Thou baggage, let me in. + +LUCE. +Can you tell for whose sake? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Master, knock the door hard. + +LUCE. +Let him knock till it ache. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +You’ll cry for this, minion, if I beat the door down. + +LUCE. +What needs all that, and a pair of stocks in the town? + + Enter Adriana concealed from Antipholus of Ephesus and his companions. + +ADRIANA. +[_Within._] Who is that at the door that keeps all this noise? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +By my troth, your town is troubled with unruly boys. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Are you there, wife? you might have come before. + +ADRIANA. +Your wife, sir knave? go, get you from the door. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +If you went in pain, master, this knave would go sore. + +ANGELO. +Here is neither cheer, sir, nor welcome. We would fain have either. + +BALTHASAR. +In debating which was best, we shall part with neither. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +They stand at the door, master; bid them welcome hither. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +There is something in the wind, that we cannot get in. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +You would say so, master, if your garments were thin. +Your cake here is warm within; you stand here in the cold. +It would make a man mad as a buck to be so bought and sold. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Go, fetch me something, I’ll break ope the gate. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Break any breaking here, and I’ll break your knave’s pate. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +A man may break a word with you, sir, and words are but wind; +Ay, and break it in your face, so he break it not behind. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +It seems thou want’st breaking; out upon thee, hind! + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Here’s too much “out upon thee”; I pray thee, let me in. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Ay, when fowls have no feathers and fish have no fin. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Well, I’ll break in; go, borrow me a crow. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +A crow without feather; master, mean you so? +For a fish without a fin, there’s a fowl without a feather. +If a crow help us in, sirrah, we’ll pluck a crow together. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Go, get thee gone; fetch me an iron crow. + +BALTHASAR. +Have patience, sir. O, let it not be so: +Herein you war against your reputation, +And draw within the compass of suspect +The unviolated honour of your wife. +Once this,—your long experience of her wisdom, +Her sober virtue, years, and modesty, +Plead on her part some cause to you unknown; +And doubt not, sir, but she will well excuse +Why at this time the doors are made against you. +Be rul’d by me; depart in patience, +And let us to the Tiger all to dinner, +And about evening, come yourself alone +To know the reason of this strange restraint. +If by strong hand you offer to break in +Now in the stirring passage of the day, +A vulgar comment will be made of it; +And that supposed by the common rout +Against your yet ungalled estimation +That may with foul intrusion enter in, +And dwell upon your grave when you are dead; +For slander lives upon succession, +For ever hous’d where it gets possession. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +You have prevail’d. I will depart in quiet, +And, in despite of mirth, mean to be merry. +I know a wench of excellent discourse, +Pretty and witty; wild, and yet, too, gentle; +There will we dine. This woman that I mean, +My wife (but, I protest, without desert) +Hath oftentimes upbraided me withal; +To her will we to dinner.—Get you home +And fetch the chain, by this I know ’tis made. +Bring it, I pray you, to the Porpentine, +For there’s the house. That chain will I bestow +(Be it for nothing but to spite my wife) +Upon mine hostess there. Good sir, make haste. +Since mine own doors refuse to entertain me, +I’ll knock elsewhere, to see if they’ll disdain me. + +ANGELO. +I’ll meet you at that place some hour hence. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Do so; this jest shall cost me some expense. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. + + Enter Luciana with Antipholus of Syracuse. + +LUCIANA. +And may it be that you have quite forgot +A husband’s office? Shall, Antipholus, +Even in the spring of love, thy love-springs rot? +Shall love, in building, grow so ruinous? +If you did wed my sister for her wealth, +Then for her wealth’s sake use her with more kindness; +Or if you like elsewhere, do it by stealth, +Muffle your false love with some show of blindness. +Let not my sister read it in your eye; +Be not thy tongue thy own shame’s orator; +Look sweet, speak fair, become disloyalty; +Apparel vice like virtue’s harbinger; +Bear a fair presence though your heart be tainted; +Teach sin the carriage of a holy saint, +Be secret-false. What need she be acquainted? +What simple thief brags of his own attaint? +’Tis double wrong to truant with your bed +And let her read it in thy looks at board. +Shame hath a bastard fame, well managed; +Ill deeds is doubled with an evil word. +Alas, poor women, make us but believe, +Being compact of credit, that you love us. +Though others have the arm, show us the sleeve; +We in your motion turn, and you may move us. +Then, gentle brother, get you in again; +Comfort my sister, cheer her, call her wife. +’Tis holy sport to be a little vain +When the sweet breath of flattery conquers strife. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Sweet mistress, what your name is else, I know not, +Nor by what wonder you do hit on mine; +Less in your knowledge and your grace you show not +Than our earth’s wonder, more than earth divine. +Teach me, dear creature, how to think and speak; +Lay open to my earthy gross conceit, +Smother’d in errors, feeble, shallow, weak, +The folded meaning of your words’ deceit. +Against my soul’s pure truth why labour you +To make it wander in an unknown field? +Are you a god? would you create me new? +Transform me, then, and to your power I’ll yield. +But if that I am I, then well I know +Your weeping sister is no wife of mine, +Nor to her bed no homage do I owe. +Far more, far more, to you do I decline. +O, train me not, sweet mermaid, with thy note +To drown me in thy sister’s flood of tears. +Sing, siren, for thyself, and I will dote; +Spread o’er the silver waves thy golden hairs, +And as a bed I’ll take thee, and there lie, +And, in that glorious supposition think +He gains by death that hath such means to die. +Let love, being light, be drowned if she sink! + +LUCIANA. +What, are you mad, that you do reason so? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Not mad, but mated; how, I do not know. + +LUCIANA. +It is a fault that springeth from your eye. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +For gazing on your beams, fair sun, being by. + +LUCIANA. +Gaze where you should, and that will clear your sight. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +As good to wink, sweet love, as look on night. + +LUCIANA. +Why call you me love? Call my sister so. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Thy sister’s sister. + +LUCIANA. +That’s my sister. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +No, +It is thyself, mine own self’s better part, +Mine eye’s clear eye, my dear heart’s dearer heart, +My food, my fortune, and my sweet hope’s aim, +My sole earth’s heaven, and my heaven’s claim. + +LUCIANA. +All this my sister is, or else should be. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Call thyself sister, sweet, for I aim thee; +Thee will I love, and with thee lead my life; +Thou hast no husband yet, nor I no wife. +Give me thy hand. + +LUCIANA. +O, soft, sir, hold you still; +I’ll fetch my sister to get her goodwill. + + [_Exit Luciana._] + + Enter Dromio of Syracuse. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Why, how now, Dromio? where runn’st thou so fast? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Do you know me, sir? Am I Dromio? Am I your man? Am I myself? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Thou art Dromio, thou art my man, thou art thyself. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I am an ass, I am a woman’s man, and besides myself. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What woman’s man? and how besides thyself? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, sir, besides myself, I am due to a woman, one that claims me, +one that haunts me, one that will have me. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What claim lays she to thee? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, sir, such claim as you would lay to your horse, and she would +have me as a beast; not that I being a beast she would have me, but +that she being a very beastly creature lays claim to me. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What is she? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +A very reverent body; ay, such a one as a man may not speak of without +he say “sir-reverence”. I have but lean luck in the match, and yet is +she a wondrous fat marriage. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +How dost thou mean a “fat marriage”? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, sir, she’s the kitchen wench, and all grease, and I know not +what use to put her to but to make a lamp of her and run from her by +her own light. I warrant her rags and the tallow in them will burn a +Poland winter. If she lives till doomsday, she’ll burn a week longer +than the whole world. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What complexion is she of? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Swart like my shoe, but her face nothing like so clean kept. For why? +she sweats, a man may go overshoes in the grime of it. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +That’s a fault that water will mend. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +No, sir, ’tis in grain; Noah’s flood could not do it. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What’s her name? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Nell, sir; but her name and three quarters, that’s an ell and three +quarters, will not measure her from hip to hip. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Then she bears some breadth? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +No longer from head to foot than from hip to hip. She is spherical, +like a globe. I could find out countries in her. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +In what part of her body stands Ireland? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, sir, in her buttocks; I found it out by the bogs. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Where Scotland? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I found it by the barrenness, hard in the palm of the hand. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Where France? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +In her forehead; armed and reverted, making war against her hair. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Where England? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I looked for the chalky cliffs, but I could find no whiteness in them. +But I guess it stood in her chin, by the salt rheum that ran between +France and it. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Where Spain? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Faith, I saw it not; but I felt it hot in her breath. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Where America, the Indies? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +O, sir, upon her nose, all o’er-embellished with rubies, carbuncles, +sapphires, declining their rich aspect to the hot breath of Spain, who +sent whole armadoes of carracks to be ballast at her nose. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Where stood Belgia, the Netherlands? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +O, sir, I did not look so low. To conclude: this drudge or diviner laid +claim to me, called me Dromio, swore I was assured to her, told me what +privy marks I had about me, as the mark of my shoulder, the mole in my +neck, the great wart on my left arm, that I, amazed, ran from her as a +witch. And, I think, if my breast had not been made of faith, and my +heart of steel, she had transformed me to a curtal dog, and made me +turn i’ the wheel. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Go, hie thee presently, post to the road; +And if the wind blow any way from shore, +I will not harbour in this town tonight. +If any bark put forth, come to the mart, +Where I will walk till thou return to me. +If everyone knows us, and we know none, +’Tis time, I think, to trudge, pack and be gone. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +As from a bear a man would run for life, +So fly I from her that would be my wife. + + [_Exit._] + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +There’s none but witches do inhabit here, +And therefore ’tis high time that I were hence. +She that doth call me husband, even my soul +Doth for a wife abhor. But her fair sister, +Possess’d with such a gentle sovereign grace, +Of such enchanting presence and discourse, +Hath almost made me traitor to myself. +But lest myself be guilty to self-wrong, +I’ll stop mine ears against the mermaid’s song. + + Enter Angelo with the chain. + +ANGELO. +Master Antipholus. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Ay, that’s my name. + +ANGELO. +I know it well, sir. Lo, here is the chain; +I thought to have ta’en you at the Porpentine, +The chain unfinish’d made me stay thus long. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What is your will that I shall do with this? + +ANGELO. +What please yourself, sir; I have made it for you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Made it for me, sir! I bespoke it not. + +ANGELO. +Not once, nor twice, but twenty times you have. +Go home with it, and please your wife withal, +And soon at supper-time I’ll visit you, +And then receive my money for the chain. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I pray you, sir, receive the money now, +For fear you ne’er see chain nor money more. + +ANGELO. +You are a merry man, sir; fare you well. + + [_Exit._] + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What I should think of this I cannot tell, +But this I think, there’s no man is so vain +That would refuse so fair an offer’d chain. +I see a man here needs not live by shifts, +When in the streets he meets such golden gifts. +I’ll to the mart, and there for Dromio stay; +If any ship put out, then straight away. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. The same. + + Enter Merchant, Angelo and an Officer. + +MERCHANT. +You know since Pentecost the sum is due, +And since I have not much importun’d you, +Nor now I had not, but that I am bound +To Persia, and want guilders for my voyage; +Therefore make present satisfaction, +Or I’ll attach you by this officer. + +ANGELO. +Even just the sum that I do owe to you +Is growing to me by Antipholus, +And in the instant that I met with you +He had of me a chain; at five o’clock +I shall receive the money for the same. +Pleaseth you walk with me down to his house, +I will discharge my bond, and thank you too. + + Enter Antipholus of Ephesus and Dromio of Ephesus from the + Courtesan’s. + +OFFICER. +That labour may you save. See where he comes. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +While I go to the goldsmith’s house, go thou +And buy a rope’s end; that will I bestow +Among my wife and her confederates +For locking me out of my doors by day. +But soft, I see the goldsmith; get thee gone; +Buy thou a rope, and bring it home to me. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I buy a thousand pound a year! I buy a rope! + + [_Exit Dromio._] + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +A man is well holp up that trusts to you, +I promised your presence and the chain, +But neither chain nor goldsmith came to me. +Belike you thought our love would last too long +If it were chain’d together, and therefore came not. + +ANGELO. +Saving your merry humour, here’s the note +How much your chain weighs to the utmost carat, +The fineness of the gold, and chargeful fashion, +Which doth amount to three odd ducats more +Than I stand debted to this gentleman. +I pray you, see him presently discharg’d, +For he is bound to sea, and stays but for it. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I am not furnished with the present money; +Besides, I have some business in the town. +Good signior, take the stranger to my house, +And with you take the chain, and bid my wife +Disburse the sum on the receipt thereof; +Perchance I will be there as soon as you. + +ANGELO. +Then you will bring the chain to her yourself. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +No, bear it with you, lest I come not time enough. + +ANGELO. +Well, sir, I will. Have you the chain about you? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +And if I have not, sir, I hope you have, +Or else you may return without your money. + +ANGELO. +Nay, come, I pray you, sir, give me the chain; +Both wind and tide stays for this gentleman, +And I, to blame, have held him here too long. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Good Lord, you use this dalliance to excuse +Your breach of promise to the Porpentine. +I should have chid you for not bringing it, +But, like a shrew, you first begin to brawl. + +MERCHANT. +The hour steals on; I pray you, sir, dispatch. + +ANGELO. +You hear how he importunes me. The chain! + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Why, give it to my wife, and fetch your money. + +ANGELO. +Come, come, you know I gave it you even now. +Either send the chain or send by me some token. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Fie, now you run this humour out of breath. +Come, where’s the chain? I pray you, let me see it. + +MERCHANT. +My business cannot brook this dalliance. +Good sir, say whe’er you’ll answer me or no; +If not, I’ll leave him to the officer. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I answer you? What should I answer you? + +ANGELO. +The money that you owe me for the chain. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I owe you none till I receive the chain. + +ANGELO. +You know I gave it you half an hour since. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +You gave me none. You wrong me much to say so. + +ANGELO. +You wrong me more, sir, in denying it. +Consider how it stands upon my credit. + +MERCHANT. +Well, officer, arrest him at my suit. + +OFFICER. +I do, and charge you in the duke’s name to obey me. + +ANGELO. +This touches me in reputation. +Either consent to pay this sum for me, +Or I attach you by this officer. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Consent to pay thee that I never had? +Arrest me, foolish fellow, if thou dar’st. + +ANGELO. +Here is thy fee; arrest him, officer. +I would not spare my brother in this case +If he should scorn me so apparently. + +OFFICER. +I do arrest you, sir. You hear the suit. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I do obey thee till I give thee bail. +But, sirrah, you shall buy this sport as dear +As all the metal in your shop will answer. + +ANGELO. +Sir, sir, I shall have law in Ephesus, +To your notorious shame, I doubt it not. + + Enter Dromio of Syracuse from the bay. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Master, there’s a bark of Epidamnum +That stays but till her owner comes aboard, +And then, sir, bears away. Our fraughtage, sir, +I have convey’d aboard, and I have bought +The oil, the balsamum, and aqua-vitae. +The ship is in her trim; the merry wind +Blows fair from land; they stay for nought at all +But for their owner, master, and yourself. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +How now? a madman? Why, thou peevish sheep, +What ship of Epidamnum stays for me? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +A ship you sent me to, to hire waftage. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Thou drunken slave, I sent thee for a rope, +And told thee to what purpose and what end. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +You sent me for a rope’s end as soon. +You sent me to the bay, sir, for a bark. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I will debate this matter at more leisure, +And teach your ears to list me with more heed. +To Adriana, villain, hie thee straight: +Give her this key, and tell her in the desk +That’s cover’d o’er with Turkish tapestry +There is a purse of ducats; let her send it. +Tell her I am arrested in the street, +And that shall bail me. Hie thee, slave; be gone. +On, officer, to prison till it come. + + [_Exeunt Merchant, Angelo, Officer and Antipholus of Ephesus._] + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +To Adriana, that is where we din’d, +Where Dowsabel did claim me for her husband. +She is too big, I hope, for me to compass. +Thither I must, although against my will, +For servants must their masters’ minds fulfil. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. The same. + + Enter Adriana and Luciana. + +ADRIANA. +Ah, Luciana, did he tempt thee so? +Might’st thou perceive austerely in his eye +That he did plead in earnest, yea or no? +Look’d he or red or pale, or sad or merrily? +What observation mad’st thou in this case +Of his heart’s meteors tilting in his face? + +LUCIANA. +First he denied you had in him no right. + +ADRIANA. +He meant he did me none; the more my spite. + +LUCIANA. +Then swore he that he was a stranger here. + +ADRIANA. +And true he swore, though yet forsworn he were. + +LUCIANA. +Then pleaded I for you. + +ADRIANA. +And what said he? + +LUCIANA. +That love I begg’d for you he begg’d of me. + +ADRIANA. +With what persuasion did he tempt thy love? + +LUCIANA. +With words that in an honest suit might move. +First he did praise my beauty, then my speech. + +ADRIANA. +Did’st speak him fair? + +LUCIANA. +Have patience, I beseech. + +ADRIANA. +I cannot, nor I will not hold me still. +My tongue, though not my heart, shall have his will. +He is deformed, crooked, old, and sere, +Ill-fac’d, worse bodied, shapeless everywhere; +Vicious, ungentle, foolish, blunt, unkind, +Stigmatical in making, worse in mind. + +LUCIANA. +Who would be jealous then of such a one? +No evil lost is wail’d when it is gone. + +ADRIANA. +Ah, but I think him better than I say, +And yet would herein others’ eyes were worse: +Far from her nest the lapwing cries away; +My heart prays for him, though my tongue do curse. + + Enter Dromio of Syracuse. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Here, go; the desk, the purse, sweet now, make haste. + +LUCIANA. +How hast thou lost thy breath? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +By running fast. + +ADRIANA. +Where is thy master, Dromio? is he well? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +No, he’s in Tartar limbo, worse than hell. +A devil in an everlasting garment hath him, +One whose hard heart is button’d up with steel; +A fiend, a fairy, pitiless and rough; +A wolf, nay worse, a fellow all in buff; +A back-friend, a shoulder-clapper, one that countermands +The passages of alleys, creeks, and narrow lands; +A hound that runs counter, and yet draws dryfoot well, +One that, before the judgment, carries poor souls to hell. + +ADRIANA. +Why, man, what is the matter? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I do not know the matter. He is ’rested on the case. + +ADRIANA. +What, is he arrested? Tell me at whose suit? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I know not at whose suit he is arrested, well; +But he’s in a suit of buff which ’rested him, that can I tell. +Will you send him, mistress, redemption, the money in his desk? + +ADRIANA. +Go fetch it, sister. This I wonder at, + + [_Exit Luciana._] + +Thus he unknown to me should be in debt. +Tell me, was he arrested on a band? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Not on a band, but on a stronger thing; +A chain, a chain. Do you not hear it ring? + +ADRIANA. +What, the chain? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +No, no, the bell, ’tis time that I were gone. +It was two ere I left him, and now the clock strikes one. + +ADRIANA. +The hours come back! That did I never hear. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +O yes, if any hour meet a sergeant, ’a turns back for very fear. + +ADRIANA. +As if time were in debt. How fondly dost thou reason! + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he’s worth to season. +Nay, he’s a thief too. Have you not heard men say +That time comes stealing on by night and day? +If he be in debt and theft, and a sergeant in the way, +Hath he not reason to turn back an hour in a day? + + Enter Luciana. + +ADRIANA. +Go, Dromio, there’s the money, bear it straight, +And bring thy master home immediately. +Come, sister, I am press’d down with conceit; +Conceit, my comfort and my injury. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. + + Enter Antipholus of Syracuse. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +There’s not a man I meet but doth salute me +As if I were their well-acquainted friend, +And everyone doth call me by my name. +Some tender money to me, some invite me; +Some other give me thanks for kindnesses; +Some offer me commodities to buy. +Even now a tailor call’d me in his shop, +And show’d me silks that he had bought for me, +And therewithal took measure of my body. +Sure, these are but imaginary wiles, +And Lapland sorcerers inhabit here. + + Enter Dromio of Syracuse. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Master, here’s the gold you sent me for. +What, have you got the picture of old Adam new apparelled? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What gold is this? What Adam dost thou mean? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Not that Adam that kept the paradise, but that Adam that keeps the +prison; he that goes in the calf’s skin that was killed for the +Prodigal; he that came behind you, sir, like an evil angel, and bid you +forsake your liberty. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I understand thee not. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +No? Why, ’tis a plain case: he that went like a bass-viol in a case of +leather; the man, sir, that, when gentlemen are tired, gives them a +sob, and ’rests them; he, sir, that takes pity on decayed men and gives +them suits of durance; he that sets up his rest to do more exploits +with his mace than a morris-pike. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +What! thou mean’st an officer? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Ay, sir, the sergeant of the band; he that brings any man to answer it +that breaks his band; one that thinks a man always going to bed, and +says, “God give you good rest.” + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Well, sir, there rest in your foolery. Is there any ship puts forth +tonight? may we be gone? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Why, sir, I brought you word an hour since that the bark _Expedition_ +put forth tonight, and then were you hindered by the sergeant to tarry +for the hoy _Delay_. Here are the angels that you sent for to deliver +you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +The fellow is distract, and so am I, +And here we wander in illusions. +Some blessed power deliver us from hence! + + Enter a Courtesan. + +COURTESAN. +Well met, well met, Master Antipholus. +I see, sir, you have found the goldsmith now. +Is that the chain you promis’d me today? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Satan, avoid! I charge thee, tempt me not. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Master, is this Mistress Satan? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +It is the devil. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Nay, she is worse, she is the devil’s dam; and here she comes in the +habit of a light wench, and thereof comes that the wenches say “God +damn me”, that’s as much to say, “God make me a light wench.” It is +written they appear to men like angels of light. Light is an effect of +fire, and fire will burn; ergo, light wenches will burn. Come not near +her. + +COURTESAN. +Your man and you are marvellous merry, sir. +Will you go with me? We’ll mend our dinner here. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Master, if you do, expect spoon-meat, or bespeak a long spoon. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Why, Dromio? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Marry, he must have a long spoon that must eat with the devil. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Avoid then, fiend! What tell’st thou me of supping? +Thou art, as you are all, a sorceress. +I conjure thee to leave me and be gone. + +COURTESAN. +Give me the ring of mine you had at dinner, +Or, for my diamond, the chain you promis’d, +And I’ll be gone, sir, and not trouble you. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Some devils ask but the paring of one’s nail, +A rush, a hair, a drop of blood, a pin, +A nut, a cherry-stone; but she, more covetous, +Would have a chain. +Master, be wise; and if you give it her, +The devil will shake her chain and fright us with it. + +COURTESAN. +I pray you, sir, my ring, or else the chain; +I hope you do not mean to cheat me so. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Avaunt, thou witch! Come, Dromio, let us go. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Fly pride, says the peacock. Mistress, that you know. + + [_Exeunt Antipholus of Syracuse and Dromio of Syracuse._] + +COURTESAN. +Now, out of doubt Antipholus is mad, +Else would he never so demean himself. +A ring he hath of mine worth forty ducats, +And for the same he promis’d me a chain; +Both one and other he denies me now. +The reason that I gather he is mad, +Besides this present instance of his rage, +Is a mad tale he told today at dinner +Of his own doors being shut against his entrance. +Belike his wife, acquainted with his fits, +On purpose shut the doors against his way. +My way is now to hie home to his house, +And tell his wife that, being lunatic, +He rush’d into my house and took perforce +My ring away. This course I fittest choose, +For forty ducats is too much to lose. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. The same. + + Enter Antipholus of Ephesus with an Officer. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Fear me not, man, I will not break away: +I’ll give thee ere I leave thee so much money, +To warrant thee, as I am ’rested for. +My wife is in a wayward mood today, +And will not lightly trust the messenger +That I should be attach’d in Ephesus; +I tell you ’twill sound harshly in her ears. + + Enter Dromio of Ephesus with a rope’s end. + +Here comes my man. I think he brings the money. +How now, sir! have you that I sent you for? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Here’s that, I warrant you, will pay them all. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +But where’s the money? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Why, sir, I gave the money for the rope. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Five hundred ducats, villain, for a rope? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I’ll serve you, sir, five hundred at the rate. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +To what end did I bid thee hie thee home? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +To a rope’s end, sir; and to that end am I return’d. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +And to that end, sir, I will welcome you. + + [_Beating him._] + +OFFICER. +Good sir, be patient. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Nay, ’tis for me to be patient. I am in adversity. + +OFFICER. +Good now, hold thy tongue. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Nay, rather persuade him to hold his hands. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Thou whoreson, senseless villain. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I would I were senseless, sir, that I might not feel your blows. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Thou art sensible in nothing but blows, and so is an ass. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I am an ass indeed; you may prove it by my long ears. I have served him +from the hour of my nativity to this instant, and have nothing at his +hands for my service but blows. When I am cold, he heats me with +beating; when I am warm he cools me with beating. I am waked with it +when I sleep, raised with it when I sit, driven out of doors with it +when I go from home, welcomed home with it when I return. Nay, I bear +it on my shoulders as a beggar wont her brat; and I think when he hath +lamed me, I shall beg with it from door to door. + + Enter Adriana, Luciana, Courtesan and a Schoolmaster called Pinch. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Come, go along, my wife is coming yonder. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Mistress, _respice finem_, respect your end, or rather, the prophesy +like the parrot, “Beware the rope’s end.” + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Wilt thou still talk? + + [_Beats him._] + +COURTESAN. +How say you now? Is not your husband mad? + +ADRIANA. +His incivility confirms no less. +Good Doctor Pinch, you are a conjurer; +Establish him in his true sense again, +And I will please you what you will demand. + +LUCIANA. +Alas, how fiery and how sharp he looks! + +COURTESAN. +Mark how he trembles in his ecstasy. + +PINCH. +Give me your hand, and let me feel your pulse. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +There is my hand, and let it feel your ear. + +PINCH. +I charge thee, Satan, hous’d within this man, +To yield possession to my holy prayers, +And to thy state of darkness hie thee straight. +I conjure thee by all the saints in heaven. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Peace, doting wizard, peace; I am not mad. + +ADRIANA. +O, that thou wert not, poor distressed soul! + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +You minion, you, are these your customers? +Did this companion with the saffron face +Revel and feast it at my house today, +Whilst upon me the guilty doors were shut, +And I denied to enter in my house? + +ADRIANA. +O husband, God doth know you din’d at home, +Where would you had remain’d until this time, +Free from these slanders and this open shame. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Din’d at home? Thou villain, what sayest thou? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Sir, sooth to say, you did not dine at home. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Were not my doors lock’d up and I shut out? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Perdy, your doors were lock’d, and you shut out. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +And did not she herself revile me there? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Sans fable, she herself revil’d you there. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Did not her kitchen-maid rail, taunt, and scorn me? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Certes, she did, the kitchen-vestal scorn’d you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +And did not I in rage depart from thence? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +In verity, you did; my bones bear witness, +That since have felt the vigour of his rage. + +ADRIANA. +Is’t good to soothe him in these contraries? + +PINCH. +It is no shame; the fellow finds his vein, +And yielding to him, humours well his frenzy. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Thou hast suborn’d the goldsmith to arrest me. + +ADRIANA. +Alas! I sent you money to redeem you +By Dromio here, who came in haste for it. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Money by me? Heart and goodwill you might, +But surely, master, not a rag of money. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Went’st not thou to her for a purse of ducats? + +ADRIANA. +He came to me, and I deliver’d it. + +LUCIANA. +And I am witness with her that she did. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +God and the rope-maker bear me witness +That I was sent for nothing but a rope. + +PINCH. +Mistress, both man and master is possess’d, +I know it by their pale and deadly looks. +They must be bound and laid in some dark room. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Say, wherefore didst thou lock me forth today, +And why dost thou deny the bag of gold? + +ADRIANA. +I did not, gentle husband, lock thee forth. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +And gentle master, I receiv’d no gold; +But I confess, sir, that we were lock’d out. + +ADRIANA. +Dissembling villain, thou speak’st false in both. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Dissembling harlot, thou art false in all, +And art confederate with a damned pack +To make a loathsome abject scorn of me. +But with these nails I’ll pluck out these false eyes +That would behold in me this shameful sport. + + [_Enter three or four, and offer to bind him. He strives. _] + +ADRIANA. +O, bind him, bind him; let him not come near me. + +PINCH. +More company; the fiend is strong within him. + +LUCIANA. +Ay me, poor man, how pale and wan he looks! + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +What, will you murder me? Thou jailer, thou, +I am thy prisoner. Wilt thou suffer them +To make a rescue? + +OFFICER. +Masters, let him go. +He is my prisoner, and you shall not have him. + +PINCH. +Go, bind this man, for he is frantic too. + +ADRIANA. +What wilt thou do, thou peevish officer? +Hast thou delight to see a wretched man +Do outrage and displeasure to himself? + +OFFICER. +He is my prisoner. If I let him go, +The debt he owes will be requir’d of me. + +ADRIANA. +I will discharge thee ere I go from thee; +Bear me forthwith unto his creditor, +And knowing how the debt grows, I will pay it. +Good master doctor, see him safe convey’d +Home to my house. O most unhappy day! + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +O most unhappy strumpet! + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Master, I am here enter’d in bond for you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Out on thee, villain! wherefore dost thou mad me? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Will you be bound for nothing? Be mad, good master; cry, “the devil”. + +LUCIANA. +God help, poor souls, how idly do they talk! + +ADRIANA. +Go bear him hence. Sister, go you with me. + + [_Exeunt Pinch and Assistants, with Antipholus of Ephesus and Dromio + of Ephesus._] + +Say now, whose suit is he arrested at? + +OFFICER. +One Angelo, a goldsmith; do you know him? + +ADRIANA. +I know the man. What is the sum he owes? + +OFFICER. +Two hundred ducats. + +ADRIANA. +Say, how grows it due? + +OFFICER. +Due for a chain your husband had of him. + +ADRIANA. +He did bespeak a chain for me, but had it not. + +COURTESAN. +When as your husband, all in rage, today +Came to my house and took away my ring, +The ring I saw upon his finger now, +Straight after did I meet him with a chain. + +ADRIANA. +It may be so, but I did never see it. +Come, jailer, bring me where the goldsmith is, +I long to know the truth hereof at large. + + Enter Antipholus of Syracuse with his rapier drawn, and Dromio of + Syracuse. + +LUCIANA. +God, for thy mercy, they are loose again! + +ADRIANA. +And come with naked swords. Let’s call more help +To have them bound again. + +OFFICER. +Away, they’ll kill us. + + [_Exeunt, as fast as may be, frighted._] + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I see these witches are afraid of swords. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +She that would be your wife now ran from you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Come to the Centaur, fetch our stuff from thence. +I long that we were safe and sound aboard. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Faith, stay here this night, they will surely do us no harm; you saw +they speak us fair, give us gold. Methinks they are such a gentle +nation that, but for the mountain of mad flesh that claims marriage of +me, I could find in my heart to stay here still and turn witch. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I will not stay tonight for all the town; +Therefore away, to get our stuff aboard. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. The same. + + Enter Merchant and Angelo. + +ANGELO. +I am sorry, sir, that I have hinder’d you, +But I protest he had the chain of me, +Though most dishonestly he doth deny it. + +MERCHANT. +How is the man esteem’d here in the city? + +ANGELO. +Of very reverend reputation, sir, +Of credit infinite, highly belov’d, +Second to none that lives here in the city. +His word might bear my wealth at any time. + +MERCHANT. +Speak softly. Yonder, as I think, he walks. + + Enter Antipholus of Syracuse and Dromio of Syracuse. + +ANGELO. +’Tis so; and that self chain about his neck +Which he forswore most monstrously to have. +Good sir, draw near to me, I’ll speak to him. +Signior Antipholus, I wonder much +That you would put me to this shame and trouble, +And not without some scandal to yourself, +With circumstance and oaths so to deny +This chain, which now you wear so openly. +Beside the charge, the shame, imprisonment, +You have done wrong to this my honest friend, +Who, but for staying on our controversy, +Had hoisted sail and put to sea today. +This chain you had of me, can you deny it? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I think I had: I never did deny it. + +MERCHANT. +Yes, that you did, sir, and forswore it too. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Who heard me to deny it or forswear it? + +MERCHANT. +These ears of mine, thou know’st, did hear thee. +Fie on thee, wretch. ’Tis pity that thou liv’st +To walk where any honest men resort. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Thou art a villain to impeach me thus; +I’ll prove mine honour and mine honesty +Against thee presently, if thou dar’st stand. + +MERCHANT. +I dare, and do defy thee for a villain. + + [_They draw._] + + Enter Adriana, Luciana, Courtesan and others. + +ADRIANA. +Hold, hurt him not, for God’s sake, he is mad. +Some get within him, take his sword away. +Bind Dromio too, and bear them to my house. + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Run, master, run, for God’s sake, take a house. +This is some priory; in, or we are spoil’d. + + [_Exeunt Antipholus of Syracuse and Dromio of Syracuse to the + priory._] + + Enter Lady Abbess. + +ABBESS. +Be quiet, people. Wherefore throng you hither? + +ADRIANA. +To fetch my poor distracted husband hence. +Let us come in, that we may bind him fast +And bear him home for his recovery. + +ANGELO. +I knew he was not in his perfect wits. + +MERCHANT. +I am sorry now that I did draw on him. + +ABBESS. +How long hath this possession held the man? + +ADRIANA. +This week he hath been heavy, sour, sad, +And much different from the man he was. +But till this afternoon his passion +Ne’er brake into extremity of rage. + +ABBESS. +Hath he not lost much wealth by wreck of sea? +Buried some dear friend? Hath not else his eye +Stray’d his affection in unlawful love? +A sin prevailing much in youthful men +Who give their eyes the liberty of gazing? +Which of these sorrows is he subject to? + +ADRIANA. +To none of these, except it be the last, +Namely, some love that drew him oft from home. + +ABBESS. +You should for that have reprehended him. + +ADRIANA. +Why, so I did. + +ABBESS. +Ay, but not rough enough. + +ADRIANA. +As roughly as my modesty would let me. + +ABBESS. +Haply in private. + +ADRIANA. +And in assemblies too. + +ABBESS. +Ay, but not enough. + +ADRIANA. +It was the copy of our conference. +In bed he slept not for my urging it; +At board he fed not for my urging it; +Alone, it was the subject of my theme; +In company I often glanced it; +Still did I tell him it was vile and bad. + +ABBESS. +And thereof came it that the man was mad. +The venom clamours of a jealous woman +Poisons more deadly than a mad dog’s tooth. +It seems his sleeps were hindered by thy railing, +And thereof comes it that his head is light. +Thou say’st his meat was sauc’d with thy upbraidings. +Unquiet meals make ill digestions; +Thereof the raging fire of fever bred, +And what’s a fever but a fit of madness? +Thou say’st his sports were hinder’d by thy brawls. +Sweet recreation barr’d, what doth ensue +But moody and dull melancholy, +Kinsman to grim and comfortless despair, +And at her heels a huge infectious troop +Of pale distemperatures and foes to life? +In food, in sport, and life-preserving rest +To be disturb’d would mad or man or beast. +The consequence is, then, thy jealous fits +Hath scar’d thy husband from the use of’s wits. + +LUCIANA. +She never reprehended him but mildly, +When he demean’d himself rough, rude, and wildly. +Why bear you these rebukes and answer not? + +ADRIANA. +She did betray me to my own reproof. +Good people, enter and lay hold on him. + +ABBESS. +No, not a creature enters in my house. + +ADRIANA. +Then let your servants bring my husband forth. + +ABBESS. +Neither. He took this place for sanctuary, +And it shall privilege him from your hands +Till I have brought him to his wits again, +Or lose my labour in assaying it. + +ADRIANA. +I will attend my husband, be his nurse, +Diet his sickness, for it is my office, +And will have no attorney but myself; +And therefore let me have him home with me. + +ABBESS. +Be patient, for I will not let him stir +Till I have used the approved means I have, +With wholesome syrups, drugs, and holy prayers, +To make of him a formal man again. +It is a branch and parcel of mine oath, +A charitable duty of my order; +Therefore depart, and leave him here with me. + +ADRIANA. +I will not hence and leave my husband here; +And ill it doth beseem your holiness +To separate the husband and the wife. + +ABBESS. +Be quiet and depart. Thou shalt not have him. + + [_Exit Abbess._] + +LUCIANA. +Complain unto the duke of this indignity. + +ADRIANA. +Come, go. I will fall prostrate at his feet, +And never rise until my tears and prayers +Have won his grace to come in person hither +And take perforce my husband from the abbess. + +MERCHANT. +By this, I think, the dial points at five. +Anon, I’m sure, the Duke himself in person +Comes this way to the melancholy vale, +The place of death and sorry execution +Behind the ditches of the abbey here. + +ANGELO. +Upon what cause? + +MERCHANT. +To see a reverend Syracusian merchant, +Who put unluckily into this bay +Against the laws and statutes of this town, +Beheaded publicly for his offence. + +ANGELO. +See where they come. We will behold his death. + +LUCIANA. +Kneel to the Duke before he pass the abbey. + + Enter the Duke, attended; Egeon, bareheaded; with the Headsman and + other Officers. + +DUKE. +Yet once again proclaim it publicly, +If any friend will pay the sum for him, +He shall not die; so much we tender him. + +ADRIANA. +Justice, most sacred duke, against the abbess! + +DUKE. +She is a virtuous and a reverend lady, +It cannot be that she hath done thee wrong. + +ADRIANA. +May it please your grace, Antipholus, my husband, +Who I made lord of me and all I had +At your important letters, this ill day +A most outrageous fit of madness took him; +That desp’rately he hurried through the street, +With him his bondman all as mad as he, +Doing displeasure to the citizens +By rushing in their houses, bearing thence +Rings, jewels, anything his rage did like. +Once did I get him bound and sent him home, +Whilst to take order for the wrongs I went, +That here and there his fury had committed. +Anon, I wot not by what strong escape, +He broke from those that had the guard of him, +And with his mad attendant and himself, +Each one with ireful passion, with drawn swords, +Met us again, and, madly bent on us, +Chased us away; till raising of more aid, +We came again to bind them. Then they fled +Into this abbey, whither we pursued them. +And here the abbess shuts the gates on us, +And will not suffer us to fetch him out, +Nor send him forth that we may bear him hence. +Therefore, most gracious duke, with thy command +Let him be brought forth and borne hence for help. + +DUKE. +Long since thy husband serv’d me in my wars, +And I to thee engag’d a prince’s word, +When thou didst make him master of thy bed, +To do him all the grace and good I could. +Go, some of you, knock at the abbey gate, +And bid the lady abbess come to me. +I will determine this before I stir. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +O mistress, mistress, shift and save yourself. +My master and his man are both broke loose, +Beaten the maids a-row, and bound the doctor, +Whose beard they have singed off with brands of fire, +And ever as it blazed they threw on him +Great pails of puddled mire to quench the hair. +My master preaches patience to him, and the while +His man with scissors nicks him like a fool; +And sure (unless you send some present help) +Between them they will kill the conjurer. + +ADRIANA. +Peace, fool, thy master and his man are here, +And that is false thou dost report to us. + +MESSENGER. +Mistress, upon my life, I tell you true. +I have not breath’d almost since I did see it. +He cries for you, and vows, if he can take you, +To scorch your face and to disfigure you. + + [_Cry within._] + +Hark, hark, I hear him, mistress. Fly, be gone! + +DUKE. +Come, stand by me, fear nothing. Guard with halberds. + +ADRIANA. +Ay me, it is my husband. Witness you +That he is borne about invisible. +Even now we hous’d him in the abbey here, +And now he’s there, past thought of human reason. + + Enter Antipholus and Dromio of Ephesus. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Justice, most gracious duke; O, grant me justice! +Even for the service that long since I did thee +When I bestrid thee in the wars, and took +Deep scars to save thy life; even for the blood +That then I lost for thee, now grant me justice. + +EGEON. +Unless the fear of death doth make me dote, +I see my son Antipholus and Dromio. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Justice, sweet prince, against that woman there. +She whom thou gav’st to me to be my wife; +That hath abused and dishonour’d me +Even in the strength and height of injury. +Beyond imagination is the wrong +That she this day hath shameless thrown on me. + +DUKE. +Discover how, and thou shalt find me just. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +This day, great duke, she shut the doors upon me +While she with harlots feasted in my house. + +DUKE. +A grievous fault. Say, woman, didst thou so? + +ADRIANA. +No, my good lord. Myself, he, and my sister +Today did dine together. So befall my soul +As this is false he burdens me withal. + +LUCIANA. +Ne’er may I look on day nor sleep on night +But she tells to your highness simple truth. + +ANGELO. +O perjur’d woman! They are both forsworn. +In this the madman justly chargeth them. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +My liege, I am advised what I say, +Neither disturb’d with the effect of wine, +Nor heady-rash, provok’d with raging ire, +Albeit my wrongs might make one wiser mad. +This woman lock’d me out this day from dinner. +That goldsmith there, were he not pack’d with her, +Could witness it, for he was with me then, +Who parted with me to go fetch a chain, +Promising to bring it to the Porpentine, +Where Balthasar and I did dine together. +Our dinner done, and he not coming thither, +I went to seek him. In the street I met him, +And in his company that gentleman. +There did this perjur’d goldsmith swear me down +That I this day of him receiv’d the chain, +Which, God he knows, I saw not. For the which +He did arrest me with an officer. +I did obey, and sent my peasant home +For certain ducats. He with none return’d. +Then fairly I bespoke the officer +To go in person with me to my house. +By th’ way we met +My wife, her sister, and a rabble more +Of vile confederates. Along with them +They brought one Pinch, a hungry lean-faced villain, +A mere anatomy, a mountebank, +A threadbare juggler, and a fortune-teller; +A needy, hollow-ey’d, sharp-looking wretch; +A living dead man. This pernicious slave, +Forsooth, took on him as a conjurer, +And gazing in mine eyes, feeling my pulse, +And with no face (as ’twere) outfacing me, +Cries out, I was possess’d. Then altogether +They fell upon me, bound me, bore me thence, +And in a dark and dankish vault at home +There left me and my man, both bound together, +Till gnawing with my teeth my bonds in sunder, +I gain’d my freedom and immediately +Ran hither to your Grace, whom I beseech +To give me ample satisfaction +For these deep shames and great indignities. + +ANGELO. +My lord, in truth, thus far I witness with him, +That he din’d not at home, but was lock’d out. + +DUKE. +But had he such a chain of thee, or no? + +ANGELO. +He had, my lord, and when he ran in here +These people saw the chain about his neck. + +MERCHANT. +Besides, I will be sworn these ears of mine +Heard you confess you had the chain of him, +After you first forswore it on the mart, +And thereupon I drew my sword on you; +And then you fled into this abbey here, +From whence I think you are come by miracle. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I never came within these abbey walls, +Nor ever didst thou draw thy sword on me. +I never saw the chain, so help me heaven; +And this is false you burden me withal. + +DUKE. +Why, what an intricate impeach is this! +I think you all have drunk of Circe’s cup. +If here you hous’d him, here he would have been. +If he were mad, he would not plead so coldly. +You say he din’d at home, the goldsmith here +Denies that saying. Sirrah, what say you? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Sir, he dined with her there, at the Porpentine. + +COURTESAN. +He did, and from my finger snatch’d that ring. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +’Tis true, my liege, this ring I had of her. + +DUKE. +Saw’st thou him enter at the abbey here? + +COURTESAN. +As sure, my liege, as I do see your grace. + +DUKE. +Why, this is strange. Go call the abbess hither. +I think you are all mated, or stark mad. + + [_Exit one to the Abbess._] + +EGEON. +Most mighty Duke, vouchsafe me speak a word; +Haply I see a friend will save my life +And pay the sum that may deliver me. + +DUKE. +Speak freely, Syracusian, what thou wilt. + +EGEON. +Is not your name, sir, call’d Antipholus? +And is not that your bondman Dromio? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Within this hour I was his bondman, sir, +But he, I thank him, gnaw’d in two my cords. +Now am I Dromio, and his man, unbound. + +EGEON. +I am sure you both of you remember me. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Ourselves we do remember, sir, by you. +For lately we were bound as you are now. +You are not Pinch’s patient, are you, sir? + +EGEON. +Why look you strange on me? you know me well. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I never saw you in my life till now. + +EGEON. +O! grief hath chang’d me since you saw me last, +And careful hours with time’s deformed hand, +Have written strange defeatures in my face. +But tell me yet, dost thou not know my voice? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Neither. + +EGEON. +Dromio, nor thou? + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +No, trust me, sir, nor I. + +EGEON. +I am sure thou dost. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Ay, sir, but I am sure I do not, and whatsoever a man denies, you are +now bound to believe him. + +EGEON. +Not know my voice! O time’s extremity, +Hast thou so crack’d and splitted my poor tongue +In seven short years that here my only son +Knows not my feeble key of untun’d cares? +Though now this grained face of mine be hid +In sap-consuming winter’s drizzled snow, +And all the conduits of my blood froze up, +Yet hath my night of life some memory, +My wasting lamps some fading glimmer left, +My dull deaf ears a little use to hear. +All these old witnesses, I cannot err, +Tell me thou art my son Antipholus. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I never saw my father in my life. + +EGEON. +But seven years since, in Syracusa, boy, +Thou know’st we parted; but perhaps, my son, +Thou sham’st to acknowledge me in misery. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +The duke and all that know me in the city, +Can witness with me that it is not so. +I ne’er saw Syracusa in my life. + +DUKE. +I tell thee, Syracusian, twenty years +Have I been patron to Antipholus, +During which time he ne’er saw Syracusa. +I see thy age and dangers make thee dote. + + Enter the Abbess with Antipholus of Syracuse and Dromio of Syracuse. + +ABBESS. +Most mighty duke, behold a man much wrong’d. + + [_All gather to see them._] + +ADRIANA. +I see two husbands, or mine eyes deceive me. + +DUKE. +One of these men is _genius_ to the other; +And so of these, which is the natural man, +And which the spirit? Who deciphers them? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +I, sir, am Dromio, command him away. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +I, sir, am Dromio, pray let me stay. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +Egeon, art thou not? or else his ghost? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +O, my old master, who hath bound him here? + +ABBESS. +Whoever bound him, I will loose his bonds, +And gain a husband by his liberty. +Speak, old Egeon, if thou be’st the man +That hadst a wife once called Emilia, +That bore thee at a burden two fair sons. +O, if thou be’st the same Egeon, speak, +And speak unto the same Emilia! + +DUKE. +Why, here begins his morning story right: +These two Antipholus’, these two so like, +And these two Dromios, one in semblance, +Besides her urging of her wreck at sea. +These are the parents to these children, +Which accidentally are met together. + +EGEON. +If I dream not, thou art Emilia. +If thou art she, tell me where is that son +That floated with thee on the fatal raft? + +ABBESS. +By men of Epidamnum, he and I +And the twin Dromio, all were taken up; +But, by and by, rude fishermen of Corinth +By force took Dromio and my son from them, +And me they left with those of Epidamnum. +What then became of them I cannot tell; +I to this fortune that you see me in. + +DUKE. +Antipholus, thou cam’st from Corinth first? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +No, sir, not I, I came from Syracuse. + +DUKE. +Stay, stand apart, I know not which is which. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +I came from Corinth, my most gracious lord. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +And I with him. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Brought to this town by that most famous warrior, +Duke Menaphon, your most renowned uncle. + +ADRIANA. +Which of you two did dine with me today? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I, gentle mistress. + +ADRIANA. +And are not you my husband? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +No, I say nay to that. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +And so do I, yet did she call me so; +And this fair gentlewoman, her sister here, +Did call me brother. What I told you then, +I hope I shall have leisure to make good, +If this be not a dream I see and hear. + +ANGELO. +That is the chain, sir, which you had of me. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +I think it be, sir. I deny it not. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +And you, sir, for this chain arrested me. + +ANGELO. +I think I did, sir. I deny it not. + +ADRIANA. +I sent you money, sir, to be your bail +By Dromio, but I think he brought it not. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +No, none by me. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +This purse of ducats I receiv’d from you, +And Dromio my man did bring them me. +I see we still did meet each other’s man, +And I was ta’en for him, and he for me, +And thereupon these errors are arose. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +These ducats pawn I for my father here. + +DUKE. +It shall not need, thy father hath his life. + +COURTESAN. +Sir, I must have that diamond from you. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +There, take it, and much thanks for my good cheer. + +ABBESS. +Renowned duke, vouchsafe to take the pains +To go with us into the abbey here, +And hear at large discoursed all our fortunes; +And all that are assembled in this place, +That by this sympathised one day’s error +Have suffer’d wrong, go, keep us company, +And we shall make full satisfaction. +Thirty-three years have I but gone in travail +Of you, my sons, and till this present hour +My heavy burden ne’er delivered. +The duke, my husband, and my children both, +And you, the calendars of their nativity, +Go to a gossips’ feast, and go with me. +After so long grief, such nativity. + +DUKE. +With all my heart, I’ll gossip at this feast. + + [_Exeunt except the two Dromios and two Brothers._] + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Master, shall I fetch your stuff from shipboard? + +ANTIPHOLUS OF EPHESUS. +Dromio, what stuff of mine hast thou embark’d? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Your goods that lay at host, sir, in the Centaur. + +ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE. +He speaks to me; I am your master, Dromio. +Come, go with us. We’ll look to that anon. +Embrace thy brother there, rejoice with him. + + [_Exeunt Antipholus of Syracuse and Antipholus of Ephesus._] + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +There is a fat friend at your master’s house, +That kitchen’d me for you today at dinner. +She now shall be my sister, not my wife. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Methinks you are my glass, and not my brother. +I see by you I am a sweet-faced youth. +Will you walk in to see their gossiping? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +Not I, sir, you are my elder. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +That’s a question, how shall we try it? + +DROMIO OF SYRACUSE. +We’ll draw cuts for the senior. Till then, lead thou first. + +DROMIO OF EPHESUS. +Nay, then, thus: +We came into the world like brother and brother, +And now let’s go hand in hand, not one before another. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + +THE TRAGEDY OF CORIOLANUS + +Dramatis Personae + + CAIUS MARCIUS, afterwards CAIUS MARCIUS CORIOLANUS + + Generals against the Volscians + TITUS LARTIUS + COMINIUS + + MENENIUS AGRIPPA, friend to Coriolanus + + Tribunes of the People + SICINIUS VELUTUS + JUNIUS BRUTUS + + YOUNG MARCIUS, son to Coriolanus + A ROMAN HERALD + NICANOR, a Roman + TULLUS AUFIDIUS, General of the Volscians + LIEUTENANT, to Aufidius + CONSPIRATORS, With Aufidius + ADRIAN, a Volscian + A CITIZEN of Antium + TWO VOLSCIAN GUARDS + + VOLUMNIA, mother to Coriolanus + VIRGILIA, wife to Coriolanus + VALERIA, friend to Virgilia + GENTLEWOMAN attending on Virgilia + + Roman and Volscian Senators, Patricians, Aediles, Lictors, + Soldiers, Citizens, Messengers, Servants to Aufidius, and other + Attendants + +SCENE: Rome and the neighbourhood; Corioli and the neighbourhood; +Antium + +ACT I. SCENE I. Rome. A street + +Enter a company of mutinous citizens, with staves, clubs, and other +weapons + + FIRST CITIZEN. Before we proceed any further, hear me speak. + ALL. Speak, speak. + FIRST CITIZEN. YOU are all resolv'd rather to die than to famish? + ALL. Resolv'd, resolv'd. + FIRST CITIZEN. First, you know Caius Marcius is chief enemy to the + people. + ALL. We know't, we know't. + FIRST CITIZEN. Let us kill him, and we'll have corn at our own + price. Is't a verdict? + ALL. No more talking on't; let it be done. Away, away! + SECOND CITIZEN. One word, good citizens. + FIRST CITIZEN. We are accounted poor citizens, the patricians good. + What authority surfeits on would relieve us; if they would yield + us but the superfluity while it were wholesome, we might guess + they relieved us humanely; but they think we are too dear. The + leanness that afflicts us, the object of our misery, is as an + inventory to particularize their abundance; our sufferance is a + gain to them. Let us revenge this with our pikes ere we become + rakes; for the gods know I speak this in hunger for bread, not in + thirst for revenge. + SECOND CITIZEN. Would you proceed especially against Caius Marcius? + FIRST CITIZEN. Against him first; he's a very dog to the + commonalty. + SECOND CITIZEN. Consider you what services he has done for his + country? + FIRST CITIZEN. Very well, and could be content to give him good + report for't but that he pays himself with being proud. + SECOND CITIZEN. Nay, but speak not maliciously. + FIRST CITIZEN. I say unto you, what he hath done famously he did it + to that end; though soft-conscienc'd men can be content to say it + was for his country, he did it to please his mother and to be + partly proud, which he is, even to the altitude of his virtue. + SECOND CITIZEN. What he cannot help in his nature you account a + vice in him. You must in no way say he is covetous. + FIRST CITIZEN. If I must not, I need not be barren of accusations; + he hath faults, with surplus, to tire in repetition. [Shouts + within] What shouts are these? The other side o' th' city is + risen. Why stay we prating here? To th' Capitol! + ALL. Come, come. + FIRST CITIZEN. Soft! who comes here? + + Enter MENENIUS AGRIPPA + + SECOND CITIZEN. Worthy Menenius Agrippa; one that hath always lov'd + the people. + FIRST CITIZEN. He's one honest enough; would all the rest were so! + MENENIUS. What work's, my countrymen, in hand? Where go you + With bats and clubs? The matter? Speak, I pray you. + FIRST CITIZEN. Our business is not unknown to th' Senate; they have + had inkling this fortnight what we intend to do, which now we'll + show 'em in deeds. They say poor suitors have strong breaths; + they shall know we have strong arms too. + MENENIUS. Why, masters, my good friends, mine honest neighbours, + Will you undo yourselves? + FIRST CITIZEN. We cannot, sir; we are undone already. + MENENIUS. I tell you, friends, most charitable care + Have the patricians of you. For your wants, + Your suffering in this dearth, you may as well + Strike at the heaven with your staves as lift them + Against the Roman state; whose course will on + The way it takes, cracking ten thousand curbs + Of more strong link asunder than can ever + Appear in your impediment. For the dearth, + The gods, not the patricians, make it, and + Your knees to them, not arms, must help. Alack, + You are transported by calamity + Thither where more attends you; and you slander + The helms o' th' state, who care for you like fathers, + When you curse them as enemies. + FIRST CITIZEN. Care for us! True, indeed! They ne'er car'd for us + yet. Suffer us to famish, and their storehouses cramm'd with + grain; make edicts for usury, to support usurers; repeal daily + any wholesome act established against the rich, and provide more + piercing statutes daily to chain up and restrain the poor. If the + wars eat us not up, they will; and there's all the love they bear + us. + MENENIUS. Either you must + Confess yourselves wondrous malicious, + Or be accus'd of folly. I shall tell you + A pretty tale. It may be you have heard it; + But, since it serves my purpose, I will venture + To stale't a little more. + FIRST CITIZEN. Well, I'll hear it, sir; yet you must not think to + fob off our disgrace with a tale. But, an't please you, deliver. + MENENIUS. There was a time when all the body's members + Rebell'd against the belly; thus accus'd it: + That only like a gulf it did remain + I' th' midst o' th' body, idle and unactive, + Still cupboarding the viand, never bearing + Like labour with the rest; where th' other instruments + Did see and hear, devise, instruct, walk, feel, + And, mutually participate, did minister + Unto the appetite and affection common + Of the whole body. The belly answer'd- + FIRST CITIZEN. Well, sir, what answer made the belly? + MENENIUS. Sir, I shall tell you. With a kind of smile, + Which ne'er came from the lungs, but even thus- + For look you, I may make the belly smile + As well as speak- it tauntingly replied + To th' discontented members, the mutinous parts + That envied his receipt; even so most fitly + As you malign our senators for that + They are not such as you. + FIRST CITIZEN. Your belly's answer- What? + The kingly crowned head, the vigilant eye, + The counsellor heart, the arm our soldier, + Our steed the leg, the tongue our trumpeter, + With other muniments and petty helps + Is this our fabric, if that they- + MENENIUS. What then? + Fore me, this fellow speaks! What then? What then? + FIRST CITIZEN. Should by the cormorant belly be restrain'd, + Who is the sink o' th' body- + MENENIUS. Well, what then? + FIRST CITIZEN. The former agents, if they did complain, + What could the belly answer? + MENENIUS. I will tell you; + If you'll bestow a small- of what you have little- + Patience awhile, you'st hear the belly's answer. + FIRST CITIZEN. Y'are long about it. + MENENIUS. Note me this, good friend: + Your most grave belly was deliberate, + Not rash like his accusers, and thus answered. + 'True is it, my incorporate friends,' quoth he + 'That I receive the general food at first + Which you do live upon; and fit it is, + Because I am the storehouse and the shop + Of the whole body. But, if you do remember, + I send it through the rivers of your blood, + Even to the court, the heart, to th' seat o' th' brain; + And, through the cranks and offices of man, + The strongest nerves and small inferior veins + From me receive that natural competency + Whereby they live. And though that all at once + You, my good friends'- this says the belly; mark me. + FIRST CITIZEN. Ay, sir; well, well. + MENENIUS. 'Though all at once cannot + See what I do deliver out to each, + Yet I can make my audit up, that all + From me do back receive the flour of all, + And leave me but the bran.' What say you to' t? + FIRST CITIZEN. It was an answer. How apply you this? + MENENIUS. The senators of Rome are this good belly, + And you the mutinous members; for, examine + Their counsels and their cares, digest things rightly + Touching the weal o' th' common, you shall find + No public benefit which you receive + But it proceeds or comes from them to you, + And no way from yourselves. What do you think, + You, the great toe of this assembly? + FIRST CITIZEN. I the great toe? Why the great toe? + MENENIUS. For that, being one o' th' lowest, basest, poorest, + Of this most wise rebellion, thou goest foremost. + Thou rascal, that art worst in blood to run, + Lead'st first to win some vantage. + But make you ready your stiff bats and clubs. + Rome and her rats are at the point of battle; + The one side must have bale. + + Enter CAIUS MARCIUS + + Hail, noble Marcius! + MARCIUS. Thanks. What's the matter, you dissentious rogues + That, rubbing the poor itch of your opinion, + Make yourselves scabs? + FIRST CITIZEN. We have ever your good word. + MARCIUS. He that will give good words to thee will flatter + Beneath abhorring. What would you have, you curs, + That like nor peace nor war? The one affrights you, + The other makes you proud. He that trusts to you, + Where he should find you lions, finds you hares; + Where foxes, geese; you are no surer, no, + Than is the coal of fire upon the ice + Or hailstone in the sun. Your virtue is + To make him worthy whose offence subdues him, + And curse that justice did it. Who deserves greatness + Deserves your hate; and your affections are + A sick man's appetite, who desires most that + Which would increase his evil. He that depends + Upon your favours swims with fins of lead, + And hews down oaks with rushes. Hang ye! Trust ye? + With every minute you do change a mind + And call him noble that was now your hate, + Him vile that was your garland. What's the matter + That in these several places of the city + You cry against the noble Senate, who, + Under the gods, keep you in awe, which else + Would feed on one another? What's their seeking? + MENENIUS. For corn at their own rates, whereof they say + The city is well stor'd. + MARCIUS. Hang 'em! They say! + They'll sit by th' fire and presume to know + What's done i' th' Capitol, who's like to rise, + Who thrives and who declines; side factions, and give out + Conjectural marriages, making parties strong, + And feebling such as stand not in their liking + Below their cobbled shoes. They say there's grain enough! + Would the nobility lay aside their ruth + And let me use my sword, I'd make a quarry + With thousands of these quarter'd slaves, as high + As I could pick my lance. + MENENIUS. Nay, these are almost thoroughly persuaded; + For though abundantly they lack discretion, + Yet are they passing cowardly. But, I beseech you, + What says the other troop? + MARCIUS. They are dissolv'd. Hang 'em! + They said they were an-hungry; sigh'd forth proverbs- + That hunger broke stone walls, that dogs must eat, + That meat was made for mouths, that the gods sent not + Corn for the rich men only. With these shreds + They vented their complainings; which being answer'd, + And a petition granted them- a strange one, + To break the heart of generosity + And make bold power look pale- they threw their caps + As they would hang them on the horns o' th' moon, + Shouting their emulation. + MENENIUS. What is granted them? + MARCIUS. Five tribunes, to defend their vulgar wisdoms, + Of their own choice. One's Junius Brutus- + Sicinius Velutus, and I know not. 'Sdeath! + The rabble should have first unroof'd the city + Ere so prevail'd with me; it will in time + Win upon power and throw forth greater themes + For insurrection's arguing. + MENENIUS. This is strange. + MARCIUS. Go get you home, you fragments. + + Enter a MESSENGER, hastily + + MESSENGER. Where's Caius Marcius? + MARCIUS. Here. What's the matter? + MESSENGER. The news is, sir, the Volsces are in arms. + MARCIUS. I am glad on't; then we shall ha' means to vent + Our musty superfluity. See, our best elders. + + Enter COMINIUS, TITUS LARTIUS, with other SENATORS; + JUNIUS BRUTUS and SICINIUS VELUTUS + + FIRST SENATOR. Marcius, 'tis true that you have lately told us: + The Volsces are in arms. + MARCIUS. They have a leader, + Tullus Aufidius, that will put you to't. + I sin in envying his nobility; + And were I anything but what I am, + I would wish me only he. + COMINIUS. You have fought together? + MARCIUS. Were half to half the world by th' ears, and he + Upon my party, I'd revolt, to make + Only my wars with him. He is a lion + That I am proud to hunt. + FIRST SENATOR. Then, worthy Marcius, + Attend upon Cominius to these wars. + COMINIUS. It is your former promise. + MARCIUS. Sir, it is; + And I am constant. Titus Lartius, thou + Shalt see me once more strike at Tullus' face. + What, art thou stiff? Stand'st out? + LARTIUS. No, Caius Marcius; + I'll lean upon one crutch and fight with t'other + Ere stay behind this business. + MENENIUS. O, true bred! + FIRST SENATOR. Your company to th' Capitol; where, I know, + Our greatest friends attend us. + LARTIUS. [To COMINIUS] Lead you on. + [To MARCIUS] Follow Cominius; we must follow you; + Right worthy you priority. + COMINIUS. Noble Marcius! + FIRST SENATOR. [To the Citizens] Hence to your homes; be gone. + MARCIUS. Nay, let them follow. + The Volsces have much corn: take these rats thither + To gnaw their garners. Worshipful mutineers, + Your valour puts well forth; pray follow. + Ciitzens steal away. Exeunt all but SICINIUS and BRUTUS + SICINIUS. Was ever man so proud as is this Marcius? + BRUTUS. He has no equal. + SICINIUS. When we were chosen tribunes for the people- + BRUTUS. Mark'd you his lip and eyes? + SICINIUS. Nay, but his taunts! + BRUTUS. Being mov'd, he will not spare to gird the gods. + SICINIUS. Bemock the modest moon. + BRUTUS. The present wars devour him! He is grown + Too proud to be so valiant. + SICINIUS. Such a nature, + Tickled with good success, disdains the shadow + Which he treads on at noon. But I do wonder + His insolence can brook to be commanded + Under Cominius. + BRUTUS. Fame, at the which he aims- + In whom already he is well grac'd- cannot + Better be held nor more attain'd than by + A place below the first; for what miscarries + Shall be the general's fault, though he perform + To th' utmost of a man, and giddy censure + Will then cry out of Marcius 'O, if he + Had borne the business!' + SICINIUS. Besides, if things go well, + Opinion, that so sticks on Marcius, shall + Of his demerits rob Cominius. + BRUTUS. Come. + Half all Cominius' honours are to Marcius, + Though Marcius earn'd them not; and all his faults + To Marcius shall be honours, though indeed + In aught he merit not. + SICINIUS. Let's hence and hear + How the dispatch is made, and in what fashion, + More than his singularity, he goes + Upon this present action. + BRUTUS. Let's along. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Corioli. The Senate House. + +Enter TULLUS AUFIDIUS with SENATORS of Corioli + + FIRST SENATOR. So, your opinion is, Aufidius, + That they of Rome are ent'red in our counsels + And know how we proceed. + AUFIDIUS. Is it not yours? + What ever have been thought on in this state + That could be brought to bodily act ere Rome + Had circumvention? 'Tis not four days gone + Since I heard thence; these are the words- I think + I have the letter here;.yes, here it is: + [Reads] 'They have press'd a power, but it is not known + Whether for east or west. The dearth is great; + The people mutinous; and it is rumour'd, + Cominius, Marcius your old enemy, + Who is of Rome worse hated than of you, + And Titus Lartius, a most valiant Roman, + These three lead on this preparation + Whither 'tis bent. Most likely 'tis for you; + Consider of it.' + FIRST SENATOR. Our army's in the field; + We never yet made doubt but Rome was ready + To answer us. + AUFIDIUS. Nor did you think it folly + To keep your great pretences veil'd till when + They needs must show themselves; which in the hatching, + It seem'd, appear'd to Rome. By the discovery + We shall be short'ned in our aim, which was + To take in many towns ere almost Rome + Should know we were afoot. + SECOND SENATOR. Noble Aufidius, + Take your commission; hie you to your bands; + Let us alone to guard Corioli. + If they set down before's, for the remove + Bring up your army; but I think you'll find + Th' have not prepar'd for us. + AUFIDIUS. O, doubt not that! + I speak from certainties. Nay more, + Some parcels of their power are forth already, + And only hitherward. I leave your honours. + If we and Caius Marcius chance to meet, + 'Tis sworn between us we shall ever strike + Till one can do no more. + ALL. The gods assist you! + AUFIDIUS. And keep your honours safe! + FIRST SENATOR. Farewell. + SECOND SENATOR. Farewell. + ALL. Farewell. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Rome. MARCIUS' house + +Enter VOLUMNIA and VIRGILIA, mother and wife to MARCIUS; they set them +down on two low stools and sew + + VOLUMNIA. I pray you, daughter, sing, or express yourself in a more + comfortable sort. If my son were my husband, I should freelier + rejoice in that absence wherein he won honour than in the + embracements of his bed where he would show most love. When yet + he was but tender-bodied, and the only son of my womb; when youth + with comeliness pluck'd all gaze his way; when, for a day of + kings' entreaties, a mother should not sell him an hour from her + beholding; I, considering how honour would become such a person- + that it was no better than picture-like to hang by th' wall, if + renown made it not stir- was pleas'd to let him seek danger where + he was to find fame. To a cruel war I sent him, from whence he + return'd his brows bound with oak. I tell thee, daughter, I + sprang not more in joy at first hearing he was a man-child than + now in first seeing he had proved himself a man. + VIRGILIA. But had he died in the business, madam, how then? + VOLUMNIA. Then his good report should have been my son; I therein + would have found issue. Hear me profess sincerely: had I a dozen + sons, each in my love alike, and none less dear than thine and my + good Marcius, I had rather had eleven die nobly for their country + than one voluptuously surfeit out of action. + + Enter a GENTLEWOMAN + + GENTLEWOMAN. Madam, the Lady Valeria is come to visit you. + VIRGILIA. Beseech you give me leave to retire myself. + VOLUMNIA. Indeed you shall not. + Methinks I hear hither your husband's drum; + See him pluck Aufidius down by th' hair; + As children from a bear, the Volsces shunning him. + Methinks I see him stamp thus, and call thus: + 'Come on, you cowards! You were got in fear, + Though you were born in Rome.' His bloody brow + With his mail'd hand then wiping, forth he goes, + Like to a harvest-man that's task'd to mow + Or all or lose his hire. + VIRGILIA. His bloody brow? O Jupiter, no blood! + VOLUMNIA. Away, you fool! It more becomes a man + Than gilt his trophy. The breasts of Hecuba, + When she did suckle Hector, look'd not lovelier + Than Hector's forehead when it spit forth blood + At Grecian sword, contemning. Tell Valeria + We are fit to bid her welcome. Exit GENTLEWOMAN + VIRGILIA. Heavens bless my lord from fell Aufidius! + VOLUMNIA. He'll beat Aufidius' head below his knee + And tread upon his neck. + + Re-enter GENTLEWOMAN, With VALERIA and an usher + + VALERIA. My ladies both, good day to you. + VOLUMNIA. Sweet madam! + VIRGILIA. I am glad to see your ladyship. + VALERIA. How do you both? You are manifest housekeepers. What are + you sewing here? A fine spot, in good faith. How does your little + son? + VIRGILIA. I thank your ladyship; well, good madam. + VOLUMNIA. He had rather see the swords and hear a drum than look + upon his schoolmaster. + VALERIA. O' my word, the father's son! I'll swear 'tis a very + pretty boy. O' my troth, I look'd upon him a Wednesday half an + hour together; has such a confirm'd countenance! I saw him run + after a gilded butterfly; and when he caught it he let it go + again, and after it again, and over and over he comes, and up + again, catch'd it again; or whether his fall enrag'd him, or how + 'twas, he did so set his teeth and tear it. O, I warrant, how he + mammock'd it! + VOLUMNIA. One on's father's moods. + VALERIA. Indeed, la, 'tis a noble child. + VIRGILIA. A crack, madam. + VALERIA. Come, lay aside your stitchery; I must have you play the + idle huswife with me this afternoon. + VIRGILIA. No, good madam; I will not out of doors. + VALERIA. Not out of doors! + VOLUMNIA. She shall, she shall. + VIRGILIA. Indeed, no, by your patience; I'll not over the threshold + till my lord return from the wars. + VALERIA. Fie, you confine yourself most unreasonably; come, you + must go visit the good lady that lies in. + VIRGILIA. I will wish her speedy strength, and visit her with my + prayers; but I cannot go thither. + VOLUMNIA. Why, I pray you? + VIRGILIA. 'Tis not to save labour, nor that I want love. + VALERIA. You would be another Penelope; yet they say all the yarn + she spun in Ulysses' absence did but fill Ithaca full of moths. + Come, I would your cambric were sensible as your finger, that you + might leave pricking it for pity. Come, you shall go with us. + VIRGILIA. No, good madam, pardon me; indeed I will not forth. + VALERIA. In truth, la, go with me; and I'll tell you excellent news + of your husband. + VIRGILIA. O, good madam, there can be none yet. + VALERIA. Verily, I do not jest with you; there came news from him + last night. + VIRGILIA. Indeed, madam? + VALERIA. In earnest, it's true; I heard a senator speak it. Thus it + is: the Volsces have an army forth; against whom Cominius the + general is gone, with one part of our Roman power. Your lord and + Titus Lartius are set down before their city Corioli; they + nothing doubt prevailing and to make it brief wars. This is true, + on mine honour; and so, I pray, go with us. + VIRGILIA. Give me excuse, good madam; I will obey you in everything + hereafter. + VOLUMNIA. Let her alone, lady; as she is now, she will but disease + our better mirth. + VALERIA. In troth, I think she would. Fare you well, then. Come, + good sweet lady. Prithee, Virgilia, turn thy solemness out o' + door and go along with us. + VIRGILIA. No, at a word, madam; indeed I must not. I wish you much + mirth. + VALERIA. Well then, farewell. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Before Corioli + +Enter MARCIUS, TITUS LARTIUS, with drum and colours, with CAPTAINS and +soldiers. To them a MESSENGER + + MARCIUS. Yonder comes news; a wager- they have met. + LARTIUS. My horse to yours- no. + MARCIUS. 'Tis done. + LARTIUS. Agreed. + MARCIUS. Say, has our general met the enemy? + MESSENGER. They lie in view, but have not spoke as yet. + LARTIUS. So, the good horse is mine. + MARCIUS. I'll buy him of you. + LARTIUS. No, I'll nor sell nor give him; lend you him I will + For half a hundred years. Summon the town. + MARCIUS. How far off lie these armies? + MESSENGER. Within this mile and half. + MARCIUS. Then shall we hear their 'larum, and they ours. + Now, Mars, I prithee, make us quick in work, + That we with smoking swords may march from hence + To help our fielded friends! Come, blow thy blast. + + They sound a parley. Enter two SENATORS with others, + on the walls of Corioli + + Tullus Aufidius, is he within your walls? + FIRST SENATOR. No, nor a man that fears you less than he: + That's lesser than a little. [Drum afar off] Hark, our drums + Are bringing forth our youth. We'll break our walls + Rather than they shall pound us up; our gates, + Which yet seem shut, we have but pinn'd with rushes; + They'll open of themselves. [Alarum far off] Hark you far off! + There is Aufidius. List what work he makes + Amongst your cloven army. + MARCIUS. O, they are at it! + LARTIUS. Their noise be our instruction. Ladders, ho! + + Enter the army of the Volsces + + MARCIUS. They fear us not, but issue forth their city. + Now put your shields before your hearts, and fight + With hearts more proof than shields. Advance, brave Titus. + They do disdain us much beyond our thoughts, + Which makes me sweat with wrath. Come on, my fellows. + He that retires, I'll take him for a Volsce, + And he shall feel mine edge. + + Alarum. The Romans are beat back to their trenches. + Re-enter MARCIUS, cursing + + MARCIUS. All the contagion of the south light on you, + You shames of Rome! you herd of- Boils and plagues + Plaster you o'er, that you may be abhorr'd + Farther than seen, and one infect another + Against the wind a mile! You souls of geese + That bear the shapes of men, how have you run + From slaves that apes would beat! Pluto and hell! + All hurt behind! Backs red, and faces pale + With flight and agued fear! Mend and charge home, + Or, by the fires of heaven, I'll leave the foe + And make my wars on you. Look to't. Come on; + If you'll stand fast we'll beat them to their wives, + As they us to our trenches. Follow me. + + Another alarum. The Volsces fly, and MARCIUS follows + them to the gates + + So, now the gates are ope; now prove good seconds; + 'Tis for the followers fortune widens them, + Not for the fliers. Mark me, and do the like. + + [MARCIUS enters the gates] + + FIRST SOLDIER. Fool-hardiness; not I. + SECOND SOLDIER. Not I. [MARCIUS is shut in] + FIRST SOLDIER. See, they have shut him in. + ALL. To th' pot, I warrant him. [Alarum continues] + + Re-enter TITUS LARTIUS + + LARTIUS. What is become of Marcius? + ALL. Slain, sir, doubtless. + FIRST SOLDIER. Following the fliers at the very heels, + With them he enters; who, upon the sudden, + Clapp'd to their gates. He is himself alone, + To answer all the city. + LARTIUS. O noble fellow! + Who sensibly outdares his senseless sword, + And when it bows stand'st up. Thou art left, Marcius; + A carbuncle entire, as big as thou art, + Were not so rich a jewel. Thou wast a soldier + Even to Cato's wish, not fierce and terrible + Only in strokes; but with thy grim looks and + The thunder-like percussion of thy sounds + Thou mad'st thine enemies shake, as if the world + Were feverous and did tremble. + + Re-enter MARCIUS, bleeding, assaulted by the enemy + + FIRST SOLDIER. Look, sir. + LARTIUS. O, 'tis Marcius! + Let's fetch him off, or make remain alike. + [They fight, and all enter the city] + +SCENE V. Within Corioli. A street + +Enter certain Romans, with spoils + + FIRST ROMAN. This will I carry to Rome. + SECOND ROMAN. And I this. + THIRD ROMAN. A murrain on 't! I took this for silver. + [Alarum continues still afar off] + + Enter MARCIUS and TITUS LARTIUS With a trumpeter + + MARCIUS. See here these movers that do prize their hours + At a crack'd drachma! Cushions, leaden spoons, + Irons of a doit, doublets that hangmen would + Bury with those that wore them, these base slaves, + Ere yet the fight be done, pack up. Down with them! + Exeunt pillagers + And hark, what noise the general makes! To him! + There is the man of my soul's hate, Aufidius, + Piercing our Romans; then, valiant Titus, take + Convenient numbers to make good the city; + Whilst I, with those that have the spirit, will haste + To help Cominius. + LARTIUS. Worthy sir, thou bleed'st; + Thy exercise hath been too violent + For a second course of fight. + MARCIUS. Sir, praise me not; + My work hath yet not warm'd me. Fare you well; + The blood I drop is rather physical + Than dangerous to me. To Aufidius thus + I will appear, and fight. + LARTIUS. Now the fair goddess, Fortune, + Fall deep in love with thee, and her great charms + Misguide thy opposers' swords! Bold gentleman, + Prosperity be thy page! + MARCIUS. Thy friend no less + Than those she placeth highest! So farewell. + LARTIUS. Thou worthiest Marcius! Exit MARCIUS + Go sound thy trumpet in the market-place; + Call thither all the officers o' th' town, + Where they shall know our mind. Away! Exeunt + +SCENE VI. Near the camp of COMINIUS + +Enter COMINIUS, as it were in retire, with soldiers + + COMINIUS. Breathe you, my friends. Well fought; we are come off + Like Romans, neither foolish in our stands + Nor cowardly in retire. Believe me, sirs, + We shall be charg'd again. Whiles we have struck, + By interims and conveying gusts we have heard + The charges of our friends. The Roman gods, + Lead their successes as we wish our own, + That both our powers, with smiling fronts encount'ring, + May give you thankful sacrifice! + + Enter A MESSENGER + + Thy news? + MESSENGER. The citizens of Corioli have issued + And given to Lartius and to Marcius battle; + I saw our party to their trenches driven, + And then I came away. + COMINIUS. Though thou speak'st truth, + Methinks thou speak'st not well. How long is't since? + MESSENGER. Above an hour, my lord. + COMINIUS. 'Tis not a mile; briefly we heard their drums. + How couldst thou in a mile confound an hour, + And bring thy news so late? + MESSENGER. Spies of the Volsces + Held me in chase, that I was forc'd to wheel + Three or four miles about; else had I, sir, + Half an hour since brought my report. + + Enter MARCIUS + + COMINIUS. Who's yonder + That does appear as he were flay'd? O gods! + He has the stamp of Marcius, and I have + Before-time seen him thus. + MARCIUS. Come I too late? + COMINIUS. The shepherd knows not thunder from a tabor + More than I know the sound of Marcius' tongue + From every meaner man. + MARCIUS. Come I too late? + COMINIUS. Ay, if you come not in the blood of others, + But mantled in your own. + MARCIUS. O! let me clip ye + In arms as sound as when I woo'd, in heart + As merry as when our nuptial day was done, + And tapers burn'd to bedward. + COMINIUS. Flower of warriors, + How is't with Titus Lartius? + MARCIUS. As with a man busied about decrees: + Condemning some to death and some to exile; + Ransoming him or pitying, threat'ning th' other; + Holding Corioli in the name of Rome + Even like a fawning greyhound in the leash, + To let him slip at will. + COMINIUS. Where is that slave + Which told me they had beat you to your trenches? + Where is he? Call him hither. + MARCIUS. Let him alone; + He did inform the truth. But for our gentlemen, + The common file- a plague! tribunes for them! + The mouse ne'er shunn'd the cat as they did budge + From rascals worse than they. + COMINIUS. But how prevail'd you? + MARCIUS. Will the time serve to tell? I do not think. + Where is the enemy? Are you lords o' th' field? + If not, why cease you till you are so? + COMINIUS. Marcius, + We have at disadvantage fought, and did + Retire to win our purpose. + MARCIUS. How lies their battle? Know you on which side + They have plac'd their men of trust? + COMINIUS. As I guess, Marcius, + Their bands i' th' vaward are the Antiates, + Of their best trust; o'er them Aufidius, + Their very heart of hope. + MARCIUS. I do beseech you, + By all the battles wherein we have fought, + By th' blood we have shed together, by th' vows + We have made to endure friends, that you directly + Set me against Aufidius and his Antiates; + And that you not delay the present, but, + Filling the air with swords advanc'd and darts, + We prove this very hour. + COMINIUS. Though I could wish + You were conducted to a gentle bath + And balms applied to you, yet dare I never + Deny your asking: take your choice of those + That best can aid your action. + MARCIUS. Those are they + That most are willing. If any such be here- + As it were sin to doubt- that love this painting + Wherein you see me smear'd; if any fear + Lesser his person than an ill report; + If any think brave death outweighs bad life + And that his country's dearer than himself; + Let him alone, or so many so minded, + Wave thus to express his disposition, + And follow Marcius. [They all shout and wave their + swords, take him up in their arms and cast up their caps] + O, me alone! Make you a sword of me? + If these shows be not outward, which of you + But is four Volsces? None of you but is + Able to bear against the great Aufidius + A shield as hard as his. A certain number, + Though thanks to all, must I select from all; the rest + Shall bear the business in some other fight, + As cause will be obey'd. Please you to march; + And four shall quickly draw out my command, + Which men are best inclin'd. + COMINIUS. March on, my fellows; + Make good this ostentation, and you shall + Divide in all with us. Exeunt + +SCENE VII. The gates of Corioli + +TITUS LARTIUS, having set a guard upon Corioli, going with drum and +trumpet toward COMINIUS and CAIUS MARCIUS, enters with a LIEUTENANT, +other soldiers, and a scout + + LARTIUS. So, let the ports be guarded; keep your duties + As I have set them down. If I do send, dispatch + Those centuries to our aid; the rest will serve + For a short holding. If we lose the field + We cannot keep the town. + LIEUTENANT. Fear not our care, sir. + LARTIUS. Hence, and shut your gates upon's. + Our guider, come; to th' Roman camp conduct us. Exeunt + +SCENE VIII. A field of battle between the Roman and the Volscian camps + +Alarum, as in battle. Enter MARCIUS and AUFIDIUS at several doors + + MARCIUS. I'll fight with none but thee, for I do hate thee + Worse than a promise-breaker. + AUFIDIUS. We hate alike: + Not Afric owns a serpent I abhor + More than thy fame and envy. Fix thy foot. + MARCIUS. Let the first budger die the other's slave, + And the gods doom him after! + AUFIDIUS. If I fly, Marcius, + Halloa me like a hare. + MARCIUS. Within these three hours, Tullus, + Alone I fought in your Corioli walls, + And made what work I pleas'd. 'Tis not my blood + Wherein thou seest me mask'd. For thy revenge + Wrench up thy power to th' highest. + AUFIDIUS. Wert thou the Hector + That was the whip of your bragg'd progeny, + Thou shouldst not scape me here. + + Here they fight, and certain Volsces come in the aid + of AUFIDIUS. MARCIUS fights till they be driven in + breathless + + Officious, and not valiant, you have sham'd me + In your condemned seconds. Exeunt + +SCENE IX. The Roman camp + +Flourish. Alarum. A retreat is sounded. Enter, at one door, +COMINIUS with the Romans; at another door, MARCIUS, with his arm in a +scarf + + COMINIUS. If I should tell thee o'er this thy day's work, + Thou't not believe thy deeds; but I'll report it + Where senators shall mingle tears with smiles; + Where great patricians shall attend, and shrug, + I' th' end admire; where ladies shall be frighted + And, gladly quak'd, hear more; where the dull tribunes, + That with the fusty plebeians hate thine honours, + Shall say against their hearts 'We thank the gods + Our Rome hath such a soldier.' + Yet cam'st thou to a morsel of this feast, + Having fully din'd before. + + Enter TITUS LARTIUS, with his power, from the pursuit + + LARTIUS. O General, + Here is the steed, we the caparison. + Hadst thou beheld- + MARCIUS. Pray now, no more; my mother, + Who has a charter to extol her blood, + When she does praise me grieves me. I have done + As you have done- that's what I can; induc'd + As you have been- that's for my country. + He that has but effected his good will + Hath overta'en mine act. + COMINIUS. You shall not be + The grave of your deserving; Rome must know + The value of her own. 'Twere a concealment + Worse than a theft, no less than a traducement, + To hide your doings and to silence that + Which, to the spire and top of praises vouch'd, + Would seem but modest. Therefore, I beseech you, + In sign of what you are, not to reward + What you have done, before our army hear me. + MARCIUS. I have some wounds upon me, and they smart + To hear themselves rememb'red. + COMINIUS. Should they not, + Well might they fester 'gainst ingratitude + And tent themselves with death. Of all the horses- + Whereof we have ta'en good, and good store- of all + The treasure in this field achiev'd and city, + We render you the tenth; to be ta'en forth + Before the common distribution at + Your only choice. + MARCIUS. I thank you, General, + But cannot make my heart consent to take + A bribe to pay my sword. I do refuse it, + And stand upon my common part with those + That have beheld the doing. + + A long flourish. They all cry 'Marcius, Marcius!' + cast up their caps and lances. COMINIUS and LARTIUS stand bare + + May these same instruments which you profane + Never sound more! When drums and trumpets shall + I' th' field prove flatterers, let courts and cities be + Made all of false-fac'd soothing. When steel grows + Soft as the parasite's silk, let him be made + An overture for th' wars. No more, I say. + For that I have not wash'd my nose that bled, + Or foil'd some debile wretch, which without note + Here's many else have done, you shout me forth + In acclamations hyperbolical, + As if I lov'd my little should be dieted + In praises sauc'd with lies. + COMINIUS. Too modest are you; + More cruel to your good report than grateful + To us that give you truly. By your patience, + If 'gainst yourself you be incens'd, we'll put you- + Like one that means his proper harm- in manacles, + Then reason safely with you. Therefore be it known, + As to us, to all the world, that Caius Marcius + Wears this war's garland; in token of the which, + My noble steed, known to the camp, I give him, + With all his trim belonging; and from this time, + For what he did before Corioli, can him + With all th' applause-and clamour of the host, + Caius Marcius Coriolanus. + Bear th' addition nobly ever! + [Flourish. Trumpets sound, and drums] + ALL. Caius Marcius Coriolanus! + CORIOLANUS. I will go wash; + And when my face is fair you shall perceive + Whether I blush or no. Howbeit, I thank you; + I mean to stride your steed, and at all times + To undercrest your good addition + To th' fairness of my power. + COMINIUS. So, to our tent; + Where, ere we do repose us, we will write + To Rome of our success. You, Titus Lartius, + Must to Corioli back. Send us to Rome + The best, with whom we may articulate + For their own good and ours. + LARTIUS. I shall, my lord. + CORIOLANUS. The gods begin to mock me. I, that now + Refus'd most princely gifts, am bound to beg + Of my Lord General. + COMINIUS. Take't- 'tis yours; what is't? + CORIOLANUS. I sometime lay here in Corioli + At a poor man's house; he us'd me kindly. + He cried to me; I saw him prisoner; + But then Aufidius was within my view, + And wrath o'erwhelm'd my pity. I request you + To give my poor host freedom. + COMINIUS. O, well begg'd! + Were he the butcher of my son, he should + Be free as is the wind. Deliver him, Titus. + LARTIUS. Marcius, his name? + CORIOLANUS. By Jupiter, forgot! + I am weary; yea, my memory is tir'd. + Have we no wine here? + COMINIUS. Go we to our tent. + The blood upon your visage dries; 'tis time + It should be look'd to. Come. Exeunt + +SCENE X. The camp of the Volsces + +A flourish. Cornets. Enter TULLUS AUFIDIUS bloody, with two or three +soldiers + + AUFIDIUS. The town is ta'en. + FIRST SOLDIER. 'Twill be deliver'd back on good condition. + AUFIDIUS. Condition! + I would I were a Roman; for I cannot, + Being a Volsce, be that I am. Condition? + What good condition can a treaty find + I' th' part that is at mercy? Five times, Marcius, + I have fought with thee; so often hast thou beat me; + And wouldst do so, I think, should we encounter + As often as we eat. By th' elements, + If e'er again I meet him beard to beard, + He's mine or I am his. Mine emulation + Hath not that honour in't it had; for where + I thought to crush him in an equal force, + True sword to sword, I'll potch at him some way, + Or wrath or craft may get him. + FIRST SOLDIER. He's the devil. + AUFIDIUS. Bolder, though not so subtle. My valour's poison'd + With only suff'ring stain by him; for him + Shall fly out of itself. Nor sleep nor sanctuary, + Being naked, sick, nor fane nor Capitol, + The prayers of priests nor times of sacrifice, + Embarquements all of fury, shall lift up + Their rotten privilege and custom 'gainst + My hate to Marcius. Where I find him, were it + At home, upon my brother's guard, even there, + Against the hospitable canon, would I + Wash my fierce hand in's heart. Go you to th' city; + Learn how 'tis held, and what they are that must + Be hostages for Rome. + FIRST SOLDIER. Will not you go? + AUFIDIUS. I am attended at the cypress grove; I pray you- + 'Tis south the city mills- bring me word thither + How the world goes, that to the pace of it + I may spur on my journey. + FIRST SOLDIER. I shall, sir. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE I. Rome. A public place + +Enter MENENIUS, with the two Tribunes of the people, SICINIUS and +BRUTUS + + MENENIUS. The augurer tells me we shall have news tonight. + BRUTUS. Good or bad? + MENENIUS. Not according to the prayer of the people, for they love + not Marcius. + SICINIUS. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. + MENENIUS. Pray you, who does the wolf love? + SICINIUS. The lamb. + MENENIUS. Ay, to devour him, as the hungry plebeians would the + noble Marcius. + BRUTUS. He's a lamb indeed, that baes like a bear. + MENENIUS. He's a bear indeed, that lives fike a lamb. You two are + old men; tell me one thing that I shall ask you. + BOTH TRIBUNES. Well, sir. + MENENIUS. In what enormity is Marcius poor in that you two have not + in abundance? + BRUTUS. He's poor in no one fault, but stor'd with all. + SICINIUS. Especially in pride. + BRUTUS. And topping all others in boasting. + MENENIUS. This is strange now. Do you two know how you are censured + here in the city- I mean of us o' th' right-hand file? Do you? + BOTH TRIBUNES. Why, how are we censur'd? + MENENIUS. Because you talk of pride now- will you not be angry? + BOTH TRIBUNES. Well, well, sir, well. + MENENIUS. Why, 'tis no great matter; for a very little thief of + occasion will rob you of a great deal of patience. Give your + dispositions the reins, and be angry at your pleasures- at the + least, if you take it as a pleasure to you in being so. You blame + Marcius for being proud? + BRUTUS. We do it not alone, sir. + MENENIUS. I know you can do very little alone; for your helps are + many, or else your actions would grow wondrous single: your + abilities are too infant-like for doing much alone. You talk of + pride. O that you could turn your eyes toward the napes of your + necks, and make but an interior survey of your good selves! O + that you could! + BOTH TRIBUNES. What then, sir? + MENENIUS. Why, then you should discover a brace of unmeriting, + proud, violent, testy magistrates-alias fools- as any in Rome. + SICINIUS. Menenius, you are known well enough too. + MENENIUS. I am known to be a humorous patrician, and one that loves + a cup of hot wine with not a drop of allaying Tiber in't; said to + be something imperfect in favouring the first complaint, hasty + and tinder-like upon too trivial motion; one that converses more + with the buttock of the night than with the forehead of the + morning. What I think I utter, and spend my malice in my breath. + Meeting two such wealsmen as you are- I cannot call you + Lycurguses- if the drink you give me touch my palate adversely, I + make a crooked face at it. I cannot say your worships have + deliver'd the matter well, when I find the ass in compound with + the major part of your syllables; and though I must be content to + bear with those that say you are reverend grave men, yet they lie + deadly that tell you you have good faces. If you see this in the + map of my microcosm, follows it that I am known well enough too? + What harm can your bisson conspectuities glean out of this + character, if I be known well enough too? + BRUTUS. Come, sir, come, we know you well enough. + MENENIUS. You know neither me, yourselves, nor any thing. You are + ambitious for poor knaves' caps and legs; you wear out a good + wholesome forenoon in hearing a cause between an orange-wife and + a fosset-seller, and then rejourn the controversy of threepence + to a second day of audience. When you are hearing a matter + between party and party, if you chance to be pinch'd with the + colic, you make faces like mummers, set up the bloody flag + against all patience, and, in roaring for a chamber-pot, dismiss + the controversy bleeding, the more entangled by your hearing. All + the peace you make in their cause is calling both the parties + knaves. You are a pair of strange ones. + BRUTUS. Come, come, you are well understood to be a perfecter giber + for the table than a necessary bencher in the Capitol. + MENENIUS. Our very priests must become mockers, if they shall + encounter such ridiculous subjects as you are. When you speak + best unto the purpose, it is not worth the wagging of your + beards; and your beards deserve not so honourable a grave as to + stuff a botcher's cushion or to be entomb'd in an ass's + pack-saddle. Yet you must be saying Marcius is proud; who, in a + cheap estimation, is worth all your predecessors since Deucalion; + though peradventure some of the best of 'em were hereditary + hangmen. God-den to your worships. More of your conversation + would infect my brain, being the herdsmen of the beastly + plebeians. I will be bold to take my leave of you. + [BRUTUS and SICINIUS go aside] + + Enter VOLUMNIA, VIRGILIA, and VALERIA + + How now, my as fair as noble ladies- and the moon, were she + earthly, no nobler- whither do you follow your eyes so fast? + VOLUMNIA. Honourable Menenius, my boy Marcius approaches; for the + love of Juno, let's go. + MENENIUS. Ha! Marcius coming home? + VOLUMNIA. Ay, worthy Menenius, and with most prosperous + approbation. + MENENIUS. Take my cap, Jupiter, and I thank thee. Hoo! + Marcius coming home! + VOLUMNIA, VIRGILIA. Nay, 'tis true. + VOLUMNIA. Look, here's a letter from him; the state hath another, + his wife another; and I think there's one at home for you. + MENENIUS. I will make my very house reel to-night. A letter for me? + VIRGILIA. Yes, certain, there's a letter for you; I saw't. + MENENIUS. A letter for me! It gives me an estate of seven years' + health; in which time I will make a lip at the physician. The + most sovereign prescription in Galen is but empiricutic and, to + this preservative, of no better report than a horse-drench. Is he + not wounded? He was wont to come home wounded. + VIRGILIA. O, no, no, no. + VOLUMNIA. O, he is wounded, I thank the gods for't. + MENENIUS. So do I too, if it be not too much. Brings a victory in + his pocket? The wounds become him. + VOLUMNIA. On's brows, Menenius, he comes the third time home with + the oaken garland. + MENENIUS. Has he disciplin'd Aufidius soundly? + VOLUMNIA. Titus Lartius writes they fought together, but Aufidius + got off. + MENENIUS. And 'twas time for him too, I'll warrant him that; an he + had stay'd by him, I would not have been so fidius'd for all the + chests in Corioli and the gold that's in them. Is the Senate + possess'd of this? + VOLUMNIA. Good ladies, let's go. Yes, yes, yes: the Senate has + letters from the general, wherein he gives my son the whole name + of the war; he hath in this action outdone his former deeds + doubly. + VALERIA. In troth, there's wondrous things spoke of him. + MENENIUS. Wondrous! Ay, I warrant you, and not without his true + purchasing. + VIRGILIA. The gods grant them true! + VOLUMNIA. True! pow, waw. + MENENIUS. True! I'll be sworn they are true. Where is he wounded? + [To the TRIBUNES] God save your good worships! Marcius is coming + home; he has more cause to be proud. Where is he wounded? + VOLUMNIA. I' th' shoulder and i' th' left arm; there will be large + cicatrices to show the people when he shall stand for his place. + He received in the repulse of Tarquin seven hurts i' th' body. + MENENIUS. One i' th' neck and two i' th' thigh- there's nine that I + know. + VOLUMNIA. He had before this last expedition twenty-five wounds + upon him. + MENENIUS. Now it's twenty-seven; every gash was an enemy's grave. + [A shout and flourish] Hark! the trumpets. + VOLUMNIA. These are the ushers of Marcius. Before him he carries + noise, and behind him he leaves tears; + Death, that dark spirit, in's nervy arm doth lie, + Which, being advanc'd, declines, and then men die. + + A sennet. Trumpets sound. Enter COMINIUS the + GENERAL, and TITUS LARTIUS; between them, + CORIOLANUS, crown'd with an oaken garland; with + CAPTAINS and soldiers and a HERALD + + HERALD. Know, Rome, that all alone Marcius did fight + Within Corioli gates, where he hath won, + With fame, a name to Caius Marcius; these + In honour follows Coriolanus. + Welcome to Rome, renowned Coriolanus! [Flourish] + ALL. Welcome to Rome, renowned Coriolanus! + CORIOLANUS. No more of this, it does offend my heart. + Pray now, no more. + COMINIUS. Look, sir, your mother! + CORIOLANUS. O, + You have, I know, petition'd all the gods + For my prosperity! [Kneels] + VOLUMNIA. Nay, my good soldier, up; + My gentle Marcius, worthy Caius, and + By deed-achieving honour newly nam'd- + What is it? Coriolanus must I can thee? + But, O, thy wife! + CORIOLANUS. My gracious silence, hail! + Wouldst thou have laugh'd had I come coffin'd home, + That weep'st to see me triumph? Ah, my dear, + Such eyes the widows in Corioli wear, + And mothers that lack sons. + MENENIUS. Now the gods crown thee! + CORIOLANUS. And live you yet? [To VALERIA] O my sweet lady, + pardon. + VOLUMNIA. I know not where to turn. + O, welcome home! And welcome, General. + And y'are welcome all. + MENENIUS. A hundred thousand welcomes. I could weep + And I could laugh; I am light and heavy. Welcome! + A curse begin at very root on's heart + That is not glad to see thee! You are three + That Rome should dote on; yet, by the faith of men, + We have some old crab trees here at home that will not + Be grafted to your relish. Yet welcome, warriors. + We call a nettle but a nettle, and + The faults of fools but folly. + COMINIUS. Ever right. + CORIOLANUS. Menenius ever, ever. + HERALD. Give way there, and go on. + CORIOLANUS. [To his wife and mother] Your hand, and yours. + Ere in our own house I do shade my head, + The good patricians must be visited; + From whom I have receiv'd not only greetings, + But with them change of honours. + VOLUMNIA. I have lived + To see inherited my very wishes, + And the buildings of my fancy; only + There's one thing wanting, which I doubt not but + Our Rome will cast upon thee. + CORIOLANUS. Know, good mother, + I had rather be their servant in my way + Than sway with them in theirs. + COMINIUS. On, to the Capitol. + [Flourish. Cornets. Exeunt in state, as before] + + BRUTUS and SICINIUS come forward + + BRUTUS. All tongues speak of him and the bleared sights + Are spectacled to see him. Your prattling nurse + Into a rapture lets her baby cry + While she chats him; the kitchen malkin pins + Her richest lockram 'bout her reechy neck, + Clamb'ring the walls to eye him; stalls, bulks, windows, + Are smother'd up, leads fill'd and ridges hors'd + With variable complexions, all agreeing + In earnestness to see him. Seld-shown flamens + Do press among the popular throngs and puff + To win a vulgar station; our veil'd dames + Commit the war of white and damask in + Their nicely gawded cheeks to th' wanton spoil + Of Phoebus' burning kisses. Such a pother, + As if that whatsoever god who leads him + Were slily crept into his human powers, + And gave him graceful posture. + SICINIUS. On the sudden + I warrant him consul. + BRUTUS. Then our office may + During his power go sleep. + SICINIUS. He cannot temp'rately transport his honours + From where he should begin and end, but will + Lose those he hath won. + BRUTUS. In that there's comfort. + SICINIUS. Doubt not + The commoners, for whom we stand, but they + Upon their ancient malice will forget + With the least cause these his new honours; which + That he will give them make I as little question + As he is proud to do't. + BRUTUS. I heard him swear, + Were he to stand for consul, never would he + Appear i' th' market-place, nor on him put + The napless vesture of humility; + Nor, showing, as the manner is, his wounds + To th' people, beg their stinking breaths. + SICINIUS. 'Tis right. + BRUTUS. It was his word. O, he would miss it rather + Than carry it but by the suit of the gentry to him + And the desire of the nobles. + SICINIUS. I wish no better + Than have him hold that purpose, and to put it + In execution. + BRUTUS. 'Tis most like he will. + SICINIUS. It shall be to him then as our good wills: + A sure destruction. + BRUTUS. So it must fall out + To him or our authorities. For an end, + We must suggest the people in what hatred + He still hath held them; that to's power he would + Have made them mules, silenc'd their pleaders, and + Dispropertied their freedoms; holding them + In human action and capacity + Of no more soul nor fitness for the world + Than camels in their war, who have their provand + Only for bearing burdens, and sore blows + For sinking under them. + SICINIUS. This, as you say, suggested + At some time when his soaring insolence + Shall touch the people- which time shall not want, + If he be put upon't, and that's as easy + As to set dogs on sheep- will be his fire + To kindle their dry stubble; and their blaze + Shall darken him for ever. + + Enter A MESSENGER + + BRUTUS. What's the matter? + MESSENGER. You are sent for to the Capitol. 'Tis thought + That Marcius shall be consul. + I have seen the dumb men throng to see him and + The blind to hear him speak; matrons flung gloves, + Ladies and maids their scarfs and handkerchers, + Upon him as he pass'd; the nobles bended + As to Jove's statue, and the commons made + A shower and thunder with their caps and shouts. + I never saw the like. + BRUTUS. Let's to the Capitol, + And carry with us ears and eyes for th' time, + But hearts for the event. + SICINIUS. Have with you. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Rome. The Capitol + +Enter two OFFICERS, to lay cushions, as it were in the Capitol + + FIRST OFFICER. Come, come, they are almost here. How many stand for + consulships? + SECOND OFFICER. Three, they say; but 'tis thought of every one + Coriolanus will carry it. + FIRST OFFICER. That's a brave fellow; but he's vengeance proud and + loves not the common people. + SECOND OFFICER. Faith, there have been many great men that have + flatter'd the people, who ne'er loved them; and there be many + that they have loved, they know not wherefore; so that, if they + love they know not why, they hate upon no better a ground. + Therefore, for Coriolanus neither to care whether they love or + hate him manifests the true knowledge he has in their + disposition, and out of his noble carelessness lets them plainly + see't. + FIRST OFFICER. If he did not care whether he had their love or no, + he waved indifferently 'twixt doing them neither good nor harm; + but he seeks their hate with greater devotion than they can + render it him, and leaves nothing undone that may fully discover + him their opposite. Now to seem to affect the malice and + displeasure of the people is as bad as that which he dislikes- to + flatter them for their love. + SECOND OFFICER. He hath deserved worthily of his country; and his + ascent is not by such easy degrees as those who, having been + supple and courteous to the people, bonneted, without any further + deed to have them at all, into their estimation and report; but + he hath so planted his honours in their eyes and his actions in + their hearts that for their tongues to be silent and not confess + so much were a kind of ingrateful injury; to report otherwise + were a malice that, giving itself the lie, would pluck reproof + and rebuke from every car that heard it. + FIRST OFFICER. No more of him; he's a worthy man. Make way, they + are coming. + + A sennet. Enter the PATRICIANS and the TRIBUNES + OF THE PEOPLE, LICTORS before them; CORIOLANUS, + MENENIUS, COMINIUS the Consul. SICINIUS and + BRUTUS take their places by themselves. + CORIOLANUS stands + + MENENIUS. Having determin'd of the Volsces, and + To send for Titus Lartius, it remains, + As the main point of this our after-meeting, + To gratify his noble service that + Hath thus stood for his country. Therefore please you, + Most reverend and grave elders, to desire + The present consul and last general + In our well-found successes to report + A little of that worthy work perform'd + By Caius Marcius Coriolanus; whom + We met here both to thank and to remember + With honours like himself. [CORIOLANUS sits] + FIRST SENATOR. Speak, good Cominius. + Leave nothing out for length, and make us think + Rather our state's defective for requital + Than we to stretch it out. Masters o' th' people, + We do request your kindest ears; and, after, + Your loving motion toward the common body, + To yield what passes here. + SICINIUS. We are convented + Upon a pleasing treaty, and have hearts + Inclinable to honour and advance + The theme of our assembly. + BRUTUS. Which the rather + We shall be bless'd to do, if he remember + A kinder value of the people than + He hath hereto priz'd them at. + MENENIUS. That's off, that's off; + I would you rather had been silent. Please you + To hear Cominius speak? + BRUTUS. Most willingly. + But yet my caution was more pertinent + Than the rebuke you give it. + MENENIUS. He loves your people; + But tie him not to be their bedfellow. + Worthy Cominius, speak. + [CORIOLANUS rises, and offers to go away] + Nay, keep your place. + FIRST SENATOR. Sit, Coriolanus, never shame to hear + What you have nobly done. + CORIOLANUS. Your Honours' pardon. + I had rather have my wounds to heal again + Than hear say how I got them. + BRUTUS. Sir, I hope + My words disbench'd you not. + CORIOLANUS. No, sir; yet oft, + When blows have made me stay, I fled from words. + You sooth'd not, therefore hurt not. But your people, + I love them as they weigh- + MENENIUS. Pray now, sit down. + CORIOLANUS. I had rather have one scratch my head i' th' sun + When the alarum were struck than idly sit + To hear my nothings monster'd. Exit + MENENIUS. Masters of the people, + Your multiplying spawn how can he flatter- + That's thousand to one good one- when you now see + He had rather venture all his limbs for honour + Than one on's ears to hear it? Proceed, Cominius. + COMINIUS. I shall lack voice; the deeds of Coriolanus + Should not be utter'd feebly. It is held + That valour is the chiefest virtue and + Most dignifies the haver. If it be, + The man I speak of cannot in the world + Be singly counterpois'd. At sixteen years, + When Tarquin made a head for Rome, he fought + Beyond the mark of others; our then Dictator, + Whom with all praise I point at, saw him fight + When with his Amazonian chin he drove + The bristled lips before him; he bestrid + An o'erpress'd Roman and i' th' consul's view + Slew three opposers; Tarquin's self he met, + And struck him on his knee. In that day's feats, + When he might act the woman in the scene, + He prov'd best man i' th' field, and for his meed + Was brow-bound with the oak. His pupil age + Man-ent'red thus, he waxed like a sea, + And in the brunt of seventeen battles since + He lurch'd all swords of the garland. For this last, + Before and in Corioli, let me say + I cannot speak him home. He stopp'd the fliers, + And by his rare example made the coward + Turn terror into sport; as weeds before + A vessel under sail, so men obey'd + And fell below his stem. His sword, death's stamp, + Where it did mark, it took; from face to foot + He was a thing of blood, whose every motion + Was tim'd with dying cries. Alone he ent'red + The mortal gate of th' city, which he painted + With shunless destiny; aidless came off, + And with a sudden re-enforcement struck + Corioli like a planet. Now all's his. + When by and by the din of war 'gan pierce + His ready sense, then straight his doubled spirit + Re-quick'ned what in flesh was fatigate, + And to the battle came he; where he did + Run reeking o'er the lives of men, as if + 'Twere a perpetual spoil; and till we call'd + Both field and city ours he never stood + To ease his breast with panting. + MENENIUS. Worthy man! + FIRST SENATOR. He cannot but with measure fit the honours + Which we devise him. + COMINIUS. Our spoils he kick'd at, + And look'd upon things precious as they were + The common muck of the world. He covets less + Than misery itself would give, rewards + His deeds with doing them, and is content + To spend the time to end it. + MENENIUS. He's right noble; + Let him be call'd for. + FIRST SENATOR. Call Coriolanus. + OFFICER. He doth appear. + + Re-enter CORIOLANUS + + MENENIUS. The Senate, Coriolanus, are well pleas'd + To make thee consul. + CORIOLANUS. I do owe them still + My life and services. + MENENIUS. It then remains + That you do speak to the people. + CORIOLANUS. I do beseech you + Let me o'erleap that custom; for I cannot + Put on the gown, stand naked, and entreat them + For my wounds' sake to give their suffrage. Please you + That I may pass this doing. + SICINIUS. Sir, the people + Must have their voices; neither will they bate + One jot of ceremony. + MENENIUS. Put them not to't. + Pray you go fit you to the custom, and + Take to you, as your predecessors have, + Your honour with your form. + CORIOLANUS. It is a part + That I shall blush in acting, and might well + Be taken from the people. + BRUTUS. Mark you that? + CORIOLANUS. To brag unto them 'Thus I did, and thus!' + Show them th' unaching scars which I should hide, + As if I had receiv'd them for the hire + Of their breath only! + MENENIUS. Do not stand upon't. + We recommend to you, Tribunes of the People, + Our purpose to them; and to our noble consul + Wish we all joy and honour. + SENATORS. To Coriolanus come all joy and honour! + [Flourish. Cornets. Then exeunt all + but SICINIUS and BRUTUS] + BRUTUS. You see how he intends to use the people. + SICINIUS. May they perceive's intent! He will require them + As if he did contemn what he requested + Should be in them to give. + BRUTUS. Come, we'll inform them + Of our proceedings here. On th' market-place + I know they do attend us. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Rome. The Forum + +Enter seven or eight citizens + + FIRST CITIZEN. Once, if he do require our voices, we ought not to + deny him. + SECOND CITIZEN. We may, sir, if we will. + THIRD CITIZEN. We have power in ourselves to do it, but it is a + power that we have no power to do; for if he show us his wounds + and tell us his deeds, we are to put our tongues into those + wounds and speak for them; so, if he tell us his noble deeds, we + must also tell him our noble acceptance of them. Ingratitude is + monstrous, and for the multitude to be ingrateful were to make a + monster of the multitude; of the which we being members should + bring ourselves to be monstrous members. + FIRST CITIZEN. And to make us no better thought of, a little help + will serve; for once we stood up about the corn, he himself stuck + not to call us the many-headed multitude. + THIRD CITIZEN. We have been call'd so of many; not that our heads + are some brown, some black, some abram, some bald, but that our + wits are so diversely colour'd; and truly I think if all our wits + were to issue out of one skull, they would fly east, west, north, + south, and their consent of one direct way should be at once to + all the points o' th' compass. + SECOND CITIZEN. Think you so? Which way do you judge my wit would + fly? + THIRD CITIZEN. Nay, your wit will not so soon out as another man's + will- 'tis strongly wedg'd up in a block-head; but if it were at + liberty 'twould sure southward. + SECOND CITIZEN. Why that way? + THIRD CITIZEN. To lose itself in a fog; where being three parts + melted away with rotten dews, the fourth would return for + conscience' sake, to help to get thee a wife. + SECOND CITIZEN. YOU are never without your tricks; you may, you + may. + THIRD CITIZEN. Are you all resolv'd to give your voices? But that's + no matter, the greater part carries it. I say, if he would + incline to the people, there was never a worthier man. + + Enter CORIOLANUS, in a gown of humility, + with MENENIUS + + Here he comes, and in the gown of humility. Mark his behaviour. + We are not to stay all together, but to come by him where he + stands, by ones, by twos, and by threes. He's to make his + requests by particulars, wherein every one of us has a single + honour, in giving him our own voices with our own tongues; + therefore follow me, and I'll direct you how you shall go by him. + ALL. Content, content. Exeunt citizens + MENENIUS. O sir, you are not right; have you not known + The worthiest men have done't? + CORIOLANUS. What must I say? + 'I pray, sir'- Plague upon't! I cannot bring + My tongue to such a pace. 'Look, sir, my wounds + I got them in my country's service, when + Some certain of your brethren roar'd and ran + From th' noise of our own drums.' + MENENIUS. O me, the gods! + You must not speak of that. You must desire them + To think upon you. + CORIOLANUS. Think upon me? Hang 'em! + I would they would forget me, like the virtues + Which our divines lose by 'em. + MENENIUS. You'll mar all. + I'll leave you. Pray you speak to 'em, I pray you, + In wholesome manner. Exit + + Re-enter three of the citizens + + CORIOLANUS. Bid them wash their faces + And keep their teeth clean. So, here comes a brace. + You know the cause, sir, of my standing here. + THIRD CITIZEN. We do, sir; tell us what hath brought you to't. + CORIOLANUS. Mine own desert. + SECOND CITIZEN. Your own desert? + CORIOLANUS. Ay, not mine own desire. + THIRD CITIZEN. How, not your own desire? + CORIOLANUS. No, sir, 'twas never my desire yet to trouble the poor + with begging. + THIRD CITIZEN. YOU MUST think, if we give you anything, we hope to + gain by you. + CORIOLANUS. Well then, I pray, your price o' th' consulship? + FIRST CITIZEN. The price is to ask it kindly. + CORIOLANUS. Kindly, sir, I pray let me ha't. I have wounds to show + you, which shall be yours in private. Your good voice, sir; what + say you? + SECOND CITIZEN. You shall ha' it, worthy sir. + CORIOLANUS. A match, sir. There's in all two worthy voices begg'd. + I have your alms. Adieu. + THIRD CITIZEN. But this is something odd. + SECOND CITIZEN. An 'twere to give again- but 'tis no matter. + Exeunt the three citizens + + Re-enter two other citizens + + CORIOLANUS. Pray you now, if it may stand with the tune of your + voices that I may be consul, I have here the customary gown. + FOURTH CITIZEN. You have deserved nobly of your country, and you + have not deserved nobly. + CORIOLANUS. Your enigma? + FOURTH CITIZEN. You have been a scourge to her enemies; you have + been a rod to her friends. You have not indeed loved the common + people. + CORIOLANUS. You should account me the more virtuous, that I have + not been common in my love. I will, sir, flatter my sworn + brother, the people, to earn a dearer estimation of them; 'tis a + condition they account gentle; and since the wisdom of their + choice is rather to have my hat than my heart, I will practise + the insinuating nod and be off to them most counterfeitly. That + is, sir, I will counterfeit the bewitchment of some popular man + and give it bountiful to the desirers. Therefore, beseech you I + may be consul. + FIFTH CITIZEN. We hope to find you our friend; and therefore give + you our voices heartily. + FOURTH CITIZEN. You have received many wounds for your country. + CORIOLANUS. I will not seal your knowledge with showing them. I + will make much of your voices, and so trouble you no farther. + BOTH CITIZENS. The gods give you joy, sir, heartily! + Exeunt citizens + CORIOLANUS. Most sweet voices! + Better it is to die, better to starve, + Than crave the hire which first we do deserve. + Why in this wolvish toge should I stand here + To beg of Hob and Dick that do appear + Their needless vouches? Custom calls me to't. + What custom wills, in all things should we do't, + The dust on antique time would lie unswept, + And mountainous error be too highly heap'd + For truth to o'erpeer. Rather than fool it so, + Let the high office and the honour go + To one that would do thus. I am half through: + The one part suffered, the other will I do. + + Re-enter three citizens more + + Here come moe voices. + Your voices. For your voices I have fought; + Watch'd for your voices; for your voices bear + Of wounds two dozen odd; battles thrice six + I have seen and heard of; for your voices have + Done many things, some less, some more. Your voices? + Indeed, I would be consul. + SIXTH CITIZEN. He has done nobly, and cannot go without any honest + man's voice. + SEVENTH CITIZEN. Therefore let him be consul. The gods give him + joy, and make him good friend to the people! + ALL. Amen, amen. God save thee, noble consul! + Exeunt citizens + CORIOLANUS. Worthy voices! + + Re-enter MENENIUS with BRUTUS and SICINIUS + + MENENIUS. You have stood your limitation, and the tribunes + Endue you with the people's voice. Remains + That, in th' official marks invested, you + Anon do meet the Senate. + CORIOLANUS. Is this done? + SICINIUS. The custom of request you have discharg'd. + The people do admit you, and are summon'd + To meet anon, upon your approbation. + CORIOLANUS. Where? At the Senate House? + SICINIUS. There, Coriolanus. + CORIOLANUS. May I change these garments? + SICINIUS. You may, sir. + CORIOLANUS. That I'll straight do, and, knowing myself again, + Repair to th' Senate House. + MENENIUS. I'll keep you company. Will you along? + BRUTUS. We stay here for the people. + SICINIUS. Fare you well. + Exeunt CORIOLANUS and MENENIUS + He has it now; and by his looks methinks + 'Tis warm at's heart. + BRUTUS. With a proud heart he wore + His humble weeds. Will you dismiss the people? + + Re-enter citizens + + SICINIUS. How now, my masters! Have you chose this man? + FIRST CITIZEN. He has our voices, sir. + BRUTUS. We pray the gods he may deserve your loves. + SECOND CITIZEN. Amen, sir. To my poor unworthy notice, + He mock'd us when he begg'd our voices. + THIRD CITIZEN. Certainly; + He flouted us downright. + FIRST CITIZEN. No, 'tis his kind of speech- he did not mock us. + SECOND CITIZEN. Not one amongst us, save yourself, but says + He us'd us scornfully. He should have show'd us + His marks of merit, wounds receiv'd for's country. + SICINIUS. Why, so he did, I am sure. + ALL. No, no; no man saw 'em. + THIRD CITIZEN. He said he had wounds which he could show in + private, + And with his hat, thus waving it in scorn, + 'I would be consul,' says he; 'aged custom + But by your voices will not so permit me; + Your voices therefore.' When we granted that, + Here was 'I thank you for your voices. Thank you, + Your most sweet voices. Now you have left your voices, + I have no further with you.' Was not this mockery? + SICINIUS. Why either were you ignorant to see't, + Or, seeing it, of such childish friendliness + To yield your voices? + BRUTUS. Could you not have told him- + As you were lesson'd- when he had no power + But was a petty servant to the state, + He was your enemy; ever spake against + Your liberties and the charters that you bear + I' th' body of the weal; and now, arriving + A place of potency and sway o' th' state, + If he should still malignantly remain + Fast foe to th' plebeii, your voices might + Be curses to yourselves? You should have said + That as his worthy deeds did claim no less + Than what he stood for, so his gracious nature + Would think upon you for your voices, and + Translate his malice towards you into love, + Standing your friendly lord. + SICINIUS. Thus to have said, + As you were fore-advis'd, had touch'd his spirit + And tried his inclination; from him pluck'd + Either his gracious promise, which you might, + As cause had call'd you up, have held him to; + Or else it would have gall'd his surly nature, + Which easily endures not article + Tying him to aught. So, putting him to rage, + You should have ta'en th' advantage of his choler + And pass'd him unelected. + BRUTUS. Did you perceive + He did solicit you in free contempt + When he did need your loves; and do you think + That his contempt shall not be bruising to you + When he hath power to crush? Why, had your bodies + No heart among you? Or had you tongues to cry + Against the rectorship of judgment? + SICINIUS. Have you + Ere now denied the asker, and now again, + Of him that did not ask but mock, bestow + Your su'd-for tongues? + THIRD CITIZEN. He's not confirm'd: we may deny him yet. + SECOND CITIZENS. And will deny him; + I'll have five hundred voices of that sound. + FIRST CITIZEN. I twice five hundred, and their friends to piece + 'em. + BRUTUS. Get you hence instantly, and tell those friends + They have chose a consul that will from them take + Their liberties, make them of no more voice + Than dogs, that are as often beat for barking + As therefore kept to do so. + SICINIUS. Let them assemble; + And, on a safer judgment, all revoke + Your ignorant election. Enforce his pride + And his old hate unto you; besides, forget not + With what contempt he wore the humble weed; + How in his suit he scorn'd you; but your loves, + Thinking upon his services, took from you + Th' apprehension of his present portance, + Which, most gibingly, ungravely, he did fashion + After the inveterate hate he bears you. + BRUTUS. Lay + A fault on us, your tribunes, that we labour'd, + No impediment between, but that you must + Cast your election on him. + SICINIUS. Say you chose him + More after our commandment than as guided + By your own true affections; and that your minds, + Pre-occupied with what you rather must do + Than what you should, made you against the grain + To voice him consul. Lay the fault on us. + BRUTUS. Ay, spare us not. Say we read lectures to you, + How youngly he began to serve his country, + How long continued; and what stock he springs of- + The noble house o' th' Marcians; from whence came + That Ancus Marcius, Numa's daughter's son, + Who, after great Hostilius, here was king; + Of the same house Publius and Quintus were, + That our best water brought by conduits hither; + And Censorinus, nobly named so, + Twice being by the people chosen censor, + Was his great ancestor. + SICINIUS. One thus descended, + That hath beside well in his person wrought + To be set high in place, we did commend + To your remembrances; but you have found, + Scaling his present bearing with his past, + That he's your fixed enemy, and revoke + Your sudden approbation. + BRUTUS. Say you ne'er had done't- + Harp on that still- but by our putting on; + And presently, when you have drawn your number, + Repair to th' Capitol. + CITIZENS. will will so; almost all + Repent in their election. Exeunt plebeians + BRUTUS. Let them go on; + This mutiny were better put in hazard + Than stay, past doubt, for greater. + If, as his nature is, he fall in rage + With their refusal, both observe and answer + The vantage of his anger. + SICINIUS. To th' Capitol, come. + We will be there before the stream o' th' people; + And this shall seem, as partly 'tis, their own, + Which we have goaded onward. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. Rome. A street + +Cornets. Enter CORIOLANUS, MENENIUS, all the GENTRY, COMINIUS, +TITUS LARTIUS, and other SENATORS + + CORIOLANUS. Tullus Aufidius, then, had made new head? + LARTIUS. He had, my lord; and that it was which caus'd + Our swifter composition. + CORIOLANUS. So then the Volsces stand but as at first, + Ready, when time shall prompt them, to make road + Upon's again. + COMINIUS. They are worn, Lord Consul, so + That we shall hardly in our ages see + Their banners wave again. + CORIOLANUS. Saw you Aufidius? + LARTIUS. On safeguard he came to me, and did curse + Against the Volsces, for they had so vilely + Yielded the town. He is retir'd to Antium. + CORIOLANUS. Spoke he of me? + LARTIUS. He did, my lord. + CORIOLANUS. How? What? + LARTIUS. How often he had met you, sword to sword; + That of all things upon the earth he hated + Your person most; that he would pawn his fortunes + To hopeless restitution, so he might + Be call'd your vanquisher. + CORIOLANUS. At Antium lives he? + LARTIUS. At Antium. + CORIOLANUS. I wish I had a cause to seek him there, + To oppose his hatred fully. Welcome home. + + Enter SICINIUS and BRUTUS + + Behold, these are the tribunes of the people, + The tongues o' th' common mouth. I do despise them, + For they do prank them in authority, + Against all noble sufferance. + SICINIUS. Pass no further. + CORIOLANUS. Ha! What is that? + BRUTUS. It will be dangerous to go on- no further. + CORIOLANUS. What makes this change? + MENENIUS. The matter? + COMINIUS. Hath he not pass'd the noble and the common? + BRUTUS. Cominius, no. + CORIOLANUS. Have I had children's voices? + FIRST SENATOR. Tribunes, give way: he shall to th' market-place. + BRUTUS. The people are incens'd against him. + SICINIUS. Stop, + Or all will fall in broil. + CORIOLANUS. Are these your herd? + Must these have voices, that can yield them now + And straight disclaim their tongues? What are your offices? + You being their mouths, why rule you not their teeth? + Have you not set them on? + MENENIUS. Be calm, be calm. + CORIOLANUS. It is a purpos'd thing, and grows by plot, + To curb the will of the nobility; + Suffer't, and live with such as cannot rule + Nor ever will be rul'd. + BRUTUS. Call't not a plot. + The people cry you mock'd them; and of late, + When corn was given them gratis, you repin'd; + Scandal'd the suppliants for the people, call'd them + Time-pleasers, flatterers, foes to nobleness. + CORIOLANUS. Why, this was known before. + BRUTUS. Not to them all. + CORIOLANUS. Have you inform'd them sithence? + BRUTUS. How? I inform them! + COMINIUS. You are like to do such business. + BRUTUS. Not unlike + Each way to better yours. + CORIOLANUS. Why then should I be consul? By yond clouds, + Let me deserve so ill as you, and make me + Your fellow tribune. + SICINIUS. You show too much of that + For which the people stir; if you will pass + To where you are bound, you must enquire your way, + Which you are out of, with a gentler spirit, + Or never be so noble as a consul, + Nor yoke with him for tribune. + MENENIUS. Let's be calm. + COMINIUS. The people are abus'd; set on. This palt'ring + Becomes not Rome; nor has Coriolanus + Deserved this so dishonour'd rub, laid falsely + I' th' plain way of his merit. + CORIOLANUS. Tell me of corn! + This was my speech, and I will speak't again- + MENENIUS. Not now, not now. + FIRST SENATOR. Not in this heat, sir, now. + CORIOLANUS. Now, as I live, I will. + My nobler friends, I crave their pardons. + For the mutable, rank-scented meiny, let them + Regard me as I do not flatter, and + Therein behold themselves. I say again, + In soothing them we nourish 'gainst our Senate + The cockle of rebellion, insolence, sedition, + Which we ourselves have plough'd for, sow'd, and scatter'd, + By mingling them with us, the honour'd number, + Who lack not virtue, no, nor power, but that + Which they have given to beggars. + MENENIUS. Well, no more. + FIRST SENATOR. No more words, we beseech you. + CORIOLANUS. How? no more! + As for my country I have shed my blood, + Not fearing outward force, so shall my lungs + Coin words till their decay against those measles + Which we disdain should tetter us, yet sought + The very way to catch them. + BRUTUS. You speak o' th' people + As if you were a god, to punish; not + A man of their infirmity. + SICINIUS. 'Twere well + We let the people know't. + MENENIUS. What, what? his choler? + CORIOLANUS. Choler! + Were I as patient as the midnight sleep, + By Jove, 'twould be my mind! + SICINIUS. It is a mind + That shall remain a poison where it is, + Not poison any further. + CORIOLANUS. Shall remain! + Hear you this Triton of the minnows? Mark you + His absolute 'shall'? + COMINIUS. 'Twas from the canon. + CORIOLANUS. 'Shall'! + O good but most unwise patricians! Why, + You grave but reckless senators, have you thus + Given Hydra here to choose an officer + That with his peremptory 'shall,' being but + The horn and noise o' th' monster's, wants not spirit + To say he'll turn your current in a ditch, + And make your channel his? If he have power, + Then vail your ignorance; if none, awake + Your dangerous lenity. If you are learn'd, + Be not as common fools; if you are not, + Let them have cushions by you. You are plebeians, + If they be senators; and they are no less, + When, both your voices blended, the great'st taste + Most palates theirs. They choose their magistrate; + And such a one as he, who puts his 'shall,' + His popular 'shall,' against a graver bench + Than ever frown'd in Greece. By Jove himself, + It makes the consuls base; and my soul aches + To know, when two authorities are up, + Neither supreme, how soon confusion + May enter 'twixt the gap of both and take + The one by th' other. + COMINIUS. Well, on to th' market-place. + CORIOLANUS. Whoever gave that counsel to give forth + The corn o' th' storehouse gratis, as 'twas us'd + Sometime in Greece- + MENENIUS. Well, well, no more of that. + CORIOLANUS. Though there the people had more absolute pow'r- + I say they nourish'd disobedience, fed + The ruin of the state. + BRUTUS. Why shall the people give + One that speaks thus their voice? + CORIOLANUS. I'll give my reasons, + More worthier than their voices. They know the corn + Was not our recompense, resting well assur'd + They ne'er did service for't; being press'd to th' war + Even when the navel of the state was touch'd, + They would not thread the gates. This kind of service + Did not deserve corn gratis. Being i' th' war, + Their mutinies and revolts, wherein they show'd + Most valour, spoke not for them. Th' accusation + Which they have often made against the Senate, + All cause unborn, could never be the native + Of our so frank donation. Well, what then? + How shall this bosom multiplied digest + The Senate's courtesy? Let deeds express + What's like to be their words: 'We did request it; + We are the greater poll, and in true fear + They gave us our demands.' Thus we debase + The nature of our seats, and make the rabble + Call our cares fears; which will in time + Break ope the locks o' th' Senate and bring in + The crows to peck the eagles. + MENENIUS. Come, enough. + BRUTUS. Enough, with over measure. + CORIOLANUS. No, take more. + What may be sworn by, both divine and human, + Seal what I end withal! This double worship, + Where one part does disdain with cause, the other + Insult without all reason; where gentry, title, wisdom, + Cannot conclude but by the yea and no + Of general ignorance- it must omit + Real necessities, and give way the while + To unstable slightness. Purpose so barr'd, it follows + Nothing is done to purpose. Therefore, beseech you- + You that will be less fearful than discreet; + That love the fundamental part of state + More than you doubt the change on't; that prefer + A noble life before a long, and wish + To jump a body with a dangerous physic + That's sure of death without it- at once pluck out + The multitudinous tongue; let them not lick + The sweet which is their poison. Your dishonour + Mangles true judgment, and bereaves the state + Of that integrity which should become't, + Not having the power to do the good it would, + For th' ill which doth control't. + BRUTUS. Has said enough. + SICINIUS. Has spoken like a traitor and shall answer + As traitors do. + CORIOLANUS. Thou wretch, despite o'erwhelm thee! + What should the people do with these bald tribunes, + On whom depending, their obedience fails + To the greater bench? In a rebellion, + When what's not meet, but what must be, was law, + Then were they chosen; in a better hour + Let what is meet be said it must be meet, + And throw their power i' th' dust. + BRUTUS. Manifest treason! + SICINIUS. This a consul? No. + BRUTUS. The aediles, ho! + + Enter an AEDILE + + Let him be apprehended. + SICINIUS. Go call the people, [Exit AEDILE] in whose name myself + Attach thee as a traitorous innovator, + A foe to th' public weal. Obey, I charge thee, + And follow to thine answer. + CORIOLANUS. Hence, old goat! + PATRICIANS. We'll surety him. + COMINIUS. Ag'd sir, hands off. + CORIOLANUS. Hence, rotten thing! or I shall shake thy bones + Out of thy garments. + SICINIUS. Help, ye citizens! + + Enter a rabble of plebeians, with the AEDILES + + MENENIUS. On both sides more respect. + SICINIUS. Here's he that would take from you all your power. + BRUTUS. Seize him, aediles. + PLEBEIANS. Down with him! down with him! + SECOND SENATOR. Weapons, weapons, weapons! + [They all bustle about CORIOLANUS] + ALL. Tribunes! patricians! citizens! What, ho! Sicinius! + Brutus! Coriolanus! Citizens! + PATRICIANS. Peace, peace, peace; stay, hold, peace! + MENENIUS. What is about to be? I am out of breath; + Confusion's near; I cannot speak. You tribunes + To th' people- Coriolanus, patience! + Speak, good Sicinius. + SICINIUS. Hear me, people; peace! + PLEBEIANS. Let's hear our tribune. Peace! Speak, speak, speak. + SICINIUS. You are at point to lose your liberties. + Marcius would have all from you; Marcius, + Whom late you have nam'd for consul. + MENENIUS. Fie, fie, fie! + This is the way to kindle, not to quench. + FIRST SENATOR. To unbuild the city, and to lay all flat. + SICINIUS. What is the city but the people? + PLEBEIANS. True, + The people are the city. + BRUTUS. By the consent of all we were establish'd + The people's magistrates. + PLEBEIANS. You so remain. + MENENIUS. And so are like to do. + COMINIUS. That is the way to lay the city flat, + To bring the roof to the foundation, + And bury all which yet distinctly ranges + In heaps and piles of ruin. + SICINIUS. This deserves death. + BRUTUS. Or let us stand to our authority + Or let us lose it. We do here pronounce, + Upon the part o' th' people, in whose power + We were elected theirs: Marcius is worthy + Of present death. + SICINIUS. Therefore lay hold of him; + Bear him to th' rock Tarpeian, and from thence + Into destruction cast him. + BRUTUS. AEdiles, seize him. + PLEBEIANS. Yield, Marcius, yield. + MENENIUS. Hear me one word; beseech you, Tribunes, + Hear me but a word. + AEDILES. Peace, peace! + MENENIUS. Be that you seem, truly your country's friend, + And temp'rately proceed to what you would + Thus violently redress. + BRUTUS. Sir, those cold ways, + That seem like prudent helps, are very poisonous + Where the disease is violent. Lay hands upon him + And bear him to the rock. + [CORIOLANUS draws his sword] + CORIOLANUS. No: I'll die here. + There's some among you have beheld me fighting; + Come, try upon yourselves what you have seen me. + MENENIUS. Down with that sword! Tribunes, withdraw awhile. + BRUTUS. Lay hands upon him. + MENENIUS. Help Marcius, help, + You that be noble; help him, young and old. + PLEBEIANS. Down with him, down with him! + [In this mutiny the TRIBUNES, the AEDILES, + and the people are beat in] + MENENIUS. Go, get you to your house; be gone, away. + All will be nought else. + SECOND SENATOR. Get you gone. + CORIOLANUS. Stand fast; + We have as many friends as enemies. + MENENIUS. Shall it be put to that? + FIRST SENATOR. The gods forbid! + I prithee, noble friend, home to thy house; + Leave us to cure this cause. + MENENIUS. For 'tis a sore upon us + You cannot tent yourself; be gone, beseech you. + COMINIUS. Come, sir, along with us. + CORIOLANUS. I would they were barbarians, as they are, + Though in Rome litter'd; not Romans, as they are not, + Though calved i' th' porch o' th' Capitol. + MENENIUS. Be gone. + Put not your worthy rage into your tongue; + One time will owe another. + CORIOLANUS. On fair ground + I could beat forty of them. + MENENIUS. I could myself + Take up a brace o' th' best of them; yea, the two tribunes. + COMINIUS. But now 'tis odds beyond arithmetic, + And manhood is call'd foolery when it stands + Against a falling fabric. Will you hence, + Before the tag return? whose rage doth rend + Like interrupted waters, and o'erbear + What they are us'd to bear. + MENENIUS. Pray you be gone. + I'll try whether my old wit be in request + With those that have but little; this must be patch'd + With cloth of any colour. + COMINIUS. Nay, come away. + Exeunt CORIOLANUS and COMINIUS, with others + PATRICIANS. This man has marr'd his fortune. + MENENIUS. His nature is too noble for the world: + He would not flatter Neptune for his trident, + Or Jove for's power to thunder. His heart's his mouth; + What his breast forges, that his tongue must vent; + And, being angry, does forget that ever + He heard the name of death. [A noise within] + Here's goodly work! + PATRICIANS. I would they were a-bed. + MENENIUS. I would they were in Tiber. + What the vengeance, could he not speak 'em fair? + + Re-enter BRUTUS and SICINIUS, the rabble again + + SICINIUS. Where is this viper + That would depopulate the city and + Be every man himself? + MENENIUS. You worthy Tribunes- + SICINIUS. He shall be thrown down the Tarpeian rock + With rigorous hands; he hath resisted law, + And therefore law shall scorn him further trial + Than the severity of the public power, + Which he so sets at nought. + FIRST CITIZEN. He shall well know + The noble tribunes are the people's mouths, + And we their hands. + PLEBEIANS. He shall, sure on't. + MENENIUS. Sir, sir- + SICINIUS. Peace! + MENENIUS. Do not cry havoc, where you should but hunt + With modest warrant. + SICINIUS. Sir, how comes't that you + Have holp to make this rescue? + MENENIUS. Hear me speak. + As I do know the consul's worthiness, + So can I name his faults. + SICINIUS. Consul! What consul? + MENENIUS. The consul Coriolanus. + BRUTUS. He consul! + PLEBEIANS. No, no, no, no, no. + MENENIUS. If, by the tribunes' leave, and yours, good people, + I may be heard, I would crave a word or two; + The which shall turn you to no further harm + Than so much loss of time. + SICINIUS. Speak briefly, then, + For we are peremptory to dispatch + This viperous traitor; to eject him hence + Were but one danger, and to keep him here + Our certain death; therefore it is decreed + He dies to-night. + MENENIUS. Now the good gods forbid + That our renowned Rome, whose gratitude + Towards her deserved children is enroll'd + In Jove's own book, like an unnatural dam + Should now eat up her own! + SICINIUS. He's a disease that must be cut away. + MENENIUS. O, he's a limb that has but a disease- + Mortal, to cut it off: to cure it, easy. + What has he done to Rome that's worthy death? + Killing our enemies, the blood he hath lost- + Which I dare vouch is more than that he hath + By many an ounce- he dropt it for his country; + And what is left, to lose it by his country + Were to us all that do't and suffer it + A brand to th' end o' th' world. + SICINIUS. This is clean kam. + BRUTUS. Merely awry. When he did love his country, + It honour'd him. + SICINIUS. The service of the foot, + Being once gangren'd, is not then respected + For what before it was. + BRUTUS. We'll hear no more. + Pursue him to his house and pluck him thence, + Lest his infection, being of catching nature, + Spread further. + MENENIUS. One word more, one word + This tiger-footed rage, when it shall find + The harm of unscann'd swiftness, will, too late, + Tie leaden pounds to's heels. Proceed by process, + Lest parties- as he is belov'd- break out, + And sack great Rome with Romans. + BRUTUS. If it were so- + SICINIUS. What do ye talk? + Have we not had a taste of his obedience- + Our aediles smote, ourselves resisted? Come! + MENENIUS. Consider this: he has been bred i' th' wars + Since 'a could draw a sword, and is ill school'd + In bolted language; meal and bran together + He throws without distinction. Give me leave, + I'll go to him and undertake to bring him + Where he shall answer by a lawful form, + In peace, to his utmost peril. + FIRST SENATOR. Noble Tribunes, + It is the humane way; the other course + Will prove too bloody, and the end of it + Unknown to the beginning. + SICINIUS. Noble Menenius, + Be you then as the people's officer. + Masters, lay down your weapons. + BRUTUS. Go not home. + SICINIUS. Meet on the market-place. We'll attend you there; + Where, if you bring not Marcius, we'll proceed + In our first way. + MENENIUS. I'll bring him to you. + [To the SENATORS] Let me desire your company; he must come, + Or what is worst will follow. + FIRST SENATOR. Pray you let's to him. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Rome. The house of CORIOLANUS + +Enter CORIOLANUS with NOBLES + + CORIOLANUS. Let them pull all about mine ears, present me + Death on the wheel or at wild horses' heels; + Or pile ten hills on the Tarpeian rock, + That the precipitation might down stretch + Below the beam of sight; yet will I still + Be thus to them. + FIRST PATRICIAN. You do the nobler. + CORIOLANUS. I muse my mother + Does not approve me further, who was wont + To call them woollen vassals, things created + To buy and sell with groats; to show bare heads + In congregations, to yawn, be still, and wonder, + When one but of my ordinance stood up + To speak of peace or war. + + Enter VOLUMNIA + + I talk of you: + Why did you wish me milder? Would you have me + False to my nature? Rather say I play + The man I am. + VOLUMNIA. O, sir, sir, sir, + I would have had you put your power well on + Before you had worn it out. + CORIOLANUS. Let go. + VOLUMNIA. You might have been enough the man you are + With striving less to be so; lesser had been + The thwartings of your dispositions, if + You had not show'd them how ye were dispos'd, + Ere they lack'd power to cross you. + CORIOLANUS. Let them hang. + VOLUMNIA. Ay, and burn too. + + Enter MENENIUS with the SENATORS + + MENENIUS. Come, come, you have been too rough, something too rough; + You must return and mend it. + FIRST SENATOR. There's no remedy, + Unless, by not so doing, our good city + Cleave in the midst and perish. + VOLUMNIA. Pray be counsell'd; + I have a heart as little apt as yours, + But yet a brain that leads my use of anger + To better vantage. + MENENIUS. Well said, noble woman! + Before he should thus stoop to th' herd, but that + The violent fit o' th' time craves it as physic + For the whole state, I would put mine armour on, + Which I can scarcely bear. + CORIOLANUS. What must I do? + MENENIUS. Return to th' tribunes. + CORIOLANUS. Well, what then, what then? + MENENIUS. Repent what you have spoke. + CORIOLANUS. For them! I cannot do it to the gods; + Must I then do't to them? + VOLUMNIA. You are too absolute; + Though therein you can never be too noble + But when extremities speak. I have heard you say + Honour and policy, like unsever'd friends, + I' th' war do grow together; grant that, and tell me + In peace what each of them by th' other lose + That they combine not there. + CORIOLANUS. Tush, tush! + MENENIUS. A good demand. + VOLUMNIA. If it be honour in your wars to seem + The same you are not, which for your best ends + You adopt your policy, how is it less or worse + That it shall hold companionship in peace + With honour as in war; since that to both + It stands in like request? + CORIOLANUS. Why force you this? + VOLUMNIA. Because that now it lies you on to speak + To th' people, not by your own instruction, + Nor by th' matter which your heart prompts you, + But with such words that are but roted in + Your tongue, though but bastards and syllables + Of no allowance to your bosom's truth. + Now, this no more dishonours you at all + Than to take in a town with gentle words, + Which else would put you to your fortune and + The hazard of much blood. + I would dissemble with my nature where + My fortunes and my friends at stake requir'd + I should do so in honour. I am in this + Your wife, your son, these senators, the nobles; + And you will rather show our general louts + How you can frown, than spend a fawn upon 'em + For the inheritance of their loves and safeguard + Of what that want might ruin. + MENENIUS. Noble lady! + Come, go with us, speak fair; you may salve so, + Not what is dangerous present, but the los + Of what is past. + VOLUMNIA. I prithee now, My son, + Go to them with this bonnet in thy hand; + And thus far having stretch'd it- here be with them- + Thy knee bussing the stones- for in such busines + Action is eloquence, and the eyes of th' ignorant + More learned than the ears- waving thy head, + Which often thus correcting thy-stout heart, + Now humble as the ripest mulberry + That will not hold the handling. Or say to them + Thou art their soldier and, being bred in broils, + Hast not the soft way which, thou dost confess, + Were fit for thee to use, as they to claim, + In asking their good loves; but thou wilt frame + Thyself, forsooth, hereafter theirs, so far + As thou hast power and person. + MENENIUS. This but done + Even as she speaks, why, their hearts were yours; + For they have pardons, being ask'd, as free + As words to little purpose. + VOLUMNIA. Prithee now, + Go, and be rul'd; although I know thou hadst rather + Follow thine enemy in a fiery gulf + Than flatter him in a bower. + + Enter COMINIUS + + Here is Cominius. + COMINIUS. I have been i' th' market-place; and, sir, 'tis fit + You make strong party, or defend yourself + By calmness or by absence; all's in anger. + MENENIUS. Only fair speech. + COMINIUS. I think 'twill serve, if he + Can thereto frame his spirit. + VOLUMNIA. He must and will. + Prithee now, say you will, and go about it. + CORIOLANUS. Must I go show them my unbarb'd sconce? Must I + With my base tongue give to my noble heart + A lie that it must bear? Well, I will do't; + Yet, were there but this single plot to lose, + This mould of Marcius, they to dust should grind it, + And throw't against the wind. To th' market-place! + You have put me now to such a part which never + I shall discharge to th' life. + COMINIUS. Come, come, we'll prompt you. + VOLUMNIA. I prithee now, sweet son, as thou hast said + My praises made thee first a soldier, so, + To have my praise for this, perform a part + Thou hast not done before. + CORIOLANUS. Well, I must do't. + Away, my disposition, and possess me + Some harlot's spirit! My throat of war be turn'd, + Which quier'd with my drum, into a pipe + Small as an eunuch or the virgin voice + That babies lulls asleep! The smiles of knaves + Tent in my cheeks, and schoolboys' tears take up + The glasses of my sight! A beggar's tongue + Make motion through my lips, and my arm'd knees, + Who bow'd but in my stirrup, bend like his + That hath receiv'd an alms! I will not do't, + Lest I surcease to honour mine own truth, + And by my body's action teach my mind + A most inherent baseness. + VOLUMNIA. At thy choice, then. + To beg of thee, it is my more dishonour + Than thou of them. Come all to ruin. Let + Thy mother rather feel thy pride than fear + Thy dangerous stoutness; for I mock at death + With as big heart as thou. Do as thou list. + Thy valiantness was mine, thou suck'dst it from me; + But owe thy pride thyself. + CORIOLANUS. Pray be content. + Mother, I am going to the market-place; + Chide me no more. I'll mountebank their loves, + Cog their hearts from them, and come home belov'd + Of all the trades in Rome. Look, I am going. + Commend me to my wife. I'll return consul, + Or never trust to what my tongue can do + I' th' way of flattery further. + VOLUMNIA. Do your will. Exit + COMINIUS. Away! The tribunes do attend you. Arm yourself + To answer mildly; for they are prepar'd + With accusations, as I hear, more strong + Than are upon you yet. + CORIOLANUS. The word is 'mildly.' Pray you let us go. + Let them accuse me by invention; I + Will answer in mine honour. + MENENIUS. Ay, but mildly. + CORIOLANUS. Well, mildly be it then- mildly. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Rome. The Forum + +Enter SICINIUS and BRUTUS + + BRUTUS. In this point charge him home, that he affects + Tyrannical power. If he evade us there, + Enforce him with his envy to the people, + And that the spoil got on the Antiates + Was ne'er distributed. + + Enter an AEDILE + + What, will he come? + AEDILE. He's coming. + BRUTUS. How accompanied? + AEDILE. With old Menenius, and those senators + That always favour'd him. + SICINIUS. Have you a catalogue + Of all the voices that we have procur'd, + Set down by th' poll? + AEDILE. I have; 'tis ready. + SICINIUS. Have you corrected them by tribes? + AEDILE. I have. + SICINIUS. Assemble presently the people hither; + And when they hear me say 'It shall be so + I' th' right and strength o' th' commons' be it either + For death, for fine, or banishment, then let them, + If I say fine, cry 'Fine!'- if death, cry 'Death!' + Insisting on the old prerogative + And power i' th' truth o' th' cause. + AEDILE. I shall inform them. + BRUTUS. And when such time they have begun to cry, + Let them not cease, but with a din confus'd + Enforce the present execution + Of what we chance to sentence. + AEDILE. Very well. + SICINIUS. Make them be strong, and ready for this hint, + When we shall hap to give't them. + BRUTUS. Go about it. Exit AEDILE + Put him to choler straight. He hath been us'd + Ever to conquer, and to have his worth + Of contradiction; being once chaf'd, he cannot + Be rein'd again to temperance; then he speaks + What's in his heart, and that is there which looks + With us to break his neck. + + Enter CORIOLANUS, MENENIUS and COMINIUS, with others + + SICINIUS. Well, here he comes. + MENENIUS. Calmly, I do beseech you. + CORIOLANUS. Ay, as an ostler, that for th' poorest piece + Will bear the knave by th' volume. Th' honour'd gods + Keep Rome in safety, and the chairs of justice + Supplied with worthy men! plant love among's! + Throng our large temples with the shows of peace, + And not our streets with war! + FIRST SENATOR. Amen, amen! + MENENIUS. A noble wish. + + Re-enter the.AEDILE,with the plebeians + + SICINIUS. Draw near, ye people. + AEDILE. List to your tribunes. Audience! peace, I say! + CORIOLANUS. First, hear me speak. + BOTH TRIBUNES. Well, say. Peace, ho! + CORIOLANUS. Shall I be charg'd no further than this present? + Must all determine here? + SICINIUS. I do demand, + If you submit you to the people's voices, + Allow their officers, and are content + To suffer lawful censure for such faults + As shall be prov'd upon you. + CORIOLANUS. I am content. + MENENIUS. Lo, citizens, he says he is content. + The warlike service he has done, consider; think + Upon the wounds his body bears, which show + Like graves i' th' holy churchyard. + CORIOLANUS. Scratches with briers, + Scars to move laughter only. + MENENIUS. Consider further, + That when he speaks not like a citizen, + You find him like a soldier; do not take + His rougher accents for malicious sounds, + But, as I say, such as become a soldier + Rather than envy you. + COMINIUS. Well, well! No more. + CORIOLANUS. What is the matter, + That being pass'd for consul with full voice, + I am so dishonour'd that the very hour + You take it off again? + SICINIUS. Answer to us. + CORIOLANUS. Say then; 'tis true, I ought so. + SICINIUS. We charge you that you have contriv'd to take + From Rome all season'd office, and to wind + Yourself into a power tyrannical; + For which you are a traitor to the people. + CORIOLANUS. How- traitor? + MENENIUS. Nay, temperately! Your promise. + CORIOLANUS. The fires i' th' lowest hell fold in the people! + Call me their traitor! Thou injurious tribune! + Within thine eyes sat twenty thousand deaths, + In thy hands clutch'd as many millions, in + Thy lying tongue both numbers, I would say + 'Thou liest' unto thee with a voice as free + As I do pray the gods. + SICINIUS. Mark you this, people? + PLEBEIANS. To th' rock, to th' rock, with him! + SICINIUS. Peace! + We need not put new matter to his charge. + What you have seen him do and heard him speak, + Beating your officers, cursing yourselves, + Opposing laws with strokes, and here defying + Those whose great power must try him- even this, + So criminal and in such capital kind, + Deserves th' extremest death. + BRUTUS. But since he hath + Serv'd well for Rome- + CORIOLANUS. What do you prate of service? + BRUTUS. I talk of that that know it. + CORIOLANUS. You! + MENENIUS. Is this the promise that you made your mother? + COMINIUS. Know, I pray you- + CORIOLANUS. I'll know no further. + Let them pronounce the steep Tarpeian death, + Vagabond exile, flaying, pent to linger + But with a grain a day, I would not buy + Their mercy at the price of one fair word, + Nor check my courage for what they can give, + To have't with saying 'Good morrow.' + SICINIUS. For that he has- + As much as in him lies- from time to time + Envied against the people, seeking means + To pluck away their power; as now at last + Given hostile strokes, and that not in the presence + Of dreaded justice, but on the ministers + That do distribute it- in the name o' th' people, + And in the power of us the tribunes, we, + Ev'n from this instant, banish him our city, + In peril of precipitation + From off the rock Tarpeian, never more + To enter our Rome gates. I' th' people's name, + I say it shall be so. + PLEBEIANS. It shall be so, it shall be so! Let him away! + He's banish'd, and it shall be so. + COMINIUS. Hear me, my masters and my common friends- + SICINIUS. He's sentenc'd; no more hearing. + COMINIUS. Let me speak. + I have been consul, and can show for Rome + Her enemies' marks upon me. I do love + My country's good with a respect more tender, + More holy and profound, than mine own life, + My dear wife's estimate, her womb's increase + And treasure of my loins. Then if I would + Speak that- + SICINIUS. We know your drift. Speak what? + BRUTUS. There's no more to be said, but he is banish'd, + As enemy to the people and his country. + It shall be so. + PLEBEIANS. It shall be so, it shall be so. + CORIOLANUS. YOU common cry of curs, whose breath I hate + As reek o' th' rotten fens, whose loves I prize + As the dead carcasses of unburied men + That do corrupt my air- I banish you. + And here remain with your uncertainty! + Let every feeble rumour shake your hearts; + Your enemies, with nodding of their plumes, + Fan you into despair! Have the power still + To banish your defenders, till at length + Your ignorance- which finds not till it feels, + Making but reservation of yourselves + Still your own foes- deliver you + As most abated captives to some nation + That won you without blows! Despising + For you the city, thus I turn my back; + There is a world elsewhere. + Exeunt CORIOLANUS, + COMINIUS, MENENIUS, with the other PATRICIANS + AEDILE. The people's enemy is gone, is gone! + [They all shout and throw up their caps] + PLEBEIANS. Our enemy is banish'd, he is gone! Hoo-oo! + SICINIUS. Go see him out at gates, and follow him, + As he hath follow'd you, with all despite; + Give him deserv'd vexation. Let a guard + Attend us through the city. + PLEBEIANS. Come, come, let's see him out at gates; come! + The gods preserve our noble tribunes! Come. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE I. Rome. Before a gate of the city + +Enter CORIOLANUS, VOLUMNIA, VIRGILIA, MENENIUS, COMINIUS, with the +young NOBILITY of Rome + + CORIOLANUS. Come, leave your tears; a brief farewell. The beast + With many heads butts me away. Nay, mother, + Where is your ancient courage? You were us'd + To say extremities was the trier of spirits; + That common chances common men could bear; + That when the sea was calm all boats alike + Show'd mastership in floating; fortune's blows, + When most struck home, being gentle wounded craves + A noble cunning. You were us'd to load me + With precepts that would make invincible + The heart that conn'd them. + VIRGILIA. O heavens! O heavens! + CORIOLANUS. Nay, I prithee, woman- + VOLUMNIA. Now the red pestilence strike all trades in Rome, + And occupations perish! + CORIOLANUS. What, what, what! + I shall be lov'd when I am lack'd. Nay, mother, + Resume that spirit when you were wont to say, + If you had been the wife of Hercules, + Six of his labours you'd have done, and sav'd + Your husband so much sweat. Cominius, + Droop not; adieu. Farewell, my wife, my mother. + I'll do well yet. Thou old and true Menenius, + Thy tears are salter than a younger man's + And venomous to thine eyes. My sometime General, + I have seen thee stern, and thou hast oft beheld + Heart-hard'ning spectacles; tell these sad women + 'Tis fond to wail inevitable strokes, + As 'tis to laugh at 'em. My mother, you wot well + My hazards still have been your solace; and + Believe't not lightly- though I go alone, + Like to a lonely dragon, that his fen + Makes fear'd and talk'd of more than seen- your son + Will or exceed the common or be caught + With cautelous baits and practice. + VOLUMNIA. My first son, + Whither wilt thou go? Take good Cominius + With thee awhile; determine on some course + More than a wild exposture to each chance + That starts i' th' way before thee. + VIRGILIA. O the gods! + COMINIUS. I'll follow thee a month, devise with the + Where thou shalt rest, that thou mayst hear of us, + And we of thee; so, if the time thrust forth + A cause for thy repeal, we shall not send + O'er the vast world to seek a single man, + And lose advantage, which doth ever cool + I' th' absence of the needer. + CORIOLANUS. Fare ye well; + Thou hast years upon thee, and thou art too full + Of the wars' surfeits to go rove with one + That's yet unbruis'd; bring me but out at gate. + Come, my sweet wife, my dearest mother, and + My friends of noble touch; when I am forth, + Bid me farewell, and smile. I pray you come. + While I remain above the ground you shall + Hear from me still, and never of me aught + But what is like me formerly. + MENENIUS. That's worthily + As any ear can hear. Come, let's not weep. + If I could shake off but one seven years + From these old arms and legs, by the good gods, + I'd with thee every foot. + CORIOLANUS. Give me thy hand. + Come. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Rome. A street near the gate + +Enter the two Tribunes, SICINIUS and BRUTUS with the AEDILE + + SICINIUS. Bid them all home; he's gone, and we'll no further. + The nobility are vex'd, whom we see have sided + In his behalf. + BRUTUS. Now we have shown our power, + Let us seem humbler after it is done + Than when it was a-doing. + SICINIUS. Bid them home. + Say their great enemy is gone, and they + Stand in their ancient strength. + BRUTUS. Dismiss them home. Exit AEDILE + Here comes his mother. + + Enter VOLUMNIA, VIRGILIA, and MENENIUS + + SICINIUS. Let's not meet her. + BRUTUS. Why? + SICINIUS. They say she's mad. + BRUTUS. They have ta'en note of us; keep on your way. + VOLUMNIA. O, Y'are well met; th' hoarded plague o' th' gods + Requite your love! + MENENIUS. Peace, peace, be not so loud. + VOLUMNIA. If that I could for weeping, you should hear- + Nay, and you shall hear some. [To BRUTUS] Will you be gone? + VIRGILIA. [To SICINIUS] You shall stay too. I would I had the + power + To say so to my husband. + SICINIUS. Are you mankind? + VOLUMNIA. Ay, fool; is that a shame? Note but this, fool: + Was not a man my father? Hadst thou foxship + To banish him that struck more blows for Rome + Than thou hast spoken words? + SICINIUS. O blessed heavens! + VOLUMNIA. Moe noble blows than ever thou wise words; + And for Rome's good. I'll tell thee what- yet go! + Nay, but thou shalt stay too. I would my son + Were in Arabia, and thy tribe before him, + His good sword in his hand. + SICINIUS. What then? + VIRGILIA. What then! + He'd make an end of thy posterity. + VOLUMNIA. Bastards and all. + Good man, the wounds that he does bear for Rome! + MENENIUS. Come, come, peace. + SICINIUS. I would he had continued to his country + As he began, and not unknit himself + The noble knot he made. + BRUTUS. I would he had. + VOLUMNIA. 'I would he had!' 'Twas you incens'd the rabble- + Cats that can judge as fitly of his worth + As I can of those mysteries which heaven + Will not have earth to know. + BRUTUS. Pray, let's go. + VOLUMNIA. Now, pray, sir, get you gone; + You have done a brave deed. Ere you go, hear this: + As far as doth the Capitol exceed + The meanest house in Rome, so far my son- + This lady's husband here, this, do you see?- + Whom you have banish'd does exceed you an. + BRUTUS. Well, well, we'll leave you. + SICINIUS. Why stay we to be baited + With one that wants her wits? Exeunt TRIBUNES + VOLUMNIA. Take my prayers with you. + I would the gods had nothing else to do + But to confirm my curses. Could I meet 'em + But once a day, it would unclog my heart + Of what lies heavy to't. + MENENIUS. You have told them home, + And, by my troth, you have cause. You'll sup with me? + VOLUMNIA. Anger's my meat; I sup upon myself, + And so shall starve with feeding. Come, let's go. + Leave this faint puling and lament as I do, + In anger, Juno-like. Come, come, come. + Exeunt VOLUMNIA and VIRGILIA + MENENIUS. Fie, fie, fie! Exit + +SCENE III. A highway between Rome and Antium + +Enter a ROMAN and a VOLSCE, meeting + + ROMAN. I know you well, sir, and you know me; your name, I think, + is Adrian. + VOLSCE. It is so, sir. Truly, I have forgot you. + ROMAN. I am a Roman; and my services are, as you are, against 'em. + Know you me yet? + VOLSCE. Nicanor? No! + ROMAN. The same, sir. + VOLSCE. YOU had more beard when I last saw you, but your favour is + well appear'd by your tongue. What's the news in Rome? I have a + note from the Volscian state, to find you out there. You have + well saved me a day's journey. + ROMAN. There hath been in Rome strange insurrections: the people + against the senators, patricians, and nobles. + VOLSCE. Hath been! Is it ended, then? Our state thinks not so; they + are in a most warlike preparation, and hope to come upon them in + the heat of their division. + ROMAN. The main blaze of it is past, but a small thing would make + it flame again; for the nobles receive so to heart the banishment + of that worthy Coriolanus that they are in a ripe aptness to take + all power from the people, and to pluck from them their tribunes + for ever. This lies glowing, I can tell you, and is almost mature + for the violent breaking out. + VOLSCE. Coriolanus banish'd! + ROMAN. Banish'd, sir. + VOLSCE. You will be welcome with this intelligence, Nicanor. + ROMAN. The day serves well for them now. I have heard it said the + fittest time to corrupt a man's wife is when she's fall'n out + with her husband. Your noble Tullus Aufidius will appear well in + these wars, his great opposer, Coriolanus, being now in no + request of his country. + VOLSCE. He cannot choose. I am most fortunate thus accidentally to + encounter you; you have ended my business, and I will merrily + accompany you home. + ROMAN. I shall between this and supper tell you most strange things + from Rome, all tending to the good of their adversaries. Have you + an army ready, say you? + VOLSCE. A most royal one: the centurions and their charges, + distinctly billeted, already in th' entertainment, and to be on + foot at an hour's warning. + ROMAN. I am joyful to hear of their readiness, and am the man, I + think, that shall set them in present action. So, sir, heartily + well met, and most glad of your company. + VOLSCE. You take my part from me, sir. I have the most cause to be + glad of yours. + ROMAN. Well, let us go together. + +SCENE IV. Antium. Before AUFIDIUS' house + +Enter CORIOLANUS, in mean apparel, disguis'd and muffled + + CORIOLANUS. A goodly city is this Antium. City, + 'Tis I that made thy widows: many an heir + Of these fair edifices fore my wars + Have I heard groan and drop. Then know me not. + Lest that thy wives with spits and boys with stones, + In puny battle slay me. + + Enter A CITIZEN + + Save you, sir. + CITIZEN. And you. + CORIOLANUS. Direct me, if it be your will, + Where great Aufidius lies. Is he in Antium? + CITIZEN. He is, and feasts the nobles of the state + At his house this night. + CORIOLANUS. Which is his house, beseech you? + CITIZEN. This here before you. + CORIOLANUS. Thank you, sir; farewell. Exit CITIZEN + O world, thy slippery turns! Friends now fast sworn, + Whose double bosoms seems to wear one heart, + Whose hours, whose bed, whose meal and exercise + Are still together, who twin, as 'twere, in love, + Unseparable, shall within this hour, + On a dissension of a doit, break out + To bitterest enmity; so fellest foes, + Whose passions and whose plots have broke their sleep + To take the one the other, by some chance, + Some trick not worth an egg, shall grow dear friends + And interjoin their issues. So with me: + My birthplace hate I, and my love's upon + This enemy town. I'll enter. If he slay me, + He does fair justice: if he give me way, + I'll do his country service. + +SCENE V. Antium. AUFIDIUS' house + +Music plays. Enter A SERVINGMAN + + FIRST SERVANT. Wine, wine, wine! What service is here! I think our + fellows are asleep. Exit + + Enter another SERVINGMAN + + SECOND SERVANT.Where's Cotus? My master calls for him. + Cotus! Exit + + Enter CORIOLANUS + + CORIOLANUS. A goodly house. The feast smells well, but I + Appear not like a guest. + + Re-enter the first SERVINGMAN + + FIRST SERVANT. What would you have, friend? + Whence are you? Here's no place for you: pray go to the door. + Exit + CORIOLANUS. I have deserv'd no better entertainment + In being Coriolanus. + + Re-enter second SERVINGMAN + + SECOND SERVANT. Whence are you, sir? Has the porter his eyes in his + head that he gives entrance to such companions? Pray get you out. + CORIOLANUS. Away! + SECOND SERVANT. Away? Get you away. + CORIOLANUS. Now th' art troublesome. + SECOND SERVANT. Are you so brave? I'll have you talk'd with anon. + + Enter a third SERVINGMAN. The first meets him + + THIRD SERVANT. What fellow's this? + FIRST SERVANT. A strange one as ever I look'd on. I cannot get him + out o' th' house. Prithee call my master to him. + THIRD SERVANT. What have you to do here, fellow? Pray you avoid the + house. + CORIOLANUS. Let me but stand- I will not hurt your hearth. + THIRD SERVANT. What are you? + CORIOLANUS. A gentleman. + THIRD SERVANT. A marv'llous poor one. + CORIOLANUS. True, so I am. + THIRD SERVANT. Pray you, poor gentleman, take up some other + station; here's no place for you. Pray you avoid. Come. + CORIOLANUS. Follow your function, go and batten on cold bits. + [Pushes him away from him] + THIRD SERVANT. What, you will not? Prithee tell my master what a + strange guest he has here. + SECOND SERVANT. And I shall. Exit + THIRD SERVANT. Where dwell'st thou? + CORIOLANUS. Under the canopy. + THIRD SERVANT. Under the canopy? + CORIOLANUS. Ay. + THIRD SERVANT. Where's that? + CORIOLANUS. I' th' city of kites and crows. + THIRD SERVANT. I' th' city of kites and crows! + What an ass it is! Then thou dwell'st with daws too? + CORIOLANUS. No, I serve not thy master. + THIRD SERVANT. How, sir! Do you meddle with my master? + CORIOLANUS. Ay; 'tis an honester service than to meddle with thy + mistress. Thou prat'st and prat'st; serve with thy trencher; + hence! [Beats him away] + + Enter AUFIDIUS with the second SERVINGMAN + + AUFIDIUS. Where is this fellow? + SECOND SERVANT. Here, sir; I'd have beaten him like a dog, but for + disturbing the lords within. + AUFIDIUS. Whence com'st thou? What wouldst thou? Thy name? + Why speak'st not? Speak, man. What's thy name? + CORIOLANUS. [Unmuffling] If, Tullus, + Not yet thou know'st me, and, seeing me, dost not + Think me for the man I am, necessity + Commands me name myself. + AUFIDIUS. What is thy name? + CORIOLANUS. A name unmusical to the Volscians' ears, + And harsh in sound to thine. + AUFIDIUS. Say, what's thy name? + Thou has a grim appearance, and thy face + Bears a command in't; though thy tackle's torn, + Thou show'st a noble vessel. What's thy name? + CORIOLANUS. Prepare thy brow to frown- know'st thou me yet? + AUFIDIUS. I know thee not. Thy name? + CORIOLANUS. My name is Caius Marcius, who hath done + To thee particularly, and to all the Volsces, + Great hurt and mischief; thereto witness may + My surname, Coriolanus. The painful service, + The extreme dangers, and the drops of blood + Shed for my thankless country, are requited + But with that surname- a good memory + And witness of the malice and displeasure + Which thou shouldst bear me. Only that name remains; + The cruelty and envy of the people, + Permitted by our dastard nobles, who + Have all forsook me, hath devour'd the rest, + An suffer'd me by th' voice of slaves to be + Whoop'd out of Rome. Now this extremity + Hath brought me to thy hearth; not out of hope, + Mistake me not, to save my life; for if + I had fear'd death, of all the men i' th' world + I would have 'voided thee; but in mere spite, + To be full quit of those my banishers, + Stand I before thee here. Then if thou hast + A heart of wreak in thee, that wilt revenge + Thine own particular wrongs and stop those maims + Of shame seen through thy country, speed thee straight + And make my misery serve thy turn. So use it + That my revengeful services may prove + As benefits to thee; for I will fight + Against my cank'red country with the spleen + Of all the under fiends. But if so be + Thou dar'st not this, and that to prove more fortunes + Th'art tir'd, then, in a word, I also am + Longer to live most weary, and present + My throat to thee and to thy ancient malice; + Which not to cut would show thee but a fool, + Since I have ever followed thee with hate, + Drawn tuns of blood out of thy country's breast, + And cannot live but to thy shame, unless + It be to do thee service. + AUFIDIUS. O Marcius, Marcius! + Each word thou hast spoke hath weeded from my heart + A root of ancient envy. If Jupiter + Should from yond cloud speak divine things, + And say ''Tis true,' I'd not believe them more + Than thee, all noble Marcius. Let me twine + Mine arms about that body, where against + My grained ash an hundred times hath broke + And scarr'd the moon with splinters; here I clip + The anvil of my sword, and do contest + As hotly and as nobly with thy love + As ever in ambitious strength I did + Contend against thy valour. Know thou first, + I lov'd the maid I married; never man + Sigh'd truer breath; but that I see thee here, + Thou noble thing, more dances my rapt heart + Than when I first my wedded mistress saw + Bestride my threshold. Why, thou Mars, I tell the + We have a power on foot, and I had purpose + Once more to hew thy target from thy brawn, + Or lose mine arm for't. Thou hast beat me out + Twelve several times, and I have nightly since + Dreamt of encounters 'twixt thyself and me- + We have been down together in my sleep, + Unbuckling helms, fisting each other's throat- + And wak'd half dead with nothing. Worthy Marcius, + Had we no other quarrel else to Rome but that + Thou art thence banish'd, we would muster all + From twelve to seventy, and, pouring war + Into the bowels of ungrateful Rome, + Like a bold flood o'erbeat. O, come, go in, + And take our friendly senators by th' hands, + Who now are here, taking their leaves of me + Who am prepar'd against your territories, + Though not for Rome itself. + CORIOLANUS. You bless me, gods! + AUFIDIUS. Therefore, most. absolute sir, if thou wilt have + The leading of thine own revenges, take + Th' one half of my commission, and set down- + As best thou art experienc'd, since thou know'st + Thy country's strength and weakness- thine own ways, + Whether to knock against the gates of Rome, + Or rudely visit them in parts remote + To fright them ere destroy. But come in; + Let me commend thee first to those that shall + Say yea to thy desires. A thousand welcomes! + And more a friend than e'er an enemy; + Yet, Marcius, that was much. Your hand; most welcome! + Exeunt CORIOLANUS and AUFIDIUS + + The two SERVINGMEN come forward + + FIRST SERVANT. Here's a strange alteration! + SECOND SERVANT. By my hand, I had thought to have strucken him with + a cudgel; and yet my mind gave me his clothes made a false report + of him. + FIRST SERVANT. What an arm he has! He turn'd me about with his + finger and his thumb, as one would set up a top. + SECOND SERVANT. Nay, I knew by his face that there was something in + him; he had, sir, a kind of face, methought- I cannot tell how to + term it. + FIRST SERVANT. He had so, looking as it were- Would I were hang'd, + but I thought there was more in him than I could think. + SECOND SERVANT. So did I, I'll be sworn. He is simply the rarest + man i' th' world. + FIRST SERVANT. I think he is; but a greater soldier than he you wot + on. + SECOND SERVANT. Who, my master? + FIRST SERVANT. Nay, it's no matter for that. + SECOND SERVANT. Worth six on him. + FIRST SERVANT. Nay, not so neither; but I take him to be the + greater soldier. + SECOND SERVANT. Faith, look you, one cannot tell how to say that; + for the defence of a town our general is excellent. + FIRST SERVANT. Ay, and for an assault too. + + Re-enter the third SERVINGMAN + + THIRD SERVANT. O slaves, I can tell you news- news, you rascals! + BOTH. What, what, what? Let's partake. + THIRD SERVANT. I would not be a Roman, of all nations; + I had as lief be a condemn'd man. + BOTH. Wherefore? wherefore? + THIRD SERVANT. Why, here's he that was wont to thwack our general- + Caius Marcius. + FIRST SERVANT. Why do you say 'thwack our general'? + THIRD SERVANT. I do not say 'thwack our general,' but he was always + good enough for him. + SECOND SERVANT. Come, we are fellows and friends. He was ever too + hard for him, I have heard him say so himself. + FIRST SERVANT. He was too hard for him directly, to say the troth + on't; before Corioli he scotch'd him and notch'd him like a + carbonado. + SECOND SERVANT. An he had been cannibally given, he might have + broil'd and eaten him too. + FIRST SERVANT. But more of thy news! + THIRD SERVANT. Why, he is so made on here within as if he were son + and heir to Mars; set at upper end o' th' table; no question + asked him by any of the senators but they stand bald before him. + Our general himself makes a mistress of him, sanctifies himself + with's hand, and turns up the white o' th' eye to his discourse. + But the bottom of the news is, our general is cut i' th' middle + and but one half of what he was yesterday, for the other has half + by the entreaty and grant of the whole table. He'll go, he says, + and sowl the porter of Rome gates by th' ears; he will mow all + down before him, and leave his passage poll'd. + SECOND SERVANT. And he's as like to do't as any man I can imagine. + THIRD SERVANT. Do't! He will do't; for look you, sir, he has as + many friends as enemies; which friends, sir, as it were, durst + not- look you, sir- show themselves, as we term it, his friends, + whilst he's in directitude. + FIRST SERVANT. Directitude? What's that? + THIRD SERVANT. But when they shall see, sir, his crest up again and + the man in blood, they will out of their burrows, like conies + after rain, and revel an with him. + FIRST SERVANT. But when goes this forward? + THIRD SERVANT. To-morrow, to-day, presently. You shall have the + drum struck up this afternoon; 'tis as it were parcel of their + feast, and to be executed ere they wipe their lips. + SECOND SERVANT. Why, then we shall have a stirring world again. + This peace is nothing but to rust iron, increase tailors, and + breed ballad-makers. + FIRST SERVANT. Let me have war, say I; it exceeds peace as far as + day does night; it's spritely, waking, audible, and full of vent. + Peace is a very apoplexy, lethargy; mull'd, deaf, sleepy, + insensible; a getter of more bastard children than war's a + destroyer of men. + SECOND SERVANT. 'Tis so; and as war in some sort may be said to be + a ravisher, so it cannot be denied but peace is a great maker of + cuckolds. + FIRST SERVANT. Ay, and it makes men hate one another. + THIRD SERVANT. Reason: because they then less need one another. The + wars for my money. I hope to see Romans as cheap as Volscians. + They are rising, they are rising. + BOTH. In, in, in, in! Exeunt + +SCENE VI. Rome. A public place + +Enter the two Tribunes, SICINIUS and BRUTUS + + SICINIUS. We hear not of him, neither need we fear him. + His remedies are tame. The present peace + And quietness of the people, which before + Were in wild hurry, here do make his friends + Blush that the world goes well; who rather had, + Though they themselves did suffer by't, behold + Dissentious numbers pest'ring streets than see + Our tradesmen singing in their shops, and going + About their functions friendly. + + Enter MENENIUS + + BRUTUS. We stood to't in good time. Is this Menenius? + SICINIUS. 'Tis he, 'tis he. O, he is grown most kind + Of late. Hail, sir! + MENENIUS. Hail to you both! + SICINIUS. Your Coriolanus is not much miss'd + But with his friends. The commonwealth doth stand, + And so would do, were he more angry at it. + MENENIUS. All's well, and might have been much better + He could have temporiz'd. + SICINIUS. Where is he, hear you? + MENENIUS. Nay, I hear nothing; his mother and his wife + Hear nothing from him. + + Enter three or four citizens + + CITIZENS. The gods preserve you both! + SICINIUS. God-den, our neighbours. + BRUTUS. God-den to you all, god-den to you an. + FIRST CITIZEN. Ourselves, our wives, and children, on our knees + Are bound to pray for you both. + SICINIUS. Live and thrive! + BRUTUS. Farewell, kind neighbours; we wish'd Coriolanus + Had lov'd you as we did. + CITIZENS. Now the gods keep you! + BOTH TRIBUNES. Farewell, farewell. Exeunt citizens + SICINIUS. This is a happier and more comely time + Than when these fellows ran about the streets + Crying confusion. + BRUTUS. Caius Marcius was + A worthy officer i' the war, but insolent, + O'ercome with pride, ambitious past all thinking, + Self-loving- + SICINIUS. And affecting one sole throne, + Without assistance. + MENENIUS. I think not so. + SICINIUS. We should by this, to all our lamentation, + If he had gone forth consul, found it so. + BRUTUS. The gods have well prevented it, and Rome + Sits safe and still without him. + + Enter an AEDILE + + AEDILE. Worthy tribunes, + There is a slave, whom we have put in prison, + Reports the Volsces with several powers + Are ent'red in the Roman territories, + And with the deepest malice of the war + Destroy what lies before 'em. + MENENIUS. 'Tis Aufidius, + Who, hearing of our Marcius' banishment, + Thrusts forth his horns again into the world, + Which were inshell'd when Marcius stood for Rome, + And durst not once peep out. + SICINIUS. Come, what talk you of Marcius? + BRUTUS. Go see this rumourer whipp'd. It cannot be + The Volsces dare break with us. + MENENIUS. Cannot be! + We have record that very well it can; + And three examples of the like hath been + Within my age. But reason with the fellow + Before you punish him, where he heard this, + Lest you shall chance to whip your information + And beat the messenger who bids beware + Of what is to be dreaded. + SICINIUS. Tell not me. + I know this cannot be. + BRUTUS. Not Possible. + + Enter A MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. The nobles in great earnestness are going + All to the Senate House; some news is come + That turns their countenances. + SICINIUS. 'Tis this slave- + Go whip him fore the people's eyes- his raising, + Nothing but his report. + MESSENGER. Yes, worthy sir, + The slave's report is seconded, and more, + More fearful, is deliver'd. + SICINIUS. What more fearful? + MESSENGER. It is spoke freely out of many mouths- + How probable I do not know- that Marcius, + Join'd with Aufidius, leads a power 'gainst Rome, + And vows revenge as spacious as between + The young'st and oldest thing. + SICINIUS. This is most likely! + BRUTUS. Rais'd only that the weaker sort may wish + Good Marcius home again. + SICINIUS. The very trick on 't. + MENENIUS. This is unlikely. + He and Aufidius can no more atone + Than violent'st contrariety. + + Enter a second MESSENGER + + SECOND MESSENGER. You are sent for to the Senate. + A fearful army, led by Caius Marcius + Associated with Aufidius, rages + Upon our territories, and have already + O'erborne their way, consum'd with fire and took + What lay before them. + + Enter COMINIUS + + COMINIUS. O, you have made good work! + MENENIUS. What news? what news? + COMINIUS. You have holp to ravish your own daughters and + To melt the city leads upon your pates, + To see your wives dishonour'd to your noses- + MENENIUS. What's the news? What's the news? + COMINIUS. Your temples burned in their cement, and + Your franchises, whereon you stood, confin'd + Into an auger's bore. + MENENIUS. Pray now, your news? + You have made fair work, I fear me. Pray, your news. + If Marcius should be join'd wi' th' Volscians- + COMINIUS. If! + He is their god; he leads them like a thing + Made by some other deity than Nature, + That shapes man better; and they follow him + Against us brats with no less confidence + Than boys pursuing summer butterflies, + Or butchers killing flies. + MENENIUS. You have made good work, + You and your apron men; you that stood so much + Upon the voice of occupation and + The breath of garlic-eaters! + COMINIUS. He'll shake + Your Rome about your ears. + MENENIUS. As Hercules + Did shake down mellow fruit. You have made fair work! + BRUTUS. But is this true, sir? + COMINIUS. Ay; and you'll look pale + Before you find it other. All the regions + Do smilingly revolt, and who resists + Are mock'd for valiant ignorance, + And perish constant fools. Who is't can blame him? + Your enemies and his find something in him. + MENENIUS. We are all undone unless + The noble man have mercy. + COMINIUS. Who shall ask it? + The tribunes cannot do't for shame; the people + Deserve such pity of him as the wolf + Does of the shepherds; for his best friends, if they + Should say 'Be good to Rome'- they charg'd him even + As those should do that had deserv'd his hate, + And therein show'd fike enemies. + MENENIUS. 'Tis true; + If he were putting to my house the brand + That should consume it, I have not the face + To say 'Beseech you, cease.' You have made fair hands, + You and your crafts! You have crafted fair! + COMINIUS. You have brought + A trembling upon Rome, such as was never + S' incapable of help. + BOTH TRIBUNES. Say not we brought it. + MENENIUS. How! Was't we? We lov'd him, but, like beasts + And cowardly nobles, gave way unto your clusters, + Who did hoot him out o' th' city. + COMINIUS. But I fear + They'll roar him in again. Tullus Aufidius, + The second name of men, obeys his points + As if he were his officer. Desperation + Is all the policy, strength, and defence, + That Rome can make against them. + + Enter a troop of citizens + + MENENIUS. Here comes the clusters. + And is Aufidius with him? You are they + That made the air unwholesome when you cast + Your stinking greasy caps in hooting at + Coriolanus' exile. Now he's coming, + And not a hair upon a soldier's head + Which will not prove a whip; as many coxcombs + As you threw caps up will he tumble down, + And pay you for your voices. 'Tis no matter; + If he could burn us all into one coal + We have deserv'd it. + PLEBEIANS. Faith, we hear fearful news. + FIRST CITIZEN. For mine own part, + When I said banish him, I said 'twas pity. + SECOND CITIZEN. And so did I. + THIRD CITIZEN. And so did I; and, to say the truth, so did very + many of us. That we did, we did for the best; and though we + willingly consented to his banishment, yet it was against our + will. + COMINIUS. Y'are goodly things, you voices! + MENENIUS. You have made + Good work, you and your cry! Shall's to the Capitol? + COMINIUS. O, ay, what else? + Exeunt COMINIUS and MENENIUS + SICINIUS. Go, masters, get you be not dismay'd; + These are a side that would be glad to have + This true which they so seem to fear. Go home, + And show no sign of fear. + FIRST CITIZEN. The gods be good to us! Come, masters, let's home. I + ever said we were i' th' wrong when we banish'd him. + SECOND CITIZEN. So did we all. But come, let's home. + Exeunt citizens + BRUTUS. I do not like this news. + SICINIUS. Nor I. + BRUTUS. Let's to the Capitol. Would half my wealth + Would buy this for a lie! + SICINIUS. Pray let's go. Exeunt + +SCENE VII. A camp at a short distance from Rome + +Enter AUFIDIUS with his LIEUTENANT + + AUFIDIUS. Do they still fly to th' Roman? + LIEUTENANT. I do not know what witchcraft's in him, but + Your soldiers use him as the grace fore meat, + Their talk at table, and their thanks at end; + And you are dark'ned in this action, sir, + Even by your own. + AUFIDIUS. I cannot help it now, + Unless by using means I lame the foot + Of our design. He bears himself more proudlier, + Even to my person, than I thought he would + When first I did embrace him; yet his nature + In that's no changeling, and I must excuse + What cannot be amended. + LIEUTENANT. Yet I wish, sir- + I mean, for your particular- you had not + Join'd in commission with him, but either + Had borne the action of yourself, or else + To him had left it solely. + AUFIDIUS. I understand thee well; and be thou sure, + When he shall come to his account, he knows not + What I can urge against him. Although it seems, + And so he thinks, and is no less apparent + To th' vulgar eye, that he bears all things fairly + And shows good husbandry for the Volscian state, + Fights dragon-like, and does achieve as soon + As draw his sword; yet he hath left undone + That which shall break his neck or hazard mine + Whene'er we come to our account. + LIEUTENANT. Sir, I beseech you, think you he'll carry Rome? + AUFIDIUS. All places yield to him ere he sits down, + And the nobility of Rome are his; + The senators and patricians love him too. + The tribunes are no soldiers, and their people + Will be as rash in the repeal as hasty + To expel him thence. I think he'll be to Rome + As is the osprey to the fish, who takes it + By sovereignty of nature. First he was + A noble servant to them, but he could not + Carry his honours even. Whether 'twas pride, + Which out of daily fortune ever taints + The happy man; whether defect of judgment, + To fail in the disposing of those chances + Which he was lord of; or whether nature, + Not to be other than one thing, not moving + From th' casque to th' cushion, but commanding peace + Even with the same austerity and garb + As he controll'd the war; but one of these- + As he hath spices of them all- not all, + For I dare so far free him- made him fear'd, + So hated, and so banish'd. But he has a merit + To choke it in the utt'rance. So our virtues + Lie in th' interpretation of the time; + And power, unto itself most commendable, + Hath not a tomb so evident as a chair + T' extol what it hath done. + One fire drives out one fire; one nail, one nail; + Rights by rights falter, strengths by strengths do fail. + Come, let's away. When, Caius, Rome is thine, + Thou art poor'st of all; then shortly art thou mine. + Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE I. Rome. A public place + +Enter MENENIUS, COMINIUS, SICINIUS and BRUTUS, the two Tribunes, with +others + + MENENIUS. No, I'll not go. You hear what he hath said + Which was sometime his general, who lov'd him + In a most dear particular. He call'd me father; + But what o' that? Go, you that banish'd him: + A mile before his tent fall down, and knee + The way into his mercy. Nay, if he coy'd + To hear Cominius speak, I'll keep at home. + COMINIUS. He would not seem to know me. + MENENIUS. Do you hear? + COMINIUS. Yet one time he did call me by my name. + I urg'd our old acquaintance, and the drops + That we have bled together. 'Coriolanus' + He would not answer to; forbid all names; + He was a kind of nothing, titleless, + Till he had forg'd himself a name i' th' fire + Of burning Rome. + MENENIUS. Why, so! You have made good work. + A pair of tribunes that have wrack'd for Rome + To make coals cheap- a noble memory! + COMINIUS. I minded him how royal 'twas to pardon + When it was less expected; he replied, + It was a bare petition of a state + To one whom they had punish'd. + MENENIUS. Very well. + Could he say less? + COMINIUS. I offer'd to awaken his regard + For's private friends; his answer to me was, + He could not stay to pick them in a pile + Of noisome musty chaff. He said 'twas folly, + For one poor grain or two, to leave unburnt + And still to nose th' offence. + MENENIUS. For one poor grain or two! + I am one of those. His mother, wife, his child, + And this brave fellow too- we are the grains: + You are the musty chaff, and you are smelt + Above the moon. We must be burnt for you. + SICINIUS. Nay, pray be patient; if you refuse your aid + In this so never-needed help, yet do not + Upbraid's with our distress. But sure, if you + Would be your country's pleader, your good tongue, + More than the instant army we can make, + Might stop our countryman. + MENENIUS. No; I'll not meddle. + SICINIUS. Pray you go to him. + MENENIUS. What should I do? + BRUTUS. Only make trial what your love can do + For Rome, towards Marcius. + MENENIUS. Well, and say that Marcius + Return me, as Cominius is return'd, + Unheard- what then? + But as a discontented friend, grief-shot + With his unkindness? Say't be so? + SICINIUS. Yet your good will + Must have that thanks from Rome after the measure + As you intended well. + MENENIUS. I'll undertake't; + I think he'll hear me. Yet to bite his lip + And hum at good Cominius much unhearts me. + He was not taken well: he had not din'd; + The veins unfill'd, our blood is cold, and then + We pout upon the morning, are unapt + To give or to forgive; but when we have stuff'd + These pipes and these conveyances of our blood + With wine and feeding, we have suppler souls + Than in our priest-like fasts. Therefore I'll watch him + Till he be dieted to my request, + And then I'll set upon him. + BRUTUS. You know the very road into his kindness + And cannot lose your way. + MENENIUS. Good faith, I'll prove him, + Speed how it will. I shall ere long have knowledge + Of my success. Exit + COMINIUS. He'll never hear him. + SICINIUS. Not? + COMINIUS. I tell you he does sit in gold, his eye + Red as 'twould burn Rome, and his injury + The gaoler to his pity. I kneel'd before him; + 'Twas very faintly he said 'Rise'; dismiss'd me + Thus with his speechless hand. What he would do, + He sent in writing after me; what he would not, + Bound with an oath to yield to his conditions; + So that all hope is vain, + Unless his noble mother and his wife, + Who, as I hear, mean to solicit him + For mercy to his country. Therefore let's hence, + And with our fair entreaties haste them on. Exeunt + +SCENE II. The Volscian camp before Rome + +Enter MENENIUS to the WATCH on guard + + FIRST WATCH. Stay. Whence are you? + SECOND WATCH. Stand, and go back. + MENENIUS. You guard like men, 'tis well; but, by your leave, + I am an officer of state and come + To speak with Coriolanus. + FIRST WATCH. From whence? + MENENIUS. From Rome. + FIRST WATCH. YOU may not pass; you must return. Our general + Will no more hear from thence. + SECOND WATCH. You'll see your Rome embrac'd with fire before + You'll speak with Coriolanus. + MENENIUS. Good my friends, + If you have heard your general talk of Rome + And of his friends there, it is lots to blanks + My name hath touch'd your ears: it is Menenius. + FIRST WATCH. Be it so; go back. The virtue of your name + Is not here passable. + MENENIUS. I tell thee, fellow, + Thy general is my lover. I have been + The book of his good acts whence men have read + His fame unparallel'd haply amplified; + For I have ever verified my friends- + Of whom he's chief- with all the size that verity + Would without lapsing suffer. Nay, sometimes, + Like to a bowl upon a subtle ground, + I have tumbled past the throw, and in his praise + Have almost stamp'd the leasing; therefore, fellow, + I must have leave to pass. + FIRST WATCH. Faith, sir, if you had told as many lies in his behalf + as you have uttered words in your own, you should not pass here; + no, though it were as virtuous to lie as to live chastely. + Therefore go back. + MENENIUS. Prithee, fellow, remember my name is Menenius, always + factionary on the party of your general. + SECOND WATCH. Howsoever you have been his liar, as you say you + have, I am one that, telling true under him, must say you cannot + pass. Therefore go back. + MENENIUS. Has he din'd, canst thou tell? For I would not speak with + him till after dinner. + FIRST WATCH. You are a Roman, are you? + MENENIUS. I am as thy general is. + FIRST WATCH. Then you should hate Rome, as he does. Can you, when + you have push'd out your gates the very defender of them, and in + a violent popular ignorance given your enemy your shield, think + to front his revenges with the easy groans of old women, the + virginal palms of your daughters, or with the palsied + intercession of such a decay'd dotant as you seem to be? Can you + think to blow out the intended fire your city is ready to flame + in with such weak breath as this? No, you are deceiv'd; therefore + back to Rome and prepare for your execution. You are condemn'd; + our general has sworn you out of reprieve and pardon. + MENENIUS. Sirrah, if thy captain knew I were here, he would use me + with estimation. + FIRST WATCH. Come, my captain knows you not. + MENENIUS. I mean thy general. + FIRST WATCH. My general cares not for you. Back, I say; go, lest I + let forth your half pint of blood. Back- that's the utmost of + your having. Back. + MENENIUS. Nay, but fellow, fellow- + + Enter CORIOLANUS with AUFIDIUS + + CORIOLANUS. What's the matter? + MENENIUS. Now, you companion, I'll say an errand for you; you shall + know now that I am in estimation; you shall perceive that a Jack + guardant cannot office me from my son Coriolanus. Guess but by my + entertainment with him if thou stand'st not i' th' state of + hanging, or of some death more long in spectatorship and crueller + in suffering; behold now presently, and swoon for what's to come + upon thee. The glorious gods sit in hourly synod about thy + particular prosperity, and love thee no worse than thy old father + Menenius does! O my son! my son! thou art preparing fire for us; + look thee, here's water to quench it. I was hardly moved to come + to thee; but being assured none but myself could move thee, I + have been blown out of your gates with sighs, and conjure thee to + pardon Rome and thy petitionary countrymen. The good gods assuage + thy wrath, and turn the dregs of it upon this varlet here; this, + who, like a block, hath denied my access to thee. + CORIOLANUS. Away! + MENENIUS. How! away! + CORIOLANUS. Wife, mother, child, I know not. My affairs + Are servanted to others. Though I owe + My revenge properly, my remission lies + In Volscian breasts. That we have been familiar, + Ingrate forgetfulness shall poison rather + Than pity note how much. Therefore be gone. + Mine ears against your suits are stronger than + Your gates against my force. Yet, for I lov'd thee, + Take this along; I writ it for thy sake [Gives a letter] + And would have sent it. Another word, Menenius, + I will not hear thee speak. This man, Aufidius, + Was my belov'd in Rome; yet thou behold'st. + AUFIDIUS. You keep a constant temper. + Exeunt CORIOLANUS and Aufidius + FIRST WATCH. Now, sir, is your name Menenius? + SECOND WATCH. 'Tis a spell, you see, of much power! You know the + way home again. + FIRST WATCH. Do you hear how we are shent for keeping your + greatness back? + SECOND WATCH. What cause, do you think, I have to swoon? + MENENIUS. I neither care for th' world nor your general; for such + things as you, I can scarce think there's any, y'are so slight. + He that hath a will to die by himself fears it not from another. + Let your general do his worst. For you, be that you are, long; + and your misery increase with your age! I say to you, as I was + said to: Away! Exit + FIRST WATCH. A noble fellow, I warrant him. + SECOND WATCH. The worthy fellow is our general; he's the rock, the + oak not to be wind-shaken. Exeunt + +SCENE III. The tent of CORIOLANUS + +Enter CORIOLANUS, AUFIDIUS, and others + + CORIOLANUS. We will before the walls of Rome to-morrow + Set down our host. My partner in this action, + You must report to th' Volscian lords how plainly + I have borne this business. + AUFIDIUS. Only their ends + You have respected; stopp'd your ears against + The general suit of Rome; never admitted + A private whisper- no, not with such friends + That thought them sure of you. + CORIOLANUS. This last old man, + Whom with crack'd heart I have sent to Rome, + Lov'd me above the measure of a father; + Nay, godded me indeed. Their latest refuge + Was to send him; for whose old love I have- + Though I show'd sourly to him- once more offer'd + The first conditions, which they did refuse + And cannot now accept. To grace him only, + That thought he could do more, a very little + I have yielded to; fresh embassies and suits, + Nor from the state nor private friends, hereafter + Will I lend ear to. [Shout within] Ha! what shout is this? + Shall I be tempted to infringe my vow + In the same time 'tis made? I will not. + + Enter, in mourning habits, VIRGILIA, VOLUMNIA, VALERIA, + YOUNG MARCIUS, with attendants + + My wife comes foremost, then the honour'd mould + Wherein this trunk was fram'd, and in her hand + The grandchild to her blood. But out, affection! + All bond and privilege of nature, break! + Let it be virtuous to be obstinate. + What is that curtsy worth? or those doves' eyes, + Which can make gods forsworn? I melt, and am not + Of stronger earth than others. My mother bows, + As if Olympus to a molehill should + In supplication nod; and my young boy + Hath an aspect of intercession which + Great nature cries 'Deny not.' Let the Volsces + Plough Rome and harrow Italy; I'll never + Be such a gosling to obey instinct, but stand + As if a man were author of himself + And knew no other kin. + VIRGILIA. My lord and husband! + CORIOLANUS. These eyes are not the same I wore in Rome. + VIRGILIA. The sorrow that delivers us thus chang'd + Makes you think so. + CORIOLANUS. Like a dull actor now + I have forgot my part and I am out, + Even to a full disgrace. Best of my flesh, + Forgive my tyranny; but do not say, + For that, 'Forgive our Romans.' O, a kiss + Long as my exile, sweet as my revenge! + Now, by the jealous queen of heaven, that kiss + I carried from thee, dear, and my true lip + Hath virgin'd it e'er since. You gods! I prate, + And the most noble mother of the world + Leave unsaluted. Sink, my knee, i' th' earth; [Kneels] + Of thy deep duty more impression show + Than that of common sons. + VOLUMNIA. O, stand up blest! + Whilst with no softer cushion than the flint + I kneel before thee, and unproperly + Show duty, as mistaken all this while + Between the child and parent. [Kneels] + CORIOLANUS. What's this? + Your knees to me, to your corrected son? + Then let the pebbles on the hungry beach + Fillip the stars; then let the mutinous winds + Strike the proud cedars 'gainst the fiery sun, + Murd'ring impossibility, to make + What cannot be slight work. + VOLUMNIA. Thou art my warrior; + I holp to frame thee. Do you know this lady? + CORIOLANUS. The noble sister of Publicola, + The moon of Rome, chaste as the icicle + That's curdied by the frost from purest snow, + And hangs on Dian's temple- dear Valeria! + VOLUMNIA. This is a poor epitome of yours, + Which by th' interpretation of full time + May show like all yourself. + CORIOLANUS. The god of soldiers, + With the consent of supreme Jove, inform + Thy thoughts with nobleness, that thou mayst prove + To shame unvulnerable, and stick i' th' wars + Like a great sea-mark, standing every flaw, + And saving those that eye thee! + VOLUMNIA. Your knee, sirrah. + CORIOLANUS. That's my brave boy. + VOLUMNIA. Even he, your wife, this lady, and myself, + Are suitors to you. + CORIOLANUS. I beseech you, peace! + Or, if you'd ask, remember this before: + The thing I have forsworn to grant may never + Be held by you denials. Do not bid me + Dismiss my soldiers, or capitulate + Again with Rome's mechanics. Tell me not + Wherein I seem unnatural; desire not + T'allay my rages and revenges with + Your colder reasons. + VOLUMNIA. O, no more, no more! + You have said you will not grant us any thing- + For we have nothing else to ask but that + Which you deny already; yet we will ask, + That, if you fail in our request, the blame + May hang upon your hardness; therefore hear us. + CORIOLANUS. Aufidius, and you Volsces, mark; for we'll + Hear nought from Rome in private. Your request? + VOLUMNIA. Should we be silent and not speak, our raiment + And state of bodies would bewray what life + We have led since thy exile. Think with thyself + How more unfortunate than all living women + Are we come hither; since that thy sight, which should + Make our eyes flow with joy, hearts dance with comforts, + Constrains them weep and shake with fear and sorrow, + Making the mother, wife, and child, to see + The son, the husband, and the father, tearing + His country's bowels out. And to poor we + Thine enmity's most capital: thou bar'st us + Our prayers to the gods, which is a comfort + That all but we enjoy. For how can we, + Alas, how can we for our country pray, + Whereto we are bound, together with thy victory, + Whereto we are bound? Alack, or we must lose + The country, our dear nurse, or else thy person, + Our comfort in the country. We must find + An evident calamity, though we had + Our wish, which side should win; for either thou + Must as a foreign recreant be led + With manacles through our streets, or else + Triumphantly tread on thy country's ruin, + And bear the palm for having bravely shed + Thy wife and children's blood. For myself, son, + I purpose not to wait on fortune till + These wars determine; if I can not persuade thee + Rather to show a noble grace to both parts + Than seek the end of one, thou shalt no sooner + March to assault thy country than to tread- + Trust to't, thou shalt not- on thy mother's womb + That brought thee to this world. + VIRGILIA. Ay, and mine, + That brought you forth this boy to keep your name + Living to time. + BOY. 'A shall not tread on me! + I'll run away till I am bigger, but then I'll fight. + CORIOLANUS. Not of a woman's tenderness to be + Requires nor child nor woman's face to see. + I have sat too long. [Rising] + VOLUMNIA. Nay, go not from us thus. + If it were so that our request did tend + To save the Romans, thereby to destroy + The Volsces whom you serve, you might condemn us + As poisonous of your honour. No, our suit + Is that you reconcile them: while the Volsces + May say 'This mercy we have show'd,' the Romans + 'This we receiv'd,' and each in either side + Give the all-hail to thee, and cry 'Be blest + For making up this peace!' Thou know'st, great son, + The end of war's uncertain; but this certain, + That, if thou conquer Rome, the benefit + Which thou shalt thereby reap is such a name + Whose repetition will be dogg'd with curses; + Whose chronicle thus writ: 'The man was noble, + But with his last attempt he wip'd it out, + Destroy'd his country, and his name remains + To th' ensuing age abhorr'd.' Speak to me, son. + Thou hast affected the fine strains of honour, + To imitate the graces of the gods, + To tear with thunder the wide cheeks o' th' air, + And yet to charge thy sulphur with a bolt + That should but rive an oak. Why dost not speak? + Think'st thou it honourable for a noble man + Still to remember wrongs? Daughter, speak you: + He cares not for your weeping. Speak thou, boy; + Perhaps thy childishness will move him more + Than can our reasons. There's no man in the world + More bound to's mother, yet here he lets me prate + Like one i' th' stocks. Thou hast never in thy life + Show'd thy dear mother any courtesy, + When she, poor hen, fond of no second brood, + Has cluck'd thee to the wars, and safely home + Loaden with honour. Say my request's unjust, + And spurn me back; but if it he not so, + Thou art not honest, and the gods will plague thee, + That thou restrain'st from me the duty which + To a mother's part belongs. He turns away. + Down, ladies; let us shame him with our knees. + To his surname Coriolanus 'longs more pride + Than pity to our prayers. Down. An end; + This is the last. So we will home to Rome, + And die among our neighbours. Nay, behold's! + This boy, that cannot tell what he would have + But kneels and holds up hands for fellowship, + Does reason our petition with more strength + Than thou hast to deny't. Come, let us go. + This fellow had a Volscian to his mother; + His wife is in Corioli, and his child + Like him by chance. Yet give us our dispatch. + I am hush'd until our city be afire, + And then I'll speak a little. + [He holds her by the hand, silent] + CORIOLANUS. O mother, mother! + What have you done? Behold, the heavens do ope, + The gods look down, and this unnatural scene + They laugh at. O my mother, mother! O! + You have won a happy victory to Rome; + But for your son- believe it, O, believe it!- + Most dangerously you have with him prevail'd, + If not most mortal to him. But let it come. + Aufidius, though I cannot make true wars, + I'll frame convenient peace. Now, good Aufidius, + Were you in my stead, would you have heard + A mother less, or granted less, Aufidius? + AUFIDIUS. I was mov'd withal. + CORIOLANUS. I dare be sworn you were! + And, sir, it is no little thing to make + Mine eyes to sweat compassion. But, good sir, + What peace you'fl make, advise me. For my part, + I'll not to Rome, I'll back with you; and pray you + Stand to me in this cause. O mother! wife! + AUFIDIUS. [Aside] I am glad thou hast set thy mercy and thy + honour + At difference in thee. Out of that I'll work + Myself a former fortune. + CORIOLANUS. [To the ladies] Ay, by and by; + But we will drink together; and you shall bear + A better witness back than words, which we, + On like conditions, will have counter-seal'd. + Come, enter with us. Ladies, you deserve + To have a temple built you. All the swords + In Italy, and her confederate arms, + Could not have made this peace. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Rome. A public place + +Enter MENENIUS and SICINIUS + + MENENIUS. See you yond coign o' th' Capitol, yond cornerstone? + SICINIUS. Why, what of that? + MENENIUS. If it be possible for you to displace it with your little + finger, there is some hope the ladies of Rome, especially his + mother, may prevail with him. But I say there is no hope in't; + our throats are sentenc'd, and stay upon execution. + SICINIUS. Is't possible that so short a time can alter the + condition of a man? + MENENIUS. There is differency between a grub and a butterfly; yet + your butterfly was a grub. This Marcius is grown from man to + dragon; he has wings, he's more than a creeping thing. + SICINIUS. He lov'd his mother dearly. + MENENIUS. So did he me; and he no more remembers his mother now + than an eight-year-old horse. The tartness of his face sours ripe + grapes; when he walks, he moves like an engine and the ground + shrinks before his treading. He is able to pierce a corslet with + his eye, talks like a knell, and his hum is a battery. He sits in + his state as a thing made for Alexander. What he bids be done is + finish'd with his bidding. He wants nothing of a god but + eternity, and a heaven to throne in. + SICINIUS. Yes- mercy, if you report him truly. + MENENIUS. I paint him in the character. Mark what mercy his mother + shall bring from him. There is no more mercy in him than there is + milk in a male tiger; that shall our poor city find. And all this + is 'long of you. + SICINIUS. The gods be good unto us! + MENENIUS. No, in such a case the gods will not be good unto us. + When we banish'd him we respected not them; and, he returning to + break our necks, they respect not us. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. Sir, if you'd save your life, fly to your house. + The plebeians have got your fellow tribune + And hale him up and down; all swearing if + The Roman ladies bring not comfort home + They'll give him death by inches. + + Enter another MESSENGER + + SICINIUS. What's the news? + SECOND MESSENGER. Good news, good news! The ladies have prevail'd, + The Volscians are dislodg'd, and Marcius gone. + A merrier day did never yet greet Rome, + No, not th' expulsion of the Tarquins. + SICINIUS. Friend, + Art thou certain this is true? Is't most certain? + SECOND MESSENGER. As certain as I know the sun is fire. + Where have you lurk'd, that you make doubt of it? + Ne'er through an arch so hurried the blown tide + As the recomforted through th' gates. Why, hark you! + [Trumpets, hautboys, drums beat, all together] + The trumpets, sackbuts, psalteries, and fifes, + Tabors and cymbals, and the shouting Romans, + Make the sun dance. Hark you! [A shout within] + MENENIUS. This is good news. + I will go meet the ladies. This Volumnia + Is worth of consuls, senators, patricians, + A city full; of tribunes such as you, + A sea and land full. You have pray'd well to-day: + This morning for ten thousand of your throats + I'd not have given a doit. Hark, how they joy! + [Sound still with the shouts] + SICINIUS. First, the gods bless you for your tidings; next, + Accept my thankfulness. + SECOND MESSENGER. Sir, we have all + Great cause to give great thanks. + SICINIUS. They are near the city? + MESSENGER. Almost at point to enter. + SICINIUS. We'll meet them, + And help the joy. Exeunt + +SCENE V. Rome. A street near the gate + +Enter two SENATORS With VOLUMNIA, VIRGILIA, VALERIA, passing over the +stage, +'With other LORDS + + FIRST SENATOR. Behold our patroness, the life of Rome! + Call all your tribes together, praise the gods, + And make triumphant fires; strew flowers before them. + Unshout the noise that banish'd Marcius, + Repeal him with the welcome of his mother; + ALL. Welcome, ladies, welcome! + [A flourish with drums and trumpets. Exeunt] + +SCENE VI. Corioli. A public place + +Enter TULLUS AUFIDIUS with attendents + + AUFIDIUS. Go tell the lords o' th' city I am here; + Deliver them this paper' having read it, + Bid them repair to th' market-place, where I, + Even in theirs and in the commons' ears, + Will vouch the truth of it. Him I accuse + The city ports by this hath enter'd and + Intends t' appear before the people, hoping + To purge himself with words. Dispatch. + Exeunt attendants + + Enter three or four CONSPIRATORS of AUFIDIUS' faction + + Most welcome! + FIRST CONSPIRATOR. How is it with our general? + AUFIDIUS. Even so + As with a man by his own alms empoison'd, + And with his charity slain. + SECOND CONSPIRATOR. Most noble sir, + If you do hold the same intent wherein + You wish'd us parties, we'll deliver you + Of your great danger. + AUFIDIUS. Sir, I cannot tell; + We must proceed as we do find the people. + THIRD CONSPIRATOR. The people will remain uncertain whilst + 'Twixt you there's difference; but the fall of either + Makes the survivor heir of all. + AUFIDIUS. I know it; + And my pretext to strike at him admits + A good construction. I rais'd him, and I pawn'd + Mine honour for his truth; who being so heighten'd, + He watered his new plants with dews of flattery, + Seducing so my friends; and to this end + He bow'd his nature, never known before + But to be rough, unswayable, and free. + THIRD CONSPIRATOR. Sir, his stoutness + When he did stand for consul, which he lost + By lack of stooping- + AUFIDIUS. That I would have spoken of. + Being banish'd for't, he came unto my hearth, + Presented to my knife his throat. I took him; + Made him joint-servant with me; gave him way + In all his own desires; nay, let him choose + Out of my files, his projects to accomplish, + My best and freshest men; serv'd his designments + In mine own person; holp to reap the fame + Which he did end all his, and took some pride + To do myself this wrong. Till, at the last, + I seem'd his follower, not partner; and + He wag'd me with his countenance as if + I had been mercenary. + FIRST CONSPIRATOR. So he did, my lord. + The army marvell'd at it; and, in the last, + When he had carried Rome and that we look'd + For no less spoil than glory- + AUFIDIUS. There was it; + For which my sinews shall be stretch'd upon him. + At a few drops of women's rheum, which are + As cheap as lies, he sold the blood and labour + Of our great action; therefore shall he die, + And I'll renew me in his fall. But, hark! + [Drums and + trumpets sound, with great shouts of the people] + FIRST CONSPIRATOR. Your native town you enter'd like a post, + And had no welcomes home; but he returns + Splitting the air with noise. + SECOND CONSPIRATOR. And patient fools, + Whose children he hath slain, their base throats tear + With giving him glory. + THIRD CONSPIRATOR. Therefore, at your vantage, + Ere he express himself or move the people + With what he would say, let him feel your sword, + Which we will second. When he lies along, + After your way his tale pronounc'd shall bury + His reasons with his body. + AUFIDIUS. Say no more: + Here come the lords. + + Enter the LORDS of the city + + LORDS. You are most welcome home. + AUFIDIUS. I have not deserv'd it. + But, worthy lords, have you with heed perused + What I have written to you? + LORDS. We have. + FIRST LORD. And grieve to hear't. + What faults he made before the last, I think + Might have found easy fines; but there to end + Where he was to begin, and give away + The benefit of our levies, answering us + With our own charge, making a treaty where + There was a yielding- this admits no excuse. + AUFIDIUS. He approaches; you shall hear him. + + Enter CORIOLANUS, marching with drum and colours; + the commoners being with him + + CORIOLANUS. Hail, lords! I am return'd your soldier; + No more infected with my country's love + Than when I parted hence, but still subsisting + Under your great command. You are to know + That prosperously I have attempted, and + With bloody passage led your wars even to + The gates of Rome. Our spoils we have brought home + Doth more than counterpoise a full third part + The charges of the action. We have made peace + With no less honour to the Antiates + Than shame to th' Romans; and we here deliver, + Subscrib'd by th' consuls and patricians, + Together with the seal o' th' Senate, what + We have compounded on. + AUFIDIUS. Read it not, noble lords; + But tell the traitor in the highest degree + He hath abus'd your powers. + CORIOLANUS. Traitor! How now? + AUFIDIUS. Ay, traitor, Marcius. + CORIOLANUS. Marcius! + AUFIDIUS. Ay, Marcius, Caius Marcius! Dost thou think + I'll grace thee with that robbery, thy stol'n name + Coriolanus, in Corioli? + You lords and heads o' th' state, perfidiously + He has betray'd your business and given up, + For certain drops of salt, your city Rome- + I say your city- to his wife and mother; + Breaking his oath and resolution like + A twist of rotten silk; never admitting + Counsel o' th' war; but at his nurse's tears + He whin'd and roar'd away your victory, + That pages blush'd at him, and men of heart + Look'd wond'ring each at others. + CORIOLANUS. Hear'st thou, Mars? + AUFIDIUS. Name not the god, thou boy of tears- + CORIOLANUS. Ha! + AUFIDIUS. -no more. + CORIOLANUS. Measureless liar, thou hast made my heart + Too great for what contains it. 'Boy'! O slave! + Pardon me, lords, 'tis the first time that ever + I was forc'd to scold. Your judgments, my grave lords, + Must give this cur the lie; and his own notion- + Who wears my stripes impress'd upon him, that + Must bear my beating to his grave- shall join + To thrust the lie unto him. + FIRST LORD. Peace, both, and hear me speak. + CORIOLANUS. Cut me to pieces, Volsces; men and lads, + Stain all your edges on me. 'Boy'! False hound! + If you have writ your annals true, 'tis there + That, like an eagle in a dove-cote, I + Flutter'd your Volscians in Corioli. + Alone I did it. 'Boy'! + AUFIDIUS. Why, noble lords, + Will you be put in mind of his blind fortune, + Which was your shame, by this unholy braggart, + Fore your own eyes and ears? + CONSPIRATORS. Let him die for't. + ALL THE PEOPLE. Tear him to pieces. Do it presently. He kill'd my + son. My daughter. He kill'd my cousin Marcus. He kill'd my + father. + SECOND LORD. Peace, ho! No outrage- peace! + The man is noble, and his fame folds in + This orb o' th' earth. His last offences to us + Shall have judicious hearing. Stand, Aufidius, + And trouble not the peace. + CORIOLANUS. O that I had him, + With six Aufidiuses, or more- his tribe, + To use my lawful sword! + AUFIDIUS. Insolent villain! + CONSPIRATORS. Kill, kill, kill, kill, kill him! + [The CONSPIRATORS draw and kill CORIOLANUS,who falls. + AUFIDIUS stands on him] + LORDS. Hold, hold, hold, hold! + AUFIDIUS. My noble masters, hear me speak. + FIRST LORD. O Tullus! + SECOND LORD. Thou hast done a deed whereat valour will weep. + THIRD LORD. Tread not upon him. Masters all, be quiet; + Put up your swords. + AUFIDIUS. My lords, when you shall know- as in this rage, + Provok'd by him, you cannot- the great danger + Which this man's life did owe you, you'll rejoice + That he is thus cut off. Please it your honours + To call me to your Senate, I'll deliver + Myself your loyal servant, or endure + Your heaviest censure. + FIRST LORD. Bear from hence his body, + And mourn you for him. Let him be regarded + As the most noble corse that ever herald + Did follow to his um. + SECOND LORD. His own impatience + Takes from Aufidius a great part of blame. + Let's make the best of it. + AUFIDIUS. My rage is gone, + And I am struck with sorrow. Take him up. + Help, three o' th' chiefest soldiers; I'll be one. + Beat thou the drum, that it speak mournfully; + Trail your steel pikes. Though in this city he + Hath widowed and unchilded many a one, + Which to this hour bewail the injury, + Yet he shall have a noble memory. + Assist. Exeunt, bearing the body of CORIOLANUS + [A dead march sounded] + + + + + +CYMBELINE + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Britain. The garden of Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene II. The same. +Scene III. Britain. A public place. +Scene IV. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene V. Rome. Philario’s house. +Scene VI. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene VII. Britain. The palace. + + +ACT II +Scene I. Britain. Before Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene II. Britain. Imogen’s bedchamber in Cymbeline’s palace; a trunk +in one corner. +Scene III. Cymbeline’s palace. An ante-chamber adjoining Imogen’s +apartments. +Scene IV. Rome. Philario’s house. +Scene V. Rome. Another room in Philario’s house. + + +ACT III +Scene I. Britain. A hall in Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene II. Britain. Another room in Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene III. Wales. A mountainous country with a cave. +Scene IV. Wales, near Milford Haven. +Scene V. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene VI. Wales. Before the cave of Belarius. +Scene VII. The same. +Scene VIII. Rome. A public place. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. Wales. Near the cave of Belarius. +Scene II. Wales. Before the cave of Belarius. +Scene III. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. +Scene IV. Wales. Before the cave of Belarius. + + +ACT V +Scene I. Britain. The Roman camp. +Scene II. Britain. A field of battle between the British and Roman +camps. +Scene III. Another part of the field. +Scene IV. Britain. A prison. +Scene V. Britain. Cymbeline’s tent. + +Dramatis Personæ + +CYMBELINE, King of Britain +CLOTEN, son to the Queen by a former husband +POSTHUMUS LEONATUS, a gentleman, husband to Imogen +BELARIUS, a banished lord, disguised under the name of Morgan +GUIDERIUS and ARVIRAGUS, sons to Cymbeline, disguised under the names +of POLYDORE and CADWAL, supposed sons to Belarius +PHILARIO, Italian, friend to Posthumus +IACHIMO, Italian, friend to Philario +CAIUS LUCIUS, General of the Roman forces +PISANIO, servant to Posthumus +CORNELIUS, a physician +A SOOTHSAYER +A ROMAN CAPTAIN +TWO BRITISH CAPTAINS +A FRENCH GENTLEMAN, friend to Philario +TWO LORDS of Cymbeline’s court +TWO GENTLEMEN of the same +TWO GAOLERS + +QUEEN, wife to Cymbeline +IMOGEN, daughter to Cymbeline by a former queen +HELEN, a lady attending on Imogen + +APPARITIONS + +Lords, Ladies, Roman Senators, Tribunes, a Dutch Gentleman, a Spanish +Gentleman, Musicians, Officers, Captains, Soldiers, Messengers, and +Attendants + +SCENE: Britain; Italy. + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Britain. The garden of Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter two Gentlemen. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +You do not meet a man but frowns; our bloods +No more obey the heavens than our courtiers +Still seem as does the King’s. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +But what’s the matter? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +His daughter, and the heir of’s kingdom, whom +He purpos’d to his wife’s sole son—a widow +That late he married—hath referr’d herself +Unto a poor but worthy gentleman. She’s wedded; +Her husband banish’d; she imprison’d. All +Is outward sorrow, though I think the King +Be touch’d at very heart. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +None but the King? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +He that hath lost her too. So is the Queen, +That most desir’d the match. But not a courtier, +Although they wear their faces to the bent +Of the King’s looks, hath a heart that is not +Glad at the thing they scowl at. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +And why so? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +He that hath miss’d the Princess is a thing +Too bad for bad report; and he that hath her— +I mean that married her, alack, good man! +And therefore banish’d—is a creature such +As, to seek through the regions of the earth +For one his like, there would be something failing +In him that should compare. I do not think +So fair an outward and such stuff within +Endows a man but he. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +You speak him far. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +I do extend him, sir, within himself; +Crush him together rather than unfold +His measure duly. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +What’s his name and birth? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +I cannot delve him to the root; his father +Was call’d Sicilius, who did join his honour +Against the Romans with Cassibelan, +But had his titles by Tenantius, whom +He serv’d with glory and admir’d success, +So gain’d the sur-addition Leonatus; +And had, besides this gentleman in question, +Two other sons, who, in the wars o’ th’ time, +Died with their swords in hand; for which their father, +Then old and fond of issue, took such sorrow +That he quit being; and his gentle lady, +Big of this gentleman, our theme, deceas’d +As he was born. The King he takes the babe +To his protection, calls him Posthumus Leonatus, +Breeds him and makes him of his bed-chamber, +Puts to him all the learnings that his time +Could make him the receiver of; which he took, +As we do air, fast as ’twas minist’red, +And in’s spring became a harvest, liv’d in court— +Which rare it is to do—most prais’d, most lov’d, +A sample to the youngest; to th’ more mature +A glass that feated them; and to the graver +A child that guided dotards. To his mistress, +For whom he now is banish’d, her own price +Proclaims how she esteem’d him and his virtue; +By her election may be truly read +What kind of man he is. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +I honour him +Even out of your report. But pray you tell me, +Is she sole child to th’ King? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +His only child. +He had two sons—if this be worth your hearing, +Mark it—the eldest of them at three years old, +I’ th’ swathing clothes the other, from their nursery +Were stol’n; and to this hour no guess in knowledge +Which way they went. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +How long is this ago? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Some twenty years. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +That a king’s children should be so convey’d, +So slackly guarded, and the search so slow +That could not trace them! + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Howsoe’er ’tis strange, +Or that the negligence may well be laugh’d at, +Yet is it true, sir. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +I do well believe you. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +We must forbear; here comes the gentleman, +The Queen, and Princess. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. + + Enter Queen, Posthumus and Imogen. + +QUEEN. +No, be assur’d you shall not find me, daughter, +After the slander of most stepmothers, +Evil-ey’d unto you. You’re my prisoner, but +Your gaoler shall deliver you the keys +That lock up your restraint. For you, Posthumus, +So soon as I can win th’ offended King, +I will be known your advocate. Marry, yet +The fire of rage is in him, and ’twere good +You lean’d unto his sentence with what patience +Your wisdom may inform you. + +POSTHUMUS. +Please your Highness, +I will from hence today. + +QUEEN. +You know the peril. +I’ll fetch a turn about the garden, pitying +The pangs of barr’d affections, though the King +Hath charg’d you should not speak together. + + [_Exit._] + +IMOGEN. +O dissembling courtesy! How fine this tyrant +Can tickle where she wounds! My dearest husband, +I something fear my father’s wrath, but nothing +(Always reserv’d my holy duty) what +His rage can do on me. You must be gone; +And I shall here abide the hourly shot +Of angry eyes, not comforted to live +But that there is this jewel in the world +That I may see again. + +POSTHUMUS. +My queen! my mistress! +O lady, weep no more, lest I give cause +To be suspected of more tenderness +Than doth become a man. I will remain +The loyal’st husband that did e’er plight troth; +My residence in Rome at one Philario’s, +Who to my father was a friend, to me +Known but by letter; thither write, my queen, +And with mine eyes I’ll drink the words you send, +Though ink be made of gall. + + Enter Queen. + +QUEEN. +Be brief, I pray you. +If the King come, I shall incur I know not +How much of his displeasure. [_Aside._] Yet I’ll move him +To walk this way. I never do him wrong +But he does buy my injuries, to be friends; +Pays dear for my offences. + + [_Exit._] + +POSTHUMUS. +Should we be taking leave +As long a term as yet we have to live, +The loathness to depart would grow. Adieu! + +IMOGEN. +Nay, stay a little. +Were you but riding forth to air yourself, +Such parting were too petty. Look here, love: +This diamond was my mother’s; take it, heart; +But keep it till you woo another wife, +When Imogen is dead. + +POSTHUMUS. +How, how? Another? +You gentle gods, give me but this I have, +And sear up my embracements from a next +With bonds of death! Remain, remain thou here + + [_Puts on the ring._] + +While sense can keep it on. And, sweetest, fairest, +As I my poor self did exchange for you, +To your so infinite loss, so in our trifles +I still win of you. For my sake wear this; +It is a manacle of love; I’ll place it +Upon this fairest prisoner. + + [_Puts a bracelet on her arm._] + +IMOGEN. +O the gods! +When shall we see again? + + Enter Cymbeline and Lords. + +POSTHUMUS. +Alack, the King! + +CYMBELINE. +Thou basest thing, avoid; hence from my sight +If after this command thou fraught the court +With thy unworthiness, thou diest. Away! +Thou’rt poison to my blood. + +POSTHUMUS. +The gods protect you, +And bless the good remainders of the court! +I am gone. + + [_Exit._] + +IMOGEN. +There cannot be a pinch in death +More sharp than this is. + +CYMBELINE. +O disloyal thing, +That shouldst repair my youth, thou heap’st +A year’s age on me! + +IMOGEN. +I beseech you, sir, +Harm not yourself with your vexation. +I am senseless of your wrath; a touch more rare +Subdues all pangs, all fears. + +CYMBELINE. +Past grace? obedience? + +IMOGEN. +Past hope, and in despair; that way past grace. + +CYMBELINE. +That mightst have had the sole son of my queen! + +IMOGEN. +O blessed that I might not! I chose an eagle, +And did avoid a puttock. + +CYMBELINE. +Thou took’st a beggar, wouldst have made my throne +A seat for baseness. + +IMOGEN. +No; I rather added +A lustre to it. + +CYMBELINE. +O thou vile one! + +IMOGEN. +Sir, +It is your fault that I have lov’d Posthumus. +You bred him as my playfellow, and he is +A man worth any woman; overbuys me +Almost the sum he pays. + +CYMBELINE. +What, art thou mad? + +IMOGEN. +Almost, sir. Heaven restore me! Would I were +A neat-herd’s daughter, and my Leonatus +Our neighbour shepherd’s son! + + Enter Queen. + +CYMBELINE. +Thou foolish thing! +[_To the Queen._] They were again together. You have done +Not after our command. Away with her, +And pen her up. + +QUEEN. +Beseech your patience. Peace, +Dear lady daughter, peace!—Sweet sovereign, +Leave us to ourselves, and make yourself some comfort +Out of your best advice. + +CYMBELINE. +Nay, let her languish +A drop of blood a day and, being aged, +Die of this folly. + + [_Exit with Lords._] + + Enter Pisanio. + +QUEEN. +Fie! you must give way. +Here is your servant. How now, sir! What news? + +PISANIO. +My lord your son drew on my master. + +QUEEN. +Ha! +No harm, I trust, is done? + +PISANIO. +There might have been, +But that my master rather play’d than fought, +And had no help of anger; they were parted +By gentlemen at hand. + +QUEEN. +I am very glad on’t. + +IMOGEN. +Your son’s my father’s friend; he takes his part +To draw upon an exile! O brave sir! +I would they were in Afric both together; +Myself by with a needle, that I might prick +The goer-back. Why came you from your master? + +PISANIO. +On his command. He would not suffer me +To bring him to the haven; left these notes +Of what commands I should be subject to, +When’t pleas’d you to employ me. + +QUEEN. +This hath been +Your faithful servant. I dare lay mine honour +He will remain so. + +PISANIO. +I humbly thank your Highness. + +QUEEN. +Pray walk awhile. + +IMOGEN. +About some half-hour hence, +Pray you speak with me. +You shall at least go see my lord aboard. +For this time leave me. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Britain. A public place. + + Enter Cloten and two Lords. + +FIRST LORD. +Sir, I would advise you to shift a shirt; the violence of action hath +made you reek as a sacrifice. Where air comes out, air comes in; +there’s none abroad so wholesome as that you vent. + +CLOTEN. +If my shirt were bloody, then to shift it. Have I hurt him? + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] No, faith; not so much as his patience. + +FIRST LORD. +Hurt him! His body’s a passable carcass if he be not hurt. It is a +throughfare for steel if it be not hurt. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] His steel was in debt; it went o’ th’ backside the town. + +CLOTEN. +The villain would not stand me. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] No; but he fled forward still, toward your face. + +FIRST LORD. +Stand you? You have land enough of your own; but he added to your +having, gave you some ground. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] As many inches as you have oceans. +Puppies! + +CLOTEN. +I would they had not come between us. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] So would I, till you had measur’d how long a fool you were +upon the ground. + +CLOTEN. +And that she should love this fellow, and refuse me! + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] If it be a sin to make a true election, she is damn’d. + +FIRST LORD. +Sir, as I told you always, her beauty and her brain go not together; +she’s a good sign, but I have seen small reflection of her wit. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] She shines not upon fools, lest the reflection should hurt +her. + +CLOTEN. +Come, I’ll to my chamber. Would there had been some hurt done! + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] I wish not so; unless it had been the fall of an ass, which +is no great hurt. + +CLOTEN. +You’ll go with us? + +FIRST LORD. +I’ll attend your lordship. + +CLOTEN. +Nay, come, let’s go together. + +SECOND LORD. +Well, my lord. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter Imogen and Pisanio. + +IMOGEN. +I would thou grew’st unto the shores o’ th’ haven, +And questioned’st every sail; if he should write, +And I not have it, ’twere a paper lost, +As offer’d mercy is. What was the last +That he spake to thee? + +PISANIO. +It was: his queen, his queen! + +IMOGEN. +Then wav’d his handkerchief? + +PISANIO. +And kiss’d it, madam. + +IMOGEN. +Senseless linen, happier therein than I! +And that was all? + +PISANIO. +No, madam; for so long +As he could make me with his eye, or ear +Distinguish him from others, he did keep +The deck, with glove, or hat, or handkerchief, +Still waving, as the fits and stirs of’s mind +Could best express how slow his soul sail’d on, +How swift his ship. + +IMOGEN. +Thou shouldst have made him +As little as a crow, or less, ere left +To after-eye him. + +PISANIO. +Madam, so I did. + +IMOGEN. +I would have broke mine eyestrings, crack’d them but +To look upon him, till the diminution +Of space had pointed him sharp as my needle; +Nay, followed him till he had melted from +The smallness of a gnat to air, and then +Have turn’d mine eye and wept. But, good Pisanio, +When shall we hear from him? + +PISANIO. +Be assur’d, madam, +With his next vantage. + +IMOGEN. +I did not take my leave of him, but had +Most pretty things to say. Ere I could tell him +How I would think on him at certain hours +Such thoughts and such; or I could make him swear +The shes of Italy should not betray +Mine interest and his honour; or have charg’d him, +At the sixth hour of morn, at noon, at midnight, +T’ encounter me with orisons, for then +I am in heaven for him; or ere I could +Give him that parting kiss which I had set +Betwixt two charming words, comes in my father, +And like the tyrannous breathing of the north +Shakes all our buds from growing. + + Enter a Lady. + +LADY. +The Queen, madam, +Desires your Highness’ company. + +IMOGEN. +Those things I bid you do, get them dispatch’d. +I will attend the Queen. + +PISANIO. +Madam, I shall. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Rome. Philario’s house. + + Enter Philario, Iachimo, a Frenchman, a Dutchman and a Spaniard. + +IACHIMO. +Believe it, sir, I have seen him in Britain. He was then of a crescent +note, expected to prove so worthy as since he hath been allowed the +name of. But I could then have look’d on him without the help of +admiration, though the catalogue of his endowments had been tabled by +his side, and I to peruse him by items. + +PHILARIO. +You speak of him when he was less furnish’d than now he is with that +which makes him both without and within. + +FRENCHMAN. +I have seen him in France; we had very many there could behold the sun +with as firm eyes as he. + +IACHIMO. +This matter of marrying his king’s daughter, wherein he must be weighed +rather by her value than his own, words him, I doubt not, a great deal +from the matter. + +FRENCHMAN. +And then his banishment. + +IACHIMO. +Ay, and the approbation of those that weep this lamentable divorce +under her colours are wonderfully to extend him, be it but to fortify +her judgement, which else an easy battery might lay flat, for taking a +beggar, without less quality. But how comes it he is to sojourn with +you? How creeps acquaintance? + +PHILARIO. +His father and I were soldiers together, to whom I have been often +bound for no less than my life. + + Enter Posthumus. + +Here comes the Briton. Let him be so entertained amongst you as suits +with gentlemen of your knowing to a stranger of his quality. I beseech +you all be better known to this gentleman, whom I commend to you as a +noble friend of mine. How worthy he is I will leave to appear +hereafter, rather than story him in his own hearing. + +FRENCHMAN. +Sir, we have known together in Orleans. + +POSTHUMUS. +Since when I have been debtor to you for courtesies, which I will be +ever to pay and yet pay still. + +FRENCHMAN. +Sir, you o’errate my poor kindness. I was glad I did atone my +countryman and you; it had been pity you should have been put together +with so mortal a purpose as then each bore, upon importance of so +slight and trivial a nature. + +POSTHUMUS. +By your pardon, sir. I was then a young traveller; rather shunn’d to go +even with what I heard than in my every action to be guided by others’ +experiences; but upon my mended judgement (if I offend not to say it is +mended) my quarrel was not altogether slight. + +FRENCHMAN. +Faith, yes, to be put to the arbitrement of swords, and by such two +that would by all likelihood have confounded one the other or have +fall’n both. + +IACHIMO. +Can we, with manners, ask what was the difference? + +FRENCHMAN. +Safely, I think. ’Twas a contention in public, which may, without +contradiction, suffer the report. It was much like an argument that +fell out last night, where each of us fell in praise of our country +mistresses; this gentleman at that time vouching (and upon warrant of +bloody affirmation) his to be more fair, virtuous, wise, chaste, +constant, qualified, and less attemptable, than any the rarest of our +ladies in France. + +IACHIMO. +That lady is not now living, or this gentleman’s opinion, by this, worn +out. + +POSTHUMUS. +She holds her virtue still, and I my mind. + +IACHIMO. +You must not so far prefer her ’fore ours of Italy. + +POSTHUMUS. +Being so far provok’d as I was in France, I would abate her nothing, +though I profess myself her adorer, not her friend. + +IACHIMO. +As fair and as good—a kind of hand-in-hand comparison—had been +something too fair and too good for any lady in Britain. If she went +before others I have seen as that diamond of yours outlustres many I +have beheld, I could not but believe she excelled many; but I have not +seen the most precious diamond that is, nor you the lady. + +POSTHUMUS. +I prais’d her as I rated her. So do I my stone. + +IACHIMO. +What do you esteem it at? + +POSTHUMUS. +More than the world enjoys. + +IACHIMO. +Either your unparagon’d mistress is dead, or she’s outpriz’d by a +trifle. + +POSTHUMUS. +You are mistaken: the one may be sold or given, if there were wealth +enough for the purchase or merit for the gift; the other is not a thing +for sale, and only the gift of the gods. + +IACHIMO. +Which the gods have given you? + +POSTHUMUS. +Which by their graces I will keep. + +IACHIMO. +You may wear her in title yours; but you know strange fowl light upon +neighbouring ponds. Your ring may be stol’n too. So your brace of +unprizable estimations, the one is but frail and the other casual; a +cunning thief, or a that-way-accomplish’d courtier, would hazard the +winning both of first and last. + +POSTHUMUS. +Your Italy contains none so accomplish’d a courtier to convince the +honour of my mistress, if in the holding or loss of that you term her +frail. I do nothing doubt you have store of thieves; notwithstanding, I +fear not my ring. + +PHILARIO. +Let us leave here, gentlemen. + +POSTHUMUS. +Sir, with all my heart. This worthy signior, I thank him, makes no +stranger of me; we are familiar at first. + +IACHIMO. +With five times so much conversation I should get ground of your fair +mistress; make her go back even to the yielding, had I admittance and +opportunity to friend. + +POSTHUMUS. +No, no. + +IACHIMO. +I dare thereupon pawn the moiety of my estate to your ring, which, in +my opinion, o’ervalues it something. But I make my wager rather against +your confidence than her reputation; and, to bar your offence herein +too, I durst attempt it against any lady in the world. + +POSTHUMUS. +You are a great deal abus’d in too bold a persuasion, and I doubt not +you sustain what y’are worthy of by your attempt. + +IACHIMO. +What’s that? + +POSTHUMUS. +A repulse; though your attempt, as you call it, deserve more; a +punishment too. + +PHILARIO. +Gentlemen, enough of this. It came in too suddenly; let it die as it +was born, and I pray you be better acquainted. + +IACHIMO. +Would I had put my estate and my neighbour’s on th’ approbation of what +I have spoke! + +POSTHUMUS. +What lady would you choose to assail? + +IACHIMO. +Yours, whom in constancy you think stands so safe. I will lay you ten +thousand ducats to your ring that, commend me to the court where your +lady is, with no more advantage than the opportunity of a second +conference, and I will bring from thence that honour of hers which you +imagine so reserv’d. + +POSTHUMUS. +I will wage against your gold, gold to it. My ring I hold dear as my +finger; ’tis part of it. + +IACHIMO. +You are a friend, and therein the wiser. If you buy ladies’ flesh at a +million a dram, you cannot preserve it from tainting. But I see you +have some religion in you, that you fear. + +POSTHUMUS. +This is but a custom in your tongue; you bear a graver purpose, I hope. + +IACHIMO. +I am the master of my speeches, and would undergo what’s spoken, I +swear. + +POSTHUMUS. +Will you? I shall but lend my diamond till your return. Let there be +covenants drawn between’s. My mistress exceeds in goodness the hugeness +of your unworthy thinking. I dare you to this match: here’s my ring. + +PHILARIO. +I will have it no lay. + +IACHIMO. +By the gods, it is one. If I bring you no sufficient testimony that I +have enjoy’d the dearest bodily part of your mistress, my ten thousand +ducats are yours; so is your diamond too. If I come off, and leave her +in such honour as you have trust in, she your jewel, this your jewel, +and my gold are yours: provided I have your commendation for my more +free entertainment. + +POSTHUMUS. +I embrace these conditions; let us have articles betwixt us. Only, thus +far you shall answer: if you make your voyage upon her, and give me +directly to understand you have prevail’d, I am no further your enemy; +she is not worth our debate; if she remain unseduc’d, you not making it +appear otherwise, for your ill opinion and th’ assault you have made to +her chastity you shall answer me with your sword. + +IACHIMO. +Your hand, a covenant! We will have these things set down by lawful +counsel, and straight away for Britain, lest the bargain should catch +cold and starve. I will fetch my gold and have our two wagers recorded. + +POSTHUMUS. +Agreed. + + [_Exeunt Posthumus and Iachimo._] + +FRENCHMAN. +Will this hold, think you? + +PHILARIO. +Signior Iachimo will not from it. Pray let us follow ’em. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter Queen, Ladies and Cornelius. + +QUEEN. +Whiles yet the dew’s on ground, gather those flowers; +Make haste; who has the note of them? + +LADY. +I, madam. + +QUEEN. +Dispatch. + + [_Exeunt Ladies._] + +Now, Master Doctor, have you brought those drugs? + +CORNELIUS. +Pleaseth your Highness, ay. Here they are, madam. + + [_Presenting a box._] + +But I beseech your Grace, without offence, +(My conscience bids me ask) wherefore you have +Commanded of me these most poisonous compounds +Which are the movers of a languishing death, +But, though slow, deadly? + +QUEEN. +I wonder, Doctor, +Thou ask’st me such a question. Have I not been +Thy pupil long? Hast thou not learn’d me how +To make perfumes? distil? preserve? yea, so +That our great king himself doth woo me oft +For my confections? Having thus far proceeded +(Unless thou think’st me devilish) is’t not meet +That I did amplify my judgement in +Other conclusions? I will try the forces +Of these thy compounds on such creatures as +We count not worth the hanging (but none human) +To try the vigour of them, and apply +Allayments to their act, and by them gather +Their several virtues and effects. + +CORNELIUS. +Your Highness +Shall from this practice but make hard your heart; +Besides, the seeing these effects will be +Both noisome and infectious. + +QUEEN. +O, content thee. + + Enter Pisanio. + +[_Aside._] Here comes a flattering rascal; upon him +Will I first work. He’s for his master, +An enemy to my son. How now, Pisanio! +Doctor, your service for this time is ended; +Take your own way. + +CORNELIUS. +[_Aside._] I do suspect you, madam; +But you shall do no harm. + +QUEEN. +[_To Pisanio._] Hark thee, a word. + +CORNELIUS. +[_Aside._] I do not like her. She doth think she has +Strange ling’ring poisons. I do know her spirit, +And will not trust one of her malice with +A drug of such damn’d nature. Those she has +Will stupefy and dull the sense awhile, +Which first perchance she’ll prove on cats and dogs, +Then afterward up higher; but there is +No danger in what show of death it makes, +More than the locking up the spirits a time, +To be more fresh, reviving. She is fool’d +With a most false effect; and I the truer +So to be false with her. + +QUEEN. +No further service, Doctor, +Until I send for thee. + +CORNELIUS. +I humbly take my leave. + + [_Exit._] + +QUEEN. +Weeps she still, say’st thou? Dost thou think in time +She will not quench, and let instructions enter +Where folly now possesses? Do thou work. +When thou shalt bring me word she loves my son, +I’ll tell thee on the instant thou art then +As great as is thy master; greater, for +His fortunes all lie speechless, and his name +Is at last gasp. Return he cannot, nor +Continue where he is. To shift his being +Is to exchange one misery with another, +And every day that comes comes to decay +A day’s work in him. What shalt thou expect +To be depender on a thing that leans, +Who cannot be new built, nor has no friends +So much as but to prop him? + + [_The Queen drops the box. Pisanio takes it up._] + +Thou tak’st up +Thou know’st not what; but take it for thy labour. +It is a thing I made, which hath the King +Five times redeem’d from death. I do not know +What is more cordial. Nay, I prithee take it; +It is an earnest of a further good +That I mean to thee. Tell thy mistress how +The case stands with her; do’t as from thyself. +Think what a chance thou changest on; but think +Thou hast thy mistress still; to boot, my son, +Who shall take notice of thee. I’ll move the King +To any shape of thy preferment, such +As thou’lt desire; and then myself, I chiefly, +That set thee on to this desert, am bound +To load thy merit richly. Call my women. +Think on my words. + + [_Exit Pisanio._] + +A sly and constant knave, +Not to be shak’d; the agent for his master, +And the remembrancer of her to hold +The hand-fast to her lord. I have given him that +Which, if he take, shall quite unpeople her +Of liegers for her sweet; and which she after, +Except she bend her humour, shall be assur’d +To taste of too. + + Enter Pisanio and Ladies. + +So, so. Well done, well done. +The violets, cowslips, and the primroses, +Bear to my closet. Fare thee well, Pisanio; +Think on my words. + + [_Exeunt Queen and Ladies._] + +PISANIO. +And shall do. +But when to my good lord I prove untrue +I’ll choke myself: there’s all I’ll do for you. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE VII. Britain. The palace. + + Enter Imogen alone. + +IMOGEN. +A father cruel and a step-dame false; +A foolish suitor to a wedded lady +That hath her husband banish’d. O, that husband! +My supreme crown of grief! and those repeated +Vexations of it! Had I been thief-stol’n, +As my two brothers, happy! but most miserable +Is the desire that’s glorious. Blessed be those, +How mean soe’er, that have their honest wills, +Which seasons comfort. Who may this be? Fie! + + Enter Pisanio and Iachimo. + +PISANIO. +Madam, a noble gentleman of Rome +Comes from my lord with letters. + +IACHIMO. +Change you, madam? +The worthy Leonatus is in safety, +And greets your Highness dearly. + + [_Presents a letter._] + +IMOGEN. +Thanks, good sir. +You’re kindly welcome. + +IACHIMO. +[_Aside._] All of her that is out of door most rich! +If she be furnish’d with a mind so rare, +She is alone th’ Arabian bird, and I +Have lost the wager. Boldness be my friend! +Arm me, audacity, from head to foot! +Or, like the Parthian, I shall flying fight; +Rather, directly fly. + +IMOGEN. +[_Reads._] _He is one of the noblest note, to whose kindnesses I am +most infinitely tied. Reflect upon him accordingly, as you value your +trust. + LEONATUS._ + +So far I read aloud; +But even the very middle of my heart +Is warm’d by th’ rest and takes it thankfully. +You are as welcome, worthy sir, as I +Have words to bid you; and shall find it so +In all that I can do. + +IACHIMO. +Thanks, fairest lady. +What, are men mad? Hath nature given them eyes +To see this vaulted arch and the rich crop +Of sea and land, which can distinguish ’twixt +The fiery orbs above and the twinn’d stones +Upon the number’d beach, and can we not +Partition make with spectacles so precious +’Twixt fair and foul? + +IMOGEN. +What makes your admiration? + +IACHIMO. +It cannot be i’ th’ eye, for apes and monkeys, +’Twixt two such shes, would chatter this way and +Contemn with mows the other; nor i’ th’ judgement, +For idiots in this case of favour would +Be wisely definite; nor i’ th’ appetite; +Sluttery, to such neat excellence oppos’d, +Should make desire vomit emptiness, +Not so allur’d to feed. + +IMOGEN. +What is the matter, trow? + +IACHIMO. +The cloyed will— +That satiate yet unsatisfied desire, that tub +Both fill’d and running—ravening first the lamb, +Longs after for the garbage. + +IMOGEN. +What, dear sir, +Thus raps you? Are you well? + +IACHIMO. +Thanks, madam; well. Beseech you, sir, +Desire my man’s abode where I did leave him. +He’s strange and peevish. + +PISANIO. +I was going, sir, +To give him welcome. + + [_Exit._] + +IMOGEN. +Continues well my lord? His health beseech you? + +IACHIMO. +Well, madam. + +IMOGEN. +Is he dispos’d to mirth? I hope he is. + +IACHIMO. +Exceeding pleasant; none a stranger there +So merry and so gamesome. He is call’d +The Briton reveller. + +IMOGEN. +When he was here +He did incline to sadness, and oft-times +Not knowing why. + +IACHIMO. +I never saw him sad. +There is a Frenchman his companion, one +An eminent monsieur that, it seems, much loves +A Gallian girl at home. He furnaces +The thick sighs from him; whiles the jolly Briton +(Your lord, I mean) laughs from’s free lungs, cries “O, +Can my sides hold, to think that man, who knows +By history, report, or his own proof, +What woman is, yea, what she cannot choose +But must be, will’s free hours languish for +Assured bondage?” + +IMOGEN. +Will my lord say so? + +IACHIMO. +Ay, madam, with his eyes in flood with laughter. +It is a recreation to be by +And hear him mock the Frenchman. But heavens know +Some men are much to blame. + +IMOGEN. +Not he, I hope. + +IACHIMO. +Not he; but yet heaven’s bounty towards him might +Be us’d more thankfully. In himself, ’tis much; +In you, which I account his, beyond all talents. +Whilst I am bound to wonder, I am bound +To pity too. + +IMOGEN. +What do you pity, sir? + +IACHIMO. +Two creatures heartily. + +IMOGEN. +Am I one, sir? +You look on me: what wreck discern you in me +Deserves your pity? + +IACHIMO. +Lamentable! What, +To hide me from the radiant sun and solace +I’ th’ dungeon by a snuff? + +IMOGEN. +I pray you, sir, +Deliver with more openness your answers +To my demands. Why do you pity me? + +IACHIMO. +That others do, +I was about to say, enjoy your—But +It is an office of the gods to venge it, +Not mine to speak on’t. + +IMOGEN. +You do seem to know +Something of me, or what concerns me; pray you, +Since doubting things go ill often hurts more +Than to be sure they do; for certainties +Either are past remedies, or, timely knowing, +The remedy then born—discover to me +What both you spur and stop. + +IACHIMO. +Had I this cheek +To bathe my lips upon; this hand, whose touch, +Whose every touch, would force the feeler’s soul +To th’ oath of loyalty; this object, which +Takes prisoner the wild motion of mine eye, +Fixing it only here; should I, damn’d then, +Slaver with lips as common as the stairs +That mount the Capitol; join gripes with hands +Made hard with hourly falsehood (falsehood as +With labour): then by-peeping in an eye +Base and illustrious as the smoky light +That’s fed with stinking tallow: it were fit +That all the plagues of hell should at one time +Encounter such revolt. + +IMOGEN. +My lord, I fear, +Has forgot Britain. + +IACHIMO. +And himself. Not I +Inclin’d to this intelligence pronounce +The beggary of his change; but ’tis your graces +That from my mutest conscience to my tongue +Charms this report out. + +IMOGEN. +Let me hear no more. + +IACHIMO. +O dearest soul, your cause doth strike my heart +With pity that doth make me sick! A lady +So fair, and fasten’d to an empery, +Would make the great’st king double, to be partner’d +With tomboys hir’d with that self exhibition +Which your own coffers yield! with diseas’d ventures +That play with all infirmities for gold +Which rottenness can lend nature! Such boil’d stuff +As well might poison poison! Be reveng’d; +Or she that bore you was no queen, and you +Recoil from your great stock. + +IMOGEN. +Reveng’d? +How should I be reveng’d? If this be true, +(As I have such a heart that both mine ears +Must not in haste abuse) if it be true, +How should I be reveng’d? + +IACHIMO. +Should he make me +Live like Diana’s priest betwixt cold sheets, +Whiles he is vaulting variable ramps, +In your despite, upon your purse? Revenge it. +I dedicate myself to your sweet pleasure, +More noble than that runagate to your bed, +And will continue fast to your affection, +Still close as sure. + +IMOGEN. +What ho, Pisanio! + +IACHIMO. +Let me my service tender on your lips. + +IMOGEN. +Away! I do condemn mine ears that have +So long attended thee. If thou wert honourable, +Thou wouldst have told this tale for virtue, not +For such an end thou seek’st, as base as strange. +Thou wrong’st a gentleman who is as far +From thy report as thou from honour; and +Solicits here a lady that disdains +Thee and the devil alike. What ho, Pisanio! +The King my father shall be made acquainted +Of thy assault. If he shall think it fit +A saucy stranger in his court to mart +As in a Romish stew, and to expound +His beastly mind to us, he hath a court +He little cares for, and a daughter who +He not respects at all. What ho, Pisanio! + +IACHIMO. +O happy Leonatus! I may say +The credit that thy lady hath of thee +Deserves thy trust, and thy most perfect goodness +Her assur’d credit. Blessed live you long, +A lady to the worthiest sir that ever +Country call’d his! and you his mistress, only +For the most worthiest fit! Give me your pardon. +I have spoke this to know if your affiance +Were deeply rooted, and shall make your lord +That which he is new o’er; and he is one +The truest manner’d, such a holy witch +That he enchants societies into him, +Half all men’s hearts are his. + +IMOGEN. +You make amends. + +IACHIMO. +He sits ’mongst men like a descended god: +He hath a kind of honour sets him off +More than a mortal seeming. Be not angry, +Most mighty Princess, that I have adventur’d +To try your taking of a false report, which hath +Honour’d with confirmation your great judgement +In the election of a sir so rare, +Which you know cannot err. The love I bear him +Made me to fan you thus; but the gods made you, +Unlike all others, chaffless. Pray your pardon. + +IMOGEN. +All’s well, sir; take my pow’r i’ th’ court for yours. + +IACHIMO. +My humble thanks. I had almost forgot +T’ entreat your Grace but in a small request, +And yet of moment too, for it concerns +Your lord; myself and other noble friends +Are partners in the business. + +IMOGEN. +Pray what is’t? + +IACHIMO. +Some dozen Romans of us, and your lord +(The best feather of our wing) have mingled sums +To buy a present for the Emperor; +Which I, the factor for the rest, have done +In France. ’Tis plate of rare device, and jewels +Of rich and exquisite form, their values great; +And I am something curious, being strange, +To have them in safe stowage. May it please you +To take them in protection? + +IMOGEN. +Willingly; +And pawn mine honour for their safety. Since +My lord hath interest in them, I will keep them +In my bedchamber. + +IACHIMO. +They are in a trunk, +Attended by my men. I will make bold +To send them to you only for this night; +I must aboard tomorrow. + +IMOGEN. +O, no, no. + +IACHIMO. +Yes, I beseech; or I shall short my word +By length’ning my return. From Gallia +I cross’d the seas on purpose and on promise +To see your Grace. + +IMOGEN. +I thank you for your pains. +But not away tomorrow! + +IACHIMO. +O, I must, madam. +Therefore I shall beseech you, if you please +To greet your lord with writing, do’t tonight. +I have outstood my time, which is material +To th’ tender of our present. + +IMOGEN. +I will write. +Send your trunk to me; it shall safe be kept +And truly yielded you. You’re very welcome. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Britain. Before Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter Cloten and the two Lords. + +CLOTEN. +Was there ever man had such luck! When I kiss’d the jack, upon an +upcast to be hit away! I had a hundred pound on’t; and then a whoreson +jackanapes must take me up for swearing, as if I borrowed mine oaths of +him, and might not spend them at my pleasure. + +FIRST LORD. +What got he by that? You have broke his pate with your bowl. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] If his wit had been like him that broke it, it would have +run all out. + +CLOTEN. +When a gentleman is dispos’d to swear, it is not for any standers-by to +curtail his oaths. Ha? + +SECOND LORD. +No, my lord; [_Aside._] nor crop the ears of them. + +CLOTEN. +Whoreson dog! I gave him satisfaction. Would he had been one of my +rank! + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] To have smell’d like a fool. + +CLOTEN. +I am not vex’d more at anything in th’ earth. A pox on’t! I had rather +not be so noble as I am; they dare not fight with me, because of the +Queen my mother. Every jackslave hath his bellyful of fighting, and I +must go up and down like a cock that nobody can match. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] You are cock and capon too; and you crow, cock, with your +comb on. + +CLOTEN. +Sayest thou? + +SECOND LORD. +It is not fit your lordship should undertake every companion that you +give offence to. + +CLOTEN. +No, I know that; but it is fit I should commit offence to my inferiors. + +SECOND LORD. +Ay, it is fit for your lordship only. + +CLOTEN. +Why, so I say. + +FIRST LORD. +Did you hear of a stranger that’s come to court tonight? + +CLOTEN. +A stranger, and I not known on’t? + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] He’s a strange fellow himself, and knows it not. + +FIRST LORD. +There’s an Italian come, and, ’tis thought, one of Leonatus’ friends. + +CLOTEN. +Leonatus? A banish’d rascal; and he’s another, whatsoever he be. Who +told you of this stranger? + +FIRST LORD. +One of your lordship’s pages. + +CLOTEN. +Is it fit I went to look upon him? Is there no derogation in’t? + +SECOND LORD. +You cannot derogate, my lord. + +CLOTEN. +Not easily, I think. + +SECOND LORD. +[_Aside._] You are a fool granted; therefore your issues, being +foolish, do not derogate. + +CLOTEN. +Come, I’ll go see this Italian. What I have lost today at bowls I’ll +win tonight of him. Come, go. + +SECOND LORD. +I’ll attend your lordship. + + [_Exeunt Cloten and First Lord._] + +That such a crafty devil as is his mother +Should yield the world this ass! A woman that +Bears all down with her brain; and this her son +Cannot take two from twenty, for his heart, +And leave eighteen. Alas, poor princess, +Thou divine Imogen, what thou endur’st, +Betwixt a father by thy step-dame govern’d, +A mother hourly coining plots, a wooer +More hateful than the foul expulsion is +Of thy dear husband, than that horrid act +Of the divorce he’d make! The heavens hold firm +The walls of thy dear honour, keep unshak’d +That temple, thy fair mind, that thou mayst stand +T’ enjoy thy banish’d lord and this great land! + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. Britain. Imogen’s bedchamber in Cymbeline’s palace; a trunk +in one corner. + + Enter Immogen in her bed, and a Lady attending. + +IMOGEN. +Who’s there? My woman Helen? + +LADY. +Please you, madam. + +IMOGEN. +What hour is it? + +LADY. +Almost midnight, madam. + +IMOGEN. +I have read three hours then. Mine eyes are weak; +Fold down the leaf where I have left. To bed. +Take not away the taper, leave it burning; +And if thou canst awake by four o’ th’ clock, +I prithee call me. Sleep hath seiz’d me wholly. + + [_Exit Lady._] + +To your protection I commend me, gods. +From fairies and the tempters of the night +Guard me, beseech ye! + + [_Sleeps. Iachimo comes from the trunk._] + +IACHIMO. +The crickets sing, and man’s o’er-labour’d sense +Repairs itself by rest. Our Tarquin thus +Did softly press the rushes ere he waken’d +The chastity he wounded. Cytherea, +How bravely thou becom’st thy bed! fresh lily, +And whiter than the sheets! That I might touch! +But kiss; one kiss! Rubies unparagon’d, +How dearly they do’t! ’Tis her breathing that +Perfumes the chamber thus. The flame o’ th’ taper +Bows toward her and would under-peep her lids +To see th’ enclosed lights, now canopied +Under these windows white and azure, lac’d +With blue of heaven’s own tinct. But my design +To note the chamber. I will write all down: +Such and such pictures; there the window; such +Th’ adornment of her bed; the arras, figures, +Why, such and such; and the contents o’ th’ story. +Ah, but some natural notes about her body +Above ten thousand meaner movables +Would testify, t’ enrich mine inventory. +O sleep, thou ape of death, lie dull upon her! +And be her sense but as a monument, +Thus in a chapel lying! Come off, come off; + + [_Taking off her bracelet._] + +As slippery as the Gordian knot was hard! +’Tis mine; and this will witness outwardly, +As strongly as the conscience does within, +To th’ madding of her lord. On her left breast +A mole cinque-spotted, like the crimson drops +I’ th’ bottom of a cowslip. Here’s a voucher +Stronger than ever law could make; this secret +Will force him think I have pick’d the lock and ta’en +The treasure of her honour. No more. To what end? +Why should I write this down that’s riveted, +Screw’d to my memory? She hath been reading late +The tale of Tereus; here the leaf’s turn’d down +Where Philomel gave up. I have enough. +To th’ trunk again, and shut the spring of it. +Swift, swift, you dragons of the night, that dawning +May bare the raven’s eye! I lodge in fear; +Though this a heavenly angel, hell is here. + + [_Clock strikes._] + +One, two, three. Time, time! + + [_Exit into the trunk._] + +SCENE III. Cymbeline’s palace. An ante-chamber adjoining Imogen’s +apartments. + + Enter Cloten and Lords. + +FIRST LORD. +Your lordship is the most patient man in loss, the most coldest that +ever turn’d up ace. + +CLOTEN. +It would make any man cold to lose. + +FIRST LORD. +But not every man patient after the noble temper of your lordship. You +are most hot and furious when you win. + +CLOTEN. +Winning will put any man into courage. If I could get this foolish +Imogen, I should have gold enough. It’s almost morning, is’t not? + +FIRST LORD. +Day, my lord. + +CLOTEN. +I would this music would come. I am advised to give her music a +mornings; they say it will penetrate. + + Enter Musicians. + +Come on, tune. If you can penetrate her with your fingering, so. We’ll +try with tongue too. If none will do, let her remain; but I’ll never +give o’er. First, a very excellent good-conceited thing; after, a +wonderful sweet air, with admirable rich words to it, and then let her +consider. + +SONG + + + Hark, hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings, + And Phœbus ’gins arise, + His steeds to water at those springs + On chalic’d flow’rs that lies; + And winking Mary-buds begin + To ope their golden eyes. + With everything that pretty is, + My lady sweet, arise; + Arise, arise! + +CLOTEN. +So, get you gone. If this penetrate, I will consider your music the +better; if it do not, it is a vice in her ears which horsehairs and +calves’ guts, nor the voice of unpaved eunuch to boot, can never amend. + + [_Exeunt Musicians._] + + Enter Cymbeline and Queen. + +SECOND LORD. +Here comes the King. + +CLOTEN. +I am glad I was up so late, for that’s the reason I was up so early. He +cannot choose but take this service I have done fatherly.—Good morrow +to your Majesty and to my gracious mother. + +CYMBELINE. +Attend you here the door of our stern daughter? +Will she not forth? + +CLOTEN. +I have assail’d her with musics, but she vouchsafes no notice. + +CYMBELINE. +The exile of her minion is too new; +She hath not yet forgot him; some more time +Must wear the print of his remembrance on’t, +And then she’s yours. + +QUEEN. +You are most bound to th’ King, +Who lets go by no vantages that may +Prefer you to his daughter. Frame yourself +To orderly solicits, and be friended +With aptness of the season; make denials +Increase your services; so seem as if +You were inspir’d to do those duties which +You tender to her; that you in all obey her, +Save when command to your dismission tends, +And therein you are senseless. + +CLOTEN. +Senseless? Not so. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +So like you, sir, ambassadors from Rome; +The one is Caius Lucius. + +CYMBELINE. +A worthy fellow, +Albeit he comes on angry purpose now; +But that’s no fault of his. We must receive him +According to the honour of his sender; +And towards himself, his goodness forespent on us, +We must extend our notice. Our dear son, +When you have given good morning to your mistress, +Attend the Queen and us; we shall have need +T’ employ you towards this Roman. Come, our queen. + + [_Exeunt all but Cloten._] + +CLOTEN. +If she be up, I’ll speak with her; if not, +Let her lie still and dream. By your leave, ho! + + [_Knocks._] + +I know her women are about her; what +If I do line one of their hands? ’Tis gold +Which buys admittance (oft it doth) yea, and makes +Diana’s rangers false themselves, yield up +Their deer to th’ stand o’ th’ stealer; and ’tis gold +Which makes the true man kill’d and saves the thief; +Nay, sometime hangs both thief and true man. What +Can it not do and undo? I will make +One of her women lawyer to me, for +I yet not understand the case myself. +By your leave. + + [_Knocks._] + + Enter a Lady. + +LADY. +Who’s there that knocks? + +CLOTEN. +A gentleman. + +LADY. +No more? + +CLOTEN. +Yes, and a gentlewoman’s son. + +LADY. +That’s more +Than some whose tailors are as dear as yours +Can justly boast of. What’s your lordship’s pleasure? + +CLOTEN. +Your lady’s person; is she ready? + +LADY. +Ay, +To keep her chamber. + +CLOTEN. +There is gold for you; sell me your good report. + +LADY. +How? My good name? or to report of you +What I shall think is good? The Princess! + + Enter Imogen. + +CLOTEN. +Good morrow, fairest sister. Your sweet hand. + + [_Exit Lady._] + +IMOGEN. +Good morrow, sir. You lay out too much pains +For purchasing but trouble. The thanks I give +Is telling you that I am poor of thanks, +And scarce can spare them. + +CLOTEN. +Still I swear I love you. + +IMOGEN. +If you but said so, ’twere as deep with me. +If you swear still, your recompense is still +That I regard it not. + +CLOTEN. +This is no answer. + +IMOGEN. +But that you shall not say I yield, being silent, +I would not speak. I pray you spare me. Faith, +I shall unfold equal discourtesy +To your best kindness; one of your great knowing +Should learn, being taught, forbearance. + +CLOTEN. +To leave you in your madness ’twere my sin; +I will not. + +IMOGEN. +Fools are not mad folks. + +CLOTEN. +Do you call me fool? + +IMOGEN. +As I am mad, I do; +If you’ll be patient, I’ll no more be mad; +That cures us both. I am much sorry, sir, +You put me to forget a lady’s manners +By being so verbal; and learn now, for all, +That I, which know my heart, do here pronounce, +By th’ very truth of it, I care not for you, +And am so near the lack of charity +To accuse myself I hate you; which I had rather +You felt than make’t my boast. + +CLOTEN. +You sin against +Obedience, which you owe your father. For +The contract you pretend with that base wretch, +One bred of alms and foster’d with cold dishes, +With scraps o’ th’ court, it is no contract, none. +And though it be allowed in meaner parties +(Yet who than he more mean?) to knit their souls +(On whom there is no more dependency +But brats and beggary) in self-figur’d knot, +Yet you are curb’d from that enlargement by +The consequence o’ th’ crown, and must not foil +The precious note of it with a base slave, +A hilding for a livery, a squire’s cloth, +A pantler; not so eminent! + +IMOGEN. +Profane fellow! +Wert thou the son of Jupiter, and no more +But what thou art besides, thou wert too base +To be his groom. Thou wert dignified enough, +Even to the point of envy, if ’twere made +Comparative for your virtues to be styl’d +The under-hangman of his kingdom, and hated +For being preferr’d so well. + +CLOTEN. +The south fog rot him! + +IMOGEN. +He never can meet more mischance than come +To be but nam’d of thee. His mean’st garment +That ever hath but clipp’d his body, is dearer +In my respect, than all the hairs above thee, +Were they all made such men. How now, Pisanio! + + Enter Pisanio. + +CLOTEN. +‘His garment’! Now the devil— + +IMOGEN. +To Dorothy my woman hie thee presently. + +CLOTEN. +‘His garment’! + +IMOGEN. +I am sprited with a fool; +Frighted, and ang’red worse. Go bid my woman +Search for a jewel that too casually +Hath left mine arm. It was thy master’s; shrew me, +If I would lose it for a revenue +Of any king’s in Europe! I do think +I saw’t this morning; confident I am +Last night ’twas on mine arm; I kiss’d it. +I hope it be not gone to tell my lord +That I kiss aught but he. + +PISANIO. +’Twill not be lost. + +IMOGEN. +I hope so. Go and search. + + [_Exit Pisanio._] + +CLOTEN. +You have abus’d me. +‘His meanest garment’! + +IMOGEN. +Ay, I said so, sir. +If you will make ’t an action, call witness to ’t. + +CLOTEN. +I will inform your father. + +IMOGEN. +Your mother too. +She’s my good lady and will conceive, I hope, +But the worst of me. So I leave you, sir, +To th’ worst of discontent. + + [_Exit._] + +CLOTEN. +I’ll be reveng’d. +‘His mean’st garment’! Well. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Rome. Philario’s house. + + Enter Posthumus and Philario. + +POSTHUMUS. +Fear it not, sir; I would I were so sure +To win the King as I am bold her honour +Will remain hers. + +PHILARIO. +What means do you make to him? + +POSTHUMUS. +Not any; but abide the change of time, +Quake in the present winter’s state, and wish +That warmer days would come. In these fear’d hopes +I barely gratify your love; they failing, +I must die much your debtor. + +PHILARIO. +Your very goodness and your company +O’erpays all I can do. By this your king +Hath heard of great Augustus. Caius Lucius +Will do’s commission throughly; and I think +He’ll grant the tribute, send th’ arrearages, +Or look upon our Romans, whose remembrance +Is yet fresh in their grief. + +POSTHUMUS. +I do believe +Statist though I am none, nor like to be, +That this will prove a war; and you shall hear +The legions now in Gallia sooner landed +In our not-fearing Britain than have tidings +Of any penny tribute paid. Our countrymen +Are men more order’d than when Julius Cæsar +Smil’d at their lack of skill, but found their courage +Worthy his frowning at. Their discipline, +Now mingled with their courages, will make known +To their approvers they are people such +That mend upon the world. + + Enter Iachimo. + +PHILARIO. +See! Iachimo! + +POSTHUMUS. +The swiftest harts have posted you by land, +And winds of all the corners kiss’d your sails, +To make your vessel nimble. + +PHILARIO. +Welcome, sir. + +POSTHUMUS. +I hope the briefness of your answer made +The speediness of your return. + +IACHIMO. +Your lady +Is one of the fairest that I have look’d upon. + +POSTHUMUS. +And therewithal the best; or let her beauty +Look through a casement to allure false hearts, +And be false with them. + +IACHIMO. +Here are letters for you. + +POSTHUMUS. +Their tenour good, I trust. + +IACHIMO. +’Tis very like. + +PHILARIO. +Was Caius Lucius in the Britain court +When you were there? + +IACHIMO. +He was expected then, +But not approach’d. + +POSTHUMUS. +All is well yet. +Sparkles this stone as it was wont, or is’t not +Too dull for your good wearing? + +IACHIMO. +If I have lost it, +I should have lost the worth of it in gold. +I’ll make a journey twice as far t’ enjoy +A second night of such sweet shortness which +Was mine in Britain; for the ring is won. + +POSTHUMUS. +The stone’s too hard to come by. + +IACHIMO. +Not a whit, +Your lady being so easy. + +POSTHUMUS. +Make not, sir, +Your loss your sport. I hope you know that we +Must not continue friends. + +IACHIMO. +Good sir, we must, +If you keep covenant. Had I not brought +The knowledge of your mistress home, I grant +We were to question farther; but I now +Profess myself the winner of her honour, +Together with your ring; and not the wronger +Of her or you, having proceeded but +By both your wills. + +POSTHUMUS. +If you can make’t apparent +That you have tasted her in bed, my hand +And ring is yours. If not, the foul opinion +You had of her pure honour gains or loses +Your sword or mine, or masterless leaves both +To who shall find them. + +IACHIMO. +Sir, my circumstances, +Being so near the truth as I will make them, +Must first induce you to believe; whose strength +I will confirm with oath; which I doubt not +You’ll give me leave to spare when you shall find +You need it not. + +POSTHUMUS. +Proceed. + +IACHIMO. +First, her bedchamber, +(Where I confess I slept not, but profess +Had that was well worth watching) it was hang’d +With tapestry of silk and silver; the story, +Proud Cleopatra when she met her Roman +And Cydnus swell’d above the banks, or for +The press of boats or pride. A piece of work +So bravely done, so rich, that it did strive +In workmanship and value; which I wonder’d +Could be so rarely and exactly wrought, +Since the true life on’t was— + +POSTHUMUS. +This is true; +And this you might have heard of here, by me +Or by some other. + +IACHIMO. +More particulars +Must justify my knowledge. + +POSTHUMUS. +So they must, +Or do your honour injury. + +IACHIMO. +The chimney +Is south the chamber, and the chimneypiece +Chaste Dian bathing. Never saw I figures +So likely to report themselves. The cutter +Was as another nature, dumb; outwent her, +Motion and breath left out. + +POSTHUMUS. +This is a thing +Which you might from relation likewise reap, +Being, as it is, much spoke of. + +IACHIMO. +The roof o’ th’ chamber +With golden cherubins is fretted; her andirons +(I had forgot them) were two winking Cupids +Of silver, each on one foot standing, nicely +Depending on their brands. + +POSTHUMUS. +This is her honour! +Let it be granted you have seen all this, and praise +Be given to your remembrance; the description +Of what is in her chamber nothing saves +The wager you have laid. + +IACHIMO. +Then, if you can, [_Shows the bracelet_] +Be pale. I beg but leave to air this jewel. See! +And now ’tis up again. It must be married +To that your diamond; I’ll keep them. + +POSTHUMUS. +Jove! +Once more let me behold it. Is it that +Which I left with her? + +IACHIMO. +Sir (I thank her) that. +She stripp’d it from her arm; I see her yet; +Her pretty action did outsell her gift, +And yet enrich’d it too. She gave it me, and said +She priz’d it once. + +POSTHUMUS. +May be she pluck’d it of +To send it me. + +IACHIMO. +She writes so to you, doth she? + +POSTHUMUS. +O, no, no, no! ’tis true. Here, take this too; + + [_Gives the ring._] + +It is a basilisk unto mine eye, +Kills me to look on’t. Let there be no honour +Where there is beauty; truth where semblance; love +Where there’s another man. The vows of women +Of no more bondage be to where they are made +Than they are to their virtues, which is nothing. +O, above measure false! + +PHILARIO. +Have patience, sir, +And take your ring again; ’tis not yet won. +It may be probable she lost it, or +Who knows if one her women, being corrupted +Hath stol’n it from her? + +POSTHUMUS. +Very true; +And so I hope he came by’t. Back my ring. +Render to me some corporal sign about her, +More evident than this; for this was stol’n. + +IACHIMO. +By Jupiter, I had it from her arm! + +POSTHUMUS. +Hark you, he swears; by Jupiter he swears. +’Tis true, nay, keep the ring, ’tis true. I am sure +She would not lose it. Her attendants are +All sworn and honourable:—they induc’d to steal it! +And by a stranger! No, he hath enjoy’d her. +The cognizance of her incontinency +Is this: she hath bought the name of whore thus dearly. +There, take thy hire; and all the fiends of hell +Divide themselves between you! + + +PHILARIO. +Sir, be patient; +This is not strong enough to be believ’d +Of one persuaded well of. + +POSTHUMUS. +Never talk on’t; +She hath been colted by him. + +IACHIMO. +If you seek +For further satisfying, under her breast +(Worthy the pressing) lies a mole, right proud +Of that most delicate lodging. By my life, +I kiss’d it; and it gave me present hunger +To feed again, though full. You do remember +This stain upon her? + +POSTHUMUS. +Ay, and it doth confirm +Another stain, as big as hell can hold, +Were there no more but it. + +IACHIMO. +Will you hear more? + +POSTHUMUS. +Spare your arithmetic; never count the turns. +Once, and a million! + +IACHIMO. +I’ll be sworn— + +POSTHUMUS. +No swearing. +If you will swear you have not done’t, you lie; +And I will kill thee if thou dost deny +Thou’st made me cuckold. + +IACHIMO. +I’ll deny nothing. + +POSTHUMUS. +O that I had her here to tear her limb-meal! +I will go there and do’t, i’ th’ court, before +Her father. I’ll do something— + + [_Exit._] + +PHILARIO. +Quite besides +The government of patience! You have won. +Let’s follow him and pervert the present wrath +He hath against himself. + +IACHIMO. +With all my heart. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Rome. Another room in Philario’s house. + + Enter Posthumus. + +POSTHUMUS. +Is there no way for men to be, but women +Must be half-workers? We are all bastards, +And that most venerable man which I +Did call my father was I know not where +When I was stamp’d. Some coiner with his tools +Made me a counterfeit; yet my mother seem’d +The Dian of that time. So doth my wife +The nonpareil of this. O, vengeance, vengeance! +Me of my lawful pleasure she restrain’d, +And pray’d me oft forbearance; did it with +A pudency so rosy, the sweet view on’t +Might well have warm’d old Saturn; that I thought her +As chaste as unsunn’d snow. O, all the devils! +This yellow Iachimo in an hour, was’t not? +Or less; at first? Perchance he spoke not, but, +Like a full-acorn’d boar, a German one, +Cried “O!” and mounted; found no opposition +But what he look’d for should oppose and she +Should from encounter guard. Could I find out +The woman’s part in me! For there’s no motion +That tends to vice in man but I affirm +It is the woman’s part. Be it lying, note it, +The woman’s; flattering, hers; deceiving, hers; +Lust and rank thoughts, hers, hers; revenges, hers; +Ambitions, covetings, change of prides, disdain, +Nice longing, slanders, mutability, +All faults that man may name, nay, that hell knows, +Why, hers, in part or all; but rather all; +For even to vice +They are not constant, but are changing still +One vice but of a minute old for one +Not half so old as that. I’ll write against them, +Detest them, curse them. Yet ’tis greater skill +In a true hate to pray they have their will: +The very devils cannot plague them better. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Britain. A hall in Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter in state Cymbeline, Queen, Cloten and Lords at one door, and at + another Caius Lucius and Attendants. + +CYMBELINE. +Now say, what would Augustus Cæsar with us? + +LUCIUS. +When Julius Cæsar, (whose remembrance yet +Lives in men’s eyes, and will to ears and tongues +Be theme and hearing ever) was in this Britain, +And conquer’d it, Cassibelan, thine uncle, +Famous in Cæsar’s praises no whit less +Than in his feats deserving it, for him +And his succession granted Rome a tribute, +Yearly three thousand pounds, which by thee lately +Is left untender’d. + +QUEEN. +And, to kill the marvel, +Shall be so ever. + +CLOTEN. +There be many Cæsars ere such another Julius. Britain is a world by +itself, and we will nothing pay for wearing our own noses. + +QUEEN. +That opportunity, +Which then they had to take from’s, to resume +We have again. Remember, sir, my liege, +The kings your ancestors, together with +The natural bravery of your isle, which stands +As Neptune’s park, ribb’d and pal’d in +With rocks unscaleable and roaring waters, +With sands that will not bear your enemies’ boats +But suck them up to th’ top-mast. A kind of conquest +Cæsar made here, but made not here his brag +Of ‘Came, and saw, and overcame.’ With shame +(The first that ever touch’d him) he was carried +From off our coast, twice beaten; and his shipping +(Poor ignorant baubles!) on our terrible seas, +Like egg-shells mov’d upon their surges, crack’d +As easily ’gainst our rocks; for joy whereof +The fam’d Cassibelan, who was once at point +(O, giglot fortune!) to master Cæsar’s sword, +Made Lud’s Town with rejoicing fires bright +And Britons strut with courage. + +CLOTEN. +Come, there’s no more tribute to be paid. Our kingdom is stronger than +it was at that time; and, as I said, there is no moe such Cæsars. Other +of them may have crook’d noses; but to owe such straight arms, none. + +CYMBELINE. +Son, let your mother end. + +CLOTEN. +We have yet many among us can gripe as hard as Cassibelan. I do not say +I am one; but I have a hand. Why tribute? Why should we pay tribute? If +Cæsar can hide the sun from us with a blanket, or put the moon in his +pocket, we will pay him tribute for light; else, sir, no more tribute, +pray you now. + +CYMBELINE. +You must know, +Till the injurious Romans did extort +This tribute from us, we were free. Cæsar’s ambition, +Which swell’d so much that it did almost stretch +The sides o’ th’ world, against all colour here +Did put the yoke upon’s; which to shake of +Becomes a warlike people, whom we reckon +Ourselves to be. + +CLOTEN. +We do. + +CYMBELINE. +Say then to Cæsar, +Our ancestor was that Mulmutius which +Ordain’d our laws, whose use the sword of Cæsar +Hath too much mangled; whose repair and franchise +Shall, by the power we hold, be our good deed, +Though Rome be therefore angry. Mulmutius made our laws, +Who was the first of Britain which did put +His brows within a golden crown, and call’d +Himself a king. + +LUCIUS. +I am sorry, Cymbeline, +That I am to pronounce Augustus Cæsar +(Cæsar, that hath moe kings his servants than +Thyself domestic officers) thine enemy. +Receive it from me, then: war and confusion +In Cæsar’s name pronounce I ’gainst thee; look +For fury not to be resisted. Thus defied, +I thank thee for myself. + +CYMBELINE. +Thou art welcome, Caius. +Thy Cæsar knighted me; my youth I spent +Much under him; of him I gather’d honour, +Which he to seek of me again, perforce, +Behoves me keep at utterance. I am perfect +That the Pannonians and Dalmatians for +Their liberties are now in arms, a precedent +Which not to read would show the Britons cold; +So Cæsar shall not find them. + +LUCIUS. +Let proof speak. + +CLOTEN. +His majesty bids you welcome. Make pastime with us a day or two, or +longer. If you seek us afterwards in other terms, you shall find us in +our salt-water girdle. If you beat us out of it, it is yours; if you +fall in the adventure, our crows shall fare the better for you; and +there’s an end. + +LUCIUS. +So, sir. + +CYMBELINE. +I know your master’s pleasure, and he mine; +All the remain is, welcome. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Britain. Another room in Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter Pisanio reading of a letter. + +PISANIO. +How? of adultery? Wherefore write you not +What monsters her accuse? Leonatus! +O master, what a strange infection +Is fall’n into thy ear! What false Italian +(As poisonous-tongu’d as handed) hath prevail’d +On thy too ready hearing? Disloyal? No. +She’s punish’d for her truth, and undergoes, +More goddess-like than wife-like, such assaults +As would take in some virtue. O my master, +Thy mind to her is now as low as were +Thy fortunes. How? that I should murder her? +Upon the love, and truth, and vows, which I +Have made to thy command? I, her? Her blood? +If it be so to do good service, never +Let me be counted serviceable. How look I +That I should seem to lack humanity +So much as this fact comes to? + + [_Reads._] + +‘Do’t. The letter +That I have sent her, by her own command +Shall give thee opportunity.’ O damn’d paper, +Black as the ink that’s on thee! Senseless bauble, +Art thou a fedary for this act, and look’st +So virgin-like without? Lo, here she comes. + + Enter Imogen. + +I am ignorant in what I am commanded. + +IMOGEN. +How now, Pisanio? + +PISANIO. +Madam, here is a letter from my lord. + +IMOGEN. +Who? thy lord? That is my lord, Leonatus? +O, learn’d indeed were that astronomer +That knew the stars as I his characters; +He’d lay the future open. You good gods, +Let what is here contain’d relish of love, +Of my lord’s health, of his content; yet not +That we two are asunder; let that grieve him! +Some griefs are med’cinable; that is one of them, +For it doth physic love: of his content, +All but in that. Good wax, thy leave. Blest be +You bees that make these locks of counsel! Lovers +And men in dangerous bonds pray not alike; +Though forfeiters you cast in prison, yet +You clasp young Cupid’s tables. Good news, gods! + + [_Reads._] + +_Justice and your father’s wrath, should he take me in his dominion, +could not be so cruel to me as you, O the dearest of creatures, would +even renew me with your eyes. Take notice that I am in Cambria, at +Milford Haven. What your own love will out of this advise you, follow. +So he wishes you all happiness that remains loyal to his vow, and your +increasing in love. + LEONATUS POSTHUMUS._ + +O for a horse with wings! Hear’st thou, Pisanio? +He is at Milford Haven. Read, and tell me +How far ’tis thither. If one of mean affairs +May plod it in a week, why may not I +Glide thither in a day? Then, true Pisanio, +Who long’st like me to see thy lord, who long’st +(O, let me ’bate!) but not like me, yet long’st, +But in a fainter kind. O, not like me, +For mine’s beyond beyond: say, and speak thick, +(Love’s counsellor should fill the bores of hearing +To th’ smothering of the sense) how far it is +To this same blessed Milford. And by th’ way +Tell me how Wales was made so happy as +T’ inherit such a haven. But first of all, +How we may steal from hence; and for the gap +That we shall make in time from our hence-going +And our return, to excuse. But first, how get hence. +Why should excuse be born or ere begot? +We’ll talk of that hereafter. Prithee speak, +How many score of miles may we well rid +’Twixt hour and hour? + +PISANIO. +One score ’twixt sun and sun, +Madam, ’s enough for you, and too much too. + +IMOGEN. +Why, one that rode to’s execution, man, +Could never go so slow. I have heard of riding wagers +Where horses have been nimbler than the sands +That run i’ th’ clock’s behalf. But this is fool’ry. +Go bid my woman feign a sickness; say +She’ll home to her father; and provide me presently +A riding suit, no costlier than would fit +A franklin’s huswife. + +PISANIO. +Madam, you’re best consider. + +IMOGEN. +I see before me, man. Nor here, nor here, +Nor what ensues, but have a fog in them +That I cannot look through. Away, I prithee; +Do as I bid thee. There’s no more to say. +Accessible is none but Milford way. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Wales. A mountainous country with a cave. + + Enter from the cave Belarius, Guiderius and Arviragus. + +BELARIUS. +A goodly day not to keep house with such +Whose roof’s as low as ours! Stoop, boys; this gate +Instructs you how t’ adore the heavens, and bows you +To a morning’s holy office. The gates of monarchs +Are arch’d so high that giants may jet through +And keep their impious turbans on without +Good morrow to the sun. Hail, thou fair heaven! +We house i’ th’ rock, yet use thee not so hardly +As prouder livers do. + +GUIDERIUS. +Hail, heaven! + +ARVIRAGUS. +Hail, heaven! + +BELARIUS. +Now for our mountain sport. Up to yond hill, +Your legs are young; I’ll tread these flats. Consider, +When you above perceive me like a crow, +That it is place which lessens and sets off; +And you may then revolve what tales I have told you +Of courts, of princes, of the tricks in war. +This service is not service so being done, +But being so allow’d. To apprehend thus +Draws us a profit from all things we see, +And often to our comfort shall we find +The sharded beetle in a safer hold +Than is the full-wing’d eagle. O, this life +Is nobler than attending for a check, +Richer than doing nothing for a robe, +Prouder than rustling in unpaid-for silk: +Such gain the cap of him that makes him fine, +Yet keeps his book uncross’d. No life to ours! + +GUIDERIUS. +Out of your proof you speak. We, poor unfledg’d, +Have never wing’d from view o’ th’ nest, nor know not +What air’s from home. Haply this life is best, +If quiet life be best; sweeter to you +That have a sharper known; well corresponding +With your stiff age. But unto us it is +A cell of ignorance, travelling abed, +A prison for a debtor that not dares +To stride a limit. + +ARVIRAGUS. +What should we speak of +When we are old as you? When we shall hear +The rain and wind beat dark December, how, +In this our pinching cave, shall we discourse. +The freezing hours away? We have seen nothing; +We are beastly: subtle as the fox for prey, +Like warlike as the wolf for what we eat. +Our valour is to chase what flies; our cage +We make a choir, as doth the prison’d bird, +And sing our bondage freely. + +BELARIUS. +How you speak! +Did you but know the city’s usuries, +And felt them knowingly; the art o’ th’ court, +As hard to leave as keep, whose top to climb +Is certain falling, or so slipp’ry that +The fear’s as bad as falling; the toil o’ th’ war, +A pain that only seems to seek out danger +I’ th’ name of fame and honour, which dies i’ th’ search, +And hath as oft a sland’rous epitaph +As record of fair act; nay, many times, +Doth ill deserve by doing well; what’s worse, +Must curtsy at the censure. O, boys, this story +The world may read in me; my body’s mark’d +With Roman swords, and my report was once +First with the best of note. Cymbeline lov’d me; +And when a soldier was the theme, my name +Was not far off. Then was I as a tree +Whose boughs did bend with fruit. But in one night +A storm, or robbery, call it what you will, +Shook down my mellow hangings, nay, my leaves, +And left me bare to weather. + +GUIDERIUS. +Uncertain favour! + +BELARIUS. +My fault being nothing, as I have told you oft, +But that two villains, whose false oaths prevail’d +Before my perfect honour, swore to Cymbeline +I was confederate with the Romans. So +Follow’d my banishment, and this twenty years +This rock and these demesnes have been my world, +Where I have liv’d at honest freedom, paid +More pious debts to heaven than in all +The fore-end of my time. But up to th’ mountains! +This is not hunters’ language. He that strikes +The venison first shall be the lord o’ th’ feast; +To him the other two shall minister; +And we will fear no poison, which attends +In place of greater state. I’ll meet you in the valleys. + + [_Exeunt Guiderius and Arviragus._] + +How hard it is to hide the sparks of nature! +These boys know little they are sons to th’ King, +Nor Cymbeline dreams that they are alive. +They think they are mine; and though train’d up thus meanly +I’ th’ cave wherein they bow, their thoughts do hit +The roofs of palaces, and nature prompts them +In simple and low things to prince it much +Beyond the trick of others. This Polydore, +The heir of Cymbeline and Britain, who +The King his father call’d Guiderius—Jove! +When on my three-foot stool I sit and tell +The warlike feats I have done, his spirits fly out +Into my story; say ‘Thus mine enemy fell, +And thus I set my foot on’s neck’; even then +The princely blood flows in his cheek, he sweats, +Strains his young nerves, and puts himself in posture +That acts my words. The younger brother, Cadwal, +Once Arviragus, in as like a figure +Strikes life into my speech, and shows much more +His own conceiving. Hark, the game is rous’d! +O Cymbeline, heaven and my conscience knows +Thou didst unjustly banish me! Whereon, +At three and two years old, I stole these babes, +Thinking to bar thee of succession as +Thou refts me of my lands. Euriphile, +Thou wast their nurse; they took thee for their mother, +And every day do honour to her grave. +Myself, Belarius, that am Morgan call’d, +They take for natural father. The game is up. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Wales, near Milford Haven. + + Enter Pisanio and Imogen. + +IMOGEN. +Thou told’st me, when we came from horse, the place +Was near at hand. Ne’er long’d my mother so +To see me first as I have now. Pisanio! Man! +Where is Posthumus? What is in thy mind +That makes thee stare thus? Wherefore breaks that sigh +From th’ inward of thee? One but painted thus +Would be interpreted a thing perplex’d +Beyond self-explication. Put thyself +Into a haviour of less fear, ere wildness +Vanquish my staider senses. What’s the matter? +Why tender’st thou that paper to me with +A look untender? If’t be summer news, +Smile to’t before; if winterly, thou need’st +But keep that count’nance still. My husband’s hand? +That drug-damn’d Italy hath out-craftied him, +And he’s at some hard point. Speak, man; thy tongue +May take off some extremity, which to read +Would be even mortal to me. + +PISANIO. +Please you read, +And you shall find me, wretched man, a thing +The most disdain’d of fortune. + +IMOGEN. +[_Reads._] _Thy mistress, Pisanio, hath play’d the strumpet in my bed, +the testimonies whereof lie bleeding in me. I speak not out of weak +surmises, but from proof as strong as my grief and as certain as I +expect my revenge. That part thou, Pisanio, must act for me, if thy +faith be not tainted with the breach of hers. Let thine own hands take +away her life; I shall give thee opportunity at Milford Haven; she hath +my letter for the purpose; where, if thou fear to strike, and to make +me certain it is done, thou art the pandar to her dishonour, and +equally to me disloyal._ + +PISANIO. +What shall I need to draw my sword? The paper +Hath cut her throat already. No, ’tis slander, +Whose edge is sharper than the sword, whose tongue +Outvenoms all the worms of Nile, whose breath +Rides on the posting winds and doth belie +All corners of the world. Kings, queens, and states, +Maids, matrons, nay, the secrets of the grave, +This viperous slander enters. What cheer, madam? + +IMOGEN. +False to his bed? What is it to be false? +To lie in watch there, and to think on him? +To weep twixt clock and clock? If sleep charge nature, +To break it with a fearful dream of him, +And cry myself awake? That’s false to’s bed, +Is it? + +PISANIO. +Alas, good lady! + +IMOGEN. +I false! Thy conscience witness! Iachimo, +Thou didst accuse him of incontinency; +Thou then look’dst like a villain; now, methinks, +Thy favour’s good enough. Some jay of Italy, +Whose mother was her painting, hath betray’d him. +Poor I am stale, a garment out of fashion, +And for I am richer than to hang by th’ walls +I must be ripp’d. To pieces with me! O, +Men’s vows are women’s traitors! All good seeming, +By thy revolt, O husband, shall be thought +Put on for villainy; not born where’t grows, +But worn a bait for ladies. + +PISANIO. +Good madam, hear me. + +IMOGEN. +True honest men being heard, like false Æneas, +Were, in his time, thought false; and Sinon’s weeping +Did scandal many a holy tear, took pity +From most true wretchedness. So thou, Posthumus, +Wilt lay the leaven on all proper men: +Goodly and gallant shall be false and perjur’d +From thy great fail. Come, fellow, be thou honest; +Do thou thy master’s bidding; when thou seest him, +A little witness my obedience. Look! +I draw the sword myself; take it, and hit +The innocent mansion of my love, my heart. +Fear not; ’tis empty of all things but grief; +Thy master is not there, who was indeed +The riches of it. Do his bidding; strike. +Thou mayst be valiant in a better cause, +But now thou seem’st a coward. + +PISANIO. +Hence, vile instrument! +Thou shalt not damn my hand. + +IMOGEN. +Why, I must die; +And if I do not by thy hand, thou art +No servant of thy master’s. Against self-slaughter +There is a prohibition so divine +That cravens my weak hand. Come, here’s my heart: +Something’s afore’t. Soft, soft! we’ll no defence, +Obedient as the scabbard. What is here? +The scriptures of the loyal Leonatus +All turn’d to heresy? Away, away, +Corrupters of my faith, you shall no more +Be stomachers to my heart. Thus may poor fools +Believe false teachers; though those that are betray’d +Do feel the treason sharply, yet the traitor +Stands in worse case of woe. And thou, Posthumus, +That didst set up my disobedience ’gainst the King +My father, and make me put into contempt the suits +Of princely fellows, shalt hereafter find +It is no act of common passage but +A strain of rareness; and I grieve myself +To think, when thou shalt be disedg’d by her +That now thou tirest on, how thy memory +Will then be pang’d by me. Prithee dispatch. +The lamp entreats the butcher. Where’s thy knife? +Thou art too slow to do thy master’s bidding, +When I desire it too. + +PISANIO. +O gracious lady, +Since I receiv’d command to do this busines +I have not slept one wink. + +IMOGEN. +Do’t, and to bed then. + +PISANIO. +I’ll wake mine eyeballs first. + +IMOGEN. +Wherefore then +Didst undertake it? Why hast thou abus’d +So many miles with a pretence? This place? +Mine action and thine own? our horses’ labour? +The time inviting thee? The perturb’d court, +For my being absent? whereunto I never +Purpose return. Why hast thou gone so far +To be unbent when thou hast ta’en thy stand, +Th’ elected deer before thee? + +PISANIO. +But to win time +To lose so bad employment, in the which +I have consider’d of a course. Good lady, +Hear me with patience. + +IMOGEN. +Talk thy tongue weary, speak. +I have heard I am a strumpet, and mine ear, +Therein false struck, can take no greater wound, +Nor tent to bottom that. But speak. + +PISANIO. +Then, madam, +I thought you would not back again. + +IMOGEN. +Most like, +Bringing me here to kill me. + +PISANIO. +Not so, neither; +But if I were as wise as honest, then +My purpose would prove well. It cannot be +But that my master is abus’d. Some villain, +Ay, and singular in his art, hath done you both +This cursed injury. + +IMOGEN. +Some Roman courtezan! + +PISANIO. +No, on my life! +I’ll give but notice you are dead, and send him +Some bloody sign of it, for ’tis commanded +I should do so. You shall be miss’d at court, +And that will well confirm it. + +IMOGEN. +Why, good fellow, +What shall I do the while? Where bide? How live? +Or in my life what comfort, when I am +Dead to my husband? + +PISANIO. +If you’ll back to th’ court— + +IMOGEN. +No court, no father, nor no more ado +With that harsh, noble, simple nothing, +That Cloten, whose love-suit hath been to me +As fearful as a siege. + +PISANIO. +If not at court, +Then not in Britain must you bide. + +IMOGEN. +Where then? +Hath Britain all the sun that shines? Day, night, +Are they not but in Britain? I’ th’ world’s volume +Our Britain seems as of it, but not in’t; +In a great pool a swan’s nest. Prithee think +There’s livers out of Britain. + +PISANIO. +I am most glad +You think of other place. Th’ ambassador, +Lucius the Roman, comes to Milford Haven +Tomorrow. Now, if you could wear a mind +Dark as your fortune is, and but disguise +That which t’ appear itself must not yet be +But by self-danger, you should tread a course +Pretty and full of view; yea, happily, near +The residence of Posthumus; so nigh, at least, +That though his actions were not visible, yet +Report should render him hourly to your ear +As truly as he moves. + +IMOGEN. +O! for such means, +Though peril to my modesty, not death on’t, +I would adventure. + +PISANIO. +Well then, here’s the point: +You must forget to be a woman; change +Command into obedience; fear and niceness +(The handmaids of all women, or, more truly, +Woman it pretty self) into a waggish courage; +Ready in gibes, quick-answer’d, saucy, and +As quarrelous as the weasel. Nay, you must +Forget that rarest treasure of your cheek, +Exposing it (but, O, the harder heart! +Alack, no remedy) to the greedy touch +Of common-kissing Titan, and forget +Your laboursome and dainty trims wherein +You made great Juno angry. + +IMOGEN. +Nay, be brief; +I see into thy end, and am almost +A man already. + +PISANIO. +First, make yourself but like one. +Fore-thinking this, I have already fit +(’Tis in my cloak-bag) doublet, hat, hose, all +That answer to them. Would you, in their serving, +And with what imitation you can borrow +From youth of such a season, ’fore noble Lucius +Present yourself, desire his service, tell him +Wherein you’re happy; which will make him know +If that his head have ear in music; doubtless +With joy he will embrace you; for he’s honourable, +And, doubling that, most holy. Your means abroad: +You have me, rich; and I will never fail +Beginning nor supplyment. + +IMOGEN. +Thou art all the comfort +The gods will diet me with. Prithee away! +There’s more to be consider’d; but we’ll even +All that good time will give us. This attempt +I am soldier to, and will abide it with +A prince’s courage. Away, I prithee. + +PISANIO. +Well, madam, we must take a short farewell, +Lest, being miss’d, I be suspected of +Your carriage from the court. My noble mistress, +Here is a box; I had it from the Queen. +What’s in’t is precious. If you are sick at sea +Or stomach-qualm’d at land, a dram of this +Will drive away distemper. To some shade, +And fit you to your manhood. May the gods +Direct you to the best! + +IMOGEN. +Amen. I thank thee. + + [_Exeunt severally._] + +SCENE V. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter Cymbeline, Queen, Cloten, Lucius and Lords. + +CYMBELINE. +Thus far, and so farewell. + +LUCIUS. +Thanks, royal sir. +My emperor hath wrote; I must from hence, +And am right sorry that I must report ye +My master’s enemy. + +CYMBELINE. +Our subjects, sir, +Will not endure his yoke; and for ourself +To show less sovereignty than they, must needs +Appear unkinglike. + +LUCIUS. +So, sir. I desire of you +A conduct overland to Milford Haven. +Madam, all joy befall your Grace, and you! + +CYMBELINE. +My lords, you are appointed for that office; +The due of honour in no point omit. +So farewell, noble Lucius. + +LUCIUS. +Your hand, my lord. + +CLOTEN. +Receive it friendly; but from this time forth +I wear it as your enemy. + +LUCIUS. +Sir, the event +Is yet to name the winner. Fare you well. + +CYMBELINE. +Leave not the worthy Lucius, good my lords, +Till he have cross’d the Severn. Happiness! + + [_Exeunt Lucius and Lords._] + +QUEEN. +He goes hence frowning; but it honours us +That we have given him cause. + +CLOTEN. +’Tis all the better; +Your valiant Britons have their wishes in it. + +CYMBELINE. +Lucius hath wrote already to the Emperor +How it goes here. It fits us therefore ripely +Our chariots and our horsemen be in readiness. +The pow’rs that he already hath in Gallia +Will soon be drawn to head, from whence he moves +His war for Britain. + +QUEEN. +’Tis not sleepy business, +But must be look’d to speedily and strongly. + +CYMBELINE. +Our expectation that it would be thus +Hath made us forward. But, my gentle queen, +Where is our daughter? She hath not appear’d +Before the Roman, nor to us hath tender’d +The duty of the day. She looks us like +A thing more made of malice than of duty; +We have noted it. Call her before us, for +We have been too slight in sufferance. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + +QUEEN. +Royal sir, +Since the exile of Posthumus, most retir’d +Hath her life been; the cure whereof, my lord, +’Tis time must do. Beseech your Majesty, +Forbear sharp speeches to her; she’s a lady +So tender of rebukes that words are strokes, +And strokes death to her. + + Enter Attendant. + +CYMBELINE. +Where is she, sir? How +Can her contempt be answer’d? + +ATTENDANT. +Please you, sir, +Her chambers are all lock’d, and there’s no answer +That will be given to th’ loud of noise we make. + +QUEEN. +My lord, when last I went to visit her, +She pray’d me to excuse her keeping close; +Whereto constrain’d by her infirmity +She should that duty leave unpaid to you +Which daily she was bound to proffer. This +She wish’d me to make known; but our great court +Made me to blame in memory. + +CYMBELINE. +Her doors lock’d? +Not seen of late? Grant, heavens, that which I fear +Prove false! + + [_Exit._] + +QUEEN. +Son, I say, follow the King. + +CLOTEN. +That man of hers, Pisanio, her old servant, +I have not seen these two days. + +QUEEN. +Go, look after. + + [_Exit Cloten._] + +Pisanio, thou that stand’st so for Posthumus! +He hath a drug of mine. I pray his absence +Proceed by swallowing that; for he believes +It is a thing most precious. But for her, +Where is she gone? Haply despair hath seiz’d her; +Or, wing’d with fervour of her love, she’s flown +To her desir’d Posthumus. Gone she is +To death or to dishonour, and my end +Can make good use of either. She being down, +I have the placing of the British crown. + + Enter Cloten. + +How now, my son? + +CLOTEN. +’Tis certain she is fled. +Go in and cheer the King. He rages; none +Dare come about him. + +QUEEN. +All the better. May +This night forestall him of the coming day! + + [_Exit._] + +CLOTEN. +I love and hate her; for she’s fair and royal, +And that she hath all courtly parts more exquisite +Than lady, ladies, woman. From every one +The best she hath, and she, of all compounded, +Outsells them all. I love her therefore; but +Disdaining me and throwing favours on +The low Posthumus slanders so her judgement +That what’s else rare is chok’d; and in that point +I will conclude to hate her, nay, indeed, +To be reveng’d upon her. For when fools +Shall— + + Enter Pisanio. + +Who is here? What, are you packing, sirrah? +Come hither. Ah, you precious pandar! Villain, +Where is thy lady? In a word, or else +Thou art straightway with the fiends. + +PISANIO. +O good my lord! + +CLOTEN. +Where is thy lady? or, by Jupiter— +I will not ask again. Close villain, +I’ll have this secret from thy heart, or rip +Thy heart to find it. Is she with Posthumus? +From whose so many weights of baseness cannot +A dram of worth be drawn. + +PISANIO. +Alas, my lord, +How can she be with him? When was she miss’d? +He is in Rome. + +CLOTEN. +Where is she, sir? Come nearer. +No farther halting! Satisfy me home +What is become of her. + +PISANIO. +O my all-worthy lord! + +CLOTEN. +All-worthy villain! +Discover where thy mistress is at once, +At the next word. No more of ‘worthy lord’! +Speak, or thy silence on the instant is +Thy condemnation and thy death. + +PISANIO. +Then, sir, +This paper is the history of my knowledge +Touching her flight. + + [_Presenting a letter._] + +CLOTEN. +Let’s see’t. I will pursue her +Even to Augustus’ throne. + +PISANIO. +[_Aside._] Or this or perish. +She’s far enough; and what he learns by this +May prove his travel, not her danger. + +CLOTEN. +Humh! + +PISANIO. +[_Aside._] I’ll write to my lord she’s dead. O Imogen, +Safe mayst thou wander, safe return again! + +CLOTEN. +Sirrah, is this letter true? + +PISANIO. +Sir, as I think. + +CLOTEN. +It is Posthumus’ hand; I know’t. Sirrah, if thou wouldst not be a +villain, but do me true service, undergo those employments wherein I +should have cause to use thee with a serious industry—that is, what +villainy soe’er I bid thee do, to perform it directly and truly—I would +think thee an honest man; thou shouldst neither want my means for thy +relief nor my voice for thy preferment. + +PISANIO. +Well, my good lord. + +CLOTEN. +Wilt thou serve me? For since patiently and constantly thou hast stuck +to the bare fortune of that beggar Posthumus, thou canst not, in the +course of gratitude, but be a diligent follower of mine. Wilt thou +serve me? + +PISANIO. +Sir, I will. + +CLOTEN. +Give me thy hand; here’s my purse. Hast any of thy late master’s +garments in thy possession? + +PISANIO. +I have, my lord, at my lodging, the same suit he wore when he took +leave of my lady and mistress. + +CLOTEN. +The first service thou dost me, fetch that suit hither. Let it be thy +first service; go. + +PISANIO. +I shall, my lord. + + [_Exit._] + +CLOTEN. +Meet thee at Milford Haven! I forgot to ask him one thing; I’ll +remember’t anon. Even there, thou villain Posthumus, will I kill thee. +I would these garments were come. She said upon a time—the bitterness +of it I now belch from my heart—that she held the very garment of +Posthumus in more respect than my noble and natural person, together +with the adornment of my qualities. With that suit upon my back will I +ravish her; first kill him, and in her eyes. There shall she see my +valour, which will then be a torment to her contempt. He on the ground, +my speech of insultment ended on his dead body, and when my lust hath +dined—which, as I say, to vex her I will execute in the clothes that +she so prais’d—to the court I’ll knock her back, foot her home again. +She hath despis’d me rejoicingly, and I’ll be merry in my revenge. + + Enter Pisanio with the clothes. + +Be those the garments? + +PISANIO. +Ay, my noble lord. + +CLOTEN. +How long is’t since she went to Milford Haven? + +PISANIO. +She can scarce be there yet. + +CLOTEN. +Bring this apparel to my chamber; that is the second thing that I have +commanded thee. The third is that thou wilt be a voluntary mute to my +design. Be but duteous and true, preferment shall tender itself to +thee. My revenge is now at Milford, would I had wings to follow it! +Come, and be true. + + [_Exit._] + +PISANIO. +Thou bid’st me to my loss; for true to thee +Were to prove false, which I will never be, +To him that is most true. To Milford go, +And find not her whom thou pursuest. Flow, flow, +You heavenly blessings, on her! This fool’s speed +Be cross’d with slowness! Labour be his meed! + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE VI. Wales. Before the cave of Belarius. + + Enter Imogen alone, in boy’s clothes. + +IMOGEN. +I see a man’s life is a tedious one. +I have tir’d myself, and for two nights together +Have made the ground my bed. I should be sick +But that my resolution helps me. Milford, +When from the mountain-top Pisanio show’d thee, +Thou wast within a ken. O Jove! I think +Foundations fly the wretched; such, I mean, +Where they should be reliev’d. Two beggars told me +I could not miss my way. Will poor folks lie, +That have afflictions on them, knowing ’tis +A punishment or trial? Yes; no wonder, +When rich ones scarce tell true. To lapse in fulness +Is sorer than to lie for need; and falsehood +Is worse in kings than beggars. My dear lord! +Thou art one o’ th’ false ones. Now I think on thee +My hunger’s gone; but even before, I was +At point to sink for food. But what is this? +Here is a path to’t; ’tis some savage hold. +I were best not call; I dare not call. Yet famine, +Ere clean it o’erthrow nature, makes it valiant. +Plenty and peace breeds cowards; hardness ever +Of hardiness is mother. Ho! who’s here? +If anything that’s civil, speak; if savage, +Take or lend. Ho! No answer? Then I’ll enter. +Best draw my sword; and if mine enemy +But fear the sword, like me, he’ll scarcely look on’t. +Such a foe, good heavens! + + [_Exit into the cave._] + +SCENE VII. The same. + + Enter Belarius, Guiderius and Arviragus. + +BELARIUS. +You, Polydore, have prov’d best woodman and +Are master of the feast. Cadwal and I +Will play the cook and servant; ’tis our match. +The sweat of industry would dry and die +But for the end it works to. Come, our stomachs +Will make what’s homely savoury; weariness +Can snore upon the flint, when resty sloth +Finds the down pillow hard. Now, peace be here, +Poor house, that keep’st thyself! + +GUIDERIUS. +I am thoroughly weary. + +ARVIRAGUS. +I am weak with toil, yet strong in appetite. + +GUIDERIUS. +There is cold meat i’ th’ cave; we’ll browse on that +Whilst what we have kill’d be cook’d. + +BELARIUS. +[_Looking into the cave._] Stay, come not in. +But that it eats our victuals, I should think +Here were a fairy. + +GUIDERIUS. +What’s the matter, sir? + +BELARIUS. +By Jupiter, an angel! or, if not, +An earthly paragon! Behold divineness +No elder than a boy! + + Enter Imogen. + +IMOGEN. +Good masters, harm me not. +Before I enter’d here I call’d, and thought +To have begg’d or bought what I have took. Good troth, +I have stol’n nought; nor would not though I had found +Gold strew’d i’ th’ floor. Here’s money for my meat. +I would have left it on the board, so soon +As I had made my meal, and parted +With pray’rs for the provider. + +GUIDERIUS. +Money, youth? + +ARVIRAGUS. +All gold and silver rather turn to dirt, +As ’tis no better reckon’d but of those +Who worship dirty gods. + +IMOGEN. +I see you’re angry. +Know, if you kill me for my fault, I should +Have died had I not made it. + +BELARIUS. +Whither bound? + +IMOGEN. +To Milford Haven. + +BELARIUS. +What’s your name? + +IMOGEN. +Fidele, sir. I have a kinsman who +Is bound for Italy; he embark’d at Milford; +To whom being going, almost spent with hunger, +I am fall’n in this offence. + +BELARIUS. +Prithee, fair youth, +Think us no churls, nor measure our good minds +By this rude place we live in. Well encounter’d! +’Tis almost night; you shall have better cheer +Ere you depart, and thanks to stay and eat it. +Boys, bid him welcome. + +GUIDERIUS. +Were you a woman, youth, +I should woo hard but be your groom. In honesty +I bid for you as I’d buy. + +ARVIRAGUS. +I’ll make’t my comfort +He is a man. I’ll love him as my brother; +And such a welcome as I’d give to him +After long absence, such is yours. Most welcome! +Be sprightly, for you fall ’mongst friends. + +IMOGEN. +’Mongst friends, +If brothers. [_Aside._] Would it had been so that they +Had been my father’s sons! Then had my prize +Been less, and so more equal ballasting +To thee, Posthumus. + +BELARIUS. +He wrings at some distress. + +GUIDERIUS. +Would I could free’t! + +ARVIRAGUS. +Or I, whate’er it be, +What pain it cost, what danger! Gods! + +BELARIUS. +[_Whispering._] Hark, boys. + +IMOGEN. +[_Aside._] Great men, +That had a court no bigger than this cave, +That did attend themselves, and had the virtue +Which their own conscience seal’d them, laying by +That nothing-gift of differing multitudes, +Could not out-peer these twain. Pardon me, gods! +I’d change my sex to be companion with them, +Since Leonatus false. + +BELARIUS. +It shall be so. +Boys, we’ll go dress our hunt. Fair youth, come in. +Discourse is heavy, fasting; when we have supp’d, +We’ll mannerly demand thee of thy story, +So far as thou wilt speak it. + +GUIDERIUS. +Pray draw near. + +ARVIRAGUS. +The night to th’ owl and morn to th’ lark less +welcome. + +IMOGEN. +Thanks, sir. + +ARVIRAGUS. +I pray draw near. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VIII. Rome. A public place. + + Enter two Roman Senators and Tribunes. + +FIRST SENATOR. +This is the tenour of the Emperor’s writ: +That since the common men are now in action +’Gainst the Pannonians and Dalmatians, +And that the legions now in Gallia are +Full weak to undertake our wars against +The fall’n-off Britons, that we do incite +The gentry to this business. He creates +Lucius proconsul; and to you, the tribunes, +For this immediate levy, he commands +His absolute commission. Long live Cæsar! + +TRIBUNE. +Is Lucius general of the forces? + +SECOND SENATOR. +Ay. + +TRIBUNE. +Remaining now in Gallia? + +FIRST SENATOR. +With those legions +Which I have spoke of, whereunto your levy +Must be supplyant. The words of your commission +Will tie you to the numbers and the time +Of their dispatch. + +TRIBUNE. +We will discharge our duty. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. Wales. Near the cave of Belarius. + + Enter Cloten alone. + +CLOTEN. +I am near to th’ place where they should meet, if Pisanio have mapp’d +it truly. How fit his garments serve me! Why should his mistress, who +was made by him that made the tailor, not be fit too? The rather, +saving reverence of the word, for ’tis said a woman’s fitness comes by +fits. Therein I must play the workman. I dare speak it to myself, for +it is not vain-glory for a man and his glass to confer in his own +chamber; I mean, the lines of my body are as well drawn as his; no less +young, more strong, not beneath him in fortunes, beyond him in the +advantage of the time, above him in birth, alike conversant in general +services, and more remarkable in single oppositions. Yet this +imperceiverant thing loves him in my despite. What mortality is! +Posthumus, thy head, which now is growing upon thy shoulders, shall +within this hour be off; thy mistress enforced; thy garments cut to +pieces before her face; and all this done, spurn her home to her +father, who may, haply, be a little angry for my so rough usage; but my +mother, having power of his testiness, shall turn all into my +commendations. My horse is tied up safe. Out, sword, and to a sore +purpose! Fortune, put them into my hand. This is the very description +of their meeting-place; and the fellow dares not deceive me. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. Wales. Before the cave of Belarius. + + Enter from the cave, Belarius, Guiderius, Arviragus and Imogen. + +BELARIUS. +[_To Imogen._] You are not well. Remain here in the cave; +We’ll come to you after hunting. + +ARVIRAGUS. +[_To Imogen._] Brother, stay here. +Are we not brothers? + +IMOGEN. +So man and man should be; +But clay and clay differs in dignity, +Whose dust is both alike. I am very sick. + +GUIDERIUS. +Go you to hunting; I’ll abide with him. + +IMOGEN. +So sick I am not, yet I am not well; +But not so citizen a wanton as +To seem to die ere sick. So please you, leave me; +Stick to your journal course. The breach of custom +Is breach of all. I am ill, but your being by me +Cannot amend me; society is no comfort +To one not sociable. I am not very sick, +Since I can reason of it. Pray you trust me here. +I’ll rob none but myself; and let me die, +Stealing so poorly. + +GUIDERIUS. +I love thee; I have spoke it. +How much the quantity, the weight as much +As I do love my father. + +BELARIUS. +What? how? how? + +ARVIRAGUS. +If it be sin to say so, sir, I yoke me +In my good brother’s fault. I know not why +I love this youth, and I have heard you say +Love’s reason’s without reason. The bier at door, +And a demand who is’t shall die, I’d say +‘My father, not this youth.’ + +BELARIUS. +[_Aside._] O noble strain! +O worthiness of nature! breed of greatness! +Cowards father cowards and base things sire base. +Nature hath meal and bran, contempt and grace. +I’m not their father; yet who this should be +Doth miracle itself, lov’d before me.— +’Tis the ninth hour o’ th’ morn. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Brother, farewell. + +IMOGEN. +I wish ye sport. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Your health. [_To Belarius._] So please you, sir. + +IMOGEN. +[_Aside._] These are kind creatures. Gods, what lies I +have heard! +Our courtiers say all’s savage but at court. +Experience, O, thou disprov’st report! +Th’ imperious seas breed monsters; for the dish, +Poor tributary rivers as sweet fish. +I am sick still; heart-sick. Pisanio, +I’ll now taste of thy drug. + + [_Swallows some._] + +GUIDERIUS. +I could not stir him. +He said he was gentle, but unfortunate; +Dishonestly afflicted, but yet honest. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Thus did he answer me; yet said hereafter +I might know more. + +BELARIUS. +To th’ field, to th’ field! +We’ll leave you for this time. Go in and rest. + +ARVIRAGUS. +We’ll not be long away. + +BELARIUS. +Pray be not sick, +For you must be our huswife. + +IMOGEN. +Well, or ill, +I am bound to you. + +BELARIUS. +And shalt be ever. + + [_Exit Imogen into the cave._] + +This youth, howe’er distress’d, appears he hath had +Good ancestors. + +ARVIRAGUS. +How angel-like he sings! + +GUIDERIUS. +But his neat cookery! He cut our roots in characters, +And sauc’d our broths as Juno had been sick, +And he her dieter. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Nobly he yokes +A smiling with a sigh, as if the sigh +Was that it was for not being such a smile; +The smile mocking the sigh that it would fly +From so divine a temple to commix +With winds that sailors rail at. + +GUIDERIUS. +I do note +That grief and patience, rooted in him both, +Mingle their spurs together. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Grow patience! +And let the stinking elder, grief, untwine +His perishing root with the increasing vine! + +BELARIUS. +It is great morning. Come, away! Who’s there? + + Enter Cloten. + +CLOTEN. +I cannot find those runagates; that villain +Hath mock’d me. I am faint. + +BELARIUS. +Those runagates? +Means he not us? I partly know him; ’tis +Cloten, the son o’ th’ Queen. I fear some ambush. +I saw him not these many years, and yet +I know ’tis he. We are held as outlaws. Hence! + +GUIDERIUS. +He is but one; you and my brother search +What companies are near. Pray you away; +Let me alone with him. + + [_Exeunt Belarius and Arviragus._] + +CLOTEN. +Soft! What are you +That fly me thus? Some villain mountaineers? +I have heard of such. What slave art thou? + +GUIDERIUS. +A thing +More slavish did I ne’er than answering +A slave without a knock. + +CLOTEN. +Thou art a robber, +A law-breaker, a villain. Yield thee, thief. + +GUIDERIUS. +To who? To thee? What art thou? Have not I +An arm as big as thine, a heart as big? +Thy words, I grant, are bigger, for I wear not +My dagger in my mouth. Say what thou art; +Why I should yield to thee. + +CLOTEN. +Thou villain base, +Know’st me not by my clothes? + +GUIDERIUS. +No, nor thy tailor, rascal, +Who is thy grandfather; he made those clothes, +Which, as it seems, make thee. + +CLOTEN. +Thou precious varlet, +My tailor made them not. + +GUIDERIUS. +Hence, then, and thank +The man that gave them thee. Thou art some fool; +I am loath to beat thee. + +CLOTEN. +Thou injurious thief, +Hear but my name, and tremble. + +GUIDERIUS. +What’s thy name? + +CLOTEN. +Cloten, thou villain. + +GUIDERIUS. +Cloten, thou double villain, be thy name, +I cannot tremble at it. Were it Toad, or Adder, Spider, +’Twould move me sooner. + +CLOTEN. +To thy further fear, +Nay, to thy mere confusion, thou shalt know +I am son to th’ Queen. + +GUIDERIUS. +I’m sorry for’t; not seeming +So worthy as thy birth. + +CLOTEN. +Art not afeard? + +GUIDERIUS. +Those that I reverence, those I fear—the wise; +At fools I laugh, not fear them. + +CLOTEN. +Die the death. +When I have slain thee with my proper hand, +I’ll follow those that even now fled hence, +And on the gates of Lud’s Town set your heads. +Yield, rustic mountaineer. + + [_Exeunt, fighting._] + + Enter Belarius and Arviragus. + +BELARIUS. +No company’s abroad? + +ARVIRAGUS. +None in the world; you did mistake him, sure. + +BELARIUS. +I cannot tell; long is it since I saw him, +But time hath nothing blurr’d those lines of favour +Which then he wore; the snatches in his voice, +And burst of speaking, were as his. I am absolute +’Twas very Cloten. + +ARVIRAGUS. +In this place we left them. +I wish my brother make good time with him, +You say he is so fell. + +BELARIUS. +Being scarce made up, +I mean to man, he had not apprehension +Or roaring terrors; for defect of judgement +Is oft the cease of fear. + + Enter Guiderius with Cloten’s head. + +But, see, thy brother. + +GUIDERIUS. +This Cloten was a fool, an empty purse; +There was no money in’t. Not Hercules +Could have knock’d out his brains, for he had none; +Yet I not doing this, the fool had borne +My head as I do his. + +BELARIUS. +What hast thou done? + +GUIDERIUS. +I am perfect what: cut off one Cloten’s head, +Son to the Queen, after his own report; +Who call’d me traitor, mountaineer, and swore +With his own single hand he’d take us in, +Displace our heads where, thank the gods, they grow, +And set them on Lud’s Town. + +BELARIUS. +We are all undone. + +GUIDERIUS. +Why, worthy father, what have we to lose +But that he swore to take, our lives? The law +Protects not us; then why should we be tender +To let an arrogant piece of flesh threat us, +Play judge and executioner all himself, +For we do fear the law? What company +Discover you abroad? + +BELARIUS. +No single soul +Can we set eye on, but in all safe reason +He must have some attendants. Though his humour +Was nothing but mutation, ay, and that +From one bad thing to worse, not frenzy, not +Absolute madness could so far have rav’d, +To bring him here alone. Although perhaps +It may be heard at court that such as we +Cave here, hunt here, are outlaws, and in time +May make some stronger head, the which he hearing, +As it is like him, might break out and swear +He’d fetch us in; yet is’t not probable +To come alone, either he so undertaking +Or they so suffering. Then on good ground we fear, +If we do fear this body hath a tail +More perilous than the head. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Let ordinance +Come as the gods foresay it. Howsoe’er, +My brother hath done well. + +BELARIUS. +I had no mind +To hunt this day; the boy Fidele’s sickness +Did make my way long forth. + +GUIDERIUS. +With his own sword, +Which he did wave against my throat, I have ta’en +His head from him. I’ll throw’t into the creek +Behind our rock, and let it to the sea +And tell the fishes he’s the Queen’s son, Cloten. +That’s all I reck. + + [_Exit._] + +BELARIUS. +I fear ’twill be reveng’d. +Would, Polydore, thou hadst not done’t! though valour +Becomes thee well enough. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Would I had done’t, +So the revenge alone pursu’d me! Polydore, +I love thee brotherly, but envy much +Thou hast robb’d me of this deed. I would revenges, +That possible strength might meet, would seek us through, +And put us to our answer. + +BELARIUS. +Well, ’tis done. +We’ll hunt no more today, nor seek for danger +Where there’s no profit. I prithee to our rock. +You and Fidele play the cooks; I’ll stay +Till hasty Polydore return, and bring him +To dinner presently. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Poor sick Fidele! +I’ll willingly to him; to gain his colour +I’d let a parish of such Cloten’s blood, +And praise myself for charity. + + [_Exit._] + +BELARIUS. +O thou goddess, +Thou divine Nature, thou thyself thou blazon’st +In these two princely boys! They are as gentle +As zephyrs blowing below the violet, +Not wagging his sweet head; and yet as rough, +Their royal blood enchaf’d, as the rud’st wind +That by the top doth take the mountain pine +And make him stoop to th’ vale. ’Tis wonder +That an invisible instinct should frame them +To royalty unlearn’d, honour untaught, +Civility not seen from other, valour +That wildly grows in them, but yields a crop +As if it had been sow’d. Yet still it’s strange +What Cloten’s being here to us portends, +Or what his death will bring us. + + Enter Guiderius. + +GUIDERIUS. +Where’s my brother? +I have sent Cloten’s clotpoll down the stream, +In embassy to his mother; his body’s hostage +For his return. + + [_Solemn music._] + +BELARIUS. +My ingenious instrument! +Hark, Polydore, it sounds. But what occasion +Hath Cadwal now to give it motion? Hark! + +GUIDERIUS. +Is he at home? + +BELARIUS. +He went hence even now. + +GUIDERIUS. +What does he mean? Since death of my dear’st mother +It did not speak before. All solemn things +Should answer solemn accidents. The matter? +Triumphs for nothing and lamenting toys +Is jollity for apes and grief for boys. +Is Cadwal mad? + + Enter Arviragus with Imogen as dead, bearing her in his arms. + +BELARIUS. +Look, here he comes, +And brings the dire occasion in his arms +Of what we blame him for! + +ARVIRAGUS. +The bird is dead +That we have made so much on. I had rather +Have skipp’d from sixteen years of age to sixty, +To have turn’d my leaping time into a crutch, +Than have seen this. + +GUIDERIUS. +O sweetest, fairest lily! +My brother wears thee not the one half so well +As when thou grew’st thyself. + +BELARIUS. +O melancholy! +Who ever yet could sound thy bottom? find +The ooze to show what coast thy sluggish crare +Might’st easiliest harbour in? Thou blessed thing! +Jove knows what man thou mightst have made; but I, +Thou diedst, a most rare boy, of melancholy. +How found you him? + +ARVIRAGUS. +Stark, as you see; +Thus smiling, as some fly had tickled slumber, +Not as death’s dart, being laugh’d at; his right cheek +Reposing on a cushion. + +GUIDERIUS. +Where? + +ARVIRAGUS. +O’ th’ floor; +His arms thus leagu’d. I thought he slept, and put +My clouted brogues from off my feet, whose rudeness +Answer’d my steps too loud. + +GUIDERIUS. +Why, he but sleeps. +If he be gone he’ll make his grave a bed; +With female fairies will his tomb be haunted, +And worms will not come to thee. + +ARVIRAGUS. +With fairest flowers, +Whilst summer lasts and I live here, Fidele, +I’ll sweeten thy sad grave. Thou shalt not lack +The flower that’s like thy face, pale primrose; nor +The azur’d hare-bell, like thy veins; no, nor +The leaf of eglantine, whom not to slander, +Out-sweet’ned not thy breath. The ruddock would, +With charitable bill (O bill, sore shaming +Those rich-left heirs that let their fathers lie +Without a monument!) bring thee all this; +Yea, and furr’d moss besides, when flow’rs are none, +To winter-ground thy corse— + +GUIDERIUS. +Prithee have done, +And do not play in wench-like words with that +Which is so serious. Let us bury him, +And not protract with admiration what +Is now due debt. To th’ grave. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Say, where shall’s lay him? + +GUIDERIUS. +By good Euriphile, our mother. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Be’t so; +And let us, Polydore, though now our voices +Have got the mannish crack, sing him to th’ ground, +As once to our mother; use like note and words, +Save that Euriphile must be Fidele. + +GUIDERIUS. +Cadwal, +I cannot sing. I’ll weep, and word it with thee; +For notes of sorrow out of tune are worse +Than priests and fanes that lie. + +ARVIRAGUS. +We’ll speak it, then. + +BELARIUS. +Great griefs, I see, med’cine the less, for Cloten +Is quite forgot. He was a queen’s son, boys; +And though he came our enemy, remember +He was paid for that. Though mean and mighty rotting +Together have one dust, yet reverence, +That angel of the world, doth make distinction +Of place ’tween high and low. Our foe was princely; +And though you took his life, as being our foe, +Yet bury him as a prince. + +GUIDERIUS. +Pray you fetch him hither. +Thersites’ body is as good as Ajax’, +When neither are alive. + +ARVIRAGUS. +If you’ll go fetch him, +We’ll say our song the whilst. Brother, begin. + + [_Exit Belarius._] + +GUIDERIUS. +Nay, Cadwal, we must lay his head to th’ East; +My father hath a reason for’t. + +ARVIRAGUS. +’Tis true. + +GUIDERIUS. +Come on, then, and remove him. + +ARVIRAGUS. +So. Begin. + +SONG + +GUIDERIUS. +_ Fear no more the heat o’ th’ sun, + Nor the furious winter’s rages; + Thou thy worldly task hast done, + Home art gone, and ta’en thy wages. + Golden lads and girls all must, + As chimney-sweepers, come to dust._ + +ARVIRAGUS. +_ Fear no more the frown o’ th’ great; + Thou art past the tyrant’s stroke. + Care no more to clothe and eat; + To thee the reed is as the oak. + The sceptre, learning, physic, must + All follow this and come to dust._ + +GUIDERIUS. +_ Fear no more the lightning flash._ + +ARVIRAGUS. +_ Nor th’ all-dreaded thunder-stone._ + +GUIDERIUS. +_ Fear not slander, censure rash;_ + +ARVIRAGUS. +_ Thou hast finish’d joy and moan._ + +BOTH. +_ All lovers young, all lovers must + Consign to thee and come to dust._ + +GUIDERIUS. +_ No exorciser harm thee!_ + +ARVIRAGUS. +_ Nor no witchcraft charm thee!_ + +GUIDERIUS. +_ Ghost unlaid forbear thee!_ + +ARVIRAGUS. +_ Nothing ill come near thee!_ + +BOTH. +_ Quiet consummation have, + And renowned be thy grave!_ + + Enter Belarius with the body of Cloten. + +GUIDERIUS. +We have done our obsequies. Come, lay him down. + +BELARIUS. +Here’s a few flowers; but ’bout midnight, more. +The herbs that have on them cold dew o’ th’ night +Are strewings fit’st for graves. Upon their faces. +You were as flow’rs, now wither’d. Even so +These herblets shall which we upon you strew. +Come on, away. Apart upon our knees. +The ground that gave them first has them again. +Their pleasures here are past, so is their pain. + + [_Exeunt all but Imogen._] + +IMOGEN. +[_Awaking._] Yes, sir, to Milford Haven. Which is the way? +I thank you. By yond bush? Pray, how far thither? +’Ods pittikins! can it be six mile yet? +I have gone all night. Faith, I’ll lie down and sleep. +But, soft! no bedfellow. O gods and goddesses! + + [_Seeing the body._] + +These flow’rs are like the pleasures of the world; +This bloody man, the care on’t. I hope I dream; +For so I thought I was a cave-keeper, +And cook to honest creatures. But ’tis not so; +’Twas but a bolt of nothing, shot at nothing, +Which the brain makes of fumes. Our very eyes +Are sometimes, like our judgements, blind. Good faith, +I tremble still with fear; but if there be +Yet left in heaven as small a drop of pity +As a wren’s eye, fear’d gods, a part of it! +The dream’s here still. Even when I wake it is +Without me, as within me; not imagin’d, felt. +A headless man? The garments of Posthumus? +I know the shape of’s leg; this is his hand, +His foot Mercurial, his Martial thigh, +The brawns of Hercules; but his Jovial face— +Murder in heaven! How! ’Tis gone. Pisanio, +All curses madded Hecuba gave the Greeks, +And mine to boot, be darted on thee! Thou, +Conspir’d with that irregulous devil, Cloten, +Hath here cut off my lord. To write and read +Be henceforth treacherous! Damn’d Pisanio +Hath with his forged letters (damn’d Pisanio) +From this most bravest vessel of the world +Struck the main-top. O Posthumus! alas, +Where is thy head? Where’s that? Ay me! where’s that? +Pisanio might have kill’d thee at the heart, +And left this head on. How should this be? Pisanio? +’Tis he and Cloten; malice and lucre in them +Have laid this woe here. O, ’tis pregnant, pregnant! +The drug he gave me, which he said was precious +And cordial to me, have I not found it +Murd’rous to th’ senses? That confirms it home. +This is Pisanio’s deed, and Cloten. O! +Give colour to my pale cheek with thy blood, +That we the horrider may seem to those +Which chance to find us. O, my lord, my lord! + + [_Falls fainting on the body._] + + Enter Lucius, Captains and a Soothsayer. + +CAPTAIN. +To them the legions garrison’d in Gallia, +After your will, have cross’d the sea, attending +You here at Milford Haven; with your ships, +They are in readiness. + +LUCIUS. +But what from Rome? + +CAPTAIN. +The Senate hath stirr’d up the confiners +And gentlemen of Italy, most willing spirits, +That promise noble service; and they come +Under the conduct of bold Iachimo, +Sienna’s brother. + +LUCIUS. +When expect you them? + +CAPTAIN. +With the next benefit o’ th’ wind. + +LUCIUS. +This forwardness +Makes our hopes fair. Command our present numbers +Be muster’d; bid the captains look to’t. Now, sir, +What have you dream’d of late of this war’s purpose? + +SOOTHSAYER. +Last night the very gods show’d me a vision +(I fast and pray’d for their intelligence) thus: +I saw Jove’s bird, the Roman eagle, wing’d +From the spongy south to this part of the west, +There vanish’d in the sunbeams; which portends, +Unless my sins abuse my divination, +Success to th’ Roman host. + +LUCIUS. +Dream often so, +And never false. Soft, ho! what trunk is here +Without his top? The ruin speaks that sometime +It was a worthy building. How? a page? +Or dead or sleeping on him? But dead, rather; +For nature doth abhor to make his bed +With the defunct, or sleep upon the dead. +Let’s see the boy’s face. + +CAPTAIN. +He’s alive, my lord. + +LUCIUS. +He’ll then instruct us of this body. Young one, +Inform us of thy fortunes; for it seems +They crave to be demanded. Who is this +Thou mak’st thy bloody pillow? Or who was he +That, otherwise than noble nature did, +Hath alter’d that good picture? What’s thy interest +In this sad wreck? How came’t? Who is’t? +What art thou? + +IMOGEN. +I am nothing; or if not, +Nothing to be were better. This was my master, +A very valiant Briton and a good, +That here by mountaineers lies slain. Alas! +There is no more such masters. I may wander +From east to occident; cry out for service; +Try many, all good; serve truly; never +Find such another master. + +LUCIUS. +’Lack, good youth! +Thou mov’st no less with thy complaining than +Thy master in bleeding. Say his name, good friend. + +IMOGEN. +Richard du Champ. [_Aside._] If I do lie, and do +No harm by it, though the gods hear, I hope +They’ll pardon it.—Say you, sir? + +LUCIUS. +Thy name? + +IMOGEN. +Fidele, sir. + +LUCIUS. +Thou dost approve thyself the very same; +Thy name well fits thy faith, thy faith thy name. +Wilt take thy chance with me? I will not say +Thou shalt be so well master’d; but, be sure, +No less belov’d. The Roman Emperor’s letters, +Sent by a consul to me, should not sooner +Than thine own worth prefer thee. Go with me. + +IMOGEN. +I’ll follow, sir. But first, an’t please the gods, +I’ll hide my master from the flies, as deep +As these poor pickaxes can dig; and when +With wild wood-leaves and weeds I ha’ strew’d his grave, +And on it said a century of prayers, +Such as I can, twice o’er, I’ll weep and sigh; +And leaving so his service, follow you, +So please you entertain me. + +LUCIUS. +Ay, good youth; +And rather father thee than master thee. +My friends, +The boy hath taught us manly duties; let us +Find out the prettiest daisied plot we can, +And make him with our pikes and partisans +A grave. Come, arm him. Boy, he is preferr’d +By thee to us; and he shall be interr’d +As soldiers can. Be cheerful; wipe thine eyes. +Some falls are means the happier to arise. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Britain. Cymbeline’s palace. + + Enter Cymbeline, Lords, Pisanio and Attendants. + +CYMBELINE. +Again! and bring me word how ’tis with her. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + +A fever with the absence of her son; +A madness, of which her life’s in danger. Heavens, +How deeply you at once do touch me! Imogen, +The great part of my comfort, gone; my queen +Upon a desperate bed, and in a time +When fearful wars point at me; her son gone, +So needful for this present. It strikes me past +The hope of comfort. But for thee, fellow, +Who needs must know of her departure and +Dost seem so ignorant, we’ll enforce it from thee +By a sharp torture. + +PISANIO. +Sir, my life is yours; +I humbly set it at your will; but for my mistress, +I nothing know where she remains, why gone, +Nor when she purposes return. Beseech your Highness, +Hold me your loyal servant. + +LORD. +Good my liege, +The day that she was missing he was here. +I dare be bound he’s true and shall perform +All parts of his subjection loyally. For Cloten, +There wants no diligence in seeking him, +And will no doubt be found. + +CYMBELINE. +The time is troublesome. +[_To Pisanio._] We’ll slip you for a season; but our jealousy +Does yet depend. + +LORD. +So please your Majesty, +The Roman legions, all from Gallia drawn, +Are landed on your coast, with a supply +Of Roman gentlemen by the Senate sent. + +CYMBELINE. +Now for the counsel of my son and queen! +I am amaz’d with matter. + +LORD. +Good my liege, +Your preparation can affront no less +Than what you hear of. Come more, for more you’re ready. +The want is but to put those pow’rs in motion +That long to move. + +CYMBELINE. +I thank you. Let’s withdraw, +And meet the time as it seeks us. We fear not +What can from Italy annoy us; but +We grieve at chances here. Away! + + [_Exeunt all but Pisanio._] + +PISANIO. +I heard no letter from my master since +I wrote him Imogen was slain. ’Tis strange. +Nor hear I from my mistress, who did promise +To yield me often tidings. Neither know I +What is betid to Cloten, but remain +Perplex’d in all. The heavens still must work. +Wherein I am false I am honest; not true, to be true. +These present wars shall find I love my country, +Even to the note o’ th’ King, or I’ll fall in them. +All other doubts, by time let them be clear’d: +Fortune brings in some boats that are not steer’d. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Wales. Before the cave of Belarius. + + Enter Belarius, Guiderius and Arviragus. + +GUIDERIUS. +The noise is round about us. + +BELARIUS. +Let us from it. + +ARVIRAGUS. +What pleasure, sir, find we in life, to lock it +From action and adventure? + +GUIDERIUS. +Nay, what hope +Have we in hiding us? This way the Romans +Must or for Britons slay us, or receive us +For barbarous and unnatural revolts +During their use, and slay us after. + +BELARIUS. +Sons, +We’ll higher to the mountains; there secure us. +To the King’s party there’s no going. Newness +Of Cloten’s death (we being not known, not muster’d +Among the bands) may drive us to a render +Where we have liv’d, and so extort from’s that +Which we have done, whose answer would be death, +Drawn on with torture. + +GUIDERIUS. +This is, sir, a doubt +In such a time nothing becoming you +Nor satisfying us. + +ARVIRAGUS. +It is not likely +That when they hear the Roman horses neigh, +Behold their quarter’d fires, have both their eyes +And ears so cloy’d importantly as now, +That they will waste their time upon our note, +To know from whence we are. + +BELARIUS. +O, I am known +Of many in the army. Many years, +Though Cloten then but young, you see, not wore him +From my remembrance. And, besides, the King +Hath not deserv’d my service nor your loves, +Who find in my exile the want of breeding, +The certainty of this hard life; aye hopeless +To have the courtesy your cradle promis’d, +But to be still hot summer’s tanlings and +The shrinking slaves of winter. + +GUIDERIUS. +Than be so, +Better to cease to be. Pray, sir, to th’ army. +I and my brother are not known; yourself +So out of thought, and thereto so o’ergrown, +Cannot be questioned. + +ARVIRAGUS. +By this sun that shines, +I’ll thither. What thing is’t that I never +Did see man die! scarce ever look’d on blood +But that of coward hares, hot goats, and venison! +Never bestrid a horse, save one that had +A rider like myself, who ne’er wore rowel +Nor iron on his heel! I am asham’d +To look upon the holy sun, to have +The benefit of his blest beams, remaining +So long a poor unknown. + +GUIDERIUS. +By heavens, I’ll go! +If you will bless me, sir, and give me leave, +I’ll take the better care; but if you will not, +The hazard therefore due fall on me by +The hands of Romans! + +ARVIRAGUS. +So say I. Amen. + +BELARIUS. +No reason I, since of your lives you set +So slight a valuation, should reserve +My crack’d one to more care. Have with you, boys! +If in your country wars you chance to die, +That is my bed too, lads, and there I’ll lie. +Lead, lead. [_Aside._] The time seems long; their blood thinks scorn +Till it fly out and show them princes born. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Britain. The Roman camp. + + Enter Posthumus alone, with a bloody handkerchief. + +POSTHUMUS. +Yea, bloody cloth, I’ll keep thee; for I wish’d +Thou shouldst be colour’d thus. You married ones, +If each of you should take this course, how many +Must murder wives much better than themselves +For wrying but a little! O Pisanio! +Every good servant does not all commands; +No bond but to do just ones. Gods! if you +Should have ta’en vengeance on my faults, I never +Had liv’d to put on this; so had you saved +The noble Imogen to repent, and struck +Me, wretch more worth your vengeance. But alack, +You snatch some hence for little faults; that’s love, +To have them fall no more. You some permit +To second ills with ills, each elder worse, +And make them dread it, to the doers’ thrift. +But Imogen is your own. Do your best wills, +And make me blest to obey. I am brought hither +Among th’ Italian gentry, and to fight +Against my lady’s kingdom. ’Tis enough +That, Britain, I have kill’d thy mistress; peace! +I’ll give no wound to thee. Therefore, good heavens, +Hear patiently my purpose. I’ll disrobe me +Of these Italian weeds, and suit myself +As does a Britain peasant. So I’ll fight +Against the part I come with; so I’ll die +For thee, O Imogen, even for whom my life +Is every breath a death. And thus unknown, +Pitied nor hated, to the face of peril +Myself I’ll dedicate. Let me make men know +More valour in me than my habits show. +Gods, put the strength o’ th’ Leonati in me! +To shame the guise o’ th’ world, I will begin +The fashion less without and more within. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. Britain. A field of battle between the British and Roman +camps. + + Enter Lucius, Iachimo and the Roman army at one door, and the British + army at another, Leonatus Posthumus following like a poor soldier. + They march over and go out. Alarums. Then enter again, in skirmish, + Iachimo and Posthumus. He vanquisheth and disarmeth Iachimo and then + leaves him. + +IACHIMO. +The heaviness and guilt within my bosom +Takes off my manhood. I have belied a lady, +The Princess of this country, and the air on’t +Revengingly enfeebles me; or could this carl, +A very drudge of nature’s, have subdu’d me +In my profession? Knighthoods and honours borne +As I wear mine are titles but of scorn. +If that thy gentry, Britain, go before +This lout as he exceeds our lords, the odds +Is that we scarce are men, and you are gods. + + [_Exit._] + + The battle continues; the Britons fly; Cymbeline is taken. Then enter + to his rescue Belarius, Guiderius and Arviragus. + +BELARIUS. +Stand, stand! We have th’ advantage of the ground; +The lane is guarded; nothing routs us but +The villainy of our fears. + +GUIDERIUS and ARVIRAGUS. +Stand, stand, and fight! + + Enter Posthumus and seconds the Britons; they rescue Cymbeline and + exeunt. Then re-enter Lucius and Iachimo with Imogen. + +LUCIUS. +Away, boy, from the troops, and save thyself; +For friends kill friends, and the disorder’s such +As war were hoodwink’d. + +IACHIMO. +’Tis their fresh supplies. + +LUCIUS. +It is a day turn’d strangely. Or betimes +Let’s reinforce or fly. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Another part of the field. + + Enter Posthumus and a Briton Lord. + +LORD. +Cam’st thou from where they made the stand? + +POSTHUMUS. +I did: +Though you, it seems, come from the fliers. + +LORD. +I did. + +POSTHUMUS. +No blame be to you, sir, for all was lost, +But that the heavens fought. The King himself +Of his wings destitute, the army broken, +And but the backs of Britons seen, all flying, +Through a strait lane; the enemy, full-hearted, +Lolling the tongue with slaught’ring, having work +More plentiful than tools to do’t, struck down +Some mortally, some slightly touch’d, some falling +Merely through fear, that the strait pass was damm’d +With dead men hurt behind, and cowards living +To die with length’ned shame. + +LORD. +Where was this lane? + +POSTHUMUS. +Close by the battle, ditch’d, and wall’d with turf, +Which gave advantage to an ancient soldier, +An honest one, I warrant, who deserv’d +So long a breeding as his white beard came to, +In doing this for’s country. Athwart the lane +He, with two striplings (lads more like to run +The country base than to commit such slaughter; +With faces fit for masks, or rather fairer +Than those for preservation cas’d or shame) +Made good the passage, cried to those that fled +‘Our Britain’s harts die flying, not our men. +To darkness fleet souls that fly backwards! Stand; +Or we are Romans and will give you that, +Like beasts, which you shun beastly, and may save +But to look back in frown. Stand, stand!’ These three, +Three thousand confident, in act as many— +For three performers are the file when all +The rest do nothing—with this word ‘Stand, stand!’ +Accommodated by the place, more charming +With their own nobleness, which could have turn’d +A distaff to a lance, gilded pale looks, +Part shame, part spirit renew’d; that some turn’d coward +But by example (O, a sin in war +Damn’d in the first beginners) ’gan to look +The way that they did and to grin like lions +Upon the pikes o’ th’ hunters. Then began +A stop i’ th’ chaser, a retire; anon +A rout, confusion thick. Forthwith they fly, +Chickens, the way which they stoop’d eagles; slaves, +The strides they victors made; and now our cowards, +Like fragments in hard voyages, became +The life o’ th’ need. Having found the back-door open +Of the unguarded hearts, heavens, how they wound! +Some slain before, some dying, some their friends +O’erborne i’ th’ former wave. Ten chas’d by one +Are now each one the slaughterman of twenty. +Those that would die or ere resist are grown +The mortal bugs o’ th’ field. + +LORD. +This was strange chance: +A narrow lane, an old man, and two boys. + +POSTHUMUS. +Nay, do not wonder at it; you are made +Rather to wonder at the things you hear +Than to work any. Will you rhyme upon’t, +And vent it for a mock’ry? Here is one: + + + ‘Two boys, an old man (twice a boy), a lane, + Preserv’d the Britons, was the Romans’ bane.’ + +LORD. +Nay, be not angry, sir. + +POSTHUMUS. +’Lack, to what end? +Who dares not stand his foe I’ll be his friend; +For if he’ll do as he is made to do, +I know he’ll quickly fly my friendship too. +You have put me into rhyme. + +LORD. +Farewell; you’re angry. + + [_Exit._] + +POSTHUMUS. +Still going? This is a lord! O noble misery, +To be i’ th’ field and ask ‘What news?’ of me! +Today how many would have given their honours +To have sav’d their carcasses! took heel to do’t, +And yet died too! I, in mine own woe charm’d, +Could not find death where I did hear him groan, +Nor feel him where he struck. Being an ugly monster, +’Tis strange he hides him in fresh cups, soft beds, +Sweet words; or hath moe ministers than we +That draw his knives i’ th’ war. Well, I will find him; +For being now a favourer to the Briton, +No more a Briton, I have resum’d again +The part I came in. Fight I will no more, +But yield me to the veriest hind that shall +Once touch my shoulder. Great the slaughter is +Here made by th’ Roman; great the answer be +Britons must take. For me, my ransom’s death; +On either side I come to spend my breath, +Which neither here I’ll keep nor bear again, +But end it by some means for Imogen. + + Enter two British Captains and soldiers. + +FIRST CAPTAIN. +Great Jupiter be prais’d! Lucius is taken. +’Tis thought the old man and his sons were angels. + +SECOND CAPTAIN. +There was a fourth man, in a silly habit, +That gave th’ affront with them. + +FIRST CAPTAIN. +So ’tis reported; +But none of ’em can be found. Stand! who’s there? + +POSTHUMUS. +A Roman, +Who had not now been drooping here if seconds +Had answer’d him. + +SECOND CAPTAIN. +Lay hands on him; a dog! +A leg of Rome shall not return to tell +What crows have peck’d them here. He brags his service, +As if he were of note. Bring him to th’ King. + + Enter Cymbeline, Belarius, Guiderius, Arviragus, Pisanio and Roman + captives. The Captains present Posthumus to Cymbeline, who delivers + him over to a gaoler. + + [_Exeunt omnes._] + +SCENE IV. Britain. A prison. + + Enter Posthumus and two Gaolers. + +FIRST GAOLER. You shall not now be stol’n, you have locks upon you; +So graze as you find pasture. + +SECOND GAOLER. +Ay, or a stomach. + + [_Exeunt Gaolers._] + +POSTHUMUS. +Most welcome, bondage! for thou art a way, +I think, to liberty. Yet am I better +Than one that’s sick o’ th’ gout, since he had rather +Groan so in perpetuity than be cur’d +By th’ sure physician death, who is the key +T’ unbar these locks. My conscience, thou art fetter’d +More than my shanks and wrists; you good gods, give me +The penitent instrument to pick that bolt, +Then, free for ever! Is’t enough I am sorry? +So children temporal fathers do appease; +Gods are more full of mercy. Must I repent, +I cannot do it better than in gyves, +Desir’d more than constrain’d. To satisfy, +If of my freedom ’tis the main part, take +No stricter render of me than my all. +I know you are more clement than vile men, +Who of their broken debtors take a third, +A sixth, a tenth, letting them thrive again +On their abatement; that’s not my desire. +For Imogen’s dear life take mine; and though +’Tis not so dear, yet ’tis a life; you coin’d it. +’Tween man and man they weigh not every stamp; +Though light, take pieces for the figure’s sake; +You rather mine, being yours. And so, great pow’rs, +If you will take this audit, take this life, +And cancel these cold bonds. O Imogen! +I’ll speak to thee in silence. + + [_Sleeps._] + + Solemn music. Enter, as in an apparition, Sicilius Leonatus, father to + Posthumus, an old man attired like a warrior; leading in his hand an + ancient matron, his wife and Mother to Posthumus, with music before + them. Then, after other music, follows the two young Leonati, brothers + to Posthumus, with wounds, as they died in the wars. They circle + Posthumus round as he lies sleeping. + +SICILIUS. +No more, thou thunder-master, show +Thy spite on mortal flies. +With Mars fall out, with Juno chide, +That thy adulteries +Rates and revenges. +Hath my poor boy done aught but well, +Whose face I never saw? +I died whilst in the womb he stay’d +Attending nature’s law; +Whose father then, as men report +Thou orphans’ father art, +Thou shouldst have been, and shielded him +From this earth-vexing smart. + +MOTHER. +Lucina lent not me her aid, +But took me in my throes, +That from me was Posthumus ripp’d, +Came crying ’mongst his foes, +A thing of pity. + +SICILIUS. +Great Nature like his ancestry +Moulded the stuff so fair +That he deserv’d the praise o’ th’ world +As great Sicilius’ heir. + +FIRST BROTHER. +When once he was mature for man, +In Britain where was he +That could stand up his parallel, +Or fruitful object be +In eye of Imogen, that best +Could deem his dignity? + +MOTHER. +With marriage wherefore was he mock’d, +To be exil’d and thrown +From Leonati seat and cast +From her his dearest one, +Sweet Imogen? + +SICILIUS. +Why did you suffer Iachimo, +Slight thing of Italy, +To taint his nobler heart and brain +With needless jealousy, +And to become the geck and scorn +O’ th’ other’s villainy? + +SECOND BROTHER. +For this from stiller seats we came, +Our parents and us twain, +That, striking in our country’s cause, +Fell bravely and were slain, +Our fealty and Tenantius’ right +With honour to maintain. + +FIRST BROTHER. +Like hardiment Posthumus hath +To Cymbeline perform’d. +Then, Jupiter, thou king of gods, +Why hast thou thus adjourn’d +The graces for his merits due, +Being all to dolours turn’d? + +SICILIUS. +Thy crystal window ope; look out; +No longer exercise +Upon a valiant race thy harsh +And potent injuries. + +MOTHER. +Since, Jupiter, our son is good, +Take off his miseries. + +SICILIUS. +Peep through thy marble mansion. Help! +Or we poor ghosts will cry +To th’ shining synod of the rest +Against thy deity. + +BROTHERS. +Help, Jupiter! or we appeal, +And from thy justice fly. + + Jupiter descends in thunder and lightning, sitting upon an eagle. He + throws a thunderbolt. The Ghosts fall on their knees. + +JUPITER. +No more, you petty spirits of region low, +Offend our hearing; hush! How dare you ghosts +Accuse the Thunderer whose bolt, you know, +Sky-planted, batters all rebelling coasts? +Poor shadows of Elysium, hence and rest +Upon your never-withering banks of flow’rs. +Be not with mortal accidents opprest: +No care of yours it is; you know ’tis ours. +Whom best I love I cross; to make my gift, +The more delay’d, delighted. Be content; +Your low-laid son our godhead will uplift; +His comforts thrive, his trials well are spent. +Our Jovial star reign’d at his birth, and in +Our temple was he married. Rise and fade! +He shall be lord of Lady Imogen, +And happier much by his affliction made. +This tablet lay upon his breast, wherein +Our pleasure his full fortune doth confine; +And so, away; no farther with your din +Express impatience, lest you stir up mine. +Mount, eagle, to my palace crystalline. + + [_Ascends._] + +SICILIUS. +He came in thunder; his celestial breath +Was sulphurous to smell; the holy eagle +Stoop’d as to foot us. His ascension is +More sweet than our blest fields. His royal bird +Prunes the immortal wing, and cloys his beak, +As when his god is pleas’d. + +ALL. +Thanks, Jupiter! + +SICILIUS. +The marble pavement closes, he is enter’d +His radiant roof. Away! and, to be blest, +Let us with care perform his great behest. + + [_Ghosts vanish._] + +POSTHUMUS. +[_Waking._] Sleep, thou has been a grandsire and begot +A father to me; and thou hast created +A mother and two brothers. But, O scorn, +Gone! They went hence so soon as they were born. +And so I am awake. Poor wretches, that depend +On greatness’ favour, dream as I have done; +Wake and find nothing. But, alas, I swerve; +Many dream not to find, neither deserve, +And yet are steep’d in favours; so am I, +That have this golden chance, and know not why. +What fairies haunt this ground? A book? O rare one! +Be not, as is our fangled world, a garment +Nobler than that it covers. Let thy effects +So follow to be most unlike our courtiers, +As good as promise. + +[_Reads._] _When as a lion’s whelp shall, to himself unknown, without +seeking find, and be embrac’d by a piece of tender air; and when from a +stately cedar shall be lopp’d branches which, being dead many years, +shall after revive, be jointed to the old stock, and freshly grow; then +shall Posthumus end his miseries, Britain be fortunate and flourish in +peace and plenty._ + +’Tis still a dream, or else such stuff as madmen +Tongue, and brain not; either both or nothing, +Or senseless speaking, or a speaking such +As sense cannot untie. Be what it is, +The action of my life is like it, which +I’ll keep, if but for sympathy. + + Enter Gaoler. + +GAOLER. +Come, sir, are you ready for death? + +POSTHUMUS. +Over-roasted rather; ready long ago. + +GAOLER. +Hanging is the word, sir; if you be ready for that, you are well +cook’d. + +POSTHUMUS. +So, if I prove a good repast to the spectators, the dish pays the shot. + +GAOLER. +A heavy reckoning for you, sir. But the comfort is, you shall be called +to no more payments, fear no more tavern bills, which are often the +sadness of parting, as the procuring of mirth. You come in faint for +want of meat, depart reeling with too much drink; sorry that you have +paid too much, and sorry that you are paid too much; purse and brain +both empty; the brain the heavier for being too light, the purse too +light, being drawn of heaviness. O, of this contradiction you shall now +be quit. O, the charity of a penny cord! It sums up thousands in a +trice. You have no true debitor and creditor but it; of what’s past, +is, and to come, the discharge. Your neck, sir, is pen, book, and +counters; so the acquittance follows. + +POSTHUMUS. +I am merrier to die than thou art to live. + +GAOLER. +Indeed, sir, he that sleeps feels not the toothache. But a man that +were to sleep your sleep, and a hangman to help him to bed, I think he +would change places with his officer; for look you, sir, you know not +which way you shall go. + +POSTHUMUS. +Yes indeed do I, fellow. + +GAOLER. +Your death has eyes in’s head, then; I have not seen him so pictur’d. +You must either be directed by some that take upon them to know, or to +take upon yourself that which I am sure you do not know, or jump the +after-inquiry on your own peril. And how you shall speed in your +journey’s end, I think you’ll never return to tell one. + +POSTHUMUS. +I tell thee, fellow, there are none want eyes to direct them the way I +am going, but such as wink and will not use them. + +GAOLER. +What an infinite mock is this, that a man should have the best use of +eyes to see the way of blindness! I am sure hanging’s the way of +winking. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +Knock off his manacles; bring your prisoner to the King. + +POSTHUMUS. +Thou bring’st good news: I am call’d to be made free. + +GAOLER. +I’ll be hang’d then. + +POSTHUMUS. +Thou shalt be then freer than a gaoler; no bolts for the dead. + + [_Exeunt Posthumus and Messenger._] + +GAOLER. +Unless a man would marry a gallows and beget young gibbets, I never saw +one so prone. Yet, on my conscience, there are verier knaves desire to +live, for all he be a Roman; and there be some of them too that die +against their wills; so should I, if I were one. I would we were all of +one mind, and one mind good. O, there were desolation of gaolers and +gallowses! I speak against my present profit, but my wish hath a +preferment in’t. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE V. Britain. Cymbeline’s tent. + + Enter Cymbeline, Belarius, Guiderius, Arviragus, Pisanio, Lords, + Officers and Attendants. + +CYMBELINE. +Stand by my side, you whom the gods have made +Preservers of my throne. Woe is my heart +That the poor soldier that so richly fought, +Whose rags sham’d gilded arms, whose naked breast +Stepp’d before targes of proof, cannot be found. +He shall be happy that can find him, if +Our grace can make him so. + +BELARIUS. +I never saw +Such noble fury in so poor a thing; +Such precious deeds in one that promis’d nought +But beggary and poor looks. + +CYMBELINE. +No tidings of him? + +PISANIO. +He hath been search’d among the dead and living, +But no trace of him. + +CYMBELINE. +To my grief, I am +The heir of his reward, [_To Belarius, Guiderius, and Arviragus_] which +I will add +To you, the liver, heart, and brain of Britain, +By whom I grant she lives. ’Tis now the time +To ask of whence you are. Report it. + +BELARIUS. +Sir, +In Cambria are we born, and gentlemen; +Further to boast were neither true nor modest, +Unless I add we are honest. + +CYMBELINE. +Bow your knees. +Arise my knights o’ th’ battle; I create you +Companions to our person, and will fit you +With dignities becoming your estates. + + Enter Cornelius and Ladies. + +There’s business in these faces. Why so sadly +Greet you our victory? You look like Romans, +And not o’ th’ court of Britain. + +CORNELIUS. +Hail, great King! +To sour your happiness I must report +The Queen is dead. + +CYMBELINE. +Who worse than a physician +Would this report become? But I consider +By med’cine life may be prolong’d, yet death +Will seize the doctor too. How ended she? + +CORNELIUS. +With horror, madly dying, like her life; +Which, being cruel to the world, concluded +Most cruel to herself. What she confess’d +I will report, so please you; these her women +Can trip me if I err, who with wet cheeks +Were present when she finish’d. + +CYMBELINE. +Prithee say. + +CORNELIUS. +First, she confess’d she never lov’d you; only +Affected greatness got by you, not you; +Married your royalty, was wife to your place; +Abhorr’d your person. + +CYMBELINE. +She alone knew this; +And but she spoke it dying, I would not +Believe her lips in opening it. Proceed. + +CORNELIUS. +Your daughter, whom she bore in hand to love +With such integrity, she did confess +Was as a scorpion to her sight; whose life, +But that her flight prevented it, she had +Ta’en off by poison. + +CYMBELINE. +O most delicate fiend! +Who is’t can read a woman? Is there more? + +CORNELIUS. +More, sir, and worse. She did confess she had +For you a mortal mineral, which, being took, +Should by the minute feed on life, and ling’ring, +By inches waste you. In which time she purpos’d, +By watching, weeping, tendance, kissing, to +O’ercome you with her show; and in time, +When she had fitted you with her craft, to work +Her son into th’ adoption of the crown; +But failing of her end by his strange absence, +Grew shameless-desperate, open’d, in despite +Of heaven and men, her purposes, repented +The evils she hatch’d were not effected; so, +Despairing, died. + +CYMBELINE. +Heard you all this, her women? + +LADIES. +We did, so please your Highness. + +CYMBELINE. +Mine eyes +Were not in fault, for she was beautiful; +Mine ears, that heard her flattery; nor my heart +That thought her like her seeming. It had been vicious +To have mistrusted her; yet, O my daughter! +That it was folly in me thou mayst say, +And prove it in thy feeling. Heaven mend all! + + Enter Lucius, Iachimo, the Soothsayer and other Roman prisoners, + guarded; Posthumus behind, and Imogen. + +Thou com’st not, Caius, now for tribute; that +The Britons have raz’d out, though with the loss +Of many a bold one, whose kinsmen have made suit +That their good souls may be appeas’d with slaughter +Of you their captives, which ourself have granted; +So think of your estate. + +LUCIUS. +Consider, sir, the chance of war. The day +Was yours by accident; had it gone with us, +We should not, when the blood was cool, have threaten’d +Our prisoners with the sword. But since the gods +Will have it thus, that nothing but our lives +May be call’d ransom, let it come. Sufficeth +A Roman with a Roman’s heart can suffer. +Augustus lives to think on’t; and so much +For my peculiar care. This one thing only +I will entreat: my boy, a Briton born, +Let him be ransom’d. Never master had +A page so kind, so duteous, diligent, +So tender over his occasions, true, +So feat, so nurse-like; let his virtue join +With my request, which I’ll make bold your Highness +Cannot deny; he hath done no Briton harm +Though he have serv’d a Roman. Save him, sir, +And spare no blood beside. + +CYMBELINE. +I have surely seen him; +His favour is familiar to me. Boy, +Thou hast look’d thyself into my grace, +And art mine own. I know not why, wherefore +To say “Live, boy.” Ne’er thank thy master. Live; +And ask of Cymbeline what boon thou wilt, +Fitting my bounty and thy state, I’ll give it; +Yea, though thou do demand a prisoner, +The noblest ta’en. + +IMOGEN. +I humbly thank your Highness. + +LUCIUS. +I do not bid thee beg my life, good lad, +And yet I know thou wilt. + +IMOGEN. +No, no! Alack, +There’s other work in hand. I see a thing +Bitter to me as death; your life, good master, +Must shuffle for itself. + +LUCIUS. +The boy disdains me, +He leaves me, scorns me. Briefly die their joys +That place them on the truth of girls and boys. +Why stands he so perplex’d? + +CYMBELINE. +What wouldst thou, boy? +I love thee more and more; think more and more +What’s best to ask. Know’st him thou look’st on? Speak, +Wilt have him live? Is he thy kin? thy friend? + +IMOGEN. +He is a Roman, no more kin to me +Than I to your Highness; who, being born your vassal, +Am something nearer. + +CYMBELINE. +Wherefore ey’st him so? + +IMOGEN. +I’ll tell you, sir, in private, if you please +To give me hearing. + +CYMBELINE. +Ay, with all my heart, +And lend my best attention. What’s thy name? + +IMOGEN. +Fidele, sir. + +CYMBELINE. +Thou’rt my good youth, my page; +I’ll be thy master. Walk with me; speak freely. + + [_Cymbeline and Imogen converse apart._] + +BELARIUS. +Is not this boy reviv’d from death? + +ARVIRAGUS. +One sand another +Not more resembles that sweet rosy lad +Who died and was Fidele. What think you? + +GUIDERIUS. +The same dead thing alive. + +BELARIUS. +Peace, peace! see further. He eyes us not; forbear. +Creatures may be alike; were’t he, I am sure +He would have spoke to us. + +GUIDERIUS. +But we see him dead. + +BELARIUS. +Be silent; let’s see further. + +PISANIO. +[_Aside._] It is my mistress. +Since she is living, let the time run on +To good or bad. + + [_Cymbeline and Imogen advance._] + +CYMBELINE. +Come, stand thou by our side; +Make thy demand aloud. [_To Iachimo._] Sir, step you forth; +Give answer to this boy, and do it freely, +Or, by our greatness and the grace of it, +Which is our honour, bitter torture shall +Winnow the truth from falsehood. On, speak to him. + +IMOGEN. +My boon is that this gentleman may render +Of whom he had this ring. + +POSTHUMUS. +[_Aside._] What’s that to him? + +CYMBELINE. +That diamond upon your finger, say +How came it yours? + +IACHIMO. +Thou’lt torture me to leave unspoken that +Which to be spoke would torture thee. + +CYMBELINE. +How? me? + +IACHIMO. +I am glad to be constrain’d to utter that +Which torments me to conceal. By villainy +I got this ring; ’twas Leonatus’ jewel, +Whom thou didst banish; and—which more may grieve thee, +As it doth me—a nobler sir ne’er liv’d +’Twixt sky and ground. Wilt thou hear more, my lord? + +CYMBELINE. +All that belongs to this. + +IACHIMO. +That paragon, thy daughter, +For whom my heart drops blood and my false spirits +Quail to remember—Give me leave, I faint. + +CYMBELINE. +My daughter? What of her? Renew thy strength; +I had rather thou shouldst live while nature will +Than die ere I hear more. Strive, man, and speak. + +IACHIMO. +Upon a time, unhappy was the clock +That struck the hour: was in Rome, accurs’d +The mansion where: ’twas at a feast, O, would +Our viands had been poison’d (or at least +Those which I heav’d to head) the good Posthumus +(What should I say? he was too good to be +Where ill men were, and was the best of all +Amongst the rar’st of good ones) sitting sadly +Hearing us praise our loves of Italy +For beauty that made barren the swell’d boast +Of him that best could speak; for feature, laming +The shrine of Venus or straight-pight Minerva, +Postures beyond brief nature; for condition, +A shop of all the qualities that man +Loves woman for; besides that hook of wiving, +Fairness which strikes the eye. + +CYMBELINE. +I stand on fire. +Come to the matter. + +IACHIMO. +All too soon I shall, +Unless thou wouldst grieve quickly. This Posthumus, +Most like a noble lord in love and one +That had a royal lover, took his hint; +And (not dispraising whom we prais’d, therein +He was as calm as virtue) he began +His mistress’ picture; which by his tongue being made, +And then a mind put in’t, either our brags +Were crack’d of kitchen trulls, or his description +Prov’d us unspeaking sots. + +CYMBELINE. +Nay, nay, to th’ purpose. + +IACHIMO. +Your daughter’s chastity (there it begins) +He spake of her as Dian had hot dreams +And she alone were cold; whereat I, wretch, +Made scruple of his praise, and wager’d with him +Pieces of gold ’gainst this which then he wore +Upon his honour’d finger, to attain +In suit the place of’s bed, and win this ring +By hers and mine adultery. He, true knight, +No lesser of her honour confident +Than I did truly find her, stakes this ring; +And would so, had it been a carbuncle +Of Phoebus’ wheel; and might so safely, had it +Been all the worth of’s car. Away to Britain +Post I in this design. Well may you, sir, +Remember me at court, where I was taught +Of your chaste daughter the wide difference +’Twixt amorous and villainous. Being thus quench’d +Of hope, not longing, mine Italian brain +Gan in your duller Britain operate +Most vilely; for my vantage, excellent; +And, to be brief, my practice so prevail’d +That I return’d with simular proof enough +To make the noble Leonatus mad, +By wounding his belief in her renown +With tokens thus and thus; averring notes +Of chamber-hanging, pictures, this her bracelet +(O cunning, how I got it!) nay, some marks +Of secret on her person, that he could not +But think her bond of chastity quite crack’d, +I having ta’en the forfeit. Whereupon +Methinks I see him now— + +POSTHUMUS. +[_Coming forward._] Ay, so thou dost, +Italian fiend! Ay me, most credulous fool, +Egregious murderer, thief, anything +That’s due to all the villains past, in being, +To come! O, give me cord, or knife, or poison, +Some upright justicer! Thou, King, send out +For torturers ingenious. It is I +That all th’ abhorred things o’ th’ earth amend +By being worse than they. I am Posthumus, +That kill’d thy daughter; villain-like, I lie; +That caus’d a lesser villain than myself, +A sacrilegious thief, to do’t. The temple +Of virtue was she; yea, and she herself. +Spit, and throw stones, cast mire upon me, set +The dogs o’ th’ street to bay me. Every villain +Be call’d Posthumus Leonatus, and +Be villainy less than ’twas! O Imogen! +My queen, my life, my wife! O Imogen, +Imogen, Imogen! + +IMOGEN. +Peace, my lord. Hear, hear! + +POSTHUMUS. +Shall’s have a play of this? Thou scornful page, +There lies thy part. + + [_Strikes her. She falls._] + +PISANIO. +O gentlemen, help! +Mine and your mistress! O, my lord Posthumus! +You ne’er kill’d Imogen till now. Help, help! +Mine honour’d lady! + +CYMBELINE. +Does the world go round? + +POSTHUMUS. +How comes these staggers on me? + +PISANIO. +Wake, my mistress! + +CYMBELINE. +If this be so, the gods do mean to strike me +To death with mortal joy. + +PISANIO. +How fares my mistress? + +IMOGEN. +O, get thee from my sight; +Thou gav’st me poison. Dangerous fellow, hence! +Breathe not where princes are. + +CYMBELINE. +The tune of Imogen! + +PISANIO. +Lady, +The gods throw stones of sulphur on me, if +That box I gave you was not thought by me +A precious thing! I had it from the Queen. + +CYMBELINE. +New matter still? + +IMOGEN. +It poison’d me. + +CORNELIUS. +O gods! +I left out one thing which the Queen confess’d, +Which must approve thee honest. ‘If Pisanio +Have’ said she ‘given his mistress that confection +Which I gave him for cordial, she is serv’d +As I would serve a rat.’ + +CYMBELINE. +What’s this, Cornelius? + +CORNELIUS. +The Queen, sir, very oft importun’d me +To temper poisons for her; still pretending +The satisfaction of her knowledge only +In killing creatures vile, as cats and dogs, +Of no esteem. I, dreading that her purpose +Was of more danger, did compound for her +A certain stuff, which, being ta’en would cease +The present pow’r of life, but in short time +All offices of nature should again +Do their due functions. Have you ta’en of it? + +IMOGEN. +Most like I did, for I was dead. + +BELARIUS. +My boys, +There was our error. + +GUIDERIUS. +This is sure Fidele. + +IMOGEN. +Why did you throw your wedded lady from you? +Think that you are upon a rock, and now +Throw me again. + + [_Embracing him._] + +POSTHUMUS. +Hang there like fruit, my soul, +Till the tree die! + +CYMBELINE. +How now, my flesh? my child? +What, mak’st thou me a dullard in this act? +Wilt thou not speak to me? + +IMOGEN. +[_Kneeling._] Your blessing, sir. + +BELARIUS. +[_To Guiderius and Arviragus._] Though you did love this youth, I blame +ye not; +You had a motive for’t. + +CYMBELINE. +My tears that fall +Prove holy water on thee! Imogen, +Thy mother’s dead. + +IMOGEN. +I am sorry for’t, my lord. + +CYMBELINE. +O, she was naught, and long of her it was +That we meet here so strangely; but her son +Is gone, we know not how nor where. + +PISANIO. +My lord, +Now fear is from me, I’ll speak troth. Lord Cloten, +Upon my lady’s missing, came to me +With his sword drawn, foam’d at the mouth, and swore, +If I discover’d not which way she was gone, +It was my instant death. By accident +I had a feigned letter of my master’s +Then in my pocket, which directed him +To seek her on the mountains near to Milford; +Where, in a frenzy, in my master’s garments, +Which he enforc’d from me, away he posts +With unchaste purpose, and with oath to violate +My lady’s honour. What became of him +I further know not. + +GUIDERIUS. +Let me end the story: +I slew him there. + +CYMBELINE. +Marry, the gods forfend! +I would not thy good deeds should from my lips +Pluck a hard sentence. Prithee, valiant youth, +Deny’t again. + +GUIDERIUS. +I have spoke it, and I did it. + +CYMBELINE. +He was a prince. + +GUIDERIUS. +A most incivil one. The wrongs he did me +Were nothing prince-like; for he did provoke me +With language that would make me spurn the sea, +If it could so roar to me. I cut off’s head, +And am right glad he is not standing here +To tell this tale of mine. + +CYMBELINE. +I am sorry for thee. +By thine own tongue thou art condemn’d, and must +Endure our law. Thou’rt dead. + +IMOGEN. +That headless man +I thought had been my lord. + +CYMBELINE. +Bind the offender, +And take him from our presence. + +BELARIUS. +Stay, sir King. +This man is better than the man he slew, +As well descended as thyself, and hath +More of thee merited than a band of Clotens +Had ever scar for. [_To the guard._] Let his arms alone; +They were not born for bondage. + +CYMBELINE. +Why, old soldier, +Wilt thou undo the worth thou art unpaid for +By tasting of our wrath? How of descent +As good as we? + +ARVIRAGUS. +In that he spake too far. + +CYMBELINE. +And thou shalt die for’t. + +BELARIUS. +We will die all three; +But I will prove that two on’s are as good +As I have given out him. My sons, I must +For mine own part unfold a dangerous speech, +Though haply well for you. + +ARVIRAGUS. +Your danger’s ours. + +GUIDERIUS. +And our good his. + +BELARIUS. +Have at it then by leave! +Thou hadst, great King, a subject who +Was call’d Belarius. + +CYMBELINE. +What of him? He is +A banish’d traitor. + +BELARIUS. +He it is that hath +Assum’d this age; indeed a banish’d man; +I know not how a traitor. + +CYMBELINE. +Take him hence, +The whole world shall not save him. + +BELARIUS. +Not too hot. +First pay me for the nursing of thy sons, +And let it be confiscate all, so soon +As I have receiv’d it. + +CYMBELINE. +Nursing of my sons? + +BELARIUS. +I am too blunt and saucy: here’s my knee. +Ere I arise I will prefer my sons; +Then spare not the old father. Mighty sir, +These two young gentlemen that call me father, +And think they are my sons, are none of mine; +They are the issue of your loins, my liege, +And blood of your begetting. + +CYMBELINE. +How? my issue? + +BELARIUS. +So sure as you your father’s. I, old Morgan, +Am that Belarius whom you sometime banish’d. +Your pleasure was my mere offence, my punishment +Itself, and all my treason; that I suffer’d +Was all the harm I did. These gentle princes +(For such and so they are) these twenty years +Have I train’d up; those arts they have as I +Could put into them. My breeding was, sir, as +Your Highness knows. Their nurse, Euriphile, +Whom for the theft I wedded, stole these children +Upon my banishment; I mov’d her to’t, +Having receiv’d the punishment before +For that which I did then. Beaten for loyalty +Excited me to treason. Their dear loss, +The more of you ’twas felt, the more it shap’d +Unto my end of stealing them. But, gracious sir, +Here are your sons again, and I must lose +Two of the sweet’st companions in the world. +The benediction of these covering heavens +Fall on their heads like dew! for they are worthy +To inlay heaven with stars. + +CYMBELINE. +Thou weep’st and speak’st. +The service that you three have done is more +Unlike than this thou tell’st. I lost my children. +If these be they, I know not how to wish +A pair of worthier sons. + +BELARIUS. +Be pleas’d awhile. +This gentleman, whom I call Polydore, +Most worthy prince, as yours, is true Guiderius; +This gentleman, my Cadwal, Arviragus, +Your younger princely son; he, sir, was lapp’d +In a most curious mantle, wrought by th’ hand +Of his queen mother, which for more probation +I can with ease produce. + +CYMBELINE. +Guiderius had +Upon his neck a mole, a sanguine star; +It was a mark of wonder. + +BELARIUS. +This is he, +Who hath upon him still that natural stamp. +It was wise nature’s end in the donation, +To be his evidence now. + +CYMBELINE. +O, what am I? +A mother to the birth of three? Ne’er mother +Rejoic’d deliverance more. Blest pray you be, +That, after this strange starting from your orbs, +You may reign in them now! O Imogen, +Thou hast lost by this a kingdom. + +IMOGEN. +No, my lord; +I have got two worlds by’t. O my gentle brothers, +Have we thus met? O, never say hereafter +But I am truest speaker! You call’d me brother, +When I was but your sister: I you brothers, +When we were so indeed. + +CYMBELINE. +Did you e’er meet? + +ARVIRAGUS. +Ay, my good lord. + +GUIDERIUS. +And at first meeting lov’d, +Continu’d so until we thought he died. + +CORNELIUS. +By the Queen’s dram she swallow’d. + +CYMBELINE. +O rare instinct! +When shall I hear all through? This fierce abridgement +Hath to it circumstantial branches, which +Distinction should be rich in. Where? how liv’d you? +And when came you to serve our Roman captive? +How parted with your brothers? how first met them? +Why fled you from the court? and whither? These, +And your three motives to the battle, with +I know not how much more, should be demanded, +And all the other by-dependances, +From chance to chance; but nor the time nor place +Will serve our long interrogatories. See, +Posthumus anchors upon Imogen; +And she, like harmless lightning, throws her eye +On him, her brothers, me, her master, hitting +Each object with a joy; the counterchange +Is severally in all. Let’s quit this ground, +And smoke the temple with our sacrifices. +[_To Belarius._] Thou art my brother; so we’ll hold thee ever. + +IMOGEN. +You are my father too, and did relieve me +To see this gracious season. + +CYMBELINE. +All o’erjoy’d +Save these in bonds. Let them be joyful too, +For they shall taste our comfort. + +IMOGEN. +My good master, +I will yet do you service. + +LUCIUS. +Happy be you! + +CYMBELINE. +The forlorn soldier, that so nobly fought, +He would have well becom’d this place and grac’d +The thankings of a king. + +POSTHUMUS. +I am, sir, +The soldier that did company these three +In poor beseeming; ’twas a fitment for +The purpose I then follow’d. That I was he, +Speak, Iachimo. I had you down, and might +Have made you finish. + +IACHIMO. +[_Kneeling._] I am down again; +But now my heavy conscience sinks my knee, +As then your force did. Take that life, beseech you, +Which I so often owe; but your ring first, +And here the bracelet of the truest princess +That ever swore her faith. + +POSTHUMUS. +Kneel not to me. +The pow’r that I have on you is to spare you; +The malice towards you to forgive you. Live, +And deal with others better. + +CYMBELINE. +Nobly doom’d! +We’ll learn our freeness of a son-in-law; +Pardon’s the word to all. + +ARVIRAGUS. +You holp us, sir, +As you did mean indeed to be our brother; +Joy’d are we that you are. + +POSTHUMUS. +Your servant, Princes. Good my lord of Rome, +Call forth your soothsayer. As I slept, methought +Great Jupiter, upon his eagle back’d, +Appear’d to me, with other spritely shows +Of mine own kindred. When I wak’d, I found +This label on my bosom; whose containing +Is so from sense in hardness that I can +Make no collection of it. Let him show +His skill in the construction. + +LUCIUS. +Philarmonus! + +SOOTHSAYER. +Here, my good lord. + +LUCIUS. +Read, and declare the meaning. + +SOOTHSAYER. +[_Reads._] _When as a lion’s whelp shall, to himself unknown, without +seeking find, and be embrac’d by a piece of tender air; and when from a +stately cedar shall be lopp’d branches which, being dead many years, +shall after revive, be jointed to the old stock, and freshly grow; then +shall Posthumus end his miseries, Britain be fortunate and flourish in +peace and plenty._ +Thou, Leonatus, art the lion’s whelp; +The fit and apt construction of thy name, +Being Leo-natus, doth import so much. +[_To Cymbeline_] The piece of tender air, thy virtuous daughter, +Which we call _mollis aer_, and _mollis aer_ +We term it _mulier_; which _mulier_ I divine +Is this most constant wife, who even now +Answering the letter of the oracle, +Unknown to you, unsought, were clipp’d about +With this most tender air. + +CYMBELINE. +This hath some seeming. + +SOOTHSAYER. +The lofty cedar, royal Cymbeline, +Personates thee; and thy lopp’d branches point +Thy two sons forth, who, by Belarius stol’n, +For many years thought dead, are now reviv’d, +To the majestic cedar join’d, whose issue +Promises Britain peace and plenty. + +CYMBELINE. +Well, +My peace we will begin. And, Caius Lucius, +Although the victor, we submit to Cæsar +And to the Roman empire, promising +To pay our wonted tribute, from the which +We were dissuaded by our wicked queen, +Whom heavens in justice, both on her and hers, +Have laid most heavy hand. + +SOOTHSAYER. +The fingers of the pow’rs above do tune +The harmony of this peace. The vision +Which I made known to Lucius ere the stroke +Of yet this scarce-cold battle, at this instant +Is full accomplish’d; for the Roman eagle, +From south to west on wing soaring aloft, +Lessen’d herself and in the beams o’ th’ sun +So vanish’d; which foreshow’d our princely eagle, +Th’ imperial Cæsar, Cæsar, should again unite +His favour with the radiant Cymbeline, +Which shines here in the west. + +CYMBELINE. +Laud we the gods; +And let our crooked smokes climb to their nostrils +From our bless’d altars. Publish we this peace +To all our subjects. Set we forward; let +A Roman and a British ensign wave +Friendly together. So through Lud’s Town march; +And in the temple of great Jupiter +Our peace we’ll ratify; seal it with feasts. +Set on there! Never was a war did cease, +Ere bloody hands were wash’d, with such a peace. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + + +THE TRAGEDY OF HAMLET, PRINCE OF DENMARK + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Elsinore. A platform before the Castle. +Scene II. Elsinore. A room of state in the Castle +Scene III. A room in Polonius’s house. +Scene IV. The platform. +Scene V. A more remote part of the Castle. + +ACT II +Scene I. A room in Polonius’s house. +Scene II. A room in the Castle. + +ACT III +Scene I. A room in the Castle. +Scene II. A hall in the Castle. +Scene III. A room in the Castle. +Scene IV. Another room in the Castle. + +ACT IV +Scene I. A room in the Castle. +Scene II. Another room in the Castle. +Scene III. Another room in the Castle. +Scene IV. A plain in Denmark. +Scene V. Elsinore. A room in the Castle. +Scene VI. Another room in the Castle. +Scene VII. Another room in the Castle. + +ACT V +Scene I. A churchyard. +Scene II. A hall in the Castle. + + + + + Dramatis Personæ + +HAMLET, Prince of Denmark. +CLAUDIUS, King of Denmark, Hamlet’s uncle. +The GHOST of the late king, Hamlet’s father. +GERTRUDE, the Queen, Hamlet’s mother, now wife of Claudius. +POLONIUS, Lord Chamberlain. +LAERTES, Son to Polonius. +OPHELIA, Daughter to Polonius. +HORATIO, Friend to Hamlet. +FORTINBRAS, Prince of Norway. +VOLTEMAND, Courtier. +CORNELIUS, Courtier. +ROSENCRANTZ, Courtier. +GUILDENSTERN, Courtier. +MARCELLUS, Officer. +BARNARDO, Officer. +FRANCISCO, a Soldier +OSRIC, Courtier. +REYNALDO, Servant to Polonius. +Players. +A Gentleman, Courtier. +A Priest. +Two Clowns, Grave-diggers. +A Captain. +English Ambassadors. +Lords, Ladies, Officers, Soldiers, Sailors, Messengers, and Attendants. + +SCENE. Elsinore. + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Elsinore. A platform before the Castle. + + Enter Francisco and Barnardo, two sentinels. + +BARNARDO. +Who’s there? + +FRANCISCO. +Nay, answer me. Stand and unfold yourself. + +BARNARDO. +Long live the King! + +FRANCISCO. +Barnardo? + +BARNARDO. +He. + +FRANCISCO. +You come most carefully upon your hour. + +BARNARDO. +’Tis now struck twelve. Get thee to bed, Francisco. + +FRANCISCO. +For this relief much thanks. ’Tis bitter cold, +And I am sick at heart. + +BARNARDO. +Have you had quiet guard? + +FRANCISCO. +Not a mouse stirring. + +BARNARDO. +Well, good night. +If you do meet Horatio and Marcellus, +The rivals of my watch, bid them make haste. + + Enter Horatio and Marcellus. + +FRANCISCO. +I think I hear them. Stand, ho! Who is there? + +HORATIO. +Friends to this ground. + +MARCELLUS. +And liegemen to the Dane. + +FRANCISCO. +Give you good night. + +MARCELLUS. +O, farewell, honest soldier, who hath reliev’d you? + +FRANCISCO. +Barnardo has my place. Give you good-night. + + [_Exit._] + +MARCELLUS. +Holla, Barnardo! + +BARNARDO. +Say, what, is Horatio there? + +HORATIO. +A piece of him. + +BARNARDO. +Welcome, Horatio. Welcome, good Marcellus. + +MARCELLUS. +What, has this thing appear’d again tonight? + +BARNARDO. +I have seen nothing. + +MARCELLUS. +Horatio says ’tis but our fantasy, +And will not let belief take hold of him +Touching this dreaded sight, twice seen of us. +Therefore I have entreated him along +With us to watch the minutes of this night, +That if again this apparition come +He may approve our eyes and speak to it. + +HORATIO. +Tush, tush, ’twill not appear. + +BARNARDO. +Sit down awhile, +And let us once again assail your ears, +That are so fortified against our story, +What we two nights have seen. + +HORATIO. +Well, sit we down, +And let us hear Barnardo speak of this. + +BARNARDO. +Last night of all, +When yond same star that’s westward from the pole, +Had made his course t’illume that part of heaven +Where now it burns, Marcellus and myself, +The bell then beating one— + +MARCELLUS. +Peace, break thee off. Look where it comes again. + + Enter Ghost. + +BARNARDO. +In the same figure, like the King that’s dead. + +MARCELLUS. +Thou art a scholar; speak to it, Horatio. + +BARNARDO. +Looks it not like the King? Mark it, Horatio. + +HORATIO. +Most like. It harrows me with fear and wonder. + +BARNARDO +It would be spoke to. + +MARCELLUS. +Question it, Horatio. + +HORATIO. +What art thou that usurp’st this time of night, +Together with that fair and warlike form +In which the majesty of buried Denmark +Did sometimes march? By heaven I charge thee speak. + +MARCELLUS. +It is offended. + +BARNARDO. +See, it stalks away. + +HORATIO. +Stay! speak, speak! I charge thee speak! + + [_Exit Ghost._] + +MARCELLUS. +’Tis gone, and will not answer. + +BARNARDO. +How now, Horatio! You tremble and look pale. +Is not this something more than fantasy? +What think you on’t? + +HORATIO. +Before my God, I might not this believe +Without the sensible and true avouch +Of mine own eyes. + +MARCELLUS. +Is it not like the King? + +HORATIO. +As thou art to thyself: +Such was the very armour he had on +When he th’ambitious Norway combated; +So frown’d he once, when in an angry parle +He smote the sledded Polacks on the ice. +’Tis strange. + +MARCELLUS. +Thus twice before, and jump at this dead hour, +With martial stalk hath he gone by our watch. + +HORATIO. +In what particular thought to work I know not; +But in the gross and scope of my opinion, +This bodes some strange eruption to our state. + +MARCELLUS. +Good now, sit down, and tell me, he that knows, +Why this same strict and most observant watch +So nightly toils the subject of the land, +And why such daily cast of brazen cannon +And foreign mart for implements of war; +Why such impress of shipwrights, whose sore task +Does not divide the Sunday from the week. +What might be toward, that this sweaty haste +Doth make the night joint-labourer with the day: +Who is’t that can inform me? + +HORATIO. +That can I; +At least, the whisper goes so. Our last King, +Whose image even but now appear’d to us, +Was, as you know, by Fortinbras of Norway, +Thereto prick’d on by a most emulate pride, +Dar’d to the combat; in which our valiant Hamlet, +For so this side of our known world esteem’d him, +Did slay this Fortinbras; who by a seal’d compact, +Well ratified by law and heraldry, +Did forfeit, with his life, all those his lands +Which he stood seiz’d of, to the conqueror; +Against the which, a moiety competent +Was gaged by our King; which had return’d +To the inheritance of Fortinbras, +Had he been vanquisher; as by the same cov’nant +And carriage of the article design’d, +His fell to Hamlet. Now, sir, young Fortinbras, +Of unimproved mettle, hot and full, +Hath in the skirts of Norway, here and there, +Shark’d up a list of lawless resolutes, +For food and diet, to some enterprise +That hath a stomach in’t; which is no other, +As it doth well appear unto our state, +But to recover of us by strong hand +And terms compulsatory, those foresaid lands +So by his father lost. And this, I take it, +Is the main motive of our preparations, +The source of this our watch, and the chief head +Of this post-haste and rummage in the land. + +BARNARDO. +I think it be no other but e’en so: +Well may it sort that this portentous figure +Comes armed through our watch so like the King +That was and is the question of these wars. + +HORATIO. +A mote it is to trouble the mind’s eye. +In the most high and palmy state of Rome, +A little ere the mightiest Julius fell, +The graves stood tenantless and the sheeted dead +Did squeak and gibber in the Roman streets; +As stars with trains of fire and dews of blood, +Disasters in the sun; and the moist star, +Upon whose influence Neptune’s empire stands, +Was sick almost to doomsday with eclipse. +And even the like precurse of fierce events, +As harbingers preceding still the fates +And prologue to the omen coming on, +Have heaven and earth together demonstrated +Unto our climatures and countrymen. + + Re-enter Ghost. + +But, soft, behold! Lo, where it comes again! +I’ll cross it, though it blast me. Stay, illusion! +If thou hast any sound, or use of voice, +Speak to me. +If there be any good thing to be done, +That may to thee do ease, and grace to me, +Speak to me. +If thou art privy to thy country’s fate, +Which, happily, foreknowing may avoid, +O speak! +Or if thou hast uphoarded in thy life +Extorted treasure in the womb of earth, +For which, they say, you spirits oft walk in death, +Speak of it. Stay, and speak! + + [_The cock crows._] + +Stop it, Marcellus! + +MARCELLUS. +Shall I strike at it with my partisan? + +HORATIO. +Do, if it will not stand. + +BARNARDO. +’Tis here! + +HORATIO. +’Tis here! + + [_Exit Ghost._] + +MARCELLUS. +’Tis gone! +We do it wrong, being so majestical, +To offer it the show of violence, +For it is as the air, invulnerable, +And our vain blows malicious mockery. + +BARNARDO. +It was about to speak, when the cock crew. + +HORATIO. +And then it started, like a guilty thing +Upon a fearful summons. I have heard +The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn, +Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat +Awake the god of day; and at his warning, +Whether in sea or fire, in earth or air, +Th’extravagant and erring spirit hies +To his confine. And of the truth herein +This present object made probation. + +MARCELLUS. +It faded on the crowing of the cock. +Some say that ever ’gainst that season comes +Wherein our Saviour’s birth is celebrated, +The bird of dawning singeth all night long; +And then, they say, no spirit dare stir abroad, +The nights are wholesome, then no planets strike, +No fairy takes, nor witch hath power to charm; +So hallow’d and so gracious is the time. + +HORATIO. +So have I heard, and do in part believe it. +But look, the morn in russet mantle clad, +Walks o’er the dew of yon high eastward hill. +Break we our watch up, and by my advice, +Let us impart what we have seen tonight +Unto young Hamlet; for upon my life, +This spirit, dumb to us, will speak to him. +Do you consent we shall acquaint him with it, +As needful in our loves, fitting our duty? + +MARCELLUS. +Let’s do’t, I pray, and I this morning know +Where we shall find him most conveniently. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Elsinore. A room of state in the Castle. + + Enter Claudius King of Denmark, Gertrude the Queen, Hamlet, Polonius, + Laertes, Voltemand, +Cornelius, Lords and Attendant. + +KING. +Though yet of Hamlet our dear brother’s death +The memory be green, and that it us befitted +To bear our hearts in grief, and our whole kingdom +To be contracted in one brow of woe; +Yet so far hath discretion fought with nature +That we with wisest sorrow think on him, +Together with remembrance of ourselves. +Therefore our sometime sister, now our queen, +Th’imperial jointress to this warlike state, +Have we, as ’twere with a defeated joy, +With one auspicious and one dropping eye, +With mirth in funeral, and with dirge in marriage, +In equal scale weighing delight and dole, +Taken to wife; nor have we herein barr’d +Your better wisdoms, which have freely gone +With this affair along. For all, our thanks. +Now follows, that you know young Fortinbras, +Holding a weak supposal of our worth, +Or thinking by our late dear brother’s death +Our state to be disjoint and out of frame, +Colleagued with this dream of his advantage, +He hath not fail’d to pester us with message, +Importing the surrender of those lands +Lost by his father, with all bonds of law, +To our most valiant brother. So much for him. +Now for ourself and for this time of meeting: +Thus much the business is: we have here writ +To Norway, uncle of young Fortinbras, +Who, impotent and bed-rid, scarcely hears +Of this his nephew’s purpose, to suppress +His further gait herein; in that the levies, +The lists, and full proportions are all made +Out of his subject: and we here dispatch +You, good Cornelius, and you, Voltemand, +For bearers of this greeting to old Norway, +Giving to you no further personal power +To business with the King, more than the scope +Of these dilated articles allow. +Farewell; and let your haste commend your duty. + +CORNELIUS and VOLTEMAND. +In that, and all things, will we show our duty. + +KING. +We doubt it nothing: heartily farewell. + + [_Exeunt Voltemand and Cornelius._] + +And now, Laertes, what’s the news with you? +You told us of some suit. What is’t, Laertes? +You cannot speak of reason to the Dane, +And lose your voice. What wouldst thou beg, Laertes, +That shall not be my offer, not thy asking? +The head is not more native to the heart, +The hand more instrumental to the mouth, +Than is the throne of Denmark to thy father. +What wouldst thou have, Laertes? + +LAERTES. +Dread my lord, +Your leave and favour to return to France, +From whence though willingly I came to Denmark +To show my duty in your coronation; +Yet now I must confess, that duty done, +My thoughts and wishes bend again toward France, +And bow them to your gracious leave and pardon. + +KING. +Have you your father’s leave? What says Polonius? + +POLONIUS. +He hath, my lord, wrung from me my slow leave +By laboursome petition; and at last +Upon his will I seal’d my hard consent. +I do beseech you give him leave to go. + +KING. +Take thy fair hour, Laertes; time be thine, +And thy best graces spend it at thy will! +But now, my cousin Hamlet, and my son— + +HAMLET. +[_Aside._] A little more than kin, and less than kind. + +KING. +How is it that the clouds still hang on you? + +HAMLET. +Not so, my lord, I am too much i’ the sun. + +QUEEN. +Good Hamlet, cast thy nighted colour off, +And let thine eye look like a friend on Denmark. +Do not for ever with thy vailed lids +Seek for thy noble father in the dust. +Thou know’st ’tis common, all that lives must die, +Passing through nature to eternity. + +HAMLET. +Ay, madam, it is common. + +QUEEN. +If it be, +Why seems it so particular with thee? + +HAMLET. +Seems, madam! Nay, it is; I know not seems. +’Tis not alone my inky cloak, good mother, +Nor customary suits of solemn black, +Nor windy suspiration of forc’d breath, +No, nor the fruitful river in the eye, +Nor the dejected haviour of the visage, +Together with all forms, moods, shows of grief, +That can denote me truly. These indeed seem, +For they are actions that a man might play; +But I have that within which passeth show; +These but the trappings and the suits of woe. + +KING. +’Tis sweet and commendable in your nature, Hamlet, +To give these mourning duties to your father; +But you must know, your father lost a father, +That father lost, lost his, and the survivor bound +In filial obligation, for some term +To do obsequious sorrow. But to persevere +In obstinate condolement is a course +Of impious stubbornness. ’Tis unmanly grief, +It shows a will most incorrect to heaven, +A heart unfortified, a mind impatient, +An understanding simple and unschool’d; +For what we know must be, and is as common +As any the most vulgar thing to sense, +Why should we in our peevish opposition +Take it to heart? Fie, ’tis a fault to heaven, +A fault against the dead, a fault to nature, +To reason most absurd, whose common theme +Is death of fathers, and who still hath cried, +From the first corse till he that died today, +‘This must be so.’ We pray you throw to earth +This unprevailing woe, and think of us +As of a father; for let the world take note +You are the most immediate to our throne, +And with no less nobility of love +Than that which dearest father bears his son +Do I impart toward you. For your intent +In going back to school in Wittenberg, +It is most retrograde to our desire: +And we beseech you bend you to remain +Here in the cheer and comfort of our eye, +Our chiefest courtier, cousin, and our son. + +QUEEN. +Let not thy mother lose her prayers, Hamlet. +I pray thee stay with us; go not to Wittenberg. + +HAMLET. +I shall in all my best obey you, madam. + +KING. +Why, ’tis a loving and a fair reply. +Be as ourself in Denmark. Madam, come; +This gentle and unforc’d accord of Hamlet +Sits smiling to my heart; in grace whereof, +No jocund health that Denmark drinks today +But the great cannon to the clouds shall tell, +And the King’s rouse the heaven shall bruit again, +Re-speaking earthly thunder. Come away. + + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet._] + +HAMLET. +O that this too too solid flesh would melt, +Thaw, and resolve itself into a dew! +Or that the Everlasting had not fix’d +His canon ’gainst self-slaughter. O God! O God! +How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable +Seem to me all the uses of this world! +Fie on’t! Oh fie! ’tis an unweeded garden +That grows to seed; things rank and gross in nature +Possess it merely. That it should come to this! +But two months dead—nay, not so much, not two: +So excellent a king; that was to this +Hyperion to a satyr; so loving to my mother, +That he might not beteem the winds of heaven +Visit her face too roughly. Heaven and earth! +Must I remember? Why, she would hang on him +As if increase of appetite had grown +By what it fed on; and yet, within a month— +Let me not think on’t—Frailty, thy name is woman! +A little month, or ere those shoes were old +With which she followed my poor father’s body +Like Niobe, all tears.—Why she, even she— +O God! A beast that wants discourse of reason +Would have mourn’d longer,—married with mine uncle, +My father’s brother; but no more like my father +Than I to Hercules. Within a month? +Ere yet the salt of most unrighteous tears +Had left the flushing in her galled eyes, +She married. O most wicked speed, to post +With such dexterity to incestuous sheets! +It is not, nor it cannot come to good. +But break my heart, for I must hold my tongue. + + Enter Horatio, Marcellus and Barnardo. + +HORATIO. +Hail to your lordship! + +HAMLET. +I am glad to see you well: +Horatio, or I do forget myself. + +HORATIO. +The same, my lord, +And your poor servant ever. + +HAMLET. +Sir, my good friend; +I’ll change that name with you: +And what make you from Wittenberg, Horatio?— +Marcellus? + +MARCELLUS. +My good lord. + +HAMLET. +I am very glad to see you.—Good even, sir.— +But what, in faith, make you from Wittenberg? + +HORATIO. +A truant disposition, good my lord. + +HAMLET. +I would not hear your enemy say so; +Nor shall you do my ear that violence, +To make it truster of your own report +Against yourself. I know you are no truant. +But what is your affair in Elsinore? +We’ll teach you to drink deep ere you depart. + +HORATIO. +My lord, I came to see your father’s funeral. + +HAMLET. +I prithee do not mock me, fellow-student. +I think it was to see my mother’s wedding. + +HORATIO. +Indeed, my lord, it follow’d hard upon. + +HAMLET. +Thrift, thrift, Horatio! The funeral bak’d meats +Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables. +Would I had met my dearest foe in heaven +Or ever I had seen that day, Horatio. +My father,—methinks I see my father. + +HORATIO. +Where, my lord? + +HAMLET. +In my mind’s eye, Horatio. + +HORATIO. +I saw him once; he was a goodly king. + +HAMLET. +He was a man, take him for all in all, +I shall not look upon his like again. + +HORATIO. +My lord, I think I saw him yesternight. + +HAMLET. +Saw? Who? + +HORATIO. +My lord, the King your father. + +HAMLET. +The King my father! + +HORATIO. +Season your admiration for a while +With an attent ear, till I may deliver +Upon the witness of these gentlemen +This marvel to you. + +HAMLET. +For God’s love let me hear. + +HORATIO. +Two nights together had these gentlemen, +Marcellus and Barnardo, on their watch +In the dead waste and middle of the night, +Been thus encounter’d. A figure like your father, +Armed at point exactly, cap-à-pie, +Appears before them, and with solemn march +Goes slow and stately by them: thrice he walk’d +By their oppress’d and fear-surprised eyes, +Within his truncheon’s length; whilst they, distill’d +Almost to jelly with the act of fear, +Stand dumb, and speak not to him. This to me +In dreadful secrecy impart they did, +And I with them the third night kept the watch, +Where, as they had deliver’d, both in time, +Form of the thing, each word made true and good, +The apparition comes. I knew your father; +These hands are not more like. + +HAMLET. +But where was this? + +MARCELLUS. +My lord, upon the platform where we watch. + +HAMLET. +Did you not speak to it? + +HORATIO. +My lord, I did; +But answer made it none: yet once methought +It lifted up it head, and did address +Itself to motion, like as it would speak. +But even then the morning cock crew loud, +And at the sound it shrunk in haste away, +And vanish’d from our sight. + +HAMLET. +’Tis very strange. + +HORATIO. +As I do live, my honour’d lord, ’tis true; +And we did think it writ down in our duty +To let you know of it. + +HAMLET. +Indeed, indeed, sirs, but this troubles me. +Hold you the watch tonight? + +Mar. and BARNARDO. +We do, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Arm’d, say you? + +Both. +Arm’d, my lord. + +HAMLET. +From top to toe? + +BOTH. +My lord, from head to foot. + +HAMLET. +Then saw you not his face? + +HORATIO. +O yes, my lord, he wore his beaver up. + +HAMLET. +What, look’d he frowningly? + +HORATIO. +A countenance more in sorrow than in anger. + +HAMLET. +Pale, or red? + +HORATIO. +Nay, very pale. + +HAMLET. +And fix’d his eyes upon you? + +HORATIO. +Most constantly. + +HAMLET. +I would I had been there. + +HORATIO. +It would have much amaz’d you. + +HAMLET. +Very like, very like. Stay’d it long? + +HORATIO. +While one with moderate haste might tell a hundred. + +MARCELLUS and BARNARDO. +Longer, longer. + +HORATIO. +Not when I saw’t. + +HAMLET. +His beard was grizzled, no? + +HORATIO. +It was, as I have seen it in his life, +A sable silver’d. + +HAMLET. +I will watch tonight; +Perchance ’twill walk again. + +HORATIO. +I warrant you it will. + +HAMLET. +If it assume my noble father’s person, +I’ll speak to it, though hell itself should gape +And bid me hold my peace. I pray you all, +If you have hitherto conceal’d this sight, +Let it be tenable in your silence still; +And whatsoever else shall hap tonight, +Give it an understanding, but no tongue. +I will requite your loves. So, fare ye well. +Upon the platform ’twixt eleven and twelve, +I’ll visit you. + +ALL. +Our duty to your honour. + +HAMLET. +Your loves, as mine to you: farewell. + + [_Exeunt Horatio, Marcellus and Barnardo._] + +My father’s spirit in arms! All is not well; +I doubt some foul play: would the night were come! +Till then sit still, my soul: foul deeds will rise, +Though all the earth o’erwhelm them, to men’s eyes. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. A room in Polonius’s house. + + Enter Laertes and Ophelia. + +LAERTES. +My necessaries are embark’d. Farewell. +And, sister, as the winds give benefit +And convoy is assistant, do not sleep, +But let me hear from you. + +OPHELIA. +Do you doubt that? + +LAERTES. +For Hamlet, and the trifling of his favour, +Hold it a fashion and a toy in blood; +A violet in the youth of primy nature, +Forward, not permanent, sweet, not lasting; +The perfume and suppliance of a minute; +No more. + +OPHELIA. +No more but so? + +LAERTES. +Think it no more. +For nature crescent does not grow alone +In thews and bulk; but as this temple waxes, +The inward service of the mind and soul +Grows wide withal. Perhaps he loves you now, +And now no soil nor cautel doth besmirch +The virtue of his will; but you must fear, +His greatness weigh’d, his will is not his own; +For he himself is subject to his birth: +He may not, as unvalu’d persons do, +Carve for himself; for on his choice depends +The sanctity and health of this whole state; +And therefore must his choice be circumscrib’d +Unto the voice and yielding of that body +Whereof he is the head. Then if he says he loves you, +It fits your wisdom so far to believe it +As he in his particular act and place +May give his saying deed; which is no further +Than the main voice of Denmark goes withal. +Then weigh what loss your honour may sustain +If with too credent ear you list his songs, +Or lose your heart, or your chaste treasure open +To his unmaster’d importunity. +Fear it, Ophelia, fear it, my dear sister; +And keep you in the rear of your affection, +Out of the shot and danger of desire. +The chariest maid is prodigal enough +If she unmask her beauty to the moon. +Virtue itself scopes not calumnious strokes: +The canker galls the infants of the spring +Too oft before their buttons be disclos’d, +And in the morn and liquid dew of youth +Contagious blastments are most imminent. +Be wary then, best safety lies in fear. +Youth to itself rebels, though none else near. + +OPHELIA. +I shall th’effect of this good lesson keep +As watchman to my heart. But good my brother, +Do not as some ungracious pastors do, +Show me the steep and thorny way to heaven; +Whilst like a puff’d and reckless libertine +Himself the primrose path of dalliance treads, +And recks not his own rede. + +LAERTES. +O, fear me not. +I stay too long. But here my father comes. + + Enter Polonius. + +A double blessing is a double grace; +Occasion smiles upon a second leave. + +POLONIUS. +Yet here, Laertes? Aboard, aboard, for shame. +The wind sits in the shoulder of your sail, +And you are stay’d for. There, my blessing with you. + + [_Laying his hand on Laertes’s head._] + +And these few precepts in thy memory +Look thou character. Give thy thoughts no tongue, +Nor any unproportion’d thought his act. +Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar. +Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, +Grapple them unto thy soul with hoops of steel; +But do not dull thy palm with entertainment +Of each new-hatch’d, unfledg’d comrade. Beware +Of entrance to a quarrel; but being in, +Bear’t that th’opposed may beware of thee. +Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice: +Take each man’s censure, but reserve thy judgment. +Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, +But not express’d in fancy; rich, not gaudy: +For the apparel oft proclaims the man; +And they in France of the best rank and station +Are of a most select and generous chief in that. +Neither a borrower nor a lender be: +For loan oft loses both itself and friend; +And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. +This above all: to thine own self be true; +And it must follow, as the night the day, +Thou canst not then be false to any man. +Farewell: my blessing season this in thee. + +LAERTES. +Most humbly do I take my leave, my lord. + +POLONIUS. +The time invites you; go, your servants tend. + +LAERTES. +Farewell, Ophelia, and remember well +What I have said to you. + +OPHELIA. +’Tis in my memory lock’d, +And you yourself shall keep the key of it. + +LAERTES. +Farewell. + + [_Exit._] + +POLONIUS. +What is’t, Ophelia, he hath said to you? + +OPHELIA. +So please you, something touching the Lord Hamlet. + +POLONIUS. +Marry, well bethought: +’Tis told me he hath very oft of late +Given private time to you; and you yourself +Have of your audience been most free and bounteous. +If it be so,—as so ’tis put on me, +And that in way of caution,—I must tell you +You do not understand yourself so clearly +As it behoves my daughter and your honour. +What is between you? Give me up the truth. + +OPHELIA. +He hath, my lord, of late made many tenders +Of his affection to me. + +POLONIUS. +Affection! Pooh! You speak like a green girl, +Unsifted in such perilous circumstance. +Do you believe his tenders, as you call them? + +OPHELIA. +I do not know, my lord, what I should think. + +POLONIUS. +Marry, I’ll teach you; think yourself a baby; +That you have ta’en these tenders for true pay, +Which are not sterling. Tender yourself more dearly; +Or,—not to crack the wind of the poor phrase, +Roaming it thus,—you’ll tender me a fool. + +OPHELIA. +My lord, he hath importun’d me with love +In honourable fashion. + +POLONIUS. +Ay, fashion you may call it; go to, go to. + +OPHELIA. +And hath given countenance to his speech, my lord, +With almost all the holy vows of heaven. + +POLONIUS. +Ay, springes to catch woodcocks. I do know, +When the blood burns, how prodigal the soul +Lends the tongue vows: these blazes, daughter, +Giving more light than heat, extinct in both, +Even in their promise, as it is a-making, +You must not take for fire. From this time +Be something scanter of your maiden presence; +Set your entreatments at a higher rate +Than a command to parley. For Lord Hamlet, +Believe so much in him that he is young; +And with a larger tether may he walk +Than may be given you. In few, Ophelia, +Do not believe his vows; for they are brokers, +Not of that dye which their investments show, +But mere implorators of unholy suits, +Breathing like sanctified and pious bawds, +The better to beguile. This is for all. +I would not, in plain terms, from this time forth +Have you so slander any moment leisure +As to give words or talk with the Lord Hamlet. +Look to’t, I charge you; come your ways. + +OPHELIA. +I shall obey, my lord. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. The platform. + + Enter Hamlet, Horatio and Marcellus. + +HAMLET. +The air bites shrewdly; it is very cold. + +HORATIO. +It is a nipping and an eager air. + +HAMLET. +What hour now? + +HORATIO. +I think it lacks of twelve. + +MARCELLUS. +No, it is struck. + +HORATIO. +Indeed? I heard it not. It then draws near the season +Wherein the spirit held his wont to walk. + + [_A flourish of trumpets, and ordnance shot off within._] + +What does this mean, my lord? + +HAMLET. +The King doth wake tonight and takes his rouse, +Keeps wassail, and the swaggering upspring reels; +And as he drains his draughts of Rhenish down, +The kettle-drum and trumpet thus bray out +The triumph of his pledge. + +HORATIO. +Is it a custom? + +HAMLET. +Ay marry is’t; +And to my mind, though I am native here, +And to the manner born, it is a custom +More honour’d in the breach than the observance. +This heavy-headed revel east and west +Makes us traduc’d and tax’d of other nations: +They clepe us drunkards, and with swinish phrase +Soil our addition; and indeed it takes +From our achievements, though perform’d at height, +The pith and marrow of our attribute. +So oft it chances in particular men +That for some vicious mole of nature in them, +As in their birth, wherein they are not guilty, +Since nature cannot choose his origin, +By their o’ergrowth of some complexion, +Oft breaking down the pales and forts of reason; +Or by some habit, that too much o’erleavens +The form of plausive manners;—that these men, +Carrying, I say, the stamp of one defect, +Being Nature’s livery or Fortune’s star,— +His virtues else,—be they as pure as grace, +As infinite as man may undergo, +Shall in the general censure take corruption +From that particular fault. The dram of evil +Doth all the noble substance often doubt +To his own scandal. + +HORATIO. +Look, my lord, it comes! + + Enter Ghost. + +HAMLET. +Angels and ministers of grace defend us! +Be thou a spirit of health or goblin damn’d, +Bring with thee airs from heaven or blasts from hell, +Be thy intents wicked or charitable, +Thou com’st in such a questionable shape +That I will speak to thee. I’ll call thee Hamlet, +King, father, royal Dane. O, answer me! +Let me not burst in ignorance; but tell +Why thy canoniz’d bones, hearsed in death, +Have burst their cerements; why the sepulchre, +Wherein we saw thee quietly inurn’d, +Hath op’d his ponderous and marble jaws +To cast thee up again! What may this mean, +That thou, dead corse, again in complete steel, +Revisit’st thus the glimpses of the moon, +Making night hideous, and we fools of nature +So horridly to shake our disposition +With thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls? +Say, why is this? Wherefore? What should we do? + + [_Ghost beckons Hamlet._] + +HORATIO. +It beckons you to go away with it, +As if it some impartment did desire +To you alone. + +MARCELLUS. +Look with what courteous action +It waves you to a more removed ground. +But do not go with it. + +HORATIO. +No, by no means. + +HAMLET. +It will not speak; then will I follow it. + +HORATIO. +Do not, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Why, what should be the fear? +I do not set my life at a pin’s fee; +And for my soul, what can it do to that, +Being a thing immortal as itself? +It waves me forth again. I’ll follow it. + +HORATIO. +What if it tempt you toward the flood, my lord, +Or to the dreadful summit of the cliff +That beetles o’er his base into the sea, +And there assume some other horrible form +Which might deprive your sovereignty of reason, +And draw you into madness? Think of it. +The very place puts toys of desperation, +Without more motive, into every brain +That looks so many fadoms to the sea +And hears it roar beneath. + +HAMLET. +It waves me still. +Go on, I’ll follow thee. + +MARCELLUS. +You shall not go, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Hold off your hands. + +HORATIO. +Be rul’d; you shall not go. + +HAMLET. +My fate cries out, +And makes each petty artery in this body +As hardy as the Nemean lion’s nerve. + + [_Ghost beckons._] + +Still am I call’d. Unhand me, gentlemen. + + [_Breaking free from them._] + +By heaven, I’ll make a ghost of him that lets me. +I say, away!—Go on, I’ll follow thee. + + [_Exeunt Ghost and Hamlet._] + +HORATIO. +He waxes desperate with imagination. + +MARCELLUS. +Let’s follow; ’tis not fit thus to obey him. + +HORATIO. +Have after. To what issue will this come? + +MARCELLUS. +Something is rotten in the state of Denmark. + +HORATIO. +Heaven will direct it. + +MARCELLUS. +Nay, let’s follow him. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. A more remote part of the Castle. + + Enter Ghost and Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +Whither wilt thou lead me? Speak, I’ll go no further. + +GHOST. +Mark me. + +HAMLET. +I will. + +GHOST. +My hour is almost come, +When I to sulph’rous and tormenting flames +Must render up myself. + +HAMLET. +Alas, poor ghost! + +GHOST. +Pity me not, but lend thy serious hearing +To what I shall unfold. + +HAMLET. +Speak, I am bound to hear. + +GHOST. +So art thou to revenge, when thou shalt hear. + +HAMLET. +What? + +GHOST. +I am thy father’s spirit, +Doom’d for a certain term to walk the night, +And for the day confin’d to fast in fires, +Till the foul crimes done in my days of nature +Are burnt and purg’d away. But that I am forbid +To tell the secrets of my prison-house, +I could a tale unfold whose lightest word +Would harrow up thy soul; freeze thy young blood, +Make thy two eyes like stars start from their spheres, +Thy knotted and combined locks to part, +And each particular hair to stand on end +Like quills upon the fretful porcupine. +But this eternal blazon must not be +To ears of flesh and blood. List, list, O, list! +If thou didst ever thy dear father love— + +HAMLET. +O God! + +GHOST. +Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder. + +HAMLET. +Murder! + +GHOST. +Murder most foul, as in the best it is; +But this most foul, strange, and unnatural. + +HAMLET. +Haste me to know’t, that I, with wings as swift +As meditation or the thoughts of love +May sweep to my revenge. + +GHOST. +I find thee apt; +And duller shouldst thou be than the fat weed +That rots itself in ease on Lethe wharf, +Wouldst thou not stir in this. Now, Hamlet, hear. +’Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard, +A serpent stung me; so the whole ear of Denmark +Is by a forged process of my death +Rankly abus’d; but know, thou noble youth, +The serpent that did sting thy father’s life +Now wears his crown. + +HAMLET. +O my prophetic soul! +Mine uncle! + +GHOST. +Ay, that incestuous, that adulterate beast, +With witchcraft of his wit, with traitorous gifts,— +O wicked wit, and gifts, that have the power +So to seduce!—won to his shameful lust +The will of my most seeming-virtuous queen. +O Hamlet, what a falling off was there, +From me, whose love was of that dignity +That it went hand in hand even with the vow +I made to her in marriage; and to decline +Upon a wretch whose natural gifts were poor +To those of mine. But virtue, as it never will be mov’d, +Though lewdness court it in a shape of heaven; +So lust, though to a radiant angel link’d, +Will sate itself in a celestial bed +And prey on garbage. +But soft! methinks I scent the morning air; +Brief let me be. Sleeping within my orchard, +My custom always of the afternoon, +Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole +With juice of cursed hebenon in a vial, +And in the porches of my ears did pour +The leperous distilment, whose effect +Holds such an enmity with blood of man +That swift as quicksilver it courses through +The natural gates and alleys of the body; +And with a sudden vigour it doth posset +And curd, like eager droppings into milk, +The thin and wholesome blood. So did it mine; +And a most instant tetter bark’d about, +Most lazar-like, with vile and loathsome crust +All my smooth body. +Thus was I, sleeping, by a brother’s hand, +Of life, of crown, of queen at once dispatch’d: +Cut off even in the blossoms of my sin, +Unhous’led, disappointed, unanel’d; +No reckoning made, but sent to my account +With all my imperfections on my head. +O horrible! O horrible! most horrible! +If thou hast nature in thee, bear it not; +Let not the royal bed of Denmark be +A couch for luxury and damned incest. +But howsoever thou pursu’st this act, +Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contrive +Against thy mother aught; leave her to heaven, +And to those thorns that in her bosom lodge, +To prick and sting her. Fare thee well at once! +The glow-worm shows the matin to be near, +And ’gins to pale his uneffectual fire. +Adieu, adieu, adieu. Hamlet, remember me. + + [_Exit._] + +HAMLET. +O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else? +And shall I couple hell? O, fie! Hold, my heart; +And you, my sinews, grow not instant old, +But bear me stiffly up. Remember thee? +Ay, thou poor ghost, while memory holds a seat +In this distracted globe. Remember thee? +Yea, from the table of my memory +I’ll wipe away all trivial fond records, +All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past, +That youth and observation copied there; +And thy commandment all alone shall live +Within the book and volume of my brain, +Unmix’d with baser matter. Yes, by heaven! +O most pernicious woman! +O villain, villain, smiling damned villain! +My tables. Meet it is I set it down, +That one may smile, and smile, and be a villain! +At least I am sure it may be so in Denmark. + + [_Writing._] + +So, uncle, there you are. Now to my word; +It is ‘Adieu, adieu, remember me.’ +I have sworn’t. + +HORATIO and MARCELLUS. +[_Within._] My lord, my lord. + +MARCELLUS. +[_Within._] Lord Hamlet. + +HORATIO. +[_Within._] Heaven secure him. + +HAMLET. +So be it! + +MARCELLUS. +[_Within._] Illo, ho, ho, my lord! + +HAMLET. +Hillo, ho, ho, boy! Come, bird, come. + + Enter Horatio and Marcellus. + +MARCELLUS. +How is’t, my noble lord? + +HORATIO. +What news, my lord? + +HAMLET. +O, wonderful! + +HORATIO. +Good my lord, tell it. + +HAMLET. +No, you’ll reveal it. + +HORATIO. +Not I, my lord, by heaven. + +MARCELLUS. +Nor I, my lord. + +HAMLET. +How say you then, would heart of man once think it?— +But you’ll be secret? + +HORATIO and MARCELLUS. +Ay, by heaven, my lord. + +HAMLET. +There’s ne’er a villain dwelling in all Denmark +But he’s an arrant knave. + +HORATIO. +There needs no ghost, my lord, come from the grave +To tell us this. + +HAMLET. +Why, right; you are i’ the right; +And so, without more circumstance at all, +I hold it fit that we shake hands and part: +You, as your business and desires shall point you,— +For every man hath business and desire, +Such as it is;—and for my own poor part, +Look you, I’ll go pray. + +HORATIO. +These are but wild and whirling words, my lord. + +HAMLET. +I’m sorry they offend you, heartily; +Yes faith, heartily. + +HORATIO. +There’s no offence, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Yes, by Saint Patrick, but there is, Horatio, +And much offence too. Touching this vision here, +It is an honest ghost, that let me tell you. +For your desire to know what is between us, +O’ermaster’t as you may. And now, good friends, +As you are friends, scholars, and soldiers, +Give me one poor request. + +HORATIO. +What is’t, my lord? We will. + +HAMLET. +Never make known what you have seen tonight. + +HORATIO and MARCELLUS. +My lord, we will not. + +HAMLET. +Nay, but swear’t. + +HORATIO. +In faith, my lord, not I. + +MARCELLUS. +Nor I, my lord, in faith. + +HAMLET. +Upon my sword. + +MARCELLUS. +We have sworn, my lord, already. + +HAMLET. +Indeed, upon my sword, indeed. + +GHOST. +[_Cries under the stage._] Swear. + +HAMLET. +Ha, ha boy, say’st thou so? Art thou there, truepenny? +Come on, you hear this fellow in the cellarage. +Consent to swear. + +HORATIO. +Propose the oath, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Never to speak of this that you have seen. +Swear by my sword. + +GHOST. +[_Beneath._] Swear. + +HAMLET. +_Hic et ubique?_ Then we’ll shift our ground. +Come hither, gentlemen, +And lay your hands again upon my sword. +Never to speak of this that you have heard. +Swear by my sword. + +GHOST. +[_Beneath._] Swear. + +HAMLET. +Well said, old mole! Canst work i’ th’earth so fast? +A worthy pioner! Once more remove, good friends. + +HORATIO. +O day and night, but this is wondrous strange. + +HAMLET. +And therefore as a stranger give it welcome. +There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, +Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. But come, +Here, as before, never, so help you mercy, +How strange or odd soe’er I bear myself,— +As I perchance hereafter shall think meet +To put an antic disposition on— +That you, at such times seeing me, never shall, +With arms encumber’d thus, or this head-shake, +Or by pronouncing of some doubtful phrase, +As ‘Well, we know’, or ‘We could and if we would’, +Or ‘If we list to speak’; or ‘There be and if they might’, +Or such ambiguous giving out, to note +That you know aught of me:—this not to do. +So grace and mercy at your most need help you, +Swear. + +GHOST. +[_Beneath._] Swear. + +HAMLET. +Rest, rest, perturbed spirit. So, gentlemen, +With all my love I do commend me to you; +And what so poor a man as Hamlet is +May do t’express his love and friending to you, +God willing, shall not lack. Let us go in together, +And still your fingers on your lips, I pray. +The time is out of joint. O cursed spite, +That ever I was born to set it right. +Nay, come, let’s go together. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. A room in Polonius’s house. + + Enter Polonius and Reynaldo. + +POLONIUS. +Give him this money and these notes, Reynaldo. + +REYNALDO. +I will, my lord. + +POLONIUS. +You shall do marvellous wisely, good Reynaldo, +Before you visit him, to make inquiry +Of his behaviour. + +REYNALDO. +My lord, I did intend it. + +POLONIUS. +Marry, well said; very well said. Look you, sir, +Enquire me first what Danskers are in Paris; +And how, and who, what means, and where they keep, +What company, at what expense; and finding +By this encompassment and drift of question, +That they do know my son, come you more nearer +Than your particular demands will touch it. +Take you as ’twere some distant knowledge of him, +As thus, ‘I know his father and his friends, +And in part him’—do you mark this, Reynaldo? + +REYNALDO. +Ay, very well, my lord. + +POLONIUS. +‘And in part him, but,’ you may say, ‘not well; +But if’t be he I mean, he’s very wild; +Addicted so and so;’ and there put on him +What forgeries you please; marry, none so rank +As may dishonour him; take heed of that; +But, sir, such wanton, wild, and usual slips +As are companions noted and most known +To youth and liberty. + +REYNALDO. +As gaming, my lord? + +POLONIUS. +Ay, or drinking, fencing, swearing, +Quarrelling, drabbing. You may go so far. + +REYNALDO. +My lord, that would dishonour him. + +POLONIUS. +Faith no, as you may season it in the charge. +You must not put another scandal on him, +That he is open to incontinency; +That’s not my meaning: but breathe his faults so quaintly +That they may seem the taints of liberty; +The flash and outbreak of a fiery mind, +A savageness in unreclaimed blood, +Of general assault. + +REYNALDO. +But my good lord— + +POLONIUS. +Wherefore should you do this? + +REYNALDO. +Ay, my lord, I would know that. + +POLONIUS. +Marry, sir, here’s my drift, +And I believe it is a fetch of warrant. +You laying these slight sullies on my son, +As ’twere a thing a little soil’d i’ th’ working, +Mark you, +Your party in converse, him you would sound, +Having ever seen in the prenominate crimes +The youth you breathe of guilty, be assur’d +He closes with you in this consequence; +‘Good sir,’ or so; or ‘friend,’ or ‘gentleman’— +According to the phrase or the addition +Of man and country. + +REYNALDO. +Very good, my lord. + +POLONIUS. +And then, sir, does he this,— +He does—What was I about to say? +By the mass, I was about to say something. Where did I leave? + +REYNALDO. +At ‘closes in the consequence.’ +At ‘friend or so,’ and ‘gentleman.’ + +POLONIUS. +At ‘closes in the consequence’ ay, marry! +He closes with you thus: ‘I know the gentleman, +I saw him yesterday, or t’other day, +Or then, or then, with such and such; and, as you say, +There was he gaming, there o’ertook in’s rouse, +There falling out at tennis’: or perchance, +‘I saw him enter such a house of sale’— +_Videlicet_, a brothel, or so forth. See you now; +Your bait of falsehood takes this carp of truth; +And thus do we of wisdom and of reach, +With windlasses, and with assays of bias, +By indirections find directions out. +So by my former lecture and advice +Shall you my son. You have me, have you not? + +REYNALDO. +My lord, I have. + +POLONIUS. +God b’ wi’ you, fare you well. + +REYNALDO. +Good my lord. + +POLONIUS. +Observe his inclination in yourself. + +REYNALDO. +I shall, my lord. + +POLONIUS. +And let him ply his music. + +REYNALDO. +Well, my lord. + +POLONIUS. +Farewell. + + [_Exit Reynaldo._] + + Enter Ophelia. + +How now, Ophelia, what’s the matter? + +OPHELIA. +Alas, my lord, I have been so affrighted. + +POLONIUS. +With what, in the name of God? + +OPHELIA. +My lord, as I was sewing in my chamber, +Lord Hamlet, with his doublet all unbrac’d, +No hat upon his head, his stockings foul’d, +Ungart’red, and down-gyved to his ankle, +Pale as his shirt, his knees knocking each other, +And with a look so piteous in purport +As if he had been loosed out of hell +To speak of horrors, he comes before me. + +POLONIUS. +Mad for thy love? + +OPHELIA. +My lord, I do not know, but truly I do fear it. + +POLONIUS. +What said he? + +OPHELIA. +He took me by the wrist and held me hard; +Then goes he to the length of all his arm; +And with his other hand thus o’er his brow, +He falls to such perusal of my face +As he would draw it. Long stay’d he so, +At last,—a little shaking of mine arm, +And thrice his head thus waving up and down, +He rais’d a sigh so piteous and profound +As it did seem to shatter all his bulk +And end his being. That done, he lets me go, +And with his head over his shoulder turn’d +He seem’d to find his way without his eyes, +For out o’ doors he went without their help, +And to the last bended their light on me. + +POLONIUS. +Come, go with me. I will go seek the King. +This is the very ecstasy of love, +Whose violent property fordoes itself, +And leads the will to desperate undertakings, +As oft as any passion under heaven +That does afflict our natures. I am sorry,— +What, have you given him any hard words of late? + +OPHELIA. +No, my good lord; but as you did command, +I did repel his letters and denied +His access to me. + +POLONIUS. +That hath made him mad. +I am sorry that with better heed and judgment +I had not quoted him. I fear’d he did but trifle, +And meant to wreck thee. But beshrew my jealousy! +It seems it is as proper to our age +To cast beyond ourselves in our opinions +As it is common for the younger sort +To lack discretion. Come, go we to the King. +This must be known, which, being kept close, might move +More grief to hide than hate to utter love. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A room in the Castle. + + Enter King, Queen, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern and Attendants. + +KING. +Welcome, dear Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. +Moreover that we much did long to see you, +The need we have to use you did provoke +Our hasty sending. Something have you heard +Of Hamlet’s transformation; so I call it, +Since nor th’exterior nor the inward man +Resembles that it was. What it should be, +More than his father’s death, that thus hath put him +So much from th’understanding of himself, +I cannot dream of. I entreat you both +That, being of so young days brought up with him, +And since so neighbour’d to his youth and humour, +That you vouchsafe your rest here in our court +Some little time, so by your companies +To draw him on to pleasures and to gather, +So much as from occasion you may glean, +Whether aught to us unknown afflicts him thus +That, open’d, lies within our remedy. + +QUEEN. +Good gentlemen, he hath much talk’d of you, +And sure I am, two men there are not living +To whom he more adheres. If it will please you +To show us so much gentry and good will +As to expend your time with us awhile, +For the supply and profit of our hope, +Your visitation shall receive such thanks +As fits a king’s remembrance. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Both your majesties +Might, by the sovereign power you have of us, +Put your dread pleasures more into command +Than to entreaty. + +GUILDENSTERN. +We both obey, +And here give up ourselves, in the full bent, +To lay our service freely at your feet +To be commanded. + +KING. +Thanks, Rosencrantz and gentle Guildenstern. + +QUEEN. +Thanks, Guildenstern and gentle Rosencrantz. +And I beseech you instantly to visit +My too much changed son. Go, some of you, +And bring these gentlemen where Hamlet is. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Heavens make our presence and our practices +Pleasant and helpful to him. + +QUEEN. +Ay, amen. + + [_Exeunt Rosencrantz, Guildenstern and some Attendants._] + + Enter Polonius. + +POLONIUS. +Th’ambassadors from Norway, my good lord, +Are joyfully return’d. + +KING. +Thou still hast been the father of good news. + +POLONIUS. +Have I, my lord? Assure you, my good liege, +I hold my duty, as I hold my soul, +Both to my God and to my gracious King: +And I do think,—or else this brain of mine +Hunts not the trail of policy so sure +As it hath us’d to do—that I have found +The very cause of Hamlet’s lunacy. + +KING. +O speak of that, that do I long to hear. + +POLONIUS. +Give first admittance to th’ambassadors; +My news shall be the fruit to that great feast. + +KING. +Thyself do grace to them, and bring them in. + + [_Exit Polonius._] + +He tells me, my sweet queen, that he hath found +The head and source of all your son’s distemper. + +QUEEN. +I doubt it is no other but the main, +His father’s death and our o’erhasty marriage. + +KING. +Well, we shall sift him. + + Enter Polonius with Voltemand and Cornelius. + +Welcome, my good friends! +Say, Voltemand, what from our brother Norway? + +VOLTEMAND. +Most fair return of greetings and desires. +Upon our first, he sent out to suppress +His nephew’s levies, which to him appear’d +To be a preparation ’gainst the Polack; +But better look’d into, he truly found +It was against your Highness; whereat griev’d, +That so his sickness, age, and impotence +Was falsely borne in hand, sends out arrests +On Fortinbras; which he, in brief, obeys, +Receives rebuke from Norway; and in fine, +Makes vow before his uncle never more +To give th’assay of arms against your Majesty. +Whereon old Norway, overcome with joy, +Gives him three thousand crowns in annual fee, +And his commission to employ those soldiers +So levied as before, against the Polack: +With an entreaty, herein further shown, +[_Gives a paper._] +That it might please you to give quiet pass +Through your dominions for this enterprise, +On such regards of safety and allowance +As therein are set down. + +KING. +It likes us well; +And at our more consider’d time we’ll read, +Answer, and think upon this business. +Meantime we thank you for your well-took labour. +Go to your rest, at night we’ll feast together:. +Most welcome home. + + [_Exeunt Voltemand and Cornelius._] + +POLONIUS. +This business is well ended. +My liege and madam, to expostulate +What majesty should be, what duty is, +Why day is day, night night, and time is time. +Were nothing but to waste night, day and time. +Therefore, since brevity is the soul of wit, +And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes, +I will be brief. Your noble son is mad. +Mad call I it; for to define true madness, +What is’t but to be nothing else but mad? +But let that go. + +QUEEN. +More matter, with less art. + +POLONIUS. +Madam, I swear I use no art at all. +That he is mad, ’tis true: ’tis true ’tis pity; +And pity ’tis ’tis true. A foolish figure, +But farewell it, for I will use no art. +Mad let us grant him then. And now remains +That we find out the cause of this effect, +Or rather say, the cause of this defect, +For this effect defective comes by cause. +Thus it remains, and the remainder thus. Perpend, +I have a daughter—have whilst she is mine— +Who in her duty and obedience, mark, +Hath given me this. Now gather, and surmise. +[_Reads._] +_To the celestial, and my soul’s idol, the most beautified Ophelia_— +That’s an ill phrase, a vile phrase; ‘beautified’ is a vile +phrase: but you shall hear. +[_Reads._] +_these; in her excellent white bosom, these, &c._ + +QUEEN. +Came this from Hamlet to her? + +POLONIUS. +Good madam, stay awhile; I will be faithful. +[_Reads._] + _Doubt thou the stars are fire, + Doubt that the sun doth move, + Doubt truth to be a liar, + But never doubt I love. +O dear Ophelia, I am ill at these numbers. I have not art to reckon my +groans. But that I love thee best, O most best, believe it. Adieu. + Thine evermore, most dear lady, whilst this machine is to him, + HAMLET._ +This in obedience hath my daughter show’d me; +And more above, hath his solicitings, +As they fell out by time, by means, and place, +All given to mine ear. + +KING. +But how hath she receiv’d his love? + +POLONIUS. +What do you think of me? + +KING. +As of a man faithful and honourable. + +POLONIUS. +I would fain prove so. But what might you think, +When I had seen this hot love on the wing, +As I perceiv’d it, I must tell you that, +Before my daughter told me, what might you, +Or my dear Majesty your queen here, think, +If I had play’d the desk or table-book, +Or given my heart a winking, mute and dumb, +Or look’d upon this love with idle sight, +What might you think? No, I went round to work, +And my young mistress thus I did bespeak: +‘Lord Hamlet is a prince, out of thy star. +This must not be.’ And then I precepts gave her, +That she should lock herself from his resort, +Admit no messengers, receive no tokens. +Which done, she took the fruits of my advice, +And he, repulsed,—a short tale to make— +Fell into a sadness, then into a fast, +Thence to a watch, thence into a weakness, +Thence to a lightness, and, by this declension, +Into the madness wherein now he raves, +And all we wail for. + +KING. +Do you think ’tis this? + +QUEEN. +It may be, very likely. + +POLONIUS. +Hath there been such a time, I’d fain know that, +That I have positively said ‘’Tis so,’ +When it prov’d otherwise? + +KING. +Not that I know. + +POLONIUS. +Take this from this, if this be otherwise. +[_Points to his head and shoulder._] +If circumstances lead me, I will find +Where truth is hid, though it were hid indeed +Within the centre. + +KING. +How may we try it further? + +POLONIUS. +You know sometimes he walks four hours together +Here in the lobby. + +QUEEN. +So he does indeed. + +POLONIUS. +At such a time I’ll loose my daughter to him. +Be you and I behind an arras then, +Mark the encounter. If he love her not, +And be not from his reason fall’n thereon, +Let me be no assistant for a state, +But keep a farm and carters. + +KING. +We will try it. + + Enter Hamlet, reading. + +QUEEN. +But look where sadly the poor wretch comes reading. + +POLONIUS. +Away, I do beseech you, both away +I’ll board him presently. O, give me leave. + + [_Exeunt King, Queen and Attendants._] + +How does my good Lord Hamlet? + +HAMLET. +Well, God-a-mercy. + +POLONIUS. +Do you know me, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Excellent well. You’re a fishmonger. + +POLONIUS. +Not I, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Then I would you were so honest a man. + +POLONIUS. +Honest, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Ay sir, to be honest, as this world goes, is to be one man picked out +of ten thousand. + +POLONIUS. +That’s very true, my lord. + +HAMLET. +For if the sun breed maggots in a dead dog, being a good kissing +carrion,— +Have you a daughter? + +POLONIUS. +I have, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Let her not walk i’ th’ sun. Conception is a blessing, but not as your +daughter may conceive. Friend, look to’t. + +POLONIUS. +How say you by that? [_Aside._] Still harping on my daughter. Yet he +knew me not at first; he said I was a fishmonger. He is far gone, far +gone. And truly in my youth I suffered much extremity for love; very +near this. I’ll speak to him again.—What do you read, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Words, words, words. + +POLONIUS. +What is the matter, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Between who? + +POLONIUS. +I mean the matter that you read, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Slanders, sir. For the satirical slave says here that old men have grey +beards; that their faces are wrinkled; their eyes purging thick amber +and plum-tree gum; and that they have a plentiful lack of wit, together +with most weak hams. All which, sir, though I most powerfully and +potently believe, yet I hold it not honesty to have it thus set down. +For you yourself, sir, should be old as I am, if like a crab you could +go backward. + +POLONIUS. +[_Aside._] Though this be madness, yet there is a method in’t.— +Will you walk out of the air, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Into my grave? + +POLONIUS. +Indeed, that is out o’ the air. [_Aside._] How pregnant sometimes his +replies are! A happiness that often madness hits on, which reason and +sanity could not so prosperously be delivered of. I will leave him and +suddenly contrive the means of meeting between him and my daughter. +My honourable lord, I will most humbly take my leave of you. + +HAMLET. +You cannot, sir, take from me anything that I will more willingly part +withal, except my life, except my life, except my life. + +POLONIUS. +Fare you well, my lord. + +HAMLET. +These tedious old fools. + + Enter Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +POLONIUS. +You go to seek the Lord Hamlet; there he is. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +[_To Polonius._] God save you, sir. + + [_Exit Polonius._] + +GUILDENSTERN. +My honoured lord! + +ROSENCRANTZ. +My most dear lord! + +HAMLET. +My excellent good friends! How dost thou, Guildenstern? Ah, +Rosencrantz. Good lads, how do ye both? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +As the indifferent children of the earth. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Happy in that we are not over-happy; +On Fortune’s cap we are not the very button. + +HAMLET. +Nor the soles of her shoe? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Neither, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Then you live about her waist, or in the middle of her favours? + +GUILDENSTERN. +Faith, her privates we. + +HAMLET. +In the secret parts of Fortune? O, most true; she is a strumpet. What’s +the news? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +None, my lord, but that the world’s grown honest. + +HAMLET. +Then is doomsday near. But your news is not true. Let me question more +in particular. What have you, my good friends, deserved at the hands of +Fortune, that she sends you to prison hither? + +GUILDENSTERN. +Prison, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Denmark’s a prison. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Then is the world one. + +HAMLET. +A goodly one; in which there are many confines, wards, and dungeons, +Denmark being one o’ th’ worst. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +We think not so, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Why, then ’tis none to you; for there is nothing either good or bad but +thinking makes it so. To me it is a prison. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Why, then your ambition makes it one; ’tis too narrow for your mind. + +HAMLET. +O God, I could be bounded in a nutshell, and count myself a king of +infinite space, were it not that I have bad dreams. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Which dreams, indeed, are ambition; for the very substance of the +ambitious is merely the shadow of a dream. + +HAMLET. +A dream itself is but a shadow. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Truly, and I hold ambition of so airy and light a quality that it is +but a shadow’s shadow. + +HAMLET. +Then are our beggars bodies, and our monarchs and outstretch’d heroes +the beggars’ shadows. Shall we to th’ court? For, by my fay, I cannot +reason. + +ROSENCRANTZ and GUILDENSTERN. +We’ll wait upon you. + +HAMLET. +No such matter. I will not sort you with the rest of my servants; for, +to speak to you like an honest man, I am most dreadfully attended. But, +in the beaten way of friendship, what make you at Elsinore? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +To visit you, my lord, no other occasion. + +HAMLET. +Beggar that I am, I am even poor in thanks; but I thank you. And sure, +dear friends, my thanks are too dear a halfpenny. Were you not sent +for? Is it your own inclining? Is it a free visitation? Come, deal +justly with me. Come, come; nay, speak. + +GUILDENSTERN. +What should we say, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Why, anything. But to the purpose. You were sent for; and there is a +kind of confession in your looks, which your modesties have not craft +enough to colour. I know the good King and Queen have sent for you. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +To what end, my lord? + +HAMLET. +That you must teach me. But let me conjure you, by the rights of our +fellowship, by the consonancy of our youth, by the obligation of our +ever-preserved love, and by what more dear a better proposer could +charge you withal, be even and direct with me, whether you were sent +for or no. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +[_To Guildenstern._] What say you? + +HAMLET. +[_Aside._] Nay, then I have an eye of you. If you love me, hold not +off. + +GUILDENSTERN. +My lord, we were sent for. + +HAMLET. +I will tell you why; so shall my anticipation prevent your discovery, +and your secrecy to the King and Queen moult no feather. I have of +late, but wherefore I know not, lost all my mirth, forgone all custom +of exercises; and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that +this goodly frame the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory; this +most excellent canopy the air, look you, this brave o’erhanging +firmament, this majestical roof fretted with golden fire, why, it +appears no other thing to me than a foul and pestilent congregation of +vapours. What a piece of work is man! How noble in reason? How infinite +in faculties, in form and moving, how express and admirable? In action +how like an angel? In apprehension, how like a god? The beauty of the +world, the paragon of animals. And yet, to me, what is this +quintessence of dust? Man delights not me; no, nor woman neither, +though by your smiling you seem to say so. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +My lord, there was no such stuff in my thoughts. + +HAMLET. +Why did you laugh then, when I said ‘Man delights not me’? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +To think, my lord, if you delight not in man, what Lenten entertainment +the players shall receive from you. We coted them on the way, and +hither are they coming to offer you service. + +HAMLET. +He that plays the king shall be welcome,—his Majesty shall have tribute +of me; the adventurous knight shall use his foil and target; the lover +shall not sigh gratis, the humorous man shall end his part in peace; +the clown shall make those laugh whose lungs are tickle a’ th’ sere; +and the lady shall say her mind freely, or the blank verse shall halt +for’t. What players are they? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Even those you were wont to take such delight in—the tragedians of the +city. + +HAMLET. +How chances it they travel? Their residence, both in reputation and +profit, was better both ways. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +I think their inhibition comes by the means of the late innovation. + +HAMLET. +Do they hold the same estimation they did when I was in the city? Are +they so followed? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +No, indeed, they are not. + +HAMLET. +How comes it? Do they grow rusty? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Nay, their endeavour keeps in the wonted pace; but there is, sir, an +ayry of children, little eyases, that cry out on the top of question, +and are most tyrannically clapped for’t. These are now the fashion, and +so berattle the common stages—so they call them—that many wearing +rapiers are afraid of goose-quills and dare scarce come thither. + +HAMLET. +What, are they children? Who maintains ’em? How are they escoted? Will +they pursue the quality no longer than they can sing? Will they not say +afterwards, if they should grow themselves to common players—as it is +most like, if their means are no better—their writers do them wrong to +make them exclaim against their own succession? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Faith, there has been much to do on both sides; and the nation holds it +no sin to tarre them to controversy. There was for a while, no money +bid for argument unless the poet and the player went to cuffs in the +question. + +HAMLET. +Is’t possible? + +GUILDENSTERN. +O, there has been much throwing about of brains. + +HAMLET. +Do the boys carry it away? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Ay, that they do, my lord. Hercules and his load too. + +HAMLET. +It is not very strange; for my uncle is King of Denmark, and those that +would make mouths at him while my father lived, give twenty, forty, +fifty, a hundred ducats apiece for his picture in little. ’Sblood, +there is something in this more than natural, if philosophy could find +it out. + + [_Flourish of trumpets within._] + +GUILDENSTERN. +There are the players. + +HAMLET. +Gentlemen, you are welcome to Elsinore. Your hands, come. The +appurtenance of welcome is fashion and ceremony. Let me comply with you +in this garb, lest my extent to the players, which I tell you must show +fairly outward, should more appear like entertainment than yours. You +are welcome. But my uncle-father and aunt-mother are deceived. + +GUILDENSTERN. +In what, my dear lord? + +HAMLET. +I am but mad north-north-west. When the wind is southerly, I know a +hawk from a handsaw. + + Enter Polonius. + +POLONIUS. +Well be with you, gentlemen. + +HAMLET. +Hark you, Guildenstern, and you too, at each ear a hearer. That great +baby you see there is not yet out of his swaddling clouts. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Happily he’s the second time come to them; for they say an old man is +twice a child. + +HAMLET. +I will prophesy he comes to tell me of the players. Mark it.—You say +right, sir: for a Monday morning ’twas so indeed. + +POLONIUS. +My lord, I have news to tell you. + +HAMLET. +My lord, I have news to tell you. When Roscius was an actor in Rome— + +POLONIUS. +The actors are come hither, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Buzz, buzz. + +POLONIUS. +Upon my honour. + +HAMLET. +Then came each actor on his ass— + +POLONIUS. +The best actors in the world, either for tragedy, comedy, history, +pastoral, pastoral-comical, historical-pastoral, tragical-historical, +tragical-comical-historical-pastoral, scene individable, or poem +unlimited. Seneca cannot be too heavy, nor Plautus too light, for the +law of writ and the liberty. These are the only men. + +HAMLET. +O Jephthah, judge of Israel, what a treasure hadst thou! + +POLONIUS. +What treasure had he, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Why— + ’One fair daughter, and no more, + The which he loved passing well.’ + +POLONIUS. +[_Aside._] Still on my daughter. + +HAMLET. +Am I not i’ th’ right, old Jephthah? + +POLONIUS. +If you call me Jephthah, my lord, I have a daughter that I love passing +well. + +HAMLET. +Nay, that follows not. + +POLONIUS. +What follows then, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Why, + As by lot, God wot, +and then, you know, + It came to pass, as most like it was. +The first row of the pious chanson will show you more. For look where +my abridgement comes. + + Enter four or five Players. + +You are welcome, masters, welcome all. I am glad to see thee well. +Welcome, good friends. O, my old friend! Thy face is valanc’d since I +saw thee last. Com’st thou to beard me in Denmark? What, my young lady +and mistress! By’r lady, your ladyship is nearer to heaven than when I +saw you last, by the altitude of a chopine. Pray God your voice, like a +piece of uncurrent gold, be not cracked within the ring. Masters, you +are all welcome. We’ll e’en to’t like French falconers, fly at anything +we see. We’ll have a speech straight. Come, give us a taste of your +quality. Come, a passionate speech. + +FIRST PLAYER. +What speech, my lord? + +HAMLET. +I heard thee speak me a speech once, but it was never acted, or if it +was, not above once, for the play, I remember, pleased not the million, +’twas caviare to the general. But it was—as I received it, and others, +whose judgments in such matters cried in the top of mine—an excellent +play, well digested in the scenes, set down with as much modesty as +cunning. I remember one said there were no sallets in the lines to make +the matter savoury, nor no matter in the phrase that might indite the +author of affectation, but called it an honest method, as wholesome as +sweet, and by very much more handsome than fine. One speech in it, I +chiefly loved. ’Twas Aeneas’ tale to Dido, and thereabout of it +especially where he speaks of Priam’s slaughter. If it live in your +memory, begin at this line, let me see, let me see: + _The rugged Pyrrhus, like th’ Hyrcanian beast,—_ +It is not so: it begins with Pyrrhus— + _The rugged Pyrrhus, he whose sable arms, + Black as his purpose, did the night resemble + When he lay couched in the ominous horse, + Hath now this dread and black complexion smear’d + With heraldry more dismal. Head to foot + Now is he total gules, horridly trick’d + With blood of fathers, mothers, daughters, sons, + Bak’d and impasted with the parching streets, + That lend a tyrannous and a damned light + To their vile murders. Roasted in wrath and fire, + And thus o’ersized with coagulate gore, + With eyes like carbuncles, the hellish Pyrrhus + Old grandsire Priam seeks._ +So, proceed you. + +POLONIUS. +’Fore God, my lord, well spoken, with good accent and good discretion. + +FIRST PLAYER. + _Anon he finds him, + Striking too short at Greeks. His antique sword, + Rebellious to his arm, lies where it falls, + Repugnant to command. Unequal match’d, + Pyrrhus at Priam drives, in rage strikes wide; + But with the whiff and wind of his fell sword + Th’unnerved father falls. Then senseless Ilium, + Seeming to feel this blow, with flaming top + Stoops to his base, and with a hideous crash + Takes prisoner Pyrrhus’ ear. For lo, his sword, + Which was declining on the milky head + Of reverend Priam, seem’d i’ th’air to stick. + So, as a painted tyrant, Pyrrhus stood, + And like a neutral to his will and matter, + Did nothing. + But as we often see against some storm, + A silence in the heavens, the rack stand still, + The bold winds speechless, and the orb below + As hush as death, anon the dreadful thunder + Doth rend the region; so after Pyrrhus’ pause, + Aroused vengeance sets him new a-work, + And never did the Cyclops’ hammers fall + On Mars’s armour, forg’d for proof eterne, + With less remorse than Pyrrhus’ bleeding sword + Now falls on Priam. + Out, out, thou strumpet Fortune! All you gods, + In general synod, take away her power; + Break all the spokes and fellies from her wheel, + And bowl the round nave down the hill of heaven, + As low as to the fiends._ + +POLONIUS. +This is too long. + +HAMLET. +It shall to the barber’s, with your beard.—Prythee say on. +He’s for a jig or a tale of bawdry, or he sleeps. +Say on; come to Hecuba. + +FIRST PLAYER. + _But who, O who, had seen the mobled queen,—_ + +HAMLET. +‘The mobled queen’? + +POLONIUS. +That’s good! ‘Mobled queen’ is good. + +FIRST PLAYER. + _Run barefoot up and down, threat’ning the flames + With bisson rheum. A clout upon that head + Where late the diadem stood, and for a robe, + About her lank and all o’erteemed loins, + A blanket, in th’alarm of fear caught up— + Who this had seen, with tongue in venom steep’d, + ’Gainst Fortune’s state would treason have pronounc’d. + But if the gods themselves did see her then, + When she saw Pyrrhus make malicious sport + In mincing with his sword her husband’s limbs, + The instant burst of clamour that she made,— + Unless things mortal move them not at all,— + Would have made milch the burning eyes of heaven, + And passion in the gods._ + +POLONIUS. +Look, where he has not turn’d his colour, and has tears in’s eyes. Pray +you, no more. + +HAMLET. +’Tis well. I’ll have thee speak out the rest of this soon.—Good my +lord, will you see the players well bestowed? Do you hear, let them be +well used; for they are the abstracts and brief chronicles of the time. +After your death you were better have a bad epitaph than their ill +report while you live. + +POLONIUS. +My lord, I will use them according to their desert. + +HAMLET. +God’s bodikin, man, better. Use every man after his desert, and who +should scape whipping? Use them after your own honour and dignity. The +less they deserve, the more merit is in your bounty. Take them in. + +POLONIUS. +Come, sirs. + +HAMLET. +Follow him, friends. We’ll hear a play tomorrow. + + [_Exeunt Polonius with all the Players but the First._] + +Dost thou hear me, old friend? Can you play _The Murder of Gonzago_? + +FIRST PLAYER. +Ay, my lord. + +HAMLET. +We’ll ha’t tomorrow night. You could for a need study a speech of some +dozen or sixteen lines, which I would set down and insert in’t, could +you not? + +FIRST PLAYER. +Ay, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Very well. Follow that lord, and look you mock him not. + + [_Exit First Player._] + +[_To Rosencrantz and Guildenstern_] My good friends, I’ll leave you +till night. You are welcome to Elsinore. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Good my lord. + + [_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._] + +HAMLET. +Ay, so, God b’ wi’ ye. Now I am alone. +O what a rogue and peasant slave am I! +Is it not monstrous that this player here, +But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, +Could force his soul so to his own conceit +That from her working all his visage wan’d; +Tears in his eyes, distraction in’s aspect, +A broken voice, and his whole function suiting +With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing! +For Hecuba? +What’s Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba, +That he should weep for her? What would he do, +Had he the motive and the cue for passion +That I have? He would drown the stage with tears +And cleave the general ear with horrid speech; +Make mad the guilty, and appal the free, +Confound the ignorant, and amaze indeed, +The very faculties of eyes and ears. Yet I, +A dull and muddy-mettled rascal, peak +Like John-a-dreams, unpregnant of my cause, +And can say nothing. No, not for a king +Upon whose property and most dear life +A damn’d defeat was made. Am I a coward? +Who calls me villain, breaks my pate across? +Plucks off my beard and blows it in my face? +Tweaks me by the nose, gives me the lie i’ th’ throat +As deep as to the lungs? Who does me this? +Ha! ’Swounds, I should take it: for it cannot be +But I am pigeon-liver’d, and lack gall +To make oppression bitter, or ere this +I should have fatted all the region kites +With this slave’s offal. Bloody, bawdy villain! +Remorseless, treacherous, lecherous, kindless villain! +Oh vengeance! +Why, what an ass am I! This is most brave, +That I, the son of a dear father murder’d, +Prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell, +Must, like a whore, unpack my heart with words +And fall a-cursing like a very drab, +A scullion! Fie upon’t! Foh! +About, my brain! I have heard +That guilty creatures sitting at a play, +Have by the very cunning of the scene, +Been struck so to the soul that presently +They have proclaim’d their malefactions. +For murder, though it have no tongue, will speak +With most miraculous organ. I’ll have these players +Play something like the murder of my father +Before mine uncle. I’ll observe his looks; +I’ll tent him to the quick. If he but blench, +I know my course. The spirit that I have seen +May be the devil, and the devil hath power +T’assume a pleasing shape, yea, and perhaps +Out of my weakness and my melancholy, +As he is very potent with such spirits, +Abuses me to damn me. I’ll have grounds +More relative than this. The play’s the thing +Wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the King. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. A room in the Castle. + + Enter King, Queen, Polonius, Ophelia, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +KING. +And can you by no drift of circumstance +Get from him why he puts on this confusion, +Grating so harshly all his days of quiet +With turbulent and dangerous lunacy? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +He does confess he feels himself distracted, +But from what cause he will by no means speak. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Nor do we find him forward to be sounded, +But with a crafty madness keeps aloof +When we would bring him on to some confession +Of his true state. + +QUEEN. +Did he receive you well? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Most like a gentleman. + +GUILDENSTERN. +But with much forcing of his disposition. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Niggard of question, but of our demands, +Most free in his reply. + +QUEEN. +Did you assay him to any pastime? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Madam, it so fell out that certain players +We o’er-raught on the way. Of these we told him, +And there did seem in him a kind of joy +To hear of it. They are about the court, +And, as I think, they have already order +This night to play before him. + +POLONIUS. +’Tis most true; +And he beseech’d me to entreat your Majesties +To hear and see the matter. + +KING. +With all my heart; and it doth much content me +To hear him so inclin’d. +Good gentlemen, give him a further edge, +And drive his purpose on to these delights. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +We shall, my lord. + + [_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._] + +KING. +Sweet Gertrude, leave us too, +For we have closely sent for Hamlet hither, +That he, as ’twere by accident, may here +Affront Ophelia. +Her father and myself, lawful espials, +Will so bestow ourselves that, seeing unseen, +We may of their encounter frankly judge, +And gather by him, as he is behav’d, +If’t be th’affliction of his love or no +That thus he suffers for. + +QUEEN. +I shall obey you. +And for your part, Ophelia, I do wish +That your good beauties be the happy cause +Of Hamlet’s wildness: so shall I hope your virtues +Will bring him to his wonted way again, +To both your honours. + +OPHELIA. +Madam, I wish it may. + + [_Exit Queen._] + +POLONIUS. +Ophelia, walk you here.—Gracious, so please you, +We will bestow ourselves.—[_To Ophelia._] Read on this book, +That show of such an exercise may colour +Your loneliness.—We are oft to blame in this, +’Tis too much prov’d, that with devotion’s visage +And pious action we do sugar o’er +The devil himself. + +KING. +[_Aside._] O ’tis too true! +How smart a lash that speech doth give my conscience! +The harlot’s cheek, beautied with plastering art, +Is not more ugly to the thing that helps it +Than is my deed to my most painted word. +O heavy burden! + +POLONIUS. +I hear him coming. Let’s withdraw, my lord. + + [_Exeunt King and Polonius._] + + Enter Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +To be, or not to be, that is the question: +Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer +The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, +Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, +And by opposing end them? To die—to sleep, +No more; and by a sleep to say we end +The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks +That flesh is heir to: ’tis a consummation +Devoutly to be wish’d. To die, to sleep. +To sleep, perchance to dream—ay, there’s the rub, +For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, +When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, +Must give us pause. There’s the respect +That makes calamity of so long life. +For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, +The oppressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely, +The pangs of dispriz’d love, the law’s delay, +The insolence of office, and the spurns +That patient merit of the unworthy takes, +When he himself might his quietus make +With a bare bodkin? Who would these fardels bear, +To grunt and sweat under a weary life, +But that the dread of something after death, +The undiscover’d country, from whose bourn +No traveller returns, puzzles the will, +And makes us rather bear those ills we have +Than fly to others that we know not of? +Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, +And thus the native hue of resolution +Is sicklied o’er with the pale cast of thought, +And enterprises of great pith and moment, +With this regard their currents turn awry +And lose the name of action. Soft you now, +The fair Ophelia! Nymph, in thy orisons +Be all my sins remember’d. + +OPHELIA. +Good my lord, +How does your honour for this many a day? + +HAMLET. +I humbly thank you; well, well, well. + +OPHELIA. +My lord, I have remembrances of yours +That I have longed long to re-deliver. +I pray you, now receive them. + +HAMLET. +No, not I. +I never gave you aught. + +OPHELIA. +My honour’d lord, you know right well you did, +And with them words of so sweet breath compos’d +As made the things more rich; their perfume lost, +Take these again; for to the noble mind +Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. +There, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Ha, ha! Are you honest? + +OPHELIA. +My lord? + +HAMLET. +Are you fair? + +OPHELIA. +What means your lordship? + +HAMLET. +That if you be honest and fair, your honesty should admit no discourse +to your beauty. + +OPHELIA. +Could beauty, my lord, have better commerce than with honesty? + +HAMLET. +Ay, truly; for the power of beauty will sooner transform honesty from +what it is to a bawd than the force of honesty can translate beauty +into his likeness. This was sometime a paradox, but now the time gives +it proof. I did love you once. + +OPHELIA. +Indeed, my lord, you made me believe so. + +HAMLET. +You should not have believed me; for virtue cannot so inoculate our old +stock but we shall relish of it. I loved you not. + +OPHELIA. +I was the more deceived. + +HAMLET. +Get thee to a nunnery. Why wouldst thou be a breeder of sinners? I am +myself indifferent honest; but yet I could accuse me of such things +that it were better my mother had not borne me. I am very proud, +revengeful, ambitious, with more offences at my beck than I have +thoughts to put them in, imagination to give them shape, or time to act +them in. What should such fellows as I do crawling between earth and +heaven? We are arrant knaves all, believe none of us. Go thy ways to a +nunnery. Where’s your father? + +OPHELIA. +At home, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Let the doors be shut upon him, that he may play the fool nowhere but +in’s own house. Farewell. + +OPHELIA. +O help him, you sweet heavens! + +HAMLET. +If thou dost marry, I’ll give thee this plague for thy dowry. Be thou +as chaste as ice, as pure as snow, thou shalt not escape calumny. Get +thee to a nunnery, go: farewell. Or if thou wilt needs marry, marry a +fool; for wise men know well enough what monsters you make of them. To +a nunnery, go; and quickly too. Farewell. + +OPHELIA. +O heavenly powers, restore him! + +HAMLET. +I have heard of your paintings too, well enough. God hath given you one +face, and you make yourselves another. You jig, you amble, and you +lisp, and nickname God’s creatures, and make your wantonness your +ignorance. Go to, I’ll no more on’t, it hath made me mad. I say, we +will have no more marriages. Those that are married already, all but +one, shall live; the rest shall keep as they are. To a nunnery, go. + + [_Exit._] + +OPHELIA. +O, what a noble mind is here o’erthrown! +The courtier’s, soldier’s, scholar’s, eye, tongue, sword, +Th’expectancy and rose of the fair state, +The glass of fashion and the mould of form, +Th’observ’d of all observers, quite, quite down! +And I, of ladies most deject and wretched, +That suck’d the honey of his music vows, +Now see that noble and most sovereign reason, +Like sweet bells jangled out of tune and harsh, +That unmatch’d form and feature of blown youth +Blasted with ecstasy. O woe is me, +T’have seen what I have seen, see what I see. + + Enter King and Polonius. + +KING. +Love? His affections do not that way tend, +Nor what he spake, though it lack’d form a little, +Was not like madness. There’s something in his soul +O’er which his melancholy sits on brood, +And I do doubt the hatch and the disclose +Will be some danger, which for to prevent, +I have in quick determination +Thus set it down: he shall with speed to England +For the demand of our neglected tribute: +Haply the seas and countries different, +With variable objects, shall expel +This something settled matter in his heart, +Whereon his brains still beating puts him thus +From fashion of himself. What think you on’t? + +POLONIUS. +It shall do well. But yet do I believe +The origin and commencement of his grief +Sprung from neglected love. How now, Ophelia? +You need not tell us what Lord Hamlet said, +We heard it all. My lord, do as you please, +But if you hold it fit, after the play, +Let his queen mother all alone entreat him +To show his grief, let her be round with him, +And I’ll be plac’d, so please you, in the ear +Of all their conference. If she find him not, +To England send him; or confine him where +Your wisdom best shall think. + +KING. +It shall be so. +Madness in great ones must not unwatch’d go. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A hall in the Castle. + + Enter Hamlet and certain Players. + +HAMLET. +Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on +the tongue. But if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as +lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much +with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, +tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of passion, you must acquire and +beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. O, it offends me to the +soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to +tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who, for +the most part, are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb shows and +noise. I would have such a fellow whipped for o’erdoing Termagant. It +out-Herods Herod. Pray you avoid it. + +FIRST PLAYER. +I warrant your honour. + +HAMLET. +Be not too tame neither; but let your own discretion be your tutor. +Suit the action to the word, the word to the action, with this special +observance, that you o’erstep not the modesty of nature; for anything +so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the +first and now, was and is, to hold as ’twere the mirror up to nature; +to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age +and body of the time his form and pressure. Now, this overdone, or come +tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the +judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance +o’erweigh a whole theatre of others. O, there be players that I have +seen play—and heard others praise, and that highly—not to speak it +profanely, that, neither having the accent of Christians, nor the gait +of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted and bellowed that I have +thought some of Nature’s journeymen had made men, and not made them +well, they imitated humanity so abominably. + +FIRST PLAYER. +I hope we have reform’d that indifferently with us, sir. + +HAMLET. +O reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak no +more than is set down for them. For there be of them that will +themselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh +too, though in the meantime some necessary question of the play be then +to be considered. That’s villanous, and shows a most pitiful ambition +in the fool that uses it. Go make you ready. + + [_Exeunt Players._] + + Enter Polonius, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +How now, my lord? +Will the King hear this piece of work? + +POLONIUS. +And the Queen too, and that presently. + +HAMLET. +Bid the players make haste. + + [_Exit Polonius._] + +Will you two help to hasten them? + +ROSENCRANTZ and GUILDENSTERN. +We will, my lord. + + [_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._] + +HAMLET. +What ho, Horatio! + + Enter Horatio. + +HORATIO. +Here, sweet lord, at your service. + +HAMLET. +Horatio, thou art e’en as just a man +As e’er my conversation cop’d withal. + +HORATIO. +O my dear lord. + +HAMLET. +Nay, do not think I flatter; +For what advancement may I hope from thee, +That no revenue hast, but thy good spirits +To feed and clothe thee? Why should the poor be flatter’d? +No, let the candied tongue lick absurd pomp, +And crook the pregnant hinges of the knee +Where thrift may follow fawning. Dost thou hear? +Since my dear soul was mistress of her choice, +And could of men distinguish, her election +Hath seal’d thee for herself. For thou hast been +As one, in suffering all, that suffers nothing, +A man that Fortune’s buffets and rewards +Hast ta’en with equal thanks. And bles’d are those +Whose blood and judgment are so well co-mingled +That they are not a pipe for Fortune’s finger +To sound what stop she please. Give me that man +That is not passion’s slave, and I will wear him +In my heart’s core, ay, in my heart of heart, +As I do thee. Something too much of this. +There is a play tonight before the King. +One scene of it comes near the circumstance +Which I have told thee, of my father’s death. +I prythee, when thou see’st that act a-foot, +Even with the very comment of thy soul +Observe mine uncle. If his occulted guilt +Do not itself unkennel in one speech, +It is a damned ghost that we have seen; +And my imaginations are as foul +As Vulcan’s stithy. Give him heedful note; +For I mine eyes will rivet to his face; +And after we will both our judgments join +In censure of his seeming. + +HORATIO. +Well, my lord. +If he steal aught the whilst this play is playing, +And scape detecting, I will pay the theft. + +HAMLET. +They are coming to the play. I must be idle. +Get you a place. + + Danish march. A flourish. Enter King, Queen, Polonius, Ophelia, + Rosencrantz, Guildenstern and others. + +KING. +How fares our cousin Hamlet? + +HAMLET. +Excellent, i’ faith; of the chameleon’s dish: I eat the air, +promise-crammed: you cannot feed capons so. + +KING. +I have nothing with this answer, Hamlet; these words are not mine. + +HAMLET. +No, nor mine now. [_To Polonius._] My lord, you play’d once i’ +th’university, you say? + +POLONIUS. +That did I, my lord, and was accounted a good actor. + +HAMLET. +What did you enact? + +POLONIUS. +I did enact Julius Caesar. I was kill’d i’ th’ Capitol. Brutus killed +me. + +HAMLET. +It was a brute part of him to kill so capital a calf there. Be the +players ready? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Ay, my lord; they stay upon your patience. + +QUEEN. +Come hither, my dear Hamlet, sit by me. + +HAMLET. +No, good mother, here’s metal more attractive. + +POLONIUS. +[_To the King._] O ho! do you mark that? + +HAMLET. +Lady, shall I lie in your lap? + + [_Lying down at Ophelia’s feet._] + +OPHELIA. +No, my lord. + +HAMLET. +I mean, my head upon your lap? + +OPHELIA. +Ay, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Do you think I meant country matters? + +OPHELIA. +I think nothing, my lord. + +HAMLET. +That’s a fair thought to lie between maids’ legs. + +OPHELIA. +What is, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Nothing. + +OPHELIA. +You are merry, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Who, I? + +OPHELIA. +Ay, my lord. + +HAMLET. +O God, your only jig-maker! What should a man do but be merry? For look +you how cheerfully my mother looks, and my father died within’s two +hours. + +OPHELIA. +Nay, ’tis twice two months, my lord. + +HAMLET. +So long? Nay then, let the devil wear black, for I’ll have a suit of +sables. O heavens! die two months ago, and not forgotten yet? Then +there’s hope a great man’s memory may outlive his life half a year. But +by’r lady, he must build churches then; or else shall he suffer not +thinking on, with the hobby-horse, whose epitaph is ‘For, O, for O, the +hobby-horse is forgot!’ + + Trumpets sound. The dumb show enters. + +_Enter a King and a Queen very lovingly; the Queen embracing him and he +her. She kneels, and makes show of protestation unto him. He takes her +up, and declines his head upon her neck. Lays him down upon a bank of +flowers. She, seeing him asleep, leaves him. Anon comes in a fellow, +takes off his crown, kisses it, pours poison in the King’s ears, and +exits. The Queen returns, finds the King dead, and makes passionate +action. The Poisoner with some three or four Mutes, comes in again, +seeming to lament with her. The dead body is carried away. The Poisoner +woos the Queen with gifts. She seems loth and unwilling awhile, but in +the end accepts his love._ + + [_Exeunt._] + +OPHELIA. +What means this, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Marry, this is miching mallicho; it means mischief. + +OPHELIA. +Belike this show imports the argument of the play. + + Enter Prologue. + +HAMLET. +We shall know by this fellow: the players cannot keep counsel; they’ll +tell all. + +OPHELIA. +Will they tell us what this show meant? + +HAMLET. +Ay, or any show that you’ll show him. Be not you ashamed to show, he’ll +not shame to tell you what it means. + +OPHELIA. +You are naught, you are naught: I’ll mark the play. + +PROLOGUE. + _For us, and for our tragedy, + Here stooping to your clemency, + We beg your hearing patiently._ + +HAMLET. +Is this a prologue, or the posy of a ring? + +OPHELIA. +’Tis brief, my lord. + +HAMLET. +As woman’s love. + + Enter a King and a Queen. + +PLAYER KING. +Full thirty times hath Phoebus’ cart gone round +Neptune’s salt wash and Tellus’ orbed ground, +And thirty dozen moons with borrow’d sheen +About the world have times twelve thirties been, +Since love our hearts, and Hymen did our hands +Unite commutual in most sacred bands. + +PLAYER QUEEN. +So many journeys may the sun and moon +Make us again count o’er ere love be done. +But, woe is me, you are so sick of late, +So far from cheer and from your former state, +That I distrust you. Yet, though I distrust, +Discomfort you, my lord, it nothing must: +For women’s fear and love holds quantity, +In neither aught, or in extremity. +Now what my love is, proof hath made you know, +And as my love is siz’d, my fear is so. +Where love is great, the littlest doubts are fear; +Where little fears grow great, great love grows there. + +PLAYER KING. +Faith, I must leave thee, love, and shortly too: +My operant powers their functions leave to do: +And thou shalt live in this fair world behind, +Honour’d, belov’d, and haply one as kind +For husband shalt thou— + +PLAYER QUEEN. +O confound the rest. +Such love must needs be treason in my breast. +In second husband let me be accurst! +None wed the second but who kill’d the first. + +HAMLET. +[_Aside._] Wormwood, wormwood. + +PLAYER QUEEN. +The instances that second marriage move +Are base respects of thrift, but none of love. +A second time I kill my husband dead, +When second husband kisses me in bed. + +PLAYER KING. +I do believe you think what now you speak; +But what we do determine, oft we break. +Purpose is but the slave to memory, +Of violent birth, but poor validity: +Which now, like fruit unripe, sticks on the tree, +But fall unshaken when they mellow be. +Most necessary ’tis that we forget +To pay ourselves what to ourselves is debt. +What to ourselves in passion we propose, +The passion ending, doth the purpose lose. +The violence of either grief or joy +Their own enactures with themselves destroy. +Where joy most revels, grief doth most lament; +Grief joys, joy grieves, on slender accident. +This world is not for aye; nor ’tis not strange +That even our loves should with our fortunes change, +For ’tis a question left us yet to prove, +Whether love lead fortune, or else fortune love. +The great man down, you mark his favourite flies, +The poor advanc’d makes friends of enemies; +And hitherto doth love on fortune tend: +For who not needs shall never lack a friend, +And who in want a hollow friend doth try, +Directly seasons him his enemy. +But orderly to end where I begun, +Our wills and fates do so contrary run +That our devices still are overthrown. +Our thoughts are ours, their ends none of our own. +So think thou wilt no second husband wed, +But die thy thoughts when thy first lord is dead. + +PLAYER QUEEN. +Nor earth to me give food, nor heaven light, +Sport and repose lock from me day and night, +To desperation turn my trust and hope, +An anchor’s cheer in prison be my scope, +Each opposite that blanks the face of joy, +Meet what I would have well, and it destroy! +Both here and hence pursue me lasting strife, +If, once a widow, ever I be wife. + +HAMLET. +[_To Ophelia._] If she should break it now. + +PLAYER KING. +’Tis deeply sworn. Sweet, leave me here awhile. +My spirits grow dull, and fain I would beguile +The tedious day with sleep. +[_Sleeps._] + +PLAYER QUEEN. +Sleep rock thy brain, +And never come mischance between us twain. + + [_Exit._] + +HAMLET. +Madam, how like you this play? + +QUEEN. +The lady protests too much, methinks. + +HAMLET. +O, but she’ll keep her word. + +KING. +Have you heard the argument? Is there no offence in’t? + +HAMLET. +No, no, they do but jest, poison in jest; no offence i’ th’ world. + +KING. +What do you call the play? + +HAMLET. +_The Mousetrap._ Marry, how? Tropically. This play is the image of a +murder done in Vienna. Gonzago is the Duke’s name, his wife Baptista: +you shall see anon; ’tis a knavish piece of work: but what o’ that? +Your majesty, and we that have free souls, it touches us not. Let the +gall’d jade wince; our withers are unwrung. + + Enter Lucianus. + +This is one Lucianus, nephew to the King. + +OPHELIA. +You are a good chorus, my lord. + +HAMLET. +I could interpret between you and your love, if I could see the puppets +dallying. + +OPHELIA. +You are keen, my lord, you are keen. + +HAMLET. +It would cost you a groaning to take off my edge. + +OPHELIA. +Still better, and worse. + +HAMLET. +So you mistake your husbands.—Begin, murderer. Pox, leave thy damnable +faces, and begin. Come, the croaking raven doth bellow for revenge. + +LUCIANUS. +Thoughts black, hands apt, drugs fit, and time agreeing, +Confederate season, else no creature seeing; +Thou mixture rank, of midnight weeds collected, +With Hecate’s ban thrice blasted, thrice infected, +Thy natural magic and dire property +On wholesome life usurp immediately. + + [_Pours the poison into the sleeper’s ears._] + +HAMLET. +He poisons him i’ th’garden for’s estate. His name’s Gonzago. The story +is extant, and written in very choice Italian. You shall see anon how +the murderer gets the love of Gonzago’s wife. + +OPHELIA. +The King rises. + +HAMLET. +What, frighted with false fire? + +QUEEN. +How fares my lord? + +POLONIUS. +Give o’er the play. + +KING. +Give me some light. Away. + +All. +Lights, lights, lights. + + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet and Horatio._] + +HAMLET. + Why, let the strucken deer go weep, + The hart ungalled play; + For some must watch, while some must sleep, + So runs the world away. +Would not this, sir, and a forest of feathers, if the rest of my +fortunes turn Turk with me; with two Provincial roses on my razed +shoes, get me a fellowship in a cry of players, sir? + +HORATIO. +Half a share. + +HAMLET. +A whole one, I. + For thou dost know, O Damon dear, + This realm dismantled was + Of Jove himself, and now reigns here + A very, very—pajock. + +HORATIO. +You might have rhymed. + +HAMLET. +O good Horatio, I’ll take the ghost’s word for a thousand pound. Didst +perceive? + +HORATIO. +Very well, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Upon the talk of the poisoning? + +HORATIO. +I did very well note him. + +HAMLET. +Ah, ha! Come, some music. Come, the recorders. + For if the king like not the comedy, + Why then, belike he likes it not, perdie. +Come, some music. + + Enter Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Good my lord, vouchsafe me a word with you. + +HAMLET. +Sir, a whole history. + +GUILDENSTERN. +The King, sir— + +HAMLET. +Ay, sir, what of him? + +GUILDENSTERN. +Is in his retirement, marvellous distempered. + +HAMLET. +With drink, sir? + +GUILDENSTERN. +No, my lord; rather with choler. + +HAMLET. +Your wisdom should show itself more richer to signify this to the +doctor, for me to put him to his purgation would perhaps plunge him +into far more choler. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Good my lord, put your discourse into some frame, and start not so +wildly from my affair. + +HAMLET. +I am tame, sir, pronounce. + +GUILDENSTERN. +The Queen your mother, in most great affliction of spirit, hath sent me +to you. + +HAMLET. +You are welcome. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Nay, good my lord, this courtesy is not of the right breed. If it shall +please you to make me a wholesome answer, I will do your mother’s +commandment; if not, your pardon and my return shall be the end of my +business. + +HAMLET. +Sir, I cannot. + +GUILDENSTERN. +What, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Make you a wholesome answer. My wit’s diseased. But, sir, such answer +as I can make, you shall command; or rather, as you say, my mother. +Therefore no more, but to the matter. My mother, you say,— + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Then thus she says: your behaviour hath struck her into amazement and +admiration. + +HAMLET. +O wonderful son, that can so stonish a mother! But is there no sequel +at the heels of this mother’s admiration? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +She desires to speak with you in her closet ere you go to bed. + +HAMLET. +We shall obey, were she ten times our mother. Have you any further +trade with us? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +My lord, you once did love me. + +HAMLET. +And so I do still, by these pickers and stealers. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Good my lord, what is your cause of distemper? You do surely bar the +door upon your own liberty if you deny your griefs to your friend. + +HAMLET. +Sir, I lack advancement. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +How can that be, when you have the voice of the King himself for your +succession in Denmark? + +HAMLET. +Ay, sir, but while the grass grows—the proverb is something musty. + + Re-enter the Players with recorders. + +O, the recorders. Let me see one.—To withdraw with you, why do you go +about to recover the wind of me, as if you would drive me into a toil? + +GUILDENSTERN. +O my lord, if my duty be too bold, my love is too unmannerly. + +HAMLET. +I do not well understand that. Will you play upon this pipe? + +GUILDENSTERN. +My lord, I cannot. + +HAMLET. +I pray you. + +GUILDENSTERN. +Believe me, I cannot. + +HAMLET. +I do beseech you. + +GUILDENSTERN. +I know no touch of it, my lord. + +HAMLET. +’Tis as easy as lying: govern these ventages with your finger and +thumb, give it breath with your mouth, and it will discourse most +eloquent music. Look you, these are the stops. + +GUILDENSTERN. +But these cannot I command to any utterance of harmony. I have not the +skill. + +HAMLET. +Why, look you now, how unworthy a thing you make of me! You would play +upon me; you would seem to know my stops; you would pluck out the heart +of my mystery; you would sound me from my lowest note to the top of my +compass; and there is much music, excellent voice, in this little +organ, yet cannot you make it speak. ’Sblood, do you think I am easier +to be played on than a pipe? Call me what instrument you will, though +you can fret me, you cannot play upon me. + + Enter Polonius. + +God bless you, sir. + +POLONIUS. +My lord, the Queen would speak with you, and presently. + +HAMLET. +Do you see yonder cloud that’s almost in shape of a camel? + +POLONIUS. +By the mass, and ’tis like a camel indeed. + +HAMLET. +Methinks it is like a weasel. + +POLONIUS. +It is backed like a weasel. + +HAMLET. +Or like a whale. + +POLONIUS. +Very like a whale. + +HAMLET. +Then will I come to my mother by and by.—They fool me to the top of my +bent.—I will come by and by. + +POLONIUS. +I will say so. + + [_Exit._] + +HAMLET. +By and by is easily said. Leave me, friends. + + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet._] + +’Tis now the very witching time of night, +When churchyards yawn, and hell itself breathes out +Contagion to this world. Now could I drink hot blood, +And do such bitter business as the day +Would quake to look on. Soft now, to my mother. +O heart, lose not thy nature; let not ever +The soul of Nero enter this firm bosom: +Let me be cruel, not unnatural. +I will speak daggers to her, but use none; +My tongue and soul in this be hypocrites. +How in my words somever she be shent, +To give them seals never, my soul, consent. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. A room in the Castle. + + Enter King, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +KING. +I like him not, nor stands it safe with us +To let his madness range. Therefore prepare you, +I your commission will forthwith dispatch, +And he to England shall along with you. +The terms of our estate may not endure +Hazard so near us as doth hourly grow +Out of his lunacies. + +GUILDENSTERN. +We will ourselves provide. +Most holy and religious fear it is +To keep those many many bodies safe +That live and feed upon your Majesty. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +The single and peculiar life is bound +With all the strength and armour of the mind, +To keep itself from ’noyance; but much more +That spirit upon whose weal depend and rest +The lives of many. The cease of majesty +Dies not alone; but like a gulf doth draw +What’s near it with it. It is a massy wheel +Fix’d on the summit of the highest mount, +To whose huge spokes ten thousand lesser things +Are mortis’d and adjoin’d; which when it falls, +Each small annexment, petty consequence, +Attends the boist’rous ruin. Never alone +Did the King sigh, but with a general groan. + +KING. +Arm you, I pray you, to this speedy voyage; +For we will fetters put upon this fear, +Which now goes too free-footed. + +ROSENCRANTZ and GUILDENSTERN. +We will haste us. + + [_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._] + + Enter Polonius. + +POLONIUS. +My lord, he’s going to his mother’s closet. +Behind the arras I’ll convey myself +To hear the process. I’ll warrant she’ll tax him home, +And as you said, and wisely was it said, +’Tis meet that some more audience than a mother, +Since nature makes them partial, should o’erhear +The speech of vantage. Fare you well, my liege, +I’ll call upon you ere you go to bed, +And tell you what I know. + +KING. +Thanks, dear my lord. + + [_Exit Polonius._] + +O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven; +It hath the primal eldest curse upon’t,— +A brother’s murder! Pray can I not, +Though inclination be as sharp as will: +My stronger guilt defeats my strong intent, +And, like a man to double business bound, +I stand in pause where I shall first begin, +And both neglect. What if this cursed hand +Were thicker than itself with brother’s blood, +Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens +To wash it white as snow? Whereto serves mercy +But to confront the visage of offence? +And what’s in prayer but this twofold force, +To be forestalled ere we come to fall, +Or pardon’d being down? Then I’ll look up. +My fault is past. But O, what form of prayer +Can serve my turn? Forgive me my foul murder! +That cannot be; since I am still possess’d +Of those effects for which I did the murder,— +My crown, mine own ambition, and my queen. +May one be pardon’d and retain th’offence? +In the corrupted currents of this world +Offence’s gilded hand may shove by justice, +And oft ’tis seen the wicked prize itself +Buys out the law. But ’tis not so above; +There is no shuffling, there the action lies +In his true nature, and we ourselves compell’d +Even to the teeth and forehead of our faults, +To give in evidence. What then? What rests? +Try what repentance can. What can it not? +Yet what can it, when one cannot repent? +O wretched state! O bosom black as death! +O limed soul, that struggling to be free, +Art more engag’d! Help, angels! Make assay: +Bow, stubborn knees; and heart with strings of steel, +Be soft as sinews of the new-born babe. +All may be well. + + [_Retires and kneels._] + + Enter Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +Now might I do it pat, now he is praying. +And now I’ll do’t. And so he goes to heaven; +And so am I reveng’d. That would be scann’d: +A villain kills my father, and for that +I, his sole son, do this same villain send +To heaven. O, this is hire and salary, not revenge. +He took my father grossly, full of bread, +With all his crimes broad blown, as flush as May; +And how his audit stands, who knows save heaven? +But in our circumstance and course of thought, +’Tis heavy with him. And am I then reveng’d, +To take him in the purging of his soul, +When he is fit and season’d for his passage? No. +Up, sword, and know thou a more horrid hent: +When he is drunk asleep; or in his rage, +Or in th’incestuous pleasure of his bed, +At gaming, swearing; or about some act +That has no relish of salvation in’t, +Then trip him, that his heels may kick at heaven, +And that his soul may be as damn’d and black +As hell, whereto it goes. My mother stays. +This physic but prolongs thy sickly days. + + [_Exit._] + + The King rises and advances. + +KING. +My words fly up, my thoughts remain below. +Words without thoughts never to heaven go. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Another room in the Castle. + + Enter Queen and Polonius. + +POLONIUS. +He will come straight. Look you lay home to him, +Tell him his pranks have been too broad to bear with, +And that your Grace hath screen’d and stood between +Much heat and him. I’ll silence me e’en here. +Pray you be round with him. + +HAMLET. +[_Within._] Mother, mother, mother. + +QUEEN. +I’ll warrant you, Fear me not. +Withdraw, I hear him coming. + + [_Polonius goes behind the arras._] + + Enter Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +Now, mother, what’s the matter? + +QUEEN. +Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. + +HAMLET. +Mother, you have my father much offended. + +QUEEN. +Come, come, you answer with an idle tongue. + +HAMLET. +Go, go, you question with a wicked tongue. + +QUEEN. +Why, how now, Hamlet? + +HAMLET. +What’s the matter now? + +QUEEN. +Have you forgot me? + +HAMLET. +No, by the rood, not so. +You are the Queen, your husband’s brother’s wife, +And, would it were not so. You are my mother. + +QUEEN. +Nay, then I’ll set those to you that can speak. + +HAMLET. +Come, come, and sit you down, you shall not budge. +You go not till I set you up a glass +Where you may see the inmost part of you. + +QUEEN. +What wilt thou do? Thou wilt not murder me? +Help, help, ho! + +POLONIUS. +[_Behind._] What, ho! help, help, help! + +HAMLET. +How now? A rat? [_Draws._] +Dead for a ducat, dead! + + [_Makes a pass through the arras._] + +POLONIUS. +[_Behind._] O, I am slain! + + [_Falls and dies._] + +QUEEN. +O me, what hast thou done? + +HAMLET. +Nay, I know not. is it the King? + + [_Draws forth Polonius._] + +QUEEN. +O what a rash and bloody deed is this! + +HAMLET. +A bloody deed. Almost as bad, good mother, +As kill a king and marry with his brother. + +QUEEN. +As kill a king? + +HAMLET. +Ay, lady, ’twas my word.— +[_To Polonius._] Thou wretched, rash, intruding fool, farewell! +I took thee for thy better. Take thy fortune, +Thou find’st to be too busy is some danger.— +Leave wringing of your hands. Peace, sit you down, +And let me wring your heart, for so I shall, +If it be made of penetrable stuff; +If damned custom have not braz’d it so, +That it is proof and bulwark against sense. + +QUEEN. +What have I done, that thou dar’st wag thy tongue +In noise so rude against me? + +HAMLET. +Such an act +That blurs the grace and blush of modesty, +Calls virtue hypocrite, takes off the rose +From the fair forehead of an innocent love, +And sets a blister there. Makes marriage vows +As false as dicers’ oaths. O such a deed +As from the body of contraction plucks +The very soul, and sweet religion makes +A rhapsody of words. Heaven’s face doth glow, +Yea this solidity and compound mass, +With tristful visage, as against the doom, +Is thought-sick at the act. + +QUEEN. +Ay me, what act, +That roars so loud, and thunders in the index? + +HAMLET. +Look here upon this picture, and on this, +The counterfeit presentment of two brothers. +See what a grace was seated on this brow, +Hyperion’s curls, the front of Jove himself, +An eye like Mars, to threaten and command, +A station like the herald Mercury +New lighted on a heaven-kissing hill: +A combination and a form indeed, +Where every god did seem to set his seal, +To give the world assurance of a man. +This was your husband. Look you now what follows. +Here is your husband, like a mildew’d ear +Blasting his wholesome brother. Have you eyes? +Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed, +And batten on this moor? Ha! have you eyes? +You cannot call it love; for at your age +The hey-day in the blood is tame, it’s humble, +And waits upon the judgment: and what judgment +Would step from this to this? Sense sure you have, +Else could you not have motion; but sure that sense +Is apoplex’d, for madness would not err +Nor sense to ecstacy was ne’er so thrall’d +But it reserv’d some quantity of choice +To serve in such a difference. What devil was’t +That thus hath cozen’d you at hoodman-blind? +Eyes without feeling, feeling without sight, +Ears without hands or eyes, smelling sans all, +Or but a sickly part of one true sense +Could not so mope. O shame! where is thy blush? +Rebellious hell, +If thou canst mutine in a matron’s bones, +To flaming youth let virtue be as wax, +And melt in her own fire. Proclaim no shame +When the compulsive ardour gives the charge, +Since frost itself as actively doth burn, +And reason panders will. + +QUEEN. +O Hamlet, speak no more. +Thou turn’st mine eyes into my very soul, +And there I see such black and grained spots +As will not leave their tinct. + +HAMLET. +Nay, but to live +In the rank sweat of an enseamed bed, +Stew’d in corruption, honeying and making love +Over the nasty sty. + +QUEEN. +O speak to me no more; +These words like daggers enter in mine ears; +No more, sweet Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +A murderer and a villain; +A slave that is not twentieth part the tithe +Of your precedent lord. A vice of kings, +A cutpurse of the empire and the rule, +That from a shelf the precious diadem stole +And put it in his pocket! + +QUEEN. +No more. + +HAMLET. +A king of shreds and patches!— + + Enter Ghost. + +Save me and hover o’er me with your wings, +You heavenly guards! What would your gracious figure? + +QUEEN. +Alas, he’s mad. + +HAMLET. +Do you not come your tardy son to chide, +That, laps’d in time and passion, lets go by +The important acting of your dread command? +O say! + +GHOST. +Do not forget. This visitation +Is but to whet thy almost blunted purpose. +But look, amazement on thy mother sits. +O step between her and her fighting soul. +Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works. +Speak to her, Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +How is it with you, lady? + +QUEEN. +Alas, how is’t with you, +That you do bend your eye on vacancy, +And with the incorporal air do hold discourse? +Forth at your eyes your spirits wildly peep, +And, as the sleeping soldiers in the alarm, +Your bedded hairs, like life in excrements, +Start up and stand an end. O gentle son, +Upon the heat and flame of thy distemper +Sprinkle cool patience. Whereon do you look? + +HAMLET. +On him, on him! Look you how pale he glares, +His form and cause conjoin’d, preaching to stones, +Would make them capable.—Do not look upon me, +Lest with this piteous action you convert +My stern effects. Then what I have to do +Will want true colour; tears perchance for blood. + +QUEEN. +To whom do you speak this? + +HAMLET. +Do you see nothing there? + +QUEEN. +Nothing at all; yet all that is I see. + +HAMLET. +Nor did you nothing hear? + +QUEEN. +No, nothing but ourselves. + +HAMLET. +Why, look you there! look how it steals away! +My father, in his habit as he liv’d! +Look where he goes even now out at the portal. + + [_Exit Ghost._] + +QUEEN. +This is the very coinage of your brain. +This bodiless creation ecstasy +Is very cunning in. + +HAMLET. +Ecstasy! +My pulse as yours doth temperately keep time, +And makes as healthful music. It is not madness +That I have utter’d. Bring me to the test, +And I the matter will re-word; which madness +Would gambol from. Mother, for love of grace, +Lay not that flattering unction to your soul +That not your trespass, but my madness speaks. +It will but skin and film the ulcerous place, +Whilst rank corruption, mining all within, +Infects unseen. Confess yourself to heaven, +Repent what’s past, avoid what is to come; +And do not spread the compost on the weeds, +To make them ranker. Forgive me this my virtue; +For in the fatness of these pursy times +Virtue itself of vice must pardon beg, +Yea, curb and woo for leave to do him good. + +QUEEN. +O Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain. + +HAMLET. +O throw away the worser part of it, +And live the purer with the other half. +Good night. But go not to mine uncle’s bed. +Assume a virtue, if you have it not. +That monster custom, who all sense doth eat, +Of habits evil, is angel yet in this, +That to the use of actions fair and good +He likewise gives a frock or livery +That aptly is put on. Refrain tonight, +And that shall lend a kind of easiness +To the next abstinence. The next more easy; +For use almost can change the stamp of nature, +And either curb the devil, or throw him out +With wondrous potency. Once more, good night, +And when you are desirous to be bles’d, +I’ll blessing beg of you. For this same lord +[_Pointing to Polonius._] +I do repent; but heaven hath pleas’d it so, +To punish me with this, and this with me, +That I must be their scourge and minister. +I will bestow him, and will answer well +The death I gave him. So again, good night. +I must be cruel, only to be kind: +Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind. +One word more, good lady. + +QUEEN. +What shall I do? + +HAMLET. +Not this, by no means, that I bid you do: +Let the bloat King tempt you again to bed, +Pinch wanton on your cheek, call you his mouse, +And let him, for a pair of reechy kisses, +Or paddling in your neck with his damn’d fingers, +Make you to ravel all this matter out, +That I essentially am not in madness, +But mad in craft. ’Twere good you let him know, +For who that’s but a queen, fair, sober, wise, +Would from a paddock, from a bat, a gib, +Such dear concernings hide? Who would do so? +No, in despite of sense and secrecy, +Unpeg the basket on the house’s top, +Let the birds fly, and like the famous ape, +To try conclusions, in the basket creep +And break your own neck down. + +QUEEN. +Be thou assur’d, if words be made of breath, +And breath of life, I have no life to breathe +What thou hast said to me. + +HAMLET. +I must to England, you know that? + +QUEEN. +Alack, +I had forgot. ’Tis so concluded on. + +HAMLET. +There’s letters seal’d: and my two schoolfellows, +Whom I will trust as I will adders fang’d,— +They bear the mandate, they must sweep my way +And marshal me to knavery. Let it work; +For ’tis the sport to have the enginer +Hoist with his own petard, and ’t shall go hard +But I will delve one yard below their mines +And blow them at the moon. O, ’tis most sweet, +When in one line two crafts directly meet. +This man shall set me packing. +I’ll lug the guts into the neighbour room. +Mother, good night. Indeed, this counsellor +Is now most still, most secret, and most grave, +Who was in life a foolish peating knave. +Come, sir, to draw toward an end with you. +Good night, mother. + + [_Exit Hamlet dragging out Polonius._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. A room in the Castle. + + Enter King, Queen, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +KING. +There’s matter in these sighs. These profound heaves +You must translate. ’tis fit we understand them. +Where is your son? + +QUEEN. +Bestow this place on us a little while. + + [_To Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, who go out._] + +Ah, my good lord, what have I seen tonight! + +KING. +What, Gertrude? How does Hamlet? + +QUEEN. +Mad as the sea and wind, when both contend +Which is the mightier. In his lawless fit +Behind the arras hearing something stir, +Whips out his rapier, cries ‘A rat, a rat!’ +And in this brainish apprehension kills +The unseen good old man. + +KING. +O heavy deed! +It had been so with us, had we been there. +His liberty is full of threats to all; +To you yourself, to us, to everyone. +Alas, how shall this bloody deed be answer’d? +It will be laid to us, whose providence +Should have kept short, restrain’d, and out of haunt +This mad young man. But so much was our love +We would not understand what was most fit, +But like the owner of a foul disease, +To keep it from divulging, let it feed +Even on the pith of life. Where is he gone? + +QUEEN. +To draw apart the body he hath kill’d, +O’er whom his very madness, like some ore +Among a mineral of metals base, +Shows itself pure. He weeps for what is done. + +KING. +O Gertrude, come away! +The sun no sooner shall the mountains touch +But we will ship him hence, and this vile deed +We must with all our majesty and skill +Both countenance and excuse.—Ho, Guildenstern! + + Re-enter Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +Friends both, go join you with some further aid: +Hamlet in madness hath Polonius slain, +And from his mother’s closet hath he dragg’d him. +Go seek him out, speak fair, and bring the body +Into the chapel. I pray you haste in this. + + [_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._] + +Come, Gertrude, we’ll call up our wisest friends, +And let them know both what we mean to do +And what’s untimely done, so haply slander, +Whose whisper o’er the world’s diameter, +As level as the cannon to his blank, +Transports his poison’d shot, may miss our name, +And hit the woundless air. O, come away! +My soul is full of discord and dismay. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Another room in the Castle. + + Enter Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +Safely stowed. + +ROSENCRANTZ and GUILDENSTERN. +[_Within._] Hamlet! Lord Hamlet! + +HAMLET. +What noise? Who calls on Hamlet? O, here they come. + + Enter Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +What have you done, my lord, with the dead body? + +HAMLET. +Compounded it with dust, whereto ’tis kin. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Tell us where ’tis, that we may take it thence, +And bear it to the chapel. + +HAMLET. +Do not believe it. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Believe what? + +HAMLET. +That I can keep your counsel, and not mine own. Besides, to be demanded +of a sponge—what replication should be made by the son of a king? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Take you me for a sponge, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Ay, sir; that soaks up the King’s countenance, his rewards, his +authorities. But such officers do the King best service in the end: he +keeps them, like an ape, in the corner of his jaw; first mouthed, to be +last swallowed: when he needs what you have gleaned, it is but +squeezing you, and, sponge, you shall be dry again. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +I understand you not, my lord. + +HAMLET. +I am glad of it. A knavish speech sleeps in a foolish ear. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +My lord, you must tell us where the body is and go with us to the King. + +HAMLET. +The body is with the King, but the King is not with the body. The King +is a thing— + +GUILDENSTERN. +A thing, my lord! + +HAMLET. +Of nothing. Bring me to him. Hide fox, and all after. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Another room in the Castle. + + Enter King, attended. + +KING. +I have sent to seek him and to find the body. +How dangerous is it that this man goes loose! +Yet must not we put the strong law on him: +He’s lov’d of the distracted multitude, +Who like not in their judgment, but their eyes; +And where ’tis so, th’offender’s scourge is weigh’d, +But never the offence. To bear all smooth and even, +This sudden sending him away must seem +Deliberate pause. Diseases desperate grown +By desperate appliance are reliev’d, +Or not at all. + + Enter Rosencrantz. + +How now? What hath befall’n? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Where the dead body is bestow’d, my lord, +We cannot get from him. + +KING. +But where is he? + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Without, my lord, guarded, to know your pleasure. + +KING. +Bring him before us. + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Ho, Guildenstern! Bring in my lord. + + Enter Hamlet and Guildenstern. + +KING. +Now, Hamlet, where’s Polonius? + +HAMLET. +At supper. + +KING. +At supper? Where? + +HAMLET. +Not where he eats, but where he is eaten. A certain convocation of +politic worms are e’en at him. Your worm is your only emperor for diet. +We fat all creatures else to fat us, and we fat ourselves for maggots. +Your fat king and your lean beggar is but variable service,—two dishes, +but to one table. That’s the end. + +KING. +Alas, alas! + +HAMLET. +A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and eat of the +fish that hath fed of that worm. + +KING. +What dost thou mean by this? + +HAMLET. +Nothing but to show you how a king may go a progress through the guts +of a beggar. + +KING. +Where is Polonius? + +HAMLET. +In heaven. Send thither to see. If your messenger find him not there, +seek him i’ th’other place yourself. But indeed, if you find him not +within this month, you shall nose him as you go up the stairs into the +lobby. + +KING. +[_To some Attendants._] Go seek him there. + +HAMLET. +He will stay till you come. + + [_Exeunt Attendants._] + +KING. +Hamlet, this deed, for thine especial safety,— +Which we do tender, as we dearly grieve +For that which thou hast done,—must send thee hence +With fiery quickness. Therefore prepare thyself; +The bark is ready, and the wind at help, +Th’associates tend, and everything is bent +For England. + +HAMLET. +For England? + +KING. +Ay, Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +Good. + +KING. +So is it, if thou knew’st our purposes. + +HAMLET. +I see a cherub that sees them. But, come; for England! Farewell, dear +mother. + +KING. +Thy loving father, Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +My mother. Father and mother is man and wife; man and wife is one +flesh; and so, my mother. Come, for England. + + [_Exit._] + +KING. +Follow him at foot. Tempt him with speed aboard; +Delay it not; I’ll have him hence tonight. +Away, for everything is seal’d and done +That else leans on th’affair. Pray you make haste. + + [_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._] + +And England, if my love thou hold’st at aught,— +As my great power thereof may give thee sense, +Since yet thy cicatrice looks raw and red +After the Danish sword, and thy free awe +Pays homage to us,—thou mayst not coldly set +Our sovereign process, which imports at full, +By letters conjuring to that effect, +The present death of Hamlet. Do it, England; +For like the hectic in my blood he rages, +And thou must cure me. Till I know ’tis done, +Howe’er my haps, my joys were ne’er begun. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. A plain in Denmark. + + Enter Fortinbras and Forces marching. + +FORTINBRAS. +Go, Captain, from me greet the Danish king. +Tell him that by his license, Fortinbras +Craves the conveyance of a promis’d march +Over his kingdom. You know the rendezvous. +If that his Majesty would aught with us, +We shall express our duty in his eye; +And let him know so. + +CAPTAIN. +I will do’t, my lord. + +FORTINBRAS. +Go softly on. + + [_Exeunt all but the Captain._] + + Enter Hamlet, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern &c. + +HAMLET. +Good sir, whose powers are these? + +CAPTAIN. +They are of Norway, sir. + +HAMLET. +How purpos’d, sir, I pray you? + +CAPTAIN. +Against some part of Poland. + +HAMLET. +Who commands them, sir? + +CAPTAIN. +The nephew to old Norway, Fortinbras. + +HAMLET. +Goes it against the main of Poland, sir, +Or for some frontier? + +CAPTAIN. +Truly to speak, and with no addition, +We go to gain a little patch of ground +That hath in it no profit but the name. +To pay five ducats, five, I would not farm it; +Nor will it yield to Norway or the Pole +A ranker rate, should it be sold in fee. + +HAMLET. +Why, then the Polack never will defend it. + +CAPTAIN. +Yes, it is already garrison’d. + +HAMLET. +Two thousand souls and twenty thousand ducats +Will not debate the question of this straw! +This is th’imposthume of much wealth and peace, +That inward breaks, and shows no cause without +Why the man dies. I humbly thank you, sir. + +CAPTAIN. +God b’ wi’ you, sir. + + [_Exit._] + +ROSENCRANTZ. +Will’t please you go, my lord? + +HAMLET. +I’ll be with you straight. Go a little before. + + [_Exeunt all but Hamlet._] + +How all occasions do inform against me, +And spur my dull revenge. What is a man +If his chief good and market of his time +Be but to sleep and feed? A beast, no more. +Sure he that made us with such large discourse, +Looking before and after, gave us not +That capability and godlike reason +To fust in us unus’d. Now whether it be +Bestial oblivion, or some craven scruple +Of thinking too precisely on th’event,— +A thought which, quarter’d, hath but one part wisdom +And ever three parts coward,—I do not know +Why yet I live to say this thing’s to do, +Sith I have cause, and will, and strength, and means +To do’t. Examples gross as earth exhort me, +Witness this army of such mass and charge, +Led by a delicate and tender prince, +Whose spirit, with divine ambition puff’d, +Makes mouths at the invisible event, +Exposing what is mortal and unsure +To all that fortune, death, and danger dare, +Even for an eggshell. Rightly to be great +Is not to stir without great argument, +But greatly to find quarrel in a straw +When honour’s at the stake. How stand I then, +That have a father kill’d, a mother stain’d, +Excitements of my reason and my blood, +And let all sleep, while to my shame I see +The imminent death of twenty thousand men +That, for a fantasy and trick of fame, +Go to their graves like beds, fight for a plot +Whereon the numbers cannot try the cause, +Which is not tomb enough and continent +To hide the slain? O, from this time forth, +My thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE V. Elsinore. A room in the Castle. + + Enter Queen, Horatio and a Gentleman. + +QUEEN. +I will not speak with her. + +GENTLEMAN. +She is importunate, indeed distract. +Her mood will needs be pitied. + +QUEEN. +What would she have? + +GENTLEMAN. +She speaks much of her father; says she hears +There’s tricks i’ th’ world, and hems, and beats her heart, +Spurns enviously at straws, speaks things in doubt, +That carry but half sense. Her speech is nothing, +Yet the unshaped use of it doth move +The hearers to collection; they aim at it, +And botch the words up fit to their own thoughts, +Which, as her winks, and nods, and gestures yield them, +Indeed would make one think there might be thought, +Though nothing sure, yet much unhappily. +’Twere good she were spoken with, for she may strew +Dangerous conjectures in ill-breeding minds. + +QUEEN. +Let her come in. + + [_Exit Gentleman._] + +To my sick soul, as sin’s true nature is, +Each toy seems prologue to some great amiss. +So full of artless jealousy is guilt, +It spills itself in fearing to be spilt. + + Enter Ophelia. + +OPHELIA. +Where is the beauteous Majesty of Denmark? + +QUEEN. +How now, Ophelia? + +OPHELIA. +[_Sings._] + How should I your true love know + From another one? + By his cockle bat and staff + And his sandal shoon. + +QUEEN. +Alas, sweet lady, what imports this song? + +OPHELIA. +Say you? Nay, pray you mark. +[_Sings._] + He is dead and gone, lady, + He is dead and gone, + At his head a grass green turf, + At his heels a stone. + +QUEEN. +Nay, but Ophelia— + +OPHELIA. +Pray you mark. +[_Sings._] + White his shroud as the mountain snow. + + Enter King. + +QUEEN. +Alas, look here, my lord! + +OPHELIA. +[_Sings._] + Larded all with sweet flowers; + Which bewept to the grave did go + With true-love showers. + +KING. +How do you, pretty lady? + +OPHELIA. +Well, God dild you! They say the owl was a baker’s daughter. Lord, we +know what we are, but know not what we may be. God be at your table! + +KING. +Conceit upon her father. + +OPHELIA. +Pray you, let’s have no words of this; but when they ask you what it +means, say you this: +[_Sings._] + Tomorrow is Saint Valentine’s day, + All in the morning betime, + And I a maid at your window, + To be your Valentine. + + Then up he rose and donn’d his clothes, + And dupp’d the chamber door, + Let in the maid, that out a maid + Never departed more. + +KING. +Pretty Ophelia! + +OPHELIA. +Indeed la, without an oath, I’ll make an end on’t. +[_Sings._] + By Gis and by Saint Charity, + Alack, and fie for shame! + Young men will do’t if they come to’t; + By Cock, they are to blame. + + Quoth she, before you tumbled me, + You promis’d me to wed. + So would I ha’ done, by yonder sun, + An thou hadst not come to my bed. + +KING. +How long hath she been thus? + +OPHELIA. +I hope all will be well. We must be patient. But I cannot choose but +weep, to think they would lay him i’ th’ cold ground. My brother shall +know of it. And so I thank you for your good counsel. Come, my coach! +Good night, ladies; good night, sweet ladies; good night, good night. + + [_Exit._] + +KING. +Follow her close; give her good watch, I pray you. + + [_Exit Horatio._] + +O, this is the poison of deep grief; it springs +All from her father’s death. O Gertrude, Gertrude, +When sorrows come, they come not single spies, +But in battalions. First, her father slain; +Next, your son gone; and he most violent author +Of his own just remove; the people muddied, +Thick and and unwholesome in their thoughts and whispers +For good Polonius’ death; and we have done but greenly +In hugger-mugger to inter him. Poor Ophelia +Divided from herself and her fair judgment, +Without the which we are pictures or mere beasts. +Last, and as much containing as all these, +Her brother is in secret come from France, +Feeds on his wonder, keeps himself in clouds, +And wants not buzzers to infect his ear +With pestilent speeches of his father’s death, +Wherein necessity, of matter beggar’d, +Will nothing stick our person to arraign +In ear and ear. O my dear Gertrude, this, +Like to a murdering piece, in many places +Gives me superfluous death. + + [_A noise within._] + +QUEEN. +Alack, what noise is this? + +KING. +Where are my Switzers? Let them guard the door. + + Enter a Gentleman. + +What is the matter? + +GENTLEMAN. +Save yourself, my lord. +The ocean, overpeering of his list, +Eats not the flats with more impetuous haste +Than young Laertes, in a riotous head, +O’erbears your offices. The rabble call him lord, +And, as the world were now but to begin, +Antiquity forgot, custom not known, +The ratifiers and props of every word, +They cry ‘Choose we! Laertes shall be king!’ +Caps, hands, and tongues applaud it to the clouds, +‘Laertes shall be king, Laertes king.’ + +QUEEN. +How cheerfully on the false trail they cry. +O, this is counter, you false Danish dogs. + + [_A noise within._] + +KING. +The doors are broke. + + Enter Laertes, armed; Danes following. + +LAERTES. +Where is this king?—Sirs, stand you all without. + +Danes. +No, let’s come in. + +LAERTES. +I pray you, give me leave. + +DANES. +We will, we will. + + [_They retire without the door._] + +LAERTES. +I thank you. Keep the door. O thou vile king, +Give me my father. + +QUEEN. +Calmly, good Laertes. + +LAERTES. +That drop of blood that’s calm proclaims me bastard; +Cries cuckold to my father, brands the harlot +Even here between the chaste unsmirched brow +Of my true mother. + +KING. +What is the cause, Laertes, +That thy rebellion looks so giant-like?— +Let him go, Gertrude. Do not fear our person. +There’s such divinity doth hedge a king, +That treason can but peep to what it would, +Acts little of his will.—Tell me, Laertes, +Why thou art thus incens’d.—Let him go, Gertrude:— +Speak, man. + +LAERTES. +Where is my father? + +KING. +Dead. + +QUEEN. +But not by him. + +KING. +Let him demand his fill. + +LAERTES. +How came he dead? I’ll not be juggled with. +To hell, allegiance! Vows, to the blackest devil! +Conscience and grace, to the profoundest pit! +I dare damnation. To this point I stand, +That both the worlds, I give to negligence, +Let come what comes; only I’ll be reveng’d +Most throughly for my father. + +KING. +Who shall stay you? + +LAERTES. +My will, not all the world. +And for my means, I’ll husband them so well, +They shall go far with little. + +KING. +Good Laertes, +If you desire to know the certainty +Of your dear father’s death, is’t writ in your revenge +That, sweepstake, you will draw both friend and foe, +Winner and loser? + +LAERTES. +None but his enemies. + +KING. +Will you know them then? + +LAERTES. +To his good friends thus wide I’ll ope my arms; +And, like the kind life-rendering pelican, +Repast them with my blood. + +KING. +Why, now you speak +Like a good child and a true gentleman. +That I am guiltless of your father’s death, +And am most sensibly in grief for it, +It shall as level to your judgment ’pear +As day does to your eye. + +DANES. +[_Within._] Let her come in. + +LAERTES. +How now! What noise is that? + + Re-enter Ophelia, fantastically dressed with straws and flowers. + +O heat, dry up my brains. Tears seven times salt, +Burn out the sense and virtue of mine eye. +By heaven, thy madness shall be paid by weight, +Till our scale turn the beam. O rose of May! +Dear maid, kind sister, sweet Ophelia! +O heavens, is’t possible a young maid’s wits +Should be as mortal as an old man’s life? +Nature is fine in love, and where ’tis fine, +It sends some precious instance of itself +After the thing it loves. + +OPHELIA. +[_Sings._] + They bore him barefac’d on the bier, + Hey no nonny, nonny, hey nonny + And on his grave rain’d many a tear.— + Fare you well, my dove! + +LAERTES. +Hadst thou thy wits, and didst persuade revenge, +It could not move thus. + +OPHELIA. +You must sing ‘Down a-down, and you call him a-down-a.’ O, how the +wheel becomes it! It is the false steward that stole his master’s +daughter. + +LAERTES. +This nothing’s more than matter. + +OPHELIA. +There’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance; pray love, remember. And +there is pansies, that’s for thoughts. + +LAERTES. +A document in madness, thoughts and remembrance fitted. + +OPHELIA. +There’s fennel for you, and columbines. There’s rue for you; and here’s +some for me. We may call it herb of grace o’ Sundays. O you must wear +your rue with a difference. There’s a daisy. I would give you some +violets, but they wither’d all when my father died. They say he made a +good end. +[_Sings._] + For bonny sweet Robin is all my joy. + +LAERTES. +Thought and affliction, passion, hell itself +She turns to favour and to prettiness. + +OPHELIA. +[_Sings._] + And will he not come again? + And will he not come again? + No, no, he is dead, + Go to thy death-bed, + He never will come again. + + His beard was as white as snow, + All flaxen was his poll. + He is gone, he is gone, + And we cast away moan. + God ha’ mercy on his soul. + +And of all Christian souls, I pray God. God b’ wi’ ye. + + [_Exit._] + +LAERTES. +Do you see this, O God? + +KING. +Laertes, I must commune with your grief, +Or you deny me right. Go but apart, +Make choice of whom your wisest friends you will, +And they shall hear and judge ’twixt you and me. +If by direct or by collateral hand +They find us touch’d, we will our kingdom give, +Our crown, our life, and all that we call ours +To you in satisfaction; but if not, +Be you content to lend your patience to us, +And we shall jointly labour with your soul +To give it due content. + +LAERTES. +Let this be so; +His means of death, his obscure burial,— +No trophy, sword, nor hatchment o’er his bones, +No noble rite, nor formal ostentation,— +Cry to be heard, as ’twere from heaven to earth, +That I must call’t in question. + +KING. +So you shall. +And where th’offence is let the great axe fall. +I pray you go with me. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Another room in the Castle. + + Enter Horatio and a Servant. + +HORATIO. +What are they that would speak with me? + +SERVANT. +Sailors, sir. They say they have letters for you. + +HORATIO. +Let them come in. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +I do not know from what part of the world +I should be greeted, if not from Lord Hamlet. + + Enter Sailors. + +FIRST SAILOR. +God bless you, sir. + +HORATIO. +Let him bless thee too. + +FIRST SAILOR. +He shall, sir, and’t please him. There’s a letter for you, sir. It +comes from th’ambassador that was bound for England; if your name be +Horatio, as I am let to know it is. + +HORATIO. +[_Reads._] ‘Horatio, when thou shalt have overlooked this, give these +fellows some means to the King. They have letters for him. Ere we were +two days old at sea, a pirate of very warlike appointment gave us +chase. Finding ourselves too slow of sail, we put on a compelled +valour, and in the grapple I boarded them. On the instant they got +clear of our ship, so I alone became their prisoner. They have dealt +with me like thieves of mercy. But they knew what they did; I am to do +a good turn for them. Let the King have the letters I have sent, and +repair thou to me with as much haste as thou wouldst fly death. I have +words to speak in thine ear will make thee dumb; yet are they much too +light for the bore of the matter. These good fellows will bring thee +where I am. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern hold their course for England: +of them I have much to tell thee. Farewell. + He that thou knowest thine, + HAMLET.’ + +Come, I will give you way for these your letters, +And do’t the speedier, that you may direct me +To him from whom you brought them. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. Another room in the Castle. + + Enter King and Laertes. + +KING. +Now must your conscience my acquittance seal, +And you must put me in your heart for friend, +Sith you have heard, and with a knowing ear, +That he which hath your noble father slain +Pursu’d my life. + +LAERTES. +It well appears. But tell me +Why you proceeded not against these feats, +So crimeful and so capital in nature, +As by your safety, wisdom, all things else, +You mainly were stirr’d up. + +KING. +O, for two special reasons, +Which may to you, perhaps, seem much unsinew’d, +But yet to me they are strong. The Queen his mother +Lives almost by his looks; and for myself,— +My virtue or my plague, be it either which,— +She’s so conjunctive to my life and soul, +That, as the star moves not but in his sphere, +I could not but by her. The other motive, +Why to a public count I might not go, +Is the great love the general gender bear him, +Who, dipping all his faults in their affection, +Would like the spring that turneth wood to stone, +Convert his gyves to graces; so that my arrows, +Too slightly timber’d for so loud a wind, +Would have reverted to my bow again, +And not where I had aim’d them. + +LAERTES. +And so have I a noble father lost, +A sister driven into desperate terms, +Whose worth, if praises may go back again, +Stood challenger on mount of all the age +For her perfections. But my revenge will come. + +KING. +Break not your sleeps for that. You must not think +That we are made of stuff so flat and dull +That we can let our beard be shook with danger, +And think it pastime. You shortly shall hear more. +I lov’d your father, and we love ourself, +And that, I hope, will teach you to imagine— + + Enter a Messenger. + +How now? What news? + +MESSENGER. +Letters, my lord, from Hamlet. +This to your Majesty; this to the Queen. + +KING. +From Hamlet! Who brought them? + +MESSENGER. +Sailors, my lord, they say; I saw them not. +They were given me by Claudio. He receiv’d them +Of him that brought them. + +KING. +Laertes, you shall hear them. +Leave us. + + [_Exit Messenger._] + +[_Reads._] ‘High and mighty, you shall know I am set naked on your +kingdom. Tomorrow shall I beg leave to see your kingly eyes. When I +shall, first asking your pardon thereunto, recount the occasions of my +sudden and more strange return. + HAMLET.’ + +What should this mean? Are all the rest come back? +Or is it some abuse, and no such thing? + +LAERTES. +Know you the hand? + +KING. +’Tis Hamlet’s character. ’Naked!’ +And in a postscript here he says ‘alone.’ +Can you advise me? + +LAERTES. +I am lost in it, my lord. But let him come, +It warms the very sickness in my heart +That I shall live and tell him to his teeth, +‘Thus diest thou.’ + +KING. +If it be so, Laertes,— +As how should it be so? How otherwise?— +Will you be rul’d by me? + +LAERTES. +Ay, my lord; +So you will not o’errule me to a peace. + +KING. +To thine own peace. If he be now return’d, +As checking at his voyage, and that he means +No more to undertake it, I will work him +To exploit, now ripe in my device, +Under the which he shall not choose but fall; +And for his death no wind shall breathe, +But even his mother shall uncharge the practice +And call it accident. + +LAERTES. +My lord, I will be rul’d; +The rather if you could devise it so +That I might be the organ. + +KING. +It falls right. +You have been talk’d of since your travel much, +And that in Hamlet’s hearing, for a quality +Wherein they say you shine. Your sum of parts +Did not together pluck such envy from him +As did that one, and that, in my regard, +Of the unworthiest siege. + +LAERTES. +What part is that, my lord? + +KING. +A very riband in the cap of youth, +Yet needful too, for youth no less becomes +The light and careless livery that it wears +Than settled age his sables and his weeds, +Importing health and graveness. Two months since +Here was a gentleman of Normandy,— +I’ve seen myself, and serv’d against, the French, +And they can well on horseback, but this gallant +Had witchcraft in’t. He grew unto his seat, +And to such wondrous doing brought his horse, +As had he been incorps’d and demi-natur’d +With the brave beast. So far he topp’d my thought +That I in forgery of shapes and tricks, +Come short of what he did. + +LAERTES. +A Norman was’t? + +KING. +A Norman. + +LAERTES. +Upon my life, Lamond. + +KING. +The very same. + +LAERTES. +I know him well. He is the brooch indeed +And gem of all the nation. + +KING. +He made confession of you, +And gave you such a masterly report +For art and exercise in your defence, +And for your rapier most especially, +That he cried out ’twould be a sight indeed +If one could match you. The scrimers of their nation +He swore had neither motion, guard, nor eye, +If you oppos’d them. Sir, this report of his +Did Hamlet so envenom with his envy +That he could nothing do but wish and beg +Your sudden coming o’er to play with him. +Now, out of this,— + +LAERTES. +What out of this, my lord? + +KING. +Laertes, was your father dear to you? +Or are you like the painting of a sorrow, +A face without a heart? + +LAERTES. +Why ask you this? + +KING. +Not that I think you did not love your father, +But that I know love is begun by time, +And that I see, in passages of proof, +Time qualifies the spark and fire of it. +There lives within the very flame of love +A kind of wick or snuff that will abate it; +And nothing is at a like goodness still, +For goodness, growing to a pleurisy, +Dies in his own too much. That we would do, +We should do when we would; for this ‘would’ changes, +And hath abatements and delays as many +As there are tongues, are hands, are accidents; +And then this ‘should’ is like a spendthrift sigh +That hurts by easing. But to the quick o’ th’ulcer: +Hamlet comes back: what would you undertake +To show yourself your father’s son in deed, +More than in words? + +LAERTES. +To cut his throat i’ th’ church. + +KING. +No place, indeed, should murder sanctuarize; +Revenge should have no bounds. But good Laertes, +Will you do this, keep close within your chamber. +Hamlet return’d shall know you are come home: +We’ll put on those shall praise your excellence, +And set a double varnish on the fame +The Frenchman gave you, bring you in fine together +And wager on your heads. He, being remiss, +Most generous, and free from all contriving, +Will not peruse the foils; so that with ease, +Or with a little shuffling, you may choose +A sword unbated, and in a pass of practice, +Requite him for your father. + +LAERTES. +I will do’t. +And for that purpose I’ll anoint my sword. +I bought an unction of a mountebank +So mortal that, but dip a knife in it, +Where it draws blood no cataplasm so rare, +Collected from all simples that have virtue +Under the moon, can save the thing from death +This is but scratch’d withal. I’ll touch my point +With this contagion, that if I gall him slightly, +It may be death. + +KING. +Let’s further think of this, +Weigh what convenience both of time and means +May fit us to our shape. If this should fail, +And that our drift look through our bad performance. +’Twere better not assay’d. Therefore this project +Should have a back or second, that might hold +If this did blast in proof. Soft, let me see. +We’ll make a solemn wager on your cunnings,— +I ha’t! When in your motion you are hot and dry, +As make your bouts more violent to that end, +And that he calls for drink, I’ll have prepar’d him +A chalice for the nonce; whereon but sipping, +If he by chance escape your venom’d stuck, +Our purpose may hold there. + + Enter Queen. + +How now, sweet Queen? + +QUEEN. +One woe doth tread upon another’s heel, +So fast they follow. Your sister’s drown’d, Laertes. + +LAERTES. +Drown’d! O, where? + +QUEEN. +There is a willow grows aslant a brook, +That shows his hoary leaves in the glassy stream. +There with fantastic garlands did she make +Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples, +That liberal shepherds give a grosser name, +But our cold maids do dead men’s fingers call them. +There on the pendant boughs her coronet weeds +Clamb’ring to hang, an envious sliver broke, +When down her weedy trophies and herself +Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide, +And mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up, +Which time she chaunted snatches of old tunes, +As one incapable of her own distress, +Or like a creature native and indued +Unto that element. But long it could not be +Till that her garments, heavy with their drink, +Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay +To muddy death. + +LAERTES. +Alas, then she is drown’d? + +QUEEN. +Drown’d, drown’d. + +LAERTES. +Too much of water hast thou, poor Ophelia, +And therefore I forbid my tears. But yet +It is our trick; nature her custom holds, +Let shame say what it will. When these are gone, +The woman will be out. Adieu, my lord, +I have a speech of fire, that fain would blaze, +But that this folly douts it. + + [_Exit._] + +KING. +Let’s follow, Gertrude; +How much I had to do to calm his rage! +Now fear I this will give it start again; +Therefore let’s follow. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. A churchyard. + + Enter two Clowns with spades, &c. + +FIRST CLOWN. +Is she to be buried in Christian burial, when she wilfully seeks her +own salvation? + +SECOND CLOWN. +I tell thee she is, and therefore make her grave straight. The crowner +hath sat on her, and finds it Christian burial. + +FIRST CLOWN. +How can that be, unless she drowned herself in her own defence? + +SECOND CLOWN. +Why, ’tis found so. + +FIRST CLOWN. +It must be _se offendendo_, it cannot be else. For here lies the point: +if I drown myself wittingly, it argues an act: and an act hath three +branches. It is to act, to do, and to perform: argal, she drowned +herself wittingly. + +SECOND CLOWN. +Nay, but hear you, goodman delver,— + +FIRST CLOWN. +Give me leave. Here lies the water; good. Here stands the man; good. If +the man go to this water and drown himself, it is, will he nill he, he +goes,—mark you that. But if the water come to him and drown him, he +drowns not himself. Argal, he that is not guilty of his own death +shortens not his own life. + +SECOND CLOWN. +But is this law? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Ay, marry, is’t, crowner’s quest law. + +SECOND CLOWN. +Will you ha’ the truth on’t? If this had not been a gentlewoman, she +should have been buried out o’ Christian burial. + +FIRST CLOWN. +Why, there thou say’st. And the more pity that great folk should have +countenance in this world to drown or hang themselves more than their +even Christian. Come, my spade. There is no ancient gentlemen but +gardeners, ditchers, and grave-makers: they hold up Adam’s profession. + +SECOND CLOWN. +Was he a gentleman? + +FIRST CLOWN. +He was the first that ever bore arms. + +SECOND CLOWN. +Why, he had none. + +FIRST CLOWN. +What, art a heathen? How dost thou understand the Scripture? The +Scripture says Adam digg’d. Could he dig without arms? I’ll put another +question to thee. If thou answerest me not to the purpose, confess +thyself— + +SECOND CLOWN. +Go to. + +FIRST CLOWN. +What is he that builds stronger than either the mason, the shipwright, +or the carpenter? + +SECOND CLOWN. +The gallows-maker; for that frame outlives a thousand tenants. + +FIRST CLOWN. +I like thy wit well in good faith, the gallows does well. But how does +it well? It does well to those that do ill. Now, thou dost ill to say +the gallows is built stronger than the church; argal, the gallows may +do well to thee. To’t again, come. + +SECOND CLOWN. +Who builds stronger than a mason, a shipwright, or a carpenter? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Ay, tell me that, and unyoke. + +SECOND CLOWN. +Marry, now I can tell. + +FIRST CLOWN. +To’t. + +SECOND CLOWN. +Mass, I cannot tell. + + Enter Hamlet and Horatio, at a distance. + +FIRST CLOWN. +Cudgel thy brains no more about it, for your dull ass will not mend his +pace with beating; and when you are asked this question next, say ‘a +grave-maker’. The houses he makes last till doomsday. Go, get thee to +Yaughan; fetch me a stoup of liquor. + + [_Exit Second Clown._] + +[_Digs and sings._] + + In youth when I did love, did love, + Methought it was very sweet; + To contract, O, the time for, a, my behove, + O methought there was nothing meet. + +HAMLET. +Has this fellow no feeling of his business, that he sings at +grave-making? + +HORATIO. +Custom hath made it in him a property of easiness. + +HAMLET. +’Tis e’en so; the hand of little employment hath the daintier sense. + +FIRST CLOWN. +[_Sings._] + But age with his stealing steps + Hath claw’d me in his clutch, + And hath shipp’d me into the land, + As if I had never been such. + + [_Throws up a skull._] + +HAMLET. +That skull had a tongue in it, and could sing once. How the knave jowls +it to th’ ground, as if ’twere Cain’s jawbone, that did the first +murder! This might be the pate of a politician which this ass now +o’er-offices, one that would circumvent God, might it not? + +HORATIO. +It might, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Or of a courtier, which could say ‘Good morrow, sweet lord! How dost +thou, good lord?’ This might be my lord such-a-one, that praised my +lord such-a-one’s horse when he meant to beg it, might it not? + +HORATIO. +Ay, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Why, e’en so: and now my Lady Worm’s; chapless, and knocked about the +mazard with a sexton’s spade. Here’s fine revolution, an we had the +trick to see’t. Did these bones cost no more the breeding but to play +at loggets with ’em? Mine ache to think on’t. + +FIRST CLOWN. +[_Sings._] + A pickaxe and a spade, a spade, + For and a shrouding-sheet; + O, a pit of clay for to be made + For such a guest is meet. + + [_Throws up another skull._] + +HAMLET. +There’s another. Why may not that be the skull of a lawyer? Where be +his quiddits now, his quillets, his cases, his tenures, and his tricks? +Why does he suffer this rude knave now to knock him about the sconce +with a dirty shovel, and will not tell him of his action of battery? +Hum. This fellow might be in’s time a great buyer of land, with his +statutes, his recognizances, his fines, his double vouchers, his +recoveries. Is this the fine of his fines, and the recovery of his +recoveries, to have his fine pate full of fine dirt? Will his vouchers +vouch him no more of his purchases, and double ones too, than the +length and breadth of a pair of indentures? The very conveyances of his +lands will scarcely lie in this box; and must the inheritor himself +have no more, ha? + +HORATIO. +Not a jot more, my lord. + +HAMLET. +Is not parchment made of sheep-skins? + +HORATIO. +Ay, my lord, and of calf-skins too. + +HAMLET. +They are sheep and calves which seek out assurance in that. I will +speak to this fellow.—Whose grave’s this, sir? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Mine, sir. +[_Sings._] + O, a pit of clay for to be made + For such a guest is meet. + +HAMLET. +I think it be thine indeed, for thou liest in’t. + +FIRST CLOWN. +You lie out on’t, sir, and therefore ’tis not yours. +For my part, I do not lie in’t, yet it is mine. + +HAMLET. +Thou dost lie in’t, to be in’t and say it is thine. ’Tis for the dead, +not for the quick; therefore thou liest. + +FIRST CLOWN. +’Tis a quick lie, sir; ’t will away again from me to you. + +HAMLET. +What man dost thou dig it for? + +FIRST CLOWN. +For no man, sir. + +HAMLET. +What woman then? + +FIRST CLOWN. +For none neither. + +HAMLET. +Who is to be buried in’t? + +FIRST CLOWN. +One that was a woman, sir; but, rest her soul, she’s dead. + +HAMLET. +How absolute the knave is! We must speak by the card, or equivocation +will undo us. By the Lord, Horatio, these three years I have taken note +of it, the age is grown so picked that the toe of the peasant comes so +near the heel of the courtier he galls his kibe.—How long hast thou +been a grave-maker? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Of all the days i’ th’ year, I came to’t that day that our last King +Hamlet o’ercame Fortinbras. + +HAMLET. +How long is that since? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Cannot you tell that? Every fool can tell that. It was the very day +that young Hamlet was born,—he that is mad, and sent into England. + +HAMLET. +Ay, marry, why was he sent into England? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Why, because he was mad; he shall recover his wits there; or if he do +not, it’s no great matter there. + +HAMLET. +Why? + +FIRST CLOWN. +’Twill not be seen in him there; there the men are as mad as he. + +HAMLET. +How came he mad? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Very strangely, they say. + +HAMLET. +How strangely? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Faith, e’en with losing his wits. + +HAMLET. +Upon what ground? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Why, here in Denmark. I have been sexton here, man and boy, thirty +years. + +HAMLET. +How long will a man lie i’ th’earth ere he rot? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Faith, if he be not rotten before he die,—as we have many pocky corses +nowadays that will scarce hold the laying in,—he will last you some +eight year or nine year. A tanner will last you nine year. + +HAMLET. +Why he more than another? + +FIRST CLOWN. +Why, sir, his hide is so tann’d with his trade that he will keep out +water a great while. And your water is a sore decayer of your whoreson +dead body. Here’s a skull now; this skull hath lain in the earth +three-and-twenty years. + +HAMLET. +Whose was it? + +FIRST CLOWN. +A whoreson, mad fellow’s it was. Whose do you think it was? + +HAMLET. +Nay, I know not. + +FIRST CLOWN. +A pestilence on him for a mad rogue! A pour’d a flagon of Rhenish on my +head once. This same skull, sir, was Yorick’s skull, the King’s jester. + +HAMLET. +This? + +FIRST CLOWN. +E’en that. + +HAMLET. +Let me see. [_Takes the skull._] Alas, poor Yorick. I knew him, +Horatio, a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy. He hath +borne me on his back a thousand times; and now, how abhorred in my +imagination it is! My gorge rises at it. Here hung those lips that I +have kiss’d I know not how oft. Where be your gibes now? your gambols? +your songs? your flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the table +on a roar? Not one now, to mock your own grinning? Quite chop-fallen? +Now get you to my lady’s chamber, and tell her, let her paint an inch +thick, to this favour she must come. Make her laugh at that.—Prythee, +Horatio, tell me one thing. + +HORATIO. +What’s that, my lord? + +HAMLET. +Dost thou think Alexander looked o’ this fashion i’ th’earth? + +HORATIO. +E’en so. + +HAMLET. +And smelt so? Pah! + + [_Throws down the skull._] + +HORATIO. +E’en so, my lord. + +HAMLET. +To what base uses we may return, Horatio! Why may not imagination trace +the noble dust of Alexander till he find it stopping a bung-hole? + +HORATIO. +’Twere to consider too curiously to consider so. + +HAMLET. +No, faith, not a jot. But to follow him thither with modesty enough, +and likelihood to lead it; as thus. Alexander died, Alexander was +buried, Alexander returneth into dust; the dust is earth; of earth we +make loam; and why of that loam whereto he was converted might they not +stop a beer-barrel? +Imperious Caesar, dead and turn’d to clay, +Might stop a hole to keep the wind away. +O, that that earth which kept the world in awe +Should patch a wall t’expel the winter’s flaw. +But soft! but soft! aside! Here comes the King. + + Enter priests, &c, in procession; the corpse of Ophelia, Laertes and + Mourners following; King, Queen, their Trains, &c. + +The Queen, the courtiers. Who is that they follow? +And with such maimed rites? This doth betoken +The corse they follow did with desperate hand +Fordo it own life. ’Twas of some estate. +Couch we awhile and mark. + + [_Retiring with Horatio._] + +LAERTES. +What ceremony else? + +HAMLET. +That is Laertes, a very noble youth. Mark. + +LAERTES. +What ceremony else? + +PRIEST. +Her obsequies have been as far enlarg’d +As we have warranties. Her death was doubtful; +And but that great command o’ersways the order, +She should in ground unsanctified have lodg’d +Till the last trumpet. For charitable prayers, +Shards, flints, and pebbles should be thrown on her. +Yet here she is allowed her virgin rites, +Her maiden strewments, and the bringing home +Of bell and burial. + +LAERTES. +Must there no more be done? + +PRIEST. +No more be done. +We should profane the service of the dead +To sing sage requiem and such rest to her +As to peace-parted souls. + +LAERTES. +Lay her i’ th’earth, +And from her fair and unpolluted flesh +May violets spring. I tell thee, churlish priest, +A minist’ring angel shall my sister be +When thou liest howling. + +HAMLET. +What, the fair Ophelia? + +QUEEN. +[_Scattering flowers._] Sweets to the sweet. Farewell. +I hop’d thou shouldst have been my Hamlet’s wife; +I thought thy bride-bed to have deck’d, sweet maid, +And not have strew’d thy grave. + +LAERTES. +O, treble woe +Fall ten times treble on that cursed head +Whose wicked deed thy most ingenious sense +Depriv’d thee of. Hold off the earth a while, +Till I have caught her once more in mine arms. +[_Leaps into the grave._] +Now pile your dust upon the quick and dead, +Till of this flat a mountain you have made, +To o’ertop old Pelion or the skyish head +Of blue Olympus. + +HAMLET. +[_Advancing._] +What is he whose grief +Bears such an emphasis? whose phrase of sorrow +Conjures the wand’ring stars, and makes them stand +Like wonder-wounded hearers? This is I, +Hamlet the Dane. +[_Leaps into the grave._] + +LAERTES. +[_Grappling with him._] The devil take thy soul! + +HAMLET. +Thou pray’st not well. +I prythee take thy fingers from my throat; +For though I am not splenative and rash, +Yet have I in me something dangerous, +Which let thy wiseness fear. Away thy hand! + +KING. +Pluck them asunder. + +QUEEN. +Hamlet! Hamlet! + +All. +Gentlemen! + +HORATIO. +Good my lord, be quiet. + + [_The Attendants part them, and they come out of the grave._] + +HAMLET. +Why, I will fight with him upon this theme +Until my eyelids will no longer wag. + +QUEEN. +O my son, what theme? + +HAMLET. +I lov’d Ophelia; forty thousand brothers +Could not, with all their quantity of love, +Make up my sum. What wilt thou do for her? + +KING. +O, he is mad, Laertes. + +QUEEN. +For love of God forbear him! + +HAMLET. +’Swounds, show me what thou’lt do: +Woul’t weep? woul’t fight? woul’t fast? woul’t tear thyself? +Woul’t drink up eisel? eat a crocodile? +I’ll do’t. Dost thou come here to whine? +To outface me with leaping in her grave? +Be buried quick with her, and so will I. +And if thou prate of mountains, let them throw +Millions of acres on us, till our ground, +Singeing his pate against the burning zone, +Make Ossa like a wart. Nay, an thou’lt mouth, +I’ll rant as well as thou. + +QUEEN. +This is mere madness: +And thus awhile the fit will work on him; +Anon, as patient as the female dove, +When that her golden couplets are disclos’d, +His silence will sit drooping. + +HAMLET. +Hear you, sir; +What is the reason that you use me thus? +I lov’d you ever. But it is no matter. +Let Hercules himself do what he may, +The cat will mew, and dog will have his day. + + [_Exit._] + +KING. +I pray thee, good Horatio, wait upon him. + + [_Exit Horatio._] + +[_To Laertes_] +Strengthen your patience in our last night’s speech; +We’ll put the matter to the present push.— +Good Gertrude, set some watch over your son. +This grave shall have a living monument. +An hour of quiet shortly shall we see; +Till then in patience our proceeding be. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A hall in the Castle. + + Enter Hamlet and Horatio. + +HAMLET. +So much for this, sir. Now let me see the other; +You do remember all the circumstance? + +HORATIO. +Remember it, my lord! + +HAMLET. +Sir, in my heart there was a kind of fighting +That would not let me sleep. Methought I lay +Worse than the mutinies in the bilboes. Rashly, +And prais’d be rashness for it,—let us know, +Our indiscretion sometime serves us well, +When our deep plots do pall; and that should teach us +There’s a divinity that shapes our ends, +Rough-hew them how we will. + +HORATIO. +That is most certain. + +HAMLET. +Up from my cabin, +My sea-gown scarf’d about me, in the dark +Grop’d I to find out them; had my desire, +Finger’d their packet, and in fine, withdrew +To mine own room again, making so bold, +My fears forgetting manners, to unseal +Their grand commission; where I found, Horatio, +Oh royal knavery! an exact command, +Larded with many several sorts of reasons, +Importing Denmark’s health, and England’s too, +With ho! such bugs and goblins in my life, +That on the supervise, no leisure bated, +No, not to stay the grinding of the axe, +My head should be struck off. + +HORATIO. +Is’t possible? + +HAMLET. +Here’s the commission, read it at more leisure. +But wilt thou hear me how I did proceed? + +HORATIO. +I beseech you. + +HAMLET. +Being thus benetted round with villanies,— +Or I could make a prologue to my brains, +They had begun the play,—I sat me down, +Devis’d a new commission, wrote it fair: +I once did hold it, as our statists do, +A baseness to write fair, and labour’d much +How to forget that learning; but, sir, now +It did me yeoman’s service. Wilt thou know +The effect of what I wrote? + +HORATIO. +Ay, good my lord. + +HAMLET. +An earnest conjuration from the King, +As England was his faithful tributary, +As love between them like the palm might flourish, +As peace should still her wheaten garland wear +And stand a comma ’tween their amities, +And many such-like ‘as’es of great charge, +That on the view and know of these contents, +Without debatement further, more or less, +He should the bearers put to sudden death, +Not shriving-time allow’d. + +HORATIO. +How was this seal’d? + +HAMLET. +Why, even in that was heaven ordinant. +I had my father’s signet in my purse, +Which was the model of that Danish seal: +Folded the writ up in the form of the other, +Subscrib’d it: gave’t th’impression; plac’d it safely, +The changeling never known. Now, the next day +Was our sea-fight, and what to this was sequent +Thou know’st already. + +HORATIO. +So Guildenstern and Rosencrantz go to’t. + +HAMLET. +Why, man, they did make love to this employment. +They are not near my conscience; their defeat +Does by their own insinuation grow. +’Tis dangerous when the baser nature comes +Between the pass and fell incensed points +Of mighty opposites. + +HORATIO. +Why, what a king is this! + +HAMLET. +Does it not, thinks’t thee, stand me now upon,— +He that hath kill’d my king, and whor’d my mother, +Popp’d in between th’election and my hopes, +Thrown out his angle for my proper life, +And with such cozenage—is’t not perfect conscience +To quit him with this arm? And is’t not to be damn’d +To let this canker of our nature come +In further evil? + +HORATIO. +It must be shortly known to him from England +What is the issue of the business there. + +HAMLET. +It will be short. The interim is mine; +And a man’s life’s no more than to say ‘One’. +But I am very sorry, good Horatio, +That to Laertes I forgot myself; +For by the image of my cause I see +The portraiture of his. I’ll court his favours. +But sure the bravery of his grief did put me +Into a tow’ring passion. + +HORATIO. +Peace, who comes here? + + Enter Osric. + +OSRIC. +Your lordship is right welcome back to Denmark. + +HAMLET. +I humbly thank you, sir. Dost know this waterfly? + +HORATIO. +No, my good lord. + +HAMLET. +Thy state is the more gracious; for ’tis a vice to know him. He hath +much land, and fertile; let a beast be lord of beasts, and his crib +shall stand at the king’s mess; ’tis a chough; but, as I say, spacious +in the possession of dirt. + +OSRIC. +Sweet lord, if your lordship were at leisure, I should impart a thing +to you from his Majesty. + +HAMLET. +I will receive it with all diligence of spirit. Put your bonnet to his +right use; ’tis for the head. + +OSRIC. +I thank your lordship, ’tis very hot. + +HAMLET. +No, believe me, ’tis very cold, the wind is northerly. + +OSRIC. +It is indifferent cold, my lord, indeed. + +HAMLET. +Methinks it is very sultry and hot for my complexion. + +OSRIC. +Exceedingly, my lord; it is very sultry,—as ’twere—I cannot tell how. +But, my lord, his Majesty bade me signify to you that he has laid a +great wager on your head. Sir, this is the matter,— + +HAMLET. +I beseech you, remember,— + + [_Hamlet moves him to put on his hat._] + +OSRIC. +Nay, in good faith; for mine ease, in good faith. Sir, here is newly +come to court Laertes; believe me, an absolute gentleman, full of most +excellent differences, of very soft society and great showing. Indeed, +to speak feelingly of him, he is the card or calendar of gentry; for +you shall find in him the continent of what part a gentleman would see. + +HAMLET. +Sir, his definement suffers no perdition in you, though I know, to +divide him inventorially would dizzy th’arithmetic of memory, and yet +but yaw neither, in respect of his quick sail. But, in the verity of +extolment, I take him to be a soul of great article and his infusion of +such dearth and rareness as, to make true diction of him, his semblable +is his mirror and who else would trace him his umbrage, nothing more. + +OSRIC. +Your lordship speaks most infallibly of him. + +HAMLET. +The concernancy, sir? Why do we wrap the gentleman in our more rawer +breath? + +OSRIC. +Sir? + +HORATIO. +Is’t not possible to understand in another tongue? You will do’t, sir, +really. + +HAMLET. +What imports the nomination of this gentleman? + +OSRIC. +Of Laertes? + +HORATIO. +His purse is empty already, all’s golden words are spent. + +HAMLET. +Of him, sir. + +OSRIC. +I know you are not ignorant,— + +HAMLET. +I would you did, sir; yet in faith if you did, it would not much +approve me. Well, sir? + +OSRIC. +You are not ignorant of what excellence Laertes is,— + +HAMLET. +I dare not confess that, lest I should compare with him in excellence; +but to know a man well were to know himself. + +OSRIC. +I mean, sir, for his weapon; but in the imputation laid on him, by them +in his meed he’s unfellowed. + +HAMLET. +What’s his weapon? + +OSRIC. +Rapier and dagger. + +HAMLET. +That’s two of his weapons. But well. + +OSRIC. +The King, sir, hath wager’d with him six Barbary horses, against the +which he has imponed, as I take it, six French rapiers and poniards, +with their assigns, as girdle, hangers, and so. Three of the carriages, +in faith, are very dear to fancy, very responsive to the hilts, most +delicate carriages, and of very liberal conceit. + +HAMLET. +What call you the carriages? + +HORATIO. +I knew you must be edified by the margin ere you had done. + +OSRIC. +The carriages, sir, are the hangers. + +HAMLET. +The phrase would be more german to the matter if we could carry cannon +by our sides. I would it might be hangers till then. But on. Six +Barbary horses against six French swords, their assigns, and three +liberal conceited carriages: that’s the French bet against the Danish. +Why is this all imponed, as you call it? + +OSRIC. +The King, sir, hath laid that in a dozen passes between you and him, he +shall not exceed you three hits. He hath laid on twelve for nine. And +it would come to immediate trial if your lordship would vouchsafe the +answer. + +HAMLET. +How if I answer no? + +OSRIC. +I mean, my lord, the opposition of your person in trial. + +HAMLET. +Sir, I will walk here in the hall. If it please his Majesty, it is the +breathing time of day with me. Let the foils be brought, the gentleman +willing, and the King hold his purpose, I will win for him if I can; if +not, I will gain nothing but my shame and the odd hits. + +OSRIC. +Shall I re-deliver you e’en so? + +HAMLET. +To this effect, sir; after what flourish your nature will. + +OSRIC. +I commend my duty to your lordship. + +HAMLET. +Yours, yours. + + [_Exit Osric._] + +He does well to commend it himself, there are no tongues else for’s +turn. + +HORATIO. +This lapwing runs away with the shell on his head. + +HAMLET. +He did comply with his dug before he suck’d it. Thus has he,—and many +more of the same bevy that I know the drossy age dotes on,— only got +the tune of the time and outward habit of encounter; a kind of yeasty +collection, which carries them through and through the most fanned and +winnowed opinions; and do but blow them to their trial, the bubbles are +out, + + Enter a Lord. + +LORD. +My lord, his Majesty commended him to you by young Osric, who brings +back to him that you attend him in the hall. He sends to know if your +pleasure hold to play with Laertes or that you will take longer time. + +HAMLET. +I am constant to my purposes, they follow the King’s pleasure. If his +fitness speaks, mine is ready. Now or whensoever, provided I be so able +as now. + +LORD. +The King and Queen and all are coming down. + +HAMLET. +In happy time. + +LORD. +The Queen desires you to use some gentle entertainment to Laertes +before you fall to play. + +HAMLET. +She well instructs me. + + [_Exit Lord._] + +HORATIO. +You will lose this wager, my lord. + +HAMLET. +I do not think so. Since he went into France, I have been in continual +practice. I shall win at the odds. But thou wouldst not think how ill +all’s here about my heart: but it is no matter. + +HORATIO. +Nay, good my lord. + +HAMLET. +It is but foolery; but it is such a kind of gain-giving as would +perhaps trouble a woman. + +HORATIO. +If your mind dislike anything, obey it. I will forestall their repair +hither, and say you are not fit. + +HAMLET. +Not a whit, we defy augury. There’s a special providence in the fall of +a sparrow. If it be now, ’tis not to come; if it be not to come, it +will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all. +Since no man has aught of what he leaves, what is’t to leave betimes? + + Enter King, Queen, Laertes, Lords, Osric and Attendants with foils &c. + +KING. +Come, Hamlet, come, and take this hand from me. + + [_The King puts Laertes’s hand into Hamlet’s._] + +HAMLET. +Give me your pardon, sir. I have done you wrong; +But pardon’t as you are a gentleman. +This presence knows, and you must needs have heard, +How I am punish’d with sore distraction. +What I have done +That might your nature, honour, and exception +Roughly awake, I here proclaim was madness. +Was’t Hamlet wrong’d Laertes? Never Hamlet. +If Hamlet from himself be ta’en away, +And when he’s not himself does wrong Laertes, +Then Hamlet does it not, Hamlet denies it. +Who does it, then? His madness. If’t be so, +Hamlet is of the faction that is wrong’d; +His madness is poor Hamlet’s enemy. +Sir, in this audience, +Let my disclaiming from a purpos’d evil +Free me so far in your most generous thoughts +That I have shot my arrow o’er the house +And hurt my brother. + +LAERTES. +I am satisfied in nature, +Whose motive in this case should stir me most +To my revenge. But in my terms of honour +I stand aloof, and will no reconcilement +Till by some elder masters of known honour +I have a voice and precedent of peace +To keep my name ungor’d. But till that time +I do receive your offer’d love like love, +And will not wrong it. + +HAMLET. +I embrace it freely, +And will this brother’s wager frankly play.— +Give us the foils; come on. + +LAERTES. +Come, one for me. + +HAMLET. +I’ll be your foil, Laertes; in mine ignorance +Your skill shall like a star i’ th’ darkest night, +Stick fiery off indeed. + +LAERTES. +You mock me, sir. + +HAMLET. +No, by this hand. + +KING. +Give them the foils, young Osric. Cousin Hamlet, +You know the wager? + +HAMLET. +Very well, my lord. +Your Grace has laid the odds o’ the weaker side. + +KING. +I do not fear it. I have seen you both; +But since he is better’d, we have therefore odds. + +LAERTES. +This is too heavy. Let me see another. + +HAMLET. +This likes me well. These foils have all a length? + + [_They prepare to play._] + +OSRIC. +Ay, my good lord. + +KING. +Set me the stoups of wine upon that table. +If Hamlet give the first or second hit, +Or quit in answer of the third exchange, +Let all the battlements their ordnance fire; +The King shall drink to Hamlet’s better breath, +And in the cup an union shall he throw +Richer than that which four successive kings +In Denmark’s crown have worn. Give me the cups; +And let the kettle to the trumpet speak, +The trumpet to the cannoneer without, +The cannons to the heavens, the heavens to earth, +‘Now the King drinks to Hamlet.’ Come, begin. +And you, the judges, bear a wary eye. + +HAMLET. +Come on, sir. + +LAERTES. +Come, my lord. + + [_They play._] + +HAMLET. +One. + +LAERTES. +No. + +HAMLET. +Judgment. + +OSRIC. +A hit, a very palpable hit. + +LAERTES. +Well; again. + +KING. +Stay, give me drink. Hamlet, this pearl is thine; +Here’s to thy health. + + [_Trumpets sound, and cannon shot off within._] + +Give him the cup. + +HAMLET. +I’ll play this bout first; set it by awhile. + + [_They play._] + +Come. Another hit; what say you? + + +LAERTES. +A touch, a touch, I do confess. + +KING. +Our son shall win. + +QUEEN. +He’s fat, and scant of breath. +Here, Hamlet, take my napkin, rub thy brows. +The Queen carouses to thy fortune, Hamlet. + +HAMLET. +Good madam. + +KING. +Gertrude, do not drink. + +QUEEN. +I will, my lord; I pray you pardon me. + +KING. +[_Aside._] It is the poison’d cup; it is too late. + +HAMLET. +I dare not drink yet, madam. By and by. + +QUEEN. +Come, let me wipe thy face. + +LAERTES. +My lord, I’ll hit him now. + +KING. +I do not think’t. + +LAERTES. +[_Aside._] And yet ’tis almost ’gainst my conscience. + +HAMLET. +Come for the third, Laertes. You do but dally. +I pray you pass with your best violence. +I am afeard you make a wanton of me. + +LAERTES. +Say you so? Come on. + + [_They play._] + +OSRIC. +Nothing neither way. + +LAERTES. +Have at you now. + + [_Laertes wounds Hamlet; then, in scuffling, they change rapiers, and + Hamlet wounds Laertes._] + +KING. +Part them; they are incens’d. + +HAMLET. +Nay, come again! + + [_The Queen falls._] + +OSRIC. +Look to the Queen there, ho! + +HORATIO. +They bleed on both sides. How is it, my lord? + +OSRIC. +How is’t, Laertes? + +LAERTES. +Why, as a woodcock to my own springe, Osric. +I am justly kill’d with mine own treachery. + +HAMLET. +How does the Queen? + +KING. +She swoons to see them bleed. + +QUEEN. +No, no, the drink, the drink! O my dear Hamlet! +The drink, the drink! I am poison’d. + + [_Dies._] + +HAMLET. +O villany! Ho! Let the door be lock’d: +Treachery! Seek it out. + + [_Laertes falls._] + +LAERTES. +It is here, Hamlet. Hamlet, thou art slain. +No medicine in the world can do thee good. +In thee there is not half an hour of life; +The treacherous instrument is in thy hand, +Unbated and envenom’d. The foul practice +Hath turn’d itself on me. Lo, here I lie, +Never to rise again. Thy mother’s poison’d. +I can no more. The King, the King’s to blame. + +HAMLET. +The point envenom’d too! +Then, venom, to thy work. + + [_Stabs the King._] + +OSRIC and LORDS. +Treason! treason! + +KING. +O yet defend me, friends. I am but hurt. + +HAMLET. +Here, thou incestuous, murderous, damned Dane, +Drink off this potion. Is thy union here? +Follow my mother. + + [_King dies._] + +LAERTES. +He is justly serv’d. +It is a poison temper’d by himself. +Exchange forgiveness with me, noble Hamlet. +Mine and my father’s death come not upon thee, +Nor thine on me. + + [_Dies._] + +HAMLET. +Heaven make thee free of it! I follow thee. +I am dead, Horatio. Wretched Queen, adieu. +You that look pale and tremble at this chance, +That are but mutes or audience to this act, +Had I but time,—as this fell sergeant, death, +Is strict in his arrest,—O, I could tell you,— +But let it be. Horatio, I am dead, +Thou liv’st; report me and my cause aright +To the unsatisfied. + +HORATIO. +Never believe it. +I am more an antique Roman than a Dane. +Here’s yet some liquor left. + +HAMLET. +As th’art a man, +Give me the cup. Let go; by Heaven, I’ll have’t. +O good Horatio, what a wounded name, +Things standing thus unknown, shall live behind me. +If thou didst ever hold me in thy heart, +Absent thee from felicity awhile, +And in this harsh world draw thy breath in pain, +To tell my story. + + [_March afar off, and shot within._] + +What warlike noise is this? + +OSRIC. +Young Fortinbras, with conquest come from Poland, +To the ambassadors of England gives +This warlike volley. + +HAMLET. +O, I die, Horatio. +The potent poison quite o’er-crows my spirit: +I cannot live to hear the news from England, +But I do prophesy th’election lights +On Fortinbras. He has my dying voice. +So tell him, with the occurrents more and less, +Which have solicited. The rest is silence. + + [_Dies._] + +HORATIO. +Now cracks a noble heart. Good night, sweet prince, +And flights of angels sing thee to thy rest. +Why does the drum come hither? + + [_March within._] + + Enter Fortinbras, the English Ambassadors and others. + +FORTINBRAS. +Where is this sight? + +HORATIO. +What is it you would see? +If aught of woe or wonder, cease your search. + +FORTINBRAS. +This quarry cries on havoc. O proud death, +What feast is toward in thine eternal cell, +That thou so many princes at a shot +So bloodily hast struck? + +FIRST AMBASSADOR. +The sight is dismal; +And our affairs from England come too late. +The ears are senseless that should give us hearing, +To tell him his commandment is fulfill’d, +That Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead. +Where should we have our thanks? + +HORATIO. +Not from his mouth, +Had it th’ability of life to thank you. +He never gave commandment for their death. +But since, so jump upon this bloody question, +You from the Polack wars, and you from England +Are here arriv’d, give order that these bodies +High on a stage be placed to the view, +And let me speak to th’ yet unknowing world +How these things came about. So shall you hear +Of carnal, bloody and unnatural acts, +Of accidental judgments, casual slaughters, +Of deaths put on by cunning and forc’d cause, +And, in this upshot, purposes mistook +Fall’n on the inventors’ heads. All this can I +Truly deliver. + +FORTINBRAS. +Let us haste to hear it, +And call the noblest to the audience. +For me, with sorrow I embrace my fortune. +I have some rights of memory in this kingdom, +Which now to claim my vantage doth invite me. + +HORATIO. +Of that I shall have also cause to speak, +And from his mouth whose voice will draw on more. +But let this same be presently perform’d, +Even while men’s minds are wild, lest more mischance +On plots and errors happen. + +FORTINBRAS. +Let four captains +Bear Hamlet like a soldier to the stage, +For he was likely, had he been put on, +To have prov’d most royally; and for his passage, +The soldiers’ music and the rites of war +Speak loudly for him. +Take up the bodies. Such a sight as this +Becomes the field, but here shows much amiss. +Go, bid the soldiers shoot. + + [_A dead march._] + + [_Exeunt, bearing off the bodies, after which a peal of ordnance is + shot off._] + + + +THE FIRST PART OF KING HENRY THE FOURTH + + + + Dramatis Personæ + +KING HENRY the Fourth. +HENRY, PRINCE of Wales, son to the King. +Prince John of LANCASTER, son to the King. +Earl of WESTMORELAND. +Sir Walter BLUNT. +Thomas Percy, Earl of WORCESTER. +Henry Percy, Earl of NORTHUMBERLAND. +Henry Percy, surnamed HOTSPUR, his son. +Edmund MORTIMER, Earl of March. +Scroop, ARCHBISHOP of York. +SIR MICHAEL, his Friend. +Archibald, Earl of DOUGLAS. +Owen GLENDOWER. +Sir Richard VERNON. +Sir John FALSTAFF. +POINS. +GADSHILL. +PETO. +BARDOLPH. +LADY PERCY, Wife to Hotspur. +Lady Mortimer, Daughter to Glendower. +Mrs. Quickly, Hostess in Eastcheap. +Lords, Officers, Sheriff, Vintner, Chamberlain, Drawers, +Carriers, Travellers and Attendants. + +SCENE. England and Wales. + +ACT I + +SCENE I. London. A Room in the Palace. + +[Enter the King Henry, Westmoreland, Sir Walter Blunt, and others.] + +KING. +So shaken as we are, so wan with care, +Find we a time for frighted peace to pant, +And breathe short-winded accents of new broils +To be commenced in strands afar remote. +No more the thirsty entrance of this soil +Shall daub her lips with her own children’s blood; +No more shall trenching war channel her fields, +Nor bruise her flowerets with the armed hoofs +Of hostile paces: those opposed eyes, +Which, like the meteors of a troubled heaven, +All of one nature, of one substance bred, +Did lately meet in the intestine shock +And furious close of civil butchery, +Shall now, in mutual well-beseeming ranks, +March all one way, and be no more opposed +Against acquaintance, kindred, and allies: +The edge of war, like an ill-sheathed knife, +No more shall cut his master. Therefore, friends, +As far as to the sepulchre of Christ— +Whose soldier now, under whose blessed cross +We are impressed and engaged to fight— +Forthwith a power of English shall we levy, +To chase these pagans in those holy fields +Over whose acres walk’d those blessed feet +Which fourteen hundred years ago were nail’d +For our advantage on the bitter cross. +But this our purpose now is twelvemonth old, +And bootless ’tis to tell you we will go: +Therefore we meet not now.—Then let me hear +Of you, my gentle cousin Westmoreland, +What yesternight our Council did decree +In forwarding this dear expedience. + +WESTMORELAND. +My liege, this haste was hot in question, +And many limits of the charge set down +But yesternight; when, all athwart, there came +A post from Wales loaden with heavy news; +Whose worst was, that the noble Mortimer, +Leading the men of Herefordshire to fight +Against th’ irregular and wild Glendower, +Was by the rude hands of that Welshman taken; +A thousand of his people butchered, +Upon whose dead corpse’ there was such misuse, +Such beastly, shameless transformation, +By those Welshwomen done, as may not be +Without much shame re-told or spoken of. + +KING. +It seems, then, that the tidings of this broil +Brake off our business for the Holy Land. + +WESTMORELAND. +This, match’d with other, did, my gracious lord; +For more uneven and unwelcome news +Came from the North, and thus it did import: +On Holy-rood day the gallant Hotspur there, +Young Harry Percy, and brave Archibald, +That ever-valiant and approved Scot, +At Holmedon met; +Where they did spend a sad and bloody hour, +As by discharge of their artillery, +And shape of likelihood, the news was told; +For he that brought them, in the very heat +And pride of their contention did take horse, +Uncertain of the issue any way. + +KING. +Here is a dear and true-industrious friend, +Sir Walter Blunt, new lighted from his horse, +Stain’d with the variation of each soil +Betwixt that Holmedon and this seat of ours; +And he hath brought us smooth and welcome news. +The Earl of Douglas is discomfited: +Ten thousand bold Scots, two-and-twenty knights, +Balk’d in their own blood, did Sir Walter see +On Holmedon’s plains: of prisoners, Hotspur took +Mordake the Earl of Fife and eldest son +To beaten Douglas; and the Earls of Athol, +Of Murray, Angus, and Menteith. +And is not this an honourable spoil, +A gallant prize? ha, cousin, is it not? + +WESTMORELAND. +Faith, ’tis a conquest for a prince to boast of. + +KING. +Yea, there thou makest me sad, and makest me sin +In envy that my Lord Northumberland +Should be the father to so blest a son,— +A son who is the theme of honour’s tongue; +Amongst a grove, the very straightest plant; +Who is sweet Fortune’s minion and her pride: +Whilst I, by looking on the praise of him, +See riot and dishonour stain the brow +Of my young Harry. O, that it could be proved +That some night-tripping fairy had exchanged +In cradle-clothes our children where they lay, +And call’d mine Percy, his Plantagenet! +Then would I have his Harry, and he mine: +But let him from my thoughts. What think you, coz, +Of this young Percy’s pride? the prisoners, +Which he in this adventure hath surprised, +To his own use he keeps; and sends me word, +I shall have none but Mordake Earl of Fife. + +WESTMORELAND. +This is his uncle’s teaching, this is Worcester, +Malevolent to you in all aspects; +Which makes him prune himself, and bristle up +The crest of youth against your dignity. + +KING. +But I have sent for him to answer this; +And for this cause awhile we must neglect +Our holy purpose to Jerusalem. +Cousin, on Wednesday next our Council we +Will hold at Windsor; so inform the lords: +But come yourself with speed to us again; +For more is to be said and to be done +Than out of anger can be uttered. + +WESTMORELAND. +I will, my liege. + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE II. The same. An Apartment of Prince Henry’s. + +[Enter Prince Henry and Falstaff.] + +FALSTAFF. +Now, Hal, what time of day is it, lad? + +PRINCE. +Thou art so fat-witted, with drinking of old sack, and unbuttoning thee +after supper, and sleeping upon benches after noon, that thou hast +forgotten to demand that truly which thou wouldst truly know. What a +devil hast thou to do with the time of the day? unless hours were cups +of sack, and minutes capons, and the blessed Sun himself a fair hot +wench in flame-coloured taffeta, I see no reason why thou shouldst be +so superfluous to demand the time of the day. + +FALSTAFF. +Indeed, you come near me now, Hal; for we that take purses go by the +Moon and the seven stars, and not by Phoebus,—he, that wandering knight +so fair. And I pr’ythee, sweet wag, when thou art king,—as, God save +thy Grace—Majesty I should say, for grace thou wilt have none,— + +PRINCE. +What, none? + +FALSTAFF. +No, by my troth; not so much as will serve to be prologue to an egg and +butter. + +PRINCE. +Well, how then? come, roundly, roundly. + +FALSTAFF. +Marry, then, sweet wag, when thou art king, let not us that are squires +of the night’s body be called thieves of the day’s beauty: let us be +Diana’s foresters, gentlemen of the shade, minions of the Moon; and let +men say we be men of good government, being governed, as the sea is, by +our noble and chaste mistress the Moon, under whose countenance we +steal. + +PRINCE. +Thou say’st well, and it holds well too; for the fortune of us that are +the Moon’s men doth ebb and flow like the sea, being governed, as the +sea is, by the Moon. As, for proof, now: A purse of gold most +resolutely snatch’d on Monday night, and most dissolutely spent on +Tuesday morning; got with swearing Lay by, and spent with crying Bring +in; now ill as low an ebb as the foot of the ladder, and by-and-by in +as high a flow as the ridge of the gallows. + +FALSTAFF. +By the Lord, thou say’st true, lad. And is not my hostess of the +tavern a most sweet wench? + +PRINCE. +As the honey of Hybla, my old lad of the castle. And is not a buff +jerkin a most sweet robe of durance? + +FALSTAFF. +How now, how now, mad wag! what, in thy quips and thy quiddities? what +a plague have I to do with a buff jerkin? + +PRINCE. +Why, what a pox have I to do with my hostess of the tavern? + +FALSTAFF. +Well, thou hast call’d her to a reckoning many a time and oft. + +PRINCE. +Did I ever call for thee to pay thy part? + +FALSTAFF. +No; I’ll give thee thy due, thou hast paid all there. + +PRINCE. +Yea, and elsewhere, so far as my coin would stretch; and where it would +not, I have used my credit. + +FALSTAFF. +Yea, and so used it, that, were it not here apparent that thou art +heir-apparent—But I pr’ythee, sweet wag, shall there be gallows +standing in England when thou art king? and resolution thus fobb’d as +it is with the rusty curb of old father antic the law? Do not thou, +when thou art king, hang a thief. + +PRINCE. +No; thou shalt. + +FALSTAFF. +Shall I? O rare! By the Lord, I’ll be a brave judge. + +PRINCE. +Thou judgest false already: I mean, thou shalt have the hanging of the +thieves, and so become a rare hangman. + +FALSTAFF. +Well, Hal, well; and in some sort it jumps with my humour; as well as +waiting in the Court, I can tell you. + +PRINCE. +For obtaining of suits? + +FALSTAFF. +Yea, for obtaining of suits, whereof the hangman hath no lean wardrobe. +’Sblood, I am as melancholy as a gib-cat or a lugg’d bear. + +PRINCE. +Or an old lion, or a lover’s lute. + +FALSTAFF. +Yea, or the drone of a Lincolnshire bagpipe. + +PRINCE. +What say’st thou to a hare, or the melancholy of Moor-ditch? + +FALSTAFF. +Thou hast the most unsavoury similes, and art, indeed, the most +comparative, rascalliest, sweet young prince,—But, Hal, I pr’ythee +trouble me no more with vanity. I would to God thou and I knew where a +commodity of good names were to be bought. An old lord of the Council +rated me the other day in the street about you, sir,—but I mark’d him +not; and yet he talk’d very wisely,—but I regarded him not; and yet he +talk’d wisely, and in the street too. + +PRINCE. +Thou didst well; for wisdom cries out in the streets, and no man +regards it. + +FALSTAFF. +O, thou hast damnable iteration, and art, indeed, able to corrupt a +saint. Thou hast done much harm upon me, Hal; God forgive thee for it! +Before I knew thee, Hal, I knew nothing; and now am I, if a man should +speak truly, little better than one of the wicked. I must give over +this life, and I will give it over; by the Lord, an I do not, I am a +villain: I’ll be damn’d for never a king’s son in Christendom. + +PRINCE. +Where shall we take a purse to-morrow, Jack? + +FALSTAFF. +Zounds, where thou wilt, lad; I’ll make one: an I do not, call me +villain, and baffle me. + +PRINCE. +I see a good amendment of life in thee,—from praying to purse-taking. + +FALSTAFF. +Why, Hal, ’tis my vocation, Hal; ’tis no sin for a man to labour in his +vocation. + +[Enter Poins.] + +POINS. +Now shall we know if Gadshill have set a match. O, if men were to be +saved by merit, what hole in Hell were hot enough for him? This is the +most omnipotent villain that ever cried Stand! to a true man. + +PRINCE. +Good morrow, Ned. + +POINS. +Good morrow, sweet Hal.—What says Monsieur Remorse? what says Sir John +Sack-and-sugar? Jack, how agrees the Devil and thee about thy soul, +that thou soldest him on Good-Friday last for a cup of Madeira and a +cold capon’s leg? + +PRINCE. +Sir John stands to his word,—the Devil shall have his bargain; +for he was never yet a breaker of proverbs,—he will give the +Devil his due. + +POINS. +Then art thou damn’d for keeping thy word with the Devil. + +PRINCE. +Else he had been damn’d for cozening the Devil. + +POINS. +But, my lads, my lads, to-morrow morning, by four o’clock, early at +Gads-hill! there are pilgrims gong to Canterbury with rich offerings, +and traders riding to London with fat purses: I have visards for you +all; you have horses for yourselves: Gadshill lies to-night in +Rochester: I have bespoke supper to-morrow night in Eastcheap: we may +do it as secure as sleep. If you will go, I will stuff your purses full +of crowns; if you will not, tarry at home and be hang’d. + +FALSTAFF. +Hear ye, Yedward; if I tarry at home and go not, I’ll hang you for +going. + +POINS. +You will, chops? + +FALSTAFF. +Hal, wilt thou make one? + +PRINCE. +Who, I rob? I a thief? not I, by my faith. + +FALSTAFF. +There’s neither honesty, manhood, nor good fellowship in thee, nor thou +camest not of the blood royal, if thou darest not stand for ten +shillings. + +PRINCE. +Well, then, once in my days I’ll be a madcap. + +FALSTAFF. +Why, that’s well said. + +PRINCE. +Well, come what will, I’ll tarry at home. + +FALSTAFF. +By the Lord, I’ll be a traitor, then, when thou art king. + +PRINCE. +I care not. + +POINS. +Sir John, I pr’ythee, leave the Prince and me alone: I will lay him +down such reasons for this adventure, that he shall go. + +FALSTAFF. +Well, God give thee the spirit of persuasion, and him the ears of +profiting, that what thou speakest may move, and what he hears may be +believed, that the true Prince may, for recreation- sake, prove a false +thief; for the poor abuses of the time want countenance. Farewell; you +shall find me in Eastcheap. + +PRINCE. +Farewell, thou latter Spring! farewell, All-hallown Summer! + +[Exit Falstaff.] + +POINS. +Now, my good sweet honey-lord, ride with us to-morrow: I have a jest +to execute that I cannot manage alone. Falstaff, Bardolph, Peto, and +Gadshill, shall rob those men that we have already waylaid: yourself +and I will not be there; and when they have the booty, if you and I do +not rob them, cut this head off from my shoulders. + +PRINCE. +But how shall we part with them in setting forth? + +POINS. +Why, we will set forth before or after them, and appoint them a place +of meeting, wherein it is at our pleasure to fail; and then will they +adventure upon the exploit themselves; which they shall have no sooner +achieved but we’ll set upon them. + +PRINCE. +Ay, but ’tis like that they will know us by our horses, by our habits, +and by every other appointment, to be ourselves. + +POINS. +Tut! our horses they shall not see,—I’ll tie them in the wood; our +visards we will change, after we leave them; and, sirrah, I have cases +of buckram for the nonce, to immask our noted outward garments. + +PRINCE. +But I doubt they will be too hard for us. + +POINS. +Well, for two of them, I know them to be as true-bred cowards as ever +turn’d back; and for the third, if he fight longer than he sees reason, +I’ll forswear arms. The virtue of this jest will be, the +incomprehensible lies that this same fat rogue will tell us when we +meet at supper: how thirty, at least, he fought with; what wards, what +blows, what extremities he endured; and in the reproof of this lies the +jest. + +PRINCE. +Well, I’ll go with thee: provide us all things necessary and meet me +to-night in Eastcheap; there I’ll sup. Farewell. + +POINS. +Farewell, my lord. + +[Exit.] + +PRINCE. +I know you all, and will awhile uphold +The unyok’d humour of your idleness: +Yet herein will I imitate the Sun, +Who doth permit the base contagious clouds +To smother-up his beauty from the world, +That, when he please again to be himself, +Being wanted, he may be more wonder’d at, +By breaking through the foul and ugly mists +Of vapours that did seem to strangle him. +If all the year were playing holidays, +To sport would be as tedious as to work; +But, when they seldom come, they wish’d-for come, +And nothing pleaseth but rare accidents. +So, when this loose behaviour I throw off, +And pay the debt I never promised, +By how much better than my word I am, +By so much shall I falsify men’s hopes; +And, like bright metal on a sullen ground, +My reformation, glittering o’er my fault, +Shall show more goodly and attract more eyes +Than that which hath no foil to set it off. +I’ll so offend, to make offence a skill; +Redeeming time, when men think least I will. + +[Exit.] + +SCENE III. The Same. A Room in the Palace. + +[Enter King Henry, Northumberland, Worcester, Hotspur, Sir Walter +Blunt, and others.] + +KING. +My blood hath been too cold and temperate, +Unapt to stir at these indignities, +And you have found me; for, accordingly, +You tread upon my patience: but be sure +I will from henceforth rather be myself, +Mighty and to be fear’d, than my condition, +Which hath been smooth as oil, soft as young down, +And therefore lost that title of respect +Which the proud soul ne’er pays but to the proud. + +WORCESTER. +Our House, my sovereign liege, little deserves +The scourge of greatness to be used on it; +And that same greatness too which our own hands +Have holp to make so portly. + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +My good lord,— + +KING. +Worcester, get thee gone; for I do see +Danger and disobedience in thine eye: +O, sir, your presence is too bold and peremptory, +And majesty might never yet endure +The moody frontier of a servant brow. +You have good leave to leave us: when we need +Your use and counsel, we shall send for you. + +[Exit Worcester.] + +[To Northumberland.] + +You were about to speak. + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +Yea, my good lord. +Those prisoners in your Highness’ name demanded, +Which Harry Percy here at Holmedon took, +Were, as he says, not with such strength denied +As is deliver’d to your Majesty: +Either envy, therefore, or misprision +Is guilty of this fault, and not my son. + +HOTSPUR. +My liege, I did deny no prisoners. +But, I remember, when the fight was done, +When I was dry with rage and extreme toil, +Breathless and faint, leaning upon my sword, +Came there a certain lord, neat, trimly dress’d, +Fresh as a bridegroom; and his chin new reap’d +Show’d like a stubble-land at harvest-home: +He was perfumed like a milliner; +And ’twixt his finger and his thumb he held +A pouncet-box, which ever and anon +He gave his nose, and took’t away again; +Who therewith angry, when it next came there, +Took it in snuff: and still he smiled and talk’d; +And, as the soldiers bore dead bodies by, +He call’d them untaught knaves, unmannerly, +To bring a slovenly unhandsome corse +Betwixt the wind and his nobility. +With many holiday and lady terms +He question’d me; amongst the rest, demanded +My prisoners in your Majesty’s behalf. +I then, all smarting with my wounds being cold, +Out of my grief and my impatience +To be so pester’d with a popinjay, +Answer’d neglectingly, I know not what,— +He should, or he should not; for’t made me mad +To see him shine so brisk, and smell so sweet, +And talk so like a waiting-gentlewoman +Of guns and drums and wounds,—God save the mark!— +And telling me the sovereign’st thing on Earth +Was parmaceti for an inward bruise; +And that it was great pity, so it was, +This villainous salt-petre should be digg’d +Out of the bowels of the harmless earth, +Which many a good tall fellow had destroy’d +So cowardly; and, but for these vile guns, +He would himself have been a soldier. +This bald unjointed chat of his, my lord, +I answered indirectly, as I said; +And I beseech you, let not his report +Come current for an accusation +Betwixt my love and your high Majesty. + +BLUNT. +The circumstance consider’d, good my lord, +Whatever Harry Percy then had said +To such a person, and in such a place, +At such a time, with all the rest re-told, +May reasonably die, and never rise +To do him wrong, or any way impeach +What then he said, so he unsay it now. + +KING. +Why, yet he doth deny his prisoners, +But with proviso and exception, +That we at our own charge shall ransom straight +His brother-in-law, the foolish Mortimer; +Who, on my soul, hath wilfully betray’d +The lives of those that he did lead to fight +Against that great magician, damn’d Glendower, +Whose daughter, as we hear, the Earl of March +Hath lately married. Shall our coffers, then, +Be emptied to redeem a traitor home? +Shall we buy treason? and indent with fears +When they have lost and forfeited themselves? +No, on the barren mountains let him starve; +For I shall never hold that man my friend +Whose tongue shall ask me for one penny cost +To ransom home revolted Mortimer. + +HOTSPUR. +Revolted Mortimer! +He never did fall off, my sovereign liege, +But by the chance of war: to prove that true +Needs no more but one tongue for all those wounds, +Those mouthed wounds, which valiantly he took, +When on the gentle Severn’s sedgy bank, +In single opposition, hand to hand, +He did confound the best part of an hour +In changing hardiment with great Glendower. +Three times they breathed, and three times did they drink, +Upon agreement, of swift Severn’s flood; +Who then, affrighted with their bloody looks, +Ran fearfully among the trembling reeds, +And hid his crisp head in the hollow bank +Blood-stained with these valiant combatants. +Never did base and rotten policy +Colour her working with such deadly wounds; +Nor never could the noble Mortimer +Receive so many, and all willingly: +Then let not him be slander’d with revolt. + +KING. +Thou dost belie him, Percy, thou dost belie him; +He never did encounter with Glendower: +I tell thee, +He durst as well have met the Devil alone +As Owen Glendower for an enemy. +Art not ashamed? But, sirrah, henceforth +Let me not hear you speak of Mortimer: +Send me your prisoners with the speediest means, +Or you shall hear in such a kind from me +As will displease you.—My Lord Northumberland, +We license your departure with your son.— +Send us your prisoners, or you’ll hear of it. + +[Exeunt King Henry, Blunt, and train.] + +HOTSPUR. +An if the Devil come and roar for them, +I will not send them: I will after straight, +And tell him so; for I will else my heart, +Although it be with hazard of my head. + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +What, drunk with choler? stay, and pause awhile: +Here comes your uncle. + +[Re-enter Worcester.] + +HOTSPUR. +Speak of Mortimer! +Zounds, I will speak of him; and let my soul +Want mercy, if I do not join with him: +Yea, on his part I’ll empty all these veins, +And shed my dear blood drop by drop i’ the dust, +But I will lift the down-trod Mortimer +As high i’ the air as this unthankful King, +As this ingrate and canker’d Bolingbroke. + +NORTH. +[To Worcester.] +Brother, the King hath made your nephew mad. + +WORCESTER. +Who struck this heat up after I was gone? + +HOTSPUR. +He will, forsooth, have all my prisoners; +And when I urged the ransom once again +Of my wife’s brother, then his cheek look’d pale, +And on my face he turn’d an eye of death, +Trembling even at the name of Mortimer. + +WORCESTER. +I cannot blame him: was not he proclaim’d +By Richard that dead is the next of blood? + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +He was; I heard the proclamation: +And then it was when the unhappy King— +Whose wrongs in us God pardon!—did set forth +Upon his Irish expedition; +From whence he intercepted did return +To be deposed, and shortly murdered. + +WORCESTER. +And for whose death we in the world’s wide mouth +Live scandalized and foully spoken of. + +HOTSPUR. +But, soft! I pray you; did King Richard then +Proclaim my brother Edmund Mortimer +Heir to the crown? + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +He did; myself did hear it. + +HOTSPUR. +Nay, then I cannot blame his cousin King, +That wish’d him on the barren mountains starve. +But shall it be, that you, that set the crown +Upon the head of this forgetful man, +And for his sake wear the detested blot +Of murderous subornation,—shall it be, +That you a world of curses undergo, +Being the agents, or base second means, +The cords, the ladder, or the hangman rather?— +O, pardon me, that I descend so low, +To show the line and the predicament +Wherein you range under this subtle King;— +Shall it, for shame, be spoken in these days, +Or fill up chronicles in time to come, +That men of your nobility and power +Did gage them both in an unjust behalf,— +As both of you, God pardon it! have done,— +To put down Richard, that sweet lovely rose, +And plant this thorn, this canker, Bolingbroke? +And shall it, in more shame, be further spoken, +That you are fool’d, discarded, and shook off +By him for whom these shames ye underwent? +No! yet time serves, wherein you may redeem +Your banish’d honours, and restore yourselves +Into the good thoughts of the world again; +Revenge the jeering and disdain’d contempt +Of this proud King, who studies day and night +To answer all the debt he owes to you +Even with the bloody payment of your deaths: +Therefore, I say,— + +WORCESTER. +Peace, cousin, say no more: +And now I will unclasp a secret book, +And to your quick-conceiving discontent +I’ll read you matter deep and dangerous; +As full of peril and adventurous spirit +As to o’er-walk a current roaring loud +On the unsteadfast footing of a spear. + +HOTSPUR. +If we fall in, good night, or sink or swim! +Send danger from the east unto the west, +So honour cross it from the north to south, +And let them grapple. O, the blood more stirs +To rouse a lion than to start a hare! + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +Imagination of some great exploit +Drives him beyond the bounds of patience. + +HOTSPUR. +By Heaven, methinks it were an easy leap, +To pluck bright honour from the pale-faced Moon; +Or dive into the bottom of the deep, +Where fathom-line could never touch the ground, +And pluck up drowned honour by the locks; +So he that doth redeem her thence might wear +Without corrival all her dignities: +But out upon this half-faced fellowship! + +WORCESTER. +He apprehends a world of figures here, +But not the form of what he should attend.— +Good cousin, give me audience for a while. + +HOTSPUR. +I cry you mercy. + +WORCESTER. +Those same noble Scots +That are your prisoners,— + +HOTSPUR. +I’ll keep them all; +By God, he shall not have a Scot of them; +No, if a Scot would save his soul, he shall not: +I’ll keep them, by this hand. + +WORCESTER. +You start away, +And lend no ear unto my purposes. +Those prisoners you shall keep;— + +HOTSPUR. +Nay, I will; that’s flat. +He said he would not ransom Mortimer; +Forbade my tongue to speak of Mortimer; +But I will find him when he lies asleep, +And in his ear I’ll holla Mortimer! +Nay, +I’ll have a starling shall be taught to speak +Nothing but Mortimer, and give it him, +To keep his anger still in motion. + +WORCESTER. +Hear you, cousin; a word. + +HOTSPUR. +All studies here I solemnly defy, +Save how to gall and pinch this Bolingbroke: +And that same sword-and-buckler Prince of Wales, +But that I think his father loves him not, +And would be glad he met with some mischance, +I’d have him poison’d with a pot of ale. + +WORCESTER. +Farewell, kinsman: I will talk to you +When you are better temper’d to attend. + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +Why, what a wasp-stung and impatient fool +Art thou, to break into this woman’s mood, +Tying thine ear to no tongue but thine own! + +HOTSPUR. +Why, look you, I am whipp’d and scourged with rods, +Nettled, and stung with pismires, when I hear +Of this vile politician, Bolingbroke. +In Richard’s time,—what do you call the place?— +A plague upon’t!—it is in Gioucestershire;— +’Twas where the madcap Duke his uncle kept, +His uncle York;—where I first bow’d my knee +Unto this king of smiles, this Bolingbroke;— +When you and he came back from Ravenspurg. + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +At Berkeley-castle. + +HOTSPUR. +You say true:— +Why, what a candy deal of courtesy +This fawning greyhound then did proffer me! +Look, when his infant fortune came to age, +And, Gentle Harry Percy, and kind cousin,— +O, the Devil take such cozeners!—God forgive me!— +Good uncle, tell your tale; for I have done. + +WORCESTER. +Nay, if you have not, to’t again; +We’ll stay your leisure. + +HOTSPUR. +I have done, i’faith. + +WORCESTER. +Then once more to your Scottish prisoners. +Deliver them up without their ransom straight, +And make the Douglas’ son your only mean +For powers in Scotland; which, for divers reasons +Which I shall send you written, be assured, +Will easily be granted.— +[To Northumberland.] You, my lord, +Your son in Scotland being thus employ’d, +Shall secretly into the bosom creep +Of that same noble prelate, well beloved, +Th’ Archbishop. + +HOTSPUR. +Of York, is’t not? + +WORCESTER. +True; who bears hard +His brother’s death at Bristol, the Lord Scroop. +I speak not this in estimation, +As what I think might be, but what I know +Is ruminated, plotted, and set down, +And only stays but to behold the face +Of that occasion that shall bring it on. + +HOTSPUR. +I smell’t: upon my life, it will do well. + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +Before the game’s a-foot, thou still lett’st slip. + +HOTSPUR. +Why, it cannot choose but be a noble plot:— +And then the power of Scotland and of York +To join with Mortimer, ha? + +WORCESTER. +And so they shall. + +HOTSPUR. +In faith, it is exceedingly well aim’d. + +WORCESTER. +And ’tis no little reason bids us speed, +To save our heads by raising of a head; +For, bear ourselves as even as we can, +The King will always think him in our debt, +And think we think ourselves unsatisfied, +Till he hath found a time to pay us home: +And see already how he doth begin +To make us strangers to his looks of love. + +HOTSPUR. +He does, he does: we’ll be revenged on him. + +WORCESTER. +Cousin, farewell: no further go in this +Than I by letters shall direct your course. +When time is ripe,— which will be suddenly,— +I’ll steal to Glendower and Lord Mortimer; +Where you and Douglas, and our powers at once, +As I will fashion it, shall happily meet, +To bear our fortunes in our own strong arms, +Which now we hold at much uncertainty. + +NORTHUMBERLAND. +Farewell, good brother: we shall thrive, I trust. + +HOTSPUR. +Uncle, adieu: O, let the hours be short, +Till fields and blows and groans applaud our sport! + +[Exeunt.] + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Rochester. An Inn-Yard. + +[Enter a Carrier with a lantern in his hand.] + +FIRST CARRIER. +Heigh-ho! an’t be not four by the day, I’ll be hang’d: +Charles’ wain is over the new chimney, and yet our horse’ not +pack’d.—What, ostler! + +OSTLER. +[within.] Anon, anon. + +FIRST CARRIER. +I pr’ythee, Tom, beat Cut’s saddle, put a few flocks in the point; the +poor jade is wrung in the withers out of all cess. + +[Enter another Carrier.] + +SECOND CARRIER. +Peas and beans are as dank here as a dog, and that is the next way to +give poor jades the bots; this house is turned upside down since Robin +ostler died. + +FIRST CARRIER. +Poor fellow! never joyed since the price of oats rose; it was the death +of him. + +SECOND CARRIER. +I think this be the most villainous house in all London road for fleas: + I am stung like a tench. + +FIRST CARRIER. +Like a tench! by the Mass, there is ne’er a king in Christendom could +be better bit than I have been since the first cock.—What, + +ostler! come away and be hang’d; come away. + +SECOND CARRIER. +I have a gammon of bacon and two razes of ginger, to be delivered as +far as Charing-cross. + +FIRST CARRIER. +’Odsbody! the turkeys in my pannier are quite starved.—What, ostler! A +plague on thee! hast thou never an eye in thy head? canst not hear? An +’twere not as good a deed as drink to break the pate of thee, I am a +very villain. Come, and be hang’d: hast no faith in thee? + +[Enter Gadshill.] + +GADSHILL. +Good morrow, carriers. What’s o’clock? + +FIRST CARRIER. +I think it be two o’clock. + +GADSHILL. +I pr’ythee, lend me thy lantern, to see my gelding in the stable. + +FIRST CARRIER. +Nay, soft, I pray ye; I know a trick worth two of that, i’faith. + +GADSHILL. +I pr’ythee, lend me thine. + +SECOND CARRIER. +Ay, when? canst tell? Lend me thy lantern, quoth a? marry, I’ll see +thee hang’d first. + +GADSHILL. +Sirrah carrier, what time do you mean to come to London? + +SECOND CARRIER. +Time enough to go to bed with a candle, I warrant thee.— +Come, neighbour Muggs, we’ll call up the gentlemen: they will +along with company, for they have great charge. + +[Exeunt Carriers.] + +GADSHILL. +What, ho! chamberlain! + +CHAMBERLAIN. +[Within.] At hand, quoth pick-purse. + +GADSHILL. +That’s even as fair as—at hand, quoth the chamberlain; for thou variest +no more from picking of purses than giving direction doth from +labouring; thou lay’st the plot how. + +[Enter Chamberlain.] + +CHAMBERLAIN. +Good morrow, Master Gadshill. It holds current that I told you +yesternight: there’s a franklin in the wild of Kent hath brought three +hundred marks with him in gold: I heard him tell it to one of his +company last night at supper; a kind of auditor; one that hath +abundance of charge too, God knows what. They are up already, and call +for eggs and butter; they will away presently. + +GADSHILL. +Sirrah, if they meet not with Saint Nicholas’ clerks, I’ll give thee +this neck. + +CHAMBERLAIN. +No, I’ll none of it: I pr’ythee, keep that for the hangman; for +I know thou worshippest Saint Nicholas as truly as a man of +falsehood may. + +GADSHILL. +What talkest thou to me of the hangman? if I hang, I’ll make a fat pair +of gallows; for, if I hang, old Sir John hangs with me, and thou +know’st he is no starveling. Tut! there are other Trojans that thou +dreamest not of, the which, for sport-sake, are content to do the +profession some grace; that would, if matters should be look’d into, +for their own credit-sake, make all whole. I am joined with no foot +land-rakers, no long-staff sixpenny strikers, none of these mad +mustachio purple-hued malt-worms; but with nobility and tranquillity, +burgomasters and great oneyers; such as can hold in, such as will +strike sooner than speak, and speak sooner than drink, and drink sooner +than pray: and yet, zwounds, I lie; for they pray continually to their +saint, the Commonwealth; or, rather, not pray to her, but prey on her, +for they ride up and down on her, and make her their boots. + +CHAMBERLAIN. +What, the Commonwealth their boots? will she hold out water in foul +way? + +GADSHILL. +She will, she will; justice hath liquor’d her. We steal as in a castle, +cock-sure; we have the receipt of fernseed,—we walk invisible. + +CHAMBERLAIN. +Nay, by my faith, I think you are more beholding to the night than to +fern-seed for your walking invisible. + +GADSHILL. +Give me thy hand: thou shalt have a share in our purchase, as +I am a true man. + +CHAMBERLAIN. +Nay, rather let me have it, as you are a false thief. + +GADSHILL. +Go to; homo is a common name to all men. Bid the ostler bring my +gelding out of the stable. Farewell, you muddy knave. + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE II. The Road by Gads-hill. + +[Enter Prince Henry and Poins; Bardolph and Peto at some distance.] + +POINS. +Come, shelter, shelter: I have remov’d Falstaff’s horse, and he frets +like a gumm’d velvet. + +PRINCE. +Stand close. + +[They retire.] + +[Enter Falstaff.] + +FALSTAFF. +Poins! Poins, and be hang’d! Poins! + +PRINCE. +[Coming forward.] +Peace, ye fat-kidney’d rascal! what a brawling dost thou keep! + +FALSTAFF. +Where’s Poins, Hal? + +PRINCE. +He is walk’d up to the top of the hill: I’ll go seek him. + +[Retires.] + +FALSTAFF. +I am accursed to rob in that thief’s company: the rascal hath removed +my horse, and tied him I know not where. If I travel but four foot by +the squire further a-foot, I shall break my wind. Well, I doubt not but +to die a fair death for all this, if I ’scape hanging for killing that +rogue. I have forsworn his company hourly any time this two-and-twenty +year, and yet I am bewitch’d with the rogue’s company. If the rascal +have not given me medicines to make me love him, I’ll be hang’d; it +could not be else: I have drunk medicines.— Poins!—Hal!—a plague upon +you both!—Bardolph!—Peto!—I’ll starve, ere I’ll rob a foot further. An +’twere not as good a deed as drink, to turn true man, and to leave +these rogues, I am the veriest varlet that ever chewed with a tooth. +Eight yards of uneven ground is threescore and ten miles a-foot with +me; and the stony-hearted villains know it well enough: a plague +upon’t, when thieves cannot be true one to another! [They whistle.] +Whew!—A plague upon you all! Give me my horse, you rogues; give me my +horse, and be hang’d! + +PRINCE. +[Coming forward.] Peace! lie down; lay thine ear close to the ground, +and list if thou canst hear the tread of travellers. + +FALSTAFF. +Have you any levers to lift me up again, being down? ’Sblood, I’ll not +bear mine own flesh so far a-foot again for all the coin in thy +father’s exchequer. What a plague mean ye to colt me thus? + +PRINCE. +Thou liest; thou art not colted, thou art uncolted. + +FALSTAFF. +I pr’ythee, good Prince Hal, help me to my horse, good king’s son. + +PRINCE. +Out, ye rogue! shall I be your ostler? + +FALSTAFF. +Go, hang thyself in thine own heir-apparent garters! If I be ta’en, +I’ll peach for this. An I have not ballads made on you all, and sung to +filthy tunes, let a cup of sack be my poison. When a jest is so +forward, and a-foot too, I hate it. + +[Enter Gadshill.] + +GADSHILL. +Stand! + +FALSTAFF. +So I do, against my will. + +POINS. +O, ’tis our setter: I know his voice. + +[Comes forward with Bardolph and Peto.] + +BARDOLPH. +What news? + +GADSHILL. +Case ye, case ye; on with your visards: there’s money of the King’s +coming down the hill; ’tis going to the King’s exchequer. + +FALSTAFF. +You lie, ye rogue; ’tis going to the King’s tavern. + +GADSHILL. +There’s enough to make us all. + +FALSTAFF. +To be hang’d. + +PRINCE. +Sirs, you four shall front them in the narrow lane; Ned +Poins and I will walk lower; if they ’scape from your +encounter, then they light on us. + +PETO. +How many be there of them? + +GADSHILL. +Some eight or ten. + +FALSTAFF. +Zwounds, will they not rob us? + +PRINCE. +What, a coward, Sir John Paunch? + +FALSTAFF. +Indeed, I am not John of Gaunt, your grandfather; but yet no coward, +Hal. + +PRINCE. +Well, we leave that to the proof. + +POINS. +Sirrah Jack, thy horse stands behind the hedge: when thou need’st him, +there thou shalt find him. Farewell, and stand fast. + +FALSTAFF. +Now cannot I strike him, if I should be hang’d. + +PRINCE. +[aside to POINTZ.] Ned, where are our disguises? + +POINS. +[aside to PRINCE HENRY.] Here, hard by: stand close. + +[Exeunt Prince and Poins.] + +FALSTAFF. +Now, my masters, happy man be his dole, say I: every man to his +business. + +[Enter Travellers.] + +FIRST TRAVELLER. +Come, neighbour: +The boy shall lead our horses down the hill; +We’ll walk a-foot awhile and ease our legs. + +FALSTAFF, GADSHILL., &C. +Stand! + +SECOND TRAVELLER. +Jesu bless us! + +FALSTAFF. +Strike; down with them; cut the villains’ throats. Ah, whoreson +caterpillars! bacon-fed knaves! they hate us youth: down with them; +fleece them. + +FIRST TRAVELLER. +O, we’re undone, both we and ours for ever! + +FALSTAFF. +Hang ye, gorbellied knaves, are ye undone? No, ye fat chuffs; I would +your store were here! On, bacons on! What, ye knaves! young men must +live. You are grand-jurors, are ye? we’ll jure ye, i’faith. + +[Exeunt Fals., Gads., &c., driving the Travellers out.] + +[Re-enter Prince Henry and Poins, in buckram suits.] + +PRINCE. +The thieves have bound the true men. Now, could thou and I rob the +thieves, and go merrily to London, it would be argument for a week, +laughter for a month, and a good jest for ever. + +POINS. +Stand close: I hear them coming. + +[They retire.] + +[Re-enter Falstaff, Gadshill, Bardolph, and Peto.] + +FALSTAFF. +Come, my masters, let us share, and then to horse before day. +An the Prince and Poins be not two arrant cowards, there’s no +equity stirring: there’s no more valour in that Poins than in a + +wild duck. + +[As they are sharing, the Prince and Poins set upon them.] + +PRINCE. +Your money! + +POINS. +Villains! + +[Falstaff, after a blow or two, and the others run away, leaving the +booty behind them.] + +PRINCE. +Got with much ease. Now merrily to horse: +The thieves are scatter’d, and possess’d with fear +So strongly that they dare not meet each other; +Each takes his fellow for an officer. +Away, good Ned. Fat Falstaff sweats to death, +And lards the lean earth as he walks along: +Were’t not for laughing, I should pity him. + +POINS. +How the rogue roar’d! + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE III. Warkworth. A Room in the Castle. + +[Enter Hotspur, reading a letter.] + +HOTSPUR. +—But, for mine own part, my lord, I could be well contented to be +there, in respect of the love I bear your House.—He could be contented; +why is he not, then? In respect of the love he bears our House!—he +shows in this, he loves his own barn better than he loves our house. +Let me see some more. The purpose you undertake is dangerous;—Why, +that’s certain: ’tis dangerous to take a cold, to sleep, to drink; but +I tell you, my lord fool, out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this +flower, safety. The purpose you undertake is dangerous; the friends you +have named uncertain; the time itself unsorted; and your whole plot too +light for the counterpoise of so great an opposition.— Say you so, say +you so? I say unto you again, you are a shallow, cowardly hind, and +you lie. What a lack-brain is this! By the Lord, our plot is a good +plot as ever was laid; our friends true and constant: a good plot, good +friends, and full of expectation; an excellent plot, very good friends. +What a frosty-spirited rogue is this! Why, my Lord of York commends the +plot and the general course of the action. Zwounds! an I were now by +this rascal, I could brain him with his lady’s fan. Is there not my +father, my uncle, and myself? Lord Edmund Mortimer, my Lord of York, +and Owen Glendower? is there not, besides, the Douglas? have I not all +their letters to meet me in arms by the ninth of the next month? and +are they not some of them set forward already? What a pagan rascal is +this! an infidel! Ha! you shall see now, in very sincerity of fear and +cold heart, will he to the King, and lay open all our proceedings. O, I +could divide myself, and go to buffets, for moving such a dish of +skimm’d milk with so honourable an action! Hang him! let him tell the +King: we are prepared. I will set forward to-night.— + +[Enter Lady Percy.] + +How now, Kate! I must leave you within these two hours. + +LADY PERCY. +O, my good lord, why are you thus alone? +For what offence have I this fortnight been +A banish’d woman from my Harry’s bed? +Tell me, sweet lord, what is’t that takes from thee +Thy stomach, pleasure, and thy golden sleep? +Why dost thou bend thine eyes upon the earth, +And start so often when thou sitt’st alone? +Why hast thou lost the fresh blood in thy cheeks; +And given my treasures and my rights of thee +To thick-eyed musing and curst melancholy? +In thy faint slumbers I by thee have watch’d, +And heard thee murmur tales of iron wars; +Speak terms of manage to thy bounding steed; +Cry Courage! to the field! And thou hast talk’d +Of sallies and retires, of trenches, tents, +Of palisadoes, frontiers, parapets, +Of basilisks, of cannon, culverin, +Of prisoners ransomed, and of soldiers slain, +And all the currents of a heady fight. +Thy spirit within thee hath been so at war, +And thus hath so bestirr’d thee in thy sleep, +That beads of sweat have stood upon thy brow, +Like bubbles in a late-disturbed stream; +And in thy face strange motions have appear’d, +Such as we see when men restrain their breath +On some great sudden hest. O, what portents are these? +Some heavy business hath my lord in hand, +And I must know it, else he loves me not. + +HOTSPUR. +What, ho! + +[Enter a Servant.] + +Is Gilliams with the packet gone? + +SERVANT. +He is, my lord, an hour ago. + +HOTSPUR. +Hath Butler brought those horses from the sheriff? + +SERVANT. +One horse, my lord, he brought even now. + +HOTSPUR. +What horse? a roan, a crop-ear, is it not? + +SERVANT. +It is, my lord. + +HOTSPUR. +That roan shall be my throne. +Well, I will back him straight: O esperance!— +Bid Butler lead him forth into the park. + +[Exit Servant.] + +LADY PERCY. +But hear you, my lord. + +HOTSPUR. +What say’st thou, my lady? + +LADY PERCY. +What is it carries you away? + +HOTSPUR. +Why, my horse, my love, my horse. + +LADY PERCY. +Out, you mad-headed ape! +A weasel hath not such a deal of spleen +As you are toss’d with. In faith, +I’ll know your business, Harry, that I will. +I fear my brother Mortimer doth stir +About his title, and hath sent for you +To line his enterprise: but if you go,— + +HOTSPUR. +So far a-foot, I shall be weary, love. + +LADY PERCY. +Come, come, you paraquito, answer me +Directly to this question that I ask: +In faith, I’ll break thy little finger, Harry, +An if thou wilt not tell me true. + +HOTSPUR. +Away, +Away, you trifler! Love? I love thee not, +I care not for thee, Kate: this is no world +To play with mammets and to tilt with lips: +We must have bloody noses and crack’d crowns, +And pass them current too.—Gods me, my horse!— +What say’st thou, Kate? what wouldst thou have with me? + +LADY PERCY. +Do you not love me? do you not indeed? +Well, do not, then; for, since you love me not, +I will not love myself. Do you not love me? +Nay, tell me if you speak in jest or no. + +HOTSPUR. +Come, wilt thou see me ride? +And when I am o’ horseback, I will swear +I love thee infinitely. But hark you, Kate; +I must not have you henceforth question me +Whither I go, nor reason whereabout: +Whither I must, I must; and, to conclude, +This evening must I leave you, gentle Kate. +I know you wise; but yet no further wise +Than Harry Percy’s wife; constant you are; +But yet a woman: and, for secrecy, +No lady closer; for I well believe +Thou wilt not utter what thou dost not know; +And so far will I trust thee, gentle Kate. + +LADY PERCY. +How! so far? + +HOTSPUR. +Not an inch further. But hark you, Kate: +Whither I go, thither shall you go too; +To-day will I set forth, to-morrow you. +Will this content you, Kate? + +LADY PERCY. +It must of force. + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE IV. Eastcheap. A Room in the Boar’s-Head Tavern. + +[Enter Prince Henry.] + +PRINCE. +Ned, pr’ythee, come out of that fat room, and lend me thy hand to laugh +a little. + +[Enter Poins.] + +POINS. +Where hast been, Hal? + +PRINCE. +With three or four loggerheads amongst three or fourscore hogsheads. I +have sounded the very base-string of humility. Sirrah, I am sworn +brother to a leash of drawers; and can call them all by their Christian +names, as, Tom, Dick, and Francis. They take it already upon their +salvation, that though I be but Prince of Wales, yet I am the king of +courtesy; and tell me flatly I am no proud Jack, like Falstaff, but a +corinthian, a lad of mettle, a good boy,—by the Lord, so they call +me;—and, when I am King of England, I shall command all the good lads +in Eastcheap. They call drinking deep, dying scarlet; and, when you +breathe in your watering, they cry hem! and bid you play it off. To +conclude, I am so good a proficient in one quarter of an hour, that I +can drink with any tinker in his own language during my life. I tell +thee, Ned, thou hast lost much honour, that thou wert not with me in +this action. But, sweet Ned,—to sweeten which name of Ned, I give thee +this pennyworth of sugar, clapp’d even now into my hand by an +under-skinker; one that never spake other English in his life than +Eight shillings and sixpence, and You are welcome; with this shrill +addition, Anon, anon, sir! Score a pint of bastard in the Half-moon,—or +so. But, Ned, to drive away the time till Falstaff come, I pr’ythee, +do thou stand in some by-room, while I question my puny drawer to what +end he gave me the sugar; and do thou never leave calling Francis! that +his tale to me may be nothing but Anon. Step aside, and I’ll show thee +a precedent. + +[Exit Poins.] + +POINS. +[Within.] Francis! + +PRINCE. + +Thou art perfect. + +POINS. +[Within.] Francis! + +[Enter Francis.] + +FRANCIS. +Anon, anon, sir.—Look down into the Pomegranate, Ralph. + +PRINCE. +Come hither, Francis. + +FRANCIS. +My lord? + +PRINCE. +How long hast thou to serve, Francis? + +FRANCIS. +Forsooth, five years, and as much as to— + +POINS. +[within.] Francis! + +FRANCIS. +Anon, anon, sir. + +PRINCE. +Five year! by’r Lady, a long lease for the clinking of pewter. But, +Francis, darest thou be so valiant as to play the coward with thy +indenture and show it a fair pair of heels and run from it? + +FRANCIS. +O Lord, sir, I’ll be sworn upon all the books in England, +I could find in my heart— + +POINS. +[within.] Francis! + +FRANCIS. +Anon, anon, sir. + +PRINCE. +How old art thou, Francis? + +FRANCIS. +Let me see,—about Michaelmas next I shall be— + +POINS. +[within.] Francis! + +FRANCIS. +Anon, sir.—Pray you, stay a little, my lord. + +PRINCE. +Nay, but hark you, Francis: for the sugar thou gavest me, ’twas a +pennyworth, was’t not? + +FRANCIS. +O Lord, sir, I would it had been two! + +PRINCE. +I will give thee for it a thousand pound: ask me when thou wilt, and +thou shalt have it. + +POINS. +[within.] Francis! + +FRANCIS. +Anon, anon. + +PRINCE. +Anon, Francis? No, Francis; but to-morrow, Francis; or, +Francis, a Thursday; or, indeed, Francis, when thou wilt. But, +Francis,— + +FRANCIS. +My lord? + +PRINCE. +—wilt thou rob this leathern-jerkin, crystal-button, nott-pated, +agate-ring, puke-stocking, caddis-garter, smooth-tongue, +Spanish-pouch,— + +FRANCIS. +O Lord, sir, who do you mean? + +PRINCE. +Why, then, your brown bastard is your only drink; for, look you, +Francis, your white canvas doublet will sully: in Barbary, sir, it +cannot come to so much. + +FRANCIS. +What, sir? + +POINS. +[within.] Francis! + +PRINCE. +Away, you rogue! dost thou not hear them call? + +[Here they both call him; Francis stands amazed, not knowing which way +to go.] + +[Enter Vintner.] + +VINTNER. +What, stand’st thou still, and hear’st such a calling? Look to the +guests within. [Exit Francis.]—My lord, old Sir John, with half-a-dozen +more, are at the door: shall I let them in? + +PRINCE. +Let them alone awhile, and then open the door. + +[Exit Vintner.] + +Poins! + +[Re-enter Poins.] + +POINS. +Anon, anon, sir. + +PRINCE. +Sirrah, Falstaff and the rest of the thieves are at the door: shall we +be merry? + +POINS. +As merry as crickets, my lad. But hark ye; what cunning match have you +made with this jest of the drawer? Come, what’s the issue? + +PRINCE. +I am now of all humours that have showed themselves humours since the +old days of goodman Adam to the pupil age of this present twelve +o’clock at midnight.—What’s o’clock, Francis? + +FRANCIS. +[Within.] Anon, anon, sir. + +PRINCE. +That ever this fellow should have fewer words than a parrot, and yet +the son of a woman! His industry is up-stairs and down-stairs; his +eloquence the parcel of a reckoning. I am not yet of Percy’s mind, the +Hotspur of the North; he that kills me some six or seven dozen of Scots +at a breakfast, washes his hands, and says to his wife, Fie upon this +quiet life! I want work. O my sweet Harry, says she, how many hast thou + kill’d to-day? Give my roan horse a drench, says he; and answers, +Some fourteen, an hour after,—a trifle, a trifle. I pr’ythee, call in +Falstaff: I’ll play Percy, and that damn’d brawn shall play Dame +Mortimer his wife. Rivo! says the drunkard. Call in ribs, call in +tallow. + +[Enter Falstaff, Gadshill, Bardolph, and Peto; followed by +Francis with wine.] + +POINS. +Welcome, Jack: where hast thou been? + +FALSTAFF. +A plague of all cowards, I say, and a vengeance too! marry, and +amen!— +Give me a cup of sack, boy.—Ere I lead this life long, I’ll sew +nether-stocks, and mend them and foot them too. A plague of all +cowards!— +Give me a cup of sack, rogue.—Is there no virtue extant? + +[Drinks.] + +PRINCE. +Didst thou never see Titan kiss a dish of butter? pitiful-hearted +butter, that melted at the sweet tale of the Sun! if thou didst, then +behold that compound. + +FALSTAFF. +You rogue, here’s lime in this sack too: there is nothing but roguery +to be found in villainous man: yet a coward is worse than a cup of +sack with lime in it, a villanous coward.—Go thy ways, old Jack: die +when thou wilt, if manhood, good manhood, be not forgot upon the face +of the Earth, then am I a shotten herring. There live not three good +men unhang’d in England; and one of them is fat, and grows old: God +help the while! a bad world, I say. I would I were a weaver; I could +sing psalms or any thing. A plague of all cowards! I say still. + +PRINCE. +How now, wool-sack? what mutter you? + +FALSTAFF. +A king’s son! If I do not beat thee out of thy kingdom with a dagger of +lath, and drive all thy subjects afore thee like a flock of wild-geese, +I’ll never wear hair on my face more. You Prince of Wales! + +PRINCE. +Why, you whoreson round man, what’s the matter? + +FALSTAFF. +Are not you a coward? answer me to that:—and Poins there? + +POINS. +Zwounds, ye fat paunch, an ye call me coward, by the Lord, I’ll stab +thee. + +FALSTAFF. +I call thee coward! I’ll see thee damn’d ere I call thee coward: but I +would give a thousand pound, I could run as fast as thou canst. You are +straight enough in the shoulders; you care not who sees your back: +call you that backing of your friends? A plague upon such backing! give +me them that will face me.—Give me a cup of sack: I am a rogue, if I +drunk to-day. + +PRINCE. +O villain! thy lips are scarce wiped since thou drunk’st last. + +FALSTAFF. +All is one for that. A plague of all cowards! still say I. + +[Drinks.] + +PRINCE. +What’s the matter? + +FALSTAFF. +What’s the matter? there be four of us here have ta’en a thousand pound +this day morning. + +PRINCE. +Where is it, Jack? where is it? + +FALSTAFF. +Where is it! taken from us it is: a hundred upon poor four of us! + +PRINCE. +What, a hundred, man? + +FALSTAFF. +I am a rogue, if I were not at half-sword with a dozen of them two +hours together. I have ’scaped by miracle. I am eight times thrust +through the doublet, four through the hose; my buckler cut through and +through; my sword hack’d like a hand-saw,—ecce signum! I never dealt +better since I was a man: all would not do. A plague of all cowards! +Let them speak: if they speak more or less than truth, they are +villains and the sons of darkness. + +PRINCE. +Speak, sirs; how was it? + +GADSHILL. +We four set upon some dozen,— + +FALSTAFF. +Sixteen at least, my lord. + +GADSHILL. +—and bound them. + +PETO. +No, no; they were not bound. + +FALSTAFF. +You rogue, they were bound, every man of them; or I am a Jew else, an +Ebrew Jew. + +GADSHILL. +As we were sharing, some six or seven fresh men sea upon us,— + +FALSTAFF. +And unbound the rest, and then come in the other. + +PRINCE. +What, fought you with them all? + +FALSTAFF. +All? I know not what you call all; but if I fought not with fifty of +them, I am a bunch of radish: if there were not two or three and fifty +upon poor old Jack, then am I no two-legged creature. + +PRINCE. +Pray God you have not murdered some of them. + +FALSTAFF. +Nay, that’s past praying for: I have pepper’d two of them; two I +am sure I have paid, two rogues in buckram suits. I tell thee what, +Hal, if I tell thee a lie, spit in my face, call me horse. +Thou knowest my old ward: here I lay, and thus I bore my point. +Four rogues in buckram let drive at me,— + +PRINCE. +What, four? thou saidst but two even now. + +FALSTAFF. +Four, Hal; I told thee four. + +POINS. +Ay, ay, he said four. + +FALSTAFF. +These four came all a-front, and mainly thrust at me. I made me no more +ado but took all their seven points in my target, thus. + +PRINCE. +Seven? why, there were but four even now. + +FALSTAFF. +In buckram? + +POINS. +Ay, four, in buckram suits. + +FALSTAFF. +Seven, by these hilts, or I am a villain else. + +PRINCE. +[aside to Poins.] Pr’ythee let him alone; we shall have more anon. + +FALSTAFF. +Dost thou hear me, Hal? + +PRINCE. +Ay, and mark thee too, Jack. + +FALSTAFF. +Do so, for it is worth the listening to. These nine in buckram that I +told thee of,— + +PRINCE. +So, two more already. + +FALSTAFF. +—their points being broken,— + +POINS. +Down fell their hose. + +FALSTAFF. +—began to give me ground: but I followed me close, came in foot and +hand; and with a thought seven of the eleven I paid. + +PRINCE. +O monstrous! eleven buckram men grown out of two! + +FALSTAFF. +But, as the Devil would have it, three misbegotten knaves in Kendal +Green came at my back and let drive at me; for it was so dark, Hal, +that thou couldst not see thy hand. + +PRINCE. +These lies are like the father that begets them, gross as a mountain, +open, palpable. Why, thou nott-pated fool, thou whoreson, obscene +greasy tallow-keech,— + +FALSTAFF. +What, art thou mad? art thou mad? is not the truth the truth? + +PRINCE. +Why, how couldst thou know these men in Kendal green, when it was so +dark thou couldst not see thy hand? come, tell us your reason: what +sayest thou to this? + +POINS. +Come, your reason, Jack, your reason. + +FALSTAFF. +What, upon compulsion? No; were I at the strappado, or all the racks in +the world, I would not tell you on compulsion. Give you a reason on +compulsion! if reasons were as plentiful as blackberries, I would give +no man a reason upon compulsion, I. + +PRINCE. +I’ll be no longer guilty of this sin; this sanguine coward, this +bed-presser, this horse-back-breaker, this huge hill of flesh,— + +FALSTAFF. +Away, you starveling, you eel-skin, you dried neat’s-tongue, you +stock-fish,— +O, for breath to utter what is like thee!—you tailor’s-yard, you +sheath, you bow-case, you vile standing tuck,— + +PRINCE. +Well, breathe awhile, and then to it again: and, when thou hast tired +thyself in base comparisons, hear me speak but this:— + +POINS. +Mark, Jack. + +PRINCE. +—We two saw you four set on four; you bound them, and were masters of +their wealth.—Mark now, how a plain tale shall put you down.— Then did +we two set on you four; and, with a word, outfaced you from your prize, +and have it; yea, and can show it you here in the house: and, Falstaff, +you carried yourself away as nimbly, with as quick dexterity, and +roared for mercy, and still ran and roar’d, as ever I heard bull-calf. +What a slave art thou, to hack thy sword as thou hast done, and then +say it was in fight! What trick, what device, what starting-hole canst +thou now find out to hide thee from this open and apparent shame? + +POINS. +Come, let’s hear, Jack; what trick hast thou now? + +FALSTAFF. +By the Lord, I knew ye as well as he that made ye. Why, hear ye, my +masters: Was it for me to kill the heir-apparent? should I turn upon +the true Prince? why, thou knowest I am as valiant as Hercules: but +beware instinct; the lion will not touch the true Prince. Instinct is a +great matter; I was now a coward on instinct. I shall think the better +of myself and thee during my life; I for a valiant lion, and thou for a +true prince. But, by the Lord, lads, I am glad you have the money.— +[To Hostess within.] Hostess, clap-to the doors: watch to-night, pray +to-morrow.—Gallants, lads, boys, hearts of gold, all the titles of good +fellowship come to you! What, shall we be merry? shall we have a play +extempore? + +PRINCE. +Content; and the argument shall be thy running away. + +FALSTAFF. +Ah, no more of that, Hal, an thou lovest me! + +[Enter the Hostess.] + +HOSTESS. +O Jesu, my lord the Prince,— + +PRINCE. +How now, my lady the hostess! What say’st thou to me? + +HOSTESS. +Marry, my lord, there is a nobleman of the Court at door would speak +with you: he says he comes from your father. + +PRINCE. +Give him as much as will make him a royal man, and send him back again +to my mother. + +FALSTAFF. +What manner of man is he? + +HOSTESS. +An old man. + +FALSTAFF. +What doth gravity out of his bed at midnight? Shall I give him his +answer? + +PRINCE. +Pr’ythee, do, Jack. + +FALSTAFF. +Faith, and I’ll send him packing. + +[Exit.] + +PRINCE. +Now, sirs:—by’r Lady, you fought fair;—so did you, Peto;—so did you, +Bardolph: you are lions, too, you ran away upon instinct, you will not +touch the true Prince; no,—fie! + +BARDOLPH. +Faith, I ran when I saw others run. + +PRINCE. +Tell me now in earnest, how came Falstaff’s sword so hack’d? + +PETO. +Why, he hack’d it with his dagger; and said he would swear truth out of +England, but he would make you believe it was done in fight; and +persuaded us to do the like. + +BARDOLPH. +Yea, and to tickle our noses with spear-grass to make them bleed; and +then to beslubber our garments with it, and swear it was the blood of +true men. I did that I did not this seven year before; I blush’d to +hear his monstrous devices. + +PRINCE. +O villain, thou stolest a cup of sack eighteen years ago, and wert +taken with the manner, and ever since thou hast blush’d extempore. Thou +hadst fire and sword on thy side, and yet thou rann’st away: what +instinct hadst thou for it? + +BARDOLPH. +My lord, do you see these meteors? do you behold these exhalations? + +PRINCE. +I do. + +BARDOLPH. +What think you they portend? + +PRINCE. +Hot livers and cold purses. + +BARDOLPH. +Choler, my lord, if rightly taken. + +PRINCE. +No, if rightly taken, halter.—Here comes lean Jack, here comes +bare-bone.— + +[Enter Falstaff.] + +How now, my sweet creature of bombast! How long is’t ago, Jack, since +thou saw’st thine own knee? + +FALSTAFF. +My own knee! when I was about thy years, Hal, I was not an eagle’s +talon in the waist; I could have crept into any alderman’s thumb-ring: +a plague of sighing and grief! it blows a man up like a bladder. +There’s villanous news abroad: here was Sir John Bracy from your +father; you must to the Court in the morning. That same mad fellow of +the North, Percy; and he of Wales, that gave Amaimon the bastinado, and +swore the Devil his true liegeman upon the cross of a Welsh hook,—what +a plague call you him? + +POINS. +O, Glendower. + +FALSTAFF. +Owen, Owen,—the same; and his son-in-law Mortimer; and old +Northumberland; and that sprightly Scot of Scots, Douglas, that +runs o’ horseback up a hill perpendicular,— + +PRINCE. +He that rides at high speed and with his pistol kills a sparrow flying. + +FALSTAFF. +You have hit it. + +PRINCE. +So did he never the sparrow. + +FALSTAFF. +Well, that rascal hath good metal in him; he will not run. + +PRINCE. +Why, what a rascal art thou, then, to praise him so for running! + +FALSTAFF. +O’ horseback, ye cuckoo! but a-foot he will not budge a foot. + +PRINCE. +Yes, Jack, upon instinct. + +FALSTAFF. +I grant ye, upon instinct. Well, he is there too, and one Mordake, and +a thousand blue-caps more: Worcester is stolen away to-night; thy +father’s beard is turn’d white with the news: you may buy land now as +cheap as stinking mackerel. But, tell me, Hal, art not thou horrible +afeard? thou being heir-apparent, could the world pick thee out three +such enemies again as that fiend Douglas, that spirit Percy, and that +devil Glendower? art thou not horribly afraid? doth not thy blood +thrill at it? + +PRINCE. +Not a whit, i’faith; I lack some of thy instinct. + +FALSTAFF. +Well, thou wilt be horribly chid to-morrow when thou comest to thy +father. If thou love life, practise an answer. + +PRINCE. +Do thou stand for my father and examine me upon the particulars of my +life. + +FALSTAFF. +Shall I? content: this chair shall be my state, this dagger my +sceptre, and this cushion my crown. + +PRINCE. +Thy state is taken for a joint-stool, thy golden sceptre for a leaden +dagger, and thy precious rich crown for a pitiful bald crown. + +FALSTAFF. +Well, an the fire of grace be not quite out of thee, now shalt thou be +moved.— Give me a cup of sack, to make my eyes look red, that it may be +thought I have wept; for I must speak in passion, and I will do it in +King Cambyses’ vein. + +PRINCE. +Well, here is my leg. + +FALSTAFF. +And here is my speech.—Stand aside, nobility. + +HOSTESS. +O Jesu, this is excellent sport, i faith! + +FALSTAFF. +Weep not, sweet Queen; for trickling tears are vain. + +HOSTESS. +O, the Father, how he holds his countenance! + +FALSTAFF. +For God’s sake, lords, convey my tristful Queen; +For tears do stop the floodgates of her eyes. + +HOSTESS. +O Jesu, he doth it as like one of these harlotry players as ever +I see! + +FALSTAFF. +Peace, good pint-pot; peace, good tickle-brain.—Harry, I do not only +marvel where thou spendest thy time, but also how thou art accompanied: + for though the camomile, the more it is trodden on, the faster it +grows, yet youth, the more it is wasted, the sooner it wears. That thou +art my son, I have partly thy mother’s word, partly my own opinion; but +chiefly a villainous trick of thine eye, and a foolish hanging of thy +nether lip, that doth warrant me. If, then, thou be son to me, here +lies the point: Why, being son to me, art thou so pointed at? Shall +the blessed Sun of heaven prove a micher, and eat blackberries? a +question not to be ask’d. Shall the son of England prove a thief, and +take purses? a question to be ask’d. There is a thing, Harry, which +thou hast often heard of, and it is known to many in our land by the +name of pitch: this pitch, as ancient writers do report, doth defile; +so doth the company thou keepest: for, Harry, now I do not speak to +thee in drink, but in tears; not in pleasure, but in passion; not in +words only, but in woes also. And yet there is a virtuous man whom I +have often noted in thy company, but I know not his name. + +PRINCE. +What manner of man, an it like your Majesty? + +FALSTAFF. +A goodly portly man, i’faith, and a corpulent; of a cheerful look, a +pleasing eye, and a most noble carriage; and, as I think, his age some +fifty, or, by’r Lady, inclining to threescore; and now I remember me, +his name is Falstaff: if that man should be lewdly given, he deceiveth +me; for, Harry, I see virtue in his looks. If, then, the tree may be +known by the fruit, as the fruit by the tree, then, peremptorily I +speak it, there is virtue in that Falstaff: him keep with, the rest +banish. And tell me now, thou naughty varlet, tell me where hast thou +been this month? + +PRINCE. +Dost thou speak like a king? Do thou stand for me, and I’ll play my +father. + +FALSTAFF. +Depose me! if thou dost it half so gravely, so majestically, both in +word and matter, hang me up by the heels for a rabbit-sucker or a +poulter’s hare. + +PRINCE. +Well, here I am set. + +FALSTAFF. +And here I stand.—Judge, my masters. + +PRINCE. +Now, Harry, whence come you? + +FALSTAFF. +My noble lord, from Eastcheap. + +PRINCE. +The complaints I hear of thee are grievous. + +FALSTAFF. +’Sblood, my lord, they are false.—Nay, I’ll tickle ye for a young +prince, i’faith. + +PRINCE. +Swearest thou, ungracious boy? henceforth ne’er look on me. Thou art +violently carried away from grace: there is a devil haunts thee, in +the likeness of an old fat man,—a tun of man is thy companion. Why dost +thou converse with that trunk of humours, that bolting-hutch of +beastliness, that swollen parcel of dropsies, that huge bombard of +sack, that roasted Manningtree ox with the pudding in his belly, that +reverend Vice, that grey Iniquity, that father ruffian, that vanity in +years? Wherein is he good, but to taste sack and drink it? wherein neat +and cleanly, but to carve a capon and eat it? wherein cunning, but in +craft? wherein crafty, but in villany? wherein villainous, but in all +things? wherein worthy, but in nothing? + +FALSTAFF. +I would your Grace would take me with you: whom means your Grace? + +PRINCE. +That villainous abominable misleader of youth, Falstaff, that old +white-bearded Satan. + +FALSTAFF. +My lord, the man I know. + +PRINCE. +I know thou dost. + +FALSTAFF. +But to say I know more harm in him than in myself, were to say more +than I know. That he is old,—(the more the pity,—his white hairs do +witness it. If sack and sugar be a fault, God help the wicked! if to be +old and merry be a sin, then many an old host that I know is damn’d: if +to be fat be to be hated, then Pharaoh’s lean kine are to be loved. No, +my good lord: banish Peto, banish Bardolph, banish Poins; but, for +sweet Jack Falstaff, kind Jack Falstaff, true Jack Falstaff, valiant +Jack Falstaff, and therefore more valiant, being, as he is, old Jack +Falstaff, banish not him thy Harry’s company, banish not him thy +Harry’s company: banish plump Jack, and banish all the world. + +PRINCE. +I do, I will. + +[A knocking heard.] + +[Exeunt Hostess, Francis, and Bardolph.] + +[Enter Bardolph, running.] + +BARDOLPH. +O, my lord, my lord! the sheriff with a most monstrous watch is at the +door. + +FALSTAFF. +Out, ye rogue!—Play out the play: I have much to say in the behalf of +that Falstaff. + +[Re-enter the Hostess, hastily.] + +HOSTESS. +O Jesu, my lord, my lord,— + +PRINCE. +Heigh, heigh! the Devil rides upon a fiddlestick: what’s the matter? + +HOSTESS. +The sheriff and all the watch are at the door: they are come to search +the house. Shall I let them in? + +FALSTAFF. +Dost thou hear, Hal? never call a true piece of gold a counterfeit: +thou art essentially mad without seeming so. + +PRINCE. +And thou a natural coward, without instinct. + +FALSTAFF. +I deny your major: if you will deny the sheriff, so; if not, let him +enter: if I become not a cart as well as another man, a plague on my +bringing up! I hope I shall as soon be strangled with a halter as +another. + +PRINCE. +Go, hide thee behind the arras:—the rest walk, up above. Now, my +masters, for a true face and good conscience. + +FALSTAFF. +Both which I have had; but their date is out, and therefore I’ll hide +me. + +PRINCE. +Call in the sheriff.— + +[Exeunt all but the Prince and Poins.] + +[Enter Sheriff and Carrier.] + +Now, master sheriff, what’s your will with me? + +SHERIFF. +First, pardon me, my lord. A hue-and-cry +Hath followed certain men unto this house. + +PRINCE. +What men? + +SHERIFF. +One of them is well known, my gracious lord,— +A gross fat man. + +CARRIER. +As fat as butter. + +PRINCE. +The man, I do assure you, is not here; +For I myself at this time have employ’d him. +And, sheriff, I will engage my word to thee, +That I will, by to-morrow dinner-time, +Send him to answer thee, or any man, +For any thing he shall be charged withal: +And so, let me entreat you leave the house. + +SHERIFF. +I will, my lord. There are two gentlemen +Have in this robbery lost three hundred marks. + +PRINCE. +It may be so: if he have robb’d these men, +He shall be answerable; and so, farewell. + +SHERIFF. +Good night, my noble lord. + +PRINCE. +I think it is good morrow, is it not? + +SHERIFF. +Indeed, my lord, I think’t be two o’clock. + +[Exit Sheriff and Carrier.] + +PRINCE. +This oily rascal is known as well as Paul’s. Go, call him forth. + +POINS. +Falstaff!—fast asleep behind the arras, and snorting like a horse. + +PRINCE. +Hark, how hard he fetches breath. Search his pockets. + +[Poins searches.] + +What hast thou found? + +POINS. +Nothing but papers, my lord. + +PRINCE. +Let’s see what they be: read them. + +POINS. +[reads] +Item, A capon, . . . . . . . . . 2s. 2d. +Item, Sauce, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4d. +Item, Sack two gallons ,. . . 5s. 8d. +Item, Anchovies and sack after supper, 2s. 6d. +Item, Bread, . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ob. + +PRINCE. +O monstrous! but one half-pennyworth of bread to this intolerable deal +of sack! What there is else, keep close; we’ll read it at more +advantage: there let him sleep till day. I’ll to the Court in the +morning. We must all to the wars, and thy place shall be honourable. +I’ll procure this fat rogue a charge of foot; and I know his death will +be a march of twelve-score. The money shall be paid back again with +advantage. Be with me betimes in the morning; and so, good morrow, +Poins. + +POINS. +Good morrow, good my lord. + +[Exeunt.] + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Bangor. A Room in the Archdeacon’s House. + +[Enter Hotspur, Worcester, Mortimer, and Glendower.] + +MORTIMER. +These promises are fair, the parties sure, +And our induction full of prosperous hope. + +HOTSPUR. +Lord Mortimer,—and cousin Glendower,—Will you sit down?— +And uncle Worcester,—A plague upon it! I have forgot the map. + +GLENDOWER. +No, here it is. +Sit, cousin Percy; sit, good cousin Hotspur; +For by that name as oft as Lancaster +Doth speak of you, his cheek looks pale, and with +A rising sigh he wisheth you in Heaven. + +HOTSPUR. +And you in Hell, as oft as he hears Owen Glendower spoke of. + +GLENDOWER. +I cannot blame him: at my nativity +The front of heaven was full of fiery shapes, +Of burning cressets; ay, and at my birth +The frame and huge foundation of the Earth +Shaked like a coward. + +HOTSPUR. +Why, so it would have done at the same season, if your mother’s cat had +but kitten’d, though yourself had never been born. + +GLENDOWER. +I say the Earth did shake when I was born. + +HOTSPUR. +And I say the Earth was not of my mind, if you suppose as fearing you +it shook. + +GLENDOWER. +The Heavens were all on fire, the Earth did tremble. + +HOTSPUR. +O, then th’ Earth shook to see the Heavens on fire, +And not in fear of your nativity. +Diseased Nature oftentimes breaks forth +In strange eruptions; oft the teeming Earth +Is with a kind of colic pinch’d and vex’d +By the imprisoning of unruly wind +Within her womb; which, for enlargement striving, +Shakes the old beldam Earth, and topples down +Steeples and moss-grown towers. At your birth, +Our grandam Earth, having this distemperature, +In passion shook. + +GLENDOWER. +Cousin, of many men +I do not bear these crossings. Give me leave +To tell you once again, that at my birth +The front of heaven was full of fiery shapes; +The goats ran from the mountains, and the herds +Were strangely clamorous to the frighted fields. +These signs have mark’d me extraordinary; +And all the courses of my life do show +I am not in the roll of common men. +Where is he living,—clipp’d in with the sea +That chides the banks of England, Scotland, Wales,— +Which calls me pupil, or hath read to me? +And bring him out that is but woman’s son +Can trace me in the tedious ways of art, +And hold me pace in deep experiments. + +HOTSPUR. +I think there is no man speaks better Welsh.—I’ll to dinner. + +MORTIMER. +Peace, cousin Percy; you will make him mad. + +GLENDOWER. +I can call spirits from the vasty deep. + +HOTSPUR. +Why, so can I, or so can any man; +But will they come when you do call for them? + +GLENDOWER. +Why, I can teach you, cousin, to command the Devil. + +HOTSPUR. +And I can teach thee, coz, to shame the Devil +By telling truth: tell truth, and shame the Devil. +If thou have power to raise him, bring him hither, +And I’ll be sworn I’ve power to shame him hence. +O, while you live, tell truth, and shame the Devil! + +MORTIMER. +Come, come, no more of this unprofitable chat. + +GLENDOWER. +Three times hath Henry Bolingbroke made head +Against my power; thrice from the banks of Wye +And sandy-bottom’d Severn have I sent +Him bootless home and weather-beaten back. + +HOTSPUR. +Home without boots, and in foul weather too! +How ’scaped he agues, in the Devil’s name! + +GLENDOWER. +Come, here’s the map: shall we divide our right +According to our threefold order ta’en? + +MORTIMER. +Th’ archdeacon hath divided it +Into three limits very equally. +England, from Trent and Severn hitherto, +By south and east is to my part assign’d: +All westward, Wales beyond the Severn shore, +And all the fertile land within that bound, +To Owen Glendower:—and, dear coz, to you +The remnant northward, lying off from Trent. +And our indentures tripartite are drawn; +Which being sealed interchangeably,— +A business that this night may execute,— +To-morrow, cousin Percy, you, and I, +And my good Lord of Worcester, will set forth +To meet your father and the Scottish power, +As is appointed us, at Shrewsbury. +My father Glendower is not ready yet, +Nor shall we need his help these fourteen days:— +[To Glend.] Within that space you may have drawn together +Your tenants, friends, and neighbouring gentlemen. + +GLENDOWER. +A shorter time shall send me to you, lords: +And in my conduct shall your ladies come; +From whom you now must steal, and take no leave, +For there will be a world of water shed +Upon the parting of your wives and you. + +HOTSPUR. +Methinks my moiety, north from Burton here, +In quantity equals not one of yours. +See how this river comes me cranking in, +And cuts me from the best of all my land +A huge half-moon, a monstrous cantle out. +I’ll have the current in this place damn’d up; +And here the smug and sliver Trent shall run +In a new channel, fair and evenly: +It shall not wind with such a deep indent, +To rob me of so rich a bottom here. + +GLENDOWER. +Not wind? it shall, it must; you see it doth. + +MORTIMER. +Yea, but +Mark how he bears his course, and runs me up +With like advantage on the other side; +Gelding th’ opposed continent as much +As on the other side it takes from you. + +WORCESTER. +Yea, but a little charge will trench him here, +And on this north side win this cape of land; +And then he runneth straight and evenly. + +HOTSPUR. +I’ll have it so: a little charge will do it. + +GLENDOWER. +I will not have it alter’d. + +HOTSPUR. +Will not you? + +GLENDOWER. +No, nor you shall not. + +HOTSPUR. +Who shall say me nay? + +GLENDOWER. +Why, that will I. + +HOTSPUR. +Let me not understand you, then; speak it in Welsh. + +GLENDOWER. +I can speak English, lord, as well as you; +For I was train’d up in the English Court; +Where, being but young, I framed to the harp +Many an English ditty lovely well, +And gave the tongue a helpful ornament, +A virtue that was never seen in you. + +HOTSPUR. +Marry, and I am glad of it with all my heart: +I had rather be a kitten, and cry mew, +Than one of these same metre ballet-mongers; +I had rather hear a brazen canstick turn’d, +Or a dry wheel grate on the axletree; +And that would set my teeth nothing on edge, +Nothing so much as mincing poetry: +’Tis like the forced gait of a shuffling nag. + +GLENDOWER. +Come, you shall have Trent turn’d. + +HOTSPUR. +I do not care: I’ll give thrice so much land +To any well-deserving friend; +But in the way of bargain, mark ye me, +I’ll cavil on the ninth part of a hair. +Are the indentures drawn? shall we be gone? +GLEND. + +The Moon shines fair; you may away by night: +I’ll in and haste the writer, and withal +Break with your wives of your departure hence: +I am afraid my daughter will run mad, +So much she doteth on her Mortimer. + +[Exit.] + +MORTIMER. +Fie, cousin Percy! how you cross my father! + +HOTSPUR. +I cannot choose: sometimes he angers me +With telling me of the moldwarp and the ant, +Of the dreamer Merlin and his prophecies, +And of a dragon and a finless fish, +A clip-wing’d griffin and a moulten raven, +A couching lion and a ramping cat, +And such a deal of skimble-skamble stuff +As puts me from my faith. I tell you what, +He held me last night at the least nine hours +In reckoning up the several devils’ names +That were his lacqueys: I cried hum, and well, +But mark’d him not a word. O, he’s as tedious +As a tired horse, a railing wife; +Worse than a smoky house: I had rather live +With cheese and garlic in a windmill, far, +Than feed on cates and have him talk to me +In any summer-house in Christendom. + +MORTIMER. +In faith, he is a worthy gentleman; +Exceedingly well-read, and profited +In strange concealments; valiant as a lion, +And wondrous affable, and as bountiful +As mines of India. Shall I tell you, cousin? +He holds your temper in a high respect, +And curbs himself even of his natural scope +When you do cross his humour; faith, he does: +I warrant you, that man is not alive +Might so have tempted him as you have done, +Without the taste of danger and reproof: +But do not use it oft, let me entreat you. + +WORCESTER. +In faith, my lord, you are too wilful-blunt; +And since your coming hither have done enough +To put him quite beside his patience. +You must needs learn, lord, to amend this fault: +Though sometimes it show greatness, courage, blood— +And that’s the dearest grace it renders you,— +Yet oftentimes it doth present harsh rage, +Defect of manners, want of government, +Pride, haughtiness, opinion, and disdain; +The least of which haunting a nobleman +Loseth men’s hearts, and leaves behind a stain +Upon the beauty of all parts besides, +Beguiling them of commendation. + +HOTSPUR. +Well, I am school’d: good manners be your speed! +Here come our wives, and let us take our leave. + +[Re-enter Glendower, with Lady Mortimer and Lady Percy.] + +MORTIMER. +This is the deadly spite that angers me, +My wife can speak no English, I no Welsh. + +GLENDOWER. +My daughter weeps: she will not part with you; +She’ll be a soldier too, she’ll to the wars. + +MORTIMER. +Good father, tell her that she and my aunt Percy +Shall follow in your conduct speedily. + +[Glendower speaks to Lady Mortimer in Welsh, and she answers him in the +same.] + +GLENDOWER. +She’s desperate here; a peevish self-will’d harlotry, +One that no persuasion can do good upon. + +[Lady Mortimer speaks to Mortimer in Welsh.] + +MORTIMER. +I understand thy looks: that pretty Welsh +Which thou pour’st down from these swelling heavens +I am too perfect in; and, but for shame, +In such a parley should I answer thee. + +[Lady Mortimer speaks to him again in Welsh.] + +I understand thy kisses, and thou mine, +And that’s a feeling disputation: +But I will never be a truant, love, +Till I have learn’d thy language; for thy tongue +Makes Welsh as sweet as ditties highly penn’d, +Sung by a fair queen in a Summer’s bower, +With ravishing division, to her lute. + +GLENDOWER. +Nay, if you melt, then will she run mad. + +[Lady Mortimer speaks to Mortimer again in Welsh.] + +MORTIMER. +O, I am ignorance itself in this! + +GLENDOWER. +She bids you on the wanton rushes lay you down, +And rest your gentle head upon her lap, +And she will sing the song that pleaseth you, +And on your eyelids crown the god of sleep, +Charming your blood with pleasing heaviness; +Making such difference betwixt wake and sleep, +As is the difference betwixt day and night, +The hour before the heavenly-harness’d team +Begins his golden progress in the East. + +MORTIMER. +With all my heart I’ll sit and hear her sing: +By that time will our book, I think, be drawn. + +GLENDOWER. +Do so: +An those musicians that shall play to you +Hang in the air a thousand leagues from hence, +And straight they shall be here: sit, and attend. + +HOTSPUR. +Come, Kate, thou art perfect in lying down: come, quick, quick, that I +may lay my head in thy lap. + +LADY PERCY. +Go, ye giddy goose. + +[The music plays.] + +HOTSPUR. +Now I perceive the Devil understands Welsh; +And ’tis no marvel he’s so humorous. +By’r Lady, he’s a good musician. + +LADY PERCY. +Then should you be nothing but musical; for you are altogether governed +by humours. Lie still, ye thief, and hear the lady sing in Welsh. + +HOTSPUR. +I had rather hear Lady, my brach, howl in Irish. + +LADY PERCY. +Wouldst thou have thy head broken? + +HOTSPUR. +No. + +LADY PERCY. +Then be still. + +HOTSPUR. +Neither; ’tis a woman’s fault. + +LADY PERCY. +Now God help thee! + +HOTSPUR. +Peace! she sings. + +[A Welsh song by Lady Mortimer.] + +Come, Kate, I’ll have your song too. + +LADY PERCY. +Not mine, in good sooth. + +HOTSPUR. +Not yours, in good sooth! ’Heart! you swear like a +comfit-maker’s wife. Not mine, in good sooth; and, As true +as I live; and, As God shall mend me; and, As sure as day; +And givest such sarcenet surety for thy oaths, +As if thou ne’er walk’dst further than Finsbury. +Swear me, Kate, like a lady as thou art, +A good mouth-filling oath; and leave in sooth, +And such protest of pepper-gingerbread, +To velvet-guards and Sunday-citizens. Come, sing. + +LADY PERCY. +I will not sing. + +HOTSPUR. +’Tis the next way to turn tailor, or be redbreast-teacher. +An the indentures be drawn, I’ll away within these two hours; +and so, come in when ye will. + +[Exit.] + +GLENDOWER. +Come, come, Lord Mortimer; you are as slow +As hot Lord Percy is on fire to go. +By this our book’s drawn; we’ll but seal, and then +To horse immediately. + +MORTIMER. +With all my heart. + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE II. London. A Room in the Palace. + +[Enter King Henry, Prince Henry, and Lords.] + +KING. +Lords, give us leave; the Prince of Wales and I +Must have some private conference: but be near at hand, +For we shall presently have need of you. + +[Exeunt Lords.] + +I know not whether God will have it so, +For some displeasing service I have done, +That, in His secret doom, out of my blood +He’ll breed revengement and a scourge for me; +But thou dost, in thy passages of life, +Make me believe that thou art only mark’d +For the hot vengeance and the rod of Heaven +To punish my mistreadings. Tell me else, +Could such inordinate and low desires, +Such poor, such base, such lewd, such mean attempts, +Such barren pleasures, rude society, +As thou art match’d withal and grafted to, +Accompany the greatness of thy blood, +And hold their level with thy princely heart? + +PRINCE. +So please your Majesty, I would I could +Quit all offences with as clear excuse +As well as I am doubtless I can purge +Myself of many I am charged withal: +Yet such extenuation let me beg, +As, in reproof of many tales devised +By smiling pick-thanks and base news-mongers,— +Which oft the ear of greatness needs must hear,— +I may, for some things true, wherein my youth +Hath faulty wander’d and irregular, +Find pardon on my true submission. + +KING. +God pardon thee! Yet let me wonder, Harry, +At thy affections, which do hold a wing +Quite from the flight of all thy ancestors. +Thy place in Council thou hast rudely lost, +Which by thy younger brother is supplied; +And art almost an alien to the hearts +Of all the Court and princes of my blood: +The hope and expectation of thy time +Is ruin’d; and the soul of every man +Prophetically does forethink thy fall. +Had I so lavish of my presence been, +So common-hackney’d in the eyes of men, +So stale and cheap to vulgar company, +Opinion, that did help me to the crown, +Had still kept loyal to possession, +And left me in reputeless banishment, + +A fellow of no mark nor likelihood. +By being seldom seen, I could not stir +But, like a comet, I was wonder’d at; +That men would tell their children, This is he; +Others would say, Where, which is Bolingbroke? +And then I stole all courtesy from Heaven, +And dress’d myself in such humility, +That I did pluck allegiance from men’s hearts, +Loud shouts and salutations from their mouths, +Even in the presence of the crowned King. +Thus did I keep my person fresh and new; +My presence, like a robe pontifical, +Ne’er seen but wonder’d at: and so my state, +Seldom but sumptuous, showed like a feast, +And won by rareness such solemnity. +The skipping King, he ambled up and down +With shallow jesters and rash bavin wits, +Soon kindled and soon burnt; carded his state, +Mingled his royalty, with capering fools; +Had his great name profaned with their scorns; +And gave his countenance, against his name, +To laugh at gibing boys, and stand the push +Of every beardless vain comparative; +Grew a companion to the common streets, +Enfeoff’d himself to popularity; +That, being dally swallow’d by men’s eyes, +They surfeited with honey, and began +To loathe the taste of sweetness, whereof a little +More than a little is by much too much. +So, when he had occasion to be seen, +He was but as the cuckoo is in June, +Heard, not regarded; seen, but with such eyes +As, sick and blunted with community, +Afford no extraordinary gaze, +Such as is bent on sun-like majesty +When it shines seldom in admiring eyes; +But rather drowsed, and hung their eyelids down, +Slept in his face, and render’d such aspect +As cloudy men use to their adversaries, +Being with his presence glutted, gorged, and full. +And in that very line, Harry, stand’st thou; +For thou hast lost thy princely privilege +With vile participation: not an eye +But is a-weary of thy common sight, +Save mine, which hath desired to see thee more; +Which now doth that I would not have it do, +Make blind itself with foolish tenderness. + +PRINCE. +I shall hereafter, my thrice-gracious lord, +Be more myself. + +KING. +For all the world, +As thou art to this hour, was Richard then +When I from France set foot at Ravenspurg; +And even as I was then is Percy now. +Now, by my sceptre, and my soul to boot, +He hath more worthy interest to the state +Than thou, the shadow of succession; +For, of no right, nor colour like to right, +He doth fill fields with harness in the realm, +Turns head against the lion’s armed jaws; +And, being no more in debt to years than thou, +Leads ancient lords and reverend bishops on +To bloody battles and to bruising arms. +What never-dying honour hath he got +Against renowned Douglas! whose high deeds, +Whose hot incursions, and great name in arms, +Holds from all soldiers chief majority +And military title capital +Through all the kingdoms that acknowledge Christ: +Thrice hath this Hotspur, Mars in swathing-clothes, +This infant warrior, in his enterprises +Discomfited great Douglas; ta’en him once, +Enlarged him, and made a friend of him, +To fill the mouth of deep defiance up, +And shake the peace and safety of our throne. +And what say you to this? Percy, Northumberland, +Th’ Archbishop’s Grace of York, Douglas, and Mortimer +Capitulate against us, and are up. +But wherefore do I tell these news to thee? +Why, Harry, do I tell thee of my foes, +Which art my near’st and dearest enemy? +Thou that art like enough,—through vassal fear, +Base inclination, and the start of spleen,— +To fight against me under Percy’s pay, +To dog his heels, and curtsy at his frowns, +To show how much thou art degenerate. + +PRINCE. +Do not think so; you shall not find it so: +And God forgive them that so much have sway’d +Your Majesty’s good thoughts away from me! +I will redeem all this on Percy’s head, +And, in the closing of some glorious day, +Be bold to tell you that I am your son; +When I will wear a garment all of blood, +And stain my favour in a bloody mask, +Which, wash’d away, shall scour my shame with it: +And that shall be the day, whene’er it lights, +That this same child of honour and renown, +This gallant Hotspur, this all-praised knight, +And your unthought-of Harry, chance to meet. +For every honour sitting on his helm, +Would they were multitudes, and on my head +My shames redoubled! for the time will come, +That I shall make this northern youth exchange +His glorious deeds for my indignities. +Percy is but my factor, good my lord, +T’ engross up glorious deeds on my behalf; +And I will call hall to so strict account, +That he shall render every glory up, +Yea, even the slightest worship of his time, +Or I will tear the reckoning from his heart. +This, in the name of God, I promise here: +The which if I perform, and do survive, +I do beseech your Majesty, may salve +The long-grown wounds of my intemperance: +If not, the end of life cancels all bands; +And I will die a hundred thousand deaths +Ere break the smallest parcel of this vow. + +KING. +A hundred thousand rebels die in this. +Thou shalt have charge and sovereign trust herein.— + +[Enter Sir Walter Blunt.] + +How now, good Blunt! thy looks are full of speed. + +BLUNT. +So is the business that I come to speak of. +Lord Mortimer of Scotland hath sent word +That Douglas and the English rebels met +Th’ eleventh of this month at Shrewsbury: +A mighty and a fearful head they are, +If promises be kept on every hand, +As ever offer’d foul play in a State. + +KING. +The Earl of Westmoreland set forth to-day; +With him my son, Lord John of Lancaster; +For this advertisement is five days old. +On Wednesday next you, Harry, shall set forward; +On Thursday we ourselves will march: +Our meeting is Bridgenorth: and, Harry, you +Shall march through Glostershire; by which account, +Our business valued, some twelve days hence +Our general forces at Bridgenorth shall meet. +Our hands are full of business: let’s away; +Advantage feeds him fat, while men delay. + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE III. Eastcheap. A Room in the Boar’s-Head Tavern. + +[Enter Falstaff and Bardolph.] + +FALSTAFF. +Bardolph, am I not fallen away vilely since this last action? do I not +bate? do I not dwindle? Why, my skin hangs about me like an old lady’s +loose gown; I am withered like an old apple-John. Well, I’ll repent, +and that suddenly, while I am in some liking; I shall be out of heart +shortly, and then I shall have no strength to repent. An I have not +forgotten what the inside of a church is made of, I am a peppercorn, a +brewer’s horse: the inside of a church! Company, villainous company, +hath been the spoil of me. + +BARDOLPH. +Sir John, you are so fretful, you cannot live long. + +FALSTAFF. +Why, there is it: come, sing me a song; make me merry. I was as +virtuously given as a gentleman need to be; virtuous enough; swore +little; diced not above seven times a week; paid money that I borrowed +—three or four times; lived well, and in good compass: and now I live +out of all order, out of all compass. + +BARDOLPH. +Why, you are so fat, Sir John, that you must needs be out of all +compass, —out of all reasonable compass, Sir John. + +FALSTAFF. +Do thou amend thy face, and I’ll amend my life: thou art our admiral, +thou bearest the lantern in the poop,—but ’tis in the nose of thee; +thou art the Knight of the Burning Lamp. + +BARDOLPH. +Why, Sir John, my face does you no harm. + +FALSTAFF. +No, I’ll be sworn; I make as good use of it as many a man doth of a +death’s-head or a memento mori: I never see thy face but I think upon +hell-fire, and Dives that lived in purple; for there he is in his +robes, burning, burning. If thou wert any way given to virtue, I would +swear by thy face; my oath should be, By this fire, that’s God’s angel: + but thou art altogether given over; and wert indeed, but for the light +in thy face, the son of utter darkness. When thou rann’st up Gad’s-hill +in the night to catch my horse, if I did not think thou hadst been an +ignis fatuus or a ball of wildfire, there’s no purchase in money. O, +thou art a perpetual triumph, an everlasting bonfire-light! Thou hast +saved me a thousand marks in links and torches, walking with thee in +the night betwixt tavern and tavern: but the sack that thou hast drunk +me would have bought me lights as good cheap at the dearest chandler’s +in Europe. I have maintain’d that salamander of yours with fire any +time this two-and-thirty years; God reward me for it! + +BARDOLPH. +’Sblood, I would my face were in your stomach! + +FALSTAFF. +God-a-mercy! so should I be sure to be heart-burn’d.— + +[Enter the Hostess.] + +How now, Dame Partlet the hen! have you enquir’d yet who pick’d my +pocket? + +HOSTESS. +Why, Sir John, what do you think, Sir John? do you think I keep thieves +in my house? I have search’d, I have inquired, so has my husband, man +by man, boy by boy, servant by servant: the tithe of a hair was never +lost in my house before. + +FALSTAFF. +Ye lie, hostess: Bardolph was shaved, and lost many a hair; and +I’ll be sworn my pocket was pick’d. Go to, you are a woman, go. + +HOSTESS. +Who, I? no; I defy thee: God’s light, I was never call’d so in mine +own house before. + +FALSTAFF. +Go to, I know you well enough. + +HOSTESS. +No, Sir John; you do not know me, Sir John. I know you, Sir John: you +owe me money, Sir John; and now you pick a quarrel to beguile me of it: +I bought you a dozen of shirts to your back. + +FALSTAFF. +Dowlas, filthy dowlas: I have given them away to bakers’ wives, and +they have made bolters of them. + +HOSTESS. +Now, as I am a true woman, holland of eight shillings an ell. +You owe money here besides, Sir John, for your diet and by-drinkings, +and money lent you, four-and-twenty pound. + +FALSTAFF. +He had his part of it; let him pay. + +HOSTESS. +He? alas, he is poor; he hath nothing. + +FALSTAFF. +How! poor? look upon his face; what call you rich? let them coin his +nose, let them coin his cheeks: I’ll not pay a denier. What, will you +make a younker of me? shall I not take mine ease in mine inn, but I +shall have my pocket pick’d? I have lost a seal-ring of my +grandfather’s worth forty mark. + +HOSTESS. +O Jesu, I have heard the Prince tell him, I know not how oft, that that +ring was copper! + +FALSTAFF. +How! the Prince is a Jack, a sneak-cup: ’sblood, an he were here, I +would cudgel him like a dog, if he would say so.— + +[Enter Prince Henry and Poins, marching. Falstaff meets them, playing +on his truncheon like a fife.] + +How now, lad? is the wind in that door, i’faith? must we all march? + +BARDOLPH. +Yea, two-and-two, Newgate-fashion. + +HOSTESS. +My lord, I pray you, hear me. + +PRINCE. +What say’st thou, Mistress Quickly? How doth thy husband? I love him +well; he is an honest man. + +HOSTESS. +Good my lord, hear me. + +FALSTAFF. +Pr’ythee, let her alone, and list to me. + +PRINCE. +What say’st thou, Jack? + +FALSTAFF. +The other night I fell asleep here behind the arras, and had my pocket +pick’d: this house is turn’d bawdy-house; they pick pockets. + +PRINCE. +What didst thou lose, Jack? + +FALSTAFF. +Wilt thou believe me, Hal? three or four bonds of forty pound a-piece +and a seal-ring of my grandfather’s. + +PRINCE. +A trifle, some eight-penny matter. + +HOSTESS. +So I told him, my lord; and I said I heard your Grace say so; and, my +lord, he speaks most vilely of you, like a foul-mouth’d man as he is; +and said he would cudgel you. + +PRINCE. +What! he did not? + +HOSTESS. +There’s neither faith, truth, nor womanhood in me else. + +FALSTAFF. +There’s no more faith in thee than in a stew’d prune; nor no more truth +in thee than in a drawn fox; and, for woman-hood, Maid Marian may be +the deputy’s wife of the ward to thee. Go, you thing, go. + +HOSTESS. +Say, what thing? what thing? I am an honest man’s wife: and, setting +thy knighthood aside, thou art a knave to call me so. + +FALSTAFF. +Setting thy womanhood aside, thou art a beast to say otherwise. + +HOSTESS. +Say, what beast, thou knave, thou? + +FALSTAFF. +What beast! why, an otter. + +PRINCE. +An otter, Sir John, why an otter? + +FALSTAFF. +Why, she’s neither fish nor flesh; a man knows not where to have her. + +HOSTESS. +Thou art an unjust man in saying so; thou or any man knows where to +have me, thou knave, thou! + +PRINCE. +Thou say’st true, hostess; and he slanders thee most grossly. + +HOSTESS. +So he doth you, my lord; and said this other day you ought him a +thousand pound. + +PRINCE. +Sirrah, do I owe you a thousand pound? + +FALSTAFF. + +A thousand pound, Hal! a million: thy love is worth a million; thou +owest me thy love. + +HOSTESS. +Nay, my lord, he call’d you Jack, and said he would cudgel you. + +FALSTAFF. +Did I, Bardolph? + +BARDOLPH. +Indeed, Sir John, you said so. + +FALSTAFF. +Yea, if he said my ring was copper. + +PRINCE. +I say ’tis copper: darest thou be as good as thy word now? + +FALSTAFF. +Why, Hal, thou know’st, as thou art but man, I dare; but as thou art +prince, I fear thee as I fear the roaring of the lion’s whelp. + +PRINCE. +And why not as the lion? + +FALSTAFF. +The King himself is to be feared as the lion: dost thou think I’ll +fear thee as I fear thy father? nay, an I do, I pray God my girdle +break. + +PRINCE. +Sirrah, there’s no room for faith, truth, nor honesty in this bosom of +thine; it is all fill’d up with midriff. Charge an honest woman with +picking thy pocket! why, thou whoreson, impudent, emboss’d rascal, if +there were anything in thy pocket but tavern-reckonings, and one poor +pennyworth of sugar-candy to make thee long-winded,—if thy pocket were +enrich’d with any other injuries but these, I am a villain: and yet +you will stand to it; you will not pocket-up wrong. Art thou not +ashamed! + +FALSTAFF. +Dost thou hear, Hal? thou know’st, in the state of innocency Adam fell; +and what should poor Jack Falstaff do in the days of villainy? Thou +see’st I have more flesh than another man; and therefore more frailty. +You confess, then, you pick’d my pocket? + +PRINCE. +It appears so by the story. + +FALSTAFF. +Hostess, I forgive thee: go, make ready breakfast; love thy husband, +look to thy servants, cherish thy guests: thou shalt find me tractable +to any honest reason; thou see’st I am pacified.—Still? Nay, pr’ythee, +be gone. + +[Exit Hostess.] + +Now, Hal, to the news at Court: for the robbery, lad, how is that +answered? + +PRINCE. +O, my sweet beef, I must still be good angel to thee: the money is +paid back again. + +FALSTAFF. +O, I do not like that paying back; ’tis a double labour. + +PRINCE. +I am good friends with my father, and may do any thing. + +FALSTAFF. +Rob me the exchequer the first thing thou doest, and do it with +unwash’d hands too. + +BARDOLPH. +Do, my lord. + +PRINCE. +I have procured thee, Jack, a charge of Foot. + +FALSTAFF. +I would it had been of Horse. Where shall I find one that can steal +well? O, for a fine thief, of the age of two-and-twenty or thereabouts! +I am heinously unprovided. Well, God be thanked for these rebels; they +offend none but the virtuous: I laud them, I praise them. + +PRINCE. +Bardolph,— + +BARDOLPH. +My lord? + +PRINCE. +Go bear this letter to Lord John of Lancaster, +To my brother John; this to my Lord of Westmoreland.— + +[Exit Bardolph.] + +Go, Poins, to horse, to horse; for thou and I +Have thirty miles to ride yet ere dinner-time.— + +[Exit Poins.] + +Meet me to-morrow, Jack, i’ the Temple-hall +At two o’clock in th’ afternoon: +There shalt thou know thy charge; and there receive +Money and order for their furniture. +The land is burning; Percy stands on high; +And either they or we must lower lie. + +[Exit.] + +FALSTAFF. +Rare words! brave world!—Hostess, my breakfast; come:— +O, I could wish this tavern were my drum! + +[Exit.] + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. The Rebel Camp near Shrewsbury. + +[Enter Hotspur, Worcester, and Douglas.] + +HOTSPUR. +Well said, my noble Scot: if speaking truth +In this fine age were not thought flattery, +Such attribution should the Douglas have, +As not a soldier of this season’s stamp +Should go so general-current through the world. +By God, I cannot flatter; I defy +The tongues of soothers; but a braver place +In my heart’s love hath no man than yourself: +Nay, task me to my word; approve me, lord. + +DOUGLAS. +Thou art the king of honour: +No man so potent breathes upon the ground +But I will beard him. + +HOTSPUR. +Do so, and ’tis well.— + +[Enter a Messenger with letters.] + +What letters hast thou there?—I can but thank you. + +MESSENGER. +These letters come from your father. + +HOTSPUR. +Letters from him! why comes he not himself? + +MESSENGER. +He cannot come, my lord; he’s grievous sick. + +HOTSPUR. +Zwounds! how has he the leisure to be sick +In such a justling time? Who leads his power? +Under whose government come they along? + +MESSENGER. +His letters bears his mind, not I, my lord. + +WORCESTER. +I pr’ythee, tell me, doth he keep his bed? + +MESSENGER. +He did, my lord, four days ere I set forth, +And at the time of my departure thence +He was much fear’d by his physicians. + +WORCESTER. +I would the state of time had first been whole +Ere he by sickness had been visited: +His health was never better worth than now. + +HOTSPUR. +Sick now! droop now! this sickness doth infect +The very life-blood of our enterprise; +’Tis catching hither, even to our camp. + +He writes me here, that inward sickness,— +And that his friends by deputation could not +So soon be drawn; no did he think it meet +To lay so dangerous and dear a trust +On any soul removed, but on his own. +Yet doth he give us bold advertisement, +That with our small conjunction we should on, +To see how fortune is disposed to us; +For, as he writes, there is no quailing now, +Because the King is certainly possess’d +Of all our purposes. What say you to it? + +WORCESTER. +Your father’s sickness is a maim to us. + +HOTSPUR. +A perilous gash, a very limb lopp’d off:— +And yet, in faith, ’tis not; his present want +Seems more than we shall find it. Were it good +To set the exact wealth of all our states +All at one cast? to set so rich a main +On the nice hazard of one doubtful hour? +It were not good; for therein should we read +The very bottom and the soul of hope, +The very list, the very utmost bound +Of all our fortunes. + +DOUGLAS. +Faith, and so we should; +Where now remains a sweet reversion; +And we may boldly spend upon the hope +Of what is to come in: +A comfort of retirement lives in this. + +HOTSPUR. +A rendezvous, a home to fly unto, +If that the Devil and mischance look big +Upon the maidenhead of our affairs. + +WORCESTER. +But yet I would your father had been here. +The quality and hair of our attempt +Brooks no division: it will be thought +By some, that know not why he is away, +That wisdom, loyalty, and mere dislike +Of our proceedings, kept the earl from hence: +And think how such an apprehension +May turn the tide of fearful faction, +And breed a kind of question in our cause; +For well you know we of the offering side +Must keep aloof from strict arbitrement, +And stop all sight-holes, every loop from whence +The eye of reason may pry in upon us. +This absence of your father’s draws a curtain, +That shows the ignorant a kind of fear +Before not dreamt of. + +HOTSPUR. +Nay, you strain too far. +I, rather, of his absence make this use: +It lends a lustre and more great opinion, +A larger dare to our great enterprise, +Than if the earl were here; for men must think, +If we, without his help, can make a head +To push against the kingdom, with his help +We shall o’erturn it topsy-turvy down. +Yet all goes well, yet all our joints are whole. + +DOUGLAS. +As heart can think: there is not such a word +Spoke in Scotland as this term of fear. + +[Enter Sir Richard Vernon.] + +HOTSPUR. +My cousin Vernon! welcome, by my soul. + +VERNON. +Pray God my news be worth a welcome, lord. +The Earl of Westmoreland, seven thousand strong, +Is marching hitherwards; with him Prince John. + +HOTSPUR. +No harm: what more? + +VERNON. +And further, I have learn’d +The King himself in person is set forth, +Or hitherwards intended speedily, +With strong and mighty preparation. + +HOTSPUR. +He shall be welcome too. Where is his son, +The nimble-footed madcap Prince of Wales, +And his comrades, that daff the world aside, +And bid it pass? + +VERNON. +All furnish’d, all in arms; +All plumed like estridges that with the wind +Bate it; like eagles having lately bathed; +Glittering in golden coats, like images; +As full of spirit as the month of May +And gorgeous as the Sun at midsummer; +Wanton as youthful goats, wild as young bulls. +I saw young Harry—with his beaver on, +His cuisses on his thighs, gallantly arm’d— +Rise from the ground like feather’d Mercury, +And vault it with such ease into his seat, +As if an angel dropp’d down from the clouds, +To turn and wind a fiery Pegasus, +And witch the world with noble horsemanship. + +HOTSPUR. +No more, no more: worse than the Sun in March, +This praise doth nourish agues. Let them come; +They come like sacrifices in their trim, +And to the fire-eyed maid of smoky war, +All hot and bleeding, will we offer them: +The mailed Mars shall on his altar sit +Up to the ears in blood. I am on fire +To hear this rich reprisal is so nigh, +And yet not ours.—Come, let me taste my horse, +Who is to bear me, like a thunderbolt, +Against the bosom of the Prince of Wales: +Harry and Harry shall, hot horse to horse, +Meet, and ne’er part till one drop down a corse.— +O, that Glendower were come! + +VERNON. +There is more news: +I learn’d in Worcester, as I rode along, +He cannot draw his power this fourteen days. + +DOUGLAS. +That’s the worst tidings that I hear of yet. + +WORCESTER. +Ay, by my faith, that bears a frosty sound. + +HOTSPUR. +What may the King’s whole battle reach unto? + +VERNON. +To thirty thousand. + +HOTSPUR. +Forty let it be: +My father and Glendower being both away, +The powers of us may serve so great a day. +Come, let us take a muster speedily: +Doomsday is near; die all, die merrily. + +DOUGLAS. +Talk not of dying: I am out of fear +Of death or death’s hand for this one half-year. + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE II. A public Road near Coventry. + +[Enter Falstaff and Bardolph.] + +FALSTAFF. +Bardolph, get thee before to Coventry; fill me a bottle of sack: our +soldiers shall march through; we’ll to Sutton-Co’fil’ to-night. + +BARDOLPH. +Will you give me money, captain? + +FALSTAFF. +Lay out, lay out. + +BARDOLPH. +This bottle makes an angel. + +FALSTAFF. +An if it do, take it for thy labour; an if it make twenty, +take them all; I’ll answer the coinage. Bid my lieutenant +Peto meet me at the town’s end. + +BARDOLPH. +I will, captain: farewell. + +[Exit.] + +FALSTAFF. +If I be not ashamed of my soldiers, I am a soused gurnet. I have +misused the King’s press damnably. I have got, in exchange of a hundred +and fifty soldiers, three hundred and odd pounds. I press’d me none but +good householders, yeomen’s sons; inquired me out contracted bachelors, +such as had been ask’d twice on the banns; such a commodity of warm +slaves as had as lief hear the Devil as a drum; such as fear the report +of a caliver worse than a struck fowl or a hurt wild-duck. I press’d me +none but such toasts-and-butter, with hearts in their bodies no bigger +than pins’-heads, and they have bought out their services; and now my +whole charge consists of ancients, corporals, lieutenants, gentlemen of +companies, slaves as ragged as Lazarus in the painted cloth, where the +glutton’s dogs licked his sores; and such as, indeed, were never +soldiers, but discarded unjust serving-men, younger sons to younger +brothers, revolted tapsters, and ostlers trade-fallen; the cankers of a +calm world and a long peace; ten times more dishonourable ragged than +an old faced ancient: and such have I, to fill up the rooms of them +that have bought out their services, that you would think that I had a +hundred and fifty tattered Prodigals lately come from swine-keeping, +from eating draff and husks. A mad fellow met me on the way, and told +me I had unloaded all the gibbets, and press’d the dead bodies. No eye +hath seen such scarecrows. I’ll not march through Coventry with them, +that’s flat: nay, and the villains march wide betwixt the legs, as if +they had gyves on; for, indeed, I had the most of them out of prison. +There’s but a shirt and a half in all my company; and the half-shirt is +two napkins tack’d together and thrown over the shoulders like a +herald’s coat without sleeves; and the shirt, to say the truth, stolen +from my host at Saint Alban’s, or the red-nose innkeeper of Daventry. +But that’s all one; they’ll find linen enough on every hedge. + +[Enter Prince Henry and Westmoreland.] + +PRINCE. +How now, blown Jack! how now, quilt! + +FALSTAFF. +What, Hal! how now, mad wag! what a devil dost thou in +Warwickshire?—My good Lord of Westmoreland, I cry you mercy: +I thought your honour had already been at Shrewsbury. + +WESTMORELAND. +Faith, Sir John, ’tis more than time that I were there, and you too; +but my powers are there already. The King, I can tell you, looks for us +all: we must away all, to-night. + +FALSTAFF. +Tut, never fear me: I am as vigilant as a cat to steal cream. + +PRINCE. +I think, to steal cream, indeed; for thy theft hath already made thee +butter. But tell me, Jack, whose fellows are these that come after? + +FALSTAFF. +Mine, Hal, mine. + +PRINCE. +I did never see such pitiful rascals. + +FALSTAFF. +Tut, tut; good enough to toss; food for powder, food for powder; +they’ll fill a pit as well as better: tush, man, mortal men, mortal +men. + +WESTMORELAND. +Ay, but, Sir John, methinks they are exceeding poor and bare,—too +beggarly. + +FALSTAFF. +Faith, for their poverty, I know not where they had that; and, for +their bareness, I am sure they never learn’d that of me. + +PRINCE. +No, I’ll be sworn; unless you call three fingers on the ribs bare. But, +sirrah, make haste: Percy is already in the field. + +[Exit.] + +FALSTAFF. +What, is the King encamp’d? + +WESTMORELAND. +He is, Sir John: I fear we shall stay too long. + +[Exit.] + +FALSTAFF. +Well, +To the latter end of a fray and the beginning of a feast +Fits a dull fighter and a keen guest. + +[Exit.] + +SCENE III. The Rebel Camp near Shrewsbury. + +[Enter Hotspur, Worcester, Douglas, and Vernon.] + +HOTSPUR. +We’ll fight with him to-night. + +WORCESTER. +It may not be. + +DOUGLAS. +You give him, then, advantage. + +VERNON. +Not a whit. + +HOTSPUR. +Why say you so? looks he not for supply? + +VERNON. +So do we. + +HOTSPUR. +His is certain, ours is doubtful. + +WORCESTER. +Good cousin, be advised; stir not to-night. + +VERNON. +Do not, my lord. + +DOUGLAS. +You do not counsel well: +You speak it out of fear and cold heart. + +VERNON. +Do me no slander, Douglas: by my life,— +And I dare well maintain it with my life,— +If well-respected honour bid me on, +I hold as little counsel with weak fear +As you, my lord, or any Scot that this day lives: +Let it be seen to-morrow in the battle +Which of us fears. + +DOUGLAS. +Yea, or to-night. + +VERNON. +Content. + +HOTSPUR. +To-night, say I. + +VERNON. +Come, come, it may not be. I wonder much, +Being men of such great leading as you are, +That you foresee not what impediments +Drag back our expedition: certain Horse +Of my cousin Vernon’s are not yet come up: +Your uncle Worcester’s Horse came but to-day; +And now their pride and mettle is asleep, +Their courage with hard labour tame and dull, +That not a horse is half the half himself. + +HOTSPUR. +So are the horses of the enemy +In general, journey-bated and brought low: +The better part of ours are full of rest. + +WORCESTER. +The number of the King exceedeth ours. +For God’s sake, cousin, stay till all come in. + +[The Trumpet sounds a parley.] + +[Enter Sir Walter Blunt.] + +BLUNT. +I come with gracious offers from the King, +If you vouchsafe me hearing and respect. + +HOTSPUR. +Welcome, Sir Walter Blunt; and would to God +You were of our determination! +Some of us love you well; and even those some +Envy your great deservings and good name, +Because you are not of our quality, +But stand against us like an enemy. + +BLUNT. +And God defend but still I should stand so, +So long as out of limit and true rule +You stand against anointed majesty! +But to my charge: the King hath sent to know +The nature of your griefs; and whereupon +You conjure from the breast of civil peace +Such bold hostility, teaching his duteous land +Audacious cruelty. If that the King +Have any way your good deserts forgot, +Which he confesseth to be manifold, +He bids you name your griefs; and with all speed +You shall have your desires with interest, +And pardon absolute for yourself and these +Herein misled by your suggestion. + +HOTSPUR. +The King is kind; and well we know the King +Knows at what time to promise, when to pay. +My father and my uncle and myself +Did give him that same royalty he wears; +And—when he was not six-and-twenty strong, +Sick in the world’s regard, wretched and low, +A poor unminded outlaw sneaking home— +My father gave him welcome to the shore: +And—when he heard him swear and vow to God, +He came but to be Duke of Lancaster, +To sue his livery and beg his peace, +With tears of innocence and terms of zeal— +My father, in kind heart and pity moved, +Swore him assistance, and performed it too. +Now, when the lords and barons of the realm +Perceived Northumberland did lean to him, +The more and less came in with cap and knee; +Met him in boroughs, cities, villages, +Attended him on bridges, stood in lanes, +Laid gifts before him, proffer’d him their oaths, +Give him their heirs as pages, follow’d him +Even at the heels in golden multitudes. +He presently—as greatness knows itself— +Steps me a little higher than his vow +Made to my father, while his blood was poor, +Upon the naked shore at Ravenspurg; +And now, forsooth, takes on him to reform +Some certain edicts and some strait decrees +That lie too heavy on the commonwealth; +Cries out upon abuses, seems to weep +Over his country’s wrongs; and, by this face, +This seeming brow of justice, did he win +The hearts of all that he did angle for: +Proceeded further; cut me off the heads +Of all the favourites, that the absent King +In deputation left behind him here +When he was personal in the Irish war. + +BLUNT. +Tut, I came not to hear this. + +HOTSPUR. +Then to the point: +In short time after, he deposed the King; +Soon after that, deprived him of his life; +And, in the neck of that, task’d the whole State: +To make that worse, suffer’d his kinsman March +(Who is, if every owner were well placed, +Indeed his king) to be engaged in Wales, +There without ransom to lie forfeited; +Disgraced me in my happy victories, +Sought to entrap me by intelligence; +Rated my uncle from the Council-board; +In rage dismiss’d my father from the Court; +Broke oath on oath, committed wrong on wrong; +And, in conclusion, drove us to seek out +This head of safety; and withal to pry +Into his title, the which now we find +Too indirect for long continuance. + +BLUNT. +Shall I return this answer to the King? + +HOTSPUR. +Not so, Sir Walter: we’ll withdraw awhile. +Go to the King; and let there be impawn’d +Some surety for a safe return again, +And in the morning early shall my uncle +Bring him our purposes: and so, farewell. + +BLUNT. +I would you would accept of grace and love. + +HOTSPUR. +And may be so we shall. + +BLUNT. +Pray God you do. + +[Exeunt.] + +SCENE IV. York. A Room in the Archbishop’s Palace. + +[Enter the Archbishop of York and Sir Michael.] + +ARCHBISHOP. +Hie, good Sir Michael; bear this sealed brief +With winged haste to the Lord Marshal; +This to my cousin Scroop; and all the rest +To whom they are directed. If you knew +How much they do import, you would make haste. + +SIR MICHAEL. +My good lord, +I guess their tenour. + +ARCHBISHOP. +Like enough you do. +To-morrow, good Sir Michael, is a day +Wherein the fortune of ten thousand men +Must bide the touch; for, sir, at Shrewsbury, +As I am truly given to understand, +The King, with mighty and quick-raised power, +Meets with Lord Harry: and, I fear, Sir Michael, +What with the sickness of Northumberland, +Whose power was in the first proportion, +And what with Owen Glendower’s absence thence, +Who with them was a rated sinew too, +And comes not in, o’er-rul’d by prophecies,— +I fear the power of Percy is too weak +To wage an instant trial with the King. + +SIR MICHAEL. +Why, my good lord, you need not fear; +There’s Douglas and Lord Mortimer. + +ARCHBISHOP. +No, Mortimer’s not there. + +SIR MICHAEL. +But there is Mordake, Vernon, Lord Harry Percy, +And there’s my Lord of Worcester; and a head +Of gallant warriors, noble gentlemen. + +ARCHBISHOP. +And so there is: but yet the King hath drawn +The special head of all the land together; +The Prince of Wales, Lord John of Lancaster, +The noble Westmoreland, and warlike Blunt; +And many more corrivals and dear men +Of estimation and command in arms. + +SIR MICHAEL. +Doubt not, my lord, they shall be well opposed. + +ARCHBISHOP. +I hope no less, yet needful ’tis to fear; +And, to prevent the worst, Sir Michael, speed: +For if Lord Percy thrive not, ere the King +Dismiss his power, he means to visit us, +For he hath heard of our confederacy; +And ’tis but wisdom to make strong against him: +Therefore make haste. I must go write again +To other friends; and so, farewell, Sir Michael. + +[Exeunt.] + +ACT V + +SCENE I. The King’s Camp near Shrewsbury. + +[Enter King Henry, Prince Henry, Lancaster, Sir Walter Blunt, and Sir +John Falstaff.] + +KING. +How bloodily the Sun begins to peer +Above yon busky hill! the day looks pale +At his distemperature. + +PRINCE. +The southern wind +Doth play the trumpet to his purposes; +And by his hollow whistling in the leaves +Foretells a tempest and a blustering day. + +KING. +Then with the losers let it sympathize, +For nothing can seem foul to those that win.— + +[The trumpet sounds. Enter Worcester and Vernon.] + +How, now, my Lord of Worcester! ’tis not well +That you and I should meet upon such terms +As now we meet. You have deceived our trust; +And made us doff our easy robes of peace, +To crush our old limbs in ungentle steel: +This is not well, my lord, this is not well. +What say you to’t? will you again unknit +This churlish knot of all-abhorred war, +And move in that obedient orb again +Where you did give a fair and natural light; +And be no more an exhaled meteor, +A prodigy of fear, and a portent +Of broached mischief to the unborn times? + +WORCESTER. +Hear me, my liege: +For mine own part, I could be well content +To entertain the lag-end of my life +With quiet hours; for I do protest, +I have not sought the day of this dislike. + +KING. +You have not sought it! why, how comes it, then? + +FALSTAFF. +Rebellion lay in his way, and he found it. + +PRINCE. +Peace, chewet, peace! + +WORCESTER. +It pleased your Majesty to turn your looks +Of favour from myself and all our House; +And yet I must remember you, my lord, +We were the first and dearest of your friends. +For you my staff of office did I break +In Richard’s time; and posted day and night +To meet you on the way, and kiss your hand, +When yet you were in place and in account +Nothing so strong and fortunate as I. +It was myself, my brother, and his son, +That brought you home, and boldly did outdare +The dangers of the time. You swore to us,— +And you did swear that oath at Doncaster,— +That you did nothing purpose ’gainst the state; +Nor claim no further than your new-fall’n right, +The seat of Gaunt, dukedom of Lancaster: +To this we swore our aid. But in short space +It rain’d down fortune showering on your head; +And such a flood of greatness fell on you,— +What with our help, what with the absent King, +What with the injuries of a wanton time, +The seeming sufferances that you had borne, +And the contrarious winds that held the King +So long in his unlucky Irish wars +That all in England did repute him dead,— +And, from this swarm of fair advantages, +You took occasion to be quickly woo’d +To gripe the general sway into your hand; +Forgot your oath to us at Doncaster; +And, being fed by us, you used us so +As that ungentle gull, the cuckoo-bird, +Useth the sparrow; did oppress our nest; +Grew by our feeding to so great a bulk, +That even our love thirst not come near your sight +For fear of swallowing; but with nimble wing +We were enforced, for safety-sake, to fly +Out of your sight, and raise this present head: +Whereby we stand opposed by such means +As you yourself have forged against yourself, +By unkind usage, dangerous countenance, +And violation of all faith and troth +Sworn to tis in your younger enterprise. + +KING. +These things, indeed, you have articulate, +Proclaim’d at market-crosses, read in churches, +To face the garment of rebellion +With some fine colour that may please the eye +Of fickle changelings and poor discontents, +Which gape and rub the elbow at the news +Of hurlyburly innovation: +And never yet did insurrection want +Such water-colours to impaint his cause; +Nor moody beggars, starving for a time +Of pellmell havoc and confusion. + +PRINCE. +In both our armies there is many a soul +Shall pay full dearly for this encounter, +If once they join in trial. Tell your nephew, +The Prince of Wales doth join with all the world +In praise of Henry Percy: by my hopes, +This present enterprise set off his head, +I do not think a braver gentleman, +More active-valiant or more valiant-young, +More daring or more bold, is now alive +To grace this latter age with noble deeds. +For my part,—I may speak it to my shame,— +I have a truant been to chivalry; +And so I hear he doth account me too: +Yet this before my father’s Majesty,— +I am content that he shall take the odds +Of his great name and estimation, +And will, to save the blood on either side, +Try fortune with him in a single fight. + +KING. +And, Prince of Wales, so dare we venture thee, +Albeit considerations infinite +Do make against it.—No, good Worcester, no; +We love our people well; even those we love +That are misled upon your cousin’s part; +And, will they take the offer of our grace, +Both he, and they, and you, yea, every man +Shall be my friend again, and I’ll be his: +So tell your cousin, and then bring me word +What he will do: but, if he will not yield, +Rebuke and dread correction wait on us, +And they shall do their office. So, be gone; +We will not now be troubled with reply: +We offer fair; take it advisedly. + +[Exit Worcester with Vernon.] + +PRINCE. +It will not be accepted, on my life: +The Douglas and the Hotspur both together +Are confident against the world in arms. + +KING. +Hence, therefore, every leader to his charge; +For, on their answer, will we set on them: +And God befriend us, as our cause is just! + +[Exeunt the King, Blunt, and Prince John.] + +FALSTAFF. +Hal, if thou see me down in the battle, and bestride me, so; ’tis a +point of friendship. + +PRINCE. +Nothing but a colossus can do thee that friendship. +Say thy prayers, and farewell. + +FALSTAFF. +I would it were bedtime, Hal, and all well. + +PRINCE. +Why, thou owest God a death. + +[Exit.] + +FALSTAFF. +’Tis not due yet; I would be loth to pay Him before His day. What need +I be so forward with him that calls not on me? Well, ’tis no matter; +honour pricks me on. Yea, but how if honour prick me off when I come +on? how then? Can honor set-to a leg? no: or an arm? no: or take away +the grief of a wound? no. Honour hath no skill in surgery then? no. +What is honour? a word. What is that word, honour? air. A trim +reckoning!—Who hath it? he that died o’ Wednesday. Doth he feel it? no. +Doth be hear it? no. Is it insensible, then? yea, to the dead. But will +it not live with the living? no. Why? detraction will not suffer it. +Therefore I’ll none of it: honour is a mere scutcheon:—and so ends my +catechism. + +[Exit.] + +SCENE II. The Rebel Camp. + +[Enter Worcester and Vernon.] + +WORCESTER. +O no, my nephew must not know, Sir Richard, +The liberal-kind offer of the King. + +VERNON. +’Twere best he did. + +WORCESTER. +Then are we all undone. +It is not possible, it cannot be, +The King should keep his word in loving us; +He will suspect us still, and find a time +To punish this offence in other faults: +Suspicion all our lives shall be stuck full of eyes; +For treason is but trusted like the fox, +Who, ne’er so tame, so cherish’d, and lock’d up, +Will have a wild trick of his ancestors. +Look how we can, or sad or merrily, +Interpretation will misquote our looks; +And we shall feed like oxen at a stall, +The better cherish’d, still the nearer death. +My nephew’s trespass may be well forgot: +It hath th’ excuse of youth and heat of blood, +And an adopted name of privilege,— +A hare-brain’d Hotspur, govern’d by a spleen: +All his offences live upon my head +And on his father’s: we did train him on; +And, his corruption being ta’en from us, +We, as the spring of all, shall pay for all. +Therefore, good cousin, let not Harry know, +In any case, the offer of the King. + +VERNON. +Deliver what you will, I’ll say ’tis so. +Here comes your cousin. + +[Enter Hotspur and Douglas; Officers and Soldiers behind.] + +HOTSPUR. +My uncle is return’d: deliver up +My Lord of Westmoreland.—Uncle, what news? + +WORCESTER. +The King will bid you battle presently. + +DOUGLAS. +Defy him by the Lord Of Westmoreland. + +HOTSPUR. +Lord Douglas, go you and tell him so. + +DOUGLAS. +Marry, I shall, and very willingly. + +[Exit.] + +WORCESTER. +There is no seeming mercy in the King. + +HOTSPUR. +Did you beg any? God forbid! + +WORCESTER. +I told him gently of our grievances, +Of his oath-breaking; which he mended thus, +By new-forswearing that he is forsworn: +He calls us rebels, traitors; and will scourge +With haughty arms this hateful name in us. + +[Re-enter Douglas.] + +DOUGLAS. +Arm, gentlemen; to arms! for I have thrown +A brave defiance in King Henry’s teeth, +And Westmoreland, that was engaged, did bear it; +Which cannot choose but bring him quickly on. + +WORCESTER. +The Prince of Wales stepp’d forth before the King, +And, nephew, challenged you to single fight. + +HOTSPUR. +O, would the quarrel lay upon our heads; +And that no man might draw short breath to-day +But I and Harry Monmouth! Tell me, tell me, +How show’d his tasking? seem’d it in contempt? + +VERNON. +No, by my soul: I never in my life +Did hear a challenge urged more modestly, +Unless a brother should a brother dare +To gentle exercise and proof of arms. +He gave you all the duties of a man; +Trimm’d up your praises with a princely tongue; +Spoke your deservings like a chronicle; +Making you ever better than his praise, +By still dispraising praise valued with you; +And, which became him like a prince indeed, +He made a blushing cital of himself; +And chid his truant youth with such a grace, +As if he master’d there a double spirit, +Of teaching and of learning instantly. +There did he pause: but let me tell the world, +If he outlive the envy of this day, +England did never owe so sweet a hope, +So much misconstrued in his wantonness. + +HOTSPUR. +Cousin, I think thou art enamoured +Upon his follies: never did I hear +Of any prince so wild o’ liberty. +But be he as he will, yet once ere night +I will embrace him with a soldier’s arm, +That he shall shrink under my courtesy.— +Arm, arm with speed: and, fellows, soldiers, friends, +Better consider what you have to do +Than I, that have not well the gift of tongue, +Can lift your blood up with persuasion. + +[Enter a Messenger.] + +MESSENGER. +My lord, here are letters for you. + +HOTSPUR. +I cannot read them now.— +O gentlemen, the time of life is short! +To spend that shortness basely were too long, +If life did ride upon a dial’s point, +Still ending at th’ arrival of an hour. +An if we live, we live to tread on kings; +If die, brave death, when princes die with us! +Now, for our consciences, the arms are fair, +When the intent of bearing them is just. + +[Enter another Messenger.] + +MESSENGER. +My lord, prepare: the King comes on apace. + +HOTSPUR. +I thank him, that he cuts me from my tale, +For I profess not talking; only this, +Let each man do his best: and here draw I +A sword, whose temper I intend to stain +With the best blood that I can meet withal +In the adventure of this perilous day. +Now, Esperance! Percy! and set on. +Sound all the lofty instruments of war, +And by that music let us all embrace; +For, Heaven to Earth, some of us never shall +A second time do such a courtesy. + +[The trumpets sound. They embrace, and exeunt.] + +SCENE III. Plain between the Camps. + +[Excursions, and Parties fighting. Alarum to the battle. +Then enter Douglas and Sir Walter Blunt, meeting.] + +BLUNT. +What is thy name, that in the battle thus +Thou crossest me? what honour dost thou seek +Upon my head? + +DOUGLAS. +Know, then, my name is Douglas, +And I do haunt thee in the battle thus +Because some tell me that thou art a king. + +BLUNT. +They tell thee true. + +DOUGLAS. +The Lord of Stafford dear to-day hath bought +Thy likeness; for, instead of thee, King Harry, +This sword hath ended him: so shall it thee, +Unless thou yield thee as my prisoner. + +BLUNT. +I was not born a yielder, thou proud Scot; +And thou shalt find a king that will revenge +Lord Stafford’s death. + +[They fight, and Blunt is slain. Enter Hotspur.] + +HOTSPUR. +O Douglas, hadst thou fought at Holmedon thus, +I never had triumphed o’er a Scot. + +DOUGLAS. +All’s done, all’s won; here breathless lies the King. + +HOTSPUR. +Where? + +DOUGLAS. +Here. + +HOTSPUR. +This, Douglas? no; I know this face full well: +A gallant knight he was, his name was Blunt; +Semblably furnish’d like the King himself. + +DOUGLAS. +A fool go with thy soul, where’re it goes! +A borrow’d title hast thou bought too dear: +Why didst thou tell me that thou wert a king? + +HOTSPUR. +The King hath many marching in his coats. + +DOUGLAS. +Now, by my sword, I will kill all his coats; +I’ll murder all his wardrobe piece by piece, +Until I meet the King. + +HOTSPUR. +Up, and away! +Our soldiers stand full fairly for the day. + +[Exeunt.] + +[Alarums. Enter Falstaff.] + +FALSTAFF. +Though I could ’scape shot-free at London, I fear the shot here; here’s +no scoring but upon the pate.—Soft! who are you? Sir Walter Blunt: +there’s honour for you! here’s no vanity! I am as hot as molten lead, +and as heavy too: God keep lead out of me! I need no more weight than +mine own bowels. I have led my ragamuffins where they are peppered: +there’s not three of my hundred and fifty left alive; and they are for +the town’s end, to beg during life. But who comes here? + +[Enter Prince Henry.] + +PRINCE. +What, stand’st thou idle here? lend me thy sword: +Many a nobleman lies stark and stiff +Under the hoofs of vaunting enemies, +Whose deaths are yet unrevenged: I pr’ythee, +Lend me thy sword. + +FALSTAFF. +O Hal, I pr’ythee give me leave to breathe awhile. Turk +Gregory never did such deeds in arms as I have done this +day. I have paid Percy, I have made him sure. + +PRINCE. +He is indeed; and living to kill thee. +I pr’ythee, lend me thy sword. + +FALSTAFF. +Nay, before God, Hal, if Percy be alive, thou gett’st not my sword; but +take my pistol, if thou wilt. + +PRINCE. +Give it me: what, is it in the case? + +FALSTAFF. +Ay, Hal. ’Tis hot, ’tis hot: there’s that will sack a city. + +[The Prince draws out a bottle of sack.] + +What, is’t a time to jest and dally now? + +[Throws it at him, and exit.] + +FALSTAFF. +Well, if Percy be alive, I’ll pierce him. If he do come in my way, so; +if he do not, if I come in his willingly, let him make a carbonado of +me. I like not such grinning honour as Sir Walter hath: give me life; +which if I can save, so; if not, honour comes unlooked for, and there’s +an end. + +[Exit.] + +SCENE IV. Another Part of the Field. + +[Alarums. Excursions. Enter King Henry, Prince Henry, +Lancaster, and Westmoreland.] + +KING. +I pr’ythee, +Harry, withdraw thyself; thou bleedest too much.— +Lord John of Lancaster, go you unto him. + +LANCASTER. +Not I, my lord, unless I did bleed too. + +PRINCE. +I do beseech your Majesty, make up, +Lest your retirement do amaze your friends. + +KING. +I will do so.— +My Lord of Westmoreland, lead him to his tent. + +WESTMORELAND. +Come, my lord, I’ll lead you to your tent. + +PRINCE. +Lead me, my lord? I do not need your help: +And God forbid, a shallow scratch should drive +The Prince of Wales from such a field as this, +Where stain’d nobility lies trodden on, +And rebels’ arms triumph in massacres! + +LANCASTER. +We breathe too long:—come, cousin Westmoreland, +Our duty this way lies; for God’s sake, come. + +[Exeunt Lancaster and Westmoreland.] + +PRINCE. +By Heaven, thou hast deceived me, Lancaster; +I did not think thee lord of such a spirit: +Before, I loved thee as a brother, John; +But now I do respect thee as my soul. + +KING. +I saw him hold Lord Percy at the point +With lustier maintenance than I did look for +Of such an ungrown warrior. + +PRINCE. +O, this boy +Lends mettle to us all! + +[Exit.] + +[Alarums. Enter Douglas.] + +DOUGLAS. +Another king! they grow like Hydra’s heads: +I am the Douglas, fatal to all those + +That wear those colours on them.—What art thou, +That counterfeit’st the person of a king? + +KING. +The King himself; who, Douglas, grieves at heart +So many of his shadows thou hast met, +And not the very King. I have two boys +Seek Percy and thyself about the field: +But, seeing thou fall’st on me so luckily, +I will assay thee; so, defend thyself. + +DOUGLAS. +I fear thou art another counterfeit; +And yet, in faith, thou bear’st thee like a king: +But mine I’m sure thou art, whoe’er thou be, +And thus I win thee. + +[They fight; the King being in danger, re-enter Prince Henry.] + +PRINCE. +Hold up thy head, vile Scot, or thou art like +Never to hold it up again! the spirits +Of valiant Shirley, Stafford, Blunt are in my arms: +It is the Prince of Wales that threatens thee; +Who never promiseth but he means to pay.— + +[They fight: Douglas flies.] + +Cheerly, my lord: how fares your Grace? +Sir Nicholas Gawsey hath for succour sent, +And so hath Clifton: I’ll to Clifton straight. + +KING. +Stay, and breathe awhile: +Thou hast redeem’d thy lost opinion; +And show’d thou makest some tender of my life, +In this fair rescue thou hast brought to me. + +PRINCE. +O God, they did me too much injury +That ever said I hearken’d for your death! +If it were so, I might have let alone +Th’ insulting hand of Douglas over you, +Which would have been as speedy in your end +As all the poisonous potions in the world, +And saved the treacherous labour of your son. + +KING. +Make up to Clifton: I’ll to Sir Nicholas Gawsey. + +[Exit.] + +[Enter Hotspur.] + +HOTSPUR. +If I mistake not, thou art Harry Monmouth. + +PRINCE. +Thou speak’st as if I would deny my name. + +HOTSPUR. +My name is Harry Percy. + +PRINCE. +Why, then I see +A very valiant rebel of the name. +I am the Prince of Wales; and think not, Percy, +To share with me in glory any more: +Two stars keep not their motion in one sphere; +Nor can one England brook a double reign, +Of Harry Percy and the Prince of Wales. + +HOTSPUR. +Nor shall it, Harry; for the hour is come +To end the one of us; and would to God +Thy name in arms were now as great as mine! + +PRINCE. +I’ll make it greater ere I part from thee; +And all the budding honours on thy crest +I’ll crop, to make a garland for my head. + +HOTSPUR. +I can no longer brook thy vanities. + +[They fight.] + +[Enter Falstaff.] + +FALSTAFF. +Well said, Hal! to it, Hal! Nay, you shall find no boy’s play here, I +can tell you. + +[Re-enter Douglas; he fights with Falstaff, who falls down as if he +were dead, and exit Douglas. Hotspure is wounded, and falls.] + +HOTSPUR. +O Harry, thou hast robb’d me of my youth! +I better brook the loss of brittle life +Than those proud titles thou hast won of me; +They wound my thoughts worse than thy sword my flesh: +But thoughts the slave of life, and life Time’s fool, +And Time, that takes survey of all the world, +Must have a stop. O, I could prophesy, +But that the earthy and cold hand of death +Lies on my tongue: no, Percy, thou art dust, +And food for— + +[Dies.] + +PRINCE. +For worms, brave Percy: fare thee well, great heart! +Ill-weaved ambition, how much art thou shrunk! +When that this body did contain a spirit, +A kingdom for it was too small a bound; +But now two paces of the vilest earth +Is room enough. This earth that bears thee dead +Bears not alive so stout a gentleman. +If thou wert sensible of courtesy, +I should not make so dear a show of zeal: +But let my favours hide thy mangled face; +And, even in thy behalf, I’ll thank myself +For doing these fair rites of tenderness. +Adieu, and take thy praise with thee to Heaven! +Thy ignominy sleep with thee in the grave, +But not remember’d in thy epitaph!— + +[Sees Falstaff on the ground.] + +What, old acquaintance? could not all this flesh +Keep in a little life? Poor Jack, farewell! +I could have better spared a better man: +O, I should have a heavy miss of thee, +If I were much in love with vanity! +Death hath not struck so fat a deer to-day, +Though many dearer, in this bloody fray. +Embowell’d will I see thee by-and-by: +Till then in blood by noble Percy lie. + +[Exit.] + +FALSTAFF. +[Rising.] Embowell’d! if thou embowel me to-day, I’ll give you leave to +powder me and eat me too to-morrow. ’Sblood, ’twas time to counterfeit, +or that hot termagant Scot had paid me scot and lot too. Counterfeit! I +lie; I am no counterfeit: to die, is to be a counterfeit; for he is +but the counterfeit of a man who hath not the life of a man: but to +counterfeit dying, when a man thereby liveth, is to be no counterfeit, +but the true and perfect image of life indeed. The better part of +valour is discretion; in the which better part I have saved my life.— +Zwounds, I am afraid of this gunpowder Percy, though he be dead: how, +if he should counterfeit too, and rise? by my faith, I am afraid he +would prove the better counterfeit. Therefore I’ll make him sure; yea, +and I’ll swear I kill’d him. Why may not he rise as well as I? Nothing +confutes me but eyes, and nobody sees me. Therefore, sirrah, with a new +wound in your thigh, come you along with me. + +[Takes Hotspur on his hack.] + +[Re-enter Prince Henry and Lancaster.] + +PRINCE. +Come, brother John; full bravely hast thou flesh’d +Thy maiden sword. + +LANCASTER. +But, soft! whom have we here? +Did you not tell me this fat man was dead? + +PRINCE. +I did; I saw him dead, breathless and bleeding +Upon the ground.— +Art thou alive? or is it fantasy +That plays upon our eyesight? I pr’ythee, speak; +We will not trust our eyes without our ears. +Thou art not what thou seem’st. + +FALSTAFF. +No, that’s certain; I am not a double man: but if I be not Jack +Falstaff, then am I a Jack. There is Percy! [Throwing the body down.] +if your father will do me any honour, so; if not, let him kill the next +Percy himself. I look to be either earl or duke, I can assure you. + +PRINCE. +Why, Percy I kill’d myself, and saw thee dead. + +FALSTAFF. +Didst thou?— Lord, Lord, how this world is given to lying!— I grant you +I was down and out of breath; and so was he: but we rose both at an +instant, and fought a long hour by Shrewsbury clock. If I may be +believed, so; if not, let them that should reward valour bear the sin +upon their own heads. I’ll take it upon my death, I gave him this wound +in the thigh: if the man were alive, and would deny it, zwounds, I +would make him eat a piece of my sword. + +LANCASTER. +This is the strangest tale that ever I heard. + +PRINCE. +This is the strangest fellow, brother John.— +Come, bring your luggage nobly on your back: +For my part, if a lie may do thee grace, +I’ll gild it with the happiest terms I have.— + +[A retreat is sounded.] + +The trumpet sounds retreat; the day is ours. +Come, brother, let’s to th’ highest of the field, +To see what friends are living, who are dead. + +[Exeunt Prince Henry and Lancaster.] + +FALSTAFF. +I’ll follow, as they say, for reward. He that rewards me, God reward +him! If I do grow great, I’ll grow less; for I’ll purge, and leave +sack, and live cleanly as a nobleman should do. + +[Exit, bearing off the body.] + +SCENE V. Another Part of the Field. + +[The trumpets sound. Enter King Henry, Prince Henry, +Lancaster, Westmoreland, and others, with Worcester and +Vernon prisoners.] + +KING. +Thus ever did rebellion find rebuke.— +Ill-spirited Worcester! did not we send grace, +Pardon, and terms of love to all of you? +And wouldst thou turn our offers contrary? +Misuse the tenour of thy kinsman’s trust? +Three knights upon our party slain to-day, +A noble earl, and many a creature else, +Had been alive this hour, +If, like a Christian, thou hadst truly borne +Betwixt our armies true intelligence. + +WORCESTER. +What I have done my safety urged me to; +And I embrace this fortune patiently, +Since not to be avoided it fails on me. + +KING. +Bear Worcester to the death, and Vernon too: +Other offenders we will pause upon.— + +[Exeunt Worcester and Vernon, guarded.] + +How goes the field? + +PRINCE. +The noble Scot, Lord Douglas, when he saw +The fortune of the day quite turn’d from him, +The noble Percy slain, and all his men +Upon the foot of fear, fled with the rest; +And, falling from a hill, he was so bruised +That the pursuers took him. At my tent +The Douglas is: and I beseech your Grace +I may dispose of him. + +KING. +With all my heart. + +PRINCE. +Then, brother John of Lancaster, to you +This honourable bounty shall belong: +Go to the Douglas, and deliver him +Up to his pleasure, ransomless and free: +His valour, shown upon our crests to-day, +Hath taught us how to cherish such high deeds +Even in the bosom of our adversaries. + +KING. +Then this remains, that we divide our power.— +You, son John, and my cousin Westmoreland, +Towards York shall bend you with your dearest speed, +To meet Northumberland and the prelate Scroop, +Who, as we hear, are busily in arms: +Myself,—and you, son Harry,—will towards Wales, +To fight with Glendower and the Earl of March. +Rebellion in this land shall lose his sway, +Meeting the check of such another day; +And since this business so fair is done, +Let us not leave till all our own be won. + +[Exeunt.] + + + +THE SECOND PART OF KING HENRY THE FOURTH + +Dramatis Personae + + RUMOUR, the Presenter + KING HENRY THE FOURTH + + HENRY, PRINCE OF WALES, afterwards HENRY + PRINCE JOHN OF LANCASTER + PRINCE HUMPHREY OF GLOUCESTER + THOMAS, DUKE OF CLARENCE + Sons of Henry IV + + EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND + SCROOP, ARCHBISHOP OF YORK + LORD MOWBRAY + LORD HASTINGS + LORD BARDOLPH + SIR JOHN COLVILLE + TRAVERS and MORTON, retainers of Northumberland + Opposites against King Henry IV + + EARL OF WARWICK + EARL OF WESTMORELAND + EARL OF SURREY + EARL OF KENT + GOWER + HARCOURT + BLUNT + Of the King's party + + LORD CHIEF JUSTICE + SERVANT, to Lord Chief Justice + + SIR JOHN FALSTAFF + EDWARD POINS + BARDOLPH + PISTOL + PETO + Irregular humourists + + PAGE, to Falstaff + + ROBERT SHALLOW and SILENCE, country Justices + DAVY, servant to Shallow + + FANG and SNARE, Sheriff's officers + + RALPH MOULDY + SIMON SHADOW + THOMAS WART + FRANCIS FEEBLE + PETER BULLCALF + Country soldiers + + FRANCIS, a drawer + + LADY NORTHUMBERLAND + LADY PERCY, Percy's widow + HOSTESS QUICKLY, of the Boar's Head, Eastcheap + DOLL TEARSHEET + + LORDS, Attendants, Porter, Drawers, Beadles, Grooms, Servants, + Speaker of the Epilogue + + SCENE: England + +INDUCTION + INDUCTION. + Warkworth. Before NORTHUMBERLAND'S Castle + + Enter RUMOUR, painted full of tongues + + RUMOUR. Open your ears; for which of you will stop + The vent of hearing when loud Rumour speaks? + I, from the orient to the drooping west, + Making the wind my post-horse, still unfold + The acts commenced on this ball of earth. + Upon my tongues continual slanders ride, + The which in every language I pronounce, + Stuffing the ears of men with false reports. + I speak of peace while covert emnity, + Under the smile of safety, wounds the world; + And who but Rumour, who but only I, + Make fearful musters and prepar'd defence, + Whiles the big year, swoln with some other grief, + Is thought with child by the stern tyrant war, + And no such matter? Rumour is a pipe + Blown by surmises, jealousies, conjectures, + And of so easy and so plain a stop + That the blunt monster with uncounted heads, + The still-discordant wav'ring multitude, + Can play upon it. But what need I thus + My well-known body to anatomize + Among my household? Why is Rumour here? + I run before King Harry's victory, + Who, in a bloody field by Shrewsbury, + Hath beaten down young Hotspur and his troops, + Quenching the flame of bold rebellion + Even with the rebels' blood. But what mean I + To speak so true at first? My office is + To noise abroad that Harry Monmouth fell + Under the wrath of noble Hotspur's sword, + And that the King before the Douglas' rage + Stoop'd his anointed head as low as death. + This have I rumour'd through the peasant towns + Between that royal field of Shrewsbury + And this worm-eaten hold of ragged stone, + Where Hotspur's father, old Northumberland, + Lies crafty-sick. The posts come tiring on, + And not a man of them brings other news + Than they have learnt of me. From Rumour's tongues + They bring smooth comforts false, worse than true wrongs. + Exit + +ACT I. SCENE I. Warkworth. Before NORTHUMBERLAND'S Castle + +Enter LORD BARDOLPH + + LORD BARDOLPH. Who keeps the gate here, ho? + + The PORTER opens the gate + + Where is the Earl? + PORTER. What shall I say you are? + LORD BARDOLPH. Tell thou the Earl + That the Lord Bardolph doth attend him here. + PORTER. His lordship is walk'd forth into the orchard. + Please it your honour knock but at the gate, + And he himself will answer. + + Enter NORTHUMBERLAND + + LORD BARDOLPH. Here comes the Earl. Exit PORTER + NORTHUMBERLAND. What news, Lord Bardolph? Every minute now + Should be the father of some stratagem. + The times are wild; contention, like a horse + Full of high feeding, madly hath broke loose + And bears down all before him. + LORD BARDOLPH. Noble Earl, + I bring you certain news from Shrewsbury. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Good, an God will! + LORD BARDOLPH. As good as heart can wish. + The King is almost wounded to the death; + And, in the fortune of my lord your son, + Prince Harry slain outright; and both the Blunts + Kill'd by the hand of Douglas; young Prince John, + And Westmoreland, and Stafford, fled the field; + And Harry Monmouth's brawn, the hulk Sir John, + Is prisoner to your son. O, such a day, + So fought, so followed, and so fairly won, + Came not till now to dignify the times, + Since Cxsar's fortunes! + NORTHUMBERLAND. How is this deriv'd? + Saw you the field? Came you from Shrewsbury? + LORD BARDOLPH. I spake with one, my lord, that came from thence; + A gentleman well bred and of good name, + That freely rend'red me these news for true. + + Enter TRAVERS + + NORTHUMBERLAND. Here comes my servant Travers, whom I sent + On Tuesday last to listen after news. + LORD BARDOLPH. My lord, I over-rode him on the way; + And he is furnish'd with no certainties + More than he haply may retail from me. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Now, Travers, what good tidings comes with you? + TRAVERS. My lord, Sir John Umfrevile turn'd me back + With joyful tidings; and, being better hors'd, + Out-rode me. After him came spurring hard + A gentleman, almost forspent with speed, + That stopp'd by me to breathe his bloodied horse. + He ask'd the way to Chester; and of him + I did demand what news from Shrewsbury. + He told me that rebellion had bad luck, + And that young Harry Percy's spur was cold. + With that he gave his able horse the head + And, bending forward, struck his armed heels + Against the panting sides of his poor jade + Up to the rowel-head; and starting so, + He seem'd in running to devour the way, + Staying no longer question. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Ha! Again: + Said he young Harry Percy's spur was cold? + Of Hotspur, Coldspur? that rebellion + Had met ill luck? + LORD BARDOLPH. My lord, I'll tell you what: + If my young lord your son have not the day, + Upon mine honour, for a silken point + I'll give my barony. Never talk of it. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Why should that gentleman that rode by Travers + Give then such instances of loss? + LORD BARDOLPH. Who- he? + He was some hilding fellow that had stol'n + The horse he rode on and, upon my life, + Spoke at a venture. Look, here comes more news. + + Enter Morton + + NORTHUMBERLAND. Yea, this man's brow, like to a title-leaf, + Foretells the nature of a tragic volume. + So looks the strand whereon the imperious flood + Hath left a witness'd usurpation. + Say, Morton, didst thou come from Shrewsbury? + MORTON. I ran from Shrewsbury, my noble lord; + Where hateful death put on his ugliest mask + To fright our party. + NORTHUMBERLAND. How doth my son and brother? + Thou tremblest; and the whiteness in thy cheek + Is apter than thy tongue to tell thy errand. + Even such a man, so faint, so spiritless, + So dull, so dread in look, so woe-begone, + Drew Priam's curtain in the dead of night + And would have told him half his Troy was burnt; + But Priam found the fire ere he his tongue, + And I my Percy's death ere thou report'st it. + This thou wouldst say: 'Your son did thus and thus; + Your brother thus; so fought the noble Douglas'- + Stopping my greedy ear with their bold deeds; + But in the end, to stop my ear indeed, + Thou hast a sigh to blow away this praise, + Ending with 'Brother, son, and all, are dead.' + MORTON. Douglas is living, and your brother, yet; + But for my lord your son- + NORTHUMBERLAND. Why, he is dead. + See what a ready tongue suspicion hath! + He that but fears the thing he would not know + Hath by instinct knowledge from others' eyes + That what he fear'd is chanced. Yet speak, Morton; + Tell thou an earl his divination lies, + And I will take it as a sweet disgrace + And make thee rich for doing me such wrong. + MORTON. You are too great to be by me gainsaid; + Your spirit is too true, your fears too certain. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Yet, for all this, say not that Percy's dead. + I see a strange confession in thine eye; + Thou shak'st thy head, and hold'st it fear or sin + To speak a truth. If he be slain, say so: + The tongue offends not that reports his death; + And he doth sin that doth belie the dead, + Not he which says the dead is not alive. + Yet the first bringer of unwelcome news + Hath but a losing office, and his tongue + Sounds ever after as a sullen bell, + Rememb'red tolling a departing friend. + LORD BARDOLPH. I cannot think, my lord, your son is dead. + MORTON. I am sorry I should force you to believe + That which I would to God I had not seen; + But these mine eyes saw him in bloody state, + Rend'ring faint quittance, wearied and out-breath'd, + To Harry Monmouth, whose swift wrath beat down + The never-daunted Percy to the earth, + From whence with life he never more sprung up. + In few, his death- whose spirit lent a fire + Even to the dullest peasant in his camp- + Being bruited once, took fire and heat away + From the best-temper'd courage in his troops; + For from his metal was his party steeled; + Which once in him abated, an the rest + Turn'd on themselves, like dull and heavy lead. + And as the thing that's heavy in itself + Upon enforcement flies with greatest speed, + So did our men, heavy in Hotspur's loss, + Lend to this weight such lightness with their fear + That arrows fled not swifter toward their aim + Than did our soldiers, aiming at their safety, + Fly from the field. Then was that noble Worcester + Too soon ta'en prisoner; and that furious Scot, + The bloody Douglas, whose well-labouring sword + Had three times slain th' appearance of the King, + Gan vail his stomach and did grace the shame + Of those that turn'd their backs, and in his flight, + Stumbling in fear, was took. The sum of all + Is that the King hath won, and hath sent out + A speedy power to encounter you, my lord, + Under the conduct of young Lancaster + And Westmoreland. This is the news at full. + NORTHUMBERLAND. For this I shall have time enough to mourn. + In poison there is physic; and these news, + Having been well, that would have made me sick, + Being sick, have in some measure made me well; + And as the wretch whose fever-weak'ned joints, + Like strengthless hinges, buckle under life, + Impatient of his fit, breaks like a fire + Out of his keeper's arms, even so my limbs, + Weak'ned with grief, being now enrag'd with grief, + Are thrice themselves. Hence, therefore, thou nice crutch! + A scaly gauntlet now with joints of steel + Must glove this hand; and hence, thou sickly coif! + Thou art a guard too wanton for the head + Which princes, flesh'd with conquest, aim to hit. + Now bind my brows with iron; and approach + The ragged'st hour that time and spite dare bring + To frown upon th' enrag'd Northumberland! + Let heaven kiss earth! Now let not Nature's hand + Keep the wild flood confin'd! Let order die! + And let this world no longer be a stage + To feed contention in a ling'ring act; + But let one spirit of the first-born Cain + Reign in all bosoms, that, each heart being set + On bloody courses, the rude scene may end + And darkness be the burier of the dead! + LORD BARDOLPH. This strained passion doth you wrong, my lord. + MORTON. Sweet Earl, divorce not wisdom from your honour. + The lives of all your loving complices + Lean on your health; the which, if you give o'er + To stormy passion, must perforce decay. + You cast th' event of war, my noble lord, + And summ'd the account of chance before you said + 'Let us make head.' It was your pre-surmise + That in the dole of blows your son might drop. + You knew he walk'd o'er perils on an edge, + More likely to fall in than to get o'er; + You were advis'd his flesh was capable + Of wounds and scars, and that his forward spirit + Would lift him where most trade of danger rang'd; + Yet did you say 'Go forth'; and none of this, + Though strongly apprehended, could restrain + The stiff-borne action. What hath then befall'n, + Or what hath this bold enterprise brought forth + More than that being which was like to be? + LORD BARDOLPH. We all that are engaged to this loss + Knew that we ventured on such dangerous seas + That if we wrought out life 'twas ten to one; + And yet we ventur'd, for the gain propos'd + Chok'd the respect of likely peril fear'd; + And since we are o'erset, venture again. + Come, we will put forth, body and goods. + MORTON. 'Tis more than time. And, my most noble lord, + I hear for certain, and dare speak the truth: + The gentle Archbishop of York is up + With well-appointed pow'rs. He is a man + Who with a double surety binds his followers. + My lord your son had only but the corpse, + But shadows and the shows of men, to fight; + For that same word 'rebellion' did divide + The action of their bodies from their souls; + And they did fight with queasiness, constrain'd, + As men drink potions; that their weapons only + Seem'd on our side, but for their spirits and souls + This word 'rebellion'- it had froze them up, + As fish are in a pond. But now the Bishop + Turns insurrection to religion. + Suppos'd sincere and holy in his thoughts, + He's follow'd both with body and with mind; + And doth enlarge his rising with the blood + Of fair King Richard, scrap'd from Pomfret stones; + Derives from heaven his quarrel and his cause; + Tells them he doth bestride a bleeding land, + Gasping for life under great Bolingbroke; + And more and less do flock to follow him. + NORTHUMBERLAND. I knew of this before; but, to speak truth, + This present grief had wip'd it from my mind. + Go in with me; and counsel every man + The aptest way for safety and revenge. + Get posts and letters, and make friends with speed- + Never so few, and never yet more need. Exeunt + +SCENE II. London. A street + +Enter SIR JOHN FALSTAFF, with his PAGE bearing his sword and buckler + + FALSTAFF. Sirrah, you giant, what says the doctor to my water? + PAGE. He said, sir, the water itself was a good healthy water; but + for the party that owed it, he might have moe diseases than he + knew for. + FALSTAFF. Men of all sorts take a pride to gird at me. The brain of + this foolish-compounded clay, man, is not able to invent anything + that intends to laughter, more than I invent or is invented on + me. I am not only witty in myself, but the cause that wit is in + other men. I do here walk before thee like a sow that hath + overwhelm'd all her litter but one. If the Prince put thee into + my service for any other reason than to set me off, why then I + have no judgment. Thou whoreson mandrake, thou art fitter to be + worn in my cap than to wait at my heels. I was never mann'd with + an agate till now; but I will inset you neither in gold nor + silver, but in vile apparel, and send you back again to your + master, for a jewel- the juvenal, the Prince your master, whose + chin is not yet fledge. I will sooner have a beard grow in the + palm of my hand than he shall get one off his cheek; and yet he + will not stick to say his face is a face-royal. God may finish it + when he will, 'tis not a hair amiss yet. He may keep it still at + a face-royal, for a barber shall never earn sixpence out of it; + and yet he'll be crowing as if he had writ man ever since his + father was a bachelor. He may keep his own grace, but he's almost + out of mine, I can assure him. What said Master Dommelton about + the satin for my short cloak and my slops? + PAGE. He said, sir, you should procure him better assurance than + Bardolph. He would not take his band and yours; he liked not the + security. + FALSTAFF. Let him be damn'd, like the Glutton; pray God his tongue + be hotter! A whoreson Achitophel! A rascal-yea-forsooth knave, to + bear a gentleman in hand, and then stand upon security! The + whoreson smooth-pates do now wear nothing but high shoes, and + bunches of keys at their girdles; and if a man is through with + them in honest taking-up, then they must stand upon security. I + had as lief they would put ratsbane in my mouth as offer to stop + it with security. I look'd 'a should have sent me two and twenty + yards of satin, as I am a true knight, and he sends me security. + Well, he may sleep in security; for he hath the horn of + abundance, and the lightness of his wife shines through it; and + yet cannot he see, though he have his own lanthorn to light him. + Where's Bardolph? + PAGE. He's gone into Smithfield to buy your worship horse. + FALSTAFF. I bought him in Paul's, and he'll buy me a horse in + Smithfield. An I could get me but a wife in the stews, I were + mann'd, hors'd, and wiv'd. + + Enter the LORD CHIEF JUSTICE and SERVANT + + PAGE. Sir, here comes the nobleman that committed the Prince for + striking him about Bardolph. FALSTAFF. Wait close; I will not see + him. CHIEF JUSTICE. What's he that goes there? SERVANT. Falstaff, + an't please your lordship. CHIEF JUSTICE. He that was in question for + the robb'ry? SERVANT. He, my lord; but he hath since done good + service at Shrewsbury, and, as I hear, is now going with some charge + to the Lord John of Lancaster. CHIEF JUSTICE. What, to York? Call him + back again. SERVANT. Sir John Falstaff! FALSTAFF. Boy, tell him I am + deaf. PAGE. You must speak louder; my master is deaf. CHIEF JUSTICE. + I am sure he is, to the hearing of anything good. Go, pluck him by + the elbow; I must speak with him. SERVANT. Sir John! FALSTAFF. What! + a young knave, and begging! Is there not wars? Is there not + employment? Doth not the King lack subjects? Do not the rebels need + soldiers? Though it be a shame to be on any side but one, it is worse + shame to beg than to be on the worst side, were it worse than the + name of rebellion can tell how to make it. SERVANT. You mistake me, + sir. FALSTAFF. Why, sir, did I say you were an honest man? Setting my + knighthood and my soldiership aside, I had lied in my throat if I had + said so. SERVANT. I pray you, sir, then set your knighthood and your + soldiership aside; and give me leave to tell you you in your throat, + if you say I am any other than an honest man. FALSTAFF. I give thee + leave to tell me so! I lay aside that which grows to me! If thou + get'st any leave of me, hang me; if thou tak'st leave, thou wert + better be hang'd. You hunt counter. Hence! Avaunt! SERVANT. Sir, my + lord would speak with you. CHIEF JUSTICE. Sir John Falstaff, a word + with you. FALSTAFF. My good lord! God give your lordship good time of + day. I am glad to see your lordship abroad. I heard say your lordship + was sick; I hope your lordship goes abroad by advice. Your lordship, + though not clean past your youth, hath yet some smack of age in you, + some relish of the saltness of time; and I most humbly beseech your + lordship to have a reverend care of your health. CHIEF JUSTICE. Sir + John, I sent for you before your expedition to Shrewsbury. FALSTAFF. + An't please your lordship, I hear his Majesty is return'd with some + discomfort from Wales. CHIEF JUSTICE. I talk not of his Majesty. You + would not come when I sent for you. FALSTAFF. And I hear, moreover, + his Highness is fall'n into this same whoreson apoplexy. CHIEF + JUSTICE. Well God mend him! I pray you let me speak with you. + FALSTAFF. This apoplexy, as I take it, is a kind of lethargy, an't + please your lordship, a kind of sleeping in the blood, a whoreson + tingling. CHIEF JUSTICE. What tell you me of it? Be it as it is. + FALSTAFF. It hath it original from much grief, from study, and + perturbation of the brain. I have read the cause of his effects in + Galen; it is a kind of deafness. CHIEF JUSTICE. I think you are + fall'n into the disease, for you hear not what I say to you. + FALSTAFF. Very well, my lord, very well. Rather an't please you, it + is the disease of not listening, the malady of not marking, that I am + troubled withal. CHIEF JUSTICE. To punish you by the heels would + amend the attention of your ears; and I care not if I do become your + physician. FALSTAFF. I am as poor as Job, my lord, but not so + patient. Your lordship may minister the potion of imprisonment to me + in respect of poverty; but how I should be your patient to follow + your prescriptions, the wise may make some dram of a scruple, or + indeed a scruple itself. CHIEF JUSTICE. I sent for you, when there + were matters against you for your life, to come speak with me. + FALSTAFF. As I was then advis'd by my learned counsel in the laws of + this land-service, I did not come. CHIEF JUSTICE. Well, the truth is, + Sir John, you live in great infamy. FALSTAFF. He that buckles himself + in my belt cannot live in less. CHIEF JUSTICE. Your means are very + slender, and your waste is great. FALSTAFF. I would it were + otherwise; I would my means were greater and my waist slenderer. + CHIEF JUSTICE. You have misled the youthful Prince. FALSTAFF. The + young Prince hath misled me. I am the fellow with the great belly, + and he my dog. CHIEF JUSTICE. Well, I am loath to gall a new-heal'd + wound. Your day's service at Shrewsbury hath a little gilded over + your night's exploit on Gadshill. You may thank th' unquiet time for + your quiet o'erposting that action. FALSTAFF. My lord- CHIEF JUSTICE. + But since all is well, keep it so: wake not a sleeping wolf. + FALSTAFF. To wake a wolf is as bad as smell a fox. CHIEF JUSTICE. + What! you are as a candle, the better part burnt out. FALSTAFF. A + wassail candle, my lord- all tallow; if I did say of wax, my growth + would approve the truth. CHIEF JUSTICE. There is not a white hair in + your face but should have his effect of gravity. FALSTAFF. His effect + of gravy, gravy, CHIEF JUSTICE. You follow the young Prince up and + down, like his ill angel. FALSTAFF. Not so, my lord. Your ill angel + is light; but hope he that looks upon me will take me without + weighing. And yet in some respects, I grant, I cannot go- I cannot + tell. Virtue is of so little regard in these costermongers' times + that true valour is turn'd berod; pregnancy is made a tapster, and + his quick wit wasted in giving reckonings; all the other gifts + appertinent to man, as the malice of this age shapes them, are not + worth a gooseberry. You that are old consider not the capacities of + us that are young; you do measure the heat of our livers with the + bitterness of your galls; and we that are in the vaward of our youth, + must confess, are wags too. CHIEF JUSTICE. Do you set down your name + in the scroll of youth, that are written down old with all the + characters of age? Have you not a moist eye, a dry hand, a yellow + cheek, a white beard, a decreasing leg, an increasing belly? Is not + your voice broken, your wind short, your chin double, your wit + single, and every part about you blasted with antiquity? And will you + yet call yourself young? Fie, fie, fie, Sir John! FALSTAFF. My lord, + I was born about three of the clock in the afternoon, with a white + head and something a round belly. For my voice- I have lost it with + hallooing and singing of anthems. To approve my youth further, I will + not. The truth is, I am only old in judgment and understanding; and + he that will caper with me for a thousand marks, let him lend me the + money, and have at him. For the box of the ear that the Prince gave + you- he gave it like a rude prince, and you took it like a sensible + lord. I have check'd him for it; and the young lion repents- marry, + not in ashes and sackcloth, but in new silk and old sack. CHIEF + JUSTICE. Well, God send the Prince a better companion! FALSTAFF. God + send the companion a better prince! I cannot rid my hands of him. + CHIEF JUSTICE. Well, the King hath sever'd you. I hear you are going + with Lord John of Lancaster against the Archbishop and the Earl of + Northumberland. FALSTAFF. Yea; I thank your pretty sweet wit for it. + But look you pray, all you that kiss my Lady Peace at home, that our + armies join not in a hot day; for, by the Lord, I take but two shirts + out with me, and I mean not to sweat extraordinarily. If it be a hot + day, and I brandish anything but a bottle, I would I might never spit + white again. There is not a dangerous action can peep out his head + but I am thrust upon it. Well, I cannot last ever; but it was alway + yet the trick of our English nation, if they have a good thing, to + make it too common. If ye will needs say I am an old man, you should + give me rest. I would to God my name were not so terrible to the + enemy as it is. I were better to be eaten to death with a rust than + to be scoured to nothing with perpetual motion. CHIEF JUSTICE. Well, + be honest, be honest; and God bless your expedition! FALSTAFF. Will + your lordship lend me a thousand pound to furnish me forth? CHIEF + JUSTICE. Not a penny, not a penny; you are too impatient to bear + crosses. Fare you well. Commend me to my cousin Westmoreland. Exeunt + CHIEF JUSTICE and SERVANT FALSTAFF. If I do, fillip me with a + three-man beetle. A man can no more separate age and covetousness + than 'a can part young limbs and lechery; but the gout galls the one, + and the pox pinches the other; and so both the degrees prevent my + curses. Boy! PAGE. Sir? FALSTAFF. What money is in my purse? PAGE. + Seven groats and two pence. FALSTAFF. I can get no remedy against + this consumption of the purse; borrowing only lingers and lingers it + out, but the disease is incurable. Go bear this letter to my Lord of + Lancaster; this to the Prince; this to the Earl of Westmoreland; and + this to old Mistress Ursula, whom I have weekly sworn to marry since + I perceiv'd the first white hair of my chin. About it; you know where + to find me. [Exit PAGE] A pox of this gout! or, a gout of this pox! + for the one or the other plays the rogue with my great toe. 'Tis no + matter if I do halt; I have the wars for my colour, and my pension + shall seem the more reasonable. A good wit will make use of anything. + I will turn diseases to commodity. Exit + +SCENE III. York. The ARCHBISHOP'S palace + +Enter the ARCHBISHOP, THOMAS MOWBRAY the EARL MARSHAL, LORD HASTINGS, +and LORD BARDOLPH + + ARCHBISHOP. Thus have you heard our cause and known our means; + And, my most noble friends, I pray you all + Speak plainly your opinions of our hopes- + And first, Lord Marshal, what say you to it? + MOWBRAY. I well allow the occasion of our amis; + But gladly would be better satisfied + How, in our means, we should advance ourselves + To look with forehead bold and big enough + Upon the power and puissance of the King. + HASTINGS. Our present musters grow upon the file + To five and twenty thousand men of choice; + And our supplies live largely in the hope + Of great Northumberland, whose bosom burns + With an incensed fire of injuries. + LORD BARDOLPH. The question then, Lord Hastings, standeth thus: + Whether our present five and twenty thousand + May hold up head without Northumberland? + HASTINGS. With him, we may. + LORD BARDOLPH. Yea, marry, there's the point; + But if without him we be thought too feeble, + My judgment is we should not step too far + Till we had his assistance by the hand; + For, in a theme so bloody-fac'd as this, + Conjecture, expectation, and surmise + Of aids incertain, should not be admitted. + ARCHBISHOP. 'Tis very true, Lord Bardolph; for indeed + It was young Hotspur's case at Shrewsbury. + LORD BARDOLPH. It was, my lord; who lin'd himself with hope, + Eating the air and promise of supply, + Flatt'ring himself in project of a power + Much smaller than the smallest of his thoughts; + And so, with great imagination + Proper to madmen, led his powers to death, + And, winking, leapt into destruction. + HASTINGS. But, by your leave, it never yet did hurt + To lay down likelihoods and forms of hope. + LORD BARDOLPH. Yes, if this present quality of war- + Indeed the instant action, a cause on foot- + Lives so in hope, as in an early spring + We see th' appearing buds; which to prove fruit + Hope gives not so much warrant, as despair + That frosts will bite them. When we mean to build, + We first survey the plot, then draw the model; + And when we see the figure of the house, + Then we must rate the cost of the erection; + Which if we find outweighs ability, + What do we then but draw anew the model + In fewer offices, or at least desist + To build at all? Much more, in this great work- + Which is almost to pluck a kingdom down + And set another up- should we survey + The plot of situation and the model, + Consent upon a sure foundation, + Question surveyors, know our own estate + How able such a work to undergo- + To weigh against his opposite; or else + We fortify in paper and in figures, + Using the names of men instead of men; + Like one that draws the model of a house + Beyond his power to build it; who, half through, + Gives o'er and leaves his part-created cost + A naked subject to the weeping clouds + And waste for churlish winter's tyranny. + HASTINGS. Grant that our hopes- yet likely of fair birth- + Should be still-born, and that we now possess'd + The utmost man of expectation, + I think we are so a body strong enough, + Even as we are, to equal with the King. + LORD BARDOLPH. What, is the King but five and twenty thousand? + HASTINGS. To us no more; nay, not so much, Lord Bardolph; + For his divisions, as the times do brawl, + Are in three heads: one power against the French, + And one against Glendower; perforce a third + Must take up us. So is the unfirm King + In three divided; and his coffers sound + With hollow poverty and emptiness. + ARCHBISHOP. That he should draw his several strengths together + And come against us in full puissance + Need not be dreaded. + HASTINGS. If he should do so, + He leaves his back unarm'd, the French and Welsh + Baying at his heels. Never fear that. + LORD BARDOLPH. Who is it like should lead his forces hither? + HASTINGS. The Duke of Lancaster and Westmoreland; + Against the Welsh, himself and Harry Monmouth; + But who is substituted against the French + I have no certain notice. + ARCHBISHOP. Let us on, + And publish the occasion of our arms. + The commonwealth is sick of their own choice; + Their over-greedy love hath surfeited. + An habitation giddy and unsure + Hath he that buildeth on the vulgar heart. + O thou fond many, with what loud applause + Didst thou beat heaven with blessing Bolingbroke + Before he was what thou wouldst have him be! + And being now trimm'd in thine own desires, + Thou, beastly feeder, art so full of him + That thou provok'st thyself to cast him up. + So, so, thou common dog, didst thou disgorge + Thy glutton bosom of the royal Richard; + And now thou wouldst eat thy dead vomit up, + And howl'st to find it. What trust is in these times? + They that, when Richard liv'd, would have him die + Are now become enamour'd on his grave. + Thou that threw'st dust upon his goodly head, + When through proud London he came sighing on + After th' admired heels of Bolingbroke, + Criest now 'O earth, yield us that king again, + And take thou this!' O thoughts of men accurs'd! + Past and to come seems best; things present, worst. + MOWBRAY. Shall we go draw our numbers, and set on? + HASTINGS. We are time's subjects, and time bids be gone. + Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE I. London. A street + +Enter HOSTESS with two officers, FANG and SNARE + + HOSTESS. Master Fang, have you ent'red the action? + FANG. It is ent'red. + HOSTESS. Where's your yeoman? Is't a lusty yeoman? Will 'a stand + to't? + FANG. Sirrah, where's Snare? + HOSTESS. O Lord, ay! good Master Snare. + SNARE. Here, here. + FANG. Snare, we must arrest Sir John Falstaff. + HOSTESS. Yea, good Master Snare; I have ent'red him and all. + SNARE. It may chance cost some of our lives, for he will stab. + HOSTESS. Alas the day! take heed of him; he stabb'd me in mine own + house, and that most beastly. In good faith, 'a cares not what + mischief he does, if his weapon be out; he will foin like any + devil; he will spare neither man, woman, nor child. + FANG. If I can close with him, I care not for his thrust. + HOSTESS. No, nor I neither; I'll be at your elbow. + FANG. An I but fist him once; an 'a come but within my vice! + HOSTESS. I am undone by his going; I warrant you, he's an + infinitive thing upon my score. Good Master Fang, hold him sure. + Good Master Snare, let him not scape. 'A comes continuantly to + Pie-corner- saving your manhoods- to buy a saddle; and he is + indited to dinner to the Lubber's Head in Lumbert Street, to + Master Smooth's the silkman. I pray you, since my exion is + ent'red, and my case so openly known to the world, let him be + brought in to his answer. A hundred mark is a long one for a poor + lone woman to bear; and I have borne, and borne, and borne; and + have been fubb'd off, and fubb'd off, and fubb'd off, from this + day to that day, that it is a shame to be thought on. There is no + honesty in such dealing; unless a woman should be made an ass and + a beast, to bear every knave's wrong. + + Enter SIR JOHN FALSTAFF, PAGE, and BARDOLPH + + Yonder he comes; and that arrant malmsey-nose knave, Bardolph, + with him. Do your offices, do your offices, Master Fang and + Master Snare; do me, do me, do me your offices. + FALSTAFF. How now! whose mare's dead? What's the matter? + FANG. Sir John, I arrest you at the suit of Mistress Quickly. + FALSTAFF. Away, varlets! Draw, Bardolph. Cut me off the villian's + head. Throw the quean in the channel. + HOSTESS. Throw me in the channel! I'll throw thee in the channel. + Wilt thou? wilt thou? thou bastardly rogue! Murder, murder! Ah, + thou honeysuckle villain! wilt thou kill God's officers and the + King's? Ah, thou honey-seed rogue! thou art a honey-seed; a + man-queller and a woman-queller. + FALSTAFF. Keep them off, Bardolph. + FANG. A rescue! a rescue! + HOSTESS. Good people, bring a rescue or two. Thou wot, wot thou! + thou wot, wot ta? Do, do, thou rogue! do, thou hemp-seed! + PAGE. Away, you scullion! you rampallian! you fustilarian! + I'll tickle your catastrophe. + + Enter the LORD CHIEF JUSTICE and his men + + CHIEF JUSTICE. What is the matter? Keep the peace here, ho! + HOSTESS. Good my lord, be good to me. I beseech you, stand to me. + CHIEF JUSTICE. How now, Sir John! what, are you brawling here? + Doth this become your place, your time, and business? + You should have been well on your way to York. + Stand from him, fellow; wherefore hang'st thou upon him? + HOSTESS. O My most worshipful lord, an't please your Grace, I am a + poor widow of Eastcheap, and he is arrested at my suit. + CHIEF JUSTICE. For what sum? + HOSTESS. It is more than for some, my lord; it is for all- all I + have. He hath eaten me out of house and home; he hath put all my + substance into that fat belly of his. But I will have some of it + out again, or I will ride thee a nights like a mare. + FALSTAFF. I think I am as like to ride the mare, if I have any + vantage of ground to get up. + CHIEF JUSTICE. How comes this, Sir John? Fie! What man of good + temper would endure this tempest of exclamation? Are you not + ashamed to enforce a poor widow to so rough a course to come by + her own? + FALSTAFF. What is the gross sum that I owe thee? + HOSTESS. Marry, if thou wert an honest man, thyself and the money + too. Thou didst swear to me upon a parcel-gilt goblet, sitting in + my Dolphin chamber, at the round table, by a sea-coal fire, upon + Wednesday in Wheeson week, when the Prince broke thy head for + liking his father to singing-man of Windsor- thou didst swear to + me then, as I was washing thy wound, to marry me and make me my + lady thy wife. Canst thou deny it? Did not goodwife Keech, the + butcher's wife, come in then and call me gossip Quickly? Coming + in to borrow a mess of vinegar, telling us she had a good dish of + prawns, whereby thou didst desire to eat some, whereby I told + thee they were ill for green wound? And didst thou not, when she + was gone down stairs, desire me to be no more so familiarity with + such poor people, saying that ere long they should call me madam? + And didst thou not kiss me, and bid me fetch the thirty + shillings? I put thee now to thy book-oath. Deny it, if thou + canst. + FALSTAFF. My lord, this is a poor mad soul, and she says up and + down the town that her eldest son is like you. She hath been in + good case, and, the truth is, poverty hath distracted her. But + for these foolish officers, I beseech you I may have redress + against them. + CHIEF JUSTICE. Sir John, Sir John, I am well acquainted with your + manner of wrenching the true cause the false way. It is not a + confident brow, nor the throng of words that come with such more + than impudent sauciness from you, can thrust me from a level + consideration. You have, as it appears to me, practis'd upon the + easy yielding spirit of this woman, and made her serve your uses + both in purse and in person. + HOSTESS. Yea, in truth, my lord. + CHIEF JUSTICE. Pray thee, peace. Pay her the debt you owe her, and + unpay the villainy you have done with her; the one you may do + with sterling money, and the other with current repentance. + FALSTAFF. My lord, I will not undergo this sneap without reply. You + call honourable boldness impudent sauciness; if a man will make + curtsy and say nothing, he is virtuous. No, my lord, my humble + duty rememb'red, I will not be your suitor. I say to you I do + desire deliverance from these officers, being upon hasty + employment in the King's affairs. + CHIEF JUSTICE. You speak as having power to do wrong; but answer in + th' effect of your reputation, and satisfy the poor woman. + FALSTAFF. Come hither, hostess. + + Enter GOWER + + CHIEF JUSTICE. Now, Master Gower, what news? + GOWER. The King, my lord, and Harry Prince of Wales + Are near at hand. The rest the paper tells. [Gives a letter] + FALSTAFF. As I am a gentleman! + HOSTESS. Faith, you said so before. + FALSTAFF. As I am a gentleman! Come, no more words of it. + HOSTESS. By this heavenly ground I tread on, I must be fain to pawn + both my plate and the tapestry of my dining-chambers. + FALSTAFF. Glasses, glasses, is the only drinking; and for thy + walls, a pretty slight drollery, or the story of the Prodigal, or + the German hunting, in water-work, is worth a thousand of these + bed-hangers and these fly-bitten tapestries. Let it be ten pound, + if thou canst. Come, and 'twere not for thy humours, there's not + a better wench in England. Go, wash thy face, and draw the + action. Come, thou must not be in this humour with me; dost not + know me? Come, come, I know thou wast set on to this. + HOSTESS. Pray thee, Sir John, let it be but twenty nobles; + i' faith, I am loath to pawn my plate, so God save me, la! + FALSTAFF. Let it alone; I'll make other shift. You'll be a fool + still. + HOSTESS. Well, you shall have it, though I pawn my gown. + I hope you'll come to supper. you'll pay me all together? + FALSTAFF. Will I live? [To BARDOLPH] Go, with her, with her; hook + on, hook on. + HOSTESS. Will you have Doll Tearsheet meet you at supper? + FALSTAFF. No more words; let's have her. + Exeunt HOSTESS, BARDOLPH, and OFFICERS + CHIEF JUSTICE. I have heard better news. + FALSTAFF. What's the news, my lord? + CHIEF JUSTICE. Where lay the King to-night? + GOWER. At Basingstoke, my lord. + FALSTAFF. I hope, my lord, all's well. What is the news, my lord? + CHIEF JUSTICE. Come all his forces back? + GOWER. No; fifteen hundred foot, five hundred horse, + Are march'd up to my Lord of Lancaster, + Against Northumberland and the Archbishop. + FALSTAFF. Comes the King back from Wales, my noble lord? + CHIEF JUSTICE. You shall have letters of me presently. + Come, go along with me, good Master Gower. + FALSTAFF. My lord! + CHIEF JUSTICE. What's the matter? + FALSTAFF. Master Gower, shall I entreat you with me to dinner? + GOWER. I must wait upon my good lord here, I thank you, good Sir + John. + CHIEF JUSTICE. Sir John, you loiter here too long, being you are to + take soldiers up in counties as you go. + FALSTAFF. Will you sup with me, Master Gower? + CHIEF JUSTICE. What foolish master taught you these manners, Sir + John? + FALSTAFF. Master Gower, if they become me not, he was a fool that + taught them me. This is the right fencing grace, my lord; tap for + tap, and so part fair. + CHIEF JUSTICE. Now, the Lord lighten thee! Thou art a great fool. + Exeunt + +SCENE II. London. Another street + +Enter PRINCE HENRY and POINS + + PRINCE. Before God, I am exceeding weary. + POINS. Is't come to that? I had thought weariness durst not have + attach'd one of so high blood. + PRINCE. Faith, it does me; though it discolours the complexion of + my greatness to acknowledge it. Doth it not show vilely in me to + desire small beer? + POINS. Why, a prince should not be so loosely studied as to + remember so weak a composition. + PRINCE. Belike then my appetite was not-princely got; for, by my + troth, I do now remember the poor creature, small beer. But + indeed these humble considerations make me out of love with my + greatness. What a disgrace is it to me to remember thy name, or + to know thy face to-morrow, or to take note how many pair of silk + stockings thou hast- viz., these, and those that were thy + peach-colour'd ones- or to bear the inventory of thy shirts- as, + one for superfluity, and another for use! But that the + tennis-court-keeper knows better than I; for it is a low ebb of + linen with thee when thou keepest not racket there; as thou hast + not done a great while, because the rest of thy low countries + have made a shift to eat up thy holland. And God knows whether + those that bawl out of the ruins of thy linen shall inherit his + kingdom; but the midwives say the children are not in the fault; + whereupon the world increases, and kindreds are mightily + strengthened. + POINS. How ill it follows, after you have laboured so hard, you + should talk so idly! Tell me, how many good young princes would + do so, their fathers being so sick as yours at this time is? + PRINCE. Shall I tell thee one thing, Poins? + POINS. Yes, faith; and let it be an excellent good thing. + PRINCE. It shall serve among wits of no higher breeding than thine. + POINS. Go to; I stand the push of your one thing that you will + tell. + PRINCE. Marry, I tell thee it is not meet that I should be sad, now + my father is sick; albeit I could tell to thee- as to one it + pleases me, for fault of a better, to call my friend- I could be + sad and sad indeed too. + POINS. Very hardly upon such a subject. + PRINCE. By this hand, thou thinkest me as far in the devil's book + as thou and Falstaff for obduracy and persistency: let the end + try the man. But I tell thee my heart bleeds inwardly that my + father is so sick; and keeping such vile company as thou art hath + in reason taken from me all ostentation of sorrow. + POINS. The reason? + PRINCE. What wouldst thou think of me if I should weep? + POINS. I would think thee a most princely hypocrite. + PRINCE. It would be every man's thought; and thou art a blessed + fellow to think as every man thinks. Never a man's thought in the + world keeps the road-way better than thine. Every man would think + me an hypocrite indeed. And what accites your most worshipful + thought to think so? + POINS. Why, because you have been so lewd and so much engraffed to + Falstaff. + PRINCE. And to thee. + POINS. By this light, I am well spoke on; I can hear it with mine + own ears. The worst that they can say of me is that I am a second + brother and that I am a proper fellow of my hands; and those two + things, I confess, I cannot help. By the mass, here comes + Bardolph. + + Enter BARDOLPH and PAGE + + PRINCE. And the boy that I gave Falstaff. 'A had him from me + Christian; and look if the fat villain have not transform'd him + ape. + BARDOLPH. God save your Grace! + PRINCE. And yours, most noble Bardolph! + POINS. Come, you virtuous ass, you bashful fool, must you be + blushing? Wherefore blush you now? What a maidenly man-at-arms + are you become! Is't such a matter to get a pottle-pot's + maidenhead? + PAGE. 'A calls me e'en now, my lord, through a red lattice, and I + could discern no part of his face from the window. At last I + spied his eyes; and methought he had made two holes in the + alewife's new petticoat, and so peep'd through. + PRINCE. Has not the boy profited? + BARDOLPH. Away, you whoreson upright rabbit, away! + PAGE. Away, you rascally Althaea's dream, away! + PRINCE. Instruct us, boy; what dream, boy? + PAGE. Marry, my lord, Althaea dreamt she was delivered of a + firebrand; and therefore I call him her dream. + PRINCE. A crown's worth of good interpretation. There 'tis, boy. + [Giving a crown] + POINS. O that this blossom could be kept from cankers! + Well, there is sixpence to preserve thee. + BARDOLPH. An you do not make him be hang'd among you, the gallows + shall have wrong. + PRINCE. And how doth thy master, Bardolph? + BARDOLPH. Well, my lord. He heard of your Grace's coming to town. + There's a letter for you. + POINS. Deliver'd with good respect. And how doth the martlemas, + your master? + BARDOLPH. In bodily health, sir. + POINS. Marry, the immortal part needs a physician; but that moves + not him. Though that be sick, it dies not. + PRINCE. I do allow this well to be as familiar with me as my dog; + and he holds his place, for look you how he writes. + POINS. [Reads] 'John Falstaff, knight'- Every man must know that + as oft as he has occasion to name himself, even like those that + are kin to the King; for they never prick their finger but they + say 'There's some of the King's blood spilt.' 'How comes that?' + says he that takes upon him not to conceive. The answer is as + ready as a borrower's cap: 'I am the King's poor cousin, sir.' + PRINCE. Nay, they will be kin to us, or they will fetch it from + Japhet. But the letter: [Reads] 'Sir John Falstaff, knight, to + the son of the King nearest his father, Harry Prince of Wales, + greeting.' + POINS. Why, this is a certificate. + PRINCE. Peace! [Reads] 'I will imitate the honourable Romans in + brevity.'- + POINS. He sure means brevity in breath, short-winded. + PRINCE. [Reads] 'I commend me to thee, I commend thee, and I + leave thee. Be not too familiar with Poins; for he misuses thy + favours so much that he swears thou art to marry his sister Nell. + Repent at idle times as thou mayst, and so farewell. + Thine, by yea and no- which is as much as to say as + thou usest him- JACK FALSTAFF with my familiars, + JOHN with my brothers and sisters, and SIR JOHN with + all Europe.' + POINS. My lord, I'll steep this letter in sack and make him eat it. + PRINCE. That's to make him eat twenty of his words. But do you use + me thus, Ned? Must I marry your sister? + POINS. God send the wench no worse fortune! But I never said so. + PRINCE. Well, thus we play the fools with the time, and the spirits + of the wise sit in the clouds and mock us. Is your master here in + London? + BARDOLPH. Yea, my lord. + PRINCE. Where sups he? Doth the old boar feed in the old frank? + BARDOLPH. At the old place, my lord, in Eastcheap. + PRINCE. What company? + PAGE. Ephesians, my lord, of the old church. + PRINCE. Sup any women with him? + PAGE. None, my lord, but old Mistress Quickly and Mistress Doll + Tearsheet. + PRINCE. What pagan may that be? + PAGE. A proper gentlewoman, sir, and a kinswoman of my master's. + PRINCE. Even such kin as the parish heifers are to the town bull. + Shall we steal upon them, Ned, at supper? + POINS. I am your shadow, my lord; I'll follow you. + PRINCE. Sirrah, you boy, and Bardolph, no word to your master that + I am yet come to town. There's for your silence. + BARDOLPH. I have no tongue, sir. + PAGE. And for mine, sir, I will govern it. + PRINCE. Fare you well; go. Exeunt BARDOLPH and PAGE + This Doll Tearsheet should be some road. + POINS. I warrant you, as common as the way between Saint Albans and + London. + PRINCE. How might we see Falstaff bestow himself to-night in his + true colours, and not ourselves be seen? + POINS. Put on two leathern jerkins and aprons, and wait upon him at + his table as drawers. + PRINCE. From a god to a bull? A heavy descension! It was Jove's + case. From a prince to a prentice? A low transformation! That + shall be mine; for in everything the purpose must weigh with the + folly. Follow me, Ned. + Exeunt + +SCENE III. Warkworth. Before the castle + +Enter NORTHUMBERLAND, LADY NORTHUMBERLAND, and LADY PERCY + + NORTHUMBERLAND. I pray thee, loving wife, and gentle daughter, + Give even way unto my rough affairs; + Put not you on the visage of the times + And be, like them, to Percy troublesome. + LADY NORTHUMBERLAND. I have given over, I will speak no more. + Do what you will; your wisdom be your guide. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Alas, sweet wife, my honour is at pawn; + And but my going nothing can redeem it. + LADY PERCY. O, yet, for God's sake, go not to these wars! + The time was, father, that you broke your word, + When you were more endear'd to it than now; + When your own Percy, when my heart's dear Harry, + Threw many a northward look to see his father + Bring up his powers; but he did long in vain. + Who then persuaded you to stay at home? + There were two honours lost, yours and your son's. + For yours, the God of heaven brighten it! + For his, it stuck upon him as the sun + In the grey vault of heaven; and by his light + Did all the chivalry of England move + To do brave acts. He was indeed the glass + Wherein the noble youth did dress themselves. + He had no legs that practis'd not his gait; + And speaking thick, which nature made his blemish, + Became the accents of the valiant; + For those who could speak low and tardily + Would turn their own perfection to abuse + To seem like him: so that in speech, in gait, + In diet, in affections of delight, + In military rules, humours of blood, + He was the mark and glass, copy and book, + That fashion'd others. And him- O wondrous him! + O miracle of men!- him did you leave- + Second to none, unseconded by you- + To look upon the hideous god of war + In disadvantage, to abide a field + Where nothing but the sound of Hotspur's name + Did seem defensible. So you left him. + Never, O never, do his ghost the wrong + To hold your honour more precise and nice + With others than with him! Let them alone. + The Marshal and the Archbishop are strong. + Had my sweet Harry had but half their numbers, + To-day might I, hanging on Hotspur's neck, + Have talk'd of Monmouth's grave. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Beshrew your heart, + Fair daughter, you do draw my spirits from me + With new lamenting ancient oversights. + But I must go and meet with danger there, + Or it will seek me in another place, + And find me worse provided. + LADY NORTHUMBERLAND. O, fly to Scotland + Till that the nobles and the armed commons + Have of their puissance made a little taste. + LADY PERCY. If they get ground and vantage of the King, + Then join you with them, like a rib of steel, + To make strength stronger; but, for all our loves, + First let them try themselves. So did your son; + He was so suff'red; so came I a widow; + And never shall have length of life enough + To rain upon remembrance with mine eyes, + That it may grow and sprout as high as heaven, + For recordation to my noble husband. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Come, come, go in with me. 'Tis with my mind + As with the tide swell'd up unto his height, + That makes a still-stand, running neither way. + Fain would I go to meet the Archbishop, + But many thousand reasons hold me back. + I will resolve for Scotland. There am I, + Till time and vantage crave my company. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. London. The Boar's Head Tavern in Eastcheap + +Enter FRANCIS and another DRAWER + + FRANCIS. What the devil hast thou brought there-apple-johns? Thou + knowest Sir John cannot endure an apple-john. + SECOND DRAWER. Mass, thou say'st true. The Prince once set a dish + of apple-johns before him, and told him there were five more Sir + Johns; and, putting off his hat, said 'I will now take my leave + of these six dry, round, old, withered knights.' It ang'red him + to the heart; but he hath forgot that. + FRANCIS. Why, then, cover and set them down; and see if thou canst + find out Sneak's noise; Mistress Tearsheet would fain hear some + music. + + Enter third DRAWER + + THIRD DRAWER. Dispatch! The room where they supp'd is too hot; + they'll come in straight. + FRANCIS. Sirrah, here will be the Prince and Master Poins anon; and + they will put on two of our jerkins and aprons; and Sir John must + not know of it. Bardolph hath brought word. + THIRD DRAWER. By the mass, here will be old uds; it will be an + excellent stratagem. + SECOND DRAWER. I'll see if I can find out Sneak. + Exeunt second and third DRAWERS + + Enter HOSTESS and DOLL TEARSHEET + + HOSTESS. I' faith, sweetheart, methinks now you are in an excellent + good temperality. Your pulsidge beats as extraordinarily as heart + would desire; and your colour, I warrant you, is as red as any + rose, in good truth, la! But, i' faith, you have drunk too much + canaries; and that's a marvellous searching wine, and it perfumes + the blood ere one can say 'What's this?' How do you now? + DOLL. Better than I was- hem. + HOSTESS. Why, that's well said; a good heart's worth gold. + Lo, here comes Sir John. + + Enter FALSTAFF + + FALSTAFF. [Singing] 'When Arthur first in court'- Empty the + jordan. [Exit FRANCIS]- [Singing] 'And was a worthy king'- How + now, Mistress Doll! + HOSTESS. Sick of a calm; yea, good faith. + FALSTAFF. So is all her sect; and they be once in a calm, they are + sick. + DOLL. A pox damn you, you muddy rascal! Is that all the comfort you + give me? + FALSTAFF. You make fat rascals, Mistress Doll. + DOLL. I make them! Gluttony and diseases make them: I make them + not. + FALSTAFF. If the cook help to make the gluttony, you help to make + the diseases, Doll. We catch of you, Doll, we catch of you; grant + that, my poor virtue, grant that. + DOLL. Yea, joy, our chains and our jewels. + FALSTAFF. 'Your brooches, pearls, and ouches.' For to serve bravely + is to come halting off; you know, to come off the breach with his + pike bent bravely, and to surgery bravely; to venture upon the + charg'd chambers bravely- + DOLL. Hang yourself, you muddy conger, hang yourself! + HOSTESS. By my troth, this is the old fashion; you two never meet + but you fall to some discord. You are both, i' good truth, as + rheumatic as two dry toasts; you cannot one bear with another's + confirmities. What the good-year! one must bear, and that must be + you. You are the weaker vessel, as as they say, the emptier + vessel. + DOLL. Can a weak empty vessel bear such a huge full hogs-head? + There's a whole merchant's venture of Bourdeaux stuff in him; you + have not seen a hulk better stuff'd in the hold. Come, I'll be + friends with thee, Jack. Thou art going to the wars; and whether + I shall ever see thee again or no, there is nobody cares. + + Re-enter FRANCIS + + FRANCIS. Sir, Ancient Pistol's below and would speak with you. + DOLL. Hang him, swaggering rascal! Let him not come hither; it is + the foul-mouth'dst rogue in England. + HOSTESS. If he swagger, let him not come here. No, by my faith! I + must live among my neighbours; I'll no swaggerers. I am in good + name and fame with the very best. Shut the door. There comes no + swaggerers here; I have not liv'd all this while to have + swaggering now. Shut the door, I pray you. + FALSTAFF. Dost thou hear, hostess? + HOSTESS. Pray ye, pacify yourself, Sir John; there comes no + swaggerers here. + FALSTAFF. Dost thou hear? It is mine ancient. + HOSTESS. Tilly-fally, Sir John, ne'er tell me; and your ancient + swagg'rer comes not in my doors. I was before Master Tisick, the + debuty, t' other day; and, as he said to me- 'twas no longer ago + than Wednesday last, i' good faith!- 'Neighbour Quickly,' says + he- Master Dumbe, our minister, was by then- 'Neighbour Quickly,' + says he 'receive those that are civil, for' said he 'you are in + an ill name.' Now 'a said so, I can tell whereupon. 'For' says he + 'you are an honest woman and well thought on, therefore take heed + what guests you receive. Receive' says he 'no swaggering + companions.' There comes none here. You would bless you to hear + what he said. No, I'll no swagg'rers. + FALSTAFF. He's no swagg'rer, hostess; a tame cheater, i' faith; you + may stroke him as gently as a puppy greyhound. He'll not swagger + with a Barbary hen, if her feathers turn back in any show of + resistance. Call him up, drawer. + Exit FRANCIS + HOSTESS. Cheater, call you him? I will bar no honest man my house, + nor no cheater; but I do not love swaggering, by my troth. I am + the worse when one says 'swagger.' Feel, masters, how I shake; + look you, I warrant you. + DOLL. So you do, hostess. + HOSTESS. Do I? Yea, in very truth, do I, an 'twere an aspen leaf. I + cannot abide swagg'rers. + + Enter PISTOL, BARDOLPH, and PAGE + + PISTOL. God save you, Sir John! + FALSTAFF. Welcome, Ancient Pistol. Here, Pistol, I charge you with + a cup of sack; do you discharge upon mine hostess. + PISTOL. I will discharge upon her, Sir John, with two bullets. + FALSTAFF. She is pistol-proof, sir; you shall not hardly offend + her. + HOSTESS. Come, I'll drink no proofs nor no bullets. I'll drink no + more than will do me good, for no man's pleasure, I. + PISTOL. Then to you, Mistress Dorothy; I will charge you. + DOLL. Charge me! I scorn you, scurvy companion. What! you poor, + base, rascally, cheating, lack-linen mate! Away, you mouldy + rogue, away! I am meat for your master. + PISTOL. I know you, Mistress Dorothy. + DOLL. Away, you cut-purse rascal! you filthy bung, away! By this + wine, I'll thrust my knife in your mouldy chaps, an you play the + saucy cuttle with me. Away, you bottle-ale rascal! you + basket-hilt stale juggler, you! Since when, I pray you, sir? + God's light, with two points on your shoulder? Much! + PISTOL. God let me not live but I will murder your ruff for this. + FALSTAFF. No more, Pistol; I would not have you go off here. + Discharge yourself of our company, Pistol. + HOSTESS. No, good Captain Pistol; not here, sweet captain. + DOLL. Captain! Thou abominable damn'd cheater, art thou not ashamed + to be called captain? An captains were of my mind, they would + truncheon you out, for taking their names upon you before you + have earn'd them. You a captain! you slave, for what? For tearing + a poor whore's ruff in a bawdy-house? He a captain! hang him, + rogue! He lives upon mouldy stew'd prunes and dried cakes. A + captain! God's light, these villains will make the word as odious + as the word 'occupy'; which was an excellent good word before it + was ill sorted. Therefore captains had need look to't. + BARDOLPH. Pray thee go down, good ancient. + FALSTAFF. Hark thee hither, Mistress Doll. + PISTOL. Not I! I tell thee what, Corporal Bardolph, I could tear + her; I'll be reveng'd of her. + PAGE. Pray thee go down. + PISTOL. I'll see her damn'd first; to Pluto's damn'd lake, by this + hand, to th' infernal deep, with Erebus and tortures vile also. + Hold hook and line, say I. Down, down, dogs! down, faitors! Have + we not Hiren here? + HOSTESS. Good Captain Peesel, be quiet; 'tis very late, i' faith; I + beseek you now, aggravate your choler. + PISTOL. These be good humours, indeed! Shall packhorses, + And hollow pamper'd jades of Asia, + Which cannot go but thirty mile a day, + Compare with Caesars, and with Cannibals, + And Troiant Greeks? Nay, rather damn them with + King Cerberus; and let the welkin roar. + Shall we fall foul for toys? + HOSTESS. By my troth, Captain, these are very bitter words. + BARDOLPH. Be gone, good ancient; this will grow to a brawl anon. + PISTOL. Die men like dogs! Give crowns like pins! Have we not Hiren + here? + HOSTESS. O' my word, Captain, there's none such here. What the + good-year! do you think I would deny her? For God's sake, be + quiet. + PISTOL. Then feed and be fat, my fair Calipolis. + Come, give's some sack. + 'Si fortune me tormente sperato me contento.' + Fear we broadsides? No, let the fiend give fire. + Give me some sack; and, sweetheart, lie thou there. + [Laying down his sword] + Come we to full points here, and are etceteras nothings? + FALSTAFF. Pistol, I would be quiet. + PISTOL. Sweet knight, I kiss thy neaf. What! we have seen the seven + stars. + DOLL. For God's sake thrust him down stairs; I cannot endure such a + fustian rascal. + PISTOL. Thrust him down stairs! Know we not Galloway nags? + FALSTAFF. Quoit him down, Bardolph, like a shove-groat shilling. + Nay, an 'a do nothing but speak nothing, 'a shall be nothing + here. + BARDOLPH. Come, get you down stairs. + PISTOL. What! shall we have incision? Shall we imbrue? + [Snatching up his sword] + Then death rock me asleep, abridge my doleful days! + Why, then, let grievous, ghastly, gaping wounds + Untwine the Sisters Three! Come, Atropos, I say! + HOSTESS. Here's goodly stuff toward! + FALSTAFF. Give me my rapier, boy. + DOLL. I pray thee, Jack, I pray thee, do not draw. + FALSTAFF. Get you down stairs. + [Drawing and driving PISTOL out] + HOSTESS. Here's a goodly tumult! I'll forswear keeping house afore + I'll be in these tirrits and frights. So; murder, I warrant now. + Alas, alas! put up your naked weapons, put up your naked weapons. + Exeunt PISTOL and BARDOLPH + DOLL. I pray thee, Jack, be quiet; the rascal's gone. Ah, you + whoreson little valiant villain, you! + HOSTESS. Are you not hurt i' th' groin? Methought 'a made a shrewd + thrust at your belly. + + Re-enter BARDOLPH + + FALSTAFF. Have you turn'd him out a doors? + BARDOLPH. Yea, sir. The rascal's drunk. You have hurt him, sir, i' + th' shoulder. + FALSTAFF. A rascal! to brave me! + DOLL. Ah, you sweet little rogue, you! Alas, poor ape, how thou + sweat'st! Come, let me wipe thy face. Come on, you whoreson + chops. Ah, rogue! i' faith, I love thee. Thou art as valorous as + Hector of Troy, worth five of Agamemnon, and ten times better + than the Nine Worthies. Ah, villain! + FALSTAFF. A rascally slave! I will toss the rogue in a blanket. + DOLL. Do, an thou dar'st for thy heart. An thou dost, I'll canvass + thee between a pair of sheets. + + Enter musicians + + PAGE. The music is come, sir. + FALSTAFF. Let them play. Play, sirs. Sit on my knee, Don. A rascal + bragging slave! The rogue fled from me like quick-silver. + DOLL. I' faith, and thou follow'dst him like a church. Thou + whoreson little tidy Bartholomew boar-pig, when wilt thou leave + fighting a days and foining a nights, and begin to patch up thine + old body for heaven? + + Enter, behind, PRINCE HENRY and POINS disguised as drawers + + FALSTAFF. Peace, good Doll! Do not speak like a death's-head; do + not bid me remember mine end. + DOLL. Sirrah, what humour's the Prince of? + FALSTAFF. A good shallow young fellow. 'A would have made a good + pantler; 'a would ha' chipp'd bread well. + DOLL. They say Poins has a good wit. + FALSTAFF. He a good wit! hang him, baboon! His wit's as thick as + Tewksbury mustard; there's no more conceit in him than is in a + mallet. + DOLL. Why does the Prince love him so, then? + FALSTAFF. Because their legs are both of a bigness, and 'a plays at + quoits well, and eats conger and fennel, and drinks off candles' + ends for flap-dragons, and rides the wild mare with the boys, and + jumps upon join'd-stools, and swears with a good grace, and wears + his boots very smooth, like unto the sign of the Leg, and breeds + no bate with telling of discreet stories; and such other gambol + faculties 'a has, that show a weak mind and an able body, for the + which the Prince admits him. For the Prince himself is such + another; the weight of a hair will turn the scales between their + avoirdupois. + PRINCE. Would not this nave of a wheel have his ears cut off? + POINS. Let's beat him before his whore. + PRINCE. Look whe'er the wither'd elder hath not his poll claw'd + like a parrot. + POINS. Is it not strange that desire should so many years outlive + performance? + FALSTAFF. Kiss me, Doll. + PRINCE. Saturn and Venus this year in conjunction! What says th' + almanac to that? + POINS. And look whether the fiery Trigon, his man, be not lisping + to his master's old tables, his note-book, his counsel-keeper. + FALSTAFF. Thou dost give me flattering busses. + DOLL. By my troth, I kiss thee with a most constant heart. + FALSTAFF. I am old, I am old. + DOLL. I love thee better than I love e'er a scurvy young boy of + them all. + FALSTAFF. What stuff wilt have a kirtle of? I shall receive money a + Thursday. Shalt have a cap to-morrow. A merry song, come. 'A + grows late; we'll to bed. Thou't forget me when I am gone. + DOLL. By my troth, thou't set me a-weeping, an thou say'st so. + Prove that ever I dress myself handsome till thy return. Well, + hearken a' th' end. + FALSTAFF. Some sack, Francis. + PRINCE & POINS. Anon, anon, sir. [Advancing] + FALSTAFF. Ha! a bastard son of the King's? And art thou not Poins + his brother? + PRINCE. Why, thou globe of sinful continents, what a life dost thou + lead! + FALSTAFF. A better than thou. I am a gentleman: thou art a drawer. + PRINCE. Very true, sir, and I come to draw you out by the ears. + HOSTESS. O, the Lord preserve thy Grace! By my troth, welcome to + London. Now the Lord bless that sweet face of thine. O Jesu, are + you come from Wales? + FALSTAFF. Thou whoreson mad compound of majesty, by this light + flesh and corrupt blood, thou art welcome. + [Leaning his band upon DOLL] + DOLL. How, you fat fool! I scorn you. + POINS. My lord, he will drive you out of your revenge and turn all + to a merriment, if you take not the heat. + PRINCE. YOU whoreson candle-mine, you, how vilely did you speak of + me even now before this honest, virtuous, civil gentlewoman! + HOSTESS. God's blessing of your good heart! and so she is, by my + troth. + FALSTAFF. Didst thou hear me? + PRINCE. Yea; and you knew me, as you did when you ran away by + Gadshill. You knew I was at your back, and spoke it on purpose to + try my patience. + FALSTAFF. No, no, no; not so; I did not think thou wast within + hearing. + PRINCE. I shall drive you then to confess the wilful abuse, and + then I know how to handle you. + FALSTAFF. No abuse, Hal, o' mine honour; no abuse. + PRINCE. Not- to dispraise me, and call me pander, and + bread-chipper, and I know not what! + FALSTAFF. No abuse, Hal. + POINS. No abuse! + FALSTAFF. No abuse, Ned, i' th' world; honest Ned, none. I + disprais'd him before the wicked- that the wicked might not fall + in love with thee; in which doing, I have done the part of a + careful friend and a true subject; and thy father is to give me + thanks for it. No abuse, Hal; none, Ned, none; no, faith, boys, + none. + PRINCE. See now, whether pure fear and entire cowardice doth not + make thee wrong this virtuous gentlewoman to close with us? Is + she of the wicked? Is thine hostess here of the wicked? Or is thy + boy of the wicked? Or honest Bardolph, whose zeal burns in his + nose, of the wicked? + POINS. Answer, thou dead elm, answer. + FALSTAFF. The fiend hath prick'd down Bardolph irrecoverable; and + his face is Lucifer's privy-kitchen, where he doth nothing but + roast malt-worms. For the boy- there is a good angel about him; + but the devil outbids him too. + PRINCE. For the women? + FALSTAFF. For one of them- she's in hell already, and burns poor + souls. For th' other- I owe her money; and whether she be damn'd + for that, I know not. + HOSTESS. No, I warrant you. + FALSTAFF. No, I think thou art not; I think thou art quit for that. + Marry, there is another indictment upon thee for suffering flesh + to be eaten in thy house, contrary to the law; for the which I + think thou wilt howl. + HOSTESS. All vict'lers do so. What's a joint of mutton or two in a + whole Lent? + PRINCE. You, gentlewoman- + DOLL. What says your Grace? + FALSTAFF. His Grace says that which his flesh rebels against. + [Knocking within] + HOSTESS. Who knocks so loud at door? Look to th' door there, + Francis. + + Enter PETO + + PRINCE. Peto, how now! What news? + PETO. The King your father is at Westminster; + And there are twenty weak and wearied posts + Come from the north; and as I came along + I met and overtook a dozen captains, + Bare-headed, sweating, knocking at the taverns, + And asking every one for Sir John Falstaff. + PRINCE. By heaven, Poins, I feel me much to blame + So idly to profane the precious time, + When tempest of commotion, like the south, + Borne with black vapour, doth begin to melt + And drop upon our bare unarmed heads. + Give me my sword and cloak. Falstaff, good night. + + Exeunt PRINCE, POINS, PETO, and BARDOLPH + + FALSTAFF. Now comes in the sweetest morsel of the night, and we + must hence, and leave it unpick'd. [Knocking within] More + knocking at the door! + + Re-enter BARDOLPH + + How now! What's the matter? + BARDOLPH. You must away to court, sir, presently; + A dozen captains stay at door for you. + FALSTAFF. [To the PAGE]. Pay the musicians, sirrah.- Farewell, + hostess; farewell, Doll. You see, my good wenches, how men of + merit are sought after; the undeserver may sleep, when the man of + action is call'd on. Farewell, good wenches. If I be not sent + away post, I will see you again ere I go. + DOLL. I cannot speak. If my heart be not ready to burst! + Well, sweet Jack, have a care of thyself. + FALSTAFF. Farewell, farewell. + Exeunt FALSTAFF and BARDOLPH + HOSTESS. Well, fare thee well. I have known thee these twenty-nine + years, come peascod-time; but an honester and truer-hearted man + -well fare thee well. + BARDOLPH. [ Within] Mistress Tearsheet! + HOSTESS. What's the matter? + BARDOLPH. [ Within] Bid Mistress Tearsheet come to my master. + HOSTESS. O, run Doll, run, run, good Come. [To BARDOLPH] She + comes blubber'd.- Yea, will you come, Doll? Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. Westminster. The palace + +Enter the KING in his nightgown, with a page + + KING. Go call the Earls of Surrey and of Warwick; + But, ere they come, bid them o'er-read these letters + And well consider of them. Make good speed. Exit page + How many thousands of my poorest subjects + Are at this hour asleep! O sleep, O gentle sleep, + Nature's soft nurse, how have I frightened thee, + That thou no more will weigh my eyelids down, + And steep my senses in forgetfulness? + Why rather, sleep, liest thou in smoky cribs, + Upon uneasy pallets stretching thee, + And hush'd with buzzing night-flies to thy slumber, + Than in the perfum'd chambers of the great, + Under the canopies of costly state, + And lull'd with sound of sweetest melody? + O thou dull god, why liest thou with the vile + In loathsome beds, and leav'st the kingly couch + A watch-case or a common 'larum-bell? + Wilt thou upon the high and giddy mast + Seal up the ship-boy's eyes, and rock his brains + In cradle of the rude imperious surge, + And in the visitation of the winds, + Who take the ruffian billows by the top, + Curling their monstrous heads, and hanging them + With deafing clamour in the slippery clouds, + That with the hurly death itself awakes? + Canst thou, O partial sleep, give thy repose + To the wet sea-boy in an hour so rude; + And in the calmest and most stillest night, + With all appliances and means to boot, + Deny it to a king? Then, happy low, lie down! + Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. + + Enter WARWICK and Surrey + + WARWICK. Many good morrows to your Majesty! + KING. Is it good morrow, lords? + WARWICK. 'Tis one o'clock, and past. + KING. Why then, good morrow to you all, my lords. + Have you read o'er the letters that I sent you? + WARWICK. We have, my liege. + KING. Then you perceive the body of our kingdom + How foul it is; what rank diseases grow, + And with what danger, near the heart of it. + WARWICK. It is but as a body yet distempered; + Which to his former strength may be restored + With good advice and little medicine. + My Lord Northumberland will soon be cool'd. + KING. O God! that one might read the book of fate, + And see the revolution of the times + Make mountains level, and the continent, + Weary of solid firmness, melt itself + Into the sea; and other times to see + The beachy girdle of the ocean + Too wide for Neptune's hips; how chances mock, + And changes fill the cup of alteration + With divers liquors! O, if this were seen, + The happiest youth, viewing his progress through, + What perils past, what crosses to ensue, + Would shut the book and sit him down and die. + 'Tis not ten years gone + Since Richard and Northumberland, great friends, + Did feast together, and in two years after + Were they at wars. It is but eight years since + This Percy was the man nearest my soul; + Who like a brother toil'd in my affairs + And laid his love and life under my foot; + Yea, for my sake, even to the eyes of Richard + Gave him defiance. But which of you was by- + [To WARWICK] You, cousin Nevil, as I may remember- + When Richard, with his eye brim full of tears, + Then check'd and rated by Northumberland, + Did speak these words, now prov'd a prophecy? + 'Northumberland, thou ladder by the which + My cousin Bolingbroke ascends my throne'- + Though then, God knows, I had no such intent + But that necessity so bow'd the state + That I and greatness were compell'd to kiss- + 'The time shall come'- thus did he follow it- + 'The time will come that foul sin, gathering head, + Shall break into corruption' so went on, + Foretelling this same time's condition + And the division of our amity. + WARWICK. There is a history in all men's lives, + Figuring the natures of the times deceas'd; + The which observ'd, a man may prophesy, + With a near aim, of the main chance of things + As yet not come to life, who in their seeds + And weak beginning lie intreasured. + Such things become the hatch and brood of time; + And, by the necessary form of this, + King Richard might create a perfect guess + That great Northumberland, then false to him, + Would of that seed grow to a greater falseness; + Which should not find a ground to root upon + Unless on you. + KING. Are these things then necessities? + Then let us meet them like necessities; + And that same word even now cries out on us. + They say the Bishop and Northumberland + Are fifty thousand strong. + WARWICK. It cannot be, my lord. + Rumour doth double, like the voice and echo, + The numbers of the feared. Please it your Grace + To go to bed. Upon my soul, my lord, + The powers that you already have sent forth + Shall bring this prize in very easily. + To comfort you the more, I have receiv'd + A certain instance that Glendower is dead. + Your Majesty hath been this fortnight ill; + And these unseasoned hours perforce must ad + Unto your sickness. + KING. I will take your counsel. + And, were these inward wars once out of hand, + We would, dear lords, unto the Holy Land. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Gloucestershire. Before Justice, SHALLOW'S house + +Enter SHALLOW and SILENCE, meeting; MOULDY, SHADOW, WART, FEEBLE, +BULLCALF, and servants behind + + SHALLOW. Come on, come on, come on; give me your hand, sir; give me + your hand, sir. An early stirrer, by the rood! And how doth my + good cousin Silence? + SILENCE. Good morrow, good cousin Shallow. + SHALLOW. And how doth my cousin, your bed-fellow? and your fairest + daughter and mine, my god-daughter Ellen? + SILENCE. Alas, a black ousel, cousin Shallow! + SHALLOW. By yea and no, sir. I dare say my cousin William is become + a good scholar; he is at Oxford still, is he not? + SILENCE. Indeed, sir, to my cost. + SHALLOW. 'A must, then, to the Inns o' Court shortly. I was once of + Clement's Inn; where I think they will talk of mad Shallow yet. + SILENCE. You were call'd 'lusty Shallow' then, cousin. + SHALLOW. By the mass, I was call'd anything; and I would have done + anything indeed too, and roundly too. There was I, and little + John Doit of Staffordshire, and black George Barnes, and Francis + Pickbone, and Will Squele a Cotsole man- you had not four such + swinge-bucklers in all the Inns of Court again. And I may say to + you we knew where the bona-robas were, and had the best of them + all at commandment. Then was Jack Falstaff, now Sir John, boy, + and page to Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk. + SILENCE. This Sir John, cousin, that comes hither anon about + soldiers? + SHALLOW. The same Sir John, the very same. I see him break + Scoggin's head at the court gate, when 'a was a crack not thus + high; and the very same day did I fight with one Sampson + Stockfish, a fruiterer, behind Gray's Inn. Jesu, Jesu, the mad + days that I have spent! and to see how many of my old + acquaintance are dead! + SILENCE. We shall all follow, cousin. + SHALLOW. Certain, 'tis certain; very sure, very sure. Death, as the + Psalmist saith, is certain to all; all shall die. How a good yoke + of bullocks at Stamford fair? + SILENCE. By my troth, I was not there. + SHALLOW. Death is certain. Is old Double of your town living yet? + SILENCE. Dead, sir. + SHALLOW. Jesu, Jesu, dead! drew a good bow; and dead! 'A shot a + fine shoot. John a Gaunt loved him well, and betted much money on + his head. Dead! 'A would have clapp'd i' th' clout at twelve + score, and carried you a forehand shaft a fourteen and fourteen + and a half, that it would have done a man's heart good to see. + How a score of ewes now? + SILENCE. Thereafter as they be- a score of good ewes may be worth + ten pounds. + SHALLOW. And is old Double dead? + + Enter BARDOLPH, and one with him + + SILENCE. Here come two of Sir John Falstaffs men, as I think. + SHALLOW. Good morrow, honest gentlemen. + BARDOLPH. I beseech you, which is Justice Shallow? + SHALLOW. I am Robert Shallow, sir, a poor esquire of this county, + and one of the King's justices of the peace. What is your good + pleasure with me? + BARDOLPH. My captain, sir, commends him to you; my captain, Sir + John Falstaff- a tall gentleman, by heaven, and a most gallant + leader. + SHALLOW. He greets me well, sir; I knew him a good back-sword man. + How doth the good knight? May I ask how my lady his wife doth? + BARDOLPH. Sir, pardon; a soldier is better accommodated than with a + wife. + SHALLOW. It is well said, in faith, sir; and it is well said indeed + too. 'Better accommodated!' It is good; yea, indeed, is it. Good + phrases are surely, and ever were, very commendable. + 'Accommodated!' It comes of accommodo. Very good; a good phrase. + BARDOLPH. Pardon, sir; I have heard the word. 'Phrase' call you it? + By this day, I know not the phrase; but I will maintain the word + with my sword to be a soldier-like word, and a word of exceeding + good command, by heaven. Accommodated: that is, when a man is, as + they say, accommodated; or, when a man is being-whereby 'a may be + thought to be accommodated; which is an excellent thing. + + Enter FALSTAFF + + SHALLOW. It is very just. Look, here comes good Sir John. Give me + your good hand, give me your worship's good hand. By my troth, + you like well and bear your years very well. Welcome, good Sir + John. + FALSTAFF. I am glad to see you well, good Master Robert Shallow. + Master Surecard, as I think? + SHALLOW. No, Sir John; it is my cousin Silence, in commission with + me. + FALSTAFF. Good Master Silence, it well befits you should be of the + peace. + SILENCE. Your good worship is welcome. + FALSTAFF. Fie! this is hot weather. Gentlemen, have you provided me + here half a dozen sufficient men? + SHALLOW. Marry, have we, sir. Will you sit? + FALSTAFF. Let me see them, I beseech you. + SHALLOW. Where's the roll? Where's the roll? Where's the roll? Let + me see, let me see, let me see. So, so, so, so,- so, so- yea, + marry, sir. Rafe Mouldy! Let them appear as I call; let them do + so, let them do so. Let me see; where is Mouldy? + MOULDY. Here, an't please you. + SHALLOW. What think you, Sir John? A good-limb'd fellow; young, + strong, and of good friends. + FALSTAFF. Is thy name Mouldy? + MOULDY. Yea, an't please you. + FALSTAFF. 'Tis the more time thou wert us'd. + SHALLOW. Ha, ha, ha! most excellent, i' faith! Things that are + mouldy lack use. Very singular good! In faith, well said, Sir + John; very well said. + FALSTAFF. Prick him. + MOULDY. I was prick'd well enough before, an you could have let me + alone. My old dame will be undone now for one to do her husbandry + and her drudgery. You need not to have prick'd me; there are + other men fitter to go out than I. + FALSTAFF. Go to; peace, Mouldy; you shall go. Mouldy, it is time + you were spent. + MOULDY. Spent! + SHALLOW. Peace, fellow, peace; stand aside; know you where you are? + For th' other, Sir John- let me see. Simon Shadow! + FALSTAFF. Yea, marry, let me have him to sit under. He's like to be + a cold soldier. + SHALLOW. Where's Shadow? + SHADOW. Here, sir. + FALSTAFF. Shadow, whose son art thou? + SHADOW. My mother's son, sir. + FALSTAFF. Thy mother's son! Like enough; and thy father's shadow. + So the son of the female is the shadow of the male. It is often + so indeed; but much of the father's substance! + SHALLOW. Do you like him, Sir John? + FALSTAFF. Shadow will serve for summer. Prick him; for we have a + number of shadows fill up the muster-book. + SHALLOW. Thomas Wart! + FALSTAFF. Where's he? + WART. Here, sir. + FALSTAFF. Is thy name Wart? + WART. Yea, sir. + FALSTAFF. Thou art a very ragged wart. + SHALLOW. Shall I prick him, Sir John? + FALSTAFF. It were superfluous; for his apparel is built upon his + back, and the whole frame stands upon pins. Prick him no more. + SHALLOW. Ha, ha, ha! You can do it, sir; you can do it. I commend + you well. Francis Feeble! + FEEBLE. Here, sir. + FALSTAFF. What trade art thou, Feeble? + FEEBLE. A woman's tailor, sir. + SHALLOW. Shall I prick him, sir? + FALSTAFF. You may; but if he had been a man's tailor, he'd ha' + prick'd you. Wilt thou make as many holes in an enemy's battle as + thou hast done in a woman's petticoat? + FEEBLE. I will do my good will, sir; you can have no more. + FALSTAFF. Well said, good woman's tailor! well said, courageous + Feeble! Thou wilt be as valiant as the wrathful dove or most + magnanimous mouse. Prick the woman's tailor- well, Master + Shallow, deep, Master Shallow. + FEEBLE. I would Wart might have gone, sir. + FALSTAFF. I would thou wert a man's tailor, that thou mightst mend + him and make him fit to go. I cannot put him to a private + soldier, that is the leader of so many thousands. Let that + suffice, most forcible Feeble. + FEEBLE. It shall suffice, sir. + FALSTAFF. I am bound to thee, reverend Feeble. Who is next? + SHALLOW. Peter Bullcalf o' th' green! + FALSTAFF. Yea, marry, let's see Bullcalf. + BULLCALF. Here, sir. + FALSTAFF. Fore God, a likely fellow! Come, prick me Bullcalf till + he roar again. + BULLCALF. O Lord! good my lord captain- + FALSTAFF. What, dost thou roar before thou art prick'd? + BULLCALF. O Lord, sir! I am a diseased man. + FALSTAFF. What disease hast thou? + BULLCALF. A whoreson cold, sir, a cough, sir, which I caught with + ringing in the King's affairs upon his coronation day, sir. + FALSTAFF. Come, thou shalt go to the wars in a gown. We will have + away thy cold; and I will take such order that thy friends shall + ring for thee. Is here all? + SHALLOW. Here is two more call'd than your number. You must have + but four here, sir; and so, I pray you, go in with me to dinner. + FALSTAFF. Come, I will go drink with you, but I cannot tarry + dinner. I am glad to see you, by my troth, Master Shallow. + SHALLOW. O, Sir John, do you remember since we lay all night in the + windmill in Saint George's Field? + FALSTAFF. No more of that, Master Shallow, no more of that. + SHALLOW. Ha, 'twas a merry night. And is Jane Nightwork alive? + FALSTAFF. She lives, Master Shallow. + SHALLOW. She never could away with me. + FALSTAFF. Never, never; she would always say she could not abide + Master Shallow. + SHALLOW. By the mass, I could anger her to th' heart. She was then + a bona-roba. Doth she hold her own well? + FALSTAFF. Old, old, Master Shallow. + SHALLOW. Nay, she must be old; she cannot choose but be old; + certain she's old; and had Robin Nightwork, by old Nightwork, + before I came to Clement's Inn. + SILENCE. That's fifty-five year ago. + SHALLOW. Ha, cousin Silence, that thou hadst seen that that this + knight and I have seen! Ha, Sir John, said I well? + FALSTAFF. We have heard the chimes at midnight, Master Shallow. + SHALLOW. That we have, that we have, that we have; in faith, Sir + John, we have. Our watchword was 'Hem, boys!' Come, let's to + dinner; come, let's to dinner. Jesus, the days that we have seen! + Come, come. + Exeunt FALSTAFF and the JUSTICES + BULLCALF. Good Master Corporate Bardolph, stand my friend; and + here's four Harry ten shillings in French crowns for you. In very + truth, sir, I had as lief be hang'd, sir, as go. And yet, for + mine own part, sir, I do not care; but rather because I am + unwilling and, for mine own part, have a desire to stay with my + friends; else, sir, I did not care for mine own part so much. + BARDOLPH. Go to; stand aside. + MOULDY. And, good Master Corporal Captain, for my old dame's sake, + stand my friend. She has nobody to do anything about her when I + am gone; and she is old, and cannot help herself. You shall have + forty, sir. + BARDOLPH. Go to; stand aside. + FEEBLE. By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe God + a death. I'll ne'er bear a base mind. An't be my destiny, so; + an't be not, so. No man's too good to serve 's Prince; and, let + it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the + next. + BARDOLPH. Well said; th'art a good fellow. + FEEBLE. Faith, I'll bear no base mind. + + Re-enter FALSTAFF and the JUSTICES + + FALSTAFF. Come, sir, which men shall I have? + SHALLOW. Four of which you please. + BARDOLPH. Sir, a word with you. I have three pound to free Mouldy + and Bullcalf. + FALSTAFF. Go to; well. + SHALLOW. Come, Sir John, which four will you have? + FALSTAFF. Do you choose for me. + SHALLOW. Marry, then- Mouldy, Bullcalf, Feeble, and Shadow. + FALSTAFF. Mouldy and Bullcalf: for you, Mouldy, stay at home till + you are past service; and for your part, Bullcalf, grow you come + unto it. I will none of you. + SHALLOW. Sir John, Sir John, do not yourself wrong. They are your + likeliest men, and I would have you serv'd with the best. + FALSTAFF. Will you tell me, Master Shallow, how to choose a man? + Care I for the limb, the thews, the stature, bulk, and big + assemblance of a man! Give me the spirit, Master Shallow. Here's + Wart; you see what a ragged appearance it is. 'A shall charge you + and discharge you with the motion of a pewterer's hammer, come + off and on swifter than he that gibbets on the brewer's bucket. + And this same half-fac'd fellow, Shadow- give me this man. He + presents no mark to the enemy; the foeman may with as great aim + level at the edge of a penknife. And, for a retreat- how swiftly + will this Feeble, the woman's tailor, run off! O, give me the + spare men, and spare me the great ones. Put me a caliver into + Wart's hand, Bardolph. + BARDOLPH. Hold, Wart. Traverse- thus, thus, thus. + FALSTAFF. Come, manage me your caliver. So- very well. Go to; very + good; exceeding good. O, give me always a little, lean, old, + chopt, bald shot. Well said, i' faith, Wart; th'art a good scab. + Hold, there's a tester for thee. + SHALLOW. He is not his craft's master, he doth not do it right. I + remember at Mile-end Green, when I lay at Clement's Inn- I was + then Sir Dagonet in Arthur's show- there was a little quiver + fellow, and 'a would manage you his piece thus; and 'a would + about and about, and come you in and come you in. 'Rah, tah, + tah!' would 'a say; 'Bounce!' would 'a say; and away again would + 'a go, and again would 'a come. I shall ne'er see such a fellow. + FALSTAFF. These fellows will do well. Master Shallow, God keep you! + Master Silence, I will not use many words with you: Fare you + well! Gentlemen both, I thank you. I must a dozen mile to-night. + Bardolph, give the soldiers coats. + SHALLOW. Sir John, the Lord bless you; God prosper your affairs; + God send us peace! At your return, visit our house; let our old + acquaintance be renewed. Peradventure I will with ye to the + court. + FALSTAFF. Fore God, would you would. + SHALLOW. Go to; I have spoke at a word. God keep you. + FALSTAFF. Fare you well, gentle gentlemen. [Exeunt JUSTICES] On, + Bardolph; lead the men away. [Exeunt all but FALSTAFF] As I + return, I will fetch off these justices. I do see the bottom of + justice Shallow. Lord, Lord, how subject we old men are to this + vice of lying! This same starv'd justice hath done nothing but + prate to me of the wildness of his youth and the feats he hath + done about Turnbull Street; and every third word a lie, duer paid + to the hearer than the Turk's tribute. I do remember him at + Clement's Inn, like a man made after supper of a cheese-paring. + When 'a was naked, he was for all the world like a fork'd radish, + with a head fantastically carved upon it with a knife. 'A was so + forlorn that his dimensions to any thick sight were invisible. 'A + was the very genius of famine; yet lecherous as a monkey, and the + whores call'd him mandrake. 'A came ever in the rearward of the + fashion, and sung those tunes to the overscutch'd huswifes that + he heard the carmen whistle, and sware they were his fancies or + his good-nights. And now is this Vice's dagger become a squire, + and talks as familiarly of John a Gaunt as if he had been sworn + brother to him; and I'll be sworn 'a ne'er saw him but once in + the Tiltyard; and then he burst his head for crowding among the + marshal's men. I saw it, and told John a Gaunt he beat his own + name; for you might have thrust him and all his apparel into an + eel-skin; the case of a treble hautboy was a mansion for him, a + court- and now has he land and beeves. Well, I'll be acquainted + with him if I return; and 't shall go hard but I'll make him a + philosopher's two stones to me. If the young dace be a bait for + the old pike, I see no reason in the law of nature but I may snap + at him. Let time shape, and there an end. Exit + +ACT IV. SCENE I. Yorkshire. Within the Forest of Gaultree + +Enter the ARCHBISHOP OF YORK, MOWBRAY, HASTINGS, and others + + ARCHBISHOP. What is this forest call'd + HASTINGS. 'Tis Gaultree Forest, an't shall please your Grace. + ARCHBISHOP. Here stand, my lords, and send discoverers forth + To know the numbers of our enemies. + HASTINGS. We have sent forth already. + ARCHBISHOP. 'Tis well done. + My friends and brethren in these great affairs, + I must acquaint you that I have receiv'd + New-dated letters from Northumberland; + Their cold intent, tenour, and substance, thus: + Here doth he wish his person, with such powers + As might hold sortance with his quality, + The which he could not levy; whereupon + He is retir'd, to ripe his growing fortunes, + To Scotland; and concludes in hearty prayers + That your attempts may overlive the hazard + And fearful meeting of their opposite. + MOWBRAY. Thus do the hopes we have in him touch ground + And dash themselves to pieces. + + Enter A MESSENGER + + HASTINGS. Now, what news? + MESSENGER. West of this forest, scarcely off a mile, + In goodly form comes on the enemy; + And, by the ground they hide, I judge their number + Upon or near the rate of thirty thousand. + MOWBRAY. The just proportion that we gave them out. + Let us sway on and face them in the field. + + Enter WESTMORELAND + + ARCHBISHOP. What well-appointed leader fronts us here? + MOWBRAY. I think it is my Lord of Westmoreland. + WESTMORELAND. Health and fair greeting from our general, + The Prince, Lord John and Duke of Lancaster. + ARCHBISHOP. Say on, my Lord of Westmoreland, in peace, + What doth concern your coming. + WESTMORELAND. Then, my lord, + Unto your Grace do I in chief address + The substance of my speech. If that rebellion + Came like itself, in base and abject routs, + Led on by bloody youth, guarded with rags, + And countenanc'd by boys and beggary- + I say, if damn'd commotion so appear'd + In his true, native, and most proper shape, + You, reverend father, and these noble lords, + Had not been here to dress the ugly form + Of base and bloody insurrection + With your fair honours. You, Lord Archbishop, + Whose see is by a civil peace maintain'd, + Whose beard the silver hand of peace hath touch'd, + Whose learning and good letters peace hath tutor'd, + Whose white investments figure innocence, + The dove, and very blessed spirit of peace- + Wherefore you do so ill translate yourself + Out of the speech of peace, that bears such grace, + Into the harsh and boist'rous tongue of war; + Turning your books to graves, your ink to blood, + Your pens to lances, and your tongue divine + To a loud trumpet and a point of war? + ARCHBISHOP. Wherefore do I this? So the question stands. + Briefly to this end: we are all diseas'd + And with our surfeiting and wanton hours + Have brought ourselves into a burning fever, + And we must bleed for it; of which disease + Our late King, Richard, being infected, died. + But, my most noble Lord of Westmoreland, + I take not on me here as a physician; + Nor do I as an enemy to peace + Troop in the throngs of military men; + But rather show awhile like fearful war + To diet rank minds sick of happiness, + And purge th' obstructions which begin to stop + Our very veins of life. Hear me more plainly. + I have in equal balance justly weigh'd + What wrongs our arms may do, what wrongs we suffer, + And find our griefs heavier than our offences. + We see which way the stream of time doth run + And are enforc'd from our most quiet there + By the rough torrent of occasion; + And have the summary of all our griefs, + When time shall serve, to show in articles; + Which long ere this we offer'd to the King, + And might by no suit gain our audience: + When we are wrong'd, and would unfold our griefs, + We are denied access unto his person, + Even by those men that most have done us wrong. + The dangers of the days but newly gone, + Whose memory is written on the earth + With yet appearing blood, and the examples + Of every minute's instance, present now, + Hath put us in these ill-beseeming arms; + Not to break peace, or any branch of it, + But to establish here a peace indeed, + Concurring both in name and quality. + WESTMORELAND. When ever yet was your appeal denied; + Wherein have you been galled by the King; + What peer hath been suborn'd to grate on you + That you should seal this lawless bloody book + Of forg'd rebellion with a seal divine, + And consecrate commotion's bitter edge? + ARCHBISHOP. My brother general, the commonwealth, + To brother horn an household cruelty, + I make my quarrel in particular. + WESTMORELAND. There is no need of any such redress; + Or if there were, it not belongs to you. + MOWBRAY. Why not to him in part, and to us all + That feel the bruises of the days before, + And suffer the condition of these times + To lay a heavy and unequal hand + Upon our honours? + WESTMORELAND. O my good Lord Mowbray, + Construe the times to their necessities, + And you shall say, indeed, it is the time, + And not the King, that doth you injuries. + Yet, for your part, it not appears to me, + Either from the King or in the present time, + That you should have an inch of any ground + To build a grief on. Were you not restor'd + To all the Duke of Norfolk's signiories, + Your noble and right well-rememb'red father's? + MOWBRAY. What thing, in honour, had my father lost + That need to be reviv'd and breath'd in me? + The King that lov'd him, as the state stood then, + Was force perforce compell'd to banish him, + And then that Henry Bolingbroke and he, + Being mounted and both roused in their seats, + Their neighing coursers daring of the spur, + Their armed staves in charge, their beavers down, + Their eyes of fire sparkling through sights of steel, + And the loud trumpet blowing them together- + Then, then, when there was nothing could have stay'd + My father from the breast of Bolingbroke, + O, when the King did throw his warder down- + His own life hung upon the staff he threw- + Then threw he down himself, and all their lives + That by indictment and by dint of sword + Have since miscarried under Bolingbroke. + WESTMORELAND. You speak, Lord Mowbray, now you know not what. + The Earl of Hereford was reputed then + In England the most valiant gentleman. + Who knows on whom fortune would then have smil'd? + But if your father had been victor there, + He ne'er had borne it out of Coventry; + For all the country, in a general voice, + Cried hate upon him; and all their prayers and love + Were set on Hereford, whom they doted on, + And bless'd and grac'd indeed more than the King. + But this is mere digression from my purpose. + Here come I from our princely general + To know your griefs; to tell you from his Grace + That he will give you audience; and wherein + It shall appear that your demands are just, + You shall enjoy them, everything set off + That might so much as think you enemies. + MOWBRAY. But he hath forc'd us to compel this offer; + And it proceeds from policy, not love. + WESTMORELAND. Mowbray. you overween to take it so. + This offer comes from mercy, not from fear; + For, lo! within a ken our army lies- + Upon mine honour, all too confident + To give admittance to a thought of fear. + Our battle is more full of names than yours, + Our men more perfect in the use of arms, + Our armour all as strong, our cause the best; + Then reason will our hearts should be as good. + Say you not, then, our offer is compell'd. + MOWBRAY. Well, by my will we shall admit no parley. + WESTMORELAND. That argues but the shame of your offence: + A rotten case abides no handling. + HASTINGS. Hath the Prince John a full commission, + In very ample virtue of his father, + To hear and absolutely to determine + Of what conditions we shall stand upon? + WESTMORELAND. That is intended in the general's name. + I muse you make so slight a question. + ARCHBISHOP. Then take, my Lord of Westmoreland, this schedule, + For this contains our general grievances. + Each several article herein redress'd, + All members of our cause, both here and hence, + That are insinewed to this action, + Acquitted by a true substantial form, + And present execution of our wills + To us and to our purposes confin'd- + We come within our awful banks again, + And knit our powers to the arm of peace. + WESTMORELAND. This will I show the general. Please you, lords, + In sight of both our battles we may meet; + And either end in peace- which God so frame!- + Or to the place of diff'rence call the swords + Which must decide it. + ARCHBISHOP. My lord, we will do so. Exit WESTMORELAND + MOWBRAY. There is a thing within my bosom tells me + That no conditions of our peace can stand. + HASTINGS. Fear you not that: if we can make our peace + Upon such large terms and so absolute + As our conditions shall consist upon, + Our peace shall stand as firm as rocky mountains. + MOWBRAY. Yea, but our valuation shall be such + That every slight and false-derived cause, + Yea, every idle, nice, and wanton reason, + Shall to the King taste of this action; + That, were our royal faiths martyrs in love, + We shall be winnow'd with so rough a wind + That even our corn shall seem as light as chaff, + And good from bad find no partition. + ARCHBISHOP. No, no, my lord. Note this: the King is weary + Of dainty and such picking grievances; + For he hath found to end one doubt by death + Revives two greater in the heirs of life; + And therefore will he wipe his tables clean, + And keep no tell-tale to his memory + That may repeat and history his los + To new remembrance. For full well he knows + He cannot so precisely weed this land + As his misdoubts present occasion: + His foes are so enrooted with his friends + That, plucking to unfix an enemy, + He doth unfasten so and shake a friend. + So that this land, like an offensive wife + That hath enrag'd him on to offer strokes, + As he is striking, holds his infant up, + And hangs resolv'd correction in the arm + That was uprear'd to execution. + HASTINGS. Besides, the King hath wasted all his rods + On late offenders, that he now doth lack + The very instruments of chastisement; + So that his power, like to a fangless lion, + May offer, but not hold. + ARCHBISHOP. 'Tis very true; + And therefore be assur'd, my good Lord Marshal, + If we do now make our atonement well, + Our peace will, like a broken limb united, + Grow stronger for the breaking. + MOWBRAY. Be it so. + Here is return'd my Lord of Westmoreland. + + Re-enter WESTMORELAND + + WESTMORELAND. The Prince is here at hand. Pleaseth your lordship + To meet his Grace just distance 'tween our armies? + MOWBRAY. Your Grace of York, in God's name then, set forward. + ARCHBISHOP. Before, and greet his Grace. My lord, we come. + Exeunt + +SCENE II. Another part of the forest + +Enter, from one side, MOWBRAY, attended; afterwards, the ARCHBISHOP, +HASTINGS, and others; from the other side, PRINCE JOHN of LANCASTER, +WESTMORELAND, OFFICERS, and others + + PRINCE JOHN. You are well encount'red here, my cousin Mowbray. + Good day to you, gentle Lord Archbishop; + And so to you, Lord Hastings, and to all. + My Lord of York, it better show'd with you + When that your flock, assembled by the bell, + Encircled you to hear with reverence + Your exposition on the holy text + Than now to see you here an iron man, + Cheering a rout of rebels with your drum, + Turning the word to sword, and life to death. + That man that sits within a monarch's heart + And ripens in the sunshine of his favour, + Would he abuse the countenance of the king, + Alack, what mischiefs might he set abroach + In shadow of such greatness! With you, Lord Bishop, + It is even so. Who hath not heard it spoken + How deep you were within the books of God? + To us the speaker in His parliament, + To us th' imagin'd voice of God himself, + The very opener and intelligencer + Between the grace, the sanctities of heaven, + And our dull workings. O, who shall believe + But you misuse the reverence of your place, + Employ the countenance and grace of heav'n + As a false favourite doth his prince's name, + In deeds dishonourable? You have ta'en up, + Under the counterfeited zeal of God, + The subjects of His substitute, my father, + And both against the peace of heaven and him + Have here up-swarm'd them. + ARCHBISHOP. Good my Lord of Lancaster, + I am not here against your father's peace; + But, as I told my Lord of Westmoreland, + The time misord'red doth, in common sense, + Crowd us and crush us to this monstrous form + To hold our safety up. I sent your Grace + The parcels and particulars of our grief, + The which hath been with scorn shov'd from the court, + Whereon this hydra son of war is born; + Whose dangerous eyes may well be charm'd asleep + With grant of our most just and right desires; + And true obedience, of this madness cur'd, + Stoop tamely to the foot of majesty. + MOWBRAY. If not, we ready are to try our fortunes + To the last man. + HASTINGS. And though we here fall down, + We have supplies to second our attempt. + If they miscarry, theirs shall second them; + And so success of mischief shall be born, + And heir from heir shall hold this quarrel up + Whiles England shall have generation. + PRINCE JOHN. YOU are too shallow, Hastings, much to shallow, + To sound the bottom of the after-times. + WESTMORELAND. Pleaseth your Grace to answer them directly + How far forth you do like their articles. + PRINCE JOHN. I like them all and do allow them well; + And swear here, by the honour of my blood, + My father's purposes have been mistook; + And some about him have too lavishly + Wrested his meaning and authority. + My lord, these griefs shall be with speed redress'd; + Upon my soul, they shall. If this may please you, + Discharge your powers unto their several counties, + As we will ours; and here, between the armies, + Let's drink together friendly and embrace, + That all their eyes may bear those tokens home + Of our restored love and amity. + ARCHBISHOP. I take your princely word for these redresses. + PRINCE JOHN. I give it you, and will maintain my word; + And thereupon I drink unto your Grace. + HASTINGS. Go, Captain, and deliver to the army + This news of peace. Let them have pay, and part. + I know it will please them. Hie thee, Captain. + Exit Officer + ARCHBISHOP. To you, my noble Lord of Westmoreland. + WESTMORELAND. I pledge your Grace; and if you knew what pains + I have bestow'd to breed this present peace, + You would drink freely; but my love to ye + Shall show itself more openly hereafter. + ARCHBISHOP. I do not doubt you. + WESTMORELAND. I am glad of it. + Health to my lord and gentle cousin, Mowbray. + MOWBRAY. You wish me health in very happy season, + For I am on the sudden something ill. + ARCHBISHOP. Against ill chances men are ever merry; + But heaviness foreruns the good event. + WESTMORELAND. Therefore be merry, coz; since sudden sorrow + Serves to say thus, 'Some good thing comes to-morrow.' + ARCHBISHOP. Believe me, I am passing light in spirit. + MOWBRAY. So much the worse, if your own rule be true. + [Shouts within] + PRINCE JOHN. The word of peace is rend'red. Hark, how they shout! + MOWBRAY. This had been cheerful after victory. + ARCHBISHOP. A peace is of the nature of a conquest; + For then both parties nobly are subdu'd, + And neither party loser. + PRINCE JOHN. Go, my lord, + And let our army be discharged too. + Exit WESTMORELAND + And, good my lord, so please you let our trains + March by us, that we may peruse the men + We should have cop'd withal. + ARCHBISHOP. Go, good Lord Hastings, + And, ere they be dismiss'd, let them march by. + Exit HASTINGS + PRINCE JOHN. I trust, lords, we shall lie to-night together. + + Re-enter WESTMORELAND + + Now, cousin, wherefore stands our army still? + WESTMORELAND. The leaders, having charge from you to stand, + Will not go off until they hear you speak. + PRINCE JOHN. They know their duties. + + Re-enter HASTINGS + + HASTINGS. My lord, our army is dispers'd already. + Like youthful steers unyok'd, they take their courses + East, west, north, south; or like a school broke up, + Each hurries toward his home and sporting-place. + WESTMORELAND. Good tidings, my Lord Hastings; for the which + I do arrest thee, traitor, of high treason; + And you, Lord Archbishop, and you, Lord Mowbray, + Of capital treason I attach you both. + MOWBRAY. Is this proceeding just and honourable? + WESTMORELAND. Is your assembly so? + ARCHBISHOP. Will you thus break your faith? + PRINCE JOHN. I pawn'd thee none: + I promis'd you redress of these same grievances + Whereof you did complain; which, by mine honour, + I will perform with a most Christian care. + But for you, rebels- look to taste the due + Meet for rebellion and such acts as yours. + Most shallowly did you these arms commence, + Fondly brought here, and foolishly sent hence. + Strike up our drums, pursue the scatt'red stray. + God, and not we, hath safely fought to-day. + Some guard these traitors to the block of death, + Treason's true bed and yielder-up of breath. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Another part of the forest + +Alarum; excursions. Enter FALSTAFF and COLVILLE, meeting + + FALSTAFF. What's your name, sir? Of what condition are you, and of + what place, I pray? + COLVILLE. I am a knight sir; and my name is Colville of the Dale. + FALSTAFF. Well then, Colville is your name, a knight is your + degree, and your place the Dale. Colville shall still be your + name, a traitor your degree, and the dungeon your place- a place + deep enough; so shall you be still Colville of the Dale. + COLVILLE. Are not you Sir John Falstaff? + FALSTAFF. As good a man as he, sir, whoe'er I am. Do you yield, + sir, or shall I sweat for you? If I do sweat, they are the drops + of thy lovers, and they weep for thy death; therefore rouse up + fear and trembling, and do observance to my mercy. + COLVILLE. I think you are Sir John Falstaff, and in that thought + yield me. + FALSTAFF. I have a whole school of tongues in this belly of mine; + and not a tongue of them all speaks any other word but my name. + An I had but a belly of any indifferency, I were simply the most + active fellow in Europe. My womb, my womb, my womb undoes me. + Here comes our general. + + Enter PRINCE JOHN OF LANCASTER, WESTMORELAND, + BLUNT, and others + + PRINCE JOHN. The heat is past; follow no further now. + Call in the powers, good cousin Westmoreland. + Exit WESTMORELAND + Now, Falstaff, where have you been all this while? + When everything is ended, then you come. + These tardy tricks of yours will, on my life, + One time or other break some gallows' back. + FALSTAFF. I would be sorry, my lord, but it should be thus: I never + knew yet but rebuke and check was the reward of valour. Do you + think me a swallow, an arrow, or a bullet? Have I, in my poor and + old motion, the expedition of thought? I have speeded hither with + the very extremest inch of possibility; I have found'red nine + score and odd posts; and here, travel tainted as I am, have, in + my pure and immaculate valour, taken Sir John Colville of the + Dale,a most furious knight and valorous enemy. But what of that? + He saw me, and yielded; that I may justly say with the hook-nos'd + fellow of Rome-I came, saw, and overcame. + PRINCE JOHN. It was more of his courtesy than your deserving. + FALSTAFF. I know not. Here he is, and here I yield him; and I + beseech your Grace, let it be book'd with the rest of this day's + deeds; or, by the Lord, I will have it in a particular ballad + else, with mine own picture on the top on't, Colville kissing my + foot; to the which course if I be enforc'd, if you do not all + show like gilt twopences to me, and I, in the clear sky of fame, + o'ershine you as much as the full moon doth the cinders of the + element, which show like pins' heads to her, believe not the word + of the noble. Therefore let me have right, and let desert mount. + PRINCE JOHN. Thine's too heavy to mount. + FALSTAFF. Let it shine, then. + PRINCE JOHN. Thine's too thick to shine. + FALSTAFF. Let it do something, my good lord, that may do me good, + and call it what you will. + PRINCE JOHN. Is thy name Colville? + COLVILLE. It is, my lord. + PRINCE JOHN. A famous rebel art thou, Colville. + FALSTAFF. And a famous true subject took him. + COLVILLE. I am, my lord, but as my betters are + That led me hither. Had they been rul'd by me, + You should have won them dearer than you have. + FALSTAFF. I know not how they sold themselves; but thou, like a + kind fellow, gavest thyself away gratis; and I thank thee for + thee. + + Re-enter WESTMORELAND + + PRINCE JOHN. Now, have you left pursuit? + WESTMORELAND. Retreat is made, and execution stay'd. + PRINCE JOHN. Send Colville, with his confederates, + To York, to present execution. + Blunt, lead him hence; and see you guard him sure. + Exeunt BLUNT and others + And now dispatch we toward the court, my lords. + I hear the King my father is sore sick. + Our news shall go before us to his Majesty, + Which, cousin, you shall bear to comfort him + And we with sober speed will follow you. + FALSTAFF. My lord, I beseech you, give me leave to go through + Gloucestershire; and, when you come to court, stand my good lord, + pray, in your good report. + PRINCE JOHN. Fare you well, Falstaff. I, in my condition, + Shall better speak of you than you deserve. + Exeunt all but FALSTAFF + FALSTAFF. I would you had but the wit; 'twere better than your + dukedom. Good faith, this same young sober-blooded boy doth not + love me; nor a man cannot make him laugh- but that's no marvel; + he drinks no wine. There's never none of these demure boys come + to any proof; for thin drink doth so over-cool their blood, and + making many fish-meals, that they fall into a kind of male + green-sickness; and then, when they marry, they get wenches. They + are generally fools and cowards-which some of us should be too, + but for inflammation. A good sherris-sack hath a two-fold + operation in it. It ascends me into the brain; dries me there all + the foolish and dull and crudy vapours which environ it; makes it + apprehensive, quick, forgetive, full of nimble, fiery, and + delectable shapes; which delivered o'er to the voice, the tongue, + which is the birth, becomes excellent wit. The second property of + your excellent sherris is the warming of the blood; which before, + cold and settled, left the liver white and pale, which is the + badge of pusillanimity and cowardice; but the sherris warms it, + and makes it course from the inwards to the parts extremes. It + illumineth the face, which, as a beacon, gives warning to all the + rest of this little kingdom, man, to arm; and then the vital + commoners and inland petty spirits muster me all to their + captain, the heart, who, great and puff'd up with this retinue, + doth any deed of courage- and this valour comes of sherris. So + that skill in the weapon is nothing without sack, for that sets + it a-work; and learning, a mere hoard of gold kept by a devil + till sack commences it and sets it in act and use. Hereof comes + it that Prince Harry is valiant; for the cold blood he did + naturally inherit of his father, he hath, like lean, sterile, and + bare land, manured, husbanded, and till'd, with excellent + endeavour of drinking good and good store of fertile sherris, + that he is become very hot and valiant. If I had a thousand sons, + the first humane principle I would teach them should be to + forswear thin potations and to addict themselves to sack. + + Enter BARDOLPH + + How now, Bardolph! + BARDOLPH. The army is discharged all and gone. + FALSTAFF. Let them go. I'll through Gloucestershire, and there will + I visit Master Robert Shallow, Esquire. I have him already + temp'ring between my finger and my thumb, and shortly will I seal + with him. Come away. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Westminster. The Jerusalem Chamber + +Enter the KING, PRINCE THOMAS OF CLARENCE, PRINCE HUMPHREY OF +GLOUCESTER, +WARWICK, and others + + KING. Now, lords, if God doth give successful end + To this debate that bleedeth at our doors, + We will our youth lead on to higher fields, + And draw no swords but what are sanctified. + Our navy is address'd, our power connected, + Our substitutes in absence well invested, + And everything lies level to our wish. + Only we want a little personal strength; + And pause us till these rebels, now afoot, + Come underneath the yoke of government. + WARWICK. Both which we doubt not but your Majesty + Shall soon enjoy. + KING. Humphrey, my son of Gloucester, + Where is the Prince your brother? + PRINCE HUMPHREY. I think he's gone to hunt, my lord, at Windsor. + KING. And how accompanied? + PRINCE HUMPHREY. I do not know, my lord. + KING. Is not his brother, Thomas of Clarence, with him? + PRINCE HUMPHREY. No, my good lord, he is in presence here. + CLARENCE. What would my lord and father? + KING. Nothing but well to thee, Thomas of Clarence. + How chance thou art not with the Prince thy brother? + He loves thee, and thou dost neglect him, Thomas. + Thou hast a better place in his affection + Than all thy brothers; cherish it, my boy, + And noble offices thou mayst effect + Of mediation, after I am dead, + Between his greatness and thy other brethren. + Therefore omit him not; blunt not his love, + Nor lose the good advantage of his grace + By seeming cold or careless of his will; + For he is gracious if he be observ'd. + He hath a tear for pity and a hand + Open as day for melting charity; + Yet notwithstanding, being incens'd, he is flint; + As humorous as winter, and as sudden + As flaws congealed in the spring of day. + His temper, therefore, must be well observ'd. + Chide him for faults, and do it reverently, + When you perceive his blood inclin'd to mirth; + But, being moody, give him line and scope + Till that his passions, like a whale on ground, + Confound themselves with working. Learn this, Thomas, + And thou shalt prove a shelter to thy friends, + A hoop of gold to bind thy brothers in, + That the united vessel of their blood, + Mingled with venom of suggestion- + As, force perforce, the age will pour it in- + Shall never leak, though it do work as strong + As aconitum or rash gunpowder. + CLARENCE. I shall observe him with all care and love. + KING. Why art thou not at Windsor with him, Thomas? + CLARENCE. He is not there to-day; he dines in London. + KING. And how accompanied? Canst thou tell that? + CLARENCE. With Poins, and other his continual followers. + KING. Most subject is the fattest soil to weeds; + And he, the noble image of my youth, + Is overspread with them; therefore my grief + Stretches itself beyond the hour of death. + The blood weeps from my heart when I do shape, + In forms imaginary, th'unguided days + And rotten times that you shall look upon + When I am sleeping with my ancestors. + For when his headstrong riot hath no curb, + When rage and hot blood are his counsellors + When means and lavish manners meet together, + O, with what wings shall his affections fly + Towards fronting peril and oppos'd decay! + WARWICK. My gracious lord, you look beyond him quite. + The Prince but studies his companions + Like a strange tongue, wherein, to gain the language, + 'Tis needful that the most immodest word + Be look'd upon and learnt; which once attain'd, + Your Highness knows, comes to no further use + But to be known and hated. So, like gross terms, + The Prince will, in the perfectness of time, + Cast off his followers; and their memory + Shall as a pattern or a measure live + By which his Grace must mete the lives of other, + Turning past evils to advantages. + KING. 'Tis seldom when the bee doth leave her comb + In the dead carrion. + + Enter WESTMORELAND + + Who's here? Westmoreland? + WESTMORELAND. Health to my sovereign, and new happiness + Added to that that am to deliver! + Prince John, your son, doth kiss your Grace's hand. + Mowbray, the Bishop Scroop, Hastings, and all, + Are brought to the correction of your law. + There is not now a rebel's sword unsheath'd, + But Peace puts forth her olive everywhere. + The manner how this action hath been borne + Here at more leisure may your Highness read, + With every course in his particular. + KING. O Westmoreland, thou art a summer bird, + Which ever in the haunch of winter sings + The lifting up of day. + + Enter HARCOURT + + Look here's more news. + HARCOURT. From enemies heaven keep your Majesty; + And, when they stand against you, may they fall + As those that I am come to tell you of! + The Earl Northumberland and the Lord Bardolph, + With a great power of English and of Scots, + Are by the shrieve of Yorkshire overthrown. + The manner and true order of the fight + This packet, please it you, contains at large. + KING. And wherefore should these good news make me sick? + Will Fortune never come with both hands full, + But write her fair words still in foulest letters? + She either gives a stomach and no food- + Such are the poor, in health- or else a feast, + And takes away the stomach- such are the rich + That have abundance and enjoy it not. + I should rejoice now at this happy news; + And now my sight fails, and my brain is giddy. + O me! come near me now I am much ill. + PRINCE HUMPHREY. Comfort, your Majesty! + CLARENCE. O my royal father! + WESTMORELAND. My sovereign lord, cheer up yourself, look up. + WARWICK. Be patient, Princes; you do know these fits + Are with his Highness very ordinary. + Stand from him, give him air; he'll straight be well. + CLARENCE. No, no; he cannot long hold out these pangs. + Th' incessant care and labour of his mind + Hath wrought the mure that should confine it in + So thin that life looks through, and will break out. + PRINCE HUMPHREY. The people fear me; for they do observe + Unfather'd heirs and loathly births of nature. + The seasons change their manners, as the year + Had found some months asleep, and leapt them over. + CLARENCE. The river hath thrice flow'd, no ebb between; + And the old folk, Time's doting chronicles, + Say it did so a little time before + That our great grandsire, Edward, sick'd and died. + WARWICK. Speak lower, Princes, for the King recovers. + PRINCE HUMPHREY. This apoplexy will certain be his end. + KING. I pray you take me up, and bear me hence + Into some other chamber. Softly, pray. Exeunt + +SCENE V. Westminster. Another chamber + +The KING lying on a bed; CLARENCE, GLOUCESTER, WARWICK, and others in +attendance + + KING. Let there be no noise made, my gentle friends; + Unless some dull and favourable hand + Will whisper music to my weary spirit. + WARWICK. Call for the music in the other room. + KING. Set me the crown upon my pillow here. + CLARENCE. His eye is hollow, and he changes much. + WARWICK. Less noise! less noise! + + Enter PRINCE HENRY + + PRINCE. Who saw the Duke of Clarence? + CLARENCE. I am here, brother, full of heaviness. + PRINCE. How now! Rain within doors, and none abroad! + How doth the King? + PRINCE HUMPHREY. Exceeding ill. + PRINCE. Heard he the good news yet? Tell it him. + PRINCE HUMPHREY. He alt'red much upon the hearing it. + PRINCE. If he be sick with joy, he'll recover without physic. + WARWICK. Not so much noise, my lords. Sweet Prince, speak low; + The King your father is dispos'd to sleep. + CLARENCE. Let us withdraw into the other room. + WARWICK. Will't please your Grace to go along with us? + PRINCE. No; I will sit and watch here by the King. + Exeunt all but the PRINCE + Why doth the crown lie there upon his pillow, + Being so troublesome a bedfellow? + O polish'd perturbation! golden care! + That keep'st the ports of slumber open wide + To many a watchful night! Sleep with it now! + Yet not so sound and half so deeply sweet + As he whose brow with homely biggen bound + Snores out the watch of night. O majesty! + When thou dost pinch thy bearer, thou dost sit + Like a rich armour worn in heat of day + That scald'st with safety. By his gates of breath + There lies a downy feather which stirs not. + Did he suspire, that light and weightless down + Perforce must move. My gracious lord! my father! + This sleep is sound indeed; this is a sleep + That from this golden rigol hath divorc'd + So many English kings. Thy due from me + Is tears and heavy sorrows of the blood + Which nature, love, and filial tenderness, + Shall, O dear father, pay thee plenteously. + My due from thee is this imperial crown, + Which, as immediate from thy place and blood, + Derives itself to me. [Putting on the crown] Lo where it sits- + Which God shall guard; and put the world's whole strength + Into one giant arm, it shall not force + This lineal honour from me. This from thee + Will I to mine leave as 'tis left to me. Exit + KING. Warwick! Gloucester! Clarence! + + Re-enter WARWICK, GLOUCESTER, CLARENCE + + CLARENCE. Doth the King call? + WARWICK. What would your Majesty? How fares your Grace? + KING. Why did you leave me here alone, my lords? + CLARENCE. We left the Prince my brother here, my liege, + Who undertook to sit and watch by you. + KING. The Prince of Wales! Where is he? Let me see him. + He is not here. + WARWICK. This door is open; he is gone this way. + PRINCE HUMPHREY. He came not through the chamber where we stay'd. + KING. Where is the crown? Who took it from my pillow? + WARWICK. When we withdrew, my liege, we left it here. + KING. The Prince hath ta'en it hence. Go, seek him out. + Is he so hasty that he doth suppose + My sleep my death? + Find him, my lord of Warwick; chide him hither. + Exit WARWICK + This part of his conjoins with my disease + And helps to end me. See, sons, what things you are! + How quickly nature falls into revolt + When gold becomes her object! + For this the foolish over-careful fathers + Have broke their sleep with thoughts, + Their brains with care, their bones with industry; + For this they have engrossed and pil'd up + The cank'red heaps of strange-achieved gold; + For this they have been thoughtful to invest + Their sons with arts and martial exercises; + When, like the bee, tolling from every flower + The virtuous sweets, + Our thighs with wax, our mouths with honey pack'd, + We bring it to the hive, and, like the bees, + Are murd'red for our pains. This bitter taste + Yields his engrossments to the ending father. + + Re-enter WARWICK + + Now where is he that will not stay so long + Till his friend sickness hath determin'd me? + WARWICK. My lord, I found the Prince in the next room, + Washing with kindly tears his gentle cheeks, + With such a deep demeanour in great sorrow, + That tyranny, which never quaff'd but blood, + Would, by beholding him, have wash'd his knife + With gentle eye-drops. He is coming hither. + KING. But wherefore did he take away the crown? + + Re-enter PRINCE HENRY + + Lo where he comes. Come hither to me, Harry. + Depart the chamber, leave us here alone. + Exeunt all but the KING and the PRINCE + PRINCE. I never thought to hear you speak again. + KING. Thy wish was father, Harry, to that thought. + I stay too long by thee, I weary thee. + Dost thou so hunger for mine empty chair + That thou wilt needs invest thee with my honours + Before thy hour be ripe? O foolish youth! + Thou seek'st the greatness that will overwhelm thee. + Stay but a little, for my cloud of dignity + Is held from falling with so weak a wind + That it will quickly drop; my day is dim. + Thou hast stol'n that which, after some few hours, + Were thine without offense; and at my death + Thou hast seal'd up my expectation. + Thy life did manifest thou lov'dst me not, + And thou wilt have me die assur'd of it. + Thou hid'st a thousand daggers in thy thoughts, + Which thou hast whetted on thy stony heart, + To stab at half an hour of my life. + What, canst thou not forbear me half an hour? + Then get thee gone, and dig my grave thyself; + And bid the merry bells ring to thine ear + That thou art crowned, not that I am dead. + Let all the tears that should bedew my hearse + Be drops of balm to sanctify thy head; + Only compound me with forgotten dust; + Give that which gave thee life unto the worms. + Pluck down my officers, break my decrees; + For now a time is come to mock at form- + Harry the Fifth is crown'd. Up, vanity: + Down, royal state. All you sage counsellors, hence. + And to the English court assemble now, + From every region, apes of idleness. + Now, neighbour confines, purge you of your scum. + Have you a ruffian that will swear, drink, dance, + Revel the night, rob, murder, and commit + The oldest sins the newest kind of ways? + Be happy, he will trouble you no more. + England shall double gild his treble guilt; + England shall give him office, honour, might; + For the fifth Harry from curb'd license plucks + The muzzle of restraint, and the wild dog + Shall flesh his tooth on every innocent. + O my poor kingdom, sick with civil blows! + When that my care could not withhold thy riots, + What wilt thou do when riot is thy care? + O, thou wilt be a wilderness again. + Peopled with wolves, thy old inhabitants! + PRINCE. O, pardon me, my liege! But for my tears, + The moist impediments unto my speech, + I had forestall'd this dear and deep rebuke + Ere you with grief had spoke and I had heard + The course of it so far. There is your crown, + And he that wears the crown immortally + Long guard it yours! [Kneeling] If I affect it more + Than as your honour and as your renown, + Let me no more from this obedience rise, + Which my most inward true and duteous spirit + Teacheth this prostrate and exterior bending! + God witness with me, when I here came in + And found no course of breath within your Majesty, + How cold it struck my heart! If I do feign, + O, let me in my present wildness die, + And never live to show th' incredulous world + The noble change that I have purposed! + Coming to look on you, thinking you dead- + And dead almost, my liege, to think you were- + I spake unto this crown as having sense, + And thus upbraided it: 'The care on thee depending + Hath fed upon the body of my father; + Therefore thou best of gold art worst of gold. + Other, less fine in carat, is more precious, + Preserving life in med'cine potable; + But thou, most fine, most honour'd, most renown'd, + Hast eat thy bearer up.' Thus, my most royal liege, + Accusing it, I put it on my head, + To try with it- as with an enemy + That had before my face murd'red my father- + The quarrel of a true inheritor. + But if it did infect my blood with joy, + Or swell my thoughts to any strain of pride; + If any rebel or vain spirit of mine + Did with the least affection of a welcome + Give entertainment to the might of it, + Let God for ever keep it from my head, + And make me as the poorest vassal is, + That doth with awe and terror kneel to it! + KING. O my son, + God put it in thy mind to take it hence, + That thou mightst win the more thy father's love, + Pleading so wisely in excuse of it! + Come hither, Harry; sit thou by my bed, + And hear, I think, the very latest counsel + That ever I shall breathe. God knows, my son, + By what by-paths and indirect crook'd ways + I met this crown; and I myself know well + How troublesome it sat upon my head: + To thee it shall descend with better quiet, + Better opinion, better confirmation; + For all the soil of the achievement goes + With me into the earth. It seem'd in me + But as an honour snatch'd with boist'rous hand; + And I had many living to upbraid + My gain of it by their assistances; + Which daily grew to quarrel and to bloodshed, + Wounding supposed peace. All these bold fears + Thou seest with peril I have answered; + For all my reign hath been but as a scene + Acting that argument. And now my death + Changes the mood; for what in me was purchas'd + Falls upon thee in a more fairer sort; + So thou the garland wear'st successively. + Yet, though thou stand'st more sure than I could do, + Thou art not firm enough, since griefs are green; + And all my friends, which thou must make thy friends, + Have but their stings and teeth newly ta'en out; + By whose fell working I was first advanc'd, + And by whose power I well might lodge a fear + To be again displac'd; which to avoid, + I cut them off; and had a purpose now + To lead out many to the Holy Land, + Lest rest and lying still might make them look + Too near unto my state. Therefore, my Harry, + Be it thy course to busy giddy minds + With foreign quarrels, that action, hence borne out, + May waste the memory of the former days. + More would I, but my lungs are wasted so + That strength of speech is utterly denied me. + How I came by the crown, O God, forgive; + And grant it may with thee in true peace live! + PRINCE. My gracious liege, + You won it, wore it, kept it, gave it me; + Then plain and right must my possession be; + Which I with more than with a common pain + 'Gainst all the world will rightfully maintain. + + Enter PRINCE JOHN OF LANCASTER, WARWICK, LORDS, and others + + KING. Look, look, here comes my John of Lancaster. + PRINCE JOHN. Health, peace, and happiness, to my royal father! + KING. Thou bring'st me happiness and peace, son John; + But health, alack, with youthful wings is flown + From this bare wither'd trunk. Upon thy sight + My worldly business makes a period. + Where is my Lord of Warwick? + PRINCE. My Lord of Warwick! + KING. Doth any name particular belong + Unto the lodging where I first did swoon? + WARWICK. 'Tis call'd Jerusalem, my noble lord. + KING. Laud be to God! Even there my life must end. + It hath been prophesied to me many years, + I should not die but in Jerusalem; + Which vainly I suppos'd the Holy Land. + But bear me to that chamber; there I'll lie; + In that Jerusalem shall Harry die. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE I. Gloucestershire. SHALLOW'S house + +Enter SHALLOW, FALSTAFF, BARDOLPH, and PAGE + + SHALLOW. By cock and pie, sir, you shall not away to-night. + What, Davy, I say! + FALSTAFF. You must excuse me, Master Robert Shallow. + SHALLOW. I will not excuse you; you shall not be excus'd; excuses + shall not be admitted; there is no excuse shall serve; you shall + not be excus'd. Why, Davy! + + Enter DAVY + + DAVY. Here, sir. + SHALLOW. Davy, Davy, Davy, Davy; let me see, Davy; let me see, + Davy; let me see- yea, marry, William cook, bid him come hither. + Sir John, you shall not be excus'd. + DAVY. Marry, sir, thus: those precepts cannot be served; and, + again, sir- shall we sow the headland with wheat? + SHALLOW. With red wheat, Davy. But for William cook- are there no + young pigeons? + DAVY. Yes, sir. Here is now the smith's note for shoeing and + plough-irons. + SHALLOW. Let it be cast, and paid. Sir John, you shall not be + excused. + DAVY. Now, sir, a new link to the bucket must needs be had; and, + sir, do you mean to stop any of William's wages about the sack he + lost the other day at Hinckley fair? + SHALLOW. 'A shall answer it. Some pigeons, Davy, a couple of + short-legg'd hens, a joint of mutton, and any pretty little tiny + kickshaws, tell William cook. + DAVY. Doth the man of war stay all night, sir? + SHALLOW. Yea, Davy; I will use him well. A friend i' th' court is + better than a penny in purse. Use his men well, Davy; for they + are arrant knaves and will backbite. + DAVY. No worse than they are backbitten, sir; for they have + marvellous foul linen. + SHALLOW. Well conceited, Davy- about thy business, Davy. + DAVY. I beseech you, sir, to countenance William Visor of Woncot + against Clement Perkes o' th' hill. + SHALLOW. There, is many complaints, Davy, against that Visor. That + Visor is an arrant knave, on my knowledge. + DAVY. I grant your worship that he is a knave, sir; but yet God + forbid, sir, but a knave should have some countenance at his + friend's request. An honest man, sir, is able to speak for + himself, when a knave is not. I have serv'd your worship truly, + sir, this eight years; an I cannot once or twice in a quarter + bear out a knave against an honest man, I have but a very little + credit with your worship. The knave is mine honest friend, sir; + therefore, I beseech you, let him be countenanc'd. + SHALLOW. Go to; I say he shall have no wrong. Look about, + DAVY. [Exit DAVY] Where are you, Sir John? Come, come, come, off + with your boots. Give me your hand, Master Bardolph. + BARDOLPH. I am glad to see your worship. + SHALLOW. I thank thee with all my heart, kind Master Bardolph. + [To the PAGE] And welcome, my tall fellow. Come, Sir John. + FALSTAFF. I'll follow you, good Master Robert Shallow. + [Exit SHALLOW] Bardolph, look to our horses. [Exeunt BARDOLPH + and PAGE] If I were sawed into quantities, I should make four + dozen of such bearded hermits' staves as Master Shallow. It is a + wonderful thing to see the semblable coherence of his men's + spirits and his. They, by observing of him, do bear themselves + like foolish justices: he, by conversing with them, is turned + into a justice-like serving-man. Their spirits are so married in + conjunction with the participation of society that they flock + together in consent, like so many wild geese. If I had a suit to + Master Shallow, I would humour his men with the imputation of + being near their master; if to his men, I would curry with Master + Shallow that no man could better command his servants. It is + certain that either wise bearing or ignorant carriage is caught, + as men take diseases, one of another; therefore let men take heed + of their company. I will devise matter enough out of this Shallow + to keep Prince Harry in continual laughter the wearing out of six + fashions, which is four terms, or two actions; and 'a shall laugh + without intervallums. O, it is much that a lie with a slight + oath, and a jest with a sad brow will do with a fellow that never + had the ache in his shoulders! O, you shall see him laugh till + his face be like a wet cloak ill laid up! + SHALLOW. [Within] Sir John! + FALSTAFF. I come, Master Shallow; I come, Master Shallow. + Exit + +SCENE II. Westminster. The palace + +Enter, severally, WARWICK, and the LORD CHIEF JUSTICE + + WARWICK. How now, my Lord Chief Justice; whither away? + CHIEF JUSTICE. How doth the King? + WARWICK. Exceeding well; his cares are now all ended. + CHIEF JUSTICE. I hope, not dead. + WARWICK. He's walk'd the way of nature; + And to our purposes he lives no more. + CHIEF JUSTICE. I would his Majesty had call'd me with him. + The service that I truly did his life + Hath left me open to all injuries. + WARWICK. Indeed, I think the young king loves you not. + CHIEF JUSTICE. I know he doth not, and do arm myself + To welcome the condition of the time, + Which cannot look more hideously upon me + Than I have drawn it in my fantasy. + + Enter LANCASTER, CLARENCE, GLOUCESTER, + WESTMORELAND, and others + + WARWICK. Here comes the heavy issue of dead Harry. + O that the living Harry had the temper + Of he, the worst of these three gentlemen! + How many nobles then should hold their places + That must strike sail to spirits of vile sort! + CHIEF JUSTICE. O God, I fear all will be overturn'd. + PRINCE JOHN. Good morrow, cousin Warwick, good morrow. + GLOUCESTER & CLARENCE. Good morrow, cousin. + PRINCE JOHN. We meet like men that had forgot to speak. + WARWICK. We do remember; but our argument + Is all too heavy to admit much talk. + PRINCE JOHN. Well, peace be with him that hath made us heavy! + CHIEF JUSTICE. Peace be with us, lest we be heavier! + PRINCE HUMPHREY. O, good my lord, you have lost a friend indeed; + And I dare swear you borrow not that face + Of seeming sorrow- it is sure your own. + PRINCE JOHN. Though no man be assur'd what grace to find, + You stand in coldest expectation. + I am the sorrier; would 'twere otherwise. + CLARENCE. Well, you must now speak Sir John Falstaff fair; + Which swims against your stream of quality. + CHIEF JUSTICE. Sweet Princes, what I did, I did in honour, + Led by th' impartial conduct of my soul; + And never shall you see that I will beg + A ragged and forestall'd remission. + If truth and upright innocency fail me, + I'll to the King my master that is dead, + And tell him who hath sent me after him. + WARWICK. Here comes the Prince. + + Enter KING HENRY THE FIFTH, attended + + CHIEF JUSTICE. Good morrow, and God save your Majesty! + KING. This new and gorgeous garment, majesty, + Sits not so easy on me as you think. + Brothers, you mix your sadness with some fear. + This is the English, not the Turkish court; + Not Amurath an Amurath succeeds, + But Harry Harry. Yet be sad, good brothers, + For, by my faith, it very well becomes you. + Sorrow so royally in you appears + That I will deeply put the fashion on, + And wear it in my heart. Why, then, be sad; + But entertain no more of it, good brothers, + Than a joint burden laid upon us all. + For me, by heaven, I bid you be assur'd, + I'll be your father and your brother too; + Let me but bear your love, I'll bear your cares. + Yet weep that Harry's dead, and so will I; + But Harry lives that shall convert those tears + By number into hours of happiness. + BROTHERS. We hope no otherwise from your Majesty. + KING. You all look strangely on me; and you most. + You are, I think, assur'd I love you not. + CHIEF JUSTICE. I am assur'd, if I be measur'd rightly, + Your Majesty hath no just cause to hate me. + KING. No? + How might a prince of my great hopes forget + So great indignities you laid upon me? + What, rate, rebuke, and roughly send to prison, + Th' immediate heir of England! Was this easy? + May this be wash'd in Lethe and forgotten? + CHIEF JUSTICE. I then did use the person of your father; + The image of his power lay then in me; + And in th' administration of his law, + Whiles I was busy for the commonwealth, + Your Highness pleased to forget my place, + The majesty and power of law and justice, + The image of the King whom I presented, + And struck me in my very seat of judgment; + Whereon, as an offender to your father, + I gave bold way to my authority + And did commit you. If the deed were ill, + Be you contented, wearing now the garland, + To have a son set your decrees at nought, + To pluck down justice from your awful bench, + To trip the course of law, and blunt the sword + That guards the peace and safety of your person; + Nay, more, to spurn at your most royal image, + And mock your workings in a second body. + Question your royal thoughts, make the case yours; + Be now the father, and propose a son; + Hear your own dignity so much profan'd, + See your most dreadful laws so loosely slighted, + Behold yourself so by a son disdain'd; + And then imagine me taking your part + And, in your power, soft silencing your son. + After this cold considerance, sentence me; + And, as you are a king, speak in your state + What I have done that misbecame my place, + My person, or my liege's sovereignty. + KING. You are right, Justice, and you weigh this well; + Therefore still bear the balance and the sword; + And I do wish your honours may increase + Till you do live to see a son of mine + Offend you, and obey you, as I did. + So shall I live to speak my father's words: + 'Happy am I that have a man so bold + That dares do justice on my proper son; + And not less happy, having such a son + That would deliver up his greatness so + Into the hands of justice.' You did commit me; + For which I do commit into your hand + Th' unstained sword that you have us'd to bear; + With this remembrance- that you use the same + With the like bold, just, and impartial spirit + As you have done 'gainst me. There is my hand. + You shall be as a father to my youth; + My voice shall sound as you do prompt mine ear; + And I will stoop and humble my intents + To your well-practis'd wise directions. + And, Princes all, believe me, I beseech you, + My father is gone wild into his grave, + For in his tomb lie my affections; + And with his spirits sadly I survive, + To mock the expectation of the world, + To frustrate prophecies, and to raze out + Rotten opinion, who hath writ me down + After my seeming. The tide of blood in me + Hath proudly flow'd in vanity till now. + Now doth it turn and ebb back to the sea, + Where it shall mingle with the state of floods, + And flow henceforth in formal majesty. + Now call we our high court of parliament; + And let us choose such limbs of noble counsel, + That the great body of our state may go + In equal rank with the best govern'd nation; + That war, or peace, or both at once, may be + As things acquainted and familiar to us; + In which you, father, shall have foremost hand. + Our coronation done, we will accite, + As I before rememb'red, all our state; + And- God consigning to my good intents- + No prince nor peer shall have just cause to say, + God shorten Harry's happy life one day. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Gloucestershire. SHALLOW'S orchard + +Enter FALSTAFF, SHALLOW, SILENCE, BARDOLPH, the PAGE, and DAVY + + SHALLOW. Nay, you shall see my orchard, where, in an arbour, we + will eat a last year's pippin of mine own graffing, with a dish + of caraways, and so forth. Come, cousin Silence. And then to bed. + FALSTAFF. Fore God, you have here a goodly dwelling and rich. + SHALLOW. Barren, barren, barren; beggars all, beggars all, Sir John + -marry, good air. Spread, Davy, spread, Davy; well said, Davy. + FALSTAFF. This Davy serves you for good uses; he is your + serving-man and your husband. + SHALLOW. A good varlet, a good varlet, a very good varlet, Sir + John. By the mass, I have drunk too much sack at supper. A good + varlet. Now sit down, now sit down; come, cousin. + SILENCE. Ah, sirrah! quoth-a- we shall [Singing] + + Do nothing but eat and make good cheer, + And praise God for the merry year; + When flesh is cheap and females dear, + And lusty lads roam here and there, + So merrily, + And ever among so merrily. + + FALSTAFF. There's a merry heart! Good Master Silence, I'll give you + a health for that anon. + SHALLOW. Give Master Bardolph some wine, Davy. + DAVY. Sweet sir, sit; I'll be with you anon; most sweet sir, sit. + Master Page, good Master Page, sit. Proface! What you want in + meat, we'll have in drink. But you must bear; the heart's all. + Exit + SHALLOW. Be merry, Master Bardolph; and, my little soldier there, + be merry. + SILENCE. [Singing] + + Be merry, be merry, my wife has all; + For women are shrews, both short and tall; + 'Tis merry in hall when beards wag an; + And welcome merry Shrove-tide. + Be merry, be merry. + + FALSTAFF. I did not think Master Silence had been a man of this + mettle. + SILENCE. Who, I? I have been merry twice and once ere now. + + Re-enter DAVY + + DAVY. [To BARDOLPH] There's a dish of leather-coats for you. + SHALLOW. Davy! + DAVY. Your worship! I'll be with you straight. [To BARDOLPH] + A cup of wine, sir? + SILENCE. [Singing] + + A cup of wine that's brisk and fine, + And drink unto the leman mine; + And a merry heart lives long-a. + + FALSTAFF. Well said, Master Silence. + SILENCE. An we shall be merry, now comes in the sweet o' th' night. + FALSTAFF. Health and long life to you, Master Silence! + SILENCE. [Singing] + + Fill the cup, and let it come, + I'll pledge you a mile to th' bottom. + + SHALLOW. Honest Bardolph, welcome; if thou want'st anything and + wilt not call, beshrew thy heart. Welcome, my little tiny thief + and welcome indeed too. I'll drink to Master Bardolph, and to all + the cabileros about London. + DAVY. I hope to see London once ere I die. + BARDOLPH. An I might see you there, Davy! + SHALLOW. By the mass, you'R crack a quart together- ha! will you + not, Master Bardolph? + BARDOLPH. Yea, sir, in a pottle-pot. + SHALLOW. By God's liggens, I thank thee. The knave will stick by + thee, I can assure thee that. 'A will not out, 'a; 'tis true + bred. + BARDOLPH. And I'll stick by him, sir. + SHALLOW. Why, there spoke a king. Lack nothing; be merry. + [One knocks at door] Look who's at door there, ho! Who knocks? + Exit DAVY + FALSTAFF. [To SILENCE, who has drunk a bumper] Why, now you have + done me right. + SILENCE. [Singing] + + Do me right, + And dub me knight. + Samingo. + + Is't not so? + FALSTAFF. 'Tis so. + SILENCE. Is't so? Why then, say an old man can do somewhat. + + Re-enter DAVY + + DAVY. An't please your worship, there's one Pistol come from the + court with news. + FALSTAFF. From the court? Let him come in. + + Enter PISTOL + + How now, Pistol? + PISTOL. Sir John, God save you! + FALSTAFF. What wind blew you hither, Pistol? + PISTOL. Not the ill wind which blows no man to good. Sweet knight, + thou art now one of the greatest men in this realm. + SILENCE. By'r lady, I think 'a be, but goodman Puff of Barson. + PISTOL. Puff! + Puff in thy teeth, most recreant coward base! + Sir John, I am thy Pistol and thy friend, + And helter-skelter have I rode to thee; + And tidings do I bring, and lucky joys, + And golden times, and happy news of price. + FALSTAFF. I pray thee now, deliver them like a man of this world. + PISTOL. A foutra for the world and worldlings base! + I speak of Africa and golden joys. + FALSTAFF. O base Assyrian knight, what is thy news? + Let King Cophetua know the truth thereof. + SILENCE. [Singing] And Robin Hood, Scarlet, and John. + PISTOL. Shall dunghill curs confront the Helicons? + And shall good news be baffled? + Then, Pistol, lay thy head in Furies' lap. + SHALLOW. Honest gentleman, I know not your breeding. + PISTOL. Why, then, lament therefore. + SHALLOW. Give me pardon, sir. If, sir, you come with news from the + court, I take it there's but two ways- either to utter them or + conceal them. I am, sir, under the King, in some authority. + PISTOL. Under which king, Bezonian? Speak, or die. + SHALLOW. Under King Harry. + PISTOL. Harry the Fourth- or Fifth? + SHALLOW. Harry the Fourth. + PISTOL. A foutra for thine office! + Sir John, thy tender lambkin now is King; + Harry the Fifth's the man. I speak the truth. + When Pistol lies, do this; and fig me, like + The bragging Spaniard. + FALSTAFF. What, is the old king dead? + PISTOL. As nail in door. The things I speak are just. + FALSTAFF. Away, Bardolph! saddle my horse. Master Robert Shallow, + choose what office thou wilt in the land, 'tis thine. Pistol, I + will double-charge thee with dignities. + BARDOLPH. O joyful day! + I would not take a knighthood for my fortune. + PISTOL. What, I do bring good news? + FALSTAFF. Carry Master Silence to bed. Master Shallow, my Lord + Shallow, be what thou wilt- I am Fortune's steward. Get on thy + boots; we'll ride all night. O sweet Pistol! Away, Bardolph! + [Exit BARDOLPH] Come, Pistol, utter more to me; and withal + devise something to do thyself good. Boot, boot, Master Shallow! + I know the young King is sick for me. Let us take any man's + horses: the laws of England are at my commandment. Blessed are + they that have been my friends; and woe to my Lord Chief Justice! + PISTOL. Let vultures vile seize on his lungs also! + 'Where is the life that late I led?' say they. + Why, here it is; welcome these pleasant days! Exeunt + +SCENE IV. London. A street + +Enter BEADLES, dragging in HOSTESS QUICKLY and DOLL TEARSHEET + + HOSTESS. No, thou arrant knave; I would to God that I might die, + that I might have thee hang'd. Thou hast drawn my shoulder out of + joint. + FIRST BEADLE. The constables have delivered her over to me; and she + shall have whipping-cheer enough, I warrant her. There hath been + a man or two lately kill'd about her. + DOLL. Nut-hook, nut-hook, you lie. Come on; I'll tell thee what, + thou damn'd tripe-visag'd rascal, an the child I now go with do + miscarry, thou wert better thou hadst struck thy mother, thou + paper-fac'd villain. + HOSTESS. O the Lord, that Sir John were come! He would make this a + bloody day to somebody. But I pray God the fruit of her womb + miscarry! + FIRST BEADLE. If it do, you shall have a dozen of cushions again; + you have but eleven now. Come, I charge you both go with me; for + the man is dead that you and Pistol beat amongst you. + DOLL. I'll tell you what, you thin man in a censer, I will have you + as soundly swing'd for this- you blue-bottle rogue, you filthy + famish'd correctioner, if you be not swing'd, I'll forswear + half-kirtles. + FIRST BEADLE. Come, come, you she knight-errant, come. + HOSTESS. O God, that right should thus overcome might! + Well, of sufferance comes ease. + DOLL. Come, you rogue, come; bring me to a justice. + HOSTESS. Ay, come, you starv'd bloodhound. + DOLL. Goodman death, goodman bones! + HOSTESS. Thou atomy, thou! + DOLL. Come, you thin thing! come, you rascal! + FIRST BEADLE. Very well. Exeunt + +SCENE V. Westminster. Near the Abbey + +Enter GROOMS, strewing rushes + + FIRST GROOM. More rushes, more rushes! + SECOND GROOM. The trumpets have sounded twice. + THIRD GROOM. 'Twill be two o'clock ere they come from the + coronation. Dispatch, dispatch. Exeunt + + Trumpets sound, and the KING and his train pass + over the stage. After them enter FALSTAFF, SHALLOW, + PISTOL, BARDOLPH, and page + + FALSTAFF. Stand here by me, Master Robert Shallow; I will make the + King do you grace. I will leer upon him, as 'a comes by; and do + but mark the countenance that he will give me. + PISTOL. God bless thy lungs, good knight! + FALSTAFF. Come here, Pistol; stand behind me. [To SHALLOW] O, if + I had had to have made new liveries, I would have bestowed the + thousand pound I borrowed of you. But 'tis no matter; this poor + show doth better; this doth infer the zeal I had to see him. + SHALLOW. It doth so. + FALSTAFF. It shows my earnestness of affection- + SHALLOW. It doth so. + FALSTAFF. My devotion- + SHALLOW. It doth, it doth, it doth. + FALSTAFF. As it were, to ride day and night; and not to deliberate, + not to remember, not to have patience to shift me- + SHALLOW. It is best, certain. + FALSTAFF. But to stand stained with travel, and sweating with + desire to see him; thinking of nothing else, putting all affairs + else in oblivion, as if there were nothing else to be done but to + see him. + PISTOL. 'Tis 'semper idem' for 'obsque hoc nihil est.' 'Tis all in + every part. + SHALLOW. 'Tis so, indeed. + PISTOL. My knight, I will inflame thy noble liver + And make thee rage. + Thy Doll, and Helen of thy noble thoughts, + Is in base durance and contagious prison; + Hal'd thither + By most mechanical and dirty hand. + Rouse up revenge from ebon den with fell Alecto's snake, + For Doll is in. Pistol speaks nought but truth. + FALSTAFF. I will deliver her. + [Shouts,within, and the trumpets sound] + PISTOL. There roar'd the sea, and trumpet-clangor sounds. + + Enter the KING and his train, the LORD CHIEF JUSTICE + among them + + FALSTAFF. God save thy Grace, King Hal; my royal Hal! + PISTOL. The heavens thee guard and keep, most royal imp of fame! + FALSTAFF. God save thee, my sweet boy! + KING. My Lord Chief Justice, speak to that vain man. + CHIEF JUSTICE. Have you your wits? Know you what 'tis you speak? + FALSTAFF. My king! my Jove! I speak to thee, my heart! + KING. I know thee not, old man. Fall to thy prayers. + How ill white hairs become a fool and jester! + I have long dreamt of such a kind of man, + So surfeit-swell'd, so old, and so profane; + But being awak'd, I do despise my dream. + Make less thy body hence, and more thy grace; + Leave gormandizing; know the grave doth gape + For thee thrice wider than for other men- + Reply not to me with a fool-born jest; + Presume not that I am the thing I was, + For God doth know, so shall the world perceive, + That I have turn'd away my former self; + So will I those that kept me company. + When thou dost hear I am as I have been, + Approach me, and thou shalt be as thou wast, + The tutor and the feeder of my riots. + Till then I banish thee, on pain of death, + As I have done the rest of my misleaders, + Not to come near our person by ten mile. + For competence of life I will allow you, + That lack of means enforce you not to evils; + And, as we hear you do reform yourselves, + We will, according to your strengths and qualities, + Give you advancement. Be it your charge, my lord, + To see perform'd the tenour of our word. + Set on. Exeunt the KING and his train + FALSTAFF. Master Shallow, I owe you a thousand pounds. + SHALLOW. Yea, marry, Sir John; which I beseech you to let me have + home with me. + FALSTAFF. That can hardly be, Master Shallow. Do not you grieve at + this; I shall be sent for in private to him. Look you, he must + seem thus to the world. Fear not your advancements; I will be the + man yet that shall make you great. + SHALLOW. I cannot perceive how, unless you give me your doublet, + and stuff me out with straw. I beseech you, good Sir John, let me + have five hundred of my thousand. + FALSTAFF. Sir, I will be as good as my word. This that you heard + was but a colour. + SHALLOW. A colour that I fear you will die in, Sir John. + FALSTAFF. Fear no colours; go with me to dinner. Come, Lieutenant + Pistol; come, Bardolph. I shall be sent for soon at night. + + Re-enter PRINCE JOHN, the LORD CHIEF JUSTICE, + with officers + + CHIEF JUSTICE. Go, carry Sir John Falstaff to the Fleet; + Take all his company along with him. + FALSTAFF. My lord, my lord- + CHIEF JUSTICE. I cannot now speak. I will hear you soon. + Take them away. + PISTOL. Si fortuna me tormenta, spero me contenta. + Exeunt all but PRINCE JOHN and the LORD CHIEF JUSTICE + PRINCE JOHN. I like this fair proceeding of the King's. + He hath intent his wonted followers + Shall all be very well provided for; + But all are banish'd till their conversations + Appear more wise and modest to the world. + CHIEF JUSTICE. And so they are. + PRINCE JOHN. The King hath call'd his parliament, my lord. + CHIEF JUSTICE. He hath. + PRINCE JOHN. I will lay odds that, ere this year expire, + We bear our civil swords and native fire + As far as France. I heard a bird so sing, + Whose music, to my thinking, pleas'd the King. + Come, will you hence? Exeunt + +EPILOGUE EPILOGUE. + + First my fear, then my curtsy, last my speech. My fear, is your + displeasure; my curtsy, my duty; and my speech, to beg your pardons. + If you look for a good speech now, you undo me; for what I have to + say is of mine own making; and what, indeed, I should say will, I + doubt, prove mine own marring. But to the purpose, and so to the + venture. Be it known to you, as it is very well, I was lately here in + the end of a displeasing play, to pray your patience for it and to + promise you a better. I meant, indeed, to pay you with this; which if + like an ill venture it come unluckily home, I break, and you, my + gentle creditors, lose. Here I promis'd you I would be, and here I + commit my body to your mercies. Bate me some, and I will pay you + some, and, as most debtors do, promise you infinitely; and so I kneel + down before you- but, indeed, to pray for the Queen. If my tongue + cannot entreat you to acquit me, will you command me to use my legs? + And yet that were but light payment-to dance out of your debt. But a + good conscience will make any possible satisfaction, and so would I. + All the gentlewomen here have forgiven me. If the gentlemen will not, + then the gentlemen do not agree with the gentlewomen, which was never + seen before in such an assembly. One word more, I beseech you. If you + be not too much cloy'd with fat meat, our humble author will continue + the story, with Sir John in it, and make you merry with fair + Katherine of France; where, for anything I know, Falstaff shall die + of a sweat, unless already 'a be killed with your hard opinions; for + Oldcastle died a martyr and this is not the man. My tongue is weary; + when my legs are too, I will bid you good night. + + + +THE LIFE OF KING HENRY V + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Prologue. +Scene I. London. An ante-chamber in the King’s palace. +Scene II. The same. The presence chamber. + +ACT II +Chorus. +Scene I. London. A street. +Scene II. Southampton. A council-chamber. +Scene III. London. Before a tavern. +Scene IV. France. The King’s palace. + +ACT III +Chorus. +Scene I. France. Before Harfleur. +Scene II. The same. +Scene III. Before the gates. +Scene IV. The French King’s palace. +Scene V. The same. +Scene VI. The English camp in Picardy. +Scene VII. The French camp, near Agincourt. + +ACT IV +Chorus. +Scene I. The English camp at Agincourt. +Scene II. The French camp. +Scene III. The English camp. +Scene IV. The field of battle. +Scene V. Another part of the field. +Scene VI. Another part of the field. +Scene VII. Another part of the field. +Scene VIII. Before King Henry’s pavilion. + +ACT V +Chorus. +Scene I. France. The English camp. +Scene II. France. A royal palace. +Epilogue. + + +Dramatis Personæ + +KING HENRY V. +DUKE OF CLARENCE, brother to the King. +DUKE OF BEDFORD, brother to the King. +DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, brother to the King. +DUKE OF EXETER, uncle to the King. +DUKE OF YORK, cousin to the King. +EARL OF SALISBURY. +EARL OF HUNTINGDON. +EARL OF WESTMORLAND. +EARL OF WARWICK. +ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY. +BISHOP OF ELY. +EARL OF CAMBRIDGE. +LORD SCROOP. +SIR THOMAS GREY. +SIR THOMAS ERPINGHAM, officer in King Henry’s army. +GOWER, officer in King Henry’s army. +FLUELLEN, officer in King Henry’s army. +MACMORRIS, officer in King Henry’s army. +JAMY, officer in King Henry’s army. +BATES, soldier in the same. +COURT, soldier in the same. +WILLIAMS, soldier in the same. +PISTOL. +NYM. +BARDOLPH. +BOY. +A Herald. + +CHARLES VI, king of France. +LEWIS, the Dauphin. +DUKE OF BERRY. +DUKE OF BRITTANY. +DUKE OF BURGUNDY. +DUKE OF ORLEANS. +DUKE OF BOURBON. +The Constable of France. +RAMBURES, French Lord. +GRANDPRÉ, French Lord. +Governor of Harfleur +MONTJOY, a French herald. +Ambassadors to the King of England. + +ISABEL, queen of France. +KATHARINE, daughter to Charles and Isabel. +ALICE, a lady attending on her. +HOSTESS of a tavern in Eastcheap, formerly Mistress Nell Quickly, and +now married to Pistol. + +CHORUS. + +Lords, Ladies, Officers, Soldiers, Citizens, Messengers, and +Attendants. + +SCENE: England; afterwards France. + + +PROLOGUE. + + Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +O for a Muse of fire, that would ascend +The brightest heaven of invention, +A kingdom for a stage, princes to act, +And monarchs to behold the swelling scene! +Then should the warlike Harry, like himself, +Assume the port of Mars, and at his heels, +Leash’d in like hounds, should famine, sword, and fire +Crouch for employment. But pardon, gentles all, +The flat unraised spirits that hath dar’d +On this unworthy scaffold to bring forth +So great an object. Can this cockpit hold +The vasty fields of France? Or may we cram +Within this wooden O the very casques +That did affright the air at Agincourt? +O pardon! since a crooked figure may +Attest in little place a million, +And let us, ciphers to this great accompt, +On your imaginary forces work. +Suppose within the girdle of these walls +Are now confin’d two mighty monarchies, +Whose high upreared and abutting fronts +The perilous narrow ocean parts asunder; +Piece out our imperfections with your thoughts. +Into a thousand parts divide one man, +And make imaginary puissance. +Think, when we talk of horses, that you see them +Printing their proud hoofs i’ th’ receiving earth. +For ’tis your thoughts that now must deck our kings, +Carry them here and there, jumping o’er times, +Turning the accomplishment of many years +Into an hour-glass: for the which supply, +Admit me Chorus to this history; +Who prologue-like your humble patience pray, +Gently to hear, kindly to judge, our play. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. London. An ante-chamber in the King’s palace. + + Enter the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Ely. + +CANTERBURY. +My lord, I’ll tell you, that self bill is urg’d +Which in the eleventh year of the last king’s reign +Was like, and had indeed against us passed +But that the scambling and unquiet time +Did push it out of farther question. + +ELY. +But how, my lord, shall we resist it now? + +CANTERBURY. +It must be thought on. If it pass against us, +We lose the better half of our possession: +For all the temporal lands, which men devout +By testament have given to the Church, +Would they strip from us; being valu’d thus: +As much as would maintain, to the King’s honour, +Full fifteen earls and fifteen hundred knights, +Six thousand and two hundred good esquires; +And, to relief of lazars and weak age, +Of indigent faint souls past corporal toil, +A hundred almshouses right well supplied; +And to the coffers of the King beside, +A thousand pounds by th’ year. Thus runs the bill. + +ELY. +This would drink deep. + +CANTERBURY. +’Twould drink the cup and all. + +ELY. +But what prevention? + +CANTERBURY. +The King is full of grace and fair regard. + +ELY. +And a true lover of the holy Church. + +CANTERBURY. +The courses of his youth promis’d it not. +The breath no sooner left his father’s body +But that his wildness, mortified in him, +Seemed to die too; yea, at that very moment +Consideration like an angel came +And whipped th’ offending Adam out of him, +Leaving his body as a paradise +T’ envelope and contain celestial spirits. +Never was such a sudden scholar made, +Never came reformation in a flood +With such a heady currance scouring faults, +Nor never Hydra-headed wilfulness +So soon did lose his seat, and all at once, +As in this king. + +ELY. +We are blessed in the change. + +CANTERBURY. +Hear him but reason in divinity +And, all-admiring, with an inward wish +You would desire the King were made a prelate; +Hear him debate of commonwealth affairs, +You would say it hath been all in all his study; +List his discourse of war, and you shall hear +A fearful battle rendered you in music; +Turn him to any cause of policy, +The Gordian knot of it he will unloose, +Familiar as his garter; that, when he speaks, +The air, a chartered libertine, is still, +And the mute wonder lurketh in men’s ears +To steal his sweet and honeyed sentences; +So that the art and practic part of life +Must be the mistress to this theoric: +Which is a wonder how his Grace should glean it, +Since his addiction was to courses vain, +His companies unlettered, rude, and shallow, +His hours filled up with riots, banquets, sports, +And never noted in him any study, +Any retirement, any sequestration +From open haunts and popularity. + +ELY. +The strawberry grows underneath the nettle, +And wholesome berries thrive and ripen best +Neighboured by fruit of baser quality; +And so the Prince obscured his contemplation +Under the veil of wildness, which, no doubt, +Grew like the summer grass, fastest by night, +Unseen, yet crescive in his faculty. + +CANTERBURY. +It must be so, for miracles are ceased, +And therefore we must needs admit the means +How things are perfected. + +ELY. +But, my good lord, +How now for mitigation of this bill +Urged by the Commons? Doth his Majesty +Incline to it, or no? + +CANTERBURY. +He seems indifferent, +Or rather swaying more upon our part +Than cherishing th’ exhibitors against us; +For I have made an offer to his Majesty, +Upon our spiritual convocation +And in regard of causes now in hand, +Which I have opened to his Grace at large, +As touching France, to give a greater sum +Than ever at one time the clergy yet +Did to his predecessors part withal. + +ELY. +How did this offer seem received, my lord? + +CANTERBURY. +With good acceptance of his Majesty; +Save that there was not time enough to hear, +As I perceived his Grace would fain have done, +The severals and unhidden passages +Of his true titles to some certain dukedoms, +And generally to the crown and seat of France, +Derived from Edward, his great-grandfather. + +ELY. +What was th’ impediment that broke this off? + +CANTERBURY. +The French ambassador upon that instant +Craved audience; and the hour, I think, is come +To give him hearing. Is it four o’clock? + +ELY. +It is. + +CANTERBURY. +Then go we in, to know his embassy, +Which I could with a ready guess declare +Before the Frenchman speak a word of it. + +ELY. +I’ll wait upon you, and I long to hear it. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. The presence chamber. + + Enter King Henry, Gloucester, Bedford, Clarence, Warwick, Westmorland, + Exeter and Attendants. + +KING HENRY. +Where is my gracious Lord of Canterbury? + +EXETER. +Not here in presence. + +KING HENRY. +Send for him, good uncle. + +WESTMORLAND. +Shall we call in th’ ambassador, my liege? + +KING HENRY. +Not yet, my cousin. We would be resolved, +Before we hear him, of some things of weight +That task our thoughts concerning us and France. + + Enter the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Ely. + +CANTERBURY. +God and his angels guard your sacred throne +And make you long become it! + +KING HENRY. +Sure, we thank you. +My learned lord, we pray you to proceed +And justly and religiously unfold +Why the law Salic that they have in France +Or should or should not bar us in our claim. +And God forbid, my dear and faithful lord, +That you should fashion, wrest, or bow your reading, +Or nicely charge your understanding soul +With opening titles miscreate, whose right +Suits not in native colours with the truth; +For God doth know how many now in health +Shall drop their blood in approbation +Of what your reverence shall incite us to. +Therefore take heed how you impawn our person, +How you awake our sleeping sword of war. +We charge you in the name of God, take heed; +For never two such kingdoms did contend +Without much fall of blood, whose guiltless drops +Are every one a woe, a sore complaint +’Gainst him whose wrongs gives edge unto the swords +That makes such waste in brief mortality. +Under this conjuration speak, my lord, +For we will hear, note, and believe in heart +That what you speak is in your conscience washed +As pure as sin with baptism. + +CANTERBURY. +Then hear me, gracious sovereign, and you peers, +That owe yourselves, your lives, and services +To this imperial throne. There is no bar +To make against your Highness’ claim to France +But this, which they produce from Pharamond: +_In terram Salicam mulieres ne succedant_, +“No woman shall succeed in Salic land;” +Which Salic land the French unjustly gloze +To be the realm of France, and Pharamond +The founder of this law and female bar. +Yet their own authors faithfully affirm +That the land Salic is in Germany, +Between the floods of Sala and of Elbe; +Where Charles the Great, having subdu’d the Saxons, +There left behind and settled certain French; +Who, holding in disdain the German women +For some dishonest manners of their life, +Establish’d then this law, to wit, no female +Should be inheritrix in Salic land; +Which Salic, as I said, ’twixt Elbe and Sala, +Is at this day in Germany call’d Meissen. +Then doth it well appear the Salic law +Was not devised for the realm of France; +Nor did the French possess the Salic land +Until four hundred one and twenty years +After defunction of King Pharamond, +Idly suppos’d the founder of this law, +Who died within the year of our redemption +Four hundred twenty-six; and Charles the Great +Subdu’d the Saxons, and did seat the French +Beyond the river Sala, in the year +Eight hundred five. Besides, their writers say, +King Pepin, which deposed Childeric, +Did, as heir general, being descended +Of Blithild, which was daughter to King Clothair, +Make claim and title to the crown of France. +Hugh Capet also, who usurp’d the crown +Of Charles the Duke of Lorraine, sole heir male +Of the true line and stock of Charles the Great, +To find his title with some shows of truth, +Though, in pure truth, it was corrupt and naught, +Convey’d himself as the heir to the Lady Lingare, +Daughter to Charlemain, who was the son +To Lewis the Emperor, and Lewis the son +Of Charles the Great. Also, King Lewis the Tenth, +Who was sole heir to the usurper Capet, +Could not keep quiet in his conscience, +Wearing the crown of France, till satisfied +That fair Queen Isabel, his grandmother, +Was lineal of the Lady Ermengare, +Daughter to Charles, the foresaid Duke of Lorraine; +By the which marriage the line of Charles the Great +Was re-united to the crown of France. +So that, as clear as is the summer’s sun, +King Pepin’s title and Hugh Capet’s claim, +King Lewis his satisfaction, all appear +To hold in right and title of the female. +So do the kings of France unto this day, +Howbeit they would hold up this Salic law +To bar your Highness claiming from the female, +And rather choose to hide them in a net +Than amply to imbar their crooked titles +Usurp’d from you and your progenitors. + +KING HENRY. +May I with right and conscience make this claim? + +CANTERBURY. +The sin upon my head, dread sovereign! +For in the Book of Numbers is it writ, +“When the man dies, let the inheritance +Descend unto the daughter.” Gracious lord, +Stand for your own! Unwind your bloody flag! +Look back into your mighty ancestors! +Go, my dread lord, to your great-grandsire’s tomb, +From whom you claim; invoke his warlike spirit, +And your great-uncle’s, Edward the Black Prince, +Who on the French ground play’d a tragedy, +Making defeat on the full power of France, +Whiles his most mighty father on a hill +Stood smiling to behold his lion’s whelp +Forage in blood of French nobility. +O noble English, that could entertain +With half their forces the full pride of France +And let another half stand laughing by, +All out of work and cold for action! + +ELY. +Awake remembrance of these valiant dead, +And with your puissant arm renew their feats. +You are their heir; you sit upon their throne; +The blood and courage that renowned them +Runs in your veins; and my thrice-puissant liege +Is in the very May-morn of his youth, +Ripe for exploits and mighty enterprises. + +EXETER. +Your brother kings and monarchs of the earth +Do all expect that you should rouse yourself, +As did the former lions of your blood. + +WESTMORLAND. +They know your Grace hath cause and means and might; +So hath your Highness. Never King of England +Had nobles richer, and more loyal subjects, +Whose hearts have left their bodies here in England +And lie pavilion’d in the fields of France. + +CANTERBURY. +O, let their bodies follow, my dear liege, +With blood and sword and fire to win your right; +In aid whereof we of the spiritualty +Will raise your Highness such a mighty sum +As never did the clergy at one time +Bring in to any of your ancestors. + +KING HENRY. +We must not only arm to invade the French, +But lay down our proportions to defend +Against the Scot, who will make road upon us +With all advantages. + +CANTERBURY. +They of those marches, gracious sovereign, +Shall be a wall sufficient to defend +Our inland from the pilfering borderers. + +KING HENRY. +We do not mean the coursing snatchers only, +But fear the main intendment of the Scot, +Who hath been still a giddy neighbour to us; +For you shall read that my great-grandfather +Never went with his forces into France +But that the Scot on his unfurnish’d kingdom +Came pouring, like the tide into a breach, +With ample and brim fullness of his force, +Galling the gleaned land with hot assays, +Girdling with grievous siege castles and towns; +That England, being empty of defence, +Hath shook and trembled at the ill neighbourhood. + +CANTERBURY. +She hath been then more fear’d than harm’d, my liege; +For hear her but exampl’d by herself: +When all her chivalry hath been in France, +And she a mourning widow of her nobles, +She hath herself not only well defended +But taken and impounded as a stray +The King of Scots; whom she did send to France +To fill King Edward’s fame with prisoner kings, +And make her chronicle as rich with praise +As is the ooze and bottom of the sea +With sunken wreck and sumless treasuries. + +WESTMORLAND. +But there’s a saying very old and true, +“If that you will France win, +Then with Scotland first begin.” +For once the eagle England being in prey, +To her unguarded nest the weasel Scot +Comes sneaking and so sucks her princely eggs, +Playing the mouse in absence of the cat, +To tear and havoc more than she can eat. + +EXETER. +It follows then the cat must stay at home; +Yet that is but a crush’d necessity, +Since we have locks to safeguard necessaries, +And pretty traps to catch the petty thieves. +While that the armed hand doth fight abroad, +The advised head defends itself at home; +For government, though high and low and lower, +Put into parts, doth keep in one consent, +Congreeing in a full and natural close, +Like music. + +CANTERBURY. +Therefore doth heaven divide +The state of man in divers functions, +Setting endeavour in continual motion, +To which is fixed, as an aim or butt, +Obedience; for so work the honey-bees, +Creatures that by a rule in nature teach +The act of order to a peopled kingdom. +They have a king and officers of sorts, +Where some, like magistrates, correct at home, +Others like merchants, venture trade abroad, +Others, like soldiers, armed in their stings, +Make boot upon the summer’s velvet buds, +Which pillage they with merry march bring home +To the tent-royal of their emperor; +Who, busied in his majesty, surveys +The singing masons building roofs of gold, +The civil citizens kneading up the honey, +The poor mechanic porters crowding in +Their heavy burdens at his narrow gate, +The sad-eyed justice, with his surly hum, +Delivering o’er to executors pale +The lazy yawning drone. I this infer, +That many things, having full reference +To one consent, may work contrariously. +As many arrows, loosed several ways, +Come to one mark; as many ways meet in one town; +As many fresh streams meet in one salt sea; +As many lines close in the dial’s centre; +So many a thousand actions, once afoot, +End in one purpose, and be all well borne +Without defeat. Therefore to France, my liege! +Divide your happy England into four, +Whereof take you one quarter into France, +And you withal shall make all Gallia shake. +If we, with thrice such powers left at home, +Cannot defend our own doors from the dog, +Let us be worried and our nation lose +The name of hardiness and policy. + +KING HENRY. +Call in the messengers sent from the Dauphin. + + [_Exeunt some Attendants._] + +Now are we well resolv’d; and, by God’s help, +And yours, the noble sinews of our power, +France being ours, we’ll bend it to our awe, +Or break it all to pieces. Or there we’ll sit, +Ruling in large and ample empery +O’er France and all her almost kingly dukedoms, +Or lay these bones in an unworthy urn, +Tombless, with no remembrance over them. +Either our history shall with full mouth +Speak freely of our acts, or else our grave, +Like Turkish mute, shall have a tongueless mouth, +Not worshipp’d with a waxen epitaph. + + Enter Ambassadors of France. + +Now are we well prepar’d to know the pleasure +Of our fair cousin Dauphin; for we hear +Your greeting is from him, not from the King. + +FIRST AMBASSADOR. +May’t please your Majesty to give us leave +Freely to render what we have in charge, +Or shall we sparingly show you far off +The Dauphin’s meaning and our embassy? + +KING HENRY. +We are no tyrant, but a Christian king, +Unto whose grace our passion is as subject +As is our wretches fett’red in our prisons; +Therefore with frank and with uncurbed plainness +Tell us the Dauphin’s mind. + +AMBASSADOR. +Thus, then, in few. +Your Highness, lately sending into France, +Did claim some certain dukedoms, in the right +Of your great predecessor, King Edward the Third. +In answer of which claim, the prince our master +Says that you savour too much of your youth, +And bids you be advis’d there’s nought in France +That can be with a nimble galliard won. +You cannot revel into dukedoms there. +He therefore sends you, meeter for your spirit, +This tun of treasure; and, in lieu of this, +Desires you let the dukedoms that you claim +Hear no more of you. This the Dauphin speaks. + +KING HENRY. +What treasure, uncle? + +EXETER. +Tennis-balls, my liege. + +KING HENRY. +We are glad the Dauphin is so pleasant with us. +His present and your pains we thank you for. +When we have match’d our rackets to these balls, +We will, in France, by God’s grace, play a set +Shall strike his father’s crown into the hazard. +Tell him he hath made a match with such a wrangler +That all the courts of France will be disturb’d +With chaces. And we understand him well, +How he comes o’er us with our wilder days, +Not measuring what use we made of them. +We never valu’d this poor seat of England; +And therefore, living hence, did give ourself +To barbarous licence; as ’tis ever common +That men are merriest when they are from home. +But tell the Dauphin I will keep my state, +Be like a king, and show my sail of greatness +When I do rouse me in my throne of France. +For that I have laid by my majesty +And plodded like a man for working days, +But I will rise there with so full a glory +That I will dazzle all the eyes of France, +Yea, strike the Dauphin blind to look on us. +And tell the pleasant prince this mock of his +Hath turn’d his balls to gun-stones, and his soul +Shall stand sore charged for the wasteful vengeance +That shall fly with them; for many a thousand widows +Shall this his mock mock out of their dear husbands, +Mock mothers from their sons, mock castles down; +And some are yet ungotten and unborn +That shall have cause to curse the Dauphin’s scorn. +But this lies all within the will of God, +To whom I do appeal; and in whose name +Tell you the Dauphin I am coming on +To venge me as I may, and to put forth +My rightful hand in a well-hallow’d cause. +So get you hence in peace; and tell the Dauphin +His jest will savour but of shallow wit, +When thousands weep more than did laugh at it.— +Convey them with safe conduct.—Fare you well. + + [_Exeunt Ambassadors._] + +EXETER. +This was a merry message. + +KING HENRY. +We hope to make the sender blush at it. +Therefore, my lords, omit no happy hour +That may give furtherance to our expedition; +For we have now no thought in us but France, +Save those to God, that run before our business. +Therefore, let our proportions for these wars +Be soon collected, and all things thought upon +That may with reasonable swiftness add +More feathers to our wings; for, God before, +We’ll chide this Dauphin at his father’s door. +Therefore let every man now task his thought, +That this fair action may on foot be brought. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + + Flourish. Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +Now all the youth of England are on fire, +And silken dalliance in the wardrobe lies. +Now thrive the armourers, and honour’s thought +Reigns solely in the breast of every man. +They sell the pasture now to buy the horse, +Following the mirror of all Christian kings, +With winged heels, as English Mercuries. +For now sits Expectation in the air, +And hides a sword from hilts unto the point +With crowns imperial, crowns, and coronets, +Promis’d to Harry and his followers. +The French, advis’d by good intelligence +Of this most dreadful preparation, +Shake in their fear, and with pale policy +Seek to divert the English purposes. +O England! model to thy inward greatness, +Like little body with a mighty heart, +What mightst thou do, that honour would thee do, +Were all thy children kind and natural! +But see thy fault! France hath in thee found out +A nest of hollow bosoms, which he fills +With treacherous crowns; and three corrupted men, +One, Richard Earl of Cambridge, and the second, +Henry Lord Scroop of Masham, and the third, +Sir Thomas Grey, knight of Northumberland, +Have, for the gilt of France,—O guilt indeed!— +Confirm’d conspiracy with fearful France; +And by their hands this grace of kings must die, +If hell and treason hold their promises, +Ere he take ship for France, and in Southampton. +Linger your patience on, and we’ll digest +The abuse of distance, force a play. +The sum is paid; the traitors are agreed; +The King is set from London; and the scene +Is now transported, gentles, to Southampton. +There is the playhouse now, there must you sit; +And thence to France shall we convey you safe, +And bring you back, charming the narrow seas +To give you gentle pass; for, if we may, +We’ll not offend one stomach with our play. +But, till the King come forth, and not till then, +Unto Southampton do we shift our scene. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE I. London. A street. + + Enter Corporal Nym and Lieutenant Bardolph. + +BARDOLPH. +Well met, Corporal Nym. + +NYM. +Good morrow, Lieutenant Bardolph. + +BARDOLPH. +What, are Ancient Pistol and you friends yet? + +NYM. +For my part, I care not. I say little; but when time shall serve, there +shall be smiles; but that shall be as it may. I dare not fight, but I +will wink and hold out mine iron. It is a simple one, but what though? +It will toast cheese, and it will endure cold as another man’s sword +will; and there’s an end. + +BARDOLPH. +I will bestow a breakfast to make you friends; and we’ll be all three +sworn brothers to France. Let it be so, good Corporal Nym. + +NYM. +Faith, I will live so long as I may, that’s the certain of it; and when +I cannot live any longer, I will do as I may. That is my rest, that is +the rendezvous of it. + +BARDOLPH. +It is certain, corporal, that he is married to Nell Quickly; and +certainly she did you wrong, for you were troth-plight to her. + +NYM. +I cannot tell. Things must be as they may. Men may sleep, and they may +have their throats about them at that time; and some say knives have +edges. It must be as it may. Though patience be a tired mare, yet she +will plod. There must be conclusions. Well, I cannot tell. + + Enter Pistol and Hostess. + +BARDOLPH. +Here comes Ancient Pistol and his wife. Good Corporal, be patient here. +How now, mine host Pistol! + +PISTOL. +Base tike, call’st thou me host? +Now, by this hand, I swear I scorn the term; +Nor shall my Nell keep lodgers. + +HOSTESS. +No, by my troth, not long; for we cannot lodge and board a dozen or +fourteen gentlewomen that live honestly by the prick of their needles, +but it will be thought we keep a bawdy house straight. [_Nym and Pistol +draw._] O well a day, Lady, if he be not drawn now! We shall see wilful +adultery and murder committed. + +BARDOLPH. +Good Lieutenant! good corporal! offer nothing here. + +NYM. +Pish! + +PISTOL. +Pish for thee, Iceland dog! thou prick-ear’d cur of Iceland! + +HOSTESS. +Good Corporal Nym, show thy valour, and put up your sword. + +NYM. +Will you shog off? I would have you _solus_. + +PISTOL. +_Solus_, egregious dog! O viper vile! +The _solus_ in thy most mervailous face; +The _solus_ in thy teeth, and in thy throat, +And in thy hateful lungs, yea, in thy maw, perdy, +And, which is worse, within thy nasty mouth! +I do retort the _solus_ in thy bowels; +For I can take, and Pistol’s cock is up, +And flashing fire will follow. + +NYM. +I am not Barbason; you cannot conjure me. I have an humour to knock you +indifferently well. If you grow foul with me, Pistol, I will scour you +with my rapier, as I may, in fair terms. If you would walk off, I would +prick your guts a little, in good terms, as I may; and that’s the +humour of it. + +PISTOL. +O braggart vile and damned furious wight! +The grave doth gape, and doting death is near, +Therefore exhale. + +BARDOLPH. +Hear me, hear me what I say. He that strikes the first stroke I’ll run +him up to the hilts, as I am a soldier. + + [_Draws._] + +PISTOL. +An oath of mickle might; and fury shall abate. +Give me thy fist, thy fore-foot to me give. +Thy spirits are most tall. + +NYM. +I will cut thy throat, one time or other, in fair terms: that is the +humour of it. + +PISTOL. +“Couple a gorge!” +That is the word. I thee defy again. +O hound of Crete, think’st thou my spouse to get? +No! to the spital go, +And from the powdering tub of infamy +Fetch forth the lazar kite of Cressid’s kind, +Doll Tearsheet she by name, and her espouse. +I have, and I will hold, the quondam Quickly +For the only she; and _pauca_, there’s enough. +Go to. + + Enter the Boy. + +BOY. +Mine host Pistol, you must come to my master, and you, hostess. He is +very sick, and would to bed. Good Bardolph, put thy face between his +sheets, and do the office of a warming-pan. Faith, he’s very ill. + +BARDOLPH. +Away, you rogue! + +HOSTESS. +By my troth, he’ll yield the crow a pudding one of these days. +The King has kill’d his heart. +Good husband, come home presently. + + [_Exeunt Hostess and Boy._] + +BARDOLPH. +Come, shall I make you two friends? We must to France together; why the +devil should we keep knives to cut one another’s throats? + +PISTOL. +Let floods o’erswell, and fiends for food howl on! + +NYM. +You’ll pay me the eight shillings I won of you at betting? + +PISTOL. +Base is the slave that pays. + +NYM. +That now I will have: that’s the humour of it. + +PISTOL. +As manhood shall compound. Push home. + + [_They draw._] + +BARDOLPH. +By this sword, he that makes the first thrust, I’ll kill him; by this +sword, I will. + +PISTOL. +Sword is an oath, and oaths must have their course. + +BARDOLPH. +Corporal Nym, and thou wilt be friends, be friends; an thou wilt not, +why, then, be enemies with me too. Prithee, put up. + +NYM. +I shall have my eight shillings I won from you at betting? + +PISTOL. +A noble shalt thou have, and present pay; +And liquor likewise will I give to thee, +And friendship shall combine, and brotherhood. +I’ll live by Nym, and Nym shall live by me. +Is not this just? For I shall sutler be +Unto the camp, and profits will accrue. +Give me thy hand. + +NYM. +I shall have my noble? + +PISTOL. +In cash most justly paid. + +NYM. +Well, then, that’s the humour of’t. + + Enter Hostess. + +HOSTESS. +As ever you come of women, come in quickly to Sir John. +Ah, poor heart! he is so shak’d of a burning quotidian tertian, +that it is most lamentable to behold. Sweet men, come to him. + +NYM. +The King hath run bad humours on the knight; that’s the even of it. + +PISTOL. +Nym, thou hast spoke the right. +His heart is fracted and corroborate. + +NYM. +The King is a good king; but it must be as it may; he passes some +humours and careers. + +PISTOL. +Let us condole the knight; for, lambkins, we will live. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Southampton. A council-chamber. + + Enter Exeter, Bedford and Westmorland. + +BEDFORD. +’Fore God, his Grace is bold, to trust these traitors. + +EXETER. +They shall be apprehended by and by. + +WESTMORLAND. +How smooth and even they do bear themselves! +As if allegiance in their bosoms sat +Crowned with faith and constant loyalty. + +BEDFORD. +The King hath note of all that they intend, +By interception which they dream not of. + +EXETER. +Nay, but the man that was his bed-fellow, +Whom he hath dull’d and cloy’d with gracious favours, +That he should, for a foreign purse, so sell +His sovereign’s life to death and treachery. + + Trumpets sound. Enter King Henry, Scroop, Cambridge and Grey. + +KING HENRY. +Now sits the wind fair, and we will aboard. +My Lord of Cambridge, and my kind Lord of Masham, +And you, my gentle knight, give me your thoughts. +Think you not that the powers we bear with us +Will cut their passage through the force of France, +Doing the execution and the act +For which we have in head assembled them? + +SCROOP. +No doubt, my liege, if each man do his best. + +KING HENRY. +I doubt not that, since we are well persuaded +We carry not a heart with us from hence +That grows not in a fair consent with ours, +Nor leave not one behind that doth not wish +Success and conquest to attend on us. + +CAMBRIDGE. +Never was monarch better fear’d and lov’d +Than is your Majesty. There’s not, I think, a subject +That sits in heart-grief and uneasiness +Under the sweet shade of your government. + +GREY. +True; those that were your father’s enemies +Have steep’d their galls in honey, and do serve you +With hearts create of duty and of zeal. + +KING HENRY. +We therefore have great cause of thankfulness, +And shall forget the office of our hand +Sooner than quittance of desert and merit +According to the weight and worthiness. + +SCROOP. +So service shall with steeled sinews toil, +And labour shall refresh itself with hope, +To do your Grace incessant services. + +KING HENRY. +We judge no less. Uncle of Exeter, +Enlarge the man committed yesterday, +That rail’d against our person. We consider +It was excess of wine that set him on, +And on his more advice we pardon him. + +SCROOP. +That’s mercy, but too much security. +Let him be punish’d, sovereign, lest example +Breed, by his sufferance, more of such a kind. + +KING HENRY. +O, let us yet be merciful. + +CAMBRIDGE. +So may your Highness, and yet punish too. + +GREY. +Sir, +You show great mercy if you give him life +After the taste of much correction. + +KING HENRY. +Alas, your too much love and care of me +Are heavy orisons ’gainst this poor wretch! +If little faults, proceeding on distemper, +Shall not be wink’d at, how shall we stretch our eye +When capital crimes, chew’d, swallow’d, and digested, +Appear before us? We’ll yet enlarge that man, +Though Cambridge, Scroop, and Grey, in their dear care +And tender preservation of our person, +Would have him punish’d. And now to our French causes. +Who are the late commissioners? + +CAMBRIDGE. +I one, my lord. +Your Highness bade me ask for it today. + +SCROOP. +So did you me, my liege. + +GREY. +And I, my royal sovereign. + +KING HENRY. +Then, Richard Earl of Cambridge, there is yours; +There yours, Lord Scroop of Masham; and, sir knight, +Grey of Northumberland, this same is yours. +Read them, and know I know your worthiness. +My Lord of Westmorland, and uncle Exeter, +We will aboard tonight.—Why, how now, gentlemen! +What see you in those papers that you lose +So much complexion?—Look ye, how they change! +Their cheeks are paper.—Why, what read you there, +That have so cowarded and chas’d your blood +Out of appearance? + +CAMBRIDGE. +I do confess my fault, +And do submit me to your Highness’ mercy. + +GREY, SCROOP. +To which we all appeal. + +KING HENRY. +The mercy that was quick in us but late, +By your own counsel is suppress’d and kill’d. +You must not dare, for shame, to talk of mercy, +For your own reasons turn into your bosoms, +As dogs upon their masters, worrying you. +See you, my princes and my noble peers, +These English monsters! My Lord of Cambridge here, +You know how apt our love was to accord +To furnish him with an appertinents +Belonging to his honour; and this man +Hath, for a few light crowns, lightly conspir’d +And sworn unto the practices of France +To kill us here in Hampton; to the which +This knight, no less for bounty bound to us +Than Cambridge is, hath likewise sworn. But, O +What shall I say to thee, Lord Scroop? thou cruel, +Ingrateful, savage, and inhuman creature! +Thou that didst bear the key of all my counsels, +That knew’st the very bottom of my soul, +That almost mightst have coin’d me into gold, +Wouldst thou have practis’d on me for thy use,— +May it be possible that foreign hire +Could out of thee extract one spark of evil +That might annoy my finger? ’Tis so strange, +That, though the truth of it stands off as gross +As black and white, my eye will scarcely see it. +Treason and murder ever kept together, +As two yoke-devils sworn to either’s purpose, +Working so grossly in a natural cause +That admiration did not whoop at them; +But thou, ’gainst all proportion, didst bring in +Wonder to wait on treason and on murder; +And whatsoever cunning fiend it was +That wrought upon thee so preposterously +Hath got the voice in hell for excellence; +And other devils that suggest by treasons +Do botch and bungle up damnation +With patches, colours, and with forms being fetch’d +From glist’ring semblances of piety. +But he that temper’d thee bade thee stand up, +Gave thee no instance why thou shouldst do treason, +Unless to dub thee with the name of traitor. +If that same demon that hath gull’d thee thus +Should with his lion gait walk the whole world, +He might return to vasty Tartar back, +And tell the legions, “I can never win +A soul so easy as that Englishman’s.” +O, how hast thou with jealousy infected +The sweetness of affiance! Show men dutiful? +Why, so didst thou. Seem they grave and learned? +Why, so didst thou. Come they of noble family? +Why, so didst thou. Seem they religious? +Why, so didst thou. Or are they spare in diet, +Free from gross passion or of mirth or anger, +Constant in spirit, not swerving with the blood, +Garnish’d and deck’d in modest complement, +Not working with the eye without the ear, +And but in purged judgement trusting neither? +Such and so finely bolted didst thou seem. +And thus thy fall hath left a kind of blot +To mark the full-fraught man and best indued +With some suspicion. I will weep for thee; +For this revolt of thine, methinks, is like +Another fall of man. Their faults are open. +Arrest them to the answer of the law; +And God acquit them of their practices! + +EXETER. +I arrest thee of high treason, by the name of Richard Earl of +Cambridge. +I arrest thee of high treason, by the name of Henry Lord Scroop of +Masham. +I arrest thee of high treason, by the name of Thomas Grey, knight, of +Northumberland. + +SCROOP. +Our purposes God justly hath discover’d, +And I repent my fault more than my death, +Which I beseech your Highness to forgive, +Although my body pay the price of it. + +CAMBRIDGE. +For me, the gold of France did not seduce, +Although I did admit it as a motive +The sooner to effect what I intended. +But God be thanked for prevention, +Which I in sufferance heartily will rejoice, +Beseeching God and you to pardon me. + +GREY. +Never did faithful subject more rejoice +At the discovery of most dangerous treason +Than I do at this hour joy o’er myself, +Prevented from a damned enterprise. +My fault, but not my body, pardon, sovereign. + +KING HENRY. +God quit you in his mercy! Hear your sentence. +You have conspir’d against our royal person, +Join’d with an enemy proclaim’d, and from his coffers +Received the golden earnest of our death; +Wherein you would have sold your king to slaughter, +His princes and his peers to servitude, +His subjects to oppression and contempt, +And his whole kingdom into desolation. +Touching our person seek we no revenge; +But we our kingdom’s safety must so tender, +Whose ruin you have sought, that to her laws +We do deliver you. Get you therefore hence, +Poor miserable wretches, to your death, +The taste whereof God of his mercy give +You patience to endure, and true repentance +Of all your dear offences! Bear them hence. + + [_Exeunt Cambridge, Scroop and Grey, guarded._] + +Now, lords, for France; the enterprise whereof +Shall be to you, as us, like glorious. +We doubt not of a fair and lucky war, +Since God so graciously hath brought to light +This dangerous treason lurking in our way +To hinder our beginnings. We doubt not now +But every rub is smoothed on our way. +Then forth, dear countrymen! Let us deliver +Our puissance into the hand of God, +Putting it straight in expedition. +Cheerly to sea! The signs of war advance! +No king of England, if not king of France! + + [_Flourish. Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. London. Before a tavern. + + Enter Pistol, Nym, Bardolph, Boy and Hostess. + +HOSTESS. +Prithee, honey, sweet husband, let me bring thee to Staines. + +PISTOL. +No; for my manly heart doth yearn. +Bardolph, be blithe; Nym, rouse thy vaunting veins; +Boy, bristle thy courage up; for Falstaff he is dead, +And we must yearn therefore. + +BARDOLPH. +Would I were with him, wheresome’er he is, either in heaven or in hell! + +HOSTESS. +Nay, sure, he’s not in hell. He’s in Arthur’s bosom, if ever man went +to Arthur’s bosom. ’A made a finer end and went away an it had been any +christom child. ’A parted even just between twelve and one, even at the +turning o’ the tide: for after I saw him fumble with the sheets, and +play with flowers, and smile upon his fingers’ ends, I knew there was +but one way; for his nose was as sharp as a pen, and ’a babbled of +green fields. “How now, Sir John!” quoth I; “what, man! be o’ good +cheer.” So ’a cried out, “God, God, God!” three or four times. Now I, +to comfort him, bid him ’a should not think of God; I hop’d there was +no need to trouble himself with any such thoughts yet. So ’a bade me +lay more clothes on his feet. I put my hand into the bed and felt them, +and they were as cold as any stone. Then I felt to his knees, and so +upward and upward, and all was as cold as any stone. + +NYM. +They say he cried out of sack. + +HOSTESS. +Ay, that ’a did. + +BARDOLPH. +And of women. + +HOSTESS. +Nay, that ’a did not. + +BOY. +Yes, that ’a did; and said they were devils incarnate. + +HOSTESS. +’A could never abide carnation; ’twas a colour he never liked. + +BOY. +’A said once, the devil would have him about women. + +HOSTESS. +’A did in some sort, indeed, handle women; but then he was rheumatic, +and talk’d of the whore of Babylon. + +BOY. +Do you not remember, ’a saw a flea stick upon Bardolph’s nose, and ’a +said it was a black soul burning in hell-fire? + +BARDOLPH. +Well, the fuel is gone that maintain’d that fire. That’s all the riches +I got in his service. + +NYM. +Shall we shog? The King will be gone from Southampton. + +PISTOL. +Come, let’s away. My love, give me thy lips. +Look to my chattels and my movables. +Let senses rule; the word is “Pitch and Pay.” +Trust none; +For oaths are straws, men’s faiths are wafer-cakes +And hold-fast is the only dog, my duck; +Therefore, _Caveto_ be thy counsellor. +Go, clear thy crystals. Yoke-fellows in arms, +Let us to France; like horse-leeches, my boys, +To suck, to suck, the very blood to suck! + +BOY. +And that’s but unwholesome food, they say. + +PISTOL. +Touch her soft mouth, and march. + +BARDOLPH. +Farewell, hostess. + + [_Kissing her._] + +NYM. +I cannot kiss; that is the humour of it; but, adieu. + +PISTOL. +Let housewifery appear. Keep close, I thee command. + +HOSTESS. +Farewell; adieu. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. France. The King’s palace. + + Flourish. Enter the French King, the Dauphin, the Dukes of Berry and + Brittany, the Constable and others. + +FRENCH KING. +Thus comes the English with full power upon us, +And more than carefully it us concerns +To answer royally in our defences. +Therefore the Dukes of Berry and of Brittany, +Of Brabant and of Orleans, shall make forth, +And you, Prince Dauphin, with all swift dispatch, +To line and new repair our towns of war +With men of courage and with means defendant; +For England his approaches makes as fierce +As waters to the sucking of a gulf. +It fits us then to be as provident +As fears may teach us out of late examples +Left by the fatal and neglected English +Upon our fields. + +DAUPHIN. +My most redoubted father, +It is most meet we arm us ’gainst the foe; +For peace itself should not so dull a kingdom, +Though war nor no known quarrel were in question, +But that defences, musters, preparations, +Should be maintain’d, assembled, and collected, +As were a war in expectation. +Therefore, I say, ’tis meet we all go forth +To view the sick and feeble parts of France. +And let us do it with no show of fear; +No, with no more than if we heard that England +Were busied with a Whitsun morris-dance; +For, my good liege, she is so idly king’d, +Her sceptre so fantastically borne +By a vain, giddy, shallow, humorous youth, +That fear attends her not. + +CONSTABLE. +O peace, Prince Dauphin! +You are too much mistaken in this king. +Question your Grace the late ambassadors +With what great state he heard their embassy, +How well supplied with noble counsellors, +How modest in exception, and withal +How terrible in constant resolution, +And you shall find his vanities forespent +Were but the outside of the Roman Brutus, +Covering discretion with a coat of folly; +As gardeners do with ordure hide those roots +That shall first spring and be most delicate. + +DAUPHIN. +Well, ’tis not so, my Lord High Constable; +But though we think it so, it is no matter. +In cases of defence ’tis best to weigh +The enemy more mighty than he seems, +So the proportions of defence are fill’d; +Which, of a weak and niggardly projection, +Doth, like a miser, spoil his coat with scanting +A little cloth. + +FRENCH KING. +Think we King Harry strong; +And, Princes, look you strongly arm to meet him. +The kindred of him hath been flesh’d upon us; +And he is bred out of that bloody strain +That haunted us in our familiar paths. +Witness our too much memorable shame +When Cressy battle fatally was struck, +And all our princes captiv’d by the hand +Of that black name, Edward, Black Prince of Wales; +Whiles that his mountain sire, on mountain standing, +Up in the air, crown’d with the golden sun, +Saw his heroical seed, and smil’d to see him, +Mangle the work of nature and deface +The patterns that by God and by French fathers +Had twenty years been made. This is a stem +Of that victorious stock; and let us fear +The native mightiness and fate of him. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +Ambassadors from Harry King of England +Do crave admittance to your Majesty. + +FRENCH KING. +We’ll give them present audience. Go, and bring them. + + [_Exeunt Messenger and certain Lords._] + +You see this chase is hotly follow’d, friends. + +DAUPHIN. +Turn head and stop pursuit; for coward dogs +Most spend their mouths when what they seem to threaten +Runs far before them. Good my sovereign, +Take up the English short, and let them know +Of what a monarchy you are the head. +Self-love, my liege, is not so vile a sin +As self-neglecting. + + Enter Exeter. + +FRENCH KING. +From our brother of England? + +EXETER. +From him; and thus he greets your Majesty: +He wills you, in the name of God Almighty, +That you divest yourself, and lay apart +The borrowed glories that by gift of heaven, +By law of nature and of nations, ’longs +To him and to his heirs; namely, the crown +And all wide-stretched honours that pertain +By custom and the ordinance of times +Unto the crown of France. That you may know +’Tis no sinister nor no awkward claim +Pick’d from the worm-holes of long-vanish’d days, +Nor from the dust of old oblivion rak’d, +He sends you this most memorable line, +In every branch truly demonstrative; +Willing you overlook this pedigree; +And when you find him evenly deriv’d +From his most fam’d of famous ancestors, +Edward the Third, he bids you then resign +Your crown and kingdom, indirectly held +From him, the native and true challenger. + +FRENCH KING. +Or else what follows? + +EXETER. +Bloody constraint; for if you hide the crown +Even in your hearts, there will he rake for it. +Therefore in fierce tempest is he coming, +In thunder and in earthquake, like a Jove, +That, if requiring fail, he will compel; +And bids you, in the bowels of the Lord, +Deliver up the crown, and to take mercy +On the poor souls for whom this hungry war +Opens his vasty jaws; and on your head +Turning the widows’ tears, the orphans’ cries, +The dead men’s blood, the pining maidens’ groans, +For husbands, fathers, and betrothed lovers, +That shall be swallowed in this controversy. +This is his claim, his threat’ning, and my message; +Unless the Dauphin be in presence here, +To whom expressly I bring greeting too. + +FRENCH KING. +For us, we will consider of this further. +Tomorrow shall you bear our full intent +Back to our brother of England. + +DAUPHIN. +For the Dauphin, +I stand here for him. What to him from England? + +EXETER. +Scorn and defiance. Slight regard, contempt, +And anything that may not misbecome +The mighty sender, doth he prize you at. +Thus says my king: an if your father’s Highness +Do not, in grant of all demands at large, +Sweeten the bitter mock you sent his Majesty, +He’ll call you to so hot an answer of it +That caves and womby vaultages of France +Shall chide your trespass and return your mock +In second accent of his ordinance. + +DAUPHIN. +Say, if my father render fair return, +It is against my will; for I desire +Nothing but odds with England. To that end, +As matching to his youth and vanity, +I did present him with the Paris balls. + +EXETER. +He’ll make your Paris Louvre shake for it, +Were it the mistress-court of mighty Europe; +And, be assur’d, you’ll find a difference, +As we his subjects have in wonder found, +Between the promise of his greener days +And these he masters now. Now he weighs time +Even to the utmost grain. That you shall read +In your own losses, if he stay in France. + +FRENCH KING. +Tomorrow shall you know our mind at full. + + [_Flourish._] + +EXETER. +Dispatch us with all speed, lest that our king +Come here himself to question our delay; +For he is footed in this land already. + +FRENCH KING. +You shall be soon dispatch’d with fair conditions. +A night is but small breath and little pause +To answer matters of this consequence. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + + Flourish. Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +Thus with imagin’d wing our swift scene flies, +In motion of no less celerity +Than that of thought. Suppose that you have seen +The well-appointed king at Hampton pier +Embark his royalty, and his brave fleet +With silken streamers the young Phoebus fanning. +Play with your fancies; and in them behold +Upon the hempen tackle ship-boys climbing; +Hear the shrill whistle which doth order give +To sounds confus’d; behold the threaden sails, +Borne with the invisible and creeping wind, +Draw the huge bottoms through the furrow’d sea, +Breasting the lofty surge. O, do but think +You stand upon the rivage and behold +A city on the inconstant billows dancing; +For so appears this fleet majestical, +Holding due course to Harfleur. Follow, follow! +Grapple your minds to sternage of this navy, +And leave your England, as dead midnight still, +Guarded with grandsires, babies, and old women, +Either past or not arriv’d to pith and puissance. +For who is he, whose chin is but enrich’d +With one appearing hair, that will not follow +These cull’d and choice-drawn cavaliers to France? +Work, work your thoughts, and therein see a siege; +Behold the ordnance on their carriages, +With fatal mouths gaping on girded Harfleur. +Suppose the ambassador from the French comes back, +Tells Harry that the King doth offer him +Katharine his daughter, and with her, to dowry, +Some petty and unprofitable dukedoms. +The offer likes not; and the nimble gunner +With linstock now the devilish cannon touches, + + [_Alarum, and chambers go off._] + +And down goes all before them. Still be kind, +And eke out our performance with your mind. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE I. France. Before Harfleur. + + Alarum. Enter King Henry, Exeter, Bedford, Gloucester and Soldiers, + with scaling-ladders. + +KING HENRY. +Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more, +Or close the wall up with our English dead. +In peace there’s nothing so becomes a man +As modest stillness and humility; +But when the blast of war blows in our ears, +Then imitate the action of the tiger; +Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood, +Disguise fair nature with hard-favour’d rage; +Then lend the eye a terrible aspect; +Let it pry through the portage of the head +Like the brass cannon; let the brow o’erwhelm it +As fearfully as does a galled rock +O’erhang and jutty his confounded base, +Swill’d with the wild and wasteful ocean. +Now set the teeth and stretch the nostril wide, +Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit +To his full height. On, on, you noblest English, +Whose blood is fet from fathers of war-proof! +Fathers that, like so many Alexanders, +Have in these parts from morn till even fought, +And sheath’d their swords for lack of argument. +Dishonour not your mothers; now attest +That those whom you call’d fathers did beget you. +Be copy now to men of grosser blood, +And teach them how to war. And you, good yeomen, +Whose limbs were made in England, show us here +The mettle of your pasture; let us swear +That you are worth your breeding, which I doubt not; +For there is none of you so mean and base, +That hath not noble lustre in your eyes. +I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips, +Straining upon the start. The game’s afoot! +Follow your spirit, and upon this charge +Cry, “God for Harry! England and Saint George!” + + [_Exeunt. Alarum, and chambers go off._] + +SCENE II. The same. + + Enter Nym, Bardolph, Pistol and Boy. + +BARDOLPH. +On, on, on, on, on! To the breach, to the breach! + +NYM. +Pray thee, corporal, stay. The knocks are too hot; and, for mine own +part, I have not a case of lives. The humour of it is too hot; that is +the very plain-song of it. + +PISTOL. +The plain-song is most just, for humours do abound. +Knocks go and come; God’s vassals drop and die; + And sword and shield, + In bloody field, + Doth win immortal fame. + +BOY. +Would I were in an alehouse in London! I would give all my fame for a +pot of ale and safety. + +PISTOL. +And I. + If wishes would prevail with me, + My purpose should not fail with me, + But thither would I hie. + +BOY. + As duly, + But not as truly, + As bird doth sing on bough. + + Enter Fluellen. + +FLUELLEN. +Up to the breach, you dogs! Avaunt, you cullions! + + [_Driving them forward._] + +PISTOL. +Be merciful, great Duke, to men of mould. +Abate thy rage, abate thy manly rage, +Abate thy rage, great Duke! +Good bawcock, bate thy rage; use lenity, sweet chuck! + +NYM. +These be good humours! Your honour wins bad humours. + + [_Exeunt all but Boy._] + +BOY. +As young as I am, I have observ’d these three swashers. I am boy to +them all three; but all they three, though they would serve me, could +not be man to me; for indeed three such antics do not amount to a man. +For Bardolph, he is white-liver’d and red-fac’d; by the means whereof +’a faces it out, but fights not. For Pistol, he hath a killing tongue +and a quiet sword; by the means whereof ’a breaks words, and keeps +whole weapons. For Nym, he hath heard that men of few words are the +best men; and therefore he scorns to say his prayers, lest ’a should be +thought a coward. But his few bad words are match’d with as few good +deeds; for ’a never broke any man’s head but his own, and that was +against a post when he was drunk. They will steal anything, and call it +purchase. Bardolph stole a lute-case, bore it twelve leagues, and sold +it for three half-pence. Nym and Bardolph are sworn brothers in +filching, and in Calais they stole a fire-shovel. I knew by that piece +of service the men would carry coals. They would have me as familiar +with men’s pockets as their gloves or their handkerchers; which makes +much against my manhood, if I should take from another’s pocket to put +into mine; for it is plain pocketing up of wrongs. I must leave them, +and seek some better service. Their villainy goes against my weak +stomach, and therefore I must cast it up. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Gower and Fluellen. + +GOWER. +Captain Fluellen, you must come presently to the mines. +The Duke of Gloucester would speak with you. + +FLUELLEN. +To the mines! Tell you the Duke, it is not so good to come to the +mines; for, look you, the mines is not according to the disciplines of +the war. The concavities of it is not sufficient; for, look you, the +athversary, you may discuss unto the Duke, look you, is digt himself +four yard under the countermines. By Cheshu, I think ’a will plow up +all, if there is not better directions. + +GOWER. +The Duke of Gloucester, to whom the order of the siege is given, is +altogether directed by an Irishman, a very valiant gentleman, i’ faith. + +FLUELLEN. +It is Captain Macmorris, is it not? + +GOWER. +I think it be. + +FLUELLEN. +By Cheshu, he is an ass, as in the world. I will verify as much in his +beard. He has no more directions in the true disciplines of the wars, +look you, of the Roman disciplines, than is a puppy-dog. + + Enter Macmorris and Captain Jamy. + +GOWER. +Here ’a comes; and the Scots captain, Captain Jamy, with him. + +FLUELLEN. +Captain Jamy is a marvellous falorous gentleman, that is certain; and +of great expedition and knowledge in the anchient wars, upon my +particular knowledge of his directions. By Cheshu, he will maintain his +argument as well as any military man in the world, in the disciplines +of the pristine wars of the Romans. + +JAMY. +I say gud-day, Captain Fluellen. + +FLUELLEN. +God-den to your worship, good Captain James. + +GOWER. +How now, Captain Macmorris! have you quit the mines? +Have the pioneers given o’er? + +MACMORRIS. +By Chrish, la! ’tish ill done! The work ish give over, the trompet +sound the retreat. By my hand I swear, and my father’s soul, the work +ish ill done; it ish give over. I would have blowed up the town, so +Chrish save me, la! in an hour. O, ’tish ill done, ’tish ill done; by +my hand, ’tish ill done! + +FLUELLEN. +Captain Macmorris, I beseech you now, will you voutsafe me, look you, a +few disputations with you, as partly touching or concerning the +disciplines of the war, the Roman wars, in the way of argument, look +you, and friendly communication; partly to satisfy my opinion, and +partly for the satisfaction, look you, of my mind, as touching the +direction of the military discipline; that is the point. + +JAMY. +It sall be vary gud, gud feith, gud captains bath: and I sall quit you +with gud leve, as I may pick occasion; that sall I, marry. + +MACMORRIS. +It is no time to discourse, so Chrish save me. The day is hot, and the +weather, and the wars, and the King, and the Dukes. It is no time to +discourse. The town is beseech’d, and the trumpet call us to the +breach, and we talk, and, be Chrish, do nothing. ’Tis shame for us all. +So God sa’ me, ’tis shame to stand still; it is shame, by my hand; and +there is throats to be cut, and works to be done; and there ish nothing +done, so Chrish sa’ me, la! + +JAMY. +By the mess, ere theise eyes of mine take themselves to slomber, I’ll +de gud service, or I’ll lig i’ the grund for it; ay, or go to death; +and I’ll pay’t as valorously as I may, that sall I suerly do, that is +the breff and the long. Marry, I wad full fain heard some question +’tween you tway. + +FLUELLEN. +Captain Macmorris, I think, look you, under your correction, there is +not many of your nation— + +MACMORRIS. +Of my nation! What ish my nation? Ish a villain, and a bastard, and a +knave, and a rascal? What ish my nation? Who talks of my nation? + +FLUELLEN. +Look you, if you take the matter otherwise than is meant, Captain +Macmorris, peradventure I shall think you do not use me with that +affability as in discretion you ought to use me, look you, being as +good a man as yourself, both in the disciplines of war, and in the +derivation of my birth, and in other particularities. + +MACMORRIS. +I do not know you so good a man as myself. So Chrish save me, +I will cut off your head. + +GOWER. +Gentlemen both, you will mistake each other. + +JAMY. +Ah! that’s a foul fault. + + [_A parley sounded._] + +GOWER. +The town sounds a parley. + +FLUELLEN. +Captain Macmorris, when there is more better opportunity to be +required, look you, I will be so bold as to tell you I know the +disciplines of war; and there is an end. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Before the gates. + + The Governor and some citizens on the walls; the English forces below. + Enter King Henry and his train. + +KING HENRY. +How yet resolves the governor of the town? +This is the latest parle we will admit; +Therefore to our best mercy give yourselves, +Or like to men proud of destruction +Defy us to our worst; for, as I am a soldier, +A name that in my thoughts becomes me best, +If I begin the battery once again, +I will not leave the half-achieved Harfleur +Till in her ashes she lie buried. +The gates of mercy shall be all shut up, +And the flesh’d soldier, rough and hard of heart, +In liberty of bloody hand shall range +With conscience wide as hell, mowing like grass +Your fresh fair virgins and your flow’ring infants. +What is it then to me, if impious War, +Array’d in flames like to the prince of fiends, +Do with his smirch’d complexion all fell feats +Enlink’d to waste and desolation? +What is’t to me, when you yourselves are cause, +If your pure maidens fall into the hand +Of hot and forcing violation? +What rein can hold licentious wickedness +When down the hill he holds his fierce career? +We may as bootless spend our vain command +Upon the enraged soldiers in their spoil +As send precepts to the leviathan +To come ashore. Therefore, you men of Harfleur, +Take pity of your town and of your people, +Whiles yet my soldiers are in my command, +Whiles yet the cool and temperate wind of grace +O’erblows the filthy and contagious clouds +Of heady murder, spoil, and villainy. +If not, why, in a moment look to see +The blind and bloody soldier with foul hand +Defile the locks of your shrill-shrieking daughters; +Your fathers taken by the silver beards, +And their most reverend heads dash’d to the walls; +Your naked infants spitted upon pikes, +Whiles the mad mothers with their howls confus’d +Do break the clouds, as did the wives of Jewry +At Herod’s bloody-hunting slaughtermen. +What say you? Will you yield, and this avoid, +Or, guilty in defence, be thus destroy’d? + +GOVERNOR. +Our expectation hath this day an end. +The Dauphin, whom of succours we entreated, +Returns us that his powers are yet not ready +To raise so great a siege. Therefore, great King, +We yield our town and lives to thy soft mercy. +Enter our gates; dispose of us and ours; +For we no longer are defensible. + +KING HENRY. +Open your gates. Come, uncle Exeter, +Go you and enter Harfleur; there remain, +And fortify it strongly ’gainst the French. +Use mercy to them all. For us, dear uncle, +The winter coming on, and sickness growing +Upon our soldiers, we will retire to Calais. +Tonight in Harfleur will we be your guest; +Tomorrow for the march are we addrest. + + Flourish. The King and his train enter the town. + +SCENE IV. The French King’s palace. + + Enter Katharine and Alice, an old Gentlewoman. + +KATHARINE. +_Alice, tu as été en Angleterre, et tu parles bien le langage._ + +ALICE. +_Un peu, madame._ + +KATHARINE. +_Je te prie, m’enseignez; il faut que j’apprenne à parler. +Comment appelez-vous la main en anglais?_ + +ALICE. +_La main? Elle est appelée_ de hand. + +KATHARINE. +De hand. _Et les doigts?_ + +ALICE. +_Les doigts? Ma foi, j’oublie les doigts; mais je me souviendrai. Les +doigts? Je pense qu’ils sont appelés_ de fingres; _oui_, de fingres. + +KATHARINE. +_La main_, de hand; _les doigts_, de fingres. _Je pense que je suis le +bon écolier; j’ai gagné deux mots d’anglais vitement. Comment +appelez-vous les ongles?_ + +ALICE. +_Les ongles? Nous les appelons_ de nails. + +KATHARINE. +De nails. _Écoutez; dites-moi, si je parle bien:_ de hand, de fingres, +_et_ de nails. + +ALICE. +_C’est bien dit, madame; il est fort bon anglais._ + +KATHARINE. +_Dites-moi l’anglais pour le bras._ + +ALICE. +De arm, _madame._ + +KATHARINE. +_Et le coude?_ + +ALICE. +D’elbow. + +KATHARINE. +D’elbow. _Je m’en fais la répétition de tous les mots que vous m’avez +appris dès à présent._ + +ALICE. +_Il est trop difficile, madame, comme je pense._ + +KATHARINE. +_Excusez-moi, Alice. Écoutez:_ d’hand, de fingres, de nails, d’arm, de +bilbow. + +ALICE. +D’elbow, _madame._ + +KATHARINE. +_O Seigneur Dieu, je m’en oublie!_ D’elbow. +_Comment appelez-vous le col?_ + +ALICE. +De nick, _madame._ + +KATHARINE. +De nick. _Et le menton?_ + +ALICE. +De chin. + +KATHARINE. +De sin. _Le col_, de nick; _le menton_, de sin. + +ALICE. +_Oui. Sauf votre honneur, en vérité, vous prononcez les mots aussi +droit que les natifs d’Angleterre._ + +KATHARINE. +_Je ne doute point d’apprendre, par la grâce de Dieu, et en peu de +temps._ + +ALICE. +_N’avez-vous pas déjà oublié ce que je vous ai enseigné?_ + +KATHARINE. +_Non, je réciterai à vous promptement:_ d’hand, de fingres, de mails,— + +ALICE. +De nails, _madame._ + +KATHARINE. +De nails, de arm, de ilbow. + +ALICE. +_Sauf votre honneur_, de elbow. + +KATHARINE. +_Ainsi dis-je_, d’elbow, de nick, _et_ de sin. _Comment appelez-vous le +pied et la robe?_ + +ALICE. +De foot, _madame; et_ de coun. + +KATHARINE. +De foot _et_ de coun! _O Seigneur Dieu! ils sont les mots de son +mauvais, corruptible, gros, et impudique, et non pour les dames +d’honneur d’user. Je ne voudrais prononcer ces mots devant les +seigneurs de France pour tout le monde. Foh!_ le foot _et_ le coun! +_Néanmoins, je réciterai une autre fois ma leçon ensemble:_ d’hand, de +fingres, de nails, d’arm, d’elbow, de nick, de sin, de foot, de coun. + +ALICE. +_Excellent, madame!_ + +KATHARINE. +_C’est assez pour une fois. Allons-nous à dîner._ + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. The same. + + Enter the King of France, the Dauphin, the Duke of Bourbon, the + Constable of France and others. + +FRENCH KING. +’Tis certain he hath pass’d the river Somme. + +CONSTABLE. +And if he be not fought withal, my lord, +Let us not live in France; let us quit all +And give our vineyards to a barbarous people. + +DAUPHIN. +_O Dieu vivant_! shall a few sprays of us, +The emptying of our fathers’ luxury, +Our scions put in wild and savage stock, +Spirt up so suddenly into the clouds, +And overlook their grafters? + +BOURBON. +Normans, but bastard Normans, Norman bastards! +_Mort de ma vie_, if they march along +Unfought withal, but I will sell my dukedom, +To buy a slobbery and a dirty farm +In that nook-shotten isle of Albion. + +CONSTABLE. +_Dieu de batailles_, where have they this mettle? +Is not their climate foggy, raw, and dull, +On whom, as in despite, the sun looks pale, +Killing their fruit with frowns? Can sodden water, +A drench for sur-rein’d jades, their barley-broth, +Decoct their cold blood to such valiant heat? +And shall our quick blood, spirited with wine, +Seem frosty? O, for honour of our land, +Let us not hang like roping icicles +Upon our houses’ thatch, whiles a more frosty people +Sweat drops of gallant youth in our rich fields! +Poor we may call them in their native lords. + +DAUPHIN. +By faith and honour, +Our madams mock at us, and plainly say +Our mettle is bred out, and they will give +Their bodies to the lust of English youth +To new-store France with bastard warriors. + +BOURBON. +They bid us to the English dancing-schools, +And teach lavoltas high, and swift corantos; +Saying our grace is only in our heels, +And that we are most lofty runaways. + +FRENCH KING. +Where is Montjoy the herald? Speed him hence. +Let him greet England with our sharp defiance. +Up, princes! and, with spirit of honour edged +More sharper than your swords, hie to the field! +Charles Delabreth, High Constable of France; +You Dukes of Orleans, Bourbon, and of Berry, +Alençon, Brabant, Bar, and Burgundy; +Jacques Chatillon, Rambures, Vaudemont, +Beaumont, Grandpré, Roussi, and Fauconbridge, +Foix, Lestrale, Boucicault, and Charolois; +High dukes, great princes, barons, lords, and knights, +For your great seats now quit you of great shames. +Bar Harry England, that sweeps through our land +With pennons painted in the blood of Harfleur. +Rush on his host, as doth the melted snow +Upon the valleys, whose low vassal seat +The Alps doth spit and void his rheum upon. +Go down upon him, you have power enough, +And in a captive chariot into Rouen +Bring him our prisoner. + +CONSTABLE. +This becomes the great. +Sorry am I his numbers are so few, +His soldiers sick and famish’d in their march; +For I am sure, when he shall see our army, +He’ll drop his heart into the sink of fear +And for achievement offer us his ransom. + +FRENCH KING. +Therefore, Lord Constable, haste on Montjoy, +And let him say to England that we send +To know what willing ransom he will give. +Prince Dauphin, you shall stay with us in Rouen. + +DAUPHIN. +Not so, I do beseech your Majesty. + +FRENCH KING. +Be patient, for you shall remain with us. +Now forth, Lord Constable and princes all, +And quickly bring us word of England’s fall. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. The English camp in Picardy. + + Enter Gower and Fluellen, meeting. + +GOWER. +How now, Captain Fluellen! come you from the bridge? + +FLUELLEN. +I assure you, there is very excellent services committed at the bridge. + +GOWER. +Is the Duke of Exeter safe? + +FLUELLEN. +The Duke of Exeter is as magnanimous as Agamemnon; and a man that I +love and honour with my soul, and my heart, and my duty, and my life, +and my living, and my uttermost power. He is not—God be praised and +blessed!—any hurt in the world; but keeps the bridge most valiantly, +with excellent discipline. There is an anchient lieutenant there at the +pridge, I think in my very conscience he is as valiant a man as Mark +Antony; and he is a man of no estimation in the world, but I did see +him do as gallant service. + +GOWER. +What do you call him? + +FLUELLEN. +He is call’d Anchient Pistol. + +GOWER. +I know him not. + + Enter Pistol. + +FLUELLEN. +Here is the man. + +PISTOL. +Captain, I thee beseech to do me favours. +The Duke of Exeter doth love thee well. + +FLUELLEN. +Ay, I praise God; and I have merited some love at his hands. + +PISTOL. +Bardolph, a soldier, firm and sound of heart, +And of buxom valour, hath by cruel fate +And giddy Fortune’s furious fickle wheel, +That goddess blind, +That stands upon the rolling restless stone— + +FLUELLEN. +By your patience, Anchient Pistol. Fortune is painted blind, with a +muffler afore his eyes, to signify to you that Fortune is blind; and +she is painted also with a wheel, to signify to you, which is the moral +of it, that she is turning, and inconstant, and mutability, and +variation; and her foot, look you, is fixed upon a spherical stone, +which rolls, and rolls, and rolls. In good truth, the poet makes a most +excellent description of it. Fortune is an excellent moral. + +PISTOL. +Fortune is Bardolph’s foe, and frowns on him; +For he hath stolen a pax, and hanged must ’a be,— +A damned death! +Let gallows gape for dog; let man go free, +And let not hemp his windpipe suffocate. +But Exeter hath given the doom of death +For pax of little price. +Therefore, go speak; the Duke will hear thy voice; +And let not Bardolph’s vital thread be cut +With edge of penny cord and vile reproach. +Speak, captain, for his life, and I will thee requite. + +FLUELLEN. +Anchient Pistol, I do partly understand your meaning. + +PISTOL. +Why then, rejoice therefore. + +FLUELLEN. +Certainly, anchient, it is not a thing to rejoice at; for if, look you, +he were my brother, I would desire the Duke to use his good pleasure, +and put him to execution; for discipline ought to be used. + +PISTOL. +Die and be damn’d! and _fico_ for thy friendship! + +FLUELLEN. +It is well. + +PISTOL. +The fig of Spain. + + [_Exit._] + +FLUELLEN. +Very good. + +GOWER. +Why, this is an arrant counterfeit rascal. I remember him now; a bawd, +a cutpurse. + +FLUELLEN. +I’ll assure you, ’a uttered as prave words at the pridge as you shall +see in a summer’s day. But it is very well; what he has spoke to me, +that is well, I warrant you, when time is serve. + +GOWER. +Why, ’t is a gull, a fool, a rogue, that now and then goes to the wars, +to grace himself at his return into London under the form of a soldier. +And such fellows are perfect in the great commanders’ names; and they +will learn you by rote where services were done; at such and such a +sconce, at such a breach, at such a convoy; who came off bravely, who +was shot, who disgrac’d, what terms the enemy stood on; and this they +con perfectly in the phrase of war, which they trick up with new-tuned +oaths: and what a beard of the general’s cut and a horrid suit of the +camp will do among foaming bottles and ale-wash’d wits, is wonderful to +be thought on. But you must learn to know such slanders of the age, or +else you may be marvellously mistook. + +FLUELLEN. +I tell you what, Captain Gower; I do perceive he is not the man that he +would gladly make show to the world he is. If I find a hole in his +coat, I will tell him my mind. [_Drum heard._] Hark you, the King is +coming, and I must speak with him from the pridge. + + Drum and colours. Enter King Henry, Gloucester and his poor soldiers. + +God bless your Majesty! + +KING HENRY. +How now, Fluellen! cam’st thou from the bridge? + +FLUELLEN. +Ay, so please your Majesty. The Duke of Exeter has very gallantly +maintain’d the pridge. The French is gone off, look you; and there is +gallant and most prave passages. Marry, th’ athversary was have +possession of the pridge; but he is enforced to retire, and the Duke of +Exeter is master of the pridge. I can tell your Majesty, the Duke is a +prave man. + +KING HENRY. +What men have you lost, Fluellen? + +FLUELLEN. +The perdition of the athversary hath been very great, reasonable great. +Marry, for my part, I think the Duke hath lost never a man, but one +that is like to be executed for robbing a church, one Bardolph, if your +Majesty know the man. His face is all bubukles, and whelks, and knobs, +and flames o’ fire; and his lips blows at his nose, and it is like a +coal of fire, sometimes plue and sometimes red; but his nose is +executed, and his fire’s out. + +KING HENRY. +We would have all such offenders so cut off; and we give express +charge, that in our marches through the country, there be nothing +compell’d from the villages, nothing taken but paid for, none of the +French upbraided or abused in disdainful language; for when lenity and +cruelty play for a kingdom, the gentler gamester is the soonest winner. + + Tucket. Enter Montjoy. + +MONTJOY. +You know me by my habit. + +KING HENRY. +Well then I know thee. What shall I know of thee? + +MONTJOY. +My master’s mind. + +KING HENRY. +Unfold it. + +MONTJOY. +Thus says my King: Say thou to Harry of England: Though we seem’d dead, +we did but sleep; advantage is a better soldier than rashness. Tell him +we could have rebuk’d him at Harfleur, but that we thought not good to +bruise an injury till it were full ripe. Now we speak upon our cue, and +our voice is imperial. England shall repent his folly, see his +weakness, and admire our sufferance. Bid him therefore consider of his +ransom; which must proportion the losses we have borne, the subjects we +have lost, the disgrace we have digested; which in weight to re-answer, +his pettishness would bow under. For our losses, his exchequer is too +poor; for the effusion of our blood, the muster of his kingdom too +faint a number; and for our disgrace, his own person, kneeling at our +feet, but a weak and worthless satisfaction. To this add defiance; and +tell him, for conclusion, he hath betrayed his followers, whose +condemnation is pronounc’d. So far my King and master; so much my +office. + +KING HENRY. +What is thy name? I know thy quality. + +MONTJOY. +Montjoy. + +KING HENRY. +Thou dost thy office fairly. Turn thee back, +And tell thy King I do not seek him now, +But could be willing to march on to Calais +Without impeachment; for, to say the sooth, +Though ’tis no wisdom to confess so much +Unto an enemy of craft and vantage, +My people are with sickness much enfeebled, +My numbers lessen’d, and those few I have +Almost no better than so many French; +Who when they were in health, I tell thee, herald, +I thought upon one pair of English legs +Did march three Frenchmen. Yet, forgive me, God, +That I do brag thus! This your air of France +Hath blown that vice in me. I must repent. +Go therefore, tell thy master here I am; +My ransom is this frail and worthless trunk, +My army but a weak and sickly guard; +Yet, God before, tell him we will come on, +Though France himself and such another neighbour +Stand in our way. There’s for thy labour, Montjoy. +Go, bid thy master well advise himself. +If we may pass, we will; if we be hind’red, +We shall your tawny ground with your red blood +Discolour; and so, Montjoy, fare you well. +The sum of all our answer is but this: +We would not seek a battle, as we are; +Nor, as we are, we say we will not shun it. +So tell your master. + +MONTJOY. +I shall deliver so. Thanks to your Highness. + + [_Exit._] + +GLOUCESTER. +I hope they will not come upon us now. + +KING HENRY. +We are in God’s hands, brother, not in theirs. +March to the bridge; it now draws toward night. +Beyond the river we’ll encamp ourselves, +And on tomorrow bid them march away. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. The French camp, near Agincourt. + + Enter the Constable of France, the Lord Rambures, Orleans, Dauphin + with others. + +CONSTABLE. +Tut! I have the best armour of the world. +Would it were day! + +ORLEANS. +You have an excellent armour; but let my horse have his due. + +CONSTABLE. +It is the best horse of Europe. + +ORLEANS. +Will it never be morning? + +DAUPHIN. +My Lord of Orleans, and my Lord High Constable, you talk of horse and +armour? + +ORLEANS. +You are as well provided of both as any prince in the world. + +DAUPHIN. +What a long night is this! I will not change my horse with any that +treads but on four pasterns. Ch’ha! He bounds from the earth, as if his +entrails were hairs; _le cheval volant_, the Pegasus, _qui a les +narines de feu!_ When I bestride him, I soar, I am a hawk. He trots the +air; the earth sings when he touches it; the basest horn of his hoof is +more musical than the pipe of Hermes. + +ORLEANS. +He’s of the colour of the nutmeg. + +DAUPHIN. +And of the heat of the ginger. It is a beast for Perseus. He is pure +air and fire; and the dull elements of earth and water never appear in +him, but only in patient stillness while his rider mounts him. He is +indeed a horse, and all other jades you may call beasts. + +CONSTABLE. +Indeed, my lord, it is a most absolute and excellent horse. + +DAUPHIN. +It is the prince of palfreys; his neigh is like the bidding of a +monarch, and his countenance enforces homage. + +ORLEANS. +No more, cousin. + +DAUPHIN. +Nay, the man hath no wit that cannot, from the rising of the lark to +the lodging of the lamb, vary deserved praise on my palfrey. It is a +theme as fluent as the sea; turn the sands into eloquent tongues, and +my horse is argument for them all. ’Tis a subject for a sovereign to +reason on, and for a sovereign’s sovereign to ride on; and for the +world, familiar to us and unknown, to lay apart their particular +functions and wonder at him. I once writ a sonnet in his praise and +began thus: “Wonder of nature,”— + +ORLEANS. +I have heard a sonnet begin so to one’s mistress. + +DAUPHIN. +Then did they imitate that which I compos’d to my courser, for my horse +is my mistress. + +ORLEANS. +Your mistress bears well. + +DAUPHIN. +Me well; which is the prescript praise and perfection of a good and +particular mistress. + +CONSTABLE. +Nay, for methought yesterday your mistress shrewdly shook your back. + +DAUPHIN. +So perhaps did yours. + +CONSTABLE. +Mine was not bridled. + +DAUPHIN. +O then belike she was old and gentle; and you rode, like a kern of +Ireland, your French hose off, and in your strait strossers. + +CONSTABLE. +You have good judgment in horsemanship. + +DAUPHIN. +Be warn’d by me, then; they that ride so and ride not warily, fall into +foul bogs. I had rather have my horse to my mistress. + +CONSTABLE. +I had as lief have my mistress a jade. + +DAUPHIN. +I tell thee, Constable, my mistress wears his own hair. + +CONSTABLE. +I could make as true a boast as that, if I had a sow to my mistress. + +DAUPHIN. +“_Le chien est retourné à son propre vomissement, et la truie lavée au +bourbier_.” Thou mak’st use of anything. + +CONSTABLE. +Yet do I not use my horse for my mistress, or any such proverb so +little kin to the purpose. + +RAMBURES. +My Lord Constable, the armour that I saw in your tent tonight, are +those stars or suns upon it? + +CONSTABLE. +Stars, my lord. + +DAUPHIN. +Some of them will fall tomorrow, I hope. + +CONSTABLE. +And yet my sky shall not want. + +DAUPHIN. +That may be, for you bear a many superfluously, and ’twere more honour +some were away. + +CONSTABLE. +Even as your horse bears your praises; who would trot as well, were +some of your brags dismounted. + +DAUPHIN. +Would I were able to load him with his desert! Will it never be day? I +will trot tomorrow a mile, and my way shall be paved with English +faces. + +CONSTABLE. +I will not say so, for fear I should be fac’d out of my way. But I +would it were morning; for I would fain be about the ears of the +English. + +RAMBURES. +Who will go to hazard with me for twenty prisoners? + +CONSTABLE. +You must first go yourself to hazard, ere you have them. + +DAUPHIN. +’Tis midnight; I’ll go arm myself. + + [_Exit._] + +ORLEANS. +The Dauphin longs for morning. + +RAMBURES. +He longs to eat the English. + +CONSTABLE. +I think he will eat all he kills. + +ORLEANS. +By the white hand of my lady, he’s a gallant prince. + +CONSTABLE. +Swear by her foot that she may tread out the oath. + +ORLEANS. +He is simply the most active gentleman of France. + +CONSTABLE. +Doing is activity; and he will still be doing. + +ORLEANS. +He never did harm, that I heard of. + +CONSTABLE. +Nor will do none tomorrow. He will keep that good name still. + +ORLEANS. +I know him to be valiant. + +CONSTABLE. +I was told that by one that knows him better than you. + +ORLEANS. +What’s he? + +CONSTABLE. +Marry, he told me so himself; and he said he car’d not who knew it. + +ORLEANS. +He needs not; it is no hidden virtue in him. + +CONSTABLE. +By my faith, sir, but it is; never anybody saw it but his lackey. ’Tis +a hooded valour; and when it appears, it will bate. + +ORLEANS. +“Ill will never said well.” + +CONSTABLE. +I will cap that proverb with “There is flattery in friendship.” + +ORLEANS. +And I will take up that with “Give the devil his due.” + +CONSTABLE. +Well plac’d. There stands your friend for the devil; have at the very +eye of that proverb with “A pox of the devil.” + +ORLEANS. +You are the better at proverbs, by how much “A fool’s bolt is soon +shot.” + +CONSTABLE. +You have shot over. + +ORLEANS. +’Tis not the first time you were overshot. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +My Lord High Constable, the English lie within fifteen hundred paces of +your tents. + +CONSTABLE. +Who hath measur’d the ground? + +MESSENGER. +The Lord Grandpré. + +CONSTABLE. +A valiant and most expert gentleman. Would it were day! Alas, poor +Harry of England, he longs not for the dawning as we do. + +ORLEANS. +What a wretched and peevish fellow is this King of England, to mope +with his fat-brain’d followers so far out of his knowledge! + +CONSTABLE. +If the English had any apprehension, they would run away. + +ORLEANS. +That they lack; for if their heads had any intellectual armour, they +could never wear such heavy head-pieces. + +RAMBURES. +That island of England breeds very valiant creatures. Their mastiffs +are of unmatchable courage. + +ORLEANS. +Foolish curs, that run winking into the mouth of a Russian bear and +have their heads crush’d like rotten apples! You may as well say, +that’s a valiant flea that dare eat his breakfast on the lip of a lion. + +CONSTABLE. +Just, just; and the men do sympathize with the mastiffs in robustious +and rough coming on, leaving their wits with their wives; and then, +give them great meals of beef and iron and steel, they will eat like +wolves and fight like devils. + +ORLEANS. +Ay, but these English are shrewdly out of beef. + +CONSTABLE. +Then shall we find tomorrow they have only stomachs to eat and none to +fight. Now is it time to arm. Come, shall we about it? + +ORLEANS. +It is now two o’clock; but, let me see, by ten +We shall have each a hundred Englishmen. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + + Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +Now entertain conjecture of a time +When creeping murmur and the poring dark +Fills the wide vessel of the universe. +From camp to camp through the foul womb of night +The hum of either army stilly sounds, +That the fix’d sentinels almost receive +The secret whispers of each other’s watch; +Fire answers fire, and through their paly flames +Each battle sees the other’s umber’d face; +Steed threatens steed, in high and boastful neighs +Piercing the night’s dull ear; and from the tents +The armourers, accomplishing the knights, +With busy hammers closing rivets up, +Give dreadful note of preparation. +The country cocks do crow, the clocks do toll, +And the third hour of drowsy morning name. +Proud of their numbers and secure in soul, +The confident and over-lusty French +Do the low-rated English play at dice; +And chide the cripple tardy-gaited Night +Who, like a foul and ugly witch, doth limp +So tediously away. The poor condemned English, +Like sacrifices, by their watchful fires +Sit patiently and inly ruminate +The morning’s danger; and their gesture sad, +Investing lank-lean cheeks and war-worn coats, +Presented them unto the gazing moon +So many horrid ghosts. O now, who will behold +The royal captain of this ruin’d band +Walking from watch to watch, from tent to tent, +Let him cry, “Praise and glory on his head!” +For forth he goes and visits all his host, +Bids them good morrow with a modest smile, +And calls them brothers, friends, and countrymen. +Upon his royal face there is no note +How dread an army hath enrounded him; +Nor doth he dedicate one jot of colour +Unto the weary and all-watched night, +But freshly looks, and over-bears attaint +With cheerful semblance and sweet majesty; +That every wretch, pining and pale before, +Beholding him, plucks comfort from his looks. +A largess universal like the sun +His liberal eye doth give to everyone, +Thawing cold fear, that mean and gentle all +Behold, as may unworthiness define, +A little touch of Harry in the night. +And so our scene must to the battle fly, +Where—O for pity!—we shall much disgrace +With four or five most vile and ragged foils, +Right ill-dispos’d in brawl ridiculous, +The name of Agincourt. Yet sit and see, +Minding true things by what their mock’ries be. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE I. The English camp at Agincourt. + + Enter King Henry, Bedford and Gloucester. + +KING HENRY. +Gloucester, ’tis true that we are in great danger; +The greater therefore should our courage be. +Good morrow, brother Bedford. God Almighty! +There is some soul of goodness in things evil, +Would men observingly distil it out; +For our bad neighbour makes us early stirrers, +Which is both healthful and good husbandry. +Besides, they are our outward consciences, +And preachers to us all, admonishing +That we should dress us fairly for our end. +Thus may we gather honey from the weed, +And make a moral of the devil himself. + + Enter Erpingham. + +Good morrow, old Sir Thomas Erpingham: +A good soft pillow for that good white head +Were better than a churlish turf of France. + +ERPINGHAM. +Not so, my liege; this lodging likes me better, +Since I may say, “Now lie I like a king.” + +KING HENRY. +’Tis good for men to love their present pains +Upon example; so the spirit is eased; +And when the mind is quick’ned, out of doubt, +The organs, though defunct and dead before, +Break up their drowsy grave and newly move, +With casted slough and fresh legerity. +Lend me thy cloak, Sir Thomas. Brothers both, +Commend me to the princes in our camp; +Do my good morrow to them, and anon +Desire them all to my pavilion. + +GLOUCESTER. +We shall, my liege. + +ERPINGHAM. +Shall I attend your Grace? + +KING HENRY. +No, my good knight; +Go with my brothers to my lords of England. +I and my bosom must debate a while, +And then I would no other company. + +ERPINGHAM. +The Lord in heaven bless thee, noble Harry! + + [_Exeunt all but King._] + +KING HENRY. +God-a-mercy, old heart! thou speak’st cheerfully. + + Enter Pistol. + +PISTOL. +_Qui vous là?_ + +KING HENRY. +A friend. + +PISTOL. +Discuss unto me; art thou officer? +Or art thou base, common, and popular? + +KING HENRY. +I am a gentleman of a company. + +PISTOL. +Trail’st thou the puissant pike? + +KING HENRY. +Even so. What are you? + +PISTOL. +As good a gentleman as the Emperor. + +KING HENRY. +Then you are a better than the King. + +PISTOL. +The King’s a bawcock, and a heart of gold, +A lad of life, an imp of fame; +Of parents good, of fist most valiant. +I kiss his dirty shoe, and from heart-string +I love the lovely bully. What is thy name? + +KING HENRY. +Harry le Roy. + +PISTOL. +Le Roy! a Cornish name. Art thou of Cornish crew? + +KING HENRY. +No, I am a Welshman. + +PISTOL. +Know’st thou Fluellen? + +KING HENRY. +Yes. + +PISTOL. +Tell him I’ll knock his leek about his pate +Upon Saint Davy’s day. + +KING HENRY. +Do not you wear your dagger in your cap that day, lest he knock that +about yours. + +PISTOL. +Art thou his friend? + +KING HENRY. +And his kinsman too. + +PISTOL. +The _fico_ for thee, then! + +KING HENRY. +I thank you. God be with you! + +PISTOL. +My name is Pistol call’d. + + [_Exit._] + +KING HENRY. +It sorts well with your fierceness. + + Enter Fluellen and Gower. + +GOWER. +Captain Fluellen! + +FLUELLEN. +So! in the name of Jesu Christ, speak lower. It is the greatest +admiration in the universal world, when the true and anchient +prerogatifes and laws of the wars is not kept. If you would take the +pains but to examine the wars of Pompey the Great, you shall find, I +warrant you, that there is no tiddle taddle nor pibble pabble in +Pompey’s camp. I warrant you, you shall find the ceremonies of the +wars, and the cares of it, and the forms of it, and the sobriety of it, +and the modesty of it, to be otherwise. + +GOWER. +Why, the enemy is loud; you hear him all night. + +FLUELLEN. +If the enemy is an ass and a fool and a prating coxcomb, is it meet, +think you, that we should also, look you, be an ass and a fool and a +prating coxcomb? In your own conscience, now? + +GOWER. +I will speak lower. + +FLUELLEN. +I pray you and beseech you that you will. + + [_Exeunt Gower and Fluellen._] + +KING HENRY. +Though it appear a little out of fashion, +There is much care and valour in this Welshman. + + Enter three soldiers, John Bates, Alexander Court and Michael + Williams. + +COURT. +Brother John Bates, is not that the morning which breaks yonder? + +BATES. +I think it be; but we have no great cause to desire the approach of +day. + +WILLIAMS. +We see yonder the beginning of the day, but I think we shall never see +the end of it. Who goes there? + +KING HENRY. +A friend. + +WILLIAMS. +Under what captain serve you? + +KING HENRY. +Under Sir Thomas Erpingham. + +WILLIAMS. +A good old commander and a most kind gentleman. I pray you, what thinks +he of our estate? + +KING HENRY. +Even as men wreck’d upon a sand, that look to be wash’d off the next +tide. + +BATES. +He hath not told his thought to the King? + +KING HENRY. +No; nor it is not meet he should. For though I speak it to you, I think +the King is but a man as I am. The violet smells to him as it doth to +me; the element shows to him as it doth to me; all his senses have but +human conditions. His ceremonies laid by, in his nakedness he appears +but a man; and though his affections are higher mounted than ours, yet, +when they stoop, they stoop with the like wing. Therefore, when he sees +reason of fears as we do, his fears, out of doubt, be of the same +relish as ours are; yet, in reason, no man should possess him with any +appearance of fear, lest he, by showing it, should dishearten his army. + +BATES. +He may show what outward courage he will; but I believe, as cold a +night as ’tis, he could wish himself in Thames up to the neck; and so I +would he were, and I by him, at all adventures, so we were quit here. + +KING HENRY. +By my troth, I will speak my conscience of the King: I think he would +not wish himself anywhere but where he is. + +BATES. +Then I would he were here alone; so should he be sure to be ransomed, +and a many poor men’s lives saved. + +KING HENRY. +I dare say you love him not so ill, to wish him here alone, howsoever +you speak this to feel other men’s minds. Methinks I could not die +anywhere so contented as in the King’s company, his cause being just +and his quarrel honourable. + +WILLIAMS. +That’s more than we know. + +BATES. +Ay, or more than we should seek after; for we know enough, if we know +we are the King’s subjects. If his cause be wrong, our obedience to the +King wipes the crime of it out of us. + +WILLIAMS. +But if the cause be not good, the King himself hath a heavy reckoning +to make, when all those legs and arms and heads, chopp’d off in a +battle, shall join together at the latter day and cry all, “We died at +such a place”; some swearing, some crying for a surgeon, some upon +their wives left poor behind them, some upon the debts they owe, some +upon their children rawly left. I am afeard there are few die well that +die in a battle; for how can they charitably dispose of anything, when +blood is their argument? Now, if these men do not die well, it will be +a black matter for the King that led them to it; who to disobey were +against all proportion of subjection. + +KING HENRY. +So, if a son that is by his father sent about merchandise do sinfully +miscarry upon the sea, the imputation of his wickedness, by your rule, +should be imposed upon his father that sent him; or if a servant, under +his master’s command transporting a sum of money, be assailed by +robbers and die in many irreconcil’d iniquities, you may call the +business of the master the author of the servant’s damnation. But this +is not so. The King is not bound to answer the particular endings of +his soldiers, the father of his son, nor the master of his servant; for +they purpose not their death, when they purpose their services. +Besides, there is no king, be his cause never so spotless, if it come +to the arbitrement of swords, can try it out with all unspotted +soldiers. Some peradventure have on them the guilt of premeditated and +contrived murder; some, of beguiling virgins with the broken seals of +perjury; some, making the wars their bulwark, that have before gored +the gentle bosom of Peace with pillage and robbery. Now, if these men +have defeated the law and outrun native punishment, though they can +outstrip men, they have no wings to fly from God. War is his beadle, +war is his vengeance; so that here men are punish’d for before-breach +of the King’s laws in now the King’s quarrel. Where they feared the +death, they have borne life away; and where they would be safe, they +perish. Then if they die unprovided, no more is the King guilty of +their damnation than he was before guilty of those impieties for the +which they are now visited. Every subject’s duty is the King’s; but +every subject’s soul is his own. Therefore should every soldier in the +wars do as every sick man in his bed, wash every mote out of his +conscience; and dying so, death is to him advantage; or not dying, the +time was blessedly lost wherein such preparation was gained; and in him +that escapes, it were not sin to think that, making God so free an +offer, He let him outlive that day to see His greatness and to teach +others how they should prepare. + +WILLIAMS. +’Tis certain, every man that dies ill, the ill upon his own head, the +King is not to answer for it. + +BATES. +I do not desire he should answer for me; and yet I determine to fight +lustily for him. + +KING HENRY. +I myself heard the King say he would not be ransom’d. + +WILLIAMS. +Ay, he said so, to make us fight cheerfully; but when our throats are +cut, he may be ransom’d, and we ne’er the wiser. + +KING HENRY. +If I live to see it, I will never trust his word after. + +WILLIAMS. +You pay him then. That’s a perilous shot out of an elder-gun, that a +poor and a private displeasure can do against a monarch! You may as +well go about to turn the sun to ice with fanning in his face with a +peacock’s feather. You’ll never trust his word after! Come, ’tis a +foolish saying. + +KING HENRY. +Your reproof is something too round. I should be angry with you, if the +time were convenient. + +WILLIAMS. +Let it be a quarrel between us if you live. + +KING HENRY. +I embrace it. + +WILLIAMS. +How shall I know thee again? + +KING HENRY. +Give me any gage of thine, and I will wear it in my bonnet; then, if +ever thou dar’st acknowledge it, I will make it my quarrel. + +WILLIAMS. +Here’s my glove; give me another of thine. + +KING HENRY. +There. + +WILLIAMS. +This will I also wear in my cap. If ever thou come to me and say, after +tomorrow, “This is my glove,” by this hand I will take thee a box on +the ear. + +KING HENRY. +If ever I live to see it, I will challenge it. + +WILLIAMS. +Thou dar’st as well be hang’d. + +KING HENRY. +Well, I will do it, though I take thee in the King’s company. + +WILLIAMS. +Keep thy word; fare thee well. + +BATES. +Be friends, you English fools, be friends. We have French quarrels +enough, if you could tell how to reckon. + +KING HENRY. +Indeed, the French may lay twenty French crowns to one they will beat +us, for they bear them on their shoulders; but it is no English treason +to cut French crowns, and tomorrow the King himself will be a clipper. + + [_Exeunt soldiers._] + + Upon the King! Let us our lives, our souls, +Our debts, our careful wives, +Our children, and our sins lay on the King! +We must bear all. O hard condition, +Twin-born with greatness, subject to the breath +Of every fool, whose sense no more can feel +But his own wringing! What infinite heart’s ease +Must kings neglect, that private men enjoy! +And what have kings, that privates have not too, +Save ceremony, save general ceremony? +And what art thou, thou idol Ceremony? +What kind of god art thou, that suffer’st more +Of mortal griefs than do thy worshippers? +What are thy rents? What are thy comings in? +O Ceremony, show me but thy worth! +What is thy soul of adoration? +Art thou aught else but place, degree, and form, +Creating awe and fear in other men? +Wherein thou art less happy being fear’d +Than they in fearing. +What drink’st thou oft, instead of homage sweet, +But poison’d flattery? O, be sick, great greatness, +And bid thy Ceremony give thee cure! +Think’st thou the fiery fever will go out +With titles blown from adulation? +Will it give place to flexure and low bending? +Canst thou, when thou command’st the beggar’s knee, +Command the health of it? No, thou proud dream, +That play’st so subtly with a king’s repose; +I am a king that find thee, and I know +’Tis not the balm, the sceptre, and the ball, +The sword, the mace, the crown imperial, +The intertissued robe of gold and pearl, +The farced title running ’fore the King, +The throne he sits on, nor the tide of pomp +That beats upon the high shore of this world, +No, not all these, thrice-gorgeous Ceremony,— +Not all these, laid in bed majestical, +Can sleep so soundly as the wretched slave, +Who with a body fill’d and vacant mind +Gets him to rest, cramm’d with distressful bread, +Never sees horrid night, the child of hell, +But, like a lackey, from the rise to set +Sweats in the eye of Phoebus, and all night +Sleeps in Elysium; next day after dawn, +Doth rise and help Hyperion to his horse, +And follows so the ever-running year, +With profitable labour, to his grave: +And, but for ceremony, such a wretch, +Winding up days with toil and nights with sleep, +Had the fore-hand and vantage of a king. +The slave, a member of the country’s peace, +Enjoys it, but in gross brain little wots +What watch the King keeps to maintain the peace, +Whose hours the peasant best advantages. + + Enter Erpingham. + +ERPINGHAM. +My lord, your nobles, jealous of your absence, +Seek through your camp to find you. + +KING HENRY. +Good old knight, +Collect them all together at my tent. +I’ll be before thee. + +ERPINGHAM. +I shall do’t, my lord. + + [_Exit._] + +KING HENRY. +O God of battles! steel my soldiers’ hearts. +Possess them not with fear. Take from them now +The sense of reckoning, if the opposed numbers +Pluck their hearts from them. Not today, O Lord, +O, not today, think not upon the fault +My father made in compassing the crown! +I Richard’s body have interred new, +And on it have bestow’d more contrite tears +Than from it issued forced drops of blood. +Five hundred poor I have in yearly pay, +Who twice a day their wither’d hands hold up +Toward heaven, to pardon blood; and I have built +Two chantries, where the sad and solemn priests +Sing still for Richard’s soul. More will I do; +Though all that I can do is nothing worth, +Since that my penitence comes after all, +Imploring pardon. + + Enter Gloucester. + +GLOUCESTER. +My liege! + +KING HENRY. +My brother Gloucester’s voice? Ay; +I know thy errand, I will go with thee. +The day, my friends, and all things stay for me. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The French camp. + + Enter the Dauphin, Orleans, Rambures and others. + +ORLEANS. +The sun doth gild our armour; up, my lords! + +DAUPHIN. +_Monte à cheval!_ My horse, _varlet! laquais_, ha! + +ORLEANS. +O brave spirit! + +DAUPHIN. +_Via, les eaux et terre!_ + +ORLEANS. +_Rien puis? L’air et feu?_ + +DAUPHIN. +_Cieux_, cousin Orleans. + + Enter Constable. + +Now, my Lord Constable! + +CONSTABLE. +Hark, how our steeds for present service neigh! + +DAUPHIN. +Mount them, and make incision in their hides, +That their hot blood may spin in English eyes, +And dout them with superfluous courage, ha! + +RAMBURES. +What, will you have them weep our horses’ blood? +How shall we, then, behold their natural tears? + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +The English are embattl’d, you French peers. + +CONSTABLE. +To horse, you gallant princes! straight to horse! +Do but behold yon poor and starved band, +And your fair show shall suck away their souls, +Leaving them but the shales and husks of men. +There is not work enough for all our hands; +Scarce blood enough in all their sickly veins +To give each naked curtle-axe a stain, +That our French gallants shall today draw out, +And sheathe for lack of sport. Let us but blow on them, +The vapour of our valour will o’erturn them. +’Tis positive ’gainst all exceptions, lords, +That our superfluous lackeys and our peasants, +Who in unnecessary action swarm +About our squares of battle, were enough +To purge this field of such a hilding foe, +Though we upon this mountain’s basis by +Took stand for idle speculation, +But that our honours must not. What’s to say? +A very little little let us do, +And all is done. Then let the trumpets sound +The tucket sonance and the note to mount; +For our approach shall so much dare the field +That England shall crouch down in fear and yield. + + Enter Grandpré. + +GRANDPRÉ. +Why do you stay so long, my lords of France? +Yond island carrions, desperate of their bones, +Ill-favouredly become the morning field. +Their ragged curtains poorly are let loose, +And our air shakes them passing scornfully. +Big Mars seems bankrupt in their beggar’d host, +And faintly through a rusty beaver peeps; +The horsemen sit like fixed candlesticks +With torch-staves in their hand; and their poor jades +Lob down their heads, drooping the hides and hips, +The gum down-roping from their pale-dead eyes, +And in their pale dull mouths the gimmal bit +Lies foul with chew’d grass, still, and motionless; +And their executors, the knavish crows, +Fly o’er them, all impatient for their hour. +Description cannot suit itself in words +To demonstrate the life of such a battle, +In life so lifeless as it shows itself. + +CONSTABLE. +They have said their prayers, and they stay for death. + +DAUPHIN. +Shall we go send them dinners and fresh suits +And give their fasting horses provender, +And after fight with them? + +CONSTABLE. +I stay but for my guard; on to the field! +I will the banner from a trumpet take, +And use it for my haste. Come, come, away! +The sun is high, and we outwear the day. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The English camp. + + Enter Gloucester, Bedford, Exeter, Erpingham, with all his host: + Salisbury and Westmorland. + +GLOUCESTER. +Where is the King? + +BEDFORD. +The King himself is rode to view their battle. + +WESTMORLAND. +Of fighting men they have full three-score thousand. + +EXETER. +There’s five to one; besides, they all are fresh. + +SALISBURY. +God’s arm strike with us! ’tis a fearful odds. +God be wi’ you, princes all; I’ll to my charge. +If we no more meet till we meet in heaven, +Then, joyfully, my noble Lord of Bedford, +My dear Lord Gloucester, and my good Lord Exeter, +And my kind kinsman, warriors all, adieu! + +BEDFORD. +Farewell, good Salisbury, and good luck go with thee! + +EXETER. +Farewell, kind lord; fight valiantly today! +And yet I do thee wrong to mind thee of it, +For thou art fram’d of the firm truth of valour. + + [_Exit Salisbury._] + +BEDFORD. +He is as full of valour as of kindness, +Princely in both. + + Enter the King. + +WESTMORLAND. +O that we now had here +But one ten thousand of those men in England +That do no work today! + +KING. +What’s he that wishes so? +My cousin Westmorland? No, my fair cousin. +If we are mark’d to die, we are enough +To do our country loss; and if to live, +The fewer men, the greater share of honour. +God’s will! I pray thee, wish not one man more. +By Jove, I am not covetous for gold, +Nor care I who doth feed upon my cost; +It yearns me not if men my garments wear; +Such outward things dwell not in my desires; +But if it be a sin to covet honour, +I am the most offending soul alive. +No, faith, my coz, wish not a man from England. +God’s peace! I would not lose so great an honour +As one man more, methinks, would share from me +For the best hope I have. O, do not wish one more! +Rather proclaim it, Westmorland, through my host, +That he which hath no stomach to this fight, +Let him depart. His passport shall be made, +And crowns for convoy put into his purse. +We would not die in that man’s company +That fears his fellowship to die with us. +This day is call’d the feast of Crispian. +He that outlives this day, and comes safe home, +Will stand a tip-toe when this day is named, +And rouse him at the name of Crispian. +He that shall live this day, and see old age, +Will yearly on the vigil feast his neighbours, +And say, “Tomorrow is Saint Crispian.” +Then will he strip his sleeve and show his scars, +And say, “These wounds I had on Crispian’s day.” +Old men forget; yet all shall be forgot, +But he’ll remember with advantages +What feats he did that day. Then shall our names, +Familiar in his mouth as household words, +Harry the King, Bedford, and Exeter, +Warwick and Talbot, Salisbury and Gloucester, +Be in their flowing cups freshly remembered. +This story shall the good man teach his son; +And Crispin Crispian shall ne’er go by, +From this day to the ending of the world, +But we in it shall be remembered, +We few, we happy few, we band of brothers. +For he today that sheds his blood with me +Shall be my brother; be he ne’er so vile, +This day shall gentle his condition; +And gentlemen in England now abed +Shall think themselves accurs’d they were not here, +And hold their manhoods cheap whiles any speaks +That fought with us upon Saint Crispin’s day. + + Enter Salisbury. + +SALISBURY. +My sovereign lord, bestow yourself with speed. +The French are bravely in their battles set, +And will with all expedience charge on us. + +KING HENRY. +All things are ready, if our minds be so. + +WESTMORLAND. +Perish the man whose mind is backward now! + +KING HENRY. +Thou dost not wish more help from England, coz? + +WESTMORLAND. +God’s will! my liege, would you and I alone, +Without more help, could fight this royal battle! + +KING HENRY. +Why, now thou hast unwish’d five thousand men, +Which likes me better than to wish us one. +You know your places. God be with you all! + + Tucket. Enter Montjoy. + +MONTJOY. +Once more I come to know of thee, King Harry, +If for thy ransom thou wilt now compound, +Before thy most assured overthrow; +For certainly thou art so near the gulf, +Thou needs must be englutted. Besides, in mercy, +The Constable desires thee thou wilt mind +Thy followers of repentance; that their souls +May make a peaceful and a sweet retire +From off these fields, where, wretches, their poor bodies +Must lie and fester. + +KING HENRY. +Who hath sent thee now? + +MONTJOY. +The Constable of France. + +KING HENRY. +I pray thee, bear my former answer back: +Bid them achieve me and then sell my bones. +Good God! why should they mock poor fellows thus? +The man that once did sell the lion’s skin +While the beast liv’d, was kill’d with hunting him. +A many of our bodies shall no doubt +Find native graves, upon the which, I trust, +Shall witness live in brass of this day’s work; +And those that leave their valiant bones in France, +Dying like men, though buried in your dunghills, +They shall be fam’d; for there the sun shall greet them, +And draw their honours reeking up to heaven; +Leaving their earthly parts to choke your clime, +The smell whereof shall breed a plague in France. +Mark then abounding valour in our English, +That being dead, like to the bullet’s grazing, +Break out into a second course of mischief, +Killing in relapse of mortality. +Let me speak proudly: tell the Constable +We are but warriors for the working-day. +Our gayness and our gilt are all besmirch’d +With rainy marching in the painful field; +There’s not a piece of feather in our host— +Good argument, I hope, we will not fly— +And time hath worn us into slovenry; +But, by the mass, our hearts are in the trim; +And my poor soldiers tell me, yet ere night +They’ll be in fresher robes, or they will pluck +The gay new coats o’er the French soldiers’ heads +And turn them out of service. If they do this— +As, if God please, they shall,—my ransom then +Will soon be levied. Herald, save thou thy labour. +Come thou no more for ransom, gentle herald. +They shall have none, I swear, but these my joints; +Which if they have as I will leave ’em them, +Shall yield them little, tell the Constable. + +MONTJOY. +I shall, King Harry. And so fare thee well; +Thou never shalt hear herald any more. + + [_Exit._] + +KING HENRY. +I fear thou’lt once more come again for ransom. + + Enter York. + +YORK. +My lord, most humbly on my knee I beg +The leading of the vaward. + +KING HENRY. +Take it, brave York. Now, soldiers, march away; +And how thou pleasest, God, dispose the day! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. The field of battle. + + Alarum. Excursions. Enter Pistol, French Soldier and Boy. + +PISTOL. +Yield, cur! + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_Je pense que vous êtes le gentilhomme de bonne qualité._ + +PISTOL. +_Qualité? Caleno custore me!_ +Art thou a gentleman? +What is thy name? Discuss. + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_O Seigneur Dieu!_ + +PISTOL. +O, Signieur Dew should be a gentleman. +Perpend my words, O Signieur Dew, and mark: +O Signieur Dew, thou diest on point of fox, +Except, O signieur, thou do give to me +Egregious ransom. + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_O, prenez miséricorde! Ayez pitié de moi!_ + +PISTOL. +Moy shall not serve; I will have forty moys, +Or I will fetch thy rim out at thy throat +In drops of crimson blood. + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_Est-il impossible d’échapper la force de ton bras?_ + +PISTOL. +Brass, cur! +Thou damned and luxurious mountain goat, +Offer’st me brass? + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_O pardonnez-moi!_ + +PISTOL. +Say’st thou me so? Is that a ton of moys? +Come hither, boy; ask me this slave in French +What is his name. + +BOY. +_Écoutez. Comment êtes-vous appelé?_ + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_Monsieur le Fer._ + +BOY. +He says his name is Master Fer. + +PISTOL. +Master Fer! I’ll fer him, and firk him, and ferret him. +Discuss the same in French unto him. + +BOY. +I do not know the French for fer, and ferret, and firk. + +PISTOL. +Bid him prepare; for I will cut his throat. + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_Que dit-il, monsieur?_ + +BOY. +_Il me commande à vous dire que vous faites vous prêt, car ce soldat +ici est disposé tout à cette heure de couper votre gorge._ + +PISTOL. +Owy, cuppele gorge, permafoy, +Peasant, unless thou give me crowns, brave crowns; +Or mangled shalt thou be by this my sword. + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_O, je vous supplie, pour l’amour de Dieu, me pardonner! Je suis le +gentilhomme de bonne maison; gardez ma vie, et je vous donnerai deux +cents écus._ + +PISTOL. +What are his words? + +BOY. +He prays you to save his life. He is a gentleman of a good house; and +for his ransom he will give you two hundred crowns. + +PISTOL. +Tell him my fury shall abate, and I +The crowns will take. + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_Petit monsieur, que dit-il?_ + +BOY. +_Encore qu’il est contre son jurement de pardonner aucun prisonnier; +néanmoins, pour les écus que vous lui avez promis, il est content à +vous donner la liberté, le franchisement._ + +FRENCH SOLDIER. +_Sur mes genoux je vous donne mille remerciements; et je m’estime +heureux que je suis tombé entre les mains d’un chevalier, je pense, le +plus brave, vaillant, et très distingué seigneur d’Angleterre._ + +PISTOL. +Expound unto me, boy. + +BOY. +He gives you upon his knees, a thousand thanks; and he esteems himself +happy that he hath fallen into the hands of one, as he thinks, the most +brave, valorous, and thrice-worthy _seigneur_ of England. + +PISTOL. +As I suck blood, I will some mercy show. +Follow me! + +BOY. +_Suivez-vous le grand capitaine._ + + [_Exeunt Pistol and French Soldier._] + +I did never know so full a voice issue from so empty a heart; but the +saying is true, “The empty vessel makes the greatest sound.” Bardolph +and Nym had ten times more valour than this roaring devil i’ the old +play, that everyone may pare his nails with a wooden dagger; and they +are both hang’d; and so would this be, if he durst steal anything +adventurously. I must stay with the lackeys with the luggage of our +camp. The French might have a good prey of us, if he knew of it; for +there is none to guard it but boys. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE V. Another part of the field. + + Enter Constable, Orleans, Bourbon, Dauphin and Rambures. + +CONSTABLE. +_O diable!_ + +ORLEANS. +_O Seigneur! le jour est perdu, tout est perdu!_ + +DAUPHIN. +_Mort de ma vie!_ all is confounded, all! +Reproach and everlasting shame +Sits mocking in our plumes. + + [_A short alarum._] + +_O méchante Fortune!_ Do not run away. + +CONSTABLE. +Why, all our ranks are broke. + +DAUPHIN. +O perdurable shame! Let’s stab ourselves, +Be these the wretches that we play’d at dice for? + +ORLEANS. +Is this the king we sent to for his ransom? + +BOURBON. +Shame and eternal shame, nothing but shame! +Let’s die in honour! Once more back again! +And he that will not follow Bourbon now, +Let him go hence, and with his cap in hand, +Like a base pandar, hold the chamber door +Whilst by a slave, no gentler than my dog, +His fairest daughter is contaminated. + +CONSTABLE. +Disorder, that hath spoil’d us, friend us now! +Let us on heaps go offer up our lives. + +ORLEANS. +We are enough yet living in the field +To smother up the English in our throngs, +If any order might be thought upon. + +BOURBON. +The devil take order now! I’ll to the throng. +Let life be short, else shame will be too long. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Another part of the field. + + Alarum. Enter King Henry and his train, with prisoners. + +KING HENRY. +Well have we done, thrice valiant countrymen. +But all’s not done; yet keep the French the field. + +EXETER. +The Duke of York commends him to your Majesty. + +KING HENRY. +Lives he, good uncle? Thrice within this hour +I saw him down; thrice up again, and fighting. +From helmet to the spur all blood he was. + +EXETER. +In which array, brave soldier, doth he lie, +Larding the plain; and by his bloody side, +Yoke-fellow to his honour-owing wounds, +The noble Earl of Suffolk also lies. +Suffolk first died; and York, all haggled over, +Comes to him, where in gore he lay insteeped, +And takes him by the beard; kisses the gashes +That bloodily did yawn upon his face. +He cries aloud, “Tarry, my cousin Suffolk! +My soul shall thine keep company to heaven; +Tarry, sweet soul, for mine, then fly abreast, +As in this glorious and well-foughten field +We kept together in our chivalry.” +Upon these words I came and cheer’d him up. +He smil’d me in the face, raught me his hand, +And, with a feeble gripe, says, “Dear my lord, +Commend my service to my sovereign.” +So did he turn and over Suffolk’s neck +He threw his wounded arm and kiss’d his lips; +And so espous’d to death, with blood he seal’d +A testament of noble-ending love. +The pretty and sweet manner of it forc’d +Those waters from me which I would have stopp’d; +But I had not so much of man in me, +And all my mother came into mine eyes +And gave me up to tears. + +KING HENRY. +I blame you not; +For, hearing this, I must perforce compound +With mistful eyes, or they will issue too. + + [_Alarum._] + +But hark! what new alarum is this same? +The French have reinforc’d their scatter’d men. +Then every soldier kill his prisoners; +Give the word through. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. Another part of the field. + + Enter Fluellen and Gower. + +FLUELLEN. +Kill the poys and the luggage! ’Tis expressly against the law of arms. +’Tis as arrant a piece of knavery, mark you now, as can be offer’t; in +your conscience, now, is it not? + +GOWER. +’Tis certain there’s not a boy left alive; and the cowardly rascals +that ran from the battle ha’ done this slaughter. Besides, they have +burned and carried away all that was in the King’s tent; wherefore the +King, most worthily, hath caus’d every soldier to cut his prisoner’s +throat. O, ’tis a gallant king! + +FLUELLEN. +Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, Captain Gower. What call you the town’s +name where Alexander the Pig was born? + +GOWER. +Alexander the Great. + +FLUELLEN. +Why, I pray you, is not pig great? The pig, or the great, or the +mighty, or the huge, or the magnanimous, are all one reckonings, save +the phrase is a little variations. + +GOWER. +I think Alexander the Great was born in Macedon. His father was called +Philip of Macedon, as I take it. + +FLUELLEN. +I think it is in Macedon where Alexander is porn. I tell you, Captain, +if you look in the maps of the ’orld, I warrant you sall find, in the +comparisons between Macedon and Monmouth, that the situations, look +you, is both alike. There is a river in Macedon; and there is also +moreover a river at Monmouth; it is call’d Wye at Monmouth; but it is +out of my prains what is the name of the other river; but ’tis all one, +’tis alike as my fingers is to my fingers, and there is salmons in +both. If you mark Alexander’s life well, Harry of Monmouth’s life is +come after it indifferent well; for there is figures in all things. +Alexander, God knows, and you know, in his rages, and his furies, and +his wraths, and his cholers, and his moods, and his displeasures, and +his indignations, and also being a little intoxicates in his prains, +did, in his ales and his angers, look you, kill his best friend, +Cleitus. + +GOWER. +Our King is not like him in that. He never kill’d any of his friends. + +FLUELLEN. +It is not well done, mark you now, to take the tales out of my mouth, +ere it is made and finished. I speak but in the figures and comparisons +of it. As Alexander kill’d his friend Cleitus, being in his ales and +his cups; so also Harry Monmouth, being in his right wits and his good +judgements, turn’d away the fat knight with the great belly doublet. He +was full of jests, and gipes, and knaveries, and mocks; I have forgot +his name. + +GOWER. +Sir John Falstaff. + +FLUELLEN. +That is he. I’ll tell you there is good men porn at Monmouth. + +GOWER. +Here comes his Majesty. + + Alarum. Enter King Henry and forces; Warwick, Gloucester, Exeter with + prisoners. Flourish. + +KING HENRY. +I was not angry since I came to France +Until this instant. Take a trumpet, herald; +Ride thou unto the horsemen on yond hill. +If they will fight with us, bid them come down, +Or void the field; they do offend our sight. +If they’ll do neither, we will come to them, +And make them skirr away, as swift as stones +Enforced from the old Assyrian slings. +Besides, we’ll cut the throats of those we have, +And not a man of them that we shall take +Shall taste our mercy. Go and tell them so. + + Enter Montjoy. + +EXETER. +Here comes the herald of the French, my liege. + +GLOUCESTER. +His eyes are humbler than they us’d to be. + +KING HENRY. +How now! what means this, herald? Know’st thou not +That I have fin’d these bones of mine for ransom? +Com’st thou again for ransom? + +MONTJOY. +No, great King; +I come to thee for charitable license, +That we may wander o’er this bloody field +To book our dead, and then to bury them; +To sort our nobles from our common men. +For many of our princes—woe the while!— +Lie drown’d and soak’d in mercenary blood; +So do our vulgar drench their peasant limbs +In blood of princes; and their wounded steeds +Fret fetlock deep in gore, and with wild rage +Yerk out their armed heels at their dead masters, +Killing them twice. O, give us leave, great King, +To view the field in safety, and dispose +Of their dead bodies! + +KING HENRY. +I tell thee truly, herald, +I know not if the day be ours or no; +For yet a many of your horsemen peer +And gallop o’er the field. + +MONTJOY. +The day is yours. + +KING HENRY. +Praised be God, and not our strength, for it! +What is this castle call’d that stands hard by? + +MONTJOY. +They call it Agincourt. + +KING HENRY. +Then call we this the field of Agincourt, +Fought on the day of Crispin Crispianus. + +FLUELLEN. +Your grandfather of famous memory, an’t please your Majesty, and your +great-uncle Edward the Plack Prince of Wales, as I have read in the +chronicles, fought a most prave pattle here in France. + +KING HENRY. +They did, Fluellen. + +FLUELLEN. +Your Majesty says very true. If your Majesties is rememb’red of it, the +Welshmen did good service in garden where leeks did grow, wearing leeks +in their Monmouth caps; which, your Majesty know, to this hour is an +honourable badge of the service; and I do believe your Majesty takes no +scorn to wear the leek upon Saint Tavy’s day. + +KING HENRY. +I wear it for a memorable honour; +For I am Welsh, you know, good countryman. + +FLUELLEN. +All the water in Wye cannot wash your Majesty’s Welsh plood out of your +pody, I can tell you that. Got pless it and preserve it, as long as it +pleases His grace, and His majesty too! + +KING HENRY. +Thanks, good my countryman. + +FLUELLEN. +By Jeshu, I am your Majesty’s countryman, I care not who know it. I +will confess it to all the ’orld. I need not be asham’d of your +Majesty, praised be God, so long as your Majesty is an honest man. + +KING HENRY. +God keep me so! + + Enter Williams. + +Our heralds go with him; +Bring me just notice of the numbers dead +On both our parts. Call yonder fellow hither. + + [_Exeunt Heralds with Montjoy._] + +EXETER. +Soldier, you must come to the King. + +KING HENRY. +Soldier, why wear’st thou that glove in thy cap? + +WILLIAMS. +An’t please your Majesty, ’tis the gage of one that I should fight +withal, if he be alive. + +KING HENRY. +An Englishman? + +WILLIAMS. +An’t please your Majesty, a rascal that swagger’d with me last night; +who, if alive and ever dare to challenge this glove, I have sworn to +take him a box o’ the ear; or if I can see my glove in his cap, which +he swore, as he was a soldier, he would wear if alive, I will strike it +out soundly. + +KING HENRY. +What think you, Captain Fluellen, is it fit this soldier keep his oath? + +FLUELLEN. +He is a craven and a villain else, an’t please your Majesty, in my +conscience. + +KING HENRY. +It may be his enemy is a gentlemen of great sort, quite from the answer +of his degree. + +FLUELLEN. +Though he be as good a gentleman as the devil is, as Lucifier and +Belzebub himself, it is necessary, look your Grace, that he keep his +vow and his oath. If he be perjur’d, see you now, his reputation is as +arrant a villain and a Jacksauce, as ever his black shoe trod upon +God’s ground and His earth, in my conscience, la! + +KING HENRY. +Then keep thy vow, sirrah, when thou meet’st the fellow. + +WILLIAMS. +So I will, my liege, as I live. + +KING HENRY. +Who serv’st thou under? + +WILLIAMS. +Under Captain Gower, my liege. + +FLUELLEN. +Gower is a good captain, and is good knowledge and literatured in the +wars. + +KING HENRY. +Call him hither to me, soldier. + +WILLIAMS. +I will, my liege. + + [_Exit._] + +KING HENRY. +Here, Fluellen; wear thou this favour for me and stick it in thy cap. +When Alençon and myself were down together, I pluck’d this glove from +his helm. If any man challenge this, he is a friend to Alençon, and an +enemy to our person. If thou encounter any such, apprehend him, an thou +dost me love. + +FLUELLEN. +Your Grace does me as great honours as can be desir’d in the hearts of +his subjects. I would fain see the man, that has but two legs, that +shall find himself aggrief’d at this glove; that is all. But I would +fain see it once, an please God of His grace that I might see. + +KING HENRY. +Know’st thou Gower? + +FLUELLEN. +He is my dear friend, an please you. + +KING HENRY. +Pray thee, go seek him, and bring him to my tent. + +FLUELLEN. +I will fetch him. + + [_Exit._] + +KING HENRY. +My Lord of Warwick, and my brother Gloucester, +Follow Fluellen closely at the heels. +The glove which I have given him for a favour +May haply purchase him a box o’ the ear. +It is the soldier’s; I by bargain should +Wear it myself. Follow, good cousin Warwick. +If that the soldier strike him, as I judge +By his blunt bearing he will keep his word, +Some sudden mischief may arise of it; +For I do know Fluellen valiant +And, touch’d with choler, hot as gunpowder, +And quickly will return an injury. +Follow, and see there be no harm between them. +Go you with me, uncle of Exeter. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VIII. Before King Henry’s pavilion. + + Enter Gower and Williams. + +WILLIAMS. +I warrant it is to knight you, Captain. + + Enter Fluellen. + +FLUELLEN. +God’s will and his pleasure, captain, I beseech you now, come apace to +the King. There is more good toward you peradventure than is in your +knowledge to dream of. + +WILLIAMS. +Sir, know you this glove? + +FLUELLEN. +Know the glove! I know the glove is a glove. + +WILLIAMS. +I know this; and thus I challenge it. + + [_Strikes him._] + +FLUELLEN. +’Sblood! an arrant traitor as any is in the universal world, or in +France, or in England! + +GOWER. +How now, sir! you villain! + +WILLIAMS. +Do you think I’ll be forsworn? + +FLUELLEN. +Stand away, Captain Gower. I will give treason his payment into plows, +I warrant you. + +WILLIAMS. +I am no traitor. + +FLUELLEN. +That’s a lie in thy throat. I charge you in his Majesty’s name, +apprehend him; he’s a friend of the Duke Alençon’s. + + Enter Warwick and Gloucester. + +WARWICK. +How now, how now! what’s the matter? + +FLUELLEN. +My lord of Warwick, here is—praised be God for it!—a most contagious +treason come to light, look you, as you shall desire in a summer’s day. +Here is his Majesty. + + Enter King Henry and Exeter. + +KING HENRY. +How now! what’s the matter? + +FLUELLEN. +My liege, here is a villain and a traitor, that, look your Grace, has +struck the glove which your Majesty is take out of the helmet of +Alençon. + +WILLIAMS. +My liege, this was my glove; here is the fellow of it; and he that I +gave it to in change promis’d to wear it in his cap. I promis’d to +strike him, if he did. I met this man with my glove in his cap, and I +have been as good as my word. + +FLUELLEN. +Your Majesty hear now, saving your Majesty’s manhood, what an arrant, +rascally, beggarly, lousy knave it is. I hope your Majesty is pear me +testimony and witness, and will avouchment, that this is the glove of +Alençon that your Majesty is give me; in your conscience, now? + +KING HENRY. +Give me thy glove, soldier. Look, here is the fellow of it. +’Twas I, indeed, thou promisedst to strike; +And thou hast given me most bitter terms. + +FLUELLEN. +An it please your Majesty, let his neck answer for it, if there is any +martial law in the world. + +KING HENRY. +How canst thou make me satisfaction? + +WILLIAMS. +All offences, my lord, come from the heart. Never came any from mine +that might offend your Majesty. + +KING HENRY. +It was ourself thou didst abuse. + +WILLIAMS. +Your Majesty came not like yourself. You appear’d to me but as a common +man; witness the night, your garments, your lowliness; and what your +Highness suffer’d under that shape, I beseech you take it for your own +fault and not mine; for had you been as I took you for, I made no +offence; therefore, I beseech your Highness, pardon me. + +KING HENRY. +Here, uncle Exeter, fill this glove with crowns, +And give it to this fellow. Keep it, fellow; +And wear it for an honour in thy cap +Till I do challenge it. Give him his crowns; +And, captain, you must needs be friends with him. + +FLUELLEN. +By this day and this light, the fellow has mettle enough in his belly. +Hold, there is twelve pence for you; and I pray you to serve God, and +keep you out of prawls, and prabbles, and quarrels, and dissensions, +and, I warrant you, it is the better for you. + +WILLIAMS. +I will none of your money. + +FLUELLEN. +It is with a good will; I can tell you, it will serve you to mend your +shoes. Come, wherefore should you be so pashful? Your shoes is not so +good. ’Tis a good silling, I warrant you, or I will change it. + + Enter an English Herald. + +KING HENRY. +Now, herald, are the dead numb’red? + +HERALD. +Here is the number of the slaught’red French. + +KING HENRY. +What prisoners of good sort are taken, uncle? + +EXETER. +Charles Duke of Orleans, nephew to the King; +John Duke of Bourbon, and Lord Boucicault: +Of other lords and barons, knights and squires, +Full fifteen hundred, besides common men. + +KING HENRY. +This note doth tell me of ten thousand French +That in the field lie slain; of princes, in this number, +And nobles bearing banners, there lie dead +One hundred twenty-six; added to these, +Of knights, esquires, and gallant gentlemen, +Eight thousand and four hundred; of the which, +Five hundred were but yesterday dubb’d knights; +So that, in these ten thousand they have lost, +There are but sixteen hundred mercenaries; +The rest are princes, barons, lords, knights, squires, +And gentlemen of blood and quality. +The names of those their nobles that lie dead: +Charles Delabreth, High Constable of France; +Jacques of Chatillon, Admiral of France; +The master of the Crossbows, Lord Rambures; +Great Master of France, the brave Sir Guichard Dauphin, +John, Duke of Alençon, Anthony, Duke of Brabant, +The brother to the Duke of Burgundy, +And Edward, Duke of Bar; of lusty earls, +Grandpré and Roussi, Fauconbridge and Foix, +Beaumont and Marle, Vaudemont and Lestrale. +Here was a royal fellowship of death! +Where is the number of our English dead? + + [_Herald gives him another paper._] + +Edward the Duke of York, the Earl of Suffolk, +Sir Richard Ketly, Davy Gam, esquire; +None else of name; and of all other men +But five and twenty.—O God, thy arm was here; +And not to us, but to thy arm alone, +Ascribe we all! When, without stratagem, +But in plain shock and even play of battle, +Was ever known so great and little loss +On one part and on the other? Take it, God, +For it is none but thine! + +EXETER. +’Tis wonderful! + +KING HENRY. +Come, go we in procession to the village; +And be it death proclaimed through our host +To boast of this or take that praise from God +Which is His only. + +FLUELLEN. +Is it not lawful, an please your Majesty, to tell how many is kill’d? + +KING HENRY. +Yes, Captain; but with this acknowledgment, +That God fought for us. + +FLUELLEN. +Yes, my conscience, He did us great good. + +KING HENRY. +Do we all holy rites. +Let there be sung _Non nobis_ and _Te Deum_, +The dead with charity enclos’d in clay, +And then to Calais; and to England then, +Where ne’er from France arriv’d more happy men. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + + Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +Vouchsafe to those that have not read the story, +That I may prompt them; and of such as have, +I humbly pray them to admit the excuse +Of time, of numbers, and due course of things, +Which cannot in their huge and proper life +Be here presented. Now we bear the King +Toward Calais; grant him there; there seen, +Heave him away upon your winged thoughts +Athwart the sea. Behold, the English beach +Pales in the flood with men, with wives and boys, +Whose shouts and claps out-voice the deep-mouth’d sea, +Which like a mighty whiffler ’fore the King +Seems to prepare his way. So let him land, +And solemnly see him set on to London. +So swift a pace hath thought that even now +You may imagine him upon Blackheath, +Where that his lords desire him to have borne +His bruised helmet and his bended sword +Before him through the city. He forbids it, +Being free from vainness and self-glorious pride; +Giving full trophy, signal, and ostent +Quite from himself to God. But now behold, +In the quick forge and working-house of thought, +How London doth pour out her citizens! +The mayor and all his brethren in best sort, +Like to the senators of th’ antique Rome, +With the plebeians swarming at their heels, +Go forth and fetch their conquering Caesar in; +As, by a lower but loving likelihood, +Were now the general of our gracious empress, +As in good time he may, from Ireland coming, +Bringing rebellion broached on his sword, +How many would the peaceful city quit, +To welcome him! Much more, and much more cause, +Did they this Harry. Now in London place him; +As yet the lamentation of the French +Invites the King of England’s stay at home, +The Emperor’s coming in behalf of France, +To order peace between them;—and omit +All the occurrences, whatever chanc’d, +Till Harry’s back-return again to France. +There must we bring him; and myself have play’d +The interim, by rememb’ring you ’tis past. +Then brook abridgement, and your eyes advance +After your thoughts, straight back again to France. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE I. France. The English camp. + + Enter Fluellen and Gower. + +GOWER. +Nay, that’s right; but why wear you your leek today? +Saint Davy’s day is past. + +FLUELLEN. +There is occasions and causes why and wherefore in all things. I will +tell you ass my friend, Captain Gower. The rascally, scald, beggarly, +lousy, pragging knave, Pistol, which you and yourself and all the world +know to be no petter than a fellow, look you now, of no merits, he is +come to me and prings me pread and salt yesterday, look you, and bid me +eat my leek. It was in a place where I could not breed no contention +with him; but I will be so bold as to wear it in my cap till I see him +once again, and then I will tell him a little piece of my desires. + + Enter Pistol. + +GOWER. +Why, here he comes, swelling like a turkey-cock. + +FLUELLEN. +’Tis no matter for his swellings nor his turkey-cocks. God pless you, +Anchient Pistol! you scurvy, lousy knave, God pless you! + +PISTOL. +Ha! art thou bedlam? Dost thou thirst, base Trojan, +To have me fold up Parca’s fatal web? +Hence! I am qualmish at the smell of leek. + +FLUELLEN. +I peseech you heartily, scurfy, lousy knave, at my desires, and my +requests, and my petitions, to eat, look you, this leek. Because, look +you, you do not love it, nor your affections and your appetites and +your digestions does not agree with it, I would desire you to eat it. + +PISTOL. +Not for Cadwallader and all his goats. + +FLUELLEN. +There is one goat for you. [_Strikes him._] Will you be so good, scald +knave, as eat it? + +PISTOL. +Base Trojan, thou shalt die. + +FLUELLEN. +You say very true, scald knave, when God’s will is. I will desire you +to live in the mean time, and eat your victuals. Come, there is sauce +for it. [_Strikes him._] You call’d me yesterday mountain-squire; but I +will make you today a squire of low degree. I pray you, fall to; if you +can mock a leek, you can eat a leek. + +GOWER. +Enough, captain; you have astonish’d him. + +FLUELLEN. +I say, I will make him eat some part of my leek, or I will peat his +pate four days. Bite, I pray you; it is good for your green wound and +your ploody coxcomb. + +PISTOL. +Must I bite? + +FLUELLEN. +Yes, certainly, and out of doubt and out of question too, and +ambiguities. + +PISTOL. +By this leek, I will most horribly revenge. I eat and eat, I swear— + +FLUELLEN. +Eat, I pray you. Will you have some more sauce to your leek? There is +not enough leek to swear by. + +PISTOL. +Quiet thy cudgel; thou dost see I eat. + +FLUELLEN. +Much good do you, scald knave, heartily. Nay, pray you, throw none +away; the skin is good for your broken coxcomb. When you take occasions +to see leeks hereafter, I pray you, mock at ’em; that is all. + +PISTOL. +Good. + +FLUELLEN. +Ay, leeks is good. Hold you, there is a groat to heal your pate. + +PISTOL. +Me a groat! + +FLUELLEN. +Yes, verily and in truth you shall take it; or I have another leek in +my pocket, which you shall eat. + +PISTOL. +I take thy groat in earnest of revenge. + +FLUELLEN. +If I owe you anything I will pay you in cudgels. You shall be a +woodmonger, and buy nothing of me but cudgels. God be wi’ you, and keep +you, and heal your pate. + + [_Exit._] + +PISTOL. +All hell shall stir for this. + +GOWER. +Go, go; you are a couterfeit cowardly knave. Will you mock at an +ancient tradition, begun upon an honourable respect, and worn as a +memorable trophy of predeceased valour, and dare not avouch in your +deeds any of your words? I have seen you gleeking and galling at this +gentleman twice or thrice. You thought, because he could not speak +English in the native garb, he could not therefore handle an English +cudgel. You find it otherwise; and henceforth let a Welsh correction +teach you a good English condition. Fare ye well. + + [_Exit._] + +PISTOL. +Doth Fortune play the huswife with me now? +News have I, that my Doll is dead i’ the spital +Of malady of France; +And there my rendezvous is quite cut off. +Old I do wax; and from my weary limbs +Honour is cudgell’d. Well, bawd I’ll turn, +And something lean to cutpurse of quick hand. +To England will I steal, and there I’ll steal; +And patches will I get unto these cudgell’d scars, +And swear I got them in the Gallia wars. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. France. A royal palace. + + Enter at one door, King Henry, Exeter, Bedford, Warwick, Gloucester, + Westmorland, Clarence, Huntingdon and other Lords. At another, Queen + Isabel, the French King, the Princess Katharine, Alice, and other + Ladies; the Duke of Burgundy and other French. + +KING HENRY. +Peace to this meeting, wherefore we are met! +Unto our brother France, and to our sister, +Health and fair time of day; joy and good wishes +To our most fair and princely cousin Katharine; +And, as a branch and member of this royalty, +By whom this great assembly is contriv’d, +We do salute you, Duke of Burgundy; +And, princes French, and peers, health to you all! + +FRENCH KING. +Right joyous are we to behold your face, +Most worthy brother England; fairly met! +So are you, princes English, every one. + +QUEEN ISABEL. +So happy be the issue, brother England, +Of this good day and of this gracious meeting +As we are now glad to behold your eyes; +Your eyes, which hitherto have borne in them +Against the French that met them in their bent +The fatal balls of murdering basilisks. +The venom of such looks, we fairly hope, +Have lost their quality; and that this day +Shall change all griefs and quarrels into love. + +KING HENRY. +To cry amen to that, thus we appear. + +QUEEN ISABEL. +You English princes all, I do salute you. + +BURGUNDY. +My duty to you both, on equal love, +Great Kings of France and England! That I have labour’d, +With all my wits, my pains, and strong endeavours, +To bring your most imperial Majesties +Unto this bar and royal interview, +Your mightiness on both parts best can witness. +Since then my office hath so far prevail’d +That, face to face and royal eye to eye, +You have congreeted, let it not disgrace me +If I demand, before this royal view, +What rub or what impediment there is, +Why that the naked, poor, and mangled Peace, +Dear nurse of arts, plenties, and joyful births, +Should not in this best garden of the world, +Our fertile France, put up her lovely visage? +Alas, she hath from France too long been chas’d, +And all her husbandry doth lie on heaps, +Corrupting in it own fertility. +Her vine, the merry cheerer of the heart, +Unpruned dies; her hedges even-pleach’d, +Like prisoners wildly overgrown with hair, +Put forth disorder’d twigs; her fallow leas +The darnel, hemlock, and rank fumitory, +Doth root upon, while that the coulter rusts +That should deracinate such savagery; +The even mead, that erst brought sweetly forth +The freckled cowslip, burnet, and green clover, +Wanting the scythe, all uncorrected, rank, +Conceives by idleness, and nothing teems +But hateful docks, rough thistles, kecksies, burs, +Losing both beauty and utility; +And as our vineyards, fallows, meads, and hedges, +Defective in their natures, grow to wildness. +Even so our houses and ourselves and children +Have lost, or do not learn for want of time, +The sciences that should become our country; +But grow like savages,—as soldiers will +That nothing do but meditate on blood,— +To swearing and stern looks, diffus’d attire, +And everything that seems unnatural. +Which to reduce into our former favour +You are assembled; and my speech entreats +That I may know the let, why gentle Peace +Should not expel these inconveniences +And bless us with her former qualities. + +KING HENRY. +If, Duke of Burgundy, you would the peace, +Whose want gives growth to the imperfections +Which you have cited, you must buy that peace +With full accord to all our just demands; +Whose tenours and particular effects +You have enschedul’d briefly in your hands. + +BURGUNDY. +The King hath heard them; to the which as yet +There is no answer made. + +KING HENRY. +Well, then, the peace, +Which you before so urg’d, lies in his answer. + +FRENCH KING. +I have but with a cursorary eye +O’erglanc’d the articles. Pleaseth your Grace +To appoint some of your council presently +To sit with us once more, with better heed +To re-survey them, we will suddenly +Pass our accept and peremptory answer. + +KING HENRY. +Brother, we shall. Go, uncle Exeter, +And brother Clarence, and you, brother Gloucester, +Warwick, and Huntington, go with the King; +And take with you free power to ratify, +Augment, or alter, as your wisdoms best +Shall see advantageable for our dignity, +Anything in or out of our demands, +And we’ll consign thereto. Will you, fair sister, +Go with the princes, or stay here with us? + +QUEEN ISABEL. +Our gracious brother, I will go with them. +Haply a woman’s voice may do some good, +When articles too nicely urg’d be stood on. + +KING HENRY. +Yet leave our cousin Katharine here with us: +She is our capital demand, compris’d +Within the fore-rank of our articles. + +QUEEN ISABEL. +She hath good leave. + + [_Exeunt all except Henry, Katharine and Alice._] + +KING HENRY. +Fair Katharine, and most fair, +Will you vouchsafe to teach a soldier terms +Such as will enter at a lady’s ear +And plead his love-suit to her gentle heart? + +KATHARINE. +Your Majesty shall mock me; I cannot speak your England. + +KING HENRY. +O fair Katharine, if you will love me soundly with your French heart, I +will be glad to hear you confess it brokenly with your English tongue. +Do you like me, Kate? + +KATHARINE. +_Pardonnez-moi_, I cannot tell wat is “like me.” + +KING HENRY. +An angel is like you, Kate, and you are like an angel. + +KATHARINE. +_Que dit-il? Que je suis semblable à les anges?_ + +ALICE. +_Oui, vraiment, sauf votre Grâce, ainsi dit-il._ + +KING HENRY. +I said so, dear Katharine; and I must not blush to affirm it. + +KATHARINE. +_O bon Dieu! les langues des hommes sont pleines de tromperies._ + +KING HENRY. +What says she, fair one? That the tongues of men are full of deceits? + +ALICE. +_Oui_, dat de tongues of de mans is be full of deceits: dat is de +Princess. + +KING HENRY. +The Princess is the better Englishwoman. I’ faith, Kate, my wooing is +fit for thy understanding. I am glad thou canst speak no better +English; for if thou couldst, thou wouldst find me such a plain king +that thou wouldst think I had sold my farm to buy my crown. I know no +ways to mince it in love, but directly to say, “I love you”; then if +you urge me farther than to say, “Do you in faith?” I wear out my suit. +Give me your answer; i’ faith, do; and so clap hands and a bargain. How +say you, lady? + +KATHARINE. +_Sauf votre honneur_, me understand well. + +KING HENRY. +Marry, if you would put me to verses, or to dance for your sake, Kate, +why you undid me; for the one, I have neither words nor measure, and +for the other I have no strength in measure, yet a reasonable measure +in strength. If I could win a lady at leap-frog, or by vaulting into my +saddle with my armour on my back, under the correction of bragging be +it spoken, I should quickly leap into a wife. Or if I might buffet for +my love, or bound my horse for her favours, I could lay on like a +butcher and sit like a jack-an-apes, never off. But, before God, Kate, +I cannot look greenly, nor gasp out my eloquence, nor I have no cunning +in protestation; only downright oaths, which I never use till urg’d, +nor never break for urging. If thou canst love a fellow of this temper, +Kate, whose face is not worth sunburning, that never looks in his glass +for love of anything he sees there, let thine eye be thy cook. I speak +to thee plain soldier. If thou canst love me for this, take me; if not, +to say to thee that I shall die, is true; but for thy love, by the +Lord, no; yet I love thee too. And while thou liv’st, dear Kate, take a +fellow of plain and uncoined constancy; for he perforce must do thee +right, because he hath not the gift to woo in other places; for these +fellows of infinite tongue, that can rhyme themselves into ladies’ +favours, they do always reason themselves out again. What! a speaker is +but a prater: a rhyme is but a ballad. A good leg will fall; a straight +back will stoop; a black beard will turn white; a curl’d pate will grow +bald; a fair face will wither; a full eye will wax hollow; but a good +heart, Kate, is the sun and the moon; or rather the sun and not the +moon; for it shines bright and never changes, but keeps his course +truly. If thou would have such a one, take me; and take me, take a +soldier; take a soldier, take a king. And what say’st thou then to my +love? Speak, my fair, and fairly, I pray thee. + +KATHARINE. +Is it possible dat I should love de enemy of France? + +KING HENRY. +No; it is not possible you should love the enemy of France, Kate; but, +in loving me, you should love the friend of France; for I love France +so well that I will not part with a village of it, I will have it all +mine; and, Kate, when France is mine and I am yours, then yours is +France and you are mine. + +KATHARINE. +I cannot tell wat is dat. + +KING HENRY. +No, Kate? I will tell thee in French; which I am sure will hang upon my +tongue like a new-married wife about her husband’s neck, hardly to be +shook off. _Je quand sur le possession de France, et quand vous avez le +possession de moi_,—let me see, what then? Saint Denis be my +speed!—_donc votre est France, et vous êtes mienne._ It is as easy for +me, Kate, to conquer the kingdom as to speak so much more French. I +shall never move thee in French, unless it be to laugh at me. + +KATHARINE. +_Sauf votre honneur, le français que vous parlez, il est meilleur que +l’anglais lequel je parle._ + +KING HENRY. +No, faith, is’t not, Kate; but thy speaking of my tongue, and I thine, +most truly-falsely, must needs be granted to be much at one. But, Kate, +dost thou understand thus much English: canst thou love me? + +KATHARINE. +I cannot tell. + +KING HENRY. +Can any of your neighbours tell, Kate? I’ll ask them. Come, I know thou +lovest me; and at night, when you come into your closet, you’ll +question this gentlewoman about me; and I know, Kate, you will to her +dispraise those parts in me that you love with your heart. But, good +Kate, mock me mercifully; the rather, gentle princess, because I love +thee cruelly. If ever thou beest mine, Kate, as I have a saving faith +within me tells me thou shalt, I get thee with scambling, and thou must +therefore needs prove a good soldier-breeder. Shall not thou and I, +between Saint Denis and Saint George, compound a boy, half French, half +English, that shall go to Constantinople and take the Turk by the +beard? Shall we not? What say’st thou, my fair flower-de-luce? + +KATHARINE. +I do not know dat. + +KING HENRY. +No; ’tis hereafter to know, but now to promise. Do but now promise, +Kate, you will endeavour for your French part of such a boy; and for my +English moiety, take the word of a king and a bachelor. How answer you, +_la plus belle Katherine du monde, mon très cher et divin déesse?_ + +KATHARINE. +Your Majestee ’ave _fausse_ French enough to deceive de most _sage +demoiselle_ dat is _en France_. + +KING HENRY. +Now, fie upon my false French! By mine honour, in true English, I love +thee, Kate; by which honour I dare not swear thou lovest me; yet my +blood begins to flatter me that thou dost, notwithstanding the poor and +untempering effect of my visage. Now, beshrew my father’s ambition! He +was thinking of civil wars when he got me; therefore was I created with +a stubborn outside, with an aspect of iron, that, when I come to woo +ladies, I fright them. But, in faith, Kate, the elder I wax, the better +I shall appear. My comfort is, that old age, that ill layer up of +beauty, can do no more spoil upon my face. Thou hast me, if thou hast +me, at the worst; and thou shalt wear me, if thou wear me, better and +better; and therefore tell me, most fair Katharine, will you have me? +Put off your maiden blushes; avouch the thoughts of your heart with the +looks of an empress; take me by the hand, and say, Harry of England, I +am thine; which word thou shalt no sooner bless mine ear withal, but I +will tell thee aloud, England is thine, Ireland is thine, France is +thine, and Henry Plantagenet is thine; who, though I speak it before +his face, if he be not fellow with the best king, thou shalt find the +best king of good fellows. Come, your answer in broken music; for thy +voice is music and thy English broken; therefore, queen of all, +Katharine, break thy mind to me in broken English. Wilt thou have me? + +KATHARINE. +Dat is as it shall please _le roi mon père_. + +KING HENRY. +Nay, it will please him well, Kate; it shall please him, Kate. + +KATHARINE. +Den it sall also content me. + +KING HENRY. +Upon that I kiss your hand, and call you my queen. + +KATHARINE. +_Laissez, mon seigneur, laissez, laissez! Ma foi, je ne veux point que +vous abaissiez votre grandeur en baisant la main d’une—Notre +Seigneur!—indigne serviteur. Excusez-moi, je vous supplie, mon +très-puissant seigneur._ + +KING HENRY. +Then I will kiss your lips, Kate. + +KATHARINE. +_Les dames et demoiselles pour être baisées devant leurs noces, il +n’est pas la coutume de France._ + +KING HENRY. +Madame my interpreter, what says she? + +ALICE. +Dat it is not be de fashion _pour les_ ladies of France,—I cannot tell +wat is _baiser en_ Anglish. + +KING HENRY. +To kiss. + +ALICE. +Your Majestee _entend_ bettre _que moi_. + +KING HENRY. +It is not a fashion for the maids in France to kiss before they are +married, would she say? + +ALICE. +_Oui, vraiment._ + +KING HENRY. +O Kate, nice customs curtsy to great kings. Dear Kate, you and I cannot +be confined within the weak list of a country’s fashion. We are the +makers of manners, Kate; and the liberty that follows our places stops +the mouth of all find-faults, as I will do yours, for upholding the +nice fashion of your country in denying me a kiss; therefore, patiently +and yielding. [_Kissing her._] You have witchcraft in your lips, Kate; +there is more eloquence in a sugar touch of them than in the tongues of +the French council; and they should sooner persuade Harry of England +than a general petition of monarchs. Here comes your father. + + Enter the French Power and the English Lords. + +BURGUNDY. +God save your Majesty! My royal cousin, teach you our princess English? + +KING HENRY. +I would have her learn, my fair cousin, how perfectly I love her; and +that is good English. + +BURGUNDY. +Is she not apt? + +KING HENRY. +Our tongue is rough, coz, and my condition is not smooth; so that, +having neither the voice nor the heart of flattery about me, I cannot +so conjure up the spirit of love in her, that he will appear in his +true likeness. + +BURGUNDY. +Pardon the frankness of my mirth, if I answer you for that. If you +would conjure in her, you must make a circle; if conjure up Love in her +in his true likeness, he must appear naked and blind. Can you blame her +then, being a maid yet ros’d over with the virgin crimson of modesty, +if she deny the appearance of a naked blind boy in her naked seeing +self? It were, my lord, a hard condition for a maid to consign to. + +KING HENRY. +Yet they do wink and yield, as love is blind and enforces. + +BURGUNDY. +They are then excus’d, my lord, when they see not what they do. + +KING HENRY. +Then, good my lord, teach your cousin to consent winking. + +BURGUNDY. +I will wink on her to consent, my lord, if you will teach her to know +my meaning; for maids, well summer’d and warm kept, are like flies at +Bartholomew-tide, blind, though they have their eyes; and then they +will endure handling, which before would not abide looking on. + +KING HENRY. +This moral ties me over to time and a hot summer; and so I shall catch +the fly, your cousin, in the latter end, and she must be blind too. + +BURGUNDY. +As love is, my lord, before it loves. + +KING HENRY. +It is so; and you may, some of you, thank love for my blindness, who +cannot see many a fair French city for one fair French maid that stands +in my way. + +FRENCH KING. +Yes, my lord, you see them perspectively, the cities turn’d into a +maid; for they are all girdled with maiden walls that no war hath +entered. + +KING HENRY. +Shall Kate be my wife? + +FRENCH KING. +So please you. + +KING HENRY. +I am content, so the maiden cities you talk of may wait on her; so the +maid that stood in the way for my wish shall show me the way to my +will. + +FRENCH KING. +We have consented to all terms of reason. + +KING HENRY. +Is’t so, my lords of England? + +WESTMORLAND. +The king hath granted every article; +His daughter first, and then in sequel all, +According to their firm proposed natures. + +EXETER. +Only he hath not yet subscribed this: where your Majesty demands, that +the King of France, having any occasion to write for matter of grant, +shall name your Highness in this form and with this addition, in +French, _Notre très-cher fils Henri, Roi d’Angleterre, Héritier de +France_; and thus in Latin, _Praeclarissimus filius noster Henricus, +rex Angliae et haeres Franciae._ + +FRENCH KING. +Nor this I have not, brother, so denied +But our request shall make me let it pass. + +KING HENRY. +I pray you then, in love and dear alliance, +Let that one article rank with the rest; +And thereupon give me your daughter. + +FRENCH KING. +Take her, fair son, and from her blood raise up +Issue to me; that the contending kingdoms +Of France and England, whose very shores look pale +With envy of each other’s happiness, +May cease their hatred; and this dear conjunction +Plant neighbourhood and Christian-like accord +In their sweet bosoms, that never war advance +His bleeding sword ’twixt England and fair France. + +LORDS. +Amen! + +KING HENRY. +Now, welcome, Kate; and bear me witness all, +That here I kiss her as my sovereign queen. + + [_Flourish._] + +QUEEN ISABEL. +God, the best maker of all marriages, +Combine your hearts in one, your realms in one! +As man and wife, being two, are one in love, +So be there ’twixt your kingdoms such a spousal, +That never may ill office, or fell jealousy, +Which troubles oft the bed of blessed marriage, +Thrust in between the paction of these kingdoms, +To make divorce of their incorporate league; +That English may as French, French Englishmen, +Receive each other. God speak this Amen! + +ALL. +Amen! + +KING HENRY. +Prepare we for our marriage; on which day, +My Lord of Burgundy, we’ll take your oath, +And all the peers’, for surety of our leagues, +Then shall I swear to Kate, and you to me; +And may our oaths well kept and prosperous be! + + [_Sennet. Exeunt._] + +EPILOGUE. + + Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +Thus far, with rough and all-unable pen, +Our bending author hath pursu’d the story, +In little room confining mighty men, +Mangling by starts the full course of their glory. +Small time, but in that small most greatly lived +This star of England. Fortune made his sword, +By which the world’s best garden he achieved, +And of it left his son imperial lord. +Henry the Sixth, in infant bands crown’d King +Of France and England, did this king succeed; +Whose state so many had the managing, +That they lost France and made his England bleed: +Which oft our stage hath shown; and, for their sake, +In your fair minds let this acceptance take. + + [_Exit._] + + + + + +THE FIRST PART OF HENRY THE SIXTH + +Dramatis Personae + + KING HENRY THE SIXTH + DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, uncle to the King, and Protector + DUKE OF BEDFORD, uncle to the King, and Regent of France + THOMAS BEAUFORT, DUKE OF EXETER, great-uncle to the king + HENRY BEAUFORT, great-uncle to the King, BISHOP OF WINCHESTER, + and afterwards CARDINAL + JOHN BEAUFORT, EARL OF SOMERSET, afterwards Duke + RICHARD PLANTAGENET, son of Richard late Earl of Cambridge, + afterwards DUKE OF YORK + EARL OF WARWICK + EARL OF SALISBURY + EARL OF SUFFOLK + LORD TALBOT, afterwards EARL OF SHREWSBURY + JOHN TALBOT, his son + EDMUND MORTIMER, EARL OF MARCH + SIR JOHN FASTOLFE + SIR WILLIAM LUCY + SIR WILLIAM GLANSDALE + SIR THOMAS GARGRAVE + MAYOR of LONDON + WOODVILLE, Lieutenant of the Tower + VERNON, of the White Rose or York faction + BASSET, of the Red Rose or Lancaster faction + A LAWYER + GAOLERS, to Mortimer + CHARLES, Dauphin, and afterwards King of France + REIGNIER, DUKE OF ANJOU, and titular King of Naples + DUKE OF BURGUNDY + DUKE OF ALENCON + BASTARD OF ORLEANS + GOVERNOR OF PARIS + MASTER-GUNNER OF ORLEANS, and his SON + GENERAL OF THE FRENCH FORCES in Bordeaux + A FRENCH SERGEANT + A PORTER + AN OLD SHEPHERD, father to Joan la Pucelle + MARGARET, daughter to Reignier, afterwards married to + King Henry + COUNTESS OF AUVERGNE + JOAN LA PUCELLE, Commonly called JOAN OF ARC + + Lords, Warders of the Tower, Heralds, Officers, Soldiers, + Messengers, English and French Attendants. Fiends appearing + to La Pucelle + +SCENE: England and France + +The First Part of King Henry the Sixth + +ACT I. SCENE 1. + +Westminster Abbey + +Dead March. Enter the funeral of KING HENRY THE FIFTH, attended on by +the DUKE OF BEDFORD, Regent of France, the DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, +Protector, the DUKE OF EXETER, the EARL OF WARWICK, the BISHOP OF +WINCHESTER + + BEDFORD. Hung be the heavens with black, yield day to + night! Comets, importing change of times and states, + Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky + And with them scourge the bad revolting stars + That have consented unto Henry's death! + King Henry the Fifth, too famous to live long! + England ne'er lost a king of so much worth. + GLOUCESTER. England ne'er had a king until his time. + Virtue he had, deserving to command; + His brandish'd sword did blind men with his beams; + His arms spread wider than a dragon's wings; + His sparkling eyes, replete with wrathful fire, + More dazzled and drove back his enemies + Than mid-day sun fierce bent against their faces. + What should I say? His deeds exceed all speech: + He ne'er lift up his hand but conquered. + EXETER. We mourn in black; why mourn we not in blood? + Henry is dead and never shall revive. + Upon a wooden coffin we attend; + And death's dishonourable victory + We with our stately presence glorify, + Like captives bound to a triumphant car. + What! shall we curse the planets of mishap + That plotted thus our glory's overthrow? + Or shall we think the subtle-witted French + Conjurers and sorcerers, that, afraid of him, + By magic verses have contriv'd his end? + WINCHESTER. He was a king bless'd of the King of kings; + Unto the French the dreadful judgment-day + So dreadful will not be as was his sight. + The battles of the Lord of Hosts he fought; + The Church's prayers made him so prosperous. + GLOUCESTER. The Church! Where is it? Had not churchmen + pray'd, + His thread of life had not so soon decay'd. + None do you like but an effeminate prince, + Whom like a school-boy you may overawe. + WINCHESTER. Gloucester, whate'er we like, thou art + Protector + And lookest to command the Prince and realm. + Thy wife is proud; she holdeth thee in awe + More than God or religious churchmen may. + GLOUCESTER. Name not religion, for thou lov'st the flesh; + And ne'er throughout the year to church thou go'st, + Except it be to pray against thy foes. + BEDFORD. Cease, cease these jars and rest your minds in peace; + Let's to the altar. Heralds, wait on us. + Instead of gold, we'll offer up our arms, + Since arms avail not, now that Henry's dead. + Posterity, await for wretched years, + When at their mothers' moist'ned eyes babes shall suck, + Our isle be made a nourish of salt tears, + And none but women left to wail the dead. + HENRY the Fifth, thy ghost I invocate: + Prosper this realm, keep it from civil broils, + Combat with adverse planets in the heavens. + A far more glorious star thy soul will make + Than Julius Caesar or bright + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. My honourable lords, health to you all! + Sad tidings bring I to you out of France, + Of loss, of slaughter, and discomfiture: + Guienne, Champagne, Rheims, Orleans, + Paris, Guysors, Poictiers, are all quite lost. + BEDFORD. What say'st thou, man, before dead Henry's corse? + Speak softly, or the loss of those great towns + Will make him burst his lead and rise from death. + GLOUCESTER. Is Paris lost? Is Rouen yielded up? + If Henry were recall'd to life again, + These news would cause him once more yield the ghost. + EXETER. How were they lost? What treachery was us'd? + MESSENGER. No treachery, but want of men and money. + Amongst the soldiers this is muttered + That here you maintain several factions; + And whilst a field should be dispatch'd and fought, + You are disputing of your generals: + One would have ling'ring wars, with little cost; + Another would fly swift, but wanteth wings; + A third thinks, without expense at all, + By guileful fair words peace may be obtain'd. + Awake, awake, English nobility! + Let not sloth dim your honours, new-begot. + Cropp'd are the flower-de-luces in your arms; + Of England's coat one half is cut away. + EXETER. Were our tears wanting to this funeral, + These tidings would call forth their flowing tides. + BEDFORD. Me they concern; Regent I am of France. + Give me my steeled coat; I'll fight for France. + Away with these disgraceful wailing robes! + Wounds will I lend the French instead of eyes, + To weep their intermissive miseries. + + Enter a second MESSENGER + + SECOND MESSENGER. Lords, view these letters full of bad + mischance. + France is revolted from the English quite, + Except some petty towns of no import. + The Dauphin Charles is crowned king in Rheims; + The Bastard of Orleans with him is join'd; + Reignier, Duke of Anjou, doth take his part; + The Duke of Alencon flieth to his side. + EXETER. The Dauphin crowned king! all fly to him! + O, whither shall we fly from this reproach? + GLOUCESTER. We will not fly but to our enemies' throats. + Bedford, if thou be slack I'll fight it out. + BEDFORD. Gloucester, why doubt'st thou of my forwardness? + An army have I muster'd in my thoughts, + Wherewith already France is overrun. + + Enter a third MESSENGER + + THIRD MESSENGER. My gracious lords, to add to your + laments, + Wherewith you now bedew King Henry's hearse, + I must inform you of a dismal fight + Betwixt the stout Lord Talbot and the French. + WINCHESTER. What! Wherein Talbot overcame? Is't so? + THIRD MESSENGER. O, no; wherein Lord Talbot was + o'erthrown. + The circumstance I'll tell you more at large. + The tenth of August last this dreadful lord, + Retiring from the siege of Orleans, + Having full scarce six thousand in his troop, + By three and twenty thousand of the French + Was round encompassed and set upon. + No leisure had he to enrank his men; + He wanted pikes to set before his archers; + Instead whereof sharp stakes pluck'd out of hedges + They pitched in the ground confusedly + To keep the horsemen off from breaking in. + More than three hours the fight continued; + Where valiant Talbot, above human thought, + Enacted wonders with his sword and lance: + Hundreds he sent to hell, and none durst stand him; + Here, there, and everywhere, enrag'd he slew + The French exclaim'd the devil was in arms; + All the whole army stood agaz'd on him. + His soldiers, spying his undaunted spirit, + 'A Talbot! a Talbot!' cried out amain, + And rush'd into the bowels of the battle. + Here had the conquest fully been seal'd up + If Sir John Fastolfe had not play'd the coward. + He, being in the vaward plac'd behind + With purpose to relieve and follow them- + Cowardly fled, not having struck one stroke; + Hence grew the general wreck and massacre. + Enclosed were they with their enemies. + A base Walloon, to win the Dauphin's grace, + Thrust Talbot with a spear into the back; + Whom all France, with their chief assembled strength, + Durst not presume to look once in the face. + BEDFORD. Is Talbot slain? Then I will slay myself, + For living idly here in pomp and ease, + Whilst such a worthy leader, wanting aid, + Unto his dastard foemen is betray'd. + THIRD MESSENGER. O no, he lives, but is took prisoner, + And Lord Scales with him, and Lord Hungerford; + Most of the rest slaughter'd or took likewise. + BEDFORD. His ransom there is none but I shall pay. + I'll hale the Dauphin headlong from his throne; + His crown shall be the ransom of my friend; + Four of their lords I'll change for one of ours. + Farewell, my masters; to my task will I; + Bonfires in France forthwith I am to make + To keep our great Saint George's feast withal. + Ten thousand soldiers with me I will take, + Whose bloody deeds shall make an Europe quake. + THIRD MESSENGER. So you had need; for Orleans is besieg'd; + The English army is grown weak and faint; + The Earl of Salisbury craveth supply + And hardly keeps his men from mutiny, + Since they, so few, watch such a multitude. + EXETER. Remember, lords, your oaths to Henry sworn, + Either to quell the Dauphin utterly, + Or bring him in obedience to your yoke. + BEDFORD. I do remember it, and here take my leave + To go about my preparation. Exit + GLOUCESTER. I'll to the Tower with all the haste I can + To view th' artillery and munition; + And then I will proclaim young Henry king. Exit + EXETER. To Eltham will I, where the young King is, + Being ordain'd his special governor; + And for his safety there I'll best devise. Exit + WINCHESTER. [Aside] Each hath his place and function to + attend: + I am left out; for me nothing remains. + But long I will not be Jack out of office. + The King from Eltham I intend to steal, + And sit at chiefest stern of public weal. Exeunt + + SCENE 2. + + France. Before Orleans + + Sound a flourish. Enter CHARLES THE DAUPHIN, ALENCON, + and REIGNIER, marching with drum and soldiers + + CHARLES. Mars his true moving, even as in the heavens + So in the earth, to this day is not known. + Late did he shine upon the English side; + Now we are victors, upon us he smiles. + What towns of any moment but we have? + At pleasure here we lie near Orleans; + Otherwhiles the famish'd English, like pale ghosts, + Faintly besiege us one hour in a month. + ALENCON. They want their porridge and their fat bull + beeves. + Either they must be dieted like mules + And have their provender tied to their mouths, + Or piteous they will look, like drowned mice. + REIGNIER. Let's raise the siege. Why live we idly here? + Talbot is taken, whom we wont to fear; + Remaineth none but mad-brain'd Salisbury, + And he may well in fretting spend his gall + Nor men nor money hath he to make war. + CHARLES. Sound, sound alarum; we will rush on them. + Now for the honour of the forlorn French! + Him I forgive my death that killeth me, + When he sees me go back one foot or flee. Exeunt + + Here alarum. They are beaten hack by the English, with + great loss. Re-enter CHARLES, ALENCON, and REIGNIER + + CHARLES. Who ever saw the like? What men have I! + Dogs! cowards! dastards! I would ne'er have fled + But that they left me midst my enemies. + REIGNIER. Salisbury is a desperate homicide; + He fighteth as one weary of his life. + The other lords, like lions wanting food, + Do rush upon us as their hungry prey. + ALENCON. Froissart, a countryman of ours, records + England all Olivers and Rowlands bred + During the time Edward the Third did reign. + More truly now may this be verified; + For none but Samsons and Goliases + It sendeth forth to skirmish. One to ten! + Lean raw-bon'd rascals! Who would e'er suppose + They had such courage and audacity? + CHARLES. Let's leave this town; for they are hare-brain'd + slaves, + And hunger will enforce them to be more eager. + Of old I know them; rather with their teeth + The walls they'll tear down than forsake the siege. + REIGNIER. I think by some odd gimmers or device + Their arms are set, like clocks, still to strike on; + Else ne'er could they hold out so as they do. + By my consent, we'll even let them alone. + ALENCON. Be it so. + + Enter the BASTARD OF ORLEANS + + BASTARD. Where's the Prince Dauphin? I have news for him. + CHARLES. Bastard of Orleans, thrice welcome to us. + BASTARD. Methinks your looks are sad, your cheer appall'd. + Hath the late overthrow wrought this offence? + Be not dismay'd, for succour is at hand. + A holy maid hither with me I bring, + Which, by a vision sent to her from heaven, + Ordained is to raise this tedious siege + And drive the English forth the bounds of France. + The spirit of deep prophecy she hath, + Exceeding the nine sibyls of old Rome: + What's past and what's to come she can descry. + Speak, shall I call her in? Believe my words, + For they are certain and unfallible. + CHARLES. Go, call her in. [Exit BASTARD] + But first, to try her skill, + Reignier, stand thou as Dauphin in my place; + Question her proudly; let thy looks be stern; + By this means shall we sound what skill she hath. + + Re-enter the BASTARD OF ORLEANS with + JOAN LA PUCELLE + + REIGNIER. Fair maid, is 't thou wilt do these wondrous feats? + PUCELLE. Reignier, is 't thou that thinkest to beguile me? + Where is the Dauphin? Come, come from behind; + I know thee well, though never seen before. + Be not amaz'd, there's nothing hid from me. + In private will I talk with thee apart. + Stand back, you lords, and give us leave awhile. + REIGNIER. She takes upon her bravely at first dash. + PUCELLE. Dauphin, I am by birth a shepherd's daughter, + My wit untrain'd in any kind of art. + Heaven and our Lady gracious hath it pleas'd + To shine on my contemptible estate. + Lo, whilst I waited on my tender lambs + And to sun's parching heat display'd my cheeks, + God's Mother deigned to appear to me, + And in a vision full of majesty + Will'd me to leave my base vocation + And free my country from calamity + Her aid she promis'd and assur'd success. + In complete glory she reveal'd herself; + And whereas I was black and swart before, + With those clear rays which she infus'd on me + That beauty am I bless'd with which you may see. + Ask me what question thou canst possible, + And I will answer unpremeditated. + My courage try by combat if thou dar'st, + And thou shalt find that I exceed my sex. + Resolve on this: thou shalt be fortunate + If thou receive me for thy warlike mate. + CHARLES. Thou hast astonish'd me with thy high terms. + Only this proof I'll of thy valour make + In single combat thou shalt buckle with me; + And if thou vanquishest, thy words are true; + Otherwise I renounce all confidence. + PUCELLE. I am prepar'd; here is my keen-edg'd sword, + Deck'd with five flower-de-luces on each side, + The which at Touraine, in Saint Katherine's churchyard, + Out of a great deal of old iron I chose forth. + CHARLES. Then come, o' God's name; I fear no woman. + PUCELLE. And while I live I'll ne'er fly from a man. + [Here they fight and JOAN LA PUCELLE overcomes] + CHARLES. Stay, stay thy hands; thou art an Amazon, + And fightest with the sword of Deborah. + PUCELLE. Christ's Mother helps me, else I were too weak. + CHARLES. Whoe'er helps thee, 'tis thou that must help me. + Impatiently I burn with thy desire; + My heart and hands thou hast at once subdu'd. + Excellent Pucelle, if thy name be so, + Let me thy servant and not sovereign be. + 'Tis the French Dauphin sueth to thee thus. + PUCELLE. I must not yield to any rites of love, + For my profession's sacred from above. + When I have chased all thy foes from hence, + Then will I think upon a recompense. + CHARLES. Meantime look gracious on thy prostrate thrall. + REIGNIER. My lord, methinks, is very long in talk. + ALENCON. Doubtless he shrives this woman to her smock; + Else ne'er could he so long protract his speech. + REIGNIER. Shall we disturb him, since he keeps no mean? + ALENCON. He may mean more than we poor men do know; + These women are shrewd tempters with their tongues. + REIGNIER. My lord, where are you? What devise you on? + Shall we give o'er Orleans, or no? + PUCELLE. Why, no, I say; distrustful recreants! + Fight till the last gasp; I will be your guard. + CHARLES. What she says I'll confirm; we'll fight it out. + PUCELLE. Assign'd am I to be the English scourge. + This night the siege assuredly I'll raise. + Expect Saint Martin's summer, halcyon days, + Since I have entered into these wars. + Glory is like a circle in the water, + Which never ceaseth to enlarge itself + Till by broad spreading it disperse to nought. + With Henry's death the English circle ends; + Dispersed are the glories it included. + Now am I like that proud insulting ship + Which Caesar and his fortune bare at once. + CHARLES. Was Mahomet inspired with a dove? + Thou with an eagle art inspired then. + Helen, the mother of great Constantine, + Nor yet Saint Philip's daughters were like thee. + Bright star of Venus, fall'n down on the earth, + How may I reverently worship thee enough? + ALENCON. Leave off delays, and let us raise the siege. + REIGNIER. Woman, do what thou canst to save our honours; + Drive them from Orleans, and be immortaliz'd. + CHARLES. Presently we'll try. Come, let's away about it. + No prophet will I trust if she prove false. Exeunt + + SCENE 3. + + London. Before the Tower gates + + Enter the DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, with his serving-men + in blue coats + + GLOUCESTER. I am come to survey the Tower this day; + Since Henry's death, I fear, there is conveyance. + Where be these warders that they wait not here? + Open the gates; 'tis Gloucester that calls. + FIRST WARDER. [Within] Who's there that knocks so + imperiously? + FIRST SERVING-MAN. It is the noble Duke of Gloucester. + SECOND WARDER. [Within] Whoe'er he be, you may not be + let in. + FIRST SERVING-MAN. Villains, answer you so the Lord + Protector? + FIRST WARDER. [Within] The Lord protect him! so we + answer him. + We do no otherwise than we are will'd. + GLOUCESTER. Who willed you, or whose will stands but + mine? + There's none Protector of the realm but I. + Break up the gates, I'll be your warrantize. + Shall I be flouted thus by dunghill grooms? + [GLOUCESTER'S men rush at the Tower gates, and + WOODVILLE the Lieutenant speaks within] + WOODVILLE. [Within] What noise is this? What traitors + have we here? + GLOUCESTER. Lieutenant, is it you whose voice I hear? + Open the gates; here's Gloucester that would enter. + WOODVILLE. [Within] Have patience, noble Duke, I may + not open; + The Cardinal of Winchester forbids. + From him I have express commandment + That thou nor none of thine shall be let in. + GLOUCESTER. Faint-hearted Woodville, prizest him fore me? + Arrogant Winchester, that haughty prelate + Whom Henry, our late sovereign, ne'er could brook! + Thou art no friend to God or to the King. + Open the gates, or I'll shut thee out shortly. + SERVING-MEN. Open the gates unto the Lord Protector, + Or we'll burst them open, if that you come not quickly. + + Enter to the PROTECTOR at the Tower gates WINCHESTER + and his men in tawny coats + + WINCHESTER. How now, ambitious Humphry! What means + this? + GLOUCESTER. Peel'd priest, dost thou command me to be + shut out? + WINCHESTER. I do, thou most usurping proditor, + And not Protector of the King or realm. + GLOUCESTER. Stand back, thou manifest conspirator, + Thou that contrived'st to murder our dead lord; + Thou that giv'st whores indulgences to sin. + I'll canvass thee in thy broad cardinal's hat, + If thou proceed in this thy insolence. + WINCHESTER. Nay, stand thou back; I will not budge a foot. + This be Damascus; be thou cursed Cain, + To slay thy brother Abel, if thou wilt. + GLOUCESTER. I will not slay thee, but I'll drive thee back. + Thy scarlet robes as a child's bearing-cloth + I'll use to carry thee out of this place. + WINCHESTER. Do what thou dar'st; I beard thee to thy face. + GLOUCESTER. What! am I dar'd and bearded to my face? + Draw, men, for all this privileged place + Blue-coats to tawny-coats. Priest, beware your beard; + I mean to tug it, and to cuff you soundly; + Under my feet I stamp thy cardinal's hat; + In spite of Pope or dignities of church, + Here by the cheeks I'll drag thee up and down. + WINCHESTER. Gloucester, thou wilt answer this before the + Pope. + GLOUCESTER. Winchester goose! I cry 'A rope, a rope!' + Now beat them hence; why do you let them stay? + Thee I'll chase hence, thou wolf in sheep's array. + Out, tawny-coats! Out, scarlet hypocrite! + + Here GLOUCESTER'S men beat out the CARDINAL'S + men; and enter in the hurly burly the MAYOR OF + LONDON and his OFFICERS + + MAYOR. Fie, lords! that you, being supreme magistrates, + Thus contumeliously should break the peace! + GLOUCESTER. Peace, Mayor! thou know'st little of my wrongs: + Here's Beaufort, that regards nor God nor King, + Hath here distrain'd the Tower to his use. + WINCHESTER. Here's Gloucester, a foe to citizens; + One that still motions war and never peace, + O'ercharging your free purses with large fines; + That seeks to overthrow religion, + Because he is Protector of the realm, + And would have armour here out of the Tower, + To crown himself King and suppress the Prince. + GLOUCESTER. I Will not answer thee with words, but blows. + [Here they skirmish again] + MAYOR. Nought rests for me in this tumultuous strife + But to make open proclamation. + Come, officer, as loud as e'er thou canst, + Cry. + OFFICER. [Cries] All manner of men assembled here in arms + this day against God's peace and the King's, we charge + and command you, in his Highness' name, to repair to + your several dwelling-places; and not to wear, handle, or + use, any sword, weapon, or dagger, henceforward, upon + pain of death. + GLOUCESTER. Cardinal, I'll be no breaker of the law; + But we shall meet and break our minds at large. + WINCHESTER. Gloucester, we'll meet to thy cost, be sure; + Thy heart-blood I will have for this day's work. + MAYOR. I'll call for clubs if you will not away. + This Cardinal's more haughty than the devil. + GLOUCESTER. Mayor, farewell; thou dost but what thou + mayst. + WINCHESTER. Abominable Gloucester, guard thy head, + For I intend to have it ere long. + Exeunt, severally, GLOUCESTER and WINCHESTER + with their servants + MAYOR. See the coast clear'd, and then we will depart. + Good God, these nobles should such stomachs bear! + I myself fight not once in forty year. Exeunt + + SCENE 4. + + France. Before Orleans + + Enter, on the walls, the MASTER-GUNNER + OF ORLEANS and his BOY + + MASTER-GUNNER. Sirrah, thou know'st how Orleans is + besieg'd, + And how the English have the suburbs won. + BOY. Father, I know; and oft have shot at them, + Howe'er unfortunate I miss'd my aim. + MASTER-GUNNER. But now thou shalt not. Be thou rul'd + by me. + Chief master-gunner am I of this town; + Something I must do to procure me grace. + The Prince's espials have informed me + How the English, in the suburbs close intrench'd, + Wont, through a secret grate of iron bars + In yonder tower, to overpeer the city, + And thence discover how with most advantage + They may vex us with shot or with assault. + To intercept this inconvenience, + A piece of ordnance 'gainst it I have plac'd; + And even these three days have I watch'd + If I could see them. Now do thou watch, + For I can stay no longer. + If thou spy'st any, run and bring me word; + And thou shalt find me at the Governor's. Exit + BOY. Father, I warrant you; take you no care; + I'll never trouble you, if I may spy them. Exit + + Enter SALISBURY and TALBOT on the turrets, with + SIR WILLIAM GLANSDALE, SIR THOMAS GARGRAVE, + and others + + SALISBURY. Talbot, my life, my joy, again return'd! + How wert thou handled being prisoner? + Or by what means got'st thou to be releas'd? + Discourse, I prithee, on this turret's top. + TALBOT. The Earl of Bedford had a prisoner + Call'd the brave Lord Ponton de Santrailles; + For him was I exchang'd and ransomed. + But with a baser man of arms by far + Once, in contempt, they would have barter'd me; + Which I disdaining scorn'd, and craved death + Rather than I would be so vile esteem'd. + In fine, redeem'd I was as I desir'd. + But, O! the treacherous Fastolfe wounds my heart + Whom with my bare fists I would execute, + If I now had him brought into my power. + SALISBURY. Yet tell'st thou not how thou wert entertain'd. + TALBOT. With scoffs, and scorns, and contumelious taunts, + In open market-place produc'd they me + To be a public spectacle to all; + Here, said they, is the terror of the French, + The scarecrow that affrights our children so. + Then broke I from the officers that led me, + And with my nails digg'd stones out of the ground + To hurl at the beholders of my shame; + My grisly countenance made others fly; + None durst come near for fear of sudden death. + In iron walls they deem'd me not secure; + So great fear of my name 'mongst them was spread + That they suppos'd I could rend bars of steel + And spurn in pieces posts of adamant; + Wherefore a guard of chosen shot I had + That walk'd about me every minute-while; + And if I did but stir out of my bed, + Ready they were to shoot me to the heart. + + Enter the BOY with a linstock + + SALISBURY. I grieve to hear what torments you endur'd; + But we will be reveng'd sufficiently. + Now it is supper-time in Orleans: + Here, through this grate, I count each one + And view the Frenchmen how they fortify. + Let us look in; the sight will much delight thee. + Sir Thomas Gargrave and Sir William Glansdale, + Let me have your express opinions + Where is best place to make our batt'ry next. + GARGRAVE. I think at the North Gate; for there stand lords. + GLANSDALE. And I here, at the bulwark of the bridge. + TALBOT. For aught I see, this city must be famish'd, + Or with light skirmishes enfeebled. + [Here they shoot and SALISBURY and GARGRAVE + fall down] + SALISBURY. O Lord, have mercy on us, wretched sinners! + GARGRAVE. O Lord, have mercy on me, woeful man! + TALBOT. What chance is this that suddenly hath cross'd us? + Speak, Salisbury; at least, if thou canst speak. + How far'st thou, mirror of all martial men? + One of thy eyes and thy cheek's side struck off! + Accursed tower! accursed fatal hand + That hath contriv'd this woeful tragedy! + In thirteen battles Salisbury o'ercame; + Henry the Fifth he first train'd to the wars; + Whilst any trump did sound or drum struck up, + His sword did ne'er leave striking in the field. + Yet liv'st thou, Salisbury? Though thy speech doth fail, + One eye thou hast to look to heaven for grace; + The sun with one eye vieweth all the world. + Heaven, be thou gracious to none alive + If Salisbury wants mercy at thy hands! + Bear hence his body; I will help to bury it. + Sir Thomas Gargrave, hast thou any life? + Speak unto Talbot; nay, look up to him. + Salisbury, cheer thy spirit with this comfort, + Thou shalt not die whiles + He beckons with his hand and smiles on me, + As who should say 'When I am dead and gone, + Remember to avenge me on the French.' + Plantagenet, I will; and like thee, Nero, + Play on the lute, beholding the towns burn. + Wretched shall France be only in my name. + [Here an alarum, and it thunders and lightens] + What stir is this? What tumult's in the heavens? + Whence cometh this alarum and the noise? + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. My lord, my lord, the French have gather'd + head + The Dauphin, with one Joan la Pucelle join'd, + A holy prophetess new risen up, + Is come with a great power to raise the siege. + [Here SALISBURY lifteth himself up and groans] + TALBOT. Hear, hear how dying Salisbury doth groan. + It irks his heart he cannot be reveng'd. + Frenchmen, I'll be a Salisbury to you. + Pucelle or puzzel, dolphin or dogfish, + Your hearts I'll stamp out with my horse's heels + And make a quagmire of your mingled brains. + Convey me Salisbury into his tent, + And then we'll try what these dastard Frenchmen dare. + Alarum. Exeunt + + SCENE 5. + + Before Orleans + + Here an alarum again, and TALBOT pursueth the + DAUPHIN and driveth him. Then enter JOAN LA PUCELLE + driving Englishmen before her. Then enter TALBOT + + TALBOT. Where is my strength, my valour, and my force? + Our English troops retire, I cannot stay them; + A woman clad in armour chaseth them. + + Enter LA PUCELLE + + Here, here she comes. I'll have a bout with thee. + Devil or devil's dam, I'll conjure thee; + Blood will I draw on thee-thou art a witch + And straightway give thy soul to him thou serv'st. + PUCELLE. Come, come, 'tis only I that must disgrace thee. + [Here they fight] + TALBOT. Heavens, can you suffer hell so to prevail? + My breast I'll burst with straining of my courage. + And from my shoulders crack my arms asunder, + But I will chastise this high minded strumpet. + [They fight again] + PUCELLE. Talbot, farewell; thy hour is not yet come. + I must go victual Orleans forthwith. + [A short alarum; then enter the town with soldiers] + O'ertake me if thou canst; I scorn thy strength. + Go, go, cheer up thy hungry starved men; + Help Salisbury to make his testament. + This day is ours, as many more shall be. Exit + TALBOT. My thoughts are whirled like a potter's wheel; + I know not where I am nor what I do. + A witch by fear, not force, like Hannibal, + Drives back our troops and conquers as she lists. + So bees with smoke and doves with noisome stench + Are from their hives and houses driven away. + They call'd us, for our fierceness, English dogs; + Now like to whelps we crying run away. + [A short alarum] + Hark, countrymen! Either renew the fight + Or tear the lions out of England's coat; + Renounce your soil, give sheep in lions' stead: + Sheep run not half so treacherous from the wolf, + Or horse or oxen from the leopard, + As you fly from your oft subdued slaves. + [Alarum. Here another skirmish] + It will not be-retire into your trenches. + You all consented unto Salisbury's death, + For none would strike a stroke in his revenge. + Pucelle is ent'red into Orleans + In spite of us or aught that we could do. + O, would I were to die with Salisbury! + The shame hereof will make me hide my head. + Exit TALBOT. Alarum; retreat + + SCENE 6. + + ORLEANS + + Flourish. Enter on the walls, LA PUCELLE, CHARLES, + REIGNIER, ALENCON, and soldiers + + PUCELLE. Advance our waving colours on the walls; + Rescu'd is Orleans from the English. + Thus Joan la Pucelle hath perform'd her word. + CHARLES. Divinest creature, Astraea's daughter, + How shall I honour thee for this success? + Thy promises are like Adonis' gardens, + That one day bloom'd and fruitful were the next. + France, triumph in thy glorious prophetess. + Recover'd is the town of Orleans. + More blessed hap did ne'er befall our state. + REIGNIER. Why ring not out the bells aloud throughout the + town? + Dauphin, command the citizens make bonfires + And feast and banquet in the open streets + To celebrate the joy that God hath given us. + ALENCON. All France will be replete with mirth and joy + When they shall hear how we have play'd the men. + CHARLES. 'Tis Joan, not we, by whom the day is won; + For which I will divide my crown with her; + And all the priests and friars in my realm + Shall in procession sing her endless praise. + A statelier pyramis to her I'll rear + Than Rhodope's of Memphis ever was. + In memory of her, when she is dead, + Her ashes, in an urn more precious + Than the rich jewel'd coffer of Darius, + Transported shall be at high festivals + Before the kings and queens of France. + No longer on Saint Denis will we cry, + But Joan la Pucelle shall be France's saint. + Come in, and let us banquet royally + After this golden day of victory. Flourish. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE 1. + +Before Orleans + +Enter a FRENCH SERGEANT and two SENTINELS + + SERGEANT. Sirs, take your places and be vigilant. + If any noise or soldier you perceive + Near to the walls, by some apparent sign + Let us have knowledge at the court of guard. + FIRST SENTINEL. Sergeant, you shall. [Exit SERGEANT] + Thus are poor servitors, + When others sleep upon their quiet beds, + Constrain'd to watch in darkness, rain, and cold. + + Enter TALBOT, BEDFORD, BURGUNDY, and forces, + with scaling-ladders; their drums beating a dead + march + + TALBOT. Lord Regent, and redoubted Burgundy, + By whose approach the regions of Artois, + Wallon, and Picardy, are friends to us, + This happy night the Frenchmen are secure, + Having all day carous'd and banqueted; + Embrace we then this opportunity, + As fitting best to quittance their deceit, + Contriv'd by art and baleful sorcery. + BEDFORD. Coward of France, how much he wrongs his fame, + Despairing of his own arm's fortitude, + To join with witches and the help of hell! + BURGUNDY. Traitors have never other company. + But what's that Pucelle whom they term so pure? + TALBOT. A maid, they say. + BEDFORD. A maid! and be so martial! + BURGUNDY. Pray God she prove not masculine ere long, + If underneath the standard of the French + She carry armour as she hath begun. + TALBOT. Well, let them practise and converse with spirits: + God is our fortress, in whose conquering name + Let us resolve to scale their flinty bulwarks. + BEDFORD. Ascend, brave Talbot; we will follow thee. + TALBOT. Not all together; better far, I guess, + That we do make our entrance several ways; + That if it chance the one of us do fail + The other yet may rise against their force. + BEDFORD. Agreed; I'll to yond corner. + BURGUNDY. And I to this. + TALBOT. And here will Talbot mount or make his grave. + Now, Salisbury, for thee, and for the right + Of English Henry, shall this night appear + How much in duty I am bound to both. + [The English scale the walls and cry 'Saint George! + a Talbot!'] + SENTINEL. Arm! arm! The enemy doth make assault. + + The French leap o'er the walls in their shirts. + Enter, several ways, BASTARD, ALENCON, REIGNIER, + half ready and half unready + + ALENCON. How now, my lords? What, all unready so? + BASTARD. Unready! Ay, and glad we 'scap'd so well. + REIGNIER. 'Twas time, I trow, to wake and leave our beds, + Hearing alarums at our chamber doors. + ALENCON. Of all exploits since first I follow'd arms + Ne'er heard I of a warlike enterprise + More venturous or desperate than this. + BASTARD. I think this Talbot be a fiend of hell. + REIGNIER. If not of hell, the heavens, sure, favour him + ALENCON. Here cometh Charles; I marvel how he sped. + + Enter CHARLES and LA PUCELLE + + BASTARD. Tut! holy Joan was his defensive guard. + CHARLES. Is this thy cunning, thou deceitful dame? + Didst thou at first, to flatter us withal, + Make us partakers of a little gain + That now our loss might be ten times so much? + PUCELLE. Wherefore is Charles impatient with his friend? + At all times will you have my power alike? + Sleeping or waking, must I still prevail + Or will you blame and lay the fault on me? + Improvident soldiers! Had your watch been good + This sudden mischief never could have fall'n. + CHARLES. Duke of Alencon, this was your default + That, being captain of the watch to-night, + Did look no better to that weighty charge. + ALENCON. Had all your quarters been as safely kept + As that whereof I had the government, + We had not been thus shamefully surpris'd. + BASTARD. Mine was secure. + REIGNIER. And so was mine, my lord. + CHARLES. And, for myself, most part of all this night, + Within her quarter and mine own precinct + I was employ'd in passing to and fro + About relieving of the sentinels. + Then how or which way should they first break in? + PUCELLE. Question, my lords, no further of the case, + How or which way; 'tis sure they found some place + But weakly guarded, where the breach was made. + And now there rests no other shift but this + To gather our soldiers, scatter'd and dispers'd, + And lay new platforms to endamage them. + + Alarum. Enter an ENGLISH SOLDIER, crying + 'A Talbot! A Talbot!' They fly, leaving their + clothes behind + + SOLDIER. I'll be so bold to take what they have left. + The cry of Talbot serves me for a sword; + For I have loaden me with many spoils, + Using no other weapon but his name. Exit + + SCENE 2. + + ORLEANS. Within the town + + Enter TALBOT, BEDFORD, BURGUNDY, a CAPTAIN, + and others + + BEDFORD. The day begins to break, and night is fled + Whose pitchy mantle over-veil'd the earth. + Here sound retreat and cease our hot pursuit. + [Retreat sounded] + TALBOT. Bring forth the body of old Salisbury + And here advance it in the market-place, + The middle centre of this cursed town. + Now have I paid my vow unto his soul; + For every drop of blood was drawn from him + There hath at least five Frenchmen died to-night. + And that hereafter ages may behold + What ruin happened in revenge of him, + Within their chiefest temple I'll erect + A tomb, wherein his corpse shall be interr'd; + Upon the which, that every one may read, + Shall be engrav'd the sack of Orleans, + The treacherous manner of his mournful death, + And what a terror he had been to France. + But, lords, in all our bloody massacre, + I muse we met not with the Dauphin's grace, + His new-come champion, virtuous Joan of Arc, + Nor any of his false confederates. + BEDFORD. 'Tis thought, Lord Talbot, when the fight began, + Rous'd on the sudden from their drowsy beds, + They did amongst the troops of armed men + Leap o'er the walls for refuge in the field. + BURGUNDY. Myself, as far as I could well discern + For smoke and dusky vapours of the night, + Am sure I scar'd the Dauphin and his trull, + When arm in arm they both came swiftly running, + Like to a pair of loving turtle-doves + That could not live asunder day or night. + After that things are set in order here, + We'll follow them with all the power we have. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. All hail, my lords! Which of this princely train + Call ye the warlike Talbot, for his acts + So much applauded through the realm of France? + TALBOT. Here is the Talbot; who would speak with him? + MESSENGER. The virtuous lady, Countess of Auvergne, + With modesty admiring thy renown, + By me entreats, great lord, thou wouldst vouchsafe + To visit her poor castle where she lies, + That she may boast she hath beheld the man + Whose glory fills the world with loud report. + BURGUNDY. Is it even so? Nay, then I see our wars + Will turn into a peaceful comic sport, + When ladies crave to be encount'red with. + You may not, my lord, despise her gentle suit. + TALBOT. Ne'er trust me then; for when a world of men + Could not prevail with all their oratory, + Yet hath a woman's kindness overrul'd; + And therefore tell her I return great thanks + And in submission will attend on her. + Will not your honours bear me company? + BEDFORD. No, truly; 'tis more than manners will; + And I have heard it said unbidden guests + Are often welcomest when they are gone. + TALBOT. Well then, alone, since there's no remedy, + I mean to prove this lady's courtesy. + Come hither, Captain. [Whispers] You perceive my mind? + CAPTAIN. I do, my lord, and mean accordingly. Exeunt + + SCENE 3. + + AUVERGNE. The Castle + + Enter the COUNTESS and her PORTER + + COUNTESS. Porter, remember what I gave in charge; + And when you have done so, bring the keys to me. + PORTER. Madam, I will. + COUNTESS. The plot is laid; if all things fall out right, + I shall as famous be by this exploit. + As Scythian Tomyris by Cyrus' death. + Great is the rumour of this dreadful knight, + And his achievements of no less account. + Fain would mine eyes be witness with mine ears + To give their censure of these rare reports. + + Enter MESSENGER and TALBOT. + + MESSENGER. Madam, according as your ladyship desir'd, + By message crav'd, so is Lord Talbot come. + COUNTESS. And he is welcome. What! is this the man? + MESSENGER. Madam, it is. + COUNTESS. Is this the scourge of France? + Is this Talbot, so much fear'd abroad + That with his name the mothers still their babes? + I see report is fabulous and false. + I thought I should have seen some Hercules, + A second Hector, for his grim aspect + And large proportion of his strong-knit limbs. + Alas, this is a child, a silly dwarf! + It cannot be this weak and writhled shrimp + Should strike such terror to his enemies. + TALBOT. Madam, I have been bold to trouble you; + But since your ladyship is not at leisure, + I'll sort some other time to visit you. [Going] + COUNTESS. What means he now? Go ask him whither he + goes. + MESSENGER. Stay, my Lord Talbot; for my lady craves + To know the cause of your abrupt departure. + TALBOT. Marry, for that she's in a wrong belief, + I go to certify her Talbot's here. + + Re-enter PORTER With keys + + COUNTESS. If thou be he, then art thou prisoner. + TALBOT. Prisoner! To whom? + COUNTESS. To me, blood-thirsty lord + And for that cause I train'd thee to my house. + Long time thy shadow hath been thrall to me, + For in my gallery thy picture hangs; + But now the substance shall endure the like + And I will chain these legs and arms of thine + That hast by tyranny these many years + Wasted our country, slain our citizens, + And sent our sons and husbands captivate. + TALBOT. Ha, ha, ha! + COUNTESS. Laughest thou, wretch? Thy mirth shall turn to + moan. + TALBOT. I laugh to see your ladyship so fond + To think that you have aught but Talbot's shadow + Whereon to practise your severity. + COUNTESS. Why, art not thou the man? + TALBOT. I am indeed. + COUNTESS. Then have I substance too. + TALBOT. No, no, I am but shadow of myself. + You are deceiv'd, my substance is not here; + For what you see is but the smallest part + And least proportion of humanity. + I tell you, madam, were the whole frame here, + It is of such a spacious lofty pitch + Your roof were not sufficient to contain 't. + COUNTESS. This is a riddling merchant for the nonce; + He will be here, and yet he is not here. + How can these contrarieties agree? + TALBOT. That will I show you presently. + + Winds his horn; drums strike up; + a peal of ordnance. Enter soldiers + + How say you, madam? Are you now persuaded + That Talbot is but shadow of himself? + These are his substance, sinews, arms, and strength, + With which he yoketh your rebellious necks, + Razeth your cities, and subverts your towns, + And in a moment makes them desolate. + COUNTESS. Victorious Talbot! pardon my abuse. + I find thou art no less than fame hath bruited, + And more than may be gathered by thy shape. + Let my presumption not provoke thy wrath, + For I am sorry that with reverence + I did not entertain thee as thou art. + TALBOT. Be not dismay'd, fair lady; nor misconster + The mind of Talbot as you did mistake + The outward composition of his body. + What you have done hath not offended me. + Nor other satisfaction do I crave + But only, with your patience, that we may + Taste of your wine and see what cates you have, + For soldiers' stomachs always serve them well. + COUNTESS. With all my heart, and think me honoured + To feast so great a warrior in my house. Exeunt + + SCENE 4. + + London. The Temple garden + + Enter the EARLS OF SOMERSET, SUFFOLK, and WARWICK; + RICHARD PLANTAGENET, VERNON, and another LAWYER + + PLANTAGENET. Great lords and gentlemen, what means this + silence? + Dare no man answer in a case of truth? + SUFFOLK. Within the Temple Hall we were too loud; + The garden here is more convenient. + PLANTAGENET. Then say at once if I maintain'd the truth; + Or else was wrangling Somerset in th' error? + SUFFOLK. Faith, I have been a truant in the law + And never yet could frame my will to it; + And therefore frame the law unto my will. + SOMERSET. Judge you, my Lord of Warwick, then, between us. + WARWICK. Between two hawks, which flies the higher pitch; + Between two dogs, which hath the deeper mouth; + Between two blades, which bears the better temper; + Between two horses, which doth bear him best; + Between two girls, which hath the merriest eye + I have perhaps some shallow spirit of judgment; + But in these nice sharp quillets of the law, + Good faith, I am no wiser than a daw. + PLANTAGENET. Tut, tut, here is a mannerly forbearance: + The truth appears so naked on my side + That any purblind eye may find it out. + SOMERSET. And on my side it is so well apparell'd, + So clear, so shining, and so evident, + That it will glimmer through a blind man's eye. + PLANTAGENET. Since you are tongue-tied and so loath to speak, + In dumb significants proclaim your thoughts. + Let him that is a true-born gentleman + And stands upon the honour of his birth, + If he suppose that I have pleaded truth, + From off this brier pluck a white rose with me. + SOMERSET. Let him that is no coward nor no flatterer, + But dare maintain the party of the truth, + Pluck a red rose from off this thorn with me. + WARWICK. I love no colours; and, without all colour + Of base insinuating flattery, + I pluck this white rose with Plantagenet. + SUFFOLK. I pluck this red rose with young Somerset, + And say withal I think he held the right. + VERNON. Stay, lords and gentlemen, and pluck no more + Till you conclude that he upon whose side + The fewest roses are cropp'd from the tree + Shall yield the other in the right opinion. + SOMERSET. Good Master Vernon, it is well objected; + If I have fewest, I subscribe in silence. + PLANTAGENET. And I. + VERNON. Then, for the truth and plainness of the case, + I pluck this pale and maiden blossom here, + Giving my verdict on the white rose side. + SOMERSET. Prick not your finger as you pluck it off, + Lest, bleeding, you do paint the white rose red, + And fall on my side so, against your will. + VERNON. If I, my lord, for my opinion bleed, + Opinion shall be surgeon to my hurt + And keep me on the side where still I am. + SOMERSET. Well, well, come on; who else? + LAWYER. [To Somerset] Unless my study and my books be + false, + The argument you held was wrong in you; + In sign whereof I pluck a white rose too. + PLANTAGENET. Now, Somerset, where is your argument? + SOMERSET. Here in my scabbard, meditating that + Shall dye your white rose in a bloody red. + PLANTAGENET. Meantime your cheeks do counterfeit our + roses; + For pale they look with fear, as witnessing + The truth on our side. + SOMERSET. No, Plantagenet, + 'Tis not for fear but anger that thy cheeks + Blush for pure shame to counterfeit our roses, + And yet thy tongue will not confess thy error. + PLANTAGENET. Hath not thy rose a canker, Somerset? + SOMERSET. Hath not thy rose a thorn, Plantagenet? + PLANTAGENET. Ay, sharp and piercing, to maintain his truth; + Whiles thy consuming canker eats his falsehood. + SOMERSET. Well, I'll find friends to wear my bleeding roses, + That shall maintain what I have said is true, + Where false Plantagenet dare not be seen. + PLANTAGENET. Now, by this maiden blossom in my hand, + I scorn thee and thy fashion, peevish boy. + SUFFOLK. Turn not thy scorns this way, Plantagenet. + PLANTAGENET. Proud Pole, I will, and scorn both him and + thee. + SUFFOLK. I'll turn my part thereof into thy throat. + SOMERSET. Away, away, good William de la Pole! + We grace the yeoman by conversing with him. + WARWICK. Now, by God's will, thou wrong'st him, Somerset; + His grandfather was Lionel Duke of Clarence, + Third son to the third Edward, King of England. + Spring crestless yeomen from so deep a root? + PLANTAGENET. He bears him on the place's privilege, + Or durst not for his craven heart say thus. + SOMERSET. By Him that made me, I'll maintain my words + On any plot of ground in Christendom. + Was not thy father, Richard Earl of Cambridge, + For treason executed in our late king's days? + And by his treason stand'st not thou attainted, + Corrupted, and exempt from ancient gentry? + His trespass yet lives guilty in thy blood; + And till thou be restor'd thou art a yeoman. + PLANTAGENET. My father was attached, not attainted; + Condemn'd to die for treason, but no traitor; + And that I'll prove on better men than Somerset, + Were growing time once ripened to my will. + For your partaker Pole, and you yourself, + I'll note you in my book of memory + To scourge you for this apprehension. + Look to it well, and say you are well warn'd. + SOMERSET. Ay, thou shalt find us ready for thee still; + And know us by these colours for thy foes + For these my friends in spite of thee shall wear. + PLANTAGENET. And, by my soul, this pale and angry rose, + As cognizance of my blood-drinking hate, + Will I for ever, and my faction, wear, + Until it wither with me to my grave, + Or flourish to the height of my degree. + SUFFOLK. Go forward, and be chok'd with thy ambition! + And so farewell until I meet thee next. Exit + SOMERSET. Have with thee, Pole. Farewell, ambitious + Richard. Exit + PLANTAGENET. How I am brav'd, and must perforce endure + it! + WARWICK. This blot that they object against your house + Shall be wip'd out in the next Parliament, + Call'd for the truce of Winchester and Gloucester; + And if thou be not then created York, + I will not live to be accounted Warwick. + Meantime, in signal of my love to thee, + Against proud Somerset and William Pole, + Will I upon thy party wear this rose; + And here I prophesy: this brawl to-day, + Grown to this faction in the Temple Garden, + Shall send between the Red Rose and the White + A thousand souls to death and deadly night. + PLANTAGENET. Good Master Vernon, I am bound to you + That you on my behalf would pluck a flower. + VERNON. In your behalf still will I wear the same. + LAWYER. And so will I. + PLANTAGENET. Thanks, gentle sir. + Come, let us four to dinner. I dare say + This quarrel will drink blood another day. Exeunt + + SCENE 5. + + The Tower of London + + Enter MORTIMER, brought in a chair, and GAOLERS + + MORTIMER. Kind keepers of my weak decaying age, + Let dying Mortimer here rest himself. + Even like a man new haled from the rack, + So fare my limbs with long imprisonment; + And these grey locks, the pursuivants of death, + Nestor-like aged in an age of care, + Argue the end of Edmund Mortimer. + These eyes, like lamps whose wasting oil is spent, + Wax dim, as drawing to their exigent; + Weak shoulders, overborne with burdening grief, + And pithless arms, like to a withered vine + That droops his sapless branches to the ground. + Yet are these feet, whose strengthless stay is numb, + Unable to support this lump of clay, + Swift-winged with desire to get a grave, + As witting I no other comfort have. + But tell me, keeper, will my nephew come? + FIRST KEEPER. Richard Plantagenet, my lord, will come. + We sent unto the Temple, unto his chamber; + And answer was return'd that he will come. + MORTIMER. Enough; my soul shall then be satisfied. + Poor gentleman! his wrong doth equal mine. + Since Henry Monmouth first began to reign, + Before whose glory I was great in arms, + This loathsome sequestration have I had; + And even since then hath Richard been obscur'd, + Depriv'd of honour and inheritance. + But now the arbitrator of despairs, + Just Death, kind umpire of men's miseries, + With sweet enlargement doth dismiss me hence. + I would his troubles likewise were expir'd, + That so he might recover what was lost. + + Enter RICHARD PLANTAGENET + + FIRST KEEPER. My lord, your loving nephew now is come. + MORTIMER. Richard Plantagenet, my friend, is he come? + PLANTAGENET. Ay, noble uncle, thus ignobly us'd, + Your nephew, late despised Richard, comes. + MORTIMER. Direct mine arms I may embrace his neck + And in his bosom spend my latter gasp. + O, tell me when my lips do touch his cheeks, + That I may kindly give one fainting kiss. + And now declare, sweet stem from York's great stock, + Why didst thou say of late thou wert despis'd? + PLANTAGENET. First, lean thine aged back against mine arm; + And, in that ease, I'll tell thee my disease. + This day, in argument upon a case, + Some words there grew 'twixt Somerset and me; + Among which terms he us'd his lavish tongue + And did upbraid me with my father's death; + Which obloquy set bars before my tongue, + Else with the like I had requited him. + Therefore, good uncle, for my father's sake, + In honour of a true Plantagenet, + And for alliance sake, declare the cause + My father, Earl of Cambridge, lost his head. + MORTIMER. That cause, fair nephew, that imprison'd me + And hath detain'd me all my flow'ring youth + Within a loathsome dungeon, there to pine, + Was cursed instrument of his decease. + PLANTAGENET. Discover more at large what cause that was, + For I am ignorant and cannot guess. + MORTIMER. I will, if that my fading breath permit + And death approach not ere my tale be done. + Henry the Fourth, grandfather to this king, + Depos'd his nephew Richard, Edward's son, + The first-begotten and the lawful heir + Of Edward king, the third of that descent; + During whose reign the Percies of the north, + Finding his usurpation most unjust, + Endeavour'd my advancement to the throne. + The reason mov'd these warlike lords to this + Was, for that-young Richard thus remov'd, + Leaving no heir begotten of his body- + I was the next by birth and parentage; + For by my mother I derived am + From Lionel Duke of Clarence, third son + To King Edward the Third; whereas he + From John of Gaunt doth bring his pedigree, + Being but fourth of that heroic line. + But mark: as in this haughty great attempt + They laboured to plant the rightful heir, + I lost my liberty, and they their lives. + Long after this, when Henry the Fifth, + Succeeding his father Bolingbroke, did reign, + Thy father, Earl of Cambridge, then deriv'd + From famous Edmund Langley, Duke of York, + Marrying my sister, that thy mother was, + Again, in pity of my hard distress, + Levied an army, weening to redeem + And have install'd me in the diadem; + But, as the rest, so fell that noble earl, + And was beheaded. Thus the Mortimers, + In whom the title rested, were suppress'd. + PLANTAGENET. Of Which, my lord, your honour is the last. + MORTIMER. True; and thou seest that I no issue have, + And that my fainting words do warrant death. + Thou art my heir; the rest I wish thee gather; + But yet be wary in thy studious care. + PLANTAGENET. Thy grave admonishments prevail with me. + But yet methinks my father's execution + Was nothing less than bloody tyranny. + MORTIMER. With silence, nephew, be thou politic; + Strong fixed is the house of Lancaster + And like a mountain not to be remov'd. + But now thy uncle is removing hence, + As princes do their courts when they are cloy'd + With long continuance in a settled place. + PLANTAGENET. O uncle, would some part of my young years + Might but redeem the passage of your age! + MORTIMER. Thou dost then wrong me, as that slaughterer + doth + Which giveth many wounds when one will kill. + Mourn not, except thou sorrow for my good; + Only give order for my funeral. + And so, farewell; and fair be all thy hopes, + And prosperous be thy life in peace and war! [Dies] + PLANTAGENET. And peace, no war, befall thy parting soul! + In prison hast thou spent a pilgrimage, + And like a hermit overpass'd thy days. + Well, I will lock his counsel in my breast; + And what I do imagine, let that rest. + Keepers, convey him hence; and I myself + Will see his burial better than his life. + Exeunt GAOLERS, hearing out the body of MORTIMER + Here dies the dusky torch of Mortimer, + Chok'd with ambition of the meaner sort; + And for those wrongs, those bitter injuries, + Which Somerset hath offer'd to my house, + I doubt not but with honour to redress; + And therefore haste I to the Parliament, + Either to be restored to my blood, + Or make my ill th' advantage of my good. Exit + +ACT III. SCENE 1. + +London. The Parliament House + +Flourish. Enter the KING, EXETER, GLOUCESTER, WARWICK, SOMERSET, and +SUFFOLK; the BISHOP OF WINCHESTER, RICHARD PLANTAGENET, and others. +GLOUCESTER offers to put up a bill; WINCHESTER snatches it, and tears +it + + WINCHESTER. Com'st thou with deep premeditated lines, + With written pamphlets studiously devis'd? + Humphrey of Gloucester, if thou canst accuse + Or aught intend'st to lay unto my charge, + Do it without invention, suddenly; + I with sudden and extemporal speech + Purpose to answer what thou canst object. + GLOUCESTER. Presumptuous priest, this place commands my + patience, + Or thou shouldst find thou hast dishonour'd me. + Think not, although in writing I preferr'd + The manner of thy vile outrageous crimes, + That therefore I have forg'd, or am not able + Verbatim to rehearse the method of my pen. + No, prelate; such is thy audacious wickedness, + Thy lewd, pestiferous, and dissentious pranks, + As very infants prattle of thy pride. + Thou art a most pernicious usurer; + Froward by nature, enemy to peace; + Lascivious, wanton, more than well beseems + A man of thy profession and degree; + And for thy treachery, what's more manifest + In that thou laid'st a trap to take my life, + As well at London Bridge as at the Tower? + Beside, I fear me, if thy thoughts were sifted, + The King, thy sovereign, is not quite exempt + From envious malice of thy swelling heart. + WINCHESTER. Gloucester, I do defy thee. Lords, vouchsafe + To give me hearing what I shall reply. + If I were covetous, ambitious, or perverse, + As he will have me, how am I so poor? + Or how haps it I seek not to advance + Or raise myself, but keep my wonted calling? + And for dissension, who preferreth peace + More than I do, except I be provok'd? + No, my good lords, it is not that offends; + It is not that that incens'd hath incens'd the Duke: + It is because no one should sway but he; + No one but he should be about the King; + And that engenders thunder in his breast + And makes him roar these accusations forth. + But he shall know I am as good + GLOUCESTER. As good! + Thou bastard of my grandfather! + WINCHESTER. Ay, lordly sir; for what are you, I pray, + But one imperious in another's throne? + GLOUCESTER. Am I not Protector, saucy priest? + WINCHESTER. And am not I a prelate of the church? + GLOUCESTER. Yes, as an outlaw in a castle keeps, + And useth it to patronage his theft. + WINCHESTER. Unreverent Gloucester! + GLOUCESTER. Thou art reverend + Touching thy spiritual function, not thy life. + WINCHESTER. Rome shall remedy this. + WARWICK. Roam thither then. + SOMERSET. My lord, it were your duty to forbear. + WARWICK. Ay, see the bishop be not overborne. + SOMERSET. Methinks my lord should be religious, + And know the office that belongs to such. + WARWICK. Methinks his lordship should be humbler; + It fitteth not a prelate so to plead. + SOMERSET. Yes, when his holy state is touch'd so near. + WARWICK. State holy or unhallow'd, what of that? + Is not his Grace Protector to the King? + PLANTAGENET. [Aside] Plantagenet, I see, must hold his + tongue, + Lest it be said 'Speak, sirrah, when you should; + Must your bold verdict enter talk with lords?' + Else would I have a fling at Winchester. + KING HENRY. Uncles of Gloucester and of Winchester, + The special watchmen of our English weal, + I would prevail, if prayers might prevail + To join your hearts in love and amity. + O, what a scandal is it to our crown + That two such noble peers as ye should jar! + Believe me, lords, my tender years can tell + Civil dissension is a viperous worm + That gnaws the bowels of the commonwealth. + [A noise within: 'Down with the tawny coats!'] + What tumult's this? + WARWICK. An uproar, I dare warrant, + Begun through malice of the Bishop's men. + [A noise again: 'Stones! Stones!'] + + Enter the MAYOR OF LONDON, attended + + MAYOR. O, my good lords, and virtuous Henry, + Pity the city of London, pity us! + The Bishop and the Duke of Gloucester's men, + Forbidden late to carry any weapon, + Have fill'd their pockets full of pebble stones + And, banding themselves in contrary parts, + Do pelt so fast at one another's pate + That many have their giddy brains knock'd out. + Our windows are broke down in every street, + And we for fear compell'd to shut our shops. + + Enter in skirmish, the retainers of GLOUCESTER and + WINCHESTER, with bloody pates + + KING HENRY. We charge you, on allegiance to ourself, + To hold your slaught'ring hands and keep the peace. + Pray, uncle Gloucester, mitigate this strife. + FIRST SERVING-MAN. Nay, if we be forbidden stones, we'll + fall to it with our teeth. + SECOND SERVING-MAN. Do what ye dare, we are as resolute. + [Skirmish again] + GLOUCESTER. You of my household, leave this peevish broil, + And set this unaccustom'd fight aside. + THIRD SERVING-MAN. My lord, we know your Grace to be a + man + Just and upright, and for your royal birth + Inferior to none but to his Majesty; + And ere that we will suffer such a prince, + So kind a father of the commonweal, + To be disgraced by an inkhorn mate, + We and our wives and children all will fight + And have our bodies slaught'red by thy foes. + FIRST SERVING-MAN. Ay, and the very parings of our nails + Shall pitch a field when we are dead. [Begin again] + GLOUCESTER. Stay, stay, I say! + And if you love me, as you say you do, + Let me persuade you to forbear awhile. + KING HENRY. O, how this discord doth afflict my soul! + Can you, my Lord of Winchester, behold + My sighs and tears and will not once relent? + Who should be pitiful, if you be not? + Or who should study to prefer a peace, + If holy churchmen take delight in broils? + WARWICK. Yield, my Lord Protector; yield, Winchester; + Except you mean with obstinate repulse + To slay your sovereign and destroy the realm. + You see what mischief, and what murder too, + Hath been enacted through your enmity; + Then be at peace, except ye thirst for blood. + WINCHESTER. He shall submit, or I will never yield. + GLOUCESTER. Compassion on the King commands me stoop, + Or I would see his heart out ere the priest + Should ever get that privilege of me. + WARWICK. Behold, my Lord of Winchester, the Duke + Hath banish'd moody discontented fury, + As by his smoothed brows it doth appear; + Why look you still so stem and tragical? + GLOUCESTER. Here, Winchester, I offer thee my hand. + KING HENRY. Fie, uncle Beaufort! I have heard you preach + That malice was a great and grievous sin; + And will not you maintain the thing you teach, + But prove a chief offender in the same? + WARWICK. Sweet King! The Bishop hath a kindly gird. + For shame, my Lord of Winchester, relent; + What, shall a child instruct you what to do? + WINCHESTER. Well, Duke of Gloucester, I will yield to thee; + Love for thy love and hand for hand I give. + GLOUCESTER [Aside] Ay, but, I fear me, with a hollow + heart. + See here, my friends and loving countrymen: + This token serveth for a flag of truce + Betwixt ourselves and all our followers. + So help me God, as I dissemble not! + WINCHESTER [Aside] So help me God, as I intend it not! + KING HENRY. O loving uncle, kind Duke of Gloucester, + How joyful am I made by this contract! + Away, my masters! trouble us no more; + But join in friendship, as your lords have done. + FIRST SERVING-MAN. Content: I'll to the surgeon's. + SECOND SERVING-MAN. And so will I. + THIRD SERVING-MAN. And I will see what physic the tavern + affords. Exeunt servants, MAYOR, &C. + WARWICK. Accept this scroll, most gracious sovereign; + Which in the right of Richard Plantagenet + We do exhibit to your Majesty. + GLOUCESTER. Well urg'd, my Lord of Warwick; for, sweet + prince, + An if your Grace mark every circumstance, + You have great reason to do Richard right; + Especially for those occasions + At Eltham Place I told your Majesty. + KING HENRY. And those occasions, uncle, were of force; + Therefore, my loving lords, our pleasure is + That Richard be restored to his blood. + WARWICK. Let Richard be restored to his blood; + So shall his father's wrongs be recompens'd. + WINCHESTER. As will the rest, so willeth Winchester. + KING HENRY. If Richard will be true, not that alone + But all the whole inheritance I give + That doth belong unto the house of York, + From whence you spring by lineal descent. + PLANTAGENET. Thy humble servant vows obedience + And humble service till the point of death. + KING HENRY. Stoop then and set your knee against my foot; + And in reguerdon of that duty done + I girt thee with the valiant sword of York. + Rise, Richard, like a true Plantagenet, + And rise created princely Duke of York. + PLANTAGENET. And so thrive Richard as thy foes may fall! + And as my duty springs, so perish they + That grudge one thought against your Majesty! + ALL. Welcome, high Prince, the mighty Duke of York! + SOMERSET. [Aside] Perish, base Prince, ignoble Duke of + York! + GLOUCESTER. Now will it best avail your Majesty + To cross the seas and to be crown'd in France: + The presence of a king engenders love + Amongst his subjects and his loyal friends, + As it disanimates his enemies. + KING HENRY. When Gloucester says the word, King Henry + goes; + For friendly counsel cuts off many foes. + GLOUCESTER. Your ships already are in readiness. + Sennet. Flourish. Exeunt all but EXETER + EXETER. Ay, we may march in England or in France, + Not seeing what is likely to ensue. + This late dissension grown betwixt the peers + Burns under feigned ashes of forg'd love + And will at last break out into a flame; + As fest'red members rot but by degree + Till bones and flesh and sinews fall away, + So will this base and envious discord breed. + And now I fear that fatal prophecy. + Which in the time of Henry nam'd the Fifth + Was in the mouth of every sucking babe: + That Henry born at Monmouth should win all, + And Henry born at Windsor should lose all. + Which is so plain that Exeter doth wish + His days may finish ere that hapless time. Exit + + SCENE 2. + + France. Before Rouen + + Enter LA PUCELLE disguis'd, with four soldiers dressed + like countrymen, with sacks upon their backs + + PUCELLE. These are the city gates, the gates of Rouen, + Through which our policy must make a breach. + Take heed, be wary how you place your words; + Talk like the vulgar sort of market-men + That come to gather money for their corn. + If we have entrance, as I hope we shall, + And that we find the slothful watch but weak, + I'll by a sign give notice to our friends, + That Charles the Dauphin may encounter them. + FIRST SOLDIER. Our sacks shall be a mean to sack the city, + And we be lords and rulers over Rouen; + Therefore we'll knock. [Knocks] + WATCH. [Within] Qui est la? + PUCELLE. Paysans, pauvres gens de France + Poor market-folks that come to sell their corn. + WATCH. Enter, go in; the market-bell is rung. + PUCELLE. Now, Rouen, I'll shake thy bulwarks to the + ground. + + [LA PUCELLE, &c., enter the town] + + Enter CHARLES, BASTARD, ALENCON, REIGNIER, and forces + + CHARLES. Saint Denis bless this happy stratagem! + And once again we'll sleep secure in Rouen. + BASTARD. Here ent'red Pucelle and her practisants; + Now she is there, how will she specify + Here is the best and safest passage in? + ALENCON. By thrusting out a torch from yonder tower; + Which once discern'd shows that her meaning is + No way to that, for weakness, which she ent'red. + + Enter LA PUCELLE, on the top, thrusting out + a torch burning + + PUCELLE. Behold, this is the happy wedding torch + That joineth Rouen unto her countrymen, + But burning fatal to the Talbotites. Exit + BASTARD. See, noble Charles, the beacon of our friend; + The burning torch in yonder turret stands. + CHARLES. Now shine it like a comet of revenge, + A prophet to the fall of all our foes! + ALENCON. Defer no time, delays have dangerous ends; + Enter, and cry 'The Dauphin!' presently, + And then do execution on the watch. Alarum. Exeunt + + An alarum. Enter TALBOT in an excursion + + TALBOT. France, thou shalt rue this treason with thy tears, + If Talbot but survive thy treachery. + PUCELLE, that witch, that damned sorceress, + Hath wrought this hellish mischief unawares, + That hardly we escap'd the pride of France. Exit + + An alarum; excursions. BEDFORD brought in sick in + a chair. Enter TALBOT and BURGUNDY without; + within, LA PUCELLE, CHARLES, BASTARD, ALENCON, + and REIGNIER, on the walls + + PUCELLE. Good morrow, gallants! Want ye corn for bread? + I think the Duke of Burgundy will fast + Before he'll buy again at such a rate. + 'Twas full of darnel-do you like the taste? + BURGUNDY. Scoff on, vile fiend and shameless courtezan. + I trust ere long to choke thee with thine own, + And make thee curse the harvest of that corn. + CHARLES. Your Grace may starve, perhaps, before that time. + BEDFORD. O, let no words, but deeds, revenge this treason! + PUCELLE. What you do, good grey beard? Break a + lance, + And run a tilt at death within a chair? + TALBOT. Foul fiend of France and hag of all despite, + Encompass'd with thy lustful paramours, + Becomes it thee to taunt his valiant age + And twit with cowardice a man half dead? + Damsel, I'll have a bout with you again, + Or else let Talbot perish with this shame. + PUCELLE. Are ye so hot, sir? Yet, Pucelle, hold thy peace; + If Talbot do but thunder, rain will follow. + [The English party whisper together in council] + God speed the parliament! Who shall be the Speaker? + TALBOT. Dare ye come forth and meet us in the field? + PUCELLE. Belike your lordship takes us then for fools, + To try if that our own be ours or no. + TALBOT. I speak not to that railing Hecate, + But unto thee, Alencon, and the rest. + Will ye, like soldiers, come and fight it out? + ALENCON. Signior, no. + TALBOT. Signior, hang! Base muleteers of France! + Like peasant foot-boys do they keep the walls, + And dare not take up arms like gentlemen. + PUCELLE. Away, captains! Let's get us from the walls; + For Talbot means no goodness by his looks. + God b'uy, my lord; we came but to tell you + That we are here. Exeunt from the walls + TALBOT. And there will we be too, ere it be long, + Or else reproach be Talbot's greatest fame! + Vow, Burgundy, by honour of thy house, + Prick'd on by public wrongs sustain'd in France, + Either to get the town again or die; + And I, as sure as English Henry lives + And as his father here was conqueror, + As sure as in this late betrayed town + Great Coeur-de-lion's heart was buried + So sure I swear to get the town or die. + BURGUNDY. My vows are equal partners with thy vows. + TALBOT. But ere we go, regard this dying prince, + The valiant Duke of Bedford. Come, my lord, + We will bestow you in some better place, + Fitter for sickness and for crazy age. + BEDFORD. Lord Talbot, do not so dishonour me; + Here will I sit before the walls of Rouen, + And will be partner of your weal or woe. + BURGUNDY. Courageous Bedford, let us now persuade you. + BEDFORD. Not to be gone from hence; for once I read + That stout Pendragon in his litter sick + Came to the field, and vanquished his foes. + Methinks I should revive the soldiers' hearts, + Because I ever found them as myself. + TALBOT. Undaunted spirit in a dying breast! + Then be it so. Heavens keep old Bedford safe! + And now no more ado, brave Burgundy, + But gather we our forces out of hand + And set upon our boasting enemy. + Exeunt against the town all but BEDFORD and attendants + + An alarum; excursions. Enter SIR JOHN FASTOLFE, + and a CAPTAIN + + CAPTAIN. Whither away, Sir John Fastolfe, in such haste? + FASTOLFE. Whither away? To save myself by flight: + We are like to have the overthrow again. + CAPTAIN. What! Will you and leave Lord Talbot? + FASTOLFE. Ay, + All the Talbots in the world, to save my life. Exit + CAPTAIN. Cowardly knight! ill fortune follow thee! + Exit into the town + + Retreat; excursions. LA PUCELLE, ALENCON, + and CHARLES fly + + BEDFORD. Now, quiet soul, depart when heaven please, + For I have seen our enemies' overthrow. + What is the trust or strength of foolish man? + They that of late were daring with their scoffs + Are glad and fain by flight to save themselves. + [BEDFORD dies and is carried in by two in his chair] + + An alarum. Re-enter TALBOT, BURGUNDY, and the rest + + TALBOT. Lost and recovered in a day again! + This is a double honour, Burgundy. + Yet heavens have glory for this victory! + BURGUNDY. Warlike and martial Talbot, Burgundy + Enshrines thee in his heart, and there erects + Thy noble deeds as valour's monuments. + TALBOT. Thanks, gentle Duke. But where is Pucelle now? + I think her old familiar is asleep. + Now where's the Bastard's braves, and Charles his gleeks? + What, all amort? Rouen hangs her head for grief + That such a valiant company are fled. + Now will we take some order in the town, + Placing therein some expert officers; + And then depart to Paris to the King, + For there young Henry with his nobles lie. + BURGUNDY. What Lord Talbot pleaseth Burgundy. + TALBOT. But yet, before we go, let's not forget + The noble Duke of Bedford, late deceas'd, + But see his exequies fulfill'd in Rouen. + A braver soldier never couched lance, + A gentler heart did never sway in court; + But kings and mightiest potentates must die, + For that's the end of human misery. Exeunt + + SCENE 3. + + The plains near Rouen + + Enter CHARLES, the BASTARD, ALENCON, LA PUCELLE, + and forces + + PUCELLE. Dismay not, Princes, at this accident, + Nor grieve that Rouen is so recovered. + Care is no cure, but rather corrosive, + For things that are not to be remedied. + Let frantic Talbot triumph for a while + And like a peacock sweep along his tail; + We'll pull his plumes and take away his train, + If Dauphin and the rest will be but rul'd. + CHARLES. We have guided by thee hitherto, + And of thy cunning had no diffidence; + One sudden foil shall never breed distrust + BASTARD. Search out thy wit for secret policies, + And we will make thee famous through the world. + ALENCON. We'll set thy statue in some holy place, + And have thee reverenc'd like a blessed saint. + Employ thee, then, sweet virgin, for our good. + PUCELLE. Then thus it must be; this doth Joan devise: + By fair persuasions, mix'd with sug'red words, + We will entice the Duke of Burgundy + To leave the Talbot and to follow us. + CHARLES. Ay, marry, sweeting, if we could do that, + France were no place for Henry's warriors; + Nor should that nation boast it so with us, + But be extirped from our provinces. + ALENCON. For ever should they be expuls'd from France, + And not have tide of an earldom here. + PUCELLE. Your honours shall perceive how I will work + To bring this matter to the wished end. + [Drum sounds afar off] + Hark! by the sound of drum you may perceive + Their powers are marching unto Paris-ward. + + Here sound an English march. Enter, and pass over + at a distance, TALBOT and his forces + + There goes the Talbot, with his colours spread, + And all the troops of English after him. + + French march. Enter the DUKE OF BURGUNDY and + his forces + + Now in the rearward comes the Duke and his. + Fortune in favour makes him lag behind. + Summon a parley; we will talk with him. + [Trumpets sound a parley] + CHARLES. A parley with the Duke of Burgundy! + BURGUNDY. Who craves a parley with the Burgundy? + PUCELLE. The princely Charles of France, thy countryman. + BURGUNDY. What say'st thou, Charles? for I am marching + hence. + CHARLES. Speak, Pucelle, and enchant him with thy words. + PUCELLE. Brave Burgundy, undoubted hope of France! + Stay, let thy humble handmaid speak to thee. + BURGUNDY. Speak on; but be not over-tedious. + PUCELLE. Look on thy country, look on fertile France, + And see the cities and the towns defac'd + By wasting ruin of the cruel foe; + As looks the mother on her lowly babe + When death doth close his tender dying eyes, + See, see the pining malady of France; + Behold the wounds, the most unnatural wounds, + Which thou thyself hast given her woeful breast. + O, turn thy edged sword another way; + Strike those that hurt, and hurt not those that help! + One drop of blood drawn from thy country's bosom + Should grieve thee more than streams of foreign gore. + Return thee therefore with a flood of tears, + And wash away thy country's stained spots. + BURGUNDY. Either she hath bewitch'd me with her words, + Or nature makes me suddenly relent. + PUCELLE. Besides, all French and France exclaims on thee, + Doubting thy birth and lawful progeny. + Who join'st thou with but with a lordly nation + That will not trust thee but for profit's sake? + When Talbot hath set footing once in France, + And fashion'd thee that instrument of ill, + Who then but English Henry will be lord, + And thou be thrust out like a fugitive? + Call we to mind-and mark but this for proof: + Was not the Duke of Orleans thy foe? + And was he not in England prisoner? + But when they heard he was thine enemy + They set him free without his ransom paid, + In spite of Burgundy and all his friends. + See then, thou fight'st against thy countrymen, + And join'st with them will be thy slaughtermen. + Come, come, return; return, thou wandering lord; + Charles and the rest will take thee in their arms. + BURGUNDY. I am vanquished; these haughty words of hers + Have batt'red me like roaring cannon-shot + And made me almost yield upon my knees. + Forgive me, country, and sweet countrymen + And, lords, accept this hearty kind embrace. + My forces and my power of men are yours; + So, farewell, Talbot; I'll no longer trust thee. + PUCELLE. Done like a Frenchman- [Aside] turn and turn + again. + CHARLES. Welcome, brave Duke! Thy friendship makes us + fresh. + BASTARD. And doth beget new courage in our breasts. + ALENCON. Pucelle hath bravely play'd her part in this, + And doth deserve a coronet of gold. + CHARLES. Now let us on, my lords, and join our powers, + And seek how we may prejudice the foe. Exeunt + + SCENE 4. + + Paris. The palace + + Enter the KING, GLOUCESTER, WINCHESTER, YORK, + SUFFOLK, SOMERSET, WARWICK, EXETER, + VERNON, BASSET, and others. To them, with + his soldiers, TALBOT + + TALBOT. My gracious Prince, and honourable peers, + Hearing of your arrival in this realm, + I have awhile given truce unto my wars + To do my duty to my sovereign; + In sign whereof, this arm that hath reclaim'd + To your obedience fifty fortresses, + Twelve cities, and seven walled towns of strength, + Beside five hundred prisoners of esteem, + Lets fall his sword before your Highness' feet, + And with submissive loyalty of heart + Ascribes the glory of his conquest got + First to my God and next unto your Grace. [Kneels] + KING HENRY. Is this the Lord Talbot, uncle Gloucester, + That hath so long been resident in France? + GLOUCESTER. Yes, if it please your Majesty, my liege. + KING HENRY. Welcome, brave captain and victorious lord! + When I was young, as yet I am not old, + I do remember how my father said + A stouter champion never handled sword. + Long since we were resolved of your truth, + Your faithful service, and your toil in war; + Yet never have you tasted our reward, + Or been reguerdon'd with so much as thanks, + Because till now we never saw your face. + Therefore stand up; and for these good deserts + We here create you Earl of Shrewsbury; + And in our coronation take your place. + Sennet. Flourish. Exeunt all but VERNON and BASSET + VERNON. Now, sir, to you, that were so hot at sea, + Disgracing of these colours that I wear + In honour of my noble Lord of York + Dar'st thou maintain the former words thou spak'st? + BASSET. Yes, sir; as well as you dare patronage + The envious barking of your saucy tongue + Against my lord the Duke of Somerset. + VERNON. Sirrah, thy lord I honour as he is. + BASSET. Why, what is he? As good a man as York! + VERNON. Hark ye: not so. In witness, take ye that. + [Strikes him] + BASSET. Villain, thou knowest the law of arms is such + That whoso draws a sword 'tis present death, + Or else this blow should broach thy dearest blood. + But I'll unto his Majesty and crave + I may have liberty to venge this wrong; + When thou shalt see I'll meet thee to thy cost. + VERNON. Well, miscreant, I'll be there as soon as you; + And, after, meet you sooner than you would. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE 1. + +Park. The palace + +Enter the KING, GLOUCESTER, WINCHESTER, YORK, SUFFOLK, SOMERSET, +WARWICK, +TALBOT, EXETER, the GOVERNOR OF PARIS, and others + + GLOUCESTER. Lord Bishop, set the crown upon his head. + WINCHESTER. God save King Henry, of that name the Sixth! + GLOUCESTER. Now, Governor of Paris, take your oath + [GOVERNOR kneels] + That you elect no other king but him, + Esteem none friends but such as are his friends, + And none your foes but such as shall pretend + Malicious practices against his state. + This shall ye do, so help you righteous God! + Exeunt GOVERNOR and his train + + Enter SIR JOHN FASTOLFE + + FASTOLFE. My gracious sovereign, as I rode from Calais, + To haste unto your coronation, + A letter was deliver'd to my hands, + Writ to your Grace from th' Duke of Burgundy. + TALBOT. Shame to the Duke of Burgundy and thee! + I vow'd, base knight, when I did meet thee next + To tear the Garter from thy craven's leg, [Plucking it off] + Which I have done, because unworthily + Thou wast installed in that high degree. + Pardon me, princely Henry, and the rest: + This dastard, at the battle of Patay, + When but in all I was six thousand strong, + And that the French were almost ten to one, + Before we met or that a stroke was given, + Like to a trusty squire did run away; + In which assault we lost twelve hundred men; + Myself and divers gentlemen beside + Were there surpris'd and taken prisoners. + Then judge, great lords, if I have done amiss, + Or whether that such cowards ought to wear + This ornament of knighthood-yea or no. + GLOUCESTER. To say the truth, this fact was infamous + And ill beseeming any common man, + Much more a knight, a captain, and a leader. + TALBOT. When first this order was ordain'd, my lords, + Knights of the Garter were of noble birth, + Valiant and virtuous, full of haughty courage, + Such as were grown to credit by the wars; + Not fearing death nor shrinking for distress, + But always resolute in most extremes. + He then that is not furnish'd in this sort + Doth but usurp the sacred name of knight, + Profaning this most honourable order, + And should, if I were worthy to be judge, + Be quite degraded, like a hedge-born swain + That doth presume to boast of gentle blood. + KING HENRY. Stain to thy countrymen, thou hear'st thy + doom. + Be packing, therefore, thou that wast a knight; + Henceforth we banish thee on pain of death. + Exit FASTOLFE + And now, my Lord Protector, view the letter + Sent from our uncle Duke of Burgundy. + GLOUCESTER. [Viewing the superscription] What means his + Grace, that he hath chang'd his style? + No more but plain and bluntly 'To the King!' + Hath he forgot he is his sovereign? + Or doth this churlish superscription + Pretend some alteration in good-will? + What's here? [Reads] 'I have, upon especial cause, + Mov'd with compassion of my country's wreck, + Together with the pitiful complaints + Of such as your oppression feeds upon, + Forsaken your pernicious faction, + And join'd with Charles, the rightful King of France.' + O monstrous treachery! Can this be so + That in alliance, amity, and oaths, + There should be found such false dissembling guile? + KING HENRY. What! Doth my uncle Burgundy revolt? + GLOUCESTER. He doth, my lord, and is become your foe. + KING HENRY. Is that the worst this letter doth contain? + GLOUCESTER. It is the worst, and all, my lord, he writes. + KING HENRY. Why then Lord Talbot there shall talk with + him + And give him chastisement for this abuse. + How say you, my lord, are you not content? + TALBOT. Content, my liege! Yes; but that I am prevented, + I should have begg'd I might have been employ'd. + KING HENRY. Then gather strength and march unto him + straight; + Let him perceive how ill we brook his treason. + And what offence it is to flout his friends. + TALBOT. I go, my lord, in heart desiring still + You may behold confusion of your foes. Exit + + Enter VERNON and BASSET + + VERNON. Grant me the combat, gracious sovereign. + BASSET. And me, my lord, grant me the combat too. + YORK. This is my servant: hear him, noble Prince. + SOMERSET. And this is mine: sweet Henry, favour him. + KING HENRY. Be patient, lords, and give them leave to speak. + Say, gentlemen, what makes you thus exclaim, + And wherefore crave you combat, or with whom? + VERNON. With him, my lord; for he hath done me wrong. + BASSET. And I with him; for he hath done me wrong. + KING HENRY. What is that wrong whereof you both + complain? First let me know, and then I'll answer you. + BASSET. Crossing the sea from England into France, + This fellow here, with envious carping tongue, + Upbraided me about the rose I wear, + Saying the sanguine colour of the leaves + Did represent my master's blushing cheeks + When stubbornly he did repugn the truth + About a certain question in the law + Argu'd betwixt the Duke of York and him; + With other vile and ignominious terms + In confutation of which rude reproach + And in defence of my lord's worthiness, + I crave the benefit of law of arms. + VERNON. And that is my petition, noble lord; + For though he seem with forged quaint conceit + To set a gloss upon his bold intent, + Yet know, my lord, I was provok'd by him, + And he first took exceptions at this badge, + Pronouncing that the paleness of this flower + Bewray'd the faintness of my master's heart. + YORK. Will not this malice, Somerset, be left? + SOMERSET. Your private grudge, my Lord of York, will out, + Though ne'er so cunningly you smother it. + KING HENRY. Good Lord, what madness rules in brainsick + men, When for so slight and frivolous a cause + Such factious emulations shall arise! + Good cousins both, of York and Somerset, + Quiet yourselves, I pray, and be at peace. + YORK. Let this dissension first be tried by fight, + And then your Highness shall command a peace. + SOMERSET. The quarrel toucheth none but us alone; + Betwixt ourselves let us decide it then. + YORK. There is my pledge; accept it, Somerset. + VERNON. Nay, let it rest where it began at first. + BASSET. Confirm it so, mine honourable lord. + GLOUCESTER. Confirm it so? Confounded be your strife; + And perish ye, with your audacious prate! + Presumptuous vassals, are you not asham'd + With this immodest clamorous outrage + To trouble and disturb the King and us? + And you, my lords- methinks you do not well + To bear with their perverse objections, + Much less to take occasion from their mouths + To raise a mutiny betwixt yourselves. + Let me persuade you take a better course. + EXETER. It grieves his Highness. Good my lords, be friends. + KING HENRY. Come hither, you that would be combatants: + Henceforth I charge you, as you love our favour, + Quite to forget this quarrel and the cause. + And you, my lords, remember where we are: + In France, amongst a fickle wavering nation; + If they perceive dissension in our looks + And that within ourselves we disagree, + How will their grudging stomachs be provok'd + To wilful disobedience, and rebel! + Beside, what infamy will there arise + When foreign princes shall be certified + That for a toy, a thing of no regard, + King Henry's peers and chief nobility + Destroy'd themselves and lost the realm of France! + O, think upon the conquest of my father, + My tender years; and let us not forgo + That for a trifle that was bought with blood! + Let me be umpire in this doubtful strife. + I see no reason, if I wear this rose, + [Putting on a red rose] + That any one should therefore be suspicious + I more incline to Somerset than York: + Both are my kinsmen, and I love them both. + As well they may upbraid me with my crown, + Because, forsooth, the King of Scots is crown'd. + But your discretions better can persuade + Than I am able to instruct or teach; + And, therefore, as we hither came in peace, + So let us still continue peace and love. + Cousin of York, we institute your Grace + To be our Regent in these parts of France. + And, good my Lord of Somerset, unite + Your troops of horsemen with his bands of foot; + And like true subjects, sons of your progenitors, + Go cheerfully together and digest + Your angry choler on your enemies. + Ourself, my Lord Protector, and the rest, + After some respite will return to Calais; + From thence to England, where I hope ere long + To be presented by your victories + With Charles, Alencon, and that traitorous rout. + Flourish. Exeunt all but YORK, WARWICK, + EXETER, VERNON + WARWICK. My Lord of York, I promise you, the King + Prettily, methought, did play the orator. + YORK. And so he did; but yet I like it not, + In that he wears the badge of Somerset. + WARWICK. Tush, that was but his fancy; blame him not; + I dare presume, sweet prince, he thought no harm. + YORK. An if I wist he did-but let it rest; + Other affairs must now be managed. + Exeunt all but EXETER + EXETER. Well didst thou, Richard, to suppress thy voice; + For had the passions of thy heart burst out, + I fear we should have seen decipher'd there + More rancorous spite, more furious raging broils, + Than yet can be imagin'd or suppos'd. + But howsoe'er, no simple man that sees + This jarring discord of nobility, + This shouldering of each other in the court, + This factious bandying of their favourites, + But that it doth presage some ill event. + 'Tis much when sceptres are in children's hands; + But more when envy breeds unkind division: + There comes the ruin, there begins confusion. Exit + + SCENE 2. + + France. Before Bordeaux + + Enter TALBOT, with trump and drum + + TALBOT. Go to the gates of Bordeaux, trumpeter; + Summon their general unto the wall. + + Trumpet sounds a parley. Enter, aloft, the + GENERAL OF THE FRENCH, and others + + English John Talbot, Captains, calls you forth, + Servant in arms to Harry King of England; + And thus he would open your city gates, + Be humble to us, call my sovereignvours + And do him homage as obedient subjects, + And I'll withdraw me and my bloody power; + But if you frown upon this proffer'd peace, + You tempt the fury of my three attendants, + Lean famine, quartering steel, and climbing fire; + Who in a moment even with the earth + Shall lay your stately and air braving towers, + If you forsake the offer of their love. + GENERAL OF THE FRENCH. Thou ominous and fearful owl of + death, + Our nation's terror and their bloody scourge! + The period of thy tyranny approacheth. + On us thou canst not enter but by death; + For, I protest, we are well fortified, + And strong enough to issue out and fight. + If thou retire, the Dauphin, well appointed, + Stands with the snares of war to tangle thee. + On either hand thee there are squadrons pitch'd + To wall thee from the liberty of flight, + And no way canst thou turn thee for redress + But death doth front thee with apparent spoil + And pale destruction meets thee in the face. + Ten thousand French have ta'en the sacrament + To rive their dangerous artillery + Upon no Christian soul but English Talbot. + Lo, there thou stand'st, a breathing valiant man, + Of an invincible unconquer'd spirit! + This is the latest glory of thy praise + That I, thy enemy, due thee withal; + For ere the glass that now begins to run + Finish the process of his sandy hour, + These eyes that see thee now well coloured + Shall see thee withered, bloody, pale, and dead. + [Drum afar off] + Hark! hark! The Dauphin's drum, a warning bell, + Sings heavy music to thy timorous soul; + And mine shall ring thy dire departure out. Exit + TALBOT. He fables not; I hear the enemy. + Out, some light horsemen, and peruse their wings. + O, negligent and heedless discipline! + How are we park'd and bounded in a pale + A little herd of England's timorous deer, + Maz'd with a yelping kennel of French curs! + If we be English deer, be then in blood; + Not rascal-like to fall down with a pinch, + But rather, moody-mad and desperate stags, + Turn on the bloody hounds with heads of steel + And make the cowards stand aloof at bay. + Sell every man his life as dear as mine, + And they shall find dear deer of us, my friends. + God and Saint George, Talbot and England's right, + Prosper our colours in this dangerous fight! Exeunt + + SCENE 3. + + Plains in Gascony + + Enter YORK, with trumpet and many soldiers. A + MESSENGER meets him + + YORK. Are not the speedy scouts return'd again + That dogg'd the mighty army of the Dauphin? + MESSENGER. They are return'd, my lord, and give it out + That he is march'd to Bordeaux with his power + To fight with Talbot; as he march'd along, + By your espials were discovered + Two mightier troops than that the Dauphin led, + Which join'd with him and made their march for + Bordeaux. + YORK. A plague upon that villain Somerset + That thus delays my promised supply + Of horsemen that were levied for this siege! + Renowned Talbot doth expect my aid, + And I am louted by a traitor villain + And cannot help the noble chevalier. + God comfort him in this necessity! + If he miscarry, farewell wars in France. + + Enter SIR WILLIAM LUCY + + LUCY. Thou princely leader of our English strength, + Never so needful on the earth of France, + Spur to the rescue of the noble Talbot, + Who now is girdled with a waist of iron + And hemm'd about with grim destruction. + To Bordeaux, warlike Duke! to Bordeaux, York! + Else, farewell Talbot, France, and England's honour. + YORK. O God, that Somerset, who in proud heart + Doth stop my cornets, were in Talbot's place! + So should we save a valiant gentleman + By forfeiting a traitor and a coward. + Mad ire and wrathful fury makes me weep + That thus we die while remiss traitors sleep. + LUCY. O, send some succour to the distress'd lord! + YORK. He dies; we lose; I break my warlike word. + We mourn: France smiles. We lose: they daily get- + All long of this vile traitor Somerset. + LUCY. Then God take mercy on brave Talbot's soul, + And on his son, young John, who two hours since + I met in travel toward his warlike father. + This seven years did not Talbot see his son; + And now they meet where both their lives are done. + YORK. Alas, what joy shall noble Talbot have + To bid his young son welcome to his grave? + Away! vexation almost stops my breath, + That sund'red friends greet in the hour of death. + Lucy, farewell; no more my fortune can + But curse the cause I cannot aid the man. + Maine, Blois, Poictiers, and Tours, are won away + Long all of Somerset and his delay. Exit with forces + LUCY. Thus, while the vulture of sedition + Feeds in the bosom of such great commanders, + Sleeping neglection doth betray to loss + The conquest of our scarce cold conqueror, + That ever-living man of memory, + Henry the Fifth. Whiles they each other cross, + Lives, honours, lands, and all, hurry to loss. Exit + + SCENE 4. + + Other plains of Gascony + + Enter SOMERSET, With his forces; an OFFICER of + TALBOT'S with him + + SOMERSET. It is too late; I cannot send them now. + This expedition was by York and Talbot + Too rashly plotted; all our general force + Might with a sally of the very town + Be buckled with. The over daring Talbot + Hath sullied all his gloss of former honour + By this unheedful, desperate, wild adventure. + York set him on to fight and die in shame. + That, Talbot dead, great York might bear the name. + OFFICER. Here is Sir William Lucy, who with me + Set from our o'er-match'd forces forth for aid. + + Enter SIR WILLIAM LUCY + + SOMERSET. How now, Sir William! Whither were you sent? + LUCY. Whither, my lord! From bought and sold Lord + Talbot, + Who, ring'd about with bold adversity, + Cries out for noble York and Somerset + To beat assailing death from his weak legions; + And whiles the honourable captain there + Drops bloody sweat from his war-wearied limbs + And, in advantage ling'ring, looks for rescue, + You, his false hopes, the trust of England's honour, + Keep off aloof with worthless emulation. + Let not your private discord keep away + The levied succours that should lend him aid, + While he, renowned noble gentleman, + Yield up his life unto a world of odds. + Orleans the Bastard, Charles, Burgundy, + Alencon, Reignier, compass him about, + And Talbot perisheth by your default. + SOMERSET. York set him on; York should have sent him aid. + LUCY. And York as fast upon your Grace exclaims, + Swearing that you withhold his levied host, + Collected for this expedition. + SOMERSET. York lies; he might have sent and had the horse. + I owe him little duty and less love, + And take foul scorn to fawn on him by sending. + LUCY. The fraud of England, not the force of France, + Hath now entrapp'd the noble minded Talbot. + Never to England shall he bear his life, + But dies betray'd to fortune by your strife. + SOMERSET. Come, go; I will dispatch the horsemen straight; + Within six hours they will be at his aid. + LUCY. Too late comes rescue; he is ta'en or slain, + For fly he could not if he would have fled; + And fly would Talbot never, though he might. + SOMERSET. If he be dead, brave Talbot, then, adieu! + LUCY. His fame lives in the world, his shame in you. Exeunt + + SCENE 5. + + The English camp near Bordeaux + + Enter TALBOT and JOHN his son + + TALBOT. O young John Talbot! I did send for thee + To tutor thee in stratagems of war, + That Talbot's name might be in thee reviv'd + When sapless age and weak unable limbs + Should bring thy father to his drooping chair. + But, O malignant and ill-boding stars! + Now thou art come unto a feast of death, + A terrible and unavoided danger; + Therefore, dear boy, mount on my swiftest horse, + And I'll direct thee how thou shalt escape + By sudden flight. Come, dally not, be gone. + JOHN. Is my name Talbot, and am I your son? + And shall I fly? O, if you love my mother, + Dishonour not her honourable name, + To make a bastard and a slave of me! + The world will say he is not Talbot's blood + That basely fled when noble Talbot stood. + TALBOT. Fly to revenge my death, if I be slain. + JOHN. He that flies so will ne'er return again. + TALBOT. If we both stay, we both are sure to die. + JOHN. Then let me stay; and, father, do you fly. + Your loss is great, so your regard should be; + My worth unknown, no loss is known in me; + Upon my death the French can little boast; + In yours they will, in you all hopes are lost. + Flight cannot stain the honour you have won; + But mine it will, that no exploit have done; + You fled for vantage, every one will swear; + But if I bow, they'll say it was for fear. + There is no hope that ever I will stay + If the first hour I shrink and run away. + Here, on my knee, I beg mortality, + Rather than life preserv'd with infamy. + TALBOT. Shall all thy mother's hopes lie in one tomb? + JOHN. Ay, rather than I'll shame my mother's womb. + TALBOT. Upon my blessing I command thee go. + JOHN. To fight I will, but not to fly the foe. + TALBOT. Part of thy father may be sav'd in thee. + JOHN. No part of him but will be shame in me. + TALBOT. Thou never hadst renown, nor canst not lose it. + JOHN. Yes, your renowned name; shall flight abuse it? + TALBOT. Thy father's charge shall clear thee from that stain. + JOHN. You cannot witness for me, being slain. + If death be so apparent, then both fly. + TALBOT. And leave my followers here to fight and die? + My age was never tainted with such shame. + JOHN. And shall my youth be guilty of such blame? + No more can I be severed from your side + Than can yourself yourself yourself in twain divide. + Stay, go, do what you will, the like do I; + For live I will not if my father die. + TALBOT. Then here I take my leave of thee, fair son, + Born to eclipse thy life this afternoon. + Come, side by side together live and die; + And soul with soul from France to heaven fly. Exeunt + + SCENE 6. + + A field of battle + + Alarum: excursions wherein JOHN TALBOT is hemm'd + about, and TALBOT rescues him + + TALBOT. Saint George and victory! Fight, soldiers, fight. + The Regent hath with Talbot broke his word + And left us to the rage of France his sword. + Where is John Talbot? Pause and take thy breath; + I gave thee life and rescu'd thee from death. + JOHN. O, twice my father, twice am I thy son! + The life thou gav'st me first was lost and done + Till with thy warlike sword, despite of fate, + To my determin'd time thou gav'st new date. + TALBOT. When from the Dauphin's crest thy sword struck + fire, + It warm'd thy father's heart with proud desire + Of bold-fac'd victory. Then leaden age, + Quicken'd with youthful spleen and warlike rage, + Beat down Alencon, Orleans, Burgundy, + And from the pride of Gallia rescued thee. + The ireful bastard Orleans, that drew blood + From thee, my boy, and had the maidenhood + Of thy first fight, I soon encountered + And, interchanging blows, I quickly shed + Some of his bastard blood; and in disgrace + Bespoke him thus: 'Contaminated, base, + And misbegotten blood I spill of thine, + Mean and right poor, for that pure blood of mine + Which thou didst force from Talbot, my brave boy.' + Here purposing the Bastard to destroy, + Came in strong rescue. Speak, thy father's care; + Art thou not weary, John? How dost thou fare? + Wilt thou yet leave the battle, boy, and fly, + Now thou art seal'd the son of chivalry? + Fly, to revenge my death when I am dead: + The help of one stands me in little stead. + O, too much folly is it, well I wot, + To hazard all our lives in one small boat! + If I to-day die not with Frenchmen's rage, + To-morrow I shall die with mickle age. + By me they nothing gain an if I stay: + 'Tis but the short'ning of my life one day. + In thee thy mother dies, our household's name, + My death's revenge, thy youth, and England's fame. + All these and more we hazard by thy stay; + All these are sav'd if thou wilt fly away. + JOHN. The sword of Orleans hath not made me smart; + These words of yours draw life-blood from my heart. + On that advantage, bought with such a shame, + To save a paltry life and slay bright fame, + Before young Talbot from old Talbot fly, + The coward horse that bears me fall and die! + And like me to the peasant boys of France, + To be shame's scorn and subject of mischance! + Surely, by all the glory you have won, + An if I fly, I am not Talbot's son; + Then talk no more of flight, it is no boot; + If son to Talbot, die at Talbot's foot. + TALBOT. Then follow thou thy desp'rate sire of Crete, + Thou Icarus; thy life to me is sweet. + If thou wilt fight, fight by thy father's side; + And, commendable prov'd, let's die in pride. Exeunt + + SCENE 7. + + Another part of the field + + Alarum; excursions. Enter old TALBOT led by a SERVANT + + TALBOT. Where is my other life? Mine own is gone. + O, where's young Talbot? Where is valiant John? + Triumphant death, smear'd with captivity, + Young Talbot's valour makes me smile at thee. + When he perceiv'd me shrink and on my knee, + His bloody sword he brandish'd over me, + And like a hungry lion did commence + Rough deeds of rage and stern impatience; + But when my angry guardant stood alone, + Tend'ring my ruin and assail'd of none, + Dizzy-ey'd fury and great rage of heart + Suddenly made him from my side to start + Into the clust'ring battle of the French; + And in that sea of blood my boy did drench + His overmounting spirit; and there died, + My Icarus, my blossom, in his pride. + + Enter soldiers, bearing the body of JOHN TALBOT + + SERVANT. O my dear lord, lo where your son is borne! + TALBOT. Thou antic Death, which laugh'st us here to scorn, + Anon, from thy insulting tyranny, + Coupled in bonds of perpetuity, + Two Talbots, winged through the lither sky, + In thy despite shall scape mortality. + O thou whose wounds become hard-favoured Death, + Speak to thy father ere thou yield thy breath! + Brave Death by speaking, whether he will or no; + Imagine him a Frenchman and thy foe. + Poor boy! he smiles, methinks, as who should say, + Had Death been French, then Death had died to-day. + Come, come, and lay him in his father's arms. + My spirit can no longer bear these harms. + Soldiers, adieu! I have what I would have, + Now my old arms are young John Talbot's grave. [Dies] + + Enter CHARLES, ALENCON, BURGUNDY, BASTARD, + LA PUCELLE, and forces + + CHARLES. Had York and Somerset brought rescue in, + We should have found a bloody day of this. + BASTARD. How the young whelp of Talbot's, raging wood, + Did flesh his puny sword in Frenchmen's blood! + PUCELLE. Once I encount'red him, and thus I said: + 'Thou maiden youth, be vanquish'd by a maid.' + But with a proud majestical high scorn + He answer'd thus: 'Young Talbot was not born + To be the pillage of a giglot wench.' + So, rushing in the bowels of the French, + He left me proudly, as unworthy fight. + BURGUNDY. Doubtless he would have made a noble knight. + See where he lies inhearsed in the arms + Of the most bloody nurser of his harms! + BASTARD. Hew them to pieces, hack their bones asunder, + Whose life was England's glory, Gallia's wonder. + CHARLES. O, no; forbear! For that which we have fled + During the life, let us not wrong it dead. + + Enter SIR WILLIAM Lucy, attended; a FRENCH + HERALD preceding + + LUCY. Herald, conduct me to the Dauphin's tent, + To know who hath obtain'd the glory of the day. + CHARLES. On what submissive message art thou sent? + LUCY. Submission, Dauphin! 'Tis a mere French word: + We English warriors wot not what it means. + I come to know what prisoners thou hast ta'en, + And to survey the bodies of the dead. + CHARLES. For prisoners ask'st thou? Hell our prison is. + But tell me whom thou seek'st. + LUCY. But where's the great Alcides of the field, + Valiant Lord Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, + Created for his rare success in arms + Great Earl of Washford, Waterford, and Valence, + Lord Talbot of Goodrig and Urchinfield, + Lord Strange of Blackmere, Lord Verdun of Alton, + Lord Cromwell of Wingfield, Lord Furnival of Sheffield, + The thrice victorious Lord of Falconbridge, + Knight of the noble order of Saint George, + Worthy Saint Michael, and the Golden Fleece, + Great Marshal to Henry the Sixth + Of all his wars within the realm of France? + PUCELLE. Here's a silly-stately style indeed! + The Turk, that two and fifty kingdoms hath, + Writes not so tedious a style as this. + Him that thou magnifi'st with all these tides, + Stinking and fly-blown lies here at our feet. + LUCY. Is Talbot slain-the Frenchmen's only scourge, + Your kingdom's terror and black Nemesis? + O, were mine eye-bans into bullets turn'd, + That I in rage might shoot them at your faces! + O that I could but can these dead to life! + It were enough to fright the realm of France. + Were but his picture left amongst you here, + It would amaze the proudest of you all. + Give me their bodies, that I may bear them hence + And give them burial as beseems their worth. + PUCELLE. I think this upstart is old Talbot's ghost, + He speaks with such a proud commanding spirit. + For God's sake, let him have them; to keep them here, + They would but stink, and putrefy the air. + CHARLES. Go, take their bodies hence. + LUCY. I'll bear them hence; but from their ashes shall be + rear'd + A phoenix that shall make all France afeard. + CHARLES. So we be rid of them, do with them what thou + wilt. + And now to Paris in this conquering vein! + All will be ours, now bloody Talbot's slain. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 1. + +London. The palace + +Sennet. Enter the KING, GLOUCESTER, and EXETER + + KING HENRY. Have you perus'd the letters from the Pope, + The Emperor, and the Earl of Armagnac? + GLOUCESTER. I have, my lord; and their intent is this: + They humbly sue unto your Excellence + To have a godly peace concluded of + Between the realms of England and of France. + KING HENRY. How doth your Grace affect their motion? + GLOUCESTER. Well, my good lord, and as the only means + To stop effusion of our Christian blood + And stablish quietness on every side. + KING HENRY. Ay, marry, uncle; for I always thought + It was both impious and unnatural + That such immanity and bloody strife + Should reign among professors of one faith. + GLOUCESTER. Beside, my lord, the sooner to effect + And surer bind this knot of amity, + The Earl of Armagnac, near knit to Charles, + A man of great authority in France, + Proffers his only daughter to your Grace + In marriage, with a large and sumptuous dowry. + KING HENRY. Marriage, uncle! Alas, my years are young + And fitter is my study and my books + Than wanton dalliance with a paramour. + Yet call th' ambassadors, and, as you please, + So let them have their answers every one. + I shall be well content with any choice + Tends to God's glory and my country's weal. + + Enter in Cardinal's habit + BEAUFORT, the PAPAL LEGATE, and two AMBASSADORS + + EXETER. What! Is my Lord of Winchester install'd + And call'd unto a cardinal's degree? + Then I perceive that will be verified + Henry the Fifth did sometime prophesy: + 'If once he come to be a cardinal, + He'll make his cap co-equal with the crown.' + KING HENRY. My Lords Ambassadors, your several suits + Have been consider'd and debated on. + Your purpose is both good and reasonable, + And therefore are we certainly resolv'd + To draw conditions of a friendly peace, + Which by my Lord of Winchester we mean + Shall be transported presently to France. + GLOUCESTER. And for the proffer of my lord your master, + I have inform'd his Highness so at large, + As, liking of the lady's virtuous gifts, + Her beauty, and the value of her dower, + He doth intend she shall be England's Queen. + KING HENRY. [To AMBASSADOR] In argument and proof of + which contract, + Bear her this jewel, pledge of my affection. + And so, my Lord Protector, see them guarded + And safely brought to Dover; where inshipp'd, + Commit them to the fortune of the sea. + + Exeunt all but WINCHESTER and the LEGATE + WINCHESTER. Stay, my Lord Legate; you shall first receive + The sum of money which I promised + Should be delivered to his Holiness + For clothing me in these grave ornaments. + LEGATE. I will attend upon your lordship's leisure. + WINCHESTER. [Aside] Now Winchester will not submit, I + trow, + Or be inferior to the proudest peer. + Humphrey of Gloucester, thou shalt well perceive + That neither in birth or for authority + The Bishop will be overborne by thee. + I'll either make thee stoop and bend thy knee, + Or sack this country with a mutiny. Exeunt + + SCENE 2. + + France. Plains in Anjou + + Enter CHARLES, BURGUNDY, ALENCON, BASTARD, + REIGNIER, LA PUCELLE, and forces + + CHARLES. These news, my lords, may cheer our drooping + spirits: + 'Tis said the stout Parisians do revolt + And turn again unto the warlike French. + ALENCON. Then march to Paris, royal Charles of France, + And keep not back your powers in dalliance. + PUCELLE. Peace be amongst them, if they turn to us; + Else ruin combat with their palaces! + + Enter a SCOUT + + SCOUT. Success unto our valiant general, + And happiness to his accomplices! + CHARLES. What tidings send our scouts? I prithee speak. + SCOUT. The English army, that divided was + Into two parties, is now conjoin'd in one, + And means to give you battle presently. + CHARLES. Somewhat too sudden, sirs, the warning is; + But we will presently provide for them. + BURGUNDY. I trust the ghost of Talbot is not there. + Now he is gone, my lord, you need not fear. + PUCELLE. Of all base passions fear is most accurs'd. + Command the conquest, Charles, it shall be thine, + Let Henry fret and all the world repine. + CHARLES. Then on, my lords; and France be fortunate! + Exeunt + + SCENE 3. + + Before Angiers + + Alarum, excursions. Enter LA PUCELLE + + PUCELLE. The Regent conquers and the Frenchmen fly. + Now help, ye charming spells and periapts; + And ye choice spirits that admonish me + And give me signs of future accidents; [Thunder] + You speedy helpers that are substitutes + Under the lordly monarch of the north, + Appear and aid me in this enterprise! + + Enter FIENDS + + This speedy and quick appearance argues proof + Of your accustom'd diligence to me. + Now, ye familiar spirits that are cull'd + Out of the powerful regions under earth, + Help me this once, that France may get the field. + [They walk and speak not] + O, hold me not with silence over-long! + Where I was wont to feed you with my blood, + I'll lop a member off and give it you + In earnest of a further benefit, + So you do condescend to help me now. + [They hang their heads] + No hope to have redress? My body shall + Pay recompense, if you will grant my suit. + [They shake their heads] + Cannot my body nor blood sacrifice + Entreat you to your wonted furtherance? + Then take my soul-my body, soul, and all, + Before that England give the French the foil. + [They depart] + See! they forsake me. Now the time is come + That France must vail her lofty-plumed crest + And let her head fall into England's lap. + My ancient incantations are too weak, + And hell too strong for me to buckle with. + Now, France, thy glory droopeth to the dust. Exit + + Excursions. Enter French and English, fighting. + LA PUCELLE and YORK fight hand to hand; LA PUCELLE + is taken. The French fly + + YORK. Damsel of France, I think I have you fast. + Unchain your spirits now with spelling charms, + And try if they can gain your liberty. + A goodly prize, fit for the devil's grace! + See how the ugly witch doth bend her brows + As if, with Circe, she would change my shape! + PUCELLE. Chang'd to a worser shape thou canst not be. + YORK. O, Charles the Dauphin is a proper man: + No shape but his can please your dainty eye. + PUCELLE. A plaguing mischief fight on Charles and thee! + And may ye both be suddenly surpris'd + By bloody hands, in sleeping on your beds! + YORK. Fell banning hag; enchantress, hold thy tongue. + PUCELLE. I prithee give me leave to curse awhile. + YORK. Curse, miscreant, when thou comest to the stake. + Exeunt + + Alarum. Enter SUFFOLK, with MARGARET in his hand + + SUFFOLK. Be what thou wilt, thou art my prisoner. + [Gazes on her] + O fairest beauty, do not fear nor fly! + For I will touch thee but with reverent hands; + I kiss these fingers for eternal peace, + And lay them gently on thy tender side. + Who art thou? Say, that I may honour thee. + MARGARET. Margaret my name, and daughter to a king, + The King of Naples-whosoe'er thou art. + SUFFOLK. An earl I am, and Suffolk am I call'd. + Be not offended, nature's miracle, + Thou art allotted to be ta'en by me. + So doth the swan her downy cygnets save, + Keeping them prisoner underneath her wings. + Yet, if this servile usage once offend, + Go and be free again as Suffolk's friend. [She is going] + O, stay! [Aside] I have no power to let her pass; + My hand would free her, but my heart says no. + As plays the sun upon the glassy streams, + Twinkling another counterfeited beam, + So seems this gorgeous beauty to mine eyes. + Fain would I woo her, yet I dare not speak. + I'll call for pen and ink, and write my mind. + Fie, de la Pole! disable not thyself; + Hast not a tongue? Is she not here thy prisoner? + Wilt thou be daunted at a woman's sight? + Ay, beauty's princely majesty is such + Confounds the tongue and makes the senses rough. + MARGARET. Say, Earl of Suffolk, if thy name be so, + What ransom must I pay before I pass? + For I perceive I am thy prisoner. + SUFFOLK. [Aside] How canst thou tell she will deny thy + suit, + Before thou make a trial of her love? + MARGARET. Why speak'st thou not? What ransom must I + pay? + SUFFOLK. [Aside] She's beautiful, and therefore to be woo'd; + She is a woman, therefore to be won. + MARGARET. Wilt thou accept of ransom-yea or no? + SUFFOLK. [Aside] Fond man, remember that thou hast a + wife; + Then how can Margaret be thy paramour? + MARGARET. I were best leave him, for he will not hear. + SUFFOLK. [Aside] There all is marr'd; there lies a cooling + card. + MARGARET. He talks at random; sure, the man is mad. + SUFFOLK. [Aside] And yet a dispensation may be had. + MARGARET. And yet I would that you would answer me. + SUFFOLK. [Aside] I'll win this Lady Margaret. For whom? + Why, for my King! Tush, that's a wooden thing! + MARGARET. He talks of wood. It is some carpenter. + SUFFOLK. [Aside] Yet so my fancy may be satisfied, + And peace established between these realms. + But there remains a scruple in that too; + For though her father be the King of Naples, + Duke of Anjou and Maine, yet is he poor, + And our nobility will scorn the match. + MARGARET. Hear ye, Captain-are you not at leisure? + SUFFOLK. [Aside] It shall be so, disdain they ne'er so much. + Henry is youthful, and will quickly yield. + Madam, I have a secret to reveal. + MARGARET. [Aside] What though I be enthrall'd? He seems + a knight, + And will not any way dishonour me. + SUFFOLK. Lady, vouchsafe to listen what I say. + MARGARET. [Aside] Perhaps I shall be rescu'd by the French; + And then I need not crave his courtesy. + SUFFOLK. Sweet madam, give me hearing in a cause + MARGARET. [Aside] Tush! women have been captivate ere + now. + SUFFOLK. Lady, wherefore talk you so? + MARGARET. I cry you mercy, 'tis but quid for quo. + SUFFOLK. Say, gentle Princess, would you not suppose + Your bondage happy, to be made a queen? + MARGARET. To be a queen in bondage is more vile + Than is a slave in base servility; + For princes should be free. + SUFFOLK. And so shall you, + If happy England's royal king be free. + MARGARET. Why, what concerns his freedom unto me? + SUFFOLK. I'll undertake to make thee Henry's queen, + To put a golden sceptre in thy hand + And set a precious crown upon thy head, + If thou wilt condescend to be my- + MARGARET. What? + SUFFOLK. His love. + MARGARET. I am unworthy to be Henry's wife. + SUFFOLK. No, gentle madam; I unworthy am + To woo so fair a dame to be his wife + And have no portion in the choice myself. + How say you, madam? Are ye so content? + MARGARET. An if my father please, I am content. + SUFFOLK. Then call our captains and our colours forth! + And, madam, at your father's castle walls + We'll crave a parley to confer with him. + + Sound a parley. Enter REIGNIER on the walls + + See, Reignier, see, thy daughter prisoner! + REIGNIER. To whom? + SUFFOLK. To me. + REIGNIER. Suffolk, what remedy? + I am a soldier and unapt to weep + Or to exclaim on fortune's fickleness. + SUFFOLK. Yes, there is remedy enough, my lord. + Consent, and for thy honour give consent, + Thy daughter shall be wedded to my king, + Whom I with pain have woo'd and won thereto; + And this her easy-held imprisonment + Hath gain'd thy daughter princely liberty. + REIGNIER. Speaks Suffolk as he thinks? + SUFFOLK. Fair Margaret knows + That Suffolk doth not flatter, face, or feign. + REIGNIER. Upon thy princely warrant I descend + To give thee answer of thy just demand. + Exit REIGNIER from the walls + SUFFOLK. And here I will expect thy coming. + + Trumpets sound. Enter REIGNIER below + + REIGNIER. Welcome, brave Earl, into our territories; + Command in Anjou what your Honour pleases. + SUFFOLK. Thanks, Reignier, happy for so sweet a child, + Fit to be made companion with a king. + What answer makes your Grace unto my suit? + REIGNIER. Since thou dost deign to woo her little worth + To be the princely bride of such a lord, + Upon condition I may quietly + Enjoy mine own, the country Maine and Anjou, + Free from oppression or the stroke of war, + My daughter shall be Henry's, if he please. + SUFFOLK. That is her ransom; I deliver her. + And those two counties I will undertake + Your Grace shall well and quietly enjoy. + REIGNIER. And I again, in Henry's royal name, + As deputy unto that gracious king, + Give thee her hand for sign of plighted faith. + SUFFOLK. Reignier of France, I give thee kingly thanks, + Because this is in traffic of a king. + [Aside] And yet, methinks, I could be well content + To be mine own attorney in this case. + I'll over then to England with this news, + And make this marriage to be solemniz'd. + So, farewell, Reignier. Set this diamond safe + In golden palaces, as it becomes. + REIGNIER. I do embrace thee as I would embrace + The Christian prince, King Henry, were he here. + MARGARET. Farewell, my lord. Good wishes, praise, and + prayers, + Shall Suffolk ever have of Margaret. [She is going] + SUFFOLK. Farewell, sweet madam. But hark you, Margaret + No princely commendations to my king? + MARGARET. Such commendations as becomes a maid, + A virgin, and his servant, say to him. + SUFFOLK. Words sweetly plac'd and modestly directed. + But, madam, I must trouble you again + No loving token to his Majesty? + MARGARET. Yes, my good lord: a pure unspotted heart, + Never yet taint with love, I send the King. + SUFFOLK. And this withal. [Kisses her] + MARGARET. That for thyself, I will not so presume + To send such peevish tokens to a king. + Exeunt REIGNIER and MARGARET + SUFFOLK. O, wert thou for myself! But, Suffolk, stay; + Thou mayst not wander in that labyrinth: + There Minotaurs and ugly treasons lurk. + Solicit Henry with her wondrous praise. + Bethink thee on her virtues that surmount, + And natural graces that extinguish art; + Repeat their semblance often on the seas, + That, when thou com'st to kneel at Henry's feet, + Thou mayst bereave him of his wits with wonder. Exit + + SCENE 4. + + Camp of the DUKE OF YORK in Anjou + + Enter YORK, WARWICK, and others + YORK. Bring forth that sorceress, condemn'd to burn. + + Enter LA PUCELLE, guarded, and a SHEPHERD + + SHEPHERD. Ah, Joan, this kills thy father's heart outright! + Have I sought every country far and near, + And, now it is my chance to find thee out, + Must I behold thy timeless cruel death? + Ah, Joan, sweet daughter Joan, I'll die with thee! + PUCELLE. Decrepit miser! base ignoble wretch! + I am descended of a gentler blood; + Thou art no father nor no friend of mine. + SHEPHERD. Out, out! My lords, an please you, 'tis not so; + I did beget her, all the parish knows. + Her mother liveth yet, can testify + She was the first fruit of my bach'lorship. + WARWICK. Graceless, wilt thou deny thy parentage? + YORK. This argues what her kind of life hath been- + Wicked and vile; and so her death concludes. + SHEPHERD. Fie, Joan, that thou wilt be so obstacle! + God knows thou art a collop of my flesh; + And for thy sake have I shed many a tear. + Deny me not, I prithee, gentle Joan. + PUCELLE. Peasant, avaunt! You have suborn'd this man + Of purpose to obscure my noble birth. + SHEPHERD. 'Tis true, I gave a noble to the priest + The morn that I was wedded to her mother. + Kneel down and take my blessing, good my girl. + Wilt thou not stoop? Now cursed be the time + Of thy nativity. I would the milk + Thy mother gave thee when thou suck'dst her breast + Had been a little ratsbane for thy sake. + Or else, when thou didst keep my lambs afield, + I wish some ravenous wolf had eaten thee. + Dost thou deny thy father, cursed drab? + O, burn her, burn her! Hanging is too good. Exit + YORK. Take her away; for she hath liv'd too long, + To fill the world with vicious qualities. + PUCELLE. First let me tell you whom you have condemn'd: + Not me begotten of a shepherd swain, + But issued from the progeny of kings; + Virtuous and holy, chosen from above + By inspiration of celestial grace, + To work exceeding miracles on earth. + I never had to do with wicked spirits. + But you, that are polluted with your lusts, + Stain'd with the guiltless blood of innocents, + Corrupt and tainted with a thousand vices, + Because you want the grace that others have, + You judge it straight a thing impossible + To compass wonders but by help of devils. + No, misconceived! Joan of Arc hath been + A virgin from her tender infancy, + Chaste and immaculate in very thought; + Whose maiden blood, thus rigorously effus'd, + Will cry for vengeance at the gates of heaven. + YORK. Ay, ay. Away with her to execution! + WARWICK. And hark ye, sirs; because she is a maid, + Spare for no fagots, let there be enow. + Place barrels of pitch upon the fatal stake, + That so her torture may be shortened. + PUCELLE. Will nothing turn your unrelenting hearts? + Then, Joan, discover thine infirmity + That warranteth by law to be thy privilege: + I am with child, ye bloody homicides; + Murder not then the fruit within my womb, + Although ye hale me to a violent death. + YORK. Now heaven forfend! The holy maid with child! + WARWICK. The greatest miracle that e'er ye wrought: + Is all your strict preciseness come to this? + YORK. She and the Dauphin have been juggling. + I did imagine what would be her refuge. + WARWICK. Well, go to; we'll have no bastards live; + Especially since Charles must father it. + PUCELLE. You are deceiv'd; my child is none of his: + It was Alencon that enjoy'd my love. + YORK. Alencon, that notorious Machiavel! + It dies, an if it had a thousand lives. + PUCELLE. O, give me leave, I have deluded you. + 'Twas neither Charles nor yet the Duke I nam'd, + But Reignier, King of Naples, that prevail'd. + WARWICK. A married man! That's most intolerable. + YORK. Why, here's a girl! I think she knows not well + There were so many-whom she may accuse. + WARWICK. It's sign she hath been liberal and free. + YORK. And yet, forsooth, she is a virgin pure. + Strumpet, thy words condemn thy brat and thee. + Use no entreaty, for it is in vain. + PUCELLE. Then lead me hence-with whom I leave my + curse: + May never glorious sun reflex his beams + Upon the country where you make abode; + But darkness and the gloomy shade of death + Environ you, till mischief and despair + Drive you to break your necks or hang yourselves! + Exit, guarded + YORK. Break thou in pieces and consume to ashes, + Thou foul accursed minister of hell! + + Enter CARDINAL BEAUFORT, attended + + CARDINAL. Lord Regent, I do greet your Excellence + With letters of commission from the King. + For know, my lords, the states of Christendom, + Mov'd with remorse of these outrageous broils, + Have earnestly implor'd a general peace + Betwixt our nation and the aspiring French; + And here at hand the Dauphin and his train + Approacheth, to confer about some matter. + YORK. Is all our travail turn'd to this effect? + After the slaughter of so many peers, + So many captains, gentlemen, and soldiers, + That in this quarrel have been overthrown + And sold their bodies for their country's benefit, + Shall we at last conclude effeminate peace? + Have we not lost most part of all the towns, + By treason, falsehood, and by treachery, + Our great progenitors had conquered? + O Warwick, Warwick! I foresee with grief + The utter loss of all the realm of France. + WARWICK. Be patient, York. If we conclude a peace, + It shall be with such strict and severe covenants + As little shall the Frenchmen gain thereby. + + Enter CHARLES, ALENCON, BASTARD, REIGNIER, and others + + CHARLES. Since, lords of England, it is thus agreed + That peaceful truce shall be proclaim'd in France, + We come to be informed by yourselves + What the conditions of that league must be. + YORK. Speak, Winchester; for boiling choler chokes + The hollow passage of my poison'd voice, + By sight of these our baleful enemies. + CARDINAL. Charles, and the rest, it is enacted thus: + That, in regard King Henry gives consent, + Of mere compassion and of lenity, + To ease your country of distressful war, + An suffer you to breathe in fruitful peace, + You shall become true liegemen to his crown; + And, Charles, upon condition thou wilt swear + To pay him tribute and submit thyself, + Thou shalt be plac'd as viceroy under him, + And still enjoy thy regal dignity. + ALENCON. Must he be then as shadow of himself? + Adorn his temples with a coronet + And yet, in substance and authority, + Retain but privilege of a private man? + This proffer is absurd and reasonless. + CHARLES. 'Tis known already that I am possess'd + With more than half the Gallian territories, + And therein reverenc'd for their lawful king. + Shall I, for lucre of the rest unvanquish'd, + Detract so much from that prerogative + As to be call'd but viceroy of the whole? + No, Lord Ambassador; I'll rather keep + That which I have than, coveting for more, + Be cast from possibility of all. + YORK. Insulting Charles! Hast thou by secret means + Us'd intercession to obtain a league, + And now the matter grows to compromise + Stand'st thou aloof upon comparison? + Either accept the title thou usurp'st, + Of benefit proceeding from our king + And not of any challenge of desert, + Or we will plague thee with incessant wars. + REIGNIER. [To CHARLES] My lord, you do not well in + obstinacy + To cavil in the course of this contract. + If once it be neglected, ten to one + We shall not find like opportunity. + ALENCON. [To CHARLES] To say the truth, it is your policy + To save your subjects from such massacre + And ruthless slaughters as are daily seen + By our proceeding in hostility; + And therefore take this compact of a truce, + Although you break it when your pleasure serves. + WARWICK. How say'st thou, Charles? Shall our condition + stand? + CHARLES. It shall; + Only reserv'd, you claim no interest + In any of our towns of garrison. + YORK. Then swear allegiance to his Majesty: + As thou art knight, never to disobey + Nor be rebellious to the crown of England + Thou, nor thy nobles, to the crown of England. + [CHARLES and the rest give tokens of fealty] + So, now dismiss your army when ye please; + Hang up your ensigns, let your drums be still, + For here we entertain a solemn peace. Exeunt + + SCENE 5. + + London. The palace + + Enter SUFFOLK, in conference with the KING, + GLOUCESTER and EXETER + + KING HENRY. Your wondrous rare description, noble Earl, + Of beauteous Margaret hath astonish'd me. + Her virtues, graced with external gifts, + Do breed love's settled passions in my heart; + And like as rigour of tempestuous gusts + Provokes the mightiest hulk against the tide, + So am I driven by breath of her renown + Either to suffer shipwreck or arrive + Where I may have fruition of her love. + SUFFOLK. Tush, my good lord! This superficial tale + Is but a preface of her worthy praise. + The chief perfections of that lovely dame, + Had I sufficient skill to utter them, + Would make a volume of enticing lines, + Able to ravish any dull conceit; + And, which is more, she is not so divine, + So full-replete with choice of all delights, + But with as humble lowliness of mind + She is content to be at your command + Command, I mean, of virtuous intents, + To love and honour Henry as her lord. + KING HENRY. And otherwise will Henry ne'er presume. + Therefore, my Lord Protector, give consent + That Margaret may be England's royal Queen. + GLOUCESTER. So should I give consent to flatter sin. + You know, my lord, your Highness is betroth'd + Unto another lady of esteem. + How shall we then dispense with that contract, + And not deface your honour with reproach? + SUFFOLK. As doth a ruler with unlawful oaths; + Or one that at a triumph, having vow'd + To try his strength, forsaketh yet the lists + By reason of his adversary's odds: + A poor earl's daughter is unequal odds, + And therefore may be broke without offence. + GLOUCESTER. Why, what, I pray, is Margaret more than + that? + Her father is no better than an earl, + Although in glorious titles he excel. + SUFFOLK. Yes, my lord, her father is a king, + The King of Naples and Jerusalem; + And of such great authority in France + As his alliance will confirm our peace, + And keep the Frenchmen in allegiance. + GLOUCESTER. And so the Earl of Armagnac may do, + Because he is near kinsman unto Charles. + EXETER. Beside, his wealth doth warrant a liberal dower; + Where Reignier sooner will receive than give. + SUFFOLK. A dow'r, my lords! Disgrace not so your king, + That he should be so abject, base, and poor, + To choose for wealth and not for perfect love. + Henry is able to enrich his queen, + And not to seek a queen to make him rich. + So worthless peasants bargain for their wives, + As market-men for oxen, sheep, or horse. + Marriage is a matter of more worth + Than to be dealt in by attorneyship; + Not whom we will, but whom his Grace affects, + Must be companion of his nuptial bed. + And therefore, lords, since he affects her most, + It most of all these reasons bindeth us + In our opinions she should be preferr'd; + For what is wedlock forced but a hell, + An age of discord and continual strife? + Whereas the contrary bringeth bliss, + And is a pattern of celestial peace. + Whom should we match with Henry, being a king, + But Margaret, that is daughter to a king? + Her peerless feature, joined with her birth, + Approves her fit for none but for a king; + Her valiant courage and undaunted spirit, + More than in women commonly is seen, + Will answer our hope in issue of a king; + For Henry, son unto a conqueror, + Is likely to beget more conquerors, + If with a lady of so high resolve + As is fair Margaret he be link'd in love. + Then yield, my lords; and here conclude with me + That Margaret shall be Queen, and none but she. + KING HENRY. Whether it be through force of your report, + My noble Lord of Suffolk, or for that + My tender youth was never yet attaint + With any passion of inflaming love, + I cannot tell; but this I am assur'd, + I feel such sharp dissension in my breast, + Such fierce alarums both of hope and fear, + As I am sick with working of my thoughts. + Take therefore shipping; post, my lord, to France; + Agree to any covenants; and procure + That Lady Margaret do vouchsafe to come + To cross the seas to England, and be crown'd + King Henry's faithful and anointed queen. + For your expenses and sufficient charge, + Among the people gather up a tenth. + Be gone, I say; for till you do return + I rest perplexed with a thousand cares. + And you, good uncle, banish all offence: + If you do censure me by what you were, + Not what you are, I know it will excuse + This sudden execution of my will. + And so conduct me where, from company, + I may revolve and ruminate my grief. Exit + GLOUCESTER. Ay, grief, I fear me, both at first and last. + Exeunt GLOUCESTER and EXETER + SUFFOLK. Thus Suffolk hath prevail'd; and thus he goes, + As did the youthful Paris once to Greece, + With hope to find the like event in love + But prosper better than the Troyan did. + Margaret shall now be Queen, and rule the King; + But I will rule both her, the King, and realm. Exit + + + + +THE SECOND PART OF KING HENRY THE SIXTH + +Dramatis Personae + + KING HENRY THE SIXTH + HUMPHREY, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, his uncle + CARDINAL BEAUFORT, BISHOP OF WINCHESTER, great-uncle to the King + RICHARD PLANTAGENET, DUKE OF YORK + EDWARD and RICHARD, his sons + DUKE OF SOMERSET + DUKE OF SUFFOLK + DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM + LORD CLIFFORD + YOUNG CLIFFORD, his son + EARL OF SALISBURY + EARL OF WARWICK + LORD SCALES + LORD SAY + SIR HUMPHREY STAFFORD + WILLIAM STAFFORD, his brother + SIR JOHN STANLEY + VAUX + MATTHEW GOFFE + A LIEUTENANT, a SHIPMASTER, a MASTER'S MATE, and WALTER WHITMORE + TWO GENTLEMEN, prisoners with Suffolk + JOHN HUME and JOHN SOUTHWELL, two priests + ROGER BOLINGBROKE, a conjurer + A SPIRIT raised by him + THOMAS HORNER, an armourer + PETER, his man + CLERK OF CHATHAM + MAYOR OF SAINT ALBANS + SAUNDER SIMPCOX, an impostor + ALEXANDER IDEN, a Kentish gentleman + JACK CADE, a rebel + GEORGE BEVIS, JOHN HOLLAND, DICK THE BUTCHER, SMITH THE WEAVER, + MICHAEL, &c., followers of Cade + TWO MURDERERS + + MARGARET, Queen to King Henry + ELEANOR, Duchess of Gloucester + MARGERY JOURDAIN, a witch + WIFE to SIMPCOX + + Lords, Ladies, and Attendants; Petitioners, Aldermen, a Herald, + a Beadle, a Sheriff, Officers, Citizens, Prentices, Falconers, + Guards, Soldiers, Messengers, &c. + +SCENE: England + +ACT I. SCENE I. London. The palace + +Flourish of trumpets; then hautboys. Enter the KING, DUKE HUMPHREY OF +GLOUCESTER, SALISBURY, WARWICK, and CARDINAL BEAUFORT, on the one side; +the QUEEN, SUFFOLK, YORK, SOMERSET, and BUCKINGHAM, on the other + + SUFFOLK. As by your high imperial Majesty + I had in charge at my depart for France, + As procurator to your Excellence, + To marry Princess Margaret for your Grace; + So, in the famous ancient city Tours, + In presence of the Kings of France and Sicil, + The Dukes of Orleans, Calaber, Bretagne, and Alencon, + Seven earls, twelve barons, and twenty reverend bishops, + I have perform'd my task, and was espous'd; + And humbly now upon my bended knee, + In sight of England and her lordly peers, + Deliver up my title in the Queen + To your most gracious hands, that are the substance + Of that great shadow I did represent: + The happiest gift that ever marquis gave, + The fairest queen that ever king receiv'd. + KING HENRY. Suffolk, arise. Welcome, Queen Margaret: + I can express no kinder sign of love + Than this kind kiss. O Lord, that lends me life, + Lend me a heart replete with thankfulness! + For thou hast given me in this beauteous face + A world of earthly blessings to my soul, + If sympathy of love unite our thoughts. + QUEEN. Great King of England, and my gracious lord, + The mutual conference that my mind hath had, + By day, by night, waking and in my dreams, + In courtly company or at my beads, + With you, mine alder-liefest sovereign, + Makes me the bolder to salute my king + With ruder terms, such as my wit affords + And over-joy of heart doth minister. + KING HENRY. Her sight did ravish, but her grace in speech, + Her words y-clad with wisdom's majesty, + Makes me from wond'ring fall to weeping joys, + Such is the fulness of my heart's content. + Lords, with one cheerful voice welcome my love. + ALL. [Kneeling] Long live Queen Margaret, England's happiness! + QUEEN. We thank you all. [Flourish] + SUFFOLK. My Lord Protector, so it please your Grace, + Here are the articles of contracted peace + Between our sovereign and the French King Charles, + For eighteen months concluded by consent. + GLOUCESTER. [Reads] 'Imprimis: It is agreed between the French King + Charles and William de la Pole, Marquess of Suffolk, ambassador + for Henry King of England, that the said Henry shall espouse the + Lady Margaret, daughter unto Reignier King of Naples, Sicilia, + and Jerusalem, and crown her Queen of England ere the thirtieth + of May next ensuing. + Item: That the duchy of Anjou and the county of Maine shall be + released and delivered to the King her father'- + [Lets the paper fall] + KING HENRY. Uncle, how now! + GLOUCESTER. Pardon me, gracious lord; + Some sudden qualm hath struck me at the heart, + And dimm'd mine eyes, that I can read no further. + KING HENRY. Uncle of Winchester, I pray read on. + CARDINAL. [Reads] 'Item: It is further agreed between them that the + duchies of Anjou and Maine shall be released and delivered over + to the King her father, and she sent over of the King of + England's own proper cost and charges, without having any dowry.' + KING HENRY. They please us well. Lord Marquess, kneel down. + We here create thee the first Duke of Suffolk, + And girt thee with the sword. Cousin of York, + We here discharge your Grace from being Regent + I' th' parts of France, till term of eighteen months + Be full expir'd. Thanks, uncle Winchester, + Gloucester, York, Buckingham, Somerset, + Salisbury, and Warwick; + We thank you all for this great favour done + In entertainment to my princely queen. + Come, let us in, and with all speed provide + To see her coronation be perform'd. + Exeunt KING, QUEEN, and SUFFOLK + GLOUCESTER. Brave peers of England, pillars of the state, + To you Duke Humphrey must unload his grief + Your grief, the common grief of all the land. + What! did my brother Henry spend his youth, + His valour, coin, and people, in the wars? + Did he so often lodge in open field, + In winter's cold and summer's parching heat, + To conquer France, his true inheritance? + And did my brother Bedford toil his wits + To keep by policy what Henry got? + Have you yourselves, Somerset, Buckingham, + Brave York, Salisbury, and victorious Warwick, + Receiv'd deep scars in France and Normandy? + Or hath mine uncle Beaufort and myself, + With all the learned Council of the realm, + Studied so long, sat in the Council House + Early and late, debating to and fro + How France and Frenchmen might be kept in awe? + And had his Highness in his infancy + Crowned in Paris, in despite of foes? + And shall these labours and these honours die? + Shall Henry's conquest, Bedford's vigilance, + Your deeds of war, and all our counsel die? + O peers of England, shameful is this league! + Fatal this marriage, cancelling your fame, + Blotting your names from books of memory, + Razing the characters of your renown, + Defacing monuments of conquer'd France, + Undoing all, as all had never been! + CARDINAL. Nephew, what means this passionate discourse, + This peroration with such circumstance? + For France, 'tis ours; and we will keep it still. + GLOUCESTER. Ay, uncle, we will keep it if we can; + But now it is impossible we should. + Suffolk, the new-made duke that rules the roast, + Hath given the duchy of Anjou and Maine + Unto the poor King Reignier, whose large style + Agrees not with the leanness of his purse. + SALISBURY. Now, by the death of Him that died for all, + These counties were the keys of Normandy! + But wherefore weeps Warwick, my valiant son? + WARWICK. For grief that they are past recovery; + For were there hope to conquer them again + My sword should shed hot blood, mine eyes no tears. + Anjou and Maine! myself did win them both; + Those provinces these arms of mine did conquer; + And are the cities that I got with wounds + Deliver'd up again with peaceful words? + Mort Dieu! + YORK. For Suffolk's duke, may he be suffocate, + That dims the honour of this warlike isle! + France should have torn and rent my very heart + Before I would have yielded to this league. + I never read but England's kings have had + Large sums of gold and dowries with their wives; + And our King Henry gives away his own + To match with her that brings no vantages. + GLOUCESTER. A proper jest, and never heard before, + That Suffolk should demand a whole fifteenth + For costs and charges in transporting her! + She should have stay'd in France, and starv'd in France, + Before- + CARDINAL. My Lord of Gloucester, now ye grow too hot: + It was the pleasure of my lord the King. + GLOUCESTER. My Lord of Winchester, I know your mind; + 'Tis not my speeches that you do mislike, + But 'tis my presence that doth trouble ye. + Rancour will out: proud prelate, in thy face + I see thy fury; if I longer stay + We shall begin our ancient bickerings. + Lordings, farewell; and say, when I am gone, + I prophesied France will be lost ere long. Exit + CARDINAL. So, there goes our Protector in a rage. + 'Tis known to you he is mine enemy; + Nay, more, an enemy unto you all, + And no great friend, I fear me, to the King. + Consider, lords, he is the next of blood + And heir apparent to the English crown. + Had Henry got an empire by his marriage + And all the wealthy kingdoms of the west, + There's reason he should be displeas'd at it. + Look to it, lords; let not his smoothing words + Bewitch your hearts; be wise and circumspect. + What though the common people favour him, + Calling him 'Humphrey, the good Duke of Gloucester,' + Clapping their hands, and crying with loud voice + 'Jesu maintain your royal excellence!' + With 'God preserve the good Duke Humphrey!' + I fear me, lords, for all this flattering gloss, + He will be found a dangerous Protector. + BUCKINGHAM. Why should he then protect our sovereign, + He being of age to govern of himself? + Cousin of Somerset, join you with me, + And all together, with the Duke of Suffolk, + We'll quickly hoise Duke Humphrey from his seat. + CARDINAL. This weighty business will not brook delay; + I'll to the Duke of Suffolk presently. Exit + SOMERSET. Cousin of Buckingham, though Humphrey's pride + And greatness of his place be grief to us, + Yet let us watch the haughty cardinal; + His insolence is more intolerable + Than all the princes in the land beside; + If Gloucester be displac'd, he'll be Protector. + BUCKINGHAM. Or thou or I, Somerset, will be Protector, + Despite Duke Humphrey or the Cardinal. + Exeunt BUCKINGHAM and SOMERSET + SALISBURY. Pride went before, ambition follows him. + While these do labour for their own preferment, + Behoves it us to labour for the realm. + I never saw but Humphrey Duke of Gloucester + Did bear him like a noble gentleman. + Oft have I seen the haughty Cardinal- + More like a soldier than a man o' th' church, + As stout and proud as he were lord of all- + Swear like a ruffian and demean himself + Unlike the ruler of a commonweal. + Warwick my son, the comfort of my age, + Thy deeds, thy plainness, and thy housekeeping, + Hath won the greatest favour of the commons, + Excepting none but good Duke Humphrey. + And, brother York, thy acts in Ireland, + In bringing them to civil discipline, + Thy late exploits done in the heart of France + When thou wert Regent for our sovereign, + Have made thee fear'd and honour'd of the people: + Join we together for the public good, + In what we can, to bridle and suppress + The pride of Suffolk and the Cardinal, + With Somerset's and Buckingham's ambition; + And, as we may, cherish Duke Humphrey's deeds + While they do tend the profit of the land. + WARWICK. So God help Warwick, as he loves the land + And common profit of his country! + YORK. And so says York- [Aside] for he hath greatest cause. + SALISBURY. Then let's make haste away and look unto the main. + WARWICK. Unto the main! O father, Maine is lost- + That Maine which by main force Warwick did win, + And would have kept so long as breath did last. + Main chance, father, you meant; but I meant Maine, + Which I will win from France, or else be slain. + Exeunt WARWICK and SALISBURY + YORK. Anjou and Maine are given to the French; + Paris is lost; the state of Normandy + Stands on a tickle point now they are gone. + Suffolk concluded on the articles; + The peers agreed; and Henry was well pleas'd + To changes two dukedoms for a duke's fair daughter. + I cannot blame them all: what is't to them? + 'Tis thine they give away, and not their own. + Pirates may make cheap pennyworths of their pillage, + And purchase friends, and give to courtezans, + Still revelling like lords till all be gone; + While as the silly owner of the goods + Weeps over them and wrings his hapless hands + And shakes his head and trembling stands aloof, + While all is shar'd and all is borne away, + Ready to starve and dare not touch his own. + So York must sit and fret and bite his tongue, + While his own lands are bargain'd for and sold. + Methinks the realms of England, France, and Ireland, + Bear that proportion to my flesh and blood + As did the fatal brand Althaea burnt + Unto the prince's heart of Calydon. + Anjou and Maine both given unto the French! + Cold news for me, for I had hope of France, + Even as I have of fertile England's soil. + A day will come when York shall claim his own; + And therefore I will take the Nevils' parts, + And make a show of love to proud Duke Humphrey, + And when I spy advantage, claim the crown, + For that's the golden mark I seek to hit. + Nor shall proud Lancaster usurp my right, + Nor hold the sceptre in his childish fist, + Nor wear the diadem upon his head, + Whose church-like humours fits not for a crown. + Then, York, be still awhile, till time do serve; + Watch thou and wake, when others be asleep, + To pry into the secrets of the state; + Till Henry, surfeiting in joys of love + With his new bride and England's dear-bought queen, + And Humphrey with the peers be fall'n at jars; + Then will I raise aloft the milk-white rose, + With whose sweet smell the air shall be perfum'd, + And in my standard bear the arms of York, + To grapple with the house of Lancaster; + And force perforce I'll make him yield the crown, + Whose bookish rule hath pull'd fair England down. Exit + +SCENE II. The DUKE OF GLOUCESTER'S house + +Enter DUKE and his wife ELEANOR + + DUCHESS. Why droops my lord, like over-ripen'd corn + Hanging the head at Ceres' plenteous load? + Why doth the great Duke Humphrey knit his brows, + As frowning at the favours of the world? + Why are thine eyes fix'd to the sullen earth, + Gazing on that which seems to dim thy sight? + What see'st thou there? King Henry's diadem, + Enchas'd with all the honours of the world? + If so, gaze on, and grovel on thy face + Until thy head be circled with the same. + Put forth thy hand, reach at the glorious gold. + What, is't too short? I'll lengthen it with mine; + And having both together heav'd it up, + We'll both together lift our heads to heaven, + And never more abase our sight so low + As to vouchsafe one glance unto the ground. + GLOUCESTER. O Nell, sweet Nell, if thou dost love thy lord, + Banish the canker of ambitious thoughts! + And may that thought, when I imagine ill + Against my king and nephew, virtuous Henry, + Be my last breathing in this mortal world! + My troublous dreams this night doth make me sad. + DUCHESS. What dream'd my lord? Tell me, and I'll requite it + With sweet rehearsal of my morning's dream. + GLOUCESTER. Methought this staff, mine office-badge in court, + Was broke in twain; by whom I have forgot, + But, as I think, it was by th' Cardinal; + And on the pieces of the broken wand + Were plac'd the heads of Edmund Duke of Somerset + And William de la Pole, first Duke of Suffolk. + This was my dream; what it doth bode God knows. + DUCHESS. Tut, this was nothing but an argument + That he that breaks a stick of Gloucester's grove + Shall lose his head for his presumption. + But list to me, my Humphrey, my sweet Duke: + Methought I sat in seat of majesty + In the cathedral church of Westminster, + And in that chair where kings and queens were crown'd; + Where Henry and Dame Margaret kneel'd to me, + And on my head did set the diadem. + GLOUCESTER. Nay, Eleanor, then must I chide outright. + Presumptuous dame, ill-nurtur'd Eleanor! + Art thou not second woman in the realm, + And the Protector's wife, belov'd of him? + Hast thou not worldly pleasure at command + Above the reach or compass of thy thought? + And wilt thou still be hammering treachery + To tumble down thy husband and thyself + From top of honour to disgrace's feet? + Away from me, and let me hear no more! + DUCHESS. What, what, my lord! Are you so choleric + With Eleanor for telling but her dream? + Next time I'll keep my dreams unto myself + And not be check'd. + GLOUCESTER. Nay, be not angry; I am pleas'd again. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. My Lord Protector, 'tis his Highness' pleasure + You do prepare to ride unto Saint Albans, + Where as the King and Queen do mean to hawk. + GLOUCESTER. I go. Come, Nell, thou wilt ride with us? + DUCHESS. Yes, my good lord, I'll follow presently. + Exeunt GLOUCESTER and MESSENGER + Follow I must; I cannot go before, + While Gloucester bears this base and humble mind. + Were I a man, a duke, and next of blood, + I would remove these tedious stumbling-blocks + And smooth my way upon their headless necks; + And, being a woman, I will not be slack + To play my part in Fortune's pageant. + Where are you there, Sir John? Nay, fear not, man, + We are alone; here's none but thee and I. + + Enter HUME + + HUME. Jesus preserve your royal Majesty! + DUCHESS. What say'st thou? Majesty! I am but Grace. + HUME. But, by the grace of God and Hume's advice, + Your Grace's title shall be multiplied. + DUCHESS. What say'st thou, man? Hast thou as yet conferr'd + With Margery Jourdain, the cunning witch of Eie, + With Roger Bolingbroke, the conjurer? + And will they undertake to do me good? + HUME. This they have promised, to show your Highness + A spirit rais'd from depth of underground + That shall make answer to such questions + As by your Grace shall be propounded him + DUCHESS. It is enough; I'll think upon the questions; + When from Saint Albans we do make return + We'll see these things effected to the full. + Here, Hume, take this reward; make merry, man, + With thy confederates in this weighty cause. Exit + HUME. Hume must make merry with the Duchess' gold; + Marry, and shall. But, how now, Sir John Hume! + Seal up your lips and give no words but mum: + The business asketh silent secrecy. + Dame Eleanor gives gold to bring the witch: + Gold cannot come amiss were she a devil. + Yet have I gold flies from another coast- + I dare not say from the rich Cardinal, + And from the great and new-made Duke of Suffolk; + Yet I do find it so; for, to be plain, + They, knowing Dame Eleanor's aspiring humour, + Have hired me to undermine the Duchess, + And buzz these conjurations in her brain. + They say 'A crafty knave does need no broker'; + Yet am I Suffolk and the Cardinal's broker. + Hume, if you take not heed, you shall go near + To call them both a pair of crafty knaves. + Well, so its stands; and thus, I fear, at last + Hume's knavery will be the Duchess' wreck, + And her attainture will be Humphrey's fall + Sort how it will, I shall have gold for all. Exit + +SCENE III. London. The palace + +Enter three or four PETITIONERS, PETER, the Armourer's man, being one + + FIRST PETITIONER. My masters, let's stand close; my Lord Protector + will come this way by and by, and then we may deliver our + supplications in the quill. + SECOND PETITIONER. Marry, the Lord protect him, for he's a good + man, Jesu bless him! + + Enter SUFFOLK and QUEEN + + FIRST PETITIONER. Here 'a comes, methinks, and the Queen with him. + I'll be the first, sure. + SECOND PETITIONER. Come back, fool; this is the Duke of Suffolk and + not my Lord Protector. + SUFFOLK. How now, fellow! Wouldst anything with me? + FIRST PETITIONER. I pray, my lord, pardon me; I took ye for my Lord + Protector. + QUEEN. [Reads] 'To my Lord Protector!' Are your supplications to + his lordship? Let me see them. What is thine? + FIRST PETITIONER. Mine is, an't please your Grace, against John + Goodman, my Lord Cardinal's man, for keeping my house and lands, + and wife and all, from me. + SUFFOLK. Thy wife too! That's some wrong indeed. What's yours? + What's here! [Reads] 'Against the Duke of Suffolk, for enclosing + the commons of Melford.' How now, sir knave! + SECOND PETITIONER. Alas, sir, I am but a poor petitioner of our + whole township. + PETER. [Presenting his petition] Against my master, Thomas Horner, + for saying that the Duke of York was rightful heir to the crown. + QUEEN. What say'st thou? Did the Duke of York say he was rightful + heir to the crown? + PETER. That my master was? No, forsooth. My master said that he + was, and that the King was an usurper. + SUFFOLK. Who is there? [Enter servant] Take this fellow in, and + send for his master with a pursuivant presently. We'll hear more + of your matter before the King. + Exit servant with PETER + QUEEN. And as for you, that love to be protected + Under the wings of our Protector's grace, + Begin your suits anew, and sue to him. + [Tears the supplications] + Away, base cullions! Suffolk, let them go. + ALL. Come, let's be gone. Exeunt + QUEEN. My Lord of Suffolk, say, is this the guise, + Is this the fashions in the court of England? + Is this the government of Britain's isle, + And this the royalty of Albion's king? + What, shall King Henry be a pupil still, + Under the surly Gloucester's governance? + Am I a queen in title and in style, + And must be made a subject to a duke? + I tell thee, Pole, when in the city Tours + Thou ran'st a tilt in honour of my love + And stol'st away the ladies' hearts of France, + I thought King Henry had resembled thee + In courage, courtship, and proportion; + But all his mind is bent to holiness, + To number Ave-Maries on his beads; + His champions are the prophets and apostles; + His weapons, holy saws of sacred writ; + His study is his tilt-yard, and his loves + Are brazen images of canonized saints. + I would the college of the Cardinals + Would choose him Pope, and carry him to Rome, + And set the triple crown upon his head; + That were a state fit for his holiness. + SUFFOLK. Madam, be patient. As I was cause + Your Highness came to England, so will I + In England work your Grace's full content. + QUEEN. Beside the haughty Protector, have we Beaufort + The imperious churchman; Somerset, Buckingham, + And grumbling York; and not the least of these + But can do more in England than the King. + SUFFOLK. And he of these that can do most of all + Cannot do more in England than the Nevils; + Salisbury and Warwick are no simple peers. + QUEEN. Not all these lords do vex me half so much + As that proud dame, the Lord Protector's wife. + She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies, + More like an empress than Duke Humphrey's wife. + Strangers in court do take her for the Queen. + She bears a duke's revenues on her back, + And in her heart she scorns our poverty; + Shall I not live to be aveng'd on her? + Contemptuous base-born callet as she is, + She vaunted 'mongst her minions t' other day + The very train of her worst wearing gown + Was better worth than all my father's lands, + Till Suffolk gave two dukedoms for his daughter. + SUFFOLK. Madam, myself have lim'd a bush for her, + And plac'd a quire of such enticing birds + That she will light to listen to the lays, + And never mount to trouble you again. + So, let her rest. And, madam, list to me, + For I am bold to counsel you in this: + Although we fancy not the Cardinal, + Yet must we join with him and with the lords, + Till we have brought Duke Humphrey in disgrace. + As for the Duke of York, this late complaint + Will make but little for his benefit. + So one by one we'll weed them all at last, + And you yourself shall steer the happy helm. + + Sound a sennet. Enter the KING, DUKE HUMPHREY, + CARDINAL BEAUFORT, BUCKINGHAM, YORK, SOMERSET, SALISBURY, + WARWICK, and the DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER + + KING HENRY. For my part, noble lords, I care not which: + Or Somerset or York, all's one to me. + YORK. If York have ill demean'd himself in France, + Then let him be denay'd the regentship. + SOMERSET. If Somerset be unworthy of the place, + Let York be Regent; I will yield to him. + WARWICK. Whether your Grace be worthy, yea or no, + Dispute not that; York is the worthier. + CARDINAL. Ambitious Warwick, let thy betters speak. + WARWICK. The Cardinal's not my better in the field. + BUCKINGHAM. All in this presence are thy betters, Warwick. + WARWICK. Warwick may live to be the best of all. + SALISBURY. Peace, son! And show some reason, Buckingham, + Why Somerset should be preferr'd in this. + QUEEN. Because the King, forsooth, will have it so. + GLOUCESTER. Madam, the King is old enough himself + To give his censure. These are no women's matters. + QUEEN. If he be old enough, what needs your Grace + To be Protector of his Excellence? + GLOUCESTER. Madam, I am Protector of the realm; + And at his pleasure will resign my place. + SUFFOLK. Resign it then, and leave thine insolence. + Since thou wert king- as who is king but thou?- + The commonwealth hath daily run to wrack, + The Dauphin hath prevail'd beyond the seas, + And all the peers and nobles of the realm + Have been as bondmen to thy sovereignty. + CARDINAL. The commons hast thou rack'd; the clergy's bags + Are lank and lean with thy extortions. + SOMERSET. Thy sumptuous buildings and thy wife's attire + Have cost a mass of public treasury. + BUCKINGHAM. Thy cruelty in execution + Upon offenders hath exceeded law, + And left thee to the mercy of the law. + QUEEN. Thy sale of offices and towns in France, + If they were known, as the suspect is great, + Would make thee quickly hop without thy head. + Exit GLOUCESTER. The QUEEN drops QUEEN her fan + Give me my fan. What, minion, can ye not? + [She gives the DUCHESS a box on the ear] + I cry your mercy, madam; was it you? + DUCHESS. Was't I? Yea, I it was, proud Frenchwoman. + Could I come near your beauty with my nails, + I could set my ten commandments in your face. + KING HENRY. Sweet aunt, be quiet; 'twas against her will. + DUCHESS. Against her will, good King? Look to 't in time; + She'll hamper thee and dandle thee like a baby. + Though in this place most master wear no breeches, + She shall not strike Dame Eleanor unreveng'd. Exit + BUCKINGHAM. Lord Cardinal, I will follow Eleanor, + And listen after Humphrey, how he proceeds. + She's tickled now; her fume needs no spurs, + She'll gallop far enough to her destruction. Exit + + Re-enter GLOUCESTER + + GLOUCESTER. Now, lords, my choler being overblown + With walking once about the quadrangle, + I come to talk of commonwealth affairs. + As for your spiteful false objections, + Prove them, and I lie open to the law; + But God in mercy so deal with my soul + As I in duty love my king and country! + But to the matter that we have in hand: + I say, my sovereign, York is meetest man + To be your Regent in the realm of France. + SUFFOLK. Before we make election, give me leave + To show some reason, of no little force, + That York is most unmeet of any man. + YORK. I'll tell thee, Suffolk, why I am unmeet: + First, for I cannot flatter thee in pride; + Next, if I be appointed for the place, + My Lord of Somerset will keep me here + Without discharge, money, or furniture, + Till France be won into the Dauphin's hands. + Last time I danc'd attendance on his will + Till Paris was besieg'd, famish'd, and lost. + WARWICK. That can I witness; and a fouler fact + Did never traitor in the land commit. + SUFFOLK. Peace, headstrong Warwick! + WARWICK. Image of pride, why should I hold my peace? + + Enter HORNER, the Armourer, and his man PETER, guarded + + SUFFOLK. Because here is a man accus'd of treason: + Pray God the Duke of York excuse himself! + YORK. Doth any one accuse York for a traitor? + KING HENRY. What mean'st thou, Suffolk? Tell me, what are these? + SUFFOLK. Please it your Majesty, this is the man + That doth accuse his master of high treason; + His words were these: that Richard Duke of York + Was rightful heir unto the English crown, + And that your Majesty was an usurper. + KING HENRY. Say, man, were these thy words? + HORNER. An't shall please your Majesty, I never said nor thought + any such matter. God is my witness, I am falsely accus'd by the + villain. + PETER. [Holding up his hands] By these ten bones, my lords, he did + speak them to me in the garret one night, as we were scouring my + Lord of York's armour. + YORK. Base dunghill villain and mechanical, + I'll have thy head for this thy traitor's speech. + I do beseech your royal Majesty, + Let him have all the rigour of the law. + HORNER`. Alas, my lord, hang me if ever I spake the words. My + accuser is my prentice; and when I did correct him for his fault + the other day, he did vow upon his knees he would be even with + me. I have good witness of this; therefore I beseech your + Majesty, do not cast away an honest man for a villain's + accusation. + KING HENRY. Uncle, what shall we say to this in law? + GLOUCESTER. This doom, my lord, if I may judge: + Let Somerset be Regent o'er the French, + Because in York this breeds suspicion; + And let these have a day appointed them + For single combat in convenient place, + For he hath witness of his servant's malice. + This is the law, and this Duke Humphrey's doom. + SOMERSET. I humbly thank your royal Majesty. + HORNER. And I accept the combat willingly. + PETER. Alas, my lord, I cannot fight; for God's sake, pity my case! + The spite of man prevaileth against me. O Lord, have mercy upon + me, I shall never be able to fight a blow! O Lord, my heart! + GLOUCESTER. Sirrah, or you must fight or else be hang'd. + KING HENRY. Away with them to prison; and the day of combat shall + be the last of the next month. + Come, Somerset, we'll see thee sent away. Flourish. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. London. The DUKE OF GLOUCESTER'S garden + +Enter MARGERY JOURDAIN, the witch; the two priests, HUME and SOUTHWELL; +and BOLINGBROKE + + HUME. Come, my masters; the Duchess, I tell you, expects + performance of your promises. + BOLINGBROKE. Master Hume, we are therefore provided; will her + ladyship behold and hear our exorcisms? + HUME. Ay, what else? Fear you not her courage. + BOLINGBROKE. I have heard her reported to be a woman of an + invincible spirit; but it shall be convenient, Master Hume, that + you be by her aloft while we be busy below; and so I pray you go, + in God's name, and leave us. [Exit HUME] Mother Jourdain, be you + prostrate and grovel on the earth; John Southwell, read you; and + let us to our work. + + Enter DUCHESS aloft, followed by HUME + + DUCHESS. Well said, my masters; and welcome all. To this gear, the + sooner the better. + BOLINGBROKE. Patience, good lady; wizards know their times: + Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night, + The time of night when Troy was set on fire; + The time when screech-owls cry and ban-dogs howl, + And spirits walk and ghosts break up their graves- + That time best fits the work we have in hand. + Madam, sit you, and fear not: whom we raise + We will make fast within a hallow'd verge. + + [Here they do the ceremonies belonging, and make the circle; + BOLINGBROKE or SOUTHWELL reads: 'Conjuro te,' &c. + It thunders and lightens terribly; then the SPIRIT riseth] + + SPIRIT. Adsum. + MARGERY JOURDAIN. Asmath, + By the eternal God, whose name and power + Thou tremblest at, answer that I shall ask; + For till thou speak thou shalt not pass from hence. + SPIRIT. Ask what thou wilt; that I had said and done. + BOLINGBROKE. [Reads] 'First of the king: what shall of him become?' + SPIRIT. The Duke yet lives that Henry shall depose; + But him outlive, and die a violent death. + [As the SPIRIT speaks, SOUTHWELL writes the answer] + BOLINGBROKE. 'What fates await the Duke of Suffolk?' + SPIRIT. By water shall he die and take his end. + BOLINGBROKE. 'What shall befall the Duke of Somerset?' + SPIRIT. Let him shun castles: + Safer shall he be upon the sandy plains + Than where castles mounted stand. + Have done, for more I hardly can endure. + BOLINGBROKE. Descend to darkness and the burning lake; + False fiend, avoid! Thunder and lightning. Exit SPIRIT + + Enter the DUKE OF YORK and the DUKE OF + BUCKINGHAM with guard, and break in + + YORK. Lay hands upon these traitors and their trash. + Beldam, I think we watch'd you at an inch. + What, madam, are you there? The King and commonweal + Are deeply indebted for this piece of pains; + My Lord Protector will, I doubt it not, + See you well guerdon'd for these good deserts. + DUCHESS. Not half so bad as thine to England's king, + Injurious Duke, that threatest where's no cause. + BUCKINGHAM. True, madam, none at all. What can you this? + Away with them! let them be clapp'd up close, + And kept asunder. You, madam, shall with us. + Stafford, take her to thee. + We'll see your trinkets here all forthcoming. + All, away! + Exeunt, above, DUCHESS and HUME, guarded; below, + WITCH, SOUTHWELL and BOLINGBROKE, guarded + YORK. Lord Buckingham, methinks you watch'd her well. + A pretty plot, well chosen to build upon! + Now, pray, my lord, let's see the devil's writ. + What have we here? [Reads] + 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose; + But him outlive, and die a violent death.' + Why, this is just + 'Aio te, Aeacida, Romanos vincere posse.' + Well, to the rest: + 'Tell me what fate awaits the Duke of Suffolk?' + 'By water shall he die and take his end.' + 'What shall betide the Duke of Somerset?' + 'Let him shun castles; + Safer shall he be upon the sandy plains + Than where castles mounted stand.' + Come, come, my lords; + These oracles are hardly attain'd, + And hardly understood. + The King is now in progress towards Saint Albans, + With him the husband of this lovely lady; + Thither go these news as fast as horse can carry them- + A sorry breakfast for my Lord Protector. + BUCKINGHAM. Your Grace shall give me leave, my Lord of York, + To be the post, in hope of his reward. + YORK. At your pleasure, my good lord. + Who's within there, ho? + + Enter a serving-man + + Invite my Lords of Salisbury and Warwick + To sup with me to-morrow night. Away! Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE I. Saint Albans + +Enter the KING, QUEEN, GLOUCESTER, CARDINAL, and SUFFOLK, with +Falconers halloing + + QUEEN. Believe me, lords, for flying at the brook, + I saw not better sport these seven years' day; + Yet, by your leave, the wind was very high, + And ten to one old Joan had not gone out. + KING HENRY. But what a point, my lord, your falcon made, + And what a pitch she flew above the rest! + To see how God in all His creatures works! + Yea, man and birds are fain of climbing high. + SUFFOLK. No marvel, an it like your Majesty, + My Lord Protector's hawks do tow'r so well; + They know their master loves to be aloft, + And bears his thoughts above his falcon's pitch. + GLOUCESTER. My lord, 'tis but a base ignoble mind + That mounts no higher than a bird can soar. + CARDINAL. I thought as much; he would be above the clouds. + GLOUCESTER. Ay, my lord Cardinal, how think you by that? + Were it not good your Grace could fly to heaven? + KING HENRY. The treasury of everlasting joy! + CARDINAL. Thy heaven is on earth; thine eyes and thoughts + Beat on a crown, the treasure of thy heart; + Pernicious Protector, dangerous peer, + That smooth'st it so with King and commonweal. + GLOUCESTER. What, Cardinal, is your priesthood grown peremptory? + Tantaene animis coelestibus irae? + Churchmen so hot? Good uncle, hide such malice; + With such holiness can you do it? + SUFFOLK. No malice, sir; no more than well becomes + So good a quarrel and so bad a peer. + GLOUCESTER. As who, my lord? + SUFFOLK. Why, as you, my lord, + An't like your lordly Lord's Protectorship. + GLOUCESTER. Why, Suffolk, England knows thine insolence. + QUEEN. And thy ambition, Gloucester. + KING HENRY. I prithee, peace, + Good Queen, and whet not on these furious peers; + For blessed are the peacemakers on earth. + CARDINAL. Let me be blessed for the peace I make + Against this proud Protector with my sword! + GLOUCESTER. [Aside to CARDINAL] Faith, holy uncle, would 'twere + come to that! + CARDINAL. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] Marry, when thou dar'st. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside to CARDINAL] Make up no factious numbers for the + matter; + In thine own person answer thy abuse. + CARDINAL. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] Ay, where thou dar'st not peep; an + if thou dar'st, + This evening on the east side of the grove. + KING HENRY. How now, my lords! + CARDINAL. Believe me, cousin Gloucester, + Had not your man put up the fowl so suddenly, + We had had more sport. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] Come with thy + two-hand sword. + GLOUCESTER. True, uncle. + CARDINAL. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] Are ye advis'd? The east side of + the grove? + GLOUCESTER. [Aside to CARDINAL] Cardinal, I am with you. + KING HENRY. Why, how now, uncle Gloucester! + GLOUCESTER. Talking of hawking; nothing else, my lord. + [Aside to CARDINAL] Now, by God's Mother, priest, + I'll shave your crown for this, + Or all my fence shall fail. + CARDINAL. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] Medice, teipsum; + Protector, see to't well; protect yourself. + KING HENRY. The winds grow high; so do your stomachs, lords. + How irksome is this music to my heart! + When such strings jar, what hope of harmony? + I pray, my lords, let me compound this strife. + + Enter a TOWNSMAN of Saint Albans, crying 'A miracle!' + + GLOUCESTER. What means this noise? + Fellow, what miracle dost thou proclaim? + TOWNSMAN. A miracle! A miracle! + SUFFOLK. Come to the King, and tell him what miracle. + TOWNSMAN. Forsooth, a blind man at Saint Albans shrine + Within this half hour hath receiv'd his sight; + A man that ne'er saw in his life before. + KING HENRY. Now God be prais'd that to believing souls + Gives light in darkness, comfort in despair! + + Enter the MAYOR OF SAINT ALBANS and his brethren, + bearing Simpcox between two in a chair; + his WIFE and a multitude following + + CARDINAL. Here comes the townsmen on procession + To present your Highness with the man. + KING HENRY. Great is his comfort in this earthly vale, + Although by his sight his sin be multiplied. + GLOUCESTER. Stand by, my masters; bring him near the King; + His Highness' pleasure is to talk with him. + KING HENRY. Good fellow, tell us here the circumstance, + That we for thee may glorify the Lord. + What, hast thou been long blind and now restor'd? + SIMPCOX. Born blind, an't please your Grace. + WIFE. Ay indeed was he. + SUFFOLK. What woman is this? + WIFE. His wife, an't like your worship. + GLOUCESTER. Hadst thou been his mother, thou couldst have better + told. + KING HENRY. Where wert thou born? + SIMPCOX. At Berwick in the north, an't like your Grace. + KING HENRY. Poor soul, God's goodness hath been great to thee. + Let never day nor night unhallowed pass, + But still remember what the Lord hath done. + QUEEN. Tell me, good fellow, cam'st thou here by chance, + Or of devotion, to this holy shrine? + SIMPCOX. God knows, of pure devotion; being call'd + A hundred times and oft'ner, in my sleep, + By good Saint Alban, who said 'Simpcox, come, + Come, offer at my shrine, and I will help thee.' + WIFE. Most true, forsooth; and many time and oft + Myself have heard a voice to call him so. + CARDINAL. What, art thou lame? + SIMPCOX. Ay, God Almighty help me! + SUFFOLK. How cam'st thou so? + SIMPCOX. A fall off of a tree. + WIFE. A plum tree, master. + GLOUCESTER. How long hast thou been blind? + SIMPCOX. O, born so, master! + GLOUCESTER. What, and wouldst climb a tree? + SIMPCOX. But that in all my life, when I was a youth. + WIFE. Too true; and bought his climbing very dear. + GLOUCESTER. Mass, thou lov'dst plums well, that wouldst venture so. + SIMPCOX. Alas, good master, my wife desir'd some damsons + And made me climb, With danger of my life. + GLOUCESTER. A subtle knave! But yet it shall not serve: + Let me see thine eyes; wink now; now open them; + In my opinion yet thou seest not well. + SIMPCOX. Yes, master, clear as day, I thank God and Saint Alban. + GLOUCESTER. Say'st thou me so? What colour is this cloak of? + SIMPCOX. Red, master; red as blood. + GLOUCESTER. Why, that's well said. What colour is my gown of? + SIMPCOX. Black, forsooth; coal-black as jet. + KING HENRY. Why, then, thou know'st what colour jet is of? + SUFFOLK. And yet, I think, jet did he never see. + GLOUCESTER. But cloaks and gowns before this day a many. + WIFE. Never before this day in all his life. + GLOUCESTER. Tell me, sirrah, what's my name? + SIMPCOX. Alas, master, I know not. + GLOUCESTER. What's his name? + SIMPCOX. I know not. + GLOUCESTER. Nor his? + SIMPCOX. No, indeed, master. + GLOUCESTER. What's thine own name? + SIMPCOX. Saunder Simpcox, an if it please you, master. + GLOUCESTER. Then, Saunder, sit there, the lying'st knave in + Christendom. If thou hadst been born blind, thou mightst as well + have known all our names as thus to name the several colours we + do wear. Sight may distinguish of colours; but suddenly to + nominate them all, it is impossible. My lords, Saint Alban here + hath done a miracle; and would ye not think his cunning to be + great that could restore this cripple to his legs again? + SIMPCOX. O master, that you could! + GLOUCESTER. My masters of Saint Albans, have you not beadles in + your town, and things call'd whips? + MAYOR. Yes, my lord, if it please your Grace. + GLOUCESTER. Then send for one presently. + MAYOR. Sirrah, go fetch the beadle hither straight. + Exit an attendant + GLOUCESTER. Now fetch me a stool hither by and by. [A stool + brought] Now, sirrah, if you mean to save yourself from whipping, + leap me over this stool and run away. + SIMPCOX. Alas, master, I am not able to stand alone! + You go about to torture me in vain. + + Enter a BEADLE with whips + + GLOUCESTER. Well, sir, we must have you find your legs. + Sirrah beadle, whip him till he leap over that same stool. + BEADLE. I will, my lord. Come on, sirrah; off with your doublet + quickly. + SIMPCOX. Alas, master, what shall I do? I am not able to stand. + + After the BEADLE hath hit him once, he leaps over + the stool and runs away; and they follow and cry + 'A miracle!' + + KING HENRY. O God, seest Thou this, and bearest so long? + QUEEN. It made me laugh to see the villain run. + GLOUCESTER. Follow the knave, and take this drab away. + WIFE. Alas, sir, we did it for pure need! + GLOUCESTER. Let them be whipp'd through every market town till they + come to Berwick, from whence they came. + Exeunt MAYOR, BEADLE, WIFE, &c. + CARDINAL. Duke Humphrey has done a miracle to-day. + SUFFOLK. True; made the lame to leap and fly away. + GLOUCESTER. But you have done more miracles than I: + You made in a day, my lord, whole towns to fly. + + Enter BUCKINGHAM + + KING HENRY. What tidings with our cousin Buckingham? + BUCKINGHAM. Such as my heart doth tremble to unfold: + A sort of naughty persons, lewdly bent, + Under the countenance and confederacy + Of Lady Eleanor, the Protector's wife, + The ringleader and head of all this rout, + Have practis'd dangerously against your state, + Dealing with witches and with conjurers, + Whom we have apprehended in the fact, + Raising up wicked spirits from under ground, + Demanding of King Henry's life and death + And other of your Highness' Privy Council, + As more at large your Grace shall understand. + CARDINAL. And so, my Lord Protector, by this means + Your lady is forthcoming yet at London. + This news, I think, hath turn'd your weapon's edge; + 'Tis like, my lord, you will not keep your hour. + GLOUCESTER. Ambitious churchman, leave to afflict my heart. + Sorrow and grief have vanquish'd all my powers; + And, vanquish'd as I am, I yield to the + Or to the meanest groom. + KING HENRY. O God, what mischiefs work the wicked ones, + Heaping confusion on their own heads thereby! + QUEEN. Gloucester, see here the tainture of thy nest; + And look thyself be faultless, thou wert best. + GLOUCESTER. Madam, for myself, to heaven I do appeal + How I have lov'd my King and commonweal; + And for my wife I know not how it stands. + Sorry I am to hear what I have heard. + Noble she is; but if she have forgot + Honour and virtue, and convers'd with such + As, like to pitch, defile nobility, + I banish her my bed and company + And give her as a prey to law and shame, + That hath dishonoured Gloucester's honest name. + KING HENRY. Well, for this night we will repose us here. + To-morrow toward London back again + To look into this business thoroughly + And call these foul offenders to their answers, + And poise the cause in justice' equal scales, + Whose beam stands sure, whose rightful cause prevails. + Flourish. Exeunt + +SCENE II. London. The DUKE OF YORK'S garden + +Enter YORK, SALISBURY, and WARWICK + + YORK. Now, my good Lords of Salisbury and Warwick, + Our simple supper ended, give me leave + In this close walk to satisfy myself + In craving your opinion of my tide, + Which is infallible, to England's crown. + SALISBURY. My lord, I long to hear it at full. + WARWICK. Sweet York, begin; and if thy claim be good, + The Nevils are thy subjects to command. + YORK. Then thus: + Edward the Third, my lords, had seven sons; + The first, Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Wales; + The second, William of Hatfield; and the third, + Lionel Duke of Clarence; next to whom + Was John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster; + The fifth was Edmund Langley, Duke of York; + The sixth was Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester; + William of Windsor was the seventh and last. + Edward the Black Prince died before his father + And left behind him Richard, his only son, + Who, after Edward the Third's death, reign'd as king + Till Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancaster, + The eldest son and heir of John of Gaunt, + Crown'd by the name of Henry the Fourth, + Seiz'd on the realm, depos'd the rightful king, + Sent his poor queen to France, from whence she came. + And him to Pomfret, where, as all you know, + Harmless Richard was murdered traitorously. + WARWICK. Father, the Duke hath told the truth; + Thus got the house of Lancaster the crown. + YORK. Which now they hold by force, and not by right; + For Richard, the first son's heir, being dead, + The issue of the next son should have reign'd. + SALISBURY. But William of Hatfield died without an heir. + YORK. The third son, Duke of Clarence, from whose line + I claim the crown, had issue Philippe, a daughter, + Who married Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March; + Edmund had issue, Roger Earl of March; + Roger had issue, Edmund, Anne, and Eleanor. + SALISBURY. This Edmund, in the reign of Bolingbroke, + As I have read, laid claim unto the crown; + And, but for Owen Glendower, had been king, + Who kept him in captivity till he died. + But, to the rest. + YORK. His eldest sister, Anne, + My mother, being heir unto the crown, + Married Richard Earl of Cambridge, who was + To Edmund Langley, Edward the Third's fifth son, son. + By her I claim the kingdom: she was heir + To Roger Earl of March, who was the son + Of Edmund Mortimer, who married Philippe, + Sole daughter unto Lionel Duke of Clarence; + So, if the issue of the elder son + Succeed before the younger, I am King. + WARWICK. What plain proceedings is more plain than this? + Henry doth claim the crown from John of Gaunt, + The fourth son: York claims it from the third. + Till Lionel's issue fails, his should not reign. + It fails not yet, but flourishes in thee + And in thy sons, fair slips of such a stock. + Then, father Salisbury, kneel we together, + And in this private plot be we the first + That shall salute our rightful sovereign + With honour of his birthright to the crown. + BOTH. Long live our sovereign Richard, England's King! + YORK. We thank you, lords. But I am not your king + Till I be crown'd, and that my sword be stain'd + With heart-blood of the house of Lancaster; + And that's not suddenly to be perform'd, + But with advice and silent secrecy. + Do you as I do in these dangerous days: + Wink at the Duke of Suffolk's insolence, + At Beaufort's pride, at Somerset's ambition, + At Buckingham, and all the crew of them, + Till they have snar'd the shepherd of the flock, + That virtuous prince, the good Duke Humphrey; + 'Tis that they seek; and they, in seeking that, + Shall find their deaths, if York can prophesy. + SALISBURY. My lord, break we off; we know your mind at full. + WARWICK. My heart assures me that the Earl of Warwick + Shall one day make the Duke of York a king. + YORK. And, Nevil, this I do assure myself, + Richard shall live to make the Earl of Warwick + The greatest man in England but the King. Exeunt + +SCENE III. London. A hall of justice + +Sound trumpets. Enter the KING and State: the QUEEN, GLOUCESTER, YORK, +SUFFOLK, and SALISBURY, with guard, to banish the DUCHESS. Enter, +guarded, the DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER, MARGERY JOURDAIN, HUME, SOUTHWELL, +and BOLINGBROKE + + KING HENRY. Stand forth, Dame Eleanor Cobham, Gloucester's wife: + In sight of God and us, your guilt is great; + Receive the sentence of the law for sins + Such as by God's book are adjudg'd to death. + You four, from hence to prison back again; + From thence unto the place of execution: + The witch in Smithfield shall be burnt to ashes, + And you three shall be strangled on the gallows. + You, madam, for you are more nobly born, + Despoiled of your honour in your life, + Shall, after three days' open penance done, + Live in your country here in banishment + With Sir John Stanley in the Isle of Man. + DUCHESS. Welcome is banishment; welcome were my death. + GLOUCESTER. Eleanor, the law, thou seest, hath judged thee. + I cannot justify whom the law condemns. + Exeunt the DUCHESS and the other prisoners, guarded + Mine eyes are full of tears, my heart of grief. + Ah, Humphrey, this dishonour in thine age + Will bring thy head with sorrow to the ground! + I beseech your Majesty give me leave to go; + Sorrow would solace, and mine age would ease. + KING HENRY. Stay, Humphrey Duke of Gloucester; ere thou go, + Give up thy staff; Henry will to himself + Protector be; and God shall be my hope, + My stay, my guide, and lantern to my feet. + And go in peace, Humphrey, no less belov'd + Than when thou wert Protector to thy King. + QUEEN. I see no reason why a king of years + Should be to be protected like a child. + God and King Henry govern England's realm! + Give up your staff, sir, and the King his realm. + GLOUCESTER. My staff! Here, noble Henry, is my staff. + As willingly do I the same resign + As ere thy father Henry made it mine; + And even as willingly at thy feet I leave it + As others would ambitiously receive it. + Farewell, good King; when I am dead and gone, + May honourable peace attend thy throne! Exit + QUEEN. Why, now is Henry King, and Margaret Queen, + And Humphrey Duke of Gloucester scarce himself, + That bears so shrewd a maim: two pulls at once- + His lady banish'd and a limb lopp'd off. + This staff of honour raught, there let it stand + Where it best fits to be, in Henry's hand. + SUFFOLK. Thus droops this lofty pine and hangs his sprays; + Thus Eleanor's pride dies in her youngest days. + YORK. Lords, let him go. Please it your Majesty, + This is the day appointed for the combat; + And ready are the appellant and defendant, + The armourer and his man, to enter the lists, + So please your Highness to behold the fight. + QUEEN. Ay, good my lord; for purposely therefore + Left I the court, to see this quarrel tried. + KING HENRY. A God's name, see the lists and all things fit; + Here let them end it, and God defend the right! + YORK. I never saw a fellow worse bested, + Or more afraid to fight, than is the appellant, + The servant of his armourer, my lords. + + Enter at one door, HORNER, the Armourer, and his + NEIGHBOURS, drinking to him so much that he is + drunk; and he enters with a drum before him and + his staff with a sand-bag fastened to it; and at the + other door PETER, his man, with a drum and sandbag, + and PRENTICES drinking to him + + FIRST NEIGHBOUR. Here, neighbour Horner, I drink to you in a cup of + sack; and fear not, neighbour, you shall do well enough. + SECOND NEIGHBOUR. And here, neighbour, here's a cup of charneco. + THIRD NEIGHBOUR. And here's a pot of good double beer, neighbour; + drink, and fear not your man. + HORNER. Let it come, i' faith, and I'll pledge you all; and a fig + for Peter! + FIRST PRENTICE. Here, Peter, I drink to thee; and be not afraid. + SECOND PRENTICE. Be merry, Peter, and fear not thy master: fight + for credit of the prentices. + PETER. I thank you all. Drink, and pray for me, I pray you; for I + think I have taken my last draught in this world. Here, Robin, an + if I die, I give thee my apron; and, Will, thou shalt have my + hammer; and here, Tom, take all the money that I have. O Lord + bless me, I pray God! for I am never able to deal with my master, + he hath learnt so much fence already. + SALISBURY. Come, leave your drinking and fall to blows. + Sirrah, what's thy name? + PETER. Peter, forsooth. + SALISBURY. Peter? What more? + PETER. Thump. + SALISBURY. Thump? Then see thou thump thy master well. + HORNER. Masters, I am come hither, as it were, upon my man's + instigation, to prove him a knave and myself an honest man; and + touching the Duke of York, I will take my death I never meant him + any ill, nor the King, nor the Queen; and therefore, Peter, have + at thee with a down right blow! + YORK. Dispatch- this knave's tongue begins to double. + Sound, trumpets, alarum to the combatants! + [Alarum. They fight and PETER strikes him down] + HORNER. Hold, Peter, hold! I confess, I confess treason. + [Dies] + YORK. Take away his weapon. Fellow, thank God, and the good wine in + thy master's way. + PETER. O God, have I overcome mine enemies in this presence? O + Peter, thou hast prevail'd in right! + KING HENRY. Go, take hence that traitor from our sight, + For by his death we do perceive his guilt; + And God in justice hath reveal'd to us + The truth and innocence of this poor fellow, + Which he had thought to have murder'd wrongfully. + Come, fellow, follow us for thy reward. + Sound a flourish. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. London. A street + +Enter DUKE HUMPHREY and his men, in mourning cloaks + + GLOUCESTER. Thus sometimes hath the brightest day a cloud, + And after summer evermore succeeds + Barren winter, with his wrathful nipping cold; + So cares and joys abound, as seasons fleet. + Sirs, what's o'clock? + SERVING-MAN. Ten, my lord. + GLOUCESTER. Ten is the hour that was appointed me + To watch the coming of my punish'd duchess. + Uneath may she endure the flinty streets + To tread them with her tender-feeling feet. + Sweet Nell, ill can thy noble mind abrook + The abject people gazing on thy face, + With envious looks, laughing at thy shame, + That erst did follow thy proud chariot wheels + When thou didst ride in triumph through the streets. + But, soft! I think she comes, and I'll prepare + My tear-stain'd eyes to see her miseries. + + Enter the DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER in a white sheet, + and a taper burning in her hand, with SIR JOHN + STANLEY, the SHERIFF, and OFFICERS + + SERVING-MAN. So please your Grace, we'll take her from the sheriff. + GLOUCESTER. No, stir not for your lives; let her pass by. + DUCHESS. Come you, my lord, to see my open shame? + Now thou dost penance too. Look how they gaze! + See how the giddy multitude do point + And nod their heads and throw their eyes on thee; + Ah, Gloucester, hide thee from their hateful looks, + And, in thy closet pent up, rue my shame + And ban thine enemies, both mine and thine! + GLOUCESTER. Be patient, gentle Nell; forget this grief. + DUCHESS. Ah, Gloucester, teach me to forget myself! + For whilst I think I am thy married wife + And thou a prince, Protector of this land, + Methinks I should not thus be led along, + Mail'd up in shame, with papers on my back, + And follow'd with a rabble that rejoice + To see my tears and hear my deep-fet groans. + The ruthless flint doth cut my tender feet, + And when I start, the envious people laugh + And bid me be advised how I tread. + Ah, Humphrey, can I bear this shameful yoke? + Trowest thou that e'er I'll look upon the world + Or count them happy that enjoy the sun? + No; dark shall be my light and night my day; + To think upon my pomp shall be my hell. + Sometimes I'll say I am Duke Humphrey's wife, + And he a prince, and ruler of the land; + Yet so he rul'd, and such a prince he was, + As he stood by whilst I, his forlorn duchess, + Was made a wonder and a pointing-stock + To every idle rascal follower. + But be thou mild, and blush not at my shame, + Nor stir at nothing till the axe of death + Hang over thee, as sure it shortly will. + For Suffolk- he that can do all in all + With her that hateth thee and hates us all- + And York, and impious Beaufort, that false priest, + Have all lim'd bushes to betray thy wings, + And, fly thou how thou canst, they'll tangle thee. + But fear not thou until thy foot be snar'd, + Nor never seek prevention of thy foes. + GLOUCESTER. Ah, Nell, forbear! Thou aimest all awry. + I must offend before I be attainted; + And had I twenty times so many foes, + And each of them had twenty times their power, + All these could not procure me any scathe + So long as I am loyal, true, and crimeless. + Wouldst have me rescue thee from this reproach? + Why, yet thy scandal were not wip'd away, + But I in danger for the breach of law. + Thy greatest help is quiet, gentle Nell. + I pray thee sort thy heart to patience; + These few days' wonder will be quickly worn. + + Enter a HERALD + + HERALD. I summon your Grace to his Majesty's Parliament, + Holden at Bury the first of this next month. + GLOUCESTER. And my consent ne'er ask'd herein before! + This is close dealing. Well, I will be there. Exit HERALD + My Nell, I take my leave- and, master sheriff, + Let not her penance exceed the King's commission. + SHERIFF. An't please your Grace, here my commission stays; + And Sir John Stanley is appointed now + To take her with him to the Isle of Man. + GLOUCESTER. Must you, Sir John, protect my lady here? + STANLEY. So am I given in charge, may't please your Grace. + GLOUCESTER. Entreat her not the worse in that I pray + You use her well; the world may laugh again, + And I may live to do you kindness if + You do it her. And so, Sir John, farewell. + DUCHESS. What, gone, my lord, and bid me not farewell! + GLOUCESTER. Witness my tears, I cannot stay to speak. + Exeunt GLOUCESTER and servants + DUCHESS. Art thou gone too? All comfort go with thee! + For none abides with me. My joy is death- + Death, at whose name I oft have been afeard, + Because I wish'd this world's eternity. + Stanley, I prithee go, and take me hence; + I care not whither, for I beg no favour, + Only convey me where thou art commanded. + STANLEY. Why, madam, that is to the Isle of Man, + There to be us'd according to your state. + DUCHESS. That's bad enough, for I am but reproach- + And shall I then be us'd reproachfully? + STANLEY. Like to a duchess and Duke Humphrey's lady; + According to that state you shall be us'd. + DUCHESS. Sheriff, farewell, and better than I fare, + Although thou hast been conduct of my shame. + SHERIFF. It is my office; and, madam, pardon me. + DUCHESS. Ay, ay, farewell; thy office is discharg'd. + Come, Stanley, shall we go? + STANLEY. Madam, your penance done, throw off this sheet, + And go we to attire you for our journey. + DUCHESS. My shame will not be shifted with my sheet. + No, it will hang upon my richest robes + And show itself, attire me how I can. + Go, lead the way; I long to see my prison. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. The Abbey at Bury St. Edmunds + +Sound a sennet. Enter the KING, the QUEEN, CARDINAL, SUFFOLK, YORK, +BUCKINGHAM, SALISBURY, and WARWICK, to the Parliament + + KING HENRY. I muse my Lord of Gloucester is not come. + 'Tis not his wont to be the hindmost man, + Whate'er occasion keeps him from us now. + QUEEN. Can you not see, or will ye not observe + The strangeness of his alter'd countenance? + With what a majesty he bears himself; + How insolent of late he is become, + How proud, how peremptory, and unlike himself? + We know the time since he was mild and affable, + And if we did but glance a far-off look + Immediately he was upon his knee, + That all the court admir'd him for submission. + But meet him now and be it in the morn, + When every one will give the time of day, + He knits his brow and shows an angry eye + And passeth by with stiff unbowed knee, + Disdaining duty that to us belongs. + Small curs are not regarded when they grin, + But great men tremble when the lion roars, + And Humphrey is no little man in England. + First note that he is near you in descent, + And should you fall he is the next will mount; + Me seemeth, then, it is no policy- + Respecting what a rancorous mind he bears, + And his advantage following your decease- + That he should come about your royal person + Or be admitted to your Highness' Council. + By flattery hath he won the commons' hearts; + And when he please to make commotion, + 'Tis to be fear'd they all will follow him. + Now 'tis the spring, and weeds are shallow-rooted; + Suffer them now, and they'll o'ergrow the garden + And choke the herbs for want of husbandry. + The reverent care I bear unto my lord + Made me collect these dangers in the Duke. + If it be fond, can it a woman's fear; + Which fear if better reasons can supplant, + I will subscribe, and say I wrong'd the Duke. + My Lord of Suffolk, Buckingham, and York, + Reprove my allegation if you can, + Or else conclude my words effectual. + SUFFOLK. Well hath your Highness seen into this duke; + And had I first been put to speak my mind, + I think I should have told your Grace's tale. + The Duchess, by his subornation, + Upon my life, began her devilish practices; + Or if he were not privy to those faults, + Yet by reputing of his high descent- + As next the King he was successive heir- + And such high vaunts of his nobility, + Did instigate the bedlam brainsick Duchess + By wicked means to frame our sovereign's fall. + Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep, + And in his simple show he harbours treason. + The fox barks not when he would steal the lamb. + No, no, my sovereign, Gloucester is a man + Unsounded yet, and full of deep deceit. + CARDINAL. Did he not, contrary to form of law, + Devise strange deaths for small offences done? + YORK. And did he not, in his protectorship, + Levy great sums of money through the realm + For soldiers' pay in France, and never sent it? + By means whereof the towns each day revolted. + BUCKINGHAM. Tut, these are petty faults to faults unknown + Which time will bring to light in smooth Duke Humphrey. + KING HENRY. My lords, at once: the care you have of us, + To mow down thorns that would annoy our foot, + Is worthy praise; but shall I speak my conscience? + Our kinsman Gloucester is as innocent + From meaning treason to our royal person + As is the sucking lamb or harmless dove: + The Duke is virtuous, mild, and too well given + To dream on evil or to work my downfall. + QUEEN. Ah, what's more dangerous than this fond affiance? + Seems he a dove? His feathers are but borrow'd, + For he's disposed as the hateful raven. + Is he a lamb? His skin is surely lent him, + For he's inclin'd as is the ravenous wolf. + Who cannot steal a shape that means deceit? + Take heed, my lord; the welfare of us all + Hangs on the cutting short that fraudful man. + + Enter SOMERSET + + SOMERSET. All health unto my gracious sovereign! + KING HENRY. Welcome, Lord Somerset. What news from France? + SOMERSET. That all your interest in those territories + Is utterly bereft you; all is lost. + KING HENRY. Cold news, Lord Somerset; but God's will be done! + YORK. [Aside] Cold news for me; for I had hope of France + As firmly as I hope for fertile England. + Thus are my blossoms blasted in the bud, + And caterpillars eat my leaves away; + But I will remedy this gear ere long, + Or sell my title for a glorious grave. + + Enter GLOUCESTER + + GLOUCESTER. All happiness unto my lord the King! + Pardon, my liege, that I have stay'd so long. + SUFFOLK. Nay, Gloucester, know that thou art come too soon, + Unless thou wert more loyal than thou art. + I do arrest thee of high treason here. + GLOUCESTER. Well, Suffolk, thou shalt not see me blush + Nor change my countenance for this arrest: + A heart unspotted is not easily daunted. + The purest spring is not so free from mud + As I am clear from treason to my sovereign. + Who can accuse me? Wherein am I guilty? + YORK. 'Tis thought, my lord, that you took bribes of France + And, being Protector, stay'd the soldiers' pay; + By means whereof his Highness hath lost France. + GLOUCESTER. Is it but thought so? What are they that think it? + I never robb'd the soldiers of their pay + Nor ever had one penny bribe from France. + So help me God, as I have watch'd the night- + Ay, night by night- in studying good for England! + That doit that e'er I wrested from the King, + Or any groat I hoarded to my use, + Be brought against me at my trial-day! + No; many a pound of mine own proper store, + Because I would not tax the needy commons, + Have I dispursed to the garrisons, + And never ask'd for restitution. + CARDINAL. It serves you well, my lord, to say so much. + GLOUCESTER. I say no more than truth, so help me God! + YORK. In your protectorship you did devise + Strange tortures for offenders, never heard of, + That England was defam'd by tyranny. + GLOUCESTER. Why, 'tis well known that whiles I was Protector + Pity was all the fault that was in me; + For I should melt at an offender's tears, + And lowly words were ransom for their fault. + Unless it were a bloody murderer, + Or foul felonious thief that fleec'd poor passengers, + I never gave them condign punishment. + Murder indeed, that bloody sin, I tortur'd + Above the felon or what trespass else. + SUFFOLK. My lord, these faults are easy, quickly answer'd; + But mightier crimes are laid unto your charge, + Whereof you cannot easily purge yourself. + I do arrest you in His Highness' name, + And here commit you to my Lord Cardinal + To keep until your further time of trial. + KING HENRY. My Lord of Gloucester, 'tis my special hope + That you will clear yourself from all suspense. + My conscience tells me you are innocent. + GLOUCESTER. Ah, gracious lord, these days are dangerous! + Virtue is chok'd with foul ambition, + And charity chas'd hence by rancour's hand; + Foul subornation is predominant, + And equity exil'd your Highness' land. + I know their complot is to have my life; + And if my death might make this island happy + And prove the period of their tyranny, + I would expend it with all willingness. + But mine is made the prologue to their play; + For thousands more that yet suspect no peril + Will not conclude their plotted tragedy. + Beaufort's red sparkling eyes blab his heart's malice, + And Suffolk's cloudy brow his stormy hate; + Sharp Buckingham unburdens with his tongue + The envious load that lies upon his heart; + And dogged York, that reaches at the moon, + Whose overweening arm I have pluck'd back, + By false accuse doth level at my life. + And you, my sovereign lady, with the rest, + Causeless have laid disgraces on my head, + And with your best endeavour have stirr'd up + My liefest liege to be mine enemy; + Ay, all of you have laid your heads together- + Myself had notice of your conventicles- + And all to make away my guiltless life. + I shall not want false witness to condemn me + Nor store of treasons to augment my guilt. + The ancient proverb will be well effected: + 'A staff is quickly found to beat a dog.' + CARDINAL. My liege, his railing is intolerable. + If those that care to keep your royal person + From treason's secret knife and traitor's rage + Be thus upbraided, chid, and rated at, + And the offender granted scope of speech, + 'Twill make them cool in zeal unto your Grace. + SUFFOLK. Hath he not twit our sovereign lady here + With ignominious words, though clerkly couch'd, + As if she had suborned some to swear + False allegations to o'erthrow his state? + QUEEN. But I can give the loser leave to chide. + GLOUCESTER. Far truer spoke than meant: I lose indeed. + Beshrew the winners, for they play'd me false! + And well such losers may have leave to speak. + BUCKINGHAM. He'll wrest the sense, and hold us here all day. + Lord Cardinal, he is your prisoner. + CARDINAL. Sirs, take away the Duke, and guard him sure. + GLOUCESTER. Ah, thus King Henry throws away his crutch + Before his legs be firm to bear his body! + Thus is the shepherd beaten from thy side, + And wolves are gnarling who shall gnaw thee first. + Ah, that my fear were false! ah, that it were! + For, good King Henry, thy decay I fear. Exit, guarded + KING HENRY. My lords, what to your wisdoms seemeth best + Do or undo, as if ourself were here. + QUEEN. What, will your Highness leave the Parliament? + KING HENRY. Ay, Margaret; my heart is drown'd with grief, + Whose flood begins to flow within mine eyes; + My body round engirt with misery- + For what's more miserable than discontent? + Ah, uncle Humphrey, in thy face I see + The map of honour, truth, and loyalty! + And yet, good Humphrey, is the hour to come + That e'er I prov'd thee false or fear'd thy faith. + What louring star now envies thy estate + That these great lords, and Margaret our Queen, + Do seek subversion of thy harmless life? + Thou never didst them wrong, nor no man wrong; + And as the butcher takes away the calf, + And binds the wretch, and beats it when it strays, + Bearing it to the bloody slaughter-house, + Even so, remorseless, have they borne him hence; + And as the dam runs lowing up and down, + Looking the way her harmless young one went, + And can do nought but wail her darling's loss, + Even so myself bewails good Gloucester's case + With sad unhelpful tears, and with dimm'd eyes + Look after him, and cannot do him good, + So mighty are his vowed enemies. + His fortunes I will weep, and 'twixt each groan + Say 'Who's a traitor? Gloucester he is none.' Exit + QUEEN. Free lords, cold snow melts with the sun's hot beams: + Henry my lord is cold in great affairs, + Too full of foolish pity; and Gloucester's show + Beguiles him as the mournful crocodile + With sorrow snares relenting passengers; + Or as the snake, roll'd in a flow'ring bank, + With shining checker'd slough, doth sting a child + That for the beauty thinks it excellent. + Believe me, lords, were none more wise than I- + And yet herein I judge mine own wit good- + This Gloucester should be quickly rid the world + To rid us from the fear we have of him. + CARDINAL. That he should die is worthy policy; + But yet we want a colour for his death. + 'Tis meet he be condemn'd by course of law. + SUFFOLK. But, in my mind, that were no policy: + The King will labour still to save his life; + The commons haply rise to save his life; + And yet we have but trivial argument, + More than mistrust, that shows him worthy death. + YORK. So that, by this, you would not have him die. + SUFFOLK. Ah, York, no man alive so fain as I! + YORK. 'Tis York that hath more reason for his death. + But, my Lord Cardinal, and you, my Lord of Suffolk, + Say as you think, and speak it from your souls: + Were't not all one an empty eagle were set + To guard the chicken from a hungry kite + As place Duke Humphrey for the King's Protector? + QUEEN. So the poor chicken should be sure of death. + SUFFOLK. Madam, 'tis true; and were't not madness then + To make the fox surveyor of the fold? + Who being accus'd a crafty murderer, + His guilt should be but idly posted over, + Because his purpose is not executed. + No; let him die, in that he is a fox, + By nature prov'd an enemy to the flock, + Before his chaps be stain'd with crimson blood, + As Humphrey, prov'd by reasons, to my liege. + And do not stand on quillets how to slay him; + Be it by gins, by snares, by subtlety, + Sleeping or waking, 'tis no matter how, + So he be dead; for that is good deceit + Which mates him first that first intends deceit. + QUEEN. Thrice-noble Suffolk, 'tis resolutely spoke. + SUFFOLK. Not resolute, except so much were done, + For things are often spoke and seldom meant; + But that my heart accordeth with my tongue, + Seeing the deed is meritorious, + And to preserve my sovereign from his foe, + Say but the word, and I will be his priest. + CARDINAL. But I would have him dead, my Lord of Suffolk, + Ere you can take due orders for a priest; + Say you consent and censure well the deed, + And I'll provide his executioner- + I tender so the safety of my liege. + SUFFOLK. Here is my hand the deed is worthy doing. + QUEEN. And so say I. + YORK. And I. And now we three have spoke it, + It skills not greatly who impugns our doom. + + Enter a POST + + POST. Great lords, from Ireland am I come amain + To signify that rebels there are up + And put the Englishmen unto the sword. + Send succours, lords, and stop the rage betime, + Before the wound do grow uncurable; + For, being green, there is great hope of help. + CARDINAL. A breach that craves a quick expedient stop! + What counsel give you in this weighty cause? + YORK. That Somerset be sent as Regent thither; + 'Tis meet that lucky ruler be employ'd, + Witness the fortune he hath had in France. + SOMERSET. If York, with all his far-fet policy, + Had been the Regent there instead of me, + He never would have stay'd in France so long. + YORK. No, not to lose it all as thou hast done. + I rather would have lost my life betimes + Than bring a burden of dishonour home + By staying there so long till all were lost. + Show me one scar character'd on thy skin: + Men's flesh preserv'd so whole do seldom win. + QUEEN. Nay then, this spark will prove a raging fire, + If wind and fuel be brought to feed it with; + No more, good York; sweet Somerset, be still. + Thy fortune, York, hadst thou been Regent there, + Might happily have prov'd far worse than his. + YORK. What, worse than nought? Nay, then a shame take all! + SOMERSET. And in the number, thee that wishest shame! + CARDINAL. My Lord of York, try what your fortune is. + Th' uncivil kerns of Ireland are in arms + And temper clay with blood of Englishmen; + To Ireland will you lead a band of men, + Collected choicely, from each county some, + And try your hap against the Irishmen? + YORK. I will, my lord, so please his Majesty. + SUFFOLK. Why, our authority is his consent, + And what we do establish he confirms; + Then, noble York, take thou this task in hand. + YORK. I am content; provide me soldiers, lords, + Whiles I take order for mine own affairs. + SUFFOLK. A charge, Lord York, that I will see perform'd. + But now return we to the false Duke Humphrey. + CARDINAL. No more of him; for I will deal with him + That henceforth he shall trouble us no more. + And so break off; the day is almost spent. + Lord Suffolk, you and I must talk of that event. + YORK. My Lord of Suffolk, within fourteen days + At Bristol I expect my soldiers; + For there I'll ship them all for Ireland. + SUFFOLK. I'll see it truly done, my Lord of York. + Exeunt all but YORK + YORK. Now, York, or never, steel thy fearful thoughts + And change misdoubt to resolution; + Be that thou hop'st to be; or what thou art + Resign to death- it is not worth th' enjoying. + Let pale-fac'd fear keep with the mean-born man + And find no harbour in a royal heart. + Faster than spring-time show'rs comes thought on thought, + And not a thought but thinks on dignity. + My brain, more busy than the labouring spider, + Weaves tedious snares to trap mine enemies. + Well, nobles, well, 'tis politicly done + To send me packing with an host of men. + I fear me you but warm the starved snake, + Who, cherish'd in your breasts, will sting your hearts. + 'Twas men I lack'd, and you will give them me; + I take it kindly. Yet be well assur'd + You put sharp weapons in a madman's hands. + Whiles I in Ireland nourish a mighty band, + I will stir up in England some black storm + Shall blow ten thousand souls to heaven or hell; + And this fell tempest shall not cease to rage + Until the golden circuit on my head, + Like to the glorious sun's transparent beams, + Do calm the fury of this mad-bred flaw. + And for a minister of my intent + I have seduc'd a headstrong Kentishman, + John Cade of Ashford, + To make commotion, as full well he can, + Under the tide of John Mortimer. + In Ireland have I seen this stubborn Cade + Oppose himself against a troop of kerns, + And fought so long tiff that his thighs with darts + Were almost like a sharp-quill'd porpentine; + And in the end being rescu'd, I have seen + Him caper upright like a wild Morisco, + Shaking the bloody darts as he his bells. + Full often, like a shag-hair'd crafty kern, + Hath he conversed with the enemy, + And undiscover'd come to me again + And given me notice of their villainies. + This devil here shall be my substitute; + For that John Mortimer, which now is dead, + In face, in gait, in speech, he doth resemble. + By this I shall perceive the commons' mind, + How they affect the house and claim of York. + Say he be taken, rack'd, and tortured; + I know no pain they can inflict upon him + Will make him say I mov'd him to those arms. + Say that he thrive, as 'tis great like he will, + Why, then from Ireland come I with my strength, + And reap the harvest which that rascal sow'd; + For Humphrey being dead, as he shall be, + And Henry put apart, the next for me. Exit + +SCENE II. Bury St. Edmunds. A room of state + +Enter two or three MURDERERS running over the stage, from the murder of +DUKE HUMPHREY + + FIRST MURDERER. Run to my Lord of Suffolk; let him know + We have dispatch'd the Duke, as he commanded. + SECOND MURDERER. O that it were to do! What have we done? + Didst ever hear a man so penitent? + + Enter SUFFOLK + + FIRST MURDERER. Here comes my lord. + SUFFOLK. Now, sirs, have you dispatch'd this thing? + FIRST MURDERER. Ay, my good lord, he's dead. + SUFFOLK. Why, that's well said. Go, get you to my house; + I will reward you for this venturous deed. + The King and all the peers are here at hand. + Have you laid fair the bed? Is all things well, + According as I gave directions? + FIRST MURDERER. 'Tis, my good lord. + SUFFOLK. Away! be gone. Exeunt MURDERERS + + Sound trumpets. Enter the KING, the QUEEN, + CARDINAL, SOMERSET, with attendants + + KING HENRY. Go call our uncle to our presence straight; + Say we intend to try his Grace to-day, + If he be guilty, as 'tis published. + SUFFOLK. I'll call him presently, my noble lord. Exit + KING HENRY. Lords, take your places; and, I pray you all, + Proceed no straiter 'gainst our uncle Gloucester + Than from true evidence, of good esteem, + He be approv'd in practice culpable. + QUEEN. God forbid any malice should prevail + That faultless may condemn a nobleman! + Pray God he may acquit him of suspicion! + KING HENRY. I thank thee, Meg; these words content me much. + + Re-enter SUFFOLK + + How now! Why look'st thou pale? Why tremblest thou? + Where is our uncle? What's the matter, Suffolk? + SUFFOLK. Dead in his bed, my lord; Gloucester is dead. + QUEEN. Marry, God forfend! + CARDINAL. God's secret judgment! I did dream to-night + The Duke was dumb and could not speak a word. + [The KING swoons] + QUEEN. How fares my lord? Help, lords! The King is dead. + SOMERSET. Rear up his body; wring him by the nose. + QUEEN. Run, go, help, help! O Henry, ope thine eyes! + SUFFOLK. He doth revive again; madam, be patient. + KING. O heavenly God! + QUEEN. How fares my gracious lord? + SUFFOLK. Comfort, my sovereign! Gracious Henry, comfort! + KING HENRY. What, doth my Lord of Suffolk comfort me? + Came he right now to sing a raven's note, + Whose dismal tune bereft my vital pow'rs; + And thinks he that the chirping of a wren, + By crying comfort from a hollow breast, + Can chase away the first conceived sound? + Hide not thy poison with such sug'red words; + Lay not thy hands on me; forbear, I say, + Their touch affrights me as a serpent's sting. + Thou baleful messenger, out of my sight! + Upon thy eye-balls murderous tyranny + Sits in grim majesty to fright the world. + Look not upon me, for thine eyes are wounding; + Yet do not go away; come, basilisk, + And kill the innocent gazer with thy sight; + For in the shade of death I shall find joy- + In life but double death,'now Gloucester's dead. + QUEEN. Why do you rate my Lord of Suffolk thus? + Although the Duke was enemy to him, + Yet he most Christian-like laments his death; + And for myself- foe as he was to me- + Might liquid tears, or heart-offending groans, + Or blood-consuming sighs, recall his life, + I would be blind with weeping, sick with groans, + Look pale as primrose with blood-drinking sighs, + And all to have the noble Duke alive. + What know I how the world may deem of me? + For it is known we were but hollow friends: + It may be judg'd I made the Duke away; + So shall my name with slander's tongue be wounded, + And princes' courts be fill'd with my reproach. + This get I by his death. Ay me, unhappy! + To be a queen and crown'd with infamy! + KING HENRY. Ah, woe is me for Gloucester, wretched man! + QUEEN. Be woe for me, more wretched than he is. + What, dost thou turn away, and hide thy face? + I am no loathsome leper- look on me. + What, art thou like the adder waxen deaf? + Be poisonous too, and kill thy forlorn Queen. + Is all thy comfort shut in Gloucester's tomb? + Why, then Dame Margaret was ne'er thy joy. + Erect his statue and worship it, + And make my image but an alehouse sign. + Was I for this nigh wreck'd upon the sea, + And twice by awkward wind from England's bank + Drove back again unto my native clime? + What boded this but well-forewarning wind + Did seem to say 'Seek not a scorpion's nest, + Nor set no footing on this unkind shore'? + What did I then but curs'd the gentle gusts, + And he that loos'd them forth their brazen caves; + And bid them blow towards England's blessed shore, + Or turn our stern upon a dreadful rock? + Yet Aeolus would not be a murderer, + But left that hateful office unto thee. + The pretty-vaulting sea refus'd to drown me, + Knowing that thou wouldst have me drown'd on shore + With tears as salt as sea through thy unkindness; + The splitting rocks cow'r'd in the sinking sands + And would not dash me with their ragged sides, + Because thy flinty heart, more hard than they, + Might in thy palace perish Margaret. + As far as I could ken thy chalky cliffs, + When from thy shore the tempest beat us back, + I stood upon the hatches in the storm; + And when the dusky sky began to rob + My earnest-gaping sight of thy land's view, + I took a costly jewel from my neck- + A heart it was, bound in with diamonds- + And threw it towards thy land. The sea receiv'd it; + And so I wish'd thy body might my heart. + And even with this I lost fair England's view, + And bid mine eyes be packing with my heart, + And call'd them blind and dusky spectacles + For losing ken of Albion's wished coast. + How often have I tempted Suffolk's tongue- + The agent of thy foul inconstancy- + To sit and witch me, as Ascanius did + When he to madding Dido would unfold + His father's acts commenc'd in burning Troy! + Am I not witch'd like her? Or thou not false like him? + Ay me, I can no more! Die, Margaret, + For Henry weeps that thou dost live so long. + + Noise within. Enter WARWICK, SALISBURY, + and many commons + + WARWICK. It is reported, mighty sovereign, + That good Duke Humphrey traitorously is murd'red + By Suffolk and the Cardinal Beaufort's means. + The commons, like an angry hive of bees + That want their leader, scatter up and down + And care not who they sting in his revenge. + Myself have calm'd their spleenful mutiny + Until they hear the order of his death. + KING HENRY. That he is dead, good Warwick, 'tis too true; + But how he died God knows, not Henry. + Enter his chamber, view his breathless corpse, + And comment then upon his sudden death. + WARWICK. That shall I do, my liege. Stay, Salisbury, + With the rude multitude till I return. Exit + Exit SALISBURY with the commons + KING HENRY. O Thou that judgest all things, stay my thoughts- + My thoughts that labour to persuade my soul + Some violent hands were laid on Humphrey's life! + If my suspect be false, forgive me, God; + For judgment only doth belong to Thee. + Fain would I go to chafe his paly lips + With twenty thousand kisses and to drain + Upon his face an ocean of salt tears + To tell my love unto his dumb deaf trunk; + And with my fingers feel his hand un-feeling; + But all in vain are these mean obsequies; + And to survey his dead and earthy image, + What were it but to make my sorrow greater? + + Bed put forth with the body. Enter WARWICK + + WARWICK. Come hither, gracious sovereign, view this body. + KING HENRY. That is to see how deep my grave is made; + For with his soul fled all my worldly solace, + For, seeing him, I see my life in death. + WARWICK. As surely as my soul intends to live + With that dread King that took our state upon Him + To free us from his Father's wrathful curse, + I do believe that violent hands were laid + Upon the life of this thrice-famed Duke. + SUFFOLK. A dreadful oath, sworn with a solemn tongue! + What instance gives Lord Warwick for his vow? + WARWICK. See how the blood is settled in his face. + Oft have I seen a timely-parted ghost, + Of ashy semblance, meagre, pale, and bloodless, + Being all descended to the labouring heart, + Who, in the conflict that it holds with death, + Attracts the same for aidance 'gainst the enemy, + Which with the heart there cools, and ne'er returneth + To blush and beautify the cheek again. + But see, his face is black and full of blood; + His eye-balls further out than when he liv'd, + Staring full ghastly like a strangled man; + His hair uprear'd, his nostrils stretch'd with struggling; + His hands abroad display'd, as one that grasp'd + And tugg'd for life, and was by strength subdu'd. + Look, on the sheets his hair, you see, is sticking; + His well-proportion'd beard made rough and rugged, + Like to the summer's corn by tempest lodged. + It cannot be but he was murd'red here: + The least of all these signs were probable. + SUFFOLK. Why, Warwick, who should do the Duke to death? + Myself and Beaufort had him in protection; + And we, I hope, sir, are no murderers. + WARWICK. But both of you were vow'd Duke Humphrey's foes; + And you, forsooth, had the good Duke to keep. + 'Tis like you would not feast him like a friend; + And 'tis well seen he found an enemy. + QUEEN. Then you, belike, suspect these noblemen + As guilty of Duke Humphrey's timeless death. + WARWICK. Who finds the heifer dead and bleeding fresh, + And sees fast by a butcher with an axe, + But will suspect 'twas he that made the slaughter? + Who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest + But may imagine how the bird was dead, + Although the kite soar with unbloodied beak? + Even so suspicious is this tragedy. + QUEEN. Are you the butcher, Suffolk? Where's your knife? + Is Beaufort term'd a kite? Where are his talons? + SUFFOLK. I wear no knife to slaughter sleeping men; + But here's a vengeful sword, rusted with ease, + That shall be scoured in his rancorous heart + That slanders me with murder's crimson badge. + Say if thou dar'st, proud Lord of Warwickshire, + That I am faulty in Duke Humphrey's death. + Exeunt CARDINAL, SOMERSET, and others + WARWICK. What dares not Warwick, if false Suffolk dare him? + QUEEN. He dares not calm his contumelious spirit, + Nor cease to be an arrogant controller, + Though Suffolk dare him twenty thousand times. + WARWICK. Madam, be still- with reverence may I say; + For every word you speak in his behalf + Is slander to your royal dignity. + SUFFOLK. Blunt-witted lord, ignoble in demeanour, + If ever lady wrong'd her lord so much, + Thy mother took into her blameful bed + Some stern untutor'd churl, and noble stock + Was graft with crab-tree slip, whose fruit thou art, + And never of the Nevils' noble race. + WARWICK. But that the guilt of murder bucklers thee, + And I should rob the deathsman of his fee, + Quitting thee thereby of ten thousand shames, + And that my sovereign's presence makes me mild, + I would, false murd'rous coward, on thy knee + Make thee beg pardon for thy passed speech + And say it was thy mother that thou meant'st, + That thou thyself was born in bastardy; + And, after all this fearful homage done, + Give thee thy hire and send thy soul to hell, + Pernicious blood-sucker of sleeping men. + SUFFOLK. Thou shalt be waking while I shed thy blood, + If from this presence thou dar'st go with me. + WARWICK. Away even now, or I will drag thee hence. + Unworthy though thou art, I'll cope with thee, + And do some service to Duke Humphrey's ghost. + Exeunt SUFFOLK and WARWICK + KING HENRY. What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted? + Thrice is he arm'd that hath his quarrel just; + And he but naked, though lock'd up in steel, + Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. + [A noise within] + QUEEN. What noise is this? + + Re-enter SUFFOLK and WARWICK, with their weapons drawn + + KING. Why, how now, lords, your wrathful weapons drawn + Here in our presence! Dare you be so bold? + Why, what tumultuous clamour have we here? + SUFFOLK. The trait'rous Warwick, with the men of Bury, + Set all upon me, mighty sovereign. + + Re-enter SALISBURY + + SALISBURY. [To the Commons within] Sirs, stand apart, the King + shall know your mind. + Dread lord, the commons send you word by me + Unless Lord Suffolk straight be done to death, + Or banished fair England's territories, + They will by violence tear him from your palace + And torture him with grievous ling'ring death. + They say by him the good Duke Humphrey died; + They say in him they fear your Highness' death; + And mere instinct of love and loyalty, + Free from a stubborn opposite intent, + As being thought to contradict your liking, + Makes them thus forward in his banishment. + They say, in care of your most royal person, + That if your Highness should intend to sleep + And charge that no man should disturb your rest, + In pain of your dislike or pain of death, + Yet, notwithstanding such a strait edict, + Were there a serpent seen with forked tongue + That slily glided towards your Majesty, + It were but necessary you were wak'd, + Lest, being suffer'd in that harmful slumber, + The mortal worm might make the sleep eternal. + And therefore do they cry, though you forbid, + That they will guard you, whe'er you will or no, + From such fell serpents as false Suffolk is; + With whose envenomed and fatal sting + Your loving uncle, twenty times his worth, + They say, is shamefully bereft of life. + COMMONS. [Within] An answer from the King, my Lord of Salisbury! + SUFFOLK. 'Tis like the commons, rude unpolish'd hinds, + Could send such message to their sovereign; + But you, my lord, were glad to be employ'd, + To show how quaint an orator you are. + But all the honour Salisbury hath won + Is that he was the lord ambassador + Sent from a sort of tinkers to the King. + COMMONS. [Within] An answer from the King, or we will all break in! + KING HENRY. Go, Salisbury, and tell them all from me + I thank them for their tender loving care; + And had I not been cited so by them, + Yet did I purpose as they do entreat; + For sure my thoughts do hourly prophesy + Mischance unto my state by Suffolk's means. + And therefore by His Majesty I swear, + Whose far unworthy deputy I am, + He shall not breathe infection in this air + But three days longer, on the pain of death. + Exit SALISBURY + QUEEN. O Henry, let me plead for gentle Suffolk! + KING HENRY. Ungentle Queen, to call him gentle Suffolk! + No more, I say; if thou dost plead for him, + Thou wilt but add increase unto my wrath. + Had I but said, I would have kept my word; + But when I swear, it is irrevocable. + If after three days' space thou here be'st found + On any ground that I am ruler of, + The world shall not be ransom for thy life. + Come, Warwick, come, good Warwick, go with me; + I have great matters to impart to thee. + Exeunt all but QUEEN and SUFFOLK + QUEEN. Mischance and sorrow go along with you! + Heart's discontent and sour affliction + Be playfellows to keep you company! + There's two of you; the devil make a third, + And threefold vengeance tend upon your steps! + SUFFOLK. Cease, gentle Queen, these execrations, + And let thy Suffolk take his heavy leave. + QUEEN. Fie, coward woman and soft-hearted wretch, + Has thou not spirit to curse thine enemy? + SUFFOLK. A plague upon them! Wherefore should I curse them? + Would curses kill as doth the mandrake's groan, + I would invent as bitter searching terms, + As curst, as harsh, and horrible to hear, + Deliver'd strongly through my fixed teeth, + With full as many signs of deadly hate, + As lean-fac'd Envy in her loathsome cave. + My tongue should stumble in mine earnest words, + Mine eyes should sparkle like the beaten flint, + Mine hair be fix'd an end, as one distract; + Ay, every joint should seem to curse and ban; + And even now my burden'd heart would break, + Should I not curse them. Poison be their drink! + Gall, worse than gall, the daintiest that they taste! + Their sweetest shade a grove of cypress trees! + Their chiefest prospect murd'ring basilisks! + Their softest touch as smart as lizards' stings! + Their music frightful as the serpent's hiss, + And boding screech-owls make the consort full! + all the foul terrors in dark-seated hell- + QUEEN. Enough, sweet Suffolk, thou torment'st thyself; + And these dread curses, like the sun 'gainst glass, + Or like an overcharged gun, recoil, + And turns the force of them upon thyself. + SUFFOLK. You bade me ban, and will you bid me leave? + Now, by the ground that I am banish'd from, + Well could I curse away a winter's night, + Though standing naked on a mountain top + Where biting cold would never let grass grow, + And think it but a minute spent in sport. + QUEEN. O, let me entreat thee cease! Give me thy hand, + That I may dew it with my mournful tears; + Nor let the rain of heaven wet this place + To wash away my woeful monuments. + O, could this kiss be printed in thy hand, + That thou might'st think upon these by the seal, + Through whom a thousand sighs are breath'd for thee! + So, get thee gone, that I may know my grief; + 'Tis but surmis'd whiles thou art standing by, + As one that surfeits thinking on a want. + I will repeal thee or, be well assur'd, + Adventure to be banished myself; + And banished I am, if but from thee. + Go, speak not to me; even now be gone. + O, go not yet! Even thus two friends condemn'd + Embrace, and kiss, and take ten thousand leaves, + Loather a hundred times to part than die. + Yet now, farewell; and farewell life with thee! + SUFFOLK. Thus is poor Suffolk ten times banished, + Once by the King and three times thrice by thee, + 'Tis not the land I care for, wert thou thence; + A wilderness is populous enough, + So Suffolk had thy heavenly company; + For where thou art, there is the world itself, + With every several pleasure in the world; + And where thou art not, desolation. + I can no more: Live thou to joy thy life; + Myself no joy in nought but that thou liv'st. + + Enter VAUX + + QUEEN. Whither goes Vaux so fast? What news, I prithee? + VAUX. To signify unto his Majesty + That Cardinal Beaufort is at point of death; + For suddenly a grievous sickness took him + That makes him gasp, and stare, and catch the air, + Blaspheming God, and cursing men on earth. + Sometime he talks as if Duke Humphrey's ghost + Were by his side; sometime he calls the King + And whispers to his pillow, as to him, + The secrets of his overcharged soul; + And I am sent to tell his Majesty + That even now he cries aloud for him. + QUEEN. Go tell this heavy message to the King. Exit VAUX + Ay me! What is this world! What news are these! + But wherefore grieve I at an hour's poor loss, + Omitting Suffolk's exile, my soul's treasure? + Why only, Suffolk, mourn I not for thee, + And with the southern clouds contend in tears- + Theirs for the earth's increase, mine for my sorrows? + Now get thee hence: the King, thou know'st, is coming; + If thou be found by me; thou art but dead. + SUFFOLK. If I depart from thee I cannot live; + And in thy sight to die, what were it else + But like a pleasant slumber in thy lap? + Here could I breathe my soul into the air, + As mild and gentle as the cradle-babe + Dying with mother's dug between its lips; + Where, from thy sight, I should be raging mad + And cry out for thee to close up mine eyes, + To have thee with thy lips to stop my mouth; + So shouldst thou either turn my flying soul, + Or I should breathe it so into thy body, + And then it liv'd in sweet Elysium. + To die by thee were but to die in jest: + From thee to die were torture more than death. + O, let me stay, befall what may befall! + QUEEN. Away! Though parting be a fretful corrosive, + It is applied to a deathful wound. + To France, sweet Suffolk. Let me hear from thee; + For whereso'er thou art in this world's globe + I'll have an Iris that shall find thee out. + SUFFOLK. I go. + QUEEN. And take my heart with thee. [She kisses him] + SUFFOLK. A jewel, lock'd into the woefull'st cask + That ever did contain a thing of worth. + Even as a splitted bark, so sunder we: + This way fall I to death. + QUEEN. This way for me. Exeunt severally + +SCENE III. London. CARDINAL BEAUFORT'S bedchamber + +Enter the KING, SALISBURY, and WARWICK, to the CARDINAL in bed + + KING HENRY. How fares my lord? Speak, Beaufort, to thy sovereign. + CARDINAL. If thou be'st Death I'll give thee England's treasure, + Enough to purchase such another island, + So thou wilt let me live and feel no pain. + KING HENRY. Ah, what a sign it is of evil life + Where death's approach is seen so terrible! + WARWICK. Beaufort, it is thy sovereign speaks to thee. + CARDINAL. Bring me unto my trial when you will. + Died he not in his bed? Where should he die? + Can I make men live, whe'er they will or no? + O, torture me no more! I will confess. + Alive again? Then show me where he is; + I'll give a thousand pound to look upon him. + He hath no eyes, the dust hath blinded them. + Comb down his hair; look, look! it stands upright, + Like lime-twigs set to catch my winged soul! + Give me some drink; and bid the apothecary + Bring the strong poison that I bought of him. + KING HENRY. O Thou eternal Mover of the heavens, + Look with a gentle eye upon this wretch! + O, beat away the busy meddling fiend + That lays strong siege unto this wretch's soul, + And from his bosom purge this black despair! + WARWICK. See how the pangs of death do make him grin + SALISBURY. Disturb him not, let him pass peaceably. + KING HENRY. Peace to his soul, if God's good pleasure be! + Lord Card'nal, if thou think'st on heaven's bliss, + Hold up thy hand, make signal of thy hope. + He dies, and makes no sign: O God, forgive him! + WARWICK. So bad a death argues a monstrous life. + KING HENRY. Forbear to judge, for we are sinners all. + Close up his eyes, and draw the curtain close; + And let us all to meditation. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE I. The coast of Kent + +Alarum. Fight at sea. Ordnance goes off. Enter a LIEUTENANT, a +SHIPMASTER and his MATE, and WALTER WHITMORE, with sailors; SUFFOLK and +other GENTLEMEN, as prisoners + + LIEUTENANT. The gaudy, blabbing, and remorseful day + Is crept into the bosom of the sea; + And now loud-howling wolves arouse the jades + That drag the tragic melancholy night; + Who with their drowsy, slow, and flagging wings + Clip dead men's graves, and from their misty jaws + Breathe foul contagious darkness in the air. + Therefore bring forth the soldiers of our prize; + For, whilst our pinnace anchors in the Downs, + Here shall they make their ransom on the sand, + Or with their blood stain this discoloured shore. + Master, this prisoner freely give I thee; + And thou that art his mate make boot of this; + The other, Walter Whitmore, is thy share. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. What is my ransom, master, let me know? + MASTER. A thousand crowns, or else lay down your head. + MATE. And so much shall you give, or off goes yours. + LIEUTENANT. What, think you much to pay two thousand crowns, + And bear the name and port of gentlemen? + Cut both the villains' throats- for die you shall; + The lives of those which we have lost in fight + Be counterpois'd with such a petty sum! + FIRST GENTLEMAN. I'll give it, sir: and therefore spare my life. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. And so will I, and write home for it straight. + WHITMORE. I lost mine eye in laying the prize aboard, + [To SUFFOLK] And therefore, to revenge it, shalt thou die; + And so should these, if I might have my will. + LIEUTENANT. Be not so rash; take ransom, let him live. + SUFFOLK. Look on my George, I am a gentleman: + Rate me at what thou wilt, thou shalt be paid. + WHITMORE. And so am I: my name is Walter Whitmore. + How now! Why start'st thou? What, doth death affright? + SUFFOLK. Thy name affrights me, in whose sound is death. + A cunning man did calculate my birth + And told me that by water I should die; + Yet let not this make thee be bloody-minded; + Thy name is Gualtier, being rightly sounded. + WHITMORE. Gualtier or Walter, which it is I care not: + Never yet did base dishonour blur our name + But with our sword we wip'd away the blot; + Therefore, when merchant-like I sell revenge, + Broke be my sword, my arms torn and defac'd, + And I proclaim'd a coward through the world. + SUFFOLK. Stay, Whitmore, for thy prisoner is a prince, + The Duke of Suffolk, William de la Pole. + WHITMORE. The Duke of Suffolk muffled up in rags? + SUFFOLK. Ay, but these rags are no part of the Duke: + Jove sometime went disguis'd, and why not I? + LIEUTENANT. But Jove was never slain, as thou shalt be. + SUFFOLK. Obscure and lowly swain, King Henry's blood, + The honourable blood of Lancaster, + Must not be shed by such a jaded groom. + Hast thou not kiss'd thy hand and held my stirrup, + Bareheaded plodded by my foot-cloth mule, + And thought thee happy when I shook my head? + How often hast thou waited at my cup, + Fed from my trencher, kneel'd down at the board, + When I have feasted with Queen Margaret? + Remember it, and let it make thee crestfall'n, + Ay, and allay thus thy abortive pride, + How in our voiding-lobby hast thou stood + And duly waited for my coming forth. + This hand of mine hath writ in thy behalf, + And therefore shall it charm thy riotous tongue. + WHITMORE. Speak, Captain, shall I stab the forlorn swain? + LIEUTENANT. First let my words stab him, as he hath me. + SUFFOLK. Base slave, thy words are blunt, and so art thou. + LIEUTENANT. Convey him hence, and on our longboat's side + Strike off his head. + SUFFOLK. Thou dar'st not, for thy own. + LIEUTENANT. Poole! + SUFFOLK. Poole? + LIEUTENANT. Ay, kennel, puddle, sink, whose filth and dirt + Troubles the silver spring where England drinks; + Now will I dam up this thy yawning mouth + For swallowing the treasure of the realm. + Thy lips, that kiss'd the Queen, shall sweep the ground; + And thou that smil'dst at good Duke Humphrey's death + Against the senseless winds shalt grin in vain, + Who in contempt shall hiss at thee again; + And wedded be thou to the hags of hell + For daring to affy a mighty lord + Unto the daughter of a worthless king, + Having neither subject, wealth, nor diadem. + By devilish policy art thou grown great, + And, like ambitious Sylla, overgorg'd + With gobbets of thy mother's bleeding heart. + By thee Anjou and Maine were sold to France; + The false revolting Normans thorough thee + Disdain to call us lord; and Picardy + Hath slain their governors, surpris'd our forts, + And sent the ragged soldiers wounded home. + The princely Warwick, and the Nevils all, + Whose dreadful swords were never drawn in vain, + As hating thee, are rising up in arms; + And now the house of York- thrust from the crown + By shameful murder of a guiltless king + And lofty proud encroaching tyranny- + Burns with revenging fire, whose hopeful colours + Advance our half-fac'd sun, striving to shine, + Under the which is writ 'Invitis nubibus.' + The commons here in Kent are up in arms; + And to conclude, reproach and beggary + Is crept into the palace of our King, + And all by thee. Away! convey him hence. + SUFFOLK. O that I were a god, to shoot forth thunder + Upon these paltry, servile, abject drudges! + Small things make base men proud: this villain here, + Being captain of a pinnace, threatens more + Than Bargulus, the strong Illyrian pirate. + Drones suck not eagles' blood but rob beehives. + It is impossible that I should die + By such a lowly vassal as thyself. + Thy words move rage and not remorse in me. + I go of message from the Queen to France: + I charge thee waft me safely cross the Channel. + LIEUTENANT. Walter- + WHITMORE. Come, Suffolk, I must waft thee to thy death. + SUFFOLK. Gelidus timor occupat artus: it is thee I fear. + WHITMORE. Thou shalt have cause to fear before I leave thee. + What, are ye daunted now? Now will ye stoop? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. My gracious lord, entreat him, speak him fair. + SUFFOLK. Suffolk's imperial tongue is stem and rough, + Us'd to command, untaught to plead for favour. + Far be it we should honour such as these + With humble suit: no, rather let my head + Stoop to the block than these knees bow to any + Save to the God of heaven and to my king; + And sooner dance upon a bloody pole + Than stand uncover'd to the vulgar groom. + True nobility is exempt from fear: + More can I bear than you dare execute. + LIEUTENANT. Hale him away, and let him talk no more. + SUFFOLK. Come, soldiers, show what cruelty ye can, + That this my death may never be forgot- + Great men oft die by vile bezonians: + A Roman sworder and banditto slave + Murder'd sweet Tully; Brutus' bastard hand + Stabb'd Julius Caesar; savage islanders + Pompey the Great; and Suffolk dies by pirates. + Exit WALTER with SUFFOLK + LIEUTENANT. And as for these, whose ransom we have set, + It is our pleasure one of them depart; + Therefore come you with us, and let him go. + Exeunt all but the FIRST GENTLEMAN + + Re-enter WHITMORE with SUFFOLK'S body + + WHITMORE. There let his head and lifeless body lie, + Until the Queen his mistress bury it. Exit + FIRST GENTLEMAN. O barbarous and bloody spectacle! + His body will I bear unto the King. + If he revenge it not, yet will his friends; + So will the Queen, that living held him dear. + Exit with the body + +SCENE II. Blackheath + +Enter GEORGE BEVIS and JOHN HOLLAND + + GEORGE. Come and get thee a sword, though made of a lath; they have + been up these two days. + JOHN. They have the more need to sleep now, then. + GEORGE. I tell thee Jack Cade the clothier means to dress the + commonwealth, and turn it, and set a new nap upon it. + JOHN. So he had need, for 'tis threadbare. Well, I say it was never + merry world in England since gentlemen came up. + GEORGE. O miserable age! Virtue is not regarded in handicraftsmen. + JOHN. The nobility think scorn to go in leather aprons. + GEORGE. Nay, more, the King's Council are no good workmen. + JOHN. True; and yet it is said 'Labour in thy vocation'; which is + as much to say as 'Let the magistrates be labouring men'; and + therefore should we be magistrates. + GEORGE. Thou hast hit it; for there's no better sign of a brave + mind than a hard hand. + JOHN. I see them! I see them! There's Best's son, the tanner of + Wingham- + GEORGE. He shall have the skins of our enemies to make dog's + leather of. + JOHN. And Dick the butcher- + GEORGE. Then is sin struck down, like an ox, and iniquity's throat + cut like a calf. + JOHN. And Smith the weaver- + GEORGE. Argo, their thread of life is spun. + JOHN. Come, come, let's fall in with them. + + Drum. Enter CADE, DICK THE BUTCHER, SMITH + THE WEAVER, and a SAWYER, with infinite numbers + + CADE. We John Cade, so term'd of our supposed father- + DICK. [Aside] Or rather, of stealing a cade of herrings. + CADE. For our enemies shall fall before us, inspired with the + spirit of putting down kings and princes- command silence. + DICK. Silence! + CADE. My father was a Mortimer- + DICK. [Aside] He was an honest man and a good bricklayer. + CADE. My mother a Plantagenet- + DICK. [Aside] I knew her well; she was a midwife. + CADE. My wife descended of the Lacies- + DICK. [Aside] She was, indeed, a pedlar's daughter, and sold many + laces. + SMITH. [Aside] But now of late, not able to travel with her furr'd + pack, she washes bucks here at home. + CADE. Therefore am I of an honourable house. + DICK. [Aside] Ay, by my faith, the field is honourable, and there + was he born, under a hedge, for his father had never a house but + the cage. + CADE. Valiant I am. + SMITH. [Aside] 'A must needs; for beggary is valiant. + CADE. I am able to endure much. + DICK. [Aside] No question of that; for I have seen him whipt three + market days together. + CADE. I fear neither sword nor fire. + SMITH. [Aside] He need not fear the sword, for his coat is of + proof. + DICK. [Aside] But methinks he should stand in fear of fire, being + burnt i' th' hand for stealing of sheep. + CADE. Be brave, then, for your captain is brave, and vows + reformation. There shall be in England seven halfpenny loaves + sold for a penny; the three-hoop'd pot shall have ten hoops; and + I will make it felony to drink small beer. All the realm shall be + in common, and in Cheapside shall my palfrey go to grass. And + when I am king- as king I will be + ALL. God save your Majesty! + CADE. I thank you, good people- there shall be no money; all shall + eat and drink on my score, and I will apparel them all in one + livery, that they may agree like brothers and worship me their + lord. + DICK. The first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers. + CADE. Nay, that I mean to do. Is not this a lamentable thing, that + of the skin of an innocent lamb should be made parchment? That + parchment, being scribbl'd o'er, should undo a man? Some say the + bee stings; but I say 'tis the bee's wax; for I did but seal once + to a thing, and I was never mine own man since. How now! Who's + there? + + Enter some, bringing in the CLERK OF CHATHAM + + SMITH. The clerk of Chatham. He can write and read and cast + accompt. + CADE. O monstrous! + SMITH. We took him setting of boys' copies. + CADE. Here's a villain! + SMITH. Has a book in his pocket with red letters in't. + CADE. Nay, then he is a conjurer. + DICK. Nay, he can make obligations and write court-hand. + CADE. I am sorry for't; the man is a proper man, of mine honour; + unless I find him guilty, he shall not die. Come hither, sirrah, + I must examine thee. What is thy name? + CLERK. Emmanuel. + DICK. They use to write it on the top of letters; 'twill go hard + with you. + CADE. Let me alone. Dost thou use to write thy name, or hast thou a + mark to thyself, like a honest plain-dealing man? + CLERK. Sir, I thank God, I have been so well brought up that I can + write my name. + ALL. He hath confess'd. Away with him! He's a villain and a + traitor. + CADE. Away with him, I say! Hang him with his pen and inkhorn about + his neck. Exit one with the CLERK + + Enter MICHAEL + + MICHAEL. Where's our General? + CADE. Here I am, thou particular fellow. + MICHAEL. Fly, fly, fly! Sir Humphrey Stafford and his brother are + hard by, with the King's forces. + CADE. Stand, villain, stand, or I'll fell thee down. He shall be + encount'red with a man as good as himself. He is but a knight, + is 'a? + MICHAEL. No. + CADE. To equal him, I will make myself a knight presently. + [Kneels] Rise up, Sir John Mortimer. [Rises] Now have at him! + + Enter SIR HUMPHREY STAFFORD and WILLIAM + his brother, with drum and soldiers + + STAFFORD. Rebellious hinds, the filth and scum of Kent, + Mark'd for the gallows, lay your weapons down; + Home to your cottages, forsake this groom; + The King is merciful if you revolt. + WILLIAM STAFFORD. But angry, wrathful, and inclin'd to blood, + If you go forward; therefore yield or die. + CADE. As for these silken-coated slaves, I pass not; + It is to you, good people, that I speak, + O'er whom, in time to come, I hope to reign; + For I am rightful heir unto the crown. + STAFFORD. Villain, thy father was a plasterer; + And thou thyself a shearman, art thou not? + CADE. And Adam was a gardener. + WILLIAM STAFFORD. And what of that? + CADE. Marry, this: Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, + Married the Duke of Clarence' daughter, did he not? + STAFFORD. Ay, sir. + CADE. By her he had two children at one birth. + WILLIAM STAFFORD. That's false. + CADE. Ay, there's the question; but I say 'tis true. + The elder of them being put to nurse, + Was by a beggar-woman stol'n away, + And, ignorant of his birth and parentage, + Became a bricklayer when he came to age. + His son am I; deny it if you can. + DICK. Nay, 'tis too true; therefore he shall be king. + SMITH. Sir, he made a chimney in my father's house, and the bricks + are alive at this day to testify it; therefore deny it not. + STAFFORD. And will you credit this base drudge's words + That speaks he knows not what? + ALL. Ay, marry, will we; therefore get ye gone. + WILLIAM STAFFORD. Jack Cade, the Duke of York hath taught you this. + CADE. [Aside] He lies, for I invented it myself- Go to, sirrah, + tell the King from me that for his father's sake, Henry the + Fifth, in whose time boys went to span-counter for French crowns, + I am content he shall reign; but I'll be Protector over him. + DICK. And furthermore, we'll have the Lord Say's head for selling + the dukedom of Maine. + CADE. And good reason; for thereby is England main'd and fain to go + with a staff, but that my puissance holds it up. Fellow kings, I + tell you that that Lord Say hath gelded the commonwealth and made + it an eunuch; and more than that, he can speak French, and + therefore he is a traitor. + STAFFORD. O gross and miserable ignorance! + CADE. Nay, answer if you can; the Frenchmen are our enemies. Go to, + then, I ask but this: can he that speaks with the tongue of an + enemy be a good counsellor, or no? + ALL. No, no; and therefore we'll have his head. + WILLIAM STAFFORD. Well, seeing gentle words will not prevail, + Assail them with the army of the King. + STAFFORD. Herald, away; and throughout every town + Proclaim them traitors that are up with Cade; + That those which fly before the battle ends + May, even in their wives'and children's sight, + Be hang'd up for example at their doors. + And you that be the King's friends, follow me. + Exeunt the TWO STAFFORDS and soldiers + CADE. And you that love the commons follow me. + Now show yourselves men; 'tis for liberty. + We will not leave one lord, one gentleman; + Spare none but such as go in clouted shoon, + For they are thrifty honest men and such + As would- but that they dare not- take our parts. + DICK. They are all in order, and march toward us. + CADE. But then are we in order when we are most out of order. Come, + march forward. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Another part of Blackheath + +Alarums to the fight, wherein both the STAFFORDS are slain. +Enter CADE and the rest + + CADE. Where's Dick, the butcher of Ashford? + DICK. Here, sir. + CADE. They fell before thee like sheep and oxen, and thou behavedst + thyself as if thou hadst been in thine own slaughter-house; + therefore thus will I reward thee- the Lent shall be as long + again as it is, and thou shalt have a licence to kill for a + hundred lacking one. + DICK. I desire no more. + CADE. And, to speak truth, thou deserv'st no less. [Putting on SIR + HUMPHREY'S brigandine] This monument of the victory will I bear, + and the bodies shall be dragged at my horse heels till I do come + to London, where we will have the mayor's sword borne before us. + DICK. If we mean to thrive and do good, break open the gaols and + let out the prisoners. + CADE. Fear not that, I warrant thee. Come, let's march towards + London. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. London. The palace + +Enter the KING with a supplication, and the QUEEN with SUFFOLK'S head; +the DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM, and the LORD SAY + + QUEEN. Oft have I heard that grief softens the mind + And makes it fearful and degenerate; + Think therefore on revenge and cease to weep. + But who can cease to weep, and look on this? + Here may his head lie on my throbbing breast; + But where's the body that I should embrace? + BUCKINGHAM. What answer makes your Grace to the rebels' + supplication? + KING HENRY. I'll send some holy bishop to entreat; + For God forbid so many simple souls + Should perish by the sword! And I myself, + Rather than bloody war shall cut them short, + Will parley with Jack Cade their general. + But stay, I'll read it over once again. + QUEEN. Ah, barbarous villains! Hath this lovely face + Rul'd like a wandering planet over me, + And could it not enforce them to relent + That were unworthy to behold the same? + KING HENRY. Lord Say, Jack Cade hath sworn to have thy head. + SAY. Ay, but I hope your Highness shall have his. + KING HENRY. How now, madam! + Still lamenting and mourning for Suffolk's death? + I fear me, love, if that I had been dead, + Thou wouldst not have mourn'd so much for me. + QUEEN. No, my love, I should not mourn, but die for thee. + + Enter A MESSENGER + + KING HENRY. How now! What news? Why com'st thou in such haste? + MESSENGER. The rebels are in Southwark; fly, my lord! + Jack Cade proclaims himself Lord Mortimer, + Descended from the Duke of Clarence' house, + And calls your Grace usurper, openly, + And vows to crown himself in Westminster. + His army is a ragged multitude + Of hinds and peasants, rude and merciless; + Sir Humphrey Stafford and his brother's death + Hath given them heart and courage to proceed. + All scholars, lawyers, courtiers, gentlemen, + They call false caterpillars and intend their death. + KING HENRY. O graceless men! they know not what they do. + BUCKINGHAM. My gracious lord, retire to Killingworth + Until a power be rais'd to put them down. + QUEEN. Ah, were the Duke of Suffolk now alive, + These Kentish rebels would be soon appeas'd! + KING HENRY. Lord Say, the traitors hate thee; + Therefore away with us to Killingworth. + SAY. So might your Grace's person be in danger. + The sight of me is odious in their eyes; + And therefore in this city will I stay + And live alone as secret as I may. + + Enter another MESSENGER + + SECOND MESSENGER. Jack Cade hath gotten London Bridge. + The citizens fly and forsake their houses; + The rascal people, thirsting after prey, + Join with the traitor; and they jointly swear + To spoil the city and your royal court. + BUCKINGHAM. Then linger not, my lord; away, take horse. + KING HENRY. Come Margaret; God, our hope, will succour us. + QUEEN. My hope is gone, now Suffolk is deceas'd. + KING HENRY. [To LORD SAY] Farewell, my lord, trust not the Kentish + rebels. + BUCKINGHAM. Trust nobody, for fear you be betray'd. + SAY. The trust I have is in mine innocence, + And therefore am I bold and resolute. Exeunt + +SCENE V. London. The Tower + +Enter LORD SCALES Upon the Tower, walking. Then enter two or three +CITIZENS, below + + SCALES. How now! Is Jack Cade slain? + FIRST CITIZEN. No, my lord, nor likely to be slain; for they have + won the bridge, killing all those that withstand them. + The Lord Mayor craves aid of your honour from the + Tower, to defend the city from the rebels. + SCALES. Such aid as I can spare you shall command, + But I am troubled here with them myself; + The rebels have assay'd to win the Tower. + But get you to Smithfield, and gather head, + And thither I will send you Matthew Goffe; + Fight for your King, your country, and your lives; + And so, farewell, for I must hence again. Exeunt + +SCENE VI. London. Cannon street + +Enter JACK CADE and the rest, and strikes his staff on London Stone + + CADE. Now is Mortimer lord of this city. And here, sitting upon + London Stone, I charge and command that, of the city's cost, the + pissing conduit run nothing but claret wine this first year of our + reign. And now henceforward it shall be treason for any that calls me + other than Lord Mortimer. + + Enter a SOLDIER, running + + SOLDIER. Jack Cade! Jack Cade! + CADE. Knock him down there. [They kill him] + SMITH. If this fellow be wise, he'll never call ye Jack Cade more; + I think he hath a very fair warning. + DICK. My lord, there's an army gathered together in Smithfield. + CADE. Come then, let's go fight with them. But first go and set + London Bridge on fire; and, if you can, burn down the Tower too. + Come, let's away. Exeunt + +SCENE VII. London. Smithfield + +Alarums. MATTHEW GOFFE is slain, and all the rest. Then enter JACK +CADE, with his company + + CADE. So, sirs. Now go some and pull down the Savoy; others to th' + Inns of Court; down with them all. + DICK. I have a suit unto your lordship. + CADE. Be it a lordship, thou shalt have it for that word. + DICK. Only that the laws of England may come out of your mouth. + JOHN. [Aside] Mass, 'twill be sore law then; for he was thrust in + the mouth with a spear, and 'tis not whole yet. + SMITH. [Aside] Nay, John, it will be stinking law; for his breath + stinks with eating toasted cheese. + CADE. I have thought upon it; it shall be so. Away, burn all the + records of the realm. My mouth shall be the Parliament of + England. + JOHN. [Aside] Then we are like to have biting statutes, unless his + teeth be pull'd out. + CADE. And henceforward all things shall be in common. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. My lord, a prize, a prize! Here's the Lord Say, which sold + the towns in France; he that made us pay one and twenty fifteens, and + one shining to the pound, the last subsidy. + + Enter GEORGE BEVIS, with the LORD SAY + + CADE. Well, he shall be beheaded for it ten times. Ah, thou say, + thou serge, nay, thou buckram lord! Now art thou within point + blank of our jurisdiction regal. What canst thou answer to my + Majesty for giving up of Normandy unto Mounsieur Basimecu the + Dauphin of France? Be it known unto thee by these presence, even + the presence of Lord Mortimer, that I am the besom that must + sweep the court clean of such filth as thou art. Thou hast most + traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a + grammar school; and whereas, before, our forefathers had no other + books but the score and the tally, thou hast caused printing to + be us'd, and, contrary to the King, his crown, and dignity, thou + hast built a paper-mill. It will be proved to thy face that thou + hast men about thee that usually talk of a noun and a verb, and + such abominable words as no Christian ear can endure to hear. + Thou hast appointed justices of peace, to call poor men before + them about matters they were not able to answer. Moreover, thou + hast put them in prison, and because they could not read, thou + hast hang'd them, when, indeed, only for that cause they have + been most worthy to live. Thou dost ride in a foot-cloth, dost + thou not? + SAY. What of that? + CADE. Marry, thou ought'st not to let thy horse wear a cloak, when + honester men than thou go in their hose and doublets. + DICK. And work in their shirt too, as myself, for example, that am + a butcher. + SAY. You men of Kent- + DICK. What say you of Kent? + SAY. Nothing but this: 'tis 'bona terra, mala gens.' + CADE. Away with him, away with him! He speaks Latin. + SAY. Hear me but speak, and bear me where you will. + Kent, in the Commentaries Caesar writ, + Is term'd the civil'st place of all this isle. + Sweet is the country, because full of riches; + The people liberal valiant, active, wealthy; + Which makes me hope you are not void of pity. + I sold not Maine, I lost not Normandy; + Yet, to recover them, would lose my life. + Justice with favour have I always done; + Pray'rs and tears have mov'd me, gifts could never. + When have I aught exacted at your hands, + But to maintain the King, the realm, and you? + Large gifts have I bestow'd on learned clerks, + Because my book preferr'd me to the King, + And seeing ignorance is the curse of God, + Knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven, + Unless you be possess'd with devilish spirits + You cannot but forbear to murder me. + This tongue hath parley'd unto foreign kings + For your behoof. + CADE. Tut, when struck'st thou one blow in the field? + SAY. Great men have reaching hands. Oft have I struck + Those that I never saw, and struck them dead. + GEORGE. O monstrous coward! What, to come behind folks? + SAY. These cheeks are pale for watching for your good. + CADE. Give him a box o' th' ear, and that will make 'em red again. + SAY. Long sitting to determine poor men's causes + Hath made me full of sickness and diseases. + CADE. Ye shall have a hempen caudle then, and the help of hatchet. + DICK. Why dost thou quiver, man? + SAY. The palsy, and not fear, provokes me. + CADE. Nay, he nods at us, as who should say 'I'll be even with + you'; I'll see if his head will stand steadier on a pole, or no. + Take him away, and behead him. + SAY. Tell me: wherein have I offended most? + Have I affected wealth or honour? Speak. + Are my chests fill'd up with extorted gold? + Is my apparel sumptuous to behold? + Whom have I injur'd, that ye seek my death? + These hands are free from guiltless bloodshedding, + This breast from harbouring foul deceitful thoughts. + O, let me live! + CADE. [Aside] I feel remorse in myself with his words; but I'll + bridle it. He shall die, an it be but for pleading so well for + his life.- Away with him! He has a familiar under his tongue; he + speaks not o' God's name. Go, take him away, I say, and strike + off his head presently, and then break into his son-in-law's + house, Sir James Cromer, and strike off his head, and bring them + both upon two poles hither. + ALL. It shall be done. + SAY. Ah, countrymen! if when you make your pray'rs, + God should be so obdurate as yourselves, + How would it fare with your departed souls? + And therefore yet relent and save my life. + CADE. Away with him, and do as I command ye. [Exeunt some with + LORD SAY] The proudest peer in the realm shall not wear a head + on his shoulders, unless he pay me tribute; there shall not a + maid be married, but she shall pay to me her maidenhead ere they + have it. Men shall hold of me in capite; and we charge and + command that their wives be as free as heart can wish or tongue + can tell. + DICK. My lord, when shall we go to Cheapside, and take up + commodities upon our bills? + CADE. Marry, presently. + ALL. O, brave! + + Re-enter one with the heads + + CADE. But is not this braver? Let them kiss one another, for they + lov'd well when they were alive. Now part them again, lest they + consult about the giving up of some more towns in France. Soldiers, + defer the spoil of the city until night; for with these borne before + us instead of maces will we ride through the streets, and at every + corner have them kiss. Away! Exeunt + +SCENE VIII. Southwark + +Alarum and retreat. Enter again CADE and all his rabblement + + CADE. Up Fish Street! down Saint Magnus' Corner! Kill and knock down! + Throw them into Thames! [Sound a parley] What noise is + this I hear? Dare any be so bold to sound retreat or parley when I + command them kill? + + Enter BUCKINGHAM and old CLIFFORD, attended + + BUCKINGHAM. Ay, here they be that dare and will disturb thee. + And therefore yet relent, and save my life. + Know, Cade, we come ambassadors from the King + Unto the commons whom thou hast misled; + And here pronounce free pardon to them all + That will forsake thee and go home in peace. + CLIFFORD. What say ye, countrymen? Will ye relent + And yield to mercy whilst 'tis offer'd you, + Or let a rebel lead you to your deaths? + Who loves the King, and will embrace his pardon, + Fling up his cap and say 'God save his Majesty!' + Who hateth him and honours not his father, + Henry the Fifth, that made all France to quake, + Shake he his weapon at us and pass by. + ALL. God save the King! God save the King! + CADE. What, Buckingham and Clifford, are ye so brave? + And you, base peasants, do ye believe him? Will you needs be + hang'd with your about your necks? Hath my sword therefore broke + through London gates, that you should leave me at the White Hart + in Southwark? I thought ye would never have given out these arms + till you had recovered your ancient freedom. But you are all + recreants and dastards, and delight to live in slavery to the + nobility. Let them break your backs with burdens, take your + houses over your heads, ravish your wives and daughters before + your faces. For me, I will make shift for one; and so God's curse + light upon you all! + ALL. We'll follow Cade, we'll follow Cade! + CLIFFORD. Is Cade the son of Henry the Fifth, + That thus you do exclaim you'll go with him? + Will he conduct you through the heart of France, + And make the meanest of you earls and dukes? + Alas, he hath no home, no place to fly to; + Nor knows he how to live but by the spoil, + Unless by robbing of your friends and us. + Were't not a shame that whilst you live at jar + The fearful French, whom you late vanquished, + Should make a start o'er seas and vanquish you? + Methinks already in this civil broil + I see them lording it in London streets, + Crying 'Villiago!' unto all they meet. + Better ten thousand base-born Cades miscarry + Than you should stoop unto a Frenchman's mercy. + To France, to France, and get what you have lost; + Spare England, for it is your native coast. + Henry hath money; you are strong and manly. + God on our side, doubt not of victory. + ALL. A Clifford! a Clifford! We'll follow the King and Clifford. + CADE. Was ever feather so lightly blown to and fro as this + multitude? The name of Henry the Fifth hales them to an hundred + mischiefs, and makes them leave me desolate. I see them lay their + heads together to surprise me. My sword make way for me for here + is no staying. In despite of the devils and hell, have through + the very middest of you! and heavens and honour be witness that + no want of resolution in me, but only my followers' base and + ignominious treasons, makes me betake me to my heels. + Exit + BUCKINGHAM. What, is he fled? Go some, and follow him; + And he that brings his head unto the King + Shall have a thousand crowns for his reward. + Exeunt some of them + Follow me, soldiers; we'll devise a mean + To reconcile you all unto the King. Exeunt + +SCENE IX. Killing, worth Castle + +Sound trumpets. Enter KING, QUEEN, and SOMERSET, on the terrace + + KING HENRY. Was ever king that joy'd an earthly throne + And could command no more content than I? + No sooner was I crept out of my cradle + But I was made a king, at nine months old. + Was never subject long'd to be a King + As I do long and wish to be a subject. + + Enter BUCKINGHAM and old CLIFFORD + + BUCKINGHAM. Health and glad tidings to your Majesty! + KING HENRY. Why, Buckingham, is the traitor Cade surpris'd? + Or is he but retir'd to make him strong? + + Enter, below, multitudes, with halters about their necks + + CLIFFORD. He is fled, my lord, and all his powers do yield, + And humbly thus, with halters on their necks, + Expect your Highness' doom of life or death. + KING HENRY. Then, heaven, set ope thy everlasting gates, + To entertain my vows of thanks and praise! + Soldiers, this day have you redeem'd your lives, + And show'd how well you love your Prince and country. + Continue still in this so good a mind, + And Henry, though he be infortunate, + Assure yourselves, will never be unkind. + And so, with thanks and pardon to you all, + I do dismiss you to your several countries. + ALL. God save the King! God save the King! + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. Please it your Grace to be advertised + The Duke of York is newly come from Ireland + And with a puissant and a mighty power + Of gallowglasses and stout kerns + Is marching hitherward in proud array, + And still proclaimeth, as he comes along, + His arms are only to remove from thee + The Duke of Somerset, whom he terms a traitor. + KING HENRY. Thus stands my state, 'twixt Cade and York distress'd; + Like to a ship that, having scap'd a tempest, + Is straightway calm'd, and boarded with a pirate; + But now is Cade driven back, his men dispers'd, + And now is York in arms to second him. + I pray thee, Buckingham, go and meet him + And ask him what's the reason of these arms. + Tell him I'll send Duke Edmund to the Tower- + And Somerset, we will commit thee thither + Until his army be dismiss'd from him. + SOMERSET. My lord, + I'll yield myself to prison willingly, + Or unto death, to do my country good. + KING HENRY. In any case be not too rough in terms, + For he is fierce and cannot brook hard language. + BUCKINGHAM. I will, my lord, and doubt not so to deal + As all things shall redound unto your good. + KING HENRY. Come, wife, let's in, and learn to govern better; + For yet may England curse my wretched reign. + Flourish. Exeunt + +SCENE X. Kent. Iden's garden + +Enter CADE + + CADE. Fie on ambitions! Fie on myself, that have a sword and yet am + ready to famish! These five days have I hid me in these woods and + durst not peep out, for all the country is laid for me; but now am I + so hungry that, if I might have a lease of my life for a thousand + years, I could stay no longer. Wherefore, on a brick wall have I + climb'd into this garden, to see if I can eat grass or pick a sallet + another while, which is not amiss to cool a man's stomach this hot + weather. And I think this word 'sallet' was born to do me good; for + many a time, but for a sallet, my brain-pain had been cleft with a + brown bill; and many a time, when I have been dry, and bravely + marching, it hath serv'd me instead of a quart-pot to drink in; and + now the word 'sallet' must serve me to feed on. + + Enter IDEN + + IDEN. Lord, who would live turmoiled in the court + And may enjoy such quiet walks as these? + This small inheritance my father left me + Contenteth me, and worth a monarchy. + I seek not to wax great by others' waning + Or gather wealth I care not with what envy; + Sufficeth that I have maintains my state, + And sends the poor well pleased from my gate. + CADE. Here's the lord of the soil come to seize me for a stray, for + entering his fee-simple without leave. Ah, villain, thou wilt + betray me, and get a thousand crowns of the King by carrying my + head to him; but I'll make thee eat iron like an ostrich and + swallow my sword like a great pin ere thou and I part. + IDEN. Why, rude companion, whatsoe'er thou be, + I know thee not; why then should I betray thee? + Is't not enough to break into my garden + And like a thief to come to rob my grounds, + Climbing my walls in spite of me the owner, + But thou wilt brave me with these saucy terms? + CADE. Brave thee? Ay, by the best blood that ever was broach'd, and + beard thee too. Look on me well: I have eat no meat these five + days, yet come thou and thy five men and if I do not leave you + all as dead as a door-nail, I pray God I may never eat grass + more. + IDEN. Nay, it shall ne'er be said, while England stands, + That Alexander Iden, an esquire of Kent, + Took odds to combat a poor famish'd man. + Oppose thy steadfast-gazing eyes to mine; + See if thou canst outface me with thy looks; + Set limb to limb, and thou art far the lesser; + Thy hand is but a finger to my fist, + Thy leg a stick compared with this truncheon; + My foot shall fight with all the strength thou hast, + And if mine arm be heaved in the air, + Thy grave is digg'd already in the earth. + As for words, whose greatness answers words, + Let this my sword report what speech forbears. + CADE. By my valour, the most complete champion that ever I heard! + Steel, if thou turn the edge, or cut not out the burly bon'd + clown in chines of beef ere thou sleep in thy sheath, I beseech + God on my knees thou mayst be turn'd to hobnails. [Here they + fight; CADE falls] O, I am slain! famine and no other hath slain + me. Let ten thousand devils come against me, and give me but the + ten meals I have lost, and I'd defy them all. Wither, garden, and + be henceforth a burying place to all that do dwell in this house, + because the unconquered soul of Cade is fled. + IDEN. Is't Cade that I have slain, that monstrous traitor? + Sword, I will hallow thee for this thy deed + And hang thee o'er my tomb when I am dead. + Ne'er shall this blood be wiped from thy point, + But thou shalt wear it as a herald's coat + To emblaze the honour that thy master got. + CADE. Iden, farewell; and be proud of thy victory. Tell Kent from + me she hath lost her best man, and exhort all the world to be + cowards; for I, that never feared any, am vanquished by famine, + not by valour. [Dies] + IDEN. How much thou wrong'st me, heaven be my judge. + Die, damned wretch, the curse of her that bare thee! + And as I thrust thy body in with my sword, + So wish I, I might thrust thy soul to hell. + Hence will I drag thee headlong by the heels + Unto a dunghill, which shall be thy grave, + And there cut off thy most ungracious head, + Which I will bear in triumph to the King, + Leaving thy trunk for crows to feed upon. Exit + +ACT V. SCENE I. Fields between Dartford and Blackheath + +Enter YORK, and his army of Irish, with drum and colours + + YORK. From Ireland thus comes York to claim his right + And pluck the crown from feeble Henry's head: + Ring bells aloud, burn bonfires clear and bright, + To entertain great England's lawful king. + Ah, sancta majestas! who would not buy thee dear? + Let them obey that knows not how to rule; + This hand was made to handle nought but gold. + I cannot give due action to my words + Except a sword or sceptre balance it. + A sceptre shall it have, have I a soul + On which I'll toss the flower-de-luce of France. + + Enter BUCKINGHAM + + [Aside] Whom have we here? Buckingham, to disturb me? + The King hath sent him, sure: I must dissemble. + BUCKINGHAM. York, if thou meanest well I greet thee well. + YORK. Humphrey of Buckingham, I accept thy greeting. + Art thou a messenger, or come of pleasure? + BUCKINGHAM. A messenger from Henry, our dread liege, + To know the reason of these arms in peace; + Or why thou, being a subject as I am, + Against thy oath and true allegiance sworn, + Should raise so great a power without his leave, + Or dare to bring thy force so near the court. + YORK. [Aside] Scarce can I speak, my choler is so great. + O, I could hew up rocks and fight with flint, + I am so angry at these abject terms; + And now, like Ajax Telamonius, + On sheep or oxen could I spend my fury. + I am far better born than is the King, + More like a king, more kingly in my thoughts; + But I must make fair weather yet awhile, + Till Henry be more weak and I more strong.- + Buckingham, I prithee, pardon me + That I have given no answer all this while; + My mind was troubled with deep melancholy. + The cause why I have brought this army hither + Is to remove proud Somerset from the King, + Seditious to his Grace and to the state. + BUCKINGHAM. That is too much presumption on thy part; + But if thy arms be to no other end, + The King hath yielded unto thy demand: + The Duke of Somerset is in the Tower. + YORK. Upon thine honour, is he prisoner? + BUCKINGHAM. Upon mine honour, he is prisoner. + YORK. Then, Buckingham, I do dismiss my pow'rs. + Soldiers, I thank you all; disperse yourselves; + Meet me to-morrow in Saint George's field, + You shall have pay and everything you wish. + And let my sovereign, virtuous Henry, + Command my eldest son, nay, all my sons, + As pledges of my fealty and love. + I'll send them all as willing as I live: + Lands, goods, horse, armour, anything I have, + Is his to use, so Somerset may die. + BUCKINGHAM. York, I commend this kind submission. + We twain will go into his Highness' tent. + + Enter the KING, and attendants + + KING HENRY. Buckingham, doth York intend no harm to us, + That thus he marcheth with thee arm in arm? + YORK. In all submission and humility + York doth present himself unto your Highness. + KING HENRY. Then what intends these forces thou dost bring? + YORK. To heave the traitor Somerset from hence, + And fight against that monstrous rebel Cade, + Who since I heard to be discomfited. + + Enter IDEN, with CADE's head + + IDEN. If one so rude and of so mean condition + May pass into the presence of a king, + Lo, I present your Grace a traitor's head, + The head of Cade, whom I in combat slew. + KING HENRY. The head of Cade! Great God, how just art Thou! + O, let me view his visage, being dead, + That living wrought me such exceeding trouble. + Tell me, my friend, art thou the man that slew him? + IDEN. I was, an't like your Majesty. + KING HENRY. How art thou call'd? And what is thy degree? + IDEN. Alexander Iden, that's my name; + A poor esquire of Kent that loves his king. + BUCKINGHAM. So please it you, my lord, 'twere not amiss + He were created knight for his good service. + KING HENRY. Iden, kneel down. [He kneels] Rise up a knight. + We give thee for reward a thousand marks, + And will that thou thenceforth attend on us. + IDEN. May Iden live to merit such a bounty, + And never live but true unto his liege! + + Enter the QUEEN and SOMERSET + + KING HENRY. See, Buckingham! Somerset comes with th' Queen: + Go, bid her hide him quickly from the Duke. + QUEEN. For thousand Yorks he shall not hide his head, + But boldly stand and front him to his face. + YORK. How now! Is Somerset at liberty? + Then, York, unloose thy long-imprisoned thoughts + And let thy tongue be equal with thy heart. + Shall I endure the sight of Somerset? + False king, why hast thou broken faith with me, + Knowing how hardly I can brook abuse? + King did I call thee? No, thou art not king; + Not fit to govern and rule multitudes, + Which dar'st not, no, nor canst not rule a traitor. + That head of thine doth not become a crown; + Thy hand is made to grasp a palmer's staff, + And not to grace an awful princely sceptre. + That gold must round engirt these brows of mine, + Whose smile and frown, like to Achilles' spear, + Is able with the change to kill and cure. + Here is a hand to hold a sceptre up, + And with the same to act controlling laws. + Give place. By heaven, thou shalt rule no more + O'er him whom heaven created for thy ruler. + SOMERSET. O monstrous traitor! I arrest thee, York, + Of capital treason 'gainst the King and crown. + Obey, audacious traitor; kneel for grace. + YORK. Wouldst have me kneel? First let me ask of these, + If they can brook I bow a knee to man. + Sirrah, call in my sons to be my bail: Exit attendant + I know, ere thy will have me go to ward, + They'll pawn their swords for my enfranchisement. + QUEEN. Call hither Clifford; bid him come amain, + To say if that the bastard boys of York + Shall be the surety for their traitor father. + Exit BUCKINGHAM + YORK. O blood-bespotted Neapolitan, + Outcast of Naples, England's bloody scourge! + The sons of York, thy betters in their birth, + Shall be their father's bail; and bane to those + That for my surety will refuse the boys! + + Enter EDWARD and RICHARD PLANTAGENET + + See where they come: I'll warrant they'll make it good. + + Enter CLIFFORD and his SON + + QUEEN. And here comes Clifford to deny their bail. + CLIFFORD. Health and all happiness to my lord the King! + [Kneels] + YORK. I thank thee, Clifford. Say, what news with thee? + Nay, do not fright us with an angry look. + We are thy sovereign, Clifford, kneel again; + For thy mistaking so, we pardon thee. + CLIFFORD. This is my King, York, I do not mistake; + But thou mistakes me much to think I do. + To Bedlam with him! Is the man grown mad? + KING HENRY. Ay, Clifford; a bedlam and ambitious humour + Makes him oppose himself against his king. + CLIFFORD. He is a traitor; let him to the Tower, + And chop away that factious pate of his. + QUEEN. He is arrested, but will not obey; + His sons, he says, shall give their words for him. + YORK. Will you not, sons? + EDWARD. Ay, noble father, if our words will serve. + RICHARD. And if words will not, then our weapons shall. + CLIFFORD. Why, what a brood of traitors have we here! + YORK. Look in a glass, and call thy image so: + I am thy king, and thou a false-heart traitor. + Call hither to the stake my two brave bears, + That with the very shaking of their chains + They may astonish these fell-lurking curs. + Bid Salisbury and Warwick come to me. + + Enter the EARLS OF WARWICK and SALISBURY + + CLIFFORD. Are these thy bears? We'll bait thy bears to death, + And manacle the berard in their chains, + If thou dar'st bring them to the baiting-place. + RICHARD. Oft have I seen a hot o'er weening cur + Run back and bite, because he was withheld; + Who, being suffer'd, with the bear's fell paw, + Hath clapp'd his tail between his legs and cried; + And such a piece of service will you do, + If you oppose yourselves to match Lord Warwick. + CLIFFORD. Hence, heap of wrath, foul indigested lump, + As crooked in thy manners as thy shape! + YORK. Nay, we shall heat you thoroughly anon. + CLIFFORD. Take heed, lest by your heat you burn yourselves. + KING HENRY. Why, Warwick, hath thy knee forgot to bow? + Old Salisbury, shame to thy silver hair, + Thou mad misleader of thy brainsick son! + What, wilt thou on thy death-bed play the ruffian + And seek for sorrow with thy spectacles? + O, where is faith? O, where is loyalty? + If it be banish'd from the frosty head, + Where shall it find a harbour in the earth? + Wilt thou go dig a grave to find out war + And shame thine honourable age with blood? + Why art thou old, and want'st experience? + Or wherefore dost abuse it, if thou hast it? + For shame! In duty bend thy knee to me, + That bows unto the grave with mickle age. + SALISBURY. My lord, I have considered with myself + The tide of this most renowned duke, + And in my conscience do repute his Grace + The rightful heir to England's royal seat. + KING HENRY. Hast thou not sworn allegiance unto me? + SALISBURY. I have. + KING HENRY. Canst thou dispense with heaven for such an oath? + SALISBURY. It is great sin to swear unto a sin; + But greater sin to keep a sinful oath. + Who can be bound by any solemn vow + To do a murd'rous deed, to rob a man, + To force a spotless virgin's chastity, + To reave the orphan of his patrimony, + To wring the widow from her custom'd right, + And have no other reason for this wrong + But that he was bound by a solemn oath? + QUEEN. A subtle traitor needs no sophister. + KING HENRY. Call Buckingham, and bid him arm himself. + YORK. Call Buckingham, and all the friends thou hast, + I am resolv'd for death or dignity. + CLIFFORD. The first I warrant thee, if dreams prove true. + WARWICK. You were best to go to bed and dream again + To keep thee from the tempest of the field. + CLIFFORD. I am resolv'd to bear a greater storm + Than any thou canst conjure up to-day; + And that I'll write upon thy burgonet, + Might I but know thee by thy household badge. + WARWICK. Now, by my father's badge, old Nevil's crest, + The rampant bear chain'd to the ragged staff, + This day I'll wear aloft my burgonet, + As on a mountain-top the cedar shows, + That keeps his leaves in spite of any storm, + Even to affright thee with the view thereof. + CLIFFORD. And from thy burgonet I'll rend thy bear + And tread it under foot with all contempt, + Despite the berard that protects the bear. + YOUNG CLIFFORD. And so to arms, victorious father, + To quell the rebels and their complices. + RICHARD. Fie! charity, for shame! Speak not in spite, + For you shall sup with Jesu Christ to-night. + YOUNG CLIFFORD. Foul stigmatic, that's more than thou canst tell. + RICHARD. If not in heaven, you'll surely sup in hell. + Exeunt severally + +SCENE II. Saint Albans + +Alarums to the battle. Enter WARWICK + + WARWICK. Clifford of Cumberland, 'tis Warwick calls; + And if thou dost not hide thee from the bear, + Now, when the angry trumpet sounds alarum + And dead men's cries do fill the empty air, + Clifford, I say, come forth and fight with me. + Proud northern lord, Clifford of Cumberland, + WARWICK is hoarse with calling thee to arms. + + Enter YORK + + How now, my noble lord! what, all a-foot? + YORK. The deadly-handed Clifford slew my steed; + But match to match I have encount'red him, + And made a prey for carrion kites and crows + Even of the bonny beast he lov'd so well. + + Enter OLD CLIFFORD + + WARWICK. Of one or both of us the time is come. + YORK. Hold, Warwick, seek thee out some other chase, + For I myself must hunt this deer to death. + WARWICK. Then, nobly, York; 'tis for a crown thou fight'st. + As I intend, Clifford, to thrive to-day, + It grieves my soul to leave thee unassail'd. Exit + CLIFFORD. What seest thou in me, York? Why dost thou pause? + YORK. With thy brave bearing should I be in love + But that thou art so fast mine enemy. + CLIFFORD. Nor should thy prowess want praise and esteem + But that 'tis shown ignobly and in treason. + YORK. So let it help me now against thy sword, + As I in justice and true right express it! + CLIFFORD. My soul and body on the action both! + YORK. A dreadful lay! Address thee instantly. + [They fight and CLIFFORD falls] + CLIFFORD. La fin couronne les oeuvres. [Dies] + YORK. Thus war hath given thee peace, for thou art still. + Peace with his soul, heaven, if it be thy will! Exit + + Enter YOUNG CLIFFORD + + YOUNG CLIFFORD. Shame and confusion! All is on the rout; + Fear frames disorder, and disorder wounds + Where it should guard. O war, thou son of hell, + Whom angry heavens do make their minister, + Throw in the frozen bosoms of our part + Hot coals of vengeance! Let no soldier fly. + He that is truly dedicate to war + Hath no self-love; nor he that loves himself + Hath not essentially, but by circumstance, + The name of valour. [Sees his father's body] + O, let the vile world end + And the premised flames of the last day + Knit earth and heaven together! + Now let the general trumpet blow his blast, + Particularities and petty sounds + To cease! Wast thou ordain'd, dear father, + To lose thy youth in peace and to achieve + The silver livery of advised age, + And in thy reverence and thy chair-days thus + To die in ruffian battle? Even at this sight + My heart is turn'd to stone; and while 'tis mine + It shall be stony. York not our old men spares; + No more will I their babes. Tears virginal + Shall be to me even as the dew to fire; + And beauty, that the tyrant oft reclaims, + Shall to my flaming wrath be oil and flax. + Henceforth I will not have to do with pity: + Meet I an infant of the house of York, + Into as many gobbets will I cut it + As wild Medea young Absyrtus did; + In cruelty will I seek out my fame. + Come, thou new ruin of old Clifford's house; + As did Aeneas old Anchises bear, + So bear I thee upon my manly shoulders; + But then Aeneas bare a living load, + Nothing so heavy as these woes of mine. + Exit with the body + + Enter RICHARD and SOMERSET to fight. SOMERSET is killed + + RICHARD. So, lie thou there; + For underneath an alehouse' paltry sign, + The Castle in Saint Albans, Somerset + Hath made the wizard famous in his death. + Sword, hold thy temper; heart, be wrathful still: + Priests pray for enemies, but princes kill. Exit + + Fight. Excursions. Enter KING, QUEEN, and others + + QUEEN. Away, my lord! You are slow; for shame, away! + KING HENRY. Can we outrun the heavens? Good Margaret, stay. + QUEEN. What are you made of? You'll nor fight nor fly. + Now is it manhood, wisdom, and defence, + To give the enemy way, and to secure us + By what we can, which can no more but fly. + [Alarum afar off] + If you be ta'en, we then should see the bottom + Of all our fortunes; but if we haply scape- + As well we may, if not through your neglect- + We shall to London get, where you are lov'd, + And where this breach now in our fortunes made + May readily be stopp'd. + + Re-enter YOUNG CLIFFORD + + YOUNG CLIFFORD. But that my heart's on future mischief set, + I would speak blasphemy ere bid you fly; + But fly you must; uncurable discomfit + Reigns in the hearts of all our present parts. + Away, for your relief! and we will live + To see their day and them our fortune give. + Away, my lord, away! Exeunt + +SCENE III. Fields near Saint Albans + +Alarum. Retreat. Enter YORK, RICHARD, WARWICK, and soldiers, with drum +and colours + + YORK. Of Salisbury, who can report of him, + That winter lion, who in rage forgets + Aged contusions and all brush of time + And, like a gallant in the brow of youth, + Repairs him with occasion? This happy day + Is not itself, nor have we won one foot, + If Salisbury be lost. + RICHARD. My noble father, + Three times to-day I holp him to his horse, + Three times bestrid him, thrice I led him off, + Persuaded him from any further act; + But still where danger was, still there I met him; + And like rich hangings in a homely house, + So was his will in his old feeble body. + But, noble as he is, look where he comes. + + Enter SALISBURY + + SALISBURY. Now, by my sword, well hast thou fought to-day! + By th' mass, so did we all. I thank you, Richard: + God knows how long it is I have to live, + And it hath pleas'd Him that three times to-day + You have defended me from imminent death. + Well, lords, we have not got that which we have; + 'Tis not enough our foes are this time fled, + Being opposites of such repairing nature. + YORK. I know our safety is to follow them; + For, as I hear, the King is fled to London + To call a present court of Parliament. + Let us pursue him ere the writs go forth. + What says Lord Warwick? Shall we after them? + WARWICK. After them? Nay, before them, if we can. + Now, by my faith, lords, 'twas a glorious day: + Saint Albans' battle, won by famous York, + Shall be eterniz'd in all age to come. + Sound drum and trumpets and to London all; + And more such days as these to us befall! Exeunt + + + + +THE THIRD PART OF KING HENRY THE SIXTH + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + + KING HENRY THE SIXTH + EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES, his son + LEWIS XI, King of France DUKE OF SOMERSET + DUKE OF EXETER EARL OF OXFORD + EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND EARL OF WESTMORELAND + LORD CLIFFORD + RICHARD PLANTAGENET, DUKE OF YORK + EDWARD, EARL OF MARCH, afterwards KING EDWARD IV, his son + EDMUND, EARL OF RUTLAND, his son + GEORGE, afterwards DUKE OF CLARENCE, his son + RICHARD, afterwards DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, his son + DUKE OF NORFOLK MARQUIS OF MONTAGUE + EARL OF WARWICK EARL OF PEMBROKE + LORD HASTINGS LORD STAFFORD + SIR JOHN MORTIMER, uncle to the Duke of York + SIR HUGH MORTIMER, uncle to the Duke of York + HENRY, EARL OF RICHMOND, a youth + LORD RIVERS, brother to Lady Grey + SIR WILLIAM STANLEY SIR JOHN MONTGOMERY + SIR JOHN SOMERVILLE TUTOR, to Rutland + MAYOR OF YORK LIEUTENANT OF THE TOWER + A NOBLEMAN TWO KEEPERS + A HUNTSMAN + A SON that has killed his father + A FATHER that has killed his son + + QUEEN MARGARET + LADY GREY, afterwards QUEEN to Edward IV + BONA, sister to the French Queen + + Soldiers, Attendants, Messengers, Watchmen, etc. + +SCENE: England and France + +ACT I. SCENE I. London. The Parliament House + +Alarum. Enter DUKE OF YORK, EDWARD, RICHARD, NORFOLK, MONTAGUE, +WARWICK, and soldiers, with white roses in their hats + + WARWICK. I wonder how the King escap'd our hands. + YORK. While we pursu'd the horsemen of the north, + He slily stole away and left his men; + Whereat the great Lord of Northumberland, + Whose warlike ears could never brook retreat, + Cheer'd up the drooping army, and himself, + Lord Clifford, and Lord Stafford, all abreast, + Charg'd our main battle's front, and, breaking in, + Were by the swords of common soldiers slain. + EDWARD. Lord Stafford's father, Duke of Buckingham, + Is either slain or wounded dangerous; + I cleft his beaver with a downright blow. + That this is true, father, behold his blood. + MONTAGUE. And, brother, here's the Earl of Wiltshire's blood, + Whom I encount'red as the battles join'd. + RICHARD. Speak thou for me, and tell them what I did. + [Throwing down SOMERSET'S head] + YORK. Richard hath best deserv'd of all my sons. + But is your Grace dead, my Lord of Somerset? + NORFOLK. Such hope have all the line of John of Gaunt! + RICHARD. Thus do I hope to shake King Henry's head. + WARWICK. And so do I. Victorious Prince of York, + Before I see thee seated in that throne + Which now the house of Lancaster usurps, + I vow by heaven these eyes shall never close. + This is the palace of the fearful King, + And this the regal seat. Possess it, York; + For this is thine, and not King Henry's heirs'. + YORK. Assist me then, sweet Warwick, and I will; + For hither we have broken in by force. + NORFOLK. We'll all assist you; he that flies shall die. + YORK. Thanks, gentle Norfolk. Stay by me, my lords; + And, soldiers, stay and lodge by me this night. + [They go up] + WARWICK. And when the King comes, offer him no violence. + Unless he seek to thrust you out perforce. + YORK. The Queen this day here holds her parliament, + But little thinks we shall be of her council. + By words or blows here let us win our right. + RICHARD. Arm'd as we are, let's stay within this house. + WARWICK. The bloody parliament shall this be call'd, + Unless Plantagenet, Duke of York, be King, + And bashful Henry depos'd, whose cowardice + Hath made us by-words to our enemies. + YORK. Then leave me not, my lords; be resolute: + I mean to take possession of my right. + WARWICK. Neither the King, nor he that loves him best, + The proudest he that holds up Lancaster, + Dares stir a wing if Warwick shake his bells. + I'll plant Plantagenet, root him up who dares. + Resolve thee, Richard; claim the English crown. + [YORK occupies the throne] + + Flourish. Enter KING HENRY, CLIFFORD, NORTHUMBERLAND, + WESTMORELAND, EXETER, and others, with red roses in + their hats + + KING HENRY. My lords, look where the sturdy rebel sits, + Even in the chair of state! Belike he means, + Back'd by the power of Warwick, that false peer, + To aspire unto the crown and reign as king. + Earl of Northumberland, he slew thy father; + And thine, Lord Clifford; and you both have vow'd revenge + On him, his sons, his favourites, and his friends. + NORTHUMBERLAND. If I be not, heavens be reveng'd on me! + CLIFFORD. The hope thereof makes Clifford mourn in steel. + WESTMORELAND. What, shall we suffer this? Let's pluck him down; + My heart for anger burns; I cannot brook it. + KING HENRY. Be patient, gentle Earl of Westmoreland. + CLIFFORD. Patience is for poltroons such as he; + He durst not sit there had your father liv'd. + My gracious lord, here in the parliament + Let us assail the family of York. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Well hast thou spoken, cousin; be it so. + KING HENRY. Ah, know you not the city favours them, + And they have troops of soldiers at their beck? + EXETER. But when the Duke is slain they'll quickly fly. + KING HENRY. Far be the thought of this from Henry's heart, + To make a shambles of the parliament house! + Cousin of Exeter, frowns, words, and threats, + Shall be the war that Henry means to use. + Thou factious Duke of York, descend my throne + And kneel for grace and mercy at my feet; + I am thy sovereign. + YORK. I am thine. + EXETER. For shame, come down; he made thee Duke of York. + YORK. 'Twas my inheritance, as the earldom was. + EXETER. Thy father was a traitor to the crown. + WARWICK. Exeter, thou art a traitor to the crown + In following this usurping Henry. + CLIFFORD. Whom should he follow but his natural king? + WARWICK. True, Clifford; and that's Richard Duke of York. + KING HENRY. And shall I stand, and thou sit in my throne? + YORK. It must and shall be so; content thyself. + WARWICK. Be Duke of Lancaster; let him be King. + WESTMORELAND. He is both King and Duke of Lancaster; + And that the Lord of Westmoreland shall maintain. + WARWICK. And Warwick shall disprove it. You forget + That we are those which chas'd you from the field, + And slew your fathers, and with colours spread + March'd through the city to the palace gates. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Yes, Warwick, I remember it to my grief; + And, by his soul, thou and thy house shall rue it. + WESTMORELAND. Plantagenet, of thee, and these thy sons, + Thy kinsmen, and thy friends, I'll have more lives + Than drops of blood were in my father's veins. + CLIFFORD. Urge it no more; lest that instead of words + I send thee, Warwick, such a messenger + As shall revenge his death before I stir. + WARWICK. Poor Clifford, how I scorn his worthless threats! + YORK. Will you we show our title to the crown? + If not, our swords shall plead it in the field. + KING HENRY. What title hast thou, traitor, to the crown? + Thy father was, as thou art, Duke of York; + Thy grandfather, Roger Mortimer, Earl of March: + I am the son of Henry the Fifth, + Who made the Dauphin and the French to stoop, + And seiz'd upon their towns and provinces. + WARWICK. Talk not of France, sith thou hast lost it all. + KING HENRY. The Lord Protector lost it, and not I: + When I was crown'd, I was but nine months old. + RICHARD. You are old enough now, and yet methinks you lose. + Father, tear the crown from the usurper's head. + EDWARD. Sweet father, do so; set it on your head. + MONTAGUE. Good brother, as thou lov'st and honourest arms, + Let's fight it out and not stand cavilling thus. + RICHARD. Sound drums and trumpets, and the King will fly. + YORK. Sons, peace! + KING HENRY. Peace thou! and give King Henry leave to speak. + WARWICK. Plantagenet shall speak first. Hear him, lords; + And be you silent and attentive too, + For he that interrupts him shall not live. + KING HENRY. Think'st thou that I will leave my kingly throne, + Wherein my grandsire and my father sat? + No; first shall war unpeople this my realm; + Ay, and their colours, often borne in France, + And now in England to our heart's great sorrow, + Shall be my winding-sheet. Why faint you, lords? + My title's good, and better far than his. + WARWICK. Prove it, Henry, and thou shalt be King. + KING HENRY. Henry the Fourth by conquest got the crown. + YORK. 'Twas by rebellion against his king. + KING HENRY. [Aside] I know not what to say; my title's weak.- + Tell me, may not a king adopt an heir? + YORK. What then? + KING HENRY. An if he may, then am I lawful King; + For Richard, in the view of many lords, + Resign'd the crown to Henry the Fourth, + Whose heir my father was, and I am his. + YORK. He rose against him, being his sovereign, + And made him to resign his crown perforce. + WARWICK. Suppose, my lords, he did it unconstrain'd, + Think you 'twere prejudicial to his crown? + EXETER. No; for he could not so resign his crown + But that the next heir should succeed and reign. + KING HENRY. Art thou against us, Duke of Exeter? + EXETER. His is the right, and therefore pardon me. + YORK. Why whisper you, my lords, and answer not? + EXETER. My conscience tells me he is lawful King. + KING HENRY. [Aside] All will revolt from me, and turn to him. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Plantagenet, for all the claim thou lay'st, + Think not that Henry shall be so depos'd. + WARWICK. Depos'd he shall be, in despite of all. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Thou art deceiv'd. 'Tis not thy southern power + Of Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, nor of Kent, + Which makes thee thus presumptuous and proud, + Can set the Duke up in despite of me. + CLIFFORD. King Henry, be thy title right or wrong, + Lord Clifford vows to fight in thy defence. + May that ground gape, and swallow me alive, + Where I shall kneel to him that slew my father! + KING HENRY. O Clifford, how thy words revive my heart! + YORK. Henry of Lancaster, resign thy crown. + What mutter you, or what conspire you, lords? + WARWICK. Do right unto this princely Duke of York; + Or I will fill the house with armed men, + And over the chair of state, where now he sits, + Write up his title with usurping blood. + [He stamps with his foot and the + soldiers show themselves] + KING HENRY. My Lord of Warwick, hear but one word: + Let me for this my life-time reign as king. + YORK. Confirm the crown to me and to mine heirs, + And thou shalt reign in quiet while thou liv'st. + KING HENRY. I am content. Richard Plantagenet, + Enjoy the kingdom after my decease. + CLIFFORD. What wrong is this unto the Prince your son! + WARWICK. What good is this to England and himself! + WESTMORELAND. Base, fearful, and despairing Henry! + CLIFFORD. How hast thou injur'd both thyself and or us! + WESTMORELAND. I cannot stay to hear these articles. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Nor I. + CLIFFORD. Come, cousin, let us tell the Queen these news. + WESTMORELAND. Farewell, faint-hearted and degenerate king, + In whose cold blood no spark of honour bides. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Be thou a prey unto the house of York + And die in bands for this unmanly deed! + CLIFFORD. In dreadful war mayst thou be overcome, + Or live in peace abandon'd and despis'd! + Exeunt NORTHUMBERLAND, CLIFFORD, + and WESTMORELAND + WARWICK. Turn this way, Henry, and regard them not. + EXETER. They seek revenge, and therefore will not yield. + KING HENRY. Ah, Exeter! + WARWICK. Why should you sigh, my lord? + KING HENRY. Not for myself, Lord Warwick, but my son, + Whom I unnaturally shall disinherit. + But be it as it may. [To YORK] I here entail + The crown to thee and to thine heirs for ever; + Conditionally, that here thou take an oath + To cease this civil war, and, whilst I live, + To honour me as thy king and sovereign, + And neither by treason nor hostility + To seek to put me down and reign thyself. + YORK. This oath I willingly take, and will perform. + [Coming from the throne] + WARWICK. Long live King Henry! Plantagenet, embrace him. + KING HENRY. And long live thou, and these thy forward sons! + YORK. Now York and Lancaster are reconcil'd. + EXETER. Accurs'd be he that seeks to make them foes! + [Sennet. Here they come down] + YORK. Farewell, my gracious lord; I'll to my castle. + WARWICK. And I'll keep London with my soldiers. + NORFOLK. And I to Norfolk with my followers. + MONTAGUE. And I unto the sea, from whence I came. + Exeunt the YORKISTS + KING HENRY. And I, with grief and sorrow, to the court. + + Enter QUEEN MARGARET and the PRINCE OF WALES + + EXETER. Here comes the Queen, whose looks bewray her anger. + I'll steal away. + KING HENRY. Exeter, so will I. + QUEEN MARGARET. Nay, go not from me; I will follow thee. + KING HENRY. Be patient, gentle queen, and I will stay. + QUEEN MARGARET. Who can be patient in such extremes? + Ah, wretched man! Would I had died a maid, + And never seen thee, never borne thee son, + Seeing thou hast prov'd so unnatural a father! + Hath he deserv'd to lose his birthright thus? + Hadst thou but lov'd him half so well as I, + Or felt that pain which I did for him once, + Or nourish'd him as I did with my blood, + Thou wouldst have left thy dearest heart-blood there + Rather than have made that savage duke thine heir, + And disinherited thine only son. + PRINCE OF WALES. Father, you cannot disinherit me. + If you be King, why should not I succeed? + KING HENRY. Pardon me, Margaret; pardon me, sweet son. + The Earl of Warwick and the Duke enforc'd me. + QUEEN MARGARET. Enforc'd thee! Art thou King and wilt be + forc'd? + I shame to hear thee speak. Ah, timorous wretch! + Thou hast undone thyself, thy son, and me; + And giv'n unto the house of York such head + As thou shalt reign but by their sufferance. + To entail him and his heirs unto the crown, + What is it but to make thy sepulchre + And creep into it far before thy time? + Warwick is Chancellor and the lord of Calais; + Stern Falconbridge commands the narrow seas; + The Duke is made Protector of the realm; + And yet shalt thou be safe? Such safety finds + The trembling lamb environed with wolves. + Had I been there, which am a silly woman, + The soldiers should have toss'd me on their pikes + Before I would have granted to that act. + But thou prefer'st thy life before thine honour; + And seeing thou dost, I here divorce myself, + Both from thy table, Henry, and thy bed, + Until that act of parliament be repeal'd + Whereby my son is disinherited. + The northern lords that have forsworn thy colours + Will follow mine, if once they see them spread; + And spread they shall be, to thy foul disgrace + And utter ruin of the house of York. + Thus do I leave thee. Come, son, let's away; + Our army is ready; come, we'll after them. + KING HENRY. Stay, gentle Margaret, and hear me speak. + QUEEN MARGARET. Thou hast spoke too much already; get thee gone. + KING HENRY. Gentle son Edward, thou wilt stay with me? + QUEEN MARGARET. Ay, to be murder'd by his enemies. + PRINCE OF WALES. When I return with victory from the field + I'll see your Grace; till then I'll follow her. + QUEEN MARGARET. Come, son, away; we may not linger thus. + Exeunt QUEEN MARGARET and the PRINCE + KING HENRY. Poor queen! How love to me and to her son + Hath made her break out into terms of rage! + Reveng'd may she be on that hateful Duke, + Whose haughty spirit, winged with desire, + Will cost my crown, and like an empty eagle + Tire on the flesh of me and of my son! + The loss of those three lords torments my heart. + I'll write unto them, and entreat them fair; + Come, cousin, you shall be the messenger. + EXETER. And I, I hope, shall reconcile them all. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Sandal Castle, near Wakefield, in Yorkshire + +Flourish. Enter EDWARD, RICHARD, and MONTAGUE + + RICHARD. Brother, though I be youngest, give me leave. + EDWARD. No, I can better play the orator. + MONTAGUE. But I have reasons strong and forcible. + + Enter the DUKE OF YORK + + YORK. Why, how now, sons and brother! at a strife? + What is your quarrel? How began it first? + EDWARD. No quarrel, but a slight contention. + YORK. About what? + RICHARD. About that which concerns your Grace and us- + The crown of England, father, which is yours. + YORK. Mine, boy? Not till King Henry be dead. + RICHARD. Your right depends not on his life or death. + EDWARD. Now you are heir, therefore enjoy it now. + By giving the house of Lancaster leave to breathe, + It will outrun you, father, in the end. + YORK. I took an oath that he should quietly reign. + EDWARD. But for a kingdom any oath may be broken: + I would break a thousand oaths to reign one year. + RICHARD. No; God forbid your Grace should be forsworn. + YORK. I shall be, if I claim by open war. + RICHARD. I'll prove the contrary, if you'll hear me speak. + YORK. Thou canst not, son; it is impossible. + RICHARD. An oath is of no moment, being not took + Before a true and lawful magistrate + That hath authority over him that swears. + Henry had none, but did usurp the place; + Then, seeing 'twas he that made you to depose, + Your oath, my lord, is vain and frivolous. + Therefore, to arms. And, father, do but think + How sweet a thing it is to wear a crown, + Within whose circuit is Elysium + And all that poets feign of bliss and joy. + Why do we linger thus? I cannot rest + Until the white rose that I wear be dy'd + Even in the lukewarm blood of Henry's heart. + YORK. Richard, enough; I will be King, or die. + Brother, thou shalt to London presently + And whet on Warwick to this enterprise. + Thou, Richard, shalt to the Duke of Norfolk + And tell him privily of our intent. + You, Edward, shall unto my Lord Cobham, + With whom the Kentishmen will willingly rise; + In them I trust, for they are soldiers, + Witty, courteous, liberal, full of spirit. + While you are thus employ'd, what resteth more + But that I seek occasion how to rise, + And yet the King not privy to my drift, + Nor any of the house of Lancaster? + + Enter a MESSENGER + + But, stay. What news? Why com'st thou in such post? + MESSENGER. The Queen with all the northern earls and lords + Intend here to besiege you in your castle. + She is hard by with twenty thousand men; + And therefore fortify your hold, my lord. + YORK. Ay, with my sword. What! think'st thou that we fear them? + Edward and Richard, you shall stay with me; + My brother Montague shall post to London. + Let noble Warwick, Cobham, and the rest, + Whom we have left protectors of the King, + With pow'rful policy strengthen themselves + And trust not simple Henry nor his oaths. + MONTAGUE. Brother, I go; I'll win them, fear it not. + And thus most humbly I do take my leave. Exit + + Enter SIR JOHN and SIR HUGH MORTIMER + + YORK. Sir john and Sir Hugh Mortimer, mine uncles! + You are come to Sandal in a happy hour; + The army of the Queen mean to besiege us. + SIR JOHN. She shall not need; we'll meet her in the field. + YORK. What, with five thousand men? + RICHARD. Ay, with five hundred, father, for a need. + A woman's general; what should we fear? + [A march afar off] + EDWARD. I hear their drums. Let's set our men in order, + And issue forth and bid them battle straight. + YORK. Five men to twenty! Though the odds be great, + I doubt not, uncle, of our victory. + Many a battle have I won in France, + When as the enemy hath been ten to one; + Why should I not now have the like success? Exeunt + +SCENE III. Field of battle between Sandal Castle and Wakefield + +Alarum. Enter RUTLAND and his TUTOR + + RUTLAND. Ah, whither shall I fly to scape their hands? + Ah, tutor, look where bloody Clifford comes! + + Enter CLIFFORD and soldiers + + CLIFFORD. Chaplain, away! Thy priesthood saves thy life. + As for the brat of this accursed duke, + Whose father slew my father, he shall die. + TUTOR. And I, my lord, will bear him company. + CLIFFORD. Soldiers, away with him! + TUTOR. Ah, Clifford, murder not this innocent child, + Lest thou be hated both of God and man. + Exit, forced off by soldiers + CLIFFORD. How now, is he dead already? Or is it fear + That makes him close his eyes? I'll open them. + RUTLAND. So looks the pent-up lion o'er the wretch + That trembles under his devouring paws; + And so he walks, insulting o'er his prey, + And so he comes, to rend his limbs asunder. + Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy sword, + And not with such a cruel threat'ning look! + Sweet Clifford, hear me speak before I die. + I am too mean a subject for thy wrath; + Be thou reveng'd on men, and let me live. + CLIFFORD. In vain thou speak'st, poor boy; my father's blood + Hath stopp'd the passage where thy words should enter. + RUTLAND. Then let my father's blood open it again: + He is a man, and, Clifford, cope with him. + CLIFFORD. Had I thy brethren here, their lives and thine + Were not revenge sufficient for me; + No, if I digg'd up thy forefathers' graves + And hung their rotten coffins up in chains, + It could not slake mine ire nor ease my heart. + The sight of any of the house of York + Is as a fury to torment my soul; + And till I root out their accursed line + And leave not one alive, I live in hell. + Therefore- + RUTLAND. O, let me pray before I take my death! + To thee I pray: sweet Clifford, pity me. + CLIFFORD. Such pity as my rapier's point affords. + RUTLAND. I never did thee harm; why wilt thou slay me? + CLIFFORD. Thy father hath. + RUTLAND. But 'twas ere I was born. + Thou hast one son; for his sake pity me, + Lest in revenge thereof, sith God is just, + He be as miserably slain as I. + Ah, let me live in prison all my days; + And when I give occasion of offence + Then let me die, for now thou hast no cause. + CLIFFORD. No cause! + Thy father slew my father; therefore, die. [Stabs him] + RUTLAND. Di faciant laudis summa sit ista tuae! [Dies] + CLIFFORD. Plantagenet, I come, Plantagenet; + And this thy son's blood cleaving to my blade + Shall rust upon my weapon, till thy blood, + Congeal'd with this, do make me wipe off both. Exit + +SCENE IV. Another part of the field + +Alarum. Enter the DUKE OF YORK + + YORK. The army of the Queen hath got the field. + My uncles both are slain in rescuing me; + And all my followers to the eager foe + Turn back and fly, like ships before the wind, + Or lambs pursu'd by hunger-starved wolves. + My sons- God knows what hath bechanced them; + But this I know- they have demean'd themselves + Like men born to renown by life or death. + Three times did Richard make a lane to me, + And thrice cried 'Courage, father! fight it out.' + And full as oft came Edward to my side + With purple falchion, painted to the hilt + In blood of those that had encount'red him. + And when the hardiest warriors did retire, + Richard cried 'Charge, and give no foot of ground!' + And cried 'A crown, or else a glorious tomb! + A sceptre, or an earthly sepulchre!' + With this we charg'd again; but out alas! + We bodg'd again; as I have seen a swan + With bootless labour swim against the tide + And spend her strength with over-matching waves. + [A short alarum within] + Ah, hark! The fatal followers do pursue, + And I am faint and cannot fly their fury; + And were I strong, I would not shun their fury. + The sands are numb'red that make up my life; + Here must I stay, and here my life must end. + + Enter QUEEN MARGARET, CLIFFORD, NORTHUMBERLAND, + the PRINCE OF WALES, and soldiers + + Come, bloody Clifford, rough Northumberland, + I dare your quenchless fury to more rage; + I am your butt, and I abide your shot. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Yield to our mercy, proud Plantagenet. + CLIFFORD. Ay, to such mercy as his ruthless arm + With downright payment show'd unto my father. + Now Phaethon hath tumbled from his car, + And made an evening at the noontide prick. + YORK. My ashes, as the phoenix, may bring forth + A bird that will revenge upon you all; + And in that hope I throw mine eyes to heaven, + Scorning whate'er you can afflict me with. + Why come you not? What! multitudes, and fear? + CLIFFORD. So cowards fight when they can fly no further; + So doves do peck the falcon's piercing talons; + So desperate thieves, all hopeless of their lives, + Breathe out invectives 'gainst the officers. + YORK. O Clifford, but bethink thee once again, + And in thy thought o'errun my former time; + And, if thou canst for blushing, view this face, + And bite thy tongue that slanders him with cowardice + Whose frown hath made thee faint and fly ere this! + CLIFFORD. I will not bandy with thee word for word, + But buckler with thee blows, twice two for one. + QUEEN MARGARET. Hold, valiant Clifford; for a thousand causes + I would prolong awhile the traitor's life. + Wrath makes him deaf; speak thou, Northumberland. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Hold, Clifford! do not honour him so much + To prick thy finger, though to wound his heart. + What valour were it, when a cur doth grin, + For one to thrust his hand between his teeth, + When he might spurn him with his foot away? + It is war's prize to take all vantages; + And ten to one is no impeach of valour. + [They lay hands on YORK, who struggles] + CLIFFORD. Ay, ay, so strives the woodcock with the gin. + NORTHUMBERLAND. So doth the cony struggle in the net. + YORK. So triumph thieves upon their conquer'd booty; + So true men yield, with robbers so o'er-match'd. + NORTHUMBERLAND. What would your Grace have done unto him now? + QUEEN MARGARET. Brave warriors, Clifford and Northumberland, + Come, make him stand upon this molehill here + That raught at mountains with outstretched arms, + Yet parted but the shadow with his hand. + What, was it you that would be England's king? + Was't you that revell'd in our parliament + And made a preachment of your high descent? + Where are your mess of sons to back you now? + The wanton Edward and the lusty George? + And where's that valiant crook-back prodigy, + Dicky your boy, that with his grumbling voice + Was wont to cheer his dad in mutinies? + Or, with the rest, where is your darling Rutland? + Look, York: I stain'd this napkin with the blood + That valiant Clifford with his rapier's point + Made issue from the bosom of the boy; + And if thine eyes can water for his death, + I give thee this to dry thy cheeks withal. + Alas, poor York! but that I hate thee deadly, + I should lament thy miserable state. + I prithee grieve to make me merry, York. + What, hath thy fiery heart so parch'd thine entrails + That not a tear can fall for Rutland's death? + Why art thou patient, man? Thou shouldst be mad; + And I to make thee mad do mock thee thus. + Stamp, rave, and fret, that I may sing and dance. + Thou wouldst be fee'd, I see, to make me sport; + York cannot speak unless he wear a crown. + A crown for York!-and, lords, bow low to him. + Hold you his hands whilst I do set it on. + [Putting a paper crown on his head] + Ay, marry, sir, now looks he like a king! + Ay, this is he that took King Henry's chair, + And this is he was his adopted heir. + But how is it that great Plantagenet + Is crown'd so soon and broke his solemn oath? + As I bethink me, you should not be King + Till our King Henry had shook hands with death. + And will you pale your head in Henry's glory, + And rob his temples of the diadem, + Now in his life, against your holy oath? + O, 'tis a fault too too + Off with the crown and with the crown his head; + And, whilst we breathe, take time to do him dead. + CLIFFORD. That is my office, for my father's sake. + QUEEN MARGARET. Nay, stay; let's hear the orisons he makes. + YORK. She-wolf of France, but worse than wolves of France, + Whose tongue more poisons than the adder's tooth! + How ill-beseeming is it in thy sex + To triumph like an Amazonian trull + Upon their woes whom fortune captivates! + But that thy face is visard-like, unchanging, + Made impudent with use of evil deeds, + I would assay, proud queen, to make thee blush. + To tell thee whence thou cam'st, of whom deriv'd, + Were shame enough to shame thee, wert thou not shameless. + Thy father bears the type of King of Naples, + Of both the Sicils and Jerusalem, + Yet not so wealthy as an English yeoman. + Hath that poor monarch taught thee to insult? + It needs not, nor it boots thee not, proud queen; + Unless the adage must be verified, + That beggars mounted run their horse to death. + 'Tis beauty that doth oft make women proud; + But, God He knows, thy share thereof is small. + 'Tis virtue that doth make them most admir'd; + The contrary doth make thee wond'red at. + 'Tis government that makes them seem divine; + The want thereof makes thee abominable. + Thou art as opposite to every good + As the Antipodes are unto us, + Or as the south to the septentrion. + O tiger's heart wrapp'd in a woman's hide! + How couldst thou drain the life-blood of the child, + To bid the father wipe his eyes withal, + And yet be seen to bear a woman's face? + Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible: + Thou stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless. + Bid'st thou me rage? Why, now thou hast thy wish; + Wouldst have me weep? Why, now thou hast thy will; + For raging wind blows up incessant showers, + And when the rage allays, the rain begins. + These tears are my sweet Rutland's obsequies; + And every drop cries vengeance for his death + 'Gainst thee, fell Clifford, and thee, false Frenchwoman. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Beshrew me, but his passions move me so + That hardly can I check my eyes from tears. + YORK. That face of his the hungry cannibals + Would not have touch'd, would not have stain'd with blood; + But you are more inhuman, more inexorable- + O, ten times more- than tigers of Hyrcania. + See, ruthless queen, a hapless father's tears. + This cloth thou dipp'dst in blood of my sweet boy, + And I with tears do wash the blood away. + Keep thou the napkin, and go boast of this; + And if thou tell'st the heavy story right, + Upon my soul, the hearers will shed tears; + Yea, even my foes will shed fast-falling tears + And say 'Alas, it was a piteous deed!' + There, take the crown, and with the crown my curse; + And in thy need such comfort come to thee + As now I reap at thy too cruel hand! + Hard-hearted Clifford, take me from the world; + My soul to heaven, my blood upon your heads! + NORTHUMBERLAND. Had he been slaughter-man to all my kin, + I should not for my life but weep with him, + To see how inly sorrow gripes his soul. + QUEEN MARGARET. What, weeping-ripe, my Lord Northumberland? + Think but upon the wrong he did us all, + And that will quickly dry thy melting tears. + CLIFFORD. Here's for my oath, here's for my father's death. + [Stabbing him] + QUEEN MARGARET. And here's to right our gentle-hearted king. + [Stabbing him] + YORK. Open Thy gate of mercy, gracious God! + My soul flies through these wounds to seek out Thee. + [Dies] + QUEEN MARGARET. Off with his head, and set it on York gates; + So York may overlook the town of York. + Flourish. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE I. A plain near Mortimer's Cross in Herefordshire + +A march. Enter EDWARD, RICHARD, and their power + + EDWARD. I wonder how our princely father scap'd, + Or whether he be scap'd away or no + From Clifford's and Northumberland's pursuit. + Had he been ta'en, we should have heard the news; + Had he been slain, we should have heard the news; + Or had he scap'd, methinks we should have heard + The happy tidings of his good escape. + How fares my brother? Why is he so sad? + RICHARD. I cannot joy until I be resolv'd + Where our right valiant father is become. + I saw him in the battle range about, + And watch'd him how he singled Clifford forth. + Methought he bore him in the thickest troop + As doth a lion in a herd of neat; + Or as a bear, encompass'd round with dogs, + Who having pinch'd a few and made them cry, + The rest stand all aloof and bark at him. + So far'd our father with his enemies; + So fled his enemies my warlike father. + Methinks 'tis prize enough to be his son. + See how the morning opes her golden gates + And takes her farewell of the glorious sun. + How well resembles it the prime of youth, + Trimm'd like a younker prancing to his love! + EDWARD. Dazzle mine eyes, or do I see three suns? + RICHARD. Three glorious suns, each one a perfect sun; + Not separated with the racking clouds, + But sever'd in a pale clear-shining sky. + See, see! they join, embrace, and seem to kiss, + As if they vow'd some league inviolable. + Now are they but one lamp, one light, one sun. + In this the heaven figures some event. + EDWARD. 'Tis wondrous strange, the like yet never heard of. + I think it cites us, brother, to the field, + That we, the sons of brave Plantagenet, + Each one already blazing by our meeds, + Should notwithstanding join our lights together + And overshine the earth, as this the world. + Whate'er it bodes, henceforward will I bear + Upon my target three fair shining suns. + RICHARD. Nay, bear three daughters- by your leave I speak it, + You love the breeder better than the male. + + Enter a MESSENGER, blowing + + But what art thou, whose heavy looks foretell + Some dreadful story hanging on thy tongue? + MESSENGER. Ah, one that was a woeful looker-on + When as the noble Duke of York was slain, + Your princely father and my loving lord! + EDWARD. O, speak no more! for I have heard too much. + RICHARD. Say how he died, for I will hear it all. + MESSENGER. Environed he was with many foes, + And stood against them as the hope of Troy + Against the Greeks that would have ent'red Troy. + But Hercules himself must yield to odds; + And many strokes, though with a little axe, + Hews down and fells the hardest-timber'd oak. + By many hands your father was subdu'd; + But only slaught'red by the ireful arm + Of unrelenting Clifford and the Queen, + Who crown'd the gracious Duke in high despite, + Laugh'd in his face; and when with grief he wept, + The ruthless Queen gave him to dry his cheeks + A napkin steeped in the harmless blood + Of sweet young Rutland, by rough Clifford slain; + And after many scorns, many foul taunts, + They took his head, and on the gates of York + They set the same; and there it doth remain, + The saddest spectacle that e'er I view'd. + EDWARD. Sweet Duke of York, our prop to lean upon, + Now thou art gone, we have no staff, no stay. + O Clifford, boist'rous Clifford, thou hast slain + The flow'r of Europe for his chivalry; + And treacherously hast thou vanquish'd him, + For hand to hand he would have vanquish'd thee. + Now my soul's palace is become a prison. + Ah, would she break from hence, that this my body + Might in the ground be closed up in rest! + For never henceforth shall I joy again; + Never, O never, shall I see more joy. + RICHARD. I cannot weep, for all my body's moisture + Scarce serves to quench my furnace-burning heart; + Nor can my tongue unload my heart's great burden, + For self-same wind that I should speak withal + Is kindling coals that fires all my breast, + And burns me up with flames that tears would quench. + To weep is to make less the depth of grief. + Tears then for babes; blows and revenge for me! + Richard, I bear thy name; I'll venge thy death, + Or die renowned by attempting it. + EDWARD. His name that valiant duke hath left with thee; + His dukedom and his chair with me is left. + RICHARD. Nay, if thou be that princely eagle's bird, + Show thy descent by gazing 'gainst the sun; + For chair and dukedom, throne and kingdom, say: + Either that is thine, or else thou wert not his. + + March. Enter WARWICK, MONTAGUE, and their army + + WARWICK. How now, fair lords! What fare? What news abroad? + RICHARD. Great Lord of Warwick, if we should recount + Our baleful news and at each word's deliverance + Stab poinards in our flesh till all were told, + The words would add more anguish than the wounds. + O valiant lord, the Duke of York is slain! + EDWARD. O Warwick, Warwick! that Plantagenet + Which held thee dearly as his soul's redemption + Is by the stern Lord Clifford done to death. + WARWICK. Ten days ago I drown'd these news in tears; + And now, to add more measure to your woes, + I come to tell you things sith then befall'n. + After the bloody fray at Wakefield fought, + Where your brave father breath'd his latest gasp, + Tidings, as swiftly as the posts could run, + Were brought me of your loss and his depart. + I, then in London, keeper of the King, + Muster'd my soldiers, gathered flocks of friends, + And very well appointed, as I thought, + March'd toward Saint Albans to intercept the Queen, + Bearing the King in my behalf along; + For by my scouts I was advertised + That she was coming with a full intent + To dash our late decree in parliament + Touching King Henry's oath and your succession. + Short tale to make- we at Saint Albans met, + Our battles join'd, and both sides fiercely fought; + But whether 'twas the coldness of the King, + Who look'd full gently on his warlike queen, + That robb'd my soldiers of their heated spleen, + Or whether 'twas report of her success, + Or more than common fear of Clifford's rigour, + Who thunders to his captives blood and death, + I cannot judge; but, to conclude with truth, + Their weapons like to lightning came and went: + Our soldiers', like the night-owl's lazy flight + Or like an idle thresher with a flail, + Fell gently down, as if they struck their friends. + I cheer'd them up with justice of our cause, + With promise of high pay and great rewards, + But all in vain; they had no heart to fight, + And we in them no hope to win the day; + So that we fled: the King unto the Queen; + Lord George your brother, Norfolk, and myself, + In haste post-haste are come to join with you; + For in the marches here we heard you were + Making another head to fight again. + EDWARD. Where is the Duke of Norfolk, gentle Warwick? + And when came George from Burgundy to England? + WARWICK. Some six miles off the Duke is with the soldiers; + And for your brother, he was lately sent + From your kind aunt, Duchess of Burgundy, + With aid of soldiers to this needful war. + RICHARD. 'Twas odds, belike, when valiant Warwick fled. + Oft have I heard his praises in pursuit, + But ne'er till now his scandal of retire. + WARWICK. Nor now my scandal, Richard, dost thou hear; + For thou shalt know this strong right hand of mine + Can pluck the diadem from faint Henry's head + And wring the awful sceptre from his fist, + Were he as famous and as bold in war + As he is fam'd for mildness, peace, and prayer. + RICHARD. I know it well, Lord Warwick; blame me not. + 'Tis love I bear thy glories makes me speak. + But in this troublous time what's to be done? + Shall we go throw away our coats of steel + And wrap our bodies in black mourning-gowns, + Numbering our Ave-Maries with our beads? + Or shall we on the helmets of our foes + Tell our devotion with revengeful arms? + If for the last, say 'Ay,' and to it, lords. + WARWICK. Why, therefore Warwick came to seek you out; + And therefore comes my brother Montague. + Attend me, lords. The proud insulting Queen, + With Clifford and the haught Northumberland, + And of their feather many moe proud birds, + Have wrought the easy-melting King like wax. + He swore consent to your succession, + His oath enrolled in the parliament; + And now to London all the crew are gone + To frustrate both his oath and what beside + May make against the house of Lancaster. + Their power, I think, is thirty thousand strong. + Now if the help of Norfolk and myself, + With all the friends that thou, brave Earl of March, + Amongst the loving Welshmen canst procure, + Will but amount to five and twenty thousand, + Why, Via! to London will we march amain, + And once again bestride our foaming steeds, + And once again cry 'Charge upon our foes!' + But never once again turn back and fly. + RICHARD. Ay, now methinks I hear great Warwick speak. + Ne'er may he live to see a sunshine day + That cries 'Retire!' if Warwick bid him stay. + EDWARD. Lord Warwick, on thy shoulder will I lean; + And when thou fail'st- as God forbid the hour!- + Must Edward fall, which peril heaven forfend. + WARWICK. No longer Earl of March, but Duke of York; + The next degree is England's royal throne, + For King of England shalt thou be proclaim'd + In every borough as we pass along; + And he that throws not up his cap for joy + Shall for the fault make forfeit of his head. + King Edward, valiant Richard, Montague, + Stay we no longer, dreaming of renown, + But sound the trumpets and about our task. + RICHARD. Then, Clifford, were thy heart as hard as steel, + As thou hast shown it flinty by thy deeds, + I come to pierce it or to give thee mine. + EDWARD. Then strike up drums. God and Saint George for us! + + Enter a MESSENGER + + WARWICK. How now! what news? + MESSENGER. The Duke of Norfolk sends you word by me + The Queen is coming with a puissant host, + And craves your company for speedy counsel. + WARWICK. Why, then it sorts; brave warriors, let's away. + Exeunt + +SCENE II. Before York + +Flourish. Enter KING HENRY, QUEEN MARGARET, the PRINCE OF WALES, +CLIFFORD, +NORTHUMBERLAND, with drum and trumpets + + QUEEN MARGARET. Welcome, my lord, to this brave town of York. + Yonder's the head of that arch-enemy + That sought to be encompass'd with your crown. + Doth not the object cheer your heart, my lord? + KING HENRY. Ay, as the rocks cheer them that fear their wreck- + To see this sight, it irks my very soul. + Withhold revenge, dear God; 'tis not my fault, + Nor wittingly have I infring'd my vow. + CLIFFORD. My gracious liege, this too much lenity + And harmful pity must be laid aside. + To whom do lions cast their gentle looks? + Not to the beast that would usurp their den. + Whose hand is that the forest bear doth lick? + Not his that spoils her young before her face. + Who scapes the lurking serpent's mortal sting? + Not he that sets his foot upon her back, + The smallest worm will turn, being trodden on, + And doves will peck in safeguard of their brood. + Ambitious York did level at thy crown, + Thou smiling while he knit his angry brows. + He, but a Duke, would have his son a king, + And raise his issue like a loving sire: + Thou, being a king, bless'd with a goodly son, + Didst yield consent to disinherit him, + Which argued thee a most unloving father. + Unreasonable creatures feed their young; + And though man's face be fearful to their eyes, + Yet, in protection of their tender ones, + Who hath not seen them- even with those wings + Which sometime they have us'd with fearful flight- + Make war with him that climb'd unto their nest, + Offering their own lives in their young's defence + For shame, my liege, make them your precedent! + Were it not pity that this goodly boy + Should lose his birthright by his father's fault, + And long hereafter say unto his child + 'What my great-grandfather and grandsire got + My careless father fondly gave away'? + Ah, what a shame were this! Look on the boy; + And let his manly face, which promiseth + Successful fortune, steel thy melting heart + To hold thine own and leave thine own with him. + KING HENRY. Full well hath Clifford play'd the orator, + Inferring arguments of mighty force. + But, Clifford, tell me, didst thou never hear + That things ill got had ever bad success? + And happy always was it for that son + Whose father for his hoarding went to hell? + I'll leave my son my virtuous deeds behind; + And would my father had left me no more! + For all the rest is held at such a rate + As brings a thousand-fold more care to keep + Than in possession any jot of pleasure. + Ah, cousin York! would thy best friends did know + How it doth grieve me that thy head is here! + QUEEN MARGARET. My lord, cheer up your spirits; our foes are nigh, + And this soft courage makes your followers faint. + You promis'd knighthood to our forward son: + Unsheathe your sword and dub him presently. + Edward, kneel down. + KING HENRY. Edward Plantagenet, arise a knight; + And learn this lesson: Draw thy sword in right. + PRINCE OF WALES. My gracious father, by your kingly leave, + I'll draw it as apparent to the crown, + And in that quarrel use it to the death. + CLIFFORD. Why, that is spoken like a toward prince. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. Royal commanders, be in readiness; + For with a band of thirty thousand men + Comes Warwick, backing of the Duke of York, + And in the towns, as they do march along, + Proclaims him king, and many fly to him. + Darraign your battle, for they are at hand. + CLIFFORD. I would your Highness would depart the field: + The Queen hath best success when you are absent. + QUEEN MARGARET. Ay, good my lord, and leave us to our fortune. + KING HENRY. Why, that's my fortune too; therefore I'll stay. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Be it with resolution, then, to fight. + PRINCE OF WALES. My royal father, cheer these noble lords, + And hearten those that fight in your defence. + Unsheathe your sword, good father; cry 'Saint George!' + + March. Enter EDWARD, GEORGE, RICHARD, WARWICK, + NORFOLK, MONTAGUE, and soldiers + + EDWARD. Now, perjur'd Henry, wilt thou kneel for grace + And set thy diadem upon my head, + Or bide the mortal fortune of the field? + QUEEN MARGARET. Go rate thy minions, proud insulting boy. + Becomes it thee to be thus bold in terms + Before thy sovereign and thy lawful king? + EDWARD. I am his king, and he should bow his knee. + I was adopted heir by his consent: + Since when, his oath is broke; for, as I hear, + You that are King, though he do wear the crown, + Have caus'd him by new act of parliament + To blot out me and put his own son in. + CLIFFORD. And reason too: + Who should succeed the father but the son? + RICHARD. Are you there, butcher? O, I cannot speak! + CLIFFORD. Ay, crook-back, here I stand to answer thee, + Or any he, the proudest of thy sort. + RICHARD. 'Twas you that kill'd young Rutland, was it not? + CLIFFORD. Ay, and old York, and yet not satisfied. + RICHARD. For God's sake, lords, give signal to the fight. + WARWICK. What say'st thou, Henry? Wilt thou yield the crown? + QUEEN MARGARET. Why, how now, long-tongu'd Warwick! Dare you speak? + When you and I met at Saint Albans last + Your legs did better service than your hands. + WARWICK. Then 'twas my turn to fly, and now 'tis thine. + CLIFFORD. You said so much before, and yet you fled. + WARWICK. 'Twas not your valour, Clifford, drove me thence. + NORTHUMBERLAND. No, nor your manhood that durst make you stay. + RICHARD. Northumberland, I hold thee reverently. + Break off the parley; for scarce I can refrain + The execution of my big-swol'n heart + Upon that Clifford, that cruel child-killer. + CLIFFORD. I slew thy father; call'st thou him a child? + RICHARD. Ay, like a dastard and a treacherous coward, + As thou didst kill our tender brother Rutland; + But ere sunset I'll make thee curse the deed. + KING HENRY. Have done with words, my lords, and hear me speak. + QUEEN MARGARET. Defy them then, or else hold close thy lips. + KING HENRY. I prithee give no limits to my tongue: + I am a king, and privileg'd to speak. + CLIFFORD. My liege, the wound that bred this meeting here + Cannot be cur'd by words; therefore be still. + RICHARD. Then, executioner, unsheathe thy sword. + By Him that made us all, I am resolv'd + That Clifford's manhood lies upon his tongue. + EDWARD. Say, Henry, shall I have my right, or no? + A thousand men have broke their fasts to-day + That ne'er shall dine unless thou yield the crown. + WARWICK. If thou deny, their blood upon thy head; + For York in justice puts his armour on. + PRINCE OF WALES. If that be right which Warwick says is right, + There is no wrong, but every thing is right. + RICHARD. Whoever got thee, there thy mother stands; + For well I wot thou hast thy mother's tongue. + QUEEN MARGARET. But thou art neither like thy sire nor dam; + But like a foul misshapen stigmatic, + Mark'd by the destinies to be avoided, + As venom toads or lizards' dreadful stings. + RICHARD. Iron of Naples hid with English gilt, + Whose father bears the title of a king- + As if a channel should be call'd the sea- + Sham'st thou not, knowing whence thou art extraught, + To let thy tongue detect thy base-born heart? + EDWARD. A wisp of straw were worth a thousand crowns + To make this shameless callet know herself. + Helen of Greece was fairer far than thou, + Although thy husband may be Menelaus; + And ne'er was Agamemmon's brother wrong'd + By that false woman as this king by thee. + His father revell'd in the heart of France, + And tam'd the King, and made the Dauphin stoop; + And had he match'd according to his state, + He might have kept that glory to this day; + But when he took a beggar to his bed + And grac'd thy poor sire with his bridal day, + Even then that sunshine brew'd a show'r for him + That wash'd his father's fortunes forth of France + And heap'd sedition on his crown at home. + For what hath broach'd this tumult but thy pride? + Hadst thou been meek, our title still had slept; + And we, in pity of the gentle King, + Had slipp'd our claim until another age. + GEORGE. But when we saw our sunshine made thy spring, + And that thy summer bred us no increase, + We set the axe to thy usurping root; + And though the edge hath something hit ourselves, + Yet know thou, since we have begun to strike, + We'll never leave till we have hewn thee down, + Or bath'd thy growing with our heated bloods. + EDWARD. And in this resolution I defy thee; + Not willing any longer conference, + Since thou deniest the gentle King to speak. + Sound trumpets; let our bloody colours wave, + And either victory or else a grave! + QUEEN MARGARET. Stay, Edward. + EDWARD. No, wrangling woman, we'll no longer stay; + These words will cost ten thousand lives this day. + Exeunt + +SCENE III. A field of battle between Towton and Saxton, in Yorkshire + +Alarum; excursions. Enter WARWICK + + WARWICK. Forspent with toil, as runners with a race, + I lay me down a little while to breathe; + For strokes receiv'd and many blows repaid + Have robb'd my strong-knit sinews of their strength, + And spite of spite needs must I rest awhile. + + Enter EDWARD, running + + EDWARD. Smile, gentle heaven, or strike, ungentle death; + For this world frowns, and Edward's sun is clouded. + WARWICK. How now, my lord. What hap? What hope of good? + + Enter GEORGE + + GEORGE. Our hap is lost, our hope but sad despair; + Our ranks are broke, and ruin follows us. + What counsel give you? Whither shall we fly? + EDWARD. Bootless is flight: they follow us with wings; + And weak we are, and cannot shun pursuit. + + Enter RICHARD + + RICHARD. Ah, Warwick, why hast thou withdrawn thyself? + Thy brother's blood the thirsty earth hath drunk, + Broach'd with the steely point of Clifford's lance; + And in the very pangs of death he cried, + Like to a dismal clangor heard from far, + 'Warwick, revenge! Brother, revenge my death.' + So, underneath the belly of their steeds, + That stain'd their fetlocks in his smoking blood, + The noble gentleman gave up the ghost. + WARWICK. Then let the earth be drunken with our blood. + I'll kill my horse, because I will not fly. + Why stand we like soft-hearted women here, + Wailing our losses, whiles the foe doth rage, + And look upon, as if the tragedy + Were play'd in jest by counterfeiting actors? + Here on my knee I vow to God above + I'll never pause again, never stand still, + Till either death hath clos'd these eyes of mine + Or fortune given me measure of revenge. + EDWARD. O Warwick, I do bend my knee with thine, + And in this vow do chain my soul to thine! + And ere my knee rise from the earth's cold face + I throw my hands, mine eyes, my heart to Thee, + Thou setter-up and plucker-down of kings, + Beseeching Thee, if with Thy will it stands + That to my foes this body must be prey, + Yet that Thy brazen gates of heaven may ope + And give sweet passage to my sinful soul. + Now, lords, take leave until we meet again, + Where'er it be, in heaven or in earth. + RICHARD. Brother, give me thy hand; and, gentle Warwick, + Let me embrace thee in my weary arms. + I that did never weep now melt with woe + That winter should cut off our spring-time so. + WARWICK. Away, away! Once more, sweet lords, farewell. + GEORGE. Yet let us all together to our troops, + And give them leave to fly that will not stay, + And call them pillars that will stand to us; + And if we thrive, promise them such rewards + As victors wear at the Olympian games. + This may plant courage in their quailing breasts, + For yet is hope of life and victory. + Forslow no longer; make we hence amain. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Another part of the field + +Excursions. Enter RICHARD and CLIFFORD + + RICHARD. Now, Clifford, I have singled thee alone. + Suppose this arm is for the Duke of York, + And this for Rutland; both bound to revenge, + Wert thou environ'd with a brazen wall. + CLIFFORD. Now, Richard, I am with thee here alone. + This is the hand that stabbed thy father York; + And this the hand that slew thy brother Rutland; + And here's the heart that triumphs in their death + And cheers these hands that slew thy sire and brother + To execute the like upon thyself; + And so, have at thee! [They fight] + + Enter WARWICK; CLIFFORD flies + + RICHARD. Nay, Warwick, single out some other chase; + For I myself will hunt this wolf to death. Exeunt + +SCENE V. Another part of the field + +Alarum. Enter KING HENRY alone + + KING HENRY. This battle fares like to the morning's war, + When dying clouds contend with growing light, + What time the shepherd, blowing of his nails, + Can neither call it perfect day nor night. + Now sways it this way, like a mighty sea + Forc'd by the tide to combat with the wind; + Now sways it that way, like the selfsame sea + Forc'd to retire by fury of the wind. + Sometime the flood prevails, and then the wind; + Now one the better, then another best; + Both tugging to be victors, breast to breast, + Yet neither conqueror nor conquered. + So is the equal poise of this fell war. + Here on this molehill will I sit me down. + To whom God will, there be the victory! + For Margaret my queen, and Clifford too, + Have chid me from the battle, swearing both + They prosper best of all when I am thence. + Would I were dead, if God's good will were so! + For what is in this world but grief and woe? + O God! methinks it were a happy life + To be no better than a homely swain; + To sit upon a hill, as I do now, + To carve out dials quaintly, point by point, + Thereby to see the minutes how they run- + How many makes the hour full complete, + How many hours brings about the day, + How many days will finish up the year, + How many years a mortal man may live. + When this is known, then to divide the times- + So many hours must I tend my flock; + So many hours must I take my rest; + So many hours must I contemplate; + So many hours must I sport myself; + So many days my ewes have been with young; + So many weeks ere the poor fools will can; + So many years ere I shall shear the fleece: + So minutes, hours, days, months, and years, + Pass'd over to the end they were created, + Would bring white hairs unto a quiet grave. + Ah, what a life were this! how sweet! how lovely! + Gives not the hawthorn bush a sweeter shade + To shepherds looking on their silly sheep, + Than doth a rich embroider'd canopy + To kings that fear their subjects' treachery? + O yes, it doth; a thousand-fold it doth. + And to conclude: the shepherd's homely curds, + His cold thin drink out of his leather bottle, + His wonted sleep under a fresh tree's shade, + All which secure and sweetly he enjoys, + Is far beyond a prince's delicates- + His viands sparkling in a golden cup, + His body couched in a curious bed, + When care, mistrust, and treason waits on him. + + Alarum. Enter a son that hath kill'd his Father, at + one door; and a FATHER that hath kill'd his Son, at + another door + + SON. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. + This man whom hand to hand I slew in fight + May be possessed with some store of crowns; + And I, that haply take them from him now, + May yet ere night yield both my life and them + To some man else, as this dead man doth me. + Who's this? O God! It is my father's face, + Whom in this conflict I unwares have kill'd. + O heavy times, begetting such events! + From London by the King was I press'd forth; + My father, being the Earl of Warwick's man, + Came on the part of York, press'd by his master; + And I, who at his hands receiv'd my life, + Have by my hands of life bereaved him. + Pardon me, God, I knew not what I did. + And pardon, father, for I knew not thee. + My tears shall wipe away these bloody marks; + And no more words till they have flow'd their fill. + KING HENRY. O piteous spectacle! O bloody times! + Whiles lions war and battle for their dens, + Poor harmless lambs abide their enmity. + Weep, wretched man; I'll aid thee tear for tear; + And let our hearts and eyes, like civil war, + Be blind with tears and break o'ercharg'd with grief. + + Enter FATHER, bearing of his SON + + FATHER. Thou that so stoutly hath resisted me, + Give me thy gold, if thou hast any gold; + For I have bought it with an hundred blows. + But let me see. Is this our foeman's face? + Ah, no, no, no, no, it is mine only son! + Ah, boy, if any life be left in thee, + Throw up thine eye! See, see what show'rs arise, + Blown with the windy tempest of my heart + Upon thy wounds, that kills mine eye and heart! + O, pity, God, this miserable age! + What stratagems, how fell, how butcherly, + Erroneous, mutinous, and unnatural, + This deadly quarrel daily doth beget! + O boy, thy father gave thee life too soon, + And hath bereft thee of thy life too late! + KING HENRY. Woe above woe! grief more than common grief! + O that my death would stay these ruthful deeds! + O pity, pity, gentle heaven, pity! + The red rose and the white are on his face, + The fatal colours of our striving houses: + The one his purple blood right well resembles; + The other his pale cheeks, methinks, presenteth. + Wither one rose, and let the other flourish! + If you contend, a thousand lives must perish. + SON. How will my mother for a father's death + Take on with me, and ne'er be satisfied! + FATHER. How will my wife for slaughter of my son + Shed seas of tears, and ne'er be satisfied! + KING HENRY. How will the country for these woeful chances + Misthink the King, and not be satisfied! + SON. Was ever son so rued a father's death? + FATHER. Was ever father so bemoan'd his son? + KING HENRY. Was ever king so griev'd for subjects' woe? + Much is your sorrow; mine ten times so much. + SON. I'll bear thee hence, where I may weep my fill. + Exit with the body + FATHER. These arms of mine shall be thy winding-sheet; + My heart, sweet boy, shall be thy sepulchre, + For from my heart thine image ne'er shall go; + My sighing breast shall be thy funeral bell; + And so obsequious will thy father be, + Even for the loss of thee, having no more, + As Priam was for all his valiant sons. + I'll bear thee hence; and let them fight that will, + For I have murdered where I should not kill. + Exit with the body + KING HENRY. Sad-hearted men, much overgone with care, + Here sits a king more woeful than you are. + + Alarums, excursions. Enter QUEEN MARGARET, + PRINCE OF WALES, and EXETER + + PRINCE OF WALES. Fly, father, fly; for all your friends are fled, + And Warwick rages like a chafed bull. + Away! for death doth hold us in pursuit. + QUEEN MARGARET. Mount you, my lord; towards Berwick post amain. + Edward and Richard, like a brace of greyhounds + Having the fearful flying hare in sight, + With fiery eyes sparkling for very wrath, + And bloody steel grasp'd in their ireful hands, + Are at our backs; and therefore hence amain. + EXETER. Away! for vengeance comes along with them. + Nay, stay not to expostulate; make speed; + Or else come after. I'll away before. + KING HENRY. Nay, take me with thee, good sweet Exeter. + Not that I fear to stay, but love to go + Whither the Queen intends. Forward; away! Exeunt + +SCENE VI. Another part of the field + +A loud alarum. Enter CLIFFORD, wounded + + CLIFFORD. Here burns my candle out; ay, here it dies, + Which, whiles it lasted, gave King Henry light. + O Lancaster, I fear thy overthrow + More than my body's parting with my soul! + My love and fear glu'd many friends to thee; + And, now I fall, thy tough commixture melts, + Impairing Henry, strength'ning misproud York. + The common people swarm like summer flies; + And whither fly the gnats but to the sun? + And who shines now but Henry's enemies? + O Phoebus, hadst thou never given consent + That Phaethon should check thy fiery steeds, + Thy burning car never had scorch'd the earth! + And, Henry, hadst thou sway'd as kings should do, + Or as thy father and his father did, + Giving no ground unto the house of York, + They never then had sprung like summer flies; + I and ten thousand in this luckless realm + Had left no mourning widows for our death; + And thou this day hadst kept thy chair in peace. + For what doth cherish weeds but gentle air? + And what makes robbers bold but too much lenity? + Bootless are plaints, and cureless are my wounds. + No way to fly, nor strength to hold out flight. + The foe is merciless and will not pity; + For at their hands I have deserv'd no pity. + The air hath got into my deadly wounds, + And much effuse of blood doth make me faint. + Come, York and Richard, Warwick and the rest; + I stabb'd your fathers' bosoms: split my breast. + [He faints] + + Alarum and retreat. Enter EDWARD, GEORGE, RICHARD + MONTAGUE, WARWICK, and soldiers + + EDWARD. Now breathe we, lords. Good fortune bids us pause + And smooth the frowns of war with peaceful looks. + Some troops pursue the bloody-minded Queen + That led calm Henry, though he were a king, + As doth a sail, fill'd with a fretting gust, + Command an argosy to stern the waves. + But think you, lords, that Clifford fled with them? + WARWICK. No, 'tis impossible he should escape; + For, though before his face I speak the words, + Your brother Richard mark'd him for the grave; + And, whereso'er he is, he's surely dead. + [CLIFFORD groans, and dies] + RICHARD. Whose soul is that which takes her heavy leave? + A deadly groan, like life and death's departing. + See who it is. + EDWARD. And now the battle's ended, + If friend or foe, let him be gently used. + RICHARD. Revoke that doom of mercy, for 'tis Clifford; + Who not contented that he lopp'd the branch + In hewing Rutland when his leaves put forth, + But set his murd'ring knife unto the root + From whence that tender spray did sweetly spring- + I mean our princely father, Duke of York. + WARWICK. From off the gates of York fetch down the head, + Your father's head, which Clifford placed there; + Instead whereof let this supply the room. + Measure for measure must be answered. + EDWARD. Bring forth that fatal screech-owl to our house, + That nothing sung but death to us and ours. + Now death shall stop his dismal threat'ning sound, + And his ill-boding tongue no more shall speak. + WARWICK. I think his understanding is bereft. + Speak, Clifford, dost thou know who speaks to thee? + Dark cloudy death o'ershades his beams of life, + And he nor sees nor hears us what we say. + RICHARD. O, would he did! and so, perhaps, he doth. + 'Tis but his policy to counterfeit, + Because he would avoid such bitter taunts + Which in the time of death he gave our father. + GEORGE. If so thou think'st, vex him with eager words. + RICHARD. Clifford, ask mercy and obtain no grace. + EDWARD. Clifford, repent in bootless penitence. + WARWICK. Clifford, devise excuses for thy faults. + GEORGE. While we devise fell tortures for thy faults. + RICHARD. Thou didst love York, and I am son to York. + EDWARD. Thou pitied'st Rutland, I will pity thee. + GEORGE. Where's Captain Margaret, to fence you now? + WARWICK. They mock thee, Clifford; swear as thou wast wont. + RICHARD. What, not an oath? Nay, then the world goes hard + When Clifford cannot spare his friends an oath. + I know by that he's dead; and by my soul, + If this right hand would buy two hours' life, + That I in all despite might rail at him, + This hand should chop it off, and with the issuing blood + Stifle the villain whose unstanched thirst + York and young Rutland could not satisfy. + WARWICK. Ay, but he's dead. Off with the traitor's head, + And rear it in the place your father's stands. + And now to London with triumphant march, + There to be crowned England's royal King; + From whence shall Warwick cut the sea to France, + And ask the Lady Bona for thy queen. + So shalt thou sinew both these lands together; + And, having France thy friend, thou shalt not dread + The scatt'red foe that hopes to rise again; + For though they cannot greatly sting to hurt, + Yet look to have them buzz to offend thine ears. + First will I see the coronation; + And then to Brittany I'll cross the sea + To effect this marriage, so it please my lord. + EDWARD. Even as thou wilt, sweet Warwick, let it be; + For in thy shoulder do I build my seat, + And never will I undertake the thing + Wherein thy counsel and consent is wanting. + Richard, I will create thee Duke of Gloucester; + And George, of Clarence; Warwick, as ourself, + Shall do and undo as him pleaseth best. + RICHARD. Let me be Duke of Clarence, George of Gloucester; + For Gloucester's dukedom is too ominous. + WARWICK. Tut, that's a foolish observation. + Richard, be Duke of Gloucester. Now to London + To see these honours in possession. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. A chase in the north of England + +Enter two KEEPERS, with cross-bows in their hands + + FIRST KEEPER. Under this thick-grown brake we'll shroud ourselves, + For through this laund anon the deer will come; + And in this covert will we make our stand, + Culling the principal of all the deer. + SECOND KEEPER. I'll stay above the hill, so both may shoot. + FIRST KEEPER. That cannot be; the noise of thy cross-bow + Will scare the herd, and so my shoot is lost. + Here stand we both, and aim we at the best; + And, for the time shall not seem tedious, + I'll tell thee what befell me on a day + In this self-place where now we mean to stand. + SECOND KEEPER. Here comes a man; let's stay till he be past. + + Enter KING HENRY, disguised, with a prayer-book + + KING HENRY. From Scotland am I stol'n, even of pure love, + To greet mine own land with my wishful sight. + No, Harry, Harry, 'tis no land of thine; + Thy place is fill'd, thy sceptre wrung from thee, + Thy balm wash'd off wherewith thou wast anointed. + No bending knee will call thee Caesar now, + No humble suitors press to speak for right, + No, not a man comes for redress of thee; + For how can I help them and not myself? + FIRST KEEPER. Ay, here's a deer whose skin's a keeper's fee. + This is the quondam King; let's seize upon him. + KING HENRY. Let me embrace thee, sour adversity, + For wise men say it is the wisest course. + SECOND KEEPER. Why linger we? let us lay hands upon him. + FIRST KEEPER. Forbear awhile; we'll hear a little more. + KING HENRY. My Queen and son are gone to France for aid; + And, as I hear, the great commanding Warwick + Is thither gone to crave the French King's sister + To wife for Edward. If this news be true, + Poor queen and son, your labour is but lost; + For Warwick is a subtle orator, + And Lewis a prince soon won with moving words. + By this account, then, Margaret may win him; + For she's a woman to be pitied much. + Her sighs will make a batt'ry in his breast; + Her tears will pierce into a marble heart; + The tiger will be mild whiles she doth mourn; + And Nero will be tainted with remorse + To hear and see her plaints, her brinish tears. + Ay, but she's come to beg: Warwick, to give. + She, on his left side, craving aid for Henry: + He, on his right, asking a wife for Edward. + She weeps, and says her Henry is depos'd: + He smiles, and says his Edward is install'd; + That she, poor wretch, for grief can speak no more; + Whiles Warwick tells his title, smooths the wrong, + Inferreth arguments of mighty strength, + And in conclusion wins the King from her + With promise of his sister, and what else, + To strengthen and support King Edward's place. + O Margaret, thus 'twill be; and thou, poor soul, + Art then forsaken, as thou went'st forlorn! + SECOND KEEPER. Say, what art thou that talk'st of kings and queens? + KING HENRY. More than I seem, and less than I was born to: + A man at least, for less I should not be; + And men may talk of kings, and why not I? + SECOND KEEPER. Ay, but thou talk'st as if thou wert a king. + KING HENRY. Why, so I am- in mind; and that's enough. + SECOND KEEPER. But, if thou be a king, where is thy crown? + KING HENRY. My crown is in my heart, not on my head; + Not deck'd with diamonds and Indian stones, + Not to be seen. My crown is call'd content; + A crown it is that seldom kings enjoy. + SECOND KEEPER. Well, if you be a king crown'd with content, + Your crown content and you must be contented + To go along with us; for as we think, + You are the king King Edward hath depos'd; + And we his subjects, sworn in all allegiance, + Will apprehend you as his enemy. + KING HENRY. But did you never swear, and break an oath? + SECOND KEEPER. No, never such an oath; nor will not now. + KING HENRY. Where did you dwell when I was King of England? + SECOND KEEPER. Here in this country, where we now remain. + KING HENRY. I was anointed king at nine months old; + My father and my grandfather were kings; + And you were sworn true subjects unto me; + And tell me, then, have you not broke your oaths? + FIRST KEEPER. No; + For we were subjects but while you were king. + KING HENRY. Why, am I dead? Do I not breathe a man? + Ah, simple men, you know not what you swear! + Look, as I blow this feather from my face, + And as the air blows it to me again, + Obeying with my wind when I do blow, + And yielding to another when it blows, + Commanded always by the greater gust, + Such is the lightness of you common men. + But do not break your oaths; for of that sin + My mild entreaty shall not make you guilty. + Go where you will, the King shall be commanded; + And be you kings: command, and I'll obey. + FIRST KEEPER. We are true subjects to the King, King Edward. + KING HENRY. So would you be again to Henry, + If he were seated as King Edward is. + FIRST KEEPER. We charge you, in God's name and the King's, + To go with us unto the officers. + KING HENRY. In God's name, lead; your King's name be obey'd; + And what God will, that let your King perform; + And what he will, I humbly yield unto. Exeunt + +SCENE II. London. The palace + +Enter KING EDWARD, GLOUCESTER, CLARENCE, and LADY GREY + + KING EDWARD. Brother of Gloucester, at Saint Albans' field + This lady's husband, Sir Richard Grey, was slain, + His land then seiz'd on by the conqueror. + Her suit is now to repossess those lands; + Which we in justice cannot well deny, + Because in quarrel of the house of York + The worthy gentleman did lose his life. + GLOUCESTER. Your Highness shall do well to grant her suit; + It were dishonour to deny it her. + KING EDWARD. It were no less; but yet I'll make a pause. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside to CLARENCE] Yea, is it so? + I see the lady hath a thing to grant, + Before the King will grant her humble suit. + CLARENCE. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] He knows the game; how true he + keeps the wind! + GLOUCESTER. [Aside to CLARENCE] Silence! + KING EDWARD. Widow, we will consider of your suit; + And come some other time to know our mind. + LADY GREY. Right gracious lord, I cannot brook delay. + May it please your Highness to resolve me now; + And what your pleasure is shall satisfy me. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] Ay, widow? Then I'll warrant you all your + lands, + An if what pleases him shall pleasure you. + Fight closer or, good faith, you'll catch a blow. + CLARENCE. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] I fear her not, unless she chance + to fall. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside to CLARENCE] God forbid that, for he'll take + vantages. + KING EDWARD. How many children hast thou, widow, tell me. + CLARENCE. [Aside to GLOUCESTER] I think he means to beg a child of + her. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside to CLARENCE] Nay, then whip me; he'll rather + give her two. + LADY GREY. Three, my most gracious lord. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] You shall have four if you'll be rul'd by him. + KING EDWARD. 'Twere pity they should lose their father's lands. + LADY GREY. Be pitiful, dread lord, and grant it, then. + KING EDWARD. Lords, give us leave; I'll try this widow's wit. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] Ay, good leave have you; for you will have + leave + Till youth take leave and leave you to the crutch. + [GLOUCESTER and CLARENCE withdraw] + KING EDWARD. Now tell me, madam, do you love your children? + LADY GREY. Ay, full as dearly as I love myself. + KING EDWARD. And would you not do much to do them good? + LADY GREY. To do them good I would sustain some harm. + KING EDWARD. Then get your husband's lands, to do them good. + LADY GREY. Therefore I came unto your Majesty. + KING EDWARD. I'll tell you how these lands are to be got. + LADY GREY. So shall you bind me to your Highness' service. + KING EDWARD. What service wilt thou do me if I give them? + LADY GREY. What you command that rests in me to do. + KING EDWARD. But you will take exceptions to my boon. + LADY GREY. No, gracious lord, except I cannot do it. + KING EDWARD. Ay, but thou canst do what I mean to ask. + LADY GREY. Why, then I will do what your Grace commands. + GLOUCESTER. He plies her hard; and much rain wears the marble. + CLARENCE. As red as fire! Nay, then her wax must melt. + LADY GREY. Why stops my lord? Shall I not hear my task? + KING EDWARD. An easy task; 'tis but to love a king. + LADY GREY. That's soon perform'd, because I am a subject. + KING EDWARD. Why, then, thy husband's lands I freely give thee. + LADY GREY. I take my leave with many thousand thanks. + GLOUCESTER. The match is made; she seals it with a curtsy. + KING EDWARD. But stay thee- 'tis the fruits of love I mean. + LADY GREY. The fruits of love I mean, my loving liege. + KING EDWARD. Ay, but, I fear me, in another sense. + What love, thinkst thou, I sue so much to get? + LADY GREY. My love till death, my humble thanks, my prayers; + That love which virtue begs and virtue grants. + KING EDWARD. No, by my troth, I did not mean such love. + LADY GREY. Why, then you mean not as I thought you did. + KING EDWARD. But now you partly may perceive my mind. + LADY GREY. My mind will never grant what I perceive + Your Highness aims at, if I aim aright. + KING EDWARD. To tell thee plain, I aim to lie with thee. + LADY GREY. To tell you plain, I had rather lie in prison. + KING EDWARD. Why, then thou shalt not have thy husband's lands. + LADY GREY. Why, then mine honesty shall be my dower; + For by that loss I will not purchase them. + KING EDWARD. Therein thou wrong'st thy children mightily. + LADY GREY. Herein your Highness wrongs both them and me. + But, mighty lord, this merry inclination + Accords not with the sadness of my suit. + Please you dismiss me, either with ay or no. + KING EDWARD. Ay, if thou wilt say ay to my request; + No, if thou dost say no to my demand. + LADY GREY. Then, no, my lord. My suit is at an end. + GLOUCESTER. The widow likes him not; she knits her brows. + CLARENCE. He is the bluntest wooer in Christendom. + KING EDWARD. [Aside] Her looks doth argue her replete with modesty; + Her words doth show her wit incomparable; + All her perfections challenge sovereignty. + One way or other, she is for a king; + And she shall be my love, or else my queen. + Say that King Edward take thee for his queen? + LADY GREY. 'Tis better said than done, my gracious lord. + I am a subject fit to jest withal, + But far unfit to be a sovereign. + KING EDWARD. Sweet widow, by my state I swear to thee + I speak no more than what my soul intends; + And that is to enjoy thee for my love. + LADY GREY. And that is more than I will yield unto. + I know I am too mean to be your queen, + And yet too good to be your concubine. + KING EDWARD. You cavil, widow; I did mean my queen. + LADY GREY. 'Twill grieve your Grace my sons should call you father. + KING EDWARD.No more than when my daughters call thee mother. + Thou art a widow, and thou hast some children; + And, by God's Mother, I, being but a bachelor, + Have other some. Why, 'tis a happy thing + To be the father unto many sons. + Answer no more, for thou shalt be my queen. + GLOUCESTER. The ghostly father now hath done his shrift. + CLARENCE. When he was made a shriver, 'twas for shrift. + KING EDWARD. Brothers, you muse what chat we two have had. + GLOUCESTER. The widow likes it not, for she looks very sad. + KING EDWARD. You'd think it strange if I should marry her. + CLARENCE. To who, my lord? + KING EDWARD. Why, Clarence, to myself. + GLOUCESTER. That would be ten days' wonder at the least. + CLARENCE. That's a day longer than a wonder lasts. + GLOUCESTER. By so much is the wonder in extremes. + KING EDWARD. Well, jest on, brothers; I can tell you both + Her suit is granted for her husband's lands. + + Enter a NOBLEMAN + + NOBLEMAN. My gracious lord, Henry your foe is taken + And brought your prisoner to your palace gate. + KING EDWARD. See that he be convey'd unto the Tower. + And go we, brothers, to the man that took him + To question of his apprehension. + Widow, go you along. Lords, use her honourably. + Exeunt all but GLOUCESTER + GLOUCESTER. Ay, Edward will use women honourably. + Would he were wasted, marrow, bones, and all, + That from his loins no hopeful branch may spring + To cross me from the golden time I look for! + And yet, between my soul's desire and me- + The lustful Edward's title buried- + Is Clarence, Henry, and his son young Edward, + And all the unlook'd for issue of their bodies, + To take their rooms ere I can place myself. + A cold premeditation for my purpose! + Why, then I do but dream on sovereignty; + Like one that stands upon a promontory + And spies a far-off shore where he would tread, + Wishing his foot were equal with his eye; + And chides the sea that sunders him from thence, + Saying he'll lade it dry to have his way- + So do I wish the crown, being so far off; + And so I chide the means that keeps me from it; + And so I say I'll cut the causes off, + Flattering me with impossibilities. + My eye's too quick, my heart o'erweens too much, + Unless my hand and strength could equal them. + Well, say there is no kingdom then for Richard; + What other pleasure can the world afford? + I'll make my heaven in a lady's lap, + And deck my body in gay ornaments, + And witch sweet ladies with my words and looks. + O miserable thought! and more unlikely + Than to accomplish twenty golden crowns. + Why, love forswore me in my mother's womb; + And, for I should not deal in her soft laws, + She did corrupt frail nature with some bribe + To shrink mine arm up like a wither'd shrub + To make an envious mountain on my back, + Where sits deformity to mock my body; + To shape my legs of an unequal size; + To disproportion me in every part, + Like to a chaos, or an unlick'd bear-whelp + That carries no impression like the dam. + And am I, then, a man to be belov'd? + O monstrous fault to harbour such a thought! + Then, since this earth affords no joy to me + But to command, to check, to o'erbear such + As are of better person than myself, + I'll make my heaven to dream upon the crown, + And whiles I live t' account this world but hell, + Until my misshap'd trunk that bear this head + Be round impaled with a glorious crown. + And yet I know not how to get the crown, + For many lives stand between me and home; + And I- like one lost in a thorny wood + That rents the thorns and is rent with the thorns, + Seeking a way and straying from the way + Not knowing how to find the open air, + But toiling desperately to find it out- + Torment myself to catch the English crown; + And from that torment I will free myself + Or hew my way out with a bloody axe. + Why, I can smile, and murder whiles I smile, + And cry 'Content!' to that which grieves my heart, + And wet my cheeks with artificial tears, + And frame my face to all occasions. + I'll drown more sailors than the mermaid shall; + I'll slay more gazers than the basilisk; + I'll play the orator as well as Nestor, + Deceive more slily than Ulysses could, + And, like a Sinon, take another Troy. + I can add colours to the chameleon, + Change shapes with Protheus for advantages, + And set the murderous Machiavel to school. + Can I do this, and cannot get a crown? + Tut, were it farther off, I'll pluck it down. Exit + +SCENE III. France. The KING'S palace + +Flourish. Enter LEWIS the French King, his sister BONA, his Admiral +call'd BOURBON; PRINCE EDWARD, QUEEN MARGARET, and the EARL of OXFORD. +LEWIS sits, and riseth up again + + LEWIS. Fair Queen of England, worthy Margaret, + Sit down with us. It ill befits thy state + And birth that thou shouldst stand while Lewis doth sit. + QUEEN MARGARET. No, mighty King of France. Now Margaret + Must strike her sail and learn a while to serve + Where kings command. I was, I must confess, + Great Albion's Queen in former golden days; + But now mischance hath trod my title down + And with dishonour laid me on the ground, + Where I must take like seat unto my fortune, + And to my humble seat conform myself. + LEWIS. Why, say, fair Queen, whence springs this deep despair? + QUEEN MARGARET. From such a cause as fills mine eyes with tears + And stops my tongue, while heart is drown'd in cares. + LEWIS. Whate'er it be, be thou still like thyself, + And sit thee by our side. [Seats her by him] Yield not thy neck + To fortune's yoke, but let thy dauntless mind + Still ride in triumph over all mischance. + Be plain, Queen Margaret, and tell thy grief; + It shall be eas'd, if France can yield relief. + QUEEN MARGARET. Those gracious words revive my drooping thoughts + And give my tongue-tied sorrows leave to speak. + Now therefore be it known to noble Lewis + That Henry, sole possessor of my love, + Is, of a king, become a banish'd man, + And forc'd to live in Scotland a forlorn; + While proud ambitious Edward Duke of York + Usurps the regal title and the seat + Of England's true-anointed lawful King. + This is the cause that I, poor Margaret, + With this my son, Prince Edward, Henry's heir, + Am come to crave thy just and lawful aid; + And if thou fail us, all our hope is done. + Scotland hath will to help, but cannot help; + Our people and our peers are both misled, + Our treasure seiz'd, our soldiers put to flight, + And, as thou seest, ourselves in heavy plight. + LEWIS. Renowned Queen, with patience calm the storm, + While we bethink a means to break it off. + QUEEN MARGARET. The more we stay, the stronger grows our foe. + LEWIS. The more I stay, the more I'll succour thee. + QUEEN MARGARET. O, but impatience waiteth on true sorrow. + And see where comes the breeder of my sorrow! + + Enter WARWICK + + LEWIS. What's he approacheth boldly to our presence? + QUEEN MARGARET. Our Earl of Warwick, Edward's greatest friend. + LEWIS. Welcome, brave Warwick! What brings thee to France? + [He descends. She ariseth] + QUEEN MARGARET. Ay, now begins a second storm to rise; + For this is he that moves both wind and tide. + WARWICK. From worthy Edward, King of Albion, + My lord and sovereign, and thy vowed friend, + I come, in kindness and unfeigned love, + First to do greetings to thy royal person, + And then to crave a league of amity, + And lastly to confirm that amity + With nuptial knot, if thou vouchsafe to grant + That virtuous Lady Bona, thy fair sister, + To England's King in lawful marriage. + QUEEN MARGARET. [Aside] If that go forward, Henry's hope is done. + WARWICK. [To BONA] And, gracious madam, in our king's behalf, + I am commanded, with your leave and favour, + Humbly to kiss your hand, and with my tongue + To tell the passion of my sovereign's heart; + Where fame, late ent'ring at his heedful ears, + Hath plac'd thy beauty's image and thy virtue. + QUEEN MARGARET. King Lewis and Lady Bona, hear me speak + Before you answer Warwick. His demand + Springs not from Edward's well-meant honest love, + But from deceit bred by necessity; + For how can tyrants safely govern home + Unless abroad they purchase great alliance? + To prove him tyrant this reason may suffice, + That Henry liveth still; but were he dead, + Yet here Prince Edward stands, King Henry's son. + Look therefore, Lewis, that by this league and marriage + Thou draw not on thy danger and dishonour; + For though usurpers sway the rule a while + Yet heav'ns are just, and time suppresseth wrongs. + WARWICK. Injurious Margaret! + PRINCE OF WALES. And why not Queen? + WARWICK. Because thy father Henry did usurp; + And thou no more art prince than she is queen. + OXFORD. Then Warwick disannuls great John of Gaunt, + Which did subdue the greatest part of Spain; + And, after John of Gaunt, Henry the Fourth, + Whose wisdom was a mirror to the wisest; + And, after that wise prince, Henry the Fifth, + Who by his prowess conquered all France. + From these our Henry lineally descends. + WARWICK. Oxford, how haps it in this smooth discourse + You told not how Henry the Sixth hath lost + All that which Henry the Fifth had gotten? + Methinks these peers of France should smile at that. + But for the rest: you tell a pedigree + Of threescore and two years- a silly time + To make prescription for a kingdom's worth. + OXFORD. Why, Warwick, canst thou speak against thy liege, + Whom thou obeyed'st thirty and six years, + And not betray thy treason with a blush? + WARWICK. Can Oxford that did ever fence the right + Now buckler falsehood with a pedigree? + For shame! Leave Henry, and call Edward king. + OXFORD. Call him my king by whose injurious doom + My elder brother, the Lord Aubrey Vere, + Was done to death; and more than so, my father, + Even in the downfall of his mellow'd years, + When nature brought him to the door of death? + No, Warwick, no; while life upholds this arm, + This arm upholds the house of Lancaster. + WARWICK. And I the house of York. + LEWIS. Queen Margaret, Prince Edward, and Oxford, + Vouchsafe at our request to stand aside + While I use further conference with Warwick. + [They stand aloof] + QUEEN MARGARET. Heavens grant that Warwick's words bewitch him not! + LEWIS. Now, Warwick, tell me, even upon thy conscience, + Is Edward your true king? for I were loath + To link with him that were not lawful chosen. + WARWICK. Thereon I pawn my credit and mine honour. + LEWIS. But is he gracious in the people's eye? + WARWICK. The more that Henry was unfortunate. + LEWIS. Then further: all dissembling set aside, + Tell me for truth the measure of his love + Unto our sister Bona. + WARWICK. Such it seems + As may beseem a monarch like himself. + Myself have often heard him say and swear + That this his love was an eternal plant + Whereof the root was fix'd in virtue's ground, + The leaves and fruit maintain'd with beauty's sun, + Exempt from envy, but not from disdain, + Unless the Lady Bona quit his pain. + LEWIS. Now, sister, let us hear your firm resolve. + BONA. Your grant or your denial shall be mine. + [To WARWICK] Yet I confess that often ere this day, + When I have heard your king's desert recounted, + Mine ear hath tempted judgment to desire. + LEWIS. Then, Warwick, thus: our sister shall be Edward's. + And now forthwith shall articles be drawn + Touching the jointure that your king must make, + Which with her dowry shall be counterpois'd. + Draw near, Queen Margaret, and be a witness + That Bona shall be wife to the English king. + PRINCE OF WALES. To Edward, but not to the English king. + QUEEN MARGARET. Deceitful Warwick, it was thy device + By this alliance to make void my suit. + Before thy coming, Lewis was Henry's friend. + LEWIS. And still is friend to him and Margaret. + But if your title to the crown be weak, + As may appear by Edward's good success, + Then 'tis but reason that I be releas'd + From giving aid which late I promised. + Yet shall you have all kindness at my hand + That your estate requires and mine can yield. + WARWICK. Henry now lives in Scotland at his case, + Where having nothing, nothing can he lose. + And as for you yourself, our quondam queen, + You have a father able to maintain you, + And better 'twere you troubled him than France. + QUEEN MARGARET. Peace, impudent and shameless Warwick, + Proud setter up and puller down of kings! + I will not hence till with my talk and tears, + Both full of truth, I make King Lewis behold + Thy sly conveyance and thy lord's false love; + For both of you are birds of self-same feather. + [POST blowing a horn within] + LEWIS. Warwick, this is some post to us or thee. + + Enter the POST + + POST. My lord ambassador, these letters are for you, + Sent from your brother, Marquis Montague. + These from our King unto your Majesty. + And, madam, these for you; from whom I know not. + [They all read their letters] + OXFORD. I like it well that our fair Queen and mistress + Smiles at her news, while Warwick frowns at his. + PRINCE OF WALES. Nay, mark how Lewis stamps as he were nettled. + I hope all's for the best. + LEWIS. Warwick, what are thy news? And yours, fair Queen? + QUEEN MARGARET. Mine such as fill my heart with unhop'd joys. + WARWICK. Mine, full of sorrow and heart's discontent. + LEWIS. What, has your king married the Lady Grey? + And now, to soothe your forgery and his, + Sends me a paper to persuade me patience? + Is this th' alliance that he seeks with France? + Dare he presume to scorn us in this manner? + QUEEN MARGARET. I told your Majesty as much before. + This proveth Edward's love and Warwick's honesty. + WARWICK. King Lewis, I here protest in sight of heaven, + And by the hope I have of heavenly bliss, + That I am clear from this misdeed of Edward's- + No more my king, for he dishonours me, + But most himself, if he could see his shame. + Did I forget that by the house of York + My father came untimely to his death? + Did I let pass th' abuse done to my niece? + Did I impale him with the regal crown? + Did I put Henry from his native right? + And am I guerdon'd at the last with shame? + Shame on himself! for my desert is honour; + And to repair my honour lost for him + I here renounce him and return to Henry. + My noble Queen, let former grudges pass, + And henceforth I am thy true servitor. + I will revenge his wrong to Lady Bona, + And replant Henry in his former state. + QUEEN MARGARET. Warwick, these words have turn'd my hate to love; + And I forgive and quite forget old faults, + And joy that thou becom'st King Henry's friend. + WARWICK. So much his friend, ay, his unfeigned friend, + That if King Lewis vouchsafe to furnish us + With some few bands of chosen soldiers, + I'll undertake to land them on our coast + And force the tyrant from his seat by war. + 'Tis not his new-made bride shall succour him; + And as for Clarence, as my letters tell me, + He's very likely now to fall from him + For matching more for wanton lust than honour + Or than for strength and safety of our country. + BONA. Dear brother, how shall Bona be reveng'd + But by thy help to this distressed queen? + QUEEN MARGARET. Renowned Prince, how shall poor Henry live + Unless thou rescue him from foul despair? + BONA. My quarrel and this English queen's are one. + WARWICK. And mine, fair Lady Bona, joins with yours. + LEWIS. And mine with hers, and thine, and Margaret's. + Therefore, at last, I firmly am resolv'd + You shall have aid. + QUEEN MARGARET. Let me give humble thanks for all at once. + LEWIS. Then, England's messenger, return in post + And tell false Edward, thy supposed king, + That Lewis of France is sending over masquers + To revel it with him and his new bride. + Thou seest what's past; go fear thy king withal. + BONA. Tell him, in hope he'll prove a widower shortly, + I'll wear the willow-garland for his sake. + QUEEN MARGARET. Tell him my mourning weeds are laid aside, + And I am ready to put armour on. + WARWICK. Tell him from me that he hath done me wrong, + And therefore I'll uncrown him ere't be long. + There's thy reward; be gone. Exit POST + LEWIS. But, Warwick, + Thou and Oxford, with five thousand men, + Shall cross the seas and bid false Edward battle: + And, as occasion serves, this noble Queen + And Prince shall follow with a fresh supply. + Yet, ere thou go, but answer me one doubt: + What pledge have we of thy firm loyalty? + WARWICK. This shall assure my constant loyalty: + That if our Queen and this young Prince agree, + I'll join mine eldest daughter and my joy + To him forthwith in holy wedlock bands. + QUEEN MARGARET. Yes, I agree, and thank you for your motion. + Son Edward, she is fair and virtuous, + Therefore delay not- give thy hand to Warwick; + And with thy hand thy faith irrevocable + That only Warwick's daughter shall be thine. + PRINCE OF WALES. Yes, I accept her, for she well deserves it; + And here, to pledge my vow, I give my hand. + [He gives his hand to WARWICK] + LEWIS. stay we now? These soldiers shall be levied; + And thou, Lord Bourbon, our High Admiral, + Shall waft them over with our royal fleet. + I long till Edward fall by war's mischance + For mocking marriage with a dame of France. + Exeunt all but WARWICK + WARWICK. I came from Edward as ambassador, + But I return his sworn and mortal foe. + Matter of marriage was the charge he gave me, + But dreadful war shall answer his demand. + Had he none else to make a stale but me? + Then none but I shall turn his jest to sorrow. + I was the chief that rais'd him to the crown, + And I'll be chief to bring him down again; + Not that I pity Henry's misery, + But seek revenge on Edward's mockery. Exit + +ACT IV. SCENE I. London. The palace + +Enter GLOUCESTER, CLARENCE, SOMERSET, and MONTAGUE + + GLOUCESTER. Now tell me, brother Clarence, what think you + Of this new marriage with the Lady Grey? + Hath not our brother made a worthy choice? + CLARENCE. Alas, you know 'tis far from hence to France! + How could he stay till Warwick made return? + SOMERSET. My lords, forbear this talk; here comes the King. + + Flourish. Enter KING EDWARD, attended; LADY + GREY, as Queen; PEMBROKE, STAFFORD, HASTINGS, + and others. Four stand on one side, and four on the other + + GLOUCESTER. And his well-chosen bride. + CLARENCE. I mind to tell him plainly what I think. + KING EDWARD. Now, brother of Clarence, how like you our choice + That you stand pensive as half malcontent? + CLARENCE. As well as Lewis of France or the Earl of Warwick, + Which are so weak of courage and in judgment + That they'll take no offence at our abuse. + KING EDWARD. Suppose they take offence without a cause; + They are but Lewis and Warwick: I am Edward, + Your King and Warwick's and must have my will. + GLOUCESTER. And shall have your will, because our King. + Yet hasty marriage seldom proveth well. + KING EDWARD. Yea, brother Richard, are you offended too? + GLOUCESTER. Not I. + No, God forbid that I should wish them sever'd + Whom God hath join'd together; ay, and 'twere pity + To sunder them that yoke so well together. + KING EDWARD. Setting your scorns and your mislike aside, + Tell me some reason why the Lady Grey + Should not become my wife and England's Queen. + And you too, Somerset and Montague, + Speak freely what you think. + CLARENCE. Then this is mine opinion: that King Lewis + Becomes your enemy for mocking him + About the marriage of the Lady Bona. + GLOUCESTER. And Warwick, doing what you gave in charge, + Is now dishonoured by this new marriage. + KING EDWARD. What if both Lewis and Warwick be appeas'd + By such invention as I can devise? + MONTAGUE. Yet to have join'd with France in such alliance + Would more have strength'ned this our commonwealth + 'Gainst foreign storms than any home-bred marriage. + HASTINGS. Why, knows not Montague that of itself + England is safe, if true within itself? + MONTAGUE. But the safer when 'tis back'd with France. + HASTINGS. 'Tis better using France than trusting France. + Let us be back'd with God, and with the seas + Which He hath giv'n for fence impregnable, + And with their helps only defend ourselves. + In them and in ourselves our safety lies. + CLARENCE. For this one speech Lord Hastings well deserves + To have the heir of the Lord Hungerford. + KING EDWARD. Ay, what of that? it was my will and grant; + And for this once my will shall stand for law. + GLOUCESTER. And yet methinks your Grace hath not done well + To give the heir and daughter of Lord Scales + Unto the brother of your loving bride. + She better would have fitted me or Clarence; + But in your bride you bury brotherhood. + CLARENCE. Or else you would not have bestow'd the heir + Of the Lord Bonville on your new wife's son, + And leave your brothers to go speed elsewhere. + KING EDWARD. Alas, poor Clarence! Is it for a wife + That thou art malcontent? I will provide thee. + CLARENCE. In choosing for yourself you show'd your judgment, + Which being shallow, you shall give me leave + To play the broker in mine own behalf; + And to that end I shortly mind to leave you. + KING EDWARD. Leave me or tarry, Edward will be King, + And not be tied unto his brother's will. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. My lords, before it pleas'd his Majesty + To raise my state to title of a queen, + Do me but right, and you must all confess + That I was not ignoble of descent: + And meaner than myself have had like fortune. + But as this title honours me and mine, + So your dislikes, to whom I would be pleasing, + Doth cloud my joys with danger and with sorrow. + KING EDWARD. My love, forbear to fawn upon their frowns. + What danger or what sorrow can befall thee, + So long as Edward is thy constant friend + And their true sovereign whom they must obey? + Nay, whom they shall obey, and love thee too, + Unless they seek for hatred at my hands; + Which if they do, yet will I keep thee safe, + And they shall feel the vengeance of my wrath. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] I hear, yet say not much, but think the more. + + Enter a POST + + KING EDWARD. Now, messenger, what letters or what news + From France? + MESSENGER. My sovereign liege, no letters, and few words, + But such as I, without your special pardon, + Dare not relate. + KING EDWARD. Go to, we pardon thee; therefore, in brief, + Tell me their words as near as thou canst guess them. + What answer makes King Lewis unto our letters? + MESSENGER. At my depart, these were his very words: + 'Go tell false Edward, the supposed king, + That Lewis of France is sending over masquers + To revel it with him and his new bride.' + KING EDWARD. IS Lewis so brave? Belike he thinks me Henry. + But what said Lady Bona to my marriage? + MESSENGER. These were her words, utt'red with mild disdain: + 'Tell him, in hope he'll prove a widower shortly, + I'll wear the willow-garland for his sake.' + KING EDWARD. I blame not her: she could say little less; + She had the wrong. But what said Henry's queen? + For I have heard that she was there in place. + MESSENGER. 'Tell him' quoth she 'my mourning weeds are done, + And I am ready to put armour on.' + KING EDWARD. Belike she minds to play the Amazon. + But what said Warwick to these injuries? + MESSENGER. He, more incens'd against your Majesty + Than all the rest, discharg'd me with these words: + 'Tell him from me that he hath done me wrong; + And therefore I'll uncrown him ere't be long.' + KING EDWARD. Ha! durst the traitor breathe out so proud words? + Well, I will arm me, being thus forewarn'd. + They shall have wars and pay for their presumption. + But say, is Warwick friends with Margaret? + MESSENGER. Ay, gracious sovereign; they are so link'd in friendship + That young Prince Edward marries Warwick's daughter. + CLARENCE. Belike the elder; Clarence will have the younger. + Now, brother king, farewell, and sit you fast, + For I will hence to Warwick's other daughter; + That, though I want a kingdom, yet in marriage + I may not prove inferior to yourself. + You that love me and Warwick, follow me. + Exit, and SOMERSET follows + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] Not I. + My thoughts aim at a further matter; I + Stay not for the love of Edward but the crown. + KING EDWARD. Clarence and Somerset both gone to Warwick! + Yet am I arm'd against the worst can happen; + And haste is needful in this desp'rate case. + Pembroke and Stafford, you in our behalf + Go levy men and make prepare for war; + They are already, or quickly will be landed. + Myself in person will straight follow you. + Exeunt PEMBROKE and STAFFORD + But ere I go, Hastings and Montague, + Resolve my doubt. You twain, of all the rest, + Are near to Warwick by blood and by alliance. + Tell me if you love Warwick more than me? + If it be so, then both depart to him: + I rather wish you foes than hollow friends. + But if you mind to hold your true obedience, + Give me assurance with some friendly vow, + That I may never have you in suspect. + MONTAGUE. So God help Montague as he proves true! + HASTINGS. And Hastings as he favours Edward's cause! + KING EDWARD. Now, brother Richard, will you stand by us? + GLOUCESTER. Ay, in despite of all that shall withstand you. + KING EDWARD. Why, so! then am I sure of victory. + Now therefore let us hence, and lose no hour + Till we meet Warwick with his foreign pow'r. Exeunt + +SCENE II. A plain in Warwickshire + +Enter WARWICK and OXFORD, with French soldiers + + WARWICK. Trust me, my lord, all hitherto goes well; + The common people by numbers swarm to us. + + Enter CLARENCE and SOMERSET + + But see where Somerset and Clarence comes. + Speak suddenly, my lords- are we all friends? + CLARENCE. Fear not that, my lord. + WARWICK. Then, gentle Clarence, welcome unto Warwick; + And welcome, Somerset. I hold it cowardice + To rest mistrustful where a noble heart + Hath pawn'd an open hand in sign of love; + Else might I think that Clarence, Edward's brother, + Were but a feigned friend to our proceedings. + But welcome, sweet Clarence; my daughter shall be thine. + And now what rests but, in night's coverture, + Thy brother being carelessly encamp'd, + His soldiers lurking in the towns about, + And but attended by a simple guard, + We may surprise and take him at our pleasure? + Our scouts have found the adventure very easy; + That as Ulysses and stout Diomede + With sleight and manhood stole to Rhesus' tents, + And brought from thence the Thracian fatal steeds, + So we, well cover'd with the night's black mantle, + At unawares may beat down Edward's guard + And seize himself- I say not 'slaughter him,' + For I intend but only to surprise him. + You that will follow me to this attempt, + Applaud the name of Henry with your leader. + [They all cry 'Henry!'] + Why then, let's on our way in silent sort. + For Warwick and his friends, God and Saint George! Exeunt + +SCENE III. Edward's camp, near Warwick + +Enter three WATCHMEN, to guard the KING'S tent + + FIRST WATCHMAN. Come on, my masters, each man take his stand; + The King by this is set him down to sleep. + SECOND WATCHMAN. What, will he not to bed? + FIRST WATCHMAN. Why, no; for he hath made a solemn vow + Never to lie and take his natural rest + Till Warwick or himself be quite suppress'd. + SECOND WATCHMAN. To-morrow then, belike, shall be the day, + If Warwick be so near as men report. + THIRD WATCHMAN. But say, I pray, what nobleman is that + That with the King here resteth in his tent? + FIRST WATCHMAN. 'Tis the Lord Hastings, the King's chiefest friend. + THIRD WATCHMAN. O, is it So? But why commands the King + That his chief followers lodge in towns about him, + While he himself keeps in the cold field? + SECOND WATCHMAN. 'Tis the more honour, because more dangerous. + THIRD WATCHMAN. Ay, but give me worship and quietness; + I like it better than dangerous honour. + If Warwick knew in what estate he stands, + 'Tis to be doubted he would waken him. + FIRST WATCHMAN. Unless our halberds did shut up his passage. + SECOND WATCHMAN. Ay, wherefore else guard we his royal tent + But to defend his person from night-foes? + + Enter WARWICK, CLARENCE, OXFORD, SOMERSET, + and French soldiers, silent all + + WARWICK. This is his tent; and see where stand his guard. + Courage, my masters! Honour now or never! + But follow me, and Edward shall be ours. + FIRST WATCHMAN. Who goes there? + SECOND WATCHMAN. Stay, or thou diest. + + WARWICK and the rest cry all 'Warwick! Warwick!' and + set upon the guard, who fly, crying 'Arm! Arm!' WARWICK + and the rest following them + + The drum playing and trumpet sounding, re-enter WARWICK + and the rest, bringing the KING out in his gown, + sitting in a chair. GLOUCESTER and HASTINGS fly over the stage + + SOMERSET. What are they that fly there? + WARWICK. Richard and Hastings. Let them go; here is the Duke. + KING EDWARD. The Duke! Why, Warwick, when we parted, + Thou call'dst me King? + WARWICK. Ay, but the case is alter'd. + When you disgrac'd me in my embassade, + Then I degraded you from being King, + And come now to create you Duke of York. + Alas, how should you govern any kingdom + That know not how to use ambassadors, + Nor how to be contented with one wife, + Nor how to use your brothers brotherly, + Nor how to study for the people's welfare, + Nor how to shroud yourself from enemies? + KING EDWARD. Yea, brother of Clarence, art thou here too? + Nay, then I see that Edward needs must down. + Yet, Warwick, in despite of all mischance, + Of thee thyself and all thy complices, + Edward will always bear himself as King. + Though fortune's malice overthrow my state, + My mind exceeds the compass of her wheel. + WARWICK. Then, for his mind, be Edward England's king; + [Takes off his crown] + But Henry now shall wear the English crown + And be true King indeed; thou but the shadow. + My Lord of Somerset, at my request, + See that forthwith Duke Edward be convey'd + Unto my brother, Archbishop of York. + When I have fought with Pembroke and his fellows, + I'll follow you and tell what answer + Lewis and the Lady Bona send to him. + Now for a while farewell, good Duke of York. + KING EDWARD. What fates impose, that men must needs abide; + It boots not to resist both wind and tide. + [They lead him out forcibly] + OXFORD. What now remains, my lords, for us to do + But march to London with our soldiers? + WARWICK. Ay, that's the first thing that we have to do; + To free King Henry from imprisonment, + And see him seated in the regal throne. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. London. The palace + +Enter QUEEN ELIZABETH and RIVERS + + RIVERS. Madam, what makes you in this sudden change? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Why, brother Rivers, are you yet to learn + What late misfortune is befall'n King Edward? + RIVERS. What, loss of some pitch'd battle against Warwick? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. No, but the loss of his own royal person. + RIVERS. Then is my sovereign slain? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ay, almost slain, for he is taken prisoner; + Either betray'd by falsehood of his guard + Or by his foe surpris'd at unawares; + And, as I further have to understand, + Is new committed to the Bishop of York, + Fell Warwick's brother, and by that our foe. + RIVERS. These news, I must confess, are full of grief; + Yet, gracious madam, bear it as you may: + Warwick may lose that now hath won the day. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Till then, fair hope must hinder life's decay. + And I the rather wean me from despair + For love of Edward's offspring in my womb. + This is it that makes me bridle passion + And bear with mildness my misfortune's cross; + Ay, ay, for this I draw in many a tear + And stop the rising of blood-sucking sighs, + Lest with my sighs or tears I blast or drown + King Edward's fruit, true heir to th' English crown. + RIVERS. But, madam, where is Warwick then become? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. I am inform'd that he comes towards London + To set the crown once more on Henry's head. + Guess thou the rest: King Edward's friends must down. + But to prevent the tyrant's violence- + For trust not him that hath once broken faith- + I'll hence forthwith unto the sanctuary + To save at least the heir of Edward's right. + There shall I rest secure from force and fraud. + Come, therefore, let us fly while we may fly: + If Warwick take us, we are sure to die. Exeunt + +SCENE V. A park near Middleham Castle in Yorkshire + +Enter GLOUCESTER, LORD HASTINGS, SIR WILLIAM STANLEY, and others + + GLOUCESTER. Now, my Lord Hastings and Sir William Stanley, + Leave off to wonder why I drew you hither + Into this chiefest thicket of the park. + Thus stands the case: you know our King, my brother, + Is prisoner to the Bishop here, at whose hands + He hath good usage and great liberty; + And often but attended with weak guard + Comes hunting this way to disport himself. + I have advertis'd him by secret means + That if about this hour he make this way, + Under the colour of his usual game, + He shall here find his friends, with horse and men, + To set him free from his captivity. + + Enter KING EDWARD and a HUNTSMAN with him + + HUNTSMAN. This way, my lord; for this way lies the game. + KING EDWARD. Nay, this way, man. See where the huntsmen stand. + Now, brother of Gloucester, Lord Hastings, and the rest, + Stand you thus close to steal the Bishop's deer? + GLOUCESTER. Brother, the time and case requireth haste; + Your horse stands ready at the park corner. + KING EDWARD. But whither shall we then? + HASTINGS. To Lynn, my lord; and shipt from thence to Flanders. + GLOUCESTER. Well guess'd, believe me; for that was my meaning. + KING EDWARD. Stanley, I will requite thy forwardness. + GLOUCESTER. But wherefore stay we? 'Tis no time to talk. + KING EDWARD. Huntsman, what say'st thou? Wilt thou go along? + HUNTSMAN. Better do so than tarry and be hang'd. + GLOUCESTER. Come then, away; let's ha' no more ado. + KING EDWARD. Bishop, farewell. Shield thee from Warwick's frown, + And pray that I may repossess the crown. Exeunt + +SCENE VI. London. The Tower + +Flourish. Enter KING HENRY, CLARENCE, WARWICK, SOMERSET, young HENRY, +EARL OF RICHMOND, OXFORD, MONTAGUE, LIEUTENANT OF THE TOWER, and +attendants + + KING HENRY. Master Lieutenant, now that God and friends + Have shaken Edward from the regal seat + And turn'd my captive state to liberty, + My fear to hope, my sorrows unto joys, + At our enlargement what are thy due fees? + LIEUTENANT. Subjects may challenge nothing of their sov'reigns; + But if an humble prayer may prevail, + I then crave pardon of your Majesty. + KING HENRY. For what, Lieutenant? For well using me? + Nay, be thou sure I'll well requite thy kindness, + For that it made my imprisonment a pleasure; + Ay, such a pleasure as incaged birds + Conceive when, after many moody thoughts, + At last by notes of household harmony + They quite forget their loss of liberty. + But, Warwick, after God, thou set'st me free, + And chiefly therefore I thank God and thee; + He was the author, thou the instrument. + Therefore, that I may conquer fortune's spite + By living low where fortune cannot hurt me, + And that the people of this blessed land + May not be punish'd with my thwarting stars, + Warwick, although my head still wear the crown, + I here resign my government to thee, + For thou art fortunate in all thy deeds. + WARWICK. Your Grace hath still been fam'd for virtuous, + And now may seem as wise as virtuous + By spying and avoiding fortune's malice, + For few men rightly temper with the stars; + Yet in this one thing let me blame your Grace, + For choosing me when Clarence is in place. + CLARENCE. No, Warwick, thou art worthy of the sway, + To whom the heav'ns in thy nativity + Adjudg'd an olive branch and laurel crown, + As likely to be blest in peace and war; + And therefore I yield thee my free consent. + WARWICK. And I choose Clarence only for Protector. + KING HENRY. Warwick and Clarence, give me both your hands. + Now join your hands, and with your hands your hearts, + That no dissension hinder government. + I make you both Protectors of this land, + While I myself will lead a private life + And in devotion spend my latter days, + To sin's rebuke and my Creator's praise. + WARWICK. What answers Clarence to his sovereign's will? + CLARENCE. That he consents, if Warwick yield consent, + For on thy fortune I repose myself. + WARWICK. Why, then, though loath, yet must I be content. + We'll yoke together, like a double shadow + To Henry's body, and supply his place; + I mean, in bearing weight of government, + While he enjoys the honour and his ease. + And, Clarence, now then it is more than needful + Forthwith that Edward be pronounc'd a traitor, + And all his lands and goods confiscated. + CLARENCE. What else? And that succession be determin'd. + WARWICK. Ay, therein Clarence shall not want his part. + KING HENRY. But, with the first of all your chief affairs, + Let me entreat- for I command no more- + That Margaret your Queen and my son Edward + Be sent for to return from France with speed; + For till I see them here, by doubtful fear + My joy of liberty is half eclips'd. + CLARENCE. It shall be done, my sovereign, with all speed. + KING HENRY. My Lord of Somerset, what youth is that, + Of whom you seem to have so tender care? + SOMERSET. My liege, it is young Henry, Earl of Richmond. + KING HENRY. Come hither, England's hope. + [Lays his hand on his head] + If secret powers + Suggest but truth to my divining thoughts, + This pretty lad will prove our country's bliss. + His looks are full of peaceful majesty; + His head by nature fram'd to wear a crown, + His hand to wield a sceptre; and himself + Likely in time to bless a regal throne. + Make much of him, my lords; for this is he + Must help you more than you are hurt by me. + + Enter a POST + + WARWICK. What news, my friend? + POST. That Edward is escaped from your brother + And fled, as he hears since, to Burgundy. + WARWICK. Unsavoury news! But how made he escape? + POST. He was convey'd by Richard Duke of Gloucester + And the Lord Hastings, who attended him + In secret ambush on the forest side + And from the Bishop's huntsmen rescu'd him; + For hunting was his daily exercise. + WARWICK. My brother was too careless of his charge. + But let us hence, my sovereign, to provide + A salve for any sore that may betide. + Exeunt all but SOMERSET, RICHMOND, and OXFORD + SOMERSET. My lord, I like not of this flight of Edward's; + For doubtless Burgundy will yield him help, + And we shall have more wars befor't be long. + As Henry's late presaging prophecy + Did glad my heart with hope of this young Richmond, + So doth my heart misgive me, in these conflicts, + What may befall him to his harm and ours. + Therefore, Lord Oxford, to prevent the worst, + Forthwith we'll send him hence to Brittany, + Till storms be past of civil enmity. + OXFORD. Ay, for if Edward repossess the crown, + 'Tis like that Richmond with the rest shall down. + SOMERSET. It shall be so; he shall to Brittany. + Come therefore, let's about it speedily. Exeunt + +SCENE VII. Before York + +Flourish. Enter KING EDWARD, GLOUCESTER, HASTINGS, and soldiers + + KING EDWARD. Now, brother Richard, Lord Hastings, and the rest, + Yet thus far fortune maketh us amends, + And says that once more I shall interchange + My waned state for Henry's regal crown. + Well have we pass'd and now repass'd the seas, + And brought desired help from Burgundy; + What then remains, we being thus arriv'd + From Ravenspurgh haven before the gates of York, + But that we enter, as into our dukedom? + GLOUCESTER. The gates made fast! Brother, I like not this; + For many men that stumble at the threshold + Are well foretold that danger lurks within. + KING EDWARD. Tush, man, abodements must not now affright us. + By fair or foul means we must enter in, + For hither will our friends repair to us. + HASTINGS. My liege, I'll knock once more to summon them. + + Enter, on the walls, the MAYOR OF YORK and + his BRETHREN + + MAYOR. My lords, we were forewarned of your coming + And shut the gates for safety of ourselves, + For now we owe allegiance unto Henry. + KING EDWARD. But, Master Mayor, if Henry be your King, + Yet Edward at the least is Duke of York. + MAYOR. True, my good lord; I know you for no less. + KING EDWARD. Why, and I challenge nothing but my dukedom, + As being well content with that alone. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] But when the fox hath once got in his nose, + He'll soon find means to make the body follow. + HASTINGS. Why, Master Mayor, why stand you in a doubt? + Open the gates; we are King Henry's friends. + MAYOR. Ay, say you so? The gates shall then be open'd. + [He descends] + GLOUCESTER. A wise stout captain, and soon persuaded! + HASTINGS. The good old man would fain that all were well, + So 'twere not long of him; but being ent'red, + I doubt not, I, but we shall soon persuade + Both him and all his brothers unto reason. + + Enter, below, the MAYOR and two ALDERMEN + + KING EDWARD. So, Master Mayor. These gates must not be shut + But in the night or in the time of war. + What! fear not, man, but yield me up the keys; + [Takes his keys] + For Edward will defend the town and thee, + And all those friends that deign to follow me. + + March. Enter MONTGOMERY with drum and soldiers + + GLOUCESTER. Brother, this is Sir John Montgomery, + Our trusty friend, unless I be deceiv'd. + KING EDWARD. Welcome, Sir john! But why come you in arms? + MONTGOMERY. To help King Edward in his time of storm, + As every loyal subject ought to do. + KING EDWARD. Thanks, good Montgomery; but we now forget + Our title to the crown, and only claim + Our dukedom till God please to send the rest. + MONTGOMERY. Then fare you well, for I will hence again. + I came to serve a king and not a duke. + Drummer, strike up, and let us march away. + [The drum begins to march] + KING EDWARD. Nay, stay, Sir John, a while, and we'll debate + By what safe means the crown may be recover'd. + MONTGOMERY. What talk you of debating? In few words: + If you'll not here proclaim yourself our King, + I'll leave you to your fortune and be gone + To keep them back that come to succour you. + Why shall we fight, if you pretend no title? + GLOUCESTER. Why, brother, wherefore stand you on nice points? + KING EDWARD. When we grow stronger, then we'll make our claim; + Till then 'tis wisdom to conceal our meaning. + HASTINGS. Away with scrupulous wit! Now arms must rule. + GLOUCESTER. And fearless minds climb soonest unto crowns. + Brother, we will proclaim you out of hand; + The bruit thereof will bring you many friends. + KING EDWARD. Then be it as you will; for 'tis my right, + And Henry but usurps the diadem. + MONTGOMERY. Ay, now my sovereign speaketh like himself; + And now will I be Edward's champion. + HASTINGS. Sound trumpet; Edward shall be here proclaim'd. + Come, fellow soldier, make thou proclamation. + [Gives him a paper. Flourish] + SOLDIER. [Reads] 'Edward the Fourth, by the grace of God, + King of England and France, and Lord of Ireland, &c.' + MONTGOMERY. And whoso'er gainsays King Edward's right, + By this I challenge him to single fight. + [Throws down gauntlet] + ALL. Long live Edward the Fourth! + KING EDWARD. Thanks, brave Montgomery, and thanks unto you all; + If fortune serve me, I'll requite this kindness. + Now for this night let's harbour here in York; + And when the morning sun shall raise his car + Above the border of this horizon, + We'll forward towards Warwick and his mates; + For well I wot that Henry is no soldier. + Ah, froward Clarence, how evil it beseems the + To flatter Henry and forsake thy brother! + Yet, as we may, we'll meet both thee and Warwick. + Come on, brave soldiers; doubt not of the day, + And, that once gotten, doubt not of large pay. Exeunt + +SCENE VIII. London. The palace + +Flourish. Enter KING HENRY, WARWICK, MONTAGUE, CLARENCE, OXFORD, and +EXETER + + WARWICK. What counsel, lords? Edward from Belgia, + With hasty Germans and blunt Hollanders, + Hath pass'd in safety through the narrow seas + And with his troops doth march amain to London; + And many giddy people flock to him. + KING HENRY. Let's levy men and beat him back again. + CLARENCE. A little fire is quickly trodden out, + Which, being suffer'd, rivers cannot quench. + WARWICK. In Warwickshire I have true-hearted friends, + Not mutinous in peace, yet bold in war; + Those will I muster up, and thou, son Clarence, + Shalt stir up in Suffolk, Norfolk, and in Kent, + The knights and gentlemen to come with thee. + Thou, brother Montague, in Buckingham, + Northampton, and in Leicestershire, shalt find + Men well inclin'd to hear what thou command'st. + And thou, brave Oxford, wondrous well belov'd, + In Oxfordshire shalt muster up thy friends. + My sovereign, with the loving citizens, + Like to his island girt in with the ocean + Or modest Dian circled with her nymphs, + Shall rest in London till we come to him. + Fair lords, take leave and stand not to reply. + Farewell, my sovereign. + KING HENRY. Farewell, my Hector and my Troy's true hope. + CLARENCE. In sign of truth, I kiss your Highness' hand. + KING HENRY. Well-minded Clarence, be thou fortunate! + MONTAGUE. Comfort, my lord; and so I take my leave. + OXFORD. [Kissing the KING'S band] And thus I seal my truth and bid + adieu. + KING HENRY. Sweet Oxford, and my loving Montague, + And all at once, once more a happy farewell. + WARWICK. Farewell, sweet lords; let's meet at Coventry. + Exeunt all but the KING and EXETER + KING HENRY. Here at the palace will I rest a while. + Cousin of Exeter, what thinks your lordship? + Methinks the power that Edward hath in field + Should not be able to encounter mine. + EXETER. The doubt is that he will seduce the rest. + KING HENRY. That's not my fear; my meed hath got me fame: + I have not stopp'd mine ears to their demands, + Nor posted off their suits with slow delays; + My pity hath been balm to heal their wounds, + My mildness hath allay'd their swelling griefs, + My mercy dried their water-flowing tears; + I have not been desirous of their wealth, + Nor much oppress'd them with great subsidies, + Nor forward of revenge, though they much err'd. + Then why should they love Edward more than me? + No, Exeter, these graces challenge grace; + And, when the lion fawns upon the lamb, + The lamb will never cease to follow him. + [Shout within 'A Lancaster! A Lancaster!'] + EXETER. Hark, hark, my lord! What shouts are these? + + Enter KING EDWARD, GLOUCESTER, and soldiers + + KING EDWARD. Seize on the shame-fac'd Henry, bear him hence; + And once again proclaim us King of England. + You are the fount that makes small brooks to flow. + Now stops thy spring; my sea shall suck them dry, + And swell so much the higher by their ebb. + Hence with him to the Tower: let him not speak. + Exeunt some with KING HENRY + And, lords, towards Coventry bend we our course, + Where peremptory Warwick now remains. + The sun shines hot; and, if we use delay, + Cold biting winter mars our hop'd-for hay. + GLOUCESTER. Away betimes, before his forces join, + And take the great-grown traitor unawares. + Brave warriors, march amain towards Coventry. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE I. Coventry + +Enter WARWICK, the MAYOR OF COVENTRY, two MESSENGERS, and others upon +the walls + + WARWICK. Where is the post that came from valiant Oxford? + How far hence is thy lord, mine honest fellow? + FIRST MESSENGER. By this at Dunsmore, marching hitherward. + WARWICK. How far off is our brother Montague? + Where is the post that came from Montague? + SECOND MESSENGER. By this at Daintry, with a puissant troop. + + Enter SIR JOHN SOMERVILLE + + WARWICK. Say, Somerville, what says my loving son? + And by thy guess how nigh is Clarence now? + SOMERVILLE. At Southam I did leave him with his forces, + And do expect him here some two hours hence. + [Drum heard] + WARWICK. Then Clarence is at hand; I hear his drum. + SOMERVILLE. It is not his, my lord; here Southam lies. + The drum your Honour hears marcheth from Warwick. + WARWICK. Who should that be? Belike unlook'd for friends. + SOMERVILLE. They are at hand, and you shall quickly know. + + March. Flourish. Enter KING EDWARD, GLOUCESTER, + and soldiers + + KING EDWARD. Go, trumpet, to the walls, and sound a parle. + GLOUCESTER. See how the surly Warwick mans the wall. + WARWICK. O unbid spite! Is sportful Edward come? + Where slept our scouts or how are they seduc'd + That we could hear no news of his repair? + KING EDWARD. Now, Warwick, wilt thou ope the city gates, + Speak gentle words, and humbly bend thy knee, + Call Edward King, and at his hands beg mercy? + And he shall pardon thee these outrages. + WARWICK. Nay, rather, wilt thou draw thy forces hence, + Confess who set thee up and pluck'd thee down, + Call Warwick patron, and be penitent? + And thou shalt still remain the Duke of York. + GLOUCESTER. I thought, at least, he would have said the King; + Or did he make the jest against his will? + WARWICK. Is not a dukedom, sir, a goodly gift? + GLOUCESTER. Ay, by my faith, for a poor earl to give. + I'll do thee service for so good a gift. + WARWICK. 'Twas I that gave the kingdom to thy brother. + KING EDWARD. Why then 'tis mine, if but by Warwick's gift. + WARWICK. Thou art no Atlas for so great a weight; + And, weakling, Warwick takes his gift again; + And Henry is my King, Warwick his subject. + KING EDWARD. But Warwick's king is Edward's prisoner. + And, gallant Warwick, do but answer this: + What is the body when the head is off? + GLOUCESTER. Alas, that Warwick had no more forecast, + But, whiles he thought to steal the single ten, + The king was slily finger'd from the deck! + You left poor Henry at the Bishop's palace, + And ten to one you'll meet him in the Tower. + KING EDWARD. 'Tis even so; yet you are Warwick still. + GLOUCESTER. Come, Warwick, take the time; kneel down, kneel down. + Nay, when? Strike now, or else the iron cools. + WARWICK. I had rather chop this hand off at a blow, + And with the other fling it at thy face, + Than bear so low a sail to strike to thee. + KING EDWARD. Sail how thou canst, have wind and tide thy friend, + This hand, fast wound about thy coal-black hair, + Shall, whiles thy head is warm and new cut off, + Write in the dust this sentence with thy blood: + 'Wind-changing Warwick now can change no more.' + + Enter OXFORD, with drum and colours + + WARWICK. O cheerful colours! See where Oxford comes. + OXFORD. Oxford, Oxford, for Lancaster! + [He and his forces enter the city] + GLOUCESTER. The gates are open, let us enter too. + KING EDWARD. So other foes may set upon our backs. + Stand we in good array, for they no doubt + Will issue out again and bid us battle; + If not, the city being but of small defence, + We'll quietly rouse the traitors in the same. + WARWICK. O, welcome, Oxford! for we want thy help. + + Enter MONTAGUE, with drum and colours + + MONTAGUE. Montague, Montague, for Lancaster! + [He and his forces enter the city] + GLOUCESTER. Thou and thy brother both shall buy this treason + Even with the dearest blood your bodies bear. + KING EDWARD. The harder match'd, the greater victory. + My mind presageth happy gain and conquest. + + Enter SOMERSET, with drum and colours + + SOMERSET. Somerset, Somerset, for Lancaster! + [He and his forces enter the city] + GLOUCESTER. Two of thy name, both Dukes of Somerset, + Have sold their lives unto the house of York; + And thou shalt be the third, if this sword hold. + + Enter CLARENCE, with drum and colours + + WARWICK. And lo where George of Clarence sweeps along, + Of force enough to bid his brother battle; + With whom an upright zeal to right prevails + More than the nature of a brother's love. + CLARENCE. Clarence, Clarence, for Lancaster! + KING EDWARD. Et tu Brute- wilt thou stab Caesar too? + A parley, sirrah, to George of Clarence. + [Sound a parley. RICHARD and CLARENCE whisper] + WARWICK. Come, Clarence, come. Thou wilt if Warwick call. + CLARENCE. [Taking the red rose from his hat and throwing + it at WARWICK] + Father of Warwick, know you what this means? + Look here, I throw my infamy at thee. + I will not ruinate my father's house, + Who gave his blood to lime the stones together, + And set up Lancaster. Why, trowest thou, Warwick, + That Clarence is so harsh, so blunt, unnatural, + To bend the fatal instruments of war + Against his brother and his lawful King? + Perhaps thou wilt object my holy oath. + To keep that oath were more impiety + Than Jephtha when he sacrific'd his daughter. + I am so sorry for my trespass made + That, to deserve well at my brother's hands, + I here proclaim myself thy mortal foe; + With resolution whereso'er I meet thee- + As I will meet thee, if thou stir abroad- + To plague thee for thy foul misleading me. + And so, proud-hearted Warwick, I defy thee, + And to my brother turn my blushing cheeks. + Pardon me, Edward, I will make amends; + And, Richard, do not frown upon my faults, + For I will henceforth be no more unconstant. + KING EDWARD. Now welcome more, and ten times more belov'd, + Than if thou never hadst deserv'd our hate. + GLOUCESTER. Welcome, good Clarence; this is brother-like. + WARWICK. O passing traitor, perjur'd and unjust! + KING EDWARD. What, Warwick, wilt thou leave die town and fight? + Or shall we beat the stones about thine ears? + WARWICK. Alas, I am not coop'd here for defence! + I will away towards Barnet presently + And bid thee battle, Edward, if thou dar'st. + KING EDWARD. Yes, Warwick, Edward dares and leads the way. + Lords, to the field; Saint George and victory! + Exeunt YORKISTS + [March. WARWICK and his company follow] + +SCENE II. A field of battle near Barnet + +Alarum and excursions. Enter KING EDWARD, bringing forth WARWICK, +wounded + + KING EDWARD. So, lie thou there. Die thou, and die our fear; + For Warwick was a bug that fear'd us all. + Now, Montague, sit fast; I seek for thee, + That Warwick's bones may keep thine company. Exit + WARWICK. Ah, who is nigh? Come to me, friend or foe, + And tell me who is victor, York or Warwick? + Why ask I that? My mangled body shows, + My blood, my want of strength, my sick heart shows, + That I must yield my body to the earth + And, by my fall, the conquest to my foe. + Thus yields the cedar to the axe's edge, + Whose arms gave shelter to the princely eagle, + Under whose shade the ramping lion slept, + Whose top-branch overpeer'd Jove's spreading tree + And kept low shrubs from winter's pow'rful wind. + These eyes, that now are dimm'd with death's black veil, + Have been as piercing as the mid-day sun + To search the secret treasons of the world; + The wrinkles in my brows, now fill'd with blood, + Were lik'ned oft to kingly sepulchres; + For who liv'd King, but I could dig his grave? + And who durst smile when Warwick bent his brow? + Lo now my glory smear'd in dust and blood! + My parks, my walks, my manors, that I had, + Even now forsake me; and of all my lands + Is nothing left me but my body's length. + what is pomp, rule, reign, but earth and dust? + And live we how we can, yet die we must. + + Enter OXFORD and SOMERSET + + SOMERSET. Ah, Warwick, Warwick! wert thou as we are, + We might recover all our loss again. + The Queen from France hath brought a puissant power; + Even now we heard the news. Ah, couldst thou fly! + WARWICK. Why then, I would not fly. Ah, Montague, + If thou be there, sweet brother, take my hand, + And with thy lips keep in my soul a while! + Thou lov'st me not; for, brother, if thou didst, + Thy tears would wash this cold congealed blood + That glues my lips and will not let me speak. + Come quickly, Montague, or I am dead. + SOMERSET. Ah, Warwick! Montague hath breath'd his last; + And to the latest gasp cried out for Warwick, + And said 'Commend me to my valiant brother.' + And more he would have said; and more he spoke, + Which sounded like a clamour in a vault, + That mought not be distinguish'd; but at last, + I well might hear, delivered with a groan, + 'O farewell, Warwick!' + WARWICK. Sweet rest his soul! Fly, lords, and save yourselves: + For Warwick bids you all farewell, to meet in heaven. + [Dies] + OXFORD. Away, away, to meet the Queen's great power! + [Here they bear away his body] + +SCENE III. Another part of the field + +Flourish. Enter KING in triumph; with GLOUCESTER, CLARENCE, and the +rest + + KING EDWARD. Thus far our fortune keeps an upward course, + And we are grac'd with wreaths of victory. + But in the midst of this bright-shining day + I spy a black, suspicious, threat'ning cloud + That will encounter with our glorious sun + Ere he attain his easeful western bed- + I mean, my lords, those powers that the Queen + Hath rais'd in Gallia have arriv'd our coast + And, as we hear, march on to fight with us. + CLARENCE. A little gale will soon disperse that cloud + And blow it to the source from whence it came; + Thy very beams will dry those vapours up, + For every cloud engenders not a storm. + GLOUCESTER. The Queen is valued thirty thousand strong, + And Somerset, with Oxford, fled to her. + If she have time to breathe, be well assur'd + Her faction will be full as strong as ours. + KING EDWARD. are advertis'd by our loving friends + That they do hold their course toward Tewksbury; + We, having now the best at Barnet field, + Will thither straight, for willingness rids way; + And as we march our strength will be augmented + In every county as we go along. + Strike up the drum; cry 'Courage!' and away. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Plains wear Tewksbury + +Flourish. March. Enter QUEEN MARGARET, PRINCE EDWARD, SOMERSET, OXFORD, +and SOLDIERS + + QUEEN MARGARET. Great lords, wise men ne'er sit and wail their + loss, + But cheerly seek how to redress their harms. + What though the mast be now blown overboard, + The cable broke, the holding-anchor lost, + And half our sailors swallow'd in the flood; + Yet lives our pilot still. Is't meet that he + Should leave the helm and, like a fearful lad, + With tearful eyes add water to the sea + And give more strength to that which hath too much; + Whiles, in his moan, the ship splits on the rock, + Which industry and courage might have sav'd? + Ah, what a shame! ah, what a fault were this! + Say Warwick was our anchor; what of that? + And Montague our top-mast; what of him? + Our slaught'red friends the tackles; what of these? + Why, is not Oxford here another anchor? + And Somerset another goodly mast? + The friends of France our shrouds and tacklings? + And, though unskilful, why not Ned and I + For once allow'd the skilful pilot's charge? + We will not from the helm to sit and weep, + But keep our course, though the rough wind say no, + From shelves and rocks that threaten us with wreck, + As good to chide the waves as speak them fair. + And what is Edward but a ruthless sea? + What Clarence but a quicksand of deceit? + And Richard but a ragged fatal rock? + All these the enemies to our poor bark. + Say you can swim; alas, 'tis but a while! + Tread on the sand; why, there you quickly sink. + Bestride the rock; the tide will wash you off, + Or else you famish- that's a threefold death. + This speak I, lords, to let you understand, + If case some one of you would fly from us, + That there's no hop'd-for mercy with the brothers + More than with ruthless waves, with sands, and rocks. + Why, courage then! What cannot be avoided + 'Twere childish weakness to lament or fear. + PRINCE OF WALES. Methinks a woman of this valiant spirit + Should, if a coward hear her speak these words, + Infuse his breast with magnanimity + And make him naked foil a man-at-arms. + I speak not this as doubting any here; + For did I but suspect a fearful man, + He should have leave to go away betimes, + Lest in our need he might infect another + And make him of the like spirit to himself. + If any such be here- as God forbid!- + Let him depart before we need his help. + OXFORD. Women and children of so high a courage, + And warriors faint! Why, 'twere perpetual shame. + O brave young Prince! thy famous grandfather + Doth live again in thee. Long mayst thou Eve + To bear his image and renew his glories! + SOMERSET. And he that will not fight for such a hope, + Go home to bed and, like the owl by day, + If he arise, be mock'd and wond'red at. + QUEEN MARGARET. Thanks, gentle Somerset; sweet Oxford, thanks. + PRINCE OF WALES. And take his thanks that yet hath nothing else. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. Prepare you, lords, for Edward is at hand + Ready to fight; therefore be resolute. + OXFORD. I thought no less. It is his policy + To haste thus fast, to find us unprovided. + SOMERSET. But he's deceiv'd; we are in readiness. + QUEEN MARGARET. This cheers my heart, to see your forwardness. + OXFORD. Here pitch our battle; hence we will not budge. + + Flourish and march. Enter, at a distance, KING EDWARD, + GLOUCESTER, CLARENCE, and soldiers + + KING EDWARD. Brave followers, yonder stands the thorny wood + Which, by the heavens' assistance and your strength, + Must by the roots be hewn up yet ere night. + I need not add more fuel to your fire, + For well I wot ye blaze to burn them out. + Give signal to the fight, and to it, lords. + QUEEN MARGARET. Lords, knights, and gentlemen, what I should say + My tears gainsay; for every word I speak, + Ye see, I drink the water of my eye. + Therefore, no more but this: Henry, your sovereign, + Is prisoner to the foe; his state usurp'd, + His realm a slaughter-house, his subjects slain, + His statutes cancell'd, and his treasure spent; + And yonder is the wolf that makes this spoil. + You fight in justice. Then, in God's name, lords, + Be valiant, and give signal to the fight. + Alarum, retreat, excursions. Exeunt + +SCENE V. Another part of the field + +Flourish. Enter KING EDWARD, GLOUCESTER, CLARENCE, and forces, +With QUEEN MARGARET, OXFORD, and SOMERSET, prisoners + + KING EDWARD. Now here a period of tumultuous broils. + Away with Oxford to Hames Castle straight; + For Somerset, off with his guilty head. + Go, bear them hence; I will not hear them speak. + OXFORD. For my part, I'll not trouble thee with words. + SOMERSET. Nor I, but stoop with patience to my fortune. + Exeunt OXFORD and SOMERSET, guarded + QUEEN MARGARET. So part we sadly in this troublous world, + To meet with joy in sweet Jerusalem. + KING EDWARD. Is proclamation made that who finds Edward + Shall have a high reward, and he his life? + GLOUCESTER. It is; and lo where youthful Edward comes. + + Enter soldiers, with PRINCE EDWARD + + KING EDWARD. Bring forth the gallant; let us hear him speak. + What, can so young a man begin to prick? + Edward, what satisfaction canst thou make + For bearing arms, for stirring up my subjects, + And all the trouble thou hast turn'd me to? + PRINCE OF WALES. Speak like a subject, proud ambitious York. + Suppose that I am now my father's mouth; + Resign thy chair, and where I stand kneel thou, + Whilst I propose the self-same words to the + Which, traitor, thou wouldst have me answer to. + QUEEN MARGARET. Ah, that thy father had been so resolv'd! + GLOUCESTER. That you might still have worn the petticoat + And ne'er have stol'n the breech from Lancaster. + PRINCE OF WALES. Let Aesop fable in a winter's night; + His currish riddle sorts not with this place. + GLOUCESTER. By heaven, brat, I'll plague ye for that word. + QUEEN MARGARET. Ay, thou wast born to be a plague to men. + GLOUCESTER. For God's sake, take away this captive scold. + PRINCE OF WALES. Nay, take away this scolding crookback rather. + KING EDWARD. Peace, wilful boy, or I will charm your tongue. + CLARENCE. Untutor'd lad, thou art too malapert. + PRINCE OF WALES. I know my duty; you are all undutiful. + Lascivious Edward, and thou perjur'd George, + And thou misshapen Dick, I tell ye all + I am your better, traitors as ye are; + And thou usurp'st my father's right and mine. + KING EDWARD. Take that, the likeness of this railer here. + [Stabs him] + GLOUCESTER. Sprawl'st thou? Take that, to end thy agony. + [Stabs him] + CLARENCE. And there's for twitting me with perjury. + [Stabs him] + QUEEN MARGARET. O, kill me too! + GLOUCESTER. Marry, and shall. [Offers to kill her] + KING EDWARD. Hold, Richard, hold; for we have done to much. + GLOUCESTER. Why should she live to fill the world with words? + KING EDWARD. What, doth she swoon? Use means for her recovery. + GLOUCESTER. Clarence, excuse me to the King my brother. + I'll hence to London on a serious matter; + Ere ye come there, be sure to hear some news. + CLARENCE. What? what? + GLOUCESTER. The Tower! the Tower! Exit + QUEEN MARGARET. O Ned, sweet Ned, speak to thy mother, boy! + Canst thou not speak? O traitors! murderers! + They that stabb'd Caesar shed no blood at all, + Did not offend, nor were not worthy blame, + If this foul deed were by to equal it. + He was a man: this, in respect, a child; + And men ne'er spend their fury on a child. + What's worse than murderer, that I may name it? + No, no, my heart will burst, an if I speak- + And I will speak, that so my heart may burst. + Butchers and villains! bloody cannibals! + How sweet a plant have you untimely cropp'd! + You have no children, butchers, if you had, + The thought of them would have stirr'd up remorse. + But if you ever chance to have a child, + Look in his youth to have him so cut off + As, deathsmen, you have rid this sweet young prince! + KING EDWARD. Away with her; go, bear her hence perforce. + QUEEN MARGARET. Nay, never bear me hence; dispatch me here. + Here sheathe thy sword; I'll pardon thee my death. + What, wilt thou not? Then, Clarence, do it thou. + CLARENCE. By heaven, I will not do thee so much ease. + QUEEN MARGARET. Good Clarence, do; sweet Clarence, do thou do it. + CLARENCE. Didst thou not hear me swear I would not do it? + QUEEN MARGARET. Ay, but thou usest to forswear thyself. + 'Twas sin before, but now 'tis charity. + What! wilt thou not? Where is that devil's butcher, + Hard-favour'd Richard? Richard, where art thou? + Thou art not here. Murder is thy alms-deed; + Petitioners for blood thou ne'er put'st back. + KING EDWARD. Away, I say; I charge ye bear her hence. + QUEEN MARGARET. So come to you and yours as to this prince. + Exit, led out forcibly + KING EDWARD. Where's Richard gone? + CLARENCE. To London, all in post; and, as I guess, + To make a bloody supper in the Tower. + KING EDWARD. He's sudden, if a thing comes in his head. + Now march we hence. Discharge the common sort + With pay and thanks; and let's away to London + And see our gentle queen how well she fares. + By this, I hope, she hath a son for me. Exeunt + +SCENE VI. London. The Tower + +Enter KING HENRY and GLOUCESTER with the LIEUTENANT, on the walls + + GLOUCESTER. Good day, my lord. What, at your book so hard? + KING HENRY. Ay, my good lord- my lord, I should say rather. + 'Tis sin to flatter; 'good' was little better. + 'Good Gloucester' and 'good devil' were alike, + And both preposterous; therefore, not 'good lord.' + GLOUCESTER. Sirrah, leave us to ourselves; we must confer. + Exit LIEUTENANT + KING HENRY. So flies the reckless shepherd from the wolf; + So first the harmless sheep doth yield his fleece, + And next his throat unto the butcher's knife. + What scene of death hath Roscius now to act? + GLOUCESTER. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind: + The thief doth fear each bush an officer. + KING HENRY. The bird that hath been limed in a bush + With trembling wings misdoubteth every bush; + And I, the hapless male to one sweet bird, + Have now the fatal object in my eye + Where my poor young was lim'd, was caught, and kill'd. + GLOUCESTER. Why, what a peevish fool was that of Crete + That taught his son the office of a fowl! + And yet, for all his wings, the fool was drown'd. + KING HENRY. I, Daedalus; my poor boy, Icarus; + Thy father, Minos, that denied our course; + The sun that sear'd the wings of my sweet boy, + Thy brother Edward; and thyself, the sea + Whose envious gulf did swallow up his life. + Ah, kill me with thy weapon, not with words! + My breast can better brook thy dagger's point + Than can my ears that tragic history. + But wherefore dost thou come? Is't for my life? + GLOUCESTER. Think'st thou I am an executioner? + KING HENRY. A persecutor I am sure thou art. + If murdering innocents be executing, + Why, then thou are an executioner. + GLOUCESTER. Thy son I kill'd for his presumption. + KING HENRY. Hadst thou been kill'd when first thou didst presume, + Thou hadst not liv'd to kill a son of mine. + And thus I prophesy, that many a thousand + Which now mistrust no parcel of my fear, + And many an old man's sigh, and many a widow's, + And many an orphan's water-standing eye- + Men for their sons, wives for their husbands, + Orphans for their parents' timeless death- + Shall rue the hour that ever thou wast born. + The owl shriek'd at thy birth- an evil sign; + The night-crow cried, aboding luckless time; + Dogs howl'd, and hideous tempest shook down trees; + The raven rook'd her on the chimney's top, + And chatt'ring pies in dismal discords sung; + Thy mother felt more than a mother's pain, + And yet brought forth less than a mother's hope, + To wit, an indigest deformed lump, + Not like the fruit of such a goodly tree. + Teeth hadst thou in thy head when thou wast born, + To signify thou cam'st to bite the world; + And if the rest be true which I have heard, + Thou cam'st- + GLOUCESTER. I'll hear no more. Die, prophet, in thy speech. + [Stabs him] + For this, amongst the rest, was I ordain'd. + KING HENRY. Ay, and for much more slaughter after this. + O, God forgive my sins and pardon thee! [Dies] + GLOUCESTER. What, will the aspiring blood of Lancaster + Sink in the ground? I thought it would have mounted. + See how my sword weeps for the poor King's death. + O, may such purple tears be always shed + From those that wish the downfall of our house! + If any spark of life be yet remaining, + Down, down to hell; and say I sent thee thither- + [Stabs him again] + I, that have neither pity, love, nor fear. + Indeed, 'tis true that Henry told me of; + For I have often heard my mother say + I came into the world with my legs forward. + Had I not reason, think ye, to make haste + And seek their ruin that usurp'd our right? + The midwife wonder'd; and the women cried + 'O, Jesus bless us, he is born with teeth!' + And so I was, which plainly signified + That I should snarl, and bite, and play the dog. + Then, since the heavens have shap'd my body so, + Let hell make crook'd my mind to answer it. + I have no brother, I am like no brother; + And this word 'love,' which greybeards call divine, + Be resident in men like one another, + And not in me! I am myself alone. + Clarence, beware; thou keep'st me from the light, + But I will sort a pitchy day for thee; + For I will buzz abroad such prophecies + That Edward shall be fearful of his life; + And then to purge his fear, I'll be thy death. + King Henry and the Prince his son are gone. + Clarence, thy turn is next, and then the rest; + Counting myself but bad till I be best. + I'll throw thy body in another room, + And triumph, Henry, in thy day of doom. + Exit with the body + +SCENE VII. London. The palace + +Flourish. Enter KING EDWARD, QUEEN ELIZABETH, CLARENCE, GLOUCESTER, +HASTINGS, NURSE, with the Young PRINCE, and attendants + + KING EDWARD. Once more we sit in England's royal throne, + Repurchas'd with the blood of enemies. + What valiant foemen, like to autumn's corn, + Have we mow'd down in tops of all their pride! + Three Dukes of Somerset, threefold renown'd + For hardy and undoubted champions; + Two Cliffords, as the father and the son; + And two Northumberlands- two braver men + Ne'er spurr'd their coursers at the trumpet's sound; + With them the two brave bears, Warwick and Montague, + That in their chains fetter'd the kingly lion + And made the forest tremble when they roar'd. + Thus have we swept suspicion from our seat + And made our footstool of security. + Come hither, Bess, and let me kiss my boy. + Young Ned, for thee thine uncles and myself + Have in our armours watch'd the winter's night, + Went all afoot in summer's scalding heat, + That thou might'st repossess the crown in peace; + And of our labours thou shalt reap the gain. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] I'll blast his harvest if your head were laid; + For yet I am not look'd on in the world. + This shoulder was ordain'd so thick to heave; + And heave it shall some weight or break my back. + Work thou the way- and that shall execute. + KING EDWARD. Clarence and Gloucester, love my lovely queen; + And kiss your princely nephew, brothers both. + CLARENCE. The duty that I owe unto your Majesty + I seal upon the lips of this sweet babe. + KING EDWARD. Thanks, noble Clarence; worthy brother, thanks. + GLOUCESTER. And that I love the tree from whence thou sprang'st, + Witness the loving kiss I give the fruit. + [Aside] To say the truth, so Judas kiss'd his master + And cried 'All hail!' when as he meant all harm. + KING EDWARD. Now am I seated as my soul delights, + Having my country's peace and brothers' loves. + CLARENCE. What will your Grace have done with Margaret? + Reignier, her father, to the King of France + Hath pawn'd the Sicils and Jerusalem, + And hither have they sent it for her ransom. + KING EDWARD. Away with her, and waft her hence to France. + And now what rests but that we spend the time + With stately triumphs, mirthful comic shows, + Such as befits the pleasure of the court? + Sound drums and trumpets. Farewell, sour annoy! + For here, I hope, begins our lasting joy. Exeunt + + + + +KING HENRY THE EIGHTH + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + + KING HENRY THE EIGHTH + CARDINAL WOLSEY CARDINAL CAMPEIUS + CAPUCIUS, Ambassador from the Emperor Charles V + CRANMER, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY + DUKE OF NORFOLK DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM + DUKE OF SUFFOLK EARL OF SURREY + LORD CHAMBERLAIN LORD CHANCELLOR + GARDINER, BISHOP OF WINCHESTER + BISHOP OF LINCOLN LORD ABERGAVENNY + LORD SANDYS SIR HENRY GUILDFORD + SIR THOMAS LOVELL SIR ANTHONY DENNY + SIR NICHOLAS VAUX SECRETARIES to Wolsey + CROMWELL, servant to Wolsey + GRIFFITH, gentleman-usher to Queen Katharine + THREE GENTLEMEN + DOCTOR BUTTS, physician to the King + GARTER KING-AT-ARMS + SURVEYOR to the Duke of Buckingham + BRANDON, and a SERGEANT-AT-ARMS + DOORKEEPER Of the Council chamber + PORTER, and his MAN PAGE to Gardiner + A CRIER + + QUEEN KATHARINE, wife to King Henry, afterwards divorced + ANNE BULLEN, her Maid of Honour, afterwards Queen + AN OLD LADY, friend to Anne Bullen + PATIENCE, woman to Queen Katharine + + Lord Mayor, Aldermen, Lords and Ladies in the Dumb + Shows; Women attending upon the Queen; Scribes, + Officers, Guards, and other Attendants; Spirits + + SCENE: + + London; Westminster; Kimbolton + + KING HENRY THE EIGHTH + + THE PROLOGUE. + + I come no more to make you laugh; things now + That bear a weighty and a serious brow, + Sad, high, and working, full of state and woe, + Such noble scenes as draw the eye to flow, + We now present. Those that can pity here + May, if they think it well, let fall a tear: + The subject will deserve it. Such as give + Their money out of hope they may believe + May here find truth too. Those that come to see + Only a show or two, and so agree + The play may pass, if they be still and willing, + I'll undertake may see away their shilling + Richly in two short hours. Only they + That come to hear a merry bawdy play, + A noise of targets, or to see a fellow + In a long motley coat guarded with yellow, + Will be deceiv'd; for, gentle hearers, know, + To rank our chosen truth with such a show + As fool and fight is, beside forfeiting + Our own brains, and the opinion that we bring + To make that only true we now intend, + Will leave us never an understanding friend. + Therefore, for goodness sake, and as you are known + The first and happiest hearers of the town, + Be sad, as we would make ye. Think ye see + The very persons of our noble story + As they were living; think you see them great, + And follow'd with the general throng and sweat + Of thousand friends; then, in a moment, see + How soon this mightiness meets misery. + And if you can be merry then, I'll say + A man may weep upon his wedding-day. + +ACT I. SCENE 1. + +London. The palace + +Enter the DUKE OF NORFOLK at one door; at the other, the DUKE OF +BUCKINGHAM and the LORD ABERGAVENNY + + BUCKINGHAM. Good morrow, and well met. How have ye done + Since last we saw in France? + NORFOLK. I thank your Grace, + Healthful; and ever since a fresh admirer + Of what I saw there. + BUCKINGHAM. An untimely ague + Stay'd me a prisoner in my chamber when + Those suns of glory, those two lights of men, + Met in the vale of Andren. + NORFOLK. 'Twixt Guynes and Arde- + I was then present, saw them salute on horseback; + Beheld them, when they lighted, how they clung + In their embracement, as they grew together; + Which had they, what four thron'd ones could have weigh'd + Such a compounded one? + BUCKINGHAM. All the whole time + I was my chamber's prisoner. + NORFOLK. Then you lost + The view of earthly glory; men might say, + Till this time pomp was single, but now married + To one above itself. Each following day + Became the next day's master, till the last + Made former wonders its. To-day the French, + All clinquant, all in gold, like heathen gods, + Shone down the English; and to-morrow they + Made Britain India: every man that stood + Show'd like a mine. Their dwarfish pages were + As cherubins, an gilt; the madams too, + Not us'd to toil, did almost sweat to bear + The pride upon them, that their very labour + Was to them as a painting. Now this masque + Was cried incomparable; and th' ensuing night + Made it a fool and beggar. The two kings, + Equal in lustre, were now best, now worst, + As presence did present them: him in eye + still him in praise; and being present both, + 'Twas said they saw but one, and no discerner + Durst wag his tongue in censure. When these suns- + For so they phrase 'em-by their heralds challeng'd + The noble spirits to arms, they did perform + Beyond thought's compass, that former fabulous story, + Being now seen possible enough, got credit, + That Bevis was believ'd. + BUCKINGHAM. O, you go far! + NORFOLK. As I belong to worship, and affect + In honour honesty, the tract of ev'rything + Would by a good discourser lose some life + Which action's self was tongue to. All was royal: + To the disposing of it nought rebell'd; + Order gave each thing view. The office did + Distinctly his full function. + BUCKINGHAM. Who did guide- + I mean, who set the body and the limbs + Of this great sport together, as you guess? + NORFOLK. One, certes, that promises no element + In such a business. + BUCKINGHAM. I pray you, who, my lord? + NORFOLK. All this was ord'red by the good discretion + Of the right reverend Cardinal of York. + BUCKINGHAM. The devil speed him! No man's pie is freed + From his ambitious finger. What had he + To do in these fierce vanities? I wonder + That such a keech can with his very bulk + Take up the rays o' th' beneficial sun, + And keep it from the earth. + NORFOLK. Surely, sir, + There's in him stuff that puts him to these ends; + For, being not propp'd by ancestry, whose grace + Chalks successors their way, nor call'd upon + For high feats done to th' crown, neither allied + To eminent assistants, but spider-like, + Out of his self-drawing web, 'a gives us note + The force of his own merit makes his way- + A gift that heaven gives for him, which buys + A place next to the King. + ABERGAVENNY. I cannot tell + What heaven hath given him-let some graver eye + Pierce into that; but I can see his pride + Peep through each part of him. Whence has he that? + If not from hell, the devil is a niggard + Or has given all before, and he begins + A new hell in himself. + BUCKINGHAM. Why the devil, + Upon this French going out, took he upon him- + Without the privity o' th' King-t' appoint + Who should attend on him? He makes up the file + Of all the gentry; for the most part such + To whom as great a charge as little honour + He meant to lay upon; and his own letter, + The honourable board of council out, + Must fetch him in he papers. + ABERGAVENNY. I do know + Kinsmen of mine, three at the least, that have + By this so sicken'd their estates that never + They shall abound as formerly. + BUCKINGHAM. O, many + Have broke their backs with laying manors on 'em + For this great journey. What did this vanity + But minister communication of + A most poor issue? + NORFOLK. Grievingly I think + The peace between the French and us not values + The cost that did conclude it. + BUCKINGHAM. Every man, + After the hideous storm that follow'd, was + A thing inspir'd, and, not consulting, broke + Into a general prophecy-that this tempest, + Dashing the garment of this peace, aboded + The sudden breach on't. + NORFOLK. Which is budded out; + For France hath flaw'd the league, and hath attach'd + Our merchants' goods at Bordeaux. + ABERGAVENNY. Is it therefore + Th' ambassador is silenc'd? + NORFOLK. Marry, is't. + ABERGAVENNY. A proper tide of a peace, and purchas'd + At a superfluous rate! + BUCKINGHAM. Why, all this business + Our reverend Cardinal carried. + NORFOLK. Like it your Grace, + The state takes notice of the private difference + Betwixt you and the Cardinal. I advise you- + And take it from a heart that wishes towards you + Honour and plenteous safety-that you read + The Cardinal's malice and his potency + Together; to consider further, that + What his high hatred would effect wants not + A minister in his power. You know his nature, + That he's revengeful; and I know his sword + Hath a sharp edge-it's long and't may be said + It reaches far, and where 'twill not extend, + Thither he darts it. Bosom up my counsel + You'll find it wholesome. Lo, where comes that rock + That I advise your shunning. + + Enter CARDINAL WOLSEY, the purse borne before him, certain of the + guard, and two SECRETARIES with papers. The CARDINAL in his + passage fixeth his eye on BUCKINGHAM, and BUCKINGHAM on him, both + full of disdain + + WOLSEY. The Duke of Buckingham's surveyor? Ha! + Where's his examination? + SECRETARY. Here, so please you. + WOLSEY. Is he in person ready? + SECRETARY. Ay, please your Grace. + WOLSEY. Well, we shall then know more, and Buckingham + shall lessen this big look. + Exeunt WOLSEY and his train + BUCKINGHAM. This butcher's cur is venom-mouth'd, and I + Have not the power to muzzle him; therefore best + Not wake him in his slumber. A beggar's book + Outworths a noble's blood. + NORFOLK. What, are you chaf'd? + Ask God for temp'rance; that's th' appliance only + Which your disease requires. + BUCKINGHAM. I read in's looks + Matter against me, and his eye revil'd + Me as his abject object. At this instant + He bores me with some trick. He's gone to th' King; + I'll follow, and outstare him. + NORFOLK. Stay, my lord, + And let your reason with your choler question + What 'tis you go about. To climb steep hills + Requires slow pace at first. Anger is like + A full hot horse, who being allow'd his way, + Self-mettle tires him. Not a man in England + Can advise me like you; be to yourself + As you would to your friend. + BUCKINGHAM. I'll to the King, + And from a mouth of honour quite cry down + This Ipswich fellow's insolence; or proclaim + There's difference in no persons. + NORFOLK. Be advis'd: + Heat not a furnace for your foe so hot + That it do singe yourself. We may outrun + By violent swiftness that which we run at, + And lose by over-running. Know you not + The fire that mounts the liquor till't run o'er + In seeming to augment it wastes it? Be advis'd. + I say again there is no English soul + More stronger to direct you than yourself, + If with the sap of reason you would quench + Or but allay the fire of passion. + BUCKINGHAM. Sir, + I am thankful to you, and I'll go along + By your prescription; but this top-proud fellow- + Whom from the flow of gan I name not, but + From sincere motions, by intelligence, + And proofs as clear as founts in July when + We see each grain of gravel-I do know + To be corrupt and treasonous. + NORFOLK. Say not treasonous. + BUCKINGHAM. To th' King I'll say't, and make my vouch as strong + As shore of rock. Attend: this holy fox, + Or wolf, or both-for he is equal rav'nous + As he is subtle, and as prone to mischief + As able to perform't, his mind and place + Infecting one another, yea, reciprocally- + Only to show his pomp as well in France + As here at home, suggests the King our master + To this last costly treaty, th' interview + That swallowed so much treasure and like a glass + Did break i' th' wrenching. + NORFOLK. Faith, and so it did. + BUCKINGHAM. Pray, give me favour, sir; this cunning cardinal + The articles o' th' combination drew + As himself pleas'd; and they were ratified + As he cried 'Thus let be' to as much end + As give a crutch to th' dead. But our Count-Cardinal + Has done this, and 'tis well; for worthy Wolsey, + Who cannot err, he did it. Now this follows, + Which, as I take it, is a kind of puppy + To th' old dam treason: Charles the Emperor, + Under pretence to see the Queen his aunt- + For 'twas indeed his colour, but he came + To whisper Wolsey-here makes visitation- + His fears were that the interview betwixt + England and France might through their amity + Breed him some prejudice; for from this league + Peep'd harms that menac'd him-privily + Deals with our Cardinal; and, as I trow- + Which I do well, for I am sure the Emperor + Paid ere he promis'd; whereby his suit was granted + Ere it was ask'd-but when the way was made, + And pav'd with gold, the Emperor thus desir'd, + That he would please to alter the King's course, + And break the foresaid peace. Let the King know, + As soon he shall by me, that thus the Cardinal + Does buy and sell his honour as he pleases, + And for his own advantage. + NORFOLK. I am sorry + To hear this of him, and could wish he were + Something mistaken in't. + BUCKINGHAM. No, not a syllable: + I do pronounce him in that very shape + He shall appear in proof. + + Enter BRANDON, a SERGEANT-AT-ARMS before him, + and two or three of the guard + + BRANDON. Your office, sergeant: execute it. + SERGEANT. Sir, + My lord the Duke of Buckingham, and Earl + Of Hereford, Stafford, and Northampton, I + Arrest thee of high treason, in the name + Of our most sovereign King. + BUCKINGHAM. Lo you, my lord, + The net has fall'n upon me! I shall perish + Under device and practice. + BRANDON. I am sorry + To see you ta'en from liberty, to look on + The business present; 'tis his Highness' pleasure + You shall to th' Tower. + BUCKINGHAM. It will help nothing + To plead mine innocence; for that dye is on me + Which makes my whit'st part black. The will of heav'n + Be done in this and all things! I obey. + O my Lord Aberga'ny, fare you well! + BRANDON. Nay, he must bear you company. + [To ABERGAVENNY] The King + Is pleas'd you shall to th' Tower, till you know + How he determines further. + ABERGAVENNY. As the Duke said, + The will of heaven be done, and the King's pleasure + By me obey'd. + BRANDON. Here is warrant from + The King t' attach Lord Montacute and the bodies + Of the Duke's confessor, John de la Car, + One Gilbert Peck, his chancellor- + BUCKINGHAM. So, so! + These are the limbs o' th' plot; no more, I hope. + BRANDON. A monk o' th' Chartreux. + BUCKINGHAM. O, Nicholas Hopkins? + BRANDON. He. + BUCKINGHAM. My surveyor is false. The o'er-great Cardinal + Hath show'd him gold; my life is spann'd already. + I am the shadow of poor Buckingham, + Whose figure even this instant cloud puts on + By dark'ning my clear sun. My lord, farewell. + Exeunt + +ACT I. SCENE 2. + +London. The Council Chamber + +Cornets. Enter KING HENRY, leaning on the CARDINAL'S shoulder, the +NOBLES, and SIR THOMAS LOVELL, with others. The CARDINAL places himself +under the KING'S feet on his right side + + KING. My life itself, and the best heart of it, + Thanks you for this great care; I stood i' th' level + Of a full-charg'd confederacy, and give thanks + To you that chok'd it. Let be call'd before us + That gentleman of Buckingham's. In person + I'll hear his confessions justify; + And point by point the treasons of his master + He shall again relate. + + A noise within, crying 'Room for the Queen!' Enter the QUEEN, + usher'd by the DUKES OF NORFOLK and SUFFOLK; she kneels. The KING + riseth from his state, takes her up, kisses and placeth her by + him + + QUEEN KATHARINE. Nay, we must longer kneel: I am suitor. + KING. Arise, and take place by us. Half your suit + Never name to us: you have half our power. + The other moiety ere you ask is given; + Repeat your will, and take it. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Thank your Majesty. + That you would love yourself, and in that love + Not unconsidered leave your honour nor + The dignity of your office, is the point + Of my petition. + KING. Lady mine, proceed. + QUEEN KATHARINE. I am solicited, not by a few, + And those of true condition, that your subjects + Are in great grievance: there have been commissions + Sent down among 'em which hath flaw'd the heart + Of all their loyalties; wherein, although, + My good Lord Cardinal, they vent reproaches + Most bitterly on you as putter-on + Of these exactions, yet the King our master- + Whose honour Heaven shield from soil!-even he escapes not + Language unmannerly; yea, such which breaks + The sides of loyalty, and almost appears + In loud rebellion. + NORFOLK. Not almost appears- + It doth appear; for, upon these taxations, + The clothiers all, not able to maintain + The many to them 'longing, have put of + The spinsters, carders, fullers, weavers, who + Unfit for other life, compell'd by hunger + And lack of other means, in desperate manner + Daring th' event to th' teeth, are all in uproar, + And danger serves among them. + KING. Taxation! + Wherein? and what taxation? My Lord Cardinal, + You that are blam'd for it alike with us, + Know you of this taxation? + WOLSEY. Please you, sir, + I know but of a single part in aught + Pertains to th' state, and front but in that file + Where others tell steps with me. + QUEEN KATHARINE. No, my lord! + You know no more than others! But you frame + Things that are known alike, which are not wholesome + To those which would not know them, and yet must + Perforce be their acquaintance. These exactions, + Whereof my sovereign would have note, they are + Most pestilent to th' hearing; and to bear 'em + The back is sacrifice to th' load. They say + They are devis'd by you, or else you suffer + Too hard an exclamation. + KING. Still exaction! + The nature of it? In what kind, let's know, + Is this exaction? + QUEEN KATHARINE. I am much too venturous + In tempting of your patience, but am bold'ned + Under your promis'd pardon. The subjects' grief + Comes through commissions, which compels from each + The sixth part of his substance, to be levied + Without delay; and the pretence for this + Is nam'd your wars in France. This makes bold mouths; + Tongues spit their duties out, and cold hearts freeze + Allegiance in them; their curses now + Live where their prayers did; and it's come to pass + This tractable obedience is a slave + To each incensed will. I would your Highness + Would give it quick consideration, for + There is no primer business. + KING. By my life, + This is against our pleasure. + WOLSEY. And for me, + I have no further gone in this than by + A single voice; and that not pass'd me but + By learned approbation of the judges. If I am + Traduc'd by ignorant tongues, which neither know + My faculties nor person, yet will be + The chronicles of my doing, let me say + 'Tis but the fate of place, and the rough brake + That virtue must go through. We must not stint + Our necessary actions in the fear + To cope malicious censurers, which ever + As rav'nous fishes do a vessel follow + That is new-trimm'd, but benefit no further + Than vainly longing. What we oft do best, + By sick interpreters, once weak ones, is + Not ours, or not allow'd; what worst, as oft + Hitting a grosser quality, is cried up + For our best act. If we shall stand still, + In fear our motion will be mock'd or carp'd at, + We should take root here where we sit, or sit + State-statues only. + KING. Things done well + And with a care exempt themselves from fear: + Things done without example, in their issue + Are to be fear'd. Have you a precedent + Of this commission? I believe, not any. + We must not rend our subjects from our laws, + And stick them in our will. Sixth part of each? + A trembling contribution! Why, we take + From every tree lop, bark, and part o' th' timber; + And though we leave it with a root, thus hack'd, + The air will drink the sap. To every county + Where this is question'd send our letters with + Free pardon to each man that has denied + The force of this commission. Pray, look tot; + I put it to your care. + WOLSEY. [Aside to the SECRETARY] A word with you. + Let there be letters writ to every shire + Of the King's grace and pardon. The grieved commons + Hardly conceive of me-let it be nois'd + That through our intercession this revokement + And pardon comes. I shall anon advise you + Further in the proceeding. Exit SECRETARY + + Enter SURVEYOR + + QUEEN KATHARINE. I am sorry that the Duke of Buckingham + Is run in your displeasure. + KING. It grieves many. + The gentleman is learn'd and a most rare speaker; + To nature none more bound; his training such + That he may furnish and instruct great teachers + And never seek for aid out of himself. Yet see, + When these so noble benefits shall prove + Not well dispos'd, the mind growing once corrupt, + They turn to vicious forms, ten times more ugly + Than ever they were fair. This man so complete, + Who was enroll'd 'mongst wonders, and when we, + Almost with ravish'd list'ning, could not find + His hour of speech a minute-he, my lady, + Hath into monstrous habits put the graces + That once were his, and is become as black + As if besmear'd in hell. Sit by us; you shall hear- + This was his gentleman in trust-of him + Things to strike honour sad. Bid him recount + The fore-recited practices, whereof + We cannot feel too little, hear too much. + WOLSEY. Stand forth, and with bold spirit relate what you, + Most like a careful subject, have collected + Out of the Duke of Buckingham. + KING. Speak freely. + SURVEYOR. First, it was usual with him-every day + It would infect his speech-that if the King + Should without issue die, he'll carry it so + To make the sceptre his. These very words + I've heard him utter to his son-in-law, + Lord Aberga'ny, to whom by oath he menac'd + Revenge upon the Cardinal. + WOLSEY. Please your Highness, note + This dangerous conception in this point: + Not friended by his wish, to your high person + His will is most malignant, and it stretches + Beyond you to your friends. + QUEEN KATHARINE. My learn'd Lord Cardinal, + Deliver all with charity. + KING. Speak on. + How grounded he his title to the crown + Upon our fail? To this point hast thou heard him + At any time speak aught? + SURVEYOR. He was brought to this + By a vain prophecy of Nicholas Henton. + KING. What was that Henton? + SURVEYOR. Sir, a Chartreux friar, + His confessor, who fed him every minute + With words of sovereignty. + KING. How know'st thou this? + SURVEYOR. Not long before your Highness sped to France, + The Duke being at the Rose, within the parish + Saint Lawrence Poultney, did of me demand + What was the speech among the Londoners + Concerning the French journey. I replied + Men fear'd the French would prove perfidious, + To the King's danger. Presently the Duke + Said 'twas the fear indeed and that he doubted + 'Twould prove the verity of certain words + Spoke by a holy monk 'that oft' says he + 'Hath sent to me, wishing me to permit + John de la Car, my chaplain, a choice hour + To hear from him a matter of some moment; + Whom after under the confession's seal + He solemnly had sworn that what he spoke + My chaplain to no creature living but + To me should utter, with demure confidence + This pausingly ensu'd: "Neither the King nor's heirs, + Tell you the Duke, shall prosper; bid him strive + To gain the love o' th' commonalty; the Duke + Shall govern England."' + QUEEN KATHARINE. If I know you well, + You were the Duke's surveyor, and lost your office + On the complaint o' th' tenants. Take good heed + You charge not in your spleen a noble person + And spoil your nobler soul. I say, take heed; + Yes, heartily beseech you. + KING. Let him on. + Go forward. + SURVEYOR. On my soul, I'll speak but truth. + I told my lord the Duke, by th' devil's illusions + The monk might be deceiv'd, and that 'twas dangerous + for him + To ruminate on this so far, until + It forg'd him some design, which, being believ'd, + It was much like to do. He answer'd 'Tush, + It can do me no damage'; adding further + That, had the King in his last sickness fail'd, + The Cardinal's and Sir Thomas Lovell's heads + Should have gone off. + KING. Ha! what, so rank? Ah ha! + There's mischief in this man. Canst thou say further? + SURVEYOR. I can, my liege. + KING. Proceed. + SURVEYOR. Being at Greenwich, + After your Highness had reprov'd the Duke + About Sir William Bulmer- + KING. I remember + Of such a time: being my sworn servant, + The Duke retain'd him his. But on: what hence? + SURVEYOR. 'If' quoth he 'I for this had been committed- + As to the Tower I thought-I would have play'd + The part my father meant to act upon + Th' usurper Richard; who, being at Salisbury, + Made suit to come in's presence, which if granted, + As he made semblance of his duty, would + Have put his knife into him.' + KING. A giant traitor! + WOLSEY. Now, madam, may his Highness live in freedom, + And this man out of prison? + QUEEN KATHARINE. God mend all! + KING. There's something more would out of thee: what say'st? + SURVEYOR. After 'the Duke his father' with the 'knife,' + He stretch'd him, and, with one hand on his dagger, + Another spread on's breast, mounting his eyes, + He did discharge a horrible oath, whose tenour + Was, were he evil us'd, he would outgo + His father by as much as a performance + Does an irresolute purpose. + KING. There's his period, + To sheath his knife in us. He is attach'd; + Call him to present trial. If he may + Find mercy in the law, 'tis his; if none, + Let him not seek't of us. By day and night! + He's traitor to th' height. Exeunt + +ACT I. SCENE 3. + +London. The palace + +Enter the LORD CHAMBERLAIN and LORD SANDYS + + CHAMBERLAIN. Is't possible the spells of France should juggle + Men into such strange mysteries? + SANDYS. New customs, + Though they be never so ridiculous, + Nay, let 'em be unmanly, yet are follow'd. + CHAMBERLAIN. As far as I see, all the good our English + Have got by the late voyage is but merely + A fit or two o' th' face; but they are shrewd ones; + For when they hold 'em, you would swear directly + Their very noses had been counsellors + To Pepin or Clotharius, they keep state so. + SANDYS. They have all new legs, and lame ones. One would take it, + That never saw 'em pace before, the spavin + Or springhalt reign'd among 'em. + CHAMBERLAIN. Death! my lord, + Their clothes are after such a pagan cut to't, + That sure th' have worn out Christendom. + + Enter SIR THOMAS LOVELL + + How now? + What news, Sir Thomas Lovell? + LOVELL. Faith, my lord, + I hear of none but the new proclamation + That's clapp'd upon the court gate. + CHAMBERLAIN. What is't for? + LOVELL. The reformation of our travell'd gallants, + That fill the court with quarrels, talk, and tailors. + CHAMBERLAIN. I am glad 'tis there. Now I would pray our monsieurs + To think an English courtier may be wise, + And never see the Louvre. + LOVELL. They must either, + For so run the conditions, leave those remnants + Of fool and feather that they got in France, + With all their honourable points of ignorance + Pertaining thereunto-as fights and fireworks; + Abusing better men than they can be, + Out of a foreign wisdom-renouncing clean + The faith they have in tennis, and tall stockings, + Short blist'red breeches, and those types of travel + And understand again like honest men, + Or pack to their old playfellows. There, I take it, + They may, cum privilegio, wear away + The lag end of their lewdness and be laugh'd at. + SANDYS. 'Tis time to give 'em physic, their diseases + Are grown so catching. + CHAMBERLAIN. What a loss our ladies + Will have of these trim vanities! + LOVELL. Ay, marry, + There will be woe indeed, lords: the sly whoresons + Have got a speeding trick to lay down ladies. + A French song and a fiddle has no fellow. + SANDYS. The devil fiddle 'em! I am glad they are going, + For sure there's no converting 'em. Now + An honest country lord, as I am, beaten + A long time out of play, may bring his plainsong + And have an hour of hearing; and, by'r Lady, + Held current music too. + CHAMBERLAIN. Well said, Lord Sandys; + Your colt's tooth is not cast yet. + SANDYS. No, my lord, + Nor shall not while I have a stamp. + CHAMBERLAIN. Sir Thomas, + Whither were you a-going? + LOVELL. To the Cardinal's; + Your lordship is a guest too. + CHAMBERLAIN. O, 'tis true; + This night he makes a supper, and a great one, + To many lords and ladies; there will be + The beauty of this kingdom, I'll assure you. + LOVELL. That churchman bears a bounteous mind indeed, + A hand as fruitful as the land that feeds us; + His dews fall everywhere. + CHAMBERLAIN. No doubt he's noble; + He had a black mouth that said other of him. + SANDYS. He may, my lord; has wherewithal. In him + Sparing would show a worse sin than ill doctrine: + Men of his way should be most liberal, + They are set here for examples. + CHAMBERLAIN. True, they are so; + But few now give so great ones. My barge stays; + Your lordship shall along. Come, good Sir Thomas, + We shall be late else; which I would not be, + For I was spoke to, with Sir Henry Guildford, + This night to be comptrollers. + SANDYS. I am your lordship's. Exeunt + +ACT I. SCENE 4. + +London. The Presence Chamber in York Place + +Hautboys. A small table under a state for the Cardinal, a longer table +for the guests. Then enter ANNE BULLEN, and divers other LADIES and +GENTLEMEN, as guests, at one door; at another door enter SIR HENRY +GUILDFORD + + GUILDFORD. Ladies, a general welcome from his Grace + Salutes ye all; this night he dedicates + To fair content and you. None here, he hopes, + In all this noble bevy, has brought with her + One care abroad; he would have all as merry + As, first, good company, good wine, good welcome, + Can make good people. + + Enter LORD CHAMBERLAIN, LORD SANDYS, and SIR + THOMAS LOVELL + + O, my lord, y'are tardy, + The very thought of this fair company + Clapp'd wings to me. + CHAMBERLAIN. You are young, Sir Harry Guildford. + SANDYS. Sir Thomas Lovell, had the Cardinal + But half my lay thoughts in him, some of these + Should find a running banquet ere they rested + I think would better please 'em. By my life, + They are a sweet society of fair ones. + LOVELL. O that your lordship were but now confessor + To one or two of these! + SANDYS. I would I were; + They should find easy penance. + LOVELL. Faith, how easy? + SANDYS. As easy as a down bed would afford it. + CHAMBERLAIN. Sweet ladies, will it please you sit? Sir Harry, + Place you that side; I'll take the charge of this. + His Grace is ent'ring. Nay, you must not freeze: + Two women plac'd together makes cold weather. + My Lord Sandys, you are one will keep 'em waking: + Pray sit between these ladies. + SANDYS. By my faith, + And thank your lordship. By your leave, sweet ladies. + [Seats himself between ANNE BULLEN and another lady] + If I chance to talk a little wild, forgive me; + I had it from my father. + ANNE. Was he mad, sir? + SANDYS. O, very mad, exceeding mad, in love too. + But he would bite none; just as I do now, + He would kiss you twenty with a breath. [Kisses her] + CHAMBERLAIN. Well said, my lord. + So, now y'are fairly seated. Gentlemen, + The penance lies on you if these fair ladies + Pass away frowning. + SANDYS. For my little cure, + Let me alone. + + Hautboys. Enter CARDINAL WOLSEY, attended; and + takes his state + + WOLSEY. Y'are welcome, my fair guests. That noble lady + Or gentleman that is not freely merry + Is not my friend. This, to confirm my welcome- + And to you all, good health! [Drinks] + SANDYS. Your Grace is noble. + Let me have such a bowl may hold my thanks + And save me so much talking. + WOLSEY. My Lord Sandys, + I am beholding to you. Cheer your neighbours. + Ladies, you are not merry. Gentlemen, + Whose fault is this? + SANDYS. The red wine first must rise + In their fair cheeks, my lord; then we shall have 'em + Talk us to silence. + ANNE. You are a merry gamester, + My Lord Sandys. + SANDYS. Yes, if I make my play. + Here's to your ladyship; and pledge it, madam, + For 'tis to such a thing- + ANNE. You cannot show me. + SANDYS. I told your Grace they would talk anon. + [Drum and trumpet. Chambers discharg'd] + WOLSEY. What's that? + CHAMBERLAIN. Look out there, some of ye. Exit a SERVANT + WOLSEY. What warlike voice, + And to what end, is this? Nay, ladies, fear not: + By all the laws of war y'are privileg'd. + + Re-enter SERVANT + + CHAMBERLAIN. How now! what is't? + SERVANT. A noble troop of strangers- + For so they seem. Th' have left their barge and landed, + And hither make, as great ambassadors + From foreign princes. + WOLSEY. Good Lord Chamberlain, + Go, give 'em welcome; you can speak the French tongue; + And pray receive 'em nobly and conduct 'em + Into our presence, where this heaven of beauty + Shall shine at full upon them. Some attend him. + Exit CHAMBERLAIN attended. All rise, and tables remov'd + You have now a broken banquet, but we'll mend it. + A good digestion to you all; and once more + I show'r a welcome on ye; welcome all. + + Hautboys. Enter the KING, and others, as maskers, + habited like shepherds, usher'd by the LORD CHAMBERLAIN. + They pass directly before the CARDINAL, + and gracefully salute him + + A noble company! What are their pleasures? + CHAMBERLAIN. Because they speak no English, thus they pray'd + To tell your Grace, that, having heard by fame + Of this so noble and so fair assembly + This night to meet here, they could do no less, + Out of the great respect they bear to beauty, + But leave their flocks and, under your fair conduct, + Crave leave to view these ladies and entreat + An hour of revels with 'em. + WOLSEY. Say, Lord Chamberlain, + They have done my poor house grace; for which I pay 'em + A thousand thanks, and pray 'em take their pleasures. + [They choose ladies. The KING chooses ANNE BULLEN] + KING. The fairest hand I ever touch'd! O beauty, + Till now I never knew thee! [Music. Dance] + WOLSEY. My lord! + CHAMBERLAIN. Your Grace? + WOLSEY. Pray tell 'em thus much from me: + There should be one amongst 'em, by his person, + More worthy this place than myself; to whom, + If I but knew him, with my love and duty + I would surrender it. + CHAMBERLAIN. I will, my lord. + [He whispers to the maskers] + WOLSEY. What say they? + CHAMBERLAIN. Such a one, they all confess, + There is indeed; which they would have your Grace + Find out, and he will take it. + WOLSEY. Let me see, then. [Comes from his state] + By all your good leaves, gentlemen, here I'll make + My royal choice. + KING. [Unmasking] Ye have found him, Cardinal. + You hold a fair assembly; you do well, lord. + You are a churchman, or, I'll tell you, Cardinal, + I should judge now unhappily. + WOLSEY. I am glad + Your Grace is grown so pleasant. + KING. My Lord Chamberlain, + Prithee come hither: what fair lady's that? + CHAMBERLAIN. An't please your Grace, Sir Thomas Bullen's + daughter- + The Viscount Rochford-one of her Highness' women. + KING. By heaven, she is a dainty one. Sweet heart, + I were unmannerly to take you out + And not to kiss you. A health, gentlemen! + Let it go round. + WOLSEY. Sir Thomas Lovell, is the banquet ready + I' th' privy chamber? + LOVELL. Yes, my lord. + WOLSEY. Your Grace, + I fear, with dancing is a little heated. + KING. I fear, too much. + WOLSEY. There's fresher air, my lord, + In the next chamber. + KING. Lead in your ladies, ev'ry one. Sweet partner, + I must not yet forsake you. Let's be merry: + Good my Lord Cardinal, I have half a dozen healths + To drink to these fair ladies, and a measure + To lead 'em once again; and then let's dream + Who's best in favour. Let the music knock it. + Exeunt, with trumpets + +ACT II. SCENE 1. + +Westminster. A street + +Enter two GENTLEMEN, at several doors + + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Whither away so fast? + SECOND GENTLEMAN. O, God save ye! + Ev'n to the Hall, to hear what shall become + Of the great Duke of Buckingham. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. I'll save you + That labour, sir. All's now done but the ceremony + Of bringing back the prisoner. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Were you there? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Yes, indeed, was I. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Pray, speak what has happen'd. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. You may guess quickly what. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Is he found guilty? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Yes, truly is he, and condemn'd upon't. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. I am sorry for't. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. So are a number more. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. But, pray, how pass'd it? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. I'll tell you in a little. The great Duke. + Came to the bar; where to his accusations + He pleaded still not guilty, and alleged + Many sharp reasons to defeat the law. + The King's attorney, on the contrary, + Urg'd on the examinations, proofs, confessions, + Of divers witnesses; which the Duke desir'd + To have brought, viva voce, to his face; + At which appear'd against him his surveyor, + Sir Gilbert Peck his chancellor, and John Car, + Confessor to him, with that devil-monk, + Hopkins, that made this mischief. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. That was he + That fed him with his prophecies? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. The same. + All these accus'd him strongly, which he fain + Would have flung from him; but indeed he could not; + And so his peers, upon this evidence, + Have found him guilty of high treason. Much + He spoke, and learnedly, for life; but all + Was either pitied in him or forgotten. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. After all this, how did he bear him-self + FIRST GENTLEMAN. When he was brought again to th' bar to hear + His knell rung out, his judgment, he was stirr'd + With such an agony he sweat extremely, + And something spoke in choler, ill and hasty; + But he fell to himself again, and sweetly + In all the rest show'd a most noble patience. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. I do not think he fears death. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Sure, he does not; + He never was so womanish; the cause + He may a little grieve at. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Certainly + The Cardinal is the end of this. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. 'Tis likely, + By all conjectures: first, Kildare's attainder, + Then deputy of Ireland, who remov'd, + Earl Surrey was sent thither, and in haste too, + Lest he should help his father. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. That trick of state + Was a deep envious one. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. At his return + No doubt he will requite it. This is noted, + And generally: whoever the King favours + The Cardinal instantly will find employment, + And far enough from court too. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. All the commons + Hate him perniciously, and, o' my conscience, + Wish him ten fathom deep: this Duke as much + They love and dote on; call him bounteous Buckingham, + The mirror of all courtesy- + + Enter BUCKINGHAM from his arraignment, tip-staves + before him; the axe with the edge towards him; halberds + on each side; accompanied with SIR THOMAS + LOVELL, SIR NICHOLAS VAUX, SIR WILLIAM SANDYS, + and common people, etc. + + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Stay there, sir, + And see the noble ruin'd man you speak of. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Let's stand close, and behold him. + BUCKINGHAM. All good people, + You that thus far have come to pity me, + Hear what I say, and then go home and lose me. + I have this day receiv'd a traitor's judgment, + And by that name must die; yet, heaven bear witness, + And if I have a conscience, let it sink me + Even as the axe falls, if I be not faithful! + The law I bear no malice for my death: + 'T has done, upon the premises, but justice. + But those that sought it I could wish more Christians. + Be what they will, I heartily forgive 'em; + Yet let 'em look they glory not in mischief + Nor build their evils on the graves of great men, + For then my guiltless blood must cry against 'em. + For further life in this world I ne'er hope + Nor will I sue, although the King have mercies + More than I dare make faults. You few that lov'd me + And dare be bold to weep for Buckingham, + His noble friends and fellows, whom to leave + Is only bitter to him, only dying, + Go with me like good angels to my end; + And as the long divorce of steel falls on me + Make of your prayers one sweet sacrifice, + And lift my soul to heaven. Lead on, a God's name. + LOVELL. I do beseech your Grace, for charity, + If ever any malice in your heart + Were hid against me, now to forgive me frankly. + BUCKINGHAM. Sir Thomas Lovell, I as free forgive you + As I would be forgiven. I forgive all. + There cannot be those numberless offences + 'Gainst me that I cannot take peace with. No black envy + Shall mark my grave. Commend me to his Grace; + And if he speak of Buckingham, pray tell him + You met him half in heaven. My vows and prayers + Yet are the King's, and, till my soul forsake, + Shall cry for blessings on him. May he live + Longer than I have time to tell his years; + Ever belov'd and loving may his rule be; + And when old time Shall lead him to his end, + Goodness and he fill up one monument! + LOVELL. To th' water side I must conduct your Grace; + Then give my charge up to Sir Nicholas Vaux, + Who undertakes you to your end. + VAUX. Prepare there; + The Duke is coming; see the barge be ready; + And fit it with such furniture as suits + The greatness of his person. + BUCKINGHAM. Nay, Sir Nicholas, + Let it alone; my state now will but mock me. + When I came hither I was Lord High Constable + And Duke of Buckingham; now, poor Edward Bohun. + Yet I am richer than my base accusers + That never knew what truth meant; I now seal it; + And with that blood will make 'em one day groan fort. + My noble father, Henry of Buckingham, + Who first rais'd head against usurping Richard, + Flying for succour to his servant Banister, + Being distress'd, was by that wretch betray'd + And without trial fell; God's peace be with him! + Henry the Seventh succeeding, truly pitying + My father's loss, like a most royal prince, + Restor'd me to my honours, and out of ruins + Made my name once more noble. Now his son, + Henry the Eighth, life, honour, name, and all + That made me happy, at one stroke has taken + For ever from the world. I had my trial, + And must needs say a noble one; which makes me + A little happier than my wretched father; + Yet thus far we are one in fortunes: both + Fell by our servants, by those men we lov'd most- + A most unnatural and faithless service. + Heaven has an end in all. Yet, you that hear me, + This from a dying man receive as certain: + Where you are liberal of your loves and counsels, + Be sure you be not loose; for those you make friends + And give your hearts to, when they once perceive + The least rub in your fortunes, fall away + Like water from ye, never found again + But where they mean to sink ye. All good people, + Pray for me! I must now forsake ye; the last hour + Of my long weary life is come upon me. + Farewell; + And when you would say something that is sad, + Speak how I fell. I have done; and God forgive me! + Exeunt BUCKINGHAM and train + FIRST GENTLEMAN. O, this is full of pity! Sir, it calls, + I fear, too many curses on their heads + That were the authors. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. If the Duke be guiltless, + 'Tis full of woe; yet I can give you inkling + Of an ensuing evil, if it fall, + Greater than this. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Good angels keep it from us! + What may it be? You do not doubt my faith, sir? + SECOND GENTLEMAN. This secret is so weighty, 'twill require + A strong faith to conceal it. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Let me have it; + I do not talk much. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. I am confident. + You shall, sir. Did you not of late days hear + A buzzing of a separation + Between the King and Katharine? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Yes, but it held not; + For when the King once heard it, out of anger + He sent command to the Lord Mayor straight + To stop the rumour and allay those tongues + That durst disperse it. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. But that slander, sir, + Is found a truth now; for it grows again + Fresher than e'er it was, and held for certain + The King will venture at it. Either the Cardinal + Or some about him near have, out of malice + To the good Queen, possess'd him with a scruple + That will undo her. To confirm this too, + Cardinal Campeius is arriv'd and lately; + As all think, for this business. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. 'Tis the Cardinal; + And merely to revenge him on the Emperor + For not bestowing on him at his asking + The archbishopric of Toledo, this is purpos'd. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. I think you have hit the mark; but is't + not cruel + That she should feel the smart of this? The Cardinal + Will have his will, and she must fall. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. 'Tis woeful. + We are too open here to argue this; + Let's think in private more. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE 2. + +London. The palace + +Enter the LORD CHAMBERLAIN reading this letter + + CHAMBERLAIN. 'My lord, + 'The horses your lordship sent for, with all the care + had, I saw well chosen, ridden, and furnish'd. They were + young and handsome, and of the best breed in the north. + When they were ready to set out for London, a man of + my Lord Cardinal's, by commission, and main power, took + 'em from me, with this reason: his master would be serv'd + before a subject, if not before the King; which stopp'd + our mouths, sir.' + + I fear he will indeed. Well, let him have them. + He will have all, I think. + + Enter to the LORD CHAMBERLAIN the DUKES OF NORFOLK and SUFFOLK + + NORFOLK. Well met, my Lord Chamberlain. + CHAMBERLAIN. Good day to both your Graces. + SUFFOLK. How is the King employ'd? + CHAMBERLAIN. I left him private, + Full of sad thoughts and troubles. + NORFOLK. What's the cause? + CHAMBERLAIN. It seems the marriage with his brother's wife + Has crept too near his conscience. + SUFFOLK. No, his conscience + Has crept too near another lady. + NORFOLK. 'Tis so; + This is the Cardinal's doing; the King-Cardinal, + That blind priest, like the eldest son of fortune, + Turns what he list. The King will know him one day. + SUFFOLK. Pray God he do! He'll never know himself else. + NORFOLK. How holily he works in all his business! + And with what zeal! For, now he has crack'd the league + Between us and the Emperor, the Queen's great nephew, + He dives into the King's soul and there scatters + Dangers, doubts, wringing of the conscience, + Fears, and despairs-and all these for his marriage; + And out of all these to restore the King, + He counsels a divorce, a loss of her + That like a jewel has hung twenty years + About his neck, yet never lost her lustre; + Of her that loves him with that excellence + That angels love good men with; even of her + That, when the greatest stroke of fortune falls, + Will bless the King-and is not this course pious? + CHAMBERLAIN. Heaven keep me from such counsel! 'Tis most true + These news are everywhere; every tongue speaks 'em, + And every true heart weeps for 't. All that dare + Look into these affairs see this main end- + The French King's sister. Heaven will one day open + The King's eyes, that so long have slept upon + This bold bad man. + SUFFOLK. And free us from his slavery. + NORFOLK. We had need pray, and heartily, for our deliverance; + Or this imperious man will work us an + From princes into pages. All men's honours + Lie like one lump before him, to be fashion'd + Into what pitch he please. + SUFFOLK. For me, my lords, + I love him not, nor fear him-there's my creed; + As I am made without him, so I'll stand, + If the King please; his curses and his blessings + Touch me alike; th' are breath I not believe in. + I knew him, and I know him; so I leave him + To him that made him proud-the Pope. + NORFOLK. Let's in; + And with some other business put the King + From these sad thoughts that work too much upon him. + My lord, you'll bear us company? + CHAMBERLAIN. Excuse me, + The King has sent me otherwhere; besides, + You'll find a most unfit time to disturb him. + Health to your lordships! + NORFOLK. Thanks, my good Lord Chamberlain. + Exit LORD CHAMBERLAIN; and the KING draws + the curtain and sits reading pensively + SUFFOLK. How sad he looks; sure, he is much afflicted. + KING. Who's there, ha? + NORFOLK. Pray God he be not angry. + KING HENRY. Who's there, I say? How dare you thrust yourselves + Into my private meditations? + Who am I, ha? + NORFOLK. A gracious king that pardons all offences + Malice ne'er meant. Our breach of duty this way + Is business of estate, in which we come + To know your royal pleasure. + KING. Ye are too bold. + Go to; I'll make ye know your times of business. + Is this an hour for temporal affairs, ha? + + Enter WOLSEY and CAMPEIUS with a commission + + Who's there? My good Lord Cardinal? O my Wolsey, + The quiet of my wounded conscience, + Thou art a cure fit for a King. [To CAMPEIUS] You're + welcome, + Most learned reverend sir, into our kingdom. + Use us and it. [To WOLSEY] My good lord, have great care + I be not found a talker. + WOLSEY. Sir, you cannot. + I would your Grace would give us but an hour + Of private conference. + KING. [To NORFOLK and SUFFOLK] We are busy; go. + NORFOLK. [Aside to SUFFOLK] This priest has no pride in him! + SUFFOLK. [Aside to NORFOLK] Not to speak of! + I would not be so sick though for his place. + But this cannot continue. + NORFOLK. [Aside to SUFFOLK] If it do, + I'll venture one have-at-him. + SUFFOLK. [Aside to NORFOLK] I another. + Exeunt NORFOLK and SUFFOLK + WOLSEY. Your Grace has given a precedent of wisdom + Above all princes, in committing freely + Your scruple to the voice of Christendom. + Who can be angry now? What envy reach you? + The Spaniard, tied by blood and favour to her, + Must now confess, if they have any goodness, + The trial just and noble. All the clerks, + I mean the learned ones, in Christian kingdoms + Have their free voices. Rome the nurse of judgment, + Invited by your noble self, hath sent + One general tongue unto us, this good man, + This just and learned priest, Cardinal Campeius, + Whom once more I present unto your Highness. + KING. And once more in mine arms I bid him welcome, + And thank the holy conclave for their loves. + They have sent me such a man I would have wish'd for. + CAMPEIUS. Your Grace must needs deserve an strangers' loves, + You are so noble. To your Highness' hand + I tender my commission; by whose virtue- + The court of Rome commanding-you, my Lord + Cardinal of York, are join'd with me their servant + In the unpartial judging of this business. + KING. Two equal men. The Queen shall be acquainted + Forthwith for what you come. Where's Gardiner? + WOLSEY. I know your Majesty has always lov'd her + So dear in heart not to deny her that + A woman of less place might ask by law- + Scholars allow'd freely to argue for her. + KING. Ay, and the best she shall have; and my favour + To him that does best. God forbid else. Cardinal, + Prithee call Gardiner to me, my new secretary; + I find him a fit fellow. Exit WOLSEY + + Re-enter WOLSEY with GARDINER + + WOLSEY. [Aside to GARDINER] Give me your hand: much + joy and favour to you; + You are the King's now. + GARDINER. [Aside to WOLSEY] But to be commanded + For ever by your Grace, whose hand has rais'd me. + KING. Come hither, Gardiner. [Walks and whispers] + CAMPEIUS. My Lord of York, was not one Doctor Pace + In this man's place before him? + WOLSEY. Yes, he was. + CAMPEIUS. Was he not held a learned man? + WOLSEY. Yes, surely. + CAMPEIUS. Believe me, there's an ill opinion spread then, + Even of yourself, Lord Cardinal. + WOLSEY. How! Of me? + CAMPEIUS. They will not stick to say you envied him + And, fearing he would rise, he was so virtuous, + Kept him a foreign man still; which so griev'd him + That he ran mad and died. + WOLSEY. Heav'n's peace be with him! + That's Christian care enough. For living murmurers + There's places of rebuke. He was a fool, + For he would needs be virtuous: that good fellow, + If I command him, follows my appointment. + I will have none so near else. Learn this, brother, + We live not to be grip'd by meaner persons. + KING. Deliver this with modesty to th' Queen. + Exit GARDINER + The most convenient place that I can think of + For such receipt of learning is Blackfriars; + There ye shall meet about this weighty business- + My Wolsey, see it furnish'd. O, my lord, + Would it not grieve an able man to leave + So sweet a bedfellow? But, conscience, conscience! + O, 'tis a tender place! and I must leave her. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE 3. + +London. The palace + +Enter ANNE BULLEN and an OLD LADY + + ANNE. Not for that neither. Here's the pang that pinches: + His Highness having liv'd so long with her, and she + So good a lady that no tongue could ever + Pronounce dishonour of her-by my life, + She never knew harm-doing-O, now, after + So many courses of the sun enthroned, + Still growing in a majesty and pomp, the which + To leave a thousand-fold more bitter than + 'Tis sweet at first t' acquire-after this process, + To give her the avaunt, it is a pity + Would move a monster. + OLD LADY. Hearts of most hard temper + Melt and lament for her. + ANNE. O, God's will! much better + She ne'er had known pomp; though't be temporal, + Yet, if that quarrel, fortune, do divorce + It from the bearer, 'tis a sufferance panging + As soul and body's severing. + OLD LADY. Alas, poor lady! + She's a stranger now again. + ANNE. So much the more + Must pity drop upon her. Verily, + I swear 'tis better to be lowly born + And range with humble livers in content + Than to be perk'd up in a glist'ring grief + And wear a golden sorrow. + OLD LADY. Our content + Is our best having. + ANNE. By my troth and maidenhead, + I would not be a queen. + OLD LADY. Beshrew me, I would, + And venture maidenhead for 't; and so would you, + For all this spice of your hypocrisy. + You that have so fair parts of woman on you + Have too a woman's heart, which ever yet + Affected eminence, wealth, sovereignty; + Which, to say sooth, are blessings; and which gifts, + Saving your mincing, the capacity + Of your soft cheveril conscience would receive + If you might please to stretch it. + ANNE. Nay, good troth. + OLD LADY. Yes, troth and troth. You would not be a queen! + ANNE. No, not for all the riches under heaven. + OLD LADY. 'Tis strange: a threepence bow'd would hire me, + Old as I am, to queen it. But, I pray you, + What think you of a duchess? Have you limbs + To bear that load of title? + ANNE. No, in truth. + OLD LADY. Then you are weakly made. Pluck off a little; + I would not be a young count in your way + For more than blushing comes to. If your back + Cannot vouchsafe this burden, 'tis too weak + Ever to get a boy. + ANNE. How you do talk! + I swear again I would not be a queen + For all the world. + OLD LADY. In faith, for little England + You'd venture an emballing. I myself + Would for Carnarvonshire, although there long'd + No more to th' crown but that. Lo, who comes here? + + Enter the LORD CHAMBERLAIN + + CHAMBERLAIN. Good morrow, ladies. What were't worth to know + The secret of your conference? + ANNE. My good lord, + Not your demand; it values not your asking. + Our mistress' sorrows we were pitying. + CHAMBERLAIN. It was a gentle business and becoming + The action of good women; there is hope + All will be well. + ANNE. Now, I pray God, amen! + CHAMBERLAIN. You bear a gentle mind, and heav'nly blessings + Follow such creatures. That you may, fair lady, + Perceive I speak sincerely and high notes + Ta'en of your many virtues, the King's Majesty + Commends his good opinion of you to you, and + Does purpose honour to you no less flowing + Than Marchioness of Pembroke; to which tide + A thousand pound a year, annual support, + Out of his grace he adds. + ANNE. I do not know + What kind of my obedience I should tender; + More than my all is nothing, nor my prayers + Are not words duly hallowed, nor my wishes + More worth than empty vanities; yet prayers and wishes + Are all I can return. Beseech your lordship, + Vouchsafe to speak my thanks and my obedience, + As from a blushing handmaid, to his Highness; + Whose health and royalty I pray for. + CHAMBERLAIN. Lady, + I shall not fail t' approve the fair conceit + The King hath of you. [Aside] I have perus'd her well: + Beauty and honour in her are so mingled + That they have caught the King; and who knows yet + But from this lady may proceed a gem + To lighten all this isle?-I'll to the King + And say I spoke with you. + ANNE. My honour'd lord! Exit LORD CHAMBERLAIN + OLD LADY. Why, this it is: see, see! + I have been begging sixteen years in court- + Am yet a courtier beggarly-nor could + Come pat betwixt too early and too late + For any suit of pounds; and you, O fate! + A very fresh-fish here-fie, fie, fie upon + This compell'd fortune!-have your mouth fill'd up + Before you open it. + ANNE. This is strange to me. + OLD LADY. How tastes it? Is it bitter? Forty pence, no. + There was a lady once-'tis an old story- + That would not be a queen, that would she not, + For all the mud in Egypt. Have you heard it? + ANNE. Come, you are pleasant. + OLD LADY. With your theme I could + O'ermount the lark. The Marchioness of Pembroke! + A thousand pounds a year for pure respect! + No other obligation! By my life, + That promises moe thousands: honour's train + Is longer than his foreskirt. By this time + I know your back will bear a duchess. Say, + Are you not stronger than you were? + ANNE. Good lady, + Make yourself mirth with your particular fancy, + And leave me out on't. Would I had no being, + If this salute my blood a jot; it faints me + To think what follows. + The Queen is comfortless, and we forgetful + In our long absence. Pray, do not deliver + What here y' have heard to her. + OLD LADY. What do you think me? Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE 4. + +London. A hall in Blackfriars + +Trumpets, sennet, and cornets. Enter two VERGERS, with short silver +wands; next them, two SCRIBES, in the habit of doctors; after them, the +ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY alone; after him, the BISHOPS OF LINCOLN, ELY, +ROCHESTER, and SAINT ASAPH; next them, with some small distance, +follows a GENTLEMAN bearing the purse, with the great seal, and a +Cardinal's hat; then two PRIESTS, bearing each silver cross; then a +GENTLEMAN USHER bareheaded, accompanied with a SERGEANT-AT-ARMS bearing +a silver mace; then two GENTLEMEN bearing two great silver pillars; +after them, side by side, the two CARDINALS, WOLSEY and CAMPEIUS; two +NOBLEMEN with the sword and mace. Then enter the KING and QUEEN and +their trains. The KING takes place under the cloth of state; the two +CARDINALS sit under him as judges. The QUEEN takes place some distance +from the KING. The BISHOPS place themselves on each side of the court, +in manner of consistory; below them the SCRIBES. The LORDS sit next the +BISHOPS. The rest of the attendants stand in convenient order about the +stage + + WOLSEY. Whilst our commission from Rome is read, + Let silence be commanded. + KING. What's the need? + It hath already publicly been read, + And on all sides th' authority allow'd; + You may then spare that time. + WOLSEY. Be't so; proceed. + SCRIBE. Say 'Henry King of England, come into the court.' + CRIER. Henry King of England, &c. + KING. Here. + SCRIBE. Say 'Katharine Queen of England, come into the court.' + CRIER. Katharine Queen of England, &c. + + The QUEEN makes no answer, rises out of her chair, + goes about the court, comes to the KING, and kneels + at his feet; then speaks + + QUEEN KATHARINE. Sir, I desire you do me right and justice, + And to bestow your pity on me; for + I am a most poor woman and a stranger, + Born out of your dominions, having here + No judge indifferent, nor no more assurance + Of equal friendship and proceeding. Alas, sir, + In what have I offended you? What cause + Hath my behaviour given to your displeasure + That thus you should proceed to put me of + And take your good grace from me? Heaven witness, + I have been to you a true and humble wife, + At all times to your will conformable, + Ever in fear to kindle your dislike, + Yea, subject to your countenance-glad or sorry + As I saw it inclin'd. When was the hour + I ever contradicted your desire + Or made it not mine too? Or which of your friends + Have I not strove to love, although I knew + He were mine enemy? What friend of mine + That had to him deriv'd your anger did + Continue in my liking? Nay, gave notice + He was from thence discharg'd? Sir, call to mind + That I have been your wife in this obedience + Upward of twenty years, and have been blest + With many children by you. If, in the course + And process of this time, you can report, + And prove it too against mine honour, aught, + My bond to wedlock or my love and duty, + Against your sacred person, in God's name, + Turn me away and let the foul'st contempt + Shut door upon me, and so give me up + To the sharp'st kind of justice. Please you, sir, + The King, your father, was reputed for + A prince most prudent, of an excellent + And unmatch'd wit and judgment; Ferdinand, + My father, King of Spain, was reckon'd one + The wisest prince that there had reign'd by many + A year before. It is not to be question'd + That they had gather'd a wise council to them + Of every realm, that did debate this business, + Who deem'd our marriage lawful. Wherefore I humbly + Beseech you, sir, to spare me till I may + Be by my friends in Spain advis'd, whose counsel + I will implore. If not, i' th' name of God, + Your pleasure be fulfill'd! + WOLSEY. You have here, lady, + And of your choice, these reverend fathers-men + Of singular integrity and learning, + Yea, the elect o' th' land, who are assembled + To plead your cause. It shall be therefore bootless + That longer you desire the court, as well + For your own quiet as to rectify + What is unsettled in the King. + CAMPEIUS. His Grace + Hath spoken well and justly; therefore, madam, + It's fit this royal session do proceed + And that, without delay, their arguments + Be now produc'd and heard. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Lord Cardinal, + To you I speak. + WOLSEY. Your pleasure, madam? + QUEEN KATHARINE. Sir, + I am about to weep; but, thinking that + We are a queen, or long have dream'd so, certain + The daughter of a king, my drops of tears + I'll turn to sparks of fire. + WOLSEY. Be patient yet. + QUEEN KATHARINE. I Will, when you are humble; nay, before + Or God will punish me. I do believe, + Induc'd by potent circumstances, that + You are mine enemy, and make my challenge + You shall not be my judge; for it is you + Have blown this coal betwixt my lord and me- + Which God's dew quench! Therefore I say again, + I utterly abhor, yea, from my soul + Refuse you for my judge, whom yet once more + I hold my most malicious foe and think not + At all a friend to truth. + WOLSEY. I do profess + You speak not like yourself, who ever yet + Have stood to charity and display'd th' effects + Of disposition gentle and of wisdom + O'ertopping woman's pow'r. Madam, you do me wrong: + I have no spleen against you, nor injustice + For you or any; how far I have proceeded, + Or how far further shall, is warranted + By a commission from the Consistory, + Yea, the whole Consistory of Rome. You charge me + That I have blown this coal: I do deny it. + The King is present; if it be known to him + That I gainsay my deed, how may he wound, + And worthily, my falsehood! Yea, as much + As you have done my truth. If he know + That I am free of your report, he knows + I am not of your wrong. Therefore in him + It lies to cure me, and the cure is to + Remove these thoughts from you; the which before + His Highness shall speak in, I do beseech + You, gracious madam, to unthink your speaking + And to say so no more. + QUEEN KATHARINE. My lord, my lord, + I am a simple woman, much too weak + T' oppose your cunning. Y'are meek and humble-mouth'd; + You sign your place and calling, in full seeming, + With meekness and humility; but your heart + Is cramm'd with arrogancy, spleen, and pride. + You have, by fortune and his Highness' favours, + Gone slightly o'er low steps, and now are mounted + Where pow'rs are your retainers, and your words, + Domestics to you, serve your will as't please + Yourself pronounce their office. I must tell you + You tender more your person's honour than + Your high profession spiritual; that again + I do refuse you for my judge and here, + Before you all, appeal unto the Pope, + To bring my whole cause 'fore his Holiness + And to be judg'd by him. + [She curtsies to the KING, and offers to depart] + CAMPEIUS. The Queen is obstinate, + Stubborn to justice, apt to accuse it, and + Disdainful to be tried by't; 'tis not well. + She's going away. + KING. Call her again. + CRIER. Katharine Queen of England, come into the court. + GENTLEMAN USHER. Madam, you are call'd back. + QUEEN KATHARINE. What need you note it? Pray you keep your way; + When you are call'd, return. Now the Lord help! + They vex me past my patience. Pray you pass on. + I will not tarry; no, nor ever more + Upon this business my appearance make + In any of their courts. Exeunt QUEEN and her attendants + KING. Go thy ways, Kate. + That man i' th' world who shall report he has + A better wife, let him in nought be trusted + For speaking false in that. Thou art, alone- + If thy rare qualities, sweet gentleness, + Thy meekness saint-like, wife-like government, + Obeying in commanding, and thy parts + Sovereign and pious else, could speak thee out- + The queen of earthly queens. She's noble born; + And like her true nobility she has + Carried herself towards me. + WOLSEY. Most gracious sir, + In humblest manner I require your Highness + That it shall please you to declare in hearing + Of all these ears-for where I am robb'd and bound, + There must I be unloos'd, although not there + At once and fully satisfied-whether ever I + Did broach this business to your Highness, or + Laid any scruple in your way which might + Induce you to the question on't, or ever + Have to you, but with thanks to God for such + A royal lady, spake one the least word that might + Be to the prejudice of her present state, + Or touch of her good person? + KING. My Lord Cardinal, + I do excuse you; yea, upon mine honour, + I free you from't. You are not to be taught + That you have many enemies that know not + Why they are so, but, like to village curs, + Bark when their fellows do. By some of these + The Queen is put in anger. Y'are excus'd. + But will you be more justified? You ever + Have wish'd the sleeping of this business; never desir'd + It to be stirr'd; but oft have hind'red, oft, + The passages made toward it. On my honour, + I speak my good Lord Cardinal to this point, + And thus far clear him. Now, what mov'd me to't, + I will be bold with time and your attention. + Then mark th' inducement. Thus it came-give heed to't: + My conscience first receiv'd a tenderness, + Scruple, and prick, on certain speeches utter'd + By th' Bishop of Bayonne, then French ambassador, + Who had been hither sent on the debating + A marriage 'twixt the Duke of Orleans and + Our daughter Mary. I' th' progress of this business, + Ere a determinate resolution, he- + I mean the Bishop-did require a respite + Wherein he might the King his lord advertise + Whether our daughter were legitimate, + Respecting this our marriage with the dowager, + Sometimes our brother's wife. This respite shook + The bosom of my conscience, enter'd me, + Yea, with a splitting power, and made to tremble + The region of my breast, which forc'd such way + That many maz'd considerings did throng + And press'd in with this caution. First, methought + I stood not in the smile of heaven, who had + Commanded nature that my lady's womb, + If it conceiv'd a male child by me, should + Do no more offices of life to't than + The grave does to the dead; for her male issue + Or died where they were made, or shortly after + This world had air'd them. Hence I took a thought + This was a judgment on me, that my kingdom, + Well worthy the best heir o' th' world, should not + Be gladded in't by me. Then follows that + I weigh'd the danger which my realms stood in + By this my issue's fail, and that gave to me + Many a groaning throe. Thus hulling in + The wild sea of my conscience, I did steer + Toward this remedy, whereupon we are + Now present here together; that's to say + I meant to rectify my conscience, which + I then did feel full sick, and yet not well, + By all the reverend fathers of the land + And doctors learn'd. First, I began in private + With you, my Lord of Lincoln; you remember + How under my oppression I did reek, + When I first mov'd you. + LINCOLN. Very well, my liege. + KING. I have spoke long; be pleas'd yourself to say + How far you satisfied me. + LINCOLN. So please your Highness, + The question did at first so stagger me- + Bearing a state of mighty moment in't + And consequence of dread-that I committed + The daring'st counsel which I had to doubt, + And did entreat your Highness to this course + Which you are running here. + KING. I then mov'd you, + My Lord of Canterbury, and got your leave + To make this present summons. Unsolicited + I left no reverend person in this court, + But by particular consent proceeded + Under your hands and seals; therefore, go on, + For no dislike i' th' world against the person + Of the good Queen, but the sharp thorny points + Of my alleged reasons, drives this forward. + Prove but our marriage lawful, by my life + And kingly dignity, we are contented + To wear our moral state to come with her, + Katharine our queen, before the primest creature + That's paragon'd o' th' world. + CAMPEIUS. So please your Highness, + The Queen being absent, 'tis a needful fitness + That we adjourn this court till further day; + Meanwhile must be an earnest motion + Made to the Queen to call back her appeal + She intends unto his Holiness. + KING. [Aside] I may perceive + These cardinals trifle with me. I abhor + This dilatory sloth and tricks of Rome. + My learn'd and well-beloved servant, Cranmer, + Prithee return. With thy approach I know + My comfort comes along. -Break up the court; + I say, set on. Exuent in manner as they entered + +ACT III. SCENE 1. + +London. The QUEEN'S apartments + +Enter the QUEEN and her women, as at work + + QUEEN KATHARINE. Take thy lute, wench. My soul grows + sad with troubles; + Sing and disperse 'em, if thou canst. Leave working. + + SONG + + Orpheus with his lute made trees, + And the mountain tops that freeze, + Bow themselves when he did sing; + To his music plants and flowers + Ever sprung, as sun and showers + There had made a lasting spring. + + Every thing that heard him play, + Even the billows of the sea, + Hung their heads and then lay by. + In sweet music is such art, + Killing care and grief of heart + Fall asleep or hearing die. + + Enter a GENTLEMAN + + QUEEN KATHARINE. How now? + GENTLEMAN. An't please your Grace, the two great Cardinals + Wait in the presence. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Would they speak with me? + GENTLEMAN. They will'd me say so, madam. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Pray their Graces + To come near. [Exit GENTLEMAN] What can be their business + With me, a poor weak woman, fall'n from favour? + I do not like their coming. Now I think on't, + They should be good men, their affairs as righteous; + But all hoods make not monks. + + Enter the two CARDINALS, WOLSEY and CAMPEIUS + + WOLSEY. Peace to your Highness! + QUEEN KATHARINE. Your Graces find me here part of housewife; + I would be all, against the worst may happen. + What are your pleasures with me, reverend lords? + WOLSEY. May it please you, noble madam, to withdraw + Into your private chamber, we shall give you + The full cause of our coming. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Speak it here; + There's nothing I have done yet, o' my conscience, + Deserves a corner. Would all other women + Could speak this with as free a soul as I do! + My lords, I care not-so much I am happy + Above a number-if my actions + Were tried by ev'ry tongue, ev'ry eye saw 'em, + Envy and base opinion set against 'em, + I know my life so even. If your business + Seek me out, and that way I am wife in, + Out with it boldly; truth loves open dealing. + WOLSEY. Tanta est erga te mentis integritas, regina serenis-sima- + QUEEN KATHARINE. O, good my lord, no Latin! + I am not such a truant since my coming, + As not to know the language I have liv'd in; + A strange tongue makes my cause more strange, suspicious; + Pray speak in English. Here are some will thank you, + If you speak truth, for their poor mistress' sake: + Believe me, she has had much wrong. Lord Cardinal, + The willing'st sin I ever yet committed + May be absolv'd in English. + WOLSEY. Noble lady, + I am sorry my integrity should breed, + And service to his Majesty and you, + So deep suspicion, where all faith was meant + We come not by the way of accusation + To taint that honour every good tongue blesses, + Nor to betray you any way to sorrow- + You have too much, good lady; but to know + How you stand minded in the weighty difference + Between the King and you, and to deliver, + Like free and honest men, our just opinions + And comforts to your cause. + CAMPEIUS. Most honour'd madam, + My Lord of York, out of his noble nature, + Zeal and obedience he still bore your Grace, + Forgetting, like a good man, your late censure + Both of his truth and him-which was too far- + Offers, as I do, in a sign of peace, + His service and his counsel. + QUEEN KATHARINE. [Aside] To betray me.- + My lords, I thank you both for your good wins; + Ye speak like honest men-pray God ye prove so! + But how to make ye suddenly an answer, + In such a point of weight, so near mine honour, + More near my life, I fear, with my weak wit, + And to such men of gravity and learning, + In truth I know not. I was set at work + Among my maids, full little, God knows, looking + Either for such men or such business. + For her sake that I have been-for I feel + The last fit of my greatness-good your Graces, + Let me have time and counsel for my cause. + Alas, I am a woman, friendless, hopeless! + WOLSEY. Madam, you wrong the King's love with these fears; + Your hopes and friends are infinite. + QUEEN KATHARINE. In England + But little for my profit; can you think, lords, + That any Englishman dare give me counsel? + Or be a known friend, 'gainst his Highness' pleasure- + Though he be grown so desperate to be honest- + And live a subject? Nay, forsooth, my friends, + They that must weigh out my afflictions, + They that my trust must grow to, live not here; + They are, as all my other comforts, far hence, + In mine own country, lords. + CAMPEIUS. I would your Grace + Would leave your griefs, and take my counsel. + QUEEN KATHARINE. How, sir? + CAMPEIUS. Put your main cause into the King's protection; + He's loving and most gracious. 'Twill be much + Both for your honour better and your cause; + For if the trial of the law o'ertake ye + You'll part away disgrac'd. + WOLSEY. He tells you rightly. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Ye tell me what ye wish for both-my ruin. + Is this your Christian counsel? Out upon ye! + Heaven is above all yet: there sits a Judge + That no king can corrupt. + CAMPEIUS. Your rage mistakes us. + QUEEN KATHARINE. The more shame for ye; holy men I thought ye, + Upon my soul, two reverend cardinal virtues; + But cardinal sins and hollow hearts I fear ye. + Mend 'em, for shame, my lords. Is this your comfort? + The cordial that ye bring a wretched lady- + A woman lost among ye, laugh'd at, scorn'd? + I will not wish ye half my miseries: + I have more charity; but say I warned ye. + Take heed, for heaven's sake take heed, lest at once + The burden of my sorrows fall upon ye. + WOLSEY. Madam, this is a mere distraction; + You turn the good we offer into envy. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Ye turn me into nothing. Woe upon ye, + And all such false professors! Would you have me- + If you have any justice, any pity, + If ye be any thing but churchmen's habits- + Put my sick cause into his hands that hates me? + Alas! has banish'd me his bed already, + His love too long ago! I am old, my lords, + And all the fellowship I hold now with him + Is only my obedience. What can happen + To me above this wretchedness? All your studies + Make me a curse like this. + CAMPEIUS. Your fears are worse. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Have I liv'd thus long-let me speak myself, + Since virtue finds no friends-a wife, a true one? + A woman, I dare say without vain-glory, + Never yet branded with suspicion? + Have I with all my full affections + Still met the King, lov'd him next heav'n, obey'd him, + Been, out of fondness, superstitious to him, + Almost forgot my prayers to content him, + And am I thus rewarded? 'Tis not well, lords. + Bring me a constant woman to her husband, + One that ne'er dream'd a joy beyond his pleasure, + And to that woman, when she has done most, + Yet will I add an honour-a great patience. + WOLSEY. Madam, you wander from the good we aim at. + QUEEN KATHARINE. My lord, I dare not make myself so guilty, + To give up willingly that noble title + Your master wed me to: nothing but death + Shall e'er divorce my dignities. + WOLSEY. Pray hear me. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Would I had never trod this English earth, + Or felt the flatteries that grow upon it! + Ye have angels' faces, but heaven knows your hearts. + What will become of me now, wretched lady? + I am the most unhappy woman living. + [To her WOMEN] Alas, poor wenches, where are now + your fortunes? + Shipwreck'd upon a kingdom, where no pity, + No friends, no hope; no kindred weep for me; + Almost no grave allow'd me. Like the My, + That once was mistress of the field, and flourish'd, + I'll hang my head and perish. + WOLSEY. If your Grace + Could but be brought to know our ends are honest, + You'd feel more comfort. Why should we, good lady, + Upon what cause, wrong you? Alas, our places, + The way of our profession is against it; + We are to cure such sorrows, not to sow 'em. + For goodness' sake, consider what you do; + How you may hurt yourself, ay, utterly + Grow from the King's acquaintance, by this carriage. + The hearts of princes kiss obedience, + So much they love it; but to stubborn spirits + They swell and grow as terrible as storms. + I know you have a gentle, noble temper, + A soul as even as a calm. Pray think us + Those we profess, peace-makers, friends, and servants. + CAMPEIUS. Madam, you'll find it so. You wrong your virtues + With these weak women's fears. A noble spirit, + As yours was put into you, ever casts + Such doubts as false coin from it. The King loves you; + Beware you lose it not. For us, if you please + To trust us in your business, we are ready + To use our utmost studies in your service. + QUEEN KATHARINE. Do what ye will my lords; and pray + forgive me + If I have us'd myself unmannerly; + You know I am a woman, lacking wit + To make a seemly answer to such persons. + Pray do my service to his Majesty; + He has my heart yet, and shall have my prayers + While I shall have my life. Come, reverend fathers, + Bestow your counsels on me; she now begs + That little thought, when she set footing here, + She should have bought her dignities so dear. Exeunt + +ACT III.SCENE 2. + +London. The palace + +Enter the DUKE OF NORFOLK, the DUKE OF SUFFOLK, the EARL OF SURREY, and +the LORD CHAMBERLAIN + + NORFOLK. If you will now unite in your complaints + And force them with a constancy, the Cardinal + Cannot stand under them: if you omit + The offer of this time, I cannot promise + But that you shall sustain moe new disgraces + With these you bear already. + SURREY. I am joyful + To meet the least occasion that may give me + Remembrance of my father-in-law, the Duke, + To be reveng'd on him. + SUFFOLK. Which of the peers + Have uncontemn'd gone by him, or at least + Strangely neglected? When did he regard + The stamp of nobleness in any person + Out of himself? + CHAMBERLAIN. My lords, you speak your pleasures. + What he deserves of you and me I know; + What we can do to him-though now the time + Gives way to us-I much fear. If you cannot + Bar his access to th' King, never attempt + Anything on him; for he hath a witchcraft + Over the King in's tongue. + NORFOLK. O, fear him not! + His spell in that is out; the King hath found + Matter against him that for ever mars + The honey of his language. No, he's settled, + Not to come off, in his displeasure. + SURREY. Sir, + I should be glad to hear such news as this + Once every hour. + NORFOLK. Believe it, this is true: + In the divorce his contrary proceedings + Are all unfolded; wherein he appears + As I would wish mine enemy. + SURREY. How came + His practices to light? + SUFFOLK. Most Strangely. + SURREY. O, how, how? + SUFFOLK. The Cardinal's letters to the Pope miscarried, + And came to th' eye o' th' King; wherein was read + How that the Cardinal did entreat his Holiness + To stay the judgment o' th' divorce; for if + It did take place, 'I do' quoth he 'perceive + My king is tangled in affection to + A creature of the Queen's, Lady Anne Bullen.' + SURREY. Has the King this? + SUFFOLK. Believe it. + SURREY. Will this work? + CHAMBERLAIN. The King in this perceives him how he coasts + And hedges his own way. But in this point + All his tricks founder, and he brings his physic + After his patient's death: the King already + Hath married the fair lady. + SURREY. Would he had! + SUFFOLK. May you be happy in your wish, my lord! + For, I profess, you have it. + SURREY. Now, all my joy + Trace the conjunction! + SUFFOLK. My amen to't! + NORFOLK. An men's! + SUFFOLK. There's order given for her coronation; + Marry, this is yet but young, and may be left + To some ears unrecounted. But, my lords, + She is a gallant creature, and complete + In mind and feature. I persuade me from her + Will fall some blessing to this land, which shall + In it be memoriz'd. + SURREY. But will the King + Digest this letter of the Cardinal's? + The Lord forbid! + NORFOLK. Marry, amen! + SUFFOLK. No, no; + There be moe wasps that buzz about his nose + Will make this sting the sooner. Cardinal Campeius + Is stol'n away to Rome; hath ta'en no leave; + Has left the cause o' th' King unhandled, and + Is posted, as the agent of our Cardinal, + To second all his plot. I do assure you + The King cried 'Ha!' at this. + CHAMBERLAIN. Now, God incense him, + And let him cry 'Ha!' louder! + NORFOLK. But, my lord, + When returns Cranmer? + SUFFOLK. He is return'd in his opinions; which + Have satisfied the King for his divorce, + Together with all famous colleges + Almost in Christendom. Shortly, I believe, + His second marriage shall be publish'd, and + Her coronation. Katharine no more + Shall be call'd queen, but princess dowager + And widow to Prince Arthur. + NORFOLK. This same Cranmer's + A worthy fellow, and hath ta'en much pain + In the King's business. + SUFFOLK. He has; and we shall see him + For it an archbishop. + NORFOLK. So I hear. + SUFFOLK. 'Tis so. + + Enter WOLSEY and CROMWELL + + The Cardinal! + NORFOLK. Observe, observe, he's moody. + WOLSEY. The packet, Cromwell, + Gave't you the King? + CROMWELL. To his own hand, in's bedchamber. + WOLSEY. Look'd he o' th' inside of the paper? + CROMWELL. Presently + He did unseal them; and the first he view'd, + He did it with a serious mind; a heed + Was in his countenance. You he bade + Attend him here this morning. + WOLSEY. Is he ready + To come abroad? + CROMWELL. I think by this he is. + WOLSEY. Leave me awhile. Exit CROMWELL + [Aside] It shall be to the Duchess of Alencon, + The French King's sister; he shall marry her. + Anne Bullen! No, I'll no Anne Bullens for him; + There's more in't than fair visage. Bullen! + No, we'll no Bullens. Speedily I wish + To hear from Rome. The Marchioness of Pembroke! + NORFOLK. He's discontented. + SUFFOLK. May be he hears the King + Does whet his anger to him. + SURREY. Sharp enough, + Lord, for thy justice! + WOLSEY. [Aside] The late Queen's gentlewoman, a knight's + daughter, + To be her mistress' mistress! The Queen's queen! + This candle burns not clear. 'Tis I must snuff it; + Then out it goes. What though I know her virtuous + And well deserving? Yet I know her for + A spleeny Lutheran; and not wholesome to + Our cause that she should lie i' th' bosom of + Our hard-rul'd King. Again, there is sprung up + An heretic, an arch one, Cranmer; one + Hath crawl'd into the favour of the King, + And is his oracle. + NORFOLK. He is vex'd at something. + + Enter the KING, reading of a schedule, and LOVELL + + SURREY. I would 'twere something that would fret the string, + The master-cord on's heart! + SUFFOLK. The King, the King! + KING. What piles of wealth hath he accumulated + To his own portion! And what expense by th' hour + Seems to flow from him! How, i' th' name of thrift, + Does he rake this together?-Now, my lords, + Saw you the Cardinal? + NORFOLK. My lord, we have + Stood here observing him. Some strange commotion + Is in his brain: he bites his lip and starts, + Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground, + Then lays his finger on his temple; straight + Springs out into fast gait; then stops again, + Strikes his breast hard; and anon he casts + His eye against the moon. In most strange postures + We have seen him set himself. + KING. It may well be + There is a mutiny in's mind. This morning + Papers of state he sent me to peruse, + As I requir'd; and wot you what I found + There-on my conscience, put unwittingly? + Forsooth, an inventory, thus importing + The several parcels of his plate, his treasure, + Rich stuffs, and ornaments of household; which + I find at such proud rate that it outspeaks + Possession of a subject. + NORFOLK. It's heaven's will; + Some spirit put this paper in the packet + To bless your eye withal. + KING. If we did think + His contemplation were above the earth + And fix'd on spiritual object, he should still + dwell in his musings; but I am afraid + His thinkings are below the moon, not worth + His serious considering. + [The KING takes his seat and whispers LOVELL, + who goes to the CARDINAL] + WOLSEY. Heaven forgive me! + Ever God bless your Highness! + KING. Good, my lord, + You are full of heavenly stuff, and bear the inventory + Of your best graces in your mind; the which + You were now running o'er. You have scarce time + To steal from spiritual leisure a brief span + To keep your earthly audit; sure, in that + I deem you an ill husband, and am glad + To have you therein my companion. + WOLSEY. Sir, + For holy offices I have a time; a time + To think upon the part of business which + I bear i' th' state; and nature does require + Her times of preservation, which perforce + I, her frail son, amongst my brethren mortal, + Must give my tendance to. + KING. You have said well. + WOLSEY. And ever may your Highness yoke together, + As I will lend you cause, my doing well + With my well saying! + KING. 'Tis well said again; + And 'tis a kind of good deed to say well; + And yet words are no deeds. My father lov'd you: + He said he did; and with his deed did crown + His word upon you. Since I had my office + I have kept you next my heart; have not alone + Employ'd you where high profits might come home, + But par'd my present havings to bestow + My bounties upon you. + WOLSEY. [Aside] What should this mean? + SURREY. [Aside] The Lord increase this business! + KING. Have I not made you + The prime man of the state? I pray you tell me + If what I now pronounce you have found true; + And, if you may confess it, say withal + If you are bound to us or no. What say you? + WOLSEY. My sovereign, I confess your royal graces, + Show'r'd on me daily, have been more than could + My studied purposes requite; which went + Beyond all man's endeavours. My endeavours, + Have ever come too short of my desires, + Yet fil'd with my abilities; mine own ends + Have been mine so that evermore they pointed + To th' good of your most sacred person and + The profit of the state. For your great graces + Heap'd upon me, poor undeserver, I + Can nothing render but allegiant thanks; + My pray'rs to heaven for you; my loyalty, + Which ever has and ever shall be growing, + Till death, that winter, kill it. + KING. Fairly answer'd! + A loyal and obedient subject is + Therein illustrated; the honour of it + Does pay the act of it, as, i' th' contrary, + The foulness is the punishment. I presume + That, as my hand has open'd bounty to you, + My heart dropp'd love, my pow'r rain'd honour, more + On you than any, so your hand and heart, + Your brain, and every function of your power, + Should, notwithstanding that your bond of duty, + As 'twere in love's particular, be more + To me, your friend, than any. + WOLSEY. I do profess + That for your Highness' good I ever labour'd + More than mine own; that am, have, and will be- + Though all the world should crack their duty to you, + And throw it from their soul; though perils did + Abound as thick as thought could make 'em, and + Appear in forms more horrid-yet my duty, + As doth a rock against the chiding flood, + Should the approach of this wild river break, + And stand unshaken yours. + KING. 'Tis nobly spoken. + Take notice, lords, he has a loyal breast, + For you have seen him open 't. Read o'er this; + [Giving him papers] + And after, this; and then to breakfast with + What appetite you have. + Exit the KING, frowning upon the CARDINAL; the NOBLES + throng after him, smiling and whispering + WOLSEY. What should this mean? + What sudden anger's this? How have I reap'd it? + He parted frowning from me, as if ruin + Leap'd from his eyes; so looks the chafed lion + Upon the daring huntsman that has gall'd him- + Then makes him nothing. I must read this paper; + I fear, the story of his anger. 'Tis so; + This paper has undone me. 'Tis th' account + Of all that world of wealth I have drawn together + For mine own ends; indeed to gain the popedom, + And fee my friends in Rome. O negligence, + Fit for a fool to fall by! What cross devil + Made me put this main secret in the packet + I sent the King? Is there no way to cure this? + No new device to beat this from his brains? + I know 'twill stir him strongly; yet I know + A way, if it take right, in spite of fortune, + Will bring me off again. What's this? 'To th' Pope.' + The letter, as I live, with all the business + I writ to's Holiness. Nay then, farewell! + I have touch'd the highest point of all my greatness, + And from that full meridian of my glory + I haste now to my setting. I shall fall + Like a bright exhalation in the evening, + And no man see me more. + + Re-enter to WOLSEY the DUKES OF NORFOLK and + SUFFOLK, the EARL OF SURREY, and the LORD + CHAMBERLAIN + + NORFOLK. Hear the King's pleasure, Cardinal, who commands you + To render up the great seal presently + Into our hands, and to confine yourself + To Asher House, my Lord of Winchester's, + Till you hear further from his Highness. + WOLSEY. Stay: + Where's your commission, lords? Words cannot carry + Authority so weighty. + SUFFOLK. Who dares cross 'em, + Bearing the King's will from his mouth expressly? + WOLSEY. Till I find more than will or words to do it- + I mean your malice-know, officious lords, + I dare and must deny it. Now I feel + Of what coarse metal ye are moulded-envy; + How eagerly ye follow my disgraces, + As if it fed ye; and how sleek and wanton + Ye appear in every thing may bring my ruin! + Follow your envious courses, men of malice; + You have Christian warrant for 'em, and no doubt + In time will find their fit rewards. That seal + You ask with such a violence, the King- + Mine and your master-with his own hand gave me; + Bade me enjoy it, with the place and honours, + During my life; and, to confirm his goodness, + Tied it by letters-patents. Now, who'll take it? + SURREY. The King, that gave it. + WOLSEY. It must be himself then. + SURREY. Thou art a proud traitor, priest. + WOLSEY. Proud lord, thou liest. + Within these forty hours Surrey durst better + Have burnt that tongue than said so. + SURREY. Thy ambition, + Thou scarlet sin, robb'd this bewailing land + Of noble Buckingham, my father-in-law. + The heads of all thy brother cardinals, + With thee and all thy best parts bound together, + Weigh'd not a hair of his. Plague of your policy! + You sent me deputy for Ireland; + Far from his succour, from the King, from all + That might have mercy on the fault thou gav'st him; + Whilst your great goodness, out of holy pity, + Absolv'd him with an axe. + WOLSEY. This, and all else + This talking lord can lay upon my credit, + I answer is most false. The Duke by law + Found his deserts; how innocent I was + From any private malice in his end, + His noble jury and foul cause can witness. + If I lov'd many words, lord, I should tell you + You have as little honesty as honour, + That in the way of loyalty and truth + Toward the King, my ever royal master, + Dare mate a sounder man than Surrey can be + And an that love his follies. + SURREY. By my soul, + Your long coat, priest, protects you; thou shouldst feel + My sword i' the life-blood of thee else. My lords + Can ye endure to hear this arrogance? + And from this fellow? If we live thus tamely, + To be thus jaded by a piece of scarlet, + Farewell nobility! Let his Grace go forward + And dare us with his cap like larks. + WOLSEY. All goodness + Is poison to thy stomach. + SURREY. Yes, that goodness + Of gleaning all the land's wealth into one, + Into your own hands, Cardinal, by extortion; + The goodness of your intercepted packets + You writ to th' Pope against the King; your goodness, + Since you provoke me, shall be most notorious. + My Lord of Norfolk, as you are truly noble, + As you respect the common good, the state + Of our despis'd nobility, our issues, + Whom, if he live, will scarce be gentlemen- + Produce the grand sum of his sins, the articles + Collected from his life. I'll startle you + Worse than the sacring bell, when the brown wench + Lay kissing in your arms, Lord Cardinal. + WOLSEY. How much, methinks, I could despise this man, + But that I am bound in charity against it! + NORFOLK. Those articles, my lord, are in the King's hand; + But, thus much, they are foul ones. + WOLSEY. So much fairer + And spotless shall mine innocence arise, + When the King knows my truth. + SURREY. This cannot save you. + I thank my memory I yet remember + Some of these articles; and out they shall. + Now, if you can blush and cry guilty, Cardinal, + You'll show a little honesty. + WOLSEY. Speak on, sir; + I dare your worst objections. If I blush, + It is to see a nobleman want manners. + SURREY. I had rather want those than my head. Have at you! + First, that without the King's assent or knowledge + You wrought to be a legate; by which power + You maim'd the jurisdiction of all bishops. + NORFOLK. Then, that in all you writ to Rome, or else + To foreign princes, 'Ego et Rex meus' + Was still inscrib'd; in which you brought the King + To be your servant. + SUFFOLK. Then, that without the knowledge + Either of King or Council, when you went + Ambassador to the Emperor, you made bold + To carry into Flanders the great seal. + SURREY. Item, you sent a large commission + To Gregory de Cassado, to conclude, + Without the King's will or the state's allowance, + A league between his Highness and Ferrara. + SUFFOLK. That out of mere ambition you have caus'd + Your holy hat to be stamp'd on the King's coin. + SURREY. Then, that you have sent innumerable substance, + By what means got I leave to your own conscience, + To furnish Rome and to prepare the ways + You have for dignities, to the mere undoing + Of all the kingdom. Many more there are, + Which, since they are of you, and odious, + I will not taint my mouth with. + CHAMBERLAIN. O my lord, + Press not a falling man too far! 'Tis virtue. + His faults lie open to the laws; let them, + Not you, correct him. My heart weeps to see him + So little of his great self. + SURREY. I forgive him. + SUFFOLK. Lord Cardinal, the King's further pleasure is- + Because all those things you have done of late, + By your power legatine within this kingdom, + Fall into th' compass of a praemunire- + That therefore such a writ be sued against you: + To forfeit all your goods, lands, tenements, + Chattels, and whatsoever, and to be + Out of the King's protection. This is my charge. + NORFOLK. And so we'll leave you to your meditations + How to live better. For your stubborn answer + About the giving back the great seal to us, + The King shall know it, and, no doubt, shall thank you. + So fare you well, my little good Lord Cardinal. + Exeunt all but WOLSEY + WOLSEY. So farewell to the little good you bear me. + Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness! + This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth + The tender leaves of hopes; to-morrow blossoms + And bears his blushing honours thick upon him; + The third day comes a frost, a killing frost, + And when he thinks, good easy man, full surely + His greatness is a-ripening, nips his root, + And then he falls, as I do. I have ventur'd, + Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, + This many summers in a sea of glory; + But far beyond my depth. My high-blown pride + At length broke under me, and now has left me, + Weary and old with service, to the mercy + Of a rude stream, that must for ever hide me. + Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye; + I feel my heart new open'd. O, how wretched + Is that poor man that hangs on princes' favours! + There is betwixt that smile we would aspire to, + That sweet aspect of princes, and their ruin + More pangs and fears than wars or women have; + And when he falls, he falls like Lucifer, + Never to hope again. + + Enter CROMWELL, standing amazed + + Why, how now, Cromwell! + CROMWELL. I have no power to speak, sir. + WOLSEY. What, amaz'd + At my misfortunes? Can thy spirit wonder + A great man should decline? Nay, an you weep, + I am fall'n indeed. + CROMWELL. How does your Grace? + WOLSEY. Why, well; + Never so truly happy, my good Cromwell. + I know myself now, and I feel within me + A peace above all earthly dignities, + A still and quiet conscience. The King has cur'd me, + I humbly thank his Grace; and from these shoulders, + These ruin'd pillars, out of pity, taken + A load would sink a navy-too much honour. + O, 'tis a burden, Cromwell, 'tis a burden + Too heavy for a man that hopes for heaven! + CROMWELL. I am glad your Grace has made that right use of it. + WOLSEY. I hope I have. I am able now, methinks, + Out of a fortitude of soul I feel, + To endure more miseries and greater far + Than my weak-hearted enemies dare offer. + What news abroad? + CROMWELL. The heaviest and the worst + Is your displeasure with the King. + WOLSEY. God bless him! + CROMWELL. The next is that Sir Thomas More is chosen + Lord Chancellor in your place. + WOLSEY. That's somewhat sudden. + But he's a learned man. May he continue + Long in his Highness' favour, and do justice + For truth's sake and his conscience; that his bones + When he has run his course and sleeps in blessings, + May have a tomb of orphans' tears wept on him! + What more? + CROMWELL. That Cranmer is return'd with welcome, + Install'd Lord Archbishop of Canterbury. + WOLSEY. That's news indeed. + CROMWELL. Last, that the Lady Anne, + Whom the King hath in secrecy long married, + This day was view'd in open as his queen, + Going to chapel; and the voice is now + Only about her coronation. + WOLSEY. There was the weight that pull'd me down. + O Cromwell, + The King has gone beyond me. All my glories + In that one woman I have lost for ever. + No sun shall ever usher forth mine honours, + Or gild again the noble troops that waited + Upon my smiles. Go get thee from me, Cromwell; + I am a poor fall'n man, unworthy now + To be thy lord and master. Seek the King; + That sun, I pray, may never set! I have told him + What and how true thou art. He will advance thee; + Some little memory of me will stir him- + I know his noble nature-not to let + Thy hopeful service perish too. Good Cromwell, + Neglect him not; make use now, and provide + For thine own future safety. + CROMWELL. O my lord, + Must I then leave you? Must I needs forgo + So good, so noble, and so true a master? + Bear witness, all that have not hearts of iron, + With what a sorrow Cromwell leaves his lord. + The King shall have my service; but my prayers + For ever and for ever shall be yours. + WOLSEY. Cromwell, I did not think to shed a tear + In all my miseries; but thou hast forc'd me, + Out of thy honest truth, to play the woman. + Let's dry our eyes; and thus far hear me, Cromwell, + And when I am forgotten, as I shall be, + And sleep in dull cold marble, where no mention + Of me more must be heard of, say I taught thee- + Say Wolsey, that once trod the ways of glory, + And sounded all the depths and shoals of honour, + Found thee a way, out of his wreck, to rise in- + A sure and safe one, though thy master miss'd it. + Mark but my fall and that that ruin'd me. + Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition: + By that sin fell the angels. How can man then, + The image of his Maker, hope to win by it? + Love thyself last; cherish those hearts that hate thee; + Corruption wins not more than honesty. + Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace + To silence envious tongues. Be just, and fear not; + Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, + Thy God's, and truth's; then, if thou fall'st, O Cromwell, + Thou fall'st a blessed martyr! + Serve the King, and-prithee lead me in. + There take an inventory of all I have + To the last penny; 'tis the King's. My robe, + And my integrity to heaven, is all + I dare now call mine own. O Cromwell, Cromwell! + Had I but serv'd my God with half the zeal + I serv'd my King, he would not in mine age + Have left me naked to mine enemies. + CROMWELL. Good sir, have patience. + WOLSEY. So I have. Farewell + The hopes of court! My hopes in heaven do dwell. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE 1. + +A street in Westminster + +Enter two GENTLEMEN, meeting one another + + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Y'are well met once again. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. So are you. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. You come to take your stand here, and + behold + The Lady Anne pass from her coronation? + SECOND GENTLEMAN. 'Tis all my business. At our last encounter + The Duke of Buckingham came from his trial. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. 'Tis very true. But that time offer'd + sorrow; + This, general joy. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. 'Tis well. The citizens, + I am sure, have shown at full their royal minds- + As, let 'em have their rights, they are ever forward- + In celebration of this day with shows, + Pageants, and sights of honour. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Never greater, + Nor, I'll assure you, better taken, sir. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. May I be bold to ask what that contains, + That paper in your hand? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Yes; 'tis the list + Of those that claim their offices this day, + By custom of the coronation. + The Duke of Suffolk is the first, and claims + To be High Steward; next, the Duke of Norfolk, + He to be Earl Marshal. You may read the rest. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. I thank you, sir; had I not known + those customs, + I should have been beholding to your paper. + But, I beseech you, what's become of Katharine, + The Princess Dowager? How goes her business? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. That I can tell you too. The Archbishop + Of Canterbury, accompanied with other + Learned and reverend fathers of his order, + Held a late court at Dunstable, six miles of + From Ampthill, where the Princess lay; to which + She was often cited by them, but appear'd not. + And, to be short, for not appearance and + The King's late scruple, by the main assent + Of all these learned men, she was divorc'd, + And the late marriage made of none effect; + Since which she was removed to Kimbolton, + Where she remains now sick. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Alas, good lady! [Trumpets] + The trumpets sound. Stand close, the Queen is coming. +[Hautboys] + + THE ORDER OF THE CORONATION. + + 1. A lively flourish of trumpets. + 2. Then two JUDGES. + 3. LORD CHANCELLOR, with purse and mace before him. + 4. CHORISTERS singing. [Music] + 5. MAYOR OF LONDON, bearing the mace. Then GARTER, in + his coat of arms, and on his head he wore a gilt copper + crown. + 6. MARQUIS DORSET, bearing a sceptre of gold, on his head a + demi-coronal of gold. With him, the EARL OF SURREY, + bearing the rod of silver with the dove, crowned with an + earl's coronet. Collars of Esses. + 7. DUKE OF SUFFOLK, in his robe of estate, his coronet on + his head, bearing a long white wand, as High Steward. + With him, the DUKE OF NORFOLK, with the rod of + marshalship, a coronet on his head. Collars of Esses. + 8. A canopy borne by four of the CINQUE-PORTS; under it + the QUEEN in her robe; in her hair richly adorned with + pearl, crowned. On each side her, the BISHOPS OF LONDON + and WINCHESTER. + 9. The old DUCHESS OF NORFOLK, in a coronal of gold + wrought with flowers, bearing the QUEEN'S train. + 10. Certain LADIES or COUNTESSES, with plain circlets of gold + without flowers. + + Exeunt, first passing over the stage in order and state, + and then a great flourish of trumpets + + SECOND GENTLEMAN. A royal train, believe me. These know. + Who's that that bears the sceptre? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Marquis Dorset; + And that the Earl of Surrey, with the rod. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. A bold brave gentleman. That should be + The Duke of Suffolk? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. 'Tis the same-High Steward. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. And that my Lord of Norfolk? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Yes. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. [Looking on the QUEEN] Heaven + bless thee! + Thou hast the sweetest face I ever look'd on. + Sir, as I have a soul, she is an angel; + Our king has all the Indies in his arms, + And more and richer, when he strains that lady; + I cannot blame his conscience. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. They that bear + The cloth of honour over her are four barons + Of the Cinque-ports. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Those men are happy; and so are all + are near her. + I take it she that carries up the train + Is that old noble lady, Duchess of Norfolk. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. It is; and all the rest are countesses. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Their coronets say so. These are stars indeed, + And sometimes falling ones. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. No more of that. + Exit Procession, with a great flourish of trumpets + + Enter a third GENTLEMAN + + God save you, sir! Where have you been broiling? + THIRD GENTLEMAN. Among the crowds i' th' Abbey, where a finger + Could not be wedg'd in more; I am stifled + With the mere rankness of their joy. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. You saw + The ceremony? + THIRD GENTLEMAN. That I did. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. How was it? + THIRD GENTLEMAN. Well worth the seeing. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Good sir, speak it to us. + THIRD GENTLEMAN. As well as I am able. The rich stream + Of lords and ladies, having brought the Queen + To a prepar'd place in the choir, fell of + A distance from her, while her Grace sat down + To rest awhile, some half an hour or so, + In a rich chair of state, opposing freely + The beauty of her person to the people. + Believe me, sir, she is the goodliest woman + That ever lay by man; which when the people + Had the full view of, such a noise arose + As the shrouds make at sea in a stiff tempest, + As loud, and to as many tunes; hats, cloaks- + Doublets, I think-flew up, and had their faces + Been loose, this day they had been lost. Such joy + I never saw before. Great-bellied women, + That had not half a week to go, like rams + In the old time of war, would shake the press, + And make 'em reel before 'em. No man living + Could say 'This is my wife' there, all were woven + So strangely in one piece. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. But what follow'd? + THIRD GENTLEMAN. At length her Grace rose, and with + modest paces + Came to the altar, where she kneel'd, and saintlike + Cast her fair eyes to heaven, and pray'd devoutly. + Then rose again, and bow'd her to the people; + When by the Archbishop of Canterbury + She had all the royal makings of a queen: + As holy oil, Edward Confessor's crown, + The rod, and bird of peace, and all such emblems + Laid nobly on her; which perform'd, the choir, + With all the choicest music of the kingdom, + Together sung 'Te Deum.' So she parted, + And with the same full state pac'd back again + To York Place, where the feast is held. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Sir, + You must no more call it York Place: that's past: + For since the Cardinal fell that title's lost. + 'Tis now the King's, and called Whitehall. + THIRD GENTLEMAN. I know it; + But 'tis so lately alter'd that the old name + Is fresh about me. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. What two reverend bishops + Were those that went on each side of the Queen? + THIRD GENTLEMAN. Stokesly and Gardiner: the one of Winchester, + Newly preferr'd from the King's secretary; + The other, London. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. He of Winchester + Is held no great good lover of the Archbishop's, + The virtuous Cranmer. + THIRD GENTLEMAN. All the land knows that; + However, yet there is no great breach. When it comes, + Cranmer will find a friend will not shrink from him. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Who may that be, I pray you? + THIRD GENTLEMAN. Thomas Cromwell, + A man in much esteem with th' King, and truly + A worthy friend. The King has made him Master + O' th' jewel House, + And one, already, of the Privy Council. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. He will deserve more. + THIRD GENTLEMAN. Yes, without all doubt. + Come, gentlemen, ye shall go my way, which + Is to th' court, and there ye shall be my guests: + Something I can command. As I walk thither, + I'll tell ye more. + BOTH. You may command us, sir. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE 2. + +Kimbolton + +Enter KATHARINE, Dowager, sick; led between GRIFFITH, her Gentleman +Usher, and PATIENCE, her woman + + GRIFFITH. How does your Grace? + KATHARINE. O Griffith, sick to death! + My legs like loaden branches bow to th' earth, + Willing to leave their burden. Reach a chair. + So-now, methinks, I feel a little ease. + Didst thou not tell me, Griffith, as thou led'st me, + That the great child of honour, Cardinal Wolsey, + Was dead? + GRIFFITH. Yes, madam; but I think your Grace, + Out of the pain you suffer'd, gave no ear to't. + KATHARINE. Prithee, good Griffith, tell me how he died. + If well, he stepp'd before me, happily, + For my example. + GRIFFITH. Well, the voice goes, madam; + For after the stout Earl Northumberland + Arrested him at York and brought him forward, + As a man sorely tainted, to his answer, + He fell sick suddenly, and grew so ill + He could not sit his mule. + KATHARINE. Alas, poor man! + GRIFFITH. At last, with easy roads, he came to Leicester, + Lodg'd in the abbey; where the reverend abbot, + With all his covent, honourably receiv'd him; + To whom he gave these words: 'O father Abbot, + An old man, broken with the storms of state, + Is come to lay his weary bones among ye; + Give him a little earth for charity!' + So went to bed; where eagerly his sickness + Pursu'd him still And three nights after this, + About the hour of eight-which he himself + Foretold should be his last-full of repentance, + Continual meditations, tears, and sorrows, + He gave his honours to the world again, + His blessed part to heaven, and slept in peace. + KATHARINE. So may he rest; his faults lie gently on him! + Yet thus far, Griffith, give me leave to speak him, + And yet with charity. He was a man + Of an unbounded stomach, ever ranking + Himself with princes; one that, by suggestion, + Tied all the kingdom. Simony was fair play; + His own opinion was his law. I' th' presence + He would say untruths, and be ever double + Both in his words and meaning. He was never, + But where he meant to ruin, pitiful. + His promises were, as he then was, mighty; + But his performance, as he is now, nothing. + Of his own body he was ill, and gave + The clergy ill example. + GRIFFITH. Noble madam, + Men's evil manners live in brass: their virtues + We write in water. May it please your Highness + To hear me speak his good now? + KATHARINE. Yes, good Griffith; + I were malicious else. + GRIFFITH. This Cardinal, + Though from an humble stock, undoubtedly + Was fashion'd to much honour from his cradle. + He was a scholar, and a ripe and good one; + Exceeding wise, fair-spoken, and persuading; + Lofty and sour to them that lov'd him not, + But to those men that sought him sweet as summer. + And though he were unsatisfied in getting- + Which was a sin-yet in bestowing, madam, + He was most princely: ever witness for him + Those twins of learning that he rais'd in you, + Ipswich and Oxford! One of which fell with him, + Unwilling to outlive the good that did it; + The other, though unfinish'd, yet so famous, + So excellent in art, and still so rising, + That Christendom shall ever speak his virtue. + His overthrow heap'd happiness upon him; + For then, and not till then, he felt himself, + And found the blessedness of being little. + And, to add greater honours to his age + Than man could give him, he died fearing God. + KATHARINE. After my death I wish no other herald, + No other speaker of my living actions, + To keep mine honour from corruption, + But such an honest chronicler as Griffith. + Whom I most hated living, thou hast made me, + With thy religious truth and modesty, + Now in his ashes honour. Peace be with him! + patience, be near me still, and set me lower: + I have not long to trouble thee. Good Griffith, + Cause the musicians play me that sad note + I nam'd my knell, whilst I sit meditating + On that celestial harmony I go to. + [Sad and solemn music] + GRIFFITH. She is asleep. Good wench, let's sit down quiet, + For fear we wake her. Softly, gentle Patience. + + THE VISION. + + Enter, solemnly tripping one after another, six PERSONAGES clad + in white robes, wearing on their heads garlands of bays, and + golden vizards on their faces; branches of bays or palm in their + hands. They first congee unto her, then dance; and, at certain + changes, the first two hold a spare garland over her head, at + which the other four make reverent curtsies. Then the two that + held the garland deliver the same to the other next two, who + observe the same order in their changes, and holding the garland + over her head; which done, they deliver the same garland to the + last two, who likewise observe the same order; at which, as it + were by inspiration, she makes in her sleep signs of rejoicing, + and holdeth up her hands to heaven. And so in their dancing + vanish, carrying the garland with them. The music continues + + KATHARINE. Spirits of peace, where are ye? Are ye all gone? + And leave me here in wretchedness behind ye? + GRIFFITH. Madam, we are here. + KATHARINE. It is not you I call for. + Saw ye none enter since I slept? + GRIFFITH. None, madam. + KATHARINE. No? Saw you not, even now, a blessed troop + Invite me to a banquet; whose bright faces + Cast thousand beams upon me, like the sun? + They promis'd me eternal happiness, + And brought me garlands, Griffith, which I feel + I am not worthy yet to wear. I shall, assuredly. + GRIFFITH. I am most joyful, madam, such good dreams + Possess your fancy. + KATHARINE. Bid the music leave, + They are harsh and heavy to me. [Music ceases] + PATIENCE. Do you note + How much her Grace is alter'd on the sudden? + How long her face is drawn! How pale she looks, + And of an earthly cold! Mark her eyes. + GRIFFITH. She is going, wench. Pray, pray. + PATIENCE. Heaven comfort her! + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. An't like your Grace- + KATHARINE. You are a saucy fellow. + Deserve we no more reverence? + GRIFFITH. You are to blame, + Knowing she will not lose her wonted greatness, + To use so rude behaviour. Go to, kneel. + MESSENGER. I humbly do entreat your Highness' pardon; + My haste made me unmannerly. There is staying + A gentleman, sent from the King, to see you. + KATHARINE. Admit him entrance, Griffith; but this fellow + Let me ne'er see again. Exit MESSENGER + + Enter LORD CAPUCIUS + + If my sight fail not, + You should be Lord Ambassador from the Emperor, + My royal nephew, and your name Capucius. + CAPUCIUS. Madam, the same-your servant. + KATHARINE. O, my Lord, + The times and titles now are alter'd strangely + With me since first you knew me. But, I pray you, + What is your pleasure with me? + CAPUCIUS. Noble lady, + First, mine own service to your Grace; the next, + The King's request that I would visit you, + Who grieves much for your weakness, and by me + Sends you his princely commendations + And heartily entreats you take good comfort. + KATHARINE. O my good lord, that comfort comes too late, + 'Tis like a pardon after execution: + That gentle physic, given in time, had cur'd me; + But now I am past all comforts here, but prayers. + How does his Highness? + CAPUCIUS. Madam, in good health. + KATHARINE. So may he ever do! and ever flourish + When I shall dwell with worms, and my poor name + Banish'd the kingdom! Patience, is that letter + I caus'd you write yet sent away? + PATIENCE. No, madam. [Giving it to KATHARINE] + KATHARINE. Sir, I most humbly pray you to deliver + This to my lord the King. + CAPUCIUS. Most willing, madam. + KATHARINE. In which I have commended to his goodness + The model of our chaste loves, his young daughter- + The dews of heaven fall thick in blessings on her!- + Beseeching him to give her virtuous breeding- + She is young, and of a noble modest nature; + I hope she will deserve well-and a little + To love her for her mother's sake, that lov'd him, + Heaven knows how dearly. My next poor petition + Is that his noble Grace would have some pity + Upon my wretched women that so long + Have follow'd both my fortunes faithfully; + Of which there is not one, I dare avow- + And now I should not lie-but will deserve, + For virtue and true beauty of the soul, + For honesty and decent carriage, + A right good husband, let him be a noble; + And sure those men are happy that shall have 'em. + The last is for my men-they are the poorest, + But poverty could never draw 'em from me- + That they may have their wages duly paid 'em, + And something over to remember me by. + If heaven had pleas'd to have given me longer life + And able means, we had not parted thus. + These are the whole contents; and, good my lord, + By that you love the dearest in this world, + As you wish Christian peace to souls departed, + Stand these poor people's friend, and urge the King + To do me this last right. + CAPUCIUS. By heaven, I will, + Or let me lose the fashion of a man! + KATHARINE. I thank you, honest lord. Remember me + In all humility unto his Highness; + Say his long trouble now is passing + Out of this world. Tell him in death I bless'd him, + For so I will. Mine eyes grow dim. Farewell, + My lord. Griffith, farewell. Nay, Patience, + You must not leave me yet. I must to bed; + Call in more women. When I am dead, good wench, + Let me be us'd with honour; strew me over + With maiden flowers, that all the world may know + I was a chaste wife to my grave. Embalm me, + Then lay me forth; although unqueen'd, yet like + A queen, and daughter to a king, inter me. + I can no more. Exeunt, leading KATHARINE + +ACT V. SCENE 1. + +London. A gallery in the palace + +Enter GARDINER, BISHOP OF WINCHESTER, a PAGE with a torch before him, +met by SIR THOMAS LOVELL + + GARDINER. It's one o'clock, boy, is't not? + BOY. It hath struck. + GARDINER. These should be hours for necessities, + Not for delights; times to repair our nature + With comforting repose, and not for us + To waste these times. Good hour of night, Sir Thomas! + Whither so late? + LOVELL. Came you from the King, my lord? + GARDINER. I did, Sir Thomas, and left him at primero + With the Duke of Suffolk. + LOVELL. I must to him too, + Before he go to bed. I'll take my leave. + GARDINER. Not yet, Sir Thomas Lovell. What's the matter? + It seems you are in haste. An if there be + No great offence belongs to't, give your friend + Some touch of your late business. Affairs that walk- + As they say spirits do-at midnight, have + In them a wilder nature than the business + That seeks despatch by day. + LOVELL. My lord, I love you; + And durst commend a secret to your ear + Much weightier than this work. The Queen's in labour, + They say in great extremity, and fear'd + She'll with the labour end. + GARDINER. The fruit she goes with + I pray for heartily, that it may find + Good time, and live; but for the stock, Sir Thomas, + I wish it grubb'd up now. + LOVELL. Methinks I could + Cry thee amen; and yet my conscience says + She's a good creature, and, sweet lady, does + Deserve our better wishes. + GARDINER. But, sir, sir- + Hear me, Sir Thomas. Y'are a gentleman + Of mine own way; I know you wise, religious; + And, let me tell you, it will ne'er be well- + 'Twill not, Sir Thomas Lovell, take't of me- + Till Cranmer, Cromwell, her two hands, and she, + Sleep in their graves. + LOVELL. Now, sir, you speak of two + The most remark'd i' th' kingdom. As for Cromwell, + Beside that of the Jewel House, is made Master + O' th' Rolls, and the King's secretary; further, sir, + Stands in the gap and trade of moe preferments, + With which the time will load him. Th' Archbishop + Is the King's hand and tongue, and who dare speak + One syllable against him? + GARDINER. Yes, yes, Sir Thomas, + There are that dare; and I myself have ventur'd + To speak my mind of him; and indeed this day, + Sir-I may tell it you-I think I have + Incens'd the lords o' th' Council, that he is- + For so I know he is, they know he is- + A most arch heretic, a pestilence + That does infect the land; with which they moved + Have broken with the King, who hath so far + Given ear to our complaint-of his great grace + And princely care, foreseeing those fell mischiefs + Our reasons laid before him-hath commanded + To-morrow morning to the Council board + He be convented. He's a rank weed, Sir Thomas, + And we must root him out. From your affairs + I hinder you too long-good night, Sir Thomas. + LOVELL. Many good nights, my lord; I rest your servant. + Exeunt GARDINER and PAGE + + Enter the KING and the DUKE OF SUFFOLK + + KING. Charles, I will play no more to-night; + My mind's not on't; you are too hard for me. + SUFFOLK. Sir, I did never win of you before. + KING. But little, Charles; + Nor shall not, when my fancy's on my play. + Now, Lovell, from the Queen what is the news? + LOVELL. I could not personally deliver to her + What you commanded me, but by her woman + I sent your message; who return'd her thanks + In the great'st humbleness, and desir'd your Highness + Most heartily to pray for her. + KING. What say'st thou, ha? + To pray for her? What, is she crying out? + LOVELL. So said her woman; and that her suff'rance made + Almost each pang a death. + KING. Alas, good lady! + SUFFOLK. God safely quit her of her burden, and + With gentle travail, to the gladding of + Your Highness with an heir! + KING. 'Tis midnight, Charles; + Prithee to bed; and in thy pray'rs remember + Th' estate of my poor queen. Leave me alone, + For I must think of that which company + Will not be friendly to. + SUFFOLK. I wish your Highness + A quiet night, and my good mistress will + Remember in my prayers. + KING. Charles, good night. Exit SUFFOLK + + Enter SIR ANTHONY DENNY + + Well, sir, what follows? + DENNY. Sir, I have brought my lord the Archbishop, + As you commanded me. + KING. Ha! Canterbury? + DENNY. Ay, my good lord. + KING. 'Tis true. Where is he, Denny? + DENNY. He attends your Highness' pleasure. + KING. Bring him to us. Exit DENNY + LOVELL. [Aside] This is about that which the bishop spake. + I am happily come hither. + + Re-enter DENNY, With CRANMER + + KING. Avoid the gallery. [LOVELL seems to stay] + Ha! I have said. Be gone. + What! Exeunt LOVELL and DENNY + CRANMER. [Aside] I am fearful-wherefore frowns he thus? + 'Tis his aspect of terror. All's not well. + KING. How now, my lord? You do desire to know + Wherefore I sent for you. + CRANMER. [Kneeling] It is my duty + T'attend your Highness' pleasure. + KING. Pray you, arise, + My good and gracious Lord of Canterbury. + Come, you and I must walk a turn together; + I have news to tell you; come, come, me your hand. + Ah, my good lord, I grieve at what I speak, + And am right sorry to repeat what follows. + I have, and most unwillingly, of late + Heard many grievous-I do say, my lord, + Grievous-complaints of you; which, being consider'd, + Have mov'd us and our Council that you shall + This morning come before us; where I know + You cannot with such freedom purge yourself + But that, till further trial in those charges + Which will require your answer, you must take + Your patience to you and be well contented + To make your house our Tow'r. You a brother of us, + It fits we thus proceed, or else no witness + Would come against you. + CRANMER. I humbly thank your Highness + And am right glad to catch this good occasion + Most throughly to be winnowed where my chaff + And corn shall fly asunder; for I know + There's none stands under more calumnious tongues + Than I myself, poor man. + KING. Stand up, good Canterbury; + Thy truth and thy integrity is rooted + In us, thy friend. Give me thy hand, stand up; + Prithee let's walk. Now, by my holidame, + What manner of man are you? My lord, I look'd + You would have given me your petition that + I should have ta'en some pains to bring together + Yourself and your accusers, and to have heard you + Without indurance further. + CRANMER. Most dread liege, + The good I stand on is my truth and honesty; + If they shall fail, I with mine enemies + Will triumph o'er my person; which I weigh not, + Being of those virtues vacant. I fear nothing + What can be said against me. + KING. Know you not + How your state stands i' th' world, with the whole world? + Your enemies are many, and not small; their practices + Must bear the same proportion; and not ever + The justice and the truth o' th' question carries + The due o' th' verdict with it; at what ease + Might corrupt minds procure knaves as corrupt + To swear against you? Such things have been done. + You are potently oppos'd, and with a malice + Of as great size. Ween you of better luck, + I mean in perjur'd witness, than your Master, + Whose minister you are, whiles here He liv'd + Upon this naughty earth? Go to, go to; + You take a precipice for no leap of danger, + And woo your own destruction. + CRANMER. God and your Majesty + Protect mine innocence, or I fall into + The trap is laid for me! + KING. Be of good cheer; + They shall no more prevail than we give way to. + Keep comfort to you, and this morning see + You do appear before them; if they shall chance, + In charging you with matters, to commit you, + The best persuasions to the contrary + Fail not to use, and with what vehemency + Th' occasion shall instruct you. If entreaties + Will render you no remedy, this ring + Deliver them, and your appeal to us + There make before them. Look, the good man weeps! + He's honest, on mine honour. God's blest Mother! + I swear he is true-hearted, and a soul + None better in my kingdom. Get you gone, + And do as I have bid you. + Exit CRANMER + He has strangled his language in his tears. + + Enter OLD LADY + + GENTLEMAN. [Within] Come back; what mean you? + OLD LADY. I'll not come back; the tidings that I bring + Will make my boldness manners. Now, good angels + Fly o'er thy royal head, and shade thy person + Under their blessed wings! + KING. Now, by thy looks + I guess thy message. Is the Queen deliver'd? + Say ay, and of a boy. + OLD LADY. Ay, ay, my liege; + And of a lovely boy. The God of Heaven + Both now and ever bless her! 'Tis a girl, + Promises boys hereafter. Sir, your queen + Desires your visitation, and to be + Acquainted with this stranger; 'tis as like you + As cherry is to cherry. + KING. Lovell! + + Enter LOVELL + + LOVELL. Sir? + KING. Give her an hundred marks. I'll to the Queen. Exit + OLD LADY. An hundred marks? By this light, I'll ha' more! + An ordinary groom is for such payment. + I will have more, or scold it out of him. + Said I for this the girl was like to him! I'll + Have more, or else unsay't; and now, while 'tis hot, + I'll put it to the issue. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 2. + +Lobby before the Council Chamber + +Enter CRANMER, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY + + CRANMER. I hope I am not too late; and yet the gentleman + That was sent to me from the Council pray'd me + To make great haste. All fast? What means this? Ho! + Who waits there? Sure you know me? + + Enter KEEPER + + KEEPER. Yes, my lord; + But yet I cannot help you. + CRANMER. Why? + KEEPER. Your Grace must wait till you be call'd for. + + Enter DOCTOR BUTTS + + CRANMER. So. + BUTTS. [Aside] This is a piece of malice. I am glad + I came this way so happily; the King + Shall understand it presently. Exit + CRANMER. [Aside] 'Tis Butts, + The King's physician; as he pass'd along, + How earnestly he cast his eyes upon me! + Pray heaven he sound not my disgrace! For certain, + This is of purpose laid by some that hate me- + God turn their hearts! I never sought their malice- + To quench mine honour; they would shame to make me + Wait else at door, a fellow councillor, + 'Mong boys, grooms, and lackeys. But their pleasures + Must be fulfill'd, and I attend with patience. + + Enter the KING and BUTTS at window above + + BUTTS. I'll show your Grace the strangest sight- + KING. What's that, Butts? + BUTTS. I think your Highness saw this many a day. + KING. Body a me, where is it? + BUTTS. There my lord: + The high promotion of his Grace of Canterbury; + Who holds his state at door, 'mongst pursuivants, + Pages, and footboys. + KING. Ha, 'tis he indeed. + Is this the honour they do one another? + 'Tis well there's one above 'em yet. I had thought + They had parted so much honesty among 'em- + At least good manners-as not thus to suffer + A man of his place, and so near our favour, + To dance attendance on their lordships' pleasures, + And at the door too, like a post with packets. + By holy Mary, Butts, there's knavery! + Let 'em alone, and draw the curtain close; + We shall hear more anon. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 3. + +The Council Chamber + +A Council table brought in, with chairs and stools, and placed under +the state. Enter LORD CHANCELLOR, places himself at the upper end of +the table on the left band, a seat being left void above him, as for +Canterbury's seat. DUKE OF SUFFOLK, DUKE OF NORFOLK, SURREY, LORD +CHAMBERLAIN, GARDINER, seat themselves in order on each side; CROMWELL +at lower end, as secretary. KEEPER at the door + + CHANCELLOR. Speak to the business, master secretary; + Why are we met in council? + CROMWELL. Please your honours, + The chief cause concerns his Grace of Canterbury. + GARDINER. Has he had knowledge of it? + CROMWELL. Yes. + NORFOLK. Who waits there? + KEEPER. Without, my noble lords? + GARDINER. Yes. + KEEPER. My Lord Archbishop; + And has done half an hour, to know your pleasures. + CHANCELLOR. Let him come in. + KEEPER. Your Grace may enter now. + + CRANMER approaches the Council table + + CHANCELLOR. My good Lord Archbishop, I am very sorry + To sit here at this present, and behold + That chair stand empty; but we all are men, + In our own natures frail and capable + Of our flesh; few are angels; out of which frailty + And want of wisdom, you, that best should teach us, + Have misdemean'd yourself, and not a little, + Toward the King first, then his laws, in filling + The whole realm by your teaching and your chaplains- + For so we are inform'd-with new opinions, + Divers and dangerous; which are heresies, + And, not reform'd, may prove pernicious. + GARDINER. Which reformation must be sudden too, + My noble lords; for those that tame wild horses + Pace 'em not in their hands to make 'em gentle, + But stop their mouth with stubborn bits and spur 'em + Till they obey the manage. If we suffer, + Out of our easiness and childish pity + To one man's honour, this contagious sickness, + Farewell all physic; and what follows then? + Commotions, uproars, with a general taint + Of the whole state; as of late days our neighbours, + The upper Germany, can dearly witness, + Yet freshly pitied in our memories. + CRANMER. My good lords, hitherto in all the progress + Both of my life and office, I have labour'd, + And with no little study, that my teaching + And the strong course of my authority + Might go one way, and safely; and the end + Was ever to do well. Nor is there living- + I speak it with a single heart, my lords- + A man that more detests, more stirs against, + Both in his private conscience and his place, + Defacers of a public peace than I do. + Pray heaven the King may never find a heart + With less allegiance in it! Men that make + Envy and crooked malice nourishment + Dare bite the best. I do beseech your lordships + That, in this case of justice, my accusers, + Be what they will, may stand forth face to face + And freely urge against me. + SUFFOLK. Nay, my lord, + That cannot be; you are a councillor, + And by that virtue no man dare accuse you. + GARDINER. My lord, because we have business of more moment, + We will be short with you. 'Tis his Highness' pleasure + And our consent, for better trial of you, + From hence you be committed to the Tower; + Where, being but a private man again, + You shall know many dare accuse you boldly, + More than, I fear, you are provided for. + CRANMER. Ah, my good Lord of Winchester, I thank you; + You are always my good friend; if your will pass, + I shall both find your lordship judge and juror, + You are so merciful. I see your end- + 'Tis my undoing. Love and meekness, lord, + Become a churchman better than ambition; + Win straying souls with modesty again, + Cast none away. That I shall clear myself, + Lay all the weight ye can upon my patience, + I make as little doubt as you do conscience + In doing daily wrongs. I could say more, + But reverence to your calling makes me modest. + GARDINER. My lord, my lord, you are a sectary; + That's the plain truth. Your painted gloss discovers, + To men that understand you, words and weakness. + CROMWELL. My Lord of Winchester, y'are a little, + By your good favour, too sharp; men so noble, + However faulty, yet should find respect + For what they have been; 'tis a cruelty + To load a falling man. + GARDINER. Good Master Secretary, + I cry your honour mercy; you may, worst + Of all this table, say so. + CROMWELL. Why, my lord? + GARDINER. Do not I know you for a favourer + Of this new sect? Ye are not sound. + CROMWELL. Not sound? + GARDINER. Not sound, I say. + CROMWELL. Would you were half so honest! + Men's prayers then would seek you, not their fears. + GARDINER. I shall remember this bold language. + CROMWELL. Do. + Remember your bold life too. + CHANCELLOR. This is too much; + Forbear, for shame, my lords. + GARDINER. I have done. + CROMWELL. And I. + CHANCELLOR. Then thus for you, my lord: it stands agreed, + I take it, by all voices, that forthwith + You be convey'd to th' Tower a prisoner; + There to remain till the King's further pleasure + Be known unto us. Are you all agreed, lords? + ALL. We are. + CRANMER. Is there no other way of mercy, + But I must needs to th' Tower, my lords? + GARDINER. What other + Would you expect? You are strangely troublesome. + Let some o' th' guard be ready there. + + Enter the guard + + CRANMER. For me? + Must I go like a traitor thither? + GARDINER. Receive him, + And see him safe i' th' Tower. + CRANMER. Stay, good my lords, + I have a little yet to say. Look there, my lords; + By virtue of that ring I take my cause + Out of the gripes of cruel men and give it + To a most noble judge, the King my master. + CHAMBERLAIN. This is the King's ring. + SURREY. 'Tis no counterfeit. + SUFFOLK. 'Tis the right ring, by heav'n. I told ye all, + When we first put this dangerous stone a-rolling, + 'Twould fall upon ourselves. + NORFOLK. Do you think, my lords, + The King will suffer but the little finger + Of this man to be vex'd? + CHAMBERLAIN. 'Tis now too certain; + How much more is his life in value with him! + Would I were fairly out on't! + CROMWELL. My mind gave me, + In seeking tales and informations + Against this man-whose honesty the devil + And his disciples only envy at- + Ye blew the fire that burns ye. Now have at ye! + + Enter the KING frowning on them; he takes his seat + + GARDINER. Dread sovereign, how much are we bound to heaven + In daily thanks, that gave us such a prince; + Not only good and wise but most religious; + One that in all obedience makes the church + The chief aim of his honour and, to strengthen + That holy duty, out of dear respect, + His royal self in judgment comes to hear + The cause betwixt her and this great offender. + KING. You were ever good at sudden commendations, + Bishop of Winchester. But know I come not + To hear such flattery now, and in my presence + They are too thin and bare to hide offences. + To me you cannot reach you play the spaniel, + And think with wagging of your tongue to win me; + But whatsoe'er thou tak'st me for, I'm sure + Thou hast a cruel nature and a bloody. + [To CRANMER] Good man, sit down. Now let me see the proudest + He that dares most but wag his finger at thee. + By all that's holy, he had better starve + Than but once think this place becomes thee not. + SURREY. May it please your Grace- + KING. No, sir, it does not please me. + I had thought I had had men of some understanding + And wisdom of my Council; but I find none. + Was it discretion, lords, to let this man, + This good man-few of you deserve that title- + This honest man, wait like a lousy footboy + At chamber door? and one as great as you are? + Why, what a shame was this! Did my commission + Bid ye so far forget yourselves? I gave ye + Power as he was a councillor to try him, + Not as a groom. There's some of ye, I see, + More out of malice than integrity, + Would try him to the utmost, had ye mean; + Which ye shall never have while I live. + CHANCELLOR. Thus far, + My most dread sovereign, may it like your Grace + To let my tongue excuse all. What was purpos'd + concerning his imprisonment was rather- + If there be faith in men-meant for his trial + And fair purgation to the world, than malice, + I'm sure, in me. + KING. Well, well, my lords, respect him; + Take him, and use him well, he's worthy of it. + I will say thus much for him: if a prince + May be beholding to a subject, + Am for his love and service so to him. + Make me no more ado, but all embrace him; + Be friends, for shame, my lords! My Lord of Canterbury, + I have a suit which you must not deny me: + That is, a fair young maid that yet wants baptism; + You must be godfather, and answer for her. + CRANMER. The greatest monarch now alive may glory + In such an honour; how may I deserve it, + That am a poor and humble subject to you? + KING. Come, come, my lord, you'd spare your spoons. You + shall have + Two noble partners with you: the old Duchess of Norfolk + And Lady Marquis Dorset. Will these please you? + Once more, my Lord of Winchester, I charge you, + Embrace and love this man. + GARDINER. With a true heart + And brother-love I do it. + CRANMER. And let heaven + Witness how dear I hold this confirmation. + KING. Good man, those joyful tears show thy true heart. + The common voice, I see, is verified + Of thee, which says thus: 'Do my Lord of Canterbury + A shrewd turn and he's your friend for ever.' + Come, lords, we trifle time away; I long + To have this young one made a Christian. + As I have made ye one, lords, one remain; + So I grow stronger, you more honour gain. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 4. + +The palace yard + +Noise and tumult within. Enter PORTER and his MAN + + PORTER. You'll leave your noise anon, ye rascals. Do you + take the court for Paris garden? Ye rude slaves, leave your + gaping. + [Within: Good master porter, I belong to th' larder.] + PORTER. Belong to th' gallows, and be hang'd, ye rogue! Is + this a place to roar in? Fetch me a dozen crab-tree staves, + and strong ones; these are but switches to 'em. I'll scratch + your heads. You must be seeing christenings? Do you look + for ale and cakes here, you rude rascals? + MAN. Pray, sir, be patient; 'tis as much impossible, + Unless we sweep 'em from the door with cannons, + To scatter 'em as 'tis to make 'em sleep + On May-day morning; which will never be. + We may as well push against Paul's as stir 'em. + PORTER. How got they in, and be hang'd? + MAN. Alas, I know not: how gets the tide in? + As much as one sound cudgel of four foot- + You see the poor remainder-could distribute, + I made no spare, sir. + PORTER. You did nothing, sir. + MAN. I am not Samson, nor Sir Guy, nor Colbrand, + To mow 'em down before me; but if I spar'd any + That had a head to hit, either young or old, + He or she, cuckold or cuckold-maker, + Let me ne'er hope to see a chine again; + And that I would not for a cow, God save her! + [ Within: Do you hear, master porter?] + PORTER. I shall be with you presently, good master puppy. + Keep the door close, sirrah. + MAN. What would you have me do? + PORTER. What should you do, but knock 'em down by th' + dozens? Is this Moorfields to muster in? Or have we some + strange Indian with the great tool come to court, the + women so besiege us? Bless me, what a fry of fornication + is at door! On my Christian conscience, this one christening + will beget a thousand: here will be father, godfather, + and all together. + MAN. The spoons will be the bigger, sir. There is a fellow + somewhat near the door, he should be a brazier by his + face, for, o' my conscience, twenty of the dog-days now + reign in's nose; all that stand about him are under the line, + they need no other penance. That fire-drake did I hit three + times on the head, and three times was his nose discharged + against me; he stands there like a mortar-piece, to blow us. + There was a haberdasher's wife of small wit near him, that + rail'd upon me till her pink'd porringer fell off her head, + for kindling such a combustion in the state. I miss'd the + meteor once, and hit that woman, who cried out 'Clubs!' + when I might see from far some forty truncheoners draw + to her succour, which were the hope o' th' Strand, where + she was quartered. They fell on; I made good my place. + At length they came to th' broomstaff to me; I defied 'em + still; when suddenly a file of boys behind 'em, loose shot, + deliver'd such a show'r of pebbles that I was fain to draw + mine honour in and let 'em win the work: the devil was + amongst 'em, I think surely. + PORTER. These are the youths that thunder at a playhouse + and fight for bitten apples; that no audience but the tribulation + of Tower-hill or the limbs of Limehouse, their dear + brothers, are able to endure. I have some of 'em in Limbo + Patrum, and there they are like to dance these three days; + besides the running banquet of two beadles that is to come. + + Enter the LORD CHAMBERLAIN + + CHAMBERLAIN. Mercy o' me, what a multitude are here! + They grow still too; from all parts they are coming, + As if we kept a fair here! Where are these porters, + These lazy knaves? Y'have made a fine hand, fellows. + There's a trim rabble let in: are all these + Your faithful friends o' th' suburbs? We shall have + Great store of room, no doubt, left for the ladies, + When they pass back from the christening. + PORTER. An't please your honour, + We are but men; and what so many may do, + Not being torn a pieces, we have done. + An army cannot rule 'em. + CHAMBERLAIN. As I live, + If the King blame me for't, I'll lay ye an + By th' heels, and suddenly; and on your heads + Clap round fines for neglect. Y'are lazy knaves; + And here ye lie baiting of bombards, when + Ye should do service. Hark! the trumpets sound; + Th' are come already from the christening. + Go break among the press and find a way out + To let the troops pass fairly, or I'll find + A Marshalsea shall hold ye play these two months. + PORTER. Make way there for the Princess. + MAN. You great fellow, + Stand close up, or I'll make your head ache. + PORTER. You i' th' camlet, get up o' th' rail; + I'll peck you o'er the pales else. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 5. + +The palace + +Enter TRUMPETS, sounding; then two ALDERMEN, LORD MAYOR, GARTER, +CRANMER, DUKE OF NORFOLK, with his marshal's staff, DUKE OF SUFFOLK, +two Noblemen bearing great standing-bowls for the christening gifts; +then four Noblemen bearing a canopy, under which the DUCHESS OF +NORFOLK, godmother, bearing the CHILD richly habited in a mantle, etc., +train borne by a LADY; then follows the MARCHIONESS DORSET, the other +godmother, and LADIES. The troop pass once about the stage, and GARTER +speaks + + GARTER. Heaven, from thy endless goodness, send prosperous life, long + and ever-happy, to the high and mighty Princess of England, + Elizabeth! + + Flourish. Enter KING and guard + + CRANMER. [Kneeling] And to your royal Grace and the + good Queen! + My noble partners and myself thus pray: + All comfort, joy, in this most gracious lady, + Heaven ever laid up to make parents happy, + May hourly fall upon ye! + KING. Thank you, good Lord Archbishop. + What is her name? + CRANMER. Elizabeth. + KING. Stand up, lord. [The KING kisses the child] + With this kiss take my blessing: God protect thee! + Into whose hand I give thy life. + CRANMER. Amen. + KING. My noble gossips, y'have been too prodigal; + I thank ye heartily. So shall this lady, + When she has so much English. + CRANMER. Let me speak, sir, + For heaven now bids me; and the words I utter + Let none think flattery, for they'll find 'em truth. + This royal infant-heaven still move about her!- + Though in her cradle, yet now promises + Upon this land a thousand blessings, + Which time shall bring to ripeness. She shall be- + But few now living can behold that goodness- + A pattern to all princes living with her, + And all that shall succeed. Saba was never + More covetous of wisdom and fair virtue + Than this pure soul shall be. All princely graces + That mould up such a mighty piece as this is, + With all the virtues that attend the good, + Shall still be doubled on her. Truth shall nurse her, + Holy and heavenly thoughts still counsel her; + She shall be lov'd and fear'd. Her own shall bless her: + Her foes shake like a field of beaten corn, + And hang their heads with sorrow. Good grows with her; + In her days every man shall eat in safety + Under his own vine what he plants, and sing + The merry songs of peace to all his neighbours. + God shall be truly known; and those about her + From her shall read the perfect ways of honour, + And by those claim their greatness, not by blood. + Nor shall this peace sleep with her; but as when + The bird of wonder dies, the maiden phoenix + Her ashes new create another heir + As great in admiration as herself, + So shall she leave her blessedness to one- + When heaven shall call her from this cloud of darkness- + Who from the sacred ashes of her honour + Shall star-like rise, as great in fame as she was, + And so stand fix'd. Peace, plenty, love, truth, terror, + That were the servants to this chosen infant, + Shall then be his, and like a vine grow to him; + Wherever the bright sun of heaven shall shine, + His honour and the greatness of his name + Shall be, and make new nations; he shall flourish, + And like a mountain cedar reach his branches + To all the plains about him; our children's children + Shall see this and bless heaven. + KING. Thou speakest wonders. + CRANMER. She shall be, to the happiness of England, + An aged princess; many days shall see her, + And yet no day without a deed to crown it. + Would I had known no more! But she must die- + She must, the saints must have her-yet a virgin; + A most unspotted lily shall she pass + To th' ground, and all the world shall mourn her. + KING. O Lord Archbishop, + Thou hast made me now a man; never before + This happy child did I get anything. + This oracle of comfort has so pleas'd me + That when I am in heaven I shall desire + To see what this child does, and praise my Maker. + I thank ye all. To you, my good Lord Mayor, + And you, good brethren, I am much beholding; + I have receiv'd much honour by your presence, + And ye shall find me thankful. Lead the way, lords; + Ye must all see the Queen, and she must thank ye, + She will be sick else. This day, no man think + Has business at his house; for all shall stay. + This little one shall make it holiday. Exeunt + +KING_HENRY_VIII|EPILOGUE THE EPILOGUE. + + 'Tis ten to one this play can never please + All that are here. Some come to take their ease + And sleep an act or two; but those, we fear, + W'have frighted with our trumpets; so, 'tis clear, + They'll say 'tis nought; others to hear the city + Abus'd extremely, and to cry 'That's witty!' + Which we have not done neither; that, I fear, + All the expected good w'are like to hear + For this play at this time is only in + The merciful construction of good women; + For such a one we show'd 'em. If they smile + And say 'twill do, I know within a while + All the best men are ours; for 'tis ill hap + If they hold when their ladies bid 'em clap. + + + + +KING JOHN + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + + KING JOHN + PRINCE HENRY, his son + ARTHUR, DUKE OF BRITAINE, son of Geffrey, late Duke of + Britaine, the elder brother of King John + EARL OF PEMBROKE + EARL OF ESSEX + EARL OF SALISBURY + LORD BIGOT + HUBERT DE BURGH + ROBERT FAULCONBRIDGE, son to Sir Robert Faulconbridge + PHILIP THE BASTARD, his half-brother + JAMES GURNEY, servant to Lady Faulconbridge + PETER OF POMFRET, a prophet + + KING PHILIP OF FRANCE + LEWIS, the Dauphin + LYMOGES, Duke of Austria + CARDINAL PANDULPH, the Pope's legate + MELUN, a French lord + CHATILLON, ambassador from France to King John + + QUEEN ELINOR, widow of King Henry II and mother to + King John + CONSTANCE, Mother to Arthur + BLANCH OF SPAIN, daughter to the King of Castile + and niece to King John + LADY FAULCONBRIDGE, widow of Sir Robert Faulconbridge + + Lords, Citizens of Angiers, Sheriff, Heralds, Officers, + Soldiers, Executioners, Messengers, Attendants + +SCENE: England and France + +ACT I. SCENE 1 + +KING JOHN's palace + +Enter KING JOHN, QUEEN ELINOR, PEMBROKE, ESSEX, SALISBURY, and others, +with CHATILLON + + KING JOHN. Now, say, Chatillon, what would France with us? + CHATILLON. Thus, after greeting, speaks the King of France + In my behaviour to the majesty, + The borrowed majesty, of England here. + ELINOR. A strange beginning- 'borrowed majesty'! + KING JOHN. Silence, good mother; hear the embassy. + CHATILLON. Philip of France, in right and true behalf + Of thy deceased brother Geffrey's son, + Arthur Plantagenet, lays most lawful claim + To this fair island and the territories, + To Ireland, Poictiers, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, + Desiring thee to lay aside the sword + Which sways usurpingly these several titles, + And put the same into young Arthur's hand, + Thy nephew and right royal sovereign. + KING JOHN. What follows if we disallow of this? + CHATILLON. The proud control of fierce and bloody war, + To enforce these rights so forcibly withheld. + KING JOHN. Here have we war for war, and blood for blood, + Controlment for controlment- so answer France. + CHATILLON. Then take my king's defiance from my mouth- + The farthest limit of my embassy. + KING JOHN. Bear mine to him, and so depart in peace; + Be thou as lightning in the eyes of France; + For ere thou canst report I will be there, + The thunder of my cannon shall be heard. + So hence! Be thou the trumpet of our wrath + And sullen presage of your own decay. + An honourable conduct let him have- + Pembroke, look to 't. Farewell, Chatillon. + Exeunt CHATILLON and PEMBROKE + ELINOR. What now, my son! Have I not ever said + How that ambitious Constance would not cease + Till she had kindled France and all the world + Upon the right and party of her son? + This might have been prevented and made whole + With very easy arguments of love, + Which now the manage of two kingdoms must + With fearful bloody issue arbitrate. + KING JOHN. Our strong possession and our right for us! + ELINOR. Your strong possession much more than your right, + Or else it must go wrong with you and me; + So much my conscience whispers in your ear, + Which none but heaven and you and I shall hear. + + Enter a SHERIFF + + ESSEX. My liege, here is the strangest controversy + Come from the country to be judg'd by you + That e'er I heard. Shall I produce the men? + KING JOHN. Let them approach. Exit SHERIFF + Our abbeys and our priories shall pay + This expedition's charge. + + Enter ROBERT FAULCONBRIDGE and PHILIP, his bastard + brother + + What men are you? + BASTARD. Your faithful subject I, a gentleman + Born in Northamptonshire, and eldest son, + As I suppose, to Robert Faulconbridge- + A soldier by the honour-giving hand + Of Coeur-de-lion knighted in the field. + KING JOHN. What art thou? + ROBERT. The son and heir to that same Faulconbridge. + KING JOHN. Is that the elder, and art thou the heir? + You came not of one mother then, it seems. + BASTARD. Most certain of one mother, mighty king- + That is well known- and, as I think, one father; + But for the certain knowledge of that truth + I put you o'er to heaven and to my mother. + Of that I doubt, as all men's children may. + ELINOR. Out on thee, rude man! Thou dost shame thy mother, + And wound her honour with this diffidence. + BASTARD. I, madam? No, I have no reason for it- + That is my brother's plea, and none of mine; + The which if he can prove, 'a pops me out + At least from fair five hundred pound a year. + Heaven guard my mother's honour and my land! + KING JOHN. A good blunt fellow. Why, being younger born, + Doth he lay claim to thine inheritance? + BASTARD. I know not why, except to get the land. + But once he slander'd me with bastardy; + But whe'er I be as true begot or no, + That still I lay upon my mother's head; + But that I am as well begot, my liege- + Fair fall the bones that took the pains for me!- + Compare our faces and be judge yourself. + If old Sir Robert did beget us both + And were our father, and this son like him- + O old Sir Robert, father, on my knee + I give heaven thanks I was not like to thee! + KING JOHN. Why, what a madcap hath heaven lent us here! + ELINOR. He hath a trick of Coeur-de-lion's face; + The accent of his tongue affecteth him. + Do you not read some tokens of my son + In the large composition of this man? + KING JOHN. Mine eye hath well examined his parts + And finds them perfect Richard. Sirrah, speak, + What doth move you to claim your brother's land? + BASTARD. Because he hath a half-face, like my father. + With half that face would he have all my land: + A half-fac'd groat five hundred pound a year! + ROBERT. My gracious liege, when that my father liv'd, + Your brother did employ my father much- + BASTARD. Well, sir, by this you cannot get my land: + Your tale must be how he employ'd my mother. + ROBERT. And once dispatch'd him in an embassy + To Germany, there with the Emperor + To treat of high affairs touching that time. + Th' advantage of his absence took the King, + And in the meantime sojourn'd at my father's; + Where how he did prevail I shame to speak- + But truth is truth: large lengths of seas and shores + Between my father and my mother lay, + As I have heard my father speak himself, + When this same lusty gentleman was got. + Upon his death-bed he by will bequeath'd + His lands to me, and took it on his death + That this my mother's son was none of his; + And if he were, he came into the world + Full fourteen weeks before the course of time. + Then, good my liege, let me have what is mine, + My father's land, as was my father's will. + KING JOHN. Sirrah, your brother is legitimate: + Your father's wife did after wedlock bear him, + And if she did play false, the fault was hers; + Which fault lies on the hazards of all husbands + That marry wives. Tell me, how if my brother, + Who, as you say, took pains to get this son, + Had of your father claim'd this son for his? + In sooth, good friend, your father might have kept + This calf, bred from his cow, from all the world; + In sooth, he might; then, if he were my brother's, + My brother might not claim him; nor your father, + Being none of his, refuse him. This concludes: + My mother's son did get your father's heir; + Your father's heir must have your father's land. + ROBERT. Shall then my father's will be of no force + To dispossess that child which is not his? + BASTARD. Of no more force to dispossess me, sir, + Than was his will to get me, as I think. + ELINOR. Whether hadst thou rather be a Faulconbridge, + And like thy brother, to enjoy thy land, + Or the reputed son of Coeur-de-lion, + Lord of thy presence and no land beside? + BASTARD. Madam, an if my brother had my shape + And I had his, Sir Robert's his, like him; + And if my legs were two such riding-rods, + My arms such eel-skins stuff'd, my face so thin + That in mine ear I durst not stick a rose + Lest men should say 'Look where three-farthings goes!' + And, to his shape, were heir to all this land- + Would I might never stir from off this place, + I would give it every foot to have this face! + I would not be Sir Nob in any case. + ELINOR. I like thee well. Wilt thou forsake thy fortune, + Bequeath thy land to him and follow me? + I am a soldier and now bound to France. + BASTARD. Brother, take you my land, I'll take my chance. + Your face hath got five hundred pound a year, + Yet sell your face for fivepence and 'tis dear. + Madam, I'll follow you unto the death. + ELINOR. Nay, I would have you go before me thither. + BASTARD. Our country manners give our betters way. + KING JOHN. What is thy name? + BASTARD. Philip, my liege, so is my name begun: + Philip, good old Sir Robert's wife's eldest son. + KING JOHN. From henceforth bear his name whose form thou bearest: + Kneel thou down Philip, but rise more great- + Arise Sir Richard and Plantagenet. + BASTARD. Brother by th' mother's side, give me your hand; + My father gave me honour, yours gave land. + Now blessed be the hour, by night or day, + When I was got, Sir Robert was away! + ELINOR. The very spirit of Plantagenet! + I am thy grandam, Richard: call me so. + BASTARD. Madam, by chance, but not by truth; what though? + Something about, a little from the right, + In at the window, or else o'er the hatch; + Who dares not stir by day must walk by night; + And have is have, however men do catch. + Near or far off, well won is still well shot; + And I am I, howe'er I was begot. + KING JOHN. Go, Faulconbridge; now hast thou thy desire: + A landless knight makes thee a landed squire. + Come, madam, and come, Richard, we must speed + For France, for France, for it is more than need. + BASTARD. Brother, adieu. Good fortune come to thee! + For thou wast got i' th' way of honesty. + Exeunt all but the BASTARD + A foot of honour better than I was; + But many a many foot of land the worse. + Well, now can I make any Joan a lady. + 'Good den, Sir Richard!'-'God-a-mercy, fellow!' + And if his name be George, I'll call him Peter; + For new-made honour doth forget men's names: + 'Tis too respective and too sociable + For your conversion. Now your traveller, + He and his toothpick at my worship's mess- + And when my knightly stomach is suffic'd, + Why then I suck my teeth and catechize + My picked man of countries: 'My dear sir,' + Thus leaning on mine elbow I begin + 'I shall beseech you'-That is question now; + And then comes answer like an Absey book: + 'O sir,' says answer 'at your best command, + At your employment, at your service, sir!' + 'No, sir,' says question 'I, sweet sir, at yours.' + And so, ere answer knows what question would, + Saving in dialogue of compliment, + And talking of the Alps and Apennines, + The Pyrenean and the river Po- + It draws toward supper in conclusion so. + But this is worshipful society, + And fits the mounting spirit like myself; + For he is but a bastard to the time + That doth not smack of observation- + And so am I, whether I smack or no; + And not alone in habit and device, + Exterior form, outward accoutrement, + But from the inward motion to deliver + Sweet, sweet, sweet poison for the age's tooth; + Which, though I will not practise to deceive, + Yet, to avoid deceit, I mean to learn; + For it shall strew the footsteps of my rising. + But who comes in such haste in riding-robes? + What woman-post is this? Hath she no husband + That will take pains to blow a horn before her? + + Enter LADY FAULCONBRIDGE, and JAMES GURNEY + + O me, 'tis my mother! How now, good lady! + What brings you here to court so hastily? + LADY FAULCONBRIDGE. Where is that slave, thy brother? + Where is he + That holds in chase mine honour up and down? + BASTARD. My brother Robert, old Sir Robert's son? + Colbrand the giant, that same mighty man? + Is it Sir Robert's son that you seek so? + LADY FAULCONBRIDGE. Sir Robert's son! Ay, thou unreverend boy, + Sir Robert's son! Why scorn'st thou at Sir Robert? + He is Sir Robert's son, and so art thou. + BASTARD. James Gurney, wilt thou give us leave awhile? + GURNEY. Good leave, good Philip. + BASTARD. Philip-Sparrow! James, + There's toys abroad-anon I'll tell thee more. + Exit GURNEY + Madam, I was not old Sir Robert's son; + Sir Robert might have eat his part in me + Upon Good Friday, and ne'er broke his fast. + Sir Robert could do: well-marry, to confess- + Could he get me? Sir Robert could not do it: + We know his handiwork. Therefore, good mother, + To whom am I beholding for these limbs? + Sir Robert never holp to make this leg. + LADY FAULCONBRIDGE. Hast thou conspired with thy brother too, + That for thine own gain shouldst defend mine honour? + What means this scorn, thou most untoward knave? + BASTARD. Knight, knight, good mother, Basilisco-like. + What! I am dubb'd; I have it on my shoulder. + But, mother, I am not Sir Robert's son: + I have disclaim'd Sir Robert and my land; + Legitimation, name, and all is gone. + Then, good my mother, let me know my father- + Some proper man, I hope. Who was it, mother? + LADY FAULCONBRIDGE. Hast thou denied thyself a Faulconbridge? + BASTARD. As faithfully as I deny the devil. + LADY FAULCONBRIDGE. King Richard Coeur-de-lion was thy father. + By long and vehement suit I was seduc'd + To make room for him in my husband's bed. + Heaven lay not my transgression to my charge! + Thou art the issue of my dear offence, + Which was so strongly urg'd past my defence. + BASTARD. Now, by this light, were I to get again, + Madam, I would not wish a better father. + Some sins do bear their privilege on earth, + And so doth yours: your fault was not your folly; + Needs must you lay your heart at his dispose, + Subjected tribute to commanding love, + Against whose fury and unmatched force + The aweless lion could not wage the fight + Nor keep his princely heart from Richard's hand. + He that perforce robs lions of their hearts + May easily win a woman's. Ay, my mother, + With all my heart I thank thee for my father! + Who lives and dares but say thou didst not well + When I was got, I'll send his soul to hell. + Come, lady, I will show thee to my kin; + And they shall say when Richard me begot, + If thou hadst said him nay, it had been sin. + Who says it was, he lies; I say 'twas not. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE 1 + +France. Before Angiers + +Enter, on one side, AUSTRIA and forces; on the other, KING PHILIP OF +FRANCE, +LEWIS the Dauphin, CONSTANCE, ARTHUR, and forces + + KING PHILIP. Before Angiers well met, brave Austria. + Arthur, that great forerunner of thy blood, + Richard, that robb'd the lion of his heart + And fought the holy wars in Palestine, + By this brave duke came early to his grave; + And for amends to his posterity, + At our importance hither is he come + To spread his colours, boy, in thy behalf; + And to rebuke the usurpation + Of thy unnatural uncle, English John. + Embrace him, love him, give him welcome hither. + ARTHUR. God shall forgive you Coeur-de-lion's death + The rather that you give his offspring life, + Shadowing their right under your wings of war. + I give you welcome with a powerless hand, + But with a heart full of unstained love; + Welcome before the gates of Angiers, Duke. + KING PHILIP. A noble boy! Who would not do thee right? + AUSTRIA. Upon thy cheek lay I this zealous kiss + As seal to this indenture of my love: + That to my home I will no more return + Till Angiers and the right thou hast in France, + Together with that pale, that white-fac'd shore, + Whose foot spurns back the ocean's roaring tides + And coops from other lands her islanders- + Even till that England, hedg'd in with the main, + That water-walled bulwark, still secure + And confident from foreign purposes- + Even till that utmost corner of the west + Salute thee for her king. Till then, fair boy, + Will I not think of home, but follow arms. + CONSTANCE. O, take his mother's thanks, a widow's thanks, + Till your strong hand shall help to give him strength + To make a more requital to your love! + AUSTRIA. The peace of heaven is theirs that lift their swords + In such a just and charitable war. + KING PHILIP. Well then, to work! Our cannon shall be bent + Against the brows of this resisting town; + Call for our chiefest men of discipline, + To cull the plots of best advantages. + We'll lay before this town our royal bones, + Wade to the market-place in Frenchmen's blood, + But we will make it subject to this boy. + CONSTANCE. Stay for an answer to your embassy, + Lest unadvis'd you stain your swords with blood; + My Lord Chatillon may from England bring + That right in peace which here we urge in war, + And then we shall repent each drop of blood + That hot rash haste so indirectly shed. + + Enter CHATILLON + + KING PHILIP. A wonder, lady! Lo, upon thy wish, + Our messenger Chatillon is arriv'd. + What England says, say briefly, gentle lord; + We coldly pause for thee. Chatillon, speak. + CHATILLON. Then turn your forces from this paltry siege + And stir them up against a mightier task. + England, impatient of your just demands, + Hath put himself in arms. The adverse winds, + Whose leisure I have stay'd, have given him time + To land his legions all as soon as I; + His marches are expedient to this town, + His forces strong, his soldiers confident. + With him along is come the mother-queen, + An Ate, stirring him to blood and strife; + With her the Lady Blanch of Spain; + With them a bastard of the king's deceas'd; + And all th' unsettled humours of the land- + Rash, inconsiderate, fiery voluntaries, + With ladies' faces and fierce dragons' spleens- + Have sold their fortunes at their native homes, + Bearing their birthrights proudly on their backs, + To make a hazard of new fortunes here. + In brief, a braver choice of dauntless spirits + Than now the English bottoms have waft o'er + Did never float upon the swelling tide + To do offence and scathe in Christendom. [Drum beats] + The interruption of their churlish drums + Cuts off more circumstance: they are at hand; + To parley or to fight, therefore prepare. + KING PHILIP. How much unlook'd for is this expedition! + AUSTRIA. By how much unexpected, by so much + We must awake endeavour for defence, + For courage mounteth with occasion. + Let them be welcome then; we are prepar'd. + + Enter KING JOHN, ELINOR, BLANCH, the BASTARD, + PEMBROKE, and others + + KING JOHN. Peace be to France, if France in peace permit + Our just and lineal entrance to our own! + If not, bleed France, and peace ascend to heaven, + Whiles we, God's wrathful agent, do correct + Their proud contempt that beats His peace to heaven! + KING PHILIP. Peace be to England, if that war return + From France to England, there to live in peace! + England we love, and for that England's sake + With burden of our armour here we sweat. + This toil of ours should be a work of thine; + But thou from loving England art so far + That thou hast under-wrought his lawful king, + Cut off the sequence of posterity, + Outfaced infant state, and done a rape + Upon the maiden virtue of the crown. + Look here upon thy brother Geffrey's face: + These eyes, these brows, were moulded out of his; + This little abstract doth contain that large + Which died in Geffrey, and the hand of time + Shall draw this brief into as huge a volume. + That Geffrey was thy elder brother born, + And this his son; England was Geffrey's right, + And this is Geffrey's. In the name of God, + How comes it then that thou art call'd a king, + When living blood doth in these temples beat + Which owe the crown that thou o'er-masterest? + KING JOHN. From whom hast thou this great commission, France, + To draw my answer from thy articles? + KING PHILIP. From that supernal judge that stirs good thoughts + In any breast of strong authority + To look into the blots and stains of right. + That judge hath made me guardian to this boy, + Under whose warrant I impeach thy wrong, + And by whose help I mean to chastise it. + KING JOHN. Alack, thou dost usurp authority. + KING PHILIP. Excuse it is to beat usurping down. + ELINOR. Who is it thou dost call usurper, France? + CONSTANCE. Let me make answer: thy usurping son. + ELINOR. Out, insolent! Thy bastard shall be king, + That thou mayst be a queen and check the world! + CONSTANCE. My bed was ever to thy son as true + As thine was to thy husband; and this boy + Liker in feature to his father Geffrey + Than thou and John in manners-being as Eke + As rain to water, or devil to his dam. + My boy a bastard! By my soul, I think + His father never was so true begot; + It cannot be, an if thou wert his mother. + ELINOR. There's a good mother, boy, that blots thy father. + CONSTANCE. There's a good grandam, boy, that would blot thee. + AUSTRIA. Peace! + BASTARD. Hear the crier. + AUSTRIA. What the devil art thou? + BASTARD. One that will play the devil, sir, with you, + An 'a may catch your hide and you alone. + You are the hare of whom the proverb goes, + Whose valour plucks dead lions by the beard; + I'll smoke your skin-coat an I catch you right; + Sirrah, look to 't; i' faith I will, i' faith. + BLANCH. O, well did he become that lion's robe + That did disrobe the lion of that robe! + BASTARD. It lies as sightly on the back of him + As great Alcides' shows upon an ass; + But, ass, I'll take that burden from your back, + Or lay on that shall make your shoulders crack. + AUSTRIA. What cracker is this same that deafs our ears + With this abundance of superfluous breath? + King Philip, determine what we shall do straight. + KING PHILIP. Women and fools, break off your conference. + King John, this is the very sum of all: + England and Ireland, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, + In right of Arthur, do I claim of thee; + Wilt thou resign them and lay down thy arms? + KING JOHN. My life as soon. I do defy thee, France. + Arthur of Britaine, yield thee to my hand, + And out of my dear love I'll give thee more + Than e'er the coward hand of France can win. + Submit thee, boy. + ELINOR. Come to thy grandam, child. + CONSTANCE. Do, child, go to it grandam, child; + Give grandam kingdom, and it grandam will + Give it a plum, a cherry, and a fig. + There's a good grandam! + ARTHUR. Good my mother, peace! + I would that I were low laid in my grave: + I am not worth this coil that's made for me. + ELINOR. His mother shames him so, poor boy, he weeps. + CONSTANCE. Now shame upon you, whe'er she does or no! + His grandam's wrongs, and not his mother's shames, + Draws those heaven-moving pearls from his poor eyes, + Which heaven shall take in nature of a fee; + Ay, with these crystal beads heaven shall be brib'd + To do him justice and revenge on you. + ELINOR. Thou monstrous slanderer of heaven and earth! + CONSTANCE. Thou monstrous injurer of heaven and earth, + Call not me slanderer! Thou and thine usurp + The dominations, royalties, and rights, + Of this oppressed boy; this is thy eldest son's son, + Infortunate in nothing but in thee. + Thy sins are visited in this poor child; + The canon of the law is laid on him, + Being but the second generation + Removed from thy sin-conceiving womb. + KING JOHN. Bedlam, have done. + CONSTANCE. I have but this to say- + That he is not only plagued for her sin, + But God hath made her sin and her the plague + On this removed issue, plagued for her + And with her plague; her sin his injury, + Her injury the beadle to her sin; + All punish'd in the person of this child, + And all for her-a plague upon her! + ELINOR. Thou unadvised scold, I can produce + A will that bars the title of thy son. + CONSTANCE. Ay, who doubts that? A will, a wicked will; + A woman's will; a cank'red grandam's will! + KING PHILIP. Peace, lady! pause, or be more temperate. + It ill beseems this presence to cry aim + To these ill-tuned repetitions. + Some trumpet summon hither to the walls + These men of Angiers; let us hear them speak + Whose title they admit, Arthur's or John's. + + Trumpet sounds. Enter citizens upon the walls + + CITIZEN. Who is it that hath warn'd us to the walls? + KING PHILIP. 'Tis France, for England. + KING JOHN. England for itself. + You men of Angiers, and my loving subjects- + KING PHILIP. You loving men of Angiers, Arthur's subjects, + Our trumpet call'd you to this gentle parle- + KING JOHN. For our advantage; therefore hear us first. + These flags of France, that are advanced here + Before the eye and prospect of your town, + Have hither march'd to your endamagement; + The cannons have their bowels full of wrath, + And ready mounted are they to spit forth + Their iron indignation 'gainst your walls; + All preparation for a bloody siege + And merciless proceeding by these French + Confront your city's eyes, your winking gates; + And but for our approach those sleeping stones + That as a waist doth girdle you about + By the compulsion of their ordinance + By this time from their fixed beds of lime + Had been dishabited, and wide havoc made + For bloody power to rush upon your peace. + But on the sight of us your lawful king, + Who painfully with much expedient march + Have brought a countercheck before your gates, + To save unscratch'd your city's threat'ned cheeks- + Behold, the French amaz'd vouchsafe a parle; + And now, instead of bullets wrapp'd in fire, + To make a shaking fever in your walls, + They shoot but calm words folded up in smoke, + To make a faithless error in your cars; + Which trust accordingly, kind citizens, + And let us in-your King, whose labour'd spirits, + Forwearied in this action of swift speed, + Craves harbourage within your city walls. + KING PHILIP. When I have said, make answer to us both. + Lo, in this right hand, whose protection + Is most divinely vow'd upon the right + Of him it holds, stands young Plantagenet, + Son to the elder brother of this man, + And king o'er him and all that he enjoys; + For this down-trodden equity we tread + In warlike march these greens before your town, + Being no further enemy to you + Than the constraint of hospitable zeal + In the relief of this oppressed child + Religiously provokes. Be pleased then + To pay that duty which you truly owe + To him that owes it, namely, this young prince; + And then our arms, like to a muzzled bear, + Save in aspect, hath all offence seal'd up; + Our cannons' malice vainly shall be spent + Against th' invulnerable clouds of heaven; + And with a blessed and unvex'd retire, + With unhack'd swords and helmets all unbruis'd, + We will bear home that lusty blood again + Which here we came to spout against your town, + And leave your children, wives, and you, in peace. + But if you fondly pass our proffer'd offer, + 'Tis not the roundure of your old-fac'd walls + Can hide you from our messengers of war, + Though all these English and their discipline + Were harbour'd in their rude circumference. + Then tell us, shall your city call us lord + In that behalf which we have challeng'd it; + Or shall we give the signal to our rage, + And stalk in blood to our possession? + CITIZEN. In brief: we are the King of England's subjects; + For him, and in his right, we hold this town. + KING JOHN. Acknowledge then the King, and let me in. + CITIZEN. That can we not; but he that proves the King, + To him will we prove loyal. Till that time + Have we ramm'd up our gates against the world. + KING JOHN. Doth not the crown of England prove the King? + And if not that, I bring you witnesses: + Twice fifteen thousand hearts of England's breed- + BASTARD. Bastards and else. + KING JOHN. To verify our title with their lives. + KING PHILIP. As many and as well-born bloods as those- + BASTARD. Some bastards too. + KING PHILIP. Stand in his face to contradict his claim. + CITIZEN. Till you compound whose right is worthiest, + We for the worthiest hold the right from both. + KING JOHN. Then God forgive the sin of all those souls + That to their everlasting residence, + Before the dew of evening fall shall fleet + In dreadful trial of our kingdom's king! + KING PHILIP. Amen, Amen! Mount, chevaliers; to arms! + BASTARD. Saint George, that swing'd the dragon, and e'er since + Sits on's horse back at mine hostess' door, + Teach us some fence! [To AUSTRIA] Sirrah, were I at home, + At your den, sirrah, with your lioness, + I would set an ox-head to your lion's hide, + And make a monster of you. + AUSTRIA. Peace! no more. + BASTARD. O, tremble, for you hear the lion roar! + KING JOHN. Up higher to the plain, where we'll set forth + In best appointment all our regiments. + BASTARD. Speed then to take advantage of the field. + KING PHILIP. It shall be so; and at the other hill + Command the rest to stand. God and our right! Exeunt + + Here, after excursions, enter the HERALD OF FRANCE, + with trumpets, to the gates + + FRENCH HERALD. You men of Angiers, open wide your gates + And let young Arthur, Duke of Britaine, in, + Who by the hand of France this day hath made + Much work for tears in many an English mother, + Whose sons lie scattered on the bleeding ground; + Many a widow's husband grovelling lies, + Coldly embracing the discoloured earth; + And victory with little loss doth play + Upon the dancing banners of the French, + Who are at hand, triumphantly displayed, + To enter conquerors, and to proclaim + Arthur of Britaine England's King and yours. + + Enter ENGLISH HERALD, with trumpet + + ENGLISH HERALD. Rejoice, you men of Angiers, ring your bells: + King John, your king and England's, doth approach, + Commander of this hot malicious day. + Their armours that march'd hence so silver-bright + Hither return all gilt with Frenchmen's blood. + There stuck no plume in any English crest + That is removed by a staff of France; + Our colours do return in those same hands + That did display them when we first march'd forth; + And like a jolly troop of huntsmen come + Our lusty English, all with purpled hands, + Dy'd in the dying slaughter of their foes. + Open your gates and give the victors way. + CITIZEN. Heralds, from off our tow'rs we might behold + From first to last the onset and retire + Of both your armies, whose equality + By our best eyes cannot be censured. + Blood hath bought blood, and blows have answer'd blows; + Strength match'd with strength, and power confronted power; + Both are alike, and both alike we like. + One must prove greatest. While they weigh so even, + We hold our town for neither, yet for both. + + Enter the two KINGS, with their powers, at several doors + + KING JOHN. France, hast thou yet more blood to cast away? + Say, shall the current of our right run on? + Whose passage, vex'd with thy impediment, + Shall leave his native channel and o'erswell + With course disturb'd even thy confining shores, + Unless thou let his silver water keep + A peaceful progress to the ocean. + KING PHILIP. England, thou hast not sav'd one drop of blood + In this hot trial more than we of France; + Rather, lost more. And by this hand I swear, + That sways the earth this climate overlooks, + Before we will lay down our just-borne arms, + We'll put thee down, 'gainst whom these arms we bear, + Or add a royal number to the dead, + Gracing the scroll that tells of this war's loss + With slaughter coupled to the name of kings. + BASTARD. Ha, majesty! how high thy glory tow'rs + When the rich blood of kings is set on fire! + O, now doth Death line his dead chaps with steel; + The swords of soldiers are his teeth, his fangs; + And now he feasts, mousing the flesh of men, + In undetermin'd differences of kings. + Why stand these royal fronts amazed thus? + Cry 'havoc!' kings; back to the stained field, + You equal potents, fiery kindled spirits! + Then let confusion of one part confirm + The other's peace. Till then, blows, blood, and death! + KING JOHN. Whose party do the townsmen yet admit? + KING PHILIP. Speak, citizens, for England; who's your king? + CITIZEN. The King of England, when we know the King. + KING PHILIP. Know him in us that here hold up his right. + KING JOHN. In us that are our own great deputy + And bear possession of our person here, + Lord of our presence, Angiers, and of you. + CITIZEN. A greater pow'r than we denies all this; + And till it be undoubted, we do lock + Our former scruple in our strong-barr'd gates; + King'd of our fears, until our fears, resolv'd, + Be by some certain king purg'd and depos'd. + BASTARD. By heaven, these scroyles of Angiers flout you, kings, + And stand securely on their battlements + As in a theatre, whence they gape and point + At your industrious scenes and acts of death. + Your royal presences be rul'd by me: + Do like the mutines of Jerusalem, + Be friends awhile, and both conjointly bend + Your sharpest deeds of malice on this town. + By east and west let France and England mount + Their battering cannon, charged to the mouths, + Till their soul-fearing clamours have brawl'd down + The flinty ribs of this contemptuous city. + I'd play incessantly upon these jades, + Even till unfenced desolation + Leave them as naked as the vulgar air. + That done, dissever your united strengths + And part your mingled colours once again, + Turn face to face and bloody point to point; + Then in a moment Fortune shall cull forth + Out of one side her happy minion, + To whom in favour she shall give the day, + And kiss him with a glorious victory. + How like you this wild counsel, mighty states? + Smacks it not something of the policy? + KING JOHN. Now, by the sky that hangs above our heads, + I like it well. France, shall we knit our pow'rs + And lay this Angiers even with the ground; + Then after fight who shall be king of it? + BASTARD. An if thou hast the mettle of a king, + Being wrong'd as we are by this peevish town, + Turn thou the mouth of thy artillery, + As we will ours, against these saucy walls; + And when that we have dash'd them to the ground, + Why then defy each other, and pell-mell + Make work upon ourselves, for heaven or hell. + KING PHILIP. Let it be so. Say, where will you assault? + KING JOHN. We from the west will send destruction + Into this city's bosom. + AUSTRIA. I from the north. + KING PHILIP. Our thunder from the south + Shall rain their drift of bullets on this town. + BASTARD. [Aside] O prudent discipline! From north to south, + Austria and France shoot in each other's mouth. + I'll stir them to it.-Come, away, away! + CITIZEN. Hear us, great kings: vouchsafe awhile to stay, + And I shall show you peace and fair-fac'd league; + Win you this city without stroke or wound; + Rescue those breathing lives to die in beds + That here come sacrifices for the field. + Persever not, but hear me, mighty kings. + KING JOHN. Speak on with favour; we are bent to hear. + CITIZEN. That daughter there of Spain, the Lady Blanch, + Is niece to England; look upon the years + Of Lewis the Dauphin and that lovely maid. + If lusty love should go in quest of beauty, + Where should he find it fairer than in Blanch? + If zealous love should go in search of virtue, + Where should he find it purer than in Blanch? + If love ambitious sought a match of birth, + Whose veins bound richer blood than Lady Blanch? + Such as she is, in beauty, virtue, birth, + Is the young Dauphin every way complete- + If not complete of, say he is not she; + And she again wants nothing, to name want, + If want it be not that she is not he. + He is the half part of a blessed man, + Left to be finished by such as she; + And she a fair divided excellence, + Whose fulness of perfection lies in him. + O, two such silver currents, when they join, + Do glorify the banks that bound them in; + And two such shores to two such streams made one, + Two such controlling bounds, shall you be, Kings, + To these two princes, if you marry them. + This union shall do more than battery can + To our fast-closed gates; for at this match + With swifter spleen than powder can enforce, + The mouth of passage shall we fling wide ope + And give you entrance; but without this match, + The sea enraged is not half so deaf, + Lions more confident, mountains and rocks + More free from motion-no, not Death himself + In mortal fury half so peremptory + As we to keep this city. + BASTARD. Here's a stay + That shakes the rotten carcass of old Death + Out of his rags! Here's a large mouth, indeed, + That spits forth death and mountains, rocks and seas; + Talks as familiarly of roaring lions + As maids of thirteen do of puppy-dogs! + What cannoneer begot this lusty blood? + He speaks plain cannon-fire, and smoke and bounce; + He gives the bastinado with his tongue; + Our ears are cudgell'd; not a word of his + But buffets better than a fist of France. + Zounds! I was never so bethump'd with words + Since I first call'd my brother's father dad. + ELINOR. Son, list to this conjunction, make this match; + Give with our niece a dowry large enough; + For by this knot thou shalt so surely tie + Thy now unsur'd assurance to the crown + That yon green boy shall have no sun to ripe + The bloom that promiseth a mighty fruit. + I see a yielding in the looks of France; + Mark how they whisper. Urge them while their souls + Are capable of this ambition, + Lest zeal, now melted by the windy breath + Of soft petitions, pity, and remorse, + Cool and congeal again to what it was. + CITIZEN. Why answer not the double majesties + This friendly treaty of our threat'ned town? + KING PHILIP. Speak England first, that hath been forward first + To speak unto this city: what say you? + KING JOHN. If that the Dauphin there, thy princely son, + Can in this book of beauty read 'I love,' + Her dowry shall weigh equal with a queen; + For Anjou, and fair Touraine, Maine, Poictiers, + And all that we upon this side the sea- + Except this city now by us besieg'd- + Find liable to our crown and dignity, + Shall gild her bridal bed, and make her rich + In titles, honours, and promotions, + As she in beauty, education, blood, + Holds hand with any princess of the world. + KING PHILIP. What say'st thou, boy? Look in the lady's face. + LEWIS. I do, my lord, and in her eye I find + A wonder, or a wondrous miracle, + The shadow of myself form'd in her eye; + Which, being but the shadow of your son, + Becomes a sun, and makes your son a shadow. + I do protest I never lov'd myself + Till now infixed I beheld myself + Drawn in the flattering table of her eye. + [Whispers with BLANCH] + BASTARD. [Aside] Drawn in the flattering table of her eye, + Hang'd in the frowning wrinkle of her brow, + And quarter'd in her heart-he doth espy + Himself love's traitor. This is pity now, + That hang'd and drawn and quarter'd there should be + In such a love so vile a lout as he. + BLANCH. My uncle's will in this respect is mine. + If he see aught in you that makes him like, + That anything he sees which moves his liking + I can with ease translate it to my will; + Or if you will, to speak more properly, + I will enforce it eas'ly to my love. + Further I will not flatter you, my lord, + That all I see in you is worthy love, + Than this: that nothing do I see in you- + Though churlish thoughts themselves should be your judge- + That I can find should merit any hate. + KING JOHN. What say these young ones? What say you, my niece? + BLANCH. That she is bound in honour still to do + What you in wisdom still vouchsafe to say. + KING JOHN. Speak then, Prince Dauphin; can you love this lady? + LEWIS. Nay, ask me if I can refrain from love; + For I do love her most unfeignedly. + KING JOHN. Then do I give Volquessen, Touraine, Maine, + Poictiers, and Anjou, these five provinces, + With her to thee; and this addition more, + Full thirty thousand marks of English coin. + Philip of France, if thou be pleas'd withal, + Command thy son and daughter to join hands. + KING PHILIP. It likes us well; young princes, close your hands. + AUSTRIA. And your lips too; for I am well assur'd + That I did so when I was first assur'd. + KING PHILIP. Now, citizens of Angiers, ope your gates, + Let in that amity which you have made; + For at Saint Mary's chapel presently + The rites of marriage shall be solemniz'd. + Is not the Lady Constance in this troop? + I know she is not; for this match made up + Her presence would have interrupted much. + Where is she and her son? Tell me, who knows. + LEWIS. She is sad and passionate at your Highness' tent. + KING PHILIP. And, by my faith, this league that we have made + Will give her sadness very little cure. + Brother of England, how may we content + This widow lady? In her right we came; + Which we, God knows, have turn'd another way, + To our own vantage. + KING JOHN. We will heal up all, + For we'll create young Arthur Duke of Britaine, + And Earl of Richmond; and this rich fair town + We make him lord of. Call the Lady Constance; + Some speedy messenger bid her repair + To our solemnity. I trust we shall, + If not fill up the measure of her will, + Yet in some measure satisfy her so + That we shall stop her exclamation. + Go we as well as haste will suffer us + To this unlook'd-for, unprepared pomp. + Exeunt all but the BASTARD + BASTARD. Mad world! mad kings! mad composition! + John, to stop Arthur's tide in the whole, + Hath willingly departed with a part; + And France, whose armour conscience buckled on, + Whom zeal and charity brought to the field + As God's own soldier, rounded in the ear + With that same purpose-changer, that sly devil, + That broker that still breaks the pate of faith, + That daily break-vow, he that wins of all, + Of kings, of beggars, old men, young men, maids, + Who having no external thing to lose + But the word 'maid,' cheats the poor maid of that; + That smooth-fac'd gentleman, tickling commodity, + Commodity, the bias of the world- + The world, who of itself is peised well, + Made to run even upon even ground, + Till this advantage, this vile-drawing bias, + This sway of motion, this commodity, + Makes it take head from all indifferency, + From all direction, purpose, course, intent- + And this same bias, this commodity, + This bawd, this broker, this all-changing word, + Clapp'd on the outward eye of fickle France, + Hath drawn him from his own determin'd aid, + From a resolv'd and honourable war, + To a most base and vile-concluded peace. + And why rail I on this commodity? + But for because he hath not woo'd me yet; + Not that I have the power to clutch my hand + When his fair angels would salute my palm, + But for my hand, as unattempted yet, + Like a poor beggar raileth on the rich. + Well, whiles I am a beggar, I will rail + And say there is no sin but to be rich; + And being rich, my virtue then shall be + To say there is no vice but beggary. + Since kings break faith upon commodity, + Gain, be my lord, for I will worship thee. Exit + +ACT III. SCENE 1. + +France. The FRENCH KING'S camp + +Enter CONSTANCE, ARTHUR, and SALISBURY + + CONSTANCE. Gone to be married! Gone to swear a peace! + False blood to false blood join'd! Gone to be friends! + Shall Lewis have Blanch, and Blanch those provinces? + It is not so; thou hast misspoke, misheard; + Be well advis'd, tell o'er thy tale again. + It cannot be; thou dost but say 'tis so; + I trust I may not trust thee, for thy word + Is but the vain breath of a common man: + Believe me I do not believe thee, man; + I have a king's oath to the contrary. + Thou shalt be punish'd for thus frighting me, + For I am sick and capable of fears, + Oppress'd with wrongs, and therefore full of fears; + A widow, husbandless, subject to fears; + A woman, naturally born to fears; + And though thou now confess thou didst but jest, + With my vex'd spirits I cannot take a truce, + But they will quake and tremble all this day. + What dost thou mean by shaking of thy head? + Why dost thou look so sadly on my son? + What means that hand upon that breast of thine? + Why holds thine eye that lamentable rheum, + Like a proud river peering o'er his bounds? + Be these sad signs confirmers of thy words? + Then speak again-not all thy former tale, + But this one word, whether thy tale be true. + SALISBURY. As true as I believe you think them false + That give you cause to prove my saying true. + CONSTANCE. O, if thou teach me to believe this sorrow, + Teach thou this sorrow how to make me die; + And let belief and life encounter so + As doth the fury of two desperate men + Which in the very meeting fall and die! + Lewis marry Blanch! O boy, then where art thou? + France friend with England; what becomes of me? + Fellow, be gone: I cannot brook thy sight; + This news hath made thee a most ugly man. + SALISBURY. What other harm have I, good lady, done + But spoke the harm that is by others done? + CONSTANCE. Which harm within itself so heinous is + As it makes harmful all that speak of it. + ARTHUR. I do beseech you, madam, be content. + CONSTANCE. If thou that bid'st me be content wert grim, + Ugly, and sland'rous to thy mother's womb, + Full of unpleasing blots and sightless stains, + Lame, foolish, crooked, swart, prodigious, + Patch'd with foul moles and eye-offending marks, + I would not care, I then would be content; + For then I should not love thee; no, nor thou + Become thy great birth, nor deserve a crown. + But thou art fair, and at thy birth, dear boy, + Nature and Fortune join'd to make thee great: + Of Nature's gifts thou mayst with lilies boast, + And with the half-blown rose; but Fortune, O! + She is corrupted, chang'd, and won from thee; + Sh' adulterates hourly with thine uncle John, + And with her golden hand hath pluck'd on France + To tread down fair respect of sovereignty, + And made his majesty the bawd to theirs. + France is a bawd to Fortune and King John- + That strumpet Fortune, that usurping John! + Tell me, thou fellow, is not France forsworn? + Envenom him with words, or get thee gone + And leave those woes alone which I alone + Am bound to under-bear. + SALISBURY. Pardon me, madam, + I may not go without you to the kings. + CONSTANCE. Thou mayst, thou shalt; I will not go with thee; + I will instruct my sorrows to be proud, + For grief is proud, and makes his owner stoop. + To me, and to the state of my great grief, + Let kings assemble; for my grief's so great + That no supporter but the huge firm earth + Can hold it up. [Seats herself on the ground] + Here I and sorrows sit; + Here is my throne, bid kings come bow to it. + + Enter KING JOHN, KING PHILIP, LEWIS, BLANCH, + ELINOR, the BASTARD, AUSTRIA, and attendants + + KING PHILIP. 'Tis true, fair daughter, and this blessed day + Ever in France shall be kept festival. + To solemnize this day the glorious sun + Stays in his course and plays the alchemist, + Turning with splendour of his precious eye + The meagre cloddy earth to glittering gold. + The yearly course that brings this day about + Shall never see it but a holiday. + CONSTANCE. [Rising] A wicked day, and not a holy day! + What hath this day deserv'd? what hath it done + That it in golden letters should be set + Among the high tides in the calendar? + Nay, rather turn this day out of the week, + This day of shame, oppression, perjury; + Or, if it must stand still, let wives with child + Pray that their burdens may not fall this day, + Lest that their hopes prodigiously be cross'd; + But on this day let seamen fear no wreck; + No bargains break that are not this day made; + This day, all things begun come to ill end, + Yea, faith itself to hollow falsehood change! + KING PHILIP. By heaven, lady, you shall have no cause + To curse the fair proceedings of this day. + Have I not pawn'd to you my majesty? + CONSTANCE. You have beguil'd me with a counterfeit + Resembling majesty, which, being touch'd and tried, + Proves valueless; you are forsworn, forsworn; + You came in arms to spill mine enemies' blood, + But now in arms you strengthen it with yours. + The grappling vigour and rough frown of war + Is cold in amity and painted peace, + And our oppression hath made up this league. + Arm, arm, you heavens, against these perjur'd kings! + A widow cries: Be husband to me, heavens! + Let not the hours of this ungodly day + Wear out the day in peace; but, ere sunset, + Set armed discord 'twixt these perjur'd kings! + Hear me, O, hear me! + AUSTRIA. Lady Constance, peace! + CONSTANCE. War! war! no peace! Peace is to me a war. + O Lymoges! O Austria! thou dost shame + That bloody spoil. Thou slave, thou wretch, thou coward! + Thou little valiant, great in villainy! + Thou ever strong upon the stronger side! + Thou Fortune's champion that dost never fight + But when her humorous ladyship is by + To teach thee safety! Thou art perjur'd too, + And sooth'st up greatness. What a fool art thou, + A ramping fool, to brag and stamp and swear + Upon my party! Thou cold-blooded slave, + Hast thou not spoke like thunder on my side, + Been sworn my soldier, bidding me depend + Upon thy stars, thy fortune, and thy strength, + And dost thou now fall over to my foes? + Thou wear a lion's hide! Doff it for shame, + And hang a calf's-skin on those recreant limbs. + AUSTRIA. O that a man should speak those words to me! + BASTARD. And hang a calf's-skin on those recreant limbs. + AUSTRIA. Thou dar'st not say so, villain, for thy life. + BASTARD. And hang a calf's-skin on those recreant limbs. + KING JOHN. We like not this: thou dost forget thyself. + + Enter PANDULPH + + KING PHILIP. Here comes the holy legate of the Pope. + PANDULPH. Hail, you anointed deputies of heaven! + To thee, King John, my holy errand is. + I Pandulph, of fair Milan cardinal, + And from Pope Innocent the legate here, + Do in his name religiously demand + Why thou against the Church, our holy mother, + So wilfully dost spurn; and force perforce + Keep Stephen Langton, chosen Archbishop + Of Canterbury, from that holy see? + This, in our foresaid holy father's name, + Pope Innocent, I do demand of thee. + KING JOHN. What earthly name to interrogatories + Can task the free breath of a sacred king? + Thou canst not, Cardinal, devise a name + So slight, unworthy, and ridiculous, + To charge me to an answer, as the Pope. + Tell him this tale, and from the mouth of England + Add thus much more, that no Italian priest + Shall tithe or toll in our dominions; + But as we under heaven are supreme head, + So, under Him that great supremacy, + Where we do reign we will alone uphold, + Without th' assistance of a mortal hand. + So tell the Pope, all reverence set apart + To him and his usurp'd authority. + KING PHILIP. Brother of England, you blaspheme in this. + KING JOHN. Though you and all the kings of Christendom + Are led so grossly by this meddling priest, + Dreading the curse that money may buy out, + And by the merit of vile gold, dross, dust, + Purchase corrupted pardon of a man, + Who in that sale sells pardon from himself- + Though you and all the rest, so grossly led, + This juggling witchcraft with revenue cherish; + Yet I alone, alone do me oppose + Against the Pope, and count his friends my foes. + PANDULPH. Then by the lawful power that I have + Thou shalt stand curs'd and excommunicate; + And blessed shall he be that doth revolt + From his allegiance to an heretic; + And meritorious shall that hand be call'd, + Canonized, and worshipp'd as a saint, + That takes away by any secret course + Thy hateful life. + CONSTANCE. O, lawful let it be + That I have room with Rome to curse awhile! + Good father Cardinal, cry thou 'amen' + To my keen curses; for without my wrong + There is no tongue hath power to curse him right. + PANDULPH. There's law and warrant, lady, for my curse. + CONSTANCE. And for mine too; when law can do no right, + Let it be lawful that law bar no wrong; + Law cannot give my child his kingdom here, + For he that holds his kingdom holds the law; + Therefore, since law itself is perfect wrong, + How can the law forbid my tongue to curse? + PANDULPH. Philip of France, on peril of a curse, + Let go the hand of that arch-heretic, + And raise the power of France upon his head, + Unless he do submit himself to Rome. + ELINOR. Look'st thou pale, France? Do not let go thy hand. + CONSTANCE. Look to that, devil, lest that France repent + And by disjoining hands hell lose a soul. + AUSTRIA. King Philip, listen to the Cardinal. + BASTARD. And hang a calf's-skin on his recreant limbs. + AUSTRIA. Well, ruffian, I must pocket up these wrongs, + Because- + BASTARD. Your breeches best may carry them. + KING JOHN. Philip, what say'st thou to the Cardinal? + CONSTANCE. What should he say, but as the Cardinal? + LEWIS. Bethink you, father; for the difference + Is purchase of a heavy curse from Rome + Or the light loss of England for a friend. + Forgo the easier. + BLANCH. That's the curse of Rome. + CONSTANCE. O Lewis, stand fast! The devil tempts thee here + In likeness of a new untrimmed bride. + BLANCH. The Lady Constance speaks not from her faith, + But from her need. + CONSTANCE. O, if thou grant my need, + Which only lives but by the death of faith, + That need must needs infer this principle- + That faith would live again by death of need. + O then, tread down my need, and faith mounts up: + Keep my need up, and faith is trodden down! + KING JOHN. The King is mov'd, and answers not to this. + CONSTANCE. O be remov'd from him, and answer well! + AUSTRIA. Do so, King Philip; hang no more in doubt. + BASTARD. Hang nothing but a calf's-skin, most sweet lout. + KING PHILIP. I am perplex'd and know not what to say. + PANDULPH. What canst thou say but will perplex thee more, + If thou stand excommunicate and curs'd? + KING PHILIP. Good reverend father, make my person yours, + And tell me how you would bestow yourself. + This royal hand and mine are newly knit, + And the conjunction of our inward souls + Married in league, coupled and link'd together + With all religious strength of sacred vows; + The latest breath that gave the sound of words + Was deep-sworn faith, peace, amity, true love, + Between our kingdoms and our royal selves; + And even before this truce, but new before, + No longer than we well could wash our hands, + To clap this royal bargain up of peace, + Heaven knows, they were besmear'd and overstain'd + With slaughter's pencil, where revenge did paint + The fearful difference of incensed kings. + And shall these hands, so lately purg'd of blood, + So newly join'd in love, so strong in both, + Unyoke this seizure and this kind regreet? + Play fast and loose with faith? so jest with heaven, + Make such unconstant children of ourselves, + As now again to snatch our palm from palm, + Unswear faith sworn, and on the marriage-bed + Of smiling peace to march a bloody host, + And make a riot on the gentle brow + Of true sincerity? O, holy sir, + My reverend father, let it not be so! + Out of your grace, devise, ordain, impose, + Some gentle order; and then we shall be blest + To do your pleasure, and continue friends. + PANDULPH. All form is formless, order orderless, + Save what is opposite to England's love. + Therefore, to arms! be champion of our church, + Or let the church, our mother, breathe her curse- + A mother's curse-on her revolting son. + France, thou mayst hold a serpent by the tongue, + A chafed lion by the mortal paw, + A fasting tiger safer by the tooth, + Than keep in peace that hand which thou dost hold. + KING PHILIP. I may disjoin my hand, but not my faith. + PANDULPH. So mak'st thou faith an enemy to faith; + And like. a civil war set'st oath to oath. + Thy tongue against thy tongue. O, let thy vow + First made to heaven, first be to heaven perform'd, + That is, to be the champion of our Church. + What since thou swor'st is sworn against thyself + And may not be performed by thyself, + For that which thou hast sworn to do amiss + Is not amiss when it is truly done; + And being not done, where doing tends to ill, + The truth is then most done not doing it; + The better act of purposes mistook + Is to mistake again; though indirect, + Yet indirection thereby grows direct, + And falsehood cures, as fire cools fire + Within the scorched veins of one new-burn'd. + It is religion that doth make vows kept; + But thou hast sworn against religion + By what thou swear'st against the thing thou swear'st, + And mak'st an oath the surety for thy truth + Against an oath; the truth thou art unsure + To swear swears only not to be forsworn; + Else what a mockery should it be to swear! + But thou dost swear only to be forsworn; + And most forsworn to keep what thou dost swear. + Therefore thy later vows against thy first + Is in thyself rebellion to thyself; + And better conquest never canst thou make + Than arm thy constant and thy nobler parts + Against these giddy loose suggestions; + Upon which better part our pray'rs come in, + If thou vouchsafe them. But if not, then know + The peril of our curses fight on thee + So heavy as thou shalt not shake them off, + But in despair die under the black weight. + AUSTRIA. Rebellion, flat rebellion! + BASTARD. Will't not be? + Will not a calf's-skin stop that mouth of thine? + LEWIS. Father, to arms! + BLANCH. Upon thy wedding-day? + Against the blood that thou hast married? + What, shall our feast be kept with slaughtered men? + Shall braying trumpets and loud churlish drums, + Clamours of hell, be measures to our pomp? + O husband, hear me! ay, alack, how new + Is 'husband' in my mouth! even for that name, + Which till this time my tongue did ne'er pronounce, + Upon my knee I beg, go not to arms + Against mine uncle. + CONSTANCE. O, upon my knee, + Made hard with kneeling, I do pray to thee, + Thou virtuous Dauphin, alter not the doom + Forethought by heaven! + BLANCH. Now shall I see thy love. What motive may + Be stronger with thee than the name of wife? + CONSTANCE. That which upholdeth him that thee upholds, + His honour. O, thine honour, Lewis, thine honour! + LEWIS. I muse your Majesty doth seem so cold, + When such profound respects do pull you on. + PANDULPH. I will denounce a curse upon his head. + KING PHILIP. Thou shalt not need. England, I will fall from thee. + CONSTANCE. O fair return of banish'd majesty! + ELINOR. O foul revolt of French inconstancy! + KING JOHN. France, thou shalt rue this hour within this hour. + BASTARD. Old Time the clock-setter, that bald sexton Time, + Is it as he will? Well then, France shall rue. + BLANCH. The sun's o'ercast with blood. Fair day, adieu! + Which is the side that I must go withal? + I am with both: each army hath a hand; + And in their rage, I having hold of both, + They whirl asunder and dismember me. + Husband, I cannot pray that thou mayst win; + Uncle, I needs must pray that thou mayst lose; + Father, I may not wish the fortune thine; + Grandam, I will not wish thy wishes thrive. + Whoever wins, on that side shall I lose: + Assured loss before the match be play'd. + LEWIS. Lady, with me, with me thy fortune lies. + BLANCH. There where my fortune lives, there my life dies. + KING JOHN. Cousin, go draw our puissance together. + Exit BASTARD + France, I am burn'd up with inflaming wrath, + A rage whose heat hath this condition + That nothing can allay, nothing but blood, + The blood, and dearest-valu'd blood, of France. + KING PHILIP. Thy rage shall burn thee up, and thou shalt turn + To ashes, ere our blood shall quench that fire. + Look to thyself, thou art in jeopardy. + KING JOHN. No more than he that threats. To arms let's hie! + Exeunt severally + +SCENE 2. + +France. Plains near Angiers + +Alarums, excursions. Enter the BASTARD with AUSTRIA'S head + + BASTARD. Now, by my life, this day grows wondrous hot; + Some airy devil hovers in the sky + And pours down mischief. Austria's head lie there, + While Philip breathes. + + Enter KING JOHN, ARTHUR, and HUBERT + + KING JOHN. Hubert, keep this boy. Philip, make up: + My mother is assailed in our tent, + And ta'en, I fear. + BASTARD. My lord, I rescued her; + Her Highness is in safety, fear you not; + But on, my liege, for very little pains + Will bring this labour to an happy end. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +France. Plains near Angiers + +Alarums, excursions, retreat. Enter KING JOHN, ELINOR, ARTHUR, the +BASTARD, HUBERT, and LORDS + + KING JOHN. [To ELINOR] So shall it be; your Grace shall stay + behind, + So strongly guarded. [To ARTHUR] Cousin, look not sad; + Thy grandam loves thee, and thy uncle will + As dear be to thee as thy father was. + ARTHUR. O, this will make my mother die with grief! + KING JOHN. [To the BASTARD] Cousin, away for England! haste + before, + And, ere our coming, see thou shake the bags + Of hoarding abbots; imprisoned angels + Set at liberty; the fat ribs of peace + Must by the hungry now be fed upon. + Use our commission in his utmost force. + BASTARD. Bell, book, and candle, shall not drive me back, + When gold and silver becks me to come on. + I leave your Highness. Grandam, I will pray, + If ever I remember to be holy, + For your fair safety. So, I kiss your hand. + ELINOR. Farewell, gentle cousin. + KING JOHN. Coz, farewell. + Exit BASTARD + ELINOR. Come hither, little kinsman; hark, a word. + KING JOHN. Come hither, Hubert. O my gentle Hubert, + We owe thee much! Within this wall of flesh + There is a soul counts thee her creditor, + And with advantage means to pay thy love; + And, my good friend, thy voluntary oath + Lives in this bosom, dearly cherished. + Give me thy hand. I had a thing to say- + But I will fit it with some better time. + By heaven, Hubert, I am almost asham'd + To say what good respect I have of thee. + HUBERT. I am much bounden to your Majesty. + KING JOHN. Good friend, thou hast no cause to say so yet, + But thou shalt have; and creep time ne'er so slow, + Yet it shall come for me to do thee good. + I had a thing to say-but let it go: + The sun is in the heaven, and the proud day, + Attended with the pleasures of the world, + Is all too wanton and too full of gawds + To give me audience. If the midnight bell + Did with his iron tongue and brazen mouth + Sound on into the drowsy race of night; + If this same were a churchyard where we stand, + And thou possessed with a thousand wrongs; + Or if that surly spirit, melancholy, + Had bak'd thy blood and made it heavy-thick, + Which else runs tickling up and down the veins, + Making that idiot, laughter, keep men's eyes + And strain their cheeks to idle merriment, + A passion hateful to my purposes; + Or if that thou couldst see me without eyes, + Hear me without thine cars, and make reply + Without a tongue, using conceit alone, + Without eyes, ears, and harmful sound of words- + Then, in despite of brooded watchful day, + I would into thy bosom pour my thoughts. + But, ah, I will not! Yet I love thee well; + And, by my troth, I think thou lov'st me well. + HUBERT. So well that what you bid me undertake, + Though that my death were adjunct to my act, + By heaven, I would do it. + KING JOHN. Do not I know thou wouldst? + Good Hubert, Hubert, Hubert, throw thine eye + On yon young boy. I'll tell thee what, my friend, + He is a very serpent in my way; + And wheresoe'er this foot of mine doth tread, + He lies before me. Dost thou understand me? + Thou art his keeper. + HUBERT. And I'll keep him so + That he shall not offend your Majesty. + KING JOHN. Death. + HUBERT. My lord? + KING JOHN. A grave. + HUBERT. He shall not live. + KING JOHN. Enough! + I could be merry now. Hubert, I love thee. + Well, I'll not say what I intend for thee. + Remember. Madam, fare you well; + I'll send those powers o'er to your Majesty. + ELINOR. My blessing go with thee! + KING JOHN. [To ARTHUR] For England, cousin, go; + Hubert shall be your man, attend on you + With all true duty. On toward Calais, ho! Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +France. The FRENCH KING's camp + +Enter KING PHILIP, LEWIS, PANDULPH, and attendants + + KING PHILIP. So by a roaring tempest on the flood + A whole armado of convicted sail + Is scattered and disjoin'd from fellowship. + PANDULPH. Courage and comfort! All shall yet go well. + KING PHILIP. What can go well, when we have run so ill. + Are we not beaten? Is not Angiers lost? + Arthur ta'en prisoner? Divers dear friends slain? + And bloody England into England gone, + O'erbearing interruption, spite of France? + LEWIS. he hath won, that hath he fortified; + So hot a speed with such advice dispos'd, + Such temperate order in so fierce a cause, + Doth want example; who hath read or heard + Of any kindred action like to this? + KING PHILIP. Well could I bear that England had this praise, + So we could find some pattern of our shame. + + Enter CONSTANCE + + Look who comes here! a grave unto a soul; + Holding th' eternal spirit, against her will, + In the vile prison of afflicted breath. + I prithee, lady, go away with me. + CONSTANCE. Lo now! now see the issue of your peace! + KING PHILIP. Patience, good lady! Comfort, gentle Constance! + CONSTANCE. No, I defy all counsel, all redress, + But that which ends all counsel, true redress- + Death, death; O amiable lovely death! + Thou odoriferous stench! sound rottenness! + Arise forth from the couch of lasting night, + Thou hate and terror to prosperity, + And I will kiss thy detestable bones, + And put my eyeballs in thy vaulty brows, + And ring these fingers with thy household worms, + And stop this gap of breath with fulsome dust, + And be a carrion monster like thyself. + Come, grin on me, and I will think thou smil'st, + And buss thee as thy wife. Misery's love, + O, come to me! + KING PHILIP. O fair affliction, peace! + CONSTANCE. No, no, I will not, having breath to cry. + O that my tongue were in the thunder's mouth! + Then with a passion would I shake the world, + And rouse from sleep that fell anatomy + Which cannot hear a lady's feeble voice, + Which scorns a modern invocation. + PANDULPH. Lady, you utter madness and not sorrow. + CONSTANCE. Thou art not holy to belie me so. + I am not mad: this hair I tear is mine; + My name is Constance; I was Geffrey's wife; + Young Arthur is my son, and he is lost. + I am not mad-I would to heaven I were! + For then 'tis like I should forget myself. + O, if I could, what grief should I forget! + Preach some philosophy to make me mad, + And thou shalt be canoniz'd, Cardinal; + For, being not mad, but sensible of grief, + My reasonable part produces reason + How I may be deliver'd of these woes, + And teaches me to kill or hang myself. + If I were mad I should forget my son, + Or madly think a babe of clouts were he. + I am not mad; too well, too well I feel + The different plague of each calamity. + KING PHILIP. Bind up those tresses. O, what love I note + In the fair multitude of those her hairs! + Where but by a chance a silver drop hath fall'n, + Even to that drop ten thousand wiry friends + Do glue themselves in sociable grief, + Like true, inseparable, faithful loves, + Sticking together in calamity. + CONSTANCE. To England, if you will. + KING PHILIP. Bind up your hairs. + CONSTANCE. Yes, that I will; and wherefore will I do it? + I tore them from their bonds, and cried aloud + 'O that these hands could so redeem my son, + As they have given these hairs their liberty!' + But now I envy at their liberty, + And will again commit them to their bonds, + Because my poor child is a prisoner. + And, father Cardinal, I have heard you say + That we shall see and know our friends in heaven; + If that be true, I shall see my boy again; + For since the birth of Cain, the first male child, + To him that did but yesterday suspire, + There was not such a gracious creature born. + But now will canker sorrow eat my bud + And chase the native beauty from his cheek, + And he will look as hollow as a ghost, + As dim and meagre as an ague's fit; + And so he'll die; and, rising so again, + When I shall meet him in the court of heaven + I shall not know him. Therefore never, never + Must I behold my pretty Arthur more. + PANDULPH. You hold too heinous a respect of grief. + CONSTANCE. He talks to me that never had a son. + KING PHILIP. You are as fond of grief as of your child. + CONSTANCE. Grief fills the room up of my absent child, + Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me, + Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words, + Remembers me of all his gracious parts, + Stuffs out his vacant garments with his form; + Then have I reason to be fond of grief. + Fare you well; had you such a loss as I, + I could give better comfort than you do. + I will not keep this form upon my head, + [Tearing her hair] + When there is such disorder in my wit. + O Lord! my boy, my Arthur, my fair son! + My life, my joy, my food, my ail the world! + My widow-comfort, and my sorrows' cure! Exit + KING PHILIP. I fear some outrage, and I'll follow her. Exit + LEWIS. There's nothing in this world can make me joy. + Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale + Vexing the dull ear of a drowsy man; + And bitter shame hath spoil'd the sweet world's taste, + That it yields nought but shame and bitterness. + PANDULPH. Before the curing of a strong disease, + Even in the instant of repair and health, + The fit is strongest; evils that take leave + On their departure most of all show evil; + What have you lost by losing of this day? + LEWIS. All days of glory, joy, and happiness. + PANDULPH. If you had won it, certainly you had. + No, no; when Fortune means to men most good, + She looks upon them with a threat'ning eye. + 'Tis strange to think how much King John hath lost + In this which he accounts so clearly won. + Are not you griev'd that Arthur is his prisoner? + LEWIS. As heartily as he is glad he hath him. + PANDULPH. Your mind is all as youthful as your blood. + Now hear me speak with a prophetic spirit; + For even the breath of what I mean to speak + Shall blow each dust, each straw, each little rub, + Out of the path which shall directly lead + Thy foot to England's throne. And therefore mark: + John hath seiz'd Arthur; and it cannot be + That, whiles warm life plays in that infant's veins, + The misplac'd John should entertain an hour, + One minute, nay, one quiet breath of rest. + A sceptre snatch'd with an unruly hand + Must be boisterously maintain'd as gain'd, + And he that stands upon a slipp'ry place + Makes nice of no vile hold to stay him up; + That John may stand then, Arthur needs must fall; + So be it, for it cannot be but so. + LEWIS. But what shall I gain by young Arthur's fall? + PANDULPH. You, in the right of Lady Blanch your wife, + May then make all the claim that Arthur did. + LEWIS. And lose it, life and all, as Arthur did. + PANDULPH. How green you are and fresh in this old world! + John lays you plots; the times conspire with you; + For he that steeps his safety in true blood + Shall find but bloody safety and untrue. + This act, so evilly borne, shall cool the hearts + Of all his people and freeze up their zeal, + That none so small advantage shall step forth + To check his reign but they will cherish it; + No natural exhalation in the sky, + No scope of nature, no distemper'd day, + No common wind, no customed event, + But they will pluck away his natural cause + And call them meteors, prodigies, and signs, + Abortives, presages, and tongues of heaven, + Plainly denouncing vengeance upon John. + LEWIS. May be he will not touch young Arthur's life, + But hold himself safe in his prisonment. + PANDULPH. O, Sir, when he shall hear of your approach, + If that young Arthur be not gone already, + Even at that news he dies; and then the hearts + Of all his people shall revolt from him, + And kiss the lips of unacquainted change, + And pick strong matter of revolt and wrath + Out of the bloody fingers' ends of john. + Methinks I see this hurly all on foot; + And, O, what better matter breeds for you + Than I have nam'd! The bastard Faulconbridge + Is now in England ransacking the Church, + Offending charity; if but a dozen French + Were there in arms, they would be as a can + To train ten thousand English to their side; + Or as a little snow, tumbled about, + Anon becomes a mountain. O noble Dauphin, + Go with me to the King. 'Tis wonderful + What may be wrought out of their discontent, + Now that their souls are topful of offence. + For England go; I will whet on the King. + LEWIS. Strong reasons makes strong actions. Let us go; + If you say ay, the King will not say no. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE 1. + +England. A castle + +Enter HUBERT and EXECUTIONERS + + HUBERT. Heat me these irons hot; and look thou stand + Within the arras. When I strike my foot + Upon the bosom of the ground, rush forth + And bind the boy which you shall find with me + Fast to the chair. Be heedful; hence, and watch. + EXECUTIONER. I hope your warrant will bear out the deed. + HUBERT. Uncleanly scruples! Fear not you. Look to't. + Exeunt EXECUTIONERS + Young lad, come forth; I have to say with you. + + Enter ARTHUR + + ARTHUR. Good morrow, Hubert. + HUBERT. Good morrow, little Prince. + ARTHUR. As little prince, having so great a tide + To be more prince, as may be. You are sad. + HUBERT. Indeed I have been merrier. + ARTHUR. Mercy on me! + Methinks no body should be sad but I; + Yet, I remember, when I was in France, + Young gentlemen would be as sad as night, + Only for wantonness. By my christendom, + So I were out of prison and kept sheep, + I should be as merry as the day is long; + And so I would be here but that I doubt + My uncle practises more harm to me; + He is afraid of me, and I of him. + Is it my fault that I was Geffrey's son? + No, indeed, ist not; and I would to heaven + I were your son, so you would love me, Hubert. + HUBERT. [Aside] If I talk to him, with his innocent prate + He will awake my mercy, which lies dead; + Therefore I will be sudden and dispatch. + ARTHUR. Are you sick, Hubert? You look pale to-day; + In sooth, I would you were a little sick, + That I might sit all night and watch with you. + I warrant I love you more than you do me. + HUBERT. [Aside] His words do take possession of my bosom.- + Read here, young Arthur. [Showing a paper] + [Aside] How now, foolish rheum! + Turning dispiteous torture out of door! + I must be brief, lest resolution drop + Out at mine eyes in tender womanish tears.- + Can you not read it? Is it not fair writ? + ARTHUR. Too fairly, Hubert, for so foul effect. + Must you with hot irons burn out both mine eyes? + HUBERT. Young boy, I must. + ARTHUR. And will you? + HUBERT. And I will. + ARTHUR. Have you the heart? When your head did but ache, + I knit my handkerchief about your brows- + The best I had, a princess wrought it me- + And I did never ask it you again; + And with my hand at midnight held your head; + And, like the watchful minutes to the hour, + Still and anon cheer'd up the heavy time, + Saying 'What lack you?' and 'Where lies your grief?' + Or 'What good love may I perform for you?' + Many a poor man's son would have lyen still, + And ne'er have spoke a loving word to you; + But you at your sick service had a prince. + Nay, you may think my love was crafty love, + And call it cunning. Do, an if you will. + If heaven be pleas'd that you must use me ill, + Why, then you must. Will you put out mine eyes, + These eyes that never did nor never shall + So much as frown on you? + HUBERT. I have sworn to do it; + And with hot irons must I burn them out. + ARTHUR. Ah, none but in this iron age would do it! + The iron of itself, though heat red-hot, + Approaching near these eyes would drink my tears, + And quench his fiery indignation + Even in the matter of mine innocence; + Nay, after that, consume away in rust + But for containing fire to harm mine eye. + Are you more stubborn-hard than hammer'd iron? + An if an angel should have come to me + And told me Hubert should put out mine eyes, + I would not have believ'd him-no tongue but Hubert's. + HUBERT. [Stamps] Come forth. + + Re-enter EXECUTIONERS, With cord, irons, etc. + + Do as I bid you do. + ARTHUR. O, save me, Hubert, save me! My eyes are out + Even with the fierce looks of these bloody men. + HUBERT. Give me the iron, I say, and bind him here. + ARTHUR. Alas, what need you be so boist'rous rough? + I will not struggle, I will stand stone-still. + For heaven sake, Hubert, let me not be bound! + Nay, hear me, Hubert! Drive these men away, + And I will sit as quiet as a lamb; + I will not stir, nor wince, nor speak a word, + Nor look upon the iron angrily; + Thrust but these men away, and I'll forgive you, + Whatever torment you do put me to. + HUBERT. Go, stand within; let me alone with him. + EXECUTIONER. I am best pleas'd to be from such a deed. + Exeunt EXECUTIONERS + ARTHUR. Alas, I then have chid away my friend! + He hath a stern look but a gentle heart. + Let him come back, that his compassion may + Give life to yours. + HUBERT. Come, boy, prepare yourself. + ARTHUR. Is there no remedy? + HUBERT. None, but to lose your eyes. + ARTHUR. O heaven, that there were but a mote in yours, + A grain, a dust, a gnat, a wandering hair, + Any annoyance in that precious sense! + Then, feeling what small things are boisterous there, + Your vile intent must needs seem horrible. + HUBERT. Is this your promise? Go to, hold your tongue. + ARTHUR. Hubert, the utterance of a brace of tongues + Must needs want pleading for a pair of eyes. + Let me not hold my tongue, let me not, Hubert; + Or, Hubert, if you will, cut out my tongue, + So I may keep mine eyes. O, spare mine eyes, + Though to no use but still to look on you! + Lo, by my troth, the instrument is cold + And would not harm me. + HUBERT. I can heat it, boy. + ARTHUR. No, in good sooth; the fire is dead with grief, + Being create for comfort, to be us'd + In undeserved extremes. See else yourself: + There is no malice in this burning coal; + The breath of heaven hath blown his spirit out, + And strew'd repentant ashes on his head. + HUBERT. But with my breath I can revive it, boy. + ARTHUR. An if you do, you will but make it blush + And glow with shame of your proceedings, Hubert. + Nay, it perchance will sparkle in your eyes, + And, like a dog that is compell'd to fight, + Snatch at his master that doth tarre him on. + All things that you should use to do me wrong + Deny their office; only you do lack + That mercy which fierce fire and iron extends, + Creatures of note for mercy-lacking uses. + HUBERT. Well, see to live; I will not touch thine eye + For all the treasure that thine uncle owes. + Yet I am sworn, and I did purpose, boy, + With this same very iron to burn them out. + ARTHUR. O, now you look like Hubert! All this while + You were disguis'd. + HUBERT. Peace; no more. Adieu. + Your uncle must not know but you are dead: + I'll fill these dogged spies with false reports; + And, pretty child, sleep doubtless and secure + That Hubert, for the wealth of all the world, + Will not offend thee. + ARTHUR. O heaven! I thank you, Hubert. + HUBERT. Silence; no more. Go closely in with me. + Much danger do I undergo for thee. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +England. KING JOHN'S palace + +Enter KING JOHN, PEMBROKE, SALISBURY, and other LORDS + + KING JOHN. Here once again we sit, once again crown'd, + And look'd upon, I hope, with cheerful eyes. + PEMBROKE. This once again, but that your Highness pleas'd, + Was once superfluous: you were crown'd before, + And that high royalty was ne'er pluck'd off, + The faiths of men ne'er stained with revolt; + Fresh expectation troubled not the land + With any long'd-for change or better state. + SALISBURY. Therefore, to be possess'd with double pomp, + To guard a title that was rich before, + To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, + To throw a perfume on the violet, + To smooth the ice, or add another hue + Unto the rainbow, or with taper-light + To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, + Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. + PEMBROKE. But that your royal pleasure must be done, + This act is as an ancient tale new told + And, in the last repeating, troublesome, + Being urged at a time unseasonable. + SALISBURY. In this the antique and well-noted face + Of plain old form is much disfigured; + And like a shifted wind unto a sail + It makes the course of thoughts to fetch about, + Startles and frights consideration, + Makes sound opinion sick, and truth suspected, + For putting on so new a fashion'd robe. + PEMBROKE. When workmen strive to do better than well, + They do confound their skill in covetousness; + And oftentimes excusing of a fault + Doth make the fault the worse by th' excuse, + As patches set upon a little breach + Discredit more in hiding of the fault + Than did the fault before it was so patch'd. + SALISBURY. To this effect, before you were new-crown'd, + We breath'd our counsel; but it pleas'd your Highness + To overbear it; and we are all well pleas'd, + Since all and every part of what we would + Doth make a stand at what your Highness will. + KING JOHN. Some reasons of this double coronation + I have possess'd you with, and think them strong; + And more, more strong, when lesser is my fear, + I shall indue you with. Meantime but ask + What you would have reform'd that is not well, + And well shall you perceive how willingly + I will both hear and grant you your requests. + PEMBROKE. Then I, as one that am the tongue of these, + To sound the purposes of all their hearts, + Both for myself and them- but, chief of all, + Your safety, for the which myself and them + Bend their best studies, heartily request + Th' enfranchisement of Arthur, whose restraint + Doth move the murmuring lips of discontent + To break into this dangerous argument: + If what in rest you have in right you hold, + Why then your fears-which, as they say, attend + The steps of wrong-should move you to mew up + Your tender kinsman, and to choke his days + With barbarous ignorance, and deny his youth + The rich advantage of good exercise? + That the time's enemies may not have this + To grace occasions, let it be our suit + That you have bid us ask his liberty; + Which for our goods we do no further ask + Than whereupon our weal, on you depending, + Counts it your weal he have his liberty. + KING JOHN. Let it be so. I do commit his youth + To your direction. + + Enter HUBERT + + [Aside] Hubert, what news with you? + PEMBROKE. This is the man should do the bloody deed: + He show'd his warrant to a friend of mine; + The image of a wicked heinous fault + Lives in his eye; that close aspect of his + Doth show the mood of a much troubled breast, + And I do fearfully believe 'tis done + What we so fear'd he had a charge to do. + SALISBURY. The colour of the King doth come and go + Between his purpose and his conscience, + Like heralds 'twixt two dreadful battles set. + His passion is so ripe it needs must break. + PEMBROKE. And when it breaks, I fear will issue thence + The foul corruption of a sweet child's death. + KING JOHN. We cannot hold mortality's strong hand. + Good lords, although my will to give is living, + The suit which you demand is gone and dead: + He tells us Arthur is deceas'd to-night. + SALISBURY. Indeed, we fear'd his sickness was past cure. + PEMBROKE. Indeed, we heard how near his death he was, + Before the child himself felt he was sick. + This must be answer'd either here or hence. + KING JOHN. Why do you bend such solemn brows on me? + Think you I bear the shears of destiny? + Have I commandment on the pulse of life? + SALISBURY. It is apparent foul-play; and 'tis shame + That greatness should so grossly offer it. + So thrive it in your game! and so, farewell. + PEMBROKE. Stay yet, Lord Salisbury, I'll go with thee + And find th' inheritance of this poor child, + His little kingdom of a forced grave. + That blood which ow'd the breadth of all this isle + Three foot of it doth hold-bad world the while! + This must not be thus borne: this will break out + To all our sorrows, and ere long I doubt. Exeunt LORDS + KING JOHN. They burn in indignation. I repent. + There is no sure foundation set on blood, + No certain life achiev'd by others' death. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + A fearful eye thou hast; where is that blood + That I have seen inhabit in those cheeks? + So foul a sky clears not without a storm. + Pour down thy weather-how goes all in France? + MESSENGER. From France to England. Never such a pow'r + For any foreign preparation + Was levied in the body of a land. + The copy of your speed is learn'd by them, + For when you should be told they do prepare, + The tidings comes that they are all arriv'd. + KING JOHN. O, where hath our intelligence been drunk? + Where hath it slept? Where is my mother's care, + That such an army could be drawn in France, + And she not hear of it? + MESSENGER. My liege, her ear + Is stopp'd with dust: the first of April died + Your noble mother; and as I hear, my lord, + The Lady Constance in a frenzy died + Three days before; but this from rumour's tongue + I idly heard-if true or false I know not. + KING JOHN. Withhold thy speed, dreadful occasion! + O, make a league with me, till I have pleas'd + My discontented peers! What! mother dead! + How wildly then walks my estate in France! + Under whose conduct came those pow'rs of France + That thou for truth giv'st out are landed here? + MESSENGER. Under the Dauphin. + KING JOHN. Thou hast made me giddy + With these in tidings. + + Enter the BASTARD and PETER OF POMFRET + + Now! What says the world + To your proceedings? Do not seek to stuff + My head with more ill news, for it is full. + BASTARD. But if you be afear'd to hear the worst, + Then let the worst, unheard, fall on your head. + KING JOHN. Bear with me, cousin, for I was amaz'd + Under the tide; but now I breathe again + Aloft the flood, and can give audience + To any tongue, speak it of what it will. + BASTARD. How I have sped among the clergymen + The sums I have collected shall express. + But as I travell'd hither through the land, + I find the people strangely fantasied; + Possess'd with rumours, full of idle dreams. + Not knowing what they fear, but full of fear; + And here's a prophet that I brought with me + From forth the streets of Pomfret, whom I found + With many hundreds treading on his heels; + To whom he sung, in rude harsh-sounding rhymes, + That, ere the next Ascension-day at noon, + Your Highness should deliver up your crown. + KING JOHN. Thou idle dreamer, wherefore didst thou so? + PETER. Foreknowing that the truth will fall out so. + KING JOHN. Hubert, away with him; imprison him; + And on that day at noon whereon he says + I shall yield up my crown let him be hang'd. + Deliver him to safety; and return, + For I must use thee. + Exit HUBERT with PETER + O my gentle cousin, + Hear'st thou the news abroad, who are arriv'd? + BASTARD. The French, my lord; men's mouths are full of it; + Besides, I met Lord Bigot and Lord Salisbury, + With eyes as red as new-enkindled fire, + And others more, going to seek the grave + Of Arthur, whom they say is kill'd to-night + On your suggestion. + KING JOHN. Gentle kinsman, go + And thrust thyself into their companies. + I have a way to will their loves again; + Bring them before me. + BASTARD. I Will seek them out. + KING JOHN. Nay, but make haste; the better foot before. + O, let me have no subject enemies + When adverse foreigners affright my towns + With dreadful pomp of stout invasion! + Be Mercury, set feathers to thy heels, + And fly like thought from them to me again. + BASTARD. The spirit of the time shall teach me speed. + KING JOHN. Spoke like a sprightful noble gentleman. + Exit BASTARD + Go after him; for he perhaps shall need + Some messenger betwixt me and the peers; + And be thou he. + MESSENGER. With all my heart, my liege. Exit + KING JOHN. My mother dead! + + Re-enter HUBERT + + HUBERT. My lord, they say five moons were seen to-night; + Four fixed, and the fifth did whirl about + The other four in wondrous motion. + KING JOHN. Five moons! + HUBERT. Old men and beldams in the streets + Do prophesy upon it dangerously; + Young Arthur's death is common in their mouths; + And when they talk of him, they shake their heads, + And whisper one another in the ear; + And he that speaks doth gripe the hearer's wrist, + Whilst he that hears makes fearful action + With wrinkled brows, with nods, with rolling eyes. + I saw a smith stand with his hammer, thus, + The whilst his iron did on the anvil cool, + With open mouth swallowing a tailor's news; + Who, with his shears and measure in his hand, + Standing on slippers, which his nimble haste + Had falsely thrust upon contrary feet, + Told of a many thousand warlike French + That were embattailed and rank'd in Kent. + Another lean unwash'd artificer + Cuts off his tale, and talks of Arthur's death. + KING JOHN. Why seek'st thou to possess me with these fears? + Why urgest thou so oft young Arthur's death? + Thy hand hath murd'red him. I had a mighty cause + To wish him dead, but thou hadst none to kill him. + HUBERT. No had, my lord! Why, did you not provoke me? + KING JOHN. It is the curse of kings to be attended + By slaves that take their humours for a warrant + To break within the bloody house of life, + And on the winking of authority + To understand a law; to know the meaning + Of dangerous majesty, when perchance it frowns + More upon humour than advis'd respect. + HUBERT. Here is your hand and seal for what I did. + KING JOHN. O, when the last account 'twixt heaven and earth + Is to be made, then shall this hand and seal + Witness against us to damnation! + How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds + Make deeds ill done! Hadst not thou been by, + A fellow by the hand of nature mark'd, + Quoted and sign'd to do a deed of shame, + This murder had not come into my mind; + But, taking note of thy abhorr'd aspect, + Finding thee fit for bloody villainy, + Apt, liable to be employ'd in danger, + I faintly broke with thee of Arthur's death; + And thou, to be endeared to a king, + Made it no conscience to destroy a prince. + HUBERT. My lord- + KING JOHN. Hadst thou but shook thy head or made pause, + When I spake darkly what I purposed, + Or turn'd an eye of doubt upon my face, + As bid me tell my tale in express words, + Deep shame had struck me dumb, made me break off, + And those thy fears might have wrought fears in me. + But thou didst understand me by my signs, + And didst in signs again parley with sin; + Yea, without stop, didst let thy heart consent, + And consequently thy rude hand to act + The deed which both our tongues held vile to name. + Out of my sight, and never see me more! + My nobles leave me; and my state is braved, + Even at my gates, with ranks of foreign pow'rs; + Nay, in the body of the fleshly land, + This kingdom, this confine of blood and breath, + Hostility and civil tumult reigns + Between my conscience and my cousin's death. + HUBERT. Arm you against your other enemies, + I'll make a peace between your soul and you. + Young Arthur is alive. This hand of mine + Is yet a maiden and an innocent hand, + Not painted with the crimson spots of blood. + Within this bosom never ent'red yet + The dreadful motion of a murderous thought + And you have slander'd nature in my form, + Which, howsoever rude exteriorly, + Is yet the cover of a fairer mind + Than to be butcher of an innocent child. + KING JOHN. Doth Arthur live? O, haste thee to the peers, + Throw this report on their incensed rage + And make them tame to their obedience! + Forgive the comment that my passion made + Upon thy feature; for my rage was blind, + And foul imaginary eyes of blood + Presented thee more hideous than thou art. + O, answer not; but to my closet bring + The angry lords with all expedient haste. + I conjure thee but slowly; run more fast. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +England. Before the castle + +Enter ARTHUR, on the walls + + ARTHUR. The wall is high, and yet will I leap down. + Good ground, be pitiful and hurt me not! + There's few or none do know me; if they did, + This ship-boy's semblance hath disguis'd me quite. + I am afraid; and yet I'll venture it. + If I get down and do not break my limbs, + I'll find a thousand shifts to get away. + As good to die and go, as die and stay. [Leaps down] + O me! my uncle's spirit is in these stones. + Heaven take my soul, and England keep my bones! + [Dies] + + Enter PEMBROKE, SALISBURY, and BIGOT + + SALISBURY. Lords, I will meet him at Saint Edmundsbury; + It is our safety, and we must embrace + This gentle offer of the perilous time. + PEMBROKE. Who brought that letter from the Cardinal? + SALISBURY. The Count Melun, a noble lord of France, + Whose private with me of the Dauphin's love + Is much more general than these lines import. + BIGOT. To-morrow morning let us meet him then. + SALISBURY. Or rather then set forward; for 'twill be + Two long days' journey, lords, or ere we meet. + + Enter the BASTARD + + BASTARD. Once more to-day well met, distemper'd lords! + The King by me requests your presence straight. + SALISBURY. The King hath dispossess'd himself of us. + We will not line his thin bestained cloak + With our pure honours, nor attend the foot + That leaves the print of blood where'er it walks. + Return and tell him so. We know the worst. + BASTARD. Whate'er you think, good words, I think, were best. + SALISBURY. Our griefs, and not our manners, reason now. + BASTARD. But there is little reason in your grief; + Therefore 'twere reason you had manners now. + PEMBROKE. Sir, sir, impatience hath his privilege. + BASTARD. 'Tis true-to hurt his master, no man else. + SALISBURY. This is the prison. What is he lies here? + PEMBROKE. O death, made proud with pure and princely beauty! + The earth had not a hole to hide this deed. + SALISBURY. Murder, as hating what himself hath done, + Doth lay it open to urge on revenge. + BIGOT. Or, when he doom'd this beauty to a grave, + Found it too precious-princely for a grave. + SALISBURY. Sir Richard, what think you? Have you beheld, + Or have you read or heard, or could you think? + Or do you almost think, although you see, + That you do see? Could thought, without this object, + Form such another? This is the very top, + The height, the crest, or crest unto the crest, + Of murder's arms; this is the bloodiest shame, + The wildest savagery, the vilest stroke, + That ever wall-ey'd wrath or staring rage + Presented to the tears of soft remorse. + PEMBROKE. All murders past do stand excus'd in this; + And this, so sole and so unmatchable, + Shall give a holiness, a purity, + To the yet unbegotten sin of times, + And prove a deadly bloodshed but a jest, + Exampled by this heinous spectacle. + BASTARD. It is a damned and a bloody work; + The graceless action of a heavy hand, + If that it be the work of any hand. + SALISBURY. If that it be the work of any hand! + We had a kind of light what would ensue. + It is the shameful work of Hubert's hand; + The practice and the purpose of the King; + From whose obedience I forbid my soul + Kneeling before this ruin of sweet life, + And breathing to his breathless excellence + The incense of a vow, a holy vow, + Never to taste the pleasures of the world, + Never to be infected with delight, + Nor conversant with ease and idleness, + Till I have set a glory to this hand + By giving it the worship of revenge. + PEMBROKE. and BIGOT. Our souls religiously confirm thy words. + + Enter HUBERT + + HUBERT. Lords, I am hot with haste in seeking you. + Arthur doth live; the King hath sent for you. + SALISBURY. O, he is bold, and blushes not at death! + Avaunt, thou hateful villain, get thee gone! + HUBERT. I am no villain. + SALISBURY. Must I rob the law? [Drawing his sword] + BASTARD. Your sword is bright, sir; put it up again. + SALISBURY. Not till I sheathe it in a murderer's skin. + HUBERT. Stand back, Lord Salisbury, stand back, I say; + By heaven, I think my sword's as sharp as yours. + I would not have you, lord, forget yourself, + Nor tempt the danger of my true defence; + Lest I, by marking of your rage, forget + Your worth, your greatness and nobility. + BIGOT. Out, dunghill! Dar'st thou brave a nobleman? + HUBERT. Not for my life; but yet I dare defend + My innocent life against an emperor. + SALISBURY. Thou art a murderer. + HUBERT. Do not prove me so. + Yet I am none. Whose tongue soe'er speaks false, + Not truly speaks; who speaks not truly, lies. + PEMBROKE. Cut him to pieces. + BASTARD. Keep the peace, I say. + SALISBURY. Stand by, or I shall gall you, Faulconbridge. + BASTARD. Thou wert better gall the devil, Salisbury. + If thou but frown on me, or stir thy foot, + Or teach thy hasty spleen to do me shame, + I'll strike thee dead. Put up thy sword betime; + Or I'll so maul you and your toasting-iron + That you shall think the devil is come from hell. + BIGOT. What wilt thou do, renowned Faulconbridge? + Second a villain and a murderer? + HUBERT. Lord Bigot, I am none. + BIGOT. Who kill'd this prince? + HUBERT. 'Tis not an hour since I left him well. + I honour'd him, I lov'd him, and will weep + My date of life out for his sweet life's loss. + SALISBURY. Trust not those cunning waters of his eyes, + For villainy is not without such rheum; + And he, long traded in it, makes it seem + Like rivers of remorse and innocency. + Away with me, all you whose souls abhor + Th' uncleanly savours of a slaughter-house; + For I am stifled with this smell of sin. + BIGOT. Away toward Bury, to the Dauphin there! + PEMBROKE. There tell the King he may inquire us out. + Exeunt LORDS + BASTARD. Here's a good world! Knew you of this fair work? + Beyond the infinite and boundless reach + Of mercy, if thou didst this deed of death, + Art thou damn'd, Hubert. + HUBERT. Do but hear me, sir. + BASTARD. Ha! I'll tell thee what: + Thou'rt damn'd as black-nay, nothing is so black- + Thou art more deep damn'd than Prince Lucifer; + There is not yet so ugly a fiend of hell + As thou shalt be, if thou didst kill this child. + HUBERT. Upon my soul- + BASTARD. If thou didst but consent + To this most cruel act, do but despair; + And if thou want'st a cord, the smallest thread + That ever spider twisted from her womb + Will serve to strangle thee; a rush will be a beam + To hang thee on; or wouldst thou drown thyself, + Put but a little water in a spoon + And it shall be as all the ocean, + Enough to stifle such a villain up + I do suspect thee very grievously. + HUBERT. If I in act, consent, or sin of thought, + Be guilty of the stealing that sweet breath + Which was embounded in this beauteous clay, + Let hell want pains enough to torture me! + I left him well. + BASTARD. Go, bear him in thine arms. + I am amaz'd, methinks, and lose my way + Among the thorns and dangers of this world. + How easy dost thou take all England up! + From forth this morsel of dead royalty + The life, the right, and truth of all this realm + Is fled to heaven; and England now is left + To tug and scamble, and to part by th' teeth + The unowed interest of proud-swelling state. + Now for the bare-pick'd bone of majesty + Doth dogged war bristle his angry crest + And snarleth in the gentle eyes of peace; + Now powers from home and discontents at home + Meet in one line; and vast confusion waits, + As doth a raven on a sick-fall'n beast, + The imminent decay of wrested pomp. + Now happy he whose cloak and cincture can + Hold out this tempest. Bear away that child, + And follow me with speed. I'll to the King; + A thousand businesses are brief in hand, + And heaven itself doth frown upon the land. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 1. England. KING JOHN'S palace + +Enter KING JOHN, PANDULPH, and attendants + + KING JOHN. Thus have I yielded up into your hand + The circle of my glory. + PANDULPH. [Gives back the crown] Take again + From this my hand, as holding of the Pope, + Your sovereign greatness and authority. + KING JOHN. Now keep your holy word; go meet the French; + And from his Holiness use all your power + To stop their marches fore we are inflam'd. + Our discontented counties do revolt; + Our people quarrel with obedience, + Swearing allegiance and the love of soul + To stranger blood, to foreign royalty. + This inundation of mistemp'red humour + Rests by you only to be qualified. + Then pause not; for the present time's so sick + That present med'cine must be minist'red + Or overthrow incurable ensues. + PANDULPH. It was my breath that blew this tempest up, + Upon your stubborn usage of the Pope; + But since you are a gentle convertite, + My tongue shall hush again this storm of war + And make fair weather in your blust'ring land. + On this Ascension-day, remember well, + Upon your oath of service to the Pope, + Go I to make the French lay down their arms. Exit + KING JOHN. Is this Ascension-day? Did not the prophet + Say that before Ascension-day at noon + My crown I should give off? Even so I have. + I did suppose it should be on constraint; + But, heaven be thank'd, it is but voluntary. + + Enter the BASTARD + + BASTARD. All Kent hath yielded; nothing there holds out + But Dover Castle. London hath receiv'd, + Like a kind host, the Dauphin and his powers. + Your nobles will not hear you, but are gone + To offer service to your enemy; + And wild amazement hurries up and down + The little number of your doubtful friends. + KING JOHN. Would not my lords return to me again + After they heard young Arthur was alive? + BASTARD. They found him dead, and cast into the streets, + An empty casket, where the jewel of life + By some damn'd hand was robbed and ta'en away. + KING JOHN. That villain Hubert told me he did live. + BASTARD. So, on my soul, he did, for aught he knew. + But wherefore do you droop? Why look you sad? + Be great in act, as you have been in thought; + Let not the world see fear and sad distrust + Govern the motion of a kingly eye. + Be stirring as the time; be fire with fire; + Threaten the threat'ner, and outface the brow + Of bragging horror; so shall inferior eyes, + That borrow their behaviours from the great, + Grow great by your example and put on + The dauntless spirit of resolution. + Away, and glister like the god of war + When he intendeth to become the field; + Show boldness and aspiring confidence. + What, shall they seek the lion in his den, + And fright him there, and make him tremble there? + O, let it not be said! Forage, and run + To meet displeasure farther from the doors + And grapple with him ere he come so nigh. + KING JOHN. The legate of the Pope hath been with me, + And I have made a happy peace with him; + And he hath promis'd to dismiss the powers + Led by the Dauphin. + BASTARD. O inglorious league! + Shall we, upon the footing of our land, + Send fair-play orders, and make compromise, + Insinuation, parley, and base truce, + To arms invasive? Shall a beardless boy, + A cock'red silken wanton, brave our fields + And flesh his spirit in a warlike soil, + Mocking the air with colours idly spread, + And find no check? Let us, my liege, to arms. + Perchance the Cardinal cannot make your peace; + Or, if he do, let it at least be said + They saw we had a purpose of defence. + KING JOHN. Have thou the ordering of this present time. + BASTARD. Away, then, with good courage! + Yet, I know + Our party may well meet a prouder foe. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. England. The DAUPHIN'S camp at Saint Edmundsbury + +Enter, in arms, LEWIS, SALISBURY, MELUN, PEMBROKE, BIGOT, and soldiers + + LEWIS. My Lord Melun, let this be copied out + And keep it safe for our remembrance; + Return the precedent to these lords again, + That, having our fair order written down, + Both they and we, perusing o'er these notes, + May know wherefore we took the sacrament, + And keep our faiths firm and inviolable. + SALISBURY. Upon our sides it never shall be broken. + And, noble Dauphin, albeit we swear + A voluntary zeal and an unurg'd faith + To your proceedings; yet, believe me, Prince, + I am not glad that such a sore of time + Should seek a plaster by contemn'd revolt, + And heal the inveterate canker of one wound + By making many. O, it grieves my soul + That I must draw this metal from my side + To be a widow-maker! O, and there + Where honourable rescue and defence + Cries out upon the name of Salisbury! + But such is the infection of the time + That, for the health and physic of our right, + We cannot deal but with the very hand + Of stern injustice and confused wrong. + And is't not pity, O my grieved friends! + That we, the sons and children of this isle, + Were born to see so sad an hour as this; + Wherein we step after a stranger-march + Upon her gentle bosom, and fill up + Her enemies' ranks-I must withdraw and weep + Upon the spot of this enforced cause- + To grace the gentry of a land remote + And follow unacquainted colours here? + What, here? O nation, that thou couldst remove! + That Neptune's arms, who clippeth thee about, + Would bear thee from the knowledge of thyself + And grapple thee unto a pagan shore, + Where these two Christian armies might combine + The blood of malice in a vein of league, + And not to spend it so unneighbourly! + LEWIS. A noble temper dost thou show in this; + And great affections wrestling in thy bosom + Doth make an earthquake of nobility. + O, what a noble combat hast thou fought + Between compulsion and a brave respect! + Let me wipe off this honourable dew + That silverly doth progress on thy cheeks. + My heart hath melted at a lady's tears, + Being an ordinary inundation; + But this effusion of such manly drops, + This show'r, blown up by tempest of the soul, + Startles mine eyes and makes me more amaz'd + Than had I seen the vaulty top of heaven + Figur'd quite o'er with burning meteors. + Lift up thy brow, renowned Salisbury, + And with a great heart heave away this storm; + Commend these waters to those baby eyes + That never saw the giant world enrag'd, + Nor met with fortune other than at feasts, + Full of warm blood, of mirth, of gossiping. + Come, come; for thou shalt thrust thy hand as deep + Into the purse of rich prosperity + As Lewis himself. So, nobles, shall you all, + That knit your sinews to the strength of mine. + + Enter PANDULPH + + And even there, methinks, an angel spake: + Look where the holy legate comes apace, + To give us warrant from the hand of heaven + And on our actions set the name of right + With holy breath. + PANDULPH. Hail, noble prince of France! + The next is this: King John hath reconcil'd + Himself to Rome; his spirit is come in, + That so stood out against the holy Church, + The great metropolis and see of Rome. + Therefore thy threat'ning colours now wind up + And tame the savage spirit of wild war, + That, like a lion fostered up at hand, + It may lie gently at the foot of peace + And be no further harmful than in show. + LEWIS. Your Grace shall pardon me, I will not back: + I am too high-born to be propertied, + To be a secondary at control, + Or useful serving-man and instrument + To any sovereign state throughout the world. + Your breath first kindled the dead coal of wars + Between this chastis'd kingdom and myself + And brought in matter that should feed this fire; + And now 'tis far too huge to be blown out + With that same weak wind which enkindled it. + You taught me how to know the face of right, + Acquainted me with interest to this land, + Yea, thrust this enterprise into my heart; + And come ye now to tell me John hath made + His peace with Rome? What is that peace to me? + I, by the honour of my marriage-bed, + After young Arthur, claim this land for mine; + And, now it is half-conquer'd, must I back + Because that John hath made his peace with Rome? + Am I Rome's slave? What penny hath Rome borne, + What men provided, what munition sent, + To underprop this action? Is 't not I + That undergo this charge? Who else but I, + And such as to my claim are liable, + Sweat in this business and maintain this war? + Have I not heard these islanders shout out + 'Vive le roi!' as I have bank'd their towns? + Have I not here the best cards for the game + To will this easy match, play'd for a crown? + And shall I now give o'er the yielded set? + No, no, on my soul, it never shall be said. + PANDULPH. You look but on the outside of this work. + LEWIS. Outside or inside, I will not return + Till my attempt so much be glorified + As to my ample hope was promised + Before I drew this gallant head of war, + And cull'd these fiery spirits from the world + To outlook conquest, and to will renown + Even in the jaws of danger and of death. + [Trumpet sounds] + What lusty trumpet thus doth summon us? + + Enter the BASTARD, attended + + BASTARD. According to the fair play of the world, + Let me have audience: I am sent to speak. + My holy lord of Milan, from the King + I come, to learn how you have dealt for him; + And, as you answer, I do know the scope + And warrant limited unto my tongue. + PANDULPH. The Dauphin is too wilful-opposite, + And will not temporize with my entreaties; + He flatly says he'll not lay down his arms. + BASTARD. By all the blood that ever fury breath'd, + The youth says well. Now hear our English King; + For thus his royalty doth speak in me. + He is prepar'd, and reason too he should. + This apish and unmannerly approach, + This harness'd masque and unadvised revel + This unhair'd sauciness and boyish troops, + The King doth smile at; and is well prepar'd + To whip this dwarfish war, these pigmy arms, + From out the circle of his territories. + That hand which had the strength, even at your door. + To cudgel you and make you take the hatch, + To dive like buckets in concealed wells, + To crouch in litter of your stable planks, + To lie like pawns lock'd up in chests and trunks, + To hug with swine, to seek sweet safety out + In vaults and prisons, and to thrill and shake + Even at the crying of your nation's crow, + Thinking this voice an armed Englishman- + Shall that victorious hand be feebled here + That in your chambers gave you chastisement? + No. Know the gallant monarch is in arms + And like an eagle o'er his aery tow'rs + To souse annoyance that comes near his nest. + And you degenerate, you ingrate revolts, + You bloody Neroes, ripping up the womb + Of your dear mother England, blush for shame; + For your own ladies and pale-visag'd maids, + Like Amazons, come tripping after drums, + Their thimbles into armed gauntlets change, + Their needles to lances, and their gentle hearts + To fierce and bloody inclination. + LEWIS. There end thy brave, and turn thy face in peace; + We grant thou canst outscold us. Fare thee well; + We hold our time too precious to be spent + With such a brabbler. + PANDULPH. Give me leave to speak. + BASTARD. No, I will speak. + LEWIS. We will attend to neither. + Strike up the drums; and let the tongue of war, + Plead for our interest and our being here. + BASTARD. Indeed, your drums, being beaten, will cry out; + And so shall you, being beaten. Do but start + And echo with the clamour of thy drum, + And even at hand a drum is ready brac'd + That shall reverberate all as loud as thine: + Sound but another, and another shall, + As loud as thine, rattle the welkin's ear + And mock the deep-mouth'd thunder; for at hand- + Not trusting to this halting legate here, + Whom he hath us'd rather for sport than need- + Is warlike John; and in his forehead sits + A bare-ribb'd death, whose office is this day + To feast upon whole thousands of the French. + LEWIS. Strike up our drums to find this danger out. + BASTARD. And thou shalt find it, Dauphin, do not doubt. + Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +England. The field of battle + +Alarums. Enter KING JOHN and HUBERT + + KING JOHN. How goes the day with us? O, tell me, Hubert. + HUBERT. Badly, I fear. How fares your Majesty? + KING JOHN. This fever that hath troubled me so long + Lies heavy on me. O, my heart is sick! + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. My lord, your valiant kinsman, Faulconbridge, + Desires your Majesty to leave the field + And send him word by me which way you go. + KING JOHN. Tell him, toward Swinstead, to the abbey there. + MESSENGER. Be of good comfort; for the great supply + That was expected by the Dauphin here + Are wreck'd three nights ago on Goodwin Sands; + This news was brought to Richard but even now. + The French fight coldly, and retire themselves. + KING JOHN. Ay me, this tyrant fever burns me up + And will not let me welcome this good news. + Set on toward Swinstead; to my litter straight; + Weakness possesseth me, and I am faint. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +England. Another part of the battlefield + +Enter SALISBURY, PEMBROKE, and BIGOT + + SALISBURY. I did not think the King so stor'd with friends. + PEMBROKE. Up once again; put spirit in the French; + If they miscarry, we miscarry too. + SALISBURY. That misbegotten devil, Faulconbridge, + In spite of spite, alone upholds the day. + PEMBROKE. They say King John, sore sick, hath left the field. + + Enter MELUN, wounded + + MELUN. Lead me to the revolts of England here. + SALISBURY. When we were happy we had other names. + PEMBROKE. It is the Count Melun. + SALISBURY. Wounded to death. + MELUN. Fly, noble English, you are bought and sold; + Unthread the rude eye of rebellion, + And welcome home again discarded faith. + Seek out King John, and fall before his feet; + For if the French be lords of this loud day, + He means to recompense the pains you take + By cutting off your heads. Thus hath he sworn, + And I with him, and many moe with me, + Upon the altar at Saint Edmundsbury; + Even on that altar where we swore to you + Dear amity and everlasting love. + SALISBURY. May this be possible? May this be true? + MELUN. Have I not hideous death within my view, + Retaining but a quantity of life, + Which bleeds away even as a form of wax + Resolveth from his figure 'gainst the fire? + What in the world should make me now deceive, + Since I must lose the use of all deceit? + Why should I then be false, since it is true + That I must die here, and live hence by truth? + I say again, if Lewis do will the day, + He is forsworn if e'er those eyes of yours + Behold another day break in the east; + But even this night, whose black contagious breath + Already smokes about the burning crest + Of the old, feeble, and day-wearied sun, + Even this ill night, your breathing shall expire, + Paying the fine of rated treachery + Even with a treacherous fine of all your lives. + If Lewis by your assistance win the day. + Commend me to one Hubert, with your King; + The love of him-and this respect besides, + For that my grandsire was an Englishman- + Awakes my conscience to confess all this. + In lieu whereof, I pray you, bear me hence + From forth the noise and rumour of the field, + Where I may think the remnant of my thoughts + In peace, and part this body and my soul + With contemplation and devout desires. + SALISBURY. We do believe thee; and beshrew my soul + But I do love the favour and the form + Of this most fair occasion, by the which + We will untread the steps of damned flight, + And like a bated and retired flood, + Leaving our rankness and irregular course, + Stoop low within those bounds we have o'erlook'd, + And calmly run on in obedience + Even to our ocean, to great King John. + My arm shall give thee help to bear thee hence; + For I do see the cruel pangs of death + Right in thine eye. Away, my friends! New flight, + And happy newness, that intends old right. + Exeunt, leading off MELUN + +SCENE 5. + +England. The French camp + +Enter LEWIS and his train + + LEWIS. The sun of heaven, methought, was loath to set, + But stay'd and made the western welkin blush, + When English measure backward their own ground + In faint retire. O, bravely came we off, + When with a volley of our needless shot, + After such bloody toil, we bid good night; + And wound our tott'ring colours clearly up, + Last in the field and almost lords of it! + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. Where is my prince, the Dauphin? + LEWIS. Here; what news? + MESSENGER. The Count Melun is slain; the English lords + By his persuasion are again fall'n off, + And your supply, which you have wish'd so long, + Are cast away and sunk on Goodwin Sands. + LEWIS. Ah, foul shrewd news! Beshrew thy very heart! + I did not think to be so sad to-night + As this hath made me. Who was he that said + King John did fly an hour or two before + The stumbling night did part our weary pow'rs? + MESSENGER. Whoever spoke it, it is true, my lord. + LEWIS. keep good quarter and good care to-night; + The day shall not be up so soon as I + To try the fair adventure of to-morrow. Exeunt + +SCENE 6. + +An open place wear Swinstead Abbey + +Enter the BASTARD and HUBERT, severally + + HUBERT. Who's there? Speak, ho! speak quickly, or I shoot. + BASTARD. A friend. What art thou? + HUBERT. Of the part of England. + BASTARD. Whither dost thou go? + HUBERT. What's that to thee? Why may I not demand + Of thine affairs as well as thou of mine? + BASTARD. Hubert, I think. + HUBERT. Thou hast a perfect thought. + I will upon all hazards well believe + Thou art my friend that know'st my tongue so well. + Who art thou? + BASTARD. Who thou wilt. And if thou please, + Thou mayst befriend me so much as to think + I come one way of the Plantagenets. + HUBERT. Unkind remembrance! thou and eyeless night + Have done me shame. Brave soldier, pardon me + That any accent breaking from thy tongue + Should scape the true acquaintance of mine ear. + BASTARD. Come, come; sans compliment, what news abroad? + HUBERT. Why, here walk I in the black brow of night + To find you out. + BASTARD. Brief, then; and what's the news? + HUBERT. O, my sweet sir, news fitting to the night, + Black, fearful, comfortless, and horrible. + BASTARD. Show me the very wound of this ill news; + I am no woman, I'll not swoon at it. + HUBERT. The King, I fear, is poison'd by a monk; + I left him almost speechless and broke out + To acquaint you with this evil, that you might + The better arm you to the sudden time + Than if you had at leisure known of this. + BASTARD. How did he take it; who did taste to him? + HUBERT. A monk, I tell you; a resolved villain, + Whose bowels suddenly burst out. The King + Yet speaks, and peradventure may recover. + BASTARD. Who didst thou leave to tend his Majesty? + HUBERT. Why, know you not? The lords are all come back, + And brought Prince Henry in their company; + At whose request the King hath pardon'd them, + And they are all about his Majesty. + BASTARD. Withhold thine indignation, mighty heaven, + And tempt us not to bear above our power! + I'll tell thee, Hubert, half my power this night, + Passing these flats, are taken by the tide- + These Lincoln Washes have devoured them; + Myself, well-mounted, hardly have escap'd. + Away, before! conduct me to the King; + I doubt he will be dead or ere I come. Exeunt + +SCENE 7. + +The orchard at Swinstead Abbey + +Enter PRINCE HENRY, SALISBURY, and BIGOT + + PRINCE HENRY. It is too late; the life of all his blood + Is touch'd corruptibly, and his pure brain. + Which some suppose the soul's frail dwelling-house, + Doth by the idle comments that it makes + Foretell the ending of mortality. + + Enter PEMBROKE + + PEMBROKE. His Highness yet doth speak, and holds belief + That, being brought into the open air, + It would allay the burning quality + Of that fell poison which assaileth him. + PRINCE HENRY. Let him be brought into the orchard here. + Doth he still rage? Exit BIGOT + PEMBROKE. He is more patient + Than when you left him; even now he sung. + PRINCE HENRY. O vanity of sickness! Fierce extremes + In their continuance will not feel themselves. + Death, having prey'd upon the outward parts, + Leaves them invisible, and his siege is now + Against the mind, the which he pricks and wounds + With many legions of strange fantasies, + Which, in their throng and press to that last hold, + Confound themselves. 'Tis strange that death should sing. + I am the cygnet to this pale faint swan + Who chants a doleful hymn to his own death, + And from the organ-pipe of frailty sings + His soul and body to their lasting rest. + SALISBURY. Be of good comfort, Prince; for you are born + To set a form upon that indigest + Which he hath left so shapeless and so rude. + + Re-enter BIGOT and attendants, who bring in + KING JOHN in a chair + + KING JOHN. Ay, marry, now my soul hath elbow-room; + It would not out at windows nor at doors. + There is so hot a summer in my bosom + That all my bowels crumble up to dust. + I am a scribbled form drawn with a pen + Upon a parchment, and against this fire + Do I shrink up. + PRINCE HENRY. How fares your Majesty? + KING JOHN. Poison'd-ill-fare! Dead, forsook, cast off; + And none of you will bid the winter come + To thrust his icy fingers in my maw, + Nor let my kingdom's rivers take their course + Through my burn'd bosom, nor entreat the north + To make his bleak winds kiss my parched lips + And comfort me with cold. I do not ask you much; + I beg cold comfort; and you are so strait + And so ingrateful you deny me that. + PRINCE HENRY. O that there were some virtue in my tears, + That might relieve you! + KING JOHN. The salt in them is hot. + Within me is a hell; and there the poison + Is as a fiend confin'd to tyrannize + On unreprievable condemned blood. + + Enter the BASTARD + + BASTARD. O, I am scalded with my violent motion + And spleen of speed to see your Majesty! + KING JOHN. O cousin, thou art come to set mine eye! + The tackle of my heart is crack'd and burnt, + And all the shrouds wherewith my life should sail + Are turned to one thread, one little hair; + My heart hath one poor string to stay it by, + Which holds but till thy news be uttered; + And then all this thou seest is but a clod + And module of confounded royalty. + BASTARD. The Dauphin is preparing hitherward, + Where God He knows how we shall answer him; + For in a night the best part of my pow'r, + As I upon advantage did remove, + Were in the Washes all unwarily + Devoured by the unexpected flood. [The KING dies] + SALISBURY. You breathe these dead news in as dead an ear. + My liege! my lord! But now a king-now thus. + PRINCE HENRY. Even so must I run on, and even so stop. + What surety of the world, what hope, what stay, + When this was now a king, and now is clay? + BASTARD. Art thou gone so? I do but stay behind + To do the office for thee of revenge, + And then my soul shall wait on thee to heaven, + As it on earth hath been thy servant still. + Now, now, you stars that move in your right spheres, + Where be your pow'rs? Show now your mended faiths, + And instantly return with me again + To push destruction and perpetual shame + Out of the weak door of our fainting land. + Straight let us seek, or straight we shall be sought; + The Dauphin rages at our very heels. + SALISBURY. It seems you know not, then, so much as we: + The Cardinal Pandulph is within at rest, + Who half an hour since came from the Dauphin, + And brings from him such offers of our peace + As we with honour and respect may take, + With purpose presently to leave this war. + BASTARD. He will the rather do it when he sees + Ourselves well sinewed to our defence. + SALISBURY. Nay, 'tis in a manner done already; + For many carriages he hath dispatch'd + To the sea-side, and put his cause and quarrel + To the disposing of the Cardinal; + With whom yourself, myself, and other lords, + If you think meet, this afternoon will post + To consummate this business happily. + BASTARD. Let it be so. And you, my noble Prince, + With other princes that may best be spar'd, + Shall wait upon your father's funeral. + PRINCE HENRY. At Worcester must his body be interr'd; + For so he will'd it. + BASTARD. Thither shall it, then; + And happily may your sweet self put on + The lineal state and glory of the land! + To whom, with all submission, on my knee + I do bequeath my faithful services + And true subjection everlastingly. + SALISBURY. And the like tender of our love we make, + To rest without a spot for evermore. + PRINCE HENRY. I have a kind soul that would give you thanks, + And knows not how to do it but with tears. + BASTARD. O, let us pay the time but needful woe, + Since it hath been beforehand with our griefs. + This England never did, nor never shall, + Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror, + But when it first did help to wound itself. + Now these her princes are come home again, + Come the three corners of the world in arms, + And we shall shock them. Nought shall make us rue, + If England to itself do rest but true. Exeunt + + + + +THE TRAGEDY OF JULIUS CAESAR + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Rome. A street. +Scene II. The same. A public place. +Scene III. The same. A street. + + +ACT II +Scene I. Rome. Brutus’ orchard. +Scene II. A room in Caesar’s palace. +Scene III. A street near the Capitol. +Scene IV. Another part of the same street, before the house of Brutus. + + +ACT III +Scene I. Rome. Before the Capitol; the Senate sitting. +Scene II. The same. The Forum. +Scene III. The same. A street. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. A room in Antony’s house. +Scene II. Before Brutus’ tent, in the camp near Sardis. +Scene III. Within the tent of Brutus. + + +ACT V +Scene I. The plains of Philippi. +Scene II. The same. The field of battle. +Scene III. Another part of the field. +Scene IV. Another part of the field. +Scene V. Another part of the field. + + + + + + Dramatis Personæ + +JULIUS CAESAR +OCTAVIUS CAESAR, Triumvir after his death. +MARCUS ANTONIUS, ” ” ” +M. AEMILIUS LEPIDUS, ” ” ” +CICERO, PUBLIUS, POPILIUS LENA, Senators. +MARCUS BRUTUS, Conspirator against Caesar. +CASSIUS, ” ” ” +CASCA, ” ” ” +TREBONIUS, ” ” ” +LIGARIUS,” ” ” +DECIUS BRUTUS, ” ” ” +METELLUS CIMBER, ” ” ” +CINNA, ” ” ” +FLAVIUS, tribune +MARULLUS, tribune +ARTEMIDORUS, a Sophist of Cnidos. +A Soothsayer +CINNA, a poet. +Another Poet. +LUCILIUS, TITINIUS, MESSALA, young CATO, and VOLUMNIUS, Friends to +Brutus and Cassius. +VARRO, CLITUS, CLAUDIUS, STRATO, LUCIUS, DARDANIUS, Servants to Brutus +PINDARUS, Servant to Cassius + + +CALPHURNIA, wife to Caesar +PORTIA, wife to Brutus + +The Ghost of Caesar + + +Senators, Citizens, Soldiers, Commoners, Messengers, and Servants. + +SCENE: Rome, the conspirators’ camp near Sardis, and the plains of +Philippi. + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Rome. A street. + + Enter Flavius, Marullus and a throng of Citizens. + +FLAVIUS. +Hence! home, you idle creatures, get you home. +Is this a holiday? What, know you not, +Being mechanical, you ought not walk +Upon a labouring day without the sign +Of your profession? Speak, what trade art thou? + +CARPENTER. +Why, sir, a carpenter. + +MARULLUS. +Where is thy leather apron and thy rule? +What dost thou with thy best apparel on? +You, sir, what trade are you? + +COBBLER. +Truly, sir, in respect of a fine workman, I am but, as you would say, a +cobbler. + +MARULLUS. +But what trade art thou? Answer me directly. + +COBBLER. +A trade, sir, that I hope I may use with a safe conscience, which is +indeed, sir, a mender of bad soles. + +MARULLUS. +What trade, thou knave? Thou naughty knave, what trade? + +COBBLER. +Nay, I beseech you, sir, be not out with me; yet, if you be out, sir, I +can mend you. + +MARULLUS. +What mean’st thou by that? Mend me, thou saucy fellow! + +COBBLER. +Why, sir, cobble you. + +FLAVIUS. +Thou art a cobbler, art thou? + +COBBLER. +Truly, sir, all that I live by is with the awl; I meddle with no +tradesman’s matters, nor women’s matters, but withal I am indeed, sir, +a surgeon to old shoes: when they are in great danger, I recover them. +As proper men as ever trod upon neat’s leather have gone upon my +handiwork. + +FLAVIUS. +But wherefore art not in thy shop today? +Why dost thou lead these men about the streets? + +COBBLER. +Truly, sir, to wear out their shoes, to get myself into more work. But +indeed, sir, we make holiday to see Caesar, and to rejoice in his +triumph. + +MARULLUS. +Wherefore rejoice? What conquest brings he home? +What tributaries follow him to Rome, +To grace in captive bonds his chariot wheels? +You blocks, you stones, you worse than senseless things! +O you hard hearts, you cruel men of Rome, +Knew you not Pompey? Many a time and oft +Have you climb’d up to walls and battlements, +To towers and windows, yea, to chimney tops, +Your infants in your arms, and there have sat +The livelong day with patient expectation, +To see great Pompey pass the streets of Rome. +And when you saw his chariot but appear, +Have you not made an universal shout, +That Tiber trembled underneath her banks +To hear the replication of your sounds +Made in her concave shores? +And do you now put on your best attire? +And do you now cull out a holiday? +And do you now strew flowers in his way, +That comes in triumph over Pompey’s blood? +Be gone! +Run to your houses, fall upon your knees, +Pray to the gods to intermit the plague +That needs must light on this ingratitude. + +FLAVIUS. +Go, go, good countrymen, and, for this fault +Assemble all the poor men of your sort, +Draw them to Tiber banks, and weep your tears +Into the channel, till the lowest stream +Do kiss the most exalted shores of all. + + [_Exeunt Citizens._] + +See whether their basest metal be not mov’d; +They vanish tongue-tied in their guiltiness. +Go you down that way towards the Capitol; +This way will I. Disrobe the images, +If you do find them deck’d with ceremonies. + +MARULLUS. +May we do so? +You know it is the feast of Lupercal. + +FLAVIUS. +It is no matter; let no images +Be hung with Caesar’s trophies. I’ll about +And drive away the vulgar from the streets; +So do you too, where you perceive them thick. +These growing feathers pluck’d from Caesar’s wing +Will make him fly an ordinary pitch, +Who else would soar above the view of men, +And keep us all in servile fearfulness. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. A public place. + + Enter, in procession, with music, Caesar; Antony, for the course; + Calphurnia, Portia, Decius, Cicero, Brutus, Cassius and Casca; a great + crowd following, among them a Soothsayer. + +CAESAR. +Calphurnia. + +CASCA. +Peace, ho! Caesar speaks. + + [_Music ceases._] + +CAESAR. +Calphurnia. + +CALPHURNIA. +Here, my lord. + +CAESAR. +Stand you directly in Antonius’ way, +When he doth run his course. Antonius. + +ANTONY. +Caesar, my lord? + +CAESAR. +Forget not in your speed, Antonius, +To touch Calphurnia; for our elders say, +The barren, touched in this holy chase, +Shake off their sterile curse. + +ANTONY. +I shall remember. +When Caesar says “Do this,” it is perform’d. + +CAESAR. +Set on; and leave no ceremony out. + + [_Music._] + +SOOTHSAYER. +Caesar! + +CAESAR. +Ha! Who calls? + +CASCA. +Bid every noise be still; peace yet again! + + [_Music ceases._] + +CAESAR. +Who is it in the press that calls on me? +I hear a tongue shriller than all the music, +Cry “Caesar”! Speak. Caesar is turn’d to hear. + +SOOTHSAYER. +Beware the Ides of March. + +CAESAR. +What man is that? + +BRUTUS. +A soothsayer bids you beware the Ides of March. + +CAESAR. +Set him before me; let me see his face. + +CASSIUS. +Fellow, come from the throng; look upon Caesar. + +CAESAR. +What say’st thou to me now? Speak once again. + +SOOTHSAYER. +Beware the Ides of March. + +CAESAR. +He is a dreamer; let us leave him. Pass. + + [_Sennet. Exeunt all but Brutus and Cassius._] + +CASSIUS. +Will you go see the order of the course? + +BRUTUS. +Not I. + +CASSIUS. +I pray you, do. + +BRUTUS. +I am not gamesome: I do lack some part +Of that quick spirit that is in Antony. +Let me not hinder, Cassius, your desires; +I’ll leave you. + +CASSIUS. +Brutus, I do observe you now of late: +I have not from your eyes that gentleness +And show of love as I was wont to have. +You bear too stubborn and too strange a hand +Over your friend that loves you. + +BRUTUS. +Cassius, +Be not deceived: if I have veil’d my look, +I turn the trouble of my countenance +Merely upon myself. Vexed I am +Of late with passions of some difference, +Conceptions only proper to myself, +Which give some soil perhaps to my behaviors; +But let not therefore my good friends be grieved +(Among which number, Cassius, be you one) +Nor construe any further my neglect, +Than that poor Brutus, with himself at war, +Forgets the shows of love to other men. + +CASSIUS. +Then, Brutus, I have much mistook your passion; +By means whereof this breast of mine hath buried +Thoughts of great value, worthy cogitations. +Tell me, good Brutus, can you see your face? + +BRUTUS. +No, Cassius, for the eye sees not itself +But by reflection, by some other thing. + +CASSIUS. +’Tis just: +And it is very much lamented, Brutus, +That you have no such mirrors as will turn +Your hidden worthiness into your eye, +That you might see your shadow. I have heard +Where many of the best respect in Rome, +(Except immortal Caesar) speaking of Brutus, +And groaning underneath this age’s yoke, +Have wish’d that noble Brutus had his eyes. + +BRUTUS. +Into what dangers would you lead me, Cassius, +That you would have me seek into myself +For that which is not in me? + +CASSIUS. +Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear; +And since you know you cannot see yourself +So well as by reflection, I, your glass, +Will modestly discover to yourself +That of yourself which you yet know not of. +And be not jealous on me, gentle Brutus: +Were I a common laugher, or did use +To stale with ordinary oaths my love +To every new protester; if you know +That I do fawn on men, and hug them hard, +And after scandal them; or if you know +That I profess myself in banqueting, +To all the rout, then hold me dangerous. + + [_Flourish and shout._] + +BRUTUS. +What means this shouting? I do fear the people +Choose Caesar for their king. + +CASSIUS. +Ay, do you fear it? +Then must I think you would not have it so. + +BRUTUS. +I would not, Cassius; yet I love him well, +But wherefore do you hold me here so long? +What is it that you would impart to me? +If it be aught toward the general good, +Set honour in one eye and death i’ the other, +And I will look on both indifferently; +For let the gods so speed me as I love +The name of honour more than I fear death. + +CASSIUS. +I know that virtue to be in you, Brutus, +As well as I do know your outward favour. +Well, honour is the subject of my story. +I cannot tell what you and other men +Think of this life; but, for my single self, +I had as lief not be as live to be +In awe of such a thing as I myself. +I was born free as Caesar; so were you; +We both have fed as well, and we can both +Endure the winter’s cold as well as he: +For once, upon a raw and gusty day, +The troubled Tiber chafing with her shores, +Caesar said to me, “Dar’st thou, Cassius, now +Leap in with me into this angry flood, +And swim to yonder point?” Upon the word, +Accoutred as I was, I plunged in, +And bade him follow: so indeed he did. +The torrent roar’d, and we did buffet it +With lusty sinews, throwing it aside +And stemming it with hearts of controversy. +But ere we could arrive the point propos’d, +Caesar cried, “Help me, Cassius, or I sink!” +I, as Aeneas, our great ancestor, +Did from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder +The old Anchises bear, so from the waves of Tiber +Did I the tired Caesar. And this man +Is now become a god; and Cassius is +A wretched creature, and must bend his body, +If Caesar carelessly but nod on him. +He had a fever when he was in Spain, +And when the fit was on him I did mark +How he did shake: ’tis true, this god did shake: +His coward lips did from their colour fly, +And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world +Did lose his lustre. I did hear him groan: +Ay, and that tongue of his, that bade the Romans +Mark him, and write his speeches in their books, +Alas, it cried, “Give me some drink, Titinius,” +As a sick girl. Ye gods, it doth amaze me, +A man of such a feeble temper should +So get the start of the majestic world, +And bear the palm alone. + + [_Shout. Flourish._] + +BRUTUS. +Another general shout? +I do believe that these applauses are +For some new honours that are heap’d on Caesar. + +CASSIUS. +Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world +Like a Colossus, and we petty men +Walk under his huge legs, and peep about +To find ourselves dishonourable graves. +Men at some time are masters of their fates: +The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, +But in ourselves, that we are underlings. +“Brutus” and “Caesar”: what should be in that “Caesar”? +Why should that name be sounded more than yours? +Write them together, yours is as fair a name; +Sound them, it doth become the mouth as well; +Weigh them, it is as heavy; conjure with ’em, +“Brutus” will start a spirit as soon as “Caesar.” +Now in the names of all the gods at once, +Upon what meat doth this our Caesar feed, +That he is grown so great? Age, thou art sham’d! +Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods! +When went there by an age since the great flood, +But it was fam’d with more than with one man? +When could they say, till now, that talk’d of Rome, +That her wide walls encompass’d but one man? +Now is it Rome indeed, and room enough, +When there is in it but one only man. +O, you and I have heard our fathers say, +There was a Brutus once that would have brook’d +Th’ eternal devil to keep his state in Rome, +As easily as a king! + +BRUTUS. +That you do love me, I am nothing jealous; +What you would work me to, I have some aim: +How I have thought of this, and of these times, +I shall recount hereafter. For this present, +I would not, so with love I might entreat you, +Be any further mov’d. What you have said, +I will consider; what you have to say +I will with patience hear; and find a time +Both meet to hear and answer such high things. +Till then, my noble friend, chew upon this: +Brutus had rather be a villager +Than to repute himself a son of Rome +Under these hard conditions as this time +Is like to lay upon us. + +CASSIUS. +I am glad that my weak words +Have struck but thus much show of fire from Brutus. + + Enter Caesar and his Train. + +BRUTUS. +The games are done, and Caesar is returning. + +CASSIUS. +As they pass by, pluck Casca by the sleeve, +And he will, after his sour fashion, tell you +What hath proceeded worthy note today. + +BRUTUS. +I will do so. But, look you, Cassius, +The angry spot doth glow on Caesar’s brow, +And all the rest look like a chidden train: +Calphurnia’s cheek is pale; and Cicero +Looks with such ferret and such fiery eyes +As we have seen him in the Capitol, +Being cross’d in conference by some senators. + +CASSIUS. +Casca will tell us what the matter is. + +CAESAR. +Antonius. + +ANTONY. +Caesar? + +CAESAR. +Let me have men about me that are fat, +Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep a-nights: +Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look; +He thinks too much: such men are dangerous. + +ANTONY. +Fear him not, Caesar; he’s not dangerous; +He is a noble Roman and well given. + +CAESAR. +Would he were fatter! But I fear him not: +Yet if my name were liable to fear, +I do not know the man I should avoid +So soon as that spare Cassius. He reads much, +He is a great observer, and he looks +Quite through the deeds of men. He loves no plays, +As thou dost, Antony; he hears no music. +Seldom he smiles; and smiles in such a sort +As if he mock’d himself and scorn’d his spirit +That could be mov’d to smile at anything. +Such men as he be never at heart’s ease +Whiles they behold a greater than themselves, +And therefore are they very dangerous. +I rather tell thee what is to be fear’d +Than what I fear; for always I am Caesar. +Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf, +And tell me truly what thou think’st of him. + + [_Exeunt Caesar and his Train. Casca stays._] + +CASCA. +You pull’d me by the cloak; would you speak with me? + +BRUTUS. +Ay, Casca, tell us what hath chanc’d today, +That Caesar looks so sad. + +CASCA. +Why, you were with him, were you not? + +BRUTUS. +I should not then ask Casca what had chanc’d. + +CASCA. +Why, there was a crown offer’d him; and being offer’d him, he put it by +with the back of his hand, thus; and then the people fell a-shouting. + +BRUTUS. +What was the second noise for? + +CASCA. +Why, for that too. + +CASSIUS. +They shouted thrice: what was the last cry for? + +CASCA. +Why, for that too. + +BRUTUS. +Was the crown offer’d him thrice? + +CASCA. +Ay, marry, was’t, and he put it by thrice, every time gentler than +other; and at every putting-by mine honest neighbours shouted. + +CASSIUS. +Who offer’d him the crown? + +CASCA. +Why, Antony. + +BRUTUS. +Tell us the manner of it, gentle Casca. + +CASCA. +I can as well be hang’d, as tell the manner of it: it was mere foolery; +I did not mark it. I saw Mark Antony offer him a crown; yet ’twas not a +crown neither, ’twas one of these coronets; and, as I told you, he put +it by once: but, for all that, to my thinking, he would fain have had +it. Then he offered it to him again: then he put it by again: but, to +my thinking, he was very loath to lay his fingers off it. And then he +offered it the third time; he put it the third time by; and still, as +he refus’d it, the rabblement hooted, and clapp’d their chopt hands, +and threw up their sweaty night-caps, and uttered such a deal of +stinking breath because Caesar refus’d the crown, that it had, almost, +choked Caesar, for he swooned, and fell down at it. And for mine own +part, I durst not laugh, for fear of opening my lips and receiving the +bad air. + +CASSIUS. +But, soft! I pray you. What, did Caesar swoon? + +CASCA. +He fell down in the market-place, and foam’d at mouth, and was +speechless. + +BRUTUS. +’Tis very like: he hath the falling-sickness. + +CASSIUS. +No, Caesar hath it not; but you, and I, +And honest Casca, we have the falling-sickness. + +CASCA. +I know not what you mean by that; but I am sure Caesar fell down. If +the tag-rag people did not clap him and hiss him, according as he +pleased and displeased them, as they use to do the players in the +theatre, I am no true man. + +BRUTUS. +What said he when he came unto himself? + +CASCA. +Marry, before he fell down, when he perceived the common herd was glad +he refused the crown, he pluck’d me ope his doublet, and offer’d them +his throat to cut. And I had been a man of any occupation, if I would +not have taken him at a word, I would I might go to hell among the +rogues. And so he fell. When he came to himself again, he said, if he +had done or said anything amiss, he desir’d their worships to think it +was his infirmity. Three or four wenches where I stood cried, “Alas, +good soul!” and forgave him with all their hearts. But there’s no heed +to be taken of them: if Caesar had stabb’d their mothers, they would +have done no less. + +BRUTUS. +And, after that, he came thus sad away? + +CASCA. +Ay. + +CASSIUS. +Did Cicero say anything? + +CASCA. +Ay, he spoke Greek. + +CASSIUS. +To what effect? + +CASCA. +Nay, and I tell you that, I’ll ne’er look you i’ the face again. But +those that understood him smil’d at one another and shook their heads; +but for mine own part, it was Greek to me. I could tell you more news +too: Marullus and Flavius, for pulling scarfs off Caesar’s images, are +put to silence. Fare you well. There was more foolery yet, if I could +remember it. + +CASSIUS. +Will you sup with me tonight, Casca? + +CASCA. +No, I am promis’d forth. + +CASSIUS. +Will you dine with me tomorrow? + +CASCA. +Ay, if I be alive, and your mind hold, and your dinner worth the +eating. + +CASSIUS. +Good. I will expect you. + +CASCA. +Do so; farewell both. + + [_Exit Casca._] + +BRUTUS. +What a blunt fellow is this grown to be! +He was quick mettle when he went to school. + +CASSIUS. +So is he now in execution +Of any bold or noble enterprise, +However he puts on this tardy form. +This rudeness is a sauce to his good wit, +Which gives men stomach to digest his words +With better appetite. + +BRUTUS. +And so it is. For this time I will leave you: +Tomorrow, if you please to speak with me, +I will come home to you; or, if you will, +Come home to me, and I will wait for you. + +CASSIUS. +I will do so: till then, think of the world. + + [_Exit Brutus._] + +Well, Brutus, thou art noble; yet I see, +Thy honourable metal may be wrought +From that it is dispos’d: therefore ’tis meet +That noble minds keep ever with their likes; +For who so firm that cannot be seduc’d? +Caesar doth bear me hard, but he loves Brutus. +If I were Brutus now, and he were Cassius, +He should not humour me. I will this night, +In several hands, in at his windows throw, +As if they came from several citizens, +Writings, all tending to the great opinion +That Rome holds of his name; wherein obscurely +Caesar’s ambition shall be glanced at. +And after this, let Caesar seat him sure, +For we will shake him, or worse days endure. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. The same. A street. + + Thunder and lightning. Enter, from opposite sides, Casca with his + sword drawn, and Cicero. + +CICERO. +Good even, Casca: brought you Caesar home? +Why are you breathless, and why stare you so? + +CASCA. +Are not you moved, when all the sway of earth +Shakes like a thing unfirm? O Cicero, +I have seen tempests, when the scolding winds +Have riv’d the knotty oaks; and I have seen +Th’ ambitious ocean swell and rage and foam, +To be exalted with the threatening clouds: +But never till tonight, never till now, +Did I go through a tempest dropping fire. +Either there is a civil strife in heaven, +Or else the world too saucy with the gods, +Incenses them to send destruction. + +CICERO. +Why, saw you anything more wonderful? + +CASCA. +A common slave, you’d know him well by sight, +Held up his left hand, which did flame and burn +Like twenty torches join’d, and yet his hand, +Not sensible of fire remain’d unscorch’d. +Besides, I ha’ not since put up my sword, +Against the Capitol I met a lion, +Who glared upon me, and went surly by, +Without annoying me. And there were drawn +Upon a heap a hundred ghastly women, +Transformed with their fear; who swore they saw +Men, all in fire, walk up and down the streets. +And yesterday the bird of night did sit, +Even at noonday upon the marketplace, +Hooting and shrieking. When these prodigies +Do so conjointly meet, let not men say, +“These are their reasons; they are natural”; +For I believe, they are portentous things +Unto the climate that they point upon. + +CICERO. +Indeed, it is a strange-disposed time. +But men may construe things after their fashion, +Clean from the purpose of the things themselves. +Comes Caesar to the Capitol tomorrow? + +CASCA. +He doth, for he did bid Antonius +Send word to you he would be there tomorrow. + +CICERO. +Goodnight then, Casca: this disturbed sky +Is not to walk in. + +CASCA. +Farewell, Cicero. + + [_Exit Cicero._] + + Enter Cassius. + +CASSIUS. +Who’s there? + +CASCA. +A Roman. + +CASSIUS. +Casca, by your voice. + +CASCA. +Your ear is good. Cassius, what night is this! + +CASSIUS. +A very pleasing night to honest men. + +CASCA. +Who ever knew the heavens menace so? + +CASSIUS. +Those that have known the earth so full of faults. +For my part, I have walk’d about the streets, +Submitting me unto the perilous night; +And, thus unbraced, Casca, as you see, +Have bar’d my bosom to the thunder-stone; +And when the cross blue lightning seem’d to open +The breast of heaven, I did present myself +Even in the aim and very flash of it. + +CASCA. +But wherefore did you so much tempt the Heavens? +It is the part of men to fear and tremble, +When the most mighty gods by tokens send +Such dreadful heralds to astonish us. + +CASSIUS. +You are dull, Casca; and those sparks of life +That should be in a Roman you do want, +Or else you use not. You look pale and gaze, +And put on fear and cast yourself in wonder, +To see the strange impatience of the Heavens: +But if you would consider the true cause +Why all these fires, why all these gliding ghosts, +Why birds and beasts, from quality and kind; +Why old men, fools, and children calculate, +Why all these things change from their ordinance, +Their natures, and pre-formed faculties, +To monstrous quality; why, you shall find +That Heaven hath infus’d them with these spirits, +To make them instruments of fear and warning +Unto some monstrous state. +Now could I, Casca, name to thee a man +Most like this dreadful night, +That thunders, lightens, opens graves, and roars, +As doth the lion in the Capitol; +A man no mightier than thyself, or me, +In personal action; yet prodigious grown, +And fearful, as these strange eruptions are. + +CASCA. +’Tis Caesar that you mean; is it not, Cassius? + +CASSIUS. +Let it be who it is: for Romans now +Have thews and limbs like to their ancestors; +But, woe the while! our fathers’ minds are dead, +And we are govern’d with our mothers’ spirits; +Our yoke and sufferance show us womanish. + +CASCA. +Indeed, they say the senators tomorrow +Mean to establish Caesar as a king; +And he shall wear his crown by sea and land, +In every place, save here in Italy. + +CASSIUS. +I know where I will wear this dagger then; +Cassius from bondage will deliver Cassius: +Therein, ye gods, you make the weak most strong; +Therein, ye gods, you tyrants do defeat. +Nor stony tower, nor walls of beaten brass, +Nor airless dungeon, nor strong links of iron, +Can be retentive to the strength of spirit; +But life, being weary of these worldly bars, +Never lacks power to dismiss itself. +If I know this, know all the world besides, +That part of tyranny that I do bear +I can shake off at pleasure. + + [_Thunder still._] + +CASCA. +So can I: +So every bondman in his own hand bears +The power to cancel his captivity. + +CASSIUS. +And why should Caesar be a tyrant then? +Poor man! I know he would not be a wolf, +But that he sees the Romans are but sheep: +He were no lion, were not Romans hinds. +Those that with haste will make a mighty fire +Begin it with weak straws. What trash is Rome, +What rubbish, and what offal, when it serves +For the base matter to illuminate +So vile a thing as Caesar! But, O grief, +Where hast thou led me? I, perhaps, speak this +Before a willing bondman: then I know +My answer must be made; but I am arm’d, +And dangers are to me indifferent. + +CASCA. +You speak to Casca, and to such a man +That is no fleering tell-tale. Hold, my hand: +Be factious for redress of all these griefs, +And I will set this foot of mine as far +As who goes farthest. + +CASSIUS. +There’s a bargain made. +Now know you, Casca, I have mov’d already +Some certain of the noblest-minded Romans +To undergo with me an enterprise +Of honourable-dangerous consequence; +And I do know by this, they stay for me +In Pompey’s Porch: for now, this fearful night, +There is no stir or walking in the streets; +And the complexion of the element +In favour’s like the work we have in hand, +Most bloody, fiery, and most terrible. + + Enter Cinna. + +CASCA. +Stand close awhile, for here comes one in haste. + +CASSIUS. +’Tis Cinna; I do know him by his gait; +He is a friend. Cinna, where haste you so? + +CINNA. +To find out you. Who’s that? Metellus Cimber? + +CASSIUS. +No, it is Casca, one incorporate +To our attempts. Am I not stay’d for, Cinna? + +CINNA. +I am glad on’t. What a fearful night is this! +There’s two or three of us have seen strange sights. + +CASSIUS. +Am I not stay’d for? tell me. + +CINNA. +Yes, you are. O Cassius, if you could +But win the noble Brutus to our party— + +CASSIUS. +Be you content. Good Cinna, take this paper, +And look you lay it in the praetor’s chair, +Where Brutus may but find it; and throw this +In at his window; set this up with wax +Upon old Brutus’ statue: all this done, +Repair to Pompey’s Porch, where you shall find us. +Is Decius Brutus and Trebonius there? + +CINNA. +All but Metellus Cimber, and he’s gone +To seek you at your house. Well, I will hie, +And so bestow these papers as you bade me. + +CASSIUS. +That done, repair to Pompey’s theatre. + + [_Exit Cinna._] + +Come, Casca, you and I will yet, ere day, +See Brutus at his house: three parts of him +Is ours already, and the man entire +Upon the next encounter, yields him ours. + +CASCA. +O, he sits high in all the people’s hearts! +And that which would appear offence in us, +His countenance, like richest alchemy, +Will change to virtue and to worthiness. + +CASSIUS. +Him, and his worth, and our great need of him, +You have right well conceited. Let us go, +For it is after midnight; and ere day, +We will awake him, and be sure of him. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Rome. Brutus’ orchard. + + Enter Brutus. + +BRUTUS. +What, Lucius, ho! +I cannot, by the progress of the stars, +Give guess how near to day.—Lucius, I say! +I would it were my fault to sleep so soundly. +When, Lucius, when? Awake, I say! What, Lucius! + + Enter Lucius. + +LUCIUS. +Call’d you, my lord? + +BRUTUS. +Get me a taper in my study, Lucius: +When it is lighted, come and call me here. + +LUCIUS. +I will, my lord. + + [_Exit._] + +BRUTUS. +It must be by his death: and for my part, +I know no personal cause to spurn at him, +But for the general. He would be crown’d: +How that might change his nature, there’s the question. +It is the bright day that brings forth the adder, +And that craves wary walking. Crown him?—that; +And then, I grant, we put a sting in him, +That at his will he may do danger with. +Th’ abuse of greatness is, when it disjoins +Remorse from power; and, to speak truth of Caesar, +I have not known when his affections sway’d +More than his reason. But ’tis a common proof, +That lowliness is young ambition’s ladder, +Whereto the climber-upward turns his face; +But when he once attains the upmost round, +He then unto the ladder turns his back, +Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees +By which he did ascend. So Caesar may; +Then lest he may, prevent. And since the quarrel +Will bear no colour for the thing he is, +Fashion it thus: that what he is, augmented, +Would run to these and these extremities: +And therefore think him as a serpent’s egg +Which hatch’d, would, as his kind grow mischievous; +And kill him in the shell. + + Enter Lucius. + +LUCIUS. +The taper burneth in your closet, sir. +Searching the window for a flint, I found +This paper, thus seal’d up, and I am sure +It did not lie there when I went to bed. + + [_Gives him the letter._] + +BRUTUS. +Get you to bed again; it is not day. +Is not tomorrow, boy, the Ides of March? + +LUCIUS. +I know not, sir. + +BRUTUS. +Look in the calendar, and bring me word. + +LUCIUS. +I will, sir. + + [_Exit._] + +BRUTUS. +The exhalations, whizzing in the air +Give so much light that I may read by them. + + [_Opens the letter and reads._] + +_Brutus, thou sleep’st: awake and see thyself. +Shall Rome, &c. Speak, strike, redress!_ +“Brutus, thou sleep’st: awake!” +Such instigations have been often dropp’d +Where I have took them up. +“Shall Rome, &c.” Thus must I piece it out: +Shall Rome stand under one man’s awe? What, Rome? +My ancestors did from the streets of Rome +The Tarquin drive, when he was call’d a king. +“Speak, strike, redress!” Am I entreated +To speak and strike? O Rome, I make thee promise, +If the redress will follow, thou receivest +Thy full petition at the hand of Brutus. + + Enter Lucius. + +LUCIUS. +Sir, March is wasted fifteen days. + + [_Knock within._] + +BRUTUS. +’Tis good. Go to the gate, somebody knocks. + + [_Exit Lucius._] + +Since Cassius first did whet me against Caesar, +I have not slept. +Between the acting of a dreadful thing +And the first motion, all the interim is +Like a phantasma, or a hideous dream: +The genius and the mortal instruments +Are then in council; and the state of man, +Like to a little kingdom, suffers then +The nature of an insurrection. + + Enter Lucius. + +LUCIUS. +Sir, ’tis your brother Cassius at the door, +Who doth desire to see you. + +BRUTUS. +Is he alone? + +LUCIUS. +No, sir, there are moe with him. + +BRUTUS. +Do you know them? + +LUCIUS. +No, sir, their hats are pluck’d about their ears, +And half their faces buried in their cloaks, +That by no means I may discover them +By any mark of favour. + +BRUTUS. +Let ’em enter. + + [_Exit Lucius._] + +They are the faction. O conspiracy, +Sham’st thou to show thy dangerous brow by night, +When evils are most free? O, then, by day +Where wilt thou find a cavern dark enough +To mask thy monstrous visage? Seek none, conspiracy; +Hide it in smiles and affability: +For if thou path, thy native semblance on, +Not Erebus itself were dim enough +To hide thee from prevention. + + Enter Cassius, Casca, Decius, Cinna, Metellus Cimber and Trebonius. + +CASSIUS. +I think we are too bold upon your rest: +Good morrow, Brutus; do we trouble you? + +BRUTUS. +I have been up this hour, awake all night. +Know I these men that come along with you? + +CASSIUS. +Yes, every man of them; and no man here +But honours you; and everyone doth wish +You had but that opinion of yourself +Which every noble Roman bears of you. +This is Trebonius. + +BRUTUS. +He is welcome hither. + +CASSIUS. +This Decius Brutus. + +BRUTUS. +He is welcome too. + +CASSIUS. +This, Casca; this, Cinna; and this, Metellus Cimber. + +BRUTUS. +They are all welcome. +What watchful cares do interpose themselves +Betwixt your eyes and night? + +CASSIUS. +Shall I entreat a word? + + [_They whisper._] + +DECIUS. +Here lies the east: doth not the day break here? + +CASCA. +No. + +CINNA. +O, pardon, sir, it doth; and yon grey lines +That fret the clouds are messengers of day. + +CASCA. +You shall confess that you are both deceiv’d. +Here, as I point my sword, the Sun arises; +Which is a great way growing on the South, +Weighing the youthful season of the year. +Some two months hence, up higher toward the North +He first presents his fire; and the high East +Stands, as the Capitol, directly here. + +BRUTUS. +Give me your hands all over, one by one. + +CASSIUS. +And let us swear our resolution. + +BRUTUS. +No, not an oath. If not the face of men, +The sufferance of our souls, the time’s abuse— +If these be motives weak, break off betimes, +And every man hence to his idle bed. +So let high-sighted tyranny range on, +Till each man drop by lottery. But if these, +As I am sure they do, bear fire enough +To kindle cowards, and to steel with valour +The melting spirits of women; then, countrymen, +What need we any spur but our own cause +To prick us to redress? what other bond +Than secret Romans, that have spoke the word, +And will not palter? and what other oath +Than honesty to honesty engag’d, +That this shall be, or we will fall for it? +Swear priests and cowards, and men cautelous, +Old feeble carrions, and such suffering souls +That welcome wrongs; unto bad causes swear +Such creatures as men doubt; but do not stain +The even virtue of our enterprise, +Nor th’ insuppressive mettle of our spirits, +To think that or our cause or our performance +Did need an oath; when every drop of blood +That every Roman bears, and nobly bears, +Is guilty of a several bastardy, +If he do break the smallest particle +Of any promise that hath pass’d from him. + +CASSIUS. +But what of Cicero? Shall we sound him? +I think he will stand very strong with us. + +CASCA. +Let us not leave him out. + +CINNA. +No, by no means. + +METELLUS. +O, let us have him, for his silver hairs +Will purchase us a good opinion, +And buy men’s voices to commend our deeds. +It shall be said, his judgment rul’d our hands; +Our youths and wildness shall no whit appear, +But all be buried in his gravity. + +BRUTUS. +O, name him not; let us not break with him; +For he will never follow anything +That other men begin. + +CASSIUS. +Then leave him out. + +CASCA. +Indeed, he is not fit. + +DECIUS. +Shall no man else be touch’d but only Caesar? + +CASSIUS. +Decius, well urg’d. I think it is not meet, +Mark Antony, so well belov’d of Caesar, +Should outlive Caesar: we shall find of him +A shrewd contriver; and you know, his means, +If he improve them, may well stretch so far +As to annoy us all; which to prevent, +Let Antony and Caesar fall together. + +BRUTUS. +Our course will seem too bloody, Caius Cassius, +To cut the head off, and then hack the limbs, +Like wrath in death, and envy afterwards; +For Antony is but a limb of Caesar. +Let us be sacrificers, but not butchers, Caius. +We all stand up against the spirit of Caesar, +And in the spirit of men there is no blood. +O, that we then could come by Caesar’s spirit, +And not dismember Caesar! But, alas, +Caesar must bleed for it! And, gentle friends, +Let’s kill him boldly, but not wrathfully; +Let’s carve him as a dish fit for the gods, +Not hew him as a carcass fit for hounds. +And let our hearts, as subtle masters do, +Stir up their servants to an act of rage, +And after seem to chide ’em. This shall mark +Our purpose necessary, and not envious; +Which so appearing to the common eyes, +We shall be call’d purgers, not murderers. +And for Mark Antony, think not of him; +For he can do no more than Caesar’s arm +When Caesar’s head is off. + +CASSIUS. +Yet I fear him; +For in the ingrafted love he bears to Caesar— + +BRUTUS. +Alas, good Cassius, do not think of him: +If he love Caesar, all that he can do +Is to himself; take thought and die for Caesar. +And that were much he should; for he is given +To sports, to wildness, and much company. + +TREBONIUS. +There is no fear in him; let him not die; +For he will live, and laugh at this hereafter. + + [_Clock strikes._] + +BRUTUS. +Peace! count the clock. + +CASSIUS. +The clock hath stricken three. + +TREBONIUS. +’Tis time to part. + +CASSIUS. +But it is doubtful yet +Whether Caesar will come forth today or no; +For he is superstitious grown of late, +Quite from the main opinion he held once +Of fantasy, of dreams, and ceremonies. +It may be these apparent prodigies, +The unaccustom’d terror of this night, +And the persuasion of his augurers, +May hold him from the Capitol today. + +DECIUS. +Never fear that: if he be so resolved, +I can o’ersway him, for he loves to hear +That unicorns may be betray’d with trees, +And bears with glasses, elephants with holes, +Lions with toils, and men with flatterers. +But when I tell him he hates flatterers, +He says he does, being then most flattered. +Let me work; +For I can give his humour the true bent, +And I will bring him to the Capitol. + +CASSIUS. +Nay, we will all of us be there to fetch him. + +BRUTUS. +By the eighth hour: is that the uttermost? + +CINNA. +Be that the uttermost; and fail not then. + +METELLUS. +Caius Ligarius doth bear Caesar hard, +Who rated him for speaking well of Pompey; +I wonder none of you have thought of him. + +BRUTUS. +Now, good Metellus, go along by him: +He loves me well, and I have given him reason; +Send him but hither, and I’ll fashion him. + +CASSIUS. +The morning comes upon’s. We’ll leave you, Brutus. +And, friends, disperse yourselves; but all remember +What you have said, and show yourselves true Romans. + +BRUTUS. +Good gentlemen, look fresh and merrily; +Let not our looks put on our purposes, +But bear it as our Roman actors do, +With untired spirits and formal constancy. +And so, good morrow to you everyone. + + [_Exeunt all but Brutus._] + +Boy! Lucius! Fast asleep? It is no matter; +Enjoy the honey-heavy dew of slumber: +Thou hast no figures nor no fantasies, +Which busy care draws in the brains of men; +Therefore thou sleep’st so sound. + + Enter Portia. + +PORTIA. +Brutus, my lord. + +BRUTUS. +Portia, what mean you? Wherefore rise you now? +It is not for your health thus to commit +Your weak condition to the raw cold morning. + +PORTIA. +Nor for yours neither. Y’ have ungently, Brutus, +Stole from my bed; and yesternight at supper, +You suddenly arose, and walk’d about, +Musing and sighing, with your arms across; +And when I ask’d you what the matter was, +You star’d upon me with ungentle looks. +I urg’d you further; then you scratch’d your head, +And too impatiently stamp’d with your foot; +Yet I insisted, yet you answer’d not, +But with an angry wafture of your hand +Gave sign for me to leave you. So I did, +Fearing to strengthen that impatience +Which seem’d too much enkindled; and withal +Hoping it was but an effect of humour, +Which sometime hath his hour with every man. +It will not let you eat, nor talk, nor sleep; +And could it work so much upon your shape +As it hath much prevail’d on your condition, +I should not know you, Brutus. Dear my lord, +Make me acquainted with your cause of grief. + +BRUTUS. +I am not well in health, and that is all. + +PORTIA. +Brutus is wise, and, were he not in health, +He would embrace the means to come by it. + +BRUTUS. +Why, so I do. Good Portia, go to bed. + +PORTIA. +Is Brutus sick, and is it physical +To walk unbraced and suck up the humours +Of the dank morning? What, is Brutus sick, +And will he steal out of his wholesome bed +To dare the vile contagion of the night, +And tempt the rheumy and unpurged air +To add unto his sickness? No, my Brutus; +You have some sick offence within your mind, +Which, by the right and virtue of my place, +I ought to know of: and, upon my knees, +I charm you, by my once commended beauty, +By all your vows of love, and that great vow +Which did incorporate and make us one, +That you unfold to me, your self, your half, +Why you are heavy, and what men tonight +Have had resort to you; for here have been +Some six or seven, who did hide their faces +Even from darkness. + +BRUTUS. +Kneel not, gentle Portia. + +PORTIA. +I should not need, if you were gentle Brutus. +Within the bond of marriage, tell me, Brutus, +Is it excepted I should know no secrets +That appertain to you? Am I your self +But, as it were, in sort or limitation, +To keep with you at meals, comfort your bed, +And talk to you sometimes? Dwell I but in the suburbs +Of your good pleasure? If it be no more, +Portia is Brutus’ harlot, not his wife. + +BRUTUS. +You are my true and honourable wife, +As dear to me as are the ruddy drops +That visit my sad heart. + +PORTIA. +If this were true, then should I know this secret. +I grant I am a woman; but withal +A woman that Lord Brutus took to wife; +I grant I am a woman; but withal +A woman well reputed, Cato’s daughter. +Think you I am no stronger than my sex, +Being so father’d and so husbanded? +Tell me your counsels, I will not disclose ’em. +I have made strong proof of my constancy, +Giving myself a voluntary wound +Here, in the thigh: can I bear that with patience +And not my husband’s secrets? + +BRUTUS. +O ye gods, +Render me worthy of this noble wife! + + [_Knock._] + +Hark, hark, one knocks. Portia, go in awhile; +And by and by thy bosom shall partake +The secrets of my heart. +All my engagements I will construe to thee, +All the charactery of my sad brows. +Leave me with haste. + + [_Exit Portia._] + + Enter Lucius with Ligarius. + +Lucius, who’s that knocks? + +LUCIUS. +Here is a sick man that would speak with you. + +BRUTUS. +Caius Ligarius, that Metellus spake of. +Boy, stand aside. Caius Ligarius, how? + +LIGARIUS. +Vouchsafe good-morrow from a feeble tongue. + +BRUTUS. +O, what a time have you chose out, brave Caius, +To wear a kerchief! Would you were not sick! + +LIGARIUS. +I am not sick, if Brutus have in hand +Any exploit worthy the name of honour. + +BRUTUS. +Such an exploit have I in hand, Ligarius, +Had you a healthful ear to hear of it. + +LIGARIUS. +By all the gods that Romans bow before, +I here discard my sickness. Soul of Rome! +Brave son, derived from honourable loins! +Thou, like an exorcist, hast conjur’d up +My mortified spirit. Now bid me run, +And I will strive with things impossible, +Yea, get the better of them. What’s to do? + +BRUTUS. +A piece of work that will make sick men whole. + +LIGARIUS. +But are not some whole that we must make sick? + +BRUTUS. +That must we also. What it is, my Caius, +I shall unfold to thee, as we are going, +To whom it must be done. + +LIGARIUS. +Set on your foot, +And with a heart new-fir’d I follow you, +To do I know not what; but it sufficeth +That Brutus leads me on. + + [_Thunder._] + +BRUTUS. +Follow me then. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A room in Caesar’s palace. + + Thunder and lightning. Enter Caesar, in his nightgown. + +CAESAR. +Nor heaven nor earth have been at peace tonight: +Thrice hath Calphurnia in her sleep cried out, +“Help, ho! They murder Caesar!” Who’s within? + + Enter a Servant. + +SERVANT. +My lord? + +CAESAR. +Go bid the priests do present sacrifice, +And bring me their opinions of success. + +SERVANT. +I will, my lord. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Calphurnia. + +CALPHURNIA. +What mean you, Caesar? Think you to walk forth? +You shall not stir out of your house today. + +CAESAR. +Caesar shall forth. The things that threaten’d me +Ne’er look’d but on my back; when they shall see +The face of Caesar, they are vanished. + +CALPHURNIA. +Caesar, I never stood on ceremonies, +Yet now they fright me. There is one within, +Besides the things that we have heard and seen, +Recounts most horrid sights seen by the watch. +A lioness hath whelped in the streets, +And graves have yawn’d, and yielded up their dead; +Fierce fiery warriors fight upon the clouds +In ranks and squadrons and right form of war, +Which drizzled blood upon the Capitol; +The noise of battle hurtled in the air, +Horses did neigh, and dying men did groan, +And ghosts did shriek and squeal about the streets. +O Caesar, these things are beyond all use, +And I do fear them! + +CAESAR. +What can be avoided +Whose end is purpos’d by the mighty gods? +Yet Caesar shall go forth; for these predictions +Are to the world in general as to Caesar. + +CALPHURNIA. +When beggars die, there are no comets seen; +The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes. + +CAESAR. +Cowards die many times before their deaths; +The valiant never taste of death but once. +Of all the wonders that I yet have heard, +It seems to me most strange that men should fear, +Seeing that death, a necessary end, +Will come when it will come. + + Enter Servant. + +What say the augurers? + +SERVANT. +They would not have you to stir forth today. +Plucking the entrails of an offering forth, +They could not find a heart within the beast. + +CAESAR. +The gods do this in shame of cowardice: +Caesar should be a beast without a heart +If he should stay at home today for fear. +No, Caesar shall not. Danger knows full well +That Caesar is more dangerous than he. +We are two lions litter’d in one day, +And I the elder and more terrible, +And Caesar shall go forth. + +CALPHURNIA. +Alas, my lord, +Your wisdom is consum’d in confidence. +Do not go forth today: call it my fear +That keeps you in the house, and not your own. +We’ll send Mark Antony to the Senate-house, +And he shall say you are not well today. +Let me upon my knee prevail in this. + +CAESAR. +Mark Antony shall say I am not well, +And for thy humour, I will stay at home. + + Enter Decius. + +Here’s Decius Brutus, he shall tell them so. + +DECIUS. +Caesar, all hail! Good morrow, worthy Caesar. +I come to fetch you to the Senate-house. + +CAESAR. +And you are come in very happy time +To bear my greeting to the Senators, +And tell them that I will not come today. +Cannot, is false; and that I dare not, falser: +I will not come today. Tell them so, Decius. + +CALPHURNIA. +Say he is sick. + +CAESAR. +Shall Caesar send a lie? +Have I in conquest stretch’d mine arm so far, +To be afeard to tell grey-beards the truth? +Decius, go tell them Caesar will not come. + +DECIUS. +Most mighty Caesar, let me know some cause, +Lest I be laugh’d at when I tell them so. + +CAESAR. +The cause is in my will; I will not come. +That is enough to satisfy the Senate. +But for your private satisfaction, +Because I love you, I will let you know: +Calphurnia here, my wife, stays me at home. +She dreamt tonight she saw my statue, +Which like a fountain with an hundred spouts +Did run pure blood; and many lusty Romans +Came smiling, and did bathe their hands in it. +And these does she apply for warnings and portents +And evils imminent; and on her knee +Hath begg’d that I will stay at home today. + +DECIUS. +This dream is all amiss interpreted: +It was a vision fair and fortunate. +Your statue spouting blood in many pipes, +In which so many smiling Romans bath’d, +Signifies that from you great Rome shall suck +Reviving blood, and that great men shall press +For tinctures, stains, relics, and cognizance. +This by Calphurnia’s dream is signified. + +CAESAR. +And this way have you well expounded it. + +DECIUS. +I have, when you have heard what I can say; +And know it now. The Senate have concluded +To give this day a crown to mighty Caesar. +If you shall send them word you will not come, +Their minds may change. Besides, it were a mock +Apt to be render’d, for someone to say, +“Break up the Senate till another time, +When Caesar’s wife shall meet with better dreams.” +If Caesar hide himself, shall they not whisper +“Lo, Caesar is afraid”? +Pardon me, Caesar; for my dear dear love +To your proceeding bids me tell you this, +And reason to my love is liable. + +CAESAR. +How foolish do your fears seem now, Calphurnia! +I am ashamed I did yield to them. +Give me my robe, for I will go. + + Enter Brutus, Ligarius, Metellus, Casca, Trebonius, Cinna and Publius. + +And look where Publius is come to fetch me. + +PUBLIUS. +Good morrow, Caesar. + +CAESAR. +Welcome, Publius. +What, Brutus, are you stirr’d so early too? +Good morrow, Casca. Caius Ligarius, +Caesar was ne’er so much your enemy +As that same ague which hath made you lean. +What is’t o’clock? + +BRUTUS. +Caesar, ’tis strucken eight. + +CAESAR. +I thank you for your pains and courtesy. + + Enter Antony. + +See! Antony, that revels long a-nights, +Is notwithstanding up. Good morrow, Antony. + +ANTONY. +So to most noble Caesar. + +CAESAR. +Bid them prepare within. +I am to blame to be thus waited for. +Now, Cinna; now, Metellus; what, Trebonius! +I have an hour’s talk in store for you: +Remember that you call on me today; +Be near me, that I may remember you. + +TREBONIUS. +Caesar, I will. [_Aside._] and so near will I be, +That your best friends shall wish I had been further. + +CAESAR. +Good friends, go in, and taste some wine with me; +And we, like friends, will straightway go together. + +BRUTUS. +[_Aside._] That every like is not the same, O Caesar, +The heart of Brutus yearns to think upon. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. A street near the Capitol. + + Enter Artemidorus, reading a paper. + +ARTEMIDORUS. +_“Caesar, beware of Brutus; take heed of Cassius; come not near Casca; +have an eye to Cinna; trust not Trebonius; mark well Metellus Cimber; +Decius Brutus loves thee not; thou hast wrong’d Caius Ligarius. There +is but one mind in all these men, and it is bent against Caesar. If +thou be’st not immortal, look about you: security gives way to +conspiracy. The mighty gods defend thee! +Thy lover, Artemidorus.”_ +Here will I stand till Caesar pass along, +And as a suitor will I give him this. +My heart laments that virtue cannot live +Out of the teeth of emulation. +If thou read this, O Caesar, thou mayest live; +If not, the Fates with traitors do contrive. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Another part of the same street, before the house of Brutus. + + Enter Portia and Lucius. + +PORTIA. +I pr’ythee, boy, run to the Senate-house; +Stay not to answer me, but get thee gone. +Why dost thou stay? + +LUCIUS. +To know my errand, madam. + +PORTIA. +I would have had thee there and here again, +Ere I can tell thee what thou shouldst do there. +[_Aside._] O constancy, be strong upon my side, +Set a huge mountain ’tween my heart and tongue! +I have a man’s mind, but a woman’s might. +How hard it is for women to keep counsel! +Art thou here yet? + +LUCIUS. +Madam, what should I do? +Run to the Capitol, and nothing else? +And so return to you, and nothing else? + +PORTIA. +Yes, bring me word, boy, if thy lord look well, +For he went sickly forth: and take good note +What Caesar doth, what suitors press to him. +Hark, boy, what noise is that? + +LUCIUS. +I hear none, madam. + +PORTIA. +Pr’ythee, listen well. +I heard a bustling rumour, like a fray, +And the wind brings it from the Capitol. + +LUCIUS. +Sooth, madam, I hear nothing. + + Enter the Soothsayer. + +PORTIA. +Come hither, fellow: +Which way hast thou been? + +SOOTHSAYER. +At mine own house, good lady. + +PORTIA. +What is’t o’clock? + +SOOTHSAYER. +About the ninth hour, lady. + +PORTIA. +Is Caesar yet gone to the Capitol? + +SOOTHSAYER. +Madam, not yet. I go to take my stand, +To see him pass on to the Capitol. + +PORTIA. +Thou hast some suit to Caesar, hast thou not? + +SOOTHSAYER. +That I have, lady, if it will please Caesar +To be so good to Caesar as to hear me, +I shall beseech him to befriend himself. + +PORTIA. +Why, know’st thou any harm’s intended towards him? + +SOOTHSAYER. +None that I know will be, much that I fear may chance. +Good morrow to you. Here the street is narrow. +The throng that follows Caesar at the heels, +Of Senators, of Praetors, common suitors, +Will crowd a feeble man almost to death: +I’ll get me to a place more void, and there +Speak to great Caesar as he comes along. + + [_Exit._] + +PORTIA. +I must go in. +[_Aside._] Ay me, how weak a thing +The heart of woman is! O Brutus, +The heavens speed thee in thine enterprise! +Sure, the boy heard me. Brutus hath a suit +That Caesar will not grant. O, I grow faint. +Run, Lucius, and commend me to my lord; +Say I am merry; come to me again, +And bring me word what he doth say to thee. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Rome. Before the Capitol; the Senate sitting. + + A crowd of people in the street leading to the Capitol. Flourish. + Enter Caesar, Brutus, Cassius, Casca, Decius, Metellus, Trebonius, + Cinna, Antony, Lepidus, Artemidorus, Publius, Popilius and the + Soothsayer. + +CAESAR. +The Ides of March are come. + +SOOTHSAYER. +Ay, Caesar; but not gone. + +ARTEMIDORUS. +Hail, Caesar! Read this schedule. + +DECIUS. +Trebonius doth desire you to o’er-read, +At your best leisure, this his humble suit. + +ARTEMIDORUS. +O Caesar, read mine first; for mine’s a suit +That touches Caesar nearer. Read it, great Caesar. + +CAESAR. +What touches us ourself shall be last serv’d. + +ARTEMIDORUS. +Delay not, Caesar. Read it instantly. + +CAESAR. +What, is the fellow mad? + +PUBLIUS. +Sirrah, give place. + +CASSIUS. +What, urge you your petitions in the street? +Come to the Capitol. + +Caesar enters the Capitol, the rest following. All the Senators rise. + +POPILIUS. +I wish your enterprise today may thrive. + +CASSIUS. +What enterprise, Popilius? + +POPILIUS. +Fare you well. + + [_Advances to Caesar._] + +BRUTUS. +What said Popilius Lena? + +CASSIUS. +He wish’d today our enterprise might thrive. +I fear our purpose is discovered. + +BRUTUS. +Look how he makes to Caesar: mark him. + +CASSIUS. +Casca, be sudden, for we fear prevention. +Brutus, what shall be done? If this be known, +Cassius or Caesar never shall turn back, +For I will slay myself. + +BRUTUS. +Cassius, be constant: +Popilius Lena speaks not of our purposes; +For look, he smiles, and Caesar doth not change. + +CASSIUS. +Trebonius knows his time, for look you, Brutus, +He draws Mark Antony out of the way. + + [_Exeunt Antony and Trebonius. Caesar and the Senators take their + seats._] + +DECIUS. +Where is Metellus Cimber? Let him go, +And presently prefer his suit to Caesar. + +BRUTUS. +He is address’d; press near and second him. + +CINNA. +Casca, you are the first that rears your hand. + +CAESAR. +Are we all ready? What is now amiss +That Caesar and his Senate must redress? + +METELLUS. +Most high, most mighty, and most puissant Caesar, +Metellus Cimber throws before thy seat +An humble heart. + + [_Kneeling._] + +CAESAR. +I must prevent thee, Cimber. +These couchings and these lowly courtesies +Might fire the blood of ordinary men, +And turn pre-ordinance and first decree +Into the law of children. Be not fond, +To think that Caesar bears such rebel blood +That will be thaw’d from the true quality +With that which melteth fools; I mean sweet words, +Low-crooked curtsies, and base spaniel fawning. +Thy brother by decree is banished: +If thou dost bend, and pray, and fawn for him, +I spurn thee like a cur out of my way. +Know, Caesar dost not wrong, nor without cause +Will he be satisfied. + +METELLUS. +Is there no voice more worthy than my own, +To sound more sweetly in great Caesar’s ear +For the repealing of my banish’d brother? + +BRUTUS. +I kiss thy hand, but not in flattery, Caesar; +Desiring thee that Publius Cimber may +Have an immediate freedom of repeal. + +CAESAR. +What, Brutus? + +CASSIUS. +Pardon, Caesar; Caesar, pardon: +As low as to thy foot doth Cassius fall, +To beg enfranchisement for Publius Cimber. + +CAESAR. +I could be well mov’d, if I were as you; +If I could pray to move, prayers would move me: +But I am constant as the northern star, +Of whose true-fix’d and resting quality +There is no fellow in the firmament. +The skies are painted with unnumber’d sparks, +They are all fire, and every one doth shine; +But there’s but one in all doth hold his place. +So in the world; ’tis furnish’d well with men, +And men are flesh and blood, and apprehensive; +Yet in the number I do know but one +That unassailable holds on his rank, +Unshak’d of motion: and that I am he, +Let me a little show it, even in this, +That I was constant Cimber should be banish’d, +And constant do remain to keep him so. + +CINNA. +O Caesar,— + +CAESAR. +Hence! wilt thou lift up Olympus? + +DECIUS. +Great Caesar,— + +CAESAR. +Doth not Brutus bootless kneel? + +CASCA. +Speak, hands, for me! + + [_Casca stabs Caesar in the neck. Caesar catches hold of his arm. He + is then stabbed by several other Conspirators, and at last by Marcus + Brutus._] + +CAESAR. +_Et tu, Brute?_—Then fall, Caesar! + + [_Dies. The Senators and People retire in confusion._] + +CINNA. +Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead! +Run hence, proclaim, cry it about the streets. + +CASSIUS. +Some to the common pulpits and cry out, +“Liberty, freedom, and enfranchisement!” + +BRUTUS. +People and Senators, be not affrighted. +Fly not; stand still; ambition’s debt is paid. + +CASCA. +Go to the pulpit, Brutus. + +DECIUS. +And Cassius too. + +BRUTUS. +Where’s Publius? + +CINNA. +Here, quite confounded with this mutiny. + +METELLUS. +Stand fast together, lest some friend of Caesar’s +Should chance— + +BRUTUS. +Talk not of standing. Publius, good cheer! +There is no harm intended to your person, +Nor to no Roman else. So tell them, Publius. + +CASSIUS. +And leave us, Publius; lest that the people +Rushing on us, should do your age some mischief. + +BRUTUS. +Do so; and let no man abide this deed +But we the doers. + + Enter Trebonius. + +CASSIUS. +Where’s Antony? + +TREBONIUS. +Fled to his house amaz’d. +Men, wives, and children stare, cry out, and run, +As it were doomsday. + +BRUTUS. +Fates, we will know your pleasures. +That we shall die, we know; ’tis but the time +And drawing days out, that men stand upon. + +CASCA. +Why, he that cuts off twenty years of life +Cuts off so many years of fearing death. + +BRUTUS. +Grant that, and then is death a benefit: +So are we Caesar’s friends, that have abridg’d +His time of fearing death. Stoop, Romans, stoop, +And let us bathe our hands in Caesar’s blood +Up to the elbows, and besmear our swords: +Then walk we forth, even to the market-place, +And waving our red weapons o’er our heads, +Let’s all cry, “Peace, freedom, and liberty!” + +CASSIUS. +Stoop then, and wash. How many ages hence +Shall this our lofty scene be acted over +In States unborn, and accents yet unknown! + +BRUTUS. +How many times shall Caesar bleed in sport, +That now on Pompey’s basis lies along, +No worthier than the dust! + +CASSIUS. +So oft as that shall be, +So often shall the knot of us be call’d +The men that gave their country liberty. + +DECIUS. +What, shall we forth? + +CASSIUS. +Ay, every man away. +Brutus shall lead; and we will grace his heels +With the most boldest and best hearts of Rome. + + Enter a Servant. + +BRUTUS. +Soft, who comes here? A friend of Antony’s. + +SERVANT. +Thus, Brutus, did my master bid me kneel; +Thus did Mark Antony bid me fall down; +And, being prostrate, thus he bade me say: +Brutus is noble, wise, valiant, and honest; +Caesar was mighty, bold, royal, and loving; +Say I love Brutus and I honour him; +Say I fear’d Caesar, honour’d him, and lov’d him. +If Brutus will vouchsafe that Antony +May safely come to him, and be resolv’d +How Caesar hath deserv’d to lie in death, +Mark Antony shall not love Caesar dead +So well as Brutus living; but will follow +The fortunes and affairs of noble Brutus +Thorough the hazards of this untrod state, +With all true faith. So says my master Antony. + +BRUTUS. +Thy master is a wise and valiant Roman; +I never thought him worse. +Tell him, so please him come unto this place, +He shall be satisfied and, by my honour, +Depart untouch’d. + +SERVANT. +I’ll fetch him presently. + + [_Exit._] + +BRUTUS. +I know that we shall have him well to friend. + +CASSIUS. +I wish we may: but yet have I a mind +That fears him much; and my misgiving still +Falls shrewdly to the purpose. + + Enter Antony. + +BRUTUS. +But here comes Antony. Welcome, Mark Antony. + +ANTONY. +O mighty Caesar! Dost thou lie so low? +Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils, +Shrunk to this little measure? Fare thee well. +I know not, gentlemen, what you intend, +Who else must be let blood, who else is rank: +If I myself, there is no hour so fit +As Caesar’s death’s hour; nor no instrument +Of half that worth as those your swords, made rich +With the most noble blood of all this world. +I do beseech ye, if you bear me hard, +Now, whilst your purpled hands do reek and smoke, +Fulfill your pleasure. Live a thousand years, +I shall not find myself so apt to die. +No place will please me so, no means of death, +As here by Caesar, and by you cut off, +The choice and master spirits of this age. + +BRUTUS. +O Antony, beg not your death of us. +Though now we must appear bloody and cruel, +As by our hands and this our present act +You see we do; yet see you but our hands +And this the bleeding business they have done. +Our hearts you see not; they are pitiful; +And pity to the general wrong of Rome— +As fire drives out fire, so pity pity— +Hath done this deed on Caesar. For your part, +To you our swords have leaden points, Mark Antony; +Our arms in strength of malice, and our hearts +Of brothers’ temper, do receive you in +With all kind love, good thoughts, and reverence. + +CASSIUS. +Your voice shall be as strong as any man’s +In the disposing of new dignities. + +BRUTUS. +Only be patient till we have appeas’d +The multitude, beside themselves with fear, +And then we will deliver you the cause +Why I, that did love Caesar when I struck him, +Have thus proceeded. + +ANTONY. +I doubt not of your wisdom. +Let each man render me his bloody hand. +First, Marcus Brutus, will I shake with you; +Next, Caius Cassius, do I take your hand. +Now, Decius Brutus, yours; now yours, Metellus; +Yours, Cinna; and, my valiant Casca, yours; +Though last, not least in love, yours, good Trebonius. +Gentlemen all—alas, what shall I say? +My credit now stands on such slippery ground, +That one of two bad ways you must conceit me, +Either a coward or a flatterer. +That I did love thee, Caesar, O, ’tis true: +If then thy spirit look upon us now, +Shall it not grieve thee dearer than thy death, +To see thy Antony making his peace, +Shaking the bloody fingers of thy foes, +Most noble, in the presence of thy corse? +Had I as many eyes as thou hast wounds, +Weeping as fast as they stream forth thy blood, +It would become me better than to close +In terms of friendship with thine enemies. +Pardon me, Julius! Here wast thou bay’d, brave hart; +Here didst thou fall; and here thy hunters stand, +Sign’d in thy spoil, and crimson’d in thy lethe. +O world, thou wast the forest to this hart; +And this indeed, O world, the heart of thee. +How like a deer strucken by many princes, +Dost thou here lie! + +CASSIUS. +Mark Antony,— + +ANTONY. +Pardon me, Caius Cassius: +The enemies of Caesar shall say this; +Then, in a friend, it is cold modesty. + +CASSIUS. +I blame you not for praising Caesar so; +But what compact mean you to have with us? +Will you be prick’d in number of our friends, +Or shall we on, and not depend on you? + +ANTONY. +Therefore I took your hands; but was indeed +Sway’d from the point, by looking down on Caesar. +Friends am I with you all, and love you all, +Upon this hope, that you shall give me reasons +Why, and wherein, Caesar was dangerous. + +BRUTUS. +Or else were this a savage spectacle. +Our reasons are so full of good regard +That were you, Antony, the son of Caesar, +You should be satisfied. + +ANTONY. +That’s all I seek, +And am moreover suitor that I may +Produce his body to the market-place; +And in the pulpit, as becomes a friend, +Speak in the order of his funeral. + +BRUTUS. +You shall, Mark Antony. + +CASSIUS. +Brutus, a word with you. +[_Aside to Brutus._] You know not what you do. Do not consent +That Antony speak in his funeral. +Know you how much the people may be mov’d +By that which he will utter? + +BRUTUS. +[_Aside to Cassius._] By your pardon: +I will myself into the pulpit first, +And show the reason of our Caesar’s death. +What Antony shall speak, I will protest +He speaks by leave and by permission; +And that we are contented Caesar shall +Have all true rights and lawful ceremonies. +It shall advantage more than do us wrong. + +CASSIUS. +[_Aside to Brutus._] I know not what may fall; I like it not. + +BRUTUS. +Mark Antony, here, take you Caesar’s body. +You shall not in your funeral speech blame us, +But speak all good you can devise of Caesar, +And say you do’t by our permission; +Else shall you not have any hand at all +About his funeral. And you shall speak +In the same pulpit whereto I am going, +After my speech is ended. + +ANTONY. +Be it so; +I do desire no more. + +BRUTUS. +Prepare the body, then, and follow us. + + [_Exeunt all but Antony._] + +ANTONY. +O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, +That I am meek and gentle with these butchers. +Thou art the ruins of the noblest man +That ever lived in the tide of times. +Woe to the hand that shed this costly blood! +Over thy wounds now do I prophesy, +Which, like dumb mouths do ope their ruby lips +To beg the voice and utterance of my tongue, +A curse shall light upon the limbs of men; +Domestic fury and fierce civil strife +Shall cumber all the parts of Italy; +Blood and destruction shall be so in use, +And dreadful objects so familiar, +That mothers shall but smile when they behold +Their infants quartered with the hands of war; +All pity chok’d with custom of fell deeds: +And Caesar’s spirit, ranging for revenge, +With Ate by his side come hot from Hell, +Shall in these confines with a monarch’s voice +Cry havoc and let slip the dogs of war, +That this foul deed shall smell above the earth +With carrion men, groaning for burial. + + Enter a Servant. + +You serve Octavius Caesar, do you not? + +SERVANT. +I do, Mark Antony. + +ANTONY. +Caesar did write for him to come to Rome. + +SERVANT. +He did receive his letters, and is coming, +And bid me say to you by word of mouth,— +[_Seeing the body._] O Caesar! + +ANTONY. +Thy heart is big, get thee apart and weep. +Passion, I see, is catching; for mine eyes, +Seeing those beads of sorrow stand in thine, +Began to water. Is thy master coming? + +SERVANT. +He lies tonight within seven leagues of Rome. + +ANTONY. +Post back with speed, and tell him what hath chanc’d. +Here is a mourning Rome, a dangerous Rome, +No Rome of safety for Octavius yet. +Hie hence, and tell him so. Yet stay awhile; +Thou shalt not back till I have borne this corse +Into the market-place: there shall I try, +In my oration, how the people take +The cruel issue of these bloody men; +According to the which thou shalt discourse +To young Octavius of the state of things. +Lend me your hand. + + [_Exeunt with Caesar’s body._] + +SCENE II. The same. The Forum. + + Enter Brutus and goes into the pulpit, and Cassius, with a throng of + Citizens. + +CITIZENS. +We will be satisfied; let us be satisfied. + +BRUTUS. +Then follow me, and give me audience, friends. +Cassius, go you into the other street +And part the numbers. +Those that will hear me speak, let ’em stay here; +Those that will follow Cassius, go with him; +And public reasons shall be rendered +Of Caesar’s death. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +I will hear Brutus speak. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +I will hear Cassius; and compare their reasons, +When severally we hear them rendered. + + [_Exit Cassius, with some of the Citizens. Brutus goes into the + rostrum._] + +THIRD CITIZEN. +The noble Brutus is ascended: silence! + +BRUTUS. +Be patient till the last. +Romans, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause; and be silent, +that you may hear. Believe me for mine honour, and have respect to mine +honour, that you may believe. Censure me in your wisdom, and awake your +senses, that you may the better judge. If there be any in this +assembly, any dear friend of Caesar’s, to him I say that Brutus’ love +to Caesar was no less than his. If then that friend demand why Brutus +rose against Caesar, this is my answer: Not that I loved Caesar less, +but that I loved Rome more. Had you rather Caesar were living, and die +all slaves, than that Caesar were dead, to live all free men? As Caesar +loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he +was valiant, I honour him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. There +is tears, for his love; joy for his fortune; honour for his valour; and +death, for his ambition. Who is here so base, that would be a bondman? +If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so rude, that would +not be a Roman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so +vile, that will not love his country? If any, speak; for him have I +offended. I pause for a reply. + +CITIZENS. +None, Brutus, none. + +BRUTUS. +Then none have I offended. I have done no more to Caesar than you shall +do to Brutus. The question of his death is enroll’d in the Capitol, his +glory not extenuated, wherein he was worthy; nor his offences enforc’d, +for which he suffered death. + + Enter Antony and others, with Caesar’s body. + +Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony, who, though he had no hand +in his death, shall receive the benefit of his dying, a place in the +commonwealth; as which of you shall not? With this I depart, that, as I +slew my best lover for the good of Rome, I have the same dagger for +myself, when it shall please my country to need my death. + +CITIZENS. +Live, Brutus! live, live! + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Bring him with triumph home unto his house. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Give him a statue with his ancestors. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Let him be Caesar. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Caesar’s better parts +Shall be crown’d in Brutus. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +We’ll bring him to his house with shouts and clamours. + +BRUTUS. +My countrymen,— + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Peace! Silence! Brutus speaks. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Peace, ho! + +BRUTUS. +Good countrymen, let me depart alone, +And, for my sake, stay here with Antony. +Do grace to Caesar’s corpse, and grace his speech +Tending to Caesar’s glories, which Mark Antony, +By our permission, is allow’d to make. +I do entreat you, not a man depart, +Save I alone, till Antony have spoke. + + [_Exit._] + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Stay, ho! and let us hear Mark Antony. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Let him go up into the public chair. +We’ll hear him. Noble Antony, go up. + +ANTONY. +For Brutus’ sake, I am beholding to you. + + [_Goes up._] + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +What does he say of Brutus? + +THIRD CITIZEN. +He says, for Brutus’ sake +He finds himself beholding to us all. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +’Twere best he speak no harm of Brutus here! + +FIRST CITIZEN. +This Caesar was a tyrant. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Nay, that’s certain. +We are blest that Rome is rid of him. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Peace! let us hear what Antony can say. + +ANTONY. +You gentle Romans,— + +CITIZENS. +Peace, ho! let us hear him. + +ANTONY. +Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; +I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. +The evil that men do lives after them, +The good is oft interred with their bones; +So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus +Hath told you Caesar was ambitious. +If it were so, it was a grievous fault, +And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it. +Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest, +For Brutus is an honourable man, +So are they all, all honourable men, +Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral. +He was my friend, faithful and just to me; +But Brutus says he was ambitious, +And Brutus is an honourable man. +He hath brought many captives home to Rome, +Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill: +Did this in Caesar seem ambitious? +When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept; +Ambition should be made of sterner stuff: +Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; +And Brutus is an honourable man. +You all did see that on the Lupercal +I thrice presented him a kingly crown, +Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? +Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; +And sure he is an honourable man. +I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, +But here I am to speak what I do know. +You all did love him once, not without cause; +What cause withholds you then to mourn for him? +O judgment, thou art fled to brutish beasts, +And men have lost their reason. Bear with me. +My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, +And I must pause till it come back to me. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Methinks there is much reason in his sayings. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +If thou consider rightly of the matter, +Caesar has had great wrong. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Has he, masters? +I fear there will a worse come in his place. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Mark’d ye his words? He would not take the crown; +Therefore ’tis certain he was not ambitious. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +If it be found so, some will dear abide it. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Poor soul, his eyes are red as fire with weeping. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +There’s not a nobler man in Rome than Antony. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Now mark him; he begins again to speak. + +ANTONY. +But yesterday the word of Caesar might +Have stood against the world; now lies he there, +And none so poor to do him reverence. +O masters! If I were dispos’d to stir +Your hearts and minds to mutiny and rage, +I should do Brutus wrong and Cassius wrong, +Who, you all know, are honourable men. +I will not do them wrong; I rather choose +To wrong the dead, to wrong myself and you, +Than I will wrong such honourable men. +But here’s a parchment with the seal of Caesar, +I found it in his closet; ’tis his will: +Let but the commons hear this testament, +Which, pardon me, I do not mean to read, +And they would go and kiss dead Caesar’s wounds, +And dip their napkins in his sacred blood; +Yea, beg a hair of him for memory, +And, dying, mention it within their wills, +Bequeathing it as a rich legacy +Unto their issue. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +We’ll hear the will. Read it, Mark Antony. + +CITIZENS. +The will, the will! We will hear Caesar’s will. + +ANTONY. +Have patience, gentle friends, I must not read it. +It is not meet you know how Caesar loved you. +You are not wood, you are not stones, but men; +And being men, hearing the will of Caesar, +It will inflame you, it will make you mad. +’Tis good you know not that you are his heirs; +For if you should, O, what would come of it? + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Read the will! We’ll hear it, Antony; +You shall read us the will, Caesar’s will! + +ANTONY. +Will you be patient? Will you stay awhile? +I have o’ershot myself to tell you of it. +I fear I wrong the honourable men +Whose daggers have stabb’d Caesar; I do fear it. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +They were traitors. Honourable men! + +CITIZENS. +The will! The testament! + +SECOND CITIZEN. +They were villains, murderers. The will! Read the will! + +ANTONY. +You will compel me then to read the will? +Then make a ring about the corpse of Caesar, +And let me show you him that made the will. +Shall I descend? and will you give me leave? + +CITIZENS. +Come down. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Descend. + + [_He comes down._] + +THIRD CITIZEN. +You shall have leave. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +A ring! Stand round. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Stand from the hearse, stand from the body. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Room for Antony, most noble Antony! + +ANTONY. +Nay, press not so upon me; stand far off. + +CITIZENS. +Stand back; room! bear back. + +ANTONY. +If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. +You all do know this mantle. I remember +The first time ever Caesar put it on; +’Twas on a Summer’s evening, in his tent, +That day he overcame the Nervii. +Look, in this place ran Cassius’ dagger through: +See what a rent the envious Casca made: +Through this the well-beloved Brutus stabb’d; +And as he pluck’d his cursed steel away, +Mark how the blood of Caesar follow’d it, +As rushing out of doors, to be resolv’d +If Brutus so unkindly knock’d, or no; +For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar’s angel. +Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar lov’d him. +This was the most unkindest cut of all; +For when the noble Caesar saw him stab, +Ingratitude, more strong than traitors’ arms, +Quite vanquish’d him: then burst his mighty heart; +And in his mantle muffling up his face, +Even at the base of Pompey’s statue +Which all the while ran blood, great Caesar fell. +O, what a fall was there, my countrymen! +Then I, and you, and all of us fell down, +Whilst bloody treason flourish’d over us. +O, now you weep; and I perceive you feel +The dint of pity. These are gracious drops. +Kind souls, what weep you when you but behold +Our Caesar’s vesture wounded? Look you here, +Here is himself, marr’d, as you see, with traitors. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +O piteous spectacle! + +SECOND CITIZEN. +O noble Caesar! + +THIRD CITIZEN. +O woeful day! + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +O traitors, villains! + +FIRST CITIZEN. +O most bloody sight! + +SECOND CITIZEN. +We will be revenged. + +CITIZENS. +Revenge,—about,—seek,—burn,—fire,—kill,—slay,—let not a traitor live! + +ANTONY. +Stay, countrymen. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Peace there! Hear the noble Antony. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +We’ll hear him, we’ll follow him, we’ll die with him. + +ANTONY. +Good friends, sweet friends, let me not stir you up +To such a sudden flood of mutiny. +They that have done this deed are honourable. +What private griefs they have, alas, I know not, +That made them do it. They’re wise and honourable, +And will, no doubt, with reasons answer you. +I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts. +I am no orator, as Brutus is; +But, as you know me all, a plain blunt man, +That love my friend; and that they know full well +That gave me public leave to speak of him. +For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth, +Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech, +To stir men’s blood. I only speak right on. +I tell you that which you yourselves do know, +Show you sweet Caesar’s wounds, poor poor dumb mouths, +And bid them speak for me. But were I Brutus, +And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony +Would ruffle up your spirits, and put a tongue +In every wound of Caesar, that should move +The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny. + +CITIZENS. +We’ll mutiny. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +We’ll burn the house of Brutus. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Away, then! come, seek the conspirators. + +ANTONY. +Yet hear me, countrymen; yet hear me speak. + +CITIZENS. +Peace, ho! Hear Antony; most noble Antony. + +ANTONY. +Why, friends, you go to do you know not what. +Wherein hath Caesar thus deserved your loves? +Alas, you know not; I must tell you then. +You have forgot the will I told you of. + +CITIZENS. +Most true; the will!—let’s stay, and hear the will. + +ANTONY. +Here is the will, and under Caesar’s seal. +To every Roman citizen he gives, +To every several man, seventy-five drachmas. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Most noble Caesar! We’ll revenge his death. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +O, royal Caesar! + +ANTONY. +Hear me with patience. + +CITIZENS. +Peace, ho! + +ANTONY. +Moreover, he hath left you all his walks, +His private arbors, and new-planted orchards, +On this side Tiber; he hath left them you, +And to your heirs forever; common pleasures, +To walk abroad, and recreate yourselves. +Here was a Caesar! when comes such another? + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Never, never. Come, away, away! +We’ll burn his body in the holy place, +And with the brands fire the traitors’ houses. +Take up the body. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Go, fetch fire. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Pluck down benches. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Pluck down forms, windows, anything. + + [_Exeunt Citizens, with the body._] + +ANTONY. +Now let it work. Mischief, thou art afoot, +Take thou what course thou wilt! + + Enter a Servant. + +How now, fellow? + +SERVANT. +Sir, Octavius is already come to Rome. + +ANTONY. +Where is he? + +SERVANT. +He and Lepidus are at Caesar’s house. + +ANTONY. +And thither will I straight to visit him. +He comes upon a wish. Fortune is merry, +And in this mood will give us anything. + +SERVANT. +I heard him say Brutus and Cassius +Are rid like madmen through the gates of Rome. + +ANTONY. +Belike they had some notice of the people, +How I had moved them. Bring me to Octavius. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. A street. + + Enter Cinna, the poet, and after him the citizens. + +CINNA. +I dreamt tonight that I did feast with Caesar, +And things unluckily charge my fantasy. +I have no will to wander forth of doors, +Yet something leads me forth. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +What is your name? + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Whither are you going? + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Where do you dwell? + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Are you a married man or a bachelor? + +SECOND CITIZEN. +Answer every man directly. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Ay, and briefly. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Ay, and wisely. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Ay, and truly, you were best. + +CINNA. +What is my name? Whither am I going? Where do I dwell? Am I a married +man or a bachelor? Then, to answer every man directly and briefly, +wisely and truly. Wisely I say I am a bachelor. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +That’s as much as to say they are fools that marry; you’ll bear me a +bang for that, I fear. Proceed, directly. + +CINNA. +Directly, I am going to Caesar’s funeral. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +As a friend, or an enemy? + +CINNA. +As a friend. + +SECOND CITIZEN. +That matter is answered directly. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +For your dwelling, briefly. + +CINNA. +Briefly, I dwell by the Capitol. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Your name, sir, truly. + +CINNA. +Truly, my name is Cinna. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Tear him to pieces! He’s a conspirator. + +CINNA. +I am Cinna the poet, I am Cinna the poet. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +Tear him for his bad verses, tear him for his bad verses. + +CINNA. +I am not Cinna the conspirator. + +FOURTH CITIZEN. +It is no matter, his name’s Cinna; pluck but his name out of his heart, +and turn him going. + +THIRD CITIZEN. +Tear him, tear him! Come; brands, ho! firebrands. To Brutus’, to +Cassius’; burn all. Some to Decius’ house, and some to Casca’s, some to +Ligarius’. Away, go! + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. Rome. A room in Antony’s house. + + Enter Antony, Octavius and Lepidus, seated at a table. + +ANTONY. +These many then shall die; their names are prick’d. + +OCTAVIUS. +Your brother too must die; consent you, Lepidus? + +LEPIDUS. +I do consent,— + +OCTAVIUS. +Prick him down, Antony. + +LEPIDUS. +Upon condition Publius shall not live, +Who is your sister’s son, Mark Antony. + +ANTONY. +He shall not live; look, with a spot I damn him. +But, Lepidus, go you to Caesar’s house; +Fetch the will hither, and we shall determine +How to cut off some charge in legacies. + +LEPIDUS. +What, shall I find you here? + +OCTAVIUS. +Or here, or at the Capitol. + + [_Exit Lepidus._] + +ANTONY. +This is a slight unmeritable man, +Meet to be sent on errands. Is it fit, +The three-fold world divided, he should stand +One of the three to share it? + +OCTAVIUS. +So you thought him, +And took his voice who should be prick’d to die +In our black sentence and proscription. + +ANTONY. +Octavius, I have seen more days than you; +And though we lay these honours on this man, +To ease ourselves of divers sland’rous loads, +He shall but bear them as the ass bears gold, +To groan and sweat under the business, +Either led or driven, as we point the way; +And having brought our treasure where we will, +Then take we down his load, and turn him off, +Like to the empty ass, to shake his ears, +And graze in commons. + +OCTAVIUS. +You may do your will; +But he’s a tried and valiant soldier. + +ANTONY. +So is my horse, Octavius; and for that +I do appoint him store of provender. +It is a creature that I teach to fight, +To wind, to stop, to run directly on, +His corporal motion govern’d by my spirit. +And, in some taste, is Lepidus but so: +He must be taught, and train’d, and bid go forth: +A barren-spirited fellow; one that feeds +On objects, arts, and imitations, +Which, out of use and stal’d by other men, +Begin his fashion. Do not talk of him +But as a property. And now, Octavius, +Listen great things. Brutus and Cassius +Are levying powers; we must straight make head. +Therefore let our alliance be combin’d, +Our best friends made, our means stretch’d; +And let us presently go sit in council, +How covert matters may be best disclos’d, +And open perils surest answered. + +OCTAVIUS. +Let us do so: for we are at the stake, +And bay’d about with many enemies; +And some that smile have in their hearts, I fear, +Millions of mischiefs. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Before Brutus’ tent, in the camp near Sardis. + + Drum. Enter Brutus, Lucilius, Titinius and Soldiers; Pindarus meeting + them; Lucius at some distance. + +BRUTUS. +Stand, ho! + +LUCILIUS. +Give the word, ho! and stand. + +BRUTUS. +What now, Lucilius! is Cassius near? + +LUCILIUS. +He is at hand, and Pindarus is come +To do you salutation from his master. + + [_Pindarus gives a letter to Brutus._] + +BRUTUS. +He greets me well. Your master, Pindarus, +In his own change, or by ill officers, +Hath given me some worthy cause to wish +Things done, undone: but, if he be at hand, +I shall be satisfied. + +PINDARUS. +I do not doubt +But that my noble master will appear +Such as he is, full of regard and honour. + +BRUTUS. +He is not doubted. A word, Lucilius; +How he received you, let me be resolv’d. + +LUCILIUS. +With courtesy and with respect enough, +But not with such familiar instances, +Nor with such free and friendly conference, +As he hath us’d of old. + +BRUTUS. +Thou hast describ’d +A hot friend cooling. Ever note, Lucilius, +When love begins to sicken and decay +It useth an enforced ceremony. +There are no tricks in plain and simple faith; +But hollow men, like horses hot at hand, +Make gallant show and promise of their mettle; + + [_Low march within._] + +But when they should endure the bloody spur, +They fall their crests, and like deceitful jades +Sink in the trial. Comes his army on? + +LUCILIUS. +They meant this night in Sardis to be quarter’d; +The greater part, the horse in general, +Are come with Cassius. + + Enter Cassius and Soldiers. + +BRUTUS. +Hark! he is arriv’d. +March gently on to meet him. + +CASSIUS. +Stand, ho! + +BRUTUS. +Stand, ho! Speak the word along. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Stand! + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Stand! + +THIRD SOLDIER. +Stand! + +CASSIUS. +Most noble brother, you have done me wrong. + +BRUTUS. +Judge me, you gods; wrong I mine enemies? +And if not so, how should I wrong a brother? + +CASSIUS. +Brutus, this sober form of yours hides wrongs; +And when you do them— + +BRUTUS. +Cassius, be content. +Speak your griefs softly, I do know you well. +Before the eyes of both our armies here, +Which should perceive nothing but love from us, +Let us not wrangle. Bid them move away; +Then in my tent, Cassius, enlarge your griefs, +And I will give you audience. + +CASSIUS. +Pindarus, +Bid our commanders lead their charges off +A little from this ground. + +BRUTUS. +Lucilius, do you the like; and let no man +Come to our tent till we have done our conference. +Lucius and Titinius, guard our door. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Within the tent of Brutus. + + Enter Brutus and Cassius. + +CASSIUS. +That you have wrong’d me doth appear in this: +You have condemn’d and noted Lucius Pella +For taking bribes here of the Sardians; +Wherein my letters, praying on his side +Because I knew the man, were slighted off. + +BRUTUS. +You wrong’d yourself to write in such a case. + +CASSIUS. +In such a time as this it is not meet +That every nice offence should bear his comment. + +BRUTUS. +Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself +Are much condemn’d to have an itching palm, +To sell and mart your offices for gold +To undeservers. + +CASSIUS. +I an itching palm! +You know that you are Brutus that speak this, +Or, by the gods, this speech were else your last. + +BRUTUS. +The name of Cassius honours this corruption, +And chastisement doth therefore hide his head. + +CASSIUS. +Chastisement! + +BRUTUS. +Remember March, the Ides of March remember: +Did not great Julius bleed for justice’ sake? +What villain touch’d his body, that did stab, +And not for justice? What! Shall one of us, +That struck the foremost man of all this world +But for supporting robbers, shall we now +Contaminate our fingers with base bribes, +And sell the mighty space of our large honours +For so much trash as may be grasped thus? +I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, +Than such a Roman. + +CASSIUS. +Brutus, bait not me, +I’ll not endure it. You forget yourself, +To hedge me in. I am a soldier, I, +Older in practice, abler than yourself +To make conditions. + +BRUTUS. +Go to; you are not, Cassius. + +CASSIUS. +I am. + +BRUTUS. +I say you are not. + +CASSIUS. +Urge me no more, I shall forget myself; +Have mind upon your health, tempt me no farther. + +BRUTUS. +Away, slight man! + +CASSIUS. +Is’t possible? + +BRUTUS. +Hear me, for I will speak. +Must I give way and room to your rash choler? +Shall I be frighted when a madman stares? + +CASSIUS. +O ye gods, ye gods! Must I endure all this? + +BRUTUS. +All this? ay, more: fret till your proud heart break; +Go show your slaves how choleric you are, +And make your bondmen tremble. Must I budge? +Must I observe you? Must I stand and crouch +Under your testy humour? By the gods, +You shall digest the venom of your spleen, +Though it do split you; for, from this day forth, +I’ll use you for my mirth, yea, for my laughter, +When you are waspish. + +CASSIUS. +Is it come to this? + +BRUTUS. +You say you are a better soldier: +Let it appear so; make your vaunting true, +And it shall please me well. For mine own part, +I shall be glad to learn of noble men. + +CASSIUS. +You wrong me every way, you wrong me, Brutus. +I said, an elder soldier, not a better: +Did I say better? + +BRUTUS. +If you did, I care not. + +CASSIUS. +When Caesar liv’d, he durst not thus have mov’d me. + +BRUTUS. +Peace, peace! you durst not so have tempted him. + +CASSIUS. +I durst not? + +BRUTUS. +No. + +CASSIUS. +What? durst not tempt him? + +BRUTUS. +For your life you durst not. + +CASSIUS. +Do not presume too much upon my love. +I may do that I shall be sorry for. + +BRUTUS. +You have done that you should be sorry for. +There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats, +For I am arm’d so strong in honesty, +That they pass by me as the idle wind, +Which I respect not. I did send to you +For certain sums of gold, which you denied me; +For I can raise no money by vile means: +By Heaven, I had rather coin my heart, +And drop my blood for drachmas, than to wring +From the hard hands of peasants their vile trash +By any indirection. I did send +To you for gold to pay my legions, +Which you denied me: was that done like Cassius? +Should I have answer’d Caius Cassius so? +When Marcus Brutus grows so covetous, +To lock such rascal counters from his friends, +Be ready, gods, with all your thunderbolts, +Dash him to pieces! + +CASSIUS. +I denied you not. + +BRUTUS. +You did. + +CASSIUS. +I did not. He was but a fool +That brought my answer back. Brutus hath riv’d my heart. +A friend should bear his friend’s infirmities; +But Brutus makes mine greater than they are. + +BRUTUS. +I do not, till you practise them on me. + +CASSIUS. +You love me not. + +BRUTUS. +I do not like your faults. + +CASSIUS. +A friendly eye could never see such faults. + +BRUTUS. +A flatterer’s would not, though they do appear +As huge as high Olympus. + +CASSIUS. +Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come, +Revenge yourselves alone on Cassius, +For Cassius is a-weary of the world: +Hated by one he loves; brav’d by his brother; +Check’d like a bondman; all his faults observ’d, +Set in a note-book, learn’d and conn’d by rote, +To cast into my teeth. O, I could weep +My spirit from mine eyes! There is my dagger, +And here my naked breast; within, a heart +Dearer than Plutus’ mine, richer than gold: +If that thou be’st a Roman, take it forth. +I, that denied thee gold, will give my heart: +Strike as thou didst at Caesar; for I know, +When thou didst hate him worst, thou lovedst him better +Than ever thou lovedst Cassius. + +BRUTUS. +Sheathe your dagger. +Be angry when you will, it shall have scope; +Do what you will, dishonour shall be humour. +O Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb +That carries anger as the flint bears fire, +Who, much enforced, shows a hasty spark, +And straight is cold again. + +CASSIUS. +Hath Cassius liv’d +To be but mirth and laughter to his Brutus, +When grief and blood ill-temper’d vexeth him? + +BRUTUS. +When I spoke that, I was ill-temper’d too. + +CASSIUS. +Do you confess so much? Give me your hand. + +BRUTUS. +And my heart too. + +CASSIUS. +O Brutus! + +BRUTUS. +What’s the matter? + +CASSIUS. +Have not you love enough to bear with me, +When that rash humour which my mother gave me +Makes me forgetful? + +BRUTUS. +Yes, Cassius; and from henceforth, +When you are over-earnest with your Brutus, +He’ll think your mother chides, and leave you so. + + Enter Poet, followed by Lucilius, Titinius and Lucius. + +POET. +[_Within._] Let me go in to see the generals, +There is some grudge between ’em; ’tis not meet +They be alone. + +LUCILIUS. +[_Within._] You shall not come to them. + +POET. +[_Within._] Nothing but death shall stay me. + +CASSIUS. +How now! What’s the matter? + +POET. +For shame, you generals! What do you mean? +Love, and be friends, as two such men should be; +For I have seen more years, I’m sure, than ye. + +CASSIUS. +Ha, ha! How vilely doth this cynic rhyme! + +BRUTUS. +Get you hence, sirrah. Saucy fellow, hence! + +CASSIUS. +Bear with him, Brutus; ’tis his fashion. + +BRUTUS. +I’ll know his humour when he knows his time. +What should the wars do with these jigging fools? +Companion, hence! + +CASSIUS. +Away, away, be gone! + + [_Exit Poet._] + +BRUTUS. +Lucilius and Titinius, bid the commanders +Prepare to lodge their companies tonight. + +CASSIUS. +And come yourselves and bring Messala with you +Immediately to us. + + [_Exeunt Lucilius and Titinius._] + +BRUTUS. +Lucius, a bowl of wine. + + [_Exit Lucius._] + +CASSIUS. +I did not think you could have been so angry. + +BRUTUS. +O Cassius, I am sick of many griefs. + +CASSIUS. +Of your philosophy you make no use, +If you give place to accidental evils. + +BRUTUS. +No man bears sorrow better. Portia is dead. + +CASSIUS. +Ha? Portia? + +BRUTUS. +She is dead. + +CASSIUS. +How ’scap’d I killing, when I cross’d you so? +O insupportable and touching loss! +Upon what sickness? + +BRUTUS. +Impatient of my absence, +And grief that young Octavius with Mark Antony +Have made themselves so strong; for with her death +That tidings came. With this she fell distract, +And, her attendants absent, swallow’d fire. + +CASSIUS. +And died so? + +BRUTUS. +Even so. + +CASSIUS. +O ye immortal gods! + + Enter Lucius, with wine and a taper. + +BRUTUS. +Speak no more of her. Give me a bowl of wine. +In this I bury all unkindness, Cassius. + + [_Drinks._] + +CASSIUS. +My heart is thirsty for that noble pledge. +Fill, Lucius, till the wine o’erswell the cup. +I cannot drink too much of Brutus’ love. + + [_Drinks._] + + [_Exit Lucius._] + + Enter Titinius and Messala. + +BRUTUS. +Come in, Titinius! +Welcome, good Messala. +Now sit we close about this taper here, +And call in question our necessities. + +CASSIUS. +Portia, art thou gone? + +BRUTUS. +No more, I pray you. +Messala, I have here received letters, +That young Octavius and Mark Antony +Come down upon us with a mighty power, +Bending their expedition toward Philippi. + +MESSALA. +Myself have letters of the selfsame tenor. + +BRUTUS. +With what addition? + +MESSALA. +That by proscription and bills of outlawry +Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus +Have put to death an hundred Senators. + +BRUTUS. +Therein our letters do not well agree. +Mine speak of seventy Senators that died +By their proscriptions, Cicero being one. + +CASSIUS. +Cicero one! + +MESSALA. +Cicero is dead, +And by that order of proscription. +Had you your letters from your wife, my lord? + +BRUTUS. +No, Messala. + +MESSALA. +Nor nothing in your letters writ of her? + +BRUTUS. +Nothing, Messala. + +MESSALA. +That, methinks, is strange. + +BRUTUS. +Why ask you? Hear you aught of her in yours? + +MESSALA. +No, my lord. + +BRUTUS. +Now as you are a Roman, tell me true. + +MESSALA. +Then like a Roman bear the truth I tell, +For certain she is dead, and by strange manner. + +BRUTUS. +Why, farewell, Portia. We must die, Messala. +With meditating that she must die once, +I have the patience to endure it now. + +MESSALA. +Even so great men great losses should endure. + +CASSIUS. +I have as much of this in art as you, +But yet my nature could not bear it so. + +BRUTUS. +Well, to our work alive. What do you think +Of marching to Philippi presently? + +CASSIUS. +I do not think it good. + +BRUTUS. +Your reason? + +CASSIUS. +This it is: +’Tis better that the enemy seek us; +So shall he waste his means, weary his soldiers, +Doing himself offence, whilst we, lying still, +Are full of rest, defence, and nimbleness. + +BRUTUS. +Good reasons must of force give place to better. +The people ’twixt Philippi and this ground +Do stand but in a forced affection; +For they have grudg’d us contribution. +The enemy, marching along by them, +By them shall make a fuller number up, +Come on refresh’d, new-added, and encourag’d; +From which advantage shall we cut him off +If at Philippi we do face him there, +These people at our back. + +CASSIUS. +Hear me, good brother. + +BRUTUS. +Under your pardon. You must note besides, +That we have tried the utmost of our friends, +Our legions are brim-full, our cause is ripe. +The enemy increaseth every day; +We, at the height, are ready to decline. +There is a tide in the affairs of men, +Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; +Omitted, all the voyage of their life +Is bound in shallows and in miseries. +On such a full sea are we now afloat, +And we must take the current when it serves, +Or lose our ventures. + +CASSIUS. +Then, with your will, go on: +We’ll along ourselves, and meet them at Philippi. + +BRUTUS. +The deep of night is crept upon our talk, +And nature must obey necessity, +Which we will niggard with a little rest. +There is no more to say? + +CASSIUS. +No more. Good night: +Early tomorrow will we rise, and hence. + + Enter Lucius. + +BRUTUS. +Lucius! My gown. + + [_Exit Lucius._] + +Farewell now, good Messala. +Good night, Titinius. Noble, noble Cassius, +Good night, and good repose. + +CASSIUS. +O my dear brother! +This was an ill beginning of the night. +Never come such division ’tween our souls! +Let it not, Brutus. + + Enter Lucius with the gown. + +BRUTUS. +Everything is well. + +CASSIUS. +Good night, my lord. + +BRUTUS. +Good night, good brother. + +TITINIUS and MESSALA. +Good night, Lord Brutus. + +BRUTUS. +Farewell, everyone. + + [_Exeunt Cassius, Titinius and Messala._] + +Give me the gown. Where is thy instrument? + +LUCIUS. +Here in the tent. + +BRUTUS. +What, thou speak’st drowsily? +Poor knave, I blame thee not, thou art o’er-watch’d. +Call Claudius and some other of my men; +I’ll have them sleep on cushions in my tent. + +LUCIUS. +Varro and Claudius! + + Enter Varro and Claudius. + +VARRO. +Calls my lord? + +BRUTUS. +I pray you, sirs, lie in my tent and sleep; +It may be I shall raise you by-and-by +On business to my brother Cassius. + +VARRO. +So please you, we will stand and watch your pleasure. + +BRUTUS. +I will not have it so; lie down, good sirs, +It may be I shall otherwise bethink me. +Look, Lucius, here’s the book I sought for so; +I put it in the pocket of my gown. + + [_Servants lie down._] + +LUCIUS. +I was sure your lordship did not give it me. + +BRUTUS. +Bear with me, good boy, I am much forgetful. +Canst thou hold up thy heavy eyes awhile, +And touch thy instrument a strain or two? + +LUCIUS. +Ay, my lord, an’t please you. + +BRUTUS. +It does, my boy. +I trouble thee too much, but thou art willing. + +LUCIUS. +It is my duty, sir. + +BRUTUS. +I should not urge thy duty past thy might; +I know young bloods look for a time of rest. + +LUCIUS. +I have slept, my lord, already. + +BRUTUS. +It was well done, and thou shalt sleep again; +I will not hold thee long. If I do live, +I will be good to thee. + + [_Lucius plays and sings till he falls asleep._] + +This is a sleepy tune. O murd’rous slumber, +Layest thou thy leaden mace upon my boy, +That plays thee music? Gentle knave, good night; +I will not do thee so much wrong to wake thee. +If thou dost nod, thou break’st thy instrument; +I’ll take it from thee; and, good boy, good night. +Let me see, let me see; is not the leaf turn’d down +Where I left reading? Here it is, I think. + + Enter the Ghost of Caesar. + +How ill this taper burns! Ha! who comes here? +I think it is the weakness of mine eyes +That shapes this monstrous apparition. +It comes upon me. Art thou anything? +Art thou some god, some angel, or some devil, +That mak’st my blood cold and my hair to stare? +Speak to me what thou art. + +GHOST. +Thy evil spirit, Brutus. + +BRUTUS. +Why com’st thou? + +GHOST. +To tell thee thou shalt see me at Philippi. + +BRUTUS. +Well; then I shall see thee again? + +GHOST. +Ay, at Philippi. + +BRUTUS. +Why, I will see thee at Philippi then. + + [_Ghost vanishes._] + +Now I have taken heart, thou vanishest. +Ill spirit, I would hold more talk with thee. +Boy! Lucius! Varro! Claudius! Sirs, awake! Claudius! + +LUCIUS. +The strings, my lord, are false. + +BRUTUS. +He thinks he still is at his instrument. +Lucius, awake! + +LUCIUS. +My lord? + +BRUTUS. +Didst thou dream, Lucius, that thou so criedst out? + +LUCIUS. +My lord, I do not know that I did cry. + +BRUTUS. +Yes, that thou didst. Didst thou see anything? + +LUCIUS. +Nothing, my lord. + +BRUTUS. +Sleep again, Lucius. Sirrah Claudius! +Fellow thou, awake! + +VARRO. +My lord? + +CLAUDIUS. +My lord? + +BRUTUS. +Why did you so cry out, sirs, in your sleep? + +VARRO. CLAUDIUS. +Did we, my lord? + +BRUTUS. +Ay. Saw you anything? + +VARRO. +No, my lord, I saw nothing. + +CLAUDIUS. +Nor I, my lord. + +BRUTUS. +Go and commend me to my brother Cassius; +Bid him set on his powers betimes before, +And we will follow. + +VARRO. CLAUDIUS. +It shall be done, my lord. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. The plains of Philippi. + + Enter Octavius, Antony and their Army. + +OCTAVIUS. +Now, Antony, our hopes are answered. +You said the enemy would not come down, +But keep the hills and upper regions. +It proves not so; their battles are at hand, +They mean to warn us at Philippi here, +Answering before we do demand of them. + +ANTONY. +Tut, I am in their bosoms, and I know +Wherefore they do it. They could be content +To visit other places, and come down +With fearful bravery, thinking by this face +To fasten in our thoughts that they have courage; +But ’tis not so. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +Prepare you, generals. +The enemy comes on in gallant show; +Their bloody sign of battle is hung out, +And something to be done immediately. + +ANTONY. +Octavius, lead your battle softly on +Upon the left hand of the even field. + +OCTAVIUS. +Upon the right hand I. Keep thou the left. + +ANTONY. +Why do you cross me in this exigent? + +OCTAVIUS. +I do not cross you; but I will do so. + + [_March._] + +Drum. Enter Brutus, Cassius and their Army; Lucilius, Titinius, Messala +and others. + +BRUTUS. +They stand, and would have parley. + +CASSIUS. +Stand fast, Titinius; we must out and talk. + +OCTAVIUS. +Mark Antony, shall we give sign of battle? + +ANTONY. +No, Caesar, we will answer on their charge. +Make forth; the generals would have some words. + +OCTAVIUS. +Stir not until the signal. + +BRUTUS. +Words before blows: is it so, countrymen? + +OCTAVIUS. +Not that we love words better, as you do. + +BRUTUS. +Good words are better than bad strokes, Octavius. + +ANTONY. +In your bad strokes, Brutus, you give good words; +Witness the hole you made in Caesar’s heart, +Crying, “Long live! Hail, Caesar!” + +CASSIUS. +Antony, +The posture of your blows are yet unknown; +But for your words, they rob the Hybla bees, +And leave them honeyless. + +ANTONY. +Not stingless too. + +BRUTUS. +O yes, and soundless too, +For you have stol’n their buzzing, Antony, +And very wisely threat before you sting. + +ANTONY. +Villains, you did not so when your vile daggers +Hack’d one another in the sides of Caesar: +You show’d your teeth like apes, and fawn’d like hounds, +And bow’d like bondmen, kissing Caesar’s feet; +Whilst damned Casca, like a cur, behind +Struck Caesar on the neck. O you flatterers! + +CASSIUS. +Flatterers! Now, Brutus, thank yourself. +This tongue had not offended so today, +If Cassius might have rul’d. + +OCTAVIUS. +Come, come, the cause. If arguing makes us sweat, +The proof of it will turn to redder drops. +Look, I draw a sword against conspirators. +When think you that the sword goes up again? +Never, till Caesar’s three and thirty wounds +Be well aveng’d; or till another Caesar +Have added slaughter to the sword of traitors. + +BRUTUS. +Caesar, thou canst not die by traitors’ hands, +Unless thou bring’st them with thee. + +OCTAVIUS. +So I hope. +I was not born to die on Brutus’ sword. + +BRUTUS. +O, if thou wert the noblest of thy strain, +Young man, thou couldst not die more honourable. + +CASSIUS. +A peevish school-boy, worthless of such honour, +Join’d with a masker and a reveller. + +ANTONY. +Old Cassius still! + +OCTAVIUS. +Come, Antony; away! +Defiance, traitors, hurl we in your teeth. +If you dare fight today, come to the field; +If not, when you have stomachs. + + [_Exeunt Octavius, Antony and their Army._] + +CASSIUS. +Why now, blow wind, swell billow, and swim bark! +The storm is up, and all is on the hazard. + +BRUTUS. +Ho, Lucilius! Hark, a word with you. + +LUCILIUS. +My lord? + + [_Brutus and Lucilius talk apart._] + +CASSIUS. +Messala. + +MESSALA. +What says my General? + +CASSIUS. +Messala, +This is my birth-day; as this very day +Was Cassius born. Give me thy hand, Messala: +Be thou my witness that against my will +As Pompey was, am I compell’d to set +Upon one battle all our liberties. +You know that I held Epicurus strong, +And his opinion. Now I change my mind, +And partly credit things that do presage. +Coming from Sardis, on our former ensign +Two mighty eagles fell, and there they perch’d, +Gorging and feeding from our soldiers’ hands, +Who to Philippi here consorted us. +This morning are they fled away and gone, +And in their steads do ravens, crows, and kites +Fly o’er our heads, and downward look on us, +As we were sickly prey: their shadows seem +A canopy most fatal, under which +Our army lies, ready to give up the ghost. + +MESSALA. +Believe not so. + +CASSIUS. +I but believe it partly, +For I am fresh of spirit, and resolv’d +To meet all perils very constantly. + +BRUTUS. +Even so, Lucilius. + +CASSIUS. +Now, most noble Brutus, +The gods today stand friendly, that we may, +Lovers in peace, lead on our days to age! +But, since the affairs of men rest still incertain, +Let’s reason with the worst that may befall. +If we do lose this battle, then is this +The very last time we shall speak together: +What are you then determined to do? + +BRUTUS. +Even by the rule of that philosophy +By which I did blame Cato for the death +Which he did give himself, I know not how, +But I do find it cowardly and vile, +For fear of what might fall, so to prevent +The time of life, arming myself with patience +To stay the providence of some high powers +That govern us below. + +CASSIUS. +Then, if we lose this battle, +You are contented to be led in triumph +Thorough the streets of Rome? + +BRUTUS. +No, Cassius, no: think not, thou noble Roman, +That ever Brutus will go bound to Rome; +He bears too great a mind. But this same day +Must end that work the Ides of March begun; +And whether we shall meet again I know not. +Therefore our everlasting farewell take. +For ever, and for ever, farewell, Cassius. +If we do meet again, why, we shall smile; +If not, why then this parting was well made. + +CASSIUS. +For ever and for ever farewell, Brutus. +If we do meet again, we’ll smile indeed; +If not, ’tis true this parting was well made. + +BRUTUS. +Why then, lead on. O, that a man might know +The end of this day’s business ere it come! +But it sufficeth that the day will end, +And then the end is known. Come, ho! away! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. The field of battle. + + Alarum. Enter Brutus and Messala. + +BRUTUS. +Ride, ride, Messala, ride, and give these bills +Unto the legions on the other side. + + [_Loud alarum._] + +Let them set on at once; for I perceive +But cold demeanor in Octavius’ wing, +And sudden push gives them the overthrow. +Ride, ride, Messala; let them all come down. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Another part of the field. + + Alarum. Enter Cassius and Titinius. + +CASSIUS. +O, look, Titinius, look, the villains fly! +Myself have to mine own turn’d enemy: +This ensign here of mine was turning back; +I slew the coward, and did take it from him. + +TITINIUS. +O Cassius, Brutus gave the word too early, +Who, having some advantage on Octavius, +Took it too eagerly: his soldiers fell to spoil, +Whilst we by Antony are all enclos’d. + + Enter Pindarus. + +PINDARUS. +Fly further off, my lord, fly further off; +Mark Antony is in your tents, my lord. +Fly, therefore, noble Cassius, fly far off. + +CASSIUS. +This hill is far enough. Look, look, Titinius; +Are those my tents where I perceive the fire? + +TITINIUS. +They are, my lord. + +CASSIUS. +Titinius, if thou lovest me, +Mount thou my horse and hide thy spurs in him, +Till he have brought thee up to yonder troops +And here again, that I may rest assur’d +Whether yond troops are friend or enemy. + +TITINIUS. +I will be here again, even with a thought. + + [_Exit._] + +CASSIUS. +Go, Pindarus, get higher on that hill, +My sight was ever thick. Regard Titinius, +And tell me what thou notest about the field. + + [_Pindarus goes up._] + +This day I breathed first. Time is come round, +And where I did begin, there shall I end. +My life is run his compass. Sirrah, what news? + +PINDARUS. +[_Above._] O my lord! + +CASSIUS. +What news? + +PINDARUS. +[_Above._] Titinius is enclosed round about +With horsemen, that make to him on the spur, +Yet he spurs on. Now they are almost on him. +Now, Titinius! Now some light. O, he lights too. +He’s ta’en! + + [_Shout._] + +And, hark! they shout for joy. + +CASSIUS. +Come down; behold no more. +O, coward that I am, to live so long, +To see my best friend ta’en before my face! + + [_Pindarus descends._] + +Come hither, sirrah. +In Parthia did I take thee prisoner; +And then I swore thee, saving of thy life, +That whatsoever I did bid thee do, +Thou shouldst attempt it. Come now, keep thine oath. +Now be a freeman; and with this good sword, +That ran through Caesar’s bowels, search this bosom. +Stand not to answer. Here, take thou the hilts; +And when my face is cover’d, as ’tis now, +Guide thou the sword.—Caesar, thou art reveng’d, +Even with the sword that kill’d thee. + + [_Dies._] + +PINDARUS. +So, I am free, yet would not so have been, +Durst I have done my will. O Cassius! +Far from this country Pindarus shall run, +Where never Roman shall take note of him. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Titinius with Messala. + +MESSALA. +It is but change, Titinius; for Octavius +Is overthrown by noble Brutus’ power, +As Cassius’ legions are by Antony. + +TITINIUS. +These tidings would well comfort Cassius. + +MESSALA. +Where did you leave him? + +TITINIUS. +All disconsolate, +With Pindarus his bondman, on this hill. + +MESSALA. +Is not that he that lies upon the ground? + +TITINIUS. +He lies not like the living. O my heart! + +MESSALA. +Is not that he? + +TITINIUS. +No, this was he, Messala, +But Cassius is no more. O setting sun, +As in thy red rays thou dost sink to night, +So in his red blood Cassius’ day is set. +The sun of Rome is set. Our day is gone; +Clouds, dews, and dangers come; our deeds are done. +Mistrust of my success hath done this deed. + +MESSALA. +Mistrust of good success hath done this deed. +O hateful Error, Melancholy’s child! +Why dost thou show to the apt thoughts of men +The things that are not? O Error, soon conceiv’d, +Thou never com’st unto a happy birth, +But kill’st the mother that engender’d thee! + +TITINIUS. +What, Pindarus! where art thou, Pindarus? + +MESSALA. +Seek him, Titinius, whilst I go to meet +The noble Brutus, thrusting this report +Into his ears. I may say thrusting it; +For piercing steel and darts envenomed +Shall be as welcome to the ears of Brutus +As tidings of this sight. + +TITINIUS. +Hie you, Messala, +And I will seek for Pindarus the while. + + [_Exit Messala._] + +Why didst thou send me forth, brave Cassius? +Did I not meet thy friends? And did not they +Put on my brows this wreath of victory, +And bid me give it thee? Didst thou not hear their shouts? +Alas, thou hast misconstrued everything! +But, hold thee, take this garland on thy brow; +Thy Brutus bid me give it thee, and I +Will do his bidding. Brutus, come apace, +And see how I regarded Caius Cassius. +By your leave, gods. This is a Roman’s part. +Come, Cassius’ sword, and find Titinius’ heart. + + [_Dies._] + + Alarum. Enter Brutus, Messala, young Cato, Strato, Volumnius and + Lucilius. + +BRUTUS. +Where, where, Messala, doth his body lie? + +MESSALA. +Lo, yonder, and Titinius mourning it. + +BRUTUS. +Titinius’ face is upward. + +CATO. +He is slain. + +BRUTUS. +O Julius Caesar, thou art mighty yet! +Thy spirit walks abroad, and turns our swords +In our own proper entrails. + + [_Low alarums._] + +CATO. +Brave Titinius! +Look whether he have not crown’d dead Cassius! + +BRUTUS. +Are yet two Romans living such as these? +The last of all the Romans, fare thee well! +It is impossible that ever Rome +Should breed thy fellow. Friends, I owe more tears +To this dead man than you shall see me pay. +I shall find time, Cassius, I shall find time. +Come therefore, and to Thassos send his body. +His funerals shall not be in our camp, +Lest it discomfort us. Lucilius, come; +And come, young Cato; let us to the field. +Labeo and Flavius, set our battles on. +’Tis three o’clock; and Romans, yet ere night +We shall try fortune in a second fight. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Another part of the field. + + Alarum. Enter fighting soldiers of both armies; then Brutus, Messala, + young Cato, Lucilius, Flavius and others. + +BRUTUS. +Yet, countrymen, O, yet hold up your heads! + +CATO. +What bastard doth not? Who will go with me? +I will proclaim my name about the field. +I am the son of Marcus Cato, ho! +A foe to tyrants, and my country’s friend. +I am the son of Marcus Cato, ho! + + [_Charges the enemy._] + +LUCILIUS. +And I am Brutus, Marcus Brutus, I; +Brutus, my country’s friend; know me for Brutus! + + [_Exit, charging the enemy. Cato is overpowered, and falls._] + +LUCILIUS. +O young and noble Cato, art thou down? +Why, now thou diest as bravely as Titinius, +And mayst be honour’d, being Cato’s son. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +Yield, or thou diest. + +LUCILIUS. +Only I yield to die: +There is so much that thou wilt kill me straight; + + [_Offering money_] + +Kill Brutus, and be honour’d in his death. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +We must not. A noble prisoner! + +SECOND SOLDIER. +Room, ho! Tell Antony, Brutus is ta’en. + +FIRST SOLDIER. +I’ll tell the news. Here comes the General. + + Enter Antony. + +Brutus is ta’en, Brutus is ta’en, my lord. + +ANTONY. +Where is he? + +LUCILIUS. +Safe, Antony; Brutus is safe enough. +I dare assure thee that no enemy +Shall ever take alive the noble Brutus. +The gods defend him from so great a shame! +When you do find him, or alive or dead, +He will be found like Brutus, like himself. + +ANTONY. +This is not Brutus, friend; but, I assure you, +A prize no less in worth. Keep this man safe, +Give him all kindness. I had rather have +Such men my friends than enemies. Go on, +And see whether Brutus be alive or dead; +And bring us word unto Octavius’ tent +How everything is chanc’d. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Another part of the field. + + Enter Brutus, Dardanius, Clitus, Strato and Volumnius. + +BRUTUS. +Come, poor remains of friends, rest on this rock. + +CLITUS. +Statilius show’d the torch-light; but, my lord, +He came not back: he is or ta’en or slain. + +BRUTUS. +Sit thee down, Clitus. Slaying is the word; +It is a deed in fashion. Hark thee, Clitus. + + [_Whispering._] + +CLITUS. +What, I, my lord? No, not for all the world. + +BRUTUS. +Peace then, no words. + +CLITUS. +I’ll rather kill myself. + +BRUTUS. +Hark thee, Dardanius. + + [_Whispers him._] + +DARDANIUS. +Shall I do such a deed? + +CLITUS. +O Dardanius! + +DARDANIUS. +O Clitus! + +CLITUS. +What ill request did Brutus make to thee? + +DARDANIUS. +To kill him, Clitus. Look, he meditates. + +CLITUS. +Now is that noble vessel full of grief, +That it runs over even at his eyes. + +BRUTUS. +Come hither, good Volumnius; list a word. + +VOLUMNIUS. +What says my lord? + +BRUTUS. +Why, this, Volumnius: +The ghost of Caesar hath appear’d to me +Two several times by night; at Sardis once, +And this last night here in Philippi fields. +I know my hour is come. + +VOLUMNIUS. +Not so, my lord. + +BRUTUS. +Nay I am sure it is, Volumnius. +Thou seest the world, Volumnius, how it goes; +Our enemies have beat us to the pit. + + [_Low alarums._] + +It is more worthy to leap in ourselves +Than tarry till they push us. Good Volumnius, +Thou know’st that we two went to school together; +Even for that our love of old, I pr’ythee +Hold thou my sword-hilts, whilst I run on it. + +VOLUMNIUS. +That’s not an office for a friend, my lord. + + [_Alarums still._] + +CLITUS. +Fly, fly, my lord! there is no tarrying here. + +BRUTUS. +Farewell to you; and you; and you, Volumnius. +Strato, thou hast been all this while asleep; +Farewell to thee too, Strato.—Countrymen, +My heart doth joy, that yet in all my life +I found no man but he was true to me. +I shall have glory by this losing day +More than Octavius and Mark Antony +By this vile conquest shall attain unto. +So fare you well at once; for Brutus’ tongue +Hath almost ended his life’s history. +Night hangs upon mine eyes; my bones would rest, +That have but labour’d to attain this hour. + + [_Alarums. Cry within, “Fly, fly, fly!”._] + +CLITUS. +Fly, my lord, fly! + +BRUTUS. +Hence! I will follow. + + [_Exeunt Clitus, Dardanius and Volumnius._] + +I pr’ythee, Strato, stay thou by thy lord. +Thou art a fellow of a good respect; +Thy life hath had some smatch of honour in it. +Hold then my sword, and turn away thy face, +While I do run upon it. Wilt thou, Strato? + +STRATO. +Give me your hand first. Fare you well, my lord. + +BRUTUS. +Farewell, good Strato.—Caesar, now be still: +I kill’d not thee with half so good a will. + + [_He runs on his sword, and dies._] + + Alarum. Retreat. Enter Antony, Octavius, Messala, Lucilius and the + Army. + +OCTAVIUS. +What man is that? + +MESSALA. +My master’s man. Strato, where is thy master? + +STRATO. +Free from the bondage you are in, Messala. +The conquerors can but make a fire of him; +For Brutus only overcame himself, +And no man else hath honour by his death. + +LUCILIUS. +So Brutus should be found. I thank thee, Brutus, +That thou hast prov’d Lucilius’ saying true. + +OCTAVIUS. +All that serv’d Brutus, I will entertain them. +Fellow, wilt thou bestow thy time with me? + +STRATO. +Ay, if Messala will prefer me to you. + +OCTAVIUS. +Do so, good Messala. + +MESSALA. +How died my master, Strato? + +STRATO. +I held the sword, and he did run on it. + +MESSALA. +Octavius, then take him to follow thee, +That did the latest service to my master. + +ANTONY. +This was the noblest Roman of them all. +All the conspirators save only he, +Did that they did in envy of great Caesar; +He only, in a general honest thought +And common good to all, made one of them. +His life was gentle, and the elements +So mix’d in him that Nature might stand up +And say to all the world, “This was a man!” + +OCTAVIUS. +According to his virtue let us use him +With all respect and rites of burial. +Within my tent his bones tonight shall lie, +Most like a soldier, order’d honourably. +So call the field to rest, and let’s away, +To part the glories of this happy day. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +THE TRAGEDY OF KING LEAR + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. A Room of State in King Lear’s Palace. +Scene II. A Hall in the Earl of Gloucester’s Castle. +Scene III. A Room in the Duke of Albany’s Palace. +Scene IV. A Hall in Albany’s Palace. +Scene V. Court before the Duke of Albany’s Palace. + +ACT II +Scene I. A court within the Castle of the Earl of Gloucester. +Scene II. Before Gloucester’s Castle. +Scene III. The open Country. +Scene IV. Before Gloucester’s Castle. + +ACT III +Scene I. A Heath. +Scene II. Another part of the heath. +Scene III. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. +Scene IV. A part of the Heath with a Hovel. +Scene V. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. +Scene VI. A Chamber in a Farmhouse adjoining the Castle. +Scene VII. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. + +ACT IV +Scene I. The heath. +Scene II. Before the Duke of Albany’s Palace. +Scene III. The French camp near Dover. +Scene IV. The French camp. A Tent. +Scene V. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. +Scene VI. The country near Dover. +Scene VII. A Tent in the French Camp. + +ACT V +Scene I. The Camp of the British Forces near Dover. +Scene II. A field between the two Camps. +Scene III. The British Camp near Dover. + + + + + Dramatis Personæ + +LEAR, King of Britain. +GONERIL, eldest daughter to Lear. +REGAN, second daughter to Lear. +CORDELIA, youngest daughter to Lear. +DUKE of ALBANY, married to Goneril. +DUKE of CORNWALL, married to Regan. +KING of FRANCE. +DUKE of BURGUNDY. +EARL of GLOUCESTER. +EDGAR, elder son to Gloucester. +EDMUND, younger bastard son to Gloucester. +EARL of KENT. +FOOL. +OSWALD, steward to Goneril. +CURAN, a Courtier. +OLD MAN, Tenant to Gloucester. +Physician. +An Officer employed by Edmund. +Gentleman, attendant on Cordelia. +A Herald. +Servants to Cornwall. + +Knights attending on the King, Officers, Messengers, Soldiers and +Attendants. + +SCENE: Britain. + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. A Room of State in King Lear’s Palace. + + Enter Kent, Gloucester and Edmund. + +KENT. +I thought the King had more affected the Duke of Albany than Cornwall. + +GLOUCESTER. +It did always seem so to us; but now, in the division of the kingdom, +it appears not which of the Dukes he values most, for qualities are so +weighed that curiosity in neither can make choice of either’s moiety. + +KENT. +Is not this your son, my lord? + +GLOUCESTER. +His breeding, sir, hath been at my charge: I have so often blush’d to +acknowledge him that now I am braz’d to’t. + +KENT. +I cannot conceive you. + +GLOUCESTER. +Sir, this young fellow’s mother could; whereupon she grew round-wombed, +and had indeed, sir, a son for her cradle ere she had a husband for her +bed. Do you smell a fault? + +KENT. +I cannot wish the fault undone, the issue of it being so proper. + +GLOUCESTER. +But I have a son, sir, by order of law, some year elder than this, who +yet is no dearer in my account: though this knave came something +saucily to the world before he was sent for, yet was his mother fair; +there was good sport at his making, and the whoreson must be +acknowledged. Do you know this noble gentleman, Edmund? + +EDMUND. +No, my lord. + +GLOUCESTER. +My Lord of Kent: remember him hereafter as my honourable friend. + +EDMUND. +My services to your lordship. + +KENT. +I must love you, and sue to know you better. + +EDMUND. +Sir, I shall study deserving. + +GLOUCESTER. +He hath been out nine years, and away he shall again. The King is +coming. + + [_Sennet within._] + + Enter Lear, Cornwall, Albany, Goneril, Regan, Cordelia and Attendants. + +LEAR. +Attend the lords of France and Burgundy, +Gloucester. + +GLOUCESTER. +I shall, my lord. + + [_Exeunt Gloucester and Edmund._] + +LEAR. +Meantime we shall express our darker purpose. +Give me the map there. Know that we have divided +In three our kingdom: and ’tis our fast intent +To shake all cares and business from our age; +Conferring them on younger strengths, while we +Unburden’d crawl toward death. Our son of Cornwall, +And you, our no less loving son of Albany, +We have this hour a constant will to publish +Our daughters’ several dowers, that future strife +May be prevented now. The princes, France and Burgundy, +Great rivals in our youngest daughter’s love, +Long in our court have made their amorous sojourn, +And here are to be answer’d. Tell me, my daughters,— +Since now we will divest us both of rule, +Interest of territory, cares of state,— +Which of you shall we say doth love us most? +That we our largest bounty may extend +Where nature doth with merit challenge.—Goneril, +Our eldest born, speak first. + +GONERIL. +Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter; +Dearer than eyesight, space, and liberty; +Beyond what can be valu’d, rich or rare; +No less than life, with grace, health, beauty, honour; +As much as child e’er lov’d, or father found; +A love that makes breath poor and speech unable; +Beyond all manner of so much I love you. + +CORDELIA. +[_Aside._] What shall Cordelia speak? Love, and be silent. + +LEAR. +Of all these bounds, even from this line to this, +With shadowy forests and with champains rich’d, +With plenteous rivers and wide-skirted meads, +We make thee lady: to thine and Albany’s issue +Be this perpetual.—What says our second daughter, +Our dearest Regan, wife of Cornwall? Speak. + +REGAN. +Sir, I am made of the self mettle as my sister, +And prize me at her worth. In my true heart +I find she names my very deed of love; +Only she comes too short, that I profess +Myself an enemy to all other joys +Which the most precious square of sense possesses, +And find I am alone felicitate +In your dear highness’ love. + +CORDELIA. +[_Aside._] Then poor Cordelia, +And yet not so; since, I am sure, my love’s +More ponderous than my tongue. + +LEAR. +To thee and thine hereditary ever +Remain this ample third of our fair kingdom; +No less in space, validity, and pleasure +Than that conferr’d on Goneril.—Now, our joy, +Although the last and least; to whose young love +The vines of France and milk of Burgundy +Strive to be interess’d; what can you say to draw +A third more opulent than your sisters? Speak. + +CORDELIA. +Nothing, my lord. + +LEAR. +Nothing? + +CORDELIA. +Nothing. + +LEAR. +Nothing will come of nothing: speak again. + +CORDELIA. +Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave +My heart into my mouth: I love your majesty +According to my bond; no more nor less. + +LEAR. +How, how, Cordelia? Mend your speech a little, +Lest you may mar your fortunes. + +CORDELIA. +Good my lord, +You have begot me, bred me, lov’d me: I +Return those duties back as are right fit, +Obey you, love you, and most honour you. +Why have my sisters husbands if they say +They love you all? Haply, when I shall wed, +That lord whose hand must take my plight shall carry +Half my love with him, half my care and duty: +Sure I shall never marry like my sisters, +To love my father all. + +LEAR. +But goes thy heart with this? + +CORDELIA. +Ay, my good lord. + +LEAR. +So young, and so untender? + +CORDELIA. +So young, my lord, and true. + +LEAR. +Let it be so, thy truth then be thy dower: +For, by the sacred radiance of the sun, +The mysteries of Hecate and the night; +By all the operation of the orbs, +From whom we do exist and cease to be; +Here I disclaim all my paternal care, +Propinquity and property of blood, +And as a stranger to my heart and me +Hold thee from this for ever. The barbarous Scythian, +Or he that makes his generation messes +To gorge his appetite, shall to my bosom +Be as well neighbour’d, pitied, and reliev’d, +As thou my sometime daughter. + +KENT. +Good my liege,— + +LEAR. +Peace, Kent! +Come not between the dragon and his wrath. +I lov’d her most, and thought to set my rest +On her kind nursery. [_To Cordelia._] Hence and avoid my sight! +So be my grave my peace, as here I give +Her father’s heart from her! Call France. Who stirs? +Call Burgundy! Cornwall and Albany, +With my two daughters’ dowers digest this third: +Let pride, which she calls plainness, marry her. +I do invest you jointly with my power, +Pre-eminence, and all the large effects +That troop with majesty. Ourself, by monthly course, +With reservation of an hundred knights, +By you to be sustain’d, shall our abode +Make with you by due turn. Only we shall retain +The name, and all the addition to a king; the sway, +Revenue, execution of the rest, +Beloved sons, be yours; which to confirm, +This coronet part between you. + [_Giving the crown._] + +KENT. +Royal Lear, +Whom I have ever honour’d as my king, +Lov’d as my father, as my master follow’d, +As my great patron thought on in my prayers.— + +LEAR. +The bow is bent and drawn; make from the shaft. + +KENT. +Let it fall rather, though the fork invade +The region of my heart: be Kent unmannerly +When Lear is mad. What wouldst thou do, old man? +Think’st thou that duty shall have dread to speak, +When power to flattery bows? To plainness honour’s bound +When majesty falls to folly. Reverse thy state; +And in thy best consideration check +This hideous rashness: answer my life my judgement, +Thy youngest daughter does not love thee least; +Nor are those empty-hearted, whose low sounds +Reverb no hollowness. + +LEAR. +Kent, on thy life, no more. + +KENT. +My life I never held but as a pawn +To wage against thine enemies; ne’er fear to lose it, +Thy safety being the motive. + +LEAR. +Out of my sight! + +KENT. +See better, Lear; and let me still remain +The true blank of thine eye. + +LEAR. +Now, by Apollo,— + +KENT. +Now by Apollo, King, +Thou swear’st thy gods in vain. + +LEAR. +O vassal! Miscreant! + + [_Laying his hand on his sword._] + +ALBANY and CORNWALL. +Dear sir, forbear! + +KENT. +Kill thy physician, and the fee bestow +Upon the foul disease. Revoke thy gift, +Or, whilst I can vent clamour from my throat, +I’ll tell thee thou dost evil. + +LEAR. +Hear me, recreant! on thine allegiance, hear me! +Since thou hast sought to make us break our vows, +Which we durst never yet, and with strain’d pride +To come betwixt our sentences and our power, +Which nor our nature, nor our place can bear, +Our potency made good, take thy reward. +Five days we do allot thee for provision, +To shield thee from disasters of the world; +And on the sixth to turn thy hated back +Upon our kingdom: if, on the next day following, +Thy banish’d trunk be found in our dominions, +The moment is thy death. Away! By Jupiter, +This shall not be revok’d. + +KENT. +Fare thee well, King: sith thus thou wilt appear, +Freedom lives hence, and banishment is here. +[_To Cordelia._] The gods to their dear shelter take thee, maid, +That justly think’st and hast most rightly said! +[_To Goneril and Regan._] And your large speeches may your deeds +approve, +That good effects may spring from words of love. +Thus Kent, O princes, bids you all adieu; +He’ll shape his old course in a country new. + + [_Exit._] + + Flourish. Re-enter Gloucester, with France, Burgundy and Attendants. + +CORDELIA. +Here’s France and Burgundy, my noble lord. + +LEAR. +My Lord of Burgundy, +We first address toward you, who with this king +Hath rivall’d for our daughter: what in the least +Will you require in present dower with her, +Or cease your quest of love? + +BURGUNDY. +Most royal majesty, +I crave no more than hath your highness offer’d, +Nor will you tender less? + +LEAR. +Right noble Burgundy, +When she was dear to us, we did hold her so; +But now her price is fall’n. Sir, there she stands: +If aught within that little-seeming substance, +Or all of it, with our displeasure piec’d, +And nothing more, may fitly like your grace, +She’s there, and she is yours. + +BURGUNDY. +I know no answer. + +LEAR. +Will you, with those infirmities she owes, +Unfriended, new adopted to our hate, +Dower’d with our curse, and stranger’d with our oath, +Take her or leave her? + +BURGUNDY. +Pardon me, royal sir; +Election makes not up in such conditions. + +LEAR. +Then leave her, sir; for, by the power that made me, +I tell you all her wealth. [_To France_] For you, great king, +I would not from your love make such a stray +To match you where I hate; therefore beseech you +T’avert your liking a more worthier way +Than on a wretch whom nature is asham’d +Almost t’acknowledge hers. + +FRANCE. +This is most strange, +That she, who even but now was your best object, +The argument of your praise, balm of your age, +The best, the dearest, should in this trice of time +Commit a thing so monstrous, to dismantle +So many folds of favour. Sure her offence +Must be of such unnatural degree +That monsters it, or your fore-vouch’d affection +Fall into taint; which to believe of her +Must be a faith that reason without miracle +Should never plant in me. + +CORDELIA. +I yet beseech your majesty, +If for I want that glib and oily art +To speak and purpose not; since what I well intend, +I’ll do’t before I speak,—that you make known +It is no vicious blot, murder, or foulness, +No unchaste action or dishonour’d step, +That hath depriv’d me of your grace and favour; +But even for want of that for which I am richer, +A still soliciting eye, and such a tongue +As I am glad I have not, though not to have it +Hath lost me in your liking. + +LEAR. +Better thou hadst +Not been born than not to have pleas’d me better. + +FRANCE. +Is it but this?—a tardiness in nature +Which often leaves the history unspoke +That it intends to do? My lord of Burgundy, +What say you to the lady? Love’s not love +When it is mingled with regards that stands +Aloof from the entire point. Will you have her? +She is herself a dowry. + +BURGUNDY. +Royal King, +Give but that portion which yourself propos’d, +And here I take Cordelia by the hand, +Duchess of Burgundy. + +LEAR. +Nothing: I have sworn; I am firm. + +BURGUNDY. +I am sorry, then, you have so lost a father +That you must lose a husband. + +CORDELIA. +Peace be with Burgundy! +Since that respects of fortunes are his love, +I shall not be his wife. + +FRANCE. +Fairest Cordelia, that art most rich, being poor; +Most choice forsaken; and most lov’d, despis’d! +Thee and thy virtues here I seize upon: +Be it lawful, I take up what’s cast away. +Gods, gods! ’Tis strange that from their cold’st neglect +My love should kindle to inflam’d respect. +Thy dowerless daughter, King, thrown to my chance, +Is queen of us, of ours, and our fair France: +Not all the dukes of waterish Burgundy +Can buy this unpriz’d precious maid of me. +Bid them farewell, Cordelia, though unkind: +Thou losest here, a better where to find. + +LEAR. +Thou hast her, France: let her be thine; for we +Have no such daughter, nor shall ever see +That face of hers again. Therefore be gone +Without our grace, our love, our benison. +Come, noble Burgundy. + + [_Flourish. Exeunt Lear, Burgundy, Cornwall, Albany, Gloucester and + Attendants._] + +FRANCE. +Bid farewell to your sisters. + +CORDELIA. +The jewels of our father, with wash’d eyes +Cordelia leaves you: I know you what you are; +And like a sister am most loath to call +Your faults as they are nam’d. Love well our father: +To your professed bosoms I commit him: +But yet, alas, stood I within his grace, +I would prefer him to a better place. +So farewell to you both. + +REGAN. +Prescribe not us our duties. + +GONERIL. +Let your study +Be to content your lord, who hath receiv’d you +At fortune’s alms. You have obedience scanted, +And well are worth the want that you have wanted. + +CORDELIA. +Time shall unfold what plighted cunning hides: +Who covers faults, at last shame derides. +Well may you prosper. + +FRANCE. +Come, my fair Cordelia. + + [_Exeunt France and Cordelia._] + +GONERIL. +Sister, it is not little I have to say of what most nearly appertains +to us both. I think our father will hence tonight. + +REGAN. +That’s most certain, and with you; next month with us. + +GONERIL. +You see how full of changes his age is; the observation we have made of +it hath not been little: he always loved our sister most; and with what +poor judgement he hath now cast her off appears too grossly. + +REGAN. +’Tis the infirmity of his age: yet he hath ever but slenderly known +himself. + +GONERIL. +The best and soundest of his time hath been but rash; then must we look +from his age to receive not alone the imperfections of long-engrafted +condition, but therewithal the unruly waywardness that infirm and +choleric years bring with them. + +REGAN. +Such unconstant starts are we like to have from him as this of Kent’s +banishment. + +GONERIL. +There is further compliment of leave-taking between France and him. +Pray you let us hit together: if our father carry authority with such +disposition as he bears, this last surrender of his will but offend us. + +REGAN. +We shall further think of it. + +GONERIL. +We must do something, and i’ th’ heat. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A Hall in the Earl of Gloucester’s Castle. + + Enter Edmund with a letter. + +EDMUND. +Thou, Nature, art my goddess; to thy law +My services are bound. Wherefore should I +Stand in the plague of custom, and permit +The curiosity of nations to deprive me? +For that I am some twelve or fourteen moonshines +Lag of a brother? Why bastard? Wherefore base? +When my dimensions are as well compact, +My mind as generous, and my shape as true +As honest madam’s issue? Why brand they us +With base? With baseness? bastardy? Base, base? +Who, in the lusty stealth of nature, take +More composition and fierce quality +Than doth within a dull stale tired bed +Go to the creating a whole tribe of fops +Got ’tween asleep and wake? Well then, +Legitimate Edgar, I must have your land: +Our father’s love is to the bastard Edmund +As to the legitimate: fine word: legitimate! +Well, my legitimate, if this letter speed, +And my invention thrive, Edmund the base +Shall top the legitimate. I grow, I prosper. +Now, gods, stand up for bastards! + + Enter Gloucester. + +GLOUCESTER. +Kent banish’d thus! and France in choler parted! +And the King gone tonight! Prescrib’d his pow’r! +Confin’d to exhibition! All this done +Upon the gad!—Edmund, how now! What news? + +EDMUND. +So please your lordship, none. + + [_Putting up the letter._] + +GLOUCESTER. +Why so earnestly seek you to put up that letter? + +EDMUND. +I know no news, my lord. + +GLOUCESTER. +What paper were you reading? + +EDMUND. +Nothing, my lord. + +GLOUCESTER. +No? What needed then that terrible dispatch of it into your pocket? The +quality of nothing hath not such need to hide itself. Let’s see. Come, +if it be nothing, I shall not need spectacles. + +EDMUND. +I beseech you, sir, pardon me. It is a letter from my brother that I +have not all o’er-read; and for so much as I have perus’d, I find it +not fit for your o’er-looking. + +GLOUCESTER. +Give me the letter, sir. + +EDMUND. +I shall offend, either to detain or give it. The contents, as in part I +understand them, are to blame. + +GLOUCESTER. +Let’s see, let’s see! + +EDMUND. +I hope, for my brother’s justification, he wrote this but as an essay, +or taste of my virtue. + +GLOUCESTER. +[_Reads._] ‘This policy and reverence of age makes the world bitter to +the best of our times; keeps our fortunes from us till our oldness +cannot relish them. I begin to find an idle and fond bondage in the +oppression of aged tyranny; who sways not as it hath power, but as it +is suffered. Come to me, that of this I may speak more. If our father +would sleep till I waked him, you should enjoy half his revenue for +ever, and live the beloved of your brother EDGAR.’ +Hum! Conspiracy? ‘Sleep till I wake him, you should enjoy half his +revenue.’—My son Edgar! Had he a hand to write this? A heart and brain +to breed it in? When came this to you? Who brought it? + +EDMUND. +It was not brought me, my lord, there’s the cunning of it. I found it +thrown in at the casement of my closet. + +GLOUCESTER. +You know the character to be your brother’s? + +EDMUND. +If the matter were good, my lord, I durst swear it were his; but in +respect of that, I would fain think it were not. + +GLOUCESTER. +It is his. + +EDMUND. +It is his hand, my lord; but I hope his heart is not in the contents. + +GLOUCESTER. +Has he never before sounded you in this business? + +EDMUND. +Never, my lord. But I have heard him oft maintain it to be fit that, +sons at perfect age, and fathers declined, the father should be as ward +to the son, and the son manage his revenue. + +GLOUCESTER. +O villain, villain! His very opinion in the letter! Abhorred villain! +Unnatural, detested, brutish villain! worse than brutish! Go, sirrah, +seek him; I’ll apprehend him. Abominable villain, Where is he? + +EDMUND. +I do not well know, my lord. If it shall please you to suspend your +indignation against my brother till you can derive from him better +testimony of his intent, you should run a certain course; where, if you +violently proceed against him, mistaking his purpose, it would make a +great gap in your own honour, and shake in pieces the heart of his +obedience. I dare pawn down my life for him, that he hath writ this to +feel my affection to your honour, and to no other pretence of danger. + +GLOUCESTER. +Think you so? + +EDMUND. +If your honour judge it meet, I will place you where you shall hear us +confer of this, and by an auricular assurance have your satisfaction, +and that without any further delay than this very evening. + +GLOUCESTER. +He cannot be such a monster. + +EDMUND. +Nor is not, sure. + +GLOUCESTER. +To his father, that so tenderly and entirely loves him. Heaven and +earth! Edmund, seek him out; wind me into him, I pray you: frame the +business after your own wisdom. I would unstate myself to be in a due +resolution. + +EDMUND. +I will seek him, sir, presently; convey the business as I shall find +means, and acquaint you withal. + +GLOUCESTER. +These late eclipses in the sun and moon portend no good to us: though +the wisdom of Nature can reason it thus and thus, yet nature finds +itself scourged by the sequent effects. Love cools, friendship falls +off, brothers divide: in cities, mutinies; in countries, discord; in +palaces, treason; and the bond cracked ’twixt son and father. This +villain of mine comes under the prediction; there’s son against father: +the King falls from bias of nature; there’s father against child. We +have seen the best of our time. Machinations, hollowness, treachery, +and all ruinous disorders follow us disquietly to our graves. Find out +this villain, Edmund; it shall lose thee nothing; do it carefully.—And +the noble and true-hearted Kent banished! his offence, honesty! ’Tis +strange. + + [_Exit._] + +EDMUND. +This is the excellent foppery of the world, that, when we are sick in +fortune, often the surfeits of our own behaviour, we make guilty of our +disasters the sun, the moon, and the stars; as if we were villains on +necessity; fools by heavenly compulsion; knaves, thieves, and treachers +by spherical predominance; drunkards, liars, and adulterers by an +enforced obedience of planetary influence; and all that we are evil in, +by a divine thrusting on. An admirable evasion of whoremaster man, to +lay his goatish disposition to the charge of a star. My father +compounded with my mother under the dragon’s tail, and my nativity was +under Ursa Major, so that it follows I am rough and lecherous. Fut! I +should have been that I am, had the maidenliest star in the firmament +twinkled on my bastardizing. + + Enter Edgar. + +Pat! he comes, like the catastrophe of the old comedy: my cue is +villainous melancholy, with a sigh like Tom o’Bedlam.—O, these eclipses +do portend these divisions! Fa, sol, la, mi. + +EDGAR. +How now, brother Edmund, what serious contemplation are you in? + +EDMUND. +I am thinking, brother, of a prediction I read this other day, what +should follow these eclipses. + +EDGAR. +Do you busy yourself with that? + +EDMUND. +I promise you, the effects he writes of succeed unhappily: as of +unnaturalness between the child and the parent; death, dearth, +dissolutions of ancient amities; divisions in state, menaces and +maledictions against King and nobles; needless diffidences, banishment +of friends, dissipation of cohorts, nuptial breaches, and I know not +what. + +EDGAR. +How long have you been a sectary astronomical? + +EDMUND. +Come, come! when saw you my father last? + +EDGAR. +The night gone by. + +EDMUND. +Spake you with him? + +EDGAR. +Ay, two hours together. + +EDMUND. +Parted you in good terms? Found you no displeasure in him, by word nor +countenance? + +EDGAR. +None at all. + +EDMUND. +Bethink yourself wherein you may have offended him: and at my entreaty +forbear his presence until some little time hath qualified the heat of +his displeasure; which at this instant so rageth in him that with the +mischief of your person it would scarcely allay. + +EDGAR. +Some villain hath done me wrong. + +EDMUND. +That’s my fear. I pray you have a continent forbearance till the speed +of his rage goes slower; and, as I say, retire with me to my lodging, +from whence I will fitly bring you to hear my lord speak: pray ye, go; +there’s my key. If you do stir abroad, go armed. + +EDGAR. +Armed, brother? + +EDMUND. +Brother, I advise you to the best; I am no honest man if there be any +good meaning toward you: I have told you what I have seen and heard. +But faintly; nothing like the image and horror of it: pray you, away! + +EDGAR. +Shall I hear from you anon? + +EDMUND. +I do serve you in this business. + + [_Exit Edgar._] + +A credulous father! and a brother noble, +Whose nature is so far from doing harms +That he suspects none; on whose foolish honesty +My practices ride easy! I see the business. +Let me, if not by birth, have lands by wit; +All with me’s meet that I can fashion fit. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. A Room in the Duke of Albany’s Palace. + + Enter Goneril and Oswald. + +GONERIL. +Did my father strike my gentleman for chiding of his fool? + +OSWALD. +Ay, madam. + +GONERIL. +By day and night, he wrongs me; every hour +He flashes into one gross crime or other, +That sets us all at odds; I’ll not endure it: +His knights grow riotous, and himself upbraids us +On every trifle. When he returns from hunting, +I will not speak with him; say I am sick. +If you come slack of former services, +You shall do well; the fault of it I’ll answer. + + [_Horns within._] + +OSWALD. +He’s coming, madam; I hear him. + +GONERIL. +Put on what weary negligence you please, +You and your fellows; I’d have it come to question: +If he distaste it, let him to our sister, +Whose mind and mine, I know, in that are one, +Not to be overruled. Idle old man, +That still would manage those authorities +That he hath given away! Now, by my life, +Old fools are babes again; and must be us’d +With checks as flatteries, when they are seen abus’d. +Remember what I have said. + +OSWALD. +Very well, madam. + +GONERIL. +And let his knights have colder looks among you; +What grows of it, no matter; advise your fellows so; +I would breed from hence occasions, and I shall, +That I may speak. I’ll write straight to my sister +To hold my very course. Prepare for dinner. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. A Hall in Albany’s Palace. + + Enter Kent, disguised. + +KENT. +If but as well I other accents borrow, +That can my speech defuse, my good intent +May carry through itself to that full issue +For which I rais’d my likeness. Now, banish’d Kent, +If thou canst serve where thou dost stand condemn’d, +So may it come, thy master, whom thou lov’st, +Shall find thee full of labours. + + Horns within. Enter King Lear, Knights and Attendants. + +LEAR. +Let me not stay a jot for dinner; go get it ready. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + +How now! what art thou? + +KENT. +A man, sir. + +LEAR. +What dost thou profess? What wouldst thou with us? + +KENT. +I do profess to be no less than I seem; to serve him truly that will +put me in trust; to love him that is honest; to converse with him that +is wise and says little; to fear judgement; to fight when I cannot +choose; and to eat no fish. + +LEAR. +What art thou? + +KENT. +A very honest-hearted fellow, and as poor as the King. + +LEAR. +If thou be’st as poor for a subject as he’s for a king, thou art poor +enough. What wouldst thou? + +KENT. +Service. + +LEAR. +Who wouldst thou serve? + +KENT. +You. + +LEAR. +Dost thou know me, fellow? + +KENT. +No, sir; but you have that in your countenance which I would fain call +master. + +LEAR. +What’s that? + +KENT. +Authority. + +LEAR. +What services canst thou do? + +KENT. +I can keep honest counsel, ride, run, mar a curious tale in telling it +and deliver a plain message bluntly. That which ordinary men are fit +for, I am qualified in, and the best of me is diligence. + +LEAR. +How old art thou? + +KENT. +Not so young, sir, to love a woman for singing; nor so old to dote on +her for anything: I have years on my back forty-eight. + +LEAR. +Follow me; thou shalt serve me. If I like thee no worse after dinner, I +will not part from thee yet. Dinner, ho, dinner! Where’s my knave? my +fool? Go you and call my fool hither. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + + Enter Oswald. + +You, you, sirrah, where’s my daughter? + +OSWALD. +So please you,— + + [_Exit._] + +LEAR. +What says the fellow there? Call the clotpoll back. + + [_Exit a Knight._] + +Where’s my fool? Ho, I think the world’s asleep. + + Re-enter Knight. + +How now! where’s that mongrel? + +KNIGHT. +He says, my lord, your daughter is not well. + +LEAR. +Why came not the slave back to me when I called him? + +KNIGHT. +Sir, he answered me in the roundest manner, he would not. + +LEAR. +He would not? + +KNIGHT. +My lord, I know not what the matter is; but to my judgement your +highness is not entertained with that ceremonious affection as you were +wont; there’s a great abatement of kindness appears as well in the +general dependants as in the Duke himself also, and your daughter. + +LEAR. +Ha! say’st thou so? + +KNIGHT. +I beseech you pardon me, my lord, if I be mistaken; for my duty cannot +be silent when I think your highness wronged. + +LEAR. +Thou but rememberest me of mine own conception: I have perceived a most +faint neglect of late; which I have rather blamed as mine own jealous +curiosity than as a very pretence and purpose of unkindness: I will +look further into’t. But where’s my fool? I have not seen him this two +days. + +KNIGHT. +Since my young lady’s going into France, sir, the fool hath much pined +away. + +LEAR. +No more of that; I have noted it well. Go you and tell my daughter I +would speak with her. + + [_Exit Attendant._] + +Go you, call hither my fool. + + [_Exit another Attendant._] + + Re-enter Oswald. + +O, you, sir, you, come you hither, sir: who am I, sir? + +OSWALD. +My lady’s father. + +LEAR. +My lady’s father! my lord’s knave: you whoreson dog! you slave! you +cur! + +OSWALD. +I am none of these, my lord; I beseech your pardon. + +LEAR. +Do you bandy looks with me, you rascal? + + [_Striking him._] + +OSWALD. +I’ll not be struck, my lord. + +KENT. +Nor tripp’d neither, you base football player. + + [_Tripping up his heels._] + +LEAR. +I thank thee, fellow. Thou serv’st me, and I’ll love thee. + +KENT. +Come, sir, arise, away! I’ll teach you differences: away, away! If you +will measure your lubber’s length again, tarry; but away! go to; have +you wisdom? So. + + [_Pushes Oswald out._] + +LEAR. +Now, my friendly knave, I thank thee: there’s earnest of thy service. + + [_Giving Kent money._] + + Enter Fool. + +FOOL. +Let me hire him too; here’s my coxcomb. + + [_Giving Kent his cap._] + +LEAR. +How now, my pretty knave, how dost thou? + +FOOL. +Sirrah, you were best take my coxcomb. + +KENT. +Why, fool? + +FOOL. +Why, for taking one’s part that’s out of favour. Nay, an thou canst not +smile as the wind sits, thou’lt catch cold shortly: there, take my +coxcomb: why, this fellow has banish’d two on’s daughters, and did the +third a blessing against his will; if thou follow him, thou must needs +wear my coxcomb. How now, nuncle! Would I had two coxcombs and two +daughters! + +LEAR. +Why, my boy? + +FOOL. +If I gave them all my living, I’d keep my coxcombs myself. There’s +mine; beg another of thy daughters. + +LEAR. +Take heed, sirrah, the whip. + +FOOL. +Truth’s a dog must to kennel; he must be whipped out, when the Lady +Brach may stand by the fire and stink. + +LEAR. +A pestilent gall to me! + +FOOL. +Sirrah, I’ll teach thee a speech. + +LEAR. +Do. + +FOOL. +Mark it, nuncle: + Have more than thou showest, + Speak less than thou knowest, + Lend less than thou owest, + Ride more than thou goest, + Learn more than thou trowest, + Set less than thou throwest; + Leave thy drink and thy whore, + And keep in-a-door, + And thou shalt have more + Than two tens to a score. + +KENT. +This is nothing, fool. + +FOOL. +Then ’tis like the breath of an unfee’d lawyer, you gave me nothing +for’t. Can you make no use of nothing, nuncle? + +LEAR. +Why, no, boy; nothing can be made out of nothing. + +FOOL. +[_to Kent._] Prythee tell him, so much the rent of his land comes to: +he will not believe a fool. + +LEAR. +A bitter fool. + +FOOL. +Dost thou know the difference, my boy, between a bitter fool and a +sweet one? + +LEAR. +No, lad; teach me. + +FOOL. + That lord that counsell’d thee + To give away thy land, + Come place him here by me, + Do thou for him stand. + The sweet and bitter fool + Will presently appear; + The one in motley here, + The other found out there. + +LEAR. +Dost thou call me fool, boy? + +FOOL. +All thy other titles thou hast given away; that thou wast born with. + +KENT. +This is not altogether fool, my lord. + +FOOL. +No, faith; lords and great men will not let me; if I had a monopoly +out, they would have part on’t and ladies too, they will not let me +have all the fool to myself; they’ll be snatching. Nuncle, give me an +egg, and I’ll give thee two crowns. + +LEAR. +What two crowns shall they be? + +FOOL. +Why, after I have cut the egg i’ the middle and eat up the meat, the +two crowns of the egg. When thou clovest thy crown i’ the middle and +gav’st away both parts, thou bor’st thine ass on thy back o’er the +dirt: thou hadst little wit in thy bald crown when thou gav’st thy +golden one away. If I speak like myself in this, let him be whipped +that first finds it so. +[_Singing._] + Fools had ne’er less grace in a year; + For wise men are grown foppish, + And know not how their wits to wear, + Their manners are so apish. + +LEAR. +When were you wont to be so full of songs, sirrah? + +FOOL. +I have used it, nuncle, e’er since thou mad’st thy daughters thy +mothers; for when thou gav’st them the rod, and put’st down thine own +breeches, +[_Singing._] + Then they for sudden joy did weep, + And I for sorrow sung, + That such a king should play bo-peep, + And go the fools among. +Prythee, nuncle, keep a schoolmaster that can teach thy fool to lie; I +would fain learn to lie. + +LEAR. +An you lie, sirrah, we’ll have you whipped. + +FOOL. +I marvel what kin thou and thy daughters are: they’ll have me whipped +for speaking true; thou’lt have me whipped for lying; and sometimes I +am whipped for holding my peace. I had rather be any kind o’thing than +a fool: and yet I would not be thee, nuncle: thou hast pared thy wit +o’both sides, and left nothing i’ the middle: here comes one o’ the +parings. + + Enter Goneril. + +LEAR. +How now, daughter? What makes that frontlet on? Methinks you are too +much of late i’ the frown. + +FOOL. +Thou wast a pretty fellow when thou hadst no need to care for her +frowning. Now thou art an O without a figure: I am better than thou art +now. I am a fool, thou art nothing. [_To Goneril._] Yes, forsooth, I +will hold my tongue. So your face bids me, though you say nothing. Mum, +mum, + He that keeps nor crust nor crum, + Weary of all, shall want some. +[_Pointing to Lear_.] That’s a shealed peascod. + +GONERIL. +Not only, sir, this your all-licens’d fool, +But other of your insolent retinue +Do hourly carp and quarrel; breaking forth +In rank and not-to-be-endured riots. Sir, +I had thought, by making this well known unto you, +To have found a safe redress; but now grow fearful, +By what yourself too late have spoke and done, +That you protect this course, and put it on +By your allowance; which if you should, the fault +Would not scape censure, nor the redresses sleep, +Which, in the tender of a wholesome weal, +Might in their working do you that offence +Which else were shame, that then necessity +Will call discreet proceeding. + +FOOL. +For you know, nuncle, + The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long + That it’s had it head bit off by it young. +So out went the candle, and we were left darkling. + +LEAR. +Are you our daughter? + +GONERIL. +Come, sir, +I would you would make use of that good wisdom, +Whereof I know you are fraught; and put away +These dispositions, which of late transform you +From what you rightly are. + +FOOL. +May not an ass know when the cart draws the horse? Whoop, Jug! I love +thee! + +LEAR. +Doth any here know me? This is not Lear; +Doth Lear walk thus? speak thus? Where are his eyes? +Either his notion weakens, his discernings +Are lethargied. Ha! waking? ’Tis not so! +Who is it that can tell me who I am? + +FOOL. +Lear’s shadow. + +LEAR. +I would learn that; for by the marks of sovereignty, knowledge and +reason, I should be false persuaded I had daughters. + +FOOL. +Which they will make an obedient father. + +LEAR. +Your name, fair gentlewoman? + +GONERIL. +This admiration, sir, is much o’ the favour +Of other your new pranks. I do beseech you +To understand my purposes aright: +As you are old and reverend, you should be wise. +Here do you keep a hundred knights and squires; +Men so disorder’d, so debosh’d and bold +That this our court, infected with their manners, +Shows like a riotous inn. Epicurism and lust +Makes it more like a tavern or a brothel +Than a grac’d palace. The shame itself doth speak +For instant remedy. Be, then, desir’d +By her that else will take the thing she begs +A little to disquantity your train; +And the remainder that shall still depend, +To be such men as may besort your age, +Which know themselves, and you. + +LEAR. +Darkness and devils! +Saddle my horses; call my train together. +Degenerate bastard! I’ll not trouble thee: +Yet have I left a daughter. + +GONERIL. +You strike my people; and your disorder’d rabble +Make servants of their betters. + + Enter Albany. + +LEAR. +Woe that too late repents!— +[_To Albany._] O, sir, are you come? +Is it your will? Speak, sir.—Prepare my horses. +Ingratitude, thou marble-hearted fiend, +More hideous when thou show’st thee in a child +Than the sea-monster! + +ALBANY. +Pray, sir, be patient. + +LEAR. +[_to Goneril._] Detested kite, thou liest. +My train are men of choice and rarest parts, +That all particulars of duty know; +And in the most exact regard support +The worships of their name. O most small fault, +How ugly didst thou in Cordelia show! +Which, like an engine, wrench’d my frame of nature +From the fix’d place; drew from my heart all love, +And added to the gall. O Lear, Lear, Lear! +[_Striking his head._] Beat at this gate that let thy folly in +And thy dear judgement out! Go, go, my people. + +ALBANY. +My lord, I am guiltless, as I am ignorant +Of what hath moved you. + +LEAR. +It may be so, my lord. +Hear, nature, hear; dear goddess, hear +Suspend thy purpose, if thou didst intend +To make this creature fruitful! +Into her womb convey sterility! +Dry up in her the organs of increase; +And from her derogate body never spring +A babe to honour her! If she must teem, +Create her child of spleen, that it may live +And be a thwart disnatur’d torment to her! +Let it stamp wrinkles in her brow of youth; +With cadent tears fret channels in her cheeks; +Turn all her mother’s pains and benefits +To laughter and contempt; that she may feel +How sharper than a serpent’s tooth it is +To have a thankless child! Away, away! + + [_Exit._] + +ALBANY. +Now, gods that we adore, whereof comes this? + +GONERIL. +Never afflict yourself to know more of it; +But let his disposition have that scope +That dotage gives it. + + Re-enter Lear. + +LEAR. +What, fifty of my followers at a clap? +Within a fortnight? + +ALBANY. +What’s the matter, sir? + +LEAR. +I’ll tell thee. [_To Goneril._] Life and death! I am asham’d +That thou hast power to shake my manhood thus; +That these hot tears, which break from me perforce, +Should make thee worth them. Blasts and fogs upon thee! +Th’untented woundings of a father’s curse +Pierce every sense about thee! Old fond eyes, +Beweep this cause again, I’ll pluck ye out, +And cast you with the waters that you lose +To temper clay. Ha! Let it be so. +I have another daughter, +Who, I am sure, is kind and comfortable: +When she shall hear this of thee, with her nails +She’ll flay thy wolvish visage. Thou shalt find +That I’ll resume the shape which thou dost think +I have cast off for ever. + + [_Exeunt Lear, Kent and Attendants._] + +GONERIL. +Do you mark that? + +ALBANY. +I cannot be so partial, Goneril, +To the great love I bear you,— + +GONERIL. +Pray you, content. What, Oswald, ho! +[_To the Fool._] You, sir, more knave than fool, after your master. + +FOOL. +Nuncle Lear, nuncle Lear, tarry and take the fool with thee. + A fox when one has caught her, + And such a daughter, + Should sure to the slaughter, + If my cap would buy a halter; + So the fool follows after. + + [_Exit._] + +GONERIL. +This man hath had good counsel.—A hundred knights! +’Tis politic and safe to let him keep +At point a hundred knights: yes, that on every dream, +Each buzz, each fancy, each complaint, dislike, +He may enguard his dotage with their powers, +And hold our lives in mercy. Oswald, I say! + +ALBANY. +Well, you may fear too far. + +GONERIL. +Safer than trust too far: +Let me still take away the harms I fear, +Not fear still to be taken: I know his heart. +What he hath utter’d I have writ my sister: +If she sustain him and his hundred knights, +When I have show’d th’unfitness,— + + Re-enter Oswald. + +How now, Oswald! +What, have you writ that letter to my sister? + +OSWALD. +Ay, madam. + +GONERIL. +Take you some company, and away to horse: +Inform her full of my particular fear; +And thereto add such reasons of your own +As may compact it more. Get you gone; +And hasten your return. + + [_Exit Oswald._] + +No, no, my lord! +This milky gentleness and course of yours, +Though I condemn not, yet, under pardon, +You are much more attask’d for want of wisdom +Than prais’d for harmful mildness. + +ALBANY. +How far your eyes may pierce I cannot tell: +Striving to better, oft we mar what’s well. + +GONERIL. +Nay then,— + +ALBANY. +Well, well; the event. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Court before the Duke of Albany’s Palace. + + Enter Lear, Kent and Fool. + +LEAR. +Go you before to Gloucester with these letters: acquaint my daughter no +further with anything you know than comes from her demand out of the +letter. If your diligence be not speedy, I shall be there afore you. + +KENT. +I will not sleep, my lord, till I have delivered your letter. + + [_Exit._] + +FOOL. +If a man’s brains were in’s heels, were’t not in danger of kibes? + +LEAR. +Ay, boy. + +FOOL. +Then I prythee be merry; thy wit shall not go slipshod. + +LEAR. +Ha, ha, ha! + +FOOL. +Shalt see thy other daughter will use thee kindly, for though she’s as +like this as a crab’s like an apple, yet I can tell what I can tell. + +LEAR. +What canst tell, boy? + +FOOL. +She’ll taste as like this as a crab does to a crab. Thou canst tell why +one’s nose stands i’the middle on’s face? + +LEAR. +No. + +FOOL. +Why, to keep one’s eyes of either side’s nose, that what a man cannot +smell out, he may spy into. + +LEAR. +I did her wrong. + +FOOL. +Canst tell how an oyster makes his shell? + +LEAR. +No. + +FOOL. +Nor I neither; but I can tell why a snail has a house. + +LEAR. +Why? + +FOOL. +Why, to put’s head in; not to give it away to his daughters, and leave +his horns without a case. + +LEAR. +I will forget my nature. So kind a father! Be my horses ready? + +FOOL. +Thy asses are gone about ’em. The reason why the seven stars are no +more than seven is a pretty reason. + +LEAR. +Because they are not eight? + +FOOL. +Yes indeed: thou wouldst make a good fool. + +LEAR. +To tak’t again perforce!—Monster ingratitude! + +FOOL. +If thou wert my fool, nuncle, I’ld have thee beaten for being old +before thy time. + +LEAR. +How’s that? + +FOOL. +Thou shouldst not have been old till thou hadst been wise. + +LEAR. +O, let me not be mad, not mad, sweet heaven! +Keep me in temper; I would not be mad! + + Enter Gentleman. + +How now? are the horses ready? + +GENTLEMAN. +Ready, my lord. + +LEAR. +Come, boy. + +FOOL. +She that’s a maid now, and laughs at my departure, +Shall not be a maid long, unless things be cut shorter. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. A court within the Castle of the Earl of Gloucester. + + Enter Edmund and Curan, meeting. + +EDMUND. +Save thee, Curan. + +CURAN. +And you, sir. I have been with your father, and given him notice that +the Duke of Cornwall and Regan his Duchess will be here with him this +night. + +EDMUND. +How comes that? + +CURAN. +Nay, I know not. You have heard of the news abroad; I mean the +whispered ones, for they are yet but ear-kissing arguments? + +EDMUND. +Not I: pray you, what are they? + +CURAN. +Have you heard of no likely wars toward, ’twixt the two dukes of +Cornwall and Albany? + +EDMUND. +Not a word. + +CURAN. +You may do, then, in time. Fare you well, sir. + + [_Exit._] + +EDMUND. +The Duke be here tonight? The better! best! +This weaves itself perforce into my business. +My father hath set guard to take my brother; +And I have one thing, of a queasy question, +Which I must act. Briefness and fortune work! +Brother, a word, descend, brother, I say! + + Enter Edgar. + +My father watches: O sir, fly this place; +Intelligence is given where you are hid; +You have now the good advantage of the night. +Have you not spoken ’gainst the Duke of Cornwall? +He’s coming hither; now, i’ the night, i’ the haste, +And Regan with him: have you nothing said +Upon his party ’gainst the Duke of Albany? +Advise yourself. + +EDGAR. +I am sure on’t, not a word. + +EDMUND. +I hear my father coming:—pardon me; +In cunning I must draw my sword upon you: +Draw: seem to defend yourself: now quit you well. +Yield: come before my father. Light, ho, here! +Fly, brother. Torches, torches!—So farewell. + + [_Exit Edgar._] + +Some blood drawn on me would beget opinion +Of my more fierce endeavour: [_Wounds his arm._] +I have seen drunkards +Do more than this in sport. Father, father! +Stop, stop! No help? + + Enter Gloucester and Servants with torches. + +GLOUCESTER. +Now, Edmund, where’s the villain? + +EDMUND. +Here stood he in the dark, his sharp sword out, +Mumbling of wicked charms, conjuring the moon +To stand auspicious mistress. + +GLOUCESTER. +But where is he? + +EDMUND. +Look, sir, I bleed. + +GLOUCESTER. +Where is the villain, Edmund? + +EDMUND. +Fled this way, sir. When by no means he could,— + +GLOUCESTER. +Pursue him, ho! Go after. + + [_Exeunt Servants._] + +—By no means what? + +EDMUND. +Persuade me to the murder of your lordship; +But that I told him the revenging gods +’Gainst parricides did all their thunders bend; +Spoke with how manifold and strong a bond +The child was bound to the father; sir, in fine, +Seeing how loathly opposite I stood +To his unnatural purpose, in fell motion +With his prepared sword, he charges home +My unprovided body, latch’d mine arm; +But when he saw my best alarum’d spirits, +Bold in the quarrel’s right, rous’d to th’encounter, +Or whether gasted by the noise I made, +Full suddenly he fled. + +GLOUCESTER. +Let him fly far; +Not in this land shall he remain uncaught; +And found—dispatch’d. The noble Duke my master, +My worthy arch and patron, comes tonight: +By his authority I will proclaim it, +That he which finds him shall deserve our thanks, +Bringing the murderous coward to the stake; +He that conceals him, death. + +EDMUND. +When I dissuaded him from his intent, +And found him pight to do it, with curst speech +I threaten’d to discover him: he replied, +‘Thou unpossessing bastard! dost thou think, +If I would stand against thee, would the reposal +Of any trust, virtue, or worth in thee +Make thy words faith’d? No: what I should deny +As this I would; ay, though thou didst produce +My very character, I’d turn it all +To thy suggestion, plot, and damned practice: +And thou must make a dullard of the world, +If they not thought the profits of my death +Were very pregnant and potential spurs +To make thee seek it. + +GLOUCESTER. +O strange and fast’ned villain! +Would he deny his letter, said he? I never got him. + + [_Tucket within._] + +Hark, the Duke’s trumpets! I know not why he comes. +All ports I’ll bar; the villain shall not scape; +The Duke must grant me that: besides, his picture +I will send far and near, that all the kingdom +May have due note of him; and of my land, +Loyal and natural boy, I’ll work the means +To make thee capable. + + Enter Cornwall, Regan and Attendants. + +CORNWALL. +How now, my noble friend! since I came hither, +Which I can call but now, I have heard strange news. + +REGAN. +If it be true, all vengeance comes too short +Which can pursue th’offender. How dost, my lord? + +GLOUCESTER. +O madam, my old heart is crack’d, it’s crack’d! + +REGAN. +What, did my father’s godson seek your life? +He whom my father nam’d? your Edgar? + +GLOUCESTER. +O lady, lady, shame would have it hid! + +REGAN. +Was he not companion with the riotous knights +That tend upon my father? + +GLOUCESTER. +I know not, madam; ’tis too bad, too bad. + +EDMUND. +Yes, madam, he was of that consort. + +REGAN. +No marvel then though he were ill affected: +’Tis they have put him on the old man’s death, +To have the expense and waste of his revenues. +I have this present evening from my sister +Been well inform’d of them; and with such cautions +That if they come to sojourn at my house, +I’ll not be there. + +CORNWALL. +Nor I, assure thee, Regan. +Edmund, I hear that you have shown your father +A childlike office. + +EDMUND. +It was my duty, sir. + +GLOUCESTER. +He did bewray his practice; and receiv’d +This hurt you see, striving to apprehend him. + +CORNWALL. +Is he pursued? + +GLOUCESTER. +Ay, my good lord. + +CORNWALL. +If he be taken, he shall never more +Be fear’d of doing harm: make your own purpose, +How in my strength you please. For you, Edmund, +Whose virtue and obedience doth this instant +So much commend itself, you shall be ours: +Natures of such deep trust we shall much need; +You we first seize on. + +EDMUND. +I shall serve you, sir, truly, however else. + +GLOUCESTER. +For him I thank your grace. + +CORNWALL. +You know not why we came to visit you? + +REGAN. +Thus out of season, threading dark-ey’d night: +Occasions, noble Gloucester, of some poise, +Wherein we must have use of your advice. +Our father he hath writ, so hath our sister, +Of differences, which I best thought it fit +To answer from our home; the several messengers +From hence attend dispatch. Our good old friend, +Lay comforts to your bosom; and bestow +Your needful counsel to our business, +Which craves the instant use. + +GLOUCESTER. +I serve you, madam: +Your graces are right welcome. + + [_Exeunt. Flourish._] + +SCENE II. Before Gloucester’s Castle. + + Enter Kent and Oswald, severally. + +OSWALD. +Good dawning to thee, friend: art of this house? + +KENT. +Ay. + +OSWALD. +Where may we set our horses? + +KENT. +I’ the mire. + +OSWALD. +Prythee, if thou lov’st me, tell me. + +KENT. +I love thee not. + +OSWALD. +Why then, I care not for thee. + +KENT. +If I had thee in Lipsbury pinfold, I would make thee care for me. + +OSWALD. +Why dost thou use me thus? I know thee not. + +KENT. +Fellow, I know thee. + +OSWALD. +What dost thou know me for? + +KENT. +A knave; a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, +beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave; +a lily-livered, action-taking, whoreson, glass-gazing, +super-serviceable, finical rogue; one trunk-inheriting slave; one that +wouldst be a bawd in way of good service, and art nothing but the +composition of a knave, beggar, coward, pander, and the son and heir of +a mongrel bitch: one whom I will beat into clamorous whining, if thou +deniest the least syllable of thy addition. + +OSWALD. +Why, what a monstrous fellow art thou, thus to rail on one that’s +neither known of thee nor knows thee? + +KENT. +What a brazen-faced varlet art thou, to deny thou knowest me! Is it two +days ago since I tripped up thy heels and beat thee before the King? +Draw, you rogue: for, though it be night, yet the moon shines; I’ll +make a sop o’ the moonshine of you: draw, you whoreson cullionly +barber-monger, draw! + + [_Drawing his sword._] + +OSWALD. +Away! I have nothing to do with thee. + +KENT. +Draw, you rascal: you come with letters against the King; and take +vanity the puppet’s part against the royalty of her father: draw, you +rogue, or I’ll so carbonado your shanks:—draw, you rascal; come your +ways! + +OSWALD. +Help, ho! murder! help! + +KENT. +Strike, you slave; stand, rogue, stand; you neat slave, strike! + + [_Beating him._] + +OSWALD. +Help, ho! murder! murder! + + Enter Edmund, Cornwall, Regan, Gloucester and Servants. + +EDMUND. +How now! What’s the matter? Part! + +KENT. +With you, goodman boy, if you please: come, I’ll flesh ye; come on, +young master. + +GLOUCESTER. +Weapons! arms! What’s the matter here? + +CORNWALL. +Keep peace, upon your lives, he dies that strikes again. What is the +matter? + +REGAN. +The messengers from our sister and the King. + +CORNWALL. +What is your difference? Speak. + +OSWALD. +I am scarce in breath, my lord. + +KENT. +No marvel, you have so bestirr’d your valour. You cowardly rascal, +nature disclaims in thee; a tailor made thee. + +CORNWALL. +Thou art a strange fellow: a tailor make a man? + +KENT. +Ay, a tailor, sir: a stonecutter or a painter could not have made him +so ill, though he had been but two years at the trade. + +CORNWALL. +Speak yet, how grew your quarrel? + +OSWALD. +This ancient ruffian, sir, whose life I have spared at suit of his grey +beard,— + +KENT. +Thou whoreson zed! thou unnecessary letter! My lord, if you’ll give me +leave, I will tread this unbolted villain into mortar and daub the +walls of a jakes with him. Spare my grey beard, you wagtail? + +CORNWALL. +Peace, sirrah! +You beastly knave, know you no reverence? + +KENT. +Yes, sir; but anger hath a privilege. + +CORNWALL. +Why art thou angry? + +KENT. +That such a slave as this should wear a sword, +Who wears no honesty. Such smiling rogues as these, +Like rats, oft bite the holy cords a-twain +Which are too intrince t’unloose; smooth every passion +That in the natures of their lords rebel; +Bring oil to fire, snow to their colder moods; +Renege, affirm, and turn their halcyon beaks +With every gale and vary of their masters, +Knowing naught, like dogs, but following. +A plague upon your epileptic visage! +Smile you my speeches, as I were a fool? +Goose, if I had you upon Sarum plain, +I’d drive ye cackling home to Camelot. + +CORNWALL. +What, art thou mad, old fellow? + +GLOUCESTER. +How fell you out? Say that. + +KENT. +No contraries hold more antipathy +Than I and such a knave. + +CORNWALL. +Why dost thou call him knave? What is his fault? + +KENT. +His countenance likes me not. + +CORNWALL. +No more perchance does mine, or his, or hers. + +KENT. +Sir, ’tis my occupation to be plain: +I have seen better faces in my time +Than stands on any shoulder that I see +Before me at this instant. + +CORNWALL. +This is some fellow +Who, having been prais’d for bluntness, doth affect +A saucy roughness, and constrains the garb +Quite from his nature: he cannot flatter, he, +An honest mind and plain, he must speak truth! +An they will take it, so; if not, he’s plain. +These kind of knaves I know which in this plainness +Harbour more craft and more corrupter ends +Than twenty silly-ducking observants +That stretch their duties nicely. + +KENT. +Sir, in good faith, in sincere verity, +Under th’allowance of your great aspect, +Whose influence, like the wreath of radiant fire +On flickering Phoebus’ front,— + +CORNWALL. +What mean’st by this? + +KENT. +To go out of my dialect, which you discommend so much. I know, sir, I +am no flatterer: he that beguiled you in a plain accent was a plain +knave; which, for my part, I will not be, though I should win your +displeasure to entreat me to’t. + +CORNWALL. +What was the offence you gave him? + +OSWALD. +I never gave him any: +It pleas’d the King his master very late +To strike at me, upon his misconstruction; +When he, compact, and flattering his displeasure, +Tripp’d me behind; being down, insulted, rail’d +And put upon him such a deal of man, +That worthied him, got praises of the King +For him attempting who was self-subdu’d; +And, in the fleshment of this dread exploit, +Drew on me here again. + +KENT. +None of these rogues and cowards +But Ajax is their fool. + +CORNWALL. +Fetch forth the stocks! +You stubborn ancient knave, you reverent braggart, +We’ll teach you. + +KENT. +Sir, I am too old to learn: +Call not your stocks for me: I serve the King; +On whose employment I was sent to you: +You shall do small respect, show too bold malice +Against the grace and person of my master, +Stocking his messenger. + +CORNWALL. +Fetch forth the stocks! +As I have life and honour, there shall he sit till noon. + +REGAN. +Till noon! Till night, my lord; and all night too! + +KENT. +Why, madam, if I were your father’s dog, +You should not use me so. + +REGAN. +Sir, being his knave, I will. + + [_Stocks brought out._] + +CORNWALL. +This is a fellow of the selfsame colour +Our sister speaks of. Come, bring away the stocks! + +GLOUCESTER. +Let me beseech your grace not to do so: +His fault is much, and the good King his master +Will check him for’t: your purpos’d low correction +Is such as basest and contemned’st wretches +For pilferings and most common trespasses, +Are punish’d with. The King must take it ill +That he, so slightly valued in his messenger, +Should have him thus restrained. + +CORNWALL. +I’ll answer that. + +REGAN. +My sister may receive it much more worse, +To have her gentleman abus’d, assaulted, +For following her affairs. Put in his legs. + + [_Kent is put in the stocks._] + +CORNWALL. +Come, my good lord, away. + + [_Exeunt all but Gloucester and Kent._] + +GLOUCESTER. +I am sorry for thee, friend; ’tis the Duke’s pleasure, +Whose disposition, all the world well knows, +Will not be rubb’d nor stopp’d; I’ll entreat for thee. + +KENT. +Pray do not, sir: I have watch’d, and travell’d hard; +Some time I shall sleep out, the rest I’ll whistle. +A good man’s fortune may grow out at heels: +Give you good morrow! + +GLOUCESTER. +The Duke’s to blame in this: ’twill be ill taken. + + [_Exit._] + +KENT. +Good King, that must approve the common saw, +Thou out of heaven’s benediction com’st +To the warm sun. +Approach, thou beacon to this under globe, +That by thy comfortable beams I may +Peruse this letter. Nothing almost sees miracles +But misery. I know ’tis from Cordelia, +Who hath most fortunately been inform’d +Of my obscured course. And shall find time +From this enormous state, seeking to give +Losses their remedies. All weary and o’erwatch’d, +Take vantage, heavy eyes, not to behold +This shameful lodging. +Fortune, good night: smile once more, turn thy wheel! + + [_He sleeps._] + +SCENE III. The open Country. + + Enter Edgar. + +EDGAR. +I heard myself proclaim’d, +And by the happy hollow of a tree +Escap’d the hunt. No port is free, no place +That guard and most unusual vigilance +Does not attend my taking. While I may scape +I will preserve myself: and am bethought +To take the basest and most poorest shape +That ever penury in contempt of man, +Brought near to beast: my face I’ll grime with filth, +Blanket my loins; elf all my hair in knots, +And with presented nakedness outface +The winds and persecutions of the sky. +The country gives me proof and precedent +Of Bedlam beggars, who, with roaring voices, +Strike in their numb’d and mortified bare arms +Pins, wooden pricks, nails, sprigs of rosemary; +And with this horrible object, from low farms, +Poor pelting villages, sheep-cotes, and mills, +Sometime with lunatic bans, sometime with prayers, +Enforce their charity. Poor Turlygod! poor Tom, +That’s something yet: Edgar I nothing am. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Before Gloucester’s Castle; Kent in the stocks. + + Enter Lear, Fool and Gentleman. + +LEAR. +’Tis strange that they should so depart from home, +And not send back my messenger. + +GENTLEMAN. +As I learn’d, +The night before there was no purpose in them +Of this remove. + +KENT. +Hail to thee, noble master! + +LEAR. +Ha! Mak’st thou this shame thy pastime? + +KENT. +No, my lord. + +FOOL. +Ha, ha! he wears cruel garters. Horses are tied by the heads; dogs and +bears by the neck, monkeys by the loins, and men by the legs: when a +man is overlusty at legs, then he wears wooden nether-stocks. + +LEAR. +What’s he that hath so much thy place mistook +To set thee here? + +KENT. +It is both he and she, +Your son and daughter. + +LEAR. +No. + +KENT. +Yes. + +LEAR. +No, I say. + +KENT. +I say, yea. + +LEAR. +No, no; they would not. + +KENT. +Yes, they have. + +LEAR. +By Jupiter, I swear no. + +KENT. +By Juno, I swear ay. + +LEAR. +They durst not do’t. +They could not, would not do’t; ’tis worse than murder, +To do upon respect such violent outrage: +Resolve me, with all modest haste, which way +Thou mightst deserve or they impose this usage, +Coming from us. + +KENT. +My lord, when at their home +I did commend your highness’ letters to them, +Ere I was risen from the place that show’d +My duty kneeling, came there a reeking post, +Stew’d in his haste, half breathless, panting forth +From Goneril his mistress salutations; +Deliver’d letters, spite of intermission, +Which presently they read; on those contents, +They summon’d up their meiny, straight took horse; +Commanded me to follow and attend +The leisure of their answer; gave me cold looks: +And meeting here the other messenger, +Whose welcome I perceiv’d had poison’d mine, +Being the very fellow which of late +Display’d so saucily against your highness, +Having more man than wit about me, drew; +He rais’d the house with loud and coward cries. +Your son and daughter found this trespass worth +The shame which here it suffers. + +FOOL. +Winter’s not gone yet, if the wild geese fly that way. + Fathers that wear rags + Do make their children blind, + But fathers that bear bags + Shall see their children kind. + Fortune, that arrant whore, + Ne’er turns the key to th’ poor. +But for all this, thou shalt have as many dolours for thy daughters as +thou canst tell in a year. + +LEAR. +O, how this mother swells up toward my heart! +_Hysterica passio_, down, thou climbing sorrow, +Thy element’s below! Where is this daughter? + +KENT. +With the earl, sir, here within. + +LEAR. +Follow me not; stay here. + + [_Exit._] + +GENTLEMAN. +Made you no more offence but what you speak of? + +KENT. +None. +How chance the King comes with so small a number? + +FOOL. +An thou hadst been set i’ the stocks for that question, thou hadst well +deserved it. + +KENT. +Why, fool? + +FOOL. +We’ll set thee to school to an ant, to teach thee there’s no labouring +i’the winter. All that follow their noses are led by their eyes but +blind men; and there’s not a nose among twenty but can smell him that’s +stinking. Let go thy hold when a great wheel runs down a hill, lest it +break thy neck with following it; but the great one that goes upward, +let him draw thee after. When a wise man gives thee better counsel, +give me mine again: I would have none but knaves follow it, since a +fool gives it. + That sir which serves and seeks for gain, + And follows but for form, + Will pack when it begins to rain, + And leave thee in the storm. + But I will tarry; the fool will stay, + And let the wise man fly: + The knave turns fool that runs away; + The fool no knave perdy. + +KENT. +Where learn’d you this, fool? + +FOOL. +Not i’ the stocks, fool. + + Enter Lear and Gloucester. + +LEAR. +Deny to speak with me? They are sick? they are weary? +They have travell’d all the night? Mere fetches; +The images of revolt and flying off. +Fetch me a better answer. + +GLOUCESTER. +My dear lord, +You know the fiery quality of the Duke; +How unremovable and fix’d he is +In his own course. + +LEAR. +Vengeance! plague! death! confusion! +Fiery? What quality? Why, Gloucester, Gloucester, +I’d speak with the Duke of Cornwall and his wife. + +GLOUCESTER. +Well, my good lord, I have inform’d them so. + +LEAR. +Inform’d them! Dost thou understand me, man? + +GLOUCESTER. +Ay, my good lord. + +LEAR. +The King would speak with Cornwall; the dear father +Would with his daughter speak, commands, tends, service, +Are they inform’d of this? My breath and blood! +Fiery? The fiery Duke, tell the hot Duke that— +No, but not yet: maybe he is not well: +Infirmity doth still neglect all office +Whereto our health is bound: we are not ourselves +When nature, being oppress’d, commands the mind +To suffer with the body: I’ll forbear; +And am fallen out with my more headier will, +To take the indispos’d and sickly fit +For the sound man. [_Looking on Kent._] +Death on my state! Wherefore +Should he sit here? This act persuades me +That this remotion of the Duke and her +Is practice only. Give me my servant forth. +Go tell the Duke and’s wife I’d speak with them, +Now, presently: bid them come forth and hear me, +Or at their chamber door I’ll beat the drum +Till it cry sleep to death. + +GLOUCESTER. +I would have all well betwixt you. + + [_Exit._] + +LEAR. +O me, my heart, my rising heart! But down! + +FOOL. +Cry to it, nuncle, as the cockney did to the eels when she put ’em i’ +the paste alive; she knapped ’em o’ the coxcombs with a stick and cried +‘Down, wantons, down!’ ’Twas her brother that, in pure kindness to his +horse buttered his hay. + + Enter Cornwall, Regan, Gloucester and Servants. + +LEAR. +Good morrow to you both. + +CORNWALL. +Hail to your grace! + + [_Kent here set at liberty._] + +REGAN. +I am glad to see your highness. + +LEAR. +Regan, I think you are; I know what reason +I have to think so: if thou shouldst not be glad, +I would divorce me from thy mother’s tomb, +Sepulchring an adultress. [_To Kent_] O, are you free? +Some other time for that.—Beloved Regan, +Thy sister’s naught: O Regan, she hath tied +Sharp-tooth’d unkindness, like a vulture, here. + + [_Points to his heart._] + +I can scarce speak to thee; thou’lt not believe +With how deprav’d a quality—O Regan! + +REGAN. +I pray you, sir, take patience. I have hope +You less know how to value her desert +Than she to scant her duty. + +LEAR. +Say, how is that? + +REGAN. +I cannot think my sister in the least +Would fail her obligation. If, sir, perchance +She have restrain’d the riots of your followers, +’Tis on such ground, and to such wholesome end, +As clears her from all blame. + +LEAR. +My curses on her. + +REGAN. +O, sir, you are old; +Nature in you stands on the very verge +Of her confine: you should be rul’d and led +By some discretion, that discerns your state +Better than you yourself. Therefore I pray you, +That to our sister you do make return; +Say you have wrong’d her, sir. + +LEAR. +Ask her forgiveness? +Do you but mark how this becomes the house? +‘Dear daughter, I confess that I am old; +[_Kneeling._] +Age is unnecessary: on my knees I beg +That you’ll vouchsafe me raiment, bed, and food.’ + +REGAN. +Good sir, no more! These are unsightly tricks: +Return you to my sister. + +LEAR. +[_Rising._] Never, Regan: +She hath abated me of half my train; +Look’d black upon me; struck me with her tongue, +Most serpent-like, upon the very heart. +All the stor’d vengeances of heaven fall +On her ingrateful top! Strike her young bones, +You taking airs, with lameness! + +CORNWALL. +Fie, sir, fie! + +LEAR. +You nimble lightnings, dart your blinding flames +Into her scornful eyes! Infect her beauty, +You fen-suck’d fogs, drawn by the powerful sun, +To fall and blast her pride! + +REGAN. +O the blest gods! +So will you wish on me when the rash mood is on. + +LEAR. +No, Regan, thou shalt never have my curse. +Thy tender-hefted nature shall not give +Thee o’er to harshness. Her eyes are fierce; but thine +Do comfort, and not burn. ’Tis not in thee +To grudge my pleasures, to cut off my train, +To bandy hasty words, to scant my sizes, +And, in conclusion, to oppose the bolt +Against my coming in. Thou better know’st +The offices of nature, bond of childhood, +Effects of courtesy, dues of gratitude; +Thy half o’ the kingdom hast thou not forgot, +Wherein I thee endow’d. + +REGAN. +Good sir, to the purpose. + +LEAR. +Who put my man i’ the stocks? + + [_Tucket within._] + +CORNWALL. +What trumpet’s that? + +REGAN. +I know’t, my sister’s: this approves her letter, +That she would soon be here. + + Enter Oswald. + +Is your lady come? + +LEAR. +This is a slave, whose easy borrowed pride +Dwells in the fickle grace of her he follows. +Out, varlet, from my sight! + +CORNWALL. +What means your grace? + +LEAR. +Who stock’d my servant? Regan, I have good hope +Thou didst not know on’t. Who comes here? O heavens! + + Enter Goneril. + +If you do love old men, if your sweet sway +Allow obedience, if yourselves are old, +Make it your cause; send down, and take my part! +[_To Goneril._] Art not asham’d to look upon this beard? +O Regan, wilt thou take her by the hand? + +GONERIL. +Why not by the hand, sir? How have I offended? +All’s not offence that indiscretion finds +And dotage terms so. + +LEAR. +O sides, you are too tough! +Will you yet hold? How came my man i’ the stocks? + +CORNWALL. +I set him there, sir: but his own disorders +Deserv’d much less advancement. + +LEAR. +You? Did you? + +REGAN. +I pray you, father, being weak, seem so. +If, till the expiration of your month, +You will return and sojourn with my sister, +Dismissing half your train, come then to me: +I am now from home, and out of that provision +Which shall be needful for your entertainment. + +LEAR. +Return to her, and fifty men dismiss’d? +No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose +To wage against the enmity o’ the air; +To be a comrade with the wolf and owl, +Necessity’s sharp pinch! Return with her? +Why, the hot-blooded France, that dowerless took +Our youngest born, I could as well be brought +To knee his throne, and, squire-like, pension beg +To keep base life afoot. Return with her? +Persuade me rather to be slave and sumpter +To this detested groom. + + [_Pointing to Oswald._] + +GONERIL. +At your choice, sir. + +LEAR. +I prythee, daughter, do not make me mad: +I will not trouble thee, my child; farewell: +We’ll no more meet, no more see one another. +But yet thou art my flesh, my blood, my daughter; +Or rather a disease that’s in my flesh, +Which I must needs call mine. Thou art a boil, +A plague sore, or embossed carbuncle +In my corrupted blood. But I’ll not chide thee; +Let shame come when it will, I do not call it: +I do not bid the thunder-bearer shoot, +Nor tell tales of thee to high-judging Jove: +Mend when thou canst; be better at thy leisure: +I can be patient; I can stay with Regan, +I and my hundred knights. + +REGAN. +Not altogether so, +I look’d not for you yet, nor am provided +For your fit welcome. Give ear, sir, to my sister; +For those that mingle reason with your passion +Must be content to think you old, and so— +But she knows what she does. + +LEAR. +Is this well spoken? + +REGAN. +I dare avouch it, sir: what, fifty followers? +Is it not well? What should you need of more? +Yea, or so many, sith that both charge and danger +Speak ’gainst so great a number? How in one house +Should many people, under two commands, +Hold amity? ’Tis hard; almost impossible. + +GONERIL. +Why might not you, my lord, receive attendance +From those that she calls servants, or from mine? + +REGAN. +Why not, my lord? If then they chanc’d to slack ye, +We could control them. If you will come to me,— +For now I spy a danger,—I entreat you +To bring but five-and-twenty: to no more +Will I give place or notice. + +LEAR. +I gave you all,— + +REGAN. +And in good time you gave it. + +LEAR. +Made you my guardians, my depositaries; +But kept a reservation to be followed +With such a number. What, must I come to you +With five-and-twenty, Regan, said you so? + +REGAN. +And speak’t again my lord; no more with me. + +LEAR. +Those wicked creatures yet do look well-favour’d +When others are more wicked; not being the worst +Stands in some rank of praise. +[_To Goneril._] I’ll go with thee: +Thy fifty yet doth double five-and-twenty, +And thou art twice her love. + +GONERIL. +Hear me, my lord: +What need you five-and-twenty? Ten? Or five? +To follow in a house where twice so many +Have a command to tend you? + +REGAN. +What need one? + +LEAR. +O, reason not the need: our basest beggars +Are in the poorest thing superfluous: +Allow not nature more than nature needs, +Man’s life is cheap as beast’s. Thou art a lady; +If only to go warm were gorgeous, +Why, nature needs not what thou gorgeous wear’st +Which scarcely keeps thee warm. But, for true need,— +You heavens, give me that patience, patience I need! +You see me here, you gods, a poor old man, +As full of grief as age; wretched in both! +If it be you that stirs these daughters’ hearts +Against their father, fool me not so much +To bear it tamely; touch me with noble anger, +And let not women’s weapons, water-drops, +Stain my man’s cheeks! No, you unnatural hags, +I will have such revenges on you both +That all the world shall,—I will do such things,— +What they are yet, I know not; but they shall be +The terrors of the earth. You think I’ll weep; +No, I’ll not weep:— [_Storm and tempest._] +I have full cause of weeping; but this heart +Shall break into a hundred thousand flaws +Or ere I’ll weep.—O fool, I shall go mad! + + [_Exeunt Lear, Gloucester, Kent and Fool._] + +CORNWALL. +Let us withdraw; ’twill be a storm. + +REGAN. +This house is little: the old man and his people +Cannot be well bestow’d. + +GONERIL. +’Tis his own blame; hath put himself from rest +And must needs taste his folly. + +REGAN. +For his particular, I’ll receive him gladly, +But not one follower. + +GONERIL. +So am I purpos’d. +Where is my lord of Gloucester? + + Enter Gloucester. + +CORNWALL. +Followed the old man forth, he is return’d. + +GLOUCESTER. +The King is in high rage. + +CORNWALL. +Whither is he going? + +GLOUCESTER. +He calls to horse; but will I know not whither. + +CORNWALL. +’Tis best to give him way; he leads himself. + +GONERIL. +My lord, entreat him by no means to stay. + +GLOUCESTER. +Alack, the night comes on, and the high winds +Do sorely ruffle; for many miles about +There’s scarce a bush. + +REGAN. +O, sir, to wilful men +The injuries that they themselves procure +Must be their schoolmasters. Shut up your doors. +He is attended with a desperate train, +And what they may incense him to, being apt +To have his ear abus’d, wisdom bids fear. + +CORNWALL. +Shut up your doors, my lord; ’tis a wild night. +My Regan counsels well: come out o’ the storm. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. A Heath. + + A storm with thunder and lightning. Enter Kent and a Gentleman, + severally. + +KENT. +Who’s there, besides foul weather? + +GENTLEMAN. +One minded like the weather, most unquietly. + +KENT. +I know you. Where’s the King? + +GENTLEMAN. +Contending with the fretful elements; +Bids the wind blow the earth into the sea, +Or swell the curled waters ’bove the main, +That things might change or cease; tears his white hair, +Which the impetuous blasts with eyeless rage, +Catch in their fury and make nothing of; +Strives in his little world of man to outscorn +The to-and-fro-conflicting wind and rain. +This night, wherein the cub-drawn bear would couch, +The lion and the belly-pinched wolf +Keep their fur dry, unbonneted he runs, +And bids what will take all. + +KENT. +But who is with him? + +GENTLEMAN. +None but the fool, who labours to out-jest +His heart-struck injuries. + +KENT. +Sir, I do know you; +And dare, upon the warrant of my note +Commend a dear thing to you. There is division, +Although as yet the face of it be cover’d +With mutual cunning, ’twixt Albany and Cornwall; +Who have, as who have not, that their great stars +Throne’d and set high; servants, who seem no less, +Which are to France the spies and speculations +Intelligent of our state. What hath been seen, +Either in snuffs and packings of the Dukes; +Or the hard rein which both of them have borne +Against the old kind King; or something deeper, +Whereof, perchance, these are but furnishings;— +But, true it is, from France there comes a power +Into this scatter’d kingdom; who already, +Wise in our negligence, have secret feet +In some of our best ports, and are at point +To show their open banner.—Now to you: +If on my credit you dare build so far +To make your speed to Dover, you shall find +Some that will thank you making just report +Of how unnatural and bemadding sorrow +The King hath cause to plain. +I am a gentleman of blood and breeding; +And from some knowledge and assurance +Offer this office to you. + +GENTLEMAN. +I will talk further with you. + +KENT. +No, do not. +For confirmation that I am much more +Than my out-wall, open this purse, and take +What it contains. If you shall see Cordelia, +As fear not but you shall, show her this ring; +And she will tell you who your fellow is +That yet you do not know. Fie on this storm! +I will go seek the King. + +GENTLEMAN. +Give me your hand: have you no more to say? + +KENT. +Few words, but, to effect, more than all yet: +That, when we have found the King, in which your pain +That way, I’ll this; he that first lights on him +Holla the other. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Another part of the heath. + + Storm continues. Enter Lear and Fool. + +LEAR. +Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks! Rage! blow! +You cataracts and hurricanoes, spout +Till you have drench’d our steeples, drown’d the cocks! +You sulphurous and thought-executing fires, +Vaunt-couriers to oak-cleaving thunderbolts, +Singe my white head! And thou, all-shaking thunder, +Strike flat the thick rotundity o’ the world! +Crack nature’s moulds, all germens spill at once, +That make ingrateful man! + +FOOL. +O nuncle, court holy-water in a dry house is better than this +rain-water out o’ door. Good nuncle, in; and ask thy daughters +blessing: here’s a night pities neither wise men nor fools. + +LEAR. +Rumble thy bellyful! Spit, fire! spout, rain! +Nor rain, wind, thunder, fire are my daughters; +I tax not you, you elements, with unkindness. +I never gave you kingdom, call’d you children; +You owe me no subscription: then let fall +Your horrible pleasure. Here I stand your slave, +A poor, infirm, weak, and despis’d old man: +But yet I call you servile ministers, +That will with two pernicious daughters join +Your high-engender’d battles ’gainst a head +So old and white as this! O! O! ’tis foul! + +FOOL. +He that has a house to put’s head in has a good head-piece. + The codpiece that will house + Before the head has any, + The head and he shall louse: + So beggars marry many. + The man that makes his toe + What he his heart should make + Shall of a corn cry woe, + And turn his sleep to wake. +For there was never yet fair woman but she made mouths in a glass. + +LEAR. +No, I will be the pattern of all patience; +I will say nothing. + + Enter Kent. + +KENT. +Who’s there? + +FOOL. +Marry, here’s grace and a codpiece; that’s a wise man and a fool. + +KENT. +Alas, sir, are you here? Things that love night +Love not such nights as these; the wrathful skies +Gallow the very wanderers of the dark, +And make them keep their caves. Since I was man, +Such sheets of fire, such bursts of horrid thunder, +Such groans of roaring wind and rain I never +Remember to have heard. Man’s nature cannot carry +Th’affliction, nor the fear. + +LEAR. +Let the great gods, +That keep this dreadful pudder o’er our heads, +Find out their enemies now. Tremble, thou wretch, +That hast within thee undivulged crimes +Unwhipp’d of justice. Hide thee, thou bloody hand; +Thou perjur’d, and thou simular of virtue +That art incestuous. Caitiff, to pieces shake +That under covert and convenient seeming +Hast practis’d on man’s life: close pent-up guilts, +Rive your concealing continents, and cry +These dreadful summoners grace. I am a man +More sinn’d against than sinning. + +KENT. +Alack, bareheaded! +Gracious my lord, hard by here is a hovel; +Some friendship will it lend you ’gainst the tempest: +Repose you there, whilst I to this hard house,— +More harder than the stones whereof ’tis rais’d; +Which even but now, demanding after you, +Denied me to come in,—return, and force +Their scanted courtesy. + +LEAR. +My wits begin to turn. +Come on, my boy. How dost, my boy? Art cold? +I am cold myself. Where is this straw, my fellow? +The art of our necessities is strange, +That can make vile things precious. Come, your hovel. +Poor fool and knave, I have one part in my heart +That’s sorry yet for thee. + +FOOL. +[_Singing._] + He that has and a little tiny wit, + With heigh-ho, the wind and the rain, + Must make content with his fortunes fit, + Though the rain it raineth every day. + +LEAR. +True, boy. Come, bring us to this hovel. + + [_Exeunt Lear and Kent._] + +FOOL. +This is a brave night to cool a courtezan. I’ll speak a prophecy ere I +go: + When priests are more in word than matter; + When brewers mar their malt with water; + When nobles are their tailors’ tutors; + No heretics burn’d, but wenches’ suitors; + When every case in law is right; + No squire in debt, nor no poor knight; + When slanders do not live in tongues; + Nor cut-purses come not to throngs; + When usurers tell their gold i’ the field; + And bawds and whores do churches build, + Then shall the realm of Albion + Come to great confusion: + Then comes the time, who lives to see’t, + That going shall be us’d with feet. +This prophecy Merlin shall make; for I live before his time. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. + + Enter Gloucester and Edmund. + +GLOUCESTER. +Alack, alack, Edmund, I like not this unnatural dealing. When I desired +their leave that I might pity him, they took from me the use of mine +own house; charged me on pain of perpetual displeasure, neither to +speak of him, entreat for him, or any way sustain him. + +EDMUND. +Most savage and unnatural! + +GLOUCESTER. +Go to; say you nothing. There is division between the Dukes, and a +worse matter than that: I have received a letter this night;—’tis +dangerous to be spoken;—I have locked the letter in my closet: these +injuries the King now bears will be revenged home; there’s part of a +power already footed: we must incline to the King. I will look him, and +privily relieve him: go you and maintain talk with the Duke, that my +charity be not of him perceived: if he ask for me, I am ill, and gone +to bed. If I die for it, as no less is threatened me, the King my old +master must be relieved. There is some strange thing toward, Edmund; +pray you be careful. + + [_Exit._] + +EDMUND. +This courtesy, forbid thee, shall the Duke +Instantly know; and of that letter too. +This seems a fair deserving, and must draw me +That which my father loses, no less than all: +The younger rises when the old doth fall. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. A part of the Heath with a Hovel. + + Storm continues. Enter Lear, Kent and Fool. + +KENT. +Here is the place, my lord; good my lord, enter: +The tyranny of the open night’s too rough +For nature to endure. + +LEAR. +Let me alone. + +KENT. +Good my lord, enter here. + +LEAR. +Wilt break my heart? + +KENT. +I had rather break mine own. Good my lord, enter. + +LEAR. +Thou think’st ’tis much that this contentious storm +Invades us to the skin: so ’tis to thee, +But where the greater malady is fix’d, +The lesser is scarce felt. Thou’dst shun a bear; +But if thy flight lay toward the raging sea, +Thou’dst meet the bear i’ the mouth. When the mind’s free, +The body’s delicate: the tempest in my mind +Doth from my senses take all feeling else +Save what beats there. Filial ingratitude! +Is it not as this mouth should tear this hand +For lifting food to’t? But I will punish home; +No, I will weep no more. In such a night +To shut me out! Pour on; I will endure: +In such a night as this! O Regan, Goneril! +Your old kind father, whose frank heart gave all, +O, that way madness lies; let me shun that; +No more of that. + +KENT. +Good my lord, enter here. + +LEAR. +Prythee go in thyself; seek thine own ease: +This tempest will not give me leave to ponder +On things would hurt me more. But I’ll go in. +[_To the Fool._] In, boy; go first. You houseless poverty, +Nay, get thee in. I’ll pray, and then I’ll sleep. + + [_Fool goes in._] + +Poor naked wretches, wheresoe’er you are, +That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm, +How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides, +Your loop’d and window’d raggedness, defend you +From seasons such as these? O, I have ta’en +Too little care of this! Take physic, pomp; +Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel, +That thou mayst shake the superflux to them +And show the heavens more just. + +EDGAR. +[_Within._] Fathom and half, fathom and half! Poor Tom! + + [_The Fool runs out from the hovel._] + +FOOL. +Come not in here, nuncle, here’s a spirit. +Help me, help me! + +KENT. +Give me thy hand. Who’s there? + +FOOL. +A spirit, a spirit: he says his name’s poor Tom. + +KENT. +What art thou that dost grumble there i’ the straw? +Come forth. + + Enter Edgar, disguised as a madman. + +EDGAR. +Away! the foul fiend follows me! Through the sharp hawthorn blows the +cold wind. Humh! go to thy cold bed, and warm thee. + +LEAR. +Didst thou give all to thy two daughters? +And art thou come to this? + +EDGAR. +Who gives anything to poor Tom? Whom the foul fiend hath led through +fire and through flame, through ford and whirlpool, o’er bog and +quagmire; that hath laid knives under his pillow and halters in his +pew, set ratsbane by his porridge; made him proud of heart, to ride on +a bay trotting horse over four-inched bridges, to course his own shadow +for a traitor. Bless thy five wits! Tom’s a-cold. O, do, de, do, +de, do, de. Bless thee from whirlwinds, star-blasting, and taking! Do +poor Tom some charity, whom the foul fiend vexes. There could I have +him now, and there,—and there again, and there. + + [_Storm continues._] + +LEAR. +What, have his daughters brought him to this pass? +Couldst thou save nothing? Didst thou give ’em all? + +FOOL. +Nay, he reserv’d a blanket, else we had been all shamed. + +LEAR. +Now all the plagues that in the pendulous air +Hang fated o’er men’s faults light on thy daughters! + +KENT. +He hath no daughters, sir. + +LEAR. +Death, traitor! nothing could have subdu’d nature +To such a lowness but his unkind daughters. +Is it the fashion that discarded fathers +Should have thus little mercy on their flesh? +Judicious punishment! ’twas this flesh begot +Those pelican daughters. + +EDGAR. + Pillicock sat on Pillicock hill, + Alow, alow, loo loo! + +FOOL. +This cold night will turn us all to fools and madmen. + +EDGAR. +Take heed o’ th’ foul fiend: obey thy parents; keep thy word justly; +swear not; commit not with man’s sworn spouse; set not thy sweet-heart +on proud array. Tom’s a-cold. + +LEAR. +What hast thou been? + +EDGAR. +A serving-man, proud in heart and mind; that curled my hair; wore +gloves in my cap; served the lust of my mistress’ heart, and did the +act of darkness with her; swore as many oaths as I spake words, and +broke them in the sweet face of heaven. One that slept in the +contriving of lust, and waked to do it. Wine loved I deeply, dice +dearly; and in woman out-paramour’d the Turk. False of heart, light of +ear, bloody of hand; hog in sloth, fox in stealth, wolf in greediness, +dog in madness, lion in prey. Let not the creaking of shoes nor the +rustling of silks betray thy poor heart to woman. Keep thy foot out of +brothels, thy hand out of plackets, thy pen from lender’s book, and +defy the foul fiend. Still through the hawthorn blows the cold wind: +says suum, mun, nonny. Dolphin my boy, boy, sessa! let him trot by. + + [_Storm still continues._] + +LEAR. +Why, thou wert better in thy grave than to answer with thy uncovered +body this extremity of the skies. Is man no more than this? Consider +him well. Thou owest the worm no silk, the beast no hide, the sheep no +wool, the cat no perfume. Ha! here’s three on’s are sophisticated! Thou +art the thing itself: unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor, +bare, forked animal as thou art. Off, off, you lendings! Come, unbutton +here. + + [_Tears off his clothes._] + +FOOL. +Prythee, nuncle, be contented; ’tis a naughty night to swim in. Now a +little fire in a wild field were like an old lecher’s heart, a small +spark, all the rest on’s body cold. Look, here comes a walking fire. + +EDGAR. +This is the foul fiend Flibbertigibbet: he begins at curfew, and walks +till the first cock; he gives the web and the pin, squints the eye, and +makes the harelip; mildews the white wheat, and hurts the poor creature +of earth. + Swithold footed thrice the old; + He met the nightmare, and her nine-fold; + Bid her alight and her troth plight, + And aroint thee, witch, aroint thee! + +KENT. +How fares your grace? + + Enter Gloucester with a torch. + +LEAR. +What’s he? + +KENT. +Who’s there? What is’t you seek? + +GLOUCESTER. +What are you there? Your names? + +EDGAR. +Poor Tom; that eats the swimming frog, the toad, the todpole, the +wall-newt and the water; that in the fury of his heart, when the foul +fiend rages, eats cow-dung for sallets; swallows the old rat and the +ditch-dog; drinks the green mantle of the standing pool; who is whipped +from tithing to tithing, and stocked, punished, and imprisoned; who +hath had three suits to his back, six shirts to his body, + Horse to ride, and weapon to wear. + But mice and rats and such small deer, + Have been Tom’s food for seven long year. +Beware my follower. Peace, Smulkin; peace, thou fiend! + +GLOUCESTER. +What, hath your grace no better company? + +EDGAR. +The prince of darkness is a gentleman: +Modo he’s call’d, and Mahu. + +GLOUCESTER. +Our flesh and blood, my lord, is grown so vile +That it doth hate what gets it. + +EDGAR. +Poor Tom’s a-cold. + +GLOUCESTER. +Go in with me: my duty cannot suffer +T’obey in all your daughters’ hard commands; +Though their injunction be to bar my doors, +And let this tyrannous night take hold upon you, +Yet have I ventur’d to come seek you out, +And bring you where both fire and food is ready. + +LEAR. +First let me talk with this philosopher. +What is the cause of thunder? + +KENT. +Good my lord, take his offer; go into the house. + +LEAR. +I’ll talk a word with this same learned Theban. +What is your study? + +EDGAR. +How to prevent the fiend and to kill vermin. + +LEAR. +Let me ask you one word in private. + +KENT. +Importune him once more to go, my lord; +His wits begin t’unsettle. + +GLOUCESTER. +Canst thou blame him? +His daughters seek his death. Ah, that good Kent! +He said it would be thus, poor banish’d man! +Thou sayest the King grows mad; I’ll tell thee, friend, +I am almost mad myself. I had a son, +Now outlaw’d from my blood; he sought my life +But lately, very late: I lov’d him, friend, +No father his son dearer: true to tell thee, + + [_Storm continues._] + +The grief hath craz’d my wits. What a night’s this! +I do beseech your grace. + +LEAR. +O, cry you mercy, sir. +Noble philosopher, your company. + +EDGAR. +Tom’s a-cold. + +GLOUCESTER. +In, fellow, there, into the hovel; keep thee warm. + +LEAR. +Come, let’s in all. + +KENT. +This way, my lord. + +LEAR. +With him; +I will keep still with my philosopher. + +KENT. +Good my lord, soothe him; let him take the fellow. + +GLOUCESTER. +Take him you on. + +KENT. +Sirrah, come on; go along with us. + +LEAR. +Come, good Athenian. + +GLOUCESTER. +No words, no words, hush. + +EDGAR. + Child Rowland to the dark tower came, + His word was still—Fie, foh, and fum, + I smell the blood of a British man. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. + + Enter Cornwall and Edmund. + +CORNWALL. +I will have my revenge ere I depart his house. + +EDMUND. +How, my lord, I may be censured, that nature thus gives way to loyalty, +something fears me to think of. + +CORNWALL. +I now perceive it was not altogether your brother’s evil disposition +made him seek his death; but a provoking merit, set a-work by a +reproveable badness in himself. + +EDMUND. +How malicious is my fortune, that I must repent to be just! This is the +letter he spoke of, which approves him an intelligent party to the +advantages of France. O heavens! that this treason were not; or not I +the detector! + +CORNWALL. +Go with me to the Duchess. + +EDMUND. +If the matter of this paper be certain, you have mighty business in +hand. + +CORNWALL. +True or false, it hath made thee Earl of Gloucester. Seek out where thy +father is, that he may be ready for our apprehension. + +EDMUND. +[_Aside._] If I find him comforting the King, it will stuff his +suspicion more fully. I will persever in my course of loyalty, though +the conflict be sore between that and my blood. + +CORNWALL. +I will lay trust upon thee; and thou shalt find a dearer father in my +love. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. A Chamber in a Farmhouse adjoining the Castle. + + Enter Gloucester, Lear, Kent, Fool and Edgar. + +GLOUCESTER. +Here is better than the open air; take it thankfully. I will piece out +the comfort with what addition I can: I will not be long from you. + +KENT. +All the power of his wits have given way to his impatience:— the gods +reward your kindness! + + [_Exit Gloucester._] + +EDGAR. +Frateretto calls me; and tells me Nero is an angler in the lake of +darkness. Pray, innocent, and beware the foul fiend. + +FOOL. +Prythee, nuncle, tell me whether a madman be a gentleman or a yeoman. + +LEAR. +A king, a king! + +FOOL. +No, he’s a yeoman that has a gentleman to his son; for he’s a mad +yeoman that sees his son a gentleman before him. + +LEAR. +To have a thousand with red burning spits +Come hissing in upon ’em. + +EDGAR. +The foul fiend bites my back. + +FOOL. +He’s mad that trusts in the tameness of a wolf, a horse’s health, a +boy’s love, or a whore’s oath. + +LEAR. +It shall be done; I will arraign them straight. +[_To Edgar._] Come, sit thou here, most learned justicer; +[_To the Fool._] Thou, sapient sir, sit here. Now, you she-foxes!— + +EDGAR. +Look, where he stands and glares! Want’st thou eyes at trial, madam? + Come o’er the bourn, Bessy, to me. + +FOOL. + Her boat hath a leak, + And she must not speak + Why she dares not come over to thee. + +EDGAR. +The foul fiend haunts poor Tom in the voice of a nightingale. +Hoppedance cries in Tom’s belly for two white herring. Croak not, black +angel; I have no food for thee. + +KENT. +How do you, sir? Stand you not so amaz’d; +Will you lie down and rest upon the cushions? + +LEAR. +I’ll see their trial first. Bring in their evidence. +[_To Edgar._] Thou, robed man of justice, take thy place. +[_To the Fool._] And thou, his yokefellow of equity, +Bench by his side. [_To Kent._] You are o’ the commission, +Sit you too. + +EDGAR. + Let us deal justly. + Sleepest or wakest thou, jolly shepherd? + Thy sheep be in the corn; + And for one blast of thy minikin mouth + Thy sheep shall take no harm. +Purr! the cat is grey. + +LEAR. +Arraign her first; ’tis Goneril. I here take my oath before this +honourable assembly, she kicked the poor King her father. + +FOOL. +Come hither, mistress. Is your name Goneril? + +LEAR. +She cannot deny it. + +FOOL. +Cry you mercy, I took you for a joint-stool. + +LEAR. +And here’s another, whose warp’d looks proclaim +What store her heart is made on. Stop her there! +Arms, arms! sword! fire! Corruption in the place! +False justicer, why hast thou let her ’scape? + +EDGAR. +Bless thy five wits! + +KENT. +O pity! Sir, where is the patience now +That you so oft have boasted to retain? + +EDGAR. +[_Aside._] My tears begin to take his part so much +They mar my counterfeiting. + +LEAR. +The little dogs and all, +Trey, Blanch, and Sweetheart, see, they bark at me. + +EDGAR. +Tom will throw his head at them. Avaunt, you curs! + Be thy mouth or black or white, + Tooth that poisons if it bite; + Mastiff, greyhound, mongrel grim, + Hound or spaniel, brach or him, + Or bobtail tike or trundle-tail, + Tom will make them weep and wail; + For, with throwing thus my head, + Dogs leap the hatch, and all are fled. +Do, de, de, de. Sessa! Come, march to wakes and fairs and market towns. +Poor Tom, thy horn is dry. + +LEAR. +Then let them anatomize Regan; see what breeds about her heart. Is +there any cause in nature that makes these hard hearts? [_To Edgar._] +You, sir, I entertain you for one of my hundred; only I do not like the +fashion of your garments. You’ll say they are Persian; but let them be +changed. + +KENT. +Now, good my lord, lie here and rest awhile. + +LEAR. +Make no noise, make no noise; draw the curtains. +So, so. We’ll go to supper i’ the morning. + +FOOL. +And I’ll go to bed at noon. + + Enter Gloucester. + +GLOUCESTER. +Come hither, friend; +Where is the King my master? + +KENT. +Here, sir; but trouble him not, his wits are gone. + +GLOUCESTER. +Good friend, I prythee, take him in thy arms; +I have o’erheard a plot of death upon him; +There is a litter ready; lay him in’t +And drive towards Dover, friend, where thou shalt meet +Both welcome and protection. Take up thy master; +If thou shouldst dally half an hour, his life, +With thine, and all that offer to defend him, +Stand in assured loss. Take up, take up; +And follow me, that will to some provision +Give thee quick conduct. + +KENT. +Oppressed nature sleeps. +This rest might yet have balm’d thy broken sinews, +Which, if convenience will not allow, +Stand in hard cure. Come, help to bear thy master; +[_To the Fool._] Thou must not stay behind. + +GLOUCESTER. +Come, come, away! + + [_Exeunt Kent, Gloucester and the Fool bearing off Lear._] + +EDGAR. +When we our betters see bearing our woes, +We scarcely think our miseries our foes. +Who alone suffers, suffers most i’ the mind, +Leaving free things and happy shows behind: +But then the mind much sufferance doth o’erskip +When grief hath mates, and bearing fellowship. +How light and portable my pain seems now, +When that which makes me bend makes the King bow; +He childed as I fathered! Tom, away! +Mark the high noises; and thyself bewray, +When false opinion, whose wrong thoughts defile thee, +In thy just proof repeals and reconciles thee. +What will hap more tonight, safe ’scape the King! +Lurk, lurk. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE VII. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. + + Enter Cornwall, Regan, Goneril, Edmund and Servants. + +CORNWALL. +Post speedily to my lord your husband, show him this letter: the army +of France is landed. Seek out the traitor Gloucester. + + [_Exeunt some of the Servants._] + +REGAN. +Hang him instantly. + +GONERIL. +Pluck out his eyes. + +CORNWALL. +Leave him to my displeasure. Edmund, keep you our sister company: the +revenges we are bound to take upon your traitorous father are not fit +for your beholding. Advise the Duke where you are going, to a most +festinate preparation: we are bound to the like. Our posts shall be +swift and intelligent betwixt us. Farewell, dear sister, farewell, my +lord of Gloucester. + + Enter Oswald. + +How now! Where’s the King? + +OSWALD. +My lord of Gloucester hath convey’d him hence: +Some five or six and thirty of his knights, +Hot questrists after him, met him at gate; +Who, with some other of the lord’s dependants, +Are gone with him toward Dover: where they boast +To have well-armed friends. + +CORNWALL. +Get horses for your mistress. + +GONERIL. +Farewell, sweet lord, and sister. + +CORNWALL. +Edmund, farewell. + + [_Exeunt Goneril, Edmund and Oswald._] + +Go seek the traitor Gloucester, +Pinion him like a thief, bring him before us. + + [_Exeunt other Servants._] + +Though well we may not pass upon his life +Without the form of justice, yet our power +Shall do a courtesy to our wrath, which men +May blame, but not control. Who’s there? The traitor? + + Enter Gloucester and Servants. + +REGAN. +Ingrateful fox! ’tis he. + +CORNWALL. +Bind fast his corky arms. + +GLOUCESTER. +What mean your graces? +Good my friends, consider you are my guests. +Do me no foul play, friends. + +CORNWALL. +Bind him, I say. + + [_Servants bind him._] + +REGAN. +Hard, hard. O filthy traitor! + +GLOUCESTER. +Unmerciful lady as you are, I’m none. + +CORNWALL. +To this chair bind him. Villain, thou shalt find— + + [_Regan plucks his beard._] + +GLOUCESTER. +By the kind gods, ’tis most ignobly done +To pluck me by the beard. + +REGAN. +So white, and such a traitor! + +GLOUCESTER. +Naughty lady, +These hairs which thou dost ravish from my chin +Will quicken, and accuse thee. I am your host: +With robber’s hands my hospitable favours +You should not ruffle thus. What will you do? + +CORNWALL. +Come, sir, what letters had you late from France? + +REGAN. +Be simple answer’d, for we know the truth. + +CORNWALL. +And what confederacy have you with the traitors, +Late footed in the kingdom? + +REGAN. +To whose hands have you sent the lunatic King? +Speak. + +GLOUCESTER. +I have a letter guessingly set down, +Which came from one that’s of a neutral heart, +And not from one oppos’d. + +CORNWALL. +Cunning. + +REGAN. +And false. + +CORNWALL. +Where hast thou sent the King? + +GLOUCESTER. +To Dover. + +REGAN. +Wherefore to Dover? Wast thou not charg’d at peril,— + +CORNWALL. +Wherefore to Dover? Let him first answer that. + +GLOUCESTER. +I am tied to the stake, and I must stand the course. + +REGAN. +Wherefore to Dover, sir? + +GLOUCESTER. +Because I would not see thy cruel nails +Pluck out his poor old eyes; nor thy fierce sister +In his anointed flesh stick boarish fangs. +The sea, with such a storm as his bare head +In hell-black night endur’d, would have buoy’d up, +And quench’d the stelled fires; +Yet, poor old heart, he holp the heavens to rain. +If wolves had at thy gate howl’d that stern time, +Thou shouldst have said, ‘Good porter, turn the key.’ +All cruels else subscrib’d: but I shall see +The winged vengeance overtake such children. + +CORNWALL. +See’t shalt thou never. Fellows, hold the chair. +Upon these eyes of thine I’ll set my foot. + + [_Gloucester is held down in his chair, while Cornwall plucks out one + of his eyes and sets his foot on it._] + +GLOUCESTER. +He that will think to live till he be old, +Give me some help!—O cruel! O you gods! + +REGAN. +One side will mock another; the other too! + +CORNWALL. +If you see vengeance— + +FIRST SERVANT. +Hold your hand, my lord: +I have serv’d you ever since I was a child; +But better service have I never done you +Than now to bid you hold. + +REGAN. +How now, you dog! + +FIRST SERVANT. +If you did wear a beard upon your chin, +I’d shake it on this quarrel. What do you mean? + +CORNWALL. +My villain? + + [_Draws, and runs at him._] + +FIRST SERVANT. +Nay, then, come on, and take the chance of anger. + + [_Draws. They fight. Cornwall is wounded._] + +REGAN. +[_To another servant._] Give me thy sword. A peasant stand up thus? + + [_Snatches a sword, comes behind, and stabs him._] + +FIRST SERVANT. +O, I am slain! My lord, you have one eye left +To see some mischief on him. O! + + [_Dies._] + +CORNWALL. +Lest it see more, prevent it. Out, vile jelly! +Where is thy lustre now? + + [_Tears out Gloucester’s other eye and throws it on the ground._] + +GLOUCESTER. +All dark and comfortless. Where’s my son Edmund? +Edmund, enkindle all the sparks of nature +To quit this horrid act. + +REGAN. +Out, treacherous villain! +Thou call’st on him that hates thee: it was he +That made the overture of thy treasons to us; +Who is too good to pity thee. + +GLOUCESTER. +O my follies! Then Edgar was abus’d. +Kind gods, forgive me that, and prosper him! + +REGAN. +Go thrust him out at gates, and let him smell +His way to Dover. How is’t, my lord? How look you? + +CORNWALL. +I have receiv’d a hurt: follow me, lady. +Turn out that eyeless villain. Throw this slave +Upon the dunghill. Regan, I bleed apace: +Untimely comes this hurt: give me your arm. + + [_Exit Cornwall, led by Regan; Servants unbind Gloucester and lead him + out._] + +SECOND SERVANT. +I’ll never care what wickedness I do, +If this man come to good. + +THIRD SERVANT. +If she live long, +And in the end meet the old course of death, +Women will all turn monsters. + +SECOND SERVANT. +Let’s follow the old Earl, and get the bedlam +To lead him where he would: his roguish madness +Allows itself to anything. + +THIRD SERVANT. +Go thou: I’ll fetch some flax and whites of eggs +To apply to his bleeding face. Now heaven help him! + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. The heath. + + Enter Edgar. + +EDGAR. +Yet better thus, and known to be contemn’d, +Than still contemn’d and flatter’d. To be worst, +The lowest and most dejected thing of fortune, +Stands still in esperance, lives not in fear: +The lamentable change is from the best; +The worst returns to laughter. Welcome then, +Thou unsubstantial air that I embrace; +The wretch that thou hast blown unto the worst +Owes nothing to thy blasts. + + Enter Gloucester, led by an Old Man. + +But who comes here? My father, poorly led? +World, world, O world! +But that thy strange mutations make us hate thee, +Life would not yield to age. + +OLD MAN. +O my good lord, I have been your tenant, and your father’s tenant these +fourscore years. + +GLOUCESTER. +Away, get thee away; good friend, be gone. +Thy comforts can do me no good at all; +Thee they may hurt. + +OLD MAN. +You cannot see your way. + +GLOUCESTER. +I have no way, and therefore want no eyes; +I stumbled when I saw. Full oft ’tis seen +Our means secure us, and our mere defects +Prove our commodities. O dear son Edgar, +The food of thy abused father’s wrath! +Might I but live to see thee in my touch, +I’d say I had eyes again! + +OLD MAN. +How now! Who’s there? + +EDGAR. +[_Aside._] O gods! Who is’t can say ‘I am at the worst’? +I am worse than e’er I was. + +OLD MAN. +’Tis poor mad Tom. + +EDGAR. +[_Aside._] And worse I may be yet. The worst is not +So long as we can say ‘This is the worst.’ + +OLD MAN. +Fellow, where goest? + +GLOUCESTER. +Is it a beggar-man? + +OLD MAN. +Madman, and beggar too. + +GLOUCESTER. +He has some reason, else he could not beg. +I’ the last night’s storm I such a fellow saw; +Which made me think a man a worm. My son +Came then into my mind, and yet my mind +Was then scarce friends with him. +I have heard more since. +As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods, +They kill us for their sport. + +EDGAR. +[_Aside._] How should this be? +Bad is the trade that must play fool to sorrow, +Angering itself and others. Bless thee, master! + +GLOUCESTER. +Is that the naked fellow? + +OLD MAN. +Ay, my lord. + +GLOUCESTER. +Then prythee get thee away. If for my sake +Thou wilt o’ertake us hence a mile or twain, +I’ the way toward Dover, do it for ancient love, +And bring some covering for this naked soul, +Which I’ll entreat to lead me. + +OLD MAN. +Alack, sir, he is mad. + +GLOUCESTER. +’Tis the time’s plague when madmen lead the blind. +Do as I bid thee, or rather do thy pleasure; +Above the rest, be gone. + +OLD MAN. +I’ll bring him the best ’parel that I have, +Come on’t what will. + + [_Exit._] + +GLOUCESTER. +Sirrah naked fellow. + +EDGAR. +Poor Tom’s a-cold. +[_Aside._] I cannot daub it further. + +GLOUCESTER. +Come hither, fellow. + +EDGAR. +[_Aside._] And yet I must. Bless thy sweet eyes, they bleed. + +GLOUCESTER. +Know’st thou the way to Dover? + +EDGAR. +Both stile and gate, horseway and footpath. Poor Tom hath been scared +out of his good wits. Bless thee, good man’s son, from the foul fiend! +Five fiends have been in poor Tom at once; of lust, as Obidicut; +Hobbididence, prince of darkness; Mahu, of stealing; Modo, of murder; +Flibbertigibbet, of mopping and mowing, who since possesses +chambermaids and waiting women. So, bless thee, master! + +GLOUCESTER. +Here, take this purse, thou whom the heaven’s plagues +Have humbled to all strokes: that I am wretched +Makes thee the happier. Heavens deal so still! +Let the superfluous and lust-dieted man, +That slaves your ordinance, that will not see +Because he does not feel, feel your power quickly; +So distribution should undo excess, +And each man have enough. Dost thou know Dover? + +EDGAR. +Ay, master. + +GLOUCESTER. +There is a cliff, whose high and bending head +Looks fearfully in the confined deep: +Bring me but to the very brim of it, +And I’ll repair the misery thou dost bear +With something rich about me: from that place +I shall no leading need. + +EDGAR. +Give me thy arm: +Poor Tom shall lead thee. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Before the Duke of Albany’s Palace. + + Enter Goneril, Edmund; Oswald meeting them. + +GONERIL. +Welcome, my lord. I marvel our mild husband +Not met us on the way. Now, where’s your master? + +OSWALD. +Madam, within; but never man so chang’d. +I told him of the army that was landed; +He smil’d at it: I told him you were coming; +His answer was, ‘The worse.’ Of Gloucester’s treachery +And of the loyal service of his son +When I inform’d him, then he call’d me sot, +And told me I had turn’d the wrong side out. +What most he should dislike seems pleasant to him; +What like, offensive. + +GONERIL. +[_To Edmund._] Then shall you go no further. +It is the cowish terror of his spirit, +That dares not undertake. He’ll not feel wrongs +Which tie him to an answer. Our wishes on the way +May prove effects. Back, Edmund, to my brother; +Hasten his musters and conduct his powers. +I must change names at home, and give the distaff +Into my husband’s hands. This trusty servant +Shall pass between us. Ere long you are like to hear, +If you dare venture in your own behalf, +A mistress’s command. [_Giving a favour._] +Wear this; spare speech; +Decline your head. This kiss, if it durst speak, +Would stretch thy spirits up into the air. +Conceive, and fare thee well. + +EDMUND. +Yours in the ranks of death. + + [_Exit Edmund._] + +GONERIL. +My most dear Gloucester. +O, the difference of man and man! +To thee a woman’s services are due; +My fool usurps my body. + +OSWALD. +Madam, here comes my lord. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Albany. + +GONERIL. +I have been worth the whistle. + +ALBANY. +O Goneril! +You are not worth the dust which the rude wind +Blows in your face! I fear your disposition; +That nature which contemns its origin +Cannot be bordered certain in itself. +She that herself will sliver and disbranch +From her material sap, perforce must wither +And come to deadly use. + +GONERIL. +No more; the text is foolish. + +ALBANY. +Wisdom and goodness to the vile seem vile; +Filths savour but themselves. What have you done? +Tigers, not daughters, what have you perform’d? +A father, and a gracious aged man, +Whose reverence even the head-lugg’d bear would lick, +Most barbarous, most degenerate, have you madded. +Could my good brother suffer you to do it? +A man, a prince, by him so benefitted! +If that the heavens do not their visible spirits +Send quickly down to tame these vile offences, +It will come, +Humanity must perforce prey on itself, +Like monsters of the deep. + +GONERIL. +Milk-liver’d man! +That bear’st a cheek for blows, a head for wrongs; +Who hast not in thy brows an eye discerning +Thine honour from thy suffering; that not know’st +Fools do those villains pity who are punish’d +Ere they have done their mischief. Where’s thy drum? +France spreads his banners in our noiseless land; +With plumed helm thy state begins to threat, +Whilst thou, a moral fool, sitt’st still, and criest +‘Alack, why does he so?’ + +ALBANY. +See thyself, devil! +Proper deformity seems not in the fiend +So horrid as in woman. + +GONERIL. +O vain fool! + +ALBANY. +Thou changed and self-cover’d thing, for shame! +Be-monster not thy feature! Were’t my fitness +To let these hands obey my blood. +They are apt enough to dislocate and tear +Thy flesh and bones. Howe’er thou art a fiend, +A woman’s shape doth shield thee. + +GONERIL. +Marry, your manhood, mew! + + Enter a Messenger. + +ALBANY. +What news? + +MESSENGER. +O, my good lord, the Duke of Cornwall’s dead; +Slain by his servant, going to put out +The other eye of Gloucester. + +ALBANY. +Gloucester’s eyes! + +MESSENGER. +A servant that he bred, thrill’d with remorse, +Oppos’d against the act, bending his sword +To his great master; who, thereat enrag’d, +Flew on him, and amongst them fell’d him dead; +But not without that harmful stroke which since +Hath pluck’d him after. + +ALBANY. +This shows you are above, +You justicers, that these our nether crimes +So speedily can venge! But, O poor Gloucester! +Lost he his other eye? + +MESSENGER. +Both, both, my lord. +This letter, madam, craves a speedy answer; +’Tis from your sister. + +GONERIL. +[_Aside._] One way I like this well; +But being widow, and my Gloucester with her, +May all the building in my fancy pluck +Upon my hateful life. Another way +The news is not so tart. I’ll read, and answer. + + [_Exit._] + +ALBANY. +Where was his son when they did take his eyes? + +MESSENGER. +Come with my lady hither. + +ALBANY. +He is not here. + +MESSENGER. +No, my good lord; I met him back again. + +ALBANY. +Knows he the wickedness? + +MESSENGER. +Ay, my good lord. ’Twas he inform’d against him; +And quit the house on purpose, that their punishment +Might have the freer course. + +ALBANY. +Gloucester, I live +To thank thee for the love thou show’dst the King, +And to revenge thine eyes. Come hither, friend, +Tell me what more thou know’st. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The French camp near Dover. + + Enter Kent and a Gentleman. + +KENT. +Why the King of France is so suddenly gone back, know you no reason? + +GENTLEMAN. +Something he left imperfect in the state, which since his coming forth +is thought of, which imports to the kingdom so much fear and danger +that his personal return was most required and necessary. + +KENT. +Who hath he left behind him general? + +GENTLEMAN. +The Mareschal of France, Monsieur La Far. + +KENT. +Did your letters pierce the queen to any demonstration of grief? + +GENTLEMAN. +Ay, sir; she took them, read them in my presence; +And now and then an ample tear trill’d down +Her delicate cheek. It seem’d she was a queen +Over her passion; who, most rebel-like, +Sought to be king o’er her. + +KENT. +O, then it mov’d her. + +GENTLEMAN. +Not to a rage: patience and sorrow strove +Who should express her goodliest. You have seen +Sunshine and rain at once: her smiles and tears +Were like a better day. Those happy smilets +That play’d on her ripe lip seem’d not to know +What guests were in her eyes; which parted thence +As pearls from diamonds dropp’d. In brief, +Sorrow would be a rarity most belov’d, +If all could so become it. + +KENT. +Made she no verbal question? + +GENTLEMAN. +Faith, once or twice she heav’d the name of ‘father’ +Pantingly forth, as if it press’d her heart; +Cried ‘Sisters, sisters! Shame of ladies! sisters! +Kent! father! sisters! What, i’ the storm? i’ the night? +Let pity not be believ’d!’ There she shook +The holy water from her heavenly eyes, +And clamour master’d her: then away she started +To deal with grief alone. + +KENT. +It is the stars, +The stars above us govern our conditions; +Else one self mate and make could not beget +Such different issues. You spoke not with her since? + +GENTLEMAN. +No. + +KENT. +Was this before the King return’d? + +GENTLEMAN. +No, since. + +KENT. +Well, sir, the poor distressed Lear’s i’ the town; +Who sometime, in his better tune, remembers +What we are come about, and by no means +Will yield to see his daughter. + +GENTLEMAN. +Why, good sir? + +KENT. +A sovereign shame so elbows him. His own unkindness, +That stripp’d her from his benediction, turn’d her +To foreign casualties, gave her dear rights +To his dog-hearted daughters, these things sting +His mind so venomously that burning shame +Detains him from Cordelia. + +GENTLEMAN. +Alack, poor gentleman! + +KENT. +Of Albany’s and Cornwall’s powers you heard not? + +GENTLEMAN. +’Tis so; they are afoot. + +KENT. +Well, sir, I’ll bring you to our master Lear +And leave you to attend him. Some dear cause +Will in concealment wrap me up awhile; +When I am known aright, you shall not grieve +Lending me this acquaintance. +I pray you, go along with me. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. The French camp. A Tent. + + Enter with drum and colours, Cordelia, Physician and Soldiers. + +CORDELIA. +Alack, ’tis he: why, he was met even now +As mad as the vex’d sea; singing aloud; +Crown’d with rank fumiter and furrow weeds, +With harlocks, hemlock, nettles, cuckoo-flowers, +Darnel, and all the idle weeds that grow +In our sustaining corn. A century send forth; +Search every acre in the high-grown field, +And bring him to our eye. + + [_Exit an Officer._] + +What can man’s wisdom +In the restoring his bereaved sense, +He that helps him take all my outward worth. + +PHYSICIAN. +There is means, madam: +Our foster nurse of nature is repose, +The which he lacks; that to provoke in him +Are many simples operative, whose power +Will close the eye of anguish. + +CORDELIA. +All bless’d secrets, +All you unpublish’d virtues of the earth, +Spring with my tears! Be aidant and remediate +In the good man’s distress! Seek, seek for him; +Lest his ungovern’d rage dissolve the life +That wants the means to lead it. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +News, madam; +The British powers are marching hitherward. + +CORDELIA. +’Tis known before. Our preparation stands +In expectation of them. O dear father, +It is thy business that I go about; +Therefore great France +My mourning and important tears hath pitied. +No blown ambition doth our arms incite, +But love, dear love, and our ag’d father’s right: +Soon may I hear and see him! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. A Room in Gloucester’s Castle. + + Enter Regan and Oswald. + +REGAN. +But are my brother’s powers set forth? + +OSWALD. +Ay, madam. + +REGAN. +Himself in person there? + +OSWALD. +Madam, with much ado. +Your sister is the better soldier. + +REGAN. +Lord Edmund spake not with your lord at home? + +OSWALD. +No, madam. + +REGAN. +What might import my sister’s letter to him? + +OSWALD. +I know not, lady. + +REGAN. +Faith, he is posted hence on serious matter. +It was great ignorance, Gloucester’s eyes being out, +To let him live. Where he arrives he moves +All hearts against us. Edmund, I think, is gone +In pity of his misery, to dispatch +His nighted life; moreover to descry +The strength o’ th’enemy. + +OSWALD. +I must needs after him, madam, with my letter. + +REGAN. +Our troops set forth tomorrow; stay with us; +The ways are dangerous. + +OSWALD. +I may not, madam: +My lady charg’d my duty in this business. + +REGAN. +Why should she write to Edmund? Might not you +Transport her purposes by word? Belike, +Somethings, I know not what, I’ll love thee much. +Let me unseal the letter. + +OSWALD. +Madam, I had rather— + +REGAN. +I know your lady does not love her husband; +I am sure of that; and at her late being here +She gave strange oeillades and most speaking looks +To noble Edmund. I know you are of her bosom. + +OSWALD. +I, madam? + +REGAN. +I speak in understanding; y’are, I know’t: +Therefore I do advise you take this note: +My lord is dead; Edmund and I have talk’d, +And more convenient is he for my hand +Than for your lady’s. You may gather more. +If you do find him, pray you give him this; +And when your mistress hears thus much from you, +I pray desire her call her wisdom to her. +So, fare you well. +If you do chance to hear of that blind traitor, +Preferment falls on him that cuts him off. + +OSWALD. +Would I could meet him, madam! I should show +What party I do follow. + +REGAN. +Fare thee well. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. The country near Dover. + + Enter Gloucester, and Edgar dressed like a peasant. + +GLOUCESTER. +When shall I come to the top of that same hill? + +EDGAR. +You do climb up it now. Look how we labour. + +GLOUCESTER. +Methinks the ground is even. + +EDGAR. +Horrible steep. +Hark, do you hear the sea? + +GLOUCESTER. +No, truly. + +EDGAR. +Why, then, your other senses grow imperfect +By your eyes’ anguish. + +GLOUCESTER. +So may it be indeed. +Methinks thy voice is alter’d; and thou speak’st +In better phrase and matter than thou didst. + +EDGAR. +Y’are much deceiv’d: in nothing am I chang’d +But in my garments. + +GLOUCESTER. +Methinks you’re better spoken. + +EDGAR. +Come on, sir; here’s the place. Stand still. How fearful +And dizzy ’tis to cast one’s eyes so low! +The crows and choughs that wing the midway air +Show scarce so gross as beetles. Half way down +Hangs one that gathers samphire—dreadful trade! +Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. +The fishermen that walk upon the beach +Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark, +Diminish’d to her cock; her cock a buoy +Almost too small for sight: the murmuring surge +That on th’unnumber’d idle pebble chafes +Cannot be heard so high. I’ll look no more; +Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight +Topple down headlong. + +GLOUCESTER. +Set me where you stand. + +EDGAR. +Give me your hand. +You are now within a foot of th’extreme verge. +For all beneath the moon would I not leap upright. + +GLOUCESTER. +Let go my hand. +Here, friend, ’s another purse; in it a jewel +Well worth a poor man’s taking. Fairies and gods +Prosper it with thee! Go thou further off; +Bid me farewell, and let me hear thee going. + +EDGAR. +Now fare ye well, good sir. + + [_Seems to go._] + +GLOUCESTER. +With all my heart. + +EDGAR. +[_Aside._] Why I do trifle thus with his despair +Is done to cure it. + +GLOUCESTER. +O you mighty gods! +This world I do renounce, and in your sights, +Shake patiently my great affliction off: +If I could bear it longer, and not fall +To quarrel with your great opposeless wills, +My snuff and loathed part of nature should +Burn itself out. If Edgar live, O, bless him! +Now, fellow, fare thee well. + +EDGAR. +Gone, sir, farewell. + + [_Gloucester leaps, and falls along_] + +And yet I know not how conceit may rob +The treasury of life when life itself +Yields to the theft. Had he been where he thought, +By this had thought been past. Alive or dead? +Ho you, sir! friend! Hear you, sir? speak! +Thus might he pass indeed: yet he revives. +What are you, sir? + +GLOUCESTER. +Away, and let me die. + +EDGAR. +Hadst thou been aught but gossamer, feathers, air, +So many fathom down precipitating, +Thou’dst shiver’d like an egg: but thou dost breathe; +Hast heavy substance; bleed’st not; speak’st; art sound. +Ten masts at each make not the altitude +Which thou hast perpendicularly fell. +Thy life is a miracle. Speak yet again. + +GLOUCESTER. +But have I fall’n, or no? + +EDGAR. +From the dread summit of this chalky bourn. +Look up a-height, the shrill-gorg’d lark so far +Cannot be seen or heard. Do but look up. + +GLOUCESTER. +Alack, I have no eyes. +Is wretchedness depriv’d that benefit +To end itself by death? ’Twas yet some comfort +When misery could beguile the tyrant’s rage +And frustrate his proud will. + +EDGAR. +Give me your arm. +Up, so. How is’t? Feel you your legs? You stand. + +GLOUCESTER. +Too well, too well. + +EDGAR. +This is above all strangeness. +Upon the crown o’ the cliff what thing was that +Which parted from you? + +GLOUCESTER. +A poor unfortunate beggar. + +EDGAR. +As I stood here below, methought his eyes +Were two full moons; he had a thousand noses, +Horns whelk’d and waved like the enraged sea. +It was some fiend. Therefore, thou happy father, +Think that the clearest gods, who make them honours +Of men’s impossibilities, have preserv’d thee. + +GLOUCESTER. +I do remember now: henceforth I’ll bear +Affliction till it do cry out itself +‘Enough, enough,’ and die. That thing you speak of, +I took it for a man; often ’twould say, +‘The fiend, the fiend’; he led me to that place. + +EDGAR. +Bear free and patient thoughts. But who comes here? + + Enter Lear, fantastically dressed up with flowers. + +The safer sense will ne’er accommodate +His master thus. + +LEAR. +No, they cannot touch me for coining. I am the King himself. + +EDGAR. +O thou side-piercing sight! + +LEAR. +Nature’s above art in that respect. There’s your press money. That +fellow handles his bow like a crow-keeper: draw me a clothier’s yard. +Look, look, a mouse! Peace, peace, this piece of toasted cheese will +do’t. There’s my gauntlet; I’ll prove it on a giant. Bring up the brown +bills. O, well flown, bird! i’ the clout, i’ the clout. Hewgh! Give the +word. + +EDGAR. +Sweet marjoram. + +LEAR. +Pass. + +GLOUCESTER. +I know that voice. + +LEAR. +Ha! Goneril with a white beard! They flattered me like a dog; and told +me I had white hairs in my beard ere the black ones were there. To say +‘ay’ and ‘no’ to everything I said ‘ay’ and ‘no’ to was no good +divinity. When the rain came to wet me once, and the wind to make me +chatter; when the thunder would not peace at my bidding; there I found +’em, there I smelt ’em out. Go to, they are not men o’ their words: +they told me I was everything; ’tis a lie, I am not ague-proof. + +GLOUCESTER. +The trick of that voice I do well remember: +Is’t not the King? + +LEAR. +Ay, every inch a king. +When I do stare, see how the subject quakes. +I pardon that man’s life. What was thy cause? +Adultery? Thou shalt not die: die for adultery! No: +The wren goes to’t, and the small gilded fly +Does lecher in my sight. Let copulation thrive; +For Gloucester’s bastard son was kinder to his father +Than my daughters got ’tween the lawful sheets. +To’t, luxury, pell-mell! for I lack soldiers. +Behold yond simp’ring dame, +Whose face between her forks presages snow; +That minces virtue, and does shake the head +To hear of pleasure’s name. +The fitchew nor the soiled horse goes to’t with a more riotous +appetite. Down from the waist they are centaurs, though women all +above. But to the girdle do the gods inherit, beneath is all the +fiend’s; there’s hell, there’s darkness, there is the sulphurous pit; +burning, scalding, stench, consumption. Fie, fie, fie! pah, pah! Give +me an ounce of civet, good apothecary, to sweeten my imagination. +There’s money for thee. + +GLOUCESTER. +O, let me kiss that hand! + +LEAR. +Let me wipe it first; it smells of mortality. + +GLOUCESTER. +O ruin’d piece of nature, this great world +Shall so wear out to naught. Dost thou know me? + +LEAR. +I remember thine eyes well enough. Dost thou squiny at me? +No, do thy worst, blind Cupid; I’ll not love. +Read thou this challenge; mark but the penning of it. + +GLOUCESTER. +Were all the letters suns, I could not see one. + +EDGAR. +I would not take this from report, +It is, and my heart breaks at it. + +LEAR. +Read. + +GLOUCESTER. +What, with the case of eyes? + +LEAR. +O, ho, are you there with me? No eyes in your head, nor no money in +your purse? Your eyes are in a heavy case, your purse in a light, yet +you see how this world goes. + +GLOUCESTER. +I see it feelingly. + +LEAR. +What, art mad? A man may see how the world goes with no eyes. Look with +thine ears. See how yon justice rails upon yon simple thief. Hark, in +thine ear: change places; and, handy-dandy, which is the justice, which +is the thief? Thou hast seen a farmer’s dog bark at a beggar? + +GLOUCESTER. +Ay, sir. + +LEAR. +And the creature run from the cur? There thou mightst behold the great +image of authority: a dog’s obeyed in office. +Thou rascal beadle, hold thy bloody hand! +Why dost thou lash that whore? Strip thine own back; +Thou hotly lusts to use her in that kind +For which thou whipp’st her. The usurer hangs the cozener. +Through tatter’d clothes great vices do appear; +Robes and furr’d gowns hide all. Plate sin with gold, +And the strong lance of justice hurtless breaks; +Arm it in rags, a pygmy’s straw does pierce it. +None does offend, none, I say none; I’ll able ’em; +Take that of me, my friend, who have the power +To seal the accuser’s lips. Get thee glass eyes, +And like a scurvy politician, seem +To see the things thou dost not. Now, now, now, now: +Pull off my boots: harder, harder, so. + +EDGAR. +O, matter and impertinency mix’d! +Reason in madness! + +LEAR. +If thou wilt weep my fortunes, take my eyes. +I know thee well enough, thy name is Gloucester. +Thou must be patient; we came crying hither: +Thou know’st the first time that we smell the air +We wawl and cry. I will preach to thee: mark. + +GLOUCESTER. +Alack, alack the day! + +LEAR. +When we are born, we cry that we are come +To this great stage of fools. This a good block: +It were a delicate stratagem to shoe +A troop of horse with felt. I’ll put’t in proof +And when I have stol’n upon these son-in-laws, +Then kill, kill, kill, kill, kill, kill! + + Enter a Gentleman with Attendants. + +GENTLEMAN. +O, here he is: lay hand upon him. Sir, +Your most dear daughter— + +LEAR. +No rescue? What, a prisoner? I am even +The natural fool of fortune. Use me well; +You shall have ransom. Let me have surgeons; +I am cut to the brains. + +GENTLEMAN. +You shall have anything. + +LEAR. +No seconds? All myself? +Why, this would make a man a man of salt, +To use his eyes for garden water-pots, +Ay, and for laying autumn’s dust. + +GENTLEMAN. +Good sir. + +LEAR. +I will die bravely, like a smug bridegroom. +What! I will be jovial. Come, come, +I am a king, my masters, know you that. + +GENTLEMAN. +You are a royal one, and we obey you. + +LEAR. +Then there’s life in’t. Come, and you get it, +You shall get it by running. Sa, sa, sa, sa! + + [_Exit running. Attendants follow._] + +GENTLEMAN. +A sight most pitiful in the meanest wretch, +Past speaking of in a king! Thou hast one daughter +Who redeems nature from the general curse +Which twain have brought her to. + +EDGAR. +Hail, gentle sir. + +GENTLEMAN. +Sir, speed you. What’s your will? + +EDGAR. +Do you hear aught, sir, of a battle toward? + +GENTLEMAN. +Most sure and vulgar. +Everyone hears that, which can distinguish sound. + +EDGAR. +But, by your favour, +How near’s the other army? + +GENTLEMAN. +Near and on speedy foot; the main descry +Stands on the hourly thought. + +EDGAR. +I thank you sir, that’s all. + +GENTLEMAN. +Though that the queen on special cause is here, +Her army is mov’d on. + +EDGAR. +I thank you, sir. + + [_Exit Gentleman._] + +GLOUCESTER. +You ever-gentle gods, take my breath from me; +Let not my worser spirit tempt me again +To die before you please. + +EDGAR. +Well pray you, father. + +GLOUCESTER. +Now, good sir, what are you? + +EDGAR. +A most poor man, made tame to fortune’s blows; +Who, by the art of known and feeling sorrows, +Am pregnant to good pity. Give me your hand, +I’ll lead you to some biding. + +GLOUCESTER. +Hearty thanks: +The bounty and the benison of heaven +To boot, and boot. + + Enter Oswald. + +OSWALD. +A proclaim’d prize! Most happy! +That eyeless head of thine was first fram’d flesh +To raise my fortunes. Thou old unhappy traitor, +Briefly thyself remember. The sword is out +That must destroy thee. + +GLOUCESTER. +Now let thy friendly hand +Put strength enough to’t. + + [_Edgar interposes._] + +OSWALD. +Wherefore, bold peasant, +Dar’st thou support a publish’d traitor? Hence; +Lest that th’infection of his fortune take +Like hold on thee. Let go his arm. + +EDGAR. +Chill not let go, zir, without vurther ’casion. + +OSWALD. +Let go, slave, or thou diest! + +EDGAR. +Good gentleman, go your gait, and let poor volke pass. An chud ha’ bin +zwaggered out of my life, ’twould not ha’ bin zo long as ’tis by a +vortnight. Nay, come not near th’old man; keep out, che vor ye, or ise +try whether your costard or my ballow be the harder: chill be plain +with you. + +OSWALD. +Out, dunghill! + +EDGAR. +Chill pick your teeth, zir. Come! No matter vor your foins. + + [_They fight, and Edgar knocks him down._] + +OSWALD. +Slave, thou hast slain me. Villain, take my purse. +If ever thou wilt thrive, bury my body; +And give the letters which thou find’st about me +To Edmund, Earl of Gloucester. Seek him out +Upon the British party. O, untimely death! + + [_Dies._] + +EDGAR. +I know thee well. A serviceable villain, +As duteous to the vices of thy mistress +As badness would desire. + +GLOUCESTER. +What, is he dead? + +EDGAR. +Sit you down, father; rest you. +Let’s see these pockets; the letters that he speaks of +May be my friends. He’s dead; I am only sorry +He had no other deathsman. Let us see: +Leave, gentle wax; and, manners, blame us not. +To know our enemies’ minds, we rip their hearts, +Their papers is more lawful. +[_Reads._] ‘Let our reciprocal vows be remembered. You have many +opportunities to cut him off: if your will want not, time and place +will be fruitfully offered. There is nothing done if he return the +conqueror: then am I the prisoner, and his bed my gaol; from the +loathed warmth whereof deliver me, and supply the place for your +labour. ‘Your (wife, so I would say) affectionate servant, ‘Goneril.’ +O indistinguish’d space of woman’s will! +A plot upon her virtuous husband’s life, +And the exchange my brother! Here in the sands +Thee I’ll rake up, the post unsanctified +Of murderous lechers: and in the mature time, +With this ungracious paper strike the sight +Of the death-practis’d Duke: for him ’tis well +That of thy death and business I can tell. + + [_Exit Edgar, dragging out the body._] + +GLOUCESTER. +The King is mad: how stiff is my vile sense, +That I stand up, and have ingenious feeling +Of my huge sorrows! Better I were distract: +So should my thoughts be sever’d from my griefs, +And woes by wrong imaginations lose +The knowledge of themselves. + + [_A drum afar off._] + +EDGAR. +Give me your hand. +Far off methinks I hear the beaten drum. +Come, father, I’ll bestow you with a friend. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. A Tent in the French Camp. + +Lear on a bed, asleep, soft music playing; Physician, Gentleman and +others attending. + + Enter Cordelia and Kent. + +CORDELIA. +O thou good Kent, how shall I live and work +To match thy goodness? My life will be too short, +And every measure fail me. + +KENT. +To be acknowledg’d, madam, is o’erpaid. +All my reports go with the modest truth; +Nor more, nor clipp’d, but so. + +CORDELIA. +Be better suited, +These weeds are memories of those worser hours: +I prythee put them off. + +KENT. +Pardon, dear madam; +Yet to be known shortens my made intent. +My boon I make it that you know me not +Till time and I think meet. + +CORDELIA. +Then be’t so, my good lord. [_To the Physician._] How, does the King? + +PHYSICIAN. +Madam, sleeps still. + +CORDELIA. +O you kind gods, +Cure this great breach in his abused nature! +The untun’d and jarring senses, O, wind up +Of this child-changed father. + +PHYSICIAN. +So please your majesty +That we may wake the King: he hath slept long. + +CORDELIA. +Be govern’d by your knowledge, and proceed +I’ the sway of your own will. Is he array’d? + +PHYSICIAN. +Ay, madam. In the heaviness of sleep +We put fresh garments on him. +Be by, good madam, when we do awake him; +I doubt not of his temperance. + +CORDELIA. +Very well. + +PHYSICIAN. +Please you draw near. Louder the music there! + +CORDELIA. +O my dear father! Restoration hang +Thy medicine on my lips; and let this kiss +Repair those violent harms that my two sisters +Have in thy reverence made! + +KENT. +Kind and dear princess! + +CORDELIA. +Had you not been their father, these white flakes +Did challenge pity of them. Was this a face +To be oppos’d against the warring winds? +To stand against the deep dread-bolted thunder? +In the most terrible and nimble stroke +Of quick cross lightning? to watch, poor perdu! +With this thin helm? Mine enemy’s dog, +Though he had bit me, should have stood that night +Against my fire; and wast thou fain, poor father, +To hovel thee with swine and rogues forlorn +In short and musty straw? Alack, alack! +’Tis wonder that thy life and wits at once +Had not concluded all. He wakes; speak to him. + +PHYSICIAN. +Madam, do you; ’tis fittest. + +CORDELIA. +How does my royal lord? How fares your majesty? + +LEAR. +You do me wrong to take me out o’ the grave. +Thou art a soul in bliss; but I am bound +Upon a wheel of fire, that mine own tears +Do scald like molten lead. + +CORDELIA. +Sir, do you know me? + +LEAR. +You are a spirit, I know: when did you die? + +CORDELIA. +Still, still, far wide! + +PHYSICIAN. +He’s scarce awake: let him alone awhile. + +LEAR. +Where have I been? Where am I? Fair daylight? +I am mightily abus’d. I should e’en die with pity, +To see another thus. I know not what to say. +I will not swear these are my hands: let’s see; +I feel this pin prick. Would I were assur’d +Of my condition! + +CORDELIA. +O, look upon me, sir, +And hold your hands in benediction o’er me. +No, sir, you must not kneel. + +LEAR. +Pray, do not mock me: +I am a very foolish fond old man, +Fourscore and upward, not an hour more nor less; +And to deal plainly, +I fear I am not in my perfect mind. +Methinks I should know you, and know this man; +Yet I am doubtful: for I am mainly ignorant +What place this is; and all the skill I have +Remembers not these garments; nor I know not +Where I did lodge last night. Do not laugh at me; +For, as I am a man, I think this lady +To be my child Cordelia. + +CORDELIA. +And so I am. I am. + +LEAR. +Be your tears wet? Yes, faith. I pray weep not: +If you have poison for me, I will drink it. +I know you do not love me; for your sisters +Have, as I do remember, done me wrong. +You have some cause, they have not. + +CORDELIA. +No cause, no cause. + +LEAR. +Am I in France? + +KENT. +In your own kingdom, sir. + +LEAR. +Do not abuse me. + +PHYSICIAN. +Be comforted, good madam, the great rage, +You see, is kill’d in him: and yet it is danger +To make him even o’er the time he has lost. +Desire him to go in; trouble him no more +Till further settling. + +CORDELIA. +Will’t please your highness walk? + +LEAR. +You must bear with me: +Pray you now, forget and forgive: I am old and foolish. + + [_Exeunt Lear, Cordelia, Physician and Attendants._] + +GENTLEMAN. +Holds it true, sir, that the Duke of Cornwall was so slain? + +KENT. +Most certain, sir. + +GENTLEMAN. +Who is conductor of his people? + +KENT. +As ’tis said, the bastard son of Gloucester. + +GENTLEMAN. +They say Edgar, his banished son, is with the Earl of Kent in Germany. + +KENT. +Report is changeable. ’Tis time to look about; the powers of the +kingdom approach apace. + +GENTLEMAN. +The arbitrement is like to be bloody. +Fare you well, sir. + + [_Exit._] + +KENT. +My point and period will be throughly wrought, +Or well or ill, as this day’s battle’s fought. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. The Camp of the British Forces near Dover. + + Enter, with drum and colours Edmund, Regan, Officers, Soldiers and + others. + +EDMUND. +Know of the Duke if his last purpose hold, +Or whether since he is advis’d by aught +To change the course, he’s full of alteration +And self-reproving, bring his constant pleasure. + + [_To an Officer, who goes out._] + +REGAN. +Our sister’s man is certainly miscarried. + +EDMUND. +’Tis to be doubted, madam. + +REGAN. +Now, sweet lord, +You know the goodness I intend upon you: +Tell me but truly, but then speak the truth, +Do you not love my sister? + +EDMUND. +In honour’d love. + +REGAN. +But have you never found my brother’s way +To the forfended place? + +EDMUND. +That thought abuses you. + +REGAN. +I am doubtful that you have been conjunct +And bosom’d with her, as far as we call hers. + +EDMUND. +No, by mine honour, madam. + +REGAN. +I never shall endure her, dear my lord, +Be not familiar with her. + +EDMUND. +Fear not, +She and the Duke her husband! + + Enter with drum and colours Albany, Goneril and Soldiers. + +GONERIL. +[_Aside._] I had rather lose the battle than that sister +Should loosen him and me. + +ALBANY. +Our very loving sister, well be-met. +Sir, this I heard: the King is come to his daughter, +With others whom the rigour of our state +Forc’d to cry out. Where I could not be honest, +I never yet was valiant. For this business, +It toucheth us as France invades our land, +Not bolds the King, with others whom I fear +Most just and heavy causes make oppose. + +EDMUND. +Sir, you speak nobly. + +REGAN. +Why is this reason’d? + +GONERIL. +Combine together ’gainst the enemy; +For these domestic and particular broils +Are not the question here. + +ALBANY. +Let’s, then, determine with the ancient of war +On our proceeding. + +EDMUND. +I shall attend you presently at your tent. + +REGAN. +Sister, you’ll go with us? + +GONERIL. +No. + +REGAN. +’Tis most convenient; pray you, go with us. + +GONERIL. +[_Aside_.] O, ho, I know the riddle. I will go. + + [_Exeunt Edmund, Regan, Goneril, Officers, Soldiers and Attendants._] + + As they are going out, enter Edgar disguised. + +EDGAR. +If e’er your grace had speech with man so poor, +Hear me one word. + +ALBANY. +I’ll overtake you. Speak. + +EDGAR. +Before you fight the battle, ope this letter. +If you have victory, let the trumpet sound +For him that brought it: wretched though I seem, +I can produce a champion that will prove +What is avouched there. If you miscarry, +Your business of the world hath so an end, +And machination ceases. Fortune love you! + +ALBANY. +Stay till I have read the letter. + +EDGAR. +I was forbid it. +When time shall serve, let but the herald cry, +And I’ll appear again. + +ALBANY. +Why, fare thee well. I will o’erlook thy paper. + + [_Exit Edgar._] + + Enter Edmund. + +EDMUND. +The enemy’s in view; draw up your powers. +Here is the guess of their true strength and forces +By diligent discovery; but your haste +Is now urg’d on you. + +ALBANY. +We will greet the time. + + [_Exit._] + +EDMUND. +To both these sisters have I sworn my love; +Each jealous of the other, as the stung +Are of the adder. Which of them shall I take? +Both? One? Or neither? Neither can be enjoy’d, +If both remain alive. To take the widow +Exasperates, makes mad her sister Goneril; +And hardly shall I carry out my side, +Her husband being alive. Now, then, we’ll use +His countenance for the battle; which being done, +Let her who would be rid of him devise +His speedy taking off. As for the mercy +Which he intends to Lear and to Cordelia, +The battle done, and they within our power, +Shall never see his pardon: for my state +Stands on me to defend, not to debate. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. A field between the two Camps. + + Alarum within. Enter with drum and colours, Lear, Cordelia and their + Forces, and exeunt. + + Enter Edgar and Gloucester. + +EDGAR. +Here, father, take the shadow of this tree +For your good host; pray that the right may thrive: +If ever I return to you again, +I’ll bring you comfort. + +GLOUCESTER. +Grace go with you, sir! + + [_Exit Edgar._] + + Alarum and retreat within. Enter Edgar. + +EDGAR. +Away, old man, give me thy hand, away! +King Lear hath lost, he and his daughter ta’en: +Give me thy hand; come on! + +GLOUCESTER. +No further, sir; a man may rot even here. + +EDGAR. +What, in ill thoughts again? Men must endure +Their going hence, even as their coming hither; +Ripeness is all. Come on. + +GLOUCESTER. +And that’s true too. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The British Camp near Dover. + + Enter in conquest with drum and colours, Edmund, Lear and Cordelia as + prisoners; Officers, Soldiers, &c. + +EDMUND. +Some officers take them away: good guard +Until their greater pleasures first be known +That are to censure them. + +CORDELIA. +We are not the first +Who with best meaning have incurr’d the worst. +For thee, oppressed King, I am cast down; +Myself could else out-frown false fortune’s frown. +Shall we not see these daughters and these sisters? + +LEAR. +No, no, no, no. Come, let’s away to prison: +We two alone will sing like birds i’ the cage: +When thou dost ask me blessing I’ll kneel down +And ask of thee forgiveness. So we’ll live, +And pray, and sing, and tell old tales, and laugh +At gilded butterflies, and hear poor rogues +Talk of court news; and we’ll talk with them too, +Who loses and who wins; who’s in, who’s out; +And take upon’s the mystery of things, +As if we were God’s spies. And we’ll wear out, +In a wall’d prison, packs and sects of great ones +That ebb and flow by the moon. + +EDMUND. +Take them away. + +LEAR. +Upon such sacrifices, my Cordelia, +The gods themselves throw incense. Have I caught thee? +He that parts us shall bring a brand from heaven, +And fire us hence like foxes. Wipe thine eyes; +The good years shall devour them, flesh and fell, +Ere they shall make us weep! +We’ll see ’em starve first: come. + + [_Exeunt Lear and Cordelia, guarded._] + +EDMUND. +Come hither, captain, hark. +Take thou this note [_giving a paper_]; go follow them to prison. +One step I have advanc’d thee; if thou dost +As this instructs thee, thou dost make thy way +To noble fortunes: know thou this, that men +Are as the time is; to be tender-minded +Does not become a sword. Thy great employment +Will not bear question; either say thou’lt do’t, +Or thrive by other means. + +CAPTAIN. +I’ll do’t, my lord. + +EDMUND. +About it; and write happy when thou hast done. +Mark, I say, instantly; and carry it so +As I have set it down. + +CAPTAIN. +I cannot draw a cart, nor eat dried oats; +If it be man’s work, I’ll do’t. + + [_Exit._] + + Flourish. Enter Albany, Goneril, Regan, Officers and Attendants. + +ALBANY. +Sir, you have show’d today your valiant strain, +And fortune led you well: you have the captives +Who were the opposites of this day’s strife: +I do require them of you, so to use them +As we shall find their merits and our safety +May equally determine. + +EDMUND. +Sir, I thought it fit +To send the old and miserable King +To some retention and appointed guard; +Whose age has charms in it, whose title more, +To pluck the common bosom on his side, +And turn our impress’d lances in our eyes +Which do command them. With him I sent the queen; +My reason all the same; and they are ready +Tomorrow, or at further space, to appear +Where you shall hold your session. At this time +We sweat and bleed: the friend hath lost his friend; +And the best quarrels in the heat are curs’d +By those that feel their sharpness. +The question of Cordelia and her father +Requires a fitter place. + +ALBANY. +Sir, by your patience, +I hold you but a subject of this war, +Not as a brother. + +REGAN. +That’s as we list to grace him. +Methinks our pleasure might have been demanded +Ere you had spoke so far. He led our powers; +Bore the commission of my place and person; +The which immediacy may well stand up +And call itself your brother. + +GONERIL. +Not so hot: +In his own grace he doth exalt himself, +More than in your addition. + +REGAN. +In my rights, +By me invested, he compeers the best. + +ALBANY. +That were the most, if he should husband you. + +REGAN. +Jesters do oft prove prophets. + +GONERIL. +Holla, holla! +That eye that told you so look’d but asquint. + +REGAN. +Lady, I am not well; else I should answer +From a full-flowing stomach. General, +Take thou my soldiers, prisoners, patrimony; +Dispose of them, of me; the walls are thine: +Witness the world that I create thee here +My lord and master. + +GONERIL. +Mean you to enjoy him? + +ALBANY. +The let-alone lies not in your good will. + +EDMUND. +Nor in thine, lord. + +ALBANY. +Half-blooded fellow, yes. + +REGAN. +[_To Edmund._] Let the drum strike, and prove my title thine. + +ALBANY. +Stay yet; hear reason: Edmund, I arrest thee +On capital treason; and, in thine arrest, +This gilded serpent. [_pointing to Goneril._] +For your claim, fair sister, +I bar it in the interest of my wife; +’Tis she is sub-contracted to this lord, +And I her husband contradict your bans. +If you will marry, make your loves to me, +My lady is bespoke. + +GONERIL. +An interlude! + +ALBANY. +Thou art arm’d, Gloucester. Let the trumpet sound: +If none appear to prove upon thy person +Thy heinous, manifest, and many treasons, +There is my pledge. [_Throwing down a glove._] +I’ll make it on thy heart, +Ere I taste bread, thou art in nothing less +Than I have here proclaim’d thee. + +REGAN. +Sick, O, sick! + +GONERIL. +[_Aside._] If not, I’ll ne’er trust medicine. + +EDMUND. +There’s my exchange. [_Throwing down a glove._] +What in the world he is +That names me traitor, villain-like he lies. +Call by thy trumpet: he that dares approach, +On him, on you, who not? I will maintain +My truth and honour firmly. + +ALBANY. +A herald, ho! + + Enter a Herald. + +Trust to thy single virtue; for thy soldiers, +All levied in my name, have in my name +Took their discharge. + +REGAN. +My sickness grows upon me. + +ALBANY. +She is not well. Convey her to my tent. + + [_Exit Regan, led._] + +Come hither, herald. Let the trumpet sound +And read out this. + +OFFICER. +Sound, trumpet! + + [_A trumpet sounds._] + +HERALD. +[_Reads._] ‘If any man of quality or degree within the lists of the +army will maintain upon Edmund, supposed Earl of Gloucester, that he is +a manifold traitor, let him appear by the third sound of the trumpet. +He is bold in his defence.’ + +EDMUND. +Sound! + + [_First trumpet._] + +HERALD. +Again! + + [_Second trumpet._] + +HERALD. +Again! + + Third trumpet. Trumpet answers within. Enter Edgar, armed, preceded by + a trumpet. + +ALBANY. +Ask him his purposes, why he appears +Upon this call o’ the trumpet. + +HERALD. +What are you? +Your name, your quality? and why you answer +This present summons? + +EDGAR. +Know my name is lost; +By treason’s tooth bare-gnawn and canker-bit. +Yet am I noble as the adversary +I come to cope. + +ALBANY. +Which is that adversary? + +EDGAR. +What’s he that speaks for Edmund, Earl of Gloucester? + +EDMUND. +Himself, what say’st thou to him? + +EDGAR. +Draw thy sword, +That if my speech offend a noble heart, +Thy arm may do thee justice: here is mine. +Behold, it is the privilege of mine honours, +My oath, and my profession: I protest, +Maugre thy strength, youth, place, and eminence, +Despite thy victor sword and fire-new fortune, +Thy valour and thy heart, thou art a traitor; +False to thy gods, thy brother, and thy father; +Conspirant ’gainst this high illustrious prince; +And, from the extremest upward of thy head +To the descent and dust beneath thy foot, +A most toad-spotted traitor. Say thou ‘No,’ +This sword, this arm, and my best spirits are bent +To prove upon thy heart, whereto I speak, +Thou liest. + +EDMUND. +In wisdom I should ask thy name; +But since thy outside looks so fair and warlike, +And that thy tongue some say of breeding breathes, +What safe and nicely I might well delay +By rule of knighthood, I disdain and spurn. +Back do I toss those treasons to thy head, +With the hell-hated lie o’erwhelm thy heart; +Which for they yet glance by and scarcely bruise, +This sword of mine shall give them instant way, +Where they shall rest for ever. Trumpets, speak! + + [_Alarums. They fight. Edmund falls._] + +ALBANY. +Save him, save him! + +GONERIL. +This is mere practice, Gloucester: +By the law of arms thou wast not bound to answer +An unknown opposite; thou art not vanquish’d, +But cozen’d and beguil’d. + +ALBANY. +Shut your mouth, dame, +Or with this paper shall I stop it. Hold, sir; +Thou worse than any name, read thine own evil. +No tearing, lady; I perceive you know it. + + [_Gives the letter to Edmund._] + +GONERIL. +Say if I do, the laws are mine, not thine: +Who can arraign me for’t? + + [_Exit._] + +ALBANY. +Most monstrous! O! +Know’st thou this paper? + +EDMUND. +Ask me not what I know. + +ALBANY. +[_To an Officer, who goes out._] Go after her; she’s desperate; govern +her. + +EDMUND. +What you have charg’d me with, that have I done; +And more, much more; the time will bring it out. +’Tis past, and so am I. But what art thou +That hast this fortune on me? If thou’rt noble, +I do forgive thee. + +EDGAR. +Let’s exchange charity. +I am no less in blood than thou art, Edmund; +If more, the more thou hast wrong’d me. +My name is Edgar and thy father’s son. +The gods are just, and of our pleasant vices +Make instruments to plague us: +The dark and vicious place where thee he got +Cost him his eyes. + +EDMUND. +Thou hast spoken right, ’tis true; +The wheel is come full circle; I am here. + +ALBANY. +Methought thy very gait did prophesy +A royal nobleness. I must embrace thee. +Let sorrow split my heart if ever I +Did hate thee or thy father. + +EDGAR. +Worthy prince, I know’t. + +ALBANY. +Where have you hid yourself? +How have you known the miseries of your father? + +EDGAR. +By nursing them, my lord. List a brief tale; +And when ’tis told, O that my heart would burst! +The bloody proclamation to escape +That follow’d me so near,—O, our lives’ sweetness! +That with the pain of death we’d hourly die +Rather than die at once!—taught me to shift +Into a madman’s rags; t’assume a semblance +That very dogs disdain’d; and in this habit +Met I my father with his bleeding rings, +Their precious stones new lost; became his guide, +Led him, begg’d for him, sav’d him from despair; +Never,—O fault!—reveal’d myself unto him +Until some half hour past, when I was arm’d; +Not sure, though hoping of this good success, +I ask’d his blessing, and from first to last +Told him my pilgrimage. But his flaw’d heart, +Alack, too weak the conflict to support! +’Twixt two extremes of passion, joy and grief, +Burst smilingly. + +EDMUND. +This speech of yours hath mov’d me, +And shall perchance do good, but speak you on; +You look as you had something more to say. + +ALBANY. +If there be more, more woeful, hold it in; +For I am almost ready to dissolve, +Hearing of this. + +EDGAR. +This would have seem’d a period +To such as love not sorrow; but another, +To amplify too much, would make much more, +And top extremity. +Whilst I was big in clamour, came there a man +Who, having seen me in my worst estate, +Shunn’d my abhorr’d society; but then finding +Who ’twas that so endur’d, with his strong arms +He fastened on my neck, and bellow’d out +As he’d burst heaven; threw him on my father; +Told the most piteous tale of Lear and him +That ever ear receiv’d, which in recounting +His grief grew puissant, and the strings of life +Began to crack. Twice then the trumpets sounded, +And there I left him tranc’d. + +ALBANY. +But who was this? + +EDGAR. +Kent, sir, the banish’d Kent; who in disguise +Follow’d his enemy king and did him service +Improper for a slave. + + Enter a Gentleman hastily, with a bloody knife. + +GENTLEMAN. +Help, help! O, help! + +EDGAR. +What kind of help? + +ALBANY. +Speak, man. + +EDGAR. +What means this bloody knife? + +GENTLEMAN. +’Tis hot, it smokes; +It came even from the heart of—O! she’s dead! + +ALBANY. +Who dead? Speak, man. + +GENTLEMAN. +Your lady, sir, your lady; and her sister +By her is poisoned; she hath confesses it. + +EDMUND. +I was contracted to them both, all three +Now marry in an instant. + +EDGAR. +Here comes Kent. + + Enter Kent. + +ALBANY. +Produce their bodies, be they alive or dead. +This judgement of the heavens that makes us tremble +Touches us not with pity. O, is this he? +The time will not allow the compliment +Which very manners urges. + +KENT. +I am come +To bid my King and master aye good night: +Is he not here? + +ALBANY. +Great thing of us forgot! +Speak, Edmund, where’s the King? and where’s Cordelia? + + The bodies of Goneril and Regan are brought in. + +Seest thou this object, Kent? + +KENT. +Alack, why thus? + +EDMUND. +Yet Edmund was belov’d. +The one the other poisoned for my sake, +And after slew herself. + +ALBANY. +Even so. Cover their faces. + +EDMUND. +I pant for life. Some good I mean to do, +Despite of mine own nature. Quickly send, +Be brief in it, to the castle; for my writ +Is on the life of Lear and on Cordelia; +Nay, send in time. + +ALBANY. +Run, run, O, run! + +EDGAR. +To who, my lord? Who has the office? Send +Thy token of reprieve. + +EDMUND. +Well thought on: take my sword, +Give it the captain. + +EDGAR. +Haste thee for thy life. + + [_Exit Edgar._] + +EDMUND. +He hath commission from thy wife and me +To hang Cordelia in the prison, and +To lay the blame upon her own despair, +That she fordid herself. + +ALBANY. +The gods defend her! Bear him hence awhile. + + [_Edmund is borne off._] + + Enter Lear with Cordelia dead in his arms; Edgar, Officer and others + following. + +LEAR. +Howl, howl, howl, howl! O, you are men of stone. +Had I your tongues and eyes, I’ld use them so +That heaven’s vault should crack. She’s gone for ever! +I know when one is dead, and when one lives; +She’s dead as earth. Lend me a looking glass; +If that her breath will mist or stain the stone, +Why, then she lives. + +KENT. +Is this the promis’d end? + +EDGAR. +Or image of that horror? + +ALBANY. +Fall, and cease! + +LEAR. +This feather stirs; she lives! If it be so, +It is a chance which does redeem all sorrows +That ever I have felt. + +KENT. +O, my good master! [_Kneeling._] + +LEAR. +Prythee, away! + +EDGAR. +’Tis noble Kent, your friend. + +LEAR. +A plague upon you, murderers, traitors all! +I might have sav’d her; now she’s gone for ever! +Cordelia, Cordelia! stay a little. Ha! +What is’t thou say’st? Her voice was ever soft, +Gentle, and low, an excellent thing in woman. +I kill’d the slave that was a-hanging thee. + +OFFICER. +’Tis true, my lords, he did. + +LEAR. +Did I not, fellow? +I have seen the day, with my good biting falchion +I would have made them skip. I am old now, +And these same crosses spoil me. Who are you? +Mine eyes are not o’ the best, I’ll tell you straight. + +KENT. +If Fortune brag of two she lov’d and hated, +One of them we behold. + +LEAR. +This is a dull sight. Are you not Kent? + +KENT. +The same, +Your servant Kent. Where is your servant Caius? + +LEAR. +He’s a good fellow, I can tell you that; +He’ll strike, and quickly too:. He’s dead and rotten. + +KENT. +No, my good lord; I am the very man. + +LEAR. +I’ll see that straight. + +KENT. +That from your first of difference and decay +Have follow’d your sad steps. + +LEAR. +You are welcome hither. + +KENT. +Nor no man else. All’s cheerless, dark and deadly. +Your eldest daughters have fordone themselves, +And desperately are dead. + +LEAR. +Ay, so I think. + +ALBANY. +He knows not what he says; and vain is it +That we present us to him. + +EDGAR. +Very bootless. + + Enter an Officer. + +OFFICER. +Edmund is dead, my lord. + +ALBANY. +That’s but a trifle here. +You lords and noble friends, know our intent. +What comfort to this great decay may come +Shall be applied For us, we will resign, +During the life of this old majesty, +To him our absolute power; +[_to Edgar and Kent_] you to your rights; +With boot and such addition as your honours +Have more than merited. All friends shall taste +The wages of their virtue and all foes +The cup of their deservings. O, see, see! + +LEAR. +And my poor fool is hang’d! No, no, no life! +Why should a dog, a horse, a rat have life, +And thou no breath at all? Thou’lt come no more, +Never, never, never, never, never! +Pray you undo this button. Thank you, sir. +Do you see this? Look on her: look, her lips, +Look there, look there! + + [_He dies._] + +EDGAR. +He faints! My lord, my lord! + +KENT. +Break, heart; I prythee break! + +EDGAR. +Look up, my lord. + +KENT. +Vex not his ghost: O, let him pass! He hates him +That would upon the rack of this rough world +Stretch him out longer. + +EDGAR. +He is gone indeed. + +KENT. +The wonder is, he hath endur’d so long: +He but usurp’d his life. + +ALBANY. +Bear them from hence. Our present business +Is general woe. [_To Edgar and Kent._] Friends of my soul, you twain, +Rule in this realm and the gor’d state sustain. + +KENT. +I have a journey, sir, shortly to go; +My master calls me, I must not say no. + +EDGAR. +The weight of this sad time we must obey; +Speak what we feel, not what we ought to say. +The oldest hath borne most; we that are young +Shall never see so much, nor live so long. + + [_Exeunt with a dead march._] + + + + + +LOVE’S LABOUR’S LOST + +Dramatis Personae. + + FERDINAND, King of Navarre + BEROWNE, lord attending on the King + LONGAVILLE, " " " " " + DUMAIN, " " " " " + BOYET, lord attending on the Princess of France + MARCADE, " " " " " " " + DON ADRIANO DE ARMADO, fantastical Spaniard + SIR NATHANIEL, a curate + HOLOFERNES, a schoolmaster + DULL, a constable + COSTARD, a clown + MOTH, page to Armado + A FORESTER + + THE PRINCESS OF FRANCE + ROSALINE, lady attending on the Princess + MARIA, " " " " " + KATHARINE, lady attending on the Princess + JAQUENETTA, a country wench + + Lords, Attendants, etc. + +SCENE: Navarre + +ACT I. SCENE I. Navarre. The King's park + +Enter the King, BEROWNE, LONGAVILLE, and DUMAIN + + KING. Let fame, that all hunt after in their lives, + Live regist'red upon our brazen tombs, + And then grace us in the disgrace of death; + When, spite of cormorant devouring Time, + Th' endeavour of this present breath may buy + That honour which shall bate his scythe's keen edge, + And make us heirs of all eternity. + Therefore, brave conquerors- for so you are + That war against your own affections + And the huge army of the world's desires- + Our late edict shall strongly stand in force: + Navarre shall be the wonder of the world; + Our court shall be a little Academe, + Still and contemplative in living art. + You three, Berowne, Dumain, and Longaville, + Have sworn for three years' term to live with me + My fellow-scholars, and to keep those statutes + That are recorded in this schedule here. + Your oaths are pass'd; and now subscribe your names, + That his own hand may strike his honour down + That violates the smallest branch herein. + If you are arm'd to do as sworn to do, + Subscribe to your deep oaths, and keep it too. + LONGAVILLE. I am resolv'd; 'tis but a three years' fast. + The mind shall banquet, though the body pine. + Fat paunches have lean pates; and dainty bits + Make rich the ribs, but bankrupt quite the wits. + DUMAIN. My loving lord, Dumain is mortified. + The grosser manner of these world's delights + He throws upon the gross world's baser slaves; + To love, to wealth, to pomp, I pine and die, + With all these living in philosophy. + BEROWNE. I can but say their protestation over; + So much, dear liege, I have already sworn, + That is, to live and study here three years. + But there are other strict observances, + As: not to see a woman in that term, + Which I hope well is not enrolled there; + And one day in a week to touch no food, + And but one meal on every day beside, + The which I hope is not enrolled there; + And then to sleep but three hours in the night + And not be seen to wink of all the day- + When I was wont to think no harm all night, + And make a dark night too of half the day- + Which I hope well is not enrolled there. + O, these are barren tasks, too hard to keep, + Not to see ladies, study, fast, not sleep! + KING. Your oath is pass'd to pass away from these. + BEROWNE. Let me say no, my liege, an if you please: + I only swore to study with your Grace, + And stay here in your court for three years' space. + LONGAVILLE. You swore to that, Berowne, and to the rest. + BEROWNE. By yea and nay, sir, then I swore in jest. + What is the end of study, let me know. + KING. Why, that to know which else we should not know. + BEROWNE. Things hid and barr'd, you mean, from common sense? + KING. Ay, that is study's god-like recompense. + BEROWNE. Come on, then; I will swear to study so, + To know the thing I am forbid to know, + As thus: to study where I well may dine, + When I to feast expressly am forbid; + Or study where to meet some mistress fine, + When mistresses from common sense are hid; + Or, having sworn too hard-a-keeping oath, + Study to break it, and not break my troth. + If study's gain be thus, and this be so, + Study knows that which yet it doth not know. + Swear me to this, and I will ne'er say no. + KING. These be the stops that hinder study quite, + And train our intellects to vain delight. + BEROWNE. Why, all delights are vain; but that most vain + Which, with pain purchas'd, doth inherit pain, + As painfully to pore upon a book + To seek the light of truth; while truth the while + Doth falsely blind the eyesight of his look. + Light, seeking light, doth light of light beguile; + So, ere you find where light in darkness lies, + Your light grows dark by losing of your eyes. + Study me how to please the eye indeed, + By fixing it upon a fairer eye; + Who dazzling so, that eye shall be his heed, + And give him light that it was blinded by. + Study is like the heaven's glorious sun, + That will not be deep-search'd with saucy looks; + Small have continual plodders ever won, + Save base authority from others' books. + These earthly godfathers of heaven's lights + That give a name to every fixed star + Have no more profit of their shining nights + Than those that walk and wot not what they are. + Too much to know is to know nought but fame; + And every godfather can give a name. + KING. How well he's read, to reason against reading! + DUMAIN. Proceeded well, to stop all good proceeding! + LONGAVILLE. He weeds the corn, and still lets grow the weeding. + BEROWNE. The spring is near, when green geese are a-breeding. + DUMAIN. How follows that? + BEROWNE. Fit in his place and time. + DUMAIN. In reason nothing. + BEROWNE. Something then in rhyme. + LONGAVILLE. Berowne is like an envious sneaping frost + That bites the first-born infants of the spring. + BEROWNE. Well, say I am; why should proud summer boast + Before the birds have any cause to sing? + Why should I joy in any abortive birth? + At Christmas I no more desire a rose + Than wish a snow in May's new-fangled shows; + But like of each thing that in season grows; + So you, to study now it is too late, + Climb o'er the house to unlock the little gate. + KING. Well, sit out; go home, Berowne; adieu. + BEROWNE. No, my good lord; I have sworn to stay with you; + And though I have for barbarism spoke more + Than for that angel knowledge you can say, + Yet confident I'll keep what I have swore, + And bide the penance of each three years' day. + Give me the paper; let me read the same; + And to the strictest decrees I'll write my name. + KING. How well this yielding rescues thee from shame! + BEROWNE. [Reads] 'Item. That no woman shall come within a mile of + my court'- Hath this been proclaimed? + LONGAVILLE. Four days ago. + BEROWNE. Let's see the penalty. [Reads] '-on pain of losing her + tongue.' Who devis'd this penalty? + LONGAVILLE. Marry, that did I. + BEROWNE. Sweet lord, and why? + LONGAVILLE. To fright them hence with that dread penalty. + BEROWNE. A dangerous law against gentility. + [Reads] 'Item. If any man be seen to talk with a woman within + the term of three years, he shall endure such public shame as the + rest of the court can possibly devise.' + This article, my liege, yourself must break; + For well you know here comes in embassy + The French king's daughter, with yourself to speak- + A mild of grace and complete majesty- + About surrender up of Aquitaine + To her decrepit, sick, and bedrid father; + Therefore this article is made in vain, + Or vainly comes th' admired princess hither. + KING. What say you, lords? Why, this was quite forgot. + BEROWNE. So study evermore is over-shot. + While it doth study to have what it would, + It doth forget to do the thing it should; + And when it hath the thing it hunteth most, + 'Tis won as towns with fire- so won, so lost. + KING. We must of force dispense with this decree; + She must lie here on mere necessity. + BEROWNE. Necessity will make us all forsworn + Three thousand times within this three years' space; + For every man with his affects is born, + Not by might mast'red, but by special grace. + If I break faith, this word shall speak for me: + I am forsworn on mere necessity. + So to the laws at large I write my name; [Subscribes] + And he that breaks them in the least degree + Stands in attainder of eternal shame. + Suggestions are to other as to me; + But I believe, although I seem so loath, + I am the last that will last keep his oath. + But is there no quick recreation granted? + KING. Ay, that there is. Our court, you know, is haunted + With a refined traveller of Spain, + A man in all the world's new fashion planted, + That hath a mint of phrases in his brain; + One who the music of his own vain tongue + Doth ravish like enchanting harmony; + A man of complements, whom right and wrong + Have chose as umpire of their mutiny. + This child of fancy, that Armado hight, + For interim to our studies shall relate, + In high-born words, the worth of many a knight + From tawny Spain lost in the world's debate. + How you delight, my lords, I know not, I; + But I protest I love to hear him lie, + And I will use him for my minstrelsy. + BEROWNE. Armado is a most illustrious wight, + A man of fire-new words, fashion's own knight. + LONGAVILLE. Costard the swain and he shall be our sport; + And so to study three years is but short. + + Enter DULL, a constable, with a letter, and COSTARD + + DULL. Which is the Duke's own person? + BEROWNE. This, fellow. What wouldst? + DULL. I myself reprehend his own person, for I am his Grace's + farborough; but I would see his own person in flesh and blood. + BEROWNE. This is he. + DULL. Signior Arme- Arme- commends you. There's villainy abroad; + this letter will tell you more. + COSTARD. Sir, the contempts thereof are as touching me. + KING. A letter from the magnificent Armado. + BEROWNE. How low soever the matter, I hope in God for high words. + LONGAVILLE. A high hope for a low heaven. God grant us patience! + BEROWNE. To hear, or forbear hearing? + LONGAVILLE. To hear meekly, sir, and to laugh moderately; or, to + forbear both. + BEROWNE. Well, sir, be it as the style shall give us cause to climb + in the merriness. + COSTARD. The matter is to me, sir, as concerning Jaquenetta. + The manner of it is, I was taken with the manner. + BEROWNE. In what manner? + COSTARD. In manner and form following, sir; all those three: I was + seen with her in the manor-house, sitting with her upon the form, + and taken following her into the park; which, put together, is in + manner and form following. Now, sir, for the manner- it is the + manner of a man to speak to a woman. For the form- in some form. + BEROWNE. For the following, sir? + COSTARD. As it shall follow in my correction; and God defend the + right! + KING. Will you hear this letter with attention? + BEROWNE. As we would hear an oracle. + COSTARD. Such is the simplicity of man to hearken after the flesh. + KING. [Reads] 'Great deputy, the welkin's vicegerent and sole + dominator of Navarre, my soul's earth's god and body's fost'ring + patron'- + COSTARD. Not a word of Costard yet. + KING. [Reads] 'So it is'- + COSTARD. It may be so; but if he say it is so, he is, in telling + true, but so. + KING. Peace! + COSTARD. Be to me, and every man that dares not fight! + KING. No words! + COSTARD. Of other men's secrets, I beseech you. + KING. [Reads] 'So it is, besieged with sable-coloured melancholy, I + did commend the black oppressing humour to the most wholesome + physic of thy health-giving air; and, as I am a gentleman, betook + myself to walk. The time When? About the sixth hour; when beasts + most graze, birds best peck, and men sit down to that nourishment + which is called supper. So much for the time When. Now for the + ground Which? which, I mean, I upon; it is ycleped thy park. Then + for the place Where? where, I mean, I did encounter that obscene + and most prepost'rous event that draweth from my snow-white pen + the ebon-coloured ink which here thou viewest, beholdest, + surveyest, or seest. But to the place Where? It standeth + north-north-east and by east from the west corner of thy + curious-knotted garden. There did I see that low-spirited swain, + that base minnow of thy mirth,' + COSTARD. Me? + KING. 'that unlettered small-knowing soul,' + COSTARD. Me? + KING. 'that shallow vassal,' + COSTARD. Still me? + KING. 'which, as I remember, hight Costard,' + COSTARD. O, me! + KING. 'sorted and consorted, contrary to thy established proclaimed + edict and continent canon; which, with, O, with- but with this I + passion to say wherewith-' + COSTARD. With a wench. + King. 'with a child of our grandmother Eve, a female; or, for thy + more sweet understanding, a woman. Him I, as my ever-esteemed + duty pricks me on, have sent to thee, to receive the meed of + punishment, by thy sweet Grace's officer, Antony Dull, a man of + good repute, carriage, bearing, and estimation.' + DULL. Me, an't shall please you; I am Antony Dull. + KING. 'For Jaquenetta- so is the weaker vessel called, which I + apprehended with the aforesaid swain- I keep her as a vessel of + thy law's fury; and shall, at the least of thy sweet notice, + bring her to trial. Thine, in all compliments of devoted and + heart-burning heat of duty, + DON ADRIANO DE ARMADO.' + + BEROWNE. This is not so well as I look'd for, but the best that + ever I heard. + KING. Ay, the best for the worst. But, sirrah, what say you to + this? + COSTARD. Sir, I confess the wench. + KING. Did you hear the proclamation? + COSTARD. I do confess much of the hearing it, but little of the + marking of it. + KING. It was proclaimed a year's imprisonment to be taken with a + wench. + COSTARD. I was taken with none, sir; I was taken with a damsel. + KING. Well, it was proclaimed damsel. + COSTARD. This was no damsel neither, sir; she was a virgin. + KING. It is so varied too, for it was proclaimed virgin. + COSTARD. If it were, I deny her virginity; I was taken with a maid. + KING. This 'maid' not serve your turn, sir. + COSTARD. This maid will serve my turn, sir. + KING. Sir, I will pronounce your sentence: you shall fast a week + with bran and water. + COSTARD. I had rather pray a month with mutton and porridge. + KING. And Don Armado shall be your keeper. + My Lord Berowne, see him delivered o'er; + And go we, lords, to put in practice that + Which each to other hath so strongly sworn. + Exeunt KING, LONGAVILLE, and DUMAIN + BEROWNE. I'll lay my head to any good man's hat + These oaths and laws will prove an idle scorn. + Sirrah, come on. + COSTARD. I suffer for the truth, sir; for true it is I was taken + with Jaquenetta, and Jaquenetta is a true girl; and therefore + welcome the sour cup of prosperity! Affliction may one day smile + again; and till then, sit thee down, sorrow. + Exeunt + +SCENE II. The park + +Enter ARMADO and MOTH, his page + + ARMADO. Boy, what sign is it when a man of great spirit grows + melancholy? + MOTH. A great sign, sir, that he will look sad. + ARMADO. Why, sadness is one and the self-same thing, dear imp. + MOTH. No, no; O Lord, sir, no! + ARMADO. How canst thou part sadness and melancholy, my tender + juvenal? + MOTH. By a familiar demonstration of the working, my tough signior. + ARMADO. Why tough signior? Why tough signior? + MOTH. Why tender juvenal? Why tender juvenal? + ARMADO. I spoke it, tender juvenal, as a congruent epitheton + appertaining to thy young days, which we may nominate tender. + MOTH. And I, tough signior, as an appertinent title to your old + time, which we may name tough. + ARMADO. Pretty and apt. + MOTH. How mean you, sir? I pretty, and my saying apt? or I apt, and + my saying pretty? + ARMADO. Thou pretty, because little. + MOTH. Little pretty, because little. Wherefore apt? + ARMADO. And therefore apt, because quick. + MOTH. Speak you this in my praise, master? + ARMADO. In thy condign praise. + MOTH. I will praise an eel with the same praise. + ARMADO. that an eel is ingenious? + MOTH. That an eel is quick. + ARMADO. I do say thou art quick in answers; thou heat'st my blood. + MOTH. I am answer'd, sir. + ARMADO. I love not to be cross'd. + MOTH. [Aside] He speaks the mere contrary: crosses love not him. + ARMADO. I have promised to study three years with the Duke. + MOTH. You may do it in an hour, sir. + ARMADO. Impossible. + MOTH. How many is one thrice told? + ARMADO. I am ill at reck'ning; it fitteth the spirit of a tapster. + MOTH. You are a gentleman and a gamester, sir. + ARMADO. I confess both; they are both the varnish of a complete + man. + MOTH. Then I am sure you know how much the gross sum of deuce-ace + amounts to. + ARMADO. It doth amount to one more than two. + MOTH. Which the base vulgar do call three. + ARMADO. True. + MOTH. Why, sir, is this such a piece of study? Now here is three + studied ere ye'll thrice wink; and how easy it is to put 'years' + to the word 'three,' and study three years in two words, the + dancing horse will tell you. + ARMADO. A most fine figure! + MOTH. [Aside] To prove you a cipher. + ARMADO. I will hereupon confess I am in love. And as it is base for + a soldier to love, so am I in love with a base wench. If drawing + my sword against the humour of affection would deliver me from + the reprobate thought of it, I would take Desire prisoner, and + ransom him to any French courtier for a new-devis'd curtsy. I + think scorn to sigh; methinks I should out-swear Cupid. Comfort + me, boy; what great men have been in love? + MOTH. Hercules, master. + ARMADO. Most sweet Hercules! More authority, dear boy, name more; + and, sweet my child, let them be men of good repute and carriage. + MOTH. Samson, master; he was a man of good carriage, great + carriage, for he carried the town gates on his back like a + porter; and he was in love. + ARMADO. O well-knit Samson! strong-jointed Samson! I do excel thee + in my rapier as much as thou didst me in carrying gates. I am in + love too. Who was Samson's love, my dear Moth? + MOTH. A woman, master. + ARMADO. Of what complexion? + MOTH. Of all the four, or the three, or the two, or one of the + four. + ARMADO. Tell me precisely of what complexion. + MOTH. Of the sea-water green, sir. + ARMADO. Is that one of the four complexions? + MOTH. As I have read, sir; and the best of them too. + ARMADO. Green, indeed, is the colour of lovers; but to have a love + of that colour, methinks Samson had small reason for it. He + surely affected her for her wit. + MOTH. It was so, sir; for she had a green wit. + ARMADO. My love is most immaculate white and red. + MOTH. Most maculate thoughts, master, are mask'd under such + colours. + ARMADO. Define, define, well-educated infant. + MOTH. My father's wit my mother's tongue assist me! + ARMADO. Sweet invocation of a child; most pretty, and pathetical! + MOTH. If she be made of white and red, + Her faults will ne'er be known; + For blushing cheeks by faults are bred, + And fears by pale white shown. + Then if she fear, or be to blame, + By this you shall not know; + For still her cheeks possess the same + Which native she doth owe. + A dangerous rhyme, master, against the reason of white and red. + ARMADO. Is there not a ballad, boy, of the King and the Beggar? + MOTH. The world was very guilty of such a ballad some three ages + since; but I think now 'tis not to be found; or if it were, it + would neither serve for the writing nor the tune. + ARMADO. I will have that subject newly writ o'er, that I may + example my digression by some mighty precedent. Boy, I do love + that country girl that I took in the park with the rational hind + Costard; she deserves well. + MOTH. [Aside] To be whipt; and yet a better love than my master. + ARMADO. Sing, boy; my spirit grows heavy in love. + MOTH. And that's great marvel, loving a light wench. + ARMADO. I say, sing. + MOTH. Forbear till this company be past. + + Enter DULL, COSTARD, and JAQUENETTA + + DULL. Sir, the Duke's pleasure is that you keep Costard safe; and + you must suffer him to take no delight nor no penance; but 'a + must fast three days a week. For this damsel, I must keep her at + the park; she is allow'd for the day-woman. Fare you well. + ARMADO. I do betray myself with blushing. Maid! + JAQUENETTA. Man! + ARMADO. I will visit thee at the lodge. + JAQUENETTA. That's hereby. + ARMADO. I know where it is situate. + JAQUENETTA. Lord, how wise you are! + ARMADO. I will tell thee wonders. + JAQUENETTA. With that face? + ARMADO. I love thee. + JAQUENETTA. So I heard you say. + ARMADO. And so, farewell. + JAQUENETTA. Fair weather after you! + DULL. Come, Jaquenetta, away. Exit with JAQUENETTA + ARMADO. Villain, thou shalt fast for thy offences ere thou be + pardoned. + COSTARD. Well, sir, I hope when I do it I shall do it on a full + stomach. + ARMADO. Thou shalt be heavily punished. + COSTARD. I am more bound to you than your fellows, for they are but + lightly rewarded. + ARMADO. Take away this villain; shut him up. + MOTH. Come, you transgressing slave, away. + COSTARD. Let me not be pent up, sir; I will fast, being loose. + MOTH. No, sir; that were fast, and loose. Thou shalt to prison. + COSTARD. Well, if ever I do see the merry days of desolation that I + have seen, some shall see. + MOTH. What shall some see? + COSTARD. Nay, nothing, Master Moth, but what they look upon. It is + not for prisoners to be too silent in their words, and therefore + I will say nothing. I thank God I have as little patience as + another man, and therefore I can be quiet. + Exeunt MOTH and COSTARD + ARMADO. I do affect the very ground, which is base, where her shoe, + which is baser, guided by her foot, which is basest, doth tread. + I shall be forsworn- which is a great argument of falsehood- if I + love. And how can that be true love which is falsely attempted? + Love is a familiar; Love is a devil. There is no evil angel but + Love. Yet was Samson so tempted, and he had an excellent + strength; yet was Solomon so seduced, and he had a very good wit. + Cupid's butt-shaft is too hard for Hercules' club, and therefore + too much odds for a Spaniard's rapier. The first and second cause + will not serve my turn; the passado he respects not, the duello + he regards not; his disgrace is to be called boy, but his glory + is to subdue men. Adieu, valour; rust, rapier; be still, drum; + for your manager is in love; yea, he loveth. Assist me, some + extemporal god of rhyme, for I am sure I shall turn sonnet. + Devise, wit; write, pen; for I am for whole volumes in folio. + Exit + +ACT II. SCENE II. The park + +Enter the PRINCESS OF FRANCE, with three attending ladies, +ROSALINE, MARIA, KATHARINE, BOYET, and two other LORDS + + BOYET. Now, madam, summon up your dearest spirits. + Consider who the King your father sends, + To whom he sends, and what's his embassy: + Yourself, held precious in the world's esteem, + To parley with the sole inheritor + Of all perfections that a man may owe, + Matchless Navarre; the plea of no less weight + Than Aquitaine, a dowry for a queen. + Be now as prodigal of all dear grace + As Nature was in making graces dear, + When she did starve the general world beside + And prodigally gave them all to you. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Good Lord Boyet, my beauty, though but mean, + Needs not the painted flourish of your praise. + Beauty is bought by judgment of the eye, + Not utt'red by base sale of chapmen's tongues; + I am less proud to hear you tell my worth + Than you much willing to be counted wise + In spending your wit in the praise of mine. + But now to task the tasker: good Boyet, + You are not ignorant all-telling fame + Doth noise abroad Navarre hath made a vow, + Till painful study shall outwear three years, + No woman may approach his silent court. + Therefore to's seemeth it a needful course, + Before we enter his forbidden gates, + To know his pleasure; and in that behalf, + Bold of your worthiness, we single you + As our best-moving fair solicitor. + Tell him the daughter of the King of France, + On serious business, craving quick dispatch, + Importunes personal conference with his Grace. + Haste, signify so much; while we attend, + Like humble-visag'd suitors, his high will. + BOYET. Proud of employment, willingly I go. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. All pride is willing pride, and yours is so. + Exit BOYET + Who are the votaries, my loving lords, + That are vow-fellows with this virtuous duke? + FIRST LORD. Lord Longaville is one. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Know you the man? + MARIA. I know him, madam; at a marriage feast, + Between Lord Perigort and the beauteous heir + Of Jaques Falconbridge, solemnized + In Normandy, saw I this Longaville. + A man of sovereign parts, peerless esteem'd, + Well fitted in arts, glorious in arms; + Nothing becomes him ill that he would well. + The only soil of his fair virtue's gloss, + If virtue's gloss will stain with any soil, + Is a sharp wit match'd with too blunt a will, + Whose edge hath power to cut, whose will still wills + It should none spare that come within his power. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Some merry mocking lord, belike; is't so? + MARIA. They say so most that most his humours know. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Such short-liv'd wits do wither as they grow. + Who are the rest? + KATHARINE. The young Dumain, a well-accomplish'd youth, + Of all that virtue love for virtue loved; + Most power to do most harm, least knowing ill, + For he hath wit to make an ill shape good, + And shape to win grace though he had no wit. + I saw him at the Duke Alencon's once; + And much too little of that good I saw + Is my report to his great worthiness. + ROSALINE. Another of these students at that time + Was there with him, if I have heard a truth. + Berowne they call him; but a merrier man, + Within the limit of becoming mirth, + I never spent an hour's talk withal. + His eye begets occasion for his wit, + For every object that the one doth catch + The other turns to a mirth-moving jest, + Which his fair tongue, conceit's expositor, + Delivers in such apt and gracious words + That aged ears play truant at his tales, + And younger hearings are quite ravished; + So sweet and voluble is his discourse. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. God bless my ladies! Are they all in love, + That every one her own hath garnished + With such bedecking ornaments of praise? + FIRST LORD. Here comes Boyet. + + Re-enter BOYET + + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Now, what admittance, lord? + BOYET. Navarre had notice of your fair approach, + And he and his competitors in oath + Were all address'd to meet you, gentle lady, + Before I came. Marry, thus much I have learnt: + He rather means to lodge you in the field, + Like one that comes here to besiege his court, + Than seek a dispensation for his oath, + To let you enter his unpeopled house. + [The LADIES-IN-WAITING mask] + + Enter KING, LONGAVILLE, DUMAIN, BEROWNE, + and ATTENDANTS + + Here comes Navarre. + KING. Fair Princess, welcome to the court of Navarre. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. 'Fair' I give you back again; and 'welcome' I + have not yet. The roof of this court is too high to be yours, and + welcome to the wide fields too base to be mine. + KING. You shall be welcome, madam, to my court. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. I will be welcome then; conduct me thither. + KING. Hear me, dear lady: I have sworn an oath- + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Our Lady help my lord! He'll be forsworn. + KING. Not for the world, fair madam, by my will. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Why, will shall break it; will, and nothing + else. + KING. Your ladyship is ignorant what it is. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Were my lord so, his ignorance were wise, + Where now his knowledge must prove ignorance. + I hear your Grace hath sworn out house-keeping. + 'Tis deadly sin to keep that oath, my lord, + And sin to break it. + But pardon me, I am too sudden bold; + To teach a teacher ill beseemeth me. + Vouchsafe to read the purpose of my coming, + And suddenly resolve me in my suit. [Giving a paper] + KING. Madam, I will, if suddenly I may. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. YOU Will the sooner that I were away, + For you'll prove perjur'd if you make me stay. + BEROWNE. Did not I dance with you in Brabant once? + KATHARINE. Did not I dance with you in Brabant once? + BEROWNE. I know you did. + KATHARINE. How needless was it then to ask the question! + BEROWNE. You must not be so quick. + KATHARINE. 'Tis long of you, that spur me with such questions. + BEROWNE. Your wit 's too hot, it speeds too fast, 'twill tire. + KATHARINE. Not till it leave the rider in the mire. + BEROWNE. What time o' day? + KATHARINE. The hour that fools should ask. + BEROWNE. Now fair befall your mask! + KATHARINE. Fair fall the face it covers! + BEROWNE. And send you many lovers! + KATHARINE. Amen, so you be none. + BEROWNE. Nay, then will I be gone. + KING. Madam, your father here doth intimate + The payment of a hundred thousand crowns; + Being but the one half of an entire sum + Disbursed by my father in his wars. + But say that he or we, as neither have, + Receiv'd that sum, yet there remains unpaid + A hundred thousand more, in surety of the which, + One part of Aquitaine is bound to us, + Although not valued to the money's worth. + If then the King your father will restore + But that one half which is unsatisfied, + We will give up our right in Aquitaine, + And hold fair friendship with his Majesty. + But that, it seems, he little purposeth, + For here he doth demand to have repaid + A hundred thousand crowns; and not demands, + On payment of a hundred thousand crowns, + To have his title live in Aquitaine; + Which we much rather had depart withal, + And have the money by our father lent, + Than Aquitaine so gelded as it is. + Dear Princess, were not his requests so far + From reason's yielding, your fair self should make + A yielding 'gainst some reason in my breast, + And go well satisfied to France again. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. You do the King my father too much wrong, + And wrong the reputation of your name, + In so unseeming to confess receipt + Of that which hath so faithfully been paid. + KING. I do protest I never heard of it; + And, if you prove it, I'll repay it back + Or yield up Aquitaine. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. We arrest your word. + Boyet, you can produce acquittances + For such a sum from special officers + Of Charles his father. + KING. Satisfy me so. + BOYET. So please your Grace, the packet is not come, + Where that and other specialties are bound; + To-morrow you shall have a sight of them. + KING. It shall suffice me; at which interview + All liberal reason I will yield unto. + Meantime receive such welcome at my hand + As honour, without breach of honour, may + Make tender of to thy true worthiness. + You may not come, fair Princess, within my gates; + But here without you shall be so receiv'd + As you shall deem yourself lodg'd in my heart, + Though so denied fair harbour in my house. + Your own good thoughts excuse me, and farewell. + To-morrow shall we visit you again. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Sweet health and fair desires consort your + Grace! + KING. Thy own wish wish I thee in every place. + Exit with attendants + BEROWNE. Lady, I will commend you to mine own heart. + ROSALINE. Pray you, do my commendations; + I would be glad to see it. + BEROWNE. I would you heard it groan. + ROSALINE. Is the fool sick? + BEROWNE. Sick at the heart. + ROSALINE. Alack, let it blood. + BEROWNE. Would that do it good? + ROSALINE. My physic says 'ay.' + BEROWNE. Will YOU prick't with your eye? + ROSALINE. No point, with my knife. + BEROWNE. Now, God save thy life! + ROSALINE. And yours from long living! + BEROWNE. I cannot stay thanksgiving. [Retiring] + DUMAIN. Sir, I pray you, a word: what lady is that same? + BOYET. The heir of Alencon, Katharine her name. + DUMAIN. A gallant lady! Monsieur, fare you well. Exit + LONGAVILLE. I beseech you a word: what is she in the white? + BOYET. A woman sometimes, an you saw her in the light. + LONGAVILLE. Perchance light in the light. I desire her name. + BOYET. She hath but one for herself; to desire that were a shame. + LONGAVILLE. Pray you, sir, whose daughter? + BOYET. Her mother's, I have heard. + LONGAVILLE. God's blessing on your beard! + BOYET. Good sir, be not offended; + She is an heir of Falconbridge. + LONGAVILLE. Nay, my choler is ended. + She is a most sweet lady. + BOYET. Not unlike, sir; that may be. Exit LONGAVILLE + BEROWNE. What's her name in the cap? + BOYET. Rosaline, by good hap. + BEROWNE. Is she wedded or no? + BOYET. To her will, sir, or so. + BEROWNE. You are welcome, sir; adieu! + BOYET. Farewell to me, sir, and welcome to you. + Exit BEROWNE. LADIES Unmask + MARIA. That last is Berowne, the merry mad-cap lord; + Not a word with him but a jest. + BOYET. And every jest but a word. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. It was well done of you to take him at his + word. + BOYET. I was as willing to grapple as he was to board. + KATHARINE. Two hot sheeps, marry! + BOYET. And wherefore not ships? + No sheep, sweet lamb, unless we feed on your lips. + KATHARINE. You sheep and I pasture- shall that finish the jest? + BOYET. So you grant pasture for me. [Offering to kiss her] + KATHARINE. Not so, gentle beast; + My lips are no common, though several they be. + BOYET. Belonging to whom? + KATHARINE. To my fortunes and me. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Good wits will be jangling; but, gentles, + agree; + This civil war of wits were much better used + On Navarre and his book-men, for here 'tis abused. + BOYET. If my observation, which very seldom lies, + By the heart's still rhetoric disclosed with eyes, + Deceive me not now, Navarre is infected. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. With what? + BOYET. With that which we lovers entitle 'affected.' + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Your reason? + BOYET. Why, all his behaviours did make their retire + To the court of his eye, peeping thorough desire. + His heart, like an agate, with your print impressed, + Proud with his form, in his eye pride expressed; + His tongue, all impatient to speak and not see, + Did stumble with haste in his eyesight to be; + All senses to that sense did make their repair, + To feel only looking on fairest of fair. + Methought all his senses were lock'd in his eye, + As jewels in crystal for some prince to buy; + Who, tend'ring their own worth from where they were glass'd, + Did point you to buy them, along as you pass'd. + His face's own margent did quote such amazes + That all eyes saw his eyes enchanted with gazes. + I'll give you Aquitaine and all that is his, + An you give him for my sake but one loving kiss. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Come, to our pavilion. Boyet is dispos'd. + BOYET. But to speak that in words which his eye hath disclos'd; + I only have made a mouth of his eye, + By adding a tongue which I know will not lie. + MARIA. Thou art an old love-monger, and speakest skilfully. + KATHARINE. He is Cupid's grandfather, and learns news of him. + ROSALINE. Then was Venus like her mother; for her father is but + grim. + BOYET. Do you hear, my mad wenches? + MARIA. No. + BOYET. What, then; do you see? + MARIA. Ay, our way to be gone. + BOYET. You are too hard for me. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. The park + +Enter ARMADO and MOTH + + ARMADO. Warble, child; make passionate my sense of hearing. + [MOTH sings Concolinel] + ARMADO. Sweet air! Go, tenderness of years, take this key, give + enlargement to the swain, bring him festinately hither; I must + employ him in a letter to my love. + MOTH. Master, will you win your love with a French brawl? + ARMADO. How meanest thou? Brawling in French? + MOTH. No, my complete master; but to jig off a tune at the tongue's + end, canary to it with your feet, humour it with turning up your + eyelids, sigh a note and sing a note, sometime through the + throat, as if you swallowed love with singing love, sometime + through the nose, as if you snuff'd up love by smelling love, + with your hat penthouse-like o'er the shop of your eyes, with + your arms cross'd on your thin-belly doublet, like a rabbit on a + spit, or your hands in your pocket, like a man after the old + painting; and keep not too long in one tune, but a snip and away. + These are complements, these are humours; these betray nice + wenches, that would be betrayed without these; and make them men + of note- do you note me?- that most are affected to these. + ARMADO. How hast thou purchased this experience? + MOTH. By my penny of observation. + ARMADO. But O- but O- + MOTH. The hobby-horse is forgot. + ARMADO. Call'st thou my love 'hobby-horse'? + MOTH. No, master; the hobby-horse is but a colt, and your love + perhaps a hackney. But have you forgot your love? + ARMADO. Almost I had. + MOTH. Negligent student! learn her by heart. + ARMADO. By heart and in heart, boy. + MOTH. And out of heart, master; all those three I will prove. + ARMADO. What wilt thou prove? + MOTH. A man, if I live; and this, by, in, and without, upon the + instant. By heart you love her, because your heart cannot come by + her; in heart you love her, because your heart is in love with + her; and out of heart you love her, being out of heart that you + cannot enjoy her. + ARMADO. I am all these three. + MOTH. And three times as much more, and yet nothing at all. + ARMADO. Fetch hither the swain; he must carry me a letter. + MOTH. A message well sympathiz'd- a horse to be ambassador for an + ass. + ARMADO. Ha, ha, what sayest thou? + MOTH. Marry, sir, you must send the ass upon the horse, for he is + very slow-gaited. But I go. + ARMADO. The way is but short; away. + MOTH. As swift as lead, sir. + ARMADO. The meaning, pretty ingenious? + Is not lead a metal heavy, dull, and slow? + MOTH. Minime, honest master; or rather, master, no. + ARMADO. I say lead is slow. + MOTH. You are too swift, sir, to say so: + Is that lead slow which is fir'd from a gun? + ARMADO. Sweet smoke of rhetoric! + He reputes me a cannon; and the bullet, that's he; + I shoot thee at the swain. + MOTH. Thump, then, and I flee. Exit + ARMADO. A most acute juvenal; volable and free of grace! + By thy favour, sweet welkin, I must sigh in thy face; + Most rude melancholy, valour gives thee place. + My herald is return'd. + + Re-enter MOTH with COSTARD + + MOTH. A wonder, master! here's a costard broken in a shin. + ARMADO. Some enigma, some riddle; come, thy l'envoy; begin. + COSTARD. No egma, no riddle, no l'envoy; no salve in the mail, sir. + O, sir, plantain, a plain plantain; no l'envoy, no l'envoy; no + salve, sir, but a plantain! + ARMADO. By virtue thou enforcest laughter; thy silly thought, my + spleen; the heaving of my lungs provokes me to ridiculous + smiling. O, pardon me, my stars! Doth the inconsiderate take + salve for l'envoy, and the word 'l'envoy' for a salve? + MOTH. Do the wise think them other? Is not l'envoy a salve? + ARMADO. No, page; it is an epilogue or discourse to make plain + Some obscure precedence that hath tofore been sain. + I will example it: + The fox, the ape, and the humble-bee, + Were still at odds, being but three. + There's the moral. Now the l'envoy. + MOTH. I will add the l'envoy. Say the moral again. + ARMADO. The fox, the ape, and the humble-bee, + Were still at odds, being but three. + MOTH. Until the goose came out of door, + And stay'd the odds by adding four. + Now will I begin your moral, and do you follow with my l'envoy. + The fox, the ape, and the humble-bee, + Were still at odds, being but three. + ARMADO. Until the goose came out of door, + Staying the odds by adding four. + MOTH. A good l'envoy, ending in the goose; would you desire more? + COSTARD. The boy hath sold him a bargain, a goose, that's flat. + Sir, your pennyworth is good, an your goose be fat. + To sell a bargain well is as cunning as fast and loose; + Let me see: a fat l'envoy; ay, that's a fat goose. + ARMADO. Come hither, come hither. How did this argument begin? + MOTH. By saying that a costard was broken in a shin. + Then call'd you for the l'envoy. + COSTARD. True, and I for a plantain. Thus came your argument in; + Then the boy's fat l'envoy, the goose that you bought; + And he ended the market. + ARMADO. But tell me: how was there a costard broken in a shin? + MOTH. I will tell you sensibly. + COSTARD. Thou hast no feeling of it, Moth; I will speak that + l'envoy. + I, Costard, running out, that was safely within, + Fell over the threshold and broke my shin. + ARMADO. We will talk no more of this matter. + COSTARD. Till there be more matter in the shin. + ARMADO. Sirrah Costard. I will enfranchise thee. + COSTARD. O, Marry me to one Frances! I smell some l'envoy, some + goose, in this. + ARMADO. By my sweet soul, I mean setting thee at liberty, + enfreedoming thy person; thou wert immured, restrained, + captivated, bound. + COSTARD. True, true; and now you will be my purgation, and let me + loose. + ARMADO. I give thee thy liberty, set thee from durance; and, in + lieu thereof, impose on thee nothing but this: bear this + significant [giving a letter] to the country maid Jaquenetta; + there is remuneration, for the best ward of mine honour is + rewarding my dependents. Moth, follow. Exit + MOTH. Like the sequel, I. Signior Costard, adieu. + COSTARD. My sweet ounce of man's flesh, my incony Jew! + Exit MOTH + Now will I look to his remuneration. Remuneration! O, that's the + Latin word for three farthings. Three farthings- remuneration. + 'What's the price of this inkle?'- 'One penny.'- 'No, I'll give + you a remuneration.' Why, it carries it. Remuneration! Why, it is + a fairer name than French crown. I will never buy and sell out of + this word. + + Enter BEROWNE + + BEROWNE. My good knave Costard, exceedingly well met! + COSTARD. Pray you, sir, how much carnation ribbon may a man buy for + a remuneration? + BEROWNE. What is a remuneration? + COSTARD. Marry, sir, halfpenny farthing. + BEROWNE. Why, then, three-farthing worth of silk. + COSTARD. I thank your worship. God be wi' you! + BEROWNE. Stay, slave; I must employ thee. + As thou wilt win my favour, good my knave, + Do one thing for me that I shall entreat. + COSTARD. When would you have it done, sir? + BEROWNE. This afternoon. + COSTARD. Well, I will do it, sir; fare you well. + BEROWNE. Thou knowest not what it is. + COSTARD. I shall know, sir, when I have done it. + BEROWNE. Why, villain, thou must know first. + COSTARD. I will come to your worship to-morrow morning. + BEROWNE. It must be done this afternoon. + Hark, slave, it is but this: + The Princess comes to hunt here in the park, + And in her train there is a gentle lady; + When tongues speak sweetly, then they name her name, + And Rosaline they call her. Ask for her, + And to her white hand see thou do commend + This seal'd-up counsel. There's thy guerdon; go. + [Giving him a shilling] + COSTARD. Gardon, O sweet gardon! better than remuneration; a + 'leven-pence farthing better; most sweet gardon! I will do it, + sir, in print. Gardon- remuneration! Exit + BEROWNE. And I, forsooth, in love; I, that have been love's whip; + A very beadle to a humorous sigh; + A critic, nay, a night-watch constable; + A domineering pedant o'er the boy, + Than whom no mortal so magnificent! + This wimpled, whining, purblind, wayward boy, + This senior-junior, giant-dwarf, Dan Cupid; + Regent of love-rhymes, lord of folded arms, + Th' anointed sovereign of sighs and groans, + Liege of all loiterers and malcontents, + Dread prince of plackets, king of codpieces, + Sole imperator, and great general + Of trotting paritors. O my little heart! + And I to be a corporal of his field, + And wear his colours like a tumbler's hoop! + What! I love, I sue, I seek a wife- + A woman, that is like a German clock, + Still a-repairing, ever out of frame, + And never going aright, being a watch, + But being watch'd that it may still go right! + Nay, to be perjur'd, which is worst of all; + And, among three, to love the worst of all, + A whitely wanton with a velvet brow, + With two pitch balls stuck in her face for eyes; + Ay, and, by heaven, one that will do the deed, + Though Argus were her eunuch and her guard. + And I to sigh for her! to watch for her! + To pray for her! Go to; it is a plague + That Cupid will impose for my neglect + Of his almighty dreadful little might. + Well, I will love, write, sigh, pray, sue, and groan: + Some men must love my lady, and some Joan. Exit + +ACT IV. SCENE I. The park + +Enter the PRINCESS, ROSALINE, MARIA, KATHARINE, BOYET, LORDS, +ATTENDANTS, and a FORESTER + + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Was that the King that spurr'd his horse so + hard + Against the steep uprising of the hill? + BOYET. I know not; but I think it was not he. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Whoe'er 'a was, 'a show'd a mounting mind. + Well, lords, to-day we shall have our dispatch; + On Saturday we will return to France. + Then, forester, my friend, where is the bush + That we must stand and play the murderer in? + FORESTER. Hereby, upon the edge of yonder coppice; + A stand where you may make the fairest shoot. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. I thank my beauty I am fair that shoot, + And thereupon thou speak'st the fairest shoot. + FORESTER. Pardon me, madam, for I meant not so. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. What, what? First praise me, and again say no? + O short-liv'd pride! Not fair? Alack for woe! + FORESTER. Yes, madam, fair. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Nay, never paint me now; + Where fair is not, praise cannot mend the brow. + Here, good my glass, take this for telling true: + [ Giving him money] + Fair payment for foul words is more than due. + FORESTER. Nothing but fair is that which you inherit. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. See, see, my beauty will be sav'd by merit. + O heresy in fair, fit for these days! + A giving hand, though foul, shall have fair praise. + But come, the bow. Now mercy goes to kill, + And shooting well is then accounted ill; + Thus will I save my credit in the shoot: + Not wounding, pity would not let me do't; + If wounding, then it was to show my skill, + That more for praise than purpose meant to kill. + And, out of question, so it is sometimes: + Glory grows guilty of detested crimes, + When, for fame's sake, for praise, an outward part, + We bend to that the working of the heart; + As I for praise alone now seek to spill + The poor deer's blood that my heart means no ill. + BOYET. Do not curst wives hold that self-sovereignty + Only for praise sake, when they strive to be + Lords o'er their lords? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Only for praise; and praise we may afford + To any lady that subdues a lord. + + Enter COSTARD + + BOYET. Here comes a member of the commonwealth. + COSTARD. God dig-you-den all! Pray you, which is the head lady? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Thou shalt know her, fellow, by the rest that + have no heads. + COSTARD. Which is the greatest lady, the highest? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. The thickest and the tallest. + COSTARD. The thickest and the tallest! It is so; truth is truth. + An your waist, mistress, were as slender as my wit, + One o' these maids' girdles for your waist should be fit. + Are not you the chief woman? You are the thickest here. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. What's your will, sir? What's your will? + COSTARD. I have a letter from Monsieur Berowne to one + Lady Rosaline. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. O, thy letter, thy letter! He's a good friend + of mine. + Stand aside, good bearer. Boyet, you can carve. + Break up this capon. + BOYET. I am bound to serve. + This letter is mistook; it importeth none here. + It is writ to Jaquenetta. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. We will read it, I swear. + Break the neck of the wax, and every one give ear. + BOYET. [Reads] 'By heaven, that thou art fair is most infallible; + true that thou art beauteous; truth itself that thou art lovely. + More fairer than fair, beautiful than beauteous, truer than truth + itself, have commiseration on thy heroical vassal. The + magnanimous and most illustrate king Cophetua set eye upon the + pernicious and indubitate beggar Zenelophon; and he it was that + might rightly say, 'Veni, vidi, vici'; which to annothanize in + the vulgar,- O base and obscure vulgar!- videlicet, He came, saw, + and overcame. He came, one; saw, two; overcame, three. Who came?- + the king. Why did he come?- to see. Why did he see?-to overcome. + To whom came he?- to the beggar. What saw he?- the beggar. Who + overcame he?- the beggar. The conclusion is victory; on whose + side?- the king's. The captive is enrich'd; on whose side?- the + beggar's. The catastrophe is a nuptial; on whose side?- the + king's. No, on both in one, or one in both. I am the king, for so + stands the comparison; thou the beggar, for so witnesseth thy + lowliness. Shall I command thy love? I may. Shall I enforce thy + love? I could. Shall I entreat thy love? I will. What shalt thou + exchange for rags?- robes, for tittles?- titles, for thyself? + -me. Thus expecting thy reply, I profane my lips on thy foot, my + eyes on thy picture, and my heart on thy every part. + Thine in the dearest design of industry, + DON ADRIANO DE ARMADO. + + 'Thus dost thou hear the Nemean lion roar + 'Gainst thee, thou lamb, that standest as his prey; + Submissive fall his princely feet before, + And he from forage will incline to play. + But if thou strive, poor soul, what are thou then? + Food for his rage, repasture for his den.' + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. What plume of feathers is he that indited this + letter? + What vane? What weathercock? Did you ever hear better? + BOYET. I am much deceived but I remember the style. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Else your memory is bad, going o'er it + erewhile. + BOYET. This Armado is a Spaniard, that keeps here in court; + A phantasime, a Monarcho, and one that makes sport + To the Prince and his book-mates. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Thou fellow, a word. + Who gave thee this letter? + COSTARD. I told you: my lord. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. To whom shouldst thou give it? + COSTARD. From my lord to my lady. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. From which lord to which lady? + COSTARD. From my Lord Berowne, a good master of mine, + To a lady of France that he call'd Rosaline. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Thou hast mistaken his letter. Come, lords, + away. + [To ROSALINE] Here, sweet, put up this; 'twill be thine another + day. Exeunt PRINCESS and TRAIN + BOYET. Who is the shooter? who is the shooter? + ROSALINE. Shall I teach you to know? + BOYET. Ay, my continent of beauty. + ROSALINE. Why, she that bears the bow. + Finely put off! + BOYET. My lady goes to kill horns; but, if thou marry, + Hang me by the neck, if horns that year miscarry. + Finely put on! + ROSALINE. Well then, I am the shooter. + BOYET. And who is your deer? + ROSALINE. If we choose by the horns, yourself come not near. + Finely put on indeed! + MARIA. You Still wrangle with her, Boyet, and she strikes at the + brow. + BOYET. But she herself is hit lower. Have I hit her now? + ROSALINE. Shall I come upon thee with an old saying, that was a man + when King Pepin of France was a little boy, as touching the hit + it? + BOYET. So I may answer thee with one as old, that was a woman when + Queen Guinever of Britain was a little wench, as touching the hit + it. + ROSALINE. [Singing] + Thou canst not hit it, hit it, hit it, + Thou canst not hit it, my good man. + BOYET. An I cannot, cannot, cannot, + An I cannot, another can. + Exeunt ROSALINE and KATHARINE + COSTARD. By my troth, most pleasant! How both did fit it! + MARIA. A mark marvellous well shot; for they both did hit it. + BOYET. A mark! O, mark but that mark! A mark, says my lady! + Let the mark have a prick in't, to mete at, if it may be. + MARIA. Wide o' the bow-hand! I' faith, your hand is out. + COSTARD. Indeed, 'a must shoot nearer, or he'll ne'er hit the + clout. + BOYET. An if my hand be out, then belike your hand is in. + COSTARD. Then will she get the upshoot by cleaving the pin. + MARIA. Come, come, you talk greasily; your lips grow foul. + COSTARD. She's too hard for you at pricks, sir; challenge her to + bowl. + BOYET. I fear too much rubbing; good-night, my good owl. + Exeunt BOYET and MARIA + COSTARD. By my soul, a swain, a most simple clown! + Lord, Lord! how the ladies and I have put him down! + O' my troth, most sweet jests, most incony vulgar wit! + When it comes so smoothly off, so obscenely, as it were, so fit. + Armado a th' t'one side- O, a most dainty man! + To see him walk before a lady and to bear her fan! + To see him kiss his hand, and how most sweetly 'a will swear! + And his page a t' other side, that handful of wit! + Ah, heavens, it is a most pathetical nit! + Sola, sola! Exit COSTARD + +SCENE II. The park + +From the shooting within, enter HOLOFERNES, SIR NATHANIEL, and DULL + + NATHANIEL. Very reverent sport, truly; and done in the testimony of + a good conscience. + HOLOFERNES. The deer was, as you know, sanguis, in blood; ripe as + the pomewater, who now hangeth like a jewel in the ear of caelo, + the sky, the welkin, the heaven; and anon falleth like a crab on + the face of terra, the soil, the land, the earth. + NATHANIEL. Truly, Master Holofernes, the epithets are sweetly + varied, like a scholar at the least; but, sir, I assure ye it was + a buck of the first head. + HOLOFERNES. Sir Nathaniel, haud credo. + DULL. 'Twas not a haud credo; 'twas a pricket. + HOLOFERNES. Most barbarous intimation! yet a kind of insinuation, + as it were, in via, in way, of explication; facere, as it were, + replication, or rather, ostentare, to show, as it were, his + inclination, after his undressed, unpolished, uneducated, + unpruned, untrained, or rather unlettered, or ratherest + unconfirmed fashion, to insert again my haud credo for a deer. + DULL. I Said the deer was not a haud credo; 'twas a pricket. + HOLOFERNES. Twice-sod simplicity, bis coctus! + O thou monster Ignorance, how deformed dost thou look! + NATHANIEL. Sir, he hath never fed of the dainties that are bred in + a book; + He hath not eat paper, as it were; he hath not drunk ink; his + intellect is not replenished; he is only an animal, only sensible + in the duller parts; + And such barren plants are set before us that we thankful should + be- + Which we of taste and feeling are- for those parts that do + fructify in us more than he. + For as it would ill become me to be vain, indiscreet, or a fool, + So, were there a patch set on learning, to see him in a school. + But, omne bene, say I, being of an old father's mind: + Many can brook the weather that love not the wind. + DULL. You two are book-men: can you tell me by your wit + What was a month old at Cain's birth that's not five weeks old as + yet? + HOLOFERNES. Dictynna, goodman Dull; Dictynna, goodman Dull. + DULL. What is Dictynna? + NATHANIEL. A title to Phoebe, to Luna, to the moon. + HOLOFERNES. The moon was a month old when Adam was no more, + And raught not to five weeks when he came to five-score. + Th' allusion holds in the exchange. + DULL. 'Tis true, indeed; the collusion holds in the exchange. + HOLOFERNES. God comfort thy capacity! I say th' allusion holds in + the exchange. + DULL. And I say the polusion holds in the exchange; for the moon is + never but a month old; and I say, beside, that 'twas a pricket + that the Princess kill'd. + HOLOFERNES. Sir Nathaniel, will you hear an extemporal epitaph on + the death of the deer? And, to humour the ignorant, call the deer + the Princess kill'd a pricket. + NATHANIEL. Perge, good Master Holofernes, perge, so it shall please + you to abrogate scurrility. + HOLOFERNES. I Will something affect the letter, for it argues + facility. + + The preyful Princess pierc'd and prick'd a pretty pleasing + pricket. + Some say a sore; but not a sore till now made sore with shooting. + The dogs did yell; put el to sore, then sorel jumps from thicket- + Or pricket sore, or else sorel; the people fall a-hooting. + If sore be sore, then L to sore makes fifty sores o' sorel. + Of one sore I an hundred make by adding but one more L. + + NATHANIEL. A rare talent! + DULL. [Aside] If a talent be a claw, look how he claws him with a + talent. + HOLOFERNES. This is a gift that I have, simple, simple; a foolish + extravagant spirit, full of forms, figures, shapes, objects, + ideas, apprehensions, motions, revolutions. These are begot in + the ventricle of memory, nourish'd in the womb of pia mater, and + delivered upon the mellowing of occasion. But the gift is good in + those in whom it is acute, and I am thankful for it. + NATHANIEL. Sir, I praise the Lord for you, and so may my + parishioners; for their sons are well tutor'd by you, and their + daughters profit very greatly under you. You are a good member of + the commonwealth. + HOLOFERNES. Mehercle, if their sons be ingenious, they shall want + no instruction; if their daughters be capable, I will put it to + them; but, vir sapit qui pauca loquitur. A soul feminine saluteth + us. + + Enter JAQUENETTA and COSTARD + + JAQUENETTA. God give you good morrow, Master Person. + HOLOFERNES. Master Person, quasi pers-one. And if one should be + pierc'd which is the one? + COSTARD. Marry, Master Schoolmaster, he that is likest to a + hogshead. + HOLOFERNES. Piercing a hogshead! A good lustre of conceit in a turf + of earth; fire enough for a flint, pearl enough for a swine; 'tis + pretty; it is well. + JAQUENETTA. Good Master Parson, be so good as read me this letter; + it was given me by Costard, and sent me from Don Armado. I + beseech you read it. + HOLOFERNES. Fauste, precor gelida quando pecus omne sub umbra + Ruminat- + and so forth. Ah, good old Mantuan! I may speak of thee as + the traveller doth of Venice: + Venetia, Venetia, + Chi non ti vede, non ti pretia. + Old Mantuan, old Mantuan! Who understandeth thee not, + loves thee not- + Ut, re, sol, la, mi, fa. + Under pardon, sir, what are the contents? or rather as + Horace says in his- What, my soul, verses? + NATHANIEL. Ay, sir, and very learned. + HOLOFERNES. Let me hear a staff, a stanze, a verse; lege, domine. + NATHANIEL. [Reads] 'If love make me forsworn, how shall I swear to + love? + Ah, never faith could hold, if not to beauty vowed! + Though to myself forsworn, to thee I'll faithful prove; + Those thoughts to me were oaks, to thee like osiers bowed. + Study his bias leaves, and makes his book thine eyes, + Where all those pleasures live that art would comprehend. + If knowledge be the mark, to know thee shall suffice; + Well learned is that tongue that well can thee commend; + All ignorant that soul that sees thee without wonder; + Which is to me some praise that I thy parts admire. + Thy eye Jove's lightning bears, thy voice his dreadful thunder, + Which, not to anger bent, is music and sweet fire. + Celestial as thou art, O, pardon love this wrong, + That singes heaven's praise with such an earthly tongue.' + HOLOFERNES. You find not the apostrophas, and so miss the accent: + let me supervise the canzonet. Here are only numbers ratified; + but, for the elegancy, facility, and golden cadence of poesy, + caret. Ovidius Naso was the man. And why, indeed, 'Naso' but for + smelling out the odoriferous flowers of fancy, the jerks of + invention? Imitari is nothing: so doth the hound his master, the + ape his keeper, the tired horse his rider. But, damosella virgin, + was this directed to you? + JAQUENETTA. Ay, sir, from one Monsieur Berowne, one of the strange + queen's lords. + HOLOFERNES. I will overglance the superscript: 'To the snow-white + hand of the most beauteous Lady Rosaline.' I will look again on + the intellect of the letter, for the nomination of the party + writing to the person written unto: 'Your Ladyship's in all + desired employment, Berowne.' Sir Nathaniel, this Berowne is one + of the votaries with the King; and here he hath framed a letter + to a sequent of the stranger queen's which accidentally, or by + the way of progression, hath miscarried. Trip and go, my sweet; + deliver this paper into the royal hand of the King; it may + concern much. Stay not thy compliment; I forgive thy duty. Adieu. + JAQUENETTA. Good Costard, go with me. Sir, God save your life! + COSTARD. Have with thee, my girl. + Exeunt COSTARD and JAQUENETTA + NATHANIEL. Sir, you have done this in the fear of God, very + religiously; and, as a certain father saith- + HOLOFERNES. Sir, tell not me of the father; I do fear colourable + colours. But to return to the verses: did they please you, Sir + Nathaniel? + NATHANIEL. Marvellous well for the pen. + HOLOFERNES. I do dine to-day at the father's of a certain pupil of + mine; where, if, before repast, it shall please you to gratify + the table with a grace, I will, on my privilege I have with the + parents of the foresaid child or pupil, undertake your ben + venuto; where I will prove those verses to be very unlearned, + neither savouring of poetry, wit, nor invention. I beseech your + society. + NATHANIEL. And thank you too; for society, saith the text, is the + happiness of life. + HOLOFERNES. And certes, the text most infallibly concludes it. + [To DULL] Sir, I do invite you too; you shall not say me nay: + pauca verba. Away; the gentles are at their game, and we will to + our recreation. Exeunt + +SCENE III. The park + +Enter BEROWNE, with a paper his band, alone + + BEROWNE. The King he is hunting the deer: I am coursing myself. They + have pitch'd a toil: I am tolling in a pitch- pitch that defiles. + Defile! a foul word. Well, 'set thee down, sorrow!' for so they say + the fool said, and so say I, and I am the fool. Well proved, wit. By + the Lord, this love is as mad as Ajax: it kills sheep; it kills me- I + a sheep. Well proved again o' my side. I will not love; if I do, hang + me. I' faith, I will not. O, but her eye! By this light, but for her + eye, I would not love her- yes, for her two eyes. Well, I do nothing + in the world but lie, and lie in my throat. By heaven, I do love; and + it hath taught me to rhyme, and to be melancholy; and here is part of + my rhyme, and here my melancholy. Well, she hath one o' my sonnets + already; the clown bore it, the fool sent it, and the lady hath it: + sweet clown, sweeter fool, sweetest lady! By the world, I would not + care a pin if the other three were in. Here comes one with a paper; + God give him grace to groan! [Climbs into a tree] + + Enter the KING, with a paper + + KING. Ay me! + BEROWNE. Shot, by heaven! Proceed, sweet Cupid; thou hast thump'd + him with thy bird-bolt under the left pap. In faith, secrets! + KING. [Reads] + 'So sweet a kiss the golden sun gives not + To those fresh morning drops upon the rose, + As thy eye-beams, when their fresh rays have smote + The night of dew that on my cheeks down flows; + Nor shines the silver moon one half so bright + Through the transparent bosom of the deep, + As doth thy face through tears of mine give light. + Thou shin'st in every tear that I do weep; + No drop but as a coach doth carry thee; + So ridest thou triumphing in my woe. + Do but behold the tears that swell in me, + And they thy glory through my grief will show. + But do not love thyself; then thou wilt keep + My tears for glasses, and still make me weep. + O queen of queens! how far dost thou excel + No thought can think nor tongue of mortal tell.' + How shall she know my griefs? I'll drop the paper- + Sweet leaves, shade folly. Who is he comes here? + [Steps aside] + + Enter LONGAVILLE, with a paper + + What, Longaville, and reading! Listen, car. + BEROWNE. Now, in thy likeness, one more fool appear! + LONGAVILLE. Ay me, I am forsworn! + BEROWNE. Why, he comes in like a perjure, wearing papers. + KING. In love, I hope; sweet fellowship in shame! + BEROWNE. One drunkard loves another of the name. + LONGAVILLE. Am I the first that have been perjur'd so? + BEROWNE. I could put thee in comfort: not by two that I know; + Thou makest the triumviry, the corner-cap of society, + The shape of Love's Tyburn that hangs up simplicity. + LONGAVILLE. I fear these stubborn lines lack power to move. + O sweet Maria, empress of my love! + These numbers will I tear, and write in prose. + BEROWNE. O, rhymes are guards on wanton Cupid's hose: + Disfigure not his slop. + LONGAVILLE. This same shall go. [He reads the sonnet] + 'Did not the heavenly rhetoric of thine eye, + 'Gainst whom the world cannot hold argument, + Persuade my heart to this false perjury? + Vows for thee broke deserve not punishment. + A woman I forswore; but I will prove, + Thou being a goddess, I forswore not thee: + My vow was earthly, thou a heavenly love; + Thy grace being gain'd cures all disgrace in me. + Vows are but breath, and breath a vapour is; + Then thou, fair sun, which on my earth dost shine, + Exhal'st this vapour-vow; in thee it is. + If broken, then it is no fault of mine; + If by me broke, what fool is not so wise + To lose an oath to win a paradise?' + BEROWNE. This is the liver-vein, which makes flesh a deity, + A green goose a goddess- pure, pure idolatry. + God amend us, God amend! We are much out o' th' way. + + Enter DUMAIN, with a paper + + LONGAVILLE. By whom shall I send this?- Company! Stay. + [Steps aside] + BEROWNE. 'All hid, all hid'- an old infant play. + Like a demigod here sit I in the sky, + And wretched fools' secrets heedfully o'er-eye. + More sacks to the mill! O heavens, I have my wish! + Dumain transformed! Four woodcocks in a dish! + DUMAIN. O most divine Kate! + BEROWNE. O most profane coxcomb! + DUMAIN. By heaven, the wonder in a mortal eye! + BEROWNE. By earth, she is not, corporal: there you lie. + DUMAIN. Her amber hairs for foul hath amber quoted. + BEROWNE. An amber-colour'd raven was well noted. + DUMAIN. As upright as the cedar. + BEROWNE. Stoop, I say; + Her shoulder is with child. + DUMAIN. As fair as day. + BEROWNE. Ay, as some days; but then no sun must shine. + DUMAIN. O that I had my wish! + LONGAVILLE. And I had mine! + KING. And I mine too,.good Lord! + BEROWNE. Amen, so I had mine! Is not that a good word? + DUMAIN. I would forget her; but a fever she + Reigns in my blood, and will rememb'red be. + BEROWNE. A fever in your blood? Why, then incision + Would let her out in saucers. Sweet misprision! + DUMAIN. Once more I'll read the ode that I have writ. + BEROWNE. Once more I'll mark how love can vary wit. + DUMAIN. [Reads] + 'On a day-alack the day!- + Love, whose month is ever May, + Spied a blossom passing fair + Playing in the wanton air. + Through the velvet leaves the wind, + All unseen, can passage find; + That the lover, sick to death, + Wish'd himself the heaven's breath. + "Air," quoth he "thy cheeks may blow; + Air, would I might triumph so! + But, alack, my hand is sworn + Ne'er to pluck thee from thy thorn; + Vow, alack, for youth unmeet, + Youth so apt to pluck a sweet. + Do not call it sin in me + That I am forsworn for thee; + Thou for whom Jove would swear + Juno but an Ethiope were; + And deny himself for Jove, + Turning mortal for thy love."' + This will I send; and something else more plain + That shall express my true love's fasting pain. + O, would the King, Berowne and Longaville, + Were lovers too! Ill, to example ill, + Would from my forehead wipe a perjur'd note; + For none offend where all alike do dote. + LONGAVILLE. [Advancing] Dumain, thy love is far from charity, + That in love's grief desir'st society; + You may look pale, but I should blush, I know, + To be o'erheard and taken napping so. + KING. [Advancing] Come, sir, you blush; as his, your case is such. + You chide at him, offending twice as much: + You do not love Maria! Longaville + Did never sonnet for her sake compile; + Nor never lay his wreathed arms athwart + His loving bosom, to keep down his heart. + I have been closely shrouded in this bush, + And mark'd you both, and for you both did blush. + I heard your guilty rhymes, observ'd your fashion, + Saw sighs reek from you, noted well your passion. + 'Ay me!' says one. 'O Jove!' the other cries. + One, her hairs were gold; crystal the other's eyes. + [To LONGAVILLE] You would for paradise break faith and troth; + [To Dumain] And Jove for your love would infringe an oath. + What will Berowne say when that he shall hear + Faith infringed which such zeal did swear? + How will he scorn, how will he spend his wit! + How will he triumph, leap, and laugh at it! + For all the wealth that ever I did see, + I would not have him know so much by me. + BEROWNE. [Descending] Now step I forth to whip hypocrisy, + Ah, good my liege, I pray thee pardon me. + Good heart, what grace hast thou thus to reprove + These worms for loving, that art most in love? + Your eyes do make no coaches; in your tears + There is no certain princess that appears; + You'll not be perjur'd; 'tis a hateful thing; + Tush, none but minstrels like of sonneting. + But are you not ashamed? Nay, are you not, + All three of you, to be thus much o'ershot? + You found his mote; the King your mote did see; + But I a beam do find in each of three. + O, what a scene of fool'ry have I seen, + Of sighs, of groans, of sorrow, and of teen! + O, me, with what strict patience have I sat, + To see a king transformed to a gnat! + To see great Hercules whipping a gig, + And profound Solomon to tune a jig, + And Nestor play at push-pin with the boys, + And critic Timon laugh at idle toys! + Where lies thy grief, O, tell me, good Dumain? + And, gentle Longaville, where lies thy pain? + And where my liege's? All about the breast. + A caudle, ho! + KING. Too bitter is thy jest. + Are we betrayed thus to thy over-view? + BEROWNE. Not you by me, but I betrayed to you. + I that am honest, I that hold it sin + To break the vow I am engaged in; + I am betrayed by keeping company + With men like you, men of inconstancy. + When shall you see me write a thing in rhyme? + Or groan for Joan? or spend a minute's time + In pruning me? When shall you hear that I + Will praise a hand, a foot, a face, an eye, + A gait, a state, a brow, a breast, a waist, + A leg, a limb- + KING. Soft! whither away so fast? + A true man or a thief that gallops so? + BEROWNE. I post from love; good lover, let me go. + + Enter JAQUENETTA and COSTARD + + JAQUENETTA. God bless the King! + KING. What present hast thou there? + COSTARD. Some certain treason. + KING. What makes treason here? + COSTARD. Nay, it makes nothing, sir. + KING. If it mar nothing neither, + The treason and you go in peace away together. + JAQUENETTA. I beseech your Grace, let this letter be read; + Our person misdoubts it: 'twas treason, he said. + KING. Berowne, read it over. [BEROWNE reads the letter] + Where hadst thou it? + JAQUENETTA. Of Costard. + KING. Where hadst thou it? + COSTARD. Of Dun Adramadio, Dun Adramadio. + [BEROWNE tears the letter] + KING. How now! What is in you? Why dost thou tear it? + BEROWNE. A toy, my liege, a toy! Your Grace needs not fear it. + LONGAVILLE. It did move him to passion, and therefore let's hear + it. + DUMAIN. It is Berowne's writing, and here is his name. + [Gathering up the pieces] + BEROWNE. [ To COSTARD] Ah, you whoreson loggerhead, you were born + to do me shame. + Guilty, my lord, guilty! I confess, I confess. + KING. What? + BEROWNE. That you three fools lack'd me fool to make up the mess; + He, he, and you- and you, my liege!- and I + Are pick-purses in love, and we deserve to die. + O, dismiss this audience, and I shall tell you more. + DUMAIN. Now the number is even. + BEROWNE. True, true, we are four. + Will these turtles be gone? + KING. Hence, sirs, away. + COSTARD. Walk aside the true folk, and let the traitors stay. + Exeunt COSTARD and JAQUENETTA + BEROWNE. Sweet lords, sweet lovers, O, let us embrace! + As true we are as flesh and blood can be. + The sea will ebb and flow, heaven show his face; + Young blood doth not obey an old decree. + We cannot cross the cause why we were born, + Therefore of all hands must we be forsworn. + KING. What, did these rent lines show some love of thine? + BEROWNE. 'Did they?' quoth you. Who sees the heavenly Rosaline + That, like a rude and savage man of Inde + At the first op'ning of the gorgeous east, + Bows not his vassal head and, strucken blind, + Kisses the base ground with obedient breast? + What peremptory eagle-sighted eye + Dares look upon the heaven of her brow + That is not blinded by her majesty? + KING. What zeal, what fury hath inspir'd thee now? + My love, her mistress, is a gracious moon; + She, an attending star, scarce seen a light. + BEROWNE. My eyes are then no eyes, nor I Berowne. + O, but for my love, day would turn to night! + Of all complexions the cull'd sovereignty + Do meet, as at a fair, in her fair cheek, + Where several worthies make one dignity, + Where nothing wants that want itself doth seek. + Lend me the flourish of all gentle tongues- + Fie, painted rhetoric! O, she needs it not! + To things of sale a seller's praise belongs: + She passes praise; then praise too short doth blot. + A wither'd hermit, five-score winters worn, + Might shake off fifty, looking in her eye. + Beauty doth varnish age, as if new-born, + And gives the crutch the cradle's infancy. + O, 'tis the sun that maketh all things shine! + KING. By heaven, thy love is black as ebony. + BEROWNE. Is ebony like her? O wood divine! + A wife of such wood were felicity. + O, who can give an oath? Where is a book? + That I may swear beauty doth beauty lack, + If that she learn not of her eye to look. + No face is fair that is not full so black. + KING. O paradox! Black is the badge of hell, + The hue of dungeons, and the school of night; + And beauty's crest becomes the heavens well. + BEROWNE. Devils soonest tempt, resembling spirits of light. + O, if in black my lady's brows be deckt, + It mourns that painting and usurping hair + Should ravish doters with a false aspect; + And therefore is she born to make black fair. + Her favour turns the fashion of the days; + For native blood is counted painting now; + And therefore red that would avoid dispraise + Paints itself black, to imitate her brow. + DUMAIN. To look like her are chimney-sweepers black. + LONGAVILLE. And since her time are colliers counted bright. + KING. And Ethiopes of their sweet complexion crack. + DUMAIN. Dark needs no candles now, for dark is light. + BEROWNE. Your mistresses dare never come in rain + For fear their colours should be wash'd away. + KING. 'Twere good yours did; for, sir, to tell you plain, + I'll find a fairer face not wash'd to-day. + BEROWNE. I'll prove her fair, or talk till doomsday here. + KING. No devil will fright thee then so much as she. + DUMAIN. I never knew man hold vile stuff so dear. + LONGAVILLE. Look, here's thy love: my foot and her face see. + [Showing his shoe] + BEROWNE. O, if the streets were paved with thine eyes, + Her feet were much too dainty for such tread! + DUMAIN. O vile! Then, as she goes, what upward lies + The street should see as she walk'd overhead. + KING. But what of this? Are we not all in love? + BEROWNE. Nothing so sure; and thereby all forsworn. + KING. Then leave this chat; and, good Berowne, now prove + Our loving lawful, and our faith not torn. + DUMAIN. Ay, marry, there; some flattery for this evil. + LONGAVILLE. O, some authority how to proceed; + Some tricks, some quillets, how to cheat the devil! + DUMAIN. Some salve for perjury. + BEROWNE. 'Tis more than need. + Have at you, then, affection's men-at-arms. + Consider what you first did swear unto: + To fast, to study, and to see no woman- + Flat treason 'gainst the kingly state of youth. + Say, can you fast? Your stomachs are too young, + And abstinence engenders maladies. + And, where that you you have vow'd to study, lords, + In that each of you have forsworn his book, + Can you still dream, and pore, and thereon look? + For when would you, my lord, or you, or you, + Have found the ground of study's excellence + Without the beauty of a woman's face? + From women's eyes this doctrine I derive: + They are the ground, the books, the academes, + From whence doth spring the true Promethean fire. + Why, universal plodding poisons up + The nimble spirits in the arteries, + As motion and long-during action tires + The sinewy vigour of the traveller. + Now, for not looking on a woman's face, + You have in that forsworn the use of eyes, + And study too, the causer of your vow; + For where is author in the world + Teaches such beauty as a woman's eye? + Learning is but an adjunct to ourself, + And where we are our learning likewise is; + Then when ourselves we see in ladies' eyes, + With ourselves. + Do we not likewise see our learning there? + O, we have made a vow to study, lords, + And in that vow we have forsworn our books. + For when would you, my liege, or you, or you, + In leaden contemplation have found out + Such fiery numbers as the prompting eyes + Of beauty's tutors have enrich'd you with? + Other slow arts entirely keep the brain; + And therefore, finding barren practisers, + Scarce show a harvest of their heavy toil; + But love, first learned in a lady's eyes, + Lives not alone immured in the brain, + But with the motion of all elements + Courses as swift as thought in every power, + And gives to every power a double power, + Above their functions and their offices. + It adds a precious seeing to the eye: + A lover's eyes will gaze an eagle blind. + A lover's ear will hear the lowest sound, + When the suspicious head of theft is stopp'd. + Love's feeling is more soft and sensible + Than are the tender horns of cockled snails: + Love's tongue proves dainty Bacchus gross in taste. + For valour, is not Love a Hercules, + Still climbing trees in the Hesperides? + Subtle as Sphinx; as sweet and musical + As bright Apollo's lute, strung with his hair. + And when Love speaks, the voice of all the gods + Make heaven drowsy with the harmony. + Never durst poet touch a pen to write + Until his ink were temp'red with Love's sighs; + O, then his lines would ravish savage ears, + And plant in tyrants mild humility. + From women's eyes this doctrine I derive. + They sparkle still the right Promethean fire; + They are the books, the arts, the academes, + That show, contain, and nourish, all the world, + Else none at all in aught proves excellent. + Then fools you were these women to forswear; + Or, keeping what is sworn, you will prove fools. + For wisdom's sake, a word that all men love; + Or for Love's sake, a word that loves all men; + Or for men's sake, the authors of these women; + Or women's sake, by whom we men are men- + Let us once lose our oaths to find ourselves, + Or else we lose ourselves to keep our oaths. + It is religion to be thus forsworn; + For charity itself fulfils the law, + And who can sever love from charity? + KING. Saint Cupid, then! and, soldiers, to the field! + BEROWNE. Advance your standards, and upon them, lords; + Pell-mell, down with them! be first advis'd, + In conflict, that you get the sun of them. + LONGAVILLE. Now to plain-dealing; lay these glozes by. + Shall we resolve to woo these girls of France? + KING. And win them too; therefore let us devise + Some entertainment for them in their tents. + BEROWNE. First, from the park let us conduct them thither; + Then homeward every man attach the hand + Of his fair mistress. In the afternoon + We will with some strange pastime solace them, + Such as the shortness of the time can shape; + For revels, dances, masks, and merry hours, + Forerun fair Love, strewing her way with flowers. + KING. Away, away! No time shall be omitted + That will betime, and may by us be fitted. + BEROWNE. Allons! allons! Sow'd cockle reap'd no corn, + And justice always whirls in equal measure. + Light wenches may prove plagues to men forsworn; + If so, our copper buys no better treasure. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE I. The park + +Enter HOLOFERNES, SIR NATHANIEL, and DULL + + HOLOFERNES. Satis quod sufficit. + NATHANIEL. I praise God for you, sir. Your reasons at dinner have + been sharp and sententious; pleasant without scurrility, witty + without affection, audacious without impudency, learned without + opinion, and strange without heresy. I did converse this quondam + day with a companion of the King's who is intituled, nominated, + or called, Don Adriano de Armado. + HOLOFERNES. Novi hominem tanquam te. His humour is lofty, his + discourse peremptory, his tongue filed, his eye ambitious, his + gait majestical and his general behaviour vain, ridiculous, and + thrasonical. He is too picked, too spruce, too affected, too odd, + as it were, too peregrinate, as I may call it. + NATHANIEL. A most singular and choice epithet. + [Draws out his table-book] + HOLOFERNES. He draweth out the thread of his verbosity finer than + the staple of his argument. I abhor such fanatical phantasimes, + such insociable and point-devise companions; such rackers of + orthography, as to speak 'dout' fine, when he should say 'doubt'; + 'det' when he should pronounce 'debt'- d, e, b, t, not d, e, t. + He clepeth a calf 'cauf,' half 'hauf'; neighbour vocatur + 'nebour'; 'neigh' abbreviated 'ne.' This is abhominable- which he + would call 'abbominable.' It insinuateth me of insanie: ne + intelligis, domine? to make frantic, lunatic. + NATHANIEL. Laus Deo, bone intelligo. + HOLOFERNES. 'Bone'?- 'bone' for 'bene.' Priscian a little + scratch'd; 'twill serve. + + Enter ARMADO, MOTH, and COSTARD + + NATHANIEL. Videsne quis venit? + HOLOFERNES. Video, et gaudeo. + ARMADO. [To MOTH] Chirrah! + HOLOFERNES. Quare 'chirrah,' not 'sirrah'? + ARMADO. Men of peace, well encount'red. + HOLOFERNES. Most military sir, salutation. + MOTH. [Aside to COSTARD] They have been at a great feast of + languages and stol'n the scraps. + COSTARD. O, they have liv'd long on the alms-basket of words. I + marvel thy master hath not eaten thee for a word, for thou are + not so long by the head as honorificabilitudinitatibus; thou art + easier swallowed than a flap-dragon. + MOTH. Peace! the peal begins. + ARMADO. [To HOLOFERNES] Monsieur, are you not lett'red? + MOTH. Yes, yes; he teaches boys the hornbook. What is a, b, spelt + backward with the horn on his head? + HOLOFERNES. Ba, pueritia, with a horn added. + MOTH. Ba, most silly sheep with a horn. You hear his learning. + HOLOFERNES. Quis, quis, thou consonant? + MOTH. The third of the five vowels, if You repeat them; or the + fifth, if I. + HOLOFERNES. I will repeat them: a, e, I- + MOTH. The sheep; the other two concludes it: o, U. + ARMADO. Now, by the salt wave of the Mediterraneum, a sweet touch, + a quick venue of wit- snip, snap, quick and home. It rejoiceth my + intellect. True wit! + MOTH. Offer'd by a child to an old man; which is wit-old. + HOLOFERNES. What is the figure? What is the figure? + MOTH. Horns. + HOLOFERNES. Thou disputes like an infant; go whip thy gig. + MOTH. Lend me your horn to make one, and I will whip about your + infamy circum circa- a gig of a cuckold's horn. + COSTARD. An I had but one penny in the world, thou shouldst have it + to buy ginger-bread. Hold, there is the very remuneration I had + of thy master, thou halfpenny purse of wit, thou pigeon-egg of + discretion. O, an the heavens were so pleased that thou wert but + my bastard, what a joyful father wouldst thou make me! Go to; + thou hast it ad dunghill, at the fingers' ends, as they say. + HOLOFERNES. O, I smell false Latin; 'dunghill' for unguem. + ARMADO. Arts-man, preambulate; we will be singuled from the + barbarous. Do you not educate youth at the charge-house on the + top of the mountain? + HOLOFERNES. Or mons, the hill. + ARMADO. At your sweet pleasure, for the mountain. + HOLOFERNES. I do, sans question. + ARMADO. Sir, it is the King's most sweet pleasure and affection to + congratulate the Princess at her pavilion, in the posteriors of + this day; which the rude multitude call the afternoon. + HOLOFERNES. The posterior of the day, most generous sir, is liable, + congruent, and measurable, for the afternoon. The word is well + cull'd, chose, sweet, and apt, I do assure you, sir, I do assure. + ARMADO. Sir, the King is a noble gentleman, and my familiar, I do + assure ye, very good friend. For what is inward between us, let + it pass. I do beseech thee, remember thy courtesy. I beseech + thee, apparel thy head. And among other importunate and most + serious designs, and of great import indeed, too- but let that + pass; for I must tell thee it will please his Grace, by the + world, sometime to lean upon my poor shoulder, and with his royal + finger thus dally with my excrement, with my mustachio; but, + sweet heart, let that pass. By the world, I recount no fable: + some certain special honours it pleaseth his greatness to impart + to Armado, a soldier, a man of travel, that hath seen the world; + but let that pass. The very all of all is- but, sweet heart, I do + implore secrecy- that the King would have me present the + Princess, sweet chuck, with some delightful ostentation, or show, + or pageant, or antic, or firework. Now, understanding that the + curate and your sweet self are good at such eruptions and sudden + breaking-out of mirth, as it were, I have acquainted you withal, + to the end to crave your assistance. + HOLOFERNES. Sir, you shall present before her the Nine Worthies. + Sir Nathaniel, as concerning some entertainment of time, some + show in the posterior of this day, to be rend'red by our + assistance, the King's command, and this most gallant, + illustrate, and learned gentleman, before the Princess- I say + none so fit as to present the Nine Worthies. + NATHANIEL. Where will you find men worthy enough to present them? + HOLOFERNES. Joshua, yourself; myself, Alexander; this gallant + gentleman, Judas Maccabaeus; this swain, because of his great + limb or joint, shall pass Pompey the Great; the page, Hercules. + ARMADO. Pardon, sir; error: he is not quantity enough for that + Worthy's thumb; he is not so big as the end of his club. + HOLOFERNES. Shall I have audience? He shall present Hercules in + minority: his enter and exit shall be strangling a snake; and I + will have an apology for that purpose. + MOTH. An excellent device! So, if any of the audience hiss, you may + cry 'Well done, Hercules; now thou crushest the snake!' That is + the way to make an offence gracious, though few have the grace to + do it. + ARMADO. For the rest of the Worthies? + HOLOFERNES. I will play three myself. + MOTH. Thrice-worthy gentleman! + ARMADO. Shall I tell you a thing? + HOLOFERNES. We attend. + ARMADO. We will have, if this fadge not, an antic. I beseech you, + follow. + HOLOFERNES. Via, goodman Dull! Thou has spoken no word all this + while. + DULL. Nor understood none neither, sir. + HOLOFERNES. Allons! we will employ thee. + DULL. I'll make one in a dance, or so, or I will play + On the tabor to the Worthies, and let them dance the hay. + HOLOFERNES. Most dull, honest Dull! To our sport, away. + Exeunt + +SCENE II. The park + +Enter the PRINCESS, MARIA, KATHARINE, and ROSALINE + + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Sweet hearts, we shall be rich ere we depart, + If fairings come thus plentifully in. + A lady wall'd about with diamonds! + Look you what I have from the loving King. + ROSALINE. Madam, came nothing else along with that? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Nothing but this! Yes, as much love in rhyme + As would be cramm'd up in a sheet of paper + Writ o' both sides the leaf, margent and all, + That he was fain to seal on Cupid's name. + ROSALINE. That was the way to make his godhead wax; + For he hath been five thousand year a boy. + KATHARINE. Ay, and a shrewd unhappy gallows too. + ROSALINE. You'll ne'er be friends with him: 'a kill'd your sister. + KATHARINE. He made her melancholy, sad, and heavy; + And so she died. Had she been light, like you, + Of such a merry, nimble, stirring spirit, + She might 'a been a grandam ere she died. + And so may you; for a light heart lives long. + ROSALINE. What's your dark meaning, mouse, of this light word? + KATHARINE. A light condition in a beauty dark. + ROSALINE. We need more light to find your meaning out. + KATHARINE. You'll mar the light by taking it in snuff; + Therefore I'll darkly end the argument. + ROSALINE. Look what you do, you do it still i' th' dark. + KATHARINE. So do not you; for you are a light wench. + ROSALINE. Indeed, I weigh not you; and therefore light. + KATHARINE. You weigh me not? O, that's you care not for me. + ROSALINE. Great reason; for 'past cure is still past care.' + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Well bandied both; a set of wit well play'd. + But, Rosaline, you have a favour too? + Who sent it? and what is it? + ROSALINE. I would you knew. + An if my face were but as fair as yours, + My favour were as great: be witness this. + Nay, I have verses too, I thank Berowne; + The numbers true, and, were the numb'ring too, + I were the fairest goddess on the ground. + I am compar'd to twenty thousand fairs. + O, he hath drawn my picture in his letter! + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Anything like? + ROSALINE. Much in the letters; nothing in the praise. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Beauteous as ink- a good conclusion. + KATHARINE. Fair as a text B in a copy-book. + ROSALINE. Ware pencils, ho! Let me not die your debtor, + My red dominical, my golden letter: + O that your face were not so full of O's! + KATHARINE. A pox of that jest! and I beshrew all shrows! + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. But, Katharine, what was sent to you from fair + Dumain? + KATHARINE. Madam, this glove. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Did he not send you twain? + KATHARINE. Yes, madam; and, moreover, + Some thousand verses of a faithful lover; + A huge translation of hypocrisy, + Vilely compil'd, profound simplicity. + MARIA. This, and these pearl, to me sent Longaville; + The letter is too long by half a mile. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. I think no less. Dost thou not wish in heart + The chain were longer and the letter short? + MARIA. Ay, or I would these hands might never part. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. We are wise girls to mock our lovers so. + ROSALINE. They are worse fools to purchase mocking so. + That same Berowne I'll torture ere I go. + O that I knew he were but in by th' week! + How I would make him fawn, and beg, and seek, + And wait the season, and observe the times, + And spend his prodigal wits in bootless rhymes, + And shape his service wholly to my hests, + And make him proud to make me proud that jests! + So pertaunt-like would I o'ersway his state + That he should be my fool, and I his fate. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. None are so surely caught, when they are + catch'd, + As wit turn'd fool; folly, in wisdom hatch'd, + Hath wisdom's warrant and the help of school, + And wit's own grace to grace a learned fool. + ROSALINE. The blood of youth burns not with such excess + As gravity's revolt to wantonness. + MARIA. Folly in fools bears not so strong a note + As fool'ry in the wise when wit doth dote, + Since all the power thereof it doth apply + To prove, by wit, worth in simplicity. + + Enter BOYET + + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Here comes Boyet, and mirth is in his face. + BOYET. O, I am stabb'd with laughter! Where's her Grace? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Thy news, Boyet? + BOYET. Prepare, madam, prepare! + Arm, wenches, arm! Encounters mounted are + Against your peace. Love doth approach disguis'd, + Armed in arguments; you'll be surpris'd. + Muster your wits; stand in your own defence; + Or hide your heads like cowards, and fly hence. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Saint Dennis to Saint Cupid! What are they + That charge their breath against us? Say, scout, say. + BOYET. Under the cool shade of a sycamore + I thought to close mine eyes some half an hour; + When, lo, to interrupt my purpos'd rest, + Toward that shade I might behold addrest + The King and his companions; warily + I stole into a neighbour thicket by, + And overheard what you shall overhear- + That, by and by, disguis'd they will be here. + Their herald is a pretty knavish page, + That well by heart hath conn'd his embassage. + Action and accent did they teach him there: + 'Thus must thou speak' and 'thus thy body bear,' + And ever and anon they made a doubt + Presence majestical would put him out; + 'For' quoth the King 'an angel shalt thou see; + Yet fear not thou, but speak audaciously.' + The boy replied 'An angel is not evil; + I should have fear'd her had she been a devil.' + With that all laugh'd, and clapp'd him on the shoulder, + Making the bold wag by their praises bolder. + One rubb'd his elbow, thus, and fleer'd, and swore + A better speech was never spoke before. + Another with his finger and his thumb + Cried 'Via! we will do't, come what will come.' + The third he caper'd, and cried 'All goes well.' + The fourth turn'd on the toe, and down he fell. + With that they all did tumble on the ground, + With such a zealous laughter, so profound, + That in this spleen ridiculous appears, + To check their folly, passion's solemn tears. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. But what, but what, come they to visit us? + BOYET. They do, they do, and are apparell'd thus, + Like Muscovites or Russians, as I guess. + Their purpose is to parley, court, and dance; + And every one his love-feat will advance + Unto his several mistress; which they'll know + By favours several which they did bestow. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. And will they so? The gallants shall be task'd, + For, ladies, we will every one be mask'd; + And not a man of them shall have the grace, + Despite of suit, to see a lady's face. + Hold, Rosaline, this favour thou shalt wear, + And then the King will court thee for his dear; + Hold, take thou this, my sweet, and give me thine, + So shall Berowne take me for Rosaline. + And change you favours too; so shall your loves + Woo contrary, deceiv'd by these removes. + ROSALINE. Come on, then, wear the favours most in sight. + KATHARINE. But, in this changing, what is your intent? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. The effect of my intent is to cross theirs. + They do it but in mocking merriment, + And mock for mock is only my intent. + Their several counsels they unbosom shall + To loves mistook, and so be mock'd withal + Upon the next occasion that we meet + With visages display'd to talk and greet. + ROSALINE. But shall we dance, if they desire us to't? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. No, to the death, we will not move a foot, + Nor to their penn'd speech render we no grace; + But while 'tis spoke each turn away her face. + BOYET. Why, that contempt will kill the speaker's heart, + And quite divorce his memory from his part. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Therefore I do it; and I make no doubt + The rest will ne'er come in, if he be out. + There's no such sport as sport by sport o'erthrown, + To make theirs ours, and ours none but our own; + So shall we stay, mocking intended game, + And they well mock'd depart away with shame. + [Trumpet sounds within] + BOYET. The trumpet sounds; be mask'd; the maskers come. + [The LADIES mask] + + Enter BLACKAMOORS music, MOTH as Prologue, the + KING and his LORDS as maskers, in the guise of Russians + + MOTH. All hail, the richest heauties on the earth! + BOYET. Beauties no richer than rich taffeta. + MOTH. A holy parcel of the fairest dames + [The LADIES turn their backs to him] + That ever turn'd their- backs- to mortal views! + BEROWNE. Their eyes, villain, their eyes. + MOTH. That ever turn'd their eyes to mortal views! + Out- + BOYET. True; out indeed. + MOTH. Out of your favours, heavenly spirits, vouchsafe + Not to behold- + BEROWNE. Once to behold, rogue. + MOTH. Once to behold with your sun-beamed eyes- with your + sun-beamed eyes- + BOYET. They will not answer to that epithet; + You were best call it 'daughter-beamed eyes.' + MOTH. They do not mark me, and that brings me out. + BEROWNE. Is this your perfectness? Be gone, you rogue. + Exit MOTH + ROSALINE. What would these strangers? Know their minds, Boyet. + If they do speak our language, 'tis our will + That some plain man recount their purposes. + Know what they would. + BOYET. What would you with the Princess? + BEROWNE. Nothing but peace and gentle visitation. + ROSALINE. What would they, say they? + BOYET. Nothing but peace and gentle visitation. + ROSALINE. Why, that they have; and bid them so be gone. + BOYET. She says you have it, and you may be gone. + KING. Say to her we have measur'd many miles + To tread a measure with her on this grass. + BOYET. They say that they have measur'd many a mile + To tread a measure with you on this grass. + ROSALINE. It is not so. Ask them how many inches + Is in one mile? If they have measured many, + The measure, then, of one is eas'ly told. + BOYET. If to come hither you have measur'd miles, + And many miles, the Princess bids you tell + How many inches doth fill up one mile. + BEROWNE. Tell her we measure them by weary steps. + BOYET. She hears herself. + ROSALINE. How many weary steps + Of many weary miles you have o'ergone + Are numb'red in the travel of one mile? + BEROWNE. We number nothing that we spend for you; + Our duty is so rich, so infinite, + That we may do it still without accompt. + Vouchsafe to show the sunshine of your face, + That we, like savages, may worship it. + ROSALINE. My face is but a moon, and clouded too. + KING. Blessed are clouds, to do as such clouds do. + Vouchsafe, bright moon, and these thy stars, to shine, + Those clouds removed, upon our watery eyne. + ROSALINE. O vain petitioner! beg a greater matter; + Thou now requests but moonshine in the water. + KING. Then in our measure do but vouchsafe one change. + Thou bid'st me beg; this begging is not strange. + ROSALINE. Play, music, then. Nay, you must do it soon. + Not yet? No dance! Thus change I like the moon. + KING. Will you not dance? How come you thus estranged? + ROSALINE. You took the moon at full; but now she's changed. + KING. Yet still she is the Moon, and I the Man. + The music plays; vouchsafe some motion to it. + ROSALINE. Our ears vouchsafe it. + KING. But your legs should do it. + ROSALINE. Since you are strangers, and come here by chance, + We'll not be nice; take hands. We will not dance. + KING. Why take we hands then? + ROSALINE. Only to part friends. + Curtsy, sweet hearts; and so the measure ends. + KING. More measure of this measure; be not nice. + ROSALINE. We can afford no more at such a price. + KING. Price you yourselves. What buys your company? + ROSALINE. Your absence only. + KING. That can never be. + ROSALINE. Then cannot we be bought; and so adieu- + Twice to your visor and half once to you. + KING. If you deny to dance, let's hold more chat. + ROSALINE. In private then. + KING. I am best pleas'd with that. [They converse apart] + BEROWNE. White-handed mistress, one sweet word with thee. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Honey, and milk, and sugar; there is three. + BEROWNE. Nay, then, two treys, an if you grow so nice, + Metheglin, wort, and malmsey; well run dice! + There's half a dozen sweets. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Seventh sweet, adieu! + Since you can cog, I'll play no more with you. + BEROWNE. One word in secret. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Let it not be sweet. + BEROWNE. Thou grievest my gall. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Gall! bitter. + BEROWNE. Therefore meet. [They converse apart] + DUMAIN. Will you vouchsafe with me to change a word? + MARIA. Name it. + DUMAIN. Fair lady- + MARIA. Say you so? Fair lord- + Take that for your fair lady. + DUMAIN. Please it you, + As much in private, and I'll bid adieu. + [They converse apart] + KATHARINE. What, was your vizard made without a tongue? + LONGAVILLE. I know the reason, lady, why you ask. + KATHARINE. O for your reason! Quickly, sir; I long. + LONGAVILLE. You have a double tongue within your mask, + And would afford my speechless vizard half. + KATHARINE. 'Veal' quoth the Dutchman. Is not 'veal' a calf? + LONGAVILLE. A calf, fair lady! + KATHARINE. No, a fair lord calf. + LONGAVILLE. Let's part the word. + KATHARINE. No, I'll not be your half. + Take all and wean it; it may prove an ox. + LONGAVILLE. Look how you butt yourself in these sharp mocks! + Will you give horns, chaste lady? Do not so. + KATHARINE. Then die a calf, before your horns do grow. + LONGAVILLE. One word in private with you ere I die. + KATHARINE. Bleat softly, then; the butcher hears you cry. + [They converse apart] + BOYET. The tongues of mocking wenches are as keen + As is the razor's edge invisible, + Cutting a smaller hair than may be seen, + Above the sense of sense; so sensible + Seemeth their conference; their conceits have wings, + Fleeter than arrows, bullets, wind, thought, swifter things. + ROSALINE. Not one word more, my maids; break off, break off. + BEROWNE. By heaven, all dry-beaten with pure scoff! + KING. Farewell, mad wenches; you have simple wits. + Exeunt KING, LORDS, and BLACKAMOORS + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Twenty adieus, my frozen Muscovits. + Are these the breed of wits so wondered at? + BOYET. Tapers they are, with your sweet breaths puff'd out. + ROSALINE. Well-liking wits they have; gross, gross; fat, fat. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. O poverty in wit, kingly-poor flout! + Will they not, think you, hang themselves to-night? + Or ever but in vizards show their faces? + This pert Berowne was out of count'nance quite. + ROSALINE. They were all in lamentable cases! + The King was weeping-ripe for a good word. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Berowne did swear himself out of all suit. + MARIA. Dumain was at my service, and his sword. + 'No point' quoth I; my servant straight was mute. + KATHARINE. Lord Longaville said I came o'er his heart; + And trow you what he call'd me? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Qualm, perhaps. + KATHARINE. Yes, in good faith. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Go, sickness as thou art! + ROSALINE. Well, better wits have worn plain statute-caps. + But will you hear? The King is my love sworn. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. And quick Berowne hath plighted faith to me. + KATHARINE. And Longaville was for my service born. + MARIA. Dumain is mine, as sure as bark on tree. + BOYET. Madam, and pretty mistresses, give ear: + Immediately they will again be here + In their own shapes; for it can never be + They will digest this harsh indignity. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Will they return? + BOYET. They will, they will, God knows, + And leap for joy, though they are lame with blows; + Therefore, change favours; and, when they repair, + Blow like sweet roses in this summer air. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. How blow? how blow? Speak to be understood. + BOYET. Fair ladies mask'd are roses in their bud: + Dismask'd, their damask sweet commixture shown, + Are angels vailing clouds, or roses blown. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Avaunt, perplexity! What shall we do + If they return in their own shapes to woo? + ROSALINE. Good madam, if by me you'll be advis'd, + Let's mock them still, as well known as disguis'd. + Let us complain to them what fools were here, + Disguis'd like Muscovites, in shapeless gear; + And wonder what they were, and to what end + Their shallow shows and prologue vilely penn'd, + And their rough carriage so ridiculous, + Should be presented at our tent to us. + BOYET. Ladies, withdraw; the gallants are at hand. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Whip to our tents, as roes run o'er land. + Exeunt PRINCESS, ROSALINE, KATHARINE, and MARIA + + Re-enter the KING, BEROWNE, LONGAVILLE, and DUMAIN, + in their proper habits + + KING. Fair sir, God save you! Where's the Princess? + BOYET. Gone to her tent. Please it your Majesty + Command me any service to her thither? + KING. That she vouchsafe me audience for one word. + BOYET. I will; and so will she, I know, my lord. Exit + BEROWNE. This fellow pecks up wit as pigeons pease, + And utters it again when God doth please. + He is wit's pedlar, and retails his wares + At wakes, and wassails, meetings, markets, fairs; + And we that sell by gross, the Lord doth know, + Have not the grace to grace it with such show. + This gallant pins the wenches on his sleeve; + Had he been Adam, he had tempted Eve. + 'A can carve too, and lisp; why this is he + That kiss'd his hand away in courtesy; + This is the ape of form, Monsieur the Nice, + That, when he plays at tables, chides the dice + In honourable terms; nay, he can sing + A mean most meanly; and in ushering, + Mend him who can. The ladies call him sweet; + The stairs, as he treads on them, kiss his feet. + This is the flow'r that smiles on every one, + To show his teeth as white as whales-bone; + And consciences that will not die in debt + Pay him the due of 'honey-tongued Boyet.' + KING. A blister on his sweet tongue, with my heart, + That put Armado's page out of his part! + + Re-enter the PRINCESS, ushered by BOYET; ROSALINE, + MARIA, and KATHARINE + + BEROWNE. See where it comes! Behaviour, what wert thou + Till this man show'd thee? And what art thou now? + KING. All hail, sweet madam, and fair time of day! + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. 'Fair' in 'all hail' is foul, as I conceive. + KING. Construe my speeches better, if you may. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Then wish me better; I will give you leave. + KING. We came to visit you, and purpose now + To lead you to our court; vouchsafe it then. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. This field shall hold me, and so hold your vow: + Nor God, nor I, delights in perjur'd men. + KING. Rebuke me not for that which you provoke. + The virtue of your eye must break my oath. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. You nickname virtue: vice you should have + spoke; + For virtue's office never breaks men's troth. + Now by my maiden honour, yet as pure + As the unsullied lily, I protest, + A world of torments though I should endure, + I would not yield to be your house's guest; + So much I hate a breaking cause to be + Of heavenly oaths, vowed with integrity. + KING. O, you have liv'd in desolation here, + Unseen, unvisited, much to our shame. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Not so, my lord; it is not so, I swear; + We have had pastimes here, and pleasant game; + A mess of Russians left us but of late. + KING. How, madam! Russians! + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Ay, in truth, my lord; + Trim gallants, full of courtship and of state. + ROSALINE. Madam, speak true. It is not so, my lord. + My lady, to the manner of the days, + In courtesy gives undeserving praise. + We four indeed confronted were with four + In Russian habit; here they stayed an hour + And talk'd apace; and in that hour, my lord, + They did not bless us with one happy word. + I dare not call them fools; but this I think, + When they are thirsty, fools would fain have drink. + BEROWNE. This jest is dry to me. Fair gentle sweet, + Your wit makes wise things foolish; when we greet, + With eyes best seeing, heaven's fiery eye, + By light we lose light; your capacity + Is of that nature that to your huge store + Wise things seem foolish and rich things but poor. + ROSALINE. This proves you wise and rich, for in my eye- + BEROWNE. I am a fool, and full of poverty. + ROSALINE. But that you take what doth to you belong, + It were a fault to snatch words from my tongue. + BEROWNE. O, I am yours, and all that I possess. + ROSALINE. All the fool mine? + BEROWNE. I cannot give you less. + ROSALINE. Which of the vizards was it that you wore? + BEROWNE. Where? when? what vizard? Why demand you this? + ROSALINE. There, then, that vizard; that superfluous case + That hid the worse and show'd the better face. + KING. We were descried; they'll mock us now downright. + DUMAIN. Let us confess, and turn it to a jest. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Amaz'd, my lord? Why looks your Highness sad? + ROSALINE. Help, hold his brows! he'll swoon! Why look you pale? + Sea-sick, I think, coming from Muscovy. + BEROWNE. Thus pour the stars down plagues for perjury. + Can any face of brass hold longer out? + Here stand I, lady- dart thy skill at me, + Bruise me with scorn, confound me with a flout, + Thrust thy sharp wit quite through my ignorance, + Cut me to pieces with thy keen conceit; + And I will wish thee never more to dance, + Nor never more in Russian habit wait. + O, never will I trust to speeches penn'd, + Nor to the motion of a school-boy's tongue, + Nor never come in vizard to my friend, + Nor woo in rhyme, like a blind harper's song. + Taffeta phrases, silken terms precise, + Three-pil'd hyperboles, spruce affectation, + Figures pedantical- these summer-flies + Have blown me full of maggot ostentation. + I do forswear them; and I here protest, + By this white glove- how white the hand, God knows!- + Henceforth my wooing mind shall be express'd + In russet yeas, and honest kersey noes. + And, to begin, wench- so God help me, law!- + My love to thee is sound, sans crack or flaw. + ROSALINE. Sans 'sans,' I pray you. + BEROWNE. Yet I have a trick + Of the old rage; bear with me, I am sick; + I'll leave it by degrees. Soft, let us see- + Write 'Lord have mercy on us' on those three; + They are infected; in their hearts it lies; + They have the plague, and caught it of your eyes. + These lords are visited; you are not free, + For the Lord's tokens on you do I see. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. No, they are free that gave these tokens to us. + BEROWNE. Our states are forfeit; seek not to undo us. + ROSALINE. It is not so; for how can this be true, + That you stand forfeit, being those that sue? + BEROWNE. Peace; for I will not have to do with you. + ROSALINE. Nor shall not, if I do as I intend. + BEROWNE. Speak for yourselves; my wit is at an end. + KING. Teach us, sweet madam, for our rude transgression + Some fair excuse. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. The fairest is confession. + Were not you here but even now, disguis'd? + KING. Madam, I was. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. And were you well advis'd? + KING. I was, fair madam. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. When you then were here, + What did you whisper in your lady's ear? + KING. That more than all the world I did respect her. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. When she shall challenge this, you will reject + her. + KING. Upon mine honour, no. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Peace, peace, forbear; + Your oath once broke, you force not to forswear. + KING. Despise me when I break this oath of mine. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. I will; and therefore keep it. Rosaline, + What did the Russian whisper in your ear? + ROSALINE. Madam, he swore that he did hold me dear + As precious eyesight, and did value me + Above this world; adding thereto, moreover, + That he would wed me, or else die my lover. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. God give thee joy of him! The noble lord + Most honourably doth uphold his word. + KING. What mean you, madam? By my life, my troth, + I never swore this lady such an oath. + ROSALINE. By heaven, you did; and, to confirm it plain, + You gave me this; but take it, sir, again. + KING. My faith and this the Princess I did give; + I knew her by this jewel on her sleeve. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Pardon me, sir, this jewel did she wear; + And Lord Berowne, I thank him, is my dear. + What, will you have me, or your pearl again? + BEROWNE. Neither of either; I remit both twain. + I see the trick on't: here was a consent, + Knowing aforehand of our merriment, + To dash it like a Christmas comedy. + Some carry-tale, some please-man, some slight zany, + Some mumble-news, some trencher-knight, some Dick, + That smiles his cheek in years and knows the trick + To make my lady laugh when she's dispos'd, + Told our intents before; which once disclos'd, + The ladies did change favours; and then we, + Following the signs, woo'd but the sign of she. + Now, to our perjury to add more terror, + We are again forsworn in will and error. + Much upon this it is; [To BOYET] and might not you + Forestall our sport, to make us thus untrue? + Do not you know my lady's foot by th' squier, + And laugh upon the apple of her eye? + And stand between her back, sir, and the fire, + Holding a trencher, jesting merrily? + You put our page out. Go, you are allow'd; + Die when you will, a smock shall be your shroud. + You leer upon me, do you? There's an eye + Wounds like a leaden sword. + BOYET. Full merrily + Hath this brave manage, this career, been run. + BEROWNE. Lo, he is tilting straight! Peace; I have done. + + Enter COSTARD + + Welcome, pure wit! Thou part'st a fair fray. + COSTARD. O Lord, sir, they would know + Whether the three Worthies shall come in or no? + BEROWNE. What, are there but three? + COSTARD. No, sir; but it is vara fine, + For every one pursents three. + BEROWNE. And three times thrice is nine. + COSTARD. Not so, sir; under correction, sir, + I hope it is not so. + You cannot beg us, sir, I can assure you, sir; we know what we + know; + I hope, sir, three times thrice, sir- + BEROWNE. Is not nine. + COSTARD. Under correction, sir, we know whereuntil it doth amount. + BEROWNE. By Jove, I always took three threes for nine. + COSTARD. O Lord, sir, it were pity you should get your living by + reck'ning, sir. + BEROWNE. How much is it? + COSTARD. O Lord, sir, the parties themselves, the actors, sir, will + show whereuntil it doth amount. For mine own part, I am, as they + say, but to parfect one man in one poor man, Pompion the Great, + sir. + BEROWNE. Art thou one of the Worthies? + COSTARD. It pleased them to think me worthy of Pompey the Great; + for mine own part, I know not the degree of the Worthy; but I am + to stand for him. + BEROWNE. Go, bid them prepare. + COSTARD. We will turn it finely off, sir; we will take some care. + Exit COSTARD + KING. Berowne, they will shame us; let them not approach. + BEROWNE. We are shame-proof, my lord, and 'tis some policy + To have one show worse than the King's and his company. + KING. I say they shall not come. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Nay, my good lord, let me o'errule you now. + That sport best pleases that doth least know how; + Where zeal strives to content, and the contents + Dies in the zeal of that which it presents. + Their form confounded makes most form in mirth, + When great things labouring perish in their birth. + BEROWNE. A right description of our sport, my lord. + + Enter ARMADO + + ARMADO. Anointed, I implore so much expense of thy royal sweet + breath as will utter a brace of words. + [Converses apart with the KING, and delivers a paper] + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Doth this man serve God? + BEROWNE. Why ask you? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. 'A speaks not like a man of God his making. + ARMADO. That is all one, my fair, sweet, honey monarch; for, I + protest, the schoolmaster is exceeding fantastical; too too vain, + too too vain; but we will put it, as they say, to fortuna de la + guerra. I wish you the peace of mind, most royal couplement! + Exit ARMADO + KING. Here is like to be a good presence of Worthies. He presents + Hector of Troy; the swain, Pompey the Great; the parish curate, + Alexander; Arinado's page, Hercules; the pedant, Judas + Maccabaeus. + And if these four Worthies in their first show thrive, + These four will change habits and present the other five. + BEROWNE. There is five in the first show. + KING. You are deceived, 'tis not so. + BEROWNE. The pedant, the braggart, the hedge-priest, the fool, and + the boy: + Abate throw at novum, and the whole world again + Cannot pick out five such, take each one in his vein. + KING. The ship is under sail, and here she comes amain. + + Enter COSTARD, armed for POMPEY + + COSTARD. I Pompey am- + BEROWNE. You lie, you are not he. + COSTARD. I Pompey am- + BOYET. With libbard's head on knee. + BEROWNE. Well said, old mocker; I must needs be friends with thee. + COSTARD. I Pompey am, Pompey surnam'd the Big- + DUMAIN. The Great. + COSTARD. It is Great, sir. + Pompey surnam'd the Great, + That oft in field, with targe and shield, did make my foe to + sweat; + And travelling along this coast, I bere am come by chance, + And lay my arms before the legs of this sweet lass of France. + + If your ladyship would say 'Thanks, Pompey,' I had done. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Great thanks, great Pompey. + COSTARD. 'Tis not so much worth; but I hope I was perfect. + I made a little fault in Great. + BEROWNE. My hat to a halfpenny, Pompey proves the best Worthy. + + Enter SIR NATHANIEL, for ALEXANDER + + NATHANIEL. When in the world I liv'd, I was the world's commander; + By east, west, north, and south, I spread my conquering might. + My scutcheon plain declares that I am Alisander- + BOYET. Your nose says, no, you are not; for it stands to right. + BEROWNE. Your nose smells 'no' in this, most tender-smelling + knight. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. The conqueror is dismay'd. Proceed, good + Alexander. + NATHANIEL. When in the world I liv'd, I was the world's commander- + BOYET. Most true, 'tis right, you were so, Alisander. + BEROWNE. Pompey the Great! + COSTARD. Your servant, and Costard. + BEROWNE. Take away the conqueror, take away Alisander. + COSTARD. [To Sir Nathaniel] O, Sir, you have overthrown Alisander + the conqueror! You will be scrap'd out of the painted cloth for + this. Your lion, that holds his poleaxe sitting on a close-stool, + will be given to Ajax. He will be the ninth Worthy. A conqueror + and afeard to speak! Run away for shame, Alisander. + [Sir Nathaniel retires] There, an't shall please you, a foolish + mild man; an honest man, look you, and soon dash'd. He is a + marvellous good neighbour, faith, and a very good bowler; but for + Alisander- alas! you see how 'tis- a little o'erparted. But there + are Worthies a-coming will speak their mind in some other sort. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Stand aside, good Pompey. + + Enter HOLOFERNES, for JUDAS; and MOTH, for HERCULES + + HOLOFERNES. Great Hercules is presented by this imp, + Whose club kill'd Cerberus, that three-headed canus; + And when be was a babe, a child, a shrimp, + Thus did he strangle serpents in his manus. + Quoniam he seemeth in minority, + Ergo I come with this apology. + Keep some state in thy exit, and vanish. [MOTH retires] + Judas I am- + DUMAIN. A Judas! + HOLOFERNES. Not Iscariot, sir. + Judas I am, ycliped Maccabaeus. + DUMAIN. Judas Maccabaeus clipt is plain Judas. + BEROWNE. A kissing traitor. How art thou prov'd Judas? + HOLOFERNES. Judas I am- + DUMAIN. The more shame for you, Judas! + HOLOFERNES. What mean you, sir? + BOYET. To make Judas hang himself. + HOLOFERNES. Begin, sir; you are my elder. + BEROWNE. Well followed: Judas was hanged on an elder. + HOLOFERNES. I will not be put out of countenance. + BEROWNE. Because thou hast no face. + HOLOFERNES. What is this? + BOYET. A cittern-head. + DUMAIN. The head of a bodkin. + BEROWNE. A death's face in a ring. + LONGAVILLE. The face of an old Roman coin, scarce seen. + BOYET. The pommel of Coesar's falchion. + DUMAIN. The carv'd-bone face on a flask. + BEROWNE. Saint George's half-cheek in a brooch. + DUMAIN. Ay, and in a brooch of lead. + BEROWNE. Ay, and worn in the cap of a tooth-drawer. And now, + forward; for we have put thee in countenance. + HOLOFERNES. You have put me out of countenance. + BEROWNE. False: we have given thee faces. + HOLOFERNES. But you have outfac'd them all. + BEROWNE. An thou wert a lion we would do so. + BOYET. Therefore, as he is an ass, let him go. + And so adieu, sweet Jude! Nay, why dost thou stay? + DUMAIN. For the latter end of his name. + BEROWNE. For the ass to the Jude; give it him- Jud-as, away. + HOLOFERNES. This is not generous, not gentle, not humble. + BOYET. A light for Monsieur Judas! It grows dark, he may stumble. + [HOLOFERNES retires] + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Alas, poor Maccabaeus, how hath he been baited! + + Enter ARMADO, for HECTOR + + BEROWNE. Hide thy head, Achilles; here comes Hector in arms. + DUMAIN. Though my mocks come home by me, I will now be merry. + KING. Hector was but a Troyan in respect of this. + BOYET. But is this Hector? + DUMAIN. I think Hector was not so clean-timber'd. + LONGAVILLE. His leg is too big for Hector's. + DUMAIN. More calf, certain. + BOYET. No; he is best indued in the small. + BEROWNE. This cannot be Hector. + DUMAIN. He's a god or a painter, for he makes faces. + ARMADO. The armipotent Mars, of lances the almighty, + Gave Hector a gift- + DUMAIN. A gilt nutmeg. + BEROWNE. A lemon. + LONGAVILLE. Stuck with cloves. + DUMAIN. No, cloven. + ARMADO. Peace! + The armipotent Mars, of lances the almighty, + Gave Hector a gift, the heir of Ilion; + A man so breathed that certain he would fight ye, + From morn till night out of his pavilion. + I am that flower- + DUMAIN. That mint. + LONGAVILLE. That columbine. + ARMADO. Sweet Lord Longaville, rein thy tongue. + LONGAVILLE. I must rather give it the rein, for it runs against + Hector. + DUMAIN. Ay, and Hector's a greyhound. + ARMADO. The sweet war-man is dead and rotten; sweet chucks, beat + not the bones of the buried; when he breathed, he was a man. But + I will forward with my device. [To the PRINCESS] Sweet royalty, + bestow on me the sense of hearing. + + [BEROWNE steps forth, and speaks to COSTARD] + + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Speak, brave Hector; we are much delighted. + ARMADO. I do adore thy sweet Grace's slipper. + BOYET. [Aside to DUMAIN] Loves her by the foot. + DUMAIN. [Aside to BOYET] He may not by the yard. + ARMADO. This Hector far surmounted Hannibal- + COSTARD. The party is gone, fellow Hector, she is gone; she is two + months on her way. + ARMADO. What meanest thou? + COSTARD. Faith, unless you play the honest Troyan, the poor wench + is cast away. She's quick; the child brags in her belly already; + 'tis yours. + ARMADO. Dost thou infamonize me among potentates? Thou shalt die. + COSTARD. Then shall Hector be whipt for Jaquenetta that is quick by + him, and hang'd for Pompey that is dead by him. + DUMAIN. Most rare Pompey! + BOYET. Renowned Pompey! + BEROWNE. Greater than Great! Great, great, great Pompey! Pompey the + Huge! + DUMAIN. Hector trembles. + BEROWNE. Pompey is moved. More Ates, more Ates! Stir them on! stir + them on! + DUMAIN. Hector will challenge him. + BEROWNE. Ay, if 'a have no more man's blood in his belly than will + sup a flea. + ARMADO. By the North Pole, I do challenge thee. + COSTARD. I will not fight with a pole, like a Northern man; I'll + slash; I'll do it by the sword. I bepray you, let me borrow my + arms again. + DUMAIN. Room for the incensed Worthies! + COSTARD. I'll do it in my shirt. + DUMAIN. Most resolute Pompey! + MOTH. Master, let me take you a buttonhole lower. Do you not see + Pompey is uncasing for the combat? What mean you? You will lose + your reputation. + ARMADO. Gentlemen and soldiers, pardon me; I will not combat in my + shirt. + DUMAIN. You may not deny it: Pompey hath made the challenge. + ARMADO. Sweet bloods, I both may and will. + BEROWNE. What reason have you for 't? + ARMADO. The naked truth of it is: I have no shirt; I go woolward + for penance. + BOYET. True, and it was enjoined him in Rome for want of linen; + since when, I'll be sworn, he wore none but a dishclout of + Jaquenetta's, and that 'a wears next his heart for a favour. + + Enter as messenger, MONSIEUR MARCADE + + MARCADE. God save you, madam! + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Welcome, Marcade; + But that thou interruptest our merriment. + MARCADE. I am sorry, madam; for the news I bring + Is heavy in my tongue. The King your father- + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Dead, for my life! + MARCADE. Even so; my tale is told. + BEROWNE. WOrthies away; the scene begins to cloud. + ARMADO. For mine own part, I breathe free breath. I have seen the + day of wrong through the little hole of discretion, and I will + right myself like a soldier. Exeunt WORTHIES + KING. How fares your Majesty? + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Boyet, prepare; I will away to-night. + KING. Madam, not so; I do beseech you stay. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Prepare, I say. I thank you, gracious lords, + For all your fair endeavours, and entreat, + Out of a new-sad soul, that you vouchsafe + In your rich wisdom to excuse or hide + The liberal opposition of our spirits, + If over-boldly we have borne ourselves + In the converse of breath- your gentleness + Was guilty of it. Farewell, worthy lord. + A heavy heart bears not a nimble tongue. + Excuse me so, coming too short of thanks + For my great suit so easily obtain'd. + KING. The extreme parts of time extremely forms + All causes to the purpose of his speed; + And often at his very loose decides + That which long process could not arbitrate. + And though the mourning brow of progeny + Forbid the smiling courtesy of love + The holy suit which fain it would convince, + Yet, since love's argument was first on foot, + Let not the cloud of sorrow justle it + From what it purpos'd; since to wail friends lost + Is not by much so wholesome-profitable + As to rejoice at friends but newly found. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. I understand you not; my griefs are double. + BEROWNE. Honest plain words best pierce the ear of grief; + And by these badges understand the King. + For your fair sakes have we neglected time, + Play'd foul play with our oaths; your beauty, ladies, + Hath much deformed us, fashioning our humours + Even to the opposed end of our intents; + And what in us hath seem'd ridiculous, + As love is full of unbefitting strains, + All wanton as a child, skipping and vain; + Form'd by the eye and therefore, like the eye, + Full of strange shapes, of habits, and of forms, + Varying in subjects as the eye doth roll + To every varied object in his glance; + Which parti-coated presence of loose love + Put on by us, if in your heavenly eyes + Have misbecom'd our oaths and gravities, + Those heavenly eyes that look into these faults + Suggested us to make. Therefore, ladies, + Our love being yours, the error that love makes + Is likewise yours. We to ourselves prove false, + By being once false for ever to be true + To those that make us both- fair ladies, you; + And even that falsehood, in itself a sin, + Thus purifies itself and turns to grace. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. We have receiv'd your letters, full of love; + Your favours, the ambassadors of love; + And, in our maiden council, rated them + At courtship, pleasant jest, and courtesy, + As bombast and as lining to the time; + But more devout than this in our respects + Have we not been; and therefore met your loves + In their own fashion, like a merriment. + DUMAIN. Our letters, madam, show'd much more than jest. + LONGAVILLE. So did our looks. + ROSALINE. We did not quote them so. + KING. Now, at the latest minute of the hour, + Grant us your loves. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. A time, methinks, too short + To make a world-without-end bargain in. + No, no, my lord, your Grace is perjur'd much, + Full of dear guiltiness; and therefore this, + If for my love, as there is no such cause, + You will do aught- this shall you do for me: + Your oath I will not trust; but go with speed + To some forlorn and naked hermitage, + Remote from all the pleasures of the world; + There stay until the twelve celestial signs + Have brought about the annual reckoning. + If this austere insociable life + Change not your offer made in heat of blood, + If frosts and fasts, hard lodging and thin weeds, + Nip not the gaudy blossoms of your love, + But that it bear this trial, and last love, + Then, at the expiration of the year, + Come, challenge me, challenge me by these deserts; + And, by this virgin palm now kissing thine, + I will be thine; and, till that instant, shut + My woeful self up in a mournful house, + Raining the tears of lamentation + For the remembrance of my father's death. + If this thou do deny, let our hands part, + Neither intitled in the other's heart. + KING. If this, or more than this, I would deny, + To flatter up these powers of mine with rest, + The sudden hand of death close up mine eye! + Hence hermit then, my heart is in thy breast. + BEROWNE. And what to me, my love? and what to me? + ROSALINE. You must he purged too, your sins are rack'd; + You are attaint with faults and perjury; + Therefore, if you my favour mean to get, + A twelvemonth shall you spend, and never rest, + But seek the weary beds of people sick. + DUMAIN. But what to me, my love? but what to me? + A wife? + KATHARINE. A beard, fair health, and honesty; + With threefold love I wish you all these three. + DUMAIN. O, shall I say I thank you, gentle wife? + KATHARINE. No so, my lord; a twelvemonth and a day + I'll mark no words that smooth-fac'd wooers say. + Come when the King doth to my lady come; + Then, if I have much love, I'll give you some. + DUMAIN. I'll serve thee true and faithfully till then. + KATHARINE. Yet swear not, lest ye be forsworn again. + LONGAVILLE. What says Maria? + MARIA. At the twelvemonth's end + I'll change my black gown for a faithful friend. + LONGAVILLE. I'll stay with patience; but the time is long. + MARIA. The liker you; few taller are so young. + BEROWNE. Studies my lady? Mistress, look on me; + Behold the window of my heart, mine eye, + What humble suit attends thy answer there. + Impose some service on me for thy love. + ROSALINE. Oft have I heard of you, my Lord Berowne, + Before I saw you; and the world's large tongue + Proclaims you for a man replete with mocks, + Full of comparisons and wounding flouts, + Which you on all estates will execute + That lie within the mercy of your wit. + To weed this wormwood from your fruitful brain, + And therewithal to win me, if you please, + Without the which I am not to be won, + You shall this twelvemonth term from day to day + Visit the speechless sick, and still converse + With groaning wretches; and your task shall be, + With all the fierce endeavour of your wit, + To enforce the pained impotent to smile. + BEROWNE. To move wild laughter in the throat of death? + It cannot be; it is impossible; + Mirth cannot move a soul in agony. + ROSALINE. Why, that's the way to choke a gibing spirit, + Whose influence is begot of that loose grace + Which shallow laughing hearers give to fools. + A jest's prosperity lies in the ear + Of him that hears it, never in the tongue + Of him that makes it; then, if sickly ears, + Deaf'd with the clamours of their own dear groans, + Will hear your idle scorns, continue then, + And I will have you and that fault withal. + But if they will not, throw away that spirit, + And I shall find you empty of that fault, + Right joyful of your reformation. + BEROWNE. A twelvemonth? Well, befall what will befall, + I'll jest a twelvemonth in an hospital. + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. [ To the King] Ay, sweet my lord, and so I take + my leave. + KING. No, madam; we will bring you on your way. + BEROWNE. Our wooing doth not end like an old play: + Jack hath not Jill. These ladies' courtesy + Might well have made our sport a comedy. + KING. Come, sir, it wants a twelvemonth an' a day, + And then 'twill end. + BEROWNE. That's too long for a play. + + Re-enter ARMADO + + ARMADO. Sweet Majesty, vouchsafe me- + PRINCESS OF FRANCE. Was not that not Hector? + DUMAIN. The worthy knight of Troy. + ARMADO. I will kiss thy royal finger, and take leave. I am a + votary: I have vow'd to Jaquenetta to hold the plough for her + sweet love three year. But, most esteemed greatness, will you + hear the dialogue that the two learned men have compiled in + praise of the Owl and the Cuckoo? It should have followed in the + end of our show. + KING. Call them forth quickly; we will do so. + ARMADO. Holla! approach. + + Enter All + + This side is Hiems, Winter; this Ver, the Spring- the one + maintained by the Owl, th' other by the Cuckoo. Ver, begin. + + SPRING + When daisies pied and violets blue + And lady-smocks all silver-white + And cuckoo-buds of yellow hue + Do paint the meadows with delight, + The cuckoo then on every tree + Mocks married men, for thus sings he: + 'Cuckoo; + Cuckoo, cuckoo'- O word of fear, + Unpleasing to a married ear! + + When shepherds pipe on oaten straws, + And merry larks are ploughmen's clocks; + When turtles tread, and rooks and daws, + And maidens bleach their summer smocks; + The cuckoo then on every tree + Mocks married men, for thus sings he: + 'Cuckoo; + Cuckoo, cuckoo'- O word of fear, + Unpleasing to a married ear! + + WINTER + + When icicles hang by the wall, + And Dick the shepherd blows his nail, + And Tom bears logs into the hall, + And milk comes frozen home in pail, + When blood is nipp'd, and ways be foul, + Then nightly sings the staring owl: + 'Tu-who; + Tu-whit, Tu-who'- A merry note, + While greasy Joan doth keel the pot. + + When all aloud the wind doth blow, + And coughing drowns the parson's saw, + And birds sit brooding in the snow, + And Marian's nose looks red and raw, + When roasted crabs hiss in the bowl, + Then nightly sings the staring owl: + 'Tu-who; + Tu-whit, To-who'- A merry note, + While greasy Joan doth keel the pot. + + ARMADO. The words of Mercury are harsh after the songs of Apollo. + You that way: we this way. Exeunt + + + + +MACBETH + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. An open Place. +Scene II. A Camp near Forres. +Scene III. A heath. +Scene IV. Forres. A Room in the Palace. +Scene V. Inverness. A Room in Macbeth’s Castle. +Scene VI. The same. Before the Castle. +Scene VII. The same. A Lobby in the Castle. + + +ACT II +Scene I. Inverness. Court within the Castle. +Scene II. The same. +Scene III. The same. +Scene IV. The same. Without the Castle. + + +ACT III +Scene I. Forres. A Room in the Palace. +Scene II. The same. Another Room in the Palace. +Scene III. The same. A Park or Lawn, with a gate leading to the Palace. +Scene IV. The same. A Room of state in the Palace. +Scene V. The heath. +Scene VI. Forres. A Room in the Palace. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. A dark Cave. In the middle, a Cauldron Boiling. +Scene II. Fife. A Room in Macduff’s Castle. +Scene III. England. Before the King’s Palace. + + +ACT V +Scene I. Dunsinane. A Room in the Castle. +Scene II. The Country near Dunsinane. +Scene III. Dunsinane. A Room in the Castle. +Scene IV. Country near Dunsinane: a Wood in view. +Scene V. Dunsinane. Within the castle. +Scene VI. The same. A Plain before the Castle. +Scene VII. The same. Another part of the Plain. +Scene VIII. The same. Another part of the field. + + + +Dramatis Personæ + +DUNCAN, King of Scotland. +MALCOLM, his Son. +DONALBAIN, his Son. +MACBETH, General in the King’s Army. +BANQUO, General in the King’s Army. +MACDUFF, Nobleman of Scotland. +LENNOX, Nobleman of Scotland. +ROSS, Nobleman of Scotland. +MENTEITH, Nobleman of Scotland. +ANGUS, Nobleman of Scotland. +CAITHNESS, Nobleman of Scotland. +FLEANCE, Son to Banquo. +SIWARD, Earl of Northumberland, General of the English Forces. +YOUNG SIWARD, his Son. +SEYTON, an Officer attending on Macbeth. +BOY, Son to Macduff. +An English Doctor. +A Scottish Doctor. +A Soldier. +A Porter. +An Old Man. + +LADY MACBETH. +LADY MACDUFF. +Gentlewoman attending on Lady Macbeth. +HECATE, and three Witches. + +Lords, Gentlemen, Officers, Soldiers, Murderers, Attendants and +Messengers. + +The Ghost of Banquo and several other Apparitions. + +SCENE: In the end of the Fourth Act, in England; through the rest of +the Play, in Scotland; and chiefly at Macbeth’s Castle. + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. An open Place. + + Thunder and Lightning. Enter three Witches. + +FIRST WITCH. +When shall we three meet again? +In thunder, lightning, or in rain? + +SECOND WITCH. +When the hurlyburly’s done, +When the battle’s lost and won. + +THIRD WITCH. +That will be ere the set of sun. + +FIRST WITCH. +Where the place? + +SECOND WITCH. +Upon the heath. + +THIRD WITCH. +There to meet with Macbeth. + +FIRST WITCH. +I come, Graymalkin! + +SECOND WITCH. +Paddock calls. + +THIRD WITCH. +Anon. + +ALL. +Fair is foul, and foul is fair: +Hover through the fog and filthy air. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A Camp near Forres. + + Alarum within. Enter King Duncan, Malcolm, Donalbain, Lennox, with + Attendants, meeting a bleeding Captain. + +DUNCAN. +What bloody man is that? He can report, +As seemeth by his plight, of the revolt +The newest state. + +MALCOLM. +This is the sergeant +Who, like a good and hardy soldier, fought +’Gainst my captivity.—Hail, brave friend! +Say to the King the knowledge of the broil +As thou didst leave it. + +SOLDIER. +Doubtful it stood; +As two spent swimmers that do cling together +And choke their art. The merciless Macdonwald +(Worthy to be a rebel, for to that +The multiplying villainies of nature +Do swarm upon him) from the Western Isles +Of kerns and gallowglasses is supplied; +And Fortune, on his damned quarrel smiling, +Show’d like a rebel’s whore. But all’s too weak; +For brave Macbeth (well he deserves that name), +Disdaining Fortune, with his brandish’d steel, +Which smok’d with bloody execution, +Like Valour’s minion, carv’d out his passage, +Till he fac’d the slave; +Which ne’er shook hands, nor bade farewell to him, +Till he unseam’d him from the nave to the chops, +And fix’d his head upon our battlements. + +DUNCAN. +O valiant cousin! worthy gentleman! + +SOLDIER. +As whence the sun ’gins his reflection +Shipwracking storms and direful thunders break, +So from that spring, whence comfort seem’d to come +Discomfort swells. Mark, King of Scotland, mark: +No sooner justice had, with valour arm’d, +Compell’d these skipping kerns to trust their heels, +But the Norweyan lord, surveying vantage, +With furbish’d arms and new supplies of men, +Began a fresh assault. + +DUNCAN. +Dismay’d not this +Our captains, Macbeth and Banquo? + +SOLDIER. +Yes; +As sparrows eagles, or the hare the lion. +If I say sooth, I must report they were +As cannons overcharg’d with double cracks; +So they +Doubly redoubled strokes upon the foe: +Except they meant to bathe in reeking wounds, +Or memorize another Golgotha, +I cannot tell— +But I am faint, my gashes cry for help. + +DUNCAN. +So well thy words become thee as thy wounds: +They smack of honour both.—Go, get him surgeons. + + [_Exit Captain, attended._] + + Enter Ross and Angus. + +Who comes here? + +MALCOLM. +The worthy Thane of Ross. + +LENNOX. +What a haste looks through his eyes! So should he look +That seems to speak things strange. + +ROSS. +God save the King! + +DUNCAN. +Whence cam’st thou, worthy thane? + +ROSS. +From Fife, great King, +Where the Norweyan banners flout the sky +And fan our people cold. +Norway himself, with terrible numbers, +Assisted by that most disloyal traitor, +The Thane of Cawdor, began a dismal conflict; +Till that Bellona’s bridegroom, lapp’d in proof, +Confronted him with self-comparisons, +Point against point, rebellious arm ’gainst arm, +Curbing his lavish spirit: and, to conclude, +The victory fell on us. + +DUNCAN. +Great happiness! + +ROSS. +That now +Sweno, the Norways’ king, craves composition; +Nor would we deign him burial of his men +Till he disbursed at Saint Colme’s Inch +Ten thousand dollars to our general use. + +DUNCAN. +No more that Thane of Cawdor shall deceive +Our bosom interest. Go pronounce his present death, +And with his former title greet Macbeth. + +ROSS. +I’ll see it done. + +DUNCAN. +What he hath lost, noble Macbeth hath won. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. A heath. + + Thunder. Enter the three Witches. + +FIRST WITCH. +Where hast thou been, sister? + +SECOND WITCH. +Killing swine. + +THIRD WITCH. +Sister, where thou? + +FIRST WITCH. +A sailor’s wife had chestnuts in her lap, +And mounch’d, and mounch’d, and mounch’d. “Give me,” quoth I. +“Aroint thee, witch!” the rump-fed ronyon cries. +Her husband’s to Aleppo gone, master o’ th’ _Tiger:_ +But in a sieve I’ll thither sail, +And, like a rat without a tail, +I’ll do, I’ll do, and I’ll do. + +SECOND WITCH. +I’ll give thee a wind. + +FIRST WITCH. +Th’art kind. + +THIRD WITCH. +And I another. + +FIRST WITCH. +I myself have all the other, +And the very ports they blow, +All the quarters that they know +I’ the shipman’s card. +I will drain him dry as hay: +Sleep shall neither night nor day +Hang upon his pent-house lid; +He shall live a man forbid. +Weary sev’n-nights nine times nine, +Shall he dwindle, peak, and pine: +Though his bark cannot be lost, +Yet it shall be tempest-tost. +Look what I have. + +SECOND WITCH. +Show me, show me. + +FIRST WITCH. +Here I have a pilot’s thumb, +Wrack’d as homeward he did come. + + [_Drum within._] + +THIRD WITCH. +A drum, a drum! +Macbeth doth come. + +ALL. +The Weird Sisters, hand in hand, +Posters of the sea and land, +Thus do go about, about: +Thrice to thine, and thrice to mine, +And thrice again, to make up nine. +Peace!—the charm’s wound up. + + Enter Macbeth and Banquo. + +MACBETH. +So foul and fair a day I have not seen. + +BANQUO. +How far is’t call’d to Forres?—What are these, +So wither’d, and so wild in their attire, +That look not like the inhabitants o’ th’ earth, +And yet are on’t?—Live you? or are you aught +That man may question? You seem to understand me, +By each at once her choppy finger laying +Upon her skinny lips. You should be women, +And yet your beards forbid me to interpret +That you are so. + +MACBETH. +Speak, if you can;—what are you? + +FIRST WITCH. +All hail, Macbeth! hail to thee, Thane of Glamis! + +SECOND WITCH. +All hail, Macbeth! hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor! + +THIRD WITCH. +All hail, Macbeth! that shalt be king hereafter! + +BANQUO. +Good sir, why do you start and seem to fear +Things that do sound so fair?—I’ th’ name of truth, +Are ye fantastical, or that indeed +Which outwardly ye show? My noble partner +You greet with present grace and great prediction +Of noble having and of royal hope, +That he seems rapt withal. To me you speak not. +If you can look into the seeds of time, +And say which grain will grow, and which will not, +Speak then to me, who neither beg nor fear +Your favours nor your hate. + +FIRST WITCH. +Hail! + +SECOND WITCH. +Hail! + +THIRD WITCH. +Hail! + +FIRST WITCH. +Lesser than Macbeth, and greater. + +SECOND WITCH. +Not so happy, yet much happier. + +THIRD WITCH. +Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none: +So all hail, Macbeth and Banquo! + +FIRST WITCH. +Banquo and Macbeth, all hail! + +MACBETH. +Stay, you imperfect speakers, tell me more. +By Sinel’s death I know I am Thane of Glamis; +But how of Cawdor? The Thane of Cawdor lives, +A prosperous gentleman; and to be king +Stands not within the prospect of belief, +No more than to be Cawdor. Say from whence +You owe this strange intelligence? or why +Upon this blasted heath you stop our way +With such prophetic greeting?—Speak, I charge you. + + [_Witches vanish._] + +BANQUO. +The earth hath bubbles, as the water has, +And these are of them. Whither are they vanish’d? + +MACBETH. +Into the air; and what seem’d corporal, +Melted as breath into the wind. +Would they had stay’d! + +BANQUO. +Were such things here as we do speak about? +Or have we eaten on the insane root +That takes the reason prisoner? + +MACBETH. +Your children shall be kings. + +BANQUO. +You shall be king. + +MACBETH. +And Thane of Cawdor too; went it not so? + +BANQUO. +To the selfsame tune and words. Who’s here? + + Enter Ross and Angus. + +ROSS. +The King hath happily receiv’d, Macbeth, +The news of thy success, and when he reads +Thy personal venture in the rebels’ fight, +His wonders and his praises do contend +Which should be thine or his: silenc’d with that, +In viewing o’er the rest o’ th’ selfsame day, +He finds thee in the stout Norweyan ranks, +Nothing afeard of what thyself didst make, +Strange images of death. As thick as tale +Came post with post; and everyone did bear +Thy praises in his kingdom’s great defence, +And pour’d them down before him. + +ANGUS. +We are sent +To give thee from our royal master thanks; +Only to herald thee into his sight, +Not pay thee. + +ROSS. +And, for an earnest of a greater honour, +He bade me, from him, call thee Thane of Cawdor: +In which addition, hail, most worthy thane, +For it is thine. + +BANQUO. +What, can the devil speak true? + +MACBETH. +The Thane of Cawdor lives: why do you dress me +In borrow’d robes? + +ANGUS. +Who was the Thane lives yet, +But under heavy judgement bears that life +Which he deserves to lose. Whether he was combin’d +With those of Norway, or did line the rebel +With hidden help and vantage, or that with both +He labour’d in his country’s wrack, I know not; +But treasons capital, confess’d and prov’d, +Have overthrown him. + +MACBETH. +[_Aside._] Glamis, and Thane of Cawdor: +The greatest is behind. [_To Ross and Angus._] Thanks for your pains. +[_To Banquo._] Do you not hope your children shall be kings, +When those that gave the Thane of Cawdor to me +Promis’d no less to them? + +BANQUO. +That, trusted home, +Might yet enkindle you unto the crown, +Besides the Thane of Cawdor. But ’tis strange: +And oftentimes to win us to our harm, +The instruments of darkness tell us truths; +Win us with honest trifles, to betray’s +In deepest consequence.— +Cousins, a word, I pray you. + +MACBETH. +[_Aside._] Two truths are told, +As happy prologues to the swelling act +Of the imperial theme.—I thank you, gentlemen.— +[_Aside._] This supernatural soliciting +Cannot be ill; cannot be good. If ill, +Why hath it given me earnest of success, +Commencing in a truth? I am Thane of Cawdor: +If good, why do I yield to that suggestion +Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair, +And make my seated heart knock at my ribs, +Against the use of nature? Present fears +Are less than horrible imaginings. +My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, +Shakes so my single state of man +That function is smother’d in surmise, +And nothing is but what is not. + +BANQUO. +Look, how our partner’s rapt. + +MACBETH. +[_Aside._] If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me +Without my stir. + +BANQUO. +New honours come upon him, +Like our strange garments, cleave not to their mould +But with the aid of use. + +MACBETH. +[_Aside._] Come what come may, +Time and the hour runs through the roughest day. + +BANQUO. +Worthy Macbeth, we stay upon your leisure. + +MACBETH. +Give me your favour. My dull brain was wrought +With things forgotten. Kind gentlemen, your pains +Are register’d where every day I turn +The leaf to read them.—Let us toward the King.— +Think upon what hath chanc’d; and at more time, +The interim having weigh’d it, let us speak +Our free hearts each to other. + +BANQUO. +Very gladly. + +MACBETH. +Till then, enough.—Come, friends. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Forres. A Room in the Palace. + + Flourish. Enter Duncan, Malcolm, Donalbain, Lennox and Attendants. + +DUNCAN. +Is execution done on Cawdor? Are not +Those in commission yet return’d? + +MALCOLM. +My liege, +They are not yet come back. But I have spoke +With one that saw him die, who did report, +That very frankly he confess’d his treasons, +Implor’d your Highness’ pardon, and set forth +A deep repentance. Nothing in his life +Became him like the leaving it; he died +As one that had been studied in his death, +To throw away the dearest thing he ow’d +As ’twere a careless trifle. + +DUNCAN. +There’s no art +To find the mind’s construction in the face: +He was a gentleman on whom I built +An absolute trust. + + Enter Macbeth, Banquo, Ross and Angus. + +O worthiest cousin! +The sin of my ingratitude even now +Was heavy on me. Thou art so far before, +That swiftest wing of recompense is slow +To overtake thee. Would thou hadst less deserv’d; +That the proportion both of thanks and payment +Might have been mine! only I have left to say, +More is thy due than more than all can pay. + +MACBETH. +The service and the loyalty I owe, +In doing it, pays itself. Your Highness’ part +Is to receive our duties: and our duties +Are to your throne and state, children and servants; +Which do but what they should, by doing everything +Safe toward your love and honour. + +DUNCAN. +Welcome hither: +I have begun to plant thee, and will labour +To make thee full of growing.—Noble Banquo, +That hast no less deserv’d, nor must be known +No less to have done so, let me infold thee +And hold thee to my heart. + +BANQUO. +There if I grow, +The harvest is your own. + +DUNCAN. +My plenteous joys, +Wanton in fulness, seek to hide themselves +In drops of sorrow.—Sons, kinsmen, thanes, +And you whose places are the nearest, know, +We will establish our estate upon +Our eldest, Malcolm; whom we name hereafter +The Prince of Cumberland: which honour must +Not unaccompanied invest him only, +But signs of nobleness, like stars, shall shine +On all deservers.—From hence to Inverness, +And bind us further to you. + +MACBETH. +The rest is labour, which is not us’d for you: +I’ll be myself the harbinger, and make joyful +The hearing of my wife with your approach; +So, humbly take my leave. + +DUNCAN. +My worthy Cawdor! + +MACBETH. +[_Aside._] The Prince of Cumberland!—That is a step +On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap, +For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires! +Let not light see my black and deep desires. +The eye wink at the hand, yet let that be, +Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see. + + [_Exit._] + +DUNCAN. +True, worthy Banquo! He is full so valiant; +And in his commendations I am fed. +It is a banquet to me. Let’s after him, +Whose care is gone before to bid us welcome: +It is a peerless kinsman. + + [_Flourish. Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Inverness. A Room in Macbeth’s Castle. + + Enter Lady Macbeth, reading a letter. + +LADY MACBETH. +“They met me in the day of success; and I have learned by the +perfect’st report they have more in them than mortal knowledge. When I +burned in desire to question them further, they made themselves air, +into which they vanished. Whiles I stood rapt in the wonder of it, came +missives from the King, who all-hailed me, ‘Thane of Cawdor’; by which +title, before, these Weird Sisters saluted me, and referred me to the +coming on of time, with ‘Hail, king that shalt be!’ This have I thought +good to deliver thee (my dearest partner of greatness) that thou +might’st not lose the dues of rejoicing, by being ignorant of what +greatness is promis’d thee. Lay it to thy heart, and farewell.” + +Glamis thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be +What thou art promis’d. Yet do I fear thy nature; +It is too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness +To catch the nearest way. Thou wouldst be great; +Art not without ambition, but without +The illness should attend it. What thou wouldst highly, +That wouldst thou holily; wouldst not play false, +And yet wouldst wrongly win. Thou’dst have, great Glamis, +That which cries, “Thus thou must do,” if thou have it; +And that which rather thou dost fear to do, +Than wishest should be undone. Hie thee hither, +That I may pour my spirits in thine ear, +And chastise with the valour of my tongue +All that impedes thee from the golden round, +Which fate and metaphysical aid doth seem +To have thee crown’d withal. + + Enter a Messenger. + +What is your tidings? + +MESSENGER. +The King comes here tonight. + +LADY MACBETH. +Thou’rt mad to say it. +Is not thy master with him? who, were’t so, +Would have inform’d for preparation. + +MESSENGER. +So please you, it is true. Our thane is coming. +One of my fellows had the speed of him, +Who, almost dead for breath, had scarcely more +Than would make up his message. + +LADY MACBETH. +Give him tending. +He brings great news. + + [_Exit Messenger._] + +The raven himself is hoarse +That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan +Under my battlements. Come, you spirits +That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, +And fill me, from the crown to the toe, top-full +Of direst cruelty! make thick my blood, +Stop up th’ access and passage to remorse, +That no compunctious visitings of nature +Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between +Th’ effect and it! Come to my woman’s breasts, +And take my milk for gall, your murd’ring ministers, +Wherever in your sightless substances +You wait on nature’s mischief! Come, thick night, +And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell +That my keen knife see not the wound it makes, +Nor heaven peep through the blanket of the dark +To cry, “Hold, hold!” + + Enter Macbeth. + +Great Glamis, worthy Cawdor! +Greater than both, by the all-hail hereafter! +Thy letters have transported me beyond +This ignorant present, and I feel now +The future in the instant. + +MACBETH. +My dearest love, +Duncan comes here tonight. + +LADY MACBETH. +And when goes hence? + +MACBETH. +Tomorrow, as he purposes. + +LADY MACBETH. +O, never +Shall sun that morrow see! +Your face, my thane, is as a book where men +May read strange matters. To beguile the time, +Look like the time; bear welcome in your eye, +Your hand, your tongue: look like the innocent flower, +But be the serpent under’t. He that’s coming +Must be provided for; and you shall put +This night’s great business into my dispatch; +Which shall to all our nights and days to come +Give solely sovereign sway and masterdom. + +MACBETH. +We will speak further. + +LADY MACBETH. +Only look up clear; +To alter favour ever is to fear. +Leave all the rest to me. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. The same. Before the Castle. + + Hautboys. Servants of Macbeth attending. + + Enter Duncan, Malcolm, Donalbain, Banquo, Lennox, Macduff, Ross, Angus + and Attendants. + +DUNCAN. +This castle hath a pleasant seat. The air +Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself +Unto our gentle senses. + +BANQUO. +This guest of summer, +The temple-haunting martlet, does approve, +By his loved mansionry, that the heaven’s breath +Smells wooingly here: no jutty, frieze, +Buttress, nor coign of vantage, but this bird +hath made his pendant bed and procreant cradle. +Where they most breed and haunt, I have observ’d +The air is delicate. + + Enter Lady Macbeth. + +DUNCAN. +See, see, our honour’d hostess!— +The love that follows us sometime is our trouble, +Which still we thank as love. Herein I teach you +How you shall bid God ’ild us for your pains, +And thank us for your trouble. + +LADY MACBETH. +All our service, +In every point twice done, and then done double, +Were poor and single business to contend +Against those honours deep and broad wherewith +Your Majesty loads our house: for those of old, +And the late dignities heap’d up to them, +We rest your hermits. + +DUNCAN. +Where’s the Thane of Cawdor? +We cours’d him at the heels, and had a purpose +To be his purveyor: but he rides well; +And his great love, sharp as his spur, hath holp him +To his home before us. Fair and noble hostess, +We are your guest tonight. + +LADY MACBETH. +Your servants ever +Have theirs, themselves, and what is theirs, in compt, +To make their audit at your Highness’ pleasure, +Still to return your own. + +DUNCAN. +Give me your hand; +Conduct me to mine host: we love him highly, +And shall continue our graces towards him. +By your leave, hostess. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. The same. A Lobby in the Castle. + + Hautboys and torches. Enter, and pass over, a Sewer and divers + Servants with dishes and service. Then enter Macbeth. + +MACBETH. +If it were done when ’tis done, then ’twere well +It were done quickly. If th’ assassination +Could trammel up the consequence, and catch +With his surcease success; that but this blow +Might be the be-all and the end-all—here, +But here, upon this bank and shoal of time, +We’d jump the life to come. But in these cases +We still have judgement here; that we but teach +Bloody instructions, which being taught, return +To plague th’ inventor. This even-handed justice +Commends th’ ingredience of our poison’d chalice +To our own lips. He’s here in double trust: +First, as I am his kinsman and his subject, +Strong both against the deed; then, as his host, +Who should against his murderer shut the door, +Not bear the knife myself. Besides, this Duncan +Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been +So clear in his great office, that his virtues +Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against +The deep damnation of his taking-off; +And pity, like a naked new-born babe, +Striding the blast, or heaven’s cherubin, hors’d +Upon the sightless couriers of the air, +Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye, +That tears shall drown the wind.—I have no spur +To prick the sides of my intent, but only +Vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself +And falls on th’ other— + + Enter Lady Macbeth. + +How now! what news? + +LADY MACBETH. +He has almost supp’d. Why have you left the chamber? + +MACBETH. +Hath he ask’d for me? + +LADY MACBETH. +Know you not he has? + +MACBETH. +We will proceed no further in this business: +He hath honour’d me of late; and I have bought +Golden opinions from all sorts of people, +Which would be worn now in their newest gloss, +Not cast aside so soon. + +LADY MACBETH. +Was the hope drunk +Wherein you dress’d yourself? Hath it slept since? +And wakes it now, to look so green and pale +At what it did so freely? From this time +Such I account thy love. Art thou afeard +To be the same in thine own act and valour +As thou art in desire? Wouldst thou have that +Which thou esteem’st the ornament of life, +And live a coward in thine own esteem, +Letting “I dare not” wait upon “I would,” +Like the poor cat i’ th’ adage? + +MACBETH. +Pr’ythee, peace! +I dare do all that may become a man; +Who dares do more is none. + +LADY MACBETH. +What beast was’t, then, +That made you break this enterprise to me? +When you durst do it, then you were a man; +And, to be more than what you were, you would +Be so much more the man. Nor time nor place +Did then adhere, and yet you would make both: +They have made themselves, and that their fitness now +Does unmake you. I have given suck, and know +How tender ’tis to love the babe that milks me: +I would, while it was smiling in my face, +Have pluck’d my nipple from his boneless gums +And dash’d the brains out, had I so sworn as you +Have done to this. + +MACBETH. +If we should fail? + +LADY MACBETH. +We fail? +But screw your courage to the sticking-place, +And we’ll not fail. When Duncan is asleep +(Whereto the rather shall his day’s hard journey +Soundly invite him), his two chamberlains +Will I with wine and wassail so convince +That memory, the warder of the brain, +Shall be a fume, and the receipt of reason +A limbeck only: when in swinish sleep +Their drenched natures lie as in a death, +What cannot you and I perform upon +Th’ unguarded Duncan? what not put upon +His spongy officers; who shall bear the guilt +Of our great quell? + +MACBETH. +Bring forth men-children only; +For thy undaunted mettle should compose +Nothing but males. Will it not be receiv’d, +When we have mark’d with blood those sleepy two +Of his own chamber, and us’d their very daggers, +That they have done’t? + +LADY MACBETH. +Who dares receive it other, +As we shall make our griefs and clamour roar +Upon his death? + +MACBETH. +I am settled, and bend up +Each corporal agent to this terrible feat. +Away, and mock the time with fairest show: +False face must hide what the false heart doth know. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Inverness. Court within the Castle. + + Enter Banquo and Fleance with a torch before him. + +BANQUO. +How goes the night, boy? + +FLEANCE. +The moon is down; I have not heard the clock. + +BANQUO. +And she goes down at twelve. + +FLEANCE. +I take’t, ’tis later, sir. + +BANQUO. +Hold, take my sword.—There’s husbandry in heaven; +Their candles are all out. Take thee that too. +A heavy summons lies like lead upon me, +And yet I would not sleep. Merciful powers, +Restrain in me the cursed thoughts that nature +Gives way to in repose! + + Enter Macbeth and a Servant with a torch. + +Give me my sword.—Who’s there? + +MACBETH. +A friend. + +BANQUO. +What, sir, not yet at rest? The King’s abed: +He hath been in unusual pleasure and +Sent forth great largess to your offices. +This diamond he greets your wife withal, +By the name of most kind hostess, and shut up +In measureless content. + +MACBETH. +Being unprepar’d, +Our will became the servant to defect, +Which else should free have wrought. + +BANQUO. +All’s well. +I dreamt last night of the three Weird Sisters: +To you they have show’d some truth. + +MACBETH. +I think not of them: +Yet, when we can entreat an hour to serve, +We would spend it in some words upon that business, +If you would grant the time. + +BANQUO. +At your kind’st leisure. + +MACBETH. +If you shall cleave to my consent, when ’tis, +It shall make honour for you. + +BANQUO. +So I lose none +In seeking to augment it, but still keep +My bosom franchis’d, and allegiance clear, +I shall be counsell’d. + +MACBETH. +Good repose the while! + +BANQUO. +Thanks, sir: the like to you. + + [_Exeunt Banquo and Fleance._] + +MACBETH. +Go bid thy mistress, when my drink is ready, +She strike upon the bell. Get thee to bed. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +Is this a dagger which I see before me, +The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee:— +I have thee not, and yet I see thee still. +Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible +To feeling as to sight? or art thou but +A dagger of the mind, a false creation, +Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain? +I see thee yet, in form as palpable +As this which now I draw. +Thou marshall’st me the way that I was going; +And such an instrument I was to use. +Mine eyes are made the fools o’ the other senses, +Or else worth all the rest: I see thee still; +And on thy blade and dudgeon, gouts of blood, +Which was not so before.—There’s no such thing. +It is the bloody business which informs +Thus to mine eyes.—Now o’er the one half-world +Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse +The curtain’d sleep. Witchcraft celebrates +Pale Hecate’s off’rings; and wither’d murder, +Alarum’d by his sentinel, the wolf, +Whose howl’s his watch, thus with his stealthy pace, +With Tarquin’s ravishing strides, towards his design +Moves like a ghost.—Thou sure and firm-set earth, +Hear not my steps, which way they walk, for fear +Thy very stones prate of my whereabout, +And take the present horror from the time, +Which now suits with it.—Whiles I threat, he lives. +Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives. + + [_A bell rings._] + +I go, and it is done. The bell invites me. +Hear it not, Duncan, for it is a knell +That summons thee to heaven or to hell. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. The same. + + Enter Lady Macbeth. + +LADY MACBETH. +That which hath made them drunk hath made me bold: +What hath quench’d them hath given me fire.—Hark!—Peace! +It was the owl that shriek’d, the fatal bellman, +Which gives the stern’st good night. He is about it. +The doors are open; and the surfeited grooms +Do mock their charge with snores: I have drugg’d their possets, +That death and nature do contend about them, +Whether they live or die. + +MACBETH. +[_Within._] Who’s there?—what, ho! + +LADY MACBETH. +Alack! I am afraid they have awak’d, +And ’tis not done. Th’ attempt and not the deed +Confounds us.—Hark!—I laid their daggers ready; +He could not miss ’em.—Had he not resembled +My father as he slept, I had done’t.—My husband! + + Enter Macbeth. + +MACBETH. +I have done the deed.—Didst thou not hear a noise? + +LADY MACBETH. +I heard the owl scream and the crickets cry. +Did not you speak? + +MACBETH. +When? + +LADY MACBETH. +Now. + +MACBETH. +As I descended? + +LADY MACBETH. +Ay. + +MACBETH. +Hark!—Who lies i’ th’ second chamber? + +LADY MACBETH. +Donalbain. + +MACBETH. +This is a sorry sight. + + [_Looking on his hands._] + +LADY MACBETH. +A foolish thought, to say a sorry sight. + +MACBETH. +There’s one did laugh in’s sleep, and one cried, “Murder!” +That they did wake each other: I stood and heard them. +But they did say their prayers, and address’d them +Again to sleep. + +LADY MACBETH. +There are two lodg’d together. + +MACBETH. +One cried, “God bless us!” and, “Amen,” the other, +As they had seen me with these hangman’s hands. +List’ning their fear, I could not say “Amen,” +When they did say, “God bless us.” + +LADY MACBETH. +Consider it not so deeply. + +MACBETH. +But wherefore could not I pronounce “Amen”? +I had most need of blessing, and “Amen” +Stuck in my throat. + +LADY MACBETH. +These deeds must not be thought +After these ways; so, it will make us mad. + +MACBETH. +Methought I heard a voice cry, “Sleep no more! +Macbeth does murder sleep,”—the innocent sleep; +Sleep that knits up the ravell’d sleave of care, +The death of each day’s life, sore labour’s bath, +Balm of hurt minds, great nature’s second course, +Chief nourisher in life’s feast. + +LADY MACBETH. +What do you mean? + +MACBETH. +Still it cried, “Sleep no more!” to all the house: +“Glamis hath murder’d sleep, and therefore Cawdor +Shall sleep no more. Macbeth shall sleep no more!” + +LADY MACBETH. +Who was it that thus cried? Why, worthy thane, +You do unbend your noble strength to think +So brainsickly of things. Go get some water, +And wash this filthy witness from your hand.— +Why did you bring these daggers from the place? +They must lie there: go carry them, and smear +The sleepy grooms with blood. + +MACBETH. +I’ll go no more: +I am afraid to think what I have done; +Look on’t again I dare not. + +LADY MACBETH. +Infirm of purpose! +Give me the daggers. The sleeping and the dead +Are but as pictures. ’Tis the eye of childhood +That fears a painted devil. If he do bleed, +I’ll gild the faces of the grooms withal, +For it must seem their guilt. + + [_Exit. Knocking within._] + +MACBETH. +Whence is that knocking? +How is’t with me, when every noise appals me? +What hands are here? Ha, they pluck out mine eyes! +Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood +Clean from my hand? No, this my hand will rather +The multitudinous seas incarnadine, +Making the green one red. + + Enter Lady Macbeth. + +LADY MACBETH. +My hands are of your color, but I shame +To wear a heart so white. [_Knocking within._] I hear knocking +At the south entry:—retire we to our chamber. +A little water clears us of this deed: +How easy is it then! Your constancy +Hath left you unattended.—[_Knocking within._] Hark, more knocking. +Get on your nightgown, lest occasion call us +And show us to be watchers. Be not lost +So poorly in your thoughts. + +MACBETH. +To know my deed, ’twere best not know myself. [_Knocking within._] +Wake Duncan with thy knocking! I would thou couldst! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. + + Enter a Porter. Knocking within. + +PORTER. +Here’s a knocking indeed! If a man were porter of hell gate, he should +have old turning the key. [_Knocking._] Knock, knock, knock. Who’s +there, i’ th’ name of Belzebub? Here’s a farmer that hanged himself on +the expectation of plenty: come in time; have napkins enow about you; +here you’ll sweat for’t. [_Knocking._] Knock, knock! Who’s there, i’ +th’ other devil’s name? Faith, here’s an equivocator, that could swear +in both the scales against either scale, who committed treason enough +for God’s sake, yet could not equivocate to heaven: O, come in, +equivocator. [_Knocking._] Knock, knock, knock! Who’s there? Faith, +here’s an English tailor come hither, for stealing out of a French +hose: come in, tailor; here you may roast your goose. [_Knocking._] +Knock, knock. Never at quiet! What are you?—But this place is too cold +for hell. I’ll devil-porter it no further: I had thought to have let in +some of all professions, that go the primrose way to th’ everlasting +bonfire. [_Knocking._] Anon, anon! I pray you, remember the porter. + + [_Opens the gate._] + + Enter Macduff and Lennox. + +MACDUFF. +Was it so late, friend, ere you went to bed, +That you do lie so late? + +PORTER. +Faith, sir, we were carousing till the second cock; and drink, sir, is +a great provoker of three things. + +MACDUFF. +What three things does drink especially provoke? + +PORTER. +Marry, sir, nose-painting, sleep, and urine. Lechery, sir, it provokes +and unprovokes; it provokes the desire, but it takes away the +performance. Therefore much drink may be said to be an equivocator with +lechery: it makes him, and it mars him; it sets him on, and it takes +him off; it persuades him, and disheartens him; makes him stand to, and +not stand to; in conclusion, equivocates him in a sleep, and giving him +the lie, leaves him. + +MACDUFF. +I believe drink gave thee the lie last night. + +PORTER. +That it did, sir, i’ the very throat on me; but I requited him for his +lie; and (I think) being too strong for him, though he took up my legs +sometime, yet I made a shift to cast him. + +MACDUFF. +Is thy master stirring? + + Enter Macbeth. + +Our knocking has awak’d him; here he comes. + +LENNOX. +Good morrow, noble sir! + +MACBETH. +Good morrow, both! + +MACDUFF. +Is the King stirring, worthy thane? + +MACBETH. +Not yet. + +MACDUFF. +He did command me to call timely on him. +I have almost slipp’d the hour. + +MACBETH. +I’ll bring you to him. + +MACDUFF. +I know this is a joyful trouble to you; +But yet ’tis one. + +MACBETH. +The labour we delight in physics pain. +This is the door. + +MACDUFF. +I’ll make so bold to call. +For ’tis my limited service. + + [_Exit Macduff._] + +LENNOX. +Goes the King hence today? + +MACBETH. +He does. He did appoint so. + +LENNOX. +The night has been unruly: where we lay, +Our chimneys were blown down and, as they say, +Lamentings heard i’ th’ air, strange screams of death, +And prophesying, with accents terrible, +Of dire combustion and confus’d events, +New hatch’d to the woeful time. The obscure bird +Clamour’d the live-long night. Some say the earth +Was feverous, and did shake. + +MACBETH. +’Twas a rough night. + +LENNOX. +My young remembrance cannot parallel +A fellow to it. + + Enter Macduff. + +MACDUFF. +O horror, horror, horror! +Tongue nor heart cannot conceive nor name thee! + +MACBETH, LENNOX. +What’s the matter? + +MACDUFF. +Confusion now hath made his masterpiece! +Most sacrilegious murder hath broke ope +The Lord’s anointed temple, and stole thence +The life o’ th’ building. + +MACBETH. +What is’t you say? the life? + +LENNOX. +Mean you his majesty? + +MACDUFF. +Approach the chamber, and destroy your sight +With a new Gorgon. Do not bid me speak. +See, and then speak yourselves. + + [_Exeunt Macbeth and Lennox._] + +Awake, awake!— +Ring the alarum bell.—Murder and treason! +Banquo and Donalbain! Malcolm! awake! +Shake off this downy sleep, death’s counterfeit, +And look on death itself! Up, up, and see +The great doom’s image. Malcolm! Banquo! +As from your graves rise up, and walk like sprites +To countenance this horror! + + [_Alarum-bell rings._] + + Enter Lady Macbeth. + +LADY MACBETH. +What’s the business, +That such a hideous trumpet calls to parley +The sleepers of the house? Speak, speak! + +MACDUFF. +O gentle lady, +’Tis not for you to hear what I can speak: +The repetition, in a woman’s ear, +Would murder as it fell. + + Enter Banquo. + +O Banquo, Banquo! +Our royal master’s murder’d! + +LADY MACBETH. +Woe, alas! +What, in our house? + +BANQUO. +Too cruel anywhere.— +Dear Duff, I pr’ythee, contradict thyself, +And say it is not so. + + Enter Macbeth and Lennox with Ross. + +MACBETH. +Had I but died an hour before this chance, +I had liv’d a blessed time; for, from this instant +There’s nothing serious in mortality. +All is but toys: renown and grace is dead; +The wine of life is drawn, and the mere lees +Is left this vault to brag of. + + Enter Malcolm and Donalbain. + +DONALBAIN. +What is amiss? + +MACBETH. +You are, and do not know’t: +The spring, the head, the fountain of your blood +Is stopp’d; the very source of it is stopp’d. + +MACDUFF. +Your royal father’s murder’d. + +MALCOLM. +O, by whom? + +LENNOX. +Those of his chamber, as it seem’d, had done’t: +Their hands and faces were all badg’d with blood; +So were their daggers, which, unwip’d, we found +Upon their pillows. They star’d, and were distracted; +No man’s life was to be trusted with them. + +MACBETH. +O, yet I do repent me of my fury, +That I did kill them. + +MACDUFF. +Wherefore did you so? + +MACBETH. +Who can be wise, amaz’d, temperate, and furious, +Loyal and neutral, in a moment? No man: +Th’ expedition of my violent love +Outrun the pauser, reason. Here lay Duncan, +His silver skin lac’d with his golden blood; +And his gash’d stabs look’d like a breach in nature +For ruin’s wasteful entrance: there, the murderers, +Steep’d in the colours of their trade, their daggers +Unmannerly breech’d with gore. Who could refrain, +That had a heart to love, and in that heart +Courage to make’s love known? + +LADY MACBETH. +Help me hence, ho! + +MACDUFF. +Look to the lady. + +MALCOLM. +Why do we hold our tongues, +That most may claim this argument for ours? + +DONALBAIN. +What should be spoken here, where our fate, +Hid in an auger hole, may rush, and seize us? +Let’s away. Our tears are not yet brew’d. + +MALCOLM. +Nor our strong sorrow +Upon the foot of motion. + +BANQUO. +Look to the lady:— + + [_Lady Macbeth is carried out._] + +And when we have our naked frailties hid, +That suffer in exposure, let us meet, +And question this most bloody piece of work +To know it further. Fears and scruples shake us: +In the great hand of God I stand; and thence +Against the undivulg’d pretence I fight +Of treasonous malice. + +MACDUFF. +And so do I. + +ALL. +So all. + +MACBETH. +Let’s briefly put on manly readiness, +And meet i’ th’ hall together. + +ALL. +Well contented. + + [_Exeunt all but Malcolm and Donalbain._] + +MALCOLM. +What will you do? Let’s not consort with them: +To show an unfelt sorrow is an office +Which the false man does easy. I’ll to England. + +DONALBAIN. +To Ireland, I. Our separated fortune +Shall keep us both the safer. Where we are, +There’s daggers in men’s smiles: the near in blood, +The nearer bloody. + +MALCOLM. +This murderous shaft that’s shot +Hath not yet lighted; and our safest way +Is to avoid the aim. Therefore to horse; +And let us not be dainty of leave-taking, +But shift away. There’s warrant in that theft +Which steals itself, when there’s no mercy left. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. The same. Without the Castle. + + Enter Ross and an Old Man. + +OLD MAN. +Threescore and ten I can remember well, +Within the volume of which time I have seen +Hours dreadful and things strange, but this sore night +Hath trifled former knowings. + +ROSS. +Ha, good father, +Thou seest the heavens, as troubled with man’s act, +Threatens his bloody stage: by the clock ’tis day, +And yet dark night strangles the travelling lamp. +Is’t night’s predominance, or the day’s shame, +That darkness does the face of earth entomb, +When living light should kiss it? + +OLD MAN. +’Tis unnatural, +Even like the deed that’s done. On Tuesday last, +A falcon, towering in her pride of place, +Was by a mousing owl hawk’d at and kill’d. + +ROSS. +And Duncan’s horses (a thing most strange and certain) +Beauteous and swift, the minions of their race, +Turn’d wild in nature, broke their stalls, flung out, +Contending ’gainst obedience, as they would make +War with mankind. + +OLD MAN. +’Tis said they eat each other. + +ROSS. +They did so; to the amazement of mine eyes, +That look’d upon’t. +Here comes the good Macduff. + + Enter Macduff. + +How goes the world, sir, now? + +MACDUFF. +Why, see you not? + +ROSS. +Is’t known who did this more than bloody deed? + +MACDUFF. +Those that Macbeth hath slain. + +ROSS. +Alas, the day! +What good could they pretend? + +MACDUFF. +They were suborn’d. +Malcolm and Donalbain, the King’s two sons, +Are stol’n away and fled; which puts upon them +Suspicion of the deed. + +ROSS. +’Gainst nature still: +Thriftless ambition, that will ravin up +Thine own life’s means!—Then ’tis most like +The sovereignty will fall upon Macbeth. + +MACDUFF. +He is already nam’d; and gone to Scone +To be invested. + +ROSS. +Where is Duncan’s body? + +MACDUFF. +Carried to Colmekill, +The sacred storehouse of his predecessors, +And guardian of their bones. + +ROSS. +Will you to Scone? + +MACDUFF. +No, cousin, I’ll to Fife. + +ROSS. +Well, I will thither. + +MACDUFF. +Well, may you see things well done there. Adieu! +Lest our old robes sit easier than our new! + +ROSS. +Farewell, father. + +OLD MAN. +God’s benison go with you; and with those +That would make good of bad, and friends of foes! + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Forres. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Banquo. + +BANQUO. +Thou hast it now, King, Cawdor, Glamis, all, +As the Weird Women promis’d; and, I fear, +Thou play’dst most foully for’t; yet it was said +It should not stand in thy posterity; +But that myself should be the root and father +Of many kings. If there come truth from them +(As upon thee, Macbeth, their speeches shine) +Why, by the verities on thee made good, +May they not be my oracles as well, +And set me up in hope? But hush; no more. + + Sennet sounded. Enter Macbeth as King, Lady Macbeth as Queen; Lennox, + Ross, Lords, and Attendants. + +MACBETH. +Here’s our chief guest. + +LADY MACBETH. +If he had been forgotten, +It had been as a gap in our great feast, +And all-thing unbecoming. + +MACBETH. +Tonight we hold a solemn supper, sir, +And I’ll request your presence. + +BANQUO. +Let your Highness +Command upon me, to the which my duties +Are with a most indissoluble tie +For ever knit. + +MACBETH. +Ride you this afternoon? + +BANQUO. +Ay, my good lord. + +MACBETH. +We should have else desir’d your good advice +(Which still hath been both grave and prosperous) +In this day’s council; but we’ll take tomorrow. +Is’t far you ride? + +BANQUO. +As far, my lord, as will fill up the time +’Twixt this and supper: go not my horse the better, +I must become a borrower of the night, +For a dark hour or twain. + +MACBETH. +Fail not our feast. + +BANQUO. +My lord, I will not. + +MACBETH. +We hear our bloody cousins are bestow’d +In England and in Ireland; not confessing +Their cruel parricide, filling their hearers +With strange invention. But of that tomorrow, +When therewithal we shall have cause of state +Craving us jointly. Hie you to horse: adieu, +Till you return at night. Goes Fleance with you? + +BANQUO. +Ay, my good lord: our time does call upon’s. + +MACBETH. +I wish your horses swift and sure of foot; +And so I do commend you to their backs. +Farewell.— + + [_Exit Banquo._] + +Let every man be master of his time +Till seven at night; to make society +The sweeter welcome, we will keep ourself +Till supper time alone: while then, God be with you. + + [_Exeunt Lady Macbeth, Lords, &c._] + +Sirrah, a word with you. Attend those men +Our pleasure? + +SERVANT. +They are, my lord, without the palace gate. + +MACBETH. +Bring them before us. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +To be thus is nothing, +But to be safely thus. Our fears in Banquo +Stick deep, and in his royalty of nature +Reigns that which would be fear’d: ’tis much he dares; +And, to that dauntless temper of his mind, +He hath a wisdom that doth guide his valour +To act in safety. There is none but he +Whose being I do fear: and under him +My genius is rebuk’d; as, it is said, +Mark Antony’s was by Caesar. He chid the sisters +When first they put the name of king upon me, +And bade them speak to him; then, prophet-like, +They hail’d him father to a line of kings: +Upon my head they plac’d a fruitless crown, +And put a barren sceptre in my gripe, +Thence to be wrench’d with an unlineal hand, +No son of mine succeeding. If’t be so, +For Banquo’s issue have I fil’d my mind; +For them the gracious Duncan have I murder’d; +Put rancours in the vessel of my peace +Only for them; and mine eternal jewel +Given to the common enemy of man, +To make them kings, the seed of Banquo kings! +Rather than so, come, fate, into the list, +And champion me to th’ utterance!—Who’s there?— + + Enter Servant with two Murderers. + +Now go to the door, and stay there till we call. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +Was it not yesterday we spoke together? + +FIRST MURDERER. +It was, so please your Highness. + +MACBETH. +Well then, now +Have you consider’d of my speeches? Know +That it was he, in the times past, which held you +So under fortune, which you thought had been +Our innocent self? This I made good to you +In our last conference, pass’d in probation with you +How you were borne in hand, how cross’d, the instruments, +Who wrought with them, and all things else that might +To half a soul and to a notion craz’d +Say, “Thus did Banquo.” + +FIRST MURDERER. +You made it known to us. + +MACBETH. +I did so; and went further, which is now +Our point of second meeting. Do you find +Your patience so predominant in your nature, +That you can let this go? Are you so gospell’d, +To pray for this good man and for his issue, +Whose heavy hand hath bow’d you to the grave, +And beggar’d yours forever? + +FIRST MURDERER. +We are men, my liege. + +MACBETH. +Ay, in the catalogue ye go for men; +As hounds, and greyhounds, mongrels, spaniels, curs, +Shoughs, water-rugs, and demi-wolves are clept +All by the name of dogs: the valu’d file +Distinguishes the swift, the slow, the subtle, +The housekeeper, the hunter, every one +According to the gift which bounteous nature +Hath in him clos’d; whereby he does receive +Particular addition, from the bill +That writes them all alike: and so of men. +Now, if you have a station in the file, +Not i’ th’ worst rank of manhood, say’t; +And I will put that business in your bosoms, +Whose execution takes your enemy off, +Grapples you to the heart and love of us, +Who wear our health but sickly in his life, +Which in his death were perfect. + +SECOND MURDERER. +I am one, my liege, +Whom the vile blows and buffets of the world +Hath so incens’d that I am reckless what +I do to spite the world. + +FIRST MURDERER. +And I another, +So weary with disasters, tugg’d with fortune, +That I would set my life on any chance, +To mend it or be rid on’t. + +MACBETH. +Both of you +Know Banquo was your enemy. + +BOTH MURDERERS. +True, my lord. + +MACBETH. +So is he mine; and in such bloody distance, +That every minute of his being thrusts +Against my near’st of life; and though I could +With barefac’d power sweep him from my sight, +And bid my will avouch it, yet I must not, +For certain friends that are both his and mine, +Whose loves I may not drop, but wail his fall +Who I myself struck down: and thence it is +That I to your assistance do make love, +Masking the business from the common eye +For sundry weighty reasons. + +SECOND MURDERER. +We shall, my lord, +Perform what you command us. + +FIRST MURDERER. +Though our lives— + +MACBETH. +Your spirits shine through you. Within this hour at most, +I will advise you where to plant yourselves, +Acquaint you with the perfect spy o’ th’ time, +The moment on’t; for’t must be done tonight +And something from the palace; always thought +That I require a clearness. And with him +(To leave no rubs nor botches in the work) +Fleance his son, that keeps him company, +Whose absence is no less material to me +Than is his father’s, must embrace the fate +Of that dark hour. Resolve yourselves apart. +I’ll come to you anon. + +BOTH MURDERERS. +We are resolv’d, my lord. + +MACBETH. +I’ll call upon you straight: abide within. + + [_Exeunt Murderers._] + +It is concluded. Banquo, thy soul’s flight, +If it find heaven, must find it out tonight. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. The same. Another Room in the Palace. + + Enter Lady Macbeth and a Servant. + +LADY MACBETH. +Is Banquo gone from court? + +SERVANT. +Ay, madam, but returns again tonight. + +LADY MACBETH. +Say to the King, I would attend his leisure +For a few words. + +SERVANT. +Madam, I will. + + [_Exit._] + +LADY MACBETH. +Naught’s had, all’s spent, +Where our desire is got without content: +’Tis safer to be that which we destroy, +Than by destruction dwell in doubtful joy. + + Enter Macbeth. + +How now, my lord, why do you keep alone, +Of sorriest fancies your companions making, +Using those thoughts which should indeed have died +With them they think on? Things without all remedy +Should be without regard: what’s done is done. + +MACBETH. +We have scorch’d the snake, not kill’d it. +She’ll close, and be herself; whilst our poor malice +Remains in danger of her former tooth. +But let the frame of things disjoint, +Both the worlds suffer, +Ere we will eat our meal in fear, and sleep +In the affliction of these terrible dreams +That shake us nightly. Better be with the dead, +Whom we, to gain our peace, have sent to peace, +Than on the torture of the mind to lie +In restless ecstasy. Duncan is in his grave; +After life’s fitful fever he sleeps well; +Treason has done his worst: nor steel, nor poison, +Malice domestic, foreign levy, nothing +Can touch him further. + +LADY MACBETH. +Come on, +Gently my lord, sleek o’er your rugged looks; +Be bright and jovial among your guests tonight. + +MACBETH. +So shall I, love; and so, I pray, be you. +Let your remembrance apply to Banquo; +Present him eminence, both with eye and tongue: +Unsafe the while, that we +Must lave our honours in these flattering streams, +And make our faces vizards to our hearts, +Disguising what they are. + +LADY MACBETH. +You must leave this. + +MACBETH. +O, full of scorpions is my mind, dear wife! +Thou know’st that Banquo, and his Fleance, lives. + +LADY MACBETH. +But in them nature’s copy’s not eterne. + +MACBETH. +There’s comfort yet; they are assailable. +Then be thou jocund. Ere the bat hath flown +His cloister’d flight, ere to black Hecate’s summons +The shard-born beetle, with his drowsy hums, +Hath rung night’s yawning peal, there shall be done +A deed of dreadful note. + +LADY MACBETH. +What’s to be done? + +MACBETH. +Be innocent of the knowledge, dearest chuck, +Till thou applaud the deed. Come, seeling night, +Scarf up the tender eye of pitiful day, +And with thy bloody and invisible hand +Cancel and tear to pieces that great bond +Which keeps me pale!—Light thickens; and the crow +Makes wing to th’ rooky wood. +Good things of day begin to droop and drowse, +Whiles night’s black agents to their preys do rouse. +Thou marvell’st at my words: but hold thee still; +Things bad begun make strong themselves by ill. +So, pr’ythee, go with me. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. A Park or Lawn, with a gate leading to the Palace. + + Enter three Murderers. + +FIRST MURDERER. +But who did bid thee join with us? + +THIRD MURDERER. +Macbeth. + +SECOND MURDERER. +He needs not our mistrust; since he delivers +Our offices and what we have to do +To the direction just. + +FIRST MURDERER. +Then stand with us. +The west yet glimmers with some streaks of day. +Now spurs the lated traveller apace, +To gain the timely inn; and near approaches +The subject of our watch. + +THIRD MURDERER. +Hark! I hear horses. + +BANQUO. +[_Within._] Give us a light there, ho! + +SECOND MURDERER. +Then ’tis he; the rest +That are within the note of expectation +Already are i’ th’ court. + +FIRST MURDERER. +His horses go about. + +THIRD MURDERER. +Almost a mile; but he does usually, +So all men do, from hence to the palace gate +Make it their walk. + + Enter Banquo and Fleance with a torch. + +SECOND MURDERER. +A light, a light! + +THIRD MURDERER. +’Tis he. + +FIRST MURDERER. +Stand to’t. + +BANQUO. +It will be rain tonight. + +FIRST MURDERER. +Let it come down. + + [_Assaults Banquo._] + +BANQUO. +O, treachery! Fly, good Fleance, fly, fly, fly! +Thou mayst revenge—O slave! + + [_Dies. Fleance escapes._] + +THIRD MURDERER. +Who did strike out the light? + +FIRST MURDERER. +Was’t not the way? + +THIRD MURDERER. +There’s but one down: the son is fled. + +SECOND MURDERER. +We have lost best half of our affair. + +FIRST MURDERER. +Well, let’s away, and say how much is done. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. The same. A Room of state in the Palace. + + A banquet prepared. Enter Macbeth, Lady Macbeth, Ross, Lennox, Lords + and Attendants. + +MACBETH. +You know your own degrees, sit down. At first +And last the hearty welcome. + +LORDS. +Thanks to your Majesty. + +MACBETH. +Ourself will mingle with society, +And play the humble host. +Our hostess keeps her state; but, in best time, +We will require her welcome. + +LADY MACBETH. +Pronounce it for me, sir, to all our friends; +For my heart speaks they are welcome. + + Enter first Murderer to the door. + +MACBETH. +See, they encounter thee with their hearts’ thanks. +Both sides are even: here I’ll sit i’ th’ midst. + +Be large in mirth; anon we’ll drink a measure +The table round. There’s blood upon thy face. + +MURDERER. +’Tis Banquo’s then. + +MACBETH. +’Tis better thee without than he within. +Is he dispatch’d? + +MURDERER. +My lord, his throat is cut. That I did for him. + +MACBETH. +Thou art the best o’ th’ cut-throats; +Yet he’s good that did the like for Fleance: +If thou didst it, thou art the nonpareil. + +MURDERER. +Most royal sir, +Fleance is ’scap’d. + +MACBETH. +Then comes my fit again: I had else been perfect; +Whole as the marble, founded as the rock, +As broad and general as the casing air: +But now I am cabin’d, cribb’d, confin’d, bound in +To saucy doubts and fears. But Banquo’s safe? + +MURDERER. +Ay, my good lord. Safe in a ditch he bides, +With twenty trenched gashes on his head; +The least a death to nature. + +MACBETH. +Thanks for that. +There the grown serpent lies; the worm that’s fled +Hath nature that in time will venom breed, +No teeth for th’ present.—Get thee gone; tomorrow +We’ll hear, ourselves, again. + + [_Exit Murderer._] + +LADY MACBETH. +My royal lord, +You do not give the cheer: the feast is sold +That is not often vouch’d, while ’tis a-making, +’Tis given with welcome. To feed were best at home; +From thence the sauce to meat is ceremony; +Meeting were bare without it. + + The Ghost of Banquo rises, and sits in Macbeth’s place. + +MACBETH. +Sweet remembrancer!— +Now, good digestion wait on appetite, +And health on both! + +LENNOX. +May’t please your Highness sit. + +MACBETH. +Here had we now our country’s honour roof’d, +Were the grac’d person of our Banquo present; +Who may I rather challenge for unkindness +Than pity for mischance! + +ROSS. +His absence, sir, +Lays blame upon his promise. Please’t your Highness +To grace us with your royal company? + +MACBETH. +The table’s full. + +LENNOX. +Here is a place reserv’d, sir. + +MACBETH. +Where? + +LENNOX. +Here, my good lord. What is’t that moves your Highness? + +MACBETH. +Which of you have done this? + +LORDS. +What, my good lord? + +MACBETH. +Thou canst not say I did it. Never shake +Thy gory locks at me. + +ROSS. +Gentlemen, rise; his Highness is not well. + +LADY MACBETH. +Sit, worthy friends. My lord is often thus, +And hath been from his youth: pray you, keep seat; +The fit is momentary; upon a thought +He will again be well. If much you note him, +You shall offend him, and extend his passion. +Feed, and regard him not.—Are you a man? + +MACBETH. +Ay, and a bold one, that dare look on that +Which might appal the devil. + +LADY MACBETH. +O proper stuff! +This is the very painting of your fear: +This is the air-drawn dagger which you said, +Led you to Duncan. O, these flaws, and starts +(Impostors to true fear), would well become +A woman’s story at a winter’s fire, +Authoris’d by her grandam. Shame itself! +Why do you make such faces? When all’s done, +You look but on a stool. + +MACBETH. +Pr’ythee, see there! +Behold! look! lo! how say you? +Why, what care I? If thou canst nod, speak too.— +If charnel houses and our graves must send +Those that we bury back, our monuments +Shall be the maws of kites. + + [_Ghost disappears._] + +LADY MACBETH. +What, quite unmann’d in folly? + +MACBETH. +If I stand here, I saw him. + +LADY MACBETH. +Fie, for shame! + +MACBETH. +Blood hath been shed ere now, i’ th’ olden time, +Ere humane statute purg’d the gentle weal; +Ay, and since too, murders have been perform’d +Too terrible for the ear: the time has been, +That, when the brains were out, the man would die, +And there an end; but now they rise again, +With twenty mortal murders on their crowns, +And push us from our stools. This is more strange +Than such a murder is. + +LADY MACBETH. +My worthy lord, +Your noble friends do lack you. + +MACBETH. +I do forget.— +Do not muse at me, my most worthy friends. +I have a strange infirmity, which is nothing +To those that know me. Come, love and health to all; +Then I’ll sit down.—Give me some wine, fill full.— +I drink to the general joy o’ th’ whole table, +And to our dear friend Banquo, whom we miss: +Would he were here. + + Ghost rises again. + +To all, and him, we thirst, +And all to all. + +LORDS. +Our duties, and the pledge. + +MACBETH. +Avaunt! and quit my sight! let the earth hide thee! +Thy bones are marrowless, thy blood is cold; +Thou hast no speculation in those eyes +Which thou dost glare with! + +LADY MACBETH. +Think of this, good peers, +But as a thing of custom: ’tis no other, +Only it spoils the pleasure of the time. + +MACBETH. +What man dare, I dare: +Approach thou like the rugged Russian bear, +The arm’d rhinoceros, or th’ Hyrcan tiger; +Take any shape but that, and my firm nerves +Shall never tremble: or be alive again, +And dare me to the desert with thy sword; +If trembling I inhabit then, protest me +The baby of a girl. Hence, horrible shadow! +Unreal mock’ry, hence! + + [_Ghost disappears._] + +Why, so;—being gone, +I am a man again.—Pray you, sit still. + +LADY MACBETH. +You have displaced the mirth, broke the good meeting +With most admir’d disorder. + +MACBETH. +Can such things be, +And overcome us like a summer’s cloud, +Without our special wonder? You make me strange +Even to the disposition that I owe, +When now I think you can behold such sights, +And keep the natural ruby of your cheeks, +When mine are blanch’d with fear. + +ROSS. +What sights, my lord? + +LADY MACBETH. +I pray you, speak not; he grows worse and worse; +Question enrages him. At once, good night:— +Stand not upon the order of your going, +But go at once. + +LENNOX. +Good night; and better health +Attend his Majesty! + +LADY MACBETH. +A kind good night to all! + + [_Exeunt all Lords and Atendants._] + +MACBETH. +It will have blood, they say, blood will have blood. +Stones have been known to move, and trees to speak; +Augurs, and understood relations, have +By magot-pies, and choughs, and rooks, brought forth +The secret’st man of blood.—What is the night? + +LADY MACBETH. +Almost at odds with morning, which is which. + +MACBETH. +How say’st thou, that Macduff denies his person +At our great bidding? + +LADY MACBETH. +Did you send to him, sir? + +MACBETH. +I hear it by the way; but I will send. +There’s not a one of them but in his house +I keep a servant fee’d. I will tomorrow +(And betimes I will) to the Weird Sisters: +More shall they speak; for now I am bent to know, +By the worst means, the worst. For mine own good, +All causes shall give way: I am in blood +Stepp’d in so far that, should I wade no more, +Returning were as tedious as go o’er. +Strange things I have in head, that will to hand, +Which must be acted ere they may be scann’d. + +LADY MACBETH. +You lack the season of all natures, sleep. + +MACBETH. +Come, we’ll to sleep. My strange and self-abuse +Is the initiate fear that wants hard use. +We are yet but young in deed. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. The heath. + + Thunder. Enter the three Witches meeting Hecate. + +FIRST WITCH. +Why, how now, Hecate? you look angerly. + +HECATE. +Have I not reason, beldams as you are, +Saucy and overbold? How did you dare +To trade and traffic with Macbeth +In riddles and affairs of death; +And I, the mistress of your charms, +The close contriver of all harms, +Was never call’d to bear my part, +Or show the glory of our art? +And, which is worse, all you have done +Hath been but for a wayward son, +Spiteful and wrathful; who, as others do, +Loves for his own ends, not for you. +But make amends now: get you gone, +And at the pit of Acheron +Meet me i’ th’ morning: thither he +Will come to know his destiny. +Your vessels and your spells provide, +Your charms, and everything beside. +I am for th’ air; this night I’ll spend +Unto a dismal and a fatal end. +Great business must be wrought ere noon. +Upon the corner of the moon +There hangs a vap’rous drop profound; +I’ll catch it ere it come to ground: +And that, distill’d by magic sleights, +Shall raise such artificial sprites, +As, by the strength of their illusion, +Shall draw him on to his confusion. +He shall spurn fate, scorn death, and bear +His hopes ’bove wisdom, grace, and fear. +And you all know, security +Is mortals’ chiefest enemy. + + [_Music and song within, “Come away, come away” &c._] + +Hark! I am call’d; my little spirit, see, +Sits in a foggy cloud and stays for me. + + [_Exit._] + +FIRST WITCH. +Come, let’s make haste; she’ll soon be back again. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Forres. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Lennox and another Lord. + +LENNOX. +My former speeches have but hit your thoughts, +Which can interpret farther: only, I say, +Thing’s have been strangely borne. The gracious Duncan +Was pitied of Macbeth:—marry, he was dead:— +And the right valiant Banquo walk’d too late; +Whom, you may say, if’t please you, Fleance kill’d, +For Fleance fled. Men must not walk too late. +Who cannot want the thought, how monstrous +It was for Malcolm and for Donalbain +To kill their gracious father? damned fact! +How it did grieve Macbeth! did he not straight, +In pious rage, the two delinquents tear +That were the slaves of drink and thralls of sleep? +Was not that nobly done? Ay, and wisely too; +For ’twould have anger’d any heart alive, +To hear the men deny’t. So that, I say, +He has borne all things well: and I do think, +That had he Duncan’s sons under his key +(As, and’t please heaven, he shall not) they should find +What ’twere to kill a father; so should Fleance. +But, peace!—for from broad words, and ’cause he fail’d +His presence at the tyrant’s feast, I hear, +Macduff lives in disgrace. Sir, can you tell +Where he bestows himself? + +LORD. +The son of Duncan, +From whom this tyrant holds the due of birth, +Lives in the English court and is receiv’d +Of the most pious Edward with such grace +That the malevolence of fortune nothing +Takes from his high respect. Thither Macduff +Is gone to pray the holy king, upon his aid +To wake Northumberland, and warlike Siward +That, by the help of these (with Him above +To ratify the work), we may again +Give to our tables meat, sleep to our nights; +Free from our feasts and banquets bloody knives, +Do faithful homage, and receive free honours, +All which we pine for now. And this report +Hath so exasperate the King that he +Prepares for some attempt of war. + +LENNOX. +Sent he to Macduff? + +LORD. +He did: and with an absolute “Sir, not I,” +The cloudy messenger turns me his back, +And hums, as who should say, “You’ll rue the time +That clogs me with this answer.” + +LENNOX. +And that well might +Advise him to a caution, t’ hold what distance +His wisdom can provide. Some holy angel +Fly to the court of England, and unfold +His message ere he come, that a swift blessing +May soon return to this our suffering country +Under a hand accurs’d! + +LORD. +I’ll send my prayers with him. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. A dark Cave. In the middle, a Cauldron Boiling. + + Thunder. Enter the three Witches. + +FIRST WITCH. +Thrice the brinded cat hath mew’d. + +SECOND WITCH. +Thrice, and once the hedge-pig whin’d. + +THIRD WITCH. +Harpier cries:—’Tis time, ’tis time. + +FIRST WITCH. +Round about the cauldron go; +In the poison’d entrails throw.— +Toad, that under cold stone +Days and nights has thirty-one +Swelter’d venom sleeping got, +Boil thou first i’ th’ charmed pot! + +ALL. +Double, double, toil and trouble; +Fire, burn; and cauldron, bubble. + +SECOND WITCH. +Fillet of a fenny snake, +In the cauldron boil and bake; +Eye of newt, and toe of frog, +Wool of bat, and tongue of dog, +Adder’s fork, and blind-worm’s sting, +Lizard’s leg, and howlet’s wing, +For a charm of powerful trouble, +Like a hell-broth boil and bubble. + +ALL. +Double, double, toil and trouble; +Fire, burn; and cauldron, bubble. + +THIRD WITCH. +Scale of dragon, tooth of wolf, +Witch’s mummy, maw and gulf +Of the ravin’d salt-sea shark, +Root of hemlock digg’d i’ th’ dark, +Liver of blaspheming Jew, +Gall of goat, and slips of yew +Sliver’d in the moon’s eclipse, +Nose of Turk, and Tartar’s lips, +Finger of birth-strangled babe +Ditch-deliver’d by a drab, +Make the gruel thick and slab: +Add thereto a tiger’s chaudron, +For th’ ingredients of our cauldron. + +ALL. +Double, double, toil and trouble; +Fire, burn; and cauldron, bubble. + +SECOND WITCH. +Cool it with a baboon’s blood. +Then the charm is firm and good. + + Enter Hecate. + +HECATE. +O, well done! I commend your pains, +And everyone shall share i’ th’ gains. +And now about the cauldron sing, +Like elves and fairies in a ring, +Enchanting all that you put in. + + [_Music and a song: “Black Spirits,” &c._] + + [_Exit Hecate._] + +SECOND WITCH. +By the pricking of my thumbs, +Something wicked this way comes. +Open, locks, +Whoever knocks! + + Enter Macbeth. + +MACBETH. +How now, you secret, black, and midnight hags! +What is’t you do? + +ALL. +A deed without a name. + +MACBETH. +I conjure you, by that which you profess, +(Howe’er you come to know it) answer me: +Though you untie the winds, and let them fight +Against the churches; though the yesty waves +Confound and swallow navigation up; +Though bladed corn be lodg’d, and trees blown down; +Though castles topple on their warders’ heads; +Though palaces and pyramids do slope +Their heads to their foundations; though the treasure +Of nature’s germens tumble all together, +Even till destruction sicken, answer me +To what I ask you. + +FIRST WITCH. +Speak. + +SECOND WITCH. +Demand. + +THIRD WITCH. +We’ll answer. + +FIRST WITCH. +Say, if thou’dst rather hear it from our mouths, +Or from our masters? + +MACBETH. +Call ’em, let me see ’em. + +FIRST WITCH. +Pour in sow’s blood, that hath eaten +Her nine farrow; grease that’s sweaten +From the murderer’s gibbet throw +Into the flame. + +ALL. +Come, high or low; +Thyself and office deftly show! + + [_Thunder. An Apparition of an armed Head rises._] + +MACBETH. +Tell me, thou unknown power,— + +FIRST WITCH. +He knows thy thought: +Hear his speech, but say thou naught. + +APPARITION. +Macbeth! Macbeth! Macbeth! Beware Macduff; +Beware the Thane of Fife.—Dismiss me.—Enough. + + [_Descends._] + +MACBETH. +Whate’er thou art, for thy good caution, thanks; +Thou hast harp’d my fear aright.—But one word more. + +FIRST WITCH. +He will not be commanded. Here’s another, +More potent than the first. + + [_Thunder. An Apparition of a bloody Child rises._] + +APPARITION. +Macbeth! Macbeth! Macbeth! + +MACBETH. +Had I three ears, I’d hear thee. + +APPARITION. +Be bloody, bold, and resolute. Laugh to scorn +The power of man, for none of woman born +Shall harm Macbeth. + + [_Descends._] + +MACBETH. +Then live, Macduff: what need I fear of thee? +But yet I’ll make assurance double sure, +And take a bond of fate. Thou shalt not live; +That I may tell pale-hearted fear it lies, +And sleep in spite of thunder. + + [_Thunder. An Apparition of a Child crowned, with a tree in his hand, + rises._] + +What is this, +That rises like the issue of a king, +And wears upon his baby brow the round +And top of sovereignty? + +ALL. +Listen, but speak not to’t. + +APPARITION. +Be lion-mettled, proud, and take no care +Who chafes, who frets, or where conspirers are: +Macbeth shall never vanquish’d be, until +Great Birnam wood to high Dunsinane hill +Shall come against him. + + [_Descends._] + +MACBETH. +That will never be: +Who can impress the forest; bid the tree +Unfix his earth-bound root? Sweet bodements, good! +Rebellious head, rise never till the wood +Of Birnam rise, and our high-plac’d Macbeth +Shall live the lease of nature, pay his breath +To time and mortal custom.—Yet my heart +Throbs to know one thing: tell me, if your art +Can tell so much, shall Banquo’s issue ever +Reign in this kingdom? + +ALL. +Seek to know no more. + +MACBETH. +I will be satisfied: deny me this, +And an eternal curse fall on you! Let me know. +Why sinks that cauldron? and what noise is this? + + [_Hautboys._] + +FIRST WITCH. +Show! + +SECOND WITCH. +Show! + +THIRD WITCH. +Show! + +ALL. +Show his eyes, and grieve his heart; +Come like shadows, so depart! + + [_A show of eight kings appear, and pass over in order, the last with + a glass in his hand; Banquo following._] + +MACBETH. +Thou are too like the spirit of Banquo. Down! +Thy crown does sear mine eyeballs:—and thy hair, +Thou other gold-bound brow, is like the first. +A third is like the former.—Filthy hags! +Why do you show me this?—A fourth!—Start, eyes! +What, will the line stretch out to th’ crack of doom? +Another yet!—A seventh!—I’ll see no more:— +And yet the eighth appears, who bears a glass +Which shows me many more; and some I see +That twofold balls and treble sceptres carry. +Horrible sight!—Now I see ’tis true; +For the blood-bolter’d Banquo smiles upon me, +And points at them for his.—What! is this so? + +FIRST WITCH. +Ay, sir, all this is so:—but why +Stands Macbeth thus amazedly?— +Come, sisters, cheer we up his sprites, +And show the best of our delights. +I’ll charm the air to give a sound, +While you perform your antic round; +That this great king may kindly say, +Our duties did his welcome pay. + + [_Music. The Witches dance, and vanish._] + +MACBETH. +Where are they? Gone?—Let this pernicious hour +Stand aye accursed in the calendar!— +Come in, without there! + + Enter Lennox. + +LENNOX. +What’s your Grace’s will? + +MACBETH. +Saw you the Weird Sisters? + +LENNOX. +No, my lord. + +MACBETH. +Came they not by you? + +LENNOX. +No, indeed, my lord. + +MACBETH. +Infected be the air whereon they ride; +And damn’d all those that trust them!—I did hear +The galloping of horse: who was’t came by? + +LENNOX. +’Tis two or three, my lord, that bring you word +Macduff is fled to England. + +MACBETH. +Fled to England! + +LENNOX. +Ay, my good lord. + +MACBETH. +Time, thou anticipat’st my dread exploits: +The flighty purpose never is o’ertook +Unless the deed go with it. From this moment +The very firstlings of my heart shall be +The firstlings of my hand. And even now, +To crown my thoughts with acts, be it thought and done: +The castle of Macduff I will surprise; +Seize upon Fife; give to th’ edge o’ th’ sword +His wife, his babes, and all unfortunate souls +That trace him in his line. No boasting like a fool; +This deed I’ll do before this purpose cool: +But no more sights!—Where are these gentlemen? +Come, bring me where they are. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Fife. A Room in Macduff’s Castle. + + Enter Lady Macduff her Son and Ross. + +LADY MACDUFF. +What had he done, to make him fly the land? + +ROSS. +You must have patience, madam. + +LADY MACDUFF. +He had none: +His flight was madness: when our actions do not, +Our fears do make us traitors. + +ROSS. +You know not +Whether it was his wisdom or his fear. + +LADY MACDUFF. +Wisdom! to leave his wife, to leave his babes, +His mansion, and his titles, in a place +From whence himself does fly? He loves us not: +He wants the natural touch; for the poor wren, +The most diminutive of birds, will fight, +Her young ones in her nest, against the owl. +All is the fear, and nothing is the love; +As little is the wisdom, where the flight +So runs against all reason. + +ROSS. +My dearest coz, +I pray you, school yourself: but, for your husband, +He is noble, wise, judicious, and best knows +The fits o’ th’ season. I dare not speak much further: +But cruel are the times, when we are traitors, +And do not know ourselves; when we hold rumour +From what we fear, yet know not what we fear, +But float upon a wild and violent sea +Each way and move—I take my leave of you: +Shall not be long but I’ll be here again. +Things at the worst will cease, or else climb upward +To what they were before.—My pretty cousin, +Blessing upon you! + +LADY MACDUFF. +Father’d he is, and yet he’s fatherless. + +ROSS. +I am so much a fool, should I stay longer, +It would be my disgrace and your discomfort: +I take my leave at once. + + [_Exit._] + +LADY MACDUFF. +Sirrah, your father’s dead. +And what will you do now? How will you live? + +SON. +As birds do, mother. + +LADY MACDUFF. +What, with worms and flies? + +SON. +With what I get, I mean; and so do they. + +LADY MACDUFF. +Poor bird! thou’dst never fear the net nor lime, +The pit-fall nor the gin. + +SON. +Why should I, mother? Poor birds they are not set for. +My father is not dead, for all your saying. + +LADY MACDUFF. +Yes, he is dead: how wilt thou do for a father? + +SON. +Nay, how will you do for a husband? + +LADY MACDUFF. +Why, I can buy me twenty at any market. + +SON. +Then you’ll buy ’em to sell again. + +LADY MACDUFF. +Thou speak’st with all thy wit; +And yet, i’ faith, with wit enough for thee. + +SON. +Was my father a traitor, mother? + +LADY MACDUFF. +Ay, that he was. + +SON. +What is a traitor? + +LADY MACDUFF. +Why, one that swears and lies. + +SON. +And be all traitors that do so? + +LADY MACDUFF. +Every one that does so is a traitor, and must be hanged. + +SON. +And must they all be hanged that swear and lie? + +LADY MACDUFF. +Every one. + +SON. +Who must hang them? + +LADY MACDUFF. +Why, the honest men. + +SON. +Then the liars and swearers are fools: for there are liars and swearers +enow to beat the honest men and hang up them. + +LADY MACDUFF. +Now, God help thee, poor monkey! But how wilt thou do for a father? + +SON. +If he were dead, you’ld weep for him: if you would not, it were a good +sign that I should quickly have a new father. + +LADY MACDUFF. +Poor prattler, how thou talk’st! + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +Bless you, fair dame! I am not to you known, +Though in your state of honour I am perfect. +I doubt some danger does approach you nearly: +If you will take a homely man’s advice, +Be not found here; hence, with your little ones. +To fright you thus, methinks, I am too savage; +To do worse to you were fell cruelty, +Which is too nigh your person. Heaven preserve you! +I dare abide no longer. + + [_Exit._] + +LADY MACDUFF. +Whither should I fly? +I have done no harm. But I remember now +I am in this earthly world, where to do harm +Is often laudable; to do good sometime +Accounted dangerous folly: why then, alas, +Do I put up that womanly defence, +To say I have done no harm? What are these faces? + + Enter Murderers. + +FIRST MURDERER. +Where is your husband? + +LADY MACDUFF. +I hope, in no place so unsanctified +Where such as thou mayst find him. + +FIRST MURDERER. +He’s a traitor. + +SON. +Thou liest, thou shag-ear’d villain! + +FIRST MURDERER. +What, you egg! + + [_Stabbing him._] + +Young fry of treachery! + +SON. +He has kill’d me, mother: +Run away, I pray you! + + [_Dies. Exit Lady Macduff, crying “Murder!” and pursued by the + Murderers._] + +SCENE III. England. Before the King’s Palace. + + Enter Malcolm and Macduff. + +MALCOLM. +Let us seek out some desolate shade and there +Weep our sad bosoms empty. + +MACDUFF. +Let us rather +Hold fast the mortal sword, and, like good men, +Bestride our down-fall’n birthdom. Each new morn +New widows howl, new orphans cry; new sorrows +Strike heaven on the face, that it resounds +As if it felt with Scotland, and yell’d out +Like syllable of dolour. + +MALCOLM. +What I believe, I’ll wail; +What know, believe; and what I can redress, +As I shall find the time to friend, I will. +What you have spoke, it may be so, perchance. +This tyrant, whose sole name blisters our tongues, +Was once thought honest: you have loved him well; +He hath not touch’d you yet. I am young; but something +You may deserve of him through me; and wisdom +To offer up a weak, poor, innocent lamb +To appease an angry god. + +MACDUFF. +I am not treacherous. + +MALCOLM. +But Macbeth is. +A good and virtuous nature may recoil +In an imperial charge. But I shall crave your pardon. +That which you are, my thoughts cannot transpose. +Angels are bright still, though the brightest fell: +Though all things foul would wear the brows of grace, +Yet grace must still look so. + +MACDUFF. +I have lost my hopes. + +MALCOLM. +Perchance even there where I did find my doubts. +Why in that rawness left you wife and child, +Those precious motives, those strong knots of love, +Without leave-taking?—I pray you, +Let not my jealousies be your dishonours, +But mine own safeties. You may be rightly just, +Whatever I shall think. + +MACDUFF. +Bleed, bleed, poor country! +Great tyranny, lay thou thy basis sure, +For goodness dare not check thee! wear thou thy wrongs; +The title is affeer’d.—Fare thee well, lord: +I would not be the villain that thou think’st +For the whole space that’s in the tyrant’s grasp +And the rich East to boot. + +MALCOLM. +Be not offended: +I speak not as in absolute fear of you. +I think our country sinks beneath the yoke; +It weeps, it bleeds; and each new day a gash +Is added to her wounds. I think, withal, +There would be hands uplifted in my right; +And here, from gracious England, have I offer +Of goodly thousands: but, for all this, +When I shall tread upon the tyrant’s head, +Or wear it on my sword, yet my poor country +Shall have more vices than it had before, +More suffer, and more sundry ways than ever, +By him that shall succeed. + +MACDUFF. +What should he be? + +MALCOLM. +It is myself I mean; in whom I know +All the particulars of vice so grafted +That, when they shall be open’d, black Macbeth +Will seem as pure as snow; and the poor state +Esteem him as a lamb, being compar’d +With my confineless harms. + +MACDUFF. +Not in the legions +Of horrid hell can come a devil more damn’d +In evils to top Macbeth. + +MALCOLM. +I grant him bloody, +Luxurious, avaricious, false, deceitful, +Sudden, malicious, smacking of every sin +That has a name: but there’s no bottom, none, +In my voluptuousness: your wives, your daughters, +Your matrons, and your maids, could not fill up +The cistern of my lust; and my desire +All continent impediments would o’erbear, +That did oppose my will: better Macbeth +Than such an one to reign. + +MACDUFF. +Boundless intemperance +In nature is a tyranny; it hath been +Th’ untimely emptying of the happy throne, +And fall of many kings. But fear not yet +To take upon you what is yours: you may +Convey your pleasures in a spacious plenty, +And yet seem cold—the time you may so hoodwink. +We have willing dames enough; there cannot be +That vulture in you, to devour so many +As will to greatness dedicate themselves, +Finding it so inclin’d. + +MALCOLM. +With this there grows +In my most ill-compos’d affection such +A staunchless avarice, that, were I king, +I should cut off the nobles for their lands; +Desire his jewels, and this other’s house: +And my more-having would be as a sauce +To make me hunger more; that I should forge +Quarrels unjust against the good and loyal, +Destroying them for wealth. + +MACDUFF. +This avarice +Sticks deeper; grows with more pernicious root +Than summer-seeming lust; and it hath been +The sword of our slain kings: yet do not fear; +Scotland hath foisons to fill up your will, +Of your mere own. All these are portable, +With other graces weigh’d. + +MALCOLM. +But I have none: the king-becoming graces, +As justice, verity, temp’rance, stableness, +Bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowliness, +Devotion, patience, courage, fortitude, +I have no relish of them; but abound +In the division of each several crime, +Acting it many ways. Nay, had I power, I should +Pour the sweet milk of concord into hell, +Uproar the universal peace, confound +All unity on earth. + +MACDUFF. +O Scotland, Scotland! + +MALCOLM. +If such a one be fit to govern, speak: +I am as I have spoken. + +MACDUFF. +Fit to govern? +No, not to live.—O nation miserable, +With an untitled tyrant bloody-scepter’d, +When shalt thou see thy wholesome days again, +Since that the truest issue of thy throne +By his own interdiction stands accus’d, +And does blaspheme his breed? Thy royal father +Was a most sainted king. The queen that bore thee, +Oft’ner upon her knees than on her feet, +Died every day she lived. Fare thee well! +These evils thou repeat’st upon thyself +Have banish’d me from Scotland.—O my breast, +Thy hope ends here! + +MALCOLM. +Macduff, this noble passion, +Child of integrity, hath from my soul +Wiped the black scruples, reconcil’d my thoughts +To thy good truth and honour. Devilish Macbeth +By many of these trains hath sought to win me +Into his power, and modest wisdom plucks me +From over-credulous haste: but God above +Deal between thee and me! for even now +I put myself to thy direction, and +Unspeak mine own detraction; here abjure +The taints and blames I laid upon myself, +For strangers to my nature. I am yet +Unknown to woman; never was forsworn; +Scarcely have coveted what was mine own; +At no time broke my faith; would not betray +The devil to his fellow; and delight +No less in truth than life: my first false speaking +Was this upon myself. What I am truly, +Is thine and my poor country’s to command: +Whither, indeed, before thy here-approach, +Old Siward, with ten thousand warlike men, +Already at a point, was setting forth. +Now we’ll together, and the chance of goodness +Be like our warranted quarrel. Why are you silent? + +MACDUFF. +Such welcome and unwelcome things at once +’Tis hard to reconcile. + + Enter a Doctor. + +MALCOLM. +Well; more anon.—Comes the King forth, I pray you? + +DOCTOR. +Ay, sir. There are a crew of wretched souls +That stay his cure: their malady convinces +The great assay of art; but at his touch, +Such sanctity hath heaven given his hand, +They presently amend. + +MALCOLM. +I thank you, doctor. + + [_Exit Doctor._] + +MACDUFF. +What’s the disease he means? + +MALCOLM. +’Tis call’d the evil: +A most miraculous work in this good king; +Which often, since my here-remain in England, +I have seen him do. How he solicits heaven, +Himself best knows, but strangely-visited people, +All swoln and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye, +The mere despair of surgery, he cures; +Hanging a golden stamp about their necks, +Put on with holy prayers: and ’tis spoken, +To the succeeding royalty he leaves +The healing benediction. With this strange virtue, +He hath a heavenly gift of prophecy; +And sundry blessings hang about his throne, +That speak him full of grace. + + Enter Ross. + +MACDUFF. +See, who comes here? + +MALCOLM. +My countryman; but yet I know him not. + +MACDUFF. +My ever-gentle cousin, welcome hither. + +MALCOLM. +I know him now. Good God, betimes remove +The means that makes us strangers! + +ROSS. +Sir, amen. + +MACDUFF. +Stands Scotland where it did? + +ROSS. +Alas, poor country, +Almost afraid to know itself! It cannot +Be call’d our mother, but our grave, where nothing, +But who knows nothing, is once seen to smile; +Where sighs, and groans, and shrieks, that rent the air, +Are made, not mark’d; where violent sorrow seems +A modern ecstasy. The dead man’s knell +Is there scarce ask’d for who; and good men’s lives +Expire before the flowers in their caps, +Dying or ere they sicken. + +MACDUFF. +O, relation +Too nice, and yet too true! + +MALCOLM. +What’s the newest grief? + +ROSS. +That of an hour’s age doth hiss the speaker; +Each minute teems a new one. + +MACDUFF. +How does my wife? + +ROSS. +Why, well. + +MACDUFF. +And all my children? + +ROSS. +Well too. + +MACDUFF. +The tyrant has not batter’d at their peace? + +ROSS. +No; they were well at peace when I did leave ’em. + +MACDUFF. +Be not a niggard of your speech: how goes’t? + +ROSS. +When I came hither to transport the tidings, +Which I have heavily borne, there ran a rumour +Of many worthy fellows that were out; +Which was to my belief witness’d the rather, +For that I saw the tyrant’s power afoot. +Now is the time of help. Your eye in Scotland +Would create soldiers, make our women fight, +To doff their dire distresses. + +MALCOLM. +Be’t their comfort +We are coming thither. Gracious England hath +Lent us good Siward and ten thousand men; +An older and a better soldier none +That Christendom gives out. + +ROSS. +Would I could answer +This comfort with the like! But I have words +That would be howl’d out in the desert air, +Where hearing should not latch them. + +MACDUFF. +What concern they? +The general cause? or is it a fee-grief +Due to some single breast? + +ROSS. +No mind that’s honest +But in it shares some woe, though the main part +Pertains to you alone. + +MACDUFF. +If it be mine, +Keep it not from me, quickly let me have it. + +ROSS. +Let not your ears despise my tongue for ever, +Which shall possess them with the heaviest sound +That ever yet they heard. + +MACDUFF. +Humh! I guess at it. + +ROSS. +Your castle is surpris’d; your wife and babes +Savagely slaughter’d. To relate the manner +Were, on the quarry of these murder’d deer, +To add the death of you. + +MALCOLM. +Merciful heaven!— +What, man! ne’er pull your hat upon your brows. +Give sorrow words. The grief that does not speak +Whispers the o’er-fraught heart, and bids it break. + +MACDUFF. +My children too? + +ROSS. +Wife, children, servants, all +That could be found. + +MACDUFF. +And I must be from thence! +My wife kill’d too? + +ROSS. +I have said. + +MALCOLM. +Be comforted: +Let’s make us med’cines of our great revenge, +To cure this deadly grief. + +MACDUFF. +He has no children.—All my pretty ones? +Did you say all?—O hell-kite!—All? +What, all my pretty chickens and their dam +At one fell swoop? + +MALCOLM. +Dispute it like a man. + +MACDUFF. +I shall do so; +But I must also feel it as a man: +I cannot but remember such things were, +That were most precious to me.—Did heaven look on, +And would not take their part? Sinful Macduff, +They were all struck for thee! Naught that I am, +Not for their own demerits, but for mine, +Fell slaughter on their souls: heaven rest them now! + +MALCOLM. +Be this the whetstone of your sword. Let grief +Convert to anger; blunt not the heart, enrage it. + +MACDUFF. +O, I could play the woman with mine eyes, +And braggart with my tongue!—But, gentle heavens, +Cut short all intermission; front to front, +Bring thou this fiend of Scotland and myself; +Within my sword’s length set him; if he ’scape, +Heaven forgive him too! + +MALCOLM. +This tune goes manly. +Come, go we to the King. Our power is ready; +Our lack is nothing but our leave. Macbeth +Is ripe for shaking, and the powers above +Put on their instruments. Receive what cheer you may; +The night is long that never finds the day. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Dunsinane. A Room in the Castle. + + Enter a Doctor of Physic and a Waiting-Gentlewoman. + +DOCTOR. +I have two nights watched with you, but can perceive no truth in your +report. When was it she last walked? + +GENTLEWOMAN. +Since his Majesty went into the field, I have seen her rise from her +bed, throw her nightgown upon her, unlock her closet, take forth paper, +fold it, write upon’t, read it, afterwards seal it, and again return to +bed; yet all this while in a most fast sleep. + +DOCTOR. +A great perturbation in nature, to receive at once the benefit of +sleep, and do the effects of watching. In this slumbery agitation, +besides her walking and other actual performances, what, at any time, +have you heard her say? + +GENTLEWOMAN. +That, sir, which I will not report after her. + +DOCTOR. +You may to me; and ’tis most meet you should. + +GENTLEWOMAN. +Neither to you nor anyone; having no witness to confirm my speech. + + Enter Lady Macbeth with a taper. + +Lo you, here she comes! This is her very guise; and, upon my life, fast +asleep. Observe her; stand close. + +DOCTOR. +How came she by that light? + +GENTLEWOMAN. +Why, it stood by her: she has light by her continually; ’tis her +command. + +DOCTOR. +You see, her eyes are open. + +GENTLEWOMAN. +Ay, but their sense are shut. + +DOCTOR. +What is it she does now? Look how she rubs her hands. + +GENTLEWOMAN. +It is an accustomed action with her, to seem thus washing her hands. I +have known her continue in this a quarter of an hour. + +LADY MACBETH. +Yet here’s a spot. + +DOCTOR. +Hark, she speaks. I will set down what comes from her, to satisfy my +remembrance the more strongly. + +LADY MACBETH. +Out, damned spot! out, I say! One; two. Why, then ’tis time to do’t. +Hell is murky! Fie, my lord, fie! a soldier, and afeard? What need we +fear who knows it, when none can call our power to account? Yet who +would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him? + +DOCTOR. +Do you mark that? + +LADY MACBETH. +The Thane of Fife had a wife. Where is she now?—What, will these hands +ne’er be clean? No more o’ that, my lord, no more o’ that: you mar all +with this starting. + +DOCTOR. +Go to, go to. You have known what you should not. + +GENTLEWOMAN. +She has spoke what she should not, I am sure of that: heaven knows what +she has known. + +LADY MACBETH. +Here’s the smell of the blood still: all the perfumes of Arabia will +not sweeten this little hand. Oh, oh, oh! + +DOCTOR. +What a sigh is there! The heart is sorely charged. + +GENTLEWOMAN. +I would not have such a heart in my bosom for the dignity of the whole +body. + +DOCTOR. +Well, well, well. + +GENTLEWOMAN. +Pray God it be, sir. + +DOCTOR. +This disease is beyond my practice: yet I have known those which have +walked in their sleep, who have died holily in their beds. + +LADY MACBETH. +Wash your hands, put on your nightgown; look not so pale. I tell you +yet again, Banquo’s buried; he cannot come out on’s grave. + +DOCTOR. +Even so? + +LADY MACBETH. +To bed, to bed. There’s knocking at the gate. Come, come, come, come, +give me your hand. What’s done cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to +bed. + + [_Exit._] + +DOCTOR. +Will she go now to bed? + +GENTLEWOMAN. +Directly. + +DOCTOR. +Foul whisp’rings are abroad. Unnatural deeds +Do breed unnatural troubles: infected minds +To their deaf pillows will discharge their secrets. +More needs she the divine than the physician.— +God, God, forgive us all! Look after her; +Remove from her the means of all annoyance, +And still keep eyes upon her. So, good night: +My mind she has mated, and amaz’d my sight. +I think, but dare not speak. + +GENTLEWOMAN. +Good night, good doctor. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The Country near Dunsinane. + + Enter, with drum and colours Menteith, Caithness, Angus, Lennox and + Soldiers. + +MENTEITH. +The English power is near, led on by Malcolm, +His uncle Siward, and the good Macduff. +Revenges burn in them; for their dear causes +Would to the bleeding and the grim alarm +Excite the mortified man. + +ANGUS. +Near Birnam wood +Shall we well meet them. That way are they coming. + +CAITHNESS. +Who knows if Donalbain be with his brother? + +LENNOX. +For certain, sir, he is not. I have a file +Of all the gentry: there is Siward’s son +And many unrough youths, that even now +Protest their first of manhood. + +MENTEITH. +What does the tyrant? + +CAITHNESS. +Great Dunsinane he strongly fortifies. +Some say he’s mad; others, that lesser hate him, +Do call it valiant fury: but, for certain, +He cannot buckle his distemper’d cause +Within the belt of rule. + +ANGUS. +Now does he feel +His secret murders sticking on his hands; +Now minutely revolts upbraid his faith-breach; +Those he commands move only in command, +Nothing in love: now does he feel his title +Hang loose about him, like a giant’s robe +Upon a dwarfish thief. + +MENTEITH. +Who, then, shall blame +His pester’d senses to recoil and start, +When all that is within him does condemn +Itself for being there? + +CAITHNESS. +Well, march we on, +To give obedience where ’tis truly ow’d: +Meet we the med’cine of the sickly weal; +And with him pour we, in our country’s purge, +Each drop of us. + +LENNOX. +Or so much as it needs +To dew the sovereign flower, and drown the weeds. +Make we our march towards Birnam. + + [_Exeunt, marching._] + +SCENE III. Dunsinane. A Room in the Castle. + + Enter Macbeth, Doctor and Attendants. + +MACBETH. +Bring me no more reports; let them fly all: +Till Birnam wood remove to Dunsinane +I cannot taint with fear. What’s the boy Malcolm? +Was he not born of woman? The spirits that know +All mortal consequences have pronounc’d me thus: +“Fear not, Macbeth; no man that’s born of woman +Shall e’er have power upon thee.”—Then fly, false thanes, +And mingle with the English epicures: +The mind I sway by, and the heart I bear, +Shall never sag with doubt nor shake with fear. + + Enter a Servant. + +The devil damn thee black, thou cream-fac’d loon! +Where gott’st thou that goose look? + +SERVANT. +There is ten thousand— + +MACBETH. +Geese, villain? + +SERVANT. +Soldiers, sir. + +MACBETH. +Go prick thy face and over-red thy fear, +Thou lily-liver’d boy. What soldiers, patch? +Death of thy soul! those linen cheeks of thine +Are counsellors to fear. What soldiers, whey-face? + +SERVANT. +The English force, so please you. + +MACBETH. +Take thy face hence. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +Seyton!—I am sick at heart, +When I behold—Seyton, I say!—This push +Will cheer me ever or disseat me now. +I have liv’d long enough: my way of life +Is fall’n into the sere, the yellow leaf; +And that which should accompany old age, +As honour, love, obedience, troops of friends, +I must not look to have; but, in their stead, +Curses, not loud but deep, mouth-honour, breath, +Which the poor heart would fain deny, and dare not. +Seyton!— + + Enter Seyton. + +SEYTON. +What’s your gracious pleasure? + +MACBETH. +What news more? + +SEYTON. +All is confirm’d, my lord, which was reported. + +MACBETH. +I’ll fight till from my bones my flesh be hack’d. +Give me my armour. + +SEYTON. +’Tis not needed yet. + +MACBETH. +I’ll put it on. +Send out more horses, skirr the country round; +Hang those that talk of fear. Give me mine armour.— +How does your patient, doctor? + +DOCTOR. +Not so sick, my lord, +As she is troubled with thick-coming fancies, +That keep her from her rest. + +MACBETH. +Cure her of that: +Canst thou not minister to a mind diseas’d, +Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow, +Raze out the written troubles of the brain, +And with some sweet oblivious antidote +Cleanse the stuff’d bosom of that perilous stuff +Which weighs upon the heart? + +DOCTOR. +Therein the patient +Must minister to himself. + +MACBETH. +Throw physic to the dogs, I’ll none of it. +Come, put mine armour on; give me my staff: +Seyton, send out.—Doctor, the Thanes fly from me.— +Come, sir, despatch.—If thou couldst, doctor, cast +The water of my land, find her disease, +And purge it to a sound and pristine health, +I would applaud thee to the very echo, +That should applaud again.—Pull’t off, I say.— +What rhubarb, senna, or what purgative drug, +Would scour these English hence? Hear’st thou of them? + +DOCTOR. +Ay, my good lord. Your royal preparation +Makes us hear something. + +MACBETH. +Bring it after me.— +I will not be afraid of death and bane, +Till Birnam forest come to Dunsinane. + + [_Exeunt all except Doctor._] + +DOCTOR. +Were I from Dunsinane away and clear, +Profit again should hardly draw me here. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. Country near Dunsinane: a Wood in view. + + Enter, with drum and colours Malcolm, old Siward and his Son, Macduff, + Menteith, Caithness, Angus, Lennox, Ross and Soldiers, marching. + +MALCOLM. +Cousins, I hope the days are near at hand +That chambers will be safe. + +MENTEITH. +We doubt it nothing. + +SIWARD. +What wood is this before us? + +MENTEITH. +The wood of Birnam. + +MALCOLM. +Let every soldier hew him down a bough, +And bear’t before him. Thereby shall we shadow +The numbers of our host, and make discovery +Err in report of us. + +SOLDIERS. +It shall be done. + +SIWARD. +We learn no other but the confident tyrant +Keeps still in Dunsinane, and will endure +Our setting down before’t. + +MALCOLM. +’Tis his main hope; +For where there is advantage to be given, +Both more and less have given him the revolt, +And none serve with him but constrained things, +Whose hearts are absent too. + +MACDUFF. +Let our just censures +Attend the true event, and put we on +Industrious soldiership. + +SIWARD. +The time approaches, +That will with due decision make us know +What we shall say we have, and what we owe. +Thoughts speculative their unsure hopes relate, +But certain issue strokes must arbitrate; +Towards which advance the war. + + [_Exeunt, marching._] + +SCENE V. Dunsinane. Within the castle. + + Enter with drum and colours, Macbeth, Seyton and Soldiers. + +MACBETH. +Hang out our banners on the outward walls; +The cry is still, “They come!” Our castle’s strength +Will laugh a siege to scorn: here let them lie +Till famine and the ague eat them up. +Were they not forc’d with those that should be ours, +We might have met them dareful, beard to beard, +And beat them backward home. + + [_A cry of women within._] + +What is that noise? + +SEYTON. +It is the cry of women, my good lord. + + [_Exit._] + +MACBETH. +I have almost forgot the taste of fears. +The time has been, my senses would have cool’d +To hear a night-shriek; and my fell of hair +Would at a dismal treatise rouse and stir +As life were in’t. I have supp’d full with horrors; +Direness, familiar to my slaughterous thoughts, +Cannot once start me. + + Enter Seyton. + +Wherefore was that cry? + +SEYTON. +The Queen, my lord, is dead. + +MACBETH. +She should have died hereafter. +There would have been a time for such a word. +Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, +Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, +To the last syllable of recorded time; +And all our yesterdays have lighted fools +The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle! +Life’s but a walking shadow; a poor player, +That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, +And then is heard no more: it is a tale +Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, +Signifying nothing. + + Enter a Messenger. + +Thou com’st to use thy tongue; thy story quickly. + +MESSENGER. +Gracious my lord, +I should report that which I say I saw, +But know not how to do’t. + +MACBETH. +Well, say, sir. + +MESSENGER. +As I did stand my watch upon the hill, +I look’d toward Birnam, and anon, methought, +The wood began to move. + +MACBETH. +Liar, and slave! + +MESSENGER. +Let me endure your wrath, if’t be not so. +Within this three mile may you see it coming; +I say, a moving grove. + +MACBETH. +If thou speak’st false, +Upon the next tree shalt thou hang alive, +Till famine cling thee: if thy speech be sooth, +I care not if thou dost for me as much.— +I pull in resolution; and begin +To doubt th’ equivocation of the fiend, +That lies like truth. “Fear not, till Birnam wood +Do come to Dunsinane;” and now a wood +Comes toward Dunsinane.—Arm, arm, and out!— +If this which he avouches does appear, +There is nor flying hence nor tarrying here. +I ’gin to be aweary of the sun, +And wish th’ estate o’ th’ world were now undone.— +Ring the alarum bell!—Blow, wind! come, wrack! +At least we’ll die with harness on our back. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. The same. A Plain before the Castle. + + Enter, with drum and colours, Malcolm, old Siward, Macduff and their + Army, with boughs. + +MALCOLM. +Now near enough. Your leafy screens throw down, +And show like those you are.—You, worthy uncle, +Shall with my cousin, your right noble son, +Lead our first battle: worthy Macduff and we +Shall take upon’s what else remains to do, +According to our order. + +SIWARD. +Fare you well.— +Do we but find the tyrant’s power tonight, +Let us be beaten, if we cannot fight. + +MACDUFF. +Make all our trumpets speak; give them all breath, +Those clamorous harbingers of blood and death. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. The same. Another part of the Plain. + + Alarums. Enter Macbeth. + +MACBETH. +They have tied me to a stake. I cannot fly, +But, bear-like I must fight the course.—What’s he +That was not born of woman? Such a one +Am I to fear, or none. + + Enter young Siward. + +YOUNG SIWARD. +What is thy name? + +MACBETH. +Thou’lt be afraid to hear it. + +YOUNG SIWARD. +No; though thou call’st thyself a hotter name +Than any is in hell. + +MACBETH. +My name’s Macbeth. + +YOUNG SIWARD. +The devil himself could not pronounce a title +More hateful to mine ear. + +MACBETH. +No, nor more fearful. + +YOUNG SIWARD. +Thou liest, abhorred tyrant. With my sword +I’ll prove the lie thou speak’st. + + [_They fight, and young Siward is slain._] + +MACBETH. +Thou wast born of woman. +But swords I smile at, weapons laugh to scorn, +Brandish’d by man that’s of a woman born. + + [_Exit._] + + Alarums. Enter Macduff. + +MACDUFF. +That way the noise is.—Tyrant, show thy face! +If thou be’st slain and with no stroke of mine, +My wife and children’s ghosts will haunt me still. +I cannot strike at wretched kerns, whose arms +Are hired to bear their staves. Either thou, Macbeth, +Or else my sword, with an unbatter’d edge, +I sheathe again undeeded. There thou shouldst be; +By this great clatter, one of greatest note +Seems bruited. Let me find him, Fortune! +And more I beg not. + + [_Exit. Alarums._] + + Enter Malcolm and old Siward. + +SIWARD. +This way, my lord;—the castle’s gently render’d: +The tyrant’s people on both sides do fight; +The noble thanes do bravely in the war, +The day almost itself professes yours, +And little is to do. + +MALCOLM. +We have met with foes +That strike beside us. + +SIWARD. +Enter, sir, the castle. + + [_Exeunt. Alarums._] + +SCENE VIII. The same. Another part of the field. + + Enter Macbeth. + +MACBETH. +Why should I play the Roman fool, and die +On mine own sword? whiles I see lives, the gashes +Do better upon them. + + Enter Macduff. + +MACDUFF. +Turn, hell-hound, turn! + +MACBETH. +Of all men else I have avoided thee: +But get thee back; my soul is too much charg’d +With blood of thine already. + +MACDUFF. +I have no words; +My voice is in my sword: thou bloodier villain +Than terms can give thee out! + + [_They fight._] + +MACBETH. +Thou losest labour: +As easy mayst thou the intrenchant air +With thy keen sword impress, as make me bleed: +Let fall thy blade on vulnerable crests; +I bear a charmed life, which must not yield +To one of woman born. + +MACDUFF. +Despair thy charm; +And let the angel whom thou still hast serv’d +Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother’s womb +Untimely ripp’d. + +MACBETH. +Accursed be that tongue that tells me so, +For it hath cow’d my better part of man! +And be these juggling fiends no more believ’d, +That palter with us in a double sense; +That keep the word of promise to our ear, +And break it to our hope!—I’ll not fight with thee. + +MACDUFF. +Then yield thee, coward, +And live to be the show and gaze o’ th’ time. +We’ll have thee, as our rarer monsters are, +Painted upon a pole, and underwrit, +“Here may you see the tyrant.” + +MACBETH. +I will not yield, +To kiss the ground before young Malcolm’s feet, +And to be baited with the rabble’s curse. +Though Birnam wood be come to Dunsinane, +And thou oppos’d, being of no woman born, +Yet I will try the last. Before my body +I throw my warlike shield: lay on, Macduff; +And damn’d be him that first cries, “Hold, enough!” + + [_Exeunt fighting. Alarums._] + + Retreat. Flourish. Enter, with drum and colours, Malcolm, old Siward, + Ross, Thanes and Soldiers. + +MALCOLM. +I would the friends we miss were safe arriv’d. + +SIWARD. +Some must go off; and yet, by these I see, +So great a day as this is cheaply bought. + +MALCOLM. +Macduff is missing, and your noble son. + +ROSS. +Your son, my lord, has paid a soldier’s debt: +He only liv’d but till he was a man; +The which no sooner had his prowess confirm’d +In the unshrinking station where he fought, +But like a man he died. + +SIWARD. +Then he is dead? + +FLEANCE. +Ay, and brought off the field. Your cause of sorrow +Must not be measur’d by his worth, for then +It hath no end. + +SIWARD. +Had he his hurts before? + +ROSS. +Ay, on the front. + +SIWARD. +Why then, God’s soldier be he! +Had I as many sons as I have hairs, +I would not wish them to a fairer death: +And so his knell is knoll’d. + +MALCOLM. +He’s worth more sorrow, +And that I’ll spend for him. + +SIWARD. +He’s worth no more. +They say he parted well and paid his score: +And so, God be with him!—Here comes newer comfort. + + Enter Macduff with Macbeth’s head. + +MACDUFF. +Hail, King, for so thou art. Behold, where stands +Th’ usurper’s cursed head: the time is free. +I see thee compass’d with thy kingdom’s pearl, +That speak my salutation in their minds; +Whose voices I desire aloud with mine,— +Hail, King of Scotland! + +ALL. +Hail, King of Scotland! + + [_Flourish._] + +MALCOLM. +We shall not spend a large expense of time +Before we reckon with your several loves, +And make us even with you. My thanes and kinsmen, +Henceforth be earls, the first that ever Scotland +In such an honour nam’d. What’s more to do, +Which would be planted newly with the time,— +As calling home our exil’d friends abroad, +That fled the snares of watchful tyranny; +Producing forth the cruel ministers +Of this dead butcher, and his fiend-like queen, +Who, as ’tis thought, by self and violent hands +Took off her life;—this, and what needful else +That calls upon us, by the grace of Grace, +We will perform in measure, time, and place. +So thanks to all at once, and to each one, +Whom we invite to see us crown’d at Scone. + + [_Flourish. Exeunt._] + + + + + +MEASURE FOR MEASURE + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + + VINCENTIO, the Duke + ANGELO, the Deputy + ESCALUS, an ancient Lord + CLAUDIO, a young gentleman + LUCIO, a fantastic + Two other like Gentlemen + VARRIUS, a gentleman, servant to the Duke + PROVOST + THOMAS, friar + PETER, friar + A JUSTICE + ELBOW, a simple constable + FROTH, a foolish gentleman + POMPEY, a clown and servant to Mistress Overdone + ABHORSON, an executioner + BARNARDINE, a dissolute prisoner + + ISABELLA, sister to Claudio + MARIANA, betrothed to Angelo + JULIET, beloved of Claudio + FRANCISCA, a nun + MISTRESS OVERDONE, a bawd + + Lords, Officers, Citizens, Boy, and Attendants + +SCENE: Vienna + +ACT I. SCENE I. The DUKE'S palace + +Enter DUKE, ESCALUS, LORDS, and ATTENDANTS + + DUKE. Escalus! + ESCALUS. My lord. + DUKE. Of government the properties to unfold + Would seem in me t' affect speech and discourse, + Since I am put to know that your own science + Exceeds, in that, the lists of all advice + My strength can give you; then no more remains + But that to your sufficiency- as your worth is able- + And let them work. The nature of our people, + Our city's institutions, and the terms + For common justice, y'are as pregnant in + As art and practice hath enriched any + That we remember. There is our commission, + From which we would not have you warp. Call hither, + I say, bid come before us, Angelo. Exit an ATTENDANT + What figure of us think you he will bear? + For you must know we have with special soul + Elected him our absence to supply; + Lent him our terror, dress'd him with our love, + And given his deputation all the organs + Of our own power. What think you of it? + ESCALUS. If any in Vienna be of worth + To undergo such ample grace and honour, + It is Lord Angelo. + + Enter ANGELO + + DUKE. Look where he comes. + ANGELO. Always obedient to your Grace's will, + I come to know your pleasure. + DUKE. Angelo, + There is a kind of character in thy life + That to th' observer doth thy history + Fully unfold. Thyself and thy belongings + Are not thine own so proper as to waste + Thyself upon thy virtues, they on thee. + Heaven doth with us as we with torches do, + Not light them for themselves; for if our virtues + Did not go forth of us, 'twere all alike + As if we had them not. Spirits are not finely touch'd + But to fine issues; nor Nature never lends + The smallest scruple of her excellence + But, like a thrifty goddess, she determines + Herself the glory of a creditor, + Both thanks and use. But I do bend my speech + To one that can my part in him advertise. + Hold, therefore, Angelo- + In our remove be thou at full ourself; + Mortality and mercy in Vienna + Live in thy tongue and heart. Old Escalus, + Though first in question, is thy secondary. + Take thy commission. + ANGELO. Now, good my lord, + Let there be some more test made of my metal, + Before so noble and so great a figure + Be stamp'd upon it. + DUKE. No more evasion! + We have with a leaven'd and prepared choice + Proceeded to you; therefore take your honours. + Our haste from hence is of so quick condition + That it prefers itself, and leaves unquestion'd + Matters of needful value. We shall write to you, + As time and our concernings shall importune, + How it goes with us, and do look to know + What doth befall you here. So, fare you well. + To th' hopeful execution do I leave you + Of your commissions. + ANGELO. Yet give leave, my lord, + That we may bring you something on the way. + DUKE. My haste may not admit it; + Nor need you, on mine honour, have to do + With any scruple: your scope is as mine own, + So to enforce or qualify the laws + As to your soul seems good. Give me your hand; + I'll privily away. I love the people, + But do not like to stage me to their eyes; + Though it do well, I do not relish well + Their loud applause and Aves vehement; + Nor do I think the man of safe discretion + That does affect it. Once more, fare you well. + ANGELO. The heavens give safety to your purposes! + ESCALUS. Lead forth and bring you back in happiness! + DUKE. I thank you. Fare you well. Exit + ESCALUS. I shall desire you, sir, to give me leave + To have free speech with you; and it concerns me + To look into the bottom of my place: + A pow'r I have, but of what strength and nature + I am not yet instructed. + ANGELO. 'Tis so with me. Let us withdraw together, + And we may soon our satisfaction have + Touching that point. + ESCALUS. I'll wait upon your honour. Exeunt + +SCENE II. A street + +Enter Lucio and two other GENTLEMEN + + LUCIO. If the Duke, with the other dukes, come not to composition + with the King of Hungary, why then all the dukes fall upon the + King. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Heaven grant us its peace, but not the King of + Hungary's! + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Amen. + LUCIO. Thou conclud'st like the sanctimonious pirate that went to + sea with the Ten Commandments, but scrap'd one out of the table. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. 'Thou shalt not steal'? + LUCIO. Ay, that he raz'd. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Why, 'twas a commandment to command the captain + and all the rest from their functions: they put forth to steal. + There's not a soldier of us all that, in the thanksgiving before + meat, do relish the petition well that prays for peace. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. I never heard any soldier dislike it. + LUCIO. I believe thee; for I think thou never wast where grace was + said. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. No? A dozen times at least. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. What, in metre? + LUCIO. In any proportion or in any language. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. I think, or in any religion. + LUCIO. Ay, why not? Grace is grace, despite of all controversy; as, + for example, thou thyself art a wicked villain, despite of all + grace. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Well, there went but a pair of shears between us. + LUCIO. I grant; as there may between the lists and the velvet. + Thou art the list. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. And thou the velvet; thou art good velvet; thou'rt + a three-pil'd piece, I warrant thee. I had as lief be a list of + an English kersey as be pil'd, as thou art pil'd, for a French + velvet. Do I speak feelingly now? + LUCIO. I think thou dost; and, indeed, with most painful feeling of + thy speech. I will, out of thine own confession, learn to begin + thy health; but, whilst I live, forget to drink after thee. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. I think I have done myself wrong, have I not? + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Yes, that thou hast, whether thou art tainted or + free. + + Enter MISTRESS OVERDONE + + LUCIO. Behold, behold, where Madam Mitigation comes! I have + purchas'd as many diseases under her roof as come to- + SECOND GENTLEMAN. To what, I pray? + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Judge. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. To three thousand dolours a year. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Ay, and more. + LUCIO. A French crown more. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Thou art always figuring diseases in me, but thou + art full of error; I am sound. + LUCIO. Nay, not, as one would say, healthy; but so sound as things + that are hollow: thy bones are hollow; impiety has made a feast + of thee. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. How now! which of your hips has the most profound + sciatica? + MRS. OVERDONE. Well, well! there's one yonder arrested and carried + to prison was worth five thousand of you all. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Who's that, I pray thee? + MRS. OVERDONE. Marry, sir, that's Claudio, Signior Claudio. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. Claudio to prison? 'Tis not so. + MRS. OVERDONE. Nay, but I know 'tis so: I saw him arrested; saw him + carried away; and, which is more, within these three days his + head to be chopp'd off. + LUCIO. But, after all this fooling, I would not have it so. Art + thou sure of this? + MRS. OVERDONE. I am too sure of it; and it is for getting Madam + Julietta with child. + LUCIO. Believe me, this may be; he promis'd to meet me two hours + since, and he was ever precise in promise-keeping. + SECOND GENTLEMAN. Besides, you know, it draws something near to the + speech we had to such a purpose. + FIRST GENTLEMAN. But most of all agreeing with the proclamation. + LUCIO. Away; let's go learn the truth of it. + Exeunt Lucio and GENTLEMEN + MRS. OVERDONE. Thus, what with the war, what with the sweat, what + with the gallows, and what with poverty, I am custom-shrunk. + + Enter POMPEY + + How now! what's the news with you? + POMPEY. Yonder man is carried to prison. + MRS. OVERDONE. Well, what has he done? + POMPEY. A woman. + MRS. OVERDONE. But what's his offence? + POMPEY. Groping for trouts in a peculiar river. + MRS. OVERDONE. What! is there a maid with child by him? + POMPEY. No; but there's a woman with maid by him. You have not + heard of the proclamation, have you? + MRS. OVERDONE. What proclamation, man? + POMPEY. All houses in the suburbs of Vienna must be pluck'd down. + MRS. OVERDONE. And what shall become of those in the city? + POMPEY. They shall stand for seed; they had gone down too, but that + a wise burgher put in for them. + MRS. OVERDONE. But shall all our houses of resort in the suburbs be + pull'd down? + POMPEY. To the ground, mistress. + MRS. OVERDONE. Why, here's a change indeed in the commonwealth! + What shall become of me? + POMPEY. Come, fear not you: good counsellors lack no clients. + Though you change your place you need not change your trade; I'll + be your tapster still. Courage, there will be pity taken on you; + you that have worn your eyes almost out in the service, you will + be considered. + MRS. OVERDONE. What's to do here, Thomas Tapster? Let's withdraw. + POMPEY. Here comes Signior Claudio, led by the provost to prison; + and there's Madam Juliet. Exeunt + + Enter PROVOST, CLAUDIO, JULIET, and OFFICERS; + LUCIO following + + CLAUDIO. Fellow, why dost thou show me thus to th' world? + Bear me to prison, where I am committed. + PROVOST. I do it not in evil disposition, + But from Lord Angelo by special charge. + CLAUDIO. Thus can the demigod Authority + Make us pay down for our offence by weight + The words of heaven: on whom it will, it will; + On whom it will not, so; yet still 'tis just. + LUCIO. Why, how now, Claudio, whence comes this restraint? + CLAUDIO. From too much liberty, my Lucio, liberty; + As surfeit is the father of much fast, + So every scope by the immoderate use + Turns to restraint. Our natures do pursue, + Like rats that ravin down their proper bane, + A thirsty evil; and when we drink we die. + LUCIO. If I could speak so wisely under an arrest, I would send for + certain of my creditors; and yet, to say the truth, I had as lief + have the foppery of freedom as the morality of imprisonment. + What's thy offence, Claudio? + CLAUDIO. What but to speak of would offend again. + LUCIO. What, is't murder? + CLAUDIO. No. + LUCIO. Lechery? + CLAUDIO. Call it so. + PROVOST. Away, sir; you must go. + CLAUDIO. One word, good friend. Lucio, a word with you. + LUCIO. A hundred, if they'll do you any good. Is lechery so look'd + after? + CLAUDIO. Thus stands it with me: upon a true contract + I got possession of Julietta's bed. + You know the lady; she is fast my wife, + Save that we do the denunciation lack + Of outward order; this we came not to, + Only for propagation of a dow'r + Remaining in the coffer of her friends. + From whom we thought it meet to hide our love + Till time had made them for us. But it chances + The stealth of our most mutual entertainment, + With character too gross, is writ on Juliet. + LUCIO. With child, perhaps? + CLAUDIO. Unhappily, even so. + And the new deputy now for the Duke- + Whether it be the fault and glimpse of newness, + Or whether that the body public be + A horse whereon the governor doth ride, + Who, newly in the seat, that it may know + He can command, lets it straight feel the spur; + Whether the tyranny be in his place, + Or in his eminence that fills it up, + I stagger in. But this new governor + Awakes me all the enrolled penalties + Which have, like unscour'd armour, hung by th' wall + So long that nineteen zodiacs have gone round + And none of them been worn; and, for a name, + Now puts the drowsy and neglected act + Freshly on me. 'Tis surely for a name. + LUCIO. I warrant it is; and thy head stands so tickle on thy + shoulders that a milkmaid, if she be in love, may sigh it off. + Send after the Duke, and appeal to him. + CLAUDIO. I have done so, but he's not to be found. + I prithee, Lucio, do me this kind service: + This day my sister should the cloister enter, + And there receive her approbation; + Acquaint her with the danger of my state; + Implore her, in my voice, that she make friends + To the strict deputy; bid herself assay him. + I have great hope in that; for in her youth + There is a prone and speechless dialect + Such as move men; beside, she hath prosperous art + When she will play with reason and discourse, + And well she can persuade. + LUCIO. I pray she may; as well for the encouragement of the like, + which else would stand under grievous imposition, as for the + enjoying of thy life, who I would be sorry should be thus + foolishly lost at a game of tick-tack. I'll to her. + CLAUDIO. I thank you, good friend Lucio. + LUCIO. Within two hours. + CLAUDIO. Come, officer, away. Exeunt + +SCENE III. A monastery + +Enter DUKE and FRIAR THOMAS + + DUKE. No, holy father; throw away that thought; + Believe not that the dribbling dart of love + Can pierce a complete bosom. Why I desire thee + To give me secret harbour hath a purpose + More grave and wrinkled than the aims and ends + Of burning youth. + FRIAR. May your Grace speak of it? + DUKE. My holy sir, none better knows than you + How I have ever lov'd the life removed, + And held in idle price to haunt assemblies + Where youth, and cost, a witless bravery keeps. + I have deliver'd to Lord Angelo, + A man of stricture and firm abstinence, + My absolute power and place here in Vienna, + And he supposes me travell'd to Poland; + For so I have strew'd it in the common ear, + And so it is received. Now, pious sir, + You will demand of me why I do this. + FRIAR. Gladly, my lord. + DUKE. We have strict statutes and most biting laws, + The needful bits and curbs to headstrong steeds, + Which for this fourteen years we have let slip; + Even like an o'ergrown lion in a cave, + That goes not out to prey. Now, as fond fathers, + Having bound up the threat'ning twigs of birch, + Only to stick it in their children's sight + For terror, not to use, in time the rod + Becomes more mock'd than fear'd; so our decrees, + Dead to infliction, to themselves are dead; + And liberty plucks justice by the nose; + The baby beats the nurse, and quite athwart + Goes all decorum. + FRIAR. It rested in your Grace + To unloose this tied-up justice when you pleas'd; + And it in you more dreadful would have seem'd + Than in Lord Angelo. + DUKE. I do fear, too dreadful. + Sith 'twas my fault to give the people scope, + 'Twould be my tyranny to strike and gall them + For what I bid them do; for we bid this be done, + When evil deeds have their permissive pass + And not the punishment. Therefore, indeed, my father, + I have on Angelo impos'd the office; + Who may, in th' ambush of my name, strike home, + And yet my nature never in the fight + To do in slander. And to behold his sway, + I will, as 'twere a brother of your order, + Visit both prince and people. Therefore, I prithee, + Supply me with the habit, and instruct me + How I may formally in person bear me + Like a true friar. Moe reasons for this action + At our more leisure shall I render you. + Only, this one: Lord Angelo is precise; + Stands at a guard with envy; scarce confesses + That his blood flows, or that his appetite + Is more to bread than stone. Hence shall we see, + If power change purpose, what our seemers be. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. A nunnery + +Enter ISABELLA and FRANCISCA + + ISABELLA. And have you nuns no farther privileges? + FRANCISCA. Are not these large enough? + ISABELLA. Yes, truly; I speak not as desiring more, + But rather wishing a more strict restraint + Upon the sisterhood, the votarists of Saint Clare. + LUCIO. [ Within] Ho! Peace be in this place! + ISABELLA. Who's that which calls? + FRANCISCA. It is a man's voice. Gentle Isabella, + Turn you the key, and know his business of him: + You may, I may not; you are yet unsworn; + When you have vow'd, you must not speak with men + But in the presence of the prioress; + Then, if you speak, you must not show your face, + Or, if you show your face, you must not speak. + He calls again; I pray you answer him. Exit FRANCISCA + ISABELLA. Peace and prosperity! Who is't that calls? + + Enter LUCIO + + LUCIO. Hail, virgin, if you be, as those cheek-roses + Proclaim you are no less. Can you so stead me + As bring me to the sight of Isabella, + A novice of this place, and the fair sister + To her unhappy brother Claudio? + ISABELLA. Why her 'unhappy brother'? Let me ask + The rather, for I now must make you know + I am that Isabella, and his sister. + LUCIO. Gentle and fair, your brother kindly greets you. + Not to be weary with you, he's in prison. + ISABELLA. Woe me! For what? + LUCIO. For that which, if myself might be his judge, + He should receive his punishment in thanks: + He hath got his friend with child. + ISABELLA. Sir, make me not your story. + LUCIO. It is true. + I would not- though 'tis my familiar sin + With maids to seem the lapwing, and to jest, + Tongue far from heart- play with all virgins so: + I hold you as a thing enskied and sainted, + By your renouncement an immortal spirit, + And to be talk'd with in sincerity, + As with a saint. + ISABELLA. You do blaspheme the good in mocking me. + LUCIO. Do not believe it. Fewness and truth, 'tis thus: + Your brother and his lover have embrac'd. + As those that feed grow full, as blossoming time + That from the seedness the bare fallow brings + To teeming foison, even so her plenteous womb + Expresseth his full tilth and husbandry. + ISABELLA. Some one with child by him? My cousin Juliet? + LUCIO. Is she your cousin? + ISABELLA. Adoptedly, as school-maids change their names + By vain though apt affection. + LUCIO. She it is. + ISABELLA. O, let him marry her! + LUCIO. This is the point. + The Duke is very strangely gone from hence; + Bore many gentlemen, myself being one, + In hand, and hope of action; but we do learn, + By those that know the very nerves of state, + His givings-out were of an infinite distance + From his true-meant design. Upon his place, + And with full line of his authority, + Governs Lord Angelo, a man whose blood + Is very snow-broth, one who never feels + The wanton stings and motions of the sense, + But doth rebate and blunt his natural edge + With profits of the mind, study and fast. + He- to give fear to use and liberty, + Which have for long run by the hideous law, + As mice by lions- hath pick'd out an act + Under whose heavy sense your brother's life + Falls into forfeit; he arrests him on it, + And follows close the rigour of the statute + To make him an example. All hope is gone, + Unless you have the grace by your fair prayer + To soften Angelo. And that's my pith of business + 'Twixt you and your poor brother. + ISABELLA. Doth he so seek his life? + LUCIO. Has censur'd him + Already, and, as I hear, the Provost hath + A warrant for his execution. + ISABELLA. Alas! what poor ability's in me + To do him good? + LUCIO. Assay the pow'r you have. + ISABELLA. My power, alas, I doubt! + LUCIO. Our doubts are traitors, + And make us lose the good we oft might win + By fearing to attempt. Go to Lord Angelo, + And let him learn to know, when maidens sue, + Men give like gods; but when they weep and kneel, + All their petitions are as freely theirs + As they themselves would owe them. + ISABELLA. I'll see what I can do. + LUCIO. But speedily. + ISABELLA. I will about it straight; + No longer staying but to give the Mother + Notice of my affair. I humbly thank you. + Commend me to my brother; soon at night + I'll send him certain word of my success. + LUCIO. I take my leave of you. + ISABELLA. Good sir, adieu. Exeunt + +ACT II. Scene I. A hall in ANGELO'S house + +Enter ANGELO, ESCALUS, a JUSTICE, PROVOST, OFFICERS, and other +ATTENDANTS + + ANGELO. We must not make a scarecrow of the law, + Setting it up to fear the birds of prey, + And let it keep one shape till custom make it + Their perch, and not their terror. + ESCALUS. Ay, but yet + Let us be keen, and rather cut a little + Than fall and bruise to death. Alas! this gentleman, + Whom I would save, had a most noble father. + Let but your honour know, + Whom I believe to be most strait in virtue, + That, in the working of your own affections, + Had time coher'd with place, or place with wishing, + Or that the resolute acting of our blood + Could have attain'd th' effect of your own purpose + Whether you had not sometime in your life + Err'd in this point which now you censure him, + And pull'd the law upon you. + ANGELO. 'Tis one thing to be tempted, Escalus, + Another thing to fall. I not deny + The jury, passing on the prisoner's life, + May in the sworn twelve have a thief or two + Guiltier than him they try. What's open made to justice, + That justice seizes. What knows the laws + That thieves do pass on thieves? 'Tis very pregnant, + The jewel that we find, we stoop and take't, + Because we see it; but what we do not see + We tread upon, and never think of it. + You may not so extenuate his offence + For I have had such faults; but rather tell me, + When I, that censure him, do so offend, + Let mine own judgment pattern out my death, + And nothing come in partial. Sir, he must die. + ESCALUS. Be it as your wisdom will. + ANGELO. Where is the Provost? + PROVOST. Here, if it like your honour. + ANGELO. See that Claudio + Be executed by nine to-morrow morning; + Bring him his confessor; let him be prepar'd; + For that's the utmost of his pilgrimage. Exit PROVOST + ESCALUS. [Aside] Well, heaven forgive him! and forgive us all! + Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall; + Some run from breaks of ice, and answer none, + And some condemned for a fault alone. + + Enter ELBOW and OFFICERS with FROTH and POMPEY + + ELBOW. Come, bring them away; if these be good people in a + commonweal that do nothing but use their abuses in common houses, + I know no law; bring them away. + ANGELO. How now, sir! What's your name, and what's the matter? + ELBOW. If it please your honour, I am the poor Duke's constable, + and my name is Elbow; I do lean upon justice, sir, and do bring + in here before your good honour two notorious benefactors. + ANGELO. Benefactors! Well- what benefactors are they? Are they not + malefactors? + ELBOW. If it please your honour, I know not well what they are; but + precise villains they are, that I am sure of, and void of all + profanation in the world that good Christians ought to have. + ESCALUS. This comes off well; here's a wise officer. + ANGELO. Go to; what quality are they of? Elbow is your name? Why + dost thou not speak, Elbow? + POMPEY. He cannot, sir; he's out at elbow. + ANGELO. What are you, sir? + ELBOW. He, sir? A tapster, sir; parcel-bawd; one that serves a bad + woman; whose house, sir, was, as they say, pluck'd down in the + suburbs; and now she professes a hot-house, which, I think, is a + very ill house too. + ESCALUS. How know you that? + ELBOW. My Wife, sir, whom I detest before heaven and your honour- + ESCALUS. How! thy wife! + ELBOW. Ay, sir; whom I thank heaven, is an honest woman- + ESCALUS. Dost thou detest her therefore? + ELBOW. I say, sir, I will detest myself also, as well as she, that + this house, if it be not a bawd's house, it is pity of her life, + for it is a naughty house. + ESCALUS. How dost thou know that, constable? + ELBOW. Marry, sir, by my wife; who, if she had been a woman + cardinally given, might have been accus'd in fornication, + adultery, and all uncleanliness there. + ESCALUS. By the woman's means? + ELBOW. Ay, sir, by Mistress Overdone's means; but as she spit in + his face, so she defied him. + POMPEY. Sir, if it please your honour, this is not so. + ELBOW. Prove it before these varlets here, thou honourable man, + prove it. + ESCALUS. Do you hear how he misplaces? + POMPEY. Sir, she came in great with child; and longing, saving your + honour's reverence, for stew'd prunes. Sir, we had but two in the + house, which at that very distant time stood, as it were, in a + fruit dish, a dish of some three pence; your honours have seen + such dishes; they are not China dishes, but very good dishes. + ESCALUS. Go to, go to; no matter for the dish, sir. + POMPEY. No, indeed, sir, not of a pin; you are therein in the + right; but to the point. As I say, this Mistress Elbow, being, as + I say, with child, and being great-bellied, and longing, as I + said, for prunes; and having but two in the dish, as I said, + Master Froth here, this very man, having eaten the rest, as I + said, and, as I say, paying for them very honestly; for, as you + know, Master Froth, I could not give you three pence again- + FROTH. No, indeed. + POMPEY. Very well; you being then, if you be rememb'red, cracking + the stones of the foresaid prunes- + FROTH. Ay, so I did indeed. + POMPEY. Why, very well; I telling you then, if you be rememb'red, + that such a one and such a one were past cure of the thing you + wot of, unless they kept very good diet, as I told you- + FROTH. All this is true. + POMPEY. Why, very well then- + ESCALUS. Come, you are a tedious fool. To the purpose: what was + done to Elbow's wife that he hath cause to complain of? Come me + to what was done to her. + POMPEY. Sir, your honour cannot come to that yet. + ESCALUS. No, sir, nor I mean it not. + POMPEY. Sir, but you shall come to it, by your honour's leave. And, + I beseech you, look into Master Froth here, sir, a man of + fourscore pound a year; whose father died at Hallowmas- was't not + at Hallowmas, Master Froth? + FROTH. All-hallond eve. + POMPEY. Why, very well; I hope here be truths. He, sir, sitting, as + I say, in a lower chair, sir; 'twas in the Bunch of Grapes, + where, indeed, you have a delight to sit, have you not? + FROTH. I have so; because it is an open room, and good for winter. + POMPEY. Why, very well then; I hope here be truths. + ANGELO. This will last out a night in Russia, + When nights are longest there; I'll take my leave, + And leave you to the hearing of the cause, + Hoping you'll find good cause to whip them all. + ESCALUS. I think no less. Good morrow to your lordship. + [Exit ANGELO] Now, sir, come on; what was done to Elbow's wife, + once more? + POMPEY. Once?- sir. There was nothing done to her once. + ELBOW. I beseech you, sir, ask him what this man did to my wife. + POMPEY. I beseech your honour, ask me. + ESCALUS. Well, sir, what did this gentleman to her? + POMPEY. I beseech you, sir, look in this gentleman's face. Good + Master Froth, look upon his honour; 'tis for a good purpose. Doth + your honour mark his face? + ESCALUS. Ay, sir, very well. + POMPEY. Nay, I beseech you, mark it well. + ESCALUS. Well, I do so. + POMPEY. Doth your honour see any harm in his face? + ESCALUS. Why, no. + POMPEY. I'll be suppos'd upon a book his face is the worst thing + about him. Good then; if his face be the worst thing about him, + how could Master Froth do the constable's wife any harm? I would + know that of your honour. + ESCALUS. He's in the right, constable; what say you to it? + ELBOW. First, an it like you, the house is a respected house; next, + this is a respected fellow; and his mistress is a respected + woman. + POMPEY. By this hand, sir, his wife is a more respected person than + any of us all. + ELBOW. Varlet, thou liest; thou liest, wicket varlet; the time is + yet to come that she was ever respected with man, woman, or + child. + POMPEY. Sir, she was respected with him before he married with her. + ESCALUS. Which is the wiser here, Justice or Iniquity? Is this + true? + ELBOW. O thou caitiff! O thou varlet! O thou wicked Hannibal! I + respected with her before I was married to her! If ever I was + respected with her, or she with me, let not your worship think me + the poor Duke's officer. Prove this, thou wicked Hannibal, or + I'll have mine action of batt'ry on thee. + ESCALUS. If he took you a box o' th' ear, you might have your + action of slander too. + ELBOW. Marry, I thank your good worship for it. What is't your + worship's pleasure I shall do with this wicked caitiff? + ESCALUS. Truly, officer, because he hath some offences in him that + thou wouldst discover if thou couldst, let him continue in his + courses till thou know'st what they are. + ELBOW. Marry, I thank your worship for it. Thou seest, thou wicked + varlet, now, what's come upon thee: thou art to continue now, + thou varlet; thou art to continue. + ESCALUS. Where were you born, friend? + FROTH. Here in Vienna, sir. + ESCALUS. Are you of fourscore pounds a year? + FROTH. Yes, an't please you, sir. + ESCALUS. So. What trade are you of, sir? + POMPEY. A tapster, a poor widow's tapster. + ESCALUS. Your mistress' name? + POMPEY. Mistress Overdone. + ESCALUS. Hath she had any more than one husband? + POMPEY. Nine, sir; Overdone by the last. + ESCALUS. Nine! Come hither to me, Master Froth. Master Froth, I + would not have you acquainted with tapsters: they will draw you, + Master Froth, and you will hang them. Get you gone, and let me + hear no more of you. + FROTH. I thank your worship. For mine own part, I never come into + any room in a taphouse but I am drawn in. + ESCALUS. Well, no more of it, Master Froth; farewell. [Exit FROTH] + Come you hither to me, Master Tapster; what's your name, Master + Tapster? + POMPEY. Pompey. + ESCALUS. What else? + POMPEY. Bum, sir. + ESCALUS. Troth, and your bum is the greatest thing about you; so + that, in the beastliest sense, you are Pompey the Great. Pompey, + you are partly a bawd, Pompey, howsoever you colour it in being a + tapster. Are you not? Come, tell me true; it shall be the better + for you. + POMPEY. Truly, sir, I am a poor fellow that would live. + ESCALUS. How would you live, Pompey- by being a bawd? What do you + think of the trade, Pompey? Is it a lawful trade? + POMPEY. If the law would allow it, sir. + ESCALUS. But the law will not allow it, Pompey; nor it shall not be + allowed in Vienna. + POMPEY. Does your worship mean to geld and splay all the youth of + the city? + ESCALUS. No, Pompey. + POMPEY. Truly, sir, in my poor opinion, they will to't then. If + your worship will take order for the drabs and the knaves, you + need not to fear the bawds. + ESCALUS. There is pretty orders beginning, I can tell you: but it + is but heading and hanging. + POMPEY. If you head and hang all that offend that way but for ten + year together, you'll be glad to give out a commission for more + heads; if this law hold in Vienna ten year, I'll rent the fairest + house in it, after threepence a bay. If you live to see this come + to pass, say Pompey told you so. + ESCALUS. Thank you, good Pompey; and, in requital of your prophecy, + hark you: I advise you, let me not find you before me again upon + any complaint whatsoever- no, not for dwelling where you do; if I + do, Pompey, I shall beat you to your tent, and prove a shrewd + Caesar to you; in plain dealing, Pompey, I shall have you whipt. + So for this time, Pompey, fare you well. + POMPEY. I thank your worship for your good counsel; [Aside] but I + shall follow it as the flesh and fortune shall better determine. + Whip me? No, no; let carman whip his jade; + The valiant heart's not whipt out of his trade. Exit + ESCALUS. Come hither to me, Master Elbow; come hither, Master + Constable. How long have you been in this place of constable? + ELBOW. Seven year and a half, sir. + ESCALUS. I thought, by the readiness in the office, you had + continued in it some time. You say seven years together? + ELBOW. And a half, sir. + ESCALUS. Alas, it hath been great pains to you! They do you wrong + to put you so oft upon't. Are there not men in your ward + sufficient to serve it? + ELBOW. Faith, sir, few of any wit in such matters; as they are + chosen, they are glad to choose me for them; I do it for some + piece of money, and go through with all. + ESCALUS. Look you, bring me in the names of some six or seven, the + most sufficient of your parish. + ELBOW. To your worship's house, sir? + ESCALUS. To my house. Fare you well. [Exit ELBOW] + What's o'clock, think you? + JUSTICE. Eleven, sir. + ESCALUS. I pray you home to dinner with me. + JUSTICE. I humbly thank you. + ESCALUS. It grieves me for the death of Claudio; + But there's no remedy. + JUSTICE. Lord Angelo is severe. + ESCALUS. It is but needful: + Mercy is not itself that oft looks so; + Pardon is still the nurse of second woe. + But yet, poor Claudio! There is no remedy. + Come, sir. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Another room in ANGELO'S house + +Enter PROVOST and a SERVANT + + SERVANT. He's hearing of a cause; he will come straight. + I'll tell him of you. + PROVOST. Pray you do. [Exit SERVANT] I'll know + His pleasure; may be he will relent. Alas, + He hath but as offended in a dream! + All sects, all ages, smack of this vice; and he + To die for 't! + + Enter ANGELO + + ANGELO. Now, what's the matter, Provost? + PROVOST. Is it your will Claudio shall die to-morrow? + ANGELO. Did not I tell thee yea? Hadst thou not order? + Why dost thou ask again? + PROVOST. Lest I might be too rash; + Under your good correction, I have seen + When, after execution, judgment hath + Repented o'er his doom. + ANGELO. Go to; let that be mine. + Do you your office, or give up your place, + And you shall well be spar'd. + PROVOST. I crave your honour's pardon. + What shall be done, sir, with the groaning Juliet? + She's very near her hour. + ANGELO. Dispose of her + To some more fitter place, and that with speed. + + Re-enter SERVANT + + SERVANT. Here is the sister of the man condemn'd + Desires access to you. + ANGELO. Hath he a sister? + PROVOST. Ay, my good lord; a very virtuous maid, + And to be shortly of a sisterhood, + If not already. + ANGELO. Well, let her be admitted. Exit SERVANT + See you the fornicatress be remov'd; + Let her have needful but not lavish means; + There shall be order for't. + + Enter Lucio and ISABELLA + + PROVOST. [Going] Save your honour! + ANGELO. Stay a little while. [To ISABELLA] Y'are welcome; what's + your will? + ISABELLA. I am a woeful suitor to your honour, + Please but your honour hear me. + ANGELO. Well; what's your suit? + ISABELLA. There is a vice that most I do abhor, + And most desire should meet the blow of justice; + For which I would not plead, but that I must; + For which I must not plead, but that I am + At war 'twixt will and will not. + ANGELO. Well; the matter? + ISABELLA. I have a brother is condemn'd to die; + I do beseech you, let it be his fault, + And not my brother. + PROVOST. [Aside] Heaven give thee moving graces. + ANGELO. Condemn the fault and not the actor of it! + Why, every fault's condemn'd ere it be done; + Mine were the very cipher of a function, + To fine the faults whose fine stands in record, + And let go by the actor. + ISABELLA. O just but severe law! + I had a brother, then. Heaven keep your honour! + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] Give't not o'er so; to him again, entreat him, + Kneel down before him, hang upon his gown; + You are too cold: if you should need a pin, + You could not with more tame a tongue desire it. + To him, I say. + ISABELLA. Must he needs die? + ANGELO. Maiden, no remedy. + ISABELLA. Yes; I do think that you might pardon him. + And neither heaven nor man grieve at the mercy. + ANGELO. I will not do't. + ISABELLA. But can you, if you would? + ANGELO. Look, what I will not, that I cannot do. + ISABELLA. But might you do't, and do the world no wrong, + If so your heart were touch'd with that remorse + As mine is to him? + ANGELO. He's sentenc'd; 'tis too late. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] You are too cold. + ISABELLA. Too late? Why, no; I, that do speak a word, + May call it back again. Well, believe this: + No ceremony that to great ones longs, + Not the king's crown nor the deputed sword, + The marshal's truncheon nor the judge's robe, + Become them with one half so good a grace + As mercy does. + If he had been as you, and you as he, + You would have slipp'd like him; but he, like you, + Would not have been so stern. + ANGELO. Pray you be gone. + ISABELLA. I would to heaven I had your potency, + And you were Isabel! Should it then be thus? + No; I would tell what 'twere to be a judge + And what a prisoner. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] Ay, touch him; there's the vein. + ANGELO. Your brother is a forfeit of the law, + And you but waste your words. + ISABELLA. Alas! Alas! + Why, all the souls that were were forfeit once; + And He that might the vantage best have took + Found out the remedy. How would you be + If He, which is the top of judgment, should + But judge you as you are? O, think on that; + And mercy then will breathe within your lips, + Like man new made. + ANGELO. Be you content, fair maid. + It is the law, not I condemn your brother. + Were he my kinsman, brother, or my son, + It should be thus with him. He must die to-morrow. + ISABELLA. To-morrow! O, that's sudden! Spare him, spare him. + He's not prepar'd for death. Even for our kitchens + We kill the fowl of season; shall we serve heaven + With less respect than we do minister + To our gross selves? Good, good my lord, bethink you. + Who is it that hath died for this offence? + There's many have committed it. + LUCIO. [Aside] Ay, well said. + ANGELO. The law hath not been dead, though it hath slept. + Those many had not dar'd to do that evil + If the first that did th' edict infringe + Had answer'd for his deed. Now 'tis awake, + Takes note of what is done, and, like a prophet, + Looks in a glass that shows what future evils- + Either now or by remissness new conceiv'd, + And so in progress to be hatch'd and born- + Are now to have no successive degrees, + But here they live to end. + ISABELLA. Yet show some pity. + ANGELO. I show it most of all when I show justice; + For then I pity those I do not know, + Which a dismiss'd offence would after gall, + And do him right that, answering one foul wrong, + Lives not to act another. Be satisfied; + Your brother dies to-morrow; be content. + ISABELLA. So you must be the first that gives this sentence, + And he that suffers. O, it is excellent + To have a giant's strength! But it is tyrannous + To use it like a giant. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] That's well said. + ISABELLA. Could great men thunder + As Jove himself does, Jove would never be quiet, + For every pelting petty officer + Would use his heaven for thunder, + Nothing but thunder. Merciful Heaven, + Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulphurous bolt, + Splits the unwedgeable and gnarled oak + Than the soft myrtle. But man, proud man, + Dress'd in a little brief authority, + Most ignorant of what he's most assur'd, + His glassy essence, like an angry ape, + Plays such fantastic tricks before high heaven + As makes the angels weep; who, with our speens, + Would all themselves laugh mortal. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] O, to him, to him, wench! He will relent; + He's coming; I perceive 't. + PROVOST. [Aside] Pray heaven she win him. + ISABELLA. We cannot weigh our brother with ourself. + Great men may jest with saints: 'tis wit in them; + But in the less foul profanation. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] Thou'rt i' th' right, girl; more o' that. + ISABELLA. That in the captain's but a choleric word + Which in the soldier is flat blasphemy. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] Art avis'd o' that? More on't. + ANGELO. Why do you put these sayings upon me? + ISABELLA. Because authority, though it err like others, + Hath yet a kind of medicine in itself + That skins the vice o' th' top. Go to your bosom, + Knock there, and ask your heart what it doth know + That's like my brother's fault. If it confess + A natural guiltiness such as is his, + Let it not sound a thought upon your tongue + Against my brother's life. + ANGELO. [Aside] She speaks, and 'tis + Such sense that my sense breeds with it.- Fare you well. + ISABELLA. Gentle my lord, turn back. + ANGELO. I will bethink me. Come again to-morrow. + ISABELLA. Hark how I'll bribe you; good my lord, turn back. + ANGELO. How, bribe me? + ISABELLA. Ay, with such gifts that heaven shall share with you. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA) You had marr'd all else. + ISABELLA. Not with fond sicles of the tested gold, + Or stones, whose rate are either rich or poor + As fancy values them; but with true prayers + That shall be up at heaven and enter there + Ere sun-rise, prayers from preserved souls, + From fasting maids, whose minds are dedicate + To nothing temporal. + ANGELO. Well; come to me to-morrow. + LUCIO. [To ISABELLA] Go to; 'tis well; away. + ISABELLA. Heaven keep your honour safe! + ANGELO. [Aside] Amen; for I + Am that way going to temptation + Where prayers cross. + ISABELLA. At what hour to-morrow + Shall I attend your lordship? + ANGELO. At any time 'fore noon. + ISABELLA. Save your honour! Exeunt all but ANGELO + ANGELO. From thee; even from thy virtue! + What's this, what's this? Is this her fault or mine? + The tempter or the tempted, who sins most? + Ha! + Not she; nor doth she tempt; but it is I + That, lying by the violet in the sun, + Do as the carrion does, not as the flow'r, + Corrupt with virtuous season. Can it be + That modesty may more betray our sense + Than woman's lightness? Having waste ground enough, + Shall we desire to raze the sanctuary, + And pitch our evils there? O, fie, fie, fie! + What dost thou, or what art thou, Angelo? + Dost thou desire her foully for those things + That make her good? O, let her brother live! + Thieves for their robbery have authority + When judges steal themselves. What, do I love her, + That I desire to hear her speak again, + And feast upon her eyes? What is't I dream on? + O cunning enemy, that, to catch a saint, + With saints dost bait thy hook! Most dangerous + Is that temptation that doth goad us on + To sin in loving virtue. Never could the strumpet, + With all her double vigour, art and nature, + Once stir my temper; but this virtuous maid + Subdues me quite. Ever till now, + When men were fond, I smil'd and wond'red how. Exit + +SCENE III. A prison + +Enter, severally, DUKE, disguised as a FRIAR, and PROVOST + + DUKE. Hail to you, Provost! so I think you are. + PROVOST. I am the Provost. What's your will, good friar? + DUKE. Bound by my charity and my blest order, + I come to visit the afflicted spirits + Here in the prison. Do me the common right + To let me see them, and to make me know + The nature of their crimes, that I may minister + To them accordingly. + PROVOST. I would do more than that, if more were needful. + + Enter JULIET + + Look, here comes one; a gentlewoman of mine, + Who, falling in the flaws of her own youth, + Hath blister'd her report. She is with child; + And he that got it, sentenc'd- a young man + More fit to do another such offence + Than die for this. + DUKE. When must he die? + PROVOST. As I do think, to-morrow. + [To JULIET] I have provided for you; stay awhile + And you shall be conducted. + DUKE. Repent you, fair one, of the sin you carry? + JULIET. I do; and bear the shame most patiently. + DUKE. I'll teach you how you shall arraign your conscience, + And try your penitence, if it be sound + Or hollowly put on. + JULIET. I'll gladly learn. + DUKE. Love you the man that wrong'd you? + JULIET. Yes, as I love the woman that wrong'd him. + DUKE. So then, it seems, your most offenceful act + Was mutually committed. + JULIET. Mutually. + DUKE. Then was your sin of heavier kind than his. + JULIET. I do confess it, and repent it, father. + DUKE. 'Tis meet so, daughter; but lest you do repent + As that the sin hath brought you to this shame, + Which sorrow is always toward ourselves, not heaven, + Showing we would not spare heaven as we love it, + But as we stand in fear- + JULIET. I do repent me as it is an evil, + And take the shame with joy. + DUKE. There rest. + Your partner, as I hear, must die to-morrow, + And I am going with instruction to him. + Grace go with you! Benedicite! Exit + JULIET. Must die to-morrow! O, injurious law, + That respites me a life whose very comfort + Is still a dying horror! + PROVOST. 'Tis pity of him. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. ANGELO'S house + +Enter ANGELO + + ANGELO. When I would pray and think, I think and pray + To several subjects. Heaven hath my empty words, + Whilst my invention, hearing not my tongue, + Anchors on Isabel. Heaven in my mouth, + As if I did but only chew his name, + And in my heart the strong and swelling evil + Of my conception. The state whereon I studied + Is, like a good thing being often read, + Grown sere and tedious; yea, my gravity, + Wherein- let no man hear me- I take pride, + Could I with boot change for an idle plume + Which the air beats for vain. O place, O form, + How often dost thou with thy case, thy habit, + Wrench awe from fools, and tie the wiser souls + To thy false seeming! Blood, thou art blood. + Let's write 'good angel' on the devil's horn; + 'Tis not the devil's crest. + + Enter SERVANT + + How now, who's there? + SERVANT. One Isabel, a sister, desires access to you. + ANGELO. Teach her the way. [Exit SERVANT] O heavens! + Why does my blood thus muster to my heart, + Making both it unable for itself + And dispossessing all my other parts + Of necessary fitness? + So play the foolish throngs with one that swoons; + Come all to help him, and so stop the air + By which he should revive; and even so + The general subject to a well-wish'd king + Quit their own part, and in obsequious fondness + Crowd to his presence, where their untaught love + Must needs appear offence. + + Enter ISABELLA + + How now, fair maid? + ISABELLA. I am come to know your pleasure. + ANGELO. That you might know it would much better please me + Than to demand what 'tis. Your brother cannot live. + ISABELLA. Even so! Heaven keep your honour! + ANGELO. Yet may he live awhile, and, it may be, + As long as you or I; yet he must die. + ISABELLA. Under your sentence? + ANGELO. Yea. + ISABELLA. When? I beseech you; that in his reprieve, + Longer or shorter, he may be so fitted + That his soul sicken not. + ANGELO. Ha! Fie, these filthy vices! It were as good + To pardon him that hath from nature stol'n + A man already made, as to remit + Their saucy sweetness that do coin heaven's image + In stamps that are forbid; 'tis all as easy + Falsely to take away a life true made + As to put metal in restrained means + To make a false one. + ISABELLA. 'Tis set down so in heaven, but not in earth. + ANGELO. Say you so? Then I shall pose you quickly. + Which had you rather- that the most just law + Now took your brother's life; or, to redeem him, + Give up your body to such sweet uncleanness + As she that he hath stain'd? + ISABELLA. Sir, believe this: + I had rather give my body than my soul. + ANGELO. I talk not of your soul; our compell'd sins + Stand more for number than for accompt. + ISABELLA. How say you? + ANGELO. Nay, I'll not warrant that; for I can speak + Against the thing I say. Answer to this: + I, now the voice of the recorded law, + Pronounce a sentence on your brother's life; + Might there not be a charity in sin + To save this brother's life? + ISABELLA. Please you to do't, + I'll take it as a peril to my soul + It is no sin at all, but charity. + ANGELO. Pleas'd you to do't at peril of your soul, + Were equal poise of sin and charity. + ISABELLA. That I do beg his life, if it be sin, + Heaven let me bear it! You granting of my suit, + If that be sin, I'll make it my morn prayer + To have it added to the faults of mine, + And nothing of your answer. + ANGELO. Nay, but hear me; + Your sense pursues not mine; either you are ignorant + Or seem so, craftily; and that's not good. + ISABELLA. Let me be ignorant, and in nothing good + But graciously to know I am no better. + ANGELO. Thus wisdom wishes to appear most bright + When it doth tax itself; as these black masks + Proclaim an enshielded beauty ten times louder + Than beauty could, display'd. But mark me: + To be received plain, I'll speak more gross- + Your brother is to die. + ISABELLA. So. + ANGELO. And his offence is so, as it appears, + Accountant to the law upon that pain. + ISABELLA. True. + ANGELO. Admit no other way to save his life, + As I subscribe not that, nor any other, + But, in the loss of question, that you, his sister, + Finding yourself desir'd of such a person + Whose credit with the judge, or own great place, + Could fetch your brother from the manacles + Of the all-binding law; and that there were + No earthly mean to save him but that either + You must lay down the treasures of your body + To this supposed, or else to let him suffer- + What would you do? + ISABELLA. As much for my poor brother as myself; + That is, were I under the terms of death, + Th' impression of keen whips I'd wear as rubies, + And strip myself to death as to a bed + That longing have been sick for, ere I'd yield + My body up to shame. + ANGELO. Then must your brother die. + ISABELLA. And 'twere the cheaper way: + Better it were a brother died at once + Than that a sister, by redeeming him, + Should die for ever. + ANGELO. Were not you, then, as cruel as the sentence + That you have slander'd so? + ISABELLA. Ignominy in ransom and free pardon + Are of two houses: lawful mercy + Is nothing kin to foul redemption. + ANGELO. You seem'd of late to make the law a tyrant; + And rather prov'd the sliding of your brother + A merriment than a vice. + ISABELLA. O, pardon me, my lord! It oft falls out, + To have what we would have, we speak not what we mean: + I something do excuse the thing I hate + For his advantage that I dearly love. + ANGELO. We are all frail. + ISABELLA. Else let my brother die, + If not a fedary but only he + Owe and succeed thy weakness. + ANGELO. Nay, women are frail too. + ISABELLA. Ay, as the glasses where they view themselves, + Which are as easy broke as they make forms. + Women, help heaven! Men their creation mar + In profiting by them. Nay, call us ten times frail; + For we are soft as our complexions are, + And credulous to false prints. + ANGELO. I think it well; + And from this testimony of your own sex, + Since I suppose we are made to be no stronger + Than faults may shake our frames, let me be bold. + I do arrest your words. Be that you are, + That is, a woman; if you be more, you're none; + If you be one, as you are well express'd + By all external warrants, show it now + By putting on the destin'd livery. + ISABELLA. I have no tongue but one; gentle, my lord, + Let me intreat you speak the former language. + ANGELO. Plainly conceive, I love you. + ISABELLA. My brother did love Juliet, + And you tell me that he shall die for't. + ANGELO. He shall not, Isabel, if you give me love. + ISABELLA. I know your virtue hath a license in't, + Which seems a little fouler than it is, + To pluck on others. + ANGELO. Believe me, on mine honour, + My words express my purpose. + ISABELLA. Ha! little honour to be much believ'd, + And most pernicious purpose! Seeming, seeming! + I will proclaim thee, Angelo, look for't. + Sign me a present pardon for my brother + Or, with an outstretch'd throat, I'll tell the world aloud + What man thou art. + ANGELO. Who will believe thee, Isabel? + My unsoil'd name, th' austereness of my life, + My vouch against you, and my place i' th' state, + Will so your accusation overweigh + That you shall stifle in your own report, + And smell of calumny. I have begun, + And now I give my sensual race the rein: + Fit thy consent to my sharp appetite; + Lay by all nicety and prolixious blushes + That banish what they sue for; redeem thy brother + By yielding up thy body to my will; + Or else he must not only die the death, + But thy unkindness shall his death draw out + To ling'ring sufferance. Answer me to-morrow, + Or, by the affection that now guides me most, + I'll prove a tyrant to him. As for you, + Say what you can: my false o'erweighs your true. Exit + ISABELLA. To whom should I complain? Did I tell this, + Who would believe me? O perilous mouths + That bear in them one and the self-same tongue + Either of condemnation or approof, + Bidding the law make curtsy to their will; + Hooking both right and wrong to th' appetite, + To follow as it draws! I'll to my brother. + Though he hath fall'n by prompture of the blood, + Yet hath he in him such a mind of honour + That, had he twenty heads to tender down + On twenty bloody blocks, he'd yield them up + Before his sister should her body stoop + To such abhorr'd pollution. + Then, Isabel, live chaste, and, brother, die: + More than our brother is our chastity. + I'll tell him yet of Angelo's request, + And fit his mind to death, for his soul's rest. Exit + +ACT III. SCENE I. The prison + +Enter DUKE, disguised as before, CLAUDIO, and PROVOST + + DUKE. So, then you hope of pardon from Lord Angelo? + CLAUDIO. The miserable have no other medicine + But only hope: + I have hope to Eve, and am prepar'd to die. + DUKE. Be absolute for death; either death or life + Shall thereby be the sweeter. Reason thus with life. + If I do lose thee, I do lose a thing + That none but fools would keep. A breath thou art, + Servile to all the skyey influences, + That dost this habitation where thou keep'st + Hourly afflict. Merely, thou art Death's fool; + For him thou labour'st by thy flight to shun + And yet run'st toward him still. Thou art not noble; + For all th' accommodations that thou bear'st + Are nurs'd by baseness. Thou 'rt by no means valiant; + For thou dost fear the soft and tender fork + Of a poor worm. Thy best of rest is sleep, + And that thou oft provok'st; yet grossly fear'st + Thy death, which is no more. Thou art not thyself; + For thou exists on many a thousand grains + That issue out of dust. Happy thou art not; + For what thou hast not, still thou striv'st to get, + And what thou hast, forget'st. Thou art not certain; + For thy complexion shifts to strange effects, + After the moon. If thou art rich, thou'rt poor; + For, like an ass whose back with ingots bows, + Thou bear'st thy heavy riches but a journey, + And Death unloads thee. Friend hast thou none; + For thine own bowels which do call thee sire, + The mere effusion of thy proper loins, + Do curse the gout, serpigo, and the rheum, + For ending thee no sooner. Thou hast nor youth nor age, + But, as it were, an after-dinner's sleep, + Dreaming on both; for all thy blessed youth + Becomes as aged, and doth beg the alms + Of palsied eld; and when thou art old and rich, + Thou hast neither heat, affection, limb, nor beauty, + To make thy riches pleasant. What's yet in this + That bears the name of life? Yet in this life + Lie hid moe thousand deaths; yet death we fear, + That makes these odds all even. + CLAUDIO. I humbly thank you. + To sue to live, I find I seek to die; + And, seeking death, find life. Let it come on. + ISABELLA. [Within] What, ho! Peace here; grace and good company! + PROVOST. Who's there? Come in; the wish deserves a welcome. + DUKE. Dear sir, ere long I'll visit you again. + CLAUDIO. Most holy sir, I thank you. + + Enter ISABELLA + + ISABELLA. My business is a word or two with Claudio. + PROVOST. And very welcome. Look, signior, here's your sister. + DUKE. Provost, a word with you. + PROVOST. As many as you please. + DUKE. Bring me to hear them speak, where I may be conceal'd. + Exeunt DUKE and PROVOST + CLAUDIO. Now, sister, what's the comfort? + ISABELLA. Why, + As all comforts are; most good, most good, indeed. + Lord Angelo, having affairs to heaven, + Intends you for his swift ambassador, + Where you shall be an everlasting leiger. + Therefore, your best appointment make with speed; + To-morrow you set on. + CLAUDIO. Is there no remedy? + ISABELLA. None, but such remedy as, to save a head, + To cleave a heart in twain. + CLAUDIO. But is there any? + ISABELLA. Yes, brother, you may live: + There is a devilish mercy in the judge, + If you'll implore it, that will free your life, + But fetter you till death. + CLAUDIO. Perpetual durance? + ISABELLA. Ay, just; perpetual durance, a restraint, + Though all the world's vastidity you had, + To a determin'd scope. + CLAUDIO. But in what nature? + ISABELLA. In such a one as, you consenting to't, + Would bark your honour from that trunk you bear, + And leave you naked. + CLAUDIO. Let me know the point. + ISABELLA. O, I do fear thee, Claudio; and I quake, + Lest thou a feverous life shouldst entertain, + And six or seven winters more respect + Than a perpetual honour. Dar'st thou die? + The sense of death is most in apprehension; + And the poor beetle that we tread upon + In corporal sufferance finds a pang as great + As when a giant dies. + CLAUDIO. Why give you me this shame? + Think you I can a resolution fetch + From flow'ry tenderness? If I must die, + I will encounter darkness as a bride + And hug it in mine arms. + ISABELLA. There spake my brother; there my father's grave + Did utter forth a voice. Yes, thou must die: + Thou art too noble to conserve a life + In base appliances. This outward-sainted deputy, + Whose settled visage and deliberate word + Nips youth i' th' head, and follies doth enew + As falcon doth the fowl, is yet a devil; + His filth within being cast, he would appear + A pond as deep as hell. + CLAUDIO. The precise Angelo! + ISABELLA. O, 'tis the cunning livery of hell + The damned'st body to invest and cover + In precise guards! Dost thou think, Claudio, + If I would yield him my virginity + Thou mightst be freed? + CLAUDIO. O heavens! it cannot be. + ISABELLA. Yes, he would give't thee, from this rank offence, + So to offend him still. This night's the time + That I should do what I abhor to name, + Or else thou diest to-morrow. + CLAUDIO. Thou shalt not do't. + ISABELLA. O, were it but my life! + I'd throw it down for your deliverance + As frankly as a pin. + CLAUDIO. Thanks, dear Isabel. + ISABELLA. Be ready, Claudio, for your death to-morrow. + CLAUDIO. Yes. Has he affections in him + That thus can make him bite the law by th' nose + When he would force it? Sure it is no sin; + Or of the deadly seven it is the least. + ISABELLA. Which is the least? + CLAUDIO. If it were damnable, he being so wise, + Why would he for the momentary trick + Be perdurably fin'd?- O Isabel! + ISABELLA. What says my brother? + CLAUDIO. Death is a fearful thing. + ISABELLA. And shamed life a hateful. + CLAUDIO. Ay, but to die, and go we know not where; + To lie in cold obstruction, and to rot; + This sensible warm motion to become + A kneaded clod; and the delighted spirit + To bathe in fiery floods or to reside + In thrilling region of thick-ribbed ice; + To be imprison'd in the viewless winds, + And blown with restless violence round about + The pendent world; or to be worse than worst + Of those that lawless and incertain thought + Imagine howling- 'tis too horrible. + The weariest and most loathed worldly life + That age, ache, penury, and imprisonment, + Can lay on nature is a paradise + To what we fear of death. + ISABELLA. Alas, alas! + CLAUDIO. Sweet sister, let me live. + What sin you do to save a brother's life, + Nature dispenses with the deed so far + That it becomes a virtue. + ISABELLA. O you beast! + O faithless coward! O dishonest wretch! + Wilt thou be made a man out of my vice? + Is't not a kind of incest to take life + From thine own sister's shame? What should I think? + Heaven shield my mother play'd my father fair! + For such a warped slip of wilderness + Ne'er issu'd from his blood. Take my defiance; + Die; perish. Might but my bending down + Reprieve thee from thy fate, it should proceed. + I'll pray a thousand prayers for thy death, + No word to save thee. + CLAUDIO. Nay, hear me, Isabel. + ISABELLA. O fie, fie, fie! + Thy sin's not accidental, but a trade. + Mercy to thee would prove itself a bawd; + 'Tis best that thou diest quickly. + CLAUDIO. O, hear me, Isabella. + + Re-enter DUKE + + DUKE. Vouchsafe a word, young sister, but one word. + ISABELLA. What is your will? + DUKE. Might you dispense with your leisure, I would by and by have + some speech with you; the satisfaction I would require is + likewise your own benefit. + ISABELLA. I have no superfluous leisure; my stay must be stolen out + of other affairs; but I will attend you awhile. + [Walks apart] + DUKE. Son, I have overheard what hath pass'd between you and your + sister. Angelo had never the purpose to corrupt her; only he hath + made an assay of her virtue to practise his judgment with the + disposition of natures. She, having the truth of honour in her, + hath made him that gracious denial which he is most glad to + receive. I am confessor to Angelo, and I know this to be true; + therefore prepare yourself to death. Do not satisfy your + resolution with hopes that are fallible; to-morrow you must die; + go to your knees and make ready. + CLAUDIO. Let me ask my sister pardon. I am so out of love with life + that I will sue to be rid of it. + DUKE. Hold you there. Farewell. [Exit CLAUDIO] Provost, a word with + you. + + Re-enter PROVOST + + PROVOST. What's your will, father? + DUKE. That, now you are come, you will be gone. Leave me a while + with the maid; my mind promises with my habit no loss shall touch + her by my company. + PROVOST. In good time. Exit PROVOST + DUKE. The hand that hath made you fair hath made you good; the + goodness that is cheap in beauty makes beauty brief in goodness; + but grace, being the soul of your complexion, shall keep the body + of it ever fair. The assault that Angelo hath made to you, + fortune hath convey'd to my understanding; and, but that frailty + hath examples for his falling, I should wonder at Angelo. How + will you do to content this substitute, and to save your brother? + ISABELLA. I am now going to resolve him; I had rather my brother + die by the law than my son should be unlawfully born. But, O, how + much is the good Duke deceiv'd in Angelo! If ever he return, and + I can speak to him, I will open my lips in vain, or discover his + government. + DUKE. That shall not be much amiss; yet, as the matter now stands, + he will avoid your accusation: he made trial of you only. + Therefore fasten your ear on my advisings; to the love I have in + doing good a remedy presents itself. I do make myself believe + that you may most uprighteously do a poor wronged lady a merited + benefit; redeem your brother from the angry law; do no stain to + your own gracious person; and much please the absent Duke, if + peradventure he shall ever return to have hearing of this + business. + ISABELLA. Let me hear you speak farther; I have spirit to do + anything that appears not foul in the truth of my spirit. + DUKE. Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. Have you not + heard speak of Mariana, the sister of Frederick, the great + soldier who miscarried at sea? + ISABELLA. I have heard of the lady, and good words went with her + name. + DUKE. She should this Angelo have married; was affianced to her by + oath, and the nuptial appointed; between which time of the + contract and limit of the solemnity her brother Frederick was + wreck'd at sea, having in that perished vessel the dowry of his + sister. But mark how heavily this befell to the poor gentlewoman: + there she lost a noble and renowned brother, in his love toward + her ever most kind and natural; with him the portion and sinew of + her fortune, her marriage-dowry; with both, her combinate + husband, this well-seeming Angelo. + ISABELLA. Can this be so? Did Angelo so leave her? + DUKE. Left her in her tears, and dried not one of them with his + comfort; swallowed his vows whole, pretending in her discoveries + of dishonour; in few, bestow'd her on her own lamentation, which + she yet wears for his sake; and he, a marble to her tears, is + washed with them, but relents not. + ISABELLA. What a merit were it in death to take this poor maid from + the world! What corruption in this life that it will let this man + live! But how out of this can she avail? + DUKE. It is a rupture that you may easily heal; and the cure of it + not only saves your brother, but keeps you from dishonour in + doing it. + ISABELLA. Show me how, good father. + DUKE. This forenamed maid hath yet in her the continuance of her + first affection; his unjust unkindness, that in all reason should + have quenched her love, hath, like an impediment in the current, + made it more violent and unruly. Go you to Angelo; answer his + requiring with a plausible obedience; agree with his demands to + the point; only refer yourself to this advantage: first, that + your stay with him may not be long; that the time may have all + shadow and silence in it; and the place answer to convenience. + This being granted in course- and now follows all: we shall + advise this wronged maid to stead up your appointment, go in your + place. If the encounter acknowledge itself hereafter, it may + compel him to her recompense; and here, by this, is your brother + saved, your honour untainted, the poor Mariana advantaged, and + the corrupt deputy scaled. The maid will I frame and make fit for + his attempt. If you think well to carry this as you may, the + doubleness of the benefit defends the deceit from reproof. What + think you of it? + ISABELLA. The image of it gives me content already; and I trust it + will grow to a most prosperous perfection. + DUKE. It lies much in your holding up. Haste you speedily to + Angelo; if for this night he entreat you to his bed, give him + promise of satisfaction. I will presently to Saint Luke's; there, + at the moated grange, resides this dejected Mariana. At that + place call upon me; and dispatch with Angelo, that it may be + quickly. + ISABELLA. I thank you for this comfort. Fare you well, good father. + Exeunt severally + +Scene II. The street before the prison + +Enter, on one side, DUKE disguised as before; on the other, ELBOW, and +OFFICERS with POMPEY + + ELBOW. Nay, if there be no remedy for it, but that you will needs + buy and sell men and women like beasts, we shall have all the + world drink brown and white bastard. + DUKE. O heavens! what stuff is here? + POMPEY. 'Twas never merry world since, of two usuries, the merriest + was put down, and the worser allow'd by order of law a furr'd + gown to keep him warm; and furr'd with fox on lamb-skins too, to + signify that craft, being richer than innocency, stands for the + facing. + ELBOW. Come your way, sir. Bless you, good father friar. + DUKE. And you, good brother father. What offence hath this man made + you, sir? + ELBOW. Marry, sir, he hath offended the law; and, sir, we take him + to be a thief too, sir, for we have found upon him, sir, a + strange picklock, which we have sent to the deputy. + DUKE. Fie, sirrah, a bawd, a wicked bawd! + The evil that thou causest to be done, + That is thy means to live. Do thou but think + What 'tis to cram a maw or clothe a back + From such a filthy vice; say to thyself + 'From their abominable and beastly touches + I drink, I eat, array myself, and live.' + Canst thou believe thy living is a life, + So stinkingly depending? Go mend, go mend. + POMPEY. Indeed, it does stink in some sort, sir; but yet, sir, + I would prove- + DUKE. Nay, if the devil have given thee proofs for sin, + Thou wilt prove his. Take him to prison, officer; + Correction and instruction must both work + Ere this rude beast will profit. + ELBOW. He must before the deputy, sir; he has given him warning. + The deputy cannot abide a whoremaster; if he be a whoremonger, + and comes before him, he were as good go a mile on his errand. + DUKE. That we were all, as some would seem to be, + From our faults, as his faults from seeming, free. + ELBOW. His neck will come to your waist- a cord, sir. + + Enter LUCIO + + POMPEY. I spy comfort; I cry bail. Here's a gentleman, and a friend + of mine. + LUCIO. How now, noble Pompey! What, at the wheels of Caesar? Art + thou led in triumph? What, is there none of Pygmalion's images, + newly made woman, to be had now for putting the hand in the + pocket and extracting it clutch'd? What reply, ha? What say'st + thou to this tune, matter, and method? Is't not drown'd i' th' + last rain, ha? What say'st thou, trot? Is the world as it was, + man? Which is the way? Is it sad, and few words? or how? The + trick of it? + DUKE. Still thus, and thus; still worse! + LUCIO. How doth my dear morsel, thy mistress? Procures she still, + ha? + POMPEY. Troth, sir, she hath eaten up all her beef, and she is + herself in the tub. + LUCIO. Why, 'tis good; it is the right of it; it must be so; ever + your fresh whore and your powder'd bawd- an unshunn'd + consequence; it must be so. Art going to prison, Pompey? + POMPEY. Yes, faith, sir. + LUCIO. Why, 'tis not amiss, Pompey. Farewell; go, say I sent thee + thither. For debt, Pompey- or how? + ELBOW. For being a bawd, for being a bawd. + LUCIO. Well, then, imprison him. If imprisonment be the due of a + bawd, why, 'tis his right. Bawd is he doubtless, and of + antiquity, too; bawd-born. Farewell, good Pompey. Commend me to + the prison, Pompey. You will turn good husband now, Pompey; you + will keep the house. + POMPEY. I hope, sir, your good worship will be my bail. + LUCIO. No, indeed, will I not, Pompey; it is not the wear. I will + pray, Pompey, to increase your bondage. If you take it not + patiently, why, your mettle is the more. Adieu trusty Pompey. + Bless you, friar. + DUKE. And you. + LUCIO. Does Bridget paint still, Pompey, ha? + ELBOW. Come your ways, sir; come. + POMPEY. You will not bail me then, sir? + LUCIO. Then, Pompey, nor now. What news abroad, friar? what news? + ELBOW. Come your ways, sir; come. + LUCIO. Go to kennel, Pompey, go. + + Exeunt ELBOW, POMPEY and OFFICERS + + What news, friar, of the Duke? + DUKE. I know none. Can you tell me of any? + LUCIO. Some say he is with the Emperor of Russia; other some, he is + in Rome; but where is he, think you? + DUKE. I know not where; but wheresoever, I wish him well. + LUCIO. It was a mad fantastical trick of him to steal from the + state and usurp the beggary he was never born to. Lord Angelo + dukes it well in his absence; he puts transgression to't. + DUKE. He does well in't. + LUCIO. A little more lenity to lechery would do no harm in him; + something too crabbed that way, friar. + DUKE. It is too general a vice, and severity must cure it. + LUCIO. Yes, in good sooth, the vice is of a great kindred; it is + well allied; but it is impossible to extirp it quite, friar, till + eating and drinking be put down. They say this Angelo was not + made by man and woman after this downright way of creation. Is it + true, think you? + DUKE. How should he be made, then? + LUCIO. Some report a sea-maid spawn'd him; some, that he was begot + between two stock-fishes. But it is certain that when he makes + water his urine is congeal'd ice; that I know to be true. And he + is a motion generative; that's infallible. + DUKE. You are pleasant, sir, and speak apace. + LUCIO. Why, what a ruthless thing is this in him, for the rebellion + of a codpiece to take away the life of a man! Would the Duke that + is absent have done this? Ere he would have hang'd a man for the + getting a hundred bastards, he would have paid for the nursing a + thousand. He had some feeling of the sport; he knew the service, + and that instructed him to mercy. + DUKE. I never heard the absent Duke much detected for women; he was + not inclin'd that way. + LUCIO. O, sir, you are deceiv'd. + DUKE. 'Tis not possible. + LUCIO. Who- not the Duke? Yes, your beggar of fifty; and his use + was to put a ducat in her clack-dish. The Duke had crotchets in + him. He would be drunk too; that let me inform you. + DUKE. You do him wrong, surely. + LUCIO. Sir, I was an inward of his. A shy fellow was the Duke; and + I believe I know the cause of his withdrawing. + DUKE. What, I prithee, might be the cause? + LUCIO. No, pardon; 'tis a secret must be lock'd within the teeth + and the lips; but this I can let you understand: the greater file + of the subject held the Duke to be wise. + DUKE. Wise? Why, no question but he was. + LUCIO. A very superficial, ignorant, unweighing fellow. + DUKE. Either this is envy in you, folly, or mistaking; the very + stream of his life, and the business he hath helmed, must, upon a + warranted need, give him a better proclamation. Let him be but + testimonied in his own bringings-forth, and he shall appear to + the envious a scholar, a statesman, and a soldier. Therefore you + speak unskilfully; or, if your knowledge be more, it is much + dark'ned in your malice. + LUCIO. Sir, I know him, and I love him. + DUKE. Love talks with better knowledge, and knowledge with dearer + love. + LUCIO. Come, sir, I know what I know. + DUKE. I can hardly believe that, since you know not what you speak. + But, if ever the Duke return, as our prayers are he may, let me + desire you to make your answer before him. If it be honest you + have spoke, you have courage to maintain it; I am bound to call + upon you; and I pray you your name? + LUCIO. Sir, my name is Lucio, well known to the Duke. + DUKE. He shall know you better, sir, if I may live to report you. + LUCIO. I fear you not. + DUKE. O, you hope the Duke will return no more; or you imagine me + too unhurtful an opposite. But, indeed, I can do you little harm: + you'll forswear this again. + LUCIO. I'll be hang'd first. Thou art deceiv'd in me, friar. But no + more of this. Canst thou tell if Claudio die to-morrow or no? + DUKE. Why should he die, sir? + LUCIO. Why? For filling a bottle with a tun-dish. I would the Duke + we talk of were return'd again. This ungenitur'd agent will + unpeople the province with continency; sparrows must not build in + his house-eaves because they are lecherous. The Duke yet would + have dark deeds darkly answered; he would never bring them to + light. Would he were return'd! Marry, this Claudio is condemned + for untrussing. Farewell, good friar; I prithee pray for me. The + Duke, I say to thee again, would eat mutton on Fridays. He's not + past it yet; and, I say to thee, he would mouth with a beggar + though she smelt brown bread and garlic. Say that I said so. + Farewell. Exit + DUKE. No might nor greatness in mortality + Can censure scape; back-wounding calumny + The whitest virtue strikes. What king so strong + Can tie the gall up in the slanderous tongue? + But who comes here? + + Enter ESCALUS, PROVOST, and OFFICERS with + MISTRESS OVERDONE + + ESCALUS. Go, away with her to prison. + MRS. OVERDONE. Good my lord, be good to me; your honour is + accounted a merciful man; good my lord. + ESCALUS. Double and treble admonition, and still forfeit in the + same kind! This would make mercy swear and play the tyrant. + PROVOST. A bawd of eleven years' continuance, may it please your + honour. + MRS. OVERDONE. My lord, this is one Lucio's information against me. + Mistress Kate Keepdown was with child by him in the Duke's time; + he promis'd her marriage. His child is a year and a quarter old + come Philip and Jacob; I have kept it myself; and see how he goes + about to abuse me. + ESCALUS. That fellow is a fellow of much license. Let him be call'd + before us. Away with her to prison. Go to; no more words. [Exeunt + OFFICERS with MISTRESS OVERDONE] Provost, my brother Angelo will + not be alter'd: Claudio must die to-morrow. Let him be furnish'd + with divines, and have all charitable preparation. If my brother + wrought by my pity, it should not be so with him. + PROVOST. So please you, this friar hath been with him, and advis'd + him for th' entertainment of death. + ESCALUS. Good even, good father. + DUKE. Bliss and goodness on you! + ESCALUS. Of whence are you? + DUKE. Not of this country, though my chance is now + To use it for my time. I am a brother + Of gracious order, late come from the See + In special business from his Holiness. + ESCALUS. What news abroad i' th' world? + DUKE. None, but that there is so great a fever on goodness that the + dissolution of it must cure it. Novelty is only in request; and, + as it is, as dangerous to be aged in any kind of course as it is + virtuous to be constant in any undertakeing. There is scarce + truth enough alive to make societies secure; but security enough + to make fellowships accurst. Much upon this riddle runs the + wisdom of the world. This news is old enough, yet it is every + day's news. I pray you, sir, of what disposition was the Duke? + ESCALUS. One that, above all other strifes, contended especially to + know himself. + DUKE. What pleasure was he given to? + ESCALUS. Rather rejoicing to see another merry than merry at + anything which profess'd to make him rejoice; a gentleman of all + temperance. But leave we him to his events, with a prayer they + may prove prosperous; and let me desire to know how you find + Claudio prepar'd. I am made to understand that you have lent him + visitation. + DUKE. He professes to have received no sinister measure from his + judge, but most willingly humbles himself to the determination of + justice. Yet had he framed to himself, by the instruction of his + frailty, many deceiving promises of life; which I, by my good + leisure, have discredited to him, and now he is resolv'd to die. + ESCALUS. You have paid the heavens your function, and the prisoner + the very debt of your calling. I have labour'd for the poor + gentleman to the extremest shore of my modesty; but my brother + justice have I found so severe that he hath forc'd me to tell him + he is indeed Justice. + DUKE. If his own life answer the straitness of his proceeding, it + shall become him well; wherein if he chance to fail, he hath + sentenc'd himself. + ESCALUS. I am going to visit the prisoner. Fare you well. + DUKE. Peace be with you! Exeunt ESCALUS and PROVOST + + He who the sword of heaven will bear + Should be as holy as severe; + Pattern in himself to know, + Grace to stand, and virtue go; + More nor less to others paying + Than by self-offences weighing. + Shame to him whose cruel striking + Kills for faults of his own liking! + Twice treble shame on Angelo, + To weed my vice and let his grow! + O, what may man within him hide, + Though angel on the outward side! + How may likeness, made in crimes, + Make a practice on the times, + To draw with idle spiders' strings + Most ponderous and substantial things! + Craft against vice I must apply. + With Angelo to-night shall lie + His old betrothed but despised; + So disguise shall, by th' disguised, + Pay with falsehood false exacting, + And perform an old contracting. Exit + +ACT IV. Scene I. The moated grange at Saint Duke's + +Enter MARIANA; and BOY singing + + SONG + + Take, O, take those lips away, + That so sweetly were forsworn; + And those eyes, the break of day, + Lights that do mislead the morn; + But my kisses bring again, bring again; + Seals of love, but seal'd in vain, seal'd in vain. + + Enter DUKE, disguised as before + + MARIANA. Break off thy song, and haste thee quick away; + Here comes a man of comfort, whose advice + Hath often still'd my brawling discontent. Exit BOY + I cry you mercy, sir, and well could wish + You had not found me here so musical. + Let me excuse me, and believe me so, + My mirth it much displeas'd, but pleas'd my woe. + DUKE. 'Tis good; though music oft hath such a charm + To make bad good and good provoke to harm. + I pray you tell me hath anybody inquir'd for me here to-day. Much + upon this time have I promis'd here to meet. + MARIANA. You have not been inquir'd after; I have sat here all day. + + Enter ISABELLA + + DUKE. I do constantly believe you. The time is come even now. I + shall crave your forbearance a little. May be I will call upon + you anon, for some advantage to yourself. + MARIANA. I am always bound to you. Exit + DUKE. Very well met, and well come. + What is the news from this good deputy? + ISABELLA. He hath a garden circummur'd with brick, + Whose western side is with a vineyard back'd; + And to that vineyard is a planched gate + That makes his opening with this bigger key; + This other doth command a little door + Which from the vineyard to the garden leads. + There have I made my promise + Upon the heavy middle of the night + To call upon him. + DUKE. But shall you on your knowledge find this way? + ISABELLA. I have ta'en a due and wary note upon't; + With whispering and most guilty diligence, + In action all of precept, he did show me + The way twice o'er. + DUKE. Are there no other tokens + Between you 'greed concerning her observance? + ISABELLA. No, none, but only a repair i' th' dark; + And that I have possess'd him my most stay + Can be but brief; for I have made him know + I have a servant comes with me along, + That stays upon me; whose persuasion is + I come about my brother. + DUKE. 'Tis well borne up. + I have not yet made known to Mariana + A word of this. What ho, within! come forth. + + Re-enter MARIANA + + I pray you be acquainted with this maid; + She comes to do you good. + ISABELLA. I do desire the like. + DUKE. Do you persuade yourself that I respect you? + MARIANA. Good friar, I know you do, and have found it. + DUKE. Take, then, this your companion by the hand, + Who hath a story ready for your ear. + I shall attend your leisure; but make haste; + The vaporous night approaches. + MARIANA. Will't please you walk aside? + Exeunt MARIANA and ISABELLA + DUKE. O place and greatness! Millions of false eyes + Are stuck upon thee. Volumes of report + Run with these false, and most contrarious quest + Upon thy doings. Thousand escapes of wit + Make thee the father of their idle dream, + And rack thee in their fancies. + + Re-enter MARIANA and ISABELLA + + Welcome, how agreed? + ISABELLA. She'll take the enterprise upon her, father, + If you advise it. + DUKE. It is not my consent, + But my entreaty too. + ISABELLA. Little have you to say, + When you depart from him, but, soft and low, + 'Remember now my brother.' + MARIANA. Fear me not. + DUKE. Nor, gentle daughter, fear you not at all. + He is your husband on a pre-contract. + To bring you thus together 'tis no sin, + Sith that the justice of your title to him + Doth flourish the deceit. Come, let us go; + Our corn's to reap, for yet our tithe's to sow. Exeunt + +SCENE II. The prison + +Enter PROVOST and POMPEY + + PROVOST. Come hither, sirrah. Can you cut off a man's head? + POMPEY. If the man be a bachelor, sir, I can; but if he be a + married man, he's his wife's head, and I can never cut of a + woman's head. + PROVOST. Come, sir, leave me your snatches and yield me a direct + answer. To-morrow morning are to die Claudio and Barnardine. Here + is in our prison a common executioner, who in his office lacks a + helper; if you will take it on you to assist him, it shall redeem + you from your gyves; if not, you shall have your full time of + imprisonment, and your deliverance with an unpitied whipping, for + you have been a notorious bawd. + POMPEY. Sir, I have been an unlawful bawd time out of mind; but yet + I will be content to be a lawful hangman. I would be glad to + receive some instructions from my fellow partner. + PROVOST. What ho, Abhorson! Where's Abhorson there? + + Enter ABHORSON + + ABHORSON. Do you call, sir? + PROVOST. Sirrah, here's a fellow will help you to-morrow in your + execution. If you think it meet, compound with him by the year, + and let him abide here with you; if not, use him for the present, + and dismiss him. He cannot plead his estimation with you; he hath + been a bawd. + ABHORSON. A bawd, sir? Fie upon him! He will discredit our mystery. + PROVOST. Go to, sir; you weigh equally; a feather will turn the + scale. Exit + POMPEY. Pray, sir, by your good favour- for surely, sir, a good + favour you have but that you have a hanging look- do you call, + sir, your occupation a mystery? + ABHORSON. Ay, sir; a mystery. + POMPEY. Painting, sir, I have heard say, is a mystery; and your + whores, sir, being members of my occupation, using painting, do + prove my occupation a mystery; but what mystery there should be + in hanging, if I should be hang'd, I cannot imagine. + ABHORSON. Sir, it is a mystery. + POMPEY. Proof? + ABHORSON. Every true man's apparel fits your thief: if it be too + little for your thief, your true man thinks it big enough; if it + be too big for your thief, your thief thinks it little enough; so + every true man's apparel fits your thief. + + Re-enter PROVOST + + PROVOST. Are you agreed? + POMPEY. Sir, I will serve him; for I do find your hangman is a more + penitent trade than your bawd; he doth oftener ask forgiveness. + PROVOST. You, sirrah, provide your block and your axe to-morrow + four o'clock. + ABHORSON. Come on, bawd; I will instruct thee in my trade; follow. + POMPEY. I do desire to learn, sir; and I hope, if you have occasion + to use me for your own turn, you shall find me yare; for truly, + sir, for your kindness I owe you a good turn. + PROVOST. Call hither Barnardine and Claudio. + Exeunt ABHORSON and POMPEY + Th' one has my pity; not a jot the other, + Being a murderer, though he were my brother. + + Enter CLAUDIO + + Look, here's the warrant, Claudio, for thy death; + 'Tis now dead midnight, and by eight to-morrow + Thou must be made immortal. Where's Barnardine? + CLAUDIO. As fast lock'd up in sleep as guiltless labour + When it lies starkly in the traveller's bones. + He will not wake. + PROVOST. Who can do good on him? + Well, go, prepare yourself. [Knocking within] But hark, what + noise? + Heaven give your spirits comfort! Exit CLAUDIO + [Knocking continues] By and by. + I hope it is some pardon or reprieve + For the most gentle Claudio. + + Enter DUKE, disguised as before + + Welcome, father. + DUKE. The best and wholesom'st spirits of the night + Envelop you, good Provost! Who call'd here of late? + PROVOST. None, since the curfew rung. + DUKE. Not Isabel? + PROVOST. No. + DUKE. They will then, ere't be long. + PROVOST. What comfort is for Claudio? + DUKE. There's some in hope. + PROVOST. It is a bitter deputy. + DUKE. Not so, not so; his life is parallel'd + Even with the stroke and line of his great justice; + He doth with holy abstinence subdue + That in himself which he spurs on his pow'r + To qualify in others. Were he meal'd with that + Which he corrects, then were he tyrannous; + But this being so, he's just. [Knocking within] Now are they + come. Exit PROVOST + This is a gentle provost; seldom when + The steeled gaoler is the friend of men. [Knocking within] + How now, what noise! That spirit's possess'd with haste + That wounds th' unsisting postern with these strokes. + + Re-enter PROVOST + + PROVOST. There he must stay until the officer + Arise to let him in; he is call'd up. + DUKE. Have you no countermand for Claudio yet + But he must die to-morrow? + PROVOST. None, sir, none. + DUKE. As near the dawning, Provost, as it is, + You shall hear more ere morning. + PROVOST. Happily + You something know; yet I believe there comes + No countermand; no such example have we. + Besides, upon the very siege of justice, + Lord Angelo hath to the public ear + Profess'd the contrary. + + Enter a MESSENGER + This is his lordship's man. + DUKE. And here comes Claudio's pardon. + MESSENGER. My lord hath sent you this note; and by me this further + charge, that you swerve not from the smallest article of it, + neither in time, matter, or other circumstance. Good morrow; for + as I take it, it is almost day. + PROVOST. I shall obey him. Exit MESSENGER + DUKE. [Aside] This is his pardon, purchas'd by such sin + For which the pardoner himself is in; + Hence hath offence his quick celerity, + When it is borne in high authority. + When vice makes mercy, mercy's so extended + That for the fault's love is th' offender friended. + Now, sir, what news? + PROVOST. I told you: Lord Angelo, belike thinking me remiss in mine + office, awakens me with this unwonted putting-on; methinks + strangely, for he hath not us'd it before. + DUKE. Pray you, let's hear. + PROVOST. [Reads] 'Whatsoever you may hear to the contrary, let + Claudio be executed by four of the clock, and, in the afternoon, + Barnardine. For my better satisfaction, let me have Claudio's + head sent me by five. Let this be duly performed, with a thought + that more depends on it than we must yet deliver. Thus fail not + to do your office, as you will answer it at your peril.' + What say you to this, sir? + DUKE. What is that Barnardine who is to be executed in th' + afternoon? + PROVOST. A Bohemian born; but here nurs'd up and bred. + One that is a prisoner nine years old. + DUKE. How came it that the absent Duke had not either deliver'd him + to his liberty or executed him? I have heard it was ever his + manner to do so. + PROVOST. His friends still wrought reprieves for him; and, indeed, + his fact, till now in the government of Lord Angelo, came not to + an undoubted proof. + DUKE. It is now apparent? + PROVOST. Most manifest, and not denied by himself. + DUKE. Hath he borne himself penitently in prison? How seems he to + be touch'd? + PROVOST. A man that apprehends death no more dreadfully but as a + drunken sleep; careless, reckless, and fearless, of what's past, + present, or to come; insensible of mortality and desperately + mortal. + DUKE. He wants advice. + PROVOST. He will hear none. He hath evermore had the liberty of the + prison; give him leave to escape hence, he would not; drunk many + times a day, if not many days entirely drunk. We have very oft + awak'd him, as if to carry him to execution, and show'd him a + seeming warrant for it; it hath not moved him at all. + DUKE. More of him anon. There is written in your brow, Provost, + honesty and constancy. If I read it not truly, my ancient skill + beguiles me; but in the boldness of my cunning I will lay myself + in hazard. Claudio, whom here you have warrant to execute, is no + greater forfeit to the law than Angelo who hath sentenc'd him. To + make you understand this in a manifested effect, I crave but four + days' respite; for the which you are to do me both a present and + a dangerous courtesy. + PROVOST. Pray, sir, in what? + DUKE. In the delaying death. + PROVOST. Alack! How may I do it, having the hour limited, and an + express command, under penalty, to deliver his head in the view + of Angelo? I may make my case as Claudio's, to cross this in the + smallest. + DUKE. By the vow of mine order, I warrant you, if my instructions + may be your guide. Let this Barnardine be this morning executed, + and his head borne to Angelo. + PROVOST. Angelo hath seen them both, and will discover the favour. + DUKE. O, death's a great disguiser; and you may add to it. Shave + the head and tie the beard; and say it was the desire of the + penitent to be so bar'd before his death. You know the course is + common. If anything fall to you upon this more than thanks and + good fortune, by the saint whom I profess, I will plead against + it with my life. + PROVOST. Pardon me, good father; it is against my oath. + DUKE. Were you sworn to the Duke, or to the deputy? + PROVOST. To him and to his substitutes. + DUKE. You will think you have made no offence if the Duke avouch + the justice of your dealing? + PROVOST. But what likelihood is in that? + DUKE. Not a resemblance, but a certainty. Yet since I see you + fearful, that neither my coat, integrity, nor persuasion, can + with ease attempt you, I will go further than I meant, to pluck + all fears out of you. Look you, sir, here is the hand and seal of + the Duke. You know the character, I doubt not; and the signet is + not strange to you. + PROVOST. I know them both. + DUKE. The contents of this is the return of the Duke; you shall + anon over-read it at your pleasure, where you shall find within + these two days he will be here. This is a thing that Angelo knows + not; for he this very day receives letters of strange tenour, + perchance of the Duke's death, perchance entering into some + monastery; but, by chance, nothing of what is writ. Look, th' + unfolding star calls up the shepherd. Put not yourself into + amazement how these things should be: all difficulties are but + easy when they are known. Call your executioner, and off with + Barnardine's head. I will give him a present shrift, and advise + him for a better place. Yet you are amaz'd, but this shall + absolutely resolve you. Come away; it is almost clear dawn. + Exeunt + +SCENE III. The prison + +Enter POMPEY + + POMPEY. I am as well acquainted here as I was in our house of + profession; one would think it were Mistress Overdone's own house, + for here be many of her old customers. First, here's young Master + Rash; he's in for a commodity of brown paper and old ginger, nine + score and seventeen pounds, of which he made five marks ready money. + Marry, then ginger was not much in request, for the old women were + all dead. Then is there here one Master Caper, at the suit of Master + Threepile the mercer, for some four suits of peach-colour'd satin, + which now peaches him a beggar. Then have we here young Dizy, and + young Master Deepvow, and Master Copperspur, and Master Starvelackey, + the rapier and dagger man, and young Dropheir that kill'd lusty + Pudding, and Master Forthlight the tilter, and brave Master Shootie + the great traveller, and wild Halfcan that stabb'd Pots, and, I + think, forty more- all great doers in our trade, and are now 'for the + Lord's sake.' + + Enter ABHORSON + + ABHORSON. Sirrah, bring Barnardine hither. + POMPEY. Master Barnardine! You must rise and be hang'd, Master + Barnardine! + ABHORSON. What ho, Barnardine! + BARNARDINE. [Within] A pox o' your throats! Who makes that noise + there? What are you? + POMPEY. Your friends, sir; the hangman. You must be so good, sir, + to rise and be put to death. + BARNARDINE. [ Within ] Away, you rogue, away; I am sleepy. + ABHORSON. Tell him he must awake, and that quickly too. + POMPEY. Pray, Master Barnardine, awake till you are executed, and + sleep afterwards. + ABHORSON. Go in to him, and fetch him out. + POMPEY. He is coming, sir, he is coming; I hear his straw rustle. + + Enter BARNARDINE + + ABHORSON. Is the axe upon the block, sirrah? + POMPEY. Very ready, sir. + BARNARDINE. How now, Abhorson, what's the news with you? + ABHORSON. Truly, sir, I would desire you to clap into your prayers; + for, look you, the warrant's come. + BARNARDINE. You rogue, I have been drinking all night; I am not + fitted for't. + POMPEY. O, the better, sir! For he that drinks all night and is + hanged betimes in the morning may sleep the sounder all the next + day. + + Enter DUKE, disguised as before + + ABHORSON. Look you, sir, here comes your ghostly father. + Do we jest now, think you? + DUKE. Sir, induced by my charity, and hearing how hastily you are + to depart, I am come to advise you, comfort you, and pray with + you. + BARNARDINE. Friar, not I; I have been drinking hard all night, and + I will have more time to prepare me, or they shall beat out my + brains with billets. I will not consent to die this day, that's + certain. + DUKE. O, Sir, you must; and therefore I beseech you + Look forward on the journey you shall go. + BARNARDINE. I swear I will not die to-day for any man's persuasion. + DUKE. But hear you- + BARNARDINE. Not a word; if you have anything to say to me, come to + my ward; for thence will not I to-day. Exit + DUKE. Unfit to live or die. O gravel heart! + After him, fellows; bring him to the block. + Exeunt ABHORSON and POMPEY + + Enter PROVOST + + PROVOST. Now, sir, how do you find the prisoner? + DUKE. A creature unprepar'd, unmeet for death; + And to transport him in the mind he is + Were damnable. + PROVOST. Here in the prison, father, + There died this morning of a cruel fever + One Ragozine, a most notorious pirate, + A man of Claudio's years; his beard and head + Just of his colour. What if we do omit + This reprobate till he were well inclin'd, + And satisfy the deputy with the visage + Of Ragozine, more like to Claudio? + DUKE. O, 'tis an accident that heaven provides! + Dispatch it presently; the hour draws on + Prefix'd by Angelo. See this be done, + And sent according to command; whiles I + Persuade this rude wretch willingly to die. + PROVOST. This shall be done, good father, presently. + But Barnardine must die this afternoon; + And how shall we continue Claudio, + To save me from the danger that might come + If he were known alive? + DUKE. Let this be done: + Put them in secret holds, both Barnardine and Claudio. + Ere twice the sun hath made his journal greeting + To the under generation, you shall find + Your safety manifested. + PROVOST. I am your free dependant. + DUKE. Quick, dispatch, and send the head to Angelo. + Exit PROVOST + Now will I write letters to Angelo- + The Provost, he shall bear them- whose contents + Shall witness to him I am near at home, + And that, by great injunctions, I am bound + To enter publicly. Him I'll desire + To meet me at the consecrated fount, + A league below the city; and from thence, + By cold gradation and well-balanc'd form. + We shall proceed with Angelo. + + Re-enter PROVOST + + PROVOST. Here is the head; I'll carry it myself. + DUKE. Convenient is it. Make a swift return; + For I would commune with you of such things + That want no ear but yours. + PROVOST. I'll make all speed. Exit + ISABELLA. [ Within ] Peace, ho, be here! + DUKE. The tongue of Isabel. She's come to know + If yet her brother's pardon be come hither; + But I will keep her ignorant of her good, + To make her heavenly comforts of despair + When it is least expected. + + Enter ISABELLA + + ISABELLA. Ho, by your leave! + DUKE. Good morning to you, fair and gracious daughter. + ISABELLA. The better, given me by so holy a man. + Hath yet the deputy sent my brother's pardon? + DUKE. He hath releas'd him, Isabel, from the world. + His head is off and sent to Angelo. + ISABELLA. Nay, but it is not so. + DUKE. It is no other. + Show your wisdom, daughter, in your close patience, + ISABELLA. O, I will to him and pluck out his eyes! + DUKE. You shall not be admitted to his sight. + ISABELLA. Unhappy Claudio! Wretched Isabel! + Injurious world! Most damned Angelo! + DUKE. This nor hurts him nor profits you a jot; + Forbear it, therefore; give your cause to heaven. + Mark what I say, which you shall find + By every syllable a faithful verity. + The Duke comes home to-morrow. Nay, dry your eyes. + One of our covent, and his confessor, + Gives me this instance. Already he hath carried + Notice to Escalus and Angelo, + Who do prepare to meet him at the gates, + There to give up their pow'r. If you can, pace your wisdom + In that good path that I would wish it go, + And you shall have your bosom on this wretch, + Grace of the Duke, revenges to your heart, + And general honour. + ISABELLA. I am directed by you. + DUKE. This letter, then, to Friar Peter give; + 'Tis that he sent me of the Duke's return. + Say, by this token, I desire his company + At Mariana's house to-night. Her cause and yours + I'll perfect him withal; and he shall bring you + Before the Duke; and to the head of Angelo + Accuse him home and home. For my poor self, + I am combined by a sacred vow, + And shall be absent. Wend you with this letter. + Command these fretting waters from your eyes + With a light heart; trust not my holy order, + If I pervert your course. Who's here? + + Enter LUCIO + + LUCIO. Good even. Friar, where's the Provost? + DUKE. Not within, sir. + LUCIO. O pretty Isabella, I am pale at mine heart to see thine eyes + so red. Thou must be patient. I am fain to dine and sup with + water and bran; I dare not for my head fill my belly; one + fruitful meal would set me to't. But they say the Duke will be + here to-morrow. By my troth, Isabel, I lov'd thy brother. If the + old fantastical Duke of dark corners had been at home, he had + lived. Exit ISABELLA + DUKE. Sir, the Duke is marvellous little beholding to your reports; + but the best is, he lives not in them. + LUCIO. Friar, thou knowest not the Duke so well as I do; he's a + better woodman than thou tak'st him for. + DUKE. Well, you'll answer this one day. Fare ye well. + LUCIO. Nay, tarry; I'll go along with thee; I can tell thee pretty + tales of the Duke. + DUKE. You have told me too many of him already, sir, if they be + true; if not true, none were enough. + LUCIO. I was once before him for getting a wench with child. + DUKE. Did you such a thing? + LUCIO. Yes, marry, did I; but I was fain to forswear it: they would + else have married me to the rotten medlar. + DUKE. Sir, your company is fairer than honest. Rest you well. + LUCIO. By my troth, I'll go with thee to the lane's end. If bawdy + talk offend you, we'll have very little of it. Nay, friar, I am a + kind of burr; I shall stick. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. ANGELO'S house + +Enter ANGELO and ESCALUS + + ESCALUS. Every letter he hath writ hath disvouch'd other. + ANGELO. In most uneven and distracted manner. His actions show much + like to madness; pray heaven his wisdom be not tainted! And why + meet him at the gates, and redeliver our authorities there? + ESCALUS. I guess not. + ANGELO. And why should we proclaim it in an hour before his + ent'ring that, if any crave redress of injustice, they should + exhibit their petitions in the street? + ESCALUS. He shows his reason for that: to have a dispatch of + complaints; and to deliver us from devices hereafter, which + shall then have no power to stand against us. + ANGELO. Well, I beseech you, let it be proclaim'd; + Betimes i' th' morn I'll call you at your house; + Give notice to such men of sort and suit + As are to meet him. + ESCALUS. I shall, sir; fare you well. + ANGELO. Good night. Exit ESCALUS + This deed unshapes me quite, makes me unpregnant + And dull to all proceedings. A deflow'red maid! + And by an eminent body that enforc'd + The law against it! But that her tender shame + Will not proclaim against her maiden loss, + How might she tongue me! Yet reason dares her no; + For my authority bears a so credent bulk + That no particular scandal once can touch + But it confounds the breather. He should have liv'd, + Save that his riotous youth, with dangerous sense, + Might in the times to come have ta'en revenge, + By so receiving a dishonour'd life + With ransom of such shame. Would yet he had liv'd! + Alack, when once our grace we have forgot, + Nothing goes right; we would, and we would not. Exit + +SCENE V. Fields without the town + +Enter DUKE in his own habit, and Friar PETER + + DUKE. These letters at fit time deliver me. [Giving letters] + The Provost knows our purpose and our plot. + The matter being afoot, keep your instruction + And hold you ever to our special drift; + Though sometimes you do blench from this to that + As cause doth minister. Go, call at Flavius' house, + And tell him where I stay; give the like notice + To Valentinus, Rowland, and to Crassus, + And bid them bring the trumpets to the gate; + But send me Flavius first. + PETER. It shall be speeded well. Exit FRIAR + + Enter VARRIUS + + DUKE. I thank thee, Varrius; thou hast made good haste. + Come, we will walk. There's other of our friends + Will greet us here anon. My gentle Varrius! Exeunt + +SCENE VI. A street near the city gate + +Enter ISABELLA and MARIANA + + ISABELLA. To speak so indirectly I am loath; + I would say the truth; but to accuse him so, + That is your part. Yet I am advis'd to do it; + He says, to veil full purpose. + MARIANA. Be rul'd by him. + ISABELLA. Besides, he tells me that, if peradventure + He speak against me on the adverse side, + I should not think it strange; for 'tis a physic + That's bitter to sweet end. + MARIANA. I would Friar Peter- + + Enter FRIAR PETER + + ISABELLA. O, peace! the friar is come. + PETER. Come, I have found you out a stand most fit, + Where you may have such vantage on the Duke + He shall not pass you. Twice have the trumpets sounded; + The generous and gravest citizens + Have hent the gates, and very near upon + The Duke is ent'ring; therefore, hence, away. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE I. The city gate + +Enter at several doors DUKE, VARRIUS, LORDS; ANGELO, ESCALUS, Lucio, +PROVOST, OFFICERS, and CITIZENS + + DUKE. My very worthy cousin, fairly met! + Our old and faithful friend, we are glad to see you. + ANGELO, ESCALUS. Happy return be to your royal Grace! + DUKE. Many and hearty thankings to you both. + We have made inquiry of you, and we hear + Such goodness of your justice that our soul + Cannot but yield you forth to public thanks, + Forerunning more requital. + ANGELO. You make my bonds still greater. + DUKE. O, your desert speaks loud; and I should wrong it + To lock it in the wards of covert bosom, + When it deserves, with characters of brass, + A forted residence 'gainst the tooth of time + And razure of oblivion. Give me your hand. + And let the subject see, to make them know + That outward courtesies would fain proclaim + Favours that keep within. Come, Escalus, + You must walk by us on our other hand, + And good supporters are you. + + Enter FRIAR PETER and ISABELLA + + PETER. Now is your time; speak loud, and kneel before him. + ISABELLA. Justice, O royal Duke! Vail your regard + Upon a wrong'd- I would fain have said a maid! + O worthy Prince, dishonour not your eye + By throwing it on any other object + Till you have heard me in my true complaint, + And given me justice, justice, justice, justice. + DUKE. Relate your wrongs. In what? By whom? Be brief. + Here is Lord Angelo shall give you justice; + Reveal yourself to him. + ISABELLA. O worthy Duke, + You bid me seek redemption of the devil! + Hear me yourself; for that which I must speak + Must either punish me, not being believ'd, + Or wring redress from you. Hear me, O, hear me, here! + ANGELO. My lord, her wits, I fear me, are not firm; + She hath been a suitor to me for her brother, + Cut off by course of justice- + ISABELLA. By course of justice! + ANGELO. And she will speak most bitterly and strange. + ISABELLA. Most strange, but yet most truly, will I speak. + That Angelo's forsworn, is it not strange? + That Angelo's a murderer, is't not strange? + That Angelo is an adulterous thief, + An hypocrite, a virgin-violator, + Is it not strange and strange? + DUKE. Nay, it is ten times strange. + ISABELLA. It is not truer he is Angelo + Than this is all as true as it is strange; + Nay, it is ten times true; for truth is truth + To th' end of reck'ning. + DUKE. Away with her. Poor soul, + She speaks this in th' infirmity of sense. + ISABELLA. O Prince! I conjure thee, as thou believ'st + There is another comfort than this world, + That thou neglect me not with that opinion + That I am touch'd with madness. Make not impossible + That which but seems unlike: 'tis not impossible + But one, the wicked'st caitiff on the ground, + May seem as shy, as grave, as just, as absolute, + As Angelo; even so may Angelo, + In all his dressings, characts, titles, forms, + Be an arch-villain. Believe it, royal Prince, + If he be less, he's nothing; but he's more, + Had I more name for badness. + DUKE. By mine honesty, + If she be mad, as I believe no other, + Her madness hath the oddest frame of sense, + Such a dependency of thing on thing, + As e'er I heard in madness. + ISABELLA. O gracious Duke, + Harp not on that; nor do not banish reason + For inequality; but let your reason serve + To make the truth appear where it seems hid, + And hide the false seems true. + DUKE. Many that are not mad + Have, sure, more lack of reason. What would you say? + ISABELLA. I am the sister of one Claudio, + Condemn'd upon the act of fornication + To lose his head; condemn'd by Angelo. + I, in probation of a sisterhood, + Was sent to by my brother; one Lucio + As then the messenger- + LUCIO. That's I, an't like your Grace. + I came to her from Claudio, and desir'd her + To try her gracious fortune with Lord Angelo + For her poor brother's pardon. + ISABELLA. That's he, indeed. + DUKE. You were not bid to speak. + LUCIO. No, my good lord; + Nor wish'd to hold my peace. + DUKE. I wish you now, then; + Pray you take note of it; and when you have + A business for yourself, pray heaven you then + Be perfect. + LUCIO. I warrant your honour. + DUKE. The warrant's for yourself; take heed to't. + ISABELLA. This gentleman told somewhat of my tale. + LUCIO. Right. + DUKE. It may be right; but you are i' the wrong + To speak before your time. Proceed. + ISABELLA. I went + To this pernicious caitiff deputy. + DUKE. That's somewhat madly spoken. + ISABELLA. Pardon it; + The phrase is to the matter. + DUKE. Mended again. The matter- proceed. + ISABELLA. In brief- to set the needless process by, + How I persuaded, how I pray'd, and kneel'd, + How he refell'd me, and how I replied, + For this was of much length- the vile conclusion + I now begin with grief and shame to utter: + He would not, but by gift of my chaste body + To his concupiscible intemperate lust, + Release my brother; and, after much debatement, + My sisterly remorse confutes mine honour, + And I did yield to him. But the next morn betimes, + His purpose surfeiting, he sends a warrant + For my poor brother's head. + DUKE. This is most likely! + ISABELLA. O that it were as like as it is true! + DUKE. By heaven, fond wretch, thou know'st not what thou speak'st, + Or else thou art suborn'd against his honour + In hateful practice. First, his integrity + Stands without blemish; next, it imports no reason + That with such vehemency he should pursue + Faults proper to himself. If he had so offended, + He would have weigh'd thy brother by himself, + And not have cut him off. Some one hath set you on; + Confess the truth, and say by whose advice + Thou cam'st here to complain. + ISABELLA. And is this all? + Then, O you blessed ministers above, + Keep me in patience; and, with ripened time, + Unfold the evil which is here wrapt up + In countenance! Heaven shield your Grace from woe, + As I, thus wrong'd, hence unbelieved go! + DUKE. I know you'd fain be gone. An officer! + To prison with her! Shall we thus permit + A blasting and a scandalous breath to fall + On him so near us? This needs must be a practice. + Who knew of your intent and coming hither? + ISABELLA. One that I would were here, Friar Lodowick. + DUKE. A ghostly father, belike. Who knows that Lodowick? + LUCIO. My lord, I know him; 'tis a meddling friar. + I do not like the man; had he been lay, my lord, + For certain words he spake against your Grace + In your retirement, I had swing'd him soundly. + DUKE. Words against me? This's a good friar, belike! + And to set on this wretched woman here + Against our substitute! Let this friar be found. + LUCIO. But yesternight, my lord, she and that friar, + I saw them at the prison; a saucy friar, + A very scurvy fellow. + PETER. Blessed be your royal Grace! + I have stood by, my lord, and I have heard + Your royal ear abus'd. First, hath this woman + Most wrongfully accus'd your substitute; + Who is as free from touch or soil with her + As she from one ungot. + DUKE. We did believe no less. + Know you that Friar Lodowick that she speaks of? + PETER. I know him for a man divine and holy; + Not scurvy, nor a temporary meddler, + As he's reported by this gentleman; + And, on my trust, a man that never yet + Did, as he vouches, misreport your Grace. + LUCIO. My lord, most villainously; believe it. + PETER. Well, he in time may come to clear himself; + But at this instant he is sick, my lord, + Of a strange fever. Upon his mere request- + Being come to knowledge that there was complaint + Intended 'gainst Lord Angelo- came I hither + To speak, as from his mouth, what he doth know + Is true and false; and what he, with his oath + And all probation, will make up full clear, + Whensoever he's convented. First, for this woman- + To justify this worthy nobleman, + So vulgarly and personally accus'd- + Her shall you hear disproved to her eyes, + Till she herself confess it. + DUKE. Good friar, let's hear it. Exit ISABELLA guarded + Do you not smile at this, Lord Angelo? + O heaven, the vanity of wretched fools! + Give us some seats. Come, cousin Angelo; + In this I'll be impartial; be you judge + Of your own cause. + + Enter MARIANA veiled + + Is this the witness, friar? + FIRST let her show her face, and after speak. + MARIANA. Pardon, my lord; I will not show my face + Until my husband bid me. + DUKE. What, are you married? + MARIANA. No, my lord. + DUKE. Are you a maid? + MARIANA. No, my lord. + DUKE. A widow, then? + MARIANA. Neither, my lord. + DUKE. Why, you are nothing then; neither maid, widow, nor wife. + LUCIO. My lord, she may be a punk; for many of them are neither + maid, widow, nor wife. + DUKE. Silence that fellow. I would he had some cause + To prattle for himself. + LUCIO. Well, my lord. + MARIANA. My lord, I do confess I ne'er was married, + And I confess, besides, I am no maid. + I have known my husband; yet my husband + Knows not that ever he knew me. + LUCIO. He was drunk, then, my lord; it can be no better. + DUKE. For the benefit of silence, would thou wert so too! + LUCIO. Well, my lord. + DUKE. This is no witness for Lord Angelo. + MARIANA. Now I come to't, my lord: + She that accuses him of fornication, + In self-same manner doth accuse my husband; + And charges him, my lord, with such a time + When I'll depose I had him in mine arms, + With all th' effect of love. + ANGELO. Charges she moe than me? + MARIANA. Not that I know. + DUKE. No? You say your husband. + MARIANA. Why, just, my lord, and that is Angelo, + Who thinks he knows that he ne'er knew my body, + But knows he thinks that he knows Isabel's. + ANGELO. This is a strange abuse. Let's see thy face. + MARIANA. My husband bids me; now I will unmask. + [Unveiling] + This is that face, thou cruel Angelo, + Which once thou swor'st was worth the looking on; + This is the hand which, with a vow'd contract, + Was fast belock'd in thine; this is the body + That took away the match from Isabel, + And did supply thee at thy garden-house + In her imagin'd person. + DUKE. Know you this woman? + LUCIO. Carnally, she says. + DUKE. Sirrah, no more. + LUCIO. Enough, my lord. + ANGELO. My lord, I must confess I know this woman; + And five years since there was some speech of marriage + Betwixt myself and her; which was broke off, + Partly for that her promised proportions + Came short of composition; but in chief + For that her reputation was disvalued + In levity. Since which time of five years + I never spake with her, saw her, nor heard from her, + Upon my faith and honour. + MARIANA. Noble Prince, + As there comes light from heaven and words from breath, + As there is sense in truth and truth in virtue, + I am affianc'd this man's wife as strongly + As words could make up vows. And, my good lord, + But Tuesday night last gone, in's garden-house, + He knew me as a wife. As this is true, + Let me in safety raise me from my knees, + Or else for ever be confixed here, + A marble monument! + ANGELO. I did but smile till now. + Now, good my lord, give me the scope of justice; + My patience here is touch'd. I do perceive + These poor informal women are no more + But instruments of some more mightier member + That sets them on. Let me have way, my lord, + To find this practice out. + DUKE. Ay, with my heart; + And punish them to your height of pleasure. + Thou foolish friar, and thou pernicious woman, + Compact with her that's gone, think'st thou thy oaths, + Though they would swear down each particular saint, + Were testimonies against his worth and credit, + That's seal'd in approbation? You, Lord Escalus, + Sit with my cousin; lend him your kind pains + To find out this abuse, whence 'tis deriv'd. + There is another friar that set them on; + Let him be sent for. + PETER. Would lie were here, my lord! For he indeed + Hath set the women on to this complaint. + Your provost knows the place where he abides, + And he may fetch him. + DUKE. Go, do it instantly. Exit PROVOST + And you, my noble and well-warranted cousin, + Whom it concerns to hear this matter forth, + Do with your injuries as seems you best + In any chastisement. I for a while will leave you; + But stir not you till you have well determin'd + Upon these slanderers. + ESCALUS. My lord, we'll do it throughly. Exit DUKE + Signior Lucio, did not you say you knew that Friar Lodowick to be + a dishonest person? + LUCIO. 'Cucullus non facit monachum': honest in nothing but in his + clothes; and one that hath spoke most villainous speeches of the + Duke. + ESCALUS. We shall entreat you to abide here till he come and + enforce them against him. We shall find this friar a notable + fellow. + LUCIO. As any in Vienna, on my word. + ESCALUS. Call that same Isabel here once again; I would speak with + her. [Exit an ATTENDANT] Pray you, my lord, give me leave to + question; you shall see how I'll handle her. + LUCIO. Not better than he, by her own report. + ESCALUS. Say you? + LUCIO. Marry, sir, I think, if you handled her privately, she would + sooner confess; perchance, publicly, she'll be asham'd. + + Re-enter OFFICERS with ISABELLA; and PROVOST with the + DUKE in his friar's habit + + ESCALUS. I will go darkly to work with her. + LUCIO. That's the way; for women are light at midnight. + ESCALUS. Come on, mistress; here's a gentlewoman denies all that + you have said. + LUCIO. My lord, here comes the rascal I spoke of, here with the + Provost. + ESCALUS. In very good time. Speak not you to him till we call upon + you. + LUCIO. Mum. + ESCALUS. Come, sir; did you set these women on to slander Lord + Angelo? They have confess'd you did. + DUKE. 'Tis false. + ESCALUS. How! Know you where you are? + DUKE. Respect to your great place! and let the devil + Be sometime honour'd for his burning throne! + Where is the Duke? 'Tis he should hear me speak. + ESCALUS. The Duke's in us; and we will hear you speak; + Look you speak justly. + DUKE. Boldly, at least. But, O, poor souls, + Come you to seek the lamb here of the fox, + Good night to your redress! Is the Duke gone? + Then is your cause gone too. The Duke's unjust + Thus to retort your manifest appeal, + And put your trial in the villain's mouth + Which here you come to accuse. + LUCIO. This is the rascal; this is he I spoke of. + ESCALUS. Why, thou unreverend and unhallowed friar, + Is't not enough thou hast suborn'd these women + To accuse this worthy man, but, in foul mouth, + And in the witness of his proper ear, + To call him villain; and then to glance from him + To th' Duke himself, to tax him with injustice? + Take him hence; to th' rack with him! We'll touze you + Joint by joint, but we will know his purpose. + What, 'unjust'! + DUKE. Be not so hot; the Duke + Dare no more stretch this finger of mine than he + Dare rack his own; his subject am I not, + Nor here provincial. My business in this state + Made me a looker-on here in Vienna, + Where I have seen corruption boil and bubble + Till it o'errun the stew: laws for all faults, + But faults so countenanc'd that the strong statutes + Stand like the forfeits in a barber's shop, + As much in mock as mark. + ESCALUS. Slander to th' state! Away with him to prison! + ANGELO. What can you vouch against him, Signior Lucio? + Is this the man that you did tell us of? + LUCIO. 'Tis he, my lord. Come hither, good-man bald-pate. + Do you know me? + DUKE. I remember you, sir, by the sound of your voice. I met you at + the prison, in the absence of the Duke. + LUCIO. O did you so? And do you remember what you said of the Duke? + DUKE. Most notedly, sir. + LUCIO. Do you so, sir? And was the Duke a fleshmonger, a fool, and + a coward, as you then reported him to be? + DUKE. You must, sir, change persons with me ere you make that my + report; you, indeed, spoke so of him; and much more, much worse. + LUCIO. O thou damnable fellow! Did not I pluck thee by the nose for + thy speeches? + DUKE. I protest I love the Duke as I love myself. + ANGELO. Hark how the villain would close now, after his treasonable + abuses! + ESCALUS. Such a fellow is not to be talk'd withal. Away with him to + prison! Where is the Provost? Away with him to prison! Lay bolts + enough upon him; let him speak no more. Away with those giglets + too, and with the other confederate companion! + [The PROVOST lays bands on the DUKE] + DUKE. Stay, sir; stay awhile. + ANGELO. What, resists he? Help him, Lucio. + LUCIO. Come, sir; come, sir; come, sir; foh, sir! Why, you + bald-pated lying rascal, you must be hooded, must you? Show your + knave's visage, with a pox to you! Show your sheep-biting face, + and be hang'd an hour! Will't not off? + [Pulls off the FRIAR'S bood and discovers the DUKE] + DUKE. Thou art the first knave that e'er mad'st a duke. + First, Provost, let me bail these gentle three. + [To Lucio] Sneak not away, sir, for the friar and you + Must have a word anon. Lay hold on him. + LUCIO. This may prove worse than hanging. + DUKE. [To ESCALUS] What you have spoke I pardon; sit you down. + We'll borrow place of him. [To ANGELO] Sir, by your leave. + Hast thou or word, or wit, or impudence, + That yet can do thee office? If thou hast, + Rely upon it till my tale be heard, + And hold no longer out. + ANGELO. O my dread lord, + I should be guiltier than my guiltiness, + To think I can be undiscernible, + When I perceive your Grace, like pow'r divine, + Hath look'd upon my passes. Then, good Prince, + No longer session hold upon my shame, + But let my trial be mine own confession; + Immediate sentence then, and sequent death, + Is all the grace I beg. + DUKE. Come hither, Mariana. + Say, wast thou e'er contracted to this woman? + ANGELO. I was, my lord. + DUKE. Go, take her hence and marry her instantly. + Do you the office, friar; which consummate, + Return him here again. Go with him, Provost. + Exeunt ANGELO, MARIANA, FRIAR PETER, and PROVOST + ESCALUS. My lord, I am more amaz'd at his dishonour + Than at the strangeness of it. + DUKE. Come hither, Isabel. + Your friar is now your prince. As I was then + Advertising and holy to your business, + Not changing heart with habit, I am still + Attorney'd at your service. + ISABELLA. O, give me pardon, + That I, your vassal have employ'd and pain'd + Your unknown sovereignty. + DUKE. You are pardon'd, Isabel. + And now, dear maid, be you as free to us. + Your brother's death, I know, sits at your heart; + And you may marvel why I obscur'd myself, + Labouring to save his life, and would not rather + Make rash remonstrance of my hidden pow'r + Than let him so be lost. O most kind maid, + It was the swift celerity of his death, + Which I did think with slower foot came on, + That brain'd my purpose. But peace be with him! + That life is better life, past fearing death, + Than that which lives to fear. Make it your comfort, + So happy is your brother. + ISABELLA. I do, my lord. + + Re-enter ANGELO, MARIANA, FRIAR PETER, and PROVOST + + DUKE. For this new-married man approaching here, + Whose salt imagination yet hath wrong'd + Your well-defended honour, you must pardon + For Mariana's sake; but as he adjudg'd your brother- + Being criminal in double violation + Of sacred chastity and of promise-breach, + Thereon dependent, for your brother's life- + The very mercy of the law cries out + Most audible, even from his proper tongue, + 'An Angelo for Claudio, death for death!' + Haste still pays haste, and leisure answers leisure; + Like doth quit like, and Measure still for Measure. + Then, Angelo, thy fault's thus manifested, + Which, though thou wouldst deny, denies thee vantage. + We do condemn thee to the very block + Where Claudio stoop'd to death, and with like haste. + Away with him! + MARIANA. O my most gracious lord, + I hope you will not mock me with a husband. + DUKE. It is your husband mock'd you with a husband. + Consenting to the safeguard of your honour, + I thought your marriage fit; else imputation, + For that he knew you, might reproach your life, + And choke your good to come. For his possessions, + Although by confiscation they are ours, + We do instate and widow you withal + To buy you a better husband. + MARIANA. O my dear lord, + I crave no other, nor no better man. + DUKE. Never crave him; we are definitive. + MARIANA. Gentle my liege- [Kneeling] + DUKE. You do but lose your labour. + Away with him to death! [To LUCIO] Now, sir, to you. + MARIANA. O my good lord! Sweet Isabel, take my part; + Lend me your knees, and all my life to come + I'll lend you all my life to do you service. + DUKE. Against all sense you do importune her. + Should she kneel down in mercy of this fact, + Her brother's ghost his paved bed would break, + And take her hence in horror. + MARIANA. Isabel, + Sweet Isabel, do yet but kneel by me; + Hold up your hands, say nothing; I'll speak all. + They say best men moulded out of faults; + And, for the most, become much more the better + For being a little bad; so may my husband. + O Isabel, will you not lend a knee? + DUKE. He dies for Claudio's death. + ISABELLA. [Kneeling] Most bounteous sir, + Look, if it please you, on this man condemn'd, + As if my brother liv'd. I partly think + A due sincerity govern'd his deeds + Till he did look on me; since it is so, + Let him not die. My brother had but justice, + In that he did the thing for which he died; + For Angelo, + His act did not o'ertake his bad intent, + And must be buried but as an intent + That perish'd by the way. Thoughts are no subjects; + Intents but merely thoughts. + MARIANA. Merely, my lord. + DUKE. Your suit's unprofitable; stand up, I say. + I have bethought me of another fault. + Provost, how came it Claudio was beheaded + At an unusual hour? + PROVOST. It was commanded so. + DUKE. Had you a special warrant for the deed? + PROVOST. No, my good lord; it was by private message. + DUKE. For which I do discharge you of your office; + Give up your keys. + PROVOST. Pardon me, noble lord; + I thought it was a fault, but knew it not; + Yet did repent me, after more advice; + For testimony whereof, one in the prison, + That should by private order else have died, + I have reserv'd alive. + DUKE. What's he? + PROVOST. His name is Barnardine. + DUKE. I would thou hadst done so by Claudio. + Go fetch him hither; let me look upon him. Exit PROVOST + ESCALUS. I am sorry one so learned and so wise + As you, Lord Angelo, have still appear'd, + Should slip so grossly, both in the heat of blood + And lack of temper'd judgment afterward. + ANGELO. I am sorry that such sorrow I procure; + And so deep sticks it in my penitent heart + That I crave death more willingly than mercy; + 'Tis my deserving, and I do entreat it. + + Re-enter PROVOST, with BARNARDINE, CLAUDIO (muffled) + and JULIET + + DUKE. Which is that Barnardine? + PROVOST. This, my lord. + DUKE. There was a friar told me of this man. + Sirrah, thou art said to have a stubborn soul, + That apprehends no further than this world, + And squar'st thy life according. Thou'rt condemn'd; + But, for those earthly faults, I quit them all, + And pray thee take this mercy to provide + For better times to come. Friar, advise him; + I leave him to your hand. What muffl'd fellow's that? + PROVOST. This is another prisoner that I sav'd, + Who should have died when Claudio lost his head; + As like almost to Claudio as himself. [Unmuffles CLAUDIO] + DUKE. [To ISABELLA] If he be like your brother, for his sake + Is he pardon'd; and for your lovely sake, + Give me your hand and say you will be mine, + He is my brother too. But fitter time for that. + By this Lord Angelo perceives he's safe; + Methinks I see a quick'ning in his eye. + Well, Angelo, your evil quits you well. + Look that you love your wife; her worth worth yours. + I find an apt remission in myself; + And yet here's one in place I cannot pardon. + To Lucio] You, sirrah, that knew me for a fool, a coward, + One all of luxury, an ass, a madman! + Wherein have I so deserv'd of you + That you extol me thus? + LUCIO. Faith, my lord, I spoke it but according to the trick. + If you will hang me for it, you may; but I had rather it would + please you I might be whipt. + DUKE. Whipt first, sir, and hang'd after. + Proclaim it, Provost, round about the city, + If any woman wrong'd by this lewd fellow- + As I have heard him swear himself there's one + Whom he begot with child, let her appear, + And he shall marry her. The nuptial finish'd, + Let him be whipt and hang'd. + LUCIO. I beseech your Highness, do not marry me to a whore. Your + Highness said even now I made you a duke; good my lord, do not + recompense me in making me a cuckold. + DUKE. Upon mine honour, thou shalt marry her. + Thy slanders I forgive; and therewithal + Remit thy other forfeits. Take him to prison; + And see our pleasure herein executed. + LUCIO. Marrying a punk, my lord, is pressing to death, whipping, + and hanging. + DUKE. Slandering a prince deserves it. + Exeunt OFFICERS with LUCIO + She, Claudio, that you wrong'd, look you restore. + Joy to you, Mariana! Love her, Angelo; + I have confess'd her, and I know her virtue. + Thanks, good friend Escalus, for thy much goodness; + There's more behind that is more gratulate. + Thanks, Provost, for thy care and secrecy; + We shall employ thee in a worthier place. + Forgive him, Angelo, that brought you home + The head of Ragozine for Claudio's: + Th' offence pardons itself. Dear Isabel, + I have a motion much imports your good; + Whereto if you'll a willing ear incline, + What's mine is yours, and what is yours is mine. + So, bring us to our palace, where we'll show + What's yet behind that's meet you all should know. + Exeunt + + + + +THE MERCHANT OF VENICE + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Venice. A street. +Scene II. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. +Scene III. Venice. A public place. + + +ACT II +Scene I. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. +Scene II. Venice. A street. +Scene III. The same. A room in Shylock’s house. +Scene IV. The same. A street. +Scene V. The same. Before Shylock’s house. +Scene VI. The same. +Scene VII. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. +Scene VIII. Venice. A street. +Scene IX. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. + + +ACT III +Scene I. Venice. A street. +Scene II. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. +Scene III. Venice. A street. +Scene IV. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. +Scene V. The same. A garden. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. Venice. A court of justice. +Scene II. The same. A street. + + +ACT V +Scene I. Belmont. The avenue to Portia’s house. + + + +Dramatis Personæ + +THE DUKE OF VENICE +THE PRINCE OF MOROCCO, suitor to Portia +THE PRINCE OF ARRAGON, suitor to Portia +ANTONIO, a merchant of Venice +BASSANIO, his friend, suitor to Portia +GRATIANO, friend to Antonio and Bassanio +SOLANIO, friend to Antonio and Bassanio +SALARINO, friend to Antonio and Bassanio +LORENZO, in love with Jessica +SHYLOCK, a rich Jew +TUBAL, a Jew, his friend +LAUNCELET GOBBO, a clown, servant to Shylock +OLD GOBBO, father to Launcelet +LEONARDO, servant to Bassanio +BALTHAZAR, servant to Portia +STEPHANO, servant to Portia +SALERIO, a messenger from Venice + +PORTIA, a rich heiress +NERISSA, her waiting-woman +JESSICA, daughter to Shylock + +Magnificoes of Venice, Officers of the Court of Justice, a Gaoler, +Servants and other Attendants + +SCENE: Partly at Venice, and partly at Belmont, the seat of Portia on +the Continent + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Venice. A street. + + Enter Antonio, Salarino and Solanio. + +ANTONIO. +In sooth I know not why I am so sad, +It wearies me. you say it wearies you; +But how I caught it, found it, or came by it, +What stuff ’tis made of, whereof it is born, +I am to learn. +And such a want-wit sadness makes of me, +That I have much ado to know myself. + +SALARINO. +Your mind is tossing on the ocean, +There where your argosies, with portly sail +Like signiors and rich burghers on the flood, +Or as it were the pageants of the sea, +Do overpeer the petty traffickers +That curtsy to them, do them reverence, +As they fly by them with their woven wings. + +SOLANIO. +Believe me, sir, had I such venture forth, +The better part of my affections would +Be with my hopes abroad. I should be still +Plucking the grass to know where sits the wind, +Peering in maps for ports, and piers and roads; +And every object that might make me fear +Misfortune to my ventures, out of doubt +Would make me sad. + +SALARINO. +My wind cooling my broth +Would blow me to an ague when I thought +What harm a wind too great might do at sea. +I should not see the sandy hour-glass run +But I should think of shallows and of flats, +And see my wealthy Andrew dock’d in sand, +Vailing her high top lower than her ribs +To kiss her burial. Should I go to church +And see the holy edifice of stone +And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks, +Which, touching but my gentle vessel’s side, +Would scatter all her spices on the stream, +Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks, +And, in a word, but even now worth this, +And now worth nothing? Shall I have the thought +To think on this, and shall I lack the thought +That such a thing bechanc’d would make me sad? +But tell not me, I know Antonio +Is sad to think upon his merchandise. + +ANTONIO. +Believe me, no. I thank my fortune for it, +My ventures are not in one bottom trusted, +Nor to one place; nor is my whole estate +Upon the fortune of this present year. +Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad. + +SALARINO. +Why then you are in love. + +ANTONIO. +Fie, fie! + +SALARINO. +Not in love neither? Then let us say you are sad +Because you are not merry; and ’twere as easy +For you to laugh and leap and say you are merry +Because you are not sad. Now, by two-headed Janus, +Nature hath fram’d strange fellows in her time: +Some that will evermore peep through their eyes, +And laugh like parrots at a bagpiper. +And other of such vinegar aspect +That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile +Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable. + + Enter Bassanio, Lorenzo and Gratiano. + +SOLANIO. +Here comes Bassanio, your most noble kinsman, +Gratiano, and Lorenzo. Fare ye well. +We leave you now with better company. + +SALARINO. +I would have stay’d till I had made you merry, +If worthier friends had not prevented me. + +ANTONIO. +Your worth is very dear in my regard. +I take it your own business calls on you, +And you embrace th’ occasion to depart. + +SALARINO. +Good morrow, my good lords. + +BASSANIO. +Good signiors both, when shall we laugh? Say, when? +You grow exceeding strange. Must it be so? + +SALARINO. +We’ll make our leisures to attend on yours. + + [_Exeunt Salarino and Solanio._] + +LORENZO. +My Lord Bassanio, since you have found Antonio, +We two will leave you, but at dinner-time +I pray you have in mind where we must meet. + +BASSANIO. +I will not fail you. + +GRATIANO. +You look not well, Signior Antonio, +You have too much respect upon the world. +They lose it that do buy it with much care. +Believe me, you are marvellously chang’d. + +ANTONIO. +I hold the world but as the world, Gratiano, +A stage, where every man must play a part, +And mine a sad one. + +GRATIANO. +Let me play the fool, +With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles come, +And let my liver rather heat with wine +Than my heart cool with mortifying groans. +Why should a man whose blood is warm within +Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster? +Sleep when he wakes? And creep into the jaundice +By being peevish? I tell thee what, Antonio, +(I love thee, and ’tis my love that speaks): +There are a sort of men whose visages +Do cream and mantle like a standing pond, +And do a wilful stillness entertain, +With purpose to be dress’d in an opinion +Of wisdom, gravity, profound conceit, +As who should say, “I am Sir Oracle, +And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark.” +O my Antonio, I do know of these +That therefore only are reputed wise +For saying nothing; when, I am very sure, +If they should speak, would almost damn those ears +Which, hearing them, would call their brothers fools. +I’ll tell thee more of this another time. +But fish not with this melancholy bait +For this fool gudgeon, this opinion. +Come, good Lorenzo. Fare ye well a while. +I’ll end my exhortation after dinner. + +LORENZO. +Well, we will leave you then till dinner-time. +I must be one of these same dumb wise men, +For Gratiano never lets me speak. + +GRATIANO. +Well, keep me company but two years moe, +Thou shalt not know the sound of thine own tongue. + +ANTONIO. +Fare you well. I’ll grow a talker for this gear. + +GRATIANO. +Thanks, i’ faith, for silence is only commendable +In a neat’s tongue dried, and a maid not vendible. + + [_Exeunt Gratiano and Lorenzo._] + +ANTONIO. +Is that anything now? + +BASSANIO. +Gratiano speaks an infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in all +Venice. His reasons are as two grains of wheat hid in two bushels of +chaff: you shall seek all day ere you find them, and when you have them +they are not worth the search. + +ANTONIO. +Well, tell me now what lady is the same +To whom you swore a secret pilgrimage, +That you today promis’d to tell me of? + +BASSANIO. +’Tis not unknown to you, Antonio, +How much I have disabled mine estate +By something showing a more swelling port +Than my faint means would grant continuance. +Nor do I now make moan to be abridg’d +From such a noble rate, but my chief care +Is to come fairly off from the great debts +Wherein my time, something too prodigal, +Hath left me gag’d. To you, Antonio, +I owe the most in money and in love, +And from your love I have a warranty +To unburden all my plots and purposes +How to get clear of all the debts I owe. + +ANTONIO. +I pray you, good Bassanio, let me know it; +And if it stand, as you yourself still do, +Within the eye of honour, be assur’d +My purse, my person, my extremest means +Lie all unlock’d to your occasions. + +BASSANIO. +In my school-days, when I had lost one shaft, +I shot his fellow of the self-same flight +The self-same way, with more advised watch +To find the other forth; and by adventuring both +I oft found both. I urge this childhood proof +Because what follows is pure innocence. +I owe you much, and, like a wilful youth, +That which I owe is lost. But if you please +To shoot another arrow that self way +Which you did shoot the first, I do not doubt, +As I will watch the aim, or to find both, +Or bring your latter hazard back again, +And thankfully rest debtor for the first. + +ANTONIO. +You know me well, and herein spend but time +To wind about my love with circumstance; +And out of doubt you do me now more wrong +In making question of my uttermost +Than if you had made waste of all I have. +Then do but say to me what I should do +That in your knowledge may by me be done, +And I am prest unto it. Therefore, speak. + +BASSANIO. +In Belmont is a lady richly left, +And she is fair, and, fairer than that word, +Of wondrous virtues. Sometimes from her eyes +I did receive fair speechless messages: +Her name is Portia, nothing undervalu’d +To Cato’s daughter, Brutus’ Portia. +Nor is the wide world ignorant of her worth, +For the four winds blow in from every coast +Renowned suitors, and her sunny locks +Hang on her temples like a golden fleece, +Which makes her seat of Belmont Colchos’ strond, +And many Jasons come in quest of her. +O my Antonio, had I but the means +To hold a rival place with one of them, +I have a mind presages me such thrift +That I should questionless be fortunate. + +ANTONIO. +Thou know’st that all my fortunes are at sea; +Neither have I money nor commodity +To raise a present sum, therefore go forth +Try what my credit can in Venice do; +That shall be rack’d even to the uttermost, +To furnish thee to Belmont to fair Portia. +Go presently inquire, and so will I, +Where money is, and I no question make +To have it of my trust or for my sake. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. + + Enter Portia with her waiting-woman Nerissa. + +PORTIA. +By my troth, Nerissa, my little body is aweary of this great world. + +NERISSA. +You would be, sweet madam, if your miseries were in the same abundance +as your good fortunes are. And yet, for aught I see, they are as sick +that surfeit with too much as they that starve with nothing. It is no +mean happiness, therefore, to be seated in the mean. Superfluity come +sooner by white hairs, but competency lives longer. + +PORTIA. +Good sentences, and well pronounc’d. + +NERISSA. +They would be better if well followed. + +PORTIA. +If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels had been +churches, and poor men’s cottages princes’ palaces. It is a good divine +that follows his own instructions; I can easier teach twenty what were +good to be done than to be one of the twenty to follow mine own +teaching. The brain may devise laws for the blood, but a hot temper +leaps o’er a cold decree; such a hare is madness the youth, to skip +o’er the meshes of good counsel the cripple. But this reasoning is not +in the fashion to choose me a husband. O me, the word “choose”! I may +neither choose who I would nor refuse who I dislike, so is the will of +a living daughter curb’d by the will of a dead father. Is it not hard, +Nerissa, that I cannot choose one, nor refuse none? + +NERISSA. +Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good +inspirations. Therefore the lott’ry that he hath devised in these three +chests of gold, silver, and lead, whereof who chooses his meaning +chooses you, will no doubt never be chosen by any rightly but one who +you shall rightly love. But what warmth is there in your affection +towards any of these princely suitors that are already come? + +PORTIA. +I pray thee over-name them, and as thou namest them, I will describe +them, and according to my description level at my affection. + +NERISSA. +First, there is the Neapolitan prince. + +PORTIA. +Ay, that’s a colt indeed, for he doth nothing but talk of his horse, +and he makes it a great appropriation to his own good parts that he can +shoe him himself. I am much afeard my lady his mother play’d false with +a smith. + +NERISSA. +Then is there the County Palatine. + +PORTIA. +He doth nothing but frown, as who should say “And you will not have me, +choose.” He hears merry tales and smiles not. I fear he will prove the +weeping philosopher when he grows old, being so full of unmannerly +sadness in his youth. I had rather be married to a death’s-head with a +bone in his mouth than to either of these. God defend me from these +two! + +NERISSA. +How say you by the French lord, Monsieur Le Bon? + +PORTIA. +God made him, and therefore let him pass for a man. In truth, I know it +is a sin to be a mocker, but he! why, he hath a horse better than the +Neapolitan’s, a better bad habit of frowning than the Count Palatine. +He is every man in no man. If a throstle sing, he falls straight +a-cap’ring. He will fence with his own shadow. If I should marry him, I +should marry twenty husbands. If he would despise me, I would forgive +him, for if he love me to madness, I shall never requite him. + +NERISSA. +What say you then to Falconbridge, the young baron of England? + +PORTIA. +You know I say nothing to him, for he understands not me, nor I him: he +hath neither Latin, French, nor Italian, and you will come into the +court and swear that I have a poor pennyworth in the English. He is a +proper man’s picture; but alas, who can converse with a dumb-show? How +oddly he is suited! I think he bought his doublet in Italy, his round +hose in France, his bonnet in Germany, and his behaviour everywhere. + +NERISSA. +What think you of the Scottish lord, his neighbour? + +PORTIA. +That he hath a neighbourly charity in him, for he borrowed a box of the +ear of the Englishman, and swore he would pay him again when he was +able. I think the Frenchman became his surety, and seal’d under for +another. + +NERISSA. +How like you the young German, the Duke of Saxony’s nephew? + +PORTIA. +Very vilely in the morning when he is sober, and most vilely in the +afternoon when he is drunk: when he is best, he is a little worse than +a man, and when he is worst, he is little better than a beast. And the +worst fall that ever fell, I hope I shall make shift to go without him. + +NERISSA. +If he should offer to choose, and choose the right casket, you should +refuse to perform your father’s will, if you should refuse to accept +him. + +PORTIA. +Therefore, for fear of the worst, I pray thee set a deep glass of +Rhenish wine on the contrary casket, for if the devil be within and +that temptation without, I know he will choose it. I will do anything, +Nerissa, ere I will be married to a sponge. + +NERISSA. +You need not fear, lady, the having any of these lords. They have +acquainted me with their determinations, which is indeed to return to +their home, and to trouble you with no more suit, unless you may be won +by some other sort than your father’s imposition, depending on the +caskets. + +PORTIA. +If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, +unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this +parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is not one among them but +I dote on his very absence. And I pray God grant them a fair departure. + +NERISSA. +Do you not remember, lady, in your father’s time, a Venetian, a scholar +and a soldier, that came hither in company of the Marquis of +Montferrat? + +PORTIA. +Yes, yes, it was Bassanio, as I think, so was he call’d. + +NERISSA. +True, madam. He, of all the men that ever my foolish eyes look’d upon, +was the best deserving a fair lady. + +PORTIA. +I remember him well, and I remember him worthy of thy praise. + + Enter a Servingman. + +How now! what news? + +SERVINGMAN. +The four strangers seek for you, madam, to take their leave. And there +is a forerunner come from a fifth, the Prince of Morocco, who brings +word the Prince his master will be here tonight. + +PORTIA. +If I could bid the fifth welcome with so good heart as I can bid the +other four farewell, I should be glad of his approach. If he have the +condition of a saint and the complexion of a devil, I had rather he +should shrive me than wive me. Come, Nerissa. Sirrah, go before. Whiles +we shut the gate upon one wooer, another knocks at the door. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Venice. A public place. + + Enter Bassanio with Shylock the Jew. + +SHYLOCK. +Three thousand ducats, well. + +BASSANIO. +Ay, sir, for three months. + +SHYLOCK. +For three months, well. + +BASSANIO. +For the which, as I told you, Antonio shall be bound. + +SHYLOCK. +Antonio shall become bound, well. + +BASSANIO. +May you stead me? Will you pleasure me? Shall I know your answer? + +SHYLOCK. +Three thousand ducats for three months, and Antonio bound. + +BASSANIO. +Your answer to that. + +SHYLOCK. +Antonio is a good man. + +BASSANIO. +Have you heard any imputation to the contrary? + +SHYLOCK. +Ho, no, no, no, no: my meaning in saying he is a good man is to have +you understand me that he is sufficient. Yet his means are in +supposition: he hath an argosy bound to Tripolis, another to the +Indies. I understand, moreover, upon the Rialto, he hath a third at +Mexico, a fourth for England, and other ventures he hath squandered +abroad. But ships are but boards, sailors but men; there be land-rats +and water-rats, water-thieves and land-thieves—I mean pirates—and then +there is the peril of waters, winds, and rocks. The man is, +notwithstanding, sufficient. Three thousand ducats. I think I may take +his bond. + +BASSANIO. +Be assured you may. + +SHYLOCK. +I will be assured I may. And that I may be assured, I will bethink me. +May I speak with Antonio? + +BASSANIO. +If it please you to dine with us. + +SHYLOCK. +Yes, to smell pork, to eat of the habitation which your prophet, the +Nazarite, conjured the devil into. I will buy with you, sell with you, +talk with you, walk with you, and so following; but I will not eat with +you, drink with you, nor pray with you. What news on the Rialto? Who is +he comes here? + + Enter Antonio. + +BASSANIO. +This is Signior Antonio. + +SHYLOCK. +[_Aside._] How like a fawning publican he looks! +I hate him for he is a Christian, +But more for that in low simplicity +He lends out money gratis, and brings down +The rate of usance here with us in Venice. +If I can catch him once upon the hip, +I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him. +He hates our sacred nation, and he rails, +Even there where merchants most do congregate, +On me, my bargains, and my well-won thrift, +Which he calls interest. Cursed be my tribe +If I forgive him! + +BASSANIO. +Shylock, do you hear? + +SHYLOCK. +I am debating of my present store, +And by the near guess of my memory +I cannot instantly raise up the gross +Of full three thousand ducats. What of that? +Tubal, a wealthy Hebrew of my tribe, +Will furnish me. But soft! how many months +Do you desire? [_To Antonio._] Rest you fair, good signior, +Your worship was the last man in our mouths. + +ANTONIO. +Shylock, albeit I neither lend nor borrow +By taking nor by giving of excess, +Yet to supply the ripe wants of my friend, +I’ll break a custom. [_To Bassanio._] Is he yet possess’d +How much ye would? + +SHYLOCK. +Ay, ay, three thousand ducats. + +ANTONIO. +And for three months. + +SHYLOCK. +I had forgot, three months, you told me so. +Well then, your bond. And let me see, but hear you, +Methought you said you neither lend nor borrow +Upon advantage. + +ANTONIO. +I do never use it. + +SHYLOCK. +When Jacob graz’d his uncle Laban’s sheep,— +This Jacob from our holy Abram was +As his wise mother wrought in his behalf, +The third possessor; ay, he was the third. + +ANTONIO. +And what of him? Did he take interest? + +SHYLOCK. +No, not take interest, not, as you would say, +Directly interest; mark what Jacob did. +When Laban and himself were compromis’d +That all the eanlings which were streak’d and pied +Should fall as Jacob’s hire, the ewes being rank +In end of autumn turned to the rams, +And when the work of generation was +Between these woolly breeders in the act, +The skilful shepherd pill’d me certain wands, +And in the doing of the deed of kind, +He stuck them up before the fulsome ewes, +Who then conceiving did in eaning time +Fall parti-colour’d lambs, and those were Jacob’s. +This was a way to thrive, and he was blest; +And thrift is blessing if men steal it not. + +ANTONIO. +This was a venture, sir, that Jacob serv’d for, +A thing not in his power to bring to pass, +But sway’d and fashion’d by the hand of heaven. +Was this inserted to make interest good? +Or is your gold and silver ewes and rams? + +SHYLOCK. +I cannot tell; I make it breed as fast. +But note me, signior. + +ANTONIO. +Mark you this, Bassanio, +The devil can cite Scripture for his purpose. +An evil soul producing holy witness +Is like a villain with a smiling cheek, +A goodly apple rotten at the heart. +O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath! + +SHYLOCK. +Three thousand ducats, ’tis a good round sum. +Three months from twelve, then let me see the rate. + +ANTONIO. +Well, Shylock, shall we be beholding to you? + +SHYLOCK. +Signior Antonio, many a time and oft +In the Rialto you have rated me +About my moneys and my usances. +Still have I borne it with a patient shrug, +(For suff’rance is the badge of all our tribe.) +You call me misbeliever, cut-throat dog, +And spet upon my Jewish gaberdine, +And all for use of that which is mine own. +Well then, it now appears you need my help. +Go to, then, you come to me, and you say +“Shylock, we would have moneys.” You say so: +You that did void your rheum upon my beard, +And foot me as you spurn a stranger cur +Over your threshold, moneys is your suit. +What should I say to you? Should I not say +“Hath a dog money? Is it possible +A cur can lend three thousand ducats?” Or +Shall I bend low and, in a bondman’s key, +With bated breath and whisp’ring humbleness, +Say this: +“Fair sir, you spet on me on Wednesday last; +You spurn’d me such a day; another time +You call’d me dog; and for these courtesies +I’ll lend you thus much moneys”? + +ANTONIO. +I am as like to call thee so again, +To spet on thee again, to spurn thee too. +If thou wilt lend this money, lend it not +As to thy friends, for when did friendship take +A breed for barren metal of his friend? +But lend it rather to thine enemy, +Who if he break, thou mayst with better face +Exact the penalty. + +SHYLOCK. +Why, look you how you storm! +I would be friends with you, and have your love, +Forget the shames that you have stain’d me with, +Supply your present wants, and take no doit +Of usance for my moneys, and you’ll not hear me, +This is kind I offer. + +BASSANIO. +This were kindness. + +SHYLOCK. +This kindness will I show. +Go with me to a notary, seal me there +Your single bond; and in a merry sport, +If you repay me not on such a day, +In such a place, such sum or sums as are +Express’d in the condition, let the forfeit +Be nominated for an equal pound +Of your fair flesh, to be cut off and taken +In what part of your body pleaseth me. + +ANTONIO. +Content, in faith, I’ll seal to such a bond, +And say there is much kindness in the Jew. + +BASSANIO. +You shall not seal to such a bond for me, +I’ll rather dwell in my necessity. + +ANTONIO. +Why, fear not, man, I will not forfeit it, +Within these two months, that’s a month before +This bond expires, I do expect return +Of thrice three times the value of this bond. + +SHYLOCK. +O father Abram, what these Christians are, +Whose own hard dealings teaches them suspect +The thoughts of others. Pray you, tell me this, +If he should break his day, what should I gain +By the exaction of the forfeiture? +A pound of man’s flesh, taken from a man, +Is not so estimable, profitable neither, +As flesh of muttons, beefs, or goats. I say, +To buy his favour, I extend this friendship. +If he will take it, so. If not, adieu, +And for my love I pray you wrong me not. + +ANTONIO. +Yes, Shylock, I will seal unto this bond. + +SHYLOCK. +Then meet me forthwith at the notary’s, +Give him direction for this merry bond, +And I will go and purse the ducats straight, +See to my house left in the fearful guard +Of an unthrifty knave, and presently +I’ll be with you. + +ANTONIO. +Hie thee, gentle Jew. + + [_Exit Shylock._] + +This Hebrew will turn Christian; he grows kind. + +BASSANIO. +I like not fair terms and a villain’s mind. + +ANTONIO. +Come on; in this there can be no dismay; +My ships come home a month before the day. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. + + Flourish of cornets. Enter the Prince of Morocco, a tawny Moor all in + white, and three or four followers accordingly, with Portia, Nerissa + and their train. + +PRINCE OF MOROCCO. +Mislike me not for my complexion, +The shadowed livery of the burnish’d sun, +To whom I am a neighbour, and near bred. +Bring me the fairest creature northward born, +Where Phœbus’ fire scarce thaws the icicles, +And let us make incision for your love +To prove whose blood is reddest, his or mine. +I tell thee, lady, this aspect of mine +Hath fear’d the valiant; by my love I swear +The best-regarded virgins of our clime +Have lov’d it too. I would not change this hue, +Except to steal your thoughts, my gentle queen. + +PORTIA. +In terms of choice I am not solely led +By nice direction of a maiden’s eyes; +Besides, the lott’ry of my destiny +Bars me the right of voluntary choosing. +But if my father had not scanted me +And hedg’d me by his wit to yield myself +His wife who wins me by that means I told you, +Yourself, renowned Prince, then stood as fair +As any comer I have look’d on yet +For my affection. + +PRINCE OF MOROCCO. +Even for that I thank you. +Therefore I pray you lead me to the caskets +To try my fortune. By this scimitar +That slew the Sophy and a Persian prince, +That won three fields of Sultan Solyman, +I would o’erstare the sternest eyes that look, +Outbrave the heart most daring on the earth, +Pluck the young sucking cubs from the she-bear, +Yea, mock the lion when he roars for prey, +To win thee, lady. But, alas the while! +If Hercules and Lichas play at dice +Which is the better man, the greater throw +May turn by fortune from the weaker hand: +So is Alcides beaten by his rage, +And so may I, blind Fortune leading me, +Miss that which one unworthier may attain, +And die with grieving. + +PORTIA. +You must take your chance, +And either not attempt to choose at all, +Or swear before you choose, if you choose wrong +Never to speak to lady afterward +In way of marriage. Therefore be advis’d. + +PRINCE OF MOROCCO. +Nor will not. Come, bring me unto my chance. + +PORTIA. +First, forward to the temple. After dinner +Your hazard shall be made. + +PRINCE OF MOROCCO. +Good fortune then, +To make me blest or cursed’st among men! + + [_Cornets. Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Venice. A street. + + Enter Launcelet Gobbo, the clown, alone. + +LAUNCELET. +Certainly my conscience will serve me to run from this Jew my master. +The fiend is at mine elbow and tempts me, saying to me “Gobbo, +Launcelet Gobbo, good Launcelet” or “good Gobbo,” or “good Launcelet +Gobbo, use your legs, take the start, run away.” My conscience says +“No; take heed, honest Launcelet, take heed, honest Gobbo” or, as +aforesaid, “honest Launcelet Gobbo, do not run, scorn running with thy +heels.” Well, the most courageous fiend bids me pack. “Fia!” says the +fiend, “away!” says the fiend. “For the heavens, rouse up a brave +mind,” says the fiend “and run.” Well, my conscience, hanging about the +neck of my heart, says very wisely to me “My honest friend Launcelet, +being an honest man’s son”—or rather an honest woman’s son, for indeed +my father did something smack, something grow to, he had a kind of +taste;—well, my conscience says “Launcelet, budge not.” “Budge,” says +the fiend. “Budge not,” says my conscience. “Conscience,” say I, “you +counsel well.” “Fiend,” say I, “you counsel well.” To be ruled by my +conscience, I should stay with the Jew my master, who, (God bless the +mark) is a kind of devil; and, to run away from the Jew, I should be +ruled by the fiend, who (saving your reverence) is the devil himself. +Certainly the Jew is the very devil incarnation, and, in my conscience, +my conscience is but a kind of hard conscience, to offer to counsel me +to stay with the Jew. The fiend gives the more friendly counsel. I will +run, fiend, my heels are at your commandment, I will run. + + Enter Old Gobbo with a basket. + +GOBBO. +Master young man, you, I pray you; which is the way to Master Jew’s? + +LAUNCELET. +[_Aside._] O heavens, this is my true-begotten father, who being more +than sand-blind, high-gravel blind, knows me not. I will try confusions +with him. + +GOBBO. +Master young gentleman, I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew’s? + +LAUNCELET. +Turn up on your right hand at the next turning, but at the next turning +of all on your left; marry, at the very next turning, turn of no hand, +but turn down indirectly to the Jew’s house. + +GOBBO. +Be God’s sonties, ’twill be a hard way to hit. Can you tell me whether +one Launcelet, that dwells with him, dwell with him or no? + +LAUNCELET. +Talk you of young Master Launcelet? [_Aside._] Mark me now, now will I +raise the waters. Talk you of young Master Launcelet? + +GOBBO. +No master, sir, but a poor man’s son, his father, though I say’t, is an +honest exceeding poor man, and, God be thanked, well to live. + +LAUNCELET. +Well, let his father be what he will, we talk of young Master +Launcelet. + +GOBBO. +Your worship’s friend, and Launcelet, sir. + +LAUNCELET. +But I pray you, _ergo_, old man, _ergo_, I beseech you, talk you of +young Master Launcelet? + +GOBBO. +Of Launcelet, an’t please your mastership. + +LAUNCELET. +_Ergo_, Master Launcelet. Talk not of Master Launcelet, father, for the +young gentleman, according to Fates and Destinies, and such odd +sayings, the Sisters Three and such branches of learning, is indeed +deceased, or, as you would say in plain terms, gone to heaven. + +GOBBO. +Marry, God forbid! The boy was the very staff of my age, my very prop. + +LAUNCELET. +[_Aside._] Do I look like a cudgel or a hovel-post, a staff or a prop? +Do you know me, father? + +GOBBO. +Alack the day! I know you not, young gentleman, but I pray you tell me, +is my boy, God rest his soul, alive or dead? + +LAUNCELET. +Do you not know me, father? + +GOBBO. +Alack, sir, I am sand-blind, I know you not. + +LAUNCELET. +Nay, indeed, if you had your eyes, you might fail of the knowing me: it +is a wise father that knows his own child. Well, old man, I will tell +you news of your son. Give me your blessing, truth will come to light, +murder cannot be hid long, a man’s son may, but in the end truth will +out. + +GOBBO. +Pray you, sir, stand up, I am sure you are not Launcelet my boy. + +LAUNCELET. +Pray you, let’s have no more fooling about it, but give me your +blessing. I am Launcelet, your boy that was, your son that is, your +child that shall be. + +GOBBO. +I cannot think you are my son. + +LAUNCELET. +I know not what I shall think of that; but I am Launcelet, the Jew’s +man, and I am sure Margery your wife is my mother. + +GOBBO. +Her name is Margery, indeed. I’ll be sworn if thou be Launcelet, thou +art mine own flesh and blood. Lord worshipped might he be, what a beard +hast thou got! Thou hast got more hair on thy chin than Dobbin my +fill-horse has on his tail. + +LAUNCELET. +It should seem, then, that Dobbin’s tail grows backward. I am sure he +had more hair on his tail than I have on my face when I last saw him. + +GOBBO. +Lord, how art thou changed! How dost thou and thy master agree? I have +brought him a present. How ’gree you now? + +LAUNCELET. +Well, well. But for mine own part, as I have set up my rest to run +away, so I will not rest till I have run some ground. My master’s a +very Jew. Give him a present! Give him a halter. I am famished in his +service. You may tell every finger I have with my ribs. Father, I am +glad you are come, give me your present to one Master Bassanio, who +indeed gives rare new liveries. If I serve not him, I will run as far +as God has any ground. O rare fortune, here comes the man! To him, +father; for I am a Jew, if I serve the Jew any longer. + + Enter Bassanio with Leonardo and a follower or two. + +BASSANIO. +You may do so, but let it be so hasted that supper be ready at the +farthest by five of the clock. See these letters delivered, put the +liveries to making, and desire Gratiano to come anon to my lodging. + + [_Exit a Servant._] + +LAUNCELET. +To him, father. + +GOBBO. +God bless your worship! + +BASSANIO. +Gramercy, wouldst thou aught with me? + +GOBBO. +Here’s my son, sir, a poor boy. + +LAUNCELET. +Not a poor boy, sir, but the rich Jew’s man, that would, sir, as my +father shall specify. + +GOBBO. +He hath a great infection, sir, as one would say, to serve. + +LAUNCELET. +Indeed the short and the long is, I serve the Jew, and have a desire, +as my father shall specify. + +GOBBO. +His master and he (saving your worship’s reverence) are scarce +cater-cousins. + +LAUNCELET. +To be brief, the very truth is that the Jew, having done me wrong, doth +cause me, as my father, being I hope an old man, shall frutify unto +you. + +GOBBO. +I have here a dish of doves that I would bestow upon your worship, and +my suit is— + +LAUNCELET. +In very brief, the suit is impertinent to myself, as your worship shall +know by this honest old man, and though I say it, though old man, yet +poor man, my father. + +BASSANIO. +One speak for both. What would you? + +LAUNCELET. +Serve you, sir. + +GOBBO. +That is the very defect of the matter, sir. + +BASSANIO. +I know thee well; thou hast obtain’d thy suit. +Shylock thy master spoke with me this day, +And hath preferr’d thee, if it be preferment +To leave a rich Jew’s service to become +The follower of so poor a gentleman. + +LAUNCELET. +The old proverb is very well parted between my master Shylock and you, +sir: you have “the grace of God”, sir, and he hath “enough”. + +BASSANIO. +Thou speak’st it well. Go, father, with thy son. +Take leave of thy old master, and inquire +My lodging out. [_To a Servant._] Give him a livery +More guarded than his fellows’; see it done. + +LAUNCELET. +Father, in. I cannot get a service, no! I have ne’er a tongue in my +head! [_Looking on his palm._] Well, if any man in Italy have a fairer +table which doth offer to swear upon a book, I shall have good fortune; +go to, here’s a simple line of life. Here’s a small trifle of wives, +alas, fifteen wives is nothing; eleven widows and nine maids is a +simple coming-in for one man. And then to scape drowning thrice, and to +be in peril of my life with the edge of a feather-bed; here are simple +’scapes. Well, if Fortune be a woman, she’s a good wench for this gear. +Father, come; I’ll take my leave of the Jew in the twinkling. + + [_Exeunt Launcelet and Old Gobbo._] + +BASSANIO. +I pray thee, good Leonardo, think on this. +These things being bought and orderly bestow’d, +Return in haste, for I do feast tonight +My best esteem’d acquaintance; hie thee, go. + +LEONARDO. +My best endeavours shall be done herein. + + Enter Gratiano. + +GRATIANO. +Where’s your master? + +LEONARDO. +Yonder, sir, he walks. + + [_Exit._] + +GRATIANO. +Signior Bassanio! + +BASSANIO. +Gratiano! + +GRATIANO. +I have suit to you. + +BASSANIO. +You have obtain’d it. + +GRATIANO. +You must not deny me, I must go with you to Belmont. + +BASSANIO. +Why, then you must. But hear thee, Gratiano, +Thou art too wild, too rude, and bold of voice, +Parts that become thee happily enough, +And in such eyes as ours appear not faults; +But where thou art not known, why there they show +Something too liberal. Pray thee, take pain +To allay with some cold drops of modesty +Thy skipping spirit, lest through thy wild behaviour +I be misconst’red in the place I go to, +And lose my hopes. + +GRATIANO. +Signior Bassanio, hear me. +If I do not put on a sober habit, +Talk with respect, and swear but now and then, +Wear prayer-books in my pocket, look demurely, +Nay more, while grace is saying, hood mine eyes +Thus with my hat, and sigh, and say “amen”; +Use all the observance of civility +Like one well studied in a sad ostent +To please his grandam, never trust me more. + +BASSANIO. +Well, we shall see your bearing. + +GRATIANO. +Nay, but I bar tonight, you shall not gauge me +By what we do tonight. + +BASSANIO. +No, that were pity. +I would entreat you rather to put on +Your boldest suit of mirth, for we have friends +That purpose merriment. But fare you well, +I have some business. + +GRATIANO. +And I must to Lorenzo and the rest, +But we will visit you at supper-time. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. A room in Shylock’s house. + + Enter Jessica and Launcelet. + +JESSICA. +I am sorry thou wilt leave my father so. +Our house is hell, and thou, a merry devil, +Didst rob it of some taste of tediousness. +But fare thee well, there is a ducat for thee, +And, Launcelet, soon at supper shalt thou see +Lorenzo, who is thy new master’s guest. +Give him this letter, do it secretly. +And so farewell. I would not have my father +See me in talk with thee. + +LAUNCELET. +Adieu! tears exhibit my tongue, most beautiful pagan, most sweet Jew! +If a Christian do not play the knave and get thee, I am much deceived. +But, adieu! These foolish drops do something drown my manly spirit. +Adieu! + +JESSICA. +Farewell, good Launcelet. + + [_Exit Launcelet._] + +Alack, what heinous sin is it in me +To be ashamed to be my father’s child! +But though I am a daughter to his blood, +I am not to his manners. O Lorenzo, +If thou keep promise, I shall end this strife, +Become a Christian and thy loving wife. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. The same. A street. + + Enter Gratiano, Lorenzo, Salarino and Solanio. + +LORENZO. +Nay, we will slink away in supper-time, +Disguise us at my lodging, and return +All in an hour. + +GRATIANO. +We have not made good preparation. + +SALARINO. +We have not spoke us yet of torch-bearers. + +SOLANIO. +’Tis vile, unless it may be quaintly order’d, +And better in my mind not undertook. + +LORENZO. +’Tis now but four o’clock, we have two hours +To furnish us. + + Enter Launcelet with a letter. + +Friend Launcelet, what’s the news? + +LAUNCELET. +And it shall please you to break up this, it shall seem to signify. + +LORENZO. +I know the hand, in faith ’tis a fair hand, +And whiter than the paper it writ on +Is the fair hand that writ. + +GRATIANO. +Love news, in faith. + +LAUNCELET. +By your leave, sir. + +LORENZO. +Whither goest thou? + +LAUNCELET. +Marry, sir, to bid my old master the Jew to sup tonight with my new +master the Christian. + +LORENZO. +Hold here, take this. Tell gentle Jessica +I will not fail her, speak it privately. +Go, gentlemen, + + [_Exit Launcelet._] + +Will you prepare you for this masque tonight? +I am provided of a torch-bearer. + +SALARINO. +Ay, marry, I’ll be gone about it straight. + +SOLANIO. +And so will I. + +LORENZO. +Meet me and Gratiano +At Gratiano’s lodging some hour hence. + +SALARINO. +’Tis good we do so. + + [_Exeunt Salarino and Solanio._] + +GRATIANO. +Was not that letter from fair Jessica? + +LORENZO. +I must needs tell thee all. She hath directed +How I shall take her from her father’s house, +What gold and jewels she is furnish’d with, +What page’s suit she hath in readiness. +If e’er the Jew her father come to heaven, +It will be for his gentle daughter’s sake; +And never dare misfortune cross her foot, +Unless she do it under this excuse, +That she is issue to a faithless Jew. +Come, go with me, peruse this as thou goest; +Fair Jessica shall be my torch-bearer. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. The same. Before Shylock’s house. + + Enter Shylock the Jew and Launcelet his man that was the clown. + +SHYLOCK. +Well, thou shalt see, thy eyes shall be thy judge, +The difference of old Shylock and Bassanio.— +What, Jessica!—Thou shalt not gormandize +As thou hast done with me;—What, Jessica!— +And sleep, and snore, and rend apparel out. +Why, Jessica, I say! + +LAUNCELET. +Why, Jessica! + +SHYLOCK. +Who bids thee call? I do not bid thee call. + +LAUNCELET. +Your worship was wont to tell me I could do nothing without bidding. + + Enter Jessica. + +JESSICA. +Call you? What is your will? + +SHYLOCK. +I am bid forth to supper, Jessica. +There are my keys. But wherefore should I go? +I am not bid for love, they flatter me. +But yet I’ll go in hate, to feed upon +The prodigal Christian. Jessica, my girl, +Look to my house. I am right loath to go; +There is some ill a-brewing towards my rest, +For I did dream of money-bags tonight. + +LAUNCELET. +I beseech you, sir, go. My young master doth expect your reproach. + +SHYLOCK. +So do I his. + +LAUNCELET. +And they have conspired together. I will not say you shall see a +masque, but if you do, then it was not for nothing that my nose fell +a-bleeding on Black Monday last at six o’clock i’ th’ morning, falling +out that year on Ash-Wednesday was four year in th’ afternoon. + +SHYLOCK. +What, are there masques? Hear you me, Jessica, +Lock up my doors, and when you hear the drum +And the vile squealing of the wry-neck’d fife, +Clamber not you up to the casements then, +Nor thrust your head into the public street +To gaze on Christian fools with varnish’d faces, +But stop my house’s ears, I mean my casements. +Let not the sound of shallow fopp’ry enter +My sober house. By Jacob’s staff I swear +I have no mind of feasting forth tonight. +But I will go. Go you before me, sirrah. +Say I will come. + +LAUNCELET. +I will go before, sir. +Mistress, look out at window for all this. + There will come a Christian by + Will be worth a Jewess’ eye. + + [_Exit Launcelet._] + +SHYLOCK. +What says that fool of Hagar’s offspring, ha? + +JESSICA. +His words were “Farewell, mistress,” nothing else. + +SHYLOCK. +The patch is kind enough, but a huge feeder, +Snail-slow in profit, and he sleeps by day +More than the wild-cat. Drones hive not with me, +Therefore I part with him, and part with him +To one that I would have him help to waste +His borrowed purse. Well, Jessica, go in. +Perhaps I will return immediately: +Do as I bid you, shut doors after you, +“Fast bind, fast find.” +A proverb never stale in thrifty mind. + + [_Exit._] + +JESSICA. +Farewell, and if my fortune be not crost, +I have a father, you a daughter, lost. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE VI. The same. + + Enter the masquers, Gratiano and Salarino. + +GRATIANO. +This is the penthouse under which Lorenzo +Desired us to make stand. + +SALARINO. +His hour is almost past. + +GRATIANO. +And it is marvel he out-dwells his hour, +For lovers ever run before the clock. + +SALARINO. +O ten times faster Venus’ pigeons fly +To seal love’s bonds new-made than they are wont +To keep obliged faith unforfeited! + +GRATIANO. +That ever holds: who riseth from a feast +With that keen appetite that he sits down? +Where is the horse that doth untread again +His tedious measures with the unbated fire +That he did pace them first? All things that are, +Are with more spirit chased than enjoy’d. +How like a younger or a prodigal +The scarfed bark puts from her native bay, +Hugg’d and embraced by the strumpet wind! +How like the prodigal doth she return +With over-weather’d ribs and ragged sails, +Lean, rent, and beggar’d by the strumpet wind! + + Enter Lorenzo. + +SALARINO. +Here comes Lorenzo, more of this hereafter. + +LORENZO. +Sweet friends, your patience for my long abode. +Not I but my affairs have made you wait. +When you shall please to play the thieves for wives, +I’ll watch as long for you then. Approach. +Here dwells my father Jew. Ho! who’s within? + + Enter Jessica above, in boy’s clothes. + +JESSICA. +Who are you? Tell me, for more certainty, +Albeit I’ll swear that I do know your tongue. + +LORENZO. +Lorenzo, and thy love. + +JESSICA. +Lorenzo certain, and my love indeed, +For who love I so much? And now who knows +But you, Lorenzo, whether I am yours? + +LORENZO. +Heaven and thy thoughts are witness that thou art. + +JESSICA. +Here, catch this casket; it is worth the pains. +I am glad ’tis night, you do not look on me, +For I am much asham’d of my exchange. +But love is blind, and lovers cannot see +The pretty follies that themselves commit, +For if they could, Cupid himself would blush +To see me thus transformed to a boy. + +LORENZO. +Descend, for you must be my torch-bearer. + +JESSICA. +What! must I hold a candle to my shames? +They in themselves, good sooth, are too too light. +Why, ’tis an office of discovery, love, +And I should be obscur’d. + +LORENZO. +So are you, sweet, +Even in the lovely garnish of a boy. +But come at once, +For the close night doth play the runaway, +And we are stay’d for at Bassanio’s feast. + +JESSICA. +I will make fast the doors, and gild myself +With some moe ducats, and be with you straight. + + [_Exit above._] + +GRATIANO. +Now, by my hood, a gentle, and no Jew. + +LORENZO. +Beshrew me but I love her heartily, +For she is wise, if I can judge of her, +And fair she is, if that mine eyes be true, +And true she is, as she hath prov’d herself. +And therefore, like herself, wise, fair, and true, +Shall she be placed in my constant soul. + + Enter Jessica. + +What, art thou come? On, gentlemen, away! +Our masquing mates by this time for us stay. + + [_Exit with Jessica and Salarino._] + + Enter Antonio. + +ANTONIO. +Who’s there? + +GRATIANO. +Signior Antonio! + +ANTONIO. +Fie, fie, Gratiano! where are all the rest? +’Tis nine o’clock, our friends all stay for you. +No masque tonight, the wind is come about; +Bassanio presently will go aboard. +I have sent twenty out to seek for you. + +GRATIANO. +I am glad on’t. I desire no more delight +Than to be under sail and gone tonight. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VII. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. + + Flourish of cornets. Enter Portia with the Prince of Morocco and both + their trains. + +PORTIA. +Go, draw aside the curtains and discover +The several caskets to this noble prince. +Now make your choice. + +PRINCE OF MOROCCO. +The first, of gold, who this inscription bears, +“Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.” +The second, silver, which this promise carries, +“Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves.” +This third, dull lead, with warning all as blunt, +“Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath.” +How shall I know if I do choose the right? + +PORTIA. +The one of them contains my picture, prince. +If you choose that, then I am yours withal. + +PRINCE OF MOROCCO. +Some god direct my judgment! Let me see. +I will survey the inscriptions back again. +What says this leaden casket? +“Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath.” +Must give, for what? For lead? Hazard for lead! +This casket threatens; men that hazard all +Do it in hope of fair advantages: +A golden mind stoops not to shows of dross, +I’ll then nor give nor hazard aught for lead. +What says the silver with her virgin hue? +“Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves.” +As much as he deserves! Pause there, Morocco, +And weigh thy value with an even hand. +If thou be’st rated by thy estimation +Thou dost deserve enough, and yet enough +May not extend so far as to the lady. +And yet to be afeard of my deserving +Were but a weak disabling of myself. +As much as I deserve! Why, that’s the lady: +I do in birth deserve her, and in fortunes, +In graces, and in qualities of breeding; +But more than these, in love I do deserve. +What if I stray’d no farther, but chose here? +Let’s see once more this saying grav’d in gold: +“Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.” +Why, that’s the lady, all the world desires her. +From the four corners of the earth they come +To kiss this shrine, this mortal breathing saint. +The Hyrcanian deserts and the vasty wilds +Of wide Arabia are as throughfares now +For princes to come view fair Portia. +The watery kingdom, whose ambitious head +Spets in the face of heaven, is no bar +To stop the foreign spirits, but they come +As o’er a brook to see fair Portia. +One of these three contains her heavenly picture. +Is’t like that lead contains her? ’Twere damnation +To think so base a thought. It were too gross +To rib her cerecloth in the obscure grave. +Or shall I think in silver she’s immur’d +Being ten times undervalued to tried gold? +O sinful thought! Never so rich a gem +Was set in worse than gold. They have in England +A coin that bears the figure of an angel +Stamped in gold; but that’s insculp’d upon; +But here an angel in a golden bed +Lies all within. Deliver me the key. +Here do I choose, and thrive I as I may. + +PORTIA. +There, take it, prince, and if my form lie there, +Then I am yours. + + [_He unlocks the golden casket._] + +PRINCE OF MOROCCO. +O hell! what have we here? +A carrion Death, within whose empty eye +There is a written scroll. I’ll read the writing. + + _All that glisters is not gold, + Often have you heard that told. + Many a man his life hath sold + But my outside to behold. + Gilded tombs do worms infold. + Had you been as wise as bold, + Young in limbs, in judgment old, + Your answer had not been inscroll’d, + Fare you well, your suit is cold._ + + Cold indeed and labour lost, + Then farewell heat, and welcome frost. +Portia, adieu! I have too griev’d a heart +To take a tedious leave. Thus losers part. + + [_Exit with his train. Flourish of cornets._] + +PORTIA. +A gentle riddance. Draw the curtains, go. +Let all of his complexion choose me so. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VIII. Venice. A street. + + Enter Salarino and Solanio. + +SALARINO. +Why, man, I saw Bassanio under sail; +With him is Gratiano gone along; +And in their ship I am sure Lorenzo is not. + +SOLANIO. +The villain Jew with outcries rais’d the Duke, +Who went with him to search Bassanio’s ship. + +SALARINO. +He came too late, the ship was under sail; +But there the Duke was given to understand +That in a gondola were seen together +Lorenzo and his amorous Jessica. +Besides, Antonio certified the Duke +They were not with Bassanio in his ship. + +SOLANIO. +I never heard a passion so confus’d, +So strange, outrageous, and so variable +As the dog Jew did utter in the streets. +“My daughter! O my ducats! O my daughter! +Fled with a Christian! O my Christian ducats! +Justice! the law! my ducats and my daughter! +A sealed bag, two sealed bags of ducats, +Of double ducats, stol’n from me by my daughter! +And jewels, two stones, two rich and precious stones, +Stol’n by my daughter! Justice! find the girl, +She hath the stones upon her and the ducats.” + +SALARINO. +Why, all the boys in Venice follow him, +Crying, his stones, his daughter, and his ducats. + +SOLANIO. +Let good Antonio look he keep his day +Or he shall pay for this. + +SALARINO. +Marry, well rememb’red. +I reason’d with a Frenchman yesterday, +Who told me, in the narrow seas that part +The French and English, there miscarried +A vessel of our country richly fraught. +I thought upon Antonio when he told me, +And wish’d in silence that it were not his. + +SOLANIO. +You were best to tell Antonio what you hear, +Yet do not suddenly, for it may grieve him. + +SALARINO. +A kinder gentleman treads not the earth. +I saw Bassanio and Antonio part, +Bassanio told him he would make some speed +Of his return. He answered “Do not so, +Slubber not business for my sake, Bassanio, +But stay the very riping of the time, +And for the Jew’s bond which he hath of me, +Let it not enter in your mind of love: +Be merry, and employ your chiefest thoughts +To courtship, and such fair ostents of love +As shall conveniently become you there.” +And even there, his eye being big with tears, +Turning his face, he put his hand behind him, +And with affection wondrous sensible +He wrung Bassanio’s hand, and so they parted. + +SOLANIO. +I think he only loves the world for him. +I pray thee, let us go and find him out +And quicken his embraced heaviness +With some delight or other. + +SALARINO. +Do we so. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IX. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. + + Enter Nerissa and a Servitor. + +NERISSA. +Quick, quick, I pray thee, draw the curtain straight. +The Prince of Arragon hath ta’en his oath, +And comes to his election presently. + + Flourish of cornets. Enter the Prince of Arragon, his train, and + Portia. + +PORTIA. +Behold, there stand the caskets, noble Prince, +If you choose that wherein I am contain’d, +Straight shall our nuptial rites be solemniz’d. +But if you fail, without more speech, my lord, +You must be gone from hence immediately. + +ARRAGON. +I am enjoin’d by oath to observe three things: +First, never to unfold to anyone +Which casket ’twas I chose; next, if I fail +Of the right casket, never in my life +To woo a maid in way of marriage; +Lastly, +If I do fail in fortune of my choice, +Immediately to leave you and be gone. + +PORTIA. +To these injunctions everyone doth swear +That comes to hazard for my worthless self. + +ARRAGON. +And so have I address’d me. Fortune now +To my heart’s hope! Gold, silver, and base lead. +“Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath.” +You shall look fairer ere I give or hazard. +What says the golden chest? Ha! let me see: +“Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire.” +What many men desire! that “many” may be meant +By the fool multitude, that choose by show, +Not learning more than the fond eye doth teach, +Which pries not to th’ interior, but like the martlet +Builds in the weather on the outward wall, +Even in the force and road of casualty. +I will not choose what many men desire, +Because I will not jump with common spirits +And rank me with the barbarous multitudes. +Why, then to thee, thou silver treasure-house, +Tell me once more what title thou dost bear. +“Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves.” +And well said too; for who shall go about +To cozen fortune, and be honourable +Without the stamp of merit? Let none presume +To wear an undeserved dignity. +O that estates, degrees, and offices +Were not deriv’d corruptly, and that clear honour +Were purchas’d by the merit of the wearer! +How many then should cover that stand bare? +How many be commanded that command? +How much low peasantry would then be gleaned +From the true seed of honour? And how much honour +Pick’d from the chaff and ruin of the times, +To be new varnish’d? Well, but to my choice. +“Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves.” +I will assume desert. Give me a key for this, +And instantly unlock my fortunes here. + + [_He opens the silver casket._] + +PORTIA. +Too long a pause for that which you find there. + +ARRAGON. +What’s here? The portrait of a blinking idiot +Presenting me a schedule! I will read it. +How much unlike art thou to Portia! +How much unlike my hopes and my deservings! +“Who chooseth me shall have as much as he deserves.” +Did I deserve no more than a fool’s head? +Is that my prize? Are my deserts no better? + +PORTIA. +To offend and judge are distinct offices, +And of opposed natures. + +ARRAGON. +What is here? + + _The fire seven times tried this; + Seven times tried that judgment is + That did never choose amiss. + Some there be that shadows kiss; + Such have but a shadow’s bliss. + There be fools alive, I wis, + Silver’d o’er, and so was this. + Take what wife you will to bed, + I will ever be your head: + So be gone; you are sped._ + +Still more fool I shall appear +By the time I linger here. +With one fool’s head I came to woo, +But I go away with two. +Sweet, adieu! I’ll keep my oath, +Patiently to bear my wroth. + + [_Exit Aragon with his train._] + +PORTIA. +Thus hath the candle sing’d the moth. +O, these deliberate fools! When they do choose, +They have the wisdom by their wit to lose. + +NERISSA. +The ancient saying is no heresy: +Hanging and wiving goes by destiny. + +PORTIA. +Come, draw the curtain, Nerissa. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +Where is my lady? + +PORTIA. +Here, what would my lord? + +MESSENGER. +Madam, there is alighted at your gate +A young Venetian, one that comes before +To signify th’ approaching of his lord, +From whom he bringeth sensible regreets; +To wit (besides commends and courteous breath) +Gifts of rich value; yet I have not seen +So likely an ambassador of love. +A day in April never came so sweet, +To show how costly summer was at hand, +As this fore-spurrer comes before his lord. + +PORTIA. +No more, I pray thee. I am half afeard +Thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, +Thou spend’st such high-day wit in praising him. +Come, come, Nerissa, for I long to see +Quick Cupid’s post that comes so mannerly. + +NERISSA. +Bassanio, Lord Love, if thy will it be! + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Venice. A street. + + Enter Solanio and Salarino. + +SOLANIO. +Now, what news on the Rialto? + +SALARINO. +Why, yet it lives there unchecked that Antonio hath a ship of rich +lading wrack’d on the narrow seas; the Goodwins, I think they call the +place, a very dangerous flat and fatal, where the carcasses of many a +tall ship lie buried, as they say, if my gossip Report be an honest +woman of her word. + +SOLANIO. +I would she were as lying a gossip in that as ever knapped ginger or +made her neighbours believe she wept for the death of a third husband. +But it is true, without any slips of prolixity or crossing the plain +highway of talk, that the good Antonio, the honest Antonio,—O that I +had a title good enough to keep his name company!— + +SALARINO. +Come, the full stop. + +SOLANIO. +Ha, what sayest thou? Why, the end is, he hath lost a ship. + +SALARINO. +I would it might prove the end of his losses. + +SOLANIO. +Let me say “amen” betimes, lest the devil cross my prayer, for here he +comes in the likeness of a Jew. + + Enter Shylock. + +How now, Shylock, what news among the merchants? + +SHYLOCK. +You knew, none so well, none so well as you, of my daughter’s flight. + +SALARINO. +That’s certain, I, for my part, knew the tailor that made the wings she +flew withal. + +SOLANIO. +And Shylock, for his own part, knew the bird was fledged; and then it +is the complexion of them all to leave the dam. + +SHYLOCK. +She is damn’d for it. + +SALARINO. +That’s certain, if the devil may be her judge. + +SHYLOCK. +My own flesh and blood to rebel! + +SOLANIO. +Out upon it, old carrion! Rebels it at these years? + +SHYLOCK. +I say my daughter is my flesh and my blood. + +SALARINO. +There is more difference between thy flesh and hers than between jet +and ivory, more between your bloods than there is between red wine and +Rhenish. But tell us, do you hear whether Antonio have had any loss at +sea or no? + +SHYLOCK. +There I have another bad match, a bankrupt, a prodigal, who dare scarce +show his head on the Rialto, a beggar that used to come so smug upon +the mart; let him look to his bond. He was wont to call me usurer; let +him look to his bond: he was wont to lend money for a Christian cur’sy; +let him look to his bond. + +SALARINO. +Why, I am sure if he forfeit, thou wilt not take his flesh! What’s that +good for? + +SHYLOCK. +To bait fish withal; if it will feed nothing else, it will feed my +revenge. He hath disgrac’d me and hind’red me half a million, laugh’d +at my losses, mock’d at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my +bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies. And what’s his +reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, +dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt +with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same +means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian +is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not +laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we +not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in +that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a +Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian +example? Why, revenge! The villainy you teach me I will execute, and it +shall go hard but I will better the instruction. + + Enter a man from Antonio. + +SERVANT. +Gentlemen, my master Antonio is at his house, and desires to speak with +you both. + +SALARINO. +We have been up and down to seek him. + + Enter Tubal. + +SOLANIO. +Here comes another of the tribe; a third cannot be match’d, unless the +devil himself turn Jew. + + [_Exeunt Solanio, Salarino and the Servant._] + +SHYLOCK. +How now, Tubal, what news from Genoa? Hast thou found my daughter? + +TUBAL. +I often came where I did hear of her, but cannot find her. + +SHYLOCK. +Why there, there, there, there! A diamond gone cost me two thousand +ducats in Frankfort! The curse never fell upon our nation till now, I +never felt it till now. Two thousand ducats in that, and other +precious, precious jewels. I would my daughter were dead at my foot, +and the jewels in her ear; would she were hearsed at my foot, and the +ducats in her coffin. No news of them? Why so? And I know not what’s +spent in the search. Why, thou—loss upon loss! The thief gone with so +much, and so much to find the thief, and no satisfaction, no revenge, +nor no ill luck stirring but what lights o’ my shoulders, no sighs but +o’ my breathing, no tears but o’ my shedding. + +TUBAL. +Yes, other men have ill luck too. Antonio, as I heard in Genoa— + +SHYLOCK. +What, what, what? Ill luck, ill luck? + +TUBAL. +—hath an argosy cast away coming from Tripolis. + +SHYLOCK. +I thank God! I thank God! Is it true, is it true? + +TUBAL. +I spoke with some of the sailors that escaped the wrack. + +SHYLOCK. +I thank thee, good Tubal. Good news, good news! Ha, ha, heard in Genoa? + +TUBAL. +Your daughter spent in Genoa, as I heard, one night, fourscore ducats. + +SHYLOCK. +Thou stick’st a dagger in me. I shall never see my gold again. +Fourscore ducats at a sitting! Fourscore ducats! + +TUBAL. +There came divers of Antonio’s creditors in my company to Venice that +swear he cannot choose but break. + +SHYLOCK. +I am very glad of it. I’ll plague him, I’ll torture him. I am glad of +it. + +TUBAL. +One of them showed me a ring that he had of your daughter for a monkey. + +SHYLOCK. +Out upon her! Thou torturest me, Tubal. It was my turquoise, I had it +of Leah when I was a bachelor. I would not have given it for a +wilderness of monkeys. + +TUBAL. +But Antonio is certainly undone. + +SHYLOCK. +Nay, that’s true, that’s very true. Go, Tubal, fee me an officer; +bespeak him a fortnight before. I will have the heart of him if he +forfeit, for were he out of Venice I can make what merchandise I will. +Go, Tubal, and meet me at our synagogue. Go, good Tubal, at our +synagogue, Tubal. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. + + Enter Bassanio, Portia, Gratiano, Nerissa and all their trains. + +PORTIA. +I pray you tarry, pause a day or two +Before you hazard, for in choosing wrong +I lose your company; therefore forbear a while. +There’s something tells me (but it is not love) +I would not lose you, and you know yourself +Hate counsels not in such a quality. +But lest you should not understand me well,— +And yet a maiden hath no tongue but thought,— +I would detain you here some month or two +Before you venture for me. I could teach you +How to choose right, but then I am forsworn. +So will I never be. So may you miss me. +But if you do, you’ll make me wish a sin, +That I had been forsworn. Beshrew your eyes, +They have o’erlook’d me and divided me. +One half of me is yours, the other half yours, +Mine own, I would say; but if mine, then yours, +And so all yours. O these naughty times +Puts bars between the owners and their rights! +And so though yours, not yours. Prove it so, +Let Fortune go to hell for it, not I. +I speak too long, but ’tis to peise the time, +To eche it, and to draw it out in length, +To stay you from election. + +BASSANIO. +Let me choose, +For as I am, I live upon the rack. + +PORTIA. +Upon the rack, Bassanio! Then confess +What treason there is mingled with your love. + +BASSANIO. +None but that ugly treason of mistrust, +Which makes me fear th’ enjoying of my love. +There may as well be amity and life +’Tween snow and fire as treason and my love. + +PORTIA. +Ay, but I fear you speak upon the rack +Where men enforced do speak anything. + +BASSANIO. +Promise me life, and I’ll confess the truth. + +PORTIA. +Well then, confess and live. + +BASSANIO. +“Confess and love” +Had been the very sum of my confession: +O happy torment, when my torturer +Doth teach me answers for deliverance! +But let me to my fortune and the caskets. + +PORTIA. +Away, then! I am lock’d in one of them. +If you do love me, you will find me out. +Nerissa and the rest, stand all aloof. +Let music sound while he doth make his choice. +Then if he lose he makes a swan-like end, +Fading in music. That the comparison +May stand more proper, my eye shall be the stream +And wat’ry death-bed for him. He may win, +And what is music then? Then music is +Even as the flourish when true subjects bow +To a new-crowned monarch. Such it is +As are those dulcet sounds in break of day +That creep into the dreaming bridegroom’s ear +And summon him to marriage. Now he goes, +With no less presence, but with much more love +Than young Alcides when he did redeem +The virgin tribute paid by howling Troy +To the sea-monster: I stand for sacrifice; +The rest aloof are the Dardanian wives, +With bleared visages come forth to view +The issue of th’ exploit. Go, Hercules! +Live thou, I live. With much much more dismay +I view the fight than thou that mak’st the fray. + + A song, whilst Bassanio comments on the caskets to himself. + + _Tell me where is fancy bred, + Or in the heart or in the head? + How begot, how nourished? + Reply, reply. + It is engend’red in the eyes, + With gazing fed, and fancy dies + In the cradle where it lies. + Let us all ring fancy’s knell: + I’ll begin it.—Ding, dong, bell._ + +ALL. + _Ding, dong, bell._ + +BASSANIO. +So may the outward shows be least themselves. +The world is still deceiv’d with ornament. +In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt +But, being season’d with a gracious voice, +Obscures the show of evil? In religion, +What damned error but some sober brow +Will bless it, and approve it with a text, +Hiding the grossness with fair ornament? +There is no vice so simple but assumes +Some mark of virtue on his outward parts. +How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false +As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins +The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars, +Who inward search’d, have livers white as milk, +And these assume but valour’s excrement +To render them redoubted. Look on beauty, +And you shall see ’tis purchas’d by the weight, +Which therein works a miracle in nature, +Making them lightest that wear most of it: +So are those crisped snaky golden locks +Which make such wanton gambols with the wind +Upon supposed fairness, often known +To be the dowry of a second head, +The skull that bred them in the sepulchre. +Thus ornament is but the guiled shore +To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf +Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word, +The seeming truth which cunning times put on +To entrap the wisest. Therefore thou gaudy gold, +Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee, +Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge +’Tween man and man: but thou, thou meagre lead, +Which rather threaten’st than dost promise aught, +Thy palenness moves me more than eloquence, +And here choose I, joy be the consequence! + +PORTIA. +[_Aside._] How all the other passions fleet to air, +As doubtful thoughts, and rash-embrac’d despair, +And shudd’ring fear, and green-ey’d jealousy. +O love, be moderate; allay thy ecstasy, +In measure rain thy joy; scant this excess! +I feel too much thy blessing, make it less, +For fear I surfeit. + +BASSANIO. +What find I here? [_Opening the leaden casket_.] +Fair Portia’s counterfeit! What demi-god +Hath come so near creation? Move these eyes? +Or whether, riding on the balls of mine, +Seem they in motion? Here are sever’d lips, +Parted with sugar breath, so sweet a bar +Should sunder such sweet friends. Here in her hairs +The painter plays the spider, and hath woven +A golden mesh t’entrap the hearts of men +Faster than gnats in cobwebs. But her eyes!— +How could he see to do them? Having made one, +Methinks it should have power to steal both his +And leave itself unfurnish’d. Yet look how far +The substance of my praise doth wrong this shadow +In underprizing it, so far this shadow +Doth limp behind the substance. Here’s the scroll, +The continent and summary of my fortune. + + _You that choose not by the view + Chance as fair and choose as true! + Since this fortune falls to you, + Be content and seek no new. + If you be well pleas’d with this, + And hold your fortune for your bliss, + Turn to where your lady is, + And claim her with a loving kiss._ + +A gentle scroll. Fair lady, by your leave, [_Kissing her_.] +I come by note to give and to receive. +Like one of two contending in a prize +That thinks he hath done well in people’s eyes, +Hearing applause and universal shout, +Giddy in spirit, still gazing in a doubt +Whether those peals of praise be his or no, +So, thrice-fair lady, stand I even so, +As doubtful whether what I see be true, +Until confirm’d, sign’d, ratified by you. + +PORTIA. +You see me, Lord Bassanio, where I stand, +Such as I am; though for myself alone +I would not be ambitious in my wish +To wish myself much better, yet for you +I would be trebled twenty times myself, +A thousand times more fair, ten thousand times +More rich, +That only to stand high in your account, +I might in virtues, beauties, livings, friends, +Exceed account. But the full sum of me +Is sum of something, which, to term in gross, +Is an unlesson’d girl, unschool’d, unpractis’d; +Happy in this, she is not yet so old +But she may learn; happier than this, +She is not bred so dull but she can learn; +Happiest of all, is that her gentle spirit +Commits itself to yours to be directed, +As from her lord, her governor, her king. +Myself, and what is mine, to you and yours +Is now converted. But now I was the lord +Of this fair mansion, master of my servants, +Queen o’er myself; and even now, but now, +This house, these servants, and this same myself +Are yours,—my lord’s. I give them with this ring, +Which when you part from, lose, or give away, +Let it presage the ruin of your love, +And be my vantage to exclaim on you. + +BASSANIO. +Madam, you have bereft me of all words, +Only my blood speaks to you in my veins, +And there is such confusion in my powers +As after some oration fairly spoke +By a beloved prince, there doth appear +Among the buzzing pleased multitude, +Where every something being blent together, +Turns to a wild of nothing, save of joy +Express’d and not express’d. But when this ring +Parts from this finger, then parts life from hence. +O then be bold to say Bassanio’s dead! + +NERISSA. +My lord and lady, it is now our time, +That have stood by and seen our wishes prosper, +To cry, good joy. Good joy, my lord and lady! + +GRATIANO. +My Lord Bassanio, and my gentle lady, +I wish you all the joy that you can wish; +For I am sure you can wish none from me. +And when your honours mean to solemnize +The bargain of your faith, I do beseech you +Even at that time I may be married too. + +BASSANIO. +With all my heart, so thou canst get a wife. + +GRATIANO. +I thank your lordship, you have got me one. +My eyes, my lord, can look as swift as yours: +You saw the mistress, I beheld the maid. +You lov’d, I lov’d; for intermission +No more pertains to me, my lord, than you. +Your fortune stood upon the caskets there, +And so did mine too, as the matter falls. +For wooing here until I sweat again, +And swearing till my very roof was dry +With oaths of love, at last, (if promise last) +I got a promise of this fair one here +To have her love, provided that your fortune +Achiev’d her mistress. + +PORTIA. +Is this true, Nerissa? + +NERISSA. +Madam, it is, so you stand pleas’d withal. + +BASSANIO. +And do you, Gratiano, mean good faith? + +GRATIANO. +Yes, faith, my lord. + +BASSANIO. +Our feast shall be much honoured in your marriage. + +GRATIANO. +We’ll play with them the first boy for a thousand ducats. + +NERISSA. +What! and stake down? + +GRATIANO. +No, we shall ne’er win at that sport and stake down. +But who comes here? Lorenzo and his infidel? +What, and my old Venetian friend, Salerio! + + Enter Lorenzo, Jessica and Salerio. + +BASSANIO. +Lorenzo and Salerio, welcome hither, +If that the youth of my new int’rest here +Have power to bid you welcome. By your leave, +I bid my very friends and countrymen, +Sweet Portia, welcome. + +PORTIA. +So do I, my lord, +They are entirely welcome. + +LORENZO. +I thank your honour. For my part, my lord, +My purpose was not to have seen you here, +But meeting with Salerio by the way, +He did entreat me, past all saying nay, +To come with him along. + +SALERIO. +I did, my lord, +And I have reason for it. Signior Antonio +Commends him to you. + + [_Gives Bassanio a letter._] + +BASSANIO. +Ere I ope his letter, +I pray you tell me how my good friend doth. + +SALERIO. +Not sick, my lord, unless it be in mind, +Nor well, unless in mind. His letter there +Will show you his estate. + + [_Bassanio opens the letter._] + +GRATIANO. +Nerissa, cheer yond stranger, bid her welcome. +Your hand, Salerio. What’s the news from Venice? +How doth that royal merchant, good Antonio? +I know he will be glad of our success. +We are the Jasons, we have won the fleece. + +SALERIO. +I would you had won the fleece that he hath lost. + +PORTIA. +There are some shrewd contents in yond same paper +That steals the colour from Bassanio’s cheek. +Some dear friend dead, else nothing in the world +Could turn so much the constitution +Of any constant man. What, worse and worse? +With leave, Bassanio, I am half yourself, +And I must freely have the half of anything +That this same paper brings you. + +BASSANIO. +O sweet Portia, +Here are a few of the unpleasant’st words +That ever blotted paper. Gentle lady, +When I did first impart my love to you, +I freely told you all the wealth I had +Ran in my veins, I was a gentleman. +And then I told you true. And yet, dear lady, +Rating myself at nothing, you shall see +How much I was a braggart. When I told you +My state was nothing, I should then have told you +That I was worse than nothing; for indeed +I have engag’d myself to a dear friend, +Engag’d my friend to his mere enemy, +To feed my means. Here is a letter, lady, +The paper as the body of my friend, +And every word in it a gaping wound +Issuing life-blood. But is it true, Salerio? +Hath all his ventures fail’d? What, not one hit? +From Tripolis, from Mexico, and England, +From Lisbon, Barbary, and India, +And not one vessel scape the dreadful touch +Of merchant-marring rocks? + +SALERIO. +Not one, my lord. +Besides, it should appear, that if he had +The present money to discharge the Jew, +He would not take it. Never did I know +A creature that did bear the shape of man +So keen and greedy to confound a man. +He plies the Duke at morning and at night, +And doth impeach the freedom of the state +If they deny him justice. Twenty merchants, +The Duke himself, and the magnificoes +Of greatest port have all persuaded with him, +But none can drive him from the envious plea +Of forfeiture, of justice, and his bond. + +JESSICA. +When I was with him, I have heard him swear +To Tubal and to Chus, his countrymen, +That he would rather have Antonio’s flesh +Than twenty times the value of the sum +That he did owe him. And I know, my lord, +If law, authority, and power deny not, +It will go hard with poor Antonio. + +PORTIA. +Is it your dear friend that is thus in trouble? + +BASSANIO. +The dearest friend to me, the kindest man, +The best condition’d and unwearied spirit +In doing courtesies, and one in whom +The ancient Roman honour more appears +Than any that draws breath in Italy. + +PORTIA. +What sum owes he the Jew? + +BASSANIO. +For me three thousand ducats. + +PORTIA. +What, no more? +Pay him six thousand, and deface the bond. +Double six thousand, and then treble that, +Before a friend of this description +Shall lose a hair through Bassanio’s fault. +First go with me to church and call me wife, +And then away to Venice to your friend. +For never shall you lie by Portia’s side +With an unquiet soul. You shall have gold +To pay the petty debt twenty times over. +When it is paid, bring your true friend along. +My maid Nerissa and myself meantime, +Will live as maids and widows. Come, away! +For you shall hence upon your wedding day. +Bid your friends welcome, show a merry cheer; +Since you are dear bought, I will love you dear. +But let me hear the letter of your friend. + +BASSANIO. +_Sweet Bassanio, my ships have all miscarried, my creditors grow cruel, +my estate is very low, my bond to the Jew is forfeit, and since in +paying it, it is impossible I should live, all debts are clear’d +between you and I, if I might but see you at my death. Notwithstanding, +use your pleasure. If your love do not persuade you to come, let not my +letter._ + +PORTIA. +O love, dispatch all business and be gone! + +BASSANIO. +Since I have your good leave to go away, +I will make haste; but, till I come again, +No bed shall e’er be guilty of my stay, +Nor rest be interposer ’twixt us twain. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Venice. A street. + + Enter Shylock, Salarino, Antonio and Gaoler. + +SHYLOCK. +Gaoler, look to him. Tell not me of mercy. +This is the fool that lent out money gratis. +Gaoler, look to him. + +ANTONIO. +Hear me yet, good Shylock. + +SHYLOCK. +I’ll have my bond, speak not against my bond. +I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond. +Thou call’dst me dog before thou hadst a cause, +But since I am a dog, beware my fangs; +The Duke shall grant me justice. I do wonder, +Thou naughty gaoler, that thou art so fond +To come abroad with him at his request. + +ANTONIO. +I pray thee hear me speak. + +SHYLOCK. +I’ll have my bond. I will not hear thee speak. +I’ll have my bond, and therefore speak no more. +I’ll not be made a soft and dull-eyed fool, +To shake the head, relent, and sigh, and yield +To Christian intercessors. Follow not, +I’ll have no speaking, I will have my bond. + + [_Exit._] + +SALARINO. +It is the most impenetrable cur +That ever kept with men. + +ANTONIO. +Let him alone. +I’ll follow him no more with bootless prayers. +He seeks my life, his reason well I know: +I oft deliver’d from his forfeitures +Many that have at times made moan to me. +Therefore he hates me. + +SALARINO. +I am sure the Duke +Will never grant this forfeiture to hold. + +ANTONIO. +The Duke cannot deny the course of law, +For the commodity that strangers have +With us in Venice, if it be denied, +’Twill much impeach the justice of the state, +Since that the trade and profit of the city +Consisteth of all nations. Therefore, go. +These griefs and losses have so bated me +That I shall hardly spare a pound of flesh +Tomorrow to my bloody creditor. +Well, gaoler, on, pray God Bassanio come +To see me pay his debt, and then I care not. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Belmont. A room in Portia’s house. + + Enter Portia, Nerissa, Lorenzo, Jessica and Balthazar. + +LORENZO. +Madam, although I speak it in your presence, +You have a noble and a true conceit +Of godlike amity, which appears most strongly +In bearing thus the absence of your lord. +But if you knew to whom you show this honour, +How true a gentleman you send relief, +How dear a lover of my lord your husband, +I know you would be prouder of the work +Than customary bounty can enforce you. + +PORTIA. +I never did repent for doing good, +Nor shall not now; for in companions +That do converse and waste the time together, +Whose souls do bear an equal yoke of love, +There must be needs a like proportion +Of lineaments, of manners, and of spirit; +Which makes me think that this Antonio, +Being the bosom lover of my lord, +Must needs be like my lord. If it be so, +How little is the cost I have bestowed +In purchasing the semblance of my soul +From out the state of hellish cruelty! +This comes too near the praising of myself; +Therefore no more of it. Hear other things. +Lorenzo, I commit into your hands +The husbandry and manage of my house +Until my lord’s return. For mine own part, +I have toward heaven breath’d a secret vow +To live in prayer and contemplation, +Only attended by Nerissa here, +Until her husband and my lord’s return. +There is a monastery two miles off, +And there we will abide. I do desire you +Not to deny this imposition, +The which my love and some necessity +Now lays upon you. + +LORENZO. +Madam, with all my heart +I shall obey you in all fair commands. + +PORTIA. +My people do already know my mind, +And will acknowledge you and Jessica +In place of Lord Bassanio and myself. +So fare you well till we shall meet again. + +LORENZO. +Fair thoughts and happy hours attend on you! + +JESSICA. +I wish your ladyship all heart’s content. + +PORTIA. +I thank you for your wish, and am well pleas’d +To wish it back on you. Fare you well, Jessica. + + [_Exeunt Jessica and Lorenzo._] + +Now, Balthazar, +As I have ever found thee honest-true, +So let me find thee still. Take this same letter, +And use thou all th’ endeavour of a man +In speed to Padua, see thou render this +Into my cousin’s hands, Doctor Bellario; +And look what notes and garments he doth give thee, +Bring them, I pray thee, with imagin’d speed +Unto the traject, to the common ferry +Which trades to Venice. Waste no time in words, +But get thee gone. I shall be there before thee. + +BALTHAZAR. +Madam, I go with all convenient speed. + + [_Exit._] + +PORTIA. +Come on, Nerissa, I have work in hand +That you yet know not of; we’ll see our husbands +Before they think of us. + +NERISSA. +Shall they see us? + +PORTIA. +They shall, Nerissa, but in such a habit +That they shall think we are accomplished +With that we lack. I’ll hold thee any wager, +When we are both accoutered like young men, +I’ll prove the prettier fellow of the two, +And wear my dagger with the braver grace, +And speak between the change of man and boy +With a reed voice; and turn two mincing steps +Into a manly stride; and speak of frays +Like a fine bragging youth; and tell quaint lies +How honourable ladies sought my love, +Which I denying, they fell sick and died; +I could not do withal. Then I’ll repent, +And wish for all that, that I had not kill’d them. +And twenty of these puny lies I’ll tell, +That men shall swear I have discontinued school +About a twelvemonth. I have within my mind +A thousand raw tricks of these bragging Jacks, +Which I will practise. + +NERISSA. +Why, shall we turn to men? + +PORTIA. +Fie, what a question’s that, +If thou wert near a lewd interpreter! +But come, I’ll tell thee all my whole device +When I am in my coach, which stays for us +At the park gate; and therefore haste away, +For we must measure twenty miles today. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. The same. A garden. + + Enter Launcelet and Jessica. + +LAUNCELET. +Yes, truly, for look you, the sins of the father are to be laid upon +the children, therefore, I promise you, I fear you. I was always plain +with you, and so now I speak my agitation of the matter. Therefore be +of good cheer, for truly I think you are damn’d. There is but one hope +in it that can do you any good, and that is but a kind of bastard hope +neither. + +JESSICA. +And what hope is that, I pray thee? + +LAUNCELET. +Marry, you may partly hope that your father got you not, that you are +not the Jew’s daughter. + +JESSICA. +That were a kind of bastard hope indeed; so the sins of my mother +should be visited upon me. + +LAUNCELET. +Truly then I fear you are damn’d both by father and mother; thus when I +shun Scylla your father, I fall into Charybdis your mother. Well, you +are gone both ways. + +JESSICA. +I shall be saved by my husband. He hath made me a Christian. + +LAUNCELET. +Truly the more to blame he, we were Christians enow before, e’en as +many as could well live one by another. This making of Christians will +raise the price of hogs; if we grow all to be pork-eaters, we shall not +shortly have a rasher on the coals for money. + + Enter Lorenzo. + +JESSICA. +I’ll tell my husband, Launcelet, what you say. Here he comes. + +LORENZO. +I shall grow jealous of you shortly, Launcelet, if you thus get my wife +into corners! + +JESSICA. +Nay, you need nor fear us, Lorenzo. Launcelet and I are out. He tells +me flatly there’s no mercy for me in heaven, because I am a Jew’s +daughter; and he says you are no good member of the commonwealth, for +in converting Jews to Christians you raise the price of pork. + +LORENZO. +I shall answer that better to the commonwealth than you can the getting +up of the negro’s belly! The Moor is with child by you, Launcelet. + +LAUNCELET. +It is much that the Moor should be more than reason; but if she be less +than an honest woman, she is indeed more than I took her for. + +LORENZO. +How every fool can play upon the word! I think the best grace of wit +will shortly turn into silence, and discourse grow commendable in none +only but parrots. Go in, sirrah; bid them prepare for dinner. + +LAUNCELET. +That is done, sir, they have all stomachs. + +LORENZO. +Goodly Lord, what a wit-snapper are you! Then bid them prepare dinner. + +LAUNCELET. +That is done too, sir, only “cover” is the word. + +LORENZO. +Will you cover, then, sir? + +LAUNCELET. +Not so, sir, neither. I know my duty. + +LORENZO. +Yet more quarrelling with occasion! Wilt thou show the whole wealth of +thy wit in an instant? I pray thee understand a plain man in his plain +meaning: go to thy fellows, bid them cover the table, serve in the +meat, and we will come in to dinner. + +LAUNCELET. +For the table, sir, it shall be served in; for the meat, sir, it shall +be covered; for your coming in to dinner, sir, why, let it be as +humours and conceits shall govern. + + [_Exit._] + +LORENZO. +O dear discretion, how his words are suited! +The fool hath planted in his memory +An army of good words, and I do know +A many fools that stand in better place, +Garnish’d like him, that for a tricksy word +Defy the matter. How cheer’st thou, Jessica? +And now, good sweet, say thy opinion, +How dost thou like the Lord Bassanio’s wife? + +JESSICA. +Past all expressing. It is very meet +The Lord Bassanio live an upright life, +For having such a blessing in his lady, +He finds the joys of heaven here on earth, +And if on earth he do not merit it, +In reason he should never come to heaven. +Why, if two gods should play some heavenly match, +And on the wager lay two earthly women, +And Portia one, there must be something else +Pawn’d with the other, for the poor rude world +Hath not her fellow. + +LORENZO. +Even such a husband +Hast thou of me as she is for a wife. + +JESSICA. +Nay, but ask my opinion too of that. + +LORENZO. +I will anon. First let us go to dinner. + +JESSICA. +Nay, let me praise you while I have a stomach. + +LORENZO. +No pray thee, let it serve for table-talk. +Then howsome’er thou speak’st, ’mong other things +I shall digest it. + +JESSICA. +Well, I’ll set you forth. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. Venice. A court of justice. + + Enter the Duke, the Magnificoes, Antonio, Bassanio, Gratiano, Salerio + and others. + +DUKE. +What, is Antonio here? + +ANTONIO. +Ready, so please your Grace. + +DUKE. +I am sorry for thee, thou art come to answer +A stony adversary, an inhuman wretch, +Uncapable of pity, void and empty +From any dram of mercy. + +ANTONIO. +I have heard +Your Grace hath ta’en great pains to qualify +His rigorous course; but since he stands obdurate, +And that no lawful means can carry me +Out of his envy’s reach, I do oppose +My patience to his fury, and am arm’d +To suffer with a quietness of spirit +The very tyranny and rage of his. + +DUKE. +Go one and call the Jew into the court. + +SALARINO. +He is ready at the door. He comes, my lord. + + Enter Shylock. + +DUKE. +Make room, and let him stand before our face. +Shylock, the world thinks, and I think so too, +That thou but leadest this fashion of thy malice +To the last hour of act, and then, ’tis thought, +Thou’lt show thy mercy and remorse more strange +Than is thy strange apparent cruelty; +And where thou now exacts the penalty, +Which is a pound of this poor merchant’s flesh, +Thou wilt not only loose the forfeiture, +But, touch’d with human gentleness and love, +Forgive a moiety of the principal, +Glancing an eye of pity on his losses +That have of late so huddled on his back, +Enow to press a royal merchant down, +And pluck commiseration of his state +From brassy bosoms and rough hearts of flint, +From stubborn Turks and Tartars never train’d +To offices of tender courtesy. +We all expect a gentle answer, Jew. + +SHYLOCK. +I have possess’d your Grace of what I purpose, +And by our holy Sabbath have I sworn +To have the due and forfeit of my bond. +If you deny it, let the danger light +Upon your charter and your city’s freedom! +You’ll ask me why I rather choose to have +A weight of carrion flesh than to receive +Three thousand ducats. I’ll not answer that, +But say it is my humour. Is it answer’d? +What if my house be troubled with a rat, +And I be pleas’d to give ten thousand ducats +To have it ban’d? What, are you answer’d yet? +Some men there are love not a gaping pig; +Some that are mad if they behold a cat; +And others, when the bagpipe sings i’ the nose, +Cannot contain their urine; for affection +Mistress of passion, sways it to the mood +Of what it likes or loathes. Now, for your answer: +As there is no firm reason to be render’d +Why he cannot abide a gaping pig, +Why he a harmless necessary cat, +Why he a woollen bagpipe, but of force +Must yield to such inevitable shame +As to offend, himself being offended, +So can I give no reason, nor I will not, +More than a lodg’d hate and a certain loathing +I bear Antonio, that I follow thus +A losing suit against him. Are you answered? + +BASSANIO. +This is no answer, thou unfeeling man, +To excuse the current of thy cruelty. + +SHYLOCK. +I am not bound to please thee with my answer. + +BASSANIO. +Do all men kill the things they do not love? + +SHYLOCK. +Hates any man the thing he would not kill? + +BASSANIO. +Every offence is not a hate at first. + +SHYLOCK. +What, wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? + +ANTONIO. +I pray you, think you question with the Jew. +You may as well go stand upon the beach +And bid the main flood bate his usual height; +You may as well use question with the wolf, +Why he hath made the ewe bleat for the lamb; +You may as well forbid the mountain pines +To wag their high tops and to make no noise +When they are fretten with the gusts of heaven; +You may as well do anything most hard +As seek to soften that—than which what’s harder?— +His Jewish heart. Therefore, I do beseech you, +Make no moe offers, use no farther means, +But with all brief and plain conveniency. +Let me have judgment, and the Jew his will. + +BASSANIO. +For thy three thousand ducats here is six. + +SHYLOCK. +If every ducat in six thousand ducats +Were in six parts, and every part a ducat, +I would not draw them, I would have my bond. + +DUKE. +How shalt thou hope for mercy, rend’ring none? + +SHYLOCK. +What judgment shall I dread, doing no wrong? +You have among you many a purchas’d slave, +Which, like your asses and your dogs and mules, +You use in abject and in slavish parts, +Because you bought them. Shall I say to you +“Let them be free, marry them to your heirs? +Why sweat they under burdens? Let their beds +Be made as soft as yours, and let their palates +Be season’d with such viands”? You will answer +“The slaves are ours.” So do I answer you: +The pound of flesh which I demand of him +Is dearly bought; ’tis mine and I will have it. +If you deny me, fie upon your law! +There is no force in the decrees of Venice. +I stand for judgment. Answer; shall I have it? + +DUKE. +Upon my power I may dismiss this court, +Unless Bellario, a learned doctor, +Whom I have sent for to determine this, +Come here today. + +SALARINO. +My lord, here stays without +A messenger with letters from the doctor, +New come from Padua. + +DUKE. +Bring us the letters. Call the messenger. + +BASSANIO. +Good cheer, Antonio! What, man, courage yet! +The Jew shall have my flesh, blood, bones, and all, +Ere thou shalt lose for me one drop of blood. + +ANTONIO. +I am a tainted wether of the flock, +Meetest for death, the weakest kind of fruit +Drops earliest to the ground, and so let me. +You cannot better be employ’d, Bassanio, +Than to live still, and write mine epitaph. + + Enter Nerissa dressed like a lawyer’s clerk. + +DUKE. +Came you from Padua, from Bellario? + +NERISSA. +From both, my lord. Bellario greets your Grace. + + [_Presents a letter._] + +BASSANIO. +Why dost thou whet thy knife so earnestly? + +SHYLOCK. +To cut the forfeiture from that bankrupt there. + +GRATIANO. +Not on thy sole but on thy soul, harsh Jew, +Thou mak’st thy knife keen. But no metal can, +No, not the hangman’s axe, bear half the keenness +Of thy sharp envy. Can no prayers pierce thee? + +SHYLOCK. +No, none that thou hast wit enough to make. + +GRATIANO. +O, be thou damn’d, inexecrable dog! +And for thy life let justice be accus’d; +Thou almost mak’st me waver in my faith, +To hold opinion with Pythagoras +That souls of animals infuse themselves +Into the trunks of men. Thy currish spirit +Govern’d a wolf who, hang’d for human slaughter, +Even from the gallows did his fell soul fleet, +And whilst thou layest in thy unhallowed dam, +Infus’d itself in thee; for thy desires +Are wolfish, bloody, starv’d and ravenous. + +SHYLOCK. +Till thou canst rail the seal from off my bond, +Thou but offend’st thy lungs to speak so loud. +Repair thy wit, good youth, or it will fall +To cureless ruin. I stand here for law. + +DUKE. +This letter from Bellario doth commend +A young and learned doctor to our court. +Where is he? + +NERISSA. +He attendeth here hard by, +To know your answer, whether you’ll admit him. + +DUKE OF VENICE. +With all my heart: some three or four of you +Go give him courteous conduct to this place. +Meantime, the court shall hear Bellario’s letter. + +[_Reads._] _Your Grace shall understand that at the receipt of your +letter I am very sick, but in the instant that your messenger came, in +loving visitation was with me a young doctor of Rome. His name is +Balthazar. I acquainted him with the cause in controversy between the +Jew and Antonio the merchant. We turn’d o’er many books together. He is +furnished with my opinion, which, bettered with his own learning (the +greatness whereof I cannot enough commend), comes with him at my +importunity to fill up your Grace’s request in my stead. I beseech you +let his lack of years be no impediment to let him lack a reverend +estimation, for I never knew so young a body with so old a head. I +leave him to your gracious acceptance, whose trial shall better publish +his commendation._ + +You hear the learn’d Bellario what he writes, +And here, I take it, is the doctor come. + + Enter Portia dressed like a doctor of laws. + +Give me your hand. Come you from old Bellario? + +PORTIA. +I did, my lord. + +DUKE. +You are welcome. Take your place. +Are you acquainted with the difference +That holds this present question in the court? + +PORTIA. +I am informed throughly of the cause. +Which is the merchant here? And which the Jew? + +DUKE. +Antonio and old Shylock, both stand forth. + +PORTIA. +Is your name Shylock? + +SHYLOCK. +Shylock is my name. + +PORTIA. +Of a strange nature is the suit you follow, +Yet in such rule that the Venetian law +Cannot impugn you as you do proceed. +[_To Antonio_.] You stand within his danger, do you not? + +ANTONIO. +Ay, so he says. + +PORTIA. +Do you confess the bond? + +ANTONIO. +I do. + +PORTIA. +Then must the Jew be merciful. + +SHYLOCK. +On what compulsion must I? Tell me that. + +PORTIA. +The quality of mercy is not strain’d, +It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven +Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest, +It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. +’Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes +The throned monarch better than his crown. +His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, +The attribute to awe and majesty, +Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; +But mercy is above this sceptred sway, +It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, +It is an attribute to God himself; +And earthly power doth then show likest God’s +When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, +Though justice be thy plea, consider this, +That in the course of justice none of us +Should see salvation. We do pray for mercy, +And that same prayer doth teach us all to render +The deeds of mercy. I have spoke thus much +To mitigate the justice of thy plea, +Which if thou follow, this strict court of Venice +Must needs give sentence ’gainst the merchant there. + +SHYLOCK. +My deeds upon my head! I crave the law, +The penalty and forfeit of my bond. + +PORTIA. +Is he not able to discharge the money? + +BASSANIO. +Yes, here I tender it for him in the court, +Yea, twice the sum, if that will not suffice, +I will be bound to pay it ten times o’er +On forfeit of my hands, my head, my heart. +If this will not suffice, it must appear +That malice bears down truth. And I beseech you, +Wrest once the law to your authority. +To do a great right, do a little wrong, +And curb this cruel devil of his will. + +PORTIA. +It must not be, there is no power in Venice +Can alter a decree established; +’Twill be recorded for a precedent, +And many an error by the same example +Will rush into the state. It cannot be. + +SHYLOCK. +A Daniel come to judgment! Yea, a Daniel! +O wise young judge, how I do honour thee! + +PORTIA. +I pray you let me look upon the bond. + +SHYLOCK. +Here ’tis, most reverend doctor, here it is. + +PORTIA. +Shylock, there’s thrice thy money offered thee. + +SHYLOCK. +An oath, an oath! I have an oath in heaven. +Shall I lay perjury upon my soul? +No, not for Venice. + +PORTIA. +Why, this bond is forfeit, +And lawfully by this the Jew may claim +A pound of flesh, to be by him cut off +Nearest the merchant’s heart. Be merciful, +Take thrice thy money; bid me tear the bond. + +SHYLOCK. +When it is paid according to the tenour. +It doth appear you are a worthy judge; +You know the law; your exposition +Hath been most sound. I charge you by the law, +Whereof you are a well-deserving pillar, +Proceed to judgment. By my soul I swear +There is no power in the tongue of man +To alter me. I stay here on my bond. + +ANTONIO. +Most heartily I do beseech the court +To give the judgment. + +PORTIA. +Why then, thus it is: +You must prepare your bosom for his knife. + +SHYLOCK. +O noble judge! O excellent young man! + +PORTIA. +For the intent and purpose of the law +Hath full relation to the penalty, +Which here appeareth due upon the bond. + +SHYLOCK. +’Tis very true. O wise and upright judge, +How much more elder art thou than thy looks! + +PORTIA. +Therefore lay bare your bosom. + +SHYLOCK. +Ay, his breast +So says the bond, doth it not, noble judge? +“Nearest his heart”: those are the very words. + +PORTIA. +It is so. Are there balance here to weigh +The flesh? + +SHYLOCK. +I have them ready. + +PORTIA. +Have by some surgeon, Shylock, on your charge, +To stop his wounds, lest he do bleed to death. + +SHYLOCK. +Is it so nominated in the bond? + +PORTIA. +It is not so express’d, but what of that? +’Twere good you do so much for charity. + +SHYLOCK. +I cannot find it; ’tis not in the bond. + +PORTIA. +You, merchant, have you anything to say? + +ANTONIO. +But little. I am arm’d and well prepar’d. +Give me your hand, Bassanio. Fare you well, +Grieve not that I am fallen to this for you, +For herein Fortune shows herself more kind +Than is her custom: it is still her use +To let the wretched man outlive his wealth, +To view with hollow eye and wrinkled brow +An age of poverty, from which ling’ring penance +Of such misery doth she cut me off. +Commend me to your honourable wife, +Tell her the process of Antonio’s end, +Say how I lov’d you, speak me fair in death. +And when the tale is told, bid her be judge +Whether Bassanio had not once a love. +Repent but you that you shall lose your friend +And he repents not that he pays your debt. +For if the Jew do cut but deep enough, +I’ll pay it instantly with all my heart. + +BASSANIO. +Antonio, I am married to a wife +Which is as dear to me as life itself, +But life itself, my wife, and all the world, +Are not with me esteem’d above thy life. +I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all +Here to this devil, to deliver you. + +PORTIA. +Your wife would give you little thanks for that +If she were by to hear you make the offer. + +GRATIANO. +I have a wife who I protest I love. +I would she were in heaven, so she could +Entreat some power to change this currish Jew. + +NERISSA. +’Tis well you offer it behind her back, +The wish would make else an unquiet house. + +SHYLOCK. +These be the Christian husbands! I have a daughter— +Would any of the stock of Barabbas +Had been her husband, rather than a Christian! +We trifle time, I pray thee, pursue sentence. + +PORTIA. +A pound of that same merchant’s flesh is thine, +The court awards it and the law doth give it. + +SHYLOCK. +Most rightful judge! + +PORTIA. +And you must cut this flesh from off his breast. +The law allows it and the court awards it. + +SHYLOCK. +Most learned judge! A sentence! Come, prepare. + +PORTIA. +Tarry a little, there is something else. +This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood. +The words expressly are “a pound of flesh”: +Take then thy bond, take thou thy pound of flesh, +But in the cutting it, if thou dost shed +One drop of Christian blood, thy lands and goods +Are, by the laws of Venice, confiscate +Unto the state of Venice. + +GRATIANO. +O upright judge! Mark, Jew. O learned judge! + +SHYLOCK. +Is that the law? + +PORTIA. +Thyself shalt see the act. +For, as thou urgest justice, be assur’d +Thou shalt have justice more than thou desir’st. + +GRATIANO. +O learned judge! Mark, Jew, a learned judge! + +SHYLOCK. +I take this offer then. Pay the bond thrice +And let the Christian go. + +BASSANIO. +Here is the money. + +PORTIA. +Soft! +The Jew shall have all justice. Soft! no haste! +He shall have nothing but the penalty. + +GRATIANO. +O Jew, an upright judge, a learned judge! + +PORTIA. +Therefore prepare thee to cut off the flesh. +Shed thou no blood, nor cut thou less nor more, +But just a pound of flesh: if thou tak’st more +Or less than a just pound, be it but so much +As makes it light or heavy in the substance, +Or the division of the twentieth part +Of one poor scruple, nay, if the scale do turn +But in the estimation of a hair, +Thou diest, and all thy goods are confiscate. + +GRATIANO. +A second Daniel, a Daniel, Jew! +Now, infidel, I have you on the hip. + +PORTIA. +Why doth the Jew pause? Take thy forfeiture. + +SHYLOCK. +Give me my principal, and let me go. + +BASSANIO. +I have it ready for thee. Here it is. + +PORTIA. +He hath refus’d it in the open court, +He shall have merely justice and his bond. + +GRATIANO. +A Daniel still say I, a second Daniel! +I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word. + +SHYLOCK. +Shall I not have barely my principal? + +PORTIA. +Thou shalt have nothing but the forfeiture +To be so taken at thy peril, Jew. + +SHYLOCK. +Why, then the devil give him good of it! +I’ll stay no longer question. + +PORTIA. +Tarry, Jew. +The law hath yet another hold on you. +It is enacted in the laws of Venice, +If it be proved against an alien +That by direct or indirect attempts +He seek the life of any citizen, +The party ’gainst the which he doth contrive +Shall seize one half his goods; the other half +Comes to the privy coffer of the state, +And the offender’s life lies in the mercy +Of the Duke only, ’gainst all other voice. +In which predicament I say thou stand’st; +For it appears by manifest proceeding +That indirectly, and directly too, +Thou hast contrived against the very life +Of the defendant; and thou hast incurr’d +The danger formerly by me rehears’d. +Down, therefore, and beg mercy of the Duke. + +GRATIANO. +Beg that thou mayst have leave to hang thyself, +And yet, thy wealth being forfeit to the state, +Thou hast not left the value of a cord; +Therefore thou must be hang’d at the state’s charge. + +DUKE. +That thou shalt see the difference of our spirit, +I pardon thee thy life before thou ask it. +For half thy wealth, it is Antonio’s; +The other half comes to the general state, +Which humbleness may drive unto a fine. + +PORTIA. +Ay, for the state, not for Antonio. + +SHYLOCK. +Nay, take my life and all, pardon not that. +You take my house when you do take the prop +That doth sustain my house; you take my life +When you do take the means whereby I live. + +PORTIA. +What mercy can you render him, Antonio? + +GRATIANO. +A halter gratis, nothing else, for God’s sake! + +ANTONIO. +So please my lord the Duke and all the court +To quit the fine for one half of his goods, +I am content, so he will let me have +The other half in use, to render it +Upon his death unto the gentleman +That lately stole his daughter. +Two things provided more, that for this favour, +He presently become a Christian; +The other, that he do record a gift, +Here in the court, of all he dies possess’d +Unto his son Lorenzo and his daughter. + +DUKE. +He shall do this, or else I do recant +The pardon that I late pronounced here. + +PORTIA. +Art thou contented, Jew? What dost thou say? + +SHYLOCK. +I am content. + +PORTIA. +Clerk, draw a deed of gift. + +SHYLOCK. +I pray you give me leave to go from hence; +I am not well; send the deed after me +And I will sign it. + +DUKE. +Get thee gone, but do it. + +GRATIANO. +In christ’ning shalt thou have two god-fathers. +Had I been judge, thou shouldst have had ten more, +To bring thee to the gallows, not to the font. + + [_Exit Shylock._] + +DUKE. +Sir, I entreat you home with me to dinner. + +PORTIA. +I humbly do desire your Grace of pardon, +I must away this night toward Padua, +And it is meet I presently set forth. + +DUKE. +I am sorry that your leisure serves you not. +Antonio, gratify this gentleman, +For in my mind you are much bound to him. + + [_Exeunt Duke and his train._] + +BASSANIO. +Most worthy gentleman, I and my friend +Have by your wisdom been this day acquitted +Of grievous penalties, in lieu whereof, +Three thousand ducats due unto the Jew +We freely cope your courteous pains withal. + +ANTONIO. +And stand indebted, over and above +In love and service to you evermore. + +PORTIA. +He is well paid that is well satisfied, +And I delivering you, am satisfied, +And therein do account myself well paid, +My mind was never yet more mercenary. +I pray you know me when we meet again, +I wish you well, and so I take my leave. + +BASSANIO. +Dear sir, of force I must attempt you further. +Take some remembrance of us as a tribute, +Not as fee. Grant me two things, I pray you, +Not to deny me, and to pardon me. + +PORTIA. +You press me far, and therefore I will yield. +[_To Antonio_.] Give me your gloves, I’ll wear them for your sake. +[_To Bassanio_.] And, for your love, I’ll take this ring from you. +Do not draw back your hand; I’ll take no more, +And you in love shall not deny me this. + +BASSANIO. +This ring, good sir? Alas, it is a trifle, +I will not shame myself to give you this. + +PORTIA. +I will have nothing else but only this, +And now methinks I have a mind to it. + +BASSANIO. +There’s more depends on this than on the value. +The dearest ring in Venice will I give you, +And find it out by proclamation, +Only for this I pray you pardon me. + +PORTIA. +I see, sir, you are liberal in offers. +You taught me first to beg, and now methinks +You teach me how a beggar should be answer’d. + +BASSANIO. +Good sir, this ring was given me by my wife, +And when she put it on, she made me vow +That I should neither sell, nor give, nor lose it. + +PORTIA. +That ’scuse serves many men to save their gifts. +And if your wife be not a mad-woman, +And know how well I have deserv’d this ring, +She would not hold out enemy for ever +For giving it to me. Well, peace be with you! + + [_Exeunt Portia and Nerissa._] + +ANTONIO. +My Lord Bassanio, let him have the ring. +Let his deservings and my love withal +Be valued ’gainst your wife’s commandment. + +BASSANIO. +Go, Gratiano, run and overtake him; +Give him the ring, and bring him if thou canst +Unto Antonio’s house. Away, make haste. + + [_Exit Gratiano._] + +Come, you and I will thither presently, +And in the morning early will we both +Fly toward Belmont. Come, Antonio. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. A street. + + Enter Portia and Nerissa. + +PORTIA. +Inquire the Jew’s house out, give him this deed, +And let him sign it, we’ll away tonight, +And be a day before our husbands home. +This deed will be well welcome to Lorenzo. + + Enter Gratiano. + +GRATIANO. +Fair sir, you are well o’erta’en. +My Lord Bassanio upon more advice, +Hath sent you here this ring, and doth entreat +Your company at dinner. + +PORTIA. +That cannot be; +His ring I do accept most thankfully, +And so I pray you tell him. Furthermore, +I pray you show my youth old Shylock’s house. + +GRATIANO. +That will I do. + +NERISSA. +Sir, I would speak with you. +[_Aside to Portia_.] +I’ll see if I can get my husband’s ring, +Which I did make him swear to keep for ever. + +PORTIA. +[_To Nerissa_.] Thou mayst, I warrant. We shall have old swearing +That they did give the rings away to men; +But we’ll outface them, and outswear them too. +Away! make haste! Thou know’st where I will tarry. + +NERISSA. +Come, good sir, will you show me to this house? + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Belmont. The avenue to Portia’s house. + + Enter Lorenzo and Jessica. + +LORENZO. +The moon shines bright. In such a night as this, +When the sweet wind did gently kiss the trees, +And they did make no noise, in such a night, +Troilus methinks mounted the Trojan walls, +And sigh’d his soul toward the Grecian tents +Where Cressid lay that night. + +JESSICA. +In such a night +Did Thisby fearfully o’ertrip the dew, +And saw the lion’s shadow ere himself, +And ran dismay’d away. + +LORENZO. +In such a night +Stood Dido with a willow in her hand +Upon the wild sea-banks, and waft her love +To come again to Carthage. + +JESSICA. +In such a night +Medea gathered the enchanted herbs +That did renew old Æson. + +LORENZO. +In such a night +Did Jessica steal from the wealthy Jew, +And with an unthrift love did run from Venice +As far as Belmont. + +JESSICA. +In such a night +Did young Lorenzo swear he loved her well, +Stealing her soul with many vows of faith, +And ne’er a true one. + +LORENZO. +In such a night +Did pretty Jessica, like a little shrew, +Slander her love, and he forgave it her. + +JESSICA. +I would out-night you did no body come; +But hark, I hear the footing of a man. + + Enter Stephano. + +LORENZO. +Who comes so fast in silence of the night? + +STEPHANO. +A friend. + +LORENZO. +A friend! What friend? Your name, I pray you, friend? + +STEPHANO. +Stephano is my name, and I bring word +My mistress will before the break of day +Be here at Belmont. She doth stray about +By holy crosses where she kneels and prays +For happy wedlock hours. + +LORENZO. +Who comes with her? + +STEPHANO. +None but a holy hermit and her maid. +I pray you is my master yet return’d? + +LORENZO. +He is not, nor we have not heard from him. +But go we in, I pray thee, Jessica, +And ceremoniously let us prepare +Some welcome for the mistress of the house. + + Enter Launcelet. + +LAUNCELET. Sola, sola! wo ha, ho! sola, sola! + +LORENZO. +Who calls? + +LAUNCELET. +Sola! Did you see Master Lorenzo? Master Lorenzo! Sola, sola! + +LORENZO. +Leave holloaing, man. Here! + +LAUNCELET. +Sola! Where, where? + +LORENZO. +Here! + +LAUNCELET. +Tell him there’s a post come from my master with his horn full of good +news. My master will be here ere morning. + + [_Exit._] + +LORENZO. +Sweet soul, let’s in, and there expect their coming. +And yet no matter; why should we go in? +My friend Stephano, signify, I pray you, +Within the house, your mistress is at hand, +And bring your music forth into the air. + + [_Exit Stephano._] + +How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! +Here will we sit and let the sounds of music +Creep in our ears; soft stillness and the night +Become the touches of sweet harmony. +Sit, Jessica. Look how the floor of heaven +Is thick inlaid with patens of bright gold. +There’s not the smallest orb which thou behold’st +But in his motion like an angel sings, +Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubins; +Such harmony is in immortal souls, +But whilst this muddy vesture of decay +Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it. + + Enter Musicians. + +Come, ho! and wake Diana with a hymn. +With sweetest touches pierce your mistress’ ear, +And draw her home with music. + + [_Music._] + +JESSICA. +I am never merry when I hear sweet music. + +LORENZO. +The reason is, your spirits are attentive. +For do but note a wild and wanton herd +Or race of youthful and unhandled colts, +Fetching mad bounds, bellowing and neighing loud, +Which is the hot condition of their blood, +If they but hear perchance a trumpet sound, +Or any air of music touch their ears, +You shall perceive them make a mutual stand, +Their savage eyes turn’d to a modest gaze +By the sweet power of music: therefore the poet +Did feign that Orpheus drew trees, stones, and floods, +Since naught so stockish, hard, and full of rage, +But music for the time doth change his nature. +The man that hath no music in himself, +Nor is not mov’d with concord of sweet sounds, +Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils; +The motions of his spirit are dull as night, +And his affections dark as Erebus. +Let no such man be trusted. Mark the music. + + Enter Portia and Nerissa. + +PORTIA. +That light we see is burning in my hall. +How far that little candle throws his beams! +So shines a good deed in a naughty world. + +NERISSA. +When the moon shone we did not see the candle. + +PORTIA. +So doth the greater glory dim the less. +A substitute shines brightly as a king +Until a king be by, and then his state +Empties itself, as doth an inland brook +Into the main of waters. Music! hark! + +NERISSA. +It is your music, madam, of the house. + +PORTIA. +Nothing is good, I see, without respect. +Methinks it sounds much sweeter than by day. + +NERISSA. +Silence bestows that virtue on it, madam. + +PORTIA. +The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark +When neither is attended; and I think +The nightingale, if she should sing by day +When every goose is cackling, would be thought +No better a musician than the wren. +How many things by season season’d are +To their right praise and true perfection! +Peace! How the moon sleeps with Endymion, +And would not be awak’d! + + [_Music ceases._] + +LORENZO. +That is the voice, +Or I am much deceiv’d, of Portia. + +PORTIA. +He knows me as the blind man knows the cuckoo, +By the bad voice. + +LORENZO. +Dear lady, welcome home. + +PORTIA. +We have been praying for our husbands’ welfare, +Which speed, we hope, the better for our words. +Are they return’d? + +LORENZO. +Madam, they are not yet; +But there is come a messenger before +To signify their coming. + +PORTIA. +Go in, Nerissa. +Give order to my servants, that they take +No note at all of our being absent hence, +Nor you, Lorenzo; Jessica, nor you. + + [_A tucket sounds._] + +LORENZO. +Your husband is at hand, I hear his trumpet. +We are no tell-tales, madam, fear you not. + +PORTIA. +This night methinks is but the daylight sick, +It looks a little paler. ’Tis a day +Such as the day is when the sun is hid. + + Enter Bassanio, Antonio, Gratiano and their Followers. + +BASSANIO. +We should hold day with the Antipodes, +If you would walk in absence of the sun. + +PORTIA. +Let me give light, but let me not be light, +For a light wife doth make a heavy husband, +And never be Bassanio so for me. +But God sort all! You are welcome home, my lord. + +BASSANIO. +I thank you, madam. Give welcome to my friend. +This is the man, this is Antonio, +To whom I am so infinitely bound. + +PORTIA. +You should in all sense be much bound to him, +For, as I hear, he was much bound for you. + +ANTONIO. +No more than I am well acquitted of. + +PORTIA. +Sir, you are very welcome to our house. +It must appear in other ways than words, +Therefore I scant this breathing courtesy. + +GRATIANO. +[_To Nerissa_.] By yonder moon I swear you do me wrong, +In faith, I gave it to the judge’s clerk. +Would he were gelt that had it, for my part, +Since you do take it, love, so much at heart. + +PORTIA. +A quarrel, ho, already! What’s the matter? + +GRATIANO. +About a hoop of gold, a paltry ring +That she did give me, whose posy was +For all the world like cutlers’ poetry +Upon a knife, “Love me, and leave me not.” + +NERISSA. +What talk you of the posy, or the value? +You swore to me when I did give it you, +That you would wear it till your hour of death, +And that it should lie with you in your grave. +Though not for me, yet for your vehement oaths, +You should have been respective and have kept it. +Gave it a judge’s clerk! No, God’s my judge, +The clerk will ne’er wear hair on’s face that had it. + +GRATIANO. +He will, and if he live to be a man. + +NERISSA. +Ay, if a woman live to be a man. + +GRATIANO. +Now, by this hand, I gave it to a youth, +A kind of boy, a little scrubbed boy, +No higher than thyself, the judge’s clerk, +A prating boy that begg’d it as a fee, +I could not for my heart deny it him. + +PORTIA. +You were to blame,—I must be plain with you,— +To part so slightly with your wife’s first gift, +A thing stuck on with oaths upon your finger, +And so riveted with faith unto your flesh. +I gave my love a ring, and made him swear +Never to part with it, and here he stands. +I dare be sworn for him he would not leave it +Nor pluck it from his finger for the wealth +That the world masters. Now, in faith, Gratiano, +You give your wife too unkind a cause of grief, +An ’twere to me I should be mad at it. + +BASSANIO. +[_Aside._] Why, I were best to cut my left hand off, +And swear I lost the ring defending it. + +GRATIANO. +My Lord Bassanio gave his ring away +Unto the judge that begg’d it, and indeed +Deserv’d it too. And then the boy, his clerk, +That took some pains in writing, he begg’d mine, +And neither man nor master would take aught +But the two rings. + +PORTIA. +What ring gave you, my lord? +Not that, I hope, which you receiv’d of me. + +BASSANIO. +If I could add a lie unto a fault, +I would deny it, but you see my finger +Hath not the ring upon it, it is gone. + +PORTIA. +Even so void is your false heart of truth. +By heaven, I will ne’er come in your bed +Until I see the ring. + +NERISSA. +Nor I in yours +Till I again see mine! + +BASSANIO. +Sweet Portia, +If you did know to whom I gave the ring, +If you did know for whom I gave the ring, +And would conceive for what I gave the ring, +And how unwillingly I left the ring, +When nought would be accepted but the ring, +You would abate the strength of your displeasure. + +PORTIA. +If you had known the virtue of the ring, +Or half her worthiness that gave the ring, +Or your own honour to contain the ring, +You would not then have parted with the ring. +What man is there so much unreasonable, +If you had pleas’d to have defended it +With any terms of zeal, wanted the modesty +To urge the thing held as a ceremony? +Nerissa teaches me what to believe: +I’ll die for’t but some woman had the ring. + +BASSANIO. +No, by my honour, madam, by my soul, +No woman had it, but a civil doctor, +Which did refuse three thousand ducats of me, +And begg’d the ring, the which I did deny him, +And suffer’d him to go displeas’d away, +Even he that had held up the very life +Of my dear friend. What should I say, sweet lady? +I was enforc’d to send it after him. +I was beset with shame and courtesy. +My honour would not let ingratitude +So much besmear it. Pardon me, good lady; +For by these blessed candles of the night, +Had you been there, I think you would have begg’d +The ring of me to give the worthy doctor. + +PORTIA. +Let not that doctor e’er come near my house, +Since he hath got the jewel that I loved, +And that which you did swear to keep for me, +I will become as liberal as you, +I’ll not deny him anything I have, +No, not my body, nor my husband’s bed. +Know him I shall, I am well sure of it. +Lie not a night from home. Watch me like Argus, +If you do not, if I be left alone, +Now by mine honour which is yet mine own, +I’ll have that doctor for mine bedfellow. + +NERISSA. +And I his clerk. Therefore be well advis’d +How you do leave me to mine own protection. + +GRATIANO. +Well, do you so. Let not me take him then, +For if I do, I’ll mar the young clerk’s pen. + +ANTONIO. +I am th’ unhappy subject of these quarrels. + +PORTIA. +Sir, grieve not you. You are welcome notwithstanding. + +BASSANIO. +Portia, forgive me this enforced wrong, +And in the hearing of these many friends +I swear to thee, even by thine own fair eyes, +Wherein I see myself— + +PORTIA. +Mark you but that! +In both my eyes he doubly sees himself, +In each eye one. Swear by your double self, +And there’s an oath of credit. + +BASSANIO. +Nay, but hear me. +Pardon this fault, and by my soul I swear +I never more will break an oath with thee. + +ANTONIO. +I once did lend my body for his wealth, +Which but for him that had your husband’s ring +Had quite miscarried. I dare be bound again, +My soul upon the forfeit, that your lord +Will never more break faith advisedly. + +PORTIA. +Then you shall be his surety. Give him this, +And bid him keep it better than the other. + +ANTONIO. +Here, Lord Bassanio, swear to keep this ring. + +BASSANIO. +By heaven, it is the same I gave the doctor! + +PORTIA. +I had it of him: pardon me, Bassanio, +For by this ring, the doctor lay with me. + +NERISSA. +And pardon me, my gentle Gratiano, +For that same scrubbed boy, the doctor’s clerk, +In lieu of this, last night did lie with me. + +GRATIANO. +Why, this is like the mending of highways +In summer, where the ways are fair enough. +What, are we cuckolds ere we have deserv’d it? + +PORTIA. +Speak not so grossly. You are all amaz’d. +Here is a letter; read it at your leisure. +It comes from Padua from Bellario. +There you shall find that Portia was the doctor, +Nerissa there, her clerk. Lorenzo here +Shall witness I set forth as soon as you, +And even but now return’d. I have not yet +Enter’d my house. Antonio, you are welcome, +And I have better news in store for you +Than you expect: unseal this letter soon. +There you shall find three of your argosies +Are richly come to harbour suddenly. +You shall not know by what strange accident +I chanced on this letter. + +ANTONIO. +I am dumb. + +BASSANIO. +Were you the doctor, and I knew you not? + +GRATIANO. +Were you the clerk that is to make me cuckold? + +NERISSA. +Ay, but the clerk that never means to do it, +Unless he live until he be a man. + +BASSANIO. +Sweet doctor, you shall be my bedfellow. +When I am absent, then lie with my wife. + +ANTONIO. +Sweet lady, you have given me life and living; +For here I read for certain that my ships +Are safely come to road. + +PORTIA. +How now, Lorenzo! +My clerk hath some good comforts too for you. + +NERISSA. +Ay, and I’ll give them him without a fee. +There do I give to you and Jessica, +From the rich Jew, a special deed of gift, +After his death, of all he dies possess’d of. + +LORENZO. +Fair ladies, you drop manna in the way +Of starved people. + +PORTIA. +It is almost morning, +And yet I am sure you are not satisfied +Of these events at full. Let us go in, +And charge us there upon inter’gatories, +And we will answer all things faithfully. + +GRATIANO. +Let it be so. The first inter’gatory +That my Nerissa shall be sworn on is, +Whether till the next night she had rather stay, +Or go to bed now, being two hours to day. +But were the day come, I should wish it dark +Till I were couching with the doctor’s clerk. +Well, while I live, I’ll fear no other thing +So sore as keeping safe Nerissa’s ring. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +THE MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR + +Dramatis Personae + + SIR JOHN FALSTAFF + FENTON, a young gentleman + SHALLOW, a country justice + SLENDER, cousin to Shallow + + Gentlemen of Windsor + FORD + PAGE + WILLIAM PAGE, a boy, son to Page + SIR HUGH EVANS, a Welsh parson + DOCTOR CAIUS, a French physician + HOST of the Garter Inn + + Followers of Falstaff + BARDOLPH + PISTOL + NYM + ROBIN, page to Falstaff + SIMPLE, servant to Slender + RUGBY, servant to Doctor Caius + + MISTRESS FORD + MISTRESS PAGE + MISTRESS ANNE PAGE, her daughter + MISTRESS QUICKLY, servant to Doctor Caius + SERVANTS to Page, Ford, etc. + +SCENE: Windsor, and the neighbourhood + +ACT I. SCENE 1. + +Windsor. Before PAGE'S house + +Enter JUSTICE SHALLOW, SLENDER, and SIR HUGH EVANS + + SHALLOW. Sir Hugh, persuade me not; I will make a Star + Chamber matter of it; if he were twenty Sir John Falstaffs, + he shall not abuse Robert Shallow, esquire. + SLENDER. In the county of Gloucester, Justice of Peace, and + Coram. + SHALLOW. Ay, cousin Slender, and Custalorum. + SLENDER. Ay, and Ratolorum too; and a gentleman born, + Master Parson, who writes himself 'Armigero' in any bill, + warrant, quittance, or obligation-'Armigero.' + SHALLOW. Ay, that I do; and have done any time these three + hundred years. + SLENDER. All his successors, gone before him, hath done't; + and all his ancestors, that come after him, may: they may + give the dozen white luces in their coat. + SHALLOW. It is an old coat. + EVANS. The dozen white louses do become an old coat well; + it agrees well, passant; it is a familiar beast to man, and + signifies love. + SHALLOW. The luce is the fresh fish; the salt fish is an old + coat. + SLENDER. I may quarter, coz. + SHALLOW. You may, by marrying. + EVANS. It is marring indeed, if he quarter it. + SHALLOW. Not a whit. + EVANS. Yes, py'r lady! If he has a quarter of your coat, there + is but three skirts for yourself, in my simple conjectures; + but that is all one. If Sir John Falstaff have committed + disparagements unto you, I am of the church, and will be + glad to do my benevolence, to make atonements and + compremises between you. + SHALLOW. The Council shall hear it; it is a riot. + EVANS. It is not meet the Council hear a riot; there is no + fear of Got in a riot; the Council, look you, shall desire + to hear the fear of Got, and not to hear a riot; take your + vizaments in that. + SHALLOW. Ha! o' my life, if I were young again, the sword + should end it. + EVANS. It is petter that friends is the sword and end it; + and there is also another device in my prain, which + peradventure prings goot discretions with it. There is Anne + Page, which is daughter to Master George Page, which is + pretty virginity. + SLENDER. Mistress Anne Page? She has brown hair, and + speaks small like a woman. + EVANS. It is that fery person for all the orld, as just as you + will desire; and seven hundred pounds of moneys, and + gold, and silver, is her grandsire upon his death's-bed-Got + deliver to a joyful resurrections!-give, when she is able to + overtake seventeen years old. It were a goot motion if we + leave our pribbles and prabbles, and desire a marriage + between Master Abraham and Mistress Anne Page. + SHALLOW. Did her grandsire leave her seven hundred pound? + EVANS. Ay, and her father is make her a petter penny. + SHALLOW. I know the young gentlewoman; she has good + gifts. + EVANS. Seven hundred pounds, and possibilities, is goot gifts. + SHALLOW. Well, let us see honest Master Page. Is Falstaff + there? + EVANS. Shall I tell you a lie? I do despise a liar as I do + despise one that is false; or as I despise one that is not + true. The knight Sir John is there; and, I beseech you, be + ruled by your well-willers. I will peat the door for Master + Page. + [Knocks] What, hoa! Got pless your house here! + PAGE. [Within] Who's there? + + Enter PAGE + + EVANS. Here is Got's plessing, and your friend, and Justice + Shallow; and here young Master Slender, that peradventures + shall tell you another tale, if matters grow to your + likings. + PAGE. I am glad to see your worships well. I thank you for + my venison, Master Shallow. + SHALLOW. Master Page, I am glad to see you; much good do + it your good heart! I wish'd your venison better; it was ill + kill'd. How doth good Mistress Page?-and I thank you + always with my heart, la! with my heart. + PAGE. Sir, I thank you. + SHALLOW. Sir, I thank you; by yea and no, I do. + PAGE. I am glad to see you, good Master Slender. + SLENDER. How does your fallow greyhound, sir? I heard say + he was outrun on Cotsall. + PAGE. It could not be judg'd, sir. + SLENDER. You'll not confess, you'll not confess. + SHALLOW. That he will not. 'Tis your fault; 'tis your fault; + 'tis a good dog. + PAGE. A cur, sir. + SHALLOW. Sir, he's a good dog, and a fair dog. Can there be + more said? He is good, and fair. Is Sir John Falstaff here? + PAGE. Sir, he is within; and I would I could do a good office + between you. + EVANS. It is spoke as a Christians ought to speak. + SHALLOW. He hath wrong'd me, Master Page. + PAGE. Sir, he doth in some sort confess it. + SHALLOW. If it be confessed, it is not redressed; is not that + so, Master Page? He hath wrong'd me; indeed he hath; at a + word, he hath, believe me; Robert Shallow, esquire, saith + he is wronged. + PAGE. Here comes Sir John. + + Enter SIR JOHN FALSTAFF, BARDOLPH, NYM, and PISTOL + + FALSTAFF. Now, Master Shallow, you'll complain of me to + the King? + SHALLOW. Knight, you have beaten my men, kill'd my deer, + and broke open my lodge. + FALSTAFF. But not kiss'd your keeper's daughter. + SHALLOW. Tut, a pin! this shall be answer'd. + FALSTAFF. I will answer it straight: I have done all this. + That is now answer'd. + SHALLOW. The Council shall know this. + FALSTAFF. 'Twere better for you if it were known in counsel: + you'll be laugh'd at. + EVANS. Pauca verba, Sir John; goot worts. + FALSTAFF. Good worts! good cabbage! Slender, I broke your + head; what matter have you against me? + SLENDER. Marry, sir, I have matter in my head against you; + and against your cony-catching rascals, Bardolph, Nym, + and Pistol. They carried me to the tavern, and made me + drunk, and afterwards pick'd my pocket. + BARDOLPH. You Banbury cheese! + SLENDER. Ay, it is no matter. + PISTOL. How now, Mephostophilus! + SLENDER. Ay, it is no matter. + NYM. Slice, I say! pauca, pauca; slice! That's my humour. + SLENDER. Where's Simple, my man? Can you tell, cousin? + EVANS. Peace, I pray you. Now let us understand. There is + three umpires in this matter, as I understand: that is, + Master Page, fidelicet Master Page; and there is myself, + fidelicet myself; and the three party is, lastly and + finally, mine host of the Garter. + PAGE. We three to hear it and end it between them. + EVANS. Fery goot. I will make a prief of it in my note-book; + and we will afterwards ork upon the cause with as great + discreetly as we can. + FALSTAFF. Pistol! + PISTOL. He hears with ears. + EVANS. The tevil and his tam! What phrase is this, 'He hears + with ear'? Why, it is affectations. + FALSTAFF. Pistol, did you pick Master Slender's purse? + SLENDER. Ay, by these gloves, did he-or I would I might + never come in mine own great chamber again else!-of + seven groats in mill-sixpences, and two Edward + shovel-boards that cost me two shilling and two pence apiece + of Yead Miller, by these gloves. + FALSTAFF. Is this true, Pistol? + EVANS. No, it is false, if it is a pick-purse. + PISTOL. Ha, thou mountain-foreigner! Sir John and master + mine, + I combat challenge of this latten bilbo. + Word of denial in thy labras here! + Word of denial! Froth and scum, thou liest. + SLENDER. By these gloves, then, 'twas he. + NYM. Be avis'd, sir, and pass good humours; I will say + 'marry trap' with you, if you run the nuthook's humour on + me; that is the very note of it. + SLENDER. By this hat, then, he in the red face had it; for + though I cannot remember what I did when you made me + drunk, yet I am not altogether an ass. + FALSTAFF. What say you, Scarlet and John? + BARDOLPH. Why, sir, for my part, I say the gentleman had + drunk himself out of his five sentences. + EVANS. It is his five senses; fie, what the ignorance is! + BARDOLPH. And being fap, sir, was, as they say, cashier'd; + and so conclusions pass'd the careers. + SLENDER. Ay, you spake in Latin then too; but 'tis no matter; + I'll ne'er be drunk whilst I live again, but in honest, + civil, godly company, for this trick. If I be drunk, I'll be + drunk with those that have the fear of God, and not with + drunken knaves. + EVANS. So Got udge me, that is a virtuous mind. + FALSTAFF. You hear all these matters deni'd, gentlemen; you + hear it. + + Enter MISTRESS ANNE PAGE with wine; MISTRESS + FORD and MISTRESS PAGE, following + + PAGE. Nay, daughter, carry the wine in; we'll drink within. + Exit ANNE PAGE + SLENDER. O heaven! this is Mistress Anne Page. + PAGE. How now, Mistress Ford! + FALSTAFF. Mistress Ford, by my troth, you are very well + met; by your leave, good mistress. [Kisses her] + PAGE. Wife, bid these gentlemen welcome. Come, we have a + hot venison pasty to dinner; come, gentlemen, I hope we + shall drink down all unkindness. + Exeunt all but SHALLOW, SLENDER, and EVANS + SLENDER. I had rather than forty shillings I had my Book of + Songs and Sonnets here. + + Enter SIMPLE + + How, Simple! Where have you been? I must wait on + myself, must I? You have not the Book of Riddles about you, + have you? + SIMPLE. Book of Riddles! Why, did you not lend it to Alice + Shortcake upon Allhallowmas last, a fortnight afore + Michaelmas? + SHALLOW. Come, coz; come, coz; we stay for you. A word + with you, coz; marry, this, coz: there is, as 'twere, a + tender, a kind of tender, made afar off by Sir Hugh here. Do + you understand me? + SLENDER. Ay, sir, you shall find me reasonable; if it be so, I + shall do that that is reason. + SHALLOW. Nay, but understand me. + SLENDER. So I do, sir. + EVANS. Give ear to his motions: Master Slender, I will + description the matter to you, if you be capacity of it. + SLENDER. Nay, I will do as my cousin Shallow says; I pray + you pardon me; he's a justice of peace in his country, + simple though I stand here. + EVANS. But that is not the question. The question is + concerning your marriage. + SHALLOW. Ay, there's the point, sir. + EVANS. Marry is it; the very point of it; to Mistress Anne + Page. + SLENDER. Why, if it be so, I will marry her upon any + reasonable demands. + EVANS. But can you affection the oman? Let us command to + know that of your mouth or of your lips; for divers philosophers + hold that the lips is parcel of the mouth. Therefore, + precisely, can you carry your good will to the maid? + SHALLOW. Cousin Abraham Slender, can you love her? + SLENDER. I hope, sir, I will do as it shall become one that + would do reason. + EVANS. Nay, Got's lords and his ladies! you must speak possitable, + if you can carry her your desires towards her. + SHALLOW. That you must. Will you, upon good dowry, + marry her? + SLENDER. I will do a greater thing than that upon your request, + cousin, in any reason. + SHALLOW. Nay, conceive me, conceive me, sweet coz; what + I do is to pleasure you, coz. Can you love the maid? + SLENDER. I will marry her, sir, at your request; but if there + be no great love in the beginning, yet heaven may decrease + it upon better acquaintance, when we are married and + have more occasion to know one another. I hope upon + familiarity will grow more contempt. But if you say + 'marry her,' I will marry her; that I am freely dissolved, + and dissolutely. + EVANS. It is a fery discretion answer, save the fall is in the + ord 'dissolutely': the ort is, according to our meaning, + 'resolutely'; his meaning is good. + SHALLOW. Ay, I think my cousin meant well. + SLENDER. Ay, or else I would I might be hang'd, la! + + Re-enter ANNE PAGE + + SHALLOW. Here comes fair Mistress Anne. Would I were + young for your sake, Mistress Anne! + ANNE. The dinner is on the table; my father desires your + worships' company. + SHALLOW. I will wait on him, fair Mistress Anne! + EVANS. Od's plessed will! I will not be absence at the grace. + Exeunt SHALLOW and EVANS + ANNE. Will't please your worship to come in, sir? + SLENDER. No, I thank you, forsooth, heartily; I am very + well. + ANNE. The dinner attends you, sir. + SLENDER. I am not a-hungry, I thank you, forsooth. Go, + sirrah, for all you are my man, go wait upon my cousin + Shallow. [Exit SIMPLE] A justice of peace sometime may + be beholding to his friend for a man. I keep but three men + and a boy yet, till my mother be dead. But what though? + Yet I live like a poor gentleman born. + ANNE. I may not go in without your worship; they will not + sit till you come. + SLENDER. I' faith, I'll eat nothing; I thank you as much as + though I did. + ANNE. I pray you, sir, walk in. + SLENDER. I had rather walk here, I thank you. I bruis'd my + shin th' other day with playing at sword and dagger with + a master of fence-three veneys for a dish of stew'd prunes + -and, I with my ward defending my head, he hot my shin, + and, by my troth, I cannot abide the smell of hot meat + since. Why do your dogs bark so? Be there bears i' th' + town? + ANNE. I think there are, sir; I heard them talk'd of. + SLENDER. I love the sport well; but I shall as soon quarrel at + it as any man in England. You are afraid, if you see the + bear loose, are you not? + ANNE. Ay, indeed, sir. + SLENDER. That's meat and drink to me now. I have seen + Sackerson loose twenty times, and have taken him by the + chain; but I warrant you, the women have so cried and + shriek'd at it that it pass'd; but women, indeed, cannot + abide 'em; they are very ill-favour'd rough things. + + Re-enter PAGE + + PAGE. Come, gentle Master Slender, come; we stay for you. + SLENDER. I'll eat nothing, I thank you, sir. + PAGE. By cock and pie, you shall not choose, sir! Come, + come. + SLENDER. Nay, pray you lead the way. + PAGE. Come on, sir. + SLENDER. Mistress Anne, yourself shall go first. + ANNE. Not I, sir; pray you keep on. + SLENDER. Truly, I will not go first; truly, la! I will not do + you that wrong. + ANNE. I pray you, sir. + SLENDER. I'll rather be unmannerly than troublesome. You + do yourself wrong indeed, la! Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +Before PAGE'S house + +Enter SIR HUGH EVANS and SIMPLE + + EVANS. Go your ways, and ask of Doctor Caius' house which + is the way; and there dwells one Mistress Quickly, which + is in the manner of his nurse, or his dry nurse, or his cook, + or his laundry, his washer, and his wringer. + SIMPLE. Well, sir. + EVANS. Nay, it is petter yet. Give her this letter; for it is a + oman that altogether's acquaintance with Mistress Anne + Page; and the letter is to desire and require her to solicit + your master's desires to Mistress Anne Page. I pray you + be gone. I will make an end of my dinner; there's pippins + and cheese to come. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +The Garter Inn + +Enter FALSTAFF, HOST, BARDOLPH, NYM, PISTOL, and ROBIN + + FALSTAFF. Mine host of the Garter! + HOST. What says my bully rook? Speak scholarly and + wisely. + FALSTAFF. Truly, mine host, I must turn away some of my + followers. + HOST. Discard, bully Hercules; cashier; let them wag; trot, + trot. + FALSTAFF. I sit at ten pounds a week. + HOST. Thou'rt an emperor-Caesar, Keiser, and Pheazar. I + will entertain Bardolph; he shall draw, he shall tap; said I + well, bully Hector? + FALSTAFF. Do so, good mine host. + HOST. I have spoke; let him follow. [To BARDOLPH] Let me + see thee froth and lime. I am at a word; follow. Exit HOST + FALSTAFF. Bardolph, follow him. A tapster is a good trade; + an old cloak makes a new jerkin; a wither'd serving-man a + fresh tapster. Go; adieu. + BARDOLPH. It is a life that I have desir'd; I will thrive. + PISTOL. O base Hungarian wight! Wilt thou the spigot + wield? Exit BARDOLPH + NYM. He was gotten in drink. Is not the humour conceited? + FALSTAFF. I am glad I am so acquit of this tinder-box: his + thefts were too open; his filching was like an unskilful + singer-he kept not time. + NYM. The good humour is to steal at a minute's rest. + PISTOL. 'Convey' the wise it call. 'Steal' foh! A fico for the + phrase! + FALSTAFF. Well, sirs, I am almost out at heels. + PISTOL. Why, then, let kibes ensue. + FALSTAFF. There is no remedy; I must cony-catch; I must + shift. + PISTOL. Young ravens must have food. + FALSTAFF. Which of you know Ford of this town? + PISTOL. I ken the wight; he is of substance good. + FALSTAFF. My honest lads, I will tell you what I am about. + PISTOL. Two yards, and more. + FALSTAFF. No quips now, Pistol. Indeed, I am in the waist + two yards about; but I am now about no waste; I am about + thrift. Briefly, I do mean to make love to Ford's wife; I + spy entertainment in her; she discourses, she carves, she + gives the leer of invitation; I can construe the action of her + familiar style; and the hardest voice of her behaviour, to be + English'd rightly, is 'I am Sir John Falstaff's.' + PISTOL. He hath studied her well, and translated her will out + of honesty into English. + NYM. The anchor is deep; will that humour pass? + FALSTAFF. Now, the report goes she has all the rule of her + husband's purse; he hath a legion of angels. + PISTOL. As many devils entertain; and 'To her, boy,' say I. + NYM. The humour rises; it is good; humour me the angels. + FALSTAFF. I have writ me here a letter to her; and here + another to Page's wife, who even now gave me good eyes + too, examin'd my parts with most judicious oeillades; + sometimes the beam of her view gilded my foot, sometimes my + portly belly. + PISTOL. Then did the sun on dunghill shine. + NYM. I thank thee for that humour. + FALSTAFF. O, she did so course o'er my exteriors with such + a greedy intention that the appetite of her eye did seem to + scorch me up like a burning-glass! Here's another letter to + her. She bears the purse too; she is a region in Guiana, all + gold and bounty. I will be cheaters to them both, and they + shall be exchequers to me; they shall be my East and West + Indies, and I will trade to them both. Go, bear thou this + letter to Mistress Page; and thou this to Mistress Ford. We + will thrive, lads, we will thrive. + PISTOL. Shall I Sir Pandarus of Troy become, + And by my side wear steel? Then Lucifer take all! + NYM. I will run no base humour. Here, take the + humour-letter; I will keep the haviour of reputation. + FALSTAFF. [To ROBIN] Hold, sirrah; bear you these letters + tightly; + Sail like my pinnace to these golden shores. + Rogues, hence, avaunt! vanish like hailstones, go; + Trudge, plod away i' th' hoof; seek shelter, pack! + Falstaff will learn the humour of the age; + French thrift, you rogues; myself, and skirted page. + Exeunt FALSTAFF and ROBIN + PISTOL. Let vultures gripe thy guts! for gourd and fullam + holds, + And high and low beguiles the rich and poor; + Tester I'll have in pouch when thou shalt lack, + Base Phrygian Turk! + NYM. I have operations in my head which be humours of + revenge. + PISTOL. Wilt thou revenge? + NYM. By welkin and her star! + PISTOL. With wit or steel? + NYM. With both the humours, I. + I will discuss the humour of this love to Page. + PISTOL. And I to Ford shall eke unfold + How Falstaff, varlet vile, + His dove will prove, his gold will hold, + And his soft couch defile. + NYM. My humour shall not cool; I will incense Page to deal + with poison; I will possess him with yellowness; for the + revolt of mine is dangerous. That is my true humour. + PISTOL. Thou art the Mars of malcontents; I second thee; + troop on. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +DOCTOR CAIUS'S house + +Enter MISTRESS QUICKLY, SIMPLE, and RUGBY + + QUICKLY. What, John Rugby! I pray thee go to the casement + and see if you can see my master, Master Doctor + Caius, coming. If he do, i' faith, and find anybody in the + house, here will be an old abusing of God's patience and + the King's English. + RUGBY. I'll go watch. + QUICKLY. Go; and we'll have a posset for't soon at night, in + faith, at the latter end of a sea-coal fire. [Exit RUGBY] An + honest, willing, kind fellow, as ever servant shall come in + house withal; and, I warrant you, no tell-tale nor no + breed-bate; his worst fault is that he is given to prayer; he is + something peevish that way; but nobody but has his fault; + but let that pass. Peter Simple you say your name is? + SIMPLE. Ay, for fault of a better. + QUICKLY. And Master Slender's your master? + SIMPLE. Ay, forsooth. + QUICKLY. Does he not wear a great round beard, like a + glover's paring-knife? + SIMPLE. No, forsooth; he hath but a little whey face, with a + little yellow beard, a Cain-colour'd beard. + QUICKLY. A softly-sprighted man, is he not? + SIMPLE. Ay, forsooth; but he is as tall a man of his hands as + any is between this and his head; he hath fought with a + warrener. + QUICKLY. How say you? O, I should remember him. Does + he not hold up his head, as it were, and strut in his gait? + SIMPLE. Yes, indeed, does he. + QUICKLY. Well, heaven send Anne Page no worse fortune! + Tell Master Parson Evans I will do what I can for your + master. Anne is a good girl, and I wish- + + Re-enter RUGBY + + RUGBY. Out, alas! here comes my master. + QUICKLY. We shall all be shent. Run in here, good young + man; go into this closet. [Shuts SIMPLE in the closet] He + will not stay long. What, John Rugby! John! what, John, + I say! Go, John, go inquire for my master; I doubt he be + not well that he comes not home. [Singing] + And down, down, adown-a, etc. + + Enter DOCTOR CAIUS + + CAIUS. Vat is you sing? I do not like des toys. Pray you, go + and vetch me in my closet un boitier vert-a box, a green-a + box. Do intend vat I speak? A green-a box. + QUICKLY. Ay, forsooth, I'll fetch it you. [Aside] I am glad + he went not in himself; if he had found the young man, + he would have been horn-mad. + CAIUS. Fe, fe, fe fe! ma foi, il fait fort chaud. Je m'en vais a + la cour-la grande affaire. + QUICKLY. Is it this, sir? + CAIUS. Oui; mette le au mon pocket: depeche, quickly. Vere + is dat knave, Rugby? + QUICKLY. What, John Rugby? John! + RUGBY. Here, sir. + CAIUS. You are John Rugby, and you are Jack Rugby. + Come, take-a your rapier, and come after my heel to the + court. + RUGBY. 'Tis ready, sir, here in the porch. + CAIUS. By my trot, I tarry too long. Od's me! Qu'ai j'oublie? + Dere is some simples in my closet dat I vill not for the + varld I shall leave behind. + QUICKLY. Ay me, he'll find the young man there, and be + mad! + CAIUS. O diable, diable! vat is in my closet? Villainy! larron! + [Pulling SIMPLE out] Rugby, my rapier! + QUICKLY. Good master, be content. + CAIUS. Wherefore shall I be content-a? + QUICKLY. The young man is an honest man. + CAIUS. What shall de honest man do in my closet? Dere is + no honest man dat shall come in my closet. + QUICKLY. I beseech you, be not so phlegmatic; hear the + truth of it. He came of an errand to me from Parson Hugh. + CAIUS. Vell? + SIMPLE. Ay, forsooth, to desire her to- + QUICKLY. Peace, I pray you. + CAIUS. Peace-a your tongue. Speak-a your tale. + SIMPLE. To desire this honest gentlewoman, your maid, to + speak a good word to Mistress Anne Page for my master, + in the way of marriage. + QUICKLY. This is all, indeed, la! but I'll ne'er put my finger + in the fire, and need not. + CAIUS. Sir Hugh send-a you? Rugby, baillez me some paper. + Tarry you a little-a-while. [Writes] + QUICKLY. [Aside to SIMPLE] I am glad he is so quiet; if he + had been throughly moved, you should have heard him + so loud and so melancholy. But notwithstanding, man, I'll + do you your master what good I can; and the very yea and + the no is, the French doctor, my master-I may call him + my master, look you, for I keep his house; and I wash, + wring, brew, bake, scour, dress meat and drink, make the + beds, and do all myself- + SIMPLE. [Aside to QUICKLY] 'Tis a great charge to come + under one body's hand. + QUICKLY. [Aside to SIMPLE] Are you avis'd o' that? You + shall find it a great charge; and to be up early and down + late; but notwithstanding-to tell you in your ear, I would + have no words of it-my master himself is in love with + Mistress Anne Page; but notwithstanding that, I know + Anne's mind-that's neither here nor there. + CAIUS. You jack'nape; give-a this letter to Sir Hugh; by gar, + it is a shallenge; I will cut his troat in de park; and I will + teach a scurvy jack-a-nape priest to meddle or make. You + may be gone; it is not good you tarry here. By gar, I will + cut all his two stones; by gar, he shall not have a stone + to throw at his dog. Exit SIMPLE + QUICKLY. Alas, he speaks but for his friend. + CAIUS. It is no matter-a ver dat. Do not you tell-a me dat I + shall have Anne Page for myself? By gar, I vill kill de Jack + priest; and I have appointed mine host of de Jarteer to + measure our weapon. By gar, I will myself have Anne + Page. + QUICKLY. Sir, the maid loves you, and all shall be well. We + must give folks leave to prate. What the good-year! + CAIUS. Rugby, come to the court with me. By gar, if I have + not Anne Page, I shall turn your head out of my door. + Follow my heels, Rugby. Exeunt CAIUS and RUGBY + QUICKLY. You shall have-An fool's-head of your own. No, + I know Anne's mind for that; never a woman in Windsor + knows more of Anne's mind than I do; nor can do more + than I do with her, I thank heaven. + FENTON. [Within] Who's within there? ho! + QUICKLY. Who's there, I trow? Come near the house, I pray + you. + + Enter FENTON + + FENTON. How now, good woman, how dost thou? + QUICKLY. The better that it pleases your good worship to + ask. + FENTON. What news? How does pretty Mistress Anne? + QUICKLY. In truth, sir, and she is pretty, and honest, and + gentle; and one that is your friend, I can tell you that by + the way; I praise heaven for it. + FENTON. Shall I do any good, think'st thou? Shall I not lose + my suit? + QUICKLY. Troth, sir, all is in His hands above; but + notwithstanding, Master Fenton, I'll be sworn on a book + she loves you. Have not your worship a wart above your eye? + FENTON. Yes, marry, have I; what of that? + QUICKLY. Well, thereby hangs a tale; good faith, it is such + another Nan; but, I detest, an honest maid as ever broke + bread. We had an hour's talk of that wart; I shall never + laugh but in that maid's company! But, indeed, she is + given too much to allicholy and musing; but for you-well, + go to. + FENTON. Well, I shall see her to-day. Hold, there's money + for thee; let me have thy voice in my behalf. If thou seest + her before me, commend me. + QUICKLY. Will I? I' faith, that we will; and I will tell your + worship more of the wart the next time we have confidence; + and of other wooers. + FENTON. Well, farewell; I am in great haste now. + QUICKLY. Farewell to your worship. [Exit FENTON] Truly, + an honest gentleman; but Anne loves him not; for I know + Anne's mind as well as another does. Out upon 't, what + have I forgot? Exit + +ACT II. SCENE 1. + +Before PAGE'S house + +Enter MISTRESS PAGE, with a letter + + MRS. PAGE. What! have I scap'd love-letters in the holiday-time + of my beauty, and am I now a subject for them? Let + me see. [Reads] + 'Ask me no reason why I love you; for though Love use + Reason for his precisian, he admits him not for his counsellor. + You are not young, no more am I; go to, then, there's + sympathy. You are merry, so am I; ha! ha! then there's + more sympathy. You love sack, and so do I; would you + desire better sympathy? Let it suffice thee, Mistress Page + at the least, if the love of soldier can suffice-that I love + thee. I will not say, Pity me: 'tis not a soldier-like phrase; + but I say, Love me. By me, + Thine own true knight, + By day or night, + Or any kind of light, + With all his might, + For thee to fight, + JOHN FALSTAFF.' + What a Herod of Jewry is this! O wicked, wicked world! + One that is well-nigh worn to pieces with age to show + himself a young gallant! What an unweighed behaviour + hath this Flemish drunkard pick'd-with the devil's name! + -out of my conversation, that he dares in this manner + assay me? Why, he hath not been thrice in my company! + What should I say to him? I was then frugal of my mirth. + Heaven forgive me! Why, I'll exhibit a bill in the parliament + for the putting down of men. How shall I be + reveng'd on him? for reveng'd I will be, as sure as his guts + are made of puddings. + + Enter MISTRESS FORD + + MRS. FORD. Mistress Page! trust me, I was going to your + house. + MRS. PAGE. And, trust me, I was coming to you. You look + very ill. + MRS. FORD. Nay, I'll ne'er believe that; I have to show to + the contrary. + MRS. PAGE. Faith, but you do, in my mind. + MRS. FORD. Well, I do, then; yet, I say, I could show you to + the contrary. O Mistress Page, give me some counsel. + MRS. PAGE. What's the matter, woman? + MRS. FORD. O woman, if it were not for one trifling respect, + I could come to such honour! + MRS. PAGE. Hang the trifle, woman; take the honour. What + is it? Dispense with trifles; what is it? + MRS. FORD. If I would but go to hell for an eternal moment + or so, I could be knighted. + MRS. PAGE. What? Thou liest. Sir Alice Ford! These knights + will hack; and so thou shouldst not alter the article of thy + gentry. + MRS. FORD. We burn daylight. Here, read, read; perceive + how I might be knighted. I shall think the worse of fat + men as long as I have an eye to make difference of men's + liking. And yet he would not swear; prais'd women's + modesty, and gave such orderly and well-behaved reproof + to all uncomeliness that I would have sworn his disposition + would have gone to the truth of his words; but they do no + more adhere and keep place together than the Hundredth + Psalm to the tune of 'Greensleeves.' What tempest, I trow, + threw this whale, with so many tuns of oil in his belly, + ashore at Windsor? How shall I be revenged on him? I + think the best way were to entertain him with hope, till + the wicked fire of lust have melted him in his own grease. + Did you ever hear the like? + MRS. PAGE. Letter for letter, but that the name of Page and + Ford differs. To thy great comfort in this mystery of ill + opinions, here's the twin-brother of thy letter; but let thine + inherit first, for, I protest, mine never shall. I warrant he + hath a thousand of these letters, writ with blank space for + different names-sure, more!-and these are of the second + edition. He will print them, out of doubt; for he cares not + what he puts into the press when he would put us two. I + had rather be a giantess and lie under Mount Pelion. Well, + I will find you twenty lascivious turtles ere one chaste + man. + MRS. FORD. Why, this is the very same; the very hand, the + very words. What doth he think of us? + MRS. PAGE. Nay, I know not; it makes me almost ready to + wrangle with mine own honesty. I'll entertain myself like + one that I am not acquainted withal; for, sure, unless he + know some strain in me that I know not myself, he would + never have boarded me in this fury. + MRS. FORD. 'Boarding' call you it? I'll be sure to keep him + above deck. + MRS. PAGE. So will I; if he come under my hatches, I'll never + to sea again. Let's be reveng'd on him; let's appoint him a + meeting, give him a show of comfort in his suit, and lead + him on with a fine-baited delay, till he hath pawn'd his + horses to mine host of the Garter. + MRS. FORD. Nay, I will consent to act any villainy against + him that may not sully the chariness of our honesty. O + that my husband saw this letter! It would give eternal food + to his jealousy. + MRS. PAGE. Why, look where he comes; and my good man + too; he's as far from jealousy as I am from giving him + cause; and that, I hope, is an unmeasurable distance. + MRS. FORD. You are the happier woman. + MRS. PAGE. Let's consult together against this greasy knight. + Come hither. [They retire] + + Enter FORD with PISTOL, and PAGE with Nym + + FORD. Well, I hope it be not so. + PISTOL. Hope is a curtal dog in some affairs. + Sir John affects thy wife. + FORD. Why, sir, my wife is not young. + PISTOL. He woos both high and low, both rich and poor, + Both young and old, one with another, Ford; + He loves the gallimaufry. Ford, perpend. + FORD. Love my wife! + PISTOL. With liver burning hot. Prevent, or go thou, + Like Sir Actaeon he, with Ringwood at thy heels. + O, odious is the name! + FORD. What name, sir? + PISTOL. The horn, I say. Farewell. + Take heed, have open eye, for thieves do foot by night; + Take heed, ere summer comes, or cuckoo birds do sing. + Away, Sir Corporal Nym. + Believe it, Page; he speaks sense. Exit PISTOL + FORD. [Aside] I will be patient; I will find out this. + NYM. [To PAGE] And this is true; I like not the humour of + lying. He hath wronged me in some humours; I should + have borne the humour'd letter to her; but I have a sword, + and it shall bite upon my necessity. He loves your wife; + there's the short and the long. + My name is Corporal Nym; I speak, and I avouch; + 'Tis true. My name is Nym, and Falstaff loves your wife. + Adieu! I love not the humour of bread and cheese; and + there's the humour of it. Adieu. Exit Nym + PAGE. 'The humour of it,' quoth 'a! Here's a fellow frights + English out of his wits. + FORD. I will seek out Falstaff. + PAGE. I never heard such a drawling, affecting rogue. + FORD. If I do find it-well. + PAGE. I will not believe such a Cataian though the priest o' + th' town commended him for a true man. + FORD. 'Twas a good sensible fellow. Well. + + MISTRESS PAGE and MISTRESS FORD come forward + + PAGE. How now, Meg! + MRS. PAGE. Whither go you, George? Hark you. + MRS. FORD. How now, sweet Frank, why art thou melancholy? + FORD. I melancholy! I am not melancholy. Get you home; + go. + MRS. FORD. Faith, thou hast some crotchets in thy head now. + Will you go, Mistress Page? + + Enter MISTRESS QUICKLY + + MRS. PAGE. Have with you. You'll come to dinner, George? + [Aside to MRS. FORD] Look who comes yonder; she shall + be our messenger to this paltry knight. + MRS. FORD. [Aside to MRS. PAGE] Trust me, I thought on + her; she'll fit it. + MRS. PAGE. You are come to see my daughter Anne? + QUICKLY. Ay, forsooth; and, I pray, how does good Mistress Anne? + MRS. PAGE. Go in with us and see; we have an hour's talk + with you. Exeunt MISTRESS PAGE, MISTRESS FORD, and + MISTRESS QUICKLY + PAGE. How now, Master Ford! + FORD. You heard what this knave told me, did you not? + PAGE. Yes; and you heard what the other told me? + FORD. Do you think there is truth in them? + PAGE. Hang 'em, slaves! I do not think the knight would offer it; + but these that accuse him in his intent towards our + wives are a yoke of his discarded men; very rogues, now + they be out of service. + FORD. Were they his men? + PAGE. Marry, were they. + FORD. I like it never the better for that. Does he lie at the + Garter? + PAGE. Ay, marry, does he. If he should intend this voyage + toward my wife, I would turn her loose to him; and what + he gets more of her than sharp words, let it lie on my head. + FORD. I do not misdoubt my wife; but I would be loath to + turn them together. A man may be too confident. I would + have nothing lie on my head. I cannot be thus satisfied. + + Enter HOST + + PAGE. Look where my ranting host of the Garter comes. + There is either liquor in his pate or money in his purse + when he looks so merrily. How now, mine host! + HOST. How now, bully rook! Thou'rt a gentleman. [To + SHALLOW following] Cavaleiro Justice, I say. + + Enter SHALLOW + + SHALLOW. I follow, mine host, I follow. Good even and + twenty, good Master Page! Master Page, will you go with + us? We have sport in hand. + HOST. Tell him, Cavaleiro Justice; tell him, bully rook. + SHALLOW. Sir, there is a fray to be fought between Sir Hugh + the Welsh priest and Caius the French doctor. + FORD. Good mine host o' th' Garter, a word with you. + HOST. What say'st thou, my bully rook? [They go aside] + SHALLOW. [To PAGE] Will you go with us to behold it? My + merry host hath had the measuring of their weapons; and, + I think, hath appointed them contrary places; for, believe + me, I hear the parson is no jester. Hark, I will tell you + what our sport shall be. [They converse apart] + HOST. Hast thou no suit against my knight, my guest-cavaleiro. + FORD. None, I protest; but I'll give you a pottle of burnt + sack to give me recourse to him, and tell him my name is + Brook-only for a jest. + HOST. My hand, bully; thou shalt have egress and regress- + said I well?-and thy name shall be Brook. It is a merry + knight. Will you go, Mynheers? + SHALLOW. Have with you, mine host. + PAGE. I have heard the Frenchman hath good skill in his + rapier. + SHALLOW. Tut, sir, I could have told you more. In these + times you stand on distance, your passes, stoccadoes, and + I know not what. 'Tis the heart, Master Page; 'tis here, + 'tis here. I have seen the time with my long sword I would + have made you four tall fellows skip like rats. + HOST. Here, boys, here, here! Shall we wag? + PAGE. Have with you. I had rather hear them scold than + fight. Exeunt all but FORD + FORD. Though Page be a secure fool, and stands so firmly on + his wife's frailty, yet I cannot put off my opinion so + easily. She was in his company at Page's house, and what + they made there I know not. Well, I will look further into + 't, and I have a disguise to sound Falstaff. If I find her + honest, I lose not my labour; if she be otherwise, 'tis labour + well bestowed. Exit + +SCENE 2. + +A room in the Garter Inn + +Enter FALSTAFF and PISTOL + + FALSTAFF. I will not lend thee a penny. + PISTOL. I will retort the sum in equipage. + FALSTAFF. Not a penny. + PISTOL. Why, then the world's mine oyster. Which I with + sword will open. + FALSTAFF. Not a penny. I have been content, sir, you should + lay my countenance to pawn. I have grated upon my good + friends for three reprieves for you and your coach-fellow, + Nym; or else you had look'd through the grate, like a + geminy of baboons. I am damn'd in hell for swearing to + gentlemen my friends you were good soldiers and tall fellows; + and when Mistress Bridget lost the handle of her fan, + I took 't upon mine honour thou hadst it not. + PISTOL. Didst not thou share? Hadst thou not fifteen pence? + FALSTAFF. Reason, you rogue, reason. Think'st thou I'll + endanger my soul gratis? At a word, hang no more about me, + I am no gibbet for you. Go-a short knife and a throng!- + to your manor of Pickt-hatch; go. You'll not bear a letter + for me, you rogue! You stand upon your honour! Why, + thou unconfinable baseness, it is as much as I can do to + keep the terms of my honour precise. I, I, I myself + sometimes, leaving the fear of God on the left hand, and hiding + mine honour in my necessity, am fain to shuffle, to hedge, + and to lurch; and yet you, rogue, will ensconce your rags, + your cat-a-mountain looks, your red-lattice phrases, and + your bold-beating oaths, under the shelter of your honour! + You will not do it, you! + PISTOL. I do relent; what would thou more of man? + + Enter ROBIN + + ROBIN. Sir, here's a woman would speak with you. + FALSTAFF. Let her approach. + + Enter MISTRESS QUICKLY + + QUICKLY. Give your worship good morrow. + FALSTAFF. Good morrow, good wife. + QUICKLY. Not so, an't please your worship. + FALSTAFF. Good maid, then. + QUICKLY. I'll be sworn; + As my mother was, the first hour I was born. + FALSTAFF. I do believe the swearer. What with me? + QUICKLY. Shall I vouchsafe your worship a word or two? + FALSTAFF. Two thousand, fair woman; and I'll vouchsafe + thee the hearing. + QUICKLY. There is one Mistress Ford, sir-I pray, come a little + nearer this ways. I myself dwell with Master Doctor + Caius. + FALSTAFF. Well, on: Mistress Ford, you say- + QUICKLY. Your worship says very true. I pray your worship + come a little nearer this ways. + FALSTAFF. I warrant thee nobody hears-mine own people, + mine own people. + QUICKLY. Are they so? God bless them, and make them his + servants! + FALSTAFF. Well; Mistress Ford, what of her? + QUICKLY. Why, sir, she's a good creature. Lord, Lord, your + worship's a wanton! Well, heaven forgive you, and all of + us, I pray. + FALSTAFF. Mistress Ford; come, Mistress Ford- + QUICKLY. Marry, this is the short and the long of it: you + have brought her into such a canaries as 'tis wonderful. + The best courtier of them all, when the court lay at Windsor, + could never have brought her to such a canary. Yet + there has been knights, and lords, and gentlemen, with + their coaches; I warrant you, coach after coach, letter after + letter, gift after gift; smelling so sweetly, all musk, and so + rushling, I warrant you, in silk and gold; and in such alligant + terms; and in such wine and sugar of the best and the + fairest, that would have won any woman's heart; and I + warrant you, they could never get an eye-wink of her. + I had myself twenty angels given me this morning; but I + defy all angels, in any such sort, as they say, but in the + way of honesty; and, I warrant you, they could never get + her so much as sip on a cup with the proudest of them all; + and yet there has been earls, nay, which is more, + pensioners; but, I warrant you, all is one with her. + FALSTAFF. But what says she to me? Be brief, my good she- + Mercury. + QUICKLY. Marry, she hath receiv'd your letter; for the + which she thanks you a thousand times; and she gives you + to notify that her husband will be absence from his house + between ten and eleven. + FALSTAFF. Ten and eleven? + QUICKLY. Ay, forsooth; and then you may come and see + the picture, she says, that you wot of. Master Ford, her + husband, will be from home. Alas, the sweet woman leads + an ill life with him! He's a very jealousy man; she leads a + very frampold life with him, good heart. + FALSTAFF. Ten and eleven. Woman, commend me to her; I + will not fail her. + QUICKLY. Why, you say well. But I have another messenger + to your worship. Mistress Page hath her hearty commendations + to you too; and let me tell you in your ear, she's as + fartuous a civil modest wife, and one, I tell you, that will + not miss you morning nor evening prayer, as any is in + Windsor, whoe'er be the other; and she bade me tell your + worship that her husband is seldom from home, but she + hopes there will come a time. I never knew a woman so + dote upon a man: surely I think you have charms, la! Yes, + in truth. + FALSTAFF. Not I, I assure thee; setting the attraction of my + good parts aside, I have no other charms. + QUICKLY. Blessing on your heart for 't! + FALSTAFF. But, I pray thee, tell me this: has Ford's wife and + Page's wife acquainted each other how they love me? + QUICKLY. That were a jest indeed! They have not so little + grace, I hope-that were a trick indeed! But Mistress Page + would desire you to send her your little page of all loves. + Her husband has a marvellous infection to the little page; + and truly Master Page is an honest man. Never a wife in + Windsor leads a better life than she does; do what she will, + say what she will, take all, pay all, go to bed when she + list, rise when she list, all is as she will; and truly she + deserves it; for if there be a kind woman in Windsor, she + is one. You must send her your page; no remedy. + FALSTAFF. Why, I will. + QUICKLY. Nay, but do so then; and, look you, he may come + and go between you both; and in any case have a + nay-word, that you may know one another's mind, and the boy + never need to understand any thing; for 'tis not good that + children should know any wickedness. Old folks, you + know, have discretion, as they say, and know the world. + FALSTAFF. Fare thee well; commend me to them both. + There's my purse; I am yet thy debtor. Boy, go along with + this woman. [Exeunt QUICKLY and ROBIN] This news + distracts me. + PISTOL. [Aside] This punk is one of Cupid's carriers; + Clap on more sails; pursue; up with your fights; + Give fire; she is my prize, or ocean whelm them all! Exit + FALSTAFF. Say'st thou so, old Jack; go thy ways; I'll make + more of thy old body than I have done. Will they yet look + after thee? Wilt thou, after the expense of so much money, + be now a gainer? Good body, I thank thee. Let them say + 'tis grossly done; so it be fairly done, no matter. + + Enter BARDOLPH + + BARDOLPH. Sir John, there's one Master Brook below would + fain speak with you, and be acquainted with you; and hath + sent your worship a moming's draught of sack. + FALSTAFF. Brook is his name? + BARDOLPH. Ay, sir. + FALSTAFF. Call him in. [Exit BARDOLPH] Such Brooks are + welcome to me, that o'erflows such liquor. Ah, ha! Mistress + Ford and Mistress Page, have I encompass'd you? Go to; + via! + + Re-enter BARDOLPH, with FORD disguised + + FORD. Bless you, sir! FALSTAFF. And you, sir! Would you speak with + me? FORD. I make bold to press with so little preparation upon you. + FALSTAFF. You're welcome. What's your will? Give us leave, drawer. + Exit BARDOLPH FORD. Sir, I am a + gentleman that have spent much; my name is Brook. FALSTAFF. Good + Master Brook, I desire more acquaintance of you. FORD. Good Sir John, + I sue for yours-not to charge you; for I must let you understand I + think myself in better plight for a lender than you are; the which + hath something embold'ned me to this unseason'd intrusion; for they + say, if money go before, all ways do lie open. FALSTAFF. Money is a + good soldier, sir, and will on. FORD. Troth, and I have a bag of + money here troubles me; if you will help to bear it, Sir John, take + all, or half, for easing me of the carriage. FALSTAFF. Sir, I know + not how I may deserve to be your porter. FORD. I will tell you, sir, + if you will give me the hearing. FALSTAFF. Speak, good Master Brook; + I shall be glad to be your servant. FORD. Sir, I hear you are a + scholar-I will be brief with you -and you have been a man long known + to me, though I had never so good means as desire to make myself + acquainted with you. I shall discover a thing to you, wherein I must + very much lay open mine own imperfection; but, good Sir John, as you + have one eye upon my follies, as you hear them unfolded, turn another + into the register of your own, that I may pass with a reproof the + easier, sith you yourself know how easy is it to be such an offender. + FALSTAFF. Very well, sir; proceed. FORD. There is a gentlewoman in + this town, her husband's name is Ford. FALSTAFF. Well, sir. FORD. I + have long lov'd her, and, I protest to you, bestowed much on her; + followed her with a doting observance; engross'd opportunities to + meet her; fee'd every slight occasion that could but niggardly give + me sight of her; not only bought many presents to give her, but have + given largely to many to know what she would have given; briefly, I + have pursu'd her as love hath pursued me; which hath been on the wing + of all occasions. But whatsoever I have merited, either in my mind or + in my means, meed, I am sure, I have received none, unless experience + be a jewel; that I have purchased at an infinite rate, and that hath + taught me to say this: 'Love like a shadow flies when substance love + pursues; Pursuing that that flies, and flying what pursues.' + FALSTAFF. Have you receiv'd no promise of satisfaction at her hands? + FORD. Never. FALSTAFF. Have you importun'd her to such a purpose? + FORD. Never. FALSTAFF. Of what quality was your love, then? FORD. + Like a fair house built on another man's ground; so that I have lost + my edifice by mistaking the place where erected it. FALSTAFF. To what + purpose have you unfolded this to me? FORD. When I have told you + that, I have told you all. Some say that though she appear honest to + me, yet in other places she enlargeth her mirth so far that there is + shrewd construction made of her. Now, Sir John, here is the heart of + my purpose: you are a gentleman of excellent breeding, admirable + discourse, of great admittance, authentic in your place and person, + generally allow'd for your many war-like, courtlike, and learned + preparations. FALSTAFF. O, sir! FORD. Believe it, for you know it. + There is money; spend it, spend it; spend more; spend all I have; + only give me so much of your time in exchange of it as to lay an + amiable siege to the honesty of this Ford's wife; use your art of + wooing, win her to consent to you; if any man may, you may as soon as + any. FALSTAFF. Would it apply well to the vehemency of your + affection, that I should win what you would enjoy? Methinks you + prescribe to yourself very preposterously. FORD. O, understand my + drift. She dwells so securely on the excellency of her honour that + the folly of my soul dares not present itself; she is too bright to + be look'd against. Now, could I come to her with any detection in my + hand, my desires had instance and argument to commend themselves; I + could drive her then from the ward of her purity, her reputation, her + marriage vow, and a thousand other her defences, which now are too + too strongly embattl'd against me. What say you to't, Sir John? + FALSTAFF. Master Brook, I will first make bold with your money; next, + give me your hand; and last, as I am a gentleman, you shall, if you + will, enjoy Ford's wife. FORD. O good sir! FALSTAFF. I say you shall. + FORD. Want no money, Sir John; you shall want none. FALSTAFF. Want no + Mistress Ford, Master Brook; you shall want none. I shall be with + her, I may tell you, by her own appointment; even as you came in to + me her assistant, or go-between, parted from me; I say I shall be + with her between ten and eleven; for at that time the jealous + rascally knave, her husband, will be forth. Come you to me at night; + you shall know how I speed. FORD. I am blest in your acquaintance. Do + you know Ford, Sir? FALSTAFF. Hang him, poor cuckoldly knave! I know + him not; yet I wrong him to call him poor; they say the jealous + wittolly knave hath masses of money; for the which his wife seems to + me well-favour'd. I will use her as the key of the cuckoldly rogue's + coffer; and there's my harvest-home. FORD. I would you knew Ford, + sir, that you might avoid him if you saw him. FALSTAFF. Hang him, + mechanical salt-butter rogue! I will stare him out of his wits; I + will awe him with my cudgel; it shall hang like a meteor o'er the + cuckold's horns. Master Brook, thou shalt know I will predominate + over the peasant, and thou shalt lie with his wife. Come to me soon + at night. Ford's a knave, and I will aggravate his style; thou, + Master Brook, shalt know him for knave and cuckold. Come to me soon + at night. Exit FORD. What a damn'd + Epicurean rascal is this! My heart is ready to crack with impatience. + Who says this is improvident jealousy? My wife hath sent to him; the + hour is fix'd; the match is made. Would any man have thought this? + See the hell of having a false woman! My bed shall be abus'd, my + coffers ransack'd, my reputation gnawn at; and I shall not only + receive this villainous wrong, but stand under the adoption of + abominable terms, and by him that does me this wrong. Terms! names! + Amaimon sounds well; Lucifer, well; Barbason, well; yet they are + devils' additions, the names of fiends. But cuckold! Wittol! Cuckold! + the devil himself hath not such a name. Page is an ass, a secure ass; + he will trust his wife; he will not be jealous; I will rather trust a + Fleming with my butter, Parson Hugh the Welshman with my cheese, an + Irishman with my aqua-vitae bottle, or a thief to walk my ambling + gelding, than my wife with herself. Then she plots, then she + ruminates, then she devises; and what they think in their hearts they + may effect, they will break their hearts but they will effect. God be + prais'd for my jealousy! Eleven o'clock the hour. I will prevent + this, detect my wife, be reveng'd on Falstaff, and laugh at Page. I + will about it; better three hours too soon than a minute too late. + Fie, fie, fie! cuckold! cuckold! cuckold! Exit + +SCENE 3. + +A field near Windsor + +Enter CAIUS and RUGBY + + CAIUS. Jack Rugby! + RUGBY. Sir? + CAIUS. Vat is de clock, Jack? + RUGBY. 'Tis past the hour, sir, that Sir Hugh promis'd to + meet. + CAIUS. By gar, he has save his soul dat he is no come; he has + pray his Pible well dat he is no come; by gar, Jack Rugby, + he is dead already, if he be come. + RUGBY. He is wise, sir; he knew your worship would kill + him if he came. + CAIUS. By gar, de herring is no dead so as I vill kill him. Take + your rapier, Jack; I vill tell you how I vill kill him. + RUGBY. Alas, sir, I cannot fence! + CAIUS. Villainy, take your rapier. + RUGBY. Forbear; here's company. + + Enter HOST, SHALLOW, SLENDER, and PAGE + + HOST. Bless thee, bully doctor! + SHALLOW. Save you, Master Doctor Caius! + PAGE. Now, good Master Doctor! + SLENDER. Give you good morrow, sir. + CAIUS. Vat be all you, one, two, tree, four, come for? + HOST. To see thee fight, to see thee foin, to see thee traverse; + to see thee here, to see thee there; to see thee pass thy + punto, thy stock, thy reverse, thy distance, thy montant. + Is he dead, my Ethiopian? Is he dead, my Francisco? Ha, + bully! What says my Aesculapius? my Galen? my heart + of elder? Ha! is he dead, bully stale? Is he dead? + CAIUS. By gar, he is de coward Jack priest of de world; he is + not show his face. + HOST. Thou art a Castalion-King-Urinal. Hector of Greece, + my boy! + CAIUS. I pray you, bear witness that me have stay six or + seven, two tree hours for him, and he is no come. + SHALLOW. He is the wiser man, Master Doctor: he is a curer + of souls, and you a curer of bodies; if you should fight, + you go against the hair of your professions. Is it not true, + Master Page? + PAGE. Master Shallow, you have yourself been a great fighter, + though now a man of peace. + SHALLOW. Bodykins, Master Page, though I now be old, and + of the peace, if I see a sword out, my finger itches to make + one. Though we are justices, and doctors, and churchmen, + Master Page, we have some salt of our youth in us; we are + the sons of women, Master Page. + PAGE. 'Tis true, Master Shallow. + SHALLOW. It will be found so, Master Page. Master Doctor + CAIUS, I come to fetch you home. I am sworn of the peace; + you have show'd yourself a wise physician, and Sir Hugh + hath shown himself a wise and patient churchman. You + must go with me, Master Doctor. + HOST. Pardon, Guest Justice. A word, Mounseur Mockwater. + CAIUS. Mock-vater! Vat is dat? + HOST. Mockwater, in our English tongue, is valour, bully. + CAIUS. By gar, then I have as much mockvater as de Englishman. + Scurvy jack-dog priest! By gar, me vill cut his ears. + HOST. He will clapper-claw thee tightly, bully. + CAIUS. Clapper-de-claw! Vat is dat? + HOST. That is, he will make thee amends. + CAIUS. By gar, me do look he shall clapper-de-claw me; for, + by gar, me vill have it. + HOST. And I will provoke him to't, or let him wag. + CAIUS. Me tank you for dat. + HOST. And, moreover, bully-but first: [Aside to the others] + Master Guest, and Master Page, and eke Cavaleiro Slender, + go you through the town to Frogmore. + PAGE. [Aside] Sir Hugh is there, is he? + HOST. [Aside] He is there. See what humour he is in; and + I will bring the doctor about by the fields. Will it do well? + SHALLOW. [Aside] We will do it. + PAGE, SHALLOW, and SLENDER. Adieu, good Master Doctor. + Exeunt PAGE, SHALLOW, and SLENDER + CAIUS. By gar, me vill kill de priest; for he speak for a jack- + an-ape to Anne Page. + HOST. Let him die. Sheathe thy impatience; throw cold water + on thy choler; go about the fields with me through Frogmore; + I will bring thee where Mistress Anne Page is, at a a + farm-house, a-feasting; and thou shalt woo her. Cried + game! Said I well? + CAIUS. By gar, me dank you vor dat; by gar, I love you; and + I shall procure-a you de good guest, de earl, de knight, de + lords, de gentlemen, my patients. + HOST. For the which I will be thy adversary toward Anne + Page. Said I well? + CAIUS. By gar, 'tis good; vell said. + HOST. Let us wag, then. + CAIUS. Come at my heels, Jack Rugby. Exeunt + +ACT III SCENE 1. + +A field near Frogmore + +Enter SIR HUGH EVANS and SIMPLE + + EVANS. I pray you now, good Master Slender's serving-man, + and friend Simple by your name, which way have you + look'd for Master Caius, that calls himself Doctor of + Physic? + SIMPLE. Marry, sir, the pittie-ward, the park-ward; every + way; old Windsor way, and every way but the town way. + EVANS. I most fehemently desire you you will also look that + way. + SIMPLE. I will, Sir. Exit + EVANS. Pless my soul, how full of chollors I am, and trempling + of mind! I shall be glad if he have deceived me. How + melancholies I am! I will knog his urinals about his knave's + costard when I have goot opportunities for the ork. Pless + my soul! [Sings] + To shallow rivers, to whose falls + Melodious birds sings madrigals; + There will we make our peds of roses, + And a thousand fragrant posies. + To shallow- + Mercy on me! I have a great dispositions to cry. [Sings] + Melodious birds sing madrigals- + Whenas I sat in Pabylon- + And a thousand vagram posies. + To shallow, etc. + + Re-enter SIMPLE + + SIMPLE. Yonder he is, coming this way, Sir Hugh. + EVANS. He's welcome. [Sings] + To shallow rivers, to whose falls- + Heaven prosper the right! What weapons is he? + SIMPLE. No weapons, sir. There comes my master, Master + Shallow, and another gentleman, from Frogmore, over the + stile, this way. + EVANS. Pray you give me my gown; or else keep it in your + arms. [Takes out a book] + + Enter PAGE, SHALLOW, and SLENDER + + SHALLOW. How now, Master Parson! Good morrow, good + Sir Hugh. Keep a gamester from the dice, and a good student + from his book, and it is wonderful. + SLENDER. [Aside] Ah, sweet Anne Page! + PAGE. Save you, good Sir Hugh! + EVANS. Pless you from his mercy sake, all of you! + SHALLOW. What, the sword and the word! Do you study + them both, Master Parson? + PAGE. And youthful still, in your doublet and hose, this raw + rheumatic day! + EVANS. There is reasons and causes for it. + PAGE. We are come to you to do a good office, Master + Parson. + EVANS. Fery well; what is it? + PAGE. Yonder is a most reverend gentleman, who, belike having + received wrong by some person, is at most odds with + his own gravity and patience that ever you saw. + SHALLOW. I have lived fourscore years and upward; I never + heard a man of his place, gravity, and learning, so wide of + his own respect. + EVANS. What is he? + PAGE. I think you know him: Master Doctor Caius, the + renowned French physician. + EVANS. Got's will and his passion of my heart! I had as lief + you would tell me of a mess of porridge. + PAGE. Why? + EVANS. He has no more knowledge in Hibocrates and + Galen, and he is a knave besides-a cowardly knave as you + would desires to be acquainted withal. + PAGE. I warrant you, he's the man should fight with him. + SLENDER. [Aside] O sweet Anne Page! + SHALLOW. It appears so, by his weapons. Keep them asunder; + here comes Doctor Caius. + + Enter HOST, CAIUS, and RUGBY + + PAGE. Nay, good Master Parson, keep in your weapon. + SHALLOW. So do you, good Master Doctor. + HOST. Disarm them, and let them question; let them keep + their limbs whole and hack our English. + CAIUS. I pray you, let-a me speak a word with your ear. + Verefore will you not meet-a me? + EVANS. [Aside to CAIUS] Pray you use your patience; in + good time. + CAIUS. By gar, you are de coward, de Jack dog, John ape. + EVANS. [Aside to CAIUS] Pray you, let us not be + laughing-stocks to other men's humours; I desire you in + friendship, and I will one way or other make you amends. + [Aloud] I will knog your urinals about your knave's cogscomb + for missing your meetings and appointments. + CAIUS. Diable! Jack Rugby-mine Host de Jarteer-have I + not stay for him to kill him? Have I not, at de place I did + appoint? + EVANS. As I am a Christians soul, now, look you, this is the + place appointed. I'll be judgment by mine host of the + Garter. + HOST. Peace, I say, Gallia and Gaul, French and Welsh, + soul-curer and body-curer. + CAIUS. Ay, dat is very good! excellent! + HOST. Peace, I say. Hear mine host of the Garter. Am I + politic? am I subtle? am I a Machiavel? Shall I lose my + doctor? No; he gives me the potions and the motions. Shall I + lose my parson, my priest, my Sir Hugh? No; he gives me + the proverbs and the noverbs. Give me thy hand, terrestrial; + so. Give me thy hand, celestial; so. Boys of art, I have + deceiv'd you both; I have directed you to wrong places; + your hearts are mighty, your skins are whole, and let burnt + sack be the issue. Come, lay their swords to pawn. Follow + me, lads of peace; follow, follow, follow. + SHALLOW. Trust me, a mad host. Follow, gentlemen, follow. + SLENDER. [Aside] O sweet Anne Page! + Exeunt all but CAIUS and EVANS + CAIUS. Ha, do I perceive dat? Have you make-a de sot of us, + ha, ha? + EVANS. This is well; he has made us his vlouting-stog. I + desire you that we may be friends; and let us knog our prains + together to be revenge on this same scall, scurvy, cogging + companion, the host of the Garter. + CAIUS. By gar, with all my heart. He promise to bring me + where is Anne Page; by gar, he deceive me too. + EVANS. Well, I will smite his noddles. Pray you follow. + Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +The street in Windsor + +Enter MISTRESS PAGE and ROBIN + + MRS. PAGE. Nay, keep your way, little gallant; you were + wont to be a follower, but now you are a leader. Whether + had you rather lead mine eyes, or eye your master's heels? + ROBIN. I had rather, forsooth, go before you like a man than + follow him like a dwarf. + MRS. PAGE. O, you are a flattering boy; now I see you'll be a + courtier. + + Enter FORD + + FORD. Well met, Mistress Page. Whither go you? + MRS. PAGE. Truly, sir, to see your wife. Is she at home? + FORD. Ay; and as idle as she may hang together, for want of + company. I think, if your husbands were dead, you two + would marry. + MRS. PAGE. Be sure of that-two other husbands. + FORD. Where had you this pretty weathercock? + MRS. PAGE. I cannot tell what the dickens his name is my + husband had him of. What do you call your knight's + name, sirrah? + ROBIN. Sir John Falstaff. + FORD. Sir John Falstaff! + MRS. PAGE. He, he; I can never hit on's name. There is such + a league between my good man and he! Is your wife at + home indeed? + FORD. Indeed she is. + MRS. PAGE. By your leave, sir. I am sick till I see her. + Exeunt MRS. PAGE and ROBIN + FORD. Has Page any brains? Hath he any eyes? Hath he any + thinking? Sure, they sleep; he hath no use of them. Why, + this boy will carry a letter twenty mile as easy as a cannon + will shoot pointblank twelve score. He pieces out his wife's + inclination; he gives her folly motion and advantage; and + now she's going to my wife, and Falstaff's boy with her. A + man may hear this show'r sing in the wind. And Falstaff's + boy with her! Good plots! They are laid; and our revolted + wives share damnation together. Well; I will take him, + then torture my wife, pluck the borrowed veil of modesty + from the so seeming Mistress Page, divulge Page himself + for a secure and wilful Actaeon; and to these violent proceedings + all my neighbours shall cry aim. [Clock strikes] + The clock gives me my cue, and my assurance bids me + search; there I shall find Falstaff. I shall be rather prais'd + for this than mock'd; for it is as positive as the earth is firm + that Falstaff is there. I will go. + + Enter PAGE, SHALLOW, SLENDER, HOST, SIR HUGH EVANS, + CAIUS, and RUGBY + + SHALLOW, PAGE, &C. Well met, Master Ford. + FORD. Trust me, a good knot; I have good cheer at home, + and I pray you all go with me. + SHALLOW. I must excuse myself, Master Ford. + SLENDER. And so must I, sir; we have appointed to dine with + Mistress Anne, and I would not break with her for more + money than I'll speak of. + SHALLOW. We have linger'd about a match between Anne + Page and my cousin Slender, and this day we shall have + our answer. + SLENDER. I hope I have your good will, father Page. + PAGE. You have, Master Slender; I stand wholly for you. But + my wife, Master Doctor, is for you altogether. + CAIUS. Ay, be-gar; and de maid is love-a me; my nursh-a + Quickly tell me so mush. + HOST. What say you to young Master Fenton? He capers, + he dances, he has eyes of youth, he writes verses, he speaks + holiday, he smells April and May; he will carry 't, he will + carry 't; 'tis in his buttons; he will carry 't. + PAGE. Not by my consent, I promise you. The gentleman is + of no having: he kept company with the wild Prince and + Poins; he is of too high a region, he knows too much. No, + he shall not knit a knot in his fortunes with the finger of + my substance; if he take her, let him take her simply; the + wealth I have waits on my consent, and my consent goes + not that way. + FORD. I beseech you, heartily, some of you go home with me + to dinner: besides your cheer, you shall have sport; I will + show you a monster. Master Doctor, you shall go; so shall + you, Master Page; and you, Sir Hugh. + SHALLOW. Well, fare you well; we shall have the freer + wooing at Master Page's. Exeunt SHALLOW and SLENDER + CAIUS. Go home, John Rugby; I come anon. Exit RUGBY + HOST. Farewell, my hearts; I will to my honest knight + Falstaff, and drink canary with him. Exit HOST + FORD. [Aside] I think I shall drink in pipe-wine first with + him. I'll make him dance. Will you go, gentles? + ALL. Have with you to see this monster. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +FORD'S house + +Enter MISTRESS FORD and MISTRESS PAGE + + MRS. FORD. What, John! what, Robert! + MRS. PAGE. Quickly, quickly! Is the buck-basket- + MRS. FORD. I warrant. What, Robin, I say! + + Enter SERVANTS with a basket + + MRS. PAGE. Come, come, come. + MRS. FORD. Here, set it down. + MRS. PAGE. Give your men the charge; we must be brief. + MRS. FORD. Marry, as I told you before, John and Robert, be + ready here hard by in the brew-house; and when I suddenly + call you, come forth, and, without any pause or + staggering, take this basket on your shoulders. That done, + trudge with it in all haste, and carry it among the whitsters + in Datchet Mead, and there empty it in the muddy ditch + close by the Thames side. + Mrs. PAGE. You will do it? + MRS. FORD. I ha' told them over and over; they lack no + direction. Be gone, and come when you are call'd. + Exeunt SERVANTS + MRS. PAGE. Here comes little Robin. + + Enter ROBIN + + MRS. FORD. How now, my eyas-musket, what news with + you? + ROBIN. My Master Sir John is come in at your back-door, + Mistress Ford, and requests your company. + MRS. PAGE. You little Jack-a-Lent, have you been true to us? + ROBIN. Ay, I'll be sworn. My master knows not of your + being here, and hath threat'ned to put me into everlasting + liberty, if I tell you of it; for he swears he'll turn me away. + MRS. PAGE. Thou 'rt a good boy; this secrecy of thine shall + be a tailor to thee, and shall make thee a new doublet and + hose. I'll go hide me. + MRS. FORD. Do so. Go tell thy master I am alone. [Exit + ROBIN] Mistress Page, remember you your cue. + MRS. PAGE. I warrant thee; if I do not act it, hiss me. + Exit MRS. PAGE + MRS. FORD. Go to, then; we'll use this unwholesome + humidity, this gross wat'ry pumpion; we'll teach him to + know turtles from jays. + + Enter FALSTAFF + + FALSTAFF. Have I caught thee, my heavenly jewel? + Why, now let me die, for I have liv'd long enough; this is + the period of my ambition. O this blessed hour! + MRS. FORD. O sweet Sir John! + FALSTAFF. Mistress Ford, I cannot cog, I cannot prate, + Mistress Ford. Now shall I sin in my wish; I would thy + husband were dead; I'll speak it before the best lord, I + would make thee my lady. + MRS. FORD. I your lady, Sir John? Alas, I should be a pitiful + lady. + FALSTAFF. Let the court of France show me such another. I + see how thine eye would emulate the diamond; thou hast + the right arched beauty of the brow that becomes the + ship-tire, the tire-valiant, or any tire of Venetian admittance. + MRS. FORD. A plain kerchief, Sir John; my brows become + nothing else, nor that well neither. + FALSTAFF. By the Lord, thou art a tyrant to say so; thou + wouldst make an absolute courtier, and the firm fixture of + thy foot would give an excellent motion to thy gait in a + semi-circled farthingale. I see what thou wert, if Fortune + thy foe were, not Nature, thy friend. Come, thou canst not + hide it. + MRS. FORD. Believe me, there's no such thing in me. + FALSTAFF. What made me love thee? Let that persuade thee + there's something extra-ordinary in thee. Come, I cannot + cog, and say thou art this and that, like a many of these + lisping hawthorn-buds that come like women in men's + apparel, and smell like Bucklersbury in simple time; I + cannot; but I love thee, none but thee; and thou deserv'st it. + MRS. FORD. Do not betray me, sir; I fear you love Mistress + Page. + FALSTAFF. Thou mightst as well say I love to walk by the + Counter-gate, which is as hateful to me as the reek of a + lime-kiln. + MRS. FORD. Well, heaven knows how I love you; and you + shall one day find it. + FALSTAFF. Keep in that mind; I'll deserve it. + MRS. FORD. Nay, I must tell you, so you do; or else I could + not be in that mind. + ROBIN. [Within] Mistress Ford, Mistress Ford! here's + Mistress Page at the door, sweating and blowing and looking + wildly, and would needs speak with you presently. + FALSTAFF. She shall not see me; I will ensconce me behind + the arras. + MRS. FORD. Pray you, do so; she's a very tattling woman. + [FALSTAFF hides himself] + + Re-enter MISTRESS PAGE and ROBIN + + What's the matter? How now! + MRS. PAGE. O Mistress Ford, what have you done? You're + sham'd, y'are overthrown, y'are undone for ever. + MRS. FORD. What's the matter, good Mistress Page? + MRS. PAGE. O well-a-day, Mistress Ford, having an honest + man to your husband, to give him such cause of suspicion! + MRS. FORD. What cause of suspicion? + MRS. PAGE. What cause of suspicion? Out upon you, how + am I mistook in you! + MRS. FORD. Why, alas, what's the matter? + MRS. PAGE. Your husband's coming hither, woman, with all + the officers in Windsor, to search for a gentleman that he + says is here now in the house, by your consent, to take an + ill advantage of his absence. You are undone. + MRS. FORD. 'Tis not so, I hope. + MRS. PAGE. Pray heaven it be not so that you have such a + man here; but 'tis most certain your husband's coming, + with half Windsor at his heels, to search for such a one. I + come before to tell you. If you know yourself clear, why, + I am glad of it; but if you have a friend here, convey, + convey him out. Be not amaz'd; call all your senses to you; + defend your reputation, or bid farewell to your good life + for ever. + MRS. FORD. What shall I do? There is a gentleman, my dear + friend; and I fear not mine own shame as much as his peril. + I had rather than a thousand pound he were out of the + house. + MRS. PAGE. For shame, never stand 'you had rather' and 'you + had rather'! Your husband's here at hand; bethink you of + some conveyance; in the house you cannot hide him. O, + how have you deceiv'd me! Look, here is a basket; if he be + of any reasonable stature, he may creep in here; and throw + foul linen upon him, as if it were going to bucking, or-it is + whiting-time-send him by your two men to Datchet + Mead. + MRS. FORD. He's too big to go in there. What shall I do? + FALSTAFF. [Coming forward] Let me see 't, let me see 't. O, + let me see 't! I'll in, I'll in; follow your friend's counsel; + I'll in. + MRS. PAGE. What, Sir John Falstaff! [Aside to FALSTAFF] + Are these your letters, knight? + FALSTAFF. [Aside to MRS. PAGE] I love thee and none but + thee; help me away.-Let me creep in here; I'll never- + [Gets into the basket; they cover him with foul linen] + MRS. PAGE. Help to cover your master, boy. Call your men, + Mistress Ford. You dissembling knight! + MRS. FORD. What, John! Robert! John! Exit ROBIN + + Re-enter SERVANTS + + Go, take up these clothes here, quickly; where's the cowl-staff? + Look how you drumble. Carry them to the laundress in Datchet Mead; + quickly, come. + + Enter FORD, PAGE, CAIUS, and SIR HUGH EVANS + + FORD. Pray you come near. If I suspect without cause, why + then make sport at me, then let me be your jest; I deserve + it. How now, whither bear you this? + SERVANT. To the laundress, forsooth. + MRS. FORD. Why, what have you to do whither they bear it? + You were best meddle with buck-washing. + FORD. Buck? I would I could wash myself of the buck! + Buck, buck, buck! ay, buck! I warrant you, buck; and of + the season too, it shall appear. [Exeunt SERVANTS with + basket] Gentlemen, I have dream'd to-night; I'll tell you my + dream. Here, here, here be my keys; ascend my chambers, + search, seek, find out. I'll warrant we'll unkennel the fox. + Let me stop this way first. [Locking the door] So, now + uncape. + PAGE. Good Master Ford, be contented; you wrong yourself + too much. + FORD. True, Master Page. Up, gentlemen, you shall see sport + anon; follow me, gentlemen. Exit + EVANS. This is fery fantastical humours and jealousies. + CAIUS. By gar, 'tis no the fashion of France; it is not jealous + in France. + PAGE. Nay, follow him, gentlemen; see the issue of his + search. Exeunt EVANS, PAGE, and CAIUS + MRS. PAGE. Is there not a double excellency in this? + MRS. FORD. I know not which pleases me better, that my + husband is deceived, or Sir John. + MRS. PAGE. What a taking was he in when your husband + ask'd who was in the basket! + MRS. FORD. I am half afraid he will have need of washing; so + throwing him into the water will do him a benefit. + MRS. PAGE. Hang him, dishonest rascal! I would all of the + same strain were in the same distress. + MRS. FORD. I think my husband hath some special suspicion + of Falstaff's being here, for I never saw him so gross in his + jealousy till now. + MRS. PAGE. I Will lay a plot to try that, and we will yet have + more tricks with Falstaff. His dissolute disease will scarce + obey this medicine. + MRS. FORD. Shall we send that foolish carrion, Mistress + Quickly, to him, and excuse his throwing into the water, + and give him another hope, to betray him to another + punishment? + MRS. PAGE. We will do it; let him be sent for to-morrow + eight o'clock, to have amends. + + Re-enter FORD, PAGE, CAIUS, and SIR HUGH EVANS + + FORD. I cannot find him; may be the knave bragg'd of that + he could not compass. + MRS. PAGE. [Aside to MRS. FORD] Heard you that? + MRS. FORD. You use me well, Master Ford, do you? + FORD. Ay, I do so. + MRS. FORD. Heaven make you better than your thoughts! + FORD. Amen. + MRS. PAGE. You do yourself mighty wrong, Master Ford. + FORD. Ay, ay; I must bear it. + EVANS. If there be any pody in the house, and in the + chambers, and in the coffers, and in the presses, heaven forgive + my sins at the day of judgment! + CAIUS. Be gar, nor I too; there is no bodies. + PAGE. Fie, fie, Master Ford, are you not asham'd? What + spirit, what devil suggests this imagination? I would not ha' + your distemper in this kind for the wealth of Windsor + Castle. + FORD. 'Tis my fault, Master Page; I suffer for it. + EVANS. You suffer for a pad conscience. Your wife is as + honest a omans as I will desires among five thousand, and five + hundred too. + CAIUS. By gar, I see 'tis an honest woman. + FORD. Well, I promis'd you a dinner. Come, come, walk in + the Park. I pray you pardon me; I will hereafter make + known to you why I have done this. Come, wife, come, + Mistress Page; I pray you pardon me; pray heartly, + pardon me. + PAGE. Let's go in, gentlemen; but, trust me, we'll mock him. + I do invite you to-morrow morning to my house to breakfast; + after, we'll a-birding together; I have a fine hawk for + the bush. Shall it be so? + FORD. Any thing. + EVANS. If there is one, I shall make two in the company. + CAIUS. If there be one or two, I shall make-a the turd. + FORD. Pray you go, Master Page. + EVANS. I pray you now, remembrance to-morrow on the + lousy knave, mine host. + CAIUS. Dat is good; by gar, with all my heart. + EVANS. A lousy knave, to have his gibes and his mockeries! + Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +Before PAGE'S house + +Enter FENTON and ANNE PAGE + + FENTON. I see I cannot get thy father's love; + Therefore no more turn me to him, sweet Nan. + ANNE. Alas, how then? + FENTON. Why, thou must be thyself. + He doth object I am too great of birth; + And that, my state being gall'd with my expense, + I seek to heal it only by his wealth. + Besides these, other bars he lays before me, + My riots past, my wild societies; + And tells me 'tis a thing impossible + I should love thee but as a property. + ANNE.. May be he tells you true. + FENTON. No, heaven so speed me in my time to come! + Albeit I will confess thy father's wealth + Was the first motive that I woo'd thee, Anne; + Yet, wooing thee, I found thee of more value + Than stamps in gold, or sums in sealed bags; + And 'tis the very riches of thyself + That now I aim at. + ANNE. Gentle Master Fenton, + Yet seek my father's love; still seek it, sir. + If opportunity and humblest suit + Cannot attain it, why then-hark you hither. + [They converse apart] + + Enter SHALLOW, SLENDER, and MISTRESS QUICKLY + + SHALLOW. Break their talk, Mistress Quickly; my kinsman + shall speak for himself. + SLENDER. I'll make a shaft or a bolt on 't; 'slid, 'tis but + venturing. + SHALLOW. Be not dismay'd. + SLENDER. No, she shall not dismay me. I care not for that, + but that I am afeard. + QUICKLY. Hark ye, Master Slender would speak a word + with you. + ANNE. I come to him. [Aside] This is my father's choice. + O, what a world of vile ill-favour'd faults + Looks handsome in three hundred pounds a year! + QUICKLY. And how does good Master Fenton? Pray you, a + word with you. + SHALLOW. She's coming; to her, coz. O boy, thou hadst a + father! + SLENDER. I had a father, Mistress Anne; my uncle can tell + you good jests of him. Pray you, uncle, tell Mistress Anne + the jest how my father stole two geese out of a pen, good + uncle. + SHALLOW. Mistress Anne, my cousin loves you. + SLENDER. Ay, that I do; as well as I love any woman in + Gloucestershire. + SHALLOW. He will maintain you like a gentlewoman. + SLENDER. Ay, that I will come cut and longtail, under the + degree of a squire. + SHALLOW. He will make you a hundred and fifty pounds + jointure. + ANNE. Good Master Shallow, let him woo for himself. + SHALLOW. Marry, I thank you for it; I thank you for that + good comfort. She calls you, coz; I'll leave you. + ANNE. Now, Master Slender- + SLENDER. Now, good Mistress Anne- + ANNE. What is your will? + SLENDER. My Will! 'Od's heartlings, that's a pretty jest + indeed! I ne'er made my will yet, I thank heaven; I am not + such a sickly creature, I give heaven praise. + ANNE. I mean, Master Slender, what would you with me? + SLENDER. Truly, for mine own part I would little or nothing + with you. Your father and my uncle hath made motions; + if it be my luck, so; if not, happy man be his dole! They + can tell you how things go better than I can. You may ask + your father; here he comes. + + Enter PAGE and MISTRESS PAGE + + PAGE. Now, Master Slender! Love him, daughter Anne- + Why, how now, what does Master Fenton here? + You wrong me, sir, thus still to haunt my house. + I told you, sir, my daughter is dispos'd of. + FENTON. Nay, Master Page, be not impatient. + MRS. PAGE. Good Master Fenton, come not to my child. + PAGE. She is no match for you. + FENTON. Sir, will you hear me? + PAGE. No, good Master Fenton. + Come, Master Shallow; come, son Slender; in. + Knowing my mind, you wrong me, Master Fenton. + Exeunt PAGE, SHALLOW, and SLENDER + QUICKLY. Speak to Mistress Page. + FENTON. Good Mistress Page, for that I love your daughter + In such a righteous fashion as I do, + Perforce, against all checks, rebukes, and manners, + I must advance the colours of my love, + And not retire. Let me have your good will. + ANNE. Good mother, do not marry me to yond fool. + MRS. PAGE. I mean it not; I seek you a better husband. + QUICKLY. That's my master, Master Doctor. + ANNE. Alas, I had rather be set quick i' th' earth. + And bowl'd to death with turnips. + MRS. PAGE. Come, trouble not yourself. Good Master + Fenton, + I will not be your friend, nor enemy; + My daughter will I question how she loves you, + And as I find her, so am I affected; + Till then, farewell, sir; she must needs go in; + Her father will be angry. + FENTON. Farewell, gentle mistress; farewell, Nan. + Exeunt MRS. PAGE and ANNE + QUICKLY. This is my doing now: 'Nay,' said I 'will you cast + away your child on a fool, and a physician? Look on + Master Fenton.' This is my doing. + FENTON. I thank thee; and I pray thee, once to-night + Give my sweet Nan this ring. There's for thy pains. + QUICKLY. Now Heaven send thee good fortune! [Exit + FENTON] A kind heart he hath; a woman would run through + fire and water for such a kind heart. But yet I would my + master had Mistress Anne; or I would Master Slender had + her; or, in sooth, I would Master Fenton had her; I will + do what I can for them all three, for so I have promis'd, + and I'll be as good as my word; but speciously for Master + Fenton. Well, I must of another errand to Sir John Falstaff + from my two mistresses. What a beast am I to slack it! + Exit + +SCENE 5. + +The Garter Inn + +Enter FALSTAFF and BARDOLPH + + FALSTAFF. Bardolph, I say! + BARDOLPH. Here, sir. + FALSTAFF. Go fetch me a quart of sack; put a toast in 't. + Exit BARDOLPH + Have I liv'd to be carried in a basket, like a barrow of + butcher's offal, and to be thrown in the Thames? Well, if + I be serv'd such another trick, I'll have my brains ta'en out + and butter'd, and give them to a dog for a new-year's gift. + The rogues slighted me into the river with as little remorse + as they would have drown'd a blind bitch's puppies, fifteen + i' th' litter; and you may know by my size that I have + a kind of alacrity in sinking; if the bottom were as deep as + hell I should down. I had been drown'd but that the shore + was shelvy and shallow-a death that I abhor; for the water + swells a man; and what a thing should I have been when + had been swell'd! I should have been a mountain of + mummy. + + Re-enter BARDOLPH, with sack + + BARDOLPH. Here's Mistress Quickly, sir, to speak with you + FALSTAFF. Come, let me pour in some sack to the Thames + water; for my belly's as cold as if I had swallow'd + snowballs for pills to cool the reins. Call her in. + BARDOLPH. Come in, woman. + + Enter MISTRESS QUICKLY + + QUICKLY. By your leave; I cry you mercy. Give your + worship good morrow. + FALSTAFF. Take away these chalices. Go, brew me a pottle + of sack finely. + BARDOLPH. With eggs, sir? + FALSTAFF. Simple of itself; I'll no pullet-sperm in my + brewage. [Exit BARDOLPH] How now! + QUICKLY. Marry, sir, I come to your worship from Mistress + Ford. + FALSTAFF. Mistress Ford! I have had ford enough; I was + thrown into the ford; I have my belly full of ford. + QUICKLY. Alas the day, good heart, that was not her fault! + She does so take on with her men; they mistook their + erection. + FALSTAFF. So did I mine, to build upon a foolish woman's + promise. + QUICKLY. Well, she laments, sir, for it, that it would yearn + your heart to see it. Her husband goes this morning + a-birding; she desires you once more to come to her between + eight and nine; I must carry her word quickly. She'll make + you amends, I warrant you. + FALSTAFF. Well, I Will visit her. Tell her so; and bid her + think what a man is. Let her consider his frailty, and then + judge of my merit. + QUICKLY. I will tell her. + FALSTAFF. Do so. Between nine and ten, say'st thou? + QUICKLY. Eight and nine, sir. + FALSTAFF. Well, be gone; I will not miss her. + QUICKLY. Peace be with you, sir. Exit + FALSTAFF. I marvel I hear not of Master Brook; he sent me + word to stay within. I like his money well. O, here he + comes. + + Enter FORD disguised + + FORD. Bless you, sir! + FALSTAFF. Now, Master Brook, you come to know what + hath pass'd between me and Ford's wife? + FORD. That, indeed, Sir John, is my business. + FALSTAFF. Master Brook, I will not lie to you; I was at her + house the hour she appointed me. + FORD. And sped you, sir? + FALSTAFF. Very ill-favouredly, Master Brook. + FORD. How so, sir; did she change her determination? + FALSTAFF. No. Master Brook; but the peaking cornuto her + husband, Master Brook, dwelling in a continual 'larum of + jealousy, comes me in the instant of our, encounter, after + we had embrac'd, kiss'd, protested, and, as it were, spoke + the prologue of our comedy; and at his heels a rabble of his + companions, thither provoked and instigated by his + distemper, and, forsooth, to search his house for his wife's + love. + FORD. What, while you were there? + FALSTAFF. While I was there. + FORD. And did he search for you, and could not find you? + FALSTAFF. You shall hear. As good luck would have it, comes + in one Mistress Page, gives intelligence of Ford's approach; + and, in her invention and Ford's wife's distraction, they + convey'd me into a buck-basket. + FORD. A buck-basket! + FALSTAFF. By the Lord, a buck-basket! Ramm'd me in with + foul shirts and smocks, socks, foul stockings, greasy + napkins, that, Master Brook, there was the rankest compound + of villainous smell that ever offended nostril. + FORD. And how long lay you there? + FALSTAFF. Nay, you shall hear, Master Brook, what I have + suffer'd to bring this woman to evil for your good. Being + thus cramm'd in the basket, a couple of Ford's knaves, his + hinds, were call'd forth by their mistress to carry me in + the name of foul clothes to Datchet Lane; they took me on + their shoulders; met the jealous knave their master in the + door; who ask'd them once or twice what they had in their + basket. I quak'd for fear lest the lunatic knave would have + search'd it; but Fate, ordaining he should be a cuckold, + held his hand. Well, on went he for a search, and away + went I for foul clothes. But mark the sequel, Master + Brook-I suffered the pangs of three several deaths: first, + an intolerable fright to be detected with a jealous rotten + bell-wether; next, to be compass'd like a good bilbo in the + circumference of a peck, hilt to point, heel to head; and + then, to be stopp'd in, like a strong distillation, with + stinking clothes that fretted in their own grease. Think of that + -a man of my kidney. Think of that-that am as subject to + heat as butter; a man of continual dissolution and thaw. It + was a miracle to scape suffocation. And in the height of + this bath, when I was more than half-stew'd in grease, like + a Dutch dish, to be thrown into the Thames, and cool'd, + glowing hot, in that surge, like a horse-shoe; think of that + -hissing hot. Think of that, Master Brook. + FORD. In good sadness, sir, I am sorry that for my sake you + have suffer'd all this. My suit, then, is desperate; + you'll undertake her no more. + FALSTAFF. Master Brook, I will be thrown into Etna, as I + have been into Thames, ere I will leave her thus. Her + husband is this morning gone a-birding; I have received from + her another embassy of meeting; 'twixt eight and nine is + the hour, Master Brook. + FORD. 'Tis past eight already, sir. + FALSTAFF. Is it? I Will then address me to my appointment. + Come to me at your convenient leisure, and you shall + know how I speed; and the conclusion shall be crowned + with your enjoying her. Adieu. You shall have her, Master + Brook; Master Brook, you shall cuckold Ford. Exit + FORD. Hum! ha! Is this a vision? Is this a dream? Do I sleep? + Master Ford, awake; awake, Master Ford. There's a hole + made in your best coat, Master Ford. This 'tis to be + married; this 'tis to have linen and buck-baskets! Well, I will + proclaim myself what I am; I will now take the lecher; he + is at my house. He cannot scape me; 'tis impossible he + should; he cannot creep into a halfpenny purse nor into + a pepper box. But, lest the devil that guides him should aid + him, I will search impossible places. Though what I am I + cannot avoid, yet to be what I would not shall not make + me tame. If I have horns to make one mad, let the proverb + go with me-I'll be horn mad. Exit + +ACT IV. SCENE I. + +Windsor. A street + +Enter MISTRESS PAGE, MISTRESS QUICKLY, and WILLIAM + + MRS. PAGE. Is he at Master Ford's already, think'st thou? + QUICKLY. Sure he is by this; or will be presently; but truly + he is very courageous mad about his throwing into the + water. Mistress Ford desires you to come suddenly. + MRS. PAGE. I'll be with her by and by; I'll but bring my + young man here to school. Look where his master comes; + 'tis a playing day, I see. + + Enter SIR HUGH EVANS + + How now, Sir Hugh, no school to-day? + EVANS. No; Master Slender is let the boys leave to play. + QUICKLY. Blessing of his heart! + MRS. PAGE. Sir Hugh, my husband says my son profits + nothing in the world at his book; I pray you ask him some + questions in his accidence. + EVANS. Come hither, William; hold up your head; come. + MRS. PAGE. Come on, sirrah; hold up your head; answer your + master; be not afraid. + EVANS. William, how many numbers is in nouns? + WILLIAM. Two. + QUICKLY. Truly, I thought there had been one number + more, because they say 'Od's nouns.' + EVANS. Peace your tattlings. What is 'fair,' William? + WILLIAM. Pulcher. + QUICKLY. Polecats! There are fairer things than polecats, + sure. + EVANS. You are a very simplicity oman; I pray you, peace. + What is 'lapis,' William? + WILLIAM. A stone. + EVANS. And what is 'a stone,' William? + WILLIAM. A pebble. + EVANS. No, it is 'lapis'; I pray you remember in your prain. + WILLIAM. Lapis. + EVANS. That is a good William. What is he, William, that + does lend articles? + WILLIAM. Articles are borrowed of the pronoun, and be + thus declined: Singulariter, nominativo; hic, haec, hoc. + EVANS. Nominativo, hig, hag, hog; pray you, mark: genitivo, + hujus. Well, what is your accusative case? + WILLIAM. Accusativo, hinc. + EVANS. I pray you, have your remembrance, child. + Accusativo, hung, hang, hog. + QUICKLY. 'Hang-hog' is Latin for bacon, I warrant you. + EVANS. Leave your prabbles, oman. What is the focative + case, William? + WILLIAM. O-vocativo, O. + EVANS. Remember, William: focative is caret. + QUICKLY. And that's a good root. + EVANS. Oman, forbear. + MRS. PAGE. Peace. + EVANS. What is your genitive case plural, William? + WILLIAM. Genitive case? + EVANS. Ay. + WILLIAM. Genitive: horum, harum, horum. + QUICKLY. Vengeance of Jenny's case; fie on her! Never + name her, child, if she be a whore. + EVANS. For shame, oman. + QUICKLY. YOU do ill to teach the child such words. He + teaches him to hick and to hack, which they'll do fast + enough of themselves; and to call 'horum'; fie upon you! + EVANS. Oman, art thou lunatics? Hast thou no understandings + for thy cases, and the numbers of the genders? Thou + art as foolish Christian creatures as I would desires. + MRS. PAGE. Prithee hold thy peace. + EVANS. Show me now, William, some declensions of your + pronouns. + WILLIAM. Forsooth, I have forgot. + EVANS. It is qui, quae, quod; if you forget your qui's, your + quae's, and your quod's, you must be preeches. Go your + ways and play; go. + MRS. PAGE. He is a better scholar than I thought he was. + EVANS. He is a good sprag memory. Farewell, Mistress Page. + MRS. PAGE. Adieu, good Sir Hugh. Exit SIR HUGH + Get you home, boy. Come, we stay too long. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +FORD'S house + +Enter FALSTAFF and MISTRESS FORD + + FALSTAFF. Mistress Ford, your sorrow hath eaten up my + sufferance. I see you are obsequious in your love, and I + profess requital to a hair's breadth; not only, Mistress Ford, in + the simple office of love, but in all the accoutrement, + complement, and ceremony of it. But are you sure of your + husband now? + MRS. FORD. He's a-birding, sweet Sir John. + MRS. PAGE. [Within] What hoa, gossip Ford, what hoa! + MRS. FORD. Step into th' chamber, Sir John. Exit FALSTAFF + + Enter MISTRESS PAGE + + MRS. PAGE. How now, sweetheart, who's at home besides + yourself? + MRS. FORD. Why, none but mine own people. + MRS. PAGE. Indeed? + MRS. FORD. No, certainly. [Aside to her] Speak louder. + MRS. PAGE. Truly, I am so glad you have nobody here. + MRS. FORD. Why? + MRS. PAGE. Why, woman, your husband is in his old lunes + again. He so takes on yonder with my husband; so rails + against all married mankind; so curses an Eve's daughters, + of what complexion soever; and so buffets himself on the + forehead, crying 'Peer-out, peer-out!' that any madness I + ever yet beheld seem'd but tameness, civility, and patience, + to this his distemper he is in now. I am glad the fat knight + is not here. + MRS. FORD. Why, does he talk of him? + MRS. PAGE. Of none but him; and swears he was carried out, + the last time he search'd for him, in a basket; protests to + my husband he is now here; and hath drawn him and the + rest of their company from their sport, to make another + experiment of his suspicion. But I am glad the knight is not + here; now he shall see his own foolery. + MRS. FORD. How near is he, Mistress Page? + MRS. PAGE. Hard by, at street end; he will be here anon. + MRS. FORD. I am undone: the knight is here. + MRS. PAGE. Why, then, you are utterly sham'd, and he's but + a dead man. What a woman are you! Away with him, + away with him; better shame than murder. + MRS. FORD. Which way should he go? How should I bestow + him? Shall I put him into the basket again? + + Re-enter FALSTAFF + + FALSTAFF. No, I'll come no more i' th' basket. May I not go + out ere he come? + MRS. PAGE. Alas, three of Master Ford's brothers watch the + door with pistols, that none shall issue out; otherwise you + might slip away ere he came. But what make you here? + FALSTAFF. What shall I do? I'll creep up into the chimney. + MRS. FORD. There they always use to discharge their + birding-pieces. + MRS. PAGE. Creep into the kiln-hole. + FALSTAFF. Where is it? + MRS. FORD. He will seek there, on my word. Neither press, + coffer, chest, trunk, well, vault, but he hath an abstract for + the remembrance of such places, and goes to them by his + note. There is no hiding you in the house. + FALSTAFF. I'll go out then. + MRS. PAGE. If you go out in your own semblance, you die, + Sir John. Unless you go out disguis'd. + MRS. FORD. How might we disguise him? + MRS. PAGE. Alas the day, I know not! There is no woman's + gown big enough for him; otherwise he might put on a + hat, a muffler, and a kerchief, and so escape. + FALSTAFF. Good hearts, devise something; any extremity + rather than a mischief. + MRS. FORD. My Maid's aunt, the fat woman of Brainford, has + a gown above. + MRS. PAGE. On my word, it will serve him; she's as big as he + is; and there's her thrumm'd hat, and her muffler too. Run + up, Sir John. + MRS. FORD. Go, go, sweet Sir John. Mistress Page and I will + look some linen for your head. + MRS. PAGE. Quick, quick; we'll come dress you straight. Put + on the gown the while. Exit FALSTAFF + MRS. FORD. I would my husband would meet him in this + shape; he cannot abide the old woman of Brainford; he + swears she's a witch, forbade her my house, and hath + threat'ned to beat her. + MRS. PAGE. Heaven guide him to thy husband's cudgel; and + the devil guide his cudgel afterwards! + MRS. FORD. But is my husband coming? + MRS. PAGE. Ay, in good sadness is he; and talks of the basket + too, howsoever he hath had intelligence. + MRS. FORD. We'll try that; for I'll appoint my men to carry + the basket again, to meet him at the door with it as they + did last time. + MRS. PAGE. Nay, but he'll be here presently; let's go dress + him like the witch of Brainford. + MRS. FORD. I'll first direct my men what they shall do with + the basket. Go up; I'll bring linen for him straight. Exit + MRS. PAGE. Hang him, dishonest varlet! we cannot misuse + him enough. + We'll leave a proof, by that which we will do, + Wives may be merry and yet honest too. + We do not act that often jest and laugh; + 'Tis old but true: Still swine eats all the draff. Exit + + Re-enter MISTRESS FORD, with two SERVANTS + + MRS. FORD. Go, sirs, take the basket again on your shoulders; + your master is hard at door; if he bid you set it down, obey + him; quickly, dispatch. Exit + FIRST SERVANT. Come, come, take it up. + SECOND SERVANT. Pray heaven it be not full of knight again. + FIRST SERVANT. I hope not; I had lief as bear so much lead. + + Enter FORD, PAGE, SHALLOW, CAIUS, and SIR HUGH EVANS + + FORD. Ay, but if it prove true, Master Page, have you any + way then to unfool me again? Set down the basket, villain! + Somebody call my wife. Youth in a basket! O you panderly + rascals, there's a knot, a ging, a pack, a conspiracy + against me. Now shall the devil be sham'd. What, wife, I + say! Come, come forth; behold what honest clothes you + send forth to bleaching. + PAGE. Why, this passes, Master Ford; you are not to go loose + any longer; you must be pinion'd. + EVANS. Why, this is lunatics. This is mad as a mad dog. + SHALLOW. Indeed, Master Ford, this is not well, indeed. + FORD. So say I too, sir. + + Re-enter MISTRESS FORD + + Come hither, Mistress Ford; Mistress Ford, the honest + woman, the modest wife, the virtuous creature, that hath + the jealous fool to her husband! I suspect without cause, + Mistress, do I? + MRS. FORD. Heaven be my witness, you do, if you suspect + me in any dishonesty. + FORD. Well said, brazen-face; hold it out. Come forth, sirrah. + [Pulling clothes out of the basket] + PAGE. This passes! + MRS. FORD. Are you not asham'd? Let the clothes alone. + FORD. I shall find you anon. + EVANS. 'Tis unreasonable. Will you take up your wife's + clothes? Come away. + FORD. Empty the basket, I say. + MRS. FORD. Why, man, why? + FORD. Master Page, as I am a man, there was one convey'd + out of my house yesterday in this basket. Why may not + he be there again? In my house I am sure he is; my + intelligence is true; my jealousy is reasonable. + Pluck me out all the linen. + MRS. FORD. If you find a man there, he shall die a flea's + death. + PAGE. Here's no man. + SHALLOW. By my fidelity, this is not well, Master Ford; this + wrongs you. + EVANS. Master Ford, you must pray, and not follow the + imaginations of your own heart; this is jealousies. + FORD. Well, he's not here I seek for. + PAGE. No, nor nowhere else but in your brain. + FORD. Help to search my house this one time. If I find not + what I seek, show no colour for my extremity; let me for + ever be your table sport; let them say of me 'As jealous as + Ford, that search'd a hollow walnut for his wife's leman.' + Satisfy me once more; once more search with me. + MRS. FORD. What, hoa, Mistress Page! Come you and the old + woman down; my husband will come into the chamber. + FORD. Old woman? what old woman's that? + MRS. FORD. Why, it is my maid's aunt of Brainford. + FORD. A witch, a quean, an old cozening quean! Have I not + forbid her my house? She comes of errands, does she? We + are simple men; we do not know what's brought to pass + under the profession of fortune-telling. She works by + charms, by spells, by th' figure, and such daub'ry as this + is, beyond our element. We know nothing. Come down, you + witch, you hag you; come down, I say. + MRS. FORD. Nay, good sweet husband! Good gentlemen, let + him not strike the old woman. + + Re-enter FALSTAFF in woman's clothes, and MISTRESS PAGE + + MRS. PAGE. Come, Mother Prat; come. give me your hand. + FORD. I'll prat her. [Beating him] Out of my door, you + witch, you hag, you. baggage, you polecat, you ronyon! + Out, out! I'll conjure you, I'll fortune-tell you. + Exit FALSTAFF + MRS. PAGE. Are you not asham'd? I think you have kill'd the + poor woman. + MRS. FORD. Nay, he will do it. 'Tis a goodly credit for you. + FORD. Hang her, witch! + EVANS. By yea and no, I think the oman is a witch indeed; I + like not when a oman has a great peard; I spy a great peard + under his muffler. + FORD. Will you follow, gentlemen? I beseech you follow; + see but the issue of my jealousy; if I cry out thus upon no + trail, never trust me when I open again. + PAGE. Let's obey his humour a little further. Come, + gentlemen. Exeunt all but MRS. FORD and MRS. PAGE + MRS. PAGE. Trust me, he beat him most pitifully. + MRS. FORD. Nay, by th' mass, that he did not; he beat him + most unpitifully methought. + MRS. PAGE. I'll have the cudgel hallow'd and hung o'er the + altar; it hath done meritorious service. + MRS. FORD. What think you? May we, with the warrant of + womanhood and the witness of a good conscience, pursue + him with any further revenge? + MRS. PAGE. The spirit of wantonness is sure scar'd out of + him; if the devil have him not in fee-simple, with fine and + recovery, he will never, I think, in the way of waste, + attempt us again. + MRS. FORD. Shall we tell our husbands how we have serv'd + him? + MRS. PAGE. Yes, by all means; if it be but to scrape the + figures out of your husband's brains. If they can find in their + hearts the poor unvirtuous fat knight shall be any further + afflicted, we two will still be the ministers. + MRS. FORD. I'll warrant they'll have him publicly sham'd; + and methinks there would be no period to the jest, should + he not be publicly sham'd. + MRS. PAGE. Come, to the forge with it then; shape it. I + would not have things cool. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +The Garter Inn + +Enter HOST and BARDOLPH + + BARDOLPH. Sir, the Germans desire to have three of your + horses; the Duke himself will be to-morrow at court, and + they are going to meet him. + HOST. What duke should that be comes so secretly? I hear + not of him in the court. Let me speak with the gentlemen; + they speak English? + BARDOLPH. Ay, sir; I'll call them to you. + HOST. They shall have my horses, but I'll make them pay; + I'll sauce them; they have had my house a week at + command; I have turn'd away my other guests. They must + come off; I'll sauce them. Come. Exeunt + +SCENE 4 + +FORD'S house + +Enter PAGE, FORD, MISTRESS PAGE, MISTRESS FORD, and SIR HUGH EVANS + + EVANS. 'Tis one of the best discretions of a oman as ever + did look upon. + PAGE. And did he send you both these letters at an instant? + MRS. PAGE. Within a quarter of an hour. + FORD. Pardon me, wife. Henceforth, do what thou wilt; + I rather will suspect the sun with cold + Than thee with wantonness. Now doth thy honour stand, + In him that was of late an heretic, + As firm as faith. + PAGE. 'Tis well, 'tis well; no more. + Be not as extreme in submission as in offence; + But let our plot go forward. Let our wives + Yet once again, to make us public sport, + Appoint a meeting with this old fat fellow, + Where we may take him and disgrace him for it. + FORD. There is no better way than that they spoke of. + PAGE. How? To send him word they'll meet him in the Park + at midnight? Fie, fie! he'll never come! + EVANS. You say he has been thrown in the rivers; and has + been grievously peaten as an old oman; methinks there + should be terrors in him, that he should not come; + methinks his flesh is punish'd; he shall have no desires. + PAGE. So think I too. + MRS. FORD. Devise but how you'll use him when he comes, + And let us two devise to bring him thither. + MRS. PAGE. There is an old tale goes that Heme the Hunter, + Sometime a keeper here in Windsor Forest, + Doth all the winter-time, at still midnight, + Walk round about an oak, with great ragg'd horns; + And there he blasts the tree, and takes the cattle, + And makes milch-kine yield blood, and shakes a chain + In a most hideous and dreadful manner. + You have heard of such a spirit, and well you know + The superstitious idle-headed eld + Receiv'd, and did deliver to our age, + This tale of Heme the Hunter for a truth. + PAGE. Why yet there want not many that do fear + In deep of night to walk by this Herne's oak. + But what of this? + MRS. FORD. Marry, this is our device- + That Falstaff at that oak shall meet with us, + Disguis'd, like Heme, with huge horns on his head. + PAGE. Well, let it not be doubted but he'll come, + And in this shape. When you have brought him thither, + What shall be done with him? What is your plot? + MRS. PAGE. That likewise have we thought upon, and + thus: + Nan Page my daughter, and my little son, + And three or four more of their growth, we'll dress + Like urchins, ouphes, and fairies, green and white, + With rounds of waxen tapers on their heads, + And rattles in their hands; upon a sudden, + As Falstaff, she, and I, are newly met, + Let them from forth a sawpit rush at once + With some diffused song; upon their sight + We two in great amazedness will fly. + Then let them all encircle him about, + And fairy-like, to pinch the unclean knight; + And ask him why, that hour of fairy revel, + In their so sacred paths he dares to tread + In shape profane. + MRS. FORD. And till he tell the truth, + Let the supposed fairies pinch him sound, + And burn him with their tapers. + MRS. PAGE. The truth being known, + We'll all present ourselves; dis-horn the spirit, + And mock him home to Windsor. + FORD. The children must + Be practis'd well to this or they'll nev'r do 't. + EVANS. I will teach the children their behaviours; and I will + be like a jack-an-apes also, to burn the knight with my + taber. + FORD. That will be excellent. I'll go buy them vizards. + MRS. PAGE. My Nan shall be the Queen of all the Fairies, + Finely attired in a robe of white. + PAGE. That silk will I go buy. [Aside] And in that time + Shall Master Slender steal my Nan away, + And marry her at Eton.-Go, send to Falstaff straight. + FORD. Nay, I'll to him again, in name of Brook; + He'll tell me all his purpose. Sure, he'll come. + MRS. PAGE. Fear not you that. Go get us properties + And tricking for our fairies. + EVANS. Let us about it. It is admirable pleasures, and fery + honest knaveries. Exeunt PAGE, FORD, and EVANS + MRS. PAGE. Go, Mistress Ford. + Send Quickly to Sir John to know his mind. + Exit MRS. FORD + I'll to the Doctor; he hath my good will, + And none but he, to marry with Nan Page. + That Slender, though well landed, is an idiot; + And he my husband best of all affects. + The Doctor is well money'd, and his friends + Potent at court; he, none but he, shall have her, + Though twenty thousand worthier come to crave her. Exit + +SCENE 5. + +The Garter Inn + +Enter HOST and SIMPLE + + HOST. What wouldst thou have, boor? What, thick-skin? + Speak, breathe, discuss; brief, short, quick, snap. + SIMPLE. Marry, sir, I come to speak with Sir John Falstaff + from Master Slender. + HOST. There's his chamber, his house, his castle, his + standing-bed and truckle-bed; 'tis painted about with the + story of the Prodigal, fresh and new. Go, knock and can; he'll + speak like an Anthropophaginian unto thee. Knock, I say. + SIMPLE. There's an old woman, a fat woman, gone up into + his chamber; I'll be so bold as stay, sir, till she come down; + I come to speak with her, indeed. + HOST. Ha! a fat woman? The knight may be robb'd. I'll call. + Bully knight! Bully Sir John! Speak from thy lungs + military. Art thou there? It is thine host, thine Ephesian, calls. + FALSTAFF. [Above] How now, mine host? + HOST. Here's a Bohemian-Tartar tarries the coming down of + thy fat woman. Let her descend, bully, let her descend; + my chambers are honourible. Fie, privacy, fie! + + Enter FALSTAFF + + FALSTAFF. There was, mine host, an old fat woman even + now with, me; but she's gone. + SIMPLE. Pray you, sir, was't not the wise woman of + Brainford? + FALSTAFF. Ay, marry was it, mussel-shell. What would you + with her? + SIMPLE. My master, sir, my Master Slender, sent to her, + seeing her go thorough the streets, to know, sir, whether one + Nym, sir, that beguil'd him of a chain, had the chain or no. + FALSTAFF. I spake with the old woman about it. + SIMPLE. And what says she, I pray, sir? + FALSTAFF Marry, she says that the very same man that + beguil'd Master Slender of his chain cozen'd him of it. + SIMPLE. I would I could have spoken with the woman + herself; I had other things to have spoken with her too, + from him. + FALSTAFF. What are they? Let us know. + HOST. Ay, come; quick. + SIMPLE. I may not conceal them, sir. + FALSTAFF. Conceal them, or thou diest. + SIMPLE.. Why, sir, they were nothing but about Mistress + Anne Page: to know if it were my master's fortune to + have her or no. + FALSTAFF. 'Tis, 'tis his fortune. + SIMPLE. What sir? + FALSTAFF. To have her, or no. Go; say the woman told me + so. + SIMPLE. May I be bold to say so, sir? + FALSTAFF. Ay, sir, like who more bold? + SIMPLE., I thank your worship; I shall make my master glad + with these tidings. Exit SIMPLE + HOST. Thou art clerkly, thou art clerkly, Sir John. Was + there a wise woman with thee? + FALSTAFF. Ay, that there was, mine host; one that hath + taught me more wit than ever I learn'd before in my life; + and I paid nothing for it neither, but was paid for my + learning. + + Enter BARDOLPH + + BARDOLPH. Out, alas, sir, cozenage, mere cozenage! + HOST. Where be my horses? Speak well of them, varletto. + BARDOLPH. Run away with the cozeners; for so soon as I + came beyond Eton, they threw me off from behind one of + them, in a slough of mire; and set spurs and away, like + three German devils, three Doctor Faustuses. + HOST. They are gone but to meet the Duke, villain; do not + say they be fled. Germans are honest men. + + Enter SIR HUGH EVANS + + EVANS. Where is mine host? + HOST. What is the matter, sir? + EVANS. Have a care of your entertainments. There is a friend + of mine come to town tells me there is three + cozen-germans that has cozen'd all the hosts of Readins, + of Maidenhead, of Colebrook, of horses and money. I tell you for + good will, look you; you are wise, and full of gibes and + vlouting-stogs, and 'tis not convenient you should be + cozened. Fare you well. Exit + + Enter DOCTOR CAIUS + + CAIUS. Vere is mine host de Jarteer? + HOST. Here, Master Doctor, in perplexity and doubtful + dilemma. + CAIUS. I cannot tell vat is dat; but it is tell-a me dat you + make grand preparation for a Duke de Jamany. By my + trot, dere is no duke that the court is know to come; I + tell you for good will. Adieu. Exit + HOST. Hue and cry, villain, go! Assist me, knight; I am + undone. Fly, run, hue and cry, villain; I am undone. + Exeunt HOST and BARDOLPH + FALSTAFF. I would all the world might be cozen'd, for I have + been cozen'd and beaten too. If it should come to the car + of the court how I have been transformed, and how my + transformation hath been wash'd and cudgell'd, they + would melt me out of my fat, drop by drop, and liquor + fishermen's boots with me; I warrant they would whip me + with their fine wits till I were as crestfall'n as a dried pear. + I never prosper'd since I forswore myself at primero. Well, + if my wind were but long enough to say my prayers, + would repent. + + Enter MISTRESS QUICKLY + + Now! whence come you? + QUICKLY. From the two parties, forsooth. + FALSTAFF. The devil take one party and his dam the other! + And so they shall be both bestowed. I have suffer'd more + for their sakes, more than the villainous inconstancy of + man's disposition is able to bear. + QUICKLY. And have not they suffer'd? Yes, I warrant; + speciously one of them; Mistress Ford, good heart, is beaten + black and blue, that you cannot see a white spot about her. + FALSTAFF. What tell'st thou me of black and blue? I was + beaten myself into all the colours of the rainbow; and + was like to be apprehended for the witch of Brainford. But + that my admirable dexterity of wit, my counterfeiting the + action of an old woman, deliver'd me, the knave constable + had set me i' th' stocks, i' th' common stocks, for a witch. + QUICKLY. Sir, let me speak with you in your chamber; you + shall hear how things go, and, I warrant, to your content. + Here is a letter will say somewhat. Good hearts, what ado + here is to bring you together! Sure, one of you does not + serve heaven well, that you are so cross'd. + FALSTAFF. Come up into my chamber. Exeunt + +SCENE 6. + +The Garter Inn + +Enter FENTON and HOST + + HOST. Master Fenton, talk not to me; my mind is heavy; I + will give over all. + FENTON. Yet hear me speak. Assist me in my purpose, + And, as I am a gentleman, I'll give the + A hundred pound in gold more than your loss. + HOST. I will hear you, Master Fenton; and I will, at the least, + keep your counsel. + FENTON. From time to time I have acquainted you + With the dear love I bear to fair Anne Page; + Who, mutually, hath answer'd my affection, + So far forth as herself might be her chooser, + Even to my wish. I have a letter from her + Of such contents as you will wonder at; + The mirth whereof so larded with my matter + That neither, singly, can be manifested + Without the show of both. Fat Falstaff + Hath a great scene. The image of the jest + I'll show you here at large. Hark, good mine host: + To-night at Heme's oak, just 'twixt twelve and one, + Must my sweet Nan present the Fairy Queen- + The purpose why is here-in which disguise, + While other jests are something rank on foot, + Her father hath commanded her to slip + Away with Slender, and with him at Eton + Immediately to marry; she hath consented. + Now, sir, + Her mother, even strong against that match + And firm for Doctor Caius, hath appointed + That he shall likewise shuffle her away + While other sports are tasking of their minds, + And at the dean'ry, where a priest attends, + Straight marry her. To this her mother's plot + She seemingly obedient likewise hath + Made promise to the doctor. Now thus it rests: + Her father means she shall be all in white; + And in that habit, when Slender sees his time + To take her by the hand and bid her go, + She shall go with him; her mother hath intended + The better to denote her to the doctor- + For they must all be mask'd and vizarded- + That quaint in green she shall be loose enrob'd, + With ribands pendent, flaring 'bout her head; + And when the doctor spies his vantage ripe, + To pinch her by the hand, and, on that token, + The maid hath given consent to go with him. + HOST. Which means she to deceive, father or mother? + FENTON. Both, my good host, to go along with me. + And here it rests-that you'll procure the vicar + To stay for me at church, 'twixt twelve and one, + And in the lawful name of marrying, + To give our hearts united ceremony. + HOST. Well, husband your device; I'll to the vicar. + Bring you the maid, you shall not lack a priest. + FENTON. So shall I evermore be bound to thee; + Besides, I'll make a present recompense. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 1. + +The Garter Inn + +Enter FALSTAFF and MISTRESS QUICKLY + + FALSTAFF. Prithee, no more prattling; go. I'll, hold. This is + the third time; I hope good luck lies in odd numbers. + Away, go; they say there is divinity in odd numbers, either + in nativity, chance, or death. Away. + QUICKLY. I'll provide you a chain, and I'll do what I can to + get you a pair of horns. + FALSTAFF. Away, I say; time wears; hold up your head, and + mince. Exit MRS. QUICKLY + + Enter FORD disguised + + How now, Master Brook. Master Brook, the matter will + be known tonight or never. Be you in the Park about + midnight, at Herne's oak, and you shall see wonders. + FORD. Went you not to her yesterday, sir, as you told me + you had appointed? + FALSTAFF. I went to her, Master Brook, as you see, like a + poor old man; but I came from her, Master Brook, like a + poor old woman. That same knave Ford, her husband, hath + the finest mad devil of jealousy in him, Master Brook, that + ever govern'd frenzy. I will tell you-he beat me grievously + in the shape of a woman; for in the shape of man, Master + Brook, I fear not Goliath with a weaver's beam; because + I know also life is a shuttle. I am in haste; go along with + me; I'll. tell you all, Master Brook. Since I pluck'd geese, + play'd truant, and whipp'd top, I knew not what 'twas to + be beaten till lately. Follow me. I'll tell you strange things + of this knave-Ford, on whom to-night I will be revenged, + and I will deliver his wife into your hand. Follow. Strange + things in hand, Master Brook! Follow. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +Windsor Park + +Enter PAGE, SHALLOW, and SLENDER + + PAGE. Come, come; we'll couch i' th' Castle ditch till we + see the light of our fairies. Remember, son Slender, my daughter. + SLENDER. Ay, forsooth; I have spoke with her, and we have + a nay-word how to know one another. I come to her in + white and cry 'mum'; she cries 'budget,' and by that we + know one another. + SHALLOW. That's good too; but what needs either your mum + or her budget? The white will decipher her well enough. + It hath struck ten o'clock. + PAGE. The night is dark; light and spirits will become it well. + Heaven prosper our sport! No man means evil but the + devil, and we shall know him by his horns. Let's away; + follow me. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +A street leading to the Park + +Enter MISTRESS PAGE, MISTRESS FORD, and DOCTOR CAIUS + + MRS. PAGE. Master Doctor, my daughter is in green; when + you see your time, take her by the hand, away with her to + the deanery, and dispatch it quickly. Go before into the + Park; we two must go together. + CAIUS. I know vat I have to do; adieu. + MRS. PAGE. Fare you well, sir. [Exit CAIUS] My husband + will not rejoice so much at the abuse of Falstaff as he will + chafe at the doctor's marrying my daughter; but 'tis no + matter; better a little chiding than a great deal of + heartbreak. + MRS. FORD. Where is Nan now, and her troop of fairies, and + the Welsh devil, Hugh? + MRS. PAGE. They are all couch'd in a pit hard by Heme's + oak, with obscur'd lights; which, at the very instant of + Falstaff's and our meeting, they will at once display to the + night. + MRS. FORD. That cannot choose but amaze him. + MRS. PAGE. If he be not amaz'd, he will be mock'd; if he be + amaz'd, he will every way be mock'd. + MRS. FORD. We'll betray him finely. + MRS. PAGE. Against such lewdsters and their lechery, + Those that betray them do no treachery. + MRS. FORD. The hour draws on. To the oak, to the oak! + Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +Windsor Park + +Enter SIR HUGH EVANS like a satyr, with OTHERS as fairies + + EVANS. Trib, trib, fairies; come; and remember your parts. Be pold, I + pray you; follow me into the pit; and when I give the watch-ords, do + as I pid you. Come, come; trib, trib. + Exeunt + +SCENE 5. + +Another part of the Park + +Enter FALSTAFF disguised as HERNE + + FALSTAFF. The Windsor bell hath struck twelve; the minute draws on. + Now the hot-blooded gods assist me! Remember, Jove, thou wast a bull + for thy Europa; love set on thy horns. O powerful love! that in some + respects makes a beast a man; in some other a man a beast. You were + also, Jupiter, a swan, for the love of Leda. O omnipotent love! how + near the god drew to the complexion of a goose! A fault done first in + the form of a beast-O Jove, a beastly fault!-and then another fault + in the semblance of a fowl- think on't, Jove, a foul fault! When gods + have hot backs what shall poor men do? For me, I am here a Windsor + stag; and the fattest, I think, i' th' forest. Send me a cool + rut-time, Jove, or who can blame me to piss my tallow? Who comes + here? my doe? + + Enter MISTRESS FORD and MISTRESS PAGE + + MRS. FORD. Sir John! Art thou there, my deer, my male deer. + FALSTAFF. My doe with the black scut! Let the sky rain + potatoes; let it thunder to the tune of Greensleeves, hail + kissing-comfits, and snow eringoes; let there come a tempest + of provocation, I will shelter me here. [Embracing her] + MRS. FORD. Mistress Page is come with me, sweetheart. + FALSTAFF. Divide me like a brib'd buck, each a haunch; I + will keep my sides to myself, my shoulders for the fellow + of this walk, and my horns I bequeath your husbands. Am + I a woodman, ha? Speak I like Heme the Hunter? Why, + now is Cupid a child of conscience; he makes restitution. + As I am a true spirit, welcome! [A noise of horns] + MRS. PAGE. Alas, what noise? + MRS. FORD. Heaven forgive our sins! + FALSTAFF. What should this be? + MRS. FORD. } Away, away. + MRS. PAGE. } Away, away. [They run off] + FALSTAFF. I think the devil will not have me damn'd, lest the + oil that's in me should set hell on fire; he would never else + cross me thus. + + Enter SIR HUGH EVANS like a satyr, ANNE PAGE as + a fairy, and OTHERS as the Fairy Queen, fairies, and + Hobgoblin; all with tapers + + FAIRY QUEEN. Fairies, black, grey, green, and white, + You moonshine revellers, and shades of night, + You orphan heirs of fixed destiny, + Attend your office and your quality. + Crier Hobgoblin, make the fairy oyes. + PUCK. Elves, list your names; silence, you airy toys. + Cricket, to Windsor chimneys shalt thou leap; + Where fires thou find'st unrak'd, and hearths unswept, + There pinch the maids as blue as bilberry; + Our radiant Queen hates sluts and sluttery. + FALSTAFF. They are fairies; he that speaks to them shall die. + I'll wink and couch; no man their works must eye. + [Lies down upon his face] + EVANS. Where's Pede? Go you, and where you find a maid + That, ere she sleep, has thrice her prayers said, + Raise up the organs of her fantasy + Sleep she as sound as careless infancy; + But those as sleep and think not on their sins, + Pinch them, arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides, and shins. + FAIRY QUEEN. About, about; + Search Windsor castle, elves, within and out; + Strew good luck, ouphes, on every sacred room, + That it may stand till the perpetual doom + In state as wholesome as in state 'tis fit, + Worthy the owner and the owner it. + The several chairs of order look you scour + With juice of balm and every precious flower; + Each fair instalment, coat, and sev'ral crest, + With loyal blazon, evermore be blest! + And nightly, meadow-fairies, look you sing, + Like to the Garter's compass, in a ring; + Th' expressure that it bears, green let it be, + More fertile-fresh than all the field to see; + And 'Honi soit qui mal y pense' write + In em'rald tufts, flow'rs purple, blue and white; + Like sapphire, pearl, and rich embroidery, + Buckled below fair knighthood's bending knee. + Fairies use flow'rs for their charactery. + Away, disperse; but till 'tis one o'clock, + Our dance of custom round about the oak + Of Herne the Hunter let us not forget. + EVANS. Pray you, lock hand in hand; yourselves in order set; + And twenty glow-worms shall our lanterns be, + To guide our measure round about the tree. + But, stay. I smell a man of middle earth. + FALSTAFF. Heavens defend me from that Welsh fairy, lest he + transform me to a piece of cheese! + PUCK. Vile worm, thou wast o'erlook'd even in thy birth. + FAIRY QUEEN. With trial-fire touch me his finger-end; + If he be chaste, the flame will back descend, + And turn him to no pain; but if he start, + It is the flesh of a corrupted heart. + PUCK. A trial, come. + EVANS. Come, will this wood take fire? + [They put the tapers to his fingers, and he starts] + FALSTAFF. Oh, oh, oh! + FAIRY QUEEN. Corrupt, corrupt, and tainted in desire! + About him, fairies; sing a scornful rhyme; + And, as you trip, still pinch him to your time. + THE SONG. + Fie on sinful fantasy! + Fie on lust and luxury! + Lust is but a bloody fire, + Kindled with unchaste desire, + Fed in heart, whose flames aspire, + As thoughts do blow them, higher and higher. + Pinch him, fairies, mutually; + Pinch him for his villainy; + Pinch him and burn him and turn him about, + Till candles and star-light and moonshine be out. + + During this song they pinch FALSTAFF. DOCTOR + CAIUS comes one way, and steals away a fairy in + green; SLENDER another way, and takes off a fairy in + white; and FENTON steals away ANNE PAGE. A noise + of hunting is heard within. All the fairies run away. + FALSTAFF pulls off his buck's head, and rises + + Enter PAGE, FORD, MISTRESS PAGE, MISTRESS FORD, and + SIR HUGH EVANS + + PAGE. Nay, do not fly; I think we have watch'd you now. + Will none but Heme the Hunter serve your turn? + MRS. PAGE. I pray you, come, hold up the jest no higher. + Now, good Sir John, how like you Windsor wives? + See you these, husband? Do not these fair yokes + Become the forest better than the town? + FORD. Now, sir, who's a cuckold now? Master Brook, + Falstaff's a knave, a cuckoldly knave; here are his horns, + Master Brook; and, Master Brook, he hath enjoyed nothing of + Ford's but his buck-basket, his cudgel, and twenty pounds + of money, which must be paid to Master Brook; his horses + are arrested for it, Master Brook. + MRS. FORD. Sir John, we have had ill luck; we could never + meet. I will never take you for my love again; but I will + always count you my deer. + FALSTAFF. I do begin to perceive that I am made an ass. + FORD. Ay, and an ox too; both the proofs are extant. + FALSTAFF. And these are not fairies? I was three or four + times in the thought they were not fairies; and yet the + guiltiness of my mind, the sudden surprise of my powers, + drove the grossness of the foppery into a receiv'd belief, + in despite of the teeth of all rhyme and reason, that they + were fairies. See now how wit may be made a Jack-a-Lent + when 'tis upon ill employment. + EVANS. Sir John Falstaff, serve Got, and leave your desires, + and fairies will not pinse you. + FORD. Well said, fairy Hugh. + EVANS. And leave you your jealousies too, I pray you. + FORD. I will never mistrust my wife again, till thou art able + to woo her in good English. + FALSTAFF. Have I laid my brain in the sun, and dried it, that + it wants matter to prevent so gross, o'er-reaching as this? + Am I ridden with a Welsh goat too? Shall I have a cox-comb + of frieze? 'Tis time I were chok'd with a piece of + toasted cheese. + EVANS. Seese is not good to give putter; your belly is all + putter. + FALSTAFF. 'Seese' and 'putter'! Have I liv'd to stand at the + taunt of one that makes fritters of English? This is enough + to be the decay of lust and late-walking through the realm. + MRS. PAGE. Why, Sir John, do you think, though we would + have thrust virtue out of our hearts by the head and + shoulders, and have given ourselves without scruple to hell, + that ever the devil could have made you our delight? + FORD. What, a hodge-pudding? a bag of flax? + MRS. PAGE. A puff'd man? + PAGE. Old, cold, wither'd, and of intolerable entrails? + FORD. And one that is as slanderous as Satan? + PAGE. And as poor as Job? + FORD. And as wicked as his wife? + EVANS. And given to fornications, and to taverns, and sack, + and wine, and metheglins, and to drinkings, and swearings, + and starings, pribbles and prabbles? + FALSTAFF. Well, I am your theme; you have the start of me; + I am dejected; I am not able to answer the Welsh flannel; + ignorance itself is a plummet o'er me; use me as you will. + FORD. Marry, sir, we'll bring you to Windsor, to one Master + Brook, that you have cozen'd of money, to whom you + should have been a pander. Over and above that you have + suffer'd, I think to repay that money will be a biting + affliction. + PAGE. Yet be cheerful, knight; thou shalt eat a posset + tonight at my house, where I will desire thee to laugh at my + wife, that now laughs at thee. Tell her Master Slender hath + married her daughter. + MRS. PAGE. [Aside] Doctors doubt that; if Anne Page be + my daughter, she is, by this, Doctor Caius' wife. + + Enter SLENDER + + SLENDER. Whoa, ho, ho, father Page! + PAGE. Son, how now! how now, son! Have you dispatch'd'? + SLENDER. Dispatch'd! I'll make the best in Gloucestershire + know on't; would I were hang'd, la, else! + PAGE. Of what, son? + SLENDER. I came yonder at Eton to marry Mistress Anne + Page, and she's a great lubberly boy. If it had not been i' + th' church, I would have swing'd him, or he should have + swing'd me. If I did not think it had been Anne Page, + would I might never stir!-and 'tis a postmaster's boy. + PAGE. Upon my life, then, you took the wrong. + SLENDER. What need you tell me that? I think so, when I + took a boy for a girl. If I had been married to him, for all + he was in woman's apparel, I would not have had him. + PAGE. Why, this is your own folly. Did not I tell you how + you should know my daughter by her garments? + SLENDER. I went to her in white and cried 'mum' and she + cried 'budget' as Anne and I had appointed; and yet it was + not Anne, but a postmaster's boy. + MRS. PAGE. Good George, be not angry. I knew of your + purpose; turn'd my daughter into green; and, indeed, she + is now with the Doctor at the dean'ry, and there married. + + Enter CAIUS + + CAIUS. Vere is Mistress Page? By gar, I am cozened; I ha' + married un garcon, a boy; un paysan, by gar, a boy; it is + not Anne Page; by gar, I am cozened. + MRS. PAGE. Why, did you take her in green? + CAIUS. Ay, be gar, and 'tis a boy; be gar, I'll raise all + Windsor. Exit CAIUS + FORD. This is strange. Who hath got the right Anne? + PAGE. My heart misgives me; here comes Master Fenton. + + Enter FENTON and ANNE PAGE + + How now, Master Fenton! + ANNE. Pardon, good father. Good my mother, pardon. + PAGE. Now, Mistress, how chance you went not with Master + Slender? + MRS. PAGE. Why went you not with Master Doctor, maid? + FENTON. You do amaze her. Hear the truth of it. + You would have married her most shamefully, + Where there was no proportion held in love. + The truth is, she and I, long since contracted, + Are now so sure that nothing can dissolve us. + Th' offence is holy that she hath committed; + And this deceit loses the name of craft, + Of disobedience, or unduteous title, + Since therein she doth evitate and shun + A thousand irreligious cursed hours, + Which forced marriage would have brought upon her. + FORD. Stand not amaz'd; here is no remedy. + In love, the heavens themselves do guide the state; + Money buys lands, and wives are sold by fate. + FALSTAFF. I am glad, though you have ta'en a special stand + to strike at me, that your arrow hath glanc'd. + PAGE. Well, what remedy? Fenton, heaven give thee joy! + What cannot be eschew'd must be embrac'd. + FALSTAFF. When night-dogs run, all sorts of deer are chas'd. + MRS. PAGE. Well, I will muse no further. Master Fenton, + Heaven give you many, many merry days! + Good husband, let us every one go home, + And laugh this sport o'er by a country fire; + Sir John and all. + FORD. Let it be so. Sir John, + To Master Brook you yet shall hold your word; + For he, to-night, shall lie with Mistress Ford. Exeunt + + + + +A MIDSUMMER NIGHT’S DREAM + + + +Contents + + + +ACT I +Scene I. Athens. A room in the Palace of Theseus +Scene II. The Same. A Room in a Cottage + +ACT II +Scene I. A wood near Athens +Scene II. Another part of the wood + +ACT III +Scene I. The Wood. +Scene II. Another part of the wood + +ACT IV +Scene I. The Wood +Scene II. Athens. A Room in Quince’s House + +ACT V +Scene I. Athens. An Apartment in the Palace of Theseus + + + +Dramatis Personæ + +THESEUS, Duke of Athens +HIPPOLYTA, Queen of the Amazons, bethrothed to Theseus +EGEUS, Father to Hermia +HERMIA, daughter to Egeus, in love with Lysander +HELENA, in love with Demetrius +LYSANDER, in love with Hermia +DEMETRIUS, in love with Hermia +PHILOSTRATE, Master of the Revels to Theseus + +QUINCE, the Carpenter +SNUG, the Joiner +BOTTOM, the Weaver +FLUTE, the Bellows-mender +SNOUT, the Tinker +STARVELING, the Tailor + +OBERON, King of the Fairies +TITANIA, Queen of the Fairies +PUCK, or ROBIN GOODFELLOW, a Fairy +PEASEBLOSSOM, Fairy +COBWEB, Fairy +MOTH, Fairy +MUSTARDSEED, Fairy + +PYRAMUS, THISBE, WALL, MOONSHINE, LION; Characters in the Interlude +performed by the Clowns + +Other Fairies attending their King and Queen +Attendants on Theseus and Hippolyta + +SCENE: Athens, and a wood not far from it + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Athens. A room in the Palace of Theseus + + Enter Theseus, Hippolyta, Philostrate and Attendants. + +THESEUS. +Now, fair Hippolyta, our nuptial hour +Draws on apace; four happy days bring in +Another moon; but oh, methinks, how slow +This old moon wanes! She lingers my desires, +Like to a step-dame or a dowager, +Long withering out a young man’s revenue. + +HIPPOLYTA. +Four days will quickly steep themselves in night; +Four nights will quickly dream away the time; +And then the moon, like to a silver bow +New bent in heaven, shall behold the night +Of our solemnities. + +THESEUS. +Go, Philostrate, +Stir up the Athenian youth to merriments; +Awake the pert and nimble spirit of mirth; +Turn melancholy forth to funerals; +The pale companion is not for our pomp. + + [_Exit Philostrate._] + +Hippolyta, I woo’d thee with my sword, +And won thy love doing thee injuries; +But I will wed thee in another key, +With pomp, with triumph, and with revelling. + + Enter Egeus, Hermia, Lysander and Demetrius. + +EGEUS. +Happy be Theseus, our renownèd Duke! + +THESEUS. +Thanks, good Egeus. What’s the news with thee? + +EGEUS. +Full of vexation come I, with complaint +Against my child, my daughter Hermia. +Stand forth, Demetrius. My noble lord, +This man hath my consent to marry her. +Stand forth, Lysander. And, my gracious Duke, +This man hath bewitch’d the bosom of my child. +Thou, thou, Lysander, thou hast given her rhymes, +And interchang’d love-tokens with my child. +Thou hast by moonlight at her window sung, +With feigning voice, verses of feigning love; +And stol’n the impression of her fantasy +With bracelets of thy hair, rings, gauds, conceits, +Knacks, trifles, nosegays, sweetmeats (messengers +Of strong prevailment in unharden’d youth) +With cunning hast thou filch’d my daughter’s heart, +Turn’d her obedience (which is due to me) +To stubborn harshness. And, my gracious Duke, +Be it so she will not here before your grace +Consent to marry with Demetrius, +I beg the ancient privilege of Athens: +As she is mine I may dispose of her; +Which shall be either to this gentleman +Or to her death, according to our law +Immediately provided in that case. + +THESEUS. +What say you, Hermia? Be advis’d, fair maid. +To you your father should be as a god; +One that compos’d your beauties, yea, and one +To whom you are but as a form in wax +By him imprinted, and within his power +To leave the figure, or disfigure it. +Demetrius is a worthy gentleman. + +HERMIA. +So is Lysander. + +THESEUS. +In himself he is. +But in this kind, wanting your father’s voice, +The other must be held the worthier. + +HERMIA. +I would my father look’d but with my eyes. + +THESEUS. +Rather your eyes must with his judgment look. + +HERMIA. +I do entreat your Grace to pardon me. +I know not by what power I am made bold, +Nor how it may concern my modesty +In such a presence here to plead my thoughts: +But I beseech your Grace that I may know +The worst that may befall me in this case, +If I refuse to wed Demetrius. + +THESEUS. +Either to die the death, or to abjure +For ever the society of men. +Therefore, fair Hermia, question your desires, +Know of your youth, examine well your blood, +Whether, if you yield not to your father’s choice, +You can endure the livery of a nun, +For aye to be in shady cloister mew’d, +To live a barren sister all your life, +Chanting faint hymns to the cold fruitless moon. +Thrice-blessèd they that master so their blood +To undergo such maiden pilgrimage, +But earthlier happy is the rose distill’d +Than that which, withering on the virgin thorn, +Grows, lives, and dies, in single blessedness. + +HERMIA. +So will I grow, so live, so die, my lord, +Ere I will yield my virgin patent up +Unto his lordship, whose unwishèd yoke +My soul consents not to give sovereignty. + +THESEUS. +Take time to pause; and by the next new moon +The sealing-day betwixt my love and me +For everlasting bond of fellowship, +Upon that day either prepare to die +For disobedience to your father’s will, +Or else to wed Demetrius, as he would, +Or on Diana’s altar to protest +For aye austerity and single life. + +DEMETRIUS. +Relent, sweet Hermia; and, Lysander, yield +Thy crazèd title to my certain right. + +LYSANDER. +You have her father’s love, Demetrius. +Let me have Hermia’s. Do you marry him. + +EGEUS. +Scornful Lysander, true, he hath my love; +And what is mine my love shall render him; +And she is mine, and all my right of her +I do estate unto Demetrius. + +LYSANDER. +I am, my lord, as well deriv’d as he, +As well possess’d; my love is more than his; +My fortunes every way as fairly rank’d, +If not with vantage, as Demetrius’; +And, which is more than all these boasts can be, +I am belov’d of beauteous Hermia. +Why should not I then prosecute my right? +Demetrius, I’ll avouch it to his head, +Made love to Nedar’s daughter, Helena, +And won her soul; and she, sweet lady, dotes, +Devoutly dotes, dotes in idolatry, +Upon this spotted and inconstant man. + +THESEUS. +I must confess that I have heard so much, +And with Demetrius thought to have spoke thereof; +But, being over-full of self-affairs, +My mind did lose it.—But, Demetrius, come, +And come, Egeus; you shall go with me. +I have some private schooling for you both.— +For you, fair Hermia, look you arm yourself +To fit your fancies to your father’s will, +Or else the law of Athens yields you up +(Which by no means we may extenuate) +To death, or to a vow of single life. +Come, my Hippolyta. What cheer, my love? +Demetrius and Egeus, go along; +I must employ you in some business +Against our nuptial, and confer with you +Of something nearly that concerns yourselves. + +EGEUS. +With duty and desire we follow you. + + [_Exeunt all but Lysander and Hermia._] + +LYSANDER. +How now, my love? Why is your cheek so pale? +How chance the roses there do fade so fast? + +HERMIA. +Belike for want of rain, which I could well +Beteem them from the tempest of my eyes. + +LYSANDER. +Ay me! For aught that I could ever read, +Could ever hear by tale or history, +The course of true love never did run smooth. +But either it was different in blood— + +HERMIA. +O cross! Too high to be enthrall’d to low. + +LYSANDER. +Or else misgraffèd in respect of years— + +HERMIA. +O spite! Too old to be engag’d to young. + +LYSANDER. +Or else it stood upon the choice of friends— + +HERMIA. +O hell! to choose love by another’s eyes! + +LYSANDER. +Or, if there were a sympathy in choice, +War, death, or sickness did lay siege to it, +Making it momentany as a sound, +Swift as a shadow, short as any dream, +Brief as the lightning in the collied night +That, in a spleen, unfolds both heaven and earth, +And, ere a man hath power to say, ‘Behold!’ +The jaws of darkness do devour it up: +So quick bright things come to confusion. + +HERMIA. +If then true lovers have ever cross’d, +It stands as an edict in destiny. +Then let us teach our trial patience, +Because it is a customary cross, +As due to love as thoughts and dreams and sighs, +Wishes and tears, poor fancy’s followers. + +LYSANDER. +A good persuasion; therefore, hear me, Hermia. +I have a widow aunt, a dowager +Of great revenue, and she hath no child. +From Athens is her house remote seven leagues, +And she respects me as her only son. +There, gentle Hermia, may I marry thee, +And to that place the sharp Athenian law +Cannot pursue us. If thou lovest me then, +Steal forth thy father’s house tomorrow night; +And in the wood, a league without the town +(Where I did meet thee once with Helena +To do observance to a morn of May), +There will I stay for thee. + +HERMIA. +My good Lysander! +I swear to thee by Cupid’s strongest bow, +By his best arrow with the golden head, +By the simplicity of Venus’ doves, +By that which knitteth souls and prospers loves, +And by that fire which burn’d the Carthage queen +When the false Trojan under sail was seen, +By all the vows that ever men have broke +(In number more than ever women spoke), +In that same place thou hast appointed me, +Tomorrow truly will I meet with thee. + +LYSANDER. +Keep promise, love. Look, here comes Helena. + + Enter Helena. + +HERMIA. +God speed fair Helena! Whither away? + +HELENA. +Call you me fair? That fair again unsay. +Demetrius loves your fair. O happy fair! +Your eyes are lode-stars and your tongue’s sweet air +More tuneable than lark to shepherd’s ear, +When wheat is green, when hawthorn buds appear. +Sickness is catching. O were favour so, +Yours would I catch, fair Hermia, ere I go. +My ear should catch your voice, my eye your eye, +My tongue should catch your tongue’s sweet melody. +Were the world mine, Demetrius being bated, +The rest I’d give to be to you translated. +O, teach me how you look, and with what art +You sway the motion of Demetrius’ heart! + +HERMIA. +I frown upon him, yet he loves me still. + +HELENA. +O that your frowns would teach my smiles such skill! + +HERMIA. +I give him curses, yet he gives me love. + +HELENA. +O that my prayers could such affection move! + +HERMIA. +The more I hate, the more he follows me. + +HELENA. +The more I love, the more he hateth me. + +HERMIA. +His folly, Helena, is no fault of mine. + +HELENA. +None but your beauty; would that fault were mine! + +HERMIA. +Take comfort: he no more shall see my face; +Lysander and myself will fly this place. +Before the time I did Lysander see, +Seem’d Athens as a paradise to me. +O, then, what graces in my love do dwell, +That he hath turn’d a heaven into hell! + +LYSANDER. +Helen, to you our minds we will unfold: +Tomorrow night, when Phoebe doth behold +Her silver visage in the watery glass, +Decking with liquid pearl the bladed grass +(A time that lovers’ flights doth still conceal), +Through Athens’ gates have we devis’d to steal. + +HERMIA. +And in the wood where often you and I +Upon faint primrose beds were wont to lie, +Emptying our bosoms of their counsel sweet, +There my Lysander and myself shall meet, +And thence from Athens turn away our eyes, +To seek new friends and stranger companies. +Farewell, sweet playfellow. Pray thou for us, +And good luck grant thee thy Demetrius! +Keep word, Lysander. We must starve our sight +From lovers’ food, till morrow deep midnight. + +LYSANDER. +I will, my Hermia. + + [_Exit Hermia._] + +Helena, adieu. +As you on him, Demetrius dote on you! + + [_Exit Lysander._] + +HELENA. +How happy some o’er other some can be! +Through Athens I am thought as fair as she. +But what of that? Demetrius thinks not so; +He will not know what all but he do know. +And as he errs, doting on Hermia’s eyes, +So I, admiring of his qualities. +Things base and vile, holding no quantity, +Love can transpose to form and dignity. +Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind; +And therefore is wing’d Cupid painted blind. +Nor hath love’s mind of any judgment taste. +Wings, and no eyes, figure unheedy haste. +And therefore is love said to be a child, +Because in choice he is so oft beguil’d. +As waggish boys in game themselves forswear, +So the boy Love is perjur’d everywhere. +For, ere Demetrius look’d on Hermia’s eyne, +He hail’d down oaths that he was only mine; +And when this hail some heat from Hermia felt, +So he dissolv’d, and showers of oaths did melt. +I will go tell him of fair Hermia’s flight. +Then to the wood will he tomorrow night +Pursue her; and for this intelligence +If I have thanks, it is a dear expense. +But herein mean I to enrich my pain, +To have his sight thither and back again. + + [_Exit Helena._] + + +SCENE II. The Same. A Room in a Cottage + + Enter Quince, Snug, Bottom, Flute, Snout and Starveling. + +QUINCE. +Is all our company here? + +BOTTOM. +You were best to call them generally, man by man, according to the +scrip. + +QUINCE. +Here is the scroll of every man’s name, which is thought fit through +all Athens, to play in our interlude before the Duke and Duchess, on +his wedding-day at night. + +BOTTOM. +First, good Peter Quince, say what the play treats on; then read the +names of the actors; and so grow to a point. + +QUINCE. +Marry, our play is _The most lamentable comedy and most cruel death of +Pyramus and Thisbe_. + +BOTTOM. +A very good piece of work, I assure you, and a merry. Now, good Peter +Quince, call forth your actors by the scroll. Masters, spread +yourselves. + +QUINCE. +Answer, as I call you. Nick Bottom, the weaver. + +BOTTOM. +Ready. Name what part I am for, and proceed. + +QUINCE. +You, Nick Bottom, are set down for Pyramus. + +BOTTOM. +What is Pyramus—a lover, or a tyrant? + +QUINCE. +A lover, that kills himself most gallantly for love. + +BOTTOM. +That will ask some tears in the true performing of it. If I do it, let +the audience look to their eyes. I will move storms; I will condole in +some measure. To the rest—yet my chief humour is for a tyrant. I could +play Ercles rarely, or a part to tear a cat in, to make all split. + + The raging rocks + And shivering shocks + Shall break the locks + Of prison gates, + And Phibbus’ car + Shall shine from far, + And make and mar + The foolish Fates. + +This was lofty. Now name the rest of the players. This is Ercles’ vein, +a tyrant’s vein; a lover is more condoling. + +QUINCE. +Francis Flute, the bellows-mender. + +FLUTE. +Here, Peter Quince. + +QUINCE. +Flute, you must take Thisbe on you. + +FLUTE. +What is Thisbe? A wandering knight? + +QUINCE. +It is the lady that Pyramus must love. + +FLUTE. +Nay, faith, let not me play a woman. I have a beard coming. + +QUINCE. +That’s all one. You shall play it in a mask, and you may speak as small +as you will. + +BOTTOM. +And I may hide my face, let me play Thisbe too. I’ll speak in a +monstrous little voice; ‘Thisne, Thisne!’—‘Ah, Pyramus, my lover dear! +thy Thisbe dear! and lady dear!’ + +QUINCE. +No, no, you must play Pyramus; and, Flute, you Thisbe. + +BOTTOM. +Well, proceed. + +QUINCE. +Robin Starveling, the tailor. + +STARVELING. +Here, Peter Quince. + +QUINCE. +Robin Starveling, you must play Thisbe’s mother. +Tom Snout, the tinker. + +SNOUT +Here, Peter Quince. + +QUINCE. +You, Pyramus’ father; myself, Thisbe’s father; +Snug, the joiner, you, the lion’s part. And, I hope here is a play +fitted. + +SNUG +Have you the lion’s part written? Pray you, if it be, give it me, for I +am slow of study. + +QUINCE. +You may do it extempore, for it is nothing but roaring. + +BOTTOM. +Let me play the lion too. I will roar that I will do any man’s heart +good to hear me. I will roar that I will make the Duke say ‘Let him +roar again, let him roar again.’ + +QUINCE. +If you should do it too terribly, you would fright the Duchess and the +ladies, that they would shriek; and that were enough to hang us all. + +ALL +That would hang us every mother’s son. + +BOTTOM. +I grant you, friends, if you should fright the ladies out of their +wits, they would have no more discretion but to hang us. But I will +aggravate my voice so, that I will roar you as gently as any sucking +dove; I will roar you an ’twere any nightingale. + +QUINCE. +You can play no part but Pyramus, for Pyramus is a sweet-faced man; a +proper man as one shall see in a summer’s day; a most lovely +gentleman-like man. Therefore you must needs play Pyramus. + +BOTTOM. +Well, I will undertake it. What beard were I best to play it in? + +QUINCE. +Why, what you will. + +BOTTOM. +I will discharge it in either your straw-colour beard, your +orange-tawny beard, your purple-in-grain beard, or your +French-crown-colour beard, your perfect yellow. + +QUINCE. +Some of your French crowns have no hair at all, and then you will play +bare-faced. But, masters, here are your parts, and I am to entreat you, +request you, and desire you, to con them by tomorrow night; and meet me +in the palace wood, a mile without the town, by moonlight; there will +we rehearse, for if we meet in the city, we shall be dogg’d with +company, and our devices known. In the meantime I will draw a bill of +properties, such as our play wants. I pray you fail me not. + +BOTTOM. +We will meet, and there we may rehearse most obscenely and +courageously. Take pains, be perfect; adieu. + +QUINCE. +At the Duke’s oak we meet. + +BOTTOM. +Enough. Hold, or cut bow-strings. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. A wood near Athens + + Enter a Fairy at one door, and Puck at another. + +PUCK. +How now, spirit! Whither wander you? + +FAIRY + Over hill, over dale, + Thorough bush, thorough brier, + Over park, over pale, + Thorough flood, thorough fire, + I do wander everywhere, + Swifter than the moon’s sphere; + And I serve the Fairy Queen, + To dew her orbs upon the green. + The cowslips tall her pensioners be, + In their gold coats spots you see; + Those be rubies, fairy favours, + In those freckles live their savours. +I must go seek some dew-drops here, +And hang a pearl in every cowslip’s ear. +Farewell, thou lob of spirits; I’ll be gone. +Our Queen and all her elves come here anon. + +PUCK. +The King doth keep his revels here tonight; +Take heed the Queen come not within his sight, +For Oberon is passing fell and wrath, +Because that she, as her attendant, hath +A lovely boy, stol’n from an Indian king; +She never had so sweet a changeling. +And jealous Oberon would have the child +Knight of his train, to trace the forests wild: +But she perforce withholds the lovèd boy, +Crowns him with flowers, and makes him all her joy. +And now they never meet in grove or green, +By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen, +But they do square; that all their elves for fear +Creep into acorn cups, and hide them there. + +FAIRY +Either I mistake your shape and making quite, +Or else you are that shrewd and knavish sprite +Call’d Robin Goodfellow. Are not you he +That frights the maidens of the villagery, +Skim milk, and sometimes labour in the quern, +And bootless make the breathless housewife churn, +And sometime make the drink to bear no barm, +Mislead night-wanderers, laughing at their harm? +Those that Hobgoblin call you, and sweet Puck, +You do their work, and they shall have good luck. +Are not you he? + +PUCK. +Thou speak’st aright; +I am that merry wanderer of the night. +I jest to Oberon, and make him smile, +When I a fat and bean-fed horse beguile, +Neighing in likeness of a filly foal; +And sometime lurk I in a gossip’s bowl +In very likeness of a roasted crab, +And, when she drinks, against her lips I bob, +And on her withered dewlap pour the ale. +The wisest aunt, telling the saddest tale, +Sometime for three-foot stool mistaketh me; +Then slip I from her bum, down topples she, +And ‘tailor’ cries, and falls into a cough; +And then the whole quire hold their hips and loffe +And waxen in their mirth, and neeze, and swear +A merrier hour was never wasted there. +But room, fairy. Here comes Oberon. + +FAIRY +And here my mistress. Would that he were gone! + + Enter Oberon at one door, with his Train, and Titania at another, with + hers. + +OBERON. +Ill met by moonlight, proud Titania. + +TITANIA. +What, jealous Oberon! Fairies, skip hence; +I have forsworn his bed and company. + +OBERON. +Tarry, rash wanton; am not I thy lord? + +TITANIA. +Then I must be thy lady; but I know +When thou hast stol’n away from fairyland, +And in the shape of Corin sat all day +Playing on pipes of corn, and versing love +To amorous Phillida. Why art thou here, +Come from the farthest steep of India, +But that, forsooth, the bouncing Amazon, +Your buskin’d mistress and your warrior love, +To Theseus must be wedded; and you come +To give their bed joy and prosperity? + +OBERON. +How canst thou thus, for shame, Titania, +Glance at my credit with Hippolyta, +Knowing I know thy love to Theseus? +Didst not thou lead him through the glimmering night +From Perigenia, whom he ravished? +And make him with fair Aegles break his faith, +With Ariadne and Antiopa? + +TITANIA. +These are the forgeries of jealousy: +And never, since the middle summer’s spring, +Met we on hill, in dale, forest, or mead, +By pavèd fountain, or by rushy brook, +Or on the beachèd margent of the sea, +To dance our ringlets to the whistling wind, +But with thy brawls thou hast disturb’d our sport. +Therefore the winds, piping to us in vain, +As in revenge, have suck’d up from the sea +Contagious fogs; which, falling in the land, +Hath every pelting river made so proud +That they have overborne their continents. +The ox hath therefore stretch’d his yoke in vain, +The ploughman lost his sweat, and the green corn +Hath rotted ere his youth attain’d a beard. +The fold stands empty in the drownèd field, +And crows are fatted with the murrion flock; +The nine-men’s-morris is fill’d up with mud, +And the quaint mazes in the wanton green, +For lack of tread, are undistinguishable. +The human mortals want their winter here. +No night is now with hymn or carol blest. +Therefore the moon, the governess of floods, +Pale in her anger, washes all the air, +That rheumatic diseases do abound. +And thorough this distemperature we see +The seasons alter: hoary-headed frosts +Fall in the fresh lap of the crimson rose; +And on old Hiems’ thin and icy crown +An odorous chaplet of sweet summer buds +Is, as in mockery, set. The spring, the summer, +The childing autumn, angry winter, change +Their wonted liveries; and the mazed world, +By their increase, now knows not which is which. +And this same progeny of evils comes +From our debate, from our dissension; +We are their parents and original. + +OBERON. +Do you amend it, then. It lies in you. +Why should Titania cross her Oberon? +I do but beg a little changeling boy +To be my henchman. + +TITANIA. +Set your heart at rest; +The fairyland buys not the child of me. +His mother was a vot’ress of my order, +And in the spicèd Indian air, by night, +Full often hath she gossip’d by my side; +And sat with me on Neptune’s yellow sands, +Marking th’ embarkèd traders on the flood, +When we have laugh’d to see the sails conceive, +And grow big-bellied with the wanton wind; +Which she, with pretty and with swimming gait +Following (her womb then rich with my young squire), +Would imitate, and sail upon the land, +To fetch me trifles, and return again, +As from a voyage, rich with merchandise. +But she, being mortal, of that boy did die; +And for her sake do I rear up her boy, +And for her sake I will not part with him. + +OBERON. +How long within this wood intend you stay? + +TITANIA. +Perchance till after Theseus’ wedding-day. +If you will patiently dance in our round, +And see our moonlight revels, go with us; +If not, shun me, and I will spare your haunts. + +OBERON. +Give me that boy and I will go with thee. + +TITANIA. +Not for thy fairy kingdom. Fairies, away. +We shall chide downright if I longer stay. + + [_Exit Titania with her Train._] + +OBERON. +Well, go thy way. Thou shalt not from this grove +Till I torment thee for this injury.— +My gentle Puck, come hither. Thou rememb’rest +Since once I sat upon a promontory, +And heard a mermaid on a dolphin’s back +Uttering such dulcet and harmonious breath +That the rude sea grew civil at her song +And certain stars shot madly from their spheres +To hear the sea-maid’s music. + +PUCK. +I remember. + +OBERON. +That very time I saw, (but thou couldst not), +Flying between the cold moon and the earth, +Cupid all arm’d: a certain aim he took +At a fair vestal, thronèd by the west, +And loos’d his love-shaft smartly from his bow +As it should pierce a hundred thousand hearts. +But I might see young Cupid’s fiery shaft +Quench’d in the chaste beams of the watery moon; +And the imperial votress passed on, +In maiden meditation, fancy-free. +Yet mark’d I where the bolt of Cupid fell: +It fell upon a little western flower, +Before milk-white, now purple with love’s wound, +And maidens call it love-in-idleness. +Fetch me that flower, the herb I showed thee once: +The juice of it on sleeping eyelids laid +Will make or man or woman madly dote +Upon the next live creature that it sees. +Fetch me this herb, and be thou here again +Ere the leviathan can swim a league. + +PUCK. +I’ll put a girdle round about the earth +In forty minutes. + + [_Exit Puck._] + +OBERON. +Having once this juice, +I’ll watch Titania when she is asleep, +And drop the liquor of it in her eyes: +The next thing then she waking looks upon +(Be it on lion, bear, or wolf, or bull, +On meddling monkey, or on busy ape) +She shall pursue it with the soul of love. +And ere I take this charm from off her sight +(As I can take it with another herb) +I’ll make her render up her page to me. +But who comes here? I am invisible; +And I will overhear their conference. + + Enter Demetrius, Helena following him. + +DEMETRIUS. +I love thee not, therefore pursue me not. +Where is Lysander and fair Hermia? +The one I’ll slay, the other slayeth me. +Thou told’st me they were stol’n into this wood, +And here am I, and wode within this wood +Because I cannot meet with Hermia. +Hence, get thee gone, and follow me no more. + +HELENA. +You draw me, you hard-hearted adamant, +But yet you draw not iron, for my heart +Is true as steel. Leave you your power to draw, +And I shall have no power to follow you. + +DEMETRIUS. +Do I entice you? Do I speak you fair? +Or rather do I not in plainest truth +Tell you I do not, nor I cannot love you? + +HELENA. +And even for that do I love you the more. +I am your spaniel; and, Demetrius, +The more you beat me, I will fawn on you. +Use me but as your spaniel, spurn me, strike me, +Neglect me, lose me; only give me leave, +Unworthy as I am, to follow you. +What worser place can I beg in your love, +(And yet a place of high respect with me) +Than to be usèd as you use your dog? + +DEMETRIUS. +Tempt not too much the hatred of my spirit; +For I am sick when I do look on thee. + +HELENA. +And I am sick when I look not on you. + +DEMETRIUS. +You do impeach your modesty too much +To leave the city and commit yourself +Into the hands of one that loves you not, +To trust the opportunity of night. +And the ill counsel of a desert place, +With the rich worth of your virginity. + +HELENA. +Your virtue is my privilege: for that. +It is not night when I do see your face, +Therefore I think I am not in the night; +Nor doth this wood lack worlds of company, +For you, in my respect, are all the world. +Then how can it be said I am alone +When all the world is here to look on me? + +DEMETRIUS. +I’ll run from thee and hide me in the brakes, +And leave thee to the mercy of wild beasts. + +HELENA. +The wildest hath not such a heart as you. +Run when you will, the story shall be chang’d; +Apollo flies, and Daphne holds the chase; +The dove pursues the griffin, the mild hind +Makes speed to catch the tiger. Bootless speed, +When cowardice pursues and valour flies! + +DEMETRIUS. +I will not stay thy questions. Let me go, +Or if thou follow me, do not believe +But I shall do thee mischief in the wood. + +HELENA. +Ay, in the temple, in the town, the field, +You do me mischief. Fie, Demetrius! +Your wrongs do set a scandal on my sex. +We cannot fight for love as men may do. +We should be woo’d, and were not made to woo. + + [_Exit Demetrius._] + +I’ll follow thee, and make a heaven of hell, +To die upon the hand I love so well. + + [_Exit Helena._] + +OBERON. +Fare thee well, nymph. Ere he do leave this grove, +Thou shalt fly him, and he shall seek thy love. + + Enter Puck. + +Hast thou the flower there? Welcome, wanderer. + +PUCK. +Ay, there it is. + +OBERON. +I pray thee give it me. +I know a bank where the wild thyme blows, +Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows, +Quite over-canopied with luscious woodbine, +With sweet musk-roses, and with eglantine. +There sleeps Titania sometime of the night, +Lull’d in these flowers with dances and delight; +And there the snake throws her enamell’d skin, +Weed wide enough to wrap a fairy in. +And with the juice of this I’ll streak her eyes, +And make her full of hateful fantasies. +Take thou some of it, and seek through this grove: +A sweet Athenian lady is in love +With a disdainful youth. Anoint his eyes; +But do it when the next thing he espies +May be the lady. Thou shalt know the man +By the Athenian garments he hath on. +Effect it with some care, that he may prove +More fond on her than she upon her love: +And look thou meet me ere the first cock crow. + +PUCK. +Fear not, my lord, your servant shall do so. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE II. Another part of the wood + + Enter Titania with her Train. + +TITANIA. +Come, now a roundel and a fairy song; +Then for the third part of a minute, hence; +Some to kill cankers in the musk-rose buds; +Some war with reremice for their leathern wings, +To make my small elves coats; and some keep back +The clamorous owl, that nightly hoots and wonders +At our quaint spirits. Sing me now asleep; +Then to your offices, and let me rest. + +Fairies sing. + +FIRST FAIRY. + You spotted snakes with double tongue, + Thorny hedgehogs, be not seen; + Newts and blind-worms do no wrong, + Come not near our Fairy Queen: + +CHORUS. + Philomel, with melody, + Sing in our sweet lullaby: +Lulla, lulla, lullaby; lulla, lulla, lullaby. + Never harm, nor spell, nor charm, + Come our lovely lady nigh; + So good night, with lullaby. + +FIRST FAIRY. + Weaving spiders, come not here; + Hence, you long-legg’d spinners, hence. + Beetles black, approach not near; + Worm nor snail do no offence. + +CHORUS. + Philomel with melody, &c. + +SECOND FAIRY. +Hence away! Now all is well. +One aloof stand sentinel. + + [_Exeunt Fairies. Titania sleeps._] + + Enter Oberon. + +OBERON. +What thou seest when thou dost wake, + + [_Squeezes the flower on Titania’s eyelids._] + +Do it for thy true love take; +Love and languish for his sake. +Be it ounce, or cat, or bear, +Pard, or boar with bristled hair, +In thy eye that shall appear +When thou wak’st, it is thy dear. +Wake when some vile thing is near. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Lysander and Hermia. + +LYSANDER. +Fair love, you faint with wand’ring in the wood. +And, to speak troth, I have forgot our way. +We’ll rest us, Hermia, if you think it good, +And tarry for the comfort of the day. + +HERMIA. +Be it so, Lysander: find you out a bed, +For I upon this bank will rest my head. + +LYSANDER. +One turf shall serve as pillow for us both; +One heart, one bed, two bosoms, and one troth. + +HERMIA. +Nay, good Lysander; for my sake, my dear, +Lie further off yet, do not lie so near. + +LYSANDER. +O take the sense, sweet, of my innocence! +Love takes the meaning in love’s conference. +I mean that my heart unto yours is knit, +So that but one heart we can make of it: +Two bosoms interchainèd with an oath, +So then two bosoms and a single troth. +Then by your side no bed-room me deny; +For lying so, Hermia, I do not lie. + +HERMIA. +Lysander riddles very prettily. +Now much beshrew my manners and my pride, +If Hermia meant to say Lysander lied! +But, gentle friend, for love and courtesy +Lie further off, in human modesty, +Such separation as may well be said +Becomes a virtuous bachelor and a maid, +So far be distant; and good night, sweet friend: +Thy love ne’er alter till thy sweet life end! + +LYSANDER. +Amen, amen, to that fair prayer say I; +And then end life when I end loyalty! +Here is my bed. Sleep give thee all his rest! + +HERMIA. +With half that wish the wisher’s eyes be pressed! + + [_They sleep._] + + Enter Puck. + +PUCK. +Through the forest have I gone, +But Athenian found I none, +On whose eyes I might approve +This flower’s force in stirring love. +Night and silence! Who is here? +Weeds of Athens he doth wear: +This is he, my master said, +Despisèd the Athenian maid; +And here the maiden, sleeping sound, +On the dank and dirty ground. +Pretty soul, she durst not lie +Near this lack-love, this kill-courtesy. +Churl, upon thy eyes I throw +All the power this charm doth owe; +When thou wak’st let love forbid +Sleep his seat on thy eyelid. +So awake when I am gone; +For I must now to Oberon. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Demetrius and Helena, running. + +HELENA. +Stay, though thou kill me, sweet Demetrius. + +DEMETRIUS. +I charge thee, hence, and do not haunt me thus. + +HELENA. +O, wilt thou darkling leave me? Do not so. + +DEMETRIUS. +Stay, on thy peril; I alone will go. + + [_Exit Demetrius._] + +HELENA. +O, I am out of breath in this fond chase! +The more my prayer, the lesser is my grace. +Happy is Hermia, wheresoe’er she lies, +For she hath blessèd and attractive eyes. +How came her eyes so bright? Not with salt tears. +If so, my eyes are oftener wash’d than hers. +No, no, I am as ugly as a bear, +For beasts that meet me run away for fear: +Therefore no marvel though Demetrius +Do, as a monster, fly my presence thus. +What wicked and dissembling glass of mine +Made me compare with Hermia’s sphery eyne? +But who is here? Lysander, on the ground! +Dead or asleep? I see no blood, no wound. +Lysander, if you live, good sir, awake. + +LYSANDER. +[_Waking._] And run through fire I will for thy sweet sake. +Transparent Helena! Nature shows art, +That through thy bosom makes me see thy heart. +Where is Demetrius? O, how fit a word +Is that vile name to perish on my sword! + +HELENA. +Do not say so, Lysander, say not so. +What though he love your Hermia? Lord, what though? +Yet Hermia still loves you. Then be content. + +LYSANDER. +Content with Hermia? No, I do repent +The tedious minutes I with her have spent. +Not Hermia, but Helena I love. +Who will not change a raven for a dove? +The will of man is by his reason sway’d, +And reason says you are the worthier maid. +Things growing are not ripe until their season; +So I, being young, till now ripe not to reason; +And touching now the point of human skill, +Reason becomes the marshal to my will, +And leads me to your eyes, where I o’erlook +Love’s stories, written in love’s richest book. + +HELENA. +Wherefore was I to this keen mockery born? +When at your hands did I deserve this scorn? +Is’t not enough, is’t not enough, young man, +That I did never, no, nor never can +Deserve a sweet look from Demetrius’ eye, +But you must flout my insufficiency? +Good troth, you do me wrong, good sooth, you do, +In such disdainful manner me to woo. +But fare you well; perforce I must confess, +I thought you lord of more true gentleness. +O, that a lady of one man refus’d, +Should of another therefore be abus’d! + + [_Exit._] + +LYSANDER. +She sees not Hermia. Hermia, sleep thou there, +And never mayst thou come Lysander near! +For, as a surfeit of the sweetest things +The deepest loathing to the stomach brings; +Or as the heresies that men do leave +Are hated most of those they did deceive; +So thou, my surfeit and my heresy, +Of all be hated, but the most of me! +And, all my powers, address your love and might +To honour Helen, and to be her knight! + + [_Exit._] + +HERMIA. +[_Starting._] Help me, Lysander, help me! Do thy best +To pluck this crawling serpent from my breast! +Ay me, for pity! What a dream was here! +Lysander, look how I do quake with fear. +Methought a serpent eat my heart away, +And you sat smiling at his cruel prey. +Lysander! What, removed? Lysander! lord! +What, out of hearing? Gone? No sound, no word? +Alack, where are you? Speak, and if you hear; +Speak, of all loves! I swoon almost with fear. +No? Then I well perceive you are not nigh. +Either death or you I’ll find immediately. + + [_Exit._] + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. The Wood. + + The Queen of Fairies still lying asleep. + + Enter Bottom, Quince, Snout, Starveling, Snug and Flute. + +BOTTOM. +Are we all met? + +QUINCE. +Pat, pat; and here’s a marvellous convenient place for our rehearsal. +This green plot shall be our stage, this hawthorn brake our +tiring-house; and we will do it in action, as we will do it before the +Duke. + +BOTTOM. +Peter Quince? + +QUINCE. +What sayest thou, bully Bottom? + +BOTTOM. +There are things in this comedy of Pyramus and Thisbe that will never +please. First, Pyramus must draw a sword to kill himself; which the +ladies cannot abide. How answer you that? + +SNOUT +By’r lakin, a parlous fear. + +STARVELING. +I believe we must leave the killing out, when all is done. + +BOTTOM. +Not a whit; I have a device to make all well. Write me a prologue, and +let the prologue seem to say we will do no harm with our swords, and +that Pyramus is not killed indeed; and for the more better assurance, +tell them that I Pyramus am not Pyramus but Bottom the weaver. This +will put them out of fear. + +QUINCE. +Well, we will have such a prologue; and it shall be written in eight +and six. + +BOTTOM. +No, make it two more; let it be written in eight and eight. + +SNOUT +Will not the ladies be afeard of the lion? + +STARVELING. +I fear it, I promise you. + +BOTTOM. +Masters, you ought to consider with yourselves, to bring in (God shield +us!) a lion among ladies is a most dreadful thing. For there is not a +more fearful wild-fowl than your lion living; and we ought to look to +it. + +SNOUT +Therefore another prologue must tell he is not a lion. + +BOTTOM. +Nay, you must name his name, and half his face must be seen through the +lion’s neck; and he himself must speak through, saying thus, or to the +same defect: ‘Ladies,’ or, ‘Fair ladies, I would wish you,’ or, ‘I +would request you,’ or, ’I would entreat you, not to fear, not to +tremble: my life for yours. If you think I come hither as a lion, it +were pity of my life. No, I am no such thing; I am a man as other men +are’: and there, indeed, let him name his name, and tell them plainly +he is Snug the joiner. + +QUINCE. +Well, it shall be so. But there is two hard things: that is, to bring +the moonlight into a chamber, for you know, Pyramus and Thisbe meet by +moonlight. + +SNOUT +Doth the moon shine that night we play our play? + +BOTTOM. +A calendar, a calendar! Look in the almanack; find out moonshine, find +out moonshine. + +QUINCE. +Yes, it doth shine that night. + +BOTTOM. +Why, then may you leave a casement of the great chamber window, where +we play, open; and the moon may shine in at the casement. + +QUINCE. +Ay; or else one must come in with a bush of thorns and a lantern, and +say he comes to disfigure or to present the person of Moonshine. Then +there is another thing: we must have a wall in the great chamber; for +Pyramus and Thisbe, says the story, did talk through the chink of a +wall. + +SNOUT +You can never bring in a wall. What say you, Bottom? + +BOTTOM. +Some man or other must present Wall. And let him have some plaster, or +some loam, or some rough-cast about him, to signify wall; and let him +hold his fingers thus, and through that cranny shall Pyramus and Thisbe +whisper. + +QUINCE. +If that may be, then all is well. Come, sit down, every mother’s son, +and rehearse your parts. Pyramus, you begin: when you have spoken your +speech, enter into that brake; and so everyone according to his cue. + + Enter Puck behind. + +PUCK. +What hempen homespuns have we swaggering here, +So near the cradle of the Fairy Queen? +What, a play toward? I’ll be an auditor; +An actor too perhaps, if I see cause. + +QUINCE. +Speak, Pyramus.—Thisbe, stand forth. + +PYRAMUS. +_Thisbe, the flowers of odious savours sweet_ + +QUINCE. +Odours, odours. + +PYRAMUS. +_. . . odours savours sweet. +So hath thy breath, my dearest Thisbe dear. +But hark, a voice! Stay thou but here awhile, +And by and by I will to thee appear._ + + [_Exit._] + +PUCK. +A stranger Pyramus than e’er played here! + + [_Exit._] + +THISBE. +Must I speak now? + +QUINCE. +Ay, marry, must you, For you must understand he goes but to see a noise +that he heard, and is to come again. + +THISBE. +_Most radiant Pyramus, most lily-white of hue, +Of colour like the red rose on triumphant brier, +Most brisky juvenal, and eke most lovely Jew, +As true as truest horse, that yet would never tire, +I’ll meet thee, Pyramus, at Ninny’s tomb._ + +QUINCE. +Ninus’ tomb, man! Why, you must not speak that yet. That you answer to +Pyramus. You speak all your part at once, cues, and all.—Pyramus enter! +Your cue is past; it is ‘never tire.’ + +THISBE. +O, _As true as truest horse, that yet would never tire._ + + Enter Puck and Bottom with an ass’s head. + +PYRAMUS. +_If I were fair, Thisbe, I were only thine._ + +QUINCE. +O monstrous! O strange! We are haunted. Pray, masters, fly, masters! +Help! + + [_Exeunt Clowns._] + +PUCK. +I’ll follow you. I’ll lead you about a round, + Through bog, through bush, through brake, through brier; +Sometime a horse I’ll be, sometime a hound, + A hog, a headless bear, sometime a fire; +And neigh, and bark, and grunt, and roar, and burn, +Like horse, hound, hog, bear, fire, at every turn. + + [_Exit._] + +BOTTOM. +Why do they run away? This is a knavery of them to make me afeard. + + Enter Snout. + +SNOUT +O Bottom, thou art changed! What do I see on thee? + +BOTTOM. +What do you see? You see an ass-head of your own, do you? + + [_Exit Snout._] + + Enter Quince. + +QUINCE. +Bless thee, Bottom! bless thee! Thou art translated. + + [_Exit._] + +BOTTOM. +I see their knavery. This is to make an ass of me, to fright me, if +they could. But I will not stir from this place, do what they can. I +will walk up and down here, and I will sing, that they shall hear I am +not afraid. +[_Sings._] + The ousel cock, so black of hue, + With orange-tawny bill, + The throstle with his note so true, + The wren with little quill. + +TITANIA. +[_Waking._] What angel wakes me from my flowery bed? + +BOTTOM. +[_Sings._] + The finch, the sparrow, and the lark, + The plain-song cuckoo gray, + Whose note full many a man doth mark, + And dares not answer nay. +for, indeed, who would set his wit to so foolish a bird? Who would give +a bird the lie, though he cry ‘cuckoo’ never so? + +TITANIA. +I pray thee, gentle mortal, sing again. +Mine ear is much enamour’d of thy note. +So is mine eye enthrallèd to thy shape; +And thy fair virtue’s force perforce doth move me, +On the first view, to say, to swear, I love thee. + +BOTTOM. +Methinks, mistress, you should have little reason for that. And yet, to +say the truth, reason and love keep little company together nowadays. +The more the pity that some honest neighbours will not make them +friends. Nay, I can gleek upon occasion. + +TITANIA. +Thou art as wise as thou art beautiful. + +BOTTOM. +Not so, neither; but if I had wit enough to get out of this wood, I +have enough to serve mine own turn. + +TITANIA. +Out of this wood do not desire to go. +Thou shalt remain here whether thou wilt or no. +I am a spirit of no common rate. +The summer still doth tend upon my state; +And I do love thee: therefore, go with me. +I’ll give thee fairies to attend on thee; +And they shall fetch thee jewels from the deep, +And sing, while thou on pressèd flowers dost sleep. +And I will purge thy mortal grossness so +That thou shalt like an airy spirit go.— +Peaseblossom! Cobweb! Moth! and Mustardseed! + + Enter four Fairies. + +PEASEBLOSSOM. +Ready. + + +COBWEB. +And I. + + +MOTH. +And I. + + +MUSTARDSEED. +And I. + + +ALL. +Where shall we go? + +TITANIA. +Be kind and courteous to this gentleman; +Hop in his walks and gambol in his eyes; +Feed him with apricocks and dewberries, +With purple grapes, green figs, and mulberries; +The honey-bags steal from the humble-bees, +And for night-tapers, crop their waxen thighs, +And light them at the fiery glow-worm’s eyes, +To have my love to bed and to arise; +And pluck the wings from painted butterflies, +To fan the moonbeams from his sleeping eyes. +Nod to him, elves, and do him courtesies. + + +PEASEBLOSSOM. +Hail, mortal! + + +COBWEB. +Hail! + + +MOTH. +Hail! + + +MUSTARDSEED. +Hail! + +BOTTOM. +I cry your worships mercy, heartily.—I beseech your worship’s name. + +COBWEB. +Cobweb. + +BOTTOM. +I shall desire you of more acquaintance, good Master Cobweb. If I cut +my finger, I shall make bold with you.—Your name, honest gentleman? + +PEASEBLOSSOM. +Peaseblossom. + +BOTTOM. +I pray you, commend me to Mistress Squash, your mother, and to Master +Peascod, your father. Good Master Peaseblossom, I shall desire you of +more acquaintance too.—Your name, I beseech you, sir? + +MUSTARDSEED. +Mustardseed. + +BOTTOM. +Good Master Mustardseed, I know your patience well. That same cowardly +giant-like ox-beef hath devoured many a gentleman of your house. I +promise you, your kindred hath made my eyes water ere now. I desire you +of more acquaintance, good Master Mustardseed. + +TITANIA. +Come, wait upon him; lead him to my bower. + The moon, methinks, looks with a watery eye, +And when she weeps, weeps every little flower, + Lamenting some enforced chastity. +Tie up my love’s tongue, bring him silently. + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE II. Another part of the wood + + Enter Oberon. + +OBERON. +I wonder if Titania be awak’d; +Then, what it was that next came in her eye, +Which she must dote on in extremity. + + Enter Puck. + +Here comes my messenger. How now, mad spirit? +What night-rule now about this haunted grove? + +PUCK. +My mistress with a monster is in love. +Near to her close and consecrated bower, +While she was in her dull and sleeping hour, +A crew of patches, rude mechanicals, +That work for bread upon Athenian stalls, +Were met together to rehearse a play +Intended for great Theseus’ nuptial day. +The shallowest thick-skin of that barren sort +Who Pyramus presented in their sport, +Forsook his scene and enter’d in a brake. +When I did him at this advantage take, +An ass’s nole I fixed on his head. +Anon, his Thisbe must be answerèd, +And forth my mimic comes. When they him spy, +As wild geese that the creeping fowler eye, +Or russet-pated choughs, many in sort, +Rising and cawing at the gun’s report, +Sever themselves and madly sweep the sky, +So at his sight away his fellows fly, +And at our stamp, here o’er and o’er one falls; +He murder cries, and help from Athens calls. +Their sense thus weak, lost with their fears, thus strong, +Made senseless things begin to do them wrong; +For briers and thorns at their apparel snatch; +Some sleeves, some hats, from yielders all things catch. +I led them on in this distracted fear, +And left sweet Pyramus translated there. +When in that moment, so it came to pass, +Titania wak’d, and straightway lov’d an ass. + +OBERON. +This falls out better than I could devise. +But hast thou yet latch’d the Athenian’s eyes +With the love-juice, as I did bid thee do? + +PUCK. +I took him sleeping—that is finish’d too— +And the Athenian woman by his side, +That, when he wak’d, of force she must be ey’d. + + Enter Demetrius and Hermia. + +OBERON. +Stand close. This is the same Athenian. + +PUCK. +This is the woman, but not this the man. + +DEMETRIUS. +O why rebuke you him that loves you so? +Lay breath so bitter on your bitter foe. + +HERMIA. +Now I but chide, but I should use thee worse, +For thou, I fear, hast given me cause to curse. +If thou hast slain Lysander in his sleep, +Being o’er shoes in blood, plunge in the deep, +And kill me too. +The sun was not so true unto the day +As he to me. Would he have stol’n away +From sleeping Hermia? I’ll believe as soon +This whole earth may be bor’d, and that the moon +May through the centre creep and so displease +Her brother’s noontide with th’ Antipodes. +It cannot be but thou hast murder’d him. +So should a murderer look, so dead, so grim. + +DEMETRIUS. +So should the murder’d look, and so should I, +Pierc’d through the heart with your stern cruelty. +Yet you, the murderer, look as bright, as clear, +As yonder Venus in her glimmering sphere. + +HERMIA. +What’s this to my Lysander? Where is he? +Ah, good Demetrius, wilt thou give him me? + +DEMETRIUS. +I had rather give his carcass to my hounds. + +HERMIA. +Out, dog! Out, cur! Thou driv’st me past the bounds +Of maiden’s patience. Hast thou slain him, then? +Henceforth be never number’d among men! +O once tell true; tell true, even for my sake! +Durst thou have look’d upon him, being awake, +And hast thou kill’d him sleeping? O brave touch! +Could not a worm, an adder, do so much? +An adder did it; for with doubler tongue +Than thine, thou serpent, never adder stung. + +DEMETRIUS. +You spend your passion on a mispris’d mood: +I am not guilty of Lysander’s blood; +Nor is he dead, for aught that I can tell. + +HERMIA. +I pray thee, tell me then that he is well. + +DEMETRIUS. +And if I could, what should I get therefore? + +HERMIA. +A privilege never to see me more. +And from thy hated presence part I so: +See me no more, whether he be dead or no. + + [_Exit._] + +DEMETRIUS. +There is no following her in this fierce vein. +Here, therefore, for a while I will remain. +So sorrow’s heaviness doth heavier grow +For debt that bankrupt sleep doth sorrow owe; +Which now in some slight measure it will pay, +If for his tender here I make some stay. + + [_Lies down._] + +OBERON. +What hast thou done? Thou hast mistaken quite, +And laid the love-juice on some true-love’s sight. +Of thy misprision must perforce ensue +Some true love turn’d, and not a false turn’d true. + +PUCK. +Then fate o’er-rules, that, one man holding troth, +A million fail, confounding oath on oath. + +OBERON. +About the wood go swifter than the wind, +And Helena of Athens look thou find. +All fancy-sick she is, and pale of cheer +With sighs of love, that costs the fresh blood dear. +By some illusion see thou bring her here; +I’ll charm his eyes against she do appear. + +PUCK. +I go, I go; look how I go, +Swifter than arrow from the Tartar’s bow. + + [_Exit._] + +OBERON. + Flower of this purple dye, + Hit with Cupid’s archery, + Sink in apple of his eye. + When his love he doth espy, + Let her shine as gloriously + As the Venus of the sky.— + When thou wak’st, if she be by, + Beg of her for remedy. + + Enter Puck. + +PUCK. + Captain of our fairy band, + Helena is here at hand, + And the youth mistook by me, + Pleading for a lover’s fee. + Shall we their fond pageant see? + Lord, what fools these mortals be! + +OBERON. + Stand aside. The noise they make + Will cause Demetrius to awake. + +PUCK. + Then will two at once woo one. + That must needs be sport alone; + And those things do best please me + That befall prepost’rously. + + Enter Lysander and Helena. + +LYSANDER. +Why should you think that I should woo in scorn? +Scorn and derision never come in tears. +Look when I vow, I weep; and vows so born, +In their nativity all truth appears. +How can these things in me seem scorn to you, +Bearing the badge of faith, to prove them true? + +HELENA. +You do advance your cunning more and more. +When truth kills truth, O devilish-holy fray! +These vows are Hermia’s: will you give her o’er? +Weigh oath with oath, and you will nothing weigh: +Your vows to her and me, put in two scales, +Will even weigh; and both as light as tales. + +LYSANDER. +I had no judgment when to her I swore. + +HELENA. +Nor none, in my mind, now you give her o’er. + +LYSANDER. +Demetrius loves her, and he loves not you. + +DEMETRIUS. +[_Waking._] O Helen, goddess, nymph, perfect, divine! +To what, my love, shall I compare thine eyne? +Crystal is muddy. O how ripe in show +Thy lips, those kissing cherries, tempting grow! +That pure congealèd white, high Taurus’ snow, +Fann’d with the eastern wind, turns to a crow +When thou hold’st up thy hand. O, let me kiss +This princess of pure white, this seal of bliss! + +HELENA. +O spite! O hell! I see you all are bent +To set against me for your merriment. +If you were civil, and knew courtesy, +You would not do me thus much injury. +Can you not hate me, as I know you do, +But you must join in souls to mock me too? +If you were men, as men you are in show, +You would not use a gentle lady so; +To vow, and swear, and superpraise my parts, +When I am sure you hate me with your hearts. +You both are rivals, and love Hermia; +And now both rivals, to mock Helena. +A trim exploit, a manly enterprise, +To conjure tears up in a poor maid’s eyes +With your derision! None of noble sort +Would so offend a virgin, and extort +A poor soul’s patience, all to make you sport. + +LYSANDER. +You are unkind, Demetrius; be not so, +For you love Hermia; this you know I know. +And here, with all good will, with all my heart, +In Hermia’s love I yield you up my part; +And yours of Helena to me bequeath, +Whom I do love and will do till my death. + +HELENA. +Never did mockers waste more idle breath. + +DEMETRIUS. +Lysander, keep thy Hermia; I will none. +If e’er I lov’d her, all that love is gone. +My heart to her but as guest-wise sojourn’d; +And now to Helen is it home return’d, +There to remain. + +LYSANDER. +Helen, it is not so. + +DEMETRIUS. +Disparage not the faith thou dost not know, +Lest to thy peril thou aby it dear. +Look where thy love comes; yonder is thy dear. + + Enter Hermia. + +HERMIA. +Dark night, that from the eye his function takes, +The ear more quick of apprehension makes; +Wherein it doth impair the seeing sense, +It pays the hearing double recompense. +Thou art not by mine eye, Lysander, found; +Mine ear, I thank it, brought me to thy sound. +But why unkindly didst thou leave me so? + +LYSANDER. +Why should he stay whom love doth press to go? + +HERMIA. +What love could press Lysander from my side? + +LYSANDER. +Lysander’s love, that would not let him bide, +Fair Helena, who more engilds the night +Than all yon fiery oes and eyes of light. +Why seek’st thou me? Could not this make thee know +The hate I bare thee made me leave thee so? + +HERMIA. +You speak not as you think; it cannot be. + +HELENA. +Lo, she is one of this confederacy! +Now I perceive they have conjoin’d all three +To fashion this false sport in spite of me. +Injurious Hermia, most ungrateful maid! +Have you conspir’d, have you with these contriv’d, +To bait me with this foul derision? +Is all the counsel that we two have shar’d, +The sisters’ vows, the hours that we have spent, +When we have chid the hasty-footed time +For parting us—O, is all forgot? +All school-days’ friendship, childhood innocence? +We, Hermia, like two artificial gods, +Have with our needles created both one flower, +Both on one sampler, sitting on one cushion, +Both warbling of one song, both in one key, +As if our hands, our sides, voices, and minds, +Had been incorporate. So we grew together, +Like to a double cherry, seeming parted, +But yet a union in partition, +Two lovely berries moulded on one stem; +So, with two seeming bodies, but one heart; +Two of the first, like coats in heraldry, +Due but to one, and crownèd with one crest. +And will you rent our ancient love asunder, +To join with men in scorning your poor friend? +It is not friendly, ’tis not maidenly. +Our sex, as well as I, may chide you for it, +Though I alone do feel the injury. + +HERMIA. +I am amazèd at your passionate words: +I scorn you not; it seems that you scorn me. + +HELENA. +Have you not set Lysander, as in scorn, +To follow me, and praise my eyes and face? +And made your other love, Demetrius, +Who even but now did spurn me with his foot, +To call me goddess, nymph, divine and rare, +Precious, celestial? Wherefore speaks he this +To her he hates? And wherefore doth Lysander +Deny your love, so rich within his soul, +And tender me, forsooth, affection, +But by your setting on, by your consent? +What though I be not so in grace as you, +So hung upon with love, so fortunate, +But miserable most, to love unlov’d? +This you should pity rather than despise. + +HERMIA. +I understand not what you mean by this. + +HELENA. +Ay, do. Persever, counterfeit sad looks, +Make mouths upon me when I turn my back, +Wink each at other; hold the sweet jest up. +This sport, well carried, shall be chronicled. +If you have any pity, grace, or manners, +You would not make me such an argument. +But fare ye well. ’Tis partly my own fault, +Which death, or absence, soon shall remedy. + +LYSANDER. +Stay, gentle Helena; hear my excuse; +My love, my life, my soul, fair Helena! + +HELENA. +O excellent! + +HERMIA. +Sweet, do not scorn her so. + +DEMETRIUS. +If she cannot entreat, I can compel. + +LYSANDER. +Thou canst compel no more than she entreat; +Thy threats have no more strength than her weak prayers. +Helen, I love thee, by my life I do; +I swear by that which I will lose for thee +To prove him false that says I love thee not. + +DEMETRIUS. +I say I love thee more than he can do. + +LYSANDER. +If thou say so, withdraw, and prove it too. + +DEMETRIUS. +Quick, come. + +HERMIA. +Lysander, whereto tends all this? + +LYSANDER. +Away, you Ethiope! + +DEMETRIUS. +No, no. He will +Seem to break loose. Take on as you would follow, +But yet come not. You are a tame man, go! + +LYSANDER. +Hang off, thou cat, thou burr! Vile thing, let loose, +Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent. + +HERMIA. +Why are you grown so rude? What change is this, +Sweet love? + +LYSANDER. +Thy love? Out, tawny Tartar, out! +Out, loathèd medicine! O hated potion, hence! + +HERMIA. +Do you not jest? + +HELENA. +Yes, sooth, and so do you. + +LYSANDER. +Demetrius, I will keep my word with thee. + +DEMETRIUS. +I would I had your bond; for I perceive +A weak bond holds you; I’ll not trust your word. + +LYSANDER. +What, should I hurt her, strike her, kill her dead? +Although I hate her, I’ll not harm her so. + +HERMIA. +What, can you do me greater harm than hate? +Hate me? Wherefore? O me! what news, my love? +Am not I Hermia? Are not you Lysander? +I am as fair now as I was erewhile. +Since night you lov’d me; yet since night you left me. +Why then, you left me—O, the gods forbid!— +In earnest, shall I say? + +LYSANDER. +Ay, by my life; +And never did desire to see thee more. +Therefore be out of hope, of question, of doubt; +Be certain, nothing truer; ’tis no jest +That I do hate thee and love Helena. + +HERMIA. +O me! You juggler! You cankerblossom! +You thief of love! What! have you come by night +And stol’n my love’s heart from him? + +HELENA. +Fine, i’ faith! +Have you no modesty, no maiden shame, +No touch of bashfulness? What, will you tear +Impatient answers from my gentle tongue? +Fie, fie, you counterfeit, you puppet, you! + +HERMIA. +Puppet! Why so? Ay, that way goes the game. +Now I perceive that she hath made compare +Between our statures; she hath urg’d her height; +And with her personage, her tall personage, +Her height, forsooth, she hath prevail’d with him. +And are you grown so high in his esteem +Because I am so dwarfish and so low? +How low am I, thou painted maypole? Speak, +How low am I? I am not yet so low +But that my nails can reach unto thine eyes. + +HELENA. +I pray you, though you mock me, gentlemen, +Let her not hurt me. I was never curst; +I have no gift at all in shrewishness; +I am a right maid for my cowardice; +Let her not strike me. You perhaps may think, +Because she is something lower than myself, +That I can match her. + +HERMIA. +Lower! Hark, again. + +HELENA. +Good Hermia, do not be so bitter with me. +I evermore did love you, Hermia, +Did ever keep your counsels, never wrong’d you, +Save that, in love unto Demetrius, +I told him of your stealth unto this wood. +He follow’d you; for love I follow’d him; +But he hath chid me hence, and threaten’d me +To strike me, spurn me, nay, to kill me too: +And now, so you will let me quiet go, +To Athens will I bear my folly back, +And follow you no further. Let me go: +You see how simple and how fond I am. + +HERMIA. +Why, get you gone. Who is’t that hinders you? + +HELENA. +A foolish heart that I leave here behind. + +HERMIA. +What! with Lysander? + +HELENA. +With Demetrius. + +LYSANDER. +Be not afraid; she shall not harm thee, Helena. + +DEMETRIUS. +No, sir, she shall not, though you take her part. + +HELENA. +O, when she’s angry, she is keen and shrewd. +She was a vixen when she went to school, +And though she be but little, she is fierce. + +HERMIA. +Little again! Nothing but low and little? +Why will you suffer her to flout me thus? +Let me come to her. + +LYSANDER. +Get you gone, you dwarf; +You minimus, of hind’ring knot-grass made; +You bead, you acorn. + +DEMETRIUS. +You are too officious +In her behalf that scorns your services. +Let her alone. Speak not of Helena; +Take not her part; for if thou dost intend +Never so little show of love to her, +Thou shalt aby it. + +LYSANDER. +Now she holds me not. +Now follow, if thou dar’st, to try whose right, +Of thine or mine, is most in Helena. + +DEMETRIUS. +Follow! Nay, I’ll go with thee, cheek by jole. + + [_Exeunt Lysander and Demetrius._] + +HERMIA. +You, mistress, all this coil is long of you. +Nay, go not back. + +HELENA. +I will not trust you, I, +Nor longer stay in your curst company. +Your hands than mine are quicker for a fray. +My legs are longer though, to run away. + + [_Exit._] + +HERMIA. +I am amaz’d, and know not what to say. + + [_Exit, pursuing Helena._] + +OBERON. +This is thy negligence: still thou mistak’st, +Or else commit’st thy knaveries willfully. + +PUCK. +Believe me, king of shadows, I mistook. +Did not you tell me I should know the man +By the Athenian garments he had on? +And so far blameless proves my enterprise +That I have ’nointed an Athenian’s eyes: +And so far am I glad it so did sort, +As this their jangling I esteem a sport. + +OBERON. +Thou seest these lovers seek a place to fight. +Hie therefore, Robin, overcast the night; +The starry welkin cover thou anon +With drooping fog, as black as Acheron, +And lead these testy rivals so astray +As one come not within another’s way. +Like to Lysander sometime frame thy tongue, +Then stir Demetrius up with bitter wrong; +And sometime rail thou like Demetrius. +And from each other look thou lead them thus, +Till o’er their brows death-counterfeiting sleep +With leaden legs and batty wings doth creep. +Then crush this herb into Lysander’s eye, +Whose liquor hath this virtuous property, +To take from thence all error with his might +And make his eyeballs roll with wonted sight. +When they next wake, all this derision +Shall seem a dream and fruitless vision; +And back to Athens shall the lovers wend, +With league whose date till death shall never end. +Whiles I in this affair do thee employ, +I’ll to my queen, and beg her Indian boy; +And then I will her charmèd eye release +From monster’s view, and all things shall be peace. + +PUCK. +My fairy lord, this must be done with haste, +For night’s swift dragons cut the clouds full fast; +And yonder shines Aurora’s harbinger, +At whose approach, ghosts wandering here and there +Troop home to churchyards. Damnèd spirits all, +That in cross-ways and floods have burial, +Already to their wormy beds are gone; +For fear lest day should look their shames upon, +They wilfully themselves exile from light, +And must for aye consort with black-brow’d night. + +OBERON. +But we are spirits of another sort: +I with the morning’s love have oft made sport; +And, like a forester, the groves may tread +Even till the eastern gate, all fiery-red, +Opening on Neptune with fair blessèd beams, +Turns into yellow gold his salt-green streams. +But, notwithstanding, haste, make no delay. +We may effect this business yet ere day. + + [_Exit Oberon._] + +PUCK. + Up and down, up and down, + I will lead them up and down. + I am fear’d in field and town. + Goblin, lead them up and down. +Here comes one. + + Enter Lysander. + +LYSANDER. +Where art thou, proud Demetrius? Speak thou now. + +PUCK. +Here, villain, drawn and ready. Where art thou? + +LYSANDER. +I will be with thee straight. + +PUCK. +Follow me then to plainer ground. + + [_Exit Lysander as following the voice._] + + Enter Demetrius. + +DEMETRIUS. +Lysander, speak again. +Thou runaway, thou coward, art thou fled? +Speak. In some bush? Where dost thou hide thy head? + +PUCK. +Thou coward, art thou bragging to the stars, +Telling the bushes that thou look’st for wars, +And wilt not come? Come, recreant, come, thou child! +I’ll whip thee with a rod. He is defil’d +That draws a sword on thee. + +DEMETRIUS. +Yea, art thou there? + +PUCK. +Follow my voice; we’ll try no manhood here. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Enter Lysander. + +LYSANDER. +He goes before me, and still dares me on; +When I come where he calls, then he is gone. +The villain is much lighter-heel’d than I: +I follow’d fast, but faster he did fly, +That fallen am I in dark uneven way, +And here will rest me. Come, thou gentle day! +[_Lies down._] For if but once thou show me thy grey light, +I’ll find Demetrius, and revenge this spite. + + [_Sleeps._] + + Enter Puck and Demetrius. + +PUCK. +Ho, ho, ho! Coward, why com’st thou not? + +DEMETRIUS. +Abide me, if thou dar’st; for well I wot +Thou runn’st before me, shifting every place, +And dar’st not stand, nor look me in the face. +Where art thou? + +PUCK. +Come hither; I am here. + +DEMETRIUS. +Nay, then, thou mock’st me. Thou shalt buy this dear +If ever I thy face by daylight see: +Now go thy way. Faintness constraineth me +To measure out my length on this cold bed. +By day’s approach look to be visited. + + [_Lies down and sleeps._] + + Enter Helena. + +HELENA. +O weary night, O long and tedious night, + Abate thy hours! Shine, comforts, from the east, +That I may back to Athens by daylight, + From these that my poor company detest. +And sleep, that sometimes shuts up sorrow’s eye, +Steal me awhile from mine own company. + + [_Sleeps._] + +PUCK. + Yet but three? Come one more. + Two of both kinds makes up four. + Here she comes, curst and sad. + Cupid is a knavish lad + Thus to make poor females mad. + + Enter Hermia. + +HERMIA. +Never so weary, never so in woe, + Bedabbled with the dew, and torn with briers, +I can no further crawl, no further go; + My legs can keep no pace with my desires. +Here will I rest me till the break of day. +Heavens shield Lysander, if they mean a fray! + + [_Lies down._] + +PUCK. + On the ground + Sleep sound. + I’ll apply + To your eye, + Gentle lover, remedy. + + [_Squeezing the juice on Lysander’s eye._] + + When thou wak’st, + Thou tak’st + True delight + In the sight + Of thy former lady’s eye. + And the country proverb known, + That every man should take his own, + In your waking shall be shown: + Jack shall have Jill; + Nought shall go ill; +The man shall have his mare again, and all shall be well. + + [_Exit Puck._] + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. The Wood + + Lysander, Demetrius, Helena and Hermia still asleep. + + Enter Titania and Bottom; Peaseblossom, Cobweb, Moth, Mustardseed and + other Fairies attending; Oberon behind, unseen. + +TITANIA. +Come, sit thee down upon this flowery bed, + While I thy amiable cheeks do coy, +And stick musk-roses in thy sleek smooth head, + And kiss thy fair large ears, my gentle joy. + +BOTTOM. +Where’s Peaseblossom? + +PEASEBLOSSOM. +Ready. + +BOTTOM. +Scratch my head, Peaseblossom. Where’s Monsieur Cobweb? + +COBWEB. +Ready. + +BOTTOM. +Monsieur Cobweb; good monsieur, get you your weapons in your hand and +kill me a red-hipped humble-bee on the top of a thistle; and, good +monsieur, bring me the honey-bag. Do not fret yourself too much in the +action, monsieur; and, good monsieur, have a care the honey-bag break +not; I would be loath to have you overflown with a honey-bag, signior. +Where’s Monsieur Mustardseed? + +MUSTARDSEED. +Ready. + +BOTTOM. +Give me your neaf, Monsieur Mustardseed. Pray you, leave your courtesy, +good monsieur. + +MUSTARDSEED. +What’s your will? + +BOTTOM. +Nothing, good monsieur, but to help Cavalery Cobweb to scratch. I must +to the barber’s, monsieur, for methinks I am marvellous hairy about the +face; and I am such a tender ass, if my hair do but tickle me, I must +scratch. + +TITANIA. +What, wilt thou hear some music, my sweet love? + +BOTTOM. +I have a reasonable good ear in music. Let us have the tongs and the +bones. + + +TITANIA. +Or say, sweet love, what thou desirest to eat. + +BOTTOM. +Truly, a peck of provender; I could munch your good dry oats. Methinks +I have a great desire to a bottle of hay: good hay, sweet hay, hath no +fellow. + +TITANIA. +I have a venturous fairy that shall seek +The squirrel’s hoard, and fetch thee new nuts. + +BOTTOM. +I had rather have a handful or two of dried peas. But, I pray you, let +none of your people stir me; I have an exposition of sleep come upon +me. + +TITANIA. +Sleep thou, and I will wind thee in my arms. +Fairies, be gone, and be all ways away. +So doth the woodbine the sweet honeysuckle +Gently entwist, the female ivy so +Enrings the barky fingers of the elm. +O, how I love thee! How I dote on thee! + + [_They sleep._] + + Oberon advances. Enter Puck. + +OBERON. +Welcome, good Robin. Seest thou this sweet sight? +Her dotage now I do begin to pity. +For, meeting her of late behind the wood, +Seeking sweet favours for this hateful fool, +I did upbraid her and fall out with her: +For she his hairy temples then had rounded +With coronet of fresh and fragrant flowers; +And that same dew, which sometime on the buds +Was wont to swell like round and orient pearls, +Stood now within the pretty flouriets’ eyes, +Like tears that did their own disgrace bewail. +When I had at my pleasure taunted her, +And she in mild terms begg’d my patience, +I then did ask of her her changeling child; +Which straight she gave me, and her fairy sent +To bear him to my bower in fairyland. +And now I have the boy, I will undo +This hateful imperfection of her eyes. +And, gentle Puck, take this transformèd scalp +From off the head of this Athenian swain, +That he awaking when the other do, +May all to Athens back again repair, +And think no more of this night’s accidents +But as the fierce vexation of a dream. +But first I will release the Fairy Queen. + + [_Touching her eyes with an herb._] + + Be as thou wast wont to be; + See as thou was wont to see. + Dian’s bud o’er Cupid’s flower + Hath such force and blessed power. +Now, my Titania, wake you, my sweet queen. + +TITANIA. +My Oberon, what visions have I seen! +Methought I was enamour’d of an ass. + +OBERON. +There lies your love. + +TITANIA. +How came these things to pass? +O, how mine eyes do loathe his visage now! + +OBERON. +Silence awhile.—Robin, take off this head. +Titania, music call; and strike more dead +Than common sleep, of all these five the sense. + +TITANIA. +Music, ho, music, such as charmeth sleep. + +PUCK. +Now when thou wak’st, with thine own fool’s eyes peep. + +OBERON. +Sound, music. + + [_Still mucic._] + +Come, my queen, take hands with me, +And rock the ground whereon these sleepers be. +Now thou and I are new in amity, +And will tomorrow midnight solemnly +Dance in Duke Theseus’ house triumphantly, +And bless it to all fair prosperity: +There shall the pairs of faithful lovers be +Wedded, with Theseus, all in jollity. + +PUCK. + Fairy king, attend and mark. + I do hear the morning lark. + +OBERON. + Then, my queen, in silence sad, + Trip we after night’s shade. + We the globe can compass soon, + Swifter than the wand’ring moon. + +TITANIA. + Come, my lord, and in our flight, + Tell me how it came this night + That I sleeping here was found + With these mortals on the ground. + + [_Exeunt. Horns sound within._] + + Enter Theseus, Hippolyta, Egeus and Train. + +THESEUS. +Go, one of you, find out the forester; +For now our observation is perform’d; +And since we have the vaward of the day, +My love shall hear the music of my hounds. +Uncouple in the western valley; let them go. +Dispatch I say, and find the forester. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + +We will, fair queen, up to the mountain’s top, +And mark the musical confusion +Of hounds and echo in conjunction. + +HIPPOLYTA. +I was with Hercules and Cadmus once, +When in a wood of Crete they bay’d the bear +With hounds of Sparta. Never did I hear +Such gallant chiding; for, besides the groves, +The skies, the fountains, every region near +Seem’d all one mutual cry. I never heard +So musical a discord, such sweet thunder. + +THESEUS. +My hounds are bred out of the Spartan kind, +So flew’d, so sanded; and their heads are hung +With ears that sweep away the morning dew; +Crook-knee’d and dewlap’d like Thessalian bulls; +Slow in pursuit, but match’d in mouth like bells, +Each under each. A cry more tuneable +Was never holla’d to, nor cheer’d with horn, +In Crete, in Sparta, nor in Thessaly. +Judge when you hear.—But, soft, what nymphs are these? + +EGEUS. +My lord, this is my daughter here asleep, +And this Lysander; this Demetrius is; +This Helena, old Nedar’s Helena: +I wonder of their being here together. + +THESEUS. +No doubt they rose up early to observe +The rite of May; and, hearing our intent, +Came here in grace of our solemnity. +But speak, Egeus; is not this the day +That Hermia should give answer of her choice? + +EGEUS. +It is, my lord. + +THESEUS. +Go, bid the huntsmen wake them with their horns. + + Horns, and shout within. Demetrius, Lysander, Hermia and Helena wake + and start up. + +Good morrow, friends. Saint Valentine is past. +Begin these wood-birds but to couple now? + +LYSANDER. +Pardon, my lord. + + He and the rest kneel to Theseus. + +THESEUS. +I pray you all, stand up. +I know you two are rival enemies. +How comes this gentle concord in the world, +That hatred is so far from jealousy +To sleep by hate, and fear no enmity? + +LYSANDER. +My lord, I shall reply amazedly, +Half sleep, half waking; but as yet, I swear, +I cannot truly say how I came here. +But, as I think (for truly would I speak) +And now I do bethink me, so it is: +I came with Hermia hither. Our intent +Was to be gone from Athens, where we might be, +Without the peril of the Athenian law. + +EGEUS. +Enough, enough, my lord; you have enough. +I beg the law, the law upon his head. +They would have stol’n away, they would, Demetrius, +Thereby to have defeated you and me: +You of your wife, and me of my consent, +Of my consent that she should be your wife. + +DEMETRIUS. +My lord, fair Helen told me of their stealth, +Of this their purpose hither to this wood; +And I in fury hither follow’d them, +Fair Helena in fancy following me. +But, my good lord, I wot not by what power, +(But by some power it is) my love to Hermia, +Melted as the snow, seems to me now +As the remembrance of an idle gaud +Which in my childhood I did dote upon; +And all the faith, the virtue of my heart, +The object and the pleasure of mine eye, +Is only Helena. To her, my lord, +Was I betroth’d ere I saw Hermia. +But like a sickness did I loathe this food. +But, as in health, come to my natural taste, +Now I do wish it, love it, long for it, +And will for evermore be true to it. + +THESEUS. +Fair lovers, you are fortunately met. +Of this discourse we more will hear anon. +Egeus, I will overbear your will; +For in the temple, by and by with us, +These couples shall eternally be knit. +And, for the morning now is something worn, +Our purpos’d hunting shall be set aside. +Away with us to Athens. Three and three, +We’ll hold a feast in great solemnity. +Come, Hippolyta. + + [_Exeunt Theseus, Hippolyta, Egeus and Train._] + +DEMETRIUS. +These things seem small and undistinguishable, +Like far-off mountains turnèd into clouds. + +HERMIA. +Methinks I see these things with parted eye, +When everything seems double. + +HELENA. +So methinks. +And I have found Demetrius like a jewel, +Mine own, and not mine own. + +DEMETRIUS. +Are you sure +That we are awake? It seems to me +That yet we sleep, we dream. Do not you think +The Duke was here, and bid us follow him? + +HERMIA. +Yea, and my father. + +HELENA. +And Hippolyta. + +LYSANDER. +And he did bid us follow to the temple. + +DEMETRIUS. +Why, then, we are awake: let’s follow him, +And by the way let us recount our dreams. + + [_Exeunt._] + +BOTTOM. +[_Waking._] When my cue comes, call me, and I will answer. My next is +‘Most fair Pyramus.’ Heigh-ho! Peter Quince! Flute, the bellows-mender! +Snout, the tinker! Starveling! God’s my life! Stol’n hence, and left me +asleep! I have had a most rare vision. I have had a dream, past the wit +of man to say what dream it was. Man is but an ass if he go about to +expound this dream. Methought I was—there is no man can tell what. +Methought I was, and methought I had—but man is but a patched fool if +he will offer to say what methought I had. The eye of man hath not +heard, the ear of man hath not seen, man’s hand is not able to taste, +his tongue to conceive, nor his heart to report, what my dream was. I +will get Peter Quince to write a ballad of this dream: it shall be +called ‘Bottom’s Dream’, because it hath no bottom; and I will sing it +in the latter end of a play, before the Duke. Peradventure, to make it +the more gracious, I shall sing it at her death. + + [_Exit._] + + +SCENE II. Athens. A Room in Quince’s House + + Enter Quince, Flute, Snout and Starveling. + +QUINCE. +Have you sent to Bottom’s house? Is he come home yet? + +STARVELING. +He cannot be heard of. Out of doubt he is transported. + +FLUTE. +If he come not, then the play is marred. It goes not forward, doth it? + +QUINCE. +It is not possible. You have not a man in all Athens able to discharge +Pyramus but he. + +FLUTE. +No, he hath simply the best wit of any handicraft man in Athens. + +QUINCE. +Yea, and the best person too, and he is a very paramour for a sweet +voice. + + +FLUTE. +You must say paragon. A paramour is, God bless us, a thing of naught. + + Enter Snug. + +SNUG +Masters, the Duke is coming from the temple, and there is two or three +lords and ladies more married. If our sport had gone forward, we had +all been made men. + +FLUTE. +O sweet bully Bottom! Thus hath he lost sixpence a day during his life; +he could not have ’scaped sixpence a day. An the Duke had not given him +sixpence a day for playing Pyramus, I’ll be hanged. He would have +deserved it: sixpence a day in Pyramus, or nothing. + + Enter Bottom. + +BOTTOM. +Where are these lads? Where are these hearts? + +QUINCE. +Bottom! O most courageous day! O most happy hour! + +BOTTOM. +Masters, I am to discourse wonders: but ask me not what; for if I tell +you, I am not true Athenian. I will tell you everything, right as it +fell out. + +QUINCE. +Let us hear, sweet Bottom. + +BOTTOM. +Not a word of me. All that I will tell you is, that the Duke hath +dined. Get your apparel together, good strings to your beards, new +ribbons to your pumps; meet presently at the palace; every man look +o’er his part. For the short and the long is, our play is preferred. In +any case, let Thisbe have clean linen; and let not him that plays the +lion pare his nails, for they shall hang out for the lion’s claws. And +most dear actors, eat no onions nor garlick, for we are to utter sweet +breath; and I do not doubt but to hear them say it is a sweet comedy. +No more words. Away! Go, away! + + [_Exeunt._] + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Athens. An Apartment in the Palace of Theseus + + Enter Theseus, Hippolyta, Philostrate, Lords and Attendants. + +HIPPOLYTA. +’Tis strange, my Theseus, that these lovers speak of. + +THESEUS. +More strange than true. I never may believe +These antique fables, nor these fairy toys. +Lovers and madmen have such seething brains, +Such shaping fantasies, that apprehend +More than cool reason ever comprehends. +The lunatic, the lover, and the poet +Are of imagination all compact: +One sees more devils than vast hell can hold; +That is the madman: the lover, all as frantic, +Sees Helen’s beauty in a brow of Egypt: +The poet’s eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, +Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven; +And as imagination bodies forth +The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen +Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing +A local habitation and a name. +Such tricks hath strong imagination, +That if it would but apprehend some joy, +It comprehends some bringer of that joy. +Or in the night, imagining some fear, +How easy is a bush supposed a bear? + +HIPPOLYTA. +But all the story of the night told over, +And all their minds transfigur’d so together, +More witnesseth than fancy’s images, +And grows to something of great constancy; +But, howsoever, strange and admirable. + + Enter lovers: Lysander, Demetrius, Hermia and Helena. + +THESEUS. +Here come the lovers, full of joy and mirth. +Joy, gentle friends, joy and fresh days of love +Accompany your hearts! + +LYSANDER. +More than to us +Wait in your royal walks, your board, your bed! + +THESEUS. +Come now; what masques, what dances shall we have, +To wear away this long age of three hours +Between our after-supper and bed-time? +Where is our usual manager of mirth? +What revels are in hand? Is there no play +To ease the anguish of a torturing hour? +Call Philostrate. + +PHILOSTRATE. +Here, mighty Theseus. + +THESEUS. +Say, what abridgment have you for this evening? +What masque? What music? How shall we beguile +The lazy time, if not with some delight? + +PHILOSTRATE. +There is a brief how many sports are ripe. +Make choice of which your Highness will see first. + + [_Giving a paper._] + +THESEUS. +[_Reads_] ‘The battle with the Centaurs, to be sung +By an Athenian eunuch to the harp.’ +We’ll none of that. That have I told my love +In glory of my kinsman Hercules. +‘The riot of the tipsy Bacchanals, +Tearing the Thracian singer in their rage?’ +That is an old device, and it was play’d +When I from Thebes came last a conqueror. +‘The thrice three Muses mourning for the death +Of learning, late deceas’d in beggary.’ +That is some satire, keen and critical, +Not sorting with a nuptial ceremony. +‘A tedious brief scene of young Pyramus +And his love Thisbe; very tragical mirth.’ +Merry and tragical? Tedious and brief? +That is hot ice and wondrous strange snow. +How shall we find the concord of this discord? + +PHILOSTRATE. +A play there is, my lord, some ten words long, +Which is as brief as I have known a play; +But by ten words, my lord, it is too long, +Which makes it tedious. For in all the play +There is not one word apt, one player fitted. +And tragical, my noble lord, it is. +For Pyramus therein doth kill himself, +Which, when I saw rehears’d, I must confess, +Made mine eyes water; but more merry tears +The passion of loud laughter never shed. + +THESEUS. +What are they that do play it? + +PHILOSTRATE. +Hard-handed men that work in Athens here, +Which never labour’d in their minds till now; +And now have toil’d their unbreath’d memories +With this same play against your nuptial. + +THESEUS. +And we will hear it. + +PHILOSTRATE. +No, my noble lord, +It is not for you: I have heard it over, +And it is nothing, nothing in the world; +Unless you can find sport in their intents, +Extremely stretch’d and conn’d with cruel pain +To do you service. + +THESEUS. +I will hear that play; +For never anything can be amiss +When simpleness and duty tender it. +Go, bring them in: and take your places, ladies. + + [_Exit Philostrate._] + +HIPPOLYTA. +I love not to see wretchedness o’ercharged, +And duty in his service perishing. + +THESEUS. +Why, gentle sweet, you shall see no such thing. + +HIPPOLYTA. +He says they can do nothing in this kind. + +THESEUS. +The kinder we, to give them thanks for nothing. +Our sport shall be to take what they mistake: +And what poor duty cannot do, noble respect +Takes it in might, not merit. +Where I have come, great clerks have purposed +To greet me with premeditated welcomes; +Where I have seen them shiver and look pale, +Make periods in the midst of sentences, +Throttle their practis’d accent in their fears, +And, in conclusion, dumbly have broke off, +Not paying me a welcome. Trust me, sweet, +Out of this silence yet I pick’d a welcome; +And in the modesty of fearful duty +I read as much as from the rattling tongue +Of saucy and audacious eloquence. +Love, therefore, and tongue-tied simplicity +In least speak most to my capacity. + + Enter Philostrate. + +PHILOSTRATE. +So please your grace, the Prologue is address’d. + +THESEUS. +Let him approach. + + Flourish of trumpets. Enter the Prologue. + +PROLOGUE +If we offend, it is with our good will. +That you should think, we come not to offend, +But with good will. To show our simple skill, +That is the true beginning of our end. +Consider then, we come but in despite. +We do not come, as minding to content you, +Our true intent is. All for your delight +We are not here. That you should here repent you, +The actors are at hand, and, by their show, +You shall know all that you are like to know. + +THESEUS. +This fellow doth not stand upon points. + +LYSANDER. +He hath rid his prologue like a rough colt; he knows not the stop. A +good moral, my lord: it is not enough to speak, but to speak true. + +HIPPOLYTA. +Indeed he hath played on this prologue like a child on a recorder; a +sound, but not in government. + +THESEUS. +His speech was like a tangled chain; nothing impaired, but all +disordered. Who is next? + + Enter Pyramus and Thisbe, Wall, Moonshine and Lion as in dumb show. + +PROLOGUE +Gentles, perchance you wonder at this show; +But wonder on, till truth make all things plain. +This man is Pyramus, if you would know; +This beauteous lady Thisbe is certain. +This man, with lime and rough-cast, doth present +Wall, that vile wall which did these lovers sunder; +And through Wall’s chink, poor souls, they are content +To whisper, at the which let no man wonder. +This man, with lanthern, dog, and bush of thorn, +Presenteth Moonshine, for, if you will know, +By moonshine did these lovers think no scorn +To meet at Ninus’ tomb, there, there to woo. +This grisly beast (which Lion hight by name) +The trusty Thisbe, coming first by night, +Did scare away, or rather did affright; +And as she fled, her mantle she did fall; +Which Lion vile with bloody mouth did stain. +Anon comes Pyramus, sweet youth, and tall, +And finds his trusty Thisbe’s mantle slain; +Whereat with blade, with bloody blameful blade, +He bravely broach’d his boiling bloody breast; +And Thisbe, tarrying in mulberry shade, +His dagger drew, and died. For all the rest, +Let Lion, Moonshine, Wall, and lovers twain, +At large discourse while here they do remain. + + [_Exeunt Prologue, Pyramus, Thisbe, Lion and Moonshine._] + +THESEUS. +I wonder if the lion be to speak. + +DEMETRIUS. +No wonder, my lord. One lion may, when many asses do. + +WALL. +In this same interlude it doth befall +That I, one Snout by name, present a wall: +And such a wall as I would have you think +That had in it a crannied hole or chink, +Through which the lovers, Pyramus and Thisbe, +Did whisper often very secretly. +This loam, this rough-cast, and this stone, doth show +That I am that same wall; the truth is so: +And this the cranny is, right and sinister, +Through which the fearful lovers are to whisper. + +THESEUS. +Would you desire lime and hair to speak better? + +DEMETRIUS. +It is the wittiest partition that ever I heard discourse, my lord. + +THESEUS. +Pyramus draws near the wall; silence. + + Enter Pyramus. + +PYRAMUS. +O grim-look’d night! O night with hue so black! +O night, which ever art when day is not! +O night, O night, alack, alack, alack, +I fear my Thisbe’s promise is forgot! +And thou, O wall, O sweet, O lovely wall, +That stand’st between her father’s ground and mine; +Thou wall, O wall, O sweet and lovely wall, +Show me thy chink, to blink through with mine eyne. + + [_Wall holds up his fingers._] + +Thanks, courteous wall: Jove shield thee well for this! +But what see I? No Thisbe do I see. +O wicked wall, through whom I see no bliss, +Curs’d be thy stones for thus deceiving me! + +THESEUS. +The wall, methinks, being sensible, should curse again. + +PYRAMUS. +No, in truth, sir, he should not. ‘Deceiving me’ is Thisbe’s cue: she +is to enter now, and I am to spy her through the wall. You shall see it +will fall pat as I told you. Yonder she comes. + + Enter Thisbe. + +THISBE. +O wall, full often hast thou heard my moans, +For parting my fair Pyramus and me. +My cherry lips have often kiss’d thy stones, +Thy stones with lime and hair knit up in thee. + +PYRAMUS. +I see a voice; now will I to the chink, +To spy an I can hear my Thisbe’s face. +Thisbe? + +THISBE. +My love thou art, my love I think. + +PYRAMUS. +Think what thou wilt, I am thy lover’s grace; +And like Limander am I trusty still. + +THISBE. +And I like Helen, till the fates me kill. + +PYRAMUS. +Not Shafalus to Procrus was so true. + +THISBE. +As Shafalus to Procrus, I to you. + +PYRAMUS. +O kiss me through the hole of this vile wall. + +THISBE. +I kiss the wall’s hole, not your lips at all. + +PYRAMUS. +Wilt thou at Ninny’s tomb meet me straightway? + +THISBE. +’Tide life, ’tide death, I come without delay. + +WALL. +Thus have I, Wall, my part discharged so; +And, being done, thus Wall away doth go. + + [_Exeunt Wall, Pyramus and Thisbe._] + +THESEUS. +Now is the mural down between the two neighbours. + +DEMETRIUS. +No remedy, my lord, when walls are so wilful to hear without warning. + +HIPPOLYTA. +This is the silliest stuff that ever I heard. + +THESEUS. +The best in this kind are but shadows; and the worst are no worse, if +imagination amend them. + +HIPPOLYTA. +It must be your imagination then, and not theirs. + +THESEUS. +If we imagine no worse of them than they of themselves, they may pass +for excellent men. Here come two noble beasts in, a man and a lion. + + Enter Lion and Moonshine. + +LION. +You, ladies, you, whose gentle hearts do fear +The smallest monstrous mouse that creeps on floor, +May now, perchance, both quake and tremble here, +When lion rough in wildest rage doth roar. +Then know that I, one Snug the joiner, am +A lion fell, nor else no lion’s dam; +For if I should as lion come in strife +Into this place, ’twere pity on my life. + +THESEUS. +A very gentle beast, and of a good conscience. + +DEMETRIUS. +The very best at a beast, my lord, that e’er I saw. + +LYSANDER. +This lion is a very fox for his valour. + +THESEUS. +True; and a goose for his discretion. + +DEMETRIUS. +Not so, my lord, for his valour cannot carry his discretion, and the +fox carries the goose. + +THESEUS. +His discretion, I am sure, cannot carry his valour; for the goose +carries not the fox. It is well; leave it to his discretion, and let us +listen to the moon. + +MOONSHINE. +This lanthorn doth the hornèd moon present. + +DEMETRIUS. +He should have worn the horns on his head. + +THESEUS. +He is no crescent, and his horns are invisible within the +circumference. + +MOONSHINE. +This lanthorn doth the hornèd moon present; +Myself the man i’ the moon do seem to be. + +THESEUS. +This is the greatest error of all the rest; the man should be put into +the lantern. How is it else the man i’ the moon? + +DEMETRIUS. +He dares not come there for the candle, for you see, it is already in +snuff. + +HIPPOLYTA. +I am aweary of this moon. Would he would change! + +THESEUS. +It appears by his small light of discretion that he is in the wane; but +yet, in courtesy, in all reason, we must stay the time. + +LYSANDER. +Proceed, Moon. + +MOON +All that I have to say, is to tell you that the lantern is the moon; I +the man i’ the moon; this thorn-bush my thorn-bush; and this dog my +dog. + +DEMETRIUS. +Why, all these should be in the lantern, for all these are in the moon. +But silence; here comes Thisbe. + + Enter Thisbe. + +THISBE. +This is old Ninny’s tomb. Where is my love? + +LION. +Oh! + + [_The Lion roars, Thisbe runs off._] + +DEMETRIUS. +Well roared, Lion. + +THESEUS. +Well run, Thisbe. + +HIPPOLYTA. +Well shone, Moon. Truly, the moon shines with a good grace. + + [_The Lion tears Thisbe’s mantle, and exit._] + +THESEUS. +Well moused, Lion. + +DEMETRIUS. +And then came Pyramus. + +LYSANDER. +And so the lion vanished. + + Enter Pyramus. + +PYRAMUS. +Sweet Moon, I thank thee for thy sunny beams; +I thank thee, Moon, for shining now so bright; +For, by thy gracious golden, glittering gleams, +I trust to take of truest Thisbe sight. + But stay! O spite! + But mark, poor knight, + What dreadful dole is here! + Eyes, do you see? + How can it be? + O dainty duck! O dear! + Thy mantle good, + What, stained with blood? + Approach, ye Furies fell! + O Fates, come, come; + Cut thread and thrum; + Quail, rush, conclude, and quell! + +THESEUS. +This passion, and the death of a dear friend, would go near to make a +man look sad. + +HIPPOLYTA. +Beshrew my heart, but I pity the man. + +PYRAMUS. +O wherefore, Nature, didst thou lions frame, +Since lion vile hath here deflower’d my dear? +Which is—no, no—which was the fairest dame +That liv’d, that lov’d, that lik’d, that look’d with cheer. + Come, tears, confound! + Out, sword, and wound + The pap of Pyramus; + Ay, that left pap, + Where heart doth hop: + Thus die I, thus, thus, thus. + Now am I dead, + Now am I fled; + My soul is in the sky. + Tongue, lose thy light! + Moon, take thy flight! + Now die, die, die, die, die. + + [_Dies. Exit Moonshine._] + +DEMETRIUS. +No die, but an ace, for him; for he is but one. + +LYSANDER. +Less than an ace, man; for he is dead, he is nothing. + +THESEUS. +With the help of a surgeon he might yet recover and prove an ass. + +HIPPOLYTA. +How chance Moonshine is gone before Thisbe comes back and finds her +lover? + + +THESEUS. +She will find him by starlight. + + Enter Thisbe. + +Here she comes, and her passion ends the play. + +HIPPOLYTA. +Methinks she should not use a long one for such a Pyramus. I hope she +will be brief. + +DEMETRIUS. +A mote will turn the balance, which Pyramus, which Thisbe, is the +better: he for a man, God warrant us; she for a woman, God bless us! + +LYSANDER. +She hath spied him already with those sweet eyes. + +DEMETRIUS. +And thus she means, _videlicet_— + +THISBE. + Asleep, my love? + What, dead, my dove? + O Pyramus, arise, + Speak, speak. Quite dumb? + Dead, dead? A tomb + Must cover thy sweet eyes. + These lily lips, + This cherry nose, + These yellow cowslip cheeks, + Are gone, are gone! + Lovers, make moan; + His eyes were green as leeks. + O Sisters Three, + Come, come to me, + With hands as pale as milk; + Lay them in gore, + Since you have shore + With shears his thread of silk. + Tongue, not a word: + Come, trusty sword, + Come, blade, my breast imbrue; + And farewell, friends. + Thus Thisbe ends. + Adieu, adieu, adieu. + + [_Dies._] + +THESEUS. +Moonshine and Lion are left to bury the dead. + +DEMETRIUS. +Ay, and Wall too. + +BOTTOM. +No, I assure you; the wall is down that parted their fathers. Will it +please you to see the epilogue, or to hear a Bergomask dance between +two of our company? + +THESEUS. +No epilogue, I pray you; for your play needs no excuse. Never excuse; +for when the players are all dead there need none to be blamed. Marry, +if he that writ it had played Pyramus, and hanged himself in Thisbe’s +garter, it would have been a fine tragedy; and so it is, truly; and +very notably discharged. But come, your Bergomask; let your epilogue +alone. + + [_Here a dance of Clowns._] + +The iron tongue of midnight hath told twelve. +Lovers, to bed; ’tis almost fairy time. +I fear we shall outsleep the coming morn +As much as we this night have overwatch’d. +This palpable-gross play hath well beguil’d +The heavy gait of night. Sweet friends, to bed. +A fortnight hold we this solemnity +In nightly revels and new jollity. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Enter Puck. + +PUCK. + Now the hungry lion roars, + And the wolf behowls the moon; + Whilst the heavy ploughman snores, + All with weary task fordone. + Now the wasted brands do glow, + Whilst the screech-owl, screeching loud, + Puts the wretch that lies in woe + In remembrance of a shroud. + Now it is the time of night + That the graves, all gaping wide, + Every one lets forth his sprite, + In the church-way paths to glide. + And we fairies, that do run + By the triple Hecate’s team + From the presence of the sun, + Following darkness like a dream, + Now are frolic; not a mouse + Shall disturb this hallow’d house. + I am sent with broom before, + To sweep the dust behind the door. + + Enter Oberon and Titania with their Train. + +OBERON. + Through the house give glimmering light, + By the dead and drowsy fire. + Every elf and fairy sprite + Hop as light as bird from brier, + And this ditty after me, + Sing and dance it trippingly. + +TITANIA. + First rehearse your song by rote, + To each word a warbling note; + Hand in hand, with fairy grace, + Will we sing, and bless this place. + + [_Song and Dance._] + +OBERON. + Now, until the break of day, + Through this house each fairy stray. + To the best bride-bed will we, + Which by us shall blessèd be; + And the issue there create + Ever shall be fortunate. + So shall all the couples three + Ever true in loving be; + And the blots of Nature’s hand + Shall not in their issue stand: + Never mole, hare-lip, nor scar, + Nor mark prodigious, such as are + Despised in nativity, + Shall upon their children be. + With this field-dew consecrate, + Every fairy take his gait, + And each several chamber bless, + Through this palace, with sweet peace; + And the owner of it blest. + Ever shall it in safety rest, + Trip away. Make no stay; + Meet me all by break of day. + + [_Exeunt Oberon, Titania and Train._] + +PUCK. + If we shadows have offended, + Think but this, and all is mended, + That you have but slumber’d here + While these visions did appear. + And this weak and idle theme, + No more yielding but a dream, + Gentles, do not reprehend. + If you pardon, we will mend. + And, as I am an honest Puck, + If we have unearnèd luck + Now to ’scape the serpent’s tongue, + We will make amends ere long; + Else the Puck a liar call. + So, good night unto you all. + Give me your hands, if we be friends, + And Robin shall restore amends. + + [_Exit._] + + + + MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Before Leonato’s House. +Scene II. A room in Leonato’s house. +Scene III. Another room in Leonato’s house. + +ACT II +Scene I. A hall in Leonato’s house. +Scene II. Another room in Leonato’s house. +Scene III. Leonato’s Garden. + +ACT III +Scene I. Leonato’s Garden. +Scene II. A Room in Leonato’s House. +Scene III. A Street. +Scene IV. A Room in Leonato’s House. +Scene V. Another Room in Leonato’s House. + +ACT IV +Scene I. The Inside of a Church. +Scene II. A Prison. + +ACT V +Scene I. Before Leonato’s House. +Scene II. Leonato’s Garden. +Scene III. The Inside of a Church. +Scene IV. A Room in Leonato’s House. + + + + + + Dramatis Personæ + + + DON PEDRO, Prince of Arragon. + DON JOHN, his bastard Brother. + CLAUDIO, a young Lord of Florence. + BENEDICK, a young Lord of Padua. + LEONATO, Governor of Messina. + ANTONIO, his Brother. + BALTHASAR, Servant to Don Pedro. + BORACHIO, follower of Don John. + CONRADE, follower of Don John. + DOGBERRY, a Constable. + VERGES, a Headborough. + FRIAR FRANCIS. + A Sexton. + A Boy. + + + HERO, Daughter to Leonato. + BEATRICE, Niece to Leonato. + MARGARET, Waiting gentlewoman attending on Hero. + URSULA, Waiting gentlewoman attending on Hero. + + + Messengers, Watch, Attendants, &c. + + + SCENE. Messina. + + + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Before Leonato’s House. + + Enter Leonato, Hero, Beatrice and others, with a Messenger. + + + LEONATO. + I learn in this letter that Don Pedro of Arragon comes this night + to Messina. + + + MESSENGER. + He is very near by this: he was not three leagues off when I left + him. + + + LEONATO. + How many gentlemen have you lost in this action? + + + MESSENGER. + But few of any sort, and none of name. + + + LEONATO. + A victory is twice itself when the achiever brings home full + numbers. I find here that Don Pedro hath bestowed much honour on + a young Florentine called Claudio. + + + MESSENGER. + Much deserved on his part, and equally remembered by Don Pedro. + He hath borne himself beyond the promise of his age, doing in the + figure of a lamb the feats of a lion: he hath indeed better + bettered expectation than you must expect of me to tell you how. + + + LEONATO. + He hath an uncle here in Messina will be very much glad of it. + + + MESSENGER. + I have already delivered him letters, and there appears much joy + in him; even so much that joy could not show itself modest enough + without a badge of bitterness. + + + LEONATO. + Did he break out into tears? + + + MESSENGER. + In great measure. + + + LEONATO. + A kind overflow of kindness. There are no faces truer than those + that are so washed; how much better is it to weep at joy than to + joy at weeping! + + + BEATRICE. + I pray you, is Signior Mountanto returned from the wars or no? + + + MESSENGER. + I know none of that name, lady: there was none such in the army + of any sort. + + + LEONATO. + What is he that you ask for, niece? + + + HERO. + My cousin means Signior Benedick of Padua. + + + MESSENGER. + O! he is returned, and as pleasant as ever he was. + + + BEATRICE. + He set up his bills here in Messina and challenged Cupid at the + flight; and my uncle’s fool, reading the challenge, subscribed + for Cupid, and challenged him at the bird-bolt. I pray you, how + many hath he killed and eaten in these wars? But how many hath he + killed? for, indeed, I promised to eat all of his killing. + + + LEONATO. + Faith, niece, you tax Signior Benedick too much; but he’ll be + meet with you, I doubt it not. + + + MESSENGER. + He hath done good service, lady, in these wars. + + + BEATRICE. + You had musty victual, and he hath holp to eat it; he is a very + valiant trencher-man; he hath an excellent stomach. + + + MESSENGER. + And a good soldier too, lady. + + + BEATRICE. + And a good soldier to a lady; but what is he to a lord? + + + MESSENGER. + A lord to a lord, a man to a man; stuffed with all honourable + virtues. + + + BEATRICE. + It is so indeed; he is no less than a stuffed man; but for the + stuffing,—well, we are all mortal. + + + LEONATO. + You must not, sir, mistake my niece. There is a kind of merry war + betwixt Signior Benedick and her; they never meet but there’s a + skirmish of wit between them. + + + BEATRICE. + Alas! he gets nothing by that. In our last conflict four of his + five wits went halting off, and now is the whole man governed + with one! so that if he have wit enough to keep himself warm, let + him bear it for a difference between himself and his horse; for + it is all the wealth that he hath left to be known a reasonable + creature. Who is his companion now? He hath every month a new + sworn brother. + + + MESSENGER. + Is’t possible? + + + BEATRICE. + Very easily possible: he wears his faith but as the fashion of + his hat; it ever changes with the next block. + + + MESSENGER. + I see, lady, the gentleman is not in your books. + + + BEATRICE. + No; and he were, I would burn my study. But I pray you, who is + his companion? Is there no young squarer now that will make a + voyage with him to the devil? + + + MESSENGER. + He is most in the company of the right noble Claudio. + + + BEATRICE. + O Lord, he will hang upon him like a disease: he is sooner caught + than the pestilence, and the taker runs presently mad. God help + the noble Claudio! If he have caught the Benedick, it will cost + him a thousand pound ere he be cured. + + + MESSENGER. + I will hold friends with you, lady. + + + BEATRICE. + Do, good friend. + + + LEONATO. + You will never run mad, niece. + + + BEATRICE. + No, not till a hot January. + + + MESSENGER. + Don Pedro is approached. + + + Enter Don Pedro, Don John, Claudio, Benedick, Balthasar and + Others. + + + DON PEDRO. + Good Signior Leonato, you are come to meet your trouble: the + fashion of the world is to avoid cost, and you encounter it. + + + LEONATO. + Never came trouble to my house in the likeness of your Grace, for + trouble being gone, comfort should remain; but when you depart + from me, sorrow abides and happiness takes his leave. + + + DON PEDRO. + You embrace your charge too willingly. I think this is your + daughter. + + + LEONATO. + Her mother hath many times told me so. + + + BENEDICK. + Were you in doubt, sir, that you asked her? + + + LEONATO. + Signior Benedick, no; for then were you a child. + + + DON PEDRO. + You have it full, Benedick: we may guess by this what you are, + being a man. Truly the lady fathers herself. Be happy, lady, for + you are like an honourable father. + + + BENEDICK. + If Signior Leonato be her father, she would not have his head on + her shoulders for all Messina, as like him as she is. + + + BEATRICE. + I wonder that you will still be talking, Signior Benedick: nobody + marks you. + + + BENEDICK. + What! my dear Lady Disdain, are you yet living? + + + BEATRICE. + Is it possible Disdain should die while she hath such meet food + to feed it as Signior Benedick? Courtesy itself must convert to + disdain if you come in her presence. + + + BENEDICK. + Then is courtesy a turncoat. But it is certain I am loved of all + ladies, only you excepted; and I would I could find in my heart + that I had not a hard heart; for, truly, I love none. + + + BEATRICE. + A dear happiness to women: they would else have been troubled + with a pernicious suitor. I thank God and my cold blood, I am of + your humour for that. I had rather hear my dog bark at a crow + than a man swear he loves me. + + + BENEDICK. + God keep your Ladyship still in that mind; so some gentleman or + other shall scape a predestinate scratched face. + + + BEATRICE. + Scratching could not make it worse, and ’twere such a face as + yours were. + + + BENEDICK. + Well, you are a rare parrot-teacher. + + + BEATRICE. + A bird of my tongue is better than a beast of yours. + + + BENEDICK. + I would my horse had the speed of your tongue, and so good a + continuer. But keep your way, i’ God’s name; I have done. + + + BEATRICE. + You always end with a jade’s trick: I know you of old. + + + DON PEDRO. + That is the sum of all, Leonato: Signior Claudio, and Signior + Benedick, my dear friend Leonato hath invited you all. I tell him + we shall stay here at the least a month, and he heartly prays + some occasion may detain us longer: I dare swear he is no + hypocrite, but prays from his heart. + + + LEONATO. + If you swear, my lord, you shall not be forsworn. [_To Don John_] + Let me bid you welcome, my lord: being reconciled to the Prince + your brother, I owe you all duty. + + + DON JOHN. + I thank you: I am not of many words, but I thank you. + + + LEONATO. + Please it your Grace lead on? + + + DON PEDRO. + Your hand, Leonato; we will go together. + + + [_Exeunt all but Benedick and Claudio._] + + + CLAUDIO. + Benedick, didst thou note the daughter of Signior Leonato? + + + BENEDICK. + I noted her not; but I looked on her. + + + CLAUDIO. + Is she not a modest young lady? + + + BENEDICK. + Do you question me, as an honest man should do, for my simple + true judgment; or would you have me speak after my custom, as + being a professed tyrant to their sex? + + + CLAUDIO. + No; I pray thee speak in sober judgment. + + + BENEDICK. + Why, i’ faith, methinks she’s too low for a high praise, too + brown for a fair praise, and too little for a great praise; only + this commendation I can afford her, that were she other than she + is, she were unhandsome, and being no other but as she is, I do + not like her. + + + CLAUDIO. + Thou thinkest I am in sport: I pray thee tell me truly how thou + likest her. + + + BENEDICK. + Would you buy her, that you enquire after her? + + + CLAUDIO. + Can the world buy such a jewel? + + + BENEDICK. + Yea, and a case to put it into. But speak you this with a sad + brow, or do you play the flouting Jack, to tell us Cupid is a + good hare-finder, and Vulcan a rare carpenter? Come, in what key + shall a man take you, to go in the song? + + + CLAUDIO. + In mine eye she is the sweetest lady that ever I looked on. + + + BENEDICK. + I can see yet without spectacles and I see no such matter: + there’s her cousin and she were not possessed with a fury, + exceeds her as much in beauty as the first of May doth the last + of December. But I hope you have no intent to turn husband, have + you? + + + CLAUDIO. + I would scarce trust myself, though I had sworn to the contrary, + if Hero would be my wife. + + + BENEDICK. + Is’t come to this, in faith? Hath not the world one man but he + will wear his cap with suspicion? Shall I never see a bachelor of + threescore again? Go to, i’ faith; and thou wilt needs thrust thy + neck into a yoke, wear the print of it and sigh away Sundays. + + + Re-enter Don Pedro. + + + Look! Don Pedro is returned to seek you. + + + DON PEDRO. + What secret hath held you here, that you followed not to + Leonato’s? + + + BENEDICK. + I would your Grace would constrain me to tell. + + + DON PEDRO. + I charge thee on thy allegiance. + + + BENEDICK. + You hear, Count Claudio: I can be secret as a dumb man; I would + have you think so; but on my allegiance mark you this, on my + allegiance: he is in love. With who? now that is your Grace’s + part. Mark how short his answer is: with Hero, Leonato’s short + daughter. + + + CLAUDIO. + If this were so, so were it uttered. + + + BENEDICK. + Like the old tale, my lord: ‘it is not so, nor ’twas not so; but + indeed, God forbid it should be so.’ + + + CLAUDIO. + If my passion change not shortly, God forbid it should be + otherwise. + + + DON PEDRO. + Amen, if you love her; for the lady is very well worthy. + + + CLAUDIO. + You speak this to fetch me in, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. + By my troth, I speak my thought. + + + CLAUDIO. + And in faith, my lord, I spoke mine. + + + BENEDICK. + And by my two faiths and troths, my lord, I spoke mine. + + + CLAUDIO. + That I love her, I feel. + + + DON PEDRO. + That she is worthy, I know. + + + BENEDICK. + That I neither feel how she should be loved, nor know how she + should be worthy, is the opinion that fire cannot melt out of me: + I will die in it at the stake. + + + DON PEDRO. + Thou wast ever an obstinate heretic in the despite of beauty. + + + CLAUDIO. + And never could maintain his part but in the force of his will. + + + BENEDICK. + That a woman conceived me, I thank her; that she brought me up, I + likewise give her most humble thanks; but that I will have a + recheat winded in my forehead, or hang my bugle in an invisible + baldrick, all women shall pardon me. Because I will not do them + the wrong to mistrust any, I will do myself the right to trust + none; and the fine is,—for the which I may go the finer,—I will + live a bachelor. + + + DON PEDRO. + I shall see thee, ere I die, look pale with love. + + + BENEDICK. + With anger, with sickness, or with hunger, my lord; not with + love: prove that ever I lose more blood with love than I will get + again with drinking, pick out mine eyes with a ballad-maker’s pen + and hang me up at the door of a brothel-house for the sign of + blind Cupid. + + + DON PEDRO. + Well, if ever thou dost fall from this faith, thou wilt prove a + notable argument. + + + BENEDICK. + If I do, hang me in a bottle like a cat and shoot at me; and he + that hits me, let him be clapped on the shoulder and called Adam. + + + DON PEDRO. + Well, as time shall try: ‘In time the savage bull doth bear the + yoke.’ + + + BENEDICK. + The savage bull may; but if ever the sensible Benedick bear it, + pluck off the bull’s horns and set them in my forehead; and let + me be vilely painted, and in such great letters as they write, + ‘Here is good horse to hire,’ let them signify under my sign + ‘Here you may see Benedick the married man.’ + + + CLAUDIO. + If this should ever happen, thou wouldst be horn-mad. + + + DON PEDRO. + Nay, if Cupid have not spent all his quiver in Venice, thou wilt + quake for this shortly. + + + BENEDICK. + I look for an earthquake too then. + + + DON PEDRO. + Well, you will temporize with the hours. In the meantime, good + Signior Benedick, repair to Leonato’s: commend me to him and tell + him I will not fail him at supper; for indeed he hath made great + preparation. + + + BENEDICK. + I have almost matter enough in me for such an embassage; and so I + commit you— + + + CLAUDIO. + To the tuition of God: from my house, if I had it,— + + + DON PEDRO. + The sixth of July: your loving friend, Benedick. + + + BENEDICK. + Nay, mock not, mock not. The body of your discourse is sometime + guarded with fragments, and the guards are but slightly basted on + neither: ere you flout old ends any further, examine your + conscience: and so I leave you. + + + [_Exit._] + + + CLAUDIO. + My liege, your Highness now may do me good. + + + DON PEDRO. + My love is thine to teach: teach it but how, + And thou shalt see how apt it is to learn + Any hard lesson that may do thee good. + + + CLAUDIO. + Hath Leonato any son, my lord? + + + DON PEDRO. + No child but Hero; she’s his only heir. + Dost thou affect her, Claudio? + + + CLAUDIO. + O! my lord, + When you went onward on this ended action, + I looked upon her with a soldier’s eye, + That lik’d, but had a rougher task in hand + Than to drive liking to the name of love; + But now I am return’d, and that war-thoughts + Have left their places vacant, in their rooms + Come thronging soft and delicate desires, + All prompting me how fair young Hero is, + Saying, I lik’d her ere I went to wars. + + + DON PEDRO. + Thou wilt be like a lover presently, + And tire the hearer with a book of words. + If thou dost love fair Hero, cherish it, + And I will break with her, and with her father, + And thou shalt have her. Was’t not to this end + That thou began’st to twist so fine a story? + + + CLAUDIO. + How sweetly you do minister to love, + That know love’s grief by his complexion! + But lest my liking might too sudden seem, + I would have salv’d it with a longer treatise. + + + DON PEDRO. + What need the bridge much broader than the flood? + The fairest grant is the necessity. + Look, what will serve is fit: ’tis once, thou lov’st, + And I will fit thee with the remedy. + I know we shall have revelling tonight: + I will assume thy part in some disguise, + And tell fair Hero I am Claudio; + And in her bosom I’ll unclasp my heart, + And take her hearing prisoner with the force + And strong encounter of my amorous tale: + Then after to her father will I break; + And the conclusion is, she shall be thine. + In practice let us put it presently. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE II. A room in Leonato’s house. + + Enter Leonato and Antonio, meeting. + + + LEONATO. + How now, brother? Where is my cousin your son? Hath he provided + this music? + + + ANTONIO. + He is very busy about it. But, brother, I can tell you strange + news that you yet dreamt not of. + + + LEONATO. + Are they good? + + + ANTONIO. + As the event stamps them: but they have a good cover; they show + well outward. The Prince and Count Claudio, walking in a + thick-pleached alley in my orchard, were thus much overheard by a + man of mine: the Prince discovered to Claudio that he loved my + niece your daughter and meant to acknowledge it this night in a + dance; and if he found her accordant, he meant to take the + present time by the top and instantly break with you of it. + + + LEONATO. Hath the fellow any wit that told you this? + + + ANTONIO. + A good sharp fellow: I will send for him; and question him + yourself. + + + LEONATO. + No, no; we will hold it as a dream till it appear itself: but I + will acquaint my daughter withal, that she may be the better + prepared for an answer, if peradventure this be true. Go you and + tell her of it. + + + [_Several persons cross the stage._] + + + Cousins, you know what you have to do. O! I cry you mercy, + friend; go you with me, and I will use your skill. Good cousin, + have a care this busy time. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE III. Another room in Leonato’s house. + + Enter Don John and Conrade. + + + CONRADE. + What the good-year, my lord! why are you thus out of measure sad? + + + DON JOHN. + There is no measure in the occasion that breeds; therefore the + sadness is without limit. + + + CONRADE. + You should hear reason. + + + DON JOHN. + And when I have heard it, what blessings brings it? + + + CONRADE. + If not a present remedy, at least a patient sufferance. + + + DON JOHN. + I wonder that thou (being as thou say’st thou art, born under + Saturn) goest about to apply a moral medicine to a mortifying + mischief. I cannot hide what I am: I must be sad when I have + cause, and smile at no man’s jests; eat when I have stomach, and + wait for no man’s leisure; sleep when I am drowsy, and tend on no + man’s business; laugh when I am merry, and claw no man in his + humour. + + + CONRADE. + Yea; but you must not make the full show of this till you may do + it without controlment. You have of late stood out against your + brother, and he hath ta’en you newly into his grace; where it is + impossible you should take true root but by the fair weather that + you make yourself: it is needful that you frame the season for + your own harvest. + + + DON JOHN. + I had rather be a canker in a hedge than a rose in his grace; and + it better fits my blood to be disdained of all than to fashion a + carriage to rob love from any: in this, though I cannot be said + to be a flattering honest man, it must not be denied but I am a + plain-dealing villain. I am trusted with a muzzle and + enfranchised with a clog; therefore I have decreed not to sing in + my cage. If I had my mouth, I would bite; if I had my liberty, I + would do my liking: in the meantime, let me be that I am, and + seek not to alter me. + + + CONRADE. Can you make no use of your discontent? + + + DON JOHN. I make all use of it, for I use it only. Who comes + here? + + + Enter Borachio. + + + What news, Borachio? + + + BORACHIO. + I came yonder from a great supper: the Prince your brother is + royally entertained by Leonato; and I can give you intelligence + of an intended marriage. + + + DON JOHN. + Will it serve for any model to build mischief on? What is he for + a fool that betroths himself to unquietness? + + + BORACHIO. + Marry, it is your brother’s right hand. + + + DON JOHN. + Who? the most exquisite Claudio? + + + BORACHIO. + Even he. + + + DON JOHN. + A proper squire! And who, and who? which way looks he? + + + BORACHIO. + Marry, on Hero, the daughter and heir of Leonato. + + + DON JOHN. + A very forward March-chick! How came you to this? + + + BORACHIO. + Being entertained for a perfumer, as I was smoking a musty room, + comes me the Prince and Claudio, hand in hand, in sad conference: + I whipt me behind the arras, and there heard it agreed upon that + the Prince should woo Hero for himself, and having obtained her, + give her to Count Claudio. + + + DON JOHN. + Come, come; let us thither: this may prove food to my + displeasure. That young start-up hath all the glory of my + overthrow: if I can cross him any way, I bless myself every way. + You are both sure, and will assist me? + + + CONRADE. To the death, my lord. + + + DON JOHN. + Let us to the great supper: their cheer is the greater that I am + subdued. Would the cook were of my mind! Shall we go to prove + what’s to be done? + + + BORACHIO. + We’ll wait upon your Lordship. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. A hall in Leonato’s house. + + Enter Leonato, Antonio, Hero, Beatrice and others. + + + LEONATO. + Was not Count John here at supper? + + + ANTONIO. + I saw him not. + + + BEATRICE. + How tartly that gentleman looks! I never can see him but I am + heart-burned an hour after. + + + HERO. + He is of a very melancholy disposition. + + + BEATRICE. + He were an excellent man that were made just in the mid-way + between him and Benedick: the one is too like an image, and says + nothing; and the other too like my lady’s eldest son, evermore + tattling. + + + LEONATO. + Then half Signior Benedick’s tongue in Count John’s mouth, and + half Count John’s melancholy in Signior Benedick’s face— + + + BEATRICE. + With a good leg and a good foot, uncle, and money enough in his + purse, such a man would win any woman in the world if a’ could + get her good will. + + + LEONATO. + By my troth, niece, thou wilt never get thee a husband, if thou + be so shrewd of thy tongue. + + + ANTONIO. + In faith, she’s too curst. + + + BEATRICE. + Too curst is more than curst: I shall lessen God’s sending that + way; for it is said, ‘God sends a curst cow short horns;’ but to + a cow too curst he sends none. + + + LEONATO. + So, by being too curst, God will send you no horns? + + + BEATRICE. + Just, if he send me no husband; for the which blessing I am at + him upon my knees every morning and evening. Lord! I could not + endure a husband with a beard on his face: I had rather lie in + the woollen. + + + LEONATO. + You may light on a husband that hath no beard. + + + BEATRICE. + What should I do with him? dress him in my apparel and make him + my waiting gentlewoman? He that hath a beard is more than a + youth, and he that hath no beard is less than a man; and he that + is more than a youth is not for me; and he that is less than a + man, I am not for him: therefore I will even take sixpence in + earnest of the bear-ward, and lead his apes into hell. + + + LEONATO. + Well then, go you into hell? + + + BEATRICE. + No; but to the gate; and there will the Devil meet me, like an + old cuckold, with horns on his head, and say, ‘Get you to heaven, + Beatrice, get you to heaven; here’s no place for you maids.’ So + deliver I up my apes, and away to Saint Peter for the heavens: he + shows me where the bachelors sit, and there live we as merry as + the day is long. + + + ANTONIO. + [_To Hero_.] Well, niece, I trust you will be ruled by your + father. + + + BEATRICE. + Yes, faith; it is my cousin’s duty to make curtsy, and say, + ‘Father, as it please you:’— but yet for all that, cousin, let + him be a handsome fellow, or else make another curtsy, and say, + ‘Father, as it please me.’ + + + LEONATO. + Well, niece, I hope to see you one day fitted with a husband. + + + BEATRICE. + Not till God make men of some other metal than earth. Would it + not grieve a woman to be over-mastered with a piece of valiant + dust? to make an account of her life to a clod of wayward marl? + No, uncle, I’ll none: Adam’s sons are my brethren; and truly, I + hold it a sin to match in my kindred. + + + LEONATO. + Daughter, remember what I told you: if the Prince do solicit you + in that kind, you know your answer. + + + BEATRICE. + The fault will be in the music, cousin, if you be not wooed in + good time: if the Prince be too important, tell him there is + measure in everything, and so dance out the answer. For, hear me, + Hero: wooing, wedding, and repenting is as a Scotch jig, a + measure, and a cinquepace: the first suit is hot and hasty, like + a Scotch jig, and full as fantastical; the wedding, mannerly + modest, as a measure, full of state and ancientry; and then comes + Repentance, and with his bad legs, falls into the cinquepace + faster and faster, till he sink into his grave. + + + LEONATO. + Cousin, you apprehend passing shrewdly. + + + BEATRICE. + I have a good eye, uncle: I can see a church by daylight. + + + LEONATO. + The revellers are entering, brother: make good room. + + + Enter Don Pedro, Claudio, Benedick, Balthasar, Don John, + Borachio, Margaret, Ursula and Others, masked. + + + DON PEDRO. + Lady, will you walk about with your friend? + + + HERO. + So you walk softly and look sweetly and say nothing, I am yours + for the walk; and especially when I walk away. + + + DON PEDRO. + With me in your company? + + + HERO. + I may say so, when I please. + + + DON PEDRO. + And when please you to say so? + + + HERO. + When I like your favour; for God defend the lute should be like + the case! + + + DON PEDRO. + My visor is Philemon’s roof; within the house is Jove. + + + HERO. + Why, then, your visor should be thatch’d. + + + DON PEDRO. + Speak low, if you speak love. + + + [_Takes her aside._] + + + BALTHASAR. + Well, I would you did like me. + + + MARGARET. + So would not I, for your own sake; for I have many ill qualities. + + + BALTHASAR. + Which is one? + + + MARGARET. + I say my prayers aloud. + + + BALTHASAR. + I love you the better; the hearers may cry Amen. + + + MARGARET. + God match me with a good dancer! + + + BALTHASAR. + Amen. + + + MARGARET. + And God keep him out of my sight when the dance is done! Answer, + clerk. + + + BALTHASAR. + No more words: the clerk is answered. + + + URSULA. + I know you well enough: you are Signior Antonio. + + + ANTONIO. + At a word, I am not. + + + URSULA. + I know you by the waggling of your head. + + + ANTONIO. + To tell you true, I counterfeit him. + + + URSULA. + You could never do him so ill-well, unless you were the very man. + Here’s his dry hand up and down: you are he, you are he. + + + ANTONIO. + At a word, I am not. + + + URSULA. + Come, come; do you think I do not know you by your excellent wit? + Can virtue hide itself? Go to, mum, you are he: graces will + appear, and there’s an end. + + + BEATRICE. + Will you not tell me who told you so? + + + BENEDICK. + No, you shall pardon me. + + + BEATRICE. + Nor will you not tell me who you are? + + + BENEDICK. + Not now. + + + BEATRICE. + That I was disdainful, and that I had my good wit out of the + ‘Hundred Merry Tales.’ Well, this was Signior Benedick that said + so. + + + BENEDICK. + What’s he? + + + BEATRICE. + I am sure you know him well enough. + + + BENEDICK. + Not I, believe me. + + + BEATRICE. + Did he never make you laugh? + + + BENEDICK. + I pray you, what is he? + + + BEATRICE. + Why, he is the Prince’s jester: a very dull fool; only his gift + is in devising impossible slanders: none but libertines delight + in him; and the commendation is not in his wit, but in his + villainy; for he both pleases men and angers them, and then they + laugh at him and beat him. I am sure he is in the fleet: I would + he had boarded me! + + + BENEDICK. + When I know the gentleman, I’ll tell him what you say. + + + BEATRICE. + Do, do: he’ll but break a comparison or two on me; which, + peradventure not marked or not laughed at, strikes him into + melancholy; and then there’s a partridge wing saved, for the fool + will eat no supper that night. [_Music within_.] We must follow + the leaders. + + + BENEDICK. + In every good thing. + + + BEATRICE. + Nay, if they lead to any ill, I will leave them at the next + turning. + + + [_Dance. Then exeunt all but Don John, Borachio and Claudio._] + + + DON JOHN. + Sure my brother is amorous on Hero, and hath withdrawn her father + to break with him about it. The ladies follow her and but one + visor remains. + + + BORACHIO. + And that is Claudio: I know him by his bearing. + + + DON JOHN. + Are you not Signior Benedick? + + + CLAUDIO. + You know me well; I am he. + + + DON JOHN. + Signior, you are very near my brother in his love: he is + enamoured on Hero; I pray you, dissuade him from her; she is no + equal for his birth: you may do the part of an honest man in it. + + + CLAUDIO. + How know you he loves her? + + + DON JOHN. + I heard him swear his affection. + + + BORACHIO. + So did I too; and he swore he would marry her tonight. + + + DON JOHN. + Come, let us to the banquet. + + + [_Exeunt Don John and Borachio._] + + + CLAUDIO. + Thus answer I in name of Benedick, + But hear these ill news with the ears of Claudio. + ’Tis certain so; the Prince wooes for himself. + Friendship is constant in all other things + Save in the office and affairs of love: + Therefore all hearts in love use their own tongues; + Let every eye negotiate for itself + And trust no agent; for beauty is a witch + Against whose charms faith melteth into blood. + This is an accident of hourly proof, + Which I mistrusted not. Farewell, therefore, Hero! + + + Re-enter Benedick. + + + BENEDICK. + Count Claudio? + + + CLAUDIO. + Yea, the same. + + + BENEDICK. + Come, will you go with me? + + + CLAUDIO. + Whither? + + + BENEDICK. + Even to the next willow, about your own business, Count. What + fashion will you wear the garland of? About your neck, like a + usurer’s chain? or under your arm, like a lieutenant’s scarf? You + must wear it one way, for the Prince hath got your Hero. + + + CLAUDIO. + I wish him joy of her. + + + BENEDICK. + Why, that’s spoken like an honest drovier: so they sell bullocks. + But did you think the Prince would have served you thus? + + + CLAUDIO. + I pray you, leave me. + + + BENEDICK. + Ho! now you strike like the blind man: ’twas the boy that stole + your meat, and you’ll beat the post. + + + CLAUDIO. + If it will not be, I’ll leave you. + + + [_Exit._] + + + BENEDICK. + Alas! poor hurt fowl. Now will he creep into sedges. But, that my + Lady Beatrice should know me, and not know me! The Prince’s fool! + Ha! it may be I go under that title because I am merry. Yea, but + so I am apt to do myself wrong; I am not so reputed: it is the + base though bitter disposition of Beatrice that puts the world + into her person, and so gives me out. Well, I’ll be revenged as I + may. + + + Re-enter Don Pedro. + + + DON PEDRO. + Now, signior, where’s the Count? Did you see him? + + + BENEDICK. + Troth, my lord, I have played the part of Lady Fame. I found him + here as melancholy as a lodge in a warren. I told him, and I + think I told him true, that your Grace had got the good will of + this young lady; and I offered him my company to a willow tree, + either to make him a garland, as being forsaken, or to bind him + up a rod, as being worthy to be whipped. + + + DON PEDRO. + To be whipped! What’s his fault? + + + BENEDICK. + The flat transgression of a school-boy, who, being overjoy’d with + finding a bird’s nest, shows it his companion, and he steals it. + + + DON PEDRO. + Wilt thou make a trust a transgression? The transgression is in + the stealer. + + + BENEDICK. + Yet it had not been amiss the rod had been made, and the garland + too; for the garland he might have worn himself, and the rod he + might have bestowed on you, who, as I take it, have stolen his + bird’s nest. + + + DON PEDRO. + I will but teach them to sing, and restore them to the owner. + + + BENEDICK. + If their singing answer your saying, by my faith, you say + honestly. + + + DON PEDRO. + The Lady Beatrice hath a quarrel to you: the gentleman that + danced with her told her she is much wronged by you. + + + BENEDICK. + O! she misused me past the endurance of a block: an oak but with + one green leaf on it would have answered her: my very visor began + to assume life and scold with her. She told me, not thinking I + had been myself, that I was the Prince’s jester, that I was + duller than a great thaw; huddling jest upon jest with such + impossible conveyance upon me, that I stood like a man at a mark, + with a whole army shooting at me. She speaks poniards, and every + word stabs: if her breath were as terrible as her terminations, + there were no living near her; she would infect to the north + star. I would not marry her, though she were endowed with all + that Adam had left him before he transgressed: she would have + made Hercules have turned spit, yea, and have cleft his club to + make the fire too. Come, talk not of her; you shall find her the + infernal Ate in good apparel. I would to God some scholar would + conjure her, for certainly, while she is here, a man may live as + quiet in hell as in a sanctuary; and people sin upon purpose + because they would go thither; so indeed, all disquiet, horror + and perturbation follow her. + + + Re-enter Claudio, Beatrice, Hero and Leonato. + + + DON PEDRO. + Look! here she comes. + + + BENEDICK. + Will your Grace command me any service to the world’s end? I will + go on the slightest errand now to the Antipodes that you can + devise to send me on; I will fetch you a toothpicker now from the + furthest inch of Asia; bring you the length of Prester John’s + foot; fetch you a hair off the Great Cham’s beard; do you any + embassage to the Pygmies, rather than hold three words’ + conference with this harpy. You have no employment for me? + + + DON PEDRO. + None, but to desire your good company. + + + BENEDICK. + O God, sir, here’s a dish I love not: I cannot endure my Lady + Tongue. + + + [_Exit._] + + + DON PEDRO. + Come, lady, come; you have lost the heart of Signior Benedick. + + + BEATRICE. + Indeed, my lord, he lent it me awhile; and I gave him use for it, + a double heart for a single one: marry, once before he won it of + me with false dice, therefore your Grace may well say I have lost + it. + + + DON PEDRO. + You have put him down, lady, you have put him down. + + + BEATRICE. + So I would not he should do me, my lord, lest I should prove the + mother of fools. I have brought Count Claudio, whom you sent me + to seek. + + + DON PEDRO. + Why, how now, Count! wherefore are you sad? + + + CLAUDIO. + Not sad, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. + How then? Sick? + + + CLAUDIO. + Neither, my lord. + + + BEATRICE. + The Count is neither sad, nor sick, nor merry, nor well; but + civil Count, civil as an orange, and something of that jealous + complexion. + + + DON PEDRO. + I’ faith, lady, I think your blazon to be true; though, I’ll be + sworn, if he be so, his conceit is false. Here, Claudio, I have + wooed in thy name, and fair Hero is won; I have broke with her + father, and, his good will obtained; name the day of marriage, + and God give thee joy! + + + LEONATO. + Count, take of me my daughter, and with her my fortunes: his + Grace hath made the match, and all grace say Amen to it! + + + BEATRICE. + Speak, Count, ’tis your cue. + + + CLAUDIO. + Silence is the perfectest herald of joy: I were but little happy, + if I could say how much. Lady, as you are mine, I am yours: I + give away myself for you and dote upon the exchange. + + + BEATRICE. + Speak, cousin; or, if you cannot, stop his mouth with a kiss, and + let not him speak neither. + + + DON PEDRO. + In faith, lady, you have a merry heart. + + + BEATRICE. + Yea, my lord; I thank it, poor fool, it keeps on the windy side + of care. My cousin tells him in his ear that he is in her heart. + + + CLAUDIO. + And so she doth, cousin. + + + BEATRICE. + Good Lord, for alliance! Thus goes everyone to the world but I, + and I am sunburnt. I may sit in a corner and cry heigh-ho for a + husband! + + + DON PEDRO. + Lady Beatrice, I will get you one. + + + BEATRICE. + I would rather have one of your father’s getting. Hath your Grace + ne’er a brother like you? Your father got excellent husbands, if + a maid could come by them. + + + DON PEDRO. + Will you have me, lady? + + + BEATRICE. + No, my lord, unless I might have another for working days: your + Grace is too costly to wear every day. But, I beseech your Grace, + pardon me; I was born to speak all mirth and no matter. + + + DON PEDRO. + Your silence most offends me, and to be merry best becomes you; + for out of question, you were born in a merry hour. + + + BEATRICE. + No, sure, my lord, my mother cried; but then there was a star + danced, and under that was I born. Cousins, God give you joy! + + + LEONATO. + Niece, will you look to those things I told you of? + + + BEATRICE. + I cry you mercy, uncle. By your Grace’s pardon. + + + [_Exit._] + + + DON PEDRO. + By my troth, a pleasant spirited lady. + + + LEONATO. + There’s little of the melancholy element in her, my lord: she is + never sad but when she sleeps; and not ever sad then, for I have + heard my daughter say, she hath often dreamed of unhappiness and + waked herself with laughing. + + + DON PEDRO. + She cannot endure to hear tell of a husband. + + + LEONATO. + O! by no means: she mocks all her wooers out of suit. + + + DON PEDRO. + She were an excellent wife for Benedick. + + + LEONATO. + O Lord! my lord, if they were but a week married, they would talk + themselves mad. + + + DON PEDRO. + Count Claudio, when mean you to go to church? + + + CLAUDIO. + Tomorrow, my lord. Time goes on crutches till love have all his + rites. + + + LEONATO. + Not till Monday, my dear son, which is hence a just seven-night; + and a time too brief too, to have all things answer my mind. + + + DON PEDRO. + Come, you shake the head at so long a breathing; but, I warrant + thee, Claudio, the time shall not go dully by us. I will in the + interim undertake one of Hercules’ labours, which is, to bring + Signior Benedick and the Lady Beatrice into a mountain of + affection the one with the other. I would fain have it a match; + and I doubt not but to fashion it, if you three will but minister + such assistance as I shall give you direction. + + + LEONATO. + My lord, I am for you, though it cost me ten nights’ watchings. + + + CLAUDIO. + And I, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. + And you too, gentle Hero? + + + HERO. + I will do any modest office, my lord, to help my cousin to a good + husband. + + + DON PEDRO. + And Benedick is not the unhopefullest husband that I know. Thus + far can I praise him; he is of a noble strain, of approved + valour, and confirmed honesty. I will teach you how to humour + your cousin, that she shall fall in love with Benedick; and I, + with your two helps, will so practise on Benedick that, in + despite of his quick wit and his queasy stomach, he shall fall in + love with Beatrice. If we can do this, Cupid is no longer an + archer: his glory shall be ours, for we are the only love-gods. + Go in with me, and I will tell you my drift. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE II. Another room in Leonato’s house. + + Enter Don John and Borachio. + + + DON JOHN. + It is so; the Count Claudio shall marry the daughter of Leonato. + + + BORACHIO. + Yea, my lord; but I can cross it. + + + DON JOHN. + Any bar, any cross, any impediment will be medicinable to me: I + am sick in displeasure to him, and whatsoever comes athwart his + affection ranges evenly with mine. How canst thou cross this + marriage? + + + BORACHIO. + Not honestly, my lord; but so covertly that no dishonesty shall + appear in me. + + + DON JOHN. + Show me briefly how. + + + BORACHIO. + I think I told your lordship, a year since, how much I am in the + favour of Margaret, the waiting gentlewoman to Hero. + + + DON JOHN. + I remember. + + + BORACHIO. + I can, at any unseasonable instant of the night, appoint her to + look out at her lady’s chamber window. + + + DON JOHN. What life is in that, to be the death of this marriage? + + + BORACHIO. + The poison of that lies in you to temper. Go you to the Prince + your brother; spare not to tell him, that he hath wronged his + honour in marrying the renowned Claudio,—whose estimation do you + mightily hold up,—to a contaminated stale, such a one as Hero. + + + DON JOHN. + What proof shall I make of that? + + + BORACHIO. + Proof enough to misuse the Prince, to vex Claudio, to undo Hero, + and kill Leonato. Look you for any other issue? + + + DON JOHN. + Only to despite them, I will endeavour anything. + + + BORACHIO. + Go then; find me a meet hour to draw Don Pedro and the Count + Claudio alone: tell them that you know that Hero loves me; intend + a kind of zeal both to the Prince and Claudio, as—in love of your + brother’s honour, who hath made this match, and his friend’s + reputation, who is thus like to be cozened with the semblance of + a maid,—that you have discovered thus. They will scarcely believe + this without trial: offer them instances, which shall bear no + less likelihood than to see me at her chamber window, hear me + call Margaret Hero, hear Margaret term me Claudio; and bring them + to see this the very night before the intended wedding: for in + the meantime I will so fashion the matter that Hero shall be + absent; and there shall appear such seeming truth of Hero’s + disloyalty, that jealousy shall be called assurance, and all the + preparation overthrown. + + + DON JOHN. + Grow this to what adverse issue it can, I will put it in + practice. Be cunning in the working this, and thy fee is a + thousand ducats. + + + BORACHIO. + Be you constant in the accusation, and my cunning shall not shame + me. + + + DON JOHN. + I will presently go learn their day of marriage. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE III. Leonato’s Garden. + + Enter Benedick. + + + BENEDICK. + Boy! + + + Enter a Boy. + + + BOY. + Signior? + + + BENEDICK. + In my chamber window lies a book; bring it hither to me in the + orchard. + + + BOY. + I am here already, sir. + + + BENEDICK. + I know that; but I would have thee hence, and here again. + + + [_Exit Boy._] + + + I do much wonder that one man, seeing how much another man is a + fool when he dedicates his behaviours to love, will, after he + hath laughed at such shallow follies in others, become the + argument of his own scorn by falling in love: and such a man is + Claudio. I have known, when there was no music with him but the + drum and the fife; and now had he rather hear the tabor and the + pipe: I have known when he would have walked ten mile afoot to + see a good armour; and now will he lie ten nights awake, carving + the fashion of a new doublet. He was wont to speak plain and to + the purpose, like an honest man and a soldier; and now is he + turned orthography; his words are a very fantastical banquet, + just so many strange dishes. May I be so converted, and see with + these eyes? I cannot tell; I think not: I will not be sworn but + love may transform me to an oyster; but I’ll take my oath on it, + till he have made an oyster of me, he shall never make me such a + fool. One woman is fair, yet I am well; another is wise, yet I am + well; another virtuous, yet I am well; but till all graces be in + one woman, one woman shall not come in my grace. Rich she shall + be, that’s certain; wise, or I’ll none; virtuous, or I’ll never + cheapen her; fair, or I’ll never look on her; mild, or come not + near me; noble, or not I for an angel; of good discourse, an + excellent musician, and her hair shall be of what colour it + please God. Ha! the Prince and Monsieur Love! I will hide me in + the arbour. + + + [_Withdraws._] + + + Enter Don Pedro, Leonato and Claudio, followed by Balthasar and + Musicians. + + + DON PEDRO. + Come, shall we hear this music? + + + CLAUDIO. + Yea, my good lord. How still the evening is, + As hush’d on purpose to grace harmony! + + + DON PEDRO. + See you where Benedick hath hid himself? + + + CLAUDIO. + O! very well, my lord: the music ended, + We’ll fit the kid-fox with a penny-worth. + + + DON PEDRO. + Come, Balthasar, we’ll hear that song again. + + + BALTHASAR. + O! good my lord, tax not so bad a voice + To slander music any more than once. + + + DON PEDRO. + It is the witness still of excellency, + To put a strange face on his own perfection. + I pray thee, sing, and let me woo no more. + + + BALTHASAR. + Because you talk of wooing, I will sing; + Since many a wooer doth commence his suit + To her he thinks not worthy; yet he wooes; + Yet will he swear he loves. + + + DON PEDRO. + Nay, pray thee come; + Or if thou wilt hold longer argument, + Do it in notes. + + + BALTHASAR. + Note this before my notes; + There’s not a note of mine that’s worth the noting. + + + DON PEDRO. + Why these are very crotchets that he speaks; + Notes, notes, forsooth, and nothing! + + + [_Music._] + + + BENEDICK. + Now, divine air! now is his soul ravished! Is it not strange that + sheep’s guts should hale souls out of men’s bodies? Well, a horn + for my money, when all’s done. + + + BALTHASAR [_sings_.] + Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, + Men were deceivers ever; + One foot in sea, and one on shore, + To one thing constant never. + Then sigh not so, but let them go, + And be you blithe and bonny, + Converting all your sounds of woe + Into Hey nonny, nonny. + + + Sing no more ditties, sing no mo + Of dumps so dull and heavy; + The fraud of men was ever so, + Since summer first was leavy. + Then sigh not so, but let them go, + And be you blithe and bonny, + Converting all your sounds of woe + Into Hey nonny, nonny. + + + DON PEDRO. + By my troth, a good song. + + + BALTHASAR. + And an ill singer, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. + Ha, no, no, faith; thou singest well enough for a shift. + + + BENEDICK. + [_Aside_] And he had been a dog that should have howled thus, + they would have hanged him; and I pray God his bad voice bode no + mischief. I had as lief have heard the night-raven, come what + plague could have come after it. + + + DON PEDRO. Yea, marry; dost thou hear, Balthasar? I pray thee, + get us some excellent music, for tomorrow night we would have it + at the Lady Hero’s chamber window. + + + BALTHASAR. The best I can, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. Do so: farewell. + + + [_Exeunt Balthasar and Musicians._] + + + Come hither, Leonato: what was it you told me of today, that your + niece Beatrice was in love with Signior Benedick? + + + CLAUDIO. + O! ay:—[_Aside to Don Pedro_] Stalk on, stalk on; the fowl sits. + I did never think that lady would have loved any man. + + + LEONATO. + No, nor I neither; but most wonderful that she should so dote on + Signior Benedick, whom she hath in all outward behaviours seemed + ever to abhor. + + + BENEDICK. + [_Aside_] Is’t possible? Sits the wind in that corner? + + + LEONATO. + By my troth, my lord, I cannot tell what to think of it but that + she loves him with an enraged affection: it is past the infinite + of thought. + + + DON PEDRO. + Maybe she doth but counterfeit. + + + CLAUDIO. + Faith, like enough. + + + LEONATO. + O God! counterfeit! There was never counterfeit of passion came + so near the life of passion as she discovers it. + + + DON PEDRO. + Why, what effects of passion shows she? + + + CLAUDIO. [_Aside_] Bait the hook well: this fish will bite. + + + LEONATO. + What effects, my lord? She will sit you; [_To Claudio_] You heard + my daughter tell you how. + + + CLAUDIO. + She did, indeed. + + + DON PEDRO. + How, how, I pray you? You amaze me: I would have thought her + spirit had been invincible against all assaults of affection. + + + LEONATO. + I would have sworn it had, my lord; especially against Benedick. + + + BENEDICK. + [_Aside_] I should think this a gull, but that the white-bearded + fellow speaks it: knavery cannot, sure, hide itself in such + reverence. + + + CLAUDIO. + [_Aside_] He hath ta’en the infection: hold it up. + + + DON PEDRO. + Hath she made her affection known to Benedick? + + + LEONATO. + No; and swears she never will: that’s her torment. + + + CLAUDIO. + ’Tis true, indeed; so your daughter says: ‘Shall I,’ says she, + ‘that have so oft encountered him with scorn, write to him that I + love him?’ + + + LEONATO. + This says she now when she is beginning to write to him; for + she’ll be up twenty times a night, and there will she sit in her + smock till she have writ a sheet of paper: my daughter tells us + all. + + + CLAUDIO. + Now you talk of a sheet of paper, I remember a pretty jest your + daughter told us of. + + + LEONATO. + O! when she had writ it, and was reading it over, she found + Benedick and Beatrice between the sheet? + + + CLAUDIO. + That. + + + LEONATO. + O! she tore the letter into a thousand halfpence; railed at + herself, that she should be so immodest to write to one that she + knew would flout her: ‘I measure him,’ says she, ‘by my own + spirit; for I should flout him, if he writ to me; yea, though I + love him, I should.’ + + + CLAUDIO. + Then down upon her knees she falls, weeps, sobs, beats her heart, + tears her hair, prays, curses; ‘O sweet Benedick! God give me + patience!’ + + + LEONATO. + She doth indeed; my daughter says so; and the ecstasy hath so + much overborne her, that my daughter is sometimes afeard she will + do a desperate outrage to herself. It is very true. + + + DON PEDRO. + It were good that Benedick knew of it by some other, if she will + not discover it. + + + CLAUDIO. + To what end? he would make but a sport of it and torment the poor + lady worse. + + + DON PEDRO. + And he should, it were an alms to hang him. She’s an excellent + sweet lady, and, out of all suspicion, she is virtuous. + + + CLAUDIO. + And she is exceeding wise. + + + DON PEDRO. + In everything but in loving Benedick. + + + LEONATO. + O! my lord, wisdom and blood combating in so tender a body, we + have ten proofs to one that blood hath the victory. I am sorry + for her, as I have just cause, being her uncle and her guardian. + + + DON PEDRO. + I would she had bestowed this dotage on me; I would have daffed + all other respects and made her half myself. I pray you, tell + Benedick of it, and hear what he will say. + + + LEONATO. + Were it good, think you? + + + CLAUDIO. + Hero thinks surely she will die; for she says she will die if he + love her not, and she will die ere she make her love known, and + she will die if he woo her, rather than she will bate one breath + of her accustomed crossness. + + + DON PEDRO. + She doth well: if she should make tender of her love, ’tis very + possible he’ll scorn it; for the man,—as you know all,—hath a + contemptible spirit. + + + CLAUDIO. + He is a very proper man. + + + DON PEDRO. + He hath indeed a good outward happiness. + + + CLAUDIO. + ’Fore God, and in my mind, very wise. + + + DON PEDRO. + He doth indeed show some sparks that are like wit. + + + CLAUDIO. + And I take him to be valiant. + + + DON PEDRO. + As Hector, I assure you: and in the managing of quarrels you may + say he is wise; for either he avoids them with great discretion, + or undertakes them with a most Christian-like fear. + + + LEONATO. + If he do fear God, a’ must necessarily keep peace: if he break + the peace, he ought to enter into a quarrel with fear and + trembling. + + + DON PEDRO. + And so will he do; for the man doth fear God, howsoever it seems + not in him by some large jests he will make. Well, I am sorry for + your niece. Shall we go seek Benedick and tell him of her love? + + + CLAUDIO. + Never tell him, my lord: let her wear it out with good counsel. + + + LEONATO. + Nay, that’s impossible: she may wear her heart out first. + + + DON PEDRO. + Well, we will hear further of it by your daughter: let it cool + the while. I love Benedick well, and I could wish he would + modestly examine himself, to see how much he is unworthy so good + a lady. + + + LEONATO. + My lord, will you walk? dinner is ready. + + + CLAUDIO. + [_Aside_] If he do not dote on her upon this, I will never trust + my expectation. + + + DON PEDRO. + [_Aside_] Let there be the same net spread for her; and that must + your daughter and her gentlewoman carry. The sport will be, when + they hold one an opinion of another’s dotage, and no such matter: + that’s the scene that I would see, which will be merely a dumb + show. Let us send her to call him in to dinner. + + + [_Exeunt Don Pedro, Claudio and Leonato._] + + + BENEDICK. + [_Advancing from the arbour._] This can be no trick: the + conference was sadly borne. They have the truth of this from + Hero. They seem to pity the lady: it seems her affections have + their full bent. Love me? why, it must be requited. I hear how I + am censured: they say I will bear myself proudly, if I perceive + the love come from her; they say too that she will rather die + than give any sign of affection. I did never think to marry: I + must not seem proud: happy are they that hear their detractions, + and can put them to mending. They say the lady is fair: ’tis a + truth, I can bear them witness; and virtuous: ’tis so, I cannot + reprove it; and wise, but for loving me: by my troth, it is no + addition to her wit, nor no great argument of her folly, for I + will be horribly in love with her. I may chance have some odd + quirks and remnants of wit broken on me, because I have railed so + long against marriage; but doth not the appetite alter? A man + loves the meat in his youth that he cannot endure in his age. + Shall quips and sentences and these paper bullets of the brain + awe a man from the career of his humour? No; the world must be + peopled. When I said I would die a bachelor, I did not think I + should live till I were married. Here comes Beatrice. By this + day! she’s a fair lady: I do spy some marks of love in her. + + + Enter Beatrice. + + + BEATRICE. + Against my will I am sent to bid you come in to dinner. + + + BENEDICK. + Fair Beatrice, I thank you for your pains. + + + BEATRICE. + I took no more pains for those thanks than you take pains to + thank me: if it had been painful, I would not have come. + + + BENEDICK. + You take pleasure then in the message? + + + BEATRICE. + Yea, just so much as you may take upon a knife’s point, and choke + a daw withal. You have no stomach, signior: fare you well. + + + [_Exit._] + + + BENEDICK. + Ha! ‘Against my will I am sent to bid you come in to dinner,’ + there’s a double meaning in that. ‘I took no more pains for those + thanks than you took pains to thank me,’ that’s as much as to + say, Any pains that I take for you is as easy as thanks. If I do + not take pity of her, I am a villain; if I do not love her, I am + a Jew. I will go get her picture. + + + [_Exit._] + + + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Leonato’s Garden. + + Enter Hero, Margaret and Ursula. + + + HERO. + Good Margaret, run thee to the parlour; + There shalt thou find my cousin Beatrice + Proposing with the Prince and Claudio: + Whisper her ear, and tell her, I and Ursala + Walk in the orchard, and our whole discourse + Is all of her; say that thou overheard’st us, + And bid her steal into the pleached bower, + Where honey-suckles, ripen’d by the sun, + Forbid the sun to enter; like favourites, + Made proud by princes, that advance their pride + Against that power that bred it. There will she hide her, + To listen our propose. This is thy office; + Bear thee well in it and leave us alone. + + + MARGARET. + I’ll make her come, I warrant you, presently. + + + [_Exit._] + + + HERO. + Now, Ursula, when Beatrice doth come, + As we do trace this alley up and down, + Our talk must only be of Benedick: + When I do name him, let it be thy part + To praise him more than ever man did merit. + My talk to thee must be how Benedick + Is sick in love with Beatrice: of this matter + Is little Cupid’s crafty arrow made, + That only wounds by hearsay. + + + Enter Beatrice behind. + + + Now begin; + For look where Beatrice, like a lapwing, runs + Close by the ground, to hear our conference. + + + URSULA. + The pleasant’st angling is to see the fish + Cut with her golden oars the silver stream, + And greedily devour the treacherous bait: + So angle we for Beatrice; who even now + Is couched in the woodbine coverture. + Fear you not my part of the dialogue. + + + HERO. + Then go we near her, that her ear lose nothing + Of the false sweet bait that we lay for it. + + + [_They advance to the bower._] + + + No, truly, Ursula, she is too disdainful; + I know her spirits are as coy and wild + As haggards of the rock. + + + URSULA. + But are you sure + That Benedick loves Beatrice so entirely? + + + HERO. + So says the Prince, and my new-trothed lord. + + + URSULA. + And did they bid you tell her of it, madam? + + + HERO. + They did entreat me to acquaint her of it; + But I persuaded them, if they lov’d Benedick, + To wish him wrestle with affection, + And never to let Beatrice know of it. + + + URSULA. + Why did you so? Doth not the gentleman + Deserve as full as fortunate a bed + As ever Beatrice shall couch upon? + + + HERO. + O god of love! I know he doth deserve + As much as may be yielded to a man; + But Nature never fram’d a woman’s heart + Of prouder stuff than that of Beatrice; + Disdain and scorn ride sparkling in her eyes, + Misprising what they look on, and her wit + Values itself so highly, that to her + All matter else seems weak. She cannot love, + Nor take no shape nor project of affection, + She is so self-endear’d. + + + URSULA. + Sure I think so; + And therefore certainly it were not good + She knew his love, lest she make sport at it. + + + HERO. + Why, you speak truth. I never yet saw man, + How wise, how noble, young, how rarely featur’d, + But she would spell him backward: if fair-fac’d, + She would swear the gentleman should be her sister; + If black, why, Nature, drawing of an antick, + Made a foul blot; if tall, a lance ill-headed; + If low, an agate very vilely cut; + If speaking, why, a vane blown with all winds; + If silent, why, a block moved with none. + So turns she every man the wrong side out, + And never gives to truth and virtue that + Which simpleness and merit purchaseth. + + + URSULA. + Sure, sure, such carping is not commendable. + + + HERO. + No; not to be so odd, and from all fashions, + As Beatrice is, cannot be commendable. + But who dare tell her so? If I should speak, + She would mock me into air: O! she would laugh me + Out of myself, press me to death with wit. + Therefore let Benedick, like cover’d fire, + Consume away in sighs, waste inwardly: + It were a better death than die with mocks, + Which is as bad as die with tickling. + + + URSULA. + Yet tell her of it: hear what she will say. + + + HERO. + No; rather I will go to Benedick, + And counsel him to fight against his passion. + And, truly, I’ll devise some honest slanders + To stain my cousin with. One doth not know + How much an ill word may empoison liking. + + + URSULA. + O! do not do your cousin such a wrong. + She cannot be so much without true judgment,— + Having so swift and excellent a wit + As she is priz’d to have,—as to refuse + So rare a gentleman as Signior Benedick. + + + HERO. + He is the only man of Italy, + Always excepted my dear Claudio. + + + URSULA. + I pray you, be not angry with me, madam, + Speaking my fancy: Signior Benedick, + For shape, for bearing, argument and valour, + Goes foremost in report through Italy. + + + HERO. + Indeed, he hath an excellent good name. + + + URSULA. + His excellence did earn it, ere he had it. + When are you married, madam? + + + HERO. + Why, every day, tomorrow. Come, go in: + I’ll show thee some attires, and have thy counsel + Which is the best to furnish me tomorrow. + + + URSULA. + She’s lim’d, I warrant you, + We have caught her, madam. + + + HERO. + If it prove so, then loving goes by haps: + Some Cupid kills with arrows, some with traps. + + + [_Exeunt Hero and Ursula._] + + + BEATRICE. + [_Advancing._] What fire is in mine ears? Can this be true? + Stand I condemn’d for pride and scorn so much? + Contempt, farewell! and maiden pride, adieu! + No glory lives behind the back of such. + And, Benedick, love on; I will requite thee, + Taming my wild heart to thy loving hand: + If thou dost love, my kindness shall incite thee + To bind our loves up in a holy band; + For others say thou dost deserve, and I + Believe it better than reportingly. + + + [_Exit._] + + +SCENE II. A Room in Leonato’s House. + + Enter Don Pedro, Claudio, Benedick and Leonato. + + + DON PEDRO. + I do but stay till your marriage be consummate, and then go I + toward Arragon. + + + CLAUDIO. + I’ll bring you thither, my lord, if you’ll vouchsafe me. + + + DON PEDRO. + Nay, that would be as great a soil in the new gloss of your + marriage, as to show a child his new coat and forbid him to wear + it. I will only be bold with Benedick for his company; for, from + the crown of his head to the sole of his foot, he is all mirth; + he hath twice or thrice cut Cupid’s bowstring, and the little + hangman dare not shoot at him. He hath a heart as sound as a + bell, and his tongue is the clapper; for what his heart thinks, + his tongue speaks. + + + BENEDICK. + Gallants, I am not as I have been. + + + LEONATO. + So say I: methinks you are sadder. + + + CLAUDIO. + I hope he be in love. + + + DON PEDRO. + Hang him, truant! there’s no true drop of blood in him to be + truly touched with love. If he be sad, he wants money. + + + BENEDICK. + I have the tooth-ache. + + + DON PEDRO. + Draw it. + + + BENEDICK. + Hang it. + + + CLAUDIO. + You must hang it first, and draw it afterwards. + + + DON PEDRO. + What! sigh for the tooth-ache? + + + LEONATO. + Where is but a humour or a worm? + + + BENEDICK. + Well, everyone can master a grief but he that has it. + + + CLAUDIO. + Yet say I, he is in love. + + + DON PEDRO. + There is no appearance of fancy in him, unless it be a fancy that + he hath to strange disguises; as to be a Dutchman today, a + Frenchman tomorrow; or in the shape of two countries at once, as + a German from the waist downward, all slops, and a Spaniard from + the hip upward, no doublet. Unless he have a fancy to this + foolery, as it appears he hath, he is no fool for fancy, as you + would have it appear he is. + + + CLAUDIO. + If he be not in love with some woman, there is no believing old + signs: a’ brushes his hat a mornings; what should that bode? + + + DON PEDRO. + Hath any man seen him at the barber’s? + + + CLAUDIO. + No, but the barber’s man hath been seen with him; and the old + ornament of his cheek hath already stuffed tennis balls. + + + LEONATO. + Indeed he looks younger than he did, by the loss of a beard. + + + DON PEDRO. + Nay, a’ rubs himself with civet: can you smell him out by that? + + + CLAUDIO. + That’s as much as to say the sweet youth’s in love. + + + DON PEDRO. + The greatest note of it is his melancholy. + + + CLAUDIO. + And when was he wont to wash his face? + + + DON PEDRO. + Yea, or to paint himself? for the which, I hear what they say of + him. + + + CLAUDIO. + Nay, but his jesting spirit; which is now crept into a + lute-string, and now governed by stops. + + + DON PEDRO. + Indeed, that tells a heavy tale for him. Conclude, conclude he is + in love. + + + CLAUDIO. + Nay, but I know who loves him. + + + DON PEDRO. + That would I know too: I warrant, one that knows him not. + + + CLAUDIO. + Yes, and his ill conditions; and in despite of all, dies for him. + + + DON PEDRO. + She shall be buried with her face upwards. + + + BENEDICK. + Yet is this no charm for the tooth-ache. Old signior, walk aside + with me: I have studied eight or nine wise words to speak to you, + which these hobby-horses must not hear. + + + [_Exeunt Benedick and Leonato._] + + + DON PEDRO. + For my life, to break with him about Beatrice. + + + CLAUDIO. + ’Tis even so. Hero and Margaret have by this played their parts + with Beatrice, and then the two bears will not bite one another + when they meet. + + + Enter Don John. + + + DON JOHN. + My lord and brother, God save you! + + + DON PEDRO. + Good den, brother. + + + DON JOHN. + If your leisure served, I would speak with you. + + + DON PEDRO. + In private? + + + DON JOHN. + If it please you; yet Count Claudio may hear, for what I would + speak of concerns him. + + + DON PEDRO. + What’s the matter? + + + DON JOHN. + [_To Claudio._] Means your lordship to be married tomorrow? + + + DON PEDRO. + You know he does. + + + DON JOHN. + I know not that, when he knows what I know. + + + CLAUDIO. + If there be any impediment, I pray you discover it. + + + DON JOHN. + You may think I love you not: let that appear hereafter, and aim + better at me by that I now will manifest. For my brother, I think + he holds you well, and in dearness of heart hath holp to effect + your ensuing marriage; surely suit ill-spent and labour ill + bestowed! + + + DON PEDRO. + Why, what’s the matter? + + + DON JOHN. + I came hither to tell you; and circumstances shortened,—for she + has been too long a talking of,—the lady is disloyal. + + + CLAUDIO. + Who, Hero? + + + DON JOHN. + Even she: Leonato’s Hero, your Hero, every man’s Hero. + + + CLAUDIO. + Disloyal? + + + DON JOHN. + The word’s too good to paint out her wickedness; I could say, she + were worse: think you of a worse title, and I will fit her to it. + Wonder not till further warrant: go but with me tonight, you + shall see her chamber window entered, even the night before her + wedding-day: if you love her then, tomorrow wed her; but it would + better fit your honour to change your mind. + + + CLAUDIO. + May this be so? + + + DON PEDRO. + I will not think it. + + + DON JOHN. + If you dare not trust that you see, confess not that you know. If + you will follow me, I will show you enough; and when you have + seen more and heard more, proceed accordingly. + + + CLAUDIO. + If I see anything tonight why I should not marry her tomorrow, in + the congregation, where I should wed, there will I shame her. + + + DON PEDRO. + And, as I wooed for thee to obtain her, I will join with thee to + disgrace her. + + + DON JOHN. + I will disparage her no farther till you are my witnesses: bear + it coldly but till midnight, and let the issue show itself. + + + DON PEDRO. + O day untowardly turned! + + + CLAUDIO. + O mischief strangely thwarting! + + + DON JOHN. + O plague right well prevented! So will you say when you have seen + the sequel. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +Scene III. A Street. + + Enter Dogberry and Verges, with the Watch. + + + DOGBERRY. + Are you good men and true? + + + VERGES. + Yea, or else it were pity but they should suffer salvation, body + and soul. + + + DOGBERRY. + Nay, that were a punishment too good for them, if they should + have any allegiance in them, being chosen for the Prince’s watch. + + + VERGES. + Well, give them their charge, neighbour Dogberry. + + + DOGBERRY. + First, who think you the most desartless man to be constable? + + + FIRST WATCH. + Hugh Oatcake, sir, or George Seacoal; for they can write and + read. + + + DOGBERRY. + Come hither, neighbour Seacoal. God hath blessed you with a good + name: to be a well-favoured man is the gift of Fortune; but to + write and read comes by Nature. + + + SECOND WATCH. + Both which, Master Constable,— + + + DOGBERRY. + You have: I knew it would be your answer. Well, for your favour, + sir, why, give God thanks, and make no boast of it; and for your + writing and reading, let that appear when there is no need of + such vanity. You are thought here to be the most senseless and + fit man for the constable of the watch; therefore bear you the + lanthorn. This is your charge: you shall comprehend all vagrom + men; you are to bid any man stand, in the Prince’s name. + + + SECOND WATCH. + How, if a’ will not stand? + + + DOGBERRY. + Why, then, take no note of him, but let him go; and presently + call the rest of the watch together, and thank God you are rid of + a knave. + + + VERGES. + If he will not stand when he is bidden, he is none of the + Prince’s subjects. + + + DOGBERRY. + True, and they are to meddle with none but the Prince’s subjects. + You shall also make no noise in the streets: for, for the watch + to babble and to talk is most tolerable and not to be endured. + + + SECOND WATCH. + We will rather sleep than talk: we know what belongs to a watch. + + + DOGBERRY. + Why, you speak like an ancient and most quiet watchman, for I + cannot see how sleeping should offend; only have a care that your + bills be not stolen. Well, you are to call at all the alehouses, + and bid those that are drunk get them to bed. + + + SECOND WATCH. + How if they will not? + + + DOGBERRY. + Why then, let them alone till they are sober: if they make you + not then the better answer, you may say they are not the men you + took them for. + + + SECOND WATCH. + Well, sir. + + + DOGBERRY. + If you meet a thief, you may suspect him, by virtue of your + office, to be no true man; and, for such kind of men, the less + you meddle or make with them, why, the more is for your honesty. + + + SECOND WATCH. + If we know him to be a thief, shall we not lay hands on him? + + + DOGBERRY. + Truly, by your office, you may; but I think they that touch pitch + will be defiled. The most peaceable way for you, if you do take a + thief, is to let him show himself what he is and steal out of + your company. + + + VERGES. + You have been always called a merciful man, partner. + + + DOGBERRY. + Truly, I would not hang a dog by my will, much more a man who + hath any honesty in him. + + + VERGES. + If you hear a child cry in the night, you must call to the nurse + and bid her still it. + + + SECOND WATCH. + How if the nurse be asleep and will not hear us? + + + DOGBERRY. + Why then, depart in peace, and let the child wake her with + crying; for the ewe that will not hear her lamb when it baes, + will never answer a calf when he bleats. + + + VERGES. + ’Tis very true. + + + DOGBERRY. + This is the end of the charge. You constable, are to present the + Prince’s own person: if you meet the Prince in the night, you may + stay him. + + + VERGES. + Nay, by’r lady, that I think, a’ cannot. + + + DOGBERRY. + Five shillings to one on’t, with any man that knows the statutes, + he may stay him: marry, not without the Prince be willing; for, + indeed, the watch ought to offend no man, and it is an offence to + stay a man against his will. + + + VERGES. + By’r lady, I think it be so. + + + DOGBERRY. + Ha, ah, ha! Well, masters, good night: an there be any matter of + weight chances, call up me: keep your fellows’ counsels and your + own, and good night. Come, neighbour. + + + SECOND WATCH. + Well, masters, we hear our charge: let us go sit here upon the + church bench till two, and then all to bed. + + + DOGBERRY. + One word more, honest neighbours. I pray you, watch about Signior + Leonato’s door; for the wedding being there tomorrow, there is a + great coil tonight. Adieu; be vigitant, I beseech you. + + + [_Exeunt Dogberry and Verges._] + + + Enter Borachio and Conrade. + + + BORACHIO. + What, Conrade! + + + WATCH. + [_Aside_] Peace! stir not. + + + BORACHIO. + Conrade, I say! + + + CONRADE. + Here, man. I am at thy elbow. + + + BORACHIO. + Mass, and my elbow itched; I thought there would a scab follow. + + + CONRADE. + I will owe thee an answer for that; and now forward with thy + tale. + + + BORACHIO. + Stand thee close then under this penthouse, for it drizzles rain, + and I will, like a true drunkard, utter all to thee. + + + WATCH. + [_Aside_] Some treason, masters; yet stand close. + + + BORACHIO. + Therefore know, I have earned of Don John a thousand ducats. + + + CONRADE. + Is it possible that any villainy should be so dear? + + + BORACHIO. + Thou shouldst rather ask if it were possible any villainy should + be so rich; for when rich villains have need of poor ones, poor + ones may make what price they will. + + + CONRADE. + I wonder at it. + + + BORACHIO. + That shows thou art unconfirmed. Thou knowest that the fashion of + a doublet, or a hat, or a cloak, is nothing to a man. + + + CONRADE. + Yes, it is apparel. + + + BORACHIO. + I mean, the fashion. + + + CONRADE. + Yes, the fashion is the fashion. + + + BORACHIO. + Tush! I may as well say the fool’s the fool. But seest thou not + what a deformed thief this fashion is? + + + WATCH. + [_Aside_] I know that Deformed; a’ has been a vile thief this + seven years; a’ goes up and down like a gentleman: I remember his + name. + + + BORACHIO. + Didst thou not hear somebody? + + + CONRADE. + No: ’twas the vane on the house. + + + BORACHIO. + Seest thou not, I say, what a deformed thief this fashion is? how + giddily he turns about all the hot bloods between fourteen and + five-and-thirty? sometime fashioning them like Pharaoh’s soldiers + in the reechy painting; sometime like god Bel’s priests in the + old church window; sometime like the shaven Hercules in the + smirched worm-eaten tapestry, where his codpiece seems as massy + as his club? + + + CONRADE. + All this I see, and I see that the fashion wears out more apparel + than the man. But art not thou thyself giddy with the fashion + too, that thou hast shifted out of thy tale into telling me of + the fashion? + + + BORACHIO. + Not so neither; but know, that I have tonight wooed Margaret, the + Lady Hero’s gentlewoman, by the name of Hero: she leans me out at + her mistress’ chamber window, bids me a thousand times good + night,—I tell this tale vilely:—I should first tell thee how the + Prince, Claudio, and my master, planted and placed and possessed + by my master Don John, saw afar off in the orchard this amiable + encounter. + + + CONRADE. + And thought they Margaret was Hero? + + + BORACHIO. + Two of them did, the Prince and Claudio; but the devil my master, + knew she was Margaret; and partly by his oaths, which first + possessed them, partly by the dark night, which did deceive them, + but chiefly by my villainy, which did confirm any slander that + Don John had made, away went Claudio enraged; swore he would meet + her, as he was appointed, next morning at the temple, and there, + before the whole congregation, shame her with what he saw o’er + night, and send her home again without a husband. + + + FIRST WATCH. + We charge you in the Prince’s name, stand! + + + SECOND WATCH. + Call up the right Master Constable. We have here recovered the + most dangerous piece of lechery that ever was known in the + commonwealth. + + + FIRST WATCH. + And one Deformed is one of them: I know him, a’ wears a lock. + + + CONRADE. + Masters, masters! + + + SECOND WATCH. + You’ll be made bring Deformed forth, I warrant you. + + + CONRADE. + Masters,— + + + FIRST WATCH. + Never speak: we charge you let us obey you to go with us. + + + BORACHIO. We are like to prove a goodly commodity, being taken up + of these men’s bills. + + + CONRADE. + A commodity in question, I warrant you. Come, we’ll obey you. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +Scene IV. A Room in Leonato’s House. + + Enter Hero, Margaret and Ursula. + + + HERO. + Good Ursula, wake my cousin Beatrice, and desire her to rise. + + + URSULA. + I will, lady. + + + HERO. + And bid her come hither. + + + URSULA. + Well. + + + [_Exit._] + + + MARGARET. + Troth, I think your other rebato were better. + + + HERO. + No, pray thee, good Meg, I’ll wear this. + + + MARGARET. + By my troth’s not so good; and I warrant your cousin will say so. + + + HERO. + My cousin ’s a fool, and thou art another: I’ll wear none but + this. + + + MARGARET. + I like the new tire within excellently, if the hair were a + thought browner; and your gown ’s a most rare fashion, i’ faith. + I saw the Duchess of Milan’s gown that they praise so. + + + HERO. + O! that exceeds, they say. + + + MARGARET. + By my troth ’s but a night-gown in respect of yours: cloth o’ + gold, and cuts, and laced with silver, set with pearls, down + sleeves, side sleeves, and skirts round, underborne with a bluish + tinsel; but for a fine, quaint, graceful, and excellent fashion, + yours is worth ten on’t. + + + HERO. + God give me joy to wear it! for my heart is exceeding heavy. + + + MARGARET. + ’Twill be heavier soon by the weight of a man. + + + HERO. + Fie upon thee! art not ashamed? + + + MARGARET. + Of what, lady? of speaking honourably? Is not marriage honourable + in a beggar? Is not your lord honourable without marriage? I + think you would have me say, saving your reverence, ‘a husband:’ + an bad thinking do not wrest true speaking, I’ll offend nobody. + Is there any harm in ‘the heavier for a husband’? None, I think, + and it be the right husband and the right wife; otherwise ’tis + light, and not heavy: ask my Lady Beatrice else; here she comes. + + + Enter Beatrice. + + + HERO. + Good morrow, coz. + + + BEATRICE. + Good morrow, sweet Hero. + + + HERO. + Why, how now? do you speak in the sick tune? + + + BEATRICE. + I am out of all other tune, methinks. + + + MARGARET. + Clap’s into ‘Light o’ love’; that goes without a burden: do you + sing it, and I’ll dance it. + + + BEATRICE. + Ye, light o’ love with your heels! then, if your husband have + stables enough, you’ll see he shall lack no barnes. + + + MARGARET. + O illegitimate construction! I scorn that with my heels. + + + BEATRICE. + ’Tis almost five o’clock, cousin; ’tis time you were ready. By my + troth, I am exceeding ill. Heigh-ho! + + + MARGARET. + For a hawk, a horse, or a husband? + + + BEATRICE. + For the letter that begins them all, H. + + + MARGARET. + Well, and you be not turned Turk, there’s no more sailing by the + star. + + + BEATRICE. + What means the fool, trow? + + + MARGARET. + Nothing I; but God send everyone their heart’s desire! + + + HERO. + These gloves the Count sent me; they are an excellent perfume. + + + BEATRICE. + I am stuffed, cousin, I cannot smell. + + + MARGARET. + A maid, and stuffed! there’s goodly catching of cold. + + + BEATRICE. + O, God help me! God help me! how long have you professed + apprehension? + + + MARGARET. + Ever since you left it. Doth not my wit become me rarely! + + + BEATRICE. + It is not seen enough, you should wear it in your cap. By my + troth, I am sick. + + + MARGARET. + Get you some of this distilled _Carduus benedictus_, and lay it + to your heart: it is the only thing for a qualm. + + + HERO. + There thou prick’st her with a thistle. + + + BEATRICE. + _Benedictus!_ why _benedictus?_ you have some moral in this + _benedictus_. + + + MARGARET. + Moral! no, by my troth, I have no moral meaning; I meant, plain + holy thistle. You may think, perchance, that I think you are in + love: nay, by’r Lady, I am not such a fool to think what I list; + nor I list not to think what I can; nor, indeed, I cannot think, + if I would think my heart out of thinking, that you are in love, + or that you will be in love, or that you can be in love. Yet + Benedick was such another, and now is he become a man: he swore + he would never marry; and yet now, in despite of his heart, he + eats his meat without grudging: and how you may be converted, I + know not; but methinks you look with your eyes as other women do. + + + BEATRICE. + What pace is this that thy tongue keeps? + + + MARGARET. + Not a false gallop. + + + Re-enter Ursula. + + + URSULA. + Madam, withdraw: the Prince, the Count, Signior Benedick, Don + John, and all the gallants of the town are come to fetch you to + church. + + + HERO. + Help to dress me, good coz, good Meg, good Ursula. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +Scene V. Another Room in Leonato’s House. + + Enter Leonato and Dogberry and Verges. + + + LEONATO. + What would you with me, honest neighbour? + + + DOGBERRY. + Marry, sir, I would have some confidence with you, that decerns + you nearly. + + + LEONATO. + Brief, I pray you; for you see it is a busy time with me. + + + DOGBERRY. + Marry, this it is, sir. + + + VERGES. + Yes, in truth it is, sir. + + + LEONATO. + What is it, my good friends? + + + DOGBERRY. + Goodman Verges, sir, speaks a little off the matter: an old man, + sir, and his wits are not so blunt as, God help, I would desire + they were; but, in faith, honest as the skin between his brows. + + + VERGES. + Yes, I thank God, I am as honest as any man living, that is an + old man and no honester than I. + + + DOGBERRY. + Comparisons are odorous: palabras, neighbour Verges. + + + LEONATO. + Neighbours, you are tedious. + + + DOGBERRY. + It pleases your worship to say so, but we are the poor Duke’s + officers; but truly, for mine own part, if I were as tedious as a + king, I could find in my heart to bestow it all of your worship. + + + LEONATO. + All thy tediousness on me! ah? + + + DOGBERRY. + Yea, and ’twere a thousand pound more than ’tis; for I hear as + good exclamation on your worship, as of any man in the city, and + though I be but a poor man, I am glad to hear it. + + + VERGES. + And so am I. + + + LEONATO. + I would fain know what you have to say. + + + VERGES. + Marry, sir, our watch tonight, excepting your worship’s presence, + ha’ ta’en a couple of as arrant knaves as any in Messina. + + + DOGBERRY. + A good old man, sir; he will be talking; as they say, ‘when the + age is in, the wit is out.’ God help us! it is a world to see! + Well said, i’ faith, neighbour Verges: well, God’s a good man; + and two men ride of a horse, one must ride behind. An honest + soul, i’ faith, sir; by my troth he is, as ever broke bread; but + God is to be worshipped: all men are not alike; alas! good + neighbour. + + + LEONATO. + Indeed, neighbour, he comes too short of you. + + + DOGBERRY. + Gifts that God gives. + + + LEONATO. + I must leave you. + + + DOGBERRY. + One word, sir: our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two + aspicious persons, and we would have them this morning examined + before your worship. + + + LEONATO. + Take their examination yourself, and bring it me: I am now in + great haste, as may appear unto you. + + + DOGBERRY. + It shall be suffigance. + + + LEONATO. + Drink some wine ere you go: fare you well. + + + Enter a Messenger. + + + MESSENGER. + My lord, they stay for you to give your daughter to her husband. + + + LEONATO. + I’ll wait upon them: I am ready. + + + [_Exeunt Leonato and Messenger._] + + + DOGBERRY. + Go, good partner, go get you to Francis Seacoal; bid him bring + his pen and inkhorn to the gaol: we are now to examination these + men. + + + VERGES. + And we must do it wisely. + + + DOGBERRY. + We will spare for no wit, I warrant you; here’s that shall drive + some of them to a non-come: only get the learned writer to set + down our excommunication, and meet me at the gaol. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. The Inside of a Church. + + Enter Don Pedro, Don John, Leonato, Friar Francis, Claudio, + Benedick, Hero, Beatrice &c. + + + LEONATO. + Come, Friar Francis, be brief: only to the plain form of + marriage, and you shall recount their particular duties + afterwards. + + + FRIAR. + You come hither, my lord, to marry this lady? + + + CLAUDIO. + No. + + + LEONATO. + To be married to her, friar; you come to marry her. + + + FRIAR. + Lady, you come hither to be married to this Count? + + + HERO. + I do. + + + FRIAR. + If either of you know any inward impediment, why you should not + be conjoined, I charge you, on your souls, to utter it. + + + CLAUDIO. + Know you any, Hero? + + + HERO. + None, my lord. + + + FRIAR. + Know you any, Count? + + + LEONATO. + I dare make his answer; none. + + + CLAUDIO. + O! what men dare do! what men may do! what men daily do, not + knowing what they do! + + + BENEDICK. + How now! Interjections? Why then, some be of laughing, as ah! ha! + he! + + + CLAUDIO. + Stand thee by, Friar. Father, by your leave: + Will you with free and unconstrained soul + Give me this maid, your daughter? + + + LEONATO. + As freely, son, as God did give her me. + + + CLAUDIO. + And what have I to give you back whose worth + May counterpoise this rich and precious gift? + + + DON PEDRO. + Nothing, unless you render her again. + + + CLAUDIO. + Sweet Prince, you learn me noble thankfulness. + There, Leonato, take her back again: + Give not this rotten orange to your friend; + She’s but the sign and semblance of her honour. + Behold! how like a maid she blushes here. + O! what authority and show of truth + Can cunning sin cover itself withal. + Comes not that blood as modest evidence + To witness simple virtue? Would you not swear, + All you that see her, that she were a maid, + By these exterior shows? But she is none: + She knows the heat of a luxurious bed; + Her blush is guiltiness, not modesty. + + + LEONATO. + What do you mean, my lord? + + + CLAUDIO. + Not to be married, + Not to knit my soul to an approved wanton. + + + LEONATO. + Dear my lord, if you, in your own proof, + Have vanquish’d the resistance of her youth, + And made defeat of her virginity,— + + + CLAUDIO. + I know what you would say: if I have known her, + You will say she did embrace me as a husband, + And so extenuate the forehand sin: No, Leonato, + I never tempted her with word too large; + But as a brother to his sister show’d + Bashful sincerity and comely love. + + + HERO. + And seem’d I ever otherwise to you? + + + CLAUDIO. + Out on thee! Seeming! I will write against it: + You seem to me as Dian in her orb, + As chaste as is the bud ere it be blown; + But you are more intemperate in your blood + Than Venus, or those pamper’d animals + That rage in savage sensuality. + + + HERO. + Is my lord well, that he doth speak so wide? + + + LEONATO. + Sweet Prince, why speak not you? + + + DON PEDRO. + What should I speak? + I stand dishonour’d, that have gone about + To link my dear friend to a common stale. + + + LEONATO. + Are these things spoken, or do I but dream? + + + DON JOHN. + Sir, they are spoken, and these things are true. + + + BENEDICK. + This looks not like a nuptial. + + + HERO. + True! O God! + + + CLAUDIO. + Leonato, stand I here? + Is this the Prince? Is this the Prince’s brother? + Is this face Hero’s? Are our eyes our own? + + + LEONATO. + All this is so; but what of this, my lord? + + + CLAUDIO. + Let me but move one question to your daughter, + And by that fatherly and kindly power + That you have in her, bid her answer truly. + + + LEONATO. + I charge thee do so, as thou art my child. + + + HERO. + O, God defend me! how am I beset! + What kind of catechizing call you this? + + + CLAUDIO. + To make you answer truly to your name. + + + HERO. + Is it not Hero? Who can blot that name + With any just reproach? + + + CLAUDIO. + Marry, that can Hero: + Hero itself can blot out Hero’s virtue. + What man was he talk’d with you yesternight + Out at your window, betwixt twelve and one? + Now, if you are a maid, answer to this. + + + HERO. + I talk’d with no man at that hour, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. + Why, then are you no maiden. + Leonato, I am sorry you must hear: upon my honour, + Myself, my brother, and this grieved Count, + Did see her, hear her, at that hour last night, + Talk with a ruffian at her chamber window; + Who hath indeed, most like a liberal villain, + Confess’d the vile encounters they have had + A thousand times in secret. + + + DON JOHN. + Fie, fie! they are not to be nam’d, my lord, + Not to be spoke of; + There is not chastity enough in language + Without offence to utter them. Thus, pretty lady, + I am sorry for thy much misgovernment. + + + CLAUDIO. + O Hero! what a Hero hadst thou been, + If half thy outward graces had been plac’d + About thy thoughts and counsels of thy heart! + But fare thee well, most foul, most fair! farewell, + Thou pure impiety, and impious purity! + For thee I’ll lock up all the gates of love, + And on my eyelids shall conjecture hang, + To turn all beauty into thoughts of harm, + And never shall it more be gracious. + + + LEONATO. + Hath no man’s dagger here a point for me? + + + [_Hero swoons._] + + + BEATRICE. + Why, how now, cousin! wherefore sink you down? + + + DON JOHN. + Come, let us go. These things, come thus to light, + Smother her spirits up. + + + [_Exeunt Don Pedro, Don John and Claudio._] + + + BENEDICK. + How doth the lady? + + + BEATRICE. + Dead, I think! Help, uncle! Hero! why, Hero! Uncle! Signior + Benedick! Friar! + + + LEONATO. + O Fate! take not away thy heavy hand: + Death is the fairest cover for her shame + That may be wish’d for. + + + BEATRICE. + How now, cousin Hero? + + + FRIAR. + Have comfort, lady. + + + LEONATO. + Dost thou look up? + + + FRIAR. + Yea; wherefore should she not? + + + LEONATO. + Wherefore! Why, doth not every earthly thing + Cry shame upon her? Could she here deny + The story that is printed in her blood? + Do not live, Hero; do not ope thine eyes; + For, did I think thou wouldst not quickly die, + Thought I thy spirits were stronger than thy shames, + Myself would, on the rearward of reproaches, + Strike at thy life. Griev’d I, I had but one? + Chid I for that at frugal Nature’s frame? + O! one too much by thee. Why had I one? + Why ever wast thou lovely in my eyes? + Why had I not with charitable hand + Took up a beggar’s issue at my gates, + Who smirched thus, and mir’d with infamy, + I might have said, ‘No part of it is mine; + This shame derives itself from unknown loins?’ + But mine, and mine I lov’d, and mine I prais’d, + And mine that I was proud on, mine so much + That I myself was to myself not mine, + Valuing of her; why, she—O! she is fallen + Into a pit of ink, that the wide sea + Hath drops too few to wash her clean again, + And salt too little which may season give + To her foul tainted flesh. + + + BENEDICK. + Sir, sir, be patient. + For my part, I am so attir’d in wonder, + I know not what to say. + + + BEATRICE. + O! on my soul, my cousin is belied! + + + BENEDICK. + Lady, were you her bedfellow last night? + + + BEATRICE. + No, truly, not; although, until last night, + I have this twelvemonth been her bedfellow. + + + LEONATO. + Confirm’d, confirm’d! O! that is stronger made, + Which was before barr’d up with ribs of iron. + Would the two princes lie? and Claudio lie, + Who lov’d her so, that, speaking of her foulness, + Wash’d it with tears? Hence from her! let her die. + + + FRIAR. + Hear me a little; + For I have only been silent so long, + And given way unto this course of fortune, + By noting of the lady: I have mark’d + A thousand blushing apparitions + To start into her face; a thousand innocent shames + In angel whiteness bear away those blushes; + And in her eye there hath appear’d a fire, + To burn the errors that these princes hold + Against her maiden truth. Call me a fool; + Trust not my reading nor my observations, + Which with experimental seal doth warrant + The tenure of my book; trust not my age, + My reverence, calling, nor divinity, + If this sweet lady lie not guiltless here + Under some biting error. + + + LEONATO. + Friar, it cannot be. + Thou seest that all the grace that she hath left + Is that she will not add to her damnation + A sin of perjury: she not denies it. + Why seek’st thou then to cover with excuse + That which appears in proper nakedness? + + + FRIAR. + Lady, what man is he you are accus’d of? + + + HERO. + They know that do accuse me, I know none; + If I know more of any man alive + Than that which maiden modesty doth warrant, + Let all my sins lack mercy! O, my father! + Prove you that any man with me convers’d + At hours unmeet, or that I yesternight + Maintain’d the change of words with any creature, + Refuse me, hate me, torture me to death. + + + FRIAR. + There is some strange misprision in the princes. + + + BENEDICK. + Two of them have the very bent of honour; + And if their wisdoms be misled in this, + The practice of it lives in John the bastard, + Whose spirits toil in frame of villainies. + + + LEONATO. + I know not. If they speak but truth of her, + These hands shall tear her; if they wrong her honour, + The proudest of them shall well hear of it. + Time hath not yet so dried this blood of mine, + Nor age so eat up my invention, + Nor fortune made such havoc of my means, + Nor my bad life reft me so much of friends, + But they shall find, awak’d in such a kind, + Both strength of limb and policy of mind, + Ability in means and choice of friends, + To quit me of them throughly. + + + FRIAR. + Pause awhile, + And let my counsel sway you in this case. + Your daughter here the princes left for dead; + Let her awhile be secretly kept in, + And publish it that she is dead indeed: + Maintain a mourning ostentation; + And on your family’s old monument + Hang mournful epitaphs and do all rites + That appertain unto a burial. + + + LEONATO. + What shall become of this? What will this do? + + + FRIAR. + Marry, this well carried shall on her behalf + Change slander to remorse; that is some good. + But not for that dream I on this strange course, + But on this travail look for greater birth. + She dying, as it must be so maintain’d, + Upon the instant that she was accus’d, + Shall be lamented, pitied and excus’d + Of every hearer; for it so falls out + That what we have we prize not to the worth + Whiles we enjoy it, but being lack’d and lost, + Why, then we rack the value, then we find + The virtue that possession would not show us + Whiles it was ours. So will it fare with Claudio: + When he shall hear she died upon his words, + The idea of her life shall sweetly creep + Into his study of imagination, + And every lovely organ of her life + Shall come apparell’d in more precious habit, + More moving, delicate, and full of life + Into the eye and prospect of his soul, + Than when she liv’d indeed: then shall he mourn,— + If ever love had interest in his liver,— + And wish he had not so accused her, + No, though he thought his accusation true. + Let this be so, and doubt not but success + Will fashion the event in better shape + Than I can lay it down in likelihood. + But if all aim but this be levell’d false, + The supposition of the lady’s death + Will quench the wonder of her infamy: + And if it sort not well, you may conceal her,— + As best befits her wounded reputation,— + In some reclusive and religious life, + Out of all eyes, tongues, minds, and injuries. + + + BENEDICK. + Signior Leonato, let the friar advise you: + And though you know my inwardness and love + Is very much unto the Prince and Claudio, + Yet, by mine honour, I will deal in this + As secretly and justly as your soul + Should with your body. + + + LEONATO. + Being that I flow in grief, + The smallest twine may lead me. + + + FRIAR. + ’Tis well consented: presently away; + For to strange sores strangely they strain the cure. + Come, lady, die to live: this wedding day + Perhaps is but prolong’d: have patience and endure. + + + [_Exeunt Friar, Hero and Leonato._] + + + BENEDICK. + Lady Beatrice, have you wept all this while? + + + BEATRICE. + Yea, and I will weep a while longer. + + + BENEDICK. + I will not desire that. + + + BEATRICE. + You have no reason; I do it freely. + + + BENEDICK. + Surely I do believe your fair cousin is wronged. + + + BEATRICE. + Ah! how much might the man deserve of me that would right her. + + + BENEDICK. + Is there any way to show such friendship? + + + BEATRICE. + A very even way, but no such friend. + + + BENEDICK. + May a man do it? + + + BEATRICE. + It is a man’s office, but not yours. + + + BENEDICK. + I do love nothing in the world so well as you: is not that + strange? + + + BEATRICE. + As strange as the thing I know not. It were as possible for me to + say I loved nothing so well as you; but believe me not, and yet I + lie not; I confess nothing, nor I deny nothing. I am sorry for my + cousin. + + + BENEDICK. + By my sword, Beatrice, thou lovest me. + + + BEATRICE. + Do not swear by it, and eat it. + + + BENEDICK. + I will swear by it that you love me; and I will make him eat it + that says I love not you. + + + BEATRICE. + Will you not eat your word? + + + BENEDICK. + With no sauce that can be devised to it. I protest I love thee. + + + BEATRICE. + Why then, God forgive me! + + + BENEDICK. + What offence, sweet Beatrice? + + + BEATRICE. + You have stayed me in a happy hour: I was about to protest I + loved you. + + + BENEDICK. + And do it with all thy heart. + + + BEATRICE. + I love you with so much of my heart that none is left to protest. + + + BENEDICK. + Come, bid me do anything for thee. + + + BEATRICE. + Kill Claudio. + + + BENEDICK. + Ha! not for the wide world. + + + BEATRICE. + You kill me to deny it. Farewell. + + + BENEDICK. + Tarry, sweet Beatrice. + + + BEATRICE. + I am gone, though I am here: there is no love in you: nay, I pray + you, let me go. + + + BENEDICK. + Beatrice,— + + + BEATRICE. + In faith, I will go. + + + BENEDICK. + We’ll be friends first. + + + BEATRICE. + You dare easier be friends with me than fight with mine enemy. + + + BENEDICK. + Is Claudio thine enemy? + + + BEATRICE. + Is he not approved in the height a villain, that hath slandered, + scorned, dishonoured my kinswoman? O! that I were a man. What! + bear her in hand until they come to take hands, and then, with + public accusation, uncovered slander, unmitigated rancour,—O God, + that I were a man! I would eat his heart in the market-place. + + + BENEDICK. + Hear me, Beatrice,— + + + BEATRICE. + Talk with a man out at a window! a proper saying! + + + BENEDICK. + Nay, but Beatrice,— + + + BEATRICE. + Sweet Hero! she is wronged, she is slandered, she is undone. + + + BENEDICK. + Beat— + + + BEATRICE. + Princes and Counties! Surely, a princely testimony, a goodly + Count Comfect; a sweet gallant, surely! O! that I were a man for + his sake, or that I had any friend would be a man for my sake! + But manhood is melted into curtsies, valour into compliment, and + men are only turned into tongue, and trim ones too: he is now as + valiant as Hercules, that only tells a lie and swears it. I + cannot be a man with wishing, therefore I will die a woman with + grieving. + + + BENEDICK. + Tarry, good Beatrice. By this hand, I love thee. + + + BEATRICE. + Use it for my love some other way than swearing by it. + + + BENEDICK. + Think you in your soul the Count Claudio hath wronged Hero? + + + BEATRICE. + Yea, as sure is I have a thought or a soul. + + + BENEDICK. + Enough! I am engaged, I will challenge him. I will kiss your + hand, and so leave you. By this hand, Claudio shall render me a + dear account. As you hear of me, so think of me. Go, comfort your + cousin: I must say she is dead; and so, farewell. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +Scene II. A Prison. + + Enter Dogberry, Verges, and Sexton, in gowns; and the Watch, with + Conrade and Borachio. + + + DOGBERRY. + Is our whole dissembly appeared? + + + VERGES. + O! a stool and a cushion for the sexton. + + + SEXTON. + Which be the malefactors? + + + DOGBERRY. + Marry, that am I and my partner. + + + VERGES. + Nay, that’s certain: we have the exhibition to examine. + + + SEXTON. + But which are the offenders that are to be examined? let them + come before Master Constable. + + + DOGBERRY. + Yea, marry, let them come before me. What is your name, friend? + + + BORACHIO. + Borachio. + + + DOGBERRY. + Pray write down Borachio. Yours, sirrah? + + + CONRADE. + I am a gentleman, sir, and my name is Conrade. + + + DOGBERRY. + Write down Master gentleman Conrade. Masters, do you serve God? + + + BOTH. + Yea, sir, we hope. + + + DOGBERRY. + Write down that they hope they serve God: and write God first; + for God defend but God should go before such villains! Masters, + it is proved already that you are little better than false + knaves, and it will go near to be thought so shortly. How answer + you for yourselves? + + + CONRADE. + Marry, sir, we say we are none. + + + DOGBERRY. + A marvellous witty fellow, I assure you; but I will go about with + him. Come you hither, sirrah; a word in your ear: sir, I say to + you, it is thought you are false knaves. + + + BORACHIO. + Sir, I say to you we are none. + + + DOGBERRY. + Well, stand aside. Fore God, they are both in a tale. Have you + writ down, that they are none? + + + SEXTON. + Master Constable, you go not the way to examine: you must call + forth the watch that are their accusers. + + + DOGBERRY. + Yea, marry, that’s the eftest way. Let the watch come forth. + Masters, I charge you, in the Prince’s name, accuse these men. + + + FIRST WATCH. + This man said, sir, that Don John, the Prince’s brother, was a + villain. + + + DOGBERRY. + Write down Prince John a villain. Why, this is flat perjury, to + call a Prince’s brother villain. + + + BORACHIO. + Master Constable,— + + + DOGBERRY. + Pray thee, fellow, peace: I do not like thy look, I promise thee. + + + SEXTON. + What heard you him say else? + + + SECOND WATCH. + Marry, that he had received a thousand ducats of Don John for + accusing the Lady Hero wrongfully. + + + DOGBERRY. + Flat burglary as ever was committed. + + + VERGES. + Yea, by the mass, that it is. + + + SEXTON. + What else, fellow? + + + FIRST WATCH. + And that Count Claudio did mean, upon his words, to disgrace Hero + before the whole assembly, and not marry her. + + + DOGBERRY. + O villain! thou wilt be condemned into everlasting redemption for + this. + + + SEXTON. + What else? + + + SECOND WATCH. + This is all. + + + SEXTON. + And this is more, masters, than you can deny. Prince John is this + morning secretly stolen away: Hero was in this manner accused, in + this manner refused, and, upon the grief of this, suddenly died. + Master Constable, let these men be bound, and brought to + Leonato’s: I will go before and show him their examination. + + + [_Exit._] + + + DOGBERRY. + Come, let them be opinioned. + + + VERGES. + Let them be in the hands— + + + CONRADE. + Off, coxcomb! + + + DOGBERRY. + God’s my life! where’s the sexton? let him write down the + Prince’s officer coxcomb. Come, bind them. Thou naughty varlet! + + + CONRADE. + Away! you are an ass; you are an ass. + + + DOGBERRY. + Dost thou not suspect my place? Dost thou not suspect my years? O + that he were here to write me down an ass! but, masters, remember + that I am an ass; though it be not written down, yet forget not + that I am an ass. No, thou villain, thou art full of piety, as + shall be proved upon thee by good witness. I am a wise fellow; + and, which is more, an officer; and, which is more, a + householder; and, which is more, as pretty a piece of flesh as + any in Messina; and one that knows the law, go to; and a rich + fellow enough, go to; and a fellow that hath had losses; and one + that hath two gowns, and everything handsome about him. Bring him + away. O that I had been writ down an ass! + + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Before Leonato’s House. + + Enter Leonato and Antonio. + + + ANTONIO. + If you go on thus, you will kill yourself + And ’tis not wisdom thus to second grief + Against yourself. + + + LEONATO. + I pray thee, cease thy counsel, + Which falls into mine ears as profitless + As water in a sieve: give not me counsel; + Nor let no comforter delight mine ear + But such a one whose wrongs do suit with mine: + Bring me a father that so lov’d his child, + Whose joy of her is overwhelm’d like mine, + And bid him speak of patience; + Measure his woe the length and breadth of mine, + And let it answer every strain for strain, + As thus for thus and such a grief for such, + In every lineament, branch, shape, and form: + If such a one will smile, and stroke his beard; + Bid sorrow wag, cry ‘hem’ when he should groan, + Patch grief with proverbs; make misfortune drunk + With candle-wasters; bring him yet to me, + And I of him will gather patience. + But there is no such man; for, brother, men + Can counsel and speak comfort to that grief + Which they themselves not feel; but, tasting it, + Their counsel turns to passion, which before + Would give preceptial medicine to rage, + Fetter strong madness in a silken thread, + Charm ache with air and agony with words. + No, no; ’tis all men’s office to speak patience + To those that wring under the load of sorrow, + But no man’s virtue nor sufficiency + To be so moral when he shall endure + The like himself. Therefore give me no counsel: + My griefs cry louder than advertisement. + + + ANTONIO. + Therein do men from children nothing differ. + + + LEONATO. + I pray thee peace! I will be flesh and blood; + For there was never yet philosopher + That could endure the toothache patiently, + However they have writ the style of gods + And made a push at chance and sufferance. + + + ANTONIO. + Yet bend not all the harm upon yourself; + Make those that do offend you suffer too. + + + LEONATO. + There thou speak’st reason: nay, I will do so. + My soul doth tell me Hero is belied; + And that shall Claudio know; so shall the Prince, + And all of them that thus dishonour her. + + + ANTONIO. + Here comes the Prince and Claudio hastily. + + + Enter Don Pedro and Claudio. + + + DON PEDRO. + Good den, good den. + + + CLAUDIO. + Good day to both of you. + + + LEONATO. + Hear you, my lords,— + + + DON PEDRO. + We have some haste, Leonato. + + + LEONATO. + Some haste, my lord! well, fare you well, my lord: + Are you so hasty now?—well, all is one. + + + DON PEDRO. + Nay, do not quarrel with us, good old man. + + + ANTONIO. + If he could right himself with quarrelling, + Some of us would lie low. + + + CLAUDIO. + Who wrongs him? + + + LEONATO. + Marry, thou dost wrong me; thou dissembler, thou. + Nay, never lay thy hand upon thy sword; + I fear thee not. + + + CLAUDIO. + Marry, beshrew my hand, + If it should give your age such cause of fear. + In faith, my hand meant nothing to my sword. + + + LEONATO. + Tush, tush, man! never fleer and jest at me: + I speak not like a dotard nor a fool, + As, under privilege of age, to brag + What I have done being young, or what would do, + Were I not old. Know, Claudio, to thy head, + Thou hast so wrong’d mine innocent child and me + That I am forc’d to lay my reverence by, + And, with grey hairs and bruise of many days, + Do challenge thee to trial of a man. + I say thou hast belied mine innocent child: + Thy slander hath gone through and through her heart, + And she lies buried with her ancestors; + O! in a tomb where never scandal slept, + Save this of hers, fram’d by thy villainy! + + + CLAUDIO. + My villainy? + + + LEONATO. + Thine, Claudio; thine, I say. + + + DON PEDRO. + You say not right, old man, + + + LEONATO. + My lord, my lord, I’ll prove it on his body, if he dare, + Despite his nice fence and his active practice, + His May of youth and bloom of lustihood. + + + CLAUDIO. + Away! I will not have to do with you. + + + LEONATO. + Canst thou so daff me? Thou hast kill’d my child; + If thou kill’st me, boy, thou shalt kill a man. + + + ANTONIO. + He shall kill two of us, and men indeed: + But that’s no matter; let him kill one first: + Win me and wear me; let him answer me. + Come, follow me, boy; come, sir boy, come, follow me. + Sir boy, I’ll whip you from your foining fence; + Nay, as I am a gentleman, I will. + + + LEONATO. + Brother,— + + + ANTONIO. + Content yourself. God knows I lov’d my niece; + And she is dead, slander’d to death by villains, + That dare as well answer a man indeed + As I dare take a serpent by the tongue. + Boys, apes, braggarts, Jacks, milksops! + + + LEONATO. + Brother Anthony,— + + + ANTONIO. + Hold you content. What, man! I know them, yea, + And what they weigh, even to the utmost scruple, + Scambling, out-facing, fashion-monging boys, + That lie and cog and flout, deprave and slander, + Go antickly, show outward hideousness, + And speak off half a dozen dangerous words, + How they might hurt their enemies, if they durst; + And this is all! + + + LEONATO. + But, brother Anthony,— + + + ANTONIO. + Come, ’tis no matter: + Do not you meddle, let me deal in this. + + + DON PEDRO. + Gentlemen both, we will not wake your patience. + My heart is sorry for your daughter’s death; + But, on my honour, she was charg’d with nothing + But what was true and very full of proof. + + + LEONATO. + My lord, my lord— + + + DON PEDRO. + I will not hear you. + + + LEONATO. + No? Come, brother, away. I will be heard.— + + + ANTONIO. + And shall, or some of us will smart for it. + + + [_Exeunt Leonato and Antonio._] + + + Enter Benedick. + + + DON PEDRO. + See, see; here comes the man we went to seek. + + + CLAUDIO. + Now, signior, what news? + + + BENEDICK. + Good day, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. + Welcome, signior: you are almost come to part almost a fray. + + + CLAUDIO. + We had like to have had our two noses snapped off with two old + men without teeth. + + + DON PEDRO. + Leonato and his brother. What think’st thou? Had we fought, I + doubt we should have been too young for them. + + + BENEDICK. + In a false quarrel there is no true valour. I came to seek you + both. + + + CLAUDIO. + We have been up and down to seek thee; for we are high-proof + melancholy, and would fain have it beaten away. Wilt thou use thy + wit? + + + BENEDICK. + It is in my scabbard; shall I draw it? + + + DON PEDRO. + Dost thou wear thy wit by thy side? + + + CLAUDIO. + Never any did so, though very many have been beside their wit. I + will bid thee draw, as we do the minstrels; draw, to pleasure us. + + + DON PEDRO. + As I am an honest man, he looks pale. Art thou sick, or angry? + + + CLAUDIO. + What, courage, man! What though care killed a cat, thou hast + mettle enough in thee to kill care. + + + BENEDICK. + Sir, I shall meet your wit in the career, and you charge it + against me. I pray you choose another subject. + + + CLAUDIO. + Nay then, give him another staff: this last was broke cross. + + + DON PEDRO. + By this light, he changes more and more: I think he be angry + indeed. + + + CLAUDIO. + If he be, he knows how to turn his girdle. + + + BENEDICK. + Shall I speak a word in your ear? + + + CLAUDIO. + God bless me from a challenge! + + + BENEDICK. + [_Aside to Claudio._] You are a villain, I jest not: I will make + it good how you dare, with what you dare, and when you dare. Do + me right, or I will protest your cowardice. You have killed a + sweet lady, and her death shall fall heavy on you. Let me hear + from you. + + + CLAUDIO. + Well I will meet you, so I may have good cheer. + + + DON PEDRO. + What, a feast, a feast? + + + CLAUDIO. + I’ faith, I thank him; he hath bid me to a calf’s-head and a + capon, the which if I do not carve most curiously, say my knife’s + naught. Shall I not find a woodcock too? + + + BENEDICK. + Sir, your wit ambles well; it goes easily. + + + DON PEDRO. + I’ll tell thee how Beatrice praised thy wit the other day. I + said, thou hadst a fine wit. ‘True,’ says she, ‘a fine little + one.’ ‘No,’ said I, ‘a great wit.’ ‘Right,’ said she, ‘a great + gross one.’ ‘Nay,’ said I, ‘a good wit.’ ‘Just,’ said she, ‘it + hurts nobody.’ ‘Nay,’ said I, ‘the gentleman is wise.’ ‘Certain,’ + said she, ‘a wise gentleman.’ ‘Nay,’ said I, ‘he hath the + tongues.’ ‘That I believe’ said she, ‘for he swore a thing to me + on Monday night, which he forswore on Tuesday morning: there’s a + double tongue; there’s two tongues.’ Thus did she, an hour + together, trans-shape thy particular virtues; yet at last she + concluded with a sigh, thou wast the properest man in Italy. + + + CLAUDIO. + For the which she wept heartily and said she cared not. + + + DON PEDRO. + Yea, that she did; but yet, for all that, an if she did not hate + him deadly, she would love him dearly. The old man’s daughter + told us all. + + + CLAUDIO. + All, all; and moreover, God saw him when he was hid in the + garden. + + + DON PEDRO. + But when shall we set the savage bull’s horns on the sensible + Benedick’s head? + + + CLAUDIO. + Yea, and text underneath, ‘Here dwells Benedick the married man!’ + + + BENEDICK. + Fare you well, boy: you know my mind. I will leave you now to + your gossip-like humour; you break jests as braggarts do their + blades, which, God be thanked, hurt not. My lord, for your many + courtesies I thank you: I must discontinue your company. Your + brother the bastard is fled from Messina: you have, among you, + killed a sweet and innocent lady. For my Lord Lack-beard there, + he and I shall meet; and till then, peace be with him. + + + [_Exit._] + + + DON PEDRO. + He is in earnest. + + + CLAUDIO. + In most profound earnest; and, I’ll warrant you, for the love of + Beatrice. + + + DON PEDRO. + And hath challenged thee? + + + CLAUDIO. + Most sincerely. + + + DON PEDRO. + What a pretty thing man is when he goes in his doublet and hose + and leaves off his wit! + + + CLAUDIO. + He is then a giant to an ape; but then is an ape a doctor to such + a man. + + + DON PEDRO. + But, soft you; let me be: pluck up, my heart, and be sad! Did he + not say my brother was fled? + + + Enter Dogberry, Verges, and the Watch, with Conrade and + Borachio. + + + DOGBERRY. + Come you, sir: if justice cannot tame you, she shall ne’er weigh + more reasons in her balance. Nay, an you be a cursing hypocrite + once, you must be looked to. + + + DON PEDRO. + How now! two of my brother’s men bound! Borachio, one! + + + CLAUDIO. + Hearken after their offence, my lord. + + + DON PEDRO. + Officers, what offence have these men done? + + + DOGBERRY. + Marry, sir, they have committed false report; moreover, they have + spoken untruths; secondarily, they are slanders; sixth and + lastly, they have belied a lady; thirdly, they have verified + unjust things; and to conclude, they are lying knaves. + + + DON PEDRO. + First, I ask thee what they have done; thirdly, I ask thee what’s + their offence; sixth and lastly, why they are committed; and, to + conclude, what you lay to their charge? + + + CLAUDIO. + Rightly reasoned, and in his own division; and, by my troth, + there’s one meaning well suited. + + + DON PEDRO. + Who have you offended, masters, that you are thus bound to your + answer? This learned constable is too cunning to be understood. + What’s your offence? + + + BORACHIO. + Sweet Prince, let me go no farther to mine answer: do you hear + me, and let this Count kill me. I have deceived even your very + eyes: what your wisdoms could not discover, these shallow fools + have brought to light; who, in the night overheard me confessing + to this man how Don John your brother incensed me to slander the + Lady Hero; how you were brought into the orchard and saw me court + Margaret in Hero’s garments; how you disgraced her, when you + should marry her. My villainy they have upon record; which I had + rather seal with my death than repeat over to my shame. The lady + is dead upon mine and my master’s false accusation; and, briefly, + I desire nothing but the reward of a villain. + + + DON PEDRO. + Runs not this speech like iron through your blood? + + + CLAUDIO. + I have drunk poison whiles he utter’d it. + + + DON PEDRO. + But did my brother set thee on to this? + + + BORACHIO. + Yea; and paid me richly for the practice of it. + + + DON PEDRO. + He is compos’d and fram’d of treachery: And fled he is upon this + villainy. + + + CLAUDIO. + Sweet Hero! now thy image doth appear + In the rare semblance that I lov’d it first. + + + DOGBERRY. + Come, bring away the plaintiffs: by this time our sexton hath + reformed Signior Leonato of the matter. And masters, do not + forget to specify, when time and place shall serve, that I am an + ass. + + + VERGES. + Here, here comes Master Signior Leonato, and the sexton too. + + + Re-enter Leonato, Antonio and the Sexton. + + + LEONATO. + Which is the villain? Let me see his eyes, + That, when I note another man like him, + I may avoid him. Which of these is he? + + + BORACHIO. + If you would know your wronger, look on me. + + + LEONATO. + Art thou the slave that with thy breath hast kill’d + Mine innocent child? + + + BORACHIO. + Yea, even I alone. + + + LEONATO. + No, not so, villain; thou beliest thyself: + Here stand a pair of honourable men; + A third is fled, that had a hand in it. + I thank you, princes, for my daughter’s death: + Record it with your high and worthy deeds. + ’Twas bravely done, if you bethink you of it. + + + CLAUDIO. + I know not how to pray your patience; + Yet I must speak. Choose your revenge yourself; + Impose me to what penance your invention + Can lay upon my sin: yet sinn’d I not + But in mistaking. + + + DON PEDRO. + By my soul, nor I: + And yet, to satisfy this good old man, + I would bend under any heavy weight + That he’ll enjoin me to. + + + LEONATO. + I cannot bid you bid my daughter live; + That were impossible; but, I pray you both, + Possess the people in Messina here + How innocent she died; and if your love + Can labour aught in sad invention, + Hang her an epitaph upon her tomb, + And sing it to her bones: sing it tonight. + Tomorrow morning come you to my house, + And since you could not be my son-in-law, + Be yet my nephew. My brother hath a daughter, + Almost the copy of my child that’s dead, + And she alone is heir to both of us: + Give her the right you should have given her cousin, + And so dies my revenge. + + + CLAUDIO. + O noble sir, + Your over-kindness doth wring tears from me! + I do embrace your offer; and dispose + For henceforth of poor Claudio. + + + LEONATO. + Tomorrow then I will expect your coming; + Tonight I take my leave. This naughty man + Shall face to face be brought to Margaret, + Who, I believe, was pack’d in all this wrong, + Hir’d to it by your brother. + + + BORACHIO. + No, by my soul she was not; + Nor knew not what she did when she spoke to me; + But always hath been just and virtuous + In anything that I do know by her. + + + DOGBERRY. + Moreover, sir,—which, indeed, is not under white and black,— this + plaintiff here, the offender, did call me ass: I beseech you, let + it be remembered in his punishment. And also, the watch heard + them talk of one Deformed: they say he wears a key in his ear and + a lock hanging by it, and borrows money in God’s name, the which + he hath used so long and never paid, that now men grow + hard-hearted, and will lend nothing for God’s sake. Pray you, + examine him upon that point. + + + LEONATO. + I thank thee for thy care and honest pains. + + + DOGBERRY. + Your worship speaks like a most thankful and reverent youth, and + I praise God for you. + + + LEONATO. + There’s for thy pains. + + + DOGBERRY. + God save the foundation! + + + LEONATO. + Go, I discharge thee of thy prisoner, and I thank thee. + + + DOGBERRY. + I leave an arrant knave with your worship; which I beseech your + worship to correct yourself, for the example of others. God keep + your worship! I wish your worship well; God restore you to + health! I humbly give you leave to depart, and if a merry meeting + may be wished, God prohibit it! Come, neighbour. + + + [_Exeunt Dogberry and Verges._] + + + LEONATO. + Until tomorrow morning, lords, farewell. + + + ANTONIO. + Farewell, my lords: we look for you tomorrow. + + + DON PEDRO. + We will not fail. + + + CLAUDIO. + Tonight I’ll mourn with Hero. + + + [_Exeunt Don Pedro and Claudio._] + + + LEONATO. + [_To the Watch._] Bring you these fellows on. We’ll talk with + Margaret, + How her acquaintance grew with this lewd fellow. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE II. Leonato’s Garden. + + Enter Benedick and Margaret, meeting. + + + BENEDICK. + Pray thee, sweet Mistress Margaret, deserve well at my hands by + helping me to the speech of Beatrice. + + + MARGARET. + Will you then write me a sonnet in praise of my beauty? + + + BENEDICK. + In so high a style, Margaret, that no man living shall come over + it; for, in most comely truth, thou deservest it. + + + MARGARET. + To have no man come over me! why, shall I always keep below + stairs? + + + BENEDICK. + Thy wit is as quick as the greyhound’s mouth; it catches. + + + MARGARET. + And yours as blunt as the fencer’s foils, which hit, but hurt + not. + + + BENEDICK. + A most manly wit, Margaret; it will not hurt a woman: and so, I + pray thee, call Beatrice. I give thee the bucklers. + + + MARGARET. + Give us the swords, we have bucklers of our own. + + + BENEDICK. + If you use them, Margaret, you must put in the pikes with a vice; + and they are dangerous weapons for maids. + + + MARGARET. + Well, I will call Beatrice to you, who I think hath legs. + + + BENEDICK. + And therefore will come. + + + [_Exit Margaret._] + + + The god of love, + That sits above, + And knows me, and knows me, + How pitiful I deserve,— + + + I mean, in singing: but in loving, Leander the good swimmer, + Troilus the first employer of panders, and a whole book full of + these quondam carpet-mongers, whose names yet run smoothly in the + even road of a blank verse, why, they were never so truly turned + over and over as my poor self in love. Marry, I cannot show it in + rime; I have tried: I can find out no rime to ‘lady’ but ‘baby’, + an innocent rime; for ‘scorn,’ ‘horn’, a hard rime; for ‘school’, + ‘fool’, a babbling rime; very ominous endings: no, I was not born + under a riming planet, nor I cannot woo in festival terms. + + + Enter Beatrice. + + + Sweet Beatrice, wouldst thou come when I called thee? + + + BEATRICE. + Yea, signior; and depart when you bid me. + + + BENEDICK. + O, stay but till then! + + + BEATRICE. + ‘Then’ is spoken; fare you well now: and yet, ere I go, let me go + with that I came for; which is, with knowing what hath passed + between you and Claudio. + + + BENEDICK. + Only foul words; and thereupon I will kiss thee. + + + BEATRICE. + Foul words is but foul wind, and foul wind is but foul breath, + and foul breath is noisome; therefore I will depart unkissed. + + + BENEDICK. + Thou hast frighted the word out of his right sense, so forcible + is thy wit. But I must tell thee plainly, Claudio undergoes my + challenge, and either I must shortly hear from him, or I will + subscribe him a coward. And, I pray thee now, tell me, for which + of my bad parts didst thou first fall in love with me? + + + BEATRICE. + For them all together; which maintained so politic a state of + evil that they will not admit any good part to intermingle with + them. But for which of my good parts did you first suffer love + for me? + + + BENEDICK. + ‘Suffer love,’ a good epithet! I do suffer love indeed, for I + love thee against my will. + + + BEATRICE. + In spite of your heart, I think. Alas, poor heart! If you spite + it for my sake, I will spite it for yours; for I will never love + that which my friend hates. + + + BENEDICK. + Thou and I are too wise to woo peaceably. + + + BEATRICE. + It appears not in this confession: there’s not one wise man among + twenty that will praise himself. + + + BENEDICK. + An old, an old instance, Beatrice, that lived in the time of good + neighbours. If a man do not erect in this age his own tomb ere he + dies, he shall live no longer in monument than the bell rings and + the widow weeps. + + + BEATRICE. And how long is that think you? + + + BENEDICK. + Question: why, an hour in clamour and a quarter in rheum: + therefore is it most expedient for the wise,—if Don Worm, his + conscience, find no impediment to the contrary,—to be the trumpet + of his own virtues, as I am to myself. So much for praising + myself, who, I myself will bear witness, is praiseworthy. And now + tell me, how doth your cousin? + + + BEATRICE. + Very ill. + + + BENEDICK. + And how do you? + + + BEATRICE. + Very ill too. + + + BENEDICK. + Serve God, love me, and mend. There will I leave you too, for + here comes one in haste. + + + Enter Ursula. + + + URSULA. + Madam, you must come to your uncle. Yonder’s old coil at home: it + is proved, my Lady Hero hath been falsely accused, the Prince and + Claudio mightily abused; and Don John is the author of all, who + is fled and gone. Will you come presently? + + + BEATRICE. + Will you go hear this news, signior? + + + BENEDICK. + I will live in thy heart, die in thy lap, and be buried in thy + eyes; and moreover I will go with thee to thy uncle’s. + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE III. The Inside of a Church. + + Enter Don Pedro, Claudio and Attendants, with music and tapers. + + + CLAUDIO. + Is this the monument of Leonato? + + + A LORD. + It is, my lord. + + + CLAUDIO. + [_Reads from a scroll._] + + + Epitaph. + + + Done to death by slanderous tongues + Was the Hero that here lies: + Death, in guerdon of her wrongs, + Gives her fame which never dies. + So the life that died with shame + Lives in death with glorious fame. + + + Hang thou there upon the tomb, + + + Praising her when I am dumb. + Now, music, sound, and sing your solemn hymn. + + + Song. + + + Pardon, goddess of the night, + Those that slew thy virgin knight; + For the which, with songs of woe, + Round about her tomb they go. + Midnight, assist our moan; + Help us to sigh and groan, + Heavily, heavily: + Graves, yawn and yield your dead, + Till death be uttered, + Heavily, heavily. + + + CLAUDIO. + Now, unto thy bones good night! + Yearly will I do this rite. + + + DON PEDRO. + Good morrow, masters: put your torches out. + The wolves have prey’d; and look, the gentle day, + Before the wheels of Phoebus, round about + Dapples the drowsy East with spots of grey. + Thanks to you all, and leave us: fare you well. + + + CLAUDIO. + Good morrow, masters: each his several way. + + + DON PEDRO. + Come, let us hence, and put on other weeds; + And then to Leonato’s we will go. + + + CLAUDIO. + And Hymen now with luckier issue speed’s, + Than this for whom we rend’red up this woe! + + + [_Exeunt._] + + +SCENE IV. A Room in Leonato’s House. + + Enter Leonato, Antonio, Benedick, Beatrice, Margaret, Ursula, + Friar Francis and Hero. + + + FRIAR. + Did I not tell you she was innocent? + + + LEONATO. + So are the Prince and Claudio, who accus’d her + Upon the error that you heard debated: + But Margaret was in some fault for this, + Although against her will, as it appears + In the true course of all the question. + + + ANTONIO. + Well, I am glad that all things sort so well. + + + BENEDICK. + And so am I, being else by faith enforc’d + To call young Claudio to a reckoning for it. + + + LEONATO. + Well, daughter, and you gentlewomen all, + Withdraw into a chamber by yourselves, + And when I send for you, come hither mask’d: + The Prince and Claudio promis’d by this hour + To visit me. + + + [_Exeunt Ladies._] + + + You know your office, brother; + You must be father to your brother’s daughter, + And give her to young Claudio. + + + ANTONIO. + Which I will do with confirm’d countenance. + + + BENEDICK. + Friar, I must entreat your pains, I think. + + + FRIAR. + To do what, signior? + + + BENEDICK. + To bind me, or undo me; one of them. + Signior Leonato, truth it is, good signior, + Your niece regards me with an eye of favour. + + + LEONATO. + That eye my daughter lent her. ’Tis most true. + + + BENEDICK. + And I do with an eye of love requite her. + + + LEONATO. + The sight whereof I think, you had from me, + From Claudio, and the Prince. But what’s your will? + + + BENEDICK. + Your answer, sir, is enigmatical: + But, for my will, my will is your good will + May stand with ours, this day to be conjoin’d + In the state of honourable marriage: + In which, good friar, I shall desire your help. + + + LEONATO. + My heart is with your liking. + + + FRIAR. + And my help. Here comes the Prince and Claudio. + + + Enter Don Pedro and Claudio, with Attendants. + + + DON PEDRO. + Good morrow to this fair assembly. + + + LEONATO. + Good morrow, Prince; good morrow, Claudio: + We here attend you. Are you yet determin’d + Today to marry with my brother’s daughter? + + + CLAUDIO. + I’ll hold my mind, were she an Ethiope. + + + LEONATO. + Call her forth, brother: here’s the friar ready. + + + [_Exit Antonio._] + + + DON PEDRO. + Good morrow, Benedick. Why, what’s the matter, + That you have such a February face, + So full of frost, of storm and cloudiness? + + + CLAUDIO. + I think he thinks upon the savage bull. + Tush! fear not, man, we’ll tip thy horns with gold, + And all Europa shall rejoice at thee, + As once Europa did at lusty Jove, + When he would play the noble beast in love. + + + BENEDICK. + Bull Jove, sir, had an amiable low: + And some such strange bull leap’d your father’s cow, + And got a calf in that same noble feat, + Much like to you, for you have just his bleat. + + + CLAUDIO. + For this I owe you: here comes other reckonings. + + + Re-enter Antonio, with the ladies masked. + + + Which is the lady I must seize upon? + + + ANTONIO. + This same is she, and I do give you her. + + + CLAUDIO. + Why then, she’s mine. Sweet, let me see your face. + + + LEONATO. + No, that you shall not, till you take her hand + Before this friar, and swear to marry her. + + + CLAUDIO. + Give me your hand: before this holy friar, + I am your husband, if you like of me. + + + HERO. + And when I liv’d, I was your other wife: + [_Unmasking._] And when you lov’d, you were my other husband. + + + CLAUDIO. + Another Hero! + + + HERO. + Nothing certainer: + One Hero died defil’d, but I do live, + And surely as I live, I am a maid. + + + DON PEDRO. + The former Hero! Hero that is dead! + + + LEONATO. + She died, my lord, but whiles her slander liv’d. + + + FRIAR. + All this amazement can I qualify: + When after that the holy rites are ended, + I’ll tell you largely of fair Hero’s death: + Meantime, let wonder seem familiar, + And to the chapel let us presently. + + + BENEDICK. + Soft and fair, friar. Which is Beatrice? + + + BEATRICE. + [_Unmasking._] I answer to that name. What is your will? + + + BENEDICK. + Do not you love me? + + + BEATRICE. + Why, no; no more than reason. + + + BENEDICK. + Why, then, your uncle and the Prince and Claudio + Have been deceived; for they swore you did. + + + BEATRICE. + Do not you love me? + + + BENEDICK. + Troth, no; no more than reason. + + + BEATRICE. + Why, then my cousin, Margaret, and Ursula, + Are much deceiv’d; for they did swear you did. + + + BENEDICK. + They swore that you were almost sick for me. + + + BEATRICE. + They swore that you were well-nigh dead for me. + + + BENEDICK. + ’Tis no such matter. Then you do not love me? + + + BEATRICE. + No, truly, but in friendly recompense. + + + LEONATO. + Come, cousin, I am sure you love the gentleman. + + + CLAUDIO. + And I’ll be sworn upon ’t that he loves her; + For here’s a paper written in his hand, + A halting sonnet of his own pure brain, + Fashion’d to Beatrice. + + + HERO. + And here’s another, + Writ in my cousin’s hand, stolen from her pocket, + Containing her affection unto Benedick. + + + BENEDICK. + A miracle! here’s our own hands against our hearts. Come, I will + have thee; but, by this light, I take thee for pity. + + + BEATRICE. + I would not deny you; but, by this good day, I yield upon great + persuasion, and partly to save your life, for I was told you were + in a consumption. + + + BENEDICK. + Peace! I will stop your mouth. [_Kisses her._] + + + DON PEDRO. + How dost thou, Benedick, the married man? + + + BENEDICK. + I’ll tell thee what, Prince; a college of witcrackers cannout + flout me out of my humour. Dost thou think I care for a satire or + an epigram? No; if man will be beaten with brains, a’ shall wear + nothing handsome about him. In brief, since I do purpose to + marry, I will think nothing to any purpose that the world can say + against it; and therefore never flout at me for what I have said + against it, for man is a giddy thing, and this is my conclusion. + For thy part, Claudio, I did think to have beaten thee; but, in + that thou art like to be my kinsman, live unbruised, and love my + cousin. + + + CLAUDIO. + I had well hoped thou wouldst have denied Beatrice, that I might + have cudgelled thee out of thy single life, to make thee a + double-dealer; which, out of question, thou wilt be, if my cousin + do not look exceeding narrowly to thee. + + + BENEDICK. + Come, come, we are friends. Let’s have a dance ere we are + married, that we may lighten our own hearts and our wives’ heels. + + + LEONATO. + We’ll have dancing afterward. + + + BENEDICK. + First, of my word; therefore play, music! Prince, thou art sad; + get thee a wife, get thee a wife: there is no staff more reverent + than one tipped with horn. + + + Enter Messenger. + + + MESSENGER. + My lord, your brother John is ta’en in flight, + And brought with armed men back to Messina. + + + BENEDICK. + Think not on him till tomorrow: I’ll devise thee brave + punishments for him. Strike up, pipers! + + + [_Dance. Exeunt._] + + + + +OTHELLO, THE MOOR OF VENICE + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Venice. A street. +Scene II. Venice. Another street. +Scene III. Venice. A council chamber. + +ACT II +Scene I. A seaport in Cyprus. A Platform. +Scene II. A street. +Scene III. A Hall in the Castle. + +ACT III +Scene I. Cyprus. Before the Castle. +Scene II. Cyprus. A Room in the Castle. +Scene III. Cyprus. The Garden of the Castle. +Scene IV. Cyprus. Before the Castle. + +ACT IV +Scene I. Cyprus. Before the Castle. +Scene II. Cyprus. A Room in the Castle. +Scene III. Cyprus. Another Room in the Castle. + +ACT V +Scene I. Cyprus. A Street. +Scene II. Cyprus. A Bedchamber in the castle. + + + +Dramatis Personæ + +DUKE OF VENICE +BRABANTIO, a Senator of Venice and Desdemona’s father +Other Senators +GRATIANO, Brother to Brabantio +LODOVICO, Kinsman to Brabantio +OTHELLO, a noble Moor in the service of Venice +CASSIO, his Lieutenant +IAGO, his Ancient +MONTANO, Othello’s predecessor in the government of Cyprus +RODERIGO, a Venetian Gentleman +CLOWN, Servant to Othello + +DESDEMONA, Daughter to Brabantio and Wife to Othello +EMILIA, Wife to Iago +BIANCA, Mistress to Cassio + +Officers, Gentlemen, Messenger, Musicians, Herald, Sailor, Attendants, +&c. + +SCENE: The First Act in Venice; during the rest of the Play at a +Seaport in Cyprus. + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Venice. A street. + + Enter Roderigo and Iago. + +RODERIGO. +Tush, never tell me, I take it much unkindly +That thou, Iago, who hast had my purse, +As if the strings were thine, shouldst know of this. + +IAGO. +’Sblood, but you will not hear me. +If ever I did dream of such a matter, +Abhor me. + +RODERIGO. +Thou told’st me, thou didst hold him in thy hate. + +IAGO. +Despise me if I do not. Three great ones of the city, +In personal suit to make me his lieutenant, +Off-capp’d to him; and by the faith of man, +I know my price, I am worth no worse a place. +But he, as loving his own pride and purposes, +Evades them, with a bombast circumstance, +Horribly stuff’d with epithets of war: +And in conclusion, +Nonsuits my mediators: for “Certes,” says he, +“I have already chose my officer.” +And what was he? +Forsooth, a great arithmetician, +One Michael Cassio, a Florentine, +A fellow almost damn’d in a fair wife, +That never set a squadron in the field, +Nor the division of a battle knows +More than a spinster, unless the bookish theoric, +Wherein the toged consuls can propose +As masterly as he: mere prattle without practice +Is all his soldiership. But he, sir, had the election, +And I, of whom his eyes had seen the proof +At Rhodes, at Cyprus, and on other grounds, +Christian and heathen, must be belee’d and calm’d +By debitor and creditor, this counter-caster, +He, in good time, must his lieutenant be, +And I, God bless the mark, his Moorship’s ancient. + +RODERIGO. +By heaven, I rather would have been his hangman. + +IAGO. +Why, there’s no remedy. ’Tis the curse of service, +Preferment goes by letter and affection, +And not by old gradation, where each second +Stood heir to the first. Now sir, be judge yourself +Whether I in any just term am affin’d +To love the Moor. + +RODERIGO. +I would not follow him, then. + +IAGO. +O, sir, content you. +I follow him to serve my turn upon him: +We cannot all be masters, nor all masters +Cannot be truly follow’d. You shall mark +Many a duteous and knee-crooking knave +That, doting on his own obsequious bondage, +Wears out his time, much like his master’s ass, +For nought but provender, and when he’s old, cashier’d. +Whip me such honest knaves. Others there are +Who, trimm’d in forms, and visages of duty, +Keep yet their hearts attending on themselves, +And throwing but shows of service on their lords, +Do well thrive by them, and when they have lin’d their coats, +Do themselves homage. These fellows have some soul, +And such a one do I profess myself. For, sir, +It is as sure as you are Roderigo, +Were I the Moor, I would not be Iago: +In following him, I follow but myself. +Heaven is my judge, not I for love and duty, +But seeming so for my peculiar end. +For when my outward action doth demonstrate +The native act and figure of my heart +In complement extern, ’tis not long after +But I will wear my heart upon my sleeve +For daws to peck at: I am not what I am. + +RODERIGO. +What a full fortune does the thick-lips owe, +If he can carry’t thus! + +IAGO. +Call up her father, +Rouse him, make after him, poison his delight, +Proclaim him in the streets; incense her kinsmen, +And though he in a fertile climate dwell, +Plague him with flies: though that his joy be joy, +Yet throw such changes of vexation on’t, +As it may lose some color. + +RODERIGO. +Here is her father’s house, I’ll call aloud. + +IAGO. +Do, with like timorous accent and dire yell +As when, by night and negligence, the fire +Is spied in populous cities. + +RODERIGO. +What ho, Brabantio! Signior Brabantio, ho! + +IAGO. +Awake! what ho, Brabantio! Thieves, thieves! +Look to your house, your daughter, and your bags! +Thieves, thieves! + + Brabantio appears above at a window. + +BRABANTIO. +What is the reason of this terrible summons? +What is the matter there? + +RODERIGO. +Signior, is all your family within? + +IAGO. +Are your doors locked? + +BRABANTIO. +Why, wherefore ask you this? + +IAGO. +Zounds, sir, you’re robb’d, for shame put on your gown, +Your heart is burst, you have lost half your soul; +Even now, now, very now, an old black ram +Is tupping your white ewe. Arise, arise, +Awake the snorting citizens with the bell, +Or else the devil will make a grandsire of you: +Arise, I say. + +BRABANTIO. +What, have you lost your wits? + +RODERIGO. +Most reverend signior, do you know my voice? + +BRABANTIO. +Not I. What are you? + +RODERIGO. +My name is Roderigo. + +BRABANTIO. +The worser welcome. +I have charg’d thee not to haunt about my doors; +In honest plainness thou hast heard me say +My daughter is not for thee; and now in madness, +Being full of supper and distempering draughts, +Upon malicious bravery, dost thou come +To start my quiet. + +RODERIGO. +Sir, sir, sir,— + +BRABANTIO. +But thou must needs be sure +My spirit and my place have in them power +To make this bitter to thee. + +RODERIGO. +Patience, good sir. + +BRABANTIO. +What tell’st thou me of robbing? +This is Venice. My house is not a grange. + +RODERIGO. +Most grave Brabantio, +In simple and pure soul I come to you. + +IAGO. +Zounds, sir, you are one of those that will not serve God if the devil +bid you. Because we come to do you service, and you think we are +ruffians, you’ll have your daughter cover’d with a Barbary horse; +you’ll have your nephews neigh to you; you’ll have coursers for cousins +and gennets for germans. + +BRABANTIO. +What profane wretch art thou? + +IAGO. +I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are +now making the beast with two backs. + +BRABANTIO. +Thou art a villain. + +IAGO. +You are a senator. + +BRABANTIO. +This thou shalt answer. I know thee, Roderigo. + +RODERIGO. +Sir, I will answer anything. But I beseech you, +If ’t be your pleasure, and most wise consent, +(As partly I find it is) that your fair daughter, +At this odd-even and dull watch o’ the night, +Transported with no worse nor better guard, +But with a knave of common hire, a gondolier, +To the gross clasps of a lascivious Moor: +If this be known to you, and your allowance, +We then have done you bold and saucy wrongs. +But if you know not this, my manners tell me, +We have your wrong rebuke. Do not believe +That from the sense of all civility, +I thus would play and trifle with your reverence. +Your daughter (if you have not given her leave) +I say again, hath made a gross revolt, +Tying her duty, beauty, wit, and fortunes +In an extravagant and wheeling stranger +Of here and everywhere. Straight satisfy yourself: +If she be in her chamber or your house, +Let loose on me the justice of the state +For thus deluding you. + +BRABANTIO. +Strike on the tinder, ho! +Give me a taper! Call up all my people! +This accident is not unlike my dream, +Belief of it oppresses me already. +Light, I say, light! + + [_Exit from above._] + +IAGO. +Farewell; for I must leave you: +It seems not meet nor wholesome to my place +To be produc’d, as if I stay I shall, +Against the Moor. For I do know the state, +However this may gall him with some check, +Cannot with safety cast him, for he’s embark’d +With such loud reason to the Cyprus wars, +Which even now stand in act, that, for their souls, +Another of his fathom they have none +To lead their business. In which regard, +Though I do hate him as I do hell pains, +Yet, for necessity of present life, +I must show out a flag and sign of love, +Which is indeed but sign. That you shall surely find him, +Lead to the Sagittary the raised search, +And there will I be with him. So, farewell. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Brabantio with Servants and torches. + +BRABANTIO. +It is too true an evil. Gone she is, +And what’s to come of my despised time, +Is naught but bitterness. Now Roderigo, +Where didst thou see her? (O unhappy girl!) +With the Moor, say’st thou? (Who would be a father!) +How didst thou know ’twas she? (O, she deceives me +Past thought.) What said she to you? Get more tapers, +Raise all my kindred. Are they married, think you? + +RODERIGO. +Truly I think they are. + +BRABANTIO. +O heaven! How got she out? O treason of the blood! +Fathers, from hence trust not your daughters’ minds +By what you see them act. Is there not charms +By which the property of youth and maidhood +May be abused? Have you not read, Roderigo, +Of some such thing? + +RODERIGO. +Yes, sir, I have indeed. + +BRABANTIO. +Call up my brother. O, would you had had her! +Some one way, some another. Do you know +Where we may apprehend her and the Moor? + +RODERIGO. +I think I can discover him, if you please +To get good guard, and go along with me. + +BRABANTIO. +Pray you lead on. At every house I’ll call, +I may command at most. Get weapons, ho! +And raise some special officers of night. +On, good Roderigo. I will deserve your pains. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Venice. Another street. + + Enter Othello, Iago and Attendants with torches. + +IAGO. +Though in the trade of war I have slain men, +Yet do I hold it very stuff o’ the conscience +To do no contriv’d murder; I lack iniquity +Sometimes to do me service: nine or ten times +I had thought to have yerk’d him here under the ribs. + +OTHELLO. +’Tis better as it is. + +IAGO. +Nay, but he prated, +And spoke such scurvy and provoking terms +Against your honour, +That with the little godliness I have, +I did full hard forbear him. But I pray you, sir, +Are you fast married? Be assur’d of this, +That the magnifico is much belov’d +And hath in his effect a voice potential +As double as the duke’s; he will divorce you, +Or put upon you what restraint and grievance +The law (with all his might to enforce it on) +Will give him cable. + +OTHELLO. +Let him do his spite; +My services, which I have done the signiory, +Shall out-tongue his complaints. ’Tis yet to know,— +Which, when I know that boasting is an honour, +I shall promulgate,—I fetch my life and being +From men of royal siege. And my demerits +May speak unbonneted to as proud a fortune +As this that I have reach’d. For know, Iago, +But that I love the gentle Desdemona, +I would not my unhoused free condition +Put into circumscription and confine +For the sea’s worth. But look, what lights come yond? + +IAGO. +Those are the raised father and his friends: +You were best go in. + +OTHELLO. +Not I; I must be found. +My parts, my title, and my perfect soul +Shall manifest me rightly. Is it they? + +IAGO. +By Janus, I think no. + + Enter Cassio and Officers with torches. + +OTHELLO. +The servants of the duke and my lieutenant. +The goodness of the night upon you, friends! +What is the news? + +CASSIO. +The duke does greet you, general, +And he requires your haste-post-haste appearance +Even on the instant. + +OTHELLO. +What is the matter, think you? + +CASSIO. +Something from Cyprus, as I may divine. +It is a business of some heat. The galleys +Have sent a dozen sequent messengers +This very night at one another’s heels; +And many of the consuls, rais’d and met, +Are at the duke’s already. You have been hotly call’d for, +When, being not at your lodging to be found, +The senate hath sent about three several quests +To search you out. + +OTHELLO. +’Tis well I am found by you. +I will but spend a word here in the house, +And go with you. + + [_Exit._] + +CASSIO. +Ancient, what makes he here? + +IAGO. +Faith, he tonight hath boarded a land carrack: +If it prove lawful prize, he’s made forever. + +CASSIO. +I do not understand. + +IAGO. +He’s married. + +CASSIO. +To who? + + Enter Othello. + +IAGO. +Marry to—Come, captain, will you go? + +OTHELLO. +Have with you. + +CASSIO. +Here comes another troop to seek for you. + + Enter Brabantio, Roderigo and Officers with torches and weapons. + +IAGO. +It is Brabantio. General, be advis’d, +He comes to bad intent. + +OTHELLO. +Holla, stand there! + +RODERIGO. +Signior, it is the Moor. + +BRABANTIO. +Down with him, thief! + + [_They draw on both sides._] + +IAGO. +You, Roderigo! Come, sir, I am for you. + +OTHELLO. +Keep up your bright swords, for the dew will rust them. +Good signior, you shall more command with years +Than with your weapons. + +BRABANTIO. +O thou foul thief, where hast thou stow’d my daughter? +Damn’d as thou art, thou hast enchanted her, +For I’ll refer me to all things of sense, +(If she in chains of magic were not bound) +Whether a maid so tender, fair, and happy, +So opposite to marriage, that she shunn’d +The wealthy curled darlings of our nation, +Would ever have, to incur a general mock, +Run from her guardage to the sooty bosom +Of such a thing as thou—to fear, not to delight. +Judge me the world, if ’tis not gross in sense, +That thou hast practis’d on her with foul charms, +Abus’d her delicate youth with drugs or minerals +That weakens motion. I’ll have’t disputed on; +’Tis probable, and palpable to thinking. +I therefore apprehend and do attach thee +For an abuser of the world, a practiser +Of arts inhibited and out of warrant.— +Lay hold upon him, if he do resist, +Subdue him at his peril. + +OTHELLO. +Hold your hands, +Both you of my inclining and the rest: +Were it my cue to fight, I should have known it +Without a prompter. Where will you that I go +To answer this your charge? + +BRABANTIO. +To prison, till fit time +Of law and course of direct session +Call thee to answer. + +OTHELLO. +What if I do obey? +How may the duke be therewith satisfied, +Whose messengers are here about my side, +Upon some present business of the state, +To bring me to him? + +OFFICER. +’Tis true, most worthy signior, +The duke’s in council, and your noble self, +I am sure is sent for. + +BRABANTIO. +How? The duke in council? +In this time of the night? Bring him away; +Mine’s not an idle cause. The duke himself, +Or any of my brothers of the state, +Cannot but feel this wrong as ’twere their own. +For if such actions may have passage free, +Bond-slaves and pagans shall our statesmen be. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Venice. A council chamber. + + The Duke and Senators sitting at a table; Officers attending. + +DUKE. +There is no composition in these news +That gives them credit. + +FIRST SENATOR. +Indeed, they are disproportion’d; +My letters say a hundred and seven galleys. + +DUKE. +And mine a hundred and forty. + +SECOND SENATOR +And mine two hundred: +But though they jump not on a just account, +(As in these cases, where the aim reports, +’Tis oft with difference,) yet do they all confirm +A Turkish fleet, and bearing up to Cyprus. + +DUKE. +Nay, it is possible enough to judgement: +I do not so secure me in the error, +But the main article I do approve +In fearful sense. + +SAILOR. +[_Within._] What, ho! what, ho! what, ho! + +OFFICER. +A messenger from the galleys. + + Enter Sailor. + +DUKE. +Now,—what’s the business? + +SAILOR. +The Turkish preparation makes for Rhodes, +So was I bid report here to the state +By Signior Angelo. + +DUKE. +How say you by this change? + +FIRST SENATOR. +This cannot be +By no assay of reason. ’Tis a pageant +To keep us in false gaze. When we consider +The importancy of Cyprus to the Turk; +And let ourselves again but understand +That, as it more concerns the Turk than Rhodes, +So may he with more facile question bear it, +For that it stands not in such warlike brace, +But altogether lacks the abilities +That Rhodes is dress’d in. If we make thought of this, +We must not think the Turk is so unskilful +To leave that latest which concerns him first, +Neglecting an attempt of ease and gain, +To wake and wage a danger profitless. + +DUKE. +Nay, in all confidence, he’s not for Rhodes. + +OFFICER. +Here is more news. + + Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +The Ottomites, reverend and gracious, +Steering with due course toward the isle of Rhodes, +Have there injointed them with an after fleet. + +FIRST SENATOR. +Ay, so I thought. How many, as you guess? + +MESSENGER. +Of thirty sail, and now they do re-stem +Their backward course, bearing with frank appearance +Their purposes toward Cyprus. Signior Montano, +Your trusty and most valiant servitor, +With his free duty recommends you thus, +And prays you to believe him. + +DUKE. +’Tis certain, then, for Cyprus. +Marcus Luccicos, is not he in town? + +FIRST SENATOR. +He’s now in Florence. + +DUKE. +Write from us to him; post-post-haste dispatch. + +FIRST SENATOR. +Here comes Brabantio and the valiant Moor. + + Enter Brabantio, Othello, Iago, Roderigo and Officers. + +DUKE. +Valiant Othello, we must straight employ you +Against the general enemy Ottoman. +[_To Brabantio._] I did not see you; welcome, gentle signior, +We lack’d your counsel and your help tonight. + +BRABANTIO. +So did I yours. Good your grace, pardon me. +Neither my place, nor aught I heard of business +Hath rais’d me from my bed, nor doth the general care +Take hold on me; for my particular grief +Is of so flood-gate and o’erbearing nature +That it engluts and swallows other sorrows, +And it is still itself. + +DUKE. +Why, what’s the matter? + +BRABANTIO. +My daughter! O, my daughter! + +DUKE and SENATORS. +Dead? + +BRABANTIO. +Ay, to me. +She is abused, stol’n from me, and corrupted +By spells and medicines bought of mountebanks; +For nature so preposterously to err, +Being not deficient, blind, or lame of sense, +Sans witchcraft could not. + +DUKE. +Whoe’er he be, that in this foul proceeding, +Hath thus beguil’d your daughter of herself, +And you of her, the bloody book of law +You shall yourself read in the bitter letter, +After your own sense, yea, though our proper son +Stood in your action. + +BRABANTIO. +Humbly I thank your grace. +Here is the man, this Moor, whom now it seems +Your special mandate for the state affairs +Hath hither brought. + +ALL. +We are very sorry for ’t. + +DUKE. +[_To Othello._] What, in your own part, can you say to this? + +BRABANTIO. +Nothing, but this is so. + +OTHELLO. +Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors, +My very noble and approv’d good masters: +That I have ta’en away this old man’s daughter, +It is most true; true, I have married her. +The very head and front of my offending +Hath this extent, no more. Rude am I in my speech, +And little bless’d with the soft phrase of peace; +For since these arms of mine had seven years’ pith, +Till now some nine moons wasted, they have us’d +Their dearest action in the tented field, +And little of this great world can I speak, +More than pertains to feats of broil and battle, +And therefore little shall I grace my cause +In speaking for myself. Yet, by your gracious patience, +I will a round unvarnish’d tale deliver +Of my whole course of love: what drugs, what charms, +What conjuration, and what mighty magic, +(For such proceeding I am charged withal) +I won his daughter. + +BRABANTIO. +A maiden never bold: +Of spirit so still and quiet that her motion +Blush’d at herself; and she, in spite of nature, +Of years, of country, credit, everything, +To fall in love with what she fear’d to look on! +It is judgement maim’d and most imperfect +That will confess perfection so could err +Against all rules of nature, and must be driven +To find out practices of cunning hell, +Why this should be. I therefore vouch again, +That with some mixtures powerful o’er the blood, +Or with some dram conjur’d to this effect, +He wrought upon her. + +DUKE. +To vouch this is no proof; +Without more wider and more overt test +Than these thin habits and poor likelihoods +Of modern seeming do prefer against him. + +FIRST SENATOR. +But, Othello, speak: +Did you by indirect and forced courses +Subdue and poison this young maid’s affections? +Or came it by request, and such fair question +As soul to soul affordeth? + +OTHELLO. +I do beseech you, +Send for the lady to the Sagittary, +And let her speak of me before her father. +If you do find me foul in her report, +The trust, the office I do hold of you, +Not only take away, but let your sentence +Even fall upon my life. + +DUKE. +Fetch Desdemona hither. + +OTHELLO. +Ancient, conduct them, you best know the place. + + [_Exeunt Iago and Attendants._] + +And till she come, as truly as to heaven +I do confess the vices of my blood, +So justly to your grave ears I’ll present +How I did thrive in this fair lady’s love, +And she in mine. + +DUKE. +Say it, Othello. + +OTHELLO. +Her father lov’d me, oft invited me, +Still question’d me the story of my life, +From year to year—the battles, sieges, fortunes, +That I have pass’d. +I ran it through, even from my boyish days +To the very moment that he bade me tell it, +Wherein I spake of most disastrous chances, +Of moving accidents by flood and field; +Of hair-breadth scapes i’ th’ imminent deadly breach; +Of being taken by the insolent foe, +And sold to slavery, of my redemption thence, +And portance in my traveler’s history, +Wherein of antres vast and deserts idle, +Rough quarries, rocks, and hills whose heads touch heaven, +It was my hint to speak,—such was the process; +And of the Cannibals that each other eat, +The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads +Do grow beneath their shoulders. This to hear +Would Desdemona seriously incline. +But still the house affairs would draw her thence, +Which ever as she could with haste dispatch, +She’d come again, and with a greedy ear +Devour up my discourse; which I observing, +Took once a pliant hour, and found good means +To draw from her a prayer of earnest heart +That I would all my pilgrimage dilate, +Whereof by parcels she had something heard, +But not intentively. I did consent, +And often did beguile her of her tears, +When I did speak of some distressful stroke +That my youth suffer’d. My story being done, +She gave me for my pains a world of sighs. +She swore, in faith, ’twas strange, ’twas passing strange; +’Twas pitiful, ’twas wondrous pitiful. +She wish’d she had not heard it, yet she wish’d +That heaven had made her such a man: she thank’d me, +And bade me, if I had a friend that lov’d her, +I should but teach him how to tell my story, +And that would woo her. Upon this hint I spake: +She lov’d me for the dangers I had pass’d, +And I lov’d her that she did pity them. +This only is the witchcraft I have us’d. +Here comes the lady. Let her witness it. + + Enter Desdemona, Iago and Attendants. + +DUKE. +I think this tale would win my daughter too. +Good Brabantio, +Take up this mangled matter at the best. +Men do their broken weapons rather use +Than their bare hands. + +BRABANTIO. +I pray you hear her speak. +If she confess that she was half the wooer, +Destruction on my head, if my bad blame +Light on the man!—Come hither, gentle mistress: +Do you perceive in all this noble company +Where most you owe obedience? + +DESDEMONA. +My noble father, +I do perceive here a divided duty: +To you I am bound for life and education. +My life and education both do learn me +How to respect you. You are the lord of duty, +I am hitherto your daughter: but here’s my husband. +And so much duty as my mother show’d +To you, preferring you before her father, +So much I challenge that I may profess +Due to the Moor my lord. + +BRABANTIO. +God be with you! I have done. +Please it your grace, on to the state affairs. +I had rather to adopt a child than get it.— +Come hither, Moor: +I here do give thee that with all my heart +Which, but thou hast already, with all my heart +I would keep from thee.—For your sake, jewel, +I am glad at soul I have no other child, +For thy escape would teach me tyranny, +To hang clogs on them.—I have done, my lord. + +DUKE. +Let me speak like yourself, and lay a sentence, +Which as a grise or step may help these lovers +Into your favour. +When remedies are past, the griefs are ended +By seeing the worst, which late on hopes depended. +To mourn a mischief that is past and gone +Is the next way to draw new mischief on. +What cannot be preserved when fortune takes, +Patience her injury a mockery makes. +The robb’d that smiles steals something from the thief; +He robs himself that spends a bootless grief. + +BRABANTIO. +So let the Turk of Cyprus us beguile, +We lose it not so long as we can smile; +He bears the sentence well, that nothing bears +But the free comfort which from thence he hears; +But he bears both the sentence and the sorrow +That, to pay grief, must of poor patience borrow. +These sentences to sugar or to gall, +Being strong on both sides, are equivocal: +But words are words; I never yet did hear +That the bruis’d heart was pierced through the ear. +I humbly beseech you, proceed to the affairs of state. + +DUKE. +The Turk with a most mighty preparation makes for Cyprus. Othello, the +fortitude of the place is best known to you. And though we have there a +substitute of most allowed sufficiency, yet opinion, a sovereign +mistress of effects, throws a more safer voice on you: you must +therefore be content to slubber the gloss of your new fortunes with +this more stubborn and boisterous expedition. + +OTHELLO. +The tyrant custom, most grave senators, +Hath made the flinty and steel couch of war +My thrice-driven bed of down: I do agnize +A natural and prompt alacrity +I find in hardness, and do undertake +This present wars against the Ottomites. +Most humbly, therefore, bending to your state, +I crave fit disposition for my wife, +Due reference of place and exhibition, +With such accommodation and besort +As levels with her breeding. + +DUKE. +If you please, +Be’t at her father’s. + +BRABANTIO. +I’ll not have it so. + +OTHELLO. +Nor I. + +DESDEMONA. +Nor I. I would not there reside, +To put my father in impatient thoughts, +By being in his eye. Most gracious duke, +To my unfolding lend your prosperous ear, +And let me find a charter in your voice +T’ assist my simpleness. + +DUKE. +What would you, Desdemona? + +DESDEMONA. +That I did love the Moor to live with him, +My downright violence and storm of fortunes +May trumpet to the world: my heart’s subdued +Even to the very quality of my lord. +I saw Othello’s visage in his mind, +And to his honours and his valiant parts +Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate. +So that, dear lords, if I be left behind, +A moth of peace, and he go to the war, +The rites for which I love him are bereft me, +And I a heavy interim shall support +By his dear absence. Let me go with him. + +OTHELLO. +Let her have your voice. +Vouch with me, heaven, I therefore beg it not +To please the palate of my appetite, +Nor to comply with heat, the young affects +In me defunct, and proper satisfaction, +But to be free and bounteous to her mind. +And heaven defend your good souls that you think +I will your serious and great business scant +For she is with me. No, when light-wing’d toys +Of feather’d Cupid seel with wanton dullness +My speculative and offic’d instruments, +That my disports corrupt and taint my business, +Let housewives make a skillet of my helm, +And all indign and base adversities +Make head against my estimation. + +DUKE. +Be it as you shall privately determine, +Either for her stay or going. The affair cries haste, +And speed must answer it. + +FIRST SENATOR. +You must away tonight. + +OTHELLO. +With all my heart. + +DUKE. +At nine i’ the morning here we’ll meet again. +Othello, leave some officer behind, +And he shall our commission bring to you, +With such things else of quality and respect +As doth import you. + +OTHELLO. +So please your grace, my ancient, +A man he is of honesty and trust, +To his conveyance I assign my wife, +With what else needful your good grace shall think +To be sent after me. + +DUKE. +Let it be so. +Good night to everyone. [_To Brabantio._] And, noble signior, +If virtue no delighted beauty lack, +Your son-in-law is far more fair than black. + +FIRST SENATOR. +Adieu, brave Moor, use Desdemona well. + +BRABANTIO. +Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see: +She has deceiv’d her father, and may thee. + + [_Exeunt Duke, Senators, Officers, &c._] + +OTHELLO. +My life upon her faith! Honest Iago, +My Desdemona must I leave to thee. +I prithee, let thy wife attend on her, +And bring them after in the best advantage.— +Come, Desdemona, I have but an hour +Of love, of worldly matters, and direction, +To spend with thee. We must obey the time. + + [_Exeunt Othello and Desdemona._] + +RODERIGO. +Iago— + +IAGO. +What sayst thou, noble heart? + +RODERIGO. +What will I do, thinkest thou? + +IAGO. +Why, go to bed and sleep. + +RODERIGO. +I will incontinently drown myself. + +IAGO. +If thou dost, I shall never love thee after. Why, thou silly gentleman! + +RODERIGO. +It is silliness to live, when to live is torment; and then have we a +prescription to die when death is our physician. + +IAGO. +O villainous! I have looked upon the world for four times seven years, +and since I could distinguish betwixt a benefit and an injury, I never +found man that knew how to love himself. Ere I would say I would drown +myself for the love of a guinea-hen, I would change my humanity with a +baboon. + +RODERIGO. +What should I do? I confess it is my shame to be so fond, but it is not +in my virtue to amend it. + +IAGO. +Virtue! a fig! ’Tis in ourselves that we are thus or thus. Our bodies +are gardens, to the which our wills are gardeners. So that if we will +plant nettles or sow lettuce, set hyssop and weed up thyme, supply it +with one gender of herbs or distract it with many, either to have it +sterile with idleness or manured with industry, why, the power and +corrigible authority of this lies in our wills. If the balance of our +lives had not one scale of reason to poise another of sensuality, the +blood and baseness of our natures would conduct us to most preposterous +conclusions. But we have reason to cool our raging motions, our carnal +stings, our unbitted lusts; whereof I take this, that you call love, to +be a sect, or scion. + +RODERIGO. +It cannot be. + +IAGO. +It is merely a lust of the blood and a permission of the will. Come, be +a man. Drown thyself? Drown cats and blind puppies. I have professed me +thy friend, and I confess me knit to thy deserving with cables of +perdurable toughness; I could never better stead thee than now. Put +money in thy purse; follow thou the wars; defeat thy favour with an +usurped beard; I say, put money in thy purse. It cannot be that +Desdemona should long continue her love to the Moor,—put money in thy +purse,—nor he his to her. It was a violent commencement, and thou shalt +see an answerable sequestration—put but money in thy purse. These Moors +are changeable in their wills. Fill thy purse with money. The food that +to him now is as luscious as locusts shall be to him shortly as acerb +as the coloquintida. She must change for youth. When she is sated with +his body, she will find the error of her choice. She must have change, +she must. Therefore put money in thy purse. If thou wilt needs damn +thyself, do it a more delicate way than drowning. Make all the money +thou canst. If sanctimony and a frail vow betwixt an erring barbarian +and a supersubtle Venetian be not too hard for my wits and all the +tribe of hell, thou shalt enjoy her; therefore make money. A pox of +drowning thyself! It is clean out of the way: seek thou rather to be +hanged in compassing thy joy than to be drowned and go without her. + +RODERIGO. +Wilt thou be fast to my hopes if I depend on the issue? + +IAGO. +Thou art sure of me. Go, make money. I have told thee often, and I +retell thee again and again, I hate the Moor. My cause is hearted; +thine hath no less reason. Let us be conjunctive in our revenge against +him: if thou canst cuckold him, thou dost thyself a pleasure, me a +sport. There are many events in the womb of time which will be +delivered. Traverse, go, provide thy money. We will have more of this +tomorrow. Adieu. + +RODERIGO. +Where shall we meet i’ the morning? + +IAGO. +At my lodging. + +RODERIGO. +I’ll be with thee betimes. + +IAGO. +Go to, farewell. Do you hear, Roderigo? + +RODERIGO. +What say you? + +IAGO. +No more of drowning, do you hear? + +RODERIGO. +I am changed. I’ll sell all my land. + + [_Exit._] + +IAGO. +Thus do I ever make my fool my purse. +For I mine own gain’d knowledge should profane +If I would time expend with such a snipe +But for my sport and profit. I hate the Moor, +And it is thought abroad that ’twixt my sheets +He has done my office. I know not if ’t be true, +But I, for mere suspicion in that kind, +Will do as if for surety. He holds me well, +The better shall my purpose work on him. +Cassio’s a proper man. Let me see now, +To get his place, and to plume up my will +In double knavery. How, how? Let’s see. +After some time, to abuse Othello’s ear +That he is too familiar with his wife. +He hath a person and a smooth dispose, +To be suspected, fram’d to make women false. +The Moor is of a free and open nature +That thinks men honest that but seem to be so, +And will as tenderly be led by the nose +As asses are. +I have’t. It is engender’d. Hell and night +Must bring this monstrous birth to the world’s light. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. A seaport in Cyprus. A Platform. + + Enter Montano and two Gentlemen. + +MONTANO. +What from the cape can you discern at sea? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Nothing at all, it is a high-wrought flood. +I cannot ’twixt the heaven and the main +Descry a sail. + +MONTANO. +Methinks the wind hath spoke aloud at land. +A fuller blast ne’er shook our battlements. +If it hath ruffian’d so upon the sea, +What ribs of oak, when mountains melt on them, +Can hold the mortise? What shall we hear of this? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +A segregation of the Turkish fleet. +For do but stand upon the foaming shore, +The chidden billow seems to pelt the clouds, +The wind-shak’d surge, with high and monstrous main, +Seems to cast water on the burning Bear, +And quench the guards of the ever-fixed pole; +I never did like molestation view +On the enchafed flood. + +MONTANO. +If that the Turkish fleet +Be not enshelter’d, and embay’d, they are drown’d. +It is impossible to bear it out. + + Enter a third Gentleman. + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +News, lads! Our wars are done. +The desperate tempest hath so bang’d the Turks +That their designment halts. A noble ship of Venice +Hath seen a grievous wreck and sufferance +On most part of their fleet. + +MONTANO. +How? Is this true? + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +The ship is here put in, +A Veronessa; Michael Cassio, +Lieutenant to the warlike Moor Othello, +Is come on shore; the Moor himself at sea, +And is in full commission here for Cyprus. + +MONTANO. +I am glad on’t. ’Tis a worthy governor. + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +But this same Cassio, though he speak of comfort +Touching the Turkish loss, yet he looks sadly, +And prays the Moor be safe; for they were parted +With foul and violent tempest. + +MONTANO. +Pray heavens he be; +For I have serv’d him, and the man commands +Like a full soldier. Let’s to the sea-side, ho! +As well to see the vessel that’s come in +As to throw out our eyes for brave Othello, +Even till we make the main and the aerial blue +An indistinct regard. + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +Come, let’s do so; +For every minute is expectancy +Of more arrivance. + + Enter Cassio. + +CASSIO. +Thanks you, the valiant of this warlike isle, +That so approve the Moor! O, let the heavens +Give him defence against the elements, +For I have lost him on a dangerous sea. + +MONTANO. +Is he well shipp’d? + +CASSIO. +His bark is stoutly timber’d, and his pilot +Of very expert and approv’d allowance; +Therefore my hopes, not surfeited to death, +Stand in bold cure. + +[_Within._] A sail, a sail, a sail! + + Enter a Messenger. + +CASSIO. +What noise? + +MESSENGER. +The town is empty; on the brow o’ the sea +Stand ranks of people, and they cry “A sail!” + +CASSIO. +My hopes do shape him for the governor. + + [_A shot._] + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +They do discharge their shot of courtesy. +Our friends at least. + +CASSIO. +I pray you, sir, go forth, +And give us truth who ’tis that is arriv’d. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +I shall. + + [_Exit._] + +MONTANO. +But, good lieutenant, is your general wiv’d? + +CASSIO. +Most fortunately: he hath achiev’d a maid +That paragons description and wild fame, +One that excels the quirks of blazoning pens, +And in the essential vesture of creation +Does tire the ingener. + + Enter second Gentleman. + +How now? Who has put in? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +’Tis one Iago, ancient to the general. + +CASSIO. +He has had most favourable and happy speed: +Tempests themselves, high seas, and howling winds, +The gutter’d rocks, and congregated sands, +Traitors ensteep’d to clog the guiltless keel, +As having sense of beauty, do omit +Their mortal natures, letting go safely by +The divine Desdemona. + +MONTANO. +What is she? + +CASSIO. +She that I spake of, our great captain’s captain, +Left in the conduct of the bold Iago; +Whose footing here anticipates our thoughts +A se’nnight’s speed. Great Jove, Othello guard, +And swell his sail with thine own powerful breath, +That he may bless this bay with his tall ship, +Make love’s quick pants in Desdemona’s arms, +Give renew’d fire to our extincted spirits, +And bring all Cyprus comfort! + + Enter Desdemona, Iago, Roderigo, and Emilia. + +O, behold, +The riches of the ship is come on shore! +Ye men of Cyprus, let her have your knees. +Hail to thee, lady! and the grace of heaven, +Before, behind thee, and on every hand, +Enwheel thee round! + +DESDEMONA. +I thank you, valiant Cassio. +What tidings can you tell me of my lord? + +CASSIO. +He is not yet arrived, nor know I aught +But that he’s well, and will be shortly here. + +DESDEMONA. +O, but I fear—How lost you company? + +[_Within._] A sail, a sail! + +CASSIO. +The great contention of the sea and skies +Parted our fellowship. But, hark! a sail. + + [_Guns within._] + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +They give their greeting to the citadel. +This likewise is a friend. + +CASSIO. +See for the news. + + [_Exit Gentleman._] + +Good ancient, you are welcome. [_To Emilia._] Welcome, mistress. +Let it not gall your patience, good Iago, +That I extend my manners; ’tis my breeding +That gives me this bold show of courtesy. + + [_Kissing her._] + +IAGO. +Sir, would she give you so much of her lips +As of her tongue she oft bestows on me, +You would have enough. + +DESDEMONA. +Alas, she has no speech. + +IAGO. +In faith, too much. +I find it still when I have list to sleep. +Marry, before your ladyship, I grant, +She puts her tongue a little in her heart, +And chides with thinking. + +EMILIA. +You have little cause to say so. + +IAGO. +Come on, come on; you are pictures out of doors, +Bells in your parlours, wild-cats in your kitchens, +Saints in your injuries, devils being offended, +Players in your housewifery, and housewives in your beds. + +DESDEMONA. +O, fie upon thee, slanderer! + +IAGO. +Nay, it is true, or else I am a Turk. +You rise to play, and go to bed to work. + +EMILIA. +You shall not write my praise. + +IAGO. +No, let me not. + +DESDEMONA. +What wouldst thou write of me, if thou shouldst praise me? + +IAGO. +O gentle lady, do not put me to’t, +For I am nothing if not critical. + +DESDEMONA. +Come on, assay.—There’s one gone to the harbour? + +IAGO. +Ay, madam. + +DESDEMONA. +I am not merry, but I do beguile +The thing I am, by seeming otherwise.— +Come, how wouldst thou praise me? + +IAGO. +I am about it, but indeed, my invention +Comes from my pate as birdlime does from frieze, +It plucks out brains and all: but my Muse labours, +And thus she is deliver’d. +If she be fair and wise, fairness and wit, +The one’s for use, the other useth it. + +DESDEMONA. +Well prais’d! How if she be black and witty? + +IAGO. +If she be black, and thereto have a wit, +She’ll find a white that shall her blackness fit. + +DESDEMONA. +Worse and worse. + +EMILIA. +How if fair and foolish? + +IAGO. +She never yet was foolish that was fair, +For even her folly help’d her to an heir. + +DESDEMONA. +These are old fond paradoxes to make fools laugh i’ the alehouse. What +miserable praise hast thou for her that’s foul and foolish? + +IAGO. +There’s none so foul and foolish thereunto, +But does foul pranks which fair and wise ones do. + +DESDEMONA. +O heavy ignorance! Thou praisest the worst best. But what praise +couldst thou bestow on a deserving woman indeed, one that in the +authority of her merit did justly put on the vouch of very malice +itself? + +IAGO. +She that was ever fair and never proud, +Had tongue at will and yet was never loud, +Never lack’d gold and yet went never gay, +Fled from her wish, and yet said, “Now I may”; +She that, being anger’d, her revenge being nigh, +Bade her wrong stay and her displeasure fly; +She that in wisdom never was so frail +To change the cod’s head for the salmon’s tail; +She that could think and ne’er disclose her mind, +See suitors following and not look behind; +She was a wight, if ever such wight were— + +DESDEMONA. +To do what? + +IAGO. +To suckle fools and chronicle small beer. + +DESDEMONA. +O most lame and impotent conclusion!—Do not learn of him, Emilia, +though he be thy husband.—How say you, Cassio? is he not a most profane +and liberal counsellor? + +CASSIO. +He speaks home, madam. You may relish him more in the soldier than in +the scholar. + +IAGO. +[_Aside._] He takes her by the palm. Ay, well said, whisper. With as +little a web as this will I ensnare as great a fly as Cassio. Ay, smile +upon her, do. I will gyve thee in thine own courtship. You say true, +’tis so, indeed. If such tricks as these strip you out of your +lieutenantry, it had been better you had not kissed your three fingers +so oft, which now again you are most apt to play the sir in. Very good; +well kissed, an excellent courtesy! ’Tis so, indeed. Yet again your +fingers to your lips? Would they were clyster-pipes for your sake! + + [_Trumpets within._] + +The Moor! I know his trumpet. + +CASSIO. +’Tis truly so. + +DESDEMONA. +Let’s meet him, and receive him. + +CASSIO. +Lo, where he comes! + + Enter Othello and Attendants. + +OTHELLO. +O my fair warrior! + +DESDEMONA. +My dear Othello! + +OTHELLO. +It gives me wonder great as my content +To see you here before me. O my soul’s joy! +If after every tempest come such calms, +May the winds blow till they have waken’d death! +And let the labouring bark climb hills of seas +Olympus-high, and duck again as low +As hell’s from heaven! If it were now to die, +’Twere now to be most happy, for I fear +My soul hath her content so absolute +That not another comfort like to this +Succeeds in unknown fate. + +DESDEMONA. +The heavens forbid +But that our loves and comforts should increase +Even as our days do grow! + +OTHELLO. +Amen to that, sweet powers! +I cannot speak enough of this content. +It stops me here; it is too much of joy: +And this, and this, the greatest discords be [_They kiss._] +That e’er our hearts shall make! + +IAGO. +[_Aside._] O, you are well tun’d now, +But I’ll set down the pegs that make this music, +As honest as I am. + +OTHELLO. +Come, let us to the castle.— +News, friends, our wars are done, the Turks are drown’d. +How does my old acquaintance of this isle? +Honey, you shall be well desir’d in Cyprus; +I have found great love amongst them. O my sweet, +I prattle out of fashion, and I dote +In mine own comforts.—I prithee, good Iago, +Go to the bay and disembark my coffers. +Bring thou the master to the citadel; +He is a good one, and his worthiness +Does challenge much respect.—Come, Desdemona, +Once more well met at Cyprus. + + [_Exeunt Othello, Desdemona and Attendants._] + +IAGO. +Do thou meet me presently at the harbour. Come hither. If thou be’st +valiant—as, they say, base men being in love have then a nobility in +their natures more than is native to them—list me. The lieutenant +tonight watches on the court of guard: first, I must tell thee this: +Desdemona is directly in love with him. + +RODERIGO. +With him? Why, ’tis not possible. + +IAGO. +Lay thy finger thus, and let thy soul be instructed. Mark me with what +violence she first loved the Moor, but for bragging, and telling her +fantastical lies. And will she love him still for prating? Let not thy +discreet heart think it. Her eye must be fed. And what delight shall +she have to look on the devil? When the blood is made dull with the act +of sport, there should be, again to inflame it and to give satiety a +fresh appetite, loveliness in favour, sympathy in years, manners, and +beauties; all which the Moor is defective in: now, for want of these +required conveniences, her delicate tenderness will find itself abused, +begin to heave the gorge, disrelish and abhor the Moor, very nature +will instruct her in it, and compel her to some second choice. Now sir, +this granted (as it is a most pregnant and unforced position) who +stands so eminently in the degree of this fortune as Cassio does? a +knave very voluble; no further conscionable than in putting on the mere +form of civil and humane seeming, for the better compassing of his salt +and most hidden loose affection? Why, none, why, none! A slipper and +subtle knave, a finder out of occasions; that has an eye can stamp and +counterfeit advantages, though true advantage never present itself: a +devilish knave! Besides, the knave is handsome, young, and hath all +those requisites in him that folly and green minds look after. A +pestilent complete knave, and the woman hath found him already. + +RODERIGO. +I cannot believe that in her, she is full of most blessed condition. + +IAGO. +Blest fig’s end! the wine she drinks is made of grapes: if she had been +blessed, she would never have loved the Moor. Blessed pudding! Didst +thou not see her paddle with the palm of his hand? Didst not mark that? + +RODERIGO. +Yes, that I did. But that was but courtesy. + +IAGO. +Lechery, by this hand. An index and obscure prologue to the history of +lust and foul thoughts. They met so near with their lips that their +breaths embrac’d together. Villainous thoughts, Roderigo! When these +mutualities so marshal the way, hard at hand comes the master and main +exercise, the incorporate conclusion. Pish! But, sir, be you ruled by +me. I have brought you from Venice. Watch you tonight. For the command, +I’ll lay’t upon you. Cassio knows you not. I’ll not be far from you. Do +you find some occasion to anger Cassio, either by speaking too loud, or +tainting his discipline, or from what other course you please, which +the time shall more favourably minister. + +RODERIGO. +Well. + +IAGO. +Sir, he is rash, and very sudden in choler, and haply with his +truncheon may strike at you: provoke him that he may, for even out of +that will I cause these of Cyprus to mutiny, whose qualification shall +come into no true taste again but by the displanting of Cassio. So +shall you have a shorter journey to your desires by the means I shall +then have to prefer them, and the impediment most profitably removed, +without the which there were no expectation of our prosperity. + +RODERIGO. +I will do this, if I can bring it to any opportunity. + +IAGO. +I warrant thee. Meet me by and by at the citadel: I must fetch his +necessaries ashore. Farewell. + +RODERIGO. +Adieu. + + [_Exit._] + +IAGO. +That Cassio loves her, I do well believe it; +That she loves him, ’tis apt, and of great credit: +The Moor, howbeit that I endure him not, +Is of a constant, loving, noble nature; +And, I dare think, he’ll prove to Desdemona +A most dear husband. Now, I do love her too, +Not out of absolute lust (though peradventure +I stand accountant for as great a sin) +But partly led to diet my revenge, +For that I do suspect the lusty Moor +Hath leap’d into my seat. The thought whereof +Doth, like a poisonous mineral, gnaw my inwards, +And nothing can or shall content my soul +Till I am even’d with him, wife for wife, +Or, failing so, yet that I put the Moor +At least into a jealousy so strong +That judgement cannot cure. Which thing to do, +If this poor trash of Venice, whom I trash +For his quick hunting, stand the putting on, +I’ll have our Michael Cassio on the hip, +Abuse him to the Moor in the rank garb +(For I fear Cassio with my night-cap too) +Make the Moor thank me, love me, and reward me +For making him egregiously an ass +And practicing upon his peace and quiet +Even to madness. ’Tis here, but yet confus’d. +Knavery’s plain face is never seen till us’d. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. A street. + + Enter Othello’s Herald with a proclamation. + +HERALD. +It is Othello’s pleasure, our noble and valiant general, that upon +certain tidings now arrived, importing the mere perdition of the +Turkish fleet, every man put himself into triumph: some to dance, some +to make bonfires, each man to what sport and revels his addition leads +him. For besides these beneficial news, it is the celebration of his +nuptial. So much was his pleasure should be proclaimed. All offices are +open, and there is full liberty of feasting from this present hour of +five till the bell have told eleven. Heaven bless the isle of Cyprus +and our noble general Othello! + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. A Hall in the Castle. + + Enter Othello, Desdemona, Cassio and Attendants. + +OTHELLO. +Good Michael, look you to the guard tonight. +Let’s teach ourselves that honourable stop, +Not to outsport discretion. + +CASSIO. +Iago hath direction what to do. +But notwithstanding with my personal eye +Will I look to’t. + +OTHELLO. +Iago is most honest. +Michael, good night. Tomorrow with your earliest +Let me have speech with you. [_To Desdemona._] Come, my dear love, +The purchase made, the fruits are to ensue; +That profit’s yet to come ’tween me and you.— +Good night. + + [_Exeunt Othello, Desdemona and Attendants._] + + Enter Iago. + +CASSIO. +Welcome, Iago. We must to the watch. + +IAGO. +Not this hour, lieutenant. ’Tis not yet ten o’ th’ clock. Our general +cast us thus early for the love of his Desdemona; who let us not +therefore blame: he hath not yet made wanton the night with her; and +she is sport for Jove. + +CASSIO. +She’s a most exquisite lady. + +IAGO. +And, I’ll warrant her, full of game. + +CASSIO. +Indeed, she is a most fresh and delicate creature. + +IAGO. +What an eye she has! methinks it sounds a parley to provocation. + +CASSIO. +An inviting eye, and yet methinks right modest. + +IAGO. +And when she speaks, is it not an alarm to love? + +CASSIO. +She is indeed perfection. + +IAGO. +Well, happiness to their sheets! Come, lieutenant, I have a stoup of +wine; and here without are a brace of Cyprus gallants that would fain +have a measure to the health of black Othello. + +CASSIO. +Not tonight, good Iago. I have very poor and unhappy brains for +drinking. I could well wish courtesy would invent some other custom of +entertainment. + +IAGO. +O, they are our friends; but one cup: I’ll drink for you. + +CASSIO. +I have drunk but one cup tonight, and that was craftily qualified too, +and behold, what innovation it makes here: I am unfortunate in the +infirmity, and dare not task my weakness with any more. + +IAGO. +What, man! ’Tis a night of revels. The gallants desire it. + +CASSIO. +Where are they? + +IAGO. +Here at the door. I pray you, call them in. + +CASSIO. +I’ll do’t; but it dislikes me. + + [_Exit._] + +IAGO. +If I can fasten but one cup upon him, +With that which he hath drunk tonight already, +He’ll be as full of quarrel and offence +As my young mistress’ dog. Now my sick fool Roderigo, +Whom love hath turn’d almost the wrong side out, +To Desdemona hath tonight carous’d +Potations pottle-deep; and he’s to watch: +Three lads of Cyprus, noble swelling spirits, +That hold their honours in a wary distance, +The very elements of this warlike isle, +Have I tonight fluster’d with flowing cups, +And they watch too. Now, ’mongst this flock of drunkards, +Am I to put our Cassio in some action +That may offend the isle. But here they come: +If consequence do but approve my dream, +My boat sails freely, both with wind and stream. + + Enter Cassio, Montano and Gentlemen; followed by Servant with wine. + +CASSIO. +’Fore God, they have given me a rouse already. + +MONTANO. +Good faith, a little one; not past a pint, as I am a soldier. + +IAGO. +Some wine, ho! +[_Sings._] + + _And let me the cannikin clink, clink, + And let me the cannikin clink, clink: + A soldier’s a man, + O, man’s life’s but a span, + Why then let a soldier drink._ + +Some wine, boys! + +CASSIO. +’Fore God, an excellent song. + +IAGO. +I learned it in England, where indeed they are most potent in potting: +your Dane, your German, and your swag-bellied Hollander,—drink, ho!—are +nothing to your English. + +CASSIO. +Is your Englishman so expert in his drinking? + +IAGO. +Why, he drinks you, with facility, your Dane dead drunk; he sweats not +to overthrow your Almain; he gives your Hollander a vomit ere the next +pottle can be filled. + +CASSIO. +To the health of our general! + +MONTANO. +I am for it, lieutenant; and I’ll do you justice. + +IAGO. +O sweet England! + +[_Sings._] + + _King Stephen was a worthy peer, + His breeches cost him but a crown; + He held them sixpence all too dear, + With that he call’d the tailor lown. + He was a wight of high renown, + And thou art but of low degree: + ’Tis pride that pulls the country down, + Then take thine auld cloak about thee._ + +Some wine, ho! + +CASSIO. +’Fore God, this is a more exquisite song than the other. + +IAGO. +Will you hear ’t again? + +CASSIO. +No, for I hold him to be unworthy of his place that does those things. +Well, God’s above all, and there be souls must be saved, and there be +souls must not be saved. + +IAGO. +It’s true, good lieutenant. + +CASSIO. +For mine own part, no offence to the general, nor any man of quality, I +hope to be saved. + +IAGO. +And so do I too, lieutenant. + +CASSIO. +Ay, but, by your leave, not before me; the lieutenant is to be saved +before the ancient. Let’s have no more of this; let’s to our affairs. +Forgive us our sins! Gentlemen, let’s look to our business. Do not +think, gentlemen, I am drunk. This is my ancient, this is my right +hand, and this is my left. I am not drunk now. I can stand well enough, +and I speak well enough. + +ALL. +Excellent well. + +CASSIO. +Why, very well then. You must not think, then, that I am drunk. + + [_Exit._] + +MONTANO. +To the platform, masters. Come, let’s set the watch. + +IAGO. +You see this fellow that is gone before, +He is a soldier fit to stand by Cæsar +And give direction: and do but see his vice, +’Tis to his virtue a just equinox, +The one as long as th’ other. ’Tis pity of him. +I fear the trust Othello puts him in, +On some odd time of his infirmity, +Will shake this island. + +MONTANO. +But is he often thus? + +IAGO. +’Tis evermore the prologue to his sleep: +He’ll watch the horologe a double set +If drink rock not his cradle. + +MONTANO. +It were well +The general were put in mind of it. +Perhaps he sees it not, or his good nature +Prizes the virtue that appears in Cassio, +And looks not on his evils: is not this true? + + Enter Roderigo. + +IAGO. +[_Aside to him._] How now, Roderigo? +I pray you, after the lieutenant; go. + + [_Exit Roderigo._] + +MONTANO. +And ’tis great pity that the noble Moor +Should hazard such a place as his own second +With one of an ingraft infirmity: +It were an honest action to say so +To the Moor. + +IAGO. +Not I, for this fair island. +I do love Cassio well and would do much +To cure him of this evil. But, hark! What noise? + +[_Cry within_: “Help! help!”] + + Enter Cassio, driving in Roderigo. + +CASSIO. +Zounds, you rogue, you rascal! + +MONTANO. +What’s the matter, lieutenant? + +CASSIO. +A knave teach me my duty! I’ll beat the knave into a twiggen bottle. + +RODERIGO. +Beat me? + +CASSIO. +Dost thou prate, rogue? + + [_Striking Roderigo._] + +MONTANO. +Nay, good lieutenant; +I pray you, sir, hold your hand. + +CASSIO. +Let me go, sir, +Or I’ll knock you o’er the mazard. + +MONTANO. +Come, come, you’re drunk. + +CASSIO. +Drunk? + + [_They fight._] + +IAGO. +[_Aside to Roderigo._] Away, I say! Go out and cry a mutiny. + + [_Exit Roderigo._] + +Nay, good lieutenant, God’s will, gentlemen. +Help, ho!—Lieutenant,—sir,—Montano,—sir:— +Help, masters! Here’s a goodly watch indeed! + + [_A bell rings._] + +Who’s that which rings the bell?—Diablo, ho! +The town will rise. God’s will, lieutenant, hold, +You will be sham’d forever. + + Enter Othello and Attendants. + +OTHELLO. +What is the matter here? + +MONTANO. +Zounds, I bleed still, I am hurt to the death. + +OTHELLO. +Hold, for your lives! + +IAGO. +Hold, ho! lieutenant,—sir,—Montano,—gentlemen,— +Have you forgot all place of sense and duty? +Hold! The general speaks to you; hold, hold, for shame! + +OTHELLO. +Why, how now, ho! From whence ariseth this? +Are we turn’d Turks, and to ourselves do that +Which heaven hath forbid the Ottomites? +For Christian shame, put by this barbarous brawl: +He that stirs next to carve for his own rage +Holds his soul light; he dies upon his motion. +Silence that dreadful bell, it frights the isle +From her propriety. What is the matter, masters? +Honest Iago, that looks dead with grieving, +Speak, who began this? On thy love, I charge thee. + +IAGO. +I do not know. Friends all but now, even now, +In quarter, and in terms like bride and groom +Devesting them for bed; and then, but now, +As if some planet had unwitted men, +Swords out, and tilting one at other’s breast, +In opposition bloody. I cannot speak +Any beginning to this peevish odds; +And would in action glorious I had lost +Those legs that brought me to a part of it! + +OTHELLO. +How comes it, Michael, you are thus forgot? + +CASSIO. +I pray you, pardon me; I cannot speak. + +OTHELLO. +Worthy Montano, you were wont be civil. +The gravity and stillness of your youth +The world hath noted, and your name is great +In mouths of wisest censure: what’s the matter, +That you unlace your reputation thus, +And spend your rich opinion for the name +Of a night-brawler? Give me answer to it. + +MONTANO. +Worthy Othello, I am hurt to danger. +Your officer, Iago, can inform you, +While I spare speech, which something now offends me, +Of all that I do know; nor know I aught +By me that’s said or done amiss this night, +Unless self-charity be sometimes a vice, +And to defend ourselves it be a sin +When violence assails us. + +OTHELLO. +Now, by heaven, +My blood begins my safer guides to rule, +And passion, having my best judgement collied, +Assays to lead the way. Zounds, if I stir, +Or do but lift this arm, the best of you +Shall sink in my rebuke. Give me to know +How this foul rout began, who set it on, +And he that is approv’d in this offence, +Though he had twinn’d with me, both at a birth, +Shall lose me. What! in a town of war, +Yet wild, the people’s hearts brimful of fear, +To manage private and domestic quarrel, +In night, and on the court and guard of safety? +’Tis monstrous. Iago, who began’t? + +MONTANO. +If partially affin’d, or leagu’d in office, +Thou dost deliver more or less than truth, +Thou art no soldier. + +IAGO. +Touch me not so near. +I had rather have this tongue cut from my mouth +Than it should do offence to Michael Cassio. +Yet I persuade myself, to speak the truth +Shall nothing wrong him. Thus it is, general: +Montano and myself being in speech, +There comes a fellow crying out for help, +And Cassio following him with determin’d sword, +To execute upon him. Sir, this gentleman +Steps in to Cassio and entreats his pause. +Myself the crying fellow did pursue, +Lest by his clamour (as it so fell out) +The town might fall in fright: he, swift of foot, +Outran my purpose: and I return’d the rather +For that I heard the clink and fall of swords, +And Cassio high in oath, which till tonight +I ne’er might say before. When I came back, +(For this was brief) I found them close together, +At blow and thrust, even as again they were +When you yourself did part them. +More of this matter cannot I report. +But men are men; the best sometimes forget; +Though Cassio did some little wrong to him, +As men in rage strike those that wish them best, +Yet surely Cassio, I believe, receiv’d +From him that fled some strange indignity, +Which patience could not pass. + +OTHELLO. +I know, Iago, +Thy honesty and love doth mince this matter, +Making it light to Cassio. Cassio, I love thee, +But never more be officer of mine. + + Enter Desdemona, attended. + +Look, if my gentle love be not rais’d up! +I’ll make thee an example. + +DESDEMONA. +What’s the matter? + +OTHELLO. +All’s well now, sweeting; come away to bed. +Sir, for your hurts, myself will be your surgeon. +Lead him off. + + [_Montano is led off._] + +Iago, look with care about the town, +And silence those whom this vile brawl distracted. +Come, Desdemona: ’tis the soldiers’ life +To have their balmy slumbers wak’d with strife. + + [_Exeunt all but Iago and Cassio._] + +IAGO. +What, are you hurt, lieutenant? + +CASSIO. +Ay, past all surgery. + +IAGO. +Marry, Heaven forbid! + +CASSIO. +Reputation, reputation, reputation! O, I have lost my reputation! I +have lost the immortal part of myself, and what remains is bestial. My +reputation, Iago, my reputation! + +IAGO. +As I am an honest man, I thought you had received some bodily wound; +there is more sense in that than in reputation. Reputation is an idle +and most false imposition, oft got without merit and lost without +deserving. You have lost no reputation at all, unless you repute +yourself such a loser. What, man, there are ways to recover the general +again: you are but now cast in his mood, a punishment more in policy +than in malice, even so as one would beat his offenceless dog to +affright an imperious lion: sue to him again, and he’s yours. + +CASSIO. +I will rather sue to be despised than to deceive so good a commander +with so slight, so drunken, and so indiscreet an officer. Drunk? and +speak parrot? and squabble? swagger? swear? and discourse fustian with +one’s own shadow? O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name +to be known by, let us call thee devil! + +IAGO. +What was he that you followed with your sword? What had he done to you? + +CASSIO. +I know not. + +IAGO. +Is’t possible? + +CASSIO. +I remember a mass of things, but nothing distinctly; a quarrel, but +nothing wherefore. O God, that men should put an enemy in their mouths +to steal away their brains! That we should with joy, pleasance, revel, +and applause, transform ourselves into beasts! + +IAGO. +Why, but you are now well enough: how came you thus recovered? + +CASSIO. +It hath pleased the devil drunkenness to give place to the devil wrath. +One unperfectness shows me another, to make me frankly despise myself. + +IAGO. +Come, you are too severe a moraler. As the time, the place, and the +condition of this country stands, I could heartily wish this had not +befallen; but since it is as it is, mend it for your own good. + +CASSIO. +I will ask him for my place again; he shall tell me I am a drunkard! +Had I as many mouths as Hydra, such an answer would stop them all. To +be now a sensible man, by and by a fool, and presently a beast! O +strange! Every inordinate cup is unbless’d, and the ingredient is a +devil. + +IAGO. +Come, come, good wine is a good familiar creature, if it be well used. +Exclaim no more against it. And, good lieutenant, I think you think I +love you. + +CASSIO. +I have well approved it, sir.—I drunk! + +IAGO. +You, or any man living, may be drunk at a time, man. I’ll tell you what +you shall do. Our general’s wife is now the general; I may say so in +this respect, for that he hath devoted and given up himself to the +contemplation, mark, and denotement of her parts and graces. Confess +yourself freely to her. Importune her help to put you in your place +again. She is of so free, so kind, so apt, so blessed a disposition, +she holds it a vice in her goodness not to do more than she is +requested. This broken joint between you and her husband entreat her to +splinter, and, my fortunes against any lay worth naming, this crack of +your love shall grow stronger than it was before. + +CASSIO. +You advise me well. + +IAGO. +I protest, in the sincerity of love and honest kindness. + +CASSIO. +I think it freely; and betimes in the morning I will beseech the +virtuous Desdemona to undertake for me; I am desperate of my fortunes +if they check me here. + +IAGO. +You are in the right. Good night, lieutenant, I must to the watch. + +CASSIO. +Good night, honest Iago. + + [_Exit._] + +IAGO. +And what’s he then, that says I play the villain? +When this advice is free I give and honest, +Probal to thinking, and indeed the course +To win the Moor again? For ’tis most easy +The inclining Desdemona to subdue +In any honest suit. She’s fram’d as fruitful +As the free elements. And then for her +To win the Moor, were’t to renounce his baptism, +All seals and symbols of redeemed sin, +His soul is so enfetter’d to her love +That she may make, unmake, do what she list, +Even as her appetite shall play the god +With his weak function. How am I then, a villain +To counsel Cassio to this parallel course, +Directly to his good? Divinity of hell! +When devils will the blackest sins put on, +They do suggest at first with heavenly shows, +As I do now: for whiles this honest fool +Plies Desdemona to repair his fortune, +And she for him pleads strongly to the Moor, +I’ll pour this pestilence into his ear, +That she repeals him for her body’s lust; +And by how much she strives to do him good, +She shall undo her credit with the Moor. +So will I turn her virtue into pitch, +And out of her own goodness make the net +That shall enmesh them all. + + Enter Roderigo. + +How now, Roderigo? + +RODERIGO. +I do follow here in the chase, not like a hound that hunts, but one +that fills up the cry. My money is almost spent, I have been tonight +exceedingly well cudgelled; and I think the issue will be, I shall have +so much experience for my pains, and so, with no money at all and a +little more wit, return again to Venice. + +IAGO. +How poor are they that have not patience! +What wound did ever heal but by degrees? +Thou know’st we work by wit, and not by witchcraft, +And wit depends on dilatory time. +Does’t not go well? Cassio hath beaten thee, +And thou, by that small hurt, hast cashier’d Cassio; +Though other things grow fair against the sun, +Yet fruits that blossom first will first be ripe. +Content thyself awhile. By the mass, ’tis morning; +Pleasure and action make the hours seem short. +Retire thee; go where thou art billeted. +Away, I say, thou shalt know more hereafter. +Nay, get thee gone. + + [_Exit Roderigo._] + +Two things are to be done, +My wife must move for Cassio to her mistress. +I’ll set her on; +Myself the while to draw the Moor apart, +And bring him jump when he may Cassio find +Soliciting his wife. Ay, that’s the way. +Dull not device by coldness and delay. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Cyprus. Before the Castle. + + Enter Cassio and some Musicians. + +CASSIO. +Masters, play here, I will content your pains, +Something that’s brief; and bid “Good morrow, general.” + + [_Music._] + + Enter Clown. + +CLOWN. +Why, masters, have your instruments been in Naples, that they speak i’ +the nose thus? + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +How, sir, how? + +CLOWN. +Are these, I pray you, wind instruments? + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Ay, marry, are they, sir. + +CLOWN. +O, thereby hangs a tail. + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Whereby hangs a tale, sir? + +CLOWN. +Marry, sir, by many a wind instrument that I know. But, masters, here’s +money for you: and the general so likes your music, that he desires +you, for love’s sake, to make no more noise with it. + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Well, sir, we will not. + +CLOWN. +If you have any music that may not be heard, to’t again. But, as they +say, to hear music the general does not greatly care. + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +We have none such, sir. + +CLOWN. +Then put up your pipes in your bag, for I’ll away. Go, vanish into air, +away! + + [_Exeunt Musicians._] + +CASSIO. +Dost thou hear, mine honest friend? + +CLOWN. +No, I hear not your honest friend. I hear you. + +CASSIO. +Prithee, keep up thy quillets. There’s a poor piece of gold for thee: +if the gentlewoman that attends the general’s wife be stirring, tell +her there’s one Cassio entreats her a little favour of speech. Wilt +thou do this? + +CLOWN. +She is stirring, sir; if she will stir hither, I shall seem to notify +unto her. + +CASSIO. +Do, good my friend. + + [_Exit Clown._] + + Enter Iago. + +In happy time, Iago. + +IAGO. +You have not been a-bed, then? + +CASSIO. +Why, no. The day had broke +Before we parted. I have made bold, Iago, +To send in to your wife. My suit to her +Is, that she will to virtuous Desdemona +Procure me some access. + +IAGO. +I’ll send her to you presently, +And I’ll devise a mean to draw the Moor +Out of the way, that your converse and business +May be more free. + +CASSIO. +I humbly thank you for’t. + + [_Exit Iago._] + +I never knew +A Florentine more kind and honest. + + Enter Emilia. + +EMILIA. +Good morrow, good lieutenant; I am sorry +For your displeasure, but all will sure be well. +The general and his wife are talking of it, +And she speaks for you stoutly: the Moor replies +That he you hurt is of great fame in Cyprus +And great affinity, and that in wholesome wisdom +He might not but refuse you; but he protests he loves you +And needs no other suitor but his likings +To take the safest occasion by the front +To bring you in again. + +CASSIO. +Yet, I beseech you, +If you think fit, or that it may be done, +Give me advantage of some brief discourse +With Desdemona alone. + +EMILIA. +Pray you, come in. +I will bestow you where you shall have time +To speak your bosom freely. + +CASSIO. +I am much bound to you. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Cyprus. A Room in the Castle. + + Enter Othello, Iago and Gentlemen. + +OTHELLO. +These letters give, Iago, to the pilot, +And by him do my duties to the senate. +That done, I will be walking on the works, +Repair there to me. + +IAGO. +Well, my good lord, I’ll do’t. + +OTHELLO. +This fortification, gentlemen, shall we see’t? + +GENTLEMEN. +We’ll wait upon your lordship. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Cyprus. The Garden of the Castle. + + Enter Desdemona, Cassio and Emilia. + +DESDEMONA. +Be thou assured, good Cassio, I will do +All my abilities in thy behalf. + +EMILIA. +Good madam, do. I warrant it grieves my husband +As if the cause were his. + +DESDEMONA. +O, that’s an honest fellow. Do not doubt, Cassio, +But I will have my lord and you again +As friendly as you were. + +CASSIO. +Bounteous madam, +Whatever shall become of Michael Cassio, +He’s never anything but your true servant. + +DESDEMONA. +I know’t. I thank you. You do love my lord. +You have known him long; and be you well assur’d +He shall in strangeness stand no farther off +Than in a politic distance. + +CASSIO. +Ay, but, lady, +That policy may either last so long, +Or feed upon such nice and waterish diet, +Or breed itself so out of circumstance, +That, I being absent, and my place supplied, +My general will forget my love and service. + +DESDEMONA. +Do not doubt that. Before Emilia here +I give thee warrant of thy place. Assure thee, +If I do vow a friendship, I’ll perform it +To the last article. My lord shall never rest, +I’ll watch him tame, and talk him out of patience; +His bed shall seem a school, his board a shrift; +I’ll intermingle everything he does +With Cassio’s suit. Therefore be merry, Cassio, +For thy solicitor shall rather die +Than give thy cause away. + + Enter Othello and Iago. + +EMILIA. +Madam, here comes my lord. + +CASSIO. +Madam, I’ll take my leave. + +DESDEMONA. +Why, stay, and hear me speak. + +CASSIO. +Madam, not now. I am very ill at ease, +Unfit for mine own purposes. + +DESDEMONA. +Well, do your discretion. + + [_Exit Cassio._] + +IAGO. +Ha, I like not that. + +OTHELLO. +What dost thou say? + +IAGO. +Nothing, my lord; or if—I know not what. + +OTHELLO. +Was not that Cassio parted from my wife? + +IAGO. +Cassio, my lord? No, sure, I cannot think it, +That he would steal away so guilty-like, +Seeing you coming. + +OTHELLO. +I do believe ’twas he. + +DESDEMONA. +How now, my lord? +I have been talking with a suitor here, +A man that languishes in your displeasure. + +OTHELLO. +Who is’t you mean? + +DESDEMONA. +Why, your lieutenant, Cassio. Good my lord, +If I have any grace or power to move you, +His present reconciliation take; +For if he be not one that truly loves you, +That errs in ignorance and not in cunning, +I have no judgement in an honest face. +I prithee call him back. + +OTHELLO. +Went he hence now? + +DESDEMONA. +Ay, sooth; so humbled +That he hath left part of his grief with me +To suffer with him. Good love, call him back. + +OTHELLO. +Not now, sweet Desdemon, some other time. + +DESDEMONA. +But shall’t be shortly? + +OTHELLO. +The sooner, sweet, for you. + +DESDEMONA. +Shall’t be tonight at supper? + +OTHELLO. +No, not tonight. + +DESDEMONA. +Tomorrow dinner then? + +OTHELLO. +I shall not dine at home; +I meet the captains at the citadel. + +DESDEMONA. +Why then tomorrow night, or Tuesday morn, +On Tuesday noon, or night; on Wednesday morn. +I prithee name the time, but let it not +Exceed three days. In faith, he’s penitent; +And yet his trespass, in our common reason, +(Save that, they say, the wars must make examples +Out of their best) is not almost a fault +To incur a private check. When shall he come? +Tell me, Othello: I wonder in my soul, +What you would ask me, that I should deny, +Or stand so mammering on. What? Michael Cassio, +That came a-wooing with you, and so many a time, +When I have spoke of you dispraisingly, +Hath ta’en your part, to have so much to do +To bring him in! Trust me, I could do much. + +OTHELLO. +Prithee no more. Let him come when he will; +I will deny thee nothing. + +DESDEMONA. +Why, this is not a boon; +’Tis as I should entreat you wear your gloves, +Or feed on nourishing dishes, or keep you warm, +Or sue to you to do a peculiar profit +To your own person: nay, when I have a suit +Wherein I mean to touch your love indeed, +It shall be full of poise and difficult weight, +And fearful to be granted. + +OTHELLO. +I will deny thee nothing. +Whereon, I do beseech thee, grant me this, +To leave me but a little to myself. + +DESDEMONA. +Shall I deny you? No, farewell, my lord. + +OTHELLO. +Farewell, my Desdemona. I’ll come to thee straight. + +DESDEMONA. +Emilia, come. Be as your fancies teach you. +Whate’er you be, I am obedient. + + [_Exit with Emilia._] + +OTHELLO. +Excellent wretch! Perdition catch my soul, +But I do love thee! And when I love thee not, +Chaos is come again. + +IAGO. +My noble lord,— + +OTHELLO. +What dost thou say, Iago? + +IAGO. +Did Michael Cassio, when you woo’d my lady, +Know of your love? + +OTHELLO. +He did, from first to last. Why dost thou ask? + +IAGO. +But for a satisfaction of my thought. +No further harm. + +OTHELLO. +Why of thy thought, Iago? + +IAGO. +I did not think he had been acquainted with her. + +OTHELLO. +O yes, and went between us very oft. + +IAGO. +Indeed? + +OTHELLO. +Indeed? Ay, indeed. Discern’st thou aught in that? +Is he not honest? + +IAGO. +Honest, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +Honest? ay, honest. + +IAGO. +My lord, for aught I know. + +OTHELLO. +What dost thou think? + +IAGO. +Think, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +Think, my lord? By heaven, he echoes me, +As if there were some monster in his thought +Too hideous to be shown. Thou dost mean something. +I heard thee say even now, thou lik’st not that, +When Cassio left my wife. What didst not like? +And when I told thee he was of my counsel +In my whole course of wooing, thou criedst, “Indeed?” +And didst contract and purse thy brow together, +As if thou then hadst shut up in thy brain +Some horrible conceit: if thou dost love me, +Show me thy thought. + +IAGO. +My lord, you know I love you. + +OTHELLO. +I think thou dost; +And for I know thou’rt full of love and honesty +And weigh’st thy words before thou giv’st them breath, +Therefore these stops of thine fright me the more: +For such things in a false disloyal knave +Are tricks of custom; but in a man that’s just, +They’re close dilations, working from the heart, +That passion cannot rule. + +IAGO. +For Michael Cassio, +I dare be sworn I think that he is honest. + +OTHELLO. +I think so too. + +IAGO. +Men should be what they seem; +Or those that be not, would they might seem none! + +OTHELLO. +Certain, men should be what they seem. + +IAGO. +Why then, I think Cassio’s an honest man. + +OTHELLO. +Nay, yet there’s more in this: +I prithee, speak to me as to thy thinkings, +As thou dost ruminate, and give thy worst of thoughts +The worst of words. + +IAGO. +Good my lord, pardon me. +Though I am bound to every act of duty, +I am not bound to that all slaves are free to. +Utter my thoughts? Why, say they are vile and false: +As where’s that palace whereinto foul things +Sometimes intrude not? Who has a breast so pure +But some uncleanly apprehensions +Keep leets and law-days, and in session sit +With meditations lawful? + +OTHELLO. +Thou dost conspire against thy friend, Iago, +If thou but think’st him wrong’d and mak’st his ear +A stranger to thy thoughts. + +IAGO. +I do beseech you, +Though I perchance am vicious in my guess, +As, I confess, it is my nature’s plague +To spy into abuses, and of my jealousy +Shapes faults that are not,—that your wisdom +From one that so imperfectly conceits, +Would take no notice; nor build yourself a trouble +Out of his scattering and unsure observance. +It were not for your quiet nor your good, +Nor for my manhood, honesty, or wisdom, +To let you know my thoughts. + +OTHELLO. +What dost thou mean? + +IAGO. +Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, +Is the immediate jewel of their souls. +Who steals my purse steals trash. ’Tis something, nothing; +’Twas mine, ’tis his, and has been slave to thousands. +But he that filches from me my good name +Robs me of that which not enriches him +And makes me poor indeed. + +OTHELLO. +By heaven, I’ll know thy thoughts. + +IAGO. +You cannot, if my heart were in your hand, +Nor shall not, whilst ’tis in my custody. + +OTHELLO. +Ha? + +IAGO. +O, beware, my lord, of jealousy; +It is the green-ey’d monster which doth mock +The meat it feeds on. That cuckold lives in bliss +Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger; +But O, what damned minutes tells he o’er +Who dotes, yet doubts, suspects, yet strongly loves! + +OTHELLO. +O misery! + +IAGO. +Poor and content is rich, and rich enough; +But riches fineless is as poor as winter +To him that ever fears he shall be poor. +Good heaven, the souls of all my tribe defend +From jealousy! + +OTHELLO. +Why, why is this? +Think’st thou I’d make a life of jealousy, +To follow still the changes of the moon +With fresh suspicions? No. To be once in doubt +Is once to be resolv’d: exchange me for a goat +When I shall turn the business of my soul +To such exsufflicate and blown surmises, +Matching thy inference. ’Tis not to make me jealous, +To say my wife is fair, feeds well, loves company, +Is free of speech, sings, plays, and dances well; +Where virtue is, these are more virtuous: +Nor from mine own weak merits will I draw +The smallest fear or doubt of her revolt, +For she had eyes, and chose me. No, Iago, +I’ll see before I doubt; when I doubt, prove; +And on the proof, there is no more but this: +Away at once with love or jealousy! + +IAGO. +I am glad of it, for now I shall have reason +To show the love and duty that I bear you +With franker spirit: therefore, as I am bound, +Receive it from me. I speak not yet of proof. +Look to your wife; observe her well with Cassio; +Wear your eye thus, not jealous nor secure. +I would not have your free and noble nature, +Out of self-bounty, be abus’d. Look to’t. +I know our country disposition well; +In Venice they do let heaven see the pranks +They dare not show their husbands. Their best conscience +Is not to leave undone, but keep unknown. + +OTHELLO. +Dost thou say so? + +IAGO. +She did deceive her father, marrying you; +And when she seem’d to shake and fear your looks, +She loved them most. + +OTHELLO. +And so she did. + +IAGO. +Why, go to then. +She that so young could give out such a seeming, +To seal her father’s eyes up close as oak, +He thought ’twas witchcraft. But I am much to blame. +I humbly do beseech you of your pardon +For too much loving you. + +OTHELLO. +I am bound to thee for ever. + +IAGO. +I see this hath a little dash’d your spirits. + +OTHELLO. +Not a jot, not a jot. + +IAGO. +Trust me, I fear it has. +I hope you will consider what is spoke +Comes from my love. But I do see you’re mov’d. +I am to pray you not to strain my speech +To grosser issues nor to larger reach +Than to suspicion. + +OTHELLO. +I will not. + +IAGO. +Should you do so, my lord, +My speech should fall into such vile success +Which my thoughts aim’d not. Cassio’s my worthy friend. +My lord, I see you’re mov’d. + +OTHELLO. +No, not much mov’d. +I do not think but Desdemona’s honest. + +IAGO. +Long live she so! And long live you to think so! + +OTHELLO. +And yet, how nature erring from itself— + +IAGO. +Ay, there’s the point. As, to be bold with you, +Not to affect many proposed matches, +Of her own clime, complexion, and degree, +Whereto we see in all things nature tends; +Foh! One may smell in such a will most rank, +Foul disproportion, thoughts unnatural. +But pardon me: I do not in position +Distinctly speak of her, though I may fear +Her will, recoiling to her better judgement, +May fall to match you with her country forms, +And happily repent. + +OTHELLO. +Farewell, farewell: +If more thou dost perceive, let me know more; +Set on thy wife to observe. Leave me, Iago. + +IAGO. +[_Going._] My lord, I take my leave. + +OTHELLO. +Why did I marry? This honest creature doubtless +Sees and knows more, much more, than he unfolds. + +IAGO. +[_Returning._] My lord, I would I might entreat your honour +To scan this thing no further. Leave it to time: +Though it be fit that Cassio have his place, +For sure he fills it up with great ability, +Yet if you please to hold him off awhile, +You shall by that perceive him and his means. +Note if your lady strain his entertainment +With any strong or vehement importunity, +Much will be seen in that. In the meantime, +Let me be thought too busy in my fears +(As worthy cause I have to fear I am) +And hold her free, I do beseech your honour. + +OTHELLO. +Fear not my government. + +IAGO. +I once more take my leave. + + [_Exit._] + +OTHELLO. +This fellow’s of exceeding honesty, +And knows all qualities, with a learned spirit, +Of human dealings. If I do prove her haggard, +Though that her jesses were my dear heartstrings, +I’d whistle her off, and let her down the wind +To prey at fortune. Haply, for I am black, +And have not those soft parts of conversation +That chamberers have, or for I am declin’d +Into the vale of years,—yet that’s not much— +She’s gone, I am abus’d, and my relief +Must be to loathe her. O curse of marriage, +That we can call these delicate creatures ours, +And not their appetites! I had rather be a toad, +And live upon the vapour of a dungeon, +Than keep a corner in the thing I love +For others’ uses. Yet, ’tis the plague of great ones, +Prerogativ’d are they less than the base, +’Tis destiny unshunnable, like death: +Even then this forked plague is fated to us +When we do quicken. Desdemona comes. +If she be false, O, then heaven mocks itself! +I’ll not believe’t. + + Enter Desdemona and Emilia. + +DESDEMONA. +How now, my dear Othello? +Your dinner, and the generous islanders +By you invited, do attend your presence. + +OTHELLO. +I am to blame. + +DESDEMONA. +Why do you speak so faintly? +Are you not well? + +OTHELLO. +I have a pain upon my forehead here. + +DESDEMONA. +Faith, that’s with watching, ’twill away again; +Let me but bind it hard, within this hour +It will be well. + +OTHELLO. +Your napkin is too little; + + [_He puts the handkerchief from him, and she drops it._] + +Let it alone. Come, I’ll go in with you. + +DESDEMONA. +I am very sorry that you are not well. + + [_Exeunt Othello and Desdemona._] + +EMILIA. +I am glad I have found this napkin; +This was her first remembrance from the Moor. +My wayward husband hath a hundred times +Woo’d me to steal it. But she so loves the token, +For he conjur’d her she should ever keep it, +That she reserves it evermore about her +To kiss and talk to. I’ll have the work ta’en out, +And give’t Iago. What he will do with it +Heaven knows, not I, +I nothing but to please his fantasy. + + Enter Iago. + +IAGO. +How now? What do you here alone? + +EMILIA. +Do not you chide. I have a thing for you. + +IAGO. +A thing for me? It is a common thing— + +EMILIA. +Ha? + +IAGO. +To have a foolish wife. + +EMILIA. +O, is that all? What will you give me now +For that same handkerchief? + +IAGO. +What handkerchief? + +EMILIA. +What handkerchief? +Why, that the Moor first gave to Desdemona, +That which so often you did bid me steal. + +IAGO. +Hast stol’n it from her? + +EMILIA. +No, faith, she let it drop by negligence, +And, to the advantage, I being here, took ’t up. +Look, here it is. + +IAGO. +A good wench, give it me. + +EMILIA. +What will you do with’t, that you have been so earnest +To have me filch it? + +IAGO. +[_Snatching it._] Why, what’s that to you? + +EMILIA. +If it be not for some purpose of import, +Give ’t me again. Poor lady, she’ll run mad +When she shall lack it. + +IAGO. +Be not acknown on’t, I have use for it. +Go, leave me. + + [_Exit Emilia._] + +I will in Cassio’s lodging lose this napkin, +And let him find it. Trifles light as air +Are to the jealous confirmations strong +As proofs of holy writ. This may do something. +The Moor already changes with my poison: +Dangerous conceits are in their natures poisons, +Which at the first are scarce found to distaste, +But with a little act upon the blood +Burn like the mines of sulphur. I did say so. + + Enter Othello. + +Look, where he comes. Not poppy, nor mandragora, +Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world, +Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep +Which thou ow’dst yesterday. + +OTHELLO. +Ha! ha! false to me? + +IAGO. +Why, how now, general? No more of that. + +OTHELLO. +Avaunt! be gone! Thou hast set me on the rack. +I swear ’tis better to be much abus’d +Than but to know’t a little. + +IAGO. +How now, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +What sense had I of her stol’n hours of lust? +I saw’t not, thought it not, it harm’d not me. +I slept the next night well, was free and merry; +I found not Cassio’s kisses on her lips. +He that is robb’d, not wanting what is stol’n, +Let him not know’t, and he’s not robb’d at all. + +IAGO. +I am sorry to hear this. + +OTHELLO. +I had been happy if the general camp, +Pioners and all, had tasted her sweet body, +So I had nothing known. O, now, for ever +Farewell the tranquil mind! Farewell content! +Farewell the plumed troops and the big wars +That make ambition virtue! O, farewell, +Farewell the neighing steed and the shrill trump, +The spirit-stirring drum, the ear-piercing fife, +The royal banner, and all quality, +Pride, pomp, and circumstance of glorious war! +And, O you mortal engines, whose rude throats +The immortal Jove’s dread clamours counterfeit, +Farewell! Othello’s occupation’s gone! + +IAGO. +Is’t possible, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +Villain, be sure thou prove my love a whore; +Be sure of it. Give me the ocular proof, +Or, by the worth of man’s eternal soul, +Thou hadst been better have been born a dog +Than answer my wak’d wrath. + +IAGO. +Is’t come to this? + +OTHELLO. +Make me to see’t, or at the least so prove it, +That the probation bear no hinge nor loop +To hang a doubt on, or woe upon thy life! + +IAGO. +My noble lord,— + +OTHELLO. +If thou dost slander her and torture me, +Never pray more. Abandon all remorse; +On horror’s head horrors accumulate; +Do deeds to make heaven weep, all earth amaz’d; +For nothing canst thou to damnation add +Greater than that. + +IAGO. +O grace! O heaven defend me! +Are you a man? Have you a soul or sense? +God be wi’ you. Take mine office.—O wretched fool, +That liv’st to make thine honesty a vice! +O monstrous world! Take note, take note, O world, +To be direct and honest is not safe. +I thank you for this profit, and from hence +I’ll love no friend, sith love breeds such offence. + +OTHELLO. +Nay, stay. Thou shouldst be honest. + +IAGO. +I should be wise; for honesty’s a fool, +And loses that it works for. + +OTHELLO. +By the world, +I think my wife be honest, and think she is not. +I think that thou art just, and think thou art not. +I’ll have some proof: her name, that was as fresh +As Dian’s visage, is now begrim’d and black +As mine own face. If there be cords or knives, +Poison or fire, or suffocating streams, +I’ll not endure ’t. Would I were satisfied! + +IAGO. +I see, sir, you are eaten up with passion. +I do repent me that I put it to you. +You would be satisfied? + +OTHELLO. +Would? Nay, I will. + +IAGO. +And may; but how? How satisfied, my lord? +Would you, the supervisor, grossly gape on, +Behold her topp’d? + +OTHELLO. +Death and damnation! O! + +IAGO. +It were a tedious difficulty, I think, +To bring them to that prospect. Damn them then, +If ever mortal eyes do see them bolster +More than their own! What then? How then? +What shall I say? Where’s satisfaction? +It is impossible you should see this, +Were they as prime as goats, as hot as monkeys, +As salt as wolves in pride, and fools as gross +As ignorance made drunk. But yet I say, +If imputation and strong circumstances, +Which lead directly to the door of truth, +Will give you satisfaction, you may have’t. + +OTHELLO. +Give me a living reason she’s disloyal. + +IAGO. +I do not like the office, +But sith I am enter’d in this cause so far, +Prick’d to ’t by foolish honesty and love, +I will go on. I lay with Cassio lately, +And being troubled with a raging tooth, +I could not sleep. +There are a kind of men so loose of soul, +That in their sleeps will mutter their affairs. +One of this kind is Cassio: +In sleep I heard him say, “Sweet Desdemona, +Let us be wary, let us hide our loves;” +And then, sir, would he gripe and wring my hand, +Cry “O sweet creature!” and then kiss me hard, +As if he pluck’d up kisses by the roots, +That grew upon my lips, then laid his leg +Over my thigh, and sigh’d and kiss’d, and then +Cried “Cursed fate that gave thee to the Moor!” + +OTHELLO. +O monstrous! monstrous! + +IAGO. +Nay, this was but his dream. + +OTHELLO. +But this denoted a foregone conclusion. +’Tis a shrewd doubt, though it be but a dream. + +IAGO. +And this may help to thicken other proofs +That do demonstrate thinly. + +OTHELLO. +I’ll tear her all to pieces. + +IAGO. +Nay, but be wise. Yet we see nothing done, +She may be honest yet. Tell me but this, +Have you not sometimes seen a handkerchief +Spotted with strawberries in your wife’s hand? + +OTHELLO. +I gave her such a one, ’twas my first gift. + +IAGO. +I know not that: but such a handkerchief +(I am sure it was your wife’s) did I today +See Cassio wipe his beard with. + +OTHELLO. +If it be that,— + +IAGO. +If it be that, or any that was hers, +It speaks against her with the other proofs. + +OTHELLO. +O, that the slave had forty thousand lives! +One is too poor, too weak for my revenge! +Now do I see ’tis true. Look here, Iago; +All my fond love thus do I blow to heaven. +’Tis gone. +Arise, black vengeance, from thy hollow hell! +Yield up, O love, thy crown and hearted throne +To tyrannous hate! Swell, bosom, with thy fraught, +For ’tis of aspics’ tongues! + +IAGO. +Yet be content. + +OTHELLO. +O, blood, Iago, blood! + +IAGO. +Patience, I say. Your mind perhaps may change. + +OTHELLO. +Never, Iago. Like to the Pontic Sea, +Whose icy current and compulsive course +Ne’er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on +To the Propontic and the Hellespont; +Even so my bloody thoughts, with violent pace +Shall ne’er look back, ne’er ebb to humble love, +Till that a capable and wide revenge +Swallow them up. Now by yond marble heaven, +In the due reverence of a sacred vow [_Kneels._] +I here engage my words. + +IAGO. +Do not rise yet. [_Kneels._] +Witness, you ever-burning lights above, +You elements that clip us round about, +Witness that here Iago doth give up +The execution of his wit, hands, heart, +To wrong’d Othello’s service! Let him command, +And to obey shall be in me remorse, +What bloody business ever. + + [_They rise._] + +OTHELLO. +I greet thy love, +Not with vain thanks, but with acceptance bounteous, +And will upon the instant put thee to ’t. +Within these three days let me hear thee say +That Cassio’s not alive. + +IAGO. +My friend is dead. ’Tis done at your request. +But let her live. + +OTHELLO. +Damn her, lewd minx! O, damn her, damn her! +Come, go with me apart, I will withdraw +To furnish me with some swift means of death +For the fair devil. Now art thou my lieutenant. + +IAGO. +I am your own for ever. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Cyprus. Before the Castle. + + Enter Desdemona, Emilia and Clown. + +DESDEMONA. +Do you know, sirrah, where Lieutenant Cassio lies? + +CLOWN. +I dare not say he lies anywhere. + +DESDEMONA. +Why, man? + +CLOWN. +He’s a soldier; and for one to say a soldier lies is stabbing. + +DESDEMONA. +Go to. Where lodges he? + +CLOWN. +To tell you where he lodges is to tell you where I lie. + +DESDEMONA. +Can anything be made of this? + +CLOWN. +I know not where he lodges; and for me to devise a lodging, and say he +lies here, or he lies there, were to lie in mine own throat. + +DESDEMONA. +Can you inquire him out, and be edified by report? + +CLOWN. +I will catechize the world for him, that is, make questions and by them +answer. + +DESDEMONA. +Seek him, bid him come hither. Tell him I have moved my lord on his +behalf, and hope all will be well. + +CLOWN. +To do this is within the compass of man’s wit, and therefore I will +attempt the doing it. + + [_Exit._] + +DESDEMONA. +Where should I lose that handkerchief, Emilia? + +EMILIA. +I know not, madam. + +DESDEMONA. +Believe me, I had rather have lost my purse +Full of crusadoes. And but my noble Moor +Is true of mind and made of no such baseness +As jealous creatures are, it were enough +To put him to ill thinking. + +EMILIA. +Is he not jealous? + +DESDEMONA. +Who, he? I think the sun where he was born +Drew all such humours from him. + +EMILIA. +Look, where he comes. + + Enter Othello. + +DESDEMONA. +I will not leave him now till Cassio +Be call’d to him. How is’t with you, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +Well, my good lady. [_Aside._] O, hardness to dissemble! +How do you, Desdemona? + +DESDEMONA. +Well, my good lord. + +OTHELLO. +Give me your hand. This hand is moist, my lady. + +DESDEMONA. +It yet hath felt no age nor known no sorrow. + +OTHELLO. +This argues fruitfulness and liberal heart. +Hot, hot, and moist. This hand of yours requires +A sequester from liberty, fasting and prayer, +Much castigation, exercise devout; +For here’s a young and sweating devil here +That commonly rebels. ’Tis a good hand, +A frank one. + +DESDEMONA. +You may indeed say so, +For ’twas that hand that gave away my heart. + +OTHELLO. +A liberal hand. The hearts of old gave hands, +But our new heraldry is hands, not hearts. + +DESDEMONA. +I cannot speak of this. Come now, your promise. + +OTHELLO. +What promise, chuck? + +DESDEMONA. +I have sent to bid Cassio come speak with you. + +OTHELLO. +I have a salt and sorry rheum offends me. +Lend me thy handkerchief. + +DESDEMONA. +Here, my lord. + +OTHELLO. +That which I gave you. + +DESDEMONA. +I have it not about me. + +OTHELLO. +Not? + +DESDEMONA. +No, faith, my lord. + +OTHELLO. +That is a fault. That handkerchief +Did an Egyptian to my mother give. +She was a charmer, and could almost read +The thoughts of people. She told her, while she kept it, +’Twould make her amiable and subdue my father +Entirely to her love. But if she lost it, +Or made a gift of it, my father’s eye +Should hold her loathed, and his spirits should hunt +After new fancies: she, dying, gave it me, +And bid me, when my fate would have me wive, +To give it her. I did so; and take heed on’t, +Make it a darling like your precious eye. +To lose’t or give’t away were such perdition +As nothing else could match. + +DESDEMONA. +Is’t possible? + +OTHELLO. +’Tis true. There’s magic in the web of it. +A sibyl, that had number’d in the world +The sun to course two hundred compasses, +In her prophetic fury sew’d the work; +The worms were hallow’d that did breed the silk, +And it was dyed in mummy, which the skillful +Conserv’d of maiden’s hearts. + +DESDEMONA. +Indeed? Is’t true? + +OTHELLO. +Most veritable, therefore look to ’t well. + +DESDEMONA. +Then would to God that I had never seen ’t! + +OTHELLO. +Ha? wherefore? + +DESDEMONA. +Why do you speak so startingly and rash? + +OTHELLO. +Is’t lost? is’t gone? speak, is it out of the way? + +DESDEMONA. +Heaven bless us! + +OTHELLO. +Say you? + +DESDEMONA. +It is not lost, but what and if it were? + +OTHELLO. +How? + +DESDEMONA. +I say it is not lost. + +OTHELLO. +Fetch’t, let me see ’t. + +DESDEMONA. +Why, so I can, sir, but I will not now. +This is a trick to put me from my suit. +Pray you, let Cassio be receiv’d again. + +OTHELLO. +Fetch me the handkerchief! My mind misgives. + +DESDEMONA. +Come, come. +You’ll never meet a more sufficient man. + +OTHELLO. +The handkerchief! + +DESDEMONA. +I pray, talk me of Cassio. + +OTHELLO. +The handkerchief! + +DESDEMONA. +A man that all his time +Hath founded his good fortunes on your love, +Shar’d dangers with you,— + +OTHELLO. +The handkerchief! + +DESDEMONA. +In sooth, you are to blame. + +OTHELLO. +Away! + + [_Exit._] + +EMILIA. +Is not this man jealous? + +DESDEMONA. +I ne’er saw this before. +Sure there’s some wonder in this handkerchief, +I am most unhappy in the loss of it. + +EMILIA. +’Tis not a year or two shows us a man: +They are all but stomachs and we all but food; +They eat us hungerly, and when they are full, +They belch us. + + Enter Cassio and Iago. + +Look you, Cassio and my husband. + +IAGO. +There is no other way; ’tis she must do ’t, +And, lo, the happiness! Go and importune her. + +DESDEMONA. +How now, good Cassio, what’s the news with you? + +CASSIO. +Madam, my former suit: I do beseech you +That by your virtuous means I may again +Exist, and be a member of his love, +Whom I, with all the office of my heart, +Entirely honour. I would not be delay’d. +If my offence be of such mortal kind +That nor my service past, nor present sorrows, +Nor purpos’d merit in futurity, +Can ransom me into his love again, +But to know so must be my benefit; +So shall I clothe me in a forc’d content, +And shut myself up in some other course +To fortune’s alms. + +DESDEMONA. +Alas, thrice-gentle Cassio, +My advocation is not now in tune; +My lord is not my lord; nor should I know him +Were he in favour as in humour alter’d. +So help me every spirit sanctified, +As I have spoken for you all my best, +And stood within the blank of his displeasure +For my free speech! You must awhile be patient. +What I can do I will; and more I will +Than for myself I dare. Let that suffice you. + +IAGO. +Is my lord angry? + +EMILIA. +He went hence but now, +And certainly in strange unquietness. + +IAGO. +Can he be angry? I have seen the cannon, +When it hath blown his ranks into the air +And, like the devil, from his very arm +Puff’d his own brother, and can he be angry? +Something of moment then. I will go meet him. +There’s matter in’t indeed if he be angry. + +DESDEMONA. +I prithee do so. + + [_Exit Iago._] + +Something sure of state, +Either from Venice, or some unhatch’d practice +Made demonstrable here in Cyprus to him, +Hath puddled his clear spirit, and in such cases +Men’s natures wrangle with inferior things, +Though great ones are their object. ’Tis even so. +For let our finger ache, and it indues +Our other healthful members even to that sense +Of pain. Nay, we must think men are not gods, +Nor of them look for such observancy +As fits the bridal. Beshrew me much, Emilia, +I was (unhandsome warrior as I am) +Arraigning his unkindness with my soul; +But now I find I had suborn’d the witness, +And he’s indicted falsely. + +EMILIA. +Pray heaven it be state matters, as you think, +And no conception nor no jealous toy +Concerning you. + +DESDEMONA. +Alas the day, I never gave him cause! + +EMILIA. +But jealous souls will not be answer’d so; +They are not ever jealous for the cause, +But jealous for they are jealous: ’tis a monster +Begot upon itself, born on itself. + +DESDEMONA. +Heaven keep that monster from Othello’s mind! + +EMILIA. +Lady, amen. + +DESDEMONA. +I will go seek him. Cassio, walk hereabout: +If I do find him fit, I’ll move your suit, +And seek to effect it to my uttermost. + +CASSIO. +I humbly thank your ladyship. + + [_Exeunt Desdemona and Emilia._] + + Enter Bianca. + +BIANCA. +Save you, friend Cassio! + +CASSIO. +What make you from home? +How is it with you, my most fair Bianca? +I’ faith, sweet love, I was coming to your house. + +BIANCA. +And I was going to your lodging, Cassio. +What, keep a week away? Seven days and nights? +Eight score eight hours, and lovers’ absent hours, +More tedious than the dial eight score times? +O weary reckoning! + +CASSIO. +Pardon me, Bianca. +I have this while with leaden thoughts been press’d, +But I shall in a more continuate time +Strike off this score of absence. Sweet Bianca, + + [_Giving her Desdemona’s handkerchief._] + +Take me this work out. + +BIANCA. +O Cassio, whence came this? +This is some token from a newer friend. +To the felt absence now I feel a cause. +Is’t come to this? Well, well. + +CASSIO. +Go to, woman! +Throw your vile guesses in the devil’s teeth, +From whence you have them. You are jealous now +That this is from some mistress, some remembrance. +No, in good troth, Bianca. + +BIANCA. +Why, whose is it? + +CASSIO. +I know not neither. I found it in my chamber. +I like the work well. Ere it be demanded, +As like enough it will, I’d have it copied. +Take it, and do ’t, and leave me for this time. + +BIANCA. +Leave you, wherefore? + +CASSIO. +I do attend here on the general, +And think it no addition, nor my wish, +To have him see me woman’d. + +BIANCA. +Why, I pray you? + +CASSIO. +Not that I love you not. + +BIANCA. +But that you do not love me. +I pray you bring me on the way a little, +And say if I shall see you soon at night. + +CASSIO. +’Tis but a little way that I can bring you, +For I attend here. But I’ll see you soon. + +BIANCA. +’Tis very good; I must be circumstanc’d. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. Cyprus. Before the Castle. + + Enter Othello and Iago. + +IAGO. +Will you think so? + +OTHELLO. +Think so, Iago? + +IAGO. +What, +To kiss in private? + +OTHELLO. +An unauthoriz’d kiss. + +IAGO. +Or to be naked with her friend in bed +An hour or more, not meaning any harm? + +OTHELLO. +Naked in bed, Iago, and not mean harm? +It is hypocrisy against the devil: +They that mean virtuously and yet do so, +The devil their virtue tempts, and they tempt heaven. + +IAGO. +So they do nothing, ’tis a venial slip. +But if I give my wife a handkerchief— + +OTHELLO. +What then? + +IAGO. +Why then, ’tis hers, my lord, and being hers, +She may, I think, bestow’t on any man. + +OTHELLO. +She is protectress of her honour too. +May she give that? + +IAGO. +Her honour is an essence that’s not seen; +They have it very oft that have it not: +But for the handkerchief— + +OTHELLO. +By heaven, I would most gladly have forgot it. +Thou said’st (O, it comes o’er my memory, +As doth the raven o’er the infected house, +Boding to all) he had my handkerchief. + +IAGO. +Ay, what of that? + +OTHELLO. +That’s not so good now. + +IAGO. +What +If I had said I had seen him do you wrong? +Or heard him say (as knaves be such abroad, +Who having, by their own importunate suit, +Or voluntary dotage of some mistress, +Convinced or supplied them, cannot choose +But they must blab.) + +OTHELLO. +Hath he said anything? + +IAGO. +He hath, my lord, but be you well assur’d, +No more than he’ll unswear. + +OTHELLO. +What hath he said? + +IAGO. +Faith, that he did—I know not what he did. + +OTHELLO. +What? What? + +IAGO. +Lie. + +OTHELLO. +With her? + +IAGO. +With her, on her, what you will. + +OTHELLO. +Lie with her! lie on her!—We say lie on her when they belie her.—Lie +with her! that’s fulsome. Handkerchief—confessions—handkerchief! To +confess, and be hanged for his labour. First, to be hanged, and then to +confess. I tremble at it. Nature would not invest herself in such +shadowing passion without some instruction. It is not words that shake +me thus. Pish! Noses, ears, and lips. Is’t +possible?—Confess?—handkerchief?—O devil!— + + [_Falls in a trance._] + +IAGO. +Work on, +My medicine, work! Thus credulous fools are caught, +And many worthy and chaste dames even thus, +All guiltless, meet reproach. What, ho! my lord! +My lord, I say! Othello! + + Enter Cassio. + +How now, Cassio! + +CASSIO. +What’s the matter? + +IAGO. +My lord is fallen into an epilepsy. +This is his second fit. He had one yesterday. + +CASSIO. +Rub him about the temples. + +IAGO. +No, forbear; +The lethargy must have his quiet course. +If not, he foams at mouth, and by and by +Breaks out to savage madness. Look, he stirs: +Do you withdraw yourself a little while, +He will recover straight. When he is gone, +I would on great occasion speak with you. + + [_Exit Cassio._] + +How is it, general? Have you not hurt your head? + +OTHELLO. +Dost thou mock me? + +IAGO. +I mock you? No, by heaven. +Would you would bear your fortune like a man! + +OTHELLO. +A horned man’s a monster and a beast. + +IAGO. +There’s many a beast, then, in a populous city, +And many a civil monster. + +OTHELLO. +Did he confess it? + +IAGO. +Good sir, be a man. +Think every bearded fellow that’s but yok’d +May draw with you. There’s millions now alive +That nightly lie in those unproper beds +Which they dare swear peculiar: your case is better. +O, ’tis the spite of hell, the fiend’s arch-mock, +To lip a wanton in a secure couch, +And to suppose her chaste! No, let me know, +And knowing what I am, I know what she shall be. + +OTHELLO. +O, thou art wise, ’tis certain. + +IAGO. +Stand you awhile apart, +Confine yourself but in a patient list. +Whilst you were here o’erwhelmed with your grief, +(A passion most unsuiting such a man) +Cassio came hither. I shifted him away, +And laid good ’scuse upon your ecstasy, +Bade him anon return, and here speak with me, +The which he promis’d. Do but encave yourself, +And mark the fleers, the gibes, and notable scorns, +That dwell in every region of his face; +For I will make him tell the tale anew, +Where, how, how oft, how long ago, and when +He hath, and is again to cope your wife: +I say, but mark his gesture. Marry, patience, +Or I shall say you are all in all in spleen, +And nothing of a man. + +OTHELLO. +Dost thou hear, Iago? +I will be found most cunning in my patience; +But,—dost thou hear?—most bloody. + +IAGO. +That’s not amiss. +But yet keep time in all. Will you withdraw? + + [_Othello withdraws._] + +Now will I question Cassio of Bianca, +A housewife that by selling her desires +Buys herself bread and clothes: it is a creature +That dotes on Cassio, (as ’tis the strumpet’s plague +To beguile many and be beguil’d by one.) +He, when he hears of her, cannot refrain +From the excess of laughter. Here he comes. + + Enter Cassio. + +As he shall smile Othello shall go mad, +And his unbookish jealousy must construe +Poor Cassio’s smiles, gestures, and light behaviour +Quite in the wrong. How do you now, lieutenant? + +CASSIO. +The worser that you give me the addition +Whose want even kills me. + +IAGO. +Ply Desdemona well, and you are sure on’t. +[_Speaking lower._] Now, if this suit lay in Bianca’s power, +How quickly should you speed! + +CASSIO. +Alas, poor caitiff! + +OTHELLO. +[_Aside._] Look how he laughs already! + +IAGO. +I never knew a woman love man so. + +CASSIO. +Alas, poor rogue! I think, i’ faith, she loves me. + +OTHELLO. +[_Aside._] Now he denies it faintly and laughs it out. + +IAGO. +Do you hear, Cassio? + +OTHELLO. +Now he importunes him +To tell it o’er. Go to, well said, well said. + +IAGO. +She gives it out that you shall marry her. +Do you intend it? + +CASSIO. +Ha, ha, ha! + +OTHELLO. +Do you triumph, Roman? Do you triumph? + +CASSIO. +I marry her? What? A customer? I prithee, bear some charity to my wit, +do not think it so unwholesome. Ha, ha, ha! + +OTHELLO. +So, so, so, so. They laugh that wins. + +IAGO. +Faith, the cry goes that you shall marry her. + +CASSIO. +Prithee say true. + +IAGO. +I am a very villain else. + +OTHELLO. +Have you scored me? Well. + +CASSIO. +This is the monkey’s own giving out. She is persuaded I will marry her, +out of her own love and flattery, not out of my promise. + +OTHELLO. +Iago beckons me. Now he begins the story. + +CASSIO. +She was here even now. She haunts me in every place. I was the other +day talking on the sea-bank with certain Venetians, and thither comes +the bauble, and falls thus about my neck. + +OTHELLO. +Crying, “O dear Cassio!” as it were: his gesture imports it. + +CASSIO. +So hangs, and lolls, and weeps upon me; so hales and pulls me. Ha, ha, +ha! + +OTHELLO. +Now he tells how she plucked him to my chamber. O, I see that nose of +yours, but not that dog I shall throw it to. + +CASSIO. +Well, I must leave her company. + +IAGO. +Before me! look where she comes. + + Enter Bianca. + +CASSIO. +’Tis such another fitchew! Marry, a perfum’d one. +What do you mean by this haunting of me? + +BIANCA. +Let the devil and his dam haunt you! What did you mean by that same +handkerchief you gave me even now? I was a fine fool to take it. I must +take out the work? A likely piece of work, that you should find it in +your chamber and not know who left it there! This is some minx’s token, +and I must take out the work? There, give it your hobby-horse. +Wheresoever you had it, I’ll take out no work on’t. + +CASSIO. +How now, my sweet Bianca? How now, how now? + +OTHELLO. +By heaven, that should be my handkerchief! + +BIANCA. +If you’ll come to supper tonight, you may. If you will not, come when +you are next prepared for. + + [_Exit._] + +IAGO. +After her, after her. + +CASSIO. +Faith, I must; she’ll rail in the street else. + +IAGO. +Will you sup there? + +CASSIO. +Faith, I intend so. + +IAGO. +Well, I may chance to see you, for I would very fain speak with you. + +CASSIO. +Prithee come, will you? + +IAGO. +Go to; say no more. + + [_Exit Cassio._] + +OTHELLO. +[_Coming forward._] How shall I murder him, Iago? + +IAGO. +Did you perceive how he laughed at his vice? + +OTHELLO. +O Iago! + +IAGO. +And did you see the handkerchief? + +OTHELLO. +Was that mine? + +IAGO. +Yours, by this hand: and to see how he prizes the foolish woman your +wife! she gave it him, and he hath given it his whore. + +OTHELLO. +I would have him nine years a-killing. A fine woman, a fair woman, a +sweet woman! + +IAGO. +Nay, you must forget that. + +OTHELLO. +Ay, let her rot, and perish, and be damned tonight, for she shall not +live. No, my heart is turned to stone; I strike it, and it hurts my +hand. O, the world hath not a sweeter creature. She might lie by an +emperor’s side, and command him tasks. + +IAGO. +Nay, that’s not your way. + +OTHELLO. +Hang her, I do but say what she is. So delicate with her needle, an +admirable musician! O, she will sing the savageness out of a bear! Of +so high and plenteous wit and invention! + +IAGO. +She’s the worse for all this. + +OTHELLO. +O, a thousand, a thousand times: and then of so gentle a condition! + +IAGO. +Ay, too gentle. + +OTHELLO. +Nay, that’s certain. But yet the pity of it, Iago! O Iago, the pity of +it, Iago! + +IAGO. +If you are so fond over her iniquity, give her patent to offend, for if +it touch not you, it comes near nobody. + +OTHELLO. +I will chop her into messes. Cuckold me! + +IAGO. +O, ’tis foul in her. + +OTHELLO. +With mine officer! + +IAGO. +That’s fouler. + +OTHELLO. +Get me some poison, Iago; this night. I’ll not expostulate with her, +lest her body and beauty unprovide my mind again. This night, Iago. + +IAGO. +Do it not with poison, strangle her in her bed, even the bed she hath +contaminated. + +OTHELLO. +Good, good. The justice of it pleases. Very good. + +IAGO. +And for Cassio, let me be his undertaker. You shall hear more by +midnight. + +OTHELLO. +Excellent good. [_A trumpet within._] What trumpet is that same? + + Enter Lodovico, Desdemona and Attendant. + +IAGO. +Something from Venice, sure. ’Tis Lodovico +Come from the duke. See, your wife is with him. + +LODOVICO. +Save you, worthy general! + +OTHELLO. +With all my heart, sir. + +LODOVICO. +The duke and senators of Venice greet you. + + [_Gives him a packet._] + +OTHELLO. +I kiss the instrument of their pleasures. + + [_Opens the packet and reads._] + +DESDEMONA. +And what’s the news, good cousin Lodovico? + +IAGO. +I am very glad to see you, signior. +Welcome to Cyprus. + +LODOVICO. +I thank you. How does Lieutenant Cassio? + +IAGO. +Lives, sir. + +DESDEMONA. +Cousin, there’s fall’n between him and my lord +An unkind breach, but you shall make all well. + +OTHELLO. +Are you sure of that? + +DESDEMONA. +My lord? + +OTHELLO. +[_Reads._] “This fail you not to do, as you will—” + +LODOVICO. +He did not call; he’s busy in the paper. +Is there division ’twixt my lord and Cassio? + +DESDEMONA. +A most unhappy one. I would do much +To atone them, for the love I bear to Cassio. + +OTHELLO. +Fire and brimstone! + +DESDEMONA. +My lord? + +OTHELLO. +Are you wise? + +DESDEMONA. +What, is he angry? + +LODOVICO. +May be the letter mov’d him; +For, as I think, they do command him home, +Deputing Cassio in his government. + +DESDEMONA. +Trust me, I am glad on’t. + +OTHELLO. +Indeed! + +DESDEMONA. +My lord? + +OTHELLO. +I am glad to see you mad. + +DESDEMONA. +Why, sweet Othello? + +OTHELLO. +Devil! + + [_Striking her._] + +DESDEMONA. +I have not deserv’d this. + +LODOVICO. +My lord, this would not be believ’d in Venice, +Though I should swear I saw’t: ’tis very much. +Make her amends. She weeps. + +OTHELLO. +O devil, devil! +If that the earth could teem with woman’s tears, +Each drop she falls would prove a crocodile. +Out of my sight! + +DESDEMONA. +I will not stay to offend you. + + [_Going._] + +LODOVICO. +Truly, an obedient lady. +I do beseech your lordship, call her back. + +OTHELLO. +Mistress! + +DESDEMONA. +My lord? + +OTHELLO. +What would you with her, sir? + +LODOVICO. +Who, I, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +Ay, you did wish that I would make her turn. +Sir, she can turn, and turn, and yet go on, +And turn again. And she can weep, sir, weep; +And she’s obedient, as you say, obedient, +Very obedient. Proceed you in your tears. +Concerning this, sir,—O well-painted passion! +I am commanded home.—Get you away; +I’ll send for you anon.—Sir, I obey the mandate, +And will return to Venice.—Hence, avaunt! + + [_Exit Desdemona._] + +Cassio shall have my place. And, sir, tonight, +I do entreat that we may sup together. +You are welcome, sir, to Cyprus. Goats and monkeys! + + [_Exit._] + +LODOVICO. +Is this the noble Moor, whom our full senate +Call all in all sufficient? Is this the nature +Whom passion could not shake? whose solid virtue +The shot of accident nor dart of chance +Could neither graze nor pierce? + +IAGO. +He is much chang’d. + +LODOVICO. +Are his wits safe? Is he not light of brain? + +IAGO. +He’s that he is. I may not breathe my censure +What he might be. If what he might he is not, +I would to heaven he were! + +LODOVICO. +What, strike his wife? + +IAGO. +Faith, that was not so well; yet would I knew +That stroke would prove the worst! + +LODOVICO. +Is it his use? +Or did the letters work upon his blood, +And new-create this fault? + +IAGO. +Alas, alas! +It is not honesty in me to speak +What I have seen and known. You shall observe him, +And his own courses will denote him so +That I may save my speech: do but go after, +And mark how he continues. + +LODOVICO. +I am sorry that I am deceiv’d in him. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Cyprus. A Room in the Castle. + + Enter Othello and Emilia. + +OTHELLO. +You have seen nothing, then? + +EMILIA. +Nor ever heard, nor ever did suspect. + +OTHELLO. +Yes, you have seen Cassio and she together. + +EMILIA. +But then I saw no harm, and then I heard +Each syllable that breath made up between them. + +OTHELLO. +What, did they never whisper? + +EMILIA. +Never, my lord. + +OTHELLO. +Nor send you out o’ the way? + +EMILIA. +Never. + +OTHELLO. +To fetch her fan, her gloves, her mask, nor nothing? + +EMILIA. +Never, my lord. + +OTHELLO. +That’s strange. + +EMILIA. +I durst, my lord, to wager she is honest, +Lay down my soul at stake: if you think other, +Remove your thought, it doth abuse your bosom. +If any wretch have put this in your head, +Let heaven requite it with the serpent’s curse, +For if she be not honest, chaste, and true, +There’s no man happy. The purest of their wives +Is foul as slander. + +OTHELLO. +Bid her come hither. Go. + + [_Exit Emilia._] + +She says enough. Yet she’s a simple bawd +That cannot say as much. This is a subtle whore, +A closet lock and key of villainous secrets. +And yet she’ll kneel and pray. I have seen her do ’t. + + Enter Desdemona and Emilia. + +DESDEMONA. +My lord, what is your will? + +OTHELLO. +Pray, chuck, come hither. + +DESDEMONA. +What is your pleasure? + +OTHELLO. +Let me see your eyes. +Look in my face. + +DESDEMONA. +What horrible fancy’s this? + +OTHELLO. +[_To Emilia._] Some of your function, mistress, +Leave procreants alone, and shut the door. +Cough, or cry hem, if anybody come. +Your mystery, your mystery. Nay, dispatch. + + [_Exit Emilia._] + +DESDEMONA. +Upon my knees, what doth your speech import? +I understand a fury in your words, +But not the words. + +OTHELLO. +Why, what art thou? + +DESDEMONA. +Your wife, my lord, your true and loyal wife. + +OTHELLO. +Come, swear it, damn thyself, +Lest, being like one of heaven, the devils themselves +Should fear to seize thee. Therefore be double-damn’d. +Swear thou art honest. + +DESDEMONA. +Heaven doth truly know it. + +OTHELLO. +Heaven truly knows that thou art false as hell. + +DESDEMONA. +To whom, my lord? With whom? How am I false? + +OTHELLO. +O Desdemona, away! away! away! + +DESDEMONA. +Alas the heavy day, why do you weep? +Am I the motive of these tears, my lord? +If haply you my father do suspect +An instrument of this your calling back, +Lay not your blame on me. If you have lost him, +Why, I have lost him too. + +OTHELLO. +Had it pleas’d heaven +To try me with affliction, had they rain’d +All kinds of sores and shames on my bare head, +Steep’d me in poverty to the very lips, +Given to captivity me and my utmost hopes, +I should have found in some place of my soul +A drop of patience. But, alas, to make me +A fixed figure for the time of scorn +To point his slow unmoving finger at. +Yet could I bear that too, well, very well: +But there, where I have garner’d up my heart, +Where either I must live or bear no life, +The fountain from the which my current runs, +Or else dries up, to be discarded thence, +Or keep it as a cistern for foul toads +To knot and gender in!—turn thy complexion there, +Patience, thou young and rose-lipp’d cherubin, +Ay, there, look grim as hell! + +DESDEMONA. +I hope my noble lord esteems me honest. + +OTHELLO. +O, ay, as summer flies are in the shambles, +That quicken even with blowing. O thou weed, +Who art so lovely fair, and smell’st so sweet, +That the sense aches at thee, +Would thou hadst ne’er been born! + +DESDEMONA. +Alas, what ignorant sin have I committed? + +OTHELLO. +Was this fair paper, this most goodly book, +Made to write “whore” upon? What committed? +Committed! O thou public commoner! +I should make very forges of my cheeks, +That would to cinders burn up modesty, +Did I but speak thy deeds. What committed! +Heaven stops the nose at it, and the moon winks; +The bawdy wind, that kisses all it meets, +Is hush’d within the hollow mine of earth, +And will not hear it. What committed! +Impudent strumpet! + +DESDEMONA. +By heaven, you do me wrong. + +OTHELLO. +Are not you a strumpet? + +DESDEMONA. +No, as I am a Christian: +If to preserve this vessel for my lord +From any other foul unlawful touch +Be not to be a strumpet, I am none. + +OTHELLO. +What, not a whore? + +DESDEMONA. +No, as I shall be sav’d. + +OTHELLO. +Is’t possible? + +DESDEMONA. +O, heaven forgive us! + +OTHELLO. +I cry you mercy then. +I took you for that cunning whore of Venice +That married with Othello.—You, mistress, + + Enter Emilia. + +That have the office opposite to Saint Peter, +And keeps the gate of hell. You, you, ay, you! +We have done our course; there’s money for your pains. +I pray you turn the key, and keep our counsel. + + [_Exit._] + +EMILIA. +Alas, what does this gentleman conceive? +How do you, madam? How do you, my good lady? + +DESDEMONA. +Faith, half asleep. + +EMILIA. +Good madam, what’s the matter with my lord? + +DESDEMONA. +With who? + +EMILIA. +Why, with my lord, madam. + +DESDEMONA. +Who is thy lord? + +EMILIA. +He that is yours, sweet lady. + +DESDEMONA. +I have none. Do not talk to me, Emilia, +I cannot weep, nor answer have I none +But what should go by water. Prithee, tonight +Lay on my bed my wedding sheets, remember, +And call thy husband hither. + +EMILIA. +Here’s a change indeed! + + [_Exit._] + +DESDEMONA. +’Tis meet I should be us’d so, very meet. +How have I been behav’d, that he might stick +The small’st opinion on my least misuse? + + Enter Iago and Emilia. + +IAGO. +What is your pleasure, madam? How is’t with you? + +DESDEMONA. +I cannot tell. Those that do teach young babes +Do it with gentle means and easy tasks. +He might have chid me so, for, in good faith, +I am a child to chiding. + +IAGO. +What’s the matter, lady? + +EMILIA. +Alas, Iago, my lord hath so bewhor’d her, +Thrown such despite and heavy terms upon her, +As true hearts cannot bear. + +DESDEMONA. +Am I that name, Iago? + +IAGO. +What name, fair lady? + +DESDEMONA. +Such as she says my lord did say I was. + +EMILIA. +He call’d her whore: a beggar in his drink +Could not have laid such terms upon his callet. + +IAGO. +Why did he so? + +DESDEMONA. +I do not know. I am sure I am none such. + +IAGO. +Do not weep, do not weep: alas the day! + +EMILIA. +Hath she forsook so many noble matches, +Her father, and her country, and her friends, +To be call’d whore? would it not make one weep? + +DESDEMONA. +It is my wretched fortune. + +IAGO. +Beshrew him for’t! +How comes this trick upon him? + +DESDEMONA. +Nay, heaven doth know. + +EMILIA. +I will be hang’d, if some eternal villain, +Some busy and insinuating rogue, +Some cogging, cozening slave, to get some office, +Have not devis’d this slander. I’ll be hang’d else. + +IAGO. +Fie, there is no such man. It is impossible. + +DESDEMONA. +If any such there be, heaven pardon him! + +EMILIA. +A halter pardon him, and hell gnaw his bones! +Why should he call her whore? who keeps her company? +What place? what time? what form? what likelihood? +The Moor’s abused by some most villainous knave, +Some base notorious knave, some scurvy fellow. +O heaven, that such companions thou’dst unfold, +And put in every honest hand a whip +To lash the rascals naked through the world +Even from the east to the west! + +IAGO. +Speak within door. + +EMILIA. +O, fie upon them! Some such squire he was +That turn’d your wit the seamy side without, +And made you to suspect me with the Moor. + +IAGO. +You are a fool. Go to. + +DESDEMONA. +Alas, Iago, +What shall I do to win my lord again? +Good friend, go to him. For by this light of heaven, +I know not how I lost him. Here I kneel. +If e’er my will did trespass ’gainst his love, +Either in discourse of thought or actual deed, +Or that mine eyes, mine ears, or any sense, +Delighted them in any other form, +Or that I do not yet, and ever did, +And ever will, (though he do shake me off +To beggarly divorcement) love him dearly, +Comfort forswear me! Unkindness may do much; +And his unkindness may defeat my life, +But never taint my love. I cannot say “whore,” +It does abhor me now I speak the word; +To do the act that might the addition earn +Not the world’s mass of vanity could make me. + +IAGO. +I pray you, be content. ’Tis but his humour. +The business of the state does him offence, +And he does chide with you. + +DESDEMONA. +If ’twere no other,— + +IAGO. +’Tis but so, I warrant. + + [_Trumpets within._] + +Hark, how these instruments summon to supper. +The messengers of Venice stay the meat. +Go in, and weep not. All things shall be well. + + [_Exeunt Desdemona and Emilia._] + + Enter Roderigo. + +How now, Roderigo? + +RODERIGO. +I do not find that thou dealest justly with me. + +IAGO. +What in the contrary? + +RODERIGO. +Every day thou daffest me with some device, Iago, and rather, as it +seems to me now, keepest from me all conveniency than suppliest me with +the least advantage of hope. I will indeed no longer endure it. Nor am +I yet persuaded to put up in peace what already I have foolishly +suffered. + +IAGO. +Will you hear me, Roderigo? + +RODERIGO. +Faith, I have heard too much, for your words and performances are no +kin together. + +IAGO. +You charge me most unjustly. + +RODERIGO. +With naught but truth. I have wasted myself out of my means. The jewels +you have had from me to deliver to Desdemona would half have corrupted +a votarist: you have told me she hath received them, and returned me +expectations and comforts of sudden respect and acquaintance, but I +find none. + +IAGO. +Well, go to, very well. + +RODERIGO. +Very well, go to, I cannot go to, man, nor ’tis not very well. Nay, I +say ’tis very scurvy, and begin to find myself fopped in it. + +IAGO. +Very well. + +RODERIGO. +I tell you ’tis not very well. I will make myself known to Desdemona. +If she will return me my jewels, I will give over my suit and repent my +unlawful solicitation. If not, assure yourself I will seek satisfaction +of you. + +IAGO. +You have said now. + +RODERIGO. +Ay, and said nothing but what I protest intendment of doing. + +IAGO. +Why, now I see there’s mettle in thee, and even from this instant do +build on thee a better opinion than ever before. Give me thy hand, +Roderigo. Thou hast taken against me a most just exception, but yet I +protest, I have dealt most directly in thy affair. + +RODERIGO. +It hath not appeared. + +IAGO. +I grant indeed it hath not appeared, and your suspicion is not without +wit and judgement. But, Roderigo, if thou hast that in thee indeed, +which I have greater reason to believe now than ever,—I mean purpose, +courage, and valour,—this night show it. If thou the next night +following enjoy not Desdemona, take me from this world with treachery +and devise engines for my life. + +RODERIGO. +Well, what is it? Is it within reason and compass? + +IAGO. +Sir, there is especial commission come from Venice to depute Cassio in +Othello’s place. + +RODERIGO. +Is that true? Why then Othello and Desdemona return again to Venice. + +IAGO. +O, no; he goes into Mauritania, and takes away with him the fair +Desdemona, unless his abode be lingered here by some accident: wherein +none can be so determinate as the removing of Cassio. + +RODERIGO. +How do you mean “removing” of him? + +IAGO. +Why, by making him uncapable of Othello’s place: knocking out his +brains. + +RODERIGO. +And that you would have me to do? + +IAGO. +Ay, if you dare do yourself a profit and a right. He sups tonight with +a harlotry, and thither will I go to him. He knows not yet of his +honourable fortune. If you will watch his going thence, which I will +fashion to fall out between twelve and one, you may take him at your +pleasure: I will be near to second your attempt, and he shall fall +between us. Come, stand not amazed at it, but go along with me. I will +show you such a necessity in his death that you shall think yourself +bound to put it on him. It is now high supper-time, and the night grows +to waste. About it. + +RODERIGO. +I will hear further reason for this. + +IAGO. +And you shall be satisfied. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Cyprus. Another Room in the Castle. + + Enter Othello, Lodovico, Desdemona, Emilia and Attendants. + +LODOVICO. +I do beseech you, sir, trouble yourself no further. + +OTHELLO. +O, pardon me; ’twill do me good to walk. + +LODOVICO. +Madam, good night. I humbly thank your ladyship. + +DESDEMONA. +Your honour is most welcome. + +OTHELLO. +Will you walk, sir?— +O, Desdemona,— + +DESDEMONA. +My lord? + +OTHELLO. +Get you to bed on th’ instant, I will be return’d forthwith. Dismiss +your attendant there. Look ’t be done. + +DESDEMONA. +I will, my lord. + + [_Exeunt Othello, Lodovico and Attendants._] + +EMILIA. +How goes it now? He looks gentler than he did. + +DESDEMONA. +He says he will return incontinent, +He hath commanded me to go to bed, +And bade me to dismiss you. + +EMILIA. +Dismiss me? + +DESDEMONA. +It was his bidding. Therefore, good Emilia, +Give me my nightly wearing, and adieu. +We must not now displease him. + +EMILIA. +I would you had never seen him! + +DESDEMONA. +So would not I. My love doth so approve him, +That even his stubbornness, his checks, his frowns,— +Prithee, unpin me,—have grace and favour in them. + +EMILIA. +I have laid those sheets you bade me on the bed. + +DESDEMONA. +All’s one. Good faith, how foolish are our minds! +If I do die before thee, prithee, shroud me +In one of those same sheets. + +EMILIA. +Come, come, you talk. + +DESDEMONA. +My mother had a maid call’d Barbary, +She was in love, and he she lov’d prov’d mad +And did forsake her. She had a song of “willow”, +An old thing ’twas, but it express’d her fortune, +And she died singing it. That song tonight +Will not go from my mind. I have much to do +But to go hang my head all at one side +And sing it like poor Barbary. Prithee dispatch. + +EMILIA. +Shall I go fetch your night-gown? + +DESDEMONA. +No, unpin me here. +This Lodovico is a proper man. + +EMILIA. +A very handsome man. + +DESDEMONA. +He speaks well. + +EMILIA. +I know a lady in Venice would have walked barefoot to Palestine for a +touch of his nether lip. + +DESDEMONA. +[_Singing._] + _The poor soul sat sighing by a sycamore tree, + Sing all a green willow. + Her hand on her bosom, her head on her knee, + Sing willow, willow, willow. + The fresh streams ran by her, and murmur’d her moans, + Sing willow, willow, willow; + Her salt tears fell from her, and soften’d the stones;—_ + +Lay by these:— + +[_Sings._] + _Sing willow, willow, willow._ + +Prithee hie thee. He’ll come anon. + +[_Sings._] + _Sing all a green willow must be my garland. +Let nobody blame him, his scorn I approve,—_ + +Nay, that’s not next. Hark! who is’t that knocks? + +EMILIA. +It’s the wind. + +DESDEMONA. +[_Sings._] + _I call’d my love false love; but what said he then? + Sing willow, willow, willow: + If I court mo women, you’ll couch with mo men._ + +So get thee gone; good night. Mine eyes do itch; +Doth that bode weeping? + +EMILIA. +’Tis neither here nor there. + +DESDEMONA. +I have heard it said so. O, these men, these men! +Dost thou in conscience think,—tell me, Emilia,— +That there be women do abuse their husbands +In such gross kind? + +EMILIA. +There be some such, no question. + +DESDEMONA. +Wouldst thou do such a deed for all the world? + +EMILIA. +Why, would not you? + +DESDEMONA. +No, by this heavenly light! + +EMILIA. +Nor I neither by this heavenly light, +I might do’t as well i’ the dark. + +DESDEMONA. +Wouldst thou do such a deed for all the world? + +EMILIA. +The world’s a huge thing. It is a great price +For a small vice. + +DESDEMONA. +In troth, I think thou wouldst not. + +EMILIA. +In troth, I think I should, and undo’t when I had done. Marry, I would +not do such a thing for a joint-ring, nor for measures of lawn, nor for +gowns, petticoats, nor caps, nor any petty exhibition; but, for the +whole world—why, who would not make her husband a cuckold to make him a +monarch? I should venture purgatory for ’t. + +DESDEMONA. +Beshrew me, if I would do such a wrong for the whole world. + +EMILIA. +Why, the wrong is but a wrong i’ the world; and having the world for +your labour, ’tis a wrong in your own world, and you might quickly make +it right. + +DESDEMONA. +I do not think there is any such woman. + +EMILIA. +Yes, a dozen; and as many to the vantage as would store the world they +played for. +But I do think it is their husbands’ faults +If wives do fall: say that they slack their duties, +And pour our treasures into foreign laps; +Or else break out in peevish jealousies, +Throwing restraint upon us. Or say they strike us, +Or scant our former having in despite. +Why, we have galls; and though we have some grace, +Yet have we some revenge. Let husbands know +Their wives have sense like them: they see, and smell +And have their palates both for sweet and sour, +As husbands have. What is it that they do +When they change us for others? Is it sport? +I think it is. And doth affection breed it? +I think it doth. Is’t frailty that thus errs? +It is so too. And have not we affections, +Desires for sport, and frailty, as men have? +Then let them use us well: else let them know, +The ills we do, their ills instruct us so. + +DESDEMONA. +Good night, good night. Heaven me such usage send, +Not to pick bad from bad, but by bad mend! + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Cyprus. A Street. + + Enter Iago and Roderigo. + +IAGO. +Here, stand behind this bulk. Straight will he come. +Wear thy good rapier bare, and put it home. +Quick, quick, fear nothing; I’ll be at thy elbow. +It makes us, or it mars us, think on that, +And fix most firm thy resolution. + +RODERIGO. +Be near at hand, I may miscarry in ’t. + +IAGO. +Here, at thy hand. Be bold, and take thy stand. + + [_Retires to a little distance._] + +RODERIGO. +I have no great devotion to the deed; +And yet he hath given me satisfying reasons. +’Tis but a man gone. Forth, my sword; he dies. + + [_Goes to his stand._] + +IAGO. +I have rubb’d this young quat almost to the sense, +And he grows angry. Now, whether he kill Cassio, +Or Cassio him, or each do kill the other, +Every way makes my gain. Live Roderigo, +He calls me to a restitution large +Of gold and jewels that I bobb’d from him, +As gifts to Desdemona. +It must not be. If Cassio do remain, +He hath a daily beauty in his life +That makes me ugly. And besides, the Moor +May unfold me to him; there stand I in much peril. +No, he must die. But so, I hear him coming. + + Enter Cassio. + +RODERIGO. +I know his gait; ’tis he. Villain, thou diest! + + [_Rushes out, and makes a pass at Cassio._] + +CASSIO. +That thrust had been mine enemy indeed, +But that my coat is better than thou know’st. +I will make proof of thine. + + [_Draws, and wounds Roderigo._] + +RODERIGO. +O, I am slain! + + [_Iago rushes from his post, cuts Cassio behind in the leg, and + exit._] + +CASSIO. +I am maim’d forever. Help, ho! murder, murder! + + [_Falls._] + + Enter Othello. + +OTHELLO. +The voice of Cassio. Iago keeps his word. + +RODERIGO. +O, villain that I am! + +OTHELLO. +It is even so. + +CASSIO. +O, help, ho! light! a surgeon! + +OTHELLO. +’Tis he. O brave Iago, honest and just, +That hast such noble sense of thy friend’s wrong! +Thou teachest me,—minion, your dear lies dead, +And your unbless’d fate hies. Strumpet, I come! +Forth of my heart those charms, thine eyes, are blotted; +Thy bed, lust-stain’d, shall with lust’s blood be spotted. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Lodovico and Gratiano. + +CASSIO. +What, ho! No watch? No passage? murder, murder! + +GRATIANO. +’Tis some mischance; the cry is very direful. + +CASSIO. +O, help! + +LODOVICO. +Hark! + +RODERIGO. +O wretched villain! + +LODOVICO. +Two or three groan. It is a heavy night. +These may be counterfeits. Let’s think’t unsafe +To come in to the cry without more help. + +RODERIGO. +Nobody come? Then shall I bleed to death. + + Enter Iago with a light. + +LODOVICO. +Hark! + +GRATIANO. +Here’s one comes in his shirt, with light and weapons. + +IAGO. +Who’s there? Whose noise is this that cries on murder? + +LODOVICO. +We do not know. + +IAGO. +Did not you hear a cry? + +CASSIO. +Here, here! for heaven’s sake, help me! + +IAGO. +What’s the matter? + +GRATIANO. +This is Othello’s ancient, as I take it. + +LODOVICO. +The same indeed, a very valiant fellow. + +IAGO. +What are you here that cry so grievously? + +CASSIO. +Iago? O, I am spoil’d, undone by villains! +Give me some help. + +IAGO. +O me, lieutenant! What villains have done this? + +CASSIO. +I think that one of them is hereabout, +And cannot make away. + +IAGO. +O treacherous villains! +[_To Lodovico and Gratiano._] What are you there? +Come in and give some help. + +RODERIGO. +O, help me here! + +CASSIO. +That’s one of them. + +IAGO. +O murderous slave! O villain! + + [_Stabs Roderigo._] + +RODERIGO. +O damn’d Iago! O inhuman dog! + +IAGO. +Kill men i’ the dark! Where be these bloody thieves? +How silent is this town! Ho! murder! murder! +What may you be? Are you of good or evil? + +LODOVICO. +As you shall prove us, praise us. + +IAGO. +Signior Lodovico? + +LODOVICO. +He, sir. + +IAGO. +I cry you mercy. Here’s Cassio hurt by villains. + +GRATIANO. +Cassio! + +IAGO. +How is’t, brother? + +CASSIO. +My leg is cut in two. + +IAGO. +Marry, heaven forbid! +Light, gentlemen, I’ll bind it with my shirt. + + Enter Bianca. + +BIANCA. +What is the matter, ho? Who is’t that cried? + +IAGO. +Who is’t that cried? + +BIANCA. +O my dear Cassio, my sweet Cassio! O Cassio, Cassio, Cassio! + +IAGO. +O notable strumpet! Cassio, may you suspect +Who they should be that have thus mangled you? + +CASSIO. +No. + +GRATIANO. +I am sorry to find you thus; I have been to seek you. + +IAGO. +Lend me a garter. So.—O, for a chair, +To bear him easily hence! + +BIANCA. +Alas, he faints! O Cassio, Cassio, Cassio! + +IAGO. +Gentlemen all, I do suspect this trash +To be a party in this injury. +Patience awhile, good Cassio. Come, come; +Lend me a light. Know we this face or no? +Alas, my friend and my dear countryman +Roderigo? No. Yes, sure; O heaven! Roderigo. + +GRATIANO. +What, of Venice? + +IAGO. +Even he, sir. Did you know him? + +GRATIANO. +Know him? Ay. + +IAGO. +Signior Gratiano? I cry you gentle pardon. +These bloody accidents must excuse my manners, +That so neglected you. + +GRATIANO. +I am glad to see you. + +IAGO. +How do you, Cassio? O, a chair, a chair! + +GRATIANO. +Roderigo! + +IAGO. +He, he, ’tis he. + + [_A chair brought in._] + +O, that’s well said; the chair. +Some good man bear him carefully from hence, +I’ll fetch the general’s surgeon. [_To Bianca_] For you, mistress, +Save you your labour. He that lies slain here, Cassio, +Was my dear friend. What malice was between you? + +CASSIO. +None in the world. Nor do I know the man. + +IAGO. +[_To Bianca._] What, look you pale?—O, bear him out o’ the air. + + [_Cassio and Roderigo are borne off._] + +Stay you, good gentlemen.—Look you pale, mistress? +Do you perceive the gastness of her eye? +Nay, if you stare, we shall hear more anon. +Behold her well. I pray you, look upon her. +Do you see, gentlemen? Nay, guiltiness will speak +Though tongues were out of use. + + Enter Emilia. + +EMILIA. +’Las, what’s the matter? What’s the matter, husband? + +IAGO. +Cassio hath here been set on in the dark +By Roderigo, and fellows that are ’scap’d. +He’s almost slain, and Roderigo dead. + +EMILIA. +Alas, good gentleman! alas, good Cassio! + +IAGO. +This is the fruit of whoring. Prithee, Emilia, +Go know of Cassio where he supp’d tonight. +What, do you shake at that? + +BIANCA. +He supp’d at my house, but I therefore shake not. + +IAGO. +O, did he so? I charge you go with me. + +EMILIA. +Fie, fie upon thee, strumpet! + +BIANCA. +I am no strumpet, but of life as honest +As you that thus abuse me. + +EMILIA. +As I? Foh! fie upon thee! + +IAGO. +Kind gentlemen, let’s go see poor Cassio dress’d. +Come, mistress, you must tell’s another tale. +Emilia, run you to the citadel, +And tell my lord and lady what hath happ’d. +Will you go on afore? [_Aside._] This is the night +That either makes me or fordoes me quite. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Cyprus. A Bedchamber in the castle. + +Desdemona in bed asleep; a light burning. + + Enter Othello. + +OTHELLO. +It is the cause, it is the cause, my soul, +Let me not name it to you, you chaste stars! +It is the cause. Yet I’ll not shed her blood, +Nor scar that whiter skin of hers than snow, +And smooth as monumental alabaster. +Yet she must die, else she’ll betray more men. +Put out the light, and then put out the light: +If I quench thee, thou flaming minister, +I can again thy former light restore, +Should I repent me. But once put out thy light, +Thou cunning’st pattern of excelling nature, +I know not where is that Promethean heat +That can thy light relume. When I have pluck’d thy rose, +I cannot give it vital growth again, +It must needs wither. I’ll smell it on the tree. + + [_Kissing her._] + +O, balmy breath, that dost almost persuade +Justice to break her sword! One more, one more. +Be thus when thou art dead, and I will kill thee, +And love thee after. One more, and this the last. +So sweet was ne’er so fatal. I must weep, +But they are cruel tears. This sorrow’s heavenly, +It strikes where it doth love. She wakes. + +DESDEMONA. +Who’s there? Othello? + +OTHELLO. +Ay, Desdemona. + +DESDEMONA. +Will you come to bed, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +Have you pray’d tonight, Desdemona? + +DESDEMONA. +Ay, my lord. + +OTHELLO. +If you bethink yourself of any crime +Unreconcil’d as yet to heaven and grace, +Solicit for it straight. + +DESDEMONA. +Alack, my lord, what may you mean by that? + +OTHELLO. +Well, do it, and be brief, I will walk by. +I would not kill thy unprepared spirit, +No, heaven forfend! I would not kill thy soul. + +DESDEMONA. +Talk you of killing? + +OTHELLO. +Ay, I do. + +DESDEMONA. +Then heaven have mercy on me! + +OTHELLO. +Amen, with all my heart! + +DESDEMONA. +If you say so, I hope you will not kill me. + +OTHELLO. +Hum! + +DESDEMONA. +And yet I fear you, for you are fatal then +When your eyes roll so: why I should fear I know not, +Since guiltiness I know not, but yet I feel I fear. + +OTHELLO. +Think on thy sins. + +DESDEMONA. +They are loves I bear to you. + +OTHELLO. +Ay, and for that thou diest. + +DESDEMONA. +That death’s unnatural that kills for loving. +Alas, why gnaw you so your nether lip? +Some bloody passion shakes your very frame. +These are portents; but yet I hope, I hope, +They do not point on me. + +OTHELLO. +Peace, and be still! + +DESDEMONA. +I will so. What’s the matter? + +OTHELLO. +That handkerchief which I so loved and gave thee, +Thou gav’st to Cassio. + +DESDEMONA. +No, by my life and soul! +Send for the man and ask him. + +OTHELLO. +Sweet soul, take heed, take heed of perjury, +Thou’rt on thy death-bed. + +DESDEMONA. +Ay, but not yet to die. + +OTHELLO. +Yes, presently: +Therefore confess thee freely of thy sin. +For to deny each article with oath +Cannot remove nor choke the strong conception +That I do groan withal. Thou art to die. + +DESDEMONA. +Then, Lord have mercy on me! + +OTHELLO. +I say, amen. + +DESDEMONA. +And have you mercy too! I never did +Offend you in my life, never lov’d Cassio +But with such general warranty of heaven +As I might love. I never gave him token. + +OTHELLO. +By heaven, I saw my handkerchief in ’s hand. +O perjur’d woman, thou dost stone my heart, +And mak’st me call what I intend to do +A murder, which I thought a sacrifice. +I saw the handkerchief. + +DESDEMONA. +He found it then. +I never gave it him. Send for him hither. +Let him confess a truth. + +OTHELLO. +He hath confess’d. + +DESDEMONA. +What, my lord? + +OTHELLO. +That he hath us’d thee. + +DESDEMONA. +How? Unlawfully? + +OTHELLO. +Ay. + +DESDEMONA. +He will not say so. + +OTHELLO. +No, his mouth is stopp’d. +Honest Iago hath ta’en order for ’t. + +DESDEMONA. +O, my fear interprets! What, is he dead? + +OTHELLO. +Had all his hairs been lives, my great revenge +Had stomach for them all. + +DESDEMONA. +Alas, he is betray’d, and I undone! + +OTHELLO. +Out, strumpet! Weep’st thou for him to my face? + +DESDEMONA. +O, banish me, my lord, but kill me not! + +OTHELLO. +Down, strumpet! + +DESDEMONA. +Kill me tomorrow, let me live tonight! + +OTHELLO. +Nay, if you strive,— + +DESDEMONA. +But half an hour! + +OTHELLO. +Being done, there is no pause. + +DESDEMONA. +But while I say one prayer! + +OTHELLO. +It is too late. + + [_Smothers her._] + +EMILIA. +[_Within._] My lord, my lord! what, ho! my lord, my lord! + +OTHELLO. +What noise is this? Not dead? Not yet quite dead? +I that am cruel am yet merciful, +I would not have thee linger in thy pain. +So, so. + +EMILIA. +[_Within._] What, ho! my lord, my lord! + +OTHELLO. +Who’s there? + +EMILIA. +[_Within._] O, good my lord, I would speak a word with you! + +OTHELLO. +Yes. ’Tis Emilia, by and by. She’s dead. +’Tis like she comes to speak of Cassio’s death; +The noise was high.—Ha! no more moving? +Still as the grave. Shall she come in? Were’t good? +I think she stirs again; no. What’s best to do? +If she come in, she’ll sure speak to my wife. +My wife! my wife! what wife? I have no wife. +O, insupportable! O heavy hour! +Methinks it should be now a huge eclipse +Of sun and moon, and that the affrighted globe +Should yawn at alteration. + +EMILIA. +[_Within._] I do beseech you +That I may speak with you, O, good my lord! + +OTHELLO. +I had forgot thee: O, come in, Emilia. +Soft, by and by; let me the curtains draw. +Where art thou? + + [_Unlocks the door._] + + Enter Emilia. + +What’s the matter with thee now? + +EMILIA. +O, my good lord, yonder’s foul murders done! + +OTHELLO. +What, now? + +EMILIA. +But now, my lord. + +OTHELLO. +It is the very error of the moon, +She comes more nearer earth than she was wont +And makes men mad. + +EMILIA. +Cassio, my lord, hath kill’d a young Venetian +Call’d Roderigo. + +OTHELLO. +Roderigo kill’d? +And Cassio kill’d? + +EMILIA. +No, Cassio is not kill’d. + +OTHELLO. +Not Cassio kill’d! Then murder’s out of tune, +And sweet revenge grows harsh. + +DESDEMONA. +O, falsely, falsely murder’d! + +EMILIA. +Alas, what cry is that? + +OTHELLO. +That? What? + +EMILIA. +Out, and alas! That was my lady’s voice. +Help! help, ho! help! O lady, speak again, +Sweet Desdemona! O sweet mistress, speak! + +DESDEMONA. +A guiltless death I die. + +EMILIA. +O, who hath done this deed? + +DESDEMONA. +Nobody; I myself. Farewell. +Commend me to my kind lord. O, farewell! + + [_She dies._] + +OTHELLO. +Why, how should she be murder’d? + +EMILIA. +Alas, who knows? + +OTHELLO. +You heard her say herself, it was not I. + +EMILIA. +She said so. I must needs report the truth. + +OTHELLO. +She’s like a liar, gone to burning hell. +’Twas I that kill’d her. + +EMILIA. +O, the more angel she, +And you the blacker devil! + +OTHELLO. +She turn’d to folly, and she was a whore. + +EMILIA. +Thou dost belie her, and thou art a devil. + +OTHELLO. +She was false as water. + +EMILIA. +Thou art rash as fire, to say +That she was false: O, she was heavenly true! + +OTHELLO. +Cassio did top her; ask thy husband else. +O, I were damn’d beneath all depth in hell, +But that I did proceed upon just grounds +To this extremity. Thy husband knew it all. + +EMILIA. +My husband? + +OTHELLO. +Thy husband. + +EMILIA. +That she was false to wedlock? + +OTHELLO. +Ay, with Cassio. Nay, had she been true, +If heaven would make me such another world +Of one entire and perfect chrysolite, +I’d not have sold her for it. + +EMILIA. +My husband? + +OTHELLO. +Ay, ’twas he that told me first. +An honest man he is, and hates the slime +That sticks on filthy deeds. + +EMILIA. +My husband? + +OTHELLO. +What needs this iterance, woman? I say thy husband. + +EMILIA. +O mistress, villainy hath made mocks with love! +My husband say that she was false? + +OTHELLO. +He, woman; +I say thy husband: dost understand the word? +My friend, thy husband, honest, honest Iago. + +EMILIA. +If he say so, may his pernicious soul +Rot half a grain a day! he lies to the heart. +She was too fond of her most filthy bargain. + +OTHELLO. +Ha! + +EMILIA. +Do thy worst: +This deed of thine is no more worthy heaven +Than thou wast worthy her. + +OTHELLO. +Peace, you were best. + +EMILIA. +Thou hast not half that power to do me harm +As I have to be hurt. O gull! O dolt! +As ignorant as dirt! Thou hast done a deed +(I care not for thy sword) I’ll make thee known, +Though I lost twenty lives. Help! help, ho! help! +The Moor hath kill’d my mistress! Murder, murder! + + Enter Montano, Gratiano and Iago. + +MONTANO. +What is the matter? How now, general? + +EMILIA. +O, are you come, Iago? You have done well, +That men must lay their murders on your neck. + +GRATIANO. +What is the matter? + +EMILIA. +Disprove this villain, if thou be’st a man. +He says thou told’st him that his wife was false. +I know thou didst not, thou’rt not such a villain. +Speak, for my heart is full. + +IAGO. +I told him what I thought, and told no more +Than what he found himself was apt and true. + +EMILIA. +But did you ever tell him she was false? + +IAGO. +I did. + +EMILIA. +You told a lie, an odious, damned lie; +Upon my soul, a lie; a wicked lie. +She false with Cassio? Did you say with Cassio? + +IAGO. +With Cassio, mistress. Go to, charm your tongue. + +EMILIA. +I will not charm my tongue; I am bound to speak. +My mistress here lies murder’d in her bed. + +ALL. +O heavens forfend! + +EMILIA. +And your reports have set the murder on. + +OTHELLO. +Nay, stare not, masters, it is true indeed. + +GRATIANO. +’Tis a strange truth. + +MONTANO. +O monstrous act! + +EMILIA. +Villany, villany, villany! +I think upon’t, I think I smell’t; O villany! +I thought so then. I’ll kill myself for grief. +O villany, villany! + +IAGO. +What, are you mad? I charge you, get you home. + +EMILIA. +Good gentlemen, let me have leave to speak. +’Tis proper I obey him, but not now. +Perchance, Iago, I will ne’er go home. + +OTHELLO. +O! O! O! + + [_Hanging over his wife._] + +EMILIA. +Nay, lay thee down and roar; +For thou hast kill’d the sweetest innocent +That e’er did lift up eye. + +OTHELLO. +[_Rising._] O, she was foul! +I scarce did know you, uncle, there lies your niece, +Whose breath indeed these hands have newly stopp’d. +I know this act shows horrible and grim. + +GRATIANO. +Poor Desdemona! I am glad thy father’s dead. +Thy match was mortal to him, and pure grief +Shore his old thread in twain: did he live now, +This sight would make him do a desperate turn, +Yea, curse his better angel from his side, +And fall to reprobance. + +OTHELLO. +’Tis pitiful. But yet Iago knows +That she with Cassio hath the act of shame +A thousand times committed; Cassio confess’d it, +And she did gratify his amorous works +With that recognizance and pledge of love +Which I first gave her; I saw it in his hand. +It was a handkerchief, an antique token +My father gave my mother. + +EMILIA. +O heaven! O heavenly powers! + +IAGO. +Come, hold your peace. + +EMILIA. +’Twill out, ’twill out. I peace? +No, I will speak as liberal as the north. +Let heaven and men and devils, let them all, +All, all, cry shame against me, yet I’ll speak. + +IAGO. +Be wise, and get you home. + +EMILIA. +I will not. + + [_Iago offers to stab his wife._] + +GRATIANO. +Fie! +Your sword upon a woman? + +EMILIA. +O thou dull Moor, that handkerchief thou speak’st of +I found by fortune and did give my husband; +For often with a solemn earnestness, +More than indeed belong’d to such a trifle, +He begg’d of me to steal it. + +IAGO. +Villanous whore! + +EMILIA. +She give it Cassio! no, alas, I found it, +And I did give’t my husband. + +IAGO. +Filth, thou liest! + +EMILIA. +By heaven, I do not, I do not, gentlemen. +O murderous coxcomb! What should such a fool +Do with so good a wife? + + +OTHELLO +Are there not stones in heaven +But what serve for thunder? Precious villain! + + [_Iago stabs Emilia and then runs out._] + +GRATIANO. +The woman falls. Sure, he hath kill’d his wife. + +EMILIA. +Ay, ay. O, lay me by my mistress’ side. + +GRATIANO. +He’s gone, but his wife’s kill’d. + +MONTANO. +’Tis a notorious villain. Take you this weapon, +Which I have here recover’d from the Moor. +Come, guard the door without, let him not pass, +But kill him rather. I’ll after that same villain, +For ’tis a damned slave. + + [_Exit Montano and Gratiano._] + +OTHELLO. +I am not valiant neither, +But every puny whipster gets my sword. +But why should honour outlive honesty? +Let it go all. + +EMILIA. +What did thy song bode, lady? +Hark, canst thou hear me? I will play the swan, +And die in music. +[_Sings._] _Willow, willow, willow._ +Moor, she was chaste. She lov’d thee, cruel Moor, +So come my soul to bliss, as I speak true; +So speaking as I think, I die, I die. + + [_She dies._] + +OTHELLO. +I have another weapon in this chamber, +It is a sword of Spain, the ice-brook’s temper. +O, here it is. Uncle, I must come forth. + +GRATIANO. +[_Within._] If thou attempt it, it will cost thee dear; +Thou hast no weapon, and perforce must suffer. + +OTHELLO. +Look in upon me then, and speak with me, +Or, naked as I am, I will assault thee. + + Enter Gratiano. + +GRATIANO. +What is the matter? + +OTHELLO. +Behold, I have a weapon. +A better never did itself sustain +Upon a soldier’s thigh: I have seen the day +That with this little arm and this good sword +I have made my way through more impediments +Than twenty times your stop. But, O vain boast! +Who can control his fate? ’Tis not so now. +Be not afraid, though you do see me weapon’d. +Here is my journey’s end, here is my butt, +And very sea-mark of my utmost sail. +Do you go back dismay’d? ’Tis a lost fear. +Man but a rush against Othello’s breast, +And he retires. Where should Othello go? +Now, how dost thou look now? O ill-starr’d wench, +Pale as thy smock, when we shall meet at compt, +This look of thine will hurl my soul from heaven, +And fiends will snatch at it. Cold, cold, my girl! +Even like thy chastity. +O cursed, cursed slave! Whip me, ye devils, +From the possession of this heavenly sight! +Blow me about in winds, roast me in sulphur, +Wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire! +O Desdemon! Dead, Desdemon! dead! Oh, oh! + + Enter Lodovico, Montano, Cassio carried in a chair, and Officers with + Iago prisoner. + +LODOVICO. +Where is this rash and most unfortunate man? + +OTHELLO. +That’s he that was Othello. Here I am. + +LODOVICO. +Where is that viper? Bring the villain forth. + +OTHELLO. +I look down towards his feet; but that’s a fable. +If that thou be’st a devil, I cannot kill thee. + + [_Wounds Iago._] + +LODOVICO. +Wrench his sword from him. + +IAGO. +I bleed, sir, but not kill’d. + +OTHELLO. +I am not sorry neither. I’d have thee live, +For in my sense ’tis happiness to die. + +LODOVICO. +O thou Othello, that wert once so good, +Fall’n in the practice of a damned slave, +What shall be said to thee? + +OTHELLO. +Why, anything; +An honourable murderer, if you will. +For naught did I in hate, but all in honour. + +LODOVICO. +This wretch hath part confess’d his villany. +Did you and he consent in Cassio’s death? + +OTHELLO. +Ay. + +CASSIO. +Dear general, I never gave you cause. + +OTHELLO. +I do believe it, and I ask your pardon. +Will you, I pray, demand that demi-devil +Why he hath thus ensnar’d my soul and body? + +IAGO. +Demand me nothing. What you know, you know. +From this time forth I never will speak word. + +LODOVICO. +What, not to pray? + +GRATIANO. +Torments will ope your lips. + +OTHELLO. +Well, thou dost best. + +LODOVICO. +Sir, you shall understand what hath befall’n, +Which, as I think, you know not. Here is a letter +Found in the pocket of the slain Roderigo, +And here another. The one of them imports +The death of Cassio, to be undertook +By Roderigo. + +OTHELLO. +O villain! + +CASSIO. +Most heathenish and most gross! + +LODOVICO. +Now here’s another discontented paper, +Found in his pocket too; and this, it seems, +Roderigo meant to have sent this damned villain, +But that, belike, Iago in the interim +Came in and satisfied him. + +OTHELLO. +O the pernicious caitiff! +How came you, Cassio, by that handkerchief +That was my wife’s? + +CASSIO. +I found it in my chamber. +And he himself confess’d but even now, +That there he dropp’d it for a special purpose +Which wrought to his desire. + +OTHELLO. +O fool! fool! fool! + +CASSIO. +There is besides in Roderigo’s letter, +How he upbraids Iago, that he made him +Brave me upon the watch, whereon it came +That I was cast. And even but now he spake, +After long seeming dead, Iago hurt him, +Iago set him on. + +LODOVICO. +You must forsake this room, and go with us. +Your power and your command is taken off, +And Cassio rules in Cyprus. For this slave, +If there be any cunning cruelty +That can torment him much and hold him long, +It shall be his. You shall close prisoner rest, +Till that the nature of your fault be known +To the Venetian state. Come, bring away. + +OTHELLO. +Soft you; a word or two before you go. +I have done the state some service, and they know’t. +No more of that. I pray you, in your letters, +When you shall these unlucky deeds relate, +Speak of me as I am. Nothing extenuate, +Nor set down aught in malice. Then must you speak +Of one that loved not wisely, but too well; +Of one not easily jealous, but being wrought, +Perplex’d in the extreme; of one whose hand, +Like the base Judean, threw a pearl away +Richer than all his tribe; of one whose subdu’d eyes, +Albeit unused to the melting mood, +Drop tears as fast as the Arabian trees +Their medicinal gum. Set you down this. +And say besides, that in Aleppo once, +Where a malignant and a turban’d Turk +Beat a Venetian and traduc’d the state, +I took by the throat the circumcised dog, +And smote him, thus. + + [_Stabs himself._] + +LODOVICO. +O bloody period! + +GRATIANO. +All that’s spoke is marr’d. + +OTHELLO. +I kiss’d thee ere I kill’d thee. No way but this, +Killing myself, to die upon a kiss. + + [_Falling upon Desdemona._] + +CASSIO. +This did I fear, but thought he had no weapon, +For he was great of heart. + +LODOVICO. +[_To Iago._] O Spartan dog, +More fell than anguish, hunger, or the sea, +Look on the tragic loading of this bed. +This is thy work. The object poisons sight, +Let it be hid. Gratiano, keep the house, +And seize upon the fortunes of the Moor, +For they succeed on you. To you, lord governor, +Remains the censure of this hellish villain. +The time, the place, the torture, O, enforce it! +Myself will straight aboard, and to the state +This heavy act with heavy heart relate. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + +PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Chorus. Before the palace of Antioch. +Scene I. Antioch. A room in the palace. +Scene II. Tyre. A room in the palace. +Scene III. Tyre. An ante-chamber in the Palace. +Scene IV. Tarsus. A room in the Governor’s house. + +ACT II +Chorus. Chorus. +Scene I. Pentapolis. An open place by the seaside. +Scene II. The same. A public way, or platform leading to the lists. +Scene III. The same. A hall of state: a banquet prepared. +Scene IV. Tyre. A room in the Governor’s house. +Scene V. Pentapolis. A room in the palace. + +ACT III +Chorus. Chorus. +Scene I. On shipboard. +Scene II. Ephesus. A room in Cerimon’s house. +Scene III. Tarsus. A room in Cleon’s house. +Scene IV. Ephesus. A room in Cerimon’s house. + +ACT IV +Chorus. Chorus. +Scene I. Tarsus. An open place near the seashore. +Scene II. Mytilene. A room in a brothel. +Scene III. Tarsus. A room in Cleon’s house. +Scene IV. Before the monument of Marina at Tarsus. +Scene V. Mytilene. A street before the brothel. +Scene VI. The same. A room in the brothel. + +ACT V +Chorus. Chorus. +Scene I. On board Pericles’ ship, off Mytilene. +Scene II. Before the temple of Diana at Ephesus. +Scene III. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. + + + + Dramatis Personæ + +ANTIOCHUS, king of Antioch. +PERICLES, prince of Tyre. +HELICANUS, ESCANES, two lords of Tyre. +SIMONIDES, king of Pentapolis. +CLEON, governor of Tarsus. +LYSIMACHUS, governor of Mytilene. +CERIMON, a lord of Ephesus. +THALIARD, a lord of Antioch. +PHILEMON, servant to Cerimon. +LEONINE, servant to Dionyza. +Marshal. +A Pandar. +BOULT, his servant. +The Daughter of Antiochus. +DIONYZA, wife to Cleon. +THAISA, daughter to Simonides. +MARINA, daughter to Pericles and Thaisa. +LYCHORIDA, nurse to Marina. +A Bawd. +Lords, Knights, Gentlemen, Sailors, Pirates, Fishermen, and Messengers. +DIANA. +GOWER, as Chorus. + +SCENE: Dispersedly in various countries. + + + +ACT I + + Enter Gower. + + Before the palace of Antioch. + +To sing a song that old was sung, +From ashes ancient Gower is come; +Assuming man’s infirmities, +To glad your ear, and please your eyes. +It hath been sung at festivals, +On ember-eves and holy-ales; +And lords and ladies in their lives +Have read it for restoratives: +The purchase is to make men glorious, +_Et bonum quo antiquius eo melius._ +If you, born in these latter times, +When wit’s more ripe, accept my rhymes, +And that to hear an old man sing +May to your wishes pleasure bring, +I life would wish, and that I might +Waste it for you, like taper-light. +This Antioch, then, Antiochus the Great +Built up, this city, for his chiefest seat; +The fairest in all Syria. +I tell you what mine authors say: +This king unto him took a fere, +Who died and left a female heir, +So buxom, blithe, and full of face, +As heaven had lent her all his grace; +With whom the father liking took, +And her to incest did provoke. +Bad child; worse father! to entice his own +To evil should be done by none: +But custom what they did begin +Was with long use account’d no sin. +The beauty of this sinful dame +Made many princes thither frame, +To seek her as a bedfellow, +In marriage pleasures playfellow: +Which to prevent he made a law, +To keep her still, and men in awe, +That whoso ask’d her for his wife, +His riddle told not, lost his life: +So for her many a wight did die, +As yon grim looks do testify. +What now ensues, to the judgement your eye +I give, my cause who best can justify. + + [_Exit._] + + + +SCENE I. Antioch. A room in the palace. + + Enter Antiochus, Prince Pericles and followers. + +ANTIOCHUS. +Young prince of Tyre, you have at large received +The danger of the task you undertake. + +PERICLES. +I have, Antiochus, and, with a soul +Emboldened with the glory of her praise, +Think death no hazard in this enterprise. + +ANTIOCHUS. +Music! Bring in our daughter, clothed like a bride, +For the embracements even of Jove himself; +At whose conception, till Lucina reigned, +Nature this dowry gave, to glad her presence, +The senate house of planets all did sit, +To knit in her their best perfections. + + Music. Enter the Daughter of Antiochus. + +PERICLES. +See where she comes, apparell’d like the spring, +Graces her subjects, and her thoughts the king +Of every virtue gives renown to men! +Her face the book of praises, where is read +Nothing but curious pleasures, as from thence +Sorrow were ever razed, and testy wrath +Could never be her mild companion. +You gods that made me man, and sway in love, +That have inflamed desire in my breast +To taste the fruit of yon celestial tree, +Or die in the adventure, be my helps, +As I am son and servant to your will, +To compass such a boundless happiness! + +ANTIOCHUS. +Prince Pericles, — + +PERICLES. +That would be son to great Antiochus. + +ANTIOCHUS. +Before thee stands this fair Hesperides, +With golden fruit, but dangerous to be touch’d; +For death-like dragons here affright thee hard: +Her face, like heaven, enticeth thee to view +Her countless glory, which desert must gain; +And which, without desert, because thine eye +Presumes to reach, all the whole heap must die. +Yon sometimes famous princes, like thyself, +Drawn by report, adventurous by desire, +Tell thee, with speechless tongues and semblance pale, +That without covering, save yon field of stars, +Here they stand Martyrs, slain in Cupid’s wars; +And with dead cheeks advise thee to desist +For going on death’s net, whom none resist. + +PERICLES. +Antiochus, I thank thee, who hath taught +My frail mortality to know itself, +And by those fearful objects to prepare +This body, like to them, to what I must; +For death remember’d should be like a mirror, +Who tells us life’s but breath, to trust it error. +I’ll make my will then, and, as sick men do +Who know the world, see heaven, but, feeling woe, +Gripe not at earthly joys as erst they did; +So I bequeath a happy peace to you +And all good men, as every prince should do; +My riches to the earth from whence they came; +[_To the daughter of Antiochus._] But my unspotted fire of love to you. +Thus ready for the way of life or death, +I wait the sharpest blow, Antiochus. + +ANTIOCHUS. +Scorning advice, read the conclusion, then: +Which read and not expounded, ’tis decreed, +As these before thee thou thyself shalt bleed. + +DAUGHTER. +Of all ’ssayed yet, mayst thou prove prosperous! +Of all ’ssayed yet, I wish thee happiness! + +PERICLES +Like a bold champion, I assume the lists, +Nor ask advice of any other thought +But faithfulness and courage. + + [_He reads the riddle._] + + _I am no viper, yet I feed + On mother’s flesh which did me breed. + I sought a husband, in which labour + I found that kindness in a father: + He’s father, son, and husband mild; + I mother, wife, and yet his child. + How they may be, and yet in two, + As you will live resolve it you._ + + +Sharp physic is the last: but, O you powers +That give heaven countless eyes to view men’s acts, +Why cloud they not their sights perpetually, +If this be true, which makes me pale to read it? +Fair glass of light, I loved you, and could still, + + [_Takes hold of the hand of the Princess._] + +Were not this glorious casket stored with ill: +But I must tell you, now my thoughts revolt; +For he’s no man on whom perfections wait +That, knowing sin within, will touch the gate, +You are a fair viol, and your sense the strings; +Who, finger’d to make man his lawful music, +Would draw heaven down, and all the gods to hearken; +But being play’d upon before your time, +Hell only danceth at so harsh a chime. +Good sooth, I care not for you. + +ANTIOCHUS. +Prince Pericles, touch not, upon thy life, +For that’s an article within our law, +As dangerous as the rest. Your time’s expired: +Either expound now, or receive your sentence. + +PERICLES. +Great king, +Few love to hear the sins they love to act; +’Twould braid yourself too near for me to tell it. +Who has a book of all that monarchs do, +He’s more secure to keep it shut than shown: +For vice repeated is like the wandering wind, +Blows dust in others’ eyes, to spread itself; +And yet the end of all is bought thus dear, +The breath is gone, and the sore eyes see clear. +To stop the air would hurt them. The blind mole casts +Copp’d hills towards heaven, to tell the earth is throng’d +By man’s oppression; and the poor worm doth die for’t. +Kind are earth’s gods; in vice their law’s their will; +And if Jove stray, who dares say Jove doth ill? +It is enough you know; and it is fit, +What being more known grows worse, to smother it. +All love the womb that their first bred, +Then give my tongue like leave to love my head. + +ANTIOCHUS. +[_Aside_] Heaven, that I had thy head! He has found the meaning: +But I will gloze with him. — Young prince of Tyre. +Though by the tenour of our strict edict, +Your exposition misinterpreting, +We might proceed to cancel of your days; +Yet hope, succeeding from so fair a tree +As your fair self, doth tune us otherwise: +Forty days longer we do respite you; +If by which time our secret be undone, +This mercy shows we’ll joy in such a son: +And until then your entertain shall be +As doth befit our honour and your worth. + + [_Exeunt all but Pericles._] + +PERICLES. +How courtesy would seem to cover sin, +When what is done is like an hypocrite, +The which is good in nothing but in sight! +If it be true that I interpret false, +Then were it certain you were not so bad +As with foul incest to abuse your soul; +Where now you’re both a father and a son, +By your untimely claspings with your child, +Which pleasures fits a husband, not a father; +And she an eater of her mother’s flesh, +By the defiling of her parent’s bed; +And both like serpents are, who though they feed +On sweetest flowers, yet they poison breed. +Antioch, farewell! for wisdom sees, those men +Blush not in actions blacker than the night, +Will ’schew no course to keep them from the light. +One sin, I know, another doth provoke; +Murder’s as near to lust as flame to smoke: +Poison and treason are the hands of sin, +Ay, and the targets, to put off the shame: +Then, lest my life be cropp’d to keep you clear, +By flight I’ll shun the danger which I fear. + + [_Exit._] + + Re-enter Antiochus. + +ANTIOCHUS. +He hath found the meaning, +For which we mean to have his head. +He must not live to trumpet forth my infamy, +Nor tell the world Antiochus doth sin +In such a loathed manner; +And therefore instantly this prince must die; +For by his fall my honour must keep high. +Who attends us there? + + Enter Thaliard. + +THALIARD. +Doth your highness call? + +ANTIOCHUS. +Thaliard, you are of our chamber, +And our mind partakes her private actions +To your secrecy; and for your faithfulness +We will advance you. Thaliard, +Behold, here’s poison, and here’s gold; +We hate the prince of Tyre, and thou must kill him: +It fits thee not to ask the reason why, +Because we bid it. Say, is it done? + +THALIARD. +My lord, ’tis done. + +ANTIOCHUS. +Enough. + + Enter a Messenger. + +Let your breath cool yourself, telling your haste. + +MESSENGER. +My lord, Prince Pericles is fled. + + [_Exit._] + +ANTIOCHUS. +As thou wilt live, fly after: and like an arrow shot +From a well-experienced archer hits the mark +His eye doth level at, so thou ne’er return +Unless thou say ‘Prince Pericles is dead.’ + +THALIARD. +My lord, if I can get him within my pistol’s length, I’ll make him sure +enough: so, farewell to your highness. + +ANTIOCHUS. +Thaliard! adieu! + + [_Exit Thaliard._] + +Till Pericles be dead, +My heart can lend no succour to my head. + + [_Exit._] + + + +SCENE II. Tyre. A room in the palace. + + Enter Pericles with his Lords. + +PERICLES. +[_To Lords without._] Let none disturb us. — Why should this change of +thoughts, +The sad companion, dull-eyed melancholy, +Be my so used a guest as not an hour +In the day’s glorious walk or peaceful night, +The tomb where grief should sleep, can breed me quiet? +Here pleasures court mine eyes, and mine eyes shun them, +And danger, which I fear’d, is at Antioch, +Whose arm seems far too short to hit me here: +Yet neither pleasure’s art can joy my spirits, +Nor yet the other’s distance comfort me. +Then it is thus: the passions of the mind, +That have their first conception by misdread, +Have after-nourishment and life by care; +And what was first but fear what might be done, +Grows elder now and cares it be not done. +And so with me: the great Antiochus, +’Gainst whom I am too little to contend, +Since he’s so great can make his will his act, +Will think me speaking, though I swear to silence; +Nor boots it me to say I honour him. +If he suspect I may dishonour him: +And what may make him blush in being known, +He’ll stop the course by which it might be known; +With hostile forces he’ll o’erspread the land, +And with the ostent of war will look so huge, +Amazement shall drive courage from the state; +Our men be vanquish’d ere they do resist, +And subjects punish’d that ne’er thought offence: +Which care of them, not pity of myself, +Who am no more but as the tops of trees, +Which fence the roots they grow by and defend them, +Makes both my body pine and soul to languish, +And punish that before that he would punish. + + Enter Helicanus with other Lords. + +FIRST LORD. +Joy and all comfort in your sacred breast! + +SECOND LORD. +And keep your mind, till you return to us, +Peaceful and comfortable! + +HELICANUS. +Peace, peace, and give experience tongue. +They do abuse the king that flatter him: +For flattery is the bellows blows up sin; +The thing the which is flatter’d, but a spark, +To which that spark gives heat and stronger glowing: +Whereas reproof, obedient and in order, +Fits kings, as they are men, for they may err. +When Signior Sooth here does proclaim peace, +He flatters you, makes war upon your life. +Prince, pardon me, or strike me, if you please; +I cannot be much lower than my knees. + +PERICLES. +All leave us else, but let your cares o’erlook +What shipping and what lading’s in our haven, +And then return to us. + + [_Exeunt Lords._] + +Helicanus, thou +Hast moved us: what seest thou in our looks? + +HELICANUS. +An angry brow, dread lord. + +PERICLES. +If there be such a dart in princes’ frowns, +How durst thy tongue move anger to our face? + +HELICANUS. +How dares the plants look up to heaven, from whence +They have their nourishment? + +PERICLES. +Thou know’st I have power +To take thy life from thee. + +HELICANUS. [_Kneeling._] +I have ground the axe myself; +Do but you strike the blow. + +PERICLES. +Rise, prithee, rise. +Sit down: thou art no flatterer: +I thank thee for it; and heaven forbid +That kings should let their ears hear their faults hid! +Fit counsellor and servant for a prince, +Who by thy wisdom makest a prince thy servant, +What wouldst thou have me do? + +HELICANUS. +To bear with patience +Such griefs as you yourself do lay upon yourself. + +PERICLES. +Thou speak’st like a physician, Helicanus, +That ministers a potion unto me +That thou wouldst tremble to receive thyself. +Attend me, then: I went to Antioch, +Where, as thou know’st, against the face of death, +I sought the purchase of a glorious beauty, +From whence an issue I might propagate, +Are arms to princes, and bring joys to subjects. +Her face was to mine eye beyond all wonder; +The rest — hark in thine ear — as black as incest, +Which by my knowledge found, the sinful father +Seem’d not to strike, but smooth: but thou know’st this, +’Tis time to fear when tyrants seems to kiss. +Which fear so grew in me I hither fled, +Under the covering of a careful night, +Who seem’d my good protector; and, being here, +Bethought me what was past, what might succeed. +I knew him tyrannous; and tyrants’ fears +Decrease not, but grow faster than the years: +And should he doubt, as no doubt he doth, +That I should open to the listening air +How many worthy princes’ bloods were shed, +To keep his bed of blackness unlaid ope, +To lop that doubt, he’ll fill this land with arms, +And make pretence of wrong that I have done him; +When all, for mine, if I may call offence, +Must feel war’s blow, who spares not innocence: +Which love to all, of which thyself art one, +Who now reprovest me for it, — + +HELICANUS. +Alas, sir! + +PERICLES. +Drew sleep out of mine eyes, blood from my cheeks, +Musings into my mind, with thousand doubts +How I might stop this tempest ere it came; +And finding little comfort to relieve them, +I thought it princely charity to grieve them. + +HELICANUS. +Well, my lord, since you have given me leave to speak, +Freely will I speak. Antiochus you fear, +And justly too, I think, you fear the tyrant, +Who either by public war or private treason +Will take away your life. +Therefore, my lord, go travel for a while, +Till that his rage and anger be forgot, +Or till the Destinies do cut his thread of life. +Your rule direct to any; if to me, +Day serves not light more faithful than I’ll be. + +PERICLES. +I do not doubt thy faith; +But should he wrong my liberties in my absence? + +HELCANUS. +We’ll mingle our bloods together in the earth, +From whence we had our being and our birth. + +PERICLES. +Tyre, I now look from thee then, and to Tarsus +Intend my travel, where I’ll hear from thee; +And by whose letters I’ll dispose myself. +The care I had and have of subjects’ good +On thee I lay, whose wisdom’s strength can bear it. +I’ll take thy word for faith, not ask thine oath: +Who shuns not to break one will sure crack both: +But in our orbs we’ll live so round and safe, +That time of both this truth shall ne’er convince, +Thou show’dst a subject’s shine, I a true prince. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE III. Tyre. An ante-chamber in the Palace. + + Enter Thaliard. + +THALIARD. +So, this is Tyre, and this the court. Here must I kill King Pericles; +and if I do it not, I am sure to be hanged at home: ’tis dangerous. +Well, I perceive he was a wise fellow, and had good discretion, that, +being bid to ask what he would of the king, desired he might know none +of his secrets: now do I see he had some reason for’t; for if a king +bid a man be a villain, he’s bound by the indenture of his oath to be +one. Husht, here come the lords of Tyre. + + Enter Helicanus and Escanes with other Lords of Tyre. + +HELICANUS. +You shall not need, my fellow peers of Tyre, +Further to question me of your king’s departure: +His seal’d commission, left in trust with me, +Doth speak sufficiently he’s gone to travel. + +THALIARD. +[_Aside._] How? the king gone? + +HELICANUS. +If further yet you will be satisfied, +Why, as it were unlicensed of your loves, +He would depart, I’ll give some light unto you. +Being at Antioch — + +THALIARD. +[_Aside._] What from Antioch? + +HELICANUS. +Royal Antiochus — on what cause I know not +Took some displeasure at him; at least he judged so: +And doubting lest that he had err’d or sinn’d, +To show his sorrow, he’d correct himself; +So puts himself unto the shipman’s toil, +With whom each minute threatens life or death. + +THALIARD. +[_Aside._] Well, I perceive +I shall not be hang’d now, although I would; +But since he’s gone, the king’s seas must please +He ’scaped the land, to perish at the sea. +I’ll present myself. Peace to the lords of Tyre! + +HELICANUS. +Lord Thaliard from Antiochus is welcome. + +THALIARD. +From him I come +With message unto princely Pericles; +But since my landing I have understood +Your lord has betook himself to unknown travels, +My message must return from whence it came. + +HELICANUS. +We have no reason to desire it, +Commended to our master, not to us: +Yet, ere you shall depart, this we desire, +As friends to Antioch, we may feast in Tyre. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE IV. Tarsus. A room in the Governor’s house. + + Enter Cleon, the governor of Tarsus, with Dionyza and others. + +CLEON. +My Dionyza, shall we rest us here, +And by relating tales of others’ griefs, +See if ’twill teach us to forget our own? + +DIONYZA. +That were to blow at fire in hope to quench it; +For who digs hills because they do aspire +Throws down one mountain to cast up a higher. +O my distressed lord, even such our griefs are; +Here they’re but felt, and seen with mischief’s eyes, +But like to groves, being topp’d, they higher rise. + +CLEON. +O Dionyza, +Who wanteth food, and will not say he wants it, +Or can conceal his hunger till he famish? +Our tongues and sorrows do sound deep +Our woes into the air; our eyes do weep, +Till tongues fetch breath that may proclaim them louder; +That, if heaven slumber while their creatures want, +They may awake their helps to comfort them. +I’ll then discourse our woes, felt several years, +And wanting breath to speak, help me with tears. + +DIONYZA. +I’ll do my best, sir. + +CLEON. +This Tarsus, o’er which I have the government, +A city on whom plenty held full hand, +For riches strew’d herself even in the streets; +Whose towers bore heads so high they kiss’d the clouds, +And strangers ne’er beheld but wonder’d at; +Whose men and dames so jetted and adorn’d, +Like one another’s glass to trim them by: +Their tables were stored full to glad the sight, +And not so much to feed on as delight; +All poverty was scorn’d, and pride so great, +The name of help grew odious to repeat. + +DIONYZA. +O, ’tis too true. + +CLEON. +But see what heaven can do! By this our change, +These mouths, who but of late, earth, sea, and air, +Were all too little to content and please, +Although they gave their creatures in abundance, +As houses are defiled for want of use, +They are now starved for want of exercise: +Those palates who, not yet two summers younger, +Must have inventions to delight the taste, +Would now be glad of bread and beg for it: +Those mothers who, to nousle up their babes, +Thought nought too curious, are ready now +To eat those little darlings whom they loved. +So sharp are hunger’s teeth, that man and wife +Draw lots who first shall die to lengthen life: +Here stands a lord, and there a lady weeping; +Here many sink, yet those which see them fall +Have scarce strength left to give them burial. +Is not this true? + +DIONYZA. +Our cheeks and hollow eyes do witness it. + +CLEON. +O, let those cities that of plenty’s cup +And her prosperities so largely taste, +With their superflous riots, hear these tears! +The misery of Tarsus may be theirs. + + Enter a Lord. + +LORD. +Where’s the lord governor? + +CLEON. +Here. +Speak out thy sorrows which thou bring’st in haste, +For comfort is too far for us to expect. + +LORD. +We have descried, upon our neighbouring shore, +A portly sail of ships make hitherward. + +CLEON. +I thought as much. +One sorrow never comes but brings an heir, +That may succeed as his inheritor; +And so in ours: some neighbouring nation, +Taking advantage of our misery, +That stuff’d the hollow vessels with their power, +To beat us down, the which are down already; +And make a conquest of unhappy me, +Whereas no glory’s got to overcome. + +LORD. +That’s the least fear; for, by the semblance +Of their white flags display’d, they bring us peace, +And come to us as favourers, not as foes. + +CLEON. +Thou speak’st like him’s untutor’d to repeat: +Who makes the fairest show means most deceit. +But bring they what they will and what they can, +What need we fear? +The ground’s the lowest, and we are half way there. +Go tell their general we attend him here, +To know for what he comes, and whence he comes, +And what he craves. + +LORD. +I go, my lord. + + [_Exit._] + +CLEON. +Welcome is peace, if he on peace consist; +If wars, we are unable to resist. + + Enter Pericles with Attendants. + +PERICLES. +Lord governor, for so we hear you are, +Let not our ships and number of our men +Be like a beacon fired to amaze your eyes. +We have heard your miseries as far as Tyre, +And seen the desolation of your streets: +Nor come we to add sorrow to your tears, +But to relieve them of their heavy load; +And these our ships, you happily may think +Are like the Trojan horse was stuff’d within +With bloody veins, expecting overthrow, +Are stored with corn to make your needy bread, +And give them life whom hunger starved half dead. + +ALL. +The gods of Greece protect you! +And we’ll pray for you. + +PERICLES. +Arise, I pray you, rise: +We do not look for reverence, but for love, +And harbourage for ourself, our ships and men. + +CLEON. +The which when any shall not gratify, +Or pay you with unthankfulness in thought, +Be it our wives, our children, or ourselves, +The curse of heaven and men succeed their evils! +Till when, — the which I hope shall ne’er be seen, — +Your grace is welcome to our town and us. + +PERICLES. +Which welcome we’ll accept; feast here awhile, +Until our stars that frown lend us a smile. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + + Enter Gower. + +GOWER. +Here have you seen a mighty king +His child, iwis, to incest bring; +A better prince and benign lord, +That will prove awful both in deed word. +Be quiet then as men should be, +Till he hath pass’d necessity. +I’ll show you those in troubles reign, +Losing a mite, a mountain gain. +The good in conversation, +To whom I give my benison, +Is still at Tarsus, where each man +Thinks all is writ he speken can; +And to remember what he does, +Build his statue to make him glorious: +But tidings to the contrary +Are brought your eyes; what need speak I? + + Dumb-show. Enter at one door Pericles talking with Cleon; all the + train with them. Enter at another door a Gentleman with a letter to + Pericles; Pericles shows the letter to Cleon; gives the Messenger a + reward, and knights him. Exit Pericles at one door, and Cleon at + another. + +Good Helicane, that stay’d at home. +Not to eat honey like a drone +From others’ labours; for though he strive +To killen bad, keep good alive; +And to fulfil his prince’ desire, +Sends word of all that haps in Tyre: +How Thaliard came full bent with sin +And had intent to murder him; +And that in Tarsus was not best +Longer for him to make his rest. +He, doing so, put forth to seas, +Where when men been, there’s seldom ease; +For now the wind begins to blow; +Thunder above and deeps below +Make such unquiet, that the ship +Should house him safe is wreck’d and split; +And he, good prince, having all lost, +By waves from coast to coast is tost: +All perishen of man, of pelf, +Ne aught escapen but himself; +Till Fortune, tired with doing bad, +Threw him ashore, to give him glad: +And here he comes. What shall be next, +Pardon old Gower, — this longs the text. + + [_Exit._] + + + +SCENE I. Pentapolis. An open place by the seaside. + + Enter Pericles, wet. + +PERICLES. +Yet cease your ire, you angry stars of heaven! +Wind, rain, and thunder, remember earthly man +Is but a substance that must yield to you; +And I, as fits my nature, do obey you: +Alas, the sea hath cast me on the rocks, +Wash’d me from shore to shore, and left me breath +Nothing to think on but ensuing death: +Let it suffice the greatness of your powers +To have bereft a prince of all his fortunes; +And having thrown him from your watery grave, +Here to have death in peace is all he’ll crave. + + Enter three Fishermen. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +What, ho, Pilch! + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Ha, come and bring away the nets! + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +What, Patch-breech, I say! + +THIRD FISHERMAN. +What say you, master? + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Look how thou stirrest now! Come away, or I’ll fetch thee with a +wanion. + +THIRD FISHERMAN. +Faith, master, I am thinking of the poor men that were cast away before +us even now. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Alas, poor souls, it grieved my heart to hear what pitiful cries they +made to us to help them, when, well-a-day, we could scarce help +ourselves. + +THIRD FISHERMAN. +Nay, master, said not I as much when I saw the porpus how he bounced +and tumbled? They say they’re half fish, half flesh: a plague on them, +they ne’er come but I look to be washed. Master, I marvel how the +fishes live in the sea. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Why, as men do a-land; the great ones eat up the little ones: I can +compare our rich misers to nothing so fitly as to a whale; a’ plays and +tumbles, driving the poor fry before him, and at last devours them all +at a mouthful. Such whales have I heard on o’ the land, who never leave +gaping till they swallowed the whole parish, church, steeple, bells and +all. + +PERICLES. +[_Aside._] A pretty moral. + +THIRD FISHERMAN. +But, master, if I had been the sexton, I would have been that day in +the belfry. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Why, man? + +THIRD FISHERMAN. +Because he should have swallowed me too; and when I had been in his +belly, I would have kept such a jangling of the bells, that he should +never have left, till he cast bells, steeple, church and parish up +again. But if the good King Simonides were of my mind, — + +PERICLES. +[_Aside._] Simonides? + +THIRD FISHERMAN. +We would purge the land of these drones, that rob the bee of her honey. + +PERICLES. +[_Aside._] How from the finny subject of the sea +These fishers tell the infirmities of men; +And from their watery empire recollect +All that may men approve or men detect! +Peace be at your labour, honest fishermen. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Honest! good fellow, what’s that? If it be a day fits you, search out +of the calendar, and nobody look after it. + +PERICLES. +May see the sea hath cast upon your coast. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +What a drunken knave was the sea to cast thee in our way! + +PERICLES. +A man whom both the waters and the wind, +In that vast tennis-court, have made the ball +For them to play upon, entreats you pity him; +He asks of you, that never used to beg. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +No, friend, cannot you beg? Here’s them in our country of Greece gets +more with begging than we can do with working. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Canst thou catch any fishes, then? + +PERICLES. +I never practised it. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Nay, then thou wilt starve, sure; for here’s nothing to be got +now-a-days, unless thou canst fish for’t. + +PERICLES. +What I have been I have forgot to know; +But what I am, want teaches me to think on: +A man throng’d up with cold: my veins are chill, +And have no more of life than may suffice +To give my tongue that heat to ask your help; +Which if you shall refuse, when I am dead, +For that I am a man, pray see me buried. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Die quoth-a? Now gods forbid’t, and I have a gown here; come, put it +on; keep thee warm. Now, afore me, a handsome fellow! Come, thou shalt +go home, and we’ll have flesh for holidays, fish for fasting-days, and +moreo’er puddings and flap-jacks, and thou shalt be welcome. + +PERICLES. +I thank you, sir. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Hark you, my friend; you said you could not beg? + +PERICLES. +I did but crave. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +But crave! Then I’ll turn craver too, and so I shall ’scape whipping. + +PERICLES. +Why, are your beggars whipped, then? + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +O, not all, my friend, not all; for if all your beggars were whipped, I +would wish no better office than to be beadle. But, master, I’ll go +draw up the net. + + [_Exit with Third Fisherman._] + +PERICLES. +[_Aside._] How well this honest mirth becomes their labour! + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Hark you, sir, do you know where ye are? + +PERICLES. +Not well. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Why, I’ll tell you: this is called Pentapolis, and our King, the good +Simonides. + +PERICLES. +The good Simonides, do you call him? + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Ay, sir; and he deserves so to be called for his peaceable reign and +good government. + +PERICLES. +He is a happy king, since he gains from his subjects the name of good +government. How far is his court distant from this shore? + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Marry sir, half a day’s journey: and I’ll tell you, he hath a fair +daughter, and tomorrow is her birth-day; and there are princes and +knights come from all parts of the world to joust and tourney for her +love. + +PERICLES. +Were my fortunes equal to my desires, I could wish to make one there. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +O, sir, things must be as they may; and what a man cannot get, he may +lawfully deal for — his wife’s soul. + + Re-enter Second and Third Fishermen, drawing up a net. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Help, master, help! here’s a fish hangs in the net, like a poor man’s +right in the law; ’twill hardly come out. Ha! bots on’t, ’tis come at +last, and ’tis turned to a rusty armour. + +PERICLES. +An armour, friends! I pray you, let me see it. +Thanks, Fortune, yet, that, after all my crosses, +Thou givest me somewhat to repair myself, +And though it was mine own, part of my heritage, +Which my dead father did bequeath to me, +With this strict charge, even as he left his life. +‘Keep it, my Pericles; it hath been a shield +’Twixt me and death;’ — and pointed to this brace;— +‘For that it saved me, keep it; in like necessity — +The which the gods protect thee from! — may defend thee.’ +It kept where I kept, I so dearly loved it; +Till the rough seas, that spares not any man, +Took it in rage, though calm’d have given’t again: +I thank thee for’t: my shipwreck now’s no ill, +Since I have here my father gave in his will. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +What mean you sir? + +PERICLES. +To beg of you, kind friends, this coat of worth, +For it was sometime target to a king; +I know it by this mark. He loved me dearly, +And for his sake I wish the having of it; +And that you’d guide me to your sovereign court, +Where with it I may appear a gentleman; +And if that ever my low fortune’s better, +I’ll pay your bounties; till then rest your debtor. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Why, wilt thou tourney for the lady? + +PERICLES. +I’ll show the virtue I have borne in arms. + +FIRST FISHERMAN. +Why, d’ye take it, and the gods give thee good on’t! + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +Ay, but hark you, my friend; ’twas we that made up this garment through +the rough seams of the waters: there are certain condolements, certain +vails. I hope, sir, if you thrive, you’ll remember from whence you had +them. + +PERICLES. +Believe’t I will. +By your furtherance I am clothed in steel; +And spite of all the rapture of the sea, +This jewel holds his building on my arm: +Unto thy value I will mount myself +Upon a courser, whose delightful steps +Shall make the gazer joy to see him tread. +Only, my friend, I yet am unprovided +Of a pair of bases. + +SECOND FISHERMAN. +We’ll sure provide: thou shalt have my best gown to make thee a pair; +and I’ll bring thee to the court myself. + +PERICLES. +Then honour be but a goal to my will, +This day I’ll rise, or else add ill to ill. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE II. The same. A public way, or platform leading to the lists. A +pavilion by the side of it for the reception of the King, Princess, +Lords, etc. + + Enter Simonides, Thaisa, Lords and Attendants. + +SIMONIDES. +Are the knights ready to begin the triumph? + +FIRST LORD. +They are, my liege; +And stay your coming to present themselves. + +SIMONIDES. +Return them, we are ready; and our daughter, +In honour of whose birth these triumphs are, +Sits here, like beauty’s child, whom Nature gat +For men to see, and seeing wonder at. + + [_Exit a Lord._] + +THAISA. +It pleaseth you, my royal father, to express +My commendations great, whose merit’s less. + +SIMONIDES. +It’s fit it should be so; for princes are +A model, which heaven makes like to itself: +As jewels lose their glory if neglected, +So princes their renowns if not respected. +’Tis now your honour, daughter, to entertain +The labour of each knight in his device. + +THAISA. +Which, to preserve mine honour, I’ll perform. + + The first Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his shield to + Thaisa. + +SIMONIDES. +Who is the first that doth prefer himself? + +THAISA. +A knight of Sparta, my renowned father; +And the device he bears upon his shield +Is a black Ethiope reaching at the sun: +The word, _Lux tua vita mihi._ + +SIMONIDES. +He loves you well that holds his life of you. + + The second Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his shield to + Thaisa. + +Who is the second that presents himself? + +THAISA. +A prince of Macedon, my royal father; +And the device he bears upon his shield +Is an arm’d knight that’s conquer’d by a lady; +The motto thus, in Spanish, _Piu por dulzura que por forza._ + + The third Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his shield to + Thaisa. + +SIMONIDES. +And what’s the third? + +THAISA. +The third of Antioch; +And his device, a wreath of chivalry; +The word, _Me pompae provexit apex._ + + The fourth Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his shield to + Thaisa. + +SIMONIDES. +What is the fourth? + +THAISA. +A burning torch that’s turned upside down; +The word, _Quod me alit me extinguit._ + +SIMONIDES. +Which shows that beauty hath his power and will, +Which can as well inflame as it can kill. + + The fifth Knight passes by, and his Squire presents his shield to + Thaisa. + +THAISA. +The fifth, an hand environed with clouds, +Holding out gold that’s by the touchstone tried; +The motto thus, _Sic spectanda fides._ + + The sixth Knight, Pericles, passes in rusty armour with bases, and + unaccompanied. He presents his device directly to Thaisa. + +SIMONIDES. +And what’s the sixth and last, the which the knight himself +With such a graceful courtesy deliver’d? + +THAISA. +He seems to be a stranger; but his present is +A wither’d branch, that’s only green at top; +The motto, _In hac spe vivo._ + +SIMONIDES. +A pretty moral; +From the dejected state wherein he is, +He hopes by you his fortunes yet may flourish. + +FIRST LORD. +He had need mean better than his outward show +Can any way speak in his just commend; +For by his rusty outside he appears +To have practised more the whipstock than the lance. + +SECOND LORD. +He well may be a stranger, for he comes +To an honour’d triumph strangely furnished. + +THIRD LORD. +And on set purpose let his armour rust +Until this day, to scour it in the dust. + +SIMONIDES. +Opinion’s but a fool, that makes us scan +The outward habit by the inward man. +But stay, the knights are coming. +We will withdraw into the gallery. + + [_Exeunt. Great shouts within, and all cry_ ‘The mean Knight!’] + + + +SCENE III. The same. A hall of state: a banquet prepared. + + Enter Simonides, Thaisa, Lords, Attendants and Knights, from tilting. + +SIMONIDES. +Knights, +To say you’re welcome were superfluous. +To place upon the volume of your deeds, +As in a title-page, your worth in arms, +Were more than you expect, or more than’s fit, +Since every worth in show commends itself. +Prepare for mirth, for mirth becomes a feast: +You are princes and my guests. + +THAISA. +But you, my knight and guest; +To whom this wreath of victory I give, +And crown you king of this day’s happiness. + +PERICLES. +’Tis more by fortune, lady, than by merit. + +SIMONIDES. +Call it by what you will, the day is yours; +And here, I hope, is none that envies it. +In framing an artist, art hath thus decreed, +To make some good, but others to exceed; +And you are her labour’d scholar. Come queen of the feast, — +For, daughter, so you are, — here take your place: +Marshal the rest, as they deserve their grace. + +KNIGHTS. +We are honour’d much by good Simonides. + +SIMONIDES. +Your presence glads our days; honour we love; +For who hates honour hates the gods above. + +MARSHALL. +Sir, yonder is your place. + +PERICLES. +Some other is more fit. + +FIRST KNIGHT. +Contend not, sir; for we are gentlemen +Have neither in our hearts nor outward eyes +Envied the great, nor shall the low despise. + +PERICLES. +You are right courteous knights. + +SIMONIDES. +Sit, sir, sit. +By Jove, I wonder, that is king of thoughts, +These cates resist me, he but thought upon. + +THAISA. +By Juno, that is queen of marriage, +All viands that I eat do seem unsavoury, +Wishing him my meat. Sure, he’s a gallant gentleman. + +SIMONIDES. +He’s but a country gentleman; +Has done no more than other knights have done; +Has broken a staff or so; so let it pass. + +THAISA. +To me he seems like diamond to glass. + +PERICLES. +Yon king’s to me like to my father’s picture, +Which tells me in that glory once he was; +Had princes sit, like stars, about his throne, +And he the sun, for them to reverence; +None that beheld him, but, like lesser lights, +Did vail their crowns to his supremacy: +Where now his son’s like a glow-worm in the night, +The which hath fire in darkness, none in light: +Whereby I see that time’s the king of men, +He’s both their parent, and he is their grave, +And gives them what he will, not what they crave. + +SIMONIDES. +What, are you merry, knights? + +KNIGHTS. +Who can be other in this royal presence? + +SIMONIDES. +Here, with a cup that’s stored unto the brim, — +As you do love, fill to your mistress’ lips, — +We drink this health to you. + +KNIGHTS. +We thank your grace. + +SIMONIDES. +Yet pause awhile. Yon knight doth sit too melancholy, +As if the entertainment in our court +Had not a show might countervail his worth. +Note it not you, Thaisa? + +THAISA. +What is’t to me, my father? + +SIMONIDES. +O attend, my daughter: +Princes in this should live like god’s above, +Who freely give to everyone that comes to honour them: +And princes not doing so are like to gnats, +Which make a sound, but kill’d are wonder’d at. +Therefore to make his entrance more sweet, +Here, say we drink this standing-bowl of wine to him. + +THAISA. +Alas, my father, it befits not me +Unto a stranger knight to be so bold: +He may my proffer take for an offence, +Since men take women’s gifts for impudence. + +SIMONIDES. +How? Do as I bid you, or you’ll move me else. + +THAISA. +[_Aside._] Now, by the gods, he could not please me better. + +SIMONIDES. +And furthermore tell him, we desire to know of him, +Of whence he is, his name and parentage. + +THAISA. +The king my father, sir, has drunk to you. + +PERICLES. +I thank him. + +THAISA. +Wishing it so much blood unto your life. + +PERICLES. +I thank both him and you, and pledge him freely. + +THAISA. +And further he desires to know of you, +Of whence you are, your name and parentage. + +PERICLES. +A gentleman of Tyre; my name, Pericles; +My education been in arts and arms; +Who, looking for adventures in the world, +Was by the rough seas reft of ships and men, +And after shipwreck driven upon this shore. + +THAISA. +He thanks your grace; names himself Pericles, +A gentleman of Tyre, +Who only by misfortune of the seas +Bereft of ships and men, cast on this shore. + +SIMONIDES. +Now, by the gods, I pity his misfortune, +And will awake him from his melancholy. +Come, gentlemen, we sit too long on trifles, +And waste the time, which looks for other revels. +Even in your armours, as you are address’d, +Will well become a soldier’s dance. +I will not have excuse, with saying this, +‘Loud music is too harsh for ladies’ heads’ +Since they love men in arms as well as beds. + + [_The Knights dance._] + +So, this was well ask’d, ’twas so well perform’d. +Come, sir; here is a lady which wants breathing too: +And I have heard you knights of Tyre +Are excellent in making ladies trip; +And that their measures are as excellent. + +PERICLES. +In those that practise them they are, my lord. + +SIMONIDES. +O, that’s as much as you would be denied +Of your fair courtesy. + + [_The Knights and Ladies dance._] + +Unclasp, unclasp: +Thanks gentlemen, to all; all have done well. +[_To Pericles._] But you the best. Pages and lights to conduct +These knights unto their several lodgings. +[_To Pericles._] Yours, sir, we have given order to be next our own. + +PERICLES. +I am at your grace’s pleasure. + +SIMONIDES. +Princes, it is too late to talk of love; +And that’s the mark I know you level at: +Therefore each one betake him to his rest; +Tomorrow all for speeding do their best. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE IV. Tyre. A room in the Governor’s house. + + Enter Helicanus and Escanes. + +HELICANUS. +No, Escanes, know this of me, +Antiochus from incest lived not free: +For which the most high gods not minding longer +To withhold the vengeance that they had in store +Due to this heinous capital offence, +Even in the height and pride of all his glory, +When he was seated in a chariot +Of an inestimable value, and his daughter with him, +A fire from heaven came and shrivell’d up +Their bodies, even to loathing, for they so stunk, +That all those eyes adored them ere their fall +Scorn now their hand should give them burial. + +ESCANES. +’Twas very strange + +HELICANUS. +And yet but justice; for though this king were great; +His greatness was no guard to bar heaven’s shaft, +But sin had his reward. + +ESCANES. +’Tis very true. + + Enter two or three Lords. + +FIRST LORD. +See, not a man in private conference +Or council has respect with him but he. + +SECOND LORD. +It shall no longer grieve without reproof. + +THIRD LORD. +And cursed be he that will not second it. + +FIRST LORD. +Follow me, then. Lord Helicane, a word. + +HELICANUS. +With me? and welcome: happy day, my lords. + +FIRST LORD. +Know that our griefs are risen to the top, +And now at length they overflow their banks. + +HELICANUS. +Your griefs! for what? Wrong not your prince you love. + +FIRST LORD. +Wrong not yourself, then, noble Helicane; +But if the prince do live, let us salute him. +Or know what ground’s made happy by his breath. +If in the world he live, we’ll seek him out; +If in his grave he rest, we’ll find him there. +We’ll be resolved he lives to govern us, +Or dead, give’s cause to mourn his funeral, +And leave us to our free election. + +SECOND LORD. +Whose death’s indeed the strongest in our censure: +And knowing this kingdom is without a head, — +Like goodly buildings left without a roof +Soon fall to ruin, — your noble self, +That best know how to rule and how to reign, +We thus submit unto, — our sovereign. + +ALL. +Live, noble Helicane! + +HELICANUS. +For honour’s cause, forbear your suffrages: +If that you love Prince Pericles, forbear. +Take I your wish, I leap into the seas, +Where’s hourly trouble for a minute’s ease. +A twelvemonth longer, let me entreat you +To forbear the absence of your king; +If in which time expired, he not return, +I shall with aged patience bear your yoke. +But if I cannot win you to this love, +Go search like nobles, like noble subjects, +And in your search spend your adventurous worth; +Whom if you find, and win unto return, +You shall like diamonds sit about his crown. + +FIRST LORD. +To wisdom he’s a fool that will not yield; +And since Lord Helicane enjoineth us, +We with our travels will endeavour us. + +HELICANUS. +Then you love us, we you, and we’ll clasp hands: +When peers thus knit, a kingdom ever stands. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE V. Pentapolis. A room in the palace. + + Enter Simonides reading a letter at one door; the Knights meet him. + +FIRST KNIGHT. +Good morrow to the good Simonides. + +SIMONIDES. +Knights, from my daughter this I let you know, +That for this twelvemonth she’ll not undertake +A married life. +Her reason to herself is only known, +Which yet from her by no means can I get. + +SECOND KNIGHT. +May we not get access to her, my lord? + +SIMONIDES. +Faith, by no means; she hath so strictly tied +Her to her chamber, that ’tis impossible. +One twelve moons more she’ll wear Diana’s livery; +This by the eye of Cynthia hath she vow’d, +And on her virgin honour will not break it. + +THIRD KNIGHT. +Loath to bid farewell, we take our leaves. + + [_Exeunt Knights._] + +SIMONIDES. +So, they are well dispatch’d; now to my daughter’s letter: +She tells me here, she’ll wed the stranger knight, +Or never more to view nor day nor light. +’Tis well, mistress; your choice agrees with mine; +I like that well: nay, how absolute she’s in’t, +Not minding whether I dislike or no! +Well, I do commend her choice; +And will no longer have it be delay’d. +Soft! here he comes: I must dissemble it. + + Enter Pericles. + +PERICLES. +All fortune to the good Simonides! + +SIMONIDES. +To you as much. Sir, I am beholding to you +For your sweet music this last night: I do +Protest my ears were never better fed +With such delightful pleasing harmony. + +PERICLES. +It is your grace’s pleasure to commend; +Not my desert. + +SIMONIDES. +Sir, you are music’s master. + +PERICLES. +The worst of all her scholars, my good lord. + +SIMONIDES. +Let me ask you one thing: +What do you think of my daughter, sir? + +PERICLES. +A most virtuous princess. + +SIMONIDES. +And she is fair too, is she not? + +PERICLES. +As a fair day in summer, wondrous fair. + +SIMONIDES. +Sir, my daughter thinks very well of you; +Ay, so well, that you must be her master, +And she will be your scholar: therefore look to it. + +PERICLES. +I am unworthy for her schoolmaster. + +SIMONIDES. +She thinks not so; peruse this writing else. + +PERICLES. +[_Aside._] What’s here? A letter, that she loves the knight of Tyre! +’Tis the king’s subtlety to have my life. +O, seek not to entrap me, gracious lord, +A stranger and distressed gentleman, +That never aim’d so high to love your daughter, +But bent all offices to honour her. + +SIMONIDES. +Thou hast bewitch’d my daughter, +And thou art a villain. + +PERICLES. +By the gods, I have not: +Never did thought of mine levy offence; +Nor never did my actions yet commence +A deed might gain her love or your displeasure. + +SIMONIDES. +Traitor, thou liest. + +PERICLES. +Traitor? + +SIMONIDES. +Ay, traitor. + +PERICLES. +Even in his throat — unless it be the king — +That calls me traitor, I return the lie. + +SIMONIDES. +[_Aside._] Now, by the gods, I do applaud his courage. + +PERICLES. +My actions are as noble as my thoughts, +That never relish’d of a base descent. +I came unto your court for honour’s cause, +And not to be a rebel to her state; +And he that otherwise accounts of me, +This sword shall prove he’s honour’s enemy. + +SIMONIDES. +No? +Here comes my daughter, she can witness it. + + Enter Thaisa. + +PERICLES. +Then, as you are as virtuous as fair, +Resolve your angry father, if my tongue +Did e’er solicit, or my hand subscribe +To any syllable that made love to you. + +THAISA. +Why, sir, say if you had, +Who takes offence at that would make me glad? + +SIMONIDES. +Yea, mistress, are you so peremptory? +[_Aside._] I am glad on’t with all my heart. — +I’ll tame you; I’ll bring you in subjection. +Will you, not having my consent, +Bestow your love and your affections +Upon a stranger? [_Aside._] Who, for aught I know +May be, nor can I think the contrary, +As great in blood as I myself. — +Therefore hear you, mistress; either frame +Your will to mine, and you, sir, hear you, +Either be ruled by me, or I will make you — +Man and wife. Nay, come, your hands, +And lips must seal it too: and being join’d, +I’ll thus your hopes destroy; and for further grief, +God give you joy! What, are you both pleased? + +THAISA. +Yes, if you love me, sir. + +PERICLES. +Even as my life my blood that fosters it. + +SIMONIDES. +What, are you both agreed? + +BOTH. +Yes, if’t please your majesty. + +SIMONIDES. +It pleaseth me so well, that I will see you wed; +And then with what haste you can, get you to bed. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + + Enter Gower. + +GOWER. +Now sleep yslaked hath the rouse; +No din but snores about the house, +Made louder by the o’erfed breast +Of this most pompous marriage feast. +The cat, with eyne of burning coal, +Now couches fore the mouse’s hole; +And crickets sing at the oven’s mouth, +Are the blither for their drouth. +Hymen hath brought the bride to bed, +Where, by the loss of maidenhead, +A babe is moulded. Be attent, +And time that is so briefly spent +With your fine fancies quaintly eche: +What’s dumb in show I’ll plain with speech. + + Dumb-show. Enter, Pericles and Simonides at one door with Attendants; + a Messenger meets them, kneels, and gives Pericles a letter: Pericles + shows it Simonides; the Lords kneel to him. Then enter Thaisa with + child, with Lychorida, a nurse. The King shows her the letter; she + rejoices: she and Pericles take leave of her father, and depart, with + Lychorida and their Attendants. Then exeunt Simonides and the rest. + +By many a dern and painful perch +Of Pericles the careful search, +By the four opposing coigns +Which the world together joins, +Is made with all due diligence +That horse and sail and high expense +Can stead the quest. At last from Tyre, +Fame answering the most strange enquire, +To th’ court of King Simonides +Are letters brought, the tenour these: +Antiochus and his daughter dead; +The men of Tyrus on the head +Of Helicanus would set on +The crown of Tyre, but he will none: +The mutiny he there hastes t’oppress; +Says to ’em, if King Pericles +Come not home in twice six moons, +He, obedient to their dooms, +Will take the crown. The sum of this, +Brought hither to Pentapolis +Y-ravished the regions round, +And everyone with claps can sound, +‘Our heir apparent is a king! +Who dreamt, who thought of such a thing?’ +Brief, he must hence depart to Tyre: +His queen with child makes her desire — +Which who shall cross? — along to go: +Omit we all their dole and woe: +Lychorida, her nurse, she takes, +And so to sea. Their vessel shakes +On Neptune’s billow; half the flood +Hath their keel cut: but fortune’s mood +Varies again; the grisled north +Disgorges such a tempest forth, +That, as a duck for life that dives, +So up and down the poor ship drives: +The lady shrieks, and well-a-near +Does fall in travail with her fear: +And what ensues in this fell storm +Shall for itself itself perform. +I nill relate, action may +Conveniently the rest convey; +Which might not what by me is told. +In your imagination hold +This stage the ship, upon whose deck +The sea-tost Pericles appears to speak. + + [_Exit._] + + + +SCENE I. + + Enter Pericles, on shipboard. + +PERICLES. +Thou god of this great vast, rebuke these surges, +Which wash both heaven and hell; and thou that hast +Upon the winds command, bind them in brass, +Having call’d them from the deep! O, still +Thy deafening, dreadful thunders; gently quench +Thy nimble, sulphurous flashes! O, how, Lychorida, +How does my queen? Thou stormest venomously; +Wilt thou spit all thyself? The seaman’s whistle +Is as a whisper in the ears of death, +Unheard. Lychorida! - Lucina, O! +Divinest patroness, and midwife gentle +To those that cry by night, convey thy deity +Aboard our dancing boat; make swift the pangs +Of my queen’s travails! Now, Lychorida! + + Enter Lychorida with an infant. + +LYCHORIDA. +Here is a thing too young for such a place, +Who, if it had conceit, would die, as I +Am like to do: take in your arms this piece +Of your dead queen. + +PERICLES. +How? how, Lychorida? + +LYCHORIDA. +Patience, good sir; do not assist the storm. +Here’s all that is left living of your queen, +A little daughter: for the sake of it, +Be manly, and take comfort. + +PERICLES. +O you gods! +Why do you make us love your goodly gifts, +And snatch them straight away? We here below +Recall not what we give, and therein may +Vie honour with you. + +LYCHORIDA. +Patience, good sir. +Even for this charge. + +PERICLES. +Now, mild may be thy life! +For a more blustrous birth had never babe: +Quiet and gentle thy conditions! for +Thou art the rudeliest welcome to this world +That ever was prince’s child. Happy what follows! +Thou hast as chiding a nativity +As fire, air, water, earth, and heaven can make, +To herald thee from the womb. +Even at the first thy loss is more than can +Thy portage quit, with all thou canst find here, +Now, the good gods throw their best eyes upon’t! + + Enter two Sailors + +FIRST SAILOR. +What courage, sir? God save you! + +PERICLES. +Courage enough: I do not fear the flaw; +It hath done to me the worst. Yet, for the love +Of this poor infant, this fresh new sea-farer, +I would it would be quiet. + +FIRST SAILOR. +Slack the bolins there! Thou wilt not, wilt thou? Blow, and split +thyself. + +SECOND SAILOR. +But sea-room, and the brine and cloudy billow kiss the moon, I care +not. + +FIRST SAILOR. +Sir, your queen must overboard: the sea works high, the wind is loud +and will not lie till the ship be cleared of the dead. + +PERICLES. +That’s your superstition. + +FIRST SAILOR. +Pardon us, sir; with us at sea it has been still observed; and we are +strong in custom. Therefore briefly yield her; for she must overboard +straight. + +PERICLES. +As you think meet. Most wretched queen! + +LYCHORIDA. +Here she lies, sir. + +PERICLES. +A terrible childbed hast thou had, my dear; +No light, no fire: th’unfriendly elements +Forgot thee utterly; nor have I time +To give thee hallow’d to thy grave, but straight +Must cast thee, scarcely coffin’d, in the ooze; +Where, for a monument upon thy bones, +And e’er-remaining lamps, the belching whale +And humming water must o’erwhelm thy corpse, +Lying with simple shells. O Lychorida. +Bid Nestor bring me spices, ink and paper, +My casket and my jewels; and bid Nicander +Bring me the satin coffer: lay the babe +Upon the pillow: hie thee, whiles I say +A priestly farewell to her: suddenly, woman. + + [_Exit Lychorida._] + +SECOND SAILOR. +Sir, we have a chest beneath the hatches, caulked and bitumed ready. + +PERICLES. +I thank thee. Mariner, say what coast is this? + +SECOND SAILOR. +We are near Tarsus. + +PERICLES. +Thither, gentle mariner, +Alter thy course for Tyre. When, canst thou reach it? + +SECOND SAILOR. +By break of day, if the wind cease. + +PERICLES. +O, make for Tarsus! +There will I visit Cleon, for the babe +Cannot hold out to Tyrus. There I’ll leave it +At careful nursing. Go thy ways, good mariner: +I’ll bring the body presently. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE II. Ephesus. A room in Cerimon’s house. + + Enter Cerimon, with a Servant, and some Persons who have been + shipwrecked. + +CERIMON. +Philemon, ho! + + Enter Philemon. + +PHILEMON. +Doth my lord call? + +CERIMON. +Get fire and meat for these poor men: +’T has been a turbulent and stormy night. + +SERVANT. +I have been in many; but such a night as this, +Till now, I ne’er endured. + +CERIMON. +Your master will be dead ere you return; +There’s nothing can be minister’d to nature +That can recover him. [_To Philemon._] Give this to the ’pothecary, +And tell me how it works. + + [_Exeunt all but Cerimon._] + + Enter two Gentlemen. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Good morrow. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Good morrow to your lordship. + +CERIMON. +Gentlemen, why do you stir so early? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Sir, our lodgings, standing bleak upon the sea, +Shook as the earth did quake; +The very principals did seem to rend, +And all to topple: pure surprise and fear +Made me to quit the house. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +That is the cause we trouble you so early; +’Tis not our husbandry. + +CERIMON. +O, you say well. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +But I much marvel that your lordship, having +Rich tire about you, should at these early hours +Shake off the golden slumber of repose. +’Tis most strange, +Nature should be so conversant with pain. +Being thereto not compell’d. + +CERIMON. +I hold it ever, +Virtue and cunning were endowments greater +Than nobleness and riches: careless heirs +May the two latter darken and expend; +But immortality attends the former, +Making a man a god. ’Tis known, I ever +Have studied physic, through which secret art, +By turning o’er authorities, I have, +Together with my practice, made familiar +To me and to my aid the blest infusions +That dwell in vegetives, in metals, stones; +And I can speak of the disturbances +That nature works, and of her cures; which doth give me +A more content in course of true delight +Than to be thirsty after tottering honour, +Or tie my pleasure up in silken bags, +To please the fool and death. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Your honour has through Ephesus pour’d forth +Your charity, and hundreds call themselves +Your creatures, who by you have been restored: +And not your knowledge, your personal pain, but even +Your purse, still open, hath built Lord Cerimon +Such strong renown as time shall never— + + Enter two or three Servants with a chest. + +FIRST SERVANT. +So, lift there. + +CERIMON. +What’s that? + +FIRST SERVANT. +Sir, even now +Did the sea toss upon our shore this chest: +’Tis of some wreck. + +CERIMON. +Set’t down, let’s look upon’t. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +’Tis like a coffin, sir. + +CERIMON. +Whate’er it be, +’Tis wondrous heavy. Wrench it open straight: +If the sea’s stomach be o’ercharged with gold, +’Tis a good constraint of fortune it belches upon us. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +’Tis so, my lord. + +CERIMON. +How close ’tis caulk’d and bitumed! +Did the sea cast it up? + +FIRST SERVANT. +I never saw so huge a billow, sir, +As toss’d it upon shore. + +CERIMON. +Wrench it open; +Soft! it smells most sweetly in my sense. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +A delicate odour. + +CERIMON. +As ever hit my nostril. So up with it. +O you most potent gods! what’s here? a corpse! + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Most strange! + +CERIMON. +Shrouded in cloth of state; balm’d and entreasured +With full bags of spices! A passport too! +Apollo, perfect me in the characters! + + [_Reads from a scroll._] + + _Here I give to understand, + If e’er this coffin drives a-land, + I, King Pericles, have lost + This queen, worth all our mundane cost. + Who finds her, give her burying; + She was the daughter of a king: + Besides this treasure for a fee, + The gods requite his charity._ +If thou livest, Pericles, thou hast a heart +That even cracks for woe! This chanced tonight. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Most likely, sir. + +CERIMON. +Nay, certainly tonight; +For look how fresh she looks! They were too rough +That threw her in the sea. Make a fire within +Fetch hither all my boxes in my closet. + + [_Exit a Servant._] + +Death may usurp on nature many hours, +And yet the fire of life kindle again +The o’erpress’d spirits. I heard of an Egyptian +That had nine hours lain dead, +Who was by good appliance recovered. + + Re-enter a Servant with napkins and fire. + +Well said, well said; the fire and cloths. +The rough and woeful music that we have, +Cause it to sound, beseech you +The viol once more: how thou stirr’st, thou block! +The music there! — I pray you, give her air. +Gentlemen, this queen will live. +Nature awakes; a warmth breathes out of her. +She hath not been entranced above five hours. +See how she ’gins to blow into life’s flower again! + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +The heavens, through you, increase our wonder +And sets up your fame for ever. + +CERIMON. +She is alive; behold, her eyelids, +Cases to those heavenly jewels which Pericles hath lost, +Begin to part their fringes of bright gold; +The diamonds of a most praised water doth appear, +To make the world twice rich. Live, and make us weep +To hear your fate, fair creature, rare as you seem to be. + + [_She moves._] + +THAISA. +O dear Diana, +Where am I? Where’s my lord? What world is this? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Is not this strange? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Most rare. + +CERIMON. +Hush, my gentle neighbours! +Lend me your hands; to the next chamber bear her. +Get linen: now this matter must be look’d to, +For her relapse is mortal. Come, come; +And Aesculapius guide us! + + [_Exeunt, carrying her away._] + + + +SCENE III. Tarsus. A room in Cleon’s house. + + Enter Pericles, Cleon, Dionyza and Lychorida with Marina in her arms. + +PERICLES. +Most honour’d Cleon, I must needs be gone; +My twelve months are expired, and Tyrus stands +In a litigious peace. You and your lady, +Take from my heart all thankfulness! The gods +Make up the rest upon you! + +CLEON. +Your shafts of fortune, though they hurt you mortally, +Yet glance full wanderingly on us. + +DIONYZA. +O, your sweet queen! +That the strict fates had pleased you had brought her hither, +To have bless’d mine eyes with her! + +PERICLES. +We cannot but obey +The powers above us. Could I rage and roar +As doth the sea she lies in, yet the end +Must be as ’tis. My gentle babe Marina, +Whom, for she was born at sea, I have named so, +Here I charge your charity withal, +Leaving her the infant of your care; +Beseeching you to give her princely training, +That she may be manner’d as she is born. + +CLEON. +Fear not, my lord, but think +Your grace, that fed my country with your corn, +For which the people’s prayers still fall upon you, +Must in your child be thought on. If neglection +Should therein make me vile, the common body, +By you relieved, would force me to my duty: +But if to that my nature need a spur, +The gods revenge it upon me and mine, +To the end of generation! + +PERICLES. +I believe you; +Your honour and your goodness teach me to’t, +Without your vows. Till she be married, madam, +By bright Diana, whom we honour, all +Unscissored shall this hair of mine remain, +Though I show ill in’t. So I take my leave. +Good madam, make me blessed in your care +In bringing up my child. + +DIONYZA. +I have one myself, +Who shall not be more dear to my respect +Than yours, my lord. + +PERICLES. +Madam, my thanks and prayers. + +CLEON. +We’ll bring your grace e’en to the edge o’the shore, +Then give you up to the mask’d Neptune and +The gentlest winds of heaven. + +PERICLES. +I will embrace your offer. Come, dearest madam. +O, no tears, Lychorida, no tears. +Look to your little mistress, on whose grace +You may depend hereafter. Come, my lord. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE IV. Ephesus. A room in Cerimon’s house. + + Enter Cerimon and Thaisa. + +CERIMON. +Madam, this letter, and some certain jewels, +Lay with you in your coffer, which are +At your command. Know you the character? + +THAISA. +It is my lord’s. +That I was shipp’d at sea, I well remember, +Even on my groaning time; but whether there +Deliver’d, by the holy gods, +I cannot rightly say. But since King Pericles, +My wedded lord, I ne’er shall see again, +A vestal livery will I take me to, +And never more have joy. + +CERIMON. +Madam, if this you purpose as ye speak, +Diana’s temple is not distant far, +Where you may abide till your date expire. +Moreover, if you please, a niece of mine +Shall there attend you. + +THAISA. +My recompense is thanks, that’s all; +Yet my good will is great, though the gift small. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + + Enter Gower. + +GOWER. +Imagine Pericles arrived at Tyre, +Welcomed and settled to his own desire. +His woeful queen we leave at Ephesus, +Unto Diana there a votaress. +Now to Marina bend your mind, +Whom our fast-growing scene must find +At Tarsus, and by Cleon train’d +In music’s letters; who hath gain’d +Of education all the grace, +Which makes her both the heart and place +Of general wonder. But, alack, +That monster envy, oft the wrack +Of earned praise, Marina’s life +Seeks to take off by treason’s knife, +And in this kind our Cleon hath +One daughter, and a full grown wench +Even ripe for marriage-rite; this maid +Hight Philoten: and it is said +For certain in our story, she +Would ever with Marina be. +Be’t when she weaved the sleided silk +With fingers long, small, white as milk; +Or when she would with sharp needle wound, +The cambric, which she made more sound +By hurting it; or when to th’ lute +She sung, and made the night-bird mute +That still records with moan; or when +She would with rich and constant pen +Vail to her mistress Dian; still +This Philoten contends in skill +With absolute Marina: so +The dove of Paphos might with the crow +Vie feathers white. Marina gets +All praises, which are paid as debts, +And not as given. This so darks +In Philoten all graceful marks, +That Cleon’s wife, with envy rare, +A present murderer does prepare +For good Marina, that her daughter +Might stand peerless by this slaughter. +The sooner her vile thoughts to stead, +Lychorida, our nurse, is dead: +And cursed Dionyza hath +The pregnant instrument of wrath +Prest for this blow. The unborn event +I do commend to your content: +Only I carry winged time +Post on the lame feet of my rhyme; +Which never could I so convey, +Unless your thoughts went on my way. +Dionyza does appear, +With Leonine, a murderer. + + [_Exit._] + + + +Scene I. Tarsus. An open place near the seashore. + + Enter Dionyza with Leonine. + +DIONYZA. +Thy oath remember; thou hast sworn to do’t: +’Tis but a blow, which never shall be known. +Thou canst not do a thing in the world so soon, +To yield thee so much profit. Let not conscience, +Which is but cold, inflaming love i’ thy bosom, +Inflame too nicely; nor let pity, which +Even women have cast off, melt thee, but be +A soldier to thy purpose. + +LEONINE. +I will do’t; but yet she is a goodly creature. + +DIONYZA. +The fitter, then, the gods should have her. Here she comes weeping for +her only mistress’ death. Thou art resolved? + +LEONINE. +I am resolved. + + Enter Marina with a basket of flowers. + +MARINA. +No, I will rob Tellus of her weed +To strew thy green with flowers: the yellows, blues, +The purple violets, and marigolds, +Shall as a carpet hang upon thy grave, +While summer days do last. Ay me! poor maid, +Born in a tempest, when my mother died, +This world to me is like a lasting storm, +Whirring me from my friends. + +DIONYZA. +How now, Marina! why do you keep alone? +How chance my daughter is not with you? +Do not consume your blood with sorrowing; +Have you a nurse of me? Lord, how your favour’s +Changed with this unprofitable woe! +Come, give me your flowers, ere the sea mar it. +Walk with Leonine; the air is quick there, +And it pierces and sharpens the stomach. +Come, Leonine, take her by the arm, walk with her. + +MARINA. +No, I pray you; +I’ll not bereave you of your servant. + +DIONYZA. +Come, come; +I love the king your father, and yourself, +With more than foreign heart. We every day +Expect him here: when he shall come and find +Our paragon to all reports thus blasted, +He will repent the breadth of his great voyage; +Blame both my lord and me, that we have taken +No care to your best courses. Go, I pray you, +Walk, and be cheerful once again; reserve +That excellent complexion, which did steal +The eyes of young and old. Care not for me; +I can go home alone. + +MARINA. +Well, I will go; +But yet I have no desire to it. + +DIONYZA. +Come, come, I know ’tis good for you. +Walk half an hour, Leonine, at the least: +Remember what I have said. + +LEONINE. +I warrant you, madam. + +DIONYZA. +I’ll leave you, my sweet lady, for a while: +Pray, walk softly, do not heat your blood: +What! I must have a care of you. + +MARINA. +My thanks, sweet madam. + + [_Exit Dionyza._] + +Is this wind westerly that blows? + +LEONINE. +South-west. + +MARINA. +When I was born the wind was north. + +LEONINE. +Was’t so? + +MARINA. +My father, as nurse said, did never fear, +But cried ‘Good seamen!’ to the sailors, +Galling his kingly hands, haling ropes; +And clasping to the mast, endured a sea +That almost burst the deck. + +LEONINE. +When was this? + +MARINA. +When I was born: +Never was waves nor wind more violent; +And from the ladder tackle washes off +A canvas-climber. ‘Ha!’ says one, ‘wolt out?’ +And with a dropping industry they skip +From stem to stern: the boatswain whistles, and +The master calls and trebles their confusion. + +LEONINE. +Come, say your prayers. + +MARINA. +What mean you? + +LEONINE. +If you require a little space for prayer, +I grant it: pray; but be not tedious, +For the gods are quick of ear, and I am sworn +To do my work with haste. + +MARINA. +Why will you kill me? + +LEONINE. +To satisfy my lady. + +MARINA. +Why would she have me kill’d now? +As I can remember, by my troth, +I never did her hurt in all my life: +I never spake bad word, nor did ill turn +To any living creature: believe me, la, +I never kill’d a mouse, nor hurt a fly: +I trod upon a worm against my will, +But I wept for it. How have I offended, +Wherein my death might yield her any profit, +Or my life imply her any danger? + +LEONINE. +My commission +Is not to reason of the deed, but do it. + +MARINA. +You will not do’t for all the world, I hope. +You are well favour’d, and your looks foreshow +You have a gentle heart. I saw you lately, +When you caught hurt in parting two that fought: +Good sooth, it show’d well in you: do so now: +Your lady seeks my life; come you between, +And save poor me, the weaker. + +LEONINE. +I am sworn, +And will dispatch. + + [_He seizes her._] + + Enter Pirates. + +FIRST PIRATE. +Hold, villain! + + [_Leonine runs away._] + +SECOND PIRATE. +A prize! a prize! + +THIRD PIRATE. +Half part, mates, half part, +Come, let’s have her aboard suddenly. + + [_Exeunt Pirates with Marina._] + + Re-enter Leonine. + +LEONINE. +These roguing thieves serve the great pirate Valdes; +And they have seized Marina. Let her go: +There’s no hope she will return. I’ll swear she’s dead +And thrown into the sea. But I’ll see further: +Perhaps they will but please themselves upon her, +Not carry her aboard. If she remain, +Whom they have ravish’d must by me be slain. + + [_Exit._] + + + +Scene II. Mytilene. A room in a brothel. + + Enter Pandar, Bawd and Boult. + +PANDAR. +Boult! + +BOULT. +Sir? + +PANDAR. +Search the market narrowly; Mytilene is full of gallants. We lost too +much money this mart by being too wenchless. + +BAWD. +We were never so much out of creatures. We have but poor three, and +they can do no more than they can do; and they with continual action +are even as good as rotten. + +PANDAR. +Therefore let’s have fresh ones, whate’er we pay for them. If there be +not a conscience to be used in every trade, we shall never prosper. + +BAWD. +Thou sayest true: ’tis not our bringing up of poor bastards, — as, I +think, I have brought up some eleven — + +BOULT. +Ay, to eleven; and brought them down again. But shall I search the +market? + +BAWD. +What else, man? The stuff we have, a strong wind will blow it to +pieces, they are so pitifully sodden. + +PANDAR. +Thou sayest true; they’re too unwholesome, o’ conscience. The poor +Transylvanian is dead, that lay with the little baggage. + +BOULT. +Ay, she quickly pooped him; she made him roast-meat for worms. But I’ll +go search the market. + + [_Exit._] + +PANDAR. +Three or four thousand chequins were as pretty a proportion to live +quietly, and so give over. + +BAWD. +Why to give over, I pray you? Is it a shame to get when we are old? + +PANDAR. +O, our credit comes not in like the commodity, nor the commodity wages +not with the danger: therefore, if in our youths we could pick up some +pretty estate, ’twere not amiss to keep our door hatched. Besides, the +sore terms we stand upon with the gods will be strong with us for +giving over. + +BAWD. +Come, others sorts offend as well as we. + +PANDAR. +As well as we! ay, and better too; we offend worse. Neither is our +profession any trade; it’s no calling. But here comes Boult. + + Re-enter Boult, with the Pirates and Marina. + +BOULT +[_To Pirates._] Come your ways. My masters, you say she’s a virgin? + +FIRST PIRATE. +O sir, we doubt it not. + +BOULT. +Master, I have gone through for this piece, you see: if you like her, +so; if not, I have lost my earnest. + +BAWD. +Boult, has she any qualities? + +BOULT. +She has a good face, speaks well and has excellent good clothes: +there’s no farther necessity of qualities can make her be refused. + +BAWD. +What is her price, Boult? + +BOULT. +I cannot be baited one doit of a thousand pieces. + +PANDAR. +Well, follow me, my masters, you shall have your money presently. Wife, +take her in; instruct her what she has to do, that she may not be raw +in her entertainment. + + [_Exeunt Pandar and Pirates._] + +BAWD. +Boult, take you the marks of her, the colour of her hair, complexion, +height, her age, with warrant of her virginity; and cry ‘He that will +give most shall have her first.’ Such a maidenhead were no cheap thing, +if men were as they have been. Get this done as I command you. + +BOULT. +Performance shall follow. + + [_Exit._] + +MARINA. +Alack that Leonine was so slack, so slow! +He should have struck, not spoke; or that these pirates, +Not enough barbarous, had not o’erboard thrown me +For to seek my mother! + +BAWD. +Why lament you, pretty one? + +MARINA. +That I am pretty. + +BAWD. +Come, the gods have done their part in you. + +MARINA. +I accuse them not. + +BAWD. +You are light into my hands, where you are like to live. + +MARINA. +The more my fault +To scape his hands where I was like to die. + +BAWD. +Ay, and you shall live in pleasure. + +MARINA. +No. + +BAWD. +Yes, indeed shall you, and taste gentlemen of all fashions: you shall +fare well; you shall have the difference of all complexions. What! do +you stop your ears? + +MARINA. +Are you a woman? + +BAWD. +What would you have me be, an I be not a woman? + +MARINA. +An honest woman, or not a woman. + +BAWD. +Marry, whip the gosling: I think I shall have something to do with you. +Come, you’re a young foolish sapling, and must be bowed as I would have +you. + +MARINA. +The gods defend me! + +BAWD. +If it please the gods to defend you by men, then men must comfort you, +men must feed you, men stir you up. Boult’s returned. + + Re-enter Boult. + +Now, sir, hast thou cried her through the market? + +BOULT. +I have cried her almost to the number of her hairs; I have drawn her +picture with my voice. + +BAWD. +And I prithee tell me, how dost thou find the inclination of the +people, especially of the younger sort? + +BOULT. +Faith, they listened to me as they would have hearkened to their +father’s testament. There was a Spaniard’s mouth so watered, that he +went to bed to her very description. + +BAWD. +We shall have him here tomorrow with his best ruff on. + +BOULT. +Tonight, tonight. But, mistress, do you know the French knight that +cowers i’ the hams? + +BAWD. +Who, Monsieur Veroles? + +BOULT. +Ay, he: he offered to cut a caper at the proclamation; but he made a +groan at it, and swore he would see her tomorrow. + +BAWD. +Well, well, as for him, he brought his disease hither: here he does but +repair it. I know he will come in our shadow, to scatter his crowns in +the sun. + +BOULT. +Well, if we had of every nation a traveller, we should lodge them with +this sign. + +[_To Marina._] Pray you, come hither awhile. You have fortunes coming +upon you. Mark me: you must seem to do that fearfully which you commit +willingly, despise profit where you have most gain. To weep that you +live as ye do makes pity in your lovers: seldom but that pity begets +you a good opinion, and that opinion a mere profit. + +MARINA. +I understand you not. + +BOULT. +O, take her home, mistress, take her home: these blushes of hers must +be quenched with some present practice. + +BAWD. +Thou sayest true, i’faith so they must; for your bride goes to that +with shame which is her way to go with warrant. + +BOULT. +Faith, some do and some do not. But, mistress, if I have bargained for +the joint, — + +BAWD. +Thou mayst cut a morsel off the spit. + +BOULT. +I may so. + +BAWD. Who should deny it? Come young one, I like the manner of your +garments well. + +BOULT. +Ay, by my faith, they shall not be changed yet. + +BAWD. +Boult, spend thou that in the town: report what a sojourner we have; +you’ll lose nothing by custom. When nature framed this piece, she meant +thee a good turn; therefore say what a paragon she is, and thou hast +the harvest out of thine own report. + +BOULT. +I warrant you, mistress, thunder shall not so awake the beds of eels as +my giving out her beauty stirs up the lewdly inclined. I’ll bring home +some tonight. + +BAWD. +Come your ways; follow me. + +MARINA. +If fires be hot, knives sharp, or waters deep, +Untied I still my virgin knot will keep. +Diana, aid my purpose! + +BAWD. +What have we to do with Diana? Pray you, will you go with us? + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE III. Tarsus. A room in Cleon’s house. + + Enter Cleon and Dionyza. + +DIONYZA. +Why, are you foolish? Can it be undone? + +CLEON. +O, Dionyza, such a piece of slaughter +The sun and moon ne’er look’d upon! + +DIONYZA. +I think you’ll turn a child again. + +CLEON. +Were I chief lord of all this spacious world, +I’d give it to undo the deed. A lady, +Much less in blood than virtue, yet a princess +To equal any single crown o’ the earth +I’ the justice of compare! O villain Leonine! +Whom thou hast poison’d too: +If thou hadst drunk to him, ’t had been a kindness +Becoming well thy face. What canst thou say +When noble Pericles shall demand his child? + +DIONYZA. +That she is dead. Nurses are not the fates, +To foster it, nor ever to preserve. +She died at night; I’ll say so. Who can cross it? +Unless you play the pious innocent, +And for an honest attribute cry out +‘She died by foul play.’ + +CLEON. +O, go to. Well, well, +Of all the faults beneath the heavens, the gods +Do like this worst. + +DIONYZA. +Be one of those that thinks +The petty wrens of Tarsus will fly hence, +And open this to Pericles. I do shame +To think of what a noble strain you are, +And of how coward a spirit. + +CLEON. +To such proceeding +Whoever but his approbation added, +Though not his prime consent, he did not flow +From honourable sources, + +DIONYZA. +Be it so, then: +Yet none does know, but you, how she came dead, +Nor none can know, Leonine being gone. +She did distain my child, and stood between +Her and her fortunes: none would look on her, +But cast their gazes on Marina’s face; +Whilst ours was blurted at and held a malkin +Not worth the time of day. It pierced me through; +And though you call my course unnatural, +You not your child well loving, yet I find +It greets me as an enterprise of kindness +Perform’d to your sole daughter. + +CLEON. +Heavens forgive it! + +DIONYZA. +And as for Pericles, what should he say? +We wept after her hearse, and yet we mourn. +Her monument is almost finish’d, and her epitaphs +In glittering golden characters express +A general praise to her, and care in us +At whose expense ’tis done. + +CLEON. +Thou art like the harpy, +Which, to betray, dost, with thine angel’s face, +Seize with thine eagle’s talons. + +DIONYZA. +You are like one that superstitiously +Doth swear to the gods that winter kills the flies: +But yet I know you’ll do as I advise. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE IV. + + Enter Gower, before the monument of Marina at Tarsus. + +GOWER. +Thus time we waste, and long leagues make short; +Sail seas in cockles, have and wish but for’t; +Making, to take your imagination, +From bourn to bourn, region to region. +By you being pardon’d, we commit no crime +To use one language in each several clime +Where our scenes seem to live. I do beseech you +To learn of me, who stand i’the gaps to teach you, +The stages of our story. Pericles +Is now again thwarting the wayward seas +Attended on by many a lord and knight, +To see his daughter, all his life’s delight. +Old Helicanus goes along. Behind +Is left to govern, if you bear in mind, +Old Escanes, whom Helicanus late +Advanced in time to great and high estate. +Well-sailing ships and bounteous winds have brought +This king to Tarsus, — think his pilot thought; +So with his steerage shall your thoughts go on, — +To fetch his daughter home, who first is gone. +Like motes and shadows see them move awhile; +Your ears unto your eyes I’ll reconcile. + + Dumb-show. Enter Pericles at one door with all his train; Cleon and + Dionyza at the other. Cleon shows Pericles the tomb; whereat Pericles + makes lamentation, puts on sackcloth and in a mighty passion departs. + Then exeunt Cleon and Dionyza. + +See how belief may suffer by foul show; +This borrow’d passion stands for true old woe; +And Pericles, in sorrow all devour’d, +With sighs shot through; and biggest tears o’ershower’d, +Leaves Tarsus and again embarks. He swears +Never to wash his face, nor cut his hairs: +He puts on sackcloth, and to sea he bears +A tempest, which his mortal vessel tears, +And yet he rides it out. Now please you wit +The epitaph is for Marina writ +By wicked Dionyza. + + [_Reads the inscription on Marina’s monument._] + + _The fairest, sweet’st, and best lies here, + Who wither’d in her spring of year. + She was of Tyrus the King’s daughter, + On whom foul death hath made this slaughter; + Marina was she call’d; and at her birth, + Thetis, being proud, swallow’d some part o’ the earth: + Therefore the earth, fearing to be o’erflow’d, + Hath Thetis’ birth-child on the heavens bestow’d: + Wherefore she does, and swears she’ll never stint, + Make raging battery upon shores of flint._ + +No visor does become black villany +So well as soft and tender flattery. +Let Pericles believe his daughter’s dead, +And bear his courses to be ordered +By Lady Fortune; while our scene must play +His daughter’s woe and heavy well-a-day +In her unholy service. Patience, then, +And think you now are all in Mytilene. + + [_Exit._] + + + +SCENE V. Mytilene. A street before the brothel. + + Enter, from the brothel, two Gentlemen. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Did you ever hear the like? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +No, nor never shall do in such a place as this, she being once gone. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +But to have divinity preached there! did you ever dream of such a +thing? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +No, no. Come, I am for no more bawdy houses: shall’s go hear the +vestals sing? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +I’ll do anything now that is virtuous; but I am out of the road of +rutting for ever. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE VI. The same. A room in the brothel. + + Enter Pandar, Bawd and Boult. + +PANDAR. +Well, I had rather than twice the worth of her she had ne’er come here. + +BAWD. +Fie, fie upon her! She’s able to freeze the god Priapus, and undo a +whole generation. We must either get her ravished, or be rid of her. +When she should do for clients her fitment, and do me the kindness of +our profession, she has me her quirks, her reasons, her master reasons, +her prayers, her knees; that she would make a puritan of the devil, if +he should cheapen a kiss of her. + +BOULT. +Faith, I must ravish her, or she’ll disfurnish us of all our cavaliers, +and make our swearers priests. + +PANDAR. +Now, the pox upon her green sickness for me! + +BAWD. +Faith, there’s no way to be rid on’t but by the way to the pox. +Here comes the Lord Lysimachus disguised. + +BOULT. +We should have both lord and lown, if the peevish baggage would but +give way to customers. + + Enter Lysimachus. + +LYSIMACHUS. +How now! How a dozen of virginities? + +BAWD. +Now, the gods to bless your honour! + +BOULT. +I am glad to see your honour in good health. + +LYSIMACHUS. +You may so; ’tis the better for you that your resorters stand upon +sound legs. How now? Wholesome iniquity have you that a man may deal +withal, and defy the surgeon? + +BAWD. +We have here one, sir, if she would — but there never came her like in +Mytilene. + +LYSIMACHUS. +If she’d do the deed of darkness, thou wouldst say. + +BAWD. +Your honour knows what ’tis to say well enough. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Well, call forth, call forth. + +BOULT. +For flesh and blood, sir, white and red, you shall see a rose; and she +were a rose indeed, if she had but — + +LYSIMACHUS. +What, prithee? + +BOULT. +O, sir, I can be modest. + +LYSIMACHUS. +That dignifies the renown of a bawd no less than it gives a good report +to a number to be chaste. + + [_Exit Boult._] + +BAWD. +Here comes that which grows to the stalk; never plucked yet, I can +assure you. + + Re-enter Boult with Marina. + +Is she not a fair creature? + +LYSIMACHUS. +Faith, she would serve after a long voyage at sea. Well, there’s for +you: leave us. + +BAWD. +I beseech your honour, give me leave: a word, and I’ll have done +presently. + +LYSIMACHUS. +I beseech you, do. + +BAWD. +[_To Marina._] First, I would have you note, this is an honourable man. + +MARINA. +I desire to find him so, that I may worthily note him. + +BAWD. +Next, he’s the governor of this country, and a man whom I am bound to. + +MARINA. +If he govern the country, you are bound to him indeed; but how +honourable he is in that, I know not. + +BAWD. Pray you, without any more virginal fencing, will you use him +kindly? He will line your apron with gold. + +MARINA. +What he will do graciously, I will thankfully receive. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Ha’ you done? + +BAWD. +My lord, she’s not paced yet: you must take some pains to work her to +your manage. Come, we will leave his honour and her together. Go thy +ways. + + [_Exeunt Bawd, Pandar and Boult._] + +LYSIMACHUS. +Now, pretty one, how long have you been at this trade? + +MARINA. +What trade, sir? + +LYSIMACHUS. +Why, I cannot name’t but I shall offend. + +MARINA. +I cannot be offended with my trade. Please you to name it. + +LYSIMACHUS. +How long have you been of this profession? + +MARINA. +E’er since I can remember. + +LYSIMACHUS. Did you go to’t so young? Were you a gamester at five or at +seven? + +MARINA. +Earlier, too, sir, if now I be one. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Why, the house you dwell in proclaims you to be a creature of sale. + +MARINA. +Do you know this house to be a place of such resort, and will come +into’t? I hear say you are of honourable parts, and are the governor of +this place. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Why, hath your principal made known unto you who I am? + +MARINA. +Who is my principal? + +LYSIMACHUS. +Why, your herb-woman; she that sets seeds and roots of shame and +iniquity. O, you have heard something of my power, and so stand aloof +for more serious wooing. But I protest to thee, pretty one, my +authority shall not see thee, or else look friendly upon thee. Come, +bring me to some private place: come, come. + +MARINA. +If you were born to honour, show it now; +If put upon you, make the judgement good +That thought you worthy of it. + +LYSIMACHUS. +How’s this? how’s this? Some more; be sage. + +MARINA. +For me, +That am a maid, though most ungentle Fortune +Have placed me in this sty, where, since I came, +Diseases have been sold dearer than physic, +O, that the gods +Would set me free from this unhallow’d place, +Though they did change me to the meanest bird +That flies i’ the purer air! + +LYSIMACHUS. +I did not think +Thou couldst have spoke so well; ne’er dream’d thou couldst. +Had I brought hither a corrupted mind, +Thy speech had alter’d it. Hold, here’s gold for thee: +Persever in that clear way thou goest, +And the gods strengthen thee! + +MARINA. +The good gods preserve you! + +LYSIMACHUS. +For me, be you thoughten +That I came with no ill intent; for to me +The very doors and windows savour vilely. +Fare thee well. Thou art a piece of virtue, and +I doubt not but thy training hath been noble. +Hold, here’s more gold for thee. +A curse upon him, die he like a thief, +That robs thee of thy goodness! If thou dost +Hear from me, it shall be for thy good. + + Re-enter Boult. + +BOULT. +I beseech your honour, one piece for me. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Avaunt, thou damned door-keeper! +Your house but for this virgin that doth prop it, +Would sink and overwhelm you. Away! + + [_Exit._] + +BOULT. +How’s this? We must take another course with you. If your peevish +chastity, which is not worth a breakfast in the cheapest country under +the cope, shall undo a whole household, let me be gelded like a +spaniel. Come your ways. + +MARINA. +Whither would you have me? + +BOULT. +I must have your maidenhead taken off, or the common hangman shall +execute it. Come your ways. We’ll have no more gentlemen driven away. +Come your ways, I say. + + Re-enter Bawd. + +BAWD. +How now! what’s the matter? + +BOULT. +Worse and worse, mistress; she has here spoken holy words to the Lord +Lysimachus. + +BAWD. +O, abominable! + +BOULT. +She makes our profession as it were to stink afore the face of the +gods. + +BAWD. +Marry, hang her up for ever! + +BOULT. +The nobleman would have dealt with her like a nobleman, and she sent +him away as cold as a snowball; saying his prayers too. + +BAWD. +Boult, take her away; use her at thy pleasure: crack the glass of her +virginity, and make the rest malleable. + +BOULT. +An if she were a thornier piece of ground than she is, she shall be +ploughed. + +MARINA. +Hark, hark, you gods! + +BAWD. +She conjures: away with her! Would she had never come within my doors! +Marry, hang you! She’s born to undo us. Will you not go the way of +womankind? Marry, come up, my dish of chastity with rosemary and bays! + + [_Exit._] + +BOULT. +Come, mistress; come your way with me. + +MARINA. +Whither wilt thou have me? + +BOULT. +To take from you the jewel you hold so dear. + +MARINA. +Prithee, tell me one thing first. + +BOULT. +Come now, your one thing? + +MARINA. +What canst thou wish thine enemy to be? + +BOULT. +Why, I could wish him to be my master, or rather, my mistress. + +MARINA. +Neither of these are so bad as thou art, +Since they do better thee in their command. +Thou hold’st a place, for which the pained’st fiend +Of hell would not in reputation change: +Thou art the damned doorkeeper to every +Coistrel that comes inquiring for his Tib. +To the choleric fisting of every rogue +Thy ear is liable, thy food is such +As hath been belch’d on by infected lungs. + +BOULT. +What would you have me do? Go to the wars, would you? where a man may +serve seven years for the loss of a leg, and have not money enough in +the end to buy him a wooden one? + +MARINA. +Do anything but this thou doest. Empty +Old receptacles, or common shores, of filth; +Serve by indenture to the common hangman: +Any of these ways are yet better than this; +For what thou professest, a baboon, could he speak, +Would own a name too dear. O, that the gods +Would safely deliver me from this place! +Here, here’s gold for thee. +If that thy master would gain by me, +Proclaim that I can sing, weave, sew, and dance, +With other virtues, which I’ll keep from boast; +And I will undertake all these to teach. +I doubt not but this populous city will +Yield many scholars. + +BOULT. +But can you teach all this you speak of? + +MARINA. +Prove that I cannot, take me home again, +And prostitute me to the basest groom +That doth frequent your house. + +BOULT. +Well, I will see what I can do for thee: if I can place thee, I will. + +MARINA. +But amongst honest women. + +BOULT. +Faith, my acquaintance lies little amongst them. But since my master +and mistress have bought you, there’s no going but by their consent: +therefore I will make them acquainted with your purpose, and I doubt +not but I shall find them tractable enough. Come, I’ll do for thee what +I can; come your ways. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + + Enter Gower. + +GOWER. +Marina thus the brothel ’scapes, and chances +Into an honest house, our story says. +She sings like one immortal, and she dances +As goddess-like to her admired lays; +Deep clerks she dumbs; and with her nee’le composes +Nature’s own shape, of bud, bird, branch, or berry, +That even her art sisters the natural roses; +Her inkle, silk, twin with the rubied cherry: +That pupils lacks she none of noble race, +Who pour their bounty on her; and her gain +She gives the cursed bawd. Here we her place; +And to her father turn our thoughts again, +Where we left him, on the sea. We there him lost; +Whence, driven before the winds, he is arrived +Here where his daughter dwells; and on this coast +Suppose him now at anchor. The city strived +God Neptune’s annual feast to keep: from whence +Lysimachus our Tyrian ship espies, +His banners sable, trimm’d with rich expense; +And to him in his barge with fervour hies. +In your supposing once more put your sight +Of heavy Pericles; think this his bark: +Where what is done in action, more, if might, +Shall be discover’d; please you, sit and hark. + + [_Exit._] + + + +SCENE I. On board Pericles’ ship, off Mytilene. A close pavilion on +deck, with a curtain before it; Pericles within it, reclined on a +couch. A barge lying beside the Tyrian vessel. + + Enter two Sailors, one belonging to the Tyrian vessel, the other to + the barge; to them Helicanus. + +TYRIAN SAILOR. +[_To the Sailor of Mytilene._] +Where is lord Helicanus? He can resolve you. +O, here he is. +Sir, there’s a barge put off from Mytilene, +And in it is Lysimachus the governor, +Who craves to come aboard. What is your will? + +HELICANUS. +That he have his. Call up some gentlemen. + +TYRIAN SAILOR. +Ho, gentlemen! my lord calls. + + Enter two or three Gentlemen. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Doth your lordship call? + +HELICANUS. +Gentlemen, there is some of worth would come aboard; +I pray ye, greet them fairly. + + [_The Gentlemen and the two Sailors descend and go on board the + barge._] + + Enter, from thence, Lysimachus and Lords; with the Gentlemen and the + two Sailors. + +TYRIAN SAILOR. +Sir, +This is the man that can, in aught you would, +Resolve you. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Hail, reverend sir! the gods preserve you! + +HELICANUS. +And you, sir, to outlive the age I am, +And die as I would do. + +LYSIMACHUS. +You wish me well. +Being on shore, honouring of Neptune’s triumphs, +Seeing this goodly vessel ride before us, +I made to it, to know of whence you are. + +HELICANUS. +First, what is your place? + +LYSIMACHUS. +I am the governor of this place you lie before. + +HELICANUS. +Sir, our vessel is of Tyre, in it the king; +A man who for this three months hath not spoken +To anyone, nor taken sustenance +But to prorogue his grief. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Upon what ground is his distemperature? + +HELICANUS. +’Twould be too tedious to repeat; +But the main grief springs from the loss +Of a beloved daughter and a wife. + +LYSIMACHUS. +May we not see him? + +HELICANUS. +You may; +But bootless is your sight: he will not speak +To any. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Yet let me obtain my wish. + +HELICANUS. +Behold him. +[_Pericles discovered._] +This was a goodly person. +Till the disaster that, one mortal night, +Drove him to this. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Sir king, all hail! The gods preserve you! +Hail, royal sir! + +HELICANUS. +It is in vain; he will not speak to you. + +FIRST LORD. +Sir, we have a maid in Mytilene, I durst wager, +Would win some words of him. + +LYSIMACHUS. +’Tis well bethought. +She questionless with her sweet harmony +And other chosen attractions, would allure, +And make a battery through his deafen’d parts, +Which now are midway stopp’d: +She is all happy as the fairest of all, +And, with her fellow maids, is now upon +The leafy shelter that abuts against +The island’s side. + + [_Whispers a Lord who goes off in the barge of Lysimachus._] + +HELICANUS. +Sure, all’s effectless; yet nothing we’ll omit +That bears recovery’s name. But, since your kindness +We have stretch’d thus far, let us beseech you +That for our gold we may provision have, +Wherein we are not destitute for want, +But weary for the staleness. + +LYSIMACHUS. +O, sir, a courtesy +Which if we should deny, the most just gods +For every graff would send a caterpillar, +And so inflict our province. Yet once more +Let me entreat to know at large the cause +Of your king’s sorrow. + +HELICANUS. +Sit, sir, I will recount it to you: +But, see, I am prevented. + + Re-enter from the barge, Lord with Marina and a young Lady. + +LYSIMACHUS. +O, here is the lady that I sent for. Welcome, fair one! +Is’t not a goodly presence? + +HELICANUS. +She’s a gallant lady. + +LYSIMACHUS. +She’s such a one, that, were I well assured +Came of a gentle kind and noble stock, +I’d wish no better choice, and think me rarely wed. +Fair one, all goodness that consists in bounty +Expect even here, where is a kingly patient: +If that thy prosperous and artificial feat +Can draw him but to answer thee in aught, +Thy sacred physic shall receive such pay +As thy desires can wish. + +MARINA. +Sir, I will use +My utmost skill in his recovery, provided +That none but I and my companion maid +Be suffer’d to come near him. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Come, let us leave her, +And the gods make her prosperous! + + [_Marina sings._] + +LYSIMACHUS. +Mark’d he your music? + +MARINA. +No, nor look’d on us, + +LYSIMACHUS. +See, she will speak to him. + +MARINA. +Hail, sir! My lord, lend ear. + +PERICLES. +Hum, ha! + +MARINA. +I am a maid, +My lord, that ne’er before invited eyes, +But have been gazed on like a comet: she speaks, +My lord, that, may be, hath endured a grief +Might equal yours, if both were justly weigh’d. +Though wayward Fortune did malign my state, +My derivation was from ancestors +Who stood equivalent with mighty kings: +But time hath rooted out my parentage, +And to the world and awkward casualties +Bound me in servitude. +[_Aside._] I will desist; +But there is something glows upon my cheek, +And whispers in mine ear ‘Go not till he speak.’ + +PERICLES. +My fortunes — parentage — good parentage — +To equal mine! — was it not thus? what say you? + +MARINA. +I said, my lord, if you did know my parentage. +You would not do me violence. + +PERICLES. +I do think so. Pray you, turn your eyes upon me. +You are like something that — what country-woman? +Here of these shores? + +MARINA. +No, nor of any shores: +Yet I was mortally brought forth, and am +No other than I appear. + +PERICLES. +I am great with woe, and shall deliver weeping. +My dearest wife was like this maid, and such a one +My daughter might have been: my queen’s square brows; +Her stature to an inch; as wand-like straight; +As silver-voiced; her eyes as jewel-like +And cased as richly; in pace another Juno; +Who starves the ears she feeds, and makes them hungry, +The more she gives them speech. Where do you live? + +MARINA. +Where I am but a stranger: from the deck +You may discern the place. + +PERICLES. +Where were you bred? +And how achieved you these endowments, which +You make more rich to owe? + +MARINA. +If I should tell my history, it would seem +Like lies disdain’d in the reporting. + +PERICLES. +Prithee, speak: +Falseness cannot come from thee; for thou look’st +Modest as Justice, and thou seem’st a palace +For the crown’d Truth to dwell in: I will believe thee, +And make my senses credit thy relation +To points that seem impossible; for thou look’st +Like one I loved indeed. What were thy friends? +Didst thou not say, when I did push thee back — +Which was when I perceived thee — that thou cam’st +From good descending? + +MARINA. +So indeed I did. + +PERICLES. +Report thy parentage. I think thou said’st +Thou hadst been toss’d from wrong to injury, +And that thou thought’st thy griefs might equal mine, +If both were open’d. + +MARINA. +Some such thing, +I said, and said no more but what my thoughts +Did warrant me was likely. + +PERICLES. +Tell thy story; +If thine consider’d prove the thousand part +Of my endurance, thou art a man, and I +Have suffer’d like a girl: yet thou dost look +Like Patience gazing on kings’ graves, and smiling +Extremity out of act. What were thy friends? +How lost thou them? Thy name, my most kind virgin? +Recount, I do beseech thee: come, sit by me. + +MARINA. +My name is Marina. + +PERICLES. +O, I am mock’d, +And thou by some incensed god sent hither +To make the world to laugh at me. + +MARINA. +Patience, good sir, +Or here I’ll cease. + +PERICLES. +Nay, I’ll be patient. +Thou little know’st how thou dost startle me, +To call thyself Marina. + +MARINA. +The name +Was given me by one that had some power, +My father, and a king. + +PERICLES. +How! a king’s daughter? +And call’d Marina? + +MARINA. +You said you would believe me; +But, not to be a troubler of your peace, +I will end here. + +PERICLES. +But are you flesh and blood? +Have you a working pulse? and are no fairy? +Motion! Well; speak on. Where were you born? +And wherefore call’d Marina? + +MARINA. +Call’d Marina +For I was born at sea. + +PERICLES. +At sea! What mother? + +MARINA. +My mother was the daughter of a king; +Who died the minute I was born, +As my good nurse Lychorida hath oft +Deliver’d weeping. + +PERICLES. +O, stop there a little! [_Aside._] This is the rarest dream that e’er +dull sleep +Did mock sad fools withal: this cannot be: +My daughter, buried. Well, where were you bred? +I’ll hear you more, to the bottom of your story, +And never interrupt you. + +MARINA. +You scorn: believe me, ’twere best I did give o’er. + +PERICLES. +I will believe you by the syllable +Of what you shall deliver. Yet, give me leave: +How came you in these parts? Where were you bred? + +MARINA. +The king my father did in Tarsus leave me; +Till cruel Cleon, with his wicked wife, +Did seek to murder me: and having woo’d +A villain to attempt it, who having drawn to do’t, +A crew of pirates came and rescued me; +Brought me to Mytilene. But, good sir. +Whither will you have me? Why do you weep? It may be, +You think me an impostor: no, good faith; +I am the daughter to King Pericles, +If good King Pericles be. + +PERICLES. +Ho, Helicanus! + + Enter Helicanus and Lysimachus. + +HELICANUS. +Calls my lord? + +PERICLES. +Thou art a grave and noble counsellor, +Most wise in general: tell me, if thou canst, +What this maid is, or what is like to be, +That thus hath made me weep. + +HELICANUS. +I know not, +But here is the regent, sir, of Mytilene +Speaks nobly of her. + +LYSIMACHUS. +She would never tell +Her parentage; being demanded that, +She would sit still and weep. + +PERICLES. +O Helicanus, strike me, honour’d sir; +Give me a gash, put me to present pain; +Lest this great sea of joys rushing upon me +O’erbear the shores of my mortality, +And drown me with their sweetness. +[_To Marina_] O, come hither, +Thou that beget’st him that did thee beget; +Thou that wast born at sea, buried at Tarsus, +And found at sea again! O Helicanus, +Down on thy knees, thank the holy gods as loud +As thunder threatens us: this is Marina. +What was thy mother’s name? tell me but that, +For truth can never be confirm’d enough, +Though doubts did ever sleep. + +MARINA. +First, sir, I pray, what is your title? + +PERICLES. +I am Pericles of Tyre: but tell me now +My drown’d queen’s name, as in the rest you said +Thou hast been godlike perfect, +The heir of kingdoms and another life +To Pericles thy father. + +MARINA. +Is it no more to be your daughter than +To say my mother’s name was Thaisa? +Thaisa was my mother, who did end +The minute I began. + +PERICLES. +Now, blessing on thee! rise; thou art my child. +Give me fresh garments. Mine own, Helicanus; +She is not dead at Tarsus, as she should have been, +By savage Cleon: she shall tell thee all; +When thou shalt kneel, and justify in knowledge +She is thy very princess. Who is this? + +HELICANUS. +Sir, ’tis the governor of Mytilene, +Who, hearing of your melancholy state, +Did come to see you. + +PERICLES. +I embrace you. +Give me my robes. I am wild in my beholding. +O heavens bless my girl! But, hark, what music? +Tell Helicanus, my Marina, tell him +O’er, point by point, for yet he seems to doubt, +How sure you are my daughter. But, what music? + +HELICANUS. +My lord, I hear none. + +PERICLES. +None! +The music of the spheres! List, my Marina. + +LYSIMACHUS. +It is not good to cross him; give him way. + +PERICLES. +Rarest sounds! Do ye not hear? + +LYSIMACHUS. +Music, my lord? I hear. + + [_Music._] + +PERICLES. +Most heavenly music! +It nips me unto listening, and thick slumber +Hangs upon mine eyes: let me rest. + + [_Sleeps._] + +LYSIMACHUS. +A pillow for his head: +So, leave him all. Well, my companion friends, +If this but answer to my just belief, +I’ll well remember you. + + [_Exeunt all but Pericles._] + + Diana appears to Pericles as in a vision. + +DIANA. +My temple stands in Ephesus: hie thee thither, +And do upon mine altar sacrifice. +There, when my maiden priests are met together, +Before the people all, +Reveal how thou at sea didst lose thy wife: +To mourn thy crosses, with thy daughter’s, call +And give them repetition to the life. +Or perform my bidding, or thou livest in woe: +Do it, and happy; by my silver bow! +Awake and tell thy dream. + + [_Disappears._] + +PERICLES. +Celestial Dian, goddess argentine, +I will obey thee. Helicanus! + + Re-enter Helicanus, Lysimachus and Marina. + +HELICANUS. +Sir? + +PERICLES. +My purpose was for Tarsus, there to strike +The inhospitable Cleon; but I am +For other service first: toward Ephesus +Turn our blown sails; eftsoons I’ll tell thee why. +[_To Lysimachus._] Shall we refresh us, sir, upon your shore, +And give you gold for such provision +As our intents will need? + +LYSIMACHUS. +Sir, with all my heart, +And when you come ashore I have another suit. + +PERICLES. +You shall prevail, were it to woo my daughter; +For it seems you have been noble towards her. + +LYSIMACHUS. +Sir, lend me your arm. + +PERICLES. +Come, my Marina. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +SCENE II. + + Enter Gower before the temple of Diana at Ephesus. + +GOWER. +Now our sands are almost run; +More a little, and then dumb. +This, my last boon, give me, +For such kindness must relieve me, +That you aptly will suppose +What pageantry, what feats, what shows, +What minstrelsy, and pretty din, +The regent made in Mytilene +To greet the king. So he thrived, +That he is promised to be wived +To fair Marina; but in no wise +Till he had done his sacrifice, +As Dian bade: whereto being bound, +The interim, pray you, all confound. +In feather’d briefness sails are fill’d, +And wishes fall out as they’re will’d. +At Ephesus, the temple see, +Our king and all his company. +That he can hither come so soon, +Is by your fancy’s thankful doom. + + [_Exit._] + + + +SCENE III. The temple of Diana at Ephesus; Thaisa standing near the +altar, as high priestess; a number of Virgins on each side; Cerimon and +other inhabitants of Ephesus attending. + + Enter Pericles with his train; Lysimachus, Helicanus, Marina and a + Lady. + +PERICLES. +Hail, Dian! to perform thy just command, +I here confess myself the King of Tyre; +Who, frighted from my country, did wed +At Pentapolis the fair Thaisa. +At sea in childbed died she, but brought forth +A maid child call’d Marina; whom, O goddess, +Wears yet thy silver livery. She at Tarsus +Was nursed with Cleon; who at fourteen years +He sought to murder: but her better stars +Brought her to Mytilene; ’gainst whose shore +Riding, her fortunes brought the maid aboard us, +Where by her own most clear remembrance, she +Made known herself my daughter. + +THAISA. +Voice and favour! +You are, you are — O royal Pericles! + + [_Faints._] + +PERICLES. +What means the nun? She dies! help, gentlemen! + +CERIMON. +Noble sir, +If you have told Diana’s altar true, +This is your wife. + +PERICLES. +Reverend appearer, no; +I threw her overboard with these very arms. + +CERIMON. +Upon this coast, I warrant you. + +PERICLES. +’Tis most certain. + +CERIMON. +Look to the lady; O, she’s but o’er-joy’d. +Early in blustering morn this lady was +Thrown upon this shore. I oped the coffin, +Found there rich jewels; recover’d her, and placed her +Here in Diana’s temple. + +PERICLES. +May we see them? + +CERIMON. +Great sir, they shall be brought you to my house, +Whither I invite you. Look, Thaisa is +Recovered. + +THAISA. +O, let me look! +If he be none of mine, my sanctity +Will to my sense bend no licentious ear, +But curb it, spite of seeing. O, my lord, +Are you not Pericles? Like him you spake, +Like him you are: did you not name a tempest, +A birth, and death? + +PERICLES. +The voice of dead Thaisa! + +THAISA. +That Thaisa am I, supposed dead +And drown’d. + +PERICLES. +Immortal Dian! + +THAISA. +Now I know you better, +When we with tears parted Pentapolis, +The king my father gave you such a ring. + + [_Shows a ring._] + +PERICLES. +This, this: no more, you gods! your present kindness +Makes my past miseries sports: you shall do well, +That on the touching of her lips I may +Melt and no more be seen. O, come, be buried +A second time within these arms. + +MARINA. +My heart +Leaps to be gone into my mother’s bosom. + + [_Kneels to Thaisa._] + +PERICLES. +Look, who kneels here! Flesh of thy flesh, Thaisa; +Thy burden at the sea, and call’d Marina +For she was yielded there. + +THAISA. +Blest, and mine own! + +HELICANUS. +Hail, madam, and my queen! + +THAISA. +I know you not. + +PERICLES. +You have heard me say, when I did fly from Tyre, +I left behind an ancient substitute: +Can you remember what I call’d the man +I have named him oft. + +THAISA. +’Twas Helicanus then. + +PERICLES. +Still confirmation: +Embrace him, dear Thaisa; this is he. +Now do I long to hear how you were found: +How possibly preserved; and who to thank, +Besides the gods, for this great miracle. + +THAISA. +Lord Cerimon, my lord; this man, +Through whom the gods have shown their power; that can +From first to last resolve you. + +PERICLES. +Reverend sir, +The gods can have no mortal officer +More like a god than you. Will you deliver +How this dead queen relives? + +CERIMON. +I will, my lord. +Beseech you, first go with me to my house, +Where shall be shown you all was found with her; +How she came placed here in the temple; +No needful thing omitted. + +PERICLES. +Pure Dian, bless thee for thy vision! I +Will offer night-oblations to thee. Thaisa, +This prince, the fair betrothed of your daughter, +Shall marry her at Pentapolis. +And now this ornament +Makes me look dismal will I clip to form; +And what this fourteen years no razor touch’d +To grace thy marriage-day, I’ll beautify. + +THAISA. +Lord Cerimon hath letters of good credit, sir, +My father’s dead. + +PERICLES. +Heavens make a star of him! Yet there, my queen, +We’ll celebrate their nuptials, and ourselves +Will in that kingdom spend our following days: +Our son and daughter shall in Tyrus reign. +Lord Cerimon, we do our longing stay +To hear the rest untold. Sir, lead’s the way. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Enter Gower. + +GOWER. +In Antiochus and his daughter you have heard +Of monstrous lust the due and just reward: +In Pericles, his queen and daughter seen, +Although assail’d with Fortune fierce and keen, +Virtue preserved from fell destruction’s blast, +Led on by heaven, and crown’d with joy at last. +In Helicanus may you well descry +A figure of truth, of faith, of loyalty: +In reverend Cerimon there well appears +The worth that learned charity aye wears: +For wicked Cleon and his wife, when fame +Had spread their cursed deed, the honour’d name +Of Pericles, to rage the city turn, +That him and his they in his palace burn. +The gods for murder seemed so content +To punish, although not done, but meant. +So on your patience evermore attending, +New joy wait on you! Here our play has ending. + + [_Exit._] + + + +KING RICHARD THE SECOND + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + + KING RICHARD THE SECOND + JOHN OF GAUNT, Duke of Lancaster - uncle to the King + EDMUND LANGLEY, Duke of York - uncle to the King + HENRY, surnamed BOLINGBROKE, Duke of Hereford, son of + John of Gaunt, afterwards King Henry IV + DUKE OF AUMERLE, son of the Duke of York + THOMAS MOWBRAY, Duke of Norfolk + DUKE OF SURREY + EARL OF SALISBURY + EARL BERKELEY + BUSHY - favourites of King Richard + BAGOT - " " " " + GREEN - " " " " + EARL OF NORTHUMBERLAND + HENRY PERCY, surnamed HOTSPUR, his son + LORD Ross LORD WILLOUGHBY + LORD FITZWATER BISHOP OF CARLISLE + ABBOT OF WESTMINSTER LORD MARSHAL + SIR STEPHEN SCROOP SIR PIERCE OF EXTON + CAPTAIN of a band of Welshmen TWO GARDENERS + + QUEEN to King Richard + DUCHESS OF YORK + DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER, widow of Thomas of Woodstock, + Duke of Gloucester + LADY attending on the Queen + + Lords, Heralds, Officers, Soldiers, Keeper, Messenger, + Groom, and other Attendants + +SCENE: England and Wales + +ACT I. SCENE I. London. The palace + +Enter RICHARD, JOHN OF GAUNT, with other NOBLES and attendants + + KING RICHARD. Old John of Gaunt, time-honoured Lancaster, + Hast thou, according to thy oath and band, + Brought hither Henry Hereford, thy bold son, + Here to make good the boist'rous late appeal, + Which then our leisure would not let us hear, + Against the Duke of Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray? + GAUNT. I have, my liege. + KING RICHARD. Tell me, moreover, hast thou sounded him + If he appeal the Duke on ancient malice, + Or worthily, as a good subject should, + On some known ground of treachery in him? + GAUNT. As near as I could sift him on that argument, + On some apparent danger seen in him + Aim'd at your Highness-no inveterate malice. + KING RICHARD. Then call them to our presence: face to face + And frowning brow to brow, ourselves will hear + The accuser and the accused freely speak. + High-stomach'd are they both and full of ire, + In rage, deaf as the sea, hasty as fire. + + Enter BOLINGBROKE and MOWBRAY + + BOLINGBROKE. Many years of happy days befall + My gracious sovereign, my most loving liege! + MOWBRAY. Each day still better other's happiness + Until the heavens, envying earth's good hap, + Add an immortal title to your crown! + KING RICHARD. We thank you both; yet one but flatters us, + As well appeareth by the cause you come; + Namely, to appeal each other of high treason. + Cousin of Hereford, what dost thou object + Against the Duke of Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray? + BOLINGBROKE. First-heaven be the record to my speech! + In the devotion of a subject's love, + Tend'ring the precious safety of my prince, + And free from other misbegotten hate, + Come I appellant to this princely presence. + Now, Thomas Mowbray, do I turn to thee, + And mark my greeting well; for what I speak + My body shall make good upon this earth, + Or my divine soul answer it in heaven- + Thou art a traitor and a miscreant, + Too good to be so, and too bad to live, + Since the more fair and crystal is the sky, + The uglier seem the clouds that in it fly. + Once more, the more to aggravate the note, + With a foul traitor's name stuff I thy throat; + And wish-so please my sovereign-ere I move, + What my tongue speaks, my right drawn sword may prove. + MOWBRAY. Let not my cold words here accuse my zeal. + 'Tis not the trial of a woman's war, + The bitter clamour of two eager tongues, + Can arbitrate this cause betwixt us twain; + The blood is hot that must be cool'd for this. + Yet can I not of such tame patience boast + As to be hush'd and nought at an to say. + First, the fair reverence of your Highness curbs me + From giving reins and spurs to my free speech; + Which else would post until it had return'd + These terms of treason doubled down his throat. + Setting aside his high blood's royalty, + And let him be no kinsman to my liege, + I do defy him, and I spit at him, + Call him a slanderous coward and a villain; + Which to maintain, I would allow him odds + And meet him, were I tied to run afoot + Even to the frozen ridges of the Alps, + Or any other ground inhabitable + Where ever Englishman durst set his foot. + Meantime let this defend my loyalty- + By all my hopes, most falsely doth he lie + BOLINGBROKE. Pale trembling coward, there I throw my gage, + Disclaiming here the kindred of the King; + And lay aside my high blood's royalty, + Which fear, not reverence, makes thee to except. + If guilty dread have left thee so much strength + As to take up mine honour's pawn, then stoop. + By that and all the rites of knighthood else + Will I make good against thee, arm to arm, + What I have spoke or thou canst worst devise. + MOWBRAY. I take it up; and by that sword I swear + Which gently laid my knighthood on my shoulder + I'll answer thee in any fair degree + Or chivalrous design of knightly trial; + And when I mount, alive may I not light + If I be traitor or unjustly fight! + KING RICHARD. What doth our cousin lay to Mowbray's charge? + It must be great that can inherit us + So much as of a thought of ill in him. + BOLINGBROKE. Look what I speak, my life shall prove it true- + That Mowbray hath receiv'd eight thousand nobles + In name of lendings for your Highness' soldiers, + The which he hath detain'd for lewd employments + Like a false traitor and injurious villain. + Besides, I say and will in battle prove- + Or here, or elsewhere to the furthest verge + That ever was survey'd by English eye- + That all the treasons for these eighteen years + Complotted and contrived in this land + Fetch from false Mowbray their first head and spring. + Further I say, and further will maintain + Upon his bad life to make all this good, + That he did plot the Duke of Gloucester's death, + Suggest his soon-believing adversaries, + And consequently, like a traitor coward, + Sluic'd out his innocent soul through streams of blood; + Which blood, like sacrificing Abel's, cries, + Even from the tongueless caverns of the earth, + To me for justice and rough chastisement; + And, by the glorious worth of my descent, + This arm shall do it, or this life be spent. + KING RICHARD. How high a pitch his resolution soars! + Thomas of Norfolk, what say'st thou to this? + MOWBRAY. O, let my sovereign turn away his face + And bid his ears a little while be deaf, + Till I have told this slander of his blood + How God and good men hate so foul a liar. + KING RICHARD. Mowbray, impartial are our eyes and cars. + Were he my brother, nay, my kingdom's heir, + As he is but my father's brother's son, + Now by my sceptre's awe I make a vow, + Such neighbour nearness to our sacred blood + Should nothing privilege him nor partialize + The unstooping firmness of my upright soul. + He is our subject, Mowbray; so art thou: + Free speech and fearless I to thee allow. + MOWBRAY. Then, Bolingbroke, as low as to thy heart, + Through the false passage of thy throat, thou liest. + Three parts of that receipt I had for Calais + Disburs'd I duly to his Highness' soldiers; + The other part reserv'd I by consent, + For that my sovereign liege was in my debt + Upon remainder of a dear account + Since last I went to France to fetch his queen: + Now swallow down that lie. For Gloucester's death- + I slew him not, but to my own disgrace + Neglected my sworn duty in that case. + For you, my noble Lord of Lancaster, + The honourable father to my foe, + Once did I lay an ambush for your life, + A trespass that doth vex my grieved soul; + But ere I last receiv'd the sacrament + I did confess it, and exactly begg'd + Your Grace's pardon; and I hope I had it. + This is my fault. As for the rest appeal'd, + It issues from the rancour of a villain, + A recreant and most degenerate traitor; + Which in myself I boldly will defend, + And interchangeably hurl down my gage + Upon this overweening traitor's foot + To prove myself a loyal gentleman + Even in the best blood chamber'd in his bosom. + In haste whereof, most heartily I pray + Your Highness to assign our trial day. + KING RICHARD. Wrath-kindled gentlemen, be rul'd by me; + Let's purge this choler without letting blood- + This we prescribe, though no physician; + Deep malice makes too deep incision. + Forget, forgive; conclude and be agreed: + Our doctors say this is no month to bleed. + Good uncle, let this end where it begun; + We'll calm the Duke of Norfolk, you your son. + GAUNT. To be a make-peace shall become my age. + Throw down, my son, the Duke of Norfolk's gage. + KING RICHARD. And, Norfolk, throw down his. + GAUNT. When, Harry, when? + Obedience bids I should not bid again. + KING RICHARD. Norfolk, throw down; we bid. + There is no boot. + MOWBRAY. Myself I throw, dread sovereign, at thy foot; + My life thou shalt command, but not my shame: + The one my duty owes; but my fair name, + Despite of death, that lives upon my grave + To dark dishonour's use thou shalt not have. + I am disgrac'd, impeach'd, and baffl'd here; + Pierc'd to the soul with slander's venom'd spear, + The which no balm can cure but his heart-blood + Which breath'd this poison. + KING RICHARD. Rage must be withstood: + Give me his gage-lions make leopards tame. + MOWBRAY. Yea, but not change his spots. Take but my shame, + And I resign my gage. My dear dear lord, + The purest treasure mortal times afford + Is spotless reputation; that away, + Men are but gilded loam or painted clay. + A jewel in a ten-times barr'd-up chest + Is a bold spirit in a loyal breast. + Mine honour is my life; both grow in one; + Take honour from me, and my life is done: + Then, dear my liege, mine honour let me try; + In that I live, and for that will I die. + KING RICHARD. Cousin, throw up your gage; do you begin. + BOLINGBROKE. O, God defend my soul from such deep sin! + Shall I seem crest-fallen in my father's sight? + Or with pale beggar-fear impeach my height + Before this outdar'd dastard? Ere my tongue + Shall wound my honour with such feeble wrong + Or sound so base a parle, my teeth shall tear + The slavish motive of recanting fear, + And spit it bleeding in his high disgrace, + Where shame doth harbour, even in Mowbray's face. + Exit GAUNT + KING RICHARD. We were not born to sue, but to command; + Which since we cannot do to make you friends, + Be ready, as your lives shall answer it, + At Coventry, upon Saint Lambert's day. + There shall your swords and lances arbitrate + The swelling difference of your settled hate; + Since we can not atone you, we shall see + Justice design the victor's chivalry. + Lord Marshal, command our officers-at-arms + Be ready to direct these home alarms. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. London. The DUKE OF LANCASTER'S palace + +Enter JOHN OF GAUNT with the DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER + + GAUNT. Alas, the part I had in Woodstock's blood + Doth more solicit me than your exclaims + To stir against the butchers of his life! + But since correction lieth in those hands + Which made the fault that we cannot correct, + Put we our quarrel to the will of heaven; + Who, when they see the hours ripe on earth, + Will rain hot vengeance on offenders' heads. + DUCHESS. Finds brotherhood in thee no sharper spur? + Hath love in thy old blood no living fire? + Edward's seven sons, whereof thyself art one, + Were as seven vials of his sacred blood, + Or seven fair branches springing from one root. + Some of those seven are dried by nature's course, + Some of those branches by the Destinies cut; + But Thomas, my dear lord, my life, my Gloucester, + One vial full of Edward's sacred blood, + One flourishing branch of his most royal root, + Is crack'd, and all the precious liquor spilt; + Is hack'd down, and his summer leaves all faded, + By envy's hand and murder's bloody axe. + Ah, Gaunt, his blood was thine! That bed, that womb, + That mettle, that self mould, that fashion'd thee, + Made him a man; and though thou livest and breathest, + Yet art thou slain in him. Thou dost consent + In some large measure to thy father's death + In that thou seest thy wretched brother die, + Who was the model of thy father's life. + Call it not patience, Gaunt-it is despair; + In suff'ring thus thy brother to be slaught'red, + Thou showest the naked pathway to thy life, + Teaching stern murder how to butcher thee. + That which in mean men we entitle patience + Is pale cold cowardice in noble breasts. + What shall I say? To safeguard thine own life + The best way is to venge my Gloucester's death. + GAUNT. God's is the quarrel; for God's substitute, + His deputy anointed in His sight, + Hath caus'd his death; the which if wrongfully, + Let heaven revenge; for I may never lift + An angry arm against His minister. + DUCHESS. Where then, alas, may I complain myself? + GAUNT. To God, the widow's champion and defence. + DUCHESS. Why then, I will. Farewell, old Gaunt. + Thou goest to Coventry, there to behold + Our cousin Hereford and fell Mowbray fight. + O, sit my husband's wrongs on Hereford's spear, + That it may enter butcher Mowbray's breast! + Or, if misfortune miss the first career, + Be Mowbray's sins so heavy in his bosom + That they may break his foaming courser's back + And throw the rider headlong in the lists, + A caitiff recreant to my cousin Hereford! + Farewell, old Gaunt; thy sometimes brother's wife, + With her companion, Grief, must end her life. + GAUNT. Sister, farewell; I must to Coventry. + As much good stay with thee as go with me! + DUCHESS. Yet one word more- grief boundeth where it falls, + Not with the empty hollowness, but weight. + I take my leave before I have begun, + For sorrow ends not when it seemeth done. + Commend me to thy brother, Edmund York. + Lo, this is all- nay, yet depart not so; + Though this be all, do not so quickly go; + I shall remember more. Bid him- ah, what?- + With all good speed at Plashy visit me. + Alack, and what shall good old York there see + But empty lodgings and unfurnish'd walls, + Unpeopled offices, untrodden stones? + And what hear there for welcome but my groans? + Therefore commend me; let him not come there + To seek out sorrow that dwells every where. + Desolate, desolate, will I hence and die; + The last leave of thee takes my weeping eye. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. The lists at Coventry + +Enter the LORD MARSHAL and the DUKE OF AUMERLE + + MARSHAL. My Lord Aumerle, is Harry Hereford arm'd? + AUMERLE. Yea, at all points; and longs to enter in. + MARSHAL. The Duke of Norfolk, spightfully and bold, + Stays but the summons of the appelant's trumpet. + AUMERLE. Why then, the champions are prepar'd, and stay + For nothing but his Majesty's approach. + + The trumpets sound, and the KING enters with his nobles, + GAUNT, BUSHY, BAGOT, GREEN, and others. When they are set, + enter MOWBRAY, Duke of Nor folk, in arms, defendant, and + a HERALD + + KING RICHARD. Marshal, demand of yonder champion + The cause of his arrival here in arms; + Ask him his name; and orderly proceed + To swear him in the justice of his cause. + MARSHAL. In God's name and the King's, say who thou art, + And why thou comest thus knightly clad in arms; + Against what man thou com'st, and what thy quarrel. + Speak truly on thy knighthood and thy oath; + As so defend thee heaven and thy valour! + MOWBRAY. My name is Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk; + Who hither come engaged by my oath- + Which God defend a knight should violate!- + Both to defend my loyalty and truth + To God, my King, and my succeeding issue, + Against the Duke of Hereford that appeals me; + And, by the grace of God and this mine arm, + To prove him, in defending of myself, + A traitor to my God, my King, and me. + And as I truly fight, defend me heaven! + + The trumpets sound. Enter BOLINGBROKE, Duke of Hereford, + appellant, in armour, and a HERALD + + KING RICHARD. Marshal, ask yonder knight in arms, + Both who he is and why he cometh hither + Thus plated in habiliments of war; + And formally, according to our law, + Depose him in the justice of his cause. + MARSHAL. What is thy name? and wherefore com'st thou hither + Before King Richard in his royal lists? + Against whom comest thou? and what's thy quarrel? + Speak like a true knight, so defend thee heaven! + BOLINGBROKE. Harry of Hereford, Lancaster, and Derby, + Am I; who ready here do stand in arms + To prove, by God's grace and my body's valour, + In lists on Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, + That he is a traitor, foul and dangerous, + To God of heaven, King Richard, and to me. + And as I truly fight, defend me heaven! + MARSHAL. On pain of death, no person be so bold + Or daring-hardy as to touch the lists, + Except the Marshal and such officers + Appointed to direct these fair designs. + BOLINGBROKE. Lord Marshal, let me kiss my sovereign's hand, + And bow my knee before his Majesty; + For Mowbray and myself are like two men + That vow a long and weary pilgrimage. + Then let us take a ceremonious leave + And loving farewell of our several friends. + MARSHAL. The appellant in all duty greets your Highness, + And craves to kiss your hand and take his leave. + KING RICHARD. We will descend and fold him in our arms. + Cousin of Hereford, as thy cause is right, + So be thy fortune in this royal fight! + Farewell, my blood; which if to-day thou shed, + Lament we may, but not revenge thee dead. + BOLINGBROKE. O, let no noble eye profane a tear + For me, if I be gor'd with Mowbray's spear. + As confident as is the falcon's flight + Against a bird, do I with Mowbray fight. + My loving lord, I take my leave of you; + Of you, my noble cousin, Lord Aumerle; + Not sick, although I have to do with death, + But lusty, young, and cheerly drawing breath. + Lo, as at English feasts, so I regreet + The daintiest last, to make the end most sweet. + O thou, the earthly author of my blood, + Whose youthful spirit, in me regenerate, + Doth with a twofold vigour lift me up + To reach at victory above my head, + Add proof unto mine armour with thy prayers, + And with thy blessings steel my lance's point, + That it may enter Mowbray's waxen coat + And furbish new the name of John o' Gaunt, + Even in the lusty haviour of his son. + GAUNT. God in thy good cause make thee prosperous! + Be swift like lightning in the execution, + And let thy blows, doubly redoubled, + Fall like amazing thunder on the casque + Of thy adverse pernicious enemy. + Rouse up thy youthful blood, be valiant, and live. + BOLINGBROKE. Mine innocence and Saint George to thrive! + MOWBRAY. However God or fortune cast my lot, + There lives or dies, true to King Richard's throne, + A loyal, just, and upright gentleman. + Never did captive with a freer heart + Cast off his chains of bondage, and embrace + His golden uncontroll'd enfranchisement, + More than my dancing soul doth celebrate + This feast of battle with mine adversary. + Most mighty liege, and my companion peers, + Take from my mouth the wish of happy years. + As gentle and as jocund as to jest + Go I to fight: truth hath a quiet breast. + KING RICHARD. Farewell, my lord, securely I espy + Virtue with valour couched in thine eye. + Order the trial, Marshal, and begin. + MARSHAL. Harry of Hereford, Lancaster, and Derby, + Receive thy lance; and God defend the right! + BOLINGBROKE. Strong as a tower in hope, I cry amen. + MARSHAL. [To an officer] Go bear this lance to Thomas, + Duke of Norfolk. + FIRST HERALD. Harry of Hereford, Lancaster, and Derby, + Stands here for God, his sovereign, and himself, + On pain to be found false and recreant, + To prove the Duke of Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray, + A traitor to his God, his King, and him; + And dares him to set forward to the fight. + SECOND HERALD. Here standeth Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk, + On pain to be found false and recreant, + Both to defend himself, and to approve + Henry of Hereford, Lancaster, and Derby, + To God, his sovereign, and to him disloyal, + Courageously and with a free desire + Attending but the signal to begin. + MARSHAL. Sound trumpets; and set forward, combatants. + [A charge sounded] + Stay, the King hath thrown his warder down. + KING RICHARD. Let them lay by their helmets and their spears, + And both return back to their chairs again. + Withdraw with us; and let the trumpets sound + While we return these dukes what we decree. + + A long flourish, while the KING consults his Council + + Draw near, + And list what with our council we have done. + For that our kingdom's earth should not be soil'd + With that dear blood which it hath fostered; + And for our eyes do hate the dire aspect + Of civil wounds plough'd up with neighbours' sword; + And for we think the eagle-winged pride + Of sky-aspiring and ambitious thoughts, + With rival-hating envy, set on you + To wake our peace, which in our country's cradle + Draws the sweet infant breath of gentle sleep; + Which so rous'd up with boist'rous untun'd drums, + With harsh-resounding trumpets' dreadful bray, + And grating shock of wrathful iron arms, + Might from our quiet confines fright fair peace + And make us wade even in our kindred's blood- + Therefore we banish you our territories. + You, cousin Hereford, upon pain of life, + Till twice five summers have enrich'd our fields + Shall not regreet our fair dominions, + But tread the stranger paths of banishment. + BOLINGBROKE. Your will be done. This must my comfort be- + That sun that warms you here shall shine on me, + And those his golden beams to you here lent + Shall point on me and gild my banishment. + KING RICHARD. Norfolk, for thee remains a heavier doom, + Which I with some unwillingness pronounce: + The sly slow hours shall not determinate + The dateless limit of thy dear exile; + The hopeless word of 'never to return' + Breathe I against thee, upon pain of life. + MOWBRAY. A heavy sentence, my most sovereign liege, + And all unlook'd for from your Highness' mouth. + A dearer merit, not so deep a maim + As to be cast forth in the common air, + Have I deserved at your Highness' hands. + The language I have learnt these forty years, + My native English, now I must forgo; + And now my tongue's use is to me no more + Than an unstringed viol or a harp; + Or like a cunning instrument cas'd up + Or, being open, put into his hands + That knows no touch to tune the harmony. + Within my mouth you have engaol'd my tongue, + Doubly portcullis'd with my teeth and lips; + And dull, unfeeling, barren ignorance + Is made my gaoler to attend on me. + I am too old to fawn upon a nurse, + Too far in years to be a pupil now. + What is thy sentence, then, but speechless death, + Which robs my tongue from breathing native breath? + KING RICHARD. It boots thee not to be compassionate; + After our sentence plaining comes too late. + MOWBRAY. Then thus I turn me from my countrv's light, + To dwell in solemn shades of endless night. + KING RICHARD. Return again, and take an oath with thee. + Lay on our royal sword your banish'd hands; + Swear by the duty that you owe to God, + Our part therein we banish with yourselves, + To keep the oath that we administer: + You never shall, so help you truth and God, + Embrace each other's love in banishment; + Nor never look upon each other's face; + Nor never write, regreet, nor reconcile + This louring tempest of your home-bred hate; + Nor never by advised purpose meet + To plot, contrive, or complot any ill, + 'Gainst us, our state, our subjects, or our land. + BOLINGBROKE. I swear. + MOWBRAY. And I, to keep all this. + BOLINGBROKE. Norfolk, so far as to mine enemy. + By this time, had the King permitted us, + One of our souls had wand'red in the air, + Banish'd this frail sepulchre of our flesh, + As now our flesh is banish'd from this land- + Confess thy treasons ere thou fly the realm; + Since thou hast far to go, bear not along + The clogging burden of a guilty soul. + MOWBRAY. No, Bolingbroke; if ever I were traitor, + My name be blotted from the book of life, + And I from heaven banish'd as from hence! + But what thou art, God, thou, and I, do know; + And all too soon, I fear, the King shall rue. + Farewell, my liege. Now no way can I stray: + Save back to England, an the world's my way. Exit + KING RICHARD. Uncle, even in the glasses of thine eyes + I see thy grieved heart. Thy sad aspect + Hath from the number of his banish'd years + Pluck'd four away. [To BOLINGBROKE] Six frozen winters spent, + Return with welcome home from banishment. + BOLINGBROKE. How long a time lies in one little word! + Four lagging winters and four wanton springs + End in a word: such is the breath of Kings. + GAUNT. I thank my liege that in regard of me + He shortens four years of my son's exile; + But little vantage shall I reap thereby, + For ere the six years that he hath to spend + Can change their moons and bring their times about, + My oil-dried lamp and time-bewasted light + Shall be extinct with age and endless night; + My inch of taper will be burnt and done, + And blindfold death not let me see my son. + KING RICHARD. Why, uncle, thou hast many years to live. + GAUNT. But not a minute, King, that thou canst give: + Shorten my days thou canst with sullen sorrow + And pluck nights from me, but not lend a morrow; + Thou can'st help time to furrow me with age, + But stop no wrinkle in his pilgrimage; + Thy word is current with him for my death, + But dead, thy kingdom cannot buy my breath. + KING RICHARD. Thy son is banish'd upon good advice, + Whereto thy tongue a party-verdict gave. + Why at our justice seem'st thou then to lour? + GAUNT. Things sweet to taste prove in digestion sour. + You urg'd me as a judge; but I had rather + You would have bid me argue like a father. + O, had it been a stranger, not my child, + To smooth his fault I should have been more mild. + A partial slander sought I to avoid, + And in the sentence my own life destroy'd. + Alas, I look'd when some of you should say + I was too strict to make mine own away; + But you gave leave to my unwilling tongue + Against my will to do myself this wrong. + KING RICHARD. Cousin, farewell; and, uncle, bid him so. + Six years we banish him, and he shall go. + Flourish. Exit KING with train + AUMERLE. Cousin, farewell; what presence must not know, + From where you do remain let paper show. + MARSHAL. My lord, no leave take I, for I will ride + As far as land will let me by your side. + GAUNT. O, to what purpose dost thou hoard thy words, + That thou returnest no greeting to thy friends? + BOLINGBROKE. I have too few to take my leave of you, + When the tongue's office should be prodigal + To breathe the abundant dolour of the heart. + GAUNT. Thy grief is but thy absence for a time. + BOLINGBROKE. Joy absent, grief is present for that time. + GAUNT. What is six winters? They are quickly gone. + BOLINGBROKE. To men in joy; but grief makes one hour ten. + GAUNT. Call it a travel that thou tak'st for pleasure. + BOLINGBROKE. My heart will sigh when I miscall it so, + Which finds it an enforced pilgrimage. + GAUNT. The sullen passage of thy weary steps + Esteem as foil wherein thou art to set + The precious jewel of thy home return. + BOLINGBROKE. Nay, rather, every tedious stride I make + Will but remember me what a deal of world + I wander from the jewels that I love. + Must I not serve a long apprenticehood + To foreign passages; and in the end, + Having my freedom, boast of nothing else + But that I was a journeyman to grief? + GAUNT. All places that the eye of heaven visits + Are to a wise man ports and happy havens. + Teach thy necessity to reason thus: + There is no virtue like necessity. + Think not the King did banish thee, + But thou the King. Woe doth the heavier sit + Where it perceives it is but faintly home. + Go, say I sent thee forth to purchase honour, + And not the King exil'd thee; or suppose + Devouring pestilence hangs in our air + And thou art flying to a fresher clime. + Look what thy soul holds dear, imagine it + To lie that way thou goest, not whence thou com'st. + Suppose the singing birds musicians, + The grass whereon thou tread'st the presence strew'd, + The flowers fair ladies, and thy steps no more + Than a delightful measure or a dance; + For gnarling sorrow hath less power to bite + The man that mocks at it and sets it light. + BOLINGBROKE. O, who can hold a fire in his hand + By thinking on the frosty Caucasus? + Or cloy the hungry edge of appetite + By bare imagination of a feast? + Or wallow naked in December snow + By thinking on fantastic summer's heat? + O, no! the apprehension of the good + Gives but the greater feeling to the worse. + Fell sorrow's tooth doth never rankle more + Than when he bites, but lanceth not the sore. + GAUNT. Come, come, my son, I'll bring thee on thy way. + Had I thy youtli and cause, I would not stay. + BOLINGBROKE. Then, England's ground, farewell; sweet soil, adieu; + My mother, and my nurse, that bears me yet! + Where'er I wander, boast of this I can: + Though banish'd, yet a trueborn English man. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. London. The court + +Enter the KING, with BAGOT and GREEN, at one door; and the DUKE OF +AUMERLE at another + + KING RICHARD. We did observe. Cousin Aumerle, + How far brought you high Hereford on his way? + AUMERLE. I brought high Hereford, if you call him so, + But to the next high way, and there I left him. + KING RICHARD. And say, what store of parting tears were shed? + AUMERLE. Faith, none for me; except the north-east wind, + Which then blew bitterly against our faces, + Awak'd the sleeping rheum, and so by chance + Did grace our hollow parting with a tear. + KING RICHARD. What said our cousin when you parted with him? + AUMERLE. 'Farewell.' + And, for my heart disdained that my tongue + Should so profane the word, that taught me craft + To counterfeit oppression of such grief + That words seem'd buried in my sorrow's grave. + Marry, would the word 'farewell' have length'ned hours + And added years to his short banishment, + He should have had a volume of farewells; + But since it would not, he had none of me. + KING RICHARD. He is our cousin, cousin; but 'tis doubt, + When time shall call him home from banishment, + Whether our kinsman come to see his friends. + Ourself, and Bushy, Bagot here, and Green, + Observ'd his courtship to the common people; + How he did seem to dive into their hearts + With humble and familiar courtesy; + What reverence he did throw away on slaves, + Wooing poor craftsmen with the craft of smiles + And patient underbearing of his fortune, + As 'twere to banish their affects with him. + Off goes his bonnet to an oyster-wench; + A brace of draymen bid God speed him well + And had the tribute of his supple knee, + With 'Thanks, my countrymen, my loving friends'; + As were our England in reversion his, + And he our subjects' next degree in hope. + GREEN. Well, he is gone; and with him go these thoughts! + Now for the rebels which stand out in Ireland, + Expedient manage must be made, my liege, + Ere further leisure yicld them further means + For their advantage and your Highness' loss. + KING RICHARD. We will ourself in person to this war; + And, for our coffers, with too great a court + And liberal largess, are grown somewhat light, + We are enforc'd to farm our royal realm; + The revenue whereof shall furnish us + For our affairs in hand. If that come short, + Our substitutes at home shall have blank charters; + Whereto, when they shall know what men are rich, + They shall subscribe them for large sums of gold, + And send them after to supply our wants; + For we will make for Ireland presently. + + Enter BUSHY + + Bushy, what news? + BUSHY. Old John of Gaunt is grievous sick, my lord, + Suddenly taken; and hath sent poste-haste + To entreat your Majesty to visit him. + KING RICHARD. Where lies he? + BUSHY. At Ely House. + KING RICHARD. Now put it, God, in the physician's mind + To help him to his grave immediately! + The lining of his coffers shall make coats + To deck our soldiers for these Irish wars. + Come, gentlemen, let's all go visit him. + Pray God we may make haste, and come too late! + ALL. Amen. Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE I. London. Ely House + +Enter JOHN OF GAUNT, sick, with the DUKE OF YORK, etc. + + GAUNT. Will the King come, that I may breathe my last + In wholesome counsel to his unstaid youth? + YORK. Vex not yourself, nor strive not with your breath; + For all in vain comes counsel to his ear. + GAUNT. O, but they say the tongues of dying men + Enforce attention like deep harmony. + Where words are scarce, they are seldom spent in vain; + For they breathe truth that breathe their words -in pain. + He that no more must say is listen'd more + Than they whom youth and ease have taught to glose; + More are men's ends mark'd than their lives before. + The setting sun, and music at the close, + As the last taste of sweets, is sweetest last, + Writ in remembrance more than things long past. + Though Richard my life's counsel would not hear, + My death's sad tale may yet undeaf his ear. + YORK. No; it is stopp'd with other flattering sounds, + As praises, of whose taste the wise are fond, + Lascivious metres, to whose venom sound + The open ear of youth doth always listen; + Report of fashions in proud Italy, + Whose manners still our tardy apish nation + Limps after in base imitation. + Where doth the world thrust forth a vanity- + So it be new, there's no respect how vile- + That is not quickly buzz'd into his ears? + Then all too late comes counsel to be heard + Where will doth mutiny with wit's regard. + Direct not him whose way himself will choose. + 'Tis breath thou lack'st, and that breath wilt thou lose. + GAUNT. Methinks I am a prophet new inspir'd, + And thus expiring do foretell of him: + His rash fierce blaze of riot cannot last, + For violent fires soon burn out themselves; + Small showers last long, but sudden storms are short; + He tires betimes that spurs too fast betimes; + With eager feeding food doth choke the feeder; + Light vanity, insatiate cormorant, + Consuming means, soon preys upon itself. + This royal throne of kings, this scept'red isle, + This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, + This other Eden, demi-paradise, + This fortress built by Nature for herself + Against infection and the hand of war, + This happy breed of men, this little world, + This precious stone set in the silver sea, + Which serves it in the office of a wall, + Or as a moat defensive to a house, + Against the envy of less happier lands; + This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England, + This nurse, this teeming womb of royal kings, + Fear'd by their breed, and famous by their birth, + Renowned for their deeds as far from home, + For Christian service and true chivalry, + As is the sepulchre in stubborn Jewry + Of the world's ransom, blessed Mary's Son; + This land of such dear souls, this dear dear land, + Dear for her reputation through the world, + Is now leas'd out-I die pronouncing it- + Like to a tenement or pelting farm. + England, bound in with the triumphant sea, + Whose rocky shore beats back the envious siege + Of wat'ry Neptune, is now bound in with shame, + With inky blots and rotten parchment bonds; + That England, that was wont to conquer others, + Hath made a shameful conquest of itself. + Ah, would the scandal vanish with my life, + How happy then were my ensuing death! + + Enter KING and QUEEN, AUMERLE, BUSHY, GREEN, BAGOT, + Ross, and WILLOUGHBY + + YORK. The King is come; deal mildly with his youth, + For young hot colts being rag'd do rage the more. + QUEEN. How fares our noble uncle Lancaster? + KING RICHARD. What comfort, man? How is't with aged Gaunt? + GAUNT. O, how that name befits my composition! + Old Gaunt, indeed; and gaunt in being old. + Within me grief hath kept a tedious fast; + And who abstains from meat that is not gaunt? + For sleeping England long time have I watch'd; + Watching breeds leanness, leanness is an gaunt. + The pleasure that some fathers feed upon + Is my strict fast-I mean my children's looks; + And therein fasting, hast thou made me gaunt. + Gaunt am I for the grave, gaunt as a grave, + Whose hollow womb inherits nought but bones. + KING RICHARD. Can sick men play so nicely with their names? + GAUNT. No, misery makes sport to mock itself: + Since thou dost seek to kill my name in me, + I mock my name, great king, to flatter thee. + KING RICHARD. Should dying men flatter with those that live? + GAUNT. No, no; men living flatter those that die. + KING RICHARD. Thou, now a-dying, sayest thou flatterest me. + GAUNT. O, no! thou diest, though I the sicker be. + KING RICHARD. I am in health, I breathe, and see thee ill. + GAUNT. Now He that made me knows I see thee ill; + Ill in myself to see, and in thee seeing ill. + Thy death-bed is no lesser than thy land + Wherein thou liest in reputation sick; + And thou, too careless patient as thou art, + Commit'st thy anointed body to the cure + Of those physicians that first wounded thee: + A thousand flatterers sit within thy crown, + Whose compass is no bigger than thy head; + And yet, incaged in so small a verge, + The waste is no whit lesser than thy land. + O, had thy grandsire with a prophet's eye + Seen how his son's son should destroy his sons, + From forth thy reach he would have laid thy shame, + Deposing thee before thou wert possess'd, + Which art possess'd now to depose thyself. + Why, cousin, wert thou regent of the world, + It were a shame to let this land by lease; + But for thy world enjoying but this land, + Is it not more than shame to shame it so? + Landlord of England art thou now, not King. + Thy state of law is bondslave to the law; + And thou- + KING RICHARD. A lunatic lean-witted fool, + Presuming on an ague's privilege, + Darest with thy frozen admonition + Make pale our cheek, chasing the royal blood + With fury from his native residence. + Now by my seat's right royal majesty, + Wert thou not brother to great Edward's son, + This tongue that runs so roundly in thy head + Should run thy head from thy unreverent shoulders. + GAUNT. O, Spare me not, my brother Edward's son, + For that I was his father Edward's son; + That blood already, like the pelican, + Hast thou tapp'd out, and drunkenly carous'd. + My brother Gloucester, plain well-meaning soul- + Whom fair befall in heaven 'mongst happy souls!- + May be a precedent and witness good + That thou respect'st not spilling Edward's blood. + Join with the present sickness that I have; + And thy unkindness be like crooked age, + To crop at once a too long withered flower. + Live in thy shame, but die not shame with thee! + These words hereafter thy tormentors be! + Convey me to my bed, then to my grave. + Love they to live that love and honour have. + Exit, borne out by his attendants + KING RICHARD. And let them die that age and sullens have; + For both hast thou, and both become the grave. + YORK. I do beseech your Majesty impute his words + To wayward sickliness and age in him. + He loves you, on my life, and holds you dear + As Harry Duke of Hereford, were he here. + KING RICHARD. Right, you say true: as Hereford's love, so his; + As theirs, so mine; and all be as it is. + + Enter NORTHUMBERLAND + + NORTHUMBERLAND. My liege, old Gaunt commends him to your Majesty. + KING RICHARD. What says he? + NORTHUMBERLAND. Nay, nothing; all is said. + His tongue is now a stringless instrument; + Words, life, and all, old Lancaster hath spent. + YORK. Be York the next that must be bankrupt so! + Though death be poor, it ends a mortal woe. + KING RICHARD. The ripest fruit first falls, and so doth he; + His time is spent, our pilgrimage must be. + So much for that. Now for our Irish wars. + We must supplant those rough rug-headed kerns, + Which live like venom where no venom else + But only they have privilege to live. + And for these great affairs do ask some charge, + Towards our assistance we do seize to us + The plate, coin, revenues, and moveables, + Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd. + YORK. How long shall I be patient? Ah, how long + Shall tender duty make me suffer wrong? + Not Gloucester's death, nor Hereford's banishment, + Nor Gaunt's rebukes, nor England's private wrongs, + Nor the prevention of poor Bolingbroke + About his marriage, nor my own disgrace, + Have ever made me sour my patient cheek + Or bend one wrinkle on my sovereign's face. + I am the last of noble Edward's sons, + Of whom thy father, Prince of Wales, was first. + In war was never lion rag'd more fierce, + In peace was never gentle lamb more mild, + Than was that young and princely gentleman. + His face thou hast, for even so look'd he, + Accomplish'd with the number of thy hours; + But when he frown'd, it was against the French + And not against his friends. His noble hand + Did win what he did spend, and spent not that + Which his triumphant father's hand had won. + His hands were guilty of no kindred blood, + But bloody with the enemies of his kin. + O Richard! York is too far gone with grief, + Or else he never would compare between- + KING RICHARD. Why, uncle, what's the matter? + YORK. O my liege, + Pardon me, if you please; if not, I, pleas'd + Not to be pardoned, am content withal. + Seek you to seize and gripe into your hands + The royalties and rights of banish'd Hereford? + Is not Gaunt dead? and doth not Hereford live? + Was not Gaunt just? and is not Harry true? + Did not the one deserve to have an heir? + Is not his heir a well-deserving son? + Take Hereford's rights away, and take from Time + His charters and his customary rights; + Let not to-morrow then ensue to-day; + Be not thyself-for how art thou a king + But by fair sequence and succession? + Now, afore God-God forbid I say true!- + If you do wrongfully seize Hereford's rights, + Call in the letters patents that he hath + By his attorneys-general to sue + His livery, and deny his off'red homage, + You pluck a thousand dangers on your head, + You lose a thousand well-disposed hearts, + And prick my tender patience to those thoughts + Which honour and allegiance cannot think. + KING RICHARD. Think what you will, we seize into our hands + His plate, his goods, his money, and his lands. + YORK. I'll not be by the while. My liege, farewell. + What will ensue hereof there's none can tell; + But by bad courses may be understood + That their events can never fall out good. Exit + KING RICHARD. Go, Bushy, to the Earl of Wiltshire straight; + Bid him repair to us to Ely House + To see this business. To-morrow next + We will for Ireland; and 'tis time, I trow. + And we create, in absence of ourself, + Our Uncle York Lord Governor of England; + For he is just, and always lov'd us well. + Come on, our queen; to-morrow must we part; + Be merry, for our time of stay is short. + Flourish. Exeunt KING, QUEEN, BUSHY, AUMERLE, + GREEN, and BAGOT + NORTHUMBERLAND. Well, lords, the Duke of Lancaster is dead. + Ross. And living too; for now his son is Duke. + WILLOUGHBY. Barely in title, not in revenues. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Richly in both, if justice had her right. + ROSS. My heart is great; but it must break with silence, + Ere't be disburdened with a liberal tongue. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Nay, speak thy mind; and let him ne'er speak more + That speaks thy words again to do thee harm! + WILLOUGHBY. Tends that thou wouldst speak to the Duke of Hereford? + If it be so, out with it boldly, man; + Quick is mine ear to hear of good towards him. + ROSS. No good at all that I can do for him; + Unless you call it good to pity him, + Bereft and gelded of his patrimony. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Now, afore God, 'tis shame such wrongs are borne + In him, a royal prince, and many moe + Of noble blood in this declining land. + The King is not himself, but basely led + By flatterers; and what they will inform, + Merely in hate, 'gainst any of us an, + That will the King severely prosecute + 'Gainst us, our lives, our children, and our heirs. + ROSS. The commons hath he pill'd with grievous taxes; + And quite lost their hearts; the nobles hath he find + For ancient quarrels and quite lost their hearts. + WILLOUGHBY. And daily new exactions are devis'd, + As blanks, benevolences, and I wot not what; + But what, a God's name, doth become of this? + NORTHUMBERLAND. Wars hath not wasted it, for warr'd he hath not, + But basely yielded upon compromise + That which his noble ancestors achiev'd with blows. + More hath he spent in peace than they in wars. + ROSS. The Earl of Wiltshire hath the realm in farm. + WILLOUGHBY. The King's grown bankrupt like a broken man. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Reproach and dissolution hangeth over him. + ROSS. He hath not money for these Irish wars, + His burdenous taxations notwithstanding, + But by the robbing of the banish'd Duke. + NORTHUMBERLAND. His noble kinsman-most degenerate king! + But, lords, we hear this fearful tempest sing, + Yet seek no shelter to avoid the storm; + We see the wind sit sore upon our sails, + And yet we strike not, but securely perish. + ROSS. We see the very wreck that we must suffer; + And unavoided is the danger now + For suffering so the causes of our wreck. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Not so; even through the hollow eyes of death + I spy life peering; but I dare not say + How near the tidings of our comfort is. + WILLOUGHBY. Nay, let us share thy thoughts as thou dost ours. + ROSS. Be confident to speak, Northumberland. + We three are but thyself, and, speaking so, + Thy words are but as thoughts; therefore be bold. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Then thus: I have from Le Port Blanc, a bay + In Brittany, receiv'd intelligence + That Harry Duke of Hereford, Rainold Lord Cobham, + That late broke from the Duke of Exeter, + His brother, Archbishop late of Canterbury, + Sir Thomas Erpingham, Sir John Ramston, + Sir John Norbery, Sir Robert Waterton, and Francis Quoint- + All these, well furnish'd by the Duke of Britaine, + With eight tall ships, three thousand men of war, + Are making hither with all due expedience, + And shortly mean to touch our northern shore. + Perhaps they had ere this, but that they stay + The first departing of the King for Ireland. + If then we shall shake off our slavish yoke, + Imp out our drooping country's broken wing, + Redeem from broking pawn the blemish'd crown, + Wipe off the dust that hides our sceptre's gilt, + And make high majesty look like itself, + Away with me in post to Ravenspurgh; + But if you faint, as fearing to do so, + Stay and be secret, and myself will go. + ROSS. To horse, to horse! Urge doubts to them that fear. + WILLOUGHBY. Hold out my horse, and I will first be there. + Exeunt + +SCENE 2. Windsor Castle + +Enter QUEEN, BUSHY, and BAGOT + + BUSHY. Madam, your Majesty is too much sad. + You promis'd, when you parted with the King, + To lay aside life-harming heaviness + And entertain a cheerful disposition. + QUEEN. To please the King, I did; to please myself + I cannot do it; yet I know no cause + Why I should welcome such a guest as grief, + Save bidding farewell to so sweet a guest + As my sweet Richard. Yet again methinks + Some unborn sorrow, ripe in fortune's womb, + Is coming towards me, and my inward soul + With nothing trembles. At some thing it grieves + More than with parting from my lord the King. + BUSHY. Each substance of a grief hath twenty shadows, + Which shows like grief itself, but is not so; + For sorrow's eye, glazed with blinding tears, + Divides one thing entire to many objects, + Like perspectives which, rightly gaz'd upon, + Show nothing but confusion-ey'd awry, + Distinguish form. So your sweet Majesty, + Looking awry upon your lord's departure, + Find shapes of grief more than himself to wail; + Which, look'd on as it is, is nought but shadows + Of what it is not. Then, thrice-gracious Queen, + More than your lord's departure weep not-more is not seen; + Or if it be, 'tis with false sorrow's eye, + Which for things true weeps things imaginary. + QUEEN. It may be so; but yet my inward soul + Persuades me it is otherwise. Howe'er it be, + I cannot but be sad; so heavy sad + As-though, on thinking, on no thought I think- + Makes me with heavy nothing faint and shrink. + BUSHY. 'Tis nothing but conceit, my gracious lady. + QUEEN. 'Tis nothing less: conceit is still deriv'd + From some forefather grief; mine is not so, + For nothing hath begot my something grief, + Or something hath the nothing that I grieve; + 'Tis in reversion that I do possess- + But what it is that is not yet known what, + I cannot name; 'tis nameless woe, I wot. + + Enter GREEN + + GREEN. God save your Majesty! and well met, gentlemen. + I hope the King is not yet shipp'd for Ireland. + QUEEN. Why hopest thou so? 'Tis better hope he is; + For his designs crave haste, his haste good hope. + Then wherefore dost thou hope he is not shipp'd? + GREEN. That he, our hope, might have retir'd his power + And driven into despair an enemy's hope + Who strongly hath set footing in this land. + The banish'd Bolingbroke repeals himself, + And with uplifted arms is safe arriv'd + At Ravenspurgh. + QUEEN. Now God in heaven forbid! + GREEN. Ah, madam, 'tis too true; and that is worse, + The Lord Northumberland, his son young Henry Percy, + The Lords of Ross, Beaumond, and Willoughby, + With all their powerful friends, are fled to him. + BUSHY. Why have you not proclaim'd Northumberland + And all the rest revolted faction traitors? + GREEN. We have; whereupon the Earl of Worcester + Hath broken his staff, resign'd his stewardship, + And all the household servants fled with him + To Bolingbroke. + QUEEN. So, Green, thou art the midwife to my woe, + And Bolingbroke my sorrow's dismal heir. + Now hath my soul brought forth her prodigy; + And I, a gasping new-deliver'd mother, + Have woe to woe, sorrow to sorrow join'd. + BUSHY. Despair not, madam. + QUEEN. Who shall hinder me? + I will despair, and be at enmity + With cozening hope-he is a flatterer, + A parasite, a keeper-back of death, + Who gently would dissolve the bands of life, + Which false hope lingers in extremity. + + Enter YORK + + GREEN. Here comes the Duke of York. + QUEEN. With signs of war about his aged neck. + O, full of careful business are his looks! + Uncle, for God's sake, speak comfortable words. + YORK. Should I do so, I should belie my thoughts. + Comfort's in heaven; and we are on the earth, + Where nothing lives but crosses, cares, and grief. + Your husband, he is gone to save far off, + Whilst others come to make him lose at home. + Here am I left to underprop his land, + Who, weak with age, cannot support myself. + Now comes the sick hour that his surfeit made; + Now shall he try his friends that flatter'd him. + + Enter a SERVINGMAN + + SERVINGMAN. My lord, your son was gone before I came. + YORK. He was-why so go all which way it will! + The nobles they are fled, the commons they are cold + And will, I fear, revolt on Hereford's side. + Sirrah, get thee to Plashy, to my sister Gloucester; + Bid her send me presently a thousand pound. + Hold, take my ring. + SERVINGMAN. My lord, I had forgot to tell your lordship, + To-day, as I came by, I called there- + But I shall grieve you to report the rest. + YORK. What is't, knave? + SERVINGMAN. An hour before I came, the Duchess died. + YORK. God for his mercy! what a tide of woes + Comes rushing on this woeful land at once! + I know not what to do. I would to God, + So my untruth had not provok'd him to it, + The King had cut off my head with my brother's. + What, are there no posts dispatch'd for Ireland? + How shall we do for money for these wars? + Come, sister-cousin, I would say-pray, pardon me. + Go, fellow, get thee home, provide some carts, + And bring away the armour that is there. + Exit SERVINGMAN + Gentlemen, will you go muster men? + If I know how or which way to order these affairs + Thus disorderly thrust into my hands, + Never believe me. Both are my kinsmen. + T'one is my sovereign, whom both my oath + And duty bids defend; t'other again + Is my kinsman, whom the King hath wrong'd, + Whom conscience and my kindred bids to right. + Well, somewhat we must do.-Come, cousin, + I'll dispose of you. Gentlemen, go muster up your men + And meet me presently at Berkeley. + I should to Plashy too, + But time will not permit. All is uneven, + And everything is left at six and seven. + Exeunt YORK and QUEEN + BUSHY. The wind sits fair for news to go to Ireland. + But none returns. For us to levy power + Proportionable to the enemy + Is all unpossible. + GREEN. Besides, our nearness to the King in love + Is near the hate of those love not the King. + BAGOT. And that is the wavering commons; for their love + Lies in their purses; and whoso empties them, + By so much fills their hearts with deadly hate. + BUSHY. Wherein the King stands generally condemn'd. + BAGOT. If judgment lie in them, then so do we, + Because we ever have been near the King. + GREEN. Well, I will for refuge straight to Bristow Castle. + The Earl of Wiltshire is already there. + BUSHY. Thither will I with you; for little office + Will the hateful commons perform for us, + Except Eke curs to tear us all to pieces. + Will you go along with us? + BAGOT. No; I will to Ireland to his Majesty. + Farewell. If heart's presages be not vain, + We three here part that ne'er shall meet again. + BUSHY. That's as York thrives to beat back Bolingbroke. + GREEN. Alas, poor Duke! the task he undertakes + Is numb'ring sands and drinking oceans dry. + Where one on his side fights, thousands will fly. + Farewell at once-for once, for all, and ever. + BUSHY. Well, we may meet again. + BAGOT. I fear me, never. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. Gloucestershire + +Enter BOLINGBROKE and NORTHUMBERLAND, forces + + BOLINGBROKE. How far is it, my lord, to Berkeley now? + NORTHUMBERLAND. Believe me, noble lord, + I am a stranger here in Gloucestershire. + These high wild hills and rough uneven ways + Draws out our miles, and makes them wearisome; + And yet your fair discourse hath been as sugar, + Making the hard way sweet and delectable. + But I bethink me what a weary way + From Ravenspurgh to Cotswold will be found + In Ross and Willoughby, wanting your company, + Which, I protest, hath very much beguil'd + The tediousness and process of my travel. + But theirs is sweet'ned with the hope to have + The present benefit which I possess; + And hope to joy is little less in joy + Than hope enjoy'd. By this the weary lords + Shall make their way seem short, as mine hath done + By sight of what I have, your noble company. + BOLINGBROKE. Of much less value is my company + Than your good words. But who comes here? + + Enter HARRY PERCY + + NORTHUMBERLAND. It is my son, young Harry Percy, + Sent from my brother Worcester, whencesoever. + Harry, how fares your uncle? + PERCY. I had thought, my lord, to have learn'd his health of you. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Why, is he not with the Queen? + PERCY. No, my good lord; he hath forsook the court, + Broken his staff of office, and dispers'd + The household of the King. + NORTHUMBERLAND. What was his reason? + He was not so resolv'd when last we spake together. + PERCY. Because your lordship was proclaimed traitor. + But he, my lord, is gone to Ravenspurgh, + To offer service to the Duke of Hereford; + And sent me over by Berkeley, to discover + What power the Duke of York had levied there; + Then with directions to repair to Ravenspurgh. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Have you forgot the Duke of Hereford, boy? + PERCY. No, my good lord; for that is not forgot + Which ne'er I did remember; to my knowledge, + I never in my life did look on him. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Then learn to know him now; this is the Duke. + PERCY. My gracious lord, I tender you my service, + Such as it is, being tender, raw, and young; + Which elder days shall ripen, and confirm + To more approved service and desert. + BOLINGBROKE. I thank thee, gentle Percy; and be sure + I count myself in nothing else so happy + As in a soul rememb'ring my good friends; + And as my fortune ripens with thy love, + It shall be still thy true love's recompense. + My heart this covenant makes, my hand thus seals it. + NORTHUMBERLAND. How far is it to Berkeley? And what stir + Keeps good old York there with his men of war? + PERCY. There stands the castle, by yon tuft of trees, + Mann'd with three hundred men, as I have heard; + And in it are the Lords of York, Berkeley, and Seymour- + None else of name and noble estimate. + + Enter Ross and WILLOUGHBY + + NORTHUMBERLAND. Here come the Lords of Ross and Willoughby, + Bloody with spurring, fiery-red with haste. + BOLINGBROKE. Welcome, my lords. I wot your love pursues + A banish'd traitor. All my treasury + Is yet but unfelt thanks, which, more enrich'd, + Shall be your love and labour's recompense. + ROSS. Your presence makes us rich, most noble lord. + WILLOUGHBY. And far surmounts our labour to attain it. + BOLINGBROKE. Evermore thanks, the exchequer of the poor; + Which, till my infant fortune comes to years, + Stands for my bounty. But who comes here? + + Enter BERKELEY + + NORTHUMBERLAND. It is my Lord of Berkeley, as I guess. + BERKELEY. My Lord of Hereford, my message is to you. + BOLINGBROKE. My lord, my answer is-'to Lancaster'; + And I am come to seek that name in England; + And I must find that title in your tongue + Before I make reply to aught you say. + BERKELEY. Mistake me not, my lord; 'tis not my meaning + To raze one title of your honour out. + To you, my lord, I come-what lord you will- + From the most gracious regent of this land, + The Duke of York, to know what pricks you on + To take advantage of the absent time, + And fright our native peace with self-borne arms. + + Enter YORK, attended + + BOLINGBROKE. I shall not need transport my words by you; + Here comes his Grace in person. My noble uncle! + [Kneels] + YORK. Show me thy humble heart, and not thy knee, + Whose duty is deceivable and false. + BOLINGBROKE. My gracious uncle!- + YORK. Tut, tut! + Grace me no grace, nor uncle me no uncle. + I am no traitor's uncle; and that word 'grace' + In an ungracious mouth is but profane. + Why have those banish'd and forbidden legs + Dar'd once to touch a dust of England's ground? + But then more 'why?'-why have they dar'd to march + So many miles upon her peaceful bosom, + Frighting her pale-fac'd villages with war + And ostentation of despised arms? + Com'st thou because the anointed King is hence? + Why, foolish boy, the King is left behind, + And in my loyal bosom lies his power. + Were I but now lord of such hot youth + As when brave Gaunt, thy father, and myself + Rescued the Black Prince, that young Mars of men, + From forth the ranks of many thousand French, + O, then how quickly should this arm of mine, + Now prisoner to the palsy, chastise the + And minister correction to thy fault! + BOLINGBROKE My gracious uncle, let me know my fault; + On what condition stands it and wherein? + YORK. Even in condition of the worst degree- + In gross rebellion and detested treason. + Thou art a banish'd man, and here art come + Before the expiration of thy time, + In braving arms against thy sovereign. + BOLINGBROKE. As I was banish'd, I was banish'd Hereford; + But as I come, I come for Lancaster. + And, noble uncle, I beseech your Grace + Look on my wrongs with an indifferent eye. + You are my father, for methinks in you + I see old Gaunt alive. O, then, my father, + Will you permit that I shall stand condemn'd + A wandering vagabond; my rights and royalties + Pluck'd from my arms perforce, and given away + To upstart unthrifts? Wherefore was I born? + If that my cousin king be King in England, + It must be granted I am Duke of Lancaster. + You have a son, Aumerle, my noble cousin; + Had you first died, and he been thus trod down, + He should have found his uncle Gaunt a father + To rouse his wrongs and chase them to the bay. + I am denied to sue my livery here, + And yet my letters patents give me leave. + My father's goods are all distrain'd and sold; + And these and all are all amiss employ'd. + What would you have me do? I am a subject, + And I challenge law-attorneys are denied me; + And therefore personally I lay my claim + To my inheritance of free descent. + NORTHUMBERLAND. The noble Duke hath been too much abused. + ROSS. It stands your Grace upon to do him right. + WILLOUGHBY. Base men by his endowments are made great. + YORK. My lords of England, let me tell you this: + I have had feeling of my cousin's wrongs, + And labour'd all I could to do him right; + But in this kind to come, in braving arms, + Be his own carver and cut out his way, + To find out right with wrong-it may not be; + And you that do abet him in this kind + Cherish rebellion, and are rebels all. + NORTHUMBERLAND. The noble Duke hath sworn his coming is + But for his own; and for the right of that + We all have strongly sworn to give him aid; + And let him never see joy that breaks that oath! + YORK. Well, well, I see the issue of these arms. + I cannot mend it, I must needs confess, + Because my power is weak and all ill left; + But if I could, by Him that gave me life, + I would attach you all and make you stoop + Unto the sovereign mercy of the King; + But since I cannot, be it known unto you + I do remain as neuter. So, fare you well; + Unless you please to enter in the castle, + And there repose you for this night. + BOLINGBROKE. An offer, uncle, that we will accept. + But we must win your Grace to go with us + To Bristow Castle, which they say is held + By Bushy, Bagot, and their complices, + The caterpillars of the commonwealth, + Which I have sworn to weed and pluck away. + YORK. It may be I will go with you; but yet I'll pause, + For I am loath to break our country's laws. + Nor friends nor foes, to me welcome you are. + Things past redress are now with me past care. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. A camp in Wales + +Enter EARL OF SALISBURY and a WELSH CAPTAIN + + CAPTAIN. My Lord of Salisbury, we have stay'd ten days + And hardly kept our countrymen together, + And yet we hear no tidings from the King; + Therefore we will disperse ourselves. Farewell. + SALISBURY. Stay yet another day, thou trusty Welshman; + The King reposeth all his confidence in thee. + CAPTAIN. 'Tis thought the King is dead; we will not stay. + The bay trees in our country are all wither'd, + And meteors fright the fixed stars of heaven; + The pale-fac'd moon looks bloody on the earth, + And lean-look'd prophets whisper fearful change; + Rich men look sad, and ruffians dance and leap- + The one in fear to lose what they enjoy, + The other to enjoy by rage and war. + These signs forerun the death or fall of kings. + Farewell. Our countrymen are gone and fled, + As well assur'd Richard their King is dead. Exit + SALISBURY. Ah, Richard, with the eyes of heavy mind, + I see thy glory like a shooting star + Fall to the base earth from the firmament! + The sun sets weeping in the lowly west, + Witnessing storms to come, woe, and unrest; + Thy friends are fled, to wait upon thy foes; + And crossly to thy good all fortune goes. Exit + +ACT III. SCENE I. BOLINGBROKE'S camp at Bristol + +Enter BOLINGBROKE, YORK, NORTHUMBERLAND, PERCY, ROSS, WILLOUGHBY, +BUSHY and GREEN, prisoners + + BOLINGBROKE. Bring forth these men. + Bushy and Green, I will not vex your souls- + Since presently your souls must part your bodies- + With too much urging your pernicious lives, + For 'twere no charity; yet, to wash your blood + From off my hands, here in the view of men + I will unfold some causes of your deaths: + You have misled a prince, a royal king, + A happy gentleman in blood and lineaments, + By you unhappied and disfigured clean; + You have in manner with your sinful hours + Made a divorce betwixt his queen and him; + Broke the possession of a royal bed, + And stain'd the beauty of a fair queen's cheeks + With tears drawn from her eyes by your foul wrongs; + Myself-a prince by fortune of my birth, + Near to the King in blood, and near in love + Till you did make him misinterpret me- + Have stoop'd my neck under your injuries + And sigh'd my English breath in foreign clouds, + Eating the bitter bread of banishment, + Whilst you have fed upon my signories, + Dispark'd my parks and fell'd my forest woods, + From my own windows torn my household coat, + Raz'd out my imprese, leaving me no sign + Save men's opinions and my living blood + To show the world I am a gentleman. + This and much more, much more than twice all this, + Condemns you to the death. See them delivered over + To execution and the hand of death. + BUSHY. More welcome is the stroke of death to me + Than Bolingbroke to England. Lords, farewell. + GREEN. My comfort is that heaven will take our souls, + And plague injustice with the pains of hell. + BOLINGBROKE. My Lord Northumberland, see them dispatch'd. + Exeunt NORTHUMBERLAND, and others, with the prisoners + Uncle, you say the Queen is at your house; + For God's sake, fairly let her be entreated. + Tell her I send to her my kind commends; + Take special care my greetings be delivered. + YORK. A gentleman of mine I have dispatch'd + With letters of your love to her at large. + BOLINGBROKE. Thanks, gentle uncle. Come, lords, away, + To fight with Glendower and his complices. + Awhile to work, and after holiday. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. The coast of Wales. A castle in view + +Drums. Flourish and colours. Enter the KING, the BISHOP OF CARLISLE, +AUMERLE, and soldiers + + KING RICHARD. Barkloughly Castle can they this at hand? + AUMERLE. Yea, my lord. How brooks your Grace the air + After your late tossing on the breaking seas? + KING RICHARD. Needs must I like it well. I weep for joy + To stand upon my kingdom once again. + Dear earth, I do salute thee with my hand, + Though rebels wound thee with their horses' hoofs. + As a long-parted mother with her child + Plays fondly with her tears and smiles in meeting, + So weeping-smiling greet I thee, my earth, + And do thee favours with my royal hands. + Feed not thy sovereign's foe, my gentle earth, + Nor with thy sweets comfort his ravenous sense; + But let thy spiders, that suck up thy venom, + And heavy-gaited toads, lie in their way, + Doing annoyance to the treacherous feet + Which with usurping steps do trample thee; + Yield stinging nettles to mine enemies; + And when they from thy bosom pluck a flower, + Guard it, I pray thee, with a lurking adder, + Whose double tongue may with a mortal touch + Throw death upon thy sovereign's enemies. + Mock not my senseless conjuration, lords. + This earth shall have a feeling, and these stones + Prove armed soldiers, ere her native king + Shall falter under foul rebellion's arms. + CARLISLE. Fear not, my lord; that Power that made you king + Hath power to keep you king in spite of all. + The means that heaven yields must be embrac'd + And not neglected; else, if heaven would, + And we will not, heaven's offer we refuse, + The proffered means of succour and redress. + AUMERLE. He means, my lord, that we are too remiss; + Whilst Bolingbroke, through our security, + Grows strong and great in substance and in power. + KING RICHARD. Discomfortable cousin! know'st thou not + That when the searching eye of heaven is hid, + Behind the globe, that lights the lower world, + Then thieves and robbers range abroad unseen + In murders and in outrage boldly here; + But when from under this terrestrial ball + He fires the proud tops of the eastern pines + And darts his light through every guilty hole, + Then murders, treasons, and detested sins, + The cloak of night being pluck'd from off their backs, + Stand bare and naked, trembling at themselves? + So when this thief, this traitor, Bolingbroke, + Who all this while hath revell'd in the night, + Whilst we were wand'ring with the Antipodes, + Shall see us rising in our throne, the east, + His treasons will sit blushing in his face, + Not able to endure the sight of day, + But self-affrighted tremble at his sin. + Not all the water in the rough rude sea + Can wash the balm off from an anointed king; + The breath of worldly men cannot depose + The deputy elected by the Lord. + For every man that Bolingbroke hath press'd + To lift shrewd steel against our golden crown, + God for his Richard hath in heavenly pay + A glorious angel. Then, if angels fight, + Weak men must fall; for heaven still guards the right. + + Enter SALISBURY + + Welcome, my lord. How far off lies your power? + SALISBURY. Nor near nor farther off, my gracious lord, + Than this weak arm. Discomfort guides my tongue, + And bids me speak of nothing but despair. + One day too late, I fear me, noble lord, + Hath clouded all thy happy days on earth. + O, call back yesterday, bid time return, + And thou shalt have twelve thousand fighting men! + To-day, to-day, unhappy day, too late, + O'erthrows thy joys, friends, fortune, and thy state; + For all the Welshmen, hearing thou wert dead, + Are gone to Bolingbroke, dispers'd, and fled. + AUMERLE. Comfort, my liege, why looks your Grace so pale? + KING RICHARD. But now the blood of twenty thousand men + Did triumph in my face, and they are fled; + And, till so much blood thither come again, + Have I not reason to look pale and dead? + All souls that will be safe, fly from my side; + For time hath set a blot upon my pride. + AUMERLE. Comfort, my liege; remember who you are. + KING RICHARD. I had forgot myself; am I not King? + Awake, thou coward majesty! thou sleepest. + Is not the King's name twenty thousand names? + Arm, arm, my name! a puny subject strikes + At thy great glory. Look not to the ground, + Ye favourites of a king; are we not high? + High be our thoughts. I know my uncle York + Hath power enough to serve our turn. But who comes here? + + Enter SCROOP + + SCROOP. More health and happiness betide my liege + Than can my care-tun'd tongue deliver him. + KING RICHARD. Mine ear is open and my heart prepar'd. + The worst is worldly loss thou canst unfold. + Say, is my kingdom lost? Why, 'twas my care, + And what loss is it to be rid of care? + Strives Bolingbroke to be as great as we? + Greater he shall not be; if he serve God, + We'll serve him too, and be his fellow so. + Revolt our subjects? That we cannot mend; + They break their faith to God as well as us. + Cry woe, destruction, ruin, and decay- + The worst is death, and death will have his day. + SCROOP. Glad am I that your Highness is so arm'd + To bear the tidings of calamity. + Like an unseasonable stormy day + Which makes the silver rivers drown their shores, + As if the world were all dissolv'd to tears, + So high above his limits swells the rage + Of Bolingbroke, covering your fearful land + With hard bright steel and hearts harder than steel. + White-beards have arm'd their thin and hairless scalps + Against thy majesty; boys, with women's voices, + Strive to speak big, and clap their female joints + In stiff unwieldy arms against thy crown; + Thy very beadsmen learn to bend their bows + Of double-fatal yew against thy state; + Yea, distaff-women manage rusty bills + Against thy seat: both young and old rebel, + And all goes worse than I have power to tell. + KING RICHARD. Too well, too well thou tell'st a tale so in. + Where is the Earl of Wiltshire? Where is Bagot? + What is become of Bushy? Where is Green? + That they have let the dangerous enemy + Measure our confines with such peaceful steps? + If we prevail, their heads shall pay for it. + I warrant they have made peace with Bolingbroke. + SCROOP. Peace have they made with him indeed, my lord. + KING RICHARD. O villains, vipers, damn'd without redemption! + Dogs, easily won to fawn on any man! + Snakes, in my heart-blood warm'd, that sting my heart! + Three Judases, each one thrice worse than Judas! + Would they make peace? Terrible hell make war + Upon their spotted souls for this offence! + SCROOP. Sweet love, I see, changing his property, + Turns to the sourest and most deadly hate. + Again uncurse their souls; their peace is made + With heads, and not with hands; those whom you curse + Have felt the worst of death's destroying wound + And lie full low, grav'd in the hollow ground. + AUMERLE. Is Bushy, Green, and the Earl of Wiltshire dead? + SCROOP. Ay, all of them at Bristow lost their heads. + AUMERLE. Where is the Duke my father with his power? + KING RICHARD. No matter where-of comfort no man speak. + Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs; + Make dust our paper, and with rainy eyes + Write sorrow on the bosom of the earth. + Let's choose executors and talk of wills; + And yet not so-for what can we bequeath + Save our deposed bodies to the ground? + Our lands, our lives, and an, are Bolingbroke's. + And nothing can we can our own but death + And that small model of the barren earth + Which serves as paste and cover to our bones. + For God's sake let us sit upon the ground + And tell sad stories of the death of kings: + How some have been depos'd, some slain in war, + Some haunted by the ghosts they have depos'd, + Some poison'd by their wives, some sleeping kill'd, + All murder'd-for within the hollow crown + That rounds the mortal temples of a king + Keeps Death his court; and there the antic sits, + Scoffing his state and grinning at his pomp; + Allowing him a breath, a little scene, + To monarchize, be fear'd, and kill with looks; + Infusing him with self and vain conceit, + As if this flesh which walls about our life + Were brass impregnable; and, humour'd thus, + Comes at the last, and with a little pin + Bores through his castle wall, and farewell, king! + Cover your heads, and mock not flesh and blood + With solemn reverence; throw away respect, + Tradition, form, and ceremonious duty; + For you have but mistook me all this while. + I live with bread like you, feel want, + Taste grief, need friends: subjected thus, + How can you say to me I am a king? + CARLISLE. My lord, wise men ne'er sit and wail their woes, + But presently prevent the ways to wail. + To fear the foe, since fear oppresseth strength, + Gives, in your weakness, strength unto your foe, + And so your follies fight against yourself. + Fear and be slain-no worse can come to fight; + And fight and die is death destroying death, + Where fearing dying pays death servile breath. + AUMERLE. My father hath a power; inquire of him, + And learn to make a body of a limb. + KING RICHARD. Thou chid'st me well. Proud Bolingbroke, I come + To change blows with thee for our day of doom. + This ague fit of fear is over-blown; + An easy task it is to win our own. + Say, Scroop, where lies our uncle with his power? + Speak sweetly, man, although thy looks be sour. + SCROOP. Men judge by the complexion of the sky + The state in inclination of the day; + So may you by my dull and heavy eye, + My tongue hath but a heavier tale to say. + I play the torturer, by small and small + To lengthen out the worst that must be spoken: + Your uncle York is join'd with Bolingbroke; + And all your northern castles yielded up, + And all your southern gentlemen in arms + Upon his party. + KING RICHARD. Thou hast said enough. + [To AUMERLE] Beshrew thee, cousin, which didst lead me forth + Of that sweet way I was in to despair! + What say you now? What comfort have we now? + By heaven, I'll hate him everlastingly + That bids me be of comfort any more. + Go to Flint Castle; there I'll pine away; + A king, woe's slave, shall kingly woe obey. + That power I have, discharge; and let them go + To ear the land that hath some hope to grow, + For I have none. Let no man speak again + To alter this, for counsel is but vain. + AUMERLE. My liege, one word. + KING RICHARD. He does me double wrong + That wounds me with the flatteries of his tongue. + Discharge my followers; let them hence away, + From Richard's night to Bolingbroke's fair day. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. Wales. Before Flint Castle + +Enter, with drum and colours, BOLINGBROKE, YORK, NORTHUMBERLAND, and +forces + + BOLINGBROKE. So that by this intelligence we learn + The Welshmen are dispers'd; and Salisbury + Is gone to meet the King, who lately landed + With some few private friends upon this coast. + NORTHUMBERLAND. The news is very fair and good, my lord. + Richard not far from hence hath hid his head. + YORK. It would beseem the Lord Northumberland + To say 'King Richard.' Alack the heavy day + When such a sacred king should hide his head! + NORTHUMBERLAND. Your Grace mistakes; only to be brief, + Left I his title out. + YORK. The time hath been, + Would you have been so brief with him, he would + Have been so brief with you to shorten you, + For taking so the head, your whole head's length. + BOLINGBROKE. Mistake not, uncle, further than you should. + YORK. Take not, good cousin, further than you should, + Lest you mistake. The heavens are over our heads. + BOLINGBROKE. I know it, uncle; and oppose not myself + Against their will. But who comes here? + + Enter PERCY + + Welcome, Harry. What, will not this castle yield? + PIERCY. The castle royally is mann'd, my lord, + Against thy entrance. + BOLINGBROKE. Royally! + Why, it contains no king? + PERCY. Yes, my good lord, + It doth contain a king; King Richard lies + Within the limits of yon lime and stone; + And with him are the Lord Aumerle, Lord Salisbury, + Sir Stephen Scroop, besides a clergyman + Of holy reverence; who, I cannot learn. + NORTHUMBERLAND. O, belike it is the Bishop of Carlisle. + BOLINGBROKE. [To NORTHUMBERLAND] Noble lord, + Go to the rude ribs of that ancient castle; + Through brazen trumpet send the breath of parley + Into his ruin'd ears, and thus deliver: + Henry Bolingbroke + On both his knees doth kiss King Richard's hand, + And sends allegiance and true faith of heart + To his most royal person; hither come + Even at his feet to lay my arms and power, + Provided that my banishment repeal'd + And lands restor'd again be freely granted; + If not, I'll use the advantage of my power + And lay the summer's dust with showers of blood + Rain'd from the wounds of slaughtered Englishmen; + The which how far off from the mind of Bolingbroke + It is such crimson tempest should bedrench + The fresh green lap of fair King Richard's land, + My stooping duty tenderly shall show. + Go, signify as much, while here we march + Upon the grassy carpet of this plain. + [NORTHUMBERLAND advances to the Castle, with a trumpet] + Let's march without the noise of threat'ning drum, + That from this castle's tottered battlements + Our fair appointments may be well perus'd. + Methinks King Richard and myself should meet + With no less terror than the elements + Of fire and water, when their thund'ring shock + At meeting tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven. + Be he the fire, I'll be the yielding water; + The rage be his, whilst on the earth I rain + My waters-on the earth, and not on him. + March on, and mark King Richard how he looks. + + Parle without, and answer within; then a flourish. + Enter on the walls, the KING, the BISHOP OF CARLISLE, + AUMERLE, SCROOP, and SALISBURY + + See, see, King Richard doth himself appear, + As doth the blushing discontented sun + From out the fiery portal of the east, + When he perceives the envious clouds are bent + To dim his glory and to stain the track + Of his bright passage to the occident. + YORK. Yet he looks like a king. Behold, his eye, + As bright as is the eagle's, lightens forth + Controlling majesty. Alack, alack, for woe, + That any harm should stain so fair a show! + KING RICHARD. [To NORTHUMBERLAND] We are amaz'd; and thus long + have we stood + To watch the fearful bending of thy knee, + Because we thought ourself thy lawful King; + And if we be, how dare thy joints forget + To pay their awful duty to our presence? + If we be not, show us the hand of God + That hath dismiss'd us from our stewardship; + For well we know no hand of blood and bone + Can gripe the sacred handle of our sceptre, + Unless he do profane, steal, or usurp. + And though you think that all, as you have done, + Have torn their souls by turning them from us, + And we are barren and bereft of friends, + Yet know-my master, God omnipotent, + Is mustering in his clouds on our behalf + Armies of pestilence; and they shall strike + Your children yet unborn and unbegot, + That lift your vassal hands against my head + And threat the glory of my precious crown. + Tell Bolingbroke, for yon methinks he stands, + That every stride he makes upon my land + Is dangerous treason; he is come to open + The purple testament of bleeding war; + But ere the crown he looks for live in peace, + Ten thousand bloody crowns of mothers' sons + Shall ill become the flower of England's face, + Change the complexion of her maid-pale peace + To scarlet indignation, and bedew + Her pastures' grass with faithful English blood. + NORTHUMBERLAND. The King of Heaven forbid our lord the King + Should so with civil and uncivil arms + Be rush'd upon! Thy thrice noble cousin, + Harry Bolingbroke, doth humbly kiss thy hand; + And by the honourable tomb he swears + That stands upon your royal grandsire's bones, + And by the royalties of both your bloods, + Currents that spring from one most gracious head, + And by the buried hand of warlike Gaunt, + And by the worth and honour of himself, + Comprising all that may be sworn or said, + His coming hither hath no further scope + Than for his lineal royalties, and to beg + Enfranchisement immediate on his knees; + Which on thy royal party granted once, + His glittering arms he will commend to rust, + His barbed steeds to stables, and his heart + To faithful service of your Majesty. + This swears he, as he is a prince, is just; + And as I am a gentleman I credit him. + KING RICHARD. Northumberland, say thus the King returns: + His noble cousin is right welcome hither; + And all the number of his fair demands + Shall be accomplish'd without contradiction. + With all the gracious utterance thou hast + Speak to his gentle hearing kind commends. + [To AUMERLE] We do debase ourselves, cousin, do we not, + To look so poorly and to speak so fair? + Shall we call back Northumberland, and send + Defiance to the traitor, and so die? + AUMERLE. No, good my lord; let's fight with gentle words + Till time lend friends, and friends their helpful swords. + KING RICHARD. O God, O God! that e'er this tongue of mine + That laid the sentence of dread banishment + On yon proud man should take it off again + With words of sooth! O that I were as great + As is my grief, or lesser than my name! + Or that I could forget what I have been! + Or not remember what I must be now! + Swell'st thou, proud heart? I'll give thee scope to beat, + Since foes have scope to beat both thee and me. + AUMERLE. Northumberland comes back from Bolingbroke. + KING RICHARD. What must the King do now? Must he submit? + The King shall do it. Must he be depos'd? + The King shall be contented. Must he lose + The name of king? A God's name, let it go. + I'll give my jewels for a set of beads, + My gorgeous palace for a hermitage, + My gay apparel for an almsman's gown, + My figur'd goblets for a dish of wood, + My sceptre for a palmer's walking staff, + My subjects for a pair of carved saints, + And my large kingdom for a little grave, + A little little grave, an obscure grave- + Or I'll be buried in the king's high way, + Some way of common trade, where subjects' feet + May hourly trample on their sovereign's head; + For on my heart they tread now whilst I live, + And buried once, why not upon my head? + Aumerle, thou weep'st, my tender-hearted cousin! + We'll make foul weather with despised tears; + Our sighs and they shall lodge the summer corn + And make a dearth in this revolting land. + Or shall we play the wantons with our woes + And make some pretty match with shedding tears? + As thus: to drop them still upon one place + Till they have fretted us a pair of graves + Within the earth; and, therein laid-there lies + Two kinsmen digg'd their graves with weeping eyes. + Would not this ill do well? Well, well, I see + I talk but idly, and you laugh at me. + Most mighty prince, my Lord Northumberland, + What says King Bolingbroke? Will his Majesty + Give Richard leave to live till Richard die? + You make a leg, and Bolingbroke says ay. + NORTHUMBERLAND. My lord, in the base court he doth attend + To speak with you; may it please you to come down? + KING RICHARD. Down, down I come, like glist'ring Phaethon, + Wanting the manage of unruly jades. + In the base court? Base court, where kings grow base, + To come at traitors' calls, and do them grace. + In the base court? Come down? Down, court! down, king! + For night-owls shriek where mounting larks should sing. + Exeunt from above + BOLINGBROKE. What says his Majesty? + NORTHUMBERLAND. Sorrow and grief of heart + Makes him speak fondly, like a frantic man; + Yet he is come. + + Enter the KING, and his attendants, below + + BOLINGBROKE. Stand all apart, + And show fair duty to his Majesty. [He kneels down] + My gracious lord- + KING RICHARD. Fair cousin, you debase your princely knee + To make the base earth proud with kissing it. + Me rather had my heart might feel your love + Than my unpleas'd eye see your courtesy. + Up, cousin, up; your heart is up, I know, + [Touching his own head] Thus high at least, although your + knee be low. + BOLINGBROKE. My gracious lord, I come but for mine own. + KING RICHARD. Your own is yours, and I am yours, and all. + BOLINGBROKE. So far be mine, my most redoubted lord, + As my true service shall deserve your love. + KING RICHARD. Well you deserve. They well deserve to have + That know the strong'st and surest way to get. + Uncle, give me your hands; nay, dry your eyes: + Tears show their love, but want their remedies. + Cousin, I am too young to be your father, + Though you are old enough to be my heir. + What you will have, I'll give, and willing too; + For do we must what force will have us do. + Set on towards London. Cousin, is it so? + BOLINGBROKE. Yea, my good lord. + KING RICHARD. Then I must not say no. Flourish. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. The DUKE OF YORK's garden + +Enter the QUEEN and two LADIES + + QUEEN. What sport shall we devise here in this garden + To drive away the heavy thought of care? + LADY. Madam, we'll play at bowls. + QUEEN. 'Twill make me think the world is full of rubs + And that my fortune runs against the bias. + LADY. Madam, we'll dance. + QUEEN. My legs can keep no measure in delight, + When my poor heart no measure keeps in grief; + Therefore no dancing, girl; some other sport. + LADY. Madam, we'll tell tales. + QUEEN. Of sorrow or of joy? + LADY. Of either, madam. + QUEEN. Of neither, girl; + For if of joy, being altogether wanting, + It doth remember me the more of sorrow; + Or if of grief, being altogether had, + It adds more sorrow to my want of joy; + For what I have I need not to repeat, + And what I want it boots not to complain. + LADY. Madam, I'll sing. + QUEEN. 'Tis well' that thou hast cause; + But thou shouldst please me better wouldst thou weep. + LADY. I could weep, madam, would it do you good. + QUEEN. And I could sing, would weeping do me good, + And never borrow any tear of thee. + + Enter a GARDENER and two SERVANTS + + But stay, here come the gardeners. + Let's step into the shadow of these trees. + My wretchedness unto a row of pins, + They will talk of state, for every one doth so + Against a change: woe is forerun with woe. + [QUEEN and LADIES retire] + GARDENER. Go, bind thou up yon dangling apricocks, + Which, like unruly children, make their sire + Stoop with oppression of their prodigal weight; + Give some supportance to the bending twigs. + Go thou, and Eke an executioner + Cut off the heads of too fast growing sprays + That look too lofty in our commonwealth: + All must be even in our government. + You thus employ'd, I will go root away + The noisome weeds which without profit suck + The soil's fertility from wholesome flowers. + SERVANT. Why should we, in the compass of a pale, + Keep law and form and due proportion, + Showing, as in a model, our firm estate, + When our sea-walled garden, the whole land, + Is full of weeds; her fairest flowers chok'd up, + Her fruit trees all unprun'd, her hedges ruin'd, + Her knots disordered, and her wholesome herbs + Swarming with caterpillars? + GARDENER. Hold thy peace. + He that hath suffer'd this disorder'd spring + Hath now himself met with the fall of leaf; + The weeds which his broad-spreading leaves did shelter, + That seem'd in eating him to hold him up, + Are pluck'd up root and all by Bolingbroke- + I mean the Earl of Wiltshire, Bushy, Green. + SERVANT. What, are they dead? + GARDENER. They are; and Bolingbroke + Hath seiz'd the wasteful King. O, what pity is it + That he had not so trimm'd and dress'd his land + As we this garden! We at time of year + Do wound the bark, the skin of our fruit trees, + Lest, being over-proud in sap and blood, + With too much riches it confound itself; + Had he done so to great and growing men, + They might have Ev'd to bear, and he to taste + Their fruits of duty. Superfluous branches + We lop away, that bearing boughs may live; + Had he done so, himself had home the crown, + Which waste of idle hours hath quite thrown down. + SERVANT. What, think you the King shall be deposed? + GARDENER. Depress'd he is already, and depos'd + 'Tis doubt he will be. Letters came last night + To a dear friend of the good Duke of York's + That tell black tidings. + QUEEN. O, I am press'd to death through want of speaking! + [Coming forward] + Thou, old Adam's likeness, set to dress this garden, + How dares thy harsh rude tongue sound this unpleasing news? + What Eve, what serpent, hath suggested the + To make a second fall of cursed man? + Why dost thou say King Richard is depos'd? + Dar'st thou, thou little better thing than earth, + Divine his downfall? Say, where, when, and how, + Cam'st thou by this ill tidings? Speak, thou wretch. + GARDENER. Pardon me, madam; little joy have + To breathe this news; yet what I say is true. + King Richard, he is in the mighty hold + Of Bolingbroke. Their fortunes both are weigh'd. + In your lord's scale is nothing but himself, + And some few vanities that make him light; + But in the balance of great Bolingbroke, + Besides himself, are all the English peers, + And with that odds he weighs King Richard down. + Post you to London, and you will find it so; + I speak no more than every one doth know. + QUEEN. Nimble mischance, that art so light of foot, + Doth not thy embassage belong to me, + And am I last that knows it? O, thou thinkest + To serve me last, that I may longest keep + Thy sorrow in my breast. Come, ladies, go + To meet at London London's King in woe. + What, was I born to this, that my sad look + Should grace the triumph of great Bolingbroke? + Gard'ner, for telling me these news of woe, + Pray God the plants thou graft'st may never grow! + Exeunt QUEEN and LADIES + GARDENER. Poor Queen, so that thy state might be no worse, + I would my skill were subject to thy curse. + Here did she fall a tear; here in this place + I'll set a bank of rue, sour herb of grace. + Rue, even for ruth, here shortly shall be seen, + In the remembrance of a weeping queen. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE 1. Westminster Hall + +Enter, as to the Parliament, BOLINGBROKE, AUMERLE, NORTHUMBERLAND, +PERCY, FITZWATER, SURREY, the BISHOP OF CARLISLE, the ABBOT OF +WESTMINSTER, and others; HERALD, OFFICERS, and BAGOT + + BOLINGBROKE. Call forth Bagot. + Now, Bagot, freely speak thy mind- + What thou dost know of noble Gloucester's death; + Who wrought it with the King, and who perform'd + The bloody office of his timeless end. + BAGOT. Then set before my face the Lord Aumerle. + BOLINGBROKE. Cousin, stand forth, and look upon that man. + BAGOT. My Lord Aumerle, I know your daring tongue + Scorns to unsay what once it hath deliver'd. + In that dead time when Gloucester's death was plotted + I heard you say 'Is not my arm of length, + That reacheth from the restful English Court + As far as Calais, to mine uncle's head?' + Amongst much other talk that very time + I heard you say that you had rather refuse + The offer of an hundred thousand crowns + Than Bolingbroke's return to England; + Adding withal, how blest this land would be + In this your cousin's death. + AUMERLE. Princes, and noble lords, + What answer shall I make to this base man? + Shall I so much dishonour my fair stars + On equal terms to give him chastisement? + Either I must, or have mine honour soil'd + With the attainder of his slanderous lips. + There is my gage, the manual seal of death + That marks thee out for hell. I say thou liest, + And will maintain what thou hast said is false + In thy heart-blood, through being all too base + To stain the temper of my knightly sword. + BOLINGBROKE. Bagot, forbear; thou shalt not take it up. + AUMERLE. Excepting one, I would he were the best + In all this presence that hath mov'd me so. + FITZWATER. If that thy valour stand on sympathy, + There is my gage, Aumerle, in gage to thine. + By that fair sun which shows me where thou stand'st, + I heard thee say, and vauntingly thou spak'st it, + That thou wert cause of noble Gloucester's death. + If thou deniest it twenty times, thou liest; + And I will turn thy falsehood to thy heart, + Where it was forged, with my rapier's point. + AUMERLE. Thou dar'st not, coward, live to see that day. + FITZWATER. Now, by my soul, I would it were this hour. + AUMERLE. Fitzwater, thou art damn'd to hell for this. + PERCY. Aumerle, thou liest; his honour is as true + In this appeal as thou art an unjust; + And that thou art so, there I throw my gage, + To prove it on thee to the extremest point + Of mortal breathing. Seize it, if thou dar'st. + AUMERLE. An if I do not, may my hands rot of + And never brandish more revengeful steel + Over the glittering helmet of my foe! + ANOTHER LORD. I task the earth to the like, forsworn Aumerle; + And spur thee on with fun as many lies + As may be halloa'd in thy treacherous ear + From sun to sun. There is my honour's pawn; + Engage it to the trial, if thou darest. + AUMERLE. Who sets me else? By heaven, I'll throw at all! + I have a thousand spirits in one breast + To answer twenty thousand such as you. + SURREY. My Lord Fitzwater, I do remember well + The very time Aumerle and you did talk. + FITZWATER. 'Tis very true; you were in presence then, + And you can witness with me this is true. + SURREY. As false, by heaven, as heaven itself is true. + FITZWATER. Surrey, thou liest. + SURREY. Dishonourable boy! + That lie shall lie so heavy on my sword + That it shall render vengeance and revenge + Till thou the lie-giver and that lie do he + In earth as quiet as thy father's skull. + In proof whereof, there is my honour's pawn; + Engage it to the trial, if thou dar'st. + FITZWATER. How fondly dost thou spur a forward horse! + If I dare eat, or drink, or breathe, or live, + I dare meet Surrey in a wilderness, + And spit upon him whilst I say he lies, + And lies, and lies. There is my bond of faith, + To tie thee to my strong correction. + As I intend to thrive in this new world, + Aumerle is guilty of my true appeal. + Besides, I heard the banish'd Norfolk say + That thou, Aumerle, didst send two of thy men + To execute the noble Duke at Calais. + AUMERLE. Some honest Christian trust me with a gage + That Norfolk lies. Here do I throw down this, + If he may be repeal'd to try his honour. + BOLINGBROKE. These differences shall all rest under gage + Till Norfolk be repeal'd-repeal'd he shall be + And, though mine enemy, restor'd again + To all his lands and signories. When he is return'd, + Against Aumerle we will enforce his trial. + CARLISLE. That honourable day shall never be seen. + Many a time hath banish'd Norfolk fought + For Jesu Christ in glorious Christian field, + Streaming the ensign of the Christian cross + Against black pagans, Turks, and Saracens; + And, toil'd with works of war, retir'd himself + To Italy; and there, at Venice, gave + His body to that pleasant country's earth, + And his pure soul unto his captain, Christ, + Under whose colours he had fought so long. + BOLINGBROKE. Why, Bishop, is Norfolk dead? + CARLISLE. As surely as I live, my lord. + BOLINGBROKE. Sweet peace conduct his sweet soul to the bosom + Of good old Abraham! Lords appellants, + Your differences shall all rest under gage + Till we assign you to your days of trial + + Enter YORK, attended + + YORK. Great Duke of Lancaster, I come to the + From plume-pluck'd Richard, who with willing soul + Adopts thee heir, and his high sceptre yields + To the possession of thy royal hand. + Ascend his throne, descending now from him- + And long live Henry, fourth of that name! + BOLINGBROKE. In God's name, I'll ascend the regal throne. + CARLISLE. Marry, God forbid! + Worst in this royal presence may I speak, + Yet best beseeming me to speak the truth. + Would God that any in this noble presence + Were enough noble to be upright judge + Of noble Richard! Then true noblesse would + Learn him forbearance from so foul a wrong. + What subject can give sentence on his king? + And who sits here that is not Richard's subject? + Thieves are not judg'd but they are by to hear, + Although apparent guilt be seen in them; + And shall the figure of God's majesty, + His captain, steward, deputy elect, + Anointed, crowned, planted many years, + Be judg'd by subject and inferior breath, + And he himself not present? O, forfend it, God, + That in a Christian climate souls refin'd + Should show so heinous, black, obscene a deed! + I speak to subjects, and a subject speaks, + Stirr'd up by God, thus boldly for his king. + My Lord of Hereford here, whom you call king, + Is a foul traitor to proud Hereford's king; + And if you crown him, let me prophesy- + The blood of English shall manure the ground, + And future ages groan for this foul act; + Peace shall go sleep with Turks and infidels, + And in this seat of peace tumultuous wars + Shall kin with kin and kind with kind confound; + Disorder, horror, fear, and mutiny, + Shall here inhabit, and this land be call'd + The field of Golgotha and dead men's skulls. + O, if you raise this house against this house, + It will the woefullest division prove + That ever fell upon this cursed earth. + Prevent it, resist it, let it not be so, + Lest child, child's children, cry against you woe. + NORTHUMBERLAND. Well have you argued, sir; and, for your pains, + Of capital treason we arrest you here. + My Lord of Westminster, be it your charge + To keep him safely till his day of trial. + May it please you, lords, to grant the commons' suit? + BOLINGBROKE. Fetch hither Richard, that in common view + He may surrender; so we shall proceed + Without suspicion. + YORK. I will be his conduct. Exit + BOLINGBROKE. Lords, you that here are under our arrest, + Procure your sureties for your days of answer. + Little are we beholding to your love, + And little look'd for at your helping hands. + + Re-enter YORK, with KING RICHARD, and OFFICERS + bearing the regalia + + KING RICHARD. Alack, why am I sent for to a king, + Before I have shook off the regal thoughts + Wherewith I reign'd? I hardly yet have learn'd + To insinuate, flatter, bow, and bend my knee. + Give sorrow leave awhile to tutor me + To this submission. Yet I well remember + The favours of these men. Were they not mine? + Did they not sometime cry 'All hail!' to me? + So Judas did to Christ; but he, in twelve, + Found truth in all but one; I, in twelve thousand, none. + God save the King! Will no man say amen? + Am I both priest and clerk? Well then, amen. + God save the King! although I be not he; + And yet, amen, if heaven do think him me. + To do what service am I sent for hither? + YORK. To do that office of thine own good will + Which tired majesty did make thee offer- + The resignation of thy state and crown + To Henry Bolingbroke. + KING RICHARD. Give me the crown. Here, cousin, seize the crown. + Here, cousin, + On this side my hand, and on that side thine. + Now is this golden crown like a deep well + That owes two buckets, filling one another; + The emptier ever dancing in the air, + The other down, unseen, and full of water. + That bucket down and fun of tears am I, + Drinking my griefs, whilst you mount up on high. + BOLINGBROKE. I thought you had been willing to resign. + KING RICHARD. My crown I am; but still my griefs are mine. + You may my glories and my state depose, + But not my griefs; still am I king of those. + BOLINGBROKE. Part of your cares you give me with your crown. + KING RICHARD. Your cares set up do not pluck my cares down. + My care is loss of care, by old care done; + Your care is gain of care, by new care won. + The cares I give I have, though given away; + They tend the crown, yet still with me they stay. + BOLINGBROKE. Are you contented to resign the crown? + KING RICHARD. Ay, no; no, ay; for I must nothing be; + Therefore no no, for I resign to thee. + Now mark me how I will undo myself: + I give this heavy weight from off my head, + And this unwieldy sceptre from my hand, + The pride of kingly sway from out my heart; + With mine own tears I wash away my balm, + With mine own hands I give away my crown, + With mine own tongue deny my sacred state, + With mine own breath release all duteous oaths; + All pomp and majesty I do forswear; + My manors, rents, revenues, I forgo; + My acts, decrees, and statutes, I deny. + God pardon all oaths that are broke to me! + God keep all vows unbroke are made to thee! + Make me, that nothing have, with nothing griev'd, + And thou with all pleas'd, that hast an achiev'd. + Long mayst thou live in Richard's seat to sit, + And soon lie Richard in an earthly pit. + God save King Henry, unking'd Richard says, + And send him many years of sunshine days! + What more remains? + NORTHUMBERLAND. No more; but that you read + These accusations, and these grievous crimes + Committed by your person and your followers + Against the state and profit of this land; + That, by confessing them, the souls of men + May deem that you are worthily depos'd. + KING RICHARD. Must I do so? And must I ravel out + My weav'd-up follies? Gentle Northumberland, + If thy offences were upon record, + Would it not shame thee in so fair a troop + To read a lecture of them? If thou wouldst, + There shouldst thou find one heinous article, + Containing the deposing of a king + And cracking the strong warrant of an oath, + Mark'd with a blot, damn'd in the book of heaven. + Nay, all of you that stand and look upon me + Whilst that my wretchedness doth bait myself, + Though some of you, with Pilate, wash your hands, + Showing an outward pity-yet you Pilates + Have here deliver'd me to my sour cross, + And water cannot wash away your sin. + NORTHUMBERLAND. My lord, dispatch; read o'er these + articles. + KING RICHARD. Mine eyes are full of tears; I cannot see. + And yet salt water blinds them not so much + But they can see a sort of traitors here. + Nay, if I turn mine eyes upon myself, + I find myself a traitor with the rest; + For I have given here my soul's consent + T'undeck the pompous body of a king; + Made glory base, and sovereignty a slave, + Proud majesty a subject, state a peasant. + NORTHUMBERLAND. My lord- + KING RICHARD. No lord of thine, thou haught insulting man, + Nor no man's lord; I have no name, no tide- + No, not that name was given me at the font- + But 'tis usurp'd. Alack the heavy day, + That I have worn so many winters out, + And know not now what name to call myself! + O that I were a mockery king of snow, + Standing before the sun of Bolingbroke + To melt myself away in water drops! + Good king, great king, and yet not greatly good, + An if my word be sterling yet in England, + Let it command a mirror hither straight, + That it may show me what a face I have + Since it is bankrupt of his majesty. + BOLINGBROKE. Go some of you and fetch a looking-glass. + Exit an attendant + NORTHUMBERLAND. Read o'er this paper while the glass doth come. + KING RICHARD. Fiend, thou torments me ere I come to hell. + BOLINGBROKE. Urge it no more, my Lord Northumberland. + NORTHUMBERLAND. The Commons will not, then, be satisfied. + KING RICHARD. They shall be satisfied. I'll read enough, + When I do see the very book indeed + Where all my sins are writ, and that's myself. + + Re-enter attendant with glass + + Give me that glass, and therein will I read. + No deeper wrinkles yet? Hath sorrow struck + So many blows upon this face of mine + And made no deeper wounds? O flatt'ring glass, + Like to my followers in prosperity, + Thou dost beguile me! Was this face the face + That every day under his household roof + Did keep ten thousand men? Was this the face + That like the sun did make beholders wink? + Is this the face which fac'd so many follies + That was at last out-fac'd by Bolingbroke? + A brittle glory shineth in this face; + As brittle as the glory is the face; + [Dashes the glass against the ground] + For there it is, crack'd in a hundred shivers. + Mark, silent king, the moral of this sport- + How soon my sorrow hath destroy'd my face. + BOLINGBROKE. The shadow of your sorrow hath destroy'd + The shadow of your face. + KING RICHARD. Say that again. + The shadow of my sorrow? Ha! let's see. + 'Tis very true: my grief lies all within; + And these external manner of laments + Are merely shadows to the unseen grief + That swells with silence in the tortur'd soul. + There lies the substance; and I thank thee, king, + For thy great bounty, that not only giv'st + Me cause to wail, but teachest me the way + How to lament the cause. I'll beg one boon, + And then be gone and trouble you no more. + Shall I obtain it? + BOLINGBROKE. Name it, fair cousin. + KING RICHARD. Fair cousin! I am greater than a king; + For when I was a king, my flatterers + Were then but subjects; being now a subject, + I have a king here to my flatterer. + Being so great, I have no need to beg. + BOLINGBROKE. Yet ask. + KING RICHARD. And shall I have? + BOLINGBROKE. You shall. + KING RICHARD. Then give me leave to go. + BOLINGBROKE. Whither? + KING RICHARD. Whither you will, so I were from your sights. + BOLINGBROKE. Go, some of you convey him to the Tower. + KING RICHARD. O, good! Convey! Conveyers are you all, + That rise thus nimbly by a true king's fall. + Exeunt KING RICHARD, some Lords and a Guard + BOLINGBROKE. On Wednesday next we solemnly set down + Our coronation. Lords, prepare yourselves. + Exeunt all but the ABBOT OF WESTMINSTER, the + BISHOP OF CARLISLE, and AUMERLE + ABBOT. A woeful pageant have we here beheld. + CARLISLE. The woe's to come; the children yet unborn + Shall feel this day as sharp to them as thorn. + AUMERLE. You holy clergymen, is there no plot + To rid the realm of this pernicious blot? + ABBOT. My lord, + Before I freely speak my mind herein, + You shall not only take the sacrament + To bury mine intents, but also to effect + Whatever I shall happen to devise. + I see your brows are full of discontent, + Your hearts of sorrow, and your eyes of tears. + Come home with me to supper; I will lay + A plot shall show us all a merry day. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 1. London. A street leading to the Tower + +Enter the QUEEN, with her attendants + + QUEEN. This way the King will come; this is the way + To Julius Caesar's ill-erected tower, + To whose flint bosom my condemned lord + Is doom'd a prisoner by proud Bolingbroke. + Here let us rest, if this rebellious earth + Have any resting for her true King's queen. + + Enter KING RICHARD and Guard + + But soft, but see, or rather do not see, + My fair rose wither. Yet look up, behold, + That you in pity may dissolve to dew, + And wash him fresh again with true-love tears. + Ah, thou, the model where old Troy did stand; + Thou map of honour, thou King Richard's tomb, + And not King Richard; thou most beauteous inn, + Why should hard-favour'd grief be lodg'd in thee, + When triumph is become an alehouse guest? + KING RICHARD. Join not with grief, fair woman, do not so, + To make my end too sudden. Learn, good soul, + To think our former state a happy dream; + From which awak'd, the truth of what we are + Shows us but this: I am sworn brother, sweet, + To grim Necessity; and he and + Will keep a league till death. Hie thee to France, + And cloister thee in some religious house. + Our holy lives must win a new world's crown, + Which our profane hours here have thrown down. + QUEEN. What, is my Richard both in shape and mind + Transform'd and weak'ned? Hath Bolingbroke depos'd + Thine intellect? Hath he been in thy heart? + The lion dying thrusteth forth his paw + And wounds the earth, if nothing else, with rage + To be o'erpow'r'd; and wilt thou, pupil-like, + Take the correction mildly, kiss the rod, + And fawn on rage with base humility, + Which art a lion and the king of beasts? + KING RICHARD. A king of beasts, indeed! If aught but beasts, + I had been still a happy king of men. + Good sometimes queen, prepare thee hence for France. + Think I am dead, and that even here thou takest, + As from my death-bed, thy last living leave. + In winter's tedious nights sit by the fire + With good old folks, and let them tell thee tales + Of woeful ages long ago betid; + And ere thou bid good night, to quit their griefs + Tell thou the lamentable tale of me, + And send the hearers weeping to their beds; + For why, the senseless brands will sympathize + The heavy accent of thy moving tongue, + And in compassion weep the fire out; + And some will mourn in ashes, some coal-black, + For the deposing of a rightful king. + + Enter NORTHUMBERLAND attended + + NORTHUMBERLAND. My lord, the mind of Bolingbroke is chang'd; + You must to Pomfret, not unto the Tower. + And, madam, there is order ta'en for you: + With all swift speed you must away to France. + KING RICHARD. Northumberland, thou ladder wherewithal + The mounting Bolingbroke ascends my throne, + The time shall not be many hours of age + More than it is, ere foul sin gathering head + Shall break into corruption. Thou shalt think + Though he divide the realm and give thee half + It is too little, helping him to all; + And he shall think that thou, which knowest the way + To plant unrightful kings, wilt know again, + Being ne'er so little urg'd, another way + To pluck him headlong from the usurped throne. + The love of wicked men converts to fear; + That fear to hate; and hate turns one or both + To worthy danger and deserved death. + NORTHUMBERLAND. My guilt be on my head, and there an end. + Take leave, and part; for you must part forthwith. + KING RICHARD. Doubly divorc'd! Bad men, you violate + A twofold marriage-'twixt my crown and me, + And then betwixt me and my married wife. + Let me unkiss the oath 'twixt thee and me; + And yet not so, for with a kiss 'twas made. + Part us, Northumberland; I towards the north, + Where shivering cold and sickness pines the clime; + My wife to France, from whence set forth in pomp, + She came adorned hither like sweet May, + Sent back like Hallowmas or short'st of day. + QUEEN. And must we be divided? Must we part? + KING RICHARD. Ay, hand from hand, my love, and heart from heart. + QUEEN. Banish us both, and send the King with me. + NORTHUMBERLAND. That were some love, but little policy. + QUEEN. Then whither he goes thither let me go. + KING RICHARD. So two, together weeping, make one woe. + Weep thou for me in France, I for thee here; + Better far off than near, be ne'er the near. + Go, count thy way with sighs; I mine with groans. + QUEEN. So longest way shall have the longest moans. + KING RICHARD. Twice for one step I'll groan, the way being short, + And piece the way out with a heavy heart. + Come, come, in wooing sorrow let's be brief, + Since, wedding it, there is such length in grief. + One kiss shall stop our mouths, and dumbly part; + Thus give I mine, and thus take I thy heart. + QUEEN. Give me mine own again; 'twere no good part + To take on me to keep and kill thy heart. + So, now I have mine own again, be gone. + That I may strive to kill it with a groan. + KING RICHARD. We make woe wanton with this fond delay. + Once more, adieu; the rest let sorrow say. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. The DUKE OF YORK's palace + +Enter the DUKE OF YORK and the DUCHESS + + DUCHESS. My Lord, you told me you would tell the rest, + When weeping made you break the story off, + Of our two cousins' coming into London. + YORK. Where did I leave? + DUCHESS. At that sad stop, my lord, + Where rude misgoverned hands from windows' tops + Threw dust and rubbish on King Richard's head. + YORK. Then, as I said, the Duke, great Bolingbroke, + Mounted upon a hot and fiery steed + Which his aspiring rider seem'd to know, + With slow but stately pace kept on his course, + Whilst all tongues cried 'God save thee, Bolingbroke!' + You would have thought the very windows spake, + So many greedy looks of young and old + Through casements darted their desiring eyes + Upon his visage; and that all the walls + With painted imagery had said at once + 'Jesu preserve thee! Welcome, Bolingbroke!' + Whilst he, from the one side to the other turning, + Bareheaded, lower than his proud steed's neck, + Bespake them thus, 'I thank you, countrymen.' + And thus still doing, thus he pass'd along. + DUCHESS. Alack, poor Richard! where rode he the whilst? + YORK. As in a theatre the eyes of men + After a well-grac'd actor leaves the stage + Are idly bent on him that enters next, + Thinking his prattle to be tedious; + Even so, or with much more contempt, men's eyes + Did scowl on gentle Richard; no man cried 'God save him!' + No joyful tongue gave him his welcome home; + But dust was thrown upon his sacred head; + Which with such gentle sorrow he shook off, + His face still combating with tears and smiles, + The badges of his grief and patience, + That had not God, for some strong purpose, steel'd + The hearts of men, they must perforce have melted, + And barbarism itself have pitied him. + But heaven hath a hand in these events, + To whose high will we bound our calm contents. + To Bolingbroke are we sworn subjects now, + Whose state and honour I for aye allow. + DUCHESS. Here comes my son Aumerle. + YORK. Aumerle that was + But that is lost for being Richard's friend, + And madam, you must call him Rudand now. + I am in Parliament pledge for his truth + And lasting fealty to the new-made king. + + Enter AUMERLE + + DUCHESS. Welcome, my son. Who are the violets now + That strew the green lap of the new come spring? + AUMERLE. Madam, I know not, nor I greatly care not. + God knows I had as lief be none as one. + YORK. Well, bear you well in this new spring of time, + Lest you be cropp'd before you come to prime. + What news from Oxford? Do these justs and triumphs hold? + AUMERLE. For aught I know, my lord, they do. + YORK. You will be there, I know. + AUMERLE. If God prevent not, I purpose so. + YORK. What seal is that that without thy bosom? + Yea, look'st thou pale? Let me see the writing. + AUMERLE. My lord, 'tis nothing. + YORK. No matter, then, who see it. + I will be satisfied; let me see the writing. + AUMERLE. I do beseech your Grace to pardon me; + It is a matter of small consequence + Which for some reasons I would not have seen. + YORK. Which for some reasons, sir, I mean to see. + I fear, I fear- + DUCHESS. What should you fear? + 'Tis nothing but some bond that he is ent'red into + For gay apparel 'gainst the triumph-day. + YORK. Bound to himself! What doth he with a bond + That he is bound to? Wife, thou art a fool. + Boy, let me see the writing. + AUMERLE. I do beseech you, pardon me; I may not show it. + YORK. I will be satisfied; let me see it, I say. + [He plucks it out of his bosom, and reads it] + Treason, foul treason! Villain! traitor! slave! + DUCHESS. What is the matter, my lord? + YORK. Ho! who is within there? + + Enter a servant + + Saddle my horse. + God for his mercy, what treachery is here! + DUCHESS. Why, York, what is it, my lord? + YORK. Give me my boots, I say; saddle my horse. + Exit servant + Now, by mine honour, by my life, my troth, + I will appeach the villain. + DUCHESS. What is the matter? + YORK. Peace, foolish woman. + DUCHESS. I will not peace. What is the matter, Aumerle? + AUMERLE. Good mother, be content; it is no more + Than my poor life must answer. + DUCHESS. Thy life answer! + YORK. Bring me my boots. I will unto the King. + + His man enters with his boots + + DUCHESS. Strike him, Aumerle. Poor boy, thou art amaz'd. + Hence, villain! never more come in my sight. + YORK. Give me my boots, I say. + DUCHESS. Why, York, what wilt thou do? + Wilt thou not hide the trespass of thine own? + Have we more sons? or are we like to have? + Is not my teeming date drunk up with time? + And wilt thou pluck my fair son from mine age + And rob me of a happy mother's name? + Is he not like thee? Is he not thine own? + YORK. Thou fond mad woman, + Wilt thou conceal this dark conspiracy? + A dozen of them here have ta'en the sacrament, + And interchangeably set down their hands + To kill the King at Oxford. + DUCHESS. He shall be none; + We'll keep him here. Then what is that to him? + YORK. Away, fond woman! were he twenty times my son + I would appeach him. + DUCHESS. Hadst thou groan'd for him + As I have done, thou wouldst be more pitiful. + But now I know thy mind: thou dost suspect + That I have been disloyal to thy bed + And that he is a bastard, not thy son. + Sweet York, sweet husband, be not of that mind. + He is as like thee as a man may be + Not like to me, or any of my kin, + And yet I love him. + YORK. Make way, unruly woman! Exit + DUCHESS. After, Aumerle! Mount thee upon his horse; + Spur post, and get before him to the King, + And beg thy pardon ere he do accuse thee. + I'll not be long behind; though I be old, + I doubt not but to ride as fast as York; + And never will I rise up from the ground + Till Bolingbroke have pardon'd thee. Away, be gone. + Exeunt + +SCENE 3. Windsor Castle + +Enter BOLINGBROKE as King, PERCY, and other LORDS + + BOLINGBROKE. Can no man tell me of my unthrifty son? + 'Tis full three months since I did see him last. + If any plague hang over us, 'tis he. + I would to God, my lords, he might be found. + Inquire at London, 'mongst the taverns there, + For there, they say, he daily doth frequent + With unrestrained loose companions, + Even such, they say, as stand in narrow lanes + And beat our watch and rob our passengers, + Which he, young wanton and effeminate boy, + Takes on the point of honour to support + So dissolute a crew. + PERCY. My lord, some two days since I saw the Prince, + And told him of those triumphs held at Oxford. + BOLINGBROKE. And what said the gallant? + PERCY. His answer was, he would unto the stews, + And from the common'st creature pluck a glove + And wear it as a favour; and with that + He would unhorse the lustiest challenger. + BOLINGBROKE. As dissolute as desperate; yet through both + I see some sparks of better hope, which elder years + May happily bring forth. But who comes here? + + Enter AUMERLE amazed + + AUMERLE. Where is the King? + BOLINGBROKE. What means our cousin that he stares and looks + So wildly? + AUMERLE. God save your Grace! I do beseech your Majesty, + To have some conference with your Grace alone. + BOLINGBROKE. Withdraw yourselves, and leave us here alone. + Exeunt PERCY and LORDS + What is the matter with our cousin now? + AUMERLE. For ever may my knees grow to the earth, + [Kneels] + My tongue cleave to my roof within my mouth, + Unless a pardon ere I rise or speak. + BOLINGBROKE. Intended or committed was this fault? + If on the first, how heinous e'er it be, + To win thy after-love I pardon thee. + AUMERLE. Then give me leave that I may turn the key, + That no man enter till my tale be done. + BOLINGBROKE. Have thy desire. + [The DUKE OF YORK knocks at the door and crieth] + YORK. [Within] My liege, beware; look to thyself; + Thou hast a traitor in thy presence there. + BOLINGBROKE. [Drawing] Villain, I'll make thee safe. + AUMERLE. Stay thy revengeful hand; thou hast no cause to fear. + YORK. [Within] Open the door, secure, foolhardy King. + Shall I, for love, speak treason to thy face? + Open the door, or I will break it open. + + Enter YORK + + BOLINGBROKE. What is the matter, uncle? Speak; + Recover breath; tell us how near is danger, + That we may arm us to encounter it. + YORK. Peruse this writing here, and thou shalt know + The treason that my haste forbids me show. + AUMERLE. Remember, as thou read'st, thy promise pass'd. + I do repent me; read not my name there; + My heart is not confederate with my hand. + YORK. It was, villain, ere thy hand did set it down. + I tore it from the traitor's bosom, King; + Fear, and not love, begets his penitence. + Forget to pity him, lest thy pity prove + A serpent that will sting thee to the heart. + BOLINGBROKE. O heinous, strong, and bold conspiracy! + O loyal father of a treacherous son! + Thou sheer, immaculate, and silver fountain, + From whence this stream through muddy passages + Hath held his current and defil'd himself! + Thy overflow of good converts to bad; + And thy abundant goodness shall excuse + This deadly blot in thy digressing son. + YORK. So shall my virtue be his vice's bawd; + And he shall spend mine honour with his shame, + As thriftless sons their scraping fathers' gold. + Mine honour lives when his dishonour dies, + Or my sham'd life in his dishonour lies. + Thou kill'st me in his life; giving him breath, + The traitor lives, the true man's put to death. + DUCHESS. [Within] I What ho, my liege, for God's sake, let me in. + BOLINGBROKE. What shrill-voic'd suppliant makes this eager cry? + DUCHESS. [Within] A woman, and thine aunt, great King; 'tis I. + Speak with me, pity me, open the door. + A beggar begs that never begg'd before. + BOLINGBROKE. Our scene is alt'red from a serious thing, + And now chang'd to 'The Beggar and the King.' + My dangerous cousin, let your mother in. + I know she is come to pray for your foul sin. + YORK. If thou do pardon whosoever pray, + More sins for this forgiveness prosper may. + This fest'red joint cut off, the rest rest sound; + This let alone will all the rest confound. + + Enter DUCHESS + + DUCHESS. O King, believe not this hard-hearted man! + Love loving not itself, none other can. + YORK. Thou frantic woman, what dost thou make here? + Shall thy old dugs once more a traitor rear? + DUCHESS. Sweet York, be patient. Hear me, gentle liege. + [Kneels] + BOLINGBROKE. Rise up, good aunt. + DUCHESS. Not yet, I thee beseech. + For ever will I walk upon my knees, + And never see day that the happy sees + Till thou give joy; until thou bid me joy + By pardoning Rutland, my transgressing boy. + AUMERLE. Unto my mother's prayers I bend my knee. + [Kneels] + YORK. Against them both, my true joints bended be. + [Kneels] + Ill mayst thou thrive, if thou grant any grace! + DUCHESS. Pleads he in earnest? Look upon his face; + His eyes do drop no tears, his prayers are in jest; + His words come from his mouth, ours from our breast. + He prays but faintly and would be denied; + We pray with heart and soul, and all beside. + His weary joints would gladly rise, I know; + Our knees still kneel till to the ground they grow. + His prayers are full of false hypocrisy; + Ours of true zeal and deep integrity. + Our prayers do out-pray his; then let them have + That mercy which true prayer ought to have. + BOLINGBROKE. Good aunt, stand up. + DUCHESS. do not say 'stand up'; + Say 'pardon' first, and afterwards 'stand up.' + An if I were thy nurse, thy tongue to teach, + 'Pardon' should be the first word of thy speech. + I never long'd to hear a word till now; + Say 'pardon,' King; let pity teach thee how. + The word is short, but not so short as sweet; + No word like 'pardon' for kings' mouths so meet. + YORK. Speak it in French, King, say 'pardonne moy.' + DUCHESS. Dost thou teach pardon pardon to destroy? + Ah, my sour husband, my hard-hearted lord, + That sets the word itself against the word! + Speak 'pardon' as 'tis current in our land; + The chopping French we do not understand. + Thine eye begins to speak, set thy tongue there; + Or in thy piteous heart plant thou thine ear, + That hearing how our plaints and prayers do pierce, + Pity may move thee 'pardon' to rehearse. + BOLINGBROKE. Good aunt, stand up. + DUCHESS. I do not sue to stand; + Pardon is all the suit I have in hand. + BOLINGBROKE. I pardon him, as God shall pardon me. + DUCHESS. O happy vantage of a kneeling knee! + Yet am I sick for fear. Speak it again. + Twice saying 'pardon' doth not pardon twain, + But makes one pardon strong. + BOLINGBROKE. With all my heart + I pardon him. + DUCHESS. A god on earth thou art. + BOLINGBROKE. But for our trusty brother-in-law and the Abbot, + With all the rest of that consorted crew, + Destruction straight shall dog them at the heels. + Good uncle, help to order several powers + To Oxford, or where'er these traitors are. + They shall not live within this world, I swear, + But I will have them, if I once know where. + Uncle, farewell; and, cousin, adieu; + Your mother well hath pray'd, and prove you true. + DUCHESS. Come, my old son; I pray God make thee new. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. Windsor Castle + +Enter SIR PIERCE OF EXTON and a servant + + EXTON. Didst thou not mark the King, what words he spake? + 'Have I no friend will rid me of this living fear?' + Was it not so? + SERVANT. These were his very words. + EXTON. 'Have I no friend?' quoth he. He spake it twice + And urg'd it twice together, did he not? + SERVANT. He did. + EXTON. And, speaking it, he wishtly look'd on me, + As who should say 'I would thou wert the man + That would divorce this terror from my heart'; + Meaning the King at Pomfret. Come, let's go. + I am the King's friend, and will rid his foe. Exeunt + +SCENE 5. Pomfret Castle. The dungeon of the Castle + +Enter KING RICHARD + + KING RICHARD. I have been studying how I may compare + This prison where I live unto the world + And, for because the world is populous + And here is not a creature but myself, + I cannot do it. Yet I'll hammer it out. + My brain I'll prove the female to my soul, + My soul the father; and these two beget + A generation of still-breeding thoughts, + And these same thoughts people this little world, + In humours like the people of this world, + For no thought is contented. The better sort, + As thoughts of things divine, are intermix'd + With scruples, and do set the word itself + Against the word, + As thus: 'Come, little ones'; and then again, + 'It is as hard to come as for a camel + To thread the postern of a small needle's eye.' + Thoughts tending to ambition, they do plot + Unlikely wonders: how these vain weak nails + May tear a passage through the flinty ribs + Of this hard world, my ragged prison walls; + And, for they cannot, die in their own pride. + Thoughts tending to content flatter themselves + That they are not the first of fortune's slaves, + Nor shall not be the last; like silly beggars + Who, sitting in the stocks, refuge their shame, + That many have and others must sit there; + And in this thought they find a kind of ease, + Bearing their own misfortunes on the back + Of such as have before endur'd the like. + Thus play I in one person many people, + And none contented. Sometimes am I king; + Then treasons make me wish myself a beggar, + And so I am. Then crushing penury + Persuades me I was better when a king; + Then am I king'd again; and by and by + Think that I am unking'd by Bolingbroke, + And straight am nothing. But whate'er I be, + Nor I, nor any man that but man is, + With nothing shall be pleas'd till he be eas'd + With being nothing. [The music plays] + Music do I hear? + Ha, ha! keep time. How sour sweet music is + When time is broke and no proportion kept! + So is it in the music of men's lives. + And here have I the daintiness of ear + To check time broke in a disorder'd string; + But, for the concord of my state and time, + Had not an ear to hear my true time broke. + I wasted time, and now doth time waste me; + For now hath time made me his numb'ring clock: + My thoughts are minutes; and with sighs they jar + Their watches on unto mine eyes, the outward watch, + Whereto my finger, like a dial's point, + Is pointing still, in cleansing them from tears. + Now sir, the sound that tells what hour it is + Are clamorous groans which strike upon my heart, + Which is the bell. So sighs, and tears, and groans, + Show minutes, times, and hours; but my time + Runs posting on in Bolingbroke's proud joy, + While I stand fooling here, his Jack of the clock. + This music mads me. Let it sound no more; + For though it have holp madmen to their wits, + In me it seems it will make wise men mad. + Yet blessing on his heart that gives it me! + For 'tis a sign of love; and love to Richard + Is a strange brooch in this all-hating world. + + Enter a GROOM of the stable + + GROOM. Hail, royal Prince! + KING RICHARD. Thanks, noble peer! + The cheapest of us is ten groats too dear. + What art thou? and how comest thou hither, + Where no man never comes but that sad dog + That brings me food to make misfortune live? + GROOM. I was a poor groom of thy stable, King, + When thou wert king; who, travelling towards York, + With much ado at length have gotten leave + To look upon my sometimes royal master's face. + O, how it ern'd my heart, when I beheld, + In London streets, that coronation-day, + When Bolingbroke rode on roan Barbary- + That horse that thou so often hast bestrid, + That horse that I so carefully have dress'd! + KING RICHARD. Rode he on Barbary? Tell me, gentle friend, + How went he under him? + GROOM. So proudly as if he disdain'd the ground. + KING RICHARD. So proud that Bolingbroke was on his back! + That jade hath eat bread from my royal hand; + This hand hath made him proud with clapping him. + Would he not stumble? would he not fall down, + Since pride must have a fall, and break the neck + Of that proud man that did usurp his back? + Forgiveness, horse! Why do I rail on thee, + Since thou, created to be aw'd by man, + Wast born to bear? I was not made a horse; + And yet I bear a burden like an ass, + Spurr'd, gall'd, and tir'd, by jauncing Bolingbroke. + + Enter KEEPER with meat + + KEEPER. Fellow, give place; here is no longer stay. + KING RICHARD. If thou love me, 'tis time thou wert away. + GROOM. my tongue dares not, that my heart shall say. + Exit + KEEPER. My lord, will't please you to fall to? + KING RICHARD. Taste of it first as thou art wont to do. + KEEPER. My lord, I dare not. Sir Pierce of Exton, + Who lately came from the King, commands the contrary. + KING RICHARD. The devil take Henry of Lancaster and thee! + Patience is stale, and I am weary of it. + [Beats the KEEPER] + KEEPER. Help, help, help! + The murderers, EXTON and servants, rush in, armed + KING RICHARD. How now! What means death in this rude assault? + Villain, thy own hand yields thy death's instrument. + [Snatching a weapon and killing one] + Go thou and fill another room in hell. + [He kills another, then EXTON strikes him down] + That hand shall burn in never-quenching fire + That staggers thus my person. Exton, thy fierce hand + Hath with the King's blood stain'd the King's own land. + Mount, mount, my soul! thy seat is up on high; + Whilst my gross flesh sinks downward, here to die. + [Dies] + EXTON. As full of valour as of royal blood. + Both have I spill'd. O, would the deed were good! + For now the devil, that told me I did well, + Says that this deed is chronicled in hell. + This dead King to the living King I'll bear. + Take hence the rest, and give them burial here. Exeunt + +SCENE 6. Windsor Castle + +Flourish. Enter BOLINGBROKE, the DUKE OF YORK, With other LORDS and +attendants + + BOLINGBROKE. Kind uncle York, the latest news we hear + Is that the rebels have consum'd with fire + Our town of Ciceter in Gloucestershire; + But whether they be ta'en or slain we hear not. + + Enter NORTHUMBERLAND + + Welcome, my lord. What is the news? + NORTHUMBERLAND. First, to thy sacred state wish I all happiness. + The next news is, I have to London sent + The heads of Salisbury, Spencer, Blunt, and Kent. + The manner of their taking may appear + At large discoursed in this paper here. + BOLINGBROKE. We thank thee, gentle Percy, for thy pains; + And to thy worth will add right worthy gains. + + Enter FITZWATER + + FITZWATER. My lord, I have from Oxford sent to London + The heads of Brocas and Sir Bennet Seely; + Two of the dangerous consorted traitors + That sought at Oxford thy dire overthrow. + BOLINGBROKE. Thy pains, Fitzwater, shall not be forgot; + Right noble is thy merit, well I wot. + + Enter PERCY, With the BISHOP OF CARLISLE + + PERCY. The grand conspirator, Abbot of Westminster, + With clog of conscience and sour melancholy, + Hath yielded up his body to the grave; + But here is Carlisle living, to abide + Thy kingly doom, and sentence of his pride. + BOLINGBROKE. Carlisle, this is your doom: + Choose out some secret place, some reverend room, + More than thou hast, and with it joy thy life; + So as thou liv'st in peace, die free from strife; + For though mine enemy thou hast ever been, + High sparks of honour in thee have I seen. + + Enter EXTON, with attendants, hearing a coffin + + EXTON. Great King, within this coffin I present + Thy buried fear. Herein all breathless lies + The mightiest of thy greatest enemies, + Richard of Bordeaux, by me hither brought. + BOLINGBROKE. Exton, I thank thee not; for thou hast wrought + A deed of slander with thy fatal hand + Upon my head and all this famous land. + EXTON. From your own mouth, my lord, did I this deed. + BOLINGBROKE. They love not poison that do poison need, + Nor do I thee. Though I did wish him dead, + I hate the murderer, love him murdered. + The guilt of conscience take thou for thy labour, + But neither my good word nor princely favour; + With Cain go wander thorough shades of night, + And never show thy head by day nor light. + Lords, I protest my soul is full of woe + That blood should sprinkle me to make me grow. + Come, mourn with me for what I do lament, + And put on sullen black incontinent. + I'll make a voyage to the Holy Land, + To wash this blood off from my guilty hand. + March sadly after; grace my mournings here + In weeping after this untimely bier. Exeunt + + + + +KING RICHARD THE THIRD + +Dramatis Personae + + EDWARD THE FOURTH + + Sons to the King + EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES afterwards KING EDWARD V + RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK, + + Brothers to the King + GEORGE, DUKE OF CLARENCE, + RICHARD, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, afterwards KING RICHARD III + + A YOUNG SON OF CLARENCE (Edward, Earl of Warwick) + HENRY, EARL OF RICHMOND, afterwards KING HENRY VII + CARDINAL BOURCHIER, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY + THOMAS ROTHERHAM, ARCHBISHOP OF YORK + JOHN MORTON, BISHOP OF ELY + DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM + DUKE OF NORFOLK + EARL OF SURREY, his son + EARL RIVERS, brother to King Edward's Queen + MARQUIS OF DORSET and LORD GREY, her sons + EARL OF OXFORD + LORD HASTINGS + LORD LOVEL + LORD STANLEY, called also EARL OF DERBY + SIR THOMAS VAUGHAN + SIR RICHARD RATCLIFF + SIR WILLIAM CATESBY + SIR JAMES TYRREL + SIR JAMES BLOUNT + SIR WALTER HERBERT + SIR WILLIAM BRANDON + SIR ROBERT BRAKENBURY, Lieutenant of the Tower + CHRISTOPHER URSWICK, a priest + LORD MAYOR OF LONDON + SHERIFF OF WILTSHIRE + HASTINGS, a pursuivant + TRESSEL and BERKELEY, gentlemen attending on Lady Anne + ELIZABETH, Queen to King Edward IV + MARGARET, widow of King Henry VI + DUCHESS OF YORK, mother to King Edward IV + LADY ANNE, widow of Edward, Prince of Wales, son to King + Henry VI; afterwards married to the Duke of Gloucester + A YOUNG DAUGHTER OF CLARENCE (Margaret Plantagenet, + Countess of Salisbury) + Ghosts, of Richard's victims + Lords, Gentlemen, and Attendants; Priest, Scrivener, Page, Bishops, + Aldermen, Citizens, Soldiers, Messengers, Murderers, Keeper + +SCENE: England + +King Richard the Third + +ACT I. SCENE 1. + +London. A street + +Enter RICHARD, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, solus + + GLOUCESTER. Now is the winter of our discontent + Made glorious summer by this sun of York; + And all the clouds that lour'd upon our house + In the deep bosom of the ocean buried. + Now are our brows bound with victorious wreaths; + Our bruised arms hung up for monuments; + Our stern alarums chang'd to merry meetings, + Our dreadful marches to delightful measures. + Grim-visag'd war hath smooth'd his wrinkled front, + And now, instead of mounting barbed steeds + To fright the souls of fearful adversaries, + He capers nimbly in a lady's chamber + To the lascivious pleasing of a lute. + But I-that am not shap'd for sportive tricks, + Nor made to court an amorous looking-glass- + I-that am rudely stamp'd, and want love's majesty + To strut before a wanton ambling nymph- + I-that am curtail'd of this fair proportion, + Cheated of feature by dissembling nature, + Deform'd, unfinish'd, sent before my time + Into this breathing world scarce half made up, + And that so lamely and unfashionable + That dogs bark at me as I halt by them- + Why, I, in this weak piping time of peace, + Have no delight to pass away the time, + Unless to spy my shadow in the sun + And descant on mine own deformity. + And therefore, since I cannot prove a lover + To entertain these fair well-spoken days, + I am determined to prove a villain + And hate the idle pleasures of these days. + Plots have I laid, inductions dangerous, + By drunken prophecies, libels, and dreams, + To set my brother Clarence and the King + In deadly hate the one against the other; + And if King Edward be as true and just + As I am subtle, false, and treacherous, + This day should Clarence closely be mew'd up- + About a prophecy which says that G + Of Edward's heirs the murderer shall be. + Dive, thoughts, down to my soul. Here Clarence comes. + + Enter CLARENCE, guarded, and BRAKENBURY + + Brother, good day. What means this armed guard + That waits upon your Grace? + CLARENCE. His Majesty, + Tend'ring my person's safety, hath appointed + This conduct to convey me to th' Tower. + GLOUCESTER. Upon what cause? + CLARENCE. Because my name is George. + GLOUCESTER. Alack, my lord, that fault is none of yours: + He should, for that, commit your godfathers. + O, belike his Majesty hath some intent + That you should be new-christ'ned in the Tower. + But what's the matter, Clarence? May I know? + CLARENCE. Yea, Richard, when I know; for I protest + As yet I do not; but, as I can learn, + He hearkens after prophecies and dreams, + And from the cross-row plucks the letter G, + And says a wizard told him that by G + His issue disinherited should be; + And, for my name of George begins with G, + It follows in his thought that I am he. + These, as I learn, and such like toys as these + Hath mov'd his Highness to commit me now. + GLOUCESTER. Why, this it is when men are rul'd by women: + 'Tis not the King that sends you to the Tower; + My Lady Grey his wife, Clarence, 'tis she + That tempers him to this extremity. + Was it not she and that good man of worship, + Antony Woodville, her brother there, + That made him send Lord Hastings to the Tower, + From whence this present day he is delivered? + We are not safe, Clarence; we are not safe. + CLARENCE. By heaven, I think there is no man is secure + But the Queen's kindred, and night-walking heralds + That trudge betwixt the King and Mistress Shore. + Heard you not what an humble suppliant + Lord Hastings was, for her delivery? + GLOUCESTER. Humbly complaining to her deity + Got my Lord Chamberlain his liberty. + I'll tell you what-I think it is our way, + If we will keep in favour with the King, + To be her men and wear her livery: + The jealous o'er-worn widow, and herself, + Since that our brother dubb'd them gentlewomen, + Are mighty gossips in our monarchy. + BRAKENBURY. I beseech your Graces both to pardon me: + His Majesty hath straitly given in charge + That no man shall have private conference, + Of what degree soever, with your brother. + GLOUCESTER. Even so; an't please your worship, Brakenbury, + You may partake of any thing we say: + We speak no treason, man; we say the King + Is wise and virtuous, and his noble queen + Well struck in years, fair, and not jealous; + We say that Shore's wife hath a pretty foot, + A cherry lip, a bonny eye, a passing pleasing tongue; + And that the Queen's kindred are made gentlefolks. + How say you, sir? Can you deny all this? + BRAKENBURY. With this, my lord, myself have naught to do. + GLOUCESTER. Naught to do with Mistress Shore! I tell thee, + fellow, + He that doth naught with her, excepting one, + Were best to do it secretly alone. + BRAKENBURY. What one, my lord? + GLOUCESTER. Her husband, knave! Wouldst thou betray me? + BRAKENBURY. I do beseech your Grace to pardon me, and + withal + Forbear your conference with the noble Duke. + CLARENCE. We know thy charge, Brakenbury, and will + obey. + GLOUCESTER. We are the Queen's abjects and must obey. + Brother, farewell; I will unto the King; + And whatsoe'er you will employ me in- + Were it to call King Edward's widow sister- + I will perform it to enfranchise you. + Meantime, this deep disgrace in brotherhood + Touches me deeper than you can imagine. + CLARENCE. I know it pleaseth neither of us well. + GLOUCESTER. Well, your imprisonment shall not be long; + I will deliver or else lie for you. + Meantime, have patience. + CLARENCE. I must perforce. Farewell. + Exeunt CLARENCE, BRAKENBURY, and guard + GLOUCESTER. Go tread the path that thou shalt ne'er return. + Simple, plain Clarence, I do love thee so + That I will shortly send thy soul to heaven, + If heaven will take the present at our hands. + But who comes here? The new-delivered Hastings? + + Enter LORD HASTINGS + + HASTINGS. Good time of day unto my gracious lord! + GLOUCESTER. As much unto my good Lord Chamberlain! + Well are you welcome to the open air. + How hath your lordship brook'd imprisonment? + HASTINGS. With patience, noble lord, as prisoners must; + But I shall live, my lord, to give them thanks + That were the cause of my imprisonment. + GLOUCESTER. No doubt, no doubt; and so shall Clarence too; + For they that were your enemies are his, + And have prevail'd as much on him as you. + HASTINGS. More pity that the eagles should be mew'd + Whiles kites and buzzards prey at liberty. + GLOUCESTER. What news abroad? + HASTINGS. No news so bad abroad as this at home: + The King is sickly, weak, and melancholy, + And his physicians fear him mightily. + GLOUCESTER. Now, by Saint John, that news is bad indeed. + O, he hath kept an evil diet long + And overmuch consum'd his royal person! + 'Tis very grievous to be thought upon. + Where is he? In his bed? + HASTINGS. He is. + GLOUCESTER. Go you before, and I will follow you. + Exit HASTINGS + He cannot live, I hope, and must not die + Till George be pack'd with posthorse up to heaven. + I'll in to urge his hatred more to Clarence + With lies well steel'd with weighty arguments; + And, if I fail not in my deep intent, + Clarence hath not another day to live; + Which done, God take King Edward to his mercy, + And leave the world for me to bustle in! + For then I'll marry Warwick's youngest daughter. + What though I kill'd her husband and her father? + The readiest way to make the wench amends + Is to become her husband and her father; + The which will I-not all so much for love + As for another secret close intent + By marrying her which I must reach unto. + But yet I run before my horse to market. + Clarence still breathes; Edward still lives and reigns; + When they are gone, then must I count my gains. Exit + +SCENE 2. + +London. Another street + +Enter corpse of KING HENRY THE SIXTH, with halberds to guard it; +LADY ANNE being the mourner, attended by TRESSEL and BERKELEY + + ANNE. Set down, set down your honourable load- + If honour may be shrouded in a hearse; + Whilst I awhile obsequiously lament + Th' untimely fall of virtuous Lancaster. + Poor key-cold figure of a holy king! + Pale ashes of the house of Lancaster! + Thou bloodless remnant of that royal blood! + Be it lawful that I invocate thy ghost + To hear the lamentations of poor Anne, + Wife to thy Edward, to thy slaughtered son, + Stabb'd by the self-same hand that made these wounds. + Lo, in these windows that let forth thy life + I pour the helpless balm of my poor eyes. + O, cursed be the hand that made these holes! + Cursed the heart that had the heart to do it! + Cursed the blood that let this blood from hence! + More direful hap betide that hated wretch + That makes us wretched by the death of thee + Than I can wish to adders, spiders, toads, + Or any creeping venom'd thing that lives! + If ever he have child, abortive be it, + Prodigious, and untimely brought to light, + Whose ugly and unnatural aspect + May fright the hopeful mother at the view, + And that be heir to his unhappiness! + If ever he have wife, let her be made + More miserable by the death of him + Than I am made by my young lord and thee! + Come, now towards Chertsey with your holy load, + Taken from Paul's to be interred there; + And still as you are weary of this weight + Rest you, whiles I lament King Henry's corse. + [The bearers take up the coffin] + + Enter GLOUCESTER + + GLOUCESTER. Stay, you that bear the corse, and set it down. + ANNE. What black magician conjures up this fiend + To stop devoted charitable deeds? + GLOUCESTER. Villains, set down the corse; or, by Saint Paul, + I'll make a corse of him that disobeys! + FIRST GENTLEMAN. My lord, stand back, and let the coffin + pass. + GLOUCESTER. Unmannerd dog! Stand thou, when I command. + Advance thy halberd higher than my breast, + Or, by Saint Paul, I'll strike thee to my foot + And spurn upon thee, beggar, for thy boldness. + [The bearers set down the coffin] + ANNE. What, do you tremble? Are you all afraid? + Alas, I blame you not, for you are mortal, + And mortal eyes cannot endure the devil. + Avaunt, thou dreadful minister of hell! + Thou hadst but power over his mortal body, + His soul thou canst not have; therefore, be gone. + GLOUCESTER. Sweet saint, for charity, be not so curst. + ANNE. Foul devil, for God's sake, hence and trouble us not; + For thou hast made the happy earth thy hell + Fill'd it with cursing cries and deep exclaims. + If thou delight to view thy heinous deeds, + Behold this pattern of thy butcheries. + O, gentlemen, see, see! Dead Henry's wounds + Open their congeal'd mouths and bleed afresh. + Blush, blush, thou lump of foul deformity, + For 'tis thy presence that exhales this blood + From cold and empty veins where no blood dwells; + Thy deeds inhuman and unnatural + Provokes this deluge most unnatural. + O God, which this blood mad'st, revenge his death! + O earth, which this blood drink'st, revenge his death! + Either, heav'n, with lightning strike the murd'rer dead; + Or, earth, gape open wide and eat him quick, + As thou dost swallow up this good king's blood, + Which his hell-govern'd arm hath butchered. + GLOUCESTER. Lady, you know no rules of charity, + Which renders good for bad, blessings for curses. + ANNE. Villain, thou knowest nor law of God nor man: + No beast so fierce but knows some touch of pity. + GLOUCESTER. But I know none, and therefore am no beast. + ANNE. O wonderful, when devils tell the truth! + GLOUCESTER. More wonderful when angels are so angry. + Vouchsafe, divine perfection of a woman, + Of these supposed crimes to give me leave + By circumstance but to acquit myself. + ANNE. Vouchsafe, diffus'd infection of a man, + Of these known evils but to give me leave + By circumstance to accuse thy cursed self. + GLOUCESTER. Fairer than tongue can name thee, let me have + Some patient leisure to excuse myself. + ANNE. Fouler than heart can think thee, thou canst make + No excuse current but to hang thyself. + GLOUCESTER. By such despair I should accuse myself. + ANNE. And by despairing shalt thou stand excused + For doing worthy vengeance on thyself + That didst unworthy slaughter upon others. + GLOUCESTER. Say that I slew them not? + ANNE. Then say they were not slain. + But dead they are, and, devilish slave, by thee. + GLOUCESTER. I did not kill your husband. + ANNE. Why, then he is alive. + GLOUCESTER. Nay, he is dead, and slain by Edward's hands. + ANNE. In thy foul throat thou liest: Queen Margaret saw + Thy murd'rous falchion smoking in his blood; + The which thou once didst bend against her breast, + But that thy brothers beat aside the point. + GLOUCESTER. I was provoked by her sland'rous tongue + That laid their guilt upon my guiltless shoulders. + ANNE. Thou wast provoked by thy bloody mind, + That never dream'st on aught but butcheries. + Didst thou not kill this king? + GLOUCESTER. I grant ye. + ANNE. Dost grant me, hedgehog? Then, God grant me to + Thou mayst be damned for that wicked deed! + O, he was gentle, mild, and virtuous! + GLOUCESTER. The better for the King of Heaven, that hath + him. + ANNE. He is in heaven, where thou shalt never come. + GLOUCESTER. Let him thank me that holp to send him + thither, + For he was fitter for that place than earth. + ANNE. And thou unfit for any place but hell. + GLOUCESTER. Yes, one place else, if you will hear me name it. + ANNE. Some dungeon. + GLOUCESTER. Your bed-chamber. + ANNE. Ill rest betide the chamber where thou liest! + GLOUCESTER. So will it, madam, till I lie with you. + ANNE. I hope so. + GLOUCESTER. I know so. But, gentle Lady Anne, + To leave this keen encounter of our wits, + And fall something into a slower method- + Is not the causer of the timeless deaths + Of these Plantagenets, Henry and Edward, + As blameful as the executioner? + ANNE. Thou wast the cause and most accurs'd effect. + GLOUCESTER. Your beauty was the cause of that effect- + Your beauty that did haunt me in my sleep + To undertake the death of all the world + So I might live one hour in your sweet bosom. + ANNE. If I thought that, I tell thee, homicide, + These nails should rend that beauty from my cheeks. + GLOUCESTER. These eyes could not endure that beauty's + wreck; + You should not blemish it if I stood by. + As all the world is cheered by the sun, + So I by that; it is my day, my life. + ANNE. Black night o'ershade thy day, and death thy life! + GLOUCESTER. Curse not thyself, fair creature; thou art both. + ANNE. I would I were, to be reveng'd on thee. + GLOUCESTER. It is a quarrel most unnatural, + To be reveng'd on him that loveth thee. + ANNE. It is a quarrel just and reasonable, + To be reveng'd on him that kill'd my husband. + GLOUCESTER. He that bereft thee, lady, of thy husband + Did it to help thee to a better husband. + ANNE. His better doth not breathe upon the earth. + GLOUCESTER. He lives that loves thee better than he could. + ANNE. Name him. + GLOUCESTER. Plantagenet. + ANNE. Why, that was he. + GLOUCESTER. The self-same name, but one of better nature. + ANNE. Where is he? + GLOUCESTER. Here. [She spits at him] Why dost thou spit + at me? + ANNE. Would it were mortal poison, for thy sake! + GLOUCESTER. Never came poison from so sweet a place. + ANNE. Never hung poison on a fouler toad. + Out of my sight! Thou dost infect mine eyes. + GLOUCESTER. Thine eyes, sweet lady, have infected mine. + ANNE. Would they were basilisks to strike thee dead! + GLOUCESTER. I would they were, that I might die at once; + For now they kill me with a living death. + Those eyes of thine from mine have drawn salt tears, + Sham'd their aspects with store of childish drops- + These eyes, which never shed remorseful tear, + No, when my father York and Edward wept + To hear the piteous moan that Rutland made + When black-fac'd Clifford shook his sword at him; + Nor when thy warlike father, like a child, + Told the sad story of my father's death, + And twenty times made pause to sob and weep + That all the standers-by had wet their cheeks + Like trees bedash'd with rain-in that sad time + My manly eyes did scorn an humble tear; + And what these sorrows could not thence exhale + Thy beauty hath, and made them blind with weeping. + I never sued to friend nor enemy; + My tongue could never learn sweet smoothing word; + But, now thy beauty is propos'd my fee, + My proud heart sues, and prompts my tongue to speak. + [She looks scornfully at him] + Teach not thy lip such scorn; for it was made + For kissing, lady, not for such contempt. + If thy revengeful heart cannot forgive, + Lo here I lend thee this sharp-pointed sword; + Which if thou please to hide in this true breast + And let the soul forth that adoreth thee, + I lay it naked to the deadly stroke, + And humbly beg the death upon my knee. + [He lays his breast open; she offers at it with his sword] + Nay, do not pause; for I did kill King Henry- + But 'twas thy beauty that provoked me. + Nay, now dispatch; 'twas I that stabb'd young Edward- + But 'twas thy heavenly face that set me on. + [She falls the sword] + Take up the sword again, or take up me. + ANNE. Arise, dissembler; though I wish thy death, + I will not be thy executioner. + GLOUCESTER. Then bid me kill myself, and I will do it; + ANNE. I have already. + GLOUCESTER. That was in thy rage. + Speak it again, and even with the word + This hand, which for thy love did kill thy love, + Shall for thy love kill a far truer love; + To both their deaths shalt thou be accessary. + ANNE. I would I knew thy heart. + GLOUCESTER. 'Tis figur'd in my tongue. + ANNE. I fear me both are false. + GLOUCESTER. Then never was man true. + ANNE. well put up your sword. + GLOUCESTER. Say, then, my peace is made. + ANNE. That shalt thou know hereafter. + GLOUCESTER. But shall I live in hope? + ANNE. All men, I hope, live so. + GLOUCESTER. Vouchsafe to wear this ring. + ANNE. To take is not to give. [Puts on the ring] + GLOUCESTER. Look how my ring encompasseth thy finger, + Even so thy breast encloseth my poor heart; + Wear both of them, for both of them are thine. + And if thy poor devoted servant may + But beg one favour at thy gracious hand, + Thou dost confirm his happiness for ever. + ANNE. What is it? + GLOUCESTER. That it may please you leave these sad designs + To him that hath most cause to be a mourner, + And presently repair to Crosby House; + Where-after I have solemnly interr'd + At Chertsey monast'ry this noble king, + And wet his grave with my repentant tears- + I will with all expedient duty see you. + For divers unknown reasons, I beseech you, + Grant me this boon. + ANNE. With all my heart; and much it joys me too + To see you are become so penitent. + Tressel and Berkeley, go along with me. + GLOUCESTER. Bid me farewell. + ANNE. 'Tis more than you deserve; + But since you teach me how to flatter you, + Imagine I have said farewell already. + Exeunt two GENTLEMEN With LADY ANNE + GLOUCESTER. Sirs, take up the corse. + GENTLEMEN. Towards Chertsey, noble lord? + GLOUCESTER. No, to White Friars; there attend my coming. + Exeunt all but GLOUCESTER + Was ever woman in this humour woo'd? + Was ever woman in this humour won? + I'll have her; but I will not keep her long. + What! I that kill'd her husband and his father- + To take her in her heart's extremest hate, + With curses in her mouth, tears in her eyes, + The bleeding witness of my hatred by; + Having God, her conscience, and these bars against me, + And I no friends to back my suit at all + But the plain devil and dissembling looks, + And yet to win her, all the world to nothing! + Ha! + Hath she forgot already that brave prince, + Edward, her lord, whom I, some three months since, + Stabb'd in my angry mood at Tewksbury? + A sweeter and a lovelier gentleman- + Fram'd in the prodigality of nature, + Young, valiant, wise, and no doubt right royal- + The spacious world cannot again afford; + And will she yet abase her eyes on me, + That cropp'd the golden prime of this sweet prince + And made her widow to a woeful bed? + On me, whose all not equals Edward's moiety? + On me, that halts and am misshapen thus? + My dukedom to a beggarly denier, + I do mistake my person all this while. + Upon my life, she finds, although I cannot, + Myself to be a marv'llous proper man. + I'll be at charges for a looking-glass, + And entertain a score or two of tailors + To study fashions to adorn my body. + Since I am crept in favour with myself, + I will maintain it with some little cost. + But first I'll turn yon fellow in his grave, + And then return lamenting to my love. + Shine out, fair sun, till I have bought a glass, + That I may see my shadow as I pass. Exit + +SCENE 3. + +London. The palace + +Enter QUEEN ELIZABETH, LORD RIVERS, and LORD GREY + + RIVERS. Have patience, madam; there's no doubt his Majesty + Will soon recover his accustom'd health. + GREY. In that you brook it ill, it makes him worse; + Therefore, for God's sake, entertain good comfort, + And cheer his Grace with quick and merry eyes. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. If he were dead, what would betide on + me? + GREY. No other harm but loss of such a lord. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. The loss of such a lord includes all + harms. + GREY. The heavens have bless'd you with a goodly son + To be your comforter when he is gone. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ah, he is young; and his minority + Is put unto the trust of Richard Gloucester, + A man that loves not me, nor none of you. + RIVER. Is it concluded he shall be Protector? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. It is determin'd, not concluded yet; + But so it must be, if the King miscarry. + + Enter BUCKINGHAM and DERBY + + GREY. Here come the Lords of Buckingham and Derby. + BUCKINGHAM. Good time of day unto your royal Grace! + DERBY. God make your Majesty joyful as you have been. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. The Countess Richmond, good my Lord + of Derby, + To your good prayer will scarcely say amen. + Yet, Derby, notwithstanding she's your wife + And loves not me, be you, good lord, assur'd + I hate not you for her proud arrogance. + DERBY. I do beseech you, either not believe + The envious slanders of her false accusers; + Or, if she be accus'd on true report, + Bear with her weakness, which I think proceeds + From wayward sickness and no grounded malice. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Saw you the King to-day, my Lord of + Derby? + DERBY. But now the Duke of Buckingham and I + Are come from visiting his Majesty. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. What likelihood of his amendment, + Lords? + BUCKINGHAM. Madam, good hope; his Grace speaks + cheerfully. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. God grant him health! Did you confer + with him? + BUCKINGHAM. Ay, madam; he desires to make atonement + Between the Duke of Gloucester and your brothers, + And between them and my Lord Chamberlain; + And sent to warn them to his royal presence. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Would all were well! But that will + never be. + I fear our happiness is at the height. + + Enter GLOUCESTER, HASTINGS, and DORSET + + GLOUCESTER. They do me wrong, and I will not endure it. + Who is it that complains unto the King + That I, forsooth, am stern and love them not? + By holy Paul, they love his Grace but lightly + That fill his ears with such dissentious rumours. + Because I cannot flatter and look fair, + Smile in men's faces, smooth, deceive, and cog, + Duck with French nods and apish courtesy, + I must be held a rancorous enemy. + Cannot a plain man live and think no harm + But thus his simple truth must be abus'd + With silken, sly, insinuating Jacks? + GREY. To who in all this presence speaks your Grace? + GLOUCESTER. To thee, that hast nor honesty nor grace. + When have I injur'd thee? when done thee wrong, + Or thee, or thee, or any of your faction? + A plague upon you all! His royal Grace- + Whom God preserve better than you would wish!- + Cannot be quiet searce a breathing while + But you must trouble him with lewd complaints. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Brother of Gloucester, you mistake the + matter. + The King, on his own royal disposition + And not provok'd by any suitor else- + Aiming, belike, at your interior hatred + That in your outward action shows itself + Against my children, brothers, and myself- + Makes him to send that he may learn the ground. + GLOUCESTER. I cannot tell; the world is grown so bad + That wrens make prey where eagles dare not perch. + Since every Jack became a gentleman, + There's many a gentle person made a Jack. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Come, come, we know your meaning, + brother Gloucester: + You envy my advancement and my friends'; + God grant we never may have need of you! + GLOUCESTER. Meantime, God grants that I have need of you. + Our brother is imprison'd by your means, + Myself disgrac'd, and the nobility + Held in contempt; while great promotions + Are daily given to ennoble those + That scarce some two days since were worth a noble. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. By Him that rais'd me to this careful + height + From that contented hap which I enjoy'd, + I never did incense his Majesty + Against the Duke of Clarence, but have been + An earnest advocate to plead for him. + My lord, you do me shameful injury + Falsely to draw me in these vile suspects. + GLOUCESTER. You may deny that you were not the mean + Of my Lord Hastings' late imprisonment. + RIVERS. She may, my lord; for- + GLOUCESTER. She may, Lord Rivers? Why, who knows + not so? + She may do more, sir, than denying that: + She may help you to many fair preferments + And then deny her aiding hand therein, + And lay those honours on your high desert. + What may she not? She may-ay, marry, may she- + RIVERS. What, marry, may she? + GLOUCESTER. What, marry, may she? Marry with a king, + A bachelor, and a handsome stripling too. + Iwis your grandam had a worser match. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. My Lord of Gloucester, I have too long + borne + Your blunt upbraidings and your bitter scoffs. + By heaven, I will acquaint his Majesty + Of those gross taunts that oft I have endur'd. + I had rather be a country servant-maid + Than a great queen with this condition- + To be so baited, scorn'd, and stormed at. + + Enter old QUEEN MARGARET, behind + + Small joy have I in being England's Queen. + QUEEN MARGARET. And less'ned be that small, God, I + beseech Him! + Thy honour, state, and seat, is due to me. + GLOUCESTER. What! Threat you me with telling of the + King? + Tell him and spare not. Look what I have said + I will avouch't in presence of the King. + I dare adventure to be sent to th' Tow'r. + 'Tis time to speak-my pains are quite forgot. + QUEEN MARGARET. Out, devil! I do remember them to + well: + Thou kill'dst my husband Henry in the Tower, + And Edward, my poor son, at Tewksbury. + GLOUCESTER. Ere you were queen, ay, or your husband + King, + I was a pack-horse in his great affairs, + A weeder-out of his proud adversaries, + A liberal rewarder of his friends; + To royalize his blood I spent mine own. + QUEEN MARGARET. Ay, and much better blood than his or + thine. + GLOUCESTER. In all which time you and your husband Grey + Were factious for the house of Lancaster; + And, Rivers, so were you. Was not your husband + In Margaret's battle at Saint Albans slain? + Let me put in your minds, if you forget, + What you have been ere this, and what you are; + Withal, what I have been, and what I am. + QUEEN MARGARET. A murd'rous villain, and so still thou art. + GLOUCESTER. Poor Clarence did forsake his father, Warwick, + Ay, and forswore himself-which Jesu pardon!- + QUEEN MARGARET. Which God revenge! + GLOUCESTER. To fight on Edward's party for the crown; + And for his meed, poor lord, he is mewed up. + I would to God my heart were flint like Edward's, + Or Edward's soft and pitiful like mine. + I am too childish-foolish for this world. + QUEEN MARGARET. Hie thee to hell for shame and leave this + world, + Thou cacodemon; there thy kingdom is. + RIVERS. My Lord of Gloucester, in those busy days + Which here you urge to prove us enemies, + We follow'd then our lord, our sovereign king. + So should we you, if you should be our king. + GLOUCESTER. If I should be! I had rather be a pedlar. + Far be it from my heart, the thought thereof! + QUEEN ELIZABETH. As little joy, my lord, as you suppose + You should enjoy were you this country's king, + As little joy you may suppose in me + That I enjoy, being the Queen thereof. + QUEEN MARGARET. As little joy enjoys the Queen thereof; + For I am she, and altogether joyless. + I can no longer hold me patient. [Advancing] + Hear me, you wrangling pirates, that fall out + In sharing that which you have pill'd from me. + Which of you trembles not that looks on me? + If not that, I am Queen, you bow like subjects, + Yet that, by you depos'd, you quake like rebels? + Ah, gentle villain, do not turn away! + GLOUCESTER. Foul wrinkled witch, what mak'st thou in my + sight? + QUEEN MARGARET. But repetition of what thou hast marr'd, + That will I make before I let thee go. + GLOUCESTER. Wert thou not banished on pain of death? + QUEEN MARGARET. I was; but I do find more pain in + banishment + Than death can yield me here by my abode. + A husband and a son thou ow'st to me; + And thou a kingdom; all of you allegiance. + This sorrow that I have by right is yours; + And all the pleasures you usurp are mine. + GLOUCESTER. The curse my noble father laid on thee, + When thou didst crown his warlike brows with paper + And with thy scorns drew'st rivers from his eyes, + And then to dry them gav'st the Duke a clout + Steep'd in the faultless blood of pretty Rutland- + His curses then from bitterness of soul + Denounc'd against thee are all fall'n upon thee; + And God, not we, hath plagu'd thy bloody deed. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. So just is God to right the innocent. + HASTINGS. O, 'twas the foulest deed to slay that babe, + And the most merciless that e'er was heard of! + RIVERS. Tyrants themselves wept when it was reported. + DORSET. No man but prophesied revenge for it. + BUCKINGHAM. Northumberland, then present, wept to see it. + QUEEN MARGARET. What, were you snarling all before I came, + Ready to catch each other by the throat, + And turn you all your hatred now on me? + Did York's dread curse prevail so much with heaven + That Henry's death, my lovely Edward's death, + Their kingdom's loss, my woeful banishment, + Should all but answer for that peevish brat? + Can curses pierce the clouds and enter heaven? + Why then, give way, dull clouds, to my quick curses! + Though not by war, by surfeit die your king, + As ours by murder, to make him a king! + Edward thy son, that now is Prince of Wales, + For Edward our son, that was Prince of Wales, + Die in his youth by like untimely violence! + Thyself a queen, for me that was a queen, + Outlive thy glory, like my wretched self! + Long mayest thou live to wail thy children's death, + And see another, as I see thee now, + Deck'd in thy rights, as thou art stall'd in mine! + Long die thy happy days before thy death; + And, after many length'ned hours of grief, + Die neither mother, wife, nor England's Queen! + Rivers and Dorset, you were standers by, + And so wast thou, Lord Hastings, when my son + Was stabb'd with bloody daggers. God, I pray him, + That none of you may live his natural age, + But by some unlook'd accident cut off! + GLOUCESTER. Have done thy charm, thou hateful wither'd + hag. + QUEEN MARGARET. And leave out thee? Stay, dog, for thou + shalt hear me. + If heaven have any grievous plague in store + Exceeding those that I can wish upon thee, + O, let them keep it till thy sins be ripe, + And then hurl down their indignation + On thee, the troubler of the poor world's peace! + The worm of conscience still be-gnaw thy soul! + Thy friends suspect for traitors while thou liv'st, + And take deep traitors for thy dearest friends! + No sleep close up that deadly eye of thine, + Unless it be while some tormenting dream + Affrights thee with a hell of ugly devils! + Thou elvish-mark'd, abortive, rooting hog, + Thou that wast seal'd in thy nativity + The slave of nature and the son of hell, + Thou slander of thy heavy mother's womb, + Thou loathed issue of thy father's loins, + Thou rag of honour, thou detested- + GLOUCESTER. Margaret! + QUEEN MARGARET. Richard! + GLOUCESTER. Ha? + QUEEN MARGARET. I call thee not. + GLOUCESTER. I cry thee mercy then, for I did think + That thou hadst call'd me all these bitter names. + QUEEN MARGARET. Why, so I did, but look'd for no reply. + O, let me make the period to my curse! + GLOUCESTER. 'Tis done by me, and ends in-Margaret. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Thus have you breath'd your curse + against yourself. + QUEEN MARGARET. Poor painted queen, vain flourish of my + fortune! + Why strew'st thou sugar on that bottled spider + Whose deadly web ensnareth thee about? + Fool, fool! thou whet'st a knife to kill thyself. + The day will come that thou shalt wish for me + To help thee curse this poisonous bunch-back'd toad. + HASTINGS. False-boding woman, end thy frantic curse, + Lest to thy harm thou move our patience. + QUEEN MARGARET. Foul shame upon you! you have all + mov'd mine. + RIVERS. Were you well serv'd, you would be taught your + duty. + QUEEN MARGARET. To serve me well you all should do me + duty, + Teach me to be your queen and you my subjects. + O, serve me well, and teach yourselves that duty! + DORSET. Dispute not with her; she is lunatic. + QUEEN MARGARET. Peace, Master Marquis, you are malapert; + Your fire-new stamp of honour is scarce current. + O, that your young nobility could judge + What 'twere to lose it and be miserable! + They that stand high have many blasts to shake them, + And if they fall they dash themselves to pieces. + GLOUCESTER. Good counsel, marry; learn it, learn it, Marquis. + DORSET. It touches you, my lord, as much as me. + GLOUCESTER. Ay, and much more; but I was born so high, + Our aery buildeth in the cedar's top, + And dallies with the wind, and scorns the sun. + QUEEN MARGARET. And turns the sun to shade-alas! alas! + Witness my son, now in the shade of death, + Whose bright out-shining beams thy cloudy wrath + Hath in eternal darkness folded up. + Your aery buildeth in our aery's nest. + O God that seest it, do not suffer it; + As it is won with blood, lost be it so! + BUCKINGHAM. Peace, peace, for shame, if not for charity! + QUEEN MARGARET. Urge neither charity nor shame to me. + Uncharitably with me have you dealt, + And shamefully my hopes by you are butcher'd. + My charity is outrage, life my shame; + And in that shame still live my sorrow's rage! + BUCKINGHAM. Have done, have done. + QUEEN MARGARET. O princely Buckingham, I'll kiss thy + hand + In sign of league and amity with thee. + Now fair befall thee and thy noble house! + Thy garments are not spotted with our blood, + Nor thou within the compass of my curse. + BUCKINGHAM. Nor no one here; for curses never pass + The lips of those that breathe them in the air. + QUEEN MARGARET. I will not think but they ascend the sky + And there awake God's gentle-sleeping peace. + O Buckingham, take heed of yonder dog! + Look when he fawns, he bites; and when he bites, + His venom tooth will rankle to the death: + Have not to do with him, beware of him; + Sin, death, and hell, have set their marks on him, + And all their ministers attend on him. + GLOUCESTER. What doth she say, my Lord of Buckingham? + BUCKINGHAM. Nothing that I respect, my gracious lord. + QUEEN MARGARET. What, dost thou scorn me for my gentle + counsel, + And soothe the devil that I warn thee from? + O, but remember this another day, + When he shall split thy very heart with sorrow, + And say poor Margaret was a prophetess! + Live each of you the subjects to his hate, + And he to yours, and all of you to God's! Exit + BUCKINGHAM. My hair doth stand an end to hear her curses. + RIVERS. And so doth mine. I muse why she's at liberty. + GLOUCESTER. I cannot blame her; by God's holy Mother, + She hath had too much wrong; and I repent + My part thereof that I have done to her. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. I never did her any to my knowledge. + GLOUCESTER. Yet you have all the vantage of her wrong. + I was too hot to do somebody good + That is too cold in thinking of it now. + Marry, as for Clarence, he is well repaid; + He is frank'd up to fatting for his pains; + God pardon them that are the cause thereof! + RIVERS. A virtuous and a Christian-like conclusion, + To pray for them that have done scathe to us! + GLOUCESTER. So do I ever- [Aside] being well advis'd; + For had I curs'd now, I had curs'd myself. + + Enter CATESBY + + CATESBY. Madam, his Majesty doth can for you, + And for your Grace, and you, my gracious lords. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Catesby, I come. Lords, will you go + with me? + RIVERS. We wait upon your Grace. + Exeunt all but GLOUCESTER + GLOUCESTER. I do the wrong, and first begin to brawl. + The secret mischiefs that I set abroach + I lay unto the grievous charge of others. + Clarence, who I indeed have cast in darkness, + I do beweep to many simple gulls; + Namely, to Derby, Hastings, Buckingham; + And tell them 'tis the Queen and her allies + That stir the King against the Duke my brother. + Now they believe it, and withal whet me + To be reveng'd on Rivers, Dorset, Grey; + But then I sigh and, with a piece of Scripture, + Tell them that God bids us do good for evil. + And thus I clothe my naked villainy + With odd old ends stol'n forth of holy writ, + And seem a saint when most I play the devil. + + Enter two MURDERERS + + But, soft, here come my executioners. + How now, my hardy stout resolved mates! + Are you now going to dispatch this thing? + FIRST MURDERER. We are, my lord, and come to have the + warrant, + That we may be admitted where he is. + GLOUCESTER. Well thought upon; I have it here about me. + [Gives the warrant] + When you have done, repair to Crosby Place. + But, sirs, be sudden in the execution, + Withal obdurate, do not hear him plead; + For Clarence is well-spoken, and perhaps + May move your hearts to pity, if you mark him. + FIRST MURDERER. Tut, tut, my lord, we will not stand to + prate; + Talkers are no good doers. Be assur'd + We go to use our hands and not our tongues. + GLOUCESTER. Your eyes drop millstones when fools' eyes fall + tears. + I like you, lads; about your business straight; + Go, go, dispatch. + FIRST MURDERER. We will, my noble lord. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +London. The Tower + +Enter CLARENCE and KEEPER + + KEEPER. Why looks your Grace so heavily to-day? + CLARENCE. O, I have pass'd a miserable night, + So full of fearful dreams, of ugly sights, + That, as I am a Christian faithful man, + I would not spend another such a night + Though 'twere to buy a world of happy days- + So full of dismal terror was the time! + KEEPER. What was your dream, my lord? I pray you + tell me. + CLARENCE. Methoughts that I had broken from the Tower + And was embark'd to cross to Burgundy; + And in my company my brother Gloucester, + Who from my cabin tempted me to walk + Upon the hatches. Thence we look'd toward England, + And cited up a thousand heavy times, + During the wars of York and Lancaster, + That had befall'n us. As we pac'd along + Upon the giddy footing of the hatches, + Methought that Gloucester stumbled, and in falling + Struck me, that thought to stay him, overboard + Into the tumbling billows of the main. + O Lord, methought what pain it was to drown, + What dreadful noise of waters in my ears, + What sights of ugly death within my eyes! + Methoughts I saw a thousand fearful wrecks, + A thousand men that fishes gnaw'd upon, + Wedges of gold, great anchors, heaps of pearl, + Inestimable stones, unvalued jewels, + All scatt'red in the bottom of the sea; + Some lay in dead men's skulls, and in the holes + Where eyes did once inhabit there were crept, + As 'twere in scorn of eyes, reflecting gems, + That woo'd the slimy bottom of the deep + And mock'd the dead bones that lay scatt'red by. + KEEPER. Had you such leisure in the time of death + To gaze upon these secrets of the deep? + CLARENCE. Methought I had; and often did I strive + To yield the ghost, but still the envious flood + Stopp'd in my soul and would not let it forth + To find the empty, vast, and wand'ring air; + But smother'd it within my panting bulk, + Who almost burst to belch it in the sea. + KEEPER. Awak'd you not in this sore agony? + CLARENCE. No, no, my dream was lengthen'd after life. + O, then began the tempest to my soul! + I pass'd, methought, the melancholy flood + With that sour ferryman which poets write of, + Unto the kingdom of perpetual night. + The first that there did greet my stranger soul + Was my great father-in-law, renowned Warwick, + Who spake aloud 'What scourge for perjury + Can this dark monarchy afford false Clarence?' + And so he vanish'd. Then came wand'ring by + A shadow like an angel, with bright hair + Dabbled in blood, and he shriek'd out aloud + 'Clarence is come-false, fleeting, perjur'd Clarence, + That stabb'd me in the field by Tewksbury. + Seize on him, Furies, take him unto torment!' + With that, methoughts, a legion of foul fiends + Environ'd me, and howled in mine ears + Such hideous cries that, with the very noise, + I trembling wak'd, and for a season after + Could not believe but that I was in hell, + Such terrible impression made my dream. + KEEPER. No marvel, lord, though it affrighted you; + I am afraid, methinks, to hear you tell it. + CLARENCE. Ah, Keeper, Keeper, I have done these things + That now give evidence against my soul + For Edward's sake, and see how he requites me! + O God! If my deep prayers cannot appease Thee, + But Thou wilt be aveng'd on my misdeeds, + Yet execute Thy wrath in me alone; + O, spare my guiltless wife and my poor children! + KEEPER, I prithee sit by me awhile; + My soul is heavy, and I fain would sleep. + KEEPER. I will, my lord. God give your Grace good rest. + [CLARENCE sleeps] + + Enter BRAKENBURY the Lieutenant + + BRAKENBURY. Sorrow breaks seasons and reposing hours, + Makes the night morning and the noontide night. + Princes have but their titles for their glories, + An outward honour for an inward toil; + And for unfelt imaginations + They often feel a world of restless cares, + So that between their tides and low name + There's nothing differs but the outward fame. + + Enter the two MURDERERS + + FIRST MURDERER. Ho! who's here? + BRAKENBURY. What wouldst thou, fellow, and how cam'st + thou hither? + FIRST MURDERER. I would speak with Clarence, and I came + hither on my legs. + BRAKENBURY. What, so brief? + SECOND MURDERER. 'Tis better, sir, than to be tedious. Let + him see our commission and talk no more. + [BRAKENBURY reads it] + BRAKENBURY. I am, in this, commanded to deliver + The noble Duke of Clarence to your hands. + I will not reason what is meant hereby, + Because I will be guiltless from the meaning. + There lies the Duke asleep; and there the keys. + I'll to the King and signify to him + That thus I have resign'd to you my charge. + FIRST MURDERER. You may, sir; 'tis a point of wisdom. Fare + you well. Exeunt BRAKENBURY and KEEPER + SECOND MURDERER. What, shall I stab him as he sleeps? + FIRST MURDERER. No; he'll say 'twas done cowardly, when + he wakes. + SECOND MURDERER. Why, he shall never wake until the great + judgment-day. + FIRST MURDERER. Why, then he'll say we stabb'd him + sleeping. + SECOND MURDERER. The urging of that word judgment hath + bred a kind of remorse in me. + FIRST MURDERER. What, art thou afraid? + SECOND MURDERER. Not to kill him, having a warrant; but to + be damn'd for killing him, from the which no warrant can + defend me. + FIRST MURDERER. I thought thou hadst been resolute. + SECOND MURDERER. So I am, to let him live. + FIRST MURDERER. I'll back to the Duke of Gloucester and + tell him so. + SECOND MURDERER. Nay, I prithee, stay a little. I hope this + passionate humour of mine will change; it was wont to + hold me but while one tells twenty. + FIRST MURDERER. How dost thou feel thyself now? + SECOND MURDERER. Faith, some certain dregs of conscience + are yet within me. + FIRST MURDERER. Remember our reward, when the deed's + done. + SECOND MURDERER. Zounds, he dies; I had forgot the reward. + FIRST MURDERER. Where's thy conscience now? + SECOND MURDERER. O, in the Duke of Gloucester's purse! + FIRST MURDERER. When he opens his purse to give us our + reward, thy conscience flies out. + SECOND MURDERER. 'Tis no matter; let it go; there's few or + none will entertain it. + FIRST MURDERER. What if it come to thee again? + SECOND MURDERER. I'll not meddle with it-it makes a man + coward: a man cannot steal, but it accuseth him; a man + cannot swear, but it checks him; a man cannot lie with his + neighbour's wife, but it detects him. 'Tis a blushing shame- + fac'd spirit that mutinies in a man's bosom; it fills a man + full of obstacles: it made me once restore a purse of gold + that-by chance I found. It beggars any man that keeps it. + It is turn'd out of towns and cities for a dangerous thing; + and every man that means to live well endeavours to trust + to himself and live without it. + FIRST MURDERER. Zounds, 'tis even now at my elbow, + persuading me not to kill the Duke. + SECOND MURDERER. Take the devil in thy mind and believe + him not; he would insinuate with thee but to make the + sigh. + FIRST MURDERER. I am strong-fram'd; he cannot prevail with + me. + SECOND MURDERER. Spoke like a tall man that respects thy + reputation. Come, shall we fall to work? + FIRST MURDERER. Take him on the costard with the hilts of + thy sword, and then chop him in the malmsey-butt in the + next room. + SECOND MURDERER. O excellent device! and make a sop of + him. + FIRST MURDERER. Soft! he wakes. + SECOND MURDERER. Strike! + FIRST MURDERER. No, we'll reason with him. + CLARENCE. Where art thou, Keeper? Give me a cup of wine. + SECOND MURDERER. You shall have wine enough, my lord, + anon. + CLARENCE. In God's name, what art thou? + FIRST MURDERER. A man, as you are. + CLARENCE. But not as I am, royal. + SECOND MURDERER. Nor you as we are, loyal. + CLARENCE. Thy voice is thunder, but thy looks are humble. + FIRST MURDERER. My voice is now the King's, my looks + mine own. + CLARENCE. How darkly and how deadly dost thou speak! + Your eyes do menace me. Why look you pale? + Who sent you hither? Wherefore do you come? + SECOND MURDERER. To, to, to- + CLARENCE. To murder me? + BOTH MURDERERS. Ay, ay. + CLARENCE. You scarcely have the hearts to tell me so, + And therefore cannot have the hearts to do it. + Wherein, my friends, have I offended you? + FIRST MURDERER. Offended us you have not, but the King. + CLARENCE. I shall be reconcil'd to him again. + SECOND MURDERER. Never, my lord; therefore prepare to die. + CLARENCE. Are you drawn forth among a world of men + To slay the innocent? What is my offence? + Where is the evidence that doth accuse me? + What lawful quest have given their verdict up + Unto the frowning judge, or who pronounc'd + The bitter sentence of poor Clarence' death? + Before I be convict by course of law, + To threaten me with death is most unlawful. + I charge you, as you hope to have redemption + By Christ's dear blood shed for our grievous sins, + That you depart and lay no hands on me. + The deed you undertake is damnable. + FIRST MURDERER. What we will do, we do upon command. + SECOND MURDERER. And he that hath commanded is our + King. + CLARENCE. Erroneous vassals! the great King of kings + Hath in the tables of his law commanded + That thou shalt do no murder. Will you then + Spurn at his edict and fulfil a man's? + Take heed; for he holds vengeance in his hand + To hurl upon their heads that break his law. + SECOND MURDERER. And that same vengeance doth he hurl + on thee + For false forswearing, and for murder too; + Thou didst receive the sacrament to fight + In quarrel of the house of Lancaster. + FIRST MURDERER. And like a traitor to the name of God + Didst break that vow; and with thy treacherous blade + Unripp'dst the bowels of thy sov'reign's son. + SECOND MURDERER. Whom thou wast sworn to cherish and + defend. + FIRST MURDERER. How canst thou urge God's dreadful law + to us, + When thou hast broke it in such dear degree? + CLARENCE. Alas! for whose sake did I that ill deed? + For Edward, for my brother, for his sake. + He sends you not to murder me for this, + For in that sin he is as deep as I. + If God will be avenged for the deed, + O, know you yet He doth it publicly. + Take not the quarrel from His pow'rful arm; + He needs no indirect or lawless course + To cut off those that have offended Him. + FIRST MURDERER. Who made thee then a bloody minister + When gallant-springing brave Plantagenet, + That princely novice, was struck dead by thee? + CLARENCE. My brother's love, the devil, and my rage. + FIRST MURDERER. Thy brother's love, our duty, and thy + faults, + Provoke us hither now to slaughter thee. + CLARENCE. If you do love my brother, hate not me; + I am his brother, and I love him well. + If you are hir'd for meed, go back again, + And I will send you to my brother Gloucester, + Who shall reward you better for my life + Than Edward will for tidings of my death. + SECOND MURDERER. You are deceiv'd: your brother Gloucester + hates you. + CLARENCE. O, no, he loves me, and he holds me dear. + Go you to him from me. + FIRST MURDERER. Ay, so we will. + CLARENCE. Tell him when that our princely father York + Bless'd his three sons with his victorious arm + And charg'd us from his soul to love each other, + He little thought of this divided friendship. + Bid Gloucester think of this, and he will weep. + FIRST MURDERER. Ay, millstones; as he lesson'd us to weep. + CLARENCE. O, do not slander him, for he is kind. + FIRST MURDERER. Right, as snow in harvest. Come, you + deceive yourself: + 'Tis he that sends us to destroy you here. + CLARENCE. It cannot be; for he bewept my fortune + And hugg'd me in his arms, and swore with sobs + That he would labour my delivery. + FIRST MURDERER. Why, so he doth, when he delivers you + From this earth's thraldom to the joys of heaven. + SECOND MURDERER. Make peace with God, for you must die, + my lord. + CLARENCE. Have you that holy feeling in your souls + To counsel me to make my peace with God, + And are you yet to your own souls so blind + That you will war with God by murd'ring me? + O, sirs, consider: they that set you on + To do this deed will hate you for the deed. + SECOND MURDERER. What shall we do? + CLARENCE. Relent, and save your souls. + FIRST MURDERER. Relent! No, 'tis cowardly and womanish. + CLARENCE. Not to relent is beastly, savage, devilish. + Which of you, if you were a prince's son, + Being pent from liberty as I am now, + If two such murderers as yourselves came to you, + Would not entreat for life? + My friend, I spy some pity in thy looks; + O, if thine eye be not a flatterer, + Come thou on my side and entreat for me- + As you would beg were you in my distress. + A begging prince what beggar pities not? + SECOND MURDERER. Look behind you, my lord. + FIRST MURDERER. [Stabbing him] Take that, and that. If all + this will not do, + I'll drown you in the malmsey-butt within. + Exit with the body + SECOND MURDERER. A bloody deed, and desperately + dispatch'd! + How fain, like Pilate, would I wash my hands + Of this most grievous murder! + + Re-enter FIRST MURDERER + + FIRST MURDERER-How now, what mean'st thou that thou + help'st me not? + By heavens, the Duke shall know how slack you have + been! + SECOND MURDERER. I would he knew that I had sav'd his + brother! + Take thou the fee, and tell him what I say; + For I repent me that the Duke is slain. Exit + FIRST MURDERER. So do not I. Go, coward as thou art. + Well, I'll go hide the body in some hole, + Till that the Duke give order for his burial; + And when I have my meed, I will away; + For this will out, and then I must not stay. Exit + +ACT II. SCENE 1. + +London. The palace + +Flourish. Enter KING EDWARD sick, QUEEN ELIZABETH, DORSET, RIVERS, +HASTINGS, BUCKINGHAM, GREY, and others + + KING EDWARD. Why, so. Now have I done a good day's + work. + You peers, continue this united league. + I every day expect an embassage + From my Redeemer to redeem me hence; + And more at peace my soul shall part to heaven, + Since I have made my friends at peace on earth. + Hastings and Rivers, take each other's hand; + Dissemble not your hatred, swear your love. + RIVERS. By heaven, my soul is purg'd from grudging hate; + And with my hand I seal my true heart's love. + HASTINGS. So thrive I, as I truly swear the like! + KING EDWARD. Take heed you dally not before your king; + Lest He that is the supreme King of kings + Confound your hidden falsehood and award + Either of you to be the other's end. + HASTINGS. So prosper I, as I swear perfect love! + RIVERS. And I, as I love Hastings with my heart! + KING EDWARD. Madam, yourself is not exempt from this; + Nor you, son Dorset; Buckingham, nor you: + You have been factious one against the other. + Wife, love Lord Hastings, let him kiss your hand; + And what you do, do it unfeignedly. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. There, Hastings; I will never more + remember + Our former hatred, so thrive I and mine! + KING EDWARD. Dorset, embrace him; Hastings, love Lord + Marquis. + DORSET. This interchange of love, I here protest, + Upon my part shall be inviolable. + HASTINGS. And so swear I. [They embrace] + KING EDWARD. Now, princely Buckingham, seal thou this + league + With thy embracements to my wife's allies, + And make me happy in your unity. + BUCKINGHAM. [To the QUEEN] Whenever Buckingham + doth turn his hate + Upon your Grace, but with all duteous love + Doth cherish you and yours, God punish me + With hate in those where I expect most love! + When I have most need to employ a friend + And most assured that he is a friend, + Deep, hollow, treacherous, and full of guile, + Be he unto me! This do I beg of God + When I am cold in love to you or yours. + [They embrace] + KING EDWARD. A pleasing cordial, princely Buckingham, + Is this thy vow unto my sickly heart. + There wanteth now our brother Gloucester here + To make the blessed period of this peace. + BUCKINGHAM. And, in good time, + Here comes Sir Richard Ratcliff and the Duke. + + Enter GLOUCESTER, and RATCLIFF + + GLOUCESTER. Good morrow to my sovereign king and + Queen; + And, princely peers, a happy time of day! + KING EDWARD. Happy, indeed, as we have spent the day. + Gloucester, we have done deeds of charity, + Made peace of enmity, fair love of hate, + Between these swelling wrong-incensed peers. + GLOUCESTER. A blessed labour, my most sovereign lord. + Among this princely heap, if any here, + By false intelligence or wrong surmise, + Hold me a foe- + If I unwittingly, or in my rage, + Have aught committed that is hardly borne + To any in this presence, I desire + To reconcile me to his friendly peace: + 'Tis death to me to be at enmity; + I hate it, and desire all good men's love. + First, madam, I entreat true peace of you, + Which I will purchase with my duteous service; + Of you, my noble cousin Buckingham, + If ever any grudge were lodg'd between us; + Of you, and you, Lord Rivers, and of Dorset, + That all without desert have frown'd on me; + Of you, Lord Woodville, and, Lord Scales, of you; + Dukes, earls, lords, gentlemen-indeed, of all. + I do not know that Englishman alive + With whom my soul is any jot at odds + More than the infant that is born to-night. + I thank my God for my humility. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. A holy day shall this be kept hereafter. + I would to God all strifes were well compounded. + My sovereign lord, I do beseech your Highness + To take our brother Clarence to your grace. + GLOUCESTER. Why, madam, have I off'red love for this, + To be so flouted in this royal presence? + Who knows not that the gentle Duke is dead? + [They all start] + You do him injury to scorn his corse. + KING EDWARD. Who knows not he is dead! Who knows + he is? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. All-seeing heaven, what a world is this! + BUCKINGHAM. Look I so pale, Lord Dorset, as the rest? + DORSET. Ay, my good lord; and no man in the presence + But his red colour hath forsook his cheeks. + KING EDWARD. Is Clarence dead? The order was revers'd. + GLOUCESTER. But he, poor man, by your first order died, + And that a winged Mercury did bear; + Some tardy cripple bare the countermand + That came too lag to see him buried. + God grant that some, less noble and less loyal, + Nearer in bloody thoughts, an not in blood, + Deserve not worse than wretched Clarence did, + And yet go current from suspicion! + + Enter DERBY + + DERBY. A boon, my sovereign, for my service done! + KING EDWARD. I prithee, peace; my soul is full of sorrow. + DERBY. I Will not rise unless your Highness hear me. + KING EDWARD. Then say at once what is it thou requests. + DERBY. The forfeit, sovereign, of my servant's life; + Who slew to-day a riotous gentleman + Lately attendant on the Duke of Norfolk. + KING EDWARD. Have I a tongue to doom my brother's death, + And shall that tongue give pardon to a slave? + My brother killed no man-his fault was thought, + And yet his punishment was bitter death. + Who sued to me for him? Who, in my wrath, + Kneel'd at my feet, and bid me be advis'd? + Who spoke of brotherhood? Who spoke of love? + Who told me how the poor soul did forsake + The mighty Warwick and did fight for me? + Who told me, in the field at Tewksbury + When Oxford had me down, he rescued me + And said 'Dear Brother, live, and be a king'? + Who told me, when we both lay in the field + Frozen almost to death, how he did lap me + Even in his garments, and did give himself, + All thin and naked, to the numb cold night? + All this from my remembrance brutish wrath + Sinfully pluck'd, and not a man of you + Had so much race to put it in my mind. + But when your carters or your waiting-vassals + Have done a drunken slaughter and defac'd + The precious image of our dear Redeemer, + You straight are on your knees for pardon, pardon; + And I, unjustly too, must grant it you. [DERBY rises] + But for my brother not a man would speak; + Nor I, ungracious, speak unto myself + For him, poor soul. The proudest of you all + Have been beholding to him in his life; + Yet none of you would once beg for his life. + O God, I fear thy justice will take hold + On me, and you, and mine, and yours, for this! + Come, Hastings, help me to my closet. Ah, poor Clarence! + Exeunt some with KING and QUEEN + GLOUCESTER. This is the fruits of rashness. Mark'd you not + How that the guilty kindred of the Queen + Look'd pale when they did hear of Clarence' death? + O, they did urge it still unto the King! + God will revenge it. Come, lords, will you go + To comfort Edward with our company? + BUCKINGHAM. We wait upon your Grace. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +London. The palace + +Enter the old DUCHESS OF YORK, with the SON and DAUGHTER of CLARENCE + + SON. Good grandam, tell us, is our father dead? + DUCHESS. No, boy. + DAUGHTER. Why do you weep so oft, and beat your breast, + And cry 'O Clarence, my unhappy son!'? + SON. Why do you look on us, and shake your head, + And call us orphans, wretches, castaways, + If that our noble father were alive? + DUCHESS. My pretty cousins, you mistake me both; + I do lament the sickness of the King, + As loath to lose him, not your father's death; + It were lost sorrow to wail one that's lost. + SON. Then you conclude, my grandam, he is dead. + The King mine uncle is to blame for it. + God will revenge it; whom I will importune + With earnest prayers all to that effect. + DAUGHTER. And so will I. + DUCHESS. Peace, children, peace! The King doth love you + well. + Incapable and shallow innocents, + You cannot guess who caus'd your father's death. + SON. Grandam, we can; for my good uncle Gloucester + Told me the King, provok'd to it by the Queen, + Devis'd impeachments to imprison him. + And when my uncle told me so, he wept, + And pitied me, and kindly kiss'd my cheek; + Bade me rely on him as on my father, + And he would love me dearly as a child. + DUCHESS. Ah, that deceit should steal such gentle shape, + And with a virtuous vizor hide deep vice! + He is my son; ay, and therein my shame; + Yet from my dugs he drew not this deceit. + SON. Think you my uncle did dissemble, grandam? + DUCHESS. Ay, boy. + SON. I cannot think it. Hark! what noise is this? + + Enter QUEEN ELIZABETH, with her hair about her + ears; RIVERS and DORSET after her + + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ah, who shall hinder me to wail and + weep, + To chide my fortune, and torment myself? + I'll join with black despair against my soul + And to myself become an enemy. + DUCHESS. What means this scene of rude impatience? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. To make an act of tragic violence. + EDWARD, my lord, thy son, our king, is dead. + Why grow the branches when the root is gone? + Why wither not the leaves that want their sap? + If you will live, lament; if die, be brief, + That our swift-winged souls may catch the King's, + Or like obedient subjects follow him + To his new kingdom of ne'er-changing night. + DUCHESS. Ah, so much interest have I in thy sorrow + As I had title in thy noble husband! + I have bewept a worthy husband's death, + And liv'd with looking on his images; + But now two mirrors of his princely semblance + Are crack'd in pieces by malignant death, + And I for comfort have but one false glass, + That grieves me when I see my shame in him. + Thou art a widow, yet thou art a mother + And hast the comfort of thy children left; + But death hath snatch'd my husband from mine arms + And pluck'd two crutches from my feeble hands- + Clarence and Edward. O, what cause have I- + Thine being but a moiety of my moan- + To overgo thy woes and drown thy cries? + SON. Ah, aunt, you wept not for our father's death! + How can we aid you with our kindred tears? + DAUGHTER. Our fatherless distress was left unmoan'd; + Your widow-dolour likewise be unwept! + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Give me no help in lamentation; + I am not barren to bring forth complaints. + All springs reduce their currents to mine eyes + That I, being govern'd by the watery moon, + May send forth plenteous tears to drown the world! + Ah for my husband, for my dear Lord Edward! + CHILDREN. Ah for our father, for our dear Lord Clarence! + DUCHESS. Alas for both, both mine, Edward and Clarence! + QUEEN ELIZABETH. What stay had I but Edward? and he's + gone. + CHILDREN. What stay had we but Clarence? and he's gone. + DUCHESS. What stays had I but they? and they are gone. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Was never widow had so dear a loss. + CHILDREN. Were never orphans had so dear a loss. + DUCHESS. Was never mother had so dear a loss. + Alas, I am the mother of these griefs! + Their woes are parcell'd, mine is general. + She for an Edward weeps, and so do I: + I for a Clarence weep, so doth not she. + These babes for Clarence weep, and so do I: + I for an Edward weep, so do not they. + Alas, you three on me, threefold distress'd, + Pour all your tears! I am your sorrow's nurse, + And I will pamper it with lamentation. + DORSET. Comfort, dear mother. God is much displeas'd + That you take with unthankfulness his doing. + In common worldly things 'tis called ungrateful + With dull unwillingness to repay a debt + Which with a bounteous hand was kindly lent; + Much more to be thus opposite with heaven, + For it requires the royal debt it lent you. + RIVERS. Madam, bethink you, like a careful mother, + Of the young prince your son. Send straight for him; + Let him be crown'd; in him your comfort lives. + Drown desperate sorrow in dead Edward's grave, + And plant your joys in living Edward's throne. + + Enter GLOUCESTER, BUCKINGHAM, DERBY, + HASTINGS, and RATCLIFF + + GLOUCESTER. Sister, have comfort. All of us have cause + To wail the dimming of our shining star; + But none can help our harms by wailing them. + Madam, my mother, I do cry you mercy; + I did not see your Grace. Humbly on my knee + I crave your blessing. + DUCHESS. God bless thee; and put meekness in thy breast, + Love, charity, obedience, and true duty! + GLOUCESTER. Amen! [Aside] And make me die a good old + man! + That is the butt end of a mother's blessing; + I marvel that her Grace did leave it out. + BUCKINGHAM. You cloudy princes and heart-sorrowing + peers, + That bear this heavy mutual load of moan, + Now cheer each other in each other's love. + Though we have spent our harvest of this king, + We are to reap the harvest of his son. + The broken rancour of your high-swol'n hearts, + But lately splinter'd, knit, and join'd together, + Must gently be preserv'd, cherish'd, and kept. + Me seemeth good that, with some little train, + Forthwith from Ludlow the young prince be fet + Hither to London, to be crown'd our King. + + RIVERS. Why with some little train, my Lord of + Buckingham? + BUCKINGHAM. Marry, my lord, lest by a multitude + The new-heal'd wound of malice should break out, + Which would be so much the more dangerous + By how much the estate is green and yet ungovern'd; + Where every horse bears his commanding rein + And may direct his course as please himself, + As well the fear of harm as harm apparent, + In my opinion, ought to be prevented. + GLOUCESTER. I hope the King made peace with all of us; + And the compact is firm and true in me. + RIVERS. And so in me; and so, I think, in an. + Yet, since it is but green, it should be put + To no apparent likelihood of breach, + Which haply by much company might be urg'd; + Therefore I say with noble Buckingham + That it is meet so few should fetch the Prince. + HASTINGS. And so say I. + GLOUCESTER. Then be it so; and go we to determine + Who they shall be that straight shall post to Ludlow. + Madam, and you, my sister, will you go + To give your censures in this business? + Exeunt all but BUCKINGHAM and GLOUCESTER + BUCKINGHAM. My lord, whoever journeys to the Prince, + For God sake, let not us two stay at home; + For by the way I'll sort occasion, + As index to the story we late talk'd of, + To part the Queen's proud kindred from the Prince. + GLOUCESTER. My other self, my counsel's consistory, + My oracle, my prophet, my dear cousin, + I, as a child, will go by thy direction. + Toward Ludlow then, for we'll not stay behind. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +London. A street + +Enter one CITIZEN at one door, and another at the other + + FIRST CITIZEN. Good morrow, neighbour. Whither away so + fast? + SECOND CITIZEN. I promise you, I scarcely know myself. + Hear you the news abroad? + FIRST CITIZEN. Yes, that the King is dead. + SECOND CITIZEN. Ill news, by'r lady; seldom comes the + better. + I fear, I fear 'twill prove a giddy world. + + Enter another CITIZEN + + THIRD CITIZEN. Neighbours, God speed! + FIRST CITIZEN. Give you good morrow, sir. + THIRD CITIZEN. Doth the news hold of good King Edward's + death? + SECOND CITIZEN. Ay, sir, it is too true; God help the while! + THIRD CITIZEN. Then, masters, look to see a troublous + world. + FIRST CITIZEN. No, no; by God's good grace, his son shall + reign. + THIRD CITIZEN. Woe to that land that's govern'd by a child. + SECOND CITIZEN. In him there is a hope of government, + Which, in his nonage, council under him, + And, in his full and ripened years, himself, + No doubt, shall then, and till then, govern well. + FIRST CITIZEN. So stood the state when Henry the Sixth + Was crown'd in Paris but at nine months old. + THIRD CITIZEN. Stood the state so? No, no, good friends, + God wot; + For then this land was famously enrich'd + With politic grave counsel; then the King + Had virtuous uncles to protect his Grace. + FIRST CITIZEN. Why, so hath this, both by his father and + mother. + THIRD CITIZEN. Better it were they all came by his father, + Or by his father there were none at all; + For emulation who shall now be nearest + Will touch us all too near, if God prevent not. + O, full of danger is the Duke of Gloucester! + And the Queen's sons and brothers haught and proud; + And were they to be rul'd, and not to rule, + This sickly land might solace as before. + FIRST CITIZEN. Come, come, we fear the worst; all will be + well. + THIRD CITIZEN. When clouds are seen, wise men put on + their cloaks; + When great leaves fall, then winter is at hand; + When the sun sets, who doth not look for night? + Untimely storms make men expect a dearth. + All may be well; but, if God sort it so, + 'Tis more than we deserve or I expect. + SECOND CITIZEN. Truly, the hearts of men are fun of fear. + You cannot reason almost with a man + That looks not heavily and fun of dread. + THIRD CITIZEN. Before the days of change, still is it so; + By a divine instinct men's minds mistrust + Ensuing danger; as by proof we see + The water swell before a boist'rous storm. + But leave it all to God. Whither away? + SECOND CITIZEN. Marry, we were sent for to the justices. + THIRD CITIZEN. And so was I; I'll bear you company. + Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +London. The palace + +Enter the ARCHBISHOP OF YORK, the young DUKE OF YORK, QUEEN ELIZABETH, +and the DUCHESS OF YORK + + ARCHBISHOP. Last night, I hear, they lay at Stony Stratford, + And at Northampton they do rest to-night; + To-morrow or next day they will be here. + DUCHESS. I long with all my heart to see the Prince. + I hope he is much grown since last I saw him. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. But I hear no; they say my son of York + Has almost overta'en him in his growth. + YORK. Ay, mother; but I would not have it so. + DUCHESS. Why, my good cousin, it is good to grow. + YORK. Grandam, one night as we did sit at supper, + My uncle Rivers talk'd how I did grow + More than my brother. 'Ay,' quoth my uncle Gloucester + 'Small herbs have grace: great weeds do grow apace.' + And since, methinks, I would not grow so fast, + Because sweet flow'rs are slow and weeds make haste. + DUCHESS. Good faith, good faith, the saying did not hold + In him that did object the same to thee. + He was the wretched'st thing when he was young, + So long a-growing and so leisurely + That, if his rule were true, he should be gracious. + ARCHBISHOP. And so no doubt he is, my gracious madam. + DUCHESS. I hope he is; but yet let mothers doubt. + YORK. Now, by my troth, if I had been rememb'red, + I could have given my uncle's Grace a flout + To touch his growth nearer than he touch'd mine. + DUCHESS. How, my young York? I prithee let me hear it. + YORK. Marry, they say my uncle grew so fast + That he could gnaw a crust at two hours old. + 'Twas full two years ere I could get a tooth. + Grandam, this would have been a biting jest. + DUCHESS. I prithee, pretty York, who told thee this? + YORK. Grandam, his nurse. + DUCHESS. His nurse! Why she was dead ere thou wast + born. + YORK. If 'twere not she, I cannot tell who told me. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. A parlous boy! Go to, you are too + shrewd. + ARCHBISHOP. Good madam, be not angry with the child. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Pitchers have ears. + + Enter a MESSENGER + + ARCHBISHOP. Here comes a messenger. What news? + MESSENGER. Such news, my lord, as grieves me to report. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. How doth the Prince? + MESSENGER. Well, madam, and in health. + DUCHESS. What is thy news? + MESSENGER. Lord Rivers and Lord Grey + Are sent to Pomfret, and with them + Sir Thomas Vaughan, prisoners. + DUCHESS. Who hath committed them? + MESSENGER. The mighty Dukes, Gloucester and Buckingham. + ARCHBISHOP. For what offence? + MESSENGER. The sum of all I can, I have disclos'd. + Why or for what the nobles were committed + Is all unknown to me, my gracious lord. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ay me, I see the ruin of my house! + The tiger now hath seiz'd the gentle hind; + Insulting tyranny begins to jet + Upon the innocent and aweless throne. + Welcome, destruction, blood, and massacre! + I see, as in a map, the end of all. + DUCHESS. Accursed and unquiet wrangling days, + How many of you have mine eyes beheld! + My husband lost his life to get the crown; + And often up and down my sons were toss'd + For me to joy and weep their gain and loss; + And being seated, and domestic broils + Clean over-blown, themselves the conquerors + Make war upon themselves-brother to brother, + Blood to blood, self against self. O, preposterous + And frantic outrage, end thy damned spleen, + Or let me die, to look on death no more! + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Come, come, my boy; we will to + sanctuary. + Madam, farewell. + DUCHESS. Stay, I will go with you. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. You have no cause. + ARCHBISHOP. [To the QUEEN] My gracious lady, go. + And thither bear your treasure and your goods. + For my part, I'll resign unto your Grace + The seal I keep; and so betide to me + As well I tender you and all of yours! + Go, I'll conduct you to the sanctuary. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE 1. + +London. A street + +The trumpets sound. Enter the PRINCE OF WALES, GLOUCESTER, BUCKINGHAM, +CATESBY, CARDINAL BOURCHIER, and others + + BUCKINGHAM. Welcome, sweet Prince, to London, to your + chamber. + GLOUCESTER. Welcome, dear cousin, my thoughts' sovereign. + The weary way hath made you melancholy. + PRINCE. No, uncle; but our crosses on the way + Have made it tedious, wearisome, and heavy. + I want more uncles here to welcome me. + GLOUCESTER. Sweet Prince, the untainted virtue of your + years + Hath not yet div'd into the world's deceit; + Nor more can you distinguish of a man + Than of his outward show; which, God He knows, + Seldom or never jumpeth with the heart. + Those uncles which you want were dangerous; + Your Grace attended to their sug'red words + But look'd not on the poison of their hearts. + God keep you from them and from such false friends! + PRINCE. God keep me from false friends! but they were + none. + GLOUCESTER. My lord, the Mayor of London comes to greet + you. + + Enter the LORD MAYOR and his train + + MAYOR. God bless your Grace with health and happy days! + PRINCE. I thank you, good my lord, and thank you all. + I thought my mother and my brother York + Would long ere this have met us on the way. + Fie, what a slug is Hastings, that he comes not + To tell us whether they will come or no! + + Enter LORD HASTINGS + + BUCKINGHAM. And, in good time, here comes the sweating + Lord. + PRINCE. Welcome, my lord. What, will our mother come? + HASTINGS. On what occasion, God He knows, not I, + The Queen your mother and your brother York + Have taken sanctuary. The tender Prince + Would fain have come with me to meet your Grace, + But by his mother was perforce withheld. + BUCKINGHAM. Fie, what an indirect and peevish course + Is this of hers? Lord Cardinal, will your Grace + Persuade the Queen to send the Duke of York + Unto his princely brother presently? + If she deny, Lord Hastings, go with him + And from her jealous arms pluck him perforce. + CARDINAL. My Lord of Buckingham, if my weak oratory + Can from his mother win the Duke of York, + Anon expect him here; but if she be obdurate + To mild entreaties, God in heaven forbid + We should infringe the holy privilege + Of blessed sanctuary! Not for all this land + Would I be guilty of so deep a sin. + BUCKINGHAM. You are too senseless-obstinate, my lord, + Too ceremonious and traditional. + Weigh it but with the grossness of this age, + You break not sanctuary in seizing him. + The benefit thereof is always granted + To those whose dealings have deserv'd the place + And those who have the wit to claim the place. + This Prince hath neither claim'd it nor deserv'd it, + And therefore, in mine opinion, cannot have it. + Then, taking him from thence that is not there, + You break no privilege nor charter there. + Oft have I heard of sanctuary men; + But sanctuary children never till now. + CARDINAL. My lord, you shall o'errule my mind for once. + Come on, Lord Hastings, will you go with me? + HASTINGS. I go, my lord. + PRINCE. Good lords, make all the speedy haste you may. + Exeunt CARDINAL and HASTINGS + Say, uncle Gloucester, if our brother come, + Where shall we sojourn till our coronation? + GLOUCESTER. Where it seems best unto your royal self. + If I may counsel you, some day or two + Your Highness shall repose you at the Tower, + Then where you please and shall be thought most fit + For your best health and recreation. + PRINCE. I do not like the Tower, of any place. + Did Julius Caesar build that place, my lord? + BUCKINGHAM. He did, my gracious lord, begin that place, + Which, since, succeeding ages have re-edified. + PRINCE. Is it upon record, or else reported + Successively from age to age, he built it? + BUCKINGHAM. Upon record, my gracious lord. + PRINCE. But say, my lord, it were not regist'red, + Methinks the truth should Eve from age to age, + As 'twere retail'd to all posterity, + Even to the general all-ending day. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] So wise so young, they say, do never + live long. + PRINCE. What say you, uncle? + GLOUCESTER. I say, without characters, fame lives long. + [Aside] Thus, like the formal vice, Iniquity, + I moralize two meanings in one word. + PRINCE. That Julius Caesar was a famous man; + With what his valour did enrich his wit, + His wit set down to make his valour live. + Death makes no conquest of this conqueror; + For now he lives in fame, though not in life. + I'll tell you what, my cousin Buckingham- + BUCKINGHAM. What, my gracious lord? + PRINCE. An if I live until I be a man, + I'll win our ancient right in France again, + Or die a soldier as I liv'd a king. + GLOUCESTER. [Aside] Short summers lightly have a forward + spring. + + Enter HASTINGS, young YORK, and the CARDINAL + + BUCKINGHAM. Now, in good time, here comes the Duke of + York. + PRINCE. Richard of York, how fares our loving brother? + YORK. Well, my dread lord; so must I can you now. + PRINCE. Ay brother, to our grief, as it is yours. + Too late he died that might have kept that title, + Which by his death hath lost much majesty. + GLOUCESTER. How fares our cousin, noble Lord of York? + YORK. I thank you, gentle uncle. O, my lord, + You said that idle weeds are fast in growth. + The Prince my brother hath outgrown me far. + GLOUCESTER. He hath, my lord. + YORK. And therefore is he idle? + GLOUCESTER. O, my fair cousin, I must not say so. + YORK. Then he is more beholding to you than I. + GLOUCESTER. He may command me as my sovereign; + But you have power in me as in a kinsman. + YORK. I pray you, uncle, give me this dagger. + GLOUCESTER. My dagger, little cousin? With all my heart! + PRINCE. A beggar, brother? + YORK. Of my kind uncle, that I know will give, + And being but a toy, which is no grief to give. + GLOUCESTER. A greater gift than that I'll give my cousin. + YORK. A greater gift! O, that's the sword to it! + GLOUCESTER. Ay, gentle cousin, were it light enough. + YORK. O, then, I see you will part but with light gifts: + In weightier things you'll say a beggar nay. + GLOUCESTER. It is too heavy for your Grace to wear. + YORK. I weigh it lightly, were it heavier. + GLOUCESTER. What, would you have my weapon, little + Lord? + YORK. I would, that I might thank you as you call me. + GLOUCESTER. How? + YORK. Little. + PRINCE. My Lord of York will still be cross in talk. + Uncle, your Grace knows how to bear with him. + YORK. You mean, to bear me, not to bear with me. + Uncle, my brother mocks both you and me; + Because that I am little, like an ape, + He thinks that you should bear me on your shoulders. + BUCKINGHAM. With what a sharp-provided wit he reasons! + To mitigate the scorn he gives his uncle + He prettily and aptly taunts himself. + So cunning and so young is wonderful. + GLOUCESTER. My lord, will't please you pass along? + Myself and my good cousin Buckingham + Will to your mother, to entreat of her + To meet you at the Tower and welcome you. + YORK. What, will you go unto the Tower, my lord? + PRINCE. My Lord Protector needs will have it so. + YORK. I shall not sleep in quiet at the Tower. + GLOUCESTER. Why, what should you fear? + YORK. Marry, my uncle Clarence' angry ghost. + My grandam told me he was murder'd there. + PRINCE. I fear no uncles dead. + GLOUCESTER. Nor none that live, I hope. + PRINCE. An if they live, I hope I need not fear. + But come, my lord; and with a heavy heart, + Thinking on them, go I unto the Tower. + A sennet. + Exeunt all but GLOUCESTER, BUCKINGHAM, and CATESBY + BUCKINGHAM. Think you, my lord, this little prating York + Was not incensed by his subtle mother + To taunt and scorn you thus opprobriously? + GLOUCESTER. No doubt, no doubt. O, 'tis a perilous boy; + Bold, quick, ingenious, forward, capable. + He is all the mother's, from the top to toe. + BUCKINGHAM. Well, let them rest. Come hither, Catesby. + Thou art sworn as deeply to effect what we intend + As closely to conceal what we impart. + Thou know'st our reasons urg'd upon the way. + What think'st thou? Is it not an easy matter + To make William Lord Hastings of our mind, + For the instalment of this noble Duke + In the seat royal of this famous isle? + CATESBY. He for his father's sake so loves the Prince + That he will not be won to aught against him. + BUCKINGHAM. What think'st thou then of Stanley? Will + not he? + CATESBY. He will do all in all as Hastings doth. + BUCKINGHAM. Well then, no more but this: go, gentle + Catesby, + And, as it were far off, sound thou Lord Hastings + How he doth stand affected to our purpose; + And summon him to-morrow to the Tower, + To sit about the coronation. + If thou dost find him tractable to us, + Encourage him, and tell him all our reasons; + If he be leaden, icy, cold, unwilling, + Be thou so too, and so break off the talk, + And give us notice of his inclination; + For we to-morrow hold divided councils, + Wherein thyself shalt highly be employ'd. + GLOUCESTER. Commend me to Lord William. Tell him, + Catesby, + His ancient knot of dangerous adversaries + To-morrow are let blood at Pomfret Castle; + And bid my lord, for joy of this good news, + Give Mistress Shore one gentle kiss the more. + BUCKINGHAM. Good Catesby, go effect this business soundly. + CATESBY. My good lords both, with all the heed I can. + GLOUCESTER. Shall we hear from you, Catesby, ere we sleep? + CATESBY. You shall, my lord. + GLOUCESTER. At Crosby House, there shall you find us both. + Exit CATESBY + BUCKINGHAM. Now, my lord, what shall we do if we + perceive + Lord Hastings will not yield to our complots? + GLOUCESTER. Chop off his head-something we will + determine. + And, look when I am King, claim thou of me + The earldom of Hereford and all the movables + Whereof the King my brother was possess'd. + BUCKINGHAM. I'll claim that promise at your Grace's hand. + GLOUCESTER. And look to have it yielded with all kindness. + Come, let us sup betimes, that afterwards + We may digest our complots in some form. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +Before LORD HASTING'S house + +Enter a MESSENGER to the door of HASTINGS + + MESSENGER. My lord, my lord! [Knocking] + HASTINGS. [Within] Who knocks? + MESSENGER. One from the Lord Stanley. + HASTINGS. [Within] What is't o'clock? + MESSENGER. Upon the stroke of four. + + Enter LORD HASTINGS + + HASTINGS. Cannot my Lord Stanley sleep these tedious + nights? + MESSENGER. So it appears by that I have to say. + First, he commends him to your noble self. + HASTINGS. What then? + MESSENGER. Then certifies your lordship that this night + He dreamt the boar had razed off his helm. + Besides, he says there are two councils kept, + And that may be determin'd at the one + Which may make you and him to rue at th' other. + Therefore he sends to know your lordship's pleasure- + If you will presently take horse with him + And with all speed post with him toward the north + To shun the danger that his soul divines. + HASTINGS. Go, fellow, go, return unto thy lord; + Bid him not fear the separated council: + His honour and myself are at the one, + And at the other is my good friend Catesby; + Where nothing can proceed that toucheth us + Whereof I shall not have intelligence. + Tell him his fears are shallow, without instance; + And for his dreams, I wonder he's so simple + To trust the mock'ry of unquiet slumbers. + To fly the boar before the boar pursues + Were to incense the boar to follow us + And make pursuit where he did mean no chase. + Go, bid thy master rise and come to me; + And we will both together to the Tower, + Where, he shall see, the boar will use us kindly. + MESSENGER. I'll go, my lord, and tell him what you say. + Exit + + Enter CATESBY + + CATESBY. Many good morrows to my noble lord! + HASTINGS. Good morrow, Catesby; you are early stirring. + What news, what news, in this our tott'ring state? + CATESBY. It is a reeling world indeed, my lord; + And I believe will never stand upright + Till Richard wear the garland of the realm. + HASTINGS. How, wear the garland! Dost thou mean the + crown? + CATESBY. Ay, my good lord. + HASTINGS. I'll have this crown of mine cut from my + shoulders + Before I'll see the crown so foul misplac'd. + But canst thou guess that he doth aim at it? + CATESBY. Ay, on my life; and hopes to find you forward + Upon his party for the gain thereof; + And thereupon he sends you this good news, + That this same very day your enemies, + The kindred of the Queen, must die at Pomfret. + HASTINGS. Indeed, I am no mourner for that news, + Because they have been still my adversaries; + But that I'll give my voice on Richard's side + To bar my master's heirs in true descent, + God knows I will not do it to the death. + CATESBY. God keep your lordship in that gracious mind! + HASTINGS. But I shall laugh at this a twelve month hence, + That they which brought me in my master's hate, + I live to look upon their tragedy. + Well, Catesby, ere a fortnight make me older, + I'll send some packing that yet think not on't. + CATESBY. 'Tis a vile thing to die, my gracious lord, + When men are unprepar'd and look not for it. + HASTINGS. O monstrous, monstrous! And so falls it out + With Rivers, Vaughan, Grey; and so 'twill do + With some men else that think themselves as safe + As thou and I, who, as thou knowest, are dear + To princely Richard and to Buckingham. + CATESBY. The Princes both make high account of you- + [Aside] For they account his head upon the bridge. + HASTINGS. I know they do, and I have well deserv'd it. + + Enter LORD STANLEY + + Come on, come on; where is your boar-spear, man? + Fear you the boar, and go so unprovided? + STANLEY. My lord, good morrow; good morrow, Catesby. + You may jest on, but, by the holy rood, + I do not like these several councils, I. + HASTINGS. My lord, I hold my life as dear as yours, + And never in my days, I do protest, + Was it so precious to me as 'tis now. + Think you, but that I know our state secure, + I would be so triumphant as I am? + STANLEY. The lords at Pomfret, when they rode from + London, + Were jocund and suppos'd their states were sure, + And they indeed had no cause to mistrust; + But yet you see how soon the day o'ercast. + This sudden stab of rancour I misdoubt; + Pray God, I say, I prove a needless coward. + What, shall we toward the Tower? The day is spent. + HASTINGS. Come, come, have with you. Wot you what, my + Lord? + To-day the lords you talk'd of are beheaded. + STANLEY. They, for their truth, might better wear their + heads + Than some that have accus'd them wear their hats. + But come, my lord, let's away. + + Enter HASTINGS, a pursuivant + + HASTINGS. Go on before; I'll talk with this good fellow. + Exeunt STANLEY and CATESBY + How now, Hastings! How goes the world with thee? + PURSUIVANT. The better that your lordship please to ask. + HASTINGS. I tell thee, man, 'tis better with me now + Than when thou met'st me last where now we meet: + Then was I going prisoner to the Tower + By the suggestion of the Queen's allies; + But now, I tell thee-keep it to thyself- + This day those enernies are put to death, + And I in better state than e'er I was. + PURSUIVANT. God hold it, to your honour's good content! + HASTINGS. Gramercy, Hastings; there, drink that for me. + [Throws him his purse] + PURSUIVANT. I thank your honour. Exit + + Enter a PRIEST + + PRIEST. Well met, my lord; I am glad to see your honour. + HASTINGS. I thank thee, good Sir John, with all my heart. + I am in your debt for your last exercise; + Come the next Sabbath, and I will content you. + [He whispers in his ear] + PRIEST. I'll wait upon your lordship. + + Enter BUCKINGHAM + + BUCKINGHAM. What, talking with a priest, Lord + Chamberlain! + Your friends at Pomfret, they do need the priest: + Your honour hath no shriving work in hand. + HASTINGS. Good faith, and when I met this holy man, + The men you talk of came into my mind. + What, go you toward the Tower? + BUCKINGHAM. I do, my lord, but long I cannot stay there; + I shall return before your lordship thence. + HASTINGS. Nay, like enough, for I stay dinner there. + BUCKINGHAM. [Aside] And supper too, although thou + knowest it not.- + Come, will you go? + HASTINGS. I'll wait upon your lordship. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +Pomfret Castle + +Enter SIR RICHARD RATCLIFF, with halberds, carrying the Nobles, +RIVERS, GREY, and VAUGHAN, to death + + RIVERS. Sir Richard Ratcliff, let me tell thee this: + To-day shalt thou behold a subject die + For truth, for duty, and for loyalty. + GREY. God bless the Prince from all the pack of you! + A knot you are of damned blood-suckers. + VAUGHAN. You live that shall cry woe for this hereafter. + RATCLIFF. Dispatch; the limit of your lives is out. + RIVERS. O Pomfret, Pomfret! O thou bloody prison, + Fatal and ominous to noble peers! + Within the guilty closure of thy walls + RICHARD the Second here was hack'd to death; + And for more slander to thy dismal seat, + We give to thee our guiltless blood to drink. + GREY. Now Margaret's curse is fall'n upon our heads, + When she exclaim'd on Hastings, you, and I, + For standing by when Richard stabb'd her son. + RIVERS. Then curs'd she Richard, then curs'd she + Buckingham, + Then curs'd she Hastings. O, remember, God, + To hear her prayer for them, as now for us! + And for my sister, and her princely sons, + Be satisfied, dear God, with our true blood, + Which, as thou know'st, unjustly must be spilt. + RATCLIFF. Make haste; the hour of death is expiate. + RIVERS. Come, Grey; come, Vaughan; let us here embrace. + Farewell, until we meet again in heaven. Exeunt + +SCENE 4 + +London. The Tower + +Enter BUCKINGHAM, DERBY, HASTINGS, the BISHOP of ELY, RATCLIFF, LOVEL, +with others and seat themselves at a table + + HASTINGS. Now, noble peers, the cause why we are met + Is to determine of the coronation. + In God's name speak-when is the royal day? + BUCKINGHAM. Is all things ready for the royal time? + DERBY. It is, and wants but nomination. + BISHOP OF ELY. To-morrow then I judge a happy day. + BUCKINGHAM. Who knows the Lord Protector's mind + herein? + Who is most inward with the noble Duke? + BISHOP OF ELY. Your Grace, we think, should soonest know + his mind. + BUCKINGHAM. We know each other's faces; for our hearts, + He knows no more of mine than I of yours; + Or I of his, my lord, than you of mine. + Lord Hastings, you and he are near in love. + HASTINGS. I thank his Grace, I know he loves me well; + But for his purpose in the coronation + I have not sounded him, nor he deliver'd + His gracious pleasure any way therein. + But you, my honourable lords, may name the time; + And in the Duke's behalf I'll give my voice, + Which, I presume, he'll take in gentle part. + + Enter GLOUCESTER + + BISHOP OF ELY. In happy time, here comes the Duke himself. + GLOUCESTER. My noble lords and cousins an, good morrow. + I have been long a sleeper, but I trust + My absence doth neglect no great design + Which by my presence might have been concluded. + BUCKINGHAM. Had you not come upon your cue, my lord, + WILLIAM Lord Hastings had pronounc'd your part- + I mean, your voice for crowning of the King. + GLOUCESTER. Than my Lord Hastings no man might be + bolder; + His lordship knows me well and loves me well. + My lord of Ely, when I was last in Holborn + I saw good strawberries in your garden there. + I do beseech you send for some of them. + BISHOP of ELY. Marry and will, my lord, with all my heart. + Exit + GLOUCESTER. Cousin of Buckingham, a word with you. + [Takes him aside] + Catesby hath sounded Hastings in our business, + And finds the testy gentleman so hot + That he will lose his head ere give consent + His master's child, as worshipfully he terms it, + Shall lose the royalty of England's throne. + BUCKINGHAM. Withdraw yourself awhile; I'll go with you. + Exeunt GLOUCESTER and BUCKINGHAM + DERBY. We have not yet set down this day of triumph. + To-morrow, in my judgment, is too sudden; + For I myself am not so well provided + As else I would be, were the day prolong'd. + + Re-enter the BISHOP OF ELY + + BISHOP OF ELY. Where is my lord the Duke of Gloucester? + I have sent for these strawberries. + HASTINGS. His Grace looks cheerfully and smooth this + morning; + There's some conceit or other likes him well + When that he bids good morrow with such spirit. + I think there's never a man in Christendom + Can lesser hide his love or hate than he; + For by his face straight shall you know his heart. + DERBY. What of his heart perceive you in his face + By any livelihood he show'd to-day? + HASTINGS. Marry, that with no man here he is offended; + For, were he, he had shown it in his looks. + + Re-enter GLOUCESTER and BUCKINGHAM + + GLOUCESTER. I pray you all, tell me what they deserve + That do conspire my death with devilish plots + Of damned witchcraft, and that have prevail'd + Upon my body with their hellish charms? + HASTINGS. The tender love I bear your Grace, my lord, + Makes me most forward in this princely presence + To doom th' offenders, whosoe'er they be. + I say, my lord, they have deserved death. + GLOUCESTER. Then be your eyes the witness of their evil. + Look how I am bewitch'd; behold, mine arm + Is like a blasted sapling wither'd up. + And this is Edward's wife, that monstrous witch, + Consorted with that harlot strumpet Shore, + That by their witchcraft thus have marked me. + HASTINGS. If they have done this deed, my noble lord- + GLOUCESTER. If?-thou protector of this damned strumpet, + Talk'st thou to me of ifs? Thou art a traitor. + Off with his head! Now by Saint Paul I swear + I will not dine until I see the same. + Lovel and Ratcliff, look that it be done. + The rest that love me, rise and follow me. + Exeunt all but HASTINGS, LOVEL, and RATCLIFF + HASTINGS. Woe, woe, for England! not a whit for me; + For I, too fond, might have prevented this. + STANLEY did dream the boar did raze our helms, + And I did scorn it and disdain to fly. + Three times to-day my foot-cloth horse did stumble, + And started when he look'd upon the Tower, + As loath to bear me to the slaughter-house. + O, now I need the priest that spake to me! + I now repent I told the pursuivant, + As too triumphing, how mine enemies + To-day at Pomfret bloodily were butcher'd, + And I myself secure in grace and favour. + O Margaret, Margaret, now thy heavy curse + Is lighted on poor Hastings' wretched head! + RATCLIFF. Come, come, dispatch; the Duke would be at + dinner. + Make a short shrift; he longs to see your head. + HASTINGS. O momentary grace of mortal men, + Which we more hunt for than the grace of God! + Who builds his hope in air of your good looks + Lives like a drunken sailor on a mast, + Ready with every nod to tumble down + Into the fatal bowels of the deep. + LOVEL. Come, come, dispatch; 'tis bootless to exclaim. + HASTINGS. O bloody Richard! Miserable England! + I prophesy the fearfull'st time to thee + That ever wretched age hath look'd upon. + Come, lead me to the block; bear him my head. + They smile at me who shortly shall be dead. Exeunt + +SCENE 5. + +London. The Tower-walls + +Enter GLOUCESTER and BUCKINGHAM in rotten armour, marvellous +ill-favoured + + GLOUCESTER. Come, cousin, canst thou quake and change + thy colour, + Murder thy breath in middle of a word, + And then again begin, and stop again, + As if thou were distraught and mad with terror? + BUCKINGHAM. Tut, I can counterfeit the deep tragedian; + Speak and look back, and pry on every side, + Tremble and start at wagging of a straw, + Intending deep suspicion. Ghastly looks + Are at my service, like enforced smiles; + And both are ready in their offices + At any time to grace my stratagems. + But what, is Catesby gone? + GLOUCESTER. He is; and, see, he brings the mayor along. + + Enter the LORD MAYOR and CATESBY + + BUCKINGHAM. Lord Mayor- + GLOUCESTER. Look to the drawbridge there! + BUCKINGHAM. Hark! a drum. + GLOUCESTER. Catesby, o'erlook the walls. + BUCKINGHAM. Lord Mayor, the reason we have sent- + GLOUCESTER. Look back, defend thee; here are enemies. + BUCKINGHAM. God and our innocence defend and guard us! + + Enter LOVEL and RATCLIFF, with HASTINGS' head + + GLOUCESTER. Be patient; they are friends-Ratcliff and Lovel. + LOVEL. Here is the head of that ignoble traitor, + The dangerous and unsuspected Hastings. + GLOUCESTER. So dear I lov'd the man that I must weep. + I took him for the plainest harmless creature + That breath'd upon the earth a Christian; + Made him my book, wherein my soul recorded + The history of all her secret thoughts. + So smooth he daub'd his vice with show of virtue + That, his apparent open guilt omitted, + I mean his conversation with Shore's wife- + He liv'd from all attainder of suspects. + BUCKINGHAM. Well, well, he was the covert'st shelt'red + traitor + That ever liv'd. + Would you imagine, or almost believe- + Were't not that by great preservation + We live to tell it-that the subtle traitor + This day had plotted, in the council-house, + To murder me and my good Lord of Gloucester. + MAYOR. Had he done so? + GLOUCESTER. What! think you we are Turks or Infidels? + Or that we would, against the form of law, + Proceed thus rashly in the villain's death + But that the extreme peril of the case, + The peace of England and our persons' safety, + Enforc'd us to this execution? + MAYOR. Now, fair befall you! He deserv'd his death; + And your good Graces both have well proceeded + To warn false traitors from the like attempts. + I never look'd for better at his hands + After he once fell in with Mistress Shore. + BUCKINGHAM. Yet had we not determin'd he should die + Until your lordship came to see his end- + Which now the loving haste of these our friends, + Something against our meanings, have prevented- + Because, my lord, I would have had you heard + The traitor speak, and timorously confess + The manner and the purpose of his treasons: + That you might well have signified the same + Unto the citizens, who haply may + Misconster us in him and wail his death. + MAYOR. But, my good lord, your Grace's words shall serve + As well as I had seen and heard him speak; + And do not doubt, right noble Princes both, + But I'll acquaint our duteous citizens + With all your just proceedings in this cause. + GLOUCESTER. And to that end we wish'd your lordship here, + T' avoid the the the censures of the carping world. + BUCKINGHAM. Which since you come too late of our intent, + Yet witness what you hear we did intend. + And so, my good Lord Mayor, we bid farewell. + Exit LORD MAYOR + GLOUCESTER. Go, after, after, cousin Buckingham. + The Mayor towards Guildhall hies him in an post. + There, at your meet'st advantage of the time, + Infer the bastardy of Edward's children. + Tell them how Edward put to death a citizen + Only for saying he would make his son + Heir to the crown-meaning indeed his house, + Which by the sign thereof was termed so. + Moreover, urge his hateful luxury + And bestial appetite in change of lust, + Which stretch'd unto their servants, daughters, wives, + Even where his raging eye or savage heart + Without control lusted to make a prey. + Nay, for a need, thus far come near my person: + Tell them, when that my mother went with child + Of that insatiate Edward, noble York + My princely father then had wars in France + And, by true computation of the time, + Found that the issue was not his begot; + Which well appeared in his lineaments, + Being nothing like the noble Duke my father. + Yet touch this sparingly, as 'twere far off; + Because, my lord, you know my mother lives. + BUCKINGHAM. Doubt not, my lord, I'll play the orator + As if the golden fee for which I plead + Were for myself; and so, my lord, adieu. + GLOUCESTER. If you thrive well, bring them to Baynard's + Castle; + Where you shall find me well accompanied + With reverend fathers and well learned bishops. + BUCKINGHAM. I go; and towards three or four o'clock + Look for the news that the Guildhall affords. Exit + GLOUCESTER. Go, Lovel, with all speed to Doctor Shaw. + [To CATESBY] Go thou to Friar Penker. Bid them both + Meet me within this hour at Baynard's Castle. + Exeunt all but GLOUCESTER + Now will I go to take some privy order + To draw the brats of Clarence out of sight, + And to give order that no manner person + Have any time recourse unto the Princes. Exit + +SCENE 6. + +London. A street + +Enter a SCRIVENER + + SCRIVENER. Here is the indictment of the good Lord Hastings; + Which in a set hand fairly is engross'd + That it may be to-day read o'er in Paul's. + And mark how well the sequel hangs together: + Eleven hours I have spent to write it over, + For yesternight by Catesby was it sent me; + The precedent was full as long a-doing; + And yet within these five hours Hastings liv'd, + Untainted, unexamin'd, free, at liberty. + Here's a good world the while! Who is so gros + That cannot see this palpable device? + Yet who's so bold but says he sees it not? + Bad is the world; and all will come to nought, + When such ill dealing must be seen in thought. Exit + +SCENE 7. + +London. Baynard's Castle + +Enter GLOUCESTER and BUCKINGHAM, at several doors + + GLOUCESTER. How now, how now! What say the citizens? + BUCKINGHAM. Now, by the holy Mother of our Lord, + The citizens are mum, say not a word. + GLOUCESTER. Touch'd you the bastardy of Edward's + children? + BUCKINGHAM. I did; with his contract with Lady Lucy, + And his contract by deputy in France; + Th' insatiate greediness of his desire, + And his enforcement of the city wives; + His tyranny for trifles; his own bastardy, + As being got, your father then in France, + And his resemblance, being not like the Duke. + Withal I did infer your lineaments, + Being the right idea of your father, + Both in your form and nobleness of mind; + Laid open all your victories in Scotland, + Your discipline in war, wisdom in peace, + Your bounty, virtue, fair humility; + Indeed, left nothing fitting for your purpose + Untouch'd or slightly handled in discourse. + And when mine oratory drew toward end + I bid them that did love their country's good + Cry 'God save Richard, England's royal King!' + GLOUCESTER. And did they so? + BUCKINGHAM. No, so God help me, they spake not a word; + But, like dumb statues or breathing stones, + Star'd each on other, and look'd deadly pale. + Which when I saw, I reprehended them, + And ask'd the Mayor what meant this wilfull silence. + His answer was, the people were not used + To be spoke to but by the Recorder. + Then he was urg'd to tell my tale again. + 'Thus saith the Duke, thus hath the Duke inferr'd'- + But nothing spoke in warrant from himself. + When he had done, some followers of mine own + At lower end of the hall hurl'd up their caps, + And some ten voices cried 'God save King Richard!' + And thus I took the vantage of those few- + 'Thanks, gentle citizens and friends,' quoth I + 'This general applause and cheerful shout + Argues your wisdoms and your love to Richard.' + And even here brake off and came away. + GLOUCESTER. What, tongueless blocks were they? Would + they not speak? + Will not the Mayor then and his brethren come? + BUCKINGHAM. The Mayor is here at hand. Intend some fear; + Be not you spoke with but by mighty suit; + And look you get a prayer-book in your hand, + And stand between two churchmen, good my lord; + For on that ground I'll make a holy descant; + And be not easily won to our requests. + Play the maid's part: still answer nay, and take it. + GLOUCESTER. I go; and if you plead as well for them + As I can say nay to thee for myself, + No doubt we bring it to a happy issue. + BUCKINGHAM. Go, go, up to the leads; the Lord Mayor + knocks. Exit GLOUCESTER + + Enter the LORD MAYOR, ALDERMEN, and citizens + + Welcome, my lord. I dance attendance here; + I think the Duke will not be spoke withal. + + Enter CATESBY + + Now, Catesby, what says your lord to my request? + CATESBY. He doth entreat your Grace, my noble lord, + To visit him to-morrow or next day. + He is within, with two right reverend fathers, + Divinely bent to meditation; + And in no worldly suits would he be mov'd, + To draw him from his holy exercise. + BUCKINGHAM. Return, good Catesby, to the gracious Duke; + Tell him, myself, the Mayor and Aldermen, + In deep designs, in matter of great moment, + No less importing than our general good, + Are come to have some conference with his Grace. + CATESBY. I'll signify so much unto him straight. Exit + BUCKINGHAM. Ah ha, my lord, this prince is not an Edward! + He is not lolling on a lewd love-bed, + But on his knees at meditation; + Not dallying with a brace of courtezans, + But meditating with two deep divines; + Not sleeping, to engross his idle body, + But praying, to enrich his watchful soul. + Happy were England would this virtuous prince + Take on his Grace the sovereignty thereof; + But, sure, I fear we shall not win him to it. + MAYOR. Marry, God defend his Grace should say us nay! + BUCKINGHAM. I fear he will. Here Catesby comes again. + + Re-enter CATESBY + + Now, Catesby, what says his Grace? + CATESBY. My lord, + He wonders to what end you have assembled + Such troops of citizens to come to him. + His Grace not being warn'd thereof before, + He fears, my lord, you mean no good to him. + BUCKINGHAM. Sorry I am my noble cousin should + Suspect me that I mean no good to him. + By heaven, we come to him in perfect love; + And so once more return and tell his Grace. + Exit CATESBY + When holy and devout religious men + Are at their beads, 'tis much to draw them thence, + So sweet is zealous contemplation. + + Enter GLOUCESTER aloft, between two BISHOPS. + CATESBY returns + + MAYOR. See where his Grace stands 'tween two clergymen! + BUCKINGHAM. Two props of virtue for a Christian prince, + To stay him from the fall of vanity; + And, see, a book of prayer in his hand, + True ornaments to know a holy man. + Famous Plantagenet, most gracious Prince, + Lend favourable ear to our requests, + And pardon us the interruption + Of thy devotion and right Christian zeal. + GLOUCESTER. My lord, there needs no such apology: + I do beseech your Grace to pardon me, + Who, earnest in the service of my God, + Deferr'd the visitation of my friends. + But, leaving this, what is your Grace's pleasure? + BUCKINGHAM. Even that, I hope, which pleaseth God above, + And all good men of this ungovern'd isle. + GLOUCESTER. I do suspect I have done some offence + That seems disgracious in the city's eye, + And that you come to reprehend my ignorance. + BUCKINGHAM. You have, my lord. Would it might please + your Grace, + On our entreaties, to amend your fault! + GLOUCESTER. Else wherefore breathe I in a Christian land? + BUCKINGHAM. Know then, it is your fault that you resign + The supreme seat, the throne majestical, + The scept'red office of your ancestors, + Your state of fortune and your due of birth, + The lineal glory of your royal house, + To the corruption of a blemish'd stock; + Whiles in the mildness of your sleepy thoughts, + Which here we waken to our country's good, + The noble isle doth want her proper limbs; + Her face defac'd with scars of infamy, + Her royal stock graft with ignoble plants, + And almost should'red in the swallowing gulf + Of dark forgetfulness and deep oblivion. + Which to recure, we heartily solicit + Your gracious self to take on you the charge + And kingly government of this your land- + Not as protector, steward, substitute, + Or lowly factor for another's gain; + But as successively, from blood to blood, + Your right of birth, your empery, your own. + For this, consorted with the citizens, + Your very worshipful and loving friends, + And by their vehement instigation, + In this just cause come I to move your Grace. + GLOUCESTER. I cannot tell if to depart in silence + Or bitterly to speak in your reproof + Best fitteth my degree or your condition. + If not to answer, you might haply think + Tongue-tied ambition, not replying, yielded + To bear the golden yoke of sovereignty, + Which fondly you would here impose on me; + If to reprove you for this suit of yours, + So season'd with your faithful love to me, + Then, on the other side, I check'd my friends. + Therefore-to speak, and to avoid the first, + And then, in speaking, not to incur the last- + Definitively thus I answer you: + Your love deserves my thanks, but my desert + Unmeritable shuns your high request. + First, if all obstacles were cut away, + And that my path were even to the crown, + As the ripe revenue and due of birth, + Yet so much is my poverty of spirit, + So mighty and so many my defects, + That I would rather hide me from my greatness- + Being a bark to brook no mighty sea- + Than in my greatness covet to be hid, + And in the vapour of my glory smother'd. + But, God be thank'd, there is no need of me- + And much I need to help you, were there need. + The royal tree hath left us royal fruit + Which, mellow'd by the stealing hours of time, + Will well become the seat of majesty + And make, no doubt, us happy by his reign. + On him I lay that you would lay on me- + The right and fortune of his happy stars, + Which God defend that I should wring from him. + BUCKINGHAM. My lord, this argues conscience in your + Grace; + But the respects thereof are nice and trivial, + All circumstances well considered. + You say that Edward is your brother's son. + So say we too, but not by Edward's wife; + For first was he contract to Lady Lucy- + Your mother lives a witness to his vow- + And afterward by substitute betroth'd + To Bona, sister to the King of France. + These both put off, a poor petitioner, + A care-craz'd mother to a many sons, + A beauty-waning and distressed widow, + Even in the afternoon of her best days, + Made prize and purchase of his wanton eye, + Seduc'd the pitch and height of his degree + To base declension and loath'd bigamy. + By her, in his unlawful bed, he got + This Edward, whom our manners call the Prince. + More bitterly could I expostulate, + Save that, for reverence to some alive, + I give a sparing limit to my tongue. + Then, good my lord, take to your royal self + This proffer'd benefit of dignity; + If not to bless us and the land withal, + Yet to draw forth your noble ancestry + From the corruption of abusing times + Unto a lineal true-derived course. + MAYOR. Do, good my lord; your citizens entreat you. + BUCKINGHAM. Refuse not, mighty lord, this proffer'd love. + CATESBY. O, make them joyful, grant their lawful suit! + GLOUCESTER. Alas, why would you heap this care on me? + I am unfit for state and majesty. + I do beseech you, take it not amiss: + I cannot nor I will not yield to you. + BUCKINGHAM. If you refuse it-as, in love and zeal, + Loath to depose the child, your brother's son; + As well we know your tenderness of heart + And gentle, kind, effeminate remorse, + Which we have noted in you to your kindred + And egally indeed to all estates- + Yet know, whe'er you accept our suit or no, + Your brother's son shall never reign our king; + But we will plant some other in the throne + To the disgrace and downfall of your house; + And in this resolution here we leave you. + Come, citizens. Zounds, I'll entreat no more. + GLOUCESTER. O, do not swear, my lord of Buckingham. + Exeunt BUCKINGHAM, MAYOR, and citizens + CATESBY. Call him again, sweet Prince, accept their suit. + If you deny them, all the land will rue it. + GLOUCESTER. Will you enforce me to a world of cares? + Call them again. I am not made of stones, + But penetrable to your kind entreaties, + Albeit against my conscience and my soul. + + Re-enter BUCKINGHAM and the rest + + Cousin of Buckingham, and sage grave men, + Since you will buckle fortune on my back, + To bear her burden, whe'er I will or no, + I must have patience to endure the load; + But if black scandal or foul-fac'd reproach + Attend the sequel of your imposition, + Your mere enforcement shall acquittance me + From all the impure blots and stains thereof; + For God doth know, and you may partly see, + How far I am from the desire of this. + MAYOR. God bless your Grace! We see it, and will say it. + GLOUCESTER. In saying so, you shall but say the truth. + BUCKINGHAM. Then I salute you with this royal title- + Long live King Richard, England's worthy King! + ALL. Amen. + BUCKINGHAM. To-morrow may it please you to be crown'd? + GLOUCESTER. Even when you please, for you will have it so. + BUCKINGHAM. To-morrow, then, we will attend your Grace; + And so, most joyfully, we take our leave. + GLOUCESTER. [To the BISHOPS] Come, let us to our holy + work again. + Farewell, my cousin; farewell, gentle friends. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE 1. + +London. Before the Tower + +Enter QUEEN ELIZABETH, DUCHESS of YORK, and MARQUIS of DORSET, at one +door; +ANNE, DUCHESS of GLOUCESTER, leading LADY MARGARET PLANTAGENET, +CLARENCE's young daughter, at another door + + DUCHESS. Who meets us here? My niece Plantagenet, + Led in the hand of her kind aunt of Gloucester? + Now, for my life, she's wand'ring to the Tower, + On pure heart's love, to greet the tender Princes. + Daughter, well met. + ANNE. God give your Graces both + A happy and a joyful time of day! + QUEEN ELIZABETH. As much to you, good sister! Whither + away? + ANNE. No farther than the Tower; and, as I guess, + Upon the like devotion as yourselves, + To gratulate the gentle Princes there. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Kind sister, thanks; we'll enter + all together. + + Enter BRAKENBURY + + And in good time, here the lieutenant comes. + Master Lieutenant, pray you, by your leave, + How doth the Prince, and my young son of York? + BRAKENBURY. Right well, dear madam. By your patience, + I may not suffer you to visit them. + The King hath strictly charg'd the contrary. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. The King! Who's that? + BRAKENBURY. I mean the Lord Protector. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. The Lord protect him from that kingly + title! + Hath he set bounds between their love and me? + I am their mother; who shall bar me from them? + DUCHESS. I am their father's mother; I will see them. + ANNE. Their aunt I am in law, in love their mother. + Then bring me to their sights; I'll bear thy blame, + And take thy office from thee on my peril. + BRAKENBURY. No, madam, no. I may not leave it so; + I am bound by oath, and therefore pardon me. Exit + + Enter STANLEY + + STANLEY. Let me but meet you, ladies, one hour hence, + And I'll salute your Grace of York as mother + And reverend looker-on of two fair queens. + [To ANNE] Come, madam, you must straight to + Westminster, + There to be crowned Richard's royal queen. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ah, cut my lace asunder + That my pent heart may have some scope to beat, + Or else I swoon with this dead-killing news! + ANNE. Despiteful tidings! O unpleasing news! + DORSET. Be of good cheer; mother, how fares your Grace? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. O Dorset, speak not to me, get thee + gone! + Death and destruction dogs thee at thy heels; + Thy mother's name is ominous to children. + If thou wilt outstrip death, go cross the seas, + And live with Richmond, from the reach of hell. + Go, hie thee, hie thee from this slaughter-house, + Lest thou increase the number of the dead, + And make me die the thrall of Margaret's curse, + Nor mother, wife, nor England's counted queen. + STANLEY. Full of wise care is this your counsel, madam. + Take all the swift advantage of the hours; + You shall have letters from me to my son + In your behalf, to meet you on the way. + Be not ta'en tardy by unwise delay. + DUCHESS. O ill-dispersing wind of misery! + O my accursed womb, the bed of death! + A cockatrice hast thou hatch'd to the world, + Whose unavoided eye is murderous. + STANLEY. Come, madam, come; I in all haste was sent. + ANNE. And I with all unwillingness will go. + O, would to God that the inclusive verge + Of golden metal that must round my brow + Were red-hot steel, to sear me to the brains! + Anointed let me be with deadly venom, + And die ere men can say 'God save the Queen!' + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Go, go, poor soul; I envy not thy glory. + To feed my humour, wish thyself no harm. + ANNE. No, why? When he that is my husband now + Came to me, as I follow'd Henry's corse; + When scarce the blood was well wash'd from his hands + Which issued from my other angel husband, + And that dear saint which then I weeping follow'd- + O, when, I say, I look'd on Richard's face, + This was my wish: 'Be thou' quoth I 'accurs'd + For making me, so young, so old a widow; + And when thou wed'st, let sorrow haunt thy bed; + And be thy wife, if any be so mad, + More miserable by the life of thee + Than thou hast made me by my dear lord's death.' + Lo, ere I can repeat this curse again, + Within so small a time, my woman's heart + Grossly grew captive to his honey words + And prov'd the subject of mine own soul's curse, + Which hitherto hath held my eyes from rest; + For never yet one hour in his bed + Did I enjoy the golden dew of sleep, + But with his timorous dreams was still awak'd. + Besides, he hates me for my father Warwick; + And will, no doubt, shortly be rid of me. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Poor heart, adieu! I pity thy complaining. + ANNE. No more than with my soul I mourn for yours. + DORSET. Farewell, thou woeful welcomer of glory! + ANNE. Adieu, poor soul, that tak'st thy leave of it! + DUCHESS. [To DORSET] Go thou to Richmond, and good + fortune guide thee! + [To ANNE] Go thou to Richard, and good angels tend + thee! [To QUEEN ELIZABETH] Go thou to sanctuary, and good + thoughts possess thee! + I to my grave, where peace and rest lie with me! + Eighty odd years of sorrow have I seen, + And each hour's joy wreck'd with a week of teen. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Stay, yet look back with me unto the + Tower. + Pity, you ancient stones, those tender babes + Whom envy hath immur'd within your walls, + Rough cradle for such little pretty ones. + Rude ragged nurse, old sullen playfellow + For tender princes, use my babies well. + So foolish sorrows bids your stones farewell. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +London. The palace + +Sound a sennet. Enter RICHARD, in pomp, as KING; BUCKINGHAM, CATESBY, +RATCLIFF, LOVEL, a PAGE, and others + + KING RICHARD. Stand all apart. Cousin of Buckingham! + BUCKINGHAM. My gracious sovereign? + KING RICHARD. Give me thy hand. + [Here he ascendeth the throne. Sound] + Thus high, by thy advice + And thy assistance, is King Richard seated. + But shall we wear these glories for a day; + Or shall they last, and we rejoice in them? + BUCKINGHAM. Still live they, and for ever let them last! + KING RICHARD. Ah, Buckingham, now do I play the touch, + To try if thou be current gold indeed. + Young Edward lives-think now what I would speak. + BUCKINGHAM. Say on, my loving lord. + KING RICHARD. Why, Buckingham, I say I would be King. + BUCKINGHAM. Why, so you are, my thrice-renowned lord. + KING RICHARD. Ha! am I King? 'Tis so; but Edward lives. + BUCKINGHAM. True, noble Prince. + KING RICHARD. O bitter consequence: + That Edward still should live-true noble Prince! + Cousin, thou wast not wont to be so dull. + Shall I be plain? I wish the bastards dead. + And I would have it suddenly perform'd. + What say'st thou now? Speak suddenly, be brief. + BUCKINGHAM. Your Grace may do your pleasure. + KING RICHARD. Tut, tut, thou art all ice; thy kindness freezes. + Say, have I thy consent that they shall die? + BUCKINGHAM. Give me some little breath, some pause, + dear Lord, + Before I positively speak in this. + I will resolve you herein presently. Exit + CATESBY. [Aside to another] The King is angry; see, he + gnaws his lip. + KING RICHARD. I will converse with iron-witted fools + [Descends from the throne] + And unrespective boys; none are for me + That look into me with considerate eyes. + High-reaching Buckingham grows circumspect. + Boy! + PAGE. My lord? + KING RICHARD. Know'st thou not any whom corrupting + gold + Will tempt unto a close exploit of death? + PAGE. I know a discontented gentleman + Whose humble means match not his haughty spirit. + Gold were as good as twenty orators, + And will, no doubt, tempt him to anything. + KING RICHARD. What is his name? + PAGE. His name, my lord, is Tyrrel. + KING RICHARD. I partly know the man. Go, call him hither, + boy. Exit PAGE + The deep-revolving witty Buckingham + No more shall be the neighbour to my counsels. + Hath he so long held out with me, untir'd, + And stops he now for breath? Well, be it so. + + Enter STANLEY + + How now, Lord Stanley! What's the news? + STANLEY. Know, my loving lord, + The Marquis Dorset, as I hear, is fled + To Richmond, in the parts where he abides. [Stands apart] + KING RICHARD. Come hither, Catesby. Rumour it abroad + That Anne, my wife, is very grievous sick; + I will take order for her keeping close. + Inquire me out some mean poor gentleman, + Whom I will marry straight to Clarence' daughter- + The boy is foolish, and I fear not him. + Look how thou dream'st! I say again, give out + That Anne, my queen, is sick and like to die. + About it; for it stands me much upon + To stop all hopes whose growth may damage me. + Exit CATESBY + I must be married to my brother's daughter, + Or else my kingdom stands on brittle glass. + Murder her brothers, and then marry her! + Uncertain way of gain! But I am in + So far in blood that sin will pluck on sin. + Tear-falling pity dwells not in this eye. + + Re-enter PAGE, with TYRREL + + Is thy name Tyrrel? + TYRREL. James Tyrrel, and your most obedient subject. + KING RICHARD. Art thou, indeed? + TYRREL. Prove me, my gracious lord. + KING RICHARD. Dar'st'thou resolve to kill a friend of mine? + TYRREL. Please you; + But I had rather kill two enemies. + KING RICHARD. Why, then thou hast it. Two deep enemies, + Foes to my rest, and my sweet sleep's disturbers, + Are they that I would have thee deal upon. + TYRREL, I mean those bastards in the Tower. + TYRREL. Let me have open means to come to them, + And soon I'll rid you from the fear of them. + KING RICHARD. Thou sing'st sweet music. Hark, come + hither, Tyrrel. + Go, by this token. Rise, and lend thine ear. [Whispers] + There is no more but so: say it is done, + And I will love thee and prefer thee for it. + TYRREL. I will dispatch it straight. Exit + + Re-enter BUCKINGHAM + + BUCKINGHAM. My lord, I have consider'd in my mind + The late request that you did sound me in. + KING RICHARD. Well, let that rest. Dorset is fled to + Richmond. + BUCKINGHAM. I hear the news, my lord. + KING RICHARD. Stanley, he is your wife's son: well, look + unto it. + BUCKINGHAM. My lord, I claim the gift, my due by promise, + For which your honour and your faith is pawn'd: + Th' earldom of Hereford and the movables + Which you have promised I shall possess. + KING RICHARD. Stanley, look to your wife; if she convey + Letters to Richmond, you shall answer it. + BUCKINGHAM. What says your Highness to my just request? + KING RICHARD. I do remember me: Henry the Sixth + Did prophesy that Richmond should be King, + When Richmond was a little peevish boy. + A king!-perhaps- + BUCKINGHAM. My lord- + KING RICHARD. How chance the prophet could not at that + time + Have told me, I being by, that I should kill him? + BUCKINGHAM. My lord, your promise for the earldom- + KING RICHARD. Richmond! When last I was at Exeter, + The mayor in courtesy show'd me the castle + And call'd it Rugemount, at which name I started, + Because a bard of Ireland told me once + I should not live long after I saw Richmond. + BUCKINGHAM. My lord- + KING RICHARD. Ay, what's o'clock? + BUCKINGHAM. I am thus bold to put your Grace in mind + Of what you promis'd me. + KING RICHARD. Well, but o'clock? + BUCKINGHAM. Upon the stroke of ten. + KING RICHARD. Well, let it strike. + BUCKINGHAM. Why let it strike? + KING RICHARD. Because that like a Jack thou keep'st the + stroke + Betwixt thy begging and my meditation. + I am not in the giving vein to-day. + BUCKINGHAM. May it please you to resolve me in my suit. + KING RICHARD. Thou troublest me; I am not in the vein. + Exeunt all but Buckingham + BUCKINGHAM. And is it thus? Repays he my deep service + With such contempt? Made I him King for this? + O, let me think on Hastings, and be gone + To Brecknock while my fearful head is on! Exit + +SCENE 3. + +London. The palace + +Enter TYRREL + + TYRREL. The tyrannous and bloody act is done, + The most arch deed of piteous massacre + That ever yet this land was guilty of. + Dighton and Forrest, who I did suborn + To do this piece of ruthless butchery, + Albeit they were flesh'd villains, bloody dogs, + Melted with tenderness and mild compassion, + Wept like two children in their deaths' sad story. + 'O, thus' quoth Dighton 'lay the gentle babes'- + 'Thus, thus,' quoth Forrest 'girdling one another + Within their alabaster innocent arms. + Their lips were four red roses on a stalk, + And in their summer beauty kiss'd each other. + A book of prayers on their pillow lay; + Which once,' quoth Forrest 'almost chang'd my mind; + But, O, the devil'-there the villain stopp'd; + When Dighton thus told on: 'We smothered + The most replenished sweet work of nature + That from the prime creation e'er she framed.' + Hence both are gone with conscience and remorse + They could not speak; and so I left them both, + To bear this tidings to the bloody King. + + Enter KING RICHARD + + And here he comes. All health, my sovereign lord! + KING RICHARD. Kind Tyrrel, am I happy in thy news? + TYRREL. If to have done the thing you gave in charge + Beget your happiness, be happy then, + For it is done. + KING RICHARD. But didst thou see them dead? + TYRREL. I did, my lord. + KING RICHARD. And buried, gentle Tyrrel? + TYRREL. The chaplain of the Tower hath buried them; + But where, to say the truth, I do not know. + KING RICHARD. Come to me, Tyrrel, soon at after supper, + When thou shalt tell the process of their death. + Meantime, but think how I may do thee good + And be inheritor of thy desire. + Farewell till then. + TYRREL. I humbly take my leave. Exit + KING RICHARD. The son of Clarence have I pent up close; + His daughter meanly have I match'd in marriage; + The sons of Edward sleep in Abraham's bosom, + And Anne my wife hath bid this world good night. + Now, for I know the Britaine Richmond aims + At young Elizabeth, my brother's daughter, + And by that knot looks proudly on the crown, + To her go I, a jolly thriving wooer. + + Enter RATCLIFF + + RATCLIFF. My lord! + KING RICHARD. Good or bad news, that thou com'st in so + bluntly? + RATCLIFF. Bad news, my lord: Morton is fled to Richmond; + And Buckingham, back'd with the hardy Welshmen, + Is in the field, and still his power increaseth. + KING RICHARD. Ely with Richmond troubles me more near + Than Buckingham and his rash-levied strength. + Come, I have learn'd that fearful commenting + Is leaden servitor to dull delay; + Delay leads impotent and snail-pac'd beggary. + Then fiery expedition be my wing, + Jove's Mercury, and herald for a king! + Go, muster men. My counsel is my shield. + We must be brief when traitors brave the field. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +London. Before the palace + +Enter old QUEEN MARGARET + + QUEEN MARGARET. So now prosperity begins to mellow + And drop into the rotten mouth of death. + Here in these confines slily have I lurk'd + To watch the waning of mine enemies. + A dire induction am I witness to, + And will to France, hoping the consequence + Will prove as bitter, black, and tragical. + Withdraw thee, wretched Margaret. Who comes here? + [Retires] + + Enter QUEEN ELIZABETH and the DUCHESS OF YORK + + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ah, my poor princes! ah, my tender + babes! + My unblown flowers, new-appearing sweets! + If yet your gentle souls fly in the air + And be not fix'd in doom perpetual, + Hover about me with your airy wings + And hear your mother's lamentation. + QUEEN MARGARET. Hover about her; say that right for right + Hath dimm'd your infant morn to aged night. + DUCHESS. So many miseries have craz'd my voice + That my woe-wearied tongue is still and mute. + Edward Plantagenet, why art thou dead? + QUEEN MARGARET. Plantagenet doth quit Plantagenet, + Edward for Edward pays a dying debt. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Wilt thou, O God, fly from such gentle + lambs + And throw them in the entrails of the wolf? + When didst thou sleep when such a deed was done? + QUEEN MARGARET. When holy Harry died, and my sweet + son. + DUCHESS. Dead life, blind sight, poor mortal living ghost, + Woe's scene, world's shame, grave's due by life usurp'd, + Brief abstract and record of tedious days, + Rest thy unrest on England's lawful earth, [Sitting down] + Unlawfully made drunk with innocent blood. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Ah, that thou wouldst as soon afford a + grave + As thou canst yield a melancholy seat! + Then would I hide my bones, not rest them here. + Ah, who hath any cause to mourn but we? + [Sitting down by her] + QUEEN MARGARET. [Coming forward] If ancient sorrow be + most reverend, + Give mine the benefit of seniory, + And let my griefs frown on the upper hand. + If sorrow can admit society, [Sitting down with them] + Tell o'er your woes again by viewing mine. + I had an Edward, till a Richard kill'd him; + I had a husband, till a Richard kill'd him: + Thou hadst an Edward, till a Richard kill'd him; + Thou hadst a Richard, till a Richard kill'd him. + DUCHESS. I had a Richard too, and thou didst kill him; + I had a Rutland too, thou holp'st to kill him. + QUEEN MARGARET. Thou hadst a Clarence too, and Richard + kill'd him. + From forth the kennel of thy womb hath crept + A hell-hound that doth hunt us all to death. + That dog, that had his teeth before his eyes + To worry lambs and lap their gentle blood, + That foul defacer of God's handiwork, + That excellent grand tyrant of the earth + That reigns in galled eyes of weeping souls, + Thy womb let loose to chase us to our graves. + O upright, just, and true-disposing God, + How do I thank thee that this carnal cur + Preys on the issue of his mother's body + And makes her pew-fellow with others' moan! + DUCHESS. O Harry's wife, triumph not in my woes! + God witness with me, I have wept for thine. + QUEEN MARGARET. Bear with me; I am hungry for revenge, + And now I cloy me with beholding it. + Thy Edward he is dead, that kill'd my Edward; + The other Edward dead, to quit my Edward; + Young York he is but boot, because both they + Match'd not the high perfection of my loss. + Thy Clarence he is dead that stabb'd my Edward; + And the beholders of this frantic play, + Th' adulterate Hastings, Rivers, Vaughan, Grey, + Untimely smother'd in their dusky graves. + Richard yet lives, hell's black intelligencer; + Only reserv'd their factor to buy souls + And send them thither. But at hand, at hand, + Ensues his piteous and unpitied end. + Earth gapes, hell burns, fiends roar, saints pray, + To have him suddenly convey'd from hence. + Cancel his bond of life, dear God, I pray, + That I may live and say 'The dog is dead.' + QUEEN ELIZABETH. O, thou didst prophesy the time would + come + That I should wish for thee to help me curse + That bottled spider, that foul bunch-back'd toad! + QUEEN MARGARET. I Call'd thee then vain flourish of my + fortune; + I call'd thee then poor shadow, painted queen, + The presentation of but what I was, + The flattering index of a direful pageant, + One heav'd a-high to be hurl'd down below, + A mother only mock'd with two fair babes, + A dream of what thou wast, a garish flag + To be the aim of every dangerous shot, + A sign of dignity, a breath, a bubble, + A queen in jest, only to fill the scene. + Where is thy husband now? Where be thy brothers? + Where be thy two sons? Wherein dost thou joy? + Who sues, and kneels, and says 'God save the Queen'? + Where be the bending peers that flattered thee? + Where be the thronging troops that followed thee? + Decline an this, and see what now thou art: + For happy wife, a most distressed widow; + For joyful mother, one that wails the name; + For one being su'd to, one that humbly sues; + For Queen, a very caitiff crown'd with care; + For she that scorn'd at me, now scorn'd of me; + For she being fear'd of all, now fearing one; + For she commanding all, obey'd of none. + Thus hath the course of justice whirl'd about + And left thee but a very prey to time, + Having no more but thought of what thou wast + To torture thee the more, being what thou art. + Thou didst usurp my place, and dost thou not + Usurp the just proportion of my sorrow? + Now thy proud neck bears half my burden'd yoke, + From which even here I slip my weary head + And leave the burden of it all on thee. + Farewell, York's wife, and queen of sad mischance; + These English woes shall make me smile in France. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. O thou well skill'd in curses, stay awhile + And teach me how to curse mine enemies! + QUEEN MARGARET. Forbear to sleep the nights, and fast the + days; + Compare dead happiness with living woe; + Think that thy babes were sweeter than they were, + And he that slew them fouler than he is. + Bett'ring thy loss makes the bad-causer worse; + Revolving this will teach thee how to curse. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. My words are dull; O, quicken them + with thine! + QUEEN MARGARET. Thy woes will make them sharp and + pierce like mine. Exit + DUCHESS. Why should calamity be fun of words? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Windy attorneys to their client woes, + Airy succeeders of intestate joys, + Poor breathing orators of miseries, + Let them have scope; though what they will impart + Help nothing else, yet do they case the heart. + DUCHESS. If so, then be not tongue-tied. Go with me, + And in the breath of bitter words let's smother + My damned son that thy two sweet sons smother'd. + The trumpet sounds; be copious in exclaims. + + Enter KING RICHARD and his train, marching with + drums and trumpets + + KING RICHARD. Who intercepts me in my expedition? + DUCHESS. O, she that might have intercepted thee, + By strangling thee in her accursed womb, + From all the slaughters, wretch, that thou hast done! + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Hidest thou that forehead with a golden + crown + Where't should be branded, if that right were right, + The slaughter of the Prince that ow'd that crown, + And the dire death of my poor sons and brothers? + Tell me, thou villain slave, where are my children? + DUCHESS. Thou toad, thou toad, where is thy brother + Clarence? + And little Ned Plantagenet, his son? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Where is the gentle Rivers, Vaughan, + Grey? + DUCHESS. Where is kind Hastings? + KING RICHARD. A flourish, trumpets! Strike alarum, drums! + Let not the heavens hear these tell-tale women + Rail on the Lord's anointed. Strike, I say! + [Flourish. Alarums] + Either be patient and entreat me fair, + Or with the clamorous report of war + Thus will I drown your exclamations. + DUCHESS. Art thou my son? + KING RICHARD. Ay, I thank God, my father, and yourself. + DUCHESS. Then patiently hear my impatience. + KING RICHARD. Madam, I have a touch of your condition + That cannot brook the accent of reproof. + DUCHESS. O, let me speak! + KING RICHARD. Do, then; but I'll not hear. + DUCHESS. I will be mild and gentle in my words. + KING RICHARD. And brief, good mother; for I am in haste. + DUCHESS. Art thou so hasty? I have stay'd for thee, + God knows, in torment and in agony. + KING RICHARD. And came I not at last to comfort you? + DUCHESS. No, by the holy rood, thou know'st it well + Thou cam'st on earth to make the earth my hell. + A grievous burden was thy birth to me; + Tetchy and wayward was thy infancy; + Thy school-days frightful, desp'rate, wild, and furious; + Thy prime of manhood daring, bold, and venturous; + Thy age confirm'd, proud, subtle, sly, and bloody, + More mild, but yet more harmful-kind in hatred. + What comfortable hour canst thou name + That ever grac'd me with thy company? + KING RICHARD. Faith, none but Humphrey Hour, that call'd + your Grace + To breakfast once forth of my company. + If I be so disgracious in your eye, + Let me march on and not offend you, madam. + Strike up the drum. + DUCHESS. I prithee hear me speak. + KING RICHARD. You speak too bitterly. + DUCHESS. Hear me a word; + For I shall never speak to thee again. + KING RICHARD. So. + DUCHESS. Either thou wilt die by God's just ordinance + Ere from this war thou turn a conqueror; + Or I with grief and extreme age shall perish + And never more behold thy face again. + Therefore take with thee my most grievous curse, + Which in the day of battle tire thee more + Than all the complete armour that thou wear'st! + My prayers on the adverse party fight; + And there the little souls of Edward's children + Whisper the spirits of thine enemies + And promise them success and victory. + Bloody thou art; bloody will be thy end. + Shame serves thy life and doth thy death attend. Exit + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Though far more cause, yet much less + spirit to curse + Abides in me; I say amen to her. + KING RICHARD. Stay, madam, I must talk a word with you. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. I have no moe sons of the royal blood + For thee to slaughter. For my daughters, Richard, + They shall be praying nuns, not weeping queens; + And therefore level not to hit their lives. + KING RICHARD. You have a daughter call'd Elizabeth. + Virtuous and fair, royal and gracious. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. And must she die for this? O, let her + live, + And I'll corrupt her manners, stain her beauty, + Slander myself as false to Edward's bed, + Throw over her the veil of infamy; + So she may live unscarr'd of bleeding slaughter, + I will confess she was not Edward's daughter. + KING RICHARD. Wrong not her birth; she is a royal + Princess. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. To save her life I'll say she is not so. + KING RICHARD. Her life is safest only in her birth. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. And only in that safety died her + brothers. + KING RICHARD. Lo, at their birth good stars were opposite. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. No, to their lives ill friends were + contrary. + KING RICHARD. All unavoided is the doom of destiny. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. True, when avoided grace makes destiny. + My babes were destin'd to a fairer death, + If grace had bless'd thee with a fairer life. + KING RICHARD. You speak as if that I had slain my cousins. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Cousins, indeed; and by their uncle + cozen'd + Of comfort, kingdom, kindred, freedom, life. + Whose hand soever lanc'd their tender hearts, + Thy head, an indirectly, gave direction. + No doubt the murd'rous knife was dull and blunt + Till it was whetted on thy stone-hard heart + To revel in the entrails of my lambs. + But that stiff use of grief makes wild grief tame, + My tongue should to thy ears not name my boys + Till that my nails were anchor'd in thine eyes; + And I, in such a desp'rate bay of death, + Like a poor bark, of sails and tackling reft, + Rush all to pieces on thy rocky bosom. + KING RICHARD. Madam, so thrive I in my enterprise + And dangerous success of bloody wars, + As I intend more good to you and yours + Than ever you or yours by me were harm'd! + QUEEN ELIZABETH. What good is cover'd with the face of + heaven, + To be discover'd, that can do me good? + KING RICHARD. advancement of your children, gentle + lady. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Up to some scaffold, there to lose their + heads? + KING RICHARD. Unto the dignity and height of Fortune, + The high imperial type of this earth's glory. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Flatter my sorrow with report of it; + Tell me what state, what dignity, what honour, + Canst thou demise to any child of mine? + KING RICHARD. Even all I have-ay, and myself and all + Will I withal endow a child of thine; + So in the Lethe of thy angry soul + Thou drown the sad remembrance of those wrongs + Which thou supposest I have done to thee. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Be brief, lest that the process of thy + kindness + Last longer telling than thy kindness' date. + KING RICHARD. Then know, that from my soul I love thy + daughter. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. My daughter's mother thinks it with her + soul. + KING RICHARD. What do you think? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. That thou dost love my daughter from + thy soul. + So from thy soul's love didst thou love her brothers, + And from my heart's love I do thank thee for it. + KING RICHARD. Be not so hasty to confound my meaning. + I mean that with my soul I love thy daughter + And do intend to make her Queen of England. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Well, then, who dost thou mean shall be + her king? + KING RICHARD. Even he that makes her Queen. Who else + should be? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. What, thou? + KING RICHARD. Even so. How think you of it? + QUEEN ELIZABETH. How canst thou woo her? + KING RICHARD. That would I learn of you, + As one being best acquainted with her humour. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. And wilt thou learn of me? + KING RICHARD. Madam, with all my heart. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Send to her, by the man that slew her + brothers, + A pair of bleeding hearts; thereon engrave + 'Edward' and 'York.' Then haply will she weep; + Therefore present to her-as sometimes Margaret + Did to thy father, steep'd in Rutland's blood- + A handkerchief; which, say to her, did drain + The purple sap from her sweet brother's body, + And bid her wipe her weeping eyes withal. + If this inducement move her not to love, + Send her a letter of thy noble deeds; + Tell her thou mad'st away her uncle Clarence, + Her uncle Rivers; ay, and for her sake + Mad'st quick conveyance with her good aunt Anne. + KING RICHARD. You mock me, madam; this is not the way + To win your daughter. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. There is no other way; + Unless thou couldst put on some other shape + And not be Richard that hath done all this. + KING RICHARD. Say that I did all this for love of her. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Nay, then indeed she cannot choose but + hate thee, + Having bought love with such a bloody spoil. + KING RICHARD. Look what is done cannot be now amended. + Men shall deal unadvisedly sometimes, + Which after-hours gives leisure to repent. + If I did take the kingdom from your sons, + To make amends I'll give it to your daughter. + If I have kill'd the issue of your womb, + To quicken your increase I will beget + Mine issue of your blood upon your daughter. + A grandam's name is little less in love + Than is the doating title of a mother; + They are as children but one step below, + Even of your metal, of your very blood; + Of all one pain, save for a night of groans + Endur'd of her, for whom you bid like sorrow. + Your children were vexation to your youth; + But mine shall be a comfort to your age. + The loss you have is but a son being King, + And by that loss your daughter is made Queen. + I cannot make you what amends I would, + Therefore accept such kindness as I can. + Dorset your son, that with a fearful soul + Leads discontented steps in foreign soil, + This fair alliance quickly shall can home + To high promotions and great dignity. + The King, that calls your beauteous daughter wife, + Familiarly shall call thy Dorset brother; + Again shall you be mother to a king, + And all the ruins of distressful times + Repair'd with double riches of content. + What! we have many goodly days to see. + The liquid drops of tears that you have shed + Shall come again, transform'd to orient pearl, + Advantaging their loan with interest + Of ten times double gain of happiness. + Go, then, my mother, to thy daughter go; + Make bold her bashful years with your experience; + Prepare her ears to hear a wooer's tale; + Put in her tender heart th' aspiring flame + Of golden sovereignty; acquaint the Princes + With the sweet silent hours of marriage joys. + And when this arm of mine hath chastised + The petty rebel, dull-brain'd Buckingham, + Bound with triumphant garlands will I come, + And lead thy daughter to a conqueror's bed; + To whom I will retail my conquest won, + And she shall be sole victoress, Caesar's Caesar. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. What were I best to say? Her father's + brother + Would be her lord? Or shall I say her uncle? + Or he that slew her brothers and her uncles? + Under what title shall I woo for thee + That God, the law, my honour, and her love + Can make seem pleasing to her tender years? + KING RICHARD. Infer fair England's peace by this alliance. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Which she shall purchase with + still-lasting war. + KING RICHARD. Tell her the King, that may command, + entreats. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. That at her hands which the King's + King forbids. + KING RICHARD. Say she shall be a high and mighty queen. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. To wail the title, as her mother doth. + KING RICHARD. Say I will love her everlastingly. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. But how long shall that title 'ever' last? + KING RICHARD. Sweetly in force unto her fair life's end. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. But how long fairly shall her sweet life + last? + KING RICHARD. As long as heaven and nature lengthens it. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. As long as hell and Richard likes of it. + KING RICHARD. Say I, her sovereign, am her subject low. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. But she, your subject, loathes such + sovereignty. + KING RICHARD. Be eloquent in my behalf to her. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. An honest tale speeds best being plainly + told. + KING RICHARD. Then plainly to her tell my loving tale. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Plain and not honest is too harsh a style. + KING RICHARD. Your reasons are too shallow and too quick. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. O, no, my reasons are too deep and + dead- + Too deep and dead, poor infants, in their graves. + KING RICHARD. Harp not on that string, madam; that is past. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Harp on it still shall I till heartstrings + break. + KING RICHARD. Now, by my George, my garter, and my + crown- + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Profan'd, dishonour'd, and the third + usurp'd. + KING RICHARD. I swear- + QUEEN ELIZABETH. By nothing; for this is no oath: + Thy George, profan'd, hath lost his lordly honour; + Thy garter, blemish'd, pawn'd his knightly virtue; + Thy crown, usurp'd, disgrac'd his kingly glory. + If something thou wouldst swear to be believ'd, + Swear then by something that thou hast not wrong'd. + KING RICHARD. Then, by my self- + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Thy self is self-misus'd. + KING RICHARD. Now, by the world- + QUEEN ELIZABETH. 'Tis full of thy foul wrongs. + KING RICHARD. My father's death- + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Thy life hath it dishonour'd. + KING RICHARD. Why, then, by God- + QUEEN ELIZABETH. God's wrong is most of all. + If thou didst fear to break an oath with Him, + The unity the King my husband made + Thou hadst not broken, nor my brothers died. + If thou hadst fear'd to break an oath by Him, + Th' imperial metal, circling now thy head, + Had grac'd the tender temples of my child; + And both the Princes had been breathing here, + Which now, two tender bedfellows for dust, + Thy broken faith hath made the prey for worms. + What canst thou swear by now? + KING RICHARD. The time to come. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. That thou hast wronged in the time + o'erpast; + For I myself have many tears to wash + Hereafter time, for time past wrong'd by thee. + The children live whose fathers thou hast slaughter'd, + Ungovern'd youth, to wail it in their age; + The parents live whose children thou hast butcheed, + Old barren plants, to wail it with their age. + Swear not by time to come; for that thou hast + Misus'd ere us'd, by times ill-us'd o'erpast. + KING RICHARD. As I intend to prosper and repent, + So thrive I in my dangerous affairs + Of hostile arms! Myself myself confound! + Heaven and fortune bar me happy hours! + Day, yield me not thy light; nor, night, thy rest! + Be opposite all planets of good luck + To my proceeding!-if, with dear heart's love, + Immaculate devotion, holy thoughts, + I tender not thy beauteous princely daughter. + In her consists my happiness and thine; + Without her, follows to myself and thee, + Herself, the land, and many a Christian soul, + Death, desolation, ruin, and decay. + It cannot be avoided but by this; + It will not be avoided but by this. + Therefore, dear mother-I must call you so- + Be the attorney of my love to her; + Plead what I will be, not what I have been; + Not my deserts, but what I will deserve. + Urge the necessity and state of times, + And be not peevish-fond in great designs. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Shall I be tempted of the devil thus? + KING RICHARD. Ay, if the devil tempt you to do good. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Shall I forget myself to be myself? + KING RICHARD. Ay, if your self's remembrance wrong + yourself. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Yet thou didst kill my children. + KING RICHARD. But in your daughter's womb I bury them; + Where, in that nest of spicery, they will breed + Selves of themselves, to your recomforture. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. Shall I go win my daughter to thy will? + KING RICHARD. And be a happy mother by the deed. + QUEEN ELIZABETH. I go. Write to me very shortly, + And you shall understand from me her mind. + KING RICHARD. Bear her my true love's kiss; and so, farewell. + Kissing her. Exit QUEEN ELIZABETH + Relenting fool, and shallow, changing woman! + + Enter RATCLIFF; CATESBY following + + How now! what news? + RATCLIFF. Most mighty sovereign, on the western coast + Rideth a puissant navy; to our shores + Throng many doubtful hollow-hearted friends, + Unarm'd, and unresolv'd to beat them back. + 'Tis thought that Richmond is their admiral; + And there they hull, expecting but the aid + Of Buckingham to welcome them ashore. + KING RICHARD. Some light-foot friend post to the Duke of + Norfolk. + Ratcliff, thyself-or Catesby; where is he? + CATESBY. Here, my good lord. + KING RICHARD. Catesby, fly to the Duke. + CATESBY. I will my lord, with all convenient haste. + KING RICHARD. Ratcliff, come hither. Post to Salisbury; + When thou com'st thither- [To CATESBY] Dull, + unmindfull villain, + Why stay'st thou here, and go'st not to the Duke? + CATESBY. First, mighty liege, tell me your Highness' pleasure, + What from your Grace I shall deliver to him. + KING RICHARD. O, true, good Catesby. Bid him levy straight + The greatest strength and power that he can make + And meet me suddenly at Salisbury. + CATESBY. I go. Exit + RATCLIFF. What, may it please you, shall I do at Salisbury? + KING RICHARD. Why, what wouldst thou do there before I + go? + RATCLIFF. Your Highness told me I should post before. + KING RICHARD. My mind is chang'd. + + Enter LORD STANLEY + + STANLEY, what news with you? + STANLEY. None good, my liege, to please you with + the hearing; + Nor none so bad but well may be reported. + KING RICHARD. Hoyday, a riddle! neither good nor bad! + What need'st thou run so many miles about, + When thou mayest tell thy tale the nearest way? + Once more, what news? + STANLEY. Richmond is on the seas. + KING RICHARD. There let him sink, and be the seas on him! + White-liver'd runagate, what doth he there? + STANLEY. I know not, mighty sovereign, but by guess. + KING RICHARD. Well, as you guess? + STANLEY. Stirr'd up by Dorset, Buckingham, and Morton, + He makes for England here to claim the crown. + KING RICHARD. Is the chair empty? Is the sword unsway'd? + Is the King dead, the empire unpossess'd? + What heir of York is there alive but we? + And who is England's King but great York's heir? + Then tell me what makes he upon the seas. + STANLEY. Unless for that, my liege, I cannot guess. + KING RICHARD. Unless for that he comes to be your liege, + You cannot guess wherefore the Welshman comes. + Thou wilt revolt and fly to him, I fear. + STANLEY. No, my good lord; therefore mistrust me not. + KING RICHARD. Where is thy power then, to beat him back? + Where be thy tenants and thy followers? + Are they not now upon the western shore, + Safe-conducting the rebels from their ships? + STANLEY. No, my good lord, my friends are in the north. + KING RICHARD. Cold friends to me. What do they in the + north, + When they should serve their sovereign in the west? + STANLEY. They have not been commanded, mighty King. + Pleaseth your Majesty to give me leave, + I'll muster up my friends and meet your Grace + Where and what time your Majesty shall please. + KING RICHARD. Ay, ay, thou wouldst be gone to join with + Richmond; + But I'll not trust thee. + STANLEY. Most mighty sovereign, + You have no cause to hold my friendship doubtful. + I never was nor never will be false. + KING RICHARD. Go, then, and muster men. But leave behind + Your son, George Stanley. Look your heart be firm, + Or else his head's assurance is but frail. + STANLEY. So deal with him as I prove true to you. Exit + + Enter a MESSENGER + + MESSENGER. My gracious sovereign, now in Devonshire, + As I by friends am well advertised, + Sir Edward Courtney and the haughty prelate, + Bishop of Exeter, his elder brother, + With many moe confederates, are in arms. + + Enter another MESSENGER + + SECOND MESSENGER. In Kent, my liege, the Guilfords are in + arms; + And every hour more competitors + Flock to the rebels, and their power grows strong. + + Enter another MESSENGER + + THIRD MESSENGER. My lord, the army of great Buckingham- + KING RICHARD. Out on you, owls! Nothing but songs of + death? [He strikes him] + There, take thou that till thou bring better news. + THIRD MESSENGER. The news I have to tell your Majesty + Is that by sudden floods and fall of waters + Buckingham's army is dispers'd and scatter'd; + And he himself wand'red away alone, + No man knows whither. + KING RICHARD. I cry thee mercy. + There is my purse to cure that blow of thine. + Hath any well-advised friend proclaim'd + Reward to him that brings the traitor in? + THIRD MESSENGER. Such proclamation hath been made, + my Lord. + + Enter another MESSENGER + + FOURTH MESSENGER. Sir Thomas Lovel and Lord Marquis + Dorset, + 'Tis said, my liege, in Yorkshire are in arms. + But this good comfort bring I to your Highness- + The Britaine navy is dispers'd by tempest. + Richmond in Dorsetshire sent out a boat + Unto the shore, to ask those on the banks + If they were his assistants, yea or no; + Who answer'd him they came from Buckingham + Upon his party. He, mistrusting them, + Hois'd sail, and made his course again for Britaine. + KING RICHARD. March on, march on, since we are up in + arms; + If not to fight with foreign enemies, + Yet to beat down these rebels here at home. + + Re-enter CATESBY + + CATESBY. My liege, the Duke of Buckingham is taken- + That is the best news. That the Earl of Richmond + Is with a mighty power landed at Milford + Is colder tidings, yet they must be told. + KING RICHARD. Away towards Salisbury! While we reason + here + A royal battle might be won and lost. + Some one take order Buckingham be brought + To Salisbury; the rest march on with me. + Flourish. Exeunt + +SCENE 5. + +LORD DERBY'S house + +Enter STANLEY and SIR CHRISTOPHER URSWICK + + STANLEY. Sir Christopher, tell Richmond this from me: + That in the sty of the most deadly boar + My son George Stanley is frank'd up in hold; + If I revolt, off goes young George's head; + The fear of that holds off my present aid. + So, get thee gone; commend me to thy lord. + Withal say that the Queen hath heartily consented + He should espouse Elizabeth her daughter. + But tell me, where is princely Richmond now? + CHRISTOPHER. At Pembroke, or at Ha'rford west in Wales. + STANLEY. What men of name resort to him? + CHRISTOPHER. Sir Walter Herbert, a renowned soldier; + SIR Gilbert Talbot, Sir William Stanley, + OXFORD, redoubted Pembroke, Sir James Blunt, + And Rice ap Thomas, with a valiant crew; + And many other of great name and worth; + And towards London do they bend their power, + If by the way they be not fought withal. + STANLEY. Well, hie thee to thy lord; I kiss his hand; + My letter will resolve him of my mind. + Farewell. Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE 1. + +Salisbury. An open place + +Enter the SHERIFF and guard, with BUCKINGHAM, led to execution + + BUCKINGHAM. Will not King Richard let me speak with + him? + SHERIFF. No, my good lord; therefore be patient. + BUCKINGHAM. Hastings, and Edward's children, Grey, and + Rivers, + Holy King Henry, and thy fair son Edward, + Vaughan, and all that have miscarried + By underhand corrupted foul injustice, + If that your moody discontented souls + Do through the clouds behold this present hour, + Even for revenge mock my destruction! + This is All-Souls' day, fellow, is it not? + SHERIFF. It is, my lord. + BUCKINGHAM. Why, then All-Souls' day is my body's + doomsday. + This is the day which in King Edward's time + I wish'd might fall on me when I was found + False to his children and his wife's allies; + This is the day wherein I wish'd to fall + By the false faith of him whom most I trusted; + This, this All-Souls' day to my fearful soul + Is the determin'd respite of my wrongs; + That high All-Seer which I dallied with + Hath turn'd my feigned prayer on my head + And given in earnest what I begg'd in jest. + Thus doth He force the swords of wicked men + To turn their own points in their masters' bosoms. + Thus Margaret's curse falls heavy on my neck. + 'When he' quoth she 'shall split thy heart with sorrow, + Remember Margaret was a prophetess.' + Come lead me, officers, to the block of shame; + Wrong hath but wrong, and blame the due of blame. Exeunt + +SCENE 2. + +Camp near Tamworth + +Enter RICHMOND, OXFORD, SIR JAMES BLUNT, SIR WALTER HERBERT, and +others, with drum and colours + + RICHMOND. Fellows in arms, and my most loving friends, + Bruis'd underneath the yoke of tyranny, + Thus far into the bowels of the land + Have we march'd on without impediment; + And here receive we from our father Stanley + Lines of fair comfort and encouragement. + The wretched, bloody, and usurping boar, + That spoil'd your summer fields and fruitful vines, + Swills your warm blood like wash, and makes his trough + In your embowell'd bosoms-this foul swine + Is now even in the centre of this isle, + Near to the town of Leicester, as we learn. + From Tamworth thither is but one day's march. + In God's name cheerly on, courageous friends, + To reap the harvest of perpetual peace + By this one bloody trial of sharp war. + OXFORD. Every man's conscience is a thousand men, + To fight against this guilty homicide. + HERBERT. I doubt not but his friends will turn to us. + BLUNT. He hath no friends but what are friends for fear, + Which in his dearest need will fly from him. + RICHMOND. All for our vantage. Then in God's name march. + True hope is swift and flies with swallow's wings; + Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings. Exeunt + +SCENE 3. + +Bosworth Field + +Enter KING RICHARD in arms, with NORFOLK, RATCLIFF, the EARL of SURREYS +and others + + KING RICHARD. Here pitch our tent, even here in Bosworth + field. + My Lord of Surrey, why look you so sad? + SURREY. My heart is ten times lighter than my looks. + KING RICHARD. My Lord of Norfolk! + NORFOLK. Here, most gracious liege. + KING RICHARD. Norfolk, we must have knocks; ha! must we + not? + NORFOLK. We must both give and take, my loving lord. + KING RICHARD. Up With my tent! Here will I lie to-night; + [Soldiers begin to set up the KING'S tent] + But where to-morrow? Well, all's one for that. + Who hath descried the number of the traitors? + NORFOLK. Six or seven thousand is their utmost power. + KING RICHARD. Why, our battalia trebles that account; + Besides, the King's name is a tower of strength, + Which they upon the adverse faction want. + Up with the tent! Come, noble gentlemen, + Let us survey the vantage of the ground. + Call for some men of sound direction. + Let's lack no discipline, make no delay; + For, lords, to-morrow is a busy day. Exeunt + + Enter, on the other side of the field, + RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BRANDON, OXFORD, DORSET, + and others. Some pitch RICHMOND'S tent + + RICHMOND. The weary sun hath made a golden set, + And by the bright tract of his fiery car + Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. + Sir William Brandon, you shall bear my standard. + Give me some ink and paper in my tent. + I'll draw the form and model of our battle, + Limit each leader to his several charge, + And part in just proportion our small power. + My Lord of Oxford-you, Sir William Brandon- + And you, Sir Walter Herbert-stay with me. + The Earl of Pembroke keeps his regiment; + Good Captain Blunt, bear my good night to him, + And by the second hour in the morning + Desire the Earl to see me in my tent. + Yet one thing more, good Captain, do for me- + Where is Lord Stanley quarter'd, do you know? + BLUNT. Unless I have mista'en his colours much- + Which well I am assur'd I have not done- + His regiment lies half a mile at least + South from the mighty power of the King. + RICHMOND. If without peril it be possible, + Sweet Blunt, make some good means to speak with him + And give him from me this most needful note. + BLUNT. Upon my life, my lord, I'll undertake it; + And so, God give you quiet rest to-night! + RICHMOND. Good night, good Captain Blunt. Come, + gentlemen, + Let us consult upon to-morrow's business. + In to my tent; the dew is raw and cold. + [They withdraw into the tent] + + Enter, to his-tent, KING RICHARD, NORFOLK, + RATCLIFF, and CATESBY + + KING RICHARD. What is't o'clock? + CATESBY. It's supper-time, my lord; + It's nine o'clock. + KING RICHARD. I will not sup to-night. + Give me some ink and paper. + What, is my beaver easier than it was? + And all my armour laid into my tent? + CATESBY. It is, my liege; and all things are in readiness. + KING RICHARD. Good Norfolk, hie thee to thy charge; + Use careful watch, choose trusty sentinels. + NORFOLK. I go, my lord. + KING RICHARD. Stir with the lark to-morrow, gentle Norfolk. + NORFOLK. I warrant you, my lord. Exit + KING RICHARD. Catesby! + CATESBY. My lord? + KING RICHARD. Send out a pursuivant-at-arms + To Stanley's regiment; bid him bring his power + Before sunrising, lest his son George fall + Into the blind cave of eternal night. Exit CATESBY + Fill me a bowl of wine. Give me a watch. + Saddle white Surrey for the field to-morrow. + Look that my staves be sound, and not too heavy. + Ratcliff! + RATCLIFF. My lord? + KING RICHARD. Saw'st thou the melancholy Lord + Northumberland? + RATCLIFF. Thomas the Earl of Surrey and himself, + Much about cock-shut time, from troop to troop + Went through the army, cheering up the soldiers. + KING RICHARD. So, I am satisfied. Give me a bowl of wine. + I have not that alacrity of spirit + Nor cheer of mind that I was wont to have. + Set it down. Is ink and paper ready? + RATCLIFF. It is, my lord. + KING RICHARD. Bid my guard watch; leave me. + RATCLIFF, about the mid of night come to my tent + And help to arm me. Leave me, I say. + Exit RATCLIFF. RICHARD sleeps + + Enter DERBY to RICHMOND in his tent; + LORDS attending + + DERBY. Fortune and victory sit on thy helm! + RICHMOND. All comfort that the dark night can afford + Be to thy person, noble father-in-law! + Tell me, how fares our loving mother? + DERBY. I, by attorney, bless thee from thy mother, + Who prays continually for Richmond's good. + So much for that. The silent hours steal on, + And flaky darkness breaks within the east. + In brief, for so the season bids us be, + Prepare thy battle early in the morning, + And put thy fortune to the arbitrement + Of bloody strokes and mortal-staring war. + I, as I may-that which I would I cannot- + With best advantage will deceive the time + And aid thee in this doubtful shock of arms; + But on thy side I may not be too forward, + Lest, being seen, thy brother, tender George, + Be executed in his father's sight. + Farewell; the leisure and the fearful time + Cuts off the ceremonious vows of love + And ample interchange of sweet discourse + Which so-long-sund'red friends should dwell upon. + God give us leisure for these rites of love! + Once more, adieu; be valiant, and speed well! + RICHMOND. Good lords, conduct him to his regiment. + I'll strive with troubled thoughts to take a nap, + Lest leaden slumber peise me down to-morrow + When I should mount with wings of victory. + Once more, good night, kind lords and gentlemen. + Exeunt all but RICHMOND + O Thou, whose captain I account myself, + Look on my forces with a gracious eye; + Put in their hands Thy bruising irons of wrath, + That they may crush down with a heavy fall + The usurping helmets of our adversaries! + Make us Thy ministers of chastisement, + That we may praise Thee in the victory! + To Thee I do commend my watchful soul + Ere I let fall the windows of mine eyes. + Sleeping and waking, O, defend me still! [Sleeps] + + Enter the GHOST Of YOUNG PRINCE EDWARD, + son to HENRY THE SIXTH + + GHOST. [To RICHARD] Let me sit heavy on thy soul + to-morrow! + Think how thou stabb'dst me in my prime of youth + At Tewksbury; despair, therefore, and die! + [To RICHMOND] Be cheerful, Richmond; for the wronged + souls + Of butcher'd princes fight in thy behalf. + King Henry's issue, Richmond, comforts thee. + + Enter the GHOST of HENRY THE SIXTH + + GHOST. [To RICHARD] When I was mortal, my anointed + body + By thee was punched full of deadly holes. + Think on the Tower and me. Despair, and die. + Harry the Sixth bids thee despair and die. + [To RICHMOND] Virtuous and holy, be thou conqueror! + Harry, that prophesied thou shouldst be King, + Doth comfort thee in thy sleep. Live and flourish! + + Enter the GHOST of CLARENCE + + GHOST. [To RICHARD] Let me sit heavy in thy soul + to-morrow! I that was wash'd to death with fulsome wine, + Poor Clarence, by thy guile betray'd to death! + To-morrow in the battle think on me, + And fall thy edgeless sword. Despair and die! + [To RICHMOND] Thou offspring of the house of Lancaster, + The wronged heirs of York do pray for thee. + Good angels guard thy battle! Live and flourish! + + Enter the GHOSTS of RIVERS, GREY, and VAUGHAN + + GHOST OF RIVERS. [To RICHARD] Let me sit heavy in thy + soul to-morrow, + Rivers that died at Pomfret! Despair and die! + GHOST OF GREY. [To RICHARD] Think upon Grey, and let + thy soul despair! + GHOST OF VAUGHAN. [To RICHARD] Think upon Vaughan, + and with guilty fear + Let fall thy lance. Despair and die! + ALL. [To RICHMOND] Awake, and think our wrongs in + Richard's bosom + Will conquer him. Awake and win the day. + + Enter the GHOST of HASTINGS + + GHOST. [To RICHARD] Bloody and guilty, guiltily awake, + And in a bloody battle end thy days! + Think on Lord Hastings. Despair and die. + [To RICHMOND] Quiet untroubled soul, awake, awake! + Arm, fight, and conquer, for fair England's sake! + + Enter the GHOSTS of the two young PRINCES + + GHOSTS. [To RICHARD] Dream on thy cousins smothered in + the Tower. + Let us be lead within thy bosom, Richard, + And weigh thee down to ruin, shame, and death! + Thy nephews' souls bid thee despair and die. + [To RICHMOND] Sleep, Richmond, sleep in peace, and + wake in joy; + Good angels guard thee from the boar's annoy! + Live, and beget a happy race of kings! + Edward's unhappy sons do bid thee flourish. + + Enter the GHOST of LADY ANNE, his wife + + GHOST. [To RICHARD] Richard, thy wife, that wretched + Anne thy wife + That never slept a quiet hour with thee + Now fills thy sleep with perturbations. + To-morrow in the battle think on me, + And fall thy edgeless sword. Despair and die. + [To RICHMOND] Thou quiet soul, sleep thou a quiet sleep; + Dream of success and happy victory. + Thy adversary's wife doth pray for thee. + + Enter the GHOST of BUCKINGHAM + + GHOST. [To RICHARD] The first was I that help'd thee + to the crown; + The last was I that felt thy tyranny. + O, in the battle think on Buckingham, + And die in terror of thy guiltiness! + Dream on, dream on of bloody deeds and death; + Fainting, despair; despairing, yield thy breath! + [To RICHMOND] I died for hope ere I could lend thee aid; + But cheer thy heart and be thou not dismay'd: + God and good angels fight on Richmond's side; + And Richard falls in height of all his pride. + [The GHOSTS vanish. RICHARD starts out of his dream] + KING RICHARD. Give me another horse. Bind up my wounds. + Have mercy, Jesu! Soft! I did but dream. + O coward conscience, how dost thou afflict me! + The lights burn blue. It is now dead midnight. + Cold fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. + What do I fear? Myself? There's none else by. + Richard loves Richard; that is, I am I. + Is there a murderer here? No-yes, I am. + Then fly. What, from myself? Great reason why- + Lest I revenge. What, myself upon myself! + Alack, I love myself. Wherefore? For any good + That I myself have done unto myself? + O, no! Alas, I rather hate myself + For hateful deeds committed by myself! + I am a villain; yet I lie, I am not. + Fool, of thyself speak well. Fool, do not flatter. + My conscience hath a thousand several tongues, + And every tongue brings in a several tale, + And every tale condemns me for a villain. + Perjury, perjury, in the high'st degree; + Murder, stern murder, in the dir'st degree; + All several sins, all us'd in each degree, + Throng to the bar, crying all 'Guilty! guilty!' + I shall despair. There is no creature loves me; + And if I die no soul will pity me: + And wherefore should they, since that I myself + Find in myself no pity to myself? + Methought the souls of all that I had murder'd + Came to my tent, and every one did threat + To-morrow's vengeance on the head of Richard. + + Enter RATCLIFF + + RATCLIFF. My lord! + KING RICHARD. Zounds, who is there? + RATCLIFF. Ratcliff, my lord; 'tis I. The early village-cock + Hath twice done salutation to the morn; + Your friends are up and buckle on their armour. + KING RICHARD. O Ratcliff, I have dream'd a fearful dream! + What think'st thou-will our friends prove all true? + RATCLIFF. No doubt, my lord. + KING RICHARD. O Ratcliff, I fear, I fear. + RATCLIFF. Nay, good my lord, be not afraid of shadows. + KING RICHARD By the apostle Paul, shadows to-night + Have stuck more terror to the soul of Richard + Than can the substance of ten thousand soldiers + Armed in proof and led by shallow Richmond. + 'Tis not yet near day. Come, go with me; + Under our tents I'll play the eaves-dropper, + To see if any mean to shrink from me. Exeunt + + Enter the LORDS to RICHMOND sitting in his tent + + LORDS. Good morrow, Richmond! + RICHMOND. Cry mercy, lords and watchful gentlemen, + That you have ta'en a tardy sluggard here. + LORDS. How have you slept, my lord? + RICHMOND. The sweetest sleep and fairest-boding dreams + That ever ent'red in a drowsy head + Have I since your departure had, my lords. + Methought their souls whose bodies Richard murder'd + Came to my tent and cried on victory. + I promise you my soul is very jocund + In the remembrance of so fair a dream. + How far into the morning is it, lords? + LORDS. Upon the stroke of four. + RICHMOND. Why, then 'tis time to arm and give direction. + + His ORATION to his SOLDIERS + + More than I have said, loving countrymen, + The leisure and enforcement of the time + Forbids to dwell upon; yet remember this: + God and our good cause fight upon our side; + The prayers of holy saints and wronged souls, + Like high-rear'd bulwarks, stand before our faces; + Richard except, those whom we fight against + Had rather have us win than him they follow. + For what is he they follow? Truly, gentlemen, + A bloody tyrant and a homicide; + One rais'd in blood, and one in blood establish'd; + One that made means to come by what he hath, + And slaughtered those that were the means to help him; + A base foul stone, made precious by the foil + Of England's chair, where he is falsely set; + One that hath ever been God's enemy. + Then if you fight against God's enemy, + God will in justice ward you as his soldiers; + If you do sweat to put a tyrant down, + You sleep in peace, the tyrant being slain; + If you do fight against your country's foes, + Your country's foes shall pay your pains the hire; + If you do fight in safeguard of your wives, + Your wives shall welcome home the conquerors; + If you do free your children from the sword, + Your children's children quits it in your age. + Then, in the name of God and all these rights, + Advance your standards, draw your willing swords. + For me, the ransom of my bold attempt + Shall be this cold corpse on the earth's cold face; + But if I thrive, the gain of my attempt + The least of you shall share his part thereof. + Sound drums and trumpets boldly and cheerfully; + God and Saint George! Richmond and victory! Exeunt + + Re-enter KING RICHARD, RATCLIFF, attendants, + and forces + + KING RICHARD. What said Northumberland as touching + Richmond? + RATCLIFF. That he was never trained up in arms. + KING RICHARD. He said the truth; and what said Surrey + then? + RATCLIFF. He smil'd, and said 'The better for our purpose.' + KING He was in the right; and so indeed it is. + [Clock strikes] + Tell the clock there. Give me a calendar. + Who saw the sun to-day? + RATCLIFF. Not I, my lord. + KING RICHARD. Then he disdains to shine; for by the book + He should have brav'd the east an hour ago. + A black day will it be to somebody. + Ratcliff! + RATCLIFF. My lord? + KING RICHARD. The sun will not be seen to-day; + The sky doth frown and lour upon our army. + I would these dewy tears were from the ground. + Not shine to-day! Why, what is that to me + More than to Richmond? For the selfsame heaven + That frowns on me looks sadly upon him. + + Enter NORFOLK + + NORFOLK. Arm, arm, my lord; the foe vaunts in the field. + KING RICHARD. Come, bustle, bustle; caparison my horse; + Call up Lord Stanley, bid him bring his power. + I will lead forth my soldiers to the plain, + And thus my battle shall be ordered: + My foreward shall be drawn out all in length, + Consisting equally of horse and foot; + Our archers shall be placed in the midst. + John Duke of Norfolk, Thomas Earl of Surrey, + Shall have the leading of this foot and horse. + They thus directed, we will follow + In the main battle, whose puissance on either side + Shall be well winged with our chiefest horse. + This, and Saint George to boot! What think'st thou, + Norfolk? + NORFOLK. A good direction, warlike sovereign. + This found I on my tent this morning. + [He sheweth him a paper] + KING RICHARD. [Reads] + 'Jockey of Norfolk, be not so bold, + For Dickon thy master is bought and sold.' + A thing devised by the enemy. + Go, gentlemen, every man unto his charge. + Let not our babbling dreams affright our souls; + Conscience is but a word that cowards use, + Devis'd at first to keep the strong in awe. + Our strong arms be our conscience, swords our law. + March on, join bravely, let us to it pell-mell; + If not to heaven, then hand in hand to hell. + + His ORATION to his ARMY + + What shall I say more than I have inferr'd? + Remember whom you are to cope withal- + A sort of vagabonds, rascals, and runaways, + A scum of Britaines, and base lackey peasants, + Whom their o'er-cloyed country vomits forth + To desperate adventures and assur'd destruction. + You sleeping safe, they bring to you unrest; + You having lands, and bless'd with beauteous wives, + They would restrain the one, distain the other. + And who doth lead them but a paltry fellow, + Long kept in Britaine at our mother's cost? + A milk-sop, one that never in his life + Felt so much cold as over shoes in snow? + Let's whip these stragglers o'er the seas again; + Lash hence these over-weening rags of France, + These famish'd beggars, weary of their lives; + Who, but for dreaming on this fond exploit, + For want of means, poor rats, had hang'd themselves. + If we be conquered, let men conquer us, + And not these bastard Britaines, whom our fathers + Have in their own land beaten, bobb'd, and thump'd, + And, in record, left them the heirs of shame. + Shall these enjoy our lands? lie with our wives, + Ravish our daughters? [Drum afar off] Hark! I hear their + drum. + Fight, gentlemen of England! Fight, bold yeomen! + Draw, archers, draw your arrows to the head! + Spur your proud horses hard, and ride in blood; + Amaze the welkin with your broken staves! + + Enter a MESSENGER + + What says Lord Stanley? Will he bring his power? + MESSENGER. My lord, he doth deny to come. + KING RICHARD. Off with his son George's head! + NORFOLK. My lord, the enemy is pass'd the marsh. + After the battle let George Stanley die. + KING RICHARD. A thousand hearts are great within my + bosom. + Advance our standards, set upon our foes; + Our ancient word of courage, fair Saint George, + Inspire us with the spleen of fiery dragons! + Upon them! Victory sits on our helms. Exeunt + +SCENE 4. + +Another part of the field + +Alarum; excursions. Enter NORFOLK and forces; to him CATESBY + + CATESBY. Rescue, my Lord of Norfolk, rescue, rescue! + The King enacts more wonders than a man, + Daring an opposite to every danger. + His horse is slain, and all on foot he fights, + Seeking for Richmond in the throat of death. + Rescue, fair lord, or else the day is lost. + + Alarums. Enter KING RICHARD + + KING RICHARD. A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse! + CATESBY. Withdraw, my lord! I'll help you to a horse. + KING RICHARD. Slave, I have set my life upon a cast + And I Will stand the hazard of the die. + I think there be six Richmonds in the field; + Five have I slain to-day instead of him. + A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse! Exeunt + +SCENE 5. + +Another part of the field + +Alarum. Enter RICHARD and RICHMOND; they fight; RICHARD is slain. +Retreat and flourish. Enter RICHMOND, DERBY bearing the crown, with +other LORDS + + RICHMOND. God and your arms be prais'd, victorious friends; + The day is ours, the bloody dog is dead. + DERBY. Courageous Richmond, well hast thou acquit thee! + Lo, here, this long-usurped royalty + From the dead temples of this bloody wretch + Have I pluck'd off, to grace thy brows withal. + Wear it, enjoy it, and make much of it. + RICHMOND. Great God of heaven, say Amen to all! + But, teLL me is young George Stanley living. + DERBY. He is, my lord, and safe in Leicester town, + Whither, if it please you, we may now withdraw us. + RICHMOND. What men of name are slain on either side? + DERBY. John Duke of Norfolk, Walter Lord Ferrers, + Sir Robert Brakenbury, and Sir William Brandon. + RICHMOND. Inter their bodies as becomes their births. + Proclaim a pardon to the soldiers fled + That in submission will return to us. + And then, as we have ta'en the sacrament, + We will unite the white rose and the red. + Smile heaven upon this fair conjunction, + That long have frown'd upon their emnity! + What traitor hears me, and says not Amen? + England hath long been mad, and scarr'd herself; + The brother blindly shed the brother's blood, + The father rashly slaughter'd his own son, + The son, compell'd, been butcher to the sire; + All this divided York and Lancaster, + Divided in their dire division, + O, now let Richmond and Elizabeth, + The true succeeders of each royal house, + By God's fair ordinance conjoin together! + And let their heirs, God, if thy will be so, + Enrich the time to come with smooth-fac'd peace, + With smiling plenty, and fair prosperous days! + Abate the edge of traitors, gracious Lord, + That would reduce these bloody days again + And make poor England weep in streams of blood! + Let them not live to taste this land's increase + That would with treason wound this fair land's peace! + Now civil wounds are stopp'd, peace lives again- + That she may long live here, God say Amen! Exeunt + + + + +THE TRAGEDY OF ROMEO AND JULIET + + + +Contents + +THE PROLOGUE. + +ACT I +Scene I. A public place. +Scene II. A Street. +Scene III. Room in Capulet’s House. +Scene IV. A Street. +Scene V. A Hall in Capulet’s House. + + +ACT II +CHORUS. +Scene I. An open place adjoining Capulet’s Garden. +Scene II. Capulet’s Garden. +Scene III. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. +Scene IV. A Street. +Scene V. Capulet’s Garden. +Scene VI. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. + + +ACT III +Scene I. A public Place. +Scene II. A Room in Capulet’s House. +Scene III. Friar Lawrence’s cell. +Scene IV. A Room in Capulet’s House. +Scene V. An open Gallery to Juliet’s Chamber, overlooking the Garden. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. +Scene II. Hall in Capulet’s House. +Scene III. Juliet’s Chamber. +Scene IV. Hall in Capulet’s House. +Scene V. Juliet’s Chamber; Juliet on the bed. + + +ACT V +Scene I. Mantua. A Street. +Scene II. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. +Scene III. A churchyard; in it a Monument belonging to the Capulets. + + + + + Dramatis Personæ + +ESCALUS, Prince of Verona. +MERCUTIO, kinsman to the Prince, and friend to Romeo. +PARIS, a young Nobleman, kinsman to the Prince. +Page to Paris. + +MONTAGUE, head of a Veronese family at feud with the Capulets. +LADY MONTAGUE, wife to Montague. +ROMEO, son to Montague. +BENVOLIO, nephew to Montague, and friend to Romeo. +ABRAM, servant to Montague. +BALTHASAR, servant to Romeo. + +CAPULET, head of a Veronese family at feud with the Montagues. +LADY CAPULET, wife to Capulet. +JULIET, daughter to Capulet. +TYBALT, nephew to Lady Capulet. +CAPULET’S COUSIN, an old man. +NURSE to Juliet. +PETER, servant to Juliet’s Nurse. +SAMPSON, servant to Capulet. +GREGORY, servant to Capulet. +Servants. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE, a Franciscan. +FRIAR JOHN, of the same Order. +An Apothecary. +CHORUS. +Three Musicians. +An Officer. +Citizens of Verona; several Men and Women, relations to both houses; +Maskers, Guards, Watchmen and Attendants. + +SCENE. During the greater part of the Play in Verona; once, in the +Fifth Act, at Mantua. + + +THE PROLOGUE + + Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +Two households, both alike in dignity, +In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, +From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, +Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. +From forth the fatal loins of these two foes +A pair of star-cross’d lovers take their life; +Whose misadventur’d piteous overthrows +Doth with their death bury their parents’ strife. +The fearful passage of their death-mark’d love, +And the continuance of their parents’ rage, +Which, but their children’s end, nought could remove, +Is now the two hours’ traffic of our stage; +The which, if you with patient ears attend, +What here shall miss, our toil shall strive to mend. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. A public place. + + Enter Sampson and Gregory armed with swords and bucklers. + +SAMPSON. +Gregory, on my word, we’ll not carry coals. + +GREGORY. +No, for then we should be colliers. + +SAMPSON. +I mean, if we be in choler, we’ll draw. + +GREGORY. +Ay, while you live, draw your neck out o’ the collar. + +SAMPSON. +I strike quickly, being moved. + +GREGORY. +But thou art not quickly moved to strike. + +SAMPSON. +A dog of the house of Montague moves me. + +GREGORY. +To move is to stir; and to be valiant is to stand: therefore, if thou +art moved, thou runn’st away. + +SAMPSON. +A dog of that house shall move me to stand. +I will take the wall of any man or maid of Montague’s. + +GREGORY. +That shows thee a weak slave, for the weakest goes to the wall. + +SAMPSON. +True, and therefore women, being the weaker vessels, are ever thrust to +the wall: therefore I will push Montague’s men from the wall, and +thrust his maids to the wall. + +GREGORY. +The quarrel is between our masters and us their men. + +SAMPSON. +’Tis all one, I will show myself a tyrant: when I have fought with the +men I will be civil with the maids, I will cut off their heads. + +GREGORY. +The heads of the maids? + +SAMPSON. +Ay, the heads of the maids, or their maidenheads; take it in what sense +thou wilt. + +GREGORY. +They must take it in sense that feel it. + +SAMPSON. +Me they shall feel while I am able to stand: and ’tis known I am a +pretty piece of flesh. + +GREGORY. +’Tis well thou art not fish; if thou hadst, thou hadst been poor John. +Draw thy tool; here comes of the house of Montagues. + + Enter Abram and Balthasar. + +SAMPSON. +My naked weapon is out: quarrel, I will back thee. + +GREGORY. +How? Turn thy back and run? + +SAMPSON. +Fear me not. + +GREGORY. +No, marry; I fear thee! + +SAMPSON. +Let us take the law of our sides; let them begin. + +GREGORY. +I will frown as I pass by, and let them take it as they list. + +SAMPSON. +Nay, as they dare. I will bite my thumb at them, which is disgrace to +them if they bear it. + +ABRAM. +Do you bite your thumb at us, sir? + +SAMPSON. +I do bite my thumb, sir. + +ABRAM. +Do you bite your thumb at us, sir? + +SAMPSON. +Is the law of our side if I say ay? + +GREGORY. +No. + +SAMPSON. +No sir, I do not bite my thumb at you, sir; but I bite my thumb, sir. + +GREGORY. +Do you quarrel, sir? + +ABRAM. +Quarrel, sir? No, sir. + +SAMPSON. +But if you do, sir, am for you. I serve as good a man as you. + +ABRAM. +No better. + +SAMPSON. +Well, sir. + + Enter Benvolio. + +GREGORY. +Say better; here comes one of my master’s kinsmen. + +SAMPSON. +Yes, better, sir. + +ABRAM. +You lie. + +SAMPSON. +Draw, if you be men. Gregory, remember thy washing blow. + + [_They fight._] + +BENVOLIO. +Part, fools! put up your swords, you know not what you do. + + [_Beats down their swords._] + + Enter Tybalt. + +TYBALT. +What, art thou drawn among these heartless hinds? +Turn thee Benvolio, look upon thy death. + +BENVOLIO. +I do but keep the peace, put up thy sword, +Or manage it to part these men with me. + +TYBALT. +What, drawn, and talk of peace? I hate the word +As I hate hell, all Montagues, and thee: +Have at thee, coward. + + [_They fight._] + + Enter three or four Citizens with clubs. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Clubs, bills and partisans! Strike! Beat them down! +Down with the Capulets! Down with the Montagues! + + Enter Capulet in his gown, and Lady Capulet. + +CAPULET. +What noise is this? Give me my long sword, ho! + +LADY CAPULET. +A crutch, a crutch! Why call you for a sword? + +CAPULET. +My sword, I say! Old Montague is come, +And flourishes his blade in spite of me. + + Enter Montague and his Lady Montague. + +MONTAGUE. +Thou villain Capulet! Hold me not, let me go. + +LADY MONTAGUE. +Thou shalt not stir one foot to seek a foe. + + Enter Prince Escalus, with Attendants. + +PRINCE. +Rebellious subjects, enemies to peace, +Profaners of this neighbour-stained steel,— +Will they not hear? What, ho! You men, you beasts, +That quench the fire of your pernicious rage +With purple fountains issuing from your veins, +On pain of torture, from those bloody hands +Throw your mistemper’d weapons to the ground +And hear the sentence of your moved prince. +Three civil brawls, bred of an airy word, +By thee, old Capulet, and Montague, +Have thrice disturb’d the quiet of our streets, +And made Verona’s ancient citizens +Cast by their grave beseeming ornaments, +To wield old partisans, in hands as old, +Canker’d with peace, to part your canker’d hate. +If ever you disturb our streets again, +Your lives shall pay the forfeit of the peace. +For this time all the rest depart away: +You, Capulet, shall go along with me, +And Montague, come you this afternoon, +To know our farther pleasure in this case, +To old Free-town, our common judgement-place. +Once more, on pain of death, all men depart. + + [_Exeunt Prince and Attendants; Capulet, Lady Capulet, Tybalt, + Citizens and Servants._] + +MONTAGUE. +Who set this ancient quarrel new abroach? +Speak, nephew, were you by when it began? + +BENVOLIO. +Here were the servants of your adversary +And yours, close fighting ere I did approach. +I drew to part them, in the instant came +The fiery Tybalt, with his sword prepar’d, +Which, as he breath’d defiance to my ears, +He swung about his head, and cut the winds, +Who nothing hurt withal, hiss’d him in scorn. +While we were interchanging thrusts and blows +Came more and more, and fought on part and part, +Till the Prince came, who parted either part. + +LADY MONTAGUE. +O where is Romeo, saw you him today? +Right glad I am he was not at this fray. + +BENVOLIO. +Madam, an hour before the worshipp’d sun +Peer’d forth the golden window of the east, +A troubled mind drave me to walk abroad, +Where underneath the grove of sycamore +That westward rooteth from this city side, +So early walking did I see your son. +Towards him I made, but he was ware of me, +And stole into the covert of the wood. +I, measuring his affections by my own, +Which then most sought where most might not be found, +Being one too many by my weary self, +Pursu’d my humour, not pursuing his, +And gladly shunn’d who gladly fled from me. + +MONTAGUE. +Many a morning hath he there been seen, +With tears augmenting the fresh morning’s dew, +Adding to clouds more clouds with his deep sighs; +But all so soon as the all-cheering sun +Should in the farthest east begin to draw +The shady curtains from Aurora’s bed, +Away from light steals home my heavy son, +And private in his chamber pens himself, +Shuts up his windows, locks fair daylight out +And makes himself an artificial night. +Black and portentous must this humour prove, +Unless good counsel may the cause remove. + +BENVOLIO. +My noble uncle, do you know the cause? + +MONTAGUE. +I neither know it nor can learn of him. + +BENVOLIO. +Have you importun’d him by any means? + +MONTAGUE. +Both by myself and many other friends; +But he, his own affections’ counsellor, +Is to himself—I will not say how true— +But to himself so secret and so close, +So far from sounding and discovery, +As is the bud bit with an envious worm +Ere he can spread his sweet leaves to the air, +Or dedicate his beauty to the sun. +Could we but learn from whence his sorrows grow, +We would as willingly give cure as know. + + Enter Romeo. + +BENVOLIO. +See, where he comes. So please you step aside; +I’ll know his grievance or be much denied. + +MONTAGUE. +I would thou wert so happy by thy stay +To hear true shrift. Come, madam, let’s away, + + [_Exeunt Montague and Lady Montague._] + +BENVOLIO. +Good morrow, cousin. + +ROMEO. +Is the day so young? + +BENVOLIO. +But new struck nine. + +ROMEO. +Ay me, sad hours seem long. +Was that my father that went hence so fast? + +BENVOLIO. +It was. What sadness lengthens Romeo’s hours? + +ROMEO. +Not having that which, having, makes them short. + +BENVOLIO. +In love? + +ROMEO. +Out. + +BENVOLIO. +Of love? + +ROMEO. +Out of her favour where I am in love. + +BENVOLIO. +Alas that love so gentle in his view, +Should be so tyrannous and rough in proof. + +ROMEO. +Alas that love, whose view is muffled still, +Should, without eyes, see pathways to his will! +Where shall we dine? O me! What fray was here? +Yet tell me not, for I have heard it all. +Here’s much to do with hate, but more with love: +Why, then, O brawling love! O loving hate! +O anything, of nothing first create! +O heavy lightness! serious vanity! +Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms! +Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! +Still-waking sleep, that is not what it is! +This love feel I, that feel no love in this. +Dost thou not laugh? + +BENVOLIO. +No coz, I rather weep. + +ROMEO. +Good heart, at what? + +BENVOLIO. +At thy good heart’s oppression. + +ROMEO. +Why such is love’s transgression. +Griefs of mine own lie heavy in my breast, +Which thou wilt propagate to have it prest +With more of thine. This love that thou hast shown +Doth add more grief to too much of mine own. +Love is a smoke made with the fume of sighs; +Being purg’d, a fire sparkling in lovers’ eyes; +Being vex’d, a sea nourish’d with lovers’ tears: +What is it else? A madness most discreet, +A choking gall, and a preserving sweet. +Farewell, my coz. + + [_Going._] + +BENVOLIO. +Soft! I will go along: +And if you leave me so, you do me wrong. + +ROMEO. +Tut! I have lost myself; I am not here. +This is not Romeo, he’s some other where. + +BENVOLIO. +Tell me in sadness who is that you love? + +ROMEO. +What, shall I groan and tell thee? + +BENVOLIO. +Groan! Why, no; but sadly tell me who. + +ROMEO. +Bid a sick man in sadness make his will, +A word ill urg’d to one that is so ill. +In sadness, cousin, I do love a woman. + +BENVOLIO. +I aim’d so near when I suppos’d you lov’d. + +ROMEO. +A right good markman, and she’s fair I love. + +BENVOLIO. +A right fair mark, fair coz, is soonest hit. + +ROMEO. +Well, in that hit you miss: she’ll not be hit +With Cupid’s arrow, she hath Dian’s wit; +And in strong proof of chastity well arm’d, +From love’s weak childish bow she lives uncharm’d. +She will not stay the siege of loving terms +Nor bide th’encounter of assailing eyes, +Nor ope her lap to saint-seducing gold: +O she’s rich in beauty, only poor +That when she dies, with beauty dies her store. + +BENVOLIO. +Then she hath sworn that she will still live chaste? + +ROMEO. +She hath, and in that sparing makes huge waste; +For beauty starv’d with her severity, +Cuts beauty off from all posterity. +She is too fair, too wise; wisely too fair, +To merit bliss by making me despair. +She hath forsworn to love, and in that vow +Do I live dead, that live to tell it now. + +BENVOLIO. +Be rul’d by me, forget to think of her. + +ROMEO. +O teach me how I should forget to think. + +BENVOLIO. +By giving liberty unto thine eyes; +Examine other beauties. + +ROMEO. +’Tis the way +To call hers, exquisite, in question more. +These happy masks that kiss fair ladies’ brows, +Being black, puts us in mind they hide the fair; +He that is strucken blind cannot forget +The precious treasure of his eyesight lost. +Show me a mistress that is passing fair, +What doth her beauty serve but as a note +Where I may read who pass’d that passing fair? +Farewell, thou canst not teach me to forget. + +BENVOLIO. +I’ll pay that doctrine, or else die in debt. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A Street. + + Enter Capulet, Paris and Servant. + +CAPULET. +But Montague is bound as well as I, +In penalty alike; and ’tis not hard, I think, +For men so old as we to keep the peace. + +PARIS. +Of honourable reckoning are you both, +And pity ’tis you liv’d at odds so long. +But now my lord, what say you to my suit? + +CAPULET. +But saying o’er what I have said before. +My child is yet a stranger in the world, +She hath not seen the change of fourteen years; +Let two more summers wither in their pride +Ere we may think her ripe to be a bride. + +PARIS. +Younger than she are happy mothers made. + +CAPULET. +And too soon marr’d are those so early made. +The earth hath swallowed all my hopes but she, +She is the hopeful lady of my earth: +But woo her, gentle Paris, get her heart, +My will to her consent is but a part; +And she agree, within her scope of choice +Lies my consent and fair according voice. +This night I hold an old accustom’d feast, +Whereto I have invited many a guest, +Such as I love, and you among the store, +One more, most welcome, makes my number more. +At my poor house look to behold this night +Earth-treading stars that make dark heaven light: +Such comfort as do lusty young men feel +When well apparell’d April on the heel +Of limping winter treads, even such delight +Among fresh female buds shall you this night +Inherit at my house. Hear all, all see, +And like her most whose merit most shall be: +Which, on more view of many, mine, being one, +May stand in number, though in reckoning none. +Come, go with me. Go, sirrah, trudge about +Through fair Verona; find those persons out +Whose names are written there, [_gives a paper_] and to them say, +My house and welcome on their pleasure stay. + + [_Exeunt Capulet and Paris._] + +SERVANT. +Find them out whose names are written here! It is written that the +shoemaker should meddle with his yard and the tailor with his last, the +fisher with his pencil, and the painter with his nets; but I am sent to +find those persons whose names are here writ, and can never find what +names the writing person hath here writ. I must to the learned. In good +time! + + Enter Benvolio and Romeo. + +BENVOLIO. +Tut, man, one fire burns out another’s burning, +One pain is lessen’d by another’s anguish; +Turn giddy, and be holp by backward turning; +One desperate grief cures with another’s languish: +Take thou some new infection to thy eye, +And the rank poison of the old will die. + +ROMEO. +Your plantain leaf is excellent for that. + +BENVOLIO. +For what, I pray thee? + +ROMEO. +For your broken shin. + +BENVOLIO. +Why, Romeo, art thou mad? + +ROMEO. +Not mad, but bound more than a madman is: +Shut up in prison, kept without my food, +Whipp’d and tormented and—God-den, good fellow. + +SERVANT. +God gi’ go-den. I pray, sir, can you read? + +ROMEO. +Ay, mine own fortune in my misery. + +SERVANT. +Perhaps you have learned it without book. +But I pray, can you read anything you see? + +ROMEO. +Ay, If I know the letters and the language. + +SERVANT. +Ye say honestly, rest you merry! + +ROMEO. +Stay, fellow; I can read. + + [_He reads the letter._] + +_Signior Martino and his wife and daughters; +County Anselmo and his beauteous sisters; +The lady widow of Utruvio; +Signior Placentio and his lovely nieces; +Mercutio and his brother Valentine; +Mine uncle Capulet, his wife, and daughters; +My fair niece Rosaline and Livia; +Signior Valentio and his cousin Tybalt; +Lucio and the lively Helena. _ + + +A fair assembly. [_Gives back the paper_] Whither should they come? + +SERVANT. +Up. + +ROMEO. +Whither to supper? + +SERVANT. +To our house. + +ROMEO. +Whose house? + +SERVANT. +My master’s. + +ROMEO. +Indeed I should have ask’d you that before. + +SERVANT. +Now I’ll tell you without asking. My master is the great rich Capulet, +and if you be not of the house of Montagues, I pray come and crush a +cup of wine. Rest you merry. + + [_Exit._] + +BENVOLIO. +At this same ancient feast of Capulet’s +Sups the fair Rosaline whom thou so lov’st; +With all the admired beauties of Verona. +Go thither and with unattainted eye, +Compare her face with some that I shall show, +And I will make thee think thy swan a crow. + +ROMEO. +When the devout religion of mine eye +Maintains such falsehood, then turn tears to fire; +And these who, often drown’d, could never die, +Transparent heretics, be burnt for liars. +One fairer than my love? The all-seeing sun +Ne’er saw her match since first the world begun. + +BENVOLIO. +Tut, you saw her fair, none else being by, +Herself pois’d with herself in either eye: +But in that crystal scales let there be weigh’d +Your lady’s love against some other maid +That I will show you shining at this feast, +And she shall scant show well that now shows best. + +ROMEO. +I’ll go along, no such sight to be shown, +But to rejoice in splendour of my own. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Room in Capulet’s House. + + Enter Lady Capulet and Nurse. + +LADY CAPULET. +Nurse, where’s my daughter? Call her forth to me. + +NURSE. +Now, by my maidenhead, at twelve year old, +I bade her come. What, lamb! What ladybird! +God forbid! Where’s this girl? What, Juliet! + + Enter Juliet. + +JULIET. +How now, who calls? + +NURSE. +Your mother. + +JULIET. +Madam, I am here. What is your will? + +LADY CAPULET. +This is the matter. Nurse, give leave awhile, +We must talk in secret. Nurse, come back again, +I have remember’d me, thou’s hear our counsel. +Thou knowest my daughter’s of a pretty age. + +NURSE. +Faith, I can tell her age unto an hour. + +LADY CAPULET. +She’s not fourteen. + +NURSE. +I’ll lay fourteen of my teeth, +And yet, to my teen be it spoken, I have but four, +She is not fourteen. How long is it now +To Lammas-tide? + +LADY CAPULET. +A fortnight and odd days. + +NURSE. +Even or odd, of all days in the year, +Come Lammas Eve at night shall she be fourteen. +Susan and she,—God rest all Christian souls!— +Were of an age. Well, Susan is with God; +She was too good for me. But as I said, +On Lammas Eve at night shall she be fourteen; +That shall she, marry; I remember it well. +’Tis since the earthquake now eleven years; +And she was wean’d,—I never shall forget it—, +Of all the days of the year, upon that day: +For I had then laid wormwood to my dug, +Sitting in the sun under the dovehouse wall; +My lord and you were then at Mantua: +Nay, I do bear a brain. But as I said, +When it did taste the wormwood on the nipple +Of my dug and felt it bitter, pretty fool, +To see it tetchy, and fall out with the dug! +Shake, quoth the dovehouse: ’twas no need, I trow, +To bid me trudge. +And since that time it is eleven years; +For then she could stand alone; nay, by th’rood +She could have run and waddled all about; +For even the day before she broke her brow, +And then my husband,—God be with his soul! +A was a merry man,—took up the child: +‘Yea,’ quoth he, ‘dost thou fall upon thy face? +Thou wilt fall backward when thou hast more wit; +Wilt thou not, Jule?’ and, by my holidame, +The pretty wretch left crying, and said ‘Ay’. +To see now how a jest shall come about. +I warrant, and I should live a thousand years, +I never should forget it. ‘Wilt thou not, Jule?’ quoth he; +And, pretty fool, it stinted, and said ‘Ay.’ + +LADY CAPULET. +Enough of this; I pray thee hold thy peace. + +NURSE. +Yes, madam, yet I cannot choose but laugh, +To think it should leave crying, and say ‘Ay’; +And yet I warrant it had upon it brow +A bump as big as a young cockerel’s stone; +A perilous knock, and it cried bitterly. +‘Yea,’ quoth my husband, ‘fall’st upon thy face? +Thou wilt fall backward when thou comest to age; +Wilt thou not, Jule?’ it stinted, and said ‘Ay’. + +JULIET. +And stint thou too, I pray thee, Nurse, say I. + +NURSE. +Peace, I have done. God mark thee to his grace +Thou wast the prettiest babe that e’er I nurs’d: +And I might live to see thee married once, I have my wish. + +LADY CAPULET. +Marry, that marry is the very theme +I came to talk of. Tell me, daughter Juliet, +How stands your disposition to be married? + +JULIET. +It is an honour that I dream not of. + +NURSE. +An honour! Were not I thine only nurse, +I would say thou hadst suck’d wisdom from thy teat. + +LADY CAPULET. +Well, think of marriage now: younger than you, +Here in Verona, ladies of esteem, +Are made already mothers. By my count +I was your mother much upon these years +That you are now a maid. Thus, then, in brief; +The valiant Paris seeks you for his love. + +NURSE. +A man, young lady! Lady, such a man +As all the world—why he’s a man of wax. + +LADY CAPULET. +Verona’s summer hath not such a flower. + +NURSE. +Nay, he’s a flower, in faith a very flower. + +LADY CAPULET. +What say you, can you love the gentleman? +This night you shall behold him at our feast; +Read o’er the volume of young Paris’ face, +And find delight writ there with beauty’s pen. +Examine every married lineament, +And see how one another lends content; +And what obscur’d in this fair volume lies, +Find written in the margent of his eyes. +This precious book of love, this unbound lover, +To beautify him, only lacks a cover: +The fish lives in the sea; and ’tis much pride +For fair without the fair within to hide. +That book in many’s eyes doth share the glory, +That in gold clasps locks in the golden story; +So shall you share all that he doth possess, +By having him, making yourself no less. + +NURSE. +No less, nay bigger. Women grow by men. + +LADY CAPULET. +Speak briefly, can you like of Paris’ love? + +JULIET. +I’ll look to like, if looking liking move: +But no more deep will I endart mine eye +Than your consent gives strength to make it fly. + + Enter a Servant. + +SERVANT. +Madam, the guests are come, supper served up, you called, my young lady +asked for, the Nurse cursed in the pantry, and everything in extremity. +I must hence to wait, I beseech you follow straight. + +LADY CAPULET. +We follow thee. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +Juliet, the County stays. + +NURSE. +Go, girl, seek happy nights to happy days. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. A Street. + + Enter Romeo, Mercutio, Benvolio, with five or six Maskers; + Torch-bearers and others. + +ROMEO. +What, shall this speech be spoke for our excuse? +Or shall we on without apology? + +BENVOLIO. +The date is out of such prolixity: +We’ll have no Cupid hoodwink’d with a scarf, +Bearing a Tartar’s painted bow of lath, +Scaring the ladies like a crow-keeper; +Nor no without-book prologue, faintly spoke +After the prompter, for our entrance: +But let them measure us by what they will, +We’ll measure them a measure, and be gone. + +ROMEO. +Give me a torch, I am not for this ambling; +Being but heavy I will bear the light. + +MERCUTIO. +Nay, gentle Romeo, we must have you dance. + +ROMEO. +Not I, believe me, you have dancing shoes, +With nimble soles, I have a soul of lead +So stakes me to the ground I cannot move. + +MERCUTIO. +You are a lover, borrow Cupid’s wings, +And soar with them above a common bound. + +ROMEO. +I am too sore enpierced with his shaft +To soar with his light feathers, and so bound, +I cannot bound a pitch above dull woe. +Under love’s heavy burden do I sink. + +MERCUTIO. +And, to sink in it, should you burden love; +Too great oppression for a tender thing. + +ROMEO. +Is love a tender thing? It is too rough, +Too rude, too boisterous; and it pricks like thorn. + +MERCUTIO. +If love be rough with you, be rough with love; +Prick love for pricking, and you beat love down. +Give me a case to put my visage in: [_Putting on a mask._] +A visor for a visor. What care I +What curious eye doth quote deformities? +Here are the beetle-brows shall blush for me. + +BENVOLIO. +Come, knock and enter; and no sooner in +But every man betake him to his legs. + +ROMEO. +A torch for me: let wantons, light of heart, +Tickle the senseless rushes with their heels; +For I am proverb’d with a grandsire phrase, +I’ll be a candle-holder and look on, +The game was ne’er so fair, and I am done. + +MERCUTIO. +Tut, dun’s the mouse, the constable’s own word: +If thou art dun, we’ll draw thee from the mire +Or save your reverence love, wherein thou stickest +Up to the ears. Come, we burn daylight, ho. + +ROMEO. +Nay, that’s not so. + +MERCUTIO. +I mean sir, in delay +We waste our lights in vain, light lights by day. +Take our good meaning, for our judgment sits +Five times in that ere once in our five wits. + +ROMEO. +And we mean well in going to this mask; +But ’tis no wit to go. + +MERCUTIO. +Why, may one ask? + +ROMEO. +I dreamt a dream tonight. + +MERCUTIO. +And so did I. + +ROMEO. +Well what was yours? + +MERCUTIO. +That dreamers often lie. + +ROMEO. +In bed asleep, while they do dream things true. + +MERCUTIO. +O, then, I see Queen Mab hath been with you. +She is the fairies’ midwife, and she comes +In shape no bigger than an agate-stone +On the fore-finger of an alderman, +Drawn with a team of little atomies +Over men’s noses as they lie asleep: +Her waggon-spokes made of long spinners’ legs; +The cover, of the wings of grasshoppers; +Her traces, of the smallest spider’s web; +The collars, of the moonshine’s watery beams; +Her whip of cricket’s bone; the lash, of film; +Her waggoner, a small grey-coated gnat, +Not half so big as a round little worm +Prick’d from the lazy finger of a maid: +Her chariot is an empty hazelnut, +Made by the joiner squirrel or old grub, +Time out o’ mind the fairies’ coachmakers. +And in this state she gallops night by night +Through lovers’ brains, and then they dream of love; +O’er courtiers’ knees, that dream on curtsies straight; +O’er lawyers’ fingers, who straight dream on fees; +O’er ladies’ lips, who straight on kisses dream, +Which oft the angry Mab with blisters plagues, +Because their breaths with sweetmeats tainted are: +Sometime she gallops o’er a courtier’s nose, +And then dreams he of smelling out a suit; +And sometime comes she with a tithe-pig’s tail, +Tickling a parson’s nose as a lies asleep, +Then dreams he of another benefice: +Sometime she driveth o’er a soldier’s neck, +And then dreams he of cutting foreign throats, +Of breaches, ambuscados, Spanish blades, +Of healths five fathom deep; and then anon +Drums in his ear, at which he starts and wakes; +And, being thus frighted, swears a prayer or two, +And sleeps again. This is that very Mab +That plats the manes of horses in the night; +And bakes the elf-locks in foul sluttish hairs, +Which, once untangled, much misfortune bodes: +This is the hag, when maids lie on their backs, +That presses them, and learns them first to bear, +Making them women of good carriage: +This is she,— + +ROMEO. +Peace, peace, Mercutio, peace, +Thou talk’st of nothing. + +MERCUTIO. +True, I talk of dreams, +Which are the children of an idle brain, +Begot of nothing but vain fantasy, +Which is as thin of substance as the air, +And more inconstant than the wind, who wooes +Even now the frozen bosom of the north, +And, being anger’d, puffs away from thence, +Turning his side to the dew-dropping south. + +BENVOLIO. +This wind you talk of blows us from ourselves: +Supper is done, and we shall come too late. + +ROMEO. +I fear too early: for my mind misgives +Some consequence yet hanging in the stars, +Shall bitterly begin his fearful date +With this night’s revels; and expire the term +Of a despised life, clos’d in my breast +By some vile forfeit of untimely death. +But he that hath the steerage of my course +Direct my suit. On, lusty gentlemen! + +BENVOLIO. +Strike, drum. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. A Hall in Capulet’s House. + + Musicians waiting. Enter Servants. + +FIRST SERVANT. +Where’s Potpan, that he helps not to take away? +He shift a trencher! He scrape a trencher! + +SECOND SERVANT. +When good manners shall lie all in one or two men’s hands, and they +unwash’d too, ’tis a foul thing. + +FIRST SERVANT. +Away with the join-stools, remove the court-cupboard, look to the +plate. Good thou, save me a piece of marchpane; and as thou loves me, +let the porter let in Susan Grindstone and Nell. Antony and Potpan! + +SECOND SERVANT. +Ay, boy, ready. + +FIRST SERVANT. +You are looked for and called for, asked for and sought for, in the +great chamber. + +SECOND SERVANT. +We cannot be here and there too. Cheerly, boys. Be brisk awhile, and +the longer liver take all. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Enter Capulet, &c. with the Guests and Gentlewomen to the Maskers. + +CAPULET. +Welcome, gentlemen, ladies that have their toes +Unplagu’d with corns will have a bout with you. +Ah my mistresses, which of you all +Will now deny to dance? She that makes dainty, +She I’ll swear hath corns. Am I come near ye now? +Welcome, gentlemen! I have seen the day +That I have worn a visor, and could tell +A whispering tale in a fair lady’s ear, +Such as would please; ’tis gone, ’tis gone, ’tis gone, +You are welcome, gentlemen! Come, musicians, play. +A hall, a hall, give room! And foot it, girls. + + [_Music plays, and they dance._] + +More light, you knaves; and turn the tables up, +And quench the fire, the room is grown too hot. +Ah sirrah, this unlook’d-for sport comes well. +Nay sit, nay sit, good cousin Capulet, +For you and I are past our dancing days; +How long is’t now since last yourself and I +Were in a mask? + +CAPULET’S COUSIN. +By’r Lady, thirty years. + +CAPULET. +What, man, ’tis not so much, ’tis not so much: +’Tis since the nuptial of Lucentio, +Come Pentecost as quickly as it will, +Some five and twenty years; and then we mask’d. + +CAPULET’S COUSIN. +’Tis more, ’tis more, his son is elder, sir; +His son is thirty. + +CAPULET. +Will you tell me that? +His son was but a ward two years ago. + +ROMEO. +What lady is that, which doth enrich the hand +Of yonder knight? + +SERVANT. +I know not, sir. + +ROMEO. +O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! +It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night +As a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear; +Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear! +So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows +As yonder lady o’er her fellows shows. +The measure done, I’ll watch her place of stand, +And touching hers, make blessed my rude hand. +Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight! +For I ne’er saw true beauty till this night. + +TYBALT. +This by his voice, should be a Montague. +Fetch me my rapier, boy. What, dares the slave +Come hither, cover’d with an antic face, +To fleer and scorn at our solemnity? +Now by the stock and honour of my kin, +To strike him dead I hold it not a sin. + +CAPULET. +Why how now, kinsman! +Wherefore storm you so? + +TYBALT. +Uncle, this is a Montague, our foe; +A villain that is hither come in spite, +To scorn at our solemnity this night. + +CAPULET. +Young Romeo, is it? + +TYBALT. +’Tis he, that villain Romeo. + +CAPULET. +Content thee, gentle coz, let him alone, +A bears him like a portly gentleman; +And, to say truth, Verona brags of him +To be a virtuous and well-govern’d youth. +I would not for the wealth of all the town +Here in my house do him disparagement. +Therefore be patient, take no note of him, +It is my will; the which if thou respect, +Show a fair presence and put off these frowns, +An ill-beseeming semblance for a feast. + +TYBALT. +It fits when such a villain is a guest: +I’ll not endure him. + +CAPULET. +He shall be endur’d. +What, goodman boy! I say he shall, go to; +Am I the master here, or you? Go to. +You’ll not endure him! God shall mend my soul, +You’ll make a mutiny among my guests! +You will set cock-a-hoop, you’ll be the man! + +TYBALT. +Why, uncle, ’tis a shame. + +CAPULET. +Go to, go to! +You are a saucy boy. Is’t so, indeed? +This trick may chance to scathe you, I know what. +You must contrary me! Marry, ’tis time. +Well said, my hearts!—You are a princox; go: +Be quiet, or—More light, more light!—For shame! +I’ll make you quiet. What, cheerly, my hearts. + +TYBALT. +Patience perforce with wilful choler meeting +Makes my flesh tremble in their different greeting. +I will withdraw: but this intrusion shall, +Now seeming sweet, convert to bitter gall. + + [_Exit._] + +ROMEO. +[_To Juliet._] If I profane with my unworthiest hand +This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this, +My lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand +To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss. + +JULIET. +Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much, +Which mannerly devotion shows in this; +For saints have hands that pilgrims’ hands do touch, +And palm to palm is holy palmers’ kiss. + +ROMEO. +Have not saints lips, and holy palmers too? + +JULIET. +Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in prayer. + +ROMEO. +O, then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do: +They pray, grant thou, lest faith turn to despair. + +JULIET. +Saints do not move, though grant for prayers’ sake. + +ROMEO. +Then move not while my prayer’s effect I take. +Thus from my lips, by thine my sin is purg’d. +[_Kissing her._] + +JULIET. +Then have my lips the sin that they have took. + +ROMEO. +Sin from my lips? O trespass sweetly urg’d! +Give me my sin again. + +JULIET. +You kiss by the book. + +NURSE. +Madam, your mother craves a word with you. + +ROMEO. +What is her mother? + +NURSE. +Marry, bachelor, +Her mother is the lady of the house, +And a good lady, and a wise and virtuous. +I nurs’d her daughter that you talk’d withal. +I tell you, he that can lay hold of her +Shall have the chinks. + +ROMEO. +Is she a Capulet? +O dear account! My life is my foe’s debt. + +BENVOLIO. +Away, be gone; the sport is at the best. + +ROMEO. +Ay, so I fear; the more is my unrest. + +CAPULET. +Nay, gentlemen, prepare not to be gone, +We have a trifling foolish banquet towards. +Is it e’en so? Why then, I thank you all; +I thank you, honest gentlemen; good night. +More torches here! Come on then, let’s to bed. +Ah, sirrah, by my fay, it waxes late, +I’ll to my rest. + + [_Exeunt all but Juliet and Nurse._] + +JULIET. +Come hither, Nurse. What is yond gentleman? + +NURSE. +The son and heir of old Tiberio. + +JULIET. +What’s he that now is going out of door? + +NURSE. +Marry, that I think be young Petruchio. + +JULIET. +What’s he that follows here, that would not dance? + +NURSE. +I know not. + +JULIET. +Go ask his name. If he be married, +My grave is like to be my wedding bed. + +NURSE. +His name is Romeo, and a Montague, +The only son of your great enemy. + +JULIET. +My only love sprung from my only hate! +Too early seen unknown, and known too late! +Prodigious birth of love it is to me, +That I must love a loathed enemy. + +NURSE. +What’s this? What’s this? + +JULIET. +A rhyme I learn’d even now +Of one I danc’d withal. + + [_One calls within, ‘Juliet’._] + +NURSE. +Anon, anon! +Come let’s away, the strangers all are gone. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + + Enter Chorus. + +CHORUS. +Now old desire doth in his deathbed lie, +And young affection gapes to be his heir; +That fair for which love groan’d for and would die, +With tender Juliet match’d, is now not fair. +Now Romeo is belov’d, and loves again, +Alike bewitched by the charm of looks; +But to his foe suppos’d he must complain, +And she steal love’s sweet bait from fearful hooks: +Being held a foe, he may not have access +To breathe such vows as lovers use to swear; +And she as much in love, her means much less +To meet her new beloved anywhere. +But passion lends them power, time means, to meet, +Tempering extremities with extreme sweet. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE I. An open place adjoining Capulet’s Garden. + + Enter Romeo. + +ROMEO. +Can I go forward when my heart is here? +Turn back, dull earth, and find thy centre out. + + [_He climbs the wall and leaps down within it._] + + Enter Benvolio and Mercutio. + +BENVOLIO. +Romeo! My cousin Romeo! Romeo! + +MERCUTIO. +He is wise, +And on my life hath stol’n him home to bed. + +BENVOLIO. +He ran this way, and leap’d this orchard wall: +Call, good Mercutio. + +MERCUTIO. +Nay, I’ll conjure too. +Romeo! Humours! Madman! Passion! Lover! +Appear thou in the likeness of a sigh, +Speak but one rhyme, and I am satisfied; +Cry but ‘Ah me!’ Pronounce but Love and dove; +Speak to my gossip Venus one fair word, +One nickname for her purblind son and heir, +Young Abraham Cupid, he that shot so trim +When King Cophetua lov’d the beggar-maid. +He heareth not, he stirreth not, he moveth not; +The ape is dead, and I must conjure him. +I conjure thee by Rosaline’s bright eyes, +By her high forehead and her scarlet lip, +By her fine foot, straight leg, and quivering thigh, +And the demesnes that there adjacent lie, +That in thy likeness thou appear to us. + +BENVOLIO. +An if he hear thee, thou wilt anger him. + +MERCUTIO. +This cannot anger him. ’Twould anger him +To raise a spirit in his mistress’ circle, +Of some strange nature, letting it there stand +Till she had laid it, and conjur’d it down; +That were some spite. My invocation +Is fair and honest, and, in his mistress’ name, +I conjure only but to raise up him. + +BENVOLIO. +Come, he hath hid himself among these trees +To be consorted with the humorous night. +Blind is his love, and best befits the dark. + +MERCUTIO. +If love be blind, love cannot hit the mark. +Now will he sit under a medlar tree, +And wish his mistress were that kind of fruit +As maids call medlars when they laugh alone. +O Romeo, that she were, O that she were +An open-arse and thou a poperin pear! +Romeo, good night. I’ll to my truckle-bed. +This field-bed is too cold for me to sleep. +Come, shall we go? + +BENVOLIO. +Go then; for ’tis in vain +To seek him here that means not to be found. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Capulet’s Garden. + + Enter Romeo. + +ROMEO. +He jests at scars that never felt a wound. + + Juliet appears above at a window. + +But soft, what light through yonder window breaks? +It is the east, and Juliet is the sun! +Arise fair sun and kill the envious moon, +Who is already sick and pale with grief, +That thou her maid art far more fair than she. +Be not her maid since she is envious; +Her vestal livery is but sick and green, +And none but fools do wear it; cast it off. +It is my lady, O it is my love! +O, that she knew she were! +She speaks, yet she says nothing. What of that? +Her eye discourses, I will answer it. +I am too bold, ’tis not to me she speaks. +Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, +Having some business, do entreat her eyes +To twinkle in their spheres till they return. +What if her eyes were there, they in her head? +The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars, +As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven +Would through the airy region stream so bright +That birds would sing and think it were not night. +See how she leans her cheek upon her hand. +O that I were a glove upon that hand, +That I might touch that cheek. + +JULIET. +Ay me. + +ROMEO. +She speaks. +O speak again bright angel, for thou art +As glorious to this night, being o’er my head, +As is a winged messenger of heaven +Unto the white-upturned wondering eyes +Of mortals that fall back to gaze on him +When he bestrides the lazy-puffing clouds +And sails upon the bosom of the air. + +JULIET. +O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo? +Deny thy father and refuse thy name. +Or if thou wilt not, be but sworn my love, +And I’ll no longer be a Capulet. + +ROMEO. +[_Aside._] Shall I hear more, or shall I speak at this? + +JULIET. +’Tis but thy name that is my enemy; +Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. +What’s Montague? It is nor hand nor foot, +Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part +Belonging to a man. O be some other name. +What’s in a name? That which we call a rose +By any other name would smell as sweet; +So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call’d, +Retain that dear perfection which he owes +Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name, +And for thy name, which is no part of thee, +Take all myself. + +ROMEO. +I take thee at thy word. +Call me but love, and I’ll be new baptis’d; +Henceforth I never will be Romeo. + +JULIET. +What man art thou that, thus bescreen’d in night +So stumblest on my counsel? + +ROMEO. +By a name +I know not how to tell thee who I am: +My name, dear saint, is hateful to myself, +Because it is an enemy to thee. +Had I it written, I would tear the word. + +JULIET. +My ears have yet not drunk a hundred words +Of thy tongue’s utterance, yet I know the sound. +Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? + +ROMEO. +Neither, fair maid, if either thee dislike. + +JULIET. +How cam’st thou hither, tell me, and wherefore? +The orchard walls are high and hard to climb, +And the place death, considering who thou art, +If any of my kinsmen find thee here. + +ROMEO. +With love’s light wings did I o’erperch these walls, +For stony limits cannot hold love out, +And what love can do, that dares love attempt: +Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me. + +JULIET. +If they do see thee, they will murder thee. + +ROMEO. +Alack, there lies more peril in thine eye +Than twenty of their swords. Look thou but sweet, +And I am proof against their enmity. + +JULIET. +I would not for the world they saw thee here. + +ROMEO. +I have night’s cloak to hide me from their eyes, +And but thou love me, let them find me here. +My life were better ended by their hate +Than death prorogued, wanting of thy love. + +JULIET. +By whose direction found’st thou out this place? + +ROMEO. +By love, that first did prompt me to enquire; +He lent me counsel, and I lent him eyes. +I am no pilot; yet wert thou as far +As that vast shore wash’d with the farthest sea, +I should adventure for such merchandise. + +JULIET. +Thou knowest the mask of night is on my face, +Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek +For that which thou hast heard me speak tonight. +Fain would I dwell on form, fain, fain deny +What I have spoke; but farewell compliment. +Dost thou love me? I know thou wilt say Ay, +And I will take thy word. Yet, if thou swear’st, +Thou mayst prove false. At lovers’ perjuries, +They say Jove laughs. O gentle Romeo, +If thou dost love, pronounce it faithfully. +Or if thou thinkest I am too quickly won, +I’ll frown and be perverse, and say thee nay, +So thou wilt woo. But else, not for the world. +In truth, fair Montague, I am too fond; +And therefore thou mayst think my ’haviour light: +But trust me, gentleman, I’ll prove more true +Than those that have more cunning to be strange. +I should have been more strange, I must confess, +But that thou overheard’st, ere I was ’ware, +My true-love passion; therefore pardon me, +And not impute this yielding to light love, +Which the dark night hath so discovered. + +ROMEO. +Lady, by yonder blessed moon I vow, +That tips with silver all these fruit-tree tops,— + +JULIET. +O swear not by the moon, th’inconstant moon, +That monthly changes in her circled orb, +Lest that thy love prove likewise variable. + +ROMEO. +What shall I swear by? + +JULIET. +Do not swear at all. +Or if thou wilt, swear by thy gracious self, +Which is the god of my idolatry, +And I’ll believe thee. + +ROMEO. +If my heart’s dear love,— + +JULIET. +Well, do not swear. Although I joy in thee, +I have no joy of this contract tonight; +It is too rash, too unadvis’d, too sudden, +Too like the lightning, which doth cease to be +Ere one can say It lightens. Sweet, good night. +This bud of love, by summer’s ripening breath, +May prove a beauteous flower when next we meet. +Good night, good night. As sweet repose and rest +Come to thy heart as that within my breast. + +ROMEO. +O wilt thou leave me so unsatisfied? + +JULIET. +What satisfaction canst thou have tonight? + +ROMEO. +Th’exchange of thy love’s faithful vow for mine. + +JULIET. +I gave thee mine before thou didst request it; +And yet I would it were to give again. + +ROMEO. +Would’st thou withdraw it? For what purpose, love? + +JULIET. +But to be frank and give it thee again. +And yet I wish but for the thing I have; +My bounty is as boundless as the sea, +My love as deep; the more I give to thee, +The more I have, for both are infinite. +I hear some noise within. Dear love, adieu. +[_Nurse calls within._] +Anon, good Nurse!—Sweet Montague be true. +Stay but a little, I will come again. + + [_Exit._] + +ROMEO. +O blessed, blessed night. I am afeard, +Being in night, all this is but a dream, +Too flattering sweet to be substantial. + + Enter Juliet above. + +JULIET. +Three words, dear Romeo, and good night indeed. +If that thy bent of love be honourable, +Thy purpose marriage, send me word tomorrow, +By one that I’ll procure to come to thee, +Where and what time thou wilt perform the rite, +And all my fortunes at thy foot I’ll lay +And follow thee my lord throughout the world. + +NURSE. +[_Within._] Madam. + +JULIET. +I come, anon.— But if thou meanest not well, +I do beseech thee,— + +NURSE. +[_Within._] Madam. + +JULIET. +By and by I come— +To cease thy strife and leave me to my grief. +Tomorrow will I send. + +ROMEO. +So thrive my soul,— + +JULIET. +A thousand times good night. + + [_Exit._] + +ROMEO. +A thousand times the worse, to want thy light. +Love goes toward love as schoolboys from their books, +But love from love, towards school with heavy looks. + + [_Retiring slowly._] + + Re-enter Juliet, above. + +JULIET. +Hist! Romeo, hist! O for a falconer’s voice +To lure this tassel-gentle back again. +Bondage is hoarse and may not speak aloud, +Else would I tear the cave where Echo lies, +And make her airy tongue more hoarse than mine +With repetition of my Romeo’s name. + +ROMEO. +It is my soul that calls upon my name. +How silver-sweet sound lovers’ tongues by night, +Like softest music to attending ears. + +JULIET. +Romeo. + +ROMEO. +My nyas? + +JULIET. +What o’clock tomorrow +Shall I send to thee? + +ROMEO. +By the hour of nine. + +JULIET. +I will not fail. ’Tis twenty years till then. +I have forgot why I did call thee back. + +ROMEO. +Let me stand here till thou remember it. + +JULIET. +I shall forget, to have thee still stand there, +Remembering how I love thy company. + +ROMEO. +And I’ll still stay, to have thee still forget, +Forgetting any other home but this. + +JULIET. +’Tis almost morning; I would have thee gone, +And yet no farther than a wanton’s bird, +That lets it hop a little from her hand, +Like a poor prisoner in his twisted gyves, +And with a silk thread plucks it back again, +So loving-jealous of his liberty. + +ROMEO. +I would I were thy bird. + +JULIET. +Sweet, so would I: +Yet I should kill thee with much cherishing. +Good night, good night. Parting is such sweet sorrow +That I shall say good night till it be morrow. + + [_Exit._] + +ROMEO. +Sleep dwell upon thine eyes, peace in thy breast. +Would I were sleep and peace, so sweet to rest. +The grey-ey’d morn smiles on the frowning night, +Chequering the eastern clouds with streaks of light; +And darkness fleckled like a drunkard reels +From forth day’s pathway, made by Titan’s wheels +Hence will I to my ghostly Sire’s cell, +His help to crave and my dear hap to tell. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. + + Enter Friar Lawrence with a basket. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Now, ere the sun advance his burning eye, +The day to cheer, and night’s dank dew to dry, +I must upfill this osier cage of ours +With baleful weeds and precious-juiced flowers. +The earth that’s nature’s mother, is her tomb; +What is her burying grave, that is her womb: +And from her womb children of divers kind +We sucking on her natural bosom find. +Many for many virtues excellent, +None but for some, and yet all different. +O, mickle is the powerful grace that lies +In plants, herbs, stones, and their true qualities. +For naught so vile that on the earth doth live +But to the earth some special good doth give; +Nor aught so good but, strain’d from that fair use, +Revolts from true birth, stumbling on abuse. +Virtue itself turns vice being misapplied, +And vice sometime’s by action dignified. + + Enter Romeo. + +Within the infant rind of this weak flower +Poison hath residence, and medicine power: +For this, being smelt, with that part cheers each part; +Being tasted, slays all senses with the heart. +Two such opposed kings encamp them still +In man as well as herbs,—grace and rude will; +And where the worser is predominant, +Full soon the canker death eats up that plant. + +ROMEO. +Good morrow, father. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Benedicite! +What early tongue so sweet saluteth me? +Young son, it argues a distemper’d head +So soon to bid good morrow to thy bed. +Care keeps his watch in every old man’s eye, +And where care lodges sleep will never lie; +But where unbruised youth with unstuff’d brain +Doth couch his limbs, there golden sleep doth reign. +Therefore thy earliness doth me assure +Thou art uprous’d with some distemperature; +Or if not so, then here I hit it right, +Our Romeo hath not been in bed tonight. + +ROMEO. +That last is true; the sweeter rest was mine. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +God pardon sin. Wast thou with Rosaline? + +ROMEO. +With Rosaline, my ghostly father? No. +I have forgot that name, and that name’s woe. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +That’s my good son. But where hast thou been then? + +ROMEO. +I’ll tell thee ere thou ask it me again. +I have been feasting with mine enemy, +Where on a sudden one hath wounded me +That’s by me wounded. Both our remedies +Within thy help and holy physic lies. +I bear no hatred, blessed man; for lo, +My intercession likewise steads my foe. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Be plain, good son, and homely in thy drift; +Riddling confession finds but riddling shrift. + +ROMEO. +Then plainly know my heart’s dear love is set +On the fair daughter of rich Capulet. +As mine on hers, so hers is set on mine; +And all combin’d, save what thou must combine +By holy marriage. When, and where, and how +We met, we woo’d, and made exchange of vow, +I’ll tell thee as we pass; but this I pray, +That thou consent to marry us today. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Holy Saint Francis! What a change is here! +Is Rosaline, that thou didst love so dear, +So soon forsaken? Young men’s love then lies +Not truly in their hearts, but in their eyes. +Jesu Maria, what a deal of brine +Hath wash’d thy sallow cheeks for Rosaline! +How much salt water thrown away in waste, +To season love, that of it doth not taste. +The sun not yet thy sighs from heaven clears, +Thy old groans yet ring in mine ancient ears. +Lo here upon thy cheek the stain doth sit +Of an old tear that is not wash’d off yet. +If ere thou wast thyself, and these woes thine, +Thou and these woes were all for Rosaline, +And art thou chang’d? Pronounce this sentence then, +Women may fall, when there’s no strength in men. + +ROMEO. +Thou chidd’st me oft for loving Rosaline. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +For doting, not for loving, pupil mine. + +ROMEO. +And bad’st me bury love. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Not in a grave +To lay one in, another out to have. + +ROMEO. +I pray thee chide me not, her I love now +Doth grace for grace and love for love allow. +The other did not so. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +O, she knew well +Thy love did read by rote, that could not spell. +But come young waverer, come go with me, +In one respect I’ll thy assistant be; +For this alliance may so happy prove, +To turn your households’ rancour to pure love. + +ROMEO. +O let us hence; I stand on sudden haste. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Wisely and slow; they stumble that run fast. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. A Street. + + Enter Benvolio and Mercutio. + +MERCUTIO. +Where the devil should this Romeo be? Came he not home tonight? + +BENVOLIO. +Not to his father’s; I spoke with his man. + +MERCUTIO. +Why, that same pale hard-hearted wench, that Rosaline, torments him so +that he will sure run mad. + +BENVOLIO. +Tybalt, the kinsman to old Capulet, hath sent a letter to his father’s +house. + +MERCUTIO. +A challenge, on my life. + +BENVOLIO. +Romeo will answer it. + +MERCUTIO. +Any man that can write may answer a letter. + +BENVOLIO. +Nay, he will answer the letter’s master, how he dares, being dared. + +MERCUTIO. +Alas poor Romeo, he is already dead, stabbed with a white wench’s black +eye; run through the ear with a love song, the very pin of his heart +cleft with the blind bow-boy’s butt-shaft. And is he a man to encounter +Tybalt? + +BENVOLIO. +Why, what is Tybalt? + +MERCUTIO. +More than Prince of cats. O, he’s the courageous captain of +compliments. He fights as you sing prick-song, keeps time, distance, +and proportion. He rests his minim rest, one, two, and the third in +your bosom: the very butcher of a silk button, a duellist, a duellist; +a gentleman of the very first house, of the first and second cause. Ah, +the immortal passado, the punto reverso, the hay. + +BENVOLIO. +The what? + +MERCUTIO. +The pox of such antic lisping, affecting phantasies; these new tuners +of accent. By Jesu, a very good blade, a very tall man, a very good +whore. Why, is not this a lamentable thing, grandsire, that we should +be thus afflicted with these strange flies, these fashion-mongers, +these pardon-me’s, who stand so much on the new form that they cannot +sit at ease on the old bench? O their bones, their bones! + + Enter Romeo. + +BENVOLIO. +Here comes Romeo, here comes Romeo! + +MERCUTIO. +Without his roe, like a dried herring. O flesh, flesh, how art thou +fishified! Now is he for the numbers that Petrarch flowed in. Laura, to +his lady, was but a kitchen wench,—marry, she had a better love to +berhyme her: Dido a dowdy; Cleopatra a gypsy; Helen and Hero hildings +and harlots; Thisbe a grey eye or so, but not to the purpose. Signior +Romeo, bonjour! There’s a French salutation to your French slop. You +gave us the counterfeit fairly last night. + +ROMEO. +Good morrow to you both. What counterfeit did I give you? + +MERCUTIO. +The slip sir, the slip; can you not conceive? + +ROMEO. +Pardon, good Mercutio, my business was great, and in such a case as +mine a man may strain courtesy. + +MERCUTIO. +That’s as much as to say, such a case as yours constrains a man to bow +in the hams. + +ROMEO. +Meaning, to curtsy. + +MERCUTIO. +Thou hast most kindly hit it. + +ROMEO. +A most courteous exposition. + +MERCUTIO. +Nay, I am the very pink of courtesy. + +ROMEO. +Pink for flower. + +MERCUTIO. +Right. + +ROMEO. +Why, then is my pump well flowered. + +MERCUTIO. +Sure wit, follow me this jest now, till thou hast worn out thy pump, +that when the single sole of it is worn, the jest may remain after the +wearing, solely singular. + +ROMEO. +O single-soled jest, solely singular for the singleness! + +MERCUTIO. +Come between us, good Benvolio; my wits faint. + +ROMEO. +Swits and spurs, swits and spurs; or I’ll cry a match. + +MERCUTIO. +Nay, if thy wits run the wild-goose chase, I am done. For thou hast +more of the wild-goose in one of thy wits, than I am sure, I have in my +whole five. Was I with you there for the goose? + +ROMEO. +Thou wast never with me for anything, when thou wast not there for the +goose. + +MERCUTIO. +I will bite thee by the ear for that jest. + +ROMEO. +Nay, good goose, bite not. + +MERCUTIO. +Thy wit is a very bitter sweeting, it is a most sharp sauce. + +ROMEO. +And is it not then well served in to a sweet goose? + +MERCUTIO. +O here’s a wit of cheveril, that stretches from an inch narrow to an +ell broad. + +ROMEO. +I stretch it out for that word broad, which added to the goose, proves +thee far and wide a broad goose. + +MERCUTIO. +Why, is not this better now than groaning for love? Now art thou +sociable, now art thou Romeo; not art thou what thou art, by art as +well as by nature. For this drivelling love is like a great natural, +that runs lolling up and down to hide his bauble in a hole. + +BENVOLIO. +Stop there, stop there. + +MERCUTIO. +Thou desirest me to stop in my tale against the hair. + +BENVOLIO. +Thou wouldst else have made thy tale large. + +MERCUTIO. +O, thou art deceived; I would have made it short, for I was come to the +whole depth of my tale, and meant indeed to occupy the argument no +longer. + + Enter Nurse and Peter. + +ROMEO. +Here’s goodly gear! +A sail, a sail! + +MERCUTIO. +Two, two; a shirt and a smock. + +NURSE. +Peter! + +PETER. +Anon. + +NURSE. +My fan, Peter. + +MERCUTIO. +Good Peter, to hide her face; for her fan’s the fairer face. + +NURSE. +God ye good morrow, gentlemen. + +MERCUTIO. +God ye good-den, fair gentlewoman. + +NURSE. +Is it good-den? + +MERCUTIO. +’Tis no less, I tell ye; for the bawdy hand of the dial is now upon the +prick of noon. + +NURSE. +Out upon you! What a man are you? + +ROMEO. +One, gentlewoman, that God hath made for himself to mar. + +NURSE. +By my troth, it is well said; for himself to mar, quoth a? Gentlemen, +can any of you tell me where I may find the young Romeo? + +ROMEO. +I can tell you: but young Romeo will be older when you have found him +than he was when you sought him. I am the youngest of that name, for +fault of a worse. + +NURSE. +You say well. + +MERCUTIO. +Yea, is the worst well? Very well took, i’faith; wisely, wisely. + +NURSE. +If you be he, sir, I desire some confidence with you. + +BENVOLIO. +She will endite him to some supper. + +MERCUTIO. +A bawd, a bawd, a bawd! So ho! + +ROMEO. +What hast thou found? + +MERCUTIO. +No hare, sir; unless a hare, sir, in a lenten pie, that is something +stale and hoar ere it be spent. +[_Sings._] + An old hare hoar, + And an old hare hoar, + Is very good meat in Lent; + But a hare that is hoar + Is too much for a score + When it hoars ere it be spent. +Romeo, will you come to your father’s? We’ll to dinner thither. + +ROMEO. +I will follow you. + +MERCUTIO. +Farewell, ancient lady; farewell, lady, lady, lady. + + [_Exeunt Mercutio and Benvolio._] + +NURSE. +I pray you, sir, what saucy merchant was this that was so full of his +ropery? + +ROMEO. +A gentleman, Nurse, that loves to hear himself talk, and will speak +more in a minute than he will stand to in a month. + +NURSE. +And a speak anything against me, I’ll take him down, and a were lustier +than he is, and twenty such Jacks. And if I cannot, I’ll find those +that shall. Scurvy knave! I am none of his flirt-gills; I am none of +his skains-mates.—And thou must stand by too and suffer every knave to +use me at his pleasure! + +PETER. +I saw no man use you at his pleasure; if I had, my weapon should +quickly have been out. I warrant you, I dare draw as soon as another +man, if I see occasion in a good quarrel, and the law on my side. + +NURSE. +Now, afore God, I am so vexed that every part about me quivers. Scurvy +knave. Pray you, sir, a word: and as I told you, my young lady bid me +enquire you out; what she bade me say, I will keep to myself. But first +let me tell ye, if ye should lead her in a fool’s paradise, as they +say, it were a very gross kind of behaviour, as they say; for the +gentlewoman is young. And therefore, if you should deal double with +her, truly it were an ill thing to be offered to any gentlewoman, and +very weak dealing. + +ROMEO. Nurse, commend me to thy lady and mistress. I protest unto +thee,— + +NURSE. +Good heart, and i’faith I will tell her as much. Lord, Lord, she will +be a joyful woman. + +ROMEO. +What wilt thou tell her, Nurse? Thou dost not mark me. + +NURSE. +I will tell her, sir, that you do protest, which, as I take it, is a +gentlemanlike offer. + +ROMEO. +Bid her devise +Some means to come to shrift this afternoon, +And there she shall at Friar Lawrence’ cell +Be shriv’d and married. Here is for thy pains. + +NURSE. +No truly, sir; not a penny. + +ROMEO. +Go to; I say you shall. + +NURSE. +This afternoon, sir? Well, she shall be there. + +ROMEO. +And stay, good Nurse, behind the abbey wall. +Within this hour my man shall be with thee, +And bring thee cords made like a tackled stair, +Which to the high topgallant of my joy +Must be my convoy in the secret night. +Farewell, be trusty, and I’ll quit thy pains; +Farewell; commend me to thy mistress. + +NURSE. +Now God in heaven bless thee. Hark you, sir. + +ROMEO. +What say’st thou, my dear Nurse? + +NURSE. +Is your man secret? Did you ne’er hear say, +Two may keep counsel, putting one away? + +ROMEO. +I warrant thee my man’s as true as steel. + +NURSE. +Well, sir, my mistress is the sweetest lady. Lord, Lord! When ’twas a +little prating thing,—O, there is a nobleman in town, one Paris, that +would fain lay knife aboard; but she, good soul, had as lief see a +toad, a very toad, as see him. I anger her sometimes, and tell her that +Paris is the properer man, but I’ll warrant you, when I say so, she +looks as pale as any clout in the versal world. Doth not rosemary and +Romeo begin both with a letter? + +ROMEO. +Ay, Nurse; what of that? Both with an R. + +NURSE. +Ah, mocker! That’s the dog’s name. R is for the—no, I know it begins +with some other letter, and she hath the prettiest sententious of it, +of you and rosemary, that it would do you good to hear it. + +ROMEO. +Commend me to thy lady. + +NURSE. +Ay, a thousand times. Peter! + + [_Exit Romeo._] + +PETER. +Anon. + +NURSE. +Before and apace. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Capulet’s Garden. + + Enter Juliet. + +JULIET. +The clock struck nine when I did send the Nurse, +In half an hour she promised to return. +Perchance she cannot meet him. That’s not so. +O, she is lame. Love’s heralds should be thoughts, +Which ten times faster glides than the sun’s beams, +Driving back shadows over lowering hills: +Therefore do nimble-pinion’d doves draw love, +And therefore hath the wind-swift Cupid wings. +Now is the sun upon the highmost hill +Of this day’s journey, and from nine till twelve +Is three long hours, yet she is not come. +Had she affections and warm youthful blood, +She’d be as swift in motion as a ball; +My words would bandy her to my sweet love, +And his to me. +But old folks, many feign as they were dead; +Unwieldy, slow, heavy and pale as lead. + + Enter Nurse and Peter. + +O God, she comes. O honey Nurse, what news? +Hast thou met with him? Send thy man away. + +NURSE. +Peter, stay at the gate. + + [_Exit Peter._] + +JULIET. +Now, good sweet Nurse,—O Lord, why look’st thou sad? +Though news be sad, yet tell them merrily; +If good, thou sham’st the music of sweet news +By playing it to me with so sour a face. + +NURSE. +I am aweary, give me leave awhile; +Fie, how my bones ache! What a jaunt have I had! + +JULIET. +I would thou hadst my bones, and I thy news: +Nay come, I pray thee speak; good, good Nurse, speak. + +NURSE. +Jesu, what haste? Can you not stay a while? Do you not see that I am +out of breath? + +JULIET. +How art thou out of breath, when thou hast breath +To say to me that thou art out of breath? +The excuse that thou dost make in this delay +Is longer than the tale thou dost excuse. +Is thy news good or bad? Answer to that; +Say either, and I’ll stay the circumstance. +Let me be satisfied, is’t good or bad? + +NURSE. +Well, you have made a simple choice; you know not how to choose a man. +Romeo? No, not he. Though his face be better than any man’s, yet his +leg excels all men’s, and for a hand and a foot, and a body, though +they be not to be talked on, yet they are past compare. He is not the +flower of courtesy, but I’ll warrant him as gentle as a lamb. Go thy +ways, wench, serve God. What, have you dined at home? + +JULIET. +No, no. But all this did I know before. +What says he of our marriage? What of that? + +NURSE. +Lord, how my head aches! What a head have I! +It beats as it would fall in twenty pieces. +My back o’ t’other side,—O my back, my back! +Beshrew your heart for sending me about +To catch my death with jauncing up and down. + +JULIET. +I’faith, I am sorry that thou art not well. +Sweet, sweet, sweet Nurse, tell me, what says my love? + +NURSE. +Your love says like an honest gentleman, +And a courteous, and a kind, and a handsome, +And I warrant a virtuous,—Where is your mother? + +JULIET. +Where is my mother? Why, she is within. +Where should she be? How oddly thou repliest. +‘Your love says, like an honest gentleman, +‘Where is your mother?’ + +NURSE. +O God’s lady dear, +Are you so hot? Marry, come up, I trow. +Is this the poultice for my aching bones? +Henceforward do your messages yourself. + +JULIET. +Here’s such a coil. Come, what says Romeo? + +NURSE. +Have you got leave to go to shrift today? + +JULIET. +I have. + +NURSE. +Then hie you hence to Friar Lawrence’ cell; +There stays a husband to make you a wife. +Now comes the wanton blood up in your cheeks, +They’ll be in scarlet straight at any news. +Hie you to church. I must another way, +To fetch a ladder by the which your love +Must climb a bird’s nest soon when it is dark. +I am the drudge, and toil in your delight; +But you shall bear the burden soon at night. +Go. I’ll to dinner; hie you to the cell. + +JULIET. +Hie to high fortune! Honest Nurse, farewell. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE VI. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. + + Enter Friar Lawrence and Romeo. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +So smile the heavens upon this holy act +That after-hours with sorrow chide us not. + +ROMEO. +Amen, amen, but come what sorrow can, +It cannot countervail the exchange of joy +That one short minute gives me in her sight. +Do thou but close our hands with holy words, +Then love-devouring death do what he dare, +It is enough I may but call her mine. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +These violent delights have violent ends, +And in their triumph die; like fire and powder, +Which as they kiss consume. The sweetest honey +Is loathsome in his own deliciousness, +And in the taste confounds the appetite. +Therefore love moderately: long love doth so; +Too swift arrives as tardy as too slow. + + Enter Juliet. + +Here comes the lady. O, so light a foot +Will ne’er wear out the everlasting flint. +A lover may bestride the gossamers +That idles in the wanton summer air +And yet not fall; so light is vanity. + +JULIET. +Good even to my ghostly confessor. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Romeo shall thank thee, daughter, for us both. + +JULIET. +As much to him, else is his thanks too much. + +ROMEO. +Ah, Juliet, if the measure of thy joy +Be heap’d like mine, and that thy skill be more +To blazon it, then sweeten with thy breath +This neighbour air, and let rich music’s tongue +Unfold the imagin’d happiness that both +Receive in either by this dear encounter. + +JULIET. +Conceit more rich in matter than in words, +Brags of his substance, not of ornament. +They are but beggars that can count their worth; +But my true love is grown to such excess, +I cannot sum up sum of half my wealth. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Come, come with me, and we will make short work, +For, by your leaves, you shall not stay alone +Till holy church incorporate two in one. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. A public Place. + + Enter Mercutio, Benvolio, Page and Servants. + +BENVOLIO. +I pray thee, good Mercutio, let’s retire: +The day is hot, the Capulets abroad, +And if we meet, we shall not scape a brawl, +For now these hot days, is the mad blood stirring. + +MERCUTIO. +Thou art like one of these fellows that, when he enters the confines of +a tavern, claps me his sword upon the table, and says ‘God send me no +need of thee!’ and by the operation of the second cup draws him on the +drawer, when indeed there is no need. + +BENVOLIO. +Am I like such a fellow? + +MERCUTIO. +Come, come, thou art as hot a Jack in thy mood as any in Italy; and as +soon moved to be moody, and as soon moody to be moved. + +BENVOLIO. +And what to? + +MERCUTIO. +Nay, an there were two such, we should have none shortly, for one would +kill the other. Thou? Why, thou wilt quarrel with a man that hath a +hair more or a hair less in his beard than thou hast. Thou wilt quarrel +with a man for cracking nuts, having no other reason but because thou +hast hazel eyes. What eye but such an eye would spy out such a quarrel? +Thy head is as full of quarrels as an egg is full of meat, and yet thy +head hath been beaten as addle as an egg for quarrelling. Thou hast +quarrelled with a man for coughing in the street, because he hath +wakened thy dog that hath lain asleep in the sun. Didst thou not fall +out with a tailor for wearing his new doublet before Easter? with +another for tying his new shoes with an old riband? And yet thou wilt +tutor me from quarrelling! + +BENVOLIO. +And I were so apt to quarrel as thou art, any man should buy the fee +simple of my life for an hour and a quarter. + +MERCUTIO. +The fee simple! O simple! + + Enter Tybalt and others. + +BENVOLIO. +By my head, here comes the Capulets. + +MERCUTIO. +By my heel, I care not. + +TYBALT. +Follow me close, for I will speak to them. +Gentlemen, good-den: a word with one of you. + +MERCUTIO. +And but one word with one of us? Couple it with something; make it a +word and a blow. + +TYBALT. +You shall find me apt enough to that, sir, and you will give me +occasion. + +MERCUTIO. +Could you not take some occasion without giving? + +TYBALT. +Mercutio, thou consortest with Romeo. + +MERCUTIO. +Consort? What, dost thou make us minstrels? And thou make minstrels of +us, look to hear nothing but discords. Here’s my fiddlestick, here’s +that shall make you dance. Zounds, consort! + +BENVOLIO. +We talk here in the public haunt of men. +Either withdraw unto some private place, +And reason coldly of your grievances, +Or else depart; here all eyes gaze on us. + +MERCUTIO. +Men’s eyes were made to look, and let them gaze. +I will not budge for no man’s pleasure, I. + + Enter Romeo. + +TYBALT. +Well, peace be with you, sir, here comes my man. + +MERCUTIO. +But I’ll be hanged, sir, if he wear your livery. +Marry, go before to field, he’ll be your follower; +Your worship in that sense may call him man. + +TYBALT. +Romeo, the love I bear thee can afford +No better term than this: Thou art a villain. + +ROMEO. +Tybalt, the reason that I have to love thee +Doth much excuse the appertaining rage +To such a greeting. Villain am I none; +Therefore farewell; I see thou know’st me not. + +TYBALT. +Boy, this shall not excuse the injuries +That thou hast done me, therefore turn and draw. + +ROMEO. +I do protest I never injur’d thee, +But love thee better than thou canst devise +Till thou shalt know the reason of my love. +And so good Capulet, which name I tender +As dearly as mine own, be satisfied. + +MERCUTIO. +O calm, dishonourable, vile submission! +[_Draws._] Alla stoccata carries it away. +Tybalt, you rat-catcher, will you walk? + +TYBALT. +What wouldst thou have with me? + +MERCUTIO. +Good King of Cats, nothing but one of your nine lives; that I mean to +make bold withal, and, as you shall use me hereafter, dry-beat the rest +of the eight. Will you pluck your sword out of his pilcher by the ears? +Make haste, lest mine be about your ears ere it be out. + +TYBALT. +[_Drawing._] I am for you. + +ROMEO. +Gentle Mercutio, put thy rapier up. + +MERCUTIO. +Come, sir, your passado. + + [_They fight._] + +ROMEO. +Draw, Benvolio; beat down their weapons. +Gentlemen, for shame, forbear this outrage, +Tybalt, Mercutio, the Prince expressly hath +Forbid this bandying in Verona streets. +Hold, Tybalt! Good Mercutio! + + [_Exeunt Tybalt with his Partizans._] + +MERCUTIO. +I am hurt. +A plague o’ both your houses. I am sped. +Is he gone, and hath nothing? + +BENVOLIO. +What, art thou hurt? + +MERCUTIO. +Ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch. Marry, ’tis enough. +Where is my page? Go villain, fetch a surgeon. + + [_Exit Page._] + +ROMEO. +Courage, man; the hurt cannot be much. + +MERCUTIO. +No, ’tis not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church door, but ’tis +enough, ’twill serve. Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a +grave man. I am peppered, I warrant, for this world. A plague o’ both +your houses. Zounds, a dog, a rat, a mouse, a cat, to scratch a man to +death. A braggart, a rogue, a villain, that fights by the book of +arithmetic!—Why the devil came you between us? I was hurt under your +arm. + +ROMEO. +I thought all for the best. + +MERCUTIO. +Help me into some house, Benvolio, +Or I shall faint. A plague o’ both your houses. +They have made worms’ meat of me. +I have it, and soundly too. Your houses! + + [_Exeunt Mercutio and Benvolio._] + +ROMEO. +This gentleman, the Prince’s near ally, +My very friend, hath got his mortal hurt +In my behalf; my reputation stain’d +With Tybalt’s slander,—Tybalt, that an hour +Hath been my cousin. O sweet Juliet, +Thy beauty hath made me effeminate +And in my temper soften’d valour’s steel. + + Re-enter Benvolio. + +BENVOLIO. +O Romeo, Romeo, brave Mercutio’s dead, +That gallant spirit hath aspir’d the clouds, +Which too untimely here did scorn the earth. + +ROMEO. +This day’s black fate on mo days doth depend; +This but begins the woe others must end. + + Re-enter Tybalt. + +BENVOLIO. +Here comes the furious Tybalt back again. + +ROMEO. +Again in triumph, and Mercutio slain? +Away to heaven respective lenity, +And fire-ey’d fury be my conduct now! +Now, Tybalt, take the ‘villain’ back again +That late thou gav’st me, for Mercutio’s soul +Is but a little way above our heads, +Staying for thine to keep him company. +Either thou or I, or both, must go with him. + +TYBALT. +Thou wretched boy, that didst consort him here, +Shalt with him hence. + +ROMEO. +This shall determine that. + + [_They fight; Tybalt falls._] + +BENVOLIO. +Romeo, away, be gone! +The citizens are up, and Tybalt slain. +Stand not amaz’d. The Prince will doom thee death +If thou art taken. Hence, be gone, away! + +ROMEO. +O, I am fortune’s fool! + +BENVOLIO. +Why dost thou stay? + + [_Exit Romeo._] + + Enter Citizens. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Which way ran he that kill’d Mercutio? +Tybalt, that murderer, which way ran he? + +BENVOLIO. +There lies that Tybalt. + +FIRST CITIZEN. +Up, sir, go with me. +I charge thee in the Prince’s name obey. + + Enter Prince, attended; Montague, Capulet, their Wives and others. + +PRINCE. +Where are the vile beginners of this fray? + +BENVOLIO. +O noble Prince, I can discover all +The unlucky manage of this fatal brawl. +There lies the man, slain by young Romeo, +That slew thy kinsman, brave Mercutio. + +LADY CAPULET. +Tybalt, my cousin! O my brother’s child! +O Prince! O husband! O, the blood is spill’d +Of my dear kinsman! Prince, as thou art true, +For blood of ours shed blood of Montague. +O cousin, cousin. + +PRINCE. +Benvolio, who began this bloody fray? + +BENVOLIO. +Tybalt, here slain, whom Romeo’s hand did slay; +Romeo, that spoke him fair, bid him bethink +How nice the quarrel was, and urg’d withal +Your high displeasure. All this uttered +With gentle breath, calm look, knees humbly bow’d +Could not take truce with the unruly spleen +Of Tybalt, deaf to peace, but that he tilts +With piercing steel at bold Mercutio’s breast, +Who, all as hot, turns deadly point to point, +And, with a martial scorn, with one hand beats +Cold death aside, and with the other sends +It back to Tybalt, whose dexterity +Retorts it. Romeo he cries aloud, +‘Hold, friends! Friends, part!’ and swifter than his tongue, +His agile arm beats down their fatal points, +And ’twixt them rushes; underneath whose arm +An envious thrust from Tybalt hit the life +Of stout Mercutio, and then Tybalt fled. +But by and by comes back to Romeo, +Who had but newly entertain’d revenge, +And to’t they go like lightning; for, ere I +Could draw to part them was stout Tybalt slain; +And as he fell did Romeo turn and fly. +This is the truth, or let Benvolio die. + +LADY CAPULET. +He is a kinsman to the Montague. +Affection makes him false, he speaks not true. +Some twenty of them fought in this black strife, +And all those twenty could but kill one life. +I beg for justice, which thou, Prince, must give; +Romeo slew Tybalt, Romeo must not live. + +PRINCE. +Romeo slew him, he slew Mercutio. +Who now the price of his dear blood doth owe? + +MONTAGUE. +Not Romeo, Prince, he was Mercutio’s friend; +His fault concludes but what the law should end, +The life of Tybalt. + +PRINCE. +And for that offence +Immediately we do exile him hence. +I have an interest in your hate’s proceeding, +My blood for your rude brawls doth lie a-bleeding. +But I’ll amerce you with so strong a fine +That you shall all repent the loss of mine. +I will be deaf to pleading and excuses; +Nor tears nor prayers shall purchase out abuses. +Therefore use none. Let Romeo hence in haste, +Else, when he is found, that hour is his last. +Bear hence this body, and attend our will. +Mercy but murders, pardoning those that kill. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A Room in Capulet’s House. + + Enter Juliet. + +JULIET. +Gallop apace, you fiery-footed steeds, +Towards Phoebus’ lodging. Such a waggoner +As Phaeton would whip you to the west +And bring in cloudy night immediately. +Spread thy close curtain, love-performing night, +That runaway’s eyes may wink, and Romeo +Leap to these arms, untalk’d of and unseen. +Lovers can see to do their amorous rites +By their own beauties: or, if love be blind, +It best agrees with night. Come, civil night, +Thou sober-suited matron, all in black, +And learn me how to lose a winning match, +Play’d for a pair of stainless maidenhoods. +Hood my unmann’d blood, bating in my cheeks, +With thy black mantle, till strange love, grow bold, +Think true love acted simple modesty. +Come, night, come Romeo; come, thou day in night; +For thou wilt lie upon the wings of night +Whiter than new snow upon a raven’s back. +Come gentle night, come loving black-brow’d night, +Give me my Romeo, and when I shall die, +Take him and cut him out in little stars, +And he will make the face of heaven so fine +That all the world will be in love with night, +And pay no worship to the garish sun. +O, I have bought the mansion of a love, +But not possess’d it; and though I am sold, +Not yet enjoy’d. So tedious is this day +As is the night before some festival +To an impatient child that hath new robes +And may not wear them. O, here comes my Nurse, +And she brings news, and every tongue that speaks +But Romeo’s name speaks heavenly eloquence. + + Enter Nurse, with cords. + +Now, Nurse, what news? What hast thou there? +The cords that Romeo bid thee fetch? + +NURSE. +Ay, ay, the cords. + + [_Throws them down._] + +JULIET. +Ay me, what news? Why dost thou wring thy hands? + +NURSE. +Ah, well-a-day, he’s dead, he’s dead, he’s dead! +We are undone, lady, we are undone. +Alack the day, he’s gone, he’s kill’d, he’s dead. + +JULIET. +Can heaven be so envious? + +NURSE. +Romeo can, +Though heaven cannot. O Romeo, Romeo. +Who ever would have thought it? Romeo! + +JULIET. +What devil art thou, that dost torment me thus? +This torture should be roar’d in dismal hell. +Hath Romeo slain himself? Say thou but Ay, +And that bare vowel I shall poison more +Than the death-darting eye of cockatrice. +I am not I if there be such an I; +Or those eyes shut that make thee answer Ay. +If he be slain, say Ay; or if not, No. +Brief sounds determine of my weal or woe. + +NURSE. +I saw the wound, I saw it with mine eyes, +God save the mark!—here on his manly breast. +A piteous corse, a bloody piteous corse; +Pale, pale as ashes, all bedaub’d in blood, +All in gore-blood. I swounded at the sight. + +JULIET. +O, break, my heart. Poor bankrout, break at once. +To prison, eyes; ne’er look on liberty. +Vile earth to earth resign; end motion here, +And thou and Romeo press one heavy bier. + +NURSE. +O Tybalt, Tybalt, the best friend I had. +O courteous Tybalt, honest gentleman! +That ever I should live to see thee dead. + +JULIET. +What storm is this that blows so contrary? +Is Romeo slaughter’d and is Tybalt dead? +My dearest cousin, and my dearer lord? +Then dreadful trumpet sound the general doom, +For who is living, if those two are gone? + +NURSE. +Tybalt is gone, and Romeo banished, +Romeo that kill’d him, he is banished. + +JULIET. +O God! Did Romeo’s hand shed Tybalt’s blood? + +NURSE. +It did, it did; alas the day, it did. + +JULIET. +O serpent heart, hid with a flowering face! +Did ever dragon keep so fair a cave? +Beautiful tyrant, fiend angelical, +Dove-feather’d raven, wolvish-ravening lamb! +Despised substance of divinest show! +Just opposite to what thou justly seem’st, +A damned saint, an honourable villain! +O nature, what hadst thou to do in hell +When thou didst bower the spirit of a fiend +In mortal paradise of such sweet flesh? +Was ever book containing such vile matter +So fairly bound? O, that deceit should dwell +In such a gorgeous palace. + +NURSE. +There’s no trust, +No faith, no honesty in men. All perjur’d, +All forsworn, all naught, all dissemblers. +Ah, where’s my man? Give me some aqua vitae. +These griefs, these woes, these sorrows make me old. +Shame come to Romeo. + +JULIET. +Blister’d be thy tongue +For such a wish! He was not born to shame. +Upon his brow shame is asham’d to sit; +For ’tis a throne where honour may be crown’d +Sole monarch of the universal earth. +O, what a beast was I to chide at him! + +NURSE. +Will you speak well of him that kill’d your cousin? + +JULIET. +Shall I speak ill of him that is my husband? +Ah, poor my lord, what tongue shall smooth thy name, +When I thy three-hours’ wife have mangled it? +But wherefore, villain, didst thou kill my cousin? +That villain cousin would have kill’d my husband. +Back, foolish tears, back to your native spring, +Your tributary drops belong to woe, +Which you mistaking offer up to joy. +My husband lives, that Tybalt would have slain, +And Tybalt’s dead, that would have slain my husband. +All this is comfort; wherefore weep I then? +Some word there was, worser than Tybalt’s death, +That murder’d me. I would forget it fain, +But O, it presses to my memory +Like damned guilty deeds to sinners’ minds. +Tybalt is dead, and Romeo banished. +That ‘banished,’ that one word ‘banished,’ +Hath slain ten thousand Tybalts. Tybalt’s death +Was woe enough, if it had ended there. +Or if sour woe delights in fellowship, +And needly will be rank’d with other griefs, +Why follow’d not, when she said Tybalt’s dead, +Thy father or thy mother, nay or both, +Which modern lamentation might have mov’d? +But with a rear-ward following Tybalt’s death, +‘Romeo is banished’—to speak that word +Is father, mother, Tybalt, Romeo, Juliet, +All slain, all dead. Romeo is banished, +There is no end, no limit, measure, bound, +In that word’s death, no words can that woe sound. +Where is my father and my mother, Nurse? + +NURSE. +Weeping and wailing over Tybalt’s corse. +Will you go to them? I will bring you thither. + +JULIET. +Wash they his wounds with tears. Mine shall be spent, +When theirs are dry, for Romeo’s banishment. +Take up those cords. Poor ropes, you are beguil’d, +Both you and I; for Romeo is exil’d. +He made you for a highway to my bed, +But I, a maid, die maiden-widowed. +Come cords, come Nurse, I’ll to my wedding bed, +And death, not Romeo, take my maidenhead. + +NURSE. +Hie to your chamber. I’ll find Romeo +To comfort you. I wot well where he is. +Hark ye, your Romeo will be here at night. +I’ll to him, he is hid at Lawrence’ cell. + +JULIET. +O find him, give this ring to my true knight, +And bid him come to take his last farewell. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Friar Lawrence’s cell. + + Enter Friar Lawrence. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Romeo, come forth; come forth, thou fearful man. +Affliction is enanmour’d of thy parts +And thou art wedded to calamity. + + Enter Romeo. + +ROMEO. +Father, what news? What is the Prince’s doom? +What sorrow craves acquaintance at my hand, +That I yet know not? + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Too familiar +Is my dear son with such sour company. +I bring thee tidings of the Prince’s doom. + +ROMEO. +What less than doomsday is the Prince’s doom? + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +A gentler judgment vanish’d from his lips, +Not body’s death, but body’s banishment. + +ROMEO. +Ha, banishment? Be merciful, say death; +For exile hath more terror in his look, +Much more than death. Do not say banishment. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Hence from Verona art thou banished. +Be patient, for the world is broad and wide. + +ROMEO. +There is no world without Verona walls, +But purgatory, torture, hell itself. +Hence banished is banish’d from the world, +And world’s exile is death. Then banished +Is death misterm’d. Calling death banished, +Thou cutt’st my head off with a golden axe, +And smilest upon the stroke that murders me. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +O deadly sin, O rude unthankfulness! +Thy fault our law calls death, but the kind Prince, +Taking thy part, hath brush’d aside the law, +And turn’d that black word death to banishment. +This is dear mercy, and thou see’st it not. + +ROMEO. +’Tis torture, and not mercy. Heaven is here +Where Juliet lives, and every cat and dog, +And little mouse, every unworthy thing, +Live here in heaven and may look on her, +But Romeo may not. More validity, +More honourable state, more courtship lives +In carrion flies than Romeo. They may seize +On the white wonder of dear Juliet’s hand, +And steal immortal blessing from her lips, +Who, even in pure and vestal modesty +Still blush, as thinking their own kisses sin. +But Romeo may not, he is banished. +This may flies do, when I from this must fly. +They are free men but I am banished. +And say’st thou yet that exile is not death? +Hadst thou no poison mix’d, no sharp-ground knife, +No sudden mean of death, though ne’er so mean, +But banished to kill me? Banished? +O Friar, the damned use that word in hell. +Howlings attends it. How hast thou the heart, +Being a divine, a ghostly confessor, +A sin-absolver, and my friend profess’d, +To mangle me with that word banished? + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Thou fond mad man, hear me speak a little, + +ROMEO. +O, thou wilt speak again of banishment. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +I’ll give thee armour to keep off that word, +Adversity’s sweet milk, philosophy, +To comfort thee, though thou art banished. + +ROMEO. +Yet banished? Hang up philosophy. +Unless philosophy can make a Juliet, +Displant a town, reverse a Prince’s doom, +It helps not, it prevails not, talk no more. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +O, then I see that mad men have no ears. + +ROMEO. +How should they, when that wise men have no eyes? + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Let me dispute with thee of thy estate. + +ROMEO. +Thou canst not speak of that thou dost not feel. +Wert thou as young as I, Juliet thy love, +An hour but married, Tybalt murdered, +Doting like me, and like me banished, +Then mightst thou speak, then mightst thou tear thy hair, +And fall upon the ground as I do now, +Taking the measure of an unmade grave. + + [_Knocking within._] + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Arise; one knocks. Good Romeo, hide thyself. + +ROMEO. +Not I, unless the breath of heartsick groans +Mist-like infold me from the search of eyes. + + [_Knocking._] + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Hark, how they knock!—Who’s there?—Romeo, arise, +Thou wilt be taken.—Stay awhile.—Stand up. + + [_Knocking._] + +Run to my study.—By-and-by.—God’s will, +What simpleness is this.—I come, I come. + + [_Knocking._] + +Who knocks so hard? Whence come you, what’s your will? + +NURSE. +[_Within._] Let me come in, and you shall know my errand. +I come from Lady Juliet. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Welcome then. + + Enter Nurse. + +NURSE. +O holy Friar, O, tell me, holy Friar, +Where is my lady’s lord, where’s Romeo? + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +There on the ground, with his own tears made drunk. + +NURSE. +O, he is even in my mistress’ case. +Just in her case! O woeful sympathy! +Piteous predicament. Even so lies she, +Blubbering and weeping, weeping and blubbering. +Stand up, stand up; stand, and you be a man. +For Juliet’s sake, for her sake, rise and stand. +Why should you fall into so deep an O? + +ROMEO. +Nurse. + +NURSE. +Ah sir, ah sir, death’s the end of all. + +ROMEO. +Spakest thou of Juliet? How is it with her? +Doth not she think me an old murderer, +Now I have stain’d the childhood of our joy +With blood remov’d but little from her own? +Where is she? And how doth she? And what says +My conceal’d lady to our cancell’d love? + +NURSE. +O, she says nothing, sir, but weeps and weeps; +And now falls on her bed, and then starts up, +And Tybalt calls, and then on Romeo cries, +And then down falls again. + +ROMEO. +As if that name, +Shot from the deadly level of a gun, +Did murder her, as that name’s cursed hand +Murder’d her kinsman. O, tell me, Friar, tell me, +In what vile part of this anatomy +Doth my name lodge? Tell me, that I may sack +The hateful mansion. + + [_Drawing his sword._] + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Hold thy desperate hand. +Art thou a man? Thy form cries out thou art. +Thy tears are womanish, thy wild acts denote +The unreasonable fury of a beast. +Unseemly woman in a seeming man, +And ill-beseeming beast in seeming both! +Thou hast amaz’d me. By my holy order, +I thought thy disposition better temper’d. +Hast thou slain Tybalt? Wilt thou slay thyself? +And slay thy lady, that in thy life lives, +By doing damned hate upon thyself? +Why rail’st thou on thy birth, the heaven and earth? +Since birth, and heaven and earth, all three do meet +In thee at once; which thou at once wouldst lose. +Fie, fie, thou sham’st thy shape, thy love, thy wit, +Which, like a usurer, abound’st in all, +And usest none in that true use indeed +Which should bedeck thy shape, thy love, thy wit. +Thy noble shape is but a form of wax, +Digressing from the valour of a man; +Thy dear love sworn but hollow perjury, +Killing that love which thou hast vow’d to cherish; +Thy wit, that ornament to shape and love, +Misshapen in the conduct of them both, +Like powder in a skilless soldier’s flask, +Is set afire by thine own ignorance, +And thou dismember’d with thine own defence. +What, rouse thee, man. Thy Juliet is alive, +For whose dear sake thou wast but lately dead. +There art thou happy. Tybalt would kill thee, +But thou slew’st Tybalt; there art thou happy. +The law that threaten’d death becomes thy friend, +And turns it to exile; there art thou happy. +A pack of blessings light upon thy back; +Happiness courts thee in her best array; +But like a misshaped and sullen wench, +Thou putt’st up thy Fortune and thy love. +Take heed, take heed, for such die miserable. +Go, get thee to thy love as was decreed, +Ascend her chamber, hence and comfort her. +But look thou stay not till the watch be set, +For then thou canst not pass to Mantua; +Where thou shalt live till we can find a time +To blaze your marriage, reconcile your friends, +Beg pardon of the Prince, and call thee back +With twenty hundred thousand times more joy +Than thou went’st forth in lamentation. +Go before, Nurse. Commend me to thy lady, +And bid her hasten all the house to bed, +Which heavy sorrow makes them apt unto. +Romeo is coming. + +NURSE. +O Lord, I could have stay’d here all the night +To hear good counsel. O, what learning is! +My lord, I’ll tell my lady you will come. + +ROMEO. +Do so, and bid my sweet prepare to chide. + +NURSE. +Here sir, a ring she bid me give you, sir. +Hie you, make haste, for it grows very late. + + [_Exit._] + +ROMEO. +How well my comfort is reviv’d by this. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Go hence, good night, and here stands all your state: +Either be gone before the watch be set, +Or by the break of day disguis’d from hence. +Sojourn in Mantua. I’ll find out your man, +And he shall signify from time to time +Every good hap to you that chances here. +Give me thy hand; ’tis late; farewell; good night. + +ROMEO. +But that a joy past joy calls out on me, +It were a grief so brief to part with thee. +Farewell. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. A Room in Capulet’s House. + + Enter Capulet, Lady Capulet and Paris. + +CAPULET. +Things have fallen out, sir, so unluckily +That we have had no time to move our daughter. +Look you, she lov’d her kinsman Tybalt dearly, +And so did I. Well, we were born to die. +’Tis very late; she’ll not come down tonight. +I promise you, but for your company, +I would have been abed an hour ago. + +PARIS. +These times of woe afford no tune to woo. +Madam, good night. Commend me to your daughter. + +LADY CAPULET. +I will, and know her mind early tomorrow; +Tonight she’s mew’d up to her heaviness. + +CAPULET. +Sir Paris, I will make a desperate tender +Of my child’s love. I think she will be rul’d +In all respects by me; nay more, I doubt it not. +Wife, go you to her ere you go to bed, +Acquaint her here of my son Paris’ love, +And bid her, mark you me, on Wednesday next, +But, soft, what day is this? + +PARIS. +Monday, my lord. + +CAPULET. +Monday! Ha, ha! Well, Wednesday is too soon, +A Thursday let it be; a Thursday, tell her, +She shall be married to this noble earl. +Will you be ready? Do you like this haste? +We’ll keep no great ado,—a friend or two, +For, hark you, Tybalt being slain so late, +It may be thought we held him carelessly, +Being our kinsman, if we revel much. +Therefore we’ll have some half a dozen friends, +And there an end. But what say you to Thursday? + +PARIS. +My lord, I would that Thursday were tomorrow. + +CAPULET. +Well, get you gone. A Thursday be it then. +Go you to Juliet ere you go to bed, +Prepare her, wife, against this wedding day. +Farewell, my lord.—Light to my chamber, ho! +Afore me, it is so very very late that we +May call it early by and by. Good night. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. An open Gallery to Juliet’s Chamber, overlooking the Garden. + + Enter Romeo and Juliet. + +JULIET. +Wilt thou be gone? It is not yet near day. +It was the nightingale, and not the lark, +That pierc’d the fearful hollow of thine ear; +Nightly she sings on yond pomegranate tree. +Believe me, love, it was the nightingale. + +ROMEO. +It was the lark, the herald of the morn, +No nightingale. Look, love, what envious streaks +Do lace the severing clouds in yonder east. +Night’s candles are burnt out, and jocund day +Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. +I must be gone and live, or stay and die. + +JULIET. +Yond light is not daylight, I know it, I. +It is some meteor that the sun exhales +To be to thee this night a torchbearer +And light thee on thy way to Mantua. +Therefore stay yet, thou need’st not to be gone. + +ROMEO. +Let me be ta’en, let me be put to death, +I am content, so thou wilt have it so. +I’ll say yon grey is not the morning’s eye, +’Tis but the pale reflex of Cynthia’s brow. +Nor that is not the lark whose notes do beat +The vaulty heaven so high above our heads. +I have more care to stay than will to go. +Come, death, and welcome. Juliet wills it so. +How is’t, my soul? Let’s talk. It is not day. + +JULIET. +It is, it is! Hie hence, be gone, away. +It is the lark that sings so out of tune, +Straining harsh discords and unpleasing sharps. +Some say the lark makes sweet division; +This doth not so, for she divideth us. +Some say the lark and loathed toad change eyes. +O, now I would they had chang’d voices too, +Since arm from arm that voice doth us affray, +Hunting thee hence with hunt’s-up to the day. +O now be gone, more light and light it grows. + +ROMEO. +More light and light, more dark and dark our woes. + + Enter Nurse. + +NURSE. +Madam. + +JULIET. +Nurse? + +NURSE. +Your lady mother is coming to your chamber. +The day is broke, be wary, look about. + + [_Exit._] + +JULIET. +Then, window, let day in, and let life out. + +ROMEO. +Farewell, farewell, one kiss, and I’ll descend. + + [_Descends._] + +JULIET. +Art thou gone so? Love, lord, ay husband, friend, +I must hear from thee every day in the hour, +For in a minute there are many days. +O, by this count I shall be much in years +Ere I again behold my Romeo. + +ROMEO. +Farewell! +I will omit no opportunity +That may convey my greetings, love, to thee. + +JULIET. +O thinkest thou we shall ever meet again? + +ROMEO. +I doubt it not, and all these woes shall serve +For sweet discourses in our time to come. + +JULIET. +O God! I have an ill-divining soul! +Methinks I see thee, now thou art so low, +As one dead in the bottom of a tomb. +Either my eyesight fails, or thou look’st pale. + +ROMEO. +And trust me, love, in my eye so do you. +Dry sorrow drinks our blood. Adieu, adieu. + + [_Exit below._] + +JULIET. +O Fortune, Fortune! All men call thee fickle, +If thou art fickle, what dost thou with him +That is renown’d for faith? Be fickle, Fortune; +For then, I hope thou wilt not keep him long +But send him back. + +LADY CAPULET. +[_Within._] Ho, daughter, are you up? + +JULIET. +Who is’t that calls? Is it my lady mother? +Is she not down so late, or up so early? +What unaccustom’d cause procures her hither? + + Enter Lady Capulet. + +LADY CAPULET. +Why, how now, Juliet? + +JULIET. +Madam, I am not well. + +LADY CAPULET. +Evermore weeping for your cousin’s death? +What, wilt thou wash him from his grave with tears? +And if thou couldst, thou couldst not make him live. +Therefore have done: some grief shows much of love, +But much of grief shows still some want of wit. + +JULIET. +Yet let me weep for such a feeling loss. + +LADY CAPULET. +So shall you feel the loss, but not the friend +Which you weep for. + +JULIET. +Feeling so the loss, +I cannot choose but ever weep the friend. + +LADY CAPULET. +Well, girl, thou weep’st not so much for his death +As that the villain lives which slaughter’d him. + +JULIET. +What villain, madam? + +LADY CAPULET. +That same villain Romeo. + +JULIET. +Villain and he be many miles asunder. +God pardon him. I do, with all my heart. +And yet no man like he doth grieve my heart. + +LADY CAPULET. +That is because the traitor murderer lives. + +JULIET. +Ay madam, from the reach of these my hands. +Would none but I might venge my cousin’s death. + +LADY CAPULET. +We will have vengeance for it, fear thou not. +Then weep no more. I’ll send to one in Mantua, +Where that same banish’d runagate doth live, +Shall give him such an unaccustom’d dram +That he shall soon keep Tybalt company: +And then I hope thou wilt be satisfied. + +JULIET. +Indeed I never shall be satisfied +With Romeo till I behold him—dead— +Is my poor heart so for a kinsman vex’d. +Madam, if you could find out but a man +To bear a poison, I would temper it, +That Romeo should upon receipt thereof, +Soon sleep in quiet. O, how my heart abhors +To hear him nam’d, and cannot come to him, +To wreak the love I bore my cousin +Upon his body that hath slaughter’d him. + +LADY CAPULET. +Find thou the means, and I’ll find such a man. +But now I’ll tell thee joyful tidings, girl. + +JULIET. +And joy comes well in such a needy time. +What are they, I beseech your ladyship? + +LADY CAPULET. +Well, well, thou hast a careful father, child; +One who to put thee from thy heaviness, +Hath sorted out a sudden day of joy, +That thou expects not, nor I look’d not for. + +JULIET. +Madam, in happy time, what day is that? + +LADY CAPULET. +Marry, my child, early next Thursday morn +The gallant, young, and noble gentleman, +The County Paris, at Saint Peter’s Church, +Shall happily make thee there a joyful bride. + +JULIET. +Now by Saint Peter’s Church, and Peter too, +He shall not make me there a joyful bride. +I wonder at this haste, that I must wed +Ere he that should be husband comes to woo. +I pray you tell my lord and father, madam, +I will not marry yet; and when I do, I swear +It shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate, +Rather than Paris. These are news indeed. + +LADY CAPULET. +Here comes your father, tell him so yourself, +And see how he will take it at your hands. + + Enter Capulet and Nurse. + +CAPULET. +When the sun sets, the air doth drizzle dew; +But for the sunset of my brother’s son +It rains downright. +How now? A conduit, girl? What, still in tears? +Evermore showering? In one little body +Thou counterfeits a bark, a sea, a wind. +For still thy eyes, which I may call the sea, +Do ebb and flow with tears; the bark thy body is, +Sailing in this salt flood, the winds, thy sighs, +Who raging with thy tears and they with them, +Without a sudden calm will overset +Thy tempest-tossed body. How now, wife? +Have you deliver’d to her our decree? + +LADY CAPULET. +Ay, sir; but she will none, she gives you thanks. +I would the fool were married to her grave. + +CAPULET. +Soft. Take me with you, take me with you, wife. +How, will she none? Doth she not give us thanks? +Is she not proud? Doth she not count her blest, +Unworthy as she is, that we have wrought +So worthy a gentleman to be her bridegroom? + +JULIET. +Not proud you have, but thankful that you have. +Proud can I never be of what I hate; +But thankful even for hate that is meant love. + +CAPULET. +How now, how now, chopp’d logic? What is this? +Proud, and, I thank you, and I thank you not; +And yet not proud. Mistress minion you, +Thank me no thankings, nor proud me no prouds, +But fettle your fine joints ’gainst Thursday next +To go with Paris to Saint Peter’s Church, +Or I will drag thee on a hurdle thither. +Out, you green-sickness carrion! Out, you baggage! +You tallow-face! + +LADY CAPULET. +Fie, fie! What, are you mad? + +JULIET. +Good father, I beseech you on my knees, +Hear me with patience but to speak a word. + +CAPULET. +Hang thee young baggage, disobedient wretch! +I tell thee what,—get thee to church a Thursday, +Or never after look me in the face. +Speak not, reply not, do not answer me. +My fingers itch. Wife, we scarce thought us blest +That God had lent us but this only child; +But now I see this one is one too much, +And that we have a curse in having her. +Out on her, hilding. + +NURSE. +God in heaven bless her. +You are to blame, my lord, to rate her so. + +CAPULET. +And why, my lady wisdom? Hold your tongue, +Good prudence; smatter with your gossips, go. + +NURSE. +I speak no treason. + +CAPULET. +O God ye good-en! + +NURSE. +May not one speak? + +CAPULET. +Peace, you mumbling fool! +Utter your gravity o’er a gossip’s bowl, +For here we need it not. + +LADY CAPULET. +You are too hot. + +CAPULET. +God’s bread, it makes me mad! +Day, night, hour, ride, time, work, play, +Alone, in company, still my care hath been +To have her match’d, and having now provided +A gentleman of noble parentage, +Of fair demesnes, youthful, and nobly allied, +Stuff’d, as they say, with honourable parts, +Proportion’d as one’s thought would wish a man, +And then to have a wretched puling fool, +A whining mammet, in her fortune’s tender, +To answer, ‘I’ll not wed, I cannot love, +I am too young, I pray you pardon me.’ +But, and you will not wed, I’ll pardon you. +Graze where you will, you shall not house with me. +Look to’t, think on’t, I do not use to jest. +Thursday is near; lay hand on heart, advise. +And you be mine, I’ll give you to my friend; +And you be not, hang, beg, starve, die in the streets, +For by my soul, I’ll ne’er acknowledge thee, +Nor what is mine shall never do thee good. +Trust to’t, bethink you, I’ll not be forsworn. + + [_Exit._] + +JULIET. +Is there no pity sitting in the clouds, +That sees into the bottom of my grief? +O sweet my mother, cast me not away, +Delay this marriage for a month, a week, +Or, if you do not, make the bridal bed +In that dim monument where Tybalt lies. + +LADY CAPULET. +Talk not to me, for I’ll not speak a word. +Do as thou wilt, for I have done with thee. + + [_Exit._] + +JULIET. +O God! O Nurse, how shall this be prevented? +My husband is on earth, my faith in heaven. +How shall that faith return again to earth, +Unless that husband send it me from heaven +By leaving earth? Comfort me, counsel me. +Alack, alack, that heaven should practise stratagems +Upon so soft a subject as myself. +What say’st thou? Hast thou not a word of joy? +Some comfort, Nurse. + +NURSE. +Faith, here it is. +Romeo is banished; and all the world to nothing +That he dares ne’er come back to challenge you. +Or if he do, it needs must be by stealth. +Then, since the case so stands as now it doth, +I think it best you married with the County. +O, he’s a lovely gentleman. +Romeo’s a dishclout to him. An eagle, madam, +Hath not so green, so quick, so fair an eye +As Paris hath. Beshrew my very heart, +I think you are happy in this second match, +For it excels your first: or if it did not, +Your first is dead, or ’twere as good he were, +As living here and you no use of him. + +JULIET. +Speakest thou from thy heart? + +NURSE. +And from my soul too, +Or else beshrew them both. + +JULIET. +Amen. + +NURSE. +What? + +JULIET. +Well, thou hast comforted me marvellous much. +Go in, and tell my lady I am gone, +Having displeas’d my father, to Lawrence’ cell, +To make confession and to be absolv’d. + +NURSE. +Marry, I will; and this is wisely done. + + [_Exit._] + +JULIET. +Ancient damnation! O most wicked fiend! +Is it more sin to wish me thus forsworn, +Or to dispraise my lord with that same tongue +Which she hath prais’d him with above compare +So many thousand times? Go, counsellor. +Thou and my bosom henceforth shall be twain. +I’ll to the Friar to know his remedy. +If all else fail, myself have power to die. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. + + Enter Friar Lawrence and Paris. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +On Thursday, sir? The time is very short. + +PARIS. +My father Capulet will have it so; +And I am nothing slow to slack his haste. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +You say you do not know the lady’s mind. +Uneven is the course; I like it not. + +PARIS. +Immoderately she weeps for Tybalt’s death, +And therefore have I little talk’d of love; +For Venus smiles not in a house of tears. +Now, sir, her father counts it dangerous +That she do give her sorrow so much sway; +And in his wisdom, hastes our marriage, +To stop the inundation of her tears, +Which, too much minded by herself alone, +May be put from her by society. +Now do you know the reason of this haste. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +[_Aside._] I would I knew not why it should be slow’d.— +Look, sir, here comes the lady toward my cell. + + Enter Juliet. + +PARIS. +Happily met, my lady and my wife! + +JULIET. +That may be, sir, when I may be a wife. + +PARIS. +That may be, must be, love, on Thursday next. + +JULIET. +What must be shall be. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +That’s a certain text. + +PARIS. +Come you to make confession to this father? + +JULIET. +To answer that, I should confess to you. + +PARIS. +Do not deny to him that you love me. + +JULIET. +I will confess to you that I love him. + +PARIS. +So will ye, I am sure, that you love me. + +JULIET. +If I do so, it will be of more price, +Being spoke behind your back than to your face. + +PARIS. +Poor soul, thy face is much abus’d with tears. + +JULIET. +The tears have got small victory by that; +For it was bad enough before their spite. + +PARIS. +Thou wrong’st it more than tears with that report. + +JULIET. +That is no slander, sir, which is a truth, +And what I spake, I spake it to my face. + +PARIS. +Thy face is mine, and thou hast slander’d it. + +JULIET. +It may be so, for it is not mine own. +Are you at leisure, holy father, now, +Or shall I come to you at evening mass? + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +My leisure serves me, pensive daughter, now.— +My lord, we must entreat the time alone. + +PARIS. +God shield I should disturb devotion!— +Juliet, on Thursday early will I rouse ye, +Till then, adieu; and keep this holy kiss. + + [_Exit._] + +JULIET. +O shut the door, and when thou hast done so, +Come weep with me, past hope, past cure, past help! + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +O Juliet, I already know thy grief; +It strains me past the compass of my wits. +I hear thou must, and nothing may prorogue it, +On Thursday next be married to this County. + +JULIET. +Tell me not, Friar, that thou hear’st of this, +Unless thou tell me how I may prevent it. +If in thy wisdom, thou canst give no help, +Do thou but call my resolution wise, +And with this knife I’ll help it presently. +God join’d my heart and Romeo’s, thou our hands; +And ere this hand, by thee to Romeo’s seal’d, +Shall be the label to another deed, +Or my true heart with treacherous revolt +Turn to another, this shall slay them both. +Therefore, out of thy long-experienc’d time, +Give me some present counsel, or behold +’Twixt my extremes and me this bloody knife +Shall play the empire, arbitrating that +Which the commission of thy years and art +Could to no issue of true honour bring. +Be not so long to speak. I long to die, +If what thou speak’st speak not of remedy. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Hold, daughter. I do spy a kind of hope, +Which craves as desperate an execution +As that is desperate which we would prevent. +If, rather than to marry County Paris +Thou hast the strength of will to slay thyself, +Then is it likely thou wilt undertake +A thing like death to chide away this shame, +That cop’st with death himself to scape from it. +And if thou dar’st, I’ll give thee remedy. + +JULIET. +O, bid me leap, rather than marry Paris, +From off the battlements of yonder tower, +Or walk in thievish ways, or bid me lurk +Where serpents are. Chain me with roaring bears; +Or hide me nightly in a charnel-house, +O’er-cover’d quite with dead men’s rattling bones, +With reeky shanks and yellow chapless skulls. +Or bid me go into a new-made grave, +And hide me with a dead man in his shroud; +Things that, to hear them told, have made me tremble, +And I will do it without fear or doubt, +To live an unstain’d wife to my sweet love. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Hold then. Go home, be merry, give consent +To marry Paris. Wednesday is tomorrow; +Tomorrow night look that thou lie alone, +Let not thy Nurse lie with thee in thy chamber. +Take thou this vial, being then in bed, +And this distilled liquor drink thou off, +When presently through all thy veins shall run +A cold and drowsy humour; for no pulse +Shall keep his native progress, but surcease. +No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest, +The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade +To paly ashes; thy eyes’ windows fall, +Like death when he shuts up the day of life. +Each part depriv’d of supple government, +Shall stiff and stark and cold appear like death. +And in this borrow’d likeness of shrunk death +Thou shalt continue two and forty hours, +And then awake as from a pleasant sleep. +Now when the bridegroom in the morning comes +To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead. +Then as the manner of our country is, +In thy best robes, uncover’d, on the bier, +Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault +Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie. +In the meantime, against thou shalt awake, +Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift, +And hither shall he come, and he and I +Will watch thy waking, and that very night +Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua. +And this shall free thee from this present shame, +If no inconstant toy nor womanish fear +Abate thy valour in the acting it. + +JULIET. +Give me, give me! O tell not me of fear! + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Hold; get you gone, be strong and prosperous +In this resolve. I’ll send a friar with speed +To Mantua, with my letters to thy lord. + +JULIET. +Love give me strength, and strength shall help afford. +Farewell, dear father. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Hall in Capulet’s House. + + Enter Capulet, Lady Capulet, Nurse and Servants. + +CAPULET. +So many guests invite as here are writ. + + [_Exit first Servant._] + +Sirrah, go hire me twenty cunning cooks. + +SECOND SERVANT. +You shall have none ill, sir; for I’ll try if they can lick their +fingers. + +CAPULET. +How canst thou try them so? + +SECOND SERVANT. +Marry, sir, ’tis an ill cook that cannot lick his own fingers; +therefore he that cannot lick his fingers goes not with me. + +CAPULET. +Go, begone. + + [_Exit second Servant._] + +We shall be much unfurnish’d for this time. +What, is my daughter gone to Friar Lawrence? + +NURSE. +Ay, forsooth. + +CAPULET. +Well, he may chance to do some good on her. +A peevish self-will’d harlotry it is. + + Enter Juliet. + +NURSE. +See where she comes from shrift with merry look. + +CAPULET. +How now, my headstrong. Where have you been gadding? + +JULIET. +Where I have learnt me to repent the sin +Of disobedient opposition +To you and your behests; and am enjoin’d +By holy Lawrence to fall prostrate here, +To beg your pardon. Pardon, I beseech you. +Henceforward I am ever rul’d by you. + +CAPULET. +Send for the County, go tell him of this. +I’ll have this knot knit up tomorrow morning. + +JULIET. +I met the youthful lord at Lawrence’ cell, +And gave him what becomed love I might, +Not stepping o’er the bounds of modesty. + +CAPULET. +Why, I am glad on’t. This is well. Stand up. +This is as’t should be. Let me see the County. +Ay, marry. Go, I say, and fetch him hither. +Now afore God, this reverend holy Friar, +All our whole city is much bound to him. + +JULIET. +Nurse, will you go with me into my closet, +To help me sort such needful ornaments +As you think fit to furnish me tomorrow? + +LADY CAPULET. +No, not till Thursday. There is time enough. + +CAPULET. +Go, Nurse, go with her. We’ll to church tomorrow. + + [_Exeunt Juliet and Nurse._] + +LADY CAPULET. +We shall be short in our provision, +’Tis now near night. + +CAPULET. +Tush, I will stir about, +And all things shall be well, I warrant thee, wife. +Go thou to Juliet, help to deck up her. +I’ll not to bed tonight, let me alone. +I’ll play the housewife for this once.—What, ho!— +They are all forth: well, I will walk myself +To County Paris, to prepare him up +Against tomorrow. My heart is wondrous light +Since this same wayward girl is so reclaim’d. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Juliet’s Chamber. + + Enter Juliet and Nurse. + +JULIET. +Ay, those attires are best. But, gentle Nurse, +I pray thee leave me to myself tonight; +For I have need of many orisons +To move the heavens to smile upon my state, +Which, well thou know’st, is cross and full of sin. + + Enter Lady Capulet. + +LADY CAPULET. +What, are you busy, ho? Need you my help? + +JULIET. +No, madam; we have cull’d such necessaries +As are behoveful for our state tomorrow. +So please you, let me now be left alone, +And let the nurse this night sit up with you, +For I am sure you have your hands full all +In this so sudden business. + +LADY CAPULET. +Good night. +Get thee to bed and rest, for thou hast need. + + [_Exeunt Lady Capulet and Nurse._] + +JULIET. +Farewell. God knows when we shall meet again. +I have a faint cold fear thrills through my veins +That almost freezes up the heat of life. +I’ll call them back again to comfort me. +Nurse!—What should she do here? +My dismal scene I needs must act alone. +Come, vial. +What if this mixture do not work at all? +Shall I be married then tomorrow morning? +No, No! This shall forbid it. Lie thou there. + + [_Laying down her dagger._] + +What if it be a poison, which the Friar +Subtly hath minister’d to have me dead, +Lest in this marriage he should be dishonour’d, +Because he married me before to Romeo? +I fear it is. And yet methinks it should not, +For he hath still been tried a holy man. +How if, when I am laid into the tomb, +I wake before the time that Romeo +Come to redeem me? There’s a fearful point! +Shall I not then be stifled in the vault, +To whose foul mouth no healthsome air breathes in, +And there die strangled ere my Romeo comes? +Or, if I live, is it not very like, +The horrible conceit of death and night, +Together with the terror of the place, +As in a vault, an ancient receptacle, +Where for this many hundred years the bones +Of all my buried ancestors are pack’d, +Where bloody Tybalt, yet but green in earth, +Lies festering in his shroud; where, as they say, +At some hours in the night spirits resort— +Alack, alack, is it not like that I, +So early waking, what with loathsome smells, +And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth, +That living mortals, hearing them, run mad. +O, if I wake, shall I not be distraught, +Environed with all these hideous fears, +And madly play with my forefathers’ joints? +And pluck the mangled Tybalt from his shroud? +And, in this rage, with some great kinsman’s bone, +As with a club, dash out my desperate brains? +O look, methinks I see my cousin’s ghost +Seeking out Romeo that did spit his body +Upon a rapier’s point. Stay, Tybalt, stay! +Romeo, Romeo, Romeo, here’s drink! I drink to thee. + + [_Throws herself on the bed._] + +SCENE IV. Hall in Capulet’s House. + + Enter Lady Capulet and Nurse. + +LADY CAPULET. +Hold, take these keys and fetch more spices, Nurse. + +NURSE. +They call for dates and quinces in the pastry. + + Enter Capulet. + +CAPULET. +Come, stir, stir, stir! The second cock hath crow’d, +The curfew bell hath rung, ’tis three o’clock. +Look to the bak’d meats, good Angelica; +Spare not for cost. + +NURSE. +Go, you cot-quean, go, +Get you to bed; faith, you’ll be sick tomorrow +For this night’s watching. + +CAPULET. +No, not a whit. What! I have watch’d ere now +All night for lesser cause, and ne’er been sick. + +LADY CAPULET. +Ay, you have been a mouse-hunt in your time; +But I will watch you from such watching now. + + [_Exeunt Lady Capulet and Nurse._] + +CAPULET. +A jealous-hood, a jealous-hood! + + Enter Servants, with spits, logs and baskets. + +Now, fellow, what’s there? + +FIRST SERVANT. +Things for the cook, sir; but I know not what. + +CAPULET. +Make haste, make haste. + + [_Exit First Servant._] + +—Sirrah, fetch drier logs. +Call Peter, he will show thee where they are. + +SECOND SERVANT. +I have a head, sir, that will find out logs +And never trouble Peter for the matter. + + [_Exit._] + +CAPULET. +Mass and well said; a merry whoreson, ha. +Thou shalt be loggerhead.—Good faith, ’tis day. +The County will be here with music straight, +For so he said he would. I hear him near. + + [_Play music._] + +Nurse! Wife! What, ho! What, Nurse, I say! + + Re-enter Nurse. + +Go waken Juliet, go and trim her up. +I’ll go and chat with Paris. Hie, make haste, +Make haste; the bridegroom he is come already. +Make haste I say. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Juliet’s Chamber; Juliet on the bed. + + Enter Nurse. + +NURSE. +Mistress! What, mistress! Juliet! Fast, I warrant her, she. +Why, lamb, why, lady, fie, you slug-abed! +Why, love, I say! Madam! Sweetheart! Why, bride! +What, not a word? You take your pennyworths now. +Sleep for a week; for the next night, I warrant, +The County Paris hath set up his rest +That you shall rest but little. God forgive me! +Marry and amen. How sound is she asleep! +I needs must wake her. Madam, madam, madam! +Ay, let the County take you in your bed, +He’ll fright you up, i’faith. Will it not be? +What, dress’d, and in your clothes, and down again? +I must needs wake you. Lady! Lady! Lady! +Alas, alas! Help, help! My lady’s dead! +O, well-a-day that ever I was born. +Some aqua vitae, ho! My lord! My lady! + + Enter Lady Capulet. + +LADY CAPULET. +What noise is here? + +NURSE. +O lamentable day! + +LADY CAPULET. +What is the matter? + +NURSE. +Look, look! O heavy day! + +LADY CAPULET. +O me, O me! My child, my only life. +Revive, look up, or I will die with thee. +Help, help! Call help. + + Enter Capulet. + +CAPULET. +For shame, bring Juliet forth, her lord is come. + +NURSE. +She’s dead, deceas’d, she’s dead; alack the day! + +LADY CAPULET. +Alack the day, she’s dead, she’s dead, she’s dead! + +CAPULET. +Ha! Let me see her. Out alas! She’s cold, +Her blood is settled and her joints are stiff. +Life and these lips have long been separated. +Death lies on her like an untimely frost +Upon the sweetest flower of all the field. + +NURSE. +O lamentable day! + +LADY CAPULET. +O woful time! + +CAPULET. +Death, that hath ta’en her hence to make me wail, +Ties up my tongue and will not let me speak. + + Enter Friar Lawrence and Paris with Musicians. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Come, is the bride ready to go to church? + +CAPULET. +Ready to go, but never to return. +O son, the night before thy wedding day +Hath death lain with thy bride. There she lies, +Flower as she was, deflowered by him. +Death is my son-in-law, death is my heir; +My daughter he hath wedded. I will die. +And leave him all; life, living, all is death’s. + +PARIS. +Have I thought long to see this morning’s face, +And doth it give me such a sight as this? + +LADY CAPULET. +Accurs’d, unhappy, wretched, hateful day. +Most miserable hour that e’er time saw +In lasting labour of his pilgrimage. +But one, poor one, one poor and loving child, +But one thing to rejoice and solace in, +And cruel death hath catch’d it from my sight. + +NURSE. +O woe! O woeful, woeful, woeful day. +Most lamentable day, most woeful day +That ever, ever, I did yet behold! +O day, O day, O day, O hateful day. +Never was seen so black a day as this. +O woeful day, O woeful day. + +PARIS. +Beguil’d, divorced, wronged, spited, slain. +Most detestable death, by thee beguil’d, +By cruel, cruel thee quite overthrown. +O love! O life! Not life, but love in death! + +CAPULET. +Despis’d, distressed, hated, martyr’d, kill’d. +Uncomfortable time, why cam’st thou now +To murder, murder our solemnity? +O child! O child! My soul, and not my child, +Dead art thou. Alack, my child is dead, +And with my child my joys are buried. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Peace, ho, for shame. Confusion’s cure lives not +In these confusions. Heaven and yourself +Had part in this fair maid, now heaven hath all, +And all the better is it for the maid. +Your part in her you could not keep from death, +But heaven keeps his part in eternal life. +The most you sought was her promotion, +For ’twas your heaven she should be advanc’d, +And weep ye now, seeing she is advanc’d +Above the clouds, as high as heaven itself? +O, in this love, you love your child so ill +That you run mad, seeing that she is well. +She’s not well married that lives married long, +But she’s best married that dies married young. +Dry up your tears, and stick your rosemary +On this fair corse, and, as the custom is, +And in her best array bear her to church; +For though fond nature bids us all lament, +Yet nature’s tears are reason’s merriment. + +CAPULET. +All things that we ordained festival +Turn from their office to black funeral: +Our instruments to melancholy bells, +Our wedding cheer to a sad burial feast; +Our solemn hymns to sullen dirges change; +Our bridal flowers serve for a buried corse, +And all things change them to the contrary. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Sir, go you in, and, madam, go with him, +And go, Sir Paris, everyone prepare +To follow this fair corse unto her grave. +The heavens do lower upon you for some ill; +Move them no more by crossing their high will. + + [_Exeunt Capulet, Lady Capulet, Paris and Friar._] + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Faith, we may put up our pipes and be gone. + +NURSE. +Honest good fellows, ah, put up, put up, +For well you know this is a pitiful case. + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Ay, by my troth, the case may be amended. + + [_Exit Nurse._] + + Enter Peter. + +PETER. +Musicians, O, musicians, ‘Heart’s ease,’ ‘Heart’s ease’, O, and you +will have me live, play ‘Heart’s ease.’ + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Why ‘Heart’s ease’? + +PETER. +O musicians, because my heart itself plays ‘My heart is full’. O play +me some merry dump to comfort me. + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Not a dump we, ’tis no time to play now. + +PETER. +You will not then? + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +No. + +PETER. +I will then give it you soundly. + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +What will you give us? + +PETER. +No money, on my faith, but the gleek! I will give you the minstrel. + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Then will I give you the serving-creature. + +PETER. +Then will I lay the serving-creature’s dagger on your pate. I will +carry no crotchets. I’ll re you, I’ll fa you. Do you note me? + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +And you re us and fa us, you note us. + +SECOND MUSICIAN. +Pray you put up your dagger, and put out your wit. + +PETER. +Then have at you with my wit. I will dry-beat you with an iron wit, and +put up my iron dagger. Answer me like men. + ‘When griping griefs the heart doth wound, + And doleful dumps the mind oppress, + Then music with her silver sound’— +Why ‘silver sound’? Why ‘music with her silver sound’? What say you, +Simon Catling? + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +Marry, sir, because silver hath a sweet sound. + +PETER. +Prates. What say you, Hugh Rebeck? + +SECOND MUSICIAN. +I say ‘silver sound’ because musicians sound for silver. + +PETER. +Prates too! What say you, James Soundpost? + +THIRD MUSICIAN. +Faith, I know not what to say. + +PETER. +O, I cry you mercy, you are the singer. I will say for you. It is +‘music with her silver sound’ because musicians have no gold for +sounding. + ‘Then music with her silver sound + With speedy help doth lend redress.’ + + [_Exit._] + +FIRST MUSICIAN. +What a pestilent knave is this same! + +SECOND MUSICIAN. +Hang him, Jack. Come, we’ll in here, tarry for the mourners, and stay +dinner. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Mantua. A Street. + + Enter Romeo. + +ROMEO. +If I may trust the flattering eye of sleep, +My dreams presage some joyful news at hand. +My bosom’s lord sits lightly in his throne; +And all this day an unaccustom’d spirit +Lifts me above the ground with cheerful thoughts. +I dreamt my lady came and found me dead,— +Strange dream, that gives a dead man leave to think!— +And breath’d such life with kisses in my lips, +That I reviv’d, and was an emperor. +Ah me, how sweet is love itself possess’d, +When but love’s shadows are so rich in joy. + + Enter Balthasar. + +News from Verona! How now, Balthasar? +Dost thou not bring me letters from the Friar? +How doth my lady? Is my father well? +How fares my Juliet? That I ask again; +For nothing can be ill if she be well. + +BALTHASAR. +Then she is well, and nothing can be ill. +Her body sleeps in Capel’s monument, +And her immortal part with angels lives. +I saw her laid low in her kindred’s vault, +And presently took post to tell it you. +O pardon me for bringing these ill news, +Since you did leave it for my office, sir. + +ROMEO. +Is it even so? Then I defy you, stars! +Thou know’st my lodging. Get me ink and paper, +And hire post-horses. I will hence tonight. + +BALTHASAR. +I do beseech you sir, have patience. +Your looks are pale and wild, and do import +Some misadventure. + +ROMEO. +Tush, thou art deceiv’d. +Leave me, and do the thing I bid thee do. +Hast thou no letters to me from the Friar? + +BALTHASAR. +No, my good lord. + +ROMEO. +No matter. Get thee gone, +And hire those horses. I’ll be with thee straight. + + [_Exit Balthasar._] + +Well, Juliet, I will lie with thee tonight. +Let’s see for means. O mischief thou art swift +To enter in the thoughts of desperate men. +I do remember an apothecary,— +And hereabouts he dwells,—which late I noted +In tatter’d weeds, with overwhelming brows, +Culling of simples, meagre were his looks, +Sharp misery had worn him to the bones; +And in his needy shop a tortoise hung, +An alligator stuff’d, and other skins +Of ill-shaped fishes; and about his shelves +A beggarly account of empty boxes, +Green earthen pots, bladders, and musty seeds, +Remnants of packthread, and old cakes of roses +Were thinly scatter’d, to make up a show. +Noting this penury, to myself I said, +And if a man did need a poison now, +Whose sale is present death in Mantua, +Here lives a caitiff wretch would sell it him. +O, this same thought did but forerun my need, +And this same needy man must sell it me. +As I remember, this should be the house. +Being holiday, the beggar’s shop is shut. +What, ho! Apothecary! + + Enter Apothecary. + +APOTHECARY. +Who calls so loud? + +ROMEO. +Come hither, man. I see that thou art poor. +Hold, there is forty ducats. Let me have +A dram of poison, such soon-speeding gear +As will disperse itself through all the veins, +That the life-weary taker may fall dead, +And that the trunk may be discharg’d of breath +As violently as hasty powder fir’d +Doth hurry from the fatal cannon’s womb. + +APOTHECARY. +Such mortal drugs I have, but Mantua’s law +Is death to any he that utters them. + +ROMEO. +Art thou so bare and full of wretchedness, +And fear’st to die? Famine is in thy cheeks, +Need and oppression starveth in thine eyes, +Contempt and beggary hangs upon thy back. +The world is not thy friend, nor the world’s law; +The world affords no law to make thee rich; +Then be not poor, but break it and take this. + +APOTHECARY. +My poverty, but not my will consents. + +ROMEO. +I pay thy poverty, and not thy will. + +APOTHECARY. +Put this in any liquid thing you will +And drink it off; and, if you had the strength +Of twenty men, it would despatch you straight. + +ROMEO. +There is thy gold, worse poison to men’s souls, +Doing more murder in this loathsome world +Than these poor compounds that thou mayst not sell. +I sell thee poison, thou hast sold me none. +Farewell, buy food, and get thyself in flesh. +Come, cordial and not poison, go with me +To Juliet’s grave, for there must I use thee. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Friar Lawrence’s Cell. + + Enter Friar John. + +FRIAR JOHN. +Holy Franciscan Friar! Brother, ho! + + Enter Friar Lawrence. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +This same should be the voice of Friar John. +Welcome from Mantua. What says Romeo? +Or, if his mind be writ, give me his letter. + +FRIAR JOHN. +Going to find a barefoot brother out, +One of our order, to associate me, +Here in this city visiting the sick, +And finding him, the searchers of the town, +Suspecting that we both were in a house +Where the infectious pestilence did reign, +Seal’d up the doors, and would not let us forth, +So that my speed to Mantua there was stay’d. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Who bare my letter then to Romeo? + +FRIAR JOHN. +I could not send it,—here it is again,— +Nor get a messenger to bring it thee, +So fearful were they of infection. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Unhappy fortune! By my brotherhood, +The letter was not nice, but full of charge, +Of dear import, and the neglecting it +May do much danger. Friar John, go hence, +Get me an iron crow and bring it straight +Unto my cell. + +FRIAR JOHN. +Brother, I’ll go and bring it thee. + + [_Exit._] + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Now must I to the monument alone. +Within this three hours will fair Juliet wake. +She will beshrew me much that Romeo +Hath had no notice of these accidents; +But I will write again to Mantua, +And keep her at my cell till Romeo come. +Poor living corse, clos’d in a dead man’s tomb. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. A churchyard; in it a Monument belonging to the Capulets. + + Enter Paris, and his Page bearing flowers and a torch. + +PARIS. +Give me thy torch, boy. Hence and stand aloof. +Yet put it out, for I would not be seen. +Under yond yew tree lay thee all along, +Holding thy ear close to the hollow ground; +So shall no foot upon the churchyard tread, +Being loose, unfirm, with digging up of graves, +But thou shalt hear it. Whistle then to me, +As signal that thou hear’st something approach. +Give me those flowers. Do as I bid thee, go. + +PAGE. +[_Aside._] I am almost afraid to stand alone +Here in the churchyard; yet I will adventure. + + [_Retires._] + +PARIS. +Sweet flower, with flowers thy bridal bed I strew. +O woe, thy canopy is dust and stones, +Which with sweet water nightly I will dew, +Or wanting that, with tears distill’d by moans. +The obsequies that I for thee will keep, +Nightly shall be to strew thy grave and weep. + + [_The Page whistles._] + +The boy gives warning something doth approach. +What cursed foot wanders this way tonight, +To cross my obsequies and true love’s rite? +What, with a torch! Muffle me, night, awhile. + + [_Retires._] + + Enter Romeo and Balthasar with a torch, mattock, &c. + +ROMEO. +Give me that mattock and the wrenching iron. +Hold, take this letter; early in the morning +See thou deliver it to my lord and father. +Give me the light; upon thy life I charge thee, +Whate’er thou hear’st or seest, stand all aloof +And do not interrupt me in my course. +Why I descend into this bed of death +Is partly to behold my lady’s face, +But chiefly to take thence from her dead finger +A precious ring, a ring that I must use +In dear employment. Therefore hence, be gone. +But if thou jealous dost return to pry +In what I further shall intend to do, +By heaven I will tear thee joint by joint, +And strew this hungry churchyard with thy limbs. +The time and my intents are savage-wild; +More fierce and more inexorable far +Than empty tigers or the roaring sea. + +BALTHASAR. +I will be gone, sir, and not trouble you. + +ROMEO. +So shalt thou show me friendship. Take thou that. +Live, and be prosperous, and farewell, good fellow. + +BALTHASAR. +For all this same, I’ll hide me hereabout. +His looks I fear, and his intents I doubt. + + [_Retires_] + +ROMEO. +Thou detestable maw, thou womb of death, +Gorg’d with the dearest morsel of the earth, +Thus I enforce thy rotten jaws to open, + + [_Breaking open the door of the monument._] + +And in despite, I’ll cram thee with more food. + +PARIS. +This is that banish’d haughty Montague +That murder’d my love’s cousin,—with which grief, +It is supposed, the fair creature died,— +And here is come to do some villanous shame +To the dead bodies. I will apprehend him. + + [_Advances._] + +Stop thy unhallow’d toil, vile Montague. +Can vengeance be pursu’d further than death? +Condemned villain, I do apprehend thee. +Obey, and go with me, for thou must die. + +ROMEO. +I must indeed; and therefore came I hither. +Good gentle youth, tempt not a desperate man. +Fly hence and leave me. Think upon these gone; +Let them affright thee. I beseech thee, youth, +Put not another sin upon my head +By urging me to fury. O be gone. +By heaven I love thee better than myself; +For I come hither arm’d against myself. +Stay not, be gone, live, and hereafter say, +A madman’s mercy bid thee run away. + +PARIS. +I do defy thy conjuration, +And apprehend thee for a felon here. + +ROMEO. +Wilt thou provoke me? Then have at thee, boy! + + [_They fight._] + +PAGE. +O lord, they fight! I will go call the watch. + + [_Exit._] + +PARIS. +O, I am slain! [_Falls._] If thou be merciful, +Open the tomb, lay me with Juliet. + + [_Dies._] + +ROMEO. +In faith, I will. Let me peruse this face. +Mercutio’s kinsman, noble County Paris! +What said my man, when my betossed soul +Did not attend him as we rode? I think +He told me Paris should have married Juliet. +Said he not so? Or did I dream it so? +Or am I mad, hearing him talk of Juliet, +To think it was so? O, give me thy hand, +One writ with me in sour misfortune’s book. +I’ll bury thee in a triumphant grave. +A grave? O no, a lantern, slaught’red youth, +For here lies Juliet, and her beauty makes +This vault a feasting presence full of light. +Death, lie thou there, by a dead man interr’d. + + [_Laying Paris in the monument._] + +How oft when men are at the point of death +Have they been merry! Which their keepers call +A lightning before death. O, how may I +Call this a lightning? O my love, my wife, +Death that hath suck’d the honey of thy breath, +Hath had no power yet upon thy beauty. +Thou art not conquer’d. Beauty’s ensign yet +Is crimson in thy lips and in thy cheeks, +And death’s pale flag is not advanced there. +Tybalt, liest thou there in thy bloody sheet? +O, what more favour can I do to thee +Than with that hand that cut thy youth in twain +To sunder his that was thine enemy? +Forgive me, cousin. Ah, dear Juliet, +Why art thou yet so fair? Shall I believe +That unsubstantial death is amorous; +And that the lean abhorred monster keeps +Thee here in dark to be his paramour? +For fear of that I still will stay with thee, +And never from this palace of dim night +Depart again. Here, here will I remain +With worms that are thy chambermaids. O, here +Will I set up my everlasting rest; +And shake the yoke of inauspicious stars +From this world-wearied flesh. Eyes, look your last. +Arms, take your last embrace! And, lips, O you +The doors of breath, seal with a righteous kiss +A dateless bargain to engrossing death. +Come, bitter conduct, come, unsavoury guide. +Thou desperate pilot, now at once run on +The dashing rocks thy sea-sick weary bark. +Here’s to my love! [_Drinks._] O true apothecary! +Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die. + + [_Dies._] + + Enter, at the other end of the Churchyard, Friar Lawrence, with a + lantern, crow, and spade. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Saint Francis be my speed. How oft tonight +Have my old feet stumbled at graves? Who’s there? +Who is it that consorts, so late, the dead? + +BALTHASAR. +Here’s one, a friend, and one that knows you well. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Bliss be upon you. Tell me, good my friend, +What torch is yond that vainly lends his light +To grubs and eyeless skulls? As I discern, +It burneth in the Capels’ monument. + +BALTHASAR. +It doth so, holy sir, and there’s my master, +One that you love. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Who is it? + +BALTHASAR. +Romeo. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +How long hath he been there? + +BALTHASAR. +Full half an hour. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Go with me to the vault. + +BALTHASAR. +I dare not, sir; +My master knows not but I am gone hence, +And fearfully did menace me with death +If I did stay to look on his intents. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Stay then, I’ll go alone. Fear comes upon me. +O, much I fear some ill unlucky thing. + +BALTHASAR. +As I did sleep under this yew tree here, +I dreamt my master and another fought, +And that my master slew him. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +Romeo! [_Advances._] +Alack, alack, what blood is this which stains +The stony entrance of this sepulchre? +What mean these masterless and gory swords +To lie discolour’d by this place of peace? + + [_Enters the monument._] + +Romeo! O, pale! Who else? What, Paris too? +And steep’d in blood? Ah what an unkind hour +Is guilty of this lamentable chance? +The lady stirs. + + [_Juliet wakes and stirs._] + +JULIET. +O comfortable Friar, where is my lord? +I do remember well where I should be, +And there I am. Where is my Romeo? + + [_Noise within._] + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +I hear some noise. Lady, come from that nest +Of death, contagion, and unnatural sleep. +A greater power than we can contradict +Hath thwarted our intents. Come, come away. +Thy husband in thy bosom there lies dead; +And Paris too. Come, I’ll dispose of thee +Among a sisterhood of holy nuns. +Stay not to question, for the watch is coming. +Come, go, good Juliet. I dare no longer stay. + +JULIET. +Go, get thee hence, for I will not away. + + [_Exit Friar Lawrence._] + +What’s here? A cup clos’d in my true love’s hand? +Poison, I see, hath been his timeless end. +O churl. Drink all, and left no friendly drop +To help me after? I will kiss thy lips. +Haply some poison yet doth hang on them, +To make me die with a restorative. + + [_Kisses him._] + +Thy lips are warm! + +FIRST WATCH. +[_Within._] Lead, boy. Which way? + +JULIET. +Yea, noise? Then I’ll be brief. O happy dagger. + + [_Snatching Romeo’s dagger._] + +This is thy sheath. [_stabs herself_] There rest, and let me die. + + [_Falls on Romeo’s body and dies._] + + Enter Watch with the Page of Paris. + +PAGE. +This is the place. There, where the torch doth burn. + +FIRST WATCH. +The ground is bloody. Search about the churchyard. +Go, some of you, whoe’er you find attach. + + [_Exeunt some of the Watch._] + +Pitiful sight! Here lies the County slain, +And Juliet bleeding, warm, and newly dead, +Who here hath lain this two days buried. +Go tell the Prince; run to the Capulets. +Raise up the Montagues, some others search. + + [_Exeunt others of the Watch._] + +We see the ground whereon these woes do lie, +But the true ground of all these piteous woes +We cannot without circumstance descry. + + Re-enter some of the Watch with Balthasar. + +SECOND WATCH. +Here’s Romeo’s man. We found him in the churchyard. + +FIRST WATCH. +Hold him in safety till the Prince come hither. + + Re-enter others of the Watch with Friar Lawrence. + +THIRD WATCH. Here is a Friar that trembles, sighs, and weeps. +We took this mattock and this spade from him +As he was coming from this churchyard side. + +FIRST WATCH. +A great suspicion. Stay the Friar too. + + Enter the Prince and Attendants. + +PRINCE. +What misadventure is so early up, +That calls our person from our morning’s rest? + + Enter Capulet, Lady Capulet and others. + +CAPULET. +What should it be that they so shriek abroad? + +LADY CAPULET. +O the people in the street cry Romeo, +Some Juliet, and some Paris, and all run +With open outcry toward our monument. + +PRINCE. +What fear is this which startles in our ears? + +FIRST WATCH. +Sovereign, here lies the County Paris slain, +And Romeo dead, and Juliet, dead before, +Warm and new kill’d. + +PRINCE. +Search, seek, and know how this foul murder comes. + +FIRST WATCH. +Here is a Friar, and slaughter’d Romeo’s man, +With instruments upon them fit to open +These dead men’s tombs. + +CAPULET. +O heaven! O wife, look how our daughter bleeds! +This dagger hath mista’en, for lo, his house +Is empty on the back of Montague, +And it mis-sheathed in my daughter’s bosom. + +LADY CAPULET. +O me! This sight of death is as a bell +That warns my old age to a sepulchre. + + Enter Montague and others. + +PRINCE. +Come, Montague, for thou art early up, +To see thy son and heir more early down. + +MONTAGUE. +Alas, my liege, my wife is dead tonight. +Grief of my son’s exile hath stopp’d her breath. +What further woe conspires against mine age? + +PRINCE. +Look, and thou shalt see. + +MONTAGUE. +O thou untaught! What manners is in this, +To press before thy father to a grave? + +PRINCE. +Seal up the mouth of outrage for a while, +Till we can clear these ambiguities, +And know their spring, their head, their true descent, +And then will I be general of your woes, +And lead you even to death. Meantime forbear, +And let mischance be slave to patience. +Bring forth the parties of suspicion. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +I am the greatest, able to do least, +Yet most suspected, as the time and place +Doth make against me, of this direful murder. +And here I stand, both to impeach and purge +Myself condemned and myself excus’d. + +PRINCE. +Then say at once what thou dost know in this. + +FRIAR LAWRENCE. +I will be brief, for my short date of breath +Is not so long as is a tedious tale. +Romeo, there dead, was husband to that Juliet, +And she, there dead, that Romeo’s faithful wife. +I married them; and their stol’n marriage day +Was Tybalt’s doomsday, whose untimely death +Banish’d the new-made bridegroom from this city; +For whom, and not for Tybalt, Juliet pin’d. +You, to remove that siege of grief from her, +Betroth’d, and would have married her perforce +To County Paris. Then comes she to me, +And with wild looks, bid me devise some means +To rid her from this second marriage, +Or in my cell there would she kill herself. +Then gave I her, so tutored by my art, +A sleeping potion, which so took effect +As I intended, for it wrought on her +The form of death. Meantime I writ to Romeo +That he should hither come as this dire night +To help to take her from her borrow’d grave, +Being the time the potion’s force should cease. +But he which bore my letter, Friar John, +Was stay’d by accident; and yesternight +Return’d my letter back. Then all alone +At the prefixed hour of her waking +Came I to take her from her kindred’s vault, +Meaning to keep her closely at my cell +Till I conveniently could send to Romeo. +But when I came, some minute ere the time +Of her awaking, here untimely lay +The noble Paris and true Romeo dead. +She wakes; and I entreated her come forth +And bear this work of heaven with patience. +But then a noise did scare me from the tomb; +And she, too desperate, would not go with me, +But, as it seems, did violence on herself. +All this I know; and to the marriage +Her Nurse is privy. And if ought in this +Miscarried by my fault, let my old life +Be sacrific’d, some hour before his time, +Unto the rigour of severest law. + +PRINCE. +We still have known thee for a holy man. +Where’s Romeo’s man? What can he say to this? + +BALTHASAR. +I brought my master news of Juliet’s death, +And then in post he came from Mantua +To this same place, to this same monument. +This letter he early bid me give his father, +And threaten’d me with death, going in the vault, +If I departed not, and left him there. + +PRINCE. +Give me the letter, I will look on it. +Where is the County’s Page that rais’d the watch? +Sirrah, what made your master in this place? + +PAGE. +He came with flowers to strew his lady’s grave, +And bid me stand aloof, and so I did. +Anon comes one with light to ope the tomb, +And by and by my master drew on him, +And then I ran away to call the watch. + +PRINCE. +This letter doth make good the Friar’s words, +Their course of love, the tidings of her death. +And here he writes that he did buy a poison +Of a poor ’pothecary, and therewithal +Came to this vault to die, and lie with Juliet. +Where be these enemies? Capulet, Montague, +See what a scourge is laid upon your hate, +That heaven finds means to kill your joys with love! +And I, for winking at your discords too, +Have lost a brace of kinsmen. All are punish’d. + +CAPULET. +O brother Montague, give me thy hand. +This is my daughter’s jointure, for no more +Can I demand. + +MONTAGUE. +But I can give thee more, +For I will raise her statue in pure gold, +That whiles Verona by that name is known, +There shall no figure at such rate be set +As that of true and faithful Juliet. + +CAPULET. +As rich shall Romeo’s by his lady’s lie, +Poor sacrifices of our enmity. + +PRINCE. +A glooming peace this morning with it brings; +The sun for sorrow will not show his head. +Go hence, to have more talk of these sad things. +Some shall be pardon’d, and some punished, +For never was a story of more woe +Than this of Juliet and her Romeo. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +THE TAMING OF THE SHREW + + + +Contents + +INDUCTION +Scene I. Before an alehouse on a heath. +Scene II. A bedchamber in the LORD’S house. + +ACT I +Scene I. Padua. A public place. +Scene II. Padua. Before HORTENSIO’S house. + +ACT II +Scene I. Padua. A room in BAPTISTA’S house. + +ACT III +Scene I. Padua. A room in BAPTISTA’S house. +Scene II. The same. Before BAPTISTA’S house. + +ACT IV +Scene I. A hall in PETRUCHIO’S country house. +Scene II. Padua. Before BAPTISTA’S house. +Scene III. A room in PETRUCHIO’S house. +Scene IV. Before BAPTISTA’S house. +Scene V. A public road. + +ACT V +Scene I. Padua. Before LUCENTIO’S house. +Scene II. A room in LUCENTIO’S house. + + + + + +Dramatis Personæ + +Persons in the Induction +A LORD +CHRISTOPHER SLY, a tinker +HOSTESS +PAGE +PLAYERS +HUNTSMEN +SERVANTS + +BAPTISTA MINOLA, a rich gentleman of Padua +VINCENTIO, an old gentleman of Pisa +LUCENTIO, son to Vincentio; in love with Bianca +PETRUCHIO, a gentleman of Verona; suitor to Katherina + +Suitors to Bianca +GREMIO +HORTENSIO + +Servants to Lucentio +TRANIO +BIONDELLO + +Servants to Petruchio +GRUMIO +CURTIS + +PEDANT, set up to personate Vincentio + +Daughters to Baptista +KATHERINA, the shrew +BIANCA + +WIDOW + +Tailor, Haberdasher, and Servants attending on Baptista and Petruchio + +SCENE: Sometimes in Padua, and sometimes in PETRUCHIO’S house in the +country. + + + + +INDUCTION + +SCENE I. Before an alehouse on a heath. + +Enter Hostess and Sly + +SLY. +I’ll pheeze you, in faith. + +HOSTESS. +A pair of stocks, you rogue! + +SLY. +Y’are a baggage; the Slys are no rogues; look in the chronicles: we +came in with Richard Conqueror. Therefore, _paucas pallabris_; let the +world slide. Sessa! + +HOSTESS. +You will not pay for the glasses you have burst? + +SLY. +No, not a denier. Go by, Saint Jeronimy, go to thy cold bed and warm +thee. + +HOSTESS. +I know my remedy; I must go fetch the third-borough. + +[_Exit_] + +SLY. +Third, or fourth, or fifth borough, I’ll answer him by law. I’ll not +budge an inch, boy: let him come, and kindly. + +[_Lies down on the ground, and falls asleep._] + +Horns winded. Enter a Lord from hunting, with Huntsmen and Servants. + +LORD. +Huntsman, I charge thee, tender well my hounds; +Brach Merriman, the poor cur is emboss’d, +And couple Clowder with the deep-mouth’d brach. +Saw’st thou not, boy, how Silver made it good +At the hedge-corner, in the coldest fault? +I would not lose the dog for twenty pound. + +FIRST HUNTSMAN. +Why, Bellman is as good as he, my lord; +He cried upon it at the merest loss, +And twice today pick’d out the dullest scent; +Trust me, I take him for the better dog. + +LORD. +Thou art a fool: if Echo were as fleet, +I would esteem him worth a dozen such. +But sup them well, and look unto them all; +Tomorrow I intend to hunt again. + +FIRST HUNTSMAN. +I will, my lord. + +LORD. +[ _Sees Sly_.] What’s here? One dead, or drunk? +See, doth he breathe? + +SECOND HUNTSMAN. +He breathes, my lord. Were he not warm’d with ale, +This were a bed but cold to sleep so soundly. + +LORD. +O monstrous beast! how like a swine he lies! +Grim death, how foul and loathsome is thine image! +Sirs, I will practise on this drunken man. +What think you, if he were convey’d to bed, +Wrapp’d in sweet clothes, rings put upon his fingers, +A most delicious banquet by his bed, +And brave attendants near him when he wakes, +Would not the beggar then forget himself? + +FIRST HUNTSMAN. +Believe me, lord, I think he cannot choose. + +SECOND HUNTSMAN. +It would seem strange unto him when he wak’d. + +LORD. +Even as a flattering dream or worthless fancy. +Then take him up, and manage well the jest. +Carry him gently to my fairest chamber, +And hang it round with all my wanton pictures; +Balm his foul head in warm distilled waters, +And burn sweet wood to make the lodging sweet. +Procure me music ready when he wakes, +To make a dulcet and a heavenly sound; +And if he chance to speak, be ready straight, +And with a low submissive reverence +Say ‘What is it your honour will command?’ +Let one attend him with a silver basin +Full of rose-water and bestrew’d with flowers; +Another bear the ewer, the third a diaper, +And say ‘Will’t please your lordship cool your hands?’ +Someone be ready with a costly suit, +And ask him what apparel he will wear; +Another tell him of his hounds and horse, +And that his lady mourns at his disease. +Persuade him that he hath been lunatic; +And, when he says he is—say that he dreams, +For he is nothing but a mighty lord. +This do, and do it kindly, gentle sirs; +It will be pastime passing excellent, +If it be husbanded with modesty. + +FIRST HUNTSMAN. +My lord, I warrant you we will play our part, +As he shall think by our true diligence, +He is no less than what we say he is. + +LORD. +Take him up gently, and to bed with him, +And each one to his office when he wakes. + +[Sly _is bourne out. A trumpet sounds._] + +Sirrah, go see what trumpet ’tis that sounds: + +[_Exit_ Servant.] + +Belike some noble gentleman that means, +Travelling some journey, to repose him here. + + +Re-enter Servant. + +How now! who is it? + +SERVANT. +An it please your honour, players +That offer service to your lordship. + +LORD. +Bid them come near. + + +Enter Players. + +Now, fellows, you are welcome. + +PLAYERS. +We thank your honour. + +LORD. +Do you intend to stay with me tonight? + +PLAYER. +So please your lordship to accept our duty. + +LORD. +With all my heart. This fellow I remember +Since once he play’d a farmer’s eldest son; +’Twas where you woo’d the gentlewoman so well. +I have forgot your name; but, sure, that part +Was aptly fitted and naturally perform’d. + +PLAYER. +I think ’twas Soto that your honour means. + +LORD. +’Tis very true; thou didst it excellent. +Well, you are come to me in happy time, +The rather for I have some sport in hand +Wherein your cunning can assist me much. +There is a lord will hear you play tonight; +But I am doubtful of your modesties, +Lest, over-eying of his odd behaviour,— +For yet his honour never heard a play,— +You break into some merry passion +And so offend him; for I tell you, sirs, +If you should smile, he grows impatient. + +PLAYER. +Fear not, my lord; we can contain ourselves, +Were he the veriest antick in the world. + +LORD. +Go, sirrah, take them to the buttery, +And give them friendly welcome everyone: +Let them want nothing that my house affords. + +[_Exit one with the Players._] + +Sirrah, go you to Barthol’mew my page, +And see him dress’d in all suits like a lady; +That done, conduct him to the drunkard’s chamber, +And call him ‘madam,’ do him obeisance. +Tell him from me—as he will win my love,— +He bear himself with honourable action, +Such as he hath observ’d in noble ladies +Unto their lords, by them accomplished; +Such duty to the drunkard let him do, +With soft low tongue and lowly courtesy, +And say ‘What is’t your honour will command, +Wherein your lady and your humble wife +May show her duty and make known her love?’ +And then with kind embracements, tempting kisses, +And with declining head into his bosom, +Bid him shed tears, as being overjoy’d +To see her noble lord restor’d to health, +Who for this seven years hath esteemed him +No better than a poor and loathsome beggar. +And if the boy have not a woman’s gift +To rain a shower of commanded tears, +An onion will do well for such a shift, +Which, in a napkin being close convey’d, +Shall in despite enforce a watery eye. +See this dispatch’d with all the haste thou canst; +Anon I’ll give thee more instructions. + +[_Exit Servant._] + +I know the boy will well usurp the grace, +Voice, gait, and action of a gentlewoman; +I long to hear him call the drunkard husband; +And how my men will stay themselves from laughter +When they do homage to this simple peasant. +I’ll in to counsel them; haply my presence +May well abate the over-merry spleen, +Which otherwise would grow into extremes. + +[_Exeunt._] + + + + +SCENE II. A bedchamber in the LORD’S house. + +Sly is discovered in a rich nightgown, with Attendants: some with +apparel, basin, ewer, and other appurtenances; and Lord, dressed like a +servant. + +SLY. +For God’s sake! a pot of small ale. + +FIRST SERVANT. +Will’t please your lordship drink a cup of sack? + +SECOND SERVANT. +Will’t please your honour taste of these conserves? + +THIRD SERVANT. +What raiment will your honour wear today? + +SLY. +I am Christophero Sly; call not me honour nor lordship. I ne’er drank +sack in my life; and if you give me any conserves, give me conserves of +beef. Ne’er ask me what raiment I’ll wear, for I have no more doublets +than backs, no more stockings than legs, nor no more shoes than feet: +nay, sometime more feet than shoes, or such shoes as my toes look +through the over-leather. + +LORD. +Heaven cease this idle humour in your honour! +O, that a mighty man of such descent, +Of such possessions, and so high esteem, +Should be infused with so foul a spirit! + +SLY. +What! would you make me mad? Am not I Christopher Sly, old Sly’s son of +Burton-heath; by birth a pedlar, by education a cardmaker, by +transmutation a bear-herd, and now by present profession a tinker? Ask +Marian Hacket, the fat ale-wife of Wincot, if she know me not: if she +say I am not fourteen pence on the score for sheer ale, score me up for +the lyingest knave in Christendom. What! I am not bestraught. Here’s— + +THIRD SERVANT. +O! this it is that makes your lady mourn. + +SECOND SERVANT. +O! this is it that makes your servants droop. + +LORD. +Hence comes it that your kindred shuns your house, +As beaten hence by your strange lunacy. +O noble lord, bethink thee of thy birth, +Call home thy ancient thoughts from banishment, +And banish hence these abject lowly dreams. +Look how thy servants do attend on thee, +Each in his office ready at thy beck: +Wilt thou have music? Hark! Apollo plays, + +[_Music._] + +And twenty caged nightingales do sing: +Or wilt thou sleep? We’ll have thee to a couch +Softer and sweeter than the lustful bed +On purpose trimm’d up for Semiramis. +Say thou wilt walk: we will bestrew the ground: +Or wilt thou ride? Thy horses shall be trapp’d, +Their harness studded all with gold and pearl. +Dost thou love hawking? Thou hast hawks will soar +Above the morning lark: or wilt thou hunt? +Thy hounds shall make the welkin answer them +And fetch shrill echoes from the hollow earth. + +FIRST SERVANT. +Say thou wilt course; thy greyhounds are as swift +As breathed stags; ay, fleeter than the roe. + +SECOND SERVANT. +Dost thou love pictures? We will fetch thee straight +Adonis painted by a running brook, +And Cytherea all in sedges hid, +Which seem to move and wanton with her breath +Even as the waving sedges play with wind. + +LORD. +We’ll show thee Io as she was a maid +And how she was beguiled and surpris’d, +As lively painted as the deed was done. + +THIRD SERVANT. +Or Daphne roaming through a thorny wood, +Scratching her legs, that one shall swear she bleeds +And at that sight shall sad Apollo weep, +So workmanly the blood and tears are drawn. + +LORD. +Thou art a lord, and nothing but a lord: +Thou hast a lady far more beautiful +Than any woman in this waning age. + +FIRST SERVANT. +And, till the tears that she hath shed for thee +Like envious floods o’er-run her lovely face, +She was the fairest creature in the world; +And yet she is inferior to none. + +SLY. +Am I a lord? and have I such a lady? +Or do I dream? Or have I dream’d till now? +I do not sleep: I see, I hear, I speak; +I smell sweet savours, and I feel soft things: +Upon my life, I am a lord indeed; +And not a tinker, nor Christophero Sly. +Well, bring our lady hither to our sight; +And once again, a pot o’ the smallest ale. + +SECOND SERVANT. +Will’t please your mightiness to wash your hands? + +[_Servants present a ewer, basin and napkin._] + +O, how we joy to see your wit restor’d! +O, that once more you knew but what you are! +These fifteen years you have been in a dream, +Or, when you wak’d, so wak’d as if you slept. + +SLY. +These fifteen years! by my fay, a goodly nap. +But did I never speak of all that time? + +FIRST SERVANT. +O! yes, my lord, but very idle words; +For though you lay here in this goodly chamber, +Yet would you say ye were beaten out of door, +And rail upon the hostess of the house, +And say you would present her at the leet, +Because she brought stone jugs and no seal’d quarts. +Sometimes you would call out for Cicely Hacket. + +SLY. +Ay, the woman’s maid of the house. + +THIRD SERVANT. +Why, sir, you know no house nor no such maid, +Nor no such men as you have reckon’d up, +As Stephen Sly, and old John Naps of Greece, +And Peter Turph, and Henry Pimpernell; +And twenty more such names and men as these, +Which never were, nor no man ever saw. + +SLY. +Now, Lord be thanked for my good amends! + +ALL. +Amen. + + +Enter the Page, as a lady, with Attendants. + +SLY. +I thank thee; thou shalt not lose by it. + +PAGE. +How fares my noble lord? + +SLY. +Marry, I fare well; for here is cheer enough. +Where is my wife? + +PAGE. +Here, noble lord: what is thy will with her? + +SLY. +Are you my wife, and will not call me husband? +My men should call me lord: I am your goodman. + +PAGE. +My husband and my lord, my lord and husband; +I am your wife in all obedience. + +SLY. +I know it well. What must I call her? + +LORD. +Madam. + +SLY. +Alice madam, or Joan madam? + +LORD. +Madam, and nothing else; so lords call ladies. + +SLY. +Madam wife, they say that I have dream’d +And slept above some fifteen year or more. + +PAGE. +Ay, and the time seems thirty unto me, +Being all this time abandon’d from your bed. + +SLY. +’Tis much. Servants, leave me and her alone. +Madam, undress you, and come now to bed. + +PAGE. +Thrice noble lord, let me entreat of you +To pardon me yet for a night or two; +Or, if not so, until the sun be set: +For your physicians have expressly charg’d, +In peril to incur your former malady, +That I should yet absent me from your bed: +I hope this reason stands for my excuse. + +SLY. +Ay, it stands so that I may hardly tarry so long; but I would be loath +to fall into my dreams again: I will therefore tarry in despite of the +flesh and the blood. + +Enter a Messenger. + +MESSENGER. +Your honour’s players, hearing your amendment, +Are come to play a pleasant comedy; +For so your doctors hold it very meet, +Seeing too much sadness hath congeal’d your blood, +And melancholy is the nurse of frenzy: +Therefore they thought it good you hear a play, +And frame your mind to mirth and merriment, +Which bars a thousand harms and lengthens life. + +SLY. +Marry, I will; let them play it. Is not a commonty a Christmas gambold +or a tumbling-trick? + +PAGE. +No, my good lord; it is more pleasing stuff. + +SLY. +What! household stuff? + +PAGE. +It is a kind of history. + +SLY. +Well, we’ll see’t. Come, madam wife, sit by my side and let the world +slip: we shall ne’er be younger. + + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Padua. A public place. + +Flourish. Enter Lucentio and Tranio. + +LUCENTIO. +Tranio, since for the great desire I had +To see fair Padua, nursery of arts, +I am arriv’d for fruitful Lombardy, +The pleasant garden of great Italy, +And by my father’s love and leave am arm’d +With his good will and thy good company, +My trusty servant well approv’d in all, +Here let us breathe, and haply institute +A course of learning and ingenious studies. +Pisa, renowned for grave citizens, +Gave me my being and my father first, +A merchant of great traffic through the world, +Vincentio, come of the Bentivolii. +Vincentio’s son, brought up in Florence, +It shall become to serve all hopes conceiv’d, +To deck his fortune with his virtuous deeds: +And therefore, Tranio, for the time I study, +Virtue and that part of philosophy +Will I apply that treats of happiness +By virtue specially to be achiev’d. +Tell me thy mind; for I have Pisa left +And am to Padua come as he that leaves +A shallow plash to plunge him in the deep, +And with satiety seeks to quench his thirst. + +TRANIO. +_Mi perdonato_, gentle master mine; +I am in all affected as yourself; +Glad that you thus continue your resolve +To suck the sweets of sweet philosophy. +Only, good master, while we do admire +This virtue and this moral discipline, +Let’s be no stoics nor no stocks, I pray; +Or so devote to Aristotle’s checks +As Ovid be an outcast quite abjur’d. +Balk logic with acquaintance that you have, +And practise rhetoric in your common talk; +Music and poesy use to quicken you; +The mathematics and the metaphysics, +Fall to them as you find your stomach serves you: +No profit grows where is no pleasure ta’en; +In brief, sir, study what you most affect. + +LUCENTIO. +Gramercies, Tranio, well dost thou advise. +If, Biondello, thou wert come ashore, +We could at once put us in readiness, +And take a lodging fit to entertain +Such friends as time in Padua shall beget. +But stay awhile; what company is this? + +TRANIO. +Master, some show to welcome us to town. + +[_Lucentio and Tranio stand aside._] + +Enter Baptista, Katherina, Bianca, Gremio and Hortensio. + +BAPTISTA. +Gentlemen, importune me no farther, +For how I firmly am resolv’d you know; +That is, not to bestow my youngest daughter +Before I have a husband for the elder. +If either of you both love Katherina, +Because I know you well and love you well, +Leave shall you have to court her at your pleasure. + +GREMIO. +To cart her rather: she’s too rough for me. +There, there, Hortensio, will you any wife? + +KATHERINA. +[_To Baptista_] I pray you, sir, is it your will +To make a stale of me amongst these mates? + +HORTENSIO. +Mates, maid! How mean you that? No mates for you, +Unless you were of gentler, milder mould. + +KATHERINA. +I’ faith, sir, you shall never need to fear; +I wis it is not half way to her heart; +But if it were, doubt not her care should be +To comb your noddle with a three-legg’d stool, +And paint your face, and use you like a fool. + +HORTENSIO. +From all such devils, good Lord deliver us! + +GREMIO. +And me, too, good Lord! + +TRANIO. +Husht, master! Here’s some good pastime toward: +That wench is stark mad or wonderful froward. + +LUCENTIO. +But in the other’s silence do I see +Maid’s mild behaviour and sobriety. +Peace, Tranio! + +TRANIO. +Well said, master; mum! and gaze your fill. + +BAPTISTA. +Gentlemen, that I may soon make good +What I have said,—Bianca, get you in: +And let it not displease thee, good Bianca, +For I will love thee ne’er the less, my girl. + +KATHERINA. +A pretty peat! it is best put finger in the eye, and she knew why. + +BIANCA. +Sister, content you in my discontent. +Sir, to your pleasure humbly I subscribe: +My books and instruments shall be my company, +On them to look, and practise by myself. + +LUCENTIO. +Hark, Tranio! thou mayst hear Minerva speak. + +HORTENSIO. +Signior Baptista, will you be so strange? +Sorry am I that our good will effects +Bianca’s grief. + +GREMIO. +Why will you mew her up, +Signior Baptista, for this fiend of hell, +And make her bear the penance of her tongue? + +BAPTISTA. +Gentlemen, content ye; I am resolv’d. +Go in, Bianca. + +[_Exit Bianca._] + +And for I know she taketh most delight +In music, instruments, and poetry, +Schoolmasters will I keep within my house +Fit to instruct her youth. If you, Hortensio, +Or, Signior Gremio, you, know any such, +Prefer them hither; for to cunning men +I will be very kind, and liberal +To mine own children in good bringing up; +And so, farewell. Katherina, you may stay; +For I have more to commune with Bianca. + +[_Exit._] + +KATHERINA. +Why, and I trust I may go too, may I not? What! shall I be appointed +hours, as though, belike, I knew not what to take and what to leave? +Ha! + +[_Exit._] + +GREMIO. +You may go to the devil’s dam: your gifts are so good here’s none will +hold you. Their love is not so great, Hortensio, but we may blow our +nails together, and fast it fairly out; our cake’s dough on both sides. +Farewell: yet, for the love I bear my sweet Bianca, if I can by any +means light on a fit man to teach her that wherein she delights, I will +wish him to her father. + +HORTENSIO. +So will I, Signior Gremio: but a word, I pray. Though the nature of our +quarrel yet never brooked parle, know now, upon advice, it toucheth us +both,—that we may yet again have access to our fair mistress, and be +happy rivals in Bianca’s love,—to labour and effect one thing +specially. + +GREMIO. +What’s that, I pray? + +HORTENSIO. +Marry, sir, to get a husband for her sister. + +GREMIO. +A husband! a devil. + +HORTENSIO. +I say, a husband. + +GREMIO. +I say, a devil. Thinkest thou, Hortensio, though her father be very +rich, any man is so very a fool to be married to hell? + +HORTENSIO. +Tush, Gremio! Though it pass your patience and mine to endure her loud +alarums, why, man, there be good fellows in the world, and a man could +light on them, would take her with all faults, and money enough. + +GREMIO. +I cannot tell; but I had as lief take her dowry with this condition: to +be whipp’d at the high cross every morning. + +HORTENSIO. +Faith, as you say, there’s small choice in rotten apples. But come; +since this bar in law makes us friends, it shall be so far forth +friendly maintained, till by helping Baptista’s eldest daughter to a +husband, we set his youngest free for a husband, and then have to’t +afresh. Sweet Bianca! Happy man be his dole! He that runs fastest gets +the ring. How say you, Signior Gremio? + +GREMIO. +I am agreed; and would I had given him the best horse in Padua to begin +his wooing, that would thoroughly woo her, wed her, and bed her, and +rid the house of her. Come on. + +[_Exeunt Gremio and Hortensio._] + +TRANIO. +I pray, sir, tell me, is it possible +That love should of a sudden take such hold? + +LUCENTIO. +O Tranio! till I found it to be true, +I never thought it possible or likely; +But see, while idly I stood looking on, +I found the effect of love in idleness; +And now in plainness do confess to thee, +That art to me as secret and as dear +As Anna to the Queen of Carthage was, +Tranio, I burn, I pine, I perish, Tranio, +If I achieve not this young modest girl. +Counsel me, Tranio, for I know thou canst: +Assist me, Tranio, for I know thou wilt. + +TRANIO. +Master, it is no time to chide you now; +Affection is not rated from the heart: +If love have touch’d you, nought remains but so: +_Redime te captum quam queas minimo._ + +LUCENTIO. +Gramercies, lad; go forward; this contents; +The rest will comfort, for thy counsel’s sound. + +TRANIO. +Master, you look’d so longly on the maid. +Perhaps you mark’d not what’s the pith of all. + +LUCENTIO. +O, yes, I saw sweet beauty in her face, +Such as the daughter of Agenor had, +That made great Jove to humble him to her hand, +When with his knees he kiss’d the Cretan strand. + +TRANIO. +Saw you no more? mark’d you not how her sister +Began to scold and raise up such a storm +That mortal ears might hardly endure the din? + +LUCENTIO. +Tranio, I saw her coral lips to move, +And with her breath she did perfume the air; +Sacred and sweet was all I saw in her. + +TRANIO. +Nay, then, ’tis time to stir him from his trance. +I pray, awake, sir: if you love the maid, +Bend thoughts and wits to achieve her. Thus it stands: +Her elder sister is so curst and shrewd, +That till the father rid his hands of her, +Master, your love must live a maid at home; +And therefore has he closely mew’d her up, +Because she will not be annoy’d with suitors. + +LUCENTIO. +Ah, Tranio, what a cruel father’s he! +But art thou not advis’d he took some care +To get her cunning schoolmasters to instruct her? + +TRANIO. +Ay, marry, am I, sir, and now ’tis plotted. + +LUCENTIO. +I have it, Tranio. + +TRANIO. +Master, for my hand, +Both our inventions meet and jump in one. + +LUCENTIO. +Tell me thine first. + +TRANIO. +You will be schoolmaster, +And undertake the teaching of the maid: +That’s your device. + +LUCENTIO. +It is: may it be done? + +TRANIO. +Not possible; for who shall bear your part +And be in Padua here Vincentio’s son; +Keep house and ply his book, welcome his friends; +Visit his countrymen, and banquet them? + +LUCENTIO. +_Basta_, content thee, for I have it full. +We have not yet been seen in any house, +Nor can we be distinguish’d by our faces +For man or master: then it follows thus: +Thou shalt be master, Tranio, in my stead, +Keep house and port and servants, as I should; +I will some other be; some Florentine, +Some Neapolitan, or meaner man of Pisa. +’Tis hatch’d, and shall be so: Tranio, at once +Uncase thee; take my colour’d hat and cloak. +When Biondello comes, he waits on thee; +But I will charm him first to keep his tongue. + +[_They exchange habits_] + +TRANIO. +So had you need. +In brief, sir, sith it your pleasure is, +And I am tied to be obedient; +For so your father charg’d me at our parting, +‘Be serviceable to my son,’ quoth he, +Although I think ’twas in another sense: +I am content to be Lucentio, +Because so well I love Lucentio. + +LUCENTIO. +Tranio, be so, because Lucentio loves; +And let me be a slave, to achieve that maid +Whose sudden sight hath thrall’d my wounded eye. + + +Enter Biondello. + +Here comes the rogue. Sirrah, where have you been? + +BIONDELLO. +Where have I been? Nay, how now! where are you? +Master, has my fellow Tranio stol’n your clothes? +Or you stol’n his? or both? Pray, what’s the news? + +LUCENTIO. +Sirrah, come hither: ’tis no time to jest, +And therefore frame your manners to the time. +Your fellow Tranio here, to save my life, +Puts my apparel and my count’nance on, +And I for my escape have put on his; +For in a quarrel since I came ashore +I kill’d a man, and fear I was descried. +Wait you on him, I charge you, as becomes, +While I make way from hence to save my life. +You understand me? + +BIONDELLO. +I, sir! Ne’er a whit. + +LUCENTIO. +And not a jot of Tranio in your mouth: +Tranio is changed to Lucentio. + +BIONDELLO. +The better for him: would I were so too! + +TRANIO. +So could I, faith, boy, to have the next wish after, +That Lucentio indeed had Baptista’s youngest daughter. +But, sirrah, not for my sake but your master’s, I advise +You use your manners discreetly in all kind of companies: +When I am alone, why, then I am Tranio; +But in all places else your master, Lucentio. + +LUCENTIO. +Tranio, let’s go. +One thing more rests, that thyself execute, +To make one among these wooers: if thou ask me why, +Sufficeth my reasons are both good and weighty. + +[_Exeunt._] + +[_The Presenters above speak._] + +FIRST SERVANT. +My lord, you nod; you do not mind the play. + +SLY. +Yes, by Saint Anne, I do. A good matter, surely: comes there any more +of it? + +PAGE. +My lord, ’tis but begun. + +SLY. +’Tis a very excellent piece of work, madam lady: would ’twere done! + +[_They sit and mark._] + + + + +SCENE II. Padua. Before HORTENSIO’S house. + +Enter Petruchio and his man Grumio. + +PETRUCHIO. +Verona, for a while I take my leave, +To see my friends in Padua; but of all +My best beloved and approved friend, +Hortensio; and I trow this is his house. +Here, sirrah Grumio, knock, I say. + +GRUMIO. +Knock, sir? Whom should I knock? Is there any man has rebused your +worship? + +PETRUCHIO. +Villain, I say, knock me here soundly. + +GRUMIO. +Knock you here, sir? Why, sir, what am I, sir, that I should knock you +here, sir? + +PETRUCHIO. +Villain, I say, knock me at this gate; +And rap me well, or I’ll knock your knave’s pate. + +GRUMIO. +My master is grown quarrelsome. I should knock you first, +And then I know after who comes by the worst. + +PETRUCHIO. +Will it not be? +Faith, sirrah, and you’ll not knock, I’ll ring it; +I’ll try how you can sol, fa, and sing it. + +[_He wrings Grumio by the ears._] + +GRUMIO. +Help, masters, help! my master is mad. + +PETRUCHIO. +Now, knock when I bid you, sirrah villain! + + +Enter Hortensio. + +HORTENSIO. +How now! what’s the matter? My old friend Grumio! and my good friend +Petruchio! How do you all at Verona? + +PETRUCHIO. +Signior Hortensio, come you to part the fray? +_Con tutto il cuore ben trovato_, may I say. + +HORTENSIO. +_Alla nostra casa ben venuto; molto honorato signor mio Petruchio._ +Rise, Grumio, rise: we will compound this quarrel. + +GRUMIO. +Nay, ’tis no matter, sir, what he ’leges in Latin. If this be not a +lawful cause for me to leave his service, look you, sir, he bid me +knock him and rap him soundly, sir: well, was it fit for a servant to +use his master so; being, perhaps, for aught I see, two-and-thirty, a +pip out? Whom would to God I had well knock’d at first, then had not +Grumio come by the worst. + +PETRUCHIO. +A senseless villain! Good Hortensio, +I bade the rascal knock upon your gate, +And could not get him for my heart to do it. + +GRUMIO. +Knock at the gate! O heavens! Spake you not these words plain: ‘Sirrah +knock me here, rap me here, knock me well, and knock me soundly’? And +come you now with ‘knocking at the gate’? + +PETRUCHIO. +Sirrah, be gone, or talk not, I advise you. + +HORTENSIO. +Petruchio, patience; I am Grumio’s pledge; +Why, this’s a heavy chance ’twixt him and you, +Your ancient, trusty, pleasant servant Grumio. +And tell me now, sweet friend, what happy gale +Blows you to Padua here from old Verona? + +PETRUCHIO. +Such wind as scatters young men through the world +To seek their fortunes farther than at home, +Where small experience grows. But in a few, +Signior Hortensio, thus it stands with me: +Antonio, my father, is deceas’d, +And I have thrust myself into this maze, +Haply to wive and thrive as best I may; +Crowns in my purse I have, and goods at home, +And so am come abroad to see the world. + +HORTENSIO. +Petruchio, shall I then come roundly to thee +And wish thee to a shrewd ill-favour’d wife? +Thou’dst thank me but a little for my counsel; +And yet I’ll promise thee she shall be rich, +And very rich: but th’art too much my friend, +And I’ll not wish thee to her. + +PETRUCHIO. +Signior Hortensio, ’twixt such friends as we +Few words suffice; and therefore, if thou know +One rich enough to be Petruchio’s wife, +As wealth is burden of my wooing dance, +Be she as foul as was Florentius’ love, +As old as Sibyl, and as curst and shrewd +As Socrates’ Xanthippe or a worse, +She moves me not, or not removes, at least, +Affection’s edge in me, were she as rough +As are the swelling Adriatic seas: +I come to wive it wealthily in Padua; +If wealthily, then happily in Padua. + +GRUMIO. +Nay, look you, sir, he tells you flatly what his mind is: why, give him +gold enough and marry him to a puppet or an aglet-baby; or an old trot +with ne’er a tooth in her head, though she have as many diseases as +two-and-fifty horses: why, nothing comes amiss, so money comes withal. + +HORTENSIO. +Petruchio, since we are stepp’d thus far in, +I will continue that I broach’d in jest. +I can, Petruchio, help thee to a wife +With wealth enough, and young and beauteous; +Brought up as best becomes a gentlewoman: +Her only fault,—and that is faults enough,— +Is, that she is intolerable curst, +And shrewd and froward, so beyond all measure, +That, were my state far worser than it is, +I would not wed her for a mine of gold. + +PETRUCHIO. +Hortensio, peace! thou know’st not gold’s effect: +Tell me her father’s name, and ’tis enough; +For I will board her, though she chide as loud +As thunder when the clouds in autumn crack. + +HORTENSIO. +Her father is Baptista Minola, +An affable and courteous gentleman; +Her name is Katherina Minola, +Renown’d in Padua for her scolding tongue. + +PETRUCHIO. +I know her father, though I know not her; +And he knew my deceased father well. +I will not sleep, Hortensio, till I see her; +And therefore let me be thus bold with you, +To give you over at this first encounter, +Unless you will accompany me thither. + +GRUMIO. +I pray you, sir, let him go while the humour lasts. O’ my word, and she +knew him as well as I do, she would think scolding would do little good +upon him. She may perhaps call him half a score knaves or so; why, +that’s nothing; and he begin once, he’ll rail in his rope-tricks. I’ll +tell you what, sir, and she stand him but a little, he will throw a +figure in her face, and so disfigure her with it that she shall have no +more eyes to see withal than a cat. You know him not, sir. + +HORTENSIO. +Tarry, Petruchio, I must go with thee, +For in Baptista’s keep my treasure is: +He hath the jewel of my life in hold, +His youngest daughter, beautiful Bianca, +And her withholds from me and other more, +Suitors to her and rivals in my love; +Supposing it a thing impossible, +For those defects I have before rehears’d, +That ever Katherina will be woo’d: +Therefore this order hath Baptista ta’en, +That none shall have access unto Bianca +Till Katherine the curst have got a husband. + +GRUMIO. +Katherine the curst! +A title for a maid of all titles the worst. + +HORTENSIO. +Now shall my friend Petruchio do me grace, +And offer me disguis’d in sober robes, +To old Baptista as a schoolmaster +Well seen in music, to instruct Bianca; +That so I may, by this device at least +Have leave and leisure to make love to her, +And unsuspected court her by herself. + +GRUMIO. +Here’s no knavery! See, to beguile the old folks, how the young folks +lay their heads together! + +Enter Gremio and Lucentio disguised, with books under his arm. + +Master, master, look about you: who goes there, ha? + +HORTENSIO. +Peace, Grumio! It is the rival of my love. Petruchio, stand by awhile. + +GRUMIO. +A proper stripling, and an amorous! + +GREMIO. +O! very well; I have perus’d the note. +Hark you, sir; I’ll have them very fairly bound: +All books of love, see that at any hand, +And see you read no other lectures to her. +You understand me. Over and beside +Signior Baptista’s liberality, +I’ll mend it with a largess. Take your papers too, +And let me have them very well perfum’d; +For she is sweeter than perfume itself +To whom they go to. What will you read to her? + +LUCENTIO. +Whate’er I read to her, I’ll plead for you, +As for my patron, stand you so assur’d, +As firmly as yourself were still in place; +Yea, and perhaps with more successful words +Than you, unless you were a scholar, sir. + +GREMIO. +O! this learning, what a thing it is. + +GRUMIO. +O! this woodcock, what an ass it is. + +PETRUCHIO. +Peace, sirrah! + +HORTENSIO. +Grumio, mum! God save you, Signior Gremio! + +GREMIO. +And you are well met, Signior Hortensio. +Trow you whither I am going? To Baptista Minola. +I promis’d to enquire carefully +About a schoolmaster for the fair Bianca; +And by good fortune I have lighted well +On this young man; for learning and behaviour +Fit for her turn, well read in poetry +And other books, good ones, I warrant ye. + +HORTENSIO. +’Tis well; and I have met a gentleman +Hath promis’d me to help me to another, +A fine musician to instruct our mistress: +So shall I no whit be behind in duty +To fair Bianca, so belov’d of me. + +GREMIO. +Belov’d of me, and that my deeds shall prove. + +GRUMIO. +[_Aside._] And that his bags shall prove. + +HORTENSIO. +Gremio, ’tis now no time to vent our love: +Listen to me, and if you speak me fair, +I’ll tell you news indifferent good for either. +Here is a gentleman whom by chance I met, +Upon agreement from us to his liking, +Will undertake to woo curst Katherine; +Yea, and to marry her, if her dowry please. + +GREMIO. +So said, so done, is well. +Hortensio, have you told him all her faults? + +PETRUCHIO. +I know she is an irksome brawling scold; +If that be all, masters, I hear no harm. + +GREMIO. +No, say’st me so, friend? What countryman? + +PETRUCHIO. +Born in Verona, old Antonio’s son. +My father dead, my fortune lives for me; +And I do hope good days and long to see. + +GREMIO. +O sir, such a life, with such a wife, were strange! +But if you have a stomach, to’t a God’s name; +You shall have me assisting you in all. +But will you woo this wild-cat? + +PETRUCHIO. +Will I live? + +GRUMIO. +Will he woo her? Ay, or I’ll hang her. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why came I hither but to that intent? +Think you a little din can daunt mine ears? +Have I not in my time heard lions roar? +Have I not heard the sea, puff’d up with winds, +Rage like an angry boar chafed with sweat? +Have I not heard great ordnance in the field, +And heaven’s artillery thunder in the skies? +Have I not in a pitched battle heard +Loud ’larums, neighing steeds, and trumpets’ clang? +And do you tell me of a woman’s tongue, +That gives not half so great a blow to hear +As will a chestnut in a farmer’s fire? +Tush, tush! fear boys with bugs. + +GRUMIO. +[_Aside_] For he fears none. + +GREMIO. +Hortensio, hark: +This gentleman is happily arriv’d, +My mind presumes, for his own good and yours. + +HORTENSIO. +I promis’d we would be contributors, +And bear his charge of wooing, whatsoe’er. + +GREMIO. +And so we will, provided that he win her. + +GRUMIO. +I would I were as sure of a good dinner. + + +Enter Tranio brave, and Biondello. + +TRANIO. +Gentlemen, God save you! If I may be bold, +Tell me, I beseech you, which is the readiest way +To the house of Signior Baptista Minola? + +BIONDELLO. +He that has the two fair daughters; is’t he you mean? + +TRANIO. +Even he, Biondello! + +GREMIO. +Hark you, sir, you mean not her to— + +TRANIO. +Perhaps him and her, sir; what have you to do? + +PETRUCHIO. +Not her that chides, sir, at any hand, I pray. + +TRANIO. +I love no chiders, sir. Biondello, let’s away. + +LUCENTIO. +[_Aside_] Well begun, Tranio. + +HORTENSIO. +Sir, a word ere you go. +Are you a suitor to the maid you talk of, yea or no? + +TRANIO. +And if I be, sir, is it any offence? + +GREMIO. +No; if without more words you will get you hence. + +TRANIO. +Why, sir, I pray, are not the streets as free +For me as for you? + +GREMIO. +But so is not she. + +TRANIO. +For what reason, I beseech you? + +GREMIO. +For this reason, if you’ll know, +That she’s the choice love of Signior Gremio. + +HORTENSIO. +That she’s the chosen of Signior Hortensio. + +TRANIO. +Softly, my masters! If you be gentlemen, +Do me this right; hear me with patience. +Baptista is a noble gentleman, +To whom my father is not all unknown; +And were his daughter fairer than she is, +She may more suitors have, and me for one. +Fair Leda’s daughter had a thousand wooers; +Then well one more may fair Bianca have; +And so she shall: Lucentio shall make one, +Though Paris came in hope to speed alone. + +GREMIO. +What, this gentleman will out-talk us all. + +LUCENTIO. +Sir, give him head; I know he’ll prove a jade. + +PETRUCHIO. +Hortensio, to what end are all these words? + +HORTENSIO. +Sir, let me be so bold as ask you, +Did you yet ever see Baptista’s daughter? + +TRANIO. +No, sir, but hear I do that he hath two, +The one as famous for a scolding tongue +As is the other for beauteous modesty. + +PETRUCHIO. +Sir, sir, the first’s for me; let her go by. + +GREMIO. +Yea, leave that labour to great Hercules, +And let it be more than Alcides’ twelve. + +PETRUCHIO. +Sir, understand you this of me, in sooth: +The youngest daughter, whom you hearken for, +Her father keeps from all access of suitors, +And will not promise her to any man +Until the elder sister first be wed; +The younger then is free, and not before. + +TRANIO. +If it be so, sir, that you are the man +Must stead us all, and me amongst the rest; +And if you break the ice, and do this feat, +Achieve the elder, set the younger free +For our access, whose hap shall be to have her +Will not so graceless be to be ingrate. + +HORTENSIO. +Sir, you say well, and well you do conceive; +And since you do profess to be a suitor, +You must, as we do, gratify this gentleman, +To whom we all rest generally beholding. + +TRANIO. +Sir, I shall not be slack; in sign whereof, +Please ye we may contrive this afternoon, +And quaff carouses to our mistress’ health; +And do as adversaries do in law, +Strive mightily, but eat and drink as friends. + +GRUMIO, BIONDELLO. +O excellent motion! Fellows, let’s be gone. + +HORTENSIO. +The motion’s good indeed, and be it so:— +Petruchio, I shall be your _ben venuto_. + +[_Exeunt._] + + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Padua. A room in BAPTISTA’S house. + +Enter Katherina and Bianca. + +BIANCA. +Good sister, wrong me not, nor wrong yourself, +To make a bondmaid and a slave of me; +That I disdain; but for these other gawds, +Unbind my hands, I’ll pull them off myself, +Yea, all my raiment, to my petticoat; +Or what you will command me will I do, +So well I know my duty to my elders. + +KATHERINA. +Of all thy suitors here I charge thee tell +Whom thou lov’st best: see thou dissemble not. + +BIANCA. +Believe me, sister, of all the men alive +I never yet beheld that special face +Which I could fancy more than any other. + +KATHERINA. +Minion, thou liest. Is’t not Hortensio? + +BIANCA. +If you affect him, sister, here I swear +I’ll plead for you myself but you shall have him. + +KATHERINA. +O! then, belike, you fancy riches more: +You will have Gremio to keep you fair. + +BIANCA. +Is it for him you do envy me so? +Nay, then you jest; and now I well perceive +You have but jested with me all this while: +I prithee, sister Kate, untie my hands. + +KATHERINA. +If that be jest, then all the rest was so. + +[_Strikes her._] + +Enter Baptista. + +BAPTISTA. +Why, how now, dame! Whence grows this insolence? +Bianca, stand aside. Poor girl! she weeps. +Go ply thy needle; meddle not with her. +For shame, thou hilding of a devilish spirit, +Why dost thou wrong her that did ne’er wrong thee? +When did she cross thee with a bitter word? + +KATHERINA. +Her silence flouts me, and I’ll be reveng’d. + +[_Flies after Bianca._] + +BAPTISTA. +What! in my sight? Bianca, get thee in. + +[_Exit Bianca._] + +KATHERINA. +What! will you not suffer me? Nay, now I see +She is your treasure, she must have a husband; +I must dance bare-foot on her wedding-day, +And, for your love to her, lead apes in hell. +Talk not to me: I will go sit and weep +Till I can find occasion of revenge. + +[_Exit._] + +BAPTISTA. + Was ever gentleman thus griev’d as I? +But who comes here? + + +Enter Gremio, with Lucentio in the habit of a mean man; Petruchio, with +Hortensio as a musician; and Tranio, with Biondello bearing a lute and +books. + +GREMIO. +Good morrow, neighbour Baptista. + +BAPTISTA. +Good morrow, neighbour Gremio. God save you, gentlemen! + +PETRUCHIO. +And you, good sir! Pray, have you not a daughter +Call’d Katherina, fair and virtuous? + +BAPTISTA. +I have a daughter, sir, call’d Katherina. + +GREMIO. +You are too blunt: go to it orderly. + +PETRUCHIO. +You wrong me, Signior Gremio: give me leave. +I am a gentleman of Verona, sir, +That, hearing of her beauty and her wit, +Her affability and bashful modesty, +Her wondrous qualities and mild behaviour, +Am bold to show myself a forward guest +Within your house, to make mine eye the witness +Of that report which I so oft have heard. +And, for an entrance to my entertainment, +I do present you with a man of mine, + +[_Presenting Hortensio._] + +Cunning in music and the mathematics, +To instruct her fully in those sciences, +Whereof I know she is not ignorant. +Accept of him, or else you do me wrong: +His name is Licio, born in Mantua. + +BAPTISTA. +Y’are welcome, sir, and he for your good sake; +But for my daughter Katherine, this I know, +She is not for your turn, the more my grief. + +PETRUCHIO. +I see you do not mean to part with her; +Or else you like not of my company. + +BAPTISTA. +Mistake me not; I speak but as I find. +Whence are you, sir? What may I call your name? + +PETRUCHIO. +Petruchio is my name, Antonio’s son; +A man well known throughout all Italy. + +BAPTISTA. +I know him well: you are welcome for his sake. + +GREMIO. +Saving your tale, Petruchio, I pray, +Let us, that are poor petitioners, speak too. +Backare! you are marvellous forward. + +PETRUCHIO. +O, pardon me, Signior Gremio; I would fain be doing. + +GREMIO. +I doubt it not, sir; but you will curse your wooing. Neighbour, this is +a gift very grateful, I am sure of it. To express the like kindness, +myself, that have been more kindly beholding to you than any, freely +give unto you this young scholar, + +[_Presenting Lucentio._] + +that has been long studying at Rheims; as cunning in Greek, Latin, and +other languages, as the other in music and mathematics. His name is +Cambio; pray accept his service. + +BAPTISTA. +A thousand thanks, Signior Gremio; welcome, good Cambio. [_To Tranio._] +But, gentle sir, methinks you walk like a stranger. May I be so bold to +know the cause of your coming? + +TRANIO. +Pardon me, sir, the boldness is mine own, +That, being a stranger in this city here, +Do make myself a suitor to your daughter, +Unto Bianca, fair and virtuous. +Nor is your firm resolve unknown to me, +In the preferment of the eldest sister. +This liberty is all that I request, +That, upon knowledge of my parentage, +I may have welcome ’mongst the rest that woo, +And free access and favour as the rest: +And, toward the education of your daughters, +I here bestow a simple instrument, +And this small packet of Greek and Latin books: +If you accept them, then their worth is great. + +BAPTISTA. +Lucentio is your name, of whence, I pray? + +TRANIO. +Of Pisa, sir; son to Vincentio. + +BAPTISTA. +A mighty man of Pisa: by report +I know him well: you are very welcome, sir. +[_To Hortensio_.] Take you the lute, +[_To Lucentio_.] and you the set of books; +You shall go see your pupils presently. +Holla, within! + + +Enter a Servant. + +Sirrah, lead these gentlemen +To my daughters, and tell them both +These are their tutors: bid them use them well. + +[_Exeunt Servant with Hortensio, Lucentio and Biondello._] + +We will go walk a little in the orchard, +And then to dinner. You are passing welcome, +And so I pray you all to think yourselves. + +PETRUCHIO. +Signior Baptista, my business asketh haste, +And every day I cannot come to woo. +You knew my father well, and in him me, +Left solely heir to all his lands and goods, +Which I have bettered rather than decreas’d: +Then tell me, if I get your daughter’s love, +What dowry shall I have with her to wife? + +BAPTISTA. +After my death, the one half of my lands, +And in possession twenty thousand crowns. + +PETRUCHIO. +And, for that dowry, I’ll assure her of +Her widowhood, be it that she survive me, +In all my lands and leases whatsoever. +Let specialities be therefore drawn between us, +That covenants may be kept on either hand. + +BAPTISTA. +Ay, when the special thing is well obtain’d, +That is, her love; for that is all in all. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, that is nothing; for I tell you, father, +I am as peremptory as she proud-minded; +And where two raging fires meet together, +They do consume the thing that feeds their fury: +Though little fire grows great with little wind, +Yet extreme gusts will blow out fire and all; +So I to her, and so she yields to me; +For I am rough and woo not like a babe. + +BAPTISTA. +Well mayst thou woo, and happy be thy speed! +But be thou arm’d for some unhappy words. + +PETRUCHIO. +Ay, to the proof, as mountains are for winds, +That shake not though they blow perpetually. + + +Re-enter Hortensio, with his head broke. + +BAPTISTA. +How now, my friend! Why dost thou look so pale? + +HORTENSIO. +For fear, I promise you, if I look pale. + +BAPTISTA. +What, will my daughter prove a good musician? + +HORTENSIO. +I think she’ll sooner prove a soldier: +Iron may hold with her, but never lutes. + +BAPTISTA. +Why, then thou canst not break her to the lute? + +HORTENSIO. +Why, no; for she hath broke the lute to me. +I did but tell her she mistook her frets, +And bow’d her hand to teach her fingering; +When, with a most impatient devilish spirit, +’Frets, call you these?’ quoth she ‘I’ll fume with them’; +And with that word she struck me on the head, +And through the instrument my pate made way; +And there I stood amazed for a while, +As on a pillory, looking through the lute; +While she did call me rascal fiddler, +And twangling Jack, with twenty such vile terms, +As had she studied to misuse me so. + +PETRUCHIO. +Now, by the world, it is a lusty wench! +I love her ten times more than e’er I did: +O! how I long to have some chat with her! + +BAPTISTA. +[_To Hortensio_.] Well, go with me, and be not so discomfited; +Proceed in practice with my younger daughter; +She’s apt to learn, and thankful for good turns. +Signior Petruchio, will you go with us, +Or shall I send my daughter Kate to you? + +PETRUCHIO. +I pray you do. + +[_Exeunt Baptista, Gremio, Tranio and Hortensio._] + +I will attend her here, +And woo her with some spirit when she comes. +Say that she rail; why, then I’ll tell her plain +She sings as sweetly as a nightingale: +Say that she frown; I’ll say she looks as clear +As morning roses newly wash’d with dew: +Say she be mute, and will not speak a word; +Then I’ll commend her volubility, +And say she uttereth piercing eloquence: +If she do bid me pack, I’ll give her thanks, +As though she bid me stay by her a week: +If she deny to wed, I’ll crave the day +When I shall ask the banns, and when be married. +But here she comes; and now, Petruchio, speak. + + +Enter Katherina. + +Good morrow, Kate; for that’s your name, I hear. + +KATHERINA. +Well have you heard, but something hard of hearing: +They call me Katherine that do talk of me. + +PETRUCHIO. +You lie, in faith, for you are call’d plain Kate, +And bonny Kate, and sometimes Kate the curst; +But, Kate, the prettiest Kate in Christendom, +Kate of Kate Hall, my super-dainty Kate, +For dainties are all Kates, and therefore, Kate, +Take this of me, Kate of my consolation; +Hearing thy mildness prais’d in every town, +Thy virtues spoke of, and thy beauty sounded,— +Yet not so deeply as to thee belongs,— +Myself am mov’d to woo thee for my wife. + +KATHERINA. +Mov’d! in good time: let him that mov’d you hither +Remove you hence. I knew you at the first, +You were a moveable. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, what’s a moveable? + +KATHERINA. +A joint-stool. + +PETRUCHIO. +Thou hast hit it: come, sit on me. + +KATHERINA. +Asses are made to bear, and so are you. + +PETRUCHIO. +Women are made to bear, and so are you. + +KATHERINA. +No such jade as bear you, if me you mean. + +PETRUCHIO. +Alas! good Kate, I will not burden thee; +For, knowing thee to be but young and light,— + +KATHERINA. +Too light for such a swain as you to catch; +And yet as heavy as my weight should be. + +PETRUCHIO. +Should be! should buz! + +KATHERINA. +Well ta’en, and like a buzzard. + +PETRUCHIO. +O, slow-wing’d turtle! shall a buzzard take thee? + +KATHERINA. +Ay, for a turtle, as he takes a buzzard. + +PETRUCHIO. +Come, come, you wasp; i’ faith, you are too angry. + +KATHERINA. +If I be waspish, best beware my sting. + +PETRUCHIO. +My remedy is then to pluck it out. + +KATHERINA. +Ay, if the fool could find it where it lies. + +PETRUCHIO. +Who knows not where a wasp does wear his sting? +In his tail. + +KATHERINA. +In his tongue. + +PETRUCHIO. +Whose tongue? + +KATHERINA. +Yours, if you talk of tales; and so farewell. + +PETRUCHIO. +What! with my tongue in your tail? Nay, come again, +Good Kate; I am a gentleman. + +KATHERINA. +That I’ll try. + +[_Striking him._] + +PETRUCHIO. +I swear I’ll cuff you if you strike again. + +KATHERINA. +So may you lose your arms: +If you strike me, you are no gentleman; +And if no gentleman, why then no arms. + +PETRUCHIO. +A herald, Kate? O! put me in thy books. + +KATHERINA. +What is your crest? a coxcomb? + +PETRUCHIO. +A combless cock, so Kate will be my hen. + +KATHERINA. +No cock of mine; you crow too like a craven. + +PETRUCHIO. +Nay, come, Kate, come; you must not look so sour. + +KATHERINA. +It is my fashion when I see a crab. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, here’s no crab, and therefore look not sour. + +KATHERINA. +There is, there is. + +PETRUCHIO. +Then show it me. + +KATHERINA. +Had I a glass I would. + +PETRUCHIO. +What, you mean my face? + +KATHERINA. +Well aim’d of such a young one. + +PETRUCHIO. +Now, by Saint George, I am too young for you. + +KATHERINA. +Yet you are wither’d. + +PETRUCHIO. +’Tis with cares. + +KATHERINA. +I care not. + +PETRUCHIO. +Nay, hear you, Kate: in sooth, you ’scape not so. + +KATHERINA. +I chafe you, if I tarry; let me go. + +PETRUCHIO. +No, not a whit; I find you passing gentle. +’Twas told me you were rough, and coy, and sullen, +And now I find report a very liar; +For thou art pleasant, gamesome, passing courteous, +But slow in speech, yet sweet as spring-time flowers. +Thou canst not frown, thou canst not look askance, +Nor bite the lip, as angry wenches will, +Nor hast thou pleasure to be cross in talk; +But thou with mildness entertain’st thy wooers; +With gentle conference, soft and affable. +Why does the world report that Kate doth limp? +O sland’rous world! Kate like the hazel-twig +Is straight and slender, and as brown in hue +As hazel-nuts, and sweeter than the kernels. +O! let me see thee walk: thou dost not halt. + +KATHERINA. +Go, fool, and whom thou keep’st command. + +PETRUCHIO. +Did ever Dian so become a grove +As Kate this chamber with her princely gait? +O! be thou Dian, and let her be Kate, +And then let Kate be chaste, and Dian sportful! + +KATHERINA. +Where did you study all this goodly speech? + +PETRUCHIO. +It is extempore, from my mother-wit. + +KATHERINA. +A witty mother! witless else her son. + +PETRUCHIO. +Am I not wise? + +KATHERINA. +Yes; keep you warm. + +PETRUCHIO. +Marry, so I mean, sweet Katherine, in thy bed; +And therefore, setting all this chat aside, +Thus in plain terms: your father hath consented +That you shall be my wife your dowry ’greed on; +And will you, nill you, I will marry you. +Now, Kate, I am a husband for your turn; +For, by this light, whereby I see thy beauty,— +Thy beauty that doth make me like thee well,— +Thou must be married to no man but me; +For I am he am born to tame you, Kate, +And bring you from a wild Kate to a Kate +Conformable as other household Kates. + + +Re-enter Baptista, Gremio and Tranio. + +Here comes your father. Never make denial; +I must and will have Katherine to my wife. + +BAPTISTA. +Now, Signior Petruchio, how speed you with my daughter? + +PETRUCHIO. +How but well, sir? how but well? +It were impossible I should speed amiss. + +BAPTISTA. +Why, how now, daughter Katherine, in your dumps? + +KATHERINA. +Call you me daughter? Now I promise you +You have show’d a tender fatherly regard +To wish me wed to one half lunatic, +A mad-cap ruffian and a swearing Jack, +That thinks with oaths to face the matter out. + +PETRUCHIO. +Father, ’tis thus: yourself and all the world +That talk’d of her have talk’d amiss of her: +If she be curst, it is for policy, +For she’s not froward, but modest as the dove; +She is not hot, but temperate as the morn; +For patience she will prove a second Grissel, +And Roman Lucrece for her chastity; +And to conclude, we have ’greed so well together +That upon Sunday is the wedding-day. + +KATHERINA. +I’ll see thee hang’d on Sunday first. + +GREMIO. +Hark, Petruchio; she says she’ll see thee hang’d first. + +TRANIO. +Is this your speeding? Nay, then good-night our part! + +PETRUCHIO. +Be patient, gentlemen. I choose her for myself; +If she and I be pleas’d, what’s that to you? +’Tis bargain’d ’twixt us twain, being alone, +That she shall still be curst in company. +I tell you, ’tis incredible to believe +How much she loves me: O! the kindest Kate +She hung about my neck, and kiss on kiss +She vied so fast, protesting oath on oath, +That in a twink she won me to her love. +O! you are novices: ’tis a world to see, +How tame, when men and women are alone, +A meacock wretch can make the curstest shrew. +Give me thy hand, Kate; I will unto Venice, +To buy apparel ’gainst the wedding-day. +Provide the feast, father, and bid the guests; +I will be sure my Katherine shall be fine. + +BAPTISTA. +I know not what to say; but give me your hands. +God send you joy, Petruchio! ’Tis a match. + +GREMIO, TRANIO. +Amen, say we; we will be witnesses. + +PETRUCHIO. +Father, and wife, and gentlemen, adieu. +I will to Venice; Sunday comes apace; +We will have rings and things, and fine array; +And kiss me, Kate; we will be married o’ Sunday. + +[_Exeunt Petruchio and Katherina, severally._] + +GREMIO. +Was ever match clapp’d up so suddenly? + +BAPTISTA. +Faith, gentlemen, now I play a merchant’s part, +And venture madly on a desperate mart. + +TRANIO. +’Twas a commodity lay fretting by you; +’Twill bring you gain, or perish on the seas. + +BAPTISTA. +The gain I seek is, quiet in the match. + +GREMIO. +No doubt but he hath got a quiet catch. +But now, Baptista, to your younger daughter: +Now is the day we long have looked for; +I am your neighbour, and was suitor first. + +TRANIO. +And I am one that love Bianca more +Than words can witness or your thoughts can guess. + +GREMIO. +Youngling, thou canst not love so dear as I. + +TRANIO. +Greybeard, thy love doth freeze. + +GREMIO. +But thine doth fry. +Skipper, stand back; ’tis age that nourisheth. + +TRANIO. +But youth in ladies’ eyes that flourisheth. + +BAPTISTA. +Content you, gentlemen; I’ll compound this strife: +’Tis deeds must win the prize, and he of both +That can assure my daughter greatest dower +Shall have my Bianca’s love. +Say, Signior Gremio, what can you assure her? + +GREMIO. +First, as you know, my house within the city +Is richly furnished with plate and gold: +Basins and ewers to lave her dainty hands; +My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry; +In ivory coffers I have stuff’d my crowns; +In cypress chests my arras counterpoints, +Costly apparel, tents, and canopies, +Fine linen, Turkey cushions boss’d with pearl, +Valance of Venice gold in needlework; +Pewter and brass, and all things that belong +To house or housekeeping: then, at my farm +I have a hundred milch-kine to the pail, +Six score fat oxen standing in my stalls, +And all things answerable to this portion. +Myself am struck in years, I must confess; +And if I die tomorrow this is hers, +If whilst I live she will be only mine. + +TRANIO. +That ‘only’ came well in. Sir, list to me: +I am my father’s heir and only son; +If I may have your daughter to my wife, +I’ll leave her houses three or four as good +Within rich Pisa’s walls as anyone +Old Signior Gremio has in Padua; +Besides two thousand ducats by the year +Of fruitful land, all which shall be her jointure. +What, have I pinch’d you, Signior Gremio? + +GREMIO. +Two thousand ducats by the year of land! +My land amounts not to so much in all: +That she shall have, besides an argosy +That now is lying in Marseilles’ road. +What, have I chok’d you with an argosy? + +TRANIO. +Gremio, ’tis known my father hath no less +Than three great argosies, besides two galliasses, +And twelve tight galleys; these I will assure her, +And twice as much, whate’er thou offer’st next. + +GREMIO. +Nay, I have offer’d all; I have no more; +And she can have no more than all I have; +If you like me, she shall have me and mine. + +TRANIO. +Why, then the maid is mine from all the world, +By your firm promise; Gremio is out-vied. + +BAPTISTA. +I must confess your offer is the best; +And let your father make her the assurance, +She is your own; else, you must pardon me; +If you should die before him, where’s her dower? + +TRANIO. +That’s but a cavil; he is old, I young. + +GREMIO. +And may not young men die as well as old? + +BAPTISTA. +Well, gentlemen, +I am thus resolv’d. On Sunday next, you know, +My daughter Katherine is to be married; +Now, on the Sunday following, shall Bianca +Be bride to you, if you make this assurance; +If not, to Signior Gremio. +And so I take my leave, and thank you both. + +GREMIO. +Adieu, good neighbour. + +[_Exit Baptista._] + +Now, I fear thee not: +Sirrah young gamester, your father were a fool +To give thee all, and in his waning age +Set foot under thy table. Tut! a toy! +An old Italian fox is not so kind, my boy. + +[_Exit._] + +TRANIO. +A vengeance on your crafty wither’d hide! +Yet I have fac’d it with a card of ten. +’Tis in my head to do my master good: +I see no reason but suppos’d Lucentio +Must get a father, call’d suppos’d Vincentio; +And that’s a wonder: fathers commonly +Do get their children; but in this case of wooing +A child shall get a sire, if I fail not of my cunning. + +[_Exit._] + + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Padua. A room in BAPTISTA’S house. + +Enter Lucentio, Hortensio and Bianca. + +LUCENTIO. +Fiddler, forbear; you grow too forward, sir. +Have you so soon forgot the entertainment +Her sister Katherine welcome’d you withal? + +HORTENSIO. +But, wrangling pedant, this is +The patroness of heavenly harmony: +Then give me leave to have prerogative; +And when in music we have spent an hour, +Your lecture shall have leisure for as much. + +LUCENTIO. +Preposterous ass, that never read so far +To know the cause why music was ordain’d! +Was it not to refresh the mind of man +After his studies or his usual pain? +Then give me leave to read philosophy, +And while I pause serve in your harmony. + +HORTENSIO. +Sirrah, I will not bear these braves of thine. + +BIANCA. +Why, gentlemen, you do me double wrong, +To strive for that which resteth in my choice. +I am no breeching scholar in the schools, +I’ll not be tied to hours nor ’pointed times, +But learn my lessons as I please myself. +And, to cut off all strife, here sit we down; +Take you your instrument, play you the whiles; +His lecture will be done ere you have tun’d. + +HORTENSIO. +You’ll leave his lecture when I am in tune? + +[_Retires._] + +LUCENTIO. +That will be never: tune your instrument. + +BIANCA. +Where left we last? + +LUCENTIO. +Here, madam:— +_Hic ibat Simois; hic est Sigeia tellus; +Hic steterat Priami regia celsa senis._ + +BIANCA. +Construe them. + +LUCENTIO. +_Hic ibat_, as I told you before, _Simois_, I am Lucentio, _hic est_, +son unto Vincentio of Pisa, _Sigeia tellus_, disguised thus to get your +love, _Hic steterat_, and that Lucentio that comes a-wooing, _Priami_, +is my man Tranio, _regia_, bearing my port, _celsa senis_, that we +might beguile the old pantaloon. + +HORTENSIO. [_Returning._] +Madam, my instrument’s in tune. + +BIANCA. +Let’s hear.— + +[Hortensio _plays._] + +O fie! the treble jars. + +LUCENTIO. +Spit in the hole, man, and tune again. + +BIANCA. +Now let me see if I can construe it: _Hic ibat Simois_, I know you not; +_hic est Sigeia tellus_, I trust you not; _Hic steterat Priami_, take +heed he hear us not; _regia_, presume not; _celsa senis_, despair not. + +HORTENSIO. +Madam, ’tis now in tune. + +LUCENTIO. +All but the base. + +HORTENSIO. +The base is right; ’tis the base knave that jars. +[_Aside_] How fiery and forward our pedant is! +Now, for my life, the knave doth court my love: +Pedascule, I’ll watch you better yet. + +BIANCA. +In time I may believe, yet I mistrust. + +LUCENTIO. +Mistrust it not; for sure, Æacides +Was Ajax, call’d so from his grandfather. + +BIANCA. +I must believe my master; else, I promise you, +I should be arguing still upon that doubt; +But let it rest. Now, Licio, to you. +Good master, take it not unkindly, pray, +That I have been thus pleasant with you both. + +HORTENSIO. +[_To Lucentio_] You may go walk and give me leave a while; +My lessons make no music in three parts. + +LUCENTIO. +Are you so formal, sir? Well, I must wait, +[_Aside_] And watch withal; for, but I be deceiv’d, +Our fine musician groweth amorous. + +HORTENSIO. +Madam, before you touch the instrument, +To learn the order of my fingering, +I must begin with rudiments of art; +To teach you gamut in a briefer sort, +More pleasant, pithy, and effectual, +Than hath been taught by any of my trade: +And there it is in writing, fairly drawn. + +BIANCA. +Why, I am past my gamut long ago. + +HORTENSIO. +Yet read the gamut of Hortensio. + +BIANCA. + _Gamut_ I am, the ground of all accord, + _A re_, to plead Hortensio’s passion; + _B mi_, Bianca, take him for thy lord, + _C fa ut_, that loves with all affection: + _D sol re_, one clef, two notes have I + _E la mi_, show pity or I die. +Call you this gamut? Tut, I like it not: +Old fashions please me best; I am not so nice, +To change true rules for odd inventions. + + +Enter a Servant. + +SERVANT. +Mistress, your father prays you leave your books, +And help to dress your sister’s chamber up: +You know tomorrow is the wedding-day. + +BIANCA. +Farewell, sweet masters, both: I must be gone. + +[_Exeunt Bianca and Servant._] + +LUCENTIO. +Faith, mistress, then I have no cause to stay. + +[_Exit._] + +HORTENSIO. +But I have cause to pry into this pedant: +Methinks he looks as though he were in love. +Yet if thy thoughts, Bianca, be so humble +To cast thy wand’ring eyes on every stale, +Seize thee that list: if once I find thee ranging, +Hortensio will be quit with thee by changing. + +[_Exit._] + + + + +SCENE II. The same. Before BAPTISTA’S house. + +Enter Baptista, Gremio, Tranio, Katherina, Bianca, Lucentio and +Attendants. + +BAPTISTA. [_To Tranio_.] +Signior Lucentio, this is the ’pointed day +That Katherine and Petruchio should be married, +And yet we hear not of our son-in-law. +What will be said? What mockery will it be +To want the bridegroom when the priest attends +To speak the ceremonial rites of marriage! +What says Lucentio to this shame of ours? + +KATHERINA. +No shame but mine; I must, forsooth, be forc’d +To give my hand, oppos’d against my heart, +Unto a mad-brain rudesby, full of spleen; +Who woo’d in haste and means to wed at leisure. +I told you, I, he was a frantic fool, +Hiding his bitter jests in blunt behaviour; +And to be noted for a merry man, +He’ll woo a thousand, ’point the day of marriage, +Make friends, invite, and proclaim the banns; +Yet never means to wed where he hath woo’d. +Now must the world point at poor Katherine, +And say ‘Lo! there is mad Petruchio’s wife, +If it would please him come and marry her.’ + +TRANIO. +Patience, good Katherine, and Baptista too. +Upon my life, Petruchio means but well, +Whatever fortune stays him from his word: +Though he be blunt, I know him passing wise; +Though he be merry, yet withal he’s honest. + +KATHERINA. +Would Katherine had never seen him though! + +[_Exit weeping, followed by Bianca and others._] + +BAPTISTA. +Go, girl, I cannot blame thee now to weep, +For such an injury would vex a very saint; +Much more a shrew of thy impatient humour. + + +Enter Biondello. + +Master, master! News! old news, and such news as you never heard of! + +BAPTISTA. +Is it new and old too? How may that be? + +BIONDELLO. +Why, is it not news to hear of Petruchio’s coming? + +BAPTISTA. +Is he come? + +BIONDELLO. +Why, no, sir. + +BAPTISTA. +What then? + +BIONDELLO. +He is coming. + +BAPTISTA. +When will he be here? + +BIONDELLO. +When he stands where I am and sees you there. + +TRANIO. +But say, what to thine old news? + +BIONDELLO. +Why, Petruchio is coming, in a new hat and an old jerkin; a pair of old +breeches thrice turned; a pair of boots that have been candle-cases, +one buckled, another laced; an old rusty sword ta’en out of the town +armoury, with a broken hilt, and chapeless; with two broken points: his +horse hipped with an old mothy saddle and stirrups of no kindred; +besides, possessed with the glanders and like to mose in the chine; +troubled with the lampass, infected with the fashions, full of +windgalls, sped with spavins, rayed with the yellows, past cure of the +fives, stark spoiled with the staggers, begnawn with the bots, swayed +in the back and shoulder-shotten; near-legged before, and with a +half-checked bit, and a head-stall of sheep’s leather, which, being +restrained to keep him from stumbling, hath been often burst, and now +repaired with knots; one girth six times pieced, and a woman’s crupper +of velure, which hath two letters for her name fairly set down in +studs, and here and there pieced with pack-thread. + +BAPTISTA. +Who comes with him? + +BIONDELLO. +O, sir! his lackey, for all the world caparisoned like the horse; with +a linen stock on one leg and a kersey boot-hose on the other, gartered +with a red and blue list; an old hat, and the humour of forty fancies +prick’d in’t for a feather: a monster, a very monster in apparel, and +not like a Christian footboy or a gentleman’s lackey. + +TRANIO. +’Tis some odd humour pricks him to this fashion; +Yet oftentimes lie goes but mean-apparell’d. + +BAPTISTA. +I am glad he’s come, howsoe’er he comes. + +BIONDELLO. +Why, sir, he comes not. + +BAPTISTA. +Didst thou not say he comes? + +BIONDELLO. +Who? that Petruchio came? + +BAPTISTA. +Ay, that Petruchio came. + +BIONDELLO. +No, sir; I say his horse comes, with him on his back. + +BAPTISTA. +Why, that’s all one. + +BIONDELLO. + Nay, by Saint Jamy, + I hold you a penny, + A horse and a man + Is more than one, + And yet not many. + + +Enter Petruchio and Grumio. + +PETRUCHIO. +Come, where be these gallants? Who is at home? + +BAPTISTA. +You are welcome, sir. + +PETRUCHIO. +And yet I come not well. + +BAPTISTA. +And yet you halt not. + +TRANIO. +Not so well apparell’d as I wish you were. + +PETRUCHIO. +Were it better, I should rush in thus. +But where is Kate? Where is my lovely bride? +How does my father? Gentles, methinks you frown; +And wherefore gaze this goodly company, +As if they saw some wondrous monument, +Some comet or unusual prodigy? + +BAPTISTA. +Why, sir, you know this is your wedding-day: +First were we sad, fearing you would not come; +Now sadder, that you come so unprovided. +Fie! doff this habit, shame to your estate, +An eye-sore to our solemn festival. + +TRANIO. +And tell us what occasion of import +Hath all so long detain’d you from your wife, +And sent you hither so unlike yourself? + +PETRUCHIO. +Tedious it were to tell, and harsh to hear; +Sufficeth I am come to keep my word, +Though in some part enforced to digress; +Which at more leisure I will so excuse +As you shall well be satisfied withal. +But where is Kate? I stay too long from her; +The morning wears, ’tis time we were at church. + +TRANIO. +See not your bride in these unreverent robes; +Go to my chamber, put on clothes of mine. + +PETRUCHIO. +Not I, believe me: thus I’ll visit her. + +BAPTISTA. +But thus, I trust, you will not marry her. + +PETRUCHIO. +Good sooth, even thus; therefore ha’ done with words; +To me she’s married, not unto my clothes. +Could I repair what she will wear in me +As I can change these poor accoutrements, +’Twere well for Kate and better for myself. +But what a fool am I to chat with you +When I should bid good morrow to my bride, +And seal the title with a lovely kiss! + +[_Exeunt Petruchio, Grumio and Biondello._] + +TRANIO. +He hath some meaning in his mad attire. +We will persuade him, be it possible, +To put on better ere he go to church. + +BAPTISTA. +I’ll after him and see the event of this. + +[_Exeunt Baptista, Gremio and Attendants._] + +TRANIO. +But, sir, to love concerneth us to add +Her father’s liking; which to bring to pass, +As I before imparted to your worship, +I am to get a man,—whate’er he be +It skills not much; we’ll fit him to our turn,— +And he shall be Vincentio of Pisa, +And make assurance here in Padua, +Of greater sums than I have promised. +So shall you quietly enjoy your hope, +And marry sweet Bianca with consent. + +LUCENTIO. +Were it not that my fellow schoolmaster +Doth watch Bianca’s steps so narrowly, +’Twere good, methinks, to steal our marriage; +Which once perform’d, let all the world say no, +I’ll keep mine own despite of all the world. + +TRANIO. +That by degrees we mean to look into, +And watch our vantage in this business. +We’ll over-reach the greybeard, Gremio, +The narrow-prying father, Minola, +The quaint musician, amorous Licio; +All for my master’s sake, Lucentio. + + +Re-enter Gremio. + +Signior Gremio, came you from the church? + +GREMIO. +As willingly as e’er I came from school. + +TRANIO. +And is the bride and bridegroom coming home? + +GREMIO. +A bridegroom, say you? ’Tis a groom indeed, +A grumbling groom, and that the girl shall find. + +TRANIO. +Curster than she? Why, ’tis impossible. + +GREMIO. +Why, he’s a devil, a devil, a very fiend. + +TRANIO. +Why, she’s a devil, a devil, the devil’s dam. + +GREMIO. +Tut! she’s a lamb, a dove, a fool, to him. +I’ll tell you, Sir Lucentio: when the priest +Should ask if Katherine should be his wife, +’Ay, by gogs-wouns’ quoth he, and swore so loud +That, all amaz’d, the priest let fall the book; +And as he stoop’d again to take it up, +The mad-brain’d bridegroom took him such a cuff +That down fell priest and book, and book and priest: +‘Now take them up,’ quoth he ‘if any list.’ + +TRANIO. +What said the wench, when he rose again? + +GREMIO. +Trembled and shook, for why, he stamp’d and swore +As if the vicar meant to cozen him. +But after many ceremonies done, +He calls for wine: ‘A health!’ quoth he, as if +He had been abroad, carousing to his mates +After a storm; quaff’d off the muscadel, +And threw the sops all in the sexton’s face, +Having no other reason +But that his beard grew thin and hungerly +And seem’d to ask him sops as he was drinking. +This done, he took the bride about the neck, +And kiss’d her lips with such a clamorous smack +That at the parting all the church did echo. +And I, seeing this, came thence for very shame; +And after me, I know, the rout is coming. +Such a mad marriage never was before. +Hark, hark! I hear the minstrels play. + +[_Music plays._] + +Enter Petrucio, Katherina, Bianca, Baptista, Hortensio, Grumio and +Train. + +PETRUCHIO. +Gentlemen and friends, I thank you for your pains: +I know you think to dine with me today, +And have prepar’d great store of wedding cheer +But so it is, my haste doth call me hence, +And therefore here I mean to take my leave. + +BAPTISTA. +Is’t possible you will away tonight? + +PETRUCHIO. +I must away today before night come. +Make it no wonder: if you knew my business, +You would entreat me rather go than stay. +And, honest company, I thank you all, +That have beheld me give away myself +To this most patient, sweet, and virtuous wife. +Dine with my father, drink a health to me. +For I must hence; and farewell to you all. + +TRANIO. +Let us entreat you stay till after dinner. + +PETRUCHIO. +It may not be. + +GREMIO. +Let me entreat you. + +PETRUCHIO. +It cannot be. + +KATHERINA. +Let me entreat you. + +PETRUCHIO. +I am content. + +KATHERINA. +Are you content to stay? + +PETRUCHIO. +I am content you shall entreat me stay; +But yet not stay, entreat me how you can. + +KATHERINA. +Now, if you love me, stay. + +PETRUCHIO. +Grumio, my horse! + +GRUMIO. +Ay, sir, they be ready; the oats have eaten the horses. + +KATHERINA. +Nay, then, +Do what thou canst, I will not go today; +No, nor tomorrow, not till I please myself. +The door is open, sir; there lies your way; +You may be jogging whiles your boots are green; +For me, I’ll not be gone till I please myself. +’Tis like you’ll prove a jolly surly groom +That take it on you at the first so roundly. + +PETRUCHIO. +O Kate! content thee: prithee be not angry. + +KATHERINA. +I will be angry: what hast thou to do? +Father, be quiet; he shall stay my leisure. + +GREMIO. +Ay, marry, sir, now it begins to work. + +KATHERINA. +Gentlemen, forward to the bridal dinner: +I see a woman may be made a fool, +If she had not a spirit to resist. + +PETRUCHIO. +They shall go forward, Kate, at thy command. +Obey the bride, you that attend on her; +Go to the feast, revel and domineer, +Carouse full measure to her maidenhead, +Be mad and merry, or go hang yourselves: +But for my bonny Kate, she must with me. +Nay, look not big, nor stamp, nor stare, nor fret; +I will be master of what is mine own. +She is my goods, my chattels; she is my house, +My household stuff, my field, my barn, +My horse, my ox, my ass, my anything; +And here she stands, touch her whoever dare; +I’ll bring mine action on the proudest he +That stops my way in Padua. Grumio, +Draw forth thy weapon; we are beset with thieves; +Rescue thy mistress, if thou be a man. +Fear not, sweet wench; they shall not touch thee, Kate; +I’ll buckler thee against a million. + +[_Exeunt Petrucio, Katherina and Grumio._] + +BAPTISTA. +Nay, let them go, a couple of quiet ones. + +GREMIO. +Went they not quickly, I should die with laughing. + +TRANIO. +Of all mad matches, never was the like. + +LUCENTIO. +Mistress, what’s your opinion of your sister? + +BIANCA. +That, being mad herself, she’s madly mated. + +GREMIO. +I warrant him, Petruchio is Kated. + +BAPTISTA. +Neighbours and friends, though bride and bridegroom wants +For to supply the places at the table, +You know there wants no junkets at the feast. +Lucentio, you shall supply the bridegroom’s place; +And let Bianca take her sister’s room. + +TRANIO. +Shall sweet Bianca practise how to bride it? + +BAPTISTA. +She shall, Lucentio. Come, gentlemen, let’s go. + +[_Exeunt._] + + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. A hall in PETRUCHIO’S country house. + +Enter Grumio. + +GRUMIO. +Fie, fie on all tired jades, on all mad masters, and all foul ways! Was +ever man so beaten? Was ever man so ray’d? Was ever man so weary? I am +sent before to make a fire, and they are coming after to warm them. +Now, were not I a little pot and soon hot, my very lips might freeze to +my teeth, my tongue to the roof of my mouth, my heart in my belly, ere +I should come by a fire to thaw me. But I with blowing the fire shall +warm myself; for, considering the weather, a taller man than I will +take cold. Holla, ho! Curtis! + +Enter Curtis. + +CURTIS. +Who is that calls so coldly? + +GRUMIO. +A piece of ice: if thou doubt it, thou mayst slide from my shoulder to +my heel with no greater a run but my head and my neck. A fire, good +Curtis. + +CURTIS. +Is my master and his wife coming, Grumio? + +GRUMIO. +O, ay! Curtis, ay; and therefore fire, fire; cast on no water. + +CURTIS. +Is she so hot a shrew as she’s reported? + +GRUMIO. +She was, good Curtis, before this frost; but thou knowest winter tames +man, woman, and beast; for it hath tamed my old master, and my new +mistress, and myself, fellow Curtis. + +CURTIS. +Away, you three-inch fool! I am no beast. + +GRUMIO. +Am I but three inches? Why, thy horn is a foot; and so long am I at the +least. But wilt thou make a fire, or shall I complain on thee to our +mistress, whose hand,—she being now at hand,— thou shalt soon feel, to +thy cold comfort, for being slow in thy hot office? + +CURTIS. +I prithee, good Grumio, tell me, how goes the world? + +GRUMIO. +A cold world, Curtis, in every office but thine; and therefore fire. Do +thy duty, and have thy duty, for my master and mistress are almost +frozen to death. + +CURTIS. +There’s fire ready; and therefore, good Grumio, the news. + +GRUMIO. +Why, ‘Jack boy! ho, boy!’ and as much news as wilt thou. + +CURTIS. +Come, you are so full of cony-catching. + +GRUMIO. +Why, therefore, fire; for I have caught extreme cold. Where’s the cook? +Is supper ready, the house trimmed, rushes strewed, cobwebs swept, the +servingmen in their new fustian, their white stockings, and every +officer his wedding-garment on? Be the Jacks fair within, the Jills +fair without, and carpets laid, and everything in order? + +CURTIS. +All ready; and therefore, I pray thee, news. + +GRUMIO. +First, know my horse is tired; my master and mistress fallen out. + +CURTIS. +How? + +GRUMIO. +Out of their saddles into the dirt; and thereby hangs a tale. + +CURTIS. +Let’s ha’t, good Grumio. + +GRUMIO. +Lend thine ear. + +CURTIS. +Here. + +GRUMIO. +[_Striking him._] There. + +CURTIS. +This ’tis to feel a tale, not to hear a tale. + +GRUMIO. +And therefore ’tis called a sensible tale; and this cuff was but to +knock at your ear and beseech listening. Now I begin: _Imprimis_, we +came down a foul hill, my master riding behind my mistress,— + +CURTIS. +Both of one horse? + +GRUMIO. +What’s that to thee? + +CURTIS. +Why, a horse. + +GRUMIO. +Tell thou the tale: but hadst thou not crossed me, thou shouldst have +heard how her horse fell, and she under her horse; thou shouldst have +heard in how miry a place, how she was bemoiled; how he left her with +the horse upon her; how he beat me because her horse stumbled; how she +waded through the dirt to pluck him off me: how he swore; how she +prayed, that never prayed before; how I cried; how the horses ran away; +how her bridle was burst; how I lost my crupper; with many things of +worthy memory, which now shall die in oblivion, and thou return +unexperienced to thy grave. + +CURTIS. +By this reckoning he is more shrew than she. + +GRUMIO. +Ay; and that thou and the proudest of you all shall find when he comes +home. But what talk I of this? Call forth Nathaniel, Joseph, Nicholas, +Philip, Walter, Sugarsop, and the rest; let their heads be sleekly +combed, their blue coats brush’d and their garters of an indifferent +knit; let them curtsy with their left legs, and not presume to touch a +hair of my master’s horse-tail till they kiss their hands. Are they all +ready? + +CURTIS. +They are. + +GRUMIO. +Call them forth. + +CURTIS. +Do you hear? ho! You must meet my master to countenance my mistress. + +GRUMIO. +Why, she hath a face of her own. + +CURTIS. +Who knows not that? + +GRUMIO. +Thou, it seems, that calls for company to countenance her. + +CURTIS. +I call them forth to credit her. + +GRUMIO. +Why, she comes to borrow nothing of them. + + +Enter four or five Servants. + +NATHANIEL. +Welcome home, Grumio! + +PHILIP. +How now, Grumio! + +JOSEPH. +What, Grumio! + +NICHOLAS. +Fellow Grumio! + +NATHANIEL. +How now, old lad! + +GRUMIO. +Welcome, you; how now, you; what, you; fellow, you; and thus much for +greeting. Now, my spruce companions, is all ready, and all things neat? + +NATHANIEL. +All things is ready. How near is our master? + +GRUMIO. +E’en at hand, alighted by this; and therefore be not,— +Cock’s passion, silence! I hear my master. + + +Enter Petrucio and Katherina. + +PETRUCHIO. +Where be these knaves? What! no man at door +To hold my stirrup nor to take my horse? +Where is Nathaniel, Gregory, Philip?— + +ALL SERVANTS. +Here, here, sir; here, sir. + +PETRUCHIO. +Here, sir! here, sir! here, sir! here, sir! +You logger-headed and unpolish’d grooms! +What, no attendance? no regard? no duty? +Where is the foolish knave I sent before? + +GRUMIO. +Here, sir; as foolish as I was before. + +PETRUCHIO. +You peasant swain! you whoreson malt-horse drudge! +Did I not bid thee meet me in the park, +And bring along these rascal knaves with thee? + +GRUMIO. +Nathaniel’s coat, sir, was not fully made, +And Gabriel’s pumps were all unpink’d i’ the heel; +There was no link to colour Peter’s hat, +And Walter’s dagger was not come from sheathing; +There was none fine but Adam, Ralph, and Gregory; +The rest were ragged, old, and beggarly; +Yet, as they are, here are they come to meet you. + +PETRUCHIO. +Go, rascals, go and fetch my supper in. + +[_Exeunt some of the Servants._] + +Where is the life that late I led? + Where are those—? Sit down, Kate, and welcome. +Food, food, food, food! + + +Re-enter Servants with supper. + +Why, when, I say?—Nay, good sweet Kate, be merry.— +Off with my boots, you rogues! you villains! when? + It was the friar of orders grey, + As he forth walked on his way: +Out, you rogue! you pluck my foot awry: + +[_Strikes him._] + +Take that, and mend the plucking off the other. +Be merry, Kate. Some water, here; what, ho! +Where’s my spaniel Troilus? Sirrah, get you hence +And bid my cousin Ferdinand come hither: + +[_Exit Servant._] + +One, Kate, that you must kiss and be acquainted with. +Where are my slippers? Shall I have some water? +Come, Kate, and wash, and welcome heartily.— + +[_Servant lets the ewer fall. Petruchio strikes him._] + +You whoreson villain! will you let it fall? + +KATHERINA. +Patience, I pray you; ’twas a fault unwilling. + +PETRUCHIO. +A whoreson, beetle-headed, flap-ear’d knave! +Come, Kate, sit down; I know you have a stomach. +Will you give thanks, sweet Kate, or else shall I?— +What’s this? Mutton? + +FIRST SERVANT. +Ay. + +PETRUCHIO. +Who brought it? + +PETER. +I. + +PETRUCHIO. +’Tis burnt; and so is all the meat. +What dogs are these! Where is the rascal cook? +How durst you, villains, bring it from the dresser, +And serve it thus to me that love it not? + +[_Throws the meat, etc., at them._] + +There, take it to you, trenchers, cups, and all. +You heedless joltheads and unmanner’d slaves! +What! do you grumble? I’ll be with you straight. + +KATHERINA. +I pray you, husband, be not so disquiet; +The meat was well, if you were so contented. + +PETRUCHIO. +I tell thee, Kate, ’twas burnt and dried away, +And I expressly am forbid to touch it; +For it engenders choler, planteth anger; +And better ’twere that both of us did fast, +Since, of ourselves, ourselves are choleric, +Than feed it with such over-roasted flesh. +Be patient; tomorrow ’t shall be mended. +And for this night we’ll fast for company: +Come, I will bring thee to thy bridal chamber. + +[_Exeunt Petruchio, Katherina and Curtis._] + +NATHANIEL. +Peter, didst ever see the like? + +PETER. +He kills her in her own humour. + + +Re-enter Curtis. + +GRUMIO. +Where is he? + +CURTIS. +In her chamber, making a sermon of continency to her; +And rails, and swears, and rates, that she, poor soul, +Knows not which way to stand, to look, to speak, +And sits as one new risen from a dream. +Away, away! for he is coming hither. + +[_Exeunt._] + +Re-enter Petruchio. + +PETRUCHIO. +Thus have I politicly begun my reign, +And ’tis my hope to end successfully. +My falcon now is sharp and passing empty. +And till she stoop she must not be full-gorg’d, +For then she never looks upon her lure. +Another way I have to man my haggard, +To make her come, and know her keeper’s call, +That is, to watch her, as we watch these kites +That bate and beat, and will not be obedient. +She eat no meat today, nor none shall eat; +Last night she slept not, nor tonight she shall not; +As with the meat, some undeserved fault +I’ll find about the making of the bed; +And here I’ll fling the pillow, there the bolster, +This way the coverlet, another way the sheets; +Ay, and amid this hurly I intend +That all is done in reverend care of her; +And, in conclusion, she shall watch all night: +And if she chance to nod I’ll rail and brawl, +And with the clamour keep her still awake. +This is a way to kill a wife with kindness; +And thus I’ll curb her mad and headstrong humour. +He that knows better how to tame a shrew, +Now let him speak; ’tis charity to show. + +[_Exit._] + + + + +SCENE II. Padua. Before BAPTISTA’S house. + +Enter Tranio and Hortensio. + +TRANIO. +Is ’t possible, friend Licio, that Mistress Bianca +Doth fancy any other but Lucentio? +I tell you, sir, she bears me fair in hand. + +HORTENSIO. +Sir, to satisfy you in what I have said, +Stand by and mark the manner of his teaching. + +[_They stand aside._] + +Enter Bianca and Lucentio. + +LUCENTIO. +Now, mistress, profit you in what you read? + +BIANCA. +What, master, read you? First resolve me that. + +LUCENTIO. +I read that I profess, _The Art to Love_. + +BIANCA. +And may you prove, sir, master of your art! + +LUCENTIO. +While you, sweet dear, prove mistress of my heart. + +[_They retire._] + +HORTENSIO. +Quick proceeders, marry! Now tell me, I pray, +You that durst swear that your Mistress Bianca +Lov’d none in the world so well as Lucentio. + +TRANIO. +O despiteful love! unconstant womankind! +I tell thee, Licio, this is wonderful. + +HORTENSIO. +Mistake no more; I am not Licio. +Nor a musician as I seem to be; +But one that scorn to live in this disguise +For such a one as leaves a gentleman +And makes a god of such a cullion: +Know, sir, that I am call’d Hortensio. + +TRANIO. +Signior Hortensio, I have often heard +Of your entire affection to Bianca; +And since mine eyes are witness of her lightness, +I will with you, if you be so contented, +Forswear Bianca and her love for ever. + +HORTENSIO. +See, how they kiss and court! Signior Lucentio, +Here is my hand, and here I firmly vow +Never to woo her more, but do forswear her, +As one unworthy all the former favours +That I have fondly flatter’d her withal. + +TRANIO. +And here I take the like unfeigned oath, +Never to marry with her though she would entreat; +Fie on her! See how beastly she doth court him! + +HORTENSIO. +Would all the world but he had quite forsworn! +For me, that I may surely keep mine oath, +I will be married to a wealthy widow +Ere three days pass, which hath as long lov’d me +As I have lov’d this proud disdainful haggard. +And so farewell, Signior Lucentio. +Kindness in women, not their beauteous looks, +Shall win my love; and so I take my leave, +In resolution as I swore before. + +[_Exit Hortensio. Lucentio and Bianca advance._] + +TRANIO. +Mistress Bianca, bless you with such grace +As ’longeth to a lover’s blessed case! +Nay, I have ta’en you napping, gentle love, +And have forsworn you with Hortensio. + +BIANCA. +Tranio, you jest; but have you both forsworn me? + +TRANIO. +Mistress, we have. + +LUCENTIO. +Then we are rid of Licio. + +TRANIO. +I’ faith, he’ll have a lusty widow now, +That shall be woo’d and wedded in a day. + +BIANCA. +God give him joy! + +TRANIO. +Ay, and he’ll tame her. + +BIANCA. +He says so, Tranio. + +TRANIO. +Faith, he is gone unto the taming-school. + +BIANCA. +The taming-school! What, is there such a place? + +TRANIO. +Ay, mistress; and Petruchio is the master, +That teacheth tricks eleven and twenty long, +To tame a shrew and charm her chattering tongue. + + +Enter Biondello, running. + +BIONDELLO. +O master, master! I have watch’d so long +That I am dog-weary; but at last I spied +An ancient angel coming down the hill +Will serve the turn. + +TRANIO. +What is he, Biondello? + +BIONDELLO. +Master, a mercatante or a pedant, +I know not what; but formal in apparel, +In gait and countenance surely like a father. + +LUCENTIO. +And what of him, Tranio? + +TRANIO. +If he be credulous and trust my tale, +I’ll make him glad to seem Vincentio, +And give assurance to Baptista Minola, +As if he were the right Vincentio. +Take in your love, and then let me alone. + +[_Exeunt Lucentio and Bianca._] + +Enter a Pedant. + +PEDANT. +God save you, sir! + +TRANIO. +And you, sir! you are welcome. +Travel you far on, or are you at the farthest? + +PEDANT. +Sir, at the farthest for a week or two; +But then up farther, and as far as Rome; +And so to Tripoli, if God lend me life. + +TRANIO. +What countryman, I pray? + +PEDANT. +Of Mantua. + +TRANIO. +Of Mantua, sir? Marry, God forbid, +And come to Padua, careless of your life! + +PEDANT. +My life, sir! How, I pray? for that goes hard. + +TRANIO. +’Tis death for anyone in Mantua +To come to Padua. Know you not the cause? +Your ships are stay’d at Venice; and the Duke,— +For private quarrel ’twixt your Duke and him,— +Hath publish’d and proclaim’d it openly. +’Tis marvel, but that you are but newly come +You might have heard it else proclaim’d about. + +PEDANT. +Alas, sir! it is worse for me than so; +For I have bills for money by exchange +From Florence, and must here deliver them. + +TRANIO. +Well, sir, to do you courtesy, +This will I do, and this I will advise you: +First, tell me, have you ever been at Pisa? + +PEDANT. +Ay, sir, in Pisa have I often been, +Pisa renowned for grave citizens. + +TRANIO. +Among them know you one Vincentio? + +PEDANT. +I know him not, but I have heard of him, +A merchant of incomparable wealth. + +TRANIO. +He is my father, sir; and, sooth to say, +In countenance somewhat doth resemble you. + +BIONDELLO. +[_Aside._] As much as an apple doth an oyster, and all one. + +TRANIO. +To save your life in this extremity, +This favour will I do you for his sake; +And think it not the worst of all your fortunes +That you are like to Sir Vincentio. +His name and credit shall you undertake, +And in my house you shall be friendly lodg’d; +Look that you take upon you as you should! +You understand me, sir; so shall you stay +Till you have done your business in the city. +If this be courtesy, sir, accept of it. + +PEDANT. +O, sir, I do; and will repute you ever +The patron of my life and liberty. + +TRANIO. +Then go with me to make the matter good. +This, by the way, I let you understand: +My father is here look’d for every day +To pass assurance of a dower in marriage +’Twixt me and one Baptista’s daughter here: +In all these circumstances I’ll instruct you. +Go with me to clothe you as becomes you. + +[_Exeunt._] + + + + +SCENE III. A room in PETRUCHIO’S house. + +Enter Katherina and Grumio. + +GRUMIO. +No, no, forsooth; I dare not for my life. + +KATHERINA. +The more my wrong, the more his spite appears. +What, did he marry me to famish me? +Beggars that come unto my father’s door +Upon entreaty have a present alms; +If not, elsewhere they meet with charity; +But I, who never knew how to entreat, +Nor never needed that I should entreat, +Am starv’d for meat, giddy for lack of sleep; +With oaths kept waking, and with brawling fed. +And that which spites me more than all these wants, +He does it under name of perfect love; +As who should say, if I should sleep or eat +’Twere deadly sickness, or else present death. +I prithee go and get me some repast; +I care not what, so it be wholesome food. + +GRUMIO. +What say you to a neat’s foot? + +KATHERINA. +’Tis passing good; I prithee let me have it. + +GRUMIO. +I fear it is too choleric a meat. +How say you to a fat tripe finely broil’d? + +KATHERINA. +I like it well; good Grumio, fetch it me. + +GRUMIO. +I cannot tell; I fear ’tis choleric. +What say you to a piece of beef and mustard? + +KATHERINA. +A dish that I do love to feed upon. + +GRUMIO. +Ay, but the mustard is too hot a little. + +KATHERINA. +Why then the beef, and let the mustard rest. + +GRUMIO. +Nay, then I will not: you shall have the mustard, +Or else you get no beef of Grumio. + +KATHERINA. +Then both, or one, or anything thou wilt. + +GRUMIO. +Why then the mustard without the beef. + +KATHERINA. +Go, get thee gone, thou false deluding slave, + +[_Beats him._] + +That feed’st me with the very name of meat. +Sorrow on thee and all the pack of you +That triumph thus upon my misery! +Go, get thee gone, I say. + + +Enter Petruchio with a dish of meat; and Hortensio. + +PETRUCHIO. +How fares my Kate? What, sweeting, all amort? + +HORTENSIO. +Mistress, what cheer? + +KATHERINA. +Faith, as cold as can be. + +PETRUCHIO. +Pluck up thy spirits; look cheerfully upon me. +Here, love; thou seest how diligent I am, +To dress thy meat myself, and bring it thee: + +[_Sets the dish on a table._] + +I am sure, sweet Kate, this kindness merits thanks. +What! not a word? Nay, then thou lov’st it not, +And all my pains is sorted to no proof. +Here, take away this dish. + +KATHERINA. +I pray you, let it stand. + +PETRUCHIO. +The poorest service is repaid with thanks; +And so shall mine, before you touch the meat. + +KATHERINA. +I thank you, sir. + +HORTENSIO. +Signior Petruchio, fie! you are to blame. +Come, Mistress Kate, I’ll bear you company. + +PETRUCHIO. +[_Aside._] Eat it up all, Hortensio, if thou lovest me. +Much good do it unto thy gentle heart! +Kate, eat apace: and now, my honey love, +Will we return unto thy father’s house +And revel it as bravely as the best, +With silken coats and caps, and golden rings, +With ruffs and cuffs and farthingales and things; +With scarfs and fans and double change of bravery, +With amber bracelets, beads, and all this knavery. +What! hast thou din’d? The tailor stays thy leisure, +To deck thy body with his ruffling treasure. + + +Enter Tailor. + +Come, tailor, let us see these ornaments; +Lay forth the gown.— + + +Enter Haberdasher. + +What news with you, sir? + +HABERDASHER. +Here is the cap your worship did bespeak. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, this was moulded on a porringer; +A velvet dish: fie, fie! ’tis lewd and filthy: +Why, ’tis a cockle or a walnut-shell, +A knack, a toy, a trick, a baby’s cap: +Away with it! come, let me have a bigger. + +KATHERINA. +I’ll have no bigger; this doth fit the time, +And gentlewomen wear such caps as these. + +PETRUCHIO. +When you are gentle, you shall have one too, +And not till then. + +HORTENSIO. +[_Aside_] That will not be in haste. + +KATHERINA. +Why, sir, I trust I may have leave to speak; +And speak I will. I am no child, no babe. +Your betters have endur’d me say my mind, +And if you cannot, best you stop your ears. +My tongue will tell the anger of my heart, +Or else my heart, concealing it, will break; +And rather than it shall, I will be free +Even to the uttermost, as I please, in words. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, thou say’st true; it is a paltry cap, +A custard-coffin, a bauble, a silken pie; +I love thee well in that thou lik’st it not. + +KATHERINA. +Love me or love me not, I like the cap; +And it I will have, or I will have none. + +[_Exit Haberdasher._] + +PETRUCHIO. +Thy gown? Why, ay: come, tailor, let us see’t. +O mercy, God! what masquing stuff is here? +What’s this? A sleeve? ’Tis like a demi-cannon. +What, up and down, carv’d like an apple tart? +Here’s snip and nip and cut and slish and slash, +Like to a censer in a barber’s shop. +Why, what i’ devil’s name, tailor, call’st thou this? + +HORTENSIO. +[_Aside_] I see she’s like to have neither cap nor gown. + +TAILOR. +You bid me make it orderly and well, +According to the fashion and the time. + +PETRUCHIO. +Marry, and did; but if you be remember’d, +I did not bid you mar it to the time. +Go, hop me over every kennel home, +For you shall hop without my custom, sir. +I’ll none of it: hence! make your best of it. + +KATHERINA. +I never saw a better fashion’d gown, +More quaint, more pleasing, nor more commendable; +Belike you mean to make a puppet of me. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, true; he means to make a puppet of thee. + +TAILOR. +She says your worship means to make a puppet of her. + +PETRUCHIO. +O monstrous arrogance! Thou liest, thou thread, +Thou thimble, +Thou yard, three-quarters, half-yard, quarter, nail! +Thou flea, thou nit, thou winter-cricket thou! +Brav’d in mine own house with a skein of thread! +Away! thou rag, thou quantity, thou remnant, +Or I shall so be-mete thee with thy yard +As thou shalt think on prating whilst thou liv’st! +I tell thee, I, that thou hast marr’d her gown. + +TAILOR. +Your worship is deceiv’d: the gown is made +Just as my master had direction. +Grumio gave order how it should be done. + +GRUMIO. +I gave him no order; I gave him the stuff. + +TAILOR. +But how did you desire it should be made? + +GRUMIO. +Marry, sir, with needle and thread. + +TAILOR. +But did you not request to have it cut? + +GRUMIO. +Thou hast faced many things. + +TAILOR. +I have. + +GRUMIO. +Face not me. Thou hast braved many men; brave not me: I will neither be +fac’d nor brav’d. I say unto thee, I bid thy master cut out the gown; +but I did not bid him cut it to pieces: ergo, thou liest. + +TAILOR. +Why, here is the note of the fashion to testify. + +PETRUCHIO. +Read it. + +GRUMIO. +The note lies in ’s throat, if he say I said so. + +TAILOR. +’Imprimis, a loose-bodied gown.’ + +GRUMIO. +Master, if ever I said loose-bodied gown, sew me in the skirts of it +and beat me to death with a bottom of brown thread; I said, a gown. + +PETRUCHIO. +Proceed. + +TAILOR. +’With a small compassed cape.’ + +GRUMIO. +I confess the cape. + +TAILOR. +’With a trunk sleeve.’ + +GRUMIO. +I confess two sleeves. + +TAILOR. +’The sleeves curiously cut.’ + +PETRUCHIO. +Ay, there’s the villainy. + +GRUMIO. +Error i’ the bill, sir; error i’ the bill. I commanded the sleeves +should be cut out, and sew’d up again; and that I’ll prove upon thee, +though thy little finger be armed in a thimble. + +TAILOR. +This is true that I say; and I had thee in place where thou shouldst +know it. + +GRUMIO. +I am for thee straight; take thou the bill, give me thy mete-yard, and +spare not me. + +HORTENSIO. +God-a-mercy, Grumio! Then he shall have no odds. + +PETRUCHIO. +Well, sir, in brief, the gown is not for me. + +GRUMIO. +You are i’ the right, sir; ’tis for my mistress. + +PETRUCHIO. +Go, take it up unto thy master’s use. + +GRUMIO. +Villain, not for thy life! Take up my mistress’ gown for thy master’s +use! + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, sir, what’s your conceit in that? + +GRUMIO. +O, sir, the conceit is deeper than you think for. +Take up my mistress’ gown to his master’s use! +O fie, fie, fie! + +PETRUCHIO. +[_Aside_] Hortensio, say thou wilt see the tailor paid. +[_To Tailor._] Go take it hence; be gone, and say no more. + +HORTENSIO. +[_Aside to Tailor._] Tailor, I’ll pay thee for thy gown tomorrow; +Take no unkindness of his hasty words. +Away, I say! commend me to thy master. + +[_Exit Tailor._] + +PETRUCHIO. +Well, come, my Kate; we will unto your father’s +Even in these honest mean habiliments. +Our purses shall be proud, our garments poor +For ’tis the mind that makes the body rich; +And as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds, +So honour peereth in the meanest habit. +What, is the jay more precious than the lark +Because his feathers are more beautiful? +Or is the adder better than the eel +Because his painted skin contents the eye? +O no, good Kate; neither art thou the worse +For this poor furniture and mean array. +If thou account’st it shame, lay it on me; +And therefore frolic; we will hence forthwith, +To feast and sport us at thy father’s house. +Go call my men, and let us straight to him; +And bring our horses unto Long-lane end; +There will we mount, and thither walk on foot. +Let’s see; I think ’tis now some seven o’clock, +And well we may come there by dinner-time. + +KATHERINA. +I dare assure you, sir, ’tis almost two, +And ’twill be supper-time ere you come there. + +PETRUCHIO. +It shall be seven ere I go to horse. +Look what I speak, or do, or think to do, +You are still crossing it. Sirs, let ’t alone: +I will not go today; and ere I do, +It shall be what o’clock I say it is. + +HORTENSIO. +Why, so this gallant will command the sun. + +[_Exeunt._] + + + + +SCENE IV. Padua. Before BAPTISTA’S house. + +Enter Tranio and the Pedant dressed like Vincentio + +TRANIO. +Sir, this is the house; please it you that I call? + +PEDANT. +Ay, what else? and, but I be deceived, +Signior Baptista may remember me, +Near twenty years ago in Genoa, +Where we were lodgers at the Pegasus. + +TRANIO. +’Tis well; and hold your own, in any case, +With such austerity as ’longeth to a father. + +PEDANT. +I warrant you. But, sir, here comes your boy; +’Twere good he were school’d. + + +Enter Biondello. + +TRANIO. +Fear you not him. Sirrah Biondello, +Now do your duty throughly, I advise you. +Imagine ’twere the right Vincentio. + +BIONDELLO. +Tut! fear not me. + +TRANIO. +But hast thou done thy errand to Baptista? + +BIONDELLO. +I told him that your father was at Venice, +And that you look’d for him this day in Padua. + +TRANIO. +Th’art a tall fellow; hold thee that to drink. +Here comes Baptista. Set your countenance, sir. + + +Enter Baptista and Lucentio. + +Signior Baptista, you are happily met. +[_To the Pedant_] Sir, this is the gentleman I told you of; +I pray you stand good father to me now; +Give me Bianca for my patrimony. + +PEDANT. +Soft, son! +Sir, by your leave: having come to Padua +To gather in some debts, my son Lucentio +Made me acquainted with a weighty cause +Of love between your daughter and himself: +And,—for the good report I hear of you, +And for the love he beareth to your daughter, +And she to him,—to stay him not too long, +I am content, in a good father’s care, +To have him match’d; and, if you please to like +No worse than I, upon some agreement +Me shall you find ready and willing +With one consent to have her so bestow’d; +For curious I cannot be with you, +Signior Baptista, of whom I hear so well. + +BAPTISTA. +Sir, pardon me in what I have to say. +Your plainness and your shortness please me well. +Right true it is your son Lucentio here +Doth love my daughter, and she loveth him, +Or both dissemble deeply their affections; +And therefore, if you say no more than this, +That like a father you will deal with him, +And pass my daughter a sufficient dower, +The match is made, and all is done: +Your son shall have my daughter with consent. + +TRANIO. +I thank you, sir. Where then do you know best +We be affied, and such assurance ta’en +As shall with either part’s agreement stand? + +BAPTISTA. +Not in my house, Lucentio, for you know +Pitchers have ears, and I have many servants; +Besides, old Gremio is hearkening still, +And happily we might be interrupted. + +TRANIO. +Then at my lodging, and it like you: +There doth my father lie; and there this night +We’ll pass the business privately and well. +Send for your daughter by your servant here; +My boy shall fetch the scrivener presently. +The worst is this, that at so slender warning +You are like to have a thin and slender pittance. + +BAPTISTA. +It likes me well. Cambio, hie you home, +And bid Bianca make her ready straight; +And, if you will, tell what hath happened: +Lucentio’s father is arriv’d in Padua, +And how she’s like to be Lucentio’s wife. + +LUCENTIO. +I pray the gods she may, with all my heart! + +TRANIO. +Dally not with the gods, but get thee gone. +Signior Baptista, shall I lead the way? +Welcome! One mess is like to be your cheer; +Come, sir; we will better it in Pisa. + +BAPTISTA. +I follow you. + +[_Exeunt Tranio, Pedant and Baptista._] + +BIONDELLO. +Cambio! + +LUCENTIO. +What say’st thou, Biondello? + +BIONDELLO. +You saw my master wink and laugh upon you? + +LUCENTIO. +Biondello, what of that? + +BIONDELLO. +Faith, nothing; but has left me here behind to expound the meaning or +moral of his signs and tokens. + +LUCENTIO. +I pray thee moralize them. + +BIONDELLO. +Then thus: Baptista is safe, talking with the deceiving father of a +deceitful son. + +LUCENTIO. +And what of him? + +BIONDELLO. +His daughter is to be brought by you to the supper. + +LUCENTIO. +And then? + +BIONDELLO. +The old priest at Saint Luke’s church is at your command at all hours. + +LUCENTIO. +And what of all this? + +BIONDELLO. +I cannot tell, except they are busied about a counterfeit assurance. +Take your assurance of her, _cum privilegio ad imprimendum solum_; to +the church! take the priest, clerk, and some sufficient honest +witnesses. +If this be not that you look for, I have more to say, +But bid Bianca farewell for ever and a day. + +[_Going._] + +LUCENTIO. +Hear’st thou, Biondello? + +BIONDELLO. +I cannot tarry: I knew a wench married in an afternoon as she went to +the garden for parsley to stuff a rabbit; and so may you, sir; and so +adieu, sir. My master hath appointed me to go to Saint Luke’s to bid +the priest be ready to come against you come with your appendix. + +[_Exit._] + +LUCENTIO. +I may, and will, if she be so contented. +She will be pleas’d; then wherefore should I doubt? +Hap what hap may, I’ll roundly go about her; +It shall go hard if Cambio go without her: + +[_Exit._] + + + + +SCENE V. A public road. + +Enter Petruchio, Katherina, Hortensio and Servants. + +PETRUCHIO. +Come on, i’ God’s name; once more toward our father’s. +Good Lord, how bright and goodly shines the moon! + +KATHERINA. +The moon! The sun; it is not moonlight now. + +PETRUCHIO. +I say it is the moon that shines so bright. + +KATHERINA. +I know it is the sun that shines so bright. + +PETRUCHIO. +Now by my mother’s son, and that’s myself, +It shall be moon, or star, or what I list, +Or ere I journey to your father’s house. +Go on and fetch our horses back again. +Evermore cross’d and cross’d; nothing but cross’d! + +HORTENSIO. +Say as he says, or we shall never go. + +KATHERINA. +Forward, I pray, since we have come so far, +And be it moon, or sun, or what you please; +And if you please to call it a rush-candle, +Henceforth I vow it shall be so for me. + +PETRUCHIO. +I say it is the moon. + +KATHERINA. +I know it is the moon. + +PETRUCHIO. +Nay, then you lie; it is the blessed sun. + +KATHERINA. +Then, God be bless’d, it is the blessed sun; +But sun it is not when you say it is not, +And the moon changes even as your mind. +What you will have it nam’d, even that it is, +And so it shall be so for Katherine. + +HORTENSIO. +Petruchio, go thy ways; the field is won. + +PETRUCHIO. +Well, forward, forward! thus the bowl should run, +And not unluckily against the bias. +But, soft! Company is coming here. + + +Enter Vincentio, in a travelling dress. + +[_To Vincentio_] Good morrow, gentle mistress; where away? +Tell me, sweet Kate, and tell me truly too, +Hast thou beheld a fresher gentlewoman? +Such war of white and red within her cheeks! +What stars do spangle heaven with such beauty +As those two eyes become that heavenly face? +Fair lovely maid, once more good day to thee. +Sweet Kate, embrace her for her beauty’s sake. + +HORTENSIO. +A will make the man mad, to make a woman of him. + +KATHERINA. +Young budding virgin, fair and fresh and sweet, +Whither away, or where is thy abode? +Happy the parents of so fair a child; +Happier the man whom favourable stars +Allot thee for his lovely bedfellow. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, how now, Kate! I hope thou art not mad: +This is a man, old, wrinkled, faded, wither’d, +And not a maiden, as thou sayst he is. + +KATHERINA. +Pardon, old father, my mistaking eyes, +That have been so bedazzled with the sun +That everything I look on seemeth green: +Now I perceive thou art a reverend father; +Pardon, I pray thee, for my mad mistaking. + +PETRUCHIO. +Do, good old grandsire, and withal make known +Which way thou travellest: if along with us, +We shall be joyful of thy company. + +VINCENTIO. +Fair sir, and you my merry mistress, +That with your strange encounter much amaz’d me, +My name is called Vincentio; my dwelling Pisa; +And bound I am to Padua, there to visit +A son of mine, which long I have not seen. + +PETRUCHIO. +What is his name? + +VINCENTIO. +Lucentio, gentle sir. + +PETRUCHIO. +Happily met; the happier for thy son. +And now by law, as well as reverend age, +I may entitle thee my loving father: +The sister to my wife, this gentlewoman, +Thy son by this hath married. Wonder not, +Nor be not griev’d: she is of good esteem, +Her dowry wealthy, and of worthy birth; +Beside, so qualified as may beseem +The spouse of any noble gentleman. +Let me embrace with old Vincentio; +And wander we to see thy honest son, +Who will of thy arrival be full joyous. + +VINCENTIO. +But is this true? or is it else your pleasure, +Like pleasant travellers, to break a jest +Upon the company you overtake? + +HORTENSIO. +I do assure thee, father, so it is. + +PETRUCHIO. +Come, go along, and see the truth hereof; +For our first merriment hath made thee jealous. + +[_Exeunt all but Hortensio._] + +HORTENSIO. +Well, Petruchio, this has put me in heart. +Have to my widow! and if she be froward, +Then hast thou taught Hortensio to be untoward. + +[_Exit._] + + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Padua. Before LUCENTIO’S house. + +Enter on one side Biondello, Lucentio and Bianca; Gremio walking on +other side. + +BIONDELLO. +Softly and swiftly, sir, for the priest is ready. + +LUCENTIO. +I fly, Biondello; but they may chance to need thee at home, therefore +leave us. + +BIONDELLO. +Nay, faith, I’ll see the church o’ your back; and then come back to my +master’s as soon as I can. + +[_Exeunt Lucentio, Bianca and Biondello._] + +GREMIO. +I marvel Cambio comes not all this while. + + +Enter Petruchio, Katherina, Vincentio and Attendants. + +PETRUCHIO. +Sir, here’s the door; this is Lucentio’s house: +My father’s bears more toward the market-place; +Thither must I, and here I leave you, sir. + +VINCENTIO. +You shall not choose but drink before you go. +I think I shall command your welcome here, +And by all likelihood some cheer is toward. + +[_Knocks._] + +GREMIO. +They’re busy within; you were best knock louder. + + +Enter Pedant above, at a window. + +PEDANT. +What’s he that knocks as he would beat down the gate? + +VINCENTIO. +Is Signior Lucentio within, sir? + +PEDANT. +He’s within, sir, but not to be spoken withal. + +VINCENTIO. +What if a man bring him a hundred pound or two to make merry withal? + +PEDANT. +Keep your hundred pounds to yourself: he shall need none so long as I +live. + +PETRUCHIO. +Nay, I told you your son was well beloved in Padua. Do you hear, sir? +To leave frivolous circumstances, I pray you tell Signior Lucentio that +his father is come from Pisa, and is here at the door to speak with +him. + +PEDANT. +Thou liest: his father is come from Padua, and here looking out at the +window. + +VINCENTIO. +Art thou his father? + +PEDANT. +Ay, sir; so his mother says, if I may believe her. + +PETRUCHIO. +[_To Vincentio_] Why, how now, gentleman! why, this is flat knavery to +take upon you another man’s name. + +PEDANT. +Lay hands on the villain: I believe a means to cozen somebody in this +city under my countenance. + +Re-enter Biondello. + +BIONDELLO. +I have seen them in the church together: God send ’em good shipping! +But who is here? Mine old master, Vincentio! Now we are undone and +brought to nothing. + +VINCENTIO. +[_Seeing Biondello._] Come hither, crack-hemp. + +BIONDELLO. +I hope I may choose, sir. + +VINCENTIO. +Come hither, you rogue. What, have you forgot me? + +BIONDELLO. +Forgot you! No, sir: I could not forget you, for I never saw you before +in all my life. + +VINCENTIO. +What, you notorious villain! didst thou never see thy master’s father, +Vincentio? + +BIONDELLO. +What, my old worshipful old master? Yes, marry, sir; see where he looks +out of the window. + +VINCENTIO. +Is’t so, indeed? + +[_He beats Biondello._] + +BIONDELLO. +Help, help, help! here’s a madman will murder me. + +[_Exit._] + +PEDANT. +Help, son! help, Signior Baptista! + +[_Exit from the window._] + +PETRUCHIO. +Prithee, Kate, let’s stand aside and see the end of this controversy. + +[_They retire._] + +Re-enter Pedant, below; Baptista, Tranio and Servants. + +TRANIO. +Sir, what are you that offer to beat my servant? + +VINCENTIO. +What am I, sir! nay, what are you, sir? O immortal gods! O fine +villain! A silken doublet, a velvet hose, a scarlet cloak, and a +copatain hat! O, I am undone! I am undone! While I play the good +husband at home, my son and my servant spend all at the university. + +TRANIO. +How now! what’s the matter? + +BAPTISTA. +What, is the man lunatic? + +TRANIO. +Sir, you seem a sober ancient gentleman by your habit, but your words +show you a madman. Why, sir, what ’cerns it you if I wear pearl and +gold? I thank my good father, I am able to maintain it. + +VINCENTIO. +Thy father! O villain! he is a sailmaker in Bergamo. + +BAPTISTA. +You mistake, sir; you mistake, sir. Pray, what do you think is his +name? + +VINCENTIO. +His name! As if I knew not his name! I have brought him up ever since +he was three years old, and his name is Tranio. + +PEDANT. +Away, away, mad ass! His name is Lucentio; and he is mine only son, and +heir to the lands of me, Signior Vincentio. + +VINCENTIO. +Lucentio! O, he hath murdered his master! Lay hold on him, I charge +you, in the Duke’s name. O, my son, my son! Tell me, thou villain, +where is my son, Lucentio? + +TRANIO. +Call forth an officer. + + +Enter one with an Officer. + +Carry this mad knave to the gaol. Father Baptista, I charge you see +that he be forthcoming. + +VINCENTIO. +Carry me to the gaol! + +GREMIO. +Stay, officer; he shall not go to prison. + +BAPTISTA. +Talk not, Signior Gremio; I say he shall go to prison. + +GREMIO. +Take heed, Signior Baptista, lest you be cony-catched in this business; +I dare swear this is the right Vincentio. + +PEDANT. +Swear if thou darest. + +GREMIO. +Nay, I dare not swear it. + +TRANIO. +Then thou wert best say that I am not Lucentio. + +GREMIO. +Yes, I know thee to be Signior Lucentio. + +BAPTISTA. +Away with the dotard! to the gaol with him! + +VINCENTIO. +Thus strangers may be haled and abus’d: O monstrous villain! + +Re-enter Biondello, with Lucentio and Bianca. + +BIONDELLO. +O! we are spoiled; and yonder he is: deny him, forswear him, or else we +are all undone. + +LUCENTIO. +[_Kneeling._] Pardon, sweet father. + +VINCENTIO. +Lives my sweetest son? + +[_Biondello, Tranio and Pedant run out._] + +BIANCA. +[_Kneeling._] Pardon, dear father. + +BAPTISTA. +How hast thou offended? +Where is Lucentio? + +LUCENTIO. +Here’s Lucentio, +Right son to the right Vincentio; +That have by marriage made thy daughter mine, +While counterfeit supposes blear’d thine eyne. + +GREMIO. +Here ’s packing, with a witness, to deceive us all! + +VINCENTIO. +Where is that damned villain, Tranio, +That fac’d and brav’d me in this matter so? + +BAPTISTA. +Why, tell me, is not this my Cambio? + +BIANCA. +Cambio is chang’d into Lucentio. + +LUCENTIO. +Love wrought these miracles. Bianca’s love +Made me exchange my state with Tranio, +While he did bear my countenance in the town; +And happily I have arriv’d at the last +Unto the wished haven of my bliss. +What Tranio did, myself enforc’d him to; +Then pardon him, sweet father, for my sake. + +VINCENTIO. +I’ll slit the villain’s nose that would have sent me to the gaol. + +BAPTISTA. +[_To Lucentio._] But do you hear, sir? Have you married my daughter +without asking my good will? + +VINCENTIO. +Fear not, Baptista; we will content you, go to: but I will in, to be +revenged for this villainy. + +[_Exit._] + +BAPTISTA. +And I to sound the depth of this knavery. + +[_Exit._] + +LUCENTIO. +Look not pale, Bianca; thy father will not frown. + +[_Exeunt Lucentio and Bianca._] + +GREMIO. +My cake is dough, but I’ll in among the rest; +Out of hope of all but my share of the feast. + +[_Exit._] + +Petruchio and Katherina advance. + +KATHERINA. +Husband, let’s follow to see the end of this ado. + +PETRUCHIO. +First kiss me, Kate, and we will. + +KATHERINA. +What! in the midst of the street? + +PETRUCHIO. +What! art thou ashamed of me? + +KATHERINA. +No, sir; God forbid; but ashamed to kiss. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, then, let’s home again. Come, sirrah, let’s away. + +KATHERINA. +Nay, I will give thee a kiss: now pray thee, love, stay. + +PETRUCHIO. +Is not this well? Come, my sweet Kate: +Better once than never, for never too late. + +[_Exeunt._] + + + + +SCENE II. A room in LUCENTIO’S house. + +Enter Baptista, Vincentio, Gremio, the Pedant, Lucentio, Bianca, +Petruchio, Katherina, Hortensio and Widow. Tranio, Biondello and Grumio +and Others, attending. + +LUCENTIO. +At last, though long, our jarring notes agree: +And time it is when raging war is done, +To smile at ’scapes and perils overblown. +My fair Bianca, bid my father welcome, +While I with self-same kindness welcome thine. +Brother Petruchio, sister Katherina, +And thou, Hortensio, with thy loving widow, +Feast with the best, and welcome to my house: +My banquet is to close our stomachs up, +After our great good cheer. Pray you, sit down; +For now we sit to chat as well as eat. + +[_They sit at table._] + +PETRUCHIO. +Nothing but sit and sit, and eat and eat! + +BAPTISTA. +Padua affords this kindness, son Petruchio. + +PETRUCHIO. +Padua affords nothing but what is kind. + +HORTENSIO. +For both our sakes I would that word were true. + +PETRUCHIO. +Now, for my life, Hortensio fears his widow. + +WIDOW. +Then never trust me if I be afeard. + +PETRUCHIO. +You are very sensible, and yet you miss my sense: +I mean Hortensio is afeard of you. + +WIDOW. +He that is giddy thinks the world turns round. + +PETRUCHIO. +Roundly replied. + +KATHERINA. +Mistress, how mean you that? + +WIDOW. +Thus I conceive by him. + +PETRUCHIO. +Conceives by me! How likes Hortensio that? + +HORTENSIO. +My widow says thus she conceives her tale. + +PETRUCHIO. +Very well mended. Kiss him for that, good widow. + +KATHERINA. +’He that is giddy thinks the world turns round’: +I pray you tell me what you meant by that. + +WIDOW. +Your husband, being troubled with a shrew, +Measures my husband’s sorrow by his woe; +And now you know my meaning. + +KATHERINA. +A very mean meaning. + +WIDOW. +Right, I mean you. + +KATHERINA. +And I am mean, indeed, respecting you. + +PETRUCHIO. +To her, Kate! + +HORTENSIO. +To her, widow! + +PETRUCHIO. +A hundred marks, my Kate does put her down. + +HORTENSIO. +That’s my office. + +PETRUCHIO. +Spoke like an officer: ha’ to thee, lad. + +[_Drinks to Hortensio._] + +BAPTISTA. +How likes Gremio these quick-witted folks? + +GREMIO. +Believe me, sir, they butt together well. + +BIANCA. +Head and butt! An hasty-witted body +Would say your head and butt were head and horn. + +VINCENTIO. +Ay, mistress bride, hath that awaken’d you? + +BIANCA. +Ay, but not frighted me; therefore I’ll sleep again. + +PETRUCHIO. +Nay, that you shall not; since you have begun, +Have at you for a bitter jest or two. + +BIANCA. +Am I your bird? I mean to shift my bush, +And then pursue me as you draw your bow. +You are welcome all. + +[_Exeunt Bianca, Katherina and Widow._] + +PETRUCHIO. +She hath prevented me. Here, Signior Tranio; +This bird you aim’d at, though you hit her not: +Therefore a health to all that shot and miss’d. + +TRANIO. +O, sir! Lucentio slipp’d me like his greyhound, +Which runs himself, and catches for his master. + +PETRUCHIO. +A good swift simile, but something currish. + +TRANIO. +’Tis well, sir, that you hunted for yourself: +’Tis thought your deer does hold you at a bay. + +BAPTISTA. +O ho, Petruchio! Tranio hits you now. + +LUCENTIO. +I thank thee for that gird, good Tranio. + +HORTENSIO. +Confess, confess; hath he not hit you here? + +PETRUCHIO. +A has a little gall’d me, I confess; +And as the jest did glance away from me, +’Tis ten to one it maim’d you two outright. + +BAPTISTA. +Now, in good sadness, son Petruchio, +I think thou hast the veriest shrew of all. + +PETRUCHIO. +Well, I say no; and therefore, for assurance, +Let’s each one send unto his wife, +And he whose wife is most obedient, +To come at first when he doth send for her, +Shall win the wager which we will propose. + +HORTENSIO. +Content. What’s the wager? + +LUCENTIO. +Twenty crowns. + +PETRUCHIO. +Twenty crowns! +I’ll venture so much of my hawk or hound, +But twenty times so much upon my wife. + +LUCENTIO. +A hundred then. + +HORTENSIO. +Content. + +PETRUCHIO. +A match! ’tis done. + +HORTENSIO. +Who shall begin? + +LUCENTIO. +That will I. +Go, Biondello, bid your mistress come to me. + +BIONDELLO. +I go. + +[_Exit._] + +BAPTISTA. +Son, I’ll be your half, Bianca comes. + +LUCENTIO. +I’ll have no halves; I’ll bear it all myself. + + +Re-enter Biondello. + +How now! what news? + +BIONDELLO. +Sir, my mistress sends you word +That she is busy and she cannot come. + +PETRUCHIO. +How! She’s busy, and she cannot come! +Is that an answer? + +GREMIO. +Ay, and a kind one too: +Pray God, sir, your wife send you not a worse. + +PETRUCHIO. +I hope better. + +HORTENSIO. +Sirrah Biondello, go and entreat my wife +To come to me forthwith. + +[_Exit Biondello._] + +PETRUCHIO. +O, ho! entreat her! +Nay, then she must needs come. + +HORTENSIO. +I am afraid, sir, +Do what you can, yours will not be entreated. + + +Re-enter Biondello. + +Now, where’s my wife? + +BIONDELLO. +She says you have some goodly jest in hand: +She will not come; she bids you come to her. + +PETRUCHIO. +Worse and worse; she will not come! O vile, +Intolerable, not to be endur’d! +Sirrah Grumio, go to your mistress, +Say I command her come to me. + +[_Exit Grumio._] + +HORTENSIO. +I know her answer. + +PETRUCHIO. +What? + +HORTENSIO. +She will not. + +PETRUCHIO. +The fouler fortune mine, and there an end. + + +Re-enter Katherina. + +BAPTISTA. +Now, by my holidame, here comes Katherina! + +KATHERINA. +What is your will sir, that you send for me? + +PETRUCHIO. +Where is your sister, and Hortensio’s wife? + +KATHERINA. +They sit conferring by the parlour fire. + +PETRUCHIO. +Go fetch them hither; if they deny to come, +Swinge me them soundly forth unto their husbands. +Away, I say, and bring them hither straight. + +[_Exit Katherina._] + +LUCENTIO. +Here is a wonder, if you talk of a wonder. + +HORTENSIO. +And so it is. I wonder what it bodes. + +PETRUCHIO. +Marry, peace it bodes, and love, and quiet life, +An awful rule, and right supremacy; +And, to be short, what not that’s sweet and happy. + +BAPTISTA. +Now fair befall thee, good Petruchio! +The wager thou hast won; and I will add +Unto their losses twenty thousand crowns; +Another dowry to another daughter, +For she is chang’d, as she had never been. + +PETRUCHIO. +Nay, I will win my wager better yet, +And show more sign of her obedience, +Her new-built virtue and obedience. +See where she comes, and brings your froward wives +As prisoners to her womanly persuasion. + + +Re-enter Katherina with Bianca and Widow. + +Katherine, that cap of yours becomes you not: +Off with that bauble, throw it underfoot. + +[_Katherina pulls off her cap and throws it down._] + +WIDOW. +Lord, let me never have a cause to sigh +Till I be brought to such a silly pass! + +BIANCA. +Fie! what a foolish duty call you this? + +LUCENTIO. +I would your duty were as foolish too; +The wisdom of your duty, fair Bianca, +Hath cost me a hundred crowns since supper-time! + +BIANCA. +The more fool you for laying on my duty. + +PETRUCHIO. +Katherine, I charge thee, tell these headstrong women +What duty they do owe their lords and husbands. + +WIDOW. +Come, come, you’re mocking; we will have no telling. + +PETRUCHIO. +Come on, I say; and first begin with her. + +WIDOW. +She shall not. + +PETRUCHIO. +I say she shall: and first begin with her. + +KATHERINA. +Fie, fie! unknit that threatening unkind brow, +And dart not scornful glances from those eyes +To wound thy lord, thy king, thy governor: +It blots thy beauty as frosts do bite the meads, +Confounds thy fame as whirlwinds shake fair buds, +And in no sense is meet or amiable. +A woman mov’d is like a fountain troubled, +Muddy, ill-seeming, thick, bereft of beauty; +And while it is so, none so dry or thirsty +Will deign to sip or touch one drop of it. +Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, +Thy head, thy sovereign; one that cares for thee, +And for thy maintenance commits his body +To painful labour both by sea and land, +To watch the night in storms, the day in cold, +Whilst thou liest warm at home, secure and safe; +And craves no other tribute at thy hands +But love, fair looks, and true obedience; +Too little payment for so great a debt. +Such duty as the subject owes the prince, +Even such a woman oweth to her husband; +And when she is froward, peevish, sullen, sour, +And not obedient to his honest will, +What is she but a foul contending rebel +And graceless traitor to her loving lord?— +I am asham’d that women are so simple +To offer war where they should kneel for peace, +Or seek for rule, supremacy, and sway, +When they are bound to serve, love, and obey. +Why are our bodies soft and weak and smooth, +Unapt to toil and trouble in the world, +But that our soft conditions and our hearts +Should well agree with our external parts? +Come, come, you froward and unable worms! +My mind hath been as big as one of yours, +My heart as great, my reason haply more, +To bandy word for word and frown for frown; +But now I see our lances are but straws, +Our strength as weak, our weakness past compare, +That seeming to be most which we indeed least are. +Then vail your stomachs, for it is no boot, +And place your hands below your husband’s foot: +In token of which duty, if he please, +My hand is ready; may it do him ease. + +PETRUCHIO. +Why, there’s a wench! Come on, and kiss me, Kate. + +LUCENTIO. +Well, go thy ways, old lad, for thou shalt ha’t. + +VINCENTIO. +’Tis a good hearing when children are toward. + +LUCENTIO. +But a harsh hearing when women are froward. + +PETRUCHIO. +Come, Kate, we’ll to bed. +We three are married, but you two are sped. +’Twas I won the wager, +[_To Lucentio._] though you hit the white; +And being a winner, God give you good night! + +[_Exeunt Petrucio and Katherina._] + +HORTENSIO. +Now go thy ways; thou hast tam’d a curst shrew. + +LUCENTIO. +’Tis a wonder, by your leave, she will be tam’d so. + +[_Exeunt._] + + + + + +THE TEMPEST + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. On a ship at sea; a tempestuous noise of thunder and lightning +heard. +Scene II. The Island. Before the cell of Prospero. + +ACT II +Scene I. Another part of the island. +Scene II. Another part of the island. + +ACT III +Scene I. Before Prospero’s cell. +Scene II. Another part of the island. +Scene III. Another part of the island. + +ACT IV +Scene I. Before Prospero’s cell. + +ACT V +Scene I. Before the cell of Prospero. +Epilogue. + + +Dramatis Personæ + +ALONSO, King of Naples +SEBASTIAN, his brother +PROSPERO, the right Duke of Milan +ANTONIO, his brother, the usurping Duke of Milan +FERDINAND, Son to the King of Naples +GONZALO, an honest old counsellor +ADRIAN, Lord +FRANCISCO, Lord +CALIBAN, a savage and deformed slave +TRINCULO, a jester +STEPHANO, a drunken butler +MASTER OF A SHIP +BOATSWAIN +MARINERS + +MIRANDA, daughter to Prospero + +ARIEL, an airy Spirit + +IRIS, presented by Spirits +CERES, presented by Spirits +JUNO, presented by Spirits +NYMPHS, presented by Spirits +REAPERS, presented by Spirits + +Other Spirits attending on Prospero + +SCENE: The sea, with a Ship; afterwards an Island. + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. On a ship at sea; a tempestuous noise of thunder and lightning +heard. + + Enter a Shipmaster and a Boatswain severally. + +MASTER. +Boatswain! + +BOATSWAIN. +Here, master: what cheer? + +MASTER. +Good! Speak to the mariners: fall to ’t yarely, or we run ourselves +aground: bestir, bestir. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Mariners. + +BOATSWAIN. +Heigh, my hearts! cheerly, cheerly, my hearts! yare, yare! Take in the +topsail. Tend to th’ master’s whistle. Blow till thou burst thy wind, +if room enough. + + Enter Alonso, Sebastian, Antonio, Ferdinand, Gonzalo and others. + +ALONSO. +Good boatswain, have care. Where’s the master? +Play the men. + +BOATSWAIN. +I pray now, keep below. + +ANTONIO. +Where is the master, boson? + +BOATSWAIN. +Do you not hear him? You mar our labour: keep your cabins: you do +assist the storm. + +GONZALO. +Nay, good, be patient. + +BOATSWAIN. +When the sea is. Hence! What cares these roarers for the name of king? +To cabin! silence! Trouble us not. + +GONZALO. +Good, yet remember whom thou hast aboard. + +BOATSWAIN. +None that I more love than myself. You are a counsellor: if you can +command these elements to silence, and work the peace of the present, +we will not hand a rope more. Use your authority: if you cannot, give +thanks you have lived so long, and make yourself ready in your cabin +for the mischance of the hour, if it so hap.—Cheerly, good hearts!—Out +of our way, I say. + + [_Exit._] + +GONZALO. +I have great comfort from this fellow. Methinks he hath no drowning +mark upon him. His complexion is perfect gallows. Stand fast, good +Fate, to his hanging! Make the rope of his destiny our cable, for our +own doth little advantage! If he be not born to be hang’d, our case is +miserable. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Re-enter Boatswain. + +BOATSWAIN. +Down with the topmast! yare! lower, lower! Bring her to try wi’ th’ +maincourse. + + [_A cry within._] + + A plague upon this howling! They are louder than the weather or our + office. + + Enter Sebastian, Antonio and Gonzalo. + +Yet again! What do you here? Shall we give o’er, and drown? Have you a +mind to sink? + +SEBASTIAN. +A pox o’ your throat, you bawling, blasphemous, incharitable dog! + +BOATSWAIN. +Work you, then. + +ANTONIO. +Hang, cur, hang, you whoreson, insolent noisemaker! We are less afraid +to be drowned than thou art. + +GONZALO. +I’ll warrant him for drowning, though the ship were no stronger than a +nutshell, and as leaky as an unstanched wench. + +BOATSWAIN. +Lay her a-hold, a-hold! Set her two courses: off to sea again: lay her +off. + + Enter Mariners, wet. + +MARINERS. +All lost! to prayers, to prayers! all lost! + + [_Exeunt._] + +BOATSWAIN. +What, must our mouths be cold? + +GONZALO. +The King and Prince at prayers! Let’s assist them, +For our case is as theirs. + +SEBASTIAN. +I am out of patience. + +ANTONIO. +We are merely cheated of our lives by drunkards. +This wide-chapp’d rascal—would thou might’st lie drowning +The washing of ten tides! + +GONZALO. +He’ll be hang’d yet, +Though every drop of water swear against it, +And gape at wid’st to glut him. + +_A confused noise within: _“Mercy on us!”— +“We split, we split!”—“Farewell, my wife and children!”— +“Farewell, brother!”—“We split, we split, we split!” + +ANTONIO. +Let’s all sink wi’ th’ King. + + [_Exit._] + +SEBASTIAN. +Let’s take leave of him. + + [_Exit._] + +GONZALO. +Now would I give a thousand furlongs of sea for an acre of barren +ground. Long heath, brown furze, anything. The wills above be done! but +I would fain die a dry death. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. The Island. Before the cell of Prospero. + + Enter Prospero and Miranda. + +MIRANDA. +If by your art, my dearest father, you have +Put the wild waters in this roar, allay them. +The sky, it seems, would pour down stinking pitch, +But that the sea, mounting to th’ welkin’s cheek, +Dashes the fire out. O! I have suffered +With those that I saw suffer! A brave vessel, +Who had, no doubt, some noble creature in her, +Dash’d all to pieces. O, the cry did knock +Against my very heart. Poor souls, they perish’d. +Had I been any god of power, I would +Have sunk the sea within the earth, or ere +It should the good ship so have swallow’d and +The fraughting souls within her. + +PROSPERO. +Be collected: +No more amazement: tell your piteous heart +There’s no harm done. + +MIRANDA. +O, woe the day! + +PROSPERO. +No harm. +I have done nothing but in care of thee, +Of thee, my dear one, thee, my daughter, who +Art ignorant of what thou art, nought knowing +Of whence I am, nor that I am more better +Than Prospero, master of a full poor cell, +And thy no greater father. + +MIRANDA. +More to know +Did never meddle with my thoughts. + +PROSPERO. +’Tis time +I should inform thee farther. Lend thy hand, +And pluck my magic garment from me.—So: + + [_Lays down his mantle._] + +Lie there my art. Wipe thou thine eyes; have comfort. +The direful spectacle of the wrack, which touch’d +The very virtue of compassion in thee, +I have with such provision in mine art +So safely ordered that there is no soul— +No, not so much perdition as an hair +Betid to any creature in the vessel +Which thou heard’st cry, which thou saw’st sink. Sit down; +For thou must now know farther. + +MIRANDA. +You have often +Begun to tell me what I am, but stopp’d, +And left me to a bootless inquisition, +Concluding “Stay; not yet.” + +PROSPERO. +The hour’s now come, +The very minute bids thee ope thine ear; +Obey, and be attentive. Canst thou remember +A time before we came unto this cell? +I do not think thou canst, for then thou wast not +Out three years old. + +MIRANDA. +Certainly, sir, I can. + +PROSPERO. +By what? By any other house, or person? +Of anything the image, tell me, that +Hath kept with thy remembrance. + +MIRANDA. +’Tis far off, +And rather like a dream than an assurance +That my remembrance warrants. Had I not +Four or five women once that tended me? + +PROSPERO. +Thou hadst, and more, Miranda. But how is it +That this lives in thy mind? What seest thou else +In the dark backward and abysm of time? +If thou rememb’rest aught ere thou cam’st here, +How thou cam’st here, thou mayst. + +MIRANDA. +But that I do not. + +PROSPERO. +Twelve year since, Miranda, twelve year since, +Thy father was the Duke of Milan, and +A prince of power. + +MIRANDA. +Sir, are not you my father? + +PROSPERO. +Thy mother was a piece of virtue, and +She said thou wast my daughter. And thy father +Was Duke of Milan, and his only heir +And princess, no worse issued. + +MIRANDA. +O, the heavens! +What foul play had we that we came from thence? +Or blessed was’t we did? + +PROSPERO. +Both, both, my girl. +By foul play, as thou say’st, were we heav’d thence; +But blessedly holp hither. + +MIRANDA. +O, my heart bleeds +To think o’ th’ teen that I have turn’d you to, +Which is from my remembrance. Please you, farther. + +PROSPERO. +My brother and thy uncle, call’d Antonio— +I pray thee, mark me, that a brother should +Be so perfidious!—he whom next thyself +Of all the world I lov’d, and to him put +The manage of my state; as at that time +Through all the signories it was the first, +And Prospero the prime duke, being so reputed +In dignity, and for the liberal arts, +Without a parallel: those being all my study, +The government I cast upon my brother, +And to my state grew stranger, being transported +And rapt in secret studies. Thy false uncle— +Dost thou attend me? + +MIRANDA. +Sir, most heedfully. + +PROSPERO. +Being once perfected how to grant suits, +How to deny them, who t’ advance, and who +To trash for over-topping, new created +The creatures that were mine, I say, or chang’d ’em, +Or else new form’d ’em: having both the key +Of officer and office, set all hearts i’ th’ state +To what tune pleas’d his ear: that now he was +The ivy which had hid my princely trunk, +And suck’d my verdure out on ’t. Thou attend’st not. + +MIRANDA. +O, good sir! I do. + +PROSPERO. +I pray thee, mark me. +I, thus neglecting worldly ends, all dedicated +To closeness and the bettering of my mind +With that which, but by being so retir’d, +O’er-priz’d all popular rate, in my false brother +Awak’d an evil nature; and my trust, +Like a good parent, did beget of him +A falsehood in its contrary as great +As my trust was; which had indeed no limit, +A confidence sans bound. He being thus lorded, +Not only with what my revenue yielded, +But what my power might else exact, like one +Who having into truth, by telling of it, +Made such a sinner of his memory, +To credit his own lie, he did believe +He was indeed the Duke; out o’ the substitution, +And executing th’ outward face of royalty, +With all prerogative. Hence his ambition growing— +Dost thou hear? + +MIRANDA. +Your tale, sir, would cure deafness. + +PROSPERO. +To have no screen between this part he play’d +And him he play’d it for, he needs will be +Absolute Milan. Me, poor man, my library +Was dukedom large enough: of temporal royalties +He thinks me now incapable; confederates, +So dry he was for sway, wi’ th’ King of Naples +To give him annual tribute, do him homage, +Subject his coronet to his crown, and bend +The dukedom, yet unbow’d—alas, poor Milan!— +To most ignoble stooping. + +MIRANDA. +O the heavens! + +PROSPERO. +Mark his condition, and the event; then tell me +If this might be a brother. + +MIRANDA. +I should sin +To think but nobly of my grandmother: +Good wombs have borne bad sons. + +PROSPERO. +Now the condition. +This King of Naples, being an enemy +To me inveterate, hearkens my brother’s suit; +Which was, that he, in lieu o’ th’ premises +Of homage and I know not how much tribute, +Should presently extirpate me and mine +Out of the dukedom, and confer fair Milan, +With all the honours on my brother: whereon, +A treacherous army levied, one midnight +Fated to th’ purpose, did Antonio open +The gates of Milan; and, i’ th’ dead of darkness, +The ministers for th’ purpose hurried thence +Me and thy crying self. + +MIRANDA. +Alack, for pity! +I, not rememb’ring how I cried out then, +Will cry it o’er again: it is a hint +That wrings mine eyes to ’t. + +PROSPERO. +Hear a little further, +And then I’ll bring thee to the present business +Which now’s upon us; without the which this story +Were most impertinent. + +MIRANDA. +Wherefore did they not +That hour destroy us? + +PROSPERO. +Well demanded, wench: +My tale provokes that question. Dear, they durst not, +So dear the love my people bore me, nor set +A mark so bloody on the business; but +With colours fairer painted their foul ends. +In few, they hurried us aboard a bark, +Bore us some leagues to sea, where they prepared +A rotten carcass of a butt, not rigg’d, +Nor tackle, sail, nor mast; the very rats +Instinctively have quit it. There they hoist us, +To cry to th’ sea, that roar’d to us; to sigh +To th’ winds, whose pity, sighing back again, +Did us but loving wrong. + +MIRANDA. +Alack, what trouble +Was I then to you! + +PROSPERO. +O, a cherubin +Thou wast that did preserve me. Thou didst smile, +Infused with a fortitude from heaven, +When I have deck’d the sea with drops full salt, +Under my burden groan’d: which rais’d in me +An undergoing stomach, to bear up +Against what should ensue. + +MIRANDA. +How came we ashore? + +PROSPERO. +By Providence divine. +Some food we had and some fresh water that +A noble Neapolitan, Gonzalo, +Out of his charity, who being then appointed +Master of this design, did give us, with +Rich garments, linens, stuffs, and necessaries, +Which since have steaded much: so, of his gentleness, +Knowing I lov’d my books, he furnish’d me +From mine own library with volumes that +I prize above my dukedom. + +MIRANDA. +Would I might +But ever see that man! + +PROSPERO. +Now I arise. +Sit still, and hear the last of our sea-sorrow. +Here in this island we arriv’d; and here +Have I, thy schoolmaster, made thee more profit +Than other princes can, that have more time +For vainer hours, and tutors not so careful. + +MIRANDA. +Heavens thank you for ’t! And now, I pray you, sir, +For still ’tis beating in my mind, your reason +For raising this sea-storm? + +PROSPERO. +Know thus far forth. +By accident most strange, bountiful Fortune, +Now my dear lady, hath mine enemies +Brought to this shore; and by my prescience +I find my zenith doth depend upon +A most auspicious star, whose influence +If now I court not but omit, my fortunes +Will ever after droop. Here cease more questions; +Thou art inclin’d to sleep; ’tis a good dulness, +And give it way. I know thou canst not choose. + + [_Miranda sleeps._] + +Come away, servant, come! I am ready now. +Approach, my Ariel. Come! + + Enter Ariel. + +ARIEL. +All hail, great master! grave sir, hail! I come +To answer thy best pleasure; be’t to fly, +To swim, to dive into the fire, to ride +On the curl’d clouds, to thy strong bidding task +Ariel and all his quality. + +PROSPERO. +Hast thou, spirit, +Perform’d to point the tempest that I bade thee? + +ARIEL. +To every article. +I boarded the King’s ship; now on the beak, +Now in the waist, the deck, in every cabin, +I flam’d amazement; sometime I’d divide, +And burn in many places; on the topmast, +The yards, and boresprit, would I flame distinctly, +Then meet and join. Jove’s lightning, the precursors +O’ th’ dreadful thunder-claps, more momentary +And sight-outrunning were not: the fire and cracks +Of sulphurous roaring the most mighty Neptune +Seem to besiege and make his bold waves tremble, +Yea, his dread trident shake. + +PROSPERO. +My brave spirit! +Who was so firm, so constant, that this coil +Would not infect his reason? + +ARIEL. +Not a soul +But felt a fever of the mad, and play’d +Some tricks of desperation. All but mariners +Plunged in the foaming brine and quit the vessel, +Then all afire with me: the King’s son, Ferdinand, +With hair up-staring—then like reeds, not hair— +Was the first man that leapt; cried “Hell is empty, +And all the devils are here.” + +PROSPERO. +Why, that’s my spirit! +But was not this nigh shore? + +ARIEL. +Close by, my master. + +PROSPERO. +But are they, Ariel, safe? + +ARIEL. +Not a hair perish’d; +On their sustaining garments not a blemish, +But fresher than before: and, as thou bad’st me, +In troops I have dispers’d them ’bout the isle. +The King’s son have I landed by himself, +Whom I left cooling of the air with sighs +In an odd angle of the isle, and sitting, +His arms in this sad knot. + +PROSPERO. +Of the King’s ship +The mariners, say how thou hast dispos’d, +And all the rest o’ th’ fleet? + +ARIEL. +Safely in harbour +Is the King’s ship; in the deep nook, where once +Thou call’dst me up at midnight to fetch dew +From the still-vex’d Bermoothes; there she’s hid: +The mariners all under hatches stowed; +Who, with a charm join’d to their suff’red labour, +I have left asleep: and for the rest o’ th’ fleet, +Which I dispers’d, they all have met again, +And are upon the Mediterranean flote +Bound sadly home for Naples, +Supposing that they saw the King’s ship wrack’d, +And his great person perish. + +PROSPERO. +Ariel, thy charge +Exactly is perform’d; but there’s more work. +What is the time o’ th’ day? + +ARIEL. +Past the mid season. + +PROSPERO. +At least two glasses. The time ’twixt six and now +Must by us both be spent most preciously. + +ARIEL. +Is there more toil? Since thou dost give me pains, +Let me remember thee what thou hast promis’d, +Which is not yet perform’d me. + +PROSPERO. +How now! moody? +What is’t thou canst demand? + +ARIEL. +My liberty. + +PROSPERO. +Before the time be out? No more! + +ARIEL. +I prithee, +Remember I have done thee worthy service; +Told thee no lies, made no mistakings, serv’d +Without or grudge or grumblings: thou didst promise +To bate me a full year. + +PROSPERO. +Dost thou forget +From what a torment I did free thee? + +ARIEL. +No. + +PROSPERO. +Thou dost, and think’st it much to tread the ooze +Of the salt deep, +To run upon the sharp wind of the north, +To do me business in the veins o’ th’ earth +When it is bak’d with frost. + +ARIEL. +I do not, sir. + +PROSPERO. +Thou liest, malignant thing! Hast thou forgot +The foul witch Sycorax, who with age and envy +Was grown into a hoop? Hast thou forgot her? + +ARIEL. +No, sir. + +PROSPERO. +Thou hast. Where was she born? Speak; tell me. + +ARIEL. +Sir, in Argier. + +PROSPERO. +O, was she so? I must +Once in a month recount what thou hast been, +Which thou forget’st. This damn’d witch Sycorax, +For mischiefs manifold, and sorceries terrible +To enter human hearing, from Argier, +Thou know’st, was banish’d: for one thing she did +They would not take her life. Is not this true? + +ARIEL. +Ay, sir. + +PROSPERO. +This blue-ey’d hag was hither brought with child, +And here was left by th’ sailors. Thou, my slave, +As thou report’st thyself, wast then her servant; +And, for thou wast a spirit too delicate +To act her earthy and abhorr’d commands, +Refusing her grand hests, she did confine thee, +By help of her more potent ministers, +And in her most unmitigable rage, +Into a cloven pine; within which rift +Imprison’d, thou didst painfully remain +A dozen years; within which space she died, +And left thee there, where thou didst vent thy groans +As fast as mill-wheels strike. Then was this island— +Save for the son that she did litter here, +A freckl’d whelp, hag-born—not honour’d with +A human shape. + +ARIEL. +Yes, Caliban her son. + +PROSPERO. +Dull thing, I say so; he, that Caliban, +Whom now I keep in service. Thou best know’st +What torment I did find thee in; thy groans +Did make wolves howl, and penetrate the breasts +Of ever-angry bears: it was a torment +To lay upon the damn’d, which Sycorax +Could not again undo; it was mine art, +When I arriv’d and heard thee, that made gape +The pine, and let thee out. + +ARIEL. +I thank thee, master. + +PROSPERO. +If thou more murmur’st, I will rend an oak +And peg thee in his knotty entrails till +Thou hast howl’d away twelve winters. + +ARIEL. +Pardon, master: +I will be correspondent to command, +And do my spriting gently. + +PROSPERO. +Do so; and after two days +I will discharge thee. + +ARIEL. +That’s my noble master! +What shall I do? Say what? What shall I do? + +PROSPERO. +Go make thyself like a nymph o’ th’ sea. Be subject +To no sight but thine and mine; invisible +To every eyeball else. Go, take this shape, +And hither come in ’t. Go, hence with diligence! + + [_Exit Ariel._] + +Awake, dear heart, awake! thou hast slept well; +Awake! + +MIRANDA. +[_Waking._] The strangeness of your story put +Heaviness in me. + +PROSPERO. +Shake it off. Come on; +We’ll visit Caliban my slave, who never +Yields us kind answer. + +MIRANDA. +’Tis a villain, sir, +I do not love to look on. + +PROSPERO. +But as ’tis, +We cannot miss him: he does make our fire, +Fetch in our wood; and serves in offices +That profit us. What ho! slave! Caliban! +Thou earth, thou! Speak. + +CALIBAN. +[_Within._] There’s wood enough within. + +PROSPERO. +Come forth, I say; there’s other business for thee. +Come, thou tortoise! when? + + Re-enter Ariel like a water-nymph. + +Fine apparition! My quaint Ariel, +Hark in thine ear. + +ARIEL. +My lord, it shall be done. + + [_Exit._] + +PROSPERO. +Thou poisonous slave, got by the devil himself +Upon thy wicked dam, come forth! + + Enter Caliban. + +CALIBAN. +As wicked dew as e’er my mother brush’d +With raven’s feather from unwholesome fen +Drop on you both! A south-west blow on ye, +And blister you all o’er! + +PROSPERO. +For this, be sure, tonight thou shalt have cramps, +Side-stitches that shall pen thy breath up; urchins +Shall forth at vast of night that they may work +All exercise on thee. Thou shalt be pinch’d +As thick as honeycomb, each pinch more stinging +Than bees that made them. + +CALIBAN. +I must eat my dinner. +This island’s mine, by Sycorax my mother, +Which thou tak’st from me. When thou cam’st first, +Thou strok’st me and made much of me; wouldst give me +Water with berries in ’t; and teach me how +To name the bigger light, and how the less, +That burn by day and night: and then I lov’d thee, +And show’d thee all the qualities o’ th’ isle, +The fresh springs, brine-pits, barren place, and fertile. +Curs’d be I that did so! All the charms +Of Sycorax, toads, beetles, bats, light on you! +For I am all the subjects that you have, +Which first was mine own King; and here you sty me +In this hard rock, whiles you do keep from me +The rest o’ th’ island. + +PROSPERO. +Thou most lying slave, +Whom stripes may move, not kindness! I have us’d thee, +Filth as thou art, with human care, and lodg’d thee +In mine own cell, till thou didst seek to violate +The honour of my child. + +CALIBAN. +Oh ho! Oh ho! Would ’t had been done! +Thou didst prevent me; I had peopled else +This isle with Calibans. + +PROSPERO. +Abhorred slave, +Which any print of goodness wilt not take, +Being capable of all ill! I pitied thee, +Took pains to make thee speak, taught thee each hour +One thing or other: when thou didst not, savage, +Know thine own meaning, but wouldst gabble like +A thing most brutish, I endow’d thy purposes +With words that made them known. But thy vile race, +Though thou didst learn, had that in ’t which good natures +Could not abide to be with; therefore wast thou +Deservedly confin’d into this rock, +Who hadst deserv’d more than a prison. + +CALIBAN. +You taught me language, and my profit on ’t +Is, I know how to curse. The red plague rid you, +For learning me your language! + +PROSPERO. +Hag-seed, hence! +Fetch us in fuel; and be quick, thou ’rt best, +To answer other business. Shrug’st thou, malice? +If thou neglect’st, or dost unwillingly +What I command, I’ll rack thee with old cramps, +Fill all thy bones with aches, make thee roar, +That beasts shall tremble at thy din. + +CALIBAN. +No, pray thee. +[_Aside._] I must obey. His art is of such power, +It would control my dam’s god, Setebos, +And make a vassal of him. + +PROSPERO. +So, slave, hence! + + [_Exit Caliban._] + + Re-enter Ariel, playing and singing; Ferdinand following. + +ARIEL’S SONG. + + +_Come unto these yellow sands, + And then take hands: +Curtsied when you have, and kiss’d + The wild waves whist. +Foot it featly here and there, + And sweet sprites bear +The burden. Hark, hark!_ + Burden dispersedly. _Bow-wow. +The watch dogs bark._ + [Burden dispersedly.] _Bow-wow. +Hark, hark! I hear +The strain of strutting chanticleer + Cry cock-a-diddle-dow._ + +FERDINAND. +Where should this music be? i’ th’ air or th’ earth? +It sounds no more; and sure it waits upon +Some god o’ th’ island. Sitting on a bank, +Weeping again the King my father’s wrack, +This music crept by me upon the waters, +Allaying both their fury and my passion +With its sweet air: thence I have follow’d it, +Or it hath drawn me rather,—but ’tis gone. +No, it begins again. + +ARIEL. +[_Sings._] +_Full fathom five thy father lies. + Of his bones are coral made. +Those are pearls that were his eyes. + Nothing of him that doth fade +But doth suffer a sea-change +Into something rich and strange. +Sea-nymphs hourly ring his knell:_ + Burden: _Ding-dong. +Hark! now I hear them: ding-dong, bell._ + +FERDINAND. +The ditty does remember my drown’d father. +This is no mortal business, nor no sound +That the earth owes:—I hear it now above me. + +PROSPERO. +The fringed curtains of thine eye advance, +And say what thou seest yond. + +MIRANDA. +What is’t? a spirit? +Lord, how it looks about! Believe me, sir, +It carries a brave form. But ’tis a spirit. + +PROSPERO. +No, wench; it eats and sleeps and hath such senses +As we have, such. This gallant which thou seest +Was in the wrack; and, but he’s something stain’d +With grief,—that’s beauty’s canker,—thou mightst call him +A goodly person: he hath lost his fellows +And strays about to find ’em. + +MIRANDA. +I might call him +A thing divine; for nothing natural +I ever saw so noble. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] It goes on, I see, +As my soul prompts it. Spirit, fine spirit! I’ll free thee +Within two days for this. + +FERDINAND. +Most sure, the goddess +On whom these airs attend! Vouchsafe, my prayer +May know if you remain upon this island; +And that you will some good instruction give +How I may bear me here: my prime request, +Which I do last pronounce, is, O you wonder! +If you be maid or no? + +MIRANDA. +No wonder, sir; +But certainly a maid. + +FERDINAND. +My language! Heavens! +I am the best of them that speak this speech, +Were I but where ’tis spoken. + +PROSPERO. +How! the best? +What wert thou, if the King of Naples heard thee? + +FERDINAND. +A single thing, as I am now, that wonders +To hear thee speak of Naples. He does hear me; +And that he does I weep: myself am Naples, +Who with mine eyes, never since at ebb, beheld +The King my father wrack’d. + +MIRANDA. +Alack, for mercy! + +FERDINAND. +Yes, faith, and all his lords, the Duke of Milan, +And his brave son being twain. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] The Duke of Milan +And his more braver daughter could control thee, +If now ’twere fit to do’t. At the first sight +They have changed eyes. Delicate Ariel, +I’ll set thee free for this. [_To Ferdinand._] A word, good sir. +I fear you have done yourself some wrong: a word. + +MIRANDA. +Why speaks my father so ungently? This +Is the third man that e’er I saw; the first +That e’er I sigh’d for. Pity move my father +To be inclin’d my way! + +FERDINAND. +O! if a virgin, +And your affection not gone forth, I’ll make you +The Queen of Naples. + +PROSPERO. +Soft, sir; one word more. +[_Aside._] They are both in either’s powers. But this swift business +I must uneasy make, lest too light winning +Make the prize light. [_To Ferdinand._] One word more. I charge thee +That thou attend me. Thou dost here usurp +The name thou ow’st not; and hast put thyself +Upon this island as a spy, to win it +From me, the lord on ’t. + +FERDINAND. +No, as I am a man. + +MIRANDA. +There’s nothing ill can dwell in such a temple: +If the ill spirit have so fair a house, +Good things will strive to dwell with ’t. + +PROSPERO. +[_To Ferdinand._] Follow me.— +[_To Miranda._] Speak not you for him; he’s a traitor. +[_To Ferdinand._] Come; +I’ll manacle thy neck and feet together: +Sea-water shalt thou drink; thy food shall be +The fresh-brook mussels, wither’d roots, and husks +Wherein the acorn cradled. Follow. + +FERDINAND. +No; +I will resist such entertainment till +Mine enemy has more power. + + [_He draws, and is charmed from moving._] + +MIRANDA. +O dear father! +Make not too rash a trial of him, for +He’s gentle, and not fearful. + +PROSPERO. +What! I say, +My foot my tutor? Put thy sword up, traitor; +Who mak’st a show, but dar’st not strike, thy conscience +Is so possess’d with guilt: come from thy ward, +For I can here disarm thee with this stick +And make thy weapon drop. + +MIRANDA. +Beseech you, father! + +PROSPERO. +Hence! Hang not on my garments. + +MIRANDA. +Sir, have pity; +I’ll be his surety. + +PROSPERO. +Silence! One word more +Shall make me chide thee, if not hate thee. What! +An advocate for an impostor? hush! +Thou think’st there is no more such shapes as he, +Having seen but him and Caliban: foolish wench! +To th’ most of men this is a Caliban, +And they to him are angels. + +MIRANDA. +My affections +Are then most humble; I have no ambition +To see a goodlier man. + +PROSPERO. +[_To Ferdinand._] Come on; obey: +Thy nerves are in their infancy again, +And have no vigour in them. + +FERDINAND. +So they are: +My spirits, as in a dream, are all bound up. +My father’s loss, the weakness which I feel, +The wrack of all my friends, nor this man’s threats, +To whom I am subdued, are but light to me, +Might I but through my prison once a day +Behold this maid: all corners else o’ th’ earth +Let liberty make use of; space enough +Have I in such a prison. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] It works. [_To Ferdinand._] Come on. +Thou hast done well, fine Ariel! [_To Ferdinand._] Follow me. +[_To Ariel._] Hark what thou else shalt do me. + +MIRANDA. +Be of comfort; +My father’s of a better nature, sir, +Than he appears by speech: this is unwonted +Which now came from him. + +PROSPERO. +Thou shalt be as free +As mountain winds; but then exactly do +All points of my command. + +ARIEL. +To th’ syllable. + +PROSPERO. +[_To Ferdinand._] Come, follow. Speak not for him. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Another part of the island. + + Enter Alonso, Sebastian, Antonio, Gonzalo, Adrian, Francisco and + others. + +GONZALO. +Beseech you, sir, be merry; you have cause, +So have we all, of joy; for our escape +Is much beyond our loss. Our hint of woe +Is common; every day, some sailor’s wife, +The masters of some merchant and the merchant, +Have just our theme of woe; but for the miracle, +I mean our preservation, few in millions +Can speak like us: then wisely, good sir, weigh +Our sorrow with our comfort. + +ALONSO. +Prithee, peace. + +SEBASTIAN. +He receives comfort like cold porridge. + +ANTONIO. +The visitor will not give him o’er so. + +SEBASTIAN. +Look, he’s winding up the watch of his wit; by and by it will strike. + +GONZALO. +Sir,— + +SEBASTIAN. +One: tell. + +GONZALO. +When every grief is entertain’d that’s offer’d, +Comes to the entertainer— + +SEBASTIAN. +A dollar. + +GONZALO. +Dolour comes to him, indeed: you have spoken truer than you purposed. + +SEBASTIAN. +You have taken it wiselier than I meant you should. + +GONZALO. +Therefore, my lord,— + +ANTONIO. +Fie, what a spendthrift is he of his tongue! + +ALONSO. +I prithee, spare. + +GONZALO. +Well, I have done: but yet— + +SEBASTIAN. +He will be talking. + +ANTONIO. +Which, of he or Adrian, for a good wager, first begins to crow? + +SEBASTIAN. +The old cock. + +ANTONIO. +The cockerel. + +SEBASTIAN. +Done. The wager? + +ANTONIO. +A laughter. + +SEBASTIAN. +A match! + +ADRIAN. +Though this island seem to be desert,— + +ANTONIO. +Ha, ha, ha! + +SEBASTIAN. +So. You’re paid. + +ADRIAN. +Uninhabitable, and almost inaccessible,— + +SEBASTIAN. +Yet— + +ADRIAN. +Yet— + +ANTONIO. +He could not miss ’t. + +ADRIAN. +It must needs be of subtle, tender, and delicate temperance. + +ANTONIO. +Temperance was a delicate wench. + +SEBASTIAN. +Ay, and a subtle; as he most learnedly delivered. + +ADRIAN. +The air breathes upon us here most sweetly. + +SEBASTIAN. +As if it had lungs, and rotten ones. + +ANTONIO. +Or, as ’twere perfum’d by a fen. + +GONZALO. +Here is everything advantageous to life. + +ANTONIO. +True; save means to live. + +SEBASTIAN. +Of that there’s none, or little. + +GONZALO. +How lush and lusty the grass looks! how green! + +ANTONIO. +The ground indeed is tawny. + +SEBASTIAN. +With an eye of green in’t. + +ANTONIO. +He misses not much. + +SEBASTIAN. +No; he doth but mistake the truth totally. + +GONZALO. +But the rarity of it is,—which is indeed almost beyond credit,— + +SEBASTIAN. +As many vouch’d rarities are. + +GONZALO. +That our garments, being, as they were, drenched in the sea, hold +notwithstanding their freshness and glosses, being rather new-dyed than +stained with salt water. + +ANTONIO. +If but one of his pockets could speak, would it not say he lies? + +SEBASTIAN. +Ay, or very falsely pocket up his report. + +GONZALO. +Methinks our garments are now as fresh as when we put them on first in +Afric, at the marriage of the King’s fair daughter Claribel to the King +of Tunis. + +SEBASTIAN. +’Twas a sweet marriage, and we prosper well in our return. + +ADRIAN. +Tunis was never graced before with such a paragon to their Queen. + +GONZALO. +Not since widow Dido’s time. + +ANTONIO. +Widow! a pox o’ that! How came that widow in? Widow Dido! + +SEBASTIAN. +What if he had said, widower Aeneas too? +Good Lord, how you take it! + +ADRIAN. +Widow Dido said you? You make me study of that; she was of Carthage, +not of Tunis. + +GONZALO. +This Tunis, sir, was Carthage. + +ADRIAN. +Carthage? + +GONZALO. +I assure you, Carthage. + +ANTONIO. +His word is more than the miraculous harp. + +SEBASTIAN. +He hath rais’d the wall, and houses too. + +ANTONIO. +What impossible matter will he make easy next? + +SEBASTIAN. +I think he will carry this island home in his pocket, and give it his +son for an apple. + +ANTONIO. +And, sowing the kernels of it in the sea, bring forth more islands. + +ALONSO. +Ay. + +ANTONIO. +Why, in good time. + +GONZALO. +[_To Alonso._] Sir, we were talking that our garments seem now as fresh +as when we were at Tunis at the marriage of your daughter, who is now +Queen. + +ANTONIO. +And the rarest that e’er came there. + +SEBASTIAN. +Bate, I beseech you, widow Dido. + +ANTONIO. +O! widow Dido; ay, widow Dido. + +GONZALO. +Is not, sir, my doublet as fresh as the first day I wore it? I mean, in +a sort. + +ANTONIO. +That sort was well fish’d for. + +GONZALO. +When I wore it at your daughter’s marriage? + +ALONSO. +You cram these words into mine ears against +The stomach of my sense. Would I had never +Married my daughter there! for, coming thence, +My son is lost; and, in my rate, she too, +Who is so far from Italy removed, +I ne’er again shall see her. O thou mine heir +Of Naples and of Milan, what strange fish +Hath made his meal on thee? + +FRANCISCO. +Sir, he may live: +I saw him beat the surges under him, +And ride upon their backs. He trod the water, +Whose enmity he flung aside, and breasted +The surge most swoln that met him. His bold head +’Bove the contentious waves he kept, and oared +Himself with his good arms in lusty stroke +To th’ shore, that o’er his wave-worn basis bowed, +As stooping to relieve him. I not doubt +He came alive to land. + +ALONSO. +No, no, he’s gone. + +SEBASTIAN. +Sir, you may thank yourself for this great loss, +That would not bless our Europe with your daughter, +But rather lose her to an African; +Where she, at least, is banish’d from your eye, +Who hath cause to wet the grief on ’t. + +ALONSO. +Prithee, peace. + +SEBASTIAN. +You were kneel’d to, and importun’d otherwise +By all of us; and the fair soul herself +Weigh’d between loathness and obedience at +Which end o’ th’ beam should bow. We have lost your son, +I fear, for ever: Milan and Naples have +More widows in them of this business’ making, +Than we bring men to comfort them. +The fault’s your own. + +ALONSO. +So is the dear’st o’ th’ loss. + +GONZALO. +My lord Sebastian, +The truth you speak doth lack some gentleness +And time to speak it in. You rub the sore, +When you should bring the plaster. + +SEBASTIAN. +Very well. + +ANTONIO. +And most chirurgeonly. + +GONZALO. +It is foul weather in us all, good sir, +When you are cloudy. + +SEBASTIAN. +Foul weather? + +ANTONIO. +Very foul. + +GONZALO. +Had I plantation of this isle, my lord,— + +ANTONIO. +He’d sow ’t with nettle-seed. + +SEBASTIAN. +Or docks, or mallows. + +GONZALO. +And were the King on’t, what would I do? + +SEBASTIAN. +’Scape being drunk for want of wine. + +GONZALO. +I’ th’ commonwealth I would by contraries +Execute all things; for no kind of traffic +Would I admit; no name of magistrate; +Letters should not be known; riches, poverty, +And use of service, none; contract, succession, +Bourn, bound of land, tilth, vineyard, none; +No use of metal, corn, or wine, or oil; +No occupation; all men idle, all; +And women too, but innocent and pure; +No sovereignty,— + +SEBASTIAN. +Yet he would be King on’t. + +ANTONIO. +The latter end of his commonwealth forgets the beginning. + +GONZALO. +All things in common nature should produce +Without sweat or endeavour; treason, felony, +Sword, pike, knife, gun, or need of any engine, +Would I not have; but nature should bring forth, +Of it own kind, all foison, all abundance, +To feed my innocent people. + +SEBASTIAN. +No marrying ’mong his subjects? + +ANTONIO. +None, man; all idle; whores and knaves. + +GONZALO. +I would with such perfection govern, sir, +T’ excel the Golden Age. + +SEBASTIAN. +Save his Majesty! + +ANTONIO. +Long live Gonzalo! + +GONZALO. +And,—do you mark me, sir? + +ALONSO. +Prithee, no more: thou dost talk nothing to me. + +GONZALO. +I do well believe your highness; and did it to minister occasion to +these gentlemen, who are of such sensible and nimble lungs that they +always use to laugh at nothing. + +ANTONIO. +’Twas you we laughed at. + +GONZALO. +Who in this kind of merry fooling am nothing to you. So you may +continue, and laugh at nothing still. + +ANTONIO. +What a blow was there given! + +SEBASTIAN. +An it had not fallen flat-long. + +GONZALO. +You are gentlemen of brave mettle. You would lift the moon out of her +sphere, if she would continue in it five weeks without changing. + + Enter Ariel, invisible, playing solemn music. + +SEBASTIAN. +We would so, and then go a-bat-fowling. + +ANTONIO. +Nay, good my lord, be not angry. + +GONZALO. +No, I warrant you; I will not adventure my discretion so weakly. Will +you laugh me asleep, for I am very heavy? + +ANTONIO. +Go sleep, and hear us. + + [_All sleep but Alonso, Sebastian and Antonio._] + +ALONSO. +What, all so soon asleep! I wish mine eyes +Would, with themselves, shut up my thoughts: I find +They are inclin’d to do so. + +SEBASTIAN. +Please you, sir, +Do not omit the heavy offer of it: +It seldom visits sorrow; when it doth, +It is a comforter. + +ANTONIO. +We two, my lord, +Will guard your person while you take your rest, +And watch your safety. + +ALONSO. +Thank you. Wondrous heavy! + + [_Alonso sleeps. Exit Ariel._] + +SEBASTIAN. +What a strange drowsiness possesses them! + +ANTONIO. +It is the quality o’ th’ climate. + +SEBASTIAN. +Why +Doth it not then our eyelids sink? I find not +Myself dispos’d to sleep. + +ANTONIO. +Nor I. My spirits are nimble. +They fell together all, as by consent; +They dropp’d, as by a thunder-stroke. What might, +Worthy Sebastian? O, what might?—No more. +And yet methinks I see it in thy face, +What thou shouldst be. Th’ occasion speaks thee; and +My strong imagination sees a crown +Dropping upon thy head. + +SEBASTIAN. +What, art thou waking? + +ANTONIO. +Do you not hear me speak? + +SEBASTIAN. +I do; and surely +It is a sleepy language, and thou speak’st +Out of thy sleep. What is it thou didst say? +This is a strange repose, to be asleep +With eyes wide open; standing, speaking, moving, +And yet so fast asleep. + +ANTONIO. +Noble Sebastian, +Thou let’st thy fortune sleep—die rather; wink’st +Whiles thou art waking. + +SEBASTIAN. +Thou dost snore distinctly: +There’s meaning in thy snores. + +ANTONIO. +I am more serious than my custom; you +Must be so too, if heed me; which to do +Trebles thee o’er. + +SEBASTIAN. +Well, I am standing water. + +ANTONIO. +I’ll teach you how to flow. + +SEBASTIAN. +Do so: to ebb, +Hereditary sloth instructs me. + +ANTONIO. +O, +If you but knew how you the purpose cherish +Whiles thus you mock it! how, in stripping it, +You more invest it! Ebbing men indeed, +Most often, do so near the bottom run +By their own fear or sloth. + +SEBASTIAN. +Prithee, say on: +The setting of thine eye and cheek proclaim +A matter from thee, and a birth, indeed +Which throes thee much to yield. + +ANTONIO. +Thus, sir: +Although this lord of weak remembrance, this +Who shall be of as little memory +When he is earth’d, hath here almost persuaded,— +For he’s a spirit of persuasion, only +Professes to persuade,—the King his son’s alive, +’Tis as impossible that he’s undrown’d +As he that sleeps here swims. + +SEBASTIAN. +I have no hope +That he’s undrown’d. + +ANTONIO. +O, out of that “no hope” +What great hope have you! No hope that way is +Another way so high a hope, that even +Ambition cannot pierce a wink beyond, +But doubts discovery there. Will you grant with me +That Ferdinand is drown’d? + +SEBASTIAN. +He’s gone. + +ANTONIO. +Then tell me, +Who’s the next heir of Naples? + +SEBASTIAN. +Claribel. + +ANTONIO. +She that is Queen of Tunis; she that dwells +Ten leagues beyond man’s life; she that from Naples +Can have no note, unless the sun were post— +The Man i’ th’ Moon’s too slow—till newborn chins +Be rough and razorable; she that from whom +We all were sea-swallow’d, though some cast again, +And by that destiny, to perform an act +Whereof what’s past is prologue, what to come +In yours and my discharge. + +SEBASTIAN. +What stuff is this! How say you? +’Tis true, my brother’s daughter’s Queen of Tunis; +So is she heir of Naples; ’twixt which regions +There is some space. + +ANTONIO. +A space whose ev’ry cubit +Seems to cry out “How shall that Claribel +Measure us back to Naples? Keep in Tunis, +And let Sebastian wake.” Say this were death +That now hath seiz’d them; why, they were no worse +Than now they are. There be that can rule Naples +As well as he that sleeps; lords that can prate +As amply and unnecessarily +As this Gonzalo. I myself could make +A chough of as deep chat. O, that you bore +The mind that I do! What a sleep were this +For your advancement! Do you understand me? + +SEBASTIAN. +Methinks I do. + +ANTONIO. +And how does your content +Tender your own good fortune? + +SEBASTIAN. +I remember +You did supplant your brother Prospero. + +ANTONIO. +True. +And look how well my garments sit upon me; +Much feater than before; my brother’s servants +Were then my fellows; now they are my men. + +SEBASTIAN. +But, for your conscience. + +ANTONIO. +Ay, sir; where lies that? If ’twere a kibe, +’Twould put me to my slipper: but I feel not +This deity in my bosom: twenty consciences +That stand ’twixt me and Milan, candied be they +And melt ere they molest! Here lies your brother, +No better than the earth he lies upon, +If he were that which now he’s like, that’s dead; +Whom I, with this obedient steel, three inches of it, +Can lay to bed for ever; whiles you, doing thus, +To the perpetual wink for aye might put +This ancient morsel, this Sir Prudence, who +Should not upbraid our course. For all the rest, +They’ll take suggestion as a cat laps milk. +They’ll tell the clock to any business that +We say befits the hour. + +SEBASTIAN. +Thy case, dear friend, +Shall be my precedent: as thou got’st Milan, +I’ll come by Naples. Draw thy sword: one stroke +Shall free thee from the tribute which thou payest, +And I the King shall love thee. + +ANTONIO. +Draw together, +And when I rear my hand, do you the like, +To fall it on Gonzalo. + +SEBASTIAN. +O, but one word. + + [_They converse apart._] + + Music. Re-enter Ariel, invisible. + +ARIEL. +My master through his art foresees the danger +That you, his friend, are in; and sends me forth— +For else his project dies—to keep them living. + +[_Sings in Gonzalo’s ear._] +_While you here do snoring lie, +Open-ey’d conspiracy + His time doth take. +If of life you keep a care, +Shake off slumber, and beware. + Awake! awake!_ + +ANTONIO. +Then let us both be sudden. + +GONZALO. +Now, good angels +Preserve the King! + + [_They wake._] + +ALONSO. +Why, how now! Ho, awake! Why are you drawn? +Wherefore this ghastly looking? + +GONZALO. +What’s the matter? + +SEBASTIAN. +Whiles we stood here securing your repose, +Even now, we heard a hollow burst of bellowing +Like bulls, or rather lions; did ’t not wake you? +It struck mine ear most terribly. + +ALONSO. +I heard nothing. + +ANTONIO. +O! ’twas a din to fright a monster’s ear, +To make an earthquake. Sure, it was the roar +Of a whole herd of lions. + +ALONSO. +Heard you this, Gonzalo? + +GONZALO. +Upon mine honour, sir, I heard a humming, +And that a strange one too, which did awake me. +I shak’d you, sir, and cried; as mine eyes open’d, +I saw their weapons drawn:—there was a noise, +That’s verily. ’Tis best we stand upon our guard, +Or that we quit this place: let’s draw our weapons. + +ALONSO. +Lead off this ground, and let’s make further search +For my poor son. + +GONZALO. +Heavens keep him from these beasts! +For he is, sure, i’ th’ island. + +ALONSO. +Lead away. + + [_Exit with the others._] + +ARIEL. +Prospero my lord shall know what I have done: +So, King, go safely on to seek thy son. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. Another part of the island. + + Enter Caliban with a burden of wood. A noise of thunder heard. + +CALIBAN. +All the infections that the sun sucks up +From bogs, fens, flats, on Prosper fall, and make him +By inch-meal a disease! His spirits hear me, +And yet I needs must curse. But they’ll nor pinch, +Fright me with urchin-shows, pitch me i’ the mire, +Nor lead me, like a firebrand, in the dark +Out of my way, unless he bid ’em; but +For every trifle are they set upon me, +Sometime like apes that mow and chatter at me, +And after bite me; then like hedgehogs which +Lie tumbling in my barefoot way, and mount +Their pricks at my footfall; sometime am I +All wound with adders, who with cloven tongues +Do hiss me into madness. + + Enter Trinculo. + +Lo, now, lo! +Here comes a spirit of his, and to torment me +For bringing wood in slowly. I’ll fall flat; +Perchance he will not mind me. + +TRINCULO. +Here’s neither bush nor shrub to bear off any weather at all, and +another storm brewing; I hear it sing i’ th’ wind. Yond same black +cloud, yond huge one, looks like a foul bombard that would shed his +liquor. If it should thunder as it did before, I know not where to hide +my head: yond same cloud cannot choose but fall by pailfuls. What have +we here? a man or a fish? dead or alive? A fish: he smells like a fish; +a very ancient and fish-like smell; a kind of not of the newest +Poor-John. A strange fish! Were I in England now, as once I was, and +had but this fish painted, not a holiday fool there but would give a +piece of silver: there would this monster make a man; any strange beast +there makes a man. When they will not give a doit to relieve a lame +beggar, they will lay out ten to see a dead Indian. Legg’d like a man, +and his fins like arms! Warm, o’ my troth! I do now let loose my +opinion, hold it no longer: this is no fish, but an islander, that hath +lately suffered by thunderbolt. [_Thunder._] Alas, the storm is come +again! My best way is to creep under his gaberdine; there is no other +shelter hereabout: misery acquaints a man with strange bed-fellows. I +will here shroud till the dregs of the storm be past. + + Enter Stephano singing; a bottle in his hand. + +STEPHANO. +_I shall no more to sea, to sea, +Here shall I die ashore—_ + +This is a very scurvy tune to sing at a man’s funeral. +Well, here’s my comfort. + + [_Drinks._] + +_The master, the swabber, the boatswain, and I, + The gunner, and his mate, +Lov’d Mall, Meg, and Marian, and Margery, + But none of us car’d for Kate: + For she had a tongue with a tang, + Would cry to a sailor “Go hang!” +She lov’d not the savour of tar nor of pitch, +Yet a tailor might scratch her where’er she did itch. + Then to sea, boys, and let her go hang._ + +This is a scurvy tune too: but here’s my comfort. + + [_Drinks._] + +CALIBAN. +Do not torment me: O! + +STEPHANO. +What’s the matter? Have we devils here? Do you put tricks upon ’s with +savages and men of Ind? Ha? I have not scap’d drowning, to be afeard +now of your four legs; for it hath been said, As proper a man as ever +went on four legs cannot make him give ground; and it shall be said so +again, while Stephano breathes at’ nostrils. + +CALIBAN. +The spirit torments me: O! + +STEPHANO. +This is some monster of the isle with four legs, who hath got, as I +take it, an ague. Where the devil should he learn our language? I will +give him some relief, if it be but for that. If I can recover him and +keep him tame, and get to Naples with him, he’s a present for any +emperor that ever trod on neat’s-leather. + +CALIBAN. +Do not torment me, prithee; I’ll bring my wood home faster. + +STEPHANO. +He’s in his fit now, and does not talk after the wisest. He shall taste +of my bottle: if he have never drunk wine afore, it will go near to +remove his fit. If I can recover him, and keep him tame, I will not +take too much for him. He shall pay for him that hath him, and that +soundly. + +CALIBAN. +Thou dost me yet but little hurt; thou wilt anon, +I know it by thy trembling: now Prosper works upon thee. + +STEPHANO. +Come on your ways. Open your mouth; here is that which will give +language to you, cat. Open your mouth. This will shake your shaking, I +can tell you, and that soundly. [_gives Caliban a drink_] You cannot +tell who’s your friend: open your chaps again. + +TRINCULO. +I should know that voice: it should be—but he is drowned; and these are +devils. O, defend me! + +STEPHANO. +Four legs and two voices; a most delicate monster! His forward voice +now is to speak well of his friend; his backward voice is to utter foul +speeches and to detract. If all the wine in my bottle will recover him, +I will help his ague. Come. Amen! I will pour some in thy other mouth. + +TRINCULO. +Stephano! + +STEPHANO. +Doth thy other mouth call me? Mercy! mercy! +This is a devil, and no monster: I will leave him; I +have no long spoon. + +TRINCULO. +Stephano! If thou beest Stephano, touch me, and speak to me; for I am +Trinculo—be not afeared—thy good friend Trinculo. + +STEPHANO. +If thou beest Trinculo, come forth. I’ll pull thee by the lesser legs: +if any be Trinculo’s legs, these are they. Thou art very Trinculo +indeed! How cam’st thou to be the siege of this moon-calf? Can he vent +Trinculos? + +TRINCULO. +I took him to be kill’d with a thunderstroke. But art thou not drown’d, +Stephano? I hope now thou are not drown’d. Is the storm overblown? I +hid me under the dead moon-calf’s gaberdine for fear of the storm. And +art thou living, Stephano? O Stephano, two Neapolitans scap’d! + +STEPHANO. +Prithee, do not turn me about. My stomach is not constant. + +CALIBAN. +[_Aside._] These be fine things, an if they be not sprites. +That’s a brave god, and bears celestial liquor. +I will kneel to him. + +STEPHANO. +How didst thou scape? How cam’st thou hither? Swear by this bottle how +thou cam’st hither—I escaped upon a butt of sack, which the sailors +heaved o’erboard, by this bottle! which I made of the bark of a tree +with mine own hands, since I was cast ashore. + +CALIBAN. +I’ll swear upon that bottle to be thy true subject, for the liquor is +not earthly. + +STEPHANO. +Here. Swear then how thou escapedst. + +TRINCULO. +Swum ashore, man, like a duck: I can swim like a duck, I’ll be sworn. + +STEPHANO. +Here, kiss the book. Though thou canst swim like a duck, thou art made +like a goose. + +TRINCULO. +O Stephano, hast any more of this? + +STEPHANO. +The whole butt, man: my cellar is in a rock by th’ seaside, where my +wine is hid. How now, moon-calf! How does thine ague? + +CALIBAN. +Hast thou not dropped from heaven? + +STEPHANO. +Out o’ the moon, I do assure thee: I was the Man in the Moon, when time +was. + +CALIBAN. +I have seen thee in her, and I do adore thee. My mistress showed me +thee, and thy dog, and thy bush. + +STEPHANO. +Come, swear to that. Kiss the book. I will furnish it anon with new +contents. Swear. + +TRINCULO. +By this good light, this is a very shallow monster. I afeard of him? A +very weak monster. The Man i’ the Moon! A most poor credulous monster! +Well drawn, monster, in good sooth! + +CALIBAN. +I’ll show thee every fertile inch o’ the island; and I will kiss thy +foot. I prithee, be my god. + +TRINCULO. +By this light, a most perfidious and drunken monster. When ’s god’s +asleep, he’ll rob his bottle. + +CALIBAN. +I’ll kiss thy foot. I’ll swear myself thy subject. + +STEPHANO. +Come on, then; down, and swear. + +TRINCULO. +I shall laugh myself to death at this puppy-headed monster. A most +scurvy monster! I could find in my heart to beat him,— + +STEPHANO. +Come, kiss. + +TRINCULO. +But that the poor monster’s in drink. An abominable monster! + +CALIBAN. +I’ll show thee the best springs; I’ll pluck thee berries; +I’ll fish for thee, and get thee wood enough. +A plague upon the tyrant that I serve! +I’ll bear him no more sticks, but follow thee, +Thou wondrous man. + +TRINCULO. +A most ridiculous monster, to make a wonder of a poor drunkard! + +CALIBAN. +I prithee, let me bring thee where crabs grow; +And I with my long nails will dig thee pig-nuts; +Show thee a jay’s nest, and instruct thee how +To snare the nimble marmoset; I’ll bring thee +To clustering filberts, and sometimes I’ll get thee +Young scamels from the rock. Wilt thou go with me? + +STEPHANO. +I prithee now, lead the way without any more talking. Trinculo, the +King and all our company else being drowned, we will inherit here. +Here, bear my bottle. Fellow Trinculo, we’ll fill him by and by again. + +CALIBAN. +[_Sings drunkenly._] _Farewell, master; farewell, farewell!_ + +TRINCULO. +A howling monster, a drunken monster. + +CALIBAN. +_No more dams I’ll make for fish; +Nor fetch in firing +At requiring, +Nor scrape trenchering, nor wash dish; +’Ban ’Ban, Cacaliban, +Has a new master—Get a new man._ +Freedom, high-day! high-day, freedom! freedom, +high-day, freedom! + +STEPHANO. +O brave monster! lead the way. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Before Prospero’s cell. + + Enter Ferdinand bearing a log. + +FERDINAND. +There be some sports are painful, and their labour +Delight in them sets off: some kinds of baseness +Are nobly undergone; and most poor matters +Point to rich ends. This my mean task +Would be as heavy to me as odious, but +The mistress which I serve quickens what’s dead, +And makes my labours pleasures: O, she is +Ten times more gentle than her father’s crabbed, +And he’s compos’d of harshness. I must remove +Some thousands of these logs, and pile them up, +Upon a sore injunction: my sweet mistress +Weeps when she sees me work, and says such baseness +Had never like executor. I forget: +But these sweet thoughts do even refresh my labours, +Most busy, least when I do it. + + Enter Miranda and Prospero behind. + +MIRANDA. +Alas now, pray you, +Work not so hard: I would the lightning had +Burnt up those logs that you are enjoin’d to pile! +Pray, set it down and rest you. When this burns, +’Twill weep for having wearied you. My father +Is hard at study; pray, now, rest yourself: +He’s safe for these three hours. + +FERDINAND. +O most dear mistress, +The sun will set, before I shall discharge +What I must strive to do. + +MIRANDA. +If you’ll sit down, +I’ll bear your logs the while. Pray give me that; +I’ll carry it to the pile. + +FERDINAND. +No, precious creature; +I had rather crack my sinews, break my back, +Than you should such dishonour undergo, +While I sit lazy by. + +MIRANDA. +It would become me +As well as it does you: and I should do it +With much more ease; for my good will is to it, +And yours it is against. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] Poor worm! thou art infected. +This visitation shows it. + +MIRANDA. +You look wearily. + +FERDINAND. +No, noble mistress; ’tis fresh morning with me +When you are by at night. I do beseech you— +Chiefly that I might set it in my prayers— +What is your name? + +MIRANDA. +Miranda—O my father! +I have broke your hest to say so. + +FERDINAND. +Admir’d Miranda! +Indeed, the top of admiration; worth +What’s dearest to the world! Full many a lady +I have ey’d with best regard, and many a time +Th’ harmony of their tongues hath into bondage +Brought my too diligent ear: for several virtues +Have I lik’d several women; never any +With so full soul but some defect in her +Did quarrel with the noblest grace she ow’d, +And put it to the foil: but you, O you, +So perfect and so peerless, are created +Of every creature’s best. + +MIRANDA. +I do not know +One of my sex; no woman’s face remember, +Save, from my glass, mine own; nor have I seen +More that I may call men than you, good friend, +And my dear father: how features are abroad, +I am skilless of; but, by my modesty, +The jewel in my dower, I would not wish +Any companion in the world but you; +Nor can imagination form a shape, +Besides yourself, to like of. But I prattle +Something too wildly, and my father’s precepts +I therein do forget. + +FERDINAND. +I am, in my condition, +A prince, Miranda; I do think, a King; +I would not so!—and would no more endure +This wooden slavery than to suffer +The flesh-fly blow my mouth. Hear my soul speak: +The very instant that I saw you, did +My heart fly to your service; there resides, +To make me slave to it; and for your sake +Am I this patient log-man. + +MIRANDA. +Do you love me? + +FERDINAND. +O heaven, O earth, bear witness to this sound, +And crown what I profess with kind event, +If I speak true; if hollowly, invert +What best is boded me to mischief! I, +Beyond all limit of what else i’ the world, +Do love, prize, honour you. + +MIRANDA. +I am a fool +To weep at what I am glad of. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] Fair encounter +Of two most rare affections! Heavens rain grace +On that which breeds between ’em! + +FERDINAND. +Wherefore weep you? + +MIRANDA. +At mine unworthiness, that dare not offer +What I desire to give; and much less take +What I shall die to want. But this is trifling; +And all the more it seeks to hide itself, +The bigger bulk it shows. Hence, bashful cunning! +And prompt me, plain and holy innocence! +I am your wife if you will marry me; +If not, I’ll die your maid: to be your fellow +You may deny me; but I’ll be your servant, +Whether you will or no. + +FERDINAND. +My mistress, dearest; +And I thus humble ever. + +MIRANDA. +My husband, then? + +FERDINAND. +Ay, with a heart as willing +As bondage e’er of freedom: here’s my hand. + +MIRANDA. +And mine, with my heart in ’t: and now farewell +Till half an hour hence. + +FERDINAND. +A thousand thousand! + + [_Exeunt Ferdinand and Miranda severally._] + +PROSPERO. +So glad of this as they, I cannot be, +Who are surpris’d withal; but my rejoicing +At nothing can be more. I’ll to my book; +For yet, ere supper time, must I perform +Much business appertaining. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. Another part of the island. + + Enter Caliban with a bottle, Stephano and Trinculo. + +STEPHANO. +Tell not me:—when the butt is out we will drink water; not a drop +before: therefore bear up, and board ’em. Servant-monster, drink to me. + +TRINCULO. +Servant-monster! The folly of this island! They say there’s but five +upon this isle; we are three of them; if th’ other two be brained like +us, the state totters. + +STEPHANO. +Drink, servant-monster, when I bid thee: thy eyes are almost set in thy +head. + +TRINCULO. +Where should they be set else? He were a brave monster indeed, if they +were set in his tail. + +STEPHANO. +My man-monster hath drown’d his tongue in sack: for my part, the sea +cannot drown me; I swam, ere I could recover the shore, five-and-thirty +leagues, off and on, by this light. Thou shalt be my lieutenant, +monster, or my standard. + +TRINCULO. +Your lieutenant, if you list; he’s no standard. + +STEPHANO. +We’ll not run, Monsieur monster. + +TRINCULO. +Nor go neither. But you’ll lie like dogs, and yet say nothing neither. + +STEPHANO. +Moon-calf, speak once in thy life, if thou beest a good moon-calf. + +CALIBAN. +How does thy honour? Let me lick thy shoe. I’ll not serve him, he is +not valiant. + +TRINCULO. +Thou liest, most ignorant monster: I am in case to justle a constable. +Why, thou deboshed fish thou, was there ever man a coward that hath +drunk so much sack as I today? Wilt thou tell a monstrous lie, being +but half a fish and half a monster? + +CALIBAN. +Lo, how he mocks me! wilt thou let him, my lord? + +TRINCULO. +“Lord” quoth he! That a monster should be such a natural! + +CALIBAN. +Lo, lo again! bite him to death, I prithee. + +STEPHANO. +Trinculo, keep a good tongue in your head: if you prove a mutineer, the +next tree! The poor monster’s my subject, and he shall not suffer +indignity. + +CALIBAN. +I thank my noble lord. Wilt thou be pleas’d to hearken once again to +the suit I made to thee? + +STEPHANO. +Marry. will I. Kneel and repeat it. I will stand, and so shall +Trinculo. + + Enter Ariel, invisible. + +CALIBAN. +As I told thee before, I am subject to a tyrant, a sorcerer, that by +his cunning hath cheated me of the island. + +ARIEL. +Thou liest. + +CALIBAN. +Thou liest, thou jesting monkey, thou; +I would my valiant master would destroy thee; +I do not lie. + +STEPHANO. +Trinculo, if you trouble him any more in his tale, by this hand, I will +supplant some of your teeth. + +TRINCULO. +Why, I said nothing. + +STEPHANO. +Mum, then, and no more. Proceed. + +CALIBAN. +I say, by sorcery he got this isle; +From me he got it. If thy greatness will, +Revenge it on him,—for I know thou dar’st; +But this thing dare not,— + +STEPHANO. +That’s most certain. + +CALIBAN. +Thou shalt be lord of it and I’ll serve thee. + +STEPHANO. +How now shall this be compassed? Canst thou bring me to the party? + +CALIBAN. +Yea, yea, my lord: I’ll yield him thee asleep, +Where thou mayst knock a nail into his head. + +ARIEL. +Thou liest. Thou canst not. + +CALIBAN. +What a pied ninny’s this! Thou scurvy patch! +I do beseech thy greatness, give him blows, +And take his bottle from him: when that’s gone +He shall drink nought but brine; for I’ll not show him +Where the quick freshes are. + +STEPHANO. +Trinculo, run into no further danger: interrupt the monster one word +further, and by this hand, I’ll turn my mercy out o’ doors, and make a +stock-fish of thee. + +TRINCULO. +Why, what did I? I did nothing. I’ll go farther off. + +STEPHANO. +Didst thou not say he lied? + +ARIEL. +Thou liest. + +STEPHANO. +Do I so? Take thou that. + + [_Strikes Trinculo._] + +As you like this, give me the lie another time. + +TRINCULO. +I did not give the lie. Out o’ your wits and hearing too? A pox o’ your +bottle! this can sack and drinking do. A murrain on your monster, and +the devil take your fingers! + +CALIBAN. +Ha, ha, ha! + +STEPHANO. +Now, forward with your tale.—Prithee stand further off. + +CALIBAN. +Beat him enough: after a little time, +I’ll beat him too. + +STEPHANO. +Stand farther.—Come, proceed. + +CALIBAN. +Why, as I told thee, ’tis a custom with him +I’ th’ afternoon to sleep: there thou mayst brain him, +Having first seiz’d his books; or with a log +Batter his skull, or paunch him with a stake, +Or cut his wezand with thy knife. Remember +First to possess his books; for without them +He’s but a sot, as I am, nor hath not +One spirit to command: they all do hate him +As rootedly as I. Burn but his books. +He has brave utensils,—for so he calls them,— +Which, when he has a house, he’ll deck withal. +And that most deeply to consider is +The beauty of his daughter; he himself +Calls her a nonpareil: I never saw a woman +But only Sycorax my dam and she; +But she as far surpasseth Sycorax +As great’st does least. + +STEPHANO. +Is it so brave a lass? + +CALIBAN. +Ay, lord, she will become thy bed, I warrant, +And bring thee forth brave brood. + +STEPHANO. +Monster, I will kill this man. His daughter and I will be king and +queen,—save our graces!—and Trinculo and thyself shall be viceroys. +Dost thou like the plot, Trinculo? + +TRINCULO. +Excellent. + +STEPHANO. +Give me thy hand: I am sorry I beat thee; but while thou liv’st, keep a +good tongue in thy head. + +CALIBAN. +Within this half hour will he be asleep. +Wilt thou destroy him then? + +STEPHANO. +Ay, on mine honour. + +ARIEL. +This will I tell my master. + +CALIBAN. +Thou mak’st me merry. I am full of pleasure. +Let us be jocund: will you troll the catch +You taught me but while-ere? + +STEPHANO. +At thy request, monster, I will do reason, any reason. Come on, +Trinculo, let us sing. + +[_Sings._] + +_Flout ’em and cout ’em, +and scout ’em and flout ’em: + Thought is free._ + +CALIBAN. +That’s not the tune. + + [_Ariel plays the tune on a tabor and pipe._] + +STEPHANO. +What is this same? + +TRINCULO. +This is the tune of our catch, played by the picture of Nobody. + +STEPHANO. +If thou beest a man, show thyself in thy likeness: if thou beest a +devil, take ’t as thou list. + +TRINCULO. +O, forgive me my sins! + +STEPHANO. +He that dies pays all debts: I defy thee. Mercy upon us! + +CALIBAN. +Art thou afeard? + +STEPHANO. +No, monster, not I. + +CALIBAN. +Be not afeard. The isle is full of noises, +Sounds, and sweet airs, that give delight, and hurt not. +Sometimes a thousand twangling instruments +Will hum about mine ears; and sometimes voices, +That, if I then had wak’d after long sleep, +Will make me sleep again: and then, in dreaming, +The clouds methought would open and show riches +Ready to drop upon me; that, when I wak’d, +I cried to dream again. + +STEPHANO. +This will prove a brave kingdom to me, where I shall have my music for +nothing. + +CALIBAN. +When Prospero is destroyed. + +STEPHANO. +That shall be by and by: I remember the story. + +TRINCULO. +The sound is going away. Let’s follow it, and after do our work. + +STEPHANO. +Lead, monster: we’ll follow. I would I could see this taborer! he lays +it on. Wilt come? + +TRINCULO. +I’ll follow, Stephano. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Another part of the island. + + Enter Alonso, Sebastian, Antonio, Gonzalo Adrian, Francisco, &c. + +GONZALO. +By ’r lakin, I can go no further, sir; +My old bones ache: here’s a maze trod, indeed, +Through forth-rights and meanders! By your patience, +I needs must rest me. + +ALONSO. +Old lord, I cannot blame thee, +Who am myself attach’d with weariness +To th’ dulling of my spirits: sit down, and rest. +Even here I will put off my hope, and keep it +No longer for my flatterer: he is drown’d +Whom thus we stray to find; and the sea mocks +Our frustrate search on land. Well, let him go. + +ANTONIO. +[_Aside to Sebastian._] I am right glad that he’s +so out of hope. +Do not, for one repulse, forgo the purpose +That you resolv’d to effect. + +SEBASTIAN. +[_Aside to Antonio._] The next advantage +Will we take throughly. + +ANTONIO. +[_Aside to Sebastian._] Let it be tonight; +For, now they are oppress’d with travel, they +Will not, nor cannot, use such vigilance +As when they are fresh. + +SEBASTIAN. +[_Aside to Antonio._] I say, tonight: no more. + + Solemn and strange music: and Prospero above, invisible. Enter several + strange Shapes, bringing in a banquet: they dance about it with gentle + actions of salutation; and inviting the King &c., to eat, they depart. + +ALONSO. +What harmony is this? My good friends, hark! + +GONZALO. +Marvellous sweet music! + +ALONSO. +Give us kind keepers, heavens! What were these? + +SEBASTIAN. +A living drollery. Now I will believe +That there are unicorns; that in Arabia +There is one tree, the phoenix’ throne; one phoenix +At this hour reigning there. + +ANTONIO. +I’ll believe both; +And what does else want credit, come to me, +And I’ll be sworn ’tis true: travellers ne’er did lie, +Though fools at home condemn them. + +GONZALO. +If in Naples +I should report this now, would they believe me? +If I should say, I saw such islanders,— +For, certes, these are people of the island,— +Who, though, they are of monstrous shape, yet, note, +Their manners are more gentle, kind, than of +Our human generation you shall find +Many, nay, almost any. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] Honest lord, +Thou hast said well; for some of you there present +Are worse than devils. + +ALONSO. +I cannot too much muse +Such shapes, such gesture, and such sound, expressing— +Although they want the use of tongue—a kind +Of excellent dumb discourse. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] Praise in departing. + +FRANCISCO. +They vanish’d strangely. + +SEBASTIAN. +No matter, since +They have left their viands behind; for we have stomachs.— +Will’t please you taste of what is here? + +ALONSO. +Not I. + +GONZALO. +Faith, sir, you need not fear. When we were boys, +Who would believe that there were mountaineers +Dewlapp’d like bulls, whose throats had hanging at ’em +Wallets of flesh? Or that there were such men +Whose heads stood in their breasts? which now we find +Each putter-out of five for one will bring us +Good warrant of. + +ALONSO. +I will stand to, and feed, +Although my last, no matter, since I feel +The best is past. Brother, my lord the duke, +Stand to, and do as we. + + Thunder and lightning. Enter Ariel like a Harpy; claps his wings upon + the table; and, with a quaint device, the banquet vanishes. + +ARIEL. +You are three men of sin, whom Destiny, +That hath to instrument this lower world +And what is in’t,—the never-surfeited sea +Hath caused to belch up you; and on this island +Where man doth not inhabit; you ’mongst men +Being most unfit to live. I have made you mad; +And even with such-like valour men hang and drown +Their proper selves. + + [_Seeing Alonso, Sebastian &c., draw their swords._] + +You fools! I and my fellows +Are ministers of Fate: the elements +Of whom your swords are temper’d may as well +Wound the loud winds, or with bemock’d-at stabs +Kill the still-closing waters, as diminish +One dowle that’s in my plume. My fellow-ministers +Are like invulnerable. If you could hurt, +Your swords are now too massy for your strengths, +And will not be uplifted. But, remember— +For that’s my business to you,—that you three +From Milan did supplant good Prospero; +Expos’d unto the sea, which hath requit it, +Him and his innocent child: for which foul deed +The powers, delaying, not forgetting, have +Incens’d the seas and shores, yea, all the creatures, +Against your peace. Thee of thy son, Alonso, +They have bereft; and do pronounce, by me +Ling’ring perdition,—worse than any death +Can be at once,—shall step by step attend +You and your ways; whose wraths to guard you from— +Which here, in this most desolate isle, else falls +Upon your heads,—is nothing but heart-sorrow, +And a clear life ensuing. + + [_He vanishes in thunder: then, to soft music, enter the Shapes again, + and dance, with mocks and mows, and carry out the table._] + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] Bravely the figure of this Harpy hast thou +Perform’d, my Ariel; a grace it had, devouring. +Of my instruction hast thou nothing bated +In what thou hadst to say: so, with good life +And observation strange, my meaner ministers +Their several kinds have done. My high charms work, +And these mine enemies are all knit up +In their distractions; they now are in my power; +And in these fits I leave them, while I visit +Young Ferdinand,—whom they suppose is drown’d,— +And his and mine lov’d darling. + + [_Exit above._] + +GONZALO. +I’ the name of something holy, sir, why stand you +In this strange stare? + +ALONSO. +O, it is monstrous! monstrous! +Methought the billows spoke, and told me of it; +The winds did sing it to me; and the thunder, +That deep and dreadful organ-pipe, pronounc’d +The name of Prosper: it did bass my trespass. +Therefore my son i’ th’ ooze is bedded; and +I’ll seek him deeper than e’er plummet sounded, +And with him there lie mudded. + + [_Exit._] + +SEBASTIAN. +But one fiend at a time, +I’ll fight their legions o’er. + +ANTONIO. +I’ll be thy second. + + [_Exeunt Sebastian and Antonio._] + +GONZALO. +All three of them are desperate: their great guilt, +Like poison given to work a great time after, +Now ’gins to bite the spirits. I do beseech you +That are of suppler joints, follow them swiftly +And hinder them from what this ecstasy +May now provoke them to. + +ADRIAN. +Follow, I pray you. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. Before Prospero’s cell. + + Enter Prospero, Ferdinand and Miranda. + +PROSPERO. +If I have too austerely punish’d you, +Your compensation makes amends: for I +Have given you here a third of mine own life, +Or that for which I live; who once again +I tender to thy hand: all thy vexations +Were but my trials of thy love, and thou +Hast strangely stood the test: here, afore Heaven, +I ratify this my rich gift. O Ferdinand, +Do not smile at me that I boast her off, +For thou shalt find she will outstrip all praise, +And make it halt behind her. + +FERDINAND. +I do believe it +Against an oracle. + +PROSPERO. +Then, as my gift and thine own acquisition +Worthily purchas’d, take my daughter: but +If thou dost break her virgin knot before +All sanctimonious ceremonies may +With full and holy rite be minister’d, +No sweet aspersion shall the heavens let fall +To make this contract grow; but barren hate, +Sour-ey’d disdain, and discord shall bestrew +The union of your bed with weeds so loathly +That you shall hate it both: therefore take heed, +As Hymen’s lamps shall light you. + +FERDINAND. +As I hope +For quiet days, fair issue, and long life, +With such love as ’tis now, the murkiest den, +The most opportune place, the strong’st suggestion +Our worser genius can, shall never melt +Mine honour into lust, to take away +The edge of that day’s celebration, +When I shall think, or Phoebus’ steeds are founder’d, +Or Night kept chain’d below. + +PROSPERO. +Fairly spoke: +Sit, then, and talk with her, she is thine own. +What, Ariel! my industrious servant, Ariel! + + Enter Ariel. + +ARIEL. +What would my potent master? here I am. + +PROSPERO. +Thou and thy meaner fellows your last service +Did worthily perform; and I must use you +In such another trick. Go bring the rabble, +O’er whom I give thee power, here to this place. +Incite them to quick motion; for I must +Bestow upon the eyes of this young couple +Some vanity of mine art: it is my promise, +And they expect it from me. + +ARIEL. +Presently? + +PROSPERO. +Ay, with a twink. + +ARIEL. +Before you can say “Come” and “Go,” +And breathe twice, and cry “so, so,” +Each one, tripping on his toe, +Will be here with mop and mow. +Do you love me, master? no? + +PROSPERO. +Dearly, my delicate Ariel. Do not approach +Till thou dost hear me call. + +ARIEL. +Well, I conceive. + + [_Exit._] + +PROSPERO. +Look, thou be true; do not give dalliance +Too much the rein: the strongest oaths are straw +To th’ fire i’ the blood: be more abstemious, +Or else good night your vow! + +FERDINAND. +I warrant you, sir; +The white cold virgin snow upon my heart +Abates the ardour of my liver. + +PROSPERO. +Well. +Now come, my Ariel! bring a corollary, +Rather than want a spirit: appear, and pertly. +No tongue! all eyes! be silent. + + [_Soft music._] + + A Masque. Enter Iris. + +IRIS. +Ceres, most bounteous lady, thy rich leas +Of wheat, rye, barley, vetches, oats, and peas; +Thy turfy mountains, where live nibbling sheep, +And flat meads thatch’d with stover, them to keep; +Thy banks with pioned and twilled brims, +Which spongy April at thy hest betrims, +To make cold nymphs chaste crowns; and thy broom groves, +Whose shadow the dismissed bachelor loves, +Being lass-lorn; thy pole-clipt vineyard; +And thy sea-marge, sterile and rocky-hard, +Where thou thyself dost air: the Queen o’ th’ sky, +Whose wat’ry arch and messenger am I, +Bids thee leave these; and with her sovereign grace, +Here on this grass-plot, in this very place, +To come and sport; her peacocks fly amain: +Approach, rich Ceres, her to entertain. + + Enter Ceres. + +CERES. +Hail, many-colour’d messenger, that ne’er +Dost disobey the wife of Jupiter; +Who with thy saffron wings upon my flowers +Diffusest honey drops, refreshing showers; +And with each end of thy blue bow dost crown +My bosky acres and my unshrubb’d down, +Rich scarf to my proud earth; why hath thy queen +Summon’d me hither to this short-grass’d green? + +IRIS. +A contract of true love to celebrate, +And some donation freely to estate +On the blest lovers. + +CERES. +Tell me, heavenly bow, +If Venus or her son, as thou dost know, +Do now attend the queen? Since they did plot +The means that dusky Dis my daughter got, +Her and her blind boy’s scandal’d company +I have forsworn. + +IRIS. +Of her society +Be not afraid. I met her deity +Cutting the clouds towards Paphos, and her son +Dove-drawn with her. Here thought they to have done +Some wanton charm upon this man and maid, +Whose vows are, that no bed-right shall be paid +Till Hymen’s torch be lighted; but in vain. +Mars’s hot minion is return’d again; +Her waspish-headed son has broke his arrows, +Swears he will shoot no more, but play with sparrows, +And be a boy right out. + +CERES. +Highest queen of State, +Great Juno comes; I know her by her gait. + + Enter Juno. + +JUNO. +How does my bounteous sister? Go with me +To bless this twain, that they may prosperous be, +And honour’d in their issue. + + [_They sing._] + +JUNO. +_Honour, riches, marriage-blessing, +Long continuance, and increasing, +Hourly joys be still upon you! +Juno sings her blessings on you._ + +CERES. +_Earth’s increase, foison plenty, +Barns and gamers never empty; +Vines with clust’ring bunches growing; +Plants with goodly burden bowing; +Spring come to you at the farthest +In the very end of harvest! +Scarcity and want shall shun you; +Ceres’ blessing so is on you._ + +FERDINAND. +This is a most majestic vision, and +Harmonious charmingly. May I be bold +To think these spirits? + +PROSPERO. +Spirits, which by mine art +I have from their confines call’d to enact +My present fancies. + +FERDINAND. +Let me live here ever. +So rare a wonder’d father and a wise, +Makes this place Paradise. + + [_Juno and Ceres whisper, and send Iris on employment._] + +PROSPERO. +Sweet now, silence! +Juno and Ceres whisper seriously, +There’s something else to do: hush, and be mute, +Or else our spell is marr’d. + +IRIS. +You nymphs, call’d Naiads, of the windring brooks, +With your sedg’d crowns and ever-harmless looks, +Leave your crisp channels, and on this green land +Answer your summons; Juno does command. +Come, temperate nymphs, and help to celebrate +A contract of true love. Be not too late. + + Enter certain Nymphs. + +You sun-burn’d sicklemen, of August weary, +Come hither from the furrow, and be merry: +Make holiday: your rye-straw hats put on, +And these fresh nymphs encounter every one +In country footing. + + Enter certain Reapers, properly habited: they join with the Nymphs in + a graceful dance; towards the end whereof Prospero starts suddenly, + and speaks; after which, to a strange, hollow, and confused noise, + they heavily vanish. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside._] I had forgot that foul conspiracy +Of the beast Caliban and his confederates +Against my life: the minute of their plot +Is almost come. [_To the Spirits._] Well done! avoid; no +more! + +FERDINAND. +This is strange: your father’s in some passion +That works him strongly. + +MIRANDA. +Never till this day +Saw I him touch’d with anger so distemper’d. + +PROSPERO. +You do look, my son, in a mov’d sort, +As if you were dismay’d: be cheerful, sir: +Our revels now are ended. These our actors, +As I foretold you, were all spirits and +Are melted into air, into thin air: +And, like the baseless fabric of this vision, +The cloud-capp’d towers, the gorgeous palaces, +The solemn temples, the great globe itself, +Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve, +And, like this insubstantial pageant faded, +Leave not a rack behind. We are such stuff +As dreams are made on, and our little life +Is rounded with a sleep. Sir, I am vex’d: +Bear with my weakness; my old brain is troubled. +Be not disturb’d with my infirmity. +If you be pleas’d, retire into my cell +And there repose: a turn or two I’ll walk, +To still my beating mind. + +FERDINAND, MIRANDA. +We wish your peace. + + [_Exeunt._] + +PROSPERO. +Come, with a thought. I thank thee, Ariel. Come! + + Enter Ariel. + +ARIEL. +Thy thoughts I cleave to. What’s thy pleasure? + +PROSPERO. +Spirit, +We must prepare to meet with Caliban. + +ARIEL. +Ay, my commander. When I presented Ceres, +I thought to have told thee of it; but I fear’d +Lest I might anger thee. + +PROSPERO. +Say again, where didst thou leave these varlets? + +ARIEL. +I told you, sir, they were red-hot with drinking; +So full of valour that they smote the air +For breathing in their faces; beat the ground +For kissing of their feet; yet always bending +Towards their project. Then I beat my tabor; +At which, like unback’d colts, they prick’d their ears, +Advanc’d their eyelids, lifted up their noses +As they smelt music: so I charm’d their ears, +That calf-like they my lowing follow’d through +Tooth’d briers, sharp furzes, pricking goss, and thorns, +Which enter’d their frail shins: at last I left them +I’ th’ filthy-mantled pool beyond your cell, +There dancing up to th’ chins, that the foul lake +O’erstunk their feet. + +PROSPERO. +This was well done, my bird. +Thy shape invisible retain thou still: +The trumpery in my house, go bring it hither +For stale to catch these thieves. + +ARIEL. +I go, I go. + + [_Exit._] + +PROSPERO. +A devil, a born devil, on whose nature +Nurture can never stick; on whom my pains, +Humanely taken, all, all lost, quite lost; +And as with age his body uglier grows, +So his mind cankers. I will plague them all, +Even to roaring. + + Re-enter Ariel, loaden with glistering apparel, &c. + +Come, hang them on this line. + + Prospero and Ariel remain invisible. Enter Caliban, Stephano and + Trinculo all wet. + +CALIBAN. +Pray you, tread softly, that the blind mole may not +Hear a foot fall: we now are near his cell. + +STEPHANO. +Monster, your fairy, which you say is a harmless fairy, has done little +better than played the Jack with us. + +TRINCULO. +Monster, I do smell all horse-piss; at which my nose is in great +indignation. + +STEPHANO. +So is mine. Do you hear, monster? If I should take a displeasure +against you, look you,— + +TRINCULO. +Thou wert but a lost monster. + +CALIBAN. +Good my lord, give me thy favour still. +Be patient, for the prize I’ll bring thee to +Shall hoodwink this mischance: therefore speak softly. +All’s hush’d as midnight yet. + +TRINCULO. +Ay, but to lose our bottles in the pool! + +STEPHANO. +There is not only disgrace and dishonour in that, monster, but an +infinite loss. + +TRINCULO. +That’s more to me than my wetting: yet this is your harmless fairy, +monster. + +STEPHANO. +I will fetch off my bottle, though I be o’er ears for my labour. + +CALIBAN. +Prithee, my King, be quiet. Seest thou here, +This is the mouth o’ th’ cell: no noise, and enter. +Do that good mischief which may make this island +Thine own for ever, and I, thy Caliban, +For aye thy foot-licker. + +STEPHANO. +Give me thy hand. I do begin to have bloody thoughts. + +TRINCULO. +O King Stephano! O peer! O worthy Stephano! +Look what a wardrobe here is for thee! + +CALIBAN. +Let it alone, thou fool; it is but trash. + +TRINCULO. +O, ho, monster! we know what belongs to a frippery. O King Stephano! + +STEPHANO. +Put off that gown, Trinculo; by this hand, I’ll have that gown. + +TRINCULO. +Thy Grace shall have it. + +CALIBAN. +The dropsy drown this fool! What do you mean +To dote thus on such luggage? Let’t alone, +And do the murder first. If he awake, +From toe to crown he’ll fill our skins with pinches, +Make us strange stuff. + +STEPHANO. +Be you quiet, monster. Mistress line, is not this my jerkin? Now is the +jerkin under the line: now, jerkin, you are like to lose your hair, and +prove a bald jerkin. + +TRINCULO. +Do, do: we steal by line and level, an’t like your Grace. + +STEPHANO. +I thank thee for that jest. Here’s a garment for ’t: wit shall not go +unrewarded while I am King of this country. “Steal by line and level,” +is an excellent pass of pate. There’s another garment for ’t. + +TRINCULO. +Monster, come, put some lime upon your fingers, and away with the rest. + +CALIBAN. +I will have none on’t. We shall lose our time, +And all be turn’d to barnacles, or to apes +With foreheads villainous low. + +STEPHANO. +Monster, lay-to your fingers: help to bear this away where my hogshead +of wine is, or I’ll turn you out of my kingdom. Go to, carry this. + +TRINCULO. +And this. + +STEPHANO. +Ay, and this. + + A noise of hunters heard. Enter divers Spirits, in shape of dogs and + hounds, and hunt them about; Prospero and Ariel setting them on. + +PROSPERO. +Hey, Mountain, hey! + +ARIEL. +Silver! there it goes, Silver! + +PROSPERO. +Fury, Fury! There, Tyrant, there! hark, hark! + + [_Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo are driven out._] + +Go, charge my goblins that they grind their joints +With dry convulsions; shorten up their sinews +With aged cramps, and more pinch-spotted make them +Than pard, or cat o’ mountain. + +ARIEL. +Hark, they roar. + +PROSPERO. +Let them be hunted soundly. At this hour +Lies at my mercy all mine enemies. +Shortly shall all my labours end, and thou +Shalt have the air at freedom. For a little +Follow, and do me service. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Before the cell of Prospero. + + Enter Prospero in his magic robes, and Ariel. + +PROSPERO. +Now does my project gather to a head: +My charms crack not; my spirits obey, and time +Goes upright with his carriage. How’s the day? + +ARIEL. +On the sixth hour; at which time, my lord, +You said our work should cease. + +PROSPERO. +I did say so, +When first I rais’d the tempest. Say, my spirit, +How fares the King and ’s followers? + +ARIEL. +Confin’d together +In the same fashion as you gave in charge, +Just as you left them; all prisoners, sir, +In the line-grove which weather-fends your cell; +They cannot budge till your release. The King, +His brother, and yours, abide all three distracted, +And the remainder mourning over them, +Brimful of sorrow and dismay; but chiefly +Him you term’d, sir, “the good old lord, Gonzalo”. +His tears run down his beard, like winter’s drops +From eaves of reeds; your charm so strongly works ’em, +That if you now beheld them, your affections +Would become tender. + +PROSPERO. +Dost thou think so, spirit? + +ARIEL. +Mine would, sir, were I human. + +PROSPERO. +And mine shall. +Hast thou, which art but air, a touch, a feeling +Of their afflictions, and shall not myself, +One of their kind, that relish all as sharply +Passion as they, be kindlier mov’d than thou art? +Though with their high wrongs I am struck to th’ quick, +Yet with my nobler reason ’gainst my fury +Do I take part: the rarer action is +In virtue than in vengeance: they being penitent, +The sole drift of my purpose doth extend +Not a frown further. Go release them, Ariel. +My charms I’ll break, their senses I’ll restore, +And they shall be themselves. + +ARIEL. +I’ll fetch them, sir. + + [_Exit._] + +PROSPERO. +Ye elves of hills, brooks, standing lakes, and +groves; +And ye that on the sands with printless foot +Do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him +When he comes back; you demi-puppets that +By moonshine do the green sour ringlets make, +Whereof the ewe not bites; and you whose pastime +Is to make midnight mushrooms, that rejoice +To hear the solemn curfew; by whose aid, +Weak masters though ye be, I have bedimm’d +The noontide sun, call’d forth the mutinous winds, +And ’twixt the green sea and the azur’d vault +Set roaring war: to the dread rattling thunder +Have I given fire, and rifted Jove’s stout oak +With his own bolt; the strong-bas’d promontory +Have I made shake, and by the spurs pluck’d up +The pine and cedar: graves at my command +Have wak’d their sleepers, op’d, and let ’em forth +By my so potent art. But this rough magic +I here abjure; and, when I have requir’d +Some heavenly music,—which even now I do,— +To work mine end upon their senses that +This airy charm is for, I’ll break my staff, +Bury it certain fathoms in the earth, +And deeper than did ever plummet sound +I’ll drown my book. + + [_Solem music._] + + Re-enter Ariel: after him, Alonso with a frantic gesture, attended by + Gonzalo, Sebastian and Antonio in like manner, attended by Adrian and + Francisco: they all enter the circle which Prospero had made, and + there stand charmed; which Prospero observing, speaks. + +A solemn air, and the best comforter +To an unsettled fancy, cure thy brains, +Now useless, boil’d within thy skull! There stand, +For you are spell-stopp’d. +Holy Gonzalo, honourable man, +Mine eyes, e’en sociable to the show of thine, +Fall fellowly drops. The charm dissolves apace; +And as the morning steals upon the night, +Melting the darkness, so their rising senses +Begin to chase the ignorant fumes that mantle +Their clearer reason. O good Gonzalo! +My true preserver, and a loyal sir +To him thou follow’st, I will pay thy graces +Home, both in word and deed. Most cruelly +Didst thou, Alonso, use me and my daughter: +Thy brother was a furtherer in the act. +Thou art pinch’d for ’t now, Sebastian. Flesh and blood, +You, brother mine, that entertain’d ambition, +Expell’d remorse and nature, who, with Sebastian,— +Whose inward pinches therefore are most strong, +Would here have kill’d your King; I do forgive thee, +Unnatural though thou art. Their understanding +Begins to swell, and the approaching tide +Will shortly fill the reasonable shores +That now lie foul and muddy. Not one of them +That yet looks on me, or would know me. Ariel, +Fetch me the hat and rapier in my cell. + + [_Exit Ariel._] + +I will discase me, and myself present +As I was sometime Milan. Quickly, spirit; +Thou shalt ere long be free. + + Ariel re-enters, singing, and helps to attire Prospero. + +ARIEL +_Where the bee sucks, there suck I: +In a cowslip’s bell I lie; +There I couch when owls do cry. +On the bat’s back I do fly +After summer merrily. +Merrily, merrily shall I live now +Under the blossom that hangs on the bough._ + +PROSPERO. +Why, that’s my dainty Ariel! I shall miss thee; +But yet thou shalt have freedom; so, so, so. +To the King’s ship, invisible as thou art: +There shalt thou find the mariners asleep +Under the hatches; the master and the boatswain +Being awake, enforce them to this place, +And presently, I prithee. + +ARIEL. +I drink the air before me, and return +Or ere your pulse twice beat. + + [_Exit._] + +GONZALO. +All torment, trouble, wonder and amazement +Inhabits here. Some heavenly power guide us +Out of this fearful country! + +PROSPERO. +Behold, sir King, +The wronged Duke of Milan, Prospero. +For more assurance that a living prince +Does now speak to thee, I embrace thy body; +And to thee and thy company I bid +A hearty welcome. + +ALONSO. +Whe’er thou be’st he or no, +Or some enchanted trifle to abuse me, +As late I have been, I not know: thy pulse +Beats, as of flesh and blood; and, since I saw thee, +Th’ affliction of my mind amends, with which, +I fear, a madness held me: this must crave, +An if this be at all, a most strange story. +Thy dukedom I resign, and do entreat +Thou pardon me my wrongs. But how should Prospero +Be living and be here? + +PROSPERO. +First, noble friend, +Let me embrace thine age, whose honour cannot +Be measur’d or confin’d. + +GONZALO. +Whether this be +Or be not, I’ll not swear. + +PROSPERO. +You do yet taste +Some subtleties o’ the isle, that will not let you +Believe things certain. Welcome, my friends all. +[_Aside to Sebastian and Antonio._] But you, my brace of lords, were I +so minded, +I here could pluck his highness’ frown upon you, +And justify you traitors: at this time +I will tell no tales. + +SEBASTIAN. +[_Aside._] The devil speaks in him. + +PROSPERO. +No. +For you, most wicked sir, whom to call brother +Would even infect my mouth, I do forgive +Thy rankest fault, all of them; and require +My dukedom of thee, which perforce I know +Thou must restore. + +ALONSO. +If thou beest Prospero, +Give us particulars of thy preservation; +How thou hast met us here, whom three hours since +Were wrack’d upon this shore; where I have lost,— +How sharp the point of this remembrance is!— +My dear son Ferdinand. + +PROSPERO. +I am woe for ’t, sir. + +ALONSO. +Irreparable is the loss, and patience +Says it is past her cure. + +PROSPERO. +I rather think +You have not sought her help, of whose soft grace, +For the like loss I have her sovereign aid, +And rest myself content. + +ALONSO. +You the like loss! + +PROSPERO. +As great to me, as late; and, supportable +To make the dear loss, have I means much weaker +Than you may call to comfort you, for I +Have lost my daughter. + +ALONSO. +A daughter? +O heavens, that they were living both in Naples, +The King and Queen there! That they were, I wish +Myself were mudded in that oozy bed +Where my son lies. When did you lose your daughter? + +PROSPERO. +In this last tempest. I perceive, these lords +At this encounter do so much admire +That they devour their reason, and scarce think +Their eyes do offices of truth, their words +Are natural breath; but, howsoe’er you have +Been justled from your senses, know for certain +That I am Prospero, and that very duke +Which was thrust forth of Milan; who most strangely +Upon this shore, where you were wrack’d, was landed +To be the lord on’t. No more yet of this; +For ’tis a chronicle of day by day, +Not a relation for a breakfast nor +Befitting this first meeting. Welcome, sir. +This cell’s my court: here have I few attendants, +And subjects none abroad: pray you, look in. +My dukedom since you have given me again, +I will requite you with as good a thing; +At least bring forth a wonder, to content ye +As much as me my dukedom. + +Here Prospero discovers Ferdinand and Miranda playing at chess. + +MIRANDA. +Sweet lord, you play me false. + +FERDINAND. +No, my dearest love, +I would not for the world. + +MIRANDA. +Yes, for a score of kingdoms you should wrangle, +And I would call it fair play. + +ALONSO. +If this prove +A vision of the island, one dear son +Shall I twice lose. + +SEBASTIAN. +A most high miracle! + +FERDINAND. +Though the seas threaten, they are merciful. +I have curs’d them without cause. + + [_Kneels to Alonso._] + +ALONSO. +Now all the blessings +Of a glad father compass thee about! +Arise, and say how thou cam’st here. + +MIRANDA. +O, wonder! +How many goodly creatures are there here! +How beauteous mankind is! O brave new world +That has such people in ’t! + +PROSPERO. +’Tis new to thee. + +ALONSO. +What is this maid, with whom thou wast at play? +Your eld’st acquaintance cannot be three hours: +Is she the goddess that hath sever’d us, +And brought us thus together? + +FERDINAND. +Sir, she is mortal; +But by immortal Providence she’s mine. +I chose her when I could not ask my father +For his advice, nor thought I had one. She +Is daughter to this famous Duke of Milan, +Of whom so often I have heard renown, +But never saw before; of whom I have +Receiv’d a second life; and second father +This lady makes him to me. + +ALONSO. +I am hers: +But, O, how oddly will it sound that I +Must ask my child forgiveness! + +PROSPERO. +There, sir, stop: +Let us not burden our remembrances with +A heaviness that’s gone. + +GONZALO. +I have inly wept, +Or should have spoke ere this. Look down, you gods, +And on this couple drop a blessed crown; +For it is you that have chalk’d forth the way +Which brought us hither. + +ALONSO. +I say, Amen, Gonzalo! + +GONZALO. +Was Milan thrust from Milan, that his issue +Should become Kings of Naples? O, rejoice +Beyond a common joy, and set it down +With gold on lasting pillars: in one voyage +Did Claribel her husband find at Tunis, +And Ferdinand, her brother, found a wife +Where he himself was lost; Prospero his dukedom +In a poor isle; and all of us ourselves, +When no man was his own. + +ALONSO. +[_To Ferdinand and Miranda._] Give me your hands: +Let grief and sorrow still embrace his heart +That doth not wish you joy! + +GONZALO. +Be it so. Amen! + + Re-enter Ariel with the Master and Boatswain amazedly following. + +O look, sir, look, sir! Here are more of us. +I prophesied, if a gallows were on land, +This fellow could not drown. Now, blasphemy, +That swear’st grace o’erboard, not an oath on shore? +Hast thou no mouth by land? What is the news? + +BOATSWAIN. +The best news is that we have safely found +Our King and company. The next, our ship,— +Which but three glasses since, we gave out split, +Is tight and yare, and bravely rigg’d as when +We first put out to sea. + +ARIEL. +[_Aside to Prospero._] Sir, all this service +Have I done since I went. + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside to Ariel._] My tricksy spirit! + +ALONSO. +These are not natural events; they strengthen +From strange to stranger. Say, how came you hither? + +BOATSWAIN. +If I did think, sir, I were well awake, +I’d strive to tell you. We were dead of sleep, +And,—how, we know not,—all clapp’d under hatches, +Where, but even now, with strange and several noises +Of roaring, shrieking, howling, jingling chains, +And mo diversity of sounds, all horrible, +We were awak’d; straightway, at liberty: +Where we, in all her trim, freshly beheld +Our royal, good, and gallant ship; our master +Cap’ring to eye her. On a trice, so please you, +Even in a dream, were we divided from them, +And were brought moping hither. + +ARIEL. +[_Aside to Prospero._] Was’t well done? + +PROSPERO. +[_Aside to Ariel._] Bravely, my diligence. Thou shalt be free. + +ALONSO. +This is as strange a maze as e’er men trod; +And there is in this business more than nature +Was ever conduct of: some oracle +Must rectify our knowledge. + +PROSPERO. +Sir, my liege, +Do not infest your mind with beating on +The strangeness of this business. At pick’d leisure, +Which shall be shortly, single I’ll resolve you, +Which to you shall seem probable, of every +These happen’d accidents; till when, be cheerful +And think of each thing well. [_Aside to Ariel._] Come hither, spirit; +Set Caliban and his companions free; +Untie the spell. + + [_Exit Ariel._] + + How fares my gracious sir? +There are yet missing of your company +Some few odd lads that you remember not. + + Re-enter Ariel driving in Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo in their + stolen apparel. + +STEPHANO. +Every man shift for all the rest, and let no man take care for himself, +for all is but fortune.—Coragio! bully-monster, coragio! + +TRINCULO. +If these be true spies which I wear in my head, here’s a goodly sight. + +CALIBAN. +O Setebos, these be brave spirits indeed. +How fine my master is! I am afraid +He will chastise me. + +SEBASTIAN. +Ha, ha! +What things are these, my lord Antonio? +Will money buy them? + +ANTONIO. +Very like; one of them +Is a plain fish, and, no doubt, marketable. + +PROSPERO. +Mark but the badges of these men, my lords, +Then say if they be true. This mis-shapen knave, +His mother was a witch; and one so strong +That could control the moon, make flows and ebbs, +And deal in her command without her power. +These three have robb’d me; and this demi-devil, +For he’s a bastard one, had plotted with them +To take my life. Two of these fellows you +Must know and own; this thing of darkness I +Acknowledge mine. + +CALIBAN. +I shall be pinch’d to death. + +ALONSO. +Is not this Stephano, my drunken butler? + +SEBASTIAN. +He is drunk now: where had he wine? + +ALONSO. +And Trinculo is reeling-ripe: where should they +Find this grand liquor that hath gilded ’em? +How cam’st thou in this pickle? + +TRINCULO. +I have been in such a pickle since I saw you last that, I fear me, will +never out of my bones. I shall not fear fly-blowing. + +SEBASTIAN. +Why, how now, Stephano! + +STEPHANO. +O! touch me not. I am not Stephano, but a cramp. + +PROSPERO. +You’d be King o’ the isle, sirrah? + +STEPHANO. +I should have been a sore one, then. + +ALONSO. +This is as strange a thing as e’er I look’d on. + + [_Pointing to Caliban._] + +PROSPERO. +He is as disproportioned in his manners +As in his shape. Go, sirrah, to my cell; +Take with you your companions. As you look +To have my pardon, trim it handsomely. + +CALIBAN. +Ay, that I will; and I’ll be wise hereafter, +And seek for grace. What a thrice-double ass +Was I, to take this drunkard for a god, +And worship this dull fool! + +PROSPERO. +Go to; away! + +ALONSO. +Hence, and bestow your luggage where you found it. + +SEBASTIAN. +Or stole it, rather. + + [_Exeunt Caliban, Stephano and Trinculo._] + +PROSPERO. +Sir, I invite your Highness and your train +To my poor cell, where you shall take your rest +For this one night; which, part of it, I’ll waste +With such discourse as, I not doubt, shall make it +Go quick away: the story of my life +And the particular accidents gone by +Since I came to this isle: and in the morn +I’ll bring you to your ship, and so to Naples, +Where I have hope to see the nuptial +Of these our dear-belov’d solemnized; +And thence retire me to my Milan, where +Every third thought shall be my grave. + +ALONSO. +I long +To hear the story of your life, which must +Take the ear strangely. + +PROSPERO. +I’ll deliver all; +And promise you calm seas, auspicious gales, +And sail so expeditious that shall catch +Your royal fleet far off. [_Aside to Ariel._] My Ariel, +chick, +That is thy charge: then to the elements +Be free, and fare thou well! Please you, draw near. + + [_Exeunt._] + +EPILOGUE + +PROSPERO. +Now my charms are all o’erthrown, +And what strength I have’s mine own, +Which is most faint. Now ’tis true, +I must be here confin’d by you, +Or sent to Naples. Let me not, +Since I have my dukedom got, +And pardon’d the deceiver, dwell +In this bare island by your spell, +But release me from my bands +With the help of your good hands. +Gentle breath of yours my sails +Must fill, or else my project fails, +Which was to please. Now I want +Spirits to enforce, art to enchant; +And my ending is despair, +Unless I be reliev’d by prayer, +Which pierces so that it assaults +Mercy itself, and frees all faults. + As you from crimes would pardon’d be, + Let your indulgence set me free. + + [_Exit._] + + + + + +THE LIFE OF TIMON OF ATHENS + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + + TIMON of Athens + + LUCIUS + LUCULLUS + SEMPRONIUS + flattering lords + + VENTIDIUS, one of Timon's false friends + ALCIBIADES, an Athenian captain + APEMANTUS, a churlish philosopher + FLAVIUS, steward to Timon + + FLAMINIUS + LUCILIUS + SERVILIUS + Timon's servants + + CAPHIS + PHILOTUS + TITUS + HORTENSIUS + servants to Timon's creditors + + POET PAINTER JEWELLER MERCHANT MERCER AN OLD ATHENIAN THREE + STRANGERS A PAGE A FOOL + + PHRYNIA + TIMANDRA + mistresses to Alcibiades + + CUPID + AMAZONS + in the Masque + + Lords, Senators, Officers, Soldiers, Servants, Thieves, and + Attendants + +SCENE: Athens and the neighbouring woods + +ACT I. SCENE I. Athens. TIMON'S house + +Enter POET, PAINTER, JEWELLER, MERCHANT, and MERCER, at several doors + + POET. Good day, sir. + PAINTER. I am glad y'are well. + POET. I have not seen you long; how goes the world? + PAINTER. It wears, sir, as it grows. + POET. Ay, that's well known. + But what particular rarity? What strange, + Which manifold record not matches? See, + Magic of bounty, all these spirits thy power + Hath conjur'd to attend! I know the merchant. + PAINTER. I know them both; th' other's a jeweller. + MERCHANT. O, 'tis a worthy lord! + JEWELLER. Nay, that's most fix'd. + MERCHANT. A most incomparable man; breath'd, as it were, + To an untirable and continuate goodness. + He passes. + JEWELLER. I have a jewel here- + MERCHANT. O, pray let's see't. For the Lord Timon, sir? + JEWELLER. If he will touch the estimate. But for that- + POET. When we for recompense have prais'd the vile, + It stains the glory in that happy verse + Which aptly sings the good. + MERCHANT. [Looking at the jewel] 'Tis a good form. + JEWELLER. And rich. Here is a water, look ye. + PAINTER. You are rapt, sir, in some work, some dedication + To the great lord. + POET. A thing slipp'd idly from me. + Our poesy is as a gum, which oozes + From whence 'tis nourish'd. The fire i' th' flint + Shows not till it be struck: our gentle flame + Provokes itself, and like the current flies + Each bound it chafes. What have you there? + PAINTER. A picture, sir. When comes your book forth? + POET. Upon the heels of my presentment, sir. + Let's see your piece. + PAINTER. 'Tis a good piece. + POET. So 'tis; this comes off well and excellent. + PAINTER. Indifferent. + POET. Admirable. How this grace + Speaks his own standing! What a mental power + This eye shoots forth! How big imagination + Moves in this lip! To th' dumbness of the gesture + One might interpret. + PAINTER. It is a pretty mocking of the life. + Here is a touch; is't good? + POET. I will say of it + It tutors nature. Artificial strife + Lives in these touches, livelier than life. + + Enter certain SENATORS, and pass over + + PAINTER. How this lord is followed! + POET. The senators of Athens- happy man! + PAINTER. Look, moe! + POET. You see this confluence, this great flood of visitors. + I have in this rough work shap'd out a man + Whom this beneath world doth embrace and hug + With amplest entertainment. My free drift + Halts not particularly, but moves itself + In a wide sea of tax. No levell'd malice + Infects one comma in the course I hold, + But flies an eagle flight, bold and forth on, + Leaving no tract behind. + PAINTER. How shall I understand you? + POET. I will unbolt to you. + You see how all conditions, how all minds- + As well of glib and slipp'ry creatures as + Of grave and austere quality, tender down + Their services to Lord Timon. His large fortune, + Upon his good and gracious nature hanging, + Subdues and properties to his love and tendance + All sorts of hearts; yea, from the glass-fac'd flatterer + To Apemantus, that few things loves better + Than to abhor himself; even he drops down + The knee before him, and returns in peace + Most rich in Timon's nod. + PAINTER. I saw them speak together. + POET. Sir, I have upon a high and pleasant hill + Feign'd Fortune to be thron'd. The base o' th' mount + Is rank'd with all deserts, all kind of natures + That labour on the bosom of this sphere + To propagate their states. Amongst them all + Whose eyes are on this sovereign lady fix'd + One do I personate of Lord Timon's frame, + Whom Fortune with her ivory hand wafts to her; + Whose present grace to present slaves and servants + Translates his rivals. + PAINTER. 'Tis conceiv'd to scope. + This throne, this Fortune, and this hill, methinks, + With one man beckon'd from the rest below, + Bowing his head against the steepy mount + To climb his happiness, would be well express'd + In our condition. + POET. Nay, sir, but hear me on. + All those which were his fellows but of late- + Some better than his value- on the moment + Follow his strides, his lobbies fill with tendance, + Rain sacrificial whisperings in his ear, + Make sacred even his stirrup, and through him + Drink the free air. + PAINTER. Ay, marry, what of these? + POET. When Fortune in her shift and change of mood + Spurns down her late beloved, all his dependants, + Which labour'd after him to the mountain's top + Even on their knees and hands, let him slip down, + Not one accompanying his declining foot. + PAINTER. 'Tis common. + A thousand moral paintings I can show + That shall demonstrate these quick blows of Fortune's + More pregnantly than words. Yet you do well + To show Lord Timon that mean eyes have seen + The foot above the head. + + Trumpets sound. Enter TIMON, addressing himself + courteously to every suitor, a MESSENGER from + VENTIDIUS talking with him; LUCILIUS and other + servants following + + TIMON. Imprison'd is he, say you? + MESSENGER. Ay, my good lord. Five talents is his debt; + His means most short, his creditors most strait. + Your honourable letter he desires + To those have shut him up; which failing, + Periods his comfort. + TIMON. Noble Ventidius! Well. + I am not of that feather to shake of + My friend when he must need me. I do know him + A gentleman that well deserves a help, + Which he shall have. I'll pay the debt, and free him. + MESSENGER. Your lordship ever binds him. + TIMON. Commend me to him; I will send his ransom; + And being enfranchis'd, bid him come to me. + 'Tis not enough to help the feeble up, + But to support him after. Fare you well. + MESSENGER. All happiness to your honour! Exit + + Enter an OLD ATHENIAN + + OLD ATHENIAN. Lord Timon, hear me speak. + TIMON. Freely, good father. + OLD ATHENIAN. Thou hast a servant nam'd Lucilius. + TIMON. I have so; what of him? + OLD ATHENIAN. Most noble Timon, call the man before thee. + TIMON. Attends he here, or no? Lucilius! + LUCILIUS. Here, at your lordship's service. + OLD ATHENIAN. This fellow here, Lord Timon, this thy creature, + By night frequents my house. I am a man + That from my first have been inclin'd to thrift, + And my estate deserves an heir more rais'd + Than one which holds a trencher. + TIMON. Well; what further? + OLD ATHENIAN. One only daughter have I, no kin else, + On whom I may confer what I have got. + The maid is fair, o' th' youngest for a bride, + And I have bred her at my dearest cost + In qualities of the best. This man of thine + Attempts her love; I prithee, noble lord, + Join with me to forbid him her resort; + Myself have spoke in vain. + TIMON. The man is honest. + OLD ATHENIAN. Therefore he will be, Timon. + His honesty rewards him in itself; + It must not bear my daughter. + TIMON. Does she love him? + OLD ATHENIAN. She is young and apt: + Our own precedent passions do instruct us + What levity's in youth. + TIMON. Love you the maid? + LUCILIUS. Ay, my good lord, and she accepts of it. + OLD ATHENIAN. If in her marriage my consent be missing, + I call the gods to witness I will choose + Mine heir from forth the beggars of the world, + And dispossess her all. + TIMON. How shall she be endow'd, + If she be mated with an equal husband? + OLD ATHENIAN. Three talents on the present; in future, all. + TIMON. This gentleman of mine hath serv'd me long;. + To build his fortune I will strain a little, + For 'tis a bond in men. Give him thy daughter: + What you bestow, in him I'll counterpoise, + And make him weigh with her. + OLD ATHENIAN. Most noble lord, + Pawn me to this your honour, she is his. + TIMON. My hand to thee; mine honour on my promise. + LUCILIUS. Humbly I thank your lordship. Never may + That state or fortune fall into my keeping + Which is not owed to you! + Exeunt LUCILIUS and OLD ATHENIAN + POET. [Presenting his poem] Vouchsafe my labour, and long live your + lordship! + TIMON. I thank you; you shall hear from me anon; + Go not away. What have you there, my friend? + PAINTER. A piece of painting, which I do beseech + Your lordship to accept. + TIMON. Painting is welcome. + The painting is almost the natural man; + For since dishonour traffics with man's nature, + He is but outside; these pencill'd figures are + Even such as they give out. I like your work, + And you shall find I like it; wait attendance + Till you hear further from me. + PAINTER. The gods preserve ye! + TIMON. Well fare you, gentleman. Give me your hand; + We must needs dine together. Sir, your jewel + Hath suffered under praise. + JEWELLER. What, my lord! Dispraise? + TIMON. A mere satiety of commendations; + If I should pay you for't as 'tis extoll'd, + It would unclew me quite. + JEWELLER. My lord, 'tis rated + As those which sell would give; but you well know + Things of like value, differing in the owners, + Are prized by their masters. Believe't, dear lord, + You mend the jewel by the wearing it. + TIMON. Well mock'd. + + Enter APEMANTUS + + MERCHANT. No, my good lord; he speaks the common tongue, + Which all men speak with him. + TIMON. Look who comes here; will you be chid? + JEWELLER. We'll bear, with your lordship. + MERCHANT. He'll spare none. + TIMON. Good morrow to thee, gentle Apemantus! + APEMANTUS. Till I be gentle, stay thou for thy good morrow; + When thou art Timon's dog, and these knaves honest. + TIMON. Why dost thou call them knaves? Thou know'st them not. + APEMANTUS. Are they not Athenians? + TIMON. Yes. + APEMANTUS. Then I repent not. + JEWELLER. You know me, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. Thou know'st I do; I call'd thee by thy name. + TIMON. Thou art proud, Apemantus. + APEMANTUS. Of nothing so much as that I am not like Timon. + TIMON. Whither art going? + APEMANTUS. To knock out an honest Athenian's brains. + TIMON. That's a deed thou't die for. + APEMANTUS. Right, if doing nothing be death by th' law. + TIMON. How lik'st thou this picture, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. The best, for the innocence. + TIMON. Wrought he not well that painted it? + APEMANTUS. He wrought better that made the painter; and yet he's + but a filthy piece of work. + PAINTER. Y'are a dog. + APEMANTUS. Thy mother's of my generation; what's she, if I be a dog? + TIMON. Wilt dine with me, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. No; I eat not lords. + TIMON. An thou shouldst, thou'dst anger ladies. + APEMANTUS. O, they eat lords; so they come by great bellies. + TIMON. That's a lascivious apprehension. + APEMANTUS. So thou apprehend'st it take it for thy labour. + TIMON. How dost thou like this jewel, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. Not so well as plain dealing, which will not cost a man + a doit. + TIMON. What dost thou think 'tis worth? + APEMANTUS. Not worth my thinking. How now, poet! + POET. How now, philosopher! + APEMANTUS. Thou liest. + POET. Art not one? + APEMANTUS. Yes. + POET. Then I lie not. + APEMANTUS. Art not a poet? + POET. Yes. + APEMANTUS. Then thou liest. Look in thy last work, where thou hast + feign'd him a worthy fellow. + POET. That's not feign'd- he is so. + APEMANTUS. Yes, he is worthy of thee, and to pay thee for thy + labour. He that loves to be flattered is worthy o' th' flatterer. + Heavens, that I were a lord! + TIMON. What wouldst do then, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. E'en as Apemantus does now: hate a lord with my heart. + TIMON. What, thyself? + APEMANTUS. Ay. + TIMON. Wherefore? + APEMANTUS. That I had no angry wit to be a lord.- Art not thou a + merchant? + MERCHANT. Ay, Apemantus. + APEMANTUS. Traffic confound thee, if the gods will not! + MERCHANT. If traffic do it, the gods do it. + APEMANTUS. Traffic's thy god, and thy god confound thee! + + Trumpet sounds. Enter a MESSENGER + + TIMON. What trumpet's that? + MESSENGER. 'Tis Alcibiades, and some twenty horse, + All of companionship. + TIMON. Pray entertain them; give them guide to us. + Exeunt some attendants + You must needs dine with me. Go not you hence + Till I have thank'd you. When dinner's done + Show me this piece. I am joyful of your sights. + + Enter ALCIBIADES, with the rest + + Most welcome, sir! [They salute] + APEMANTUS. So, so, there! + Aches contract and starve your supple joints! + That there should be small love amongst these sweet knaves, + And all this courtesy! The strain of man's bred out + Into baboon and monkey. + ALCIBIADES. Sir, you have sav'd my longing, and I feed + Most hungerly on your sight. + TIMON. Right welcome, sir! + Ere we depart we'll share a bounteous time + In different pleasures. Pray you, let us in. + Exeunt all but APEMANTUS + + Enter two LORDS + + FIRST LORD. What time o' day is't, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. Time to be honest. + FIRST LORD. That time serves still. + APEMANTUS. The more accursed thou that still omit'st it. + SECOND LORD. Thou art going to Lord Timon's feast. + APEMANTUS. Ay; to see meat fill knaves and wine heat fools. + SECOND LORD. Fare thee well, fare thee well. + APEMANTUS. Thou art a fool to bid me farewell twice. + SECOND LORD. Why, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. Shouldst have kept one to thyself, for I mean to give + thee none. + FIRST LORD. Hang thyself. + APEMANTUS. No, I will do nothing at thy bidding; make thy requests + to thy friend. + SECOND LORD. Away, unpeaceable dog, or I'll spurn thee hence. + APEMANTUS. I will fly, like a dog, the heels o' th' ass. Exit + FIRST LORD. He's opposite to humanity. Come, shall we in + And taste Lord Timon's bounty? He outgoes + The very heart of kindness. + SECOND LORD. He pours it out: Plutus, the god of gold, + Is but his steward; no meed but he repays + Sevenfold above itself; no gift to him + But breeds the giver a return exceeding + All use of quittance. + FIRST LORD. The noblest mind he carries + That ever govern'd man. + SECOND LORD. Long may he live in fortunes! shall we in? + FIRST LORD. I'll keep you company. Exeunt + +SCENE II. A room of state in TIMON'S house + +Hautboys playing loud music. A great banquet serv'd in; +FLAVIUS and others attending; and then enter LORD TIMON, the states, +the ATHENIAN LORDS, VENTIDIUS, which TIMON redeem'd from prison. +Then comes, dropping after all, APEMANTUS, discontentedly, like himself + + VENTIDIUS. Most honoured Timon, + It hath pleas'd the gods to remember my father's age, + And call him to long peace. + He is gone happy, and has left me rich. + Then, as in grateful virtue I am bound + To your free heart, I do return those talents, + Doubled with thanks and service, from whose help + I deriv'd liberty. + TIMON. O, by no means, + Honest Ventidius! You mistake my love; + I gave it freely ever; and there's none + Can truly say he gives, if he receives. + If our betters play at that game, we must not dare + To imitate them: faults that are rich are fair. + VENTIDIUS. A noble spirit! + TIMON. Nay, my lords, ceremony was but devis'd at first + To set a gloss on faint deeds, hollow welcomes, + Recanting goodness, sorry ere 'tis shown; + But where there is true friendship there needs none. + Pray, sit; more welcome are ye to my fortunes + Than my fortunes to me. [They sit] + FIRST LORD. My lord, we always have confess'd it. + APEMANTUS. Ho, ho, confess'd it! Hang'd it, have you not? + TIMON. O, Apemantus, you are welcome. + APEMANTUS. No; + You shall not make me welcome. + I come to have thee thrust me out of doors. + TIMON. Fie, th'art a churl; ye have got a humour there + Does not become a man; 'tis much to blame. + They say, my lords, Ira furor brevis est; but yond man is ever + angry. Go, let him have a table by himself; for he does neither + affect company nor is he fit for't indeed. + APEMANTUS. Let me stay at thine apperil, Timon. + I come to observe; I give thee warning on't. + TIMON. I take no heed of thee. Th'art an Athenian, therefore + welcome. I myself would have no power; prithee let my meat make + thee silent. + APEMANTUS. I scorn thy meat; 't'would choke me, for I should ne'er + flatter thee. O you gods, what a number of men eats Timon, and he + sees 'em not! It grieves me to see so many dip their meat in one + man's blood; and all the madness is, he cheers them up too. + I wonder men dare trust themselves with men. + Methinks they should invite them without knives: + Good for their meat and safer for their lives. + There's much example for't; the fellow that sits next him now, + parts bread with him, pledges the breath of him in a divided + draught, is the readiest man to kill him. 'T has been proved. If + I were a huge man I should fear to drink at meals. + Lest they should spy my windpipe's dangerous notes: + Great men should drink with harness on their throats. + TIMON. My lord, in heart! and let the health go round. + SECOND LORD. Let it flow this way, my good lord. + APEMANTUS. Flow this way! A brave fellow! He keeps his tides well. + Those healths will make thee and thy state look ill, Timon. + Here's that which is too weak to be a sinner, honest water, which + ne'er left man i' th' mire. + This and my food are equals; there's no odds.' + Feasts are too proud to give thanks to the gods. + + APEMANTUS' Grace + + Immortal gods, I crave no pelf; + I pray for no man but myself. + Grant I may never prove so fond + To trust man on his oath or bond, + Or a harlot for her weeping, + Or a dog that seems a-sleeping, + Or a keeper with my freedom, + Or my friends, if I should need 'em. + Amen. So fall to't. + Rich men sin, and I eat root. [Eats and drinks] + + Much good dich thy good heart, Apemantus! + TIMON. Captain Alcibiades, your heart's in the field now. + ALCIBIADES. My heart is ever at your service, my lord. + TIMON. You had rather be at a breakfast of enemies than dinner of + friends. + ALCIBIADES. So they were bleeding new, my lord, there's no meat + like 'em; I could wish my best friend at such a feast. + APEMANTUS. Would all those flatterers were thine enemies then, that + then thou mightst kill 'em, and bid me to 'em. + FIRST LORD. Might we but have that happiness, my lord, that you + would once use our hearts, whereby we might express some part of + our zeals, we should think ourselves for ever perfect. + TIMON. O, no doubt, my good friends, but the gods themselves have + provided that I shall have much help from you. How had you been + my friends else? Why have you that charitable title from + thousands, did not you chiefly belong to my heart? I have told + more of you to myself than you can with modesty speak in your own + behalf; and thus far I confirm you. O you gods, think I, what + need we have any friends if we should ne'er have need of 'em? + They were the most needless creatures living, should we ne'er + have use for 'em; and would most resemble sweet instruments hung + up in cases, that keep their sounds to themselves. Why, I have + often wish'd myself poorer, that I might come nearer to you. We + are born to do benefits; and what better or properer can we call + our own than the riches of our friends? O, what a precious + comfort 'tis to have so many like brothers commanding one + another's fortunes! O, joy's e'en made away ere't can be born! + Mine eyes cannot hold out water, methinks. To forget their + faults, I drink to you. + APEMANTUS. Thou weep'st to make them drink, Timon. + SECOND LORD. Joy had the like conception in our eyes, + And at that instant like a babe sprung up. + APEMANTUS. Ho, ho! I laugh to think that babe a bastard. + THIRD LORD. I promise you, my lord, you mov'd me much. + APEMANTUS. Much! [Sound tucket] + TIMON. What means that trump? + + Enter a SERVANT + + How now? + SERVANT. Please you, my lord, there are certain ladies most + desirous of admittance. + TIMON. Ladies! What are their wills? + SERVANT. There comes with them a forerunner, my lord, which bears + that office to signify their pleasures. + TIMON. I pray let them be admitted. + + Enter CUPID + CUPID. Hail to thee, worthy Timon, and to all + That of his bounties taste! The five best Senses + Acknowledge thee their patron, and come freely + To gratulate thy plenteous bosom. Th' Ear, + Taste, Touch, Smell, pleas'd from thy table rise; + They only now come but to feast thine eyes. + TIMON. They're welcome all; let 'em have kind admittance. + Music, make their welcome. Exit CUPID + FIRST LORD. You see, my lord, how ample y'are belov'd. + + Music. Re-enter CUPID, witb a Masque of LADIES as Amazons, + with lutes in their hands, dancing and playing + + APEMANTUS. Hoy-day, what a sweep of vanity comes this way! + They dance? They are mad women. + Like madness is the glory of this life, + As this pomp shows to a little oil and root. + We make ourselves fools to disport ourselves, + And spend our flatteries to drink those men + Upon whose age we void it up again + With poisonous spite and envy. + Who lives that's not depraved or depraves? + Who dies that bears not one spurn to their graves + Of their friends' gift? + I should fear those that dance before me now + Would one day stamp upon me. 'T has been done: + Men shut their doors against a setting sun. + + The LORDS rise from table, with much adoring of + TIMON; and to show their loves, each single out an + Amazon, and all dance, men witb women, a lofty + strain or two to the hautboys, and cease + + TIMON. You have done our pleasures much grace, fair ladies, + Set a fair fashion on our entertainment, + Which was not half so beautiful and kind; + You have added worth unto't and lustre, + And entertain'd me with mine own device; + I am to thank you for't. + FIRST LADY. My lord, you take us even at the best. + APEMANTUS. Faith, for the worst is filthy, and would not hold + taking, I doubt me. + TIMON. Ladies, there is an idle banquet attends you; + Please you to dispose yourselves. + ALL LADIES. Most thankfully, my lord. + Exeunt CUPID and LADIES + TIMON. Flavius! + FLAVIUS. My lord? + TIMON. The little casket bring me hither. + FLAVIUS. Yes, my lord. [Aside] More jewels yet! + There is no crossing him in's humour, + Else I should tell him- well i' faith, I should- + When all's spent, he'd be cross'd then, an he could. + 'Tis pity bounty had not eyes behind, + That man might ne'er be wretched for his mind. Exit + FIRST LORD. Where be our men? + SERVANT. Here, my lord, in readiness. + SECOND LORD. Our horses! + + Re-enter FLAVIUS, with the casket + + TIMON. O my friends, + I have one word to say to you. Look you, my good lord, + I must entreat you honour me so much + As to advance this jewel; accept it and wear it, + Kind my lord. + FIRST LORD. I am so far already in your gifts- + ALL. So are we all. + + Enter a SERVANT + + SERVANT. My lord, there are certain nobles of the Senate newly + alighted and come to visit you. + TIMON. They are fairly welcome. Exit SERVANT + FLAVIUS. I beseech your honour, vouchsafe me a word; it does + concern you near. + TIMON. Near! Why then, another time I'll hear thee. I prithee let's + be provided to show them entertainment. + FLAVIUS. [Aside] I scarce know how. + + Enter another SERVANT + + SECOND SERVANT. May it please vour honour, Lord Lucius, out of his + free love, hath presented to you four milk-white horses, trapp'd + in silver. + TIMON. I shall accept them fairly. Let the presents + Be worthily entertain'd. Exit SERVANT + + Enter a third SERVANT + + How now! What news? + THIRD SERVANT. Please you, my lord, that honourable gentleman, Lord + Lucullus, entreats your company to-morrow to hunt with him and + has sent your honour two brace of greyhounds. + TIMON. I'll hunt with him; and let them be receiv'd, + Not without fair reward. Exit SERVANT + FLAVIUS. [Aside] What will this come to? + He commands us to provide and give great gifts, + And all out of an empty coffer; + Nor will he know his purse, or yield me this, + To show him what a beggar his heart is, + Being of no power to make his wishes good. + His promises fly so beyond his state + That what he speaks is all in debt; he owes + For ev'ry word. He is so kind that he now + Pays interest for't; his land's put to their books. + Well, would I were gently put out of office + Before I were forc'd out! + Happier is he that has no friend to feed + Than such that do e'en enemies exceed. + I bleed inwardly for my lord. Exit + TIMON. You do yourselves much wrong; + You bate too much of your own merits. + Here, my lord, a trifle of our love. + SECOND LORD. With more than common thanks I will receive it. + THIRD LORD. O, he's the very soul of bounty! + TIMON. And now I remember, my lord, you gave good words the other + day of a bay courser I rode on. 'Tis yours because you lik'd it. + THIRD LORD. O, I beseech you pardon me, my lord, in that. + TIMON. You may take my word, my lord: I know no man + Can justly praise but what he does affect. + I weigh my friend's affection with mine own. + I'll tell you true; I'll call to you. + ALL LORDS. O, none so welcome! + TIMON. I take all and your several visitations + So kind to heart 'tis not enough to give; + Methinks I could deal kingdoms to my friends + And ne'er be weary. Alcibiades, + Thou art a soldier, therefore seldom rich. + It comes in charity to thee; for all thy living + Is 'mongst the dead, and all the lands thou hast + Lie in a pitch'd field. + ALCIBIADES. Ay, defil'd land, my lord. + FIRST LORD. We are so virtuously bound- + TIMON. And so am I to you. + SECOND LORD. So infinitely endear'd- + TIMON. All to you. Lights, more lights! + FIRST LORD. The best of happiness, honour, and fortunes, keep with + you, Lord Timon! + TIMON. Ready for his friends. + Exeunt all but APEMANTUS and TIMON + APEMANTUS. What a coil's here! + Serving of becks and jutting-out of bums! + I doubt whether their legs be worth the sums + That are given for 'em. Friendship's full of dregs: + Methinks false hearts should never have sound legs. + Thus honest fools lay out their wealth on curtsies. + TIMON. Now, Apemantus, if thou wert not sullen + I would be good to thee. + APEMANTUS. No, I'll nothing; for if I should be brib'd too, there + would be none left to rail upon thee, and then thou wouldst sin + the faster. Thou giv'st so long, Timon, I fear me thou wilt give + away thyself in paper shortly. What needs these feasts, pomps, + and vain-glories? + TIMON. Nay, an you begin to rail on society once, I am sworn not to + give regard to you. Farewell; and come with better music. + Exit + APEMANTUS. So. Thou wilt not hear me now: thou shalt not then. I'll + lock thy heaven from thee. + O that men's ears should be + To counsel deaf, but not to flattery! Exit + +ACT II. SCENE I. A SENATOR'S house + +Enter A SENATOR, with papers in his hand + + SENATOR. And late, five thousand. To Varro and to Isidore + He owes nine thousand; besides my former sum, + Which makes it five and twenty. Still in motion + Of raging waste? It cannot hold; it will not. + If I want gold, steal but a beggar's dog + And give it Timon, why, the dog coins gold. + If I would sell my horse and buy twenty moe + Better than he, why, give my horse to Timon, + Ask nothing, give it him, it foals me straight, + And able horses. No porter at his gate, + But rather one that smiles and still invites + All that pass by. It cannot hold; no reason + Can sound his state in safety. Caphis, ho! + Caphis, I say! + + Enter CAPHIS + + CAPHIS. Here, sir; what is your pleasure? + SENATOR. Get on your cloak and haste you to Lord Timon; + Importune him for my moneys; be not ceas'd + With slight denial, nor then silenc'd when + 'Commend me to your master' and the cap + Plays in the right hand, thus; but tell him + My uses cry to me, I must serve my turn + Out of mine own; his days and times are past, + And my reliances on his fracted dates + Have smit my credit. I love and honour him, + But must not break my back to heal his finger. + Immediate are my needs, and my relief + Must not be toss'd and turn'd to me in words, + But find supply immediate. Get you gone; + Put on a most importunate aspect, + A visage of demand; for I do fear, + When every feather sticks in his own wing, + Lord Timon will be left a naked gull, + Which flashes now a phoenix. Get you gone. + CAPHIS. I go, sir. + SENATOR. Take the bonds along with you, + And have the dates in compt. + CAPHIS. I will, sir. + SENATOR. Go. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Before TIMON'S house + +Enter FLAVIUS, TIMON'S Steward, with many bills in his hand + + FLAVIUS. No care, no stop! So senseless of expense + That he will neither know how to maintain it + Nor cease his flow of riot; takes no account + How things go from him, nor resumes no care + Of what is to continue. Never mind + Was to be so unwise to be so kind. + What shall be done? He will not hear till feel. + I must be round with him. Now he comes from hunting. + Fie, fie, fie, fie! + + Enter CAPHIS, and the SERVANTS Of ISIDORE and VARRO + + CAPHIS. Good even, Varro. What, you come for money? + VARRO'S SERVANT. Is't not your business too? + CAPHIS. It is. And yours too, Isidore? + ISIDORE'S SERVANT. It is so. + CAPHIS. Would we were all discharg'd! + VARRO'S SERVANT. I fear it. + CAPHIS. Here comes the lord. + + Enter TIMON and his train, with ALCIBIADES + + TIMON. So soon as dinner's done we'll forth again, + My Alcibiades.- With me? What is your will? + CAPHIS. My lord, here is a note of certain dues. + TIMON. Dues! Whence are you? + CAPHIS. Of Athens here, my lord. + TIMON. Go to my steward. + CAPHIS. Please it your lordship, he hath put me off + To the succession of new days this month. + My master is awak'd by great occasion + To call upon his own, and humbly prays you + That with your other noble parts you'll suit + In giving him his right. + TIMON. Mine honest friend, + I prithee but repair to me next morning. + CAPHIS. Nay, good my lord- + TIMON. Contain thyself, good friend. + VARRO'S SERVANT. One Varro's servant, my good lord- + ISIDORE'S SERVANT. From Isidore: he humbly prays your speedy + payment- + CAPHIS. If you did know, my lord, my master's wants- + VARRO'S SERVANT. 'Twas due on forfeiture, my lord, six weeks and + past. + ISIDORE'S SERVANT. Your steward puts me off, my lord; and + I am sent expressly to your lordship. + TIMON. Give me breath. + I do beseech you, good my lords, keep on; + I'll wait upon you instantly. + Exeunt ALCIBIADES and LORDS + [To FLAVIUS] Come hither. Pray you, + How goes the world that I am thus encount'red + With clamorous demands of date-broke bonds + And the detention of long-since-due debts, + Against my honour? + FLAVIUS. Please you, gentlemen, + The time is unagreeable to this business. + Your importunacy cease till after dinner, + That I may make his lordship understand + Wherefore you are not paid. + TIMON. Do so, my friends. + See them well entertain'd. Exit + FLAVIUS. Pray draw near. Exit + + Enter APEMANTUS and FOOL + + CAPHIS. Stay, stay, here comes the fool with Apemantus. + Let's ha' some sport with 'em. + VARRO'S SERVANT. Hang him, he'll abuse us! + ISIDORE'S SERVANT. A plague upon him, dog! + VARRO'S SERVANT. How dost, fool? + APEMANTUS. Dost dialogue with thy shadow? + VARRO'S SERVANT. I speak not to thee. + APEMANTUS. No, 'tis to thyself. [To the FOOL] Come away. + ISIDORE'S SERVANT. [To VARRO'S SERVANT] There's the fool hangs on + your back already. + APEMANTUS. No, thou stand'st single; th'art not on him yet. + CAPHIS. Where's the fool now? + APEMANTUS. He last ask'd the question. Poor rogues and usurers' + men! Bawds between gold and want! + ALL SERVANTS. What are we, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. Asses. + ALL SERVANTS. Why? + APEMANTUS. That you ask me what you are, and do not know + yourselves. Speak to 'em, fool. + FOOL. How do you, gentlemen? + ALL SERVANTS. Gramercies, good fool. How does your mistress? + FOOL. She's e'en setting on water to scald such chickens as you + are. Would we could see you at Corinth! + APEMANTUS. Good! gramercy. + + Enter PAGE + + FOOL. Look you, here comes my mistress' page. + PAGE. [To the FOOL] Why, how now, Captain? What do you in this wise + company? How dost thou, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. Would I had a rod in my mouth, that I might answer thee + profitably! + PAGE. Prithee, Apemantus, read me the superscription of these + letters; I know not which is which. + APEMANTUS. Canst not read? + PAGE. No. + APEMANTUS. There will little learning die, then, that day thou art + hang'd. This is to Lord Timon; this to Alcibiades. Go; thou wast + born a bastard, and thou't die a bawd. + PAGE. Thou wast whelp'd a dog, and thou shalt famish dog's death. + Answer not: I am gone. Exit PAGE + APEMANTUS. E'en so thou outrun'st grace. + Fool, I will go with you to Lord Timon's. + FOOL. Will you leave me there? + APEMANTUS. If Timon stay at home. You three serve three usurers? + ALL SERVANTS. Ay; would they serv'd us! + APEMANTUS. So would I- as good a trick as ever hangman serv'd + thief. + FOOL. Are you three usurers' men? + ALL SERVANTS. Ay, fool. + FOOL. I think no usurer but has a fool to his servant. My mistress + is one, and I am her fool. When men come to borrow of your + masters, they approach sadly and go away merry; but they enter my + mistress' house merrily and go away sadly. The reason of this? + VARRO'S SERVANT. I could render one. + APEMANTUS. Do it then, that we may account thee a whoremaster and a + knave; which notwithstanding, thou shalt be no less esteemed. + VARRO'S SERVANT. What is a whoremaster, fool? + FOOL. A fool in good clothes, and something like thee. 'Tis a + spirit. Sometime 't appears like a lord; sometime like a lawyer; + sometime like a philosopher, with two stones moe than's + artificial one. He is very often like a knight; and, generally, + in all shapes that man goes up and down in from fourscore to + thirteen, this spirit walks in. + VARRO'S SERVANT. Thou art not altogether a fool. + FOOL. Nor thou altogether a wise man. + As much foolery as I have, so much wit thou lack'st. + APEMANTUS. That answer might have become Apemantus. + VARRO'S SERVANT. Aside, aside; here comes Lord Timon. + + Re-enter TIMON and FLAVIUS + + APEMANTUS. Come with me, fool, come. + FOOL. I do not always follow lover, elder brother, and woman; + sometime the philosopher. + Exeunt APEMANTUS and FOOL + FLAVIUS. Pray you walk near; I'll speak with you anon. + Exeunt SERVANTS + TIMON. You make me marvel wherefore ere this time + Had you not fully laid my state before me, + That I might so have rated my expense + As I had leave of means. + FLAVIUS. You would not hear me + At many leisures I propos'd. + TIMON. Go to; + Perchance some single vantages you took + When my indisposition put you back, + And that unaptness made your minister + Thus to excuse yourself. + FLAVIUS. O my good lord, + At many times I brought in my accounts, + Laid them before you; you would throw them off + And say you found them in mine honesty. + When, for some trifling present, you have bid me + Return so much, I have shook my head and wept; + Yea, 'gainst th' authority of manners, pray'd you + To hold your hand more close. I did endure + Not seldom, nor no slight checks, when I have + Prompted you in the ebb of your estate + And your great flow of debts. My lov'd lord, + Though you hear now- too late!- yet now's a time: + The greatest of your having lacks a half + To pay your present debts. + TIMON. Let all my land be sold. + FLAVIUS. 'Tis all engag'd, some forfeited and gone; + And what remains will hardly stop the mouth + Of present dues. The future comes apace; + What shall defend the interim? And at length + How goes our reck'ning? + TIMON. To Lacedaemon did my land extend. + FLAVIUS. O my good lord, the world is but a word; + Were it all yours to give it in a breath, + How quickly were it gone! + TIMON. You tell me true. + FLAVIUS. If you suspect my husbandry or falsehood, + Call me before th' exactest auditors + And set me on the proof. So the gods bless me, + When all our offices have been oppress'd + With riotous feeders, when our vaults have wept + With drunken spilth of wine, when every room + Hath blaz'd with lights and bray'd with minstrelsy, + I have retir'd me to a wasteful cock + And set mine eyes at flow. + TIMON. Prithee no more. + FLAVIUS. 'Heavens,' have I said 'the bounty of this lord! + How many prodigal bits have slaves and peasants + This night englutted! Who is not Lord Timon's? + What heart, head, sword, force, means, but is Lord Timon's? + Great Timon, noble, worthy, royal Timon!' + Ah! when the means are gone that buy this praise, + The breath is gone whereof this praise is made. + Feast-won, fast-lost; one cloud of winter show'rs, + These flies are couch'd. + TIMON. Come, sermon me no further. + No villainous bounty yet hath pass'd my heart; + Unwisely, not ignobly, have I given. + Why dost thou weep? Canst thou the conscience lack + To think I shall lack friends? Secure thy heart: + If I would broach the vessels of my love, + And try the argument of hearts by borrowing, + Men and men's fortunes could I frankly use + As I can bid thee speak. + FLAVIUS. Assurance bless your thoughts! + TIMON. And, in some sort, these wants of mine are crown'd + That I account them blessings; for by these + Shall I try friends. You shall perceive how you + Mistake my fortunes; I am wealthy in my friends. + Within there! Flaminius! Servilius! + + Enter FLAMINIUS, SERVILIUS, and another SERVANT + + SERVANTS. My lord! my lord! + TIMON. I will dispatch you severally- you to Lord Lucius; to Lord + Lucullus you; I hunted with his honour to-day. You to Sempronius. + Commend me to their loves; and I am proud, say, that my occasions + have found time to use 'em toward a supply of money. Let the + request be fifty talents. + FLAMINIUS. As you have said, my lord. Exeunt SERVANTS + FLAVIUS. [Aside] Lord Lucius and Lucullus? Humh! + TIMON. Go you, sir, to the senators, + Of whom, even to the state's best health, I have + Deserv'd this hearing. Bid 'em send o' th' instant + A thousand talents to me. + FLAVIUS. I have been bold, + For that I knew it the most general way, + To them to use your signet and your name; + But they do shake their heads, and I am here + No richer in return. + TIMON. Is't true? Can't be? + FLAVIUS. They answer, in a joint and corporate voice, + That now they are at fall, want treasure, cannot + Do what they would, are sorry- you are honourable- + But yet they could have wish'd- they know not- + Something hath been amiss- a noble nature + May catch a wrench- would all were well!- 'tis pity- + And so, intending other serious matters, + After distasteful looks, and these hard fractions, + With certain half-caps and cold-moving nods, + They froze me into silence. + TIMON. You gods, reward them! + Prithee, man, look cheerly. These old fellows + Have their ingratitude in them hereditary. + Their blood is cak'd, 'tis cold, it seldom flows; + 'Tis lack of kindly warmth they are not kind; + And nature, as it grows again toward earth, + Is fashion'd for the journey dull and heavy. + Go to Ventidius. Prithee be not sad, + Thou art true and honest; ingeniously I speak, + No blame belongs to thee. Ventidius lately + Buried his father, by whose death he's stepp'd + Into a great estate. When he was poor, + Imprison'd, and in scarcity of friends, + I clear'd him with five talents. Greet him from me, + Bid him suppose some good necessity + Touches his friend, which craves to be rememb'red + With those five talents. That had, give't these fellows + To whom 'tis instant due. Nev'r speak or think + That Timon's fortunes 'mong his friends can sink. + FLAVIUS. I would I could not think it. + That thought is bounty's foe; + Being free itself, it thinks all others so. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. LUCULLUS' house + +FLAMINIUS waiting to speak with LUCULLUS. Enter SERVANT to him + + SERVANT. I have told my lord of you; he is coming down to you. + FLAMINIUS. I thank you, sir. + + Enter LUCULLUS + + SERVANT. Here's my lord. + LUCULLUS. [Aside] One of Lord Timon's men? A gift, I warrant. Why, + this hits right; I dreamt of a silver basin and ewer to-night- + Flaminius, honest Flaminius, you are very respectively welcome, + sir. Fill me some wine. [Exit SERVANT] And how does that + honourable, complete, freehearted gentleman of Athens, thy very + bountiful good lord and master? + FLAMINIUS. His health is well, sir. + LUCULLUS. I am right glad that his health is well, sir. And what + hast thou there under thy cloak, pretty Flaminius? + FLAMINIUS. Faith, nothing but an empty box, sir, which in my lord's + behalf I come to entreat your honour to supply; who, having + great and instant occasion to use fifty talents, hath sent to + your lordship to furnish him, nothing doubting your present + assistance therein. + LUCULLIUS. La, la, la, la! 'Nothing doubting' says he? Alas, good + lord! a noble gentleman 'tis, if he would not keep so good a + house. Many a time and often I ha' din'd with him and told him + on't; and come again to supper to him of purpose to have him + spend less; and yet he would embrace no counsel, take no warning + by my coming. Every man has his fault, and honesty is his. I ha' + told him on't, but I could ne'er get him from't. + + Re-enter SERVANT, with wine + + SERVANT. Please your lordship, here is the wine. + LUCULLUS. Flaminius, I have noted thee always wise. Here's to thee. + FLAMINIUS. Your lordship speaks your pleasure. + LUCULLUS. I have observed thee always for a towardly prompt spirit, + give thee thy due, and one that knows what belongs to reason, and + canst use the time well, if the time use thee well. Good parts in + thee. [To SERVANT] Get you gone, sirrah. [Exit SERVANT] Draw + nearer, honest Flaminius. Thy lord's a bountiful gentleman; but + thou art wise, and thou know'st well enough, although thou com'st + to me, that this is no time to lend money, especially upon bare + friendship without security. Here's three solidares for thee. + Good boy, wink at me, and say thou saw'st me not. Fare thee well. + FLAMINIUS. Is't possible the world should so much differ, + And we alive that liv'd? Fly, damned baseness, + To him that worships thee. [Throwing the money back] + LUCULLUS. Ha! Now I see thou art a fool, and fit for thy master. + Exit + FLAMINIUS. May these add to the number that may scald thee! + Let molten coin be thy damnation, + Thou disease of a friend and not himself! + Has friendship such a faint and milky heart + It turns in less than two nights? O you gods, + I feel my master's passion! This slave + Unto his honour has my lord's meat in him; + Why should it thrive and turn to nutriment + When he is turn'd to poison? + O, may diseases only work upon't! + And when he's sick to death, let not that part of nature + Which my lord paid for be of any power + To expel sickness, but prolong his hour! Exit + +SCENE II. A public place + +Enter Lucius, with three STRANGERS + + LUCIUS. Who, the Lord Timon? He is my very good friend, and an + honourable gentleman. + FIRST STRANGER. We know him for no less, though we are but + strangers to him. But I can tell you one thing, my lord, and + which I hear from common rumours: now Lord Timon's happy hours + are done and past, and his estate shrinks from him. + LUCIUS. Fie, no: do not believe it; he cannot want for money. + SECOND STRANGER. But believe you this, my lord, that not long ago + one of his men was with the Lord Lucullus to borrow so many + talents; nay, urg'd extremely for't, and showed what necessity + belong'd to't, and yet was denied. + LUCIUS. How? + SECOND STRANGER. I tell you, denied, my lord. + LUCIUS. What a strange case was that! Now, before the gods, I am + asham'd on't. Denied that honourable man! There was very little + honour show'd in't. For my own part, I must needs confess I have + received some small kindnesses from him, as money, plate, jewels, + and such-like trifles, nothing comparing to his; yet, had he + mistook him and sent to me, I should ne'er have denied his + occasion so many talents. + + Enter SERVILIUS + + SERVILIUS. See, by good hap, yonder's my lord; I have sweat to see + his honour.- My honour'd lord! + LUCIUS. Servilius? You are kindly met, sir. Fare thee well; commend + me to thy honourable virtuous lord, my very exquisite friend. + SERVILIUS. May it please your honour, my lord hath sent- + LUCIUS. Ha! What has he sent? I am so much endeared to that lord: + he's ever sending. How shall I thank him, think'st thou? And what + has he sent now? + SERVILIUS. Has only sent his present occasion now, my lord, + requesting your lordship to supply his instant use with so many + talents. + LUCIUS. I know his lordship is but merry with me; + He cannot want fifty-five hundred talents. + SERVILIUS. But in the mean time he wants less, my lord. + If his occasion were not virtuous + I should not urge it half so faithfully. + LUCIUS. Dost thou speak seriously, Servilius? + SERVILIUS. Upon my soul, 'tis true, sir. + LUCIUS. What a wicked beast was I to disfurnish myself against such + a good time, when I might ha' shown myself honourable! How + unluckily it happ'ned that I should purchase the day before for a + little part and undo a great deal of honour! Servilius, now + before the gods, I am not able to do- the more beast, I say! I + was sending to use Lord Timon myself, these gentlemen can + witness; but I would not for the wealth of Athens I had done't + now. Commend me bountifully to his good lordship, and I hope his + honour will conceive the fairest of me, because I have no power + to be kind. And tell him this from me: I count it one of my + greatest afflictions, say, that I cannot pleasure such an + honourable gentleman. Good Servilius, will you befriend me so far + as to use mine own words to him? + SERVILIUS. Yes, sir, I shall. + LUCIUS. I'll look you out a good turn, Servilius. + Exit SERVILIUS + True, as you said, Timon is shrunk indeed; + And he that's once denied will hardly speed. Exit + FIRST STRANGER. Do you observe this, Hostilius? + SECOND STRANGER. Ay, too well. + FIRST STRANGER. Why, this is the world's soul; and just of the same + piece + Is every flatterer's spirit. Who can call him his friend + That dips in the same dish? For, in my knowing, + Timon has been this lord's father, + And kept his credit with his purse; + Supported his estate; nay, Timon's money + Has paid his men their wages. He ne'er drinks + But Timon's silver treads upon his lip; + And yet- O, see the monstrousness of man + When he looks out in an ungrateful shape!- + He does deny him, in respect of his, + What charitable men afford to beggars. + THIRD STRANGER. Religion groans at it. + FIRST STRANGER. For mine own part, + I never tasted Timon in my life, + Nor came any of his bounties over me + To mark me for his friend; yet I protest, + For his right noble mind, illustrious virtue, + And honourable carriage, + Had his necessity made use of me, + I would have put my wealth into donation, + And the best half should have return'd to him, + So much I love his heart. But I perceive + Men must learn now with pity to dispense; + For policy sits above conscience. Exeunt + +SCENE III. SEMPRONIUS' house + +Enter SEMPRONIUS and a SERVANT of TIMON'S + + SEMPRONIUS. Must he needs trouble me in't? Hum! 'Bove all others? + He might have tried Lord Lucius or Lucullus; + And now Ventidius is wealthy too, + Whom he redeem'd from prison. All these + Owe their estates unto him. + SERVANT. My lord, + They have all been touch'd and found base metal, for + They have all denied him. + SEMPRONIUS. How! Have they denied him? + Has Ventidius and Lucullus denied him? + And does he send to me? Three? Humh! + It shows but little love or judgment in him. + Must I be his last refuge? His friends, like physicians, + Thrice give him over. Must I take th' cure upon me? + Has much disgrac'd me in't; I'm angry at him, + That might have known my place. I see no sense for't, + But his occasions might have woo'd me first; + For, in my conscience, I was the first man + That e'er received gift from him. + And does he think so backwardly of me now + That I'll requite it last? No; + So it may prove an argument of laughter + To th' rest, and I 'mongst lords be thought a fool. + I'd rather than the worth of thrice the sum + Had sent to me first, but for my mind's sake; + I'd such a courage to do him good. But now return, + And with their faint reply this answer join: + Who bates mine honour shall not know my coin. Exit + SERVANT. Excellent! Your lordship's a goodly villain. The devil + knew not what he did when he made man politic- he cross'd himself + by't; and I cannot think but, in the end, the villainies of man + will set him clear. How fairly this lord strives to appear foul! + Takes virtuous copies to be wicked, like those that under hot + ardent zeal would set whole realms on fire. + Of such a nature is his politic love. + This was my lord's best hope; now all are fled, + Save only the gods. Now his friends are dead, + Doors that were ne'er acquainted with their wards + Many a bounteous year must be employ'd + Now to guard sure their master. + And this is all a liberal course allows: + Who cannot keep his wealth must keep his house. Exit + +SCENE IV. A hall in TIMON'S house + +Enter two Of VARRO'S MEN, meeting LUCIUS' SERVANT, and others, all +being servants of TIMON's creditors, to wait for his coming out. Then +enter TITUS and HORTENSIUS + + FIRST VARRO'S SERVANT. Well met; good morrow, Titus and Hortensius. + TITUS. The like to you, kind Varro. + HORTENSIUS. Lucius! What, do we meet together? + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Ay, and I think one business does command us all; + for mine is money. + TITUS. So is theirs and ours. + + Enter PHILOTUS + + LUCIUS' SERVANT. And Sir Philotus too! + PHILOTUS. Good day at once. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. welcome, good brother, what do you think the hour? + PHILOTUS. Labouring for nine. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. So much? + PHILOTUS. Is not my lord seen yet? + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Not yet. + PHILOTUS. I wonder on't; he was wont to shine at seven. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Ay, but the days are wax'd shorter with him; + You must consider that a prodigal course + Is like the sun's, but not like his recoverable. + I fear + 'Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon's purse; + That is, one may reach deep enough and yet + Find little. + PHILOTUS. I am of your fear for that. + TITUS. I'll show you how t' observe a strange event. + Your lord sends now for money. + HORTENSIUS. Most true, he does. + TITUS. And he wears jewels now of Timon's gift, + For which I wait for money. + HORTENSIUS. It is against my heart. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Mark how strange it shows + Timon in this should pay more than he owes; + And e'en as if your lord should wear rich jewels + And send for money for 'em. + HORTENSIUS. I'm weary of this charge, the gods can witness; + I know my lord hath spent of Timon's wealth, + And now ingratitude makes it worse than stealth. + FIRST VARRO'S SERVANT. Yes, mine's three thousand crowns; what's + yours? + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Five thousand mine. + FIRST VARRO'S SERVANT. 'Tis much deep; and it should seem by th' + sum + Your master's confidence was above mine, + Else surely his had equall'd. + + Enter FLAMINIUS + + TITUS. One of Lord Timon's men. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Flaminius! Sir, a word. Pray, is my lord ready to + come forth? + FLAMINIUS. No, indeed, he is not. + TITUS. We attend his lordship; pray signify so much. + FLAMINIUS. I need not tell him that; he knows you are to diligent. + Exit + + Enter FLAVIUS, in a cloak, muffled + + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Ha! Is not that his steward muffled so? + He goes away in a cloud. Call him, call him. + TITUS. Do you hear, sir? + SECOND VARRO'S SERVANT. By your leave, sir. + FLAVIUS. What do ye ask of me, my friend? + TITUS. We wait for certain money here, sir. + FLAVIUS. Ay, + If money were as certain as your waiting, + 'Twere sure enough. + Why then preferr'd you not your sums and bills + When your false masters eat of my lord's meat? + Then they could smile, and fawn upon his debts, + And take down th' int'rest into their glutt'nous maws. + You do yourselves but wrong to stir me up; + Let me pass quietly. + Believe't, my lord and I have made an end: + I have no more to reckon, he to spend. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Ay, but this answer will not serve. + FLAVIUS. If 'twill not serve, 'tis not so base as you, + For you serve knaves. Exit + FIRST VARRO'S SERVANT. How! What does his cashier'd worship mutter? + SECOND VARRO'S SERVANT. No matter what; he's poor, and that's + revenge enough. Who can speak broader than he that has no house + to put his head in? Such may rail against great buildings. + + Enter SERVILIUS + + TITUS. O, here's Servilius; now we shall know some answer. + SERVILIUS. If I might beseech you, gentlemen, to repair some other + hour, I should derive much from't; for take't of my soul, my lord + leans wondrously to discontent. His comfortable temper has + forsook him; he's much out of health and keeps his chamber. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Many do keep their chambers are not sick; + And if it be so far beyond his health, + Methinks he should the sooner pay his debts, + And make a clear way to the gods. + SERVILIUS. Good gods! + TITUS. We cannot take this for answer, sir. + FLAMINIUS. [Within] Servilius, help! My lord! my lord! + + Enter TIMON, in a rage, FLAMINIUS following + + TIMON. What, are my doors oppos'd against my passage? + Have I been ever free, and must my house + Be my retentive enemy, my gaol? + The place which I have feasted, does it now, + Like all mankind, show me an iron heart? + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Put in now, Titus. + TITUS. My lord, here is my bill. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Here's mine. + HORTENSIUS. And mine, my lord. + BOTH VARRO'S SERVANTS. And ours, my lord. + PHILOTUS. All our bills. + TIMON. Knock me down with 'em; cleave me to the girdle. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Alas, my lord- + TIMON. Cut my heart in sums. + TITUS. Mine, fifty talents. + TIMON. Tell out my blood. + LUCIUS' SERVANT. Five thousand crowns, my lord. + TIMON. Five thousand drops pays that. What yours? and yours? + FIRST VARRO'S SERVANT. My lord- + SECOND VARRO'S SERVANT. My lord- + TIMON. Tear me, take me, and the gods fall upon you! Exit + HORTENSIUS. Faith, I perceive our masters may throw their caps at + their money. These debts may well be call'd desperate ones, for a + madman owes 'em. Exeunt + + Re-enter TIMON and FLAVIUS + + TIMON. They have e'en put my breath from me, the slaves. + Creditors? Devils! + FLAVIUS. My dear lord- + TIMON. What if it should be so? + FLAMINIUS. My lord- + TIMON. I'll have it so. My steward! + FLAVIUS. Here, my lord. + TIMON. So fitly? Go, bid all my friends again: + Lucius, Lucullus, and Sempronius- all. + I'll once more feast the rascals. + FLAVIUS. O my lord, + You only speak from your distracted soul; + There is not so much left to furnish out + A moderate table. + TIMON. Be it not in thy care. + Go, I charge thee, invite them all; let in the tide + Of knaves once more; my cook and I'll provide. Exeunt + +SCENE V. The Senate House + +Enter three SENATORS at one door, ALCIBIADES meeting them, with +attendants + + FIRST SENATOR. My lord, you have my voice to't: the fault's bloody. + 'Tis necessary he should die: + Nothing emboldens sin so much as mercy. + SECOND SENATOR. Most true; the law shall bruise him. + ALCIBIADES. Honour, health, and compassion, to the Senate! + FIRST SENATOR. Now, Captain? + ALCIBIADES. I am an humble suitor to your virtues; + For pity is the virtue of the law, + And none but tyrants use it cruelly. + It pleases time and fortune to lie heavy + Upon a friend of mine, who in hot blood + Hath stepp'd into the law, which is past depth + To those that without heed do plunge into't. + He is a man, setting his fate aside, + Of comely virtues; + Nor did he soil the fact with cowardice- + An honour in him which buys out his fault- + But with a noble fury and fair spirit, + Seeing his reputation touch'd to death, + He did oppose his foe; + And with such sober and unnoted passion + He did behove his anger ere 'twas spent, + As if he had but prov'd an argument. + FIRST SENATOR. You undergo too strict a paradox, + Striving to make an ugly deed look fair; + Your words have took such pains as if they labour'd + To bring manslaughter into form and set + Quarrelling upon the head of valour; which, indeed, + Is valour misbegot, and came into the world + When sects and factions were newly born. + He's truly valiant that can wisely suffer + The worst that man can breathe, + And make his wrongs his outsides, + To wear them like his raiment, carelessly, + And ne'er prefer his injuries to his heart, + To bring it into danger. + If wrongs be evils, and enforce us kill, + What folly 'tis to hazard life for ill! + ALCIBIADES. My lord- + FIRST SENATOR. You cannot make gross sins look clear: + To revenge is no valour, but to bear. + ALCIBIADES. My lords, then, under favour, pardon me + If I speak like a captain: + Why do fond men expose themselves to battle, + And not endure all threats? Sleep upon't, + And let the foes quietly cut their throats, + Without repugnancy? If there be + Such valour in the bearing, what make we + Abroad? Why, then, women are more valiant, + That stay at home, if bearing carry it; + And the ass more captain than the lion; the fellow + Loaden with irons wiser than the judge, + If wisdom be in suffering. O my lords, + As you are great, be pitifully good. + Who cannot condemn rashness in cold blood? + To kill, I grant, is sin's extremest gust; + But, in defence, by mercy, 'tis most just. + To be in anger is impiety; + But who is man that is not angry? + Weigh but the crime with this. + SECOND SENATOR. You breathe in vain. + ALCIBIADES. In vain! His service done + At Lacedaemon and Byzantium + Were a sufficient briber for his life. + FIRST SENATOR. What's that? + ALCIBIADES. Why, I say, my lords, has done fair service, + And slain in fight many of your enemies; + How full of valour did he bear himself + In the last conflict, and made plenteous wounds! + SECOND SENATOR. He has made too much plenty with 'em. + He's a sworn rioter; he has a sin that often + Drowns him and takes his valour prisoner. + If there were no foes, that were enough + To overcome him. In that beastly fury + He has been known to commit outrages + And cherish factions. 'Tis inferr'd to us + His days are foul and his drink dangerous. + FIRST SENATOR. He dies. + ALCIBIADES. Hard fate! He might have died in war. + My lords, if not for any parts in him- + Though his right arm might purchase his own time, + And be in debt to none- yet, more to move you, + Take my deserts to his, and join 'em both; + And, for I know your reverend ages love + Security, I'll pawn my victories, all + My honours to you, upon his good returns. + If by this crime he owes the law his life, + Why, let the war receive't in valiant gore; + For law is strict, and war is nothing more. + FIRST SENATOR. We are for law: he dies. Urge it no more + On height of our displeasure. Friend or brother, + He forfeits his own blood that spills another. + ALCIBIADES. Must it be so? It must not be. My lords, + I do beseech you, know me. + SECOND SENATOR. How! + ALCIBIADES. Call me to your remembrances. + THIRD SENATOR. What! + ALCIBIADES. I cannot think but your age has forgot me; + It could not else be I should prove so base + To sue, and be denied such common grace. + My wounds ache at you. + FIRST SENATOR. Do you dare our anger? + 'Tis in few words, but spacious in effect: + We banish thee for ever. + ALCIBIADES. Banish me! + Banish your dotage! Banish usury + That makes the Senate ugly. + FIRST SENATOR. If after two days' shine Athens contain thee, + Attend our weightier judgment. And, not to swell our spirit, + He shall be executed presently. Exeunt SENATORS + ALCIBIADES. Now the gods keep you old enough that you may live + Only in bone, that none may look on you! + I'm worse than mad; I have kept back their foes, + While they have told their money and let out + Their coin upon large interest, I myself + Rich only in large hurts. All those for this? + Is this the balsam that the usuring Senate + Pours into captains' wounds? Banishment! + It comes not ill; I hate not to be banish'd; + It is a cause worthy my spleen and fury, + That I may strike at Athens. I'll cheer up + My discontented troops, and lay for hearts. + 'Tis honour with most lands to be at odds; + Soldiers should brook as little wrongs as gods. Exit + +SCENE VI. A banqueting hall in TIMON'S house + +Music. Tables set out; servants attending. Enter divers LORDS, friends +of TIMON, at several doors + + FIRST LORD. The good time of day to you, sir. + SECOND LORD. I also wish it to you. I think this honourable lord + did but try us this other day. + FIRST LORD. Upon that were my thoughts tiring when we encount'red. + I hope it is not so low with him as he made it seem in the trial + of his several friends. + SECOND LORD. It should not be, by the persuasion of his new + feasting. + FIRST LORD. I should think so. He hath sent me an earnest inviting, + which many my near occasions did urge me to put off; but he hath + conjur'd me beyond them, and I must needs appear. + SECOND LORD. In like manner was I in debt to my importunate + business, but he would not hear my excuse. I am sorry, when he + sent to borrow of me, that my provision was out. + FIRST LORD. I am sick of that grief too, as I understand how all + things go. + SECOND LORD. Every man here's so. What would he have borrowed of + you? + FIRST LORD. A thousand pieces. + SECOND LORD. A thousand pieces! + FIRST LORD. What of you? + SECOND LORD. He sent to me, sir- here he comes. + + Enter TIMON and attendants + + TIMON. With all my heart, gentlemen both! And how fare you? + FIRST LORD. Ever at the best, hearing well of your lordship. + SECOND LORD. The swallow follows not summer more willing than we + your lordship. + TIMON. [Aside] Nor more willingly leaves winter; such summer-birds + are men- Gentlemen, our dinner will not recompense this long + stay; feast your ears with the music awhile, if they will fare so + harshly o' th' trumpet's sound; we shall to't presently. + FIRST LORD. I hope it remains not unkindly with your lordship that + I return'd you an empty messenger. + TIMON. O sir, let it not trouble you. + SECOND LORD. My noble lord- + TIMON. Ah, my good friend, what cheer? + SECOND LORD. My most honourable lord, I am e'en sick of shame that, + when your lordship this other day sent to me, I was so + unfortunate a beggar. + TIMON. Think not on't, sir. + SECOND LORD. If you had sent but two hours before- + TIMON. Let it not cumber your better remembrance. [The banquet + brought in] Come, bring in all together. + SECOND LORD. All cover'd dishes! + FIRST LORD. Royal cheer, I warrant you. + THIRD LORD. Doubt not that, if money and the season can yield it. + FIRST LORD. How do you? What's the news? + THIRD LORD. Alcibiades is banish'd. Hear you of it? + FIRST AND SECOND LORDS. Alcibiades banish'd! + THIRD LORD. 'Tis so, be sure of it. + FIRST LORD. How? how? + SECOND LORD. I pray you, upon what? + TIMON. My worthy friends, will you draw near? + THIRD LORD. I'll tell you more anon. Here's a noble feast toward. + SECOND LORD. This is the old man still. + THIRD LORD. Will't hold? Will't hold? + SECOND LORD. It does; but time will- and so- + THIRD LORD. I do conceive. + TIMON. Each man to his stool with that spur as he would to the lip + of his mistress; your diet shall be in all places alike. Make not + a city feast of it, to let the meat cool ere we can agree upon + the first place. Sit, sit. The gods require our thanks: + + You great benefactors, sprinkle our society with thankfulness. For + your own gifts make yourselves prais'd; but reserve still to give, + lest your deities be despised. Lend to each man enough, that one + need not lend to another; for were your god-heads to borrow of men, + men would forsake the gods. Make the meat be beloved more than the + man that gives it. Let no assembly of twenty be without a score of + villains. If there sit twelve women at the table, let a dozen of + them be- as they are. The rest of your foes, O gods, the senators + of Athens, together with the common lag of people, what is amiss in + them, you gods, make suitable for destruction. For these my present + friends, as they are to me nothing, so in nothing bless them, and + to nothing are they welcome. + + Uncover, dogs, and lap. [The dishes are uncovered and + seen to he full of warm water] + SOME SPEAK. What does his lordship mean? + SOME OTHER. I know not. + TIMON. May you a better feast never behold, + You knot of mouth-friends! Smoke and lukewarm water + Is your perfection. This is Timon's last; + Who, stuck and spangled with your flatteries, + Washes it off, and sprinkles in your faces + [Throwing the water in their faces] + Your reeking villainy. Live loath'd and long, + Most smiling, smooth, detested parasites, + Courteous destroyers, affable wolves, meek bears, + You fools of fortune, trencher friends, time's flies, + Cap and knee slaves, vapours, and minute-lacks! + Of man and beast the infinite malady + Crust you quite o'er! What, dost thou go? + Soft, take thy physic first; thou too, and thou. + Stay, I will lend thee money, borrow none. [Throws the + dishes at them, and drives them out] + What, all in motion? Henceforth be no feast + Whereat a villain's not a welcome guest. + Burn house! Sink Athens! Henceforth hated be + Of Timon man and all humanity! Exit + + Re-enter the LORDS + + FIRST LORD. How now, my lords! + SECOND LORD. Know you the quality of Lord Timon's fury? + THIRD LORD. Push! Did you see my cap? + FOURTH LORD. I have lost my gown. + FIRST LORD. He's but a mad lord, and nought but humours sways him. + He gave me a jewel th' other day, and now he has beat it out of + my hat. Did you see my jewel? + THIRD LORD. Did you see my cap? + SECOND LORD. Here 'tis. + FOURTH LORD. Here lies my gown. + FIRST LORD. Let's make no stay. + SECOND LORD. Lord Timon's mad. + THIRD LORD. I feel't upon my bones. + FOURTH LORD. One day he gives us diamonds, next day stones. + Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE I. Without the walls of Athens + +Enter TIMON + + TIMON. Let me look back upon thee. O thou wall + That girdles in those wolves, dive in the earth + And fence not Athens! Matrons, turn incontinent. + Obedience, fail in children! Slaves and fools, + Pluck the grave wrinkled Senate from the bench + And minister in their steads. To general filths + Convert, o' th' instant, green virginity. + Do't in your parents' eyes. Bankrupts, hold fast; + Rather than render back, out with your knives + And cut your trusters' throats. Bound servants, steal: + Large-handed robbers your grave masters are, + And pill by law. Maid, to thy master's bed: + Thy mistress is o' th' brothel. Son of sixteen, + Pluck the lin'd crutch from thy old limping sire, + With it beat out his brains. Piety and fear, + Religion to the gods, peace, justice, truth, + Domestic awe, night-rest, and neighbourhood, + Instruction, manners, mysteries, and trades, + Degrees, observances, customs and laws, + Decline to your confounding contraries + And let confusion live. Plagues incident to men, + Your potent and infectious fevers heap + On Athens, ripe for stroke. Thou cold sciatica, + Cripple our senators, that their limbs may halt + As lamely as their manners. Lust and liberty, + Creep in the minds and marrows of our youth, + That 'gainst the stream of virtue they may strive + And drown themselves in riot. Itches, blains, + Sow all th' Athenian bosoms, and their crop + Be general leprosy! Breath infect breath, + That their society, as their friendship, may + Be merely poison! Nothing I'll bear from thee + But nakedness, thou detestable town! + Take thou that too, with multiplying bans. + Timon will to the woods, where he shall find + Th' unkindest beast more kinder than mankind. + The gods confound- hear me, you good gods all- + The Athenians both within and out that wall! + And grant, as Timon grows, his hate may grow + To the whole race of mankind, high and low! + Amen. Exit + +SCENE II. Athens. TIMON's house + +Enter FLAVIUS, with two or three SERVANTS + + FIRST SERVANT. Hear you, Master Steward, where's our master? + Are we undone, cast off, nothing remaining? + FLAVIUS. Alack, my fellows, what should I say to you? + Let me be recorded by the righteous gods, + I am as poor as you. + FIRST SERVANT. Such a house broke! + So noble a master fall'n! All gone, and not + One friend to take his fortune by the arm + And go along with him? + SECOND SERVANT. As we do turn our backs + From our companion, thrown into his grave, + So his familiars to his buried fortunes + Slink all away; leave their false vows with him, + Like empty purses pick'd; and his poor self, + A dedicated beggar to the air, + With his disease of all-shunn'd poverty, + Walks, like contempt, alone. More of our fellows. + + Enter other SERVANTS + + FLAVIUS. All broken implements of a ruin'd house. + THIRD SERVANT. Yet do our hearts wear Timon's livery; + That see I by our faces. We are fellows still, + Serving alike in sorrow. Leak'd is our bark; + And we, poor mates, stand on the dying deck, + Hearing the surges threat. We must all part + Into this sea of air. + FLAVIUS. Good fellows all, + The latest of my wealth I'll share amongst you. + Wherever we shall meet, for Timon's sake, + Let's yet be fellows; let's shake our heads and say, + As 'twere a knell unto our master's fortune, + 'We have seen better days.' Let each take some. + [Giving them money] + Nay, put out all your hands. Not one word more! + Thus part we rich in sorrow, parting poor. + [Embrace, and part several ways] + O the fierce wretchedness that glory brings us! + Who would not wish to be from wealth exempt, + Since riches point to misery and contempt? + Who would be so mock'd with glory, or to live + But in a dream of friendship, + To have his pomp, and all what state compounds, + But only painted, like his varnish'd friends? + Poor honest lord, brought low by his own heart, + Undone by goodness! Strange, unusual blood, + When man's worst sin is he does too much good! + Who then dares to be half so kind again? + For bounty, that makes gods, does still mar men. + My dearest lord- blest to be most accurst, + Rich only to be wretched- thy great fortunes + Are made thy chief afflictions. Alas, kind lord! + He's flung in rage from this ingrateful seat + Of monstrous friends; nor has he with him to + Supply his life, or that which can command it. + I'll follow and enquire him out. + I'll ever serve his mind with my best will; + Whilst I have gold, I'll be his steward still. Exit + +SCENE III. The woods near the sea-shore. Before TIMON'S cave + +Enter TIMON in the woods + + TIMON. O blessed breeding sun, draw from the earth + Rotten humidity; below thy sister's orb + Infect the air! Twinn'd brothers of one womb- + Whose procreation, residence, and birth, + Scarce is dividant- touch them with several fortunes: + The greater scorns the lesser. Not nature, + To whom all sores lay siege, can bear great fortune + But by contempt of nature. + Raise me this beggar and deny't that lord: + The senator shall bear contempt hereditary, + The beggar native honour. + It is the pasture lards the rother's sides, + The want that makes him lean. Who dares, who dares, + In purity of manhood stand upright, + And say 'This man's a flatterer'? If one be, + So are they all; for every grise of fortune + Is smooth'd by that below. The learned pate + Ducks to the golden fool. All's oblique; + There's nothing level in our cursed natures + But direct villainy. Therefore be abhorr'd + All feasts, societies, and throngs of men! + His semblable, yea, himself, Timon disdains. + Destruction fang mankind! Earth, yield me roots. + [Digging] + Who seeks for better of thee, sauce his palate + With thy most operant poison. What is here? + Gold? Yellow, glittering, precious gold? No, gods, + I am no idle votarist. Roots, you clear heavens! + Thus much of this will make black white, foul fair, + Wrong right, base noble, old young, coward valiant. + Ha, you gods! why this? What, this, you gods? Why, this + Will lug your priests and servants from your sides, + Pluck stout men's pillows from below their heads- + This yellow slave + Will knit and break religions, bless th' accurs'd, + Make the hoar leprosy ador'd, place thieves + And give them title, knee, and approbation, + With senators on the bench. This is it + That makes the wappen'd widow wed again- + She whom the spital-house and ulcerous sores + Would cast the gorge at this embalms and spices + To th 'April day again. Come, damn'd earth, + Thou common whore of mankind, that puts odds + Among the rout of nations, I will make thee + Do thy right nature. [March afar off] + Ha! a drum? Th'art quick, + But yet I'll bury thee. Thou't go, strong thief, + When gouty keepers of thee cannot stand. + Nay, stay thou out for earnest. [Keeping some gold] + + Enter ALCIBIADES, with drum and fife, in warlike + manner; and PHRYNIA and TIMANDRA + + ALCIBIADES. What art thou there? Speak. + TIMON. A beast, as thou art. The canker gnaw thy heart + For showing me again the eyes of man! + ALCIBIADES. What is thy name? Is man so hateful to thee + That art thyself a man? + TIMON. I am Misanthropos, and hate mankind. + For thy part, I do wish thou wert a dog, + That I might love thee something. + ALCIBIADES. I know thee well; + But in thy fortunes am unlearn'd and strange. + TIMON. I know thee too; and more than that I know thee + I not desire to know. Follow thy drum; + With man's blood paint the ground, gules, gules. + Religious canons, civil laws, are cruel; + Then what should war be? This fell whore of thine + Hath in her more destruction than thy sword + For all her cherubin look. + PHRYNIA. Thy lips rot off! + TIMON. I will not kiss thee; then the rot returns + To thine own lips again. + ALCIBIADES. How came the noble Timon to this change? + TIMON. As the moon does, by wanting light to give. + But then renew I could not, like the moon; + There were no suns to borrow of. + ALCIBIADES. Noble Timon, + What friendship may I do thee? + TIMON. None, but to + Maintain my opinion. + ALCIBIADES. What is it, Timon? + TIMON. Promise me friendship, but perform none. If thou wilt not + promise, the gods plague thee, for thou art man! If thou dost + perform, confound thee, for thou art a man! + ALCIBIADES. I have heard in some sort of thy miseries. + TIMON. Thou saw'st them when I had prosperity. + ALCIBIADES. I see them now; then was a blessed time. + TIMON. As thine is now, held with a brace of harlots. + TIMANDRA. Is this th' Athenian minion whom the world + Voic'd so regardfully? + TIMON. Art thou Timandra? + TIMANDRA. Yes. + TIMON. Be a whore still; they love thee not that use thee. + Give them diseases, leaving with thee their lust. + Make use of thy salt hours. Season the slaves + For tubs and baths; bring down rose-cheek'd youth + To the tub-fast and the diet. + TIMANDRA. Hang thee, monster! + ALCIBIADES. Pardon him, sweet Timandra, for his wits + Are drown'd and lost in his calamities. + I have but little gold of late, brave Timon, + The want whereof doth daily make revolt + In my penurious band. I have heard, and griev'd, + How cursed Athens, mindless of thy worth, + Forgetting thy great deeds, when neighbour states, + But for thy sword and fortune, trod upon them- + TIMON. I prithee beat thy drum and get thee gone. + ALCIBIADES. I am thy friend, and pity thee, dear Timon. + TIMON. How dost thou pity him whom thou dost trouble? + I had rather be alone. + ALCIBIADES. Why, fare thee well; + Here is some gold for thee. + TIMON. Keep it: I cannot eat it. + ALCIBIADES. When I have laid proud Athens on a heap- + TIMON. War'st thou 'gainst Athens? + ALCIBIADES. Ay, Timon, and have cause. + TIMON. The gods confound them all in thy conquest; + And thee after, when thou hast conquer'd! + ALCIBIADES. Why me, Timon? + TIMON. That by killing of villains + Thou wast born to conquer my country. + Put up thy gold. Go on. Here's gold. Go on. + Be as a planetary plague, when Jove + Will o'er some high-vic'd city hang his poison + In the sick air; let not thy sword skip one. + Pity not honour'd age for his white beard: + He is an usurer. Strike me the counterfeit matron: + It is her habit only that is honest, + Herself's a bawd. Let not the virgin's cheek + Make soft thy trenchant sword; for those milk paps + That through the window bars bore at men's eyes + Are not within the leaf of pity writ, + But set them down horrible traitors. Spare not the babe + Whose dimpled smiles from fools exhaust their mercy; + Think it a bastard whom the oracle + Hath doubtfully pronounc'd thy throat shall cut, + And mince it sans remorse. Swear against abjects; + Put armour on thine ears and on thine eyes, + Whose proof nor yells of mothers, maids, nor babes, + Nor sight of priests in holy vestments bleeding, + Shall pierce a jot. There's gold to pay thy soldiers. + Make large confusion; and, thy fury spent, + Confounded be thyself! Speak not, be gone. + ALCIBIADES. Hast thou gold yet? I'll take the gold thou givest me, + Not all thy counsel. + TIMON. Dost thou, or dost thou not, heaven's curse upon thee! + PHRYNIA AND TIMANDRA. Give us some gold, good Timon. + Hast thou more? + TIMON. Enough to make a whore forswear her trade, + And to make whores a bawd. Hold up, you sluts, + Your aprons mountant; you are not oathable, + Although I know you'll swear, terribly swear, + Into strong shudders and to heavenly agues, + Th' immortal gods that hear you. Spare your oaths; + I'll trust to your conditions. Be whores still; + And he whose pious breath seeks to convert you- + Be strong in whore, allure him, burn him up; + Let your close fire predominate his smoke, + And be no turncoats. Yet may your pains six months + Be quite contrary! And thatch your poor thin roofs + With burdens of the dead- some that were hang'd, + No matter. Wear them, betray with them. Whore still; + Paint till a horse may mire upon your face. + A pox of wrinkles! + PHRYNIA AND TIMANDRA. Well, more gold. What then? + Believe't that we'll do anything for gold. + TIMON. Consumptions sow + In hollow bones of man; strike their sharp shins, + And mar men's spurring. Crack the lawyer's voice, + That he may never more false title plead, + Nor sound his quillets shrilly. Hoar the flamen, + That scolds against the quality of flesh + And not believes himself. Down with the nose, + Down with it flat, take the bridge quite away + Of him that, his particular to foresee, + Smells from the general weal. Make curl'd-pate ruffians bald, + And let the unscarr'd braggarts of the war + Derive some pain from you. Plague all, + That your activity may defeat and quell + The source of all erection. There's more gold. + Do you damn others, and let this damn you, + And ditches grave you all! + PHRYNIA AND TIMANDRA. More counsel with more money, bounteous + Timon. + TIMON. More whore, more mischief first; I have given you earnest. + ALCIBIADES. Strike up the drum towards Athens. Farewell, Timon; + If I thrive well, I'll visit thee again. + TIMON. If I hope well, I'll never see thee more. + ALCIBIADES. I never did thee harm. + TIMON. Yes, thou spok'st well of me. + ALCIBIADES. Call'st thou that harm? + TIMON. Men daily find it. Get thee away, and take + Thy beagles with thee. + ALCIBIADES. We but offend him. Strike. + Drum beats. Exeunt all but TIMON + TIMON. That nature, being sick of man's unkindness, + Should yet be hungry! Common mother, thou, [Digging] + Whose womb unmeasurable and infinite breast + Teems and feeds all; whose self-same mettle, + Whereof thy proud child, arrogant man, is puff'd, + Engenders the black toad and adder blue, + The gilded newt and eyeless venom'd worm, + With all th' abhorred births below crisp heaven + Whereon Hyperion's quick'ning fire doth shine- + Yield him, who all thy human sons doth hate, + From forth thy plenteous bosom, one poor root! + Ensear thy fertile and conceptious womb, + Let it no more bring out ingrateful man! + Go great with tigers, dragons, wolves, and bears; + Teem with new monsters whom thy upward face + Hath to the marbled mansion all above + Never presented!- O, a root! Dear thanks!- + Dry up thy marrows, vines, and plough-torn leas, + Whereof ingrateful man, with liquorish draughts + And morsels unctuous, greases his pure mind, + That from it all consideration slips- + + Enter APEMANTUS + + More man? Plague, plague! + APEMANTUS. I was directed hither. Men report + Thou dost affect my manners and dost use them. + TIMON. 'Tis, then, because thou dost not keep a dog, + Whom I would imitate. Consumption catch thee! + APEMANTUS. This is in thee a nature but infected, + A poor unmanly melancholy sprung + From change of fortune. Why this spade, this place? + This slave-like habit and these looks of care? + Thy flatterers yet wear silk, drink wine, lie soft, + Hug their diseas'd perfumes, and have forgot + That ever Timon was. Shame not these woods + By putting on the cunning of a carper. + Be thou a flatterer now, and seek to thrive + By that which has undone thee: hinge thy knee, + And let his very breath whom thou'lt observe + Blow off thy cap; praise his most vicious strain, + And call it excellent. Thou wast told thus; + Thou gav'st thine ears, like tapsters that bade welcome, + To knaves and all approachers. 'Tis most just + That thou turn rascal; hadst thou wealth again + Rascals should have't. Do not assume my likeness. + TIMON. Were I like thee, I'd throw away myself. + APEMANTUS. Thou hast cast away thyself, being like thyself; + A madman so long, now a fool. What, think'st + That the bleak air, thy boisterous chamberlain, + Will put thy shirt on warm? Will these moist trees, + That have outliv'd the eagle, page thy heels + And skip when thou point'st out? Will the cold brook, + Candied with ice, caudle thy morning taste + To cure thy o'ernight's surfeit? Call the creatures + Whose naked natures live in all the spite + Of wreakful heaven, whose bare unhoused trunks, + To the conflicting elements expos'd, + Answer mere nature- bid them flatter thee. + O, thou shalt find- + TIMON. A fool of thee. Depart. + APEMANTUS. I love thee better now than e'er I did. + TIMON. I hate thee worse. + APEMANTUS. Why? + TIMON. Thou flatter'st misery. + APEMANTUS. I flatter not, but say thou art a caitiff. + TIMON. Why dost thou seek me out? + APEMANTUS. To vex thee. + TIMON. Always a villain's office or a fool's. + Dost please thyself in't? + APEMANTUS. Ay. + TIMON. What, a knave too? + APEMANTUS. If thou didst put this sour-cold habit on + To castigate thy pride, 'twere well; but thou + Dost it enforcedly. Thou'dst courtier be again + Wert thou not beggar. Willing misery + Outlives incertain pomp, is crown'd before. + The one is filling still, never complete; + The other, at high wish. Best state, contentless, + Hath a distracted and most wretched being, + Worse than the worst, content. + Thou should'st desire to die, being miserable. + TIMON. Not by his breath that is more miserable. + Thou art a slave whom Fortune's tender arm + With favour never clasp'd, but bred a dog. + Hadst thou, like us from our first swath, proceeded + The sweet degrees that this brief world affords + To such as may the passive drugs of it + Freely command, thou wouldst have plung'd thyself + In general riot, melted down thy youth + In different beds of lust, and never learn'd + The icy precepts of respect, but followed + The sug'red game before thee. But myself, + Who had the world as my confectionary; + The mouths, the tongues, the eyes, and hearts of men + At duty, more than I could frame employment; + That numberless upon me stuck, as leaves + Do on the oak, have with one winter's brush + Fell from their boughs, and left me open, bare + For every storm that blows- I to bear this, + That never knew but better, is some burden. + Thy nature did commence in sufferance; time + Hath made thee hard in't. Why shouldst thou hate men? + They never flatter'd thee. What hast thou given? + If thou wilt curse, thy father, that poor rag, + Must be thy subject; who, in spite, put stuff + To some she-beggar and compounded thee + Poor rogue hereditary. Hence, be gone. + If thou hadst not been born the worst of men, + Thou hadst been a knave and flatterer. + APEMANTUS. Art thou proud yet? + TIMON. Ay, that I am not thee. + APEMANTUS. I, that I was + No prodigal. + TIMON. I, that I am one now. + Were all the wealth I have shut up in thee, + I'd give thee leave to hang it. Get thee gone. + That the whole life of Athens were in this! + Thus would I eat it. [Eating a root] + APEMANTUS. Here! I will mend thy feast. + [Offering him food] + TIMON. First mend my company: take away thyself. + APEMANTUS. So I shall mend mine own by th' lack of thine. + TIMON. 'Tis not well mended so; it is but botch'd. + If not, I would it were. + APEMANTUS. What wouldst thou have to Athens? + TIMON. Thee thither in a whirlwind. If thou wilt, + Tell them there I have gold; look, so I have. + APEMANTUS. Here is no use for gold. + TIMON. The best and truest; + For here it sleeps and does no hired harm. + APEMANTUS. Where liest a nights, Timon? + TIMON. Under that's above me. + Where feed'st thou a days, Apemantus? + APEMANTUS. Where my stomach. finds meat; or rather, where I eat it. + TIMON. Would poison were obedient, and knew my mind! + APEMANTUS. Where wouldst thou send it? + TIMON. To sauce thy dishes. + APEMANTUS. The middle of humanity thou never knewest, but the + extremity of both ends. When thou wast in thy gilt and thy + perfume, they mock'd thee for too much curiosity; in thy rags + thou know'st none, but art despis'd for the contrary. There's a + medlar for thee; eat it. + TIMON. On what I hate I feed not. + APEMANTUS. Dost hate a medlar? + TIMON. Ay, though it look like thee. + APEMANTUS. An th' hadst hated medlars sooner, thou shouldst have + loved thyself better now. What man didst thou ever know unthrift + that was beloved after his means? + TIMON. Who, without those means thou talk'st of, didst thou ever + know belov'd? + APEMANTUS. Myself. + TIMON. I understand thee: thou hadst some means to keep a dog. + APEMANTUS. What things in the world canst thou nearest compare to + thy flatterers? + TIMON. Women nearest; but men, men are the things themselves. What + wouldst thou do with the world, Apemantus, if it lay in thy + power? + APEMANTUS. Give it the beasts, to be rid of the men. + TIMON. Wouldst thou have thyself fall in the confusion of men, and + remain a beast with the beasts? + APEMANTUS. Ay, Timon. + TIMON. A beastly ambition, which the gods grant thee t' attain to! + If thou wert the lion, the fox would beguile thee; if thou wert + the lamb, the fox would eat thee; if thou wert the fox, the lion + would suspect thee, when, peradventure, thou wert accus'd by the + ass. If thou wert the ass, thy dulness would torment thee; and + still thou liv'dst but as a breakfast to the wolf. If thou wert + the wolf, thy greediness would afflict thee, and oft thou + shouldst hazard thy life for thy dinner. Wert thou the unicorn, + pride and wrath would confound thee, and make thine own self the + conquest of thy fury. Wert thou bear, thou wouldst be kill'd by + the horse; wert thou a horse, thou wouldst be seiz'd by the + leopard; wert thou a leopard, thou wert german to the lion, and + the spots of thy kindred were jurors on thy life. All thy safety + were remotion, and thy defence absence. What beast couldst thou + be that were not subject to a beast? And what beast art thou + already, that seest not thy loss in transformation! + APEMANTUS. If thou couldst please me with speaking to me, thou + mightst have hit upon it here. The commonwealth of Athens is + become a forest of beasts. + TIMON. How has the ass broke the wall, that thou art out of the + city? + APEMANTUS. Yonder comes a poet and a painter. The plague of company + light upon thee! I will fear to catch it, and give way. When I + know not what else to do, I'll see thee again. + TIMON. When there is nothing living but thee, thou shalt be + welcome. I had rather be a beggar's dog than Apemantus. + APEMANTUS. Thou art the cap of all the fools alive. + TIMON. Would thou wert clean enough to spit upon! + APEMANTUS. A plague on thee! thou art too bad to curse. + TIMON. All villains that do stand by thee are pure. + APEMANTUS. There is no leprosy but what thou speak'st. + TIMON. If I name thee. + I'll beat thee- but I should infect my hands. + APEMANTUS. I would my tongue could rot them off! + TIMON. Away, thou issue of a mangy dog! + Choler does kill me that thou art alive; + I swoon to see thee. + APEMANTUS. Would thou wouldst burst! + TIMON. Away, + Thou tedious rogue! I am sorry I shall lose + A stone by thee. [Throws a stone at him] + APEMANTUS. Beast! + TIMON. Slave! + APEMANTUS. Toad! + TIMON. Rogue, rogue, rogue! + I am sick of this false world, and will love nought + But even the mere necessities upon't. + Then, Timon, presently prepare thy grave; + Lie where the light foam of the sea may beat + Thy gravestone daily; make thine epitaph, + That death in me at others' lives may laugh. + [Looks at the gold] O thou sweet king-killer, and dear divorce + 'Twixt natural son and sire! thou bright defiler + Of Hymen's purest bed! thou valiant Mars! + Thou ever young, fresh, lov'd, and delicate wooer, + Whose blush doth thaw the consecrated snow + That lies on Dian's lap! thou visible god, + That sold'rest close impossibilities, + And mak'st them kiss! that speak'st with every tongue + To every purpose! O thou touch of hearts! + Think thy slave man rebels, and by thy virtue + Set them into confounding odds, that beasts + May have the world in empire! + APEMANTUS. Would 'twere so! + But not till I am dead. I'll say th' hast gold. + Thou wilt be throng'd to shortly. + TIMON. Throng'd to? + APEMANTUS. Ay. + TIMON. Thy back, I prithee. + APEMANTUS. Live, and love thy misery! + TIMON. Long live so, and so die! [Exit APEMANTUS] I am quit. More + things like men? Eat, Timon, and abhor them. + + Enter the BANDITTI + + FIRST BANDIT. Where should he have this gold? It is some poor + fragment, some slender ort of his remainder. The mere want of + gold and the falling-from of his friends drove him into this + melancholy. + SECOND BANDIT. It is nois'd he hath a mass of treasure. + THIRD BANDIT. Let us make the assay upon him; if he care not for't, + he will supply us easily; if he covetously reserve it, how + shall's get it? + SECOND BANDIT. True; for he bears it not about him. 'Tis hid. + FIRST BANDIT. Is not this he? + BANDITTI. Where? + SECOND BANDIT. 'Tis his description. + THIRD BANDIT. He; I know him. + BANDITTI. Save thee, Timon! + TIMON. Now, thieves? + BANDITTI. Soldiers, not thieves. + TIMON. Both too, and women's sons. + BANDITTI. We are not thieves, but men that much do want. + TIMON. Your greatest want is, you want much of meat. + Why should you want? Behold, the earth hath roots; + Within this mile break forth a hundred springs; + The oaks bear mast, the briars scarlet hips; + The bounteous housewife Nature on each bush + Lays her full mess before you. Want! Why want? + FIRST BANDIT. We cannot live on grass, on berries, water, + As beasts and birds and fishes. + TIMON. Nor on the beasts themselves, the birds, and fishes; + You must eat men. Yet thanks I must you con + That you are thieves profess'd, that you work not + In holier shapes; for there is boundless theft + In limited professions. Rascal thieves, + Here's gold. Go, suck the subtle blood o' th' grape + Till the high fever seethe your blood to froth, + And so scape hanging. Trust not the physician; + His antidotes are poison, and he slays + Moe than you rob. Take wealth and lives together; + Do villainy, do, since you protest to do't, + Like workmen. I'll example you with thievery: + The sun's a thief, and with his great attraction + Robs the vast sea; the moon's an arrant thief, + And her pale fire she snatches from the sun; + The sea's a thief, whose liquid surge resolves + The moon into salt tears; the earth's a thief, + That feeds and breeds by a composture stol'n + From gen'ral excrement- each thing's a thief. + The laws, your curb and whip, in their rough power + Has uncheck'd theft. Love not yourselves; away, + Rob one another. There's more gold. Cut throats; + All that you meet are thieves. To Athens go, + Break open shops; nothing can you steal + But thieves do lose it. Steal not less for this + I give you; and gold confound you howsoe'er! + Amen. + THIRD BANDIT. Has almost charm'd me from my profession by + persuading me to it. + FIRST BANDIT. 'Tis in the malice of mankind that he thus advises + us; not to have us thrive in our mystery. + SECOND BANDIT. I'll believe him as an enemy, and give over my + trade. + FIRST BANDIT. Let us first see peace in Athens. There is no time so + miserable but a man may be true. Exeunt THIEVES + + Enter FLAVIUS, to TIMON + + FLAVIUS. O you gods! + Is yond despis'd and ruinous man my lord? + Full of decay and failing? O monument + And wonder of good deeds evilly bestow'd! + What an alteration of honour + Has desp'rate want made! + What viler thing upon the earth than friends, + Who can bring noblest minds to basest ends! + How rarely does it meet with this time's guise, + When man was wish'd to love his enemies! + Grant I may ever love, and rather woo + Those that would mischief me than those that do! + Has caught me in his eye; I will present + My honest grief unto him, and as my lord + Still serve him with my life. My dearest master! + TIMON. Away! What art thou? + FLAVIUS. Have you forgot me, sir? + TIMON. Why dost ask that? I have forgot all men; + Then, if thou grant'st th'art a man, I have forgot thee. + FLAVIUS. An honest poor servant of yours. + TIMON. Then I know thee not. + I never had honest man about me, I. + All I kept were knaves, to serve in meat to villains. + FLAVIUS. The gods are witness, + Nev'r did poor steward wear a truer grief + For his undone lord than mine eyes for you. + TIMON. What, dost thou weep? Come nearer. Then I love thee + Because thou art a woman and disclaim'st + Flinty mankind, whose eyes do never give + But thorough lust and laughter. Pity's sleeping. + Strange times, that weep with laughing, not with weeping! + FLAVIUS. I beg of you to know me, good my lord, + T' accept my grief, and whilst this poor wealth lasts + To entertain me as your steward still. + TIMON. Had I a steward + So true, so just, and now so comfortable? + It almost turns my dangerous nature mild. + Let me behold thy face. Surely, this man + Was born of woman. + Forgive my general and exceptless rashness, + You perpetual-sober gods! I do proclaim + One honest man- mistake me not, but one; + No more, I pray- and he's a steward. + How fain would I have hated all mankind! + And thou redeem'st thyself. But all, save thee, + I fell with curses. + Methinks thou art more honest now than wise; + For by oppressing and betraying me + Thou mightst have sooner got another service; + For many so arrive at second masters + Upon their first lord's neck. But tell me true, + For I must ever doubt though ne'er so sure, + Is not thy kindness subtle, covetous, + If not a usuring kindness, and as rich men deal gifts, + Expecting in return twenty for one? + FLAVIUS. No, my most worthy master, in whose breast + Doubt and suspect, alas, are plac'd too late! + You should have fear'd false times when you did feast: + Suspect still comes where an estate is least. + That which I show, heaven knows, is merely love, + Duty, and zeal, to your unmatched mind, + Care of your food and living; and believe it, + My most honour'd lord, + For any benefit that points to me, + Either in hope or present, I'd exchange + For this one wish, that you had power and wealth + To requite me by making rich yourself. + TIMON. Look thee, 'tis so! Thou singly honest man, + Here, take. The gods, out of my misery, + Have sent thee treasure. Go, live rich and happy, + But thus condition'd; thou shalt build from men; + Hate all, curse all, show charity to none, + But let the famish'd flesh slide from the bone + Ere thou relieve the beggar. Give to dogs + What thou deniest to men; let prisons swallow 'em, + Debts wither 'em to nothing. Be men like blasted woods, + And may diseases lick up their false bloods! + And so, farewell and thrive. + FLAVIUS. O, let me stay + And comfort you, my master. + TIMON. If thou hat'st curses, + Stay not; fly whilst thou art blest and free. + Ne'er see thou man, and let me ne'er see thee. + Exeunt severally + +ACT V. SCENE I. The woods. Before TIMON's cave + +Enter POET and PAINTER + + PAINTER. As I took note of the place, it cannot be far where he + abides. + POET. to be thought of him? Does the rumour hold for true that he's + so full of gold? + PAINTER. Certain. Alcibiades reports it; Phrynia and Timandra had + gold of him. He likewise enrich'd poor straggling soldiers with + great quantity. 'Tis said he gave unto his steward a mighty sum. + POET. Then this breaking of his has been but a try for his friends? + PAINTER. Nothing else. You shall see him a palm in Athens again, + and flourish with the highest. Therefore 'tis not amiss we tender + our loves to him in this suppos'd distress of his; it will show + honestly in us, and is very likely to load our purposes with what + they travail for, if it be just and true report that goes of his + having. + POET. What have you now to present unto him? + PAINTER. Nothing at this time but my visitation; only I will + promise him an excellent piece. + POET. I must serve him so too, tell him of an intent that's coming + toward him. + PAINTER. Good as the best. Promising is the very air o' th' time; + it opens the eyes of expectation. Performance is ever the duller + for his act, and but in the plainer and simpler kind of people + the deed of saying is quite out of use. To promise is most + courtly and fashionable; performance is a kind of will or + testament which argues a great sickness in his judgment that + makes it. + + Enter TIMON from his cave + + TIMON. [Aside] Excellent workman! Thou canst not paint a man so bad + as is thyself. + POET. I am thinking what I shall say I have provided for him. It + must be a personating of himself; a satire against the softness + of prosperity, with a discovery of the infinite flatteries that + follow youth and opulency. + TIMON. [Aside] Must thou needs stand for a villain in thine own + work? Wilt thou whip thine own faults in other men? Do so, I have + gold for thee. + POET. Nay, let's seek him; + Then do we sin against our own estate + When we may profit meet and come too late. + PAINTER. True; + When the day serves, before black-corner'd night, + Find what thou want'st by free and offer'd light. + Come. + TIMON. [Aside] I'll meet you at the turn. What a god's gold, + That he is worshipp'd in a baser temple + Than where swine feed! + 'Tis thou that rig'st the bark and plough'st the foam, + Settlest admired reverence in a slave. + To thee be worship! and thy saints for aye + Be crown'd with plagues, that thee alone obey! + Fit I meet them. [Advancing from his cave] + POET. Hail, worthy Timon! + PAINTER. Our late noble master! + TIMON. Have I once liv'd to see two honest men? + POET. Sir, + Having often of your open bounty tasted, + Hearing you were retir'd, your friends fall'n off, + Whose thankless natures- O abhorred spirits!- + Not all the whips of heaven are large enough- + What! to you, + Whose star-like nobleness gave life and influence + To their whole being! I am rapt, and cannot cover + The monstrous bulk of this ingratitude + With any size of words. + TIMON. Let it go naked: men may see't the better. + You that are honest, by being what you are, + Make them best seen and known. + PAINTER. He and myself + Have travail'd in the great show'r of your gifts, + And sweetly felt it. + TIMON. Ay, you are honest men. + PAINTER. We are hither come to offer you our service. + TIMON. Most honest men! Why, how shall I requite you? + Can you eat roots, and drink cold water- No? + BOTH. What we can do, we'll do, to do you service. + TIMON. Y'are honest men. Y'have heard that I have gold; + I am sure you have. Speak truth; y'are honest men. + PAINTER. So it is said, my noble lord; but therefore + Came not my friend nor I. + TIMON. Good honest men! Thou draw'st a counterfeit + Best in all Athens. Th'art indeed the best; + Thou counterfeit'st most lively. + PAINTER. So, so, my lord. + TIMON. E'en so, sir, as I say. [To To POET] And for thy fiction, + Why, thy verse swells with stuff so fine and smooth + That thou art even natural in thine art. + But for all this, my honest-natur'd friends, + I must needs say you have a little fault. + Marry, 'tis not monstrous in you; neither wish I + You take much pains to mend. + BOTH. Beseech your honour + To make it known to us. + TIMON. You'll take it ill. + BOTH. Most thankfully, my lord. + TIMON. Will you indeed? + BOTH. Doubt it not, worthy lord. + TIMON. There's never a one of you but trusts a knave + That mightily deceives you. + BOTH. Do we, my lord? + TIMON. Ay, and you hear him cog, see him dissemble, + Know his gross patchery, love him, feed him, + Keep in your bosom; yet remain assur'd + That he's a made-up villain. + PAINTER. I know not such, my lord. + POET. Nor I. + TIMON. Look you, I love you well; I'll give you gold, + Rid me these villains from your companies. + Hang them or stab them, drown them in a draught, + Confound them by some course, and come to me, + I'll give you gold enough. + BOTH. Name them, my lord; let's know them. + TIMON. You that way, and you this- but two in company; + Each man apart, all single and alone, + Yet an arch-villain keeps him company. + [To the PAINTER] If, where thou art, two villians shall not be, + Come not near him. [To the POET] If thou wouldst not reside + But where one villain is, then him abandon.- + Hence, pack! there's gold; you came for gold, ye slaves. + [To the PAINTER] You have work for me; there's payment; hence! + [To the POET] You are an alchemist; make gold of that.- + Out, rascal dogs! [Beats and drives them out] + + Enter FLAVIUS and two SENATORS + + FLAVIUS. It is vain that you would speak with Timon; + For he is set so only to himself + That nothing but himself which looks like man + Is friendly with him. + FIRST SENATOR. Bring us to his cave. + It is our part and promise to th' Athenians + To speak with Timon. + SECOND SENATOR. At all times alike + Men are not still the same; 'twas time and griefs + That fram'd him thus. Time, with his fairer hand, + Offering the fortunes of his former days, + The former man may make him. Bring us to him, + And chance it as it may. + FLAVIUS. Here is his cave. + Peace and content be here! Lord Timon! Timon! + Look out, and speak to friends. Th' Athenians + By two of their most reverend Senate greet thee. + Speak to them, noble Timon. + + Enter TIMON out of his cave + + TIMON. Thou sun that comforts, burn. Speak and be hang'd! + For each true word a blister, and each false + Be as a cauterizing to the root o' th' tongue, + Consuming it with speaking! + FIRST SENATOR. Worthy Timon- + TIMON. Of none but such as you, and you of Timon. + FIRST SENATOR. The senators of Athens greet thee, Timon. + TIMON. I thank them; and would send them back the plague, + Could I but catch it for them. + FIRST SENATOR. O, forget + What we are sorry for ourselves in thee. + The senators with one consent of love + Entreat thee back to Athens, who have thought + On special dignities, which vacant lie + For thy best use and wearing. + SECOND SENATOR. They confess + Toward thee forgetfulness too general, gross; + Which now the public body, which doth seldom + Play the recanter, feeling in itself + A lack of Timon's aid, hath sense withal + Of it own fail, restraining aid to Timon, + And send forth us to make their sorrowed render, + Together with a recompense more fruitful + Than their offence can weigh down by the dram; + Ay, even such heaps and sums of love and wealth + As shall to thee blot out what wrongs were theirs + And write in thee the figures of their love, + Ever to read them thine. + TIMON. You witch me in it; + Surprise me to the very brink of tears. + Lend me a fool's heart and a woman's eyes, + And I'll beweep these comforts, worthy senators. + FIRST SENATOR. Therefore so please thee to return with us, + And of our Athens, thine and ours, to take + The captainship, thou shalt be met with thanks, + Allow'd with absolute power, and thy good name + Live with authority. So soon we shall drive back + Of Alcibiades th' approaches wild, + Who, like a boar too savage, doth root up + His country's peace. + SECOND SENATOR. And shakes his threat'ning sword + Against the walls of Athens. + FIRST SENATOR. Therefore, Timon- + TIMON. Well, sir, I will. Therefore I will, sir, thus: + If Alcibiades kill my countrymen, + Let Alcibiades know this of Timon, + That Timon cares not. But if he sack fair Athens, + And take our goodly aged men by th' beards, + Giving our holy virgins to the stain + Of contumelious, beastly, mad-brain'd war, + Then let him know- and tell him Timon speaks it + In pity of our aged and our youth- + I cannot choose but tell him that I care not, + And let him take't at worst; for their knives care not, + While you have throats to answer. For myself, + There's not a whittle in th' unruly camp + But I do prize it at my love before + The reverend'st throat in Athens. So I leave you + To the protection of the prosperous gods, + As thieves to keepers. + FLAVIUS. Stay not, all's in vain. + TIMON. Why, I was writing of my epitaph; + It will be seen to-morrow. My long sickness + Of health and living now begins to mend, + And nothing brings me all things. Go, live still; + Be Alcibiades your plague, you his, + And last so long enough! + FIRST SENATOR. We speak in vain. + TIMON. But yet I love my country, and am not + One that rejoices in the common wreck, + As common bruit doth put it. + FIRST SENATOR. That's well spoke. + TIMON. Commend me to my loving countrymen- + FIRST SENATOR. These words become your lips as they pass through + them. + SECOND SENATOR. And enter in our ears like great triumphers + In their applauding gates. + TIMON. Commend me to them, + And tell them that, to ease them of their griefs, + Their fears of hostile strokes, their aches, losses, + Their pangs of love, with other incident throes + That nature's fragile vessel doth sustain + In life's uncertain voyage, I will some kindness do them- + I'll teach them to prevent wild Alcibiades' wrath. + FIRST SENATOR. I like this well; he will return again. + TIMON. I have a tree, which grows here in my close, + That mine own use invites me to cut down, + And shortly must I fell it. Tell my friends, + Tell Athens, in the sequence of degree + From high to low throughout, that whoso please + To stop affliction, let him take his haste, + Come hither, ere my tree hath felt the axe, + And hang himself. I pray you do my greeting. + FLAVIUS. Trouble him no further; thus you still shall find him. + TIMON. Come not to me again; but say to Athens + Timon hath made his everlasting mansion + Upon the beached verge of the salt flood, + Who once a day with his embossed froth + The turbulent surge shall cover. Thither come, + And let my gravestone be your oracle. + Lips, let sour words go by and language end: + What is amiss, plague and infection mend! + Graves only be men's works and death their gain! + Sun, hide thy beams. Timon hath done his reign. + Exit TIMON into his cave + FIRST SENATOR. His discontents are unremovably + Coupled to nature. + SECOND SENATOR. Our hope in him is dead. Let us return + And strain what other means is left unto us + In our dear peril. + FIRST SENATOR. It requires swift foot. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Before the walls of Athens + +Enter two other SENATORS with a MESSENGER + + FIRST SENATOR. Thou hast painfully discover'd; are his files + As full as thy report? + MESSENGER. I have spoke the least. + Besides, his expedition promises + Present approach. + SECOND SENATOR. We stand much hazard if they bring not Timon. + MESSENGER. I met a courier, one mine ancient friend, + Whom, though in general part we were oppos'd, + Yet our old love had a particular force, + And made us speak like friends. This man was riding + From Alcibiades to Timon's cave + With letters of entreaty, which imported + His fellowship i' th' cause against your city, + In part for his sake mov'd. + + Enter the other SENATORS, from TIMON + + FIRST SENATOR. Here come our brothers. + THIRD SENATOR. No talk of Timon, nothing of him expect. + The enemies' drum is heard, and fearful scouring + Doth choke the air with dust. In, and prepare. + Ours is the fall, I fear; our foes the snare. Exeunt + +SCENE III. The TIMON's cave, and a rude tomb seen + +Enter a SOLDIER in the woods, seeking TIMON + + SOLDIER. By all description this should be the place. + Who's here? Speak, ho! No answer? What is this? + Timon is dead, who hath outstretch'd his span. + Some beast rear'd this; here does not live a man. + Dead, sure; and this his grave. What's on this tomb + I cannot read; the character I'll take with wax. + Our captain hath in every figure skill, + An ag'd interpreter, though young in days; + Before proud Athens he's set down by this, + Whose fall the mark of his ambition is. Exit + +SCENE IV. Before the walls of Athens + +Trumpets sound. Enter ALCIBIADES with his powers before Athens + + ALCIBIADES. Sound to this coward and lascivious town + Our terrible approach. + + Sound a parley. The SENATORS appear upon the walls + + Till now you have gone on and fill'd the time + With all licentious measure, making your wills + The scope of justice; till now, myself, and such + As slept within the shadow of your power, + Have wander'd with our travers'd arms, and breath'd + Our sufferance vainly. Now the time is flush, + When crouching marrow, in the bearer strong, + Cries of itself 'No more!' Now breathless wrong + Shall sit and pant in your great chairs of ease, + And pursy insolence shall break his wind + With fear and horrid flight. + FIRST SENATOR. Noble and young, + When thy first griefs were but a mere conceit, + Ere thou hadst power or we had cause of fear, + We sent to thee, to give thy rages balm, + To wipe out our ingratitude with loves + Above their quantity. + SECOND SENATOR. So did we woo + Transformed Timon to our city's love + By humble message and by promis'd means. + We were not all unkind, nor all deserve + The common stroke of war. + FIRST SENATOR. These walls of ours + Were not erected by their hands from whom + You have receiv'd your griefs; nor are they such + That these great tow'rs, trophies, and schools, should fall + For private faults in them. + SECOND SENATOR. Nor are they living + Who were the motives that you first went out; + Shame, that they wanted cunning, in excess + Hath broke their hearts. March, noble lord, + Into our city with thy banners spread. + By decimation and a tithed death- + If thy revenges hunger for that food + Which nature loathes- take thou the destin'd tenth, + And by the hazard of the spotted die + Let die the spotted. + FIRST SENATOR. All have not offended; + For those that were, it is not square to take, + On those that are, revenge: crimes, like lands, + Are not inherited. Then, dear countryman, + Bring in thy ranks, but leave without thy rage; + Spare thy Athenian cradle, and those kin + Which, in the bluster of thy wrath, must fall + With those that have offended. Like a shepherd + Approach the fold and cull th' infected forth, + But kill not all together. + SECOND SENATOR. What thou wilt, + Thou rather shalt enforce it with thy smile + Than hew to't with thy sword. + FIRST SENATOR. Set but thy foot + Against our rampir'd gates and they shall ope, + So thou wilt send thy gentle heart before + To say thou't enter friendly. + SECOND SENATOR. Throw thy glove, + Or any token of thine honour else, + That thou wilt use the wars as thy redress + And not as our confusion, all thy powers + Shall make their harbour in our town till we + Have seal'd thy full desire. + ALCIBIADES. Then there's my glove; + Descend, and open your uncharged ports. + Those enemies of Timon's and mine own, + Whom you yourselves shall set out for reproof, + Fall, and no more. And, to atone your fears + With my more noble meaning, not a man + Shall pass his quarter or offend the stream + Of regular justice in your city's bounds, + But shall be render'd to your public laws + At heaviest answer. + BOTH. 'Tis most nobly spoken. + ALCIBIADES. Descend, and keep your words. + [The SENATORS descend and open the gates] + + Enter a SOLDIER as a Messenger + + SOLDIER. My noble General, Timon is dead; + Entomb'd upon the very hem o' th' sea; + And on his grave-stone this insculpture, which + With wax I brought away, whose soft impression + Interprets for my poor ignorance. + + ALCIBIADES reads the Epitaph + + 'Here lies a wretched corse, of wretched soul bereft; + Seek not my name. A plague consume you wicked caitiffs left! + Here lie I, Timon, who alive all living men did hate. + Pass by, and curse thy fill; but pass, and stay not here thy + gait.' + These well express in thee thy latter spirits. + Though thou abhorr'dst in us our human griefs, + Scorn'dst our brain's flow, and those our droplets which + From niggard nature fall, yet rich conceit + Taught thee to make vast Neptune weep for aye + On thy low grave, on faults forgiven. Dead + Is noble Timon, of whose memory + Hereafter more. Bring me into your city, + And I will use the olive, with my sword; + Make war breed peace, make peace stint war, make each + Prescribe to other, as each other's leech. + Let our drums strike. Exeunt + + + + +THE TRAGEDY OF TITUS ANDRONICUS + +Dramatis Personae + + SATURNINUS, son to the late Emperor of Rome, afterwards Emperor + BASSIANUS, brother to Saturninus + TITUS ANDRONICUS, a noble Roman + MARCUS ANDRONICUS, Tribune of the People, and brother to Titus + + Sons to Titus Andronicus: + LUCIUS + QUINTUS + MARTIUS + MUTIUS + + YOUNG LUCIUS, a boy, son to Lucius + PUBLIUS, son to Marcus Andronicus + + Kinsmen to Titus: + SEMPRONIUS + CAIUS + VALENTINE + + AEMILIUS, a noble Roman + + Sons to Tamora: + ALARBUS + DEMETRIUS + CHIRON + + AARON, a Moor, beloved by Tamora + A CAPTAIN + A MESSENGER + A CLOWN + + TAMORA, Queen of the Goths + LAVINIA, daughter to Titus Andronicus + A NURSE, and a black CHILD + + Romans and Goths, Senators, Tribunes, Officers, Soldiers, and + Attendants + + SCENE: Rome and the neighbourhood + +ACT 1. SCENE I. Rome. Before the Capitol + +Flourish. Enter the TRIBUNES and SENATORS aloft; and then enter below +SATURNINUS and his followers at one door, and BASSIANUS and his +followers at the other, with drums and trumpets + + SATURNINUS. Noble patricians, patrons of my right, + Defend the justice of my cause with arms; + And, countrymen, my loving followers, + Plead my successive title with your swords. + I am his first born son that was the last + That ware the imperial diadem of Rome; + Then let my father's honours live in me, + Nor wrong mine age with this indignity. + BASSIANUS. Romans, friends, followers, favourers of my right, + If ever Bassianus, Caesar's son, + Were gracious in the eyes of royal Rome, + Keep then this passage to the Capitol; + And suffer not dishonour to approach + The imperial seat, to virtue consecrate, + To justice, continence, and nobility; + But let desert in pure election shine; + And, Romans, fight for freedom in your choice. + + Enter MARCUS ANDRONICUS aloft, with the crown + + MARCUS. Princes, that strive by factions and by friends + Ambitiously for rule and empery, + Know that the people of Rome, for whom we stand + A special party, have by common voice + In election for the Roman empery + Chosen Andronicus, surnamed Pius + For many good and great deserts to Rome. + A nobler man, a braver warrior, + Lives not this day within the city walls. + He by the Senate is accited home, + From weary wars against the barbarous Goths, + That with his sons, a terror to our foes, + Hath yok'd a nation strong, train'd up in arms. + Ten years are spent since first he undertook + This cause of Rome, and chastised with arms + Our enemies' pride; five times he hath return'd + Bleeding to Rome, bearing his valiant sons + In coffins from the field; and at this day + To the monument of that Andronici + Done sacrifice of expiation, + And slain the noblest prisoner of the Goths. + And now at last, laden with honour's spoils, + Returns the good Andronicus to Rome, + Renowned Titus, flourishing in arms. + Let us entreat, by honour of his name + Whom worthily you would have now succeed, + And in the Capitol and Senate's right, + Whom you pretend to honour and adore, + That you withdraw you and abate your strength, + Dismiss your followers, and, as suitors should, + Plead your deserts in peace and humbleness. + SATURNINUS. How fair the Tribune speaks to calm my thoughts. + BASSIANUS. Marcus Andronicus, so I do affy + In thy uprightness and integrity, + And so I love and honour thee and thine, + Thy noble brother Titus and his sons, + And her to whom my thoughts are humbled all, + Gracious Lavinia, Rome's rich ornament, + That I will here dismiss my loving friends, + And to my fortunes and the people's favour + Commit my cause in balance to be weigh'd. + Exeunt the soldiers of BASSIANUS + SATURNINUS. Friends, that have been thus forward in my right, + I thank you all and here dismiss you all, + And to the love and favour of my country + Commit myself, my person, and the cause. + Exeunt the soldiers of SATURNINUS + Rome, be as just and gracious unto me + As I am confident and kind to thee. + Open the gates and let me in. + BASSIANUS. Tribunes, and me, a poor competitor. + [Flourish. They go up into the Senate House] + + Enter a CAPTAIN + + CAPTAIN. Romans, make way. The good Andronicus, + Patron of virtue, Rome's best champion, + Successful in the battles that he fights, + With honour and with fortune is return'd + From where he circumscribed with his sword + And brought to yoke the enemies of Rome. + + Sound drums and trumpets, and then enter MARTIUS and MUTIUS, + two of TITUS' sons; and then two men bearing a coffin covered + with black; then LUCIUS and QUINTUS, two other sons; then TITUS + ANDRONICUS; and then TAMORA the Queen of Goths, with her three + sons, ALARBUS, DEMETRIUS, and CHIRON, with AARON the Moor, and + others, as many as can be. Then set down the coffin and TITUS + speaks + + TITUS. Hail, Rome, victorious in thy mourning weeds! + Lo, as the bark that hath discharg'd her fraught + Returns with precious lading to the bay + From whence at first she weigh'd her anchorage, + Cometh Andronicus, bound with laurel boughs, + To re-salute his country with his tears, + Tears of true joy for his return to Rome. + Thou great defender of this Capitol, + Stand gracious to the rites that we intend! + Romans, of five and twenty valiant sons, + Half of the number that King Priam had, + Behold the poor remains, alive and dead! + These that survive let Rome reward with love; + These that I bring unto their latest home, + With burial amongst their ancestors. + Here Goths have given me leave to sheathe my sword. + Titus, unkind, and careless of thine own, + Why suffer'st thou thy sons, unburied yet, + To hover on the dreadful shore of Styx? + Make way to lay them by their brethren. + [They open the tomb] + There greet in silence, as the dead are wont, + And sleep in peace, slain in your country's wars. + O sacred receptacle of my joys, + Sweet cell of virtue and nobility, + How many sons hast thou of mine in store + That thou wilt never render to me more! + LUCIUS. Give us the proudest prisoner of the Goths, + That we may hew his limbs, and on a pile + Ad manes fratrum sacrifice his flesh + Before this earthy prison of their bones, + That so the shadows be not unappeas'd, + Nor we disturb'd with prodigies on earth. + TITUS. I give him you- the noblest that survives, + The eldest son of this distressed queen. + TAMORA. Stay, Roman brethen! Gracious conqueror, + Victorious Titus, rue the tears I shed, + A mother's tears in passion for her son; + And if thy sons were ever dear to thee, + O, think my son to be as dear to me! + Sufficeth not that we are brought to Rome + To beautify thy triumphs, and return + Captive to thee and to thy Roman yoke; + But must my sons be slaughtered in the streets + For valiant doings in their country's cause? + O, if to fight for king and commonweal + Were piety in thine, it is in these. + Andronicus, stain not thy tomb with blood. + Wilt thou draw near the nature of the gods? + Draw near them then in being merciful. + Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge. + Thrice-noble Titus, spare my first-born son. + TITUS. Patient yourself, madam, and pardon me. + These are their brethren, whom your Goths beheld + Alive and dead; and for their brethren slain + Religiously they ask a sacrifice. + To this your son is mark'd, and die he must + T' appease their groaning shadows that are gone. + LUCIUS. Away with him, and make a fire straight; + And with our swords, upon a pile of wood, + Let's hew his limbs till they be clean consum'd. + Exeunt TITUS' SONS, with ALARBUS + TAMORA. O cruel, irreligious piety! + CHIRON. Was never Scythia half so barbarous! + DEMETRIUS. Oppose not Scythia to ambitious Rome. + Alarbus goes to rest, and we survive + To tremble under Titus' threat'ning look. + Then, madam, stand resolv'd, but hope withal + The self-same gods that arm'd the Queen of Troy + With opportunity of sharp revenge + Upon the Thracian tyrant in his tent + May favour Tamora, the Queen of Goths- + When Goths were Goths and Tamora was queen- + To quit the bloody wrongs upon her foes. + + Re-enter LUCIUS, QUINTUS, MARTIUS, and + MUTIUS, the sons of ANDRONICUS, with their swords bloody + + LUCIUS. See, lord and father, how we have perform'd + Our Roman rites: Alarbus' limbs are lopp'd, + And entrails feed the sacrificing fire, + Whose smoke like incense doth perfume the sky. + Remaineth nought but to inter our brethren, + And with loud 'larums welcome them to Rome. + TITUS. Let it be so, and let Andronicus + Make this his latest farewell to their souls. + [Sound trumpets and lay the coffin in the tomb] + In peace and honour rest you here, my sons; + Rome's readiest champions, repose you here in rest, + Secure from worldly chances and mishaps! + Here lurks no treason, here no envy swells, + Here grow no damned drugs, here are no storms, + No noise, but silence and eternal sleep. + In peace and honour rest you here, my sons! + + Enter LAVINIA + + LAVINIA. In peace and honour live Lord Titus long; + My noble lord and father, live in fame! + Lo, at this tomb my tributary tears + I render for my brethren's obsequies; + And at thy feet I kneel, with tears of joy + Shed on this earth for thy return to Rome. + O, bless me here with thy victorious hand, + Whose fortunes Rome's best citizens applaud! + TITUS. Kind Rome, that hast thus lovingly reserv'd + The cordial of mine age to glad my heart! + Lavinia, live; outlive thy father's days, + And fame's eternal date, for virtue's praise! + + Enter, above, MARCUS ANDRONICUS and TRIBUNES; + re-enter SATURNINUS, BASSIANUS, and attendants + + MARCUS. Long live Lord Titus, my beloved brother, + Gracious triumpher in the eyes of Rome! + TITUS. Thanks, gentle Tribune, noble brother Marcus. + MARCUS. And welcome, nephews, from successful wars, + You that survive and you that sleep in fame. + Fair lords, your fortunes are alike in all + That in your country's service drew your swords; + But safer triumph is this funeral pomp + That hath aspir'd to Solon's happiness + And triumphs over chance in honour's bed. + Titus Andronicus, the people of Rome, + Whose friend in justice thou hast ever been, + Send thee by me, their Tribune and their trust, + This par]iament of white and spotless hue; + And name thee in election for the empire + With these our late-deceased Emperor's sons: + Be candidatus then, and put it on, + And help to set a head on headless Rome. + TITUS. A better head her glorious body fits + Than his that shakes for age and feebleness. + What should I don this robe and trouble you? + Be chosen with proclamations to-day, + To-morrow yield up rule, resign my life, + And set abroad new business for you all? + Rome, I have been thy soldier forty years, + And led my country's strength successfully, + And buried one and twenty valiant sons, + Knighted in field, slain manfully in arms, + In right and service of their noble country. + Give me a staff of honour for mine age, + But not a sceptre to control the world. + Upright he held it, lords, that held it last. + MARCUS. Titus, thou shalt obtain and ask the empery. + SATURNINUS. Proud and ambitious Tribune, canst thou tell? + TITUS. Patience, Prince Saturninus. + SATURNINUS. Romans, do me right. + Patricians, draw your swords, and sheathe them not + Till Saturninus be Rome's Emperor. + Andronicus, would thou were shipp'd to hell + Rather than rob me of the people's hearts! + LUCIUS. Proud Saturnine, interrupter of the good + That noble-minded Titus means to thee! + TITUS. Content thee, Prince; I will restore to thee + The people's hearts, and wean them from themselves. + BASSIANUS. Andronicus, I do not flatter thee, + But honour thee, and will do till I die. + My faction if thou strengthen with thy friends, + I will most thankful be; and thanks to men + Of noble minds is honourable meed. + TITUS. People of Rome, and people's Tribunes here, + I ask your voices and your suffrages: + Will ye bestow them friendly on Andronicus? + TRIBUNES. To gratify the good Andronicus, + And gratulate his safe return to Rome, + The people will accept whom he admits. + TITUS. Tribunes, I thank you; and this suit I make, + That you create our Emperor's eldest son, + Lord Saturnine; whose virtues will, I hope, + Reflect on Rome as Titan's rays on earth, + And ripen justice in this commonweal. + Then, if you will elect by my advice, + Crown him, and say 'Long live our Emperor!' + MARCUS. With voices and applause of every sort, + Patricians and plebeians, we create + Lord Saturninus Rome's great Emperor; + And say 'Long live our Emperor Saturnine!' + [A long flourish till they come down] + SATURNINUS. Titus Andronicus, for thy favours done + To us in our election this day + I give thee thanks in part of thy deserts, + And will with deeds requite thy gentleness; + And for an onset, Titus, to advance + Thy name and honourable family, + Lavinia will I make my emperess, + Rome's royal mistress, mistress of my heart, + And in the sacred Pantheon her espouse. + Tell me, Andronicus, doth this motion please thee? + TITUS. It doth, my worthy lord, and in this match + I hold me highly honoured of your Grace, + And here in sight of Rome, to Saturnine, + King and commander of our commonweal, + The wide world's Emperor, do I consecrate + My sword, my chariot, and my prisoners, + Presents well worthy Rome's imperious lord; + Receive them then, the tribute that I owe, + Mine honour's ensigns humbled at thy feet. + SATURNINUS. Thanks, noble Titus, father of my life. + How proud I am of thee and of thy gifts + Rome shall record; and when I do forget + The least of these unspeakable deserts, + Romans, forget your fealty to me. + TITUS. [To TAMORA] Now, madam, are you prisoner to an emperor; + To him that for your honour and your state + Will use you nobly and your followers. + SATURNINUS. [Aside] A goodly lady, trust me; of the hue + That I would choose, were I to choose anew.- + Clear up, fair Queen, that cloudy countenance; + Though chance of war hath wrought this change of cheer, + Thou com'st not to be made a scorn in Rome- + Princely shall be thy usage every way. + Rest on my word, and let not discontent + Daunt all your hopes. Madam, he comforts you + Can make you greater than the Queen of Goths. + Lavinia, you are not displeas'd with this? + LAVINIA. Not I, my lord, sith true nobility + Warrants these words in princely courtesy. + SATURNINUS. Thanks, sweet Lavinia. Romans, let us go. + Ransomless here we set our prisoners free. + Proclaim our honours, lords, with trump and drum. + [Flourish] + BASSIANUS. Lord Titus, by your leave, this maid is mine. + [Seizing LAVINIA] + TITUS. How, sir! Are you in earnest then, my lord? + BASSIANUS. Ay, noble Titus, and resolv'd withal + To do myself this reason and this right. + MARCUS. Suum cuique is our Roman justice: + This prince in justice seizeth but his own. + LUCIUS. And that he will and shall, if Lucius live. + TITUS. Traitors, avaunt! Where is the Emperor's guard? + Treason, my lord- Lavinia is surpris'd! + SATURNINUS. Surpris'd! By whom? + BASSIANUS. By him that justly may + Bear his betroth'd from all the world away. + Exeunt BASSIANUS and MARCUS with LAVINIA + MUTIUS. Brothers, help to convey her hence away, + And with my sword I'll keep this door safe. + Exeunt LUCIUS, QUINTUS, and MARTIUS + TITUS. Follow, my lord, and I'll soon bring her back. + MUTIUS. My lord, you pass not here. + TITUS. What, villain boy! + Bar'st me my way in Rome? + MUTIUS. Help, Lucius, help! + TITUS kills him. During the fray, exeunt SATURNINUS, + TAMORA, DEMETRIUS, CHIRON, and AARON + + Re-enter Lucius + + LUCIUS. My lord, you are unjust, and more than so: + In wrongful quarrel you have slain your son. + TITUS. Nor thou nor he are any sons of mine; + My sons would never so dishonour me. + + Re-enter aloft the EMPEROR + with TAMORA and her two Sons, and AARON the Moor + + Traitor, restore Lavinia to the Emperor. + LUCIUS. Dead, if you will; but not to be his wife, + That is another's lawful promis'd love. Exit + SATURNINUS. No, Titus, no; the Emperor needs her not, + Nor her, nor thee, nor any of thy stock. + I'll trust by leisure him that mocks me once; + Thee never, nor thy traitorous haughty sons, + Confederates all thus to dishonour me. + Was there none else in Rome to make a stale + But Saturnine? Full well, Andronicus, + Agree these deeds with that proud brag of thine + That saidst I begg'd the empire at thy hands. + TITUS. O monstrous! What reproachful words are these? + SATURNINUS. But go thy ways; go, give that changing piece + To him that flourish'd for her with his sword. + A valiant son-in-law thou shalt enjoy; + One fit to bandy with thy lawless sons, + To ruffle in the commonwealth of Rome. + TITUS. These words are razors to my wounded heart. + SATURNINUS. And therefore, lovely Tamora, Queen of Goths, + That, like the stately Phoebe 'mongst her nymphs, + Dost overshine the gallant'st dames of Rome, + If thou be pleas'd with this my sudden choice, + Behold, I choose thee, Tamora, for my bride + And will create thee Emperess of Rome. + Speak, Queen of Goths, dost thou applaud my choice? + And here I swear by all the Roman gods- + Sith priest and holy water are so near, + And tapers burn so bright, and everything + In readiness for Hymenaeus stand- + I will not re-salute the streets of Rome, + Or climb my palace, till from forth this place + I lead espous'd my bride along with me. + TAMORA. And here in sight of heaven to Rome I swear, + If Saturnine advance the Queen of Goths, + She will a handmaid be to his desires, + A loving nurse, a mother to his youth. + SATURNINUS. Ascend, fair Queen, Pantheon. Lords, accompany + Your noble Emperor and his lovely bride, + Sent by the heavens for Prince Saturnine, + Whose wisdom hath her fortune conquered; + There shall we consummate our spousal rites. + Exeunt all but TITUS + TITUS. I am not bid to wait upon this bride. + TITUS, when wert thou wont to walk alone, + Dishonoured thus, and challenged of wrongs? + + Re-enter MARCUS, + and TITUS' SONS, LUCIUS, QUINTUS, and MARTIUS + + MARCUS. O Titus, see, O, see what thou hast done! + In a bad quarrel slain a virtuous son. + TITUS. No, foolish Tribune, no; no son of mine- + Nor thou, nor these, confederates in the deed + That hath dishonoured all our family; + Unworthy brother and unworthy sons! + LUCIUS. But let us give him burial, as becomes; + Give Mutius burial with our bretheren. + TITUS. Traitors, away! He rests not in this tomb. + This monument five hundred years hath stood, + Which I have sumptuously re-edified; + Here none but soldiers and Rome's servitors + Repose in fame; none basely slain in brawls. + Bury him where you can, he comes not here. + MARCUS. My lord, this is impiety in you. + My nephew Mutius' deeds do plead for him; + He must be buried with his bretheren. + QUINTUS & MARTIUS. And shall, or him we will accompany. + TITUS. 'And shall!' What villain was it spake that word? + QUINTUS. He that would vouch it in any place but here. + TITUS. What, would you bury him in my despite? + MARCUS. No, noble Titus, but entreat of thee + To pardon Mutius and to bury him. + TITUS. Marcus, even thou hast struck upon my crest, + And with these boys mine honour thou hast wounded. + My foes I do repute you every one; + So trouble me no more, but get you gone. + MARTIUS. He is not with himself; let us withdraw. + QUINTUS. Not I, till Mutius' bones be buried. + [The BROTHER and the SONS kneel] + MARCUS. Brother, for in that name doth nature plead- + QUINTUS. Father, and in that name doth nature speak- + TITUS. Speak thou no more, if all the rest will speed. + MARCUS. Renowned Titus, more than half my soul- + LUCIUS. Dear father, soul and substance of us all- + MARCUS. Suffer thy brother Marcus to inter + His noble nephew here in virtue's nest, + That died in honour and Lavinia's cause. + Thou art a Roman- be not barbarous. + The Greeks upon advice did bury Ajax, + That slew himself; and wise Laertes' son + Did graciously plead for his funerals. + Let not young Mutius, then, that was thy joy, + Be barr'd his entrance here. + TITUS. Rise, Marcus, rise; + The dismal'st day is this that e'er I saw, + To be dishonoured by my sons in Rome! + Well, bury him, and bury me the next. + [They put MUTIUS in the tomb] + LUCIUS. There lie thy bones, sweet Mutius, with thy friends, + Till we with trophies do adorn thy tomb. + ALL. [Kneeling] No man shed tears for noble Mutius; + He lives in fame that died in virtue's cause. + MARCUS. My lord- to step out of these dreary dumps- + How comes it that the subtle Queen of Goths + Is of a sudden thus advanc'd in Rome? + TITUS. I know not, Marcus, but I know it is- + Whether by device or no, the heavens can tell. + Is she not, then, beholding to the man + That brought her for this high good turn so far? + MARCUS. Yes, and will nobly him remunerate. + + Flourish. Re-enter the EMPEROR, TAMORA + and her two SONS, with the MOOR, at one door; + at the other door, BASSIANUS and LAVINIA, with others + + SATURNINUS. So, Bassianus, you have play'd your prize: + God give you joy, sir, of your gallant bride! + BASSIANUS. And you of yours, my lord! I say no more, + Nor wish no less; and so I take my leave. + SATURNINUS. Traitor, if Rome have law or we have power, + Thou and thy faction shall repent this rape. + BASSIANUS. Rape, call you it, my lord, to seize my own, + My true betrothed love, and now my wife? + But let the laws of Rome determine all; + Meanwhile am I possess'd of that is mine. + SATURNINUS. 'Tis good, sir. You are very short with us; + But if we live we'll be as sharp with you. + BASSIANUS. My lord, what I have done, as best I may, + Answer I must, and shall do with my life. + Only thus much I give your Grace to know: + By all the duties that I owe to Rome, + This noble gentleman, Lord Titus here, + Is in opinion and in honour wrong'd, + That, in the rescue of Lavinia, + With his own hand did slay his youngest son, + In zeal to you, and highly mov'd to wrath + To be controll'd in that he frankly gave. + Receive him then to favour, Saturnine, + That hath express'd himself in all his deeds + A father and a friend to thee and Rome. + TITUS. Prince Bassianus, leave to plead my deeds. + 'Tis thou and those that have dishonoured me. + Rome and the righteous heavens be my judge + How I have lov'd and honoured Saturnine! + TAMORA. My worthy lord, if ever Tamora + Were gracious in those princely eyes of thine, + Then hear me speak indifferently for all; + And at my suit, sweet, pardon what is past. + SATURNINUS. What, madam! be dishonoured openly, + And basely put it up without revenge? + TAMORA. Not so, my lord; the gods of Rome forfend + I should be author to dishonour you! + But on mine honour dare I undertake + For good Lord Titus' innocence in all, + Whose fury not dissembled speaks his griefs. + Then at my suit look graciously on him; + Lose not so noble a friend on vain suppose, + Nor with sour looks afflict his gentle heart. + [Aside to SATURNINUS] My lord, be rul'd by me, + be won at last; + Dissemble all your griefs and discontents. + You are but newly planted in your throne; + Lest, then, the people, and patricians too, + Upon a just survey take Titus' part, + And so supplant you for ingratitude, + Which Rome reputes to be a heinous sin, + Yield at entreats, and then let me alone: + I'll find a day to massacre them all, + And raze their faction and their family, + The cruel father and his traitorous sons, + To whom I sued for my dear son's life; + And make them know what 'tis to let a queen + Kneel in the streets and beg for grace in vain.- + Come, come, sweet Emperor; come, Andronicus. + Take up this good old man, and cheer the heart + That dies in tempest of thy angry frown. + SATURNINUS. Rise, Titus, rise; my Empress hath prevail'd. + TITUS. I thank your Majesty and her, my lord; + These words, these looks, infuse new life in me. + TAMORA. Titus, I am incorporate in Rome, + A Roman now adopted happily, + And must advise the Emperor for his good. + This day all quarrels die, Andronicus; + And let it be mine honour, good my lord, + That I have reconcil'd your friends and you. + For you, Prince Bassianus, I have pass'd + My word and promise to the Emperor + That you will be more mild and tractable. + And fear not, lords- and you, Lavinia. + By my advice, all humbled on your knees, + You shall ask pardon of his Majesty. + LUCIUS. We do, and vow to heaven and to his Highness + That what we did was mildly as we might, + Tend'ring our sister's honour and our own. + MARCUS. That on mine honour here do I protest. + SATURNINUS. Away, and talk not; trouble us no more. + TAMORA. Nay, nay, sweet Emperor, we must all be friends. + The Tribune and his nephews kneel for grace. + I will not be denied. Sweet heart, look back. + SATURNINUS. Marcus, for thy sake, and thy brother's here, + And at my lovely Tamora's entreats, + I do remit these young men's heinous faults. + Stand up. + Lavinia, though you left me like a churl, + I found a friend; and sure as death I swore + I would not part a bachelor from the priest. + Come, if the Emperor's court can feast two brides, + You are my guest, Lavinia, and your friends. + This day shall be a love-day, Tamora. + TITUS. To-morrow, and it please your Majesty + To hunt the panther and the hart with me, + With horn and hound we'll give your Grace bonjour. + SATURNINUS. Be it so, Titus, and gramercy too. + Exeunt. Sound trumpets + +ACT II. SCENE I. Rome. Before the palace + +Enter AARON + + AARON. Now climbeth Tamora Olympus' top, + Safe out of Fortune's shot, and sits aloft, + Secure of thunder's crack or lightning flash, + Advanc'd above pale envy's threat'ning reach. + As when the golden sun salutes the morn, + And, having gilt the ocean with his beams, + Gallops the zodiac in his glistening coach + And overlooks the highest-peering hills, + So Tamora. + Upon her wit doth earthly honour wait, + And virtue stoops and trembles at her frown. + Then, Aaron, arm thy heart and fit thy thoughts + To mount aloft with thy imperial mistress, + And mount her pitch whom thou in triumph long. + Hast prisoner held, fett'red in amorous chains, + And faster bound to Aaron's charming eyes + Than is Prometheus tied to Caucasus. + Away with slavish weeds and servile thoughts! + I will be bright and shine in pearl and gold, + To wait upon this new-made emperess. + To wait, said I? To wanton with this queen, + This goddess, this Semiramis, this nymph, + This siren that will charm Rome's Saturnine, + And see his shipwreck and his commonweal's. + Hullo! what storm is this? + + Enter CHIRON and DEMETRIUS, braving + + DEMETRIUS. Chiron, thy years wants wit, thy wits wants edge + And manners, to intrude where I am grac'd, + And may, for aught thou knowest, affected be. + CHIRON. Demetrius, thou dost over-ween in all; + And so in this, to bear me down with braves. + 'Tis not the difference of a year or two + Makes me less gracious or thee more fortunate: + I am as able and as fit as thou + To serve and to deserve my mistress' grace; + And that my sword upon thee shall approve, + And plead my passions for Lavinia's love. + AARON. [Aside] Clubs, clubs! These lovers will not keep the + peace. + DEMETRIUS. Why, boy, although our mother, unadvis'd, + Gave you a dancing rapier by your side, + Are you so desperate grown to threat your friends? + Go to; have your lath glued within your sheath + Till you know better how to handle it. + CHIRON. Meanwhile, sir, with the little skill I have, + Full well shalt thou perceive how much I dare. + DEMETRIUS. Ay, boy, grow ye so brave? [They draw] + AARON. [Coming forward] Why, how now, lords! + So near the Emperor's palace dare ye draw + And maintain such a quarrel openly? + Full well I wot the ground of all this grudge: + I would not for a million of gold + The cause were known to them it most concerns; + Nor would your noble mother for much more + Be so dishonoured in the court of Rome. + For shame, put up. + DEMETRIUS. Not I, till I have sheath'd + My rapier in his bosom, and withal + Thrust those reproachful speeches down his throat + That he hath breath'd in my dishonour here. + CHIRON. For that I am prepar'd and full resolv'd, + Foul-spoken coward, that thund'rest with thy tongue, + And with thy weapon nothing dar'st perform. + AARON. Away, I say! + Now, by the gods that warlike Goths adore, + This pretty brabble will undo us all. + Why, lords, and think you not how dangerous + It is to jet upon a prince's right? + What, is Lavinia then become so loose, + Or Bassianus so degenerate, + That for her love such quarrels may be broach'd + Without controlment, justice, or revenge? + Young lords, beware; an should the Empress know + This discord's ground, the music would not please. + CHIRON. I care not, I, knew she and all the world: + I love Lavinia more than all the world. + DEMETRIUS. Youngling, learn thou to make some meaner choice: + Lavina is thine elder brother's hope. + AARON. Why, are ye mad, or know ye not in Rome + How furious and impatient they be, + And cannot brook competitors in love? + I tell you, lords, you do but plot your deaths + By this device. + CHIRON. Aaron, a thousand deaths + Would I propose to achieve her whom I love. + AARON. To achieve her- how? + DEMETRIUS. Why mak'st thou it so strange? + She is a woman, therefore may be woo'd; + She is a woman, therefore may be won; + She is Lavinia, therefore must be lov'd. + What, man! more water glideth by the mill + Than wots the miller of; and easy it is + Of a cut loaf to steal a shive, we know. + Though Bassianus be the Emperor's brother, + Better than he have worn Vulcan's badge. + AARON. [Aside] Ay, and as good as Saturninus may. + DEMETRIUS. Then why should he despair that knows to court it + With words, fair looks, and liberality? + What, hast not thou full often struck a doe, + And borne her cleanly by the keeper's nose? + AARON. Why, then, it seems some certain snatch or so + Would serve your turns. + CHIRON. Ay, so the turn were served. + DEMETRIUS. Aaron, thou hast hit it. + AARON. Would you had hit it too! + Then should not we be tir'd with this ado. + Why, hark ye, hark ye! and are you such fools + To square for this? Would it offend you, then, + That both should speed? + CHIRON. Faith, not me. + DEMETRIUS. Nor me, so I were one. + AARON. For shame, be friends, and join for that you jar. + 'Tis policy and stratagem must do + That you affect; and so must you resolve + That what you cannot as you would achieve, + You must perforce accomplish as you may. + Take this of me: Lucrece was not more chaste + Than this Lavinia, Bassianus' love. + A speedier course than ling'ring languishment + Must we pursue, and I have found the path. + My lords, a solemn hunting is in hand; + There will the lovely Roman ladies troop; + The forest walks are wide and spacious, + And many unfrequented plots there are + Fitted by kind for rape and villainy. + Single you thither then this dainty doe, + And strike her home by force if not by words. + This way, or not at all, stand you in hope. + Come, come, our Empress, with her sacred wit + To villainy and vengeance consecrate, + Will we acquaint with all what we intend; + And she shall file our engines with advice + That will not suffer you to square yourselves, + But to your wishes' height advance you both. + The Emperor's court is like the house of Fame, + The palace full of tongues, of eyes, and ears; + The woods are ruthless, dreadful, deaf, and dull. + There speak and strike, brave boys, and take your turns; + There serve your lust, shadowed from heaven's eye, + And revel in Lavinia's treasury. + CHIRON. Thy counsel, lad, smells of no cowardice. + DEMETRIUS. Sit fas aut nefas, till I find the stream + To cool this heat, a charm to calm these fits, + Per Styga, per manes vehor. Exeunt + +SCENE II. A forest near Rome + +Enter TITUS ANDRONICUS, and his three sons, LUCIUS, QUINTUS, MARTIUS, +making a noise with hounds and horns; and MARCUS + + TITUS. The hunt is up, the morn is bright and grey, + The fields are fragrant, and the woods are green. + Uncouple here, and let us make a bay, + And wake the Emperor and his lovely bride, + And rouse the Prince, and ring a hunter's peal, + That all the court may echo with the noise. + Sons, let it be your charge, as it is ours, + To attend the Emperor's person carefully. + I have been troubled in my sleep this night, + But dawning day new comfort hath inspir'd. + + Here a cry of hounds, and wind horns in a peal. + Then enter SATURNINUS, TAMORA, BASSIANUS LAVINIA, + CHIRON, DEMETRIUS, and their attendants + Many good morrows to your Majesty! + Madam, to you as many and as good! + I promised your Grace a hunter's peal. + SATURNINUS. And you have rung it lustily, my lords- + Somewhat too early for new-married ladies. + BASSIANUS. Lavinia, how say you? + LAVINIA. I say no; + I have been broad awake two hours and more. + SATURNINUS. Come on then, horse and chariots let us have, + And to our sport. [To TAMORA] Madam, now shall ye see + Our Roman hunting. + MARCUS. I have dogs, my lord, + Will rouse the proudest panther in the chase, + And climb the highest promontory top. + TITUS. And I have horse will follow where the game + Makes way, and run like swallows o'er the plain. + DEMETRIUS. Chiron, we hunt not, we, with horse nor hound, + But hope to pluck a dainty doe to ground. Exeunt + +SCENE III. A lonely part of the forest + +Enter AARON alone, with a bag of gold + + AARON. He that had wit would think that I had none, + To bury so much gold under a tree + And never after to inherit it. + Let him that thinks of me so abjectly + Know that this gold must coin a stratagem, + Which, cunningly effected, will beget + A very excellent piece of villainy. + And so repose, sweet gold, for their unrest + [Hides the gold] + That have their alms out of the Empress' chest. + + Enter TAMORA alone, to the Moor + + TAMORA. My lovely Aaron, wherefore look'st thou sad + When everything does make a gleeful boast? + The birds chant melody on every bush; + The snakes lie rolled in the cheerful sun; + The green leaves quiver with the cooling wind + And make a chequer'd shadow on the ground; + Under their sweet shade, Aaron, let us sit, + And while the babbling echo mocks the hounds, + Replying shrilly to the well-tun'd horns, + As if a double hunt were heard at once, + Let us sit down and mark their yellowing noise; + And- after conflict such as was suppos'd + The wand'ring prince and Dido once enjoyed, + When with a happy storm they were surpris'd, + And curtain'd with a counsel-keeping cave- + We may, each wreathed in the other's arms, + Our pastimes done, possess a golden slumber, + Whiles hounds and horns and sweet melodious birds + Be unto us as is a nurse's song + Of lullaby to bring her babe asleep. + AARON. Madam, though Venus govern your desires, + Saturn is dominator over mine. + What signifies my deadly-standing eye, + My silence and my cloudy melancholy, + My fleece of woolly hair that now uncurls + Even as an adder when she doth unroll + To do some fatal execution? + No, madam, these are no venereal signs. + Vengeance is in my heart, death in my hand, + Blood and revenge are hammering in my head. + Hark, Tamora, the empress of my soul, + Which never hopes more heaven than rests in thee- + This is the day of doom for Bassianus; + His Philomel must lose her tongue to-day, + Thy sons make pillage of her chastity, + And wash their hands in Bassianus' blood. + Seest thou this letter? Take it up, I pray thee, + And give the King this fatal-plotted scroll. + Now question me no more; we are espied. + Here comes a parcel of our hopeful booty, + Which dreads not yet their lives' destruction. + + Enter BASSIANUS and LAVINIA + + TAMORA. Ah, my sweet Moor, sweeter to me than life! + AARON. No more, great Empress: Bassianus comes. + Be cross with him; and I'll go fetch thy sons + To back thy quarrels, whatsoe'er they be. Exit + BASSIANUS. Who have we here? Rome's royal Emperess, + Unfurnish'd of her well-beseeming troop? + Or is it Dian, habited like her, + Who hath abandoned her holy groves + To see the general hunting in this forest? + TAMORA. Saucy controller of my private steps! + Had I the pow'r that some say Dian had, + Thy temples should be planted presently + With horns, as was Actaeon's; and the hounds + Should drive upon thy new-transformed limbs, + Unmannerly intruder as thou art! + LAVINIA. Under your patience, gentle Emperess, + 'Tis thought you have a goodly gift in horning, + And to be doubted that your Moor and you + Are singled forth to try thy experiments. + Jove shield your husband from his hounds to-day! + 'Tis pity they should take him for a stag. + BASSIANUS. Believe me, Queen, your swarth Cimmerian + Doth make your honour of his body's hue, + Spotted, detested, and abominable. + Why are you sequest'red from all your train, + Dismounted from your snow-white goodly steed, + And wand'red hither to an obscure plot, + Accompanied but with a barbarous Moor, + If foul desire had not conducted you? + LAVINIA. And, being intercepted in your sport, + Great reason that my noble lord be rated + For sauciness. I pray you let us hence, + And let her joy her raven-coloured love; + This valley fits the purpose passing well. + BASSIANUS. The King my brother shall have notice of this. + LAVINIA. Ay, for these slips have made him noted long. + Good king, to be so mightily abused! + TAMORA. Why, I have patience to endure all this. + + Enter CHIRON and DEMETRIUS + + DEMETRIUS. How now, dear sovereign, and our gracious mother! + Why doth your Highness look so pale and wan? + TAMORA. Have I not reason, think you, to look pale? + These two have 'ticed me hither to this place. + A barren detested vale you see it is: + The trees, though summer, yet forlorn and lean, + Overcome with moss and baleful mistletoe; + Here never shines the sun; here nothing breeds, + Unless the nightly owl or fatal raven. + And when they show'd me this abhorred pit, + They told me, here, at dead time of the night, + A thousand fiends, a thousand hissing snakes, + Ten thousand swelling toads, as many urchins, + Would make such fearful and confused cries + As any mortal body hearing it + Should straight fall mad or else die suddenly. + No sooner had they told this hellish tale + But straight they told me they would bind me here + Unto the body of a dismal yew, + And leave me to this miserable death. + And then they call'd me foul adulteress, + Lascivious Goth, and all the bitterest terms + That ever ear did hear to such effect; + And had you not by wondrous fortune come, + This vengeance on me had they executed. + Revenge it, as you love your mother's life, + Or be ye not henceforth call'd my children. + DEMETRIUS. This is a witness that I am thy son. + [Stabs BASSIANUS] + CHIRON. And this for me, struck home to show my strength. + [Also stabs] + LAVINIA. Ay, come, Semiramis- nay, barbarous Tamora, + For no name fits thy nature but thy own! + TAMORA. Give me the poniard; you shall know, my boys, + Your mother's hand shall right your mother's wrong. + DEMETRIUS. Stay, madam, here is more belongs to her; + First thrash the corn, then after burn the straw. + This minion stood upon her chastity, + Upon her nuptial vow, her loyalty, + And with that painted hope braves your mightiness; + And shall she carry this unto her grave? + CHIRON. An if she do, I would I were an eunuch. + Drag hence her husband to some secret hole, + And make his dead trunk pillow to our lust. + TAMORA. But when ye have the honey we desire, + Let not this wasp outlive, us both to sting. + CHIRON. I warrant you, madam, we will make that sure. + Come, mistress, now perforce we will enjoy + That nice-preserved honesty of yours. + LAVINIA. O Tamora! thou bearest a woman's face- + TAMORA. I will not hear her speak; away with her! + LAVINIA. Sweet lords, entreat her hear me but a word. + DEMETRIUS. Listen, fair madam: let it be your glory + To see her tears; but be your heart to them + As unrelenting flint to drops of rain. + LAVINIA. When did the tiger's young ones teach the dam? + O, do not learn her wrath- she taught it thee; + The milk thou suck'dst from her did turn to marble, + Even at thy teat thou hadst thy tyranny. + Yet every mother breeds not sons alike: + [To CHIRON] Do thou entreat her show a woman's pity. + CHIRON. What, wouldst thou have me prove myself a bastard? + LAVINIA. 'Tis true, the raven doth not hatch a lark. + Yet have I heard- O, could I find it now!- + The lion, mov'd with pity, did endure + To have his princely paws par'd all away. + Some say that ravens foster forlorn children, + The whilst their own birds famish in their nests; + O, be to me, though thy hard heart say no, + Nothing so kind, but something pitiful! + TAMORA. I know not what it means; away with her! + LAVINIA. O, let me teach thee! For my father's sake, + That gave thee life when well he might have slain thee, + Be not obdurate, open thy deaf ears. + TAMORA. Hadst thou in person ne'er offended me, + Even for his sake am I pitiless. + Remember, boys, I pour'd forth tears in vain + To save your brother from the sacrifice; + But fierce Andronicus would not relent. + Therefore away with her, and use her as you will; + The worse to her the better lov'd of me. + LAVINIA. O Tamora, be call'd a gentle queen, + And with thine own hands kill me in this place! + For 'tis not life that I have begg'd so long; + Poor I was slain when Bassianus died. + TAMORA. What beg'st thou, then? Fond woman, let me go. + LAVINIA. 'Tis present death I beg; and one thing more, + That womanhood denies my tongue to tell: + O, keep me from their worse than killing lust, + And tumble me into some loathsome pit, + Where never man's eye may behold my body; + Do this, and be a charitable murderer. + TAMORA. So should I rob my sweet sons of their fee; + No, let them satisfy their lust on thee. + DEMETRIUS. Away! for thou hast stay'd us here too long. + LAVINIA. No grace? no womanhood? Ah, beastly creature, + The blot and enemy to our general name! + Confusion fall- + CHIRON. Nay, then I'll stop your mouth. Bring thou her husband. + This is the hole where Aaron bid us hide him. + + DEMETRIUS throws the body + of BASSIANUS into the pit; then exeunt + DEMETRIUS and CHIRON, dragging off LAVINIA + + TAMORA. Farewell, my sons; see that you make her sure. + Ne'er let my heart know merry cheer indeed + Till all the Andronici be made away. + Now will I hence to seek my lovely Moor, + And let my spleenful sons this trull deflower. Exit + + Re-enter AARON, with two + of TITUS' sons, QUINTUS and MARTIUS + + AARON. Come on, my lords, the better foot before; + Straight will I bring you to the loathsome pit + Where I espied the panther fast asleep. + QUINTUS. My sight is very dull, whate'er it bodes. + MARTIUS. And mine, I promise you; were it not for shame, + Well could I leave our sport to sleep awhile. + [Falls into the pit] + QUINTUS. What, art thou fallen? What subtle hole is this, + Whose mouth is covered with rude-growing briers, + Upon whose leaves are drops of new-shed blood + As fresh as morning dew distill'd on flowers? + A very fatal place it seems to me. + Speak, brother, hast thou hurt thee with the fall? + MARTIUS. O brother, with the dismal'st object hurt + That ever eye with sight made heart lament! + AARON. [Aside] Now will I fetch the King to find them here, + That he thereby may have a likely guess + How these were they that made away his brother. Exit + MARTIUS. Why dost not comfort me, and help me out + From this unhallow'd and blood-stained hole? + QUINTUS. I am surprised with an uncouth fear; + A chilling sweat o'er-runs my trembling joints; + My heart suspects more than mine eye can see. + MARTIUS. To prove thou hast a true divining heart, + Aaron and thou look down into this den, + And see a fearful sight of blood and death. + QUINTUS. Aaron is gone, and my compassionate heart + Will not permit mine eyes once to behold + The thing whereat it trembles by surmise; + O, tell me who it is, for ne'er till now + Was I a child to fear I know not what. + MARTIUS. Lord Bassianus lies beray'd in blood, + All on a heap, like to a slaughtered lamb, + In this detested, dark, blood-drinking pit. + QUINTUS. If it be dark, how dost thou know 'tis he? + MARTIUS. Upon his bloody finger he doth wear + A precious ring that lightens all this hole, + Which, like a taper in some monument, + Doth shine upon the dead man's earthy cheeks, + And shows the ragged entrails of this pit; + So pale did shine the moon on Pyramus + When he by night lay bath'd in maiden blood. + O brother, help me with thy fainting hand- + If fear hath made thee faint, as me it hath- + Out of this fell devouring receptacle, + As hateful as Cocytus' misty mouth. + QUINTUS. Reach me thy hand, that I may help thee out, + Or, wanting strength to do thee so much good, + I may be pluck'd into the swallowing womb + Of this deep pit, poor Bassianus' grave. + I have no strength to pluck thee to the brink. + MARTIUS. Nor I no strength to climb without thy help. + QUINTUS. Thy hand once more; I will not loose again, + Till thou art here aloft, or I below. + Thou canst not come to me- I come to thee. [Falls in] + + Enter the EMPEROR and AARON the Moor + + SATURNINUS. Along with me! I'll see what hole is here, + And what he is that now is leapt into it. + Say, who art thou that lately didst descend + Into this gaping hollow of the earth? + MARTIUS. The unhappy sons of old Andronicus, + Brought hither in a most unlucky hour, + To find thy brother Bassianus dead. + SATURNINUS. My brother dead! I know thou dost but jest: + He and his lady both are at the lodge + Upon the north side of this pleasant chase; + 'Tis not an hour since I left them there. + MARTIUS. We know not where you left them all alive; + But, out alas! here have we found him dead. + + Re-enter TAMORA, with + attendants; TITUS ANDRONICUS and Lucius + + TAMORA. Where is my lord the King? + SATURNINUS. Here, Tamora; though griev'd with killing grief. + TAMORA. Where is thy brother Bassianus? + SATURNINUS. Now to the bottom dost thou search my wound; + Poor Bassianus here lies murdered. + TAMORA. Then all too late I bring this fatal writ, + The complot of this timeless tragedy; + And wonder greatly that man's face can fold + In pleasing smiles such murderous tyranny. + [She giveth SATURNINE a letter] + SATURNINUS. [Reads] 'An if we miss to meet him handsomely, + Sweet huntsman- Bassianus 'tis we mean- + Do thou so much as dig the grave for him. + Thou know'st our meaning. Look for thy reward + Among the nettles at the elder-tree + Which overshades the mouth of that same pit + Where we decreed to bury Bassianus. + Do this, and purchase us thy lasting friends.' + O Tamora! was ever heard the like? + This is the pit and this the elder-tree. + Look, sirs, if you can find the huntsman out + That should have murdered Bassianus here. + AARON. My gracious lord, here is the bag of gold. + SATURNINUS. [To TITUS] Two of thy whelps, fell curs of bloody + kind, + Have here bereft my brother of his life. + Sirs, drag them from the pit unto the prison; + There let them bide until we have devis'd + Some never-heard-of torturing pain for them. + TAMORA. What, are they in this pit? O wondrous thing! + How easily murder is discovered! + TITUS. High Emperor, upon my feeble knee + I beg this boon, with tears not lightly shed, + That this fell fault of my accursed sons- + Accursed if the fault be prov'd in them- + SATURNINUS. If it be prov'd! You see it is apparent. + Who found this letter? Tamora, was it you? + TAMORA. Andronicus himself did take it up. + TITUS. I did, my lord, yet let me be their bail; + For, by my fathers' reverend tomb, I vow + They shall be ready at your Highness' will + To answer their suspicion with their lives. + SATURNINUS. Thou shalt not bail them; see thou follow me. + Some bring the murdered body, some the murderers; + Let them not speak a word- the guilt is plain; + For, by my soul, were there worse end than death, + That end upon them should be executed. + TAMORA. Andronicus, I will entreat the King. + Fear not thy sons; they shall do well enough. + TITUS. Come, Lucius, come; stay not to talk with them. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Another part of the forest + +Enter the Empress' sons, DEMETRIUS and CHIRON, with LAVINIA, her hands +cut off, and her tongue cut out, and ravish'd + + DEMETRIUS. So, now go tell, an if thy tongue can speak, + Who 'twas that cut thy tongue and ravish'd thee. + CHIRON. Write down thy mind, bewray thy meaning so, + An if thy stumps will let thee play the scribe. + DEMETRIUS. See how with signs and tokens she can scrowl. + CHIRON. Go home, call for sweet water, wash thy hands. + DEMETRIUS. She hath no tongue to call, nor hands to wash; + And so let's leave her to her silent walks. + CHIRON. An 'twere my cause, I should go hang myself. + DEMETRIUS. If thou hadst hands to help thee knit the cord. + Exeunt DEMETRIUS and CHIRON + + Wind horns. Enter MARCUS, from hunting + + MARCUS. Who is this?- my niece, that flies away so fast? + Cousin, a word: where is your husband? + If I do dream, would all my wealth would wake me! + If I do wake, some planet strike me down, + That I may slumber an eternal sleep! + Speak, gentle niece. What stern ungentle hands + Hath lopp'd, and hew'd, and made thy body bare + Of her two branches- those sweet ornaments + Whose circling shadows kings have sought to sleep in, + And might not gain so great a happiness + As half thy love? Why dost not speak to me? + Alas, a crimson river of warm blood, + Like to a bubbling fountain stirr'd with wind, + Doth rise and fall between thy rosed lips, + Coming and going with thy honey breath. + But sure some Tereus hath deflowered thee, + And, lest thou shouldst detect him, cut thy tongue. + Ah, now thou turn'st away thy face for shame! + And notwithstanding all this loss of blood- + As from a conduit with three issuing spouts- + Yet do thy cheeks look red as Titan's face + Blushing to be encount'red with a cloud. + Shall I speak for thee? Shall I say 'tis so? + O, that I knew thy heart, and knew the beast, + That I might rail at him to ease my mind! + Sorrow concealed, like an oven stopp'd, + Doth burn the heart to cinders where it is. + Fair Philomel, why she but lost her tongue, + And in a tedious sampler sew'd her mind; + But, lovely niece, that mean is cut from thee. + A craftier Tereus, cousin, hast thou met, + And he hath cut those pretty fingers off + That could have better sew'd than Philomel. + O, had the monster seen those lily hands + Tremble like aspen leaves upon a lute + And make the silken strings delight to kiss them, + He would not then have touch'd them for his life! + Or had he heard the heavenly harmony + Which that sweet tongue hath made, + He would have dropp'd his knife, and fell asleep, + As Cerberus at the Thracian poet's feet. + Come, let us go, and make thy father blind, + For such a sight will blind a father's eye; + One hour's storm will drown the fragrant meads, + What will whole months of tears thy father's eyes? + Do not draw back, for we will mourn with thee; + O, could our mourning case thy misery! Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. Rome. A street + +Enter the JUDGES, TRIBUNES, and SENATORS, with TITUS' two sons MARTIUS +and QUINTUS bound, passing on the stage to the place of execution, and +TITUS going before, pleading + + TITUS. Hear me, grave fathers; noble Tribunes, stay! + For pity of mine age, whose youth was spent + In dangerous wars whilst you securely slept; + For all my blood in Rome's great quarrel shed, + For all the frosty nights that I have watch'd, + And for these bitter tears, which now you see + Filling the aged wrinkles in my cheeks, + Be pitiful to my condemned sons, + Whose souls are not corrupted as 'tis thought. + For two and twenty sons I never wept, + Because they died in honour's lofty bed. + [ANDRONICUS lieth down, and the judges + pass by him with the prisoners, and exeunt] + For these, Tribunes, in the dust I write + My heart's deep languor and my soul's sad tears. + Let my tears stanch the earth's dry appetite; + My sons' sweet blood will make it shame and blush. + O earth, I will befriend thee more with rain + That shall distil from these two ancient urns, + Than youthful April shall with all his show'rs. + In summer's drought I'll drop upon thee still; + In winter with warm tears I'll melt the snow + And keep eternal spring-time on thy face, + So thou refuse to drink my dear sons' blood. + + Enter Lucius with his weapon drawn + + O reverend Tribunes! O gentle aged men! + Unbind my sons, reverse the doom of death, + And let me say, that never wept before, + My tears are now prevailing orators. + LUCIUS. O noble father, you lament in vain; + The Tribunes hear you not, no man is by, + And you recount your sorrows to a stone. + TITUS. Ah, Lucius, for thy brothers let me plead! + Grave Tribunes, once more I entreat of you. + LUCIUS. My gracious lord, no tribune hears you speak. + TITUS. Why, 'tis no matter, man: if they did hear, + They would not mark me; if they did mark, + They would not pity me; yet plead I must, + And bootless unto them. + Therefore I tell my sorrows to the stones; + Who though they cannot answer my distress, + Yet in some sort they are better than the Tribunes, + For that they will not intercept my tale. + When I do weep, they humbly at my feet + Receive my tears, and seem to weep with me; + And were they but attired in grave weeds, + Rome could afford no tribunes like to these. + A stone is soft as wax: tribunes more hard than stones. + A stone is silent and offendeth not, + And tribunes with their tongues doom men to death. + [Rises] + But wherefore stand'st thou with thy weapon drawn? + LUCIUS. To rescue my two brothers from their death; + For which attempt the judges have pronounc'd + My everlasting doom of banishment. + TITUS. O happy man! they have befriended thee. + Why, foolish Lucius, dost thou not perceive + That Rome is but a wilderness of tigers? + Tigers must prey, and Rome affords no prey + But me and mine; how happy art thou then + From these devourers to be banished! + But who comes with our brother Marcus here? + + Enter MARCUS with LAVINIA + + MARCUS. Titus, prepare thy aged eyes to weep, + Or if not so, thy noble heart to break. + I bring consuming sorrow to thine age. + TITUS. Will it consume me? Let me see it then. + MARCUS. This was thy daughter. + TITUS. Why, Marcus, so she is. + LUCIUS. Ay me! this object kills me. + TITUS. Faint-hearted boy, arise, and look upon her. + Speak, Lavinia, what accursed hand + Hath made thee handless in thy father's sight? + What fool hath added water to the sea, + Or brought a fagot to bright-burning Troy? + My grief was at the height before thou cam'st, + And now like Nilus it disdaineth bounds. + Give me a sword, I'll chop off my hands too, + For they have fought for Rome, and all in vain; + And they have nurs'd this woe in feeding life; + In bootless prayer have they been held up, + And they have serv'd me to effectless use. + Now all the service I require of them + Is that the one will help to cut the other. + 'Tis well, Lavinia, that thou hast no hands; + For hands to do Rome service is but vain. + LUCIUS. Speak, gentle sister, who hath martyr'd thee? + MARCUS. O, that delightful engine of her thoughts + That blabb'd them with such pleasing eloquence + Is torn from forth that pretty hollow cage, + Where like a sweet melodious bird it sung + Sweet varied notes, enchanting every ear! + LUCIUS. O, say thou for her, who hath done this deed? + MARCUS. O, thus I found her straying in the park, + Seeking to hide herself as doth the deer + That hath receiv'd some unrecuring wound. + TITUS. It was my dear, and he that wounded her + Hath hurt me more than had he kill'd me dead; + For now I stand as one upon a rock, + Environ'd with a wilderness of sea, + Who marks the waxing tide grow wave by wave, + Expecting ever when some envious surge + Will in his brinish bowels swallow him. + This way to death my wretched sons are gone; + Here stands my other son, a banish'd man, + And here my brother, weeping at my woes. + But that which gives my soul the greatest spurn + Is dear Lavinia, dearer than my soul. + Had I but seen thy picture in this plight, + It would have madded me; what shall I do + Now I behold thy lively body so? + Thou hast no hands to wipe away thy tears, + Nor tongue to tell me who hath martyr'd thee; + Thy husband he is dead, and for his death + Thy brothers are condemn'd, and dead by this. + Look, Marcus! Ah, son Lucius, look on her! + When I did name her brothers, then fresh tears + Stood on her cheeks, as doth the honey dew + Upon a gath'red lily almost withered. + MARCUS. Perchance she weeps because they kill'd her husband; + Perchance because she knows them innocent. + TITUS. If they did kill thy husband, then be joyful, + Because the law hath ta'en revenge on them. + No, no, they would not do so foul a deed; + Witness the sorrow that their sister makes. + Gentle Lavinia, let me kiss thy lips, + Or make some sign how I may do thee ease. + Shall thy good uncle and thy brother Lucius + And thou and I sit round about some fountain, + Looking all downwards to behold our cheeks + How they are stain'd, like meadows yet not dry + With miry slime left on them by a flood? + And in the fountain shall we gaze so long, + Till the fresh taste be taken from that clearness, + And made a brine-pit with our bitter tears? + Or shall we cut away our hands like thine? + Or shall we bite our tongues, and in dumb shows + Pass the remainder of our hateful days? + What shall we do? Let us that have our tongues + Plot some device of further misery + To make us wonder'd at in time to come. + LUCIUS. Sweet father, cease your tears; for at your grief + See how my wretched sister sobs and weeps. + MARCUS. Patience, dear niece. Good Titus, dry thine eyes. + TITUS. Ah, Marcus, Marcus! Brother, well I wot + Thy napkin cannot drink a tear of mine, + For thou, poor man, hast drown'd it with thine own. + LUCIUS. Ah, my Lavinia, I will wipe thy cheeks. + TITUS. Mark, Marcus, mark! I understand her signs. + Had she a tongue to speak, now would she say + That to her brother which I said to thee: + His napkin, with his true tears all bewet, + Can do no service on her sorrowful cheeks. + O, what a sympathy of woe is this + As far from help as Limbo is from bliss! + + Enter AARON the Moor + + AARON. Titus Andronicus, my lord the Emperor + Sends thee this word, that, if thou love thy sons, + Let Marcus, Lucius, or thyself, old Titus, + Or any one of you, chop off your hand + And send it to the King: he for the same + Will send thee hither both thy sons alive, + And that shall be the ransom for their fault. + TITUS. O gracious Emperor! O gentle Aaron! + Did ever raven sing so like a lark + That gives sweet tidings of the sun's uprise? + With all my heart I'll send the Emperor my hand. + Good Aaron, wilt thou help to chop it off? + LUCIUS. Stay, father! for that noble hand of thine, + That hath thrown down so many enemies, + Shall not be sent. My hand will serve the turn, + My youth can better spare my blood than you, + And therefore mine shall save my brothers' lives. + MARCUS. Which of your hands hath not defended Rome + And rear'd aloft the bloody battle-axe, + Writing destruction on the enemy's castle? + O, none of both but are of high desert! + My hand hath been but idle; let it serve + To ransom my two nephews from their death; + Then have I kept it to a worthy end. + AARON. Nay, come, agree whose hand shall go along, + For fear they die before their pardon come. + MARCUS. My hand shall go. + LUCIUS. By heaven, it shall not go! + TITUS. Sirs, strive no more; such with'red herbs as these + Are meet for plucking up, and therefore mine. + LUCIUS. Sweet father, if I shall be thought thy son, + Let me redeem my brothers both from death. + MARCUS. And for our father's sake and mother's care, + Now let me show a brother's love to thee. + TITUS. Agree between you; I will spare my hand. + LUCIUS. Then I'll go fetch an axe. + MARCUS. But I will use the axe. + Exeunt LUCIUS and MARCUS + TITUS. Come hither, Aaron, I'll deceive them both; + Lend me thy hand, and I will give thee mine. + AARON. [Aside] If that be call'd deceit, I will be honest, + And never whilst I live deceive men so; + But I'll deceive you in another sort, + And that you'll say ere half an hour pass. + [He cuts off TITUS' hand] + + Re-enter LUCIUS and MARCUS + + TITUS. Now stay your strife. What shall be is dispatch'd. + Good Aaron, give his Majesty my hand; + Tell him it was a hand that warded him + From thousand dangers; bid him bury it. + More hath it merited- that let it have. + As for my sons, say I account of them + As jewels purchas'd at an easy price; + And yet dear too, because I bought mine own. + AARON. I go, Andronicus; and for thy hand + Look by and by to have thy sons with thee. + [Aside] Their heads I mean. O, how this villainy + Doth fat me with the very thoughts of it! + Let fools do good, and fair men call for grace: + Aaron will have his soul black like his face. Exit + TITUS. O, here I lift this one hand up to heaven, + And bow this feeble ruin to the earth; + If any power pities wretched tears, + To that I call! [To LAVINIA] What, would'st thou kneel with me? + Do, then, dear heart; for heaven shall hear our prayers, + Or with our sighs we'll breathe the welkin dim + And stain the sun with fog, as sometime clouds + When they do hug him in their melting bosoms. + MARCUS. O brother, speak with possibility, + And do not break into these deep extremes. + TITUS. Is not my sorrow deep, having no bottom? + Then be my passions bottomless with them. + MARCUS. But yet let reason govern thy lament. + TITUS. If there were reason for these miseries, + Then into limits could I bind my woes. + When heaven doth weep, doth not the earth o'erflow? + If the winds rage, doth not the sea wax mad, + Threat'ning the welkin with his big-swol'n face? + And wilt thou have a reason for this coil? + I am the sea; hark how her sighs do blow. + She is the weeping welkin, I the earth; + Then must my sea be moved with her sighs; + Then must my earth with her continual tears + Become a deluge, overflow'd and drown'd; + For why my bowels cannot hide her woes, + But like a drunkard must I vomit them. + Then give me leave; for losers will have leave + To ease their stomachs with their bitter tongues. + + Enter a MESSENGER, with two heads and a hand + + MESSENGER. Worthy Andronicus, ill art thou repaid + For that good hand thou sent'st the Emperor. + Here are the heads of thy two noble sons; + And here's thy hand, in scorn to thee sent back- + Thy grief their sports, thy resolution mock'd, + That woe is me to think upon thy woes, + More than remembrance of my father's death. Exit + MARCUS. Now let hot Aetna cool in Sicily, + And be my heart an ever-burning hell! + These miseries are more than may be borne. + To weep with them that weep doth ease some deal, + But sorrow flouted at is double death. + LUCIUS. Ah, that this sight should make so deep a wound, + And yet detested life not shrink thereat! + That ever death should let life bear his name, + Where life hath no more interest but to breathe! + [LAVINIA kisses TITUS] + MARCUS. Alas, poor heart, that kiss is comfortless + As frozen water to a starved snake. + TITUS. When will this fearful slumber have an end? + MARCUS. Now farewell, flatt'ry; die, Andronicus. + Thou dost not slumber: see thy two sons' heads, + Thy warlike hand, thy mangled daughter here; + Thy other banish'd son with this dear sight + Struck pale and bloodless; and thy brother, I, + Even like a stony image, cold and numb. + Ah! now no more will I control thy griefs. + Rent off thy silver hair, thy other hand + Gnawing with thy teeth; and be this dismal sight + The closing up of our most wretched eyes. + Now is a time to storm; why art thou still? + TITUS. Ha, ha, ha! + MARCUS. Why dost thou laugh? It fits not with this hour. + TITUS. Why, I have not another tear to shed; + Besides, this sorrow is an enemy, + And would usurp upon my wat'ry eyes + And make them blind with tributary tears. + Then which way shall I find Revenge's cave? + For these two heads do seem to speak to me, + And threat me I shall never come to bliss + Till all these mischiefs be return'd again + Even in their throats that have committed them. + Come, let me see what task I have to do. + You heavy people, circle me about, + That I may turn me to each one of you + And swear unto my soul to right your wrongs. + The vow is made. Come, brother, take a head, + And in this hand the other will I bear. + And, Lavinia, thou shalt be employ'd in this; + Bear thou my hand, sweet wench, between thy teeth. + As for thee, boy, go, get thee from my sight; + Thou art an exile, and thou must not stay. + Hie to the Goths and raise an army there; + And if ye love me, as I think you do, + Let's kiss and part, for we have much to do. + Exeunt all but Lucius + LUCIUS. Farewell, Andronicus, my noble father, + The woefull'st man that ever liv'd in Rome. + Farewell, proud Rome; till Lucius come again, + He leaves his pledges dearer than his life. + Farewell, Lavinia, my noble sister; + O, would thou wert as thou tofore hast been! + But now nor Lucius nor Lavinia lives + But in oblivion and hateful griefs. + If Lucius live, he will requite your wrongs + And make proud Saturnine and his emperess + Beg at the gates like Tarquin and his queen. + Now will I to the Goths, and raise a pow'r + To be reveng'd on Rome and Saturnine. Exit + +SCENE II. Rome. TITUS' house + +A banquet. + +Enter TITUS, MARCUS, LAVINIA, and the boy YOUNG LUCIUS + + TITUS. So so, now sit; and look you eat no more + Than will preserve just so much strength in us + As will revenge these bitter woes of ours. + Marcus, unknit that sorrow-wreathen knot; + Thy niece and I, poor creatures, want our hands, + And cannot passionate our tenfold grief + With folded arms. This poor right hand of mine + Is left to tyrannize upon my breast; + Who, when my heart, all mad with misery, + Beats in this hollow prison of my flesh, + Then thus I thump it down. + [To LAVINIA] Thou map of woe, that thus dost talk in signs! + When thy poor heart beats with outrageous beating, + Thou canst not strike it thus to make it still. + Wound it with sighing, girl, kill it with groans; + Or get some little knife between thy teeth + And just against thy heart make thou a hole, + That all the tears that thy poor eyes let fall + May run into that sink and, soaking in, + Drown the lamenting fool in sea-salt tears. + MARCUS. Fie, brother, fie! Teach her not thus to lay + Such violent hands upon her tender life. + TITUS. How now! Has sorrow made thee dote already? + Why, Marcus, no man should be mad but I. + What violent hands can she lay on her life? + Ah, wherefore dost thou urge the name of hands? + To bid Aeneas tell the tale twice o'er + How Troy was burnt and he made miserable? + O, handle not the theme, to talk of hands, + Lest we remember still that we have none. + Fie, fie, how franticly I square my talk, + As if we should forget we had no hands, + If Marcus did not name the word of hands! + Come, let's fall to; and, gentle girl, eat this: + Here is no drink. Hark, Marcus, what she says- + I can interpret all her martyr'd signs; + She says she drinks no other drink but tears, + Brew'd with her sorrow, mesh'd upon her cheeks. + Speechless complainer, I will learn thy thought; + In thy dumb action will I be as perfect + As begging hermits in their holy prayers. + Thou shalt not sigh, nor hold thy stumps to heaven, + Nor wink, nor nod, nor kneel, nor make a sign, + But I of these will wrest an alphabet, + And by still practice learn to know thy meaning. + BOY. Good grandsire, leave these bitter deep laments; + Make my aunt merry with some pleasing tale. + MARCUS. Alas, the tender boy, in passion mov'd, + Doth weep to see his grandsire's heaviness. + TITUS. Peace, tender sapling; thou art made of tears, + And tears will quickly melt thy life away. + [MARCUS strikes the dish with a knife] + What dost thou strike at, Marcus, with thy knife? + MARCUS. At that that I have kill'd, my lord- a fly. + TITUS. Out on thee, murderer, thou kill'st my heart! + Mine eyes are cloy'd with view of tyranny; + A deed of death done on the innocent + Becomes not Titus' brother. Get thee gone; + I see thou art not for my company. + MARCUS. Alas, my lord, I have but kill'd a fly. + TITUS. 'But!' How if that fly had a father and mother? + How would he hang his slender gilded wings + And buzz lamenting doings in the air! + Poor harmless fly, + That with his pretty buzzing melody + Came here to make us merry! And thou hast kill'd him. + MARCUS. Pardon me, sir; it was a black ill-favour'd fly, + Like to the Empress' Moor; therefore I kill'd him. + TITUS. O, O, O! + Then pardon me for reprehending thee, + For thou hast done a charitable deed. + Give me thy knife, I will insult on him, + Flattering myself as if it were the Moor + Come hither purposely to poison me. + There's for thyself, and that's for Tamora. + Ah, sirrah! + Yet, I think, we are not brought so low + But that between us we can kill a fly + That comes in likeness of a coal-black Moor. + MARCUS. Alas, poor man! grief has so wrought on him, + He takes false shadows for true substances. + TITUS. Come, take away. Lavinia, go with me; + I'll to thy closet, and go read with thee + Sad stories chanced in the times of old. + Come, boy, and go with me; thy sight is young, + And thou shalt read when mine begin to dazzle. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE I. Rome. TITUS' garden + +Enter YOUNG LUCIUS and LAVINIA running after him, and the boy flies +from her with his books under his arm. + +Enter TITUS and MARCUS + + BOY. Help, grandsire, help! my aunt Lavinia + Follows me everywhere, I know not why. + Good uncle Marcus, see how swift she comes! + Alas, sweet aunt, I know not what you mean. + MARCUS. Stand by me, Lucius; do not fear thine aunt. + TITUS. She loves thee, boy, too well to do thee harm. + BOY. Ay, when my father was in Rome she did. + MARCUS. What means my niece Lavinia by these signs? + TITUS. Fear her not, Lucius; somewhat doth she mean. + See, Lucius, see how much she makes of thee. + Somewhither would she have thee go with her. + Ah, boy, Cornelia never with more care + Read to her sons than she hath read to thee + Sweet poetry and Tully's Orator. + MARCUS. Canst thou not guess wherefore she plies thee thus? + BOY. My lord, I know not, I, nor can I guess, + Unless some fit or frenzy do possess her; + For I have heard my grandsire say full oft + Extremity of griefs would make men mad; + And I have read that Hecuba of Troy + Ran mad for sorrow. That made me to fear; + Although, my lord, I know my noble aunt + Loves me as dear as e'er my mother did, + And would not, but in fury, fright my youth; + Which made me down to throw my books, and fly- + Causeless, perhaps. But pardon me, sweet aunt; + And, madam, if my uncle Marcus go, + I will most willingly attend your ladyship. + MARCUS. Lucius, I will. [LAVINIA turns over with her + stumps the books which Lucius has let fall] + TITUS. How now, Lavinia! Marcus, what means this? + Some book there is that she desires to see. + Which is it, girl, of these?- Open them, boy.- + But thou art deeper read and better skill'd; + Come and take choice of all my library, + And so beguile thy sorrow, till the heavens + Reveal the damn'd contriver of this deed. + Why lifts she up her arms in sequence thus? + MARCUS. I think she means that there were more than one + Confederate in the fact; ay, more there was, + Or else to heaven she heaves them for revenge. + TITUS. Lucius, what book is that she tosseth so? + BOY. Grandsire, 'tis Ovid's Metamorphoses; + My mother gave it me. + MARCUS. For love of her that's gone, + Perhaps she cull'd it from among the rest. + TITUS. Soft! So busily she turns the leaves! Help her. + What would she find? Lavinia, shall I read? + This is the tragic tale of Philomel + And treats of Tereus' treason and his rape; + And rape, I fear, was root of thy annoy. + MARCUS. See, brother, see! Note how she quotes the leaves. + TITUS. Lavinia, wert thou thus surpris'd, sweet girl, + Ravish'd and wrong'd as Philomela was, + Forc'd in the ruthless, vast, and gloomy woods? + See, see! + Ay, such a place there is where we did hunt- + O, had we never, never hunted there!- + Pattern'd by that the poet here describes, + By nature made for murders and for rapes. + MARCUS. O, why should nature build so foul a den, + Unless the gods delight in tragedies? + TITUS. Give signs, sweet girl, for here are none but friends, + What Roman lord it was durst do the deed. + Or slunk not Saturnine, as Tarquin erst, + That left the camp to sin in Lucrece' bed? + MARCUS. Sit down, sweet niece; brother, sit down by me. + Apollo, Pallas, Jove, or Mercury, + Inspire me, that I may this treason find! + My lord, look here! Look here, Lavinia! + [He writes his name with his + staff, and guides it with feet and mouth] + This sandy plot is plain; guide, if thou canst, + This after me. I have writ my name + Without the help of any hand at all. + Curs'd be that heart that forc'd us to this shift! + Write thou, good niece, and here display at last + What God will have discovered for revenge. + Heaven guide thy pen to print thy sorrows plain, + That we may know the traitors and the truth! + [She takes the staff in her mouth + and guides it with stumps, and writes] + O, do ye read, my lord, what she hath writ? + TITUS. 'Stuprum- Chiron- Demetrius.' + MARCUS. What, what! the lustful sons of Tamora + Performers of this heinous bloody deed? + TITUS. Magni Dominator poli, + Tam lentus audis scelera? tam lentus vides? + MARCUS. O, calm thee, gentle lord! although I know + There is enough written upon this earth + To stir a mutiny in the mildest thoughts, + And arm the minds of infants to exclaims. + My lord, kneel down with me; Lavinia, kneel; + And kneel, sweet boy, the Roman Hector's hope; + And swear with me- as, with the woeful fere + And father of that chaste dishonoured dame, + Lord Junius Brutus sware for Lucrece' rape- + That we will prosecute, by good advice, + Mortal revenge upon these traitorous Goths, + And see their blood or die with this reproach. + TITUS. 'Tis sure enough, an you knew how; + But if you hunt these bear-whelps, then beware: + The dam will wake; and if she wind ye once, + She's with the lion deeply still in league, + And lulls him whilst she playeth on her back, + And when he sleeps will she do what she list. + You are a young huntsman, Marcus; let alone; + And come, I will go get a leaf of brass, + And with a gad of steel will write these words, + And lay it by. The angry northern wind + Will blow these sands like Sibyl's leaves abroad, + And where's our lesson, then? Boy, what say you? + BOY. I say, my lord, that if I were a man + Their mother's bedchamber should not be safe + For these base bondmen to the yoke of Rome. + MARCUS. Ay, that's my boy! Thy father hath full oft + For his ungrateful country done the like. + BOY. And, uncle, so will I, an if I live. + TITUS. Come, go with me into mine armoury. + Lucius, I'll fit thee; and withal my boy + Shall carry from me to the Empress' sons + Presents that I intend to send them both. + Come, come; thou'lt do my message, wilt thou not? + BOY. Ay, with my dagger in their bosoms, grandsire. + TITUS. No, boy, not so; I'll teach thee another course. + Lavinia, come. Marcus, look to my house. + Lucius and I'll go brave it at the court; + Ay, marry, will we, sir! and we'll be waited on. + Exeunt TITUS, LAVINIA, and YOUNG LUCIUS + MARCUS. O heavens, can you hear a good man groan + And not relent, or not compassion him? + Marcus, attend him in his ecstasy, + That hath more scars of sorrow in his heart + Than foemen's marks upon his batt'red shield, + But yet so just that he will not revenge. + Revenge the heavens for old Andronicus! Exit + +SCENE II. Rome. The palace + +Enter AARON, DEMETRIUS and CHIRON, at one door; and at the other door, +YOUNG LUCIUS and another with a bundle of weapons, and verses writ upon +them + + CHIRON. Demetrius, here's the son of Lucius; + He hath some message to deliver us. + AARON. Ay, some mad message from his mad grandfather. + BOY. My lords, with all the humbleness I may, + I greet your honours from Andronicus- + [Aside] And pray the Roman gods confound you both! + DEMETRIUS. Gramercy, lovely Lucius. What's the news? + BOY. [Aside] That you are both decipher'd, that's the news, + For villains mark'd with rape.- May it please you, + My grandsire, well advis'd, hath sent by me + The goodliest weapons of his armoury + To gratify your honourable youth, + The hope of Rome; for so he bid me say; + And so I do, and with his gifts present + Your lordships, that, whenever you have need, + You may be armed and appointed well. + And so I leave you both- [Aside] like bloody villains. + Exeunt YOUNG LUCIUS and attendant + DEMETRIUS. What's here? A scroll, and written round about. + Let's see: + [Reads] 'Integer vitae, scelerisque purus, + Non eget Mauri iaculis, nec arcu.' + CHIRON. O, 'tis a verse in Horace, I know it well; + I read it in the grammar long ago. + AARON. Ay, just- a verse in Horace. Right, you have it. + [Aside] Now, what a thing it is to be an ass! + Here's no sound jest! The old man hath found their guilt, + And sends them weapons wrapp'd about with lines + That wound, beyond their feeling, to the quick. + But were our witty Empress well afoot, + She would applaud Andronicus' conceit. + But let her rest in her unrest awhile- + And now, young lords, was't not a happy star + Led us to Rome, strangers, and more than so, + Captives, to be advanced to this height? + It did me good before the palace gate + To brave the Tribune in his brother's hearing. + DEMETRIUS. But me more good to see so great a lord + Basely insinuate and send us gifts. + AARON. Had he not reason, Lord Demetrius? + Did you not use his daughter very friendly? + DEMETRIUS. I would we had a thousand Roman dames + At such a bay, by turn to serve our lust. + CHIRON. A charitable wish and full of love. + AARON. Here lacks but your mother for to say amen. + CHIRON. And that would she for twenty thousand more. + DEMETRIUS. Come, let us go and pray to all the gods + For our beloved mother in her pains. + AARON. [Aside] Pray to the devils; the gods have given us over. + [Trumpets sound] + DEMETRIUS. Why do the Emperor's trumpets flourish thus? + CHIRON. Belike, for joy the Emperor hath a son. + DEMETRIUS. Soft! who comes here? + + Enter NURSE, with a blackamoor CHILD + + NURSE. Good morrow, lords. + O, tell me, did you see Aaron the Moor? + AARON. Well, more or less, or ne'er a whit at all, + Here Aaron is; and what with Aaron now? + NURSE. O gentle Aaron, we are all undone! + Now help, or woe betide thee evermore! + AARON. Why, what a caterwauling dost thou keep! + What dost thou wrap and fumble in thy arms? + NURSE. O, that which I would hide from heaven's eye: + Our Empress' shame and stately Rome's disgrace! + She is delivered, lord; she is delivered. + AARON. To whom? + NURSE. I mean she is brought a-bed. + AARON. Well, God give her good rest! What hath he sent her? + NURSE. A devil. + AARON. Why, then she is the devil's dam; + A joyful issue. + NURSE. A joyless, dismal, black, and sorrowful issue! + Here is the babe, as loathsome as a toad + Amongst the fair-fac'd breeders of our clime; + The Empress sends it thee, thy stamp, thy seal, + And bids thee christen it with thy dagger's point. + AARON. Zounds, ye whore! Is black so base a hue? + Sweet blowse, you are a beauteous blossom sure. + DEMETRIUS. Villain, what hast thou done? + AARON. That which thou canst not undo. + CHIRON. Thou hast undone our mother. + AARON. Villain, I have done thy mother. + DEMETRIUS. And therein, hellish dog, thou hast undone her. + Woe to her chance, and damn'd her loathed choice! + Accurs'd the offspring of so foul a fiend! + CHIRON. It shall not live. + AARON. It shall not die. + NURSE. Aaron, it must; the mother wills it so. + AARON. What, must it, nurse? Then let no man but I + Do execution on my flesh and blood. + DEMETRIUS. I'll broach the tadpole on my rapier's point. + Nurse, give it me; my sword shall soon dispatch it. + AARON. Sooner this sword shall plough thy bowels up. + [Takes the CHILD from the NURSE, and draws] + Stay, murderous villains, will you kill your brother! + Now, by the burning tapers of the sky + That shone so brightly when this boy was got, + He dies upon my scimitar's sharp point + That touches this my first-born son and heir. + I tell you, younglings, not Enceladus, + With all his threat'ning band of Typhon's brood, + Nor great Alcides, nor the god of war, + Shall seize this prey out of his father's hands. + What, what, ye sanguine, shallow-hearted boys! + Ye white-lim'd walls! ye alehouse painted signs! + Coal-black is better than another hue + In that it scorns to bear another hue; + For all the water in the ocean + Can never turn the swan's black legs to white, + Although she lave them hourly in the flood. + Tell the Empress from me I am of age + To keep mine own- excuse it how she can. + DEMETRIUS. Wilt thou betray thy noble mistress thus? + AARON. My mistress is my mistress: this my self, + The vigour and the picture of my youth. + This before all the world do I prefer; + This maugre all the world will I keep safe, + Or some of you shall smoke for it in Rome. + DEMETRIUS. By this our mother is for ever sham'd. + CHIRON. Rome will despise her for this foul escape. + NURSE. The Emperor in his rage will doom her death. + CHIRON. I blush to think upon this ignomy. + AARON. Why, there's the privilege your beauty bears: + Fie, treacherous hue, that will betray with blushing + The close enacts and counsels of thy heart! + Here's a young lad fram'd of another leer. + Look how the black slave smiles upon the father, + As who should say 'Old lad, I am thine own.' + He is your brother, lords, sensibly fed + Of that self-blood that first gave life to you; + And from your womb where you imprisoned were + He is enfranchised and come to light. + Nay, he is your brother by the surer side, + Although my seal be stamped in his face. + NURSE. Aaron, what shall I say unto the Empress? + DEMETRIUS. Advise thee, Aaron, what is to be done, + And we will all subscribe to thy advice. + Save thou the child, so we may all be safe. + AARON. Then sit we down and let us all consult. + My son and I will have the wind of you: + Keep there; now talk at pleasure of your safety. + [They sit] + DEMETRIUS. How many women saw this child of his? + AARON. Why, so, brave lords! When we join in league + I am a lamb; but if you brave the Moor, + The chafed boar, the mountain lioness, + The ocean swells not so as Aaron storms. + But say, again, how many saw the child? + NURSE. Cornelia the midwife and myself; + And no one else but the delivered Empress. + AARON. The Emperess, the midwife, and yourself. + Two may keep counsel when the third's away: + Go to the Empress, tell her this I said. [He kills her] + Weeke weeke! + So cries a pig prepared to the spit. + DEMETRIUS. What mean'st thou, Aaron? Wherefore didst thou this? + AARON. O Lord, sir, 'tis a deed of policy. + Shall she live to betray this guilt of ours- + A long-tongu'd babbling gossip? No, lords, no. + And now be it known to you my full intent: + Not far, one Muliteus, my countryman- + His wife but yesternight was brought to bed; + His child is like to her, fair as you are. + Go pack with him, and give the mother gold, + And tell them both the circumstance of all, + And how by this their child shall be advanc'd, + And be received for the Emperor's heir + And substituted in the place of mine, + To calm this tempest whirling in the court; + And let the Emperor dandle him for his own. + Hark ye, lords. You see I have given her physic, + [Pointing to the NURSE] + And you must needs bestow her funeral; + The fields are near, and you are gallant grooms. + This done, see that you take no longer days, + But send the midwife presently to me. + The midwife and the nurse well made away, + Then let the ladies tattle what they please. + CHIRON. Aaron, I see thou wilt not trust the air + With secrets. + DEMETRIUS. For this care of Tamora, + Herself and hers are highly bound to thee. + + Exeunt DEMETRIUS and CHIRON, bearing off the dead NURSE + + AARON. Now to the Goths, as swift as swallow flies, + There to dispose this treasure in mine arms, + And secretly to greet the Empress' friends. + Come on, you thick-lipp'd slave, I'll bear you hence; + For it is you that puts us to our shifts. + I'll make you feed on berries and on roots, + And feed on curds and whey, and suck the goat, + And cabin in a cave, and bring you up + To be a warrior and command a camp. + Exit with the CHILD + +SCENE III. Rome. A public place + +Enter TITUS, bearing arrows with letters on the ends of them; with him +MARCUS, YOUNG LUCIUS, and other gentlemen, PUBLIUS, SEMPRONIUS, and +CAIUS, with bows + + TITUS. Come, Marcus, come; kinsmen, this is the way. + Sir boy, let me see your archery; + Look ye draw home enough, and 'tis there straight. + Terras Astrea reliquit, + Be you rememb'red, Marcus; she's gone, she's fled. + Sirs, take you to your tools. You, cousins, shall + Go sound the ocean and cast your nets; + Happily you may catch her in the sea; + Yet there's as little justice as at land. + No; Publius and Sempronius, you must do it; + 'Tis you must dig with mattock and with spade, + And pierce the inmost centre of the earth; + Then, when you come to Pluto's region, + I pray you deliver him this petition. + Tell him it is for justice and for aid, + And that it comes from old Andronicus, + Shaken with sorrows in ungrateful Rome. + Ah, Rome! Well, well, I made thee miserable + What time I threw the people's suffrages + On him that thus doth tyrannize o'er me. + Go get you gone; and pray be careful all, + And leave you not a man-of-war unsearch'd. + This wicked Emperor may have shipp'd her hence; + And, kinsmen, then we may go pipe for justice. + MARCUS. O Publius, is not this a heavy case, + To see thy noble uncle thus distract? + PUBLIUS. Therefore, my lords, it highly us concerns + By day and night t' attend him carefully, + And feed his humour kindly as we may + Till time beget some careful remedy. + MARCUS. Kinsmen, his sorrows are past remedy. + Join with the Goths, and with revengeful war + Take wreak on Rome for this ingratitude, + And vengeance on the traitor Saturnine. + TITUS. Publius, how now? How now, my masters? + What, have you met with her? + PUBLIUS. No, my good lord; but Pluto sends you word, + If you will have Revenge from hell, you shall. + Marry, for Justice, she is so employ'd, + He thinks, with Jove in heaven, or somewhere else, + So that perforce you must needs stay a time. + TITUS. He doth me wrong to feed me with delays. + I'll dive into the burning lake below + And pull her out of Acheron by the heels. + Marcus, we are but shrubs, no cedars we, + No big-bon'd men fram'd of the Cyclops' size; + But metal, Marcus, steel to the very back, + Yet wrung with wrongs more than our backs can bear; + And, sith there's no justice in earth nor hell, + We will solicit heaven, and move the gods + To send down justice for to wreak our wrongs. + Come, to this gear. You are a good archer, Marcus. + [He gives them the arrows] + 'Ad Jovem' that's for you; here 'Ad Apollinem.' + 'Ad Martem' that's for myself. + Here, boy, 'To Pallas'; here 'To Mercury.' + 'To Saturn,' Caius- not to Saturnine: + You were as good to shoot against the wind. + To it, boy. Marcus, loose when I bid. + Of my word, I have written to effect; + There's not a god left unsolicited. + MARCUS. Kinsmen, shoot all your shafts into the court; + We will afflict the Emperor in his pride. + TITUS. Now, masters, draw. [They shoot] O, well said, Lucius! + Good boy, in Virgo's lap! Give it Pallas. + MARCUS. My lord, I aim a mile beyond the moon; + Your letter is with Jupiter by this. + TITUS. Ha! ha! + Publius, Publius, hast thou done? + See, see, thou hast shot off one of Taurus' horns. + MARCUS. This was the sport, my lord: when Publius shot, + The Bull, being gall'd, gave Aries such a knock + That down fell both the Ram's horns in the court; + And who should find them but the Empress' villain? + She laugh'd, and told the Moor he should not choose + But give them to his master for a present. + TITUS. Why, there it goes! God give his lordship joy! + + Enter the CLOWN, with a basket and two pigeons in it + + News, news from heaven! Marcus, the post is come. + Sirrah, what tidings? Have you any letters? + Shall I have justice? What says Jupiter? + CLOWN. Ho, the gibbet-maker? He says that he hath taken them down + again, for the man must not be hang'd till the next week. + TITUS. But what says Jupiter, I ask thee? + CLOWN. Alas, sir, I know not Jupiter; I never drank with him in all + my life. + TITUS. Why, villain, art not thou the carrier? + CLOWN. Ay, of my pigeons, sir; nothing else. + TITUS. Why, didst thou not come from heaven? + CLOWN. From heaven! Alas, sir, I never came there. God forbid I + should be so bold to press to heaven in my young days. Why, I am + going with my pigeons to the Tribunal Plebs, to take up a matter + of brawl betwixt my uncle and one of the Emperal's men. + MARCUS. Why, sir, that is as fit as can be to serve for your + oration; and let him deliver the pigeons to the Emperor from you. + TITUS. Tell me, can you deliver an oration to the Emperor with a + grace? + CLOWN. Nay, truly, sir, I could never say grace in all my life. + TITUS. Sirrah, come hither. Make no more ado, + But give your pigeons to the Emperor; + By me thou shalt have justice at his hands. + Hold, hold! Meanwhile here's money for thy charges. + Give me pen and ink. Sirrah, can you with a grace deliver up a + supplication? + CLOWN. Ay, sir. + TITUS. Then here is a supplication for you. And when you come to + him, at the first approach you must kneel; then kiss his foot; + then deliver up your pigeons; and then look for your reward. I'll + be at hand, sir; see you do it bravely. + CLOWN. I warrant you, sir; let me alone. + TITUS. Sirrah, hast thou a knife? Come let me see it. + Here, Marcus, fold it in the oration; + For thou hast made it like a humble suppliant. + And when thou hast given it to the Emperor, + Knock at my door, and tell me what he says. + CLOWN. God be with you, sir; I will. + TITUS. Come, Marcus, let us go. Publius, follow me. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Rome. Before the palace + +Enter the EMPEROR, and the EMPRESS and her two sons, DEMETRIUS and +CHIRON; LORDS and others. The EMPEROR brings the arrows in his hand +that TITUS shot at him + + SATURNINUS. Why, lords, what wrongs are these! Was ever seen + An emperor in Rome thus overborne, + Troubled, confronted thus; and, for the extent + Of egal justice, us'd in such contempt? + My lords, you know, as know the mightful gods, + However these disturbers of our peace + Buzz in the people's ears, there nought hath pass'd + But even with law against the wilful sons + Of old Andronicus. And what an if + His sorrows have so overwhelm'd his wits, + Shall we be thus afflicted in his wreaks, + His fits, his frenzy, and his bitterness? + And now he writes to heaven for his redress. + See, here's 'To Jove' and this 'To Mercury'; + This 'To Apollo'; this 'To the God of War'- + Sweet scrolls to fly about the streets of Rome! + What's this but libelling against the Senate, + And blazoning our unjustice every where? + A goodly humour, is it not, my lords? + As who would say in Rome no justice were. + But if I live, his feigned ecstasies + Shall be no shelter to these outrages; + But he and his shall know that justice lives + In Saturninus' health; whom, if she sleep, + He'll so awake as he in fury shall + Cut off the proud'st conspirator that lives. + TAMORA. My gracious lord, my lovely Saturnine, + Lord of my life, commander of my thoughts, + Calm thee, and bear the faults of Titus' age, + Th' effects of sorrow for his valiant sons + Whose loss hath pierc'd him deep and scarr'd his heart; + And rather comfort his distressed plight + Than prosecute the meanest or the best + For these contempts. [Aside] Why, thus it shall become + High-witted Tamora to gloze with all. + But, Titus, I have touch'd thee to the quick, + Thy life-blood out; if Aaron now be wise, + Then is all safe, the anchor in the port. + + Enter CLOWN + + How now, good fellow! Wouldst thou speak with us? + CLOWN. Yes, forsooth, an your mistriship be Emperial. + TAMORA. Empress I am, but yonder sits the Emperor. + CLOWN. 'Tis he.- God and Saint Stephen give you godden. I have + brought you a letter and a couple of pigeons here. + [SATURNINUS reads the letter] + SATURNINUS. Go take him away, and hang him presently. + CLOWN. How much money must I have? + TAMORA. Come, sirrah, you must be hang'd. + CLOWN. Hang'd! by'r lady, then I have brought up a neck to a fair + end. [Exit guarded] + SATURNINUS. Despiteful and intolerable wrongs! + Shall I endure this monstrous villainy? + I know from whence this same device proceeds. + May this be borne- as if his traitorous sons + That died by law for murder of our brother + Have by my means been butchered wrongfully? + Go drag the villain hither by the hair; + Nor age nor honour shall shape privilege. + For this proud mock I'll be thy slaughterman, + Sly frantic wretch, that holp'st to make me great, + In hope thyself should govern Rome and me. + + Enter NUNTIUS AEMILIUS + + What news with thee, Aemilius? + AEMILIUS. Arm, my lords! Rome never had more cause. + The Goths have gathered head; and with a power + Of high resolved men, bent to the spoil, + They hither march amain, under conduct + Of Lucius, son to old Andronicus; + Who threats in course of this revenge to do + As much as ever Coriolanus did. + SATURNINUS. Is warlike Lucius general of the Goths? + These tidings nip me, and I hang the head + As flowers with frost, or grass beat down with storms. + Ay, now begins our sorrows to approach. + 'Tis he the common people love so much; + Myself hath often heard them say- + When I have walked like a private man- + That Lucius' banishment was wrongfully, + And they have wish'd that Lucius were their emperor. + TAMORA. Why should you fear? Is not your city strong? + SATURNINUS. Ay, but the citizens favour Lucius, + And will revolt from me to succour him. + TAMORA. King, be thy thoughts imperious like thy name! + Is the sun dimm'd, that gnats do fly in it? + The eagle suffers little birds to sing, + And is not careful what they mean thereby, + Knowing that with the shadow of his wings + He can at pleasure stint their melody; + Even so mayest thou the giddy men of Rome. + Then cheer thy spirit; for know thou, Emperor, + I will enchant the old Andronicus + With words more sweet, and yet more dangerous, + Than baits to fish or honey-stalks to sheep, + When as the one is wounded with the bait, + The other rotted with delicious feed. + SATURNINUS. But he will not entreat his son for us. + TAMORA. If Tamora entreat him, then he will; + For I can smooth and fill his aged ears + With golden promises, that, were his heart + Almost impregnable, his old ears deaf, + Yet should both ear and heart obey my tongue. + [To AEMILIUS] Go thou before to be our ambassador; + Say that the Emperor requests a parley + Of warlike Lucius, and appoint the meeting + Even at his father's house, the old Andronicus. + SATURNINUS. Aemilius, do this message honourably; + And if he stand on hostage for his safety, + Bid him demand what pledge will please him best. + AEMILIUS. Your bidding shall I do effectually. Exit + TAMORA. Now will I to that old Andronicus, + And temper him with all the art I have, + To pluck proud Lucius from the warlike Goths. + And now, sweet Emperor, be blithe again, + And bury all thy fear in my devices. + SATURNINUS. Then go successantly, and plead to him. + Exeunt + +ACT V. SCENE I. Plains near Rome + +Enter LUCIUS with an army of GOTHS with drums and colours + + LUCIUS. Approved warriors and my faithful friends, + I have received letters from great Rome + Which signifies what hate they bear their Emperor + And how desirous of our sight they are. + Therefore, great lords, be, as your titles witness, + Imperious and impatient of your wrongs; + And wherein Rome hath done you any scath, + Let him make treble satisfaction. + FIRST GOTH. Brave slip, sprung from the great Andronicus, + Whose name was once our terror, now our comfort, + Whose high exploits and honourable deeds + Ingrateful Rome requites with foul contempt, + Be bold in us: we'll follow where thou lead'st, + Like stinging bees in hottest summer's day, + Led by their master to the flow'red fields, + And be aveng'd on cursed Tamora. + ALL THE GOTHS. And as he saith, so say we all with him. + LUCIUS. I humbly thank him, and I thank you all. + But who comes here, led by a lusty Goth? + + Enter a GOTH, leading AARON with his CHILD in his arms + + SECOND GOTH. Renowned Lucius, from our troops I stray'd + To gaze upon a ruinous monastery; + And as I earnestly did fix mine eye + Upon the wasted building, suddenly + I heard a child cry underneath a wall. + I made unto the noise, when soon I heard + The crying babe controll'd with this discourse: + 'Peace, tawny slave, half me and half thy dam! + Did not thy hue bewray whose brat thou art, + Had nature lent thee but thy mother's look, + Villain, thou mightst have been an emperor; + But where the bull and cow are both milk-white, + They never do beget a coal-black calf. + Peace, villain, peace!'- even thus he rates the babe- + 'For I must bear thee to a trusty Goth, + Who, when he knows thou art the Empress' babe, + Will hold thee dearly for thy mother's sake.' + With this, my weapon drawn, I rush'd upon him, + Surpris'd him suddenly, and brought him hither + To use as you think needful of the man. + LUCIUS. O worthy Goth, this is the incarnate devil + That robb'd Andronicus of his good hand; + This is the pearl that pleas'd your Empress' eye; + And here's the base fruit of her burning lust. + Say, wall-ey'd slave, whither wouldst thou convey + This growing image of thy fiend-like face? + Why dost not speak? What, deaf? Not a word? + A halter, soldiers! Hang him on this tree, + And by his side his fruit of bastardy. + AARON. Touch not the boy, he is of royal blood. + LUCIUS. Too like the sire for ever being good. + First hang the child, that he may see it sprawl- + A sight to vex the father's soul withal. + Get me a ladder. + [A ladder brought, which AARON is made to climb] + AARON. Lucius, save the child, + And bear it from me to the Emperess. + If thou do this, I'll show thee wondrous things + That highly may advantage thee to hear; + If thou wilt not, befall what may befall, + I'll speak no more but 'Vengeance rot you all!' + LUCIUS. Say on; an if it please me which thou speak'st, + Thy child shall live, and I will see it nourish'd. + AARON. An if it please thee! Why, assure thee, Lucius, + 'Twill vex thy soul to hear what I shall speak; + For I must talk of murders, rapes, and massacres, + Acts of black night, abominable deeds, + Complots of mischief, treason, villainies, + Ruthful to hear, yet piteously perform'd; + And this shall all be buried in my death, + Unless thou swear to me my child shall live. + LUCIUS. Tell on thy mind; I say thy child shall live. + AARON. Swear that he shall, and then I will begin. + LUCIUS. Who should I swear by? Thou believest no god; + That granted, how canst thou believe an oath? + AARON. What if I do not? as indeed I do not; + Yet, for I know thou art religious + And hast a thing within thee called conscience, + With twenty popish tricks and ceremonies + Which I have seen thee careful to observe, + Therefore I urge thy oath. For that I know + An idiot holds his bauble for a god, + And keeps the oath which by that god he swears, + To that I'll urge him. Therefore thou shalt vow + By that same god- what god soe'er it be + That thou adorest and hast in reverence- + To save my boy, to nourish and bring him up; + Or else I will discover nought to thee. + LUCIUS. Even by my god I swear to thee I will. + AARON. First know thou, I begot him on the Empress. + LUCIUS. O most insatiate and luxurious woman! + AARON. Tut, Lucius, this was but a deed of charity + To that which thou shalt hear of me anon. + 'Twas her two sons that murdered Bassianus; + They cut thy sister's tongue, and ravish'd her, + And cut her hands, and trimm'd her as thou sawest. + LUCIUS. O detestable villain! Call'st thou that trimming? + AARON. Why, she was wash'd, and cut, and trimm'd, and 'twas + Trim sport for them which had the doing of it. + LUCIUS. O barbarous beastly villains like thyself! + AARON. Indeed, I was their tutor to instruct them. + That codding spirit had they from their mother, + As sure a card as ever won the set; + That bloody mind, I think, they learn'd of me, + As true a dog as ever fought at head. + Well, let my deeds be witness of my worth. + I train'd thy brethren to that guileful hole + Where the dead corpse of Bassianus lay; + I wrote the letter that thy father found, + And hid the gold within that letter mention'd, + Confederate with the Queen and her two sons; + And what not done, that thou hast cause to rue, + Wherein I had no stroke of mischief in it? + I play'd the cheater for thy father's hand, + And, when I had it, drew myself apart + And almost broke my heart with extreme laughter. + I pried me through the crevice of a wall, + When, for his hand, he had his two sons' heads; + Beheld his tears, and laugh'd so heartily + That both mine eyes were rainy like to his; + And when I told the Empress of this sport, + She swooned almost at my pleasing tale, + And for my tidings gave me twenty kisses. + GOTH. What, canst thou say all this and never blush? + AARON. Ay, like a black dog, as the saying is. + LUCIUS. Art thou not sorry for these heinous deeds? + AARON. Ay, that I had not done a thousand more. + Even now I curse the day- and yet, I think, + Few come within the compass of my curse- + Wherein I did not some notorious ill; + As kill a man, or else devise his death; + Ravish a maid, or plot the way to do it; + Accuse some innocent, and forswear myself; + Set deadly enmity between two friends; + Make poor men's cattle break their necks; + Set fire on barns and hay-stacks in the night, + And bid the owners quench them with their tears. + Oft have I digg'd up dead men from their graves, + And set them upright at their dear friends' door + Even when their sorrows almost was forgot, + And on their skins, as on the bark of trees, + Have with my knife carved in Roman letters + 'Let not your sorrow die, though I am dead.' + Tut, I have done a thousand dreadful things + As willingly as one would kill a fly; + And nothing grieves me heartily indeed + But that I cannot do ten thousand more. + LUCIUS. Bring down the devil, for he must not die + So sweet a death as hanging presently. + AARON. If there be devils, would I were a devil, + To live and burn in everlasting fire, + So I might have your company in hell + But to torment you with my bitter tongue! + LUCIUS. Sirs, stop his mouth, and let him speak no more. + + Enter AEMILIUS + + GOTH. My lord, there is a messenger from Rome + Desires to be admitted to your presence. + LUCIUS. Let him come near. + Welcome, Aemilius. What's the news from Rome? + AEMILIUS. Lord Lucius, and you Princes of the Goths, + The Roman Emperor greets you all by me; + And, for he understands you are in arms, + He craves a parley at your father's house, + Willing you to demand your hostages, + And they shall be immediately deliver'd. + FIRST GOTH. What says our general? + LUCIUS. Aemilius, let the Emperor give his pledges + Unto my father and my uncle Marcus. + And we will come. March away. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Rome. Before TITUS' house + +Enter TAMORA, and her two sons, DEMETRIUS and CHIRON, disguised + + TAMORA. Thus, in this strange and sad habiliment, + I will encounter with Andronicus, + And say I am Revenge, sent from below + To join with him and right his heinous wrongs. + Knock at his study, where they say he keeps + To ruminate strange plots of dire revenge; + Tell him Revenge is come to join with him, + And work confusion on his enemies. + + They knock and TITUS opens his study door, above + + TITUS. Who doth molest my contemplation? + Is it your trick to make me ope the door, + That so my sad decrees may fly away + And all my study be to no effect? + You are deceiv'd; for what I mean to do + See here in bloody lines I have set down; + And what is written shall be executed. + TAMORA. Titus, I am come to talk with thee. + TITUS. No, not a word. How can I grace my talk, + Wanting a hand to give it that accord? + Thou hast the odds of me; therefore no more. + TAMORA. If thou didst know me, thou wouldst talk with me. + TITUS. I am not mad, I know thee well enough: + Witness this wretched stump, witness these crimson lines; + Witness these trenches made by grief and care; + Witness the tiring day and heavy night; + Witness all sorrow that I know thee well + For our proud Empress, mighty Tamora. + Is not thy coming for my other hand? + TAMORA. Know thou, sad man, I am not Tamora: + She is thy enemy and I thy friend. + I am Revenge, sent from th' infernal kingdom + To ease the gnawing vulture of thy mind + By working wreakful vengeance on thy foes. + Come down and welcome me to this world's light; + Confer with me of murder and of death; + There's not a hollow cave or lurking-place, + No vast obscurity or misty vale, + Where bloody murder or detested rape + Can couch for fear but I will find them out; + And in their ears tell them my dreadful name- + Revenge, which makes the foul offender quake. + TITUS. Art thou Revenge? and art thou sent to me + To be a torment to mine enemies? + TAMORA. I am; therefore come down and welcome me. + TITUS. Do me some service ere I come to thee. + Lo, by thy side where Rape and Murder stands; + Now give some surance that thou art Revenge- + Stab them, or tear them on thy chariot wheels; + And then I'll come and be thy waggoner + And whirl along with thee about the globes. + Provide thee two proper palfreys, black as jet, + To hale thy vengeful waggon swift away, + And find out murderers in their guilty caves; + And when thy car is loaden with their heads, + I will dismount, and by thy waggon wheel + Trot, like a servile footman, all day long, + Even from Hyperion's rising in the east + Until his very downfall in the sea. + And day by day I'll do this heavy task, + So thou destroy Rapine and Murder there. + TAMORA. These are my ministers, and come with me. + TITUS. Are they thy ministers? What are they call'd? + TAMORA. Rape and Murder; therefore called so + 'Cause they take vengeance of such kind of men. + TITUS. Good Lord, how like the Empress' sons they are! + And you the Empress! But we worldly men + Have miserable, mad, mistaking eyes. + O sweet Revenge, now do I come to thee; + And, if one arm's embracement will content thee, + I will embrace thee in it by and by. + TAMORA. This closing with him fits his lunacy. + Whate'er I forge to feed his brain-sick humours, + Do you uphold and maintain in your speeches, + For now he firmly takes me for Revenge; + And, being credulous in this mad thought, + I'll make him send for Lucius his son, + And whilst I at a banquet hold him sure, + I'll find some cunning practice out of hand + To scatter and disperse the giddy Goths, + Or, at the least, make them his enemies. + See, here he comes, and I must ply my theme. + + Enter TITUS, below + + TITUS. Long have I been forlorn, and all for thee. + Welcome, dread Fury, to my woeful house. + Rapine and Murder, you are welcome too. + How like the Empress and her sons you are! + Well are you fitted, had you but a Moor. + Could not all hell afford you such a devil? + For well I wot the Empress never wags + But in her company there is a Moor; + And, would you represent our queen aright, + It were convenient you had such a devil. + But welcome as you are. What shall we do? + TAMORA. What wouldst thou have us do, Andronicus? + DEMETRIUS. Show me a murderer, I'll deal with him. + CHIRON. Show me a villain that hath done a rape, + And I am sent to be reveng'd on him. + TAMORA. Show me a thousand that hath done thee wrong, + And I will be revenged on them all. + TITUS. Look round about the wicked streets of Rome, + And when thou find'st a man that's like thyself, + Good Murder, stab him; he's a murderer. + Go thou with him, and when it is thy hap + To find another that is like to thee, + Good Rapine, stab him; he is a ravisher. + Go thou with them; and in the Emperor's court + There is a queen, attended by a Moor; + Well shalt thou know her by thine own proportion, + For up and down she doth resemble thee. + I pray thee, do on them some violent death; + They have been violent to me and mine. + TAMORA. Well hast thou lesson'd us; this shall we do. + But would it please thee, good Andronicus, + To send for Lucius, thy thrice-valiant son, + Who leads towards Rome a band of warlike Goths, + And bid him come and banquet at thy house; + When he is here, even at thy solemn feast, + I will bring in the Empress and her sons, + The Emperor himself, and all thy foes; + And at thy mercy shall they stoop and kneel, + And on them shalt thou ease thy angry heart. + What says Andronicus to this device? + TITUS. Marcus, my brother! 'Tis sad Titus calls. + + Enter MARCUS + + Go, gentle Marcus, to thy nephew Lucius; + Thou shalt inquire him out among the Goths. + Bid him repair to me, and bring with him + Some of the chiefest princes of the Goths; + Bid him encamp his soldiers where they are. + Tell him the Emperor and the Empress too + Feast at my house, and he shall feast with them. + This do thou for my love; and so let him, + As he regards his aged father's life. + MARCUS. This will I do, and soon return again. Exit + TAMORA. Now will I hence about thy business, + And take my ministers along with me. + TITUS. Nay, nay, let Rape and Murder stay with me, + Or else I'll call my brother back again, + And cleave to no revenge but Lucius. + TAMORA. [Aside to her sons] What say you, boys? Will you abide + with him, + Whiles I go tell my lord the Emperor + How I have govern'd our determin'd jest? + Yield to his humour, smooth and speak him fair, + And tarry with him till I turn again. + TITUS. [Aside] I knew them all, though they suppos'd me mad, + And will o'er reach them in their own devices, + A pair of cursed hell-hounds and their dam. + DEMETRIUS. Madam, depart at pleasure; leave us here. + TAMORA. Farewell, Andronicus, Revenge now goes + To lay a complot to betray thy foes. + TITUS. I know thou dost; and, sweet Revenge, farewell. + Exit TAMORA + CHIRON. Tell us, old man, how shall we be employ'd? + TITUS. Tut, I have work enough for you to do. + Publius, come hither, Caius, and Valentine. + + Enter PUBLIUS, CAIUS, and VALENTINE + + PUBLIUS. What is your will? + TITUS. Know you these two? + PUBLIUS. The Empress' sons, I take them: Chiron, Demetrius. + TITUS. Fie, Publius, fie! thou art too much deceiv'd. + The one is Murder, and Rape is the other's name; + And therefore bind them, gentle Publius- + Caius and Valentine, lay hands on them. + Oft have you heard me wish for such an hour, + And now I find it; therefore bind them sure, + And stop their mouths if they begin to cry. Exit + [They lay hold on CHIRON and DEMETRIUS] + CHIRON. Villains, forbear! we are the Empress' sons. + PUBLIUS. And therefore do we what we are commanded. + Stop close their mouths, let them not speak a word. + Is he sure bound? Look that you bind them fast. + + Re-enter TITUS ANDRONICUS + with a knife, and LAVINIA, with a basin + + TITUS. Come, come, Lavinia; look, thy foes are bound. + Sirs, stop their mouths, let them not speak to me; + But let them hear what fearful words I utter. + O villains, Chiron and Demetrius! + Here stands the spring whom you have stain'd with mud; + This goodly summer with your winter mix'd. + You kill'd her husband; and for that vile fault + Two of her brothers were condemn'd to death, + My hand cut off and made a merry jest; + Both her sweet hands, her tongue, and that more dear + Than hands or tongue, her spotless chastity, + Inhuman traitors, you constrain'd and forc'd. + What would you say, if I should let you speak? + Villains, for shame you could not beg for grace. + Hark, wretches! how I mean to martyr you. + This one hand yet is left to cut your throats, + Whiles that Lavinia 'tween her stumps doth hold + The basin that receives your guilty blood. + You know your mother means to feast with me, + And calls herself Revenge, and thinks me mad. + Hark, villains! I will grind your bones to dust, + And with your blood and it I'll make a paste; + And of the paste a coffin I will rear, + And make two pasties of your shameful heads; + And bid that strumpet, your unhallowed dam, + Like to the earth, swallow her own increase. + This is the feast that I have bid her to, + And this the banquet she shall surfeit on; + For worse than Philomel you us'd my daughter, + And worse than Progne I will be reveng'd. + And now prepare your throats. Lavinia, come, + Receive the blood; and when that they are dead, + Let me go grind their bones to powder small, + And with this hateful liquor temper it; + And in that paste let their vile heads be bak'd. + Come, come, be every one officious + To make this banquet, which I wish may prove + More stern and bloody than the Centaurs' feast. + [He cuts their throats] + So. + Now bring them in, for I will play the cook, + And see them ready against their mother comes. + Exeunt, bearing the dead bodies + +SCENE III. The court of TITUS' house + +Enter Lucius, MARCUS, and the GOTHS, with AARON prisoner, and his CHILD +in the arms of an attendant + + LUCIUS. Uncle Marcus, since 'tis my father's mind + That I repair to Rome, I am content. + FIRST GOTH. And ours with thine, befall what fortune will. + LUCIUS. Good uncle, take you in this barbarous Moor, + This ravenous tiger, this accursed devil; + Let him receive no sust'nance, fetter him, + Till he be brought unto the Empress' face + For testimony of her foul proceedings. + And see the ambush of our friends be strong; + I fear the Emperor means no good to us. + AARON. Some devil whisper curses in my ear, + And prompt me that my tongue may utter forth + The venomous malice of my swelling heart! + LUCIUS. Away, inhuman dog, unhallowed slave! + Sirs, help our uncle to convey him in. + Exeunt GOTHS with AARON. Flourish within + The trumpets show the Emperor is at hand. + + Sound trumpets. Enter SATURNINUS and + TAMORA, with AEMILIUS, TRIBUNES, SENATORS, and others + + SATURNINUS. What, hath the firmament more suns than one? + LUCIUS. What boots it thee to can thyself a sun? + MARCUS. Rome's Emperor, and nephew, break the parle; + These quarrels must be quietly debated. + The feast is ready which the careful Titus + Hath ordain'd to an honourable end, + For peace, for love, for league, and good to Rome. + Please you, therefore, draw nigh and take your places. + SATURNINUS. Marcus, we will. + [A table brought in. The company sit down] + + Trumpets sounding, enter TITUS + like a cook, placing the dishes, and LAVINIA + with a veil over her face; also YOUNG LUCIUS, and others + + TITUS. Welcome, my lord; welcome, dread Queen; + Welcome, ye warlike Goths; welcome, Lucius; + And welcome all. Although the cheer be poor, + 'Twill fill your stomachs; please you eat of it. + SATURNINUS. Why art thou thus attir'd, Andronicus? + TITUS. Because I would be sure to have all well + To entertain your Highness and your Empress. + TAMORA. We are beholding to you, good Andronicus. + TITUS. An if your Highness knew my heart, you were. + My lord the Emperor, resolve me this: + Was it well done of rash Virginius + To slay his daughter with his own right hand, + Because she was enforc'd, stain'd, and deflower'd? + SATURNINUS. It was, Andronicus. + TITUS. Your reason, mighty lord. + SATURNINUS. Because the girl should not survive her shame, + And by her presence still renew his sorrows. + TITUS. A reason mighty, strong, and effectual; + A pattern, precedent, and lively warrant + For me, most wretched, to perform the like. + Die, die, Lavinia, and thy shame with thee; [He kills her] + And with thy shame thy father's sorrow die! + SATURNINUS. What hast thou done, unnatural and unkind? + TITUS. Kill'd her for whom my tears have made me blind. + I am as woeful as Virginius was, + And have a thousand times more cause than he + To do this outrage; and it now is done. + SATURNINUS. What, was she ravish'd? Tell who did the deed. + TITUS. Will't please you eat? Will't please your Highness feed? + TAMORA. Why hast thou slain thine only daughter thus? + TITUS. Not I; 'twas Chiron and Demetrius. + They ravish'd her, and cut away her tongue; + And they, 'twas they, that did her all this wrong. + SATURNINUS. Go, fetch them hither to us presently. + TITUS. Why, there they are, both baked in this pie, + Whereof their mother daintily hath fed, + Eating the flesh that she herself hath bred. + 'Tis true, 'tis true: witness my knife's sharp point. + [He stabs the EMPRESS] + SATURNINUS. Die, frantic wretch, for this accursed deed! + [He stabs TITUS] + LUCIUS. Can the son's eye behold his father bleed? + There's meed for meed, death for a deadly deed. + [He stabs SATURNINUS. A great tumult. LUCIUS, + MARCUS, and their friends go up into the balcony] + MARCUS. You sad-fac'd men, people and sons of Rome, + By uproars sever'd, as a flight of fowl + Scatter'd by winds and high tempestuous gusts? + O, let me teach you how to knit again + This scattered corn into one mutual sheaf, + These broken limbs again into one body; + Lest Rome herself be bane unto herself, + And she whom mighty kingdoms curtsy to, + Like a forlorn and desperate castaway, + Do shameful execution on herself. + But if my frosty signs and chaps of age, + Grave witnesses of true experience, + Cannot induce you to attend my words, + [To Lucius] Speak, Rome's dear friend, as erst our ancestor, + When with his solemn tongue he did discourse + To love-sick Dido's sad attending ear + The story of that baleful burning night, + When subtle Greeks surpris'd King Priam's Troy. + Tell us what Sinon hath bewitch'd our ears, + Or who hath brought the fatal engine in + That gives our Troy, our Rome, the civil wound. + My heart is not compact of flint nor steel; + Nor can I utter all our bitter grief, + But floods of tears will drown my oratory + And break my utt'rance, even in the time + When it should move ye to attend me most, + And force you to commiseration. + Here's Rome's young Captain, let him tell the tale; + While I stand by and weep to hear him speak. + LUCIUS. Then, gracious auditory, be it known to you + That Chiron and the damn'd Demetrius + Were they that murd'red our Emperor's brother; + And they it were that ravished our sister. + For their fell faults our brothers were beheaded, + Our father's tears despis'd, and basely cozen'd + Of that true hand that fought Rome's quarrel out + And sent her enemies unto the grave. + Lastly, myself unkindly banished, + The gates shut on me, and turn'd weeping out, + To beg relief among Rome's enemies; + Who drown'd their enmity in my true tears, + And op'd their arms to embrace me as a friend. + I am the turned forth, be it known to you, + That have preserv'd her welfare in my blood + And from her bosom took the enemy's point, + Sheathing the steel in my advent'rous body. + Alas! you know I am no vaunter, I; + My scars can witness, dumb although they are, + That my report is just and full of truth. + But, soft! methinks I do digress too much, + Citing my worthless praise. O, pardon me! + For when no friends are by, men praise themselves. + MARCUS. Now is my turn to speak. Behold the child. + [Pointing to the CHILD in an attendant's arms] + Of this was Tamora delivered, + The issue of an irreligious Moor, + Chief architect and plotter of these woes. + The villain is alive in Titus' house, + Damn'd as he is, to witness this is true. + Now judge what cause had Titus to revenge + These wrongs unspeakable, past patience, + Or more than any living man could bear. + Now have you heard the truth: what say you, Romans? + Have we done aught amiss, show us wherein, + And, from the place where you behold us pleading, + The poor remainder of Andronici + Will, hand in hand, all headlong hurl ourselves, + And on the ragged stones beat forth our souls, + And make a mutual closure of our house. + Speak, Romans, speak; and if you say we shall, + Lo, hand in hand, Lucius and I will fall. + AEMILIUS. Come, come, thou reverend man of Rome, + And bring our Emperor gently in thy hand, + Lucius our Emperor; for well I know + The common voice do cry it shall be so. + ALL. Lucius, all hail, Rome's royal Emperor! + MARCUS. Go, go into old Titus' sorrowful house, + And hither hale that misbelieving Moor + To be adjudg'd some direful slaught'ring death, + As punishment for his most wicked life. Exeunt some + attendants. LUCIUS, MARCUS, and the others descend + ALL. Lucius, all hail, Rome's gracious governor! + LUCIUS. Thanks, gentle Romans! May I govern so + To heal Rome's harms and wipe away her woe! + But, gentle people, give me aim awhile, + For nature puts me to a heavy task. + Stand all aloof; but, uncle, draw you near + To shed obsequious tears upon this trunk. + O, take this warm kiss on thy pale cold lips. [Kisses TITUS] + These sorrowful drops upon thy blood-stain'd face, + The last true duties of thy noble son! + MARCUS. Tear for tear and loving kiss for kiss + Thy brother Marcus tenders on thy lips. + O, were the sum of these that I should pay + Countless and infinite, yet would I pay them! + LUCIUS. Come hither, boy; come, come, come, and learn of us + To melt in showers. Thy grandsire lov'd thee well; + Many a time he danc'd thee on his knee, + Sung thee asleep, his loving breast thy pillow; + Many a story hath he told to thee, + And bid thee bear his pretty tales in mind + And talk of them when he was dead and gone. + MARCUS. How many thousand times hath these poor lips, + When they were living, warm'd themselves on thine! + O, now, sweet boy, give them their latest kiss! + Bid him farewell; commit him to the grave; + Do them that kindness, and take leave of them. + BOY. O grandsire, grandsire! ev'n with all my heart + Would I were dead, so you did live again! + O Lord, I cannot speak to him for weeping; + My tears will choke me, if I ope my mouth. + + Re-enter attendants with AARON + + A ROMAN. You sad Andronici, have done with woes; + Give sentence on the execrable wretch + That hath been breeder of these dire events. + LUCIUS. Set him breast-deep in earth, and famish him; + There let him stand and rave and cry for food. + If any one relieves or pities him, + For the offence he dies. This is our doom. + Some stay to see him fast'ned in the earth. + AARON. Ah, why should wrath be mute and fury dumb? + I am no baby, I, that with base prayers + I should repent the evils I have done; + Ten thousand worse than ever yet I did + Would I perform, if I might have my will. + If one good deed in all my life I did, + I do repent it from my very soul. + LUCIUS. Some loving friends convey the Emperor hence, + And give him burial in his father's grave. + My father and Lavinia shall forthwith + Be closed in our household's monument. + As for that ravenous tiger, Tamora, + No funeral rite, nor man in mourning weed, + No mournful bell shall ring her burial; + But throw her forth to beasts and birds to prey. + Her life was beastly and devoid of pity, + And being dead, let birds on her take pity. Exeunt + + + + +THE HISTORY OF TROILUS AND CRESSIDA + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Prologue. +Scene I. Troy. Before PRIAM’S palace. +Scene II. Troy. A street. +Scene III. The Grecian camp. Before AGAMEMNON’S tent. + +ACT II +Scene I. The Grecian camp. +Scene II. Troy. PRIAM’S palace. +Scene III. The Grecian camp. Before the tent of ACHILLES. + +ACT III +Scene I. Troy. PRIAM’S palace. +Scene II. Troy. PANDARUS’ orchard. +Scene III. The Greek camp. + +ACT IV +Scene I. Troy. A street. +Scene II. Troy. The court of PANDARUS’ house. +Scene III. Troy. A street before PANDARUS’ house. +Scene IV. Troy. PANDARUS’ house. +Scene V. The Grecian camp. Lists set out. + +ACT V +Scene I. The Grecian camp. Before the tent of ACHILLES. +Scene II. The Grecian camp. Before CALCHAS’ tent. +Scene III. Troy. Before PRIAM’S palace. +Scene IV. The plain between Troy and the Grecian camp. +Scene V. Another part of the plain. +Scene VI. Another part of the plain. +Scene VII. Another part of the plain. +Scene VIII. Another part of the plain. +Scene IX. Another part of the plain. +Scene X. Another part of the plain. + + + + + Dramatis Personæ + +PRIAM, King of Troy + +His sons: +HECTOR +TROILUS +PARIS +DEIPHOBUS +HELENUS +MARGARELON, a bastard son of Priam + +Trojan commanders: +AENEAS +ANTENOR + +CALCHAS, a Trojan priest, taking part with the Greeks +PANDARUS, uncle to Cressida +AGAMEMNON, the Greek general +MENELAUS, his brother + +Greek commanders: +ACHILLES +AJAX +ULYSSES +NESTOR +DIOMEDES +PATROCLUS + +THERSITES, a deformed and scurrilous Greek +ALEXANDER, servant to Cressida +SERVANT to Troilus +SERVANT to Paris +SERVANT to Diomedes +HELEN, wife to Menelaus +ANDROMACHE, wife to Hector +CASSANDRA, daughter to Priam, a prophetess +CRESSIDA, daughter to Calchas + +Trojan and Greek Soldiers, and Attendants + +SCENE: Troy and the Greek camp before it + +PROLOGUE + +In Troy, there lies the scene. From isles of Greece +The princes orgulous, their high blood chaf’d, +Have to the port of Athens sent their ships +Fraught with the ministers and instruments +Of cruel war. Sixty and nine that wore +Their crownets regal from the Athenian bay +Put forth toward Phrygia; and their vow is made +To ransack Troy, within whose strong immures +The ravish’d Helen, Menelaus’ queen, +With wanton Paris sleeps—and that’s the quarrel. +To Tenedos they come, +And the deep-drawing barks do there disgorge +Their war-like fraughtage. Now on Dardan plains +The fresh and yet unbruised Greeks do pitch +Their brave pavilions: Priam’s six-gated city, +Dardan, and Tymbria, Ilias, Chetas, Troien, +And Antenorides, with massy staples +And corresponsive and fulfilling bolts, +Stir up the sons of Troy. +Now expectation, tickling skittish spirits +On one and other side, Trojan and Greek, +Sets all on hazard. And hither am I come +A prologue arm’d, but not in confidence +Of author’s pen or actor’s voice, but suited +In like conditions as our argument, +To tell you, fair beholders, that our play +Leaps o’er the vaunt and firstlings of those broils, +Beginning in the middle; starting thence away, +To what may be digested in a play. +Like or find fault; do as your pleasures are; +Now good or bad, ’tis but the chance of war. + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Troy. Before PRIAM’S palace. + + Enter Troilus armed, and Pandarus. + +TROILUS. +Call here my varlet; I’ll unarm again. +Why should I war without the walls of Troy +That find such cruel battle here within? +Each Trojan that is master of his heart, +Let him to field; Troilus, alas! hath none. + +PANDARUS. +Will this gear ne’er be mended? + +TROILUS. +The Greeks are strong, and skilful to their strength, +Fierce to their skill, and to their fierceness valiant; +But I am weaker than a woman’s tear, +Tamer than sleep, fonder than ignorance, +Less valiant than the virgin in the night, +And skilless as unpractis’d infancy. + +PANDARUS. +Well, I have told you enough of this; for my part, I’ll not meddle nor +make no farther. He that will have a cake out of the wheat must tarry +the grinding. + +TROILUS. +Have I not tarried? + +PANDARUS. +Ay, the grinding; but you must tarry the bolting. + +TROILUS. +Have I not tarried? + +PANDARUS. +Ay, the bolting; but you must tarry the leavening. + +TROILUS. +Still have I tarried. + +PANDARUS. +Ay, to the leavening; but here’s yet in the word ‘hereafter’ the +kneading, the making of the cake, the heating of the oven, and the +baking; nay, you must stay the cooling too, or you may chance burn your +lips. + +TROILUS. +Patience herself, what goddess e’er she be, +Doth lesser blench at suff’rance than I do. +At Priam’s royal table do I sit; +And when fair Cressid comes into my thoughts, +So, traitor! ‘when she comes’! when she is thence? + +PANDARUS. +Well, she look’d yesternight fairer than ever I saw her look, or any +woman else. + +TROILUS. +I was about to tell thee: when my heart, +As wedged with a sigh, would rive in twain, +Lest Hector or my father should perceive me, +I have, as when the sun doth light a storm, +Buried this sigh in wrinkle of a smile. +But sorrow that is couch’d in seeming gladness +Is like that mirth fate turns to sudden sadness. + +PANDARUS. +An her hair were not somewhat darker than Helen’s, well, go to, there +were no more comparison between the women. But, for my part, she is my +kinswoman; I would not, as they term it, praise her, but I would +somebody had heard her talk yesterday, as I did. I will not dispraise +your sister Cassandra’s wit; but— + +TROILUS. +O Pandarus! I tell thee, Pandarus, +When I do tell thee there my hopes lie drown’d, +Reply not in how many fathoms deep +They lie indrench’d. I tell thee I am mad +In Cressid’s love. Thou answer’st ‘She is fair’; +Pour’st in the open ulcer of my heart +Her eyes, her hair, her cheek, her gait, her voice, +Handlest in thy discourse. O! that her hand, +In whose comparison all whites are ink +Writing their own reproach; to whose soft seizure +The cygnet’s down is harsh, and spirit of sense +Hard as the palm of ploughman! This thou tell’st me, +As true thou tell’st me, when I say I love her; +But, saying thus, instead of oil and balm, +Thou lay’st in every gash that love hath given me +The knife that made it. + +PANDARUS. +I speak no more than truth. + +TROILUS. +Thou dost not speak so much. + +PANDARUS. +Faith, I’ll not meddle in’t. Let her be as she is: if she be fair, ’tis +the better for her; and she be not, she has the mends in her own hands. + +TROILUS. +Good Pandarus! How now, Pandarus! + +PANDARUS. +I have had my labour for my travail, ill thought on of her and ill +thought on of you; gone between and between, but small thanks for my +labour. + +TROILUS. +What! art thou angry, Pandarus? What! with me? + +PANDARUS. +Because she’s kin to me, therefore she’s not so fair as Helen. And she +were not kin to me, she would be as fair on Friday as Helen is on +Sunday. But what care I? I care not and she were a blackamoor; ’tis all +one to me. + +TROILUS. +Say I she is not fair? + +PANDARUS. +I do not care whether you do or no. She’s a fool to stay behind her +father. Let her to the Greeks; and so I’ll tell her the next time I see +her. For my part, I’ll meddle nor make no more i’ the matter. + +TROILUS. +Pandarus— + +PANDARUS. +Not I. + +TROILUS. +Sweet Pandarus— + +PANDARUS. +Pray you, speak no more to me: I will leave all as I found it, and +there an end. + + [_Exit Pandarus. An alarum._] + +TROILUS. +Peace, you ungracious clamours! Peace, rude sounds! +Fools on both sides! Helen must needs be fair, +When with your blood you daily paint her thus. +I cannot fight upon this argument; +It is too starv’d a subject for my sword. +But Pandarus, O gods! how do you plague me! +I cannot come to Cressid but by Pandar; +And he’s as tetchy to be woo’d to woo +As she is stubborn-chaste against all suit. +Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love, +What Cressid is, what Pandar, and what we? +Her bed is India; there she lies, a pearl; +Between our Ilium and where she resides +Let it be call’d the wild and wandering flood; +Ourself the merchant, and this sailing Pandar +Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark. + + Alarum. Enter Aeneas. + +AENEAS. +How now, Prince Troilus! Wherefore not afield? + +TROILUS. +Because not there. This woman’s answer sorts, +For womanish it is to be from thence. +What news, Aeneas, from the field today? + +AENEAS. +That Paris is returned home, and hurt. + +TROILUS. +By whom, Aeneas? + +AENEAS. +Troilus, by Menelaus. + +TROILUS. +Let Paris bleed: ’tis but a scar to scorn; +Paris is gor’d with Menelaus’ horn. + + [_Alarum._] + +AENEAS. +Hark what good sport is out of town today! + +TROILUS. +Better at home, if ‘would I might’ were ‘may.’ +But to the sport abroad. Are you bound thither? + +AENEAS. +In all swift haste. + +TROILUS. +Come, go we then together. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. Troy. A street. + + Enter Cressida and her man Alexander. + +CRESSIDA. +Who were those went by? + +ALEXANDER. +Queen Hecuba and Helen. + +CRESSIDA. +And whither go they? + +ALEXANDER. +Up to the eastern tower, +Whose height commands as subject all the vale, +To see the battle. Hector, whose patience +Is as a virtue fix’d, today was mov’d. +He chid Andromache, and struck his armourer; +And, like as there were husbandry in war, +Before the sun rose he was harness’d light, +And to the field goes he; where every flower +Did as a prophet weep what it foresaw +In Hector’s wrath. + +CRESSIDA. +What was his cause of anger? + +ALEXANDER. +The noise goes, this: there is among the Greeks +A lord of Trojan blood, nephew to Hector; +They call him Ajax. + +CRESSIDA. +Good; and what of him? + +ALEXANDER. +They say he is a very man _per se_ +And stands alone. + +CRESSIDA. +So do all men, unless they are drunk, sick, or have no legs. + +ALEXANDER. +This man, lady, hath robb’d many beasts of their particular additions: +he is as valiant as the lion, churlish as the bear, slow as the +elephant—a man into whom nature hath so crowded humours that his valour +is crush’d into folly, his folly sauced with discretion. There is no +man hath a virtue that he hath not a glimpse of, nor any man an attaint +but he carries some stain of it; he is melancholy without cause and +merry against the hair; he hath the joints of everything; but +everything so out of joint that he is a gouty Briareus, many hands and +no use, or purblind Argus, all eyes and no sight. + +CRESSIDA. +But how should this man, that makes me smile, make Hector angry? + +ALEXANDER. +They say he yesterday cop’d Hector in the battle and struck him down, +the disdain and shame whereof hath ever since kept Hector fasting and +waking. + + Enter Pandarus. + +CRESSIDA. +Who comes here? + +ALEXANDER. +Madam, your uncle Pandarus. + +CRESSIDA. +Hector’s a gallant man. + +ALEXANDER. +As may be in the world, lady. + +PANDARUS. +What’s that? What’s that? + +CRESSIDA. +Good morrow, uncle Pandarus. + +PANDARUS. +Good morrow, cousin Cressid. What do you talk of?—Good morrow, +Alexander.—How do you, cousin? When were you at Ilium? + +CRESSIDA. +This morning, uncle. + +PANDARUS. +What were you talking of when I came? Was Hector arm’d and gone ere you +came to Ilium? Helen was not up, was she? + +CRESSIDA. +Hector was gone; but Helen was not up. + +PANDARUS. +E’en so. Hector was stirring early. + +CRESSIDA. +That were we talking of, and of his anger. + +PANDARUS. +Was he angry? + +CRESSIDA. +So he says here. + +PANDARUS. +True, he was so; I know the cause too; he’ll lay about him today, I can +tell them that. And there’s Troilus will not come far behind him; let +them take heed of Troilus, I can tell them that too. + +CRESSIDA. +What, is he angry too? + +PANDARUS. +Who, Troilus? Troilus is the better man of the two. + +CRESSIDA. +O Jupiter! there’s no comparison. + +PANDARUS. +What, not between Troilus and Hector? Do you know a man if you see him? + +CRESSIDA. +Ay, if I ever saw him before and knew him. + +PANDARUS. +Well, I say Troilus is Troilus. + +CRESSIDA. +Then you say as I say, for I am sure he is not Hector. + +PANDARUS. +No, nor Hector is not Troilus in some degrees. + +CRESSIDA. +’Tis just to each of them: he is himself. + +PANDARUS. +Himself! Alas, poor Troilus! I would he were! + +CRESSIDA. +So he is. + +PANDARUS. +Condition I had gone barefoot to India. + +CRESSIDA. +He is not Hector. + +PANDARUS. +Himself! no, he’s not himself. Would a’ were himself! Well, the gods +are above; time must friend or end. Well, Troilus, well! I would my +heart were in her body! No, Hector is not a better man than Troilus. + +CRESSIDA. +Excuse me. + +PANDARUS. +He is elder. + +CRESSIDA. +Pardon me, pardon me. + +PANDARUS. +Th’other’s not come to’t; you shall tell me another tale when +th’other’s come to’t. Hector shall not have his wit this year. + +CRESSIDA. +He shall not need it if he have his own. + +ANDARUS. +Nor his qualities. + +CRESSIDA. +No matter. + +PANDARUS. +Nor his beauty. + +CRESSIDA. +’Twould not become him: his own’s better. + +PANDARUS. +You have no judgement, niece. Helen herself swore th’other day that +Troilus, for a brown favour, for so ’tis, I must confess—not brown +neither— + +CRESSIDA. +No, but brown. + +PANDARUS. +Faith, to say truth, brown and not brown. + +CRESSIDA. +To say the truth, true and not true. + +PANDARUS. +She prais’d his complexion above Paris. + +CRESSIDA. +Why, Paris hath colour enough. + +PANDARUS. +So he has. + +CRESSIDA. +Then Troilus should have too much. If she prais’d him above, his +complexion is higher than his; he having colour enough, and the other +higher, is too flaming a praise for a good complexion. I had as lief +Helen’s golden tongue had commended Troilus for a copper nose. + +PANDARUS. +I swear to you I think Helen loves him better than Paris. + +CRESSIDA. +Then she’s a merry Greek indeed. + +PANDARUS. +Nay, I am sure she does. She came to him th’other day into the +compass’d window—and you know he has not past three or four hairs on +his chin— + +CRESSIDA. +Indeed a tapster’s arithmetic may soon bring his particulars therein to +a total. + +PANDARUS. +Why, he is very young, and yet will he within three pound lift as much +as his brother Hector. + +CRESSIDA. +Is he so young a man and so old a lifter? + +PANDARUS. +But to prove to you that Helen loves him: she came and puts me her +white hand to his cloven chin— + +CRESSIDA. +Juno have mercy! How came it cloven? + +PANDARUS. +Why, you know, ’tis dimpled. I think his smiling becomes him better +than any man in all Phrygia. + +CRESSIDA. +O, he smiles valiantly! + +PANDARUS. +Does he not? + +CRESSIDA. +O yes, an ’twere a cloud in autumn! + +PANDARUS. +Why, go to, then! But to prove to you that Helen loves Troilus— + +CRESSIDA. +Troilus will stand to the proof, if you’ll prove it so. + +PANDARUS. +Troilus! Why, he esteems her no more than I esteem an addle egg. + +CRESSIDA. +If you love an addle egg as well as you love an idle head, you would +eat chickens i’ th’ shell. + +PANDARUS. +I cannot choose but laugh to think how she tickled his chin. Indeed, +she has a marvell’s white hand, I must needs confess. + +CRESSIDA. +Without the rack. + +PANDARUS. +And she takes upon her to spy a white hair on his chin. + +CRESSIDA. +Alas, poor chin! Many a wart is richer. + +PANDARUS. +But there was such laughing! Queen Hecuba laugh’d that her eyes ran +o’er. + +CRESSIDA. +With millstones. + +PANDARUS. +And Cassandra laugh’d. + +CRESSIDA. +But there was a more temperate fire under the pot of her eyes. Did her +eyes run o’er too? + +PANDARUS. +And Hector laugh’d. + +CRESSIDA. +At what was all this laughing? + +PANDARUS. +Marry, at the white hair that Helen spied on Troilus’ chin. + +CRESSIDA. +And’t had been a green hair I should have laugh’d too. + +PANDARUS. +They laugh’d not so much at the hair as at his pretty answer. + +CRESSIDA. +What was his answer? + +PANDARUS. +Quoth she ‘Here’s but two and fifty hairs on your chin, and one of them +is white.’ + +CRESSIDA. +This is her question. + +PANDARUS. +That’s true; make no question of that. ‘Two and fifty hairs,’ quoth he +‘and one white. That white hair is my father, and all the rest are his +sons.’ ‘Jupiter!’ quoth she ‘which of these hairs is Paris my husband?’ +‘The forked one,’ quoth he, ’pluck’t out and give it him.’ But there +was such laughing! and Helen so blush’d, and Paris so chaf’d; and all +the rest so laugh’d that it pass’d. + +CRESSIDA. +So let it now; for it has been a great while going by. + +PANDARUS. +Well, cousin, I told you a thing yesterday; think on’t. + +CRESSIDA. +So I do. + +PANDARUS. +I’ll be sworn ’tis true; he will weep you, and ’twere a man born in +April. + +CRESSIDA. +And I’ll spring up in his tears, an ’twere a nettle against May. + + [_Sound a retreat._] + +PANDARUS. +Hark! they are coming from the field. Shall we stand up here and see +them as they pass toward Ilium? Good niece, do, sweet niece Cressida. + +CRESSIDA. +At your pleasure. + +PANDARUS. +Here, here, here’s an excellent place; here we may see most bravely. +I’ll tell you them all by their names as they pass by; but mark Troilus +above the rest. + + [Aeneas _passes_.] + +CRESSIDA. +Speak not so loud. + +PANDARUS. +That’s Aeneas. Is not that a brave man? He’s one of the flowers of +Troy, I can tell you. But mark Troilus; you shall see anon. + + [Antenor _passes_.] + +CRESSIDA. +Who’s that? + +PANDARUS. +That’s Antenor. He has a shrewd wit, I can tell you; and he’s a man +good enough; he’s one o’ th’ soundest judgements in Troy, whosoever, +and a proper man of person. When comes Troilus? I’ll show you Troilus +anon. If he see me, you shall see him nod at me. + +CRESSIDA. +Will he give you the nod? + +PANDARUS. +You shall see. + +CRESSIDA. +If he do, the rich shall have more. + + [Hector _passes_.] + +PANDARUS. +That’s Hector, that, that, look you, that; there’s a fellow! Go thy +way, Hector! There’s a brave man, niece. O brave Hector! Look how he +looks. There’s a countenance! Is’t not a brave man? + +CRESSIDA. +O, a brave man! + +PANDARUS. +Is a’ not? It does a man’s heart good. Look you what hacks are on his +helmet! Look you yonder, do you see? Look you there. There’s no +jesting; there’s laying on; take’t off who will, as they say. There be +hacks. + +CRESSIDA. +Be those with swords? + +PANDARUS. +Swords! anything, he cares not; and the devil come to him, it’s all +one. By God’s lid, it does one’s heart good. Yonder comes Paris, yonder +comes Paris. + + [Paris _passes_.] + +Look ye yonder, niece; is’t not a gallant man too, is’t not? Why, this +is brave now. Who said he came hurt home today? He’s not hurt. Why, +this will do Helen’s heart good now, ha! Would I could see Troilus now! +You shall see Troilus anon. + + [Helenus _passes_.] + +CRESSIDA. +Who’s that? + +PANDARUS. +That’s Helenus. I marvel where Troilus is. That’s +Helenus. I think he went not forth today. That’s Helenus. + +CRESSIDA. +Can Helenus fight, uncle? + +PANDARUS. +Helenus! no. Yes, he’ll fight indifferent well. I marvel where Troilus +is. Hark! do you not hear the people cry ‘Troilus’?—Helenus is a +priest. + +CRESSIDA. +What sneaking fellow comes yonder? + + [Troilus _passes_.] + +PANDARUS. +Where? yonder? That’s Deiphobus. ’Tis Troilus. There’s a man, niece. +Hem! Brave Troilus, the prince of chivalry! + +CRESSIDA. +Peace, for shame, peace! + +PANDARUS. +Mark him; note him. O brave Troilus! Look well upon him, niece; look +you how his sword is bloodied, and his helm more hack’d than Hector’s; +and how he looks, and how he goes! O admirable youth! he never saw +three and twenty. Go thy way, Troilus, go thy way. Had I a sister were +a grace or a daughter a goddess, he should take his choice. O admirable +man! Paris? Paris is dirt to him; and, I warrant, Helen, to change, +would give an eye to boot. + +CRESSIDA. +Here comes more. + + [_Common soldiers pass_.] + +PANDARUS. +Asses, fools, dolts! chaff and bran, chaff and bran! porridge after +meat! I could live and die in the eyes of Troilus. Ne’er look, ne’er +look; the eagles are gone. Crows and daws, crows and daws! I had rather +be such a man as Troilus than Agamemnon and all Greece. + +CRESSIDA. +There is amongst the Greeks Achilles, a better man than Troilus. + +PANDARUS. +Achilles? A drayman, a porter, a very camel! + +CRESSIDA. +Well, well. + +PANDARUS. +Well, well! Why, have you any discretion? Have you any eyes? Do you +know what a man is? Is not birth, beauty, good shape, discourse, +manhood, learning, gentleness, virtue, youth, liberality, and such +like, the spice and salt that season a man? + +CRESSIDA. +Ay, a minc’d man; and then to be bak’d with no date in the pie, for +then the man’s date is out. + +PANDARUS. +You are such a woman! A man knows not at what ward you lie. + +CRESSIDA. +Upon my back, to defend my belly; upon my wit, to defend my wiles; upon +my secrecy, to defend mine honesty; my mask, to defend my beauty; and +you, to defend all these; and at all these wards I lie, at a thousand +watches. + +PANDARUS. +Say one of your watches. + +CRESSIDA. +Nay, I’ll watch you for that; and that’s one of the chiefest of them +too. If I cannot ward what I would not have hit, I can watch you for +telling how I took the blow; unless it swell past hiding, and then it’s +past watching. + +PANDARUS. +You are such another! + + Enter Troilus' Boy. + +BOY. +Sir, my lord would instantly speak with you. + +PANDARUS. +Where? + +BOY. +At your own house; there he unarms him. + +PANDARUS. +Good boy, tell him I come. [_Exit_ Boy.] I doubt he be hurt. Fare ye +well, good niece. + +CRESSIDA. +Adieu, uncle. + +PANDARUS. +I will be with you, niece, by and by. + +CRESSIDA. +To bring, uncle. + +PANDARUS. +Ay, a token from Troilus. + + [_Exit_ Pandarus.] + +CRESSIDA. +By the same token, you are a bawd. +Words, vows, gifts, tears, and love’s full sacrifice, +He offers in another’s enterprise; +But more in Troilus thousand-fold I see +Than in the glass of Pandar’s praise may be, +Yet hold I off. Women are angels, wooing: +Things won are done; joy’s soul lies in the doing. +That she belov’d knows naught that knows not this: +Men prize the thing ungain’d more than it is. +That she was never yet that ever knew +Love got so sweet as when desire did sue; +Therefore this maxim out of love I teach: +‘Achievement is command; ungain’d, beseech.’ +Then though my heart’s content firm love doth bear, +Nothing of that shall from mine eyes appear. + + [_Exit_.] + +SCENE III. The Grecian camp. Before AGAMEMNON’S tent. + + Sennet. Enter Agamemnon, Nestor, Ulysses, Diomedes, Menelaus and + others. + +AGAMEMNON. +Princes, +What grief hath set these jaundies o’er your cheeks? +The ample proposition that hope makes +In all designs begun on earth below +Fails in the promis’d largeness; checks and disasters +Grow in the veins of actions highest rear’d, +As knots, by the conflux of meeting sap, +Infects the sound pine, and diverts his grain +Tortive and errant from his course of growth. +Nor, princes, is it matter new to us +That we come short of our suppose so far +That after seven years’ siege yet Troy walls stand; +Sith every action that hath gone before, +Whereof we have record, trial did draw +Bias and thwart, not answering the aim, +And that unbodied figure of the thought +That gave’t surmised shape. Why then, you princes, +Do you with cheeks abash’d behold our works +And call them shames, which are, indeed, naught else +But the protractive trials of great Jove +To find persistive constancy in men; +The fineness of which metal is not found +In fortune’s love? For then the bold and coward, +The wise and fool, the artist and unread, +The hard and soft, seem all affin’d and kin. +But in the wind and tempest of her frown +Distinction, with a broad and powerful fan, +Puffing at all, winnows the light away; +And what hath mass or matter by itself +Lies rich in virtue and unmingled. + +NESTOR. +With due observance of thy godlike seat, +Great Agamemnon, Nestor shall apply +Thy latest words. In the reproof of chance +Lies the true proof of men. The sea being smooth, +How many shallow bauble boats dare sail +Upon her patient breast, making their way +With those of nobler bulk! +But let the ruffian Boreas once enrage +The gentle Thetis, and anon behold +The strong-ribb’d bark through liquid mountains cut, +Bounding between the two moist elements +Like Perseus’ horse. Where’s then the saucy boat, +Whose weak untimber’d sides but even now +Co-rivall’d greatness? Either to harbour fled +Or made a toast for Neptune. Even so +Doth valour’s show and valour’s worth divide +In storms of fortune; for in her ray and brightness +The herd hath more annoyance by the breeze +Than by the tiger; but when the splitting wind +Makes flexible the knees of knotted oaks, +And flies fled under shade—why, then the thing of courage, +As rous’d with rage, with rage doth sympathise, +And with an accent tun’d in self-same key +Retorts to chiding fortune. + +ULYSSES. +Agamemnon, +Thou great commander, nerve and bone of Greece, +Heart of our numbers, soul and only spirit +In whom the tempers and the minds of all +Should be shut up—hear what Ulysses speaks. +Besides th’applause and approbation +The which, [_To Agamemnon_] most mighty, for thy place and sway, +[_To Nestor_] And, thou most reverend, for thy stretch’d-out life, +I give to both your speeches—which were such +As Agamemnon and the hand of Greece +Should hold up high in brass; and such again +As venerable Nestor, hatch’d in silver, +Should with a bond of air, strong as the axle-tree +On which heaven rides, knit all the Greekish ears +To his experienc’d tongue—yet let it please both, +Thou great, and wise, to hear Ulysses speak. + +AGAMEMNON. +Speak, Prince of Ithaca; and be’t of less expect +That matter needless, of importless burden, +Divide thy lips than we are confident, +When rank Thersites opes his mastic jaws, +We shall hear music, wit, and oracle. + +ULYSSES. +Troy, yet upon his basis, had been down, +And the great Hector’s sword had lack’d a master, +But for these instances: +The specialty of rule hath been neglected; +And look how many Grecian tents do stand +Hollow upon this plain, so many hollow factions. +When that the general is not like the hive, +To whom the foragers shall all repair, +What honey is expected? Degree being vizarded, +Th’unworthiest shows as fairly in the mask. +The heavens themselves, the planets, and this centre, +Observe degree, priority, and place, +Insisture, course, proportion, season, form, +Office, and custom, in all line of order; +And therefore is the glorious planet Sol +In noble eminence enthron’d and spher’d +Amidst the other, whose med’cinable eye +Corrects the influence of evil planets, +And posts, like the commandment of a king, +Sans check, to good and bad. But when the planets +In evil mixture to disorder wander, +What plagues and what portents, what mutiny, +What raging of the sea, shaking of earth, +Commotion in the winds! Frights, changes, horrors, +Divert and crack, rend and deracinate, +The unity and married calm of states +Quite from their fixture! O, when degree is shak’d, +Which is the ladder of all high designs, +The enterprise is sick! How could communities, +Degrees in schools, and brotherhoods in cities, +Peaceful commerce from dividable shores, +The primogenity and due of birth, +Prerogative of age, crowns, sceptres, laurels, +But by degree stand in authentic place? +Take but degree away, untune that string, +And hark what discord follows! Each thing melts +In mere oppugnancy: the bounded waters +Should lift their bosoms higher than the shores, +And make a sop of all this solid globe; +Strength should be lord of imbecility, +And the rude son should strike his father dead; +Force should be right; or, rather, right and wrong— +Between whose endless jar justice resides— +Should lose their names, and so should justice too. +Then everything includes itself in power, +Power into will, will into appetite; +And appetite, an universal wolf, +So doubly seconded with will and power, +Must make perforce an universal prey, +And last eat up himself. Great Agamemnon, +This chaos, when degree is suffocate, +Follows the choking. +And this neglection of degree it is +That by a pace goes backward, with a purpose +It hath to climb. The general’s disdain’d +By him one step below, he by the next, +That next by him beneath; so every step, +Exampl’d by the first pace that is sick +Of his superior, grows to an envious fever +Of pale and bloodless emulation. +And ’tis this fever that keeps Troy on foot, +Not her own sinews. To end a tale of length, +Troy in our weakness stands, not in her strength. + +NESTOR. +Most wisely hath Ulysses here discover’d +The fever whereof all our power is sick. + +AGAMEMNON. +The nature of the sickness found, Ulysses, +What is the remedy? + +ULYSSES. +The great Achilles, whom opinion crowns +The sinew and the forehand of our host, +Having his ear full of his airy fame, +Grows dainty of his worth, and in his tent +Lies mocking our designs; with him Patroclus +Upon a lazy bed the livelong day +Breaks scurril jests; +And with ridiculous and awkward action— +Which, slanderer, he imitation calls— +He pageants us. Sometime, great Agamemnon, +Thy topless deputation he puts on; +And like a strutting player whose conceit +Lies in his hamstring, and doth think it rich +To hear the wooden dialogue and sound +’Twixt his stretch’d footing and the scaffoldage— +Such to-be-pitied and o’er-wrested seeming +He acts thy greatness in; and when he speaks +’Tis like a chime a-mending; with terms unsquar’d, +Which, from the tongue of roaring Typhon dropp’d, +Would seem hyperboles. At this fusty stuff +The large Achilles, on his press’d bed lolling, +From his deep chest laughs out a loud applause; +Cries ‘Excellent! ’Tis Agamemnon right! +Now play me Nestor; hem, and stroke thy beard, +As he being drest to some oration.’ +That’s done—as near as the extremest ends +Of parallels, as like as Vulcan and his wife; +Yet god Achilles still cries ‘Excellent! +’Tis Nestor right. Now play him me, Patroclus, +Arming to answer in a night alarm.’ +And then, forsooth, the faint defects of age +Must be the scene of mirth: to cough and spit +And, with a palsy fumbling on his gorget, +Shake in and out the rivet. And at this sport +Sir Valour dies; cries ‘O, enough, Patroclus; +Or give me ribs of steel! I shall split all +In pleasure of my spleen.’ And in this fashion +All our abilities, gifts, natures, shapes, +Severals and generals of grace exact, +Achievements, plots, orders, preventions, +Excitements to the field or speech for truce, +Success or loss, what is or is not, serves +As stuff for these two to make paradoxes. + +NESTOR. +And in the imitation of these twain— +Who, as Ulysses says, opinion crowns +With an imperial voice—many are infect. +Ajax is grown self-will’d and bears his head +In such a rein, in full as proud a place +As broad Achilles; keeps his tent like him; +Makes factious feasts; rails on our state of war +Bold as an oracle, and sets Thersites, +A slave whose gall coins slanders like a mint, +To match us in comparisons with dirt, +To weaken and discredit our exposure, +How rank soever rounded in with danger. + +ULYSSES. +They tax our policy and call it cowardice, +Count wisdom as no member of the war, +Forestall prescience, and esteem no act +But that of hand. The still and mental parts +That do contrive how many hands shall strike +When fitness calls them on, and know, by measure +Of their observant toil, the enemies’ weight— +Why, this hath not a finger’s dignity: +They call this bed-work, mapp’ry, closet-war; +So that the ram that batters down the wall, +For the great swinge and rudeness of his poise, +They place before his hand that made the engine, +Or those that with the fineness of their souls +By reason guide his execution. + +NESTOR. +Let this be granted, and Achilles’ horse +Makes many Thetis’ sons. + + [_Tucket_.] + +AGAMEMNON. +What trumpet? Look, Menelaus. + +MENELAUS. +From Troy. + + Enter Aeneas. + +AGAMEMNON. +What would you fore our tent? + +AENEAS. +Is this great Agamemnon’s tent, I pray you? + +AGAMEMNON. +Even this. + +AENEAS. +May one that is a herald and a prince +Do a fair message to his kingly eyes? + +AGAMEMNON. +With surety stronger than Achilles’ arm +Fore all the Greekish heads, which with one voice +Call Agamemnon head and general. + +AENEAS. +Fair leave and large security. How may +A stranger to those most imperial looks +Know them from eyes of other mortals? + +AGAMEMNON. +How? + +AENEAS. +Ay; +I ask, that I might waken reverence, +And bid the cheek be ready with a blush +Modest as morning when she coldly eyes +The youthful Phoebus. +Which is that god in office, guiding men? +Which is the high and mighty Agamemnon? + +AGAMEMNON. +This Trojan scorns us, or the men of Troy +Are ceremonious courtiers. + +AENEAS. +Courtiers as free, as debonair, unarm’d, +As bending angels; that’s their fame in peace. +But when they would seem soldiers, they have galls, +Good arms, strong joints, true swords; and, Jove’s accord, +Nothing so full of heart. But peace, Aeneas, +Peace, Trojan; lay thy finger on thy lips. +The worthiness of praise distains his worth, +If that the prais’d himself bring the praise forth; +But what the repining enemy commends, +That breath fame blows; that praise, sole pure, transcends. + +AGAMEMNON. +Sir, you of Troy, call you yourself Aeneas? + +AENEAS. +Ay, Greek, that is my name. + +AGAMEMNON. +What’s your affairs, I pray you? + +AENEAS. +Sir, pardon; ’tis for Agamemnon’s ears. + +AGAMEMNON +He hears naught privately that comes from Troy. + +AENEAS. +Nor I from Troy come not to whisper with him; +I bring a trumpet to awake his ear, +To set his sense on the attentive bent, +And then to speak. + +AGAMEMNON. +Speak frankly as the wind; +It is not Agamemnon’s sleeping hour. +That thou shalt know, Trojan, he is awake, +He tells thee so himself. + +AENEAS. +Trumpet, blow loud, +Send thy brass voice through all these lazy tents; +And every Greek of mettle, let him know +What Troy means fairly shall be spoke aloud. + + [_Sound trumpet_.] + +We have, great Agamemnon, here in Troy +A prince called Hector—Priam is his father— +Who in this dull and long-continued truce +Is resty grown; he bade me take a trumpet +And to this purpose speak: Kings, princes, lords! +If there be one among the fair’st of Greece +That holds his honour higher than his ease, +That feeds his praise more than he fears his peril, +That knows his valour and knows not his fear, +That loves his mistress more than in confession +With truant vows to her own lips he loves, +And dare avow her beauty and her worth +In other arms than hers—to him this challenge. +Hector, in view of Trojans and of Greeks, +Shall make it good or do his best to do it: +He hath a lady wiser, fairer, truer, +Than ever Greek did couple in his arms; +And will tomorrow with his trumpet call +Mid-way between your tents and walls of Troy +To rouse a Grecian that is true in love. +If any come, Hector shall honour him; +If none, he’ll say in Troy, when he retires, +The Grecian dames are sunburnt and not worth +The splinter of a lance. Even so much. + +AGAMEMNON. +This shall be told our lovers, Lord Aeneas. +If none of them have soul in such a kind, +We left them all at home. But we are soldiers; +And may that soldier a mere recreant prove +That means not, hath not, or is not in love. +If then one is, or hath, or means to be, +That one meets Hector; if none else, I am he. + +NESTOR. +Tell him of Nestor, one that was a man +When Hector’s grandsire suck’d. He is old now; +But if there be not in our Grecian host +A noble man that hath one spark of fire +To answer for his love, tell him from me +I’ll hide my silver beard in a gold beaver, +And in my vambrace put this wither’d brawns, +And meeting him, will tell him that my lady +Was fairer than his grandam, and as chaste +As may be in the world. His youth in flood, +I’ll prove this troth with my three drops of blood. + +AENEAS. +Now heavens forfend such scarcity of youth! + +ULYSSES. +Amen. + +AGAMEMNON. +Fair Lord Aeneas, let me touch your hand; +To our pavilion shall I lead you, sir. +Achilles shall have word of this intent; +So shall each lord of Greece, from tent to tent. +Yourself shall feast with us before you go, +And find the welcome of a noble foe. + + [_Exeunt all but Ulysses and Nestor_.] + +ULYSSES. +Nestor! + +NESTOR. +What says Ulysses? + +ULYSSES. +I have a young conception in my brain; +Be you my time to bring it to some shape. + +NESTOR. +What is’t? + +ULYSSES. +This ’tis: +Blunt wedges rive hard knots. The seeded pride +That hath to this maturity blown up +In rank Achilles must or now be cropp’d +Or, shedding, breed a nursery of like evil +To overbulk us all. + +NESTOR. +Well, and how? + +ULYSSES. +This challenge that the gallant Hector sends, +However it is spread in general name, +Relates in purpose only to Achilles. + +NESTOR. +True. The purpose is perspicuous even as substance +Whose grossness little characters sum up; +And, in the publication, make no strain +But that Achilles, were his brain as barren +As banks of Libya—though, Apollo knows, +’Tis dry enough—will with great speed of judgement, +Ay, with celerity, find Hector’s purpose +Pointing on him. + +ULYSSES. +And wake him to the answer, think you? + +NESTOR. +Why, ’tis most meet. Who may you else oppose +That can from Hector bring those honours off, +If not Achilles? Though ’t be a sportful combat, +Yet in this trial much opinion dwells +For here the Trojans taste our dear’st repute +With their fin’st palate; and trust to me, Ulysses, +Our imputation shall be oddly pois’d +In this vile action; for the success, +Although particular, shall give a scantling +Of good or bad unto the general; +And in such indexes, although small pricks +To their subsequent volumes, there is seen +The baby figure of the giant mass +Of things to come at large. It is suppos’d +He that meets Hector issues from our choice; +And choice, being mutual act of all our souls, +Makes merit her election, and doth boil, +As ’twere from forth us all, a man distill’d +Out of our virtues; who miscarrying, +What heart receives from hence a conquering part, +To steel a strong opinion to themselves? +Which entertain’d, limbs are his instruments, +In no less working than are swords and bows +Directive by the limbs. + +ULYSSES. +Give pardon to my speech. Therefore ’tis meet +Achilles meet not Hector. Let us, like merchants, +First show foul wares, and think perchance they’ll sell; +If not, the lustre of the better shall exceed +By showing the worse first. Do not consent +That ever Hector and Achilles meet; +For both our honour and our shame in this +Are dogg’d with two strange followers. + +NESTOR. +I see them not with my old eyes. What are they? + +ULYSSES. +What glory our Achilles shares from Hector, +Were he not proud, we all should share with him; +But he already is too insolent; +And it were better parch in Afric sun +Than in the pride and salt scorn of his eyes, +Should he scape Hector fair. If he were foil’d, +Why, then we do our main opinion crush +In taint of our best man. No, make a lott’ry; +And, by device, let blockish Ajax draw +The sort to fight with Hector. Among ourselves +Give him allowance for the better man; +For that will physic the great Myrmidon, +Who broils in loud applause, and make him fall +His crest, that prouder than blue Iris bends. +If the dull brainless Ajax come safe off, +We’ll dress him up in voices; if he fail, +Yet go we under our opinion still +That we have better men. But, hit or miss, +Our project’s life this shape of sense assumes— +Ajax employ’d plucks down Achilles’ plumes. + +NESTOR. +Now, Ulysses, I begin to relish thy advice; +And I will give a taste thereof forthwith +To Agamemnon. Go we to him straight. +Two curs shall tame each other: pride alone +Must tarre the mastiffs on, as ’twere their bone. + + [_Exeunt_.] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. The Grecian camp. + + Enter Ajax and Thersites. + +AJAX. +Thersites! + +THERSITES. +Agamemnon—how if he had boils, full, all over, generally? + +AJAX. +Thersites! + +THERSITES. +And those boils did run—say so. Did not the general run then? Were not +that a botchy core? + +AJAX. +Dog! + +THERSITES. +Then there would come some matter from him; +I see none now. + +AJAX. +Thou bitch-wolf’s son, canst thou not hear? Feel, then. + + [_Strikes him_.] + +THERSITES. +The plague of Greece upon thee, thou mongrel beef-witted lord! + +AJAX. +Speak, then, thou unsalted leaven, speak. I will beat thee into +handsomeness. + +THERSITES. +I shall sooner rail thee into wit and holiness; but I think thy horse +will sooner con an oration than thou learn a prayer without book. Thou +canst strike, canst thou? A red murrain o’ thy jade’s tricks! + +AJAX. +Toadstool, learn me the proclamation. + +THERSITES. +Dost thou think I have no sense, thou strikest me thus? + +AJAX. +The proclamation! + +THERSITES. +Thou art proclaim’d fool, I think. + +AJAX. +Do not, porpentine, do not; my fingers itch. + +THERSITES. +I would thou didst itch from head to foot and I had the scratching of +thee; I would make thee the loathsomest scab in Greece. When thou art +forth in the incursions, thou strikest as slow as another. + +AJAX. +I say, the proclamation. + +THERSITES. +Thou grumblest and railest every hour on Achilles; and thou art as full +of envy at his greatness as Cerberus is at Proserpina’s beauty—ay, that +thou bark’st at him. + +AJAX. +Mistress Thersites! + +THERSITES. +Thou shouldst strike him. + +AJAX. +Cobloaf! + +THERSITES. +He would pun thee into shivers with his fist, as a sailor breaks a +biscuit. + +AJAX. +You whoreson cur! + + [_Strikes him_.] + +THERSITES. +Do, do. + +AJAX. +Thou stool for a witch! + +THERSITES. +Ay, do, do; thou sodden-witted lord! Thou hast no more brain than I +have in mine elbows; an asinico may tutor thee. You scurvy valiant ass! +Thou art here but to thrash Trojans, and thou art bought and sold among +those of any wit like a barbarian slave. If thou use to beat me, I will +begin at thy heel and tell what thou art by inches, thou thing of no +bowels, thou! + +AJAX. +You dog! + +THERSITES. +You scurvy lord! + +AJAX. +You cur! + + [_Strikes him_.] + +THERSITES. +Mars his idiot! Do, rudeness; do, camel; do, do. + + Enter Achilles and Patroclus. + +ACHILLES. +Why, how now, Ajax! Wherefore do ye thus? +How now, Thersites! What’s the matter, man? + +THERSITES. +You see him there, do you? + +ACHILLES. +Ay; what’s the matter? + +THERSITES. +Nay, look upon him. + +ACHILLES. +So I do. What’s the matter? + +THERSITES. +Nay, but regard him well. + +ACHILLES. +Well! why, so I do. + +THERSITES. +But yet you look not well upon him; for whosomever you take him to be, +he is Ajax. + +ACHILLES. +I know that, fool. + +THERSITES. +Ay, but that fool knows not himself. + +AJAX. +Therefore I beat thee. + +THERSITES. +Lo, lo, lo, lo, what modicums of wit he utters! His evasions have ears +thus long. I have bobb’d his brain more than he has beat my bones. I +will buy nine sparrows for a penny, and his pia mater is not worth the +ninth part of a sparrow. This lord, Achilles—Ajax, who wears his wit in +his belly and his guts in his head—I’ll tell you what I say of him. + +ACHILLES. +What? + +THERSITES. +I say this Ajax— + + [_Ajax offers to strike him_.] + +ACHILLES. +Nay, good Ajax. + +THERSITES. +Has not so much wit— + +ACHILLES. +Nay, I must hold you. + +THERSITES. +As will stop the eye of Helen’s needle, for whom he comes to fight. + +ACHILLES. +Peace, fool. + +THERSITES. +I would have peace and quietness, but the fool will not— he there; that +he; look you there. + +AJAX. +O thou damned cur! I shall— + +ACHILLES. +Will you set your wit to a fool’s? + +THERSITES. +No, I warrant you, the fool’s will shame it. + +PATROCLUS. +Good words, Thersites. + +ACHILLES. +What’s the quarrel? + +AJAX. +I bade the vile owl go learn me the tenour of the proclamation, and he +rails upon me. + +THERSITES. +I serve thee not. + +AJAX. +Well, go to, go to. + +THERSITES. +I serve here voluntary. + +ACHILLES. +Your last service was suff’rance; ’twas not voluntary. No man is beaten +voluntary. Ajax was here the voluntary, and you as under an impress. + +THERSITES. +E’en so; a great deal of your wit too lies in your sinews, or else +there be liars. Hector shall have a great catch and knock out either of +your brains: a’ were as good crack a fusty nut with no kernel. + +ACHILLES. +What, with me too, Thersites? + +THERSITES. +There’s Ulysses and old Nestor—whose wit was mouldy ere your grandsires +had nails on their toes—yoke you like draught oxen, and make you plough +up the wars. + +ACHILLES. +What, what? + +THERSITES. +Yes, good sooth. To Achilles, to Ajax, to— + +AJAX. +I shall cut out your tongue. + +THERSITES. +’Tis no matter; I shall speak as much as thou afterwards. + +PATROCLUS. +No more words, Thersites; peace! + +THERSITES. +I will hold my peace when Achilles’ brach bids me, shall I? + +ACHILLES. +There’s for you, Patroclus. + +THERSITES. +I will see you hang’d like clotpoles ere I come any more to your tents. +I will keep where there is wit stirring, and leave the faction of +fools. + + [_Exit_.] + +PATROCLUS. +A good riddance. + +ACHILLES. +Marry, this, sir, is proclaim’d through all our host, +That Hector, by the fifth hour of the sun, +Will with a trumpet ’twixt our tents and Troy, +Tomorrow morning, call some knight to arms +That hath a stomach; and such a one that dare +Maintain I know not what; ’tis trash. Farewell. + +AJAX. +Farewell. Who shall answer him? + +ACHILLES. +I know not; ’tis put to lott’ry, otherwise, +He knew his man. + +AJAX. +O, meaning you? I will go learn more of it. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE II. Troy. PRIAM’S palace. + + Enter Priam, Hector, Troilus, Paris and Helenus. + +PRIAM. +After so many hours, lives, speeches spent, +Thus once again says Nestor from the Greeks: +‘Deliver Helen, and all damage else— +As honour, loss of time, travail, expense, +Wounds, friends, and what else dear that is consum’d +In hot digestion of this cormorant war— +Shall be struck off.’ Hector, what say you to’t? + +HECTOR. +Though no man lesser fears the Greeks than I, +As far as toucheth my particular, +Yet, dread Priam, +There is no lady of more softer bowels, +More spongy to suck in the sense of fear, +More ready to cry out ‘Who knows what follows?’ +Than Hector is. The wound of peace is surety, +Surety secure; but modest doubt is call’d +The beacon of the wise, the tent that searches +To th’ bottom of the worst. Let Helen go. +Since the first sword was drawn about this question, +Every tithe soul ’mongst many thousand dismes +Hath been as dear as Helen—I mean, of ours. +If we have lost so many tenths of ours +To guard a thing not ours, nor worth to us, +Had it our name, the value of one ten, +What merit’s in that reason which denies +The yielding of her up? + +TROILUS. +Fie, fie, my brother! +Weigh you the worth and honour of a king, +So great as our dread father’s, in a scale +Of common ounces? Will you with counters sum +The past-proportion of his infinite, +And buckle in a waist most fathomless +With spans and inches so diminutive +As fears and reasons? Fie, for godly shame! + +HELENUS. +No marvel though you bite so sharp of reasons, +You are so empty of them. Should not our father +Bear the great sway of his affairs with reason, +Because your speech hath none that tells him so? + +TROILUS. +You are for dreams and slumbers, brother priest; +You fur your gloves with reason. Here are your reasons: +You know an enemy intends you harm; +You know a sword employ’d is perilous, +And reason flies the object of all harm. +Who marvels, then, when Helenus beholds +A Grecian and his sword, if he do set +The very wings of reason to his heels +And fly like chidden Mercury from Jove, +Or like a star disorb’d? Nay, if we talk of reason, +Let’s shut our gates and sleep. Manhood and honour +Should have hare hearts, would they but fat their thoughts +With this cramm’d reason. Reason and respect +Make livers pale and lustihood deject. + +HECTOR. +Brother, she is not worth what she doth cost the keeping. + +TROILUS. +What’s aught but as ’tis valued? + +HECTOR. +But value dwells not in particular will: +It holds his estimate and dignity +As well wherein ’tis precious of itself +As in the prizer. ’Tis mad idolatry +To make the service greater than the god, +And the will dotes that is attributive +To what infectiously itself affects, +Without some image of th’affected merit. + +TROILUS. +I take today a wife, and my election +Is led on in the conduct of my will; +My will enkindled by mine eyes and ears, +Two traded pilots ’twixt the dangerous shores +Of will and judgement: how may I avoid, +Although my will distaste what it elected, +The wife I chose? There can be no evasion +To blench from this and to stand firm by honour. +We turn not back the silks upon the merchant +When we have soil’d them; nor the remainder viands +We do not throw in unrespective sieve, +Because we now are full. It was thought meet +Paris should do some vengeance on the Greeks; +Your breath with full consent bellied his sails; +The seas and winds, old wranglers, took a truce, +And did him service. He touch’d the ports desir’d; +And for an old aunt whom the Greeks held captive +He brought a Grecian queen, whose youth and freshness +Wrinkles Apollo’s, and makes stale the morning. +Why keep we her? The Grecians keep our aunt. +Is she worth keeping? Why, she is a pearl +Whose price hath launch’d above a thousand ships, +And turn’d crown’d kings to merchants. +If you’ll avouch ’twas wisdom Paris went— +As you must needs, for you all cried ‘Go, go’— +If you’ll confess he brought home worthy prize— +As you must needs, for you all clapp’d your hands, +And cried ‘Inestimable!’—why do you now +The issue of your proper wisdoms rate, +And do a deed that never Fortune did— +Beggar the estimation which you priz’d +Richer than sea and land? O theft most base, +That we have stol’n what we do fear to keep! +But thieves unworthy of a thing so stol’n +That in their country did them that disgrace +We fear to warrant in our native place! + +CASSANDRA. +[_Within_.] Cry, Trojans, cry. + +PRIAM. +What noise, what shriek is this? + +TROILUS. +’Tis our mad sister; I do know her voice. + +CASSANDRA. +[_Within_.] Cry, Trojans. + +HECTOR. +It is Cassandra. + + Enter Cassandra, raving. + +CASSANDRA. +Cry, Trojans, cry. Lend me ten thousand eyes, +And I will fill them with prophetic tears. + +HECTOR. +Peace, sister, peace. + +CASSANDRA. +Virgins and boys, mid-age and wrinkled eld, +Soft infancy, that nothing canst but cry, +Add to my clamours. Let us pay betimes +A moiety of that mass of moan to come. +Cry, Trojans, cry. Practise your eyes with tears. +Troy must not be, nor goodly Ilion stand; +Our firebrand brother, Paris, burns us all. +Cry, Trojans, cry, A Helen and a woe! +Cry, cry. Troy burns, or else let Helen go. + + [_Exit_.] + +HECTOR. +Now, youthful Troilus, do not these high strains +Of divination in our sister work +Some touches of remorse? Or is your blood +So madly hot, that no discourse of reason, +Nor fear of bad success in a bad cause, +Can qualify the same? + +TROILUS. +Why, brother Hector, +We may not think the justness of each act +Such and no other than event doth form it; +Nor once deject the courage of our minds +Because Cassandra’s mad. Her brain-sick raptures +Cannot distaste the goodness of a quarrel +Which hath our several honours all engag’d +To make it gracious. For my private part, +I am no more touch’d than all Priam’s sons; +And Jove forbid there should be done amongst us +Such things as might offend the weakest spleen +To fight for and maintain. + +PARIS. +Else might the world convince of levity +As well my undertakings as your counsels; +But I attest the gods, your full consent +Gave wings to my propension, and cut off +All fears attending on so dire a project. +For what, alas, can these my single arms? +What propugnation is in one man’s valour +To stand the push and enmity of those +This quarrel would excite? Yet I protest, +Were I alone to pass the difficulties, +And had as ample power as I have will, +Paris should ne’er retract what he hath done, +Nor faint in the pursuit. + +PRIAM. +Paris, you speak +Like one besotted on your sweet delights. +You have the honey still, but these the gall; +So to be valiant is no praise at all. + +PARIS. +Sir, I propose not merely to myself +The pleasures such a beauty brings with it; +But I would have the soil of her fair rape +Wip’d off in honourable keeping her. +What treason were it to the ransack’d queen, +Disgrace to your great worths, and shame to me, +Now to deliver her possession up +On terms of base compulsion! Can it be, +That so degenerate a strain as this +Should once set footing in your generous bosoms? +There’s not the meanest spirit on our party +Without a heart to dare or sword to draw +When Helen is defended; nor none so noble +Whose life were ill bestow’d or death unfam’d, +Where Helen is the subject. Then, I say, +Well may we fight for her whom we know well +The world’s large spaces cannot parallel. + +HECTOR. +Paris and Troilus, you have both said well; +And on the cause and question now in hand +Have gloz’d, but superficially; not much +Unlike young men, whom Aristotle thought +Unfit to hear moral philosophy. +The reasons you allege do more conduce +To the hot passion of distemp’red blood +Than to make up a free determination +’Twixt right and wrong; for pleasure and revenge +Have ears more deaf than adders to the voice +Of any true decision. Nature craves +All dues be rend’red to their owners. Now, +What nearer debt in all humanity +Than wife is to the husband? If this law +Of nature be corrupted through affection; +And that great minds, of partial indulgence +To their benumbed wills, resist the same; +There is a law in each well-order’d nation +To curb those raging appetites that are +Most disobedient and refractory. +If Helen, then, be wife to Sparta’s king— +As it is known she is—these moral laws +Of nature and of nations speak aloud +To have her back return’d. Thus to persist +In doing wrong extenuates not wrong, +But makes it much more heavy. Hector’s opinion +Is this, in way of truth. Yet, ne’ertheless, +My spritely brethren, I propend to you +In resolution to keep Helen still; +For ’tis a cause that hath no mean dependence +Upon our joint and several dignities. + +TROILUS. +Why, there you touch’d the life of our design. +Were it not glory that we more affected +Than the performance of our heaving spleens, +I would not wish a drop of Trojan blood +Spent more in her defence. But, worthy Hector, +She is a theme of honour and renown, +A spur to valiant and magnanimous deeds, +Whose present courage may beat down our foes, +And fame in time to come canonize us; +For I presume brave Hector would not lose +So rich advantage of a promis’d glory +As smiles upon the forehead of this action +For the wide world’s revenue. + +HECTOR. +I am yours, +You valiant offspring of great Priamus. +I have a roisting challenge sent amongst +The dull and factious nobles of the Greeks +Will strike amazement to their drowsy spirits. +I was advertis’d their great general slept, +Whilst emulation in the army crept. +This, I presume, will wake him. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE III. The Grecian camp. Before the tent of ACHILLES. + + Enter Thersites, solus. + +THERSITES. +How now, Thersites! What, lost in the labyrinth of thy fury? Shall the +elephant Ajax carry it thus? He beats me, and I rail at him. O worthy +satisfaction! Would it were otherwise: that I could beat him, whilst he +rail’d at me! ‘Sfoot, I’ll learn to conjure and raise devils, but I’ll +see some issue of my spiteful execrations. Then there’s Achilles, a +rare engineer! If Troy be not taken till these two undermine it, the +walls will stand till they fall of themselves. O thou great +thunder-darter of Olympus, forget that thou art Jove, the king of gods, +and, Mercury, lose all the serpentine craft of thy caduceus, if ye take +not that little little less than little wit from them that they have! +which short-arm’d ignorance itself knows is so abundant scarce, it will +not in circumvention deliver a fly from a spider without drawing their +massy irons and cutting the web. After this, the vengeance on the whole +camp! or, rather, the Neapolitan bone-ache! for that, methinks, is the +curse depending on those that war for a placket. I have said my +prayers; and devil Envy say ‘Amen.’ What ho! my Lord Achilles! + + Enter Patroclus. + +PATROCLUS. +Who’s there? Thersites! Good Thersites, come in and rail. + +THERSITES. +If I could a’ rememb’red a gilt counterfeit, thou wouldst not have +slipp’d out of my contemplation; but it is no matter; thyself upon +thyself! The common curse of mankind, folly and ignorance, be thine in +great revenue! Heaven bless thee from a tutor, and discipline come not +near thee! Let thy blood be thy direction till thy death. Then if she +that lays thee out says thou art a fair corse, I’ll be sworn and sworn +upon’t she never shrouded any but lazars. Amen. Where’s Achilles? + +PATROCLUS. +What, art thou devout? Wast thou in prayer? + +THERSITES. +Ay, the heavens hear me! + +PATROCLUS. +Amen. + + Enter Achilles. + +ACHILLES. +Who’s there? + +PATROCLUS. +Thersites, my lord. + +ACHILLES. +Where, where? O, where? Art thou come? Why, my cheese, my digestion, +why hast thou not served thyself in to my table so many meals? Come, +what’s Agamemnon? + +THERSITES. +Thy commander, Achilles. Then tell me, Patroclus, what’s Achilles? + +PATROCLUS. +Thy lord, Thersites. Then tell me, I pray thee, what’s Thersites? + +THERSITES. +Thy knower, Patroclus. Then tell me, Patroclus, what art thou? + +PATROCLUS. +Thou must tell that knowest. + +ACHILLES. +O, tell, tell, + +THERSITES. +I’ll decline the whole question. Agamemnon commands Achilles; Achilles +is my lord; I am Patroclus’ knower; and Patroclus is a fool. + +PATROCLUS. +You rascal! + +THERSITES. +Peace, fool! I have not done. + +ACHILLES. +He is a privileg’d man. Proceed, Thersites. + +THERSITES. +Agamemnon is a fool; Achilles is a fool; Thersites is a fool; and, as +aforesaid, Patroclus is a fool. + +ACHILLES. +Derive this; come. + +THERSITES. +Agamemnon is a fool to offer to command Achilles; Achilles is a fool to +be commanded of Agamemnon; Thersites is a fool to serve such a fool; +and this Patroclus is a fool positive. + +PATROCLUS. +Why am I a fool? + +THERSITES. +Make that demand of the Creator. It suffices me thou art. Look you, who +comes here? + + Enter Agamemnon, Ulysses, Nestor, Diomedes, Ajax and Calchas. + +ACHILLES. +Come, Patroclus, I’ll speak with nobody. Come in with me, Thersites. + + [_Exit_.] + +THERSITES. +Here is such patchery, such juggling, and such knavery. All the +argument is a whore and a cuckold—a good quarrel to draw emulous +factions and bleed to death upon. Now the dry serpigo on the subject, +and war and lechery confound all! + + [_Exit_.] + +AGAMEMNON. +Where is Achilles? + +PATROCLUS. +Within his tent; but ill-dispos’d, my lord. + +AGAMEMNON. +Let it be known to him that we are here. +He sate our messengers; and we lay by +Our appertainings, visiting of him. +Let him be told so; lest, perchance, he think +We dare not move the question of our place +Or know not what we are. + +PATROCLUS. +I shall say so to him. + + [_Exit_.] + +ULYSSES. +We saw him at the opening of his tent. +He is not sick. + +AJAX. +Yes, lion-sick, sick of proud heart. You may call it melancholy, if you +will favour the man; but, by my head, ’tis pride. But why, why? Let him +show us a cause. A word, my lord. + + [_Takes Agamemnon aside_.] + +NESTOR. +What moves Ajax thus to bay at him? + +ULYSSES. +Achilles hath inveigled his fool from him. + +NESTOR. +Who, Thersites? + +ULYSSES. +He. + +NESTOR. +Then will Ajax lack matter, if he have lost his argument. + +ULYSSES. +No; you see he is his argument that has his argument, Achilles. + +NESTOR. +All the better; their fraction is more our wish than their faction. But +it was a strong composure a fool could disunite! + +ULYSSES. +The amity that wisdom knits not, folly may easily untie. + + Re-enter Patroclus. + +Here comes Patroclus. + +NESTOR. +No Achilles with him. + +ULYSSES. +The elephant hath joints, but none for courtesy; his legs are legs for +necessity, not for flexure. + +PATROCLUS. +Achilles bids me say he is much sorry +If any thing more than your sport and pleasure +Did move your greatness and this noble state +To call upon him; he hopes it is no other +But for your health and your digestion sake, +An after-dinner’s breath. + +AGAMEMNON. +Hear you, Patroclus. +We are too well acquainted with these answers; +But his evasion, wing’d thus swift with scorn, +Cannot outfly our apprehensions. +Much attribute he hath, and much the reason +Why we ascribe it to him. Yet all his virtues, +Not virtuously on his own part beheld, +Do in our eyes begin to lose their gloss; +Yea, like fair fruit in an unwholesome dish, +Are like to rot untasted. Go and tell him +We come to speak with him; and you shall not sin +If you do say we think him over-proud +And under-honest, in self-assumption greater +Than in the note of judgement; and worthier than himself +Here tend the savage strangeness he puts on, +Disguise the holy strength of their command, +And underwrite in an observing kind +His humorous predominance; yea, watch +His course and time, his ebbs and flows, as if +The passage and whole stream of this commencement +Rode on his tide. Go tell him this, and add +That if he overhold his price so much +We’ll none of him, but let him, like an engine +Not portable, lie under this report: +Bring action hither; this cannot go to war. +A stirring dwarf we do allowance give +Before a sleeping giant. Tell him so. + +PATROCLUS. +I shall, and bring his answer presently. + + [_Exit_.] + +AGAMEMNON. +In second voice we’ll not be satisfied; +We come to speak with him. Ulysses, enter you. + + [_Exit_ Ulysses.] + +AJAX. +What is he more than another? + +AGAMEMNON. +No more than what he thinks he is. + +AJAX. +Is he so much? Do you not think he thinks himself a better man than I +am? + +AGAMEMNON. +No question. + +AJAX. +Will you subscribe his thought and say he is? + +AGAMEMNON. +No, noble Ajax; you are as strong, as valiant, as wise, no less noble, +much more gentle, and altogether more tractable. + +AJAX. +Why should a man be proud? How doth pride grow? I know not what pride +is. + +AGAMEMNON. +Your mind is the clearer, Ajax, and your virtues the fairer. He that is +proud eats up himself. Pride is his own glass, his own trumpet, his own +chronicle; and whatever praises itself but in the deed devours the deed +in the praise. + + Re-enter Ulysses. + +AJAX. +I do hate a proud man as I do hate the engend’ring of toads. + +NESTOR. +[_Aside._] And yet he loves himself: is’t not strange? + +ULYSSES. +Achilles will not to the field tomorrow. + +AGAMEMNON. +What’s his excuse? + +ULYSSES. +He doth rely on none; +But carries on the stream of his dispose, +Without observance or respect of any, +In will peculiar and in self-admission. + +AGAMEMNON. +Why will he not, upon our fair request, +Untent his person and share th’air with us? + +ULYSSES. +Things small as nothing, for request’s sake only, +He makes important; possess’d he is with greatness, +And speaks not to himself but with a pride +That quarrels at self-breath. Imagin’d worth +Holds in his blood such swol’n and hot discourse +That ’twixt his mental and his active parts +Kingdom’d Achilles in commotion rages, +And batters down himself. What should I say? +He is so plaguy proud that the death tokens of it +Cry ‘No recovery.’ + +AGAMEMNON. +Let Ajax go to him. +Dear lord, go you and greet him in his tent. +’Tis said he holds you well; and will be led +At your request a little from himself. + +ULYSSES. +O Agamemnon, let it not be so! +We’ll consecrate the steps that Ajax makes +When they go from Achilles. Shall the proud lord +That bastes his arrogance with his own seam +And never suffers matter of the world +Enter his thoughts, save such as doth revolve +And ruminate himself—shall he be worshipp’d +Of that we hold an idol more than he? +No, this thrice worthy and right valiant lord +Shall not so stale his palm, nobly acquir’d, +Nor, by my will, assubjugate his merit, +As amply titled as Achilles is, +By going to Achilles. +That were to enlard his fat-already pride, +And add more coals to Cancer when he burns +With entertaining great Hyperion. +This lord go to him! Jupiter forbid, +And say in thunder ‘Achilles go to him.’ + +NESTOR. +[_Aside_.] O, this is well! He rubs the vein of him. + +DIOMEDES. +[_Aside_.] And how his silence drinks up this applause! + +AJAX. +If I go to him, with my armed fist I’ll pash him o’er the face. + +AGAMEMNON. +O, no, you shall not go. + +AJAX. +An a’ be proud with me I’ll pheeze his pride. +Let me go to him. + +ULYSSES. +Not for the worth that hangs upon our quarrel. + +AJAX. +A paltry, insolent fellow! + +NESTOR. +[_Aside_.] How he describes himself! + +AJAX. +Can he not be sociable? + +ULYSSES. +[_Aside_.] The raven chides blackness. + +AJAX. +I’ll let his humours blood. + +AGAMEMNON. +[_Aside_.] He will be the physician that should be the patient. + +AJAX. +And all men were o’ my mind— + +ULYSSES. +[_Aside_.] Wit would be out of fashion. + +AJAX. +A’ should not bear it so, a’ should eat’s words first. +Shall pride carry it? + +NESTOR. +[_Aside_.] And ’twould, you’d carry half. + +ULYSSES. +[_Aside_.] A’ would have ten shares. + +AJAX. +I will knead him, I’ll make him supple. + +NESTOR. +[_Aside_.] He’s not yet through warm. Force him with praises; pour in, +pour in; his ambition is dry. + +ULYSSES. +[_To Agamemnon_.] My lord, you feed too much on this dislike. + +NESTOR. +Our noble general, do not do so. + +DIOMEDES. +You must prepare to fight without Achilles. + +ULYSSES. +Why ’tis this naming of him does him harm. +Here is a man—but ’tis before his face; +I will be silent. + +NESTOR. +Wherefore should you so? +He is not emulous, as Achilles is. + +ULYSSES. +Know the whole world, he is as valiant. + +AJAX. +A whoreson dog, that shall palter with us thus! +Would he were a Trojan! + +NESTOR. +What a vice were it in Ajax now— + +ULYSSES. +If he were proud. + +DIOMEDES. +Or covetous of praise. + +ULYSSES. +Ay, or surly borne. + +DIOMEDES. +Or strange, or self-affected. + +ULYSSES. +Thank the heavens, lord, thou art of sweet composure +Praise him that gat thee, she that gave thee suck; +Fam’d be thy tutor, and thy parts of nature +Thrice fam’d beyond, beyond all erudition; +But he that disciplin’d thine arms to fight— +Let Mars divide eternity in twain +And give him half; and, for thy vigour, +Bull-bearing Milo his addition yield +To sinewy Ajax. I will not praise thy wisdom, +Which, like a bourn, a pale, a shore, confines +Thy spacious and dilated parts. Here’s Nestor, +Instructed by the antiquary times— +He must, he is, he cannot but be wise; +But pardon, father Nestor, were your days +As green as Ajax’ and your brain so temper’d, +You should not have the eminence of him, +But be as Ajax. + +AJAX. +Shall I call you father? + +NESTOR. +Ay, my good son. + +DIOMEDES. +Be rul’d by him, Lord Ajax. + +ULYSSES. +There is no tarrying here; the hart Achilles +Keeps thicket. Please it our great general +To call together all his state of war; +Fresh kings are come to Troy. Tomorrow +We must with all our main of power stand fast; +And here’s a lord—come knights from east to west +And cull their flower, Ajax shall cope the best. + +AGAMEMNON. +Go we to council. Let Achilles sleep. +Light boats sail swift, though greater hulks draw deep. + + [_Exeunt_.] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Troy. PRIAM’S palace. + + Music sounds within. Enter Pandarus and a Servant. + +PANDARUS. +Friend, you—pray you, a word. Do you not follow the young Lord Paris? + +SERVANT. +Ay, sir, when he goes before me. + +PANDARUS. +You depend upon him, I mean? + +SERVANT. +Sir, I do depend upon the Lord. + +PANDARUS. +You depend upon a notable gentleman; I must needs praise him. + +SERVANT. +The Lord be praised! + +PANDARUS. +You know me, do you not? + +SERVANT. +Faith, sir, superficially. + +PANDARUS. +Friend, know me better: I am the Lord Pandarus. + +SERVANT. +I hope I shall know your honour better. + +PANDARUS. +I do desire it. + +SERVANT. +You are in the state of grace? + +PANDARUS. +Grace? Not so, friend; honour and lordship are my titles. What music is +this? + +SERVANT. +I do but partly know, sir; it is music in parts. + +PANDARUS. +Know you the musicians? + +SERVANT. +Wholly, sir. + +PANDARUS. +Who play they to? + +SERVANT. +To the hearers, sir. + +PANDARUS. +At whose pleasure, friend? + +SERVANT. +At mine, sir, and theirs that love music. + +PANDARUS. +Command, I mean, friend. + +SERVANT. +Who shall I command, sir? + +PANDARUS. +Friend, we understand not one another: I am too courtly, and thou art +too cunning. At whose request do these men play? + +SERVANT. +That’s to’t, indeed, sir. Marry, sir, at the request of Paris my lord, +who is there in person; with him the mortal Venus, the heart-blood of +beauty, love’s invisible soul— + +PANDARUS. +Who, my cousin, Cressida? + +SERVANT. +No, sir, Helen. Could not you find out that by her attributes? + +PANDARUS. +It should seem, fellow, that thou hast not seen the Lady Cressida. I +come to speak with Paris from the Prince Troilus; I will make a +complimental assault upon him, for my business seethes. + +SERVANT. +Sodden business! There’s a stew’d phrase indeed! + + Enter Paris and Helen, attended. + +PANDARUS. +Fair be to you, my lord, and to all this fair company! Fair desires, in +all fair measure, fairly guide them—especially to you, fair queen! Fair +thoughts be your fair pillow. + +HELEN. +Dear lord, you are full of fair words. + +PANDARUS. +You speak your fair pleasure, sweet queen. Fair prince, here is good +broken music. + +PARIS. +You have broke it, cousin; and by my life, you shall make it whole +again; you shall piece it out with a piece of your performance. + +HELEN. +He is full of harmony. + +PANDARUS. +Truly, lady, no. + +HELEN. +O, sir— + +PANDARUS. +Rude, in sooth; in good sooth, very rude. + +PARIS. +Well said, my lord. Well, you say so in fits. + +PANDARUS. +I have business to my lord, dear queen. My lord, will you vouchsafe me +a word? + +HELEN. +Nay, this shall not hedge us out. We’ll hear you sing, certainly— + +PANDARUS. +Well sweet queen, you are pleasant with me. But, marry, thus, my lord: +my dear lord and most esteemed friend, your brother Troilus— + +HELEN. +My Lord Pandarus, honey-sweet lord— + +PANDARUS. +Go to, sweet queen, go to—commends himself most affectionately to you— + +HELEN. +You shall not bob us out of our melody. If you do, our melancholy upon +your head! + +PANDARUS. +Sweet queen, sweet queen; that’s a sweet queen, i’ faith. + +HELEN. +And to make a sweet lady sad is a sour offence. + +PANDARUS. +Nay, that shall not serve your turn; that shall it not, in truth, la. +Nay, I care not for such words; no, no.—And, my lord, he desires you +that, if the King call for him at supper, you will make his excuse. + +HELEN. +My Lord Pandarus! + +PANDARUS. +What says my sweet queen, my very very sweet queen? + +PARIS. +What exploit’s in hand? Where sups he tonight? + +HELEN. +Nay, but, my lord— + +PANDARUS. +What says my sweet queen?—My cousin will fall out with you. + +HELEN. +You must not know where he sups. + +PARIS. +I’ll lay my life, with my disposer Cressida. + +PANDARUS. +No, no, no such matter; you are wide. Come, your disposer is sick. + +PARIS. +Well, I’ll make’s excuse. + +PANDARUS. +Ay, good my lord. Why should you say Cressida? +No, your poor disposer’s sick. + +PARIS. +I spy. + +PANDARUS. +You spy! What do you spy?—Come, give me an instrument. Now, sweet +queen. + +HELEN. +Why, this is kindly done. + +PANDARUS. +My niece is horribly in love with a thing you have, sweet queen. + +HELEN. +She shall have it, my lord, if it be not my Lord Paris. + +PANDARUS. +He? No, she’ll none of him; they two are twain. + +HELEN. +Falling in, after falling out, may make them three. + +PANDARUS. +Come, come. I’ll hear no more of this; I’ll sing you a song now. + +HELEN. +Ay, ay, prithee now. By my troth, sweet lord, thou hast a fine +forehead. + +PANDARUS. +Ay, you may, you may. + +HELEN. +Let thy song be love. This love will undo us all. O Cupid, Cupid, +Cupid! + +PANDARUS. +Love! Ay, that it shall, i’ faith. + +PARIS. +Ay, good now, love, love, nothing but love. + +PANDARUS. +In good troth, it begins so. + + [_Sings_.] + + + _Love, love, nothing but love, still love, still more! + For, oh, love’s bow + Shoots buck and doe; + The shaft confounds + Not that it wounds, + But tickles still the sore. + These lovers cry, O ho, they die! + Yet that which seems the wound to kill + Doth turn O ho! to ha! ha! he! + So dying love lives still. + O ho! a while, but ha! ha! ha! + O ho! groans out for ha! ha! ha!—hey ho!_ + +HELEN. +In love, i’ faith, to the very tip of the nose. + +PARIS. +He eats nothing but doves, love; and that breeds hot blood, and hot +blood begets hot thoughts, and hot thoughts beget hot deeds, and hot +deeds is love. + +PANDARUS. +Is this the generation of love: hot blood, hot thoughts, and hot deeds? +Why, they are vipers. Is love a generation of vipers? Sweet lord, who’s +a-field today? + +PARIS. +Hector, Deiphobus, Helenus, Antenor, and all the gallantry of Troy. I +would fain have arm’d today, but my Nell would not have it so. How +chance my brother Troilus went not? + +HELEN. +He hangs the lip at something. You know all, Lord Pandarus. + +PANDARUS. +Not I, honey-sweet queen. I long to hear how they spend today. You’ll +remember your brother’s excuse? + +PARIS. +To a hair. + +PANDARUS. +Farewell, sweet queen. + +HELEN. +Commend me to your niece. + +PANDARUS. +I will, sweet queen. + + [_Exit. Sound a retreat_.] + +PARIS. +They’re come from the field. Let us to Priam’s hall +To greet the warriors. Sweet Helen, I must woo you +To help unarm our Hector. His stubborn buckles, +With these your white enchanting fingers touch’d, +Shall more obey than to the edge of steel +Or force of Greekish sinews; you shall do more +Than all the island kings—disarm great Hector. + +HELEN. +’Twill make us proud to be his servant, Paris; +Yea, what he shall receive of us in duty +Gives us more palm in beauty than we have, +Yea, overshines ourself. + +PARIS. +Sweet, above thought I love thee. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE II. Troy. PANDARUS’ orchard. + + Enter Pandarus and Troilus’ Boy, meeting. + +PANDARUS. +How now! Where’s thy master? At my cousin Cressida’s? + +BOY. +No, sir; he stays for you to conduct him thither. + + Enter Troilus. + +PANDARUS. +O, here he comes. How now, how now? + +TROILUS. +Sirrah, walk off. + + [_Exit_ Boy.] + +PANDARUS. +Have you seen my cousin? + +TROILUS. +No, Pandarus. I stalk about her door +Like a strange soul upon the Stygian banks +Staying for waftage. O, be thou my Charon, +And give me swift transportance to these fields +Where I may wallow in the lily beds +Propos’d for the deserver! O gentle Pandar, +from Cupid’s shoulder pluck his painted wings, +and fly with me to Cressid! + +PANDARUS. +Walk here i’ th’ orchard, I’ll bring her straight. + + [_Exit_.] + +TROILUS. +I am giddy; expectation whirls me round. +Th’imaginary relish is so sweet +That it enchants my sense; what will it be +When that the wat’ry palate tastes indeed +Love’s thrice-repured nectar? Death, I fear me; +Sounding destruction; or some joy too fine, +Too subtle-potent, tun’d too sharp in sweetness, +For the capacity of my ruder powers. +I fear it much; and I do fear besides +That I shall lose distinction in my joys; +As doth a battle, when they charge on heaps +The enemy flying. + + Re-enter Pandarus. + +PANDARUS. +She’s making her ready, she’ll come straight; you must be witty now. +She does so blush, and fetches her wind so short, as if she were fray’d +with a sprite. I’ll fetch her. It is the prettiest villain; she fetches +her breath as short as a new-ta’en sparrow. + + [_Exit_.] + +TROILUS. +Even such a passion doth embrace my bosom. +My heart beats thicker than a feverous pulse, +And all my powers do their bestowing lose, +Like vassalage at unawares encount’ring +The eye of majesty. + + Re-enter Pandarus with Cressida. + +PANDARUS. +Come, come, what need you blush? Shame’s a baby. Here she is now; swear +the oaths now to her that you have sworn to me.—What, are you gone +again? You must be watch’d ere you be made tame, must you? Come your +ways, come your ways; and you draw backward, we’ll put you i’ th’ +fills. Why do you not speak to her? Come, draw this curtain and let’s +see your picture. Alas the day, how loath you are to offend daylight! +And ’twere dark, you’d close sooner. So, so; rub on, and kiss the +mistress. How now, a kiss in fee-farm! Build there, carpenter; the air +is sweet. Nay, you shall fight your hearts out ere I part you. The +falcon as the tercel, for all the ducks i’ th’ river. Go to, go to. + +TROILUS. +You have bereft me of all words, lady. + +PANDARUS. +Words pay no debts, give her deeds; but she’ll bereave you o’ th’ deeds +too, if she call your activity in question. What, billing again? Here’s +‘In witness whereof the parties interchangeably.’ Come in, come in; +I’ll go get a fire. + + [_Exit_.] + +CRESSIDA. +Will you walk in, my lord? + +TROILUS. +O Cressid, how often have I wish’d me thus! + +CRESSIDA. +Wish’d, my lord! The gods grant—O my lord! + +TROILUS. +What should they grant? What makes this pretty abruption? What too +curious dreg espies my sweet lady in the fountain of our love? + +CRESSIDA. +More dregs than water, if my fears have eyes. + +TROILUS. +Fears make devils of cherubins; they never see truly. + +CRESSIDA. +Blind fear, that seeing reason leads, finds safer footing than blind +reason stumbling without fear. To fear the worst oft cures the worse. + +TROILUS. +O, let my lady apprehend no fear! In all Cupid’s pageant there is +presented no monster. + +CRESSIDA. +Nor nothing monstrous neither? + +TROILUS. +Nothing, but our undertakings when we vow to weep seas, live in fire, +eat rocks, tame tigers; thinking it harder for our mistress to devise +imposition enough than for us to undergo any difficulty imposed. This +is the monstruosity in love, lady, that the will is infinite, and the +execution confin’d; that the desire is boundless, and the act a slave +to limit. + +CRESSIDA. +They say all lovers swear more performance than they are able, and yet +reserve an ability that they never perform; vowing more than the +perfection of ten, and discharging less than the tenth part of one. +They that have the voice of lions and the act of hares, are they not +monsters? + +TROILUS. +Are there such? Such are not we. Praise us as we are tasted, allow us +as we prove; our head shall go bare till merit crown it. No perfection +in reversion shall have a praise in present. We will not name desert +before his birth; and, being born, his addition shall be humble. Few +words to fair faith: Troilus shall be such to Cressid as what envy can +say worst shall be a mock for his truth; and what truth can speak +truest not truer than Troilus. + +CRESSIDA. +Will you walk in, my lord? + + Re-enter Pandarus. + +PANDARUS. +What, blushing still? Have you not done talking yet? + +CRESSIDA. +Well, uncle, what folly I commit, I dedicate to you. + +PANDARUS. +I thank you for that; if my lord get a boy of you, you’ll give him me. +Be true to my lord; if he flinch, chide me for it. + +TROILUS. +You know now your hostages: your uncle’s word and my firm faith. + +PANDARUS. +Nay, I’ll give my word for her too: our kindred, though they be long +ere they are wooed, they are constant being won; they are burs, I can +tell you; they’ll stick where they are thrown. + +CRESSIDA. +Boldness comes to me now and brings me heart. +Prince Troilus, I have lov’d you night and day +For many weary months. + +TROILUS. +Why was my Cressid then so hard to win? + +CRESSIDA. +Hard to seem won; but I was won, my lord, +With the first glance that ever—pardon me. +If I confess much, you will play the tyrant. +I love you now; but till now not so much +But I might master it. In faith, I lie; +My thoughts were like unbridled children, grown +Too headstrong for their mother. See, we fools! +Why have I blabb’d? Who shall be true to us, +When we are so unsecret to ourselves? +But, though I lov’d you well, I woo’d you not; +And yet, good faith, I wish’d myself a man, +Or that we women had men’s privilege +Of speaking first. Sweet, bid me hold my tongue, +For in this rapture I shall surely speak +The thing I shall repent. See, see, your silence, +Cunning in dumbness, from my weakness draws +My very soul of counsel. Stop my mouth. + +TROILUS. +And shall, albeit sweet music issues thence. + +PANDARUS. +Pretty, i’ faith. + +CRESSIDA. +My lord, I do beseech you, pardon me; +’Twas not my purpose thus to beg a kiss. +I am asham’d. O heavens! what have I done? +For this time will I take my leave, my lord. + +TROILUS. +Your leave, sweet Cressid! + +PANDARUS. +Leave! And you take leave till tomorrow morning— + +CRESSIDA. +Pray you, content you. + +TROILUS. +What offends you, lady? + +CRESSIDA. +Sir, mine own company. + +TROILUS. +You cannot shun yourself. + +CRESSIDA. +Let me go and try. +I have a kind of self resides with you; +But an unkind self, that itself will leave +To be another’s fool. I would be gone. +Where is my wit? I know not what I speak. + +TROILUS. +Well know they what they speak that speak so wisely. + +CRESSIDA. +Perchance, my lord, I show more craft than love; +And fell so roundly to a large confession +To angle for your thoughts; but you are wise— +Or else you love not; for to be wise and love +Exceeds man’s might; that dwells with gods above. + +TROILUS. +O that I thought it could be in a woman— +As, if it can, I will presume in you— +To feed for aye her lamp and flames of love; +To keep her constancy in plight and youth, +Outliving beauty’s outward, with a mind +That doth renew swifter than blood decays! +Or that persuasion could but thus convince me +That my integrity and truth to you +Might be affronted with the match and weight +Of such a winnowed purity in love. +How were I then uplifted! But, alas, +I am as true as truth’s simplicity, +And simpler than the infancy of truth. + +CRESSIDA. +In that I’ll war with you. + +TROILUS. +O virtuous fight, +When right with right wars who shall be most right! +True swains in love shall in the world to come +Approve their truth by Troilus, when their rhymes, +Full of protest, of oath, and big compare, +Want similes, truth tir’d with iteration— +As true as steel, as plantage to the moon, +As sun to day, as turtle to her mate, +As iron to adamant, as earth to th’ centre— +Yet, after all comparisons of truth, +As truth’s authentic author to be cited, +‘As true as Troilus’ shall crown up the verse +And sanctify the numbers. + +CRESSIDA. +Prophet may you be! +If I be false, or swerve a hair from truth, +When time is old and hath forgot itself, +When waterdrops have worn the stones of Troy, +And blind oblivion swallow’d cities up, +And mighty states characterless are grated +To dusty nothing—yet let memory +From false to false, among false maids in love, +Upbraid my falsehood when th’ have said ‘As false +As air, as water, wind, or sandy earth, +As fox to lamb, or wolf to heifer’s calf, +Pard to the hind, or stepdame to her son’— +Yea, let them say, to stick the heart of falsehood, +‘As false as Cressid.’ + +PANDARUS. +Go to, a bargain made; seal it, seal it; I’ll be the witness. Here I +hold your hand; here my cousin’s. If ever you prove false one to +another, since I have taken such pains to bring you together, let all +pitiful goers-between be call’d to the world’s end after my name—call +them all Pandars; let all constant men be Troiluses, all false women +Cressids, and all brokers between Pandars. Say ‘Amen.’ + +TROILUS. +Amen. + +CRESSIDA. +Amen. + +PANDARUS. +Amen. Whereupon I will show you a chamber and a bed; which bed, because +it shall not speak of your pretty encounters, press it to death. Away! + + [_Exeunt Troilus and Cressida_.] + +And Cupid grant all tongue-tied maidens here, +Bed, chamber, pander, to provide this gear! + + [_Exit_.] + +SCENE III. The Greek camp. + + Flourish. Enter Agamemnon, Ulysses, Diomedes, Nestor, Ajax, Menelaus + and Calchas. + +CALCHAS. +Now, Princes, for the service I have done, +Th’advantage of the time prompts me aloud +To call for recompense. Appear it to your mind +That, through the sight I bear in things to come, +I have abandon’d Troy, left my possession, +Incurr’d a traitor’s name, expos’d myself +From certain and possess’d conveniences +To doubtful fortunes, sequest’ring from me all +That time, acquaintance, custom, and condition, +Made tame and most familiar to my nature; +And here, to do you service, am become +As new into the world, strange, unacquainted— +I do beseech you, as in way of taste, +To give me now a little benefit +Out of those many regist’red in promise, +Which you say live to come in my behalf. + +AGAMEMNON. +What wouldst thou of us, Trojan? Make demand. + +CALCHAS. +You have a Trojan prisoner call’d Antenor, +Yesterday took; Troy holds him very dear. +Oft have you—often have you thanks therefore— +Desir’d my Cressid in right great exchange, +Whom Troy hath still denied; but this Antenor, +I know, is such a wrest in their affairs +That their negotiations all must slack +Wanting his manage; and they will almost +Give us a prince of blood, a son of Priam, +In change of him. Let him be sent, great Princes, +And he shall buy my daughter; and her presence +Shall quite strike off all service I have done +In most accepted pain. + +AGAMEMNON. +Let Diomedes bear him, +And bring us Cressid hither. Calchas shall have +What he requests of us. Good Diomed, +Furnish you fairly for this interchange; +Withal, bring word if Hector will tomorrow +Be answer’d in his challenge. Ajax is ready. + +DIOMEDES. +This shall I undertake; and ’tis a burden +Which I am proud to bear. + + [_Exeunt Diomedes and Calchas_.] + + [_Achilles and Patroclus stand in their tent_.] + +ULYSSES. +Achilles stands i’ th’entrance of his tent. +Please it our general pass strangely by him, +As if he were forgot; and, Princes all, +Lay negligent and loose regard upon him. +I will come last. ’Tis like he’ll question me +Why such unplausive eyes are bent, why turn’d on him. +If so, I have derision med’cinable +To use between your strangeness and his pride, +Which his own will shall have desire to drink. +It may do good. Pride hath no other glass +To show itself but pride; for supple knees +Feed arrogance and are the proud man’s fees. + +AGAMEMNON. +We’ll execute your purpose, and put on +A form of strangeness as we pass along. +So do each lord; and either greet him not, +Or else disdainfully, which shall shake him more +Than if not look’d on. I will lead the way. + +ACHILLES. +What comes the general to speak with me? +You know my mind. I’ll fight no more ’gainst Troy. + +AGAMEMNON. +What says Achilles? Would he aught with us? + +NESTOR. +Would you, my lord, aught with the general? + +ACHILLES. +No. + +NESTOR. +Nothing, my lord. + +AGAMEMNON. +The better. + + [_Exeunt Agamemnon and Nestor_.] + +ACHILLES. +Good day, good day. + +MENELAUS. +How do you? How do you? + + [_Exit_.] + +ACHILLES. +What, does the cuckold scorn me? + +AJAX. +How now, Patroclus? + +ACHILLES. +Good morrow, Ajax. + +AJAX. +Ha? + +ACHILLES. +Good morrow. + +AJAX. +Ay, and good next day too. + + [_Exit_.] + +ACHILLES. +What mean these fellows? Know they not Achilles? + +PATROCLUS. +They pass by strangely. They were us’d to bend, +To send their smiles before them to Achilles, +To come as humbly as they us’d to creep +To holy altars. + +ACHILLES. +What, am I poor of late? +’Tis certain, greatness, once fall’n out with fortune, +Must fall out with men too. What the declin’d is, +He shall as soon read in the eyes of others +As feel in his own fall; for men, like butterflies, +Show not their mealy wings but to the summer; +And not a man for being simply man +Hath any honour, but honour for those honours +That are without him, as place, riches, and favour, +Prizes of accident, as oft as merit; +Which when they fall, as being slippery standers, +The love that lean’d on them as slippery too, +Doth one pluck down another, and together +Die in the fall. But ’tis not so with me: +Fortune and I are friends; I do enjoy +At ample point all that I did possess +Save these men’s looks; who do, methinks, find out +Something not worth in me such rich beholding +As they have often given. Here is Ulysses. +I’ll interrupt his reading. +How now, Ulysses! + +ULYSSES. +Now, great Thetis’ son! + +ACHILLES. +What are you reading? + +ULYSSES. +A strange fellow here +Writes me that man—how dearly ever parted, +How much in having, or without or in— +Cannot make boast to have that which he hath, +Nor feels not what he owes, but by reflection; +As when his virtues shining upon others +Heat them, and they retort that heat again +To the first giver. + +ACHILLES. +This is not strange, Ulysses. +The beauty that is borne here in the face +The bearer knows not, but commends itself +To others’ eyes; nor doth the eye itself— +That most pure spirit of sense—behold itself, +Not going from itself; but eye to eye opposed +Salutes each other with each other’s form; +For speculation turns not to itself +Till it hath travell’d, and is mirror’d there +Where it may see itself. This is not strange at all. + +ULYSSES. +I do not strain at the position— +It is familiar—but at the author’s drift; +Who, in his circumstance, expressly proves +That no man is the lord of anything, +Though in and of him there be much consisting, +Till he communicate his parts to others; +Nor doth he of himself know them for aught +Till he behold them formed in the applause +Where th’are extended; who, like an arch, reverb’rate +The voice again; or, like a gate of steel +Fronting the sun, receives and renders back +His figure and his heat. I was much rapt in this; +And apprehended here immediately +Th’unknown Ajax. Heavens, what a man is there! +A very horse that has he knows not what! +Nature, what things there are +Most abject in regard and dear in use! +What things again most dear in the esteem +And poor in worth! Now shall we see tomorrow— +An act that very chance doth throw upon him— +Ajax renown’d. O heavens, what some men do, +While some men leave to do! +How some men creep in skittish Fortune’s hall, +Whiles others play the idiots in her eyes! +How one man eats into another’s pride, +While pride is fasting in his wantonness! +To see these Grecian lords!—why, even already +They clap the lubber Ajax on the shoulder, +As if his foot were on brave Hector’s breast, +And great Troy shrieking. + +ACHILLES. +I do believe it; for they pass’d by me +As misers do by beggars, neither gave to me +Good word nor look. What, are my deeds forgot? + +ULYSSES. +Time hath, my lord, a wallet at his back, +Wherein he puts alms for oblivion, +A great-siz’d monster of ingratitudes. +Those scraps are good deeds past, which are devour’d +As fast as they are made, forgot as soon +As done. Perseverance, dear my lord, +Keeps honour bright. To have done is to hang +Quite out of fashion, like a rusty mail +In monumental mock’ry. Take the instant way; +For honour travels in a strait so narrow— +Where one but goes abreast. Keep then the path, +For emulation hath a thousand sons +That one by one pursue; if you give way, +Or hedge aside from the direct forthright, +Like to an ent’red tide they all rush by +And leave you hindmost; +Or, like a gallant horse fall’n in first rank, +Lie there for pavement to the abject rear, +O’er-run and trampled on. Then what they do in present, +Though less than yours in past, must o’ertop yours; +For Time is like a fashionable host, +That slightly shakes his parting guest by th’hand; +And with his arms out-stretch’d, as he would fly, +Grasps in the comer. The welcome ever smiles, +And farewell goes out sighing. O, let not virtue seek +Remuneration for the thing it was; +For beauty, wit, +High birth, vigour of bone, desert in service, +Love, friendship, charity, are subjects all +To envious and calumniating Time. +One touch of nature makes the whole world kin— +That all with one consent praise new-born gauds, +Though they are made and moulded of things past, +And give to dust that is a little gilt +More laud than gilt o’er-dusted. +The present eye praises the present object. +Then marvel not, thou great and complete man, +That all the Greeks begin to worship Ajax, +Since things in motion sooner catch the eye +Than what stirs not. The cry went once on thee, +And still it might, and yet it may again, +If thou wouldst not entomb thyself alive +And case thy reputation in thy tent, +Whose glorious deeds but in these fields of late +Made emulous missions ’mongst the gods themselves, +And drave great Mars to faction. + +ACHILLES. +Of this my privacy +I have strong reasons. + +ULYSSES. +But ’gainst your privacy +The reasons are more potent and heroical. +’Tis known, Achilles, that you are in love +With one of Priam’s daughters. + +ACHILLES. +Ha! known! + +ULYSSES. +Is that a wonder? +The providence that’s in a watchful state +Knows almost every grain of Plutus’ gold; +Finds bottom in th’uncomprehensive deeps; +Keeps place with thought, and almost, like the gods, +Do thoughts unveil in their dumb cradles. +There is a mystery—with whom relation +Durst never meddle—in the soul of state, +Which hath an operation more divine +Than breath or pen can give expressure to. +All the commerce that you have had with Troy +As perfectly is ours as yours, my lord; +And better would it fit Achilles much +To throw down Hector than Polyxena. +But it must grieve young Pyrrhus now at home, +When fame shall in our island sound her trump, +And all the Greekish girls shall tripping sing +‘Great Hector’s sister did Achilles win; +But our great Ajax bravely beat down him.’ +Farewell, my lord. I as your lover speak. +The fool slides o’er the ice that you should break. + + [_Exit_.] + +PATROCLUS. +To this effect, Achilles, have I mov’d you. +A woman impudent and mannish grown +Is not more loath’d than an effeminate man +In time of action. I stand condemn’d for this; +They think my little stomach to the war +And your great love to me restrains you thus. +Sweet, rouse yourself; and the weak wanton Cupid +Shall from your neck unloose his amorous fold, +And, like a dew-drop from the lion’s mane, +Be shook to air. + +ACHILLES. +Shall Ajax fight with Hector? + +PATROCLUS. +Ay, and perhaps receive much honour by him. + +ACHILLES. +I see my reputation is at stake; +My fame is shrewdly gor’d. + +PATROCLUS. +O, then, beware: +Those wounds heal ill that men do give themselves; +Omission to do what is necessary +Seals a commission to a blank of danger; +And danger, like an ague, subtly taints +Even then when they sit idly in the sun. + +ACHILLES. +Go call Thersites hither, sweet Patroclus. +I’ll send the fool to Ajax, and desire him +T’invite the Trojan lords, after the combat, +To see us here unarm’d. I have a woman’s longing, +An appetite that I am sick withal, +To see great Hector in his weeds of peace; +To talk with him, and to behold his visage, +Even to my full of view. + + Enter Thersites. + +A labour sav’d! + +THERSITES. +A wonder! + +ACHILLES. +What? + +THERSITES. +Ajax goes up and down the field asking for himself. + +ACHILLES. +How so? + +THERSITES. +He must fight singly tomorrow with Hector, and is so prophetically +proud of an heroical cudgelling that he raves in saying nothing. + +ACHILLES. +How can that be? + +THERSITES. +Why, a’ stalks up and down like a peacock—a stride and a stand; +ruminates like an hostess that hath no arithmetic but her brain to set +down her reckoning, bites his lip with a politic regard, as who should +say ‘There were wit in this head, and ’twould out’; and so there is; +but it lies as coldly in him as fire in a flint, which will not show +without knocking. The man’s undone for ever; for if Hector break not +his neck i’ th’ combat, he’ll break’t himself in vainglory. He knows +not me. I said ‘Good morrow, Ajax’; and he replies ‘Thanks, Agamemnon.’ +What think you of this man that takes me for the general? He’s grown a +very land fish, languageless, a monster. A plague of opinion! A man may +wear it on both sides, like leather jerkin. + +ACHILLES. +Thou must be my ambassador to him, Thersites. + +THERSITES. +Who, I? Why, he’ll answer nobody; he professes not answering. Speaking +is for beggars: he wears his tongue in’s arms. I will put on his +presence. Let Patroclus make his demands to me, you shall see the +pageant of Ajax. + +ACHILLES. +To him, Patroclus. Tell him I humbly desire the valiant Ajax to invite +the most valorous Hector to come unarm’d to my tent; and to procure +safe conduct for his person of the magnanimous and most illustrious +six-or-seven-times-honour’d Captain General of the Grecian army, +Agamemnon. Do this. + +PATROCLUS. +Jove bless great Ajax! + +THERSITES. +Hum! + +PATROCLUS. +I come from the worthy Achilles— + +THERSITES. +Ha! + +PATROCLUS. +Who most humbly desires you to invite Hector to his tent— + +THERSITES. +Hum! + +PATROCLUS. +And to procure safe conduct from Agamemnon. + +THERSITES. +Agamemnon? + +PATROCLUS. +Ay, my lord. + +THERSITES. +Ha! + +PATROCLUS. +What you say to’t? + +THERSITES. +God buy you, with all my heart. + +PATROCLUS. +Your answer, sir. + +THERSITES. +If tomorrow be a fair day, by eleven of the clock it will go one way or +other. Howsoever, he shall pay for me ere he has me. + +PATROCLUS. +Your answer, sir. + +THERSITES. +Fare ye well, with all my heart. + +ACHILLES. +Why, but he is not in this tune, is he? + +THERSITES. +No, but out of tune thus. What music will be in him when Hector has +knock’d out his brains, I know not; but, I am sure, none; unless the +fiddler Apollo get his sinews to make catlings on. + +ACHILLES. +Come, thou shalt bear a letter to him straight. + +THERSITES. +Let me bear another to his horse; for that’s the more capable creature. + +ACHILLES. +My mind is troubled, like a fountain stirr’d; +And I myself see not the bottom of it. + + [_Exeunt Achilles and Patroclus_.] + +THERSITES. +Would the fountain of your mind were clear again, that I might water an +ass at it. I had rather be a tick in a sheep than such a valiant +ignorance. + + [_Exit_.] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. Troy. A street. + + Enter, at one side, Aeneas and servant with a torch; at another Paris, + Deiphobus, Antenor, Diomedes the Grecian, and others, with torches. + +PARIS. +See, ho! Who is that there? + +DEIPHOBUS. +It is the Lord Aeneas. + +AENEAS. +Is the Prince there in person? +Had I so good occasion to lie long +As you, Prince Paris, nothing but heavenly business +Should rob my bed-mate of my company. + +DIOMEDES. +That’s my mind too. Good morrow, Lord Aeneas. + +PARIS. +A valiant Greek, Aeneas—take his hand: +Witness the process of your speech, wherein +You told how Diomed, a whole week by days, +Did haunt you in the field. + +AENEAS. +Health to you, valiant sir, +During all question of the gentle truce; +But when I meet you arm’d, as black defiance +As heart can think or courage execute. + +DIOMEDES. +The one and other Diomed embraces. +Our bloods are now in calm; and so long health! +But when contention and occasion meet, +By Jove, I’ll play the hunter for thy life +With all my force, pursuit, and policy. + +AENEAS. +And thou shalt hunt a lion that will fly +With his face backward. In humane gentleness, +Welcome to Troy! Now, by Anchises’ life, +Welcome indeed! By Venus’ hand I swear +No man alive can love in such a sort +The thing he means to kill, more excellently. + +DIOMEDES. +We sympathise. Jove let Aeneas live, +If to my sword his fate be not the glory, +A thousand complete courses of the sun! +But in mine emulous honour let him die +With every joint a wound, and that tomorrow! + +AENEAS. +We know each other well. + +DIOMEDES. +We do; and long to know each other worse. + +PARIS. +This is the most despiteful gentle greeting +The noblest hateful love, that e’er I heard of. +What business, lord, so early? + +AENEAS. +I was sent for to the King; but why, I know not. + +PARIS. +His purpose meets you: ’twas to bring this Greek +To Calchas’ house, and there to render him, +For the enfreed Antenor, the fair Cressid. +Let’s have your company; or, if you please, +Haste there before us. I constantly believe— +Or rather call my thought a certain knowledge— +My brother Troilus lodges there tonight. +Rouse him and give him note of our approach, +With the whole quality wherefore; I fear +We shall be much unwelcome. + +AENEAS. +That I assure you: +Troilus had rather Troy were borne to Greece +Than Cressid borne from Troy. + +PARIS. +There is no help; +The bitter disposition of the time +Will have it so. On, lord; we’ll follow you. + +AENEAS. +Good morrow, all. + + [_Exit with servant_.] + +PARIS. +And tell me, noble Diomed, faith, tell me true, +Even in the soul of sound good-fellowship, +Who in your thoughts deserves fair Helen best, +Myself, or Menelaus? + +DIOMEDES. +Both alike: +He merits well to have her that doth seek her, +Not making any scruple of her soilure, +With such a hell of pain and world of charge; +And you as well to keep her that defend her, +Not palating the taste of her dishonour, +With such a costly loss of wealth and friends. +He like a puling cuckold would drink up +The lees and dregs of a flat tamed piece; +You, like a lecher, out of whorish loins +Are pleas’d to breed out your inheritors. +Both merits pois’d, each weighs nor less nor more, +But he as he, the heavier for a whore. + +PARIS. +You are too bitter to your country-woman. + +DIOMEDES. +She’s bitter to her country. Hear me, Paris: +For every false drop in her bawdy veins +A Grecian’s life hath sunk; for every scruple +Of her contaminated carrion weight +A Trojan hath been slain. Since she could speak, +She hath not given so many good words breath +As for her Greeks and Trojans suff’red death. + +PARIS. +Fair Diomed, you do as chapmen do, +Dispraise the thing that you desire to buy; +But we in silence hold this virtue well, +We’ll not commend what we intend to sell. +Here lies our way. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE II. Troy. The court of PANDARUS’ house. + + Enter Troilus and Cressida. + +TROILUS. +Dear, trouble not yourself; the morn is cold. + +CRESSIDA. +Then, sweet my lord, I’ll call mine uncle down; +He shall unbolt the gates. + +TROILUS. +Trouble him not; +To bed, to bed! Sleep kill those pretty eyes, +And give as soft attachment to thy senses +As infants empty of all thought! + +CRESSIDA. +Good morrow, then. + +TROILUS. +I prithee now, to bed. + +CRESSIDA. +Are you aweary of me? + +TROILUS. +O Cressida! but that the busy day, +Wak’d by the lark, hath rous’d the ribald crows, +And dreaming night will hide our joys no longer, +I would not from thee. + +CRESSIDA. +Night hath been too brief. + +TROILUS. +Beshrew the witch! with venomous wights she stays +As tediously as hell, but flies the grasps of love +With wings more momentary-swift than thought. +You will catch cold, and curse me. + +CRESSIDA. +Prithee tarry. +You men will never tarry. +O foolish Cressid! I might have still held off, +And then you would have tarried. Hark! there’s one up. + +PANDARUS. +[_Within._] What’s all the doors open here? + +TROILUS. +It is your uncle. + + Enter Pandarus. + +CRESSIDA. +A pestilence on him! Now will he be mocking. +I shall have such a life! + +PANDARUS. +How now, how now! How go maidenheads? +Here, you maid! Where’s my cousin Cressid? + +CRESSIDA. +Go hang yourself, you naughty mocking uncle. +You bring me to do, and then you flout me too. + +PANDARUS. +To do what? to do what? Let her say what. +What have I brought you to do? + +CRESSIDA. +Come, come, beshrew your heart! You’ll ne’er be good, nor suffer +others. + +PANDARUS. +Ha, ha! Alas, poor wretch! Ah, poor capocchia! Hast not slept tonight? +Would he not, a naughty man, let it sleep? A bugbear take him! + +CRESSIDA. +Did not I tell you? Would he were knock’d i’ th’ head! + + [_One knocks_.] + +Who’s that at door? Good uncle, go and see. +My lord, come you again into my chamber. +You smile and mock me, as if I meant naughtily. + +TROILUS. +Ha! ha! + +CRESSIDA. +Come, you are deceiv’d, I think of no such thing. + + [_Knock_.] + +How earnestly they knock! Pray you come in: +I would not for half Troy have you seen here. + + [_Exeunt Troilus and Cressida_.] + +PANDARUS. +Who’s there? What’s the matter? Will you beat down the door? How now? +What’s the matter? + + Enter Aeneas. + +AENEAS. +Good morrow, lord, good morrow. + +PANDARUS. +Who’s there? My lord Aeneas? By my troth, +I knew you not. What news with you so early? + +AENEAS. +Is not Prince Troilus here? + +PANDARUS. +Here! What should he do here? + +AENEAS. +Come, he is here, my lord; do not deny him. +It doth import him much to speak with me. + +PANDARUS. +Is he here, say you? It’s more than I know, I’ll be sworn. For my own +part, I came in late. What should he do here? + +AENEAS. +Who, nay then! Come, come, you’ll do him wrong ere you are ware; you’ll +be so true to him to be false to him. Do not you know of him, but yet +go fetch him hither; go. + + Re-enter Troilus. + +TROILUS. +How now! What’s the matter? + +AENEAS. +My lord, I scarce have leisure to salute you, +My matter is so rash. There is at hand +Paris your brother, and Deiphobus, +The Grecian Diomed, and our Antenor +Deliver’d to us; and for him forthwith, +Ere the first sacrifice, within this hour, +We must give up to Diomedes’ hand +The Lady Cressida. + +TROILUS. +Is it so concluded? + +AENEAS. +By Priam and the general state of Troy. +They are at hand, and ready to effect it. + +TROILUS. +How my achievements mock me! +I will go meet them; and, my Lord Aeneas, +We met by chance; you did not find me here. + +AENEAS. +Good, good, my lord, the secrets of neighbour Pandar +Have not more gift in taciturnity. + + [_Exeunt Troilus and Aeneas_.] + +PANDARUS. +Is’t possible? No sooner got but lost? The devil take Antenor! The +young prince will go mad. A plague upon Antenor! I would they had +broke’s neck. + + Re-enter Cressida. + +CRESSIDA. +How now! What’s the matter? Who was here? + +PANDARUS. +Ah, ah! + +CRESSIDA. +Why sigh you so profoundly? Where’s my lord? Gone? Tell me, sweet +uncle, what’s the matter? + +PANDARUS. +Would I were as deep under the earth as I am above! + +CRESSIDA. +O the gods! What’s the matter? + +PANDARUS. +Pray thee get thee in. Would thou hadst ne’er been born! I knew thou +wouldst be his death! O, poor gentleman! A plague upon Antenor! + +CRESSIDA. +Good uncle, I beseech you, on my knees I beseech you, what’s the +matter? + +PANDARUS. +Thou must be gone, wench, thou must be gone; thou art chang’d for +Antenor; thou must to thy father, and be gone from Troilus. ’Twill be +his death; ’twill be his bane; he cannot bear it. + +CRESSIDA. +O you immortal gods! I will not go. + +PANDARUS. +Thou must. + +CRESSIDA. +I will not, uncle. I have forgot my father; +I know no touch of consanguinity, +No kin, no love, no blood, no soul so near me +As the sweet Troilus. O you gods divine, +Make Cressid’s name the very crown of falsehood, +If ever she leave Troilus! Time, force, and death, +Do to this body what extremes you can, +But the strong base and building of my love +Is as the very centre of the earth, +Drawing all things to it. I’ll go in and weep— + +PANDARUS. +Do, do. + +CRESSIDA. +Tear my bright hair, and scratch my praised cheeks, +Crack my clear voice with sobs and break my heart, +With sounding ‘Troilus.’ I will not go from Troy. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE III. Troy. A street before PANDARUS’ house. + + Enter Paris, Troilus, Aeneas, Deiphobus, Antenor and Diomedes. + +PARIS. +It is great morning; and the hour prefix’d +For her delivery to this valiant Greek +Comes fast upon. Good my brother Troilus, +Tell you the lady what she is to do +And haste her to the purpose. + +TROILUS. +Walk into her house. +I’ll bring her to the Grecian presently; +And to his hand when I deliver her, +Think it an altar, and thy brother Troilus +A priest, there off’ring to it his own heart. + + [_Exit_.] + +PARIS. +I know what ’tis to love, +And would, as I shall pity, I could help! +Please you walk in, my lords? + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE IV. Troy. PANDARUS’ house. + + Enter Pandarus and Cressida. + +PANDARUS. +Be moderate, be moderate. + +CRESSIDA. +Why tell you me of moderation? +The grief is fine, full, perfect, that I taste, +And violenteth in a sense as strong +As that which causeth it. How can I moderate it? +If I could temporize with my affections +Or brew it to a weak and colder palate, +The like allayment could I give my grief. +My love admits no qualifying dross; +No more my grief, in such a precious loss. + + Enter Troilus. + +PANDARUS. +Here, here, here he comes. Ah, sweet ducks! + +CRESSIDA. +[_Embracing him_.] O Troilus! Troilus! + +PANDARUS. +What a pair of spectacles is here! Let me embrace too. ‘O heart,’ as +the goodly saying is,— + + O heart, heavy heart, + Why sigh’st thou without breaking? + +where he answers again + + Because thou canst not ease thy smart + By friendship nor by speaking. + +There was never a truer rhyme. Let us cast away nothing, for we may +live to have need of such a verse. We see it, we see it. How now, +lambs! + +TROILUS. +Cressid, I love thee in so strain’d a purity +That the bless’d gods, as angry with my fancy, +More bright in zeal than the devotion which +Cold lips blow to their deities, take thee from me. + +CRESSIDA. +Have the gods envy? + +PANDARUS. +Ay, ay, ay, ay; ’tis too plain a case. + +CRESSIDA. +And is it true that I must go from Troy? + +TROILUS. +A hateful truth. + +CRESSIDA. +What! and from Troilus too? + +TROILUS. +From Troy and Troilus. + +CRESSIDA. +Is’t possible? + +TROILUS. +And suddenly; where injury of chance +Puts back leave-taking, justles roughly by +All time of pause, rudely beguiles our lips +Of all rejoindure, forcibly prevents +Our lock’d embrasures, strangles our dear vows +Even in the birth of our own labouring breath. +We two, that with so many thousand sighs +Did buy each other, must poorly sell ourselves +With the rude brevity and discharge of one. +Injurious time now with a robber’s haste +Crams his rich thiev’ry up, he knows not how. +As many farewells as be stars in heaven, +With distinct breath and consign’d kisses to them, +He fumbles up into a loose adieu, +And scants us with a single famish’d kiss, +Distasted with the salt of broken tears. + +AENEAS. +[_Within_.] My lord, is the lady ready? + +TROILUS. +Hark! you are call’d. Some say the Genius +Cries so to him that instantly must die. +Bid them have patience; she shall come anon. + +PANDARUS. +Where are my tears? Rain, to lay this wind, or my heart will be blown +up by my throat! + + [_Exit_.] + +CRESSIDA. +I must then to the Grecians? + +TROILUS. +No remedy. + +CRESSIDA. +A woeful Cressid ’mongst the merry Greeks! +When shall we see again? + +TROILUS. +Hear me, my love. Be thou but true of heart. + +CRESSIDA. +I true? How now! What wicked deem is this? + +TROILUS. +Nay, we must use expostulation kindly, +For it is parting from us. +I speak not ‘Be thou true’ as fearing thee, +For I will throw my glove to Death himself +That there’s no maculation in thy heart; +But ‘Be thou true’ say I to fashion in +My sequent protestation: be thou true, +And I will see thee. + +CRESSIDA. +O! you shall be expos’d, my lord, to dangers +As infinite as imminent! But I’ll be true. + +TROILUS. +And I’ll grow friend with danger. Wear this sleeve. + +CRESSIDA. +And you this glove. When shall I see you? + +TROILUS. +I will corrupt the Grecian sentinels +To give thee nightly visitation. +But yet be true. + +CRESSIDA. +O heavens! ‘Be true’ again! + +TROILUS. +Hear why I speak it, love. +The Grecian youths are full of quality; +They’re loving, well compos’d, with gifts of nature, +Flowing and swelling o’er with arts and exercise. +How novelty may move, and parts with person, +Alas, a kind of godly jealousy, +Which, I beseech you, call a virtuous sin, +Makes me afear’d. + +CRESSIDA. +O heavens! you love me not! + +TROILUS. +Die I a villain then! +In this I do not call your faith in question +So mainly as my merit. I cannot sing, +Nor heel the high lavolt, nor sweeten talk, +Nor play at subtle games; fair virtues all, +To which the Grecians are most prompt and pregnant; +But I can tell that in each grace of these +There lurks a still and dumb-discoursive devil +That tempts most cunningly. But be not tempted. + +CRESSIDA. +Do you think I will? + +TROILUS. +No. +But something may be done that we will not; +And sometimes we are devils to ourselves, +When we will tempt the frailty of our powers, +Presuming on their changeful potency. + +AENEAS. +[_Within_.] Nay, good my lord! + +TROILUS. +Come, kiss; and let us part. + +PARIS. +[_Within_.] Brother Troilus! + +TROILUS. +Good brother, come you hither; +And bring Aeneas and the Grecian with you. + +CRESSIDA. +My lord, will you be true? + +TROILUS. +Who, I? Alas, it is my vice, my fault! +Whiles others fish with craft for great opinion, +I with great truth catch mere simplicity; +Whilst some with cunning gild their copper crowns, +With truth and plainness I do wear mine bare. +Fear not my truth: the moral of my wit +Is plain and true; there’s all the reach of it. + + Enter Aeneas, Paris, Antenor, Deiphobus and Diomedes. + +Welcome, Sir Diomed! Here is the lady +Which for Antenor we deliver you; +At the port, lord, I’ll give her to thy hand, +And by the way possess thee what she is. +Entreat her fair; and, by my soul, fair Greek, +If e’er thou stand at mercy of my sword, +Name Cressid, and thy life shall be as safe +As Priam is in Ilion. + +DIOMEDES. +Fair Lady Cressid, +So please you, save the thanks this prince expects. +The lustre in your eye, heaven in your cheek, +Pleads your fair usage; and to Diomed +You shall be mistress, and command him wholly. + +TROILUS. +Grecian, thou dost not use me courteously +To shame the zeal of my petition to thee +In praising her. I tell thee, lord of Greece, +She is as far high-soaring o’er thy praises +As thou unworthy to be call’d her servant. +I charge thee use her well, even for my charge; +For, by the dreadful Pluto, if thou dost not, +Though the great bulk Achilles be thy guard, +I’ll cut thy throat. + +DIOMEDES. +O, be not mov’d, Prince Troilus. +Let me be privileg’d by my place and message +To be a speaker free: when I am hence +I’ll answer to my lust. And know you, lord, +I’ll nothing do on charge: to her own worth +She shall be priz’d. But that you say ‘Be’t so,’ +I speak it in my spirit and honour, ‘No.’ + +TROILUS. +Come, to the port. I’ll tell thee, Diomed, +This brave shall oft make thee to hide thy head. +Lady, give me your hand; and, as we walk, +To our own selves bend we our needful talk. + + [_Exeunt Troilus, Cressida and Diomedes_.] + + [_Sound trumpet_.] + +PARIS. +Hark! Hector’s trumpet. + +AENEAS. +How have we spent this morning! +The Prince must think me tardy and remiss, +That swore to ride before him to the field. + +PARIS. +’Tis Troilus’ fault. Come, come to field with him. + +DEIPHOBUS. +Let us make ready straight. + +AENEAS. +Yea, with a bridegroom’s fresh alacrity +Let us address to tend on Hector’s heels. +The glory of our Troy doth this day lie +On his fair worth and single chivalry. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE V. The Grecian camp. Lists set out. + + Enter Ajax, armed; Agamemnon, Achilles, Patroclus, Menelaus, Ulysses, + Nestor and others. + +AGAMEMNON. +Here art thou in appointment fresh and fair, +Anticipating time with starting courage. +Give with thy trumpet a loud note to Troy, +Thou dreadful Ajax, that the appalled air +May pierce the head of the great combatant, +And hale him hither. + +AJAX. +Thou, trumpet, there’s my purse. +Now crack thy lungs and split thy brazen pipe; +Blow, villain, till thy sphered bias cheek +Out-swell the colic of puff’d Aquilon. +Come, stretch thy chest, and let thy eyes spout blood: +Thou blowest for Hector. + + [_Trumpet sounds_.] + +ULYSSES. +No trumpet answers. + +ACHILLES. +’Tis but early days. + +AGAMEMNON. +Is not yond Diomed, with Calchas’ daughter? + +ULYSSES. +’Tis he, I ken the manner of his gait: +He rises on the toe. That spirit of his +In aspiration lifts him from the earth. + + Enter Diomedes and Cressida. + +AGAMEMNON. +Is this the Lady Cressid? + +DIOMEDES. +Even she. + +AGAMEMNON. +Most dearly welcome to the Greeks, sweet lady. + +NESTOR. +Our general doth salute you with a kiss. + +ULYSSES. +Yet is the kindness but particular; +’Twere better she were kiss’d in general. + +NESTOR. +And very courtly counsel: I’ll begin. +So much for Nestor. + +ACHILLES. +I’ll take that winter from your lips, fair lady. +Achilles bids you welcome. + +MENELAUS. +I had good argument for kissing once. + +PATROCLUS. +But that’s no argument for kissing now; +For thus popp’d Paris in his hardiment, +And parted thus you and your argument. + +ULYSSES. +O deadly gall, and theme of all our scorns! +For which we lose our heads to gild his horns. + +PATROCLUS. +The first was Menelaus’ kiss; this, mine: +Patroclus kisses you. + +MENELAUS. +O, this is trim! + +PATROCLUS. +Paris and I kiss evermore for him. + +MENELAUS. +I’ll have my kiss, sir. Lady, by your leave. + +CRESSIDA. +In kissing, do you render or receive? + +PATROCLUS. +Both take and give. + +CRESSIDA. +I’ll make my match to live, +The kiss you take is better than you give; +Therefore no kiss. + +MENELAUS. +I’ll give you boot; I’ll give you three for one. + +CRESSIDA. +You are an odd man; give even or give none. + +MENELAUS. +An odd man, lady! Every man is odd. + +CRESSIDA. +No, Paris is not; for you know ’tis true +That you are odd, and he is even with you. + +MENELAUS. +You fillip me o’ th’head. + +CRESSIDA. +No, I’ll be sworn. + +ULYSSES. +It were no match, your nail against his horn. +May I, sweet lady, beg a kiss of you? + +CRESSIDA. +You may. + +ULYSSES. +I do desire it. + +CRESSIDA. +Why, beg then. + +ULYSSES. +Why then, for Venus’ sake give me a kiss +When Helen is a maid again, and his. + +CRESSIDA. +I am your debtor; claim it when ’tis due. + +ULYSSES. +Never’s my day, and then a kiss of you. + +DIOMEDES. +Lady, a word. I’ll bring you to your father. + + [_Exit with_ Cressida.] + +NESTOR. +A woman of quick sense. + +ULYSSES. +Fie, fie upon her! +There’s language in her eye, her cheek, her lip, +Nay, her foot speaks; her wanton spirits look out +At every joint and motive of her body. +O! these encounterers so glib of tongue +That give a coasting welcome ere it comes, +And wide unclasp the tables of their thoughts +To every tickling reader! Set them down +For sluttish spoils of opportunity, +And daughters of the game. + + [_Trumpet within_.] + +ALL. +The Trojans’ trumpet. + +AGAMEMNON. +Yonder comes the troop. + + Enter Hector, armed; Aeneas, Troilus, Paris, Deiphobus and other +Trojans, with attendants. + +AENEAS. +Hail, all you state of Greece! What shall be done +To him that victory commands? Or do you purpose +A victor shall be known? Will you the knights +Shall to the edge of all extremity +Pursue each other, or shall be divided +By any voice or order of the field? +Hector bade ask. + +AGAMEMNON. +Which way would Hector have it? + +AENEAS. +He cares not; he’ll obey conditions. + +AGAMEMNON. +’Tis done like Hector. + +ACHILLES. +But securely done, +A little proudly, and great deal misprising +The knight oppos’d. + +AENEAS. +If not Achilles, sir, +What is your name? + +ACHILLES. +If not Achilles, nothing. + +AENEAS. +Therefore Achilles. But whate’er, know this: +In the extremity of great and little +Valour and pride excel themselves in Hector; +The one almost as infinite as all, +The other blank as nothing. Weigh him well, +And that which looks like pride is courtesy. +This Ajax is half made of Hector’s blood; +In love whereof half Hector stays at home; +Half heart, half hand, half Hector comes to seek +This blended knight, half Trojan and half Greek. + +ACHILLES. +A maiden battle then? O! I perceive you. + + Re-enter Diomedes. + +AGAMEMNON. +Here is Sir Diomed. Go, gentle knight, +Stand by our Ajax. As you and Lord Aeneas +Consent upon the order of their fight, +So be it; either to the uttermost, +Or else a breath. The combatants being kin +Half stints their strife before their strokes begin. + +Ajax and Hector enter the lists. + +ULYSSES. +They are oppos’d already. + +AGAMEMNON. +What Trojan is that same that looks so heavy? + +ULYSSES. +The youngest son of Priam, a true knight; +Not yet mature, yet matchless; firm of word; +Speaking in deeds and deedless in his tongue; +Not soon provok’d, nor being provok’d soon calm’d; +His heart and hand both open and both free; +For what he has he gives, what thinks he shows, +Yet gives he not till judgement guide his bounty, +Nor dignifies an impure thought with breath; +Manly as Hector, but more dangerous; +For Hector in his blaze of wrath subscribes +To tender objects, but he in heat of action +Is more vindicative than jealous love. +They call him Troilus, and on him erect +A second hope as fairly built as Hector. +Thus says Aeneas, one that knows the youth +Even to his inches, and, with private soul, +Did in great Ilion thus translate him to me. + + [_Alarum. Hector and Ajax fight._] + +AGAMEMNON. +They are in action. + +NESTOR. +Now, Ajax, hold thine own! + +TROILUS. +Hector, thou sleep’st; awake thee! + +AGAMEMNON. +His blows are well dispos’d. There, Ajax! + + [_Trumpets cease_.] + +DIOMEDES. +You must no more. + +AENEAS. +Princes, enough, so please you. + +AJAX. +I am not warm yet; let us fight again. + +DIOMEDES. +As Hector pleases. + +HECTOR. +Why, then will I no more. +Thou art, great lord, my father’s sister’s son, +A cousin-german to great Priam’s seed; +The obligation of our blood forbids +A gory emulation ’twixt us twain: +Were thy commixtion Greek and Trojan so +That thou could’st say ‘This hand is Grecian all, +And this is Trojan; the sinews of this leg +All Greek, and this all Troy; my mother’s blood +Runs on the dexter cheek, and this sinister +Bounds in my father’s; by Jove multipotent, +Thou shouldst not bear from me a Greekish member +Wherein my sword had not impressure made +Of our rank feud; but the just gods gainsay +That any drop thou borrow’dst from thy mother, +My sacred aunt, should by my mortal sword +Be drained! Let me embrace thee, Ajax. +By him that thunders, thou hast lusty arms; +Hector would have them fall upon him thus. +Cousin, all honour to thee! + +AJAX. +I thank thee, Hector. +Thou art too gentle and too free a man. +I came to kill thee, cousin, and bear hence +A great addition earned in thy death. + +HECTOR. +Not Neoptolemus so mirable, +On whose bright crest Fame with her loud’st Oyes +Cries ‘This is he!’ could promise to himself +A thought of added honour torn from Hector. + +AENEAS. +There is expectance here from both the sides +What further you will do. + +HECTOR. +We’ll answer it: +The issue is embracement. Ajax, farewell. + +AJAX. +If I might in entreaties find success, +As seld’ I have the chance, I would desire +My famous cousin to our Grecian tents. + +DIOMEDES. +’Tis Agamemnon’s wish; and great Achilles +Doth long to see unarm’d the valiant Hector. + +HECTOR. +Aeneas, call my brother Troilus to me, +And signify this loving interview +To the expecters of our Trojan part; +Desire them home. Give me thy hand, my cousin; +I will go eat with thee, and see your knights. + +Agamemnon and the rest of the Greeks come forward. + +AJAX. +Great Agamemnon comes to meet us here. + +HECTOR. +The worthiest of them tell me name by name; +But for Achilles, my own searching eyes +Shall find him by his large and portly size. + +AGAMEMNON. +Worthy all arms! as welcome as to one +That would be rid of such an enemy. +But that’s no welcome. Understand more clear, +What’s past and what’s to come is strew’d with husks +And formless ruin of oblivion; +But in this extant moment, faith and troth, +Strain’d purely from all hollow bias-drawing, +Bids thee with most divine integrity, +From heart of very heart, great Hector, welcome. + +HECTOR. +I thank thee, most imperious Agamemnon. + +AGAMEMNON. +[_To Troilus._] My well-fam’d lord of Troy, no less to you. + +MENELAUS. +Let me confirm my princely brother’s greeting. +You brace of warlike brothers, welcome hither. + +HECTOR. +Who must we answer? + +AENEAS. +The noble Menelaus. + +HECTOR. +O you, my lord? By Mars his gauntlet, thanks! +Mock not that I affect the untraded oath; +Your quondam wife swears still by Venus’ glove. +She’s well, but bade me not commend her to you. + +MENELAUS. +Name her not now, sir; she’s a deadly theme. + +HECTOR. +O, pardon; I offend. + +NESTOR. +I have, thou gallant Trojan, seen thee oft, +Labouring for destiny, make cruel way +Through ranks of Greekish youth; and I have seen thee, +As hot as Perseus, spur thy Phrygian steed, +Despising many forfeits and subduements, +When thou hast hung thy advanced sword i’ th’air, +Not letting it decline on the declined; +That I have said to some my standers-by +‘Lo, Jupiter is yonder, dealing life!’ +And I have seen thee pause and take thy breath, +When that a ring of Greeks have shrap’d thee in, +Like an Olympian wrestling. This have I seen; +But this thy countenance, still lock’d in steel, +I never saw till now. I knew thy grandsire, +And once fought with him. He was a soldier good, +But, by great Mars, the captain of us all, +Never like thee. O, let an old man embrace thee; +And, worthy warrior, welcome to our tents. + +AENEAS. +’Tis the old Nestor. + +HECTOR. +Let me embrace thee, good old chronicle, +That hast so long walk’d hand in hand with time. +Most reverend Nestor, I am glad to clasp thee. + +NESTOR. +I would my arms could match thee in contention +As they contend with thee in courtesy. + +HECTOR. +I would they could. + +NESTOR. +Ha! +By this white beard, I’d fight with thee tomorrow. +Well, welcome, welcome! I have seen the time. + +ULYSSES. +I wonder now how yonder city stands, +When we have here her base and pillar by us. + +HECTOR. +I know your favour, Lord Ulysses, well. +Ah, sir, there’s many a Greek and Trojan dead, +Since first I saw yourself and Diomed +In Ilion on your Greekish embassy. + +ULYSSES. +Sir, I foretold you then what would ensue. +My prophecy is but half his journey yet; +For yonder walls, that pertly front your town, +Yon towers, whose wanton tops do buss the clouds, +Must kiss their own feet. + +HECTOR. +I must not believe you. +There they stand yet; and modestly I think +The fall of every Phrygian stone will cost +A drop of Grecian blood. The end crowns all; +And that old common arbitrator, Time, +Will one day end it. + +ULYSSES. +So to him we leave it. +Most gentle and most valiant Hector, welcome. +After the General, I beseech you next +To feast with me and see me at my tent. + +ACHILLES. +I shall forestall thee, Lord Ulysses, thou! +Now, Hector, I have fed mine eyes on thee; +I have with exact view perus’d thee, Hector, +And quoted joint by joint. + +HECTOR. +Is this Achilles? + +ACHILLES. +I am Achilles. + +HECTOR. +Stand fair, I pray thee; let me look on thee. + +ACHILLES. +Behold thy fill. + +HECTOR. +Nay, I have done already. + +ACHILLES. +Thou art too brief. I will the second time, +As I would buy thee, view thee limb by limb. + +HECTOR. +O, like a book of sport thou’lt read me o’er; +But there’s more in me than thou understand’st. +Why dost thou so oppress me with thine eye? + +ACHILLES. +Tell me, you heavens, in which part of his body +Shall I destroy him? Whether there, or there, or there? +That I may give the local wound a name, +And make distinct the very breach whereout +Hector’s great spirit flew. Answer me, heavens. + +HECTOR. +It would discredit the blest gods, proud man, +To answer such a question. Stand again. +Think’st thou to catch my life so pleasantly +As to prenominate in nice conjecture +Where thou wilt hit me dead? + +ACHILLES. +I tell thee yea. + +HECTOR. +Wert thou an oracle to tell me so, +I’d not believe thee. Henceforth guard thee well; +For I’ll not kill thee there, nor there, nor there; +But, by the forge that stithied Mars his helm, +I’ll kill thee everywhere, yea, o’er and o’er. +You wisest Grecians, pardon me this brag. +His insolence draws folly from my lips; +But I’ll endeavour deeds to match these words, +Or may I never— + +AJAX. +Do not chafe thee, cousin; +And you, Achilles, let these threats alone +Till accident or purpose bring you to’t. +You may have every day enough of Hector, +If you have stomach. The general state, I fear, +Can scarce entreat you to be odd with him. + +HECTOR. +I pray you let us see you in the field; +We have had pelting wars since you refus’d +The Grecians’ cause. + +ACHILLES. +Dost thou entreat me, Hector? +Tomorrow do I meet thee, fell as death; +Tonight all friends. + +HECTOR. +Thy hand upon that match. + +AGAMEMNON. +First, all you peers of Greece, go to my tent; +There in the full convive we; afterwards, +As Hector’s leisure and your bounties shall +Concur together, severally entreat him. +Beat loud the tambourines, let the trumpets blow, +That this great soldier may his welcome know. + + [_Exeunt all but Troilus and Ulysses_.] + +TROILUS. +My Lord Ulysses, tell me, I beseech you, +In what place of the field doth Calchas keep? + +ULYSSES. +At Menelaus’ tent, most princely Troilus. +There Diomed doth feast with him tonight, +Who neither looks upon the heaven nor earth, +But gives all gaze and bent of amorous view +On the fair Cressid. + +TROILUS. +Shall I, sweet lord, be bound to you so much, +After we part from Agamemnon’s tent, +To bring me thither? + +ULYSSES. +You shall command me, sir. +As gentle tell me of what honour was +This Cressida in Troy? Had she no lover there +That wails her absence? + +TROILUS. +O, sir, to such as boasting show their scars +A mock is due. Will you walk on, my lord? +She was belov’d, she lov’d; she is, and doth; +But still sweet love is food for fortune’s tooth. + + [_Exeunt_.] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. The Grecian camp. Before the tent of ACHILLES. + + Enter Achilles and Patroclus. + +ACHILLES. +I’ll heat his blood with Greekish wine tonight, +Which with my scimitar I’ll cool tomorrow. +Patroclus, let us feast him to the height. + +PATROCLUS. +Here comes Thersites. + + Enter Thersites. + +ACHILLES. +How now, thou core of envy! +Thou crusty batch of nature, what’s the news? + +THERSITES. +Why, thou picture of what thou seemest, and idol of idiot worshippers, +here’s a letter for thee. + +ACHILLES. +From whence, fragment? + +THERSITES. +Why, thou full dish of fool, from Troy. + +PATROCLUS. +Who keeps the tent now? + +THERSITES. +The surgeon’s box or the patient’s wound. + +PATROCLUS. +Well said, adversity! And what needs these tricks? + +THERSITES. +Prithee, be silent, boy; I profit not by thy talk; thou art said to be +Achilles’ male varlet. + +PATROCLUS. +Male varlet, you rogue! What’s that? + +THERSITES. +Why, his masculine whore. Now, the rotten diseases of the south, the +guts-griping ruptures, catarrhs, loads o’ gravel in the back, +lethargies, cold palsies, raw eyes, dirt-rotten livers, wheezing lungs, +bladders full of imposthume, sciaticas, lime-kilns i’ th’ palm, +incurable bone-ache, and the rivelled fee-simple of the tetter, take +and take again such preposterous discoveries! + +PATROCLUS. +Why, thou damnable box of envy, thou, what meanest thou to curse thus? + +THERSITES. +Do I curse thee? + +PATROCLUS. +Why, no, you ruinous butt; you whoreson indistinguishable cur, no. + +THERSITES. +No! Why art thou, then, exasperate, thou idle immaterial skein of +sleave silk, thou green sarcenet flap for a sore eye, thou tassel of a +prodigal’s purse, thou? Ah, how the poor world is pestered with such +water-flies, diminutives of nature! + +PATROCLUS. +Out, gall! + +THERSITES. +Finch egg! + +ACHILLES. +My sweet Patroclus, I am thwarted quite +From my great purpose in tomorrow’s battle. +Here is a letter from Queen Hecuba, +A token from her daughter, my fair love, +Both taxing me and gaging me to keep +An oath that I have sworn. I will not break it. +Fall Greeks; fail fame; honour or go or stay; +My major vow lies here, this I’ll obey. +Come, come, Thersites, help to trim my tent; +This night in banqueting must all be spent. +Away, Patroclus! + + [_Exit with_ Patroclus.] + +THERSITES. +With too much blood and too little brain these two may run mad; but, if +with too much brain and too little blood they do, I’ll be a curer of +madmen. Here’s Agamemnon, an honest fellow enough, and one that loves +quails, but he has not so much brain as ear-wax; and the goodly +transformation of Jupiter there, his brother, the bull, the primitive +statue and oblique memorial of cuckolds, a thrifty shoeing-horn in a +chain at his brother’s leg, to what form but that he is, should wit +larded with malice, and malice forced with wit, turn him to? To an ass, +were nothing: he is both ass and ox. To an ox, were nothing: he is both +ox and ass. To be a dog, a mule, a cat, a fitchook, a toad, a lizard, +an owl, a puttock, or a herring without a roe, I would not care; but to +be Menelaus, I would conspire against destiny. Ask me not what I would +be, if I were not Thersites; for I care not to be the louse of a lazar, +so I were not Menelaus. Hey-day! sprites and fires! + + Enter Hector, Troilus, Ajax, Agamemnon, Ulysses, Nestor, Menelaus and + Diomedes with lights. + +AGAMEMNON. +We go wrong, we go wrong. + +AJAX. +No, yonder ’tis; +There, where we see the lights. + +HECTOR. +I trouble you. + +AJAX. +No, not a whit. + +ULYSSES. +Here comes himself to guide you. + + Re-enter Achilles. + +ACHILLES. +Welcome, brave Hector; welcome, Princes all. + +AGAMEMNON. +So now, fair Prince of Troy, I bid good night; +Ajax commands the guard to tend on you. + +HECTOR. +Thanks, and good night to the Greeks’ general. + +MENELAUS. +Good night, my lord. + +HECTOR. +Good night, sweet Lord Menelaus. + +THERSITES. +Sweet draught! ‘Sweet’ quoth a’! +Sweet sink, sweet sewer! + +ACHILLES. +Good night and welcome, both at once, to those +That go or tarry. + +AGAMEMNON. +Good night. + + [_Exeunt Agamemnon and Menelaus_.] + +ACHILLES. +Old Nestor tarries; and you too, Diomed, +Keep Hector company an hour or two. + +DIOMEDES. +I cannot, lord; I have important business, +The tide whereof is now. Good night, great Hector. + +HECTOR. +Give me your hand. + +ULYSSES. +[_Aside to Troilus._] Follow his torch; he goes to +Calchas’ tent; I’ll keep you company. + +TROILUS. +Sweet sir, you honour me. + +HECTOR. +And so, good night. + + [_Exit Diomedes, Ulysses and Troilus following._] + +ACHILLES. +Come, come, enter my tent. + + [_Exeunt all but_ Thersites.] + +THERSITES. +That same Diomed’s a false-hearted rogue, a most unjust knave; I will +no more trust him when he leers than I will a serpent when he hisses. +He will spend his mouth and promise, like Brabbler the hound; but when +he performs, astronomers foretell it: it is prodigious, there will come +some change; the sun borrows of the moon when Diomed keeps his word. I +will rather leave to see Hector than not to dog him. They say he keeps +a Trojan drab, and uses the traitor Calchas’ tent. I’ll after. Nothing +but lechery! All incontinent varlets! + + [_Exit_.] + +SCENE II. The Grecian camp. Before CALCHAS’ tent. + + Enter Diomedes. + +DIOMEDES. +What, are you up here, ho! Speak. + +CALCHAS. +[_Within_.] Who calls? + +DIOMEDES. +Diomed. Calchas, I think. Where’s your daughter? + +CALCHAS. +[_Within_.] She comes to you. + + Enter Troilus and Ulysses, at a distance; after them Thersites. + +ULYSSES. +Stand where the torch may not discover us. + + Enter Cressida. + +TROILUS. +Cressid comes forth to him. + +DIOMEDES. +How now, my charge! + +CRESSIDA. +Now, my sweet guardian! Hark, a word with you. + + [_Whispers_.] + +TROILUS. +Yea, so familiar? + +ULYSSES. +She will sing any man at first sight. + +THERSITES. +And any man may sing her, if he can take her cliff; she’s noted. + +DIOMEDES. +Will you remember? + +CRESSIDA. +Remember! Yes. + +DIOMEDES. +Nay, but do, then; +And let your mind be coupled with your words. + +TROILUS. +What should she remember? + +ULYSSES. +List! + +CRESSIDA. +Sweet honey Greek, tempt me no more to folly. + +THERSITES. +Roguery! + +DIOMEDES. +Nay, then— + +CRESSIDA. +I’ll tell you what— + +DIOMEDES. +Fo, fo! come, tell a pin; you are a forsworn. + +CRESSIDA. +In faith, I cannot. What would you have me do? + +THERSITES. +A juggling trick, to be secretly open. + +DIOMEDES. +What did you swear you would bestow on me? + +CRESSIDA. +I prithee, do not hold me to mine oath; +Bid me do anything but that, sweet Greek. + +DIOMEDES. +Good night. + +TROILUS. +Hold, patience! + +ULYSSES. +How now, Trojan! + +CRESSIDA. +Diomed! + +DIOMEDES. +No, no, good night; I’ll be your fool no more. + +TROILUS. +Thy better must. + +CRESSIDA. +Hark! a word in your ear. + +TROILUS. +O plague and madness! + +ULYSSES. +You are moved, Prince; let us depart, I pray, +Lest your displeasure should enlarge itself +To wrathful terms. This place is dangerous; +The time right deadly; I beseech you, go. + +TROILUS. +Behold, I pray you. + +ULYSSES. +Nay, good my lord, go off; +You flow to great distraction; come, my lord. + +TROILUS. +I pray thee stay. + +ULYSSES. +You have not patience; come. + +TROILUS. +I pray you, stay; by hell and all hell’s torments, +I will not speak a word. + +DIOMEDES. +And so, good night. + +CRESSIDA. +Nay, but you part in anger. + +TROILUS. +Doth that grieve thee? O withered truth! + +ULYSSES. +How now, my lord? + +TROILUS. +By Jove, I will be patient. + +CRESSIDA. +Guardian! Why, Greek! + +DIOMEDES. +Fo, fo! adieu! you palter. + +CRESSIDA. +In faith, I do not. Come hither once again. + +ULYSSES. +You shake, my lord, at something; will you go? +You will break out. + +TROILUS. +She strokes his cheek. + +ULYSSES. +Come, come. + +TROILUS. +Nay, stay; by Jove, I will not speak a word: +There is between my will and all offences +A guard of patience. Stay a little while. + +THERSITES. +How the devil Luxury, with his fat rump and potato finger, tickles +these together! Fry, lechery, fry! + +DIOMEDES. +But will you, then? + +CRESSIDA. +In faith, I will, la; never trust me else. + +DIOMEDES. +Give me some token for the surety of it. + +CRESSIDA. +I’ll fetch you one. + + [_Exit_.] + +ULYSSES. +You have sworn patience. + +TROILUS. +Fear me not, my lord; +I will not be myself, nor have cognition +Of what I feel. I am all patience. + + Re-enter Cressida. + +THERSITES. +Now the pledge; now, now, now! + +CRESSIDA. +Here, Diomed, keep this sleeve. + +TROILUS. +O beauty! where is thy faith? + +ULYSSES. +My lord! + +TROILUS. +I will be patient; outwardly I will. + +CRESSIDA. +You look upon that sleeve; behold it well. +He lov’d me—O false wench!—Give’t me again. + +DIOMEDES. +Whose was’t? + +CRESSIDA. +It is no matter, now I have’t again. +I will not meet with you tomorrow night. +I prithee, Diomed, visit me no more. + +THERSITES. +Now she sharpens. Well said, whetstone. + +DIOMEDES. +I shall have it. + +CRESSIDA. +What, this? + +DIOMEDES. +Ay, that. + +CRESSIDA. +O all you gods! O pretty, pretty pledge! +Thy master now lies thinking on his bed +Of thee and me, and sighs, and takes my glove, +And gives memorial dainty kisses to it, +As I kiss thee. Nay, do not snatch it from me; +He that takes that doth take my heart withal. + +DIOMEDES. +I had your heart before; this follows it. + +TROILUS. +I did swear patience. + +CRESSIDA. +You shall not have it, Diomed; faith, you shall not; +I’ll give you something else. + +DIOMEDES. +I will have this. Whose was it? + +CRESSIDA. +It is no matter. + +DIOMEDES. +Come, tell me whose it was. + +CRESSIDA. +’Twas one’s that lov’d me better than you will. +But, now you have it, take it. + +DIOMEDES. +Whose was it? + +CRESSIDA. +By all Diana’s waiting women yond, +And by herself, I will not tell you whose. + +DIOMEDES. +Tomorrow will I wear it on my helm, +And grieve his spirit that dares not challenge it. + +TROILUS. +Wert thou the devil and wor’st it on thy horn, +It should be challeng’d. + +CRESSIDA. +Well, well, ’tis done, ’tis past; and yet it is not; +I will not keep my word. + +DIOMEDES. +Why, then farewell; +Thou never shalt mock Diomed again. + +CRESSIDA. +You shall not go. One cannot speak a word +But it straight starts you. + +DIOMEDES. +I do not like this fooling. + +THERSITES. +Nor I, by Pluto; but that that likes not you +Pleases me best. + +DIOMEDES. +What, shall I come? The hour? + +CRESSIDA. +Ay, come; O Jove! Do come. I shall be plagu’d. + +DIOMEDES. +Farewell till then. + +CRESSIDA. +Good night. I prithee come. + + [_Exit_ Diomedes.] + +Troilus, farewell! One eye yet looks on thee; +But with my heart the other eye doth see. +Ah, poor our sex! this fault in us I find, +The error of our eye directs our mind. +What error leads must err; O, then conclude, +Minds sway’d by eyes are full of turpitude. + + [_Exit_.] + +THERSITES. +A proof of strength she could not publish more, +Unless she said ‘My mind is now turn’d whore.’ + +ULYSSES. +All’s done, my lord. + +TROILUS. +It is. + +ULYSSES. +Why stay we, then? + +TROILUS. +To make a recordation to my soul +Of every syllable that here was spoke. +But if I tell how these two did co-act, +Shall I not lie in publishing a truth? +Sith yet there is a credence in my heart, +An esperance so obstinately strong, +That doth invert th’attest of eyes and ears; +As if those organs had deceptious functions +Created only to calumniate. +Was Cressid here? + +ULYSSES. +I cannot conjure, Trojan. + +TROILUS. +She was not, sure. + +ULYSSES. +Most sure she was. + +TROILUS. +Why, my negation hath no taste of madness. + +ULYSSES. +Nor mine, my lord. Cressid was here but now. + +TROILUS. +Let it not be believ’d for womanhood. +Think, we had mothers; do not give advantage +To stubborn critics, apt, without a theme, +For depravation, to square the general sex +By Cressid’s rule. Rather think this not Cressid. + +ULYSSES. +What hath she done, Prince, that can soil our mothers? + +TROILUS. +Nothing at all, unless that this were she. + +THERSITES. +Will he swagger himself out on’s own eyes? + +TROILUS. +This she? No; this is Diomed’s Cressida. +If beauty have a soul, this is not she; +If souls guide vows, if vows be sanctimonies, +If sanctimony be the god’s delight, +If there be rule in unity itself, +This was not she. O madness of discourse, +That cause sets up with and against itself! +Bi-fold authority! where reason can revolt +Without perdition, and loss assume all reason +Without revolt: this is, and is not, Cressid. +Within my soul there doth conduce a fight +Of this strange nature, that a thing inseparate +Divides more wider than the sky and earth; +And yet the spacious breadth of this division +Admits no orifice for a point as subtle +As Ariachne’s broken woof to enter. +Instance, O instance! strong as Pluto’s gates: +Cressid is mine, tied with the bonds of heaven. +Instance, O instance! strong as heaven itself: +The bonds of heaven are slipp’d, dissolv’d, and loos’d; +And with another knot, five-finger-tied, +The fractions of her faith, orts of her love, +The fragments, scraps, the bits, and greasy relics +Of her o’er-eaten faith, are given to Diomed. + +ULYSSES. +May worthy Troilus be half attach’d +With that which here his passion doth express? + +TROILUS. +Ay, Greek; and that shall be divulged well +In characters as red as Mars his heart +Inflam’d with Venus. Never did young man fancy +With so eternal and so fix’d a soul. +Hark, Greek: as much as I do Cressid love, +So much by weight hate I her Diomed. +That sleeve is mine that he’ll bear on his helm; +Were it a casque compos’d by Vulcan’s skill +My sword should bite it. Not the dreadful spout +Which shipmen do the hurricano call, +Constring’d in mass by the almighty sun, +Shall dizzy with more clamour Neptune’s ear +In his descent than shall my prompted sword +Falling on Diomed. + +THERSITES. +He’ll tickle it for his concupy. + +TROILUS. +O Cressid! O false Cressid! false, false, false! +Let all untruths stand by thy stained name, +And they’ll seem glorious. + +ULYSSES. +O, contain yourself; +Your passion draws ears hither. + + Enter Aeneas. + +AENEAS. +I have been seeking you this hour, my lord. +Hector, by this, is arming him in Troy; +Ajax, your guard, stays to conduct you home. + +TROILUS. +Have with you, Prince. My courteous lord, adieu. +Fairwell, revolted fair! and, Diomed, +Stand fast, and wear a castle on thy head. + +ULYSSES. +I’ll bring you to the gates. + +TROILUS. +Accept distracted thanks. + + [_Exeunt Troilus, Aeneas and Ulysses_.] + +THERSITES. Would I could meet that rogue Diomed! I would croak like a +raven; I would bode, I would bode. Patroclus will give me anything for +the intelligence of this whore; the parrot will not do more for an +almond than he for a commodious drab. Lechery, lechery! Still wars and +lechery! Nothing else holds fashion. A burning devil take them! + + [_Exit_.] + +SCENE III. Troy. Before PRIAM’S palace. + + Enter Hector and Andromache. + +ANDROMACHE. +When was my lord so much ungently temper’d +To stop his ears against admonishment? +Unarm, unarm, and do not fight today. + +HECTOR. +You train me to offend you; get you in. +By all the everlasting gods, I’ll go. + +ANDROMACHE. +My dreams will, sure, prove ominous to the day. + +HECTOR. +No more, I say. + + Enter Cassandra. + +CASSANDRA. +Where is my brother Hector? + +ANDROMACHE. +Here, sister, arm’d, and bloody in intent. +Consort with me in loud and dear petition, +Pursue we him on knees; for I have dreamt +Of bloody turbulence, and this whole night +Hath nothing been but shapes and forms of slaughter. + +CASSANDRA. +O, ’tis true! + +HECTOR. +Ho! bid my trumpet sound. + +CASSANDRA. +No notes of sally, for the heavens, sweet brother! + +HECTOR. +Be gone, I say. The gods have heard me swear. + +CASSANDRA. +The gods are deaf to hot and peevish vows; +They are polluted off’rings, more abhorr’d +Than spotted livers in the sacrifice. + +ANDROMACHE. +O, be persuaded! Do not count it holy +To hurt by being just. It is as lawful, +For we would give much, to use violent thefts +And rob in the behalf of charity. + +CASSANDRA. +It is the purpose that makes strong the vow; +But vows to every purpose must not hold. +Unarm, sweet Hector. + +HECTOR. +Hold you still, I say. +Mine honour keeps the weather of my fate. +Life every man holds dear; but the dear man +Holds honour far more precious dear than life. + + Enter Troilus. + +How now, young man! Mean’st thou to fight today? + +ANDROMACHE. +Cassandra, call my father to persuade. + + [_Exit_ Cassandra.] + +HECTOR. +No, faith, young Troilus; doff thy harness, youth; +I am today i’ th’vein of chivalry. +Let grow thy sinews till their knots be strong, +And tempt not yet the brushes of the war. +Unarm thee, go; and doubt thou not, brave boy, +I’ll stand today for thee and me and Troy. + +TROILUS. +Brother, you have a vice of mercy in you, +Which better fits a lion than a man. + +HECTOR. +What vice is that? Good Troilus, chide me for it. + +TROILUS. +When many times the captive Grecian falls, +Even in the fan and wind of your fair sword, +You bid them rise and live. + +HECTOR. +O, ’tis fair play! + +TROILUS. +Fool’s play, by heaven, Hector. + +HECTOR. +How now? how now? + +TROILUS. +For th’ love of all the gods, +Let’s leave the hermit Pity with our mother; +And when we have our armours buckled on, +The venom’d vengeance ride upon our swords, +Spur them to ruthful work, rein them from ruth! + +HECTOR. +Fie, savage, fie! + +TROILUS. +Hector, then ’tis wars. + +HECTOR. +Troilus, I would not have you fight today. + +TROILUS. +Who should withhold me? +Not fate, obedience, nor the hand of Mars +Beckoning with fiery truncheon my retire; +Not Priamus and Hecuba on knees, +Their eyes o’er-galled with recourse of tears; +Nor you, my brother, with your true sword drawn, +Oppos’d to hinder me, should stop my way, +But by my ruin. + + Re-enter Cassandra with Priam. + +CASSANDRA. +Lay hold upon him, Priam, hold him fast; +He is thy crutch; now if thou lose thy stay, +Thou on him leaning, and all Troy on thee, +Fall all together. + +PRIAM. +Come, Hector, come, go back. +Thy wife hath dreamt; thy mother hath had visions; +Cassandra doth foresee; and I myself +Am like a prophet suddenly enrapt +To tell thee that this day is ominous. +Therefore, come back. + +HECTOR. +Aeneas is a-field; +And I do stand engag’d to many Greeks, +Even in the faith of valour, to appear +This morning to them. + +PRIAM. +Ay, but thou shalt not go. + +HECTOR. +I must not break my faith. +You know me dutiful; therefore, dear sir, +Let me not shame respect; but give me leave +To take that course by your consent and voice +Which you do here forbid me, royal Priam. + +CASSANDRA. +O Priam, yield not to him! + +ANDROMACHE. +Do not, dear father. + +HECTOR. +Andromache, I am offended with you. +Upon the love you bear me, get you in. + + [_Exit_ Andromache.] + +TROILUS. +This foolish, dreaming, superstitious girl +Makes all these bodements. + +CASSANDRA. +O, farewell, dear Hector! +Look how thou diest. Look how thy eye turns pale. +Look how thy wounds do bleed at many vents. +Hark how Troy roars; how Hecuba cries out; +How poor Andromache shrills her dolours forth; +Behold distraction, frenzy, and amazement, +Like witless antics, one another meet, +And all cry, ‘Hector! Hector’s dead! O Hector!’ + +TROILUS. +Away, away! + +CASSANDRA. +Farewell! yet, soft! Hector, I take my leave. +Thou dost thyself and all our Troy deceive. + + [_Exit_.] + +HECTOR. +You are amaz’d, my liege, at her exclaim. +Go in, and cheer the town; we’ll forth, and fight, +Do deeds worth praise and tell you them at night. + +PRIAM. +Farewell. The gods with safety stand about thee! + + [_Exeunt severally Priam and Hector. Alarums._] + +TROILUS. +They are at it, hark! Proud Diomed, believe, +I come to lose my arm or win my sleeve. + + Enter Pandarus. + +PANDARUS. +Do you hear, my lord? Do you hear? + +TROILUS. +What now? + +PANDARUS. +Here’s a letter come from yond poor girl. + +TROILUS. +Let me read. + +PANDARUS. +A whoreson tisick, a whoreson rascally tisick, so troubles me, and the +foolish fortune of this girl, and what one thing, what another, that I +shall leave you one o’ these days; and I have a rheum in mine eyes too, +and such an ache in my bones that unless a man were curs’d I cannot +tell what to think on’t. What says she there? + +TROILUS. +Words, words, mere words, no matter from the heart; +Th’effect doth operate another way. + + [_Tearing the letter_.] + +Go, wind, to wind, there turn and change together. +My love with words and errors still she feeds, +But edifies another with her deeds. + + [_Exeunt severally_.] + +SCENE IV. The plain between Troy and the Grecian camp. + + Alarums. Excursions. Enter Thersites. + +THERSITES. +Now they are clapper-clawing one another; I’ll go look on. That +dissembling abominable varlet, Diomed, has got that same scurvy doting +foolish young knave’s sleeve of Troy there in his helm. I would fain +see them meet, that that same young Trojan ass that loves the whore +there might send that Greekish whoremasterly villain with the sleeve +back to the dissembling luxurious drab of a sleeve-less errand. O’ the +other side, the policy of those crafty swearing rascals that stale old +mouse-eaten dry cheese, Nestor, and that same dog-fox, Ulysses, is not +prov’d worth a blackberry. They set me up, in policy, that mongrel cur, +Ajax, against that dog of as bad a kind, Achilles; and now is the cur, +Ajax prouder than the cur Achilles, and will not arm today; whereupon +the Grecians begin to proclaim barbarism, and policy grows into an ill +opinion. + + Enter Diomedes, Troilus following. + +Soft! here comes sleeve, and t’other. + +TROILUS. +Fly not; for shouldst thou take the river Styx, I would swim after. + +DIOMEDES. +Thou dost miscall retire. +I do not fly; but advantageous care +Withdrew me from the odds of multitude. +Have at thee! + +THERSITES. +Hold thy whore, Grecian; now for thy whore, +Trojan! now the sleeve, now the sleeve! + + [_Exeunt Troilus and Diomedes fighting_.] + + Enter Hector. + +HECTOR. +What art thou, Greek? Art thou for Hector’s match? +Art thou of blood and honour? + +THERSITES. +No, no I am a rascal; a scurvy railing knave; a very filthy rogue. + +HECTOR. +I do believe thee. Live. + + [_Exit_.] + +THERSITES. +God-a-mercy, that thou wilt believe me; but a plague break thy neck for +frighting me! What’s become of the wenching rogues? I think they have +swallowed one another. I would laugh at that miracle. Yet, in a sort, +lechery eats itself. I’ll seek them. + + [_Exit_.] + +SCENE V. Another part of the plain. + + Enter Diomedes and a Servant. + +DIOMEDES. +Go, go, my servant, take thou Troilus’ horse; +Present the fair steed to my lady Cressid. +Fellow, commend my service to her beauty; +Tell her I have chastis’d the amorous Trojan, +And am her knight by proof. + +SERVANT. +I go, my lord. + + [_Exit_.] + + Enter Agamemnon. + +AGAMEMNON. +Renew, renew! The fierce Polydamas +Hath beat down Menon; bastard Margarelon +Hath Doreus prisoner, +And stands colossus-wise, waving his beam, +Upon the pashed corses of the kings +Epistrophus and Cedius. Polixenes is slain; +Amphimacus and Thoas deadly hurt; +Patroclus ta’en, or slain; and Palamedes +Sore hurt and bruis’d. The dreadful Sagittary +Appals our numbers. Haste we, Diomed, +To reinforcement, or we perish all. + + Enter Nestor. + +NESTOR. +Go, bear Patroclus’ body to Achilles, +And bid the snail-pac’d Ajax arm for shame. +There is a thousand Hectors in the field; +Now here he fights on Galathe his horse, +And there lacks work; anon he’s there afoot, +And there they fly or die, like scaled sculls +Before the belching whale; then is he yonder, +And there the strawy Greeks, ripe for his edge, +Fall down before him like the mower’s swath. +Here, there, and everywhere, he leaves and takes; +Dexterity so obeying appetite +That what he will he does, and does so much +That proof is call’d impossibility. + + Enter Ulysses. + +ULYSSES. +O, courage, courage, courage, Princes! Great Achilles +Is arming, weeping, cursing, vowing vengeance. +Patroclus’ wounds have rous’d his drowsy blood, +Together with his mangled Myrmidons, +That noseless, handless, hack’d and chipp’d, come to him, +Crying on Hector. Ajax hath lost a friend +And foams at mouth, and he is arm’d and at it, +Roaring for Troilus; who hath done today +Mad and fantastic execution, +Engaging and redeeming of himself +With such a careless force and forceless care +As if that lust, in very spite of cunning, +Bade him win all. + + Enter Ajax. + +AJAX. +Troilus! thou coward Troilus! + + [_Exit_.] + +DIOMEDES. +Ay, there, there. + +NESTOR. +So, so, we draw together. + + [_Exit_.] + + Enter Achilles. + +ACHILLES. +Where is this Hector? +Come, come, thou boy-queller, show thy face; +Know what it is to meet Achilles angry. +Hector! where’s Hector? I will none but Hector. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE VI. Another part of the plain. + + Enter Ajax. + +AJAX. +Troilus, thou coward Troilus, show thy head. + + Enter Diomedes. + +DIOMEDES. +Troilus, I say! Where’s Troilus? + +AJAX. +What wouldst thou? + +DIOMEDES. +I would correct him. + +AJAX. +Were I the general, thou shouldst have my office +Ere that correction. Troilus, I say! What, Troilus! + + Enter Troilus. + +TROILUS. +O traitor Diomed! Turn thy false face, thou traitor, +And pay thy life thou owest me for my horse. + +DIOMEDES. +Ha! art thou there? + +AJAX. +I’ll fight with him alone. Stand, Diomed. + +DIOMEDES. +He is my prize. I will not look upon. + +TROILUS. +Come, both, you cogging Greeks; have at you both! + + [_Exeunt fighting_.] + + Enter Hector. + +HECTOR. +Yea, Troilus? O, well fought, my youngest brother! + + Enter Achilles. + +ACHILLES. +Now do I see thee. Ha! have at thee, Hector! + +HECTOR. +Pause, if thou wilt. + +ACHILLES. +I do disdain thy courtesy, proud Trojan. +Be happy that my arms are out of use; +My rest and negligence befriend thee now, +But thou anon shalt hear of me again; +Till when, go seek thy fortune. + + [_Exit_.] + +HECTOR. +Fare thee well. +I would have been much more a fresher man, +Had I expected thee. + + Re-enter Troilus. + +How now, my brother! + +TROILUS. +Ajax hath ta’en Aeneas. Shall it be? +No, by the flame of yonder glorious heaven, +He shall not carry him; I’ll be ta’en too, +Or bring him off. Fate, hear me what I say: +I reck not though thou end my life today. + + [_Exit_.] + + Enter one in armour. + +HECTOR. +Stand, stand, thou Greek; thou art a goodly mark. +No? wilt thou not? I like thy armour well; +I’ll frush it and unlock the rivets all +But I’ll be master of it. Wilt thou not, beast, abide? +Why then, fly on; I’ll hunt thee for thy hide. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE VII. Another part of the plain. + + Enter Achilles with Myrmidons. + +ACHILLES. +Come here about me, you my Myrmidons; +Mark what I say. Attend me where I wheel; +Strike not a stroke, but keep yourselves in breath; +And when I have the bloody Hector found, +Empale him with your weapons round about; +In fellest manner execute your arms. +Follow me, sirs, and my proceedings eye. +It is decreed Hector the great must die. + + [_Exeunt_.] + + Enter Menelaus and Paris, fighting; then Thersites. + +THERSITES. +The cuckold and the cuckold-maker are at it. Now, bull! Now, dog! ’Loo, +Paris, ’loo! now my double-hen’d Spartan! ’loo, Paris, ’loo! The bull +has the game. ’Ware horns, ho! + + [_Exeunt Paris and Menelaus_.] + + Enter Margarelon. + +MARGARELON. +Turn, slave, and fight. + +THERSITES. +What art thou? + +MARGARELON. +A bastard son of Priam’s. + +THERSITES. +I am a bastard too; I love bastards. I am a bastard begot, bastard +instructed, bastard in mind, bastard in valour, in everything +illegitimate. One bear will not bite another, and wherefore should one +bastard? Take heed, the quarrel’s most ominous to us: if the son of a +whore fight for a whore, he tempts judgement. Farewell, bastard. + + [_Exit_.] + +MARGARELON. +The devil take thee, coward! + + [_Exit_.] + +SCENE VIII. Another part of the plain. + + Enter Hector. + +HECTOR. +Most putrified core so fair without, +Thy goodly armour thus hath cost thy life. +Now is my day’s work done; I’ll take my breath: +Rest, sword; thou hast thy fill of blood and death! + + [_Disarms_.] + + Enter Achilles and Myrmidons. + +ACHILLES. +Look, Hector, how the sun begins to set, +How ugly night comes breathing at his heels; +Even with the vail and dark’ning of the sun, +To close the day up, Hector’s life is done. + +HECTOR. +I am unarm’d; forego this vantage, Greek. + +ACHILLES. +Strike, fellows, strike; this is the man I seek. + + [_Hector falls_.] + +So, Ilion, fall thou next! Now, Troy, sink down; +Here lies thy heart, thy sinews, and thy bone. +On, Myrmidons, and cry you all amain +‘Achilles hath the mighty Hector slain.’ + + [_A retreat sounded_.] + +Hark! a retire upon our Grecian part. + +MYRMIDON. +The Trojan trumpets sound the like, my lord. + +ACHILLES. +The dragon wing of night o’erspreads the earth +And, stickler-like, the armies separates. +My half-supp’d sword, that frankly would have fed, +Pleas’d with this dainty bait, thus goes to bed. + + [_Sheathes his sword_.] + +Come, tie his body to my horse’s tail; +Along the field I will the Trojan trail. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE IX. Another part of the plain. + + Sound retreat. Shout. Enter Agamemnon, Ajax, Menelaus, Nestor, + Diomedes and the rest, marching. + +AGAMEMNON. +Hark! hark! what shout is this? + +NESTOR. +Peace, drums! + +SOLDIERS. +[_Within_.] Achilles! Achilles! Hector’s slain. Achilles! + +DIOMEDES. +The bruit is, Hector’s slain, and by Achilles. + +AJAX. +If it be so, yet bragless let it be; +Great Hector was as good a man as he. + +AGAMEMNON. +March patiently along. Let one be sent +To pray Achilles see us at our tent. +If in his death the gods have us befriended; +Great Troy is ours, and our sharp wars are ended. + + [_Exeunt_.] + +SCENE X. Another part of the plain. + + Enter Aeneas, Paris, Antenor and Deiphobus. + +AENEAS. +Stand, ho! yet are we masters of the field. +Never go home; here starve we out the night. + + Enter Troilus. + +TROILUS. +Hector is slain. + +ALL. +Hector! The gods forbid! + +TROILUS. +He’s dead, and at the murderer’s horse’s tail, +In beastly sort, dragg’d through the shameful field. +Frown on, you heavens, effect your rage with speed. +Sit, gods, upon your thrones, and smile at Troy. +I say at once let your brief plagues be mercy, +And linger not our sure destructions on. + +AENEAS. +My lord, you do discomfort all the host. + +TROILUS. +You understand me not that tell me so. +I do not speak of flight, of fear of death, +But dare all imminence that gods and men +Address their dangers in. Hector is gone. +Who shall tell Priam so, or Hecuba? +Let him that will a screech-owl aye be call’d +Go in to Troy, and say there ‘Hector’s dead.’ +There is a word will Priam turn to stone; +Make wells and Niobes of the maids and wives, +Cold statues of the youth; and, in a word, +Scare Troy out of itself. But, march away; +Hector is dead; there is no more to say. +Stay yet. You vile abominable tents, +Thus proudly pight upon our Phrygian plains, +Let Titan rise as early as he dare, +I’ll through and through you. And, thou great-siz’d coward, +No space of earth shall sunder our two hates; +I’ll haunt thee like a wicked conscience still, +That mouldeth goblins swift as frenzy’s thoughts. +Strike a free march to Troy. With comfort go; +Hope of revenge shall hide our inward woe. + + Enter Pandarus. + +PANDARUS. +But hear you, hear you! + +TROILUS. +Hence, broker-lackey. Ignominy and shame +Pursue thy life, and live aye with thy name! + + [_Exeunt all but_ Pandarus.] + +PANDARUS. +A goodly medicine for my aching bones! O world! world! Thus is the poor +agent despis’d! O traitors and bawds, how earnestly are you set a-work, +and how ill requited! Why should our endeavour be so lov’d, and the +performance so loathed? What verse for it? What instance for it? Let me +see— + + Full merrily the humble-bee doth sing + Till he hath lost his honey and his sting; + And being once subdu’d in armed trail, + Sweet honey and sweet notes together fail. + +Good traders in the flesh, set this in your painted cloths. +As many as be here of Pandar’s hall, +Your eyes, half out, weep out at Pandar’s fall; +Or, if you cannot weep, yet give some groans, +Though not for me, yet for your aching bones. +Brethren and sisters of the hold-door trade, +Some two months hence my will shall here be made. +It should be now, but that my fear is this, +Some galled goose of Winchester would hiss. +Till then I’ll sweat and seek about for eases, +And at that time bequeath you my diseases. + + [_Exit_.] + + + +TWELFTH NIGHT: OR, WHAT YOU WILL + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. An Apartment in the Duke’s Palace. +Scene II. The sea-coast. +Scene III. A Room in Olivia’s House. +Scene IV. A Room in the Duke’s Palace. +Scene V. A Room in Olivia’s House. + + +ACT II +Scene I. The sea-coast. +Scene II. A street. +Scene III. A Room in Olivia’s House. +Scene IV. A Room in the Duke’s Palace. +Scene V. Olivia’s garden. + + +ACT III +Scene I. Olivia’s garden. +Scene II. A Room in Olivia’s House. +Scene III. A street. +Scene IV. Olivia’s garden. + + +ACT IV +Scene I. The Street before Olivia’s House. +Scene II. A Room in Olivia’s House. +Scene III. Olivia’s Garden. + + +ACT V +Scene I. The Street before Olivia’s House. + + + Dramatis Personæ + +ORSINO, Duke of Illyria. +VALENTINE, Gentleman attending on the Duke +CURIO, Gentleman attending on the Duke +VIOLA, in love with the Duke. +SEBASTIAN, a young Gentleman, twin brother to Viola. +A SEA CAPTAIN, friend to Viola +ANTONIO, a Sea Captain, friend to Sebastian. +OLIVIA, a rich Countess. +MARIA, Olivia’s Woman. +SIR TOBY BELCH, Uncle of Olivia. +SIR ANDREW AGUECHEEK. +MALVOLIO, Steward to Olivia. +FABIAN, Servant to Olivia. +CLOWN, Servant to Olivia. +PRIEST +Lords, Sailors, Officers, Musicians, and other Attendants. + +SCENE: A City in Illyria; and the Sea-coast near it. + + + +ACT I. + +SCENE I. An Apartment in the Duke’s Palace. + + Enter Orsino, Duke of Illyria, Curio, and other Lords; Musicians + attending. + +DUKE. +If music be the food of love, play on, +Give me excess of it; that, surfeiting, +The appetite may sicken and so die. +That strain again, it had a dying fall; +O, it came o’er my ear like the sweet sound +That breathes upon a bank of violets, +Stealing and giving odour. Enough; no more; +’Tis not so sweet now as it was before. +O spirit of love, how quick and fresh art thou, +That notwithstanding thy capacity +Receiveth as the sea, nought enters there, +Of what validity and pitch soever, +But falls into abatement and low price +Even in a minute! So full of shapes is fancy, +That it alone is high fantastical. + +CURIO. +Will you go hunt, my lord? + +DUKE. +What, Curio? + +CURIO. +The hart. + +DUKE. +Why so I do, the noblest that I have. +O, when mine eyes did see Olivia first, +Methought she purg’d the air of pestilence; +That instant was I turn’d into a hart, +And my desires, like fell and cruel hounds, +E’er since pursue me. How now? what news from her? + + Enter Valentine. + +VALENTINE. +So please my lord, I might not be admitted, +But from her handmaid do return this answer: +The element itself, till seven years’ heat, +Shall not behold her face at ample view; +But like a cloistress she will veiled walk, +And water once a day her chamber round +With eye-offending brine: all this to season +A brother’s dead love, which she would keep fresh +And lasting in her sad remembrance. + +DUKE. +O, she that hath a heart of that fine frame +To pay this debt of love but to a brother, +How will she love, when the rich golden shaft +Hath kill’d the flock of all affections else +That live in her; when liver, brain, and heart, +These sovereign thrones, are all supplied and fill’d +Her sweet perfections with one self king! +Away before me to sweet beds of flowers, +Love-thoughts lie rich when canopied with bowers. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The sea-coast. + + Enter Viola, a Captain and Sailors. + +VIOLA. +What country, friends, is this? + +CAPTAIN. +This is Illyria, lady. + +VIOLA. +And what should I do in Illyria? +My brother he is in Elysium. +Perchance he is not drown’d. What think you, sailors? + +CAPTAIN. +It is perchance that you yourself were sav’d. + +VIOLA. +O my poor brother! and so perchance may he be. + +CAPTAIN. +True, madam; and to comfort you with chance, +Assure yourself, after our ship did split, +When you, and those poor number sav’d with you, +Hung on our driving boat, I saw your brother, +Most provident in peril, bind himself, +(Courage and hope both teaching him the practice) +To a strong mast that liv’d upon the sea; +Where, like Arion on the dolphin’s back, +I saw him hold acquaintance with the waves +So long as I could see. + +VIOLA. +For saying so, there’s gold! +Mine own escape unfoldeth to my hope, +Whereto thy speech serves for authority, +The like of him. Know’st thou this country? + +CAPTAIN. +Ay, madam, well, for I was bred and born +Not three hours’ travel from this very place. + +VIOLA. +Who governs here? + +CAPTAIN. +A noble duke, in nature as in name. + +VIOLA. +What is his name? + +CAPTAIN. +Orsino. + +VIOLA. +Orsino! I have heard my father name him. +He was a bachelor then. + +CAPTAIN. +And so is now, or was so very late; +For but a month ago I went from hence, +And then ’twas fresh in murmur, (as, you know, +What great ones do, the less will prattle of) +That he did seek the love of fair Olivia. + +VIOLA. +What’s she? + +CAPTAIN. +A virtuous maid, the daughter of a count +That died some twelvemonth since; then leaving her +In the protection of his son, her brother, +Who shortly also died; for whose dear love +They say, she hath abjur’d the company +And sight of men. + +VIOLA. +O that I served that lady, +And might not be delivered to the world, +Till I had made mine own occasion mellow, +What my estate is. + +CAPTAIN. +That were hard to compass, +Because she will admit no kind of suit, +No, not the Duke’s. + +VIOLA. +There is a fair behaviour in thee, Captain; +And though that nature with a beauteous wall +Doth oft close in pollution, yet of thee +I will believe thou hast a mind that suits +With this thy fair and outward character. +I pray thee, and I’ll pay thee bounteously, +Conceal me what I am, and be my aid +For such disguise as haply shall become +The form of my intent. I’ll serve this duke; +Thou shalt present me as an eunuch to him. +It may be worth thy pains; for I can sing, +And speak to him in many sorts of music, +That will allow me very worth his service. +What else may hap, to time I will commit; +Only shape thou thy silence to my wit. + +CAPTAIN. +Be you his eunuch and your mute I’ll be; +When my tongue blabs, then let mine eyes not see. + +VIOLA. +I thank thee. Lead me on. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. A Room in Olivia’s House. + + Enter Sir Toby and Maria. + +SIR TOBY. +What a plague means my niece to take the death of her brother thus? I +am sure care’s an enemy to life. + +MARIA. +By my troth, Sir Toby, you must come in earlier o’ nights; your cousin, +my lady, takes great exceptions to your ill hours. + +SIR TOBY. +Why, let her except, before excepted. + +MARIA. +Ay, but you must confine yourself within the modest limits of order. + +SIR TOBY. +Confine? I’ll confine myself no finer than I am. These clothes are good +enough to drink in, and so be these boots too; and they be not, let +them hang themselves in their own straps. + +MARIA. +That quaffing and drinking will undo you: I heard my lady talk of it +yesterday; and of a foolish knight that you brought in one night here +to be her wooer. + +SIR TOBY. +Who? Sir Andrew Aguecheek? + +MARIA. +Ay, he. + +SIR TOBY. +He’s as tall a man as any’s in Illyria. + +MARIA. +What’s that to th’ purpose? + +SIR TOBY. +Why, he has three thousand ducats a year. + +MARIA. +Ay, but he’ll have but a year in all these ducats. He’s a very fool, +and a prodigal. + +SIR TOBY. +Fie, that you’ll say so! he plays o’ the viol-de-gamboys, and speaks +three or four languages word for word without book, and hath all the +good gifts of nature. + +MARIA. +He hath indeed, almost natural: for, besides that he’s a fool, he’s a +great quarreller; and, but that he hath the gift of a coward to allay +the gust he hath in quarrelling, ’tis thought among the prudent he +would quickly have the gift of a grave. + +SIR TOBY. +By this hand, they are scoundrels and substractors that say so of him. +Who are they? + +MARIA. +They that add, moreover, he’s drunk nightly in your company. + +SIR TOBY. +With drinking healths to my niece; I’ll drink to her as long as there +is a passage in my throat, and drink in Illyria. He’s a coward and a +coystril that will not drink to my niece till his brains turn o’ the +toe like a parish top. What, wench! _Castiliano vulgo:_ for here comes +Sir Andrew Agueface. + + Enter Sir Andrew. + +AGUECHEEK. +Sir Toby Belch! How now, Sir Toby Belch? + +SIR TOBY. +Sweet Sir Andrew! + +SIR ANDREW. +Bless you, fair shrew. + +MARIA. +And you too, sir. + +SIR TOBY. +Accost, Sir Andrew, accost. + +SIR ANDREW. +What’s that? + +SIR TOBY. +My niece’s chamber-maid. + +SIR ANDREW. +Good Mistress Accost, I desire better acquaintance. + +MARIA. +My name is Mary, sir. + +SIR ANDREW. +Good Mistress Mary Accost,— + +SIR TOBY. +You mistake, knight: accost is front her, board her, woo her, assail +her. + +SIR ANDREW. +By my troth, I would not undertake her in this company. Is that the +meaning of accost? + +MARIA. +Fare you well, gentlemen. + +SIR TOBY. +And thou let part so, Sir Andrew, would thou mightst never draw sword +again. + +SIR ANDREW. +And you part so, mistress, I would I might never draw sword again. Fair +lady, do you think you have fools in hand? + +MARIA. +Sir, I have not you by the hand. + +SIR ANDREW. +Marry, but you shall have, and here’s my hand. + +MARIA. +Now, sir, thought is free. I pray you, bring your hand to th’ buttery +bar and let it drink. + +SIR ANDREW. +Wherefore, sweetheart? What’s your metaphor? + +MARIA. +It’s dry, sir. + +SIR ANDREW. +Why, I think so; I am not such an ass but I can keep my hand dry. But +what’s your jest? + +MARIA. +A dry jest, sir. + +SIR ANDREW. +Are you full of them? + +MARIA. +Ay, sir, I have them at my fingers’ ends: marry, now I let go your +hand, I am barren. + + [_Exit Maria._] + +SIR TOBY. +O knight, thou lack’st a cup of canary: When did I see thee so put +down? + +SIR ANDREW. +Never in your life, I think, unless you see canary put me down. +Methinks sometimes I have no more wit than a Christian or an ordinary +man has; but I am a great eater of beef, and I believe that does harm +to my wit. + +SIR TOBY. +No question. + +SIR ANDREW. +And I thought that, I’d forswear it. I’ll ride home tomorrow, Sir Toby. + +SIR TOBY. +_Pourquoy_, my dear knight? + +SIR ANDREW. +What is _pourquoy?_ Do, or not do? I would I had bestowed that time in +the tongues that I have in fencing, dancing, and bear-baiting. O, had I +but followed the arts! + +SIR TOBY. +Then hadst thou had an excellent head of hair. + +SIR ANDREW. +Why, would that have mended my hair? + +SIR TOBY. +Past question; for thou seest it will not curl by nature. + +SIR ANDREW. +But it becomes me well enough, does’t not? + +SIR TOBY. +Excellent, it hangs like flax on a distaff; and I hope to see a +houswife take thee between her legs, and spin it off. + +SIR ANDREW. +Faith, I’ll home tomorrow, Sir Toby; your niece will not be seen, or if +she be, it’s four to one she’ll none of me; the Count himself here hard +by woos her. + +SIR TOBY. +She’ll none o’ the Count; she’ll not match above her degree, neither in +estate, years, nor wit; I have heard her swear’t. Tut, there’s life +in’t, man. + +SIR ANDREW. +I’ll stay a month longer. I am a fellow o’ the strangest mind i’ the +world; I delight in masques and revels sometimes altogether. + +SIR TOBY. +Art thou good at these kick-shawses, knight? + +SIR ANDREW. +As any man in Illyria, whatsoever he be, under the degree of my +betters; and yet I will not compare with an old man. + +SIR TOBY. +What is thy excellence in a galliard, knight? + +SIR ANDREW. +Faith, I can cut a caper. + +SIR TOBY. +And I can cut the mutton to’t. + +SIR ANDREW. +And I think I have the back-trick simply as strong as any man in +Illyria. + +SIR TOBY. +Wherefore are these things hid? Wherefore have these gifts a curtain +before ’em? Are they like to take dust, like Mistress Mall’s picture? +Why dost thou not go to church in a galliard, and come home in a +coranto? My very walk should be a jig; I would not so much as make +water but in a sink-a-pace. What dost thou mean? Is it a world to hide +virtues in? I did think, by the excellent constitution of thy leg, it +was formed under the star of a galliard. + +SIR ANDREW. +Ay, ’tis strong, and it does indifferent well in a dam’d-colour’d +stock. Shall we set about some revels? + +SIR TOBY. +What shall we do else? Were we not born under Taurus? + +SIR ANDREW. +Taurus? That’s sides and heart. + +SIR TOBY. +No, sir, it is legs and thighs. Let me see thee caper. Ha, higher: ha, +ha, excellent! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. A Room in the Duke’s Palace. + + Enter Valentine and Viola in man’s attire. + +VALENTINE. +If the duke continue these favours towards you, Cesario, you are like +to be much advanced; he hath known you but three days, and already you +are no stranger. + +VIOLA. +You either fear his humour or my negligence, that you call in question +the continuance of his love. Is he inconstant, sir, in his favours? + +VALENTINE. +No, believe me. + + Enter Duke, Curio and Attendants. + +VIOLA. +I thank you. Here comes the Count. + +DUKE. +Who saw Cesario, ho? + +VIOLA. +On your attendance, my lord, here. + +DUKE. +Stand you awhile aloof.—Cesario, +Thou know’st no less but all; I have unclasp’d +To thee the book even of my secret soul. +Therefore, good youth, address thy gait unto her, +Be not denied access, stand at her doors, +And tell them, there thy fixed foot shall grow +Till thou have audience. + +VIOLA. +Sure, my noble lord, +If she be so abandon’d to her sorrow +As it is spoke, she never will admit me. + +DUKE. +Be clamorous and leap all civil bounds, +Rather than make unprofited return. + +VIOLA. +Say I do speak with her, my lord, what then? + +DUKE. +O then unfold the passion of my love, +Surprise her with discourse of my dear faith; +It shall become thee well to act my woes; +She will attend it better in thy youth, +Than in a nuncio’s of more grave aspect. + +VIOLA. +I think not so, my lord. + +DUKE. +Dear lad, believe it; +For they shall yet belie thy happy years, +That say thou art a man: Diana’s lip +Is not more smooth and rubious; thy small pipe +Is as the maiden’s organ, shrill and sound, +And all is semblative a woman’s part. +I know thy constellation is right apt +For this affair. Some four or five attend him: +All, if you will; for I myself am best +When least in company. Prosper well in this, +And thou shalt live as freely as thy lord, +To call his fortunes thine. + +VIOLA. +I’ll do my best +To woo your lady. [_Aside._] Yet, a barful strife! +Whoe’er I woo, myself would be his wife. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. A Room in Olivia’s House. + + Enter Maria and Clown. + +MARIA. +Nay; either tell me where thou hast been, or I will not open my lips so +wide as a bristle may enter, in way of thy excuse: my lady will hang +thee for thy absence. + +CLOWN. +Let her hang me: he that is well hanged in this world needs to fear no +colours. + +MARIA. +Make that good. + +CLOWN. +He shall see none to fear. + +MARIA. +A good lenten answer. I can tell thee where that saying was born, of I +fear no colours. + +CLOWN. +Where, good Mistress Mary? + +MARIA. +In the wars, and that may you be bold to say in your foolery. + +CLOWN. +Well, God give them wisdom that have it; and those that are fools, let +them use their talents. + +MARIA. +Yet you will be hanged for being so long absent; or to be turned away; +is not that as good as a hanging to you? + +CLOWN. +Many a good hanging prevents a bad marriage; and for turning away, let +summer bear it out. + +MARIA. +You are resolute then? + +CLOWN. +Not so, neither, but I am resolved on two points. + +MARIA. +That if one break, the other will hold; or if both break, your gaskins +fall. + +CLOWN. +Apt, in good faith, very apt! Well, go thy way; if Sir Toby would leave +drinking, thou wert as witty a piece of Eve’s flesh as any in Illyria. + +MARIA. +Peace, you rogue, no more o’ that. Here comes my lady: make your excuse +wisely, you were best. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Olivia with Malvolio. + +CLOWN. +Wit, and’t be thy will, put me into good fooling! Those wits that think +they have thee, do very oft prove fools; and I that am sure I lack +thee, may pass for a wise man. For what says Quinapalus? Better a witty +fool than a foolish wit. God bless thee, lady! + +OLIVIA. +Take the fool away. + +CLOWN. +Do you not hear, fellows? Take away the lady. + +OLIVIA. +Go to, y’are a dry fool; I’ll no more of you. Besides, you grow +dishonest. + +CLOWN. +Two faults, madonna, that drink and good counsel will amend: for give +the dry fool drink, then is the fool not dry; bid the dishonest man +mend himself, if he mend, he is no longer dishonest; if he cannot, let +the botcher mend him. Anything that’s mended is but patched; virtue +that transgresses is but patched with sin, and sin that amends is but +patched with virtue. If that this simple syllogism will serve, so; if +it will not, what remedy? As there is no true cuckold but calamity, so +beauty’s a flower. The lady bade take away the fool, therefore, I say +again, take her away. + +OLIVIA. +Sir, I bade them take away you. + +CLOWN. +Misprision in the highest degree! Lady, _cucullus non facit monachum:_ +that’s as much to say, I wear not motley in my brain. Good madonna, +give me leave to prove you a fool. + +OLIVIA. +Can you do it? + +CLOWN. +Dexteriously, good madonna. + +OLIVIA. +Make your proof. + +CLOWN. +I must catechize you for it, madonna. Good my mouse of virtue, answer +me. + +OLIVIA. +Well sir, for want of other idleness, I’ll ’bide your proof. + +CLOWN. +Good madonna, why mourn’st thou? + +OLIVIA. +Good fool, for my brother’s death. + +CLOWN. +I think his soul is in hell, madonna. + +OLIVIA. +I know his soul is in heaven, fool. + +CLOWN. +The more fool you, madonna, to mourn for your brother’s soul being in +heaven. Take away the fool, gentlemen. + +OLIVIA. +What think you of this fool, Malvolio? doth he not mend? + +MALVOLIO. +Yes; and shall do, till the pangs of death shake him. Infirmity, that +decays the wise, doth ever make the better fool. + +CLOWN. +God send you, sir, a speedy infirmity, for the better increasing your +folly! Sir Toby will be sworn that I am no fox; but he will not pass +his word for twopence that you are no fool. + +OLIVIA. +How say you to that, Malvolio? + +MALVOLIO. +I marvel your ladyship takes delight in such a barren rascal; I saw him +put down the other day with an ordinary fool, that has no more brain +than a stone. Look you now, he’s out of his guard already; unless you +laugh and minister occasion to him, he is gagged. I protest I take +these wise men, that crow so at these set kind of fools, no better than +the fools’ zanies. + +OLIVIA. +O, you are sick of self-love, Malvolio, and taste with a distempered +appetite. To be generous, guiltless, and of free disposition, is to +take those things for bird-bolts that you deem cannon bullets. There is +no slander in an allowed fool, though he do nothing but rail; nor no +railing in a known discreet man, though he do nothing but reprove. + +CLOWN. +Now Mercury endue thee with leasing, for thou speak’st well of fools! + + Enter Maria. + +MARIA. +Madam, there is at the gate a young gentleman much desires to speak +with you. + +OLIVIA. +From the Count Orsino, is it? + +MARIA. +I know not, madam; ’tis a fair young man, and well attended. + +OLIVIA. +Who of my people hold him in delay? + +MARIA. +Sir Toby, madam, your kinsman. + +OLIVIA. +Fetch him off, I pray you; he speaks nothing but madman. Fie on him! + + [_Exit Maria._] + +Go you, Malvolio. If it be a suit from the Count, I am sick, or not at +home. What you will, to dismiss it. + + [_Exit Malvolio._] + +Now you see, sir, how your fooling grows old, and people dislike it. + +CLOWN. +Thou hast spoke for us, madonna, as if thy eldest son should be a fool: +whose skull Jove cram with brains, for here he comes, one of thy kin +has a most weak _pia mater_. + + Enter Sir Toby. + +OLIVIA. +By mine honour, half drunk. What is he at the gate, cousin? + +SIR TOBY. +A gentleman. + +OLIVIA. +A gentleman? What gentleman? + +SIR TOBY. +’Tis a gentleman here. A plague o’ these pickle-herrings! How now, sot? + +CLOWN. +Good Sir Toby. + +OLIVIA. +Cousin, cousin, how have you come so early by this lethargy? + +SIR TOBY. +Lechery! I defy lechery. There’s one at the gate. + +OLIVIA. +Ay, marry, what is he? + +SIR TOBY. +Let him be the devil an he will, I care not: give me faith, say I. +Well, it’s all one. + + [_Exit._] + +OLIVIA. +What’s a drunken man like, fool? + +CLOWN. +Like a drowned man, a fool, and a madman: one draught above heat makes +him a fool, the second mads him, and a third drowns him. + +OLIVIA. +Go thou and seek the coroner, and let him sit o’ my coz; for he’s in +the third degree of drink; he’s drowned. Go, look after him. + +CLOWN. +He is but mad yet, madonna; and the fool shall look to the madman. + + [_Exit Clown._] + + Enter Malvolio. + +MALVOLIO. +Madam, yond young fellow swears he will speak with you. I told him you +were sick; he takes on him to understand so much, and therefore comes +to speak with you. I told him you were asleep; he seems to have a +foreknowledge of that too, and therefore comes to speak with you. What +is to be said to him, lady? He’s fortified against any denial. + +OLIVIA. +Tell him, he shall not speak with me. + +MALVOLIO. +Has been told so; and he says he’ll stand at your door like a sheriff’s +post, and be the supporter of a bench, but he’ll speak with you. + +OLIVIA. +What kind o’ man is he? + +MALVOLIO. +Why, of mankind. + +OLIVIA. +What manner of man? + +MALVOLIO. +Of very ill manner; he’ll speak with you, will you or no. + +OLIVIA. +Of what personage and years is he? + +MALVOLIO. +Not yet old enough for a man, nor young enough for a boy; as a squash +is before ’tis a peascod, or a codling, when ’tis almost an apple. ’Tis +with him in standing water, between boy and man. He is very +well-favoured, and he speaks very shrewishly. One would think his +mother’s milk were scarce out of him. + +OLIVIA. +Let him approach. Call in my gentlewoman. + +MALVOLIO. +Gentlewoman, my lady calls. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Maria. + +OLIVIA. +Give me my veil; come, throw it o’er my face. +We’ll once more hear Orsino’s embassy. + + Enter Viola. + +VIOLA. +The honourable lady of the house, which is she? + +OLIVIA. +Speak to me; I shall answer for her. Your will? + +VIOLA. +Most radiant, exquisite, and unmatchable beauty,—I pray you, tell me if +this be the lady of the house, for I never saw her. I would be loath to +cast away my speech; for besides that it is excellently well penned, I +have taken great pains to con it. Good beauties, let me sustain no +scorn; I am very comptible, even to the least sinister usage. + +OLIVIA. +Whence came you, sir? + +VIOLA. +I can say little more than I have studied, and that question’s out of +my part. Good gentle one, give me modest assurance, if you be the lady +of the house, that I may proceed in my speech. + +OLIVIA. +Are you a comedian? + +VIOLA. +No, my profound heart: and yet, by the very fangs of malice I swear, I +am not that I play. Are you the lady of the house? + +OLIVIA. +If I do not usurp myself, I am. + +VIOLA. +Most certain, if you are she, you do usurp yourself; for what is yours +to bestow is not yours to reserve. But this is from my commission. I +will on with my speech in your praise, and then show you the heart of +my message. + +OLIVIA. +Come to what is important in’t: I forgive you the praise. + +VIOLA. +Alas, I took great pains to study it, and ’tis poetical. + +OLIVIA. +It is the more like to be feigned; I pray you keep it in. I heard you +were saucy at my gates; and allowed your approach, rather to wonder at +you than to hear you. If you be mad, be gone; if you have reason, be +brief: ’tis not that time of moon with me to make one in so skipping a +dialogue. + +MARIA. +Will you hoist sail, sir? Here lies your way. + +VIOLA. +No, good swabber, I am to hull here a little longer. Some mollification +for your giant, sweet lady. Tell me your mind. I am a messenger. + +OLIVIA. +Sure, you have some hideous matter to deliver, when the courtesy of it +is so fearful. Speak your office. + +VIOLA. +It alone concerns your ear. I bring no overture of war, no taxation of +homage; I hold the olive in my hand: my words are as full of peace as +matter. + +OLIVIA. +Yet you began rudely. What are you? What would you? + +VIOLA. +The rudeness that hath appeared in me have I learned from my +entertainment. What I am and what I would are as secret as maidenhead: +to your ears, divinity; to any other’s, profanation. + +OLIVIA. +Give us the place alone: we will hear this divinity. + + [_Exit Maria._] + +Now, sir, what is your text? + +VIOLA. +Most sweet lady— + +OLIVIA. +A comfortable doctrine, and much may be said of it. Where lies your +text? + +VIOLA. +In Orsino’s bosom. + +OLIVIA. +In his bosom? In what chapter of his bosom? + +VIOLA. +To answer by the method, in the first of his heart. + +OLIVIA. +O, I have read it; it is heresy. Have you no more to say? + +VIOLA. +Good madam, let me see your face. + +OLIVIA. +Have you any commission from your lord to negotiate with my face? You +are now out of your text: but we will draw the curtain and show you the +picture. [_Unveiling._] Look you, sir, such a one I was this present. +Is’t not well done? + +VIOLA. +Excellently done, if God did all. + +OLIVIA. +’Tis in grain, sir; ’twill endure wind and weather. + +VIOLA. +’Tis beauty truly blent, whose red and white +Nature’s own sweet and cunning hand laid on. +Lady, you are the cruel’st she alive +If you will lead these graces to the grave, +And leave the world no copy. + +OLIVIA. +O, sir, I will not be so hard-hearted; I will give out divers schedules +of my beauty. It shall be inventoried and every particle and utensil +labelled to my will: as, item, two lips indifferent red; item, two grey +eyes with lids to them; item, one neck, one chin, and so forth. Were +you sent hither to praise me? + +VIOLA. +I see you what you are, you are too proud; +But, if you were the devil, you are fair. +My lord and master loves you. O, such love +Could be but recompens’d though you were crown’d +The nonpareil of beauty! + +OLIVIA. +How does he love me? + +VIOLA. +With adorations, fertile tears, +With groans that thunder love, with sighs of fire. + +OLIVIA. +Your lord does know my mind, I cannot love him: +Yet I suppose him virtuous, know him noble, +Of great estate, of fresh and stainless youth; +In voices well divulg’d, free, learn’d, and valiant, +And in dimension and the shape of nature, +A gracious person. But yet I cannot love him. +He might have took his answer long ago. + +VIOLA. +If I did love you in my master’s flame, +With such a suff’ring, such a deadly life, +In your denial I would find no sense, +I would not understand it. + +OLIVIA. +Why, what would you? + +VIOLA. +Make me a willow cabin at your gate, +And call upon my soul within the house; +Write loyal cantons of contemned love, +And sing them loud even in the dead of night; +Hallow your name to the reverberate hills, +And make the babbling gossip of the air +Cry out Olivia! O, you should not rest +Between the elements of air and earth, +But you should pity me. + +OLIVIA. +You might do much. +What is your parentage? + +VIOLA. +Above my fortunes, yet my state is well: +I am a gentleman. + +OLIVIA. +Get you to your lord; +I cannot love him: let him send no more, +Unless, perchance, you come to me again, +To tell me how he takes it. Fare you well: +I thank you for your pains: spend this for me. + +VIOLA. +I am no fee’d post, lady; keep your purse; +My master, not myself, lacks recompense. +Love make his heart of flint that you shall love, +And let your fervour like my master’s be +Plac’d in contempt. Farewell, fair cruelty. + + [_Exit._] + +OLIVIA. +What is your parentage? +‘Above my fortunes, yet my state is well: +I am a gentleman.’ I’ll be sworn thou art; +Thy tongue, thy face, thy limbs, actions, and spirit, +Do give thee five-fold blazon. Not too fast: soft, soft! +Unless the master were the man. How now? +Even so quickly may one catch the plague? +Methinks I feel this youth’s perfections +With an invisible and subtle stealth +To creep in at mine eyes. Well, let it be. +What ho, Malvolio! + + Enter Malvolio. + +MALVOLIO. +Here, madam, at your service. + +OLIVIA. +Run after that same peevish messenger +The County’s man: he left this ring behind him, +Would I or not; tell him, I’ll none of it. +Desire him not to flatter with his lord, +Nor hold him up with hopes; I am not for him. +If that the youth will come this way tomorrow, +I’ll give him reasons for’t. Hie thee, Malvolio. + +MALVOLIO. +Madam, I will. + + [_Exit._] + +OLIVIA. +I do I know not what, and fear to find +Mine eye too great a flatterer for my mind. +Fate, show thy force, ourselves we do not owe. +What is decreed must be; and be this so! + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT II. + +SCENE I. The sea-coast. + + Enter Antonio and Sebastian. + +ANTONIO. +Will you stay no longer? Nor will you not that I go with you? + +SEBASTIAN. +By your patience, no; my stars shine darkly over me; the malignancy of +my fate might perhaps distemper yours; therefore I shall crave of you +your leave that I may bear my evils alone. It were a bad recompense for +your love, to lay any of them on you. + +ANTONIO. +Let me know of you whither you are bound. + +SEBASTIAN. +No, sooth, sir; my determinate voyage is mere extravagancy. But I +perceive in you so excellent a touch of modesty, that you will not +extort from me what I am willing to keep in. Therefore it charges me in +manners the rather to express myself. You must know of me then, +Antonio, my name is Sebastian, which I called Roderigo; my father was +that Sebastian of Messaline whom I know you have heard of. He left +behind him myself and a sister, both born in an hour. If the heavens +had been pleased, would we had so ended! But you, sir, altered that, +for some hour before you took me from the breach of the sea was my +sister drowned. + +ANTONIO. +Alas the day! + +SEBASTIAN. +A lady, sir, though it was said she much resembled me, was yet of many +accounted beautiful. But though I could not with such estimable wonder +overfar believe that, yet thus far I will boldly publish her, she bore +a mind that envy could not but call fair. She is drowned already, sir, +with salt water, though I seem to drown her remembrance again with +more. + +ANTONIO. +Pardon me, sir, your bad entertainment. + +SEBASTIAN. +O good Antonio, forgive me your trouble. + +ANTONIO. +If you will not murder me for my love, let me be your servant. + +SEBASTIAN. +If you will not undo what you have done, that is, kill him whom you +have recovered, desire it not. Fare ye well at once; my bosom is full +of kindness, and I am yet so near the manners of my mother, that upon +the least occasion more, mine eyes will tell tales of me. I am bound to +the Count Orsino’s court: farewell. + + [_Exit._] + +ANTONIO. +The gentleness of all the gods go with thee! +I have many enemies in Orsino’s court, +Else would I very shortly see thee there: +But come what may, I do adore thee so, +That danger shall seem sport, and I will go. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. A street. + + Enter Viola; Malvolio at several doors. + +MALVOLIO. +Were you not even now with the Countess Olivia? + +VIOLA. +Even now, sir; on a moderate pace I have since arrived but hither. + +MALVOLIO. +She returns this ring to you, sir; you might have saved me my pains, to +have taken it away yourself. She adds, moreover, that you should put +your lord into a desperate assurance she will none of him. And one +thing more, that you be never so hardy to come again in his affairs, +unless it be to report your lord’s taking of this. Receive it so. + +VIOLA. +She took the ring of me: I’ll none of it. + +MALVOLIO. +Come sir, you peevishly threw it to her; and her will is it should be +so returned. If it be worth stooping for, there it lies in your eye; if +not, be it his that finds it. + + [_Exit._] + +VIOLA. +I left no ring with her; what means this lady? +Fortune forbid my outside have not charm’d her! +She made good view of me, indeed, so much, +That methought her eyes had lost her tongue, +For she did speak in starts distractedly. +She loves me, sure, the cunning of her passion +Invites me in this churlish messenger. +None of my lord’s ring? Why, he sent her none. +I am the man; if it be so, as ’tis, +Poor lady, she were better love a dream. +Disguise, I see thou art a wickedness +Wherein the pregnant enemy does much. +How easy is it for the proper false +In women’s waxen hearts to set their forms! +Alas, our frailty is the cause, not we, +For such as we are made of, such we be. +How will this fadge? My master loves her dearly, +And I, poor monster, fond as much on him, +And she, mistaken, seems to dote on me. +What will become of this? As I am man, +My state is desperate for my master’s love; +As I am woman (now alas the day!) +What thriftless sighs shall poor Olivia breathe! +O time, thou must untangle this, not I, +It is too hard a knot for me t’untie! + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. A Room in Olivia’s House. + + Enter Sir Toby and Sir Andrew. + +SIR TOBY. +Approach, Sir Andrew; not to be abed after midnight, is to be up +betimes; and _diluculo surgere_, thou know’st. + +SIR ANDREW. +Nay, by my troth, I know not; but I know to be up late is to be up +late. + +SIR TOBY. +A false conclusion; I hate it as an unfilled can. To be up after +midnight, and to go to bed then is early: so that to go to bed after +midnight is to go to bed betimes. Does not our lives consist of the +four elements? + +SIR ANDREW. +Faith, so they say, but I think it rather consists of eating and +drinking. + +SIR TOBY. +Th’art a scholar; let us therefore eat and drink. +Marian, I say! a stoup of wine. + + Enter Clown. + +SIR ANDREW. +Here comes the fool, i’ faith. + +CLOWN. +How now, my hearts? Did you never see the picture of “we three”? + +SIR TOBY. +Welcome, ass. Now let’s have a catch. + +SIR ANDREW. +By my troth, the fool has an excellent breast. I had rather than forty +shillings I had such a leg, and so sweet a breath to sing, as the fool +has. In sooth, thou wast in very gracious fooling last night when thou +spok’st of Pigrogromitus, of the Vapians passing the equinoctial of +Queubus; ’twas very good, i’ faith. I sent thee sixpence for thy leman. +Hadst it? + +CLOWN. +I did impeticos thy gratillity; for Malvolio’s nose is no whipstock. My +lady has a white hand, and the Myrmidons are no bottle-ale houses. + +SIR ANDREW. +Excellent! Why, this is the best fooling, when all is done. Now, a +song. + +SIR TOBY. +Come on, there is sixpence for you. Let’s have a song. + +SIR ANDREW. +There’s a testril of me too: if one knight give a— + +CLOWN. +Would you have a love-song, or a song of good life? + +SIR TOBY. +A love-song, a love-song. + +SIR ANDREW. +Ay, ay. I care not for good life. + +CLOWN. [_sings._] + _O mistress mine, where are you roaming? + O stay and hear, your true love’s coming, + That can sing both high and low. + Trip no further, pretty sweeting. + Journeys end in lovers meeting, + Every wise man’s son doth know._ + +SIR ANDREW. +Excellent good, i’ faith. + +SIR TOBY. +Good, good. + +CLOWN. + _What is love? ’Tis not hereafter, + Present mirth hath present laughter. + What’s to come is still unsure. + In delay there lies no plenty, + Then come kiss me, sweet and twenty. + Youth’s a stuff will not endure._ + +SIR ANDREW. +A mellifluous voice, as I am true knight. + +SIR TOBY. +A contagious breath. + +SIR ANDREW. +Very sweet and contagious, i’ faith. + +SIR TOBY. +To hear by the nose, it is dulcet in contagion. But shall we make the +welkin dance indeed? Shall we rouse the night-owl in a catch that will +draw three souls out of one weaver? Shall we do that? + +SIR ANDREW. +And you love me, let’s do’t: I am dog at a catch. + +CLOWN. +By’r lady, sir, and some dogs will catch well. + +SIR ANDREW. +Most certain. Let our catch be, “Thou knave.” + +CLOWN. +“Hold thy peace, thou knave” knight? I shall be constrain’d in’t to +call thee knave, knight. + +SIR ANDREW. +’Tis not the first time I have constrained one to call me knave. Begin, +fool; it begins “Hold thy peace.” + +CLOWN. +I shall never begin if I hold my peace. + +SIR ANDREW. +Good, i’ faith! Come, begin. + + [_Catch sung._] + + Enter Maria. + +MARIA. +What a caterwauling do you keep here! If my lady have not called up her +steward Malvolio, and bid him turn you out of doors, never trust me. + +SIR TOBY. +My lady’s a Cataian, we are politicians, Malvolio’s a Peg-a-Ramsey, and +[_Sings._] _Three merry men be we._ Am not I consanguineous? Am I not +of her blood? Tilly-vally! “Lady”! _There dwelt a man in Babylon, Lady, +Lady._ + +CLOWN. +Beshrew me, the knight’s in admirable fooling. + +SIR ANDREW. +Ay, he does well enough if he be disposed, and so do I too; he does it +with a better grace, but I do it more natural. + +SIR TOBY. +[_Sings._] _O’ the twelfth day of December—_ + +MARIA. +For the love o’ God, peace! + + Enter Malvolio. + +MALVOLIO. +My masters, are you mad? Or what are you? Have you no wit, manners, nor +honesty, but to gabble like tinkers at this time of night? Do ye make +an ale-house of my lady’s house, that ye squeak out your coziers’ +catches without any mitigation or remorse of voice? Is there no respect +of place, persons, nor time, in you? + +SIR TOBY. +We did keep time, sir, in our catches. Sneck up! + +MALVOLIO. +Sir Toby, I must be round with you. My lady bade me tell you that, +though she harbours you as her kinsman she’s nothing allied to your +disorders. If you can separate yourself and your misdemeanours, you are +welcome to the house; if not, and it would please you to take leave of +her, she is very willing to bid you farewell. + +SIR TOBY. +[_Sings._] _Farewell, dear heart, since I must needs be gone._ + +MARIA. +Nay, good Sir Toby. + +CLOWN. +[_Sings._] _His eyes do show his days are almost done._ + +MALVOLIO. +Is’t even so? + +SIR TOBY. +[_Sings._] _But I will never die._ + +CLOWN. +[_Sings._] _Sir Toby, there you lie._ + +MALVOLIO. +This is much credit to you. + +SIR TOBY. +[_Sings._] _Shall I bid him go?_ + +CLOWN. +[_Sings._] _What and if you do?_ + +SIR TOBY. +[_Sings._] _Shall I bid him go, and spare not?_ + +CLOWN. +[_Sings._] _O, no, no, no, no, you dare not._ + +SIR TOBY. +Out o’ tune? sir, ye lie. Art any more than a steward? Dost thou think, +because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale? + +CLOWN. +Yes, by Saint Anne, and ginger shall be hot i’ the mouth too. + +SIR TOBY. +Th’art i’ the right. Go, sir, rub your chain with crumbs. A stoup of +wine, Maria! + +MALVOLIO. +Mistress Mary, if you prized my lady’s favour at anything more than +contempt, you would not give means for this uncivil rule; she shall +know of it, by this hand. + + [_Exit._] + +MARIA. +Go shake your ears. + +SIR ANDREW. +’Twere as good a deed as to drink when a man’s a-hungry, to challenge +him the field, and then to break promise with him and make a fool of +him. + +SIR TOBY. +Do’t, knight. I’ll write thee a challenge; or I’ll deliver thy +indignation to him by word of mouth. + +MARIA. +Sweet Sir Toby, be patient for tonight. Since the youth of the Count’s +was today with my lady, she is much out of quiet. For Monsieur +Malvolio, let me alone with him. If I do not gull him into a nayword, +and make him a common recreation, do not think I have wit enough to lie +straight in my bed. I know I can do it. + +SIR TOBY. +Possess us, possess us, tell us something of him. + +MARIA. +Marry, sir, sometimes he is a kind of Puritan. + +SIR ANDREW. +O, if I thought that, I’d beat him like a dog. + +SIR TOBY. +What, for being a Puritan? Thy exquisite reason, dear knight? + +SIR ANDREW. +I have no exquisite reason for’t, but I have reason good enough. + +MARIA. +The devil a Puritan that he is, or anything constantly but a +time-pleaser, an affectioned ass that cons state without book and +utters it by great swarths; the best persuaded of himself, so crammed +(as he thinks) with excellencies, that it is his grounds of faith that +all that look on him love him. And on that vice in him will my revenge +find notable cause to work. + +SIR TOBY. +What wilt thou do? + +MARIA. +I will drop in his way some obscure epistles of love, wherein by the +colour of his beard, the shape of his leg, the manner of his gait, the +expressure of his eye, forehead, and complexion, he shall find himself +most feelingly personated. I can write very like my lady your niece; on +a forgotten matter we can hardly make distinction of our hands. + +SIR TOBY. +Excellent! I smell a device. + +SIR ANDREW. +I have’t in my nose too. + +SIR TOBY. +He shall think, by the letters that thou wilt drop, that they come from +my niece, and that she is in love with him. + +MARIA. +My purpose is indeed a horse of that colour. + +SIR ANDREW. +And your horse now would make him an ass. + +MARIA. +Ass, I doubt not. + +SIR ANDREW. +O ’twill be admirable! + +MARIA. +Sport royal, I warrant you. I know my physic will work with him. I will +plant you two, and let the fool make a third, where he shall find the +letter. Observe his construction of it. For this night, to bed, and +dream on the event. Farewell. + + [_Exit._] + +SIR TOBY. +Good night, Penthesilea. + +SIR ANDREW. +Before me, she’s a good wench. + +SIR TOBY. +She’s a beagle true bred, and one that adores me. What o’ that? + +SIR ANDREW. +I was adored once too. + +SIR TOBY. +Let’s to bed, knight. Thou hadst need send for more money. + +SIR ANDREW. +If I cannot recover your niece, I am a foul way out. + +SIR TOBY. +Send for money, knight; if thou hast her not i’ th’ end, call me cut. + +SIR ANDREW. +If I do not, never trust me, take it how you will. + +SIR TOBY. +Come, come, I’ll go burn some sack, ’tis too late to go to bed now. +Come, knight, come, knight. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. A Room in the Duke’s Palace. + + Enter Duke, Viola, Curio and others. + +DUKE. +Give me some music. Now, good morrow, friends. +Now, good Cesario, but that piece of song, +That old and antique song we heard last night; +Methought it did relieve my passion much, +More than light airs and recollected terms +Of these most brisk and giddy-paced times. +Come, but one verse. + +CURIO. +He is not here, so please your lordship, that should sing it. + +DUKE. +Who was it? + +CURIO. +Feste, the jester, my lord, a fool that the Lady Olivia’s father took +much delight in. He is about the house. + +DUKE. +Seek him out, and play the tune the while. + + [_Exit Curio. Music plays._] + +Come hither, boy. If ever thou shalt love, +In the sweet pangs of it remember me: +For such as I am, all true lovers are, +Unstaid and skittish in all motions else, +Save in the constant image of the creature +That is belov’d. How dost thou like this tune? + +VIOLA. +It gives a very echo to the seat +Where love is throned. + +DUKE. +Thou dost speak masterly. +My life upon’t, young though thou art, thine eye +Hath stayed upon some favour that it loves. +Hath it not, boy? + +VIOLA. +A little, by your favour. + +DUKE. +What kind of woman is’t? + +VIOLA. +Of your complexion. + +DUKE. +She is not worth thee, then. What years, i’ faith? + +VIOLA. +About your years, my lord. + +DUKE. +Too old, by heaven! Let still the woman take +An elder than herself; so wears she to him, +So sways she level in her husband’s heart. +For, boy, however we do praise ourselves, +Our fancies are more giddy and unfirm, +More longing, wavering, sooner lost and worn, +Than women’s are. + +VIOLA. +I think it well, my lord. + +DUKE. +Then let thy love be younger than thyself, +Or thy affection cannot hold the bent: +For women are as roses, whose fair flower +Being once display’d, doth fall that very hour. + +VIOLA. +And so they are: alas, that they are so; +To die, even when they to perfection grow! + + Enter Curio and Clown. + +DUKE. +O, fellow, come, the song we had last night. +Mark it, Cesario, it is old and plain; +The spinsters and the knitters in the sun, +And the free maids, that weave their thread with bones +Do use to chant it: it is silly sooth, +And dallies with the innocence of love +Like the old age. + +CLOWN. +Are you ready, sir? + +DUKE. +Ay; prithee, sing. + + [_Music._] + + The Clown’s song. + +_ Come away, come away, death. + And in sad cypress let me be laid. + Fly away, fly away, breath; + I am slain by a fair cruel maid. + My shroud of white, stuck all with yew, + O, prepare it! + My part of death no one so true + Did share it._ + +_ Not a flower, not a flower sweet, + On my black coffin let there be strown: + Not a friend, not a friend greet + My poor corpse where my bones shall be thrown: + A thousand thousand sighs to save, + Lay me, O, where + Sad true lover never find my grave, + To weep there._ + +DUKE. +There’s for thy pains. + +CLOWN. +No pains, sir; I take pleasure in singing, sir. + +DUKE. +I’ll pay thy pleasure, then. + +CLOWN. +Truly sir, and pleasure will be paid one time or another. + +DUKE. +Give me now leave to leave thee. + +CLOWN. +Now the melancholy god protect thee, and the tailor make thy doublet of +changeable taffeta, for thy mind is a very opal. I would have men of +such constancy put to sea, that their business might be everything, and +their intent everywhere, for that’s it that always makes a good voyage +of nothing. Farewell. + + [_Exit Clown._] + +DUKE. +Let all the rest give place. + + [_Exeunt Curio and Attendants._] + +Once more, Cesario, +Get thee to yond same sovereign cruelty. +Tell her my love, more noble than the world, +Prizes not quantity of dirty lands; +The parts that fortune hath bestow’d upon her, +Tell her I hold as giddily as fortune; +But ’tis that miracle and queen of gems +That nature pranks her in attracts my soul. + +VIOLA. +But if she cannot love you, sir? + +DUKE. +I cannot be so answer’d. + +VIOLA. +Sooth, but you must. +Say that some lady, as perhaps there is, +Hath for your love as great a pang of heart +As you have for Olivia: you cannot love her; +You tell her so. Must she not then be answer’d? + +DUKE. +There is no woman’s sides +Can bide the beating of so strong a passion +As love doth give my heart: no woman’s heart +So big, to hold so much; they lack retention. +Alas, their love may be called appetite, +No motion of the liver, but the palate, +That suffer surfeit, cloyment, and revolt; +But mine is all as hungry as the sea, +And can digest as much. Make no compare +Between that love a woman can bear me +And that I owe Olivia. + +VIOLA. +Ay, but I know— + +DUKE. +What dost thou know? + +VIOLA. +Too well what love women to men may owe. +In faith, they are as true of heart as we. +My father had a daughter loved a man, +As it might be perhaps, were I a woman, +I should your lordship. + +DUKE. +And what’s her history? + +VIOLA. +A blank, my lord. She never told her love, +But let concealment, like a worm i’ th’ bud, +Feed on her damask cheek: she pined in thought, +And with a green and yellow melancholy +She sat like patience on a monument, +Smiling at grief. Was not this love, indeed? +We men may say more, swear more, but indeed, +Our shows are more than will; for still we prove +Much in our vows, but little in our love. + +DUKE. +But died thy sister of her love, my boy? + +VIOLA. +I am all the daughters of my father’s house, +And all the brothers too: and yet I know not. +Sir, shall I to this lady? + +DUKE. +Ay, that’s the theme. +To her in haste. Give her this jewel; say +My love can give no place, bide no denay. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE V. Olivia’s garden. + + Enter Sir Toby, Sir Andrew and Fabian. + +SIR TOBY. +Come thy ways, Signior Fabian. + +FABIAN. +Nay, I’ll come. If I lose a scruple of this sport, let me be boiled to +death with melancholy. + +SIR TOBY. +Wouldst thou not be glad to have the niggardly rascally sheep-biter +come by some notable shame? + +FABIAN. +I would exult, man. You know he brought me out o’ favour with my lady +about a bear-baiting here. + +SIR TOBY. +To anger him we’ll have the bear again, and we will fool him black and +blue, shall we not, Sir Andrew? + +SIR ANDREW. +And we do not, it is pity of our lives. + + Enter Maria. + +SIR TOBY. +Here comes the little villain. How now, my metal of India? + +MARIA. +Get ye all three into the box-tree. Malvolio’s coming down this walk; +he has been yonder i’ the sun practising behaviour to his own shadow +this half hour: observe him, for the love of mockery; for I know this +letter will make a contemplative idiot of him. Close, in the name of +jesting! [_The men hide themselves._] Lie thou there; [_Throws down a +letter_] for here comes the trout that must be caught with tickling. + + [_Exit Maria._] + + Enter Malvolio. + +MALVOLIO. +’Tis but fortune, all is fortune. Maria once told me she did affect me, +and I have heard herself come thus near, that should she fancy, it +should be one of my complexion. Besides, she uses me with a more +exalted respect than anyone else that follows her. What should I think +on’t? + +SIR TOBY. +Here’s an overweening rogue! + +FABIAN. +O, peace! Contemplation makes a rare turkey-cock of him; how he jets +under his advanced plumes! + +SIR ANDREW. +’Slight, I could so beat the rogue! + +SIR TOBY. +Peace, I say. + +MALVOLIO. +To be Count Malvolio. + +SIR TOBY. +Ah, rogue! + +SIR ANDREW. +Pistol him, pistol him. + +SIR TOBY. +Peace, peace. + +MALVOLIO. +There is example for’t. The lady of the Strachy married the yeoman of +the wardrobe. + +SIR ANDREW. +Fie on him, Jezebel! + +FABIAN. +O, peace! now he’s deeply in; look how imagination blows him. + +MALVOLIO. +Having been three months married to her, sitting in my state— + +SIR TOBY. +O for a stone-bow to hit him in the eye! + +MALVOLIO. +Calling my officers about me, in my branched velvet gown; having come +from a day-bed, where I have left Olivia sleeping. + +SIR TOBY. +Fire and brimstone! + +FABIAN. +O, peace, peace. + +MALVOLIO. +And then to have the humour of state; and after a demure travel of +regard, telling them I know my place as I would they should do theirs, +to ask for my kinsman Toby. + +SIR TOBY. +Bolts and shackles! + +FABIAN. +O, peace, peace, peace! Now, now. + +MALVOLIO. +Seven of my people, with an obedient start, make out for him. I frown +the while, and perchance wind up my watch, or play with some rich +jewel. Toby approaches; curtsies there to me— + +SIR TOBY. +Shall this fellow live? + +FABIAN. +Though our silence be drawn from us with cars, yet peace! + +MALVOLIO. +I extend my hand to him thus, quenching my familiar smile with an +austere regard of control— + +SIR TOBY. +And does not Toby take you a blow o’ the lips then? + +MALVOLIO. +Saying ‘Cousin Toby, my fortunes having cast me on your niece, give me +this prerogative of speech—’ + +SIR TOBY. +What, what? + +MALVOLIO. +‘You must amend your drunkenness.’ + +SIR TOBY. +Out, scab! + +FABIAN. +Nay, patience, or we break the sinews of our plot. + +MALVOLIO. +‘Besides, you waste the treasure of your time with a foolish knight—’ + +SIR ANDREW. +That’s me, I warrant you. + +MALVOLIO. +‘One Sir Andrew.’ + +SIR ANDREW. +I knew ’twas I, for many do call me fool. + +MALVOLIO. +[_Taking up the letter._] What employment have we here? + +FABIAN. +Now is the woodcock near the gin. + +SIR TOBY. +O, peace! And the spirit of humours intimate reading aloud to him! + +MALVOLIO. +By my life, this is my lady’s hand: these be her very C’s, her U’s, and +her T’s, and thus makes she her great P’s. It is in contempt of +question, her hand. + +SIR ANDREW. +Her C’s, her U’s, and her T’s. Why that? + +MALVOLIO. +[_Reads._] _To the unknown beloved, this, and my good wishes._ Her very +phrases! By your leave, wax. Soft! and the impressure her Lucrece, with +which she uses to seal: ’tis my lady. To whom should this be? + +FABIAN. +This wins him, liver and all. + +MALVOLIO. +[_Reads._] +_ Jove knows I love, + But who? + Lips, do not move, + No man must know._ + +‘No man must know.’ What follows? The numbers alter’d! ‘No man must +know.’—If this should be thee, Malvolio? + +SIR TOBY. +Marry, hang thee, brock! + +MALVOLIO. +_ I may command where I adore, + But silence, like a Lucrece knife, + With bloodless stroke my heart doth gore; + M.O.A.I. doth sway my life._ + +FABIAN. +A fustian riddle! + +SIR TOBY. +Excellent wench, say I. + +MALVOLIO. +‘M.O.A.I. doth sway my life.’—Nay, but first let me see, let me see, +let me see. + +FABIAN. +What dish o’ poison has she dressed him! + +SIR TOBY. +And with what wing the staniel checks at it! + +MALVOLIO. +‘I may command where I adore.’ Why, she may command me: I serve her, +she is my lady. Why, this is evident to any formal capacity. There is +no obstruction in this. And the end—what should that alphabetical +position portend? If I could make that resemble something in me! +Softly! ‘M.O.A.I.’— + +SIR TOBY. +O, ay, make up that:—he is now at a cold scent. + +FABIAN. +Sowter will cry upon’t for all this, though it be as rank as a fox. + +MALVOLIO. +‘M’—Malvolio; ‘M!’ Why, that begins my name! + +FABIAN. +Did not I say he would work it out? The cur is excellent at faults. + +MALVOLIO. +‘M’—But then there is no consonancy in the sequel; that suffers under +probation: ‘A’ should follow, but ‘O’ does. + +FABIAN. +And ‘O’ shall end, I hope. + +SIR TOBY. +Ay, or I’ll cudgel him, and make him cry ‘O!’ + +MALVOLIO. +And then ‘I’ comes behind. + +FABIAN. +Ay, and you had any eye behind you, you might see more detraction at +your heels than fortunes before you. + +MALVOLIO. +‘M.O.A.I.’ This simulation is not as the former: and yet, to crush this +a little, it would bow to me, for every one of these letters are in my +name. Soft, here follows prose. +[_Reads._] _If this fall into thy hand, revolve. In my stars I am above +thee, but be not afraid of greatness. Some are born great, some achieve +greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon ’em. Thy fates open +their hands, let thy blood and spirit embrace them. And, to inure +thyself to what thou art like to be, cast thy humble slough and appear +fresh. Be opposite with a kinsman, surly with servants. Let thy tongue +tang arguments of state; put thyself into the trick of singularity. She +thus advises thee that sighs for thee. Remember who commended thy +yellow stockings, and wished to see thee ever cross-gartered. I say, +remember. Go to, thou art made, if thou desir’st to be so. If not, let +me see thee a steward still, the fellow of servants, and not worthy to +touch Fortune’s fingers. Farewell. She that would alter services with +thee, + The Fortunate Unhappy._ + +Daylight and champian discovers not more! This is open. I will be +proud, I will read politic authors, I will baffle Sir Toby, I will wash +off gross acquaintance, I will be point-device, the very man. I do not +now fool myself, to let imagination jade me; for every reason excites +to this, that my lady loves me. She did commend my yellow stockings of +late, she did praise my leg being cross-gartered, and in this she +manifests herself to my love, and with a kind of injunction, drives me +to these habits of her liking. I thank my stars, I am happy. I will be +strange, stout, in yellow stockings, and cross-gartered, even with the +swiftness of putting on. Jove and my stars be praised!—Here is yet a +postscript. [_Reads._] _Thou canst not choose but know who I am. If +thou entertain’st my love, let it appear in thy smiling; thy smiles +become thee well. Therefore in my presence still smile, dear my sweet, +I prithee._ Jove, I thank thee. I will smile, I will do everything that +thou wilt have me. + + [_Exit._] + +FABIAN. +I will not give my part of this sport for a pension of thousands to be +paid from the Sophy. + +SIR TOBY. +I could marry this wench for this device. + +SIR ANDREW. +So could I too. + +SIR TOBY. +And ask no other dowry with her but such another jest. + + Enter Maria. + +SIR ANDREW. +Nor I neither. + +FABIAN. +Here comes my noble gull-catcher. + +SIR TOBY. +Wilt thou set thy foot o’ my neck? + +SIR ANDREW. +Or o’ mine either? + +SIR TOBY. +Shall I play my freedom at tray-trip, and become thy bond-slave? + +SIR ANDREW. +I’ faith, or I either? + +SIR TOBY. +Why, thou hast put him in such a dream, that when the image of it +leaves him he must run mad. + +MARIA. +Nay, but say true, does it work upon him? + +SIR TOBY. +Like aqua-vitae with a midwife. + +MARIA. +If you will then see the fruits of the sport, mark his first approach +before my lady: he will come to her in yellow stockings, and ’tis a +colour she abhors, and cross-gartered, a fashion she detests; and he +will smile upon her, which will now be so unsuitable to her +disposition, being addicted to a melancholy as she is, that it cannot +but turn him into a notable contempt. If you will see it, follow me. + +SIR TOBY. +To the gates of Tartar, thou most excellent devil of wit! + +SIR ANDREW. +I’ll make one too. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III. + +SCENE I. Olivia’s garden. + + Enter Viola and Clown with a tabor. + +VIOLA. +Save thee, friend, and thy music. Dost thou live by thy tabor? + +CLOWN. +No, sir, I live by the church. + +VIOLA. +Art thou a churchman? + +CLOWN. +No such matter, sir. I do live by the church, for I do live at my +house, and my house doth stand by the church. + +VIOLA. +So thou mayst say the king lies by a beggar, if a beggar dwell near +him; or the church stands by thy tabor, if thy tabor stand by the +church. + +CLOWN. +You have said, sir. To see this age! A sentence is but a chev’ril glove +to a good wit. How quickly the wrong side may be turned outward! + +VIOLA. +Nay, that’s certain; they that dally nicely with words may quickly make +them wanton. + +CLOWN. +I would, therefore, my sister had had no name, sir. + +VIOLA. +Why, man? + +CLOWN. +Why, sir, her name’s a word; and to dally with that word might make my +sister wanton. But indeed, words are very rascals, since bonds +disgraced them. + +VIOLA. +Thy reason, man? + +CLOWN. +Troth, sir, I can yield you none without words, and words are grown so +false, I am loath to prove reason with them. + +VIOLA. +I warrant thou art a merry fellow, and car’st for nothing. + +CLOWN. +Not so, sir, I do care for something. But in my conscience, sir, I do +not care for you. If that be to care for nothing, sir, I would it would +make you invisible. + +VIOLA. +Art not thou the Lady Olivia’s fool? + +CLOWN. +No, indeed, sir; the Lady Olivia has no folly. She will keep no fool, +sir, till she be married, and fools are as like husbands as pilchards +are to herrings, the husband’s the bigger. I am indeed not her fool, +but her corrupter of words. + +VIOLA. +I saw thee late at the Count Orsino’s. + +CLOWN. +Foolery, sir, does walk about the orb like the sun; it shines +everywhere. I would be sorry, sir, but the fool should be as oft with +your master as with my mistress. I think I saw your wisdom there. + +VIOLA. +Nay, and thou pass upon me, I’ll no more with thee. Hold, there’s +expenses for thee. + +CLOWN. +Now Jove, in his next commodity of hair, send thee a beard! + +VIOLA. +By my troth, I’ll tell thee, I am almost sick for one, though I would +not have it grow on my chin. Is thy lady within? + +CLOWN. +Would not a pair of these have bred, sir? + +VIOLA. +Yes, being kept together, and put to use. + +CLOWN. +I would play Lord Pandarus of Phrygia, sir, to bring a Cressida to this +Troilus. + +VIOLA. +I understand you, sir; ’tis well begged. + +CLOWN. +The matter, I hope, is not great, sir, begging but a beggar: Cressida +was a beggar. My lady is within, sir. I will conster to them whence you +come; who you are and what you would are out of my welkin. I might say +“element”, but the word is overworn. + + [_Exit._] + +VIOLA. +This fellow is wise enough to play the fool, +And to do that well, craves a kind of wit: +He must observe their mood on whom he jests, +The quality of persons, and the time, +And like the haggard, check at every feather +That comes before his eye. This is a practice +As full of labour as a wise man’s art: +For folly, that he wisely shows, is fit; +But wise men, folly-fall’n, quite taint their wit. + + Enter Sir Toby and Sir Andrew. + +SIR TOBY. +Save you, gentleman. + +VIOLA. +And you, sir. + +SIR ANDREW. +_Dieu vous garde, monsieur._ + +VIOLA. +_Et vous aussi; votre serviteur._ + +SIR ANDREW. +I hope, sir, you are, and I am yours. + +SIR TOBY. +Will you encounter the house? My niece is desirous you should enter, if +your trade be to her. + +VIOLA. +I am bound to your niece, sir, I mean, she is the list of my voyage. + +SIR TOBY. +Taste your legs, sir, put them to motion. + +VIOLA. +My legs do better understand me, sir, than I understand what you mean +by bidding me taste my legs. + +SIR TOBY. +I mean, to go, sir, to enter. + +VIOLA. +I will answer you with gait and entrance: but we are prevented. + + Enter Olivia and Maria. + +Most excellent accomplished lady, the heavens rain odours on you! + +SIR ANDREW. +That youth’s a rare courtier. ‘Rain odours,’ well. + +VIOLA. +My matter hath no voice, lady, but to your own most pregnant and +vouchsafed car. + +SIR ANDREW. +‘Odours,’ ‘pregnant,’ and ‘vouchsafed.’—I’ll get ’em all three ready. + +OLIVIA. +Let the garden door be shut, and leave me to my hearing. + + [_Exeunt Sir Toby, Sir Andrew and Maria._] + +Give me your hand, sir. + +VIOLA. +My duty, madam, and most humble service. + +OLIVIA. +What is your name? + +VIOLA. +Cesario is your servant’s name, fair princess. + +OLIVIA. +My servant, sir! ’Twas never merry world, +Since lowly feigning was call’d compliment: +Y’are servant to the Count Orsino, youth. + +VIOLA. +And he is yours, and his must needs be yours. +Your servant’s servant is your servant, madam. + +OLIVIA. +For him, I think not on him: for his thoughts, +Would they were blanks rather than fill’d with me! + +VIOLA. +Madam, I come to whet your gentle thoughts +On his behalf. + +OLIVIA. +O, by your leave, I pray you. +I bade you never speak again of him. +But would you undertake another suit, +I had rather hear you to solicit that +Than music from the spheres. + +VIOLA. +Dear lady— + +OLIVIA. +Give me leave, beseech you. I did send, +After the last enchantment you did here, +A ring in chase of you. So did I abuse +Myself, my servant, and, I fear me, you. +Under your hard construction must I sit; +To force that on you in a shameful cunning, +Which you knew none of yours. What might you think? +Have you not set mine honour at the stake, +And baited it with all th’ unmuzzled thoughts +That tyrannous heart can think? To one of your receiving +Enough is shown. A cypress, not a bosom, +Hides my heart: so let me hear you speak. + +VIOLA. +I pity you. + +OLIVIA. +That’s a degree to love. + +VIOLA. +No, not a grize; for ’tis a vulgar proof +That very oft we pity enemies. + +OLIVIA. +Why then methinks ’tis time to smile again. +O world, how apt the poor are to be proud! +If one should be a prey, how much the better +To fall before the lion than the wolf! [_Clock strikes._] +The clock upbraids me with the waste of time. +Be not afraid, good youth, I will not have you. +And yet, when wit and youth is come to harvest, +Your wife is like to reap a proper man. +There lies your way, due west. + +VIOLA. +Then westward ho! +Grace and good disposition attend your ladyship! +You’ll nothing, madam, to my lord by me? + +OLIVIA. +Stay: +I prithee tell me what thou think’st of me. + +VIOLA. +That you do think you are not what you are. + +OLIVIA. +If I think so, I think the same of you. + +VIOLA. +Then think you right; I am not what I am. + +OLIVIA. +I would you were as I would have you be. + +VIOLA. +Would it be better, madam, than I am? +I wish it might, for now I am your fool. + +OLIVIA. +O what a deal of scorn looks beautiful +In the contempt and anger of his lip! +A murd’rous guilt shows not itself more soon +Than love that would seem hid. Love’s night is noon. +Cesario, by the roses of the spring, +By maidhood, honour, truth, and everything, +I love thee so, that maugre all thy pride, +Nor wit nor reason can my passion hide. +Do not extort thy reasons from this clause, +For that I woo, thou therefore hast no cause; +But rather reason thus with reason fetter: +Love sought is good, but given unsought is better. + +VIOLA. +By innocence I swear, and by my youth, +I have one heart, one bosom, and one truth, +And that no woman has; nor never none +Shall mistress be of it, save I alone. +And so adieu, good madam; never more +Will I my master’s tears to you deplore. + +OLIVIA. +Yet come again: for thou perhaps mayst move +That heart, which now abhors, to like his love. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A Room in Olivia’s House. + + Enter Sir Toby, Sir Andrew and Fabian. + +SIR ANDREW. +No, faith, I’ll not stay a jot longer. + +SIR TOBY. +Thy reason, dear venom, give thy reason. + +FABIAN. +You must needs yield your reason, Sir Andrew. + +SIR ANDREW. +Marry, I saw your niece do more favours to the Count’s servingman than +ever she bestowed upon me; I saw’t i’ th’ orchard. + +SIR TOBY. +Did she see thee the while, old boy? Tell me that. + +SIR ANDREW. +As plain as I see you now. + +FABIAN. +This was a great argument of love in her toward you. + +SIR ANDREW. +’Slight! will you make an ass o’ me? + +FABIAN. +I will prove it legitimate, sir, upon the oaths of judgment and reason. + +SIR TOBY. +And they have been grand-jurymen since before Noah was a sailor. + +FABIAN. +She did show favour to the youth in your sight only to exasperate you, +to awake your dormouse valour, to put fire in your heart and brimstone +in your liver. You should then have accosted her, and with some +excellent jests, fire-new from the mint, you should have banged the +youth into dumbness. This was looked for at your hand, and this was +balked: the double gilt of this opportunity you let time wash off, and +you are now sailed into the north of my lady’s opinion; where you will +hang like an icicle on Dutchman’s beard, unless you do redeem it by +some laudable attempt, either of valour or policy. + +SIR ANDREW. +And’t be any way, it must be with valour, for policy I hate; I had as +lief be a Brownist as a politician. + +SIR TOBY. +Why, then, build me thy fortunes upon the basis of valour. Challenge me +the Count’s youth to fight with him. Hurt him in eleven places; my +niece shall take note of it, and assure thyself there is no love-broker +in the world can more prevail in man’s commendation with woman than +report of valour. + +FABIAN. +There is no way but this, Sir Andrew. + +SIR ANDREW. +Will either of you bear me a challenge to him? + +SIR TOBY. +Go, write it in a martial hand, be curst and brief; it is no matter how +witty, so it be eloquent and full of invention. Taunt him with the +licence of ink. If thou ‘thou’st’ him some thrice, it shall not be +amiss, and as many lies as will lie in thy sheet of paper, although the +sheet were big enough for the bed of Ware in England, set ’em down. Go +about it. Let there be gall enough in thy ink, though thou write with a +goose-pen, no matter. About it. + +SIR ANDREW. +Where shall I find you? + +SIR TOBY. +We’ll call thee at the cubiculo. Go. + + [_Exit Sir Andrew._] + +FABIAN. +This is a dear manikin to you, Sir Toby. + +SIR TOBY. +I have been dear to him, lad, some two thousand strong, or so. + +FABIAN. +We shall have a rare letter from him; but you’ll not deliver it. + +SIR TOBY. +Never trust me then. And by all means stir on the youth to an answer. I +think oxen and wainropes cannot hale them together. For Andrew, if he +were opened and you find so much blood in his liver as will clog the +foot of a flea, I’ll eat the rest of th’ anatomy. + +FABIAN. +And his opposite, the youth, bears in his visage no great presage of +cruelty. + + Enter Maria. + +SIR TOBY. +Look where the youngest wren of nine comes. + +MARIA. +If you desire the spleen, and will laugh yourselves into stitches, +follow me. Yond gull Malvolio is turned heathen, a very renegado; for +there is no Christian that means to be saved by believing rightly can +ever believe such impossible passages of grossness. He’s in yellow +stockings. + +SIR TOBY. +And cross-gartered? + +MARIA. +Most villainously; like a pedant that keeps a school i’ th’ church. I +have dogged him like his murderer. He does obey every point of the +letter that I dropped to betray him. He does smile his face into more +lines than is in the new map with the augmentation of the Indies. You +have not seen such a thing as ’tis. I can hardly forbear hurling +things at him. I know my lady will strike him. If she do, he’ll smile +and take’t for a great favour. + +SIR TOBY. +Come, bring us, bring us where he is. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. A street. + + Enter Sebastian and Antonio. + +SEBASTIAN. +I would not by my will have troubled you, +But since you make your pleasure of your pains, +I will no further chide you. + +ANTONIO. +I could not stay behind you: my desire, +More sharp than filed steel, did spur me forth; +And not all love to see you, though so much, +As might have drawn one to a longer voyage, +But jealousy what might befall your travel, +Being skilless in these parts; which to a stranger, +Unguided and unfriended, often prove +Rough and unhospitable. My willing love, +The rather by these arguments of fear, +Set forth in your pursuit. + +SEBASTIAN. +My kind Antonio, +I can no other answer make but thanks, +And thanks, and ever thanks; and oft good turns +Are shuffled off with such uncurrent pay. +But were my worth, as is my conscience, firm, +You should find better dealing. What’s to do? +Shall we go see the relics of this town? + +ANTONIO. +Tomorrow, sir; best first go see your lodging. + +SEBASTIAN. +I am not weary, and ’tis long to night; +I pray you, let us satisfy our eyes +With the memorials and the things of fame +That do renown this city. + +ANTONIO. +Would you’d pardon me. +I do not without danger walk these streets. +Once in a sea-fight, ’gainst the Count his galleys, +I did some service, of such note indeed, +That were I ta’en here, it would scarce be answer’d. + +SEBASTIAN. +Belike you slew great number of his people. + +ANTONIO. +Th’ offence is not of such a bloody nature, +Albeit the quality of the time and quarrel +Might well have given us bloody argument. +It might have since been answered in repaying +What we took from them, which for traffic’s sake, +Most of our city did. Only myself stood out, +For which, if I be lapsed in this place, +I shall pay dear. + +SEBASTIAN. +Do not then walk too open. + +ANTONIO. +It doth not fit me. Hold, sir, here’s my purse. +In the south suburbs, at the Elephant, +Is best to lodge. I will bespeak our diet +Whiles you beguile the time and feed your knowledge +With viewing of the town. There shall you have me. + +SEBASTIAN. +Why I your purse? + +ANTONIO. +Haply your eye shall light upon some toy +You have desire to purchase; and your store, +I think, is not for idle markets, sir. + +SEBASTIAN. +I’ll be your purse-bearer, and leave you for an hour. + +ANTONIO. +To th’ Elephant. + +SEBASTIAN. +I do remember. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE IV. Olivia’s garden. + + Enter Olivia and Maria. + +OLIVIA. +I have sent after him. He says he’ll come; +How shall I feast him? What bestow of him? +For youth is bought more oft than begg’d or borrow’d. +I speak too loud.— +Where’s Malvolio?—He is sad and civil, +And suits well for a servant with my fortunes; +Where is Malvolio? + +MARIA. +He’s coming, madam: +But in very strange manner. He is sure possessed, madam. + +OLIVIA. +Why, what’s the matter? Does he rave? + +MARIA. +No, madam, he does nothing but smile: your ladyship were best to have +some guard about you if he come, for sure the man is tainted in ’s +wits. + +OLIVIA. +Go call him hither. I’m as mad as he, +If sad and merry madness equal be. + + Enter Malvolio. + +How now, Malvolio? + +MALVOLIO. +Sweet lady, ho, ho! + +OLIVIA. +Smil’st thou? I sent for thee upon a sad occasion. + +MALVOLIO. +Sad, lady? I could be sad: this does make some obstruction in the +blood, this cross-gartering. But what of that? If it please the eye of +one, it is with me as the very true sonnet is: ‘Please one and please +all.’ + +OLIVIA. +Why, how dost thou, man? What is the matter with thee? + +MALVOLIO. +Not black in my mind, though yellow in my legs. It did come to his +hands, and commands shall be executed. I think we do know the sweet +Roman hand. + +OLIVIA. +Wilt thou go to bed, Malvolio? + +MALVOLIO. +To bed? Ay, sweetheart, and I’ll come to thee. + +OLIVIA. +God comfort thee! Why dost thou smile so, and kiss thy hand so oft? + +MARIA. +How do you, Malvolio? + +MALVOLIO. +At your request? Yes, nightingales answer daws! + +MARIA. +Why appear you with this ridiculous boldness before my lady? + +MALVOLIO. +‘Be not afraid of greatness.’ ’Twas well writ. + +OLIVIA. +What mean’st thou by that, Malvolio? + +MALVOLIO. +‘Some are born great’— + +OLIVIA. +Ha? + +MALVOLIO. +‘Some achieve greatness’— + +OLIVIA. +What say’st thou? + +MALVOLIO. +‘And some have greatness thrust upon them.’ + +OLIVIA. +Heaven restore thee! + +MALVOLIO. +‘Remember who commended thy yellow stockings’— + +OLIVIA. +Thy yellow stockings? + +MALVOLIO. +‘And wished to see thee cross-gartered.’ + +OLIVIA. +Cross-gartered? + +MALVOLIO. +‘Go to: thou art made, if thou desir’st to be so:’— + +OLIVIA. +Am I made? + +MALVOLIO. +‘If not, let me see thee a servant still.’ + +OLIVIA. +Why, this is very midsummer madness. + + Enter Servant. + +SERVANT. +Madam, the young gentleman of the Count Orsino’s is returned; I could +hardly entreat him back. He attends your ladyship’s pleasure. + +OLIVIA. +I’ll come to him. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +Good Maria, let this fellow be looked to. Where’s my cousin Toby? Let +some of my people have a special care of him; I would not have him +miscarry for the half of my dowry. + + [_Exeunt Olivia and Maria._] + +MALVOLIO. +O ho, do you come near me now? No worse man than Sir Toby to look to +me. This concurs directly with the letter: she sends him on purpose, +that I may appear stubborn to him; for she incites me to that in the +letter. ‘Cast thy humble slough,’ says she; ‘be opposite with a +kinsman, surly with servants, let thy tongue tang with arguments of +state, put thyself into the trick of singularity,’ and consequently, +sets down the manner how: as, a sad face, a reverend carriage, a slow +tongue, in the habit of some sir of note, and so forth. I have limed +her, but it is Jove’s doing, and Jove make me thankful! And when she +went away now, ‘Let this fellow be looked to;’ ‘Fellow!’ not +‘Malvolio’, nor after my degree, but ‘fellow’. Why, everything adheres +together, that no dram of a scruple, no scruple of a scruple, no +obstacle, no incredulous or unsafe circumstance. What can be said? +Nothing that can be can come between me and the full prospect of my +hopes. Well, Jove, not I, is the doer of this, and he is to be thanked. + + Enter Sir Toby, Fabian and Maria. + +SIR TOBY. +Which way is he, in the name of sanctity? If all the devils of hell be +drawn in little, and Legion himself possessed him, yet I’ll speak to +him. + +FABIAN. +Here he is, here he is. How is’t with you, sir? How is’t with you, man? + +MALVOLIO. +Go off, I discard you. Let me enjoy my private. Go off. + +MARIA. +Lo, how hollow the fiend speaks within him! Did not I tell you? Sir +Toby, my lady prays you to have a care of him. + +MALVOLIO. +Ah, ha! does she so? + +SIR TOBY. +Go to, go to; peace, peace, we must deal gently with him. Let me alone. +How do you, Malvolio? How is’t with you? What, man! defy the devil! +Consider, he’s an enemy to mankind. + +MALVOLIO. +Do you know what you say? + +MARIA. +La you, an you speak ill of the devil, how he takes it at heart! Pray +God he be not bewitched. + +FABIAN. +Carry his water to th’ wise woman. + +MARIA. +Marry, and it shall be done tomorrow morning, if I live. My lady would +not lose him for more than I’ll say. + +MALVOLIO. +How now, mistress! + +MARIA. +O Lord! + +SIR TOBY. +Prithee hold thy peace, this is not the way. Do you not see you move +him? Let me alone with him. + +FABIAN. +No way but gentleness, gently, gently. The fiend is rough, and will not +be roughly used. + +SIR TOBY. +Why, how now, my bawcock? How dost thou, chuck? + +MALVOLIO. +Sir! + +SIR TOBY. +Ay, biddy, come with me. What, man, ’tis not for gravity to play at +cherry-pit with Satan. Hang him, foul collier! + +MARIA. +Get him to say his prayers, good Sir Toby, get him to pray. + +MALVOLIO. +My prayers, minx? + +MARIA. +No, I warrant you, he will not hear of godliness. + +MALVOLIO. +Go, hang yourselves all! You are idle, shallow things. I am not of your +element. You shall know more hereafter. + + [_Exit._] + +SIR TOBY. +Is’t possible? + +FABIAN. +If this were played upon a stage now, I could condemn it as an +improbable fiction. + +SIR TOBY. +His very genius hath taken the infection of the device, man. + +MARIA. +Nay, pursue him now, lest the device take air and taint. + +FABIAN. +Why, we shall make him mad indeed. + +MARIA. +The house will be the quieter. + +SIR TOBY. +Come, we’ll have him in a dark room and bound. My niece is already in +the belief that he’s mad. We may carry it thus for our pleasure, and +his penance, till our very pastime, tired out of breath, prompt us to +have mercy on him, at which time we will bring the device to the bar, +and crown thee for a finder of madmen. But see, but see! + + Enter Sir Andrew. + +FABIAN. +More matter for a May morning. + +SIR ANDREW. +Here’s the challenge, read it. I warrant there’s vinegar and pepper +in’t. + +FABIAN. +Is’t so saucy? + +SIR ANDREW. +Ay, is’t, I warrant him. Do but read. + +SIR TOBY. +Give me. [_Reads._] _Youth, whatsoever thou art, thou art but a scurvy +fellow._ + +FABIAN. +Good, and valiant. + +SIR TOBY. +_Wonder not, nor admire not in thy mind, why I do call thee so, for I +will show thee no reason for’t._ + +FABIAN. +A good note, that keeps you from the blow of the law. + +SIR TOBY. +_Thou comest to the Lady Olivia, and in my sight she uses thee kindly: +but thou liest in thy throat; that is not the matter I challenge thee +for._ + +FABIAN. +Very brief, and to exceeding good sense—less. + +SIR TOBY. +_I will waylay thee going home; where if it be thy chance to kill me—_ + +FABIAN. +Good. + +SIR TOBY. +_Thou kill’st me like a rogue and a villain._ + +FABIAN. +Still you keep o’ th’ windy side of the law. Good. + +SIR TOBY. +_Fare thee well, and God have mercy upon one of our souls! He may have +mercy upon mine, but my hope is better, and so look to thyself. Thy +friend, as thou usest him, and thy sworn enemy, + Andrew Aguecheek._ +If this letter move him not, his legs cannot. I’ll give’t him. + +MARIA. +You may have very fit occasion for’t. He is now in some commerce with +my lady, and will by and by depart. + +SIR TOBY. +Go, Sir Andrew. Scout me for him at the corner of the orchard, like a +bum-baily. So soon as ever thou seest him, draw, and as thou draw’st, +swear horrible, for it comes to pass oft that a terrible oath, with a +swaggering accent sharply twanged off, gives manhood more approbation +than ever proof itself would have earned him. Away. + +SIR ANDREW. +Nay, let me alone for swearing. + + [_Exit._] + +SIR TOBY. +Now will not I deliver his letter, for the behaviour of the young +gentleman gives him out to be of good capacity and breeding; his +employment between his lord and my niece confirms no less. Therefore +this letter, being so excellently ignorant, will breed no terror in the +youth. He will find it comes from a clodpole. But, sir, I will deliver +his challenge by word of mouth, set upon Aguecheek notable report of +valour, and drive the gentleman (as I know his youth will aptly receive +it) into a most hideous opinion of his rage, skill, fury, and +impetuosity. This will so fright them both that they will kill one +another by the look, like cockatrices. + + Enter Olivia and Viola. + +FABIAN. +Here he comes with your niece; give them way till he take leave, and +presently after him. + +SIR TOBY. +I will meditate the while upon some horrid message for a challenge. + + [_Exeunt Sir Toby, Fabian and Maria._] + +OLIVIA. +I have said too much unto a heart of stone, +And laid mine honour too unchary on’t: +There’s something in me that reproves my fault: +But such a headstrong potent fault it is, +That it but mocks reproof. + +VIOLA. +With the same ’haviour that your passion bears +Goes on my master’s griefs. + +OLIVIA. +Here, wear this jewel for me, ’tis my picture. +Refuse it not, it hath no tongue to vex you. +And I beseech you come again tomorrow. +What shall you ask of me that I’ll deny, +That honour sav’d, may upon asking give? + +VIOLA. +Nothing but this, your true love for my master. + +OLIVIA. +How with mine honour may I give him that +Which I have given to you? + +VIOLA. +I will acquit you. + +OLIVIA. +Well, come again tomorrow. Fare thee well; +A fiend like thee might bear my soul to hell. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Sir Toby and Fabian. + +SIR TOBY. +Gentleman, God save thee. + +VIOLA. +And you, sir. + +SIR TOBY. +That defence thou hast, betake thee to’t. Of what nature the wrongs are +thou hast done him, I know not, but thy intercepter, full of despite, +bloody as the hunter, attends thee at the orchard end. Dismount thy +tuck, be yare in thy preparation, for thy assailant is quick, skilful, +and deadly. + +VIOLA. +You mistake, sir; I am sure no man hath any quarrel to me. My +remembrance is very free and clear from any image of offence done to +any man. + +SIR TOBY. +You’ll find it otherwise, I assure you. Therefore, if you hold your +life at any price, betake you to your guard, for your opposite hath in +him what youth, strength, skill, and wrath, can furnish man withal. + +VIOLA. +I pray you, sir, what is he? + +SIR TOBY. +He is knight, dubbed with unhatched rapier, and on carpet +consideration, but he is a devil in private brawl. Souls and bodies +hath he divorced three, and his incensement at this moment is so +implacable that satisfaction can be none but by pangs of death and +sepulchre. Hob, nob is his word; give’t or take’t. + +VIOLA. +I will return again into the house and desire some conduct of the lady. +I am no fighter. I have heard of some kind of men that put quarrels +purposely on others to taste their valour: belike this is a man of that +quirk. + +SIR TOBY. +Sir, no. His indignation derives itself out of a very competent injury; +therefore, get you on and give him his desire. Back you shall not to +the house, unless you undertake that with me which with as much safety +you might answer him. Therefore on, or strip your sword stark naked, +for meddle you must, that’s certain, or forswear to wear iron about +you. + +VIOLA. +This is as uncivil as strange. I beseech you, do me this courteous +office, as to know of the knight what my offence to him is. It is +something of my negligence, nothing of my purpose. + +SIR TOBY. +I will do so. Signior Fabian, stay you by this gentleman till my +return. + + [_Exit Sir Toby._] + +VIOLA. +Pray you, sir, do you know of this matter? + +FABIAN. +I know the knight is incensed against you, even to a mortal +arbitrement, but nothing of the circumstance more. + +VIOLA. +I beseech you, what manner of man is he? + +FABIAN. +Nothing of that wonderful promise, to read him by his form, as you are +like to find him in the proof of his valour. He is indeed, sir, the +most skilful, bloody, and fatal opposite that you could possibly have +found in any part of Illyria. Will you walk towards him? I will make +your peace with him if I can. + +VIOLA. +I shall be much bound to you for’t. I am one that had rather go with +sir priest than sir knight: I care not who knows so much of my mettle. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Enter Sir Toby and Sir Andrew. + +SIR TOBY. +Why, man, he’s a very devil. I have not seen such a firago. I had a +pass with him, rapier, scabbard, and all, and he gives me the stuck-in +with such a mortal motion that it is inevitable; and on the answer, he +pays you as surely as your feet hits the ground they step on. They say +he has been fencer to the Sophy. + +SIR ANDREW. +Pox on’t, I’ll not meddle with him. + +SIR TOBY. +Ay, but he will not now be pacified: Fabian can scarce hold him yonder. + +SIR ANDREW. +Plague on’t, an I thought he had been valiant, and so cunning in fence, +I’d have seen him damned ere I’d have challenged him. Let him let the +matter slip, and I’ll give him my horse, grey Capilet. + +SIR TOBY. +I’ll make the motion. Stand here, make a good show on’t. This shall end +without the perdition of souls. [_Aside._] Marry, I’ll ride your horse +as well as I ride you. + + Enter Fabian and Viola. + +[_To Fabian._] I have his horse to take up the quarrel. I have +persuaded him the youth’s a devil. + +FABIAN. +He is as horribly conceited of him, and pants and looks pale, as if a +bear were at his heels. + +SIR TOBY. +There’s no remedy, sir, he will fight with you for’s oath sake. Marry, +he hath better bethought him of his quarrel, and he finds that now +scarce to be worth talking of. Therefore, draw for the supportance of +his vow; he protests he will not hurt you. + +VIOLA. +[_Aside._] Pray God defend me! A little thing would make me tell them +how much I lack of a man. + +FABIAN. +Give ground if you see him furious. + +SIR TOBY. +Come, Sir Andrew, there’s no remedy, the gentleman will for his +honour’s sake have one bout with you. He cannot by the duello avoid it; +but he has promised me, as he is a gentleman and a soldier, he will not +hurt you. Come on: to’t. + +SIR ANDREW. +[_Draws._] Pray God he keep his oath! + + Enter Antonio. + +VIOLA. +[_Draws._] I do assure you ’tis against my will. + +ANTONIO. +Put up your sword. If this young gentleman +Have done offence, I take the fault on me. +If you offend him, I for him defy you. + +SIR TOBY. +You, sir? Why, what are you? + +ANTONIO. +[_Draws._] One, sir, that for his love dares yet do more +Than you have heard him brag to you he will. + +SIR TOBY. +[_Draws._] Nay, if you be an undertaker, I am for you. + + Enter Officers. + +FABIAN. +O good Sir Toby, hold! Here come the officers. + +SIR TOBY. +[_To Antonio._] I’ll be with you anon. + +VIOLA. +[_To Sir Andrew._] Pray, sir, put your sword up, if you please. + +SIR ANDREW. +Marry, will I, sir; and for that I promised you, I’ll be as good as my +word. He will bear you easily, and reins well. + +FIRST OFFICER. +This is the man; do thy office. + +SECOND OFFICER. +Antonio, I arrest thee at the suit +Of Count Orsino. + +ANTONIO. +You do mistake me, sir. + +FIRST OFFICER. +No, sir, no jot. I know your favour well, +Though now you have no sea-cap on your head.— +Take him away, he knows I know him well. + +ANTONIO. +I must obey. This comes with seeking you; +But there’s no remedy, I shall answer it. +What will you do? Now my necessity +Makes me to ask you for my purse. It grieves me +Much more for what I cannot do for you, +Than what befalls myself. You stand amaz’d, +But be of comfort. + +SECOND OFFICER. +Come, sir, away. + +ANTONIO. +I must entreat of you some of that money. + +VIOLA. +What money, sir? +For the fair kindness you have show’d me here, +And part being prompted by your present trouble, +Out of my lean and low ability +I’ll lend you something. My having is not much; +I’ll make division of my present with you. +Hold, there’s half my coffer. + +ANTONIO. +Will you deny me now? +Is’t possible that my deserts to you +Can lack persuasion? Do not tempt my misery, +Lest that it make me so unsound a man +As to upbraid you with those kindnesses +That I have done for you. + +VIOLA. +I know of none, +Nor know I you by voice or any feature. +I hate ingratitude more in a man +Than lying, vainness, babbling, drunkenness, +Or any taint of vice whose strong corruption +Inhabits our frail blood. + +ANTONIO. +O heavens themselves! + +SECOND OFFICER. +Come, sir, I pray you go. + +ANTONIO. +Let me speak a little. This youth that you see here +I snatch’d one half out of the jaws of death, +Reliev’d him with such sanctity of love; +And to his image, which methought did promise +Most venerable worth, did I devotion. + +FIRST OFFICER. +What’s that to us? The time goes by. Away! + +ANTONIO. +But O how vile an idol proves this god! +Thou hast, Sebastian, done good feature shame. +In nature there’s no blemish but the mind; +None can be call’d deform’d but the unkind. +Virtue is beauty, but the beauteous evil +Are empty trunks, o’erflourished by the devil. + +FIRST OFFICER. +The man grows mad, away with him. Come, come, sir. + +ANTONIO. +Lead me on. + + [_Exeunt Officers with Antonio._] + +VIOLA. +Methinks his words do from such passion fly +That he believes himself; so do not I. +Prove true, imagination, O prove true, +That I, dear brother, be now ta’en for you! + +SIR TOBY. +Come hither, knight; come hither, Fabian. We’ll whisper o’er a couplet +or two of most sage saws. + +VIOLA. +He nam’d Sebastian. I my brother know +Yet living in my glass; even such and so +In favour was my brother, and he went +Still in this fashion, colour, ornament, +For him I imitate. O if it prove, +Tempests are kind, and salt waves fresh in love! + + [_Exit._] + +SIR TOBY. +A very dishonest paltry boy, and more a coward than a hare. His +dishonesty appears in leaving his friend here in necessity, and denying +him; and for his cowardship, ask Fabian. + +FABIAN. +A coward, a most devout coward, religious in it. + +SIR ANDREW. +’Slid, I’ll after him again and beat him. + +SIR TOBY. +Do, cuff him soundly, but never draw thy sword. + +SIR ANDREW. +And I do not— + + [_Exit._] + +FABIAN. +Come, let’s see the event. + +SIR TOBY. +I dare lay any money ’twill be nothing yet. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV. + +SCENE I. The Street before Olivia’s House. + + Enter Sebastian and Clown. + +CLOWN. +Will you make me believe that I am not sent for you? + +SEBASTIAN. +Go to, go to, thou art a foolish fellow. +Let me be clear of thee. + +CLOWN. +Well held out, i’ faith! No, I do not know you, nor I am not sent to +you by my lady, to bid you come speak with her; nor your name is not +Master Cesario; nor this is not my nose neither. Nothing that is so, is +so. + +SEBASTIAN. +I prithee vent thy folly somewhere else, +Thou know’st not me. + +CLOWN. +Vent my folly! He has heard that word of some great man, and now +applies it to a fool. Vent my folly! I am afraid this great lubber, the +world, will prove a cockney. I prithee now, ungird thy strangeness, and +tell me what I shall vent to my lady. Shall I vent to her that thou art +coming? + +SEBASTIAN. +I prithee, foolish Greek, depart from me. +There’s money for thee; if you tarry longer +I shall give worse payment. + +CLOWN. +By my troth, thou hast an open hand. These wise men that give fools +money get themselves a good report—after fourteen years’ purchase. + + Enter Sir Andrew, Sir Toby and Fabian. + +SIR ANDREW. +Now sir, have I met you again? There’s for you. + + [_Striking Sebastian._] + +SEBASTIAN. +Why, there’s for thee, and there, and there. +Are all the people mad? + + [_Beating Sir Andrew._] + +SIR TOBY. +Hold, sir, or I’ll throw your dagger o’er the house. + +CLOWN. +This will I tell my lady straight. I would not be in some of your coats +for twopence. + + [_Exit Clown._] + +SIR TOBY. +Come on, sir, hold! + +SIR ANDREW. +Nay, let him alone, I’ll go another way to work with him. I’ll have an +action of battery against him, if there be any law in Illyria. Though I +struck him first, yet it’s no matter for that. + +SEBASTIAN. +Let go thy hand! + +SIR TOBY. +Come, sir, I will not let you go. Come, my young soldier, put up your +iron: you are well fleshed. Come on. + +SEBASTIAN. +I will be free from thee. What wouldst thou now? +If thou dar’st tempt me further, draw thy sword. + + [_Draws._] + +SIR TOBY. +What, what? Nay, then, I must have an ounce or two of this malapert +blood from you. + + [_Draws._] + + Enter Olivia. + +OLIVIA. +Hold, Toby! On thy life I charge thee hold! + +SIR TOBY. +Madam. + +OLIVIA. +Will it be ever thus? Ungracious wretch, +Fit for the mountains and the barbarous caves, +Where manners ne’er were preach’d! Out of my sight! +Be not offended, dear Cesario. +Rudesby, be gone! + + [_Exeunt Sir Toby, Sir Andrew and Fabian._] + +I prithee, gentle friend, +Let thy fair wisdom, not thy passion, sway +In this uncivil and unjust extent +Against thy peace. Go with me to my house, +And hear thou there how many fruitless pranks +This ruffian hath botch’d up, that thou thereby +Mayst smile at this. Thou shalt not choose but go. +Do not deny. Beshrew his soul for me, +He started one poor heart of mine, in thee. + +SEBASTIAN. +What relish is in this? How runs the stream? +Or I am mad, or else this is a dream. +Let fancy still my sense in Lethe steep; +If it be thus to dream, still let me sleep! + +OLIVIA. +Nay, come, I prithee. Would thou’dst be ruled by me! + +SEBASTIAN. +Madam, I will. + +OLIVIA. +O, say so, and so be! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. A Room in Olivia’s House. + + Enter Maria and Clown. + +MARIA. +Nay, I prithee, put on this gown and this beard; make him believe thou +art Sir Topas the curate. Do it quickly. I’ll call Sir Toby the whilst. + + [_Exit Maria._] + +CLOWN. +Well, I’ll put it on, and I will dissemble myself in’t, and I would I +were the first that ever dissembled in such a gown. I am not tall +enough to become the function well, nor lean enough to be thought a +good student, but to be said, an honest man and a good housekeeper goes +as fairly as to say, a careful man and a great scholar. The competitors +enter. + + Enter Sir Toby and Maria. + +SIR TOBY. +Jove bless thee, Master Parson. + +CLOWN. +_Bonos dies_, Sir Toby: for as the old hermit of Prague, that never saw +pen and ink, very wittily said to a niece of King Gorboduc, ‘That that +is, is’: so I, being Master Parson, am Master Parson; for what is +‘that’ but ‘that’? and ‘is’ but ‘is’? + +SIR TOBY. +To him, Sir Topas. + +CLOWN. +What ho, I say! Peace in this prison! + +SIR TOBY. +The knave counterfeits well. A good knave. + +Malvolio within. + +MALVOLIO. +Who calls there? + +CLOWN. +Sir Topas the curate, who comes to visit Malvolio the lunatic. + +MALVOLIO. +Sir Topas, Sir Topas, good Sir Topas, go to my lady. + +CLOWN. +Out, hyperbolical fiend! how vexest thou this man? Talkest thou nothing +but of ladies? + +SIR TOBY. +Well said, Master Parson. + +MALVOLIO. +Sir Topas, never was man thus wronged. Good Sir Topas, do not think I +am mad. They have laid me here in hideous darkness. + +CLOWN. +Fie, thou dishonest Satan! I call thee by the most modest terms, for I +am one of those gentle ones that will use the devil himself with +courtesy. Say’st thou that house is dark? + +MALVOLIO. +As hell, Sir Topas. + +CLOWN. +Why, it hath bay windows transparent as barricadoes, and the +clerestories toward the south-north are as lustrous as ebony; and yet +complainest thou of obstruction? + +MALVOLIO. +I am not mad, Sir Topas. I say to you this house is dark. + +CLOWN. +Madman, thou errest. I say there is no darkness but ignorance, in which +thou art more puzzled than the Egyptians in their fog. + +MALVOLIO. +I say this house is as dark as ignorance, though ignorance were as dark +as hell; and I say there was never man thus abused. I am no more mad +than you are. Make the trial of it in any constant question. + +CLOWN. +What is the opinion of Pythagoras concerning wildfowl? + +MALVOLIO. +That the soul of our grandam might haply inhabit a bird. + +CLOWN. +What think’st thou of his opinion? + +MALVOLIO. +I think nobly of the soul, and no way approve his opinion. + +CLOWN. +Fare thee well. Remain thou still in darkness. Thou shalt hold the +opinion of Pythagoras ere I will allow of thy wits, and fear to kill a +woodcock, lest thou dispossess the soul of thy grandam. Fare thee well. + +MALVOLIO. +Sir Topas, Sir Topas! + +SIR TOBY. +My most exquisite Sir Topas! + +CLOWN. +Nay, I am for all waters. + +MARIA. +Thou mightst have done this without thy beard and gown. He sees thee +not. + +SIR TOBY. +To him in thine own voice, and bring me word how thou find’st him. I +would we were well rid of this knavery. If he may be conveniently +delivered, I would he were, for I am now so far in offence with my +niece that I cannot pursue with any safety this sport to the upshot. +Come by and by to my chamber. + + [_Exeunt Sir Toby and Maria._] + +CLOWN. +[_Singing._] + _Hey, Robin, jolly Robin, + Tell me how thy lady does._ + +MALVOLIO. +Fool! + +CLOWN. + _My lady is unkind, perdy._ + +MALVOLIO. +Fool! + +CLOWN. + _Alas, why is she so?_ + +MALVOLIO. +Fool, I say! + +CLOWN. + _She loves another_— +Who calls, ha? + +MALVOLIO. +Good fool, as ever thou wilt deserve well at my hand, help me to a +candle, and pen, ink, and paper. As I am a gentleman, I will live to be +thankful to thee for’t. + +CLOWN. +Master Malvolio? + +MALVOLIO. +Ay, good fool. + +CLOWN. +Alas, sir, how fell you besides your five wits? + +MALVOLIO. +Fool, there was never man so notoriously abused. I am as well in my +wits, fool, as thou art. + +CLOWN. +But as well? Then you are mad indeed, if you be no better in your wits +than a fool. + +MALVOLIO. +They have here propertied me; keep me in darkness, send ministers to +me, asses, and do all they can to face me out of my wits. + +CLOWN. +Advise you what you say: the minister is here. [_As Sir Topas_] +Malvolio, Malvolio, thy wits the heavens restore. Endeavour thyself to +sleep, and leave thy vain bibble-babble. + +MALVOLIO. +Sir Topas! + +CLOWN. +[_As Sir Topas_] Maintain no words with him, good fellow. [_As +himself_] Who, I, sir? not I, sir. God buy you, good Sir Topas. [_As +Sir Topas_] Marry, amen. [_As himself_] I will sir, I will. + +MALVOLIO. +Fool, fool, fool, I say! + +CLOWN. +Alas, sir, be patient. What say you, sir? I am shent for speaking to +you. + +MALVOLIO. +Good fool, help me to some light and some paper. I tell thee I am as +well in my wits as any man in Illyria. + +CLOWN. +Well-a-day that you were, sir! + +MALVOLIO. +By this hand, I am. Good fool, some ink, paper, and light, and convey +what I will set down to my lady. It shall advantage thee more than ever +the bearing of letter did. + +CLOWN. +I will help you to’t. But tell me true, are you not mad indeed? or do +you but counterfeit? + +MALVOLIO. +Believe me, I am not. I tell thee true. + +CLOWN. +Nay, I’ll ne’er believe a madman till I see his brains. I will fetch +you light, and paper, and ink. + +MALVOLIO. +Fool, I’ll requite it in the highest degree: I prithee be gone. + +CLOWN. +[_Singing._] + _I am gone, sir, and anon, sir, + I’ll be with you again, + In a trice, like to the old Vice, + Your need to sustain; + Who with dagger of lath, in his rage and his wrath, + Cries ‘ah, ha!’ to the devil: + Like a mad lad, ‘Pare thy nails, dad. + Adieu, goodman devil.’_ + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE III. Olivia’s Garden. + + Enter Sebastian. + +SEBASTIAN. +This is the air; that is the glorious sun, +This pearl she gave me, I do feel’t and see’t, +And though ’tis wonder that enwraps me thus, +Yet ’tis not madness. Where’s Antonio, then? +I could not find him at the Elephant, +Yet there he was, and there I found this credit, +That he did range the town to seek me out. +His counsel now might do me golden service. +For though my soul disputes well with my sense +That this may be some error, but no madness, +Yet doth this accident and flood of fortune +So far exceed all instance, all discourse, +That I am ready to distrust mine eyes +And wrangle with my reason that persuades me +To any other trust but that I am mad, +Or else the lady’s mad; yet if ’twere so, +She could not sway her house, command her followers, +Take and give back affairs and their dispatch, +With such a smooth, discreet, and stable bearing +As I perceive she does. There’s something in’t +That is deceivable. But here the lady comes. + + Enter Olivia and a Priest. + +OLIVIA. +Blame not this haste of mine. If you mean well, +Now go with me and with this holy man +Into the chantry by: there, before him +And underneath that consecrated roof, +Plight me the full assurance of your faith, +That my most jealous and too doubtful soul +May live at peace. He shall conceal it +Whiles you are willing it shall come to note, +What time we will our celebration keep +According to my birth. What do you say? + +SEBASTIAN. +I’ll follow this good man, and go with you, +And having sworn truth, ever will be true. + +OLIVIA. +Then lead the way, good father, and heavens so shine, +That they may fairly note this act of mine! + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT V. + +SCENE I. The Street before Olivia’s House. + + Enter Clown and Fabian. + +FABIAN. +Now, as thou lov’st me, let me see his letter. + +CLOWN. +Good Master Fabian, grant me another request. + +FABIAN. +Anything. + +CLOWN. +Do not desire to see this letter. + +FABIAN. +This is to give a dog, and in recompense desire my dog again. + + Enter Duke, Viola, Curio and Lords. + +DUKE. +Belong you to the Lady Olivia, friends? + +CLOWN. +Ay, sir, we are some of her trappings. + +DUKE. +I know thee well. How dost thou, my good fellow? + +CLOWN. +Truly, sir, the better for my foes, and the worse for my friends. + +DUKE. +Just the contrary; the better for thy friends. + +CLOWN. +No, sir, the worse. + +DUKE. +How can that be? + +CLOWN. +Marry, sir, they praise me, and make an ass of me. Now my foes tell me +plainly I am an ass: so that by my foes, sir, I profit in the knowledge +of myself, and by my friends I am abused. So that, conclusions to be as +kisses, if your four negatives make your two affirmatives, why then, +the worse for my friends, and the better for my foes. + +DUKE. +Why, this is excellent. + +CLOWN. +By my troth, sir, no; though it please you to be one of my friends. + +DUKE. +Thou shalt not be the worse for me; there’s gold. + +CLOWN. +But that it would be double-dealing, sir, I would you could make it +another. + +DUKE. +O, you give me ill counsel. + +CLOWN. +Put your grace in your pocket, sir, for this once, and let your flesh +and blood obey it. + +DUKE. +Well, I will be so much a sinner to be a double-dealer: there’s +another. + +CLOWN. +_Primo, secundo, tertio_, is a good play, and the old saying is, the +third pays for all; the triplex, sir, is a good tripping measure; or +the bells of Saint Bennet, sir, may put you in mind—one, two, three. + +DUKE. +You can fool no more money out of me at this throw. If you will let +your lady know I am here to speak with her, and bring her along with +you, it may awake my bounty further. + +CLOWN. +Marry, sir, lullaby to your bounty till I come again. I go, sir, but I +would not have you to think that my desire of having is the sin of +covetousness: but as you say, sir, let your bounty take a nap, I will +awake it anon. + + [_Exit Clown._] + + Enter Antonio and Officers. + +VIOLA. +Here comes the man, sir, that did rescue me. + +DUKE. +That face of his I do remember well. +Yet when I saw it last it was besmear’d +As black as Vulcan, in the smoke of war. +A baubling vessel was he captain of, +For shallow draught and bulk unprizable, +With which such scathful grapple did he make +With the most noble bottom of our fleet, +That very envy and the tongue of loss +Cried fame and honour on him. What’s the matter? + +FIRST OFFICER. +Orsino, this is that Antonio +That took the _Phoenix_ and her fraught from Candy, +And this is he that did the _Tiger_ board +When your young nephew Titus lost his leg. +Here in the streets, desperate of shame and state, +In private brabble did we apprehend him. + +VIOLA. +He did me kindness, sir; drew on my side, +But in conclusion, put strange speech upon me. +I know not what ’twas, but distraction. + +DUKE. +Notable pirate, thou salt-water thief, +What foolish boldness brought thee to their mercies, +Whom thou, in terms so bloody and so dear, +Hast made thine enemies? + +ANTONIO. +Orsino, noble sir, +Be pleased that I shake off these names you give me: +Antonio never yet was thief or pirate, +Though, I confess, on base and ground enough, +Orsino’s enemy. A witchcraft drew me hither: +That most ingrateful boy there by your side +From the rude sea’s enraged and foamy mouth +Did I redeem; a wreck past hope he was. +His life I gave him, and did thereto add +My love, without retention or restraint, +All his in dedication. For his sake +Did I expose myself, pure for his love, +Into the danger of this adverse town; +Drew to defend him when he was beset; +Where being apprehended, his false cunning +(Not meaning to partake with me in danger) +Taught him to face me out of his acquaintance, +And grew a twenty years’ removed thing +While one would wink; denied me mine own purse, +Which I had recommended to his use +Not half an hour before. + +VIOLA. +How can this be? + +DUKE. +When came he to this town? + +ANTONIO. +Today, my lord; and for three months before, +No int’rim, not a minute’s vacancy, +Both day and night did we keep company. + + Enter Olivia and Attendants. + +DUKE. +Here comes the Countess, now heaven walks on earth. +But for thee, fellow, fellow, thy words are madness. +Three months this youth hath tended upon me; +But more of that anon. Take him aside. + +OLIVIA. +What would my lord, but that he may not have, +Wherein Olivia may seem serviceable? +Cesario, you do not keep promise with me. + +VIOLA. +Madam? + +DUKE. +Gracious Olivia— + +OLIVIA. +What do you say, Cesario? Good my lord— + +VIOLA. +My lord would speak, my duty hushes me. + +OLIVIA. +If it be aught to the old tune, my lord, +It is as fat and fulsome to mine ear +As howling after music. + +DUKE. +Still so cruel? + +OLIVIA. +Still so constant, lord. + +DUKE. +What, to perverseness? You uncivil lady, +To whose ingrate and unauspicious altars +My soul the faithfull’st off’rings hath breathed out +That e’er devotion tender’d! What shall I do? + +OLIVIA. +Even what it please my lord that shall become him. + +DUKE. +Why should I not, had I the heart to do it, +Like to the Egyptian thief at point of death, +Kill what I love?—a savage jealousy +That sometime savours nobly. But hear me this: +Since you to non-regardance cast my faith, +And that I partly know the instrument +That screws me from my true place in your favour, +Live you the marble-breasted tyrant still. +But this your minion, whom I know you love, +And whom, by heaven I swear, I tender dearly, +Him will I tear out of that cruel eye +Where he sits crowned in his master’s spite.— +Come, boy, with me; my thoughts are ripe in mischief: +I’ll sacrifice the lamb that I do love, +To spite a raven’s heart within a dove. + +VIOLA. +And I, most jocund, apt, and willingly, +To do you rest, a thousand deaths would die. + +OLIVIA. +Where goes Cesario? + +VIOLA. +After him I love +More than I love these eyes, more than my life, +More, by all mores, than e’er I shall love wife. +If I do feign, you witnesses above +Punish my life for tainting of my love. + +OLIVIA. +Ah me, detested! how am I beguil’d! + +VIOLA. +Who does beguile you? Who does do you wrong? + +OLIVIA. +Hast thou forgot thyself? Is it so long? +Call forth the holy father. + + [_Exit an Attendant._] + +DUKE. +[_To Viola._] Come, away! + +OLIVIA. +Whither, my lord? Cesario, husband, stay. + +DUKE. +Husband? + +OLIVIA. +Ay, husband. Can he that deny? + +DUKE. +Her husband, sirrah? + +VIOLA. +No, my lord, not I. + +OLIVIA. +Alas, it is the baseness of thy fear +That makes thee strangle thy propriety. +Fear not, Cesario, take thy fortunes up. +Be that thou know’st thou art, and then thou art +As great as that thou fear’st. + + Enter Priest. + +O, welcome, father! +Father, I charge thee, by thy reverence +Here to unfold—though lately we intended +To keep in darkness what occasion now +Reveals before ’tis ripe—what thou dost know +Hath newly passed between this youth and me. + +PRIEST. +A contract of eternal bond of love, +Confirmed by mutual joinder of your hands, +Attested by the holy close of lips, +Strengthen’d by interchangement of your rings, +And all the ceremony of this compact +Sealed in my function, by my testimony; +Since when, my watch hath told me, toward my grave, +I have travelled but two hours. + +DUKE. +O thou dissembling cub! What wilt thou be +When time hath sowed a grizzle on thy case? +Or will not else thy craft so quickly grow +That thine own trip shall be thine overthrow? +Farewell, and take her; but direct thy feet +Where thou and I henceforth may never meet. + +VIOLA. +My lord, I do protest— + +OLIVIA. +O, do not swear. +Hold little faith, though thou has too much fear. + + Enter Sir Andrew. + +SIR ANDREW. +For the love of God, a surgeon! Send one presently to Sir Toby. + +OLIVIA. +What’s the matter? + +SIR ANDREW. +’Has broke my head across, and has given Sir Toby a bloody coxcomb too. +For the love of God, your help! I had rather than forty pound I were at +home. + +OLIVIA. +Who has done this, Sir Andrew? + +SIR ANDREW. +The Count’s gentleman, one Cesario. We took him for a coward, but he’s +the very devil incardinate. + +DUKE. +My gentleman, Cesario? + +SIR ANDREW. +’Od’s lifelings, here he is!—You broke my head for nothing; and that +that I did, I was set on to do’t by Sir Toby. + +VIOLA. +Why do you speak to me? I never hurt you: +You drew your sword upon me without cause, +But I bespake you fair and hurt you not. + + Enter Sir Toby, drunk, led by the Clown. + +SIR ANDREW. +If a bloody coxcomb be a hurt, you have hurt me. I think you set +nothing by a bloody coxcomb. Here comes Sir Toby halting, you shall +hear more: but if he had not been in drink, he would have tickled you +othergates than he did. + +DUKE. +How now, gentleman? How is’t with you? + +SIR TOBY. +That’s all one; ’has hurt me, and there’s th’ end on’t. Sot, didst see +Dick Surgeon, sot? + +CLOWN. +O, he’s drunk, Sir Toby, an hour agone; his eyes were set at eight i’ +th’ morning. + +SIR TOBY. +Then he’s a rogue, and a passy measures pavin. I hate a drunken rogue. + +OLIVIA. +Away with him. Who hath made this havoc with them? + +SIR ANDREW. +I’ll help you, Sir Toby, because we’ll be dressed together. + +SIR TOBY. +Will you help? An ass-head, and a coxcomb, and a knave, a thin-faced +knave, a gull? + +OLIVIA. +Get him to bed, and let his hurt be looked to. + + [_Exeunt Clown, Fabian, Sir Toby and Sir Andrew._] + + Enter Sebastian. + +SEBASTIAN. +I am sorry, madam, I have hurt your kinsman; +But had it been the brother of my blood, +I must have done no less with wit and safety. +You throw a strange regard upon me, and by that +I do perceive it hath offended you. +Pardon me, sweet one, even for the vows +We made each other but so late ago. + +DUKE. +One face, one voice, one habit, and two persons! +A natural perspective, that is, and is not! + +SEBASTIAN. +Antonio, O my dear Antonio! +How have the hours rack’d and tortur’d me +Since I have lost thee. + +ANTONIO. +Sebastian are you? + +SEBASTIAN. +Fear’st thou that, Antonio? + +ANTONIO. +How have you made division of yourself? +An apple cleft in two is not more twin +Than these two creatures. Which is Sebastian? + +OLIVIA. +Most wonderful! + +SEBASTIAN. +Do I stand there? I never had a brother: +Nor can there be that deity in my nature +Of here and everywhere. I had a sister, +Whom the blind waves and surges have devoured. +Of charity, what kin are you to me? +What countryman? What name? What parentage? + +VIOLA. +Of Messaline: Sebastian was my father; +Such a Sebastian was my brother too: +So went he suited to his watery tomb. +If spirits can assume both form and suit, +You come to fright us. + +SEBASTIAN. +A spirit I am indeed, +But am in that dimension grossly clad, +Which from the womb I did participate. +Were you a woman, as the rest goes even, +I should my tears let fall upon your cheek, +And say, ‘Thrice welcome, drowned Viola.’ + +VIOLA. +My father had a mole upon his brow. + +SEBASTIAN. +And so had mine. + +VIOLA. +And died that day when Viola from her birth +Had numbered thirteen years. + +SEBASTIAN. +O, that record is lively in my soul! +He finished indeed his mortal act +That day that made my sister thirteen years. + +VIOLA. +If nothing lets to make us happy both +But this my masculine usurp’d attire, +Do not embrace me till each circumstance +Of place, time, fortune, do cohere and jump +That I am Viola; which to confirm, +I’ll bring you to a captain in this town, +Where lie my maiden weeds; by whose gentle help +I was preserv’d to serve this noble count. +All the occurrence of my fortune since +Hath been between this lady and this lord. + +SEBASTIAN. +[_To Olivia._] So comes it, lady, you have been mistook. +But nature to her bias drew in that. +You would have been contracted to a maid; +Nor are you therein, by my life, deceived: +You are betroth’d both to a maid and man. + +DUKE. +Be not amazed; right noble is his blood. +If this be so, as yet the glass seems true, +I shall have share in this most happy wreck. +[_To Viola._] Boy, thou hast said to me a thousand times +Thou never shouldst love woman like to me. + +VIOLA. +And all those sayings will I over-swear, +And all those swearings keep as true in soul +As doth that orbed continent the fire +That severs day from night. + +DUKE. +Give me thy hand, +And let me see thee in thy woman’s weeds. + +VIOLA. +The captain that did bring me first on shore +Hath my maid’s garments. He, upon some action, +Is now in durance, at Malvolio’s suit, +A gentleman and follower of my lady’s. + +OLIVIA. +He shall enlarge him. Fetch Malvolio hither. +And yet, alas, now I remember me, +They say, poor gentleman, he’s much distract. + + Enter Clown, with a letter and Fabian. + +A most extracting frenzy of mine own +From my remembrance clearly banished his. +How does he, sirrah? + +CLOWN. +Truly, madam, he holds Belzebub at the stave’s end as well as a man in +his case may do. Has here writ a letter to you. I should have given it +you today morning, but as a madman’s epistles are no gospels, so it +skills not much when they are delivered. + +OLIVIA. +Open ’t, and read it. + +CLOWN. +Look then to be well edified, when the fool delivers the madman. _By +the Lord, madam,—_ + +OLIVIA. +How now, art thou mad? + +CLOWN. +No, madam, I do but read madness: an your ladyship will have it as it +ought to be, you must allow _vox_. + +OLIVIA. +Prithee, read i’ thy right wits. + +CLOWN. +So I do, madonna. But to read his right wits is to read thus; therefore +perpend, my princess, and give ear. + +OLIVIA. +[_To Fabian._] Read it you, sirrah. + +FABIAN. +[_Reads._] _By the Lord, madam, you wrong me, and the world shall know +it. Though you have put me into darkness and given your drunken cousin +rule over me, yet have I the benefit of my senses as well as your +ladyship. I have your own letter that induced me to the semblance I put +on; with the which I doubt not but to do myself much right or you much +shame. Think of me as you please. I leave my duty a little unthought +of, and speak out of my injury. + The madly-used Malvolio._ + +OLIVIA. +Did he write this? + +CLOWN. +Ay, madam. + +DUKE. +This savours not much of distraction. + +OLIVIA. +See him delivered, Fabian, bring him hither. + + [_Exit Fabian._] + +My lord, so please you, these things further thought on, +To think me as well a sister, as a wife, +One day shall crown th’ alliance on’t, so please you, +Here at my house, and at my proper cost. + +DUKE. +Madam, I am most apt t’ embrace your offer. +[_To Viola._] Your master quits you; and for your service done him, +So much against the mettle of your sex, +So far beneath your soft and tender breeding, +And since you call’d me master for so long, +Here is my hand; you shall from this time be +You master’s mistress. + +OLIVIA. +A sister? You are she. + + Enter Fabian and Malvolio. + +DUKE. +Is this the madman? + +OLIVIA. +Ay, my lord, this same. +How now, Malvolio? + +MALVOLIO. +Madam, you have done me wrong, +Notorious wrong. + +OLIVIA. +Have I, Malvolio? No. + +MALVOLIO. +Lady, you have. Pray you peruse that letter. +You must not now deny it is your hand, +Write from it, if you can, in hand, or phrase, +Or say ’tis not your seal, not your invention: +You can say none of this. Well, grant it then, +And tell me, in the modesty of honour, +Why you have given me such clear lights of favour, +Bade me come smiling and cross-garter’d to you, +To put on yellow stockings, and to frown +Upon Sir Toby, and the lighter people; +And acting this in an obedient hope, +Why have you suffer’d me to be imprison’d, +Kept in a dark house, visited by the priest, +And made the most notorious geck and gull +That e’er invention played on? Tell me why? + +OLIVIA. +Alas, Malvolio, this is not my writing, +Though I confess, much like the character: +But out of question, ’tis Maria’s hand. +And now I do bethink me, it was she +First told me thou wast mad; then cam’st in smiling, +And in such forms which here were presuppos’d +Upon thee in the letter. Prithee, be content. +This practice hath most shrewdly pass’d upon thee. +But when we know the grounds and authors of it, +Thou shalt be both the plaintiff and the judge +Of thine own cause. + +FABIAN. +Good madam, hear me speak, +And let no quarrel, nor no brawl to come, +Taint the condition of this present hour, +Which I have wonder’d at. In hope it shall not, +Most freely I confess, myself and Toby +Set this device against Malvolio here, +Upon some stubborn and uncourteous parts +We had conceiv’d against him. Maria writ +The letter, at Sir Toby’s great importance, +In recompense whereof he hath married her. +How with a sportful malice it was follow’d +May rather pluck on laughter than revenge, +If that the injuries be justly weigh’d +That have on both sides passed. + +OLIVIA. +Alas, poor fool, how have they baffled thee! + +CLOWN. +Why, ‘some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have +greatness thrown upon them.’ I was one, sir, in this interlude, one Sir +Topas, sir, but that’s all one. ‘By the Lord, fool, I am not mad.’ But +do you remember? ‘Madam, why laugh you at such a barren rascal? And you +smile not, he’s gagged’? And thus the whirligig of time brings in his +revenges. + +MALVOLIO. +I’ll be revenged on the whole pack of you. + + [_Exit._] + +OLIVIA. +He hath been most notoriously abus’d. + +DUKE. +Pursue him, and entreat him to a peace: +He hath not told us of the captain yet. +When that is known, and golden time convents, +A solemn combination shall be made +Of our dear souls.—Meantime, sweet sister, +We will not part from hence.—Cesario, come: +For so you shall be while you are a man; +But when in other habits you are seen, +Orsino’s mistress, and his fancy’s queen. + + [_Exeunt._] + + Clown sings. + +_ When that I was and a little tiny boy, + With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, + A foolish thing was but a toy, + For the rain it raineth every day._ + +_ But when I came to man’s estate, + With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, + ’Gainst knaves and thieves men shut their gate, + For the rain it raineth every day._ + +_ But when I came, alas, to wive, + With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, + By swaggering could I never thrive, + For the rain it raineth every day._ + +_ But when I came unto my beds, + With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, + With toss-pots still had drunken heads, + For the rain it raineth every day._ + +_ A great while ago the world begun, + With hey, ho, the wind and the rain, + But that’s all one, our play is done, + And we’ll strive to please you every day._ + + [_Exit._] + + + + +THE TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + + DUKE OF MILAN, father to Silvia + VALENTINE, one of the two gentlemen + PROTEUS, " " " " " + ANTONIO, father to Proteus + THURIO, a foolish rival to Valentine + EGLAMOUR, agent for Silvia in her escape + SPEED, a clownish servant to Valentine + LAUNCE, the like to Proteus + PANTHINO, servant to Antonio + HOST, where Julia lodges in Milan + OUTLAWS, with Valentine + + JULIA, a lady of Verona, beloved of Proteus + SILVIA, the Duke's daughter, beloved of Valentine + LUCETTA, waiting-woman to Julia + + SERVANTS MUSICIANS + +SCENE: Verona; Milan; the frontiers of Mantua + +ACT I. SCENE I. Verona. An open place + +Enter VALENTINE and PROTEUS + + VALENTINE. Cease to persuade, my loving Proteus: + Home-keeping youth have ever homely wits. + Were't not affection chains thy tender days + To the sweet glances of thy honour'd love, + I rather would entreat thy company + To see the wonders of the world abroad, + Than, living dully sluggardiz'd at home, + Wear out thy youth with shapeless idleness. + But since thou lov'st, love still, and thrive therein, + Even as I would, when I to love begin. + PROTEUS. Wilt thou be gone? Sweet Valentine, adieu! + Think on thy Proteus, when thou haply seest + Some rare noteworthy object in thy travel. + Wish me partaker in thy happiness + When thou dost meet good hap; and in thy danger, + If ever danger do environ thee, + Commend thy grievance to my holy prayers, + For I will be thy headsman, Valentine. + VALENTINE. And on a love-book pray for my success? + PROTEUS. Upon some book I love I'll pray for thee. + VALENTINE. That's on some shallow story of deep love: + How young Leander cross'd the Hellespont. + PROTEUS. That's a deep story of a deeper love; + For he was more than over shoes in love. + VALENTINE. 'Tis true; for you are over boots in love, + And yet you never swum the Hellespont. + PROTEUS. Over the boots! Nay, give me not the boots. + VALENTINE. No, I will not, for it boots thee not. + PROTEUS. What? + VALENTINE. To be in love- where scorn is bought with groans, + Coy looks with heart-sore sighs, one fading moment's mirth + With twenty watchful, weary, tedious nights; + If haply won, perhaps a hapless gain; + If lost, why then a grievous labour won; + However, but a folly bought with wit, + Or else a wit by folly vanquished. + PROTEUS. So, by your circumstance, you call me fool. + VALENTINE. So, by your circumstance, I fear you'll prove. + PROTEUS. 'Tis love you cavil at; I am not Love. + VALENTINE. Love is your master, for he masters you; + And he that is so yoked by a fool, + Methinks, should not be chronicled for wise. + PROTEUS. Yet writers say, as in the sweetest bud + The eating canker dwells, so eating love + Inhabits in the finest wits of all. + VALENTINE. And writers say, as the most forward bud + Is eaten by the canker ere it blow, + Even so by love the young and tender wit + Is turn'd to folly, blasting in the bud, + Losing his verdure even in the prime, + And all the fair effects of future hopes. + But wherefore waste I time to counsel the + That art a votary to fond desire? + Once more adieu. My father at the road + Expects my coming, there to see me shipp'd. + PROTEUS. And thither will I bring thee, Valentine. + VALENTINE. Sweet Proteus, no; now let us take our leave. + To Milan let me hear from thee by letters + Of thy success in love, and what news else + Betideth here in absence of thy friend; + And I likewise will visit thee with mine. + PROTEUS. All happiness bechance to thee in Milan! + VALENTINE. As much to you at home; and so farewell! + Exit VALENTINE + PROTEUS. He after honour hunts, I after love; + He leaves his friends to dignify them more: + I leave myself, my friends, and all for love. + Thou, Julia, thou hast metamorphis'd me, + Made me neglect my studies, lose my time, + War with good counsel, set the world at nought; + Made wit with musing weak, heart sick with thought. + + Enter SPEED + + SPEED. Sir Proteus, save you! Saw you my master? + PROTEUS. But now he parted hence to embark for Milan. + SPEED. Twenty to one then he is shipp'd already, + And I have play'd the sheep in losing him. + PROTEUS. Indeed a sheep doth very often stray, + An if the shepherd be awhile away. + SPEED. You conclude that my master is a shepherd then, and + I a sheep? + PROTEUS. I do. + SPEED. Why then, my horns are his horns, whether I wake or sleep. + PROTEUS. A silly answer, and fitting well a sheep. + SPEED. This proves me still a sheep. + PROTEUS. True; and thy master a shepherd. + SPEED. Nay, that I can deny by a circumstance. + PROTEUS. It shall go hard but I'll prove it by another. + SPEED. The shepherd seeks the sheep, and not the sheep the + shepherd; but I seek my master, and my master seeks not me; + therefore, I am no sheep. + PROTEUS. The sheep for fodder follow the shepherd; the shepherd for + food follows not the sheep: thou for wages followest thy master; + thy master for wages follows not thee. Therefore, thou art a + sheep. + SPEED. Such another proof will make me cry 'baa.' + PROTEUS. But dost thou hear? Gav'st thou my letter to Julia? + SPEED. Ay, sir; I, a lost mutton, gave your letter to her, a lac'd + mutton; and she, a lac'd mutton, gave me, a lost mutton, nothing + for my labour. + PROTEUS. Here's too small a pasture for such store of muttons. + SPEED. If the ground be overcharg'd, you were best stick her. + PROTEUS. Nay, in that you are astray: 'twere best pound you. + SPEED. Nay, sir, less than a pound shall serve me for carrying your + letter. + PROTEUS. You mistake; I mean the pound- a pinfold. + SPEED. From a pound to a pin? Fold it over and over, + 'Tis threefold too little for carrying a letter to your lover. + PROTEUS. But what said she? + SPEED. [Nodding] Ay. + PROTEUS. Nod- ay. Why, that's 'noddy.' + SPEED. You mistook, sir; I say she did nod; and you ask me if she + did nod; and I say 'Ay.' + PROTEUS. And that set together is 'noddy.' + SPEED. Now you have taken the pains to set it together, take it for + your pains. + PROTEUS. No, no; you shall have it for bearing the letter. + SPEED. Well, I perceive I must be fain to bear with you. + PROTEUS. Why, sir, how do you bear with me? + SPEED. Marry, sir, the letter, very orderly; having nothing but the + word 'noddy' for my pains. + PROTEUS. Beshrew me, but you have a quick wit. + SPEED. And yet it cannot overtake your slow purse. + PROTEUS. Come, come, open the matter; in brief, what said she? + SPEED. Open your purse, that the money and the matter may be both + at once delivered. + PROTEUS. Well, sir, here is for your pains. What said she? + SPEED. Truly, sir, I think you'll hardly win her. + PROTEUS. Why, couldst thou perceive so much from her? + SPEED. Sir, I could perceive nothing at all from her; no, not so + much as a ducat for delivering your letter; and being so hard to + me that brought your mind, I fear she'll prove as hard to you in + telling your mind. Give her no token but stones, for she's as + hard as steel. + PROTEUS. What said she? Nothing? + SPEED. No, not so much as 'Take this for thy pains.' To testify + your bounty, I thank you, you have testern'd me; in requital + whereof, henceforth carry your letters yourself; and so, sir, + I'll commend you to my master. + PROTEUS. Go, go, be gone, to save your ship from wreck, + Which cannot perish, having thee aboard, + Being destin'd to a drier death on shore. Exit SPEED + I must go send some better messenger. + I fear my Julia would not deign my lines, + Receiving them from such a worthless post. Exit + +SCENE II. Verona. The garden Of JULIA'S house + +Enter JULIA and LUCETTA + + JULIA. But say, Lucetta, now we are alone, + Wouldst thou then counsel me to fall in love? + LUCETTA. Ay, madam; so you stumble not unheedfully. + JULIA. Of all the fair resort of gentlemen + That every day with parle encounter me, + In thy opinion which is worthiest love? + LUCETTA. Please you, repeat their names; I'll show my mind + According to my shallow simple skill. + JULIA. What think'st thou of the fair Sir Eglamour? + LUCETTA. As of a knight well-spoken, neat, and fine; + But, were I you, he never should be mine. + JULIA. What think'st thou of the rich Mercatio? + LUCETTA. Well of his wealth; but of himself, so so. + JULIA. What think'st thou of the gentle Proteus? + LUCETTA. Lord, Lord! to see what folly reigns in us! + JULIA. How now! what means this passion at his name? + LUCETTA. Pardon, dear madam; 'tis a passing shame + That I, unworthy body as I am, + Should censure thus on lovely gentlemen. + JULIA. Why not on Proteus, as of all the rest? + LUCETTA. Then thus: of many good I think him best. + JULIA. Your reason? + LUCETTA. I have no other but a woman's reason: + I think him so, because I think him so. + JULIA. And wouldst thou have me cast my love on him? + LUCETTA. Ay, if you thought your love not cast away. + JULIA. Why, he, of all the rest, hath never mov'd me. + LUCETTA. Yet he, of all the rest, I think, best loves ye. + JULIA. His little speaking shows his love but small. + LUCETTA. Fire that's closest kept burns most of all. + JULIA. They do not love that do not show their love. + LUCETTA. O, they love least that let men know their love. + JULIA. I would I knew his mind. + LUCETTA. Peruse this paper, madam. + JULIA. 'To Julia'- Say, from whom? + LUCETTA. That the contents will show. + JULIA. Say, say, who gave it thee? + LUCETTA. Sir Valentine's page; and sent, I think, from Proteus. + He would have given it you; but I, being in the way, + Did in your name receive it; pardon the fault, I pray. + JULIA. Now, by my modesty, a goodly broker! + Dare you presume to harbour wanton lines? + To whisper and conspire against my youth? + Now, trust me, 'tis an office of great worth, + And you an officer fit for the place. + There, take the paper; see it be return'd; + Or else return no more into my sight. + LUCETTA. To plead for love deserves more fee than hate. + JULIA. Will ye be gone? + LUCETTA. That you may ruminate. Exit + JULIA. And yet, I would I had o'erlook'd the letter. + It were a shame to call her back again, + And pray her to a fault for which I chid her. + What fool is she, that knows I am a maid + And would not force the letter to my view! + Since maids, in modesty, say 'No' to that + Which they would have the profferer construe 'Ay.' + Fie, fie, how wayward is this foolish love, + That like a testy babe will scratch the nurse, + And presently, all humbled, kiss the rod! + How churlishly I chid Lucetta hence, + When willingly I would have had her here! + How angerly I taught my brow to frown, + When inward joy enforc'd my heart to smile! + My penance is to call Lucetta back + And ask remission for my folly past. + What ho! Lucetta! + + Re-enter LUCETTA + + LUCETTA. What would your ladyship? + JULIA. Is't near dinner time? + LUCETTA. I would it were, + That you might kill your stomach on your meat + And not upon your maid. + JULIA. What is't that you took up so gingerly? + LUCETTA. Nothing. + JULIA. Why didst thou stoop then? + LUCETTA. To take a paper up that I let fall. + JULIA. And is that paper nothing? + LUCETTA. Nothing concerning me. + JULIA. Then let it lie for those that it concerns. + LUCETTA. Madam, it will not lie where it concerns, + Unless it have a false interpreter. + JULIA. Some love of yours hath writ to you in rhyme. + LUCETTA. That I might sing it, madam, to a tune. + Give me a note; your ladyship can set. + JULIA. As little by such toys as may be possible. + Best sing it to the tune of 'Light o' Love.' + LUCETTA. It is too heavy for so light a tune. + JULIA. Heavy! belike it hath some burden then. + LUCETTA. Ay; and melodious were it, would you sing it. + JULIA. And why not you? + LUCETTA. I cannot reach so high. + JULIA. Let's see your song. [LUCETTA withholds the letter] + How now, minion! + LUCETTA. Keep tune there still, so you will sing it out. + And yet methinks I do not like this tune. + JULIA. You do not! + LUCETTA. No, madam; 'tis too sharp. + JULIA. You, minion, are too saucy. + LUCETTA. Nay, now you are too flat + And mar the concord with too harsh a descant; + There wanteth but a mean to fill your song. + JULIA. The mean is drown'd with your unruly bass. + LUCETTA. Indeed, I bid the base for Proteus. + JULIA. This babble shall not henceforth trouble me. + Here is a coil with protestation! [Tears the letter] + Go, get you gone; and let the papers lie. + You would be fing'ring them, to anger me. + LUCETTA. She makes it strange; but she would be best pleas'd + To be so ang'red with another letter. Exit + JULIA. Nay, would I were so ang'red with the same! + O hateful hands, to tear such loving words! + Injurious wasps, to feed on such sweet honey + And kill the bees that yield it with your stings! + I'll kiss each several paper for amends. + Look, here is writ 'kind Julia.' Unkind Julia, + As in revenge of thy ingratitude, + I throw thy name against the bruising stones, + Trampling contemptuously on thy disdain. + And here is writ 'love-wounded Proteus.' + Poor wounded name! my bosom,,as a bed, + Shall lodge thee till thy wound be throughly heal'd; + And thus I search it with a sovereign kiss. + But twice or thrice was 'Proteus' written down. + Be calm, good wind, blow not a word away + Till I have found each letter in the letter- + Except mine own name; that some whirlwind bear + Unto a ragged, fearful, hanging rock, + And throw it thence into the raging sea. + Lo, here in one line is his name twice writ: + 'Poor forlorn Proteus, passionate Proteus, + To the sweet Julia.' That I'll tear away; + And yet I will not, sith so prettily + He couples it to his complaining names. + Thus will I fold them one upon another; + Now kiss, embrace, contend, do what you will. + + Re-enter LUCETTA + + LUCETTA. Madam, + Dinner is ready, and your father stays. + JULIA. Well, let us go. + LUCETTA. What, shall these papers lie like tell-tales here? + JULIA. If you respect them, best to take them up. + LUCETTA. Nay, I was taken up for laying them down; + Yet here they shall not lie for catching cold. + JULIA. I see you have a month's mind to them. + LUCETTA. Ay, madam, you may say what sights you see; + I see things too, although you judge I wink. + JULIA. Come, come; will't please you go? Exeunt + +SCENE III. Verona. ANTONIO'S house + +Enter ANTONIO and PANTHINO + + ANTONIO. Tell me, Panthino, what sad talk was that + Wherewith my brother held you in the cloister? + PANTHINO. 'Twas of his nephew Proteus, your son. + ANTONIO. Why, what of him? + PANTHINO. He wond'red that your lordship + Would suffer him to spend his youth at home, + While other men, of slender reputation, + Put forth their sons to seek preferment out: + Some to the wars, to try their fortune there; + Some to discover islands far away; + Some to the studious universities. + For any, or for all these exercises, + He said that Proteus, your son, was meet; + And did request me to importune you + To let him spend his time no more at home, + Which would be great impeachment to his age, + In having known no travel in his youth. + ANTONIO. Nor need'st thou much importune me to that + Whereon this month I have been hammering. + I have consider'd well his loss of time, + And how he cannot be a perfect man, + Not being tried and tutor'd in the world: + Experience is by industry achiev'd, + And perfected by the swift course of time. + Then tell me whither were I best to send him. + PANTHINO. I think your lordship is not ignorant + How his companion, youthful Valentine, + Attends the Emperor in his royal court. + ANTONIO. I know it well. + PANTHINO. 'Twere good, I think, your lordship sent him thither: + There shall he practise tilts and tournaments, + Hear sweet discourse, converse with noblemen, + And be in eye of every exercise + Worthy his youth and nobleness of birth. + ANTONIO. I like thy counsel; well hast thou advis'd; + And that thou mayst perceive how well I like it, + The execution of it shall make known: + Even with the speediest expedition + I will dispatch him to the Emperor's court. + PANTHINO. To-morrow, may it please you, Don Alphonso + With other gentlemen of good esteem + Are journeying to salute the Emperor, + And to commend their service to his will. + ANTONIO. Good company; with them shall Proteus go. + + Enter PROTEUS + + And- in good time!- now will we break with him. + PROTEUS. Sweet love! sweet lines! sweet life! + Here is her hand, the agent of her heart; + Here is her oath for love, her honour's pawn. + O that our fathers would applaud our loves, + To seal our happiness with their consents! + O heavenly Julia! + ANTONIO. How now! What letter are you reading there? + PROTEUS. May't please your lordship, 'tis a word or two + Of commendations sent from Valentine, + Deliver'd by a friend that came from him. + ANTONIO. Lend me the letter; let me see what news. + PROTEUS. There is no news, my lord; but that he writes + How happily he lives, how well-belov'd + And daily graced by the Emperor; + Wishing me with him, partner of his fortune. + ANTONIO. And how stand you affected to his wish? + PROTEUS. As one relying on your lordship's will, + And not depending on his friendly wish. + ANTONIO. My will is something sorted with his wish. + Muse not that I thus suddenly proceed; + For what I will, I will, and there an end. + I am resolv'd that thou shalt spend some time + With Valentinus in the Emperor's court; + What maintenance he from his friends receives, + Like exhibition thou shalt have from me. + To-morrow be in readiness to go- + Excuse it not, for I am peremptory. + PROTEUS. My lord, I cannot be so soon provided; + Please you, deliberate a day or two. + ANTONIO. Look what thou want'st shall be sent after thee. + No more of stay; to-morrow thou must go. + Come on, Panthino; you shall be employ'd + To hasten on his expedition. + Exeunt ANTONIO and PANTHINO + PROTEUS. Thus have I shunn'd the fire for fear of burning, + And drench'd me in the sea, where I am drown'd. + I fear'd to show my father Julia's letter, + Lest he should take exceptions to my love; + And with the vantage of mine own excuse + Hath he excepted most against my love. + O, how this spring of love resembleth + The uncertain glory of an April day, + Which now shows all the beauty of the sun, + And by an by a cloud takes all away! + + Re-enter PANTHINO + + PANTHINO. Sir Proteus, your father calls for you; + He is in haste; therefore, I pray you, go. + PROTEUS. Why, this it is: my heart accords thereto; + And yet a thousand times it answers 'No.' Exeunt + +ACT II. SCENE I. Milan. The DUKE'S palace + +Enter VALENTINE and SPEED + + SPEED. Sir, your glove. + VALENTINE. Not mine: my gloves are on. + SPEED. Why, then, this may be yours; for this is but one. + VALENTINE. Ha! let me see; ay, give it me, it's mine; + Sweet ornament that decks a thing divine! + Ah, Silvia! Silvia! + SPEED. [Calling] Madam Silvia! Madam Silvia! + VALENTINE. How now, sirrah? + SPEED. She is not within hearing, sir. + VALENTINE. Why, sir, who bade you call her? + SPEED. Your worship, sir; or else I mistook. + VALENTINE. Well, you'll still be too forward. + SPEED. And yet I was last chidden for being too slow. + VALENTINE. Go to, sir; tell me, do you know Madam Silvia? + SPEED. She that your worship loves? + VALENTINE. Why, how know you that I am in love? + SPEED. Marry, by these special marks: first, you have learn'd, like + Sir Proteus, to wreath your arms like a malcontent; to relish a + love-song, like a robin redbreast; to walk alone, like one that + had the pestilence; to sigh, like a school-boy that had lost his + A B C; to weep, like a young wench that had buried her grandam; + to fast, like one that takes diet; to watch, like one that fears + robbing; to speak puling, like a beggar at Hallowmas. You were + wont, when you laughed, to crow like a cock; when you walk'd, to + walk like one of the lions; when you fasted, it was presently + after dinner; when you look'd sadly, it was for want of money. + And now you are metamorphis'd with a mistress, that, when I look + on you, I can hardly think you my master. + VALENTINE. Are all these things perceiv'd in me? + SPEED. They are all perceiv'd without ye. + VALENTINE. Without me? They cannot. + SPEED. Without you! Nay, that's certain; for, without you were so + simple, none else would; but you are so without these follies + that these follies are within you, and shine through you like the + water in an urinal, that not an eye that sees you but is a + physician to comment on your malady. + VALENTINE. But tell me, dost thou know my lady Silvia? + SPEED. She that you gaze on so, as she sits at supper? + VALENTINE. Hast thou observ'd that? Even she, I mean. + SPEED. Why, sir, I know her not. + VALENTINE. Dost thou know her by my gazing on her, and yet know'st + her not? + SPEED. Is she not hard-favour'd, sir? + VALENTINE. Not so fair, boy, as well-favour'd. + SPEED. Sir, I know that well enough. + VALENTINE. What dost thou know? + SPEED. That she is not so fair as, of you, well-favour'd. + VALENTINE. I mean that her beauty is exquisite, but her favour + infinite. + SPEED. That's because the one is painted, and the other out of all + count. + VALENTINE. How painted? and how out of count? + SPEED. Marry, sir, so painted, to make her fair, that no man counts + of her beauty. + VALENTINE. How esteem'st thou me? I account of her beauty. + SPEED. You never saw her since she was deform'd. + VALENTINE. How long hath she been deform'd? + SPEED. Ever since you lov'd her. + VALENTINE. I have lov'd her ever since I saw her, and still + I see her beautiful. + SPEED. If you love her, you cannot see her. + VALENTINE. Why? + SPEED. Because Love is blind. O that you had mine eyes; or your own + eyes had the lights they were wont to have when you chid at Sir + Proteus for going ungarter'd! + VALENTINE. What should I see then? + SPEED. Your own present folly and her passing deformity; for he, + being in love, could not see to garter his hose; and you, being + in love, cannot see to put on your hose. + VALENTINE. Belike, boy, then you are in love; for last morning you + could not see to wipe my shoes. + SPEED. True, sir; I was in love with my bed. I thank you, you + swing'd me for my love, which makes me the bolder to chide you + for yours. + VALENTINE. In conclusion, I stand affected to her. + SPEED. I would you were set, so your affection would cease. + VALENTINE. Last night she enjoin'd me to write some lines to one + she loves. + SPEED. And have you? + VALENTINE. I have. + SPEED. Are they not lamely writ? + VALENTINE. No, boy, but as well as I can do them. + + Enter SILVIA + + Peace! here she comes. + SPEED. [Aside] O excellent motion! O exceeding puppet! + Now will he interpret to her. + VALENTINE. Madam and mistress, a thousand good morrows. + SPEED. [Aside] O, give ye good ev'n! + Here's a million of manners. + SILVIA. Sir Valentine and servant, to you two thousand. + SPEED. [Aside] He should give her interest, and she gives it him. + VALENTINE. As you enjoin'd me, I have writ your letter + Unto the secret nameless friend of yours; + Which I was much unwilling to proceed in, + But for my duty to your ladyship. + SILVIA. I thank you, gentle servant. 'Tis very clerkly done. + VALENTINE. Now trust me, madam, it came hardly off; + For, being ignorant to whom it goes, + I writ at random, very doubtfully. + SILVIA. Perchance you think too much of so much pains? + VALENTINE. No, madam; so it stead you, I will write, + Please you command, a thousand times as much; + And yet- + SILVIA. A pretty period! Well, I guess the sequel; + And yet I will not name it- and yet I care not. + And yet take this again- and yet I thank you- + Meaning henceforth to trouble you no more. + SPEED. [Aside] And yet you will; and yet another' yet.' + VALENTINE. What means your ladyship? Do you not like it? + SILVIA. Yes, yes; the lines are very quaintly writ; + But, since unwillingly, take them again. + Nay, take them. [Gives hack the letter] + VALENTINE. Madam, they are for you. + SILVIA. Ay, ay, you writ them, sir, at my request; + But I will none of them; they are for you: + I would have had them writ more movingly. + VALENTINE. Please you, I'll write your ladyship another. + SILVIA. And when it's writ, for my sake read it over; + And if it please you, so; if not, why, so. + VALENTINE. If it please me, madam, what then? + SILVIA. Why, if it please you, take it for your labour. + And so good morrow, servant. Exit SILVIA + SPEED. O jest unseen, inscrutable, invisible, + As a nose on a man's face, or a weathercock on a steeple! + My master sues to her; and she hath taught her suitor, + He being her pupil, to become her tutor. + O excellent device! Was there ever heard a better, + That my master, being scribe, to himself should write the letter? + VALENTINE. How now, sir! What are you reasoning with yourself? + SPEED. Nay, I was rhyming: 'tis you that have the reason. + VALENTINE. To do what? + SPEED. To be a spokesman from Madam Silvia? + VALENTINE. To whom? + SPEED. To yourself; why, she woos you by a figure. + VALENTINE. What figure? + SPEED. By a letter, I should say. + VALENTINE. Why, she hath not writ to me. + SPEED. What need she, when she hath made you write to yourself? + Why, do you not perceive the jest? + VALENTINE. No, believe me. + SPEED. No believing you indeed, sir. But did you perceive her + earnest? + VALENTINE. She gave me none except an angry word. + SPEED. Why, she hath given you a letter. + VALENTINE. That's the letter I writ to her friend. + SPEED. And that letter hath she deliver'd, and there an end. + VALENTINE. I would it were no worse. + SPEED. I'll warrant you 'tis as well. + 'For often have you writ to her; and she, in modesty, + Or else for want of idle time, could not again reply; + Or fearing else some messenger that might her mind discover, + Herself hath taught her love himself to write unto her lover.' + All this I speak in print, for in print I found it. Why muse you, + sir? 'Tis dinner time. + VALENTINE. I have din'd. + SPEED. Ay, but hearken, sir; though the chameleon Love can feed on + the air, I am one that am nourish'd by my victuals, and would + fain have meat. O, be not like your mistress! Be moved, be moved. + Exeunt + +SCENE II. Verona. JULIA'S house + +Enter PROTEUS and JULIA + + PROTEUS. Have patience, gentle Julia. + JULIA. I must, where is no remedy. + PROTEUS. When possibly I can, I will return. + JULIA. If you turn not, you will return the sooner. + Keep this remembrance for thy Julia's sake. + [Giving a ring] + PROTEUS. Why, then, we'll make exchange. Here, take you this. + JULIA. And seal the bargain with a holy kiss. + PROTEUS. Here is my hand for my true constancy; + And when that hour o'erslips me in the day + Wherein I sigh not, Julia, for thy sake, + The next ensuing hour some foul mischance + Torment me for my love's forgetfulness! + My father stays my coming; answer not; + The tide is now- nay, not thy tide of tears: + That tide will stay me longer than I should. + Julia, farewell! Exit JULIA + What, gone without a word? + Ay, so true love should do: it cannot speak; + For truth hath better deeds than words to grace it. + + Enter PANTHINO + + PANTHINO. Sir Proteus, you are stay'd for. + PROTEUS. Go; I come, I come. + Alas! this parting strikes poor lovers dumb. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Verona. A street + +Enter LAUNCE, leading a dog + + LAUNCE. Nay, 'twill be this hour ere I have done weeping; all the + kind of the Launces have this very fault. I have receiv'd my + proportion, like the Prodigious Son, and am going with Sir Proteus to + the Imperial's court. I think Crab my dog be the sourest-natured dog + that lives: my mother weeping, my father wailing, my sister crying, + our maid howling, our cat wringing her hands, and all our house in a + great perplexity; yet did not this cruel-hearted cur shed one tear. + He is a stone, a very pebble stone, and has no more pity in him than + a dog. A Jew would have wept to have seen our parting; why, my + grandam having no eyes, look you, wept herself blind at my parting. + Nay, I'll show you the manner of it. This shoe is my father; no, this + left shoe is my father; no, no, left shoe is my mother; nay, that + cannot be so neither; yes, it is so, it is so, it hath the worser + sole. This shoe with the hole in it is my mother, and this my father. + A vengeance on 't! There 'tis. Now, sir, this staff is my sister, + for, look you, she is as white as a lily and as small as a wand; this + hat is Nan our maid; I am the dog; no, the dog is himself, and I am + the dog- O, the dog is me, and I am myself; ay, so, so. Now come I to + my father: 'Father, your blessing.' Now should not the shoe speak a + word for weeping; now should I kiss my father; well, he weeps on. Now + come I to my mother. O that she could speak now like a wood woman! + Well, I kiss her- why there 'tis; here's my mother's breath up and + down. Now come I to my sister; mark the moan she makes. Now the dog + all this while sheds not a tear, nor speaks a word; but see how I lay + the dust with my tears. + + Enter PANTHINO + + PANTHINO. Launce, away, away, aboard! Thy master is shipp'd, and + thou art to post after with oars. What's the matter? Why weep'st + thou, man? Away, ass! You'll lose the tide if you tarry any + longer. + LAUNCE. It is no matter if the tied were lost; for it is the + unkindest tied that ever any man tied. + PANTHINO. What's the unkindest tide? + LAUNCE. Why, he that's tied here, Crab, my dog. + PANTHINO. Tut, man, I mean thou'lt lose the flood, and, in losing + the flood, lose thy voyage, and, in losing thy voyage, lose thy + master, and, in losing thy master, lose thy service, and, in + losing thy service- Why dost thou stop my mouth? + LAUNCE. For fear thou shouldst lose thy tongue. + PANTHINO. Where should I lose my tongue? + LAUNCE. In thy tale. + PANTHINO. In thy tail! + LAUNCE. Lose the tide, and the voyage, and the master, and the + service, and the tied! Why, man, if the river were dry, I am able + to fill it with my tears; if the wind were down, I could drive + the boat with my sighs. + PANTHINO. Come, come away, man; I was sent to call thee. + LAUNCE. Sir, call me what thou dar'st. + PANTHINO. Will thou go? + LAUNCE. Well, I will go. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Milan. The DUKE'S palace + +Enter SILVIA, VALENTINE, THURIO, and SPEED + + SILVIA. Servant! + VALENTINE. Mistress? + SPEED. Master, Sir Thurio frowns on you. + VALENTINE. Ay, boy, it's for love. + SPEED. Not of you. + VALENTINE. Of my mistress, then. + SPEED. 'Twere good you knock'd him. Exit + SILVIA. Servant, you are sad. + VALENTINE. Indeed, madam, I seem so. + THURIO. Seem you that you are not? + VALENTINE. Haply I do. + THURIO. So do counterfeits. + VALENTINE. So do you. + THURIO. What seem I that I am not? + VALENTINE. Wise. + THURIO. What instance of the contrary? + VALENTINE. Your folly. + THURIO. And how quote you my folly? + VALENTINE. I quote it in your jerkin. + THURIO. My jerkin is a doublet. + VALENTINE. Well, then, I'll double your folly. + THURIO. How? + SILVIA. What, angry, Sir Thurio! Do you change colour? + VALENTINE. Give him leave, madam; he is a kind of chameleon. + THURIO. That hath more mind to feed on your blood than live in your + air. + VALENTINE. You have said, sir. + THURIO. Ay, sir, and done too, for this time. + VALENTINE. I know it well, sir; you always end ere you begin. + SILVIA. A fine volley of words, gentlemen, and quickly shot off. + VALENTINE. 'Tis indeed, madam; we thank the giver. + SILVIA. Who is that, servant? + VALENTINE. Yourself, sweet lady; for you gave the fire. Sir Thurio + borrows his wit from your ladyship's looks, and spends what he + borrows kindly in your company. + THURIO. Sir, if you spend word for word with me, I shall make your + wit bankrupt. + VALENTINE. I know it well, sir; you have an exchequer of words, + and, I think, no other treasure to give your followers; for it + appears by their bare liveries that they live by your bare words. + + Enter DUKE + + SILVIA. No more, gentlemen, no more. Here comes my father. + DUKE. Now, daughter Silvia, you are hard beset. + Sir Valentine, your father is in good health. + What say you to a letter from your friends + Of much good news? + VALENTINE. My lord, I will be thankful + To any happy messenger from thence. + DUKE. Know ye Don Antonio, your countryman? + VALENTINE. Ay, my good lord, I know the gentleman + To be of worth and worthy estimation, + And not without desert so well reputed. + DUKE. Hath he not a son? + VALENTINE. Ay, my good lord; a son that well deserves + The honour and regard of such a father. + DUKE. You know him well? + VALENTINE. I knew him as myself; for from our infancy + We have convers'd and spent our hours together; + And though myself have been an idle truant, + Omitting the sweet benefit of time + To clothe mine age with angel-like perfection, + Yet hath Sir Proteus, for that's his name, + Made use and fair advantage of his days: + His years but young, but his experience old; + His head unmellowed, but his judgment ripe; + And, in a word, for far behind his worth + Comes all the praises that I now bestow, + He is complete in feature and in mind, + With all good grace to grace a gentleman. + DUKE. Beshrew me, sir, but if he make this good, + He is as worthy for an empress' love + As meet to be an emperor's counsellor. + Well, sir, this gentleman is come to me + With commendation from great potentates, + And here he means to spend his time awhile. + I think 'tis no unwelcome news to you. + VALENTINE. Should I have wish'd a thing, it had been he. + DUKE. Welcome him, then, according to his worth- + Silvia, I speak to you, and you, Sir Thurio; + For Valentine, I need not cite him to it. + I will send him hither to you presently. Exit DUKE + VALENTINE. This is the gentleman I told your ladyship + Had come along with me but that his mistresss + Did hold his eyes lock'd in her crystal looks. + SILVIA. Belike that now she hath enfranchis'd them + Upon some other pawn for fealty. + VALENTINE. Nay, sure, I think she holds them prisoners still. + SILVIA. Nay, then, he should be blind; and, being blind, + How could he see his way to seek out you? + VALENTINE. Why, lady, Love hath twenty pair of eyes. + THURIO. They say that Love hath not an eye at all. + VALENTINE. To see such lovers, Thurio, as yourself; + Upon a homely object Love can wink. Exit THURIO + + Enter PROTEUS + + SILVIA. Have done, have done; here comes the gentleman. + VALENTINE. Welcome, dear Proteus! Mistress, I beseech you + Confirm his welcome with some special favour. + SILVIA. His worth is warrant for his welcome hither, + If this be he you oft have wish'd to hear from. + VALENTINE. Mistress, it is; sweet lady, entertain him + To be my fellow-servant to your ladyship. + SILVIA. Too low a mistress for so high a servant. + PROTEUS. Not so, sweet lady; but too mean a servant + To have a look of such a worthy mistress. + VALENTINE. Leave off discourse of disability; + Sweet lady, entertain him for your servant. + PROTEUS. My duty will I boast of, nothing else. + SILVIA. And duty never yet did want his meed. + Servant, you are welcome to a worthless mistress. + PROTEUS. I'll die on him that says so but yourself. + SILVIA. That you are welcome? + PROTEUS. That you are worthless. + + Re-enter THURIO + + THURIO. Madam, my lord your father would speak with you. + SILVIA. I wait upon his pleasure. Come, Sir Thurio, + Go with me. Once more, new servant, welcome. + I'll leave you to confer of home affairs; + When you have done we look to hear from you. + PROTEUS. We'll both attend upon your ladyship. + Exeunt SILVIA and THURIO + VALENTINE. Now, tell me, how do all from whence you came? + PROTEUS. Your friends are well, and have them much commended. + VALENTINE. And how do yours? + PROTEUS. I left them all in health. + VALENTINE. How does your lady, and how thrives your love? + PROTEUS. My tales of love were wont to weary you; + I know you joy not in a love-discourse. + VALENTINE. Ay, Proteus, but that life is alter'd now; + I have done penance for contemning Love, + Whose high imperious thoughts have punish'd me + With bitter fasts, with penitential groans, + With nightly tears, and daily heart-sore sighs; + For, in revenge of my contempt of love, + Love hath chas'd sleep from my enthralled eyes + And made them watchers of mine own heart's sorrow. + O gentle Proteus, Love's a mighty lord, + And hath so humbled me as I confess + There is no woe to his correction, + Nor to his service no such joy on earth. + Now no discourse, except it be of love; + Now can I break my fast, dine, sup, and sleep, + Upon the very naked name of love. + PROTEUS. Enough; I read your fortune in your eye. + Was this the idol that you worship so? + VALENTINE. Even she; and is she not a heavenly saint? + PROTEUS. No; but she is an earthly paragon. + VALENTINE. Call her divine. + PROTEUS. I will not flatter her. + VALENTINE. O, flatter me; for love delights in praises! + PROTEUS. When I was sick you gave me bitter pills, + And I must minister the like to you. + VALENTINE. Then speak the truth by her; if not divine, + Yet let her be a principality, + Sovereign to all the creatures on the earth. + PROTEUS. Except my mistress. + VALENTINE. Sweet, except not any; + Except thou wilt except against my love. + PROTEUS. Have I not reason to prefer mine own? + VALENTINE. And I will help thee to prefer her too: + She shall be dignified with this high honour- + To bear my lady's train, lest the base earth + Should from her vesture chance to steal a kiss + And, of so great a favour growing proud, + Disdain to root the summer-swelling flow'r + And make rough winter everlastingly. + PROTEUS. Why, Valentine, what braggardism is this? + VALENTINE. Pardon me, Proteus; all I can is nothing + To her, whose worth makes other worthies nothing; + She is alone. + PROTEUS. Then let her alone. + VALENTINE. Not for the world! Why, man, she is mine own; + And I as rich in having such a jewel + As twenty seas, if all their sand were pearl, + The water nectar, and the rocks pure gold. + Forgive me that I do not dream on thee, + Because thou seest me dote upon my love. + My foolish rival, that her father likes + Only for his possessions are so huge, + Is gone with her along; and I must after, + For love, thou know'st, is full of jealousy. + PROTEUS. But she loves you? + VALENTINE. Ay, and we are betroth'd; nay more, our marriage-hour, + With all the cunning manner of our flight, + Determin'd of- how I must climb her window, + The ladder made of cords, and all the means + Plotted and 'greed on for my happiness. + Good Proteus, go with me to my chamber, + In these affairs to aid me with thy counsel. + PROTEUS. Go on before; I shall enquire you forth; + I must unto the road to disembark + Some necessaries that I needs must use; + And then I'll presently attend you. + VALENTINE. Will you make haste? + PROTEUS. I will. Exit VALENTINE + Even as one heat another heat expels + Or as one nail by strength drives out another, + So the remembrance of my former love + Is by a newer object quite forgotten. + Is it my mind, or Valentinus' praise, + Her true perfection, or my false transgression, + That makes me reasonless to reason thus? + She is fair; and so is Julia that I love- + That I did love, for now my love is thaw'd; + Which like a waxen image 'gainst a fire + Bears no impression of the thing it was. + Methinks my zeal to Valentine is cold, + And that I love him not as I was wont. + O! but I love his lady too too much, + And that's the reason I love him so little. + How shall I dote on her with more advice + That thus without advice begin to love her! + 'Tis but her picture I have yet beheld, + And that hath dazzled my reason's light; + But when I look on her perfections, + There is no reason but I shall be blind. + If I can check my erring love, I will; + If not, to compass her I'll use my skill. Exit + +SCENE V. Milan. A street + +Enter SPEED and LAUNCE severally + + SPEED. Launce! by mine honesty, welcome to Padua. + LAUNCE. Forswear not thyself, sweet youth, for I am not welcome. I + reckon this always, that a man is never undone till he be hang'd, + nor never welcome to a place till some certain shot be paid, and + the hostess say 'Welcome!' + SPEED. Come on, you madcap; I'll to the alehouse with you + presently; where, for one shot of five pence, thou shalt have + five thousand welcomes. But, sirrah, how did thy master part with + Madam Julia? + LAUNCE. Marry, after they clos'd in earnest, they parted very + fairly in jest. + SPEED. But shall she marry him? + LAUNCE. No. + SPEED. How then? Shall he marry her? + LAUNCE. No, neither. + SPEED. What, are they broken? + LAUNCE. No, they are both as whole as a fish. + SPEED. Why then, how stands the matter with them? + LAUNCE. Marry, thus: when it stands well with him, it stands well + with her. + SPEED. What an ass art thou! I understand thee not. + LAUNCE. What a block art thou that thou canst not! My staff + understands me. + SPEED. What thou say'st? + LAUNCE. Ay, and what I do too; look thee, I'll but lean, and my + staff understands me. + SPEED. It stands under thee, indeed. + LAUNCE. Why, stand-under and under-stand is all one. + SPEED. But tell me true, will't be a match? + LAUNCE. Ask my dog. If he say ay, it will; if he say no, it will; + if he shake his tail and say nothing, it will. + SPEED. The conclusion is, then, that it will. + LAUNCE. Thou shalt never get such a secret from me but by a + parable. + SPEED. 'Tis well that I get it so. But, Launce, how say'st thou + that my master is become a notable lover? + LAUNCE. I never knew him otherwise. + SPEED. Than how? + LAUNCE. A notable lubber, as thou reportest him to be. + SPEED. Why, thou whoreson ass, thou mistak'st me. + LAUNCE. Why, fool, I meant not thee, I meant thy master. + SPEED. I tell thee my master is become a hot lover. + LAUNCE. Why, I tell thee I care not though he burn himself in love. + If thou wilt, go with me to the alehouse; if not, thou art an + Hebrew, a Jew, and not worth the name of a Christian. + SPEED. Why? + LAUNCE. Because thou hast not so much charity in thee as to go to + the ale with a Christian. Wilt thou go? + SPEED. At thy service. Exeunt + +SCENE VI. Milan. The DUKE's palace + +Enter PROTEUS + + PROTEUS. To leave my Julia, shall I be forsworn; + To love fair Silvia, shall I be forsworn; + To wrong my friend, I shall be much forsworn; + And ev'n that pow'r which gave me first my oath + Provokes me to this threefold perjury: + Love bade me swear, and Love bids me forswear. + O sweet-suggesting Love, if thou hast sinn'd, + Teach me, thy tempted subject, to excuse it! + At first I did adore a twinkling star, + But now I worship a celestial sun. + Unheedful vows may heedfully be broken; + And he wants wit that wants resolved will + To learn his wit t' exchange the bad for better. + Fie, fie, unreverend tongue, to call her bad + Whose sovereignty so oft thou hast preferr'd + With twenty thousand soul-confirming oaths! + I cannot leave to love, and yet I do; + But there I leave to love where I should love. + Julia I lose, and Valentine I lose; + If I keep them, I needs must lose myself; + If I lose them, thus find I by their loss: + For Valentine, myself; for Julia, Silvia. + I to myself am dearer than a friend; + For love is still most precious in itself; + And Silvia- witness heaven, that made her fair!- + Shows Julia but a swarthy Ethiope. + I will forget that Julia is alive, + Rememb'ring that my love to her is dead; + And Valentine I'll hold an enemy, + Aiming at Silvia as a sweeter friend. + I cannot now prove constant to myself + Without some treachery us'd to Valentine. + This night he meaneth with a corded ladder + To climb celestial Silvia's chamber window, + Myself in counsel, his competitor. + Now presently I'll give her father notice + Of their disguising and pretended flight, + Who, all enrag'd, will banish Valentine, + For Thurio, he intends, shall wed his daughter; + But, Valentine being gone, I'll quickly cross + By some sly trick blunt Thurio's dull proceeding. + Love, lend me wings to make my purpose swift, + As thou hast lent me wit to plot this drift. Exit + +SCENE VII. Verona. JULIA'S house + +Enter JULIA and LUCETTA + + JULIA. Counsel, Lucetta; gentle girl, assist me; + And, ev'n in kind love, I do conjure thee, + Who art the table wherein all my thoughts + Are visibly character'd and engrav'd, + To lesson me and tell me some good mean + How, with my honour, I may undertake + A journey to my loving Proteus. + LUCETTA. Alas, the way is wearisome and long! + JULIA. A true-devoted pilgrim is not weary + To measure kingdoms with his feeble steps; + Much less shall she that hath Love's wings to fly, + And when the flight is made to one so dear, + Of such divine perfection, as Sir Proteus. + LUCETTA. Better forbear till Proteus make return. + JULIA. O, know'st thou not his looks are my soul's food? + Pity the dearth that I have pined in + By longing for that food so long a time. + Didst thou but know the inly touch of love. + Thou wouldst as soon go kindle fire with snow + As seek to quench the fire of love with words. + LUCETTA. I do not seek to quench your love's hot fire, + But qualify the fire's extreme rage, + Lest it should burn above the bounds of reason. + JULIA. The more thou dam'st it up, the more it burns. + The current that with gentle murmur glides, + Thou know'st, being stopp'd, impatiently doth rage; + But when his fair course is not hindered, + He makes sweet music with th' enamell'd stones, + Giving a gentle kiss to every sedge + He overtaketh in his pilgrimage; + And so by many winding nooks he strays, + With willing sport, to the wild ocean. + Then let me go, and hinder not my course. + I'll be as patient as a gentle stream, + And make a pastime of each weary step, + Till the last step have brought me to my love; + And there I'll rest as, after much turmoil, + A blessed soul doth in Elysium. + LUCETTA. But in what habit will you go along? + JULIA. Not like a woman, for I would prevent + The loose encounters of lascivious men; + Gentle Lucetta, fit me with such weeds + As may beseem some well-reputed page. + LUCETTA. Why then, your ladyship must cut your hair. + JULIA. No, girl; I'll knit it up in silken strings + With twenty odd-conceited true-love knots- + To be fantastic may become a youth + Of greater time than I shall show to be. + LUCETTA. What fashion, madam, shall I make your breeches? + JULIA. That fits as well as 'Tell me, good my lord, + What compass will you wear your farthingale.' + Why ev'n what fashion thou best likes, Lucetta. + LUCETTA. You must needs have them with a codpiece, madam. + JULIA. Out, out, Lucetta, that will be ill-favour'd. + LUCETTA. A round hose, madam, now's not worth a pin, + Unless you have a codpiece to stick pins on. + JULIA. Lucetta, as thou lov'st me, let me have + What thou think'st meet, and is most mannerly. + But tell me, wench, how will the world repute me + For undertaking so unstaid a journey? + I fear me it will make me scandaliz'd. + LUCETTA. If you think so, then stay at home and go not. + JULIA. Nay, that I will not. + LUCETTA. Then never dream on infamy, but go. + If Proteus like your journey when you come, + No matter who's displeas'd when you are gone. + I fear me he will scarce be pleas'd withal. + JULIA. That is the least, Lucetta, of my fear: + A thousand oaths, an ocean of his tears, + And instances of infinite of love, + Warrant me welcome to my Proteus. + LUCETTA. All these are servants to deceitful men. + JULIA. Base men that use them to so base effect! + But truer stars did govern Proteus' birth; + His words are bonds, his oaths are oracles, + His love sincere, his thoughts immaculate, + His tears pure messengers sent from his heart, + His heart as far from fraud as heaven from earth. + LUCETTA. Pray heav'n he prove so when you come to him. + JULIA. Now, as thou lov'st me, do him not that wrong + To bear a hard opinion of his truth; + Only deserve my love by loving him. + And presently go with me to my chamber, + To take a note of what I stand in need of + To furnish me upon my longing journey. + All that is mine I leave at thy dispose, + My goods, my lands, my reputation; + Only, in lieu thereof, dispatch me hence. + Come, answer not, but to it presently; + I am impatient of my tarriance. Exeunt + +ACT III. SCENE I. Milan. The DUKE'S palace + +Enter DUKE, THURIO, and PROTEUS + + DUKE. Sir Thurio, give us leave, I pray, awhile; + We have some secrets to confer about. Exit THURIO + Now tell me, Proteus, what's your will with me? + PROTEUS. My gracious lord, that which I would discover + The law of friendship bids me to conceal; + But, when I call to mind your gracious favours + Done to me, undeserving as I am, + My duty pricks me on to utter that + Which else no worldly good should draw from me. + Know, worthy prince, Sir Valentine, my friend, + This night intends to steal away your daughter; + Myself am one made privy to the plot. + I know you have determin'd to bestow her + On Thurio, whom your gentle daughter hates; + And should she thus be stol'n away from you, + It would be much vexation to your age. + Thus, for my duty's sake, I rather chose + To cross my friend in his intended drift + Than, by concealing it, heap on your head + A pack of sorrows which would press you down, + Being unprevented, to your timeless grave. + DUKE. Proteus, I thank thee for thine honest care, + Which to requite, command me while I live. + This love of theirs myself have often seen, + Haply when they have judg'd me fast asleep, + And oftentimes have purpos'd to forbid + Sir Valentine her company and my court; + But, fearing lest my jealous aim might err + And so, unworthily, disgrace the man, + A rashness that I ever yet have shunn'd, + I gave him gentle looks, thereby to find + That which thyself hast now disclos'd to me. + And, that thou mayst perceive my fear of this, + Knowing that tender youth is soon suggested, + I nightly lodge her in an upper tow'r, + The key whereof myself have ever kept; + And thence she cannot be convey'd away. + PROTEUS. Know, noble lord, they have devis'd a mean + How he her chamber window will ascend + And with a corded ladder fetch her down; + For which the youthful lover now is gone, + And this way comes he with it presently; + Where, if it please you, you may intercept him. + But, good my lord, do it so cunningly + That my discovery be not aimed at; + For love of you, not hate unto my friend, + Hath made me publisher of this pretence. + DUKE. Upon mine honour, he shall never know + That I had any light from thee of this. + PROTEUS. Adieu, my lord; Sir Valentine is coming. Exit + + Enter VALENTINE + + DUKE. Sir Valentine, whither away so fast? + VALENTINE. Please it your Grace, there is a messenger + That stays to bear my letters to my friends, + And I am going to deliver them. + DUKE. Be they of much import? + VALENTINE. The tenour of them doth but signify + My health and happy being at your court. + DUKE. Nay then, no matter; stay with me awhile; + I am to break with thee of some affairs + That touch me near, wherein thou must be secret. + 'Tis not unknown to thee that I have sought + To match my friend Sir Thurio to my daughter. + VALENTINE. I know it well, my lord; and, sure, the match + Were rich and honourable; besides, the gentleman + Is full of virtue, bounty, worth, and qualities + Beseeming such a wife as your fair daughter. + Cannot your grace win her to fancy him? + DUKE. No, trust me; she is peevish, sullen, froward, + Proud, disobedient, stubborn, lacking duty; + Neither regarding that she is my child + Nor fearing me as if I were her father; + And, may I say to thee, this pride of hers, + Upon advice, hath drawn my love from her; + And, where I thought the remnant of mine age + Should have been cherish'd by her childlike duty, + I now am full resolv'd to take a wife + And turn her out to who will take her in. + Then let her beauty be her wedding-dow'r; + For me and my possessions she esteems not. + VALENTINE. What would your Grace have me to do in this? + DUKE. There is a lady, in Verona here, + Whom I affect; but she is nice, and coy, + And nought esteems my aged eloquence. + Now, therefore, would I have thee to my tutor- + For long agone I have forgot to court; + Besides, the fashion of the time is chang'd- + How and which way I may bestow myself + To be regarded in her sun-bright eye. + VALENTINE. Win her with gifts, if she respect not words: + Dumb jewels often in their silent kind + More than quick words do move a woman's mind. + DUKE. But she did scorn a present that I sent her. + VALENTINE. A woman sometime scorns what best contents her. + Send her another; never give her o'er, + For scorn at first makes after-love the more. + If she do frown, 'tis not in hate of you, + But rather to beget more love in you; + If she do chide, 'tis not to have you gone, + For why, the fools are mad if left alone. + Take no repulse, whatever she doth say; + For 'Get you gone' she doth not mean 'Away!' + Flatter and praise, commend, extol their graces; + Though ne'er so black, say they have angels' faces. + That man that hath a tongue, I say, is no man, + If with his tongue he cannot win a woman. + DUKE. But she I mean is promis'd by her friends + Unto a youthful gentleman of worth; + And kept severely from resort of men, + That no man hath access by day to her. + VALENTINE. Why then I would resort to her by night. + DUKE. Ay, but the doors be lock'd and keys kept safe, + That no man hath recourse to her by night. + VALENTINE. What lets but one may enter at her window? + DUKE. Her chamber is aloft, far from the ground, + And built so shelving that one cannot climb it + Without apparent hazard of his life. + VALENTINE. Why then a ladder, quaintly made of cords, + To cast up with a pair of anchoring hooks, + Would serve to scale another Hero's tow'r, + So bold Leander would adventure it. + DUKE. Now, as thou art a gentleman of blood, + Advise me where I may have such a ladder. + VALENTINE. When would you use it? Pray, sir, tell me that. + DUKE. This very night; for Love is like a child, + That longs for everything that he can come by. + VALENTINE. By seven o'clock I'll get you such a ladder. + DUKE. But, hark thee; I will go to her alone; + How shall I best convey the ladder thither? + VALENTINE. It will be light, my lord, that you may bear it + Under a cloak that is of any length. + DUKE. A cloak as long as thine will serve the turn? + VALENTINE. Ay, my good lord. + DUKE. Then let me see thy cloak. + I'll get me one of such another length. + VALENTINE. Why, any cloak will serve the turn, my lord. + DUKE. How shall I fashion me to wear a cloak? + I pray thee, let me feel thy cloak upon me. + What letter is this same? What's here? 'To Silvia'! + And here an engine fit for my proceeding! + I'll be so bold to break the seal for once. [Reads] + 'My thoughts do harbour with my Silvia nightly, + And slaves they are to me, that send them flying. + O, could their master come and go as lightly, + Himself would lodge where, senseless, they are lying! + My herald thoughts in thy pure bosom rest them, + While I, their king, that thither them importune, + Do curse the grace that with such grace hath blest them, + Because myself do want my servants' fortune. + I curse myself, for they are sent by me, + That they should harbour where their lord should be.' + What's here? + 'Silvia, this night I will enfranchise thee.' + 'Tis so; and here's the ladder for the purpose. + Why, Phaethon- for thou art Merops' son- + Wilt thou aspire to guide the heavenly car, + And with thy daring folly burn the world? + Wilt thou reach stars because they shine on thee? + Go, base intruder, over-weening slave, + Bestow thy fawning smiles on equal mates; + And think my patience, more than thy desert, + Is privilege for thy departure hence. + Thank me for this more than for all the favours + Which, all too much, I have bestow'd on thee. + But if thou linger in my territories + Longer than swiftest expedition + Will give thee time to leave our royal court, + By heaven! my wrath shall far exceed the love + I ever bore my daughter or thyself. + Be gone; I will not hear thy vain excuse, + But, as thou lov'st thy life, make speed from hence. Exit + VALENTINE. And why not death rather than living torment? + To die is to be banish'd from myself, + And Silvia is myself; banish'd from her + Is self from self, a deadly banishment. + What light is light, if Silvia be not seen? + What joy is joy, if Silvia be not by? + Unless it be to think that she is by, + And feed upon the shadow of perfection. + Except I be by Silvia in the night, + There is no music in the nightingale; + Unless I look on Silvia in the day, + There is no day for me to look upon. + She is my essence, and I leave to be + If I be not by her fair influence + Foster'd, illumin'd, cherish'd, kept alive. + I fly not death, to fly his deadly doom: + Tarry I here, I but attend on death; + But fly I hence, I fly away from life. + + Enter PROTEUS and LAUNCE + + PROTEUS. Run, boy, run, run, seek him out. + LAUNCE. So-ho, so-ho! + PROTEUS. What seest thou? + LAUNCE. Him we go to find: there's not a hair on 's head but 'tis a + Valentine. + PROTEUS. Valentine? + VALENTINE. No. + PROTEUS. Who then? his spirit? + VALENTINE. Neither. + PROTEUS. What then? + VALENTINE. Nothing. + LAUNCE. Can nothing speak? Master, shall I strike? + PROTEUS. Who wouldst thou strike? + LAUNCE. Nothing. + PROTEUS. Villain, forbear. + LAUNCE. Why, sir, I'll strike nothing. I pray you- + PROTEUS. Sirrah, I say, forbear. Friend Valentine, a word. + VALENTINE. My ears are stopp'd and cannot hear good news, + So much of bad already hath possess'd them. + PROTEUS. Then in dumb silence will I bury mine, + For they are harsh, untuneable, and bad. + VALENTINE. Is Silvia dead? + PROTEUS. No, Valentine. + VALENTINE. No Valentine, indeed, for sacred Silvia. + Hath she forsworn me? + PROTEUS. No, Valentine. + VALENTINE. No Valentine, if Silvia have forsworn me. + What is your news? + LAUNCE. Sir, there is a proclamation that you are vanished. + PROTEUS. That thou art banished- O, that's the news!- + From hence, from Silvia, and from me thy friend. + VALENTINE. O, I have fed upon this woe already, + And now excess of it will make me surfeit. + Doth Silvia know that I am banished? + PROTEUS. Ay, ay; and she hath offered to the doom- + Which, unrevers'd, stands in effectual force- + A sea of melting pearl, which some call tears; + Those at her father's churlish feet she tender'd; + With them, upon her knees, her humble self, + Wringing her hands, whose whiteness so became them + As if but now they waxed pale for woe. + But neither bended knees, pure hands held up, + Sad sighs, deep groans, nor silver-shedding tears, + Could penetrate her uncompassionate sire- + But Valentine, if he be ta'en, must die. + Besides, her intercession chaf'd him so, + When she for thy repeal was suppliant, + That to close prison he commanded her, + With many bitter threats of biding there. + VALENTINE. No more; unless the next word that thou speak'st + Have some malignant power upon my life: + If so, I pray thee breathe it in mine ear, + As ending anthem of my endless dolour. + PROTEUS. Cease to lament for that thou canst not help, + And study help for that which thou lament'st. + Time is the nurse and breeder of all good. + Here if thou stay thou canst not see thy love; + Besides, thy staying will abridge thy life. + Hope is a lover's staff; walk hence with that, + And manage it against despairing thoughts. + Thy letters may be here, though thou art hence, + Which, being writ to me, shall be deliver'd + Even in the milk-white bosom of thy love. + The time now serves not to expostulate. + Come, I'll convey thee through the city gate; + And, ere I part with thee, confer at large + Of all that may concern thy love affairs. + As thou lov'st Silvia, though not for thyself, + Regard thy danger, and along with me. + VALENTINE. I pray thee, Launce, an if thou seest my boy, + Bid him make haste and meet me at the Northgate. + PROTEUS. Go, sirrah, find him out. Come, Valentine. + VALENTINE. O my dear Silvia! Hapless Valentine! + Exeunt VALENTINE and PROTEUS + LAUNCE. I am but a fool, look you, and yet I have the wit to think + my master is a kind of a knave; but that's all one if he be but + one knave. He lives not now that knows me to be in love; yet I am + in love; but a team of horse shall not pluck that from me; nor + who 'tis I love; and yet 'tis a woman; but what woman I will not + tell myself; and yet 'tis a milkmaid; yet 'tis not a maid, for + she hath had gossips; yet 'tis a maid, for she is her master's + maid and serves for wages. She hath more qualities than a + water-spaniel- which is much in a bare Christian. Here is the + cate-log [Pulling out a paper] of her condition. 'Inprimis: She + can fetch and carry.' Why, a horse can do no more; nay, a horse + cannot fetch, but only carry; therefore is she better than a + jade. 'Item: She can milk.' Look you, a sweet virtue in a maid + with clean hands. + + Enter SPEED + + SPEED. How now, Signior Launce! What news with your mastership? + LAUNCE. With my master's ship? Why, it is at sea. + SPEED. Well, your old vice still: mistake the word. What news, + then, in your paper? + LAUNCE. The black'st news that ever thou heard'st. + SPEED. Why, man? how black? + LAUNCE. Why, as black as ink. + SPEED. Let me read them. + LAUNCE. Fie on thee, jolt-head; thou canst not read. + SPEED. Thou liest; I can. + LAUNCE. I will try thee. Tell me this: Who begot thee? + SPEED. Marry, the son of my grandfather. + LAUNCE. O illiterate loiterer. It was the son of thy grandmother. + This proves that thou canst not read. + SPEED. Come, fool, come; try me in thy paper. + LAUNCE. [Handing over the paper] There; and Saint Nicholas be thy + speed. + SPEED. [Reads] 'Inprimis: She can milk.' + LAUNCE. Ay, that she can. + SPEED. 'Item: She brews good ale.' + LAUNCE. And thereof comes the proverb: Blessing of your heart, you + brew good ale. + SPEED. 'Item: She can sew.' + LAUNCE. That's as much as to say 'Can she so?' + SPEED. 'Item: She can knit.' + LAUNCE. What need a man care for a stock with a wench, when she can + knit him a stock. + SPEED. 'Item: She can wash and scour.' + LAUNCE. A special virtue; for then she need not be wash'd and + scour'd. + SPEED. 'Item: She can spin.' + LAUNCE. Then may I set the world on wheels, when she can spin for + her living. + SPEED. 'Item: She hath many nameless virtues.' + LAUNCE. That's as much as to say 'bastard virtues'; that indeed + know not their fathers, and therefore have no names. + SPEED. 'Here follow her vices.' + LAUNCE. Close at the heels of her virtues. + SPEED. 'Item: She is not to be kiss'd fasting, in respect of her + breath.' + LAUNCE. Well, that fault may be mended with a breakfast. + Read on. + SPEED. 'Item: She hath a sweet mouth.' + LAUNCE. That makes amends for her sour breath. + SPEED. 'Item: She doth talk in her sleep.' + LAUNCE. It's no matter for that, so she sleep not in her talk. + SPEED. 'Item: She is slow in words.' + LAUNCE. O villain, that set this down among her vices! To be slow + in words is a woman's only virtue. I pray thee, out with't; and + place it for her chief virtue. + SPEED. 'Item: She is proud.' + LAUNCE. Out with that too; it was Eve's legacy, and cannot be ta'en + from her. + SPEED. 'Item: She hath no teeth.' + LAUNCE. I care not for that neither, because I love crusts. + SPEED. 'Item: She is curst.' + LAUNCE. Well, the best is, she hath no teeth to bite. + SPEED. 'Item: She will often praise her liquor.' + LAUNCE. If her liquor be good, she shall; if she will not, I will; + for good things should be praised. + SPEED. 'Item: She is too liberal.' + LAUNCE. Of her tongue she cannot, for that's writ down she is slow + of; of her purse she shall not, for that I'll keep shut. Now of + another thing she may, and that cannot I help. Well, proceed. + SPEED. 'Item: She hath more hair than wit, and more faults + than hairs, and more wealth than faults.' + LAUNCE. Stop there; I'll have her; she was mine, and not mine, + twice or thrice in that last article. Rehearse that once more. + SPEED. 'Item: She hath more hair than wit'- + LAUNCE. More hair than wit. It may be; I'll prove it: the cover of + the salt hides the salt, and therefore it is more than the salt; + the hair that covers the wit is more than the wit, for the + greater hides the less. What's next? + SPEED. 'And more faults than hairs'- + LAUNCE. That's monstrous. O that that were out! + SPEED. 'And more wealth than faults.' + LAUNCE. Why, that word makes the faults gracious. Well, I'll have + her; an if it be a match, as nothing is impossible- + SPEED. What then? + LAUNCE. Why, then will I tell thee- that thy master stays for thee + at the Northgate. + SPEED. For me? + LAUNCE. For thee! ay, who art thou? He hath stay'd for a better man + than thee. + SPEED. And must I go to him? + LAUNCE. Thou must run to him, for thou hast stay'd so long that + going will scarce serve the turn. + SPEED. Why didst not tell me sooner? Pox of your love letters! + Exit + LAUNCE. Now will he be swing'd for reading my letter. An unmannerly + slave that will thrust himself into secrets! I'll after, to + rejoice in the boy's correction. Exit + +SCENE II. Milan. The DUKE'S palace + +Enter DUKE and THURIO + + DUKE. Sir Thurio, fear not but that she will love you + Now Valentine is banish'd from her sight. + THURIO. Since his exile she hath despis'd me most, + Forsworn my company and rail'd at me, + That I am desperate of obtaining her. + DUKE. This weak impress of love is as a figure + Trenched in ice, which with an hour's heat + Dissolves to water and doth lose his form. + A little time will melt her frozen thoughts, + And worthless Valentine shall be forgot. + + Enter PROTEUS + + How now, Sir Proteus! Is your countryman, + According to our proclamation, gone? + PROTEUS. Gone, my good lord. + DUKE. My daughter takes his going grievously. + PROTEUS. A little time, my lord, will kill that grief. + DUKE. So I believe; but Thurio thinks not so. + Proteus, the good conceit I hold of thee- + For thou hast shown some sign of good desert- + Makes me the better to confer with thee. + PROTEUS. Longer than I prove loyal to your Grace + Let me not live to look upon your Grace. + DUKE. Thou know'st how willingly I would effect + The match between Sir Thurio and my daughter. + PROTEUS. I do, my lord. + DUKE. And also, I think, thou art not ignorant + How she opposes her against my will. + PROTEUS. She did, my lord, when Valentine was here. + DUKE. Ay, and perversely she persevers so. + What might we do to make the girl forget + The love of Valentine, and love Sir Thurio? + PROTEUS. The best way is to slander Valentine + With falsehood, cowardice, and poor descent- + Three things that women highly hold in hate. + DUKE. Ay, but she'll think that it is spoke in hate. + PROTEUS. Ay, if his enemy deliver it; + Therefore it must with circumstance be spoken + By one whom she esteemeth as his friend. + DUKE. Then you must undertake to slander him. + PROTEUS. And that, my lord, I shall be loath to do: + 'Tis an ill office for a gentleman, + Especially against his very friend. + DUKE. Where your good word cannot advantage him, + Your slander never can endamage him; + Therefore the office is indifferent, + Being entreated to it by your friend. + PROTEUS. You have prevail'd, my lord; if I can do it + By aught that I can speak in his dispraise, + She shall not long continue love to him. + But say this weed her love from Valentine, + It follows not that she will love Sir Thurio. + THURIO. Therefore, as you unwind her love from him, + Lest it should ravel and be good to none, + You must provide to bottom it on me; + Which must be done by praising me as much + As you in worth dispraise Sir Valentine. + DUKE. And, Proteus, we dare trust you in this kind, + Because we know, on Valentine's report, + You are already Love's firm votary + And cannot soon revolt and change your mind. + Upon this warrant shall you have access + Where you with Silvia may confer at large- + For she is lumpish, heavy, melancholy, + And, for your friend's sake, will be glad of you- + Where you may temper her by your persuasion + To hate young Valentine and love my friend. + PROTEUS. As much as I can do I will effect. + But you, Sir Thurio, are not sharp enough; + You must lay lime to tangle her desires + By wailful sonnets, whose composed rhymes + Should be full-fraught with serviceable vows. + DUKE. Ay, + Much is the force of heaven-bred poesy. + PROTEUS. Say that upon the altar of her beauty + You sacrifice your tears, your sighs, your heart; + Write till your ink be dry, and with your tears + Moist it again, and frame some feeling line + That may discover such integrity; + For Orpheus' lute was strung with poets' sinews, + Whose golden touch could soften steel and stones, + Make tigers tame, and huge leviathans + Forsake unsounded deeps to dance on sands. + After your dire-lamenting elegies, + Visit by night your lady's chamber window + With some sweet consort; to their instruments + Tune a deploring dump- the night's dead silence + Will well become such sweet-complaining grievance. + This, or else nothing, will inherit her. + DUKE. This discipline shows thou hast been in love. + THURIO. And thy advice this night I'll put in practice; + Therefore, sweet Proteus, my direction-giver, + Let us into the city presently + To sort some gentlemen well skill'd in music. + I have a sonnet that will serve the turn + To give the onset to thy good advice. + DUKE. About it, gentlemen! + PROTEUS. We'll wait upon your Grace till after supper, + And afterward determine our proceedings. + DUKE. Even now about it! I will pardon you. Exeunt + +ACT IV. SCENE I. The frontiers of Mantua. A forest + +Enter certain OUTLAWS + + FIRST OUTLAW. Fellows, stand fast; I see a passenger. + SECOND OUTLAW. If there be ten, shrink not, but down with 'em. + + Enter VALENTINE and SPEED + + THIRD OUTLAW. Stand, sir, and throw us that you have about ye; + If not, we'll make you sit, and rifle you. + SPEED. Sir, we are undone; these are the villains + That all the travellers do fear so much. + VALENTINE. My friends- + FIRST OUTLAW. That's not so, sir; we are your enemies. + SECOND OUTLAW. Peace! we'll hear him. + THIRD OUTLAW. Ay, by my beard, will we; for he is a proper man. + VALENTINE. Then know that I have little wealth to lose; + A man I am cross'd with adversity; + My riches are these poor habiliments, + Of which if you should here disfurnish me, + You take the sum and substance that I have. + SECOND OUTLAW. Whither travel you? + VALENTINE. To Verona. + FIRST OUTLAW. Whence came you? + VALENTINE. From Milan. + THIRD OUTLAW. Have you long sojourn'd there? + VALENTINE. Some sixteen months, and longer might have stay'd, + If crooked fortune had not thwarted me. + FIRST OUTLAW. What, were you banish'd thence? + VALENTINE. I was. + SECOND OUTLAW. For what offence? + VALENTINE. For that which now torments me to rehearse: + I kill'd a man, whose death I much repent; + But yet I slew him manfully in fight, + Without false vantage or base treachery. + FIRST OUTLAW. Why, ne'er repent it, if it were done so. + But were you banish'd for so small a fault? + VALENTINE. I was, and held me glad of such a doom. + SECOND OUTLAW. Have you the tongues? + VALENTINE. My youthful travel therein made me happy, + Or else I often had been miserable. + THIRD OUTLAW. By the bare scalp of Robin Hood's fat friar, + This fellow were a king for our wild faction! + FIRST OUTLAW. We'll have him. Sirs, a word. + SPEED. Master, be one of them; it's an honourable kind of thievery. + VALENTINE. Peace, villain! + SECOND OUTLAW. Tell us this: have you anything to take to? + VALENTINE. Nothing but my fortune. + THIRD OUTLAW. Know, then, that some of us are gentlemen, + Such as the fury of ungovern'd youth + Thrust from the company of awful men; + Myself was from Verona banished + For practising to steal away a lady, + An heir, and near allied unto the Duke. + SECOND OUTLAW. And I from Mantua, for a gentleman + Who, in my mood, I stabb'd unto the heart. + FIRST OUTLAW. And I for such-like petty crimes as these. + But to the purpose- for we cite our faults + That they may hold excus'd our lawless lives; + And, partly, seeing you are beautified + With goodly shape, and by your own report + A linguist, and a man of such perfection + As we do in our quality much want- + SECOND OUTLAW. Indeed, because you are a banish'd man, + Therefore, above the rest, we parley to you. + Are you content to be our general- + To make a virtue of necessity, + And live as we do in this wilderness? + THIRD OUTLAW. What say'st thou? Wilt thou be of our consort? + Say 'ay' and be the captain of us all. + We'll do thee homage, and be rul'd by thee, + Love thee as our commander and our king. + FIRST OUTLAW. But if thou scorn our courtesy thou diest. + SECOND OUTLAW. Thou shalt not live to brag what we have offer'd. + VALENTINE. I take your offer, and will live with you, + Provided that you do no outrages + On silly women or poor passengers. + THIRD OUTLAW. No, we detest such vile base practices. + Come, go with us; we'll bring thee to our crews, + And show thee all the treasure we have got; + Which, with ourselves, all rest at thy dispose. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Milan. Outside the DUKE'S palace, under SILVIA'S window + +Enter PROTEUS + + PROTEUS. Already have I been false to Valentine, + And now I must be as unjust to Thurio. + Under the colour of commending him + I have access my own love to prefer; + But Silvia is too fair, too true, too holy, + To be corrupted with my worthless gifts. + When I protest true loyalty to her, + She twits me with my falsehood to my friend; + When to her beauty I commend my vows, + She bids me think how I have been forsworn + In breaking faith with Julia whom I lov'd; + And notwithstanding all her sudden quips, + The least whereof would quell a lover's hope, + Yet, spaniel-like, the more she spurns my love + The more it grows and fawneth on her still. + + Enter THURIO and MUSICIANS + + But here comes Thurio. Now must we to her window, + And give some evening music to her ear. + THURIO. How now, Sir Proteus, are you crept before us? + PROTEUS. Ay, gentle Thurio; for you know that love + Will creep in service where it cannot go. + THURIO. Ay, but I hope, sir, that you love not here. + PROTEUS. Sir, but I do; or else I would be hence. + THURIO. Who? Silvia? + PROTEUS. Ay, Silvia- for your sake. + THURIO. I thank you for your own. Now, gentlemen, + Let's tune, and to it lustily awhile. + + Enter at a distance, HOST, and JULIA in boy's clothes + + HOST. Now, my young guest, methinks you're allycholly; I pray you, + why is it? + JULIA. Marry, mine host, because I cannot be merry. + HOST. Come, we'll have you merry; I'll bring you where you shall + hear music, and see the gentleman that you ask'd for. + JULIA. But shall I hear him speak? + HOST. Ay, that you shall. [Music plays] + JULIA. That will be music. + HOST. Hark, hark! + JULIA. Is he among these? + HOST. Ay; but peace! let's hear 'em. + + SONG + Who is Silvia? What is she, + That all our swains commend her? + Holy, fair, and wise is she; + The heaven such grace did lend her, + That she might admired be. + + Is she kind as she is fair? + For beauty lives with kindness. + Love doth to her eyes repair, + To help him of his blindness; + And, being help'd, inhabits there. + + Then to Silvia let us sing + That Silvia is excelling; + She excels each mortal thing + Upon the dull earth dwelling. + 'To her let us garlands bring. + + HOST. How now, are you sadder than you were before? + How do you, man? The music likes you not. + JULIA. You mistake; the musician likes me not. + HOST. Why, my pretty youth? + JULIA. He plays false, father. + HOST. How, out of tune on the strings? + JULIA. Not so; but yet so false that he grieves my very + heart-strings. + HOST. You have a quick ear. + JULIA. Ay, I would I were deaf; it makes me have a slow heart. + HOST. I perceive you delight not in music. + JULIA. Not a whit, when it jars so. + HOST. Hark, what fine change is in the music! + JULIA. Ay, that change is the spite. + HOST. You would have them always play but one thing? + JULIA. I would always have one play but one thing. + But, Host, doth this Sir Proteus, that we talk on, + Often resort unto this gentlewoman? + HOST. I tell you what Launce, his man, told me: he lov'd her out of + all nick. + JULIA. Where is Launce? + HOST. Gone to seek his dog, which to-morrow, by his master's + command, he must carry for a present to his lady. + JULIA. Peace, stand aside; the company parts. + PROTEUS. Sir Thurio, fear not you; I will so plead + That you shall say my cunning drift excels. + THURIO. Where meet we? + PROTEUS. At Saint Gregory's well. + THURIO. Farewell. Exeunt THURIO and MUSICIANS + + Enter SILVIA above, at her window + + PROTEUS. Madam, good ev'n to your ladyship. + SILVIA. I thank you for your music, gentlemen. + Who is that that spake? + PROTEUS. One, lady, if you knew his pure heart's truth, + You would quickly learn to know him by his voice. + SILVIA. Sir Proteus, as I take it. + PROTEUS. Sir Proteus, gentle lady, and your servant. + SILVIA. What's your will? + PROTEUS. That I may compass yours. + SILVIA. You have your wish; my will is even this, + That presently you hie you home to bed. + Thou subtle, perjur'd, false, disloyal man, + Think'st thou I am so shallow, so conceitless, + To be seduced by thy flattery + That hast deceiv'd so many with thy vows? + Return, return, and make thy love amends. + For me, by this pale queen of night I swear, + I am so far from granting thy request + That I despise thee for thy wrongful suit, + And by and by intend to chide myself + Even for this time I spend in talking to thee. + PROTEUS. I grant, sweet love, that I did love a lady; + But she is dead. + JULIA. [Aside] 'Twere false, if I should speak it; + For I am sure she is not buried. + SILVIA. Say that she be; yet Valentine, thy friend, + Survives, to whom, thyself art witness, + I am betroth'd; and art thou not asham'd + To wrong him with thy importunacy? + PROTEUS. I likewise hear that Valentine is dead. + SILVIA. And so suppose am I; for in his grave + Assure thyself my love is buried. + PROTEUS. Sweet lady, let me rake it from the earth. + SILVIA. Go to thy lady's grave, and call hers thence; + Or, at the least, in hers sepulchre thine. + JULIA. [Aside] He heard not that. + PROTEUS. Madam, if your heart be so obdurate, + Vouchsafe me yet your picture for my love, + The picture that is hanging in your chamber; + To that I'll speak, to that I'll sigh and weep; + For, since the substance of your perfect self + Is else devoted, I am but a shadow; + And to your shadow will I make true love. + JULIA. [Aside] If 'twere a substance, you would, sure, deceive it + And make it but a shadow, as I am. + SILVIA. I am very loath to be your idol, sir; + But since your falsehood shall become you well + To worship shadows and adore false shapes, + Send to me in the morning, and I'll send it; + And so, good rest. + PROTEUS. As wretches have o'ernight + That wait for execution in the morn. + Exeunt PROTEUS and SILVIA + JULIA. Host, will you go? + HOST. By my halidom, I was fast asleep. + JULIA. Pray you, where lies Sir Proteus? + HOST. Marry, at my house. Trust me, I think 'tis almost day. + JULIA. Not so; but it hath been the longest night + That e'er I watch'd, and the most heaviest. Exeunt + +SCENE III. Under SILVIA'S window + +Enter EGLAMOUR + + EGLAMOUR. This is the hour that Madam Silvia + Entreated me to call and know her mind; + There's some great matter she'd employ me in. + Madam, madam! + + Enter SILVIA above, at her window + + SILVIA. Who calls? + EGLAMOUR. Your servant and your friend; + One that attends your ladyship's command. + SILVIA. Sir Eglamour, a thousand times good morrow! + EGLAMOUR. As many, worthy lady, to yourself! + According to your ladyship's impose, + I am thus early come to know what service + It is your pleasure to command me in. + SILVIA. O Eglamour, thou art a gentleman- + Think not I flatter, for I swear I do not- + Valiant, wise, remorseful, well accomplish'd. + Thou art not ignorant what dear good will + I bear unto the banish'd Valentine; + Nor how my father would enforce me marry + Vain Thurio, whom my very soul abhors. + Thyself hast lov'd; and I have heard thee say + No grief did ever come so near thy heart + As when thy lady and thy true love died, + Upon whose grave thou vow'dst pure chastity. + Sir Eglamour, I would to Valentine, + To Mantua, where I hear he makes abode; + And, for the ways are dangerous to pass, + I do desire thy worthy company, + Upon whose faith and honour I repose. + Urge not my father's anger, Eglamour, + But think upon my grief, a lady's grief, + And on the justice of my flying hence + To keep me from a most unholy match, + Which heaven and fortune still rewards with plagues. + I do desire thee, even from a heart + As full of sorrows as the sea of sands, + To bear me company and go with me; + If not, to hide what I have said to thee, + That I may venture to depart alone. + EGLAMOUR. Madam, I pity much your grievances; + Which since I know they virtuously are plac'd, + I give consent to go along with you, + Recking as little what betideth me + As much I wish all good befortune you. + When will you go? + SILVIA. This evening coming. + EGLAMOUR. Where shall I meet you? + SILVIA. At Friar Patrick's cell, + Where I intend holy confession. + EGLAMOUR. I will not fail your ladyship. Good morrow, gentle lady. + SILVIA. Good morrow, kind Sir Eglamour. Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Under SILVIA'S Window + +Enter LAUNCE with his dog + + LAUNCE. When a man's servant shall play the cur with him, look you, + it goes hard- one that I brought up of a puppy; one that I sav'd from + drowning, when three or four of his blind brothers and sisters went + to it. I have taught him, even as one would say precisely 'Thus I + would teach a dog.' I was sent to deliver him as a present to + Mistress Silvia from my master; and I came no sooner into the + dining-chamber, but he steps me to her trencher and steals her + capon's leg. O, 'tis a foul thing when a cur cannot keep himself in + all companies! I would have, as one should say, one that takes upon + him to be a dog indeed, to be, as it were, a dog at all things. If I + had not had more wit than he, to take a fault upon me that he did, I + think verily he had been hang'd for't; sure as I live, he had + suffer'd for't. You shall judge. He thrusts me himself into the + company of three or four gentleman-like dogs under the Duke's table; + he had not been there, bless the mark, a pissing while but all the + chamber smelt him. 'Out with the dog' says one; 'What cur is that?' + says another; 'Whip him out' says the third; 'Hang him up' says the + Duke. I, having been acquainted with the smell before, knew it was + Crab, and goes me to the fellow that whips the dogs. 'Friend,' quoth + I 'you mean to whip the dog.' 'Ay, marry do I' quoth he. 'You do him + the more wrong,' quoth I; "twas I did the thing you wot of.' He makes + me no more ado, but whips me out of the chamber. How many masters + would do this for his servant? Nay, I'll be sworn, I have sat in the + stock for puddings he hath stol'n, otherwise he had been executed; I + have stood on the pillory for geese he hath kill'd, otherwise he had + suffer'd for't. Thou think'st not of this now. Nay, I remember the + trick you serv'd me when I took my leave of Madam Silvia. Did not I + bid thee still mark me and do as I do? When didst thou see me heave + up my leg and make water against a gentlewoman's farthingale? Didst + thou ever see me do such a trick? + + Enter PROTEUS, and JULIA in boy's clothes + + PROTEUS. Sebastian is thy name? I like thee well, + And will employ thee in some service presently. + JULIA. In what you please; I'll do what I can. + PROTEUS..I hope thou wilt. [To LAUNCE] How now, you whoreson + peasant! + Where have you been these two days loitering? + LAUNCE. Marry, sir, I carried Mistress Silvia the dog you bade me. + PROTEUS. And what says she to my little jewel? + LAUNCE. Marry, she says your dog was a cur, and tells you currish + thanks is good enough for such a present. + PROTEUS. But she receiv'd my dog? + LAUNCE. No, indeed, did she not; here have I brought him back + again. + PROTEUS. What, didst thou offer her this from me? + LAUNCE. Ay, sir; the other squirrel was stol'n from me by the + hangman's boys in the market-place; and then I offer'd her mine + own, who is a dog as big as ten of yours, and therefore the gift + the greater. + PROTEUS. Go, get thee hence and find my dog again, + Or ne'er return again into my sight. + Away, I say. Stayest thou to vex me here? Exit LAUNCE + A slave that still an end turns me to shame! + Sebastian, I have entertained thee + Partly that I have need of such a youth + That can with some discretion do my business, + For 'tis no trusting to yond foolish lout, + But chiefly for thy face and thy behaviour, + Which, if my augury deceive me not, + Witness good bringing up, fortune, and truth; + Therefore, know thou, for this I entertain thee. + Go presently, and take this ring with thee, + Deliver it to Madam Silvia- + She lov'd me well deliver'd it to me. + JULIA. It seems you lov'd not her, to leave her token. + She is dead, belike? + PROTEUS. Not so; I think she lives. + JULIA. Alas! + PROTEUS. Why dost thou cry 'Alas'? + JULIA. I cannot choose + But pity her. + PROTEUS. Wherefore shouldst thou pity her? + JULIA. Because methinks that she lov'd you as well + As you do love your lady Silvia. + She dreams on him that has forgot her love: + You dote on her that cares not for your love. + 'Tis pity love should be so contrary; + And thinking on it makes me cry 'Alas!' + PROTEUS. Well, give her that ring, and therewithal + This letter. That's her chamber. Tell my lady + I claim the promise for her heavenly picture. + Your message done, hie home unto my chamber, + Where thou shalt find me sad and solitary. Exit PROTEUS + JULIA. How many women would do such a message? + Alas, poor Proteus, thou hast entertain'd + A fox to be the shepherd of thy lambs. + Alas, poor fool, why do I pity him + That with his very heart despiseth me? + Because he loves her, he despiseth me; + Because I love him, I must pity him. + This ring I gave him, when he parted from me, + To bind him to remember my good will; + And now am I, unhappy messenger, + To plead for that which I would not obtain, + To carry that which I would have refus'd, + To praise his faith, which I would have disprais'd. + I am my master's true confirmed love, + But cannot be true servant to my master + Unless I prove false traitor to myself. + Yet will I woo for him, but yet so coldly + As, heaven it knows, I would not have him speed. + + Enter SILVIA, attended + + Gentlewoman, good day! I pray you be my mean + To bring me where to speak with Madam Silvia. + SILVIA. What would you with her, if that I be she? + JULIA. If you be she, I do entreat your patience + To hear me speak the message I am sent on. + SILVIA. From whom? + JULIA. From my master, Sir Proteus, madam. + SILVIA. O, he sends you for a picture? + JULIA. Ay, madam. + SILVIA. Ursula, bring my picture there. + Go, give your master this. Tell him from me, + One Julia, that his changing thoughts forget, + Would better fit his chamber than this shadow. + JULIA. Madam, please you peruse this letter. + Pardon me, madam; I have unadvis'd + Deliver'd you a paper that I should not. + This is the letter to your ladyship. + SILVIA. I pray thee let me look on that again. + JULIA. It may not be; good madam, pardon me. + SILVIA. There, hold! + I will not look upon your master's lines. + I know they are stuff'd with protestations, + And full of new-found oaths, which he wul break + As easily as I do tear his paper. + JULIA. Madam, he sends your ladyship this ring. + SILVIA. The more shame for him that he sends it me; + For I have heard him say a thousand times + His Julia gave it him at his departure. + Though his false finger have profan'd the ring, + Mine shall not do his Julia so much wrong. + JULIA. She thanks you. + SILVIA. What say'st thou? + JULIA. I thank you, madam, that you tender her. + Poor gentlewoman, my master wrongs her much. + SILVIA. Dost thou know her? + JULIA. Almost as well as I do know myself. + To think upon her woes, I do protest + That I have wept a hundred several times. + SILVIA. Belike she thinks that Proteus hath forsook her. + JULIA. I think she doth, and that's her cause of sorrow. + SILVIA. Is she not passing fair? + JULIA. She hath been fairer, madam, than she is. + When she did think my master lov'd her well, + She, in my judgment, was as fair as you; + But since she did neglect her looking-glass + And threw her sun-expelling mask away, + The air hath starv'd the roses in her cheeks + And pinch'd the lily-tincture of her face, + That now she is become as black as I. + SILVIA. How tall was she? + JULIA. About my stature; for at Pentecost, + When all our pageants of delight were play'd, + Our youth got me to play the woman's part, + And I was trimm'd in Madam Julia's gown; + Which served me as fit, by all men's judgments, + As if the garment had been made for me; + Therefore I know she is about my height. + And at that time I made her weep a good, + For I did play a lamentable part. + Madam, 'twas Ariadne passioning + For Theseus' perjury and unjust flight; + Which I so lively acted with my tears + That my poor mistress, moved therewithal, + Wept bitterly; and would I might be dead + If I in thought felt not her very sorrow. + SILVIA. She is beholding to thee, gentle youth. + Alas, poor lady, desolate and left! + I weep myself, to think upon thy words. + Here, youth, there is my purse; I give thee this + For thy sweet mistress' sake, because thou lov'st her. + Farewell. Exit SILVIA with ATTENDANTS + JULIA. And she shall thank you for't, if e'er you know her. + A virtuous gentlewoman, mild and beautiful! + I hope my master's suit will be but cold, + Since she respects my mistress' love so much. + Alas, how love can trifle with itself! + Here is her picture; let me see. I think, + If I had such a tire, this face of mine + Were full as lovely as is this of hers; + And yet the painter flatter'd her a little, + Unless I flatter with myself too much. + Her hair is auburn, mine is perfect yellow; + If that be all the difference in his love, + I'll get me such a colour'd periwig. + Her eyes are grey as glass, and so are mine; + Ay, but her forehead's low, and mine's as high. + What should it be that he respects in her + But I can make respective in myself, + If this fond Love were not a blinded god? + Come, shadow, come, and take this shadow up, + For 'tis thy rival. O thou senseless form, + Thou shalt be worshipp'd, kiss'd, lov'd, and ador'd! + And were there sense in his idolatry + My substance should be statue in thy stead. + I'll use thee kindly for thy mistress' sake, + That us'd me so; or else, by Jove I vow, + I should have scratch'd out your unseeing eyes, + To make my master out of love with thee. Exit + +ACT V. SCENE I. Milan. An abbey + +Enter EGLAMOUR + + EGLAMOUR. The sun begins to gild the western sky, + And now it is about the very hour + That Silvia at Friar Patrick's cell should meet me. + She will not fail, for lovers break not hours + Unless it be to come before their time, + So much they spur their expedition. + + Enter SILVIA + + See where she comes. Lady, a happy evening! + SILVIA. Amen, amen! Go on, good Eglamour, + Out at the postern by the abbey wall; + I fear I am attended by some spies. + EGLAMOUR. Fear not. The forest is not three leagues off; + If we recover that, we are sure enough. Exeunt + +SCENE II. Milan. The DUKE'S palace + +Enter THURIO, PROTEUS, and JULIA as SEBASTIAN + + THURIO. Sir Proteus, what says Silvia to my suit? + PROTEUS. O, sir, I find her milder than she was; + And yet she takes exceptions at your person. + THURIO. What, that my leg is too long? + PROTEUS. No; that it is too little. + THURIO. I'll wear a boot to make it somewhat rounder. + JULIA. [Aside] But love will not be spurr'd to what it loathes. + THURIO. What says she to my face? + PROTEUS. She says it is a fair one. + THURIO. Nay, then, the wanton lies; my face is black. + PROTEUS. But pearls are fair; and the old saying is: + Black men are pearls in beauteous ladies' eyes. + JULIA. [Aside] 'Tis true, such pearls as put out ladies' eyes; + For I had rather wink than look on them. + THURIO. How likes she my discourse? + PROTEUS. Ill, when you talk of war. + THURIO. But well when I discourse of love and peace? + JULIA. [Aside] But better, indeed, when you hold your peace. + THURIO. What says she to my valour? + PROTEUS. O, sir, she makes no doubt of that. + JULIA. [Aside] She needs not, when she knows it cowardice. + THURIO. What says she to my birth? + PROTEUS. That you are well deriv'd. + JULIA. [Aside] True; from a gentleman to a fool. + THURIO. Considers she my possessions? + PROTEUS. O, ay; and pities them. + THURIO. Wherefore? + JULIA. [Aside] That such an ass should owe them. + PROTEUS. That they are out by lease. + JULIA. Here comes the Duke. + + Enter DUKE + + DUKE. How now, Sir Proteus! how now, Thurio! + Which of you saw Sir Eglamour of late? + THURIO. Not I. + PROTEUS. Nor I. + DUKE. Saw you my daughter? + PROTEUS. Neither. + DUKE. Why then, + She's fled unto that peasant Valentine; + And Eglamour is in her company. + 'Tis true; for Friar Lawrence met them both + As he in penance wander'd through the forest; + Him he knew well, and guess'd that it was she, + But, being mask'd, he was not sure of it; + Besides, she did intend confession + At Patrick's cell this even; and there she was not. + These likelihoods confirm her flight from hence; + Therefore, I pray you, stand not to discourse, + But mount you presently, and meet with me + Upon the rising of the mountain foot + That leads toward Mantua, whither they are fled. + Dispatch, sweet gentlemen, and follow me. Exit + THURIO. Why, this it is to be a peevish girl + That flies her fortune when it follows her. + I'll after, more to be reveng'd on Eglamour + Than for the love of reckless Silvia. Exit + PROTEUS. And I will follow, more for Silvia's love + Than hate of Eglamour, that goes with her. Exit + JULIA. And I will follow, more to cross that love + Than hate for Silvia, that is gone for love. Exit + +SCENE III. The frontiers of Mantua. The forest + +Enter OUTLAWS with SILVA + + FIRST OUTLAW. Come, come. + Be patient; we must bring you to our captain. + SILVIA. A thousand more mischances than this one + Have learn'd me how to brook this patiently. + SECOND OUTLAW. Come, bring her away. + FIRST OUTLAW. Where is the gentleman that was with her? + SECOND OUTLAW. Being nimble-footed, he hath outrun us, + But Moyses and Valerius follow him. + Go thou with her to the west end of the wood; + There is our captain; we'll follow him that's fled. + The thicket is beset; he cannot 'scape. + FIRST OUTLAW. Come, I must bring you to our captain's cave; + Fear not; he bears an honourable mind, + And will not use a woman lawlessly. + SILVIA. O Valentine, this I endure for thee! Exeunt + +SCENE IV. Another part of the forest + +Enter VALENTINE + + VALENTINE. How use doth breed a habit in a man! + This shadowy desert, unfrequented woods, + I better brook than flourishing peopled towns. + Here can I sit alone, unseen of any, + And to the nightingale's complaining notes + Tune my distresses and record my woes. + O thou that dost inhabit in my breast, + Leave not the mansion so long tenantless, + Lest, growing ruinous, the building fall + And leave no memory of what it was! + Repair me with thy presence, Silvia: + Thou gentle nymph, cherish thy forlorn swain. + What halloing and what stir is this to-day? + These are my mates, that make their wills their law, + Have some unhappy passenger in chase. + They love me well; yet I have much to do + To keep them from uncivil outrages. + Withdraw thee, Valentine. Who's this comes here? + [Steps aside] + + Enter PROTEUS, SILVIA, and JULIA as Sebastian + + PROTEUS. Madam, this service I have done for you, + Though you respect not aught your servant doth, + To hazard life, and rescue you from him + That would have forc'd your honour and your love. + Vouchsafe me, for my meed, but one fair look; + A smaller boon than this I cannot beg, + And less than this, I am sure, you cannot give. + VALENTINE. [Aside] How like a dream is this I see and hear! + Love, lend me patience to forbear awhile. + SILVIA. O miserable, unhappy that I am! + PROTEUS. Unhappy were you, madam, ere I came; + But by my coming I have made you happy. + SILVIA. By thy approach thou mak'st me most unhappy. + JULIA. [Aside] And me, when he approacheth to your presence. + SILVIA. Had I been seized by a hungry lion, + I would have been a breakfast to the beast + Rather than have false Proteus rescue me. + O, heaven be judge how I love Valentine, + Whose life's as tender to me as my soul! + And full as much, for more there cannot be, + I do detest false, perjur'd Proteus. + Therefore be gone; solicit me no more. + PROTEUS. What dangerous action, stood it next to death, + Would I not undergo for one calm look? + O, 'tis the curse in love, and still approv'd, + When women cannot love where they're belov'd! + SILVIA. When Proteus cannot love where he's belov'd! + Read over Julia's heart, thy first best love, + For whose dear sake thou didst then rend thy faith + Into a thousand oaths; and all those oaths + Descended into perjury, to love me. + Thou hast no faith left now, unless thou'dst two, + And that's far worse than none; better have none + Than plural faith, which is too much by one. + Thou counterfeit to thy true friend! + PROTEUS. In love, + Who respects friend? + SILVIA. All men but Proteus. + PROTEUS. Nay, if the gentle spirit of moving words + Can no way change you to a milder form, + I'll woo you like a soldier, at arms' end, + And love you 'gainst the nature of love- force ye. + SILVIA. O heaven! + PROTEUS. I'll force thee yield to my desire. + VALENTINE. Ruffian! let go that rude uncivil touch; + Thou friend of an ill fashion! + PROTEUS. Valentine! + VALENTINE. Thou common friend, that's without faith or love- + For such is a friend now; treacherous man, + Thou hast beguil'd my hopes; nought but mine eye + Could have persuaded me. Now I dare not say + I have one friend alive: thou wouldst disprove me. + Who should be trusted, when one's own right hand + Is perjured to the bosom? Proteus, + I am sorry I must never trust thee more, + But count the world a stranger for thy sake. + The private wound is deepest. O time most accurst! + 'Mongst all foes that a friend should be the worst! + PROTEUS. My shame and guilt confounds me. + Forgive me, Valentine; if hearty sorrow + Be a sufficient ransom for offence, + I tender 't here; I do as truly suffer + As e'er I did commit. + VALENTINE. Then I am paid; + And once again I do receive thee honest. + Who by repentance is not satisfied + Is nor of heaven nor earth, for these are pleas'd; + By penitence th' Eternal's wrath's appeas'd. + And, that my love may appear plain and free, + All that was mine in Silvia I give thee. + JULIA. O me unhappy! [Swoons] + PROTEUS. Look to the boy. + VALENTINE. Why, boy! why, wag! how now! + What's the matter? Look up; speak. + JULIA. O good sir, my master charg'd me to deliver a ring to Madam + Silvia, which, out of my neglect, was never done. + PROTEUS. Where is that ring, boy? + JULIA. Here 'tis; this is it. + PROTEUS. How! let me see. Why, this is the ring I gave to Julia. + JULIA. O, cry you mercy, sir, I have mistook; + This is the ring you sent to Silvia. + PROTEUS. But how cam'st thou by this ring? + At my depart I gave this unto Julia. + JULIA. And Julia herself did give it me; + And Julia herself have brought it hither. + PROTEUS. How! Julia! + JULIA. Behold her that gave aim to all thy oaths, + And entertain'd 'em deeply in her heart. + How oft hast thou with perjury cleft the root! + O Proteus, let this habit make thee blush! + Be thou asham'd that I have took upon me + Such an immodest raiment- if shame live + In a disguise of love. + It is the lesser blot, modesty finds, + Women to change their shapes than men their minds. + PROTEUS. Than men their minds! 'tis true. O heaven, were man + But constant, he were perfect! That one error + Fills him with faults; makes him run through all th' sins: + Inconstancy falls off ere it begins. + What is in Silvia's face but I may spy + More fresh in Julia's with a constant eye? + VALENTINE. Come, come, a hand from either. + Let me be blest to make this happy close; + 'Twere pity two such friends should be long foes. + PROTEUS. Bear witness, heaven, I have my wish for ever. + JULIA. And I mine. + + Enter OUTLAWS, with DUKE and THURIO + + OUTLAW. A prize, a prize, a prize! + VALENTINE. Forbear, forbear, I say; it is my lord the Duke. + Your Grace is welcome to a man disgrac'd, + Banished Valentine. + DUKE. Sir Valentine! + THURIO. Yonder is Silvia; and Silvia's mine. + VALENTINE. Thurio, give back, or else embrace thy death; + Come not within the measure of my wrath; + Do not name Silvia thine; if once again, + Verona shall not hold thee. Here she stands + Take but possession of her with a touch- + I dare thee but to breathe upon my love. + THURIO. Sir Valentine, I care not for her, I; + I hold him but a fool that will endanger + His body for a girl that loves him not. + I claim her not, and therefore she is thine. + DUKE. The more degenerate and base art thou + To make such means for her as thou hast done + And leave her on such slight conditions. + Now, by the honour of my ancestry, + I do applaud thy spirit, Valentine, + And think thee worthy of an empress' love. + Know then, I here forget all former griefs, + Cancel all grudge, repeal thee home again, + Plead a new state in thy unrivall'd merit, + To which I thus subscribe: Sir Valentine, + Thou art a gentleman, and well deriv'd; + Take thou thy Silvia, for thou hast deserv'd her. + VALENTINE. I thank your Grace; the gift hath made me happy. + I now beseech you, for your daughter's sake, + To grant one boon that I shall ask of you. + DUKE. I grant it for thine own, whate'er it be. + VALENTINE. These banish'd men, that I have kept withal, + Are men endu'd with worthy qualities; + Forgive them what they have committed here, + And let them be recall'd from their exile: + They are reformed, civil, full of good, + And fit for great employment, worthy lord. + DUKE. Thou hast prevail'd; I pardon them, and thee; + Dispose of them as thou know'st their deserts. + Come, let us go; we will include all jars + With triumphs, mirth, and rare solemnity. + VALENTINE. And, as we walk along, I dare be bold + With our discourse to make your Grace to smile. + What think you of this page, my lord? + DUKE. I think the boy hath grace in him; he blushes. + VALENTINE. I warrant you, my lord- more grace than boy. + DUKE. What mean you by that saying? + VALENTINE. Please you, I'll tell you as we pass along, + That you will wonder what hath fortuned. + Come, Proteus, 'tis your penance but to hear + The story of your loves discovered. + That done, our day of marriage shall be yours; + One feast, one house, one mutual happiness! Exeunt + + + + +THE TWO NOBLE KINSMEN: + +Presented at the Blackfriers by the Kings Maiesties servants, with +great applause: + +Written by the memorable Worthies of their time; + +Mr John Fletcher, Gent., and +Mr William Shakspeare, Gent. + +Printed at London by Tho. Cotes, for John Waterson: and are to be sold +at the signe of the Crowne in Pauls Church-yard. 1634. + +(The Persons represented in the Play. + +Hymen, +Theseus, +Hippolita, Bride to Theseus +Emelia, Sister to Theseus +[Emelia's Woman], +Nymphs, +Three Queens, +Three valiant Knights, +Palamon, and +Arcite, The two Noble Kinsmen, in love with fair Emelia +[Valerius], +Perithous, +[A Herald], +[A Gentleman], +[A Messenger], +[A Servant], +[Wooer], +[Keeper], +Jaylor, +His Daughter, in love with Palamon +[His brother], +[A Doctor], +[4] Countreymen, +[2 Friends of the Jaylor], +[3 Knights], +[Nel, and other] +Wenches, +A Taborer, +Gerrold, A Schoolmaster.) + +PROLOGUE. + +[Florish.] + +New Playes, and Maydenheads, are neare a kin, +Much follow'd both, for both much mony g'yn, +If they stand sound, and well: And a good Play +(Whose modest Sceanes blush on his marriage day, +And shake to loose his honour) is like hir +That after holy Tye and first nights stir +Yet still is Modestie, and still retaines +More of the maid to sight, than Husbands paines; +We pray our Play may be so; For I am sure +It has a noble Breeder, and a pure, +A learned, and a Poet never went +More famous yet twixt Po and silver Trent: +Chaucer (of all admir'd) the Story gives, +There constant to Eternity it lives. +If we let fall the Noblenesse of this, +And the first sound this child heare, be a hisse, +How will it shake the bones of that good man, +And make him cry from under ground, 'O fan +From me the witles chaffe of such a wrighter +That blastes my Bayes, and my fam'd workes makes lighter +Then Robin Hood!' This is the feare we bring; +For to say Truth, it were an endlesse thing, +And too ambitious, to aspire to him, +Weake as we are, and almost breathlesse swim +In this deepe water. Do but you hold out +Your helping hands, and we shall take about, +And something doe to save us: You shall heare +Sceanes, though below his Art, may yet appeare +Worth two houres travell. To his bones sweet sleepe: +Content to you. If this play doe not keepe +A little dull time from us, we perceave +Our losses fall so thicke, we must needs leave. [Florish.] + +ACT I + +SCENE 1. (Athens. Before a temple.) + +[Enter Hymen with a Torch burning: a Boy, in a white Robe before + singing, and strewing Flowres: After Hymen, a Nimph, encompast +in + her Tresses, bearing a wheaten Garland. Then Theseus betweene + two other Nimphs with wheaten Chaplets on their heades. Then + Hipolita the Bride, lead by Pirithous, and another holding a + Garland over her head (her Tresses likewise hanging.) After + her Emilia holding up her Traine. (Artesius and Attendants.)] + +The Song, [Musike.] + +Roses their sharpe spines being gon, +Not royall in their smels alone, +But in their hew. +Maiden Pinckes, of odour faint, +Dazies smel-lesse, yet most quaint +And sweet Time true. + +Prim-rose first borne child of Ver, +Merry Spring times Herbinger, +With her bels dimme. +Oxlips, in their Cradles growing, +Mary-golds, on death beds blowing, +Larkes-heeles trymme. + +All deere natures children sweete, +Ly fore Bride and Bridegroomes feete, [Strew Flowers.] +Blessing their sence. +Not an angle of the aire, +Bird melodious, or bird faire, +Is absent hence. + +The Crow, the slaundrous Cuckoe, nor +The boding Raven, nor Chough hore +Nor chattring Pie, +May on our Bridehouse pearch or sing, +Or with them any discord bring, +But from it fly. + +[Enter 3. Queenes in Blacke, with vailes staind, with imperiall + Crownes. The 1. Queene fals downe at the foote of Theseus; The + 2. fals downe at the foote of Hypolita. The 3. before Emilia.] + +1. QUEEN. +For pitties sake and true gentilities, +Heare, and respect me. + +2. QUEEN. +For your Mothers sake, +And as you wish your womb may thrive with faire ones, +Heare and respect me. + +3. QUEEN +Now for the love of him whom Iove hath markd +The honour of your Bed, and for the sake +Of cleere virginity, be Advocate +For us, and our distresses. This good deede +Shall raze you out o'th Booke of Trespasses +All you are set downe there. + +THESEUS. +Sad Lady, rise. + +HIPPOLITA. +Stand up. + +EMILIA. +No knees to me. +What woman I may steed that is distrest, +Does bind me to her. + +THESEUS. +What's your request? Deliver you for all. + +1. QUEEN. +We are 3. Queenes, whose Soveraignes fel before +The wrath of cruell Creon; who endured +The Beakes of Ravens, Tallents of the Kights, +And pecks of Crowes, in the fowle feilds of Thebs. +He will not suffer us to burne their bones, +To urne their ashes, nor to take th' offence +Of mortall loathsomenes from the blest eye +Of holy Phoebus, but infects the windes +With stench of our slaine Lords. O pitty, Duke: +Thou purger of the earth, draw thy feard Sword +That does good turnes to'th world; give us the Bones +Of our dead Kings, that we may Chappell them; +And of thy boundles goodnes take some note +That for our crowned heades we have no roofe, +Save this which is the Lyons, and the Beares, +And vault to every thing. + +THESEUS. +Pray you, kneele not: +I was transported with your Speech, and suffer'd +Your knees to wrong themselves; I have heard the fortunes +Of your dead Lords, which gives me such lamenting +As wakes my vengeance, and revenge for'em, +King Capaneus was your Lord: the day +That he should marry you, at such a season, +As now it is with me, I met your Groome, +By Marsis Altar; you were that time faire, +Not Iunos Mantle fairer then your Tresses, +Nor in more bounty spread her. Your wheaten wreathe +Was then nor threashd, nor blasted; Fortune at you +Dimpled her Cheeke with smiles: Hercules our kinesman +(Then weaker than your eies) laide by his Club, +He tumbled downe upon his Nemean hide +And swore his sinews thawd: O greife, and time, +Fearefull consumers, you will all devoure. + +1. QUEEN. +O, I hope some God, +Some God hath put his mercy in your manhood +Whereto heel infuse powre, and presse you forth +Our undertaker. + +THESEUS. +O no knees, none, Widdow, +Vnto the Helmeted Belona use them, +And pray for me your Souldier. +Troubled I am. [turnes away.] + +2. QUEEN. +Honoured Hypolita, +Most dreaded Amazonian, that hast slaine +The Sith-tuskd Bore; that with thy Arme as strong +As it is white, wast neere to make the male +To thy Sex captive, but that this thy Lord, +Borne to uphold Creation in that honour +First nature stilde it in, shrunke thee into +The bownd thou wast ore-flowing, at once subduing +Thy force, and thy affection: Soldiresse +That equally canst poize sternenes with pitty, +Whom now I know hast much more power on him +Then ever he had on thee, who ow'st his strength +And his Love too, who is a Servant for +The Tenour of thy Speech: Deere Glasse of Ladies, +Bid him that we, whom flaming war doth scortch, +Vnder the shaddow of his Sword may coole us: +Require him he advance it ore our heades; +Speak't in a womans key: like such a woman +As any of us three; weepe ere you faile; +Lend us a knee; +But touch the ground for us no longer time +Then a Doves motion, when the head's pluckt off: +Tell him if he i'th blood cizd field lay swolne, +Showing the Sun his Teeth, grinning at the Moone, +What you would doe. + +HIPPOLITA. +Poore Lady, say no more: +I had as leife trace this good action with you +As that whereto I am going, and never yet +Went I so willing way. My Lord is taken +Hart deepe with your distresse: Let him consider: +Ile speake anon. + +3. QUEEN. +O my petition was [kneele to Emilia.] +Set downe in yce, which by hot greefe uncandied +Melts into drops, so sorrow, wanting forme, +Is prest with deeper matter. + +EMILIA. +Pray stand up, +Your greefe is written in your cheeke. + +3. QUEEN. +O woe, +You cannot reade it there, there through my teares— +Like wrinckled peobles in a glassie streame +You may behold 'em. Lady, Lady, alacke, +He that will all the Treasure know o'th earth +Must know the Center too; he that will fish +For my least minnow, let him lead his line +To catch one at my heart. O pardon me: +Extremity, that sharpens sundry wits, +Makes me a Foole. + +EMILIA. +Pray you say nothing, pray you: +Who cannot feele nor see the raine, being in't, +Knowes neither wet nor dry: if that you were +The ground-peece of some Painter, I would buy you +T'instruct me gainst a Capitall greefe indeed— +Such heart peirc'd demonstration; but, alas, +Being a naturall Sifter of our Sex +Your sorrow beates so ardently upon me, +That it shall make a counter reflect gainst +My Brothers heart, and warme it to some pitty, +Though it were made of stone: pray, have good comfort. + +THESEUS. +Forward to'th Temple, leave not out a Iot +O'th sacred Ceremony. + +1. QUEEN. +O, This Celebration +Will long last, and be more costly then +Your Suppliants war: Remember that your Fame +Knowles in the eare o'th world: what you doe quickly +Is not done rashly; your first thought is more +Then others laboured meditance: your premeditating +More then their actions: But, oh Iove! your actions, +Soone as they mooves, as Asprayes doe the fish, +Subdue before they touch: thinke, deere Duke, thinke +What beds our slaine Kings have. + +2. QUEEN. +What greifes our beds, +That our deere Lords have none. + +3. QUEEN. +None fit for 'th dead: +Those that with Cordes, Knives, drams precipitance, +Weary of this worlds light, have to themselves +Beene deathes most horrid Agents, humaine grace +Affords them dust and shaddow. + +1. QUEEN. +But our Lords +Ly blistring fore the visitating Sunne, +And were good Kings, when living. + +THESEUS. +It is true, and I will give you comfort, +To give your dead Lords graves: the which to doe, +Must make some worke with Creon. + +1. QUEEN. +And that worke presents it selfe to'th doing: +Now twill take forme, the heates are gone to morrow. +Then, booteles toyle must recompence it selfe +With it's owne sweat; Now he's secure, +Not dreames we stand before your puissance +Wrinching our holy begging in our eyes +To make petition cleere. + +2. QUEEN. +Now you may take him, drunke with his victory. + +3. QUEEN. +And his Army full of Bread, and sloth. + +THESEUS. +Artesius, that best knowest +How to draw out fit to this enterprise +The prim'st for this proceeding, and the number +To carry such a businesse, forth and levy +Our worthiest Instruments, whilst we despatch +This grand act of our life, this daring deede +Of Fate in wedlocke. + +1. QUEEN. +Dowagers, take hands; +Let us be Widdowes to our woes: delay +Commends us to a famishing hope. + +ALL. +Farewell. + +2. QUEEN. +We come unseasonably: But when could greefe +Cull forth, as unpanged judgement can, fit'st time +For best solicitation. + +THESEUS. +Why, good Ladies, +This is a service, whereto I am going, +Greater then any was; it more imports me +Then all the actions that I have foregone, +Or futurely can cope. + +1. QUEEN. +The more proclaiming +Our suit shall be neglected: when her Armes +Able to locke Iove from a Synod, shall +By warranting Moone-light corslet thee, oh, when +Her twyning Cherries shall their sweetnes fall +Vpon thy tastefull lips, what wilt thou thinke +Of rotten Kings or blubberd Queenes, what care +For what thou feelst not? what thou feelst being able +To make Mars spurne his Drom. O, if thou couch +But one night with her, every howre in't will +Take hostage of thee for a hundred, and +Thou shalt remember nothing more then what +That Banket bids thee too. + +HIPPOLITA. +Though much unlike [Kneeling.] +You should be so transported, as much sorry +I should be such a Suitour; yet I thinke, +Did I not by th'abstayning of my joy, +Which breeds a deeper longing, cure their surfeit +That craves a present medcine, I should plucke +All Ladies scandall on me. Therefore, Sir, +As I shall here make tryall of my prayres, +Either presuming them to have some force, +Or sentencing for ay their vigour dombe: +Prorogue this busines we are going about, and hang +Your Sheild afore your Heart, about that necke +Which is my ffee, and which I freely lend +To doe these poore Queenes service. + +ALL QUEENS. +Oh helpe now, +Our Cause cries for your knee. + +EMILIA. +If you grant not [Kneeling.] +My Sister her petition in that force, +With that Celerity and nature, which +Shee makes it in, from henceforth ile not dare +To aske you any thing, nor be so hardy +Ever to take a Husband. + +THESEUS. +Pray stand up. +I am entreating of my selfe to doe +That which you kneele to have me. Pyrithous, +Leade on the Bride; get you and pray the Gods +For successe, and returne; omit not any thing +In the pretended Celebration. Queenes, +Follow your Soldier. As before, hence you [to Artesius] +And at the banckes of Aulis meete us with +The forces you can raise, where we shall finde +The moytie of a number, for a busines +More bigger look't. Since that our Theame is haste, +I stamp this kisse upon thy currant lippe; +Sweete, keepe it as my Token. Set you forward, +For I will see you gone. [Exeunt towards the Temple.] +Farewell, my beauteous Sister: Pyrithous, +Keepe the feast full, bate not an howre on't. + +PERITHOUS. +Sir, +Ile follow you at heeles; The Feasts solempnity +Shall want till your returne. + +THESEUS. +Cosen, I charge you +Boudge not from Athens; We shall be returning +Ere you can end this Feast, of which, I pray you, +Make no abatement; once more, farewell all. + +1. QUEEN. +Thus do'st thou still make good the tongue o'th world. + +2. QUEEN. +And earnst a Deity equal with Mars. + +3. QUEEN. +If not above him, for +Thou being but mortall makest affections bend +To Godlike honours; they themselves, some say, +Grone under such a Mastry. + +THESEUS. +As we are men, +Thus should we doe; being sensually subdude, +We loose our humane tytle. Good cheere, Ladies. [Florish.] +Now turne we towards your Comforts. [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 2. (Thebs). + +[Enter Palamon, and Arcite.] + +ARCITE. +Deere Palamon, deerer in love then Blood +And our prime Cosen, yet unhardned in +The Crimes of nature; Let us leave the Citty +Thebs, and the temptings in't, before we further +Sully our glosse of youth: +And here to keepe in abstinence we shame +As in Incontinence; for not to swim +I'th aide o'th Current were almost to sincke, +At least to frustrate striving, and to follow +The common Streame, twold bring us to an Edy +Where we should turne or drowne; if labour through, +Our gaine but life, and weakenes. + +PALAMON. +Your advice +Is cride up with example: what strange ruins +Since first we went to Schoole, may we perceive +Walking in Thebs? Skars, and bare weedes +The gaine o'th Martialist, who did propound +To his bold ends honour, and golden Ingots, +Which though he won, he had not, and now flurted +By peace for whom he fought: who then shall offer +To Marsis so scornd Altar? I doe bleede +When such I meete, and wish great Iuno would +Resume her ancient fit of Ielouzie +To get the Soldier worke, that peace might purge +For her repletion, and retaine anew +Her charitable heart now hard, and harsher +Then strife or war could be. + +ARCITE. +Are you not out? +Meete you no ruine but the Soldier in +The Cranckes and turnes of Thebs? you did begin +As if you met decaies of many kindes: +Perceive you none, that doe arowse your pitty +But th'un-considerd Soldier? + +PALAMON. +Yes, I pitty +Decaies where ere I finde them, but such most +That, sweating in an honourable Toyle, +Are paide with yce to coole 'em. + +ARCITE. +Tis not this +I did begin to speake of: This is vertue +Of no respect in Thebs; I spake of Thebs +How dangerous if we will keepe our Honours, +It is for our resyding, where every evill +Hath a good cullor; where eve'ry seeming good's +A certaine evill, where not to be ev'n Iumpe +As they are, here were to be strangers, and +Such things to be, meere Monsters. + +PALAMON. +Tis in our power, +(Vnlesse we feare that Apes can Tutor's) to +Be Masters of our manners: what neede I +Affect anothers gate, which is not catching +Where there is faith, or to be fond upon +Anothers way of speech, when by mine owne +I may be reasonably conceiv'd; sav'd too, +Speaking it truly? why am I bound +By any generous bond to follow him +Followes his Taylor, haply so long untill +The follow'd make pursuit? or let me know, +Why mine owne Barber is unblest, with him +My poore Chinne too, for tis not Cizard iust +To such a Favorites glasse: What Cannon is there +That does command my Rapier from my hip +To dangle't in my hand, or to go tip toe +Before the streete be foule? Either I am +The fore-horse in the Teame, or I am none +That draw i'th sequent trace: these poore sleight sores +Neede not a plantin; That which rips my bosome +Almost to'th heart's— + +ARCITE. +Our Vncle Creon. + +PALAMON. +He, +A most unbounded Tyrant, whose successes +Makes heaven unfeard, and villany assured +Beyond its power there's nothing, almost puts +Faith in a feavour, and deifies alone +Voluble chance; who onely attributes +The faculties of other Instruments +To his owne Nerves and act; Commands men service, +And what they winne in't, boot and glory; on(e) +That feares not to do harm; good, dares not; Let +The blood of mine that's sibbe to him be suckt +From me with Leeches; Let them breake and fall +Off me with that corruption. + +ARCITE. +Cleere spirited Cozen, +Lets leave his Court, that we may nothing share +Of his lowd infamy: for our milke +Will relish of the pasture, and we must +Be vile or disobedient, not his kinesmen +In blood, unlesse in quality. + +PALAMON. +Nothing truer: +I thinke the Ecchoes of his shames have dea'ft +The eares of heav'nly Iustice: widdows cryes +Descend againe into their throates, and have not + +[enter Valerius.] + +Due audience of the Gods.—Valerius! + +VALERIUS. +The King cals for you; yet be leaden footed, +Till his great rage be off him. Phebus, when +He broke his whipstocke and exclaimd against +The Horses of the Sun, but whisperd too +The lowdenesse of his Fury. + +PALAMON. +Small windes shake him: +But whats the matter? + +VALERIUS. +Theseus (who where he threates appals,) hath sent +Deadly defyance to him, and pronounces +Ruine to Thebs; who is at hand to seale +The promise of his wrath. + +ARCITE. +Let him approach; +But that we feare the Gods in him, he brings not +A jot of terrour to us; Yet what man +Thirds his owne worth (the case is each of ours) +When that his actions dregd with minde assurd +Tis bad he goes about? + +PALAMON. +Leave that unreasond. +Our services stand now for Thebs, not Creon, +Yet to be neutrall to him were dishonour; +Rebellious to oppose: therefore we must +With him stand to the mercy of our Fate, +Who hath bounded our last minute. + +ARCITE. +So we must. +Ist sed this warres a foote? or it shall be, +On faile of some condition? + +VALERIUS. +Tis in motion +The intelligence of state came in the instant +With the defier. + +PALAMON. +Lets to the king, who, were he +A quarter carrier of that honour which +His Enemy come in, the blood we venture +Should be as for our health, which were not spent, +Rather laide out for purchase: but, alas, +Our hands advanc'd before our hearts, what will +The fall o'th stroke doe damage? + +ARCITE. +Let th'event, +That never erring Arbitratour, tell us +When we know all our selves, and let us follow +The becking of our chance. [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 3. (Before the gates of Athens.) + +[Enter Pirithous, Hipolita, Emilia.] + +PERITHOUS. +No further. + +HIPPOLITA. +Sir, farewell; repeat my wishes +To our great Lord, of whose succes I dare not +Make any timerous question; yet I wish him +Exces and overflow of power, and't might be, +To dure ill-dealing fortune: speede to him, +Store never hurtes good Gouernours. + +PERITHOUS. +Though I know +His Ocean needes not my poore drops, yet they +Must yeild their tribute there. My precious Maide, +Those best affections, that the heavens infuse +In their best temperd peices, keepe enthroand +In your deare heart. + +EMILIA. +Thanckes, Sir. Remember me +To our all royall Brother, for whose speede +The great Bellona ile sollicite; and +Since in our terrene State petitions are not +Without giftes understood, Ile offer to her +What I shall be advised she likes: our hearts +Are in his Army, in his Tent. + +HIPPOLITA. +In's bosome: +We have bin Soldiers, and wee cannot weepe +When our Friends don their helmes, or put to sea, +Or tell of Babes broachd on the Launce, or women +That have sod their Infants in (and after eate them) +The brine, they wept at killing 'em; Then if +You stay to see of us such Spincsters, we +Should hold you here for ever. + +PERITHOUS. +Peace be to you, +As I pursue this war, which shall be then +Beyond further requiring. [Exit Pir.] + +EMILIA. +How his longing +Followes his Friend! since his depart, his sportes +Though craving seriousnes, and skill, past slightly +His careles execution, where nor gaine +Made him regard, or losse consider; but +Playing one busines in his hand, another +Directing in his head, his minde, nurse equall +To these so diffring Twyns—have you observ'd him, +Since our great Lord departed? + +HIPPOLITA. +With much labour, +And I did love him fort: they two have Cabind +In many as dangerous, as poore a Corner, +Perill and want contending; they have skift +Torrents whose roring tyranny and power +I'th least of these was dreadfull, and they have +Fought out together, where Deaths-selfe was lodgd, +Yet fate hath brought them off: Their knot of love, +Tide, weau'd, intangled, with so true, so long, +And with a finger of so deepe a cunning, +May be outworne, never undone. I thinke +Theseus cannot be umpire to himselfe, +Cleaving his conscience into twaine and doing +Each side like Iustice, which he loves best. + +EMILIA. +Doubtlesse +There is a best, and reason has no manners +To say it is not you: I was acquainted +Once with a time, when I enjoyd a Play-fellow; +You were at wars, when she the grave enrichd, +Who made too proud the Bed, tooke leave o th Moone +(Which then lookt pale at parting) when our count +Was each eleven. + +HIPPOLITA. +Twas Flaui(n)a. + +EMILIA. +Yes. +You talke of Pirithous and Theseus love; +Theirs has more ground, is more maturely seasond, +More buckled with strong Iudgement and their needes +The one of th'other may be said to water [2. Hearses ready + with Palamon: and Arcite: the 3. Queenes. Theseus: and his + Lordes ready.] +Their intertangled rootes of love; but I +And shee I sigh and spoke of were things innocent, +Lou'd for we did, and like the Elements +That know not what, nor why, yet doe effect +Rare issues by their operance, our soules +Did so to one another; what she lik'd, +Was then of me approov'd, what not, condemd, +No more arraignment; the flowre that I would plucke +And put betweene my breasts (then but beginning +To swell about the blossome) oh, she would long +Till shee had such another, and commit it +To the like innocent Cradle, where Phenix like +They dide in perfume: on my head no toy +But was her patterne; her affections (pretty, +Though, happely, her careles were) I followed +For my most serious decking; had mine eare +Stolne some new aire, or at adventure humd on +From musicall Coynadge, why it was a note +Whereon her spirits would sojourne (rather dwell on) +And sing it in her slumbers. This rehearsall +(Which ev'ry innocent wots well comes in +Like old importments bastard) has this end, +That the true love tweene Mayde, and mayde, may be +More then in sex idividuall. + +HIPPOLITA. +Y'are out of breath +And this high speeded pace, is but to say +That you shall never like the Maide Flavina +Love any that's calld Man. + +EMILIA. +I am sure I shall not. + +HIPPOLITA. +Now, alacke, weake Sister, +I must no more beleeve thee in this point +(Though in't I know thou dost beleeve thy selfe,) +Then I will trust a sickely appetite, +That loathes even as it longs; but, sure, my Sister, +If I were ripe for your perswasion, you +Have saide enough to shake me from the Arme +Of the all noble Theseus, for whose fortunes +I will now in, and kneele with great assurance, +That we, more then his Pirothous, possesse +The high throne in his heart. + +EMILIA. +I am not +Against your faith; yet I continew mine. [Exeunt. Cornets.] + +SCENE 4. (A field before Thebes. Dead bodies lying on the ground.) + +[A Battaile strooke within: Then a Retrait: Florish. Then + Enter Theseus (victor), (Herald and Attendants:) the three + Queenes meete him, and fall on their faces before him.] + +1. QUEEN. +To thee no starre be darke. + +2. QUEEN. +Both heaven and earth +Friend thee for ever. + +3. QUEEN. +All the good that may +Be wishd upon thy head, I cry Amen too't. + +THESEUS. +Th'imparciall Gods, who from the mounted heavens +View us their mortall Heard, behold who erre, +And in their time chastice: goe and finde out +The bones of your dead Lords, and honour them +With treble Ceremonie; rather then a gap +Should be in their deere rights, we would supply't. +But those we will depute, which shall invest +You in your dignities, and even each thing +Our hast does leave imperfect: So, adiew, +And heavens good eyes looke on you. What are those? [Exeunt +Queenes.] + +HERALD. +Men of great quality, as may be judgd +By their appointment; Sone of Thebs have told's +They are Sisters children, Nephewes to the King. + +THESEUS. +By'th Helme of Mars, I saw them in the war, +Like to a paire of Lions, smeard with prey, +Make lanes in troopes agast. I fixt my note +Constantly on them; for they were a marke +Worth a god's view: what prisoner was't that told me +When I enquired their names? + +HERALD. +Wi'leave, they'r called Arcite and Palamon. + +THESEUS. +Tis right: those, those. They are not dead? + +HERALD. +Nor in a state of life: had they bin taken, +When their last hurts were given, twas possible [3. Hearses +ready.] +They might have bin recovered; Yet they breathe +And haue the name of men. + +THESEUS. +Then like men use 'em. +The very lees of such (millions of rates) +Exceede the wine of others: all our Surgions +Convent in their behoofe; our richest balmes +Rather then niggard, waft: their lives concerne us +Much more then Thebs is worth: rather then have 'em +Freed of this plight, and in their morning state +(Sound and at liberty) I would 'em dead; +But forty thousand fold we had rather have 'em +Prisoners to us then death. Beare 'em speedily +From our kinde aire, to them unkinde, and minister +What man to man may doe—for our sake more, +Since I have knowne frights, fury, friends beheastes, +Loves provocations, zeale, a mistris Taske, +Desire of liberty, a feavour, madnes, +Hath set a marke which nature could not reach too +Without some imposition: sicknes in will +Or wrastling strength in reason. For our Love +And great Appollos mercy, all our best +Their best skill tender. Leade into the Citty, +Where having bound things scatterd, we will post [Florish.] +To Athens for(e) our Army [Exeunt. Musicke.] + +SCENE 5. (Another part of the same.) + +[Enter the Queenes with the Hearses of their Knightes, in a + Funerall Solempnity, &c.] + +Vrnes and odours bring away, +Vapours, sighes, darken the day; +Our dole more deadly lookes than dying; +Balmes, and Gummes, and heavy cheeres, +Sacred vials fill'd with teares, +And clamors through the wild ayre flying. + +Come all sad and solempne Showes, +That are quick-eyd pleasures foes; +We convent nought else but woes. +We convent, &c. + +3. QUEEN. +This funeral path brings to your housholds grave: +Ioy ceaze on you againe: peace sleepe with him. + +2. QUEEN. +And this to yours. + +1. QUEEN. +Yours this way: Heavens lend +A thousand differing waies to one sure end. + +3. QUEEN. +This world's a Citty full of straying Streetes, And Death's the market +place, where each one meetes. [Exeunt severally.] + +ACT II + +SCENE 1. (Athens. A garden, with a prison in the background.) + +[Enter Iailor, and Wooer.] + +IAILOR. +I may depart with little, while I live; some thing I may cast to you, +not much: Alas, the Prison I keepe, though it be for great ones, yet +they seldome come; Before one Salmon, you shall take a number of +Minnowes. I am given out to be better lyn'd then it can appeare to me +report is a true Speaker: I would I were really that I am deliverd to +be. Marry, what I have (be it what it will) I will assure upon my +daughter at the day of my death. + +WOOER. +Sir, I demaund no more then your owne offer, and I will estate +your +Daughter in what I have promised. + +IAILOR. +Wel, we will talke more of this, when the solemnity is past. But have +you a full promise of her? When that shall be seene, I tender my +consent. + +[Enter Daughter.] + +WOOER. +I have Sir; here shee comes. + +IAILOR. +Your Friend and I have chanced to name you here, upon the old busines: +But no more of that now; so soone as the Court hurry is over, we will +have an end of it: I'th meane time looke tenderly to the two Prisoners. + I can tell you they are princes. + +DAUGHTER. +These strewings are for their Chamber; tis pitty they are in prison, +and twer pitty they should be out: I doe thinke they have patience to +make any adversity asham'd; the prison it selfe is proud of 'em; and +they have all the world in their Chamber. + +IAILOR. +They are fam'd to be a paire of absolute men. + +DAUGHTER. +By my troth, I think Fame but stammers 'em; they stand a greise above +the reach of report. + +IAILOR. +I heard them reported in the Battaile to be the only doers. + +DAUGHTER. +Nay, most likely, for they are noble suffrers; I mervaile how they +would have lookd had they beene Victors, that with such a constant +Nobility enforce a freedome out of Bondage, making misery their Mirth, +and affliction a toy to jest at. + +IAILOR. +Doe they so? + +DAUGHTER. +It seemes to me they have no more sence of their Captivity, then I of +ruling Athens: they eate well, looke merrily, discourse of many things, +but nothing of their owne restraint, and disasters: yet sometime a +devided sigh, martyrd as 'twer i'th deliverance, will breake from one +of them; when the other presently gives it so sweete a rebuke, that I +could wish my selfe a Sigh to be so chid, or at least a Sigher to be +comforted. + +WOOER. +I never saw 'em. + +IAILOR. +The Duke himselfe came privately in the night, + +[Enter Palamon, and Arcite, above.] + +and so did they: what the reason of it is, I know not: Looke, yonder +they are! that's Arcite lookes out. + +DAUGHTER. +No, Sir, no, that's Palamon: Arcite is the lower of the twaine; you may +perceive a part of him. + +IAILOR. +Goe too, leave your pointing; they would not make us their object; out +of their sight. + +DAUGHTER. +It is a holliday to looke on them: Lord, the diffrence of men! + [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 2. (The prison) + +[Enter Palamon, and Arcite in prison.] + +PALAMON. +How doe you, Noble Cosen? + +ARCITE. +How doe you, Sir? + +PALAMON. +Why strong inough to laugh at misery, +And beare the chance of warre, yet we are prisoners, +I feare, for ever, Cosen. + +ARCITE. +I beleeve it, +And to that destiny have patiently +Laide up my houre to come. + +PALAMON. +O Cosen Arcite, +Where is Thebs now? where is our noble Country? +Where are our friends, and kindreds? never more +Must we behold those comforts, never see +The hardy youthes strive for the Games of honour +(Hung with the painted favours of their Ladies, +Like tall Ships under saile) then start among'st 'em +And as an Eastwind leave 'en all behinde us, +Like lazy Clowdes, whilst Palamon and Arcite, +Even in the wagging of a wanton leg +Out-stript the peoples praises, won the Garlands, +Ere they have time to wish 'em ours. O never +Shall we two exercise, like Twyns of honour, +Our Armes againe, and feele our fyry horses +Like proud Seas under us: our good Swords now +(Better the red-eyd god of war nev'r wore) +Ravishd our sides, like age must run to rust, +And decke the Temples of those gods that hate us: +These hands shall never draw'em out like lightning, +To blast whole Armies more. + +ARCITE. +No, Palamon, +Those hopes are Prisoners with us; here we are +And here the graces of our youthes must wither +Like a too-timely Spring; here age must finde us, +And, which is heaviest, Palamon, unmarried; +The sweete embraces of a loving wife, +Loden with kisses, armd with thousand Cupids +Shall never claspe our neckes, no issue know us, +No figures of our selves shall we ev'r see, +To glad our age, and like young Eagles teach 'em +Boldly to gaze against bright armes, and say: +'Remember what your fathers were, and conquer.' +The faire-eyd Maides, shall weepe our Banishments, +And in their Songs, curse ever-blinded fortune, +Till shee for shame see what a wrong she has done +To youth and nature. This is all our world; +We shall know nothing here but one another, +Heare nothing but the Clocke that tels our woes. +The Vine shall grow, but we shall never see it: +Sommer shall come, and with her all delights; +But dead-cold winter must inhabite here still. + +PALAMON. +Tis too true, Arcite. To our Theban houndes, +That shooke the aged Forrest with their ecchoes, +No more now must we halloa, no more shake +Our pointed Iavelyns, whilst the angry Swine +Flyes like a parthian quiver from our rages, +Strucke with our well-steeld Darts: All valiant uses +(The foode, and nourishment of noble mindes,) +In us two here shall perish; we shall die +(Which is the curse of honour) lastly +Children of greife, and Ignorance. + +ARCITE. +Yet, Cosen, +Even from the bottom of these miseries, +From all that fortune can inflict upon us, +I see two comforts rysing, two meere blessings, +If the gods please: to hold here a brave patience, +And the enjoying of our greefes together. +Whilst Palamon is with me, let me perish +If I thinke this our prison. + +PALAMON. +Certeinly, +Tis a maine goodnes, Cosen, that our fortunes +Were twyn'd together; tis most true, two soules +Put in two noble Bodies—let 'em suffer +The gaule of hazard, so they grow together— +Will never sincke; they must not, say they could: +A willing man dies sleeping, and all's done. + +ARCITE. +Shall we make worthy uses of this place +That all men hate so much? + +PALAMON. +How, gentle Cosen? + +ARCITE. +Let's thinke this prison holy sanctuary, +To keepe us from corruption of worse men. +We are young and yet desire the waies of honour, +That liberty and common Conversation, +The poyson of pure spirits, might like women +Wooe us to wander from. What worthy blessing +Can be but our Imaginations +May make it ours? And heere being thus together, +We are an endles mine to one another; +We are one anothers wife, ever begetting +New birthes of love; we are father, friends, acquaintance; +We are, in one another, Families, +I am your heire, and you are mine: This place +Is our Inheritance, no hard Oppressour +Dare take this from us; here, with a little patience, +We shall live long, and loving: No surfeits seeke us: +The hand of war hurts none here, nor the Seas +Swallow their youth: were we at liberty, +A wife might part us lawfully, or busines; +Quarrels consume us, Envy of ill men +Grave our acquaintance; I might sicken, Cosen, +Where you should never know it, and so perish +Without your noble hand to close mine eies, +Or praiers to the gods: a thousand chaunces, +Were we from hence, would seaver us. + +PALAMON. +You have made me +(I thanke you, Cosen Arcite) almost wanton +With my Captivity: what a misery +It is to live abroade, and every where! +Tis like a Beast, me thinkes: I finde the Court here— +I am sure, a more content; and all those pleasures +That wooe the wils of men to vanity, +I see through now, and am sufficient +To tell the world, tis but a gaudy shaddow, +That old Time, as he passes by, takes with him. +What had we bin, old in the Court of Creon, +Where sin is Iustice, lust and ignorance +The vertues of the great ones! Cosen Arcite, +Had not the loving gods found this place for us, +We had died as they doe, ill old men, unwept, +And had their Epitaphes, the peoples Curses: +Shall I say more? + +ARCITE. +I would heare you still. + +PALAMON. +Ye shall. +Is there record of any two that lov'd +Better then we doe, Arcite? + +ARCITE. +Sure, there cannot. + +PALAMON. +I doe not thinke it possible our friendship +Should ever leave us. + +ARCITE. +Till our deathes it cannot; + +[Enter Emilia and her woman (below).] + +And after death our spirits shall be led +To those that love eternally. Speake on, Sir. + +EMILIA. +This garden has a world of pleasures in't. +What Flowre is this? + +WOMAN. +Tis calld Narcissus, Madam. + +EMILIA. +That was a faire Boy, certaine, but a foole, +To love himselfe; were there not maides enough? + +ARCITE. +Pray forward. + +PALAMON. +Yes. + +EMILIA. +Or were they all hard hearted? + +WOMAN. +They could not be to one so faire. + +EMILIA. +Thou wouldst not. + +WOMAN. +I thinke I should not, Madam. + +EMILIA. +That's a good wench: +But take heede to your kindnes though. + +WOMAN. +Why, Madam? + +EMILIA. +Men are mad things. + +ARCITE. +Will ye goe forward, Cosen? + +EMILIA. +Canst not thou worke such flowers in silke, wench? + +WOMAN. +Yes. + +EMILIA. +Ile have a gowne full of 'em, and of these; +This is a pretty colour, wilt not doe +Rarely upon a Skirt, wench? + +WOMAN. +Deinty, Madam. + +ARCITE. +Cosen, Cosen, how doe you, Sir? Why, Palamon? + +PALAMON. +Never till now I was in prison, Arcite. + +ARCITE. +Why whats the matter, Man? + +PALAMON. +Behold, and wonder. +By heaven, shee is a Goddesse. + +ARCITE. +Ha. + +PALAMON. +Doe reverence. She is a Goddesse, Arcite. + +EMILIA. +Of all Flowres, me thinkes a Rose is best. + +WOMAN. +Why, gentle Madam? + +EMILIA. +It is the very Embleme of a Maide. +For when the west wind courts her gently, +How modestly she blowes, and paints the Sun, +With her chaste blushes! When the North comes neere her, +Rude and impatient, then, like Chastity, +Shee lockes her beauties in her bud againe, +And leaves him to base briers. + +WOMAN. +Yet, good Madam, +Sometimes her modesty will blow so far +She fals for't: a Mayde, +If shee have any honour, would be loth +To take example by her. + +EMILIA. +Thou art wanton. + +ARCITE. +She is wondrous faire. + +PALAMON. +She is beauty extant. + +EMILIA. +The Sun grows high, lets walk in: keep these flowers; +Weele see how neere Art can come neere their colours. +I am wondrous merry hearted, I could laugh now. + +WOMAN. +I could lie downe, I am sure. + +EMILIA. +And take one with you? + +WOMAN. +That's as we bargaine, Madam. + +EMILIA. +Well, agree then. [Exeunt Emilia and woman.] + +PALAMON. +What thinke you of this beauty? + +ARCITE. +Tis a rare one. + +PALAMON. +Is't but a rare one? + +ARCITE. +Yes, a matchles beauty. + +PALAMON. +Might not a man well lose himselfe and love her? + +ARCITE. +I cannot tell what you have done, I have; +Beshrew mine eyes for't: now I feele my Shackles. + +PALAMON. +You love her, then? + +ARCITE. +Who would not? + +PALAMON. +And desire her? + +ARCITE. +Before my liberty. + +PALAMON. +I saw her first. + +ARCITE. +That's nothing. + +PALAMON. +But it shall be. + +ARCITE. +I saw her too. + +PALAMON. +Yes, but you must not love her. + +ARCITE. +I will not as you doe, to worship her, +As she is heavenly, and a blessed Goddes; +I love her as a woman, to enjoy her: +So both may love. + +PALAMON. +You shall not love at all. + +ARCITE. +Not love at all! +Who shall deny me? + +PALAMON. +I, that first saw her; I, that tooke possession +First with mine eyes of all those beauties +In her reveald to mankinde: if thou lou'st her, +Or entertain'st a hope to blast my wishes, +Thou art a Traytour, Arcite, and a fellow +False as thy Title to her: friendship, blood, +And all the tyes betweene us I disclaime, +If thou once thinke upon her. + +ARCITE. +Yes, I love her, +And if the lives of all my name lay on it, +I must doe so; I love her with my soule: +If that will lose ye, farewell, Palamon; +I say againe, I love, and in loving her maintaine +I am as worthy and as free a lover, +And have as just a title to her beauty +As any Palamon or any living +That is a mans Sonne. + +PALAMON. +Have I cald thee friend? + +ARCITE. +Yes, and have found me so; why are you mov'd thus? +Let me deale coldly with you: am not I +Part of your blood, part of your soule? you have told me +That I was Palamon, and you were Arcite. + +PALAMON. +Yes. + +ARCITE. +Am not I liable to those affections, +Those joyes, greifes, angers, feares, my friend shall suffer? + +PALAMON. +Ye may be. + +ARCITE. +Why, then, would you deale so cunningly, +So strangely, so vnlike a noble kinesman, +To love alone? speake truely: doe you thinke me +Vnworthy of her sight? + +PALAMON. +No; but unjust, +If thou pursue that sight. + +ARCITE. +Because an other +First sees the Enemy, shall I stand still +And let mine honour downe, and never charge? + +PALAMON. +Yes, if he be but one. + +ARCITE. +But say that one +Had rather combat me? + +PALAMON. +Let that one say so, +And use thy freedome; els if thou pursuest her, +Be as that cursed man that hates his Country, +A branded villaine. + +ARCITE. +You are mad. + +PALAMON. +I must be, +Till thou art worthy, Arcite; it concernes me, +And in this madnes, if I hazard thee +And take thy life, I deale but truely. + +ARCITE. +Fie, Sir, +You play the Childe extreamely: I will love her, +I must, I ought to doe so, and I dare; +And all this justly. + +PALAMON. +O that now, that now +Thy false-selfe and thy friend had but this fortune, +To be one howre at liberty, and graspe +Our good Swords in our hands! I would quickly teach thee +What 'twer to filch affection from another: +Thou art baser in it then a Cutpurse; +Put but thy head out of this window more, +And as I have a soule, Ile naile thy life too't. + +ARCITE. +Thou dar'st not, foole, thou canst not, thou art feeble. +Put my head out? Ile throw my Body out, +And leape the garden, when I see her next + +[Enter Keeper.] + +And pitch between her armes to anger thee. + +PALAMON. +No more; the keeper's comming; I shall live +To knocke thy braines out with my Shackles. + +ARCITE. +Doe. + +KEEPER. +By your leave, Gentlemen— + +PALAMON. +Now, honest keeper? + +KEEPER. +Lord Arcite, you must presently to'th Duke; +The cause I know not yet. + +ARCITE. +I am ready, keeper. + +KEEPER. +Prince Palamon, I must awhile bereave you +Of your faire Cosens Company. [Exeunt Arcite, and Keeper.] + +PALAMON. +And me too, +Even when you please, of life. Why is he sent for? +It may be he shall marry her; he's goodly, +And like enough the Duke hath taken notice +Both of his blood and body: But his falsehood! +Why should a friend be treacherous? If that +Get him a wife so noble, and so faire, +Let honest men ne're love againe. Once more +I would but see this faire One. Blessed Garden, +And fruite, and flowers more blessed, that still blossom +As her bright eies shine on ye! would I were, +For all the fortune of my life hereafter, +Yon little Tree, yon blooming Apricocke; +How I would spread, and fling my wanton armes +In at her window; I would bring her fruite +Fit for the Gods to feed on: youth and pleasure +Still as she tasted should be doubled on her, +And if she be not heavenly, I would make her +So neere the Gods in nature, they should feare her, + +[Enter Keeper.] + +And then I am sure she would love me. How now, keeper. +Wher's Arcite? + +KEEPER. +Banishd: Prince Pirithous +Obtained his liberty; but never more +Vpon his oth and life must he set foote +Vpon this Kingdome. + +PALAMON. +Hees a blessed man! +He shall see Thebs againe, and call to Armes +The bold yong men, that, when he bids 'em charge, +Fall on like fire: Arcite shall have a Fortune, +If he dare make himselfe a worthy Lover, +Yet in the Feild to strike a battle for her; +And if he lose her then, he's a cold Coward; +How bravely may he beare himselfe to win her +If he be noble Arcite—thousand waies. +Were I at liberty, I would doe things +Of such a vertuous greatnes, that this Lady, +This blushing virgine, should take manhood to her +And seeke to ravish me. + +KEEPER. +My Lord for you +I have this charge too— + +PALAMON. +To discharge my life? + +KEEPER. +No, but from this place to remoove your Lordship: +The windowes are too open. + +PALAMON. +Devils take 'em, +That are so envious to me! pre'thee kill me. + +KEEPER. +And hang for't afterward. + +PALAMON. +By this good light, +Had I a sword I would kill thee. + +KEEPER. +Why, my Lord? + +PALAMON. +Thou bringst such pelting scuruy news continually +Thou art not worthy life. I will not goe. + +KEEPER. +Indeede, you must, my Lord. + +PALAMON. +May I see the garden? + +KEEPER. +Noe. + +PALAMON. +Then I am resolud, I will not goe. + +KEEPER. +I must constraine you then: and for you are dangerous, +Ile clap more yrons on you. + +PALAMON. +Doe, good keeper. +Ile shake 'em so, ye shall not sleepe; +Ile make ye a new Morrisse: must I goe? + +KEEPER. +There is no remedy. + +PALAMON. +Farewell, kinde window. +May rude winde never hurt thee. O, my Lady, +If ever thou hast felt what sorrow was, +Dreame how I suffer. Come; now bury me. [Exeunt Palamon, and +Keeper.] + +SCENE 3. (The country near Athens. + +[Enter Arcite.] + +ARCITE. +Banishd the kingdome? tis a benefit, +A mercy I must thanke 'em for, but banishd +The free enjoying of that face I die for, +Oh twas a studdied punishment, a death +Beyond Imagination: Such a vengeance +That, were I old and wicked, all my sins +Could never plucke upon me. Palamon, +Thou ha'st the Start now, thou shalt stay and see +Her bright eyes breake each morning gainst thy window, +And let in life into thee; thou shalt feede +Vpon the sweetenes of a noble beauty, +That nature nev'r exceeded, nor nev'r shall: +Good gods! what happines has Palamon! +Twenty to one, hee'le come to speake to her, +And if she be as gentle as she's faire, +I know she's his; he has a Tongue will tame +Tempests, and make the wild Rockes wanton. +Come what can come, +The worst is death; I will not leave the Kingdome. +I know mine owne is but a heape of ruins, +And no redresse there; if I goe, he has her. +I am resolu'd an other shape shall make me, +Or end my fortunes. Either way, I am happy: +Ile see her, and be neere her, or no more. + +[Enter 4. Country people, & one with a garlond before them.] + +1. COUNTREYMAN +My Masters, ile be there, that's certaine + +2. COUNTREYMAN +And Ile be there. + +3. COUNTREYMAN +And I. + +4. COUNTREYMAN +Why, then, have with ye, Boyes; Tis but a chiding. +Let the plough play to day, ile tick'lt out +Of the Iades tailes to morrow. + +1. COUNTREYMAN +I am sure +To have my wife as jealous as a Turkey: +But that's all one; ile goe through, let her mumble. + +2. COUNTREYMAN +Clap her aboard to morrow night, and stoa her, +And all's made up againe. + +3. COUNTREYMAN +I, doe but put a feskue in her fist, and you shall see her +Take a new lesson out, and be a good wench. +Doe we all hold against the Maying? + +4. COUNTREYMAN +Hold? what should aile us? + +3. COUNTREYMAN +Arcas will be there. + +2. COUNTREYMAN +And Sennois. +And Rycas, and 3. better lads nev'r dancd +Under green Tree. And yee know what wenches: ha? +But will the dainty Domine, the Schoolemaster, +Keep touch, doe you thinke? for he do's all, ye know. + +3. COUNTREYMAN +Hee'l eate a hornebooke ere he faile: goe too, the matter's too farre +driven betweene him and the Tanners daughter, to let slip now, and she +must see the Duke, and she must daunce too. + +4. COUNTREYMAN +Shall we be lusty? + +2. COUNTREYMAN +All the Boyes in Athens blow wind i'th breech on's, and heere ile be +and there ile be, for our Towne, and here againe, and there againe: ha, +Boyes, heigh for the weavers. + +1. COUNTREYMAN +This must be done i'th woods. + +4. COUNTREYMAN +O, pardon me. + +2. COUNTREYMAN +By any meanes, our thing of learning saies so: +Where he himselfe will edifie the Duke +Most parlously in our behalfes: hees excellent i'th woods; +Bring him to'th plaines, his learning makes no cry. + +3. COUNTREYMAN +Weele see the sports, then; every man to's Tackle: +And, Sweete Companions, lets rehearse by any meanes, +Before the Ladies see us, and doe sweetly, +And God knows what May come on't. + +4. COUNTREYMAN +Content; the sports once ended, wee'l performe. +Away, Boyes and hold. + +ARCITE. +By your leaves, honest friends: pray you, whither goe you? + +4. COUNTREYMAN +Whither? why, what a question's that? + +ARCITE. +Yes, tis a question, to me that know not. + +3. COUNTREYMAN +To the Games, my Friend. + +2. COUNTREYMAN +Where were you bred, you know it not? + +ARCITE. +Not farre, Sir, +Are there such Games to day? + +1. COUNTREYMAN +Yes, marry, are there: +And such as you neuer saw; The Duke himselfe +Will be in person there. + +ARCITE. +What pastimes are they? + +2. COUNTREYMAN +Wrastling, and Running.—Tis a pretty Fellow. + +3. COUNTREYMAN +Thou wilt not goe along? + +ARCITE. +Not yet, Sir. + +4. COUNTREYMAN +Well, Sir, +Take your owne time: come, Boyes. + +1. COUNTREYMAN +My minde misgives me; +This fellow has a veng'ance tricke o'th hip: +Marke how his Bodi's made for't + +2. COUNTREYMAN +Ile be hangd, though, +If he dare venture; hang him, plumb porredge, +He wrastle? he rost eggs! Come, lets be gon, Lads. [Exeunt.] + +ARCITE. +This is an offerd oportunity +I durst not wish for. Well I could have wrestled, +The best men calld it excellent, and run— +Swifter the winde upon a feild of Corne +(Curling the wealthy eares) never flew: Ile venture, +And in some poore disguize be there; who knowes +Whether my browes may not be girt with garlands? +And happines preferre me to a place, +Where I may ever dwell in sight of her. [Exit Arcite.] + +SCENE 4. (Athens. A room in the prison.) + +[Enter Iailors Daughter alone.] + +DAUGHTER. +Why should I love this Gentleman? Tis odds +He never will affect me; I am base, +My Father the meane Keeper of his Prison, +And he a prince: To marry him is hopelesse; +To be his whore is witles. Out upon't, +What pushes are we wenches driven to, +When fifteene once has found us! First, I saw him; +I (seeing) thought he was a goodly man; +He has as much to please a woman in him, +(If he please to bestow it so) as ever +These eyes yet lookt on. Next, I pittied him, +And so would any young wench, o' my Conscience, +That ever dream'd, or vow'd her Maydenhead +To a yong hansom Man; Then I lov'd him, +Extreamely lov'd him, infinitely lov'd him; +And yet he had a Cosen, faire as he too. +But in my heart was Palamon, and there, +Lord, what a coyle he keepes! To heare him +Sing in an evening, what a heaven it is! +And yet his Songs are sad ones. Fairer spoken +Was never Gentleman. When I come in +To bring him water in a morning, first +He bowes his noble body, then salutes me, thus: +'Faire, gentle Mayde, good morrow; may thy goodnes +Get thee a happy husband.' Once he kist me. +I lov'd my lips the better ten daies after. +Would he would doe so ev'ry day! He greives much, +And me as much to see his misery. +What should I doe, to make him know I love him? +For I would faine enjoy him. Say I ventur'd +To set him free? what saies the law then? Thus much +For Law, or kindred! I will doe it, +And this night, or to morrow, he shall love me. [Exit.] + +SCENE 5. (An open place in Athens.) + +[Enter Theseus, Hipolita, Pirithous, Emilia: Arcite with a +Garland, &c.] + +[This short florish of Cornets and Showtes within.] + +THESEUS. +You have done worthily; I have not seene, +Since Hercules, a man of tougher synewes; +What ere you are, you run the best, and wrastle, +That these times can allow. + +ARCITE. +I am proud to please you. + +THESEUS. +What Countrie bred you? + +ARCITE. +This; but far off, Prince. + +THESEUS. +Are you a Gentleman? + +ARCITE. +My father said so; +And to those gentle uses gave me life. + +THESEUS. +Are you his heire? + +ARCITE. +His yongest, Sir. + +THESEUS. +Your Father +Sure is a happy Sire then: what prooves you? + +ARCITE. +A little of all noble Quallities: +I could have kept a Hawke, and well have holloa'd +To a deepe crie of Dogges; I dare not praise +My feat in horsemanship, yet they that knew me +Would say it was my best peece: last, and greatest, +I would be thought a Souldier. + +THESEUS. +You are perfect. + +PERITHOUS. +Vpon my soule, a proper man. + +EMILIA. +He is so. + +PERITHOUS. +How doe you like him, Ladie? + +HIPPOLITA. +I admire him; +I have not seene so yong a man so noble +(If he say true,) of his sort. + +EMILIA. +Beleeve, +His mother was a wondrous handsome woman; +His face, me thinkes, goes that way. + +HIPPOLITA. +But his Body +And firie minde illustrate a brave Father. + +PERITHOUS. +Marke how his vertue, like a hidden Sun, +Breakes through his baser garments. + +HIPPOLITA. +Hee's well got, sure. + +THESEUS. +What made you seeke this place, Sir? + +ARCITE. +Noble Theseus, +To purchase name, and doe my ablest service +To such a well-found wonder as thy worth, +For onely in thy Court, of all the world, +Dwells faire-eyd honor. + +PERITHOUS. +All his words are worthy. + +THESEUS. +Sir, we are much endebted to your travell, +Nor shall you loose your wish: Perithous, +Dispose of this faire Gentleman. + +PERITHOUS. +Thankes, Theseus. +What ere you are y'ar mine, and I shall give you +To a most noble service, to this Lady, +This bright yong Virgin; pray, observe her goodnesse; +You have honourd hir faire birth-day with your vertues, +And as your due y'ar hirs: kisse her faire hand, Sir. + +ARCITE. +Sir, y'ar a noble Giver: dearest Bewtie, +Thus let me seale my vowd faith: when your Servant +(Your most unworthie Creature) but offends you, +Command him die, he shall. + +EMILIA. +That were too cruell. +If you deserve well, Sir, I shall soone see't: +Y'ar mine, and somewhat better than your rancke +Ile use you. + +PERITHOUS. +Ile see you furnish'd, and because you say +You are a horseman, I must needs intreat you +This after noone to ride, but tis a rough one. + +ARCITE. +I like him better, Prince, I shall not then +Freeze in my Saddle. + +THESEUS. +Sweet, you must be readie, +And you, Emilia, and you, Friend, and all, +To morrow by the Sun, to doe observance +To flowry May, in Dians wood: waite well, Sir, +Vpon your Mistris. Emely, I hope +He shall not goe a foote. + +EMILIA. +That were a shame, Sir, +While I have horses: take your choice, and what +You want at any time, let me but know it; +If you serve faithfully, I dare assure you +You'l finde a loving Mistris. + +ARCITE. +If I doe not, +Let me finde that my Father ever hated, +Disgrace and blowes. + +THESEUS. +Go, leade the way; you have won it: +It shall be so; you shall receave all dues +Fit for the honour you have won; Twer wrong else. +Sister, beshrew my heart, you have a Servant, +That, if I were a woman, would be Master, +But you are wise. [Florish.] + +EMILIA. +I hope too wise for that, Sir. [Exeunt omnes.] + +SCENE 6. (Before the prison.) + +[Enter Iaylors Daughter alone.] + +DAUGHTER. +Let all the Dukes, and all the divells rore, +He is at liberty: I have venturd for him, +And out I have brought him to a little wood +A mile hence. I have sent him, where a Cedar, +Higher than all the rest, spreads like a plane +Fast by a Brooke, and there he shall keepe close, +Till I provide him Fyles and foode, for yet +His yron bracelets are not off. O Love, +What a stout hearted child thou art! My Father +Durst better have indur'd cold yron, than done it: +I love him beyond love and beyond reason, +Or wit, or safetie: I have made him know it. +I care not, I am desperate; If the law +Finde me, and then condemne me for't, some wenches, +Some honest harted Maides, will sing my Dirge, +And tell to memory my death was noble, +Dying almost a Martyr: That way he takes, +I purpose is my way too: Sure he cannot +Be so unmanly, as to leave me here; +If he doe, Maides will not so easily +Trust men againe: And yet he has not thank'd me +For what I have done: no not so much as kist me, +And that (me thinkes) is not so well; nor scarcely +Could I perswade him to become a Freeman, +He made such scruples of the wrong he did +To me, and to my Father. Yet I hope, +When he considers more, this love of mine +Will take more root within him: Let him doe +What he will with me, so he use me kindly; +For use me so he shall, or ile proclaime him, +And to his face, no man. Ile presently +Provide him necessaries, and packe my cloathes up, +And where there is a patch of ground Ile venture, +So hee be with me; By him, like a shadow, +Ile ever dwell; within this houre the whoobub +Will be all ore the prison: I am then +Kissing the man they looke for: farewell, Father; +Get many more such prisoners and such daughters, +And shortly you may keepe your selfe. Now to him! + +ACT III + +SCENE 1. (A forest near Athens.) + +[Cornets in sundry places. Noise and hallowing as people a +Maying.] + +[Enter Arcite alone.] + +ARCITE. +The Duke has lost Hypolita; each tooke +A severall land. This is a solemne Right +They owe bloomd May, and the Athenians pay it +To'th heart of Ceremony. O Queene Emilia, +Fresher then May, sweeter +Then hir gold Buttons on the bowes, or all +Th'enamelld knackes o'th Meade or garden: yea, +We challenge too the bancke of any Nymph +That makes the streame seeme flowers; thou, o Iewell +O'th wood, o'th world, hast likewise blest a place +With thy sole presence: in thy rumination +That I, poore man, might eftsoones come betweene +And chop on some cold thought! thrice blessed chance, +To drop on such a Mistris, expectation +Most giltlesse on't! tell me, O Lady Fortune, +(Next after Emely my Soveraigne) how far +I may be prowd. She takes strong note of me, +Hath made me neere her; and this beuteous Morne +(The prim'st of all the yeare) presents me with +A brace of horses: two such Steeds might well +Be by a paire of Kings backt, in a Field +That their crownes titles tride. Alas, alas, +Poore Cosen Palamon, poore prisoner, thou +So little dream'st upon my fortune, that +Thou thinkst thy selfe the happier thing, to be +So neare Emilia; me thou deem'st at Thebs, +And therein wretched, although free. But if +Thou knew'st my Mistris breathd on me, and that +I ear'd her language, livde in her eye, O Coz, +What passion would enclose thee! + +[Enter Palamon as out of a Bush, with his Shackles: bends his fist at +Arcite.] + +PALAMON. +Traytor kinesman, +Thou shouldst perceive my passion, if these signes +Of prisonment were off me, and this hand +But owner of a Sword: By all othes in one, +I and the iustice of my love would make thee +A confest Traytor. O thou most perfidious +That ever gently lookd; the voydest of honour, +That eu'r bore gentle Token; falsest Cosen +That ever blood made kin, call'st thou hir thine? +Ile prove it in my Shackles, with these hands, +Void of appointment, that thou ly'st, and art +A very theefe in love, a Chaffy Lord, +Nor worth the name of villaine: had I a Sword +And these house clogges away— + +ARCITE. +Deere Cosin Palamon— + +PALAMON. +Cosoner Arcite, give me language such +As thou hast shewd me feate. + +ARCITE. +Not finding in +The circuit of my breast any grosse stuffe +To forme me like your blazon, holds me to +This gentlenesse of answer; tis your passion +That thus mistakes, the which to you being enemy, +Cannot to me be kind: honor, and honestie +I cherish, and depend on, how so ev'r +You skip them in me, and with them, faire Coz, +Ile maintaine my proceedings; pray, be pleas'd +To shew in generous termes your griefes, since that +Your question's with your equall, who professes +To cleare his owne way with the minde and Sword +Of a true Gentleman. + +PALAMON. +That thou durst, Arcite! + +ARCITE. +My Coz, my Coz, you have beene well advertis'd +How much I dare, y'ave seene me use my Sword +Against th'advice of feare: sure, of another +You would not heare me doubted, but your silence +Should breake out, though i'th Sanctuary. + +PALAMON. +Sir, +I have seene you move in such a place, which well +Might justifie your manhood; you were calld +A good knight and a bold; But the whole weeke's not faire, +If any day it rayne: Their valiant temper +Men loose when they encline to trecherie, +And then they fight like coupelld Beares, would fly +Were they not tyde. + +ARCITE. +Kinsman, you might as well +Speake this and act it in your Glasse, as to +His eare which now disdaines you. + +PALAMON. +Come up to me, +Quit me of these cold Gyves, give me a Sword, +Though it be rustie, and the charity +Of one meale lend me; Come before me then, +A good Sword in thy hand, and doe but say +That Emily is thine: I will forgive +The trespasse thou hast done me, yea, my life, +If then thou carry't, and brave soules in shades +That have dyde manly, which will seeke of me +Some newes from earth, they shall get none but this, +That thou art brave and noble. + +ARCITE. +Be content: +Againe betake you to your hawthorne house; +With counsaile of the night, I will be here +With wholesome viands; these impediments +Will I file off; you shall have garments and +Perfumes to kill the smell o'th prison; after, +When you shall stretch your selfe and say but, 'Arcite, +I am in plight,' there shall be at your choyce +Both Sword and Armour. + +PALAMON. +Oh you heavens, dares any +So noble beare a guilty busines! none +But onely Arcite, therefore none but Arcite +In this kinde is so bold. + +ARCITE. +Sweete Palamon. + +PALAMON. +I doe embrace you and your offer,—for +Your offer doo't I onely, Sir; your person, +Without hipocrisy I may not wish [Winde hornes of Cornets.] +More then my Swords edge ont. + +ARCITE. +You heare the Hornes; +Enter your Musite least this match between's +Be crost, er met: give me your hand; farewell. +Ile bring you every needfull thing: I pray you, +Take comfort and be strong. + +PALAMON. +Pray hold your promise; +And doe the deede with a bent brow: most certaine +You love me not, be rough with me, and powre +This oile out of your language; by this ayre, +I could for each word give a Cuffe, my stomach +Not reconcild by reason. + +ARCITE. +Plainely spoken, +Yet pardon me hard language: when I spur [Winde hornes.] +My horse, I chide him not; content and anger +In me have but one face. Harke, Sir, they call +The scatterd to the Banket; you must guesse +I have an office there. + +PALAMON. +Sir, your attendance +Cannot please heaven, and I know your office +Vnjustly is atcheev'd. + +ARCITE. +If a good title, +I am perswaded this question sicke between's +By bleeding must be cur'd. I am a Suitour, +That to your Sword you will bequeath this plea +And talke of it no more. + +PALAMON. +But this one word: +You are going now to gaze upon my Mistris, +For note you, mine she is— + +ARCITE. +Nay, then. + +PALAMON. +Nay, pray you, +You talke of feeding me to breed me strength: +You are going now to looke upon a Sun +That strengthens what it lookes on; there +You have a vantage ore me, but enjoy't till +I may enforce my remedy. Farewell. [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 2. (Another Part of the forest.) + +[Enter Iaylors daughter alone.] + +DAUGHTER. +He has mistooke the Brake I meant, is gone +After his fancy. Tis now welnigh morning; +No matter, would it were perpetuall night, +And darkenes Lord o'th world. Harke, tis a woolfe: +In me hath greife slaine feare, and but for one thing +I care for nothing, and that's Palamon. +I wreake not if the wolves would jaw me, so +He had this File: what if I hallowd for him? +I cannot hallow: if I whoop'd, what then? +If he not answeard, I should call a wolfe, +And doe him but that service. I have heard +Strange howles this live-long night, why may't not be +They have made prey of him? he has no weapons, +He cannot run, the Iengling of his Gives +Might call fell things to listen, who have in them +A sence to know a man unarmd, and can +Smell where resistance is. Ile set it downe +He's torne to peeces; they howld many together +And then they fed on him: So much for that, +Be bold to ring the Bell; how stand I then? +All's char'd when he is gone. No, no, I lye, +My Father's to be hang'd for his escape; +My selfe to beg, if I prizd life so much +As to deny my act, but that I would not, +Should I try death by dussons.—I am mop't, +Food tooke I none these two daies, +Sipt some water. I have not closd mine eyes +Save when my lids scowrd off their brine; alas, +Dissolue my life, Let not my sence unsettle, +Least I should drowne, or stab or hang my selfe. +O state of Nature, faile together in me, +Since thy best props are warpt! So, which way now? +The best way is the next way to a grave: +Each errant step beside is torment. Loe, +The Moone is down, the Cryckets chirpe, the Schreichowle +Calls in the dawne; all offices are done +Save what I faile in: But the point is this, +An end, and that is all. [Exit.] + +SCENE 3. (Same as Scene I.) + +[Enter Arcite, with Meate, Wine, and Files.] + +ARCITE. +I should be neere the place: hoa, Cosen Palamon. [Enter +Palamon.] + +PALAMON. +Arcite? + +ARCITE. +The same: I have brought you foode and files. +Come forth and feare not, here's no Theseus. + +PALAMON. +Nor none so honest, Arcite. + +ARCITE. +That's no matter, +Wee'l argue that hereafter: Come, take courage; +You shall not dye thus beastly: here, Sir, drinke; +I know you are faint: then ile talke further with you. + +PALAMON. +Arcite, thou mightst now poyson me. + +ARCITE. +I might, +But I must feare you first: Sit downe, and, good, now +No more of these vaine parlies; let us not, +Having our ancient reputation with us, +Make talke for Fooles and Cowards. To your health, &c. + +PALAMON. +Doe. + +ARCITE. +Pray, sit downe then; and let me entreate you, +By all the honesty and honour in you, +No mention of this woman: t'will disturbe us; +We shall have time enough. + +PALAMON. +Well, Sir, Ile pledge you. + +ARCITE. +Drinke a good hearty draught; it breeds good blood, man. +Doe not you feele it thaw you? + +PALAMON. +Stay, Ile tell you after a draught or two more. + +ARCITE. +Spare it not, the Duke has more, Cuz: Eate now. + +PALAMON. +Yes. + +ARCITE. +I am glad you have so good a stomach. + +PALAMON. +I am gladder I have so good meate too't. + +ARCITE. +Is't not mad lodging here in the wild woods, Cosen? + +PALAMON. +Yes, for them that have wilde Consciences. + +ARCITE. +How tasts your vittails? your hunger needs no sawce, I see. + +PALAMON. +Not much; +But if it did, yours is too tart, sweete Cosen: what is this? + +ARCITE. +Venison. + +PALAMON. +Tis a lusty meate: +Giue me more wine; here, Arcite, to the wenches +We have known in our daies. The Lord Stewards daughter, +Doe you remember her? + +ARCITE. +After you, Cuz. + +PALAMON. +She lov'd a black-haird man. + +ARCITE. +She did so; well, Sir. + +PALAMON. +And I have heard some call him Arcite, and— + +ARCITE. +Out with't, faith. + +PALAMON. +She met him in an Arbour: +What did she there, Cuz? play o'th virginals? + +ARCITE. +Something she did, Sir. + +PALAMON. +Made her groane a moneth for't, or 2. or 3. or 10. + +ARCITE. +The Marshals Sister +Had her share too, as I remember, Cosen, +Else there be tales abroade; you'l pledge her? + +PALAMON. +Yes. + +ARCITE. +A pretty broune wench t'is. There was a time +When yong men went a hunting, and a wood, +And a broade Beech: and thereby hangs a tale:—heigh ho! + +PALAMON. +For Emily, upon my life! Foole, +Away with this straind mirth; I say againe, +That sigh was breathd for Emily; base Cosen, +Dar'st thou breake first? + +ARCITE. +You are wide. + +PALAMON. +By heaven and earth, ther's nothing in thee honest. + +ARCITE. +Then Ile leave you: you are a Beast now. + +PALAMON. +As thou makst me, Traytour. + +ARCITE. +Ther's all things needfull, files and shirts, and perfumes: +Ile come againe some two howres hence, and bring +That that shall quiet all, + +PALAMON. +A Sword and Armour? + +ARCITE. +Feare me not; you are now too fowle; farewell. +Get off your Trinkets; you shall want nought. + +PALAMON. +Sir, ha— + +ARCITE. +Ile heare no more. [Exit.] + +PALAMON. +If he keepe touch, he dies for't. [Exit.] + +SCENE 4. (Another part of the forest.) + +[Enter Iaylors daughter.] + +DAUGHTER. +I am very cold, and all the Stars are out too, +The little Stars, and all, that looke like aglets: +The Sun has seene my Folly. Palamon! +Alas no; hees in heaven. Where am I now? +Yonder's the sea, and ther's a Ship; how't tumbles! +And ther's a Rocke lies watching under water; +Now, now, it beates upon it; now, now, now, +Ther's a leak sprung, a sound one, how they cry! +Spoon her before the winde, you'l loose all els: +Vp with a course or two, and take about, Boyes. +Good night, good night, y'ar gone.—I am very hungry. +Would I could finde a fine Frog; he would tell me +Newes from all parts o'th world, then would I make +A Carecke of a Cockle shell, and sayle +By east and North East to the King of Pigmes, +For he tels fortunes rarely. Now my Father, +Twenty to one, is trust up in a trice +To morrow morning; Ile say never a word. + +[Sing.] + +For ile cut my greene coat a foote above my knee, And ile clip my +yellow lockes an inch below mine eie. hey, nonny, nonny, nonny, He's +buy me a white Cut, forth for to ride And ile goe seeke him, throw the +world that is so wide hey nonny, nonny, nonny. + +O for a pricke now like a Nightingale, +To put my breast against. I shall sleepe like a Top else. +[Exit.] + +SCENE 5. (Another part of the forest.) + +[Enter a Schoole master, 4. Countrymen, and Bavian. 2. or 3. wenches, +with a Taborer.] + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Fy, fy, what tediosity, & disensanity is here among ye? have my +Rudiments bin labourd so long with ye? milkd unto ye, and by a figure +even the very plumbroth & marrow of my understanding laid upon ye? and +do you still cry: where, and how, & wherfore? you most course freeze +capacities, ye jane Iudgements, have I saide: thus let be, and there +let be, and then let be, and no man understand mee? Proh deum, medius +fidius, ye are all dunces! For why, here stand I, Here the Duke comes, +there are you close in the Thicket; the Duke appeares, I meete him and +unto him I utter learned things and many figures; he heares, and nods, +and hums, and then cries: rare, and I goe forward; at length I fling my +Cap up; marke there; then do you, as once did Meleager and the Bore, +break comly out before him: like true lovers, cast your selves in a +Body decently, and sweetly, by a figure trace and turne, Boyes. + +1. COUNTREYMAN. +And sweetly we will doe it Master Gerrold. + +2. COUNTREYMAN. +Draw up the Company. Where's the Taborour? + +3. COUNTREYMAN. +Why, Timothy! + +TABORER. +Here, my mad boyes, have at ye. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +But I say, where's their women? + +4. COUNTREYMAN. +Here's Friz and Maudline. + +2. COUNTREYMAN. +And little Luce with the white legs, and bouncing Barbery. + +1. COUNTREYMAN. +And freckeled Nel, that never faild her Master. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Wher be your Ribands, maids? swym with your Bodies +And carry it sweetly, and deliverly +And now and then a fauour, and a friske. + +NEL. +Let us alone, Sir. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Wher's the rest o'th Musicke? + +3. COUNTREYMAN. +Dispersd as you commanded. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Couple, then, +And see what's wanting; wher's the Bavian? +My friend, carry your taile without offence +Or scandall to the Ladies; and be sure +You tumble with audacity and manhood; +And when you barke, doe it with judgement. + +BAVIAN. +Yes, Sir. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Quo usque tandem? Here is a woman wanting. + +4. COUNTREYMAN. +We may goe whistle: all the fat's i'th fire. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +We have, +As learned Authours utter, washd a Tile, +We have beene FATUUS, and laboured vainely. + +2. COUNTREYMAN. +This is that scornefull peece, that scurvy hilding, +That gave her promise faithfully, she would be here, +Cicely the Sempsters daughter: +The next gloves that I give her shall be dog skin; +Nay and she faile me once—you can tell, Arcas, +She swore by wine and bread, she would not breake. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +An Eele and woman, +A learned Poet sayes, unles by'th taile +And with thy teeth thou hold, will either faile. +In manners this was false position + +1. COUNTREYMAN. +A fire ill take her; do's she flinch now? + +3. COUNTREYMAN. +What +Shall we determine, Sir? + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Nothing. +Our busines is become a nullity; +Yea, and a woefull, and a pittious nullity. + +4. COUNTREYMAN. +Now when the credite of our Towne lay on it, +Now to be frampall, now to pisse o'th nettle! +Goe thy waies; ile remember thee, ile fit thee. + +[Enter Iaylors daughter.] + +DAUGHTER. +[Sings.] + +The George alow came from the South, +From the coast of Barbary a. +And there he met with brave gallants of war +By one, by two, by three, a. + +Well haild, well haild, you jolly gallants, +And whither now are you bound a? +O let me have your company [Chaire and stooles out.] +Till (I) come to the sound a. + +There was three fooles, fell out about an howlet: +The one sed it was an owle, +The other he sed nay, +The third he sed it was a hawke, +And her bels wer cut away. + +3. COUNTREYMAN. +Ther's a dainty mad woman M(aiste)r +Comes i'th Nick, as mad as a march hare: +If wee can get her daunce, wee are made againe: +I warrant her, shee'l doe the rarest gambols. + +1. COUNTREYMAN. +A mad woman? we are made, Boyes. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +And are you mad, good woman? + +DAUGHTER. +I would be sorry else; +Give me your hand. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Why? + +DAUGHTER. +I can tell your fortune. +You are a foole: tell ten. I have pozd him: Buz! +Friend you must eate no whitebread; if you doe, +Your teeth will bleede extreamely. Shall we dance, ho? +I know you, y'ar a Tinker: Sirha Tinker, +Stop no more holes, but what you should. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Dij boni. A Tinker, Damzell? + +DAUGHTER. +Or a Conjurer: +Raise me a devill now, and let him play +Quipassa o'th bels and bones. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Goe, take her, +And fluently perswade her to a peace: +Et opus exegi, quod nec Iouis ira, nec ignis. +Strike up, and leade her in. + +2. COUNTREYMAN. +Come, Lasse, lets trip it. + +DAUGHTER. +Ile leade. [Winde Hornes.] + +3. COUNTREYMAN. +Doe, doe. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Perswasively, and cunningly: away, boyes, [Ex. all but +Schoolemaster.] +I heare the hornes: give me some meditation, +And marke your Cue.—Pallas inspire me. + +[Enter Thes. Pir. Hip. Emil. Arcite, and traine.] + +THESEUS. +This way the Stag tooke. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Stay, and edifie. + +THESEUS. +What have we here? + +PERITHOUS. +Some Countrey sport, upon my life, Sir. + +THESEUS. +Well, Sir, goe forward, we will edifie. +Ladies, sit downe, wee'l stay it. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +Thou, doughtie Duke, all haile: all haile, sweet Ladies. + +THESEUS. +This is a cold beginning. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +If you but favour, our Country pastime made is. +We are a few of those collected here, +That ruder Tongues distinguish villager; +And to say veritie, and not to fable, +We are a merry rout, or else a rable, +Or company, or, by a figure, Choris, +That fore thy dignitie will dance a Morris. +And I, that am the rectifier of all, +By title Pedagogus, that let fall +The Birch upon the breeches of the small ones, +And humble with a Ferula the tall ones, +Doe here present this Machine, or this frame: +And daintie Duke, whose doughtie dismall fame +From Dis to Dedalus, from post to pillar, +Is blowne abroad, helpe me thy poore well willer, +And with thy twinckling eyes looke right and straight +Vpon this mighty MORR—of mickle waight; +IS now comes in, which being glewd together, +Makes MORRIS, and the cause that we came hether. +The body of our sport, of no small study, +I first appeare, though rude, and raw, and muddy, +To speake before thy noble grace this tenner: +At whose great feete I offer up my penner. +The next the Lord of May and Lady bright, +The Chambermaid and Servingman by night +That seeke out silent hanging: Then mine Host +And his fat Spowse, that welcomes to their cost +The gauled Traveller, and with a beckning +Informes the Tapster to inflame the reckning: +Then the beast eating Clowne, and next the foole, +The Bavian, with long tayle and eke long toole, +Cum multis alijs that make a dance: +Say 'I,' and all shall presently advance. + +THESEUS. +I, I, by any meanes, deere Domine. + +PERITHOUS. +Produce. + +(SCHOOLMASTER.) +Intrate, filij; Come forth, and foot it.— + +[Musicke, Dance. Knocke for Schoole.] + +[Enter the Dance.] + +Ladies, if we have beene merry, +And have pleasd yee with a derry, +And a derry, and a downe, +Say the Schoolemaster's no Clowne: +Duke, if we have pleasd thee too, +And have done as good Boyes should doe, +Give us but a tree or twaine +For a Maypole, and againe, +Ere another yeare run out, +Wee'l make thee laugh and all this rout. + +THESEUS. +Take 20., Domine; how does my sweet heart? + +HIPPOLITA. +Never so pleasd, Sir. + +EMILIA. +Twas an excellent dance, and for a preface +I never heard a better. + +THESEUS. +Schoolemaster, I thanke you.—One see'em all rewarded. + +PERITHOUS. +And heer's something to paint your Pole withall. + +THESEUS. +Now to our sports againe. + +SCHOOLMASTER. +May the Stag thou huntst stand long, +And thy dogs be swift and strong: +May they kill him without lets, +And the Ladies eate his dowsets! +Come, we are all made. [Winde Hornes.] +Dij Deoeq(ue) omnes, ye have danc'd rarely, wenches. [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 6. (Same as Scene III.) + +[Enter Palamon from the Bush.] + +PALAMON. +About this houre my Cosen gave his faith +To visit me againe, and with him bring +Two Swords, and two good Armors; if he faile, +He's neither man nor Souldier. When he left me, +I did not thinke a weeke could have restord +My lost strength to me, I was growne so low, +And Crest-falne with my wants: I thanke thee, Arcite, +Thou art yet a faire Foe; and I feele my selfe +With this refreshing, able once againe +To out dure danger: To delay it longer +Would make the world think, when it comes to hearing, +That I lay fatting like a Swine to fight, +And not a Souldier: Therefore, this blest morning +Shall be the last; and that Sword he refuses, +If it but hold, I kill him with; tis Iustice: +So love, and Fortune for me!—O, good morrow. + +[Enter Arcite with Armors and Swords.] + +ARCITE. +Good morrow, noble kinesman. + +PALAMON. +I have put you to too much paines, Sir. + +ARCITE. +That too much, faire Cosen, +Is but a debt to honour, and my duty. + +PALAMON. +Would you were so in all, Sir; I could wish ye +As kinde a kinsman, as you force me finde +A beneficiall foe, that my embraces +Might thanke ye, not my blowes. + +ARCITE. +I shall thinke either, well done, +A noble recompence. + +PALAMON. +Then I shall quit you. + +ARCITE. +Defy me in these faire termes, and you show +More then a Mistris to me, no more anger +As you love any thing that's honourable: +We were not bred to talke, man; when we are arm'd +And both upon our guards, then let our fury, +Like meeting of two tides, fly strongly from us, +And then to whom the birthright of this Beauty +Truely pertaines (without obbraidings, scornes, +Dispisings of our persons, and such powtings, +Fitter for Girles and Schooleboyes) will be seene +And quickly, yours, or mine: wilt please you arme, Sir, +Or if you feele your selfe not fitting yet +And furnishd with your old strength, ile stay, Cosen, +And ev'ry day discourse you into health, +As I am spard: your person I am friends with, +And I could wish I had not saide I lov'd her, +Though I had dide; But loving such a Lady +And justifying my Love, I must not fly from't. + +PALAMON. +Arcite, thou art so brave an enemy, +That no man but thy Cosen's fit to kill thee: +I am well and lusty, choose your Armes. + +ARCITE. +Choose you, Sir. + +PALAMON. +Wilt thou exceede in all, or do'st thou doe it +To make me spare thee? + +ARCITE. +If you thinke so, Cosen, +You are deceived, for as I am a Soldier, +I will not spare you. + +PALAMON. +That's well said. + +ARCITE. +You'l finde it. + +PALAMON. +Then, as I am an honest man and love +With all the justice of affection, +Ile pay thee soundly. This ile take. + +ARCITE. +That's mine, then; +Ile arme you first. + +PALAMON. +Do: pray thee, tell me, Cosen, +Where gotst thou this good Armour? + +ARCITE. +Tis the Dukes, +And to say true, I stole it; doe I pinch you? + +PALAMON. +Noe. + +ARCITE. +Is't not too heavie? + +PALAMON. +I have worne a lighter, +But I shall make it serve. + +ARCITE. +Ile buckl't close. + +PALAMON. +By any meanes. + +ARCITE. +You care not for a Grand guard? + +PALAMON. +No, no; wee'l use no horses: I perceave +You would faine be at that Fight. + +ARCITE. +I am indifferent. + +PALAMON. +Faith, so am I: good Cosen, thrust the buckle +Through far enough. + +ARCITE. +I warrant you. + +PALAMON. +My Caske now. + +ARCITE. +Will you fight bare-armd? + +PALAMON. +We shall be the nimbler. + +ARCITE. +But use your Gauntlets though; those are o'th least, +Prethee take mine, good Cosen. + +PALAMON. +Thanke you, Arcite. +How doe I looke? am I falne much away? + +ARCITE. +Faith, very little; love has usd you kindly. + +PALAMON. +Ile warrant thee, Ile strike home. + +ARCITE. +Doe, and spare not; +Ile give you cause, sweet Cosen. + +PALAMON. +Now to you, Sir: +Me thinkes this Armor's very like that, Arcite, +Thou wor'st the day the 3. Kings fell, but lighter. + +ARCITE. +That was a very good one; and that day, +I well remember, you outdid me, Cosen. +I never saw such valour: when you chargd +Vpon the left wing of the Enemie, +I spurd hard to come up, and under me +I had a right good horse. + +PALAMON. +You had indeede; a bright Bay, I remember. + +ARCITE. +Yes, but all +Was vainely labour'd in me; you outwent me, +Nor could my wishes reach you; yet a little +I did by imitation. + +PALAMON. +More by vertue; +You are modest, Cosen. + +ARCITE. +When I saw you charge first, +Me thought I heard a dreadfull clap of Thunder +Breake from the Troope. + +PALAMON. +But still before that flew +The lightning of your valour. Stay a little, +Is not this peece too streight? + +ARCITE. +No, no, tis well. + +PALAMON. +I would have nothing hurt thee but my Sword, +A bruise would be dishonour. + +ARCITE. +Now I am perfect. + +PALAMON. +Stand off, then. + +ARCITE. +Take my Sword, I hold it better. + +PALAMON. +I thanke ye: No, keepe it; your life lyes on it. +Here's one; if it but hold, I aske no more +For all my hopes: My Cause and honour guard me! [They bow + severall wayes: then advance and stand.] + +ARCITE. +And me my love! Is there ought else to say? + +PALAMON. +This onely, and no more: Thou art mine Aunts Son, +And that blood we desire to shed is mutuall; +In me, thine, and in thee, mine. My Sword +Is in my hand, and if thou killst me, +The gods and I forgive thee; If there be +A place prepar'd for those that sleepe in honour, +I wish his wearie soule that falls may win it: +Fight bravely, Cosen; give me thy noble hand. + +ARCITE. +Here, Palamon: This hand shall never more +Come neare thee with such friendship. + +PALAMON. +I commend thee. + +ARCITE. +If I fall, curse me, and say I was a coward, +For none but such dare die in these just Tryalls. +Once more farewell, my Cosen. + +PALAMON. +Farewell, Arcite. [Fight.] + +[Hornes within: they stand.] + +ARCITE. +Loe, Cosen, loe, our Folly has undon us. + +PALAMON. +Why? + +ARCITE. +This is the Duke, a hunting as I told you. +If we be found, we are wretched. O retire +For honours sake, and safety presently +Into your Bush agen; Sir, we shall finde +Too many howres to dye in: gentle Cosen, +If you be seene you perish instantly +For breaking prison, and I, if you reveale me, +For my contempt. Then all the world will scorne us, +And say we had a noble difference, +But base disposers of it. + +PALAMON. +No, no, Cosen, +I will no more be hidden, nor put off +This great adventure to a second Tryall: +I know your cunning, and I know your cause; +He that faints now, shame take him: put thy selfe +Vpon thy present guard— + +ARCITE. +You are not mad? + +PALAMON. +Or I will make th'advantage of this howre +Mine owne, and what to come shall threaten me, +I feare lesse then my fortune: know, weake Cosen, +I love Emilia, and in that ile bury +Thee, and all crosses else. + +ARCITE. +Then, come what can come, +Thou shalt know, Palamon, I dare as well +Die, as discourse, or sleepe: Onely this feares me, +The law will have the honour of our ends. +Have at thy life. + +PALAMON. +Looke to thine owne well, Arcite. [Fight againe. Hornes.] + +[Enter Theseus, Hipolita, Emilia, Perithous and traine.] + +THESEUS. +What ignorant and mad malicious Traitors, +Are you, That gainst the tenor of my Lawes +Are making Battaile, thus like Knights appointed, +Without my leave, and Officers of Armes? +By Castor, both shall dye. + +PALAMON. +Hold thy word, Theseus. +We are certainly both Traitors, both despisers +Of thee and of thy goodnesse: I am Palamon, +That cannot love thee, he that broke thy Prison; +Thinke well what that deserves: and this is Arcite, +A bolder Traytor never trod thy ground, +A Falser neu'r seem'd friend: This is the man +Was begd and banish'd; this is he contemnes thee +And what thou dar'st doe, and in this disguise +Against thy owne Edict followes thy Sister, +That fortunate bright Star, the faire Emilia, +Whose servant, (if there be a right in seeing, +And first bequeathing of the soule to) justly +I am, and, which is more, dares thinke her his. +This treacherie, like a most trusty Lover, +I call'd him now to answer; if thou bee'st, +As thou art spoken, great and vertuous, +The true descider of all injuries, +Say, 'Fight againe,' and thou shalt see me, Theseus, +Doe such a Iustice, thou thy selfe wilt envie. +Then take my life; Ile wooe thee too't. + +PERITHOUS. +O heaven, +What more then man is this! + +THESEUS. +I have sworne. + +ARCITE. +We seeke not +Thy breath of mercy, Theseus. Tis to me +A thing as soone to dye, as thee to say it, +And no more mov'd: where this man calls me Traitor, +Let me say thus much: if in love be Treason, +In service of so excellent a Beutie, +As I love most, and in that faith will perish, +As I have brought my life here to confirme it, +As I have serv'd her truest, worthiest, +As I dare kill this Cosen, that denies it, +So let me be most Traitor, and ye please me. +For scorning thy Edict, Duke, aske that Lady +Why she is faire, and why her eyes command me +Stay here to love her; and if she say 'Traytor,' +I am a villaine fit to lye unburied. + +PALAMON. +Thou shalt have pitty of us both, o Theseus, +If unto neither thou shew mercy; stop +(As thou art just) thy noble eare against us. +As thou art valiant, for thy Cosens soule +Whose 12. strong labours crowne his memory, +Lets die together, at one instant, Duke, +Onely a little let him fall before me, +That I may tell my Soule he shall not have her. + +THESEUS. +I grant your wish, for, to say true, your Cosen +Has ten times more offended; for I gave him +More mercy then you found, Sir, your offenses +Being no more then his. None here speake for 'em, +For, ere the Sun set, both shall sleepe for ever. + +HIPPOLITA. +Alas the pitty! now or never, Sister, +Speake, not to be denide; That face of yours +Will beare the curses else of after ages +For these lost Cosens. + +EMILIA. +In my face, deare Sister, +I finde no anger to 'em, nor no ruyn; +The misadventure of their owne eyes kill 'em; +Yet that I will be woman, and have pitty, +My knees shall grow to'th ground but Ile get mercie. +Helpe me, deare Sister; in a deede so vertuous +The powers of all women will be with us. +Most royall Brother— + +HIPPOLITA. +Sir, by our tye of Marriage— + +EMILIA. +By your owne spotlesse honour— + +HIPPOLITA. +By that faith, +That faire hand, and that honest heart you gave me. + +EMILIA. +By that you would have pitty in another, +By your owne vertues infinite. + +HIPPOLITA. +By valour, +By all the chaste nights I have ever pleasd you. + +THESEUS. +These are strange Conjurings. + +PERITHOUS. +Nay, then, Ile in too: +By all our friendship, Sir, by all our dangers, +By all you love most: warres and this sweet Lady. + +EMILIA. +By that you would have trembled to deny, +A blushing Maide. + +HIPPOLITA. +By your owne eyes: By strength, +In which you swore I went beyond all women, +Almost all men, and yet I yeelded, Theseus. + +PERITHOUS. +To crowne all this: By your most noble soule, +Which cannot want due mercie, I beg first. + +HIPPOLITA. +Next, heare my prayers. + +EMILIA. +Last, let me intreate, Sir. + +PERITHOUS. +For mercy. + +HIPPOLITA. +Mercy. + +EMILIA. +Mercy on these Princes. + +THESEUS. +Ye make my faith reele: Say I felt +Compassion to'em both, how would you place it? + +EMILIA. +Vpon their lives: But with their banishments. + +THESEUS. +You are a right woman, Sister; you have pitty, +But want the vnderstanding where to use it. +If you desire their lives, invent a way +Safer then banishment: Can these two live +And have the agony of love about 'em, +And not kill one another? Every day +They'ld fight about you; howrely bring your honour +In publique question with their Swords. Be wise, then, +And here forget 'em; it concernes your credit +And my oth equally: I have said they die; +Better they fall by'th law, then one another. +Bow not my honor. + +EMILIA. +O my noble Brother, +That oth was rashly made, and in your anger, +Your reason will not hold it; if such vowes +Stand for expresse will, all the world must perish. +Beside, I have another oth gainst yours, +Of more authority, I am sure more love, +Not made in passion neither, but good heede. + +THESEUS. +What is it, Sister? + +PERITHOUS. +Vrge it home, brave Lady. + +EMILIA. +That you would nev'r deny me any thing +Fit for my modest suit, and your free granting: +I tye you to your word now; if ye fall in't, +Thinke how you maime your honour, +(For now I am set a begging, Sir, I am deafe +To all but your compassion.) How, their lives +Might breed the ruine of my name, Opinion! +Shall any thing that loves me perish for me? +That were a cruell wisedome; doe men proyne +The straight yong Bowes that blush with thousand Blossoms, +Because they may be rotten? O Duke Theseus, +The goodly Mothers that have groand for these, +And all the longing Maides that ever lov'd, +If your vow stand, shall curse me and my Beauty, +And in their funerall songs for these two Cosens +Despise my crueltie, and cry woe worth me, +Till I am nothing but the scorne of women; +For heavens sake save their lives, and banish 'em. + +THESEUS. +On what conditions? + +EMILIA. +Sweare'em never more +To make me their Contention, or to know me, +To tread upon thy Dukedome; and to be, +Where ever they shall travel, ever strangers +To one another. + +PALAMON. +Ile be cut a peeces +Before I take this oth: forget I love her? +O all ye gods dispise me, then! Thy Banishment +I not mislike, so we may fairely carry +Our Swords and cause along: else, never trifle, +But take our lives, Duke: I must love and will, +And for that love must and dare kill this Cosen +On any peece the earth has. + +THESEUS. +Will you, Arcite, +Take these conditions? + +PALAMON. +He's a villaine, then. + +PERITHOUS. +These are men. + +ARCITE. +No, never, Duke: Tis worse to me than begging +To take my life so basely; though I thinke +I never shall enjoy her, yet ile preserve +The honour of affection, and dye for her, +Make death a Devill. + +THESEUS. +What may be done? for now I feele compassion. + +PERITHOUS. +Let it not fall agen, Sir. + +THESEUS. +Say, Emilia, +If one of them were dead, as one must, are you +Content to take th'other to your husband? +They cannot both enjoy you; They are Princes +As goodly as your owne eyes, and as noble +As ever fame yet spoke of; looke upon 'em, +And if you can love, end this difference. +I give consent; are you content too, Princes? + +BOTH. +With all our soules. + +THESEUS. +He that she refuses +Must dye, then. + +BOTH. +Any death thou canst invent, Duke. + +PALAMON. +If I fall from that mouth, I fall with favour, +And Lovers yet unborne shall blesse my ashes. + +ARCITE. +If she refuse me, yet my grave will wed me, +And Souldiers sing my Epitaph. + +THESEUS. +Make choice, then. + +EMILIA. +I cannot, Sir, they are both too excellent: +For me, a hayre shall never fall of these men. + +HIPPOLITA. +What will become of 'em? + +THESEUS. +Thus I ordaine it; +And by mine honor, once againe, it stands, +Or both shall dye:—You shall both to your Countrey, +And each within this moneth, accompanied +With three faire Knights, appeare againe in this place, +In which Ile plant a Pyramid; and whether, +Before us that are here, can force his Cosen +By fayre and knightly strength to touch the Pillar, +He shall enjoy her: the other loose his head, +And all his friends; Nor shall he grudge to fall, +Nor thinke he dies with interest in this Lady: +Will this content yee? + +PALAMON. +Yes: here, Cosen Arcite, +I am friends againe, till that howre. + +ARCITE. +I embrace ye. + +THESEUS. +Are you content, Sister? + +EMILIA. +Yes, I must, Sir, +Els both miscarry. + +THESEUS. +Come, shake hands againe, then; +And take heede, as you are Gentlemen, this Quarrell +Sleepe till the howre prefixt; and hold your course. + +PALAMON. +We dare not faile thee, Theseus. + +THESEUS. +Come, Ile give ye +Now usage like to Princes, and to Friends: +When ye returne, who wins, Ile settle heere; +Who looses, yet Ile weepe upon his Beere. [Exeunt.] + +ACT IV + +SCENE 1. (Athens. A room in the prison.) + +[Enter Iailor and his friend.] + +IAILOR. +Heare you no more? was nothing saide of me +Concerning the escape of Palamon? +Good Sir, remember. + +1. FRIEND. +Nothing that I heard, +For I came home before the busines +Was fully ended: Yet I might perceive, +Ere I departed, a great likelihood +Of both their pardons: For Hipolita, +And faire-eyd Emilie, upon their knees +Begd with such hansom pitty, that the Duke +Me thought stood staggering, whether he should follow +His rash oth, or the sweet compassion +Of those two Ladies; and to second them, +That truely noble Prince Perithous, +Halfe his owne heart, set in too, that I hope +All shall be well: Neither heard I one question +Of your name or his scape. + +[Enter 2. Friend.] + +IAILOR. +Pray heaven it hold so. + +2. FRIEND. +Be of good comfort, man; I bring you newes, +Good newes. + +IAILOR. +They are welcome, + +2. FRIEND. +Palamon has cleerd you, +And got your pardon, and discoverd how +And by whose meanes he escapt, which was your Daughters, +Whose pardon is procurd too; and the Prisoner, +Not to be held ungratefull to her goodnes, +Has given a summe of money to her Marriage, +A large one, ile assure you. + +IAILOR. +Ye are a good man +And ever bring good newes. + +1. FRIEND. +How was it ended? + +2. FRIEND. +Why, as it should be; they that nev'r begd +But they prevaild, had their suites fairely granted, +The prisoners have their lives. + +1. FRIEND. +I knew t'would be so. + +2. FRIEND. +But there be new conditions, which you'l heare of +At better time. + +IAILOR. +I hope they are good. + +2. FRIEND. +They are honourable, +How good they'l prove, I know not. + +[Enter Wooer.] + +1. FRIEND. +T'will be knowne. + +WOOER. +Alas, Sir, wher's your Daughter? + +IAILOR. +Why doe you aske? + +WOOER. +O, Sir, when did you see her? + +2. FRIEND. +How he lookes? + +IAILOR. +This morning. + +WOOER. +Was she well? was she in health, Sir? +When did she sleepe? + +1. FRIEND. +These are strange Questions. + +IAILOR. +I doe not thinke she was very well, for now +You make me minde her, but this very day +I ask'd her questions, and she answered me +So farre from what she was, so childishly, +So sillily, as if she were a foole, +An Inocent, and I was very angry. +But what of her, Sir? + +WOOER. +Nothing but my pitty; +But you must know it, and as good by me +As by an other that lesse loves her— + +IAILOR. +Well, Sir. + +1. FRIEND. +Not right? + +2. FRIEND. +Not well? + +WOOER. +No, Sir, not well. +Tis too true, she is mad. + +1. FRIEND. +It cannot be. + +WOOER. +Beleeve, you'l finde it so. + +IAILOR. +I halfe suspected +What you (have) told me: the gods comfort her: +Either this was her love to Palamon, +Or feare of my miscarrying on his scape, +Or both. + +WOOER. +Tis likely. + +IAILOR. +But why all this haste, Sir? + +WOOER. +Ile tell you quickly. As I late was angling +In the great Lake that lies behind the Pallace, +From the far shore, thicke set with reedes and Sedges, +As patiently I was attending sport, +I heard a voyce, a shrill one, and attentive +I gave my eare, when I might well perceive +T'was one that sung, and by the smallnesse of it +A boy or woman. I then left my angle +To his owne skill, came neere, but yet perceivd not +Who made the sound, the rushes and the Reeds +Had so encompast it: I laide me downe +And listned to the words she sung, for then, +Through a small glade cut by the Fisher men, +I saw it was your Daughter. + +IAILOR. +Pray, goe on, Sir? + +WOOER. +She sung much, but no sence; onely I heard her +Repeat this often: 'Palamon is gone, +Is gone to'th wood to gather Mulberies; +Ile finde him out to morrow.' + +1. FRIEND. +Pretty soule. + +WOOER. +'His shackles will betray him, hee'l be taken, +And what shall I doe then? Ile bring a beavy, +A hundred blacke eyd Maides, that love as I doe, +With Chaplets on their heads of Daffadillies, +With cherry-lips, and cheekes of Damaske Roses, +And all wee'l daunce an Antique fore the Duke, +And beg his pardon.' Then she talk'd of you, Sir; +That you must loose your head to morrow morning, +And she must gather flowers to bury you, +And see the house made handsome: then she sung +Nothing but 'Willow, willow, willow,' and betweene +Ever was, 'Palamon, faire Palamon,' +And 'Palamon was a tall yong man.' The place +Was knee deepe where she sat; her careles Tresses +A wreathe of bull-rush rounded; about her stucke +Thousand fresh water flowers of severall cullors, +That me thought she appeard like the faire Nimph +That feedes the lake with waters, or as Iris +Newly dropt downe from heaven; Rings she made +Of rushes that grew by, and to 'em spoke +The prettiest posies: 'Thus our true love's tide,' +'This you may loose, not me,' and many a one: +And then she wept, and sung againe, and sigh'd, +And with the same breath smil'd, and kist her hand. + +2. FRIEND. +Alas, what pitty it is! + +WOOER. +I made in to her. +She saw me, and straight sought the flood; I sav'd her, +And set her safe to land: when presently +She slipt away, and to the Citty made, +With such a cry and swiftnes, that, beleeve me, +Shee left me farre behinde her; three or foure +I saw from farre off crosse her, one of 'em +I knew to be your brother; where she staid, +And fell, scarce to be got away: I left them with her, [Enter + Brother, Daughter, and others.] +And hether came to tell you. Here they are. + +DAUGHTER. [sings.] + +May you never more enjoy the light, &c. + +Is not this a fine Song? + +BROTHER. +O, a very fine one. + +DAUGHTER. +I can sing twenty more. + +BROTHER. +I thinke you can. + +DAUGHTER. +Yes, truely, can I; I can sing the Broome, +And Bony Robin. Are not you a tailour? + +BROTHER. +Yes. + +DAUGHTER. +Wher's my wedding Gowne? + +BROTHER. +Ile bring it to morrow. + +DAUGHTER. +Doe, very rarely; I must be abroad else +To call the Maides, and pay the Minstrels, +For I must loose my Maydenhead by cock-light; +Twill never thrive else. +[Singes.] O faire, oh sweete, &c. + +BROTHER. +You must ev'n take it patiently. + +IAILOR. +Tis true. + +DAUGHTER. +Good ev'n, good men; pray, did you ever heare +Of one yong Palamon? + +IAILOR. +Yes, wench, we know him. + +DAUGHTER. +Is't not a fine yong Gentleman? + +IAILOR. +Tis Love. + +BROTHER. +By no meane crosse her; she is then distemperd +Far worse then now she showes. + +1. FRIEND. +Yes, he's a fine man. + +DAUGHTER. +O, is he so? you have a Sister? + +1. FRIEND. +Yes. + +DAUGHTER. +But she shall never have him, tell her so, +For a tricke that I know; y'had best looke to her, +For if she see him once, she's gone, she's done, +And undon in an howre. All the young Maydes +Of our Towne are in love with him, but I laugh at 'em +And let 'em all alone; Is't not a wise course? + +1. FRIEND. +Yes. + +DAUGHTER. +There is at least two hundred now with child by him— +There must be fowre; yet I keepe close for all this, +Close as a Cockle; and all these must be Boyes, +He has the tricke on't, and at ten yeares old +They must be all gelt for Musitians, +And sing the wars of Theseus. + +2. FRIEND. +This is strange. + +DAUGHTER. +As ever you heard, but say nothing. + +1. FRIEND. +No. + +DAUGHTER. +They come from all parts of the Dukedome to him; +Ile warrant ye, he had not so few last night +As twenty to dispatch: hee'l tickl't up +In two howres, if his hand be in. + +IAILOR. +She's lost +Past all cure. + +BROTHER. +Heaven forbid, man. + +DAUGHTER. +Come hither, you are a wise man. + +1. FRIEND. +Do's she know him? + +2. FRIEND. +No, would she did. + +DAUGHTER. +You are master of a Ship? + +IAILOR. +Yes. + +DAUGHTER. +Wher's your Compasse? + +IAILOR. +Heere. + +DAUGHTER. +Set it too'th North. +And now direct your course to'th wood, wher Palamon +Lyes longing for me; For the Tackling +Let me alone; Come, waygh, my hearts, cheerely! + +ALL. +Owgh, owgh, owgh, tis up, the wind's faire, +Top the Bowling, out with the maine saile; +Wher's your Whistle, Master? + +BROTHER. +Lets get her in. + +IAILOR. +Vp to the top, Boy. + +BROTHER. +Wher's the Pilot? + +1. FRIEND. +Heere. + +DAUGHTER. +What ken'st thou? + +2. FRIEND. +A faire wood. + +DAUGHTER. +Beare for it, master: take about! [Singes.] +When Cinthia with her borrowed light, &c. [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 2. (A Room in the Palace.) + +[Enter Emilia alone, with 2. Pictures.] + +EMILIA. +Yet I may binde those wounds up, that must open +And bleed to death for my sake else; Ile choose, +And end their strife: Two such yong hansom men +Shall never fall for me, their weeping Mothers, +Following the dead cold ashes of their Sonnes, +Shall never curse my cruelty. Good heaven, +What a sweet face has Arcite! if wise nature, +With all her best endowments, all those beuties +She sowes into the birthes of noble bodies, +Were here a mortall woman, and had in her +The coy denialls of yong Maydes, yet doubtles, +She would run mad for this man: what an eye, +Of what a fyry sparkle, and quick sweetnes, +Has this yong Prince! Here Love himselfe sits smyling, +Iust such another wanton Ganimead +Set Jove a fire with, and enforcd the god +Snatch up the goodly Boy, and set him by him +A shining constellation: What a brow, +Of what a spacious Majesty, he carries! +Arch'd like the great eyd Iuno's, but far sweeter, +Smoother then Pelops Shoulder! Fame and honour, +Me thinks, from hence, as from a Promontory +Pointed in heaven, should clap their wings, and sing +To all the under world the Loves and Fights +Of gods, and such men neere 'em. Palamon +Is but his foyle, to him a meere dull shadow: +Hee's swarth and meagre, of an eye as heavy +As if he had lost his mother; a still temper, +No stirring in him, no alacrity, +Of all this sprightly sharpenes not a smile; +Yet these that we count errours may become him: +Narcissus was a sad Boy, but a heavenly:— +Oh who can finde the bent of womans fancy? +I am a Foole, my reason is lost in me; +I have no choice, and I have ly'd so lewdly +That women ought to beate me. On my knees +I aske thy pardon, Palamon; thou art alone, +And only beutifull, and these the eyes, +These the bright lamps of beauty, that command +And threaten Love, and what yong Mayd dare crosse 'em? +What a bold gravity, and yet inviting, +Has this browne manly face! O Love, this only +From this howre is Complexion: Lye there, Arcite, +Thou art a changling to him, a meere Gipsey, +And this the noble Bodie. I am sotted, +Vtterly lost: My Virgins faith has fled me; +For if my brother but even now had ask'd me +Whether I lov'd, I had run mad for Arcite; +Now, if my Sister, More for Palamon. +Stand both together: Now, come aske me, Brother.— +Alas, I know not! Aske me now, sweet Sister;— +I may goe looke. What a meere child is Fancie, +That, having two faire gawdes of equall sweetnesse, +Cannot distinguish, but must crie for both. + +[Enter (a) Gent(leman.)] + +EMILIA. +How now, Sir? + +GENTLEMAN. +From the Noble Duke your Brother, +Madam, I bring you newes: The Knights are come. + +EMILIA. +To end the quarrell? + +GENTLEMAN. +Yes. + +EMILIA. +Would I might end first: +What sinnes have I committed, chast Diana, +That my unspotted youth must now be soyld +With blood of Princes? and my Chastitie +Be made the Altar, where the lives of Lovers +(Two greater and two better never yet +Made mothers joy) must be the sacrifice +To my unhappy Beautie? + +[Enter Theseus, Hipolita, Perithous and attendants.] + +THESEUS. +Bring 'em in +Quickly, By any meanes; I long to see 'em.— +Your two contending Lovers are return'd, +And with them their faire Knights: Now, my faire Sister, +You must love one of them. + +EMILIA. +I had rather both, +So neither for my sake should fall untimely. + +[Enter Messenger. (Curtis.)] + +THESEUS. +Who saw 'em? + +PERITHOUS. +I, a while. + +GENTLEMAN. +And I. + +THESEUS. +From whence come you, Sir? + +MESSENGER. +From the Knights. + +THESEUS. +Pray, speake, +You that have seene them, what they are. + +MESSENGER. +I will, Sir, +And truly what I thinke: Six braver spirits +Then these they have brought, (if we judge by the outside) +I never saw, nor read of. He that stands +In the first place with Arcite, by his seeming, +Should be a stout man, by his face a Prince, +(His very lookes so say him) his complexion, +Nearer a browne, than blacke, sterne, and yet noble, +Which shewes him hardy, fearelesse, proud of dangers: +The circles of his eyes show fire within him, +And as a heated Lyon, so he lookes; +His haire hangs long behind him, blacke and shining +Like Ravens wings: his shoulders broad and strong, +Armd long and round, and on his Thigh a Sword +Hung by a curious Bauldricke, when he frownes +To seale his will with: better, o'my conscience +Was never Souldiers friend. + +THESEUS. +Thou ha'st well describde him. + +PERITHOUS. +Yet a great deale short, +Me thinkes, of him that's first with Palamon. + +THESEUS. +Pray, speake him, friend. + +PERITHOUS. +I ghesse he is a Prince too, +And, if it may be, greater; for his show +Has all the ornament of honour in't: +Hee's somewhat bigger, then the Knight he spoke of, +But of a face far sweeter; His complexion +Is (as a ripe grape) ruddy: he has felt, +Without doubt, what he fights for, and so apter +To make this cause his owne: In's face appeares +All the faire hopes of what he undertakes, +And when he's angry, then a setled valour +(Not tainted with extreames) runs through his body, +And guides his arme to brave things: Feare he cannot, +He shewes no such soft temper; his head's yellow, +Hard hayr'd, and curld, thicke twind like Ivy tods, +Not to undoe with thunder; In his face +The liverie of the warlike Maide appeares, +Pure red, and white, for yet no beard has blest him. +And in his rowling eyes sits victory, +As if she ever ment to court his valour: +His Nose stands high, a Character of honour. +His red lips, after fights, are fit for Ladies. + +EMILIA. +Must these men die too? + +PERITHOUS. +When he speakes, his tongue +Sounds like a Trumpet; All his lyneaments +Are as a man would wish 'em, strong and cleane, +He weares a well-steeld Axe, the staffe of gold; +His age some five and twenty. + +MESSENGER. +Ther's another, +A little man, but of a tough soule, seeming +As great as any: fairer promises +In such a Body yet I never look'd on. + +PERITHOUS. +O, he that's freckle fac'd? + +MESSENGER. +The same, my Lord; +Are they not sweet ones? + +PERITHOUS. +Yes, they are well. + +MESSENGER. +Me thinkes, +Being so few, and well disposd, they show +Great, and fine art in nature: he's white hair'd, +Not wanton white, but such a manly colour +Next to an aborne; tough, and nimble set, +Which showes an active soule; his armes are brawny, +Linde with strong sinewes: To the shoulder peece +Gently they swell, like women new conceav'd, +Which speakes him prone to labour, never fainting +Vnder the waight of Armes; stout harted, still, +But when he stirs, a Tiger; he's gray eyd, +Which yeelds compassion where he conquers: sharpe +To spy advantages, and where he finds 'em, +He's swift to make 'em his: He do's no wrongs, +Nor takes none; he's round fac'd, and when he smiles +He showes a Lover, when he frownes, a Souldier: +About his head he weares the winners oke, +And in it stucke the favour of his Lady: +His age, some six and thirtie. In his hand +He beares a charging Staffe, embost with silver. + +THESEUS. +Are they all thus? + +PERITHOUS. +They are all the sonnes of honour. + +THESEUS. +Now, as I have a soule, I long to see'em. +Lady, you shall see men fight now. + +HIPPOLITA. +I wish it, +But not the cause, my Lord; They would show +Bravely about the Titles of two Kingdomes; +Tis pitty Love should be so tyrannous: +O my soft harted Sister, what thinke you? +Weepe not, till they weepe blood, Wench; it must be. + +THESEUS. +You have steel'd 'em with your Beautie.—Honord Friend, +To you I give the Feild; pray, order it +Fitting the persons that must use it. + +PERITHOUS. +Yes, Sir. + +THESEUS. +Come, Ile goe visit 'em: I cannot stay, +Their fame has fir'd me so; Till they appeare. +Good Friend, be royall. + +PERITHOUS. +There shall want no bravery. + +EMILIA. +Poore wench, goe weepe, for whosoever wins, +Looses a noble Cosen for thy sins. [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 3. (A room in the prison.) + +[Enter Iailor, Wooer, Doctor.] + +DOCTOR. +Her distraction is more at some time of the Moone, then at other some, +is it not? + +IAILOR. +She is continually in a harmelesse distemper, sleepes little, +altogether without appetite, save often drinking, dreaming of another +world, and a better; and what broken peece of matter so'ere she's +about, the name Palamon lardes it, that she farces ev'ry busines +withall, fyts it to every question.— + +[Enter Daughter.] + +Looke where shee comes, you shall perceive her behaviour. + +DAUGHTER. +I have forgot it quite; The burden on't, was DOWNE A, DOWNE A, and pend +by no worse man, then Giraldo, Emilias Schoolemaster; he's as +Fantasticall too, as ever he may goe upon's legs,—for in the next world +will Dido see Palamon, and then will she be out of love with Eneas. + +DOCTOR. +What stuff's here? pore soule! + +IAILOR. +Ev'n thus all day long. + +DAUGHTER. +Now for this Charme, that I told you of: you must bring a peece of +silver on the tip of your tongue, or no ferry: then, if it be your +chance to come where the blessed spirits, as ther's a sight now—we +maids that have our Lyvers perish'd, crakt to peeces with Love, we +shall come there, and doe nothing all day long but picke flowers with +Proserpine; then will I make Palamon a Nosegay; then let him marke +me,—then— + +DOCTOR. +How prettily she's amisse? note her a little further. + +DAUGHTER. +Faith, ile tell you, sometime we goe to Barly breake, we of the +blessed; alas, tis a sore life they have i'th other place, such +burning, frying, boyling, hissing, howling, chattring, cursing, oh they +have shrowd measure! take heede; if one be mad, or hang or drowne +themselves, thither they goe, Iupiter blesse vs, and there shall we be +put in a Caldron of lead, and Vsurers grease, amongst a whole million +of cutpurses, and there boyle like a Gamon of Bacon that will never be +enough. [Exit.] + +DOCTOR. +How her braine coynes! + +DAUGHTER. +Lords and Courtiers, that have got maids with Child, they are in this +place: they shall stand in fire up to the Nav'le, and in yce up to'th +hart, and there th'offending part burnes, and the deceaving part +freezes; in troth, a very greevous punishment, as one would thinke, for +such a Trifle; beleve me, one would marry a leaprous witch, to be rid +on't, Ile assure you. + +DOCTOR. +How she continues this fancie! Tis not an engraffed Madnesse, but a +most thicke, and profound mellencholly. + +DAUGHTER. +To heare there a proud Lady, and a proud Citty wiffe, howle together! I +were a beast and il'd call it good sport: one cries, 'O this smoake!' +another, 'this fire!' One cries, 'O, that ever I did it behind the +arras!' and then howles; th'other curses a suing fellow and her garden +house. [Sings] I will be true, my stars, my fate, &c. [Exit Daugh.] + +IAILOR. +What thinke you of her, Sir? + +DOCTOR. +I thinke she has a perturbed minde, which I cannot minister to. + +IAILOR. +Alas, what then? + +DOCTOR. +Vnderstand you, she ever affected any man, ere she beheld +Palamon? + +IAILOR. +I was once, Sir, in great hope she had fixd her liking on this +gentleman, my friend. + +WOOER. +I did thinke so too, and would account I had a great pen-worth on't, to +give halfe my state, that both she and I at this present stood +unfainedly on the same tearmes. + +DOCTOR. +That intemprat surfeit of her eye hath distemperd the other sences: +they may returne and settle againe to execute their preordaind +faculties, but they are now in a most extravagant vagary. This you +must doe: Confine her to a place, where the light may rather seeme to +steale in, then be permitted; take vpon you (yong Sir, her friend) the +name of Palamon; say you come to eate with her, and to commune of Love; +this will catch her attention, for this her minde beates upon; other +objects that are inserted tweene her minde and eye become the prankes +and friskins of her madnes; Sing to her such greene songs of Love, as +she sayes Palamon hath sung in prison; Come to her, stucke in as sweet +flowers as the season is mistres of, and thereto make an addition of +som other compounded odours, which are grateful to the sence: all this +shall become Palamon, for Palamon can sing, and Palamon is sweet, and +ev'ry good thing: desire to eate with her, carve her, drinke to her, +and still among, intermingle your petition of grace and acceptance into +her favour: Learne what Maides have beene her companions and +play-pheeres, and let them repaire to her with Palamon in their +mouthes, and appeare with tokens, as if they suggested for him. It is a +falsehood she is in, which is with falsehood to be combated. This may +bring her to eate, to sleepe, and reduce what's now out of square in +her, into their former law, and regiment; I have seene it approved, how +many times I know not, but to make the number more, I have great hope +in this. I will, betweene the passages of this project, come in with +my applyance: Let us put it in execution, and hasten the successe, +which, doubt not, will bring forth comfort. [Florish. Exeunt.] + +ACT V + +SCENE 1. (Before the Temples of Mars, Venus, and Diana.) + +[Enter Thesius, Perithous, Hipolita, attendants.] + +THESEUS. +Now let'em enter, and before the gods +Tender their holy prayers: Let the Temples +Burne bright with sacred fires, and the Altars +In hallowed clouds commend their swelling Incense +To those above us: Let no due be wanting; [Florish of Cornets.] +They have a noble worke in hand, will honour +The very powers that love 'em. + +[Enter Palamon and Arcite, and their Knights.] + +PERITHOUS. +Sir, they enter. + +THESEUS. +You valiant and strong harted Enemies, +You royall German foes, that this day come +To blow that furnesse out that flames betweene ye: +Lay by your anger for an houre, and dove-like, +Before the holy Altars of your helpers, +(The all feard gods) bow downe your stubborne bodies. +Your ire is more than mortall; So your helpe be, +And as the gods regard ye, fight with Iustice; +Ile leave you to your prayers, and betwixt ye +I part my wishes. + +PERITHOUS. +Honour crowne the worthiest. [Exit Theseus, and his traine.] + +PALAMON. +The glasse is running now that cannot finish +Till one of us expire: Thinke you but thus, +That were there ought in me which strove to show +Mine enemy in this businesse, wer't one eye +Against another, Arme opprest by Arme, +I would destroy th'offender, Coz, I would, +Though parcell of my selfe: Then from this gather +How I should tender you. + +ARCITE. +I am in labour +To push your name, your auncient love, our kindred +Out of my memory; and i'th selfe same place +To seate something I would confound: So hoyst we +The sayles, that must these vessells port even where +The heavenly Lymiter pleases. + +PALAMON. +You speake well; +Before I turne, Let me embrace thee, Cosen: +This I shall never doe agen. + +ARCITE. +One farewell. + +PALAMON. +Why, let it be so: Farewell, Coz. [Exeunt Palamon and his +Knights.] + +ARCITE. +Farewell, Sir.— +Knights, Kinsemen, Lovers, yea, my Sacrifices, +True worshippers of Mars, whose spirit in you +Expells the seedes of feare, and th'apprehension +Which still is farther off it, Goe with me +Before the god of our profession: There +Require of him the hearts of Lyons, and +The breath of Tigers, yea, the fearcenesse too, +Yea, the speed also,—to goe on, I meane, +Else wish we to be Snayles: you know my prize +Must be drag'd out of blood; force and great feate +Must put my Garland on, where she stickes +The Queene of Flowers: our intercession then +Must be to him that makes the Campe a Cestron +Brymd with the blood of men: give me your aide +And bend your spirits towards him. [They kneele.] +Thou mighty one, that with thy power hast turnd +Greene Neptune into purple, (whose Approach) +Comets prewarne, whose havocke in vaste Feild +Vnearthed skulls proclaime, whose breath blowes downe, +The teeming Ceres foyzon, who doth plucke +With hand armypotent from forth blew clowdes +The masond Turrets, that both mak'st and break'st +The stony girthes of Citties: me thy puple, +Yongest follower of thy Drom, instruct this day +With military skill, that to thy lawde +I may advance my Streamer, and by thee, +Be stil'd the Lord o'th day: give me, great Mars, +Some token of thy pleasure. + +[Here they fall on their faces as formerly, and there is heard + clanging of Armor, with a short Thunder as the burst of a +Battaile, + whereupon they all rise and bow to the Altar.] + +O Great Corrector of enormous times, +Shaker of ore-rank States, thou grand decider +Of dustie and old tytles, that healst with blood +The earth when it is sicke, and curst the world +O'th pluresie of people; I doe take +Thy signes auspiciously, and in thy name +To my designe march boldly. Let us goe. [Exeunt.] + +[Enter Palamon and his Knights, with the former observance.] + +PALAMON. +Our stars must glister with new fire, or be +To daie extinct; our argument is love, +Which if the goddesse of it grant, she gives +Victory too: then blend your spirits with mine, +You, whose free noblenesse doe make my cause +Your personall hazard; to the goddesse Venus +Commend we our proceeding, and implore +Her power unto our partie. [Here they kneele as formerly.] +Haile, Soveraigne Queene of secrets, who hast power +To call the feircest Tyrant from his rage, +And weepe unto a Girle; that ha'st the might, +Even with an ey-glance, to choke Marsis Drom +And turne th'allarme to whispers; that canst make +A Criple florish with his Crutch, and cure him +Before Apollo; that may'st force the King +To be his subjects vassaile, and induce +Stale gravitie to daunce; the pould Bachelour— +Whose youth, like wonton Boyes through Bonfyres, +Have skipt thy flame—at seaventy thou canst catch +And make him, to the scorne of his hoarse throate, +Abuse yong laies of love: what godlike power +Hast thou not power upon? To Phoebus thou +Add'st flames hotter then his; the heavenly fyres +Did scortch his mortall Son, thine him; the huntresse +All moyst and cold, some say, began to throw +Her Bow away, and sigh. Take to thy grace +Me, thy vowd Souldier, who doe beare thy yoke +As t'wer a wreath of Roses, yet is heavier +Then Lead it selfe, stings more than Nettles. +I have never beene foule mouthd against thy law, +Nev'r reveald secret, for I knew none—would not, +Had I kend all that were; I never practised +Vpon mans wife, nor would the Libells reade +Of liberall wits; I never at great feastes +Sought to betray a Beautie, but have blush'd +At simpring Sirs that did; I have beene harsh +To large Confessors, and have hotly ask'd them +If they had Mothers: I had one, a woman, +And women t'wer they wrong'd. I knew a man +Of eightie winters, this I told them, who +A Lasse of foureteene brided; twas thy power +To put life into dust; the aged Crampe +Had screw'd his square foote round, +The Gout had knit his fingers into knots, +Torturing Convulsions from his globie eyes, +Had almost drawne their spheeres, that what was life +In him seem'd torture: this Anatomie +Had by his yong faire pheare a Boy, and I +Beleev'd it was him, for she swore it was, +And who would not beleeve her? briefe, I am +To those that prate and have done no Companion; +To those that boast and have not a defyer; +To those that would and cannot a Rejoycer. +Yea, him I doe not love, that tells close offices +The fowlest way, nor names concealements in +The boldest language: such a one I am, +And vow that lover never yet made sigh +Truer then I. O, then, most soft, sweet goddesse, +Give me the victory of this question, which +Is true loves merit, and blesse me with a signe +Of thy great pleasure. + +[Here Musicke is heard, Doves are seene to flutter; they fall + againe upon their faces, then on their knees.] + +PALAMON. +O thou, that from eleven to ninetie raign'st +In mortall bosomes, whose chase is this world, +And we in heards thy game: I give thee thankes +For this faire Token, which, being layd unto +Mine innocent true heart, armes in assurance [They bow.] +My body to this businesse. Let us rise +And bow before the goddesse: Time comes on. [Exeunt.] + +[Still Musicke of Records.] + +[Enter Emilia in white, her haire about her shoulders, (wearing) a +wheaten wreath: One in white holding up her traine, her haire stucke +with flowers: One before her carrying a silver Hynde, in which is +conveyd Incense and sweet odours, which being set upon the Altar (of +Diana) her maides standing a loofe, she sets fire to it; then they +curtsey and kneele.] + +EMILIA. +O sacred, shadowie, cold and constant Queene, +Abandoner of Revells, mute, contemplative, +Sweet, solitary, white as chaste, and pure +As windefand Snow, who to thy femall knights +Alow'st no more blood than will make a blush, +Which is their orders robe: I heere, thy Priest, +Am humbled fore thine Altar; O vouchsafe, +With that thy rare greene eye, which never yet +Beheld thing maculate, looke on thy virgin; +And, sacred silver Mistris, lend thine eare +(Which nev'r heard scurrill terme, into whose port +Ne're entred wanton found,) to my petition +Seasond with holy feare: This is my last +Of vestall office; I am bride habited, +But mayden harted, a husband I have pointed, +But doe not know him; out of two I should +Choose one and pray for his successe, but I +Am guiltlesse of election: of mine eyes, +Were I to loose one, they are equall precious, +I could doombe neither, that which perish'd should +Goe too't unsentenc'd: Therefore, most modest Queene, +He of the two Pretenders, that best loves me +And has the truest title in't, Let him +Take off my wheaten Gerland, or else grant +The fyle and qualitie I hold, I may +Continue in thy Band. + +[Here the Hynde vanishes under the Altar: and in the place ascends + a Rose Tree, having one Rose upon it.] + +See what our Generall of Ebbs and Flowes +Out from the bowells of her holy Altar +With sacred act advances! But one Rose: +If well inspird, this Battaile shal confound +Both these brave Knights, and I, a virgin flowre +Must grow alone unpluck'd. + +[Here is heard a sodaine twang of Instruments, and the Rose fals\ + from the Tree (which vanishes under the altar.)] + +The flowre is falne, the Tree descends: O, Mistris, +Thou here dischargest me; I shall be gather'd: +I thinke so, but I know not thine owne will; +Vnclaspe thy Misterie.—I hope she's pleas'd, +Her Signes were gratious. [They curtsey and Exeunt.] + +SCENE 2. (A darkened Room in the Prison.) + +[Enter Doctor, Iaylor and Wooer, in habite of Palamon.] + +DOCTOR. +Has this advice I told you, done any good upon her? + +WOOER. +O very much; The maids that kept her company +Have halfe perswaded her that I am Palamon; +Within this halfe houre she came smiling to me, +And asked me what I would eate, and when I would kisse her: +I told her presently, and kist her twice. + +DOCTOR. +Twas well done; twentie times had bin far better, +For there the cure lies mainely. + +WOOER. +Then she told me +She would watch with me to night, for well she knew +What houre my fit would take me. + +DOCTOR. +Let her doe so, +And when your fit comes, fit her home, +And presently. + +WOOER. +She would have me sing. + +DOCTOR. +You did so? + +WOOER. +No. + +DOCTOR. +Twas very ill done, then; +You should observe her ev'ry way. + +WOOER. +Alas, +I have no voice, Sir, to confirme her that way. + +DOCTOR. +That's all one, if yee make a noyse; +If she intreate againe, doe any thing,— +Lye with her, if she aske you. + +IAILOR. +Hoa, there, Doctor! + +DOCTOR. +Yes, in the waie of cure. + +IAILOR. +But first, by your leave, +I'th way of honestie. + +DOCTOR. +That's but a nicenesse, +Nev'r cast your child away for honestie; +Cure her first this way, then if shee will be honest, +She has the path before her. + +IAILOR. +Thanke yee, Doctor. + +DOCTOR. +Pray, bring her in, +And let's see how shee is. + +IAILOR. +I will, and tell her +Her Palamon staies for her: But, Doctor, +Me thinkes you are i'th wrong still. [Exit Iaylor.] + +DOCTOR. +Goe, goe: +You Fathers are fine Fooles: her honesty? +And we should give her physicke till we finde that— + +WOOER. +Why, doe you thinke she is not honest, Sir? + +DOCTOR. +How old is she? + +WOOER. +She's eighteene. + +DOCTOR. +She may be, +But that's all one; tis nothing to our purpose. +What ere her Father saies, if you perceave +Her moode inclining that way that I spoke of, +Videlicet, the way of flesh—you have me? + +WOOER. +Yet, very well, Sir. + +DOCTOR. +Please her appetite, +And doe it home; it cures her, ipso facto, +The mellencholly humour that infects her. + +WOOER. +I am of your minde, Doctor. + +[Enter Iaylor, Daughter, Maide.] + +DOCTOR. +You'l finde it so; she comes, pray humour her. + +IAILOR. +Come, your Love Palamon staies for you, childe, +And has done this long houre, to visite you. + +DAUGHTER. +I thanke him for his gentle patience; +He's a kind Gentleman, and I am much bound to him. +Did you nev'r see the horse he gave me? + +IAILOR. +Yes. + +DAUGHTER. +How doe you like him? + +IAILOR. +He's a very faire one. + +DAUGHTER. +You never saw him dance? + +IAILOR. +No. + +DAUGHTER. +I have often. +He daunces very finely, very comely, +And for a Iigge, come cut and long taile to him, +He turnes ye like a Top. + +IAILOR. +That's fine, indeede. + +DAUGHTER. +Hee'l dance the Morris twenty mile an houre, +And that will founder the best hobby-horse +(If I have any skill) in all the parish, +And gallops to the turne of LIGHT A' LOVE: +What thinke you of this horse? + +IAILOR. +Having these vertues, +I thinke he might be broght to play at Tennis. + +DAUGHTER. +Alas, that's nothing. + +IAILOR. +Can he write and reade too? + +DAUGHTER. +A very faire hand, and casts himselfe th'accounts +Of all his hay and provender: That Hostler +Must rise betime that cozens him. You know +The Chestnut Mare the Duke has? + +IAILOR. +Very well. + +DAUGHTER. +She is horribly in love with him, poore beast, +But he is like his master, coy and scornefull. + +IAILOR. +What dowry has she? + +DAUGHTER. +Some two hundred Bottles, +And twenty strike of Oates; but hee'l ne're have her; +He lispes in's neighing, able to entice +A Millars Mare: Hee'l be the death of her. + +DOCTOR. +What stuffe she utters! + +IAILOR. +Make curtsie; here your love comes. + +WOOER. +Pretty soule, +How doe ye? that's a fine maide, ther's a curtsie! + +DAUGHTER. +Yours to command ith way of honestie. +How far is't now to'th end o'th world, my Masters? + +DOCTOR. +Why, a daies Iorney, wench. + +DAUGHTER. +Will you goe with me? + +WOOER. +What shall we doe there, wench? + +DAUGHTER. +Why, play at stoole ball: +What is there else to doe? + +WOOER. +I am content, +If we shall keepe our wedding there. + +DAUGHTER. +Tis true: +For there, I will assure you, we shall finde +Some blind Priest for the purpose, that will venture +To marry us, for here they are nice, and foolish; +Besides, my father must be hang'd to morrow +And that would be a blot i'th businesse. +Are not you Palamon? + +WOOER. +Doe not you know me? + +DAUGHTER. +Yes, but you care not for me; I have nothing +But this pore petticoate, and too corse Smockes. + +WOOER. +That's all one; I will have you. + +DAUGHTER. +Will you surely? + +WOOER. +Yes, by this faire hand, will I. + +DAUGHTER. +Wee'l to bed, then. + +WOOER. +Ev'n when you will. [Kisses her.] + +DAUGHTER. +O Sir, you would faine be nibling. + +WOOER. +Why doe you rub my kisse off? + +DAUGHTER. +Tis a sweet one, +And will perfume me finely against the wedding. +Is not this your Cosen Arcite? + +DOCTOR. +Yes, sweet heart, +And I am glad my Cosen Palamon +Has made so faire a choice. + +DAUGHTER. +Doe you thinke hee'l have me? + +DOCTOR. +Yes, without doubt. + +DAUGHTER. +Doe you thinke so too? + +IAILOR. +Yes. + +DAUGHTER. +We shall have many children:—Lord, how y'ar growne! +My Palamon, I hope, will grow, too, finely, +Now he's at liberty: Alas, poore Chicken, +He was kept downe with hard meate and ill lodging, +But ile kisse him up againe. + +[Emter a Messenger.] + +MESSENGER. +What doe you here? you'l loose the noblest sight +That ev'r was seene. + +IAILOR. +Are they i'th Field? + +MESSENGER. +They are. +You beare a charge there too. + +IAILOR. +Ile away straight. +I must ev'n leave you here. + +DOCTOR. +Nay, wee'l goe with you; +I will not loose the Fight. + +IAILOR. +How did you like her? + +DOCTOR. +Ile warrant you, within these 3. or 4. daies +Ile make her right againe. You must not from her, +But still preserve her in this way. + +WOOER. +I will. + +DOCTOR. +Lets get her in. + +WOOER. +Come, sweete, wee'l goe to dinner; +And then weele play at Cardes. + +DAUGHTER. +And shall we kisse too? + +WOOER. +A hundred times. + +DAUGHTER. +And twenty. + +WOOER. +I, and twenty. + +DAUGHTER. +And then wee'l sleepe together. + +DOCTOR. +Take her offer. + +WOOER. +Yes, marry, will we. + +DAUGHTER. +But you shall not hurt me. + +WOOER. +I will not, sweete. + +DAUGHTER. +If you doe, Love, ile cry. [Florish. Exeunt] + +SCENE 3. (A Place near the Lists.) + +[Enter Theseus, Hipolita, Emilia, Perithous: and some Attendants, + (T. Tucke: Curtis.)] + +EMILIA. +Ile no step further. + +PERITHOUS. +Will you loose this sight? + +EMILIA. +I had rather see a wren hawke at a fly +Then this decision; ev'ry blow that falls +Threats a brave life, each stroake laments +The place whereon it fals, and sounds more like +A Bell then blade: I will stay here; +It is enough my hearing shall be punishd +With what shall happen—gainst the which there is +No deaffing, but to heare—not taint mine eye +With dread sights, it may shun. + +PERITHOUS. +Sir, my good Lord, +Your Sister will no further. + +THESEUS. +Oh, she must. +She shall see deeds of honour in their kinde, +Which sometime show well, pencild. Nature now +Shall make and act the Story, the beleife +Both seald with eye and eare; you must be present, +You are the victours meede, the price, and garlond +To crowne the Questions title. + +EMILIA. +Pardon me; +If I were there, I'ld winke. + +THESEUS. +You must be there; +This Tryall is as t'wer i'th night, and you +The onely star to shine. + +EMILIA. +I am extinct; +There is but envy in that light, which showes +The one the other: darkenes, which ever was +The dam of horrour, who do's stand accurst +Of many mortall Millions, may even now, +By casting her blacke mantle over both, +That neither coulde finde other, get her selfe +Some part of a good name, and many a murther +Set off wherto she's guilty. + +HIPPOLITA. +You must goe. + +EMILIA. +In faith, I will not. + +THESEUS. +Why, the knights must kindle +Their valour at your eye: know, of this war +You are the Treasure, and must needes be by +To give the Service pay. + +EMILIA. +Sir, pardon me; +The tytle of a kingdome may be tride +Out of it selfe. + +THESEUS. +Well, well, then, at your pleasure; +Those that remaine with you could wish their office +To any of their Enemies. + +HIPPOLITA. +Farewell, Sister; +I am like to know your husband fore your selfe +By some small start of time: he whom the gods +Doe of the two know best, I pray them he +Be made your Lot. + +[Exeunt Theseus, Hipolita, Perithous, &c.] + +EMILIA. +Arcite is gently visagd; yet his eye +Is like an Engyn bent, or a sharpe weapon +In a soft sheath; mercy and manly courage +Are bedfellowes in his visage. Palamon +Has a most menacing aspect: his brow +Is grav'd, and seemes to bury what it frownes on; +Yet sometime tis not so, but alters to +The quallity of his thoughts; long time his eye +Will dwell upon his object. Mellencholly +Becomes him nobly; So do's Arcites mirth, +But Palamons sadnes is a kinde of mirth, +So mingled, as if mirth did make him sad, +And sadnes, merry; those darker humours that +Sticke misbecomingly on others, on them +Live in faire dwelling. [Cornets. Trompets sound as to a +charge.] +Harke, how yon spurs to spirit doe incite +The Princes to their proofe! Arcite may win me, +And yet may Palamon wound Arcite to +The spoyling of his figure. O, what pitty +Enough for such a chance; if I were by, +I might doe hurt, for they would glance their eies +Toward my Seat, and in that motion might +Omit a ward, or forfeit an offence +Which crav'd that very time: it is much better +I am not there; oh better never borne +Then minister to such harme. [Cornets. A great cry and noice within, + crying 'a Palamon'.] What is the chance? + +[Enter Servant.] + +SERVANT. +The Crie's 'a Palamon'. + +EMILIA. +Then he has won! Twas ever likely; +He lookd all grace and successe, and he is +Doubtlesse the prim'st of men: I pre'thee, run +And tell me how it goes. [Showt, and Cornets: Crying, 'a +Palamon.'] + +SERVANT. +Still Palamon. + +EMILIA. +Run and enquire. Poore Servant, thou hast lost; +Vpon my right side still I wore thy picture, +Palamons on the left: why so, I know not; +I had no end in't else, chance would have it so. +On the sinister side the heart lyes; Palamon +Had the best boding chance. [Another cry, and showt within, and + Cornets.] This burst of clamour +Is sure th'end o'th Combat. + +[Enter Servant.] + +SERVANT. +They saide that Palamon had Arcites body +Within an inch o'th Pyramid, that the cry +Was generall 'a Palamon': But, anon, +Th'Assistants made a brave redemption, and +The two bold Tytlers, at this instant are +Hand to hand at it. + +EMILIA. +Were they metamorphisd +Both into one! oh why? there were no woman +Worth so composd a Man: their single share, +Their noblenes peculier to them, gives +The prejudice of disparity, values shortnes, [Cornets. Cry within, + Arcite, Arcite.] +To any Lady breathing—More exulting? +Palamon still? + +SERVANT. +Nay, now the sound is Arcite. + +EMILIA. +I pre'thee, lay attention to the Cry, [Cornets. A great showt and +cry, 'Arcite, victory!'] Set both thine eares to'th busines. + +SERVANT. +The cry is +'Arcite', and 'victory', harke: 'Arcite, victory!' +The Combats consummation is proclaim'd +By the wind Instruments. + +EMILIA. +Halfe sights saw +That Arcite was no babe; god's lyd, his richnes +And costlines of spirit look't through him, it could +No more be hid in him then fire in flax, +Then humble banckes can goe to law with waters, +That drift windes force to raging: I did thinke +Good Palamon would miscarry; yet I knew not +Why I did thinke so; Our reasons are not prophets, +When oft our fancies are. They are comming off: +Alas, poore Palamon! [Cornets.] + +[Enter Theseus, Hipolita, Pirithous, Arcite as victor, and + attendants, &c.] + +THESEUS. +Lo, where our Sister is in expectation, +Yet quaking, and unsetled.—Fairest Emily, +The gods by their divine arbitrament +Have given you this Knight; he is a good one +As ever strooke at head. Give me your hands; +Receive you her, you him; be plighted with +A love that growes, as you decay. + +ARCITE. +Emily, +To buy you, I have lost what's deerest to me, +Save what is bought, and yet I purchase cheapely, +As I doe rate your value. + +THESEUS. +O loved Sister, +He speakes now of as brave a Knight as ere +Did spur a noble Steed: Surely, the gods +Would have him die a Batchelour, least his race +Should shew i'th world too godlike: His behaviour +So charmed me, that me thought Alcides was +To him a sow of lead: if I could praise +Each part of him to'th all I have spoke, your Arcite +Did not loose by't; For he that was thus good +Encountred yet his Better. I have heard +Two emulous Philomels beate the eare o'th night +With their contentious throates, now one the higher, +Anon the other, then againe the first, +And by and by out breasted, that the sence +Could not be judge betweene 'em: So it far'd +Good space betweene these kinesmen; till heavens did +Make hardly one the winner. Weare the Girlond +With joy that you have won: For the subdude, +Give them our present Iustice, since I know +Their lives but pinch 'em; Let it here be done. +The Sceane's not for our seeing, goe we hence, +Right joyfull, with some sorrow.—Arme your prize, +I know you will not loose her.—Hipolita, +I see one eye of yours conceives a teare +The which it will deliver. [Florish.] + +EMILIA. +Is this wynning? +Oh all you heavenly powers, where is your mercy? +But that your wils have saide it must be so, +And charge me live to comfort this unfriended, +This miserable Prince, that cuts away +A life more worthy from him then all women, +I should, and would, die too. + +HIPPOLITA. +Infinite pitty, +That fowre such eies should be so fixd on one +That two must needes be blinde fort. + +THESEUS. +So it is. [Exeunt.] + +SCENE 4. (The same; a Block prepared.) + +[Enter Palamon and his Knightes pyniond: Iaylor, Executioner, &c. +Gard.] + +(PALAMON.) +Ther's many a man alive that hath out liv'd +The love o'th people; yea, i'th selfesame state +Stands many a Father with his childe; some comfort +We have by so considering: we expire +And not without mens pitty. To live still, +Have their good wishes; we prevent +The loathsome misery of age, beguile +The Gowt and Rheume, that in lag howres attend +For grey approachers; we come towards the gods +Yong and unwapper'd, not halting under Crymes +Many and stale: that sure shall please the gods, +Sooner than such, to give us Nectar with 'em, +For we are more cleare Spirits. My deare kinesmen, +Whose lives (for this poore comfort) are laid downe, +You have sould 'em too too cheape. + +1. KNIGHT. +What ending could be +Of more content? ore us the victors have +Fortune, whose title is as momentary, +As to us death is certaine: A graine of honour +They not ore'-weigh us. + +2. KNIGHT. +Let us bid farewell; +And with our patience anger tottring Fortune, +Who at her certain'st reeles. + +3. KNIGHT. +Come; who begins? + +PALAMON. +Ev'n he that led you to this Banket shall +Taste to you all.—Ah ha, my Friend, my Friend, +Your gentle daughter gave me freedome once; +You'l see't done now for ever: pray, how do'es she? +I heard she was not well; her kind of ill +Gave me some sorrow. + +IAILOR. +Sir, she's well restor'd, +And to be marryed shortly. + +PALAMON. +By my short life, +I am most glad on't; Tis the latest thing +I shall be glad of; pre'thee tell her so: +Commend me to her, and to peece her portion, +Tender her this. [Gives purse.] + +1. KNIGHT. +Nay lets be offerers all. + +2. KNIGHT. +Is it a maide? + +PALAMON. +Verily, I thinke so, +A right good creature, more to me deserving +Then I can quight or speake of. + +ALL KNIGHTS. +Commend us to her. [They give their purses.] + +IAILOR. +The gods requight you all, +And make her thankefull. + +PALAMON. +Adiew; and let my life be now as short, +As my leave taking. [Lies on the Blocke.] + +1. KNIGHT. +Leade, couragious Cosin. + +2. KNIGHT. +Wee'l follow cheerefully. [A great noise within crying, 'run, save, +hold!'] + +[Enter in hast a Messenger.] + +MESSENGER. +Hold, hold! O hold, hold, hold! + +[Enter Pirithous in haste.] + +PERITHOUS. +Hold! hoa! It is a cursed hast you made, +If you have done so quickly. Noble Palamon, +The gods will shew their glory in a life, +That thou art yet to leade. + +PALAMON. +Can that be, +When Venus, I have said, is false? How doe things fare? + +PERITHOUS. +Arise, great Sir, and give the tydings eare +That are most dearly sweet and bitter. + +PALAMON. +What +Hath wakt us from our dreame? + +PERITHOUS. +List then: your Cosen, +Mounted upon a Steed that Emily +Did first bestow on him, a blacke one, owing +Not a hayre worth of white—which some will say +Weakens his price, and many will not buy +His goodnesse with this note: Which superstition +Heere findes allowance—On this horse is Arcite +Trotting the stones of Athens, which the Calkins +Did rather tell then trample; for the horse +Would make his length a mile, if't pleas'd his Rider +To put pride in him: as he thus went counting +The flinty pavement, dancing, as t'wer, to'th Musicke +His owne hoofes made; (for as they say from iron +Came Musickes origen) what envious Flint, +Cold as old Saturne, and like him possest +With fire malevolent, darted a Sparke, +Or what feirce sulphur else, to this end made, +I comment not;—the hot horse, hot as fire, +Tooke Toy at this, and fell to what disorder +His power could give his will; bounds, comes on end, +Forgets schoole dooing, being therein traind, +And of kind mannadge; pig-like he whines +At the sharpe Rowell, which he freats at rather +Then any jot obaies; seekes all foule meanes +Of boystrous and rough Iadrie, to dis-seate +His Lord, that kept it bravely: when nought serv'd, +When neither Curb would cracke, girth breake nor diffring plunges +Dis-roote his Rider whence he grew, but that +He kept him tweene his legges, on his hind hoofes on end he stands, +That Arcites leggs, being higher then his head, +Seem'd with strange art to hand: His victors wreath +Even then fell off his head: and presently +Backeward the Iade comes ore, and his full poyze +Becomes the Riders loade: yet is he living, +But such a vessell tis, that floates but for +The surge that next approaches: he much desires +To have some speech with you: Loe he appeares. + +[Enter Theseus, Hipolita, Emilia, Arcite in a chaire.] + +PALAMON. +O miserable end of our alliance! +The gods are mightie, Arcite: if thy heart, +Thy worthie, manly heart, be yet unbroken, +Give me thy last words; I am Palamon, +One that yet loves thee dying. + +ARCITE. +Take Emilia +And with her all the worlds joy: Reach thy hand: +Farewell: I have told my last houre. I was false, +Yet never treacherous: Forgive me, Cosen:— +One kisse from faire Emilia: Tis done: +Take her: I die. + +PALAMON. +Thy brave soule seeke Elizium. + +EMILIA. +Ile close thine eyes, Prince; blessed soules be with thee! +Thou art a right good man, and while I live, +This day I give to teares. + +PALAMON. +And I to honour. + +THESEUS. +In this place first you fought: ev'n very here +I sundred you: acknowledge to the gods +Our thankes that you are living. +His part is playd, and though it were too short, +He did it well: your day is lengthned, and +The blissefull dew of heaven do's arowze you. +The powerfull Venus well hath grac'd her Altar, +And given you your love: Our Master Mars +Hath vouch'd his Oracle, and to Arcite gave +The grace of the Contention: So the Deities +Have shewd due justice: Beare this hence. + +PALAMON. +O Cosen, +That we should things desire, which doe cost us +The losse of our desire! That nought could buy +Deare love, but losse of deare love! + +THESEUS. +Never Fortune +Did play a subtler Game: The conquerd triumphes, +The victor has the Losse: yet in the passage +The gods have beene most equall: Palamon, +Your kinseman hath confest the right o'th Lady +Did lye in you, for you first saw her, and +Even then proclaimd your fancie: He restord her +As your stolne Iewell, and desir'd your spirit +To send him hence forgiven; The gods my justice +Take from my hand, and they themselves become +The Executioners: Leade your Lady off; +And call your Lovers from the stage of death, +Whom I adopt my Frinds. A day or two +Let us looke sadly, and give grace unto +The Funerall of Arcite; in whose end +The visages of Bridegroomes weele put on +And smile with Palamon; for whom an houre, +But one houre, since, I was as dearely sorry, +As glad of Arcite: and am now as glad, +As for him sorry. O you heavenly Charmers, +What things you make of us! For what we lacke +We laugh, for what we have, are sorry: still +Are children in some kind. Let us be thankefull +For that which is, and with you leave dispute +That are above our question. Let's goe off, +And beare us like the time. [Florish. Exeunt.] + +EPILOGUE + +I would now aske ye how ye like the Play, +But, as it is with Schoole Boyes, cannot say, +I am cruell fearefull: pray, yet stay a while, +And let me looke upon ye: No man smile? +Then it goes hard, I see; He that has +Lov'd a yong hansome wench, then, show his face— +Tis strange if none be heere—and if he will +Against his Conscience, let him hisse, and kill +Our Market: Tis in vaine, I see, to stay yee; +Have at the worst can come, then! Now what say ye? +And yet mistake me not: I am not bold; +We have no such cause. If the tale we have told +(For tis no other) any way content ye +(For to that honest purpose it was ment ye) +We have our end; and ye shall have ere long, +I dare say, many a better, to prolong +Your old loves to us: we, and all our might +Rest at your service. Gentlemen, good night. [Florish.] + + + + +THE WINTER’S TALE + + + + +Contents + +ACT I +Scene I. Sicilia. An Antechamber in Leontes’ Palace. +Scene II. The same. A Room of State in the Palace. + +ACT II +Scene I. Sicilia. A Room in the Palace. +Scene II. The same. The outer Room of a Prison. +Scene III. The same. A Room in the Palace. + +ACT III +Scene I. Sicilia. A Street in some Town. +Scene II. The same. A Court of Justice. +Scene III. Bohemia. A desert Country near the Sea. + +ACT IV +Scene I. Prologue. +Scene II. Bohemia. A Room in the palace of Polixenes. +Scene III. The same. A Road near the Shepherd’s cottage. +Scene IV. The same. A Shepherd’s Cottage. + +ACT V +Scene I. Sicilia. A Room in the palace of Leontes. +Scene II. The same. Before the Palace. +Scene III. The same. A Room in Paulina’s house. + +Dramatis Personæ + +LEONTES, King of Sicilia +MAMILLIUS, his son +CAMILLO, Sicilian Lord +ANTIGONUS, Sicilian Lord +CLEOMENES, Sicilian Lord +DION, Sicilian Lord +POLIXENES, King of Bohemia +FLORIZEL, his son +ARCHIDAMUS, a Bohemian Lord +An Old Shepherd, reputed father of Perdita +CLOWN, his son +AUTOLYCUS, a rogue +A Mariner +A Gaoler +Servant to the Old Shepherd +Other Sicilian Lords +Sicilian Gentlemen +Officers of a Court of Judicature + +HERMIONE, Queen to Leontes +PERDITA, daughter to Leontes and Hermione +PAULINA, wife to Antigonus +EMILIA, a lady attending on the Queen +MOPSA, shepherdess +DORCAS, shepherdess +Other Ladies, attending on the Queen + +Lords, Ladies, and Attendants; Satyrs for a Dance; Shepherds, +Shepherdesses, Guards, &c. + +TIME, as Chorus + +Scene: Sometimes in Sicilia; sometimes in Bohemia. + + + + +ACT I + +SCENE I. Sicilia. An Antechamber in Leontes’ Palace. + + Enter Camillo and Archidamus. + +ARCHIDAMUS. +If you shall chance, Camillo, to visit Bohemia, on the like occasion +whereon my services are now on foot, you shall see, as I have said, +great difference betwixt our Bohemia and your Sicilia. + +CAMILLO. +I think this coming summer the King of Sicilia means to pay Bohemia the +visitation which he justly owes him. + +ARCHIDAMUS. +Wherein our entertainment shall shame us; we will be justified in our +loves. For indeed,— + +CAMILLO. +Beseech you— + +ARCHIDAMUS. +Verily, I speak it in the freedom of my knowledge. We cannot with such +magnificence—in so rare—I know not what to say. We will give you sleepy +drinks, that your senses, unintelligent of our insufficience, may, +though they cannot praise us, as little accuse us. + +CAMILLO. +You pay a great deal too dear for what’s given freely. + +ARCHIDAMUS. +Believe me, I speak as my understanding instructs me and as mine +honesty puts it to utterance. + +CAMILLO. +Sicilia cannot show himself over-kind to Bohemia. They were trained +together in their childhoods, and there rooted betwixt them then such +an affection which cannot choose but branch now. Since their more +mature dignities and royal necessities made separation of their +society, their encounters, though not personal, have been royally +attorneyed with interchange of gifts, letters, loving embassies, that +they have seemed to be together, though absent; shook hands, as over a +vast; and embraced as it were from the ends of opposed winds. The +heavens continue their loves! + +ARCHIDAMUS. +I think there is not in the world either malice or matter to alter it. +You have an unspeakable comfort of your young Prince Mamillius. It is a +gentleman of the greatest promise that ever came into my note. + +CAMILLO. +I very well agree with you in the hopes of him. It is a gallant child; +one that indeed physics the subject, makes old hearts fresh. They that +went on crutches ere he was born desire yet their life to see him a +man. + +ARCHIDAMUS. +Would they else be content to die? + +CAMILLO. +Yes, if there were no other excuse why they should desire to live. + +ARCHIDAMUS. +If the king had no son, they would desire to live on crutches till he +had one. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. A Room of State in the Palace. + + Enter Leontes, Polixenes, Hermione, Mamillius, Camillo and Attendants. + +POLIXENES. +Nine changes of the watery star hath been +The shepherd’s note since we have left our throne +Without a burden. Time as long again +Would be fill’d up, my brother, with our thanks; +And yet we should, for perpetuity, +Go hence in debt: and therefore, like a cipher, +Yet standing in rich place, I multiply +With one “we thank you” many thousands more +That go before it. + +LEONTES. +Stay your thanks a while, +And pay them when you part. + +POLIXENES. +Sir, that’s tomorrow. +I am question’d by my fears, of what may chance +Or breed upon our absence; that may blow +No sneaping winds at home, to make us say +“This is put forth too truly.” Besides, I have stay’d +To tire your royalty. + +LEONTES. +We are tougher, brother, +Than you can put us to ’t. + +POLIXENES. +No longer stay. + +LEONTES. +One seve’night longer. + +POLIXENES. +Very sooth, tomorrow. + +LEONTES. +We’ll part the time between ’s then: and in that +I’ll no gainsaying. + +POLIXENES. +Press me not, beseech you, so, +There is no tongue that moves, none, none i’ th’ world, +So soon as yours, could win me: so it should now, +Were there necessity in your request, although +’Twere needful I denied it. My affairs +Do even drag me homeward: which to hinder +Were, in your love a whip to me; my stay +To you a charge and trouble: to save both, +Farewell, our brother. + +LEONTES. +Tongue-tied, our queen? Speak you. + +HERMIONE. +I had thought, sir, to have held my peace until +You had drawn oaths from him not to stay. You, sir, +Charge him too coldly. Tell him you are sure +All in Bohemia’s well: this satisfaction +The by-gone day proclaimed. Say this to him, +He’s beat from his best ward. + +LEONTES. +Well said, Hermione. + +HERMIONE. +To tell he longs to see his son were strong. +But let him say so then, and let him go; +But let him swear so, and he shall not stay, +We’ll thwack him hence with distaffs. +[_To Polixenes._] Yet of your royal presence I’ll adventure +The borrow of a week. When at Bohemia +You take my lord, I’ll give him my commission +To let him there a month behind the gest +Prefix’d for’s parting:—yet, good deed, Leontes, +I love thee not a jar of th’ clock behind +What lady she her lord. You’ll stay? + +POLIXENES. +No, madam. + +HERMIONE. +Nay, but you will? + +POLIXENES. +I may not, verily. + +HERMIONE. +Verily! +You put me off with limber vows; but I, +Though you would seek t’ unsphere the stars with oaths, +Should yet say “Sir, no going.” Verily, +You shall not go. A lady’s verily is +As potent as a lord’s. Will go yet? +Force me to keep you as a prisoner, +Not like a guest: so you shall pay your fees +When you depart, and save your thanks. How say you? +My prisoner or my guest? By your dread “verily,” +One of them you shall be. + +POLIXENES. +Your guest, then, madam. +To be your prisoner should import offending; +Which is for me less easy to commit +Than you to punish. + +HERMIONE. +Not your gaoler then, +But your kind hostess. Come, I’ll question you +Of my lord’s tricks and yours when you were boys. +You were pretty lordings then. + +POLIXENES. +We were, fair queen, +Two lads that thought there was no more behind +But such a day tomorrow as today, +And to be boy eternal. + +HERMIONE. +Was not my lord +The verier wag o’ th’ two? + +POLIXENES. +We were as twinn’d lambs that did frisk i’ th’ sun +And bleat the one at th’ other. What we chang’d +Was innocence for innocence; we knew not +The doctrine of ill-doing, nor dream’d +That any did. Had we pursu’d that life, +And our weak spirits ne’er been higher rear’d +With stronger blood, we should have answer’d heaven +Boldly “Not guilty,” the imposition clear’d +Hereditary ours. + +HERMIONE. +By this we gather +You have tripp’d since. + +POLIXENES. +O my most sacred lady, +Temptations have since then been born to ’s! for +In those unfledg’d days was my wife a girl; +Your precious self had then not cross’d the eyes +Of my young play-fellow. + +HERMIONE. +Grace to boot! +Of this make no conclusion, lest you say +Your queen and I are devils. Yet go on; +Th’ offences we have made you do we’ll answer, +If you first sinn’d with us, and that with us +You did continue fault, and that you slipp’d not +With any but with us. + +LEONTES. +Is he won yet? + +HERMIONE. +He’ll stay, my lord. + +LEONTES. +At my request he would not. +Hermione, my dearest, thou never spok’st +To better purpose. + +HERMIONE. +Never? + +LEONTES. +Never but once. + +HERMIONE. +What! have I twice said well? when was’t before? +I prithee tell me. Cram ’s with praise, and make ’s +As fat as tame things: one good deed dying tongueless +Slaughters a thousand waiting upon that. +Our praises are our wages. You may ride ’s +With one soft kiss a thousand furlongs ere +With spur we heat an acre. But to th’ goal: +My last good deed was to entreat his stay. +What was my first? It has an elder sister, +Or I mistake you: O, would her name were Grace! +But once before I spoke to the purpose—when? +Nay, let me have’t; I long. + +LEONTES. +Why, that was when +Three crabbed months had sour’d themselves to death, +Ere I could make thee open thy white hand +And clap thyself my love; then didst thou utter +“I am yours for ever.” + +HERMIONE. +’Tis Grace indeed. +Why, lo you now, I have spoke to th’ purpose twice. +The one for ever earn’d a royal husband; +Th’ other for some while a friend. + + [_Giving her hand to Polixenes._] + +LEONTES. +[_Aside._] Too hot, too hot! +To mingle friendship far is mingling bloods. +I have _tremor cordis_ on me. My heart dances, +But not for joy,—not joy. This entertainment +May a free face put on, derive a liberty +From heartiness, from bounty, fertile bosom, +And well become the agent: ’t may, I grant: +But to be paddling palms and pinching fingers, +As now they are, and making practis’d smiles +As in a looking-glass; and then to sigh, as ’twere +The mort o’ th’ deer. O, that is entertainment +My bosom likes not, nor my brows. Mamillius, +Art thou my boy? + +MAMILLIUS. +Ay, my good lord. + +LEONTES. +I’ fecks! +Why, that’s my bawcock. What! hast smutch’d thy nose? +They say it is a copy out of mine. Come, captain, +We must be neat; not neat, but cleanly, captain: +And yet the steer, the heifer, and the calf +Are all call’d neat.—Still virginalling +Upon his palm?—How now, you wanton calf! +Art thou my calf? + +MAMILLIUS. +Yes, if you will, my lord. + +LEONTES. +Thou want’st a rough pash and the shoots that I have +To be full like me:—yet they say we are +Almost as like as eggs; women say so, +That will say anything. But were they false +As o’er-dy’d blacks, as wind, as waters, false +As dice are to be wish’d by one that fixes +No bourn ’twixt his and mine, yet were it true +To say this boy were like me. Come, sir page, +Look on me with your welkin eye: sweet villain! +Most dear’st! my collop! Can thy dam?—may’t be? +Affection! thy intention stabs the centre: +Thou dost make possible things not so held, +Communicat’st with dreams;—how can this be?— +With what’s unreal thou coactive art, +And fellow’st nothing: then ’tis very credent +Thou may’st co-join with something; and thou dost, +And that beyond commission, and I find it, +And that to the infection of my brains +And hardening of my brows. + +POLIXENES. +What means Sicilia? + +HERMIONE. +He something seems unsettled. + +POLIXENES. +How, my lord? +What cheer? How is’t with you, best brother? + +HERMIONE. +You look +As if you held a brow of much distraction: +Are you mov’d, my lord? + +LEONTES. +No, in good earnest. +How sometimes nature will betray its folly, +Its tenderness, and make itself a pastime +To harder bosoms! Looking on the lines +Of my boy’s face, methoughts I did recoil +Twenty-three years, and saw myself unbreech’d, +In my green velvet coat; my dagger muzzled +Lest it should bite its master, and so prove, +As ornaments oft do, too dangerous. +How like, methought, I then was to this kernel, +This squash, this gentleman. Mine honest friend, +Will you take eggs for money? + +MAMILLIUS. +No, my lord, I’ll fight. + +LEONTES. +You will? Why, happy man be ’s dole! My brother, +Are you so fond of your young prince as we +Do seem to be of ours? + +POLIXENES. +If at home, sir, +He’s all my exercise, my mirth, my matter: +Now my sworn friend, and then mine enemy; +My parasite, my soldier, statesman, all. +He makes a July’s day short as December; +And with his varying childness cures in me +Thoughts that would thick my blood. + +LEONTES. +So stands this squire +Offic’d with me. We two will walk, my lord, +And leave you to your graver steps. Hermione, +How thou lov’st us show in our brother’s welcome; +Let what is dear in Sicily be cheap: +Next to thyself and my young rover, he’s +Apparent to my heart. + +HERMIONE. +If you would seek us, +We are yours i’ the garden. Shall ’s attend you there? + +LEONTES. +To your own bents dispose you: you’ll be found, +Be you beneath the sky. [_Aside._] I am angling now, +Though you perceive me not how I give line. +Go to, go to! +How she holds up the neb, the bill to him! +And arms her with the boldness of a wife +To her allowing husband! + + [_Exeunt Polixenes, Hermione and Attendants._] + +Gone already! +Inch-thick, knee-deep, o’er head and ears a fork’d one!— +Go, play, boy, play. Thy mother plays, and I +Play too; but so disgrac’d a part, whose issue +Will hiss me to my grave: contempt and clamour +Will be my knell. Go, play, boy, play. There have been, +Or I am much deceiv’d, cuckolds ere now; +And many a man there is, even at this present, +Now while I speak this, holds his wife by th’ arm, +That little thinks she has been sluic’d in ’s absence, +And his pond fish’d by his next neighbour, by +Sir Smile, his neighbour. Nay, there’s comfort in ’t, +Whiles other men have gates, and those gates open’d, +As mine, against their will. Should all despair +That hath revolted wives, the tenth of mankind +Would hang themselves. Physic for’t there’s none; +It is a bawdy planet, that will strike +Where ’tis predominant; and ’tis powerful, think it, +From east, west, north, and south. Be it concluded, +No barricado for a belly. Know’t; +It will let in and out the enemy +With bag and baggage. Many thousand of us +Have the disease, and feel’t not.—How now, boy! + +MAMILLIUS. +I am like you, they say. + +LEONTES. +Why, that’s some comfort. +What! Camillo there? + +CAMILLO. +Ay, my good lord. + +LEONTES. +Go play, Mamillius; thou’rt an honest man. + + [_Exit Mamillius._] + +Camillo, this great sir will yet stay longer. + +CAMILLO. +You had much ado to make his anchor hold: +When you cast out, it still came home. + +LEONTES. +Didst note it? + +CAMILLO. +He would not stay at your petitions; made +His business more material. + +LEONTES. +Didst perceive it? +[_Aside._] They’re here with me already; whisp’ring, rounding, +“Sicilia is a so-forth.” ’Tis far gone +When I shall gust it last.—How came’t, Camillo, +That he did stay? + +CAMILLO. +At the good queen’s entreaty. + +LEONTES. +At the queen’s be’t: “good” should be pertinent, +But so it is, it is not. Was this taken +By any understanding pate but thine? +For thy conceit is soaking, will draw in +More than the common blocks. Not noted, is’t, +But of the finer natures? by some severals +Of head-piece extraordinary? lower messes +Perchance are to this business purblind? say. + +CAMILLO. +Business, my lord? I think most understand +Bohemia stays here longer. + +LEONTES. +Ha? + +CAMILLO. +Stays here longer. + +LEONTES. +Ay, but why? + +CAMILLO. +To satisfy your highness, and the entreaties +Of our most gracious mistress. + +LEONTES. +Satisfy? +Th’ entreaties of your mistress? Satisfy? +Let that suffice. I have trusted thee, Camillo, +With all the nearest things to my heart, as well +My chamber-counsels, wherein, priest-like, thou +Hast cleans’d my bosom; I from thee departed +Thy penitent reform’d. But we have been +Deceiv’d in thy integrity, deceiv’d +In that which seems so. + +CAMILLO. +Be it forbid, my lord! + +LEONTES. +To bide upon’t: thou art not honest; or, +If thou inclin’st that way, thou art a coward, +Which hoxes honesty behind, restraining +From course requir’d; or else thou must be counted +A servant grafted in my serious trust, +And therein negligent; or else a fool +That seest a game play’d home, the rich stake drawn, +And tak’st it all for jest. + +CAMILLO. +My gracious lord, +I may be negligent, foolish, and fearful; +In every one of these no man is free, +But that his negligence, his folly, fear, +Among the infinite doings of the world, +Sometime puts forth. In your affairs, my lord, +If ever I were wilful-negligent, +It was my folly; if industriously +I play’d the fool, it was my negligence, +Not weighing well the end; if ever fearful +To do a thing, where I the issue doubted, +Whereof the execution did cry out +Against the non-performance, ’twas a fear +Which oft affects the wisest: these, my lord, +Are such allow’d infirmities that honesty +Is never free of. But, beseech your Grace, +Be plainer with me; let me know my trespass +By its own visage: if I then deny it, +’Tis none of mine. + +LEONTES. +Ha’ not you seen, Camillo? +(But that’s past doubt: you have, or your eye-glass +Is thicker than a cuckold’s horn) or heard? +(For, to a vision so apparent, rumour +Cannot be mute) or thought? (for cogitation +Resides not in that man that does not think) +My wife is slippery? If thou wilt confess, +Or else be impudently negative, +To have nor eyes nor ears nor thought, then say +My wife’s a hobby-horse, deserves a name +As rank as any flax-wench that puts to +Before her troth-plight: say’t and justify’t. + +CAMILLO. +I would not be a stander-by to hear +My sovereign mistress clouded so, without +My present vengeance taken: ’shrew my heart, +You never spoke what did become you less +Than this; which to reiterate were sin +As deep as that, though true. + +LEONTES. +Is whispering nothing? +Is leaning cheek to cheek? is meeting noses? +Kissing with inside lip? Stopping the career +Of laughter with a sigh?—a note infallible +Of breaking honesty?—horsing foot on foot? +Skulking in corners? Wishing clocks more swift? +Hours, minutes? Noon, midnight? and all eyes +Blind with the pin and web but theirs, theirs only, +That would unseen be wicked? Is this nothing? +Why, then the world and all that’s in’t is nothing, +The covering sky is nothing, Bohemia nothing, +My wife is nothing, nor nothing have these nothings, +If this be nothing. + +CAMILLO. +Good my lord, be cur’d +Of this diseas’d opinion, and betimes, +For ’tis most dangerous. + +LEONTES. +Say it be, ’tis true. + +CAMILLO. +No, no, my lord. + +LEONTES. +It is; you lie, you lie: +I say thou liest, Camillo, and I hate thee, +Pronounce thee a gross lout, a mindless slave, +Or else a hovering temporizer that +Canst with thine eyes at once see good and evil, +Inclining to them both. Were my wife’s liver +Infected as her life, she would not live +The running of one glass. + +CAMILLO. +Who does infect her? + +LEONTES. +Why, he that wears her like her medal, hanging +About his neck, Bohemia: who, if I +Had servants true about me, that bare eyes +To see alike mine honour as their profits, +Their own particular thrifts, they would do that +Which should undo more doing: ay, and thou, +His cupbearer,—whom I from meaner form +Have bench’d and rear’d to worship, who mayst see +Plainly as heaven sees earth and earth sees heaven, +How I am galled,—mightst bespice a cup, +To give mine enemy a lasting wink; +Which draught to me were cordial. + +CAMILLO. +Sir, my lord, +I could do this, and that with no rash potion, +But with a ling’ring dram, that should not work +Maliciously like poison. But I cannot +Believe this crack to be in my dread mistress, +So sovereignly being honourable. +I have lov’d thee,— + +LEONTES. +Make that thy question, and go rot! +Dost think I am so muddy, so unsettled, +To appoint myself in this vexation; sully +The purity and whiteness of my sheets, +(Which to preserve is sleep, which being spotted +Is goads, thorns, nettles, tails of wasps) +Give scandal to the blood o’ th’ prince, my son, +(Who I do think is mine, and love as mine) +Without ripe moving to’t? Would I do this? +Could man so blench? + +CAMILLO. +I must believe you, sir: +I do; and will fetch off Bohemia for’t; +Provided that, when he’s remov’d, your highness +Will take again your queen as yours at first, +Even for your son’s sake, and thereby for sealing +The injury of tongues in courts and kingdoms +Known and allied to yours. + +LEONTES. +Thou dost advise me +Even so as I mine own course have set down: +I’ll give no blemish to her honour, none. + +CAMILLO. +My lord, +Go then; and with a countenance as clear +As friendship wears at feasts, keep with Bohemia +And with your queen. I am his cupbearer. +If from me he have wholesome beverage, +Account me not your servant. + +LEONTES. +This is all: +Do’t, and thou hast the one half of my heart; +Do’t not, thou splitt’st thine own. + +CAMILLO. +I’ll do’t, my lord. + +LEONTES. +I will seem friendly, as thou hast advis’d me. + + [_Exit._] + +CAMILLO. +O miserable lady! But, for me, +What case stand I in? I must be the poisoner +Of good Polixenes, and my ground to do’t +Is the obedience to a master; one +Who, in rebellion with himself, will have +All that are his so too. To do this deed, +Promotion follows. If I could find example +Of thousands that had struck anointed kings +And flourish’d after, I’d not do’t. But since +Nor brass, nor stone, nor parchment, bears not one, +Let villainy itself forswear’t. I must +Forsake the court: to do’t, or no, is certain +To me a break-neck. Happy star reign now! +Here comes Bohemia. + + Enter Polixenes. + +POLIXENES. +This is strange. Methinks +My favour here begins to warp. Not speak? +Good day, Camillo. + +CAMILLO. +Hail, most royal sir! + +POLIXENES. +What is the news i’ th’ court? + +CAMILLO. +None rare, my lord. + +POLIXENES. +The king hath on him such a countenance +As he had lost some province, and a region +Lov’d as he loves himself. Even now I met him +With customary compliment, when he, +Wafting his eyes to the contrary, and falling +A lip of much contempt, speeds from me, and +So leaves me to consider what is breeding +That changes thus his manners. + +CAMILLO. +I dare not know, my lord. + +POLIXENES. +How, dare not? Do not? Do you know, and dare not? +Be intelligent to me? ’Tis thereabouts; +For, to yourself, what you do know, you must, +And cannot say you dare not. Good Camillo, +Your chang’d complexions are to me a mirror +Which shows me mine chang’d too; for I must be +A party in this alteration, finding +Myself thus alter’d with’t. + +CAMILLO. +There is a sickness +Which puts some of us in distemper, but +I cannot name the disease, and it is caught +Of you that yet are well. + +POLIXENES. +How caught of me? +Make me not sighted like the basilisk. +I have look’d on thousands who have sped the better +By my regard, but kill’d none so. Camillo,— +As you are certainly a gentleman, thereto +Clerk-like, experienc’d, which no less adorns +Our gentry than our parents’ noble names, +In whose success we are gentle,—I beseech you, +If you know aught which does behove my knowledge +Thereof to be inform’d, imprison’t not +In ignorant concealment. + +CAMILLO. +I may not answer. + +POLIXENES. +A sickness caught of me, and yet I well? +I must be answer’d. Dost thou hear, Camillo, +I conjure thee, by all the parts of man +Which honour does acknowledge, whereof the least +Is not this suit of mine, that thou declare +What incidency thou dost guess of harm +Is creeping toward me; how far off, how near; +Which way to be prevented, if to be; +If not, how best to bear it. + +CAMILLO. +Sir, I will tell you; +Since I am charg’d in honour, and by him +That I think honourable. Therefore mark my counsel, +Which must be ev’n as swiftly follow’d as +I mean to utter it, or both yourself and me +Cry lost, and so goodnight! + +POLIXENES. +On, good Camillo. + +CAMILLO. +I am appointed him to murder you. + +POLIXENES. +By whom, Camillo? + +CAMILLO. +By the king. + +POLIXENES. +For what? + +CAMILLO. +He thinks, nay, with all confidence he swears, +As he had seen’t or been an instrument +To vice you to’t, that you have touch’d his queen +Forbiddenly. + +POLIXENES. +O, then my best blood turn +To an infected jelly, and my name +Be yok’d with his that did betray the Best! +Turn then my freshest reputation to +A savour that may strike the dullest nostril +Where I arrive, and my approach be shunn’d, +Nay, hated too, worse than the great’st infection +That e’er was heard or read! + +CAMILLO. +Swear his thought over +By each particular star in heaven and +By all their influences, you may as well +Forbid the sea for to obey the moon +As or by oath remove or counsel shake +The fabric of his folly, whose foundation +Is pil’d upon his faith, and will continue +The standing of his body. + +POLIXENES. +How should this grow? + +CAMILLO. +I know not: but I am sure ’tis safer to +Avoid what’s grown than question how ’tis born. +If therefore you dare trust my honesty, +That lies enclosed in this trunk, which you +Shall bear along impawn’d, away tonight. +Your followers I will whisper to the business, +And will by twos and threes, at several posterns, +Clear them o’ th’ city. For myself, I’ll put +My fortunes to your service, which are here +By this discovery lost. Be not uncertain, +For, by the honour of my parents, I +Have utter’d truth: which if you seek to prove, +I dare not stand by; nor shall you be safer +Than one condemned by the king’s own mouth, +Thereon his execution sworn. + +POLIXENES. +I do believe thee. +I saw his heart in ’s face. Give me thy hand, +Be pilot to me, and thy places shall +Still neighbour mine. My ships are ready, and +My people did expect my hence departure +Two days ago. This jealousy +Is for a precious creature: as she’s rare, +Must it be great; and, as his person’s mighty, +Must it be violent; and as he does conceive +He is dishonour’d by a man which ever +Profess’d to him, why, his revenges must +In that be made more bitter. Fear o’ershades me. +Good expedition be my friend, and comfort +The gracious queen, part of his theme, but nothing +Of his ill-ta’en suspicion! Come, Camillo, +I will respect thee as a father if +Thou bear’st my life off hence. Let us avoid. + +CAMILLO. +It is in mine authority to command +The keys of all the posterns: please your highness +To take the urgent hour. Come, sir, away. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT II + +SCENE I. Sicilia. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Hermione, Mamillius and Ladies. + +HERMIONE. +Take the boy to you: he so troubles me, +’Tis past enduring. + +FIRST LADY. +Come, my gracious lord, +Shall I be your playfellow? + +MAMILLIUS. +No, I’ll none of you. + +FIRST LADY. +Why, my sweet lord? + +MAMILLIUS. +You’ll kiss me hard, and speak to me as if +I were a baby still. I love you better. + +SECOND LADY. +And why so, my lord? + +MAMILLIUS. +Not for because +Your brows are blacker; yet black brows, they say, +Become some women best, so that there be not +Too much hair there, but in a semicircle +Or a half-moon made with a pen. + +SECOND LADY. +Who taught this? + +MAMILLIUS. +I learn’d it out of women’s faces. Pray now, +What colour are your eyebrows? + +FIRST LADY. +Blue, my lord. + +MAMILLIUS. +Nay, that’s a mock. I have seen a lady’s nose +That has been blue, but not her eyebrows. + +FIRST LADY. +Hark ye, +The queen your mother rounds apace. We shall +Present our services to a fine new prince +One of these days, and then you’d wanton with us, +If we would have you. + +SECOND LADY. +She is spread of late +Into a goodly bulk: good time encounter her! + +HERMIONE. +What wisdom stirs amongst you? Come, sir, now +I am for you again. Pray you sit by us, +And tell ’s a tale. + +MAMILLIUS. +Merry or sad shall’t be? + +HERMIONE. +As merry as you will. + +MAMILLIUS. +A sad tale’s best for winter. I have one +Of sprites and goblins. + +HERMIONE. +Let’s have that, good sir. +Come on, sit down. Come on, and do your best +To fright me with your sprites: you’re powerful at it. + +MAMILLIUS. +There was a man,— + +HERMIONE. +Nay, come, sit down, then on. + +MAMILLIUS. +Dwelt by a churchyard. I will tell it softly, +Yond crickets shall not hear it. + +HERMIONE. +Come on then, +And give’t me in mine ear. + + Enter Leontes, Antigonus, Lords and Guards. + +LEONTES. +Was he met there? his train? Camillo with him? + +FIRST LORD. +Behind the tuft of pines I met them, never +Saw I men scour so on their way: I ey’d them +Even to their ships. + +LEONTES. +How blest am I +In my just censure, in my true opinion! +Alack, for lesser knowledge! How accurs’d +In being so blest! There may be in the cup +A spider steep’d, and one may drink, depart, +And yet partake no venom, for his knowledge +Is not infected; but if one present +Th’ abhorr’d ingredient to his eye, make known +How he hath drunk, he cracks his gorge, his sides, +With violent hefts. I have drunk, and seen the spider. +Camillo was his help in this, his pander. +There is a plot against my life, my crown; +All’s true that is mistrusted. That false villain +Whom I employ’d, was pre-employ’d by him. +He has discover’d my design, and I +Remain a pinch’d thing; yea, a very trick +For them to play at will. How came the posterns +So easily open? + +FIRST LORD. +By his great authority, +Which often hath no less prevail’d than so +On your command. + +LEONTES. +I know’t too well. +Give me the boy. I am glad you did not nurse him. +Though he does bear some signs of me, yet you +Have too much blood in him. + +HERMIONE. +What is this? sport? + +LEONTES. +Bear the boy hence, he shall not come about her, +Away with him, and let her sport herself +With that she’s big with; for ’tis Polixenes +Has made thee swell thus. + + [_Exit Mamillius with some of the Guards._] + +HERMIONE. +But I’d say he had not, +And I’ll be sworn you would believe my saying, +Howe’er you learn th’ nayward. + +LEONTES. +You, my lords, +Look on her, mark her well. Be but about +To say, “she is a goodly lady,” and +The justice of your hearts will thereto add +“’Tis pity she’s not honest, honourable”: +Praise her but for this her without-door form, +Which on my faith deserves high speech, and straight +The shrug, the hum or ha, these petty brands +That calumny doth use—O, I am out, +That mercy does; for calumny will sear +Virtue itself—these shrugs, these hum’s, and ha’s, +When you have said “she’s goodly,” come between, +Ere you can say “she’s honest”: but be it known, +From him that has most cause to grieve it should be, +She’s an adultress! + +HERMIONE. +Should a villain say so, +The most replenish’d villain in the world, +He were as much more villain: you, my lord, +Do but mistake. + +LEONTES. +You have mistook, my lady, +Polixenes for Leontes O thou thing, +Which I’ll not call a creature of thy place, +Lest barbarism, making me the precedent, +Should a like language use to all degrees, +And mannerly distinguishment leave out +Betwixt the prince and beggar. I have said +She’s an adultress; I have said with whom: +More, she’s a traitor, and Camillo is +A federary with her; and one that knows +What she should shame to know herself +But with her most vile principal, that she’s +A bed-swerver, even as bad as those +That vulgars give bold’st titles; ay, and privy +To this their late escape. + +HERMIONE. +No, by my life, +Privy to none of this. How will this grieve you, +When you shall come to clearer knowledge, that +You thus have publish’d me! Gentle my lord, +You scarce can right me throughly then, to say +You did mistake. + +LEONTES. +No. If I mistake +In those foundations which I build upon, +The centre is not big enough to bear +A school-boy’s top. Away with her to prison! +He who shall speak for her is afar off guilty +But that he speaks. + +HERMIONE. +There’s some ill planet reigns: +I must be patient till the heavens look +With an aspect more favourable. Good my lords, +I am not prone to weeping, as our sex +Commonly are; the want of which vain dew +Perchance shall dry your pities. But I have +That honourable grief lodg’d here which burns +Worse than tears drown: beseech you all, my lords, +With thoughts so qualified as your charities +Shall best instruct you, measure me; and so +The king’s will be perform’d. + +LEONTES. +Shall I be heard? + +HERMIONE. +Who is’t that goes with me? Beseech your highness +My women may be with me, for you see +My plight requires it. Do not weep, good fools; +There is no cause: when you shall know your mistress +Has deserv’d prison, then abound in tears +As I come out: this action I now go on +Is for my better grace. Adieu, my lord: +I never wish’d to see you sorry; now +I trust I shall. My women, come; you have leave. + +LEONTES. +Go, do our bidding. Hence! + + [_Exeunt Queen and Ladies with Guards._] + +FIRST LORD. +Beseech your highness, call the queen again. + +ANTIGONUS. +Be certain what you do, sir, lest your justice +Prove violence, in the which three great ones suffer, +Yourself, your queen, your son. + +FIRST LORD. +For her, my lord, +I dare my life lay down, and will do’t, sir, +Please you to accept it, that the queen is spotless +I’ th’ eyes of heaven and to you—I mean +In this which you accuse her. + +ANTIGONUS. +If it prove +She’s otherwise, I’ll keep my stables where +I lodge my wife; I’ll go in couples with her; +Than when I feel and see her no further trust her. +For every inch of woman in the world, +Ay, every dram of woman’s flesh, is false, +If she be. + +LEONTES. +Hold your peaces. + +FIRST LORD. +Good my lord,— + +ANTIGONUS. +It is for you we speak, not for ourselves: +You are abus’d, and by some putter-on +That will be damn’d for’t: would I knew the villain, +I would land-damn him. Be she honour-flaw’d, +I have three daughters; the eldest is eleven; +The second and the third, nine and some five; +If this prove true, they’ll pay for’t. By mine honour, +I’ll geld ’em all; fourteen they shall not see, +To bring false generations: they are co-heirs, +And I had rather glib myself than they +Should not produce fair issue. + +LEONTES. +Cease; no more. +You smell this business with a sense as cold +As is a dead man’s nose: but I do see’t and feel’t, +As you feel doing thus; and see withal +The instruments that feel. + +ANTIGONUS. +If it be so, +We need no grave to bury honesty. +There’s not a grain of it the face to sweeten +Of the whole dungy earth. + +LEONTES. +What! Lack I credit? + +FIRST LORD. +I had rather you did lack than I, my lord, +Upon this ground: and more it would content me +To have her honour true than your suspicion, +Be blam’d for’t how you might. + +LEONTES. +Why, what need we +Commune with you of this, but rather follow +Our forceful instigation? Our prerogative +Calls not your counsels, but our natural goodness +Imparts this; which, if you, or stupified +Or seeming so in skill, cannot or will not +Relish a truth, like us, inform yourselves +We need no more of your advice: the matter, +The loss, the gain, the ord’ring on’t, is all +Properly ours. + +ANTIGONUS. +And I wish, my liege, +You had only in your silent judgement tried it, +Without more overture. + +LEONTES. +How could that be? +Either thou art most ignorant by age, +Or thou wert born a fool. Camillo’s flight, +Added to their familiarity, +(Which was as gross as ever touch’d conjecture, +That lack’d sight only, nought for approbation +But only seeing, all other circumstances +Made up to th’ deed) doth push on this proceeding. +Yet, for a greater confirmation +(For in an act of this importance, ’twere +Most piteous to be wild), I have dispatch’d in post +To sacred Delphos, to Apollo’s temple, +Cleomenes and Dion, whom you know +Of stuff’d sufficiency: now from the oracle +They will bring all, whose spiritual counsel had, +Shall stop or spur me. Have I done well? + +FIRST LORD. +Well done, my lord. + +LEONTES. +Though I am satisfied, and need no more +Than what I know, yet shall the oracle +Give rest to the minds of others, such as he +Whose ignorant credulity will not +Come up to th’ truth. So have we thought it good +From our free person she should be confin’d, +Lest that the treachery of the two fled hence +Be left her to perform. Come, follow us; +We are to speak in public; for this business +Will raise us all. + +ANTIGONUS. +[_Aside._] To laughter, as I take it, +If the good truth were known. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. The outer Room of a Prison. + + Enter Paulina a Gentleman and Attendants. + +PAULINA. +The keeper of the prison, call to him; +Let him have knowledge who I am. + + [_Exit the Gentleman._] + +Good lady! +No court in Europe is too good for thee; +What dost thou then in prison? + + Enter Gentleman with the Gaoler. + +Now, good sir, +You know me, do you not? + +GAOLER. +For a worthy lady +And one who much I honour. + +PAULINA. +Pray you then, +Conduct me to the queen. + +GAOLER. +I may not, madam. +To the contrary I have express commandment. + +PAULINA. +Here’s ado, to lock up honesty and honour from +Th’ access of gentle visitors! Is’t lawful, pray you, +To see her women? any of them? Emilia? + +GAOLER. +So please you, madam, +To put apart these your attendants, I +Shall bring Emilia forth. + +PAULINA. +I pray now, call her. +Withdraw yourselves. + + [_Exeunt Gentleman and Attendants._] + +GAOLER. +And, madam, +I must be present at your conference. + +PAULINA. +Well, be’t so, prithee. + + [_Exit Gaoler._] + +Here’s such ado to make no stain a stain +As passes colouring. + + Re-enter Gaoler with Emilia. + +Dear gentlewoman, +How fares our gracious lady? + +EMILIA. +As well as one so great and so forlorn +May hold together: on her frights and griefs, +(Which never tender lady hath borne greater) +She is, something before her time, deliver’d. + +PAULINA. +A boy? + +EMILIA. +A daughter; and a goodly babe, +Lusty, and like to live: the queen receives +Much comfort in ’t; says “My poor prisoner, +I am as innocent as you.” + +PAULINA. +I dare be sworn. +These dangerous unsafe lunes i’ th’ king, beshrew them! +He must be told on’t, and he shall: the office +Becomes a woman best. I’ll take’t upon me. +If I prove honey-mouth’d, let my tongue blister, +And never to my red-look’d anger be +The trumpet any more. Pray you, Emilia, +Commend my best obedience to the queen. +If she dares trust me with her little babe, +I’ll show’t the king, and undertake to be +Her advocate to th’ loud’st. We do not know +How he may soften at the sight o’ th’ child: +The silence often of pure innocence +Persuades, when speaking fails. + +EMILIA. +Most worthy madam, +Your honour and your goodness is so evident, +That your free undertaking cannot miss +A thriving issue: there is no lady living +So meet for this great errand. Please your ladyship +To visit the next room, I’ll presently +Acquaint the queen of your most noble offer, +Who but today hammer’d of this design, +But durst not tempt a minister of honour, +Lest she should be denied. + +PAULINA. +Tell her, Emilia, +I’ll use that tongue I have: if wit flow from ’t +As boldness from my bosom, let’t not be doubted +I shall do good. + +EMILIA. +Now be you blest for it! +I’ll to the queen: please you come something nearer. + +GAOLER. +Madam, if ’t please the queen to send the babe, +I know not what I shall incur to pass it, +Having no warrant. + +PAULINA. +You need not fear it, sir: +This child was prisoner to the womb, and is, +By law and process of great nature thence +Freed and enfranchis’d: not a party to +The anger of the king, nor guilty of, +If any be, the trespass of the queen. + +GAOLER. +I do believe it. + +PAULINA. +Do not you fear: upon mine honour, I +Will stand betwixt you and danger. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. A Room in the Palace. + + Enter Leontes, Antigonus, Lords and other Attendants. + +LEONTES. +Nor night nor day no rest: it is but weakness +To bear the matter thus, mere weakness. If +The cause were not in being,—part o’ th’ cause, +She th’ adultress; for the harlot king +Is quite beyond mine arm, out of the blank +And level of my brain, plot-proof. But she +I can hook to me. Say that she were gone, +Given to the fire, a moiety of my rest +Might come to me again. Who’s there? + +FIRST ATTENDANT. +My lord. + +LEONTES. +How does the boy? + +FIRST ATTENDANT. +He took good rest tonight; +’Tis hop’d his sickness is discharg’d. + +LEONTES. +To see his nobleness, +Conceiving the dishonour of his mother. +He straight declin’d, droop’d, took it deeply, +Fasten’d and fix’d the shame on’t in himself, +Threw off his spirit, his appetite, his sleep, +And downright languish’d. Leave me solely: go, +See how he fares. + + [_Exit First Attendant._] + +Fie, fie! no thought of him. +The very thought of my revenges that way +Recoil upon me: in himself too mighty, +And in his parties, his alliance. Let him be, +Until a time may serve. For present vengeance, +Take it on her. Camillo and Polixenes +Laugh at me; make their pastime at my sorrow: +They should not laugh if I could reach them, nor +Shall she, within my power. + + Enter Paulina carrying a baby, with Antigonus, lords and servants. + +FIRST LORD. +You must not enter. + +PAULINA. +Nay, rather, good my lords, be second to me: +Fear you his tyrannous passion more, alas, +Than the queen’s life? a gracious innocent soul, +More free than he is jealous. + +ANTIGONUS. +That’s enough. + +SERVANT. +Madam, he hath not slept tonight; commanded +None should come at him. + +PAULINA. +Not so hot, good sir; +I come to bring him sleep. ’Tis such as you, +That creep like shadows by him, and do sigh +At each his needless heavings,—such as you +Nourish the cause of his awaking. I +Do come with words as med’cinal as true, +Honest as either, to purge him of that humour +That presses him from sleep. + +LEONTES. +What noise there, ho? + +PAULINA. +No noise, my lord; but needful conference +About some gossips for your highness. + +LEONTES. +How! +Away with that audacious lady! Antigonus, +I charg’d thee that she should not come about me. +I knew she would. + +ANTIGONUS. +I told her so, my lord, +On your displeasure’s peril and on mine, +She should not visit you. + +LEONTES. +What, canst not rule her? + +PAULINA. +From all dishonesty he can. In this, +Unless he take the course that you have done, +Commit me for committing honour—trust it, +He shall not rule me. + +ANTIGONUS. +La you now, you hear. +When she will take the rein I let her run; +But she’ll not stumble. + +PAULINA. +Good my liege, I come,— +And, I beseech you hear me, who professes +Myself your loyal servant, your physician, +Your most obedient counsellor, yet that dares +Less appear so, in comforting your evils, +Than such as most seem yours—I say I come +From your good queen. + +LEONTES. +Good queen! + +PAULINA. +Good queen, my lord, good queen: I say, good queen, +And would by combat make her good, so were I +A man, the worst about you. + +LEONTES. +Force her hence. + +PAULINA. +Let him that makes but trifles of his eyes +First hand me: on mine own accord I’ll off; +But first I’ll do my errand. The good queen, +(For she is good) hath brought you forth a daughter; +Here ’tis; commends it to your blessing. + + [_Laying down the child._] + +LEONTES. +Out! +A mankind witch! Hence with her, out o’ door: +A most intelligencing bawd! + +PAULINA. +Not so. +I am as ignorant in that as you +In so entitling me; and no less honest +Than you are mad; which is enough, I’ll warrant, +As this world goes, to pass for honest. + +LEONTES. +Traitors! +Will you not push her out? [_To Antigonus._] Give her the bastard, +Thou dotard! Thou art woman-tir’d, unroosted +By thy Dame Partlet here. Take up the bastard, +Take’t up, I say; give’t to thy crone. + +PAULINA. +For ever +Unvenerable be thy hands, if thou +Tak’st up the princess by that forced baseness +Which he has put upon ’t! + +LEONTES. +He dreads his wife. + +PAULINA. +So I would you did; then ’twere past all doubt +You’d call your children yours. + +LEONTES. +A nest of traitors! + +ANTIGONUS. +I am none, by this good light. + +PAULINA. +Nor I; nor any +But one that’s here, and that’s himself. For he +The sacred honour of himself, his queen’s, +His hopeful son’s, his babe’s, betrays to slander, +Whose sting is sharper than the sword’s; and will not, +(For, as the case now stands, it is a curse +He cannot be compell’d to’t) once remove +The root of his opinion, which is rotten +As ever oak or stone was sound. + +LEONTES. +A callat +Of boundless tongue, who late hath beat her husband, +And now baits me! This brat is none of mine; +It is the issue of Polixenes. +Hence with it, and together with the dam +Commit them to the fire. + +PAULINA. +It is yours; +And, might we lay th’ old proverb to your charge, +So like you ’tis the worse. Behold, my lords, +Although the print be little, the whole matter +And copy of the father: eye, nose, lip, +The trick of ’s frown, his forehead; nay, the valley, +The pretty dimples of his chin and cheek; his smiles; +The very mould and frame of hand, nail, finger: +And thou, good goddess Nature, which hast made it +So like to him that got it, if thou hast +The ordering of the mind too, ’mongst all colours +No yellow in ’t, lest she suspect, as he does, +Her children not her husband’s! + +LEONTES. +A gross hag! +And, losel, thou art worthy to be hang’d +That wilt not stay her tongue. + +ANTIGONUS. +Hang all the husbands +That cannot do that feat, you’ll leave yourself +Hardly one subject. + +LEONTES. +Once more, take her hence. + +PAULINA. +A most unworthy and unnatural lord +Can do no more. + +LEONTES. +I’ll have thee burnt. + +PAULINA. +I care not. +It is an heretic that makes the fire, +Not she which burns in ’t. I’ll not call you tyrant; +But this most cruel usage of your queen, +Not able to produce more accusation +Than your own weak-hing’d fancy, something savours +Of tyranny, and will ignoble make you, +Yea, scandalous to the world. + +LEONTES. +On your allegiance, +Out of the chamber with her! Were I a tyrant, +Where were her life? She durst not call me so, +If she did know me one. Away with her! + +PAULINA. +I pray you, do not push me; I’ll be gone. +Look to your babe, my lord; ’tis yours: Jove send her +A better guiding spirit! What needs these hands? +You that are thus so tender o’er his follies, +Will never do him good, not one of you. +So, so. Farewell; we are gone. + + [_Exit._] + +LEONTES. +Thou, traitor, hast set on thy wife to this. +My child? Away with’t. Even thou, that hast +A heart so tender o’er it, take it hence, +And see it instantly consum’d with fire; +Even thou, and none but thou. Take it up straight: +Within this hour bring me word ’tis done, +And by good testimony, or I’ll seize thy life, +With that thou else call’st thine. If thou refuse +And wilt encounter with my wrath, say so; +The bastard brains with these my proper hands +Shall I dash out. Go, take it to the fire; +For thou set’st on thy wife. + +ANTIGONUS. +I did not, sir: +These lords, my noble fellows, if they please, +Can clear me in ’t. + +LORDS +We can: my royal liege, +He is not guilty of her coming hither. + +LEONTES. +You’re liars all. + +FIRST LORD. +Beseech your highness, give us better credit: +We have always truly serv’d you; and beseech +So to esteem of us. And on our knees we beg, +As recompense of our dear services +Past and to come, that you do change this purpose, +Which being so horrible, so bloody, must +Lead on to some foul issue. We all kneel. + +LEONTES. +I am a feather for each wind that blows. +Shall I live on to see this bastard kneel +And call me father? better burn it now +Than curse it then. But be it; let it live. +It shall not neither. [_To Antigonus._] You, sir, come you hither, +You that have been so tenderly officious +With Lady Margery, your midwife, there, +To save this bastard’s life—for ’tis a bastard, +So sure as this beard’s grey. What will you adventure +To save this brat’s life? + +ANTIGONUS. +Anything, my lord, +That my ability may undergo, +And nobleness impose: at least thus much: +I’ll pawn the little blood which I have left +To save the innocent. Anything possible. + +LEONTES. +It shall be possible. Swear by this sword +Thou wilt perform my bidding. + +ANTIGONUS. +I will, my lord. + +LEONTES. +Mark, and perform it, seest thou? for the fail +Of any point in’t shall not only be +Death to thyself, but to thy lewd-tongu’d wife, +Whom for this time we pardon. We enjoin thee, +As thou art liegeman to us, that thou carry +This female bastard hence, and that thou bear it +To some remote and desert place, quite out +Of our dominions; and that there thou leave it, +Without more mercy, to it own protection +And favour of the climate. As by strange fortune +It came to us, I do in justice charge thee, +On thy soul’s peril and thy body’s torture, +That thou commend it strangely to some place +Where chance may nurse or end it. Take it up. + +ANTIGONUS. +I swear to do this, though a present death +Had been more merciful. Come on, poor babe: +Some powerful spirit instruct the kites and ravens +To be thy nurses! Wolves and bears, they say, +Casting their savageness aside, have done +Like offices of pity. Sir, be prosperous +In more than this deed does require! And blessing +Against this cruelty, fight on thy side, +Poor thing, condemn’d to loss! + + [_Exit with the child._] + +LEONTES. +No, I’ll not rear +Another’s issue. + + Enter a Servant. + +SERVANT. +Please your highness, posts +From those you sent to th’ oracle are come +An hour since: Cleomenes and Dion, +Being well arriv’d from Delphos, are both landed, +Hasting to th’ court. + +FIRST LORD. +So please you, sir, their speed +Hath been beyond account. + +LEONTES. +Twenty-three days +They have been absent: ’tis good speed; foretells +The great Apollo suddenly will have +The truth of this appear. Prepare you, lords; +Summon a session, that we may arraign +Our most disloyal lady; for, as she hath +Been publicly accus’d, so shall she have +A just and open trial. While she lives, +My heart will be a burden to me. Leave me, +And think upon my bidding. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT III + +SCENE I. Sicilia. A Street in some Town. + + Enter Cleomenes and Dion. + +CLEOMENES +The climate’s delicate; the air most sweet, +Fertile the isle, the temple much surpassing +The common praise it bears. + +DION. +I shall report, +For most it caught me, the celestial habits +(Methinks I so should term them) and the reverence +Of the grave wearers. O, the sacrifice! +How ceremonious, solemn, and unearthly, +It was i’ th’ offering! + +CLEOMENES +But of all, the burst +And the ear-deaf’ning voice o’ th’ oracle, +Kin to Jove’s thunder, so surprised my sense +That I was nothing. + +DION. +If the event o’ th’ journey +Prove as successful to the queen,—O, be’t so!— +As it hath been to us rare, pleasant, speedy, +The time is worth the use on’t. + +CLEOMENES +Great Apollo +Turn all to th’ best! These proclamations, +So forcing faults upon Hermione, +I little like. + +DION. +The violent carriage of it +Will clear or end the business: when the oracle, +(Thus by Apollo’s great divine seal’d up) +Shall the contents discover, something rare +Even then will rush to knowledge. Go. Fresh horses! +And gracious be the issue! + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. A Court of Justice. + + Enter Leontes, Lords and Officers appear, properly seated. + +LEONTES. +This sessions (to our great grief we pronounce) +Even pushes ’gainst our heart: the party tried +The daughter of a king, our wife, and one +Of us too much belov’d. Let us be clear’d +Of being tyrannous, since we so openly +Proceed in justice, which shall have due course, +Even to the guilt or the purgation. +Produce the prisoner. + +OFFICER. +It is his highness’ pleasure that the queen +Appear in person here in court. Silence! + + Hermione is brought in guarded; Paulina and Ladies attending. + +LEONTES. +Read the indictment. + +OFFICER. +[_Reads._] “Hermione, queen to the worthy Leontes, king of Sicilia, +thou art here accused and arraigned of high treason, in committing +adultery with Polixenes, king of Bohemia; and conspiring with Camillo +to take away the life of our sovereign lord the king, thy royal +husband: the pretence whereof being by circumstances partly laid open, +thou, Hermione, contrary to the faith and allegiance of a true subject, +didst counsel and aid them, for their better safety, to fly away by +night.” + +HERMIONE. +Since what I am to say must be but that +Which contradicts my accusation, and +The testimony on my part no other +But what comes from myself, it shall scarce boot me +To say “Not guilty”. Mine integrity, +Being counted falsehood, shall, as I express it, +Be so receiv’d. But thus, if powers divine +Behold our human actions, as they do, +I doubt not, then, but innocence shall make +False accusation blush, and tyranny +Tremble at patience. You, my lord, best know, +Who least will seem to do so, my past life +Hath been as continent, as chaste, as true, +As I am now unhappy; which is more +Than history can pattern, though devis’d +And play’d to take spectators. For behold me, +A fellow of the royal bed, which owe +A moiety of the throne, a great king’s daughter, +The mother to a hopeful prince, here standing +To prate and talk for life and honour ’fore +Who please to come and hear. For life, I prize it +As I weigh grief, which I would spare. For honour, +’Tis a derivative from me to mine, +And only that I stand for. I appeal +To your own conscience, sir, before Polixenes +Came to your court, how I was in your grace, +How merited to be so; since he came, +With what encounter so uncurrent I +Have strain’d t’ appear thus: if one jot beyond +The bound of honour, or in act or will +That way inclining, harden’d be the hearts +Of all that hear me, and my near’st of kin +Cry fie upon my grave! + +LEONTES. +I ne’er heard yet +That any of these bolder vices wanted +Less impudence to gainsay what they did +Than to perform it first. + +HERMIONE. +That’s true enough; +Though ’tis a saying, sir, not due to me. + +LEONTES. +You will not own it. + +HERMIONE. +More than mistress of +Which comes to me in name of fault, I must not +At all acknowledge. For Polixenes, +With whom I am accus’d, I do confess +I lov’d him as in honour he requir’d, +With such a kind of love as might become +A lady like me; with a love even such, +So and no other, as yourself commanded: +Which not to have done, I think had been in me +Both disobedience and ingratitude +To you and toward your friend, whose love had spoke, +Ever since it could speak, from an infant, freely, +That it was yours. Now, for conspiracy, +I know not how it tastes, though it be dish’d +For me to try how: all I know of it +Is that Camillo was an honest man; +And why he left your court, the gods themselves, +Wotting no more than I, are ignorant. + +LEONTES. +You knew of his departure, as you know +What you have underta’en to do in ’s absence. + +HERMIONE. +Sir, +You speak a language that I understand not: +My life stands in the level of your dreams, +Which I’ll lay down. + +LEONTES. +Your actions are my dreams. +You had a bastard by Polixenes, +And I but dream’d it. As you were past all shame +(Those of your fact are so) so past all truth, +Which to deny concerns more than avails; for as +Thy brat hath been cast out, like to itself, +No father owning it (which is, indeed, +More criminal in thee than it), so thou +Shalt feel our justice; in whose easiest passage +Look for no less than death. + +HERMIONE. +Sir, spare your threats: +The bug which you would fright me with, I seek. +To me can life be no commodity. +The crown and comfort of my life, your favour, +I do give lost, for I do feel it gone, +But know not how it went. My second joy, +And first-fruits of my body, from his presence +I am barr’d, like one infectious. My third comfort, +Starr’d most unluckily, is from my breast, +(The innocent milk in its most innocent mouth) +Hal’d out to murder; myself on every post +Proclaim’d a strumpet; with immodest hatred +The child-bed privilege denied, which ’longs +To women of all fashion; lastly, hurried +Here to this place, i’ th’ open air, before +I have got strength of limit. Now, my liege, +Tell me what blessings I have here alive, +That I should fear to die. Therefore proceed. +But yet hear this: mistake me not: no life, +I prize it not a straw, but for mine honour, +Which I would free, if I shall be condemn’d +Upon surmises, all proofs sleeping else +But what your jealousies awake I tell you +’Tis rigour, and not law. Your honours all, +I do refer me to the oracle: +Apollo be my judge! + +FIRST LORD. +This your request +Is altogether just: therefore bring forth, +And in Apollo’s name, his oracle: + + [_Exeunt certain Officers._] + +HERMIONE. +The Emperor of Russia was my father. +O that he were alive, and here beholding +His daughter’s trial! that he did but see +The flatness of my misery; yet with eyes +Of pity, not revenge! + + Enter Officers with Cleomenes and Dion. + +OFFICER. +You here shall swear upon this sword of justice, +That you, Cleomenes and Dion, have +Been both at Delphos, and from thence have brought +This seal’d-up oracle, by the hand deliver’d +Of great Apollo’s priest; and that since then +You have not dared to break the holy seal, +Nor read the secrets in’t. + +CLEOMENES, DION. +All this we swear. + +LEONTES. +Break up the seals and read. + +OFFICER. +[_Reads._] “Hermione is chaste; Polixenes blameless; Camillo a true +subject; Leontes a jealous tyrant; his innocent babe truly begotten; +and the king shall live without an heir, if that which is lost be not +found.” + +LORDS +Now blessed be the great Apollo! + +HERMIONE. +Praised! + +LEONTES. +Hast thou read truth? + +OFFICER. +Ay, my lord, even so +As it is here set down. + +LEONTES. +There is no truth at all i’ th’ oracle: +The sessions shall proceed: this is mere falsehood. + + Enter a Servant hastily. + +SERVANT. +My lord the king, the king! + +LEONTES. +What is the business? + +SERVANT. +O sir, I shall be hated to report it. +The prince your son, with mere conceit and fear +Of the queen’s speed, is gone. + +LEONTES. +How! gone? + +SERVANT. +Is dead. + +LEONTES. +Apollo’s angry, and the heavens themselves +Do strike at my injustice. + + [_Hermione faints._] + +How now there? + +PAULINA. +This news is mortal to the queen. Look down +And see what death is doing. + +LEONTES. +Take her hence: +Her heart is but o’ercharg’d; she will recover. +I have too much believ’d mine own suspicion. +Beseech you tenderly apply to her +Some remedies for life. + + [_Exeunt Paulina and Ladies with Hermione._] + +Apollo, pardon +My great profaneness ’gainst thine oracle! +I’ll reconcile me to Polixenes, +New woo my queen, recall the good Camillo, +Whom I proclaim a man of truth, of mercy; +For, being transported by my jealousies +To bloody thoughts and to revenge, I chose +Camillo for the minister to poison +My friend Polixenes: which had been done, +But that the good mind of Camillo tardied +My swift command, though I with death and with +Reward did threaten and encourage him, +Not doing it and being done. He, most humane +And fill’d with honour, to my kingly guest +Unclasp’d my practice, quit his fortunes here, +Which you knew great, and to the certain hazard +Of all incertainties himself commended, +No richer than his honour. How he glisters +Thorough my rust! And how his piety +Does my deeds make the blacker! + + Enter Paulina. + +PAULINA. +Woe the while! +O, cut my lace, lest my heart, cracking it, +Break too! + +FIRST LORD. +What fit is this, good lady? + +PAULINA. +What studied torments, tyrant, hast for me? +What wheels? racks? fires? what flaying? boiling +In leads or oils? What old or newer torture +Must I receive, whose every word deserves +To taste of thy most worst? Thy tyranny, +Together working with thy jealousies, +Fancies too weak for boys, too green and idle +For girls of nine. O, think what they have done, +And then run mad indeed, stark mad! for all +Thy by-gone fooleries were but spices of it. +That thou betray’dst Polixenes, ’twas nothing; +That did but show thee, of a fool, inconstant +And damnable ingrateful; nor was’t much +Thou wouldst have poison’d good Camillo’s honour, +To have him kill a king; poor trespasses, +More monstrous standing by: whereof I reckon +The casting forth to crows thy baby daughter, +To be or none or little, though a devil +Would have shed water out of fire ere done’t, +Nor is’t directly laid to thee the death +Of the young prince, whose honourable thoughts, +Thoughts high for one so tender, cleft the heart +That could conceive a gross and foolish sire +Blemish’d his gracious dam: this is not, no, +Laid to thy answer: but the last—O lords, +When I have said, cry Woe!—the queen, the queen, +The sweet’st, dear’st creature’s dead, and vengeance for’t +Not dropp’d down yet. + +FIRST LORD. +The higher powers forbid! + +PAULINA. +I say she’s dead: I’ll swear’t. If word nor oath +Prevail not, go and see: if you can bring +Tincture, or lustre, in her lip, her eye, +Heat outwardly or breath within, I’ll serve you +As I would do the gods. But, O thou tyrant! +Do not repent these things, for they are heavier +Than all thy woes can stir. Therefore betake thee +To nothing but despair. A thousand knees +Ten thousand years together, naked, fasting, +Upon a barren mountain, and still winter +In storm perpetual, could not move the gods +To look that way thou wert. + +LEONTES. +Go on, go on: +Thou canst not speak too much; I have deserv’d +All tongues to talk their bitterest. + +FIRST LORD. +Say no more: +Howe’er the business goes, you have made fault +I’ th’ boldness of your speech. + +PAULINA. +I am sorry for ’t: +All faults I make, when I shall come to know them, +I do repent. Alas, I have show’d too much +The rashness of a woman: he is touch’d +To th’ noble heart. What’s gone and what’s past help, +Should be past grief. Do not receive affliction +At my petition; I beseech you, rather +Let me be punish’d, that have minded you +Of what you should forget. Now, good my liege, +Sir, royal sir, forgive a foolish woman: +The love I bore your queen—lo, fool again! +I’ll speak of her no more, nor of your children. +I’ll not remember you of my own lord, +Who is lost too. Take your patience to you, +And I’ll say nothing. + +LEONTES. +Thou didst speak but well +When most the truth, which I receive much better +Than to be pitied of thee. Prithee, bring me +To the dead bodies of my queen and son: +One grave shall be for both. Upon them shall +The causes of their death appear, unto +Our shame perpetual. Once a day I’ll visit +The chapel where they lie, and tears shed there +Shall be my recreation. So long as nature +Will bear up with this exercise, so long +I daily vow to use it. Come, and lead me +To these sorrows. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. Bohemia. A desert Country near the Sea. + + Enter Antigonus with the Child and a Mariner. + +ANTIGONUS. +Thou art perfect, then, our ship hath touch’d upon +The deserts of Bohemia? + +MARINER. +Ay, my lord, and fear +We have landed in ill time: the skies look grimly, +And threaten present blusters. In my conscience, +The heavens with that we have in hand are angry, +And frown upon ’s. + +ANTIGONUS. +Their sacred wills be done! Go, get aboard; +Look to thy bark: I’ll not be long before +I call upon thee. + +MARINER. +Make your best haste, and go not +Too far i’ th’ land: ’tis like to be loud weather; +Besides, this place is famous for the creatures +Of prey that keep upon ’t. + +ANTIGONUS. +Go thou away: +I’ll follow instantly. + +MARINER. +I am glad at heart +To be so rid o’ th’ business. + + [_Exit._] + +ANTIGONUS. +Come, poor babe. +I have heard, but not believ’d, the spirits of the dead +May walk again: if such thing be, thy mother +Appear’d to me last night; for ne’er was dream +So like a waking. To me comes a creature, +Sometimes her head on one side, some another. +I never saw a vessel of like sorrow, +So fill’d and so becoming: in pure white robes, +Like very sanctity, she did approach +My cabin where I lay: thrice bow’d before me, +And, gasping to begin some speech, her eyes +Became two spouts. The fury spent, anon +Did this break from her: “Good Antigonus, +Since fate, against thy better disposition, +Hath made thy person for the thrower-out +Of my poor babe, according to thine oath, +Places remote enough are in Bohemia, +There weep, and leave it crying. And, for the babe +Is counted lost for ever, Perdita +I prithee call’t. For this ungentle business, +Put on thee by my lord, thou ne’er shalt see +Thy wife Paulina more.” And so, with shrieks, +She melted into air. Affrighted much, +I did in time collect myself and thought +This was so, and no slumber. Dreams are toys, +Yet for this once, yea, superstitiously, +I will be squar’d by this. I do believe +Hermione hath suffer’d death, and that +Apollo would, this being indeed the issue +Of King Polixenes, it should here be laid, +Either for life or death, upon the earth +Of its right father. Blossom, speed thee well! There lie; and there thy +character: there these; + + [_Laying down the child and a bundle._] + +Which may if fortune please, both breed thee, pretty, +And still rest thine. The storm begins: poor wretch, +That for thy mother’s fault art thus expos’d +To loss and what may follow! Weep I cannot, +But my heart bleeds, and most accurs’d am I +To be by oath enjoin’d to this. Farewell! +The day frowns more and more. Thou’rt like to have +A lullaby too rough. I never saw +The heavens so dim by day. A savage clamour! +Well may I get aboard! This is the chase: +I am gone for ever. + + [_Exit, pursued by a bear._] + + Enter an old Shepherd. + +SHEPHERD. +I would there were no age between ten and three-and-twenty, or that +youth would sleep out the rest; for there is nothing in the between but +getting wenches with child, wronging the ancientry, stealing, +fighting—Hark you now! Would any but these boiled brains of nineteen +and two-and-twenty hunt this weather? They have scared away two of my +best sheep, which I fear the wolf will sooner find than the master: if +anywhere I have them, ’tis by the sea-side, browsing of ivy. Good luck, +an ’t be thy will, what have we here? + + [_Taking up the child._] + + Mercy on ’s, a bairn! A very pretty bairn! A boy or a child, I wonder? + A pretty one; a very pretty one. Sure, some scape. Though I am not + bookish, yet I can read waiting-gentlewoman in the scape. This has + been some stair-work, some trunk-work, some behind-door-work. They + were warmer that got this than the poor thing is here. I’ll take it up + for pity: yet I’ll tarry till my son come; he halloed but even now. + Whoa-ho-hoa! + + Enter Clown. + +CLOWN. +Hilloa, loa! + +SHEPHERD. +What, art so near? If thou’lt see a thing to talk on when thou art dead +and rotten, come hither. What ail’st thou, man? + +CLOWN. +I have seen two such sights, by sea and by land! But I am not to say it +is a sea, for it is now the sky: betwixt the firmament and it, you +cannot thrust a bodkin’s point. + +SHEPHERD. +Why, boy, how is it? + +CLOWN. +I would you did but see how it chafes, how it rages, how it takes up +the shore! But that’s not to the point. O, the most piteous cry of the +poor souls! sometimes to see ’em, and not to see ’em. Now the ship +boring the moon with her mainmast, and anon swallowed with yest and +froth, as you’d thrust a cork into a hogshead. And then for the land +service, to see how the bear tore out his shoulder-bone, how he cried +to me for help, and said his name was Antigonus, a nobleman. But to +make an end of the ship, to see how the sea flap-dragon’d it: but +first, how the poor souls roared, and the sea mocked them, and how the +poor gentleman roared, and the bear mocked him, both roaring louder +than the sea or weather. + +SHEPHERD. +Name of mercy, when was this, boy? + +CLOWN. +Now, now. I have not winked since I saw these sights: the men are not +yet cold under water, nor the bear half dined on the gentleman. He’s at +it now. + +SHEPHERD. +Would I had been by to have helped the old man! + +CLOWN. +I would you had been by the ship side, to have helped her: there your +charity would have lacked footing. + +SHEPHERD. +Heavy matters, heavy matters! But look thee here, boy. Now bless +thyself: thou met’st with things dying, I with things new-born. Here’s +a sight for thee. Look thee, a bearing-cloth for a squire’s child! Look +thee here; take up, take up, boy; open’t. So, let’s see. It was told me +I should be rich by the fairies. This is some changeling: open’t. +What’s within, boy? + +CLOWN. +You’re a made old man. If the sins of your youth are forgiven you, +you’re well to live. Gold! all gold! + +SHEPHERD. +This is fairy gold, boy, and ’twill prove so. Up with it, keep it +close: home, home, the next way. We are lucky, boy, and to be so still +requires nothing but secrecy. Let my sheep go: come, good boy, the next +way home. + +CLOWN. +Go you the next way with your findings. I’ll go see if the bear be gone +from the gentleman, and how much he hath eaten. They are never curst +but when they are hungry: if there be any of him left, I’ll bury it. + +SHEPHERD. +That’s a good deed. If thou mayest discern by that which is left of him +what he is, fetch me to th’ sight of him. + +CLOWN. +Marry, will I; and you shall help to put him i’ th’ ground. + +SHEPHERD. +’Tis a lucky day, boy, and we’ll do good deeds on ’t. + + [_Exeunt._] + + + +ACT IV + +SCENE I. + + Enter Time, the Chorus. + +TIME. +I that please some, try all: both joy and terror +Of good and bad, that makes and unfolds error, +Now take upon me, in the name of Time, +To use my wings. Impute it not a crime +To me or my swift passage, that I slide +O’er sixteen years, and leave the growth untried +Of that wide gap, since it is in my power +To o’erthrow law, and in one self-born hour +To plant and o’erwhelm custom. Let me pass +The same I am, ere ancient’st order was +Or what is now received. I witness to +The times that brought them in; so shall I do +To th’ freshest things now reigning, and make stale +The glistering of this present, as my tale +Now seems to it. Your patience this allowing, +I turn my glass, and give my scene such growing +As you had slept between. Leontes leaving +Th’ effects of his fond jealousies, so grieving +That he shuts up himself, imagine me, +Gentle spectators, that I now may be +In fair Bohemia, and remember well, +I mentioned a son o’ th’ king’s, which Florizel +I now name to you; and with speed so pace +To speak of Perdita, now grown in grace +Equal with wondering. What of her ensues +I list not prophesy; but let Time’s news +Be known when ’tis brought forth. A shepherd’s daughter, +And what to her adheres, which follows after, +Is th’ argument of Time. Of this allow, +If ever you have spent time worse ere now; +If never, yet that Time himself doth say +He wishes earnestly you never may. + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE II. Bohemia. A Room in the palace of Polixenes. + + Enter Polixenes and Camillo. + +POLIXENES. +I pray thee, good Camillo, be no more importunate: ’tis a sickness +denying thee anything; a death to grant this. + +CAMILLO. +It is fifteen years since I saw my country. Though I have for the most +part been aired abroad, I desire to lay my bones there. Besides, the +penitent king, my master, hath sent for me; to whose feeling sorrows I +might be some allay, or I o’erween to think so,—which is another spur +to my departure. + +POLIXENES. +As thou lov’st me, Camillo, wipe not out the rest of thy services by +leaving me now: the need I have of thee, thine own goodness hath made; +better not to have had thee than thus to want thee. Thou, having made +me businesses which none without thee can sufficiently manage, must +either stay to execute them thyself, or take away with thee the very +services thou hast done, which if I have not enough considered (as too +much I cannot) to be more thankful to thee shall be my study; and my +profit therein the heaping friendships. Of that fatal country Sicilia, +prithee speak no more; whose very naming punishes me with the +remembrance of that penitent, as thou call’st him, and reconciled king, +my brother; whose loss of his most precious queen and children are even +now to be afresh lamented. Say to me, when sawest thou the Prince +Florizel, my son? Kings are no less unhappy, their issue not being +gracious, than they are in losing them when they have approved their +virtues. + +CAMILLO. +Sir, it is three days since I saw the prince. What his happier affairs +may be, are to me unknown, but I have missingly noted he is of late +much retired from court, and is less frequent to his princely exercises +than formerly he hath appeared. + +POLIXENES. +I have considered so much, Camillo, and with some care; so far that I +have eyes under my service which look upon his removedness; from whom I +have this intelligence, that he is seldom from the house of a most +homely shepherd, a man, they say, that from very nothing, and beyond +the imagination of his neighbours, is grown into an unspeakable estate. + +CAMILLO. +I have heard, sir, of such a man, who hath a daughter of most rare +note: the report of her is extended more than can be thought to begin +from such a cottage. + +POLIXENES. +That’s likewise part of my intelligence: but, I fear, the angle that +plucks our son thither. Thou shalt accompany us to the place, where we +will, not appearing what we are, have some question with the shepherd; +from whose simplicity I think it not uneasy to get the cause of my +son’s resort thither. Prithee, be my present partner in this business, +and lay aside the thoughts of Sicilia. + +CAMILLO. +I willingly obey your command. + +POLIXENES. +My best Camillo! We must disguise ourselves. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. A Road near the Shepherd’s cottage. + + Enter Autolycus, singing. + +AUTOLYCUS. +_When daffodils begin to peer, + With, hey! the doxy over the dale, +Why, then comes in the sweet o’ the year, + For the red blood reigns in the winter’s pale._ + +_The white sheet bleaching on the hedge, + With, hey! the sweet birds, O, how they sing! +Doth set my pugging tooth on edge; + For a quart of ale is a dish for a king._ + +_The lark, that tirra-lirra chants, + With, hey! with, hey! the thrush and the jay, +Are summer songs for me and my aunts, + While we lie tumbling in the hay._ + +I have served Prince Florizel, and in my time wore three-pile, but now +I am out of service. + +_But shall I go mourn for that, my dear? + The pale moon shines by night: +And when I wander here and there, + I then do most go right._ + +_If tinkers may have leave to live, + And bear the sow-skin budget, +Then my account I well may give + And in the stocks avouch it._ + +My traffic is sheets; when the kite builds, look to lesser linen. My +father named me Autolycus; who being, I as am, littered under Mercury, +was likewise a snapper-up of unconsidered trifles. With die and drab I +purchased this caparison, and my revenue is the silly cheat. Gallows +and knock are too powerful on the highway. Beating and hanging are +terrors to me. For the life to come, I sleep out the thought of it. A +prize! a prize! + + Enter Clown. + +CLOWN. +Let me see: every ’leven wether tods; every tod yields pound and odd +shilling; fifteen hundred shorn, what comes the wool to? + +AUTOLYCUS. +[_Aside._] If the springe hold, the cock’s mine. + +CLOWN. +I cannot do’t without counters. Let me see; what am I to buy for our +sheep-shearing feast? “Three pound of sugar, five pound of currants, +rice”—what will this sister of mine do with rice? But my father hath +made her mistress of the feast, and she lays it on. She hath made me +four-and-twenty nosegays for the shearers, three-man song-men all, and +very good ones; but they are most of them means and basses, but one +puritan amongst them, and he sings psalms to hornpipes. I must have +saffron to colour the warden pies; “mace; dates”, none, that’s out of +my note; “nutmegs, seven; a race or two of ginger”, but that I may beg; +“four pound of prunes, and as many of raisins o’ th’ sun.” + +AUTOLYCUS. +[_Grovelling on the ground._] O that ever I was born! + +CLOWN. +I’ th’ name of me! + +AUTOLYCUS. +O, help me, help me! Pluck but off these rags; and then, death, death! + +CLOWN. +Alack, poor soul! thou hast need of more rags to lay on thee, rather +than have these off. + +AUTOLYCUS. +O sir, the loathsomeness of them offends me more than the stripes I +have received, which are mighty ones and millions. + +CLOWN. +Alas, poor man! a million of beating may come to a great matter. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I am robbed, sir, and beaten; my money and apparel ta’en from me, and +these detestable things put upon me. + +CLOWN. +What, by a horseman or a footman? + +AUTOLYCUS. +A footman, sweet sir, a footman. + +CLOWN. +Indeed, he should be a footman by the garments he has left with thee: +if this be a horseman’s coat, it hath seen very hot service. Lend me +thy hand, I’ll help thee: come, lend me thy hand. + + [_Helping him up._] + +AUTOLYCUS. +O, good sir, tenderly, O! + +CLOWN. +Alas, poor soul! + +AUTOLYCUS. +O, good sir, softly, good sir. I fear, sir, my shoulder blade is out. + +CLOWN. +How now! canst stand? + +AUTOLYCUS. +Softly, dear sir! [_Picks his pocket._] good sir, softly. You ha’ done +me a charitable office. + +CLOWN. +Dost lack any money? I have a little money for thee. + +AUTOLYCUS. +No, good sweet sir; no, I beseech you, sir: I have a kinsman not past +three-quarters of a mile hence, unto whom I was going. I shall there +have money or anything I want. Offer me no money, I pray you; that +kills my heart. + +CLOWN. +What manner of fellow was he that robbed you? + +AUTOLYCUS. +A fellow, sir, that I have known to go about with troll-my-dames. I +knew him once a servant of the prince; I cannot tell, good sir, for +which of his virtues it was, but he was certainly whipped out of the +court. + +CLOWN. +His vices, you would say; there’s no virtue whipped out of the court. +They cherish it to make it stay there; and yet it will no more but +abide. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Vices, I would say, sir. I know this man well. He hath been since an +ape-bearer, then a process-server, a bailiff. Then he compassed a +motion of the Prodigal Son, and married a tinker’s wife within a mile +where my land and living lies; and, having flown over many knavish +professions, he settled only in rogue. Some call him Autolycus. + +CLOWN. +Out upon him! prig, for my life, prig: he haunts wakes, fairs, and +bear-baitings. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Very true, sir; he, sir, he; that’s the rogue that put me into this +apparel. + +CLOWN. +Not a more cowardly rogue in all Bohemia. If you had but looked big and +spit at him, he’d have run. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I must confess to you, sir, I am no fighter. I am false of heart that +way; and that he knew, I warrant him. + +CLOWN. +How do you now? + +AUTOLYCUS. +Sweet sir, much better than I was. I can stand and walk: I will even +take my leave of you and pace softly towards my kinsman’s. + +CLOWN. +Shall I bring thee on the way? + +AUTOLYCUS. +No, good-faced sir; no, sweet sir. + +CLOWN. +Then fare thee well. I must go buy spices for our sheep-shearing. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Prosper you, sweet sir! + + [_Exit Clown._] + + Your purse is not hot enough to purchase your spice. I’ll be with you + at your sheep-shearing too. If I make not this cheat bring out + another, and the shearers prove sheep, let me be unrolled, and my name + put in the book of virtue! +[_Sings._] +_Jog on, jog on, the footpath way, + And merrily hent the stile-a: +A merry heart goes all the day, + Your sad tires in a mile-a._ + + [_Exit._] + +SCENE IV. The same. A Shepherd’s Cottage. + + Enter Florizel and Perdita. + +FLORIZEL. +These your unusual weeds to each part of you +Do give a life, no shepherdess, but Flora +Peering in April’s front. This your sheep-shearing +Is as a meeting of the petty gods, +And you the queen on ’t. + +PERDITA. +Sir, my gracious lord, +To chide at your extremes it not becomes me; +O, pardon that I name them! Your high self, +The gracious mark o’ th’ land, you have obscur’d +With a swain’s wearing, and me, poor lowly maid, +Most goddess-like prank’d up. But that our feasts +In every mess have folly, and the feeders +Digest it with a custom, I should blush +To see you so attir’d; swoon, I think, +To show myself a glass. + +FLORIZEL. +I bless the time +When my good falcon made her flight across +Thy father’s ground. + +PERDITA. +Now Jove afford you cause! +To me the difference forges dread. Your greatness +Hath not been us’d to fear. Even now I tremble +To think your father, by some accident, +Should pass this way, as you did. O, the Fates! +How would he look to see his work, so noble, +Vilely bound up? What would he say? Or how +Should I, in these my borrow’d flaunts, behold +The sternness of his presence? + +FLORIZEL. +Apprehend +Nothing but jollity. The gods themselves, +Humbling their deities to love, have taken +The shapes of beasts upon them. Jupiter +Became a bull and bellow’d; the green Neptune +A ram and bleated; and the fire-rob’d god, +Golden Apollo, a poor humble swain, +As I seem now. Their transformations +Were never for a piece of beauty rarer, +Nor in a way so chaste, since my desires +Run not before mine honour, nor my lusts +Burn hotter than my faith. + +PERDITA. +O, but, sir, +Your resolution cannot hold when ’tis +Oppos’d, as it must be, by the power of the king: +One of these two must be necessities, +Which then will speak, that you must change this purpose, +Or I my life. + +FLORIZEL. +Thou dearest Perdita, +With these forc’d thoughts, I prithee, darken not +The mirth o’ th’ feast. Or I’ll be thine, my fair, +Or not my father’s. For I cannot be +Mine own, nor anything to any, if +I be not thine. To this I am most constant, +Though destiny say no. Be merry, gentle. +Strangle such thoughts as these with anything +That you behold the while. Your guests are coming: +Lift up your countenance, as it were the day +Of celebration of that nuptial which +We two have sworn shall come. + +PERDITA. +O lady Fortune, +Stand you auspicious! + +FLORIZEL. +See, your guests approach: +Address yourself to entertain them sprightly, +And let’s be red with mirth. + + Enter Shepherd with Polixenes and Camillo, disguised; Clown, Mopsa, + Dorcas with others. + +SHEPHERD. +Fie, daughter! When my old wife liv’d, upon +This day she was both pantler, butler, cook, +Both dame and servant; welcom’d all; serv’d all; +Would sing her song and dance her turn; now here +At upper end o’ th’ table, now i’ th’ middle; +On his shoulder, and his; her face o’ fire +With labour, and the thing she took to quench it +She would to each one sip. You are retired, +As if you were a feasted one, and not +The hostess of the meeting: pray you, bid +These unknown friends to ’s welcome, for it is +A way to make us better friends, more known. +Come, quench your blushes, and present yourself +That which you are, mistress o’ th’ feast. Come on, +And bid us welcome to your sheep-shearing, +As your good flock shall prosper. + +PERDITA. +[_To Polixenes._] Sir, welcome. +It is my father’s will I should take on me +The hostess-ship o’ the day. +[_To Camillo._] You’re welcome, sir. +Give me those flowers there, Dorcas. Reverend sirs, +For you there’s rosemary and rue; these keep +Seeming and savour all the winter long. +Grace and remembrance be to you both! +And welcome to our shearing! + +POLIXENES. +Shepherdess— +A fair one are you—well you fit our ages +With flowers of winter. + +PERDITA. +Sir, the year growing ancient, +Not yet on summer’s death nor on the birth +Of trembling winter, the fairest flowers o’ th’ season +Are our carnations and streak’d gillyvors, +Which some call nature’s bastards: of that kind +Our rustic garden’s barren; and I care not +To get slips of them. + +POLIXENES. +Wherefore, gentle maiden, +Do you neglect them? + +PERDITA. +For I have heard it said +There is an art which, in their piedness, shares +With great creating nature. + +POLIXENES. +Say there be; +Yet nature is made better by no mean +But nature makes that mean. So, over that art +Which you say adds to nature, is an art +That nature makes. You see, sweet maid, we marry +A gentler scion to the wildest stock, +And make conceive a bark of baser kind +By bud of nobler race. This is an art +Which does mend nature, change it rather, but +The art itself is nature. + +PERDITA. +So it is. + +POLIXENES. +Then make your garden rich in gillyvors, +And do not call them bastards. + +PERDITA. +I’ll not put +The dibble in earth to set one slip of them; +No more than, were I painted, I would wish +This youth should say ’twere well, and only therefore +Desire to breed by me. Here’s flowers for you: +Hot lavender, mints, savory, marjoram, +The marigold, that goes to bed with th’ sun +And with him rises weeping. These are flowers +Of middle summer, and I think they are given +To men of middle age. You’re very welcome. + +CAMILLO. +I should leave grazing, were I of your flock, +And only live by gazing. + +PERDITA. +Out, alas! +You’d be so lean that blasts of January +Would blow you through and through. [_To Florizel_] Now, my fair’st +friend, +I would I had some flowers o’ th’ spring, that might +Become your time of day; and yours, and yours, +That wear upon your virgin branches yet +Your maidenheads growing. O Proserpina, +From the flowers now that, frighted, thou let’st fall +From Dis’s waggon! daffodils, +That come before the swallow dares, and take +The winds of March with beauty; violets dim, +But sweeter than the lids of Juno’s eyes +Or Cytherea’s breath; pale primroses, +That die unmarried ere they can behold +Bright Phoebus in his strength (a malady +Most incident to maids); bold oxlips and +The crown imperial; lilies of all kinds, +The flower-de-luce being one. O, these I lack, +To make you garlands of; and my sweet friend, +To strew him o’er and o’er! + +FLORIZEL. +What, like a corse? + +PERDITA. +No, like a bank for love to lie and play on; +Not like a corse; or if, not to be buried, +But quick, and in mine arms. Come, take your flowers. +Methinks I play as I have seen them do +In Whitsun pastorals. Sure this robe of mine +Does change my disposition. + +FLORIZEL. +What you do +Still betters what is done. When you speak, sweet, +I’d have you do it ever. When you sing, +I’d have you buy and sell so, so give alms, +Pray so; and, for the ord’ring your affairs, +To sing them too. When you do dance, I wish you +A wave o’ th’ sea, that you might ever do +Nothing but that, move still, still so, +And own no other function. Each your doing, +So singular in each particular, +Crowns what you are doing in the present deeds, +That all your acts are queens. + +PERDITA. +O Doricles, +Your praises are too large. But that your youth, +And the true blood which peeps fairly through ’t, +Do plainly give you out an unstained shepherd, +With wisdom I might fear, my Doricles, +You woo’d me the false way. + +FLORIZEL. +I think you have +As little skill to fear as I have purpose +To put you to ’t. But, come; our dance, I pray. +Your hand, my Perdita. So turtles pair +That never mean to part. + +PERDITA. +I’ll swear for ’em. + +POLIXENES. +This is the prettiest low-born lass that ever +Ran on the green-sward. Nothing she does or seems +But smacks of something greater than herself, +Too noble for this place. + +CAMILLO. +He tells her something +That makes her blood look out. Good sooth, she is +The queen of curds and cream. + +CLOWN. +Come on, strike up. + +DORCAS. +Mopsa must be your mistress: marry, garlic, to mend her kissing with! + +MOPSA. +Now, in good time! + +CLOWN. +Not a word, a word; we stand upon our manners. +Come, strike up. + + [_Music. Here a dance Of Shepherds and Shepherdesses._] + +POLIXENES. +Pray, good shepherd, what fair swain is this +Which dances with your daughter? + +SHEPHERD. +They call him Doricles; and boasts himself +To have a worthy feeding. But I have it +Upon his own report, and I believe it. +He looks like sooth. He says he loves my daughter. +I think so too; for never gaz’d the moon +Upon the water as he’ll stand and read, +As ’twere, my daughter’s eyes. And, to be plain, +I think there is not half a kiss to choose +Who loves another best. + +POLIXENES. +She dances featly. + +SHEPHERD. +So she does anything, though I report it +That should be silent. If young Doricles +Do light upon her, she shall bring him that +Which he not dreams of. + + Enter a Servant. + +SERVANT. +O master, if you did but hear the pedlar at the door, you would never +dance again after a tabor and pipe; no, the bagpipe could not move you. +He sings several tunes faster than you’ll tell money. He utters them as +he had eaten ballads, and all men’s ears grew to his tunes. + +CLOWN. +He could never come better: he shall come in. I love a ballad but even +too well, if it be doleful matter merrily set down, or a very pleasant +thing indeed and sung lamentably. + +SERVANT. +He hath songs for man or woman of all sizes. No milliner can so fit his +customers with gloves. He has the prettiest love-songs for maids, so +without bawdry, which is strange; with such delicate burdens of dildos +and fadings, “jump her and thump her”; and where some stretch-mouthed +rascal would, as it were, mean mischief and break a foul gap into the +matter, he makes the maid to answer “Whoop, do me no harm, good man”; +puts him off, slights him, with “Whoop, do me no harm, good man.” + +POLIXENES. +This is a brave fellow. + +CLOWN. +Believe me, thou talkest of an admirable conceited fellow. Has he any +unbraided wares? + +SERVANT. +He hath ribbons of all the colours i’ th’ rainbow; points, more than +all the lawyers in Bohemia can learnedly handle, though they come to +him by th’ gross; inkles, caddisses, cambrics, lawns; why he sings ’em +over as they were gods or goddesses; you would think a smock were a +she-angel, he so chants to the sleeve-hand and the work about the +square on ’t. + +CLOWN. +Prithee bring him in; and let him approach singing. + +PERDITA. +Forewarn him that he use no scurrilous words in ’s tunes. + + [_Exit Servant._] + +CLOWN. +You have of these pedlars that have more in them than you’d think, +sister. + +PERDITA. +Ay, good brother, or go about to think. + + Enter Autolycus, singing. + +AUTOLYCUS. +_Lawn as white as driven snow, +Cypress black as e’er was crow, +Gloves as sweet as damask roses, +Masks for faces and for noses, +Bugle-bracelet, necklace amber, +Perfume for a lady’s chamber, +Golden quoifs and stomachers +For my lads to give their dears, +Pins and poking-sticks of steel, +What maids lack from head to heel. +Come buy of me, come; come buy, come buy; +Buy, lads, or else your lasses cry. +Come, buy._ + +CLOWN. +If I were not in love with Mopsa, thou shouldst take no money of me; +but being enthralled as I am, it will also be the bondage of certain +ribbons and gloves. + +MOPSA. +I was promised them against the feast; but they come not too late now. + +DORCAS. +He hath promised you more than that, or there be liars. + +MOPSA. +He hath paid you all he promised you. Maybe he has paid you more, which +will shame you to give him again. + +CLOWN. +Is there no manners left among maids? Will they wear their plackets +where they should bear their faces? Is there not milking-time, when you +are going to bed, or kiln-hole, to whistle of these secrets, but you +must be tittle-tattling before all our guests? ’Tis well they are +whispering. Clamour your tongues, and not a word more. + +MOPSA. +I have done. Come, you promised me a tawdry lace and a pair of sweet +gloves. + +CLOWN. +Have I not told thee how I was cozened by the way and lost all my +money? + +AUTOLYCUS. +And indeed, sir, there are cozeners abroad; therefore it behoves men to +be wary. + +CLOWN. +Fear not thou, man. Thou shalt lose nothing here. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I hope so, sir; for I have about me many parcels of charge. + +CLOWN. +What hast here? Ballads? + +MOPSA. +Pray now, buy some. I love a ballad in print alife, for then we are +sure they are true. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Here’s one to a very doleful tune. How a usurer’s wife was brought to +bed of twenty money-bags at a burden, and how she longed to eat adders’ +heads and toads carbonadoed. + +MOPSA. +Is it true, think you? + +AUTOLYCUS. +Very true, and but a month old. + +DORCAS. +Bless me from marrying a usurer! + +AUTOLYCUS. +Here’s the midwife’s name to’t, one Mistress Taleporter, and five or +six honest wives that were present. Why should I carry lies abroad? + +MOPSA. +Pray you now, buy it. + +CLOWN. +Come on, lay it by; and let’s first see more ballads. We’ll buy the +other things anon. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Here’s another ballad, of a fish that appeared upon the coast on +Wednesday the fourscore of April, forty thousand fathom above water, +and sung this ballad against the hard hearts of maids. It was thought +she was a woman, and was turned into a cold fish for she would not +exchange flesh with one that loved her. The ballad is very pitiful, and +as true. + +DORCAS. +Is it true too, think you? + +AUTOLYCUS. +Five justices’ hands at it, and witnesses more than my pack will hold. + +CLOWN. +Lay it by too: another. + +AUTOLYCUS. +This is a merry ballad; but a very pretty one. + +MOPSA. +Let’s have some merry ones. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Why, this is a passing merry one and goes to the tune of “Two maids +wooing a man.” There’s scarce a maid westward but she sings it. ’Tis in +request, I can tell you. + +MOPSA. +We can both sing it: if thou’lt bear a part, thou shalt hear; ’tis in +three parts. + +DORCAS. +We had the tune on ’t a month ago. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I can bear my part; you must know ’tis my occupation: have at it with +you. + +SONG. + +AUTOLYCUS. +_Get you hence, for I must go +Where it fits not you to know._ + +DORCAS. +_Whither?_ + +MOPSA. +_O, whither?_ + +DORCAS. +_Whither?_ + +MOPSA. +_It becomes thy oath full well +Thou to me thy secrets tell._ + +DORCAS. +_Me too! Let me go thither._ + +MOPSA. +Or thou goest to th’ grange or mill. + +DORCAS. +_If to either, thou dost ill._ + +AUTOLYCUS. +_Neither._ + +DORCAS. +_What, neither?_ + +AUTOLYCUS. +_Neither._ + +DORCAS. +_Thou hast sworn my love to be._ + +MOPSA. +_Thou hast sworn it more to me. +Then whither goest? Say, whither?_ + +CLOWN. +We’ll have this song out anon by ourselves. My father and the gentlemen +are in sad talk, and we’ll not trouble them. Come, bring away thy pack +after me. Wenches, I’ll buy for you both. Pedlar, let’s have the first +choice. Follow me, girls. + + [_Exit with Dorcas and Mopsa._] + +AUTOLYCUS. +[_Aside._] And you shall pay well for ’em. + +SONG. + + + _Will you buy any tape, + Or lace for your cape, +My dainty duck, my dear-a? + Any silk, any thread, + Any toys for your head, +Of the new’st and fin’st, fin’st wear-a? + Come to the pedlar; + Money’s a meddler +That doth utter all men’s ware-a._ + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Servant. + +SERVANT. +Master, there is three carters, three shepherds, three neat-herds, +three swine-herds, that have made themselves all men of hair. They call +themselves saltiers, and they have dance which the wenches say is a +gallimaufry of gambols, because they are not in ’t; but they themselves +are o’ the mind (if it be not too rough for some that know little but +bowling) it will please plentifully. + +SHEPHERD. +Away! we’ll none on ’t. Here has been too much homely foolery already. +I know, sir, we weary you. + +POLIXENES. +You weary those that refresh us: pray, let’s see these four threes of +herdsmen. + +SERVANT. +One three of them, by their own report, sir, hath danced before the +king; and not the worst of the three but jumps twelve foot and a half +by th’ square. + +SHEPHERD. +Leave your prating: since these good men are pleased, let them come in; +but quickly now. + +SERVANT. +Why, they stay at door, sir. + + [_Exit._] + + Enter Twelve Rustics, habited like Satyrs. They dance, and then + exeunt. + +POLIXENES. +O, father, you’ll know more of that hereafter. +[_To Camillo._] Is it not too far gone? ’Tis time to part them. +He’s simple and tells much. [_To Florizel._] How now, fair shepherd! +Your heart is full of something that does take +Your mind from feasting. Sooth, when I was young +And handed love, as you do, I was wont +To load my she with knacks: I would have ransack’d +The pedlar’s silken treasury and have pour’d it +To her acceptance. You have let him go, +And nothing marted with him. If your lass +Interpretation should abuse, and call this +Your lack of love or bounty, you were straited +For a reply, at least if you make a care +Of happy holding her. + +FLORIZEL. +Old sir, I know +She prizes not such trifles as these are: +The gifts she looks from me are pack’d and lock’d +Up in my heart, which I have given already, +But not deliver’d. O, hear me breathe my life +Before this ancient sir, who, it should seem, +Hath sometime lov’d. I take thy hand! this hand, +As soft as dove’s down and as white as it, +Or Ethiopian’s tooth, or the fann’d snow that’s bolted +By th’ northern blasts twice o’er. + +POLIXENES. +What follows this? +How prettily the young swain seems to wash +The hand was fair before! I have put you out. +But to your protestation. Let me hear +What you profess. + +FLORIZEL. +Do, and be witness to ’t. + +POLIXENES. +And this my neighbour, too? + +FLORIZEL. +And he, and more +Than he, and men, the earth, the heavens, and all: +That were I crown’d the most imperial monarch, +Thereof most worthy, were I the fairest youth +That ever made eye swerve, had force and knowledge +More than was ever man’s, I would not prize them +Without her love; for her employ them all; +Commend them and condemn them to her service, +Or to their own perdition. + +POLIXENES. +Fairly offer’d. + +CAMILLO. +This shows a sound affection. + +SHEPHERD. +But my daughter, +Say you the like to him? + +PERDITA. +I cannot speak +So well, nothing so well; no, nor mean better: +By th’ pattern of mine own thoughts I cut out +The purity of his. + +SHEPHERD. +Take hands, a bargain! +And, friends unknown, you shall bear witness to’t. +I give my daughter to him, and will make +Her portion equal his. + +FLORIZEL. +O, that must be +I’ th’ virtue of your daughter: one being dead, +I shall have more than you can dream of yet; +Enough then for your wonder. But come on, +Contract us ’fore these witnesses. + +SHEPHERD. +Come, your hand; +And, daughter, yours. + +POLIXENES. +Soft, swain, awhile, beseech you; +Have you a father? + +FLORIZEL. +I have; but what of him? + +POLIXENES. +Knows he of this? + +FLORIZEL. +He neither does nor shall. + +POLIXENES. +Methinks a father +Is at the nuptial of his son a guest +That best becomes the table. Pray you once more, +Is not your father grown incapable +Of reasonable affairs? is he not stupid +With age and alt’ring rheums? can he speak? hear? +Know man from man? dispute his own estate? +Lies he not bed-rid? and again does nothing +But what he did being childish? + +FLORIZEL. +No, good sir; +He has his health, and ampler strength indeed +Than most have of his age. + +POLIXENES. +By my white beard, +You offer him, if this be so, a wrong +Something unfilial: reason my son +Should choose himself a wife, but as good reason +The father, all whose joy is nothing else +But fair posterity, should hold some counsel +In such a business. + +FLORIZEL. +I yield all this; +But for some other reasons, my grave sir, +Which ’tis not fit you know, I not acquaint +My father of this business. + +POLIXENES. +Let him know ’t. + +FLORIZEL. +He shall not. + +POLIXENES. +Prithee let him. + +FLORIZEL. +No, he must not. + +SHEPHERD. +Let him, my son: he shall not need to grieve +At knowing of thy choice. + +FLORIZEL. +Come, come, he must not. +Mark our contract. + +POLIXENES. +[_Discovering himself._] Mark your divorce, young sir, +Whom son I dare not call; thou art too base +To be acknowledged: thou a sceptre’s heir, +That thus affects a sheep-hook! Thou, old traitor, +I am sorry that, by hanging thee, I can +But shorten thy life one week. And thou, fresh piece +Of excellent witchcraft, whom of force must know +The royal fool thou cop’st with,— + +SHEPHERD. +O, my heart! + +POLIXENES. +I’ll have thy beauty scratch’d with briers and made +More homely than thy state. For thee, fond boy, +If I may ever know thou dost but sigh +That thou no more shalt see this knack (as never +I mean thou shalt), we’ll bar thee from succession; +Not hold thee of our blood, no, not our kin, +Far than Deucalion off. Mark thou my words. +Follow us to the court. Thou churl, for this time, +Though full of our displeasure, yet we free thee +From the dead blow of it. And you, enchantment, +Worthy enough a herdsman; yea, him too +That makes himself, but for our honour therein, +Unworthy thee. If ever henceforth thou +These rural latches to his entrance open, +Or hoop his body more with thy embraces, +I will devise a death as cruel for thee +As thou art tender to ’t. + + [_Exit._] + +PERDITA. +Even here undone. +I was not much afeard, for once or twice +I was about to speak, and tell him plainly +The selfsame sun that shines upon his court +Hides not his visage from our cottage, but +Looks on alike. [_To Florizel._] Will’t please you, sir, be gone? +I told you what would come of this. Beseech you, +Of your own state take care. This dream of mine— +Being now awake, I’ll queen it no inch farther, +But milk my ewes, and weep. + +CAMILLO. +Why, how now, father! +Speak ere thou diest. + +SHEPHERD. +I cannot speak, nor think, +Nor dare to know that which I know. O sir, +You have undone a man of fourscore three, +That thought to fill his grave in quiet; yea, +To die upon the bed my father died, +To lie close by his honest bones; but now +Some hangman must put on my shroud and lay me +Where no priest shovels in dust. O cursed wretch, +That knew’st this was the prince, and wouldst adventure +To mingle faith with him! Undone, undone! +If I might die within this hour, I have liv’d +To die when I desire. + + [_Exit._] + +FLORIZEL. +Why look you so upon me? +I am but sorry, not afeard; delay’d, +But nothing alt’red: what I was, I am: +More straining on for plucking back; not following +My leash unwillingly. + +CAMILLO. +Gracious my lord, +You know your father’s temper: at this time +He will allow no speech (which I do guess +You do not purpose to him) and as hardly +Will he endure your sight as yet, I fear: +Then, till the fury of his highness settle, +Come not before him. + +FLORIZEL. +I not purpose it. +I think Camillo? + +CAMILLO. +Even he, my lord. + +PERDITA. +How often have I told you ’twould be thus! +How often said my dignity would last +But till ’twere known! + +FLORIZEL. +It cannot fail but by +The violation of my faith; and then +Let nature crush the sides o’ th’ earth together +And mar the seeds within! Lift up thy looks. +From my succession wipe me, father; I +Am heir to my affection. + +CAMILLO. +Be advis’d. + +FLORIZEL. +I am, and by my fancy. If my reason +Will thereto be obedient, I have reason; +If not, my senses, better pleas’d with madness, +Do bid it welcome. + +CAMILLO. +This is desperate, sir. + +FLORIZEL. +So call it: but it does fulfil my vow. +I needs must think it honesty. Camillo, +Not for Bohemia, nor the pomp that may +Be thereat glean’d; for all the sun sees or +The close earth wombs, or the profound seas hides +In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath +To this my fair belov’d. Therefore, I pray you, +As you have ever been my father’s honour’d friend, +When he shall miss me,—as, in faith, I mean not +To see him any more,—cast your good counsels +Upon his passion: let myself and fortune +Tug for the time to come. This you may know, +And so deliver, I am put to sea +With her whom here I cannot hold on shore; +And, most opportune to her need, I have +A vessel rides fast by, but not prepar’d +For this design. What course I mean to hold +Shall nothing benefit your knowledge, nor +Concern me the reporting. + +CAMILLO. +O my lord, +I would your spirit were easier for advice, +Or stronger for your need. + +FLORIZEL. +Hark, Perdita. [_Takes her aside._] +[_To Camillo._] I’ll hear you by and by. + +CAMILLO. +He’s irremovable, +Resolv’d for flight. Now were I happy if +His going I could frame to serve my turn, +Save him from danger, do him love and honour, +Purchase the sight again of dear Sicilia +And that unhappy king, my master, whom +I so much thirst to see. + +FLORIZEL. +Now, good Camillo, +I am so fraught with curious business that +I leave out ceremony. + +CAMILLO. +Sir, I think +You have heard of my poor services, i’ th’ love +That I have borne your father? + +FLORIZEL. +Very nobly +Have you deserv’d: it is my father’s music +To speak your deeds, not little of his care +To have them recompens’d as thought on. + +CAMILLO. +Well, my lord, +If you may please to think I love the king, +And, through him, what’s nearest to him, which is +Your gracious self, embrace but my direction, +If your more ponderous and settled project +May suffer alteration. On mine honour, +I’ll point you where you shall have such receiving +As shall become your highness; where you may +Enjoy your mistress; from the whom, I see, +There’s no disjunction to be made, but by, +As heavens forfend, your ruin. Marry her, +And with my best endeavours in your absence +Your discontenting father strive to qualify +And bring him up to liking. + +FLORIZEL. +How, Camillo, +May this, almost a miracle, be done? +That I may call thee something more than man, +And after that trust to thee. + +CAMILLO. +Have you thought on +A place whereto you’ll go? + +FLORIZEL. +Not any yet. +But as th’ unthought-on accident is guilty +To what we wildly do, so we profess +Ourselves to be the slaves of chance, and flies +Of every wind that blows. + +CAMILLO. +Then list to me: +This follows, if you will not change your purpose, +But undergo this flight, make for Sicilia, +And there present yourself and your fair princess, +For so, I see, she must be, ’fore Leontes: +She shall be habited as it becomes +The partner of your bed. Methinks I see +Leontes opening his free arms and weeping +His welcomes forth; asks thee, the son, forgiveness, +As ’twere i’ th’ father’s person; kisses the hands +Of your fresh princess; o’er and o’er divides him +’Twixt his unkindness and his kindness. Th’ one +He chides to hell, and bids the other grow +Faster than thought or time. + +FLORIZEL. +Worthy Camillo, +What colour for my visitation shall I +Hold up before him? + +CAMILLO. +Sent by the king your father +To greet him and to give him comforts. Sir, +The manner of your bearing towards him, with +What you (as from your father) shall deliver, +Things known betwixt us three, I’ll write you down, +The which shall point you forth at every sitting +What you must say; that he shall not perceive +But that you have your father’s bosom there +And speak his very heart. + +FLORIZEL. +I am bound to you: +There is some sap in this. + +CAMILLO. +A course more promising +Than a wild dedication of yourselves +To unpath’d waters, undream’d shores, most certain +To miseries enough: no hope to help you, +But as you shake off one to take another: +Nothing so certain as your anchors, who +Do their best office if they can but stay you +Where you’ll be loath to be. Besides, you know +Prosperity’s the very bond of love, +Whose fresh complexion and whose heart together +Affliction alters. + +PERDITA. +One of these is true: +I think affliction may subdue the cheek, +But not take in the mind. + +CAMILLO. +Yea, say you so? +There shall not at your father’s house, these seven years +Be born another such. + +FLORIZEL. +My good Camillo, +She is as forward of her breeding as +She is i’ th’ rear our birth. + +CAMILLO. +I cannot say ’tis pity +She lacks instructions, for she seems a mistress +To most that teach. + +PERDITA. +Your pardon, sir; for this +I’ll blush you thanks. + +FLORIZEL. +My prettiest Perdita! +But, O, the thorns we stand upon! Camillo, +Preserver of my father, now of me, +The medicine of our house, how shall we do? +We are not furnish’d like Bohemia’s son, +Nor shall appear in Sicilia. + +CAMILLO. +My lord, +Fear none of this. I think you know my fortunes +Do all lie there: it shall be so my care +To have you royally appointed as if +The scene you play were mine. For instance, sir, +That you may know you shall not want,—one word. +[_They talk aside._] + + Enter Autolycus. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Ha, ha! what a fool Honesty is! and Trust, his sworn brother, a very +simple gentleman! I have sold all my trumpery. Not a counterfeit stone, +not a ribbon, glass, pomander, brooch, table-book, ballad, knife, tape, +glove, shoe-tie, bracelet, horn-ring, to keep my pack from fasting. +They throng who should buy first, as if my trinkets had been hallowed +and brought a benediction to the buyer: by which means I saw whose +purse was best in picture; and what I saw, to my good use I remembered. +My clown (who wants but something to be a reasonable man) grew so in +love with the wenches’ song that he would not stir his pettitoes till +he had both tune and words; which so drew the rest of the herd to me +that all their other senses stuck in ears: you might have pinched a +placket, it was senseless; ’twas nothing to geld a codpiece of a purse; +I would have filed keys off that hung in chains: no hearing, no +feeling, but my sir’s song, and admiring the nothing of it. So that in +this time of lethargy I picked and cut most of their festival purses; +and had not the old man come in with a whoobub against his daughter and +the king’s son, and scared my choughs from the chaff, I had not left a +purse alive in the whole army. + + Camillo, Florizel and Perdita come forward. + +CAMILLO. +Nay, but my letters, by this means being there +So soon as you arrive, shall clear that doubt. + +FLORIZEL. +And those that you’ll procure from king Leontes? + +CAMILLO. +Shall satisfy your father. + +PERDITA. +Happy be you! +All that you speak shows fair. + +CAMILLO. +[_Seeing Autolycus._] Who have we here? +We’ll make an instrument of this; omit +Nothing may give us aid. + +AUTOLYCUS. +[_Aside._] If they have overheard me now,—why, hanging. + +CAMILLO. +How now, good fellow! why shakest thou so? Fear not, man; here’s no +harm intended to thee. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I am a poor fellow, sir. + +CAMILLO. +Why, be so still; here’s nobody will steal that from thee: yet, for the +outside of thy poverty we must make an exchange; therefore discase thee +instantly,—thou must think there’s a necessity in’t—and change garments +with this gentleman: though the pennyworth on his side be the worst, +yet hold thee, there’s some boot. + + [_Giving money._] + +AUTOLYCUS. +I am a poor fellow, sir: [_Aside._] I know ye well enough. + +CAMILLO. +Nay, prithee dispatch: the gentleman is half flayed already. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Are you in earnest, sir? [_Aside._] I smell the trick on’t. + +FLORIZEL. +Dispatch, I prithee. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Indeed, I have had earnest; but I cannot with conscience take it. + +CAMILLO. +Unbuckle, unbuckle. + + [_Florizel and Autolycus exchange garments._] + +Fortunate mistress,—let my prophecy +Come home to you!—you must retire yourself +Into some covert. Take your sweetheart’s hat +And pluck it o’er your brows, muffle your face, +Dismantle you; and, as you can, disliken +The truth of your own seeming; that you may +(For I do fear eyes over) to shipboard +Get undescried. + +PERDITA. +I see the play so lies +That I must bear a part. + +CAMILLO. +No remedy. +Have you done there? + +FLORIZEL. +Should I now meet my father, +He would not call me son. + +CAMILLO. +Nay, you shall have no hat. [_Giving it to Perdita._] +Come, lady, come. Farewell, my friend. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Adieu, sir. + +FLORIZEL. +O Perdita, what have we twain forgot? +Pray you a word. + + [_They converse apart._] + +CAMILLO. +[_Aside._] What I do next, shall be to tell the king +Of this escape, and whither they are bound; +Wherein my hope is I shall so prevail +To force him after: in whose company +I shall re-view Sicilia; for whose sight +I have a woman’s longing. + +FLORIZEL. +Fortune speed us! +Thus we set on, Camillo, to the sea-side. + +CAMILLO. +The swifter speed the better. + + [_Exeunt Florizel, Perdita and Camillo._] + +AUTOLYCUS. +I understand the business, I hear it. To have an open ear, a quick eye, +and a nimble hand, is necessary for a cut-purse; a good nose is +requisite also, to smell out work for the other senses. I see this is +the time that the unjust man doth thrive. What an exchange had this +been without boot! What a boot is here with this exchange! Sure the +gods do this year connive at us, and we may do anything extempore. The +prince himself is about a piece of iniquity, stealing away from his +father with his clog at his heels: if I thought it were a piece of +honesty to acquaint the king withal, I would not do’t: I hold it the +more knavery to conceal it; and therein am I constant to my profession. + + Enter Clown and Shepherd. + +Aside, aside; here is more matter for a hot brain: every lane’s end, +every shop, church, session, hanging, yields a careful man work. + +CLOWN. +See, see; what a man you are now! There is no other way but to tell the +king she’s a changeling, and none of your flesh and blood. + +SHEPHERD. +Nay, but hear me. + +CLOWN. +Nay, but hear me. + +SHEPHERD. +Go to, then. + +CLOWN. +She being none of your flesh and blood, your flesh and blood has not +offended the king; and so your flesh and blood is not to be punished by +him. Show those things you found about her, those secret things, all +but what she has with her: this being done, let the law go whistle, I +warrant you. + +SHEPHERD. +I will tell the king all, every word, yea, and his son’s pranks too; +who, I may say, is no honest man neither to his father nor to me, to go +about to make me the king’s brother-in-law. + +CLOWN. +Indeed, brother-in-law was the farthest off you could have been to him, +and then your blood had been the dearer by I know how much an ounce. + +AUTOLYCUS. +[_Aside._] Very wisely, puppies! + +SHEPHERD. +Well, let us to the king: there is that in this fardel will make him +scratch his beard. + +AUTOLYCUS. +[_Aside._] I know not what impediment this complaint may be to the +flight of my master. + +CLOWN. +Pray heartily he be at’ palace. + +AUTOLYCUS. +[_Aside._] Though I am not naturally honest, I am so sometimes by +chance. Let me pocket up my pedlar’s excrement. [_Takes off his false +beard._] How now, rustics! whither are you bound? + +SHEPHERD. +To the palace, an it like your worship. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Your affairs there, what, with whom, the condition of that fardel, the +place of your dwelling, your names, your ages, of what having, +breeding, and anything that is fitting to be known? discover! + +CLOWN. +We are but plain fellows, sir. + +AUTOLYCUS. +A lie; you are rough and hairy. Let me have no lying. It becomes none +but tradesmen, and they often give us soldiers the lie; but we pay them +for it with stamped coin, not stabbing steel; therefore they do not +give us the lie. + +CLOWN. +Your worship had like to have given us one, if you had not taken +yourself with the manner. + +SHEPHERD. +Are you a courtier, an ’t like you, sir? + +AUTOLYCUS. +Whether it like me or no, I am a courtier. Seest thou not the air of +the court in these enfoldings? hath not my gait in it the measure of +the court? receives not thy nose court-odour from me? reflect I not on +thy baseness court-contempt? Think’st thou, for that I insinuate, or +toaze from thee thy business, I am therefore no courtier? I am courtier +_cap-a-pe_, and one that will either push on or pluck back thy business +there. Whereupon I command thee to open thy affair. + +SHEPHERD. +My business, sir, is to the king. + +AUTOLYCUS. +What advocate hast thou to him? + +SHEPHERD. +I know not, an ’t like you. + +CLOWN. +Advocate’s the court-word for a pheasant. Say you have none. + +SHEPHERD. +None, sir; I have no pheasant, cock nor hen. + +AUTOLYCUS. +How bless’d are we that are not simple men! +Yet nature might have made me as these are, +Therefore I will not disdain. + +CLOWN. +This cannot be but a great courtier. + +SHEPHERD. +His garments are rich, but he wears them not handsomely. + +CLOWN. +He seems to be the more noble in being fantastical: a great man, I’ll +warrant; I know by the picking on’s teeth. + +AUTOLYCUS. +The fardel there? What’s i’ th’ fardel? Wherefore that box? + +SHEPHERD. +Sir, there lies such secrets in this fardel and box which none must +know but the king; and which he shall know within this hour, if I may +come to th’ speech of him. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Age, thou hast lost thy labour. + +SHEPHERD. +Why, sir? + +AUTOLYCUS. +The king is not at the palace; he is gone aboard a new ship to purge +melancholy and air himself: for, if thou beest capable of things +serious, thou must know the king is full of grief. + +SHEPHERD. +So ’tis said, sir; about his son, that should have married a shepherd’s +daughter. + +AUTOLYCUS. +If that shepherd be not in hand-fast, let him fly. The curses he shall +have, the tortures he shall feel, will break the back of man, the heart +of monster. + +CLOWN. +Think you so, sir? + +AUTOLYCUS. +Not he alone shall suffer what wit can make heavy and vengeance bitter; +but those that are germane to him, though removed fifty times, shall +all come under the hangman: which, though it be great pity, yet it is +necessary. An old sheep-whistling rogue, a ram-tender, to offer to have +his daughter come into grace! Some say he shall be stoned; but that +death is too soft for him, say I. Draw our throne into a sheepcote! All +deaths are too few, the sharpest too easy. + +CLOWN. +Has the old man e’er a son, sir, do you hear, an ’t like you, sir? + +AUTOLYCUS. +He has a son, who shall be flayed alive; then ’nointed over with honey, +set on the head of a wasp’s nest; then stand till he be three quarters +and a dram dead; then recovered again with aqua-vitæ or some other hot +infusion; then, raw as he is, and in the hottest day prognostication +proclaims, shall he be set against a brick wall, the sun looking with a +southward eye upon him, where he is to behold him with flies blown to +death. But what talk we of these traitorly rascals, whose miseries are +to be smiled at, their offences being so capital? Tell me (for you seem +to be honest plain men) what you have to the king. Being something +gently considered, I’ll bring you where he is aboard, tender your +persons to his presence, whisper him in your behalfs; and if it be in +man besides the king to effect your suits, here is man shall do it. + +CLOWN. +He seems to be of great authority: close with him, give him gold; and +though authority be a stubborn bear, yet he is oft led by the nose with +gold: show the inside of your purse to the outside of his hand, and no +more ado. Remember: “ston’d” and “flayed alive”. + +SHEPHERD. +An ’t please you, sir, to undertake the business for us, here is that +gold I have. I’ll make it as much more, and leave this young man in +pawn till I bring it you. + +AUTOLYCUS. +After I have done what I promised? + +SHEPHERD. +Ay, sir. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Well, give me the moiety. Are you a party in this business? + +CLOWN. +In some sort, sir: but though my case be a pitiful one, I hope I shall +not be flayed out of it. + +AUTOLYCUS. +O, that’s the case of the shepherd’s son. Hang him, he’ll be made an +example. + +CLOWN. +Comfort, good comfort! We must to the king and show our strange sights. +He must know ’tis none of your daughter nor my sister; we are gone +else. Sir, I will give you as much as this old man does when the +business is performed, and remain, as he says, your pawn till it be +brought you. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I will trust you. Walk before toward the sea-side; go on the +right-hand. I will but look upon the hedge, and follow you. + +CLOWN. +We are blessed in this man, as I may say, even blessed. + +SHEPHERD. +Let’s before, as he bids us. He was provided to do us good. + + [_Exeunt Shepherd and Clown._] + +AUTOLYCUS. +If I had a mind to be honest, I see Fortune would not suffer me: she +drops booties in my mouth. I am courted now with a double occasion: +gold, and a means to do the prince my master good; which who knows how +that may turn back to my advancement? I will bring these two moles, +these blind ones, aboard him. If he think it fit to shore them again +and that the complaint they have to the king concerns him nothing, let +him call me rogue for being so far officious; for I am proof against +that title and what shame else belongs to ’t. To him will I present +them. There may be matter in it. + + [_Exit._] + + + +ACT V + +SCENE I. Sicilia. A Room in the palace of Leontes. + + Enter Leontes, Cleomenes, Dion, Paulina and others. + +CLEOMENES +Sir, you have done enough, and have perform’d +A saint-like sorrow: no fault could you make +Which you have not redeem’d; indeed, paid down +More penitence than done trespass: at the last, +Do as the heavens have done, forget your evil; +With them, forgive yourself. + +LEONTES. +Whilst I remember +Her and her virtues, I cannot forget +My blemishes in them; and so still think of +The wrong I did myself: which was so much +That heirless it hath made my kingdom, and +Destroy’d the sweet’st companion that e’er man +Bred his hopes out of. + +PAULINA. +True, too true, my lord. +If, one by one, you wedded all the world, +Or from the all that are took something good, +To make a perfect woman, she you kill’d +Would be unparallel’d. + +LEONTES. +I think so. Kill’d! +She I kill’d! I did so: but thou strik’st me +Sorely, to say I did: it is as bitter +Upon thy tongue as in my thought. Now, good now, +Say so but seldom. + +CLEOMENES +Not at all, good lady. +You might have spoken a thousand things that would +Have done the time more benefit and grac’d +Your kindness better. + +PAULINA. +You are one of those +Would have him wed again. + +DION. +If you would not so, +You pity not the state, nor the remembrance +Of his most sovereign name; consider little +What dangers, by his highness’ fail of issue, +May drop upon his kingdom, and devour +Incertain lookers-on. What were more holy +Than to rejoice the former queen is well? +What holier than, for royalty’s repair, +For present comfort, and for future good, +To bless the bed of majesty again +With a sweet fellow to ’t? + +PAULINA. +There is none worthy, +Respecting her that’s gone. Besides, the gods +Will have fulfill’d their secret purposes; +For has not the divine Apollo said, +Is ’t not the tenor of his oracle, +That king Leontes shall not have an heir +Till his lost child be found? Which that it shall, +Is all as monstrous to our human reason +As my Antigonus to break his grave +And come again to me; who, on my life, +Did perish with the infant. ’Tis your counsel +My lord should to the heavens be contrary, +Oppose against their wills. [_To Leontes._] Care not for issue; +The crown will find an heir. Great Alexander +Left his to th’ worthiest; so his successor +Was like to be the best. + +LEONTES. +Good Paulina, +Who hast the memory of Hermione, +I know, in honour, O that ever I +Had squar’d me to thy counsel! Then, even now, +I might have look’d upon my queen’s full eyes, +Have taken treasure from her lips,— + +PAULINA. +And left them +More rich for what they yielded. + +LEONTES. +Thou speak’st truth. +No more such wives; therefore, no wife: one worse, +And better us’d, would make her sainted spirit +Again possess her corpse, and on this stage, +(Where we offenders now appear) soul-vexed, +And begin “Why to me?” + +PAULINA. +Had she such power, +She had just cause. + +LEONTES. +She had; and would incense me +To murder her I married. + +PAULINA. +I should so. +Were I the ghost that walk’d, I’d bid you mark +Her eye, and tell me for what dull part in ’t +You chose her: then I’d shriek, that even your ears +Should rift to hear me; and the words that follow’d +Should be “Remember mine.” + +LEONTES. +Stars, stars, +And all eyes else dead coals! Fear thou no wife; +I’ll have no wife, Paulina. + +PAULINA. +Will you swear +Never to marry but by my free leave? + +LEONTES. +Never, Paulina; so be bless’d my spirit! + +PAULINA. +Then, good my lords, bear witness to his oath. + +CLEOMENES +You tempt him over-much. + +PAULINA. +Unless another, +As like Hermione as is her picture, +Affront his eye. + +CLEOMENES +Good madam,— + +PAULINA. +I have done. +Yet, if my lord will marry,—if you will, sir, +No remedy but you will,—give me the office +To choose you a queen: she shall not be so young +As was your former, but she shall be such +As, walk’d your first queen’s ghost, it should take joy +To see her in your arms. + +LEONTES. +My true Paulina, +We shall not marry till thou bid’st us. + +PAULINA. +That +Shall be when your first queen’s again in breath; +Never till then. + + Enter a Servant. + +SERVANT. +One that gives out himself Prince Florizel, +Son of Polixenes, with his princess (she +The fairest I have yet beheld) desires access +To your high presence. + +LEONTES. +What with him? he comes not +Like to his father’s greatness: his approach, +So out of circumstance and sudden, tells us +’Tis not a visitation fram’d, but forc’d +By need and accident. What train? + +SERVANT. +But few, +And those but mean. + +LEONTES. +His princess, say you, with him? + +SERVANT. +Ay, the most peerless piece of earth, I think, +That e’er the sun shone bright on. + +PAULINA. +O Hermione, +As every present time doth boast itself +Above a better gone, so must thy grave +Give way to what’s seen now! Sir, you yourself +Have said and writ so,—but your writing now +Is colder than that theme,—‘She had not been, +Nor was not to be equall’d’; thus your verse +Flow’d with her beauty once; ’tis shrewdly ebb’d, +To say you have seen a better. + +SERVANT. +Pardon, madam: +The one I have almost forgot,—your pardon;— +The other, when she has obtain’d your eye, +Will have your tongue too. This is a creature, +Would she begin a sect, might quench the zeal +Of all professors else; make proselytes +Of who she but bid follow. + +PAULINA. +How! not women? + +SERVANT. +Women will love her that she is a woman +More worth than any man; men, that she is +The rarest of all women. + +LEONTES. +Go, Cleomenes; +Yourself, assisted with your honour’d friends, +Bring them to our embracement. + + [_Exeunt Cleomenes and others._] + +Still, ’tis strange +He thus should steal upon us. + +PAULINA. +Had our prince, +Jewel of children, seen this hour, he had pair’d +Well with this lord. There was not full a month +Between their births. + +LEONTES. +Prithee no more; cease; Thou know’st +He dies to me again when talk’d of: sure, +When I shall see this gentleman, thy speeches +Will bring me to consider that which may +Unfurnish me of reason. They are come. + + Enter Florizel, Perdita, Cleomenes and others. + +Your mother was most true to wedlock, prince; +For she did print your royal father off, +Conceiving you. Were I but twenty-one, +Your father’s image is so hit in you, +His very air, that I should call you brother, +As I did him, and speak of something wildly +By us perform’d before. Most dearly welcome! +And your fair princess,—goddess! O, alas! +I lost a couple that ’twixt heaven and earth +Might thus have stood, begetting wonder, as +You, gracious couple, do! And then I lost,— +All mine own folly,—the society, +Amity too, of your brave father, whom, +Though bearing misery, I desire my life +Once more to look on him. + +FLORIZEL. +By his command +Have I here touch’d Sicilia, and from him +Give you all greetings that a king, at friend, +Can send his brother: and, but infirmity, +Which waits upon worn times, hath something seiz’d +His wish’d ability, he had himself +The lands and waters ’twixt your throne and his +Measur’d, to look upon you; whom he loves, +He bade me say so,—more than all the sceptres +And those that bear them living. + +LEONTES. +O my brother,— +Good gentleman!—the wrongs I have done thee stir +Afresh within me; and these thy offices, +So rarely kind, are as interpreters +Of my behind-hand slackness! Welcome hither, +As is the spring to the earth. And hath he too +Expos’d this paragon to the fearful usage, +At least ungentle, of the dreadful Neptune, +To greet a man not worth her pains, much less +Th’ adventure of her person? + +FLORIZEL. +Good, my lord, +She came from Libya. + +LEONTES. +Where the warlike Smalus, +That noble honour’d lord, is fear’d and lov’d? + +FLORIZEL. +Most royal sir, from thence; from him, whose daughter +His tears proclaim’d his, parting with her: thence, +A prosperous south-wind friendly, we have cross’d, +To execute the charge my father gave me +For visiting your highness: my best train +I have from your Sicilian shores dismiss’d; +Who for Bohemia bend, to signify +Not only my success in Libya, sir, +But my arrival, and my wife’s, in safety +Here, where we are. + +LEONTES. +The blessed gods +Purge all infection from our air whilst you +Do climate here! You have a holy father, +A graceful gentleman; against whose person, +So sacred as it is, I have done sin, +For which the heavens, taking angry note, +Have left me issueless. And your father’s bless’d, +As he from heaven merits it, with you, +Worthy his goodness. What might I have been, +Might I a son and daughter now have look’d on, +Such goodly things as you! + + Enter a Lord. + +LORD. +Most noble sir, +That which I shall report will bear no credit, +Were not the proof so nigh. Please you, great sir, +Bohemia greets you from himself by me; +Desires you to attach his son, who has— +His dignity and duty both cast off— +Fled from his father, from his hopes, and with +A shepherd’s daughter. + +LEONTES. +Where’s Bohemia? speak. + +LORD. +Here in your city; I now came from him. +I speak amazedly, and it becomes +My marvel and my message. To your court +Whiles he was hast’ning—in the chase, it seems, +Of this fair couple—meets he on the way +The father of this seeming lady and +Her brother, having both their country quitted +With this young prince. + +FLORIZEL. +Camillo has betray’d me; +Whose honour and whose honesty till now, +Endur’d all weathers. + +LORD. +Lay ’t so to his charge. +He’s with the king your father. + +LEONTES. +Who? Camillo? + +LORD. +Camillo, sir; I spake with him; who now +Has these poor men in question. Never saw I +Wretches so quake: they kneel, they kiss the earth; +Forswear themselves as often as they speak. +Bohemia stops his ears, and threatens them +With divers deaths in death. + +PERDITA. +O my poor father! +The heaven sets spies upon us, will not have +Our contract celebrated. + +LEONTES. +You are married? + +FLORIZEL. +We are not, sir, nor are we like to be. +The stars, I see, will kiss the valleys first. +The odds for high and low’s alike. + +LEONTES. +My lord, +Is this the daughter of a king? + +FLORIZEL. +She is, +When once she is my wife. + +LEONTES. +That “once”, I see by your good father’s speed, +Will come on very slowly. I am sorry, +Most sorry, you have broken from his liking, +Where you were tied in duty; and as sorry +Your choice is not so rich in worth as beauty, +That you might well enjoy her. + +FLORIZEL. +Dear, look up: +Though Fortune, visible an enemy, +Should chase us with my father, power no jot +Hath she to change our loves. Beseech you, sir, +Remember since you ow’d no more to time +Than I do now: with thought of such affections, +Step forth mine advocate. At your request +My father will grant precious things as trifles. + +LEONTES. +Would he do so, I’d beg your precious mistress, +Which he counts but a trifle. + +PAULINA. +Sir, my liege, +Your eye hath too much youth in ’t: not a month +’Fore your queen died, she was more worth such gazes +Than what you look on now. + +LEONTES. +I thought of her +Even in these looks I made. [_To Florizel._] But your petition +Is yet unanswer’d. I will to your father. +Your honour not o’erthrown by your desires, +I am friend to them and you: upon which errand +I now go toward him; therefore follow me, +And mark what way I make. Come, good my lord. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE II. The same. Before the Palace. + + Enter Autolycus and a Gentleman. + +AUTOLYCUS. +Beseech you, sir, were you present at this relation? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +I was by at the opening of the fardel, heard the old shepherd deliver +the manner how he found it: whereupon, after a little amazedness, we +were all commanded out of the chamber; only this, methought I heard the +shepherd say he found the child. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I would most gladly know the issue of it. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +I make a broken delivery of the business; but the changes I perceived +in the king and Camillo were very notes of admiration. They seemed +almost, with staring on one another, to tear the cases of their eyes. +There was speech in their dumbness, language in their very gesture; +they looked as they had heard of a world ransomed, or one destroyed. A +notable passion of wonder appeared in them; but the wisest beholder, +that knew no more but seeing could not say if th’ importance were joy +or sorrow; but in the extremity of the one, it must needs be. Here +comes a gentleman that happily knows more. + + Enter a Gentleman. + +The news, Rogero? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +Nothing but bonfires: the oracle is fulfilled: the king’s daughter is +found: such a deal of wonder is broken out within this hour that +ballad-makers cannot be able to express it. Here comes the Lady +Paulina’s steward: he can deliver you more. + + Enter a third Gentleman. + + How goes it now, sir? This news, which is called true, is so like an + old tale that the verity of it is in strong suspicion. Has the king + found his heir? + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +Most true, if ever truth were pregnant by circumstance. That which you +hear you’ll swear you see, there is such unity in the proofs. The +mantle of Queen Hermione’s, her jewel about the neck of it, the letters +of Antigonus found with it, which they know to be his character; the +majesty of the creature in resemblance of the mother, the affection of +nobleness which nature shows above her breeding, and many other +evidences proclaim her with all certainty to be the king’s daughter. +Did you see the meeting of the two kings? + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +No. + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +Then you have lost a sight which was to be seen, cannot be spoken of. +There might you have beheld one joy crown another, so and in such +manner that it seemed sorrow wept to take leave of them, for their joy +waded in tears. There was casting up of eyes, holding up of hands, with +countenance of such distraction that they were to be known by garment, +not by favour. Our king, being ready to leap out of himself for joy of +his found daughter, as if that joy were now become a loss, cries “O, +thy mother, thy mother!” then asks Bohemia forgiveness; then embraces +his son-in-law; then again worries he his daughter with clipping her; +now he thanks the old shepherd, which stands by like a weather-bitten +conduit of many kings’ reigns. I never heard of such another encounter, +which lames report to follow it, and undoes description to do it. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +What, pray you, became of Antigonus, that carried hence the child? + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +Like an old tale still, which will have matter to rehearse, though +credit be asleep and not an ear open. He was torn to pieces with a +bear: this avouches the shepherd’s son, who has not only his innocence, +which seems much, to justify him, but a handkerchief and rings of his +that Paulina knows. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +What became of his bark and his followers? + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +Wrecked the same instant of their master’s death, and in the view of +the shepherd: so that all the instruments which aided to expose the +child were even then lost when it was found. But O, the noble combat +that ’twixt joy and sorrow was fought in Paulina! She had one eye +declined for the loss of her husband, another elevated that the oracle +was fulfilled. She lifted the princess from the earth, and so locks her +in embracing, as if she would pin her to her heart, that she might no +more be in danger of losing. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +The dignity of this act was worth the audience of kings and princes; +for by such was it acted. + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +One of the prettiest touches of all, and that which angled for mine +eyes (caught the water, though not the fish) was, when at the relation +of the queen’s death (with the manner how she came to it bravely +confessed and lamented by the king) how attentivenes wounded his +daughter; till, from one sign of dolour to another, she did, with an +“Alas,” I would fain say, bleed tears, for I am sure my heart wept +blood. Who was most marble there changed colour; some swooned, all +sorrowed: if all the world could have seen it, the woe had been +universal. + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Are they returned to the court? + +THIRD GENTLEMAN. +No: the princess hearing of her mother’s statue, which is in the +keeping of Paulina,—a piece many years in doing and now newly performed +by that rare Italian master, Julio Romano, who, had he himself +eternity, and could put breath into his work, would beguile Nature of +her custom, so perfectly he is her ape: he so near to Hermione hath +done Hermione that they say one would speak to her and stand in hope of +answer. Thither with all greediness of affection are they gone, and +there they intend to sup. + +SECOND GENTLEMAN. +I thought she had some great matter there in hand; for she hath +privately twice or thrice a day, ever since the death of Hermione, +visited that removed house. Shall we thither, and with our company +piece the rejoicing? + +FIRST GENTLEMAN. +Who would be thence that has the benefit of access? Every wink of an +eye some new grace will be born. Our absence makes us unthrifty to our +knowledge. Let’s along. + + [_Exeunt Gentlemen._] + +AUTOLYCUS. +Now, had I not the dash of my former life in me, would preferment drop +on my head. I brought the old man and his son aboard the prince; told +him I heard them talk of a fardel and I know not what. But he at that +time over-fond of the shepherd’s daughter (so he then took her to be), +who began to be much sea-sick, and himself little better, extremity of +weather continuing, this mystery remained undiscover’d. But ’tis all +one to me; for had I been the finder-out of this secret, it would not +have relish’d among my other discredits. + + Enter Shepherd and Clown. + +Here come those I have done good to against my will, and already +appearing in the blossoms of their fortune. + +SHEPHERD. +Come, boy; I am past more children, but thy sons and daughters will be +all gentlemen born. + +CLOWN. +You are well met, sir. You denied to fight with me this other day, +because I was no gentleman born. See you these clothes? Say you see +them not and think me still no gentleman born: you were best say these +robes are not gentlemen born. Give me the lie, do; and try whether I am +not now a gentleman born. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I know you are now, sir, a gentleman born. + +CLOWN. +Ay, and have been so any time these four hours. + +SHEPHERD. +And so have I, boy! + +CLOWN. +So you have: but I was a gentleman born before my father; for the +king’s son took me by the hand and called me brother; and then the two +kings called my father brother; and then the prince, my brother, and +the princess, my sister, called my father father; and so we wept; and +there was the first gentleman-like tears that ever we shed. + +SHEPHERD. +We may live, son, to shed many more. + +CLOWN. +Ay; or else ’twere hard luck, being in so preposterous estate as we +are. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I humbly beseech you, sir, to pardon me all the faults I have committed +to your worship, and to give me your good report to the prince my +master. + +SHEPHERD. +Prithee, son, do; for we must be gentle, now we are gentlemen. + +CLOWN. +Thou wilt amend thy life? + +AUTOLYCUS. +Ay, an it like your good worship. + +CLOWN. +Give me thy hand: I will swear to the prince thou art as honest a true +fellow as any is in Bohemia. + +SHEPHERD. +You may say it, but not swear it. + +CLOWN. +Not swear it, now I am a gentleman? Let boors and franklins say it, +I’ll swear it. + +SHEPHERD. +How if it be false, son? + +CLOWN. +If it be ne’er so false, a true gentleman may swear it in the behalf of +his friend. And I’ll swear to the prince thou art a tall fellow of thy +hands and that thou wilt not be drunk; but I know thou art no tall +fellow of thy hands and that thou wilt be drunk: but I’ll swear it; and +I would thou wouldst be a tall fellow of thy hands. + +AUTOLYCUS. +I will prove so, sir, to my power. + +CLOWN. +Ay, by any means, prove a tall fellow: if I do not wonder how thou +dar’st venture to be drunk, not being a tall fellow, trust me not. +Hark! the kings and the princes, our kindred, are going to see the +queen’s picture. Come, follow us: we’ll be thy good masters. + + [_Exeunt._] + +SCENE III. The same. A Room in Paulina’s house. + + Enter Leontes, Polixenes, Florizel, Perdita, Camillo, Paulina, Lords + and Attendants. + +LEONTES. +O grave and good Paulina, the great comfort +That I have had of thee! + +PAULINA. +What, sovereign sir, +I did not well, I meant well. All my services +You have paid home: but that you have vouchsaf’d, +With your crown’d brother and these your contracted +Heirs of your kingdoms, my poor house to visit, +It is a surplus of your grace which never +My life may last to answer. + +LEONTES. +O Paulina, +We honour you with trouble. But we came +To see the statue of our queen: your gallery +Have we pass’d through, not without much content +In many singularities; but we saw not +That which my daughter came to look upon, +The statue of her mother. + +PAULINA. +As she liv’d peerless, +So her dead likeness, I do well believe, +Excels whatever yet you look’d upon +Or hand of man hath done; therefore I keep it +Lonely, apart. But here it is: prepare +To see the life as lively mock’d as ever +Still sleep mock’d death. Behold, and say ’tis well. + + Paulina undraws a curtain, and discovers Hermione standing as a + statue. + +I like your silence, it the more shows off +Your wonder: but yet speak. First you, my liege. +Comes it not something near? + +LEONTES. +Her natural posture! +Chide me, dear stone, that I may say indeed +Thou art Hermione; or rather, thou art she +In thy not chiding; for she was as tender +As infancy and grace. But yet, Paulina, +Hermione was not so much wrinkled, nothing +So aged as this seems. + +POLIXENES. +O, not by much! + +PAULINA. +So much the more our carver’s excellence, +Which lets go by some sixteen years and makes her +As she liv’d now. + +LEONTES. +As now she might have done, +So much to my good comfort as it is +Now piercing to my soul. O, thus she stood, +Even with such life of majesty, warm life, +As now it coldly stands, when first I woo’d her! +I am asham’d: does not the stone rebuke me +For being more stone than it? O royal piece, +There’s magic in thy majesty, which has +My evils conjur’d to remembrance and +From thy admiring daughter took the spirits, +Standing like stone with thee. + +PERDITA. +And give me leave, +And do not say ’tis superstition, that +I kneel, and then implore her blessing. Lady, +Dear queen, that ended when I but began, +Give me that hand of yours to kiss. + +PAULINA. +O, patience! +The statue is but newly fix’d, the colour’s +Not dry. + +CAMILLO. +My lord, your sorrow was too sore laid on, +Which sixteen winters cannot blow away, +So many summers dry. Scarce any joy +Did ever so long live; no sorrow +But kill’d itself much sooner. + +POLIXENES. +Dear my brother, +Let him that was the cause of this have power +To take off so much grief from you as he +Will piece up in himself. + +PAULINA. +Indeed, my lord, +If I had thought the sight of my poor image +Would thus have wrought you—for the stone is mine— +I’d not have show’d it. + +LEONTES. +Do not draw the curtain. + +PAULINA. +No longer shall you gaze on’t, lest your fancy +May think anon it moves. + +LEONTES. +Let be, let be. +Would I were dead, but that methinks already— +What was he that did make it? See, my lord, +Would you not deem it breath’d? And that those veins +Did verily bear blood? + +POLIXENES. +Masterly done: +The very life seems warm upon her lip. + +LEONTES. +The fixture of her eye has motion in ’t, +As we are mock’d with art. + +PAULINA. +I’ll draw the curtain: +My lord’s almost so far transported that +He’ll think anon it lives. + +LEONTES. +O sweet Paulina, +Make me to think so twenty years together! +No settled senses of the world can match +The pleasure of that madness. Let ’t alone. + +PAULINA. +I am sorry, sir, I have thus far stirr’d you: but +I could afflict you further. + +LEONTES. +Do, Paulina; +For this affliction has a taste as sweet +As any cordial comfort. Still methinks +There is an air comes from her. What fine chisel +Could ever yet cut breath? Let no man mock me, +For I will kiss her! + +PAULINA. +Good my lord, forbear: +The ruddiness upon her lip is wet; +You’ll mar it if you kiss it, stain your own +With oily painting. Shall I draw the curtain? + +LEONTES. +No, not these twenty years. + +PERDITA. +So long could I +Stand by, a looker on. + +PAULINA. +Either forbear, +Quit presently the chapel, or resolve you +For more amazement. If you can behold it, +I’ll make the statue move indeed, descend, +And take you by the hand. But then you’ll think +(Which I protest against) I am assisted +By wicked powers. + +LEONTES. +What you can make her do +I am content to look on: what to speak, +I am content to hear; for ’tis as easy +To make her speak as move. + +PAULINA. +It is requir’d +You do awake your faith. Then all stand still; +Or those that think it is unlawful business +I am about, let them depart. + +LEONTES. +Proceed: +No foot shall stir. + +PAULINA. +Music, awake her: strike! [_Music._] +’Tis time; descend; be stone no more; approach; +Strike all that look upon with marvel. Come; +I’ll fill your grave up: stir; nay, come away. +Bequeath to death your numbness, for from him +Dear life redeems you. You perceive she stirs. + + Hermione comes down from the pedestal. + +Start not; her actions shall be holy as +You hear my spell is lawful. Do not shun her +Until you see her die again; for then +You kill her double. Nay, present your hand: +When she was young you woo’d her; now in age +Is she become the suitor? + +LEONTES. +[_Embracing her._] O, she’s warm! +If this be magic, let it be an art +Lawful as eating. + +POLIXENES. +She embraces him. + +CAMILLO. +She hangs about his neck. +If she pertain to life, let her speak too. + +POLIXENES. +Ay, and make it manifest where she has liv’d, +Or how stol’n from the dead. + +PAULINA. +That she is living, +Were it but told you, should be hooted at +Like an old tale; but it appears she lives, +Though yet she speak not. Mark a little while. +Please you to interpose, fair madam. Kneel +And pray your mother’s blessing. Turn, good lady, +Our Perdita is found. + + [_Presenting Perdita who kneels to Hermione._] + +HERMIONE. +You gods, look down, +And from your sacred vials pour your graces +Upon my daughter’s head! Tell me, mine own, +Where hast thou been preserv’d? where liv’d? how found +Thy father’s court? for thou shalt hear that I, +Knowing by Paulina that the oracle +Gave hope thou wast in being, have preserv’d +Myself to see the issue. + +PAULINA. +There’s time enough for that; +Lest they desire upon this push to trouble +Your joys with like relation. Go together, +You precious winners all; your exultation +Partake to everyone. I, an old turtle, +Will wing me to some wither’d bough, and there +My mate, that’s never to be found again, +Lament till I am lost. + +LEONTES. +O peace, Paulina! +Thou shouldst a husband take by my consent, +As I by thine a wife: this is a match, +And made between ’s by vows. Thou hast found mine; +But how, is to be question’d; for I saw her, +As I thought, dead; and have in vain said many +A prayer upon her grave. I’ll not seek far— +For him, I partly know his mind—to find thee +An honourable husband. Come, Camillo, +And take her by the hand, whose worth and honesty +Is richly noted, and here justified +By us, a pair of kings. Let’s from this place. +What! look upon my brother: both your pardons, +That e’er I put between your holy looks +My ill suspicion. This your son-in-law, +And son unto the king, whom heavens directing, +Is troth-plight to your daughter. Good Paulina, +Lead us from hence; where we may leisurely +Each one demand, and answer to his part +Perform’d in this wide gap of time, since first +We were dissever’d. Hastily lead away! + + [_Exeunt._] + + + + + +A LOVER’S COMPLAINT + + + +From off a hill whose concave womb reworded +A plaintful story from a sist’ring vale, +My spirits t’attend this double voice accorded, +And down I laid to list the sad-tun’d tale; +Ere long espied a fickle maid full pale, +Tearing of papers, breaking rings a-twain, +Storming her world with sorrow’s wind and rain. + +Upon her head a platted hive of straw, +Which fortified her visage from the sun, +Whereon the thought might think sometime it saw +The carcass of a beauty spent and done; +Time had not scythed all that youth begun, +Nor youth all quit, but spite of heaven’s fell rage +Some beauty peeped through lattice of sear’d age. + +Oft did she heave her napkin to her eyne, +Which on it had conceited characters, +Laund’ring the silken figures in the brine +That seasoned woe had pelleted in tears, +And often reading what contents it bears; +As often shrieking undistinguish’d woe, +In clamours of all size, both high and low. + +Sometimes her levell’d eyes their carriage ride, +As they did batt’ry to the spheres intend; +Sometime diverted their poor balls are tied +To th’orbed earth; sometimes they do extend +Their view right on; anon their gazes lend +To every place at once, and nowhere fix’d, +The mind and sight distractedly commix’d. + +Her hair, nor loose nor tied in formal plat, +Proclaim’d in her a careless hand of pride; +For some untuck’d descended her sheav’d hat, +Hanging her pale and pined cheek beside; +Some in her threaden fillet still did bide, +And, true to bondage, would not break from thence, +Though slackly braided in loose negligence. + +A thousand favours from a maund she drew, +Of amber, crystal, and of beaded jet, +Which one by one she in a river threw, +Upon whose weeping margent she was set, +Like usury applying wet to wet, +Or monarchs’ hands, that lets not bounty fall +Where want cries ‘some,’ but where excess begs ‘all’. + +Of folded schedules had she many a one, +Which she perus’d, sigh’d, tore and gave the flood; +Crack’d many a ring of posied gold and bone, +Bidding them find their sepulchres in mud; +Found yet mo letters sadly penn’d in blood, +With sleided silk, feat and affectedly +Enswath’d, and seal’d to curious secrecy. + +These often bath’d she in her fluxive eyes, +And often kiss’d, and often gave to tear; +Cried, ‘O false blood, thou register of lies, +What unapproved witness dost thou bear! +Ink would have seem’d more black and damned here!’ +This said, in top of rage the lines she rents, +Big discontent so breaking their contents. + +A reverend man that grazed his cattle nigh, +Sometime a blusterer, that the ruffle knew +Of court, of city, and had let go by +The swiftest hours observed as they flew, +Towards this afflicted fancy fastly drew; +And, privileg’d by age, desires to know +In brief the grounds and motives of her woe. + +So slides he down upon his grained bat, +And comely distant sits he by her side, +When he again desires her, being sat, +Her grievance with his hearing to divide: +If that from him there may be aught applied +Which may her suffering ecstasy assuage, +’Tis promised in the charity of age. + +‘Father,’ she says, ‘though in me you behold +The injury of many a blasting hour, +Let it not tell your judgement I am old, +Not age, but sorrow, over me hath power. +I might as yet have been a spreading flower, +Fresh to myself, if I had self-applied +Love to myself, and to no love beside. + +‘But woe is me! Too early I attended +A youthful suit; it was to gain my grace; +O one by nature’s outwards so commended, +That maiden’s eyes stuck over all his face, +Love lack’d a dwelling and made him her place; +And when in his fair parts she did abide, +She was new lodg’d and newly deified. + +‘His browny locks did hang in crooked curls, +And every light occasion of the wind +Upon his lips their silken parcels hurls, +What’s sweet to do, to do will aptly find, +Each eye that saw him did enchant the mind: +For on his visage was in little drawn, +What largeness thinks in paradise was sawn. + +‘Small show of man was yet upon his chin; +His phoenix down began but to appear, +Like unshorn velvet, on that termless skin, +Whose bare out-bragg’d the web it seemed to wear. +Yet show’d his visage by that cost more dear, +And nice affections wavering stood in doubt +If best were as it was, or best without. + +‘His qualities were beauteous as his form, +For maiden-tongued he was, and thereof free; +Yet if men mov’d him, was he such a storm +As oft ’twixt May and April is to see, +When winds breathe sweet, unruly though they be. +His rudeness so with his authoriz’d youth +Did livery falseness in a pride of truth. + +‘Well could he ride, and often men would say +That horse his mettle from his rider takes, +Proud of subjection, noble by the sway, +What rounds, what bounds, what course, what stop he makes! +And controversy hence a question takes, +Whether the horse by him became his deed, +Or he his manage by th’ well-doing steed. + +‘But quickly on this side the verdict went, +His real habitude gave life and grace +To appertainings and to ornament, +Accomplish’d in himself, not in his case; +All aids, themselves made fairer by their place, +Came for additions; yet their purpos’d trim +Piec’d not his grace, but were all grac’d by him. + +‘So on the tip of his subduing tongue +All kind of arguments and question deep, +All replication prompt, and reason strong, +For his advantage still did wake and sleep, +To make the weeper laugh, the laugher weep: +He had the dialect and different skill, +Catching all passions in his craft of will. + +‘That he did in the general bosom reign +Of young, of old, and sexes both enchanted, +To dwell with him in thoughts, or to remain +In personal duty, following where he haunted, +Consent’s bewitch’d, ere he desire, have granted, +And dialogued for him what he would say, +Ask’d their own wills, and made their wills obey. + +‘Many there were that did his picture get +To serve their eyes, and in it put their mind, +Like fools that in th’ imagination set +The goodly objects which abroad they find +Of lands and mansions, theirs in thought assign’d, +And labouring in moe pleasures to bestow them, +Than the true gouty landlord which doth owe them. + +‘So many have, that never touch’d his hand, +Sweetly suppos’d them mistress of his heart. +My woeful self that did in freedom stand, +And was my own fee-simple (not in part) +What with his art in youth, and youth in art, +Threw my affections in his charmed power, +Reserv’d the stalk and gave him all my flower. + +‘Yet did I not, as some my equals did, +Demand of him, nor being desired yielded, +Finding myself in honour so forbid, +With safest distance I mine honour shielded. +Experience for me many bulwarks builded +Of proofs new-bleeding, which remain’d the foil +Of this false jewel, and his amorous spoil. + +‘But ah! Who ever shunn’d by precedent +The destin’d ill she must herself assay, +Or force’d examples ’gainst her own content, +To put the by-pass’d perils in her way? +Counsel may stop a while what will not stay: +For when we rage, advice is often seen +By blunting us to make our wills more keen. + +‘Nor gives it satisfaction to our blood, +That we must curb it upon others’ proof, +To be forbode the sweets that seems so good, +For fear of harms that preach in our behoof. +O appetite, from judgement stand aloof! +The one a palate hath that needs will taste, +Though reason weep and cry, “It is thy last.” + +‘For further I could say, “This man’s untrue”, +And knew the patterns of his foul beguiling; +Heard where his plants in others’ orchards grew, +Saw how deceits were gilded in his smiling; +Knew vows were ever brokers to defiling; +Thought characters and words merely but art, +And bastards of his foul adulterate heart. + +‘And long upon these terms I held my city, +Till thus he ’gan besiege me: “Gentle maid, +Have of my suffering youth some feeling pity, +And be not of my holy vows afraid: +That’s to ye sworn, to none was ever said, +For feasts of love I have been call’d unto, +Till now did ne’er invite, nor never woo. + +‘“All my offences that abroad you see +Are errors of the blood, none of the mind: +Love made them not; with acture they may be, +Where neither party is nor true nor kind, +They sought their shame that so their shame did find, +And so much less of shame in me remains, +By how much of me their reproach contains. + +‘“Among the many that mine eyes have seen, +Not one whose flame my heart so much as warmed, +Or my affection put to th’ smallest teen, +Or any of my leisures ever charmed: +Harm have I done to them, but ne’er was harmed; +Kept hearts in liveries, but mine own was free, +And reign’d commanding in his monarchy. + +‘“Look here what tributes wounded fancies sent me, +Of pallid pearls and rubies red as blood, +Figuring that they their passions likewise lent me +Of grief and blushes, aptly understood +In bloodless white and the encrimson’d mood; +Effects of terror and dear modesty, +Encamp’d in hearts, but fighting outwardly. + +‘“And, lo! behold these talents of their hair, +With twisted metal amorously empleach’d, +I have receiv’d from many a several fair, +Their kind acceptance weepingly beseech’d, +With th’ annexions of fair gems enrich’d, +And deep-brain’d sonnets that did amplify +Each stone’s dear nature, worth and quality. + +‘“The diamond, why ’twas beautiful and hard, +Whereto his invis’d properties did tend, +The deep green emerald, in whose fresh regard +Weak sights their sickly radiance do amend; +The heaven-hued sapphire and the opal blend +With objects manifold; each several stone, +With wit well blazon’d smil’d, or made some moan. + +‘“Lo, all these trophies of affections hot, +Of pensiv’d and subdued desires the tender, +Nature hath charg’d me that I hoard them not, +But yield them up where I myself must render, +That is, to you, my origin and ender: +For these of force must your oblations be, +Since I their altar, you empatron me. + +‘“O then advance of yours that phraseless hand, +Whose white weighs down the airy scale of praise; +Take all these similes to your own command, +Hallowed with sighs that burning lungs did raise: +What me, your minister for you, obeys, +Works under you; and to your audit comes +Their distract parcels in combined sums. + +‘“Lo, this device was sent me from a nun, +Or sister sanctified of holiest note, +Which late her noble suit in court did shun, +Whose rarest havings made the blossoms dote; +For she was sought by spirits of richest coat, +But kept cold distance, and did thence remove +To spend her living in eternal love. + +‘“But O, my sweet, what labour is’t to leave +The thing we have not, mast’ring what not strives, +Planing the place which did no form receive, +Playing patient sports in unconstrained gyves, +She that her fame so to herself contrives, +The scars of battle ’scapeth by the flight, +And makes her absence valiant, not her might. + +‘“O pardon me, in that my boast is true, +The accident which brought me to her eye, +Upon the moment did her force subdue, +And now she would the caged cloister fly: +Religious love put out religion’s eye: +Not to be tempted would she be immur’d, +And now to tempt all, liberty procur’d. + +‘“How mighty then you are, O hear me tell! +The broken bosoms that to me belong +Have emptied all their fountains in my well, +And mine I pour your ocean all among: +I strong o’er them, and you o’er me being strong, +Must for your victory us all congest, +As compound love to physic your cold breast. + +‘“My parts had pow’r to charm a sacred nun, +Who, disciplin’d and dieted in grace, +Believ’d her eyes when they t’assail begun, +All vows and consecrations giving place. +O most potential love! Vow, bond, nor space, +In thee hath neither sting, knot, nor confine, +For thou art all and all things else are thine. + +‘“When thou impressest, what are precepts worth +Of stale example? When thou wilt inflame, +How coldly those impediments stand forth, +Of wealth, of filial fear, law, kindred, fame! +Love’s arms are peace, ’gainst rule, ’gainst sense, ’gainst shame, +And sweetens, in the suff’ring pangs it bears, +The aloes of all forces, shocks and fears. + +‘“Now all these hearts that do on mine depend, +Feeling it break, with bleeding groans they pine, +And supplicant their sighs to your extend, +To leave the batt’ry that you make ’gainst mine, +Lending soft audience to my sweet design, +And credent soul to that strong-bonded oath, +That shall prefer and undertake my troth.” + +‘This said, his wat’ry eyes he did dismount, +Whose sights till then were levell’d on my face; +Each cheek a river running from a fount +With brinish current downward flowed apace. +O how the channel to the stream gave grace! +Who, glaz’d with crystal gate the glowing roses +That flame through water which their hue encloses. + +‘O father, what a hell of witchcraft lies +In the small orb of one particular tear! +But with the inundation of the eyes +What rocky heart to water will not wear? +What breast so cold that is not warmed here? +O cleft effect! Cold modesty, hot wrath, +Both fire from hence and chill extincture hath. + +‘For lo, his passion, but an art of craft, +Even there resolv’d my reason into tears; +There my white stole of chastity I daff’d, +Shook off my sober guards, and civil fears, +Appear to him as he to me appears, +All melting, though our drops this diff’rence bore: +His poison’d me, and mine did him restore. + +‘In him a plenitude of subtle matter, +Applied to cautels, all strange forms receives, +Of burning blushes, or of weeping water, +Or swooning paleness; and he takes and leaves, +In either’s aptness, as it best deceives, +To blush at speeches rank, to weep at woes, +Or to turn white and swoon at tragic shows. + +‘That not a heart which in his level came +Could ’scape the hail of his all-hurting aim, +Showing fair nature is both kind and tame; +And veil’d in them, did win whom he would maim. +Against the thing he sought he would exclaim; +When he most burned in heart-wish’d luxury, +He preach’d pure maid, and prais’d cold chastity. + +‘Thus merely with the garment of a grace, +The naked and concealed fiend he cover’d, +That th’unexperient gave the tempter place, +Which, like a cherubin, above them hover’d. +Who, young and simple, would not be so lover’d? +Ay me! I fell, and yet do question make +What I should do again for such a sake. + +‘O, that infected moisture of his eye, +O, that false fire which in his cheek so glow’d! +O, that forc’d thunder from his heart did fly, +O, that sad breath his spongy lungs bestow’d, +O, all that borrowed motion, seeming owed, +Would yet again betray the fore-betrayed, +And new pervert a reconciled maid.’ + + + + +THE PASSIONATE PILGRIM + +I. + +Did not the heavenly rhetoric of thine eye, +'Gainst whom the world could not hold argument, +Persuade my heart to this false perjury? +Vows for thee broke deserve not punishment. +A woman I forswore; but I will prove, +Thou being a goddess, I forswore not thee: +My vow was earthly, thou a heavenly love; +Thy grace being gain'd cures all disgrace in me. +My vow was breath, and breath a vapour is; +Then, thou fair sun, that on this earth doth shine, +Exhale this vapour vow; in thee it is: +If broken, then it is no fault of mine. + If by me broke, what fool is not so wise + To break an oath, to win a paradise? + +II. + +Sweet Cytherea, sitting by a brook +With young Adonis, lovely, fresh, and green, +Did court the lad with many a lovely look, +Such looks as none could look but beauty's queen. +She told him stories to delight his ear; +She show'd him favours to allure his eye; +To win his heart, she touch'd him here and there: +Touches so soft still conquer chastity. +But whether unripe years did want conceit, +Or he refus'd to take her figur'd proffer, +The tender nibbler would not touch the bait, +But smile and jest at every gentle offer: + Then fell she on her back, fair queen, and toward; + He rose and ran away; ah, fool too froward! + +III. + +If love make me forsworn, how shall I swear to love? +O never faith could hold, if not to beauty vow'd: +Though to myself forsworn, to thee I'll constant prove; +Those thoughts, to me like oaks, to thee like osiers bow'd. +Study his bias leaves, and makes his book thine eyes, +Where all those pleasures live that art can comprehend. +If knowledge be the mark, to know thee shall suffice; +Well learned is that tongue that well can thee commend; +All ignorant that soul that sees thee without wonder; +Which is to me some praise, that I thy parts admire: +Thy eye Jove's lightning seems, thy voice his dreadful thunder, +Which (not to anger bent) is music and sweet fire. + Celestial as thou art, O do not love that wrong, + To sing heavens' praise with such an earthly tongue. + +IV. + +Scarce had the sun dried up the dewy morn, +And scarce the herd gone to the hedge for shade, +When Cytherea, all in love forlorn, +A longing tarriance for Adonis made, +Under an osier growing by a brook, +A brook where Adon used to cool his spleen. +Hot was the day; she hotter that did look +For his approach, that often there had been. +Anon he comes, and throws his mantle by, +And stood stark naked on the brook's green brim; +The sun look'd on the world with glorious eye, +Yet not so wistly as this queen on him: + He, spying her, bounc'd in, whereas he stood; + O Jove, quoth she, why was not I a flood? + +V. + +Fair is my love, but not so fair as fickle; +Mild as a dove, but neither true nor trusty; +Brighter than glass, and yet, as glass is, brittle; +Softer than wax, and yet, as iron, rusty: + A lily pale, with damask die to grace her, + None fairer, nor none falser to deface her. + +Her lips to mine how often hath she join'd, +Between each kiss her oaths of true love swearing! +How many tales to please me hath she coin'd, +Dreading my love, the loss thereof still fearing! + Yet in the midst of all her pure protestings, + Her faith, her oaths, her tears, and all were jestings. + +She burn'd with love, as straw with fire flameth; +She burn'd out love, as soon as straw outburneth; +She fram'd the love, and yet she foil'd the framing; +She bade love last, and yet she fell a turning. + Was this a lover, or a lecher whether? + Bad in the best, though excellent in neither. + +VI. + +If music and sweet poetry agree, +As they must needs, the sister and the brother, +Then must the love be great 'twixt thee and me, +Because thou lovest the one, and I the other. +Dowland to thee is dear, whose heavenly touch +Upon the lute doth ravish human sense; +Spenser to me, whose deep conceit is such +As, passing all conceit, needs no defence. +Thou lov'st to hear the sweet melodious sound +That Phoebus' lute, the queen of music, makes; +And I in deep delight am chiefly drown'd +Whenas himself to singing he betakes. + One god is god of both, as poets feign; + One knight loves both, and both in thee remain. + +VII. + +Fair was the morn when the fair queen of love, + * * * * * * +Paler for sorrow than her milk-white dove, +For Adon's sake, a youngster proud and wild; +Her stand she takes upon a steep-up hill: +Anon Adonis comes with horn and hounds; +She, silly queen, with more than love's good will, +Forbade the boy he should not pass those grounds; +Once, quoth she, did I see a fair sweet youth +Here in these brakes deep-wounded with a boar, +Deep in the thigh, a spectacle of ruth! +See, in my thigh, quoth she, here was the sore. + She showed hers: he saw more wounds than one, + And blushing fled, and left her all alone. + +VIII. + +Sweet rose, fair flower, untimely pluck'd, soon vaded, +Pluck'd in the bud, and vaded in the spring! +Bright orient pearl, alack! too timely shaded! +Fair creature, kill'd too soon by death's sharp sting! + Like a green plum that hangs upon a tree, + And falls, through wind, before the fall should be. + +I weep for thee, and yet no cause I have; +For why? thou left'st me nothing in thy will: +And yet thou left'st me more than I did crave; +For why? I craved nothing of thee still: + O yes, dear friend, I pardon crave of thee, + Thy discontent thou didst bequeath to me. + +IX. + +Venus, with young Adonis sitting by her, +Under a myrtle shade, began to woo him: +She told the youngling how god Mars did try her, +And as he fell to her, so fell she to him. +Even thus, quoth she, the warlike god embrac'd me, +And then she clipp'd Adonis in her arms; +Even thus, quoth she, the warlike god unlaced me; +As if the boy should use like loving charms; +Even thus, quoth she, he seized on my lips, +And with her lips on his did act the seizure; +And as she fetched breath, away he skips, +And would not take her meaning nor her pleasure. + Ah! that I had my lady at this bay, + To kiss and clip me till I run away! + +X. + + Crabbed age and youth + Cannot live together + Youth is full of pleasance, + Age is full of care; + Youth like summer morn, + Age like winter weather; + Youth like summer brave, + Age like winter bare; + Youth is full of sport, + Age's breath is short; + Youth is nimble, age is lame; + Youth is hot and bold, + Age is weak and cold; + Youth is wild, and age is tame. + Age, I do abhor thee; + Youth, I do adore thee; + O, my love, my love is young! + Age, I do defy thee; + O, sweet shepherd, hie thee, + For methinks thou stay'st too long. + +XI. + +Beauty is but a vain and doubtful good, +A shining gloss that vadeth suddenly; +A flower that dies when first it 'gins to bud; +A brittle glass, that's broken presently: + A doubtful good, a gloss, a glass, a flower, + Lost, vaded, broken, dead within an hour. + +And as goods lost are seld or never found, +As vaded gloss no rubbing will refresh, +As flowers dead lie wither'd on the ground, +As broken glass no cement can redress, + So beauty blemish'd once, for ever's lost, + In spite of physic, painting, pain and cost. + +XII. + +Good night, good rest. Ah! neither be my share: +She bade good night that kept my rest away; +And daff'd me to a cabin hang'd with care, +To descant on the doubts of my decay. + Farewell, quoth she, and come again tomorrow: + Fare well I could not, for I supp'd with sorrow; + +Yet at my parting sweetly did she smile, +In scorn or friendship, nill I construe whether: +'T may be, she joy'd to jest at my exile, +'T may be, again to make me wander thither: + 'Wander,' a word for shadows like myself, + As take the pain, but cannot pluck the pelf. + +XIII. + +Lord, how mine eyes throw gazes to the east! +My heart doth charge the watch; the morning rise +Doth cite each moving sense from idle rest. +Not daring trust the office of mine eyes, + While Philomela sits and sings, I sit and mark, + And wish her lays were tuned like the lark; + +For she doth welcome daylight with her ditty, +And drives away dark dismal-dreaming night: +The night so pack'd, I post unto my pretty; +Heart hath his hope, and eyes their wished sight; + Sorrow chang'd to solace, solace mix'd with sorrow; + For why, she sigh'd and bade me come tomorrow. + +Were I with her, the night would post too soon; +But now are minutes added to the hours; +To spite me now, each minute seems a moon; +Yet not for me, shine sun to succour flowers! + Pack night, peep day; good day, of night now borrow: + Short, night, to-night, and length thyself to-morrow. + + + +THE PHOENIX AND THE TURTLE + + + +Let the bird of loudest lay, +On the sole Arabian tree, +Herald sad and trumpet be, +To whose sound chaste wings obey. + +But thou shrieking harbinger, +Foul precurrer of the fiend, +Augur of the fever’s end, +To this troop come thou not near. + +From this session interdict +Every fowl of tyrant wing, +Save the eagle, feather’d king; +Keep the obsequy so strict. + +Let the priest in surplice white, +That defunctive music can, +Be the death-divining swan, +Lest the requiem lack his right. + +And thou treble-dated crow, +That thy sable gender mak’st +With the breath thou giv’st and tak’st, +’Mongst our mourners shalt thou go. + +Here the anthem doth commence: +Love and constancy is dead; +Phoenix and the turtle fled +In a mutual flame from hence. + +So they lov’d, as love in twain +Had the essence but in one; +Two distincts, division none: +Number there in love was slain. + +Hearts remote, yet not asunder; +Distance and no space was seen +’Twixt this turtle and his queen; +But in them it were a wonder. + +So between them love did shine, +That the turtle saw his right +Flaming in the phoenix’ sight; +Either was the other’s mine. + +Property was thus appalled, +That the self was not the same; +Single nature’s double name +Neither two nor one was called. + +Reason, in itself confounded, +Saw division grow together; +To themselves yet either neither, +Simple were so well compounded. + +That it cried, How true a twain +Seemeth this concordant one! +Love hath reason, reason none, +If what parts can so remain. + +Whereupon it made this threne +To the phoenix and the dove, +Co-supremes and stars of love, +As chorus to their tragic scene. + + + THRENOS + +Beauty, truth, and rarity. +Grace in all simplicity, +Here enclos’d in cinders lie. + +Death is now the phoenix’ nest; +And the turtle’s loyal breast +To eternity doth rest. + +Leaving no posterity:— +’Twas not their infirmity, +It was married chastity. + +Truth may seem, but cannot be; +Beauty brag, but ’tis not she; +Truth and beauty buried be. + +To this urn let those repair +That are either true or fair; +For these dead birds sigh a prayer. + + + +THE RAPE OF LUCRECE + + TO THE + + RIGHT HONOURABLE HENRY WRIOTHESLY, + + EARL OF SOUTHAMPTON, AND BARON OF TITCHFIELD. + +THE love I dedicate to your Lordship is without end; whereof this +pamphlet, without beginning, is but a superfluous moiety. The warrant +I have of your honourable disposition, not the worth of my untutored +lines, makes it assured of acceptance. What I have done is yours; what +I have to do is yours; being part in all I have, devoted yours. Were +my worth greater, my duty would show greater; meantime, as it is, it is +bound to your Lordship, to whom I wish long life, still lengthened with +all happiness. + + Your Lordship's in all duty, + WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. + + THE ARGUMENT. + +LUCIUS TARQUINIUS (for his excessive pride surnamed Superbus), after he +had caused his own father-in-law, Servius Tullius, to be cruelly +murdered, and, contrary to the Roman laws and customs, not requiring or +staying for the people's suffrages, had possessed himself of the +kingdom, went, accompanied with his sons and other noblemen of Rome, to +besiege Ardea. During which siege the principal men of the army +meeting one evening at the tent of Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son, +in their discourses after supper, every one commended the virtues of +his own wife; among whom Collatinus extolled the incomparable chastity +of his wife Lucretia. In that pleasant humour they all posted to Rome; +and intending, by their secret and sudden arrival, to make trial of +that which every one had before avouched, only Collatinus finds his +wife, though it were late in the night, spinning amongst her maids: the +other ladies were all found dancing and revelling, or in several +disports. Whereupon the noblemen yielded Collatinus the victory, and +his wife the fame. At that time Sextus Tarquinius being inflamed with +Lucrece's beauty, yet smothering his passions for the present, departed +with the rest back to the camp; from whence he shortly after privily +withdrew himself, and was (according to his estate) royally entertained +and lodged by Lucrece at Collatium. The same night he treacherously +stealeth into her chamber, violently ravished her, and early in the +morning speedeth away. Lucrece, in this lamentable plight, hastily +dispatched messengers, one to Rome for her father, another to the camp +for Collatine. They came, the one accompanied with Junius Brutus, the +other with Publius Valerius; and finding Lucrece attired in mourning +habit, demanded the cause of her sorrow. She, first taking an oath of +them for her revenge, revealed the actor, and whole manner of his +dealing, and withal suddenly stabbed herself. Which done, with one +consent they all vowed to root out the whole hated family of the +Tarquins; and bearing the dead body to Rome, Brutus acquainted the +people with the doer and manner of the vile deed, with a bitter +invective against the tyranny of the king; wherewith the people were so +moved, that with one consent and a general acclamation the Tarquins +were all exiled, and the state government changed from kings to +consuls. + +_______________________________________________________________ + +From the besieged Ardea all in post, +Borne by the trustless wings of false desire, +Lust-breathed Tarquin leaves the Roman host, +And to Collatium bears the lightless fire +Which, in pale embers hid, lurks to aspire + And girdle with embracing flames the waist + Of Collatine's fair love, Lucrece the chaste. + +Haply that name of chaste unhapp'ly set +This bateless edge on his keen appetite; +When Collatine unwisely did not let +To praise the clear unmatched red and white +Which triumph'd in that sky of his delight, + Where mortal stars, as bright as heaven's beauties, + With pure aspects did him peculiar duties. + +For he the night before, in Tarquin's tent, +Unlock'd the treasure of his happy state; +What priceless wealth the heavens had him lent +In the possession of his beauteous mate; +Reckoning his fortune at such high-proud rate, + That kings might be espoused to more fame, + But king nor peer to such a peerless dame. + +O happiness enjoy'd but of a few! +And, if possess'd, as soon decay'd and done +As is the morning's silver-melting dew +Against the golden splendour of the sun! +An expir'd date, cancell'd ere well begun: + Honour and beauty, in the owner's arms, + Are weakly fortress'd from a world of harms. + +Beauty itself doth of itself persuade +The eyes of men without an orator; +What needeth then apologies be made, +To set forth that which is so singular? +Or why is Collatine the publisher + Of that rich jewel he should keep unknown + From thievish ears, because it is his own? + +Perchance his boast of Lucrece' sovereignty +Suggested this proud issue of a king; +For by our ears our hearts oft tainted be: +Perchance that envy of so rich a thing, +Braving compare, disdainfully did sting + His high-pitch'd thoughts, that meaner men should vaunt + That golden hap which their superiors want. + +But some untimely thought did instigate +His all-too-timeless speed, if none of those; +His honour, his affairs, his friends, his state, +Neglected all, with swift intent he goes +To quench the coal which in his liver glows. + O rash false heat, wrapp'd in repentant cold, + Thy hasty spring still blasts, and ne'er grows old! + +When at Collatium this false lord arriv'd, +Well was he welcom'd by the Roman dame, +Within whose face beauty and virtue striv'd +Which of them both should underprop her fame: +When virtue bragg'd, beauty would blush for shame; + When beauty boasted blushes, in despite + Virtue would stain that or with silver white. + +But beauty, in that white intituled, +From Venus' doves doth challenge that fair field: +Then virtue claims from beauty beauty's red, +Which virtue gave the golden age, to gild +Their silver cheeks, and call'd it then their shield; + Teaching them thus to use it in the fight,— + When shame assail'd, the red should fence the white. + +This heraldry in Lucrece' face was seen, +Argued by beauty's red, and virtue's white: +Of either's colour was the other queen, +Proving from world's minority their right: +Yet their ambition makes them still to fight; + The sovereignty of either being so great, + That oft they interchange each other's seat. + +Their silent war of lilies and of roses, +Which Tarquin view'd in her fair face's field, +In their pure ranks his traitor eye encloses; +Where, lest between them both it should be kill'd, +The coward captive vanquish'd doth yield + To those two armies that would let him go, + Rather than triumph in so false a foe. + +Now thinks he that her husband's shallow tongue, +(The niggard prodigal that prais'd her so) +In that high task hath done her beauty wrong, +Which far exceeds his barren skill to show: +Therefore that praise which Collatine doth owe + Enchanted Tarquin answers with surmise, + In silent wonder of still-gazing eyes. + +This earthly saint, adored by this devil, +Little suspecteth the false worshipper; +For unstain'd thoughts do seldom dream on evil; +Birds never lim'd no secret bushes fear: +So guiltless she securely gives good cheer + And reverend welcome to her princely guest, + Whose inward ill no outward harm express'd: + +For that he colour'd with his high estate, +Hiding base sin in plaits of majesty; +That nothing in him seem'd inordinate, +Save sometime too much wonder of his eye, +Which, having all, all could not satisfy; + But, poorly rich, so wanteth in his store, + That, cloy'd with much, he pineth still for more. + +But she, that never cop'd with stranger eyes, +Could pick no meaning from their parling looks, +Nor read the subtle-shining secrecies +Writ in the glassy margents of such books; +She touch'd no unknown baits, nor fear'd no hooks; + Nor could she moralize his wanton sight, + More than his eyes were open'd to the light. + +He stories to her ears her husband's fame, +Won in the fields of fruitful Italy; +And decks with praises Collatine's high name, +Made glorious by his manly chivalry +With bruised arms and wreaths of victory: + Her joy with heav'd-up hand she doth express, + And, wordless, so greets heaven for his success. + +Far from the purpose of his coming hither, +He makes excuses for his being there. +No cloudy show of stormy blustering weather +Doth yet in his fair welkin once appear; +Till sable Night, mother of Dread and Fear, + Upon the world dim darkness doth display, + And in her vaulty prison stows the day. + +For then is Tarquin brought unto his bed, +Intending weariness with heavy spright; +For, after supper, long he questioned +With modest Lucrece, and wore out the night: +Now leaden slumber with life's strength doth fight; + And every one to rest themselves betake, + Save thieves, and cares, and troubled minds, that wake. + +As one of which doth Tarquin lie revolving +The sundry dangers of his will's obtaining; +Yet ever to obtain his will resolving, +Though weak-built hopes persuade him to abstaining: +Despair to gain doth traffic oft for gaining; + And when great treasure is the meed propos'd, + Though death be adjunct, there's no death suppos'd. + +Those that much covet are with gain so fond, +For what they have not, that which they possess +They scatter and unloose it from their bond, +And so, by hoping more, they have but less; +Or, gaining more, the profit of excess + Is but to surfeit, and such griefs sustain, + That they prove bankrupt in this poor-rich gain. + +The aim of all is but to nurse the life +With honour, wealth, and ease, in waning age; +And in this aim there is such thwarting strife, +That one for all, or all for one we gage; +As life for honour in fell battles' rage; + Honour for wealth; and oft that wealth doth cost + The death of all, and all together lost. + +So that in vent'ring ill we leave to be +The things we are, for that which we expect; +And this ambitious foul infirmity, +In having much, torments us with defect +Of that we have: so then we do neglect + The thing we have; and, all for want of wit, + Make something nothing, by augmenting it. + +Such hazard now must doting Tarquin make, +Pawning his honour to obtain his lust; +And for himself himself he must forsake: +Then where is truth, if there be no self-trust? +When shall he think to find a stranger just, + When he himself himself confounds, betrays + To slanderous tongues and wretched hateful days? + +Now stole upon the time the dead of night, +When heavy sleep had closed up mortal eyes: +No comfortable star did lend his light, +No noise but owls' and wolves' death-boding cries; +Now serves the season that they may surprise + The silly lambs; pure thoughts are dead and still, + While lust and murder wake to stain and kill. + +And now this lustful lord leap'd from his bed, +Throwing his mantle rudely o'er his arm; +Is madly toss'd between desire and dread; +Th' one sweetly flatters, th' other feareth harm; +But honest Fear, bewitch'd with lust's foul charm, + Doth too too oft betake him to retire, + Beaten away by brain-sick rude Desire. + +His falchion on a flint he softly smiteth, +That from the cold stone sparks of fire do fly; +Whereat a waxen torch forthwith he lighteth, +Which must be lode-star to his lustful eye; +And to the flame thus speaks advisedly: + 'As from this cold flint I enforced this fire, + So Lucrece must I force to my desire.' + +Here pale with fear he doth premeditate +The dangers of his loathsome enterprise, +And in his inward mind he doth debate +What following sorrow may on this arise; +Then looking scornfully, he doth despise + His naked armour of still-slaughter'd lust, + And justly thus controls his thoughts unjust: + +'Fair torch, burn out thy light, and lend it not +To darken her whose light excelleth thine: +And die, unhallow'd thoughts, before you blot +With your uncleanness that which is divine! +Offer pure incense to so pure a shrine: + Let fair humanity abhor the deed + That spots and stains love's modest snow-white weed. + +'O shame to knighthood and to shining arms! +O foul dishonour to my household's grave! +O impious act, including all foul harms! +A martial man to be soft fancy's slave! +True valour still a true respect should have; + Then my digression is so vile, so base, + That it will live engraven in my face. + +'Yea, though I die, the scandal will survive, +And be an eye-sore in my golden coat; +Some loathsome dash the herald will contrive, +To cipher me how fondly I did dote; +That my posterity, sham'd with the note, + Shall curse my bones, and hold it for no sin + To wish that I their father had not been. + +'What win I, if I gain the thing I seek? +A dream, a breath, a froth of fleeting joy: +Who buys a minute's mirth to wail a week? +Or sells eternity to get a toy? +For one sweet grape who will the vine destroy? + Or what fond beggar, but to touch the crown, + Would with the sceptre straight be strucken down? + +'If Collatinus dream of my intent, +Will he not wake, and in a desperate rage +Post hither, this vile purpose to prevent? +This siege that hath engirt his marriage, +This blur to youth, this sorrow to the sage, + This dying virtue, this surviving shame, + Whose crime will bear an ever-during blame? + +'O, what excuse can my invention make +When thou shalt charge me with so black a deed? +Will not my tongue be mute, my frail joints shake? +Mine eyes forego their light, my false heart bleed? +The guilt being great, the fear doth still exceed; + And extreme fear can neither fight nor fly, + But, coward-like, with trembling terror die. + +'Had Collatinus kill'd my son or sire, +Or lain in ambush to betray my life, +Or were he not my dear friend, this desire +Might have excuse to work upon his wife; +As in revenge or quittal of such strife: + But as he is my kinsman, my dear friend, + The shame and fault finds no excuse nor end. + +'Shameful it is;—ay, if the fact be known: +Hateful it is:— there is no hate in loving; +I'll beg her love;—but she is not her own; +The worst is but denial and reproving: +My will is strong, past reason's weak removing. + Who fears a sentence or an old man's saw + Shall by a painted cloth be kept in awe.' + +Thus, graceless, holds he disputation +'Tween frozen conscience and hot-burning will, +And with good thoughts makes dispensation, +Urging the worser sense for vantage still; +Which in a moment doth confound and kill + All pure effects, and doth so far proceed, + That what is vile shows like a virtuous deed. + +Quoth he, 'She took me kindly by the hand, +And gaz'd for tidings in my eager eyes, +Fearing some hard news from the warlike band, +Where her beloved Collatinus lies. +O how her fear did make her colour rise! + First red as roses that on lawn we lay, + Then white as lawn, the roses took away. + +'And how her hand, in my hand being lock'd, +Forc'd it to tremble with her loyal fear; +Which struck her sad, and then it faster rock'd, +Until her husband's welfare she did hear; +Whereat she smiled with so sweet a cheer, + That had Narcissus seen her as she stood, + Self-love had never drown'd him in the flood. + +'Why hunt I then for colour or excuses? +All orators are dumb when beauty pleadeth; +Poor wretches have remorse in poor abuses; +Love thrives not in the heart that shadows dreadeth: +Affection is my captain, and he leadeth; + And when his gaudy banner is display'd, + The coward fights and will not be dismay'd. + +'Then, childish fear, avaunt! debating, die! +Respect and reason wait on wrinkled age! +My heart shall never countermand mine eye; +Sad pause and deep regard beseem the sage; +My part is youth, and beats these from the stage: + Desire my pilot is, beauty my prize; + Then who fears sinking where such treasure lies?' + +As corn o'ergrown by weeds, so heedful fear +Is almost chok'd by unresisted lust. +Away he steals with opening, listening ear, +Full of foul hope, and full of fond mistrust; +Both which, as servitors to the unjust, + So cross him with their opposite persuasion, + That now he vows a league, and now invasion. + +Within his thought her heavenly image sits, +And in the self-same seat sits Collatine: +That eye which looks on her confounds his wits; +That eye which him beholds, as more divine, +Unto a view so false will not incline; + But with a pure appeal seeks to the heart, + Which once corrupted takes the worser part; + +And therein heartens up his servile powers, +Who, flatter'd by their leader's jocund show, +Stuff up his lust, as minutes fill up hours; +And as their captain, so their pride doth grow. +Paying more slavish tribute than they owe. + By reprobate desire thus madly led, + The Roman lord marcheth to Lucrece' bed. + +The locks between her chamber and his will, +Each one by him enforc'd retires his ward; +But, as they open they all rate his ill, +Which drives the creeping thief to some regard, +The threshold grates the door to have him heard; + Night-wand'ring weasels shriek to see him there; + They fright him, yet he still pursues his fear. + +As each unwilling portal yields him way, +Through little vents and crannies of the place +The wind wars with his torch, to make him stay, +And blows the smoke of it into his face, +Extinguishing his conduct in this case; + But his hot heart, which fond desire doth scorch, + Puffs forth another wind that fires the torch: + +And being lighted, by the light he spies +Lucretia's glove, wherein her needle sticks; +He takes it from the rushes where it lies, +And griping it, the neeld his finger pricks: +As who should say this glove to wanton tricks + Is not inur'd: return again in haste; + Thou see'st our mistress' ornaments are chaste. + +But all these poor forbiddings could not stay him; +He in the worst sense construes their denial: +The doors, the wind, the glove that did delay him, +He takes for accidental things of trial; +Or as those bars which stop the hourly dial, + Who with a lingering stay his course doth let, + Till every minute pays the hour his debt. + +'So, so,' quoth he, 'these lets attend the time, +Like little frosts that sometime threat the spring. +To add a more rejoicing to the prime, +And give the sneaped birds more cause to sing. +Pain pays the income of each precious thing; + Huge rocks, high winds, strong pirates, shelves and sands, + The merchant fears, ere rich at home he lands.' + +Now is he come unto the chamber door, +That shuts him from the heaven of his thought, +Which with a yielding latch, and with no more, +Hath barr'd him from the blessed thing he sought. +So from himself impiety hath wrought, + That for his prey to pray he doth begin, + As if the heavens should countenance his sin. + +But in the midst of his unfruitful prayer, +Having solicited the eternal power, +That his foul thoughts might compass his fair fair, +And they would stand auspicious to the hour, +Even there he starts:—quoth he, 'I must de-flower; + The powers to whom I pray abhor this fact, + How can they then assist me in the act? + +'Then Love and Fortune be my gods, my guide! +My will is back'd with resolution: +Thoughts are but dreams till their effects be tried, +The blackest sin is clear'd with absolution; +Against love's fire fear's frost hath dissolution. + The eye of heaven is out, and misty night + Covers the shame that follows sweet delight.' + +This said, his guilty hand pluck'd up the latch, +And with his knee the door he opens wide: +The dove sleeps fast that this night-owl will catch; +Thus treason works ere traitors be espied. +Who sees the lurking serpent steps aside; + But she, sound sleeping, fearing no such thing, + Lies at the mercy of his mortal sting. + +Into the chamber wickedly he stalks, +And gazeth on her yet unstained bed. +The curtains being close, about he walks, +Rolling his greedy eyeballs in his head: +By their high treason is his heart misled; + Which gives the watch-word to his hand full soon + To draw the cloud that hides the silver moon. + +Look, as the fair and fiery-pointed sun, +Rushing from forth a cloud, bereaves our sight; +Even so, the curtain drawn, his eyes begun +To wink, being blinded with a greater light: +Whether it is that she reflects so bright, + That dazzleth them, or else some shame supposed; + But blind they are, and keep themselves enclosed. + +O, had they in that darksome prison died, +Then had they seen the period of their ill! +Then Collatine again by Lucrece' side +In his clear bed might have reposed still: +But they must ope, this blessed league to kill; + And holy-thoughted Lucrece to their sight + Must sell her joy, her life, her world's delight. + +Her lily hand her rosy cheek lies under, +Cozening the pillow of a lawful kiss; +Who, therefore angry, seems to part in sunder, +Swelling on either side to want his bliss; +Between whose hills her head entombed is: + Where, like a virtuous monument, she lies, + To be admir'd of lewd unhallow'd eyes. + +Without the bed her other fair hand was, +On the green coverlet; whose perfect white +Show'd like an April daisy on the grass, +With pearly sweat, resembling dew of night, +Her eyes, like marigolds, had sheath'd their light, + And canopied in darkness sweetly lay, + Till they might open to adorn the day. + +Her hair, like golden threads, play'd with her breath; +O modest wantons! wanton modesty! +Showing life's triumph in the map of death, +And death's dim look in life's mortality: +Each in her sleep themselves so beautify, + As if between them twain there were no strife, + But that life liv'd in death, and death in life. + +Her breasts, like ivory globes circled with blue, +A pair of maiden worlds unconquered, +Save of their lord no bearing yoke they knew, +And him by oath they truly honoured. +These worlds in Tarquin new ambition bred: + Who, like a foul usurper, went about + From this fair throne to heave the owner out. + +What could he see but mightily he noted? +What did he note but strongly he desir'd? +What he beheld, on that he firmly doted, +And in his will his wilful eye he tir'd. +With more than admiration he admir'd + Her azure veins, her alabaster skin, + Her coral lips, her snow-white dimpled chin. + +As the grim lion fawneth o'er his prey, +Sharp hunger by the conquest satisfied, +So o'er this sleeping soul doth Tarquin stay, +His rage of lust by grazing qualified; +Slack'd, not suppress'd; for standing by her side, + His eye, which late this mutiny restrains, + Unto a greater uproar tempts his veins: + +And they, like straggling slaves for pillage fighting, +Obdurate vassals. fell exploits effecting, +In bloody death and ravishment delighting, +Nor children's tears nor mothers' groans respecting, +Swell in their pride, the onset still expecting: + Anon his beating heart, alarum striking, + Gives the hot charge and bids them do their liking. + +His drumming heart cheers up his burning eye, +His eye commends the leading to his hand; +His hand, as proud of such a dignity, +Smoking with pride, march'd on to make his stand +On her bare breast, the heart of all her land; + Whose ranks of blue veins, as his hand did scale, + Left their round turrets destitute and pale. + +They, mustering to the quiet cabinet +Where their dear governess and lady lies, +Do tell her she is dreadfully beset, +And fright her with confusion of their cries: +She, much amaz'd, breaks ope her lock'd-up eyes, + Who, peeping forth this tumult to behold, + Are by his flaming torch dimm'd and controll'd. + +Imagine her as one in dead of night +From forth dull sleep by dreadful fancy waking, +That thinks she hath beheld some ghastly sprite, +Whose grim aspect sets every joint a shaking: +What terror 'tis! but she, in worser taking, + From sleep disturbed, heedfully doth view + The sight which makes supposed terror true. + +Wrapp'd and confounded in a thousand fears, +Like to a new-kill'd bird she trembling lies; +She dares not look; yet, winking, there appears +Quick-shifting antics, ugly in her eyes: +Such shadows are the weak brain's forgeries: + Who, angry that the eyes fly from their lights, + In darkness daunts them with more dreadful sights. + +His hand, that yet remains upon her breast, +(Rude ram, to batter such an ivory wall!) +May feel her heart, poor citizen, distress'd, +Wounding itself to death, rise up and fall, +Beating her bulk, that his hand shakes withal. + This moves in him more rage, and lesser pity, + To make the breach, and enter this sweet city. + +First, like a trumpet, doth his tongue begin +To sound a parley to his heartless foe, +Who o'er the white sheet peers her whiter chin, +The reason of this rash alarm to know, +Which he by dumb demeanour seeks to show; + But she with vehement prayers urgeth still + Under what colour he commits this ill. + +Thus he replies: 'The colour in thy face, +(That even for anger makes the lily pale, +And the red rose blush at her own disgrace) +Shall plead for me and tell my loving tale: +Under that colour am I come to scale + Thy never-conquer'd fort: the fault is thine, + For those thine eyes betray thee unto mine. + +'Thus I forestall thee, if thou mean to chide: +Thy beauty hath ensnared thee to this night, +Where thou with patience must my will abide, +My will that marks thee for my earth's delight, +Which I to conquer sought with all my might; + But as reproof and reason beat it dead, + By thy bright beauty was it newly bred. + +'I see what crosses my attempt will bring; +I know what thorns the growing rose defends; +I think the honey guarded with a sting; +All this, beforehand, counsel comprehends: +But will is deaf, and hears no heedful friends; + Only he hath an eye to gaze on beauty, + And dotes on what he looks, 'gainst law or duty. + +'I have debated, even in my soul, +What wrong, what shame, what sorrow I shall breed; +But nothing can Affection's course control, +Or stop the headlong fury of his speed. +I know repentant tears ensue the deed, + Reproach, disdain, and deadly enmity; + Yet strike I to embrace mine infamy.' + +This said, he shakes aloft his Roman blade, +Which, like a falcon towering in the skies, +Coucheth the fowl below with his wings' shade, +Whose crooked beak threats if he mount he dies: +So under his insulting falchion lies + Harmless Lucretia, marking what he tells + With trembling fear, as fowl hear falcon's bells. + +'Lucrece,' quoth he, 'this night I must enjoy thee: +If thou deny, then force must work my way, +For in thy bed I purpose to destroy thee; +That done, some worthless slave of thine I'll slay. +To kill thine honour with thy life's decay; + And in thy dead arms do I mean to place him, + Swearing I slew him, seeing thee embrace him. + +'So thy surviving husband shall remain +The scornful mark of every open eye; +Thy kinsmen hang their heads at this disdain, +Thy issue blurr'd with nameless bastardy: +And thou, the author of their obloquy, + Shalt have thy trespass cited up in rhymes, + And sung by children in succeeding times. + +'But if thou yield, I rest thy secret friend: +The fault unknown is as a thought unacted; +A little harm, done to a great good end, +For lawful policy remains enacted. +The poisonous simple sometimes is compacted + In a pure compound; being so applied, + His venom in effect is purified. + +'Then, for thy husband and thy children's sake, +Tender my suit: bequeath not to their lot +The shame that from them no device can take, +The blemish that will never be forgot; +Worse than a slavish wipe, or birth-hour's blot: + For marks descried in men's nativity + Are nature's faults, not their own infamy.' + +Here with a cockatrice' dead-killing eye +He rouseth up himself and makes a pause; +While she, the picture of pure piety, +Like a white hind under the grype's sharp claws, +Pleads in a wilderness where are no laws, + To the rough beast that knows no gentle right, + Nor aught obeys but his foul appetite. + +But when a black-fac'd cloud the world doth threat, +In his dim mist the aspiring mountains hiding, +From earth's dark womb some gentle gust doth get, +Which blows these pitchy vapours from their biding, +Hindering their present fall by this dividing; + So his unhallow'd haste her words delays, + And moody Pluto winks while Orpheus plays. + +Yet, foul night-working cat, he doth but dally, +While in his hold-fast foot the weak mouse panteth; +Her sad behaviour feeds his vulture folly, +A swallowing gulf that even in plenty wanteth: +His ear her prayers admits, but his heart granteth + No penetrable entrance to her plaining: + Tears harden lust, though marble wear with raining. + +Her pity-pleading eyes are sadly fix'd +In the remorseless wrinkles of his face; +Her modest eloquence with sighs is mix'd, +Which to her oratory adds more grace. +She puts the period often from his place, + And midst the sentence so her accent breaks, + That twice she doth begin ere once she speaks. + +She conjures him by high almighty Jove, +By knighthood, gentry, and sweet friendship's oath, +By her untimely tears, her husband's love, +By holy human law, and common troth, +By heaven and earth, and all the power of both, + That to his borrow'd bed he make retire, + And stoop to honour, not to foul desire. + +Quoth she, 'Reward not hospitality +With such black payment as thou hast pretended; +Mud not the fountain that gave drink to thee; +Mar not the thing that cannot be amended; +End thy ill aim before the shoot be ended: + He is no woodman that doth bend his bow + To strike a poor unseasonable doe. + +'My husband is thy friend; for his sake spare me; +Thyself art mighty; for thine own sake leave me; +Myself a weakling, do not then ensnare me; +Thou look'st not like deceit; do not deceive me; +My sighs, like whirlwinds, labour hence to heave thee. + If ever man were mov'd with woman's moans, + Be moved with my tears, my sighs, my groans: + +'All which together, like a troubled ocean, +Beat at thy rocky and wreck-threatening heart; +To soften it with their continual motion; +For stones dissolv'd to water do convert. +O, if no harder than a stone thou art, + Melt at my tears, and be compassionate! + Soft pity enters at an iron gate. + +'In Tarquin's likeness I did entertain thee; +Hast thou put on his shape to do him shame? +To all the host of heaven I complain me, +Thou wrong'st his honour, wound'st his princely name. +Thou art not what thou seem'st; and if the same, + Thou seem'st not what thou art, a god, a king; + For kings like gods should govern every thing. + +'How will thy shame be seeded in thine age, +When thus thy vices bud before thy spring! +If in thy hope thou dar'st do such outrage, +What dar'st thou not when once thou art a king! +O, be remember'd, no outrageous thing + From vassal actors can he wip'd away; + Then kings' misdeeds cannot be hid in clay. + +'This deed will make thee only lov'd for fear, +But happy monarchs still are fear'd for love: +With foul offenders thou perforce must bear, +When they in thee the like offences prove: +If but for fear of this, thy will remove; + For princes are the glass, the school, the book, + Where subjects eyes do learn, do read, do look. + +'And wilt thou be the school where Lust shall learn? +Must he in thee read lectures of such shame: +Wilt thou be glass, wherein it shall discern +Authority for sin, warrant for blame, +To privilege dishonour in thy name? + Thou back'st reproach against long-living laud, + And mak'st fair reputation but a bawd. + +'Hast thou command? by him that gave it thee, +From a pure heart command thy rebel will: +Draw not thy sword to guard iniquity, +For it was lent thee all that brood to kill. +Thy princely office how canst thou fulfill, + When, pattern'd by thy fault, foul Sin may say + He learn'd to sin, and thou didst teach the way? + +'Think but how vile a spectacle it were +To view thy present trespass in another. +Men's faults do seldom to themselves appear; +Their own transgressions partially they smother: +This guilt would seem death-worthy in thy brother. + O how are they wrapp'd in with infamies + That from their own misdeeds askaunce their eyes! + +'To thee, to thee, my heav'd-up hands appeal, +Not to seducing lust, thy rash relier; +I sue for exil'd majesty's repeal; +Let him return, and flattering thoughts retire: +His true respect will 'prison false desire, + And wipe the dim mist from thy doting eyne, + That thou shalt see thy state, and pity mine.' + +'Have done,' quoth he: 'my uncontrolled tide +Turns not, but swells the higher by this let. +Small lights are soon blown out, huge fires abide, +And with the wind in greater fury fret: +The petty streams that pay a daily debt + To their salt sovereign, with their fresh falls' haste, + Add to his flow, but alter not his taste.' + +'Thou art,' quoth she, 'a sea, a sovereign king; +And, lo, there falls into thy boundless flood +Black lust, dishonour, shame, misgoverning, +Who seek to stain the ocean of thy blood. +If all these petty ills shall change thy good, + Thy sea within a puddle's womb is hears'd, + And not the puddle in thy sea dispers'd. + +'So shall these slaves be king, and thou their slave; +Thou nobly base, they basely dignified; +Thou their fair life, and they thy fouler grave; +Thou loathed in their shame, they in thy pride: +The lesser thing should not the greater hide; + The cedar stoops not to the base shrub's foot, + But low shrubs whither at the cedar's root. + +'So let thy thoughts, low vassals to thy state'— +'No more,' quoth he; 'by heaven, I will not hear thee: +Yield to my love; if not, enforced hate, +Instead of love's coy touch, shall rudely tear thee; +That done, despitefully I mean to bear thee + Unto the base bed of some rascal groom, + To be thy partner in this shameful doom.' + +This said, he sets his foot upon the light, +For light and lust are deadly enemies; +Shame folded up in blind concealing night, +When most unseen, then most doth tyrannize. +The wolf hath seiz'd his prey, the poor lamb cries; + Till with her own white fleece her voice controll'd + Entombs her outcry in her lips' sweet fold: + +For with the nightly linen that she wears +He pens her piteous clamours in her head; +Cooling his hot face in the chastest tears +That ever modest eyes with sorrow shed. +O, that prone lust should stain so pure a bed! + The spots whereof could weeping purify, + Her tears should drop on them perpetually. + +But she hath lost a dearer thing than life, +And he hath won what he would lose again. +This forced league doth force a further strife; +This momentary joy breeds months of pain, +This hot desire converts to cold disdain: + Pure Chastity is rifled of her store, + And Lust, the thief, far poorer than before. + +Look, as the full-fed hound or gorged hawk, +Unapt for tender smell or speedy flight, +Make slow pursuit, or altogether balk +The prey wherein by nature they delight; +So surfeit-taking Tarquin fares this night: + His taste delicious, in digestion souring, + Devours his will, that liv'd by foul devouring. + +O deeper sin than bottomless conceit +Can comprehend in still imagination! +Drunken desire must vomit his receipt, +Ere he can see his own abomination. +While lust is in his pride no exclamation + Can curb his heat, or rein his rash desire, + Till, like a jade, self-will himself doth tire. + +And then with lank and lean discolour'd cheek, +With heavy eye, knit brow, and strengthless pace, +Feeble desire, all recreant, poor, and meek, +Like to a bankrupt beggar wails his case: +The flesh being proud, desire doth fight with Grace, + For there it revels; and when that decays, + The guilty rebel for remission prays. + +So fares it with this faultful lord of Rome, +Who this accomplishment so hotly chas'd; +For now against himself he sounds this doom, +That through the length of times he stands disgrac'd: +Besides, his soul's fair temple is defac'd; + To whose weak ruins muster troops of cares, + To ask the spotted princess how she fares. + +She says, her subjects with foul insurrection +Have batter'd down her consecrated wall, +And by their mortal fault brought in subjection +Her immortality, and made her thrall +To living death, and pain perpetual; + Which in her prescience she controlled still, + But her foresight could not forestall their will. + +Even in this thought through the dark night he stealeth, +A captive victor that hath lost in gain; +Bearing away the wound that nothing healeth, +The scar that will, despite of cure, remain; +Leaving his spoil perplex'd in greater pain. + She hears the load of lust he left behind, + And he the burthen of a guilty mind. + +He like a thievish dog creeps sadly thence; +She like a wearied lamb lies panting there; +He scowls, and hates himself for his offence; +She, desperate, with her nails her flesh doth tear; +He faintly flies, sweating with guilty fear; + She stays, exclaiming on the direful night; + He runs, and chides his vanish'd, loath'd delight. + +He thence departs a heavy convertite; +She there remains a hopeless castaway: +He in his speed looks for the morning light; +She prays she never may behold the day; +'For day,' quoth she, 'night's scapes doth open lay; + And my true eyes have never practis'd how + To cloak offences with a cunning brow. + +'They think not but that every eye can see +The same disgrace which they themselves behold; +And therefore would they still in darkness be, +To have their unseen sin remain untold; +For they their guilt with weeping will unfold, + And grave, like water that doth eat in steel, + Upon my cheeks what helpless shame I feel.' + +Here she exclaims against repose and rest, +And bids her eyes hereafter still be blind. +She wakes her heart by beating on her breast, +And bids it leap from thence, where it may find +Some purer chest, to close so pure a mind. + Frantic with grief thus breathes she forth her spite + Against the unseen secrecy of night: + +'O comfort-killing night, image of hell! +Dim register and notary of shame! +Black stage for tragedies and murders fell! +Vast sin-concealing chaos! nurse of blame! +Blind muffled bawd! dark harbour for defame! + Grim cave of death, whispering conspirator + With close-tongued treason and the ravisher! + +'O hateful, vaporous, and foggy night! +Since thou art guilty of my cureless crime, +Muster thy mists to meet the eastern light, +Make war against proportion'd course of time! +Or if thou wilt permit the sun to climb + His wonted height, yet ere he go to bed, + Knit poisonous clouds about his golden head. + +'With rotten damps ravish the morning air; +Let their exhal'd unwholesome breaths make sick +The life of purity, the supreme fair, +Ere he arrive his weary noontide prick; +And let thy misty vapours march so thick, + That in their smoky ranks his smother'd light + May set at noon and make perpetual night. + +'Were Tarquin night (as he is but night's child), +The silver-shining queen he would distain; +Her twinkling handmaids too, by him defil'd, +Through Night's black bosom should not peep again: +So should I have co-partners in my pain: + And fellowship in woe doth woe assuage, + As palmers' chat makes short their pilgrimage. + +'Where now I have no one to blush with me, +To cross their arms and hang their heads with mine, +To mask their brows, and hide their infamy; +But I alone alone must sit and pine, +Seasoning the earth with showers of silver brine, + Mingling my talk with tears, my grief with groans, + Poor wasting monuments of lasting moans. + +'O night, thou furnace of foul-reeking smoke, +Let not the jealous day behold that face +Which underneath thy black all-hiding cloak +Immodesty lies martyr'd with disgrace! +Keep still possession of thy gloomy place, + That all the faults which in thy reign are made, + May likewise be sepulchred in thy shade! + +'Make me not object to the tell-tale day! +The light will show, character'd in my brow, +The story of sweet chastity's decay, +The impious breach of holy wedlock vow: +Yea, the illiterate, that know not how + To cipher what is writ in learned books, + Will quote my loathsome trespass in my looks. + +'The nurse, to still her child, will tell my story +And fright her crying babe with Tarquin's name; +The orator, to deck his oratory, +Will couple my reproach to Tarquin's shame: +Feast-finding minstrels, tuning my defame, + Will tie the hearers to attend each line, + How Tarquin wronged me, I Collatine. + +'Let my good name, that senseless reputation, +For Collatine's dear love be kept unspotted: +If that be made a theme for disputation, +The branches of another root are rotted, +And undeserved reproach to him allotted, + That is as clear from this attaint of mine + As I, ere this, was pure to Collatine. + +'O unseen shame! invisible disgrace! +O unfelt sore! crest-wounding, private scar! +Reproach is stamp'd in Collatinus' face, +And Tarquin's eye may read the mot afar, +How he in peace is wounded, not in war. + Alas, how many bear such shameful blows, + Which not themselves, but he that gives them knows! + +'If, Collatine, thine honour lay in me, +From me by strong assault it is bereft. +My honey lost, and I, a drone-like bee, +Have no perfection of my summer left, +But robb'd and ransack'd by injurious theft: + In thy weak hive a wandering wasp hath crept, + And suck'd the honey which thy chaste bee kept. + +'Yet am I guilty of thy honour's wrack;— +Yet for thy honour did I entertain him; +Coming from thee, I could not put him back, +For it had been dishonour to disdain him: +Besides, of weariness he did complain him, + And talk'd of virtue:—O unlook'd-for evil, + When virtue is profan'd in such a devil! + +'Why should the worm intrude the maiden bud? +Or hateful cuckoos hatch in sparrows' nests? +Or toads infect fair founts with venom mud? +Or tyrant folly lurk in gentle breasts? +Or kings be breakers of their own behests? + But no perfection is so absolute, + That some impurity doth not pollute. + +'The aged man that coffers up his gold +Is plagued with cramps, and gouts, and painful fits; +And scarce hath eyes his treasure to behold, +But like still-pining Tantalus he sits, +And useless barns the harvest of his wits; + Having no other pleasure of his gain + But torment that it cannot cure his pain. + +'So then he hath it when he cannot use it, +And leaves it to be master'd by his young; +Who in their pride do presently abuse it: +Their father was too weak, and they too strong, +To hold their cursed-blessed fortune long. + The sweets we wish for turn to loathed sours, + Even in the moment that we call them ours. + +'Unruly blasts wait on the tender spring; +Unwholesome weeds take root with precious flowers; +The adder hisses where the sweet birds sing; +What virtue breeds iniquity devours: +We have no good that we can say is ours, + But ill-annexed Opportunity + Or kills his life or else his quality. + +'O Opportunity, thy guilt is great: +'Tis thou that executest the traitor's treason; +Thou set'st the wolf where he the lamb may get; +Whoever plots the sin, thou 'point'st the season; +'Tis thou that spurn'st at right, at law, at reason; + And in thy shady cell, where none may spy him, + Sits Sin, to seize the souls that wander by him. + +'Thou mak'st the vestal violate her oath; +Thou blow'st the fire when temperance is thaw'd; +Thou smother'st honesty, thou murther'st troth; +Thou foul abettor! thou notorious bawd! +Thou plantest scandal and displacest laud: + Thou ravisher, thou traitor, thou false thief, + Thy honey turns to gall, thy joy to grief! + +'Thy secret pleasure turns to open shame, +Thy private feasting to a public fast; +Thy smoothing titles to a ragged name, +Thy sugar'd tongue to bitter wormwood taste: +Thy violent vanities can never last. + How comes it then, vile Opportunity, + Being so bad, such numbers seek for thee? + +'When wilt thou be the humble suppliant's friend, +And bring him where his suit may be obtain'd? +When wilt thou sort an hour great strifes to end? +Or free that soul which wretchedness hath chain'd? +Give physic to the sick, ease to the pain'd? + The poor, lame, blind, halt, creep, cry out for thee; + But they ne'er meet with Opportunity. + +'The patient dies while the physician sleeps; +The orphan pines while the oppressor feeds; +Justice is feasting while the widow weeps; +Advice is sporting while infection breeds; +Thou grant'st no time for charitable deeds: + Wrath, envy, treason, rape, and murder's rages, + Thy heinous hours wait on them as their pages. + +'When truth and virtue have to do with thee, +A thousand crosses keep them from thy aid; +They buy thy help; but Sin ne'er gives a fee, +He gratis comes; and thou art well appay'd +As well to hear as grant what he hath said. + My Collatine would else have come to me + When Tarquin did, but he was stay'd by thee. + +'Guilty thou art of murder and of theft; +Guilty of perjury and subornation; +Guilty of treason, forgery, and shift; +Guilty of incest, that abomination: +An accessory by thine inclination + To all sins past, and all that are to come, + From the creation to the general doom. + +'Mis-shapen Time, copesmate of ugly night, +Swift subtle post, carrier of grisly care, +Eater of youth, false slave to false delight, +Base watch of woes, sin's pack-horse, virtue's snare; +Thou nursest all and murtherest all that are: + O hear me then, injurious, shifting Time! + Be guilty of my death, since of my crime. + +'Why hath thy servant, Opportunity, +Betray'd the hours thou gav'st me to repose? +Cancell'd my fortunes, and enchained me +To endless date of never-ending woes? +Time's office is to fine the hate of foes; + To eat up errors by opinion bred, + Not spend the dowry of a lawful bed. + +'Time's glory is to calm contending kings, +To unmask falsehood, and bring truth to light, +To stamp the seal of time in aged things, +To wake the morn, and sentinel the night, +To wrong the wronger till he render right; + To ruinate proud buildings with thy hours, + And smear with dust their glittering golden towers: + +'To fill with worm-holes stately monuments, +To feed oblivion with decay of things, +To blot old books and alter their contents, +To pluck the quills from ancient ravens' wings, +To dry the old oak's sap and cherish springs; + To spoil antiquities of hammer'd steel, + And turn the giddy round of Fortune's wheel; + +'To show the beldame daughters of her daughter, +To make the child a man, the man a child, +To slay the tiger that doth live by slaughter, +To tame the unicorn and lion wild, +To mock the subtle, in themselves beguil'd; + To cheer the ploughman with increaseful crops, + And waste huge stones with little water-drops. + +'Why work'st thou mischief in thy pilgrimage, +Unless thou couldst return to make amends? +One poor retiring minute in an age +Would purchase thee a thousand thousand friends, +Lending him wit that to bad debtors lends: + O, this dread night, wouldst thou one hour come back, + I could prevent this storm, and shun thy wrack! + +'Thou cease!ess lackey to eternity, +With some mischance cross Tarquin in his flight: +Devise extremes beyond extremity, +To make him curse this cursed crimeful night: +Let ghastly shadows his lewd eyes affright; + And the dire thought of his committed evil + Shape every bush a hideous shapeless devil. + +'Disturb his hours of rest with restless trances, +Afflict him in his bed with bedrid groans; +Let there bechance him pitiful mischances, +To make him moan; but pity not his moans: +Stone him with harden'd hearts, harder than stones; + And let mild women to him lose their mildness, + Wilder to him than tigers in their wildness. + +'Let him have time to tear his curled hair, +Let him have time against himself to rave, +Let him have time of Time's help to despair, +Let him have time to live a loathed slave, +Let him have time a beggar's orts to crave; + And time to see one that by alms doth live + Disdain to him disdained scraps to give. + +'Let him have time to see his friends his foes, +And merry fools to mock at him resort; +Let him have time to mark how slow time goes +In time of sorrow, and how swift and short +His time of folly and his time of sport: + And ever let his unrecalling crime + Have time to wail the abusing of his time. + +'O Time, thou tutor both to good and bad, +Teach me to curse him that thou taught'st this ill! +At his own shadow let the thief run mad! +Himself himself seek every hour to kill! +Such wretched hands such wretched blood should spill: + For who so base would such an office have + As slanderous deathsman to so base a slave? + +The baser is he, coming from a king, +To shame his hope with deeds degenerate. +The mightier man, the mightier is the thing +That makes him honour'd, or begets him hate; +For greatest scandal waits on greatest state. + The moon being clouded presently is miss'd, + But little stars may hide them when they list. + +'The crow may bathe his coal-black wings in mire, +And unperceived fly with the filth away; +But if the like the snow-white swan desire, +The stain upon his silver down will stay. +Poor grooms are sightless night, kings glorious day: + Gnats are unnoted wheresoe'er they fly, + But eagles gazed upon with every eye. + +'Out, idle words, servants to shallow fools! +Unprofitable sounds, weak arbitrators! +Busy yourselves in skill-contending schools; +Debate where leisure serves with dull debaters; +To trembling clients be you mediators: + For me, I force not argument a straw, + Since that my case is past the help of law. + +'In vain I rail at Opportunity, +At Time, at Tarquin, and uncheerful night; +In vain I cavil with mine infamy, +In vain I spurn at my confirm'd despite: +This helpless smoke of words doth me no right. + The remedy indeed to do me good + Is to let forth my foul-defil'd blood. + +'Poor hand, why quiver'st thou at this decree? +Honour thyself to rid me of this shame; +For if I die, my honour lives in thee; +But if I live, thou livest in my defame: +Since thou couldst not defend thy loyal dame, + And wast afear'd to scratch her wicked foe, + Kill both thyself and her for yielding so.' + +This said, from her be-tumbled couch she starteth, +To find some desperate instrument of death: +But this no slaughter-house no tool imparteth, +To make more vent for passage of her breath; +Which, thronging through her lips, so vanisheth + As smoke from Aetna, that in air consumes, + Or that which from discharged cannon fumes. + +'In vain,' quoth she, 'I live, and seek in vain +Some happy mean to end a hapless life. +I fear'd by Tarquin's falchion to be slain, +Yet for the self-same purpose seek a knife: +But when I fear'd I was a loyal wife: + So am I now:—O no, that cannot be; + Of that true type hath Tarquin rifled me. + +'O! that is gone for which I sought to live, +And therefore now I need not fear to die. +To clear this spot by death, at least I give +A badge of fame to slander's livery; +A dying life to living infamy; + Poor helpless help, the treasure stolen away, + To burn the guiltless casket where it lay! + +'Well, well, dear Collatine, thou shalt not know +The stained taste of violated troth; +I will not wrong thy true affection so, +To flatter thee with an infringed oath; +This bastard graff shall never come to growth: + He shall not boast who did thy stock pollute + That thou art doting father of his fruit. + +Nor shall he smile at thee in secret thought, +Nor laugh with his companions at thy state; +But thou shalt know thy interest was not bought +Basely with gold, but stolen from forth thy gate. +For me, I am the mistress of my fate, + And with my trespass never will dispense, + Till life to death acquit my forced offence. + +'I will not poison thee with my attaint, +Nor fold my fault in cleanly-coin'd excuses; +My sable ground of sin I will not paint, +To hide the truth of this false night's abuses; +My tongue shall utter all; mine eyes, like sluices, + As from a mountain-spring that feeds a dale, + Shall gush pure streams to purge my impure tale.' + +By this; lamenting Philomel had ended +The well-tun'd warble of her nightly sorrow, +And solemn night with slow-sad gait descended +To ugly hell; when, lo, the blushing morrow +Lends light to all fair eyes that light will borrow: + But cloudy Lucrece shames herself to see, + And therefore still in night would cloister'd be. + +Revealing day through every cranny spies, +And seems to point her out where she sits weeping, +To whom she sobbing speaks: 'O eye of eyes, +Why pryest thou through my window? leave thy peeping; +Mock with thy tickling beams eyes that are sleeping: + Brand not my forehead with thy piercing light, + For day hath nought to do what's done by night.' + +Thus cavils she with every thing she sees: +True grief is fond and testy as a child, +Who wayward once, his mood with nought agrees. +Old woes, not infant sorrows, bear them mild; +Continuance tames the one: the other wild, + Like an unpractis'd swimmer plunging still + With too much labour drowns for want of skill. + +So she, deep-drenched in a sea of care, +Holds disputation with each thing she views, +And to herself all sorrow doth compare; +No object but her passion's strength renews; +And as one shifts, another straight ensues: + Sometime her grief is dumb and hath no words; + Sometime 'tis mad, and too much talk affords. + +The little birds that tune their morning's joy +Make her moans mad with their sweet melody. +For mirth doth search the bottom of annoy; +Sad souls are slain in merry company: +Grief best is pleas'd with grief's society: + True sorrow then is feelingly suffic'd + When with like semblance it is sympathiz'd. + +'Tis double death to drown in ken of shore; +He ten times pines that pines beholding food; +To see the salve doth make the wound ache more; +Great grief grieves most at that would do it good; +Deep woes roll forward like a gentle flood; + Who, being stopp'd, the bounding banks o'erflows; + Grief dallied with nor law nor limit knows. + +'You mocking birds,' quoth she, 'your tunes entomb +Within your hollow-swelling feather'd breasts, +And in my hearing be you mute and dumb! +(My restless discord loves no stops nor rests; +A woeful hostess brooks not merry guests:) + Relish your nimble notes to pleasing ears; + Distress likes dumps when time is kept with tears. + +'Come, Philomel, that sing'st of ravishment, +Make thy sad grove in my dishevell'd hair: +As the dank earth weeps at thy languishment, +So I at each sad strain will strain a tear, +And with deep groans the diapason bear: + For burthen-wise I'll hum on Tarquin still, + While thou on Tereus descant'st better skill. + +'And whiles against a thorn thou bear'st thy part, +To keep thy sharp woes waking, wretched I, +To imitate thee well, against my heart +Will fix a sharp knife, to affright mine eye; +Who, if it wink, shall thereon fall and die. + These means, as frets upon an instrument, + Shall tune our heart-strings to true languishment. + +'And for, poor bird, thou sing'st not in the day, +As shaming any eye should thee behold, +Some dark deep desert, seated from the way, +That knows not parching heat nor freezing cold, +Will we find out; and there we will unfold + To creatures stern sad tunes, to change their kinds: + Since men prove beasts, let beasts bear gentle minds.' + +As the poor frighted deer, that stands at gaze, +Wildly determining which way to fly, +Or one encompass'd with a winding maze, +That cannot tread the way out readily; +So with herself is she in mutiny, + To live or die which of the twain were better, + When life is sham'd, and Death reproach's debtor. + +'To kill myself,' quoth she, 'alack! what were it, +But with my body my poor soul's pollution? +They that lose half with greater patience bear it +Than they whose whole is swallow'd in confusion. +That mother tries a merciless conclusion + Who, having two sweet babes, when death takes one, + Will slay the other, and be nurse to none. + +'My body or my soul, which was the dearer, +When the one pure, the other made divine? +Whose love of either to myself was nearer? +When both were kept for heaven and Collatine? +Ah, me! the bark peel'd from the lofty pine, + His leaves will wither, and his sap decay; + So must my soul, her bark being peel'd away. + +'Her house is sack'd, her quiet interrupted, +Her mansion batter'd by the enemy; +Her sacred temple spotted, spoil'd, corrupted, +Grossly engirt with daring infamy: +Then let it not be call'd impiety, + If in this blemish'd fort I make some hole + Through which I may convey this troubled soul. + +'Yet die I will not till my Collatine +Have heard the cause of my untimely death; +That he may vow, in that sad hour of mine, +Revenge on him that made me stop my breath. +My stained blood to Tarquin I'll bequeath, + Which by him tainted shall for him be spent, + And as his due writ in my testament. + +'My honour I'll bequeath unto the knife +That wounds my body so dishonoured. +'Tis honour to deprive dishonour'd life; +The one will live, the other being dead: +So of shame's ashes shall my fame be bred; + For in my death I murther shameful scorn: + My shame so dead, mine honour is new-born. + +'Dear lord of that dear jewel I have lost, +What legacy shall I bequeath to thee? +My resolution, Love, shall be thy boast, +By whose example thou reveng'd mayst be. +How Tarquin must be used, read it in me: + Myself, thy friend, will kill myself, thy foe, + And, for my sake, serve thou false Tarquin so. + +'This brief abridgement of my will I make: +My soul and body to the skies and ground; +My resolution, husband, do thou take; +Mine honour be the knife's that makes my wound; +My shame be his that did my fame confound; + And all my fame that lives disburs'd be + To those that live, and think no shame of me. + +'Thou, Collatine, shalt oversee this will; +How was I overseen that thou shalt see it! +My blood shall wash the slander of mine ill; +My life's foul deed my life's fair end shall free it. +Faint not, faint heart, but stoutly say "so be it:" + Yield to my hand; my hand shall conquer thee; + Thou dead, both die, and both shall victors be.' + +This plot of death when sadly she had laid, +And wip'd the brinish pearl from her bright eyes, +With untun'd tongue she hoarsely call'd her maid, +Whose swift obedience to her mistress hies; +For fleet-wing'd duty with thought's feathers flies. + Poor Lucrece' cheeks unto her maid seem so + As winter meads when sun doth melt their snow. + +Her mistress she doth give demure good-morrow, +With soft-slow tongue, true mark of modesty, +And sorts a sad look to her lady's sorrow, +(For why her face wore sorrow's livery,) +But durst not ask of her audaciously + Why her two suns were cloud-eclipsed so, + Nor why her fair cheeks over-wash'd with woe. + +But as the earth doth weep, the sun being set, +Each flower moisten'd like a melting eye; +Even so the maid with swelling drops 'gan wet +Her circled eyne, enforc'd by sympathy +Of those fair suns, set in her mistress' sky, + Who in a salt-wav'd ocean quench their light, + Which makes the maid weep like the dewy night. + +A pretty while these pretty creatures stand, +Like ivory conduits coral cisterns filling: +One justly weeps; the other takes in hand +No cause, but company, of her drops spilling: +Their gentle sex to weep are often willing: + Grieving themselves to guess at others' smarts, + And then they drown their eyes or break their hearts. + +For men have marble, women waxen minds, +And therefore are they form'd as marble will; +The weak oppress'd, the impression of strange kinds +Is form'd in them by force, by fraud, or skill: +Then call them not the authors of their ill, + No more than wax shall be accounted evil, + Wherein is stamp'd the semblance of a devil. + +Their smoothness, like a goodly champaign plain, +Lays open all the little worms that creep; +In men, as in a rough-grown grove, remain +Cave-keeping evils that obscurely sleep: +Through crystal walls each little mote will peep: + Though men can cover crimes with bold stern looks, + Poor women's faces are their own faults' books. + +No man inveigb against the wither'd flower, +But chide rough winter that the flower hath kill'd! +Not that devour'd, but that which doth devour, +Is worthy blame. O, let it not be hild +Poor women's faults, that they are so fulfill'd + With men's abuses! those proud lords, to blame, + Make weak-made women tenants to their shame. + +The precedent whereof in Lucrece view, +Assail'd by night with circumstances strong +Of present death, and shame that might ensue +By that her death, to do her husband wrong: +Such danger to resistance did belong; + The dying fear through all her body spread; + And who cannot abuse a body dead? + +By this, mild Patience bid fair Lucrece speak +To the poor counterfeit of her complaining: +'My girl,' quoth she, 'on what occasion break +Those tears from thee, that down thy cheeks are raining? +If thou dost weep for grief of my sustaining, + Know, gentle wench, it small avails my mood: + If tears could help, mine own would do me good. + +'But tell me, girl, when went'—(and there she stay'd +Till after a deep groan) 'Tarquin from, hence?' +'Madam, ere I was up,' replied the maid, +'The more to blame my sluggard negligence: +Yet with the fault I thus far can dispense; + Myself was stirring ere the break of day, + And, ere I rose, was Tarquin gone away. + +'But, lady, if your maid may be so bold, +She would request to know your heaviness.' +'O peace!' quoth Lucrece: 'if it should be told, +The repetition cannot make it less; +For more it is than I can well express: + And that deep torture may be call'd a hell, + When more is felt than one hath power to tell. + +'Go, get me hither paper, ink, and pen— +Yet save that labour, for I have them here. +What should I say?—One of my husband's men +Bid thou be ready, by and by, to bear +A letter to my lord, my love, my dear; + Bid him with speed prepare to carry it; + The cause craves haste, and it will soon be writ.' + +Her maid is gone, and she prepares to write, +First hovering o'er the paper with her quill: +Conceit and grief an eager combat fight; +What wit sets down is blotted straight with will; +This is too curious-good, this blunt and ill: + Much like a press of people at a door, + Throng her inventions, which shall go before. + +At last she thus begins:—'Thou worthy lord +Of that unworthy wife that greeteth thee, +Health to thy person! next vouchsafe to afford +(If ever, love, thy Lucrece thou wilt see) +Some present speed to come and visit me: + So, I commend me from our house in grief: + My woes are tedious, though my words are brief.' + +Here folds she up the tenor of her woe, +Her certain sorrow writ uncertainly. +By this short schedule Collatine may know +Her grief, but not her grief's true quality; +She dares not thereof make discovery, + Lest he should hold it her own gross abuse, + Ere she with blood had stain'd her stain'd excuse. + +Besides, the life and feeling of her passion +She hoards, to spend when he is by to hear her; +When sighs, and groans, and tears may grace the fashion +Of her disgrace, the better so to clear her +From that suspicion which the world my might bear her. + To shun this blot, she would not blot the letter + With words, till action might become them better. + +To see sad sights moves more than hear them told; +For then the eye interprets to the ear +The heavy motion that it doth behold, +When every part a part of woe doth bear. +'Tis but a part of sorrow that we hear: + Deep sounds make lesser noise than shallow fords, + And sorrow ebbs, being blown with wind of words. + +Her letter now is seal'd, and on it writ +'At Ardea to my lord with more than haste;' +The post attends, and she delivers it, +Charging the sour-fac'd groom to hie as fast +As lagging fowls before the northern blast. + Speed more than speed but dull and slow she deems: + Extremely still urgeth such extremes. + +The homely villain court'sies to her low; +And, blushing on her, with a steadfast eye +Receives the scroll, without or yea or no, +And forth with bashful innocence doth hie. +But they whose guilt within their bosoms lie + Imagine every eye beholds their blame; + For Lucrece thought he blush'd to see her shame: + +When, silly groom! God wot, it was defect +Of spirit, life, and bold audacity. +Such harmless creatures have a true respect +To talk in deeds, while others saucily +Promise more speed, but do it leisurely: + Even so this pattern of the worn-out age + Pawn'd honest looks, but laid no words to gage. + +His kindled duty kindled her mistrust, +That two red fires in both their faces blaz'd; +She thought he blush'd, as knowing Tarquin's lust, +And, blushing with him, wistly on him gaz'd; +Her earnest eye did make him more amaz'd: + The more saw the blood his cheeks replenish, + The more she thought he spied in her some blemish. + +But long she thinks till he return again, +And yet the duteous vassal scarce is gone. +The weary time she cannot entertain, +For now 'tis stale to sigh, to weep, to groan: +So woe hath wearied woe, moan tired moan, + That she her plaints a little while doth stay, + Pausing for means to mourn some newer way. + +At last she calls to mind where hangs a piece +Of skilful painting, made for Priam's Troy; +Before the which is drawn the power of Greece, +For Helen's rape the city to destroy, +Threat'ning cloud-kissing Ilion with annoy; + Which the conceited painter drew so proud, + As heaven (it seem'd) to kiss the turrets bow'd. + +A thousand lamentable objects there, +In scorn of Nature, Art gave lifeless life: +Many a dry drop seem'd a weeping tear, +Shed for the slaughter'd husband by the wife: +The red blood reek'd, to show the painter's strife; + The dying eyes gleam'd forth their ashy lights, + Like dying coals burnt out in tedious nights. + +There might you see the labouring pioner +Begrim'd with sweat, and smeared all with dust; +And from the towers of Troy there would appear +The very eyes of men through loopholes thrust, +Gazing upon the Greeks with little lust: + Such sweet observance in this work was had, + That one might see those far-off eyes look sad. + +In great commanders grace and majesty +You might behold, triumphing in their faces; +In youth, quick bearing and dexterity; +And here and there the painter interlaces +Pale cowards, marching on with trembling paces; + Which heartless peasants did so well resemble, + That one would swear he saw them quake and tremble. + +In Ajax and Ulysses, O, what art +Of physiognomy might one behold! +The face of either 'cipher'd either's heart; +Their face their manners most expressly told: +In Ajax' eyes blunt rage and rigour roll'd; + But the mild glance that sly Ulysses lent + Show'd deep regard and smiling government. + +There pleading might you see grave Nestor stand, +As't were encouraging the Greeks to fight; +Making such sober action with his hand +That it beguiled attention, charm'd the sight: +In speech, it seem'd, his beard, all silver white, + Wagg'd up and down, and from his lips did fly + Thin winding breath, which purl'd up to the sky. + +About him were a press of gaping faces, +Which seem'd to swallow up his sound advice; +All jointly listening, but with several graces, +As if some mermaid did their ears entice; +Some high, some low, the painter was so nice: + The scalps of many, almost hid behind, + To jump up higher seem'd to mock the mind. + +Here one man's hand lean'd on another's head, +His nose being shadow'd by his neighbour's ear; +Here one being throng'd bears back, all boll'n and red; +Another smother'd seems to pelt and swear; +And in their rage such signs of rage they bear, + As, but for loss of Nestor's golden words, + It seem'd they would debate with angry swords. + +For much imaginary work was there; +Conceit deceitful, so compact, so kind, +That for Achilles' image stood his spear, +Grip'd in an armed hand; himself, behind, +Was left unseen, save to the eye of mind: + A hand, a foot, a face, a leg, a head, + Stood for the whole to be imagined, + +And from the walls of strong-besieged Troy +When their brave hope, bold Hector, march'd to field, +Stood many Trojan mothers, sharing joy +To see their youthful sons bright weapons wield; +And to their hope they such odd action yield, + That through their light joy seemed to appear, + (Like bright things stain'd) a kind of heavy fear, + +And, from the strond of Dardan, where they fought, +To Simois' reedy banks, the red blood ran, +Whose waves to imitate the battle sought +With swelling ridges; and their ranks began +To break upon the galled shore, and than + Retire again, till, meeting greater ranks, + They join, and shoot their foam at Simois' banks. + +To this well-painted piece is Lucrece come, +To find a face where all distress is stell'd. +Many she sees where cares have carved some, +But none where all distress and dolour dwell'd, +Till she despairing Hecuba beheld, + Staring on Priam's wounds with her old eyes, + Which bleeding under Pyrrhus' proud foot lies. + +In her the painter had anatomiz'd +Time's ruin, beauty's wrack, and grim care's reign: +Her cheeks with chops and wrinkles were disguis'd; +Of what she was no semblance did remain: +Her blue blood, chang'd to black in every vein, + Wanting the spring that those shrunk pipes had fed, + Show'd life imprison'd in a body dead. + +On this sad shadow Lucrece spends her eyes, +And shapes her sorrow to the beldame's woes, +Who nothing wants to answer her but cries, +And bitter words to ban her cruel foes: +The painter was no god to lend her those; + And therefore Lucrece swears he did her wrong, + To give her so much grief, and not a tongue. + +'Poor instrument,' quoth she, 'without a sound, +I'll tune thy woes with my lamenting tongue; +And drop sweet balm in Priam's painted wound, +And rail on Pyrrhus that hath done him wrong, +And with my tears quench Troy that burns so long; + And with my knife scratch out the angry eyes + Of all the Greeks that are thine enemies. + +'Show me the strumpet that began this stir, +That with my nails her beauty I may tear. +Thy heat of lust, fond Paris, did incur +This load of wrath that burning Troy doth bear; +Thy eye kindled the fire that burneth here: + And here in Troy, for trespass of thine eye, + The sire, the son, the dame, and daughter die. + +'Why should the private pleasure of some one +Become the public plague of many mo? +Let sin, alone committed, light alone +Upon his head that hath transgressed so. +Let guiltless souls be freed from guilty woe: + For one's offence why should so many fall, + To plague a private sin in general? + +'Lo, here weeps Hecuba, here Priam dies, +Here manly Hector faints, here Troilus swounds; +Here friend by friend in bloody channel lies, +And friend to friend gives unadvised wounds, +And one man's lust these many lives confounds: + Had doting Priam check'd his son's desire, + Troy had been bright with fame and not with fire.' + +Here feelingly she weeps Troy's painted woes: +For sorrow, like a heavy-hanging bell, +Once set on ringing, with his own weight goes; +Then little strength rings out the doleful knell: +So Lucrece set a-work sad tales doth tell + To pencill'd pensiveness and colour'd sorrow; + She lends them words, and she their looks doth borrow. + +She throws her eyes about the painting round, +And whom she finds forlorn she doth lament: +At last she sees a wretched image bound, +That piteous looks to Phrygian shepherds lent: +His face, though full of cares, yet show'd content; + Onward to Troy with the blunt swains he goes, + So mild, that Patience seem'd to scorn his woes. + +In him the painter labour'd with his skill +To hide deceit, and give the harmless show +An humble gait, calm looks, eyes wailing still, +A brow unbent, that seem'd to welcome woe; +Cheeks neither red nor pale, but mingled so + That blushing red no guilty instance gave, + Nor ashy pale the fear that false hearts have. + +But, like a constant and confirmed devil, +He entertain'd a show so seeming just, +And therein so ensconc'd his secret evil, +That jealousy itself cold not mistrust +False-creeping craft and perjury should thrust + Into so bright a day such black-fac'd storms, + Or blot with hell-born sin such saint-like forms. + +The well-skill'd workman this mild image drew +For perjur'd Sinon, whose enchanting story +The credulous Old Priam after slew; +Whose words, like wildfire, burnt the shining glory +Of rich-built Ilion, that the skies were sorry, + And little stars shot from their fixed places, + When their glass fell wherein they view'd their faces. + +This picture she advisedly perus'd, +And chid the painter for his wondrous skill; +Saying, some shape in Sinon's was abus'd; +So fair a form lodged not a mind so ill: +And still on him she gaz'd; and gazing still, + Such signs of truth in his plain face she spied, + That she concludes the picture was belied. + +'It cannot be,' quoth she, 'that so much guile'— +(She would have said) 'can lurk in such a look;' +But Tarquin's shape came in her mind the while, +And from her tongue 'can lurk' from 'cannot' took; +'It cannot be' she in that sense forsook, + And turn'd it thus: 'It cannot be, I find, + But such a face should bear a wicked mind: + +'For even as subtle Sinon here is painted, +So sober-sad, so weary, and so mild, +(As if with grief or travail he had fainted,) +To me came Tarquin armed; so beguil'd +With outward honesty, but yet defil'd + With inward vice: as Priam him did cherish, + So did I Tarquin; so my Troy did perish. + +'Look, look, how listening Priam wets his eyes, +To see those borrow'd tears that Sinon sheds. +Priam, why art thou old and yet not wise? +For every tear he falls a Trojan bleeds; +His eye drops fire, no water thence proceeds; + Those round clear pearls of his that move thy pity, + Are balls of quenchless fire to burn thy city. + +'Such devils steal effects from lightless hell; +For Sinon in his fire doth quake with cold, +And in that cold hot-burning fire doth dwell; +These contraries such unity do hold, +Only to flatter fools, and make them bold; + So Priam's trust false Sinon's tears doth flatter, + That he finds means to burn his Troy with water.' + +Here, all enrag'd, such passion her assails, +That patience is quite beaten from her breast. +She tears the senseless Sinon with her nails, +Comparing him to that unhappy guest +Whose deed hath made herself herself detest; + At last she smilingly with this gives o'er; + 'Fool, fool!' quoth she, 'his wounds will not be sore.' + +Thus ebbs and flows the current of her sorrow, +And time doth weary time with her complaining. +She looks for night, and then she longs for morrow, +And both she thinks too long with her remaining: +Short time seems long in sorrow's sharp sustaining. + Though woe be heavy, yet it seldom sleeps; + And they that watch see time how slow it creeps. + +Which all this time hath overslipp'd her thought, +That she with painted images hath spent; +Being from the feeling of her own grief brought +By deep surmise of others' detriment: +Losing her woes in shows of discontent. + It easeth some, though none it ever cur'd, + To think their dolour others have endur'd. + +But now the mindful messenger, come back, +Brings home his lord and other company; +Who finds his Lucrece clad in mourning black: +And round about her tear-distained eye +Blue circles stream'd, like rainbows in the sky. + These water-galls in her dim element + Foretell new storms to those already spent. + +Which when her sad-beholding husband saw, +Amazedly in her sad face he stares: +Her eyes, though sod in tears, look'd red and raw, +Her lively colour kill'd with deadly cares. +He hath no power to ask her how she fares, + Both stood, like old acquaintance in a trance, + Met far from home, wondering each other's chance. + +At last he takes her by the bloodless hand, +And thus begins: 'What uncouth ill event +Hath thee befall'n, that thou dost trembling stand? +Sweet love, what spite hath thy fair colour spent? +Why art thou thus attir'd in discontent? + Unmask, dear dear, this moody heaviness, + And tell thy grief, that we may give redress.' + +Three times with sighs she gives her sorrow fire, +Ere once she can discharge one word of woe: +At length address'd to answer his desire, +She modestly prepares to let them know +Her honour is ta'en prisoner by the foe; + While Collatine and his consorted lords + With sad attention long to hear her words. + +And now this pale swan in her watery nest +Begins the sad dirge of her certain ending: +'Few words,' quoth she, 'shall fit the trespass best, +Where no excuse can give the fault amending: +In me more woes than words are now depending; + And my laments would be drawn out too long, + To tell them all with one poor tired tongue. + +'Then be this all the task it hath to say:— +Dear husband, in the interest of thy bed +A stranger came, and on that pillow lay +Where thou wast wont to rest thy weary head; +And what wrong else may be imagined + By foul enforcement might be done to me, + From that, alas! thy Lucrece is not free. + +'For in the dreadful dead of dark midnight, +With shining falchion in my chamber came +A creeping creature, with a flaming light, +And softly cried Awake, thou Roman dame, +And entertain my love; else lasting shame + On thee and thine this night I will inflict, + If thou my love's desire do contradict. + +'For some hard-favour'd groom of thine, quoth he, +Unless thou yoke thy liking to my will, +I'll murder straight, and then I'll slaughter thee +And swear I found you where you did fulfil +The loathsome act of lust, and so did kill + The lechers in their deed: this act will be + My fame and thy perpetual infamy. + +'With this, I did begin to start and cry, +And then against my heart he sets his sword, +Swearing, unless I took all patiently, +I should not live to speak another word; +So should my shame still rest upon record, + And never be forgot in mighty Rome + The adulterate death of Lucrece and her groom. + +'Mine enemy was strong, my poor self weak, +And far the weaker with so strong a fear: +My bloody judge forbade my tongue to speak; +No rightful plea might plead for justice there: +His scarlet lust came evidence to swear + That my poor beauty had purloin'd his eyes; + And when the judge is robb'd the prisoner dies. + +'O, teach me how to make mine own excuse! +Or at the least this refuge let me find; +Though my gross blood be stain'd with this abuse, +Immaculate and spotless is my mind; +That was not forc'd; that never was inclin'd + To accessary yieldings, but still pure + Doth in her poison'd closet yet endure.' + +Lo, here, the hopeless merchant of this loss, +With head declin'd, and voice damm'd up with woe, +With sad set eyes, and wretched arms across, +From lips new-waxen pale begins to blow +The grief away that stops his answer so: + But wretched as he is he strives in vain; + What he breathes out his breath drinks up again. + +As through an arch the violent roaring tide +Outruns the eye that doth behold his haste; +Yet in the eddy boundeth in his pride +Back to the strait that forc'd him on so fast; +In rage sent out, recall'd in rage, being past: + Even so his sighs, his sorrows make a saw. + To push grief on, and back the same grief draw. + +Which speechless woe of his poor she attendeth, +And his untimely frenzy thus awaketh: +'Dear Lord, thy sorrow to my sorrow lendeth +Another power; no flood by raining slaketh. +My woe too sensible thy passion maketh + More feeling-painful: let it then suffice + To drown one woe, one pair of weeping eyes. + +'And for my sake, when I might charm thee so, +For she that was thy Lucrece,—now attend me; +Be suddenly revenged on my foe, +Thine, mine, his own: suppose thou dost defend me +From what is past: the help that thou shalt lend me + Comes all too late, yet let the traitor die; + For sparing justice feeds iniquity. + +'But ere I name him, you fair lords,' quoth she, +(Speaking to those that came with Collatine) +'Shall plight your honourable faiths to me, +With swift pursuit to venge this wrong of mine; +For 'tis a meritorious fair design + To chase injustice with revengeful arms: + Knights, by their oaths, should right poor ladies' harms.' + +At this request, with noble disposition +Each present lord began to promise aid, +As bound in knighthood to her imposition, +Longing to hear the hateful foe bewray'd. +But she, that yet her sad task hath not said, + The protestation stops. 'O, speak,' quoth she, + 'How may this forced stain be wip'd from me? + +'What is the quality of mine offence, +Being constrain'd with dreadful circumstance? +May my pure mind with the foul act dispense, +My low-declined honour to advance? +May any terms acquit me from this chance? + The poison'd fountain clears itself again; + And why not I from this compelled stain? + +With this, they all at once began to say, +Her body's stain her mind untainted clears; +While with a joyless smile she turns away +The face, that map which deep impression bears +Of hard misfortune, carv'd in it with tears. + 'No, no,' quoth she, 'no dame, hereafter living, + By my excuse shall claim excuse's giving. + +Here with a sigh, as if her heart would break, +She throws forth Tarquin's name: 'He, he,' she says, +But more than 'he' her poor tongue could not speak; +Till after many accents and delays, +Untimely breathings, sick and short assays, + She utters this: 'He, he, fair lords, 'tis he, + That guides this hand to give this wound to me.' + +Even here she sheathed in her harmless breast +A harmful knife, that thence her soul unsheath'd: +That blow did bail it from the deep unrest +Of that polluted prison where it breath'd: +Her contrite sighs unto the clouds bequeath'd + Her winged sprite, and through her wounds doth fly + Life's lasting date from cancell'd destiny. + +Stone-still, astonish'd with this deadly deed, +Stood Collatine and all his lordly crew; +Till Lucrece' father that beholds her bleed, +Himself on her self-slaughter'd body threw; +And from the purple fountain Brutus drew + The murderous knife, and, as it left the place, + Her blood, in poor revenge, held it in chase; + +And bubbling from her breast, it doth divide +In two slow rivers, that the crimson blood +Circles her body in on every side, +Who, like a late-sack'd island, vastly stood +Bare and unpeopled, in this fearful flood. + Some of her blood still pure and red remain'd, + And some look'd black, and that false Tarquin stain'd. + +About the mourning and congealed face +Of that black blood a watery rigol goes, +Which seems to weep upon the tainted place: +And ever since, as pitying Lucrece' woes, +Corrupted blood some watery token shows; + And blood untainted still doth red abide, + Blushing at that which is so putrified. + +'Daughter, dear daughter,' old Lucretius cries, +'That life was mine which thou hast here depriv'd. +If in the child the father's image lies, +Where shall I live now Lucrece is unliv'd? +Thou wast not to this end from me deriv'd + If children pre-decease progenitors, + We are their offspring, and they none of ours. + +'Poor broken glass, I often did behold +In thy sweet semblance my old age new born; +But now that fair fresh mirror, dim and old, +Shows me a bare-bon'd death by time outworn; +O, from thy cheeks my image thou hast torn! + And shiver'd all the beauty of my glass, + That I no more can see what once I was! + +'O time, cease thou thy course and last no longer, +If they surcease to be that should survive. +Shall rotten death make conquest of the stronger, +And leave the faltering feeble souls alive? +The old bees die, the young possess their hive: + Then live, sweet Lucrece, live again, and see + Thy father die, and not thy father thee!' + +By this starts Collatine as from a dream, +And bids Lucretius give his sorrow place; +And then in key-cold Lucrece' bleeding stream +He falls, and bathes the pale fear in his face, +And counterfeits to die with her a space; + Till manly shame bids him possess his breath, + And live, to be revenged on her death. + +The deep vexation of his inward soul +Hath serv'd a dumb arrest upon his tongue; +Who, mad that sorrow should his use control, +Or keep him from heart-easing words so long, +Begins to talk; but through his lips do throng + Weak words, so thick come in his poor heart's aid, + That no man could distinguish what he said. + +Yet sometime 'Tarquin' was pronounced plain, +But through his teeth, as if the name he tore. +This windy tempest, till it blow up rain, +Held back his sorrow's tide, to make it more; +At last it rains, and busy winds give o'er: + Then son and father weep with equal strife, + Who should weep most, for daughter or for wife. + +The one doth call her his, the other his, +Yet neither may possess the claim they lay, +The father says 'She's mine,' 'O, mine she is,' +Replies her husband: 'do not take away +My sorrow's interest; let no mourner say + He weeps for her, for she was only mine, + And only must be wail'd by Collatine.' + +'O,' quoth Lucretius, 'I did give that life +Which she too early and too late hath spill'd.' +'Woe, woe,' quoth Collatine, 'she was my wife, +I owed her, and 'tis mine that she hath kill'd.' +'My daughter' and 'my wife' with clamours fill'd + The dispers'd air, who, holding Lucrece' life, + Answer'd their cries, 'My daughter!' and 'My wife!' + +Brutus, who pluck'd the knife from Lucrece' side, +Seeing such emulation in their woe, +Began to clothe his wit in state and pride, +Burying in Lucrece' wound his folly's show. +He with the Romans was esteemed so + As silly-jeering idiots are with kings, + For sportive words, and uttering foolish things: + +But now he throws that shallow habit by, +Wherein deep policy did him disguise; +And arm'd his long-hid wits advisedly, +To check the tears in Collatinus' eyes. +'Thou wronged lord of Rome,' quoth he, 'arise; + Let my unsounded self, suppos'd a fool, + Now set thy long-experienc'd wit to school. + +'Why, Collatine, is woe the cure for woe? +Do wounds help wounds, or grief help grievous deeds? +Is it revenge to give thyself a blow, +For his foul act by whom thy fair wife bleeds? +Such childish humour from weak minds proceeds: + Thy wretched wife mistook the matter so, + To slay herself, that should have slain her foe. + +'Courageous Roman, do not steep thy heart +In such relenting dew of lamentations, +But kneel with me, and help to bear thy part, +To rouse our Roman gods with invocations, +That they will suffer these abominations, + (Since Rome herself in them doth stand disgrac'd,) + By our strong arms from forth her fair streets chas'd. + +'Now, by the Capitol that we adore, +And by this chaste blood so unjustly stain'd, +By heaven's fair sun that breeds the fat earth's store, +By all our country rights in Rome maintain'd, +And by chaste Lucrece' soul that late complain'd + Her wrongs to us, and by this bloody knife, + We will revenge the death of this true wife.' + +This said, he struck his hand upon his breast, +And kiss'd the fatal knife, to end his vow; +And to his protestation urg'd the rest, +Who, wondering at him, did his words allow; +Then jointly to the ground their knees they bow; + And that deep vow, which Brutus made before, + He doth again repeat, and that they swore. + +When they had sworn to this advised doom, +They did conclude to bear dead Lucrece thence; +To show her bleeding body thorough Rome, +And so to publish Tarquin's foul offence: +Which being done with speedy diligence, + The Romans plausibly did give consent + To Tarquin's everlasting banishment. + + + + + + + VENUS AND ADONIS + + + + _Vilia miretur vulgus; mihi flavus Apollo + Pocula Castalia plena ministret aqua._ + + + + +TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE +HENRY WRIOTHESLEY, EARL OF SOUTHAMPTON, +and Baron of Titchfield. + +Right Honourable, I know not how I shall offend in dedicating my +unpolished lines to your lordship, nor how the world will censure me +for choosing so strong a prop to support so weak a burthen: only, if +your honour seem but pleased, I account myself highly praised, and vow +to take advantage of all idle hours, till I have honoured you with some +graver labour. But if the first heir of my invention prove deformed, I +shall be sorry it had so noble a godfather, and never after ear so +barren a land, for fear it yield me still so bad a harvest. I leave it +to your honourable survey, and your honour to your heart’s content; +which I wish may always answer your own wish and the world’s hopeful +expectation. + +Your honour’s in all duty, +WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. + + + + + + + VENUS AND ADONIS + +Even as the sun with purple-colour’d face +Had ta’en his last leave of the weeping morn, +Rose-cheek’d Adonis tried him to the chase; +Hunting he lov’d, but love he laugh’d to scorn; 4 + Sick-thoughted Venus makes amain unto him, + And like a bold-fac’d suitor ’gins to woo him. + +“Thrice fairer than myself,” thus she began, +“The field’s chief flower, sweet above compare, 8 +Stain to all nymphs, more lovely than a man, +More white and red than doves or roses are: + Nature that made thee, with herself at strife, + Saith that the world hath ending with thy life. 12 + +“Vouchsafe, thou wonder, to alight thy steed, +And rein his proud head to the saddle-bow; +If thou wilt deign this favour, for thy meed +A thousand honey secrets shalt thou know: 16 + Here come and sit, where never serpent hisses, + And being set, I’ll smother thee with kisses. + +“And yet not cloy thy lips with loath’d satiety, +But rather famish them amid their plenty, 20 +Making them red, and pale, with fresh variety: +Ten kisses short as one, one long as twenty: + A summer’s day will seem an hour but short, + Being wasted in such time-beguiling sport.” 24 + +With this she seizeth on his sweating palm, +The precedent of pith and livelihood, +And trembling in her passion, calls it balm, +Earth’s sovereign salve to do a goddess good: 28 + Being so enrag’d, desire doth lend her force + Courageously to pluck him from his horse. + +Over one arm the lusty courser’s rein, +Under her other was the tender boy, 32 +Who blush’d and pouted in a dull disdain, +With leaden appetite, unapt to toy; + She red and hot as coals of glowing fire, + He red for shame, but frosty in desire. 36 + +The studded bridle on a ragged bough +Nimbly she fastens;—O! how quick is love!— +The steed is stalled up, and even now +To tie the rider she begins to prove: 40 + Backward she push’d him, as she would be thrust, + And govern’d him in strength, though not in lust. + +So soon was she along, as he was down, +Each leaning on their elbows and their hips: 44 +Now doth she stroke his cheek, now doth he frown, +And ’gins to chide, but soon she stops his lips, + And kissing speaks, with lustful language broken, + “If thou wilt chide, thy lips shall never open.” 48 + +He burns with bashful shame, she with her tears +Doth quench the maiden burning of his cheeks; +Then with her windy sighs and golden hairs +To fan and blow them dry again she seeks. 52 + He saith she is immodest, blames her miss; + What follows more, she murders with a kiss. + +Even as an empty eagle, sharp by fast, +Tires with her beak on feathers, flesh and bone, 56 +Shaking her wings, devouring all in haste, +Till either gorge be stuff’d or prey be gone: + Even so she kiss’d his brow, his cheek, his chin, + And where she ends she doth anew begin. 60 + +Forc’d to content, but never to obey, +Panting he lies, and breatheth in her face. +She feedeth on the steam, as on a prey, +And calls it heavenly moisture, air of grace, 64 + Wishing her cheeks were gardens full of flowers + So they were dew’d with such distilling showers. + +Look how a bird lies tangled in a net, +So fasten’d in her arms Adonis lies; 68 +Pure shame and aw’d resistance made him fret, +Which bred more beauty in his angry eyes: + Rain added to a river that is rank + Perforce will force it overflow the bank. 72 + +Still she entreats, and prettily entreats, +For to a pretty ear she tunes her tale. +Still is he sullen, still he lours and frets, +’Twixt crimson shame and anger ashy pale; 76 + Being red she loves him best, and being white, + Her best is better’d with a more delight. + +Look how he can, she cannot choose but love; +And by her fair immortal hand she swears, 80 +From his soft bosom never to remove, +Till he take truce with her contending tears, + Which long have rain’d, making her cheeks all wet; + And one sweet kiss shall pay this countless debt. + +Upon this promise did he raise his chin, 85 +Like a dive-dapper peering through a wave, +Who, being look’d on, ducks as quickly in; +So offers he to give what she did crave, 88 + But when her lips were ready for his pay, + He winks, and turns his lips another way. + +Never did passenger in summer’s heat +More thirst for drink than she for this good turn. 92 +Her help she sees, but help she cannot get; +She bathes in water, yet her fire must burn: + “O! pity,” ’gan she cry, “flint-hearted boy, + ’Tis but a kiss I beg; why art thou coy? 96 + +“I have been woo’d as I entreat thee now, +Even by the stern and direful god of war, +Whose sinewy neck in battle ne’er did bow, +Who conquers where he comes in every jar; 100 + Yet hath he been my captive and my slave, + And begg’d for that which thou unask’d shalt have. + +“Over my altars hath he hung his lance, +His batter’d shield, his uncontrolled crest, 104 +And for my sake hath learn’d to sport and dance, +To toy, to wanton, dally, smile, and jest; + Scorning his churlish drum and ensign red + Making my arms his field, his tent my bed. 108 + +“Thus he that overrul’d I oversway’d, +Leading him prisoner in a red rose chain: +Strong-temper’d steel his stronger strength obey’d, +Yet was he servile to my coy disdain. 112 + Oh be not proud, nor brag not of thy might, + For mast’ring her that foil’d the god of fight. + +“Touch but my lips with those fair lips of thine, +Though mine be not so fair, yet are they red, 116 +The kiss shall be thine own as well as mine: +What see’st thou in the ground? hold up thy head, + Look in mine eyeballs, there thy beauty lies; + Then why not lips on lips, since eyes in eyes? 120 + +“Art thou asham’d to kiss? then wink again, +And I will wink; so shall the day seem night. +Love keeps his revels where there are but twain; +Be bold to play, our sport is not in sight, 124 + These blue-vein’d violets whereon we lean + Never can blab, nor know not what we mean. + +“The tender spring upon thy tempting lip 127 +Shows thee unripe; yet mayst thou well be tasted, +Make use of time, let not advantage slip; +Beauty within itself should not be wasted, + Fair flowers that are not gather’d in their prime + Rot, and consume themselves in little time. 132 + +“Were I hard-favour’d, foul, or wrinkled old, +Ill-nurtur’d, crooked, churlish, harsh in voice, +O’erworn, despised, rheumatic, and cold, +Thick-sighted, barren, lean, and lacking juice, 136 + Then mightst thou pause, for then I were not for thee; + But having no defects, why dost abhor me? + +“Thou canst not see one wrinkle in my brow, 139 +Mine eyes are grey and bright, and quick in turning; +My beauty as the spring doth yearly grow, +My flesh is soft and plump, my marrow burning, + My smooth moist hand, were it with thy hand felt, + Would in thy palm dissolve, or seem to melt. 144 + +“Bid me discourse, I will enchant thine ear, +Or like a fairy, trip upon the green, +Or like a nymph, with long dishevell’d hair, +Dance on the sands, and yet no footing seen. 148 + Love is a spirit all compact of fire, + Not gross to sink, but light, and will aspire. + +“Witness this primrose bank whereon I lie: 151 +These forceless flowers like sturdy trees support me; +Two strengthless doves will draw me through the sky, +From morn till night, even where I list to sport me. + Is love so light, sweet boy, and may it be + That thou shouldst think it heavy unto thee? 156 + +“Is thine own heart to thine own face affected? +Can thy right hand seize love upon thy left? +Then woo thyself, be of thyself rejected, +Steal thine own freedom, and complain on theft. 160 + Narcissus so himself himself forsook, + And died to kiss his shadow in the brook. + +“Torches are made to light, jewels to wear, +Dainties to taste, fresh beauty for the use, 164 +Herbs for their smell, and sappy plants to bear; +Things growing to themselves are growth’s abuse, + Seeds spring from seeds, and beauty breedeth beauty; + Thou wast begot; to get it is thy duty. 168 + +“Upon the earth’s increase why shouldst thou feed, +Unless the earth with thy increase be fed? +By law of nature thou art bound to breed, +That thine may live when thou thyself art dead; 172 + And so in spite of death thou dost survive, + In that thy likeness still is left alive.” + +By this the love-sick queen began to sweat, +For where they lay the shadow had forsook them, 176 +And Titan, tired in the midday heat, +With burning eye did hotly overlook them, + Wishing Adonis had his team to guide, + So he were like him and by Venus’ side. 180 + +And now Adonis with a lazy spright, +And with a heavy, dark, disliking eye, +His louring brows o’erwhelming his fair sight, +Like misty vapours when they blot the sky, 184 + Souring his cheeks, cries, “Fie, no more of love: + The sun doth burn my face; I must remove.” + +“Ay me,” quoth Venus, “young, and so unkind! +What bare excuses mak’st thou to be gone! 188 +I’ll sigh celestial breath, whose gentle wind +Shall cool the heat of this descending sun: + I’ll make a shadow for thee of my hairs; + If they burn too, I’ll quench them with my tears. 192 + +“The sun that shines from heaven shines but warm, +And lo I lie between that sun and thee: +The heat I have from thence doth little harm, +Thine eye darts forth the fire that burneth me; 196 + And were I not immortal, life were done, + Between this heavenly and earthly sun. + +“Art thou obdurate, flinty, hard as steel? +Nay more than flint, for stone at rain relenteth: 200 +Art thou a woman’s son and canst not feel +What ’tis to love, how want of love tormenteth? + O had thy mother borne so hard a mind, + She had not brought forth thee, but died unkind. 204 + +“What am I that thou shouldst contemn me this? +Or what great danger dwells upon my suit? +What were thy lips the worse for one poor kiss? +Speak, fair; but speak fair words, or else be mute: 208 + Give me one kiss, I’ll give it thee again, + And one for int’rest, if thou wilt have twain. + +“Fie, lifeless picture, cold and senseless stone, +Well-painted idol, image dull and dead, 212 +Statue contenting but the eye alone, +Thing like a man, but of no woman bred: + Thou art no man, though of a man’s complexion, + For men will kiss even by their own direction.” 216 + +This said, impatience chokes her pleading tongue, +And swelling passion doth provoke a pause; +Red cheeks and fiery eyes blaze forth her wrong; +Being judge in love, she cannot right her cause. 220 + And now she weeps, and now she fain would speak, + And now her sobs do her intendments break. + +Sometimes she shakes her head, and then his hand, +Now gazeth she on him, now on the ground; 224 +Sometimes her arms infold him like a band: +She would, he will not in her arms be bound; + And when from thence he struggles to be gone, + She locks her lily fingers one in one. 228 + +“Fondling,” she saith, “since I have hemm’d thee here +Within the circuit of this ivory pale, +I’ll be a park, and thou shalt be my deer; +Feed where thou wilt, on mountain or in dale: 232 + Graze on my lips, and if those hills be dry, + Stray lower, where the pleasant fountains lie. + +“Within this limit is relief enough, +Sweet bottom grass and high delightful plain, 236 +Round rising hillocks, brakes obscure and rough, +To shelter thee from tempest and from rain: + Then be my deer, since I am such a park, 239 + No dog shall rouse thee, though a thousand bark.” + +At this Adonis smiles as in disdain, +That in each cheek appears a pretty dimple; +Love made those hollows, if himself were slain, +He might be buried in a tomb so simple; 244 + Foreknowing well, if there he came to lie, + Why there love liv’d, and there he could not die. + +These lovely caves, these round enchanting pits, +Open’d their mouths to swallow Venus’ liking. 248 +Being mad before, how doth she now for wits? +Struck dead at first, what needs a second striking? + Poor queen of love, in thine own law forlorn, + To love a cheek that smiles at thee in scorn! 252 + +Now which way shall she turn? what shall she say? +Her words are done, her woes the more increasing; +The time is spent, her object will away, +And from her twining arms doth urge releasing: 256 + “Pity,” she cries; “some favour, some remorse!” + Away he springs, and hasteth to his horse. + +But lo from forth a copse that neighbours by, +A breeding jennet, lusty, young, and proud, 260 +Adonis’ tramping courser doth espy, +And forth she rushes, snorts and neighs aloud: + The strong-neck’d steed, being tied unto a tree, + Breaketh his rein, and to her straight goes he. 264 + +Imperiously he leaps, he neighs, he bounds, +And now his woven girths he breaks asunder; +The bearing earth with his hard hoof he wounds, +Whose hollow womb resounds like heaven’s thunder; + The iron bit he crusheth ’tween his teeth, 269 + Controlling what he was controlled with. + +His ears up-prick’d; his braided hanging mane +Upon his compass’d crest now stand on end; 272 +His nostrils drink the air, and forth again, +As from a furnace, vapours doth he send: + His eye, which scornfully glisters like fire, + Shows his hot courage and his high desire. 276 + +Sometime he trots, as if he told the steps, +With gentle majesty and modest pride; +Anon he rears upright, curvets and leaps, +As who should say, “Lo thus my strength is tried; + And this I do to captivate the eye 281 + Of the fair breeder that is standing by.” + +What recketh he his rider’s angry stir, +His flattering “Holla”, or his “Stand, I say”? 284 +What cares he now for curb or pricking spur? +For rich caparisons or trappings gay? + He sees his love, and nothing else he sees, + Nor nothing else with his proud sight agrees. 288 + +Look when a painter would surpass the life, +In limning out a well-proportion’d steed, +His art with nature’s workmanship at strife, +As if the dead the living should exceed: 292 + So did this horse excel a common one, + In shape, in courage, colour, pace and bone. + +Round-hoof’d, short-jointed, fetlocks shag and long, +Broad breast, full eye, small head, and nostril wide, +High crest, short ears, straight legs and passing strong, +Thin mane, thick tail, broad buttock, tender hide: + Look, what a horse should have he did not lack, + Save a proud rider on so proud a back. 300 + +Sometimes he scuds far off, and there he stares; +Anon he starts at stirring of a feather: +To bid the wind a base he now prepares, +And where he run or fly they know not whether; 304 + For through his mane and tail the high wind sings, + Fanning the hairs, who wave like feather’d wings. + +He looks upon his love, and neighs unto her; +She answers him as if she knew his mind, 308 +Being proud, as females are, to see him woo her, +She puts on outward strangeness, seems unkind, + Spurns at his love and scorns the heat he feels, + Beating his kind embracements with her heels. 312 + +Then like a melancholy malcontent, +He vails his tail that like a falling plume, +Cool shadow to his melting buttock lent: +He stamps, and bites the poor flies in his fume. 316 + His love, perceiving how he was enrag’d, + Grew kinder, and his fury was assuag’d. + +His testy master goeth about to take him, +When lo the unback’d breeder, full of fear, 320 +Jealous of catching, swiftly doth forsake him, +With her the horse, and left Adonis there: + As they were mad, unto the wood they hie them, + Outstripping crows that strive to overfly them. 324 + +All swoln with chafing, down Adonis sits, +Banning his boisterous and unruly beast; +And now the happy season once more fits +That love-sick love by pleading may be blest; 328 + For lovers say, the heart hath treble wrong, + When it is barr’d the aidance of the tongue. + +An oven that is stopp’d, or river stay’d, +Burneth more hotly, swelleth with more rage: 332 +So of concealed sorrow may be said, +Free vent of words love’s fire doth assuage; + But when the heart’s attorney once is mute, + The client breaks, as desperate in his suit. 336 + +He sees her coming, and begins to glow, +Even as a dying coal revives with wind, +And with his bonnet hides his angry brow, +Looks on the dull earth with disturbed mind, 340 + Taking no notice that she is so nigh, + For all askance he holds her in his eye. + +O what a sight it was, wistly to view +How she came stealing to the wayward boy, 344 +To note the fighting conflict of her hue, +How white and red each other did destroy: + But now her cheek was pale, and by and by + It flash’d forth fire, as lightning from the sky. 348 + +Now was she just before him as he sat, +And like a lowly lover down she kneels; +With one fair hand she heaveth up his hat, +Her other tender hand his fair cheek feels: 352 + His tend’rer cheek receives her soft hand’s print, + As apt as new-fall’n snow takes any dint. + +Oh what a war of looks was then between them, +Her eyes petitioners to his eyes suing, 356 +His eyes saw her eyes, as they had not seen them, +Her eyes woo’d still, his eyes disdain’d the wooing: + And all this dumb play had his acts made plain + With tears, which, chorus-like, her eyes did rain. + +Full gently now she takes him by the hand, 361 +A lily prison’d in a gaol of snow, +Or ivory in an alabaster band, +So white a friend engirts so white a foe: 364 + This beauteous combat, wilful and unwilling, + Show’d like two silver doves that sit a-billing. + +Once more the engine of her thoughts began: +“O fairest mover on this mortal round, 368 +Would thou wert as I am, and I a man, +My heart all whole as thine, thy heart my wound, + For one sweet look thy help I would assure thee, + Though nothing but my body’s bane would cure thee.” + +“Give me my hand,” saith he, “why dost thou feel it?” +“Give me my heart,” saith she, “and thou shalt have it. +O give it me lest thy hard heart do steel it, +And being steel’d, soft sighs can never grave it. 376 + Then love’s deep groans I never shall regard, + Because Adonis’ heart hath made mine hard.” + +“For shame,” he cries, “let go, and let me go, +My day’s delight is past, my horse is gone, 380 +And ’tis your fault I am bereft him so, +I pray you hence, and leave me here alone, + For all my mind, my thought, my busy care, + Is how to get my palfrey from the mare.” 384 + +Thus she replies: “Thy palfrey as he should, +Welcomes the warm approach of sweet desire, +Affection is a coal that must be cool’d; +Else, suffer’d, it will set the heart on fire, 388 + The sea hath bounds, but deep desire hath none; + Therefore no marvel though thy horse be gone. + +“How like a jade he stood tied to the tree, +Servilely master’d with a leathern rein! 392 +But when he saw his love, his youth’s fair fee, +He held such petty bondage in disdain; + Throwing the base thong from his bending crest, + Enfranchising his mouth, his back, his breast. 396 + +“Who sees his true-love in her naked bed, +Teaching the sheets a whiter hue than white, +But when his glutton eye so full hath fed, +His other agents aim at like delight? 400 + Who is so faint that dare not be so bold + To touch the fire, the weather being cold? + +“Let me excuse thy courser, gentle boy, +And learn of him, I heartily beseech thee, 404 +To take advantage on presented joy, +Though I were dumb, yet his proceedings teach thee. + O learn to love, the lesson is but plain, + And once made perfect, never lost again.” 408 + +“I know not love,” quoth he, “nor will not know it, +Unless it be a boar, and then I chase it; +’Tis much to borrow, and I will not owe it; +My love to love is love but to disgrace it; 412 + For I have heard, it is a life in death, + That laughs and weeps, and all but with a breath. + +“Who wears a garment shapeless and unfinish’d? +Who plucks the bud before one leaf put forth? 416 +If springing things be any jot diminish’d, +They wither in their prime, prove nothing worth; + The colt that’s back’d and burden’d being young, + Loseth his pride, and never waxeth strong. 420 + +“You hurt my hand with wringing. Let us part, +And leave this idle theme, this bootless chat: +Remove your siege from my unyielding heart, +To love’s alarms it will not ope the gate: 424 + Dismiss your vows, your feigned tears, your flatt’ry; + For where a heart is hard they make no batt’ry.” + +“What! canst thou talk?” quoth she, “hast thou a tongue? +O would thou hadst not, or I had no hearing; 428 +Thy mermaid’s voice hath done me double wrong; +I had my load before, now press’d with bearing: + Melodious discord, heavenly tune, harsh-sounding, + Ear’s deep sweet music, and heart’s deep sore wounding. + +“Had I no eyes but ears, my ears would love 433 +That inward beauty and invisible; +Or were I deaf, thy outward parts would move +Each part in me that were but sensible: 436 + Though neither eyes nor ears, to hear nor see, + Yet should I be in love by touching thee. + +“Say that the sense of feeling were bereft me, +And that I could not see, nor hear, nor touch, 440 +And nothing but the very smell were left me, +Yet would my love to thee be still as much; + For from the stillitory of thy face excelling + Comes breath perfum’d, that breedeth love by smelling. + +“But oh what banquet wert thou to the taste, 445 +Being nurse and feeder of the other four; +Would they not wish the feast might ever last, +And bid suspicion double-lock the door, + Lest jealousy, that sour unwelcome guest, + Should by his stealing in disturb the feast?” 448 + +Once more the ruby-colour’d portal open’d, +Which to his speech did honey passage yield, 452 +Like a red morn that ever yet betoken’d +Wrack to the seaman, tempest to the field, + Sorrow to shepherds, woe unto the birds, + Gusts and foul flaws to herdmen and to herds. 456 + +This ill presage advisedly she marketh: +Even as the wind is hush’d before it raineth, +Or as the wolf doth grin before he barketh, +Or as the berry breaks before it staineth, 460 + Or like the deadly bullet of a gun, + His meaning struck her ere his words begun. + +And at his look she flatly falleth down +For looks kill love, and love by looks reviveth; 464 +A smile recures the wounding of a frown; +But blessed bankrout, that by love so thriveth! + The silly boy, believing she is dead, + Claps her pale cheek, till clapping makes it red. 468 + +And all amaz’d brake off his late intent, +For sharply he did think to reprehend her, +Which cunning love did wittily prevent: +Fair fall the wit that can so well defend her! 472 + For on the grass she lies as she were slain, + Till his breath breatheth life in her again. + +He wrings her nose, he strikes her on the cheeks, +He bends her fingers, holds her pulses hard, 476 +He chafes her lips; a thousand ways he seeks +To mend the hurt that his unkindness marr’d: + He kisses her; and she, by her good will, + Will never rise, so he will kiss her still. 480 + +The night of sorrow now is turn’d to day: +Her two blue windows faintly she up-heaveth, +Like the fair sun when in his fresh array +He cheers the morn, and all the world relieveth: 484 + And as the bright sun glorifies the sky, + So is her face illumin’d with her eye. + +Whose beams upon his hairless face are fix’d, +As if from thence they borrow’d all their shine. 488 +Were never four such lamps together mix’d, +Had not his clouded with his brow’s repine; + But hers, which through the crystal tears gave light + Shone like the moon in water seen by night. 492 + +“O where am I?” quoth she, “in earth or heaven? +Or in the ocean drench’d, or in the fire? +What hour is this? or morn or weary even? +Do I delight to die, or life desire? 496 + But now I liv’d, and life was death’s annoy; + But now I died, and death was lively joy. + +“O thou didst kill me; kill me once again: +Thy eyes’ shrewd tutor, that hard heart of thine, 500 +Hath taught them scornful tricks, and such disdain, +That they have murder’d this poor heart of mine; + And these mine eyes, true leaders to their queen, + But for thy piteous lips no more had seen. 504 + +“Long may they kiss each other for this cure! +Oh never let their crimson liveries wear, +And as they last, their verdure still endure, +To drive infection from the dangerous year: 508 + That the star-gazers, having writ on death, + May say, the plague is banish’d by thy breath. + +“Pure lips, sweet seals in my soft lips imprinted, +What bargains may I make, still to be sealing? 512 +To sell myself I can be well contented, +So thou wilt buy, and pay, and use good dealing; + Which purchase if thou make, for fear of slips, + Set thy seal manual on my wax-red lips. 516 + +“A thousand kisses buys my heart from me; +And pay them at thy leisure, one by one, +What is ten hundred touches unto thee? +Are they not quickly told and quickly gone? 520 + Say, for non-payment that the debt should double, + Is twenty hundred kisses such a trouble?” + +“Fair queen,” quoth he, “if any love you owe me, +Measure my strangeness with my unripe years: 524 +Before I know myself, seek not to know me; +No fisher but the ungrown fry forbears: + The mellow plum doth fall, the green sticks fast, + Or being early pluck’d, is sour to taste. 528 + +“Look the world’s comforter, with weary gait +His day’s hot task hath ended in the west; +The owl, night’s herald, shrieks, ’tis very late; +The sheep are gone to fold, birds to their nest, 532 + And coal-black clouds that shadow heaven’s light + Do summon us to part, and bid good night. + +“Now let me say good night, and so say you; +If you will say so, you shall have a kiss.” 536 +“Good night,” quoth she; and ere he says adieu, +The honey fee of parting tender’d is: + Her arms do lend his neck a sweet embrace; + Incorporate then they seem, face grows to face. 540 + +Till breathless he disjoin’d, and backward drew +The heavenly moisture, that sweet coral mouth, +Whose precious taste her thirsty lips well knew, +Whereon they surfeit, yet complain on drouth, 544 + He with her plenty press’d, she faint with dearth, + Their lips together glued, fall to the earth. + +Now quick desire hath caught the yielding prey, +And glutton-like she feeds, yet never filleth; 548 +Her lips are conquerors, his lips obey, +Paying what ransom the insulter willeth; + Whose vulture thought doth pitch the price so high, + That she will draw his lips’ rich treasure dry. 552 + +And having felt the sweetness of the spoil, +With blindfold fury she begins to forage; +Her face doth reek and smoke, her blood doth boil, +And careless lust stirs up a desperate courage, 556 + Planting oblivion, beating reason back, + Forgetting shame’s pure blush and honour’s wrack. + +Hot, faint, and weary, with her hard embracing, +Like a wild bird being tam’d with too much handling, +Or as the fleet-foot roe that’s tir’d with chasing, 561 +Or like the froward infant still’d with dandling: + He now obeys, and now no more resisteth, + While she takes all she can, not all she listeth. 564 + +What wax so frozen but dissolves with temp’ring, +And yields at last to every light impression? +Things out of hope are compass’d oft with vent’ring, +Chiefly in love, whose leave exceeds commission: 568 + Affection faints not like a pale-fac’d coward, + But then woos best when most his choice is froward. + +When he did frown, O had she then gave over, +Such nectar from his lips she had not suck’d. 572 +Foul words and frowns must not repel a lover; +What though the rose have prickles, yet ’tis pluck’d. + Were beauty under twenty locks kept fast, + Yet love breaks through, and picks them all at last. + +For pity now she can no more detain him; 577 +The poor fool prays her that he may depart: +She is resolv’d no longer to restrain him, +Bids him farewell, and look well to her heart, 580 + The which by Cupid’s bow she doth protest, + He carries thence encaged in his breast. + +“Sweet boy,” she says, “this night I’ll waste in sorrow, +For my sick heart commands mine eyes to watch. 584 +Tell me, love’s master, shall we meet tomorrow +Say, shall we? shall we? wilt thou make the match?” + He tells her no, tomorrow he intends + To hunt the boar with certain of his friends. 588 + +“The boar!” quoth she; whereat a sudden pale, +Like lawn being spread upon the blushing rose, +Usurps her cheek, she trembles at his tale, +And on his neck her yoking arms she throws. 592 + She sinketh down, still hanging by his neck, + He on her belly falls, she on her back. + +Now is she in the very lists of love, +Her champion mounted for the hot encounter: 596 +All is imaginary she doth prove, +He will not manage her, although he mount her; + That worse than Tantalus’ is her annoy, + To clip Elysium and to lack her joy. 600 + +Even as poor birds, deceiv’d with painted grapes, +Do surfeit by the eye and pine the maw: +Even so she languisheth in her mishaps, +As those poor birds that helpless berries saw. 604 + The warm effects which she in him finds missing, + She seeks to kindle with continual kissing. + +But all in vain, good queen, it will not be, +She hath assay’d as much as may be prov’d; 608 +Her pleading hath deserv’d a greater fee; +She’s love, she loves, and yet she is not lov’d. + “Fie, fie,” he says, “you crush me; let me go; + You have no reason to withhold me so.” 612 + +“Thou hadst been gone,” quoth she, “sweet boy, ere this, +But that thou told’st me thou wouldst hunt the boar. +Oh be advis’d; thou know’st not what it is, +With javelin’s point a churlish swine to gore, 616 + Whose tushes never sheath’d he whetteth still, + Like to a mortal butcher, bent to kill. + +“On his bow-back he hath a battle set +Of bristly pikes, that ever threat his foes; 620 +His eyes like glow-worms shine when he doth fret; +His snout digs sepulchres where’er he goes; + Being mov’d, he strikes whate’er is in his way, + And whom he strikes his crooked tushes slay. 624 + +“His brawny sides, with hairy bristles armed, +Are better proof than thy spear’s point can enter; +His short thick neck cannot be easily harmed; +Being ireful, on the lion he will venture: 628 + The thorny brambles and embracing bushes, + As fearful of him, part, through whom he rushes. + +“Alas! he naught esteems that face of thine, +To which love’s eyes pay tributary gazes; 632 +Nor thy soft hands, sweet lips, and crystal eyne, +Whose full perfection all the world amazes; + But having thee at vantage, wondrous dread! + Would root these beauties as he roots the mead. + +“Oh let him keep his loathsome cabin still, 637 +Beauty hath naught to do with such foul fiends: +Come not within his danger by thy will; +They that thrive well, take counsel of their friends. + When thou didst name the boar, not to dissemble, + I fear’d thy fortune, and my joints did tremble. + +“Didst thou not mark my face, was it not white? +Saw’st thou not signs of fear lurk in mine eye? 644 +Grew I not faint, and fell I not downright? +Within my bosom, whereon thou dost lie, + My boding heart pants, beats, and takes no rest, + But like an earthquake, shakes thee on my breast. + +“For where love reigns, disturbing jealousy 649 +Doth call himself affection’s sentinel; +Gives false alarms, suggesteth mutiny, +And in a peaceful hour doth cry “Kill, kill!” 652 + Distemp’ring gentle love in his desire, + As air and water do abate the fire. + +“This sour informer, this bate-breeding spy, +This canker that eats up love’s tender spring, 656 +This carry-tale, dissentious jealousy, +That sometime true news, sometime false doth bring, + Knocks at my heart, and whispers in mine ear, + That if I love thee, I thy death should fear. 660 + +“And more than so, presenteth to mine eye +The picture of an angry chafing boar, +Under whose sharp fangs on his back doth lie +An image like thyself, all stain’d with gore; 664 + Whose blood upon the fresh flowers being shed, + Doth make them droop with grief and hang the head. + +“What should I do, seeing thee so indeed, +That tremble at th’imagination? 668 +The thought of it doth make my faint heart bleed, +And fear doth teach it divination: + I prophesy thy death, my living sorrow, + If thou encounter with the boar tomorrow. 672 + +“But if thou needs wilt hunt, be rul’d by me; +Uncouple at the timorous flying hare, +Or at the fox which lives by subtilty, +Or at the roe which no encounter dare: 676 + Pursue these fearful creatures o’er the downs, + And on thy well-breath’d horse keep with thy hounds. + +“And when thou hast on foot the purblind hare, +Mark the poor wretch, to overshoot his troubles 680 +How he outruns the wind, and with what care +He cranks and crosses with a thousand doubles: + The many musits through the which he goes + Are like a labyrinth to amaze his foes. 684 + +“Sometime he runs among a flock of sheep, +To make the cunning hounds mistake their smell, +And sometime where earth-delving conies keep, +To stop the loud pursuers in their yell, 688 + And sometime sorteth with a herd of deer; + Danger deviseth shifts, wit waits on fear. + +“For there his smell with others being mingled, 691 +The hot scent-snuffing hounds are driven to doubt, +Ceasing their clamorous cry, till they have singled +With much ado the cold fault cleanly out; + Then do they spend their mouths: echo replies, + As if another chase were in the skies. 696 + +“By this, poor Wat, far off upon a hill, +Stands on his hinder legs with list’ning ear, +To hearken if his foes pursue him still. +Anon their loud alarums he doth hear; 700 + And now his grief may be compared well + To one sore sick that hears the passing bell. + +“Then shalt thou see the dew-bedabbled wretch +Turn, and return, indenting with the way, 704 +Each envious briar his weary legs do scratch, +Each shadow makes him stop, each murmur stay: + For misery is trodden on by many, + And being low never reliev’d by any. 708 + +“Lie quietly, and hear a little more; +Nay, do not struggle, for thou shalt not rise: +To make thee hate the hunting of the boar, +Unlike myself thou hear’st me moralize, 712 + Applying this to that, and so to so, + For love can comment upon every woe. + +“Where did I leave?” “No matter where,” quoth he +“Leave me, and then the story aptly ends: 716 +The night is spent.” “Why, what of that?” quoth she. +“I am,” quoth he, “expected of my friends; + And now ’tis dark, and going I shall fall.” + “In night,” quoth she, “desire sees best of all.” 720 + +But if thou fall, oh then imagine this, +The earth, in love with thee, thy footing trips, +And all is but to rob thee of a kiss. 723 +Rich preys make true men thieves; so do thy lips + Make modest Dian cloudy and forlorn, + Lest she should steal a kiss and die forsworn. + +“Now of this dark night I perceive the reason: +Cynthia for shame obscures her silver shine 728 +Till forging nature be condemn’d of treason, +For stealing moulds from heaven, that were divine; + Wherein she fram’d thee, in high heaven’s despite, + To shame the sun by day and her by night. 732 + +“And therefore hath she brib’d the destinies, +To cross the curious workmanship of nature, +To mingle beauty with infirmities, +And pure perfection with impure defeature, 736 + Making it subject to the tyranny + Of mad mischances and much misery. + +“As burning fevers, agues pale and faint, +Life-poisoning pestilence and frenzies wood, 740 +The marrow-eating sickness, whose attaint +Disorder breeds by heating of the blood; + Surfeits, imposthumes, grief, and damn’d despair, + Swear nature’s death, for framing thee so fair. 744 + +“And not the least of all these maladies +But in one minute’s fight brings beauty under: +Both favour, savour, hue and qualities, +Whereat th’impartial gazer late did wonder, 748 + Are on the sudden wasted, thaw’d and done, + As mountain snow melts with the midday sun. + +“Therefore despite of fruitless chastity, +Love-lacking vestals and self-loving nuns, 752 +That on the earth would breed a scarcity +And barren dearth of daughters and of sons, + Be prodigal: the lamp that burns by night + Dries up his oil to lend the world his light. 756 + +“What is thy body but a swallowing grave, +Seeming to bury that posterity, +Which by the rights of time thou needs must have, +If thou destroy them not in dark obscurity? 760 + If so, the world will hold thee in disdain, + Sith in thy pride so fair a hope is slain. + +“So in thyself thyself art made away; +A mischief worse than civil home-bred strife, 764 +Or theirs whose desperate hands themselves do slay, +Or butcher sire that reeves his son of life. + Foul cank’ring rust the hidden treasure frets, + But gold that’s put to use more gold begets.” 768 + +“Nay then,” quoth Adon, “you will fall again +Into your idle over-handled theme; +The kiss I gave you is bestow’d in vain, +And all in vain you strive against the stream; 772 + For by this black-fac’d night, desire’s foul nurse, + Your treatise makes me like you worse and worse. + +“If love have lent you twenty thousand tongues, +And every tongue more moving than your own, 776 +Bewitching like the wanton mermaid’s songs, +Yet from mine ear the tempting tune is blown; + For know, my heart stands armed in mine ear, + And will not let a false sound enter there. 780 + +“Lest the deceiving harmony should run +Into the quiet closure of my breast, +And then my little heart were quite undone, +In his bedchamber to be barr’d of rest. 784 + No, lady, no; my heart longs not to groan, + But soundly sleeps, while now it sleeps alone. + +“What have you urg’d that I cannot reprove? +The path is smooth that leadeth on to danger; 790 +I hate not love, but your device in love +That lends embracements unto every stranger. + You do it for increase: O strange excuse! + When reason is the bawd to lust’s abuse. 792 + +“Call it not, love, for love to heaven is fled, +Since sweating lust on earth usurp’d his name; +Under whose simple semblance he hath fed +Upon fresh beauty, blotting it with blame; 796 + Which the hot tyrant stains and soon bereaves, + As caterpillars do the tender leaves. + +“Love comforteth like sunshine after rain, +But lust’s effect is tempest after sun; 800 +Love’s gentle spring doth always fresh remain, +Lust’s winter comes ere summer half be done. + Love surfeits not, lust like a glutton dies; + Love is all truth, lust full of forged lies. 804 + +“More I could tell, but more I dare not say; +The text is old, the orator too green. +Therefore, in sadness, now I will away; +My face is full of shame, my heart of teen, 808 + Mine ears, that to your wanton talk attended + Do burn themselves for having so offended.” + +With this he breaketh from the sweet embrace 811 +Of those fair arms which bound him to her breast, +And homeward through the dark laund runs apace; +Leaves love upon her back deeply distress’d. + Look how a bright star shooteth from the sky, + So glides he in the night from Venus’ eye. 816 + +Which after him she darts, as one on shore +Gazing upon a late embarked friend, +Till the wild waves will have him seen no more, +Whose ridges with the meeting clouds contend: 820 + So did the merciless and pitchy night + Fold in the object that did feed her sight. + +Whereat amaz’d, as one that unaware +Hath dropp’d a precious jewel in the flood, 824 +Or ’stonish’d as night-wanderers often are, +Their light blown out in some mistrustful wood; + Even so confounded in the dark she lay, + Having lost the fair discovery of her way. 828 + +And now she beats her heart, whereat it groans, +That all the neighbour caves, as seeming troubled, +Make verbal repetition of her moans; +Passion on passion deeply is redoubled: 832 + “Ay me!” she cries, and twenty times, “Woe, woe!” + And twenty echoes twenty times cry so. + +She marking them, begins a wailing note, +And sings extemporally a woeful ditty; 836 +How love makes young men thrall, and old men dote, +How love is wise in folly foolish witty: + Her heavy anthem still concludes in woe, + And still the choir of echoes answer so. 840 + +Her song was tedious, and outwore the night, +For lovers’ hours are long, though seeming short, +If pleas’d themselves, others they think, delight +In such like circumstance, with such like sport: 844 + Their copious stories oftentimes begun, + End without audience, and are never done. + +For who hath she to spend the night withal, +But idle sounds resembling parasites; 848 +Like shrill-tongu’d tapsters answering every call, +Soothing the humour of fantastic wits? + She says, “’Tis so:” they answer all, “’Tis so;” + And would say after her, if she said “No.” 852 + +Lo here the gentle lark, weary of rest, +From his moist cabinet mounts up on high, +And wakes the morning, from whose silver breast +The sun ariseth in his majesty; 856 + Who doth the world so gloriously behold, + That cedar tops and hills seem burnish’d gold. + +Venus salutes him with this fair good morrow: +“Oh thou clear god, and patron of all light, 860 +From whom each lamp and shining star doth borrow +The beauteous influence that makes him bright, + There lives a son that suck’d an earthly mother, + May lend thee light, as thou dost lend to other.” + +This said, she hasteth to a myrtle grove, 865 +Musing the morning is so much o’erworn, +And yet she hears no tidings of her love; +She hearkens for his hounds and for his horn. 868 + Anon she hears them chant it lustily, + And all in haste she coasteth to the cry. + +And as she runs, the bushes in the way +Some catch her by the neck, some kiss her face, 872 +Some twine about her thigh to make her stay: +She wildly breaketh from their strict embrace, + Like a milch doe, whose swelling dugs do ache, + Hasting to feed her fawn hid in some brake. 876 + +By this she hears the hounds are at a bay, +Whereat she starts like one that spies an adder +Wreath’d up in fatal folds just in his way, +The fear whereof doth make him shake and shudder; 880 + Even so the timorous yelping of the hounds + Appals her senses, and her spirit confounds. + +For now she knows it is no gentle chase, +But the blunt boar, rough bear, or lion proud, 884 +Because the cry remaineth in one place, +Where fearfully the dogs exclaim aloud, + Finding their enemy to be so curst, + They all strain court’sy who shall cope him first. 888 + +This dismal cry rings sadly in her ear, +Through which it enters to surprise her heart; +Who overcome by doubt and bloodless fear, +With cold-pale weakness numbs each feeling part; 892 + Like soldiers when their captain once doth yield, + They basely fly and dare not stay the field. + +Thus stands she in a trembling ecstasy, +Till cheering up her senses sore dismay’d, 896 +She tells them ’tis a causeless fantasy, +And childish error, that they are afraid; + Bids them leave quaking, bids them fear no more: + And with that word, she spied the hunted boar. 900 + +Whose frothy mouth bepainted all with red, +Like milk and blood being mingled both together, +A second fear through all her sinews spread, +Which madly hurries her she knows not whither: 904 + This way she runs, and now she will no further, + But back retires, to rate the boar for murther. + +A thousand spleens bear her a thousand ways, +She treads the path that she untreads again; 908 +Her more than haste is mated with delays, +Like the proceedings of a drunken brain, + Full of respects, yet naught at all respecting, + In hand with all things, naught at all effecting. + +Here kennel’d in a brake she finds a hound, 913 +And asks the weary caitiff for his master, +And there another licking of his wound, +’Gainst venom’d sores the only sovereign plaster. 916 + And here she meets another sadly scowling, + To whom she speaks, and he replies with howling. + +When he hath ceas’d his ill-resounding noise, +Another flap-mouth’d mourner, black and grim, 920 +Against the welkin volleys out his voice; +Another and another answer him, + Clapping their proud tails to the ground below, + Shaking their scratch’d ears, bleeding as they go. + +Look how the world’s poor people are amazed 925 +At apparitions, signs, and prodigies, +Whereon with fearful eyes they long have gazed, +Infusing them with dreadful prophecies; 928 + So she at these sad sighs draws up her breath, + And sighing it again, exclaims on death. + +“Hard-favour’d tyrant, ugly, meagre, lean, 931 +Hateful divorce of love,” thus chides she death, +“Grim-grinning ghost, earth’s worm, what dost thou mean? +To stifle beauty and to steal his breath, + Who when he liv’d, his breath and beauty set + Gloss on the rose, smell to the violet. 936 + +“If he be dead, O no, it cannot be, +Seeing his beauty, thou shouldst strike at it, +O yes, it may, thou hast no eyes to see, +But hatefully at random dost thou hit. 940 + Thy mark is feeble age, but thy false dart + Mistakes that aim, and cleaves an infant’s heart. + +“Hadst thou but bid beware, then he had spoke, +And hearing him, thy power had lost his power. 944 +The destinies will curse thee for this stroke; +They bid thee crop a weed, thou pluck’st a flower. + Love’s golden arrow at him should have fled, + And not death’s ebon dart to strike him dead. 948 + +“Dost thou drink tears, that thou provok’st such weeping? +What may a heavy groan advantage thee? +Why hast thou cast into eternal sleeping +Those eyes that taught all other eyes to see? 952 + Now nature cares not for thy mortal vigour, + Since her best work is ruin’d with thy rigour.” + +Here overcome, as one full of despair, +She vail’d her eyelids, who like sluices stopp’d 956 +The crystal tide that from her two cheeks fair +In the sweet channel of her bosom dropp’d + But through the flood-gates breaks the silver rain, + And with his strong course opens them again. 960 + +O how her eyes and tears did lend and borrow; +Her eyes seen in the tears, tears in her eye; +Both crystals, where they view’d each other’s sorrow, +Sorrow that friendly sighs sought still to dry; 964 + But like a stormy day, now wind, now rain, + Sighs dry her cheeks, tears make them wet again. + +Variable passions throng her constant woe, +As striving who should best become her grief; 968 +All entertain’d, each passion labours so, +That every present sorrow seemeth chief, + But none is best, then join they all together, + Like many clouds consulting for foul weather. 972 + +By this, far off she hears some huntsman holla; +A nurse’s song ne’er pleas’d her babe so well: +The dire imagination she did follow +This sound of hope doth labour to expel; 976 + For now reviving joy bids her rejoice, + And flatters her it is Adonis’ voice. + +Whereat her tears began to turn their tide, +Being prison’d in her eye, like pearls in glass; 980 +Yet sometimes falls an orient drop beside, +Which her cheek melts, as scorning it should pass + To wash the foul face of the sluttish ground, + Who is but drunken when she seemeth drown’d. + +O hard-believing love, how strange it seems 985 +Not to believe, and yet too credulous; +Thy weal and woe are both of them extremes; +Despair and hope make thee ridiculous, 988 + The one doth flatter thee in thoughts unlikely, + In likely thoughts the other kills thee quickly. + +Now she unweaves the web that she hath wrought, +Adonis lives, and death is not to blame; 992 +It was not she that call’d him all to naught; +Now she adds honours to his hateful name. + She clepes him king of graves, and grave for kings, + Imperious supreme of all mortal things. 996 + +“No, no,” quoth she, “sweet death, I did but jest; +Yet pardon me, I felt a kind of fear +Whenas I met the boar, that bloody beast, +Which knows no pity, but is still severe; 1000 + Then, gentle shadow,—truth I must confess— + I rail’d on thee, fearing my love’s decease. + +“’Tis not my fault, the boar provok’d my tongue; +Be wreak’d on him, invisible commander; 1004 +’Tis he, foul creature, that hath done thee wrong; +I did but act, he’s author of my slander. + Grief hath two tongues, and never woman yet, + Could rule them both, without ten women’s wit.” + +Thus hoping that Adonis is alive, 1009 +Her rash suspect she doth extenuate; +And that his beauty may the better thrive, +With death she humbly doth insinuate; 1012 + Tells him of trophies, statues, tombs and stories + His victories, his triumphs and his glories. + +“O love!” quoth she, “how much a fool was I, +To be of such a weak and silly mind, 1016 +To wail his death who lives, and must not die +Till mutual overthrow of mortal kind; + For he being dead, with him is beauty slain, + And beauty dead, black Chaos comes again. 1020 + +“Fie, fie, fond love, thou art as full of fear +As one with treasure laden, hemm’d with thieves, +Trifles unwitnessed with eye or ear, +Thy coward heart with false bethinking grieves.” 1024 + Even at this word she hears a merry horn, + Whereat she leaps that was but late forlorn. + +As falcon to the lure, away she flies; +The grass stoops not, she treads on it so light, 1028 +And in her haste unfortunately spies +The foul boar’s conquest on her fair delight; + Which seen, her eyes, as murder’d with the view, + Like stars asham’d of day, themselves withdrew. + +Or as the snail, whose tender horns being hit, 1033 +Shrinks backwards in his shelly cave with pain, +And there all smother’d up, in shade doth sit, +Long after fearing to creep forth again: 1036 + So at his bloody view her eyes are fled + Into the deep dark cabins of her head. + +Where they resign their office and their light +To the disposing of her troubled brain, 1040 +Who bids them still consort with ugly night, +And never wound the heart with looks again; + Who like a king perplexed in his throne, + By their suggestion gives a deadly groan. 1044 + +Whereat each tributary subject quakes, +As when the wind imprison’d in the ground, +Struggling for passage, earth’s foundation shakes, +Which with cold terror doth men’s minds confound. + This mutiny each part doth so surprise 1049 + That from their dark beds once more leap her eyes. + +And being open’d, threw unwilling light +Upon the wide wound that the boar had trench’d +In his soft flank, whose wonted lily white 1053 +With purple tears that his wound wept, was drench’d. + No flower was nigh, no grass, herb, leaf or weed, + But stole his blood and seem’d with him to bleed. + +This solemn sympathy poor Venus noteth, 1057 +Over one shoulder doth she hang her head, +Dumbly she passions, franticly she doteth; +She thinks he could not die, he is not dead: 1060 + Her voice is stopp’d, her joints forget to bow, + Her eyes are mad, that they have wept till now. + +Upon his hurt she looks so steadfastly, +That her sight dazzling makes the wound seem three; +And then she reprehends her mangling eye, 1065 +That makes more gashes, where no breach should be: + His face seems twain, each several limb is doubled, + For oft the eye mistakes, the brain being troubled. + +“My tongue cannot express my grief for one, 1069 +And yet,” quoth she, “behold two Adons dead! +My sighs are blown away, my salt tears gone, +Mine eyes are turn’d to fire, my heart to lead: 1072 + Heavy heart’s lead, melt at mine eyes’ red fire! + So shall I die by drops of hot desire. + +“Alas poor world, what treasure hast thou lost! +What face remains alive that’s worth the viewing? +Whose tongue is music now? what canst thou boast +Of things long since, or anything ensuing? 1078 + The flowers are sweet, their colours fresh and trim, + But true sweet beauty liv’d and died with him. + +“Bonnet nor veil henceforth no creature wear! 1081 +Nor sun nor wind will ever strive to kiss you: +Having no fair to lose, you need not fear; +The sun doth scorn you, and the wind doth hiss you. + But when Adonis liv’d, sun and sharp air 1085 + Lurk’d like two thieves, to rob him of his fair. + +“And therefore would he put his bonnet on, +Under whose brim the gaudy sun would peep; 1088 +The wind would blow it off, and being gone, +Play with his locks; then would Adonis weep; + And straight, in pity of his tender years, + They both would strive who first should dry his tears. + +“To see his face the lion walk’d along 1093 +Behind some hedge, because he would not fear him; +To recreate himself when he hath sung, +The tiger would be tame and gently hear him. 1096 + If he had spoke, the wolf would leave his prey, + And never fright the silly lamb that day. + +“When he beheld his shadow in the brook, +The fishes spread on it their golden gills; 1100 +When he was by, the birds such pleasure took, +That some would sing, some other in their bills + Would bring him mulberries and ripe-red cherries, + He fed them with his sight, they him with berries. + +“But this foul, grim, and urchin-snouted boar, 1105 +Whose downward eye still looketh for a grave, +Ne’er saw the beauteous livery that he wore; +Witness the entertainment that he gave. 1108 + If he did see his face, why then I know + He thought to kiss him, and hath kill’d him so. + +“’Tis true, ’tis true; thus was Adonis slain: +He ran upon the boar with his sharp spear, 1112 +Who did not whet his teeth at him again, +But by a kiss thought to persuade him there; + And nuzzling in his flank, the loving swine + Sheath’d unaware the tusk in his soft groin. 1116 + +“Had I been tooth’d like him, I must confess, +With kissing him I should have kill’d him first; +But he is dead, and never did he bless +My youth with his; the more am I accurst.” 1120 + With this she falleth in the place she stood, + And stains her face with his congealed blood. + +She looks upon his lips, and they are pale; +She takes him by the hand, and that is cold, 1124 +She whispers in his ears a heavy tale, +As if they heard the woeful words she told; +She lifts the coffer-lids that close his eyes, +Where lo, two lamps burnt out in darkness lies. + +Two glasses where herself herself beheld 1129 +A thousand times, and now no more reflect; +Their virtue lost, wherein they late excell’d, +And every beauty robb’d of his effect. 1132 + “Wonder of time,” quoth she, “this is my spite, + That thou being dead, the day should yet be light. + +“Since thou art dead, lo here I prophesy, +Sorrow on love hereafter shall attend: 1136 +It shall be waited on with jealousy, +Find sweet beginning, but unsavoury end; + Ne’er settled equally, but high or low, + That all love’s pleasure shall not match his woe. + +“It shall be fickle, false and full of fraud, 1141 +Bud, and be blasted in a breathing while; +The bottom poison, and the top o’erstraw’d +With sweets that shall the truest sight beguile. 1144 + The strongest body shall it make most weak, + Strike the wise dumb, and teach the fool to speak. + +“It shall be sparing, and too full of riot, +Teaching decrepit age to tread the measures; 1148 +The staring ruffian shall it keep in quiet, +Pluck down the rich, enrich the poor with treasures; + It shall be raging mad, and silly mild, + Make the young old, the old become a child. 1152 + +“It shall suspect where is no cause of fear, +It shall not fear where it should most mistrust; +It shall be merciful, and too severe, +And most deceiving when it seems most just; 1156 + Perverse it shall be, where it shows most toward, + Put fear to valour, courage to the coward. + +“It shall be cause of war and dire events, +And set dissension ’twixt the son and sire; 1160 +Subject and servile to all discontents, +As dry combustious matter is to fire, + Sith in his prime death doth my love destroy, + They that love best their love shall not enjoy.” 1164 + +By this the boy that by her side lay kill’d +Was melted like a vapour from her sight, +And in his blood that on the ground lay spill’d, +A purple flower sprung up, chequer’d with white, 1168 + Resembling well his pale cheeks, and the blood + Which in round drops upon their whiteness stood. + +She bows her head, the new-sprung flower to smell, +Comparing it to her Adonis’ breath; 1172 +And says within her bosom it shall dwell, +Since he himself is reft from her by death; + She drops the stalk, and in the breach appears + Green-dropping sap, which she compares to tears. + +“Poor flower,” quoth she, “this was thy father’s guise, +Sweet issue of a more sweet-smelling sire, +For every little grief to wet his eyes, +To grow unto himself was his desire, 1180 + And so ’tis thine; but know, it is as good + To wither in my breast as in his blood. + +“Here was thy father’s bed, here in my breast; +Thou art the next of blood, and ’tis thy right: 1184 +Lo in this hollow cradle take thy rest, +My throbbing heart shall rock thee day and night: + There shall not be one minute in an hour + Wherein I will not kiss my sweet love’s flower.” + +Thus weary of the world, away she hies, 1189 +And yokes her silver doves; by whose swift aid +Their mistress mounted through the empty skies, +In her light chariot quickly is convey’d; 1192 + Holding their course to Paphos, where their queen + Means to immure herself and not be seen. + + + + + FINIS + + + + + + + + + + + + + +* CONTENT NOTE (added in 2017) * + +This Project Gutenberg eBook was originally marked as having a copyright. +However, Project Gutenberg now believes that the eBook's contents does +not actually have a copyright. + +This is based on current understanding of copyright law, in which +"authorship" is required to obtain a copyright. 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Thus, we do not +necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: +www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, including +how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to +our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + + + + + + + + + diff --git a/TaskB01/simple.exp b/TaskB01/simple.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f93eae --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB01/simple.exp @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Here comes Hamlet +Hamlet Hamlet again diff --git a/TaskB01/simple.in b/TaskB01/simple.in new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d2b578 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB01/simple.in @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +Here comes Hamlet +ABC +Hamlet Hamlet again diff --git a/TaskB02/description.txt b/TaskB02/description.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b93f5e --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB02/description.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7 @@ +Write a program to find lines containing the word "pies" separated by spaces. +The word does not need to have space on the left if it is the line beginning or space on the right if it is line ending. +Return line no matter of word "pies" casing. +Make use of regular expressions. + +POINTS: 1 +DEADLINE: 08-12-2024 23:59:59 diff --git a/TaskB02/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp b/TaskB02/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9e4969e --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB02/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp @@ -0,0 +1,13 @@ +Pies ten pochodzi z południowych Chin, z terenów prowincji Guangdong. Został rozpropagowany i hodowany w celach wystawowych przez hodowców w USA. Nazwa psa, pochodząca z chińskiego "shā pí" (沙皮), oznacza dosłownie "piaszczysta skóra". +Chart polski – polska rasa psa myśliwskiego, znana prawdopodobnie od czasów Galla Anonima, zaliczana do grupy chartów. Dawniej użytkowana była przede wszystkim do polowań, obecnie jako pies reprezentacyjny. +Smukły pies o wąskim pysku. Chart polski jest wyraźnie mocniejszy i nie tak finezyjny w kształtach jak inne charty. Jest najwyższą z polskich ras. +Chart polski to pies silny, wytrzymały, o dobrze zbalansowanym ciele i proporcjach (wpisany jest w prostokąt oparty na dłuższym boku) pozwalających nie tylko na szybki galop, ale i na pokonywanie dużych odległości wyciągniętym kłusem. Jest psem o okrywie włosowej dobrze chroniącej go przed zimnem, wilgocią i wiatrem. +Pies wymagający sporej dawki codziennego ruchu, stąd jest idealnym towarzyszem dla ludzi uprawiających jeździectwo lub jogging. +W filmie występuje pies rasy landseer. +Bohaterami anime jest grupa łowców nagród, podróżująca statkiem kosmicznym o nazwie "Bebop": Spike Spiegel, Faye Valentine, Jet Black, haker Ed oraz genetycznie zmodyfikowany pies Ein. +Tytułowym głównym bohaterem serii jest Lucky Luke - kowboj, najszybszy rewolwerowiec na Dzikim Zachodzie i najgorszy koszmar braci Dalton. Zawsze, gdy planują oni skok na bank lub inne przestępstwo, dzielny stróż prawa staje im na drodze. W jego przygodach towarzyszą mu inteligentny koń Jolly Jumper i pies Bzik (we francuskojęzycznym oryginale: "Rantanplan"). +Serial w krzywym zwierciadle przedstawia życie typowej amerykańskiej rodziny. Jej głową i jedynym żywicielem jest wiecznie sfrustrowany sprzedawca butów, Al Bundy. Kocha swojego starego dodge'a, wolny czas spędza siedząc na kanapie, oglądając telewizję i pijąc piwo lub na posiedzeniach w toalecie. Jego małżonką jest Peggy, która całymi dniami przesiaduje przed telewizorem, oglądając "The Oprah Winfrey Show", i The Phil Donahue Show zajadając się popcornem i czekoladkami, paląc przy tym papierosa za papierosem. O jej podejściu do typowo domowych zajęć świadczą zadawane przez nią pytania, np. o odkurzacz – "Jak się nazywa to coś, co ciągniesz po dywanie, a ono buczy?" Tytułowymi dziećmi są nastoletni Bud oraz Kelly, którzy nie przepadają za sobą i nie przepuszczą żadnej okazji, aby sobie dokuczyć czy donieść na siebie. Kelly i Bud dojrzewają w trakcie trwania serialu, przez co trochę się zmieniają: Bud z wrednego kilkunastolatka przeistacza się w nastoletniego macho, którego nie chce żadna dziewczyna, a Kelly z każdą serią staje się coraz mniej inteligentna. Wiecznie niedocenianym członkiem rodziny jest pies Buck, który jednak żyje swoim życiem i sam troszczy się o siebie. W trakcie wszystkich dziesięciu lat trwania serialu Bundym towarzyszy dwójka sąsiadów: Marcy, najpierw ze swoim pierwszym mężem, Steve'em Rhoadesem, a następnie z Jeffersonem d'Arcym. Marcy lubi przebywać z Peggy, jest za to na bakier z Alem, natomiast Al utrzymuje dobre stosunki z mężami Marcy, szczególnie Jeffersonem – Steve raczej nie darzył Bundych tak bezwzględną sympatią. +Buck (prawdziwe imię Michael; trener Steven Ritt) to pies rodziny Bundych, Briard. Głosu użycza mu Kevin Curran, a w odcinkach specjalnych Cheech Marin. Zdechł w wieku dwunastu lat (w 1996 roku Michael przeszedł na emeryturę, zdechł dziewięć miesięcy po tym, jak Bucka uśmiercono w serialu). +Lucky to drugi pies rodziny Bundych, spaniel, reinkarnacja Bucka. +20 stycznia 1974 r. o godz. 10.40 w Dolinie Mięguszowieckiej wydarzyła się największa jak do owej pory katastrofa lawinowa w Tatrach. Żlebem spod Przełęczy nad Skokiem w Grani Baszt zeszła potężna lawina, która przewaliła się przez Mięguszowiecki Potok i wdarła 140 m na przeciwległy stok, wspinając się na niego z rozpędu aż 44 m w górę. Na stoku tym, na śnieżnym pólku trenowali z instruktorem uczestnicy kursu narciarskiego ze słowackiego Technikum Budowlanego. Lawina przysypała 24 z nich. Dzięki błyskawicznej akcji ratunkowej (było to tylko 400 m od schroniska nad Popradzkim Stawem) udało się odgrzebać spod śniegu 11 płycej przywalonych. W ciągu następnych godzin i kilku dni liczne zespoły ratunkowe (z pomocą przyszło również wojsko) odgrzebały ciała 10 uczestników kursu; wśród nich nauczyciela z 12-letnim synem. Pies wskazał miejsce, gdzie po 5 godzinach od zejścia lawiny wydobyto żywego 18-latka przywalonego metrową warstwą śniegu. Ciała dwóch uczniów udało się znaleźć dopiero wiosną po stopieniu się śniegu. +Początkowo Morris wykorzystał w swoich komiksach historycznych braci Daltonów Grat, Bill i Emmett, których przedstawił jako bardzo groźnych i inteligentnych przestępców. Niestety po pierwszym spotkaniu z Lucky Luke, zostali aresztowani i skazani w więzieniu na śmierć. Morris żałował potem swojej decyzji i wraz z Gościnnym wprowadził na ich miejsce, czwórkę kuzynów (także) Daltonów – Joe, Williama, Jacka i Averelle, którzy byli przeciwieństwem swoich kuzynów. Wiecznie pechowi, gamoniowaci i niezbyt inteligentni. Wkrótce stali się oni najpopularniejszymi postaciami w serii, zaraz po samym Lucky Luke i z czasem dołączył do nich pies Rantanplan. Doczekali się także solowego filmu dystrybuowanego w Polsce pt. "Lucky Luke" (oryg. "Les Dalton"). diff --git a/TaskB02/polish_wiki_excerpt.in b/TaskB02/polish_wiki_excerpt.in new file mode 100644 index 0000000..26989f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB02/polish_wiki_excerpt.in @@ -0,0 +1,50000 @@ +Dokumenty Halloween + +Halloween documents (Dokumenty Halloween) - używana poza Microsoftem nazwa serii jedenastu dokumentów, z których pewne są poufnymi memorandami dotyczących potencjalnej strategii Microsoftu w odniesieniu do ruchu Open Source, a szczególnie Linuksa, pozostałe komentarzami Erica Raymonda i innymi materiałami związanymi z tą sprawą. +Pierwszy dokument napisany przez inżyniera z Microsoftu Vinoda Valloppillila przeciekł w październiku 1998 do Erica Raymonda, który natychmiast opublikował opatrzoną komentarzami wersję na swojej stronie internetowej. Dokument zawierał odniesienia do drugiego memorandum (autorami byli Vinod Valloppillil i Josh Cohen), zajmującego się w szczególności Linuksem, który także został skomentowany i opublikowany przez Raymonda. Microsoft potwierdził z czasem autentyczność tych dokumentów. +Dokumenty określają Open Source, a zwłaszcza Linuksa, jako główne zagrożenie dla dominacji Microsoftu w przemyśle software'owym, a także sugerują sposoby, w jakie Microsoft mógłby zahamować postępy tego ruchu. Dokumenty przyznają, że produkty Open Source, w tym Linux, są technicznie konkurencyjne w stosunku do niektórych produktów Microsoftu oraz definiują strategię ich zwalczania. Była to sytuacja wysoce kłopotliwa dla Microsoftu, który publicznie odżegnywał się od takich zamiarów. +Od chwili opublikowania dwóch pierwotnych dokumentów do opinii publicznej przeciekły dalsze memoranda Microsoftu dotyczące pokrewnych zagadnień. Ukazują one obawy Microsoftu odnośnie do konkurencyjnych programów Open Source i potencjalne zagrożenie dla jego pozycji w przemyśle oprogramowania. +Ostatnią strategię inni opisują jako "Embrace, extend and extinguish" (objąć, rozwinąć i wygasić). +Macromedia + +Macromedia – amerykańska firma software'owa z siedzibą w San Francisco, tworząca oprogramowanie do tworzenia grafiki i budowy witryn internetowych. +Firma powstała w 1992 r., z połączenia Authorware, Inc. (twórców pakietu Authorware) i MacroMind-Paracomp (producenta Macromind Director). W 1999 r. Macromedia zakupiła firmę Allaire i jej biznesowe oprogramowanie sieciowe, w tym edytor HomeSite. W 2003 zakupiono eHelp Corporation, produkującą oprogramowanie do tworzenia systemów pomocy, jak RoboHelp, RoboDemo (obecnie Captivate) i RoboInfo. +W kwietniu 2005 firma Macromedia została wykupiona przez Adobe. +II Korpus Polski + +Polskie korpusy noszące w nazwie cyfrę rzymską - "II" +Marek Olewiński + +Marek Olewiński (ur. 23 listopada 1947 w Złotowie, zm. 29 marca 2005 w Warszawie) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm II, III i IV kadencji. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Ekonomiki Produkcji Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej. od 1976 do rozwiązania należał do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej, później był członkiem SdRP i od 1999 Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. Od 1972 do 1990 pracował na różnych stanowiskach w Fabryce Lin i Drutu "Drumet", m.in. jako dyrektor naczelny. Później do 1994 prowadził własną działalność gospodarczą. +W 1993 i 1997 uzyskiwał mandat posła na Sejm II i III kadencji z ramienia Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. Po raz trzeci został posłem w 2001 z okręgu toruńskiego. W IV kadencji pełnił funkcję zastępcy przewodniczącego Komisji Finansów Publicznych. W 2004 przeszedł do Socjaldemokracji Polskiej, rok później zmarł. +Teksańska masakra piłą mechaniczną (film 1974) + +Teksańska masakra piłą mechaniczną (oryg. "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre") – amerykański horror filmowy z 1974 roku w reżyserii Tobe’a Hoopera, znany jako jeden z pierwszych oficjalnych slasherów. Przyniósł sławę reżyserowi i otworzył mu drogę do kariery w Hollywood. Na przestrzeni lat uzyskał status filmu kultowego, a przez filmoznawców zaliczany jest do grona najlepszych horrorów w dziejach kinematografii. Magazyn "Entertainment Weekly" umieścił go na pozycji szóstej zestawienia "Pięćdziesięciu najbardziej kultowych filmów". +Doczekał się trzech sequeli oraz remake’a i prequela, odpowiednio w latach: 1986, 1990, 1994, 2003, 2006. +Obraz opowiada o losach diabolicznej rodziny mieszkającej na peryferiach stanu Teksas. Spośród nich wyróżnia się Leatherface, noszący na twarzy maskę z ludzkiej skóry i mordujący ludzi głównie za pomocą tytułowej piły mechanicznej. +Dozwolone od 18 lat. +Treść. +Piątka nastolatków – inwalida Franklin Hardesty (Paul A. Partain), jego siostra Sally (Marilyn Burns), ponętna Pam (Teri McMinn), jej chłopak Kirk (William Vail) i chłopak Sally Jerry (Allen Danziger) – wybiera się do Teksasu, by odwiedzić grób dziadka Hardestych i następnie spędzić wakacje w domu należącym do rodziny Sally i Franklina. Podczas dłużącej się podróży zabierają ze sobą dziwacznego autostopowicza, który w ich vanie rani najpierw siebie, a następnie Franklina brzytwą. Mężczyzna zostaje wyrzucony z pojazdu. +Po dotarciu na miejsce, grupa rozdziela się i wybiera się na zwiedzanie okolicy. Pam i Kirk szukają jeziora, w którym chcą popływać. Po drodze trafiają na odludny dom, do którego Kirk wchodzi, by pożyczyć od właścicieli potrzebną benzynę, pozostawiając swoją dziewczynę przed posesją. Gdy jego powrót się przedłuża, do domu wchodzi też Pam. W poszukiwaniu chłopaka, natrafia na pomieszczenie, w którym znajduje różne przedmioty wykonane z ludzkich kości. Uciekając, zostaje złapana przez postawnego mężczyznę o pseudonimie Leatherface (Gunnar Hansen), który zaciąga ją do swojego rzeźniczego pomieszczenia, gdzie Pam dostrzega zwłoki Kirka. Leatherface wiesza Pam na rzeźniczym haku i powraca do obrabianego przez siebie ciała Kirka. Tymczasem, po powrocie do vana, Sally i Franklin zaczynają martwić się o swoich przyjaciół. Jerry zostaje wysłany na ich poszukiwania i trafia do tego samego domu, co oni. W chłodziarce znajduje ciało Pam, które nagle powraca do życia. Na miejscu zjawia się Leatherface, zabija Jerry'ego uderzeniem młota i wpycha Pam z powrotem do chłodziarki. +Gdy nadciąga wieczór, Sally i Franklin wybierają się na poszukiwania niepowracających przyjaciół. W lesie zaskakuje ich Leatherface, który płata ciało Franklina piłą mechaniczną. Sally ucieka, krzycząc, a Leatherface rusza w pogoń za nią. Dziewczyna odnajduje drogę na stację benzynową, którą wcześniej odwiedziła wraz z grupą. Właściciel stacji Drayton Sawyer (Jim Siedow) próbuje uspokoić Sally. Sally ulega mężczyźnie, lecz szybko orientuje się, że jest on powiązany ze ścigającym ją psychopatą i autostopowiczem, który zaatakował Franklina. Sally budzi się przywiązana do krzesła, posadzona przy stole, podczas kolacji organizowanej w rzeźniczym domu przez autostopowicza, Leatherface'a i ich brata Draytona, którzy wraz ze swoim niemal zmumifikowanym dziadkiem (John Dugan) zastraszają ją i grożą jej. Sally cudem uwalnia się z knebli i wybiega z domu, wyskakując przez okno. Leatherface i autostopowicz gonią ją, a drugi z psychopatów dźga ją podczas pościgu brzytwą. Gdy grupa pojawia się nagle na drodze, kierowca ciągnika siodłowego przejeżdża autostopowicza. Zatrzymuje się w obawie o ofiarę, lecz zostaje zaatakowany przez Leatherface'a, który następnie goni jego i Sally. Kierowca tira rzuca w Leatherface'a narzędziem w głowę, przez co morderca traci przytomność. Szybko ją odzyskuje, gdy potwornie rani sobie nogę piłą. Sprawca wypadku ucieka, a Sally zatrzymuje kierowcę pick-upa i wsiada do jego samochodu w ostatniej chwili przed atakiem Leatherface'a. Sally, w skrajnej histerii, cieszy się z udanej ucieczki, pozostawiając sfrustrowanego Leatherface'a, ze wściekłością i goryczą porażki wymachującego w powietrzu piłą mechaniczną... +Historia filmu. +Film uważany jest przez znawców za klasyk wśród horrorów i prekursor podgatunku slasher. Gdy w październiku 1974 roku na ekrany kin wchodził zaledwie drugi z kolei reżyserski film Tobe'a Hoopera, nikt nie wiedział, że na zawsze zmieni on oblicze horroru filmowego. Siła filmu Hoopera tkwi w ukazaniu zła nie w obliczu potwora, strzygi czy modnego w latach sześćdziesiątych przybysza z kosmosu – jak to robiono wcześniej, a w bliźnim. Ucieleśnieniem zła okazała się bowiem zamieszkująca peryferie Teksasu rodzina zbrodniarzy, lubujących się w fizyczno-psychicznym torturowaniu i mordowaniu swoich ofiar. Film powstał we wczesnych latach siedemdziesiątych i był pierwszym tak brutalnym i krwawym projektem przeznaczonym do szerokiego odbioru publicznego. +Spełnionym zadaniem "Teksańskiej masakry piłą mechaniczną" było zaszokowanie publiki otwartymi scenami bestialstwa i zwyrodnienia. Nakręcony za niewielkie pieniądze film (aktorzy w nim grający za swoje role nie dostali więcej niż tysiąc dolarów wynagrodzenia) okazał się ogromnym przebojem i doczekał trzech kolejnych części. Lecz tylko pierwszy z sequeli zrealizował jeszcze Tobe Hooper, dwanaście lat po premierze niniejszego filmu, ponadto w konwencji komedii gore; film nie spotkał się z pozytywnym przyjęciem zagorzałych fanów pierwowzoru, który miał niepowtarzalny klimat – surowe, często niedoświetlone zdjęcia, oszczędna, budząca szczery niepokój muzyka wzbudzały lęk i sprawiały wrażenie wiarygodności. Ten film określono niepokojącym już od pierwszych minut. Liczne elementy jego fabuły – niekorzystny układ planet, makabryczne wiadomości usłyszane w radiu, budzące strach majaczenia miejscowego alkoholika czy wreszcie napotkany autostopowicz, którego piątka młodych ludzi podróżujących vanem na swoje nieszczęście zabiera – potęgowały w widzu realne wrażenie strachu. Oglądający dowiadują się także o makabrycznym odkryciu policji na miejscowym cmentarzu, gdzie zwłoki wielu nieboszczyków zostają bezczeszczone i kradzione – następnie okazuje się, że mieszkająca w okolicach rodzina Sawyerów lubuje się w ozdabianiu swojego domu różnymi gadżetami robionymi z kości. Ten pomysł na koszmarny wystrój zaczerpnięto ze sprawy Eda Geina (podobnie jak zamiłowanie Leatherface'a do przywdziewania maski z ludzkiej skóry). Po serii mordów, Ed Gein został złapany w 1957 roku w stanie Wisconsin; sąsiedzi powiedzieli potem, że był miłym, choć skrytym człowiekiem. W jego domu policja znalazła rozkładające się zwłoki, abażury i fotele z ludzkiej skóry, liczne naczynia zrobione z kości. Później niektórzy ludzie w miasteczku Plainfield z przerażeniem przypomnieli sobie że czasami kupowali od niego mięso, a oskarżony podczas przesłuchania stwierdził z rozbrajającą szczerością, że nigdy nie był na polowaniu. Ta prawdziwa historia zainspirowała nie tylko Hoopera do nakręcenia horroru, ale również Roberta Blocha, który mieszkał w tym samym stanie co Gein, do napisania "Psychozy". +Specyficzny, parny klimat filmu potęgowały jego najdrobniejsze aspekty wizualne i dźwiękowe. Charakterystycznym posunięciem reżysera okazał się pomysł celowego przybrudzenia taśmy filmowej, który zadziałał na korzyść w ukazaniu filmu jako historii o "brudnym, spsiałym świecie", o której wspominali krytycy. Uciążliwe warunki meteorologiczne spowodowane zbyt wysoką temperaturą podczas kręcenia zdjęć również znalazły swoje odbicie w gotowym projekcie. Wielu fanów filmu Hoopera nie przyjęło z aprobatą powstałego po latach jego remake'u, ponieważ jego atmosfera była różna od klimatu hooperowskiego horroru. Właściwe występowanie muzyki filmowej, poza sekwencją wyświetlania kredytów, jest znikome, a za podkład dźwiękowy, wedle wizji reżysera, posłużyły między innymi dźwięki otwieranego trumiennego wieka czy rozkopywanej ziemi. +Początkowo przyjęty sceptycznie, na przestrzeni lat film stał się sztandarową pozycją wśród slasherów i filmów gore, a także wśród samych horrorów, poziomem stając na równi z tak spektakularnie ocenianymi filmami jak "Egzorcysta", "Halloween" czy "Krzyk". Na krytycznym portalu Rotten Tomatoes film zdobył 70% głosów użytkowników, stając się jednym z lepiej przyjętych filmów grozy. Jeszcze lepiej film wyceniono w bazie Internet Movie Database, gdzie jego średnia przekracza 7.5. +Sukces filmu Hoopera przyczynił się do powstania długiej serii filmowej. Filmy z właściwej serii powstały w latach 1986-1994; były to trzy sequele, zbliżone poziomem, pierwszy z nich wyreżyserowany w 1986 roku właśnie przez reżysera części pierwszej. O ile "Teksańska masakra piłą mechaniczną 2" i "Teksańska masakra piłą mechaniczną 3" były czarnymi komediami z elementami gore, tak "czwórka" – ', kontynuowała bezpośrednio motyw przedstawiony w części pierwszej i zawierała w sobie znikome ilości czarnego humoru. Nie spotkała się jednak z pozytywnym przyjęciem. W 2003 roku, kiedy moda na odświeżanie starszych datą horrorów rosła, Marcus Nispel odnowił konwencję serii i wyreżyserował remake filmu Hoopera, który przysporzył serii nowych fanów. Film odniósł wielki sukces komercyjny i przyczynił się do realizacji prequela remake'u: ' (2006). W Hollywood spekulowano krótko na temat realizacji kolejnej części filmu – sequela do prequela, jednak twórcy filmów wyprodukowanych po roku 2003 ostatecznie zdementowali pogłoski na ramach internetowego serwisu Bloody Disgusting, stwierdzając, że seria jest dla nich zakończona. +Wydanie filmu i restrykcje wiekowe. +Jeszcze w fazie postprodukcji występowały problemy z wypuszczeniem filmu do dystrybucji ze względu na jego bestialską brutalność. Ostatecznie 28 sierpnia 1974 roku wytwórnia Bryanston Distributing Company wyraziła zgodę na jego promocję. Tobe Hooper ubiegał się dla swojego filmu o kategorię PG-13 (z ang. "parents strongly cautioned"; według amerykańskiego systemu przyznawania filmom kategorii wiekowych, dozwolony od lat trzynastu), jednak ostatecznie stowarzyszenie MPAA przyznało mu oznaczenie R ("restricted"; osoby poniżej siedemnastego roku życia mogą oglądać film jedynie z rodzicem lub pełnoletnim opiekunem). Amerykańska kategoria R okazała się ulgowa, gdy liczne kraje zakazały dystrybucji filmu na swoich terenach, a inne opóźniły jego premierę do kilku, kilkunastu lub nawet kilkudziesięciu lat. Powstawały także wersje ocenzurowane, przy czym poddawane były mocnym obróbkom montażowym. +Od momentu światowej premiery, film wydano na kasetach VHS, LaserDiscu oraz dyskach CED, UMD, DVD i Blu-ray. Obecnie jest on łatwo dostępny, lecz we wczesnych latach osiemdziesiątych dystrybucja filmu przeznaczona do użytku domowego również sprawiała kłopoty. Próba wydania filmu na kasetach wideo w Wielkiej Brytanii skończyła się fiaskiem, a "Teksańska masakra piłą mechaniczną" trafiła na tzw. listę "video nasties" – zestawienie filmów o brutalnej treści, przesyconych krwawymi scenami lub kontrowersyjnymi wątkami religijnymi. +Polskie wydanie DVD. +26 października 2009 roku film trafił do obiegu DVD w Polsce, nakładem Epelpolu. Owo wydanie okazało się jednak być wadliwe, a nabywcy filmu, tuż po jego zakupie, masowo skarżyli się na niekorzystną jakość techniczną obrazu. Z czasem premiera źle skonfigurowanego filmu przeistoczyła się w skandal wśród osób, które go zakupiły, ponieważ Epelpol jako pierwszy, jak dotąd, zajął się dystrybucją "Teksańskiej masakry piłą mechaniczną" na polskim rynku DVD. +Wydanie Epelpolu zawierało szereg dodatków: między innymi dokumentalne filmy "Szokująca prawda o "Teksańskiej masakrze piłą mechaniczną"" i "Rany. 7 opowieści piły mechanicznej", a także wywiad z Teri McMinn i niewykorzystane materiały filmowe. +Inspiracje. +Wpływom "Teksańskiej masakry piłą mechaniczną", okrzykniętej jednym z najlepszych i najbardziej wpływowych filmów grozy w historii światowej kinematografii, uległy twory licznych reżyserów horrorów. Ridley Scott kredytował film jako źródło inspiracji dla swojego klasyka "Obcy - ósmy pasażer Nostromo". Śladem Tobe'a Hoopera poszli także scenarzyści niezależnego filmu "Halloween", Debra Hill i John Carpenter. "Halloween" również nie epatował widzów krwawymi scenami i bluzgającym językiem, a na przestrzeni lat uzyskał status filmu kultowego. "Nie chcieliśmy, by film był brutalny. Chcieliśmy, by był jak pajac na sprężynie wyskakujący z pudełka po jego otwarciu" – wyznała Hill. "Halloween" znalazł się wśród dwudziestu pięciu najlepszych filmowych horrorów według tygodnika "Time". Według Rebecki Ascher-Walsh film zainspirował popularne serie horrorów: trylogię "Martwe zło" Sama Raimiego, cykl "Halloween" oraz "Blair Witch Project" i jego sequel: "". Również "Dom tysiąca trupów" Roba Zombie powstał z fascynacji reżysera projektem Hoopera. +"Teksańska masakra piłą mechaniczną" zainspirowała nie tylko filmowców. Punk rockowy zespół The Ramones złożył filmowi hołd w swoim utworze pt. "Chain Saw", znajdującym się na albumie "Ramones", wydanym 23 kwietnia 1976 roku. Zmarły w 2001 roku członek zespołu, wokalista Joey Ramone, słowa do piosenki napisał po obejrzeniu filmu. +Postać Leatherface'a zainspirowała także gitarzystę Bucketheada, który wykorzystał fragmenty dialogów z filmu w utworach z płyty "Giant Robot" (NTT Records, 1996), a kilka kompozycji to jego autorska wizja muzycznej ilustracji do scen z filmu. +Conrad Beck + +Conrad Beck (16 czerwca 1901 - 31 października 1989) to szwajcarski kompozytor. +Komponował muzykę instrumentalną, symfoniczną i chóralną. W swych kompozycjach łączył elementy muzyki francuskiej i niemieckiej. Wpływ na jego twórczość wywarli Nadia Boulanger, Arthur Honegger i Albert Roussel. +Infrastruktura + +Infrastruktura, służba komunalna (łac "infra" = "w dolnej części" i "structura" = "układ, szyk") – podstawowe urządzenia, budynki użyteczności publicznej i instytucje usługowe, których istnienie jest niezbędne do prawidłowego funkcjonowania gospodarki i społeczeństwa. +Infrastruktura wspiera działalność produkcyjną, służy rozwojowi produkcji, choć sama nie bierze bezpośredniego udziału w produkcji. Oznacza układ i wzajemne relacje elementów (części) stanowiących całość np. budowy, ustroju, struktura kryształu, struktura społeczna, agrarna itp. +Klasyfikacja i podstawowy podział infrastruktury transportu. +Podstawowy podział infrastruktury transportu +Elementy infrastruktury transportowej (liniowej i punktowej) +Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego + +Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego (popularnie nazywany też "Ozon") – organizacja polityczna tworzona na polecenie marszałka Edwarda Rydza-Śmigłego od połowy 1936. Jej powstanie ogłosił płk dypl. Adam Koc w deklaracji ideowo-politycznej z 21 lutego 1937. Pomysłodawcą nazwy Obozu Zjednoczenia Narodowego był Ferdynand Goetel. +Celem organizacji było wzmożenie obronności państwa i wdrażanie postanowień konstytucji kwietniowej. Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego wywodził się ze środowisk sanacyjnych. Preferowano wyeksponowanie roli armii, oraz Rydza-Śmigłego jako następcę Marszałka Piłsudskiego. Objawiało się to m.in. poprzez ustanawianie Rydza-Śmigłego "drugą osobą w państwie po Panu Prezydencie" co zakłócało porządek konstytucyjny (w myśl konstytucji z 1935 drugą osobą w państwie był Marszałek Senatu). +Organizacja ta była oskarżana o tendencje faszystowskie i antysemickie. Oznakami tego były m.in. fakty, iż Żydzi nie mogli być członkami organizacji oraz nawoływanie do bojkotu handlu żydowskiego. +Historia. +Po wyborach w październiku 1935 Walery Sławek w proteście przeciw żądaniu prezydenta włączenia do rządu Eugeniusza Kwiatkowskiego jako jednocześnie ministra skarbu i wicepremiera podał się do dymisji, a nowym premierem został Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski. Następnie przedkładając interes państwa nad własny Sławek rozwiązał BBWR. Potem stracił stanowisko przewodniczącego Związku Legionistów Polskich na rzecz Adama Koca. Obóz pułkowników utrzymał wpływy jedynie w parlamencie do czasu nowych wyborów. +Rydz-Śmigły poszukując politycznego oparcia dla swojej grupy zlecił Adamowi Kocowi opracowanie programu politycznego nowego ugrupowania i powstał prorządowy Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego (OZN). Jego program zakładał skupienie obywateli wokół obozu rządowego, ale nie uzyskał szerszego poparcia społecznego. Przeciwko niemu występowały prawie wszystkie partie – od lewicy do prawicy – w parlamencie i poza nim. Dopiero zagrożenie niemieckie doprowadziło do zaniechania wewnętrznych sporów i skupienia się na wzmocnieniu siły państwa. +OZN miał własną reprezentację w parlamencie IV kadencji (1935 - 1938), operającą się na tych posłach i senatorach, którzy przyjęli propozycję płk A. Koca i w 1937 roku zawiązali klub parlamentarny OZN. +Według danych z grudnia 1937 roku do OZN należało 40-50 tys. członków, a w lutym następnego ok. 100 tys. Członkostwo mogło być indywidualne bądź zbiorowe (np. stowarzyszenia). Członkiem indywidualnym mógł być każdy obywatel Polski o "nieposzlakowanej opinii", nie należący do żadnego innego ugrupowania politycznego. Organizacją młodzieżową OZN był Związek Młodej Polski. +OZN kierował początkowo płk Adam Koc, a następnie gen. Stanisław Skwarczyński. Już po wybuchu wojny kierownictwo przejął płk Zygmunt Wenda. W czasie II wojny światowej OZN stworzył m.in. Obóz Polski Walczącej. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Deklaracja Ideowo-Polityczna Obozu Zjednoczenia Narodowego +Infrastruktura telekomunikacyjna + +Infrastruktura telekomunikacyjna – według prawa telekomunikacyjnego, urządzenia telekomunikacyjne, oprócz telekomunikacyjnych urządzeń końcowych, oraz w szczególności linie telekomunikacyjne, kanalizacje kablowe, słupy, wieże, maszty, kable, przewody oraz osprzęt wykorzystywane do zapewnienia telekomunikacji. +Pod pojęciem infrastruktury telekomunikacyjnej na przykład rozumie się zespół kabli i urządzeń, z których zbudowana jest sieć telefoniczna lub inna telekomunikacyjna. W jej skład wchodzi linia do abonenta, wyposażenie do obsługi abonenta na centrali oraz zestaw połączeń międzycentralowych wraz z urządzeniami do kierowania ruchu telekomunikacyjnego. +Lech Koziejowski + +Lech Koziejowski (ur. 3 kwietnia 1949 w Warszawie) – polski szermierz, złoty medalista olimpijski we florecie. +Największy sukces odniósł na swoich pierwszych igrzyskach olimpijskich w Monachium w 1972. Wraz z Witoldem Woydą, Jerzym Kaczmarkiem, Markiem Dąbrowskim i Arkadiuszem Godelem zdobył złoty medal olimpijski po wygraniu w finale z drużyną ZSRR. +Uczestniczył jeszcze w dwóch kolejnych Olimpiadach. W Montrealu w 1976 zajął 5-6 miejsce w drużynie floretowej. W 1980 z Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Moskwie przywiózł brązowy medal w turnieju drużynowym floretu (skład medalistów to oprócz Koziejowskiego: Adam Robak, Bogusław Zych i Marian Sypniewski). +Poza sukcesami olimpijskimi zdobył 4 złote medale, 3 srebrne i 1 brązowy (wszystkie w turniejach drużynowych) mistrzostw świata. Ciekawostką jest fakt, że oprócz floretu walczył także szpadą. Tą bronią wywalczył na mistrzostwach świata w 1977 szóste miejsce na świecie. +Po zakończeniu kariery zawodniczej został nauczycielem WF-u; obecnie uczy w szkołach podstawowych numer 94 oraz 340 w Warszawie. +Odporność komórkowa + +Odporność komórkowa - odporność za którą odpowiedzialne są leukocyty obdarzone zdolnością do pochłaniania i wewnątrzkomórkowego trawienia lub usuwania ciał obcych. Odporność, którą można przenieść od odpornego dawcy do nieodpornego biorcy za pomocą komórek, lecz nie za pomocą surowicy. Komórkami swoistej odporności nabytej są limfocyt T i limfocyt B, komórkami nieswoistej odporności wrodzonej są granulocyty i makrofagi (PK). +Authorware + +Authorware - firma powstała w 1987 r., założona przez Michaela Allena, jak również projekt multimedialny opracowany przez tę firmę. Allen był współtwórcą PLATO Learning Management System (PLM) - systemu nauczania rozwijanego w latach 70. Firma Authorware połączyła się w 1992 r. MacroMind-Paracomp, tworząc firmę Macromedia. Macromedia została w roku 2005 zakupiona przez Adobe Systems. +System Authorware (rozumiany jako klasa oprogramowania) jest interpretowanym, graficznym językiem programowania opartym na diagramach i pozwalającym na łączenie w aplikacji tekstu, dźwięku, grafiki, animacji i filmów. +Praca z systemami Authoware polega na tworzeniu diagramu ilustrującego strukturę aplikacji. Użytkownik może dodawać i zarządzać elementami tej aplikacji - dźwiękiem, grafiką, tekstem, a także dodawać elementy nawigacji, jak odsyłacze, przyciski i menu. Możliwe jest też używanie elementów programowania - zmiennych, funkcji i wyrażeń. Najczęściej wykorzystuje się je do tworzenia interaktywnych przewodników czy instrukcji, przez co są szczególnie przydatne zarówno w biznesie, jak i szeroko rozumianej edukacji, oszczędzając autorom kosztownych szkoleń. +Obecnie jednym z najpowszechniej używanych pakietów oprogramowania autorskiego jest Adobe Authoware, współpracujący z innymi aplikacjami tej firmy, jak Adobe Director. +RMS Olympic + +RMS Olympic (w okresie pierwszej wojny światowej także HMT Olympic) – brytyjski parowy statek pasażerski, jeden z trzech statków typu "Olympic", do którego – oprócz jego samego – należał "Titanic" (zatonął w słynnym zderzeniu z górą lodową) oraz "Britannic" (przekształcony później w statek szpitalny). W przeciwieństwie do dwóch siostrzanych liniowców miał długą i udaną karierę na szlaku północnoatlantyckim, trwającą od 1911 do 1935 roku. +Historia. +"Olympic" został zbudowany w stoczni Harland and Wolff w Belfaście w Irlandii Północnej, zwodowany 20 października 1910 roku. Był pierwszym z trzech liniowców typu "Olympic", które White Star Line zamówiła w irlandzkiej stoczni jako odpowiedź na największe, najszybsze i najbardziej luksusowe statki świata linii Cunard – "Mauretanię" i "Lusitanię". Tonaż nowego statku White Star Line wynosił 45 324 ton, kadłub mierzył 269 metrów długości, a parowe maszyny zdolne były do rozpędzenia tej jednostki do prędkości ponad 22 węzłów. +Jednym z wydarzeń, rzucających cień na karierę statku, było zderzenie w 1911 roku z brytyjskim krążownikiem HMS "Hawke". Po kolizji, która został odholowany do Belfastu na naprawy. +Kapitanem "Olympica" był Edward Smith, który zginął niecały rok po tym wydarzeniu w katastrofie siostrzanego "Titanica". Jedna ze stewardess (Violet Jessop) przeżyła zarówno kolizję "Olympica" z HMS "Hawke", jak również katastrofę "Titanica", a także zatonięcie "Britannica" w 1916 roku. +W 1913 roku "Olympic" został przebudowany w następstwie katastrofy "Titanica", która spowodowała wątpliwości odnośnie jakości i bezpieczeństwa "Olympica". Zainstalowano więcej łodzi ratunkowych oraz zbudowano podwójne dno, mające uchronić statek przed podzieleniem losu siostrzanej jednostki. +W 1915 roku, na czas I wojny światowej, "Olympic" został przekształcony w transportowiec wojska. +Chlubą załogi było staranowanie i zatopienie niemieckiego U-Boota U-103 12 maja 1918 roku, po nieskutecznym ataku torpedowym. Nie wszystkim ten wyczyn się spodobał, były opinie, że załoga "Olympica" powinna była uciec od zagrożenia, nie ryzykując życia tysięcy osób znajdujących się w tamtym momencie na jej pokładzie. Po zakończeniu wojny w poszyciu statku odkryto dziurę spowodowaną uderzeniem torpedy, która nie wybuchła. +Na pasażerski szlak transatlantycki powrócił w 1920 roku. Na początku 1934 roku został przetransferowany do konsorcjum Cunard - White Star. Wkrótce później, nocą 15 maja w gęstej mgle przeciął na pół i zatopił amerykański latarniowiec "Nantucket" nr 117, powodując śmierć 7 z 11 członków załogi (4 osoby zginęły na miejscu, a 3 rozbitków zmarło później z powodu ran). +Po tym wydarzeniu, w 1935 roku "Olympic" został wycofany z obsługi pasażerskiej i przeznaczony na złom. Niektóre elementy dekoracyjne z transatlantyku trafiły do hoteli i pubów, w większości w Londynie. Część dekoracji (panele ścienne, żyrandole) została następnie odzyskana i przy ich pomocy restaurację z "Olympica" (identyczną z restauracją z "Titanica") odtworzono w zmniejszonej nieco wersji na statku wycieczkowym "Celebrity Millenium" zbudowanym przez armatora Celebrity Cruises w 2000 r. +Jan Byra + +Jan Byra (ur. 27 maja 1958 w Józefowie) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm II, III i IV kadencji, dziennikarz. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego w Krakowie. Od 1977 do rozwiązania należał do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej, był m.in. kierownikiem wydziału propagandy Komitetu Wojewódzkiego PZPR w Zamościu. Krótko pracował jako dziennikarz w "Kurierze Lubelskim", później przeniósł się do "Tygodnika Zamojskiego". +W III RP przystąpił do Socjaldemokracji RP, gdzie od 1990 do 1991 był wiceprzewodniczącym rady wojewódzkiej. W 1993, 1997 i 2001 z ramienia Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej uzyskiwał mandat poselski (w 1993 i 1997 jako członek SdRP z okręgu zamojskiego, w 2001 jako członek SLD z okręgu chełmskiego). W marcu 2004 wraz z m.in. Markiem Borowskim był wśród współzałożycieli Socjaldemokracji Polskiej. W Sejmie IV kadencji zasiadał w Komisji Kultury i Środków Przekazu (jako wiceprzewodniczący) i w Komisji Łączności z Polakami za Granicą. +W 2005 i 2007 bez powodzenia kandydował do Sejmu. Wrócił do pracy w redakcji "Tygodnika Zamojskiego". +Szczep (harcerstwo) + +Szczep - rodzaj pośredniej struktury w organizacjach harcerskich, istniejącej pomiędzy gromadami, drużynami i kręgami, a szczeblem wyższym. +Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego. +W ZHP szczepem jest struktura, istniejąca pomiędzy podstawowymi jednostkami organizacyjnymi a hufcem, występuje fakultatywnie. Jest wspólnotą podstawowych jednostek organizacyjnych, działających w jednym środowisku (szkoła, osiedle, dzielnica). Podstawowym celem działania szczepu jest zapewnienie ciągu wychowawczego. Tworzą go minimum trzy podstawowe jednostki organizacyjne (gromady, drużyny, kręgi), działające w co najmniej dwóch grupach metodycznych. +Szczep powołuje właściwa komenda hufca. +Szczepem kieruje i odpowiada za jego pracę komenda szczepu, na której czele stoi komendant szczepu – pełnoletni instruktor wybrany przez drużynowych. Jest on mianowany na funkcję przez właściwego komendanta hufca. +Komendant szczepu powinien posiadać minimum stopień podharcmistrza i być przeszkolony do pełnionej funkcji. +W szczepie mogą być inni funkcyjni, których mianuje i odwołuje rozkazem komendant szczepu. Nie dotyczy to drużynowych, których mianuje i odwołuje komendant hufca. +Jako szczep może działać również harcerski klub specjalnościowy, skupiając gromady, drużyny i kręgi z danego terenu, posiadające miano Drużyny Specjalnościowej, tej samej specjalności. +Związek Harcerstwa Rzeczypospolitej. +W ZHR szczep jest zbiorem drużyn harcerskich, często z tym samym numerem. Zdarza się że są w nim gromady zuchowe lub drużyny wędrownicze. W założeniu szczep jest jednostką gospodarczą. Ma pieczę nad sprzętem, organizuje ze strony technicznej akcje zimowe i letnie, choć zdarzają się szczepy, których celem jest podtrzymanie tradycji środowiska. +Lodowy sfinks + +Lodowy sfinks (fr. "Le Sphinx des glaces") – jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 26 rozdziałów. Została wydana w 1897 r. +Pierwszy polski przekład w odcinkach, autorstwa Michaliny Daniszewskiej, pojawił się w 1897, a w postaci książkowej w 1898. Brak informacji o wydaniach w języku polskim w dwudziestym wieku. +RR (ciśnienie tętnicze) + +RR symbol używany dla oznaczenia ciśnienia tętniczego, którego pomiaru dokonano przy użyciu sfigmomanometru. Wywodzi się od nazwiska wynalazcy tego aparatu - Scipione Riva-Rocciego. Według purystów zarezerwowany jedynie dla wyników uzyskanych metodą Riva-Rocciego, podczas gdy dla innych pomiarów, np. metodą Korotkowa, należałoby stosować odmienne oznaczenie (np. CTK lub BP). +RR 120/80 +Decydując się na oznaczanie ciśnienia tętniczego za pomocą skrótu 'RR' należy pamiętać, że oznacza ono także skrót od angielskich słów "respiratory rate" (= "częstość oddychania"). +Dla przejrzystości, czystości formy oraz uniknięcia nieporozumień, opisując stan pacjenta (np. w artykule), jeśli używa się dla "częstości oddychania" - skrótu 'RR', to dla "ciśnienia tętniczego" bardziej właściwe jest używanie skrótu 'BP' ("blood pressure"). A jeszcze precyzyjniej - 'ABP' (= ""arterial blood pressure""). +Chromanie przestankowe + +Chromanie przestankowe (łac. "claudicatio intermittens") – związany z niedokrwieniem objaw chorobowy polegający na występowaniu bólu mięśni kończyn dolnych pojawiający się podczas wysiłku i ustępujący po krótkim odpoczynku. +Najczęściej podczas marszu chory odczuwa ostry ból na skutek zwiększonego zapotrzebowania metabolicznego mięśni kończyn. Chwilowy odpoczynek powoduje ustąpienie dolegliwości i umożliwia kontynuowanie marszu. Odległość, jaka dzieli dwa miejsca zatrzymania, określamy jako dystans chromania. W związku z koniecznością częstego zatrzymywania się objaw ten nazywany jest również "objawem oglądającego wystawy sklepowe". +Najczęstszą przyczyną chromania przestankowego jest niedrożność tętnic obwodowych. W zależności od stopnia niedrożności i miejsca zwężenia tętnic, chory może odczuwać ból w całej nodze lub też tylko w łydce, udzie lub pośladku. Przyczyną może być również zespół usidlenia tętnicy podkolanowej. +U części pacjentów mimo istnienia zaburzenia krążenia obwodowego w kończynach dolnych nie są odczuwane typowe dolegliwości chromania przestankowego, ponieważ współwystępują choroby, np. przepuklina krążka międzykręgowego, choroba zwyrodnieniowa stawów kończyn dolnych, niedowład kończyn dolnych lub choroba niedokrwienna serca, przy których chromanie nie ujawnia się, bo chory nie jest w stanie wykonać odpowiedniego wysiłku fizycznego. +Najważniejsza w profilaktyce choroby jest modyfikacja czynników ryzyka rozwoju miażdżycy: zaprzestanie palenia tytoniu, normalizacja masy ciała, aktywny tryb życia, dieta uboga w tłuszcze zwierzęce, dobra kontrola farmakologiczna ewentualnie współistniejącej cukrzycy, hiperlipidemii i nadciśnienia tętniczego. +Chromanie przestankowe u koni opisał Bouley w 1831, a u ludzi Charcot w 1859. Kolejne klasyczne opisy są autorstwa Goldflama ("intermittirendes Hinken", 1895) i Erba ("dysbasia angiosclerotica", 1898). +Przetarg + +Przetarg – jeden ze zwyczajowych sposobów wyboru oferty w celu zawarcia umowy. +Na gruncie prawa polskiego ogólne zasady prowadzenia przetargów zawierają przepisy art. 701-705 kodeksu cywilnego, w szczególności stanowiące o związaniu ofertą. Do szczególnych form przetargów należą m.in. przetargi na zbycie nieruchomości przez podmioty publiczne (regulowane przepisami o gospodarce nieruchomościami) oraz przetargi na nabycie robót budowlanych, dostaw lub usług finansowanych ze środków publicznych lub zamawianych przez podmioty publiczne (tzw. zamówienia publiczne). +Najszerzej znane formy przetargów to aukcje - czy to zbycie dzieł sztuki, czy też obecnie internetowe. +Zobacz też. +pl:Przetarg +Trzcianka + +Trzcianka (niem. "Schönlanke") – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie czarnkowsko-trzcianeckim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Trzcianka. Siedziba sądu rejonowego i delegatury starostwa powiatowego. Położone na Pojezierzu Wałeckim, nad rzeką Trzcianką i trzema jeziorami. +Według danych z czerwca 2011 roku miasto liczyło 17 230 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Trzcianka jest położona w północno-zachodniej części województwa wielkopolskiego, w północnej części powiatu czarnkowsko-trzcianeckiego. Miasto leży w południowej części Pojezierza Wałeckiego. Otoczone jest lasami, które zajmują niecałe 50% powierzchni gminy. +W granicach miasta znajdują się jeziora: połączone kanałem Sarcze i Długie Jezioro oraz Okunie. Przez miasto przepływa rzeka Trzcianka. +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. pilskiego. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2010 r. powierzchnia miasta wynosiła 18,30 km². Trzcianka stanowi 4,89% powierzchni gminy. +Według danych z 2010 r., miasto zajmuje obszar 18,3 km², w tym: użytki rolne – 42,28%, lasy – 45,95%. +Najbliższe duże miasta to: Piła (25 km) Poznań (90 km), Gorzów Wielkopolski (110 km), Bydgoszcz (120 km), Szczecin (170 km). Odległość z Trzcianki do Warszawy wynosi 375 km, a do Berlina 225 km. +Demografia. +(*) – dane szacunkowe +Historia miasta. +Tereny znajdujące się na północ od Noteci, pomiędzy Drawą a Łomnicą na przełomie wieków XIII i XIV +"W imię Pana Amen. Na wieczną pamiątkę... Dlatego my Zygmunt August z Bożej Łaski Król Polski, Wielki Książę Litwy jako też ziemi Krakowskiej, Sandomierskiej (...) Niniejszym podajemy do wiadomości wszystkim, którym należy, obecnym i przyszłym, którzy o tym wiedzieć powinni, że stawił się osobiście szlachetny Stanisław Sędziwój z Czarnkowa... Przedstawił pismo na pergaminie z podpisem przez świętego księcia Pana Zygmunta I Króla Polski, ojca naszego. (...) i prosił aby je naszym królewskim autorytetem potwierdzić i ratyfikować, umocnić i odnowić. (...) Treść tego słowo w słowo jest ta: (...) Chcemy zasługi tegoż Sędziwoja, naszego umiłowanego, naszą łaską wynagrodzić (...). Od tego czasu wsie nasze Bialla, Goliasza i Rossdrussga (...) jemu oraz następcom dajemy, przekazujemy, zatwierdzamy aby mogli je posiadać, sprzedać, podarować lub zamienić (...).". +Historia miejscowości sięga jednak co najwyżej początków XVI wieku. Prawa miejskie magdeburskie Trzcionce nadał 3 marca 1731 król Polski August II Mocny. W latach 1738-1755 Trzcianka była własnością Stanisława Poniatowskiego (ojca ostatniego króla Polski). +Intensywnie rozwinęło się tu osadnictwo niemieckie (sukiennictwo) i żydowskie (handel wełną). W XVIII był to jeden z największych ośrodków sukienniczych Wielkopolski, posiadając ponad 200 warsztatów tkackich. W 1772 miasto znalazło się pod zaborem pruskim, by w 1807 wejść w granice Księstwa Warszawskiego. Od 1815 ponownie stało się częścią Prus, a wraz z nimi od 1871 Niemiec. W połowie XIX gdy wybudowano linię kolejową, miasto ożywiło się gospodarczo. Powstało wiele nowych fabryk i zakładów powodując tym samym rozwój miasta. Ze względu na dominację ludności niemieckiej traktat wersalski pozostawił w 1919 Trzciankę w granicach Rzeszy. W okresie międzywojennym miasto było stolicą powiatu noteckiego. +27 stycznia 1945 Trzciankę zajęły wojska radzieckie i po 173 latach powróciła ona w granice państwa polskiego. Ludność miasta została wysiedlona do Niemiec i zastąpiona polskimi osadnikami. Na początku 1945 r., w związku z działaniami Pełnomocnika Rządu na Obwód Trzcianecki, przywrócono również przedrozbiorową nazwę miasta – Trzcianka. +W 1965 rozebrano wznoszący się na placu Armii Czerwonej (obecnie plac Pocztowy) kościół ewangelicki z l. 1843-1847. +Gospodarka. +Wybudowano wysypisko odpadów, oczyszczalnię ścieków miejskich o przepustowości 4000 m³. +W Trzciance są zlokalizowane przedsiębiorstwa z branży handlowej, filie i oddziały banków, towarzystw ubezpieczeniowych i leasingowych. W mieście zlokalizowanych jest kilka sklepów wielkopowierzchniowych (Piotr i Paweł, POLOmarket, Netto, Biedronka). W grudniu 2010 r. została otwarta pierwsza w mieście galeria handlowa. +Kultura. +Trzcianka jest centrum kulturalnym, w którym wiele się dzieje z zakresu kultury. W mieście istnieją instytucje kulturalno-oświatowe dla mieszkańców miasta i powiatu. +Muzeum organizuje liczne imprezy, z których najbardziej efektowny jest organizowany w plenerze Piknik Muzealny. +Zespoły teatralne. +Teatr osiągnął wiele sukcesów na arenie ogólnopolskiej i wojewódzkiej. Do najważniejszych należą: +Nazwa zespołu stanowi nawiązanie do Liceum Ogólnokształcącego w Trzciance, skąd co roku przybywają młodzi aktorzy oraz do lotki jako przedmiotu, która pozwala wzbić się ponad przeciętność. +Media. +W mieście od 1992 roku działa telewizja kablowa – "Telewizja Lokalna Trzcianka" (TVL). Główne wydanie pojawia się raz w tygodniu, w każdy poniedziałek, a powtórki nadawane są w czwartki o godzinie 11:00 i 20:00. Stacja emituje serwis informacyjny, magazyn kulturalny, serwis sportowy oraz magazyn „Na sygnale”. W programie poruszane są sprawy ważne dla miasta, jak i gminy Trzcianka. Retransmitowane są Sesje Rady Miasta i Powiatu, a także miejskie uroczystości. +Turystyka. +Nad jeziorem Sarcze znajduje się kompleks rekreacyjno-sportowy, Ośrodek Sportu i Rekreacji. Przy Ośrodku działają: wypożyczalnia sprzętu wodnego, korty tenisowe, przystań żeglarska oraz boisko. Kompleks dysponuje dwugwiazdkowym hotelem i domkami kempingowymi. +W mieście jest też kilka pensjonatów. +Komunikacja. +Transport drogowy. +Miasto posiada dogodny układ komunikacyjny, krzyżują się w nim: droga wojewódzka nr i droga wojewódzka nr . +Kolej. +Przez stację Trzcianka przechodzi niezelektryfikowana linia kolejowa nr (część dawniej Pruskiej Kolei Wschodniej) łącząca stację Tczew ze stacją graniczną Kostrzyn (Kostrzyn nad Odrą). W chwili obecnej Trzcianka posiada bezpośrednie połączenia z Krzyżem, Piłą i Chojnicami (przewoźnik – Przewozy Regionalne). +Administracja. +Trzcianka należy do Związku Miast Polskich. +Mistrzostwa Europy w Piłce Nożnej 2012 + +Mistrzostwa Europy w Piłce Nożnej 2012 (ukr. "Чемпіонат Європи з футболу 2012"), oficjalnie UEFA Euro 2012 (ukr. "УЄФА Євро 2012") – czternasty turniej o mistrzostwo Europy w piłce nożnej mężczyzn, zorganizowany wspólnie przez Polskę i Ukrainę. +14 grudnia 2009 na placu Michajłowskim w Kijowie oficjalnie zaprezentowano logo i hasło „Razem tworzymy przyszłość” (ukr. "Творимо історію разом") Euro 2012. +8 czerwca 2012 turniej rozpoczął mecz otwarcia na Stadionie Narodowym w Warszawie, w którym Polska zremisowała z Grecją, a faza grupowa zakończyła się 19 czerwca. Ćwierćfinały zostały rozegrane od 21 do 24 czerwca, a półfinały 27 i 28 czerwca. Finał Mistrzostw odbył się 1 lipca 2012 na Stadionie Olimpijskim w Kijowie. +Na turnieju zostało rozegranych 31 meczów. Zagrało w nich 14 drużyn narodowych wyłonionych w kwalifikacjach, w których brało udział 51 państw między sierpniem 2010 a listopadem 2011, oraz 2 ekipy gospodarzy. Był to ostatni turniej rozegrany w tym systemie, gdyż od 2016 roku w 51 meczach rywalizować będą 24 drużyny. +1 lipca 2012 reprezentacja Hiszpanii pokonała w finale Włochów (4:0) i jako pierwsza w historii obroniła tytuł Mistrza Europy z poprzednich mistrzostw. Jednocześnie stała się pierwszą w dziejach reprezentacją, która po zdobyciu kontynentalnego tytułu mistrzowskiego, zdobyła puchar świata i w trzecim kolejnym turnieju międzynarodowym obroniła mistrzowski tytuł. +Zwycięzca Euro 2012 miał otrzymać automatyczną kwalifikację do Pucharu Konfederacji w piłce nożnej 2013 w Brazylii, jednak w związku z wygraną Hiszpanii, która do Pucharu Konfederacji zakwalifikowała się już jako Mistrz Świata 2010, miejsce to przyznane zostało Włochom, które w Euro 2012 zajęły drugie miejsce. +Logo i symbole. +Oficjalna prezentacja logo Mistrzostw Europy 2012 odbyła się na placu Michajłowskim w Kijowie 14 grudnia 2009. Grzegorz Lato, Hryhorij Surkis i Michel Platini odsłonili logo Euro 2012 zebranym gościom, wśród których byli najważniejsi ukraińscy politycy z prezydentem Wiktorem Juszczenką i premier Julią Tymoszenko oraz przedstawiciele wszystkich miast-organizatorów. Logo jest inspirowane ukraińskimi tradycyjnymi wycinankami i nawiązuje do kultury obu państw-organizatorów, czyli Polski i Ukrainy. Centralnym elementem tej kompozycji jest łodyga (wyrażająca ich wspólną historię) z której wyrasta piłka, po boku – po stronie zachodniej, biało-czerwony kwiat symbolizujący narodowe barwy Polski, po prawej niebiesko-żółty kwiat w barwach Ukrainy. +Symbole, znaki i logotypy zostały zaprojektowane przez portugalską agencję reklamową Brandia Central, która od lat jest związana z UEFA. Logotyp i hasło imprezy ukazywały się na wszystkich materiałach promocyjnych dotyczących mistrzostw Europy. Autorem iluminacji jest szwajcarski artysta Gerry Hofstetter. W swoim dorobku ma on m.in. podobne projekty, przygotowane z myślą o Euro 2008. +Piłka. +Oficjalna piłka Mistrzostw Europy w Piłce Nożnej 2012 to Tango 12, produkcji firmy Adidas, złożona z 32 termicznie łączonych paneli pokrytych specjalną, wypukłą powłoką, mającą ułatwiać kontakt z butem i kontrolę nad piłką. 24 panele ułożone są w sześć białych okręgów, na konturach których znajdują się barwy narodowe Polski i Ukrainy, natomiast w osiem pozostałych koloru czarnego, oddzielających okręgi, wpisane są grafiki nawiązujące do kultury ludowej organizatorów mistrzostw. Wewnętrzna warstwa piłki wyściełana jest tkaną powłoką. W porównaniu do poprzedniej piłki Adidasa - Jabulani - pod powierzchnią zewnętrzną znajduje się nowy typ pęcherza pozwalający na zwiększenie retencji powietrza i redukcję absorpcji wody. +Oficjalna prezentacja piłki odbyła się 2 grudnia 2011 roku podczas ceremonii losowania grup turniejowych Euro 2012 w Kijowie. +Maskotki. +Oficjalne maskotki mistrzostw – Slavek i Slavko – zostały zaprezentowane 16 listopada 2010 roku o godzinie 11:00 w Teatrze Polskim w Warszawie. Za projekt i wykonanie odpowiedzialna jest firma Warner Bros. Postacie to bliźniacy, Polak i Ukrainiec, ubrani w stroje piłkarskie w barwach narodowych swoich drużyn. Oraz włosy na żel farbowane na kolory swoich flag państwowych. +Imiona maskotek, podobnie jak w przypadku Euro 2008, wybrali kibice z całego świata spośród trzech propozycji wytypowanych wcześniej przez UEFA oraz Lokalne Komitety Organizacyjne. Głos można było oddać poprzez oficjalną stronę UEFA, w restauracjach McDonald's w Polsce i na Ukrainie, bądź na specjalnych pokazach maskotek w ośmiu miastach-gospodarzach Euro 2012. Głosowanie odbywało się od 16 listopada do 3 grudnia 2010 roku. Wynik został ogłoszony 4 grudnia 2010 roku w Kijowie. Zwycięska propozycja otrzymała 56% głosów, Siemko i Strimko – 29%, Klemek i Ladko – 15%. W głosowaniu wzięło udział 39 223 osób. +Bilety. +Tak jak w poprzednich edycjach turnieju bilety były przyznawane losowo na podstawie aplikacji złożonych na stronie internetowej organizatora lub też były dystrybuowane przez narodowe związki piłkarskie w 16 państwach finalistów. Składanie aplikacji na bilety Euro 2012 prowadzone było w dniach 1-31 marca 2011 roku, zaś samo losowanie odbyło się pod koniec kwietnia 2011. Z całkowitej liczby 1 mln 400 tys. sztuk na 31 meczów turnieju, bezpośrednio w sprzedaży było dostępne 41%, pozostali kibice otrzymają bilety dzięki subskrypcjom na mecze oraz loteriom sponsorów. Łącznie zostało zgłoszonych ponad 12 milionów aplikacji, co jest 17% wzrostem w stosunku do ubiegłych finałów mistrzostw i jest jednocześnie rekordem wszech czasów popularności Mistrzostwa Europy w piłce nożnej. +Ceny w zależności od miejsc na stadionach zostały określone na 30 € (za bramkami) do 600 € za najlepsze miejsca na finał w Kijowie. Ponadto oprócz indywidualnych biletów na pojedyncze mecze, fani mogli kupić pakiety meczowe, aby kibicować określonej drużynie oraz na wybranym stadionie. Dostępne były również bilety dla osób niepełnosprawnych. Portal biletowy UEFA służy także właścicielom wejściówek do ewentualnej ich odsprzedaży. +Trofeum. +Na siedem tygodni przed rozpoczęciem turnieju puchar Mistrzów Europy rozpoczął swoją podróż po miastach gospodarzach. Na sto dni przed pierwszym meczem, w mieście Nyon w Szwajcarii odbyła się ceremonia wypuszczenia balonu w kształcie Pucharu Euro, w której uczestniczył Prezydent UEFA Michael Platini. Balon o wysokości 35 m podróżował wokół wszystkich 8 miast-gospodarzy, przypominając kibicom o zbliżającym się turnieju. +Drużyna Hiszpanii – zwycięzcy poprzedniej edycji turnieju Euro – otrzymała na ręce kapitana reprezentacji Ikera Casillasa nową wersję Pucharu Henriego Delaunay'a. Druga wersja trofeum jest oparta na pierwowzorze nazwanym na cześć Henriego Delaunay'a, zaprojektowanym przez Arthusa-Bertranda w 1960 roku, byłego prezesa Francuskiego Związku Piłki Nożnej i pierwszego sekretarza generalnego UEFA. +Puchar, wykonany ze srebra, waży 8 kilogramów i mierzy 60 centymetrów, i jest 18 cm wyższy oraz 2 kilogramy cięższy od oryginału. Srebrna podstawa jest większa, nadając pucharowi większą stabilność. Nazwy krajów, które dotychczas wygrały rozgrywki i poprzednio widniały na cokole, zostały wygrawerowane na odwrocie. Puchar został zaprojektowany przez Pierre Delaunaya, syna Henriego, wizjonera turniejów Mistrzostw Europy UEFA. Pierwowzór był dziełem złotnika Chobillona, natomiast obecny wykonał przez zakład złotniczy Asprey z Londynu. +Oferta polsko-ukraińska. +Zarówno dla Polski, jak i Ukrainy udział w postępowaniu konkursowym o organizację piłkarskich mistrzostw Europy był pierwszą w historii próbą starania się o przeprowadzenie wielkiej imprezy futbolowej. Wiosną 2003 roku wstępną koncepcję zorganizowania ME na Ukrainie po raz pierwszy publicznie zaprezentował prezes Ukraińskiego Związku Piłki Nożnej (FFU) Hryhorij Surkis. Uznał on jednak, iż sama Ukraina nie ma zbyt wielkich szans na przyznanie tak wielkiej imprezy, przekonał więc do swojego pomysłu władze Polskiego Związku Piłki Nożnej (PZPN). W sierpniu 2003 w trakcie posiedzenia FFU w Kijowie odbyły się wstępne rozmowy między Surkisem i przedstawicielem PZPN Adamem Olkowiczem. 27 września 2003 doszło we Lwowie do podpisania umowy o współpracy między PZPN i FFU (było to zarazem pierwsze w dziejach zagraniczne posiedzenie polskiej futbolowej centrali, jednak – aby przestrzegać przepisów – najważniejsze uchwały przegłosowano między Rzeszowem i Przemyślem – w autokarze wiozącym polskich delegatów do Lwowa). Podpisano tam trzy dokumenty: uchwałę o wspólnej organizacji Euro 2012, 5-letnią umowę o współpracy między federacjami oraz listy do ówczesnych prezydentów obu państw: Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego i Leonida Kuczmy z prośbą o poparcie starań. +Partnerzy kandydatury. +Istotnym elementem starań danego kraju o organizację Mistrzostw Europy w piłce nożnej jest przekonanie UEFA, że jego kandydatura cieszy się poparciem rządu, społeczeństwa oraz biznesu. +Jednym z istotnych elementów prezentacji polsko-ukraińskiej kandydatury, przedstawionej na zamkniętej dla mediów prezentacji w Cardiff, obok wystąpień prezesów piłkarskich federacji piłkarskich – Michała Listkiewicza (PZPN) i Hrihorija Surkisa (FFU), trenerów reprezentacji narodowych – Leo Beenhakkera i Ołeha Błochina, było wspólne wystąpienie prezydentów Polski i Ukrainy – Lecha Kaczyńskiego i Wiktora Juszczenki, dających gwarancje państwowe. Polsko-ukraińska prezentacja w Cardiff była również czynnie wspierana przez gwiazdy sportowe: Irenę Szewińską, Włodzimierza Smolarka, Jerzego Dudka, Witalija Kłyczkę oraz zdobywcę Złotej Piłki Andrija Szewczenkę. +Polsko-ukraińska kandydatura otrzymała wsparcie strony rządowej. Zarówno w postaci udzielonych gwarancji rządowych, czyli zapewnienia UEFA, że w przypadku wyboru Polski i Ukrainy rząd dopełni wszelkich starań, żeby Mistrzostwa Europy odbyły się, jak i w formie finansowej. Rządy Polski i Ukrainy przekazały po 10 milionów złotych każdy na przygotowanie oferty. +Po 3,5–letnich przygotowaniach kandydatury, 18 kwietnia 2007 wspólna misja zakończyła się pełnym sukcesem. +Procedura wyboru gospodarza. +Do finałowego etapu Komitet Wykonawczy UEFA zdecydował się wybrać 3 kandydatury: włoską, chorwacko-węgierską i polsko-ukraińską. Grecja (z 2 głosami) i Turcja (6 głosów) zostały wcześniej wyeliminowane. Gospodarza Euro 2012 pierwotnie planowano wyłonić 8 grudnia 2006, jednak ze względów formalno-organizacyjnych termin przesunięto o ponad 4 miesiące. +18 kwietnia 2007 w tajnym głosowaniu w Cardiff, przy zachowaniu wymaganego kworum (ośmiu osób), bezwzględną większością głosów wygrała wspólna oferta Polski i Ukrainy, więc druga tura głosowania nie była konieczna. +Organizacja rozgrywek. +Przebieg turnieju. +Do rozgrywek Euro 2012 zakwalifikowało się 16 krajowych męskich reprezentacji seniorskich, które zostały – metodą losowania – podzielone na cztery czterozespołowe grupy. Losowanie odbyło się 2 grudnia 2011 w Kijowie o godzinie 18:00 czasu środkowoeuropejskiego (godz. 20:00 czasu miejscowego). Rywalizacja dwóch grup toczyć się będzie w Polsce, a dwóch pozostałych na Ukrainie. Początkowo zakładano, że schemat rozgrywkowy (tzw. drabinka) ułożony zostanie w ten sposób, by aż do zakończenia półfinałów żadna z drużyn nie musiała przemieszczać się pomiędzy oboma państwami. Tylko kibice reprezentacji, która awansuje do finału turnieju, mieliby przemieścić się z Polski na Ukrainę. Plany te nie zostały jednak uwzględnione przy ustalaniu terminarza opublikowanego przez UEFA 4 października 2010 roku. +Komitet organizacyjny. +26 kwietnia 2007 Prezes Rady Ministrów Jarosław Kaczyński podpisał zarządzenie w sprawie powołania Międzyresortowego Zespołu – Komitetu Organizacyjnego Mistrzostw Europy w Piłce Nożnej UEFA EURO 2012. W skład komitetu weszli przedstawiciele władz państwowych, samorządów, organizacji społecznych oraz mediów. Na czele Komitetu Organizacyjnego w Polsce stanął premier Jarosław Kaczyński, natomiast na Ukrainie prezydent Ukrainy Wiktor Juszczenko. +14 maja 2007 Minister Sportu i Turystyki Tomasz Lipiec powołał Macieja Grześkowiaka na stanowisko "szefa sztabu organizacyjnego Mistrzostw Europy w Piłce Nożnej Euro 2012". 24 lipca 2007 został on jednak odwołany i zastąpił go Michał Borowski powołany przez nową minister sportu Elżbietę Jakubiak. Zostały również powołane spółki celowe do koordynacji mistrzostw PL.2012 oraz budowy stadionów Narodowe Centrum Sportu. +Prawo o Euro 2012. +Zasady przygotowania turnieju Euro 2012 reguluje tzw. "ustawa o Euro 2012". Rządowy projekt wpłynął do Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 3 września 2007, jako druk sejmowy nr 2114. Prace nad projektem prowadziła Komisja Nadzwyczajna do rozpatrzenia projektów ustaw związanych z koalicyjnym programem rządowym "„Solidarne Państwo”", wprowadzono poprawki do projektu. Już 7 września 2007 przeprowadzono głosowanie w sprawie przyjęcia całości projektu ustawy – uchwalono ją na posiedzeniu nr 47 Sejmu V kadencji. 410 posłów było za, 0 przeciw, 2 wstrzymało się (głosowanie nr 103). Senat Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej nie wniósł poprawek. Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Lech Kaczyński podpisał ustawę 19 września 2007. W ustawie określono m.in. podmioty wykonujące przedsięwzięcia związane z turniejem i warunki ułatwiające organizację mistrzostw oraz sposób realizacji gwarancji rządowych. Na jej mocy tworzone są spółki celowe z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością (takie jak np. PL.2012 Sp. z o.o., która odpowiada za koordynację wszystkich działań związanych z przygotowaniami do imprezy od strony samorządowej i rządowej), które są odpowiedzialne za realizację inwestycji, finansowanych z budżetów państwa i jednostek samorządowych oraz środków Unii Europejskiej. +Euro 2012 – Polska Sp. z o.o. (LOC Poland) oraz LLC LOC Euro 2012 Ukraina (LOC Ukraine), powołane odpowiednio przez Polski Związek Piłki Nożnej i Ukraiński Związek Piłki Nożnej (FFU) na zlecenie UEFA, są organizatorem Finałowego Turnieju ME w piłce nożnej UEFA EURO 2012 ™ w Polsce i na Ukrainie. Ich główne zadania związane są z wdrażaniem usług w wielu dziedzinach, takich jak zakwaterowanie, organizacja uroczystości, transport, przygotowanie miast gospodarzy, programy wsparcia, przygotowanie obozów treningowych, wsparcie techniczne i pozyskanie wolontariuszy zgodnie z wytycznymi UEFA. +Wykaz przedsięwzięć Euro 2012, zawartych w ofercie przyjętej przez UEFA oraz objętych zobowiązaniami i gwarancjami Rady Ministrów lub jednostek samorządu terytorialnego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, a także innych niezbędnych do przeprowadzenia turnieju Mistrzostw Europy w Piłce Nożnej UEFA EURO 2012, został określony rozporządzeniem Rady Ministrów z dnia 12 października 2007 roku w sprawie wykazu przedsięwzięć Euro 2012 (). +Infrastruktura. +Miasta goszczące turniej: Warszawa, Gdańsk, Wrocław, Poznań, Kijów, Lwów oraz centra pobytowe jak np. Kraków są popularnymi destynacjami turystycznymi, w przeciwieństwie do Doniecka i Charkowa zastępującego pierwotną kandydaturę Dniepropetrowska. W związku ze zwycięstwem polsko-ukraińskiej kandydatury i przyznaniem praw do organizacji turnieju oraz wymogami UEFA, Polska zobowiązała się zmodernizować oraz wybudować nowe: linie kolejowe, dworce, porty lotnicze, autostrady, hotele tak aby zapewnić kibicom swobodny dostęp do aren mistrzostw. Przed rozpoczęciem Euro 2012 w Polsce miało istnieć 3 tys. kilometrów autostrad i dróg ekspresowych. W kwietniu 2012 minister transportu Sławomir Nowak poinformował, iż w związku z opóźnieniami przed mistrzostwami nie powstanie odcinek autostrady A1 Stryków-Pyrzowice i nie uda się też ukończyć odcinków A1 Toruń-Stryków oraz A4. +Aktualne oznaczenia Dróg Transeuropejskich: "E28, E30, E40, E50, E58, E67, E75, E77, E95, E105, E261, E371, E372, E373, E462, E577, E584"; Dróg Szybkiego ruchu i autostrad: "A1, A2, A4, A8, S3, S5, S7, S8, S12, S17, S74, S79, S86" oraz Dróg Ukraińskich: "M03, M04, M05, M06, M07, M08, M09, M10, M11, M12, M14, M18, H01, H02, H08, H11, H13, H16, H20, M40" +Miasta i stadiony. +Mistrzostwa Europy w piłce nożnej w 2012 odbyły się na ośmiu stadionach. Były to: Stadion Narodowy w Warszawie, Stadion Miejski we Wrocławiu, PGE Arena w Gdańsku, Stadion Miejski w Poznaniu, Stadion Olimpijski w Kijowie, Donbas Arena w Doniecku, Stadion Metalist w Charkowie oraz Arena Lwów we Lwowie. Większość, bo 5 z 8 stadionów przygotowywanych na Euro 2012, to całkowicie nowe obiekty (posiadają 4.kategorię UEFA). Pozostałe (w Poznaniu, Charkowie i Kijowie) przeszły gruntowną renowację. Największą areną Mistrzostw był lekkoatletyczny Stadion Olimpijski w Kijowie, mieszczący 70 050 widzów, natomiast największym typowo piłkarskim obiektem był warszawski Stadion Narodowy z widownią dla 58 500 kibiców. +Oprócz 8 miast gospodarzy, w Euro 2012 uczestniczyły inne miejscowości jako Centra Pobytowe na Euro 2012 do treningu dla narodowych drużyn piłkarskich. +Sędziowie. +20 grudnia 2011 roku Komitet Sędziowski UEFA obradujący w Nyonie przedstawił listę 12 sędziów, którzy poprowadzili mecze podczas Mistrzostw. ME 2012 były pierwszą dużą imprezą piłkarską, w której ani jeden mecz nie został poprowadzony przez sędziego z obywatelstwem kraju gospodarza bądź gospodarzy. Spośród sędziów liniowych także nikt nie reprezentował Polski lub Ukrainy. +Eliminacje do Euro 2012. +Grupy eliminacyjne. +Eliminacje grupowe do Euro 2012 rozpoczęły się 11 sierpnia 2010 i trwały do 11 października 2011. Mecze eliminacyjne rozgrywane były we wtorki, piątki i soboty. +Baraże. +Losowanie par barażowych odbyło się w hotelu Sheraton w Krakowie. Mecze barażowe odbyły się 11 i 15 listopada 2011. +Zakwalifikowane drużyny. +W finałach Mistrzostw Europy 2012 wystąpiło szesnaście narodowych reprezentacji w systemie stosowanym od Finałów Euro 1996. Niektóre krajowe federacje piłkarskie proponowały rozszerzenie turnieju do 24 drużyn, ponieważ liczba narodowych federacji gwałtownie się zwiększyła od lat dziewięćdziesiątych, kiedy miało miejsce ostatnie poszerzenie liczby uczestników (53 w kwietniu 2006 w porównaniu do 48 w Euro 1996). W kwietniu 2007 "Komitet Wykonawczy UEFA" oficjalnie zdecydował, że podczas Euro 2012 nie nastąpi poszerzenie. +Dwunastu z szesnastu finalistów uczestniczyło w poprzednim turnieju Euro 2008. Reprezentacja Anglii oraz Reprezentacja Danii w piłce nożnej, które uczestniczyły w Euro 2004 w Portugalii, powróciły po nieobecności w edycji 2008. Reprezentacja Irlandii w piłce nożnej powróciła po 24-letniej absencji w turnieju - był to jej 2 występ w finałach. Reprezentacja Ukrainy w piłce nożnej zadebiutowała jako niepodległe państwo (wcześniej brała udział w mistrzostwach jako część ZSRR). +Podział na koszyki. +Uroczystość ostatecznego "losowania do finałów" UEFA EURO 2012, miała miejsce 2 grudnia 2011 w Ukraińskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Kijowie na Ukrainie. Wielogodzinna ceremonia była prowadzona przez znaną ukraińską dziennikarkę Olgę Freimut oraz polskiego dziennikarza Piotra Sobczyńskiego. Obok Michela Platiniego zasiadł prezes ukraińskiej federacji piłkarskiej Hryhorij Surkis oraz Grzegorz Lato. Głównym punktem było przemówienie prezydenta Wiktora Janukowycza. +Tak jak miało to miejsce w finałach 2004 oraz 2008, szesnastu finalistów zostało podzielonych na cztery "koszyki", używając terminologii UEFA. Gospodarzom przysługiwał przywilej losowania z koszyka nr 1 z Hiszpanią, jako drużyną broniącą tytułu. +W procedurze losowania, do każdej z 4 grup została przypisana jedna drużyna z każdego koszyka. Ustalenie grafiku uzależnione było od miejsca w koszyku (np. A2, A3 lub A4). Z powodów logistycznych, Polska i Ukraina otrzymały miejsca A1 i D1. Piłki były losowane przez poprzednich zawodników drużyn, które zdobyły Mistrzostwa Europy: Horsta Hrubescha, Marco van Bastena, Petera Schmeichela oraz Zinedine'a Zidane'a. +Terminarz Euro 2012. +Faza grupowa. +Jeżeli dwie drużyny uzyskały tę samą liczbę punktów, tę samą liczbę bramek i remisują pod koniec ostatniego meczu grupowego między tymi drużynami, kolejność tych drużyn rozstrzygają rzuty karne, pod warunkiem, że żadne inne drużyny nie uzyskały tej samej liczby punktów we wszystkich meczach grupowych. Jeżeli więcej niż dwie drużyny uzyska tę samą liczbę punktów, stosuje się wyżej wymienione kryteria. +Grupa D. +Źródło: Terminarz EURO 2012 +Faza pucharowa. +Do fazy pucharowej awansują drużyny, które zajęły dwa pierwsze miejsca w każdej grupie. Od tej fazy gra toczy się systemem pucharowym (przegrany odpada). W razie remisu zostanie rozegrana dogrywka, jeśli i ona nie wyłoni zwycięzcy, następuje seria rzutów karnych. +Finał. +MISTRZ EUROPY 2012 +HISZPANIA TRZECI TYTUŁ +Źródło: Terminarz EURO 2012 +Strzelcy. +1 gol. +Gole samobójcze +Transmisje telewizyjne. +Oficjalnym, jedynym nadawcą w Polsce została Telewizja Polska S.A., na Ukrainie "Ukraińska Narodowa Telewizja" (NTU) oraz "Telewizja Ukraina" (TRK). Wszystkie spotkania były transmitowane na żywo w ponad dwustu krajach na świecie. +W przypadku zerwania łączy telewizyjnych mecze Euro 2012 miały być przerywane. Zdecydowano o tym po awarii, która uniemożliwiła większości telewidzów na świecie obejrzenie 21 minut półfinału Niemcy - Turcja w 2008 roku. +W Polsce transmisje można było oglądać w jakości HD: obraz w rozdzielczości 1080i, dźwięk w systemie wielokanałowym Dolby Digital 5.1. +Mecz otwarcia pomiędzy reprezentacjami Polski i Grecji śledziło średnio 12 mln 550 tys. widzów, mecz Polski z Rosją 13 mln 574 tys. widzów, a z Czechami - 12 mln 813 tys. widzów. +Mecz finałowy był dostępny do obejrzenia w technologii 3D. +Franz Beck + +Franz Ignaz Beck (20 lutego 1734, Mannheim - 31 grudnia 1809, Bordeaux) to niemiecki kompozytor. +Uczył się grać pod okiem swego ojca Johanna Aloysa Becka oraz Johanna Stamitza w Mannheim. Potem pracował w Wenecji i Neapolu. Od 1750 przebywa najpierw w Marsylii a potem w Bordeaux. Najbardziej znanym jego utworem jest "Stabat Mater" z 1783. +Komponował głównie symfonie. +LVG C.V + +LVG C.V – niemiecki samolot wielozadaniowy (rozpoznawczy i bombowy). Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w niemieckich zakładach lotniczych Luft-Verkehrs-Gesselschaft. +Historia. +Samolot wielozadaniowy LVG C.V jest kolejnym samolotem zaprojektowanym w przez inż. Franza Schneidera z niemieckich zakładów lotniczych Luft-Verkehrs-Gesselschaft (LVG). +Pierwszym z serii samolotów wielozadaniowych był zbudowany w 1913 roku prototyp oznaczony jako LVG A.I w układzie dwupłata. Następnie na przełomie 1913 – 1914 roku rozpoczęto produkcję dwumiejscowych samolotów rozpoznawczych i szkolnych LVG B.I i LVG B.II, a w 1915 roku kolejny samolot szkolny LVG B.III. Pod koniec 1914 roku powstał samolot doświadczalny LVG E.I, który stał się początkiem serii wojskowych samolotów wielozadaniowych dla niemieckiego lotnictwa w toczącej się I wojnie światowej. Pierwszym samolotem z tej serii był samolot rozpoznawczy LVG C.II w układzie dwupłatu, dwumiejscowy zbudowany w 1915 roku. Jego ulepszoną wersją był budowany od 1916 roku samolot LVG C.IV. Lecz do najbardziej znanych i powszechnie stosowanych przez lotnictwo niemieckie w I wojnie światowej należały samoloty wielozadaniowe LVG C.V i LVG C.VI budowane od końca 1916 roku. +Samolot LVG C.V był dobrze opracowany pod względem aerodynamicznym i miał stosunkowo mocną konstrukcję. Kadłub miał konstrukcję drewnianą kratownicową. Z przodu kadłuba mieścił się silnik rzędowy Benz, chłodzony cieczą z charakterystyczną wyprowadzoną do góry rurą wylotową spalin ze wszystkich cylindrów oraz usytuowaną za nią rurą zasysającą powietrze. Za silnikiem znajdowały się dwie kabiny – pierwsza pilota, tuż za nią druga obserwatora. Na końcu kadłuba umieszczono usterzenie klasyczne o kształcie eliptycznym – poziome proste, pionowe skośne. Pokrycie kadłuba stanowiła z przodu przy silniku blacha aluminiowa, za silnikiem sklejka. Płaty o konstrukcji drewnianej i kształcie prostokątnym, na końcach lekko zaokrąglone, był usztywniony słupkami i cięgnami stalowymi. Lotki umieszczono tylko na górnym płacie, w którym również znajdował się zbiornik paliwa i na zewnątrz pośrodku chłodnica cieczy. Płaty i usterzenie pokryte było płótnem. +Samolot LVG C.V zostały zastosowane przez Niemców w działania wojennych w drugiej połowie 1917 roku, na początku na froncie zachodnim, a potem od 1918 roku także na innych frontach m.in. w Palestynie. Używano ich do rozpoznania fotograficznego, do współpracy z artylerią i jako lekkie bombowce. +Ogółem wyprodukowano ponad 1200 samolotów wielozadaniowych LVG C.V. Oprócz nich w zakładach LVG do końca wojny produkowano następne wersje samolotów wojskowych: od 1917 roku samolot rozpoznawczy LVG C.VI, od 1918 roku samoloty rozpoznawcze LVG C.VII, LVG C.VIII i LVG C.IX; jednomiejscowe samoloty myśliwskie: w 1917 roku LVG D.II, LVG D.III i LVG D.IV, w 1918 – LVG D.V i LVG D.VI oraz dwumiejscowe samoloty bombowe: w 1915 roku LVG G.I, w 1917 – LVG G.II i w 1918 – LVG G.III. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +Po zakończeniu I wojny światowej w 1919 roku oddziały polskie na terenie Małopolski przejęły od Niemców 7 samolotów LVG C.V. W 1920 roku w warsztatach na lotnisku Ławica w Poznaniu ze zdobytych części zmontowano jeszcze w lipcu i sierpniu 42 samoloty tego typu. +Samoloty te skierowani do eskadr wywiadowczych: 4., 6., 8., 12. i 14.. Do eskadr tych włączono również 12 nowych samolotów LVG C.V i LVG C.VI zakupionych w Niemczech. Eskadry te wzięły udział w walkach w latach 1919 – 1920, w tym w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej. +Opis techniczny samolotu LVG C.V. +Samolot LVG C.V był dwumiejscowym samolotem wielozadaniowym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd – 1 silnik rzędowy, śmigło drewniane, dwułopatowe. +Holographic Versatile Disc + +Uniwersalny dysk holograficzny (ang. "Holographic Versatile Disc" - HVD) – technologia nośników optycznych nowej generacji, mogąca teoretycznie pomieścić 3,9 TB danych na płycie jednowarstwowej. +[[Plik:HVDstruct.png|thumb|right|250px|Struktura płyty HVD +1. Zielony laser zapisu/odczytu (532nm) +2. Czerwony laser pozycjonujący/adresujący (650nm) +3. Hologram niosący informację +4. Warstwa poliwęglanowa +5. Warstwa fotopolimerowa (z danymi) +6. Warstwy dystansujące +7. Warstwa dichroiczna +8. Aluminiowa warstwa odbijająca +9. Podłoże przezroczyste +P. PIT]] +Nośniki te pozwalają na zapis danych w przestrzeni trójwymiarowej dysku wielkości 13 cm. W napędach stosuje się dwa rodzaje laserów: zielony oraz czerwony. +Historia. +W latach 80. firma IBM zaczęła interesować się wykorzystaniem holografii do przechowywania danych, tworząc urządzenia zdolne do zapisu holograficznego (zajmowały znaczną powierzchnię i wymagały laserów dużej mocy). Prace nad nośnikami holograficznymi rozpoczął rosyjski ośrodek badawczy. Jednak problemy technologiczne nie pozwoliły na opracowanie wygodnych systemów do przechowywania danych na nośnikach optycznych. Dopiero 16 września 2004 roku na konferencji COST Action P8 firma Optware przedstawiła nośniki do zapisu holograficznego, oraz moduł głowicy zapisu/odczytu. Obecnie holografią zajęła się organizacja o nazwie HVD Forum, skupiająca firmy zainteresowane HVD. +Ekspektatywa + +O "ekspektatywie odrębnej własności lokalu" wspomina ustawodawca w art. 19 ust. 1 Ustawy o spółdzielniach mieszkaniowych. Ekspektatywa odrębnej własności lokalu jest roszczeniem o ustanowienie przez spółdzielnię odrębnej własności lokalu na rzecz osoby, z którą spółdzielnia zawarła umowę o budowę lokalu (o której mowa w art. 18 ust. 1 Ustawy o spółdzielniach). Roszczenie to powstaje z chwilą zawarcia umowy o budowę lokalu. Ekspektatywa odrębnej własności lokalu podlega też egzekucji, a zatem może w drodze egzekucji przejść na inne osoby. +Istnieje możliwość scedowania ekspektatywy wierzytelności na inne podmioty (umowa przyrzeczona zbywalna). +Gwiazda południa + +Gwiazda Południa (fr. "L’Étoile du sud", 1884) − jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 24 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w 1895 +Uparty Keraban + +Uparty Keraban (tytuł przekładany był jako Keraban uparty) +(fr. "Kéraban-le-Têtu", 1883) - dwutomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 17 rozdziałów (1. tom) oraz 16 rozdziałów (2. tom). +Pierwszy polski przekład (w odcinkach) pojawił się w 1884 +Pryzmatoid + +Pryzmatoid to typ wielościanu, którego wszystkie wierzchołki leżą na dwóch równoległych płaszczyznach. +formula_1 +Przykładami pryzmatoidów są prostopadłościan, graniastosłup, ostrosłup, antygraniastosłup, pryzma. +34 Pułk Piechoty (II RP) + +34 Pułk Piechoty (34 pp) – oddział piechoty Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Pułk brał udział w walkach w 1919 oraz w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej w roku 1920. +Święto pułkowe obchodził 8 maja w rocznicę bitwy pod Rzeczycą i zwycięstwa nad Dnieprem w 1920. +W 1939 w trakcie kampanii wrześniowej walczył w składzie 9 Dywizji Piechoty. +Formowanie. +34 Pułk Piechoty powstał 7 grudnia 1918 z 2 Pułku Piechoty PSZ ("Polnische Wehrmacht") oraz członków POW i ochotników z Podlasia. Już 1 listopada 1918 r. na rozkaz władz wojskowych polskich do Dęblina przybył na czele niewielkiego oddziału mjr Aleksander Jerzy Narbutt-Łuczyński. Zażądał i wyegzekwował on tego samego dnia od komendanta twierdzy – austriackiego mjr. Nemansky'ego wydanie twierdzy w ręce polskie. Wycofujący się w popłochu Austriacy przekazali twierdzę Dęblin ze wszystkimi magazynami i składami wojskowymi. Początkowo Pułk przyjął nazwę "4 Pułk Piechoty" (powstał tylko 1 batalion kpt. Ludwika Bittnera). Z rozkazu Sztabu Generalnego z dnia 7 grudnia 1918 4 Pułk Piechoty został przemianowany na 34 Pułk Piechoty. Mjr Aleksander Łuczyński został zatwierdzony na stanowisku dowódcy pułku. Nowo tworzący się pułk otrzymał jako kadrę oficerską od Dowództwa Okręgu Generalnego – Lublin 36 oficerów z kursów oficerskich dla oficerów z byłej armii carskiej w Zajezierzu k. Dęblina. Inni oficerowie i podoficerowie rekrutowali się spośród Legionów oraz z armii austriackiej. Mjr Aleksander Łuczyński aby ułatwić trud organizacyjny stworzył 15 grudnia baon etapowy nr 34 przeznaczony do służby garnizonowej i wartowniczej w twierdzy Dęblin. Jednocześnie stworzył 3 półbataliony o pełnej kadrze oficerskiej (zamierzał je w przyszłości rozwinąć do pełnych etatów). W końcu grudnia DOG – Lublin zażądało bezzwłocznego wystawienia przynajmniej jednego pełnego batalionu na potrzeby frontu lwowskiego. Z kadry oficerskiej III półbaonu oraz z szeregowych pozostałych półbatalionów został zorganizowany naprędce III batalion pod dowództwem kpt. Bębenkowskiego. 31 grudnia III batalion został przetransportowany z Dęblina do Białej Podlaskiej, opuszczonej dopiero przez Niemców. Po kilku dniach pobytu w Białej Podlaskiej został na rozkaz DOG – Lublin zawrócony do Dęblina. W międzyczasie I i II półbataliony zostały już uzupełnione przez napływających ochotników. W dniach 7-14 stycznia 1919 r. cały pułk stopniowo przetransportowano do Białej Podlaskiej, gdzie został włączony do Grupy gen. Listowskiego. W tym okresie pułk czerpał uzbrojenie i umundurowanie z dęblińskiej twierdzy. Bataliony pułku zostały wyposażone w karabiny włoskie i austriackie zaś umundurowanie i ekwipunek były poniemieckie. +Walki o granice. +Cechą charakterystyczną działań pododdziałów pułku do lata 1919 był ich udział w walkach w rozproszeniu. W końcu stycznia 1919 pułk wszedł w skład poleskiej grupy operacyjnej Na początku lutego Niemcy chcą przekazać miasto i twierdzę Brześć Ukraińcom. Dowódca grupy gen. Listowski zorganizował uderzenie uprzedzające. Dwie kompanie pułku pod dowództwem por. Jana Sokołowskiego otrzymały rozkaz zdobycia Kobylan i Błotkowa. Natarcie wspierała 4 bateria 7 pap oraz 4 szwadron 2 p.uł. Na Brześć uderzono 5 lutego bez powodzenia. Pododdziały 22 pułku nie weszły do walki. Po pertraktacjach, 9 lutego Niemcy przekazali jednak Brześć i Terespol gen. Listowskiemu. Po zajęciu miast pułk przegrupowano koleją do Kobrynia. Zorganizował on tam obronę rzeki Muchawiec. 17 lutego Rosjanie zajęli Antopol. Na miejscowość uderzył szwadron rtm. Żelisławskiego wzmocniony pododdziałem białogwardzistów oraz kompanią 34 pułku. Natarcie odniosło sukces. Bój pod Antopolem był pierwszym starciem wojsk polskich i sowieckich. +W kwietniu dowódca grupy operacyjnej postanowił zdobyć Łuniniec. 4 kwietnia wzdłuż toru kolejowego Pińsk – Łuniniec uderzył III batalion por. Kazimierza Glińskiego, a z Porzecza przez Łohiszyn nacierały dwie kompanie II batalionu pod dowództwem por. Wincentego Wolskiego. Z Sokołówki przez Waliszcze uderzył oddział partyzancki por. Koja wzmocniony pozostałymi kompaniami II bp. Natarcie nie uzyskało powodzenia. Kolejne próby zdobycia ważnego węzła drogowo kolejowego również nie powiodły się. +5 kwietnia 1919 roku, w Pińsku, z rozkazu majora Aleksandra Łuczyńskiego żołnierze pułku rozstrzelali 35 osób narodowości żydowskiej (zob. Masakra w Pińsku). +1 lipca wojska frontu litewsko-białoruskiego podjęły ofensywę w celu zajęcia Mińska i wyjścia na rubież Dźwiny i Berezyny. 3 lipca znad kanału Ogińskiego i Jesiołdy uderzył działający już całością sił 34 pułk piechoty. Dobrze prowadzone kilkudniowe działania piechoty i kawalerii przyniosły sukces i 10 lipca 1919 pododdziały pułku weszły do Łunińca. +4 lipca 1920 na froncie północnym do natarcia przeszły armie Michaiła Tuchaczewskiego. Ofensywa Rosjan spowodowała załamanie całego frontu polskiego. 9 Dywizja wycofywała się w kierunku Mozyrza. Pułk wrócił do swych zimowych stanowisk obronnych nad Ptyczę. 9 czerwca opuszczono stanowiska. Znad Ptyczy pułki rozpoczęły dalszy odwrót 9 lipca. 16 lipca pułk odszedł od odwodu Naczelnego Wodza i zgrupował się w okolicach Grodna. +Od 20 lipca pułk walczył w rejonie Grodna z 3 Korpusem Kawalerii Gaj Chana. Gaj Chan tak wspomina te walki: "Straciłem 500 ludzi zabitych i rannych. 400 koni i 7 dni drogiego czasu". +24 lipca wycofywał się drogą Kuźnica – Sokółka. W rejonie Sokółki przebił się przez szyki bolszewickiej 15 Dywizji Kawalerii. 27 lipca koło Tykocina przekroczyła Narew i tam zorganizował obronę. +31 lipca wycofano się znad Narwi. 2 sierpnia walczono w rejonie Mężenina. Tu odniesiono sukces. Przeciwnikowi zadano dotkliwe straty. Jednak pod Jabłonką pułk został rozbity. Stracił blisko 3/4 stanu osobowego oraz większość karabinów maszynowych i taborów. Tylko około 300 żołnierzom udało się dołączyło do XVIII BP w okolicach Wyszkowa. 34 pułk przeszedł reorganizację w Pabianicach. Wrócił do dywizji do Białej Podlaskiej we wrześniu 1920. +Pułk w okresie pokoju. +Pułk stacjonował w garnizonie Biała Podlaska. +W pułku zorganizowano specjalną kompanię dla opóźnionych, która szkoliła rekrutów dla potrzeb całego DOK. Żołnierze ci wcześniej z różnych przyczyn opóźnili swoje stawiennictwo w macierzystej jednostce. +Kampania wrześniowa. +W 1939 w trakcie kampanii wrześniowej walczył w składzie 9 Dywizji Piechoty. +W chwili rozpoczęcia wojny pułk wraz z dywizją znajdował się w odwodzie Armii Pomorze. W dniu 1 września wykonując marsz w rejon Piły-Młyna w celu zajęcia pozycji obronnych nad rzeką Brdą stoczył walkę z Niemcami w rejonie Pruszcza, Bagienicy i Gostycyna. I batalion skutecznie bronił Gostycyna, III batalion został rozbity przez oddziały 3 DPanc. w lesie na wschód od Pruszcza. II batalion zajmował pozycje w rejonie Łyskowa. +2 września nacierał w składzie dywizji, w ogólnym kierunku na Sokole-Kuźnicę. Ciężkie straty poniósł II batalion walczący w rejonie mostu w Sokole-Kuźnicy, ranny został wówczas dowódca pułku. I batalion osłaniał uderzenie 35 Pułku Piechoty na Klonowo. W dniu 3 września pułk pod dowództwem mjr. Jana Klakla przebijał się w składzie 9 DP w kierunku Świecia. +3 września 1939 po walkach w rejonie Terespola Pomorskiego większość żołnierzy pułku dostała się do niewoli niemieckiej. Z rozbitków został sformowany batalion, który następnie wszedł w skład Grupy ppłk. dypl. Jana Maliszewskiego osłaniającego od północy działania w bitwie nad Bzurą. Dowódca pułku, ppłk dypl. Wacław Budrewicz dwukrotnie ranny w walkach na Pomorzu został przewieziony do szpitala w Brześciu nad Bugiem. Po dostaniu się do sowieckiej niewoli został zamordowany w 1940  r. +Batalion marszowy 34 pp pod dowództwem kpt. Tadeusza Radziszewskiego walczył w obronie Brześcia. +Żołnierze pułku. +Obsada personalna pułku w 1924 r. +Obsada personalna pułku w 1928 r. +Odznaczeni srebrnym krzyżem Orderu „Virtuti Militari” V klasy za wojnę 1918-1920Spis utworzony na podstawie "Zarys historji wojennej 34-go pułku piechoty" s. 56 +Symbole pułkowe. +Sztandar. +Odznaka pamiątkowa +Zatwierdzona Dz. Rozk. MSWojsk. nr 4, poz. 39 z 29 lutego 1932 roku. Odznaka ma kształt krzyża o ostro ściętych końcach ramion, pokrytych białą emalią z czarną obwódką. Na środku krzyża nałożona jest sześcioboczna tarcza pokryta amarantową emalią że srebrnym orłem typu jagiellońskiego. Ramiona krzyża połączone są wieńcem laurowo dębowym, w który wpleciono dwa skrzyżowane miecze. Na ramionach krzyża wpisano numer, daty powstania pułku i ustanowienia odznaki 34 7-12-18 7-12-19. Trzyczęściowa – oficerska, wykonana z tombaku srebrzonym, emaliowana, na rewersie numerowana. Wymiary: 40×40 mm. Wykonanie: Józef Michrowski - Warszawa. +Stormtroopers of Death + +Stormtroopers of Death (szerzej znany pod skrótową nazwą S.O.D.) – amerykański zespół rockowy, założony w 1985 w Nowym Jorku przez lidera zespołu Anthrax – Scotta Iana. Uważany za jednego z twórców (obok D.R.I.) stylu crossover thrash czyli połączenia stylistyki hardcore punk i heavy metalu. +Biografia. +Pomysł założenia zespołu powstał w czasie nagrywania płyty. Ian w wolnym czasie notował pomysły na nowe piosenki. W efekcie narodziła się idea utworzenia nowego projektu muzycznego. Ian przedstawił Danowi Lilkerowi (ówczesnemu basiście Anthrax), Charliemu Benante (perkusja) i mającemu śpiewać Billy'emu Milano (poznany przez Iana w nowojorskim klubie CBGB's) 10 kompozycji. Resztę utworów czwórka muzyków napisała w dzień przed nagraniem albumu. Nagrania i miksowanie w studio "Pyramid Sound" w Nowym Jorku zajęły 3 dni. Pierwszy album zawierał 21 utworów i do dziś zaskakuje ilością pomysłów, humorem i ciężkością materiału muzycznego. Po ukazaniu się albumu S.O.D. ruszył w krótką trasę koncertową. +W 1992 koncert zarejestrowany w klubie "The Ritz" ukazał się jako album koncertowy "Live At Budokan". 7 lat później zespół wypuścił na rynek kolejny album studyjny, "Bigger Than the Devil". Płyta nie była jednak tak nowatorska i interesująca jak pierwsza. +S.O.D. był zawsze bardziej projektem niż zespołem; działał z dużymi przerwami do początku XXI wieku Billy Milano założył równolegle działający Methods of Destruction (M.O.D.), który stał się kontynuatorem S.O.D. +Adam Podgórecki + +Adam Podgórecki (ur. 16 grudnia 1925 w Krakowie, zm. 18 sierpnia 1998 w Ottawie) – polski socjolog prawa, profesor doktor habilitowany. +Życiorys. +Był profesorem Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, współtwórcą Instytutu Profilaktyki Społecznej i Resocjalizacji. Kierował Zakładem Socjologii Norm i Patologii Społecznej. Uważany za kontynuatora pracy naukowej Leona Petrażyckiego i Marii Ossowskiej. Usunięty wraz z gronem współpracowników z uczelni (pod zarzutem "antypaństwowej działalności naukowej"), w 1977 wyjechał z Polski. Był przez kilkanaście lat profesorem Uniwersytetu Carleton w Ottawie, gościnnie wykładał także na uniwersytetach w Chicago, Filadelfii, w Oxfordzie, na Stanford University i innych uczelniach. Członek Polskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego na Obczyźnie (od 1983). +W gronie jego uczniów na UW byli m.in. Andrzej Celiński (działacz „Solidarności”, potem polityk Unii Demokratycznej, Unii Wolności, SLD oraz SdPl), Andrzej Kojder (profesor UW, b. podsekretarz stanu w Kancelarii Prezydenta Wałęsy, b. przewodniczący Polskiego Towarzystwa Socjologicznego), profesorowie Kazimierz Frieske, Jacek Kurczewski, Jerzy Kwaśniewski ("spadkobierca" katedry). +Był autorem ponad 20 książek i kilkuset publikacji naukowych. Zajmował się teorią socjologii, metodologią socjotechniki, socjologią prawa i moralności, dewiacją społeczną, wiedzą o państwie. Wydał także około 50 tomów przypowieści fikcyjnego mędrca chińskiego Si-tiena. +W należącym do Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego Pałacu Zamoyskich znajduje się Sala im. prof. Adama Podgóreckiego. +Antonio Bazzini + +Antonio Bazzini (ur. 11 marca 1818 w Brescii, zm. 10 lutego 1897 w Mediolanie) – włoski kompozytor i skrzypek. +Występował jako skrzypek wirtuoz. Po zakończeniu kariery skrzypka został dyrektorem konserwatorium w Mediolanie. Jego uczniem był między innymi Giacomo Puccini. Komponował głównie utwory na skrzypce oraz wokalne, kameralne i na orkiestrę. +Katastrofa lotnicza pod Palomares + +Wypadek lotniczy z dnia 17 stycznia 1966 roku, do którego doszło w pobliżu miejscowości Palomares. W wyniku zderzenia pomiędzy amerykańskimi samolotami podczas wykonywania manewru tankowania w powietrzu katastrofie uległ amerykański bombowiec strategiczny B-52 z czterema bombami termojądrowymi na pokładzie. W wyniku katastrofy bomby opadły na obszar wybrzeża wywołując skażenie radioaktywne. +Katastrofa. +17 stycznia 1966 amerykański bombowiec strategiczny typu Boeing B-52 Stratofortress odbywał rutynowy manewr tankowania w powietrzu z latającej cysterny typu KC-135. Podczas manewru bombowiec zbliżył się zbyt mocno do cysterny, wskutek czego wysięgnik podajnika paliwa wbił się w kadłub. Nastąpił zapłon paliwa w podajniku, a następnie w głównych zbiornikach KC-135. Wybuch zbiorników spowodował zniszczenie KC-135 oraz przełamanie kadłuba bombowca. Cała 4-osobowa załoga KC-135 zginęła w katastrofie. Spośród 7-osobowej załogi B-52 jedynie czterem lotnikom udało się pomyślnie katapultować z samolotu. +Upadek bomb w rejonie wybrzeża. +Podczas katastrofy złamaniu uległa konstrukcja mocująca 4 bomby termojądrowe typu MK28FI. Wszystkie bomby zostały uwolnione i wypadły z uszkodzonego bombowca. Mimo iż bomby nie były uzbrojone, automatyczne systemy kontroli opadania zadziałały i otworzyły spadochrony hamujące (służące oryginalnie do opóźnienia detonacji bomby w przypadku zrzutu na niskiej wysokości). Trzy z bomb opadły na ląd w pobliżu rybackiej wioski Palomares. Czwarta wpadła do morza. +Akcja zabezpieczenia bomb. +Trzy z bomb MK28FI szybko odnaleziono w pobliżu Palomares. Czwartą udało się odnaleźć i wydobyć dopiero po 81 dniach akcji prowadzonej z użyciem okrętu USS "Petrel" oraz batyskafów Aluminaut i DSV Alvin. Kluczowe dla sukcesu akcji wydobywczej czwartej bomby były informacje jednego z lokalnych rybaków, który widział opadającą na spadochronie do morza bombę. +Skażenie radioaktywne. +Dwie spośród bomb, które opadły na ląd zostały poważnie uszkodzone wskutek uderzenia. Uszkodzenia te spowodowały eksplozję części ładunków konwencjonalnych, przeznaczonych oryginalnie do skoordynowanej eksplozji mającej na celu ściśnięcie i zapoczątkowanie reakcji rozszczepienia plutonu (który w tych typach bomb służył jako zapalnik syntezy termojądrowej). Na skutek tych wybuchów część masy ładunków plutonu została rozrzucona po okolicy powodując skażenie radioaktywne. +Usunięcie skutków skażenia wymagało wywiezienia dużej ilości okolicznej gleby. Pozostałości skażenia są do dziś wykrywalne w rejonie upadku bomb. +Monitor Polski + +Dziennik Urzędowy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej "Monitor Polski" (w praktyce najczęściej używa się nazwy Monitor Polski, oficjalny skrót to M. P.) – dziennik urzędowy wydawany przez Prezesa Rady Ministrów, służący do urzędowego ogłaszania aktów prawnych wewnętrznie obowiązujących wydawanych przez naczelne organy władzy państwowej. +W odróżnieniu od aktów normatywnych publikowanych w Dzienniku Ustaw, akty prawne ogłaszane w Monitorze Polskim nie mogą być źródłem praw i obowiązków dla obywateli. +Obok Monitora Polskiego wydawany jest także Dziennik Urzędowy Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej "Monitor Polski B". Służy on przede wszystkim do publikacji sprawozdań finansowych. +Édouard Lucas + +François Édouard Anatole Lucas (ur. 4 kwietnia 1842 w Amiens - zm. 3 października 1891 w Paryżu ) - francuski matematyk. +Studiował w Ecole Normale Superieure w Paryżu, służył w armii francuskiej i był profesorem matematyki w Paryżu. W pracy naukowej zajmował się algebrą. Od jego nazwiska nazwano ciąg Lucasa. +Badał ciąg Fibonacciego i podał wzór na n-ty wyraz ciągu. Opracowywał metody testowania pierwszości liczb (Test Lucasa-Lehmera). +Interesował się rozrywkowymi zastosowaniami matematyki. W 1883 roku wymyślił grę zwaną Wieże Hanoi, którą rozprowadzał pod pseudonimem "N.Claus de Siam" (anagram od "Lucas d'Amiens"). +Obrona Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku + +Obrona Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku – jedno z pierwszych starć zbrojnych II wojny światowej, obrona gmachu Poczty Polskiej w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku przez zorganizowaną grupę polskich pocztowców. Trwała od rana do wieczora 1 września 1939 r. +Poczta Polska w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku. +Urząd Gdańsk 1 stał się od 1930 głównym polskim urzędem pocztowym w Gdańsku. Mieściła się w nim między innymi centrala telefoniczna z bezpośrednim połączeniem z Polską. Szacuje się, że w 1939 na Poczcie Polskiej pracowało nieco ponad 100 osób. +Do kwietnia 1939 komórką samoobrony Poczty Polskiej kierował Alfons Flisykowski. Większość pocztowców należało zaś do tajnej organizacji Związku Strzeleckiego, której członkowie byli szkoleni na kursach w Polsce. +Od kwietnia dowództwo przejął ppor. Konrad Guderski, który został przysłany do Gdańska przez Sztab Główny Wojska Polskiego. Zajął się on szkoleniem pocztowców oraz przygotowaniem do obrony. W tym celu wycięte zostały drzewa otaczające gmach poczty oraz zabezpieczone wejście do budynku. W połowie sierpnia załogę poczty wzmocniono dziesięcioma pracownikami, którzy zostali oddelegowani z Gdyni i Bydgoszczy. +Obrona Poczty Polskiej. +Atak na Pocztę Polską rozpoczął się o godz. 4:45 równocześnie z rozpoczęciem ostrzału Westerplatte przez pancernik Schleswig-Holstein. Nieco wcześniej ok. godz. 4:00 budynek pozbawiono prądu oraz połączenia telefonicznego. +W skład sił niemieckich wchodziły: specjalny oddział gdańskiej Policji Porządkowej (Schutzpolizei) oraz pododdziały SS Wachsturmbann "E" i SS-Heimwehr Danzig. Oddziały te dysponowały oprócz broni ręcznej trzema samochodami pancernymi ADGZ. Atakiem dowodził komendant gdańskiej Policji Porządkowej pułkownik Willi Bethke, zaś odpowiedzialność operacyjną za akcje formacji paramilitarnych ponosił szef gdańskiej policji SS-Oberführer Johannes Schäffer. +W gmachu Poczty Polskiej na placu Heweliusza w Gdańsku przebywały z chwilą ataku Niemców 1 września 1939 następujące osoby: 43 pocztowców polskich z Gdańska, 10 pocztowców delegowanych z Gdyni i Bydgoszczy, oraz jeden kolejarz polski z Gdańska. Dysponowali oni trzema lekkimi karabinami maszynowymi Browning wz. 1928, pistoletami i karabinami oraz pewną ilością granatów ręcznych. Poza tym w budynku przebywali jeszcze: dozorca domu, jego żona i ich 10-letnia wychowanica. +Niemiecki plan ataku (opracowany w lipcu 1939) zakładał zdobycie poczty poprzez przebicie się z sąsiadującego przez ścianę z pocztą budynku Krajowego Urzędu Pracy. Równocześnie trzy grupy szturmowe miały związać siły obrońców i wedrzeć się do gmachu od frontu. +Według założeń opracowanych przez Sztab Główny Wojska Polskiego pocztowcy mieli się utrzymać przez ok. 6 godzin, do czasu przybycia z odsieczą części Armii Pomorze. Pocztowcom, w przeciwieństwie do dowódcy załogi Westerplatte, nie przekazano informacji o wycofaniu Korpusu Interwencyjnego z Pomorza ani nie odwołano polecenia obrony. +Pierwszy atak niemiecki, mimo, że Niemcom udało się wedrzeć do budynku, zakończył się niepowodzeniem i został odparty. Równocześnie został odparty atak od strony Urzędu Pracy, gdzie zostały wybite dziury w ścianach. Podczas tego drugiego szturmu śmierć poniósł (od wybuchu własnego granatu, którym zlikwidował grupę Niemców, atakujących przez dziurę w ścianie) dowódca obrony ppor. Konrad Guderski. +Około godz. 11 siły atakujące zostały wzmocnione dwoma działami 7,5 cm Le.IG 18 kalibru 75 mm. Drugi atak, który miał już wsparcie artyleryjskie, także zakończył się niepowodzeniem napastników. +Około godz. 15 niemiecki dowódca zarządził przerwę w szturmie i dał pocztowcom dwie godziny na kapitulację. Równocześnie została sprowadzona haubica kal. 105 mm, a saperzy wykonali podkop pod ścianą poczty, w którym założyli 600 kilogramowy ładunek wybuchowy. Po upływie ultimatum (o godz. 17) ładunek został odpalony, burząc część ściany budynku, a oddziały niemieckie przy wsparciu trzech dział ruszyły do szturmu zajmując część budowli. W tym czasie obrona została ograniczona do piwnic, gdzie przed ostrzałem schronili się obrońcy. +Około godz. 18 pod pocztę sprowadzono motopompy, które do piwnic wpompowały benzynę podpaloną następnie przy pomocy miotaczy ognia. W wyniku tych działań żywcem spłonęło prawdopodobnie pięciu pocztowców (Brunon Marszałkowski, Stanisław Rekowski, Bronisław Szulc oraz dwaj niezidentyfikowani). +O godz. 19 podjęto decyzję o kapitulacji. Jako pierwszy z płonącego budynku ok. godz. 19 wyszedł dyrektor dr Jan Michoń. Mimo że niósł białą flagę, został przez napastników zastrzelony. To samo spotkało wychodzącego za nim naczelnika poczty Józefa Wąsika (niektóre źródła podają, że został żywcem spalony miotaczem płomieni). +Losy pocztowców po kapitulacji. +Z budynku udało się uciec sześciu pocztowcom. Dwóch z nich: Franciszka Mionskowskiego oraz rannego Alfonsa Flisykowskiego, aresztowano już 2 września i osadzono z pozostałymi obrońcami; pozostała czwórka (Andrzej Górski, Franciszek Mielewczyk, Władysław Milewczyk i Augustyn Młyński) zdołała uciec i przeżyć wojnę. +Pozostali zostali aresztowani i umieszczeni w Prezydium Policji (28 osób), a ranni i poparzeni (16 osób) znaleźli się w szpitalu miejskim. Spośród osób odesłanych do szpitala w wyniku obrażeń zmarło 6 osób (5 w wyniku poparzeń). Najmłodszą ofiarą ataku na pocztę była 10-letnia Erwina Barzychowska, wychowanica dozorcy Jana Pipki i jego żony Małgorzaty. Silnie poparzona miotaczem płomieni (przy próbie opuszczenia gmachu poczty) zmarła w szpitalu po 7 tygodniach strasznych męczarni. +Grupę więzioną w Prezydium Policji przeniesiono po kilku dniach do Victoriaschule, więzienia, w którym w pierwszych dniach wojny więziono i torturowano gdańskich Polaków. Grupa ta była sądzona w pierwszym procesie pocztowców 8 września 1939. +Dalsze losy pocztowców były różne. Ciała tych, którzy zginęli, pochowane zostały na cmentarzu na Zaspie (dzisiejszy Cmentarz Ofiar Hitleryzmu przy ul. Bolesława Chrobrego). Ci, którzy nie zdołali uciec i zostali aresztowani, skazani zostali przez Niemców na karę śmierci i rozstrzelani. Polscy pocztowcy, którzy nie brali udziału w obronie, zostali w większości aresztowani i osadzeni w obozach koncentracyjnych. +Proces pocztowców. +Obrońcy byli sądzeni w dwóch procesach przez sąd polowy brygady generała Friedricha Eberhardta, wchodzącej w skład 3. Armii Georga von Küchlera. 8 września sądzono 28 pocztowców, a 30 września pozostałych 10. Wszyscy zostali skazani na śmierć za bojówkarstwo (niem. Freischärlerei). Podstawą oskarżenia było rozporządzenie o specjalnym wojennym prawie karnym z 1938. +Artykuł trzeci tego rozporządzenia brzmiał: ""partyzantem karanym śmiercią jest ten, kto bez posiadania przewidzianych przez prawo międzynarodowe zewnętrznych odznak przynależności do sił zbrojnych nieprzyjacielskiego mocarstwa, broni albo innych środków używa, lub mając w swoim posiadaniu, w zamiarze użycia na szkodę niemieckiego lub zaprzyjaźnionego wojska albo przynależnego do nich zabija lub podejmuje działanie, które na użytek wojenny mogą podejmować tylko członkowie sił zbrojnych w mundurze"". Wyrok wydał przewodniczący sądu Kurt Bode, a oskarżycielem był radca sądu wojskowego dr Hans Giesecke. Wyrok ostatecznie zatwierdził gen. Walther von Brauchitsch, naczelny dowódca wojsk lądowych. +Wyrok wykonano prawdopodobnie 5 października, około godziny 4 nad ranem, na ćwiczebnym poligonie policji gdańskiej na Zaspie. Pocztowcy zostali rozstrzelani. Jednym z kierujących egzekucją był SS-Sturmbannführer Max Pauly, ówczesny komendant obozu koncentracyjnego Stutthof (w roku 1946 skazany został on przez Brytyjski Trybunał Wojskowy na karę śmierci przez powieszenie). +Rewizja. +W 1995 r. Sąd Krajowy w Lubece przeprowadził rewizję procesu pocztowców, stwierdzając m.in. pogwałcenie reguł postępowania sądowego i naruszenia postanowień IV konwencji haskiej (1907). W jej wyniku zostali oni przez sąd uniewinnieni. Do rozpoczęcia procesu przyczyniła się wydana w tym samym roku książka Dietera Schenka ""Polska Poczta w Gdańsku - historia pewnego niemieckiego morderstwa sądowego"". Wyrok oprócz znaczenia moralnego pozwolił na wystąpienie do rządu niemieckiego o odszkodowanie (zostało ono wypłacone w roku 2001). +Odpowiedzialnych za mord sądowy Hansa Giesecke i Kurta Bode nigdy nie spotkała jakakolwiek kara. Zostali po wojnie zdenazyfikowani. Giesecke został dyrektorem Sądu Krajowego Hesji we Frankfurcie nad Menem, a Bode był sędzią, a potem wiceprezesem Wyższego Sądu Krajowego w Bremie. Zmarli w latach siedemdziesiątych jako cenieni prawnicy. +Wydarzenia powojenne. +Po wojnie dawny Plac Heweliusza otrzymał nazwę Placu Obrońców Poczty Polskiej. Z okazji 40. rocznicy bohaterskiej obrony, 1 września 1979 r. na placu odsłonięto Pomnik Obrońców Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku. W tym samym dniu, w bronionym w 1939 budynku, uruchomiono Urząd Pocztowy Gdańsk 1 oraz Muzeum Poczty i Telekomunikacji. To ostatnie stanowiło przez długi czas oddział Muzeum Poczty i Telekomunikacji we Wrocławiu, a od 1 stycznia 2003 r. włączono je w struktury Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Gdańska pod nazwą Muzeum Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku. +Do 28 sierpnia 1991 r. nie było znane miejsce egzekucji obrońców Poczty Polskiej. Na zbiorowy grób 38 pocztowców natrafili przypadkowo robotnicy prowadzący prace ziemne przy budowie garaży banku na osiedlu Zaspa (między ulicą Burzyńskiego a aleją Jana Pawła II). Ekshumowane szczątki zostały ponownie pochowane na znajdującym się w pobliżu Cmentarzu Ofiar Hitleryzmu w Gdańsku, gdzie spoczywają także pomordowani kolejarze i celnicy z Szymankowa oraz działacze polscy Wolnego Miasta Gdańska zamordowani w Wielki Piątek 22 marca 1940 r. w Stutthofie. +W 1998 roku Rada Miasta Gdańska przyznała obrońcom Poczty Polskiej (łącznie 56 osobom) pośmiertnie tytuły Honorowych Obywateli Miasta Gdańska. +Zespół Leriche'a + +Zespół Leriche'a (łac. "Syndroma Leriche") – zespół chorobowy polegający na niedrożności niektórych tętnic, występujący częściej u mężczyzn. +Przyczyny. +powstała na skutek procesu miażdżycowego (miażdżyca zarostowa tętnic). +Leczenie. +Leczenie zachowawcze. +U chorych, którzy nie mają bólów nocnych i zagrażającej martwicy, u których odległość chromania wynosi powyżej 400 m, należy dążyć do jak najdłuższego utrzymania takiego stanu. Chorzy ci powinni pracować i starać się chodzić, aby w ten sposób rozwijać jak najusilniej krążenie oboczne. +Chorym, którzy mają bóle nocne, należy podawać środki znieczulające w takich ilościach, aby mogli spać. Najczęściej podaje się morfinę, dolantynę i pantopon. Okres ten powinien trwać jak najkrócej do chwili operacyjnego przywrócenia krążenia w kończynie lub w razie niemożności naprawy krążenia — do czasu amputacji. +Leczenie operacyjne. +Jeżeli dystans chromania jest krótszy niż 400 m, choremu powinno się wykonać operacje naprawczą tętnic. Polega ona na wszczepieniu protezy (najczęściej poliestrowej), o kształcie odwróconej litery Y, między drożny odcinek aorty a tętnice udowe na wysokości odejścia tętnic głębokich uda (jest to rodzaj nazywanego potocznie by-passu). Ma ona na celu ominięcie miejsca zwężonego przez proces miażdżycowy. +Również często wykonuje się zabieg angioplastyki zwężonych naczyń, wszczepiając w miejsca stenozy stenty. +Scipione Riva-Rocci + +Scipione Riva-Rocci (ur. 7 sierpnia 1863 w Almese, zm. 15 marca 1937 w Rapallo) – włoski pediatra, wynalazca sfigmomanometru. +Od 1900 kierował szpitalem w Varese, a od 1908 był profesorem na uniwersytecie w Pawii. W 1896 opisał ostateczną wersję aparatu służącego do pomiaru ciśnienia tętniczego nazwanego sfigmomanometrem. Urządzenie to w krótkim czasie rozpowszechniło się na całym świecie i jest używane do dziś. Dominującą metodą pomiaru nie jest jednak metoda Riva-Rocciego, lecz jej modyfikacja dokonana przez Mikołaja Korotkowa – metoda Korotkowa. +Od nazwiska Riva-Rocciego pochodzi do dziś używany symbol określający ciśnienie tętnicze – RR, który, według purystów, powinien być jednak zarezerwowany dla pomiarów dokonywanych metodą Riva-Rocciego. +Nulla poena sine lege + +Nulla poena sine lege – łacińska sentencja prawnicza oznaczająca "nie ma kary bez ustawy". +Organy państwowe działające w systemie prawa stanowionego mogą podjąć działania tylko w zakresie kompetencji które przyznają im obowiązujące normy prawne. Czyn nie jest karalny, jeśli nie istnieje norma prawna ustanawiająca sankcję za ten czyn. Co więcej, niedopuszczalne jest wymierzenie sprawcy kary, której za popełniony przez niego czyn ustawa nie przewiduje. Nie tylko zatem sam czyn musi być określony w ustawie ("nullum crimen sine lege"), lecz również kara przewidziana za ten czyn. +Miecz katowski + +Miecz katowski – miecz służący w średniowieczu do wykonywania kary śmierci przez ścięcie. +Miejsce miecza katowskiego w rzeczywistości społecznej. +Od początku był uważany za narzędzie a nie broń, coś odmiennego niż miecze bojowe. Świadczą o tym chociażby przepisy cechowe, które na czeladnika cechu mieczniczego nakładają obowiązek wykonania osobno miecza bojowego i katowskiego, rozróżniając je starannie. +Innym świadectwem jest sposób ozdabiania miecza katowskiego specyficznymi dla tej profesji symbolami, niespotykanymi na broni. Emblematy te zwykle wykorzystywały motywy koła do łamania kości, szubienicy, topora, rózgi lub kańczuga – czyli narzędzi kary śmierci i, ogólnie rzecz biorąc, symbole strachu przed prawem. Spotykane dość często dłuższe hasła nawiązywały do czegoś, co z przymrużeniem oka możemy nazwać "filozoficznymi podstawami istnienia kata": zasady odwetu za wyrządzone zło – inaczej mówiąc dekoracje i napisy na mieczach katowskich, spotykane zresztą znacznie częściej niż na broni, odnosiły się do specyficznego aspektu prawa i sposobu w jaki kat "służył społeczeństwu" poprzez odstraszanie potencjalnych przestępców. +Takie rozróżnienie miecza-narzędzia wymiaru sprawiedliwości od miecza-broni osobistej mogło powstać dopiero, gdy w organizacji wymiaru sprawiedliwości dokonała się swoista specjalizacja. +Powstanie specjalnego miecza katowskiego było możliwe dopiero, gdy rozdzielono funkcje ścigania, sądzenia i karania przestępstw. Dopiero wtedy miecz do egzekucji mógł się wyspecjalizować i stracił przydatność bojową. +Sposób użycia. +Ilustracje z epoki przedstawiają zwykle skazańca klęczącego w modlitwie – wydaje się jednak, że równie często, jeśli nie częściej dokonywano jej unieruchamiając go na krześle albo wiążąc lub przytrzymując w odpowiedniej pozycji. Ta druga metoda musiała być stosowana zawsze wtedy, gdy oprawca spodziewał się rozpaczliwego oporu. +Wykonanie egzekucji mieczem katowskim nie było łatwe, więc zarówno kat jak i jego miecz musieli sprostać trudnym wymaganiom. +Wymagania te określały budowę miecza. +Co odróżnia miecz katowski od broni? +Przede wszystkim specyficzne zastosowanie, wynikające ze sposobu przeprowadzania egzekucji. Mieczem nigdy nie ścinano głowy na pniu – pień zatrzymałby klingę przed końcem cięcia, co przysporzyłby skazańcowi cierpień. +Kat z oczywistych względów nie musiał parować ataków, nie musiał też wykonywać pchnięć – dlatego też miecze katowskie pozbawione są sztychu, a ich parametry wykluczają jakąkolwiek szermierkę. W odróżnieniu od żołnierza nie musiał władać swym mieczem przez kilka godzin bez przerwy, zatem klinga miecza nie musiała być lekka jednocześnie sztywna, wręcz przeciwnie, większa jej masa pomagała w prawidłowym wykonaniu ciosu. +Dlatego nie zmniejszano wagi klingi przez wykuwanie długiego zbrocza – większość katowskich kling posiada je jedynie na krótkim odcinku. +Miecze katowskie przeznaczano wyłącznie do jednego rodzaju uderzenia: bardzo silnego, z obu rąk, z długim zamachem, prowadzonego poziomo lub lekko skośnie, precyzyjnie, bo cios musiał spaść na stosunkowo krótki odcinek karku, dokładnie pomiędzy dwa kręgi szyi. +Klasyczne miecze katowskie mają mniej więcej jednakową szerokość klingi oscylującą w okolicach 5-6 cm, czyli znacznie szerszą niż bojowa, o przekroju soczewkowatym, który w broni zanikał już we wczesnym średniowieczu. Najczęściej klinga na całej długości ma jednakową grubość, często większą niż w typowych mieczach bojowych. Głowice rękojeści są zwykle masywne, jednak nie aż tak wielkie jak w mieczach bojowych z XIV i XV wieku. +Biorąc pod uwagę to wszystko, wydaje się, że wyważenie katowskiego miecza było zupełnie inne niż w przypadku broni. Środek ciężkości wypada w nich mniej więcej w połowie lub 1/3 długości klingi. +Jelce mieczy katowskich zwykle są proste, czasem ozdobione różnymi ornamentami. Kształt ich jest zresztą sprawą dowolną, gdyż nie miały praktycznego zastosowania. Zachowany miecz katowski z Biecza ma jelec obcięty z jednej strony, przez co wygląda jak wielki nóż do chleba, a nie charakterystyczny miecz o kształcie krzyża. +Rękojeść zwykle stanowi ok. 1/5 długości całego miecza, najczęściej jest gładka, bez elementów zwiększających pewność chwytu – ewidentnie nie były one potrzebne. Cały miecz ma zwykle od 100 do 120 cm długości, przy głowni ok. 80-90 cm, waży 1,6 do 2,3 kg, ale zwykle bliżej 2 kg. Dla porównania miecze bojowe o podobnej długości rzadko przekraczają wagą 1,3 kg. +Oczywiście istniały odstępstwa od powyższych reguł, jednak niezbyt wielkie. +Czasem też zdarzały się miecze katowskie przerobione z bojowych, nie było ich jednak zbyt wiele. Jak wspomniano wcześniej przepisy cechowe nakazywały czeladnikom mieczniczym wykonać miecz katowski obok bojowego jako „sztukę mistrzowską” i przekazać je miastu – zatem można przypuścić, że rady miejskie dysponowały zawsze pewnym nadmiarem i potrzeba przerabiania okazów bojowych zdarzała się rzadko. +Ewolucja. +Technika „pracy” nie ulegała specjalnym zmianom, zatem miecze katowskie po przybraniu ostatecznego kształtu już nie zmieniały się zbytnio. Od końca wieku XV wydają się być niemal jednakowe, aż do zniesienia tego rodzaju kary w wieku XIX. Warto dodać, że na terenie Polski ten rodzaj egzekucji zniknął dopiero z kodeksu karnego w roku 1903. Aż do czasów powstania styczniowego był wykonywany – choć, co prawda, coraz rzadziej. Po powstaniu styczniowym skazańców wieszano – bynajmniej jednak nie z łaskawości – po prostu między powstaniem a rokiem 1905 panował stan wyjątkowy na terenie zaboru rosyjskiego i karano według zasad sądów wojennych: skazanych cywilów czekała szubienica, wojskowych – pluton egzekucyjny. +Mity. +Często wspominany pogląd głosi, że katowskie miecze dociążano – według jednej wersji rtęcią przelewającą się wewnątrz, według innej – ołowianym ciężarem na końcu klingi. Jednak ta informacja nie znajduje potwierdzenia w źródłach. Być może wiąże się ona z występującymi czasem na klingach otworkami, służyły one do wywołania napięcia mięśni karku - miecz podczas zamachu wydawał świst (dziurki te zachowywały się jak gwizdki), a przy takim odgłosie skazaniec napinał mięśnie, które łatwiej było przeciąć. +Jeśli chodzi o obciążenie rtęcią – warto zadać sobie pytanie: czy użycie tak drogiego metalu w pospolitym w sumie narzędziu miało sens? I jak wielkie byłyby problemy technologiczne z wykonaniem takiej klingi: pustej w środku, o grubości mniej niż 7-8 mm, a przy tym należycie mocnej? Nawet, gdybyśmy uznali za możliwe wykonanie takiego miecza, to musiałby być on wielokrotnie droższy niż miecz zwykły, a efekt jego użycia byłby przecież taki sam – w końcu głowę ścinał nie sam miecz, a "mistrz małodobry". +Obciążenie klingi ołowiem na końcu również nie wydaje się szczególnie sensowne – ostatecznie byłoby to dokładanie elementu miękkiego (a tępego i grubego) dokładnie tam, gdzie miecz winien być maksymalnie ostry i cienki. +Wreszcie sama idea dodatkowego obciążenia miecza: miecz katowski był o jedną trzecią cięższy niż bojowy, przy tym wyważony tak, by środek ciężkości przesunąć w pobliże tzw. mocnego punktu klingi. Wydaje się, że to wystarczy dla maksymalnego ułatwienia zadania egzekutora. +Przykład. +długość całkowita 110,7 cm, rękojeść 26 cm, głownia 84,5 cm, szerokość głowni u sztychu 5 cm, szerokość głowni u zastawy 6,3 cm, masa 2,13 kg. Miecz ma napis Peter Munich i na drugiej stronie Ihn Solingen, będący zapewne znakiem producenta. Sztych płasko ścięty, zbrocze szerokie długości 20,5 cm, słabo wyodrębnione, głowica duża mosiężna. +Deng Xiaoping + + +Deng Xiaoping (; ur. 22 sierpnia 1904, zm. 19 lutego 1997) – polityk chiński. W okresie od 1978 do 1989 roku faktyczny przywódca Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej, inicjator reform społeczno-gospodarczych oraz otwarcia Chin na świat. Jeden z najważniejszych polityków w XX-wiecznej historii Chin. +Człowiek Roku 1978 i 1985 według magazynu Time. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Urodził się jako Deng Xiansheng () 22 sierpnia 1904 we wsi Paifang, położonej w gminie Xiexing w powiecie Guang'an na terenie prowincji Syczuan. Jego ojciec Deng Wenming był prawnikiem, matka Xianshenga wcześnie zmarła. Xiansheng był najstarszym z szóstki rodzeństwa, miał trzech braci i dwie siostry. +W wieku 5 lat poszedł do szkoły i otrzymał wówczas nowe imię, Deng Xixian (). Po ukończeniu szkoły podstawowej dostał się w drodze konkursu do powiatowej szkoły średniej. Po jej ukończeniu jesienią 1919, rozpoczął w Chongqing kursy przygotowawcze dla chętnych do wyjazdu na studia we Francji. +Podczas nauki w Chongqing po raz pierwszy zetknął się z działalnością polityczną związaną z Ruchem 4 Maja. Deng nawiązał znajomości z członkami Ruchu, brał także udział w wiecach i bojkocie japońskich towarów. Po ukończeniu kursu we wrześniu 1920 wyjechał na studia do Francji. 19 października, po prawie czterdziestodniowej podróży statkiem, dotarł do portu w Marsylii. +Pobyt we Francji i w ZSRR. +Deng studiował we Francji jedynie kilka miesięcy, po czym zmuszony ciężką sytuacją finansową zrezygnował z nauki i podjął pracę w fabryce. Podczas studiów poznał również studiujących we Francji Chińczyków m.in. Zhou Enlaia i Zhao Shiyana, pod wpływem których zainteresował się marksizmem. W 1922 roku wstąpił w Paryżu do Chińskiej Ligi Młodzieży Komunistycznej, następnie w 1924 roku został członkiem Komunistycznej Partii Chin. +W 1926 roku opuścił Francję i udał się do ZSRR gdzie studiował najpierw na Uniwersytecie Narodów Wschodu, następnie na Uniwersytecie im. Sun Jat-sena w Moskwie. +Powrót do Chin i początek działalności politycznej. +Wiosną 1927 roku Deng po powrocie do Chin został wysłany przez władze KPCh do Xi'anu jako naczelnik wydziału politycznego i instruktor polityczny, a także sekretarz szkolnej organizacji KPCh na komunistycznej Akademii Sun Jat-sena. Wkrótce potem doszło do zerwania współpracy m.in. KPCh a Kuomintangiem, na skutek czego na przełomie czerwca i lipca 1927 roku Denga wysłano do Hankou. Komunistyczna Partia Chin zeszła do podziemia zaś jej działacze byli prześladowani przez rządzący Kuomintang. W tym okresie Deng przyjął nowe imię - Deng Xiaoping. Pod koniec 1927 roku wraz z przeniesieniem naczelnych struktur KPCh Deng przeprowadził się do Szanghaju. +Walka rewolucyjna. +Latem 1929 roku Deng skierowany został do prowincji Guangxi gdzie działając pod przybranym imieniem "Deng Bin" w październiku tego samego roku zorganizował wybuch powstania w Baise i utworzył VII Korpus Robotniczo-Chłopskiej Chińskiej Armii Czerwonej. W lutym 1930 zorganizował kolejne powstanie w Longzhou i VIII Korpus. Deng nie brał bezpośredniego udziału w tych dwóch powstaniach. Latem 1931 skierowany został do głównej kwatery zbrojnej KPCh w prowincji Jiangxi, gdzie stanął na czele partyjnego komitetu propagandy. Ciąg awansów Denga przerwała działalność członków lewackiego skrzydła partii, którzy doprowadzili w maju 1933 do odwołania go z pełnionych funkcji. Otrzymał także naganę partyjną i został skierowany do pracy w strukturach terenowych. Dzięki wstawiennictwu Wang Jiaxianga, Deng został niedługo potem przeniesiony na stanowisko kierownicze do Głównego Zarządu Politycznego Armii Czerwonej, został także redaktorem naczelnym jednej z partyjnych gazet. +Od października 1934 do października 1935 roku uczestniczył w Długim Marszu. W jego trakcie wziął udział w posiedzeniu Biura Politycznego w Zunyi w styczniu 1935 roku, które doprowadziło do reformy struktur KPCh i oddało kierownictwo partyjne w ręce Mao Zedonga. Po zakończeniu Wielkiego Marszu, Deng nadal pracował w strukturach propagandowych chińskiej Armii Czerwonej. +Wojna z Japonią i wojna domowa. +Po wybuchu wojny chińsko-japońskiej w 1937 Deng został skierowany jako komisarz polityczny do 129 dywizji VIII Armii pod dowództwem Liu Bochenga. Liu z Dengiem przeprowadzili armię w położone na tyłach japońskich góry Taihang Shan, gdzie do końca wojny dowodzili bazą oporu i organizowali oddziały partyzanckie wśród ludności cywilnej. W czasie wojny Deng ponownie awansował, w 1943 otrzymał stanowisko sekretarza w strukturach KPCh na Chiny Północne, zaś w czerwcu 1945 został wybrany na członka Komitetu Centralnego. +Po kapitulacji Japonii, 120-tysięczna armia pod dowództwem Liu i Denga ruszyła do natarcia na siły Kuomintangu forsując w lipcu 1947 rzekę Huang He i docierając w region Dabie Shan. W listopadzie 1948 Deng był jednym ze współdowodzących siłami komunistycznymi podczas przełomowej kampanii huaihaiskiej, zaś w kwietniu 1949 podczas forsowania Jangcy, które doprowadziły do klęski Kuomintangu w południowo-zachodnich Chinach. +Pierwsze lata ChRL. +Po utworzeniu Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej 1 października 1949, Deng został sekretarzem Biura KPCh na Chiny Południowo-Zachodnie, gdzie tłumił resztki kuomintangowskiego oporu, organizował organy nowej władzy i wdrażał reformę rolną. Za jego kadencji wybudowano kolej z Chengdu do Chongqingu. +W lipcu 1952 Deng został wezwany do Pekinu, gdzie w następnych latach zajmował wiele wysokich stanowisk partyjno-państwowych, m.in. wicepremiera. Pozycja Denga w partii wzrosła po 1962 w wyniku klęski polityki wielkiego skoku, którego Deng był przeciwnikiem. Likwidacja komun ludowych i reformy na wsi przysporzyły Dengowi wielu zwolenników w chińskim społeczeństwie. +W 1956 roku objął reaktywowane po 13 latach stanowisko sekretarza generalnego Komunistycznej Partii Chin, które zajmował aż do jego ponownej likwidacji wraz z początkiem rewolucji kulturalnej w 1966 roku. +Rewolucja kulturalna. +Po rozpoczęciu przez Mao Zedonga rewolucji kulturalnej w 1966, Deng został poddany krytyce i pozbawiony wszystkich stanowisk. W październiku 1969 został zesłany do powiatu Xinjian w prowincji Jiangxi gdzie nakazano mu pracę w charakterze ślusarza w fabryce traktorów. +Po nieudanym spisku Lin Biao dzięki wstawiennictwu Zhou Enlaia, Mao pozwolił powrócić Dengowi w 1972 roku do Pekinu. Na X zjeździe KPCh w 1973 Deng ponownie otrzymał stanowisko wicepremiera, zaś po hospitalizacji Zhou Enlaia w styczniu 1975 objął m.in. stanowisko Szefa Sztabu Generalnego przejmując faktycznie ster rządów nad państwem. Deng rozpoczął wówczas działania mające na celu przywrócenie spokoju w państwie. Wraz z umocnieniem się bandy czworga na początku 1976 rozpętana została powszechna kampania przeciwko Dengowi. Po śmierci Zhou Enlaia 8 stycznia 1976, Deng został ponownie poddany krytyce i usunięty z zajmowanych stanowisk. +Rehabilitacja. +Po śmierci Mao Zedonga 9 września 1976 ster rządów przejął Hua Guofeng, który miesiąc później doprowadził do aresztowania członków bandy czworga. Kierownictwo KPCh zdecydowało się na przeprowadzenie reform po chaosie i zniszczeniach rewolucji kulturalnej, zaś za jedyną osobę zdolną do poprowadzenia państwa uznano cieszącego się olbrzymim zaufaniem społecznym Denga. Na III Plenum KC KPCh dziesiątej kadencji w lipcu 1977 dokonano oficjalnej rehabilitacji Denga i przywrócono go na wszystkie stanowiska, z których uprzednio został usunięty. W marcu 1978 Deng został wybrany przewodniczącym Ludowej Politycznej Konferencji Konsultatywnej Chin. +Droga do reform. +Momentem przełomowym w karierze Denga i w historii Chin było posiedzenie III Plenum KC KPCh jedenastej kadencji w grudniu 1978. Partia przyjęła zaproponowany przez Denga nowy kurs, w którym położono nacisk na reformy gospodarcze i otwarcie Chin na świat. +W 1981, z inicjatywy Denga partia potępiła rewolucję kulturalną i poddała krytycznej ocenie dorobek Mao Zedonga. W tym samym roku rozpoczęto proces reform gospodarczych i modernizacji kraju zgodnie z zaproponowanym przez Denga modelem socjalizmu o chińskiej specyfice. Na wybrzeżu Chin wydzielone zostały specjalne strefy ekonomiczne otwarte dla zachodniego kapitału. Rozpoczęto kształcenie nowoczesnej kadry naukowo-technologicznej oraz biznesowej. W 1984 przeprowadzona została reforma rolna, która zlikwidowała kolektywny system na wsi. Rozpoczęto stopniowe wprowadzanie w Chinach gospodarki rynkowej. Otwarta została droga dla sektora prywatnego w gospodarce, zreorganizowano także metody zarządzania sektorem państwowym. +Częścią reform było również otwarcie Chin na świat. Chiny, dotychczas izolujące się stały się aktywnym graczem na arenie międzynarodowej. Zacieśniona została współpraca ze Stanami Zjednoczonymi, zaczęto też ściągać do Chin międzynarodowy kapitał. Deng sformułował także zasadę "jeden kraj, dwa systemy", która stała się kluczem do uregulowania sprawy Hongkongu i Makau. Na mocy zawartych porozumień oba terytoria miały zostać włączone do ChRL, zachowując szeroką autonomię ustrojową i gospodarczą. +Wraz z reformami gospodarczymi rozpoczęto ograniczoną reformę systemu politycznego. Z inicjatywy Denga wprowadzono kadencyjność stanowisk partyjno-państwowych, odmłodzono kadrę i zmniejszono biurokrację. Zwiększono rolę samorządów. Ostrożnie zwiększano swobody obywatelskie, bezwzględnie rozprawiając się jednak z silniejszymi dążeniami demokratycznymi, np. z zamieszkami studenckimi w 1986. +Emerytura polityczna i śmierć. +Deng, jako gorący orędownik kadencyjności władzy i odmłodzenia kadry, na XIII zjeździe KPCh w listopadzie 1987 zrezygnował z wszystkich zajmowanych przez siebie stanowisk zatrzymując jedynie funkcję przewodniczącego Centralnej Komisji Wojskowej. +Wiosną 1989 Deng opowiedział się za siłowym rozwiązaniem konfliktu w partii i stłumieniem prodemokratycznych i proliberalnych protestów społecznych co doprowadziło po śmierci Hu Yaobanga do odsunięcia Zhao Ziyanga oraz wprowadzenia czołgów na Plac Niebiańskiego Spokoju w dniu 4 czerwca 1989. Wydarzenia te doprowadziły do czasowego przejęcia kierownictwa w KPCh przez "twardogłowych" i zatrzymania zainicjowanych przez Denga reform. +Na V Plenum KC KPCh w listopadzie 1989 Deng zrezygnował z funkcji przewodniczącego Centralnej Komisji Wojskowej, przechodząc na emeryturę. +Pomimo wycofania się z życia politycznego Deng zachował zakulisowy wpływ na sprawy państwowe. W 1992 odbył podróż na południe wizytując Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai i Szanghaj. Podczas podróży w licznych wystąpieniach pochwalił przeprowadzone reformy i wielokrotnie nawoływał do zintensyfikowania procesu urynkowienia gospodarki i reform. Dzięki odbytym przez Denga podczas podróży spotkaniom, na XIV zjeździe KPCh w październiku 1992 odsunięto "twardogłowych" i wybrano nowe władze partyjno-państwowe na czele z Jiang Zeminem, co w konsekwencji spowodowało wznowienie i przyspieszenie reform. +Deng ostatni raz wystąpił publicznie w telewizji w lutym 1994 roku podtrzymywany przez córkę. Na starość stracił słuch i cierpiał na zaburzenia mowy. Jego ostatnie zdjęcie zrobione 1 października 1994 opublikowane zostało w lutym 1995. +Deng Xiaoping zmarł 19 lutego 1997 roku w wieku dziewięćdziesięciu trzech lat. +Życie prywatne. +Pierwszą żoną Denga była koleżanka ze studiów w Moskwie. Urodziła dziewczynkę. Matka i dziecko wkrótce po porodzie zmarły. Druga żona, Jin Weiying, opuściła Denga po atakach politycznych w 1933. Trzecią żonę, Zhuo Lin, Deng poślubił w 1939 i pozostał z nią do końca życia. Urodziła mu trzy córki – Deng Lin, Deng Nan i Deng Rong oraz dwóch synów – Deng Pufanga i Deng Zhifanga. Deng Pufang w 1968 roku został kaleką, po tym jak hunwejbini wyrzucili go przez okno z czwartego piętra. +Deng był miłośnikiem brydża i pływania, a także zapalonym kibicem piłkarskim. Był nałogowym palaczem i palił papierosy nawet podczas oficjalnych spotkań państwowych. +Olej z pestek dyni + +Olej z pestek dyni – tłoczone na zimno nieprażone pestki dyni ("Cucurbita Pepo") dają ciemnozielono-brązowy olej roślinny o orzechowym zapachu i smaku. +Tłuszcze zawarte w pestkach dyni zaliczają się do pełnowartościowych tłuszczów roślinnych. Około 80% kwasów tłuszczowych to kwasy nienasycone, z czego 50-60% to wielokrotnie nienasycone. Kwasy nienasycone są niezbędne dla organizmu, są niezbędnym elementem do budowy witaminy D, hormonów, a także ścianek komórkowych. Kwasy tłuszczowe spełniają funkcję transportową enzymatycznych reakcji. +Olej z pestek dyni jest lekkostrawny ze względu na kombinację kwasów tłuszczowych nienasyconych. +Nikołaj Korotkow + +Nikołaj Siergiejewicz Korotkow (ros. Николай Сергеевич Коротков, ur. 13 lutego 1874 w Kursku, zm. 1920 w Leningradzie) – rosyjski chirurg, który w 1905 roku zmodyfikował metodę pomiaru ciśnienia tętniczego metodą Riva-Rocciego. Od jego nazwiska pochodzą terminy metody Korotkowa i faz Korotkowa. +Urodził się w rodzinie kupieckiej. Po ukończeniu gimnazjum w Kursku rozpoczął w 1893 studia medyczne na uniwersytecie w Charkowie, a w 1895 przeniósł się do Moskwy, gdzie skończył studia w 1898. Podczas powstania bokserów został zwolniony ze służby wojskowej ze względu na jego pracę w Czerwonym Krzyżu. Ze służby na Dalekim Wschodzie powracał przez Japonię, Cejlon i Kanał Sueski. Otrzymał również Order św. Anny za ofiarną pomoc niesioną rannym żołnierzom. Po powrocie do Rosji Korotkow rozpoczął karierę naukową jako asystent w klinice chirurgii Wojskowej Akademii Medycznej w Sankt Petersburgu. +Podczas wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej ponownie udał się na Daleki Wschód jako pracownik Czerwonego Krzyża. Tym razem kierował chirurgami w szpitalu w Harbinie. W czasie swego pobytu w Mandżurii zainteresował się chirurgią naczyniową i rozpoczął zbieranie materiałów do przyszłej pracy doktorskiej. Po powrocie do Petersburga napisał liczącą zaledwie 281 słów pracę w której opisał modyfikację metody Riva-Rocciego. Pomimo początkowej krytyki jego tezy zostały udowodnione przez prof. M. Jankowskiego. +Następnie do wybuchu I wojny światowej Korotkow pracował jako lekarz na Syberii. Otrzymał również w 1910 należny mu doktorat. Podczas wojny kierował sanatorium dla rannych żołnierzy w Carskim Siole. W momencie wybuchu rewolucji październikowej poparł bolszewików po czym objął kierownictwo nad jednym z leningradzkich szpitali. Funkcję tę sprawował do śmierci. +Korotkow ulepszył metodę badania ciśnienia, dodając do sfigmomanometru słuchawki lekarskie, co pozwoliło na osłuchiwanie tętna na tętnicy. +Romuald Ajchler + +Romuald Kazimierz Ajchler (ur. 19 stycznia 1949 w Dusznikach) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm II, III, IV, VI i VII kadencji. +Życiorys. +Ma wykształcenie średnie. W 1968 ukończył Państwowe Technikum Rolnicze w Szczecinku z tytułem zawodowym technika rolnika. +Od 1970 do rozwiązania działał w Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. Sprawował mandat posła od 1993 do 2005. Związany był z Socjaldemokracją RP, następnie przystąpił do Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej (zasiadał w radzie krajowej partii). W 2004 przystąpił do Socjaldemokracji Polskiej (był członkiem konwentu krajowego tego ugrupowania). Był zastępcą przewodniczącego Komisji Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Wsi, a także członkiem Komisji Łączności z Polakami za Granicą. W wyborach w 2005 bezskutecznie ubiegał się o reelekcję. Od 2006 do 2007 sprawował mandat radnego powiatu międzychodzkiego. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007 ponownie uzyskał mandat poselski, otrzymując w okręgu pilskim 13 725 głosów. W 2008 został członkiem Klubu Poselskiego Lewica, rezygnując z członkostwa w SDPL, przemianowanym później na KP SLD. W trakcie kadencji został ponownie członkiem SLD (zasiada w radzie krajowej ugrupowania). W wyborach w 2011 z powodzeniem ubiegał się o reelekcję, dostał 9362 głosy. +Kenmare + +Kenmare (irl. "An Néidín" lub "An Néiden") – miasto położone na południowym zachodzie Irlandii, w hrabstwie Kerry. W roku 2006 liczyło 2456 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Nazwa Kenmare jest zanglizowaną formą iryjskiego "Ceann Mhara" – "Morska Głowa", co nawiązuje do najdalszego w regionie punktu w głębi lądu dosięganego przez morze. Natomiast irlandzka nazwa miasta An Néidín oznacza Małe Gniazdo, podkreśla ona usytuowanie miejscowości w zatoce pomiędzy wzgórzami dwóch półwyspów: Iveragh i Beara. +Do zatoki uchodzi rzeka Roughty River "An Ruachtach". Tradycyjna irlandzka nazwa zatoki "Inbhear Scéine" posiadająca celtycki źródłosłów została określona w XI wieku w Księdze Przechwyceń Irlandii jako miejsce przybycia mitycznego +irlandzkiego praprzodka – Partholóna. +W pobliżu znajduje się Pierścień Kerry (Ring of Kerry), Pierścień Beara (Ring of Beara), Park Narodowy Killarney (Killarney National Park) oraz najwyższa góra Irlandii – Carrantuohill (1039 m n.p.m.). +Pobliskie miasta i wioski to Ardgroom, Glengarriff, Kilgarvan, Killarney, i Sneem. +Historia. +Teren na którym leży Kenmare został przyznany angielskiemu naukowcowi Sir Williamowi Petty przez Oliver Cromwella jako częściowa zapłata za sporządzenie map Irlandii. Ten w 1670 założył tu nowoczesne miasto. +Ziemie te mogą poszczycić się dużo dłuższą historią sięgająca epoki brązu (2200–600 p.n.e.), świadczy o tym Stone Circle – kamienny krąg leżący w granicach miasta, jeden z największych jakie możemy znaleźć w Irlandii. Jest dziełem celtyckich druidów, ma 15 głazów w obwodzie oraz dolmen w środku. +W 1861 Siostra Mary Frances Cusack autorka oraz wydawca wielu książek zakłada konwent Klarysek od wieczystej Adoracji. Klasztor daje początek przemysłowi koronkarskiemu. Wkrótce koronki z Kenmare zyskują rzesze klientów. +W 2000 miasto otrzymało wyróżnienie jako najczystsze miasto w kraju. +W tutejszym kościele katolickim można znaleźć witraż Franz Mayer & Co.. +Biblioteka znajdująca się w mieście należy do Carnegie libraries ufundowanych przez Andrew Carnegie'a. Otwarta w 1915 r. – architekt R.M. Butler. +Turystyka. +Sąsiedztwo sławnych irlandzkich szlaków Ring of Kerry i Ring of Beara, około 32 kilometry (20 mil) z Killarney, sprawia że miasto jest często odwiedzane, co znajduje odzwierciedlenie w szerokiej bazie turystycznej. Lata '90 były czasem bumu budowlanego, grunty osiągnęły bardzo wysokie ceny, były chętnie nabywane przez developerów inwestujących w domy letnie. Spowodowało to znaczny wzrost populacji, szczególnie podczas szczytu sezonu turystycznego. Wśród niektórych mieszkańców pojawiła się opinia, że miasto jest zbyt rozbudowane i straciło w ten sposób część swojej tożsamości. +Ludzie. +W Kenmare po koniec swoje życia osiadł angielski kompozytor Ernest John Moeran. Tutejszy bar jest nazwany jego imieniem. +Dyplomata Con Cremin oraz magnat budowlany Patrick Harrington również pochodzili z Kenmare. +Handel. +Z powodu lokalizacji przy centrum dużego rejonu rolniczego, Kenmare służy jako lokalne miasto targowe. Do czasu utworzenia w latach 90. hali targowej, co miesiąc na ulicach odbywał się targ gdzie rolnicy mogli sprzedawać zwierzęta. Pozostałością po tej tradycji jest targ w dniu 15 sierpnia, który zbiega się z katolickim świętem nakazanym Wniebowzięciem Najświętszej Maryi Panny. Przyciąga wielkie tłumy tutejszych mieszkańców i gości. Jest najpracowitszym dniem roku w Kenmare. +Transport. +Codzienne połączenia autobusowe z Killarney (jedna z tras (N71) wiedzie przez góry i malownicze "Molls Gap" i "Ladies View") w sezonie letnim również z Cork. +Stacja kolejowa otwarta w 1893 została zamknięta w 1960. +Boeing B-52 Stratofortress + +Boeing B-52 Stratofortress – amerykański bombowiec strategiczny dalekiego zasięgu używany po II wojnie światowej. +Rozwój. +Pierwszy lot prototypu YB-52 odbył się 15 kwietnia 1952. +Bombowce B-52 weszły na wyposażenie amerykańskiego lotnictwa w roku 1955 zastępując Convair B-36 Peacemaker i Boeing B-47 Stratojet. Na początku swojej służby były trzonem amerykańskich sił strategicznych. W szczytowym okresie służby samolotu, w 1963, lotnictwo strategiczne USA miało 650 B-52, zgrupowanych w 42 dywizjonach na 38 lotniskach. W latach 60. rakiety międzykontynentalne przejęły główną rolę w amerykańskich siłach jądrowych, a nieustannie ulepszana radziecka obrona przeciwlotnicza postawiła pod znakiem zapytania skuteczność B-52. Tylko częściowym lekarstwem było wyposażenie B-52 w pociski samosterujące, które pozwalały atakować z większych odległości. Z tych powodów z biegiem czasu B-52 zaczęły odgrywać coraz większą rolę jako bombowce konwencjonalne. W chwili obecnej w lotnictwie USA nadal służą 93 egzemplarze wersji B-52H, budowanej między 1960 i 1962. Armia amerykańska nie zamierza wycofać tego modelu z użytkowania przed rokiem 2050, co będzie swoistym rekordem. +Uzbrojenie. +Bombowiec B-52 jest w stanie przenieść 31,500 kg różnego rodzaju broni konwencjonalnej (bomby, miny, rakiety) oraz bomby jądrowe (B28, B43, B53, B61, B83). Typowy ładunek konwencjonalny to na przykład 51 bomb 500 funtowych (241 kg). B-52 może też przenosić 20 pocisków "cruise" do atakowania z większych odległości ("stand-off"). +Zastosowanie. +Zastosowanie bojowe. +Samoloty te pełniły służbę przez większość zimnej wojny. Brały także udział w wojnie w Wietnamie i podczas operacji "Pustynna burza" (ang. "Desert Storm") w Iraku w 1991 roku, w operacji bombardowania Jugosławii przez NATO w 1999 ("Allied Force"), w operacji w Afganistanie (ang. "Enduring Freedom", 2001), a także w następnej wojnie irackiej (ang. "Operation Iraqi Freedom") w 2003. Podczas tych konfliktów samoloty B-52 były wykorzystywane jako bombowce konwencjonalne. +W chwili obecnej B-52 są zgrupowane w dwóch stałych bazach: Minot AFB w Dakocie Północnej (5 skrzydło bombowe) i Barksdale AFB w Luizjanie (2 skrzydło bombowe). Ponadto często działają tymczasowo z różnych baz sił powietrznych USA na całym świecie. +Zastosowanie niebojowe. +Dwie maszyny (NB-52A i NB-52B) uczestniczyły w amerykańskim programie eksperymentalnym X-15, jako nosiciele samolotów rakietowych X-15. Jedna z tych maszyn (NB-52B) służyła w NASA aż do 17 grudnia 2004 roku, biorąc udział także w takich programach jak X-24, HiMAT, X-38 oraz X-43. +Straty i wypadki. +Podczas walk powietrznych nad Wietnamem 17 samolotów B-52 zostało strąconych przez wojska Północnego Wietnamu za pomocą rakiet S-75. +Najbardziej znanym wypadkiem lotniczym z udziałem samolotu B-52 jest zdarzenie z 17 stycznia 1966 (Katastrofa lotnicza pod Palomares). B-52 w czasie tankowania w powietrzu uległ kolizji z cysterną KC-135 w wyniku czego obydwa samoloty zostały zniszczone. Bombowiec przenosił na pokładzie cztery bomby termojądrowe, które po katastrofie opadły w rejon hiszpańskiego wybrzeża Morza Śródziemnego w pobliżu wioski Palomares wywołując skażenie radioaktywne. +Dwa lata później, 21 stycznia 1968 w pobliżu bazy Thule (obecnie Qaanaaq) na Grenlandii rozbił się kolejny B-52 z sześcioma bombami Mark 28 na pokładzie. Tym razem załoga (sześciu z siedmiu się uratowało) nie pozbyła się bomb przed wypadkiem, toteż w wyniku roztrzaskania się samolotu przy prędkości 560 węzłów (1000 km/h), doszło do wybuchu klasycznych (trotylowych) ładunków we wszystkich bombach oraz pożaru szczątków i 130 tys. litrów paliwa lotniczego znaczna część plutonu z bomb przedostała się do otoczenia. Był to prawdopodobnie najpoważniejszy wypadek B-52 w ogóle, a na pewno najpoważniejsza katastrofa w historii wyspy spowodowana jej strategicznym położeniem. Mimo dużych nakładów finansowych na dezaktywację, usunięcie wszystkich skutków wypadku w trudnej arktycznej okolicy nie było do końca możliwe. +Po katastrofie na Grenlandii Amerykanie zaprzestali 24-godzinnego dyżurowania w powietrzu z bombami na pokładzie, co praktykowane było od kryzysu kubańskiego w 1962, tym bardziej, że do mniej spektakularnych niż w Thule i w Palomares wypadków dochodziło częściej. Wiele z nich (prawdopodobnie większość) "zawinione" było wprawdzie przez Boeingi B-47 Stratojet (np. w 1956 pilot B-47 w brytyjskiej bazie Lakenheath stracił panowanie nad maszyną i roztrzaskał się o magazyn bomb atomowych, gdzie znajdowały się m.in. trzy bomby Mark 6– wszystko stanęło w ogniu; w bagnach w stanie Georgia w USA leży po dziś dzień nie odnaleziona bomba wodorowa, zgubiona przez B-47; inny B-47 utonął w 1958 gdzieś w Atlantyku u wybrzeży Maroka razem ze swoim jądrowym ładunkiem, itp.), a loty z bombami na pokładzie nie tylko tym dwóm typom samolotów powierzano i nie tylko B-47 i B-52 ulegały tak poważnym wypadkom. +24 czerwca 1994 roku doszło do katastrofy B-52H w bazie sił powietrznych w FairChild w stanie Waszyngton. Podczas lotu ćwiczebnego w ramach przygotowań do pokazów lotniczych pilot wykonał ostry skręt na małej wysokości, znacznie przekraczając dozwolone przechylenie samolotu wynoszące 45°. W pewnym momencie przechył zaczął się pogłębiać w sposób niekontrolowany aż do 90°, co spowodowało utratę panowania nad samolotem, gwałtowne jego opadanie i rozbicie o ziemię. +Wycofywanie ze służby. +30 lipca 2008 roku, rozpoczął się proces stopniowego wycofywania części B-52 ze służby. Tego dnia B-52H o numerze ogonowym LA1023 z bazy Minot AFB odstawiony został do rezerwy po 45 latach służby, co zapoczątkowało proces wycofywania osiemnastu maszyn tego typu, po dwie co dwa tygodnie. +Blackburn Rovers F.C. + +Blackburn Rovers Football Club – angielski klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Blackburn, jeden z założycieli (w 1888 r.) angielskiej ligi. Trzykrotny mistrz Anglii, jeden z pięciu klubów (obok Arsenalu, Manchester United, Manchester City i Chelsea), który zdobył tytuł mistrzowski (w 1995) od czasu powstania Premier League. W sezonie 2011/12 zespół zajął 19.miejsce w rozgrywkach Premiership i spadł do Championship. +Blackburn Rovers występuje na stadionie Ewood Park. +Zawodnicy. +Obecny skład. +"Stan na 21 września 2012". +Aleksander Kostka-Napierski + +Aleksander Leon Kostka-Napierski alias Stanisław Bzowski (ur. ok. 1620, zm. 18 lipca 1651) – polski oficer, w okresie wojny trzydziestoletniej kapitan w służbie szwedzkiej, uczestnik walk w Niemczech. Po śmierci Władysława IV Wazy wrócił do Polski. Przywódca chłopów podhalańskich, kontaktował się z Bohdanem Chmielnickim, chciał rozszerzyć powstanie na tereny polskie. +Na początku 1651 zorganizował zaciąg wojsk na Podhalu (z udziałem Marcina Radockiego i Stanisława Łętowskiego) posługując się (najprawdopodobniej sfałszowanymi) rozkazami królewskim wydanymi na nazwisko Napierski (przedtem był znany jako Aleksander Kostka z Szternberku). Wydał uniwersały do chłopów w Polsce, wzywając ich do obalenia władzy panów i powołując się przy tym na rozkazy królewskie. Jego odezwa nie spotkała się z większym odzewem. Usiłował także zwerbować wojska na Śląsku. +W czerwcu 1651 zajął zamek w Czorsztynie. Przypuszczalnie spodziewał się pomocy ze strony księcia siedmiogrodzkiego Jerzego II Rakoczego, która jednak nie nadeszła, a Czorsztyn, po krótkim oblężeniu poddał się, wojskom biskupa krakowskiego Piotra Gembickiego a sam Napierski został wydany przez własnych żołnierzy. Znaleziono przy nim min. uniwersał Chmielnickiego gwarantujący chłopom zwolnienie z pańszczyzny w zamian za przystąpienie do buntu. Powstanie stłumiono, a Kostka-Napierski został skazany na karę śmierci. W zeznaniach podczas tortur twierdził, że jest nieślubnym synem Władysława IV Wazy a tuż przed wykonaniem wyroku, jako swe prawdziwe nazwisko podał: Szymon Bozowski. W dniu 18 lipca 1651 roku w Krakowie został nabity na pal, pozostali przywódcy chłopscy również zostali straceni. +Wg historyka prof. Pawła Wieczorkiewicza, Kostka Napierski był na usługach Chmielnickiego. +Podobne zdanie na temat Kostki Napierskiego ma prof. Janusz Tazbir. +Jednakże inni historycy jak Adam Kersten, podchodzą ostrożnie do powiązań Kostki-Napierskiego z królem szwedzkim, Chmielnickim czy dworem Rakoczych. +Bohater powieści Władysława Orkana "Kostka Napierski. Powieść z XVII wieku" i Kazimierza Tetmajera "Maryna z Hrubego" oraz filmu w reżyserii Jana Batorego "Podhale w ogniu". Patron ulic m.in. w Szczecinie, Łodzi, Katowicach, Dąbrowie Górniczej, Gdyni oraz w Warszawie +Zmierzch (pora dnia) + +Zmierzch jest to okres po zachodzie Słońca, w którym Ziemia oświetlona jest światłem słonecznym rozproszonym w atmosferze. +Tarcza słoneczna oglądana z Ziemi ma średnicę ok. pół stopnia (dokładniej średnio  0°32'). +Parwowiroza psów + +Parwowiroza psów – zakaźna, zaraźliwa choroba atakująca głównie psy młode, do szóstego miesiąca życia. Niekiedy może również dotyczyć psów dorosłych, w szczególności nie zaszczepionych. +Opisywana jednostka kliniczna jest wywoływana przez parwowirusa psiego. Jest to wirus o symetrii kubicznej, zaś jego materiałem genetycznym jest DNA. Parwowirusy atakują wiele gatunków zwierząt (m.in. drób wodny, lisy, świnie, koty), szczególny tropizm wykazują do intensywnie dzielących się komórek. Źródłem zakażenia są psy chore, a szczególnie ich kał. +Parwowiroza psów pojawiła się w 1978 roku w USA, Kanadzie i Australii, na początku lat 80. XX wieku dotarła do Europy. Choroba zaatakowała wiele szczeniąt na całym świecie. Dominowała wówczas jej postać sercowa. Obserwowano nagłe upadki szczeniąt w bardzo młodym wieku (od 14 dni do 12 tygodni), często bez specyficznych objawów. Opisywana postać choroby była spowodowana atakowaniem przez wirusa intensywnie dzielących się w okresie kilku dni po narodzinach kardiomiocytów zwierzęcia. Obecnie dominuje postać jelitowa. Choroba dotyka szczenięta nieco starsze i charakteryzuje się silną, wyniszczającą biegunką, czasami z domieszką krwi, wymiotami, bolesnością powłok brzusznych, gorączką i objawami ogólnymi o różnym stopniu nasilenia. Opisywane objawy związane są z atakowaniem przez wirusa intensywnie dzielących się enterocytów w jelitach. Choroba może mieć różny przebieg w zależności od szczepu wirusa, kondycji zwierzęcia i od jego wieku. Przyjmuje się, że psy dorosłe przechodzą parwowirozę w zasadzie bezobjawowo. +W leczeniu stosuje się przede wszystkim nawadnianie poprzez wlew kroplowy roztworów glukozy i płynów wieloelektrolitowych, antybiotykoterapię, by uniknąć włączenia się w proces chorobowy bakterii, podaje się preparaty wzmacniające oraz stosuje się surowicę przeciwko parwowirusowi psiemu. Wdrożona terapia w większości przypadków skutkuje wyleczeniem, choć śmiertelność przy tej chorobie jest i tak stosunkowo duża, nawet mimo podjęcia czynności lekarskich. +Najskuteczniejszą formą walki z tą chorobą jest szczepienie zwierzęcia. Szczególnie ważne jest zaszczepienie niesterylizowanych suk, gdyż matka przekaże wówczas ciała odpornościowe swoim młodym. Do zakażenia dochodzi najczęściej poprzez kontakt szczenięcia z materiałem zanieczyszczonym kałem zwierzęcia chorego, gdzie znajduje się ogromna ilość wirusów. Także psy dorosłe, chorując subklinicznie, mogą stawać się siewcami wirusa w swoim środowisku. Z tego względu szczenięta jeszcze nie zaszczepione nie powinny przebywać w miejscach odwiedzanych przez inne psy. +Parwowirus psi jest stosunkowo odporny na działanie czynników fizycznych i chemicznych. Do odkażania legowisk, wybiegów i bud, z których korzystały psy chore, stosuje się 2% roztwór ługu sodowego, podchlorynu sodu i formaliny. +Software in the Public Interest + +Software in the Public Interest, Inc. (SPI) to niedochodowa organizacja utworzona w celu wspierania organizacji tworzących oraz rozprowadzających otwarte oprogramowanie oraz sprzętu typu Open Hardware. Członkiem organizacji może zostać każdy. +Zdzisław Peszkowski + +Zdzisław Aleksander Peszkowski, herbu Jastrzębiec (ur. 23 sierpnia 1918 w Sanoku, zm. 8 października 2007 w Warszawie) – prezbiter katolicki, doktor filozofii, kapelan Jana Pawła II, harcmistrz, kapelan "Rodzin Katyńskich" i pomordowanych na Wschodzie, Kapelan Naczelny ZHP pgK, patron honorowy Hufca ZHP Ziemi Sanockiej. +Honorowy obywatel miast: Grudziądza, Krakowa, Warszawy, Sanoka, Piotrkowa Tryb., Wrocławia, Białegostoku, Piastowa i Połczyna Zdroju. Honorowy Obywatel Województwa Opolskiego (2002) . +Doktor honoris causa Papieskiego Wydziału Teologicznego-Bobolanum w Warszawie oraz Polskiego Uniwersytetu na Obczyźnie w Londynie. Przez wiele lat związany był ze środowiskiem Radia Maryja. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Pochodził z rodziny szlacheckiej Peszkowskich herbu Jastrzębiec. Urodził się pod koniec I wojny światowej 23 sierpnia 1918 roku w Sanoku w zamożnej rodzinie. Rodzice Zygmunt Jastrzębiec (1875–1946) i Maria, z domu Kudelska (1896–1970), prowadzili lokal gastronomiczny zwany "cukiernią Peszkowskich". Peszkowscy zamieszkiwali przy ulicy Jagiellońskiej. Miał starszą siostrę Helenę (1916–1918, zmarła podczas epidemii hiszpanki) i trzech młodszyh braci. Został ochrzczony w Kościele Przemienienia Pańskiego w Sanoku 30 października 1918 roku. W Sanoku od 1929 roku uczył się Gimnazjum Męskim im. Królowej Zofii, gdzie ukończył szkołę powszechną, gimnazjum i liceum w 1938 roku (w międzyczasie uczył się także w Zakładzie Naukowo-Wychowawczy Ojców Jezuitów w Chyrowie). Był członkiem Sodalicji Mariańskiej oraz brał udział w amatorskiej grupie teatralnej. +Również w Sanoku rozpoczęła się harcerska przygoda księdza Peszkowskiego - jego największa pasja. 1 listopada 1928 roku pod Krzyżem Powstańców na Cmentarzu Centralnym w Sanoku złożył Przyrzeczenie Harcerskie. Z czasem pełnił funkcje zucha, szeregowego, drużynowego 2 Drużyny Harcerzy oraz wodza zuchów i namiestnika zuchowego. Z zapałem zdobywał stopnie i sprawności i angażował się w działalność harcerską, co przełożyło się na wyjazdy - w 1933 roku brał udział w obozie harcerskim w Zetemiance koło Skolego, a w maju 1935 roku jako wywiadowca reprezentował hufiec podczas uroczystości pogrzebowych marszałka Józefa Piłsudskiego. W lipcu 1935 roku jako zastępowy uczestniczył w Jubileuszowym Zlocie ZHP w Spale. W 1936 roku mianowany drużynowym 2. Drużyny Harcerskiej im. kpt Franciszka Żwirki. W 1937 roku oddelegowany do szkoły zuchmistrzów ZHP Aleksandra Kamińskiego, który po kursie przyjął go na instruktora Szkoły Harcerskiej jako namiestnika zuchowego. Następnie zdobył stopień podharcmistrza (nadał go Zbigniew Trylski 10 czerwca 1938 roku). Uzyskane umiejętności, wiedzę i doświadczenie przekazywał podkomendnym podczas kursów, obozów, szkoleń. Swoją przynależność do ZHP zawsze uwidoczniał poprzez noszenie Krzyża Harcerskiego (również jako żołnierz i kapłan). Po zdaniu egzaminów maturalnych w 1938 roku powołany został do służby wojskowej. Ukończył szkołę Podchorążych Kawalerii w Grudziądzu (także w tym miejscu był wychowawcą i opiekunem harcerskim). +II wojna światowa. +Na początku II wojny światowej w kampanii wrześniowej z 1939 roku dowodził plutonem 20 Pułku Ułanów. W chwili agresji ZSRR na Polskę 17 września, jego szwadron stacjonował w pałacu w Pomorzanach, gdzie 23 września został otoczony i wzięty do niewoli przez wojska sowieckie. Jeńców zgromadzono początkowo w starej siedzibie rodu Puzynów i Ogińskich. +Miało tam miejsce wydarzenie, które jak można przypuszczać, ocaliło życie Zdzisławowi Peszkowskiemu od katyńskiej zagłady. W Pomorzanach przebywał razem z żoną wybitny malarz Vlastimil Hofman, który okazywał polskim jeńcom wiele współczucia i niezmordowanie portretował ich na niewielkich kartonikach. Portreciki miały być wysłane do rodzin, a jednym z portretowanych był Zdzisław Peszkowski. Pomagając skarbnikowi dywizjonu w rozdzielaniu pieniędzy pomiędzy żołnierzy i ukrywając znaczną ich część, po dostaniu się do niewoli postanowił przekazać je Hofmanowi, aby nie dostały się w ręce władz sowieckich. +W październiku 1939 roku przewieziono jeńców z Pomorzan do Wołoczysk, a następnie przetransportowano bydlęcymi wagonami do Kozielska, gdzie 1 listopada zostali umieszczeni w częściowo zniszczonych zabudowaniach Monasteru Kozielskiego. Już w grudniu 1939 roku rozpoczęto wywożenie i mordowanie pierwszych przetrzymywanych - duchownych. W kwietniu 1940 kontynuowano dalsze wywózki jeńców. Nikt wówczas nie przypuszczał, że oficerowie polscy wywożeni są do katyńskiego lasu i tam mordowani. 12 maja 1940 roku w ostatnim transporcie 232 osób był Zdzisław Peszkowski. Ten transport nie trafił do Katynia, lecz przez stację Babino do obozu w Pawliszczew-Borze, gdzie trafili także jeńcy z analogicznie ostatnich transportów z Ostaszkowa i Starobielska (łącznie było ich 448). Następnie w czerwcu przewieziono ich do Griazowca. Zagłada więźniów w ramach zbrodni katyńskiej została wstrzymana decyzją władz sowieckich w okresie rozpoczęcia zwycięskiej ofensywy niemieckiego Wehrmachtu na Francję 10 maja 1940 roku. Ponadto 22 czerwca 1941 roku nastąpił atak Niemiec na ZSRR, co spowodowało zwrot w sojuszach i działaniach wojennych. 2 września 1941 roku żołnierze wyruszyli z Griazowca do miejsc formowania Armii Polskiej. W ten sposób Peszkowski i kilkuset innych więźniów nie podzieliło losu ponad 20 tysięcy zamordowanych przez NKWD oficerów polskich, doczekało napaści niemieckiej na ZSRR, zawarcia porozumienia "Sikorski-Majski" i utworzenia w Związku Radzieckim polskiej armii pod dowództwem gen. Władysława Andersa. +Awansowany do stopnia porucznika, a później rotmistrza, Zdzisław Peszkowski dowodził kompanią w 1 Pułku Ułanów Krechowieckich w II Korpusie Armii Polskiej gen. Władysława Andersa. W oddziale tym sprawował funkcję oficera kulturalno-oświatowego, organizował uroczystości religijne i patriotyczne oraz stworzył krąg harcerski "Podkówka". Po opuszczeniu "nieludzkiej ziemi" (w Wielką Środę 1942 roku), przez Morze Kaspijskie do Pahlevi, wojenne drogi prowadziły go przez Irak, Iran, Indie, Egipt, Liban, Syrię, Liban, Włochy i Wielką Brytanię. Jeszcze w Iraku, w trakcie szkolenia na pustyni, 30 kwietnia 1943 roku został mianowany harcmistrzem, a w czerwcu tego roku został awansowany do stopnia podporucznika. +W kwietniu 1944 roku został skierowany wyłącznie do działalności harcerskiej. Jednym z zadań, w których z największym poświęceniem zaangażował się Zdzisław Peszkowski, było kształcenie i wychowanie młodzieży polskiej i przygotowanie do życia na emigracji, którą razem z wojskiem udało się wyprowadzić z ZSRR. Jako harcmistrzem trafił do Valivade w Indiach, "polskim" miasteczku w Indiach (ośrodek szkolnictwa, gdzie trafiały dzieci uratowane z obszaru ZSRS) organizował szkoły, drużyny i hufce harcerskie na emigracji. Nosił wówczas przydomek "Druh Ryś". +Na emigracji. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej Peszkowski studiował w Oksfordzie na Polskim Uniwersytecie na Obczyźnie oraz w Polskim Seminarium Duchownym w Orchard Lake na Uniwersytecie Wisconsin w Detroit. Uzyskał tam tytuł magistra teologii i stopień naukowy doktora filozofii. +Po przyjęciu święceń kapłańskich 5 czerwca 1954 roku został profesorem teologii pastoralnej i literatury języka polskiego w Seminarium św. Cyryla i Metodego oraz w St. Mary's College. Funkcjonował także jako kapelan harcerski, zaś w 1983 roku został Naczelnym Kapelanem ZHP. +W czasie swojego trwającego pół wieku pobytu na emigracji uczestniczył w niezliczonej ilości międzynarodowych zjazdów o charakterze teologicznym, naukowym, a także patriotyczno-społecznym. +W 1966 roku, gdy Polacy na całym świecie obchodzili swój wielki jubileusz Tysiąclecia Chrztu, ks. prof. dr Zdzisław Peszkowski wybrany został prezesem Polish American Historical Association. +Był autorem następujących książek: "Wspomnienia jeńca z Kozielska", "Pamięć Golgoty Wschodu", "Ojcze Święty – powiedziałeś nam..." oraz kilkuset broszur, rozpraw i artykułów poświęconych teologii, historii Polski, filozofii, literaturze, sprawom moralnym i narodowym. +Okres po powrocie do Polski. +30 października 1988 roku odprawił mszę św. pod Krzyżem Katyńskim i dokonał przyrzeczenia, iż "nie spocznie, dopóki w tym miejscu nie stanie cmentarz wojskowy i sanktuarium Miłosierdzia Bożego i Matki Bożej Pojednania". Odtąd uczestniczył w ekshumacjach pomordowanych polskich jeńców. +Krążąc niestrudzenie między swoją ojczyzną, do której powrócił na stałe w 1989 roku, a Polonią rozproszoną po całym świecie, jako kapelan Rodzin Katyńskich i Pomordowanych na Wschodzie. Harcmistrz i Naczelny Kapelan ZHP poza granicami Kraju, integrował starsze i młodsze pokolenia Polaków, w imię wartości: Boga, Honoru i Ojczyzny, a także w imię Prawdy i Pojednania Narodów. Orędownik o prawdę, pamięć i sprawiedliwość za zbrodnie dokonane na Wschodzie. Założyciel i prezes Fundacji "Golgota Wschodu". Dzięki jego staraniom mogły powstać cmentarze wojskowe w Katyniu, Charkowie i Miednoje, liczne pomniki i miejsca pamięci ku czci polskich oficerów na polskiej ziemi i na obczyźnie, wśród Polonii. +Podczas ekshumacji polskich oficerów w latach 90. każdą czaszkę osobiście brał w dłonie, dotykał ją i błogosławił różańcem otrzymanym i poświęconym przez Jana Pawła II. Z jego inicjatywy rok 1995 został ogłoszony Rokiem Katyńskim. +Był współzałożycielem Komitetu Dobrego Imienia Polski, który miał być odpowiedzią na nagłośnienie zbrodni w Jedwabnem przez Jana Tomasza Grossa, autora książki "Sąsiedzi". W skład KDIP weszli między innymi: Witold Tomczak, Marian Barański, Łukasz Jastrzębski, Andrzej Leszek Szcześniak. +Zgodził się zostać honorowym patronem Hufca ZHP Ziemi Sanockiej. W 1995 roku otrzymał tytuł Honorowego Obywatela Królewskiego Wolnego Miasta Sanoka. W tym samym roku został Honorowym Obywatelem Grudziądza. +W 1997 roku został odznaczony Medalem Polonia Mater Nostra Est. W 2000 roku z jego inspiracji powstał Międzynarodowy Motocyklowy Rajd Katyński. +W styczniu 2006 Sejm RP przez aklamację poparł jego kandydaturę do pokojowej Nagrody Nobla. ""Ksiądz Prałat Peszkowski przez lata prowadził w Polsce i na forum międzynarodowym niezwykle owocną akcję na rzecz zachowania pamięci i uświadomienia opinii międzynarodowej faktu zbrodni katyńskiej, jako bezprecedensowego mordu popełnionego przez Związek Radziecki na internowanych polskich oficerach"" – głosi uchwała Sejmu. +W lutym 2007 roku podczas 67. rocznicy zbrodni katyńskiej Ksiądz Prałat Peszkowski otrzymał Medal Komisji Edukacji Narodowej w Sejmie RP z rąk ministra Romana Giertycha. 16 października 2007 roku za przywracanie pamięci o zbrodni katyńskiej, która została dokonana również na polskich policjantach został pośmiertnie odznaczony przez ministra spraw wewnętrznych i administracji Władysława Stasiaka Złotym Medalem Zasługi dla Policji. Podczas debaty o Katyniu, ks. Peszkowski wielokrotnie przytoczył tytułowe słowa ostatniej książki Jana Pawła II "Pamięć i tożsamość". – Przebaczamy, ale nie zapominamy – mówił. +Zmarł w szpitalu w Aninie, 8 października 2007 roku. Jego pogrzeb odbył się 16 października 2007 roku. Zgodnie z wolą metropolity warszawskiego abp Kazimierza Nycza spoczął w krypcie w Panteonie Wielkich Polaków w Świątyni Opatrzności Bożej w Warszawie. +Upamiętnienie. +Ks. Zdzisław Peszkowski jest bohaterem książki "Krzyż południa" z 1983 roku autorstwa Jerzego Krzysztonia. W fabule występuje pod nazwiskiem "Jastrzębiec" - zawołanie rodowe księdza). Podczas II wojny światowej Zdzisław Peszkowski był wychowawcą trzynastoletniego wówczas Krzysztonia. +W Kościele Przemienienia Pańskiego w Sanoku znajduje płaskorzeźba Golgota Wschodu upamiętniająca ofiary zbrodni katyńskiej. Ma wymiary 210x120 cm i jest wykonana z brązu. Powstała w ramach akcji "Golgota Wschodu - Polska pamięta". Znajduje się we wnętrzu kościoła, jest złożona z wizerunku orła, krzyża i Matki Boskiej Katyńskiej. Nad krzyżem znajduje się orzeł. Inskrypcje brzmią: ""Pomóż przebaczyć" 1940" oraz wymienione nazwy miejscowości kaźni: ""Katyń, Kozielsk, Starobielsk, Ostaszków"" oraz podpis ""NSZZ „Solidarność” Region Podkarpacie. Sanok"". Tablica została odsłonięta 18 listopada 1995 roku, a podczas mszy św. homilię wygłosił ks. Zdzisław Peszkowski. Z jego inicjatywy podobne płaskorzeźby umieszczono w 50-ciu polskich kościołach dla upamiętnienia 55. rocznicy zbrodni katyńskiej. +Zdzisław Peszkowski jest patronem Szkoły Podstawowej nr 4 w rodzinnym Sanoku. Wyraził na to zgodę tuż przed śmiercią. Oficjalnie nadanie nastąpiło 8 października 2008 roku. +W latach 2005-2009 Ks. hm Zdzisław Peszkowski był patronem honorowym Hufca Ziemi Sanockiej ZHP, a po tym okresie 10 listopada 2008 roku przyjął jego imię do swojej nazwy. Na fasadzie budynku przy ulicy Zielonej 39 w Sanoku (tzw. willa Pod Topolami, Dom Harcerza, Komenda ZHP) w dzielnicy Błonie znajduje się tablica pamiątkowa poświęcona ks. hm Zdzisławowi Peszkowskiemu. Inskrypcja głosi: "Na pamiątkę nadania Hufcowi ZHP Ziemi Sanockiej imienia Księdza hm. Zdzisława Peszkowskiego zuchy, harcerze, instruktorzy. Sanok 10.11.2008 r." +Symboliczna tablica nagrobna ku jego pamięci znajduje na grobowcu rodzinnym rodziny Peszkowskich na Cmentarzu Centralnym w Sanoku, odnowionym i poświęconym 23 sierpnia 2008 roku, w 90. rocznicę urodzin księdza. +Na Cmentarzu Centralnym w Sanoku znajduje się Pomnik Golgota Wschodu upamiętnia pochodzące z Sanoka i Ziemi Sanockiej ofiary zbrodni katyńskiej, powstały z inicjatywy ks. Zdzisława Peszkowskiego. Głównym jego elementem jest Krzyż Pamięci Ofiar Polskiej Golgoty Wschodu, poświęcony 10 listopada 2008 roku. Stanowi go krzyż brzozowy z tabliczką o treści: "Ofiarom polskiej Golgoty Wschodu". U podstawy krzyża umieszczono kamienie, na których widnieją trzy tabliczki. Pierwsza zawiera inskrypcję "Krzyż wzniesiono z inicjatywy Ks. Prałata Zdzisława J. Peszkowskiego staraniem Hufca ZHP Ziemi Sanockiej. A.D. 2008.", druga – "W 40-stym nas Matko na Sybir zesłali. Sanok, 04.2009.", ufundowana przez Związek Sybiraków, zaś trzecia, upamiętniająca por. Zbigniewa Czekańskiego zawiera cytat ks. Zdzisława Peszkowskiego i informację pamiątkową "Sercem i modlitwą otaczam postać dh Z. Czekańskiego, umiłowanego harcerza, konspiratora, bohatera i męczennika, ks. Z. Peszkowski / por. Zbigniew Czekański ur. 4.VII.1907 zginął 30.VI.1941. Z-ca komendanta hufca harcerzy w Sanoku. Dowóca Harcerskiej Kompanii Obrony Lwowa w 1939 r. Instruktor Chorągwi Lwowskiej Szarych Szeregów. Sanok, 18.04.2009". 18 kwietnia 2009 roku, w ramach akcji „Katyń... pamiętamy” / „Katyń... Ocalić od zapomnienia”, w tzw. Alei Katyńskiej wokoło krzyża zostało zasadzonych 21 Dębów Pamięci. W drugą rocznicę śmierci księdza, 8 października 2009 roku, posadzono trzy następne Dęby Pamięci, a w piątą rocznicę w 2012 roku dwa kolejne. Jeden z nich upamiętnia krewnego Zdzisława Peszkowskiego, płk Edwarda Zygmunta Peszkowskiego (1891-1940). +14 maja 2008 roku imię ks. Zdzisława Jastrzębiec Peszkowskiego nadano Publicznemu Gimnazjum w Belsku Dużym w województwie mazowieckim. +31 sierpnia 2010 roku na terenie Polskiego Seminarium Świętych Cyryla i Metodego w Orchard Lake w stanie Michigan w Stanach Zjednoczonych odsłonięto pomnik upamiętniający ks. prałata Zdzisława Peszkowskiego, ofiary zbrodni katyńskiej i ofiary katastrofy polskiego Tu-154 w Smoleńsku. +17 września 2010 roku w parku im. Henryka Jordana w Krakowie (V.3) odsłonięto popiersie ks. Zdzisława Peszkowskiego zrealizowane w ramach projektu "słynni Polacy XX w.". 17 września 2012 roku w Grudziądzu odsłonięto popiersie ks. Zdzisława Peszkowskiego przy ulicy Mickiewicza. +Izabella Sierakowska + +Izabella Antonina Sierakowska z domu Kruszyńska (ur. 22 września 1946 w Górze Śląskiej) – polska polityk, filolog, nauczycielka, posłanka na Sejm X, I, II, III, IV i VI kadencji. +Życiorys. +W 1971 ukończyła studia na Wydziale Filologii Rosyjskiej Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej w Rzeszowie, a w 1979 – studia podyplomowe z zakresu literatury rosyjskiej na Uniwersytecie Moskiewskim. Pracowała jako nauczycielka języka rosyjskiego. Kierowała lubelskim zarządem miejskim Związku Nauczycielstwa Polskiego. +W 1980 wstąpiła do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. Była delegatką na X Zjazd PZPR, a także matką chrzestną statku "Lublin II". W 1988 bez powodzenia ubiegała się o mandat radnej Wojewódzkiej Rady Narodowej w Lublinie. Od 1989 do 2005 pełniła funkcję posłanki: w 1989 została wybrana z rekomendacji PZPR, w latach 1991, 1993, 1997 i 2001 uzyskiwała mandat z ramienia Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. Należała do Socjaldemokracji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, w której pełniła funkcję wiceprzewodniczącej, od 1999 do Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. Zasiadała w zarządzie krajowym SLD. Pełniła również funkcję wiceprzewodniczącej klubu parlamentarnego tej partii. W 2004 przystąpiła do Socjaldemokracji Polskiej. W IV kadencji Sejmu sprawowała funkcję zastępcy przewodniczącego Komisji Obrony Narodowej oraz członka Komisji Zdrowia. W 1996 była współautorką ustawy liberalizującej tzw. przepisy dotyczące aborcji. +W wyborach samorządowych w 2006 w 1. turze wyborów na prezydenta Lublina zajęła pierwsze miejsce (25,29% głosów). W 2. turze uzyskała 37,59% głosów, przegrywając z kandydatem PO Adamem Wasilewskim. W tych samych wyborach została radną sejmiku lubelskiego. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007 powróciła do Sejmu. Kandydując z listy koalicji Lewica i Demokraci w okręgu lubelskim, otrzymała 24 870 głosów. Od 22 kwietnia 2008 zasiadała w Kole Poselskim SDPL (do września 2009 działającym pod nazwą SDPL-Nowa Lewica). W wyborach do Parlamentu Europejskiego w 2009 kandydowała z listy komitetu Porozumienie dla Przyszłości – CentroLewica, który nie osiągnął progu wyborczego. W wyborach w 2010 ponownie ubiegała się bez powodzenia o urząd prezydenta Lublina, uzyskując w I turze trzecie miejsce z wynikiem 17,92% głosów. W 2011 bezskutecznie ubiegała się o mandat senatora. +Odporność humoralna + +Odporność humoralna - jeden z mechanizmów odporności swoistej. W reakcji odpornościowej humoralnej organizm wykorzystuje różne substancje chemiczne, najważniejszymi są w niej przeciwciała (białka odpornościowe). +Przeciwciała są produkowane, a następnie uwalniane przez uczulone limfocyty B w odpowiedzi na pojawiający się w organizmie antygen. +Limfocyty T, makrofagi i antygeny działają na limfocyty B - następuje tranformacja blastyczna i namnażanie. Część krąży we krwi jako komórki pamięci immunologicznej, a część ulega przekształceniu w plazmocyty (poprzez stadia plazmoblastów i proplazmocytów), które następnie wytwarzają przeciwciała. +Tryton (księżyc) + +Tryton (Neptun I, gr. ) – największy księżyc Neptuna. Został odkryty przez Williama Lassella 10 października 1846 roku, zaledwie 17 dni po odkryciu samej planety. Jest siódmym księżycem Neptuna licząc od powierzchni planety macierzystej. Nazwa pochodzi z mitologii greckiej. Tryton był synem Posejdona, greckiego odpowiednika rzymskiego Neptuna. +Orbita. +Tryton jest jedynym dużym księżycem w Układzie Słonecznym, który porusza się ruchem wstecznym wokół swojej planety (nachylenie orbity do równika planety wynosi 157°). Taki ruch wyklucza powstanie księżyca w tym samym rejonie dysku planetarnego, co planeta, wokół której krąży. Tryton musiał więc być obiektem przechwyconym przez pole grawitacyjne Neptuna, najprawdopodobniej z pasa Kuipera. Średnia odległość od planety wynosi 354,8 tys. km i jest bardzo podobna do odległości Księżyca od Ziemi. Tryton powoli zbliża się do Neptuna i za 1,4 do 3,6 miliarda lat najprawdopodobniej zderzy się z planetą bądź rozpadnie się na niewielkie fragmenty, tworząc system pierścieni o wielkości porównywalnej z tymi posiadanymi przez Saturna. +Konsekwencje przechwycenia. +Przechwycenie Trytona może tłumaczyć kształt orbity Nereidy, krążącej dalej od planety niż sam Tryton, po orbicie o największym mimośrodzie spośród wszystkich znanych księżyców w Układzie Słonecznym. Sam Tryton obecnie porusza się po orbicie prawie idealnie kołowej, ale tak zapewne nie było w przeszłości. Po przechwyceniu jego orbita przecinała orbity regularnych księżyców i oddziaływał z nimi grawitacyjnie, wytrącając Nereidę na obecną orbitę i przypuszczalnie powodując także zmiany orbit księżyców krążących bliżej Neptuna. +Charakterystyka fizyczna. +Średnia gęstość Trytona wynosi ok. 2,07 g/cm³; składa się on prawdopodobnie w 25% z wody (w postaci lodu) i w 75% z materiału skalnego. Tak duża zawartość lodu pozwala zaliczyć go do księżyców lodowych. Na powierzchni Trytona panują jedne z najniższych temperatur ze wszystkich zaobserwowanych na powierzchni ciał Układu Słonecznego: temperatura w okolicach południowego bieguna tego księżyca wynosi 35,6 K. Mimo to Tryton jest aktywny geologicznie. Voyager 2 zaobserwował kriowulkany, wyrzucające 8 km ponad powierzchnię płynny azot, pył i metan. Za aktywność kriowulkaniczną odpowiedzialne są prawdopodobnie zmiany pór roku. Gdy zwiększa się kąt, pod jakim powierzchnia Trytona jest oświetlana przez Słońce, więcej światła przenika warstwę azotowego lodu i jest absorbowane przez materię leżącą poniżej. Część azotu przechodzi ze stanu stałego w ciekły i zostaje wyrzucona ponad powierzchnię. Satelita posiada także cienką atmosferę zbudowaną przede wszystkim z azotu, z niewielką domieszką metanu. Ciśnienie atmosferyczne wynosi zaledwie ok. 1 Pa. +Pory roku. +Ponieważ oś obrotu Trytona jest ustawiona pod kątem 157° w stosunku do osi obrotu Neptuna i pod kątem 130° stopni do płaszczyzny orbity Neptuna, jeden z biegunów jest zwrócony cały czas w stronę Słońca. Gdy Neptun porusza się wokół Słońca co 82 lata bieguny zamieniają się pozycjami, co skutkuje radykalnymi sezonowymi zmianami, za każdym razem gdy zmienia się biegun oświetlany przez promienie słoneczne. Nakładając na to zmiany orbity i osi obrotu co 700 lat spotykamy wyjątkowo ciepłe okresy. Ostatnie takie „wielkie lato” nastąpiło w 2007 roku. +W czasie przelotu Voyagera 2 w kierunku Słońca zwrócony był południowy biegun Trytona. Zdjęcia z tego przelotu pokazały czapę polarną złożoną z zamarzniętego azotu i metanu, pokrywającą prawie całą południową półkulę. Ciśnienie atmosferyczne było równe ok. 1,4 Pa. W 1998 roku, wykorzystując zakrycie przez Trytona odległej gwiazdy, stwierdzono, że gęstość atmosfery podwoiła się, co może sugerować, że czapa polarna powoli sublimuje. Pomiary wykonane w 2010 roku dzięki teleskopowi VLT wskazują, że ciśnienie wzrosło do wartości 4,0-6,5 Pa. +Z innych badań wynika, że azotowy lód nie wyparowuje, tylko z bieguna może migrować w kierunku równika. +Geologia. +Tryton jest bardzo podobny pod względem wielkości do Plutona. Przypuszcza się, że także pod względem budowy i składu chemicznego są podobne do siebie. Ponieważ Tryton został przechwycony przez Neptuna sugeruje się, że oba ciała powstały w tych samych rejonach Układu Słonecznego. Badania trajektorii lotu sondy Voyager 2 pokazują, że wnętrze Trytona musi być zbudowane w dużej części z materiału skalnego, najprawdopodobniej z dużym metalicznym jądrem. Skupione jest w nim 2/3 całej masy satelity, co jest rzadko spotykane wśród innych księżyców; tak duże jądro posiadają tylko Io i Europa. +Powierzchnia jest pokryta w większości zestalonym azotem z domieszkami suchego lodu, lodu wodnego, a także tlenku węgla i metanu w stanie stałym. Dzięki temu powierzchnia bardzo dobrze odbija światło słoneczne, od 60 do 95%. +Topografia. +Powierzchnia Trytona jest równa 4,5% powierzchni Ziemi (liczonej wraz z oceanami). Na powierzchni występują obszary o różnej gęstości, od 2,07 do 2,3 g/cm³. Charakterystyczne dla Trytona są tereny kantalupowe, przypominające swym wyglądem skórkę melona. Struktury te można dostrzec na szerokości np. 0°-30°N. Tę cechę posiadają m.in. tereny noszące nazwę Bubembe Regio oraz Monad Regio położone na północy Trytona. Innymi charakterystycznymi formacjami są bruzdy liczące sobie kilkaset kilometrów. Na powierzchni Trytona sklasyfikowano ich 12. Przykładem takiej struktury jest Yasu Sulci czy Lo Sulci. +Bruzdy są charakterystycznymi strukturami geologicznymi Trytona. Oprócz Lo Sulci sklasyfikowano ich jeszcze 11. +Atmosfera. +Tryton jest jednym z niewielu aktywnych geologicznie księżyców w Układzie Słonecznym. Skutkiem tej aktywności jest obecność w atmosferze Trytona takich gazów jak amoniak, metan i dwutlenek węgla. Pierwszy raz atmosfera księżyca została zbadana w 1989 roku przez sondę Voyager 2. Wykonane w 2010 roku pomiary z wykorzystaniem spektrografu pasma podczerwonego "CRIRES" pozwoliły na dokładny wgląd w aktualny stan atmosfery Trytona. +Choć otrzymane wyniki istotnie się różnią nie oznacza to błędu w poprzednich pomiarach. Różnice te mogą wynikać z występujących na Trytonie pór roku, trwających po 40 lat ziemskich. Obecne pomiary miały miejsce, gdy na południowej półkuli księżyca panuje lato, natomiast przelot Voyagera miał miejsce późną wiosną. Wyniki nowych badań wskazują, że ciśnienie atmosferyczne wynosi obecnie na Trytonie 4,0-6,5 Pa, a nie 1,4 Pa jak zmierzył tę wartość Voyager. Potwierdza to hipotezę, zgodnie z którą latem dodatkowo zasila atmosferę sublimacja gazów takich, jak dwutlenek węgla czy metan, których w 2001 roku wykryto znacznie więcej niż przed 20 laty. Z przeprowadzonych badań wynika też, że stężenie dwutlenku węgla jest wyższe w górnych warstwach atmosfery niż przy powierzchni. Obecność pór roku potwierdziły w kwietniu 2010 roku badania preprowadzone przy użyciu teleskopu VLT. W momencie obserwacji na księżycu panowało lato, które rozpoczęło się w roku 2000. +Badania Trytona. +Jedyną sondą, która dotarła do Neptuna i Trytona, był Voyager 2. Trajektorię sondy zaplanowano tak, by przeleciała blisko księżyca, co w konsekwencji doprowadziło do wyrzucenia sondy poza płaszczyznę ekliptyki. W efekcie przelotu uzyskano wiele fascynujących zdjęć, zwłaszcza południowej półkuli Trytona. Do dziś nie mamy prawie żadnych informacji o północnych rejonach tego fascynującego świata. +Istniały plany wysłania przez NASA w 2016 roku sondy kosmicznej w kierunku Neptuna, z lądownikiem który wylądowałby na Trytonie. Projekt sondy był bardzo ambitny i zakładał wykorzystanie napędu nuklearnego, z którym i tak dotarcie do celu trwałoby 8-12 lat. Został jednak wykreślony z listy misji planowanych przez NASA do roku 2035. +Birmingham City F.C. + +Birmingham City Football Club – angielski klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Birmingham, grający obecnie w Championship. +Historia. +Założony w 1875 roku jako The Small Heath Alliance (jego pierwszym stadionem był Arthur Street). Dziesięć lat później został profesjonalnym zespołem. Od 1877 roku klub grał na stadionie Muntz Street. W 1888 roku stał się Small Heath. W 1905 roku klub zmienił swoją nazwę na Birmingham FC i w 1906 przeniósł się na nowy stadion, który później nosił nazwę St Andrews Stadium. +Jako Small Heath klub był założycielem oraz pierwszym mistrzem Football League Second Division. Najwięcej sukcesów zespół osiągnął w latach 50. i 60. W sezonie 1955/1956 zajął najwyższe, szóste miejsce w First Division oraz doszedł do finału Pucharu Anglii. W roku 1960 i 1961 grał w finałach Pucharu Miast Targowych. Dwa lata później zdobył Pucharu Ligi. +Klub grał w najwyższej lidze rozgrywek łącznie przez 52 sezony w historii. Największy sukces w rozgrywkach ligowych to zajęcie 6. miejsca. Birmingham City w 1963 roku wygrał Puchar Ligi, natomiast w 2001 roku przegrał w finale tych rozgrywek. W 1931 i 1956 roku klubowi udało się też dotrzeć do finału Pucharu Anglii. W 2011 roku Birmingham City zdobył Puchar Ligi Angielskiej pokonując w finale 2:1 Arsenal. +Obecną nazwę nosi od 1943 roku. Przez większą część swojej historii klub grał w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej w Anglii. Od 1986 do 2002 roku zespół cały czas grał natomiast na cały czas poza pierwszą ligą. W tym czasie klub grał również w trzeciej klasie rozgrywek i zdobył Football League Trophy. W sezonie 2008/2009 klub awansował z Football League Championship do Premier League. +Klub rozgrywa także Derby Birmingham ze swoim rywalem, Aston Villą. Zespół nosi przydomek Blues (niebiescy) z powodu swoich barw, zaś kibice nazywani są Bluenoses (niebieskonosi). +Zawodnicy. +Obecny skład. +"stan na 27 sierpnia 2012" +Sponsorzy. +3 sierpnia 2011 miało miejsce podpisanie rocznej umowy sponsorskiej pomiędzy klubem a firmą RationalFX Xendpay , specjalistą od przelewów międzynarodowych oraz transakcji walutowych. Logo sponsora pojawi się na koszulakch piłkarzy Birmingham City F.C. na sobotnim (6 sierpnia 2011) meczu z Derby County. +Ignacy Skorupka + +Ignacy Jan Skorupka (ur. 31 lipca 1893 w Warszawie, zm. 14 sierpnia 1920 pod Ossowem) – ksiądz katolicki, kapelan Wojska Polskiego. Jego śmierć stała się jednym z symboli bitwy warszawskiej. +Życiorys. +Ignacy Skorupka, herbu Ślepowron, urodził się w Warszawie, w domu przy ulicy Ciepłej 3 w robotniczej dzielnicy Wola. Był najstarszym synem Adama Skorupki, urzędnika towarzystwa ubezpieczeniowego w Warszawie, pochodzącego ze szlachty zagrodowej z Podlasia, i Eleonory z Pomińskich, córki powstańca z 1863 roku; jego młodszym bratem był znany działacz harcerski okresu międzywojennego, harcmistrz Kazimierz Skorupka. +Ukończył 4 klasy gimnazjum filologicznego Kowalskiego w Warszawie. W 1909 roku wstąpił do Warszawskiego Seminarium Duchownego. Rektor Seminarium scharakteryzował go jako osobę wątłą i anemiczną. Po ukończeniu seminarium i niższych święceniach został jesienią 1914 roku skierowany do Akademii Duchownej w Piotrogrodzie (Petersburgu). Zainicjował tam powstanie kółka literackiego „Polonia”, wygłaszając w nim odczyty. Od lipca 1915 roku opiekował się ewakuowaną rodziną przybyłą do Petersburga. 26 stycznia 1916 roku przyjął święcenia prezbiteriatu, lecz z powodu kłopotów rodzinnych nie zaliczył jednego z egzaminów i stracił prawo do kontynuowania nauki w Akademii. +W 1917 roku przez kilka miesięcy był proboszczem w Bogorodsku koło Moskwy. Następnie, od września 1917 do sierpnia 1918 roku, pełnił tę samą funkcję w Klińcach (obecnie Klincy) w guberni czernihowskiej. W Klińcach prowadził tajną polską drużynę harcerską, tam właśnie na jego ręce młodszy brat Kazimierz złożył przyrzeczenie harcerskie. Uczył też religii, języka polskiego, łacińskiego i greckiego w miejscowym gimnazjum. Był organizatorem placówek oświatowych i kulturalnych: szkoły początkowej dla dzieci polskich, teatru amatorskiego, towarzystw opiekuńczych. Stał się nieformalnym przywódcą dwutysięcznej grupy polskich uciekinierów osiadłych w Klińcach. Jeżdżąc do Kijowa, starał się o przyspieszenie ewakuacji tej grupy do Polski i następnie tę ewakuację zorganizował, powracając do kraju w końcu sierpnia. +Po powrocie do Polski, od września 1918 roku, pracował jako wikariusz w Łodzi w parafii Przemienienia Pańskiego. Założył Towarzystwo „Oświata”, zajmujące się rozwojem szkolnictwa polskiego i został jego prezesem. Towarzystwo to przejęło szkołę przy ul. Placowej – później placówka ta przyjęła imię ks. Ignacego Skorupki. +We wrześniu 1919 roku ks. Skorupka został przeniesiony przez władze kościelne do Warszawy i objął stanowisko notariusza i archiwisty Kurii Metropolitalnej Warszawskiej. Jednocześnie był kapelanem Ogniska Rodziny Maryi przy ul. Zamoyskiego 30, prowadzonego przez siostry franciszkanki dla sierot i prefektem w kilku szkołach. Głosił kazania w kościołach warszawskich, m.in. w Wielkim Poście w 1920 roku w katedrze warszawskiej św. Jana Chrzciciela. +W początku lipca 1920 roku, wobec zbliżania się wojsk bolszewickich, poprosił władze kościelne o zgodę na objęcie funkcji kapelana wojskowego. Początkowo jej nie uzyskał, dopiero dzięki poparciu biskupa polowego Wojska Polskiego Stanisława Galla został, w końcu lipca, kapelanem garnizonu praskiego. W koszarach i na dworcach spowiadał żołnierzy ruszających na front. Dnia 7 lub 8 sierpnia został, na własną prośbę, mianowany kapelanem lotnym 1 batalionu 236 Pułku Piechoty Armii Ochotniczej. Batalion ten formował się w budynku szkoły im. Władysława IV na warszawskiej Pradze i składał się głównie z młodzieży gimnazjalnej i akademickiej. +13 sierpnia wymaszerował na front wraz z batalionem, który został ostatecznie włączony do 36 Pułku Piechoty Legii Akademickiej. Wieczorem batalion dotarł do wsi Ossów (powiat wołomiński), leżącej na linii frontu. 14 sierpnia 1920 roku Ignacy Skorupka zginął od postrzału kulą ekrazytową w głowę podczas toczącej się pod tą wsią bitwy, będącej częścią bitwy warszawskiej. +Jego śmierć została zauważona dopiero po natarciu, wbrew później kreowanym legendom i hagiograficznym opisom, nie prowadził on ataku z krzyżem w ręku, ale towarzyszył części nieostrzelanych żołnierzy Pułku i zginął w czasie udzielania żołnierzowi ostatniego namaszczenia. Władysław Pobóg-Malinowski napisał iż Skorupka zginął „śmiercią bardziej godną kapłana, ugodzony bowiem został zabłąkaną kulą w chwili, gdy w jakichś opłotkach, pochylony nad ciężko rannym żołnierzem, udzielał mu ostatnich pociech religijnych”. +W komunikacie Sztabu Generalnego WP z 16 sierpnia opisano „bohaterską śmierć ks. kapelana Ignacego Skorupki [...], który w stule i z krzyżem w ręku przodował atakującym oddziałom”. Dowódca kompanii ppor. Mieczysław Słowikowski w swych wspomnieniach napisał, że zgodził się na wzięcie udziału ks. Skorupki w ataku i że widział moment jego upadku. +Upamiętnienie. +Ciało Ignacego Skorupki przewieziono do Warszawy. 17 sierpnia w kościele garnizonowym przy ul. Długiej, a następnie na Powązkach miały miejsce uroczystości pogrzebowe z udziałem najwyższego duchowieństwa oraz przedstawicieli rządu i generalicji. Generał Józef Haller udekorował trumnę ks. Skorupki nadanym pośmiertnie Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Virtuti Militari. +Śmierć ks. Skorupki została wykreowana na jedną ze składowych legendy „cudu nad Wisłą”. Według ówczesnej prawicy zwycięstwo w bitwie warszawskiej było rezultatem cudu, a nie planu kontrnatarcia Piłsudskiego i w taką narrację wpisywano śmierć Skorupki. Kolejne rocznice bitwy były okazją do szerzenia legendy księdza Skorupki +W 1921 roku w Ossowie w domniemanym miejscu śmierci kapłana postawiono krzyż z tablicą informacyjną, a na powązkowskim cmentarzu wojskowym uroczyście poświęcono jego nagrobek. W tym samym roku w Nowym Jorku odsłonięto upamiętniającą go tablicę, ufundowaną przez Polonię amerykańską. Postać ks. Skorupki widniała na płaskorzeźbie (zniszczonej po 1945 roku) pomnika bohaterów wojny polsko-sowieckiej na cmentarzu wojskowym. W 1930 powstał w Łodzi pierwszy pomnik Ignacego Skorupki, także w Warszawie zawiązano komitet budowy pomnika. W czerwcu 1939 w Ossowie odsłonięto obelisk upamiętniający ks. Skorupkę i innych obrońców Warszawy (zniszczony po 1945, odbudowany po 1989). W Warszawie (1921), Łodzi i Poznaniu (1931) oraz kilku podwarszawskich miejscowościach nazwano jego imieniem ulice. +W 1986 roku odznaczony został Gwiazdą Wytrwałości. +11 sierpnia 2010 roku Ignacy Skorupka został pośmiertnie odznaczony Orderem Orła Białego. Uroczystość wręczenia orderu na ręce bratanicy księdza odbyła się 14 sierpnia 2010 roku. W ceremonii, będącej fragmentem mszy ku uczczeniu pamięci ks. Skorupki i poległych razem z nim żołnierzy, brał udział prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Bronisław Komorowski, sprawujący jednocześnie honorowy patronat obchodów rocznicy bitwy warszawskiej. +Malarstwo. +Postać Ignacego Skorupki była motywem wielu obrazów. Na zlecenie papieża Piusa XI powstało w Castel Gandolfo malowidło ścienne autorstwa Jana Henryka Rosena, przedstawiające bitwę pod Ossowem z centralną postacią księdza; znalazła się też ona obok wizerunku Matki Boskiej Częstochowskiej w kaplicy polskiej w Loreto. Widniała także na tryptyku w kościele Matki Bożej Zwycięskiej na Kamionku, którego prawe skrzydło było obrazem bitwy pod Ossowem. Obrazy bitwy, z centralną postacią ks. Skorupki, namalowali m.in. Jerzy Kossak, Roman Bratkowski i Bolesław Nawrocki. W obiegu były pocztówki z wizerunkiem kapłana i Matki Boskiej. +Literatura. +Osobie ks. Skorupki poświęcone były także utwory literackie: wiersz Mieczysława Zielenkiewicza "Ksiądz-bohater", dramaty "Bitwa pod Radzyminem czyli śmierć księdza Skorupki" Stefana Gozdawy Wiecheckiego i "Ksiądz Skorupka" Tadeusza Konczyńskiego, powieść "Bój pod Radzyminem" Józefa Relidzyńskiego. Do roku 1939, zwłaszcza w rocznicę śmierci, ukazywały się też liczne artykuły i wspomnienia. +Filmy. +W 2005 roku powstał biograficzny film dokumentalny o ks. Ignacym Skorupce w reż. Leszka Wiśniewskiego pt. "Zwyczajny bohater". W fabularnym filmie Jerzego Hoffmana "1920 Bitwa Warszawska" w rolę księdza Skorupki wcielił się Łukasz Garlicki. +System resztowy + +System resztowy (skr. "RNS" od ang. "residue number system") – system liczbowy służący do reprezentacji liczb całkowitych wektorem reszt z dzielenia względem ustalonego wektora wzajemnie względnie pierwszych modułów. Chińskie twierdzenie o resztach orzeka, że taka reprezentacja jest jednoznaczna dla liczb całkowitych ze zbioru [0, "M"), gdzie "M" jest iloczynem wszystkich modułów. +Niech "B" = ("m"1, "m"2, ..., "m""n"), będzie bazą względnie pierwszych modułów, a "M" ich iloczynem. Wtedy reprezentacją liczby "X" w systemie resztowym o bazie "B" jest ("x"1, "x"2, ..., "x""n") gdzie "x""i" = "X" "mod" "m""i" dla każdego 1 ≤ "i" ≤ "n". +Operacje. +Na liczbach reprezentowanych w systemie resztowym może być efektywnie przeprowadzonych wiele operacji arytmetycznych. Wykonuje się je przeprowadzając niezależnie na odpowiednich resztach 'zwykłe' operacje, a następnie operację modulo odpowiedniego modułu. +Dla następujących operacji rozważmy dwie liczby całkowite, "A" i "B", reprezentowane przez "a""i" i "b""i" w systemie resztowym zdefiniowanym przez bazę "m""i" (dla "i" z przedziału 0 ≤ "i" ≤ "n"). +Mnożenie. +Przykład. +Liczba (0, 1, 1) po zamianie na liczbę całkowitą w reprezentacji dziesiętnej wynosi 16. +Dzielenie. +Dzielenie w systemie resztowym jest bardziej skomplikowanie. +Z drugiej strony jeśli "B" jest liczbą pierwszą dla "M" (tzn. formula_8 dla wszystkich "i") wtedy +może być prosto policzone przez +gdzie formula_11 jest liczbą odwrotną do "B" modulo "M", i formula_12 jest liczbą odwrotną z formula_13 modulo formula_14 (współczynniki formula_12 mogą zostać wyliczone raz dla danego systemu resztowego). +Konwersja odwrotna. +"Konwersją odwrotną" można przeprowadzić w następujący sposób. Niech ("x"1, "x"2, ..., "x""n") będzie reprezentacją liczby "X" w systemie resztowym o bazie ("m"1, "m"2, ..., "m""n"), oraz niech +oraz +gdzie +wtedy +Np. w systemie o bazie (3, 5, 7), reprezentacją "X" jest (2, 3, 4), wtedy +oraz +więc +formula_22 +Wypadek ubezpieczeniowy + +Wypadek ubezpieczeniowy – jest to przewidziane w umowie ubezpieczenia zdarzenie losowe, wystąpienie którego powoduje powstanie obowiązku wypłaty odszkodowania lub innego świadczenia przez ubezpieczyciela. Z wystąpieniem wypadku ubezpieczeniowego związana jest ekspektatywa, która przeradza się w wierzytelność. +Starosta + +Stanowisko starosty (łac. "capitaneus"), na przestrzeni lat zmieniało swoje znaczenie i funkcje. +Miasto na prawach powiatu. +W przypadku miasta na prawach powiatu zadania, które ustawy nakładają na organy powiatu, wykonują organy tego Miasta, wyłaniane i działające na zasadach określonych w ustawie o samorządzie gmin i w innych przepisach prawa, które dotyczą gmin. Odpowiednio: zadania nałożone na radę powiatu wykonuje rada miasta, a zadania nałożone na starostę i na zarząd powiatu wykonuje jednoosobowo prezydent miasta. Praw powiatu nie może mieć gmina, która ma burmistrza, ani taka, która ma wójta. +Trzęsienie ziemi w Bukareszcie (1977) + +Silne trzęsienie ziemi nawiedziło rumuńską stolicę Bukareszt 4 marca 1977 roku o godzinie 21:20 czasu lokalnego. Zniszczenia odnotowano w całym kraju, a wstrząsy odczuwane były na całych Bałkanach. Epicentrum tego wstrząsu o sile 7,4 w skali Richtera znajdowało się w miejscowości Vrancea w Karpatach Wschodnich na głębokości 94 km. +W wyniku trzęsienia, śmierć poniosło około 1570 osób, a ponad 11 tys. zostało rannych. Wstrząs zniszczył około 35 tys. budynków w całym kraju, ale najbardziej ucierpiała sama stolica, gdzie w gruzach legło m.in. 33 duże, historyczne budynki. Wykorzystane to zostało przez Nicolae Ceauşescu jako pretekst do wyburzenia w następnych latach wielu kolejnych zabytków, w celu przebudowy miasta (szczególnie budowy wielu monumentalnych gmachów rządowych, m.in. gigantycznego Domu Ludowego). +Po tym trzęsieniu ziemi rząd Rumunii wprowadził surowsze normy w budownictwie. +Trzęsienie było wyczuwalne również w Bułgarii, gdzie poważnie zniszczyło miasto Swisztow. W Swisztowie, w wyniku trzęsienia, zginęło około 100 osób. Poważnie została uszkodzona też cerkiew Trójcy Przenajświętszej. +Wrestling + +Zapasy profesjonalne (ang. professional wrestling, często skracane do pro wrestling i wrestling) to rodzaj spektaklu łączący atletykę i sztukę teatralną, rodzaj rozrywki sportowej Bazuje on na klasycznych zapasach greckich i wolnej amerykance ze współczesnymi dodatkami, takimi jak ciosy, oparte na sile chwyty i rzuty oraz akrobatyczne manewry. Duży wpływ na obecny kształt wrestlingu miały również sztuki walki. Dodatkowym aspektem jest okazyjne użycie improwizowanych broni dla nadania dramatyzmu. +Pojedynki mają z góry określone wyniki w celu zapewnienia rozrywki, a wszelkie używane manewry są przemyślane i używane z myślą zmniejszenia szansy na odniesienie faktycznej kontuzji. Prawdziwa natura starć nie jest wspominana przez organizacje w celu zawieszenia niewiary przez publikę oraz nadaniu aury prawdopodobieństwa toczonych pojedynków. +Założenia i konwencje. +Mówiąc o wrestlingu, należy mieć na uwadze, że wszelkie wydarzenia dzielą się na te prezentowane w trakcie show i te odbywające się w prawdziwym życiu, mające jednak wpływ na występy, jak długość kontraktu czy faktyczne kontuzje. Często jednak linia pomiędzy tymi dwoma dziedzinami zaciera się. Także działania podejmowane przez osoby występujące pod prawdziwym imieniem i nazwiskiem, jak John Cena, powinny być traktowane jako fikcyjne i w strefie scenariusza, odseparowane od ich prawdziwego życia. Niektórzy wrestlerzy dzielą jednak elementy osobowości ich charakterów ze swoim prawdziwym życiem. Jednym z takich przykładów jest CM Punk, który zarówno w ringu, jak i poza nim prezentuje styl straight edge. +Kayfabe. +Historycy nie są pewni, w którym momencie wrestling porzucił swoją tradycyjną formę wolnej amerykanki na rzecz rozrywki sportowej. Zawodnicy, którzy pozostali w biznesie po zmianach zaczęli czuć potrzebę utrzymania iluzji oraz nieświadomości publiczności. +Te praktyki i różne metody używane w tym celu stały się znane jako "kayfabe" w kręgach wrestlingowych. Duży zakres slangowego żargonu i eufemizmów pozwoliły wrestlerom komunikować się nawzajem, również w towarzystwie ludzi z zewnątrz. +Utrzymywana w sekrecie natura profesjonalnego wrestlingu stała się tajemnicą publiczną, gdy ważne postacie zaczęły przyznawać, że zapasy są formą rozrywki, a nie zawodów. Ujawnienie tego faktu zebrało mieszane reakcje wśród społeczności. Mimo publicznego przyznania się do teatralnej natury pro wrestlingu, wiele stanów w USA wciąż reguluje go jak inne sporty. +Aspekty wykonywania sztuki. +Pokazy wrestlingu mogą być traktowane jako forma teatru z ringiem, strefą wokół ringu i drogą prowadzącą do niego. Pojęcie czwartej ściany jest tu jednak znacznie bardziej ograniczone – publiczność ma wiedzę o tym, że gala jest formą przedstawienia i mogą wchodzić w interakcję z zawodnikami. Pojedynki są częścią długiego fabularyzowanego konfliktu pomiędzy "babyfacem" (skracane do "face", "dobry gość") a "heelem" ("zły gość"). Zadaniem face’ów jest uzyskanie pozytywnej reakcji od publiczności, natomiast heelów – negatywnej, buczenia. +Zasady. +Nie istnieje organizacja regulująca zasady w profesjonalnych zapasach, jednak istnieją generalne standardy określone na przestrzeni czasu. Każda federacja ma ich swoją własną wariację, lecz są one podobne w celu uniknięcia nieporozumień. +Generalna struktura. +Pojedynki są toczone pomiędzy dwoma bądź więcej stronami. Każda strona składa się z jednego wrestlera albo z drużyny dwóch lub więcej. Pojedynki drużynowe wykazują pewne formy odrębności i niektóre z reguł tam stosowanych nie znajdują się w żadnej innej odmianie starć. Inne pojedynki są toczone w formie każdy na każdego, z wieloma zawodnikami, lecz brakiem drużyn. W każdym wariancie może być tylko jeden zwycięski zespół albo zawodnik. +Przypięcia i poddania muszą odbyć się w ringu, chyba że jest to określone inaczej. Większość pojedynków zapaśniczych jest przewidziana na zdobycie określonej ilości punktów. Dawniej starcia były toczone do trzech punktów (best 2 out of 3) albo pięciu (best 3 out of 5). Standardem w dzisiejszych pojedynkach jest zdobycie jednego punktu. Jeśli dla danego starcia jest określony limit czasowy i po czasie nikt nie zdobył wymaganej ilości punktów, pojedynek zostaje zakończony jako remisowy. Alternatywą są starcia toczone w określonym przedziale czasowym (z reguły 20, 30 albo 60 minut), gdzie zdobywca największej ilości punktów po danym czasie zostaje zwycięzcą. Ten rodzaj pojedynku jest najczęściej nazywany Iron Man Matchem. +W starciach wieloosobowych może być używany system eliminacji. Każdy zawodnik, na którym został zdobyty punkt musi opuścić pojedynek. Jest to kontynuowane do momentu, w którym na ringu pozostanie tylko jeden wrestler. Częściej spotykane jest jednak nieużywanie tego systemu i kończenie pojedynków w momencie, w którym jeden z zawodników zdobywa punkt. +W starciach o tytuł mistrzowski, aby mógł on zmienić posiadacza, musi zostać zdobyty punkt poprzez pinfall bądź submission. W wypadku dyskwalifikacji albo wyliczenia mistrza tytuł nie zmienia rąk. +Wiele dzisiejszych pojedynków posiada własne, specyficzne zasady określające metodę jego wygrania. Jednym z przykładów jest ladder match, gdzie zawodnik bądź drużyna musi wspiąć się na drabinę i zdjąć zawieszoną nad ringiem nagrodę. Kluczem do wygrania starcia jest oszołomienie przeciwnika bądź przeciwników na tyle długo, aby zawodnik mógł zdjąć zawieszony cel. Drabiny mogą być używane jako legalna broń. Tradycyjną nagrodą do zdobycia jest tytuł mistrzowski, jednak spotykany jest również dokument potwierdzający prawo do starcia mistrzowskiego w przyszłości albo inna rzecz ważna dla uczestników pojedynku. Innym starciem z własnymi zasadami jest battle royal. W tej walce określona liczba zawodników (najczęściej 20 lub 30) zaczyna jednocześnie pojedynek w jednym ringu. Celem starcia jest wyrzucenie zawodników przez górną linę poza ring tak, aby obie stopy dotknęły podłoża. Pojedynek toczy się do momentu w którym na ringu zostaje tylko jeden zawodnik. Odmianą tego pojedynku jest Royal Rumble match, gdzie dwóch zawodników zaczyna starcie, a inni wrestlerzy dołączają do niego w 90-sekundowym interwale czasowym do momentu wyjścia wszystkich 30 zawodników. Reszta zasad pozostaje taka sama. +Każde starcie musi być nadzorowane przez sędziego, którego decyzje są nieodwołalne. Z racji swojej pozycji w utrzymywaniu kontaktu pomiędzy zawodnikami w ringu a bookerami na zapleczu, sędzia pojawia się nawet w walce, która teoretycznie jego nie wymaga (np. ladder match). Najbardziej podstawową zasadą jest fakt, że akcja musi być widziana przez sędziego, aby mógł zdecydować o przyznaniu punktu bądź dyskwalifikacji. Jest to wykorzystywane przez heelów, którzy po odwróceniu uwagi bądź ogłuszeniu sędziego wykonują nielegalne manewry na swoim oponencie. Od czasu do czasu mogą być wykorzystywani sędziowie specjalni. Funkcję tę mogę pełnić zarówno wrestlerzy, jak i celebryci czy sportowcy. W celu nadania większego dramatyzmu, często wykorzystują swoją władzę do faworyzowania jednego z zawodników poprzez szybkie bądź wolne odliczanie, dopuszczenia do używania nielegalnych przedmiotów czy asystowaniu w ataku na zawodnika. +Pojedynki toczone są w ringu zapaśniczym o kształcie kwadratu, z trzema poziomymi linami i narożnikami otoczonymi miękką nakładką. W większości starć wymaga się od zawodników pozostania w ringu, jednak w niektórych odmianach pojedynki mogą się toczyć i skończyć również poza nim. +Zasady pojedynków drużynowych. +W większości pojedynków drużynowych (tag team), tylko jeden zawodnik z każdej drużyny jest „legalny” czy „aktywny”. Aby zmienić się z partnerem z drużyny, musi odbyć się kontakt fizyczny pomiędzy nimi, najczęściej dotknięcie dłonią. Jest to znane jako tag. Z reguły, zawodnik który dokonał zmiany musi udać się poza liny w ciągu pięciu sekund. +W Texas Tornado Tag Team matchu, wszyscy uczestnicy starcia są legalni i nie ma potrzeby dokonywania tagu. Wszystkie starcia bez dyskwalifikacji (jak no DQ, no holds barred, ladder match itd.) są "de facto" toczone z zasadami Texas Tornado, ponieważ sędziowie nie mają odpowiedniej władzy do wymuszenia zmiany zawodników. +Wrestler nie może zdobyć punktu poprzez przypięcie partnera z drużyny, nawet jeśli jest to teoretycznie możliwe. Zasada jest znana jako „Outlaw Rule” na cześć drużyny, która po raz pierwszy spróbowała tej opcji – New Age Outlaws. +Decyzje. +Przypięcie. +Aby zdobyć punkt poprzez przypięcie (pinfall), wrestler musi przytrzymać dowolną częścią swojego ciała obie łopatki przeciwnika do maty w momencie, kiedy sędzia uderza w matę trzy razy (określane jako „three count”). +Jest to najczęstsza forma zakończenia starcia. Nielegalne metody przypięcia to między innymi przytrzymanie lin lub ubrań. Takie piny są rzadko zauważane przez sędziów, lecz nawet ich dostrzeżenie najczęściej nie powoduje dyskwalifikacji, a jedynie unieważnienie liczenia. +Zdarzają się sytuacje, gdzie obaj zawodnicy leżą na macie i pinują siebie nawzajem. Prowadzi to najczęściej do remisu. +Poddanie, nokaut, obezwładnienie. +Aby zdobyć punkt poprzez poddanie (submission), wrestler musi zmusić swojego przeciwnika do poddania, najczęściej trzymając go w uchwycie (jak figure four leg-lock, arm-lock, sleeper-hold). Oponent może wtedy ogłosić swoje poddanie werbalnie bądź odklepując otwartą dłonią w matę. +Utrata przytomności w momencie bycia trzymanym w uchwycie również spowoduje zdobycie punktu poprzez poddanie. W WWE, sędzia najczęściej podnosi dłoń zawodnika do góry, po czym ją puszcza. Jeśli upadnie trzy razy pod rząd, bez prób zawodnika zatrzymania jej w powietrzu, ogłaszana jest utrata przytomności. +Najczęściej spotykaną metodą przerwania uchwytu jest złapanie przez zawodnika liny ringu, znane jako rope break. Większość uchwytów pozostawia wolną rękę lub nogę, więc wrestler może odklepać, jeśli tego chce. Zamiast tego, może użyć swoich wolnych kończyn do dotknięcia którejś z lin, złapania jej albo położenia stopy. Jeśli któreś z tych warunków zostało spełnione, zawodnik musi przerwać uchwyt w ciągu pięciu sekund bądź zostanie zdyskwalifikowany. +Zawodnik może wygrać poprzez nokaut, jeśli okładając przeciwnika pięściami spowoduje utratę przytomności. Sędzia sprawdza wtedy jego stan, machając ręką przed jego twarzą. Jeśli nie zareaguje żaden w sposób, ogłaszany jest nokaut. Jest to częsta metoda wygrywania starć przez wrestlerów grających postacie z problemami psychicznymi, którzy nie dbają o przypięcia i zwycięstwa. +Wyliczenie. +Wyliczenie (count-out bądź countout) występuje wtedy, gdy wrestler przebywa zbyt długo poza ringiem, pozwalając sędziemu doliczyć do dziesięciu. Liczenie może zostać przerwane i zaczęte od nowa, gdy jeden z zawodników wejdzie i wyjdzie z ringu. +O wyliczeniu mówimy również wtedy, gdy wszyscy aktywni zawodnicy leżą na ringu w tym samym czasie. Jeśli sędzia doliczy do dziesięciu, starcie jest kończone jako remisowe. Każdy, kto wstanie przed czasem przerywa liczenie dla siebie i wszystkich pozostałych. +W większości liczących się federacji, mistrzostwo nie zmienia rąk poprzez wyliczenie. Wyjątki od tej zasady występują w wyniku dodania odpowiedniej stypulacji przed pojedynkiem przez osobę z odpowiednią władzą. +Dyskwalifikacja. +Dyskwalifikacja (czasem skracana jako „DQ”) występuje wtedy, gdy wrestler łamie jedną z zasad pojedynku. W starciach ogłoszonych jako „no DQ”, „no holds barred” albo „street fight” zawodnicy nie mogą zostać zdyskwalifikowani. +Jeśli wszyscy zawodnicy nie przestrzegają instrukcji sędziego, może on zakończyć starcie poprzez podwójną dyskwalifikację. W niektórych przypadkach jest to ogłaszane jako remis, a w niektórych prowadzi do restartu pojedynku. +Począwszy od lat ’90, dużą popularność zdobyły starcia bez dyskwalifikacji. Dzięki walkom no DQ, powstały zupełnie nowe jej odmiany, jak Tables, Ladders and Chairs match (stoły, drabiny i krzesła są dozwolone, reszta zasad jak w Ladder matchu), Hardcore match (starcie bez dyskwalifikacji z przypięciami oraz poddaniami zaliczanymi wszędzie, nawet poza budynkiem) czy 24/7 On the Line Title match (zawodnik może zdobyć pas w dowolnym miejscu o dowolnej porze, warunkiem jest sędzia w pobliżu będący w stanie odliczyć fall). +W większości federacji, mistrzostwo nie zmienia rąk poprzez dyskwalifikację. Wyjątki od tej zasady występują w wyniku dodania odpowiedniej stypulacji przed pojedynkiem przez osobę z odpowiednią władzą. +Brak rezultatu. +Brak rezultatu (no contest) występuje, gdy warunki wygrania pojedynku stają się niemożliwe do uzyskania. Dla przykładu, jeśli jeden z zawodników doznał kontuzji niespowodowaną przez przeciwnika i nie jest w stanie kontynuować pojedynku, ogłaszany jest no contest. Brak rezultatu jest odrębnym terminem niż remis, bywa jednak niepoprawnie używany zamiennie. +Elementy dramatyzmu. +Starcia zapaśnicze zawierają w sobie elementy atletyzmu i strategii, mimo wszystko jednak celem każdego pojedynku jest wzbudzenie zainteresowania publiczności. Ponieważ starcia są ustawione, dramatyczne akcenty można stosować do wzmocnienia reakcji widzów, co przekłada się na wyższą frekwencję, wpływy z biletów, wyższe ratingi i sprzedaż produktów związanych z zawodnikami. +Charakter/gimmick. +W Ameryce Łacińskiej oraz krajach anglojęzycznych, większość zawodników odgrywa przewidzianą dla niej postać. Niektóre osobowości mogą być nierealistyczne i kreskówkowe, jak Doink the Clown, podczas gdy inne są bardziej nieprzewidywalne, jak Chris Jericho, The Rock czy CM Punk. W lucha libre, wiele charakterów nosi maski chroniące ich sekretną osobowość, co nadaje im cechy superbohaterów. +Niektórzy wrestlerzy używają przez większość swojej kariery prawdziwych imion i nazwisk albo ich drobnych modyfikacji, jak John Cena, Bret Hart i Randy Orton. Inni natomiast trzymają się swojego imienia ringowego przez całą karierę, czego przykładami są CM Punk, Chris Jericho czy Shawn Michaels. Czasem nazwa postaci jest zastrzeżona przez federację, zmuszając wrestlera do znalezienia nowego imienia po opuszczeniu jej. Wielu zawodników jest silnie identyfikowana ze swoimi charakterami, jak The Rock czy The Undertaker, korzystając nawet z ich imion publicznie lub wśród przyjaciół. Niektórzy zawodnicy na zapleczu preferują zwracanie się do nich imieniem ringowym. +Z reguły, starcia są toczone pomiędzy protagonistą (ulubieńcem publiczności, facem, „dobrym gościem”) a antagonistą (łotrem, heelem, „złym gościem”). Na przestrzeni ostatnich lat uformował się też nowy status antybohatera (tweener), który nie jest ani w pełni facem, ani w pełni heelem. Postać może dokonać przejścia pomiędzy byciem facem i heelem zarówno jako nagłe, zaskakujące wydarzenie, jak i budowane wolno na przestrzeni czasu. W niektórych przypadkach zmiana swojego statusu może stać się ważnym punktem w karierze, jak heel turn (face zostaje heelem) Hulka Hogana, który był topowym facem wrestlingu przez ponad dekadę. +Fabuła. +Większość pojedynków opowiada historię analogicznie do sceny w filmie bądź odcinku serialu dramatycznego: face czasem wygrywa (triumf) i czasem przegrywa (tragedia). Dłuższe historie powodują większą ilość pojedynków na przestrzeni czasu. Odkąd większość federacji posiada swoje tytuły mistrzowskie, walka o nie staje się głównym celem ważniejszych konfliktów. Na niektóre konflikty składa się naturalna rywalizacja pomiędzy dwoma bądź kilkoma charakterami, czasem o jakiś cel. +W teorii, im dłużej budowany jest konflikt, tym większą uwagę przykładają widzowie. Zależy to jednak od umiejętności bookerów i zawodników do opowiedzenia historii w taki sposób, aby publiczność miała ochotę zobaczyć jego kontynuację. Główne starcie wieczoru (main event) to więc najczęściej pojedynek, który zyskuje największą reakcję publiczności. Od momentu wprowadzenia wrestlingu do telewizji, poza samymi pojedynkami buduje się historię również z użyciem wywiadów przed lub po walce, kłótnie i dyskusje na zapleczu, rankingi dywizji, kontrakty, loterie i wiadomości na stronie internetowej. +Wyzwania. +Wrestlerzy są często bookowani do danego pojedynku przez osobę z odpowiednią władzą na antenie. W historii wrestlingu, ustawienie starcia jednego zawodnika z drugim było najczęściej stosowaną metodą tworzenia pojedynków, które nie miały historii za sobą. W obecnych czasach zawodnicy często sami wyzywają jednego z zawodników do pojedynku, czyniąc to drugą najczęściej spotykaną metodą tworzenia wyzwań. +Kiedy jest utworzone wyzwanie, bardzo rzadko nie jest ono akceptowane. Jest to robione najczęściej w celu zgarnięcia negatywnej reakcji od publiczności przez heelów. +Promo. +Główną metodą opowiadania historii jest promo, czyli monolog jednego zawodnika bądź dialog dwóch stron w celu podgrzania atmosfery przed starciem lub skierowanie zainteresowania na swoją osobę. Do tego celu stosuje się system nagłośnieniowy, jednak w przeciwieństwie do teatru w użyciu są duże, widoczne mikrofony. +Mistrzostwa. +Profesjonalne zapasy naśladują formę zawodów sztuk walki, dlatego zawodnicy rywalizują o tytuły mistrzowskie bronione przez ich posiadaczy. Najczęściej tytuł jest reprezentowany przez pas mistrzowski. +Niemal każda federacja wrestlingu posiada swój główny tytuł oraz kilka o mniejszej wadze. Mistrzostwa główne i poboczne są ustalane dla dywizji, która może rekrutować zawodników w zależności od ich wagi, wysokości, płci, stylu walki lub innych kwalifikacji. +Najczęściej każda federacja uznaje jedynie swoje tytuły mistrzowskie, jednak forma wzajemnej promocji pomiędzy federacjami występuje od czasu do czasu. Kiedy jedna federacja staje się właścicielem innej, jej tytuły mogą być bronione w nowej federacji bądź zostać zlikwidowane. +Zdobycie mistrzostwa przez zawodnika może być centralnym punktem w jego karierze, stając się wyznacznikiem jego umiejętności ringowych, za mikrofonem oraz przyciągania publiczności. Dla przykładu, Ric Flair jest 16-krotnym mistrzem świata wagi ciężkiej, zyskując przez to status legendy. +Z racji natury profesjonalnego wrestlingu, często spotykana jest maniakalna, obsesyjna chęć zdobycia tytułu przez któregoś z zawodników, co w prawdziwym życiu spotkałoby się z obserwacją medyczną. Najczęściej dotyczy to głównego mistrzostwa federacji. +Wejście do ringu. +Kluczowym elementem w dodaniu dramatyzmu są wejścia zawodników do ringu. Typową sytuacją jest zdobycie największej reakcji publiczności tylko za swoje wejście, zwłaszcza dla głównych gwiazd wracających po długiej nieobecności. +Wszyscy wrestlerzy wchodzą do ringu w akompaniamencie muzyki. Z reguły odzwierciedla ona osobowość zawodnika, czasem z muzyką i słowami napisanymi specjalnie dla niego. Razem z wprowadzeniem dużych ekranów na arenę w 1997, zawodnicy WWF/WWE mają również film grający razem z ich muzyką. +Innymi elementami często używanymi w wejściu na arenę są efekty pirotechniczne, zaciemnianie areny, wjeżdżanie na arenę pojazdem, mówienie do publiczności czy obecność prywatnej ochrony. +Niektóre gwiazdy, takie jak Shawn Michaels, Triple H i The Undertaker wykonują swoje wejście przez trzy minuty i dłużej. Specjalne, teatralne wejścia na ring są przygotowywane z okazji WrestleManii dla czołowych gwiazd WWE, jak John Cena czy Triple H. +Wypadki śmiertelne. +Z racji swojego charakteru, we wrestlingu zdarzają się wypadki śmiertelne. Przyczynami mogą być zawał serca, samobójstwo lub śmiertelne pomyłki na ringu.. Poniżej wymieniono tych, których zgon nastąpił w związku z walką, w jej trakcie lub krótko po jej zakończeniu. Lista zawiera rok zgonu, imię i nazwisko lub (i) pseudonim, przyczynę zgonu, oraz wiek zawodnika +Najbardziej znany śmiertelny wypadek miał miejsce jeszcze przed walką. Brat wielokrotnego mistrza świata Breta Harta, Owen, podczas gali Over the Edge w 1999 r. zjeżdżał na ring przyczepiony liną do sufitu. Mechanizm zatrzaskowy otworzył się, gdy był na wysokości 22 metrów. Uderzył głową w narożnik, po czym z dużą siłą runął plecami na matę. Zmarł w drodze do szpitala. +Mniej znany wypadek śmiertelny miał miejsce w 2005 roku, kiedy młody wrestler walczący pod pseudonimem „Spider” – Daniel Quirk, pracujący wówczas w federacji UCW, wykonał wysoki skok na przeciwnika, który jednak nie zdołał go dobrze złapać i Dan uderzył głową w matę. Lekarze bezskutecznie próbowali uratować młodego zapaśnika. Zmarł w wieku 22 lat. +Terapii odchudzającej nie przetrzymało serce zapaśnika sumo Rodney Anoa'i. We śnie zmarł 40-letni Hawk ze słynnego tag-teamu Legion Of Doom/Road Warriors. W wyniku uduszenia zmarł również Crash Holly. 4 grudnia 2009 zmarł samoański zapaśnik Umaga – przyczyną był atak serca. Żona znalazła go nieoddychającego i zakrwawionego, miał krwotok z nosa. 13 sierpnia 2010 w wieku 29 lat zmarł na zawał serca wrestler Lance Cade. +Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. + +Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. (ur. 18 lipca 1886, zm. 18 czerwca 1945) – generał amerykański z okresu II wojny światowej. +Pochodził z rodziny o tradycjach wojskowych – jego ojciec był generałem armii konfederatów podczas wojny secesyjnej. Syn w 1908 roku został absolwentem akademii wojskowej West Point. W 1917 roku zaciągnął się do USA Air Service, jednak do końca I wojny światowej nie wziął udziału w żadnej akcji bojowej. +Po zakończeniu wojny wrócił do West Point, gdzie pracował w departamencie taktycznym, dopóki nie został komendantem kadetów (1932-1936). W lipcu 1940 roku awansowano go do stopnia brigadier general (odpowiednik polskiego generała brygady); jako komendant wojskowy Alaski miał za zadanie ufortyfikować ten obszar i przygotować do obrony. W lipcu 1944 roku, już w stopniu generała porucznika, został skierowany na Hawaje, gdzie otrzymał zadanie zorganizowania 10.Armii i jej przygotowanie do zdobycia Tajwanu. Później plan zmieniono i armię tę skierowano na Okinawę. Podobnie jak w przypadku jego japońskiego przeciwnika było to największe zadanie bojowe w jego karierze. 18 czerwca 1945 roku Buckner stał pomiędzy dwoma głazami, obserwując walkę 8.pułku piechoty morskiej, kiedy trafiło go kilka odłamków po uderzeniu w pobliską skałę japońskiego pocisku artyleryjskiego. Zmarł po kilku minutach. Był najwyższym rangą amerykańskim oficerem, który zginął w wyniku działań wojennych podczas II wojny światowej. Dowództwo po nim objął gen. Roy Geiger. +Jego imieniem nazwano Fort Buckner na Okinawie. +Adam Kolasa + +__NOTOC__ +Adam Kolasa (ur. 2 sierpnia 1975 w Gdańsku) – polski lekkoatleta specjalizujący się w skoku o tyczce. Młodszy brat tyczkarzy Ryszarda i Mariana. +Reprezentant KL Gdynia; jego trenerem jest obecnie były wieloboista Michał Modelski, dawniej był pod opieką Edwarda Szymczaka, a także przez pewien okres trenował go starszy brat – Marian. +Osiągnięcia. +Reprezentował Polskę na wielu międzynarodowych imprezach. W 1994 zajął 7. miejsce na mistrzostwach świata juniorów. Na zawodach Superligi Pucharu Europy w Bremie w czerwcu 2001 zajął 2. miejsce i przyczynił się do końcowego triumfu polskiej reprezentacji. Był także w składzie reprezentacji w Pucharze Europy w 2003 (4. miejsce), 2004 (5. miejsce) i 2005 (6. miejsce). Na mistrzostwach świata w Edmonton 2001 zajął 8. miejsce, dwa lata później w Paryżu był 9. Tuż za podium (4.) uplasował się na Halowych Mistrzostwach Europy w Wiedniu w 2002; na Halowych Mistrzostwach Europy w Madrycie w 2005 nie zakwalifikował się do finału. Olimpijczyk z Aten 2004, nie zakwalifikował się do finału. W 2001 wywalczył złoty medal Igrzysk Frankofońskich. Ma na koncie sześć tytułów mistrza Polski na otwartym stadionie (1995, 1996, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005) i cztery w hali (1996, 2000, 2002, 2005). +Rekordy życiowe. +Rekordem życiowym Kolasy jest skok na wysokość 5,75 m uzyskany na mistrzostwach świata w Edmonton 9 sierpnia 2001 (7. wynik w historii polskiej lekkoatletyki). +Armeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Armeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Armenia (ros. "Армянская Советская Социалистическая Республика", orm. Հայկական Սովետական Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն) była jedną z 15 republik ZSRR w latach 1936-1991, od 1922 do 1936 r. wchodziła w skład Zakaukaskiej FSRR łącznie z Gruzińską SRR i Azerbejdżańską SRR. W 1991 r. odzyskała niepodległość jako Armenia. +Adam Burski + +Adam Burski, znany także jako: "Bursius, Adam Alberti Borczinski, Brzezinensis" (ur. ok. 1560 w Brzezinach, zm. 15 lutego 1611 w Zamościu) – filolog, logik, filozof, mówca, wydawca, przedstawiciel myśli filozoficznej polskiego renesansu. +Życiorys. +Syn Wojciecha i Barbary, cioteczny brat Szymona Szymonowica. Pierwsze nauki pobierał w lwowskiej szkole katedralnej. Od 1579 student Akademii Krakowskiej, gdzie w 1580 uzyskał stopień bakałarza (bakałarzował zapewne po szkołach prowincjonalnych). Przebywał też we Lwowie jako nauczyciel w szkole katedralnej, w której wcześniej był uczniem. W latach 1587-1590 był prawdopodobnie jej rektorem. W międzyczasie kształcił się we Włoszech. W 1593 uzyskał magisterium i doktorat z filozofii. W tym samym roku został seniorem Bursy Jerozolimskiej w Krakowie i wykładowcą na wydziale "artium". W 1595 dostał się jako profesor do Kolegium Mniejszego. Na początku 1597, na wezwanie Jana Zamoyskiego, objął w Akademii Zamojskiej katedrę filozofii moralnej. Parę miesięcy później został rektorem Akademii Zamojskiej - funkcję tę powierzano mu jeszcze kilkukrotnie. Jeden z głównych przedstawicieli renesansowej filozofii polskiej, należał do czołowych profesorów Akademii, był gł. kierownikiem drukarni i przedsięwzięć naukowo-wydawniczych. Zwolennik empiryzmu i metody indukcyjnej w nauce. Walczył o świeckość i autonomię szkoły przeciw hegemonii władz duchownych. +Poślubił Annę, dworkę kasztelanowej Zamoyskiej. Otrzymał w dożywotnią dzierżawę wioskę Pniówek (Pniów). +Oceanic Airlines + +Oceanic Airlines to fikcyjne linie lotnicze wykorzystywane w filmie i telewizji do wszelkiego rodzaju katastrof. Nie powinno się ich mylić z "Trans Oceanic Airlines" – istniejącymi w latach 40. i 50. australijskimi liniami lotniczymi. Nazwa pierwszy raz pojawiła się w filmie Krytyczna decyzja z 1996 roku. +Na oficjalnej stronie firmy możemy znaleźć informacje, że po dwudziestu pięciu latach linie wstrzymują działalność w związku z niewyjaśnioną tragedią lotu 815. +Frederick Forsyth + +Frederick Forsyth (ur. 25 sierpnia 1938 w Ashford) – angielski pisarz powieści sensacyjnych. +Młodość, wykształcenie, praca dziennikarska. +Urodził się w bogatej mieszczańskiej rodzinie. Uczył się w Tonbridge, rozpoczął też studia na Uniwersytecie Granady (Hiszpania), ale szybko je przerwał, by poświęcić się swojemu największemu hobby – lotnictwu. Gdy miał 17 lat, uzyskał licencję pilota, a dwa lata później został jednym z najmłodszych pilotów w historii RAF, gdzie służył w latach 1956–1958. Następnie został reporterem w małej lokalnej gazecie w Norfolk, w której pracował przez 3,5 roku, aż do 1961, kiedy został zatrudniony w agencji prasowej Reutera. Najpierw pracował w Paryżu i Berlinie (NRD) – zebrane informacje wykorzystał w późniejszych książkach: "Dzień Szakala" i "Akta Odessy", także w ówczesnej Czechosłowacji i na Węgrzech. W 1965 przeszedł do BBC i został asystentem korespondenta wojennego. W 1967 udał się do Afryki, gdzie trwał konflikt zbrojny między Nigerią a Biafrą. Zaprzyjaźnił się tam z przywódcą secesjonistów, generałem Chukwuemeke Ojukwu, zwanym „Emeka”. W 1968 zakończył współpracę z BBC (oskarżano go o brak obiektywizmu) i wrócił do Biafry jako tzw. wolny strzelec, relacjonował przebieg wydarzeń dla „Daily Express”, „Evening Standard” i magazynu „Time”. +Twórczość literacka. +W 1969 napisał książkę, a właściwie reportaż o wojnie w Biafrze pt. "The Biafra Story" (polski tytuł: "Słowo białego człowieka"). Dwa lata później, w 1971, ukazała się powieść "Dzień Szakala" ("The Day of the Jackal"), opowiadająca o zamachu na Charles'a de Gaulle'a. Stała się światowym bestsellerem i zapoczątkowała niesłabnącą popularność twórczości Fredericka Forsytha na świecie. +W 1991 wydał antologię najlepszych, jego zdaniem, opowiadań lotniczych "Great Flying Stories", w której zamieścił również swoje opowiadanie "Pasterz" (znane w Polsce ze zbioru "Czysta robota"). W 2001 ukazała się autoryzowana biografia Forsytha pt. "A Matter of Protocol" napisana przez Craiga Cabella. +Charakterystyczne dla Forsytha jest posługiwanie się w powieściach stylem dziennikarskim. Dzięki temu zabiegowi czytelnik odczuwa wrażenie, jakby to co czytał, było swego rodzaju reportażem, relacją. Wiele wydarzeń, o których Frederick Forsyth pisze w swojej książce zdarzyło się naprawdę, wiele osobistości istnieje w rzeczywistym świecie. Sposoby przemytu broni, substancji wybuchowych, prania brudnych pieniędzy, manipulacji ludźmi opisuje w drobnych szczegółach. Jego opowiadania mogłyby z powodzeniem służyć jako podręcznik przeprowadzania zamachu czy porwania (np. "Dzień Szakala" zawiera bardzo dokładne informacje dotyczące zdobywania nowej tożsamości, "Psy wojny" – zawierają również bardzo dokładny – chociaż fikcyjny – opis planu i realizacji przeprowadzenia zamachu na jedno z państw afrykańskich). +W okresie PRL w Polsce wydano tylko "Dzień Szakala", zbiór "No Comeback" (pt. "Czysta robota") oraz "Psy wojny" w wersji okrojonej. Pozostałe powieści nie mogły się ukazać, gdyż przedstawiały negatywny obraz Związku Radzieckiego lub pozytywny obraz państwa Izrael. Zostały wydane w większości już w warunkach wolności słowa po 1989. +Kilka powieści zostało zekranizowanych ("Dzień Szakala" dwukrotnie). +Poglądy polityczne, życie osobiste. +Forsyth określa się, zwłaszcza w kwestii poglądów politycznych, jako konserwatysta, jest zdeklarowanym przeciwnikiem Unii Europejskiej. Uważany za jednego z najbogatszych pisarzy świata, mieszka w ekskluzywnej rezydencji pod Londynem (Hertfordshire), jest również właścicielem zamku w Irlandii (Enniskerry). Mówi płynnie po francusku, niemiecku, rosyjsku i hiszpańsku i wiele podróżuje po Europie, Bliskim Wschodzie i Afryce. +Athlon 64 FX + +Athlon 64 FX to mikroprocesor produkowany przez firmę AMD należący do rodziny procesorów K8, ma 64-bitową architekturę i obsługuje zbiór instrukcji x86 i AMD64. Posiada 1024 KB cache L2, i dwukanałowy kontroler pamięci DDR(1), taktowany jest zegarem od 2,2 GHz, oraz posiada odblokowany mnożnik. Podobnie jak inne procesory serii K8 posiada magistralę HyperTransport (800 MHz, późniejsze wersje 1000 MHz). Seria procesorów Athlon FX jest przeznaczona dla użytkowników wymagających najwyższej wydajności i overclockerów. +W początkowym okresie procesor wymagał podstawki socket 940, przeznaczonej dla procesorów Opteron z serii 2xx i 8xx i pamięci Registered-DDR. Spowodowane to było niedopracowaniem kontrolera pamięci zintegrowanego z procesorem. Teraz Athlony FX występują tylko w wersji dla socket 939. Obecnie produkowane są w wersjach jednordzeniowych FX-55 i FX-57 oraz dwurdzeniowych FX-60 i dwurdzeniowych na platformę AMD Quad FX (podstawka dual socket F). +Stanisław Marcin Badeni + +Stanisław Marcin hrabia Badeni (ur. 7 września 1850, zm. 12 października 1912) – polski prawnik i polityk. Pochodził z rodziny Badenich pieczętującej się herbem Bończa. +Od 1883 był posłem do galicyjskiego Sejmu Krajowego we Lwowie, od 1891 członkiem austriackiej Izby Panów, dwukrotnie marszałkiem krajowym Galicji (1895-1901 i 1903-1912). Uzyskał zwrot Wawelu od armii austriackiej. +W 1893 roku kupił majątek Koropiec nad Dniestrem na Podolu gdzie wybudował neorenesansowy pałac, który odziedziczył jego syn Stefan (1885-1961). +Honorowy obywatel miasta Rzeszowa. +Wiktor Alter + +Wiktor Alter (jid. וויקטאר אלטער; ur. 7 lutego 1890 w Mławie, zm. 17 lutego 1943 w ZSRR) – żydowski działacz socjalistyczny związany z organizacją Bund, publicysta. Członek egzekutywy II Międzynarodówki. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Mławie, jednak po śmierci ojca rodzina przeprowadziła się do Warszawy. Brał udział w strajku szkolnym w 1905 w gimnazjum Wojciecha Górskiego. Wyjechał do Belgii. Po studiach w Gandawie, gdzie uzyskał dyplom inżyniera mechanika, powrócił w 1912 do Warszawy. Wstąpił do Bundu. W kwietniu 1913 został aresztowany za działalność w Bundzie i zesłany na Syberię. Po ucieczce udał się do Wielkiej Brytanii, gdzie wstąpił do Partii Pracy. W czasie I wojny światowej uczestniczył w kampanii na rzecz odmowy służby wojskowej. Po wybuchu rewolucji lutowej przeniósł się do Rosji. W grudniu 1917 został członkiem Komitetu Centralnego Bundu. W lipcu 1918 brał udział w Konferencji Delegatów Robotniczych i Żołnierskich. Został aresztowany przez bolszewików, lecz został zwolniony i wyjechał do Warszawy. Na forum rady Warszawskiej Rady Delegatów Robotniczych sprzeciwiał się wojnie z Rosją i domagał się poparcia strajku w fabrykach wojskowych. +Od 1918 w Polsce. Działał w kierownictwie polskiego Bundu. W okresie międzywojennym był czołowym działaczem lewego skrzydła Bundu. Początkowo opowiadał się przeciwko przystąpieniu Bundu do Kominternu. Od 1934 był zwolennikiem współpracy z Komunistyczną Partią Polski. Był członkiem kilku Rad Miejskich Warszawy, zaś w latach 1927-1936 był ławnikiem tejże rady. Był współredaktorem i publicystą "Fołks-Cajtung". +We wrześniu 1939 znalazł się w radzieckiej strefie okupacyjnej. Wedle różnych źródeł został aresztowany 26 lub 29 września w Lidzie przez NKWD. Został skazany na karę śmierci, zamienioną na 10 lat więzienia. Odbył dwa lata tej kary po czym został zwolniony na mocy amnestii po zawarciu układu Sikorski-Majski w październiku 1941. Zaczął organizować Międzynarodowy Żydowski Komitet Antyfaszystowski. W tym czasie nawiązał współpracę ze Stanisławem Kotem, ambasadorem Polski w Związku Radzieckim. Sprzeciwiał się tworzeniu odrębnych żydowskich oddziałów w ramach armii Andersa. 4 grudnia 1941 został aresztowany w Kujbyszewie i następnie w nie wyjaśnionych okolicznościach zamordowany przez NKWD. Według niektórych informacji został on wraz z Henrykiem Ehrlichem już 23 grudnia 1941 skazany na karę śmierci i natychmiast, jeszcze w grudniu 1941 rozstrzelany. Według innych wykonanie wyroku nastąpiło w lutym 1943. +W 1943 władze ZSRR ostatecznie poinformowały o straceniu Wiktora Altera "za szpiegostwo na rzecz Hitlera". Jego symboliczny grób znajduje się na cmentarzu żydowskim przy ulicy Okopowej w Warszawie, odsłonięty 17 kwietnia 1988. +Publikacje. +Opublikował także liczne artykuły w prasie socjalistycznej. +ERP (moc) + +ERP (ang. "Effective Radiated Power") to "efektywna moc wypromieniowana" stosowana przy obliczeniach mocy wyjściowej nadajnika względem anteny dipolowej. +gdzie P - moc wypromieniowana. +10 * log10(100mW/1mW) = 10 * log10(100) = 10 * 2 = 20 dBd +Ze względu na to, że zysk energetyczny anteny wyrażony w dBi jest o 2,15 dB większy niż zysk anteny wyrażony w dBd to ERP = EIRP - 2,15. Wartość ERP jest istotna przy obliczeniach parametrów sieci WLAN. +Zobacz też EIRP +AMD 29000 + +AMD 29000, często nazywana 29k to seria popularnych mikroprocesorów i mikrokontrolerów o 32-bitowej architekturze RISC produkowanych przez firmę AMD. W swoim czasie były to najbardziej popularne chipy na rynku, szeroko używane przez wielu producentów drukarek laserowych. Pod koniec roku 1995 AMD zaprzestało produkcji 29k pomimo ich popularności, aby skoncentrować się na produkcji klonów x86. Doświadczenie zdobyte przy produkcji 29k, a także część pomysłów zostało użyte do zaprojektowania i wytwarzania AMD K5. +Rodzina 29000 bazowana jest na architekturze Berkley RISC podobnie jak procesory Sun SPARC i i960 +Pierwsze modele 29000 produkowane w 1988 miały wbudowany MMU, ale obliczenia zmiennoprzecinkowe były domeną 29027 FPU. 29005 był okrojoną, niskobudżetową wersją. Dwa następne modele 29027 i 29035 miały odpowiednio 8k i 4k cache na instrukcje. Do 29040 dodano FPU i cache. Ostatni model ogólnego przeznaczenia 29050 zbudowany był na architekturze superskalarnej i mógł wykonać do czterech instrukcji w jednym cyklu zegara, posiadał funkcje wykonań spekulatywnych i wykonywania poza kolejnością (ang. "out-of-order execution"), a także znacznie szybszy FPU. +Jądro 29000 było wykorzystane w rodzinie mikrokontrolerów 29200 i 29205. +Kilka rozwiązań z 29050 zostało wykorzystanych przy projektowaniu serii procesorów K5. FPU był użyty całkowicie bez zmian, a reszta rdzenia została zmodyfikowana ze specjalnym mikrokodem umożliwiającym tłumaczenie instrukcji x86 na instrukcje "29k-podobne" w locie, co w rezultacie dało najszybszy chip x86 w swoim czasie. +William Hoard + +William Dempster Hoard (ur. 10 października 1836 w Stocksbridge, stan Nowy Jork, zm. 22 listopada 1918) – polityk amerykański, z ramienia Partii Republikańskiej gubernator stanu Wisconsin. +Służył w armii w okresie wojny secesyjnej. W późniejszych latach zajął się działalnością publicystyczną, wielokrotnie występował przeciwko obniżaniu jakości żywności. +Na stanowisku gubernatora zastąpił w 1889 Jeremiaha Ruska. Podjął m.in. próbę zreformowania szkolnictwa, wprowadzając obowiązek szkolny dla wszystkich dzieci od 5. roku życia (60 dni szkolnych w roku). Inicjatywa gubernatora nie spotkała się z pozytywną reakcją zarówno rodziców, jak i nauczycieli; Hoard zażądał, żeby we wszystkich szkołach - także prywatnych - lekcje prowadzono w języku angielskim (wcześniej prywatne szkoły prowadziły naukę m.in. po niemiecku, francusku i polsku). +W 1891 nowym gubernatorem Wisconsin został George Peck. +Operacja Ten-gō + +Przed bitwą. +W kwietniu 1945 r. Okinawa stała się celem ostatniego, amerykańskiego desantu morskiego II wojny światowej. Japończycy nie mieli szans się obronić. Marsz amerykański, chociaż spowolniony zaciekłym oporem Azjatów, postępował. +W Tokio zapadła decyzja, aby na ratunek Okinawie wysłać morskie posiłki. Postawiono na pozostałości Drugiej Floty, która została w poprzednich bitwach zdziesiątkowana. W związku z czym przemianowano ją na Specjalny Zespół Uderzeniowy. +Okręty wypłynęły 6 kwietnia 1945 r. o godzinie 16.00. Celem zespołu było obezwładnienie amerykańskich okrętów, zniszczenie floty desantowej i zaopatrzenia oraz wsparcie artyleryjskie działań na lądzie. Ponadto, zaokrętowano oddziały piechoty, które po osadzeniu okrętów na plaży miały być wysadzone na brzeg dla zaatakowania amerykańskich oddziałów lądowych od tyłu. Dlatego jednostki zabrały zapas paliwa na rejs jedynie w jedną stronę. Dowództwo japońskie żywiło przekonanie, że grupa okrętów dysponuje wystarczającą siłą ognia artyleryjskiego i mobilnością aby obronić się przed atakami lotniczymi. Podobnie w przypadku konfrontacji z okrętami liniowymi przeciwnika działa artylerii głównej "Yamato" miały z bezpiecznie dużej odległości umożliwić ich zniszczenie. +Siły. +Japończycy. +Z bazy Tokuyama na wyspie Honsiu wyruszył zespół okrętów pod dowództwem wiceadmirała Seiichi Ito w składzie: +Bitwa. +Dnia 6 kwietnia o godzinie 19.45 zespół japoński został wykryty przez okręt podwodny "Threadfin". +Rano 7 kwietnia 1945 r. z lotniskowców amerykańskiej 58. Grupy Taktycznej wysłano samoloty rozpoznawcze, mające za zadanie wykrycie japońskich jednostek. Udało się tego dokonać około godziny 10.00, w odległości około 450 km od Okinawy. Następnie dowódca 58. Grupy Taktycznej, wiceadmirał Mitscher, wysłał przeciwko zespołowi japońskiemu grupę samolotów bombowych i torpedowych pod eskortą myśliwców w łącznej liczbie 386 maszyn. +W początkowej fazie bitwy, pierwsza grupa samolotów, złożona z lekkich bombowców i myśliwców, stwierdziwszy brak osłony lotniczej zespołu japońskiego, rozpoczęła atak z użyciem bomb oraz pocisków rakietowych w celu osłabienia artylerii przeciwlotniczej wroga. Tuż za nimi na pole bitwy nadleciała druga grupa, złożona z samolotów torpedowych. Łączna liczba maszyn obu grup wynosiła około 200 samolotów. Samoloty torpedowe podzieliły się na mniejsze grupy, po około 20 maszyn, a do ataków przystępowały kluczami, po 3-5 samolotów. +Pierwszy atak samolotów torpedowych, wspomaganych przez bombowce i myśliwce z pierwszej grupy, trwał łącznie przez około 60 minut. "Yamato", mimo ognia całej artylerii oraz prób uchylania się manewrami, został w tym czasie trafiony 2 bombami oraz 6 torpedami. Ciężko uszkodzony był także lekki krążownik "Yahagi", trafiony bombą i 3 torpedami. Spośród 8 niszczycieli, od bomb, torped i pocisków rakietowych, zatopione zostały "Hamakaze" i "Kasumi". Uszkodzony bombami i rakietami niszczyciel "Isokaze" zatopiła własna załoga, podobnie jak w przypadku niszczyciela "Asashimo". Bomby i pociski rakietowe uszkodziły także niszczyciel "Fuyutsuki". Okręty te nie mogły już swym ogniem osłaniać uszkodzonego "Yamato". +Zespół japoński był już w tej fazie bitwy praktycznie rozbity - samoloty torpedowe z trzeciej grupy dokończyły tylko dzieła zniszczenia. W "Yamato" trafiły dalsze 2 bomby i 4 torpedy. Po wybuchu ostatniej okręt przechylił się i zatonął wraz z większością załogi, liczącej około 2500 osób (z czego uratowało się tylko 280 marynarzy). Zatonął także krążownik lekki "Yahagi". Z całego zespołu ocalały 4 niszczyciele, choć również z uszkodzeniami. Łącznie zginęło ponad 3700 Japończyków. Straty Amerykanów wyniosły natomiast zaledwie 10 samolotów (3 myśliwce, 3 bombowce i 4 samoloty torpedowe) oraz 12 lotników. +Znaczenie. +Próba dostarczenia posiłków Japończykom na Okinawie nie powiodła się. Wyspa została opanowana przez Amerykanów 23 czerwca. +"Operacja Ten-gō" zakończyła epokę użycia bojowego wielkich okrętów liniowych i była potwierdzeniem rosnącego znaczenia przewagi w powietrzu na współczesnym polu walki. +Wybory parlamentarne w Mołdawii w 2005 roku + +Wybory parlamentarne w Mołdawii, 2005 - wybory do parlamentu Mołdawii, które odbyły się 6 marca 2005 roku. +Uprawnionych do głosowania w wyborach parlamentarnych było 2,3 miliona osób. Mołdawianie wybrali skład parlamentu, który z kolei w kwietniu ma wybrać prezydenta kraju. W wyborach nie wzięła udziału, zgodnie z rozporządzeniem miejscowych władz, separatystyczna Republika Naddniestrzańska, zamieszkana głównie przez ludność posługującą się językiem rosyjskim. +W wyborach zwyciężyła typowana wcześniej rządząca proeuropejska Partia Komunistów Republiki Mołdawii (PCMR), której I sekretarzem Komitetu Centralnego jest prezydent Włodzimierz Woronin, a która zdobyła 46,1% głosów, co daje jej 56 miejsc w 101- osobowym parlamencie. +Otwiera to jej drogę do stworzenia samodzielnego rządu oraz wyboru prezydenta kraju. Opozycyjna Demokratyczna Mołdawia (BMD) zdobyła 28,5% głosów. Do parlamentu swoich deputowanych wprowadziła również Mołdawska Chrześcijańsko-Demokratyczna Partia Ludowa (PPCD) zdobywając 9,1%. Socjaldemokratyczna Partia Mołdawii (PSDM), która w czasie kampanii wyborczej za swoje logo przyjęła kolor pomarańczowy, symbol opozycji na Ukrainie, nie dostała się do parlamentu. +Karol III Szlachetny + +Karol III Szlachetny (ur. 1361, zm. 8 września 1425), król Nawarry 1387–1425, hrabia d'Évreux 1387–1404, książę Nemours 1404–1425 z dynastii z Évreux. +Syn króla Karola II Złego i Joanny, córki króla Francji, Jana II Dobrego. +Swoje rządy poświęcił ulepszaniu infrastruktury królestwa, przywracaniu dumy i godności Nawarry po fatalnych rządach ojca, Karola II Złego. Zdołał poprawić nadwyrężone stosunki z Francją kosztem odstąpienia w 1404 r. dziedzicznego hrabstwa Évreux w zamian za księstwo Nemours. +Jego siostra - Joanna z Nawarry, została druga żoną Henryka IV, króla Anglii. +Bolesław Szarecki + +Bolesław Szarecki (ur. 17 marca 1874 w Mińsku, zm. 23 lutego 1960 w Warszawie) – polski wojskowy lekarz-chirurg, generał dywizji Wojska Polskiego, szef Departamentu Służby Zdrowia MON, Naczelny Chirurg WP (1949–1957), profesor nauk medycznych, prezes Polskiego Związku Łowieckiego (1946–1953). +Życiorys. +Pochodził z rodziny polskiego kolejarza. Ukończył w 1904 Wydział Lekarski Uniwersytetu w Charkowie. W tym samym roku został powołany do armii carskiej i skierowany na front rosyjsko-japoński, pełniąc obowiązki chirurga w pociągu sanitarnym. Następnie podjął pracę w klinice chirurgicznej charkowskiego uniwersytetu, gdzie się doktoryzował i habilitował. +W czasie I wojny światowej został ponownie zmobilizowany i pełnił obowiązki chirurga-konsultanta Czerwonego Krzyża. W 1919 powrócił do Polski i został powołany do Wojska Polskiego. Objął stanowisko ordynatora oddziału chirurgicznego w 1 Szpitalu Okręgowym, a następnie w Głównym Szpitalu Wojskowym. +W czasie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej w 1920 współorganizował zabezpieczenie medyczne działań bojowych. W 1933 przeszedł w stan spoczynku w stopniu pułkownika. +W sierpniu 1939 na własną prośbę został zmobilizowany i w czasie kampanii wrześniowej pełnił obowiązki chirurga w 104 Szpitalu Wojennym. Został wzięty do niewoli przez Armię Czerwoną i do 1941 przebywał w sowieckich obozach. W 1941 wstąpił do organizowanej na terenach ZSRR przez generała Władysława Andersa Armii Polskiej w ZSRR i został mianowany generałem brygady oraz szefem Służby Zdrowia Armii. Wraz z armią przetransportowany został na Bliski Wschód a następnie do Włoch, gdzie po przeformowaniu jej na II Korpus Polski, został jego Naczelnym Chirurgiem i Inspektorem Szpitalnictwa. +Jako chirurg (miał wtedy 70 lat) przez dwie doby operował i kierował pracą Głównego Punktu Opatrunkowego, podczas najbardziej krwawych walk bitwy o Monte Cassino w 1944, a jego postać została uwieczniona w wielu wspomnieniach z tamtego okresu, m.in. przez Melchiora Wańkowicza. +W końcu 1945 jako pierwszy generał Polskich Sił Zbrojnych na Zachodzie powrócił do Polski. W latach 1945–1949 pełni funkcję zastępcy, a następnie szefa Departamentu Służby Zdrowia Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej. W latach 1949–1957 piastował stanowisko Naczelnego Chirurga WP. +Gen. dyw. prof. dr med. Bolesław Szarecki był organizatorem wojskowej służby zdrowia w powojennym Wojsku Polskim, autorem kilku podręczników z zakresu chirurgii wojennej, oraz szeregu prac z tej dziedziny. W uznaniu jego zasług w 1975 nadano jego imię Wojskowej Akademii Medycznej w Łodzi. +Gen. Bolesława Szarecki był zapalonym myśliwym i wieloletnim działaczem Polskiego Związku Łowieckiego. Od 1936 wchodził w skład władz związku, a od czerwca 1946 do marca 1953 pełnił funkcję prezesa. W 1948 otrzymał wysokie odznaczenie łowieckie "Złom", w listopadzie 1953 I Krajowy Zjazd Delegatów Polskiego Związku Łowieckiego nadał mu tytuł członka honorowego PZŁ. +Wartość przeniesiona + +Wartość przeniesiona - pojęcie ekonomiczne oznaczające tę część wartości wytworzonego produktu, która odpowiada wartości zakupionych surowców niezbędnych do jego wytworzenia. +Abrazja (stomatologia) + +Abrazja – w stomatologii jest to stosunkowo nowa metoda postępowania terapeutycznego przy próchnicy zębów, polegająca na usuwaniu materiału próchnicowego przy użyciu strumienia powietrza wzbogaconego ładunkiem ścierniwa w postaci tlenku glinu o różnej granulacji. Wydobywająca się z dyszy końcówki mieszanina proszkowo-powietrzna uderzając w zniszczoną próchnicą powierzchnię zęba, powoduje oderwanie pod wpływem energii kinetycznej fali uderzeniowej i niesionego ładunku, próchnicowo zmienionych elementów szkliwa i zębiny od powierzchni zęba i wyrzucenie poza jego obręb. Wielokrotne powtórzenie takiego cyklu powoduje całkowitą eliminację próchnicy z leczonego tą metodą zęba. +Tlenek glinu w zależności od masy ziarna, z różną szybkością oczyszcza ubytek z tkanki próchnicowej, działa w ubytku wielopłaszczyznowo z jednoczesnym zachowaniem prawidłowej struktury zębiny, ponieważ nie niszczy, w przeciwieństwie do wiertła, matrycy zębinowej, nie powoduje tak zwanej rany zębinowej, przez co nie tylko nie powoduje urazu opracowywanego miejsca, ale je dodatkowo oszczędza poprzez pozostawianie niezniszczonych przez proces próchnicowy elementów struktury zębiny. Jednocześnie jest to metoda preparacji tkanek zęba pozbawiona takich elementów zabiegu jak ból, wibracje i przegrzanie opracowywanych tkanek. +Ponadto wykorzystanie z jednej strony energii kinetycznej drobin proszku, a z drugiej możliwość kalibracji dyszy końcówki, pozwala na minimalizacje pola zabiegowego czego nie da się osiągnąć metodą konwencjonalnego opracowania ubytku przy użyciu wiertła. Dodatkowym aspektem przewagi metody abrazji nad metodami wiertłowymi, jest czystość pola operacyjnego w abrazji, całkowicie pozbawionego takich elementów jak olej i spray olejowo-wodny pochodzący z kątnic i prostnic turbinowych. Pole zabiegu po abrazji jest nie tylko suche i czyste ale dodatkowo pozbawione mikropęknięć szkliwa przez co lepsza jest retencja wypełnień a także odleglejsza w perspektywie próchnica wtórna. +Urządzenie służące do przeprowadzenia abrazji nazywamy abratorem. +(90377) Sedna + +90377 Sedna – duża planetoida transneptunowa, poruszająca się po bardzo wydłużonej orbicie. +Odkrycie. +Planetoida ta została odkryta 14 listopada 2003 przez Mike'a Browna, Chada Trujillo oraz Davida Rabinowitza, z California Institute of Technology, za pomocą 120-centymetrowego teleskopu Samuela-Oschina, znajdującego się w Obserwatorium Palomar niedaleko San Diego. Odkrycia dokonano w ramach prowadzonego od jesieni 2001 przeglądu zewnętrznych rejonów Układu Słonecznego. Odkrycie zostało zweryfikowane przez obserwatorium Tenagra w Arizonie. Planetoida ta obserwowana była również przez Kosmiczny Teleskop Hubble'a. +Otrzymała ona najpierw oznaczenie prowizoryczne 2003 VB12. +Obiekt nazwany został na cześć Sedny, bóstwa oceanu w wierzeniach Inuitów – ludów północy, zamieszkujących od Grenlandii po Czukotkę w Rosji. +Orbita. +Orbita 90377 Sedny nachylona jest do płaszczyzny ekliptyki pod kątem 11,93°. Na jeden obieg wokół Słońca potrzebuje ok. 12 600 lat. Krąży w średniej odległości ok. 541 j.a., po mocno wydłużonej eliptycznej orbicie o mimośrodzie 0,86. Średnia prędkość orbitalna tej asteroidy to ok. 1,0 km/s. +W momencie odkrycia znajdowała się w odległości 90 j.a. i tym samym okazała się najdalszym obserwowanym obiektem w Układzie Słonecznym. Obecnie Sedna zbliża się do Słońca i w 2075 roku osiągnie peryhelium, znajdując się wtedy w odległości 76 j.a. od naszej Dziennej Gwiazdy (ponad dwa razy dalej niż Pluton). Następnie przez ok. 6300 lat będzie się oddalać, aż osiągnie aphelium w odległości ok. 1000 j.a. od Słońca (ok. 20 razy dalej niż Pluton). +Jest to planetoida określana jako obiekt odłączony lub nawet wchodzący w skład wewnętrznej części obłoku Oorta. +Właściwości fizyczne. +Sedna ma średnicę szacowaną na ok. 995 km. Jej albedo wynosi ok. 0,4, a jasność absolutna to 1,6. Naukowcy przypuszczają, że składa się ona ze skał i lodu. +Sedna jest prawdopodobnie pierwszym odkrytym obiektem z wewnętrznej części Obłoku Oorta i zarazem pierwszym bezpośrednim dowodem jego istnienia. Jest to drugi po Marsie najczerwieńszy obiekt w naszym Systemie. Sedna jest jednym z niewielu tak dużych obiektów odkrytych w Układzie Słonecznym od 1930 roku, kiedy to po raz pierwszy zaobserwowano Plutona. +Sedna może zostać uznana w przyszłości za planetę karłowatą i plutoid. +Powiat buski + +Powiat buski – powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Busko-Zdrój. +Gminy. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Sprzedaż finalna + +Sprzedaż finalna - jest to sprzedaż dóbr i usług konsumentowi lub firmie, którzy ostatecznie je zużytkowują. +Grażyna Chrostowska + +Grażyna Chrostowska (ur. 20 września 1921 w Lublinie, zm. 18 kwietnia 1942 w Ravensbrück), poetka polska, działaczka podziemia w okresie II wojny światowej. +Pochodziła z rodziny o tradycjach szlacheckich. Ukończyła Liceum im. Heleny Czarnieckiej przy ulicy Bernardyńskiej w Lublinie; w szkole przejawiała szerokie zainteresowania humanistyczne, pisała wiersze i inne krótkie formy literackie, próbowała swoich sił w prozie, działała w teatrzyku szkolnym, harcerstwie, pasjonowała się filmem. Członkini organizacji podziemnej KOP (Komenda Obrońców Polski) i kolporterka jej pisma "Polska Żyje". +Aresztowana 8 maja 1941 wraz z ojcem podczas odwiedzin u uwięzionej już siostry Apolonii, w więzieniu "Pod Zegarem". Wywieziona 23 września 1941 do obozu koncentracyjnego w Ravensbrück, otrzymała numer obozowy 7714. Pracowała w obozie przy wyrobie słomianych ocieplaczy na żołnierskie buty. +Została rozstrzelana wraz z siostrą Apolonią 18 kwietnia 1942. Tego dnia napisała swój ostatni wiersz pt. "Niepokój". Wiersze: "Kamienie", "Wędrowałabym", "Obczyzna" i "Niepokój" zostały przetłumaczone na język francuski przez Ninę Iwańską i opublikowane w wydawnictwie "Ravensbrück" (Neuchâtel 1945, Êd. de la Baconnière, str. 106-109). W 2002 ukazała się książka z jej zbiorem wierszy "Jakby minęło już wszystko" pod redakcją Alojzego Leszka Gzelli. +Nassau (księstwo) + +Nassau – początkowo hrabstwo, później księstwo niemieckie o pow. około 4700 km² ze stolicą w mieście o tej samej nazwie, leżącym nad rzeką Lahn. +Historia. +Przedstawiciele rodu byli namiestnikami (XVIII w.) i królami (XIX w.) Holandii oraz rządcami Luksemburga. +Księstwo w 1866 zostało wcielone do Prus jako część prowincji Hessen-Nassau. +Dynastia Orańska-Nassau + +Dynastia Orańska-Nassau (hol. "Oranje-Nassau", ang. i fr. "Orange-Nassau") – rodzina panująca w Holandii od czasów Wilhelma I Orańskiego, który zorganizował powstanie przeciwko Hiszpanii i uzyskał niepodległość Niderlandów. +Dzieje rodu. +Ród powstał z wyniku małżeństwa Henryka III – niemieckiego księcia Nassau-Breda i Klaudii de Châlon-Orange z francuskiej Burgundii. Ich syn René de Châlon pierwszy przyjął rodowe nazwisko "Orange-Nassau". Pod koniec XVII w. przedstawiciel rodziny, Wilhelm III Orański, zasiadł na tronie brytyjskim. +Ciekawostki. +Z rodowym tytułem Oranje (Orange) kojarzona była barwa pomarańczowa, czego efektem jest współczesne postrzeganie w Holandii tego koloru jako nieoficjalnego symbolu narodowego, łączonego często z flagą narodową Holandii. +W XIX w. właścicielką dóbr na ziemi kłodzkiej (dzisiejsze województwo dolnośląskie), będących wówczas pod panowaniem Prus, była królewna Marianna Orańska, córka króla Wilhelma I i królewny pruskiej, Fryderyki Luizy (Wilhelminy von Hohenzollern). Rodzina królewska niechętnie jednak przyznaje się do tej krewnej, ze względu na mezalians. Opracowania historyczne mówią przy tym o romantycznej miłości. +Agenor Maria Gołuchowski + +Agenor Maria Gołuchowski (ur. 25 marca 1849, zm. 28 marca 1921) – polski prawnik, dyplomata i konserwatywny polityk, II ordynat na Skale, kawaler maltański. +Członek bardzo wpływowej w Galicji rodziny Gołuchowskich. Wywodził się z rodziny arystokratycznej, zaangażowanej w politykę Austro-Węgier. Jego ojcem był Agenor Romuald Gołuchowski, minister spraw wewnętrznych Cesarstwa Austriackiego i I Ordynat na Skałce, matką hrabianka Maria Karolina Baworowska (1823–1906). Brat Adam Gołuchowski, był posłem i marszałkiem krajowym Galicji. +Od 1872 pracował w austriackiej służbie dyplomatycznej, w latach 1895–1906 był ministrem spraw zagranicznych i ministrem dworu Austro-Węgier. W 1901 interweniował u rządu niemieckiego w sprawie dzieci wrzesińskich, w 1902 podpisał traktat z Niemcami i Włochami o odnowieniu Trójprzymierza. Od 1907 w Izbie Panów, gdzie przewodniczył polskiej grupie. W czasie I wojny światowej był przewodniczącym Komisji Politycznej Koła Polskiego. Honorowy obywatel miasta Krakowa, Rzeszowa oraz Oświęcimia. +John Jones + +Sir John Jones (ur. 1923, zm. 1998) − Dyrektor Generalny brytyjskiej służby bezpieczeństwa MI5 w latach 1981-1985. +Wcześniej był funkcjonariuszem Wydziału F, zajmującego się wywiadem wewnętrznym, zwłaszcza gromadzeniem informacji o Komunistycznej Partii Wielkiej Brytanii, innych ugrupowaniach lewicowych i podejrzanych o działalność wywrotową. Za jego kadencji MI5 zaczęło stosować na wielką skalę techniki inwigilacji elektronicznej. Dane pochodzące z tych źródeł usunęły na plan dalszy informacje uzyskiwane przez agentów. Jones odszedł ze stanowiska szefa MI5 w 1985 roku, jego miejsce zajął sir Anthony Duff. +Stara Kiszewa + +Stara Kiszewa (kaszb. "Stôrô Cziszewa") – wieś w Polsce, położona w województwie pomorskim, w południowej części powiatu kościerskiego, leżąca na pograniczu Kaszub i Kociewia, położona nad rzeką Wierzycą, w gminie Stara Kiszewa przy drodze wojewódzkiej nr . +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie gdańskim. +Siedziba władz gminy Stara Kiszewa. +Historia. +Nazwa. +Nazwa wsi pochodzi od imienia męskiego "Kiss" i w ciągu wieków była przekształcana od najstarszej formy: "Kissow", przez "Vela Kyssewa", "Kissawa Stara", (niem. "Alt Kischau") do współczesnej – Stara Kiszewa. +Informacje. +Stara Kiszewa w ostatnich latach pełni coraz większą rolę bazy wypadowej i zaopatrzeniowej dla turystów i letników odwiedzających licznie pobliskie lasy i jeziora. +Obozy niemieckie 1933-1945 + +Obozy niemieckie 1933-1945 − obozy i podobozy kierowane przez SA, a później SS, policję i Wehrmacht utworzone w latach 1933-1945 przez władze nazistowskie III Rzeszy. Obozy te, w liczbie przynajmniej 12 tysięcy, utworzone były na własnym terytorium III Rzeszy oraz na ziemiach państw okupowanych. +Powstanie i rozwój obozów. +Pierwsze obozy koncentracyjne zostały zorganizowane w III Rzeszy w 1933 r., a więc przed II wojną światową, na mocy „rozporządzenia wyjątkowego o ochronie narodu i państwa” z dnia 28 lutego 1933 r. Rozporządzenie to umożliwiało m.in. zawieszenie wolności osobistej obywateli posiadających niemieckie obywatelstwo i zezwalało na aresztowanie i osadzanie bez wyroku sądowego na czas nieograniczony wszystkich osób uznawanych za wrogów państwa i narodu niemieckiego. W pewnym sensie sankcjonowało ono praktykę bojówek nazistowskich SA i SS (jeszcze sprzed zdobycia władzy w wyborach w 1933 r.) – tworzenia „prywatnych odosobnień”, w których przetrzymywano siłą osoby niechętne rodzącemu się reżimowi, zwłaszcza działaczy partii opozycyjnych. +Po zdobyciu władzy służyły one przede wszystkim wyniszczeniu opozycji antyhitlerowskiej oraz odizolowaniu ludzi uznanych za groźnych bądź „nieprzydatnych”. 20 marca 1933 r., na podstawie zarządzenia Heinricha Himmlera, zorganizowano pierwszy obóz koncentracyjny w Dachau (niektóre źródła wskazują, że pierwszym niewielkim obozem, założonym 12 marca 1933 r. był obóz Dürrgoy (Tarnogaj, obecnie dzielnica Wrocławia). Jeszcze w roku 1933 SA i SS oraz policja zorganizowały kolejne obozy, m.in. w Oranienburgu, Berlinie (tzw. Columbia-Haus), Królewcu (Quednau), Papenburgu, Esterwegen, Kemna bei Wuppertal, Sonnenburgu, Sachsenburgu, Lichtenburgu. W 1934 r. obozy koncentracyjne podporządkowano SS, a obóz w Dachau stał się obozem wzorcowym. Sztab tych obozów od 1936 (do końca wojny) mieścił się w Oranienburgu. W następnych latach założono obozy w: Sachsenhausen (1936), Buchenwaldzie (1937), Mauthausen (1938), Flossenbürgu (1938) oraz obóz dla kobiet w Ravensbrück (1939). Szacuje się, że jeszcze przed wojną przez obozy niemieckie przeszło 165-170 tysięcy więźniów. +Podczas wojny niemieccy naziści wprowadzili nowe typy obozów, zgodnie z rozszerzeniem ich roli w przeprowadzaniu założeń polityki nazistowskiej oraz konkretnych celów natury ekonomiczno-militarnej. Obozy zaczęły służyć jako miejsca przetrzymywania inteligencji krajów podbitych (w szczególności polskiej), kleru (w szczególności katolickiego), osób związanych z ruchem oporu i podziemiem, ofiar łapanek ulicznych oraz jeńców wojennych. W obozach masowo wykorzystywano więźniów do niewolniczej i wyczerpującej pracy na rzecz niemieckich firm, w tym przede wszystkim koncernów przemysłu wojennego. Eliminacja elit polskich, jak również masowe mordy na zwykłej ludności miały miejsce w ramach przygotowanego projektu Generalnego Planu Wschodniego, mającego na celu kolonizację ziem słowiańskich. Po 1939 r. znacznie rozbudowano dotychczas istniejące obozy koncentracyjne na terenie przedwojennej III Rzeszy, a w miarę zdobyczy terytorialnych w okupowanych krajach organizowano nowe obozy i ośrodki zagłady. Największymi nowo powstałymi tego typu obozami były (w kolejności ich powstawania): Stutthof (sierpień 1939), Auschwitz (wiosna 1940), Neuengamme (czerwiec 1940), Natzweiler-Struthof (lipiec 1940), Gross-Rosen (1940), Bergen-Belsen (październik 1940), Majdanek (październik 1941), Hertogenbosch (styczeń 1942), Ryga-Kaiserwald (Salaspils – maj 1943), Mittelbau-Dora (koniec 1943). Przy lokalizacji obozów brano m.in. pod uwagę położenie dogodne ze względów komunikacyjnych, sąsiedztwo wielkich zakładów produkcyjnych lub kamieniołomów w celu wykorzystania pracy niewolniczej więźniów (np. Mittelbau-Dora, Gross-Rosen). +Osobnym torem potoczyła się historia obozów przeznaczonych dla wymordowania milionów Żydów z całej Europy. Wraz z atakiem Niemiec na ZSRR specjalne szwadrony rozpoczęły akcję masowych mordów na Żydach, najpierw mężczyznach i chłopcach, potem również kobietach i dzieciach. W obliczu problemów organizacyjnych, wysokich kosztów oraz trudności psychologicznych dla katów, związanych z tak licznymi egzekucjami, już w 1941, a szerzej od 1942 r., wybrane placówki zaczęto przygotowywać pod kątem nowej metody masowej eksterminacji. Instalowano całe systemy komór gazowych i krematoriów, które miały służyć mordowaniu i paleniu tysięcy zwłok dziennie – głównie Żydów. Zgodnie z planem zagłady Żydów (tzw. "Endlösung", pl. "ostateczne rozwiązanie"), którego techniczne szczegóły przyjęto na Konferencji w Wansee, 20 stycznia 1942, w wyselekcjonowanych obozach prowadzono masową zagładę podbitej ludności żydowskiej. W obozach Niemcy mordowali również masowo Romów oraz Sinti. +Najwcześniej uruchomiony został obóz zagłady Kulmhof (grudzień 1941) w Kraju Warty. W Generalnym Gubernatorstwie, w ramach Einsatz Reinhard powstały ośrodki zagłady: Treblinka II (lipiec 1942), Sobibor (marzec 1942) i Belzec (marzec 1942). Na terytorium wcielonym do Rzeszy przystosowano do tego celu tyły olbrzymiego obozu Birkenau. +W miarę przybliżania się wojsk alianckich do granic Rzeszy, Niemcy próbowali zatrzeć ślady funkcjonowania obozów. W szczególności obozy zagłady rozbierali i równali z ziemią, niektóre instalacje wysadzali w powietrze. Więźniów obozów koncentracyjnych wyprowadzano w marszach śmierci. +W obozach tych więziono około 18 mln osób, z których zginęło 11 mln. +Dziś na terenach wielu byłych obozów istnieją miejsca pamięci, mauzolea, muzea, gdzie prowadzona jest szeroka działalność edukacyjna. +Rodzaje obozów. +Niemieckie nazwy obozów bywały różne i często mylące: "Konzentrationslager, Arbeitslager, Vernichtungslager, Sonderkommando SS, Zwangsarbeitslager, Aufenthaltslagers, Durchgangslager, Transitlager, Schutzhaftlager, Familienlager, Internierungslager" itd. +Z obozami koncentracyjnymi ("Konzentrationslager, Schutzhaft- und Konzentrationslager") były złączone ich podobozy ("Nebenlager, Aussenlager") i oddziały robocze ("Aussenkommando"). +Struktura obozów. +Przy dużej różnorodności obozów, można wyodrębnić niektóre cechy stałe, które były odtwarzane we większości placówek, wedle modelowych założeń przyjętych przy budowie KL Dachau i KL Sachsenhausen. Przestrzeń obozowa była podzielona na cztery strefy. +Cechy te nie były zachowane w ośrodkach zagłady, które nie pełniły funkcji obozowych (Kulmhof, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka II). W tych miejscach przestrzeń można podzielić na cztery inne strefy. +Podstawowa chronologia. +1933 +1934 +1935 +1936 +1937 +1938 +1939 +1940 +1941 +1942 +1943 +1944 +1945 +Bibliografia. +Wykaz bibliografii dla serii artykułów o niemieckich obozach w latach 1933-1945 został umieszczony na . +Roy Keane + +Roy Maurice Keane, irl. Roy Muirís O'Catháin (ur. 10 sierpnia 1971 w Cork) – irlandzki trener piłkarski i były piłkarz, występujący na pozycji pomocnika, 66-krotny reprezentant kraju, długoletni kapitan reprezentacji Irlandii i Manchesteru United. Zakończył karierę w 2006 roku jako gracz Celtic F.C. Od 23 kwietnia 2009 roku do 5 stycznia 2011 był trenerem Ipswich Town. +Biografia. +Roy Keane urodził się jako czwarte dziecko Marie i Maurice'a. Ma trzech braci i siostrę. jego ojciec pracował w firmie produkującej odzież, która została później zlikwidowana. +Dzieciństwo spędził w rodzinnym mieście, mieszkał w dzielnicy Mayfield. Początkowo bardziej niż piłka nożna pasjonował go boks. Próbował swoich sił także w biegach średniodystansowych, ale ostatecznie zdecydował się na futbol. Treningi rozpoczynał w Szkole Mistrzostwa Sportowego Rockmount. Nie został jednak przyjęty do żadnego klubu zawodowego, choć w pewnym momencie zdecydował się nawet na wysłanie listu do wszystkich 92 zespołów w ligach zawodowych. Ostatecznie trafił do półamatorskiej drużyny Cobh Ramblers w 1989 roku. +Nottingham Forest. +20 czerwca 1990 roku podpisał kontrakt z Nottingham Forest F.C., który zapłacił za Keane'a 20 000 funtów. Wiąże się z tym następująca anegdota: mając 14 lat, wysyłał do angielskich klubów prośby o różne pamiątki. Dostał je tylko z Nottingham Forest i podobno to właśnie wpłynęło na przyjęcie oferty tego klubu i tym samym odrzucenie propozycji z Brighton i Tottenhamu. Duży wpływ na transfer miał też ówczesny trener Forest, Brian Clough, który był pewien słuszności sprowadzenia do jednego z najbardziej utytułowanych klubów w Anglii piłkarza półzawodowego. +Keane zadebiutował w Premier League 29 sierpnia w wyjazdowym meczu z Liverpool F.C. W maju 1993 wszystko wskazywało na to, że za 4 miliony funtów odejdzie ze spadającego z ekstraklasy klubu do Blackburn Rovers. Rozmowy na temat indywidualnego kontraktu zakończyły się sukcesem w piątkowy wieczór, ale ponieważ w weekendy biura klubowe były zamknięte, podpisanie umowy odłożono na poniedziałek. Tymczasem w niedzielę do Keane'a zadzwonił Alex Ferguson, menadżer Manchesteru United, któremu Irlandczyk pierwszy raz wpadł w oko w sezonie 1991/1992 w przegranym przez Nottingham 0:1 finale Pucharu Ligi właśnie przeciwko MU. Szkocki trener szybko namówił Keane'a na przejście nie do Blackburn, a do Manchesteru. Kwota odstępnego wyniosła 3,75 miliona funtów, co było wówczas rekordem Wielkiej Brytanii. Ówczesny menadżer Blackburn, Kenny Dalglish, poczuł się zachowaniem Keane'a do tego stopnia dotknięty, że do dziś nie podaje Irlandczykowi ręki. +Manchester United. +W Manchesterze szybko stworzył dobrze rozumiejący się duet z Paulem Incem. +W 1997, po zakończeniu kariery przez Francuza Erica Cantonę, Alex Ferguson powierzył mu funkcję kapitana Man Utd. Niedługo potem Keane odniósł kontuzję więzadeł krzyżowych (skutek nieudanego wślizgu na Alfie-Inge Haalandzie), która wyłączyła go z gry na znaczną część sezonu 1997/98. Nieobecność Keane'a miała znaczenie zarówno dla klubu (utrata tytułu mistrzowskiego na rzecz Arsenalu), jak i zespołu narodowego (niepowodzenie w eliminacjach Mundialu 1998). +Po powrocie do wysokiej dyspozycji przyczynił się do kolejnych sukcesów Manchesteru. W 1999 "Czerwone Diabły" zdobyły mistrzostwo Anglii, Puchar Anglii i Puchar Mistrzów. W półfinale Ligi Mistrzów Keane został ukarany żółtą kartką, która uniemożliwiła mu występ w finale. W 2000 Keane został uznany Piłkarzem Roku w Premiership. +W kwietniu 2001 po raz pierwszy od czasu odniesienia wspomnianej kontuzji zagrał mecz przeciwko drużynie Alfa-Inge Haalanda (wówczas Manchester City) i brutalnie go sfaulował. Został za to ukarany czerwoną kartką. W autobiografii Keane napisał, że żałuje, iż nie potraktował Haalanda jeszcze mocniej, za co został ukarany przez Football Association grzywną i zakazem gry w pięciu meczach. Haaland niedługo potem zakończył karierę. W sieprniu 2002 został zawieszony na trzy mecze i ukarany grzywną za uderzenie łokciem Jasona McAteera. Wywołało to kontrowersje w Anglii, gdyż już przedtem Keane miał w planach poddanie się operacji biodra i okres zawieszenia i tak spędził w szpitalu. +5 lutego 2005 w meczu przeciw Birmingham City zdobył swojego 50. gola w barwach Manchesteru. +Po meczu z Middlesbrough F.C. przegranym 1:4 w wywiadzie dla klubowej stacji telewizyjnej otwarcie skrytykował kilku kolegów z drużyny. Wywiadu ostatecznie nie wyemitowano, ale jego treść przedostała się do opinii publicznej, a kibice Manchesteru United wyrazili swoje poparcie dla słów Irlandczyka. +Gdy ogłosił, że latem 2006 roku opuści Man Utd, Alex Ferguson oznajmił, iż chce, by to Keane został jego następcą na stanowisku trenera United. Wspomniany incydent z krytykowaniem kolegów sprawił jednak, że Ferguson zaczął się wypowiadać o menadżerskiej karierze Keane'a z większą rezerwą. +Keane niespodziewanie opuścił Manchester 18 listopada 2005, będąc w trakcie leczenia kontuzji. Jego ostatnim meczem dla "Czerwonych Diabłów" był mecz z Liverpool F.C. we wrześniu tego samego roku. +Celtic FC. +15 grudnia, dzień po tym jak informację tę podało BBC, Keane został piłkarzem Celticu. Pierwszego gola w barwach nowego klubu zdobył w lutym 2006 w meczu z Falkirk F.C. wygranym 2:1. +Decyzję o zakończeniu kariery z powodu problemów z kontuzją biodra ogłosił 12 czerwca 2006. Wcześniej, 9 maja 2006, rozegrano mecz pożegnalny Roya Keane'a, w którym wzięły udział drużyny Manchesteru United i Celticu. Spotkanie zakończyło się wynikiem 1:0 dla Man Utd po golu Cristiano Ronaldo. Keane zagrał po jednej połowie w barwach każdej drużyny. +Kariera trenerska. +Sunderland - W sezonie 2006/2007 Keane wywalczył z zespołem Sunderlandu awans do Premier League. W następnym sezonie, zakupił najdroższego szkockiego bramkarza - Craiga Gordona za 9 mln funtów. +Podał się do dymisji 4 grudnia 2008 w 15 meczach sezonu 2008/2009 Sunderland odniósł tylko cztery zwycięstwa i w tabeli zajmował trzecie miejsce od końca. 23 kwietnia 2009 roku do 5 stycznia 2011 był trenerem Ipswich Town. . +Antena izotropowa + +Zysk energetyczny anteny izotropowej wynosi 0 dBi. Pojęcie anteny izotropowej jest stosowane przy określaniu EIRP i jest modelem teoretycznym, gdyż antena taka w rzeczywistości nie istnieje. +Antena ta jest szczególnym przypadkiem anteny dookólnej, jej charakterystyka promieniowania jest idealnie sferyczna. +Bibliografia. +J. Szóstka "Fale i anteny" +Antoni Kalina + +Antoni Kalina (ur. 23 maja 1846 w Krępie, zm. 3 maja 1906 we Lwowie) – polski slawista, etnograf, etnolog, ludoznawca, działacz społeczny, członek Akademii Umiejętności. +Pochodził z chłopskiej rodziny, był synem Szymona i Marii z Kostrzewów. Wykształcenie średnie zdobył w Królewskim Katolickim Gimnazjum w Ostrowie (skąd został usunięty za działalność narodową) i gimnazjum w Śremie. Studiował historię oraz filologię polską i klasyczną - na uniwersytetach we Wrocławiu i Berlinie. Doktoryzował się w Halle, później pracował jeszcze w Pradze. W 1877 osiadł we Lwowie gdzie został docentem gramatyki porównawczej języków słowiańskich. W 1888 uzyskał tytuł profesora nadzwyczajnego, po czym objął katedrę slawistyki; od 1892 profesor zwyczajny, pełnił funkcję dziekana Wydziału Filozoficznego (1893/1894) oraz rektora Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego (1904). Został też radnym Lwowa. W 1884 został powołany na członka-korespondenta Akademii Umiejętności (późniejszej PAU), w 1895 na jej członka-czynnego. Był także członkiem Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk, założycielem (1895) i prezesem (1895-1905) Towarzystwa Ludoznawczego we Lwowie, prezesem Towarzystwa Pedagogicznego we Lwowie (od 1896), prezesem Towarzystwa Nauczycieli Szkół Wyższych. Działał ponadto m.in. w Związku Naukowo-Literackim we Lwowie, Związku Nauczycielskim, Zjednoczonym Towarzystwie Ogrodniczym i Pszczelarskim we Lwowie. +Pozostawił po sobie liczne prace z dziedziny gramatyki historycznej języka polskiego, kaszubskiego, bułgarskiego i połabskiego. Współpracownik warszawskiego "Słownika języka polskiego". Założyciel i redaktor pierwszego polskiego pisma naukowego - etnologicznego rocznika "Lud" (od 1895). Do grona jego studentów zaliczali się m.in. Andrzej Gawroński i Bronisław Gubrynowicz. +Po 1904 ograniczył pracę naukową z powodu choroby, zmarł we Lwowie. Pochowany jest na Cmentarzu Łyczakowskim. +W Szczecinie jego imieniem została nazwana ulica i osiedle. W Ostrowie Wielkopolskim uhonorowany został ulicą oraz tablicą pamiątkową na domu rodzinnym. +AMD Athlon + +Athlon to marka handlowa serii różnych mikroprocesorów początkowo bazowanych na architekturze x86 zaprojektowanych i produkowanych przez firmę AMD. Nazwa Athlon pierwotnie używana była na oznaczenie siódmej generacji procesorów z rodziny x86 produkowanych przez AMD a następnie dla procesorów ósmej generacji – Athlon 64, korzystających z architektury AMD64. Następcą procesorów Athlon jest AMD Phenom. +Nazwa pochodzi z angielskiej pisowni greckiego słowa "αθλο", które można przetłumaczyć jako wyczyn. +Athlon Argon/Pluto/Orion. +Athlon zadebiutował 21 sierpnia 1999 roku. +Pierwsza wersja rdzenia, nazwana K7 Argon, była taktowana od 500 do 700 MHz. Wprowadzona później odmiana K75 Pluto występowała w wersjach od 550 do 850 MHz, a ostatnia - K75 Orion - od 900 do 1000 MHz. Procesory te używały gniazdo Slot A niekompatybilne z gniazdem Slot 1 używanym przez Pentium II. +Pod względem architektury wewnętrznej Athlon to bardzo poprawiony K6 z dodatkowym protokołem magistrali EV6. (po raz pierwszy użytym w procesorze DEC Alpha 21294 RISC). W porównaniu z K6 znacznie poprawiono wydajność w obliczeniach zmiennoprzecinkowych i dodano dużą pamięć podręczną pierwszego poziomu ("L1 cache") o wielkości 128 kB bezpośrednio na rdzeń procesora. Podobnie jak Pentium II i Pentium III Katmai Intela, Athlon miał także pamięć podręczną drugiego poziomu ("L2 cache") o pojemności 512kB, która nie mieściła się bezpośrednio na rdzeniu procesora, ale znajdowała się w jego obudowie i była taktowana niższą prędkością niż rdzeń procesora. +Athlon Thunderbird. +Druga generacja Athlonów - nazwa kodowa "Thunderbird" - zadebiutowała w specyfikacji Slot A, później została zastąpiona formatem Socket A i była taktowana zegarem od 650 do 1400 MHz (650 Mhz - 1 Ghz dla Slot A). Główną różnicę w porównaniu z pierwszymi athlonami stanowiła struktura pamięci podręcznej. W czasie kiedy Intel zastąpił Pentium III Katmai znacznie szybszą wersją Coppermine P-III, AMD wymieniło 512 kB pamięci podręcznej taktowaną o połowę wolniej niż zegar procesora, na 256 kB pamięci podręcznej taktowanej z pełną szybkością i umiejscowioną na jednym chipie z procesorem (według ogólnej zasady: im więcej pamięci podręcznej, tym lepiej - ale szybsza pamięć podręczna jeszcze bardziej poprawia wydajność). +Thunderbird był najbardziej popularnym procesorem AMD od czasu Am386DX-40 dziesięć lat wcześniej. W tym czasie znacznie poprawiono jakość budowanych płyt głównych i po początkowym okresie, kiedy dostępnych było tylko kilka modeli płyt z Socket A, prawie wszyscy główni producenci płyt głównych zaczęli wypuszczać na rynek modele obsługujące Athlona. W tym czasie AMD otworzyło nową fabrykę w Dreznie, pozwalając na zwiększenie produkcji i przy okazji na ulepszenie procesu wytwarzania procesorów – podobnie jak Intel, AMD zaczęło używać miedzianych połączeń. W październiku 2000 wprowadzono na rynek Athlon "C" z częstotliwością taktowania magistrali FSB 133 MHz (pozwalając na użycie pamięci DDR266), poprawiając wydajność tej wersji Athlona o około 10% w porównaniu z pierwszymi modelami Thunderbirda. +Athlon XP. +Pod względem szybkości obliczeń Thunderbird z łatwością przewyższał swoich rywali: Pentium III i wczesne Pentium 4. Jednak po debiucie P4 taktowanego zegarem 1,7 GHz w kwietniu 2001 stało się oczywiste, że Thunderbird nie pozostanie liderem na zawsze. +Palomino. +Trzecia wersja Athlona, a pierwsza Athlona XP - "Palomino" - została wypuszczona 14 maja 2001. Dołączono w niej obsługę instrukcji SSE (obsługiwanych do tej pory tylko przez Pentium III) nazwanych przez AMD 3DNow! Professional. Pierwsze modele były taktowane zegarami od 1333 do 1733 MHz. Główne zmiany polegały na optymalizacji jądra procesora i spowodowały mniej więcej 10% poprawę wydajności w porównaniu z Thunderbirdem o takiej samej częstotliwości. Zmniejszono także nieco pobór prądu, umożliwiając w ten sposób zwiększenie szybkości taktowania. +Poważnym problemem Palomino był fakt, że generowały one bardzo dużo ciepła. Pierwsza wersja Athlona MP (do zadań wieloprocesorowych SMP) miała bardzo duże kłopoty związane z emisją ciepła. +Wydajność Athlona XP była wyliczana na podstawie systemu PR rating, który porównywał wydajność XP do Pentium 4. Ponieważ Athlon XP miał wyższy stosunek IPC niż Pentium 4 (i około 10% wyższy niż Thunderbird), był bardziej wydajny pomimo niższych częstotliwości taktowania. +Thoroughbred. +Czwarta generacja Athlona, druga generacja Athlona XP, jądro Thoroughbred, została wypuszczona 10 czerwca 2002 i była taktowana zegarem 1,43 GHz - 1700+ w skali PR. Nieco później stały się dostępne wersje 2400+ i 2600+ taktowane zegarem 2000 i 2133 MHz (przy FSB 133/266 MHz). AMD wyprodukował także wersje 2700+ i 2800+, ale były one dostępne tylko w śladowych ilościach. +Rdzeń Thoroughbreda wykonano w technologii 0,13 mikrometra (w odróżnieniu od procesu 0,18 mikrometrowego używanego przy Palomino) – oprócz tego te dwa jądra nie różniły się niczym. AMD miało poważne kłopoty z ciepłem generowanym przez pierwszą wersję Thoroughbreda, które zostały rozwiązane dopiero w wersji Thoroughbred B. Dopiero wtedy AMD na nowo zaczęło produkować procesory, które mogły się mierzyć z najszybszymi Pentium. Po podniesieniu prędkości FSB z 133 (266) na 166 (333) AMD wypuścił nową serię chipów – 2700+. +Barton i Thorton. +Barton to piąta generacja Athlona, która zaczęła być dostępna od 2003 roku z osiągami 2500+, 2600+, 2800+, 3000+ i 3200+. Nie podniesiono co prawda szybkości taktowania w porównaniu z poprzednią generacją Thoroughbred, ale wydajność procesorów wzrosła po powiększeniu pamięci podręcznej o 256 KB(w sumie do 512 KB) i dalszym zwiększeniu prędkości taktowania FSB do 200 (400) MHz - tylko w modelu 3200+ i jednej z wersji 3000+). Thorton to wariant Bartona z wyłączoną połową pamięci podręcznej drugiego poziomu ("L2 cache"), co powodowało, że chip był praktycznie ekwiwalentem Thoroughbred B. Dostępne były modele Thorton 2200+, 2300+ i 2400+. W niektórych Thortonach można było przeprowadzić modyfikację na nowo włączającą połowę pamięci podręcznej [http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20030930171549.html]. +Mobile Athlon XP. +Mobile Athlon XP ("Athlon XP-M") jest funkcjonalnie identyczny do normalnego Athlona XP z tą tylko różnicą, że potrzebuje niższych napięć i mnożnik zegara procesora nie jest w nim zablokowany. Niższe wymogi zasilania powodują, ze XP-M wydziela znacznie mniej ciepła. XP-M posiadają także dodatkową funkcję "PowerNow!", które automatycznie zmniejsza szybkość taktowania procesora w zależności od potrzeb. +Niektóre wersje Athlona XP-M używają gniazda µ-PGA. +Ponieważ wersja Mobile Athlona nie ma zablokowanego mnożnika częstotliwości taktowania, są one bardzo popularne wśród osób lubiących przetaktowywać procesory. Niektóre Athlony XP-M z jądrem "Barton" fabrycznie sprzedawane jako 2600+ (domyślnie zegar 2 GHz / 15x133 MHz) mogą być "podkręcone" nawet do 3,1 GHz (przy częstotliwości magistrali ponad 200MHz oraz obniżonym mnożniku, co dodatkowo zwiększa wydajność pracy całego systemu). +Athlon 64. +Athlon 64 jest bazowany na 64-bitowej architekturze x86-64 (znanej teraz jako AMD64) o nazwie kodowej "Hammer". Jest to domowa wersja serwerowych mikroprocesorów Opteron, obu należących do rodziny AMD64. Istnieją dwie wersje "AMD 64" i "AMD 64 FX". Wersja FX jest podobna do Opterona i wydajniejsza od wersji bez oznaczenia FX. +Athlon 64 X2. +Athlon 64 X2 jest pierwszym dwurdzeniowym procesorem produkowanych przez firmę AMD. Zasadniczo procesor ten składa się z dwóch rdzeni procesora Athlon 64 połączonych razem na jednej kości z dodatkowymi układami logicznymi. Rdzenie współdzielące jeden dwukanałowy kontroler pamięci zależnie od modelu mają przydzielone po 256, 512 lub 1024 kB pamięci podręcznej L2 na każdy rdzeń. Są produkowane w technologiach 90 i 65 nm SOI. Athlon 64 X2 jest produkowany z trzema jądrami: Toledo, Brisbane i Windsor. +Surowiec zielarski + +Surowiec zielarski, surowiec roślinny – część rośliny zielarskiej (jej organ), tkanka lub wydzielina, w której koncentracja substancji czynnych (np. olejków eterycznych) jest największa. Najczęściej z jednej rośliny zbiera się jeden typ surowca (np. u mięty są to liście), ale z niektórych roślin pozyskuje się kilka surowców (np. mniszek lekarski). Surowce roślinne wykazujące udokumentowane działanie lecznicze posiadają swoje monografie w farmakopeach. +Oznaczenia surowców: +Globula Boka + +Globula Boka (Mgławica Boka) (łac. "globulus" "kulka") – rodzaj ciemnej mgławicy, składającej się z gęstego pyłu i gazu, w których ma miejsce proces tworzenia się gwiazd. Typowa masa takiego ciała wynosi 10-50 mas Słońca, a rozmiary są rzędu roku świetlnego lub więcej. Chmura zawiera molekuły wodoru (H2), tlenków węgla i helu oraz około 1% krzemionki. Globule Boka powstają najczęściej w wyniku formowania się układów podwójnych lub wielokrotnych gwiazd. +Mgławica Boka została po raz pierwszy zaobserwowana przez Barta Boka w latach 40. XX wieku. +W pracy opublikowanej przez Boka i E.F. Reilly postawili oni hipotezę, że chmury te są "kokonami", w których rodzą się gwiazdy. Hipoteza ta była trudna do weryfikacji z powodu problemów obserwacyjnych w ustaleniu, co dzieje się wewnątrz gęstych ciemnych mgławic, które zasłaniają całe emitowane w ich wnętrzu światło. Analiza promieniowania podczerwonego wysyłanego przez te obiekty potwierdziła w 1990 roku tę hipotezę. Dalsze obserwacje ujawniły, że niektóre globule Boka zawierają zatopione w nich źródła ciepła, inne zawierają obiekty Herbiga-Haro, a niektóre jeszcze wykazują wypływ gazu molekularnego. Analiza linii milimetrowej długości dostarczyła dowodu spadku materii w dysku akrecyjnym protogwiazdy. +Linki zewnętrzne. +[ Gwiazda w trakcie powstawania] +Mircea Snegur + +Mircea Ion Snegur (ur. 17 stycznia 1940 we wsi Trifăneşti, Rejon Floreşti, Mołdawia), polityk mołdawski. Od 3 września 1990 do 1 grudnia 1996 pełnił urząd prezydenta Mołdawii. +Biografia. +W latach 1964-1990 członek mołdawskiej partii komunistycznej, był głównym sekretarzem partii w latach 1985-1989. W latach 1971-1978 pracował w ministerstwie rolnictwa Mołdawskiej SRR. +Wojsko najemne + +Wojsko najemne (także: "najemnicy", "żołnierze najemni", "kondotierzy", "żołnierze fortuny") – formacja wojskowa składająca się z ochotników walczących za pieniądze, najczęściej w służbie obcego wojska dla danego państwa, miasta, władcy lub jakiejś organizacji, a nawet osoby prywatnej. Wojska te można wynająć do walki, praktycznie, w dowolnej sprawie, ponieważ te formacje nie kierują się idealizmem. W tym kontekście najemnicy to ludzie, dla których wojna jest zawodem, z którego czerpią środki do życia (żołd) i wzbogacenia się. Ważną rzeczą jest, aby daną formację określić mianem najemników, zasada dobrowolności służby i pobierania żołdu przez żołnierzy służących w takich oddziałach. +Historia. +W historii świata wojska najemne niejednokrotnie odgrywały istotną rolę w kształtowaniu obrazu politycznego różnych epok – począwszy od starożytności, aż po czasy współczesne – będąc często podstawowymi formacjami wojskowymi na militarnej scenie zmagań między państwami, a jednocześnie tylko narzędziem w realizacji celów politycznych władców lub państw. +Starożytność. +Greckie wojska najemne były główną siłą militarną nie tylko greckich miast-państw (które w znacznym stopniu opierały się na armii obywatelskiej, znacznie jednak ustępującej jakościowo najemnikom), ale także i innych władców w basenie Morza Śródziemnego. Najemnikami dowodzonymi przez Memnona z Rodos posługiwał się król perski w początkowej fazie wojny przeciwko wyprawie Aleksandra Wielkiego na Wschód. W armii Aleksandra również służyli najemnicy greccy, chociaż nie byli zasadniczą częścią składową korpusu Aleksandra. W okresie hellenistycznym najemnicy byli istotnym czynnikiem militarnym armii potęg królów syryjskich, egipskich (w nieco mniejszym stopniu) macedońskich i wielu innych pomniejszych władców i tyranów miast. Epoka greckich najemników skończyła się wraz ze wzrostem potęgi rzymskiej w basenie Morza Śródziemnego, kiedy to pola bitwy zdominowały legiony. +Średniowiecze i nowożytność. +W średniowieczu największe liczebnie wojska najemne wystawiały kantony dzisiejszej Szwajcarii - byli to głównie pikinierzy, halabardnicy i kusznicy; dopiero kongres wiedeński ograniczył możliwość ich zaciągu - mogą służyć jedynie w Gwardii Szwajcarskiej. Słynne były również oddziały kondotierów włoskich - pisał o nich m.in. Niccolò Machiavelli w swoim "Księciu", ganiąc władców korzystających z ich usług. Opisywał on tych najemników jako wojsko "ambitne, niekarne, niewierne, odważne wobec przyjaciół, tchórzliwe wobec nieprzyjaciół, nie boi się Boga ani dotrzymuje wiary ludziom". Wśród wyróżniających się formacji najemnych byli także lancknechci, charakteryzujący się ekstrawaganckimi strojami. W walce używali m.in. dwuręcznych mieczy zwanych flambergami. +Wojska najemne w epoce nowożytnej z czasem przechodziły na margines, zastępowane przez coraz liczniejsze i profesjonalne armie narodowe, choć ich schyłek rozpoczął się już od momentu popularyzacji skutecznej broni palnej. Było to spowodowane spadkiem wartości co prawda doświadczonego, ale drogiego żołnierza najemnego, który w ostatecznym rozrachunku nie był znacząco skuteczniejszy od coraz lepiej szkolonych żołnierzy zaciężnych. W XVIII w. i XIX w. występowali już sporadycznie. +Współczesność. +W czasach współczesnych nastąpiła reaktywacja tego zawodu przede wszystkim w trakcie konfliktów postkolonialnych w Afryce (Demokratyczna Republika Konga, Katanga, Biafra, Angola) w drugiej połowie XX wieku. Najsłynniejszym najemnikiem tych czasów był Bob Denard, zaś z Polaków Jan Zumbach i Rafał Gan-Ganowicz. Najemnicy od tamtego czasu pojawiali i pojawiają się w konfliktach zbrojnych na całym świecie - przykładami mogą być np. wojna w byłej Jugosławii, wojny w Czeczenii i inne. +W ostatnich latach następuje komercjalizacja rynku wojsk najemnych. Chodzi o PMC (Private Military Company) – firmy, które wprowadziły na rynek usług wojskowych standardy wielkich korporacji. W ich ofercie można znaleźć zarówno wspomaganie wojsk działających na terytorium obcego państwa (logistyka, ochrona cywilów i zajętych obiektów strategicznych), jak również "usługi", które dotychczas oficjalnie były dostarczane jedynie przez armię (doradcy wojskowi, specjaliści – np. piloci samolotów). +Wisła Wielka + +Wisła Wielka (niem. "Groß Weichsel") – wieś w gminie Pszczyna. Powierzchnia 9,2 km², ok. 2 070 mieszkańców. +Na południe od wsi znajduje się Jezioro Goczałkowickie. Od północy Wisła Wielka graniczy ze zbiornikiem Łąka, który jest zbiornikiem przeznaczonym m. in. do sportów wodnych i rekreacji. W Wiśle Wielkiej znajdują się również dwa kampusy harcerskie. +Historia. +Miejscowość została po raz pierwszy wzmiankowana w dokumencie protekcyjnym biskupa wrocławskiego Wawrzyńca z dnia 25 maja 1223 roku wydanym na prośbę księcia opolsko-raciborskiego Kazimierza dla klasztoru premonstrantek w Rybniku, w którym to wymieniono około 30 miejscowości mających im płacić dziesięcinę. Pośród 14 miejsowości kasztelanii cieszyńskiej wymieniona jest również "Vizla". Około 1290 roku najpewniej na rzece Wiśle została ustanowiona granica pomiędzy nowym księstwem cieszyńskim a księstwem raciborskim, pozostawiając Wisłę po stronie raciborskiej. W 1327 książę raciborski Leszek złożył hołd lenny królowi czeskiemu, odtąd również okręg pszczyński i Wisła Wielka pozostawały w granicach Królestwa Czech. +W następnym stuleciach ujawniają się już dwie miejscowości o nazwie Wisła. Jako pierwsza ujawniła się "Wisła Niemiecka", w spisie świętopietrza z 1326 roku. Prawdopodobnie w drugiej połowie XIV wieku we wschodniej części wsi nastąpiła ponowna jej lokacja, na prawie polskim. Stąd w następnych wieku, w 1424 lub 1427 ujawniła się Wisła Polska, a więc obecna Wisła Wielka. Dokładnie 13 września 1427 Helena Korybutówna, księżna raciborska i pani na Pszczynie, sprzedała dwór w Wiśle Polskiej wraz z 14 prętami roli, łąkami, pastwiskami i innymi przynależnościami Andrzejowi Jałowcowi ze Strumienia. Rozróżnienie Wisły Niemieckiej od Polskiej wiązało się zapewne z tym, że ta pierwsza funkcjonowała na prawie niemieckim a druga urządzona była według polskiego prawa osadniczego. Ponadto odróżniało je to, że Wisła Niemiecka była wsią szlachecką, kiedy Polska Wisła stanowiła własność panów na Pszczynie. W dokumencie sprzedaży okręgu pszczyńskiego przez księcia cieszyńskiego Kazimierza II Aleksemu Thurzo z 1517 "wes Wisla Polska" wymieniona została wśród 50 wsi komory pszczyńskiej. +W 1742 po zwycięskiej I wojnie śląskiej Prusy zaanektowały większość Śląska, w tym Wisłę Polską, a nowa granica prusko-austriacka przebiegała na południu wsi wzdłuż rzeki Wisły. +Własną szkołę tutejsza miejscowość posiadała od 1880 roku. W 1864 zbudowano kaplicę, którą rozbudowano do rozmiarów kościoła w roku 1884. W 1924 wioska oderwała się od starej parafii Matki Bożej Szkaplerznej w Brzeźcach i utworzyła własną parafię pw. Trójcy Przenajświętszej. +Zmiana nazwy wsi na "Wisłę Wielką" nastąpiła u schyłku XIX wieku, w dobie administracji pruskiej. Z nastaniem II Rzeczypospolitej nie wrócono do dawnej nazwy, ale dla równowagi sąsiednią Wisłę Niemiecką nazwano Wisłą Małą. +3 września 1939 niemiecki Freikorps rozstrzelał tutaj Karola Mrzyka (lat 29), Józefa Silbersteina (lat 53), Kurta Silbersteina (lat 20), Rutę Silberstein (lat 20). +Południowe skrawki Wisły Wielkiej zostały w 1955 r. zalane wodami Jeziora Goczałkowickiego. +W latach 1945-1954 i 1973-1975 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Wisła Wielka. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa katowickiego. +Zabytki. +We wsi znajduje się zabytkowy kościół z XIX wieku. +Hitachi 6309 + +6309 to nieco zmodyfikowana wersja mikroprocesora Motorola 6809 produkowana przez firmę Hitachi. +6309 był kompatybilny z 6809, główna różnica polegała na tym, że dodano w nim dwa 8-bitowe rejestry, które mogły być użyte jako jeden 16-bitowy rejestr, a dwa dodatkowe i dwa standardowe 8-bitowe rejestry mogły być połączone w jeden 32-bitowy rejestr. Chip Hitachi mógł także przeprowadzać 32-bitowe działania arytmetyczne, a w trybie macierzystym był o 30% szybszy niż 6809. Co ciekawe, dane te nigdy nie były oficjalnie opublikowane przez Hitachi. +DBi + +dBi – skala logarytmiczna zysku anteny określonego w stosunku do anteny izotropowej. +Zysk anteny wyrażony w dBi mówi o tym o ile decybeli poziom sygnału jest większy w stosunku do hipotetycznej anteny izotropowej. Przykładowo antena o zysku 8 dBi nadaje sygnał 100,8 = 6,31 razy "silniej" od anteny izotropowej. +G= G[dBd + 2.15 +Henryk Mąka + +Henryk Mąka (ur. 1930) – publicysta morski i pisarz marynista. +Ukończył studia dziennikarskie na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. W 1953 rozpoczął pracę w Szczecinie jako publicysta i kierownik działu w gazecie Głos Szczeciński. Potem pracował jako zastępca redaktora naczelnego w "Tygodniku Morskim", a następnie jako redaktor naczelny w tygodniku wybrzeża "Jantar". +Po powrocie do Warszawy w 1973 pełnił funkcję sekretarza redakcji w dzienniku "Głos Pracy" i współredagował miesięcznik "Morze". +Obok paru tysięcy publikacji prasowych ma w swoim dorobku ponad 40 książek o tematyce morskiej. +Twórczość. +Odznaczony Krzyżem Oficerskim i Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, Srebrnym Krzyżem Zasługi, odznaką „Gryf Pomorski”, Medalem XXX-lecia. +Monaster Nowodziewiczy w Moskwie + +Klasztor Nowodziewiczy (ros. Новодевичий монастырь) – wybudowany w 1524 roku w Moskwie, dla uczczenia zdobycia Smoleńska. We wrześniu 1610 roku hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski rozlokował w klasztorze Nowodziewiczym cztery polskie chorągwie pod dowództwem Jana Chluskiego, Jana Hreczynina, Olszańskiego i Kotowskiego. +We wrześniu 1612 roku w jego pobliżu rozegrała się bitwa, w której Jan Karol Chodkiewicz idący na odsiecz oblężonej polskiej załodze moskiewskiego Kremla poniósł taktyczną porażkę z powstańcami moskiewskimi Dmitrija Pożarskiego. W XVII wieku Zofia Romanowa, siostra cara Piotra I Wielkiego, przebudowała go, a od 1682 roku stał się on jej drugą rezydencją. W tym samym klasztorze została zamknięta, gdy Piotr I przejął władzę. Niedługo później uwięził tam również swą pierwszą żonę Jewdokiję Łopuchiną. +Wentyl + +Wentyl – potoczna nazwa zaworu pneumatycznego jednostronnego działania, stosowanego w celu zachowania oraz umożliwienia regulacji ciśnienia (głównie łatwego zwiększania) w zbiornikach np. dętkach, oponach pojazdów. +Instrumenty dęte blaszane. +W instrumentoznawstwie wentylem nazywa się zawory włączające do korpusu instrumentów dętych blaszanych dodatkowe rurki zwane krąglikami, które przedłużają słup powietrza i zmieniają wysokość dźwięku. +Plik:Rotor valve.svg|Wentyl obrotowy +Plik:Cilindros.JPG|Wentyle obrotowe w tubie +Plik:Trompette piston.jpg|Wentyl – piston w instrumentach dętych blaszanych +Plik:Trompette - premier piston - montage perspective.jpg|Wentyl – piston + +Vasile Tarlev + +Vasile Petru Tarlev (ur. 6 października 1963 we wsi Başcalia, Rejon Basarabeasca, Mołdawia) - polityk mołdawski pochodzenia bułgarskiego. Z wykształcenia jest inżynierem i prawnikiem. +Urząd premiera pełnił od 19 kwietnia 2001 z ramienia Partii Komunistów Republiki Mołdawii (PKRM). Z funkcji zrezygnował 19 marca 2008. 31 marca 2008 został oficjalnie zastąpiony na stanowisku przez Zinaidę Greceanîi. +Frustracja + +Frustracja (łac. "frustratio" - zawód, udaremnienie) – zespół przykrych emocji związanych z niemożliwością realizacji potrzeby lub osiągnięcia określonego celu. Czasem frustrację definiuje się jako każdą sytuację, która wywołuje nieprzyjemne reakcje: ból, gniew, złość, nudę, irytację, lęk i inne formy dyskomfortu. Frustracja może być na przykład reakcją na przeszkodę w osiąganiu celu, do którego się dąży. +W psychoanalizie traktuje się frustrację (czyli niemożność zaspokojenia popędów i potrzeb) jako czynnik rozwojowy, który przyczynia się do dojrzewania osobowości. Jeśli dziecko nie przeżywa frustracji, następuje fiksacja rozwojowa, podobnie jest wtedy, gdy frustracji jest zbyt wiele. +Deprywacja jest to zjawisko podobnego braku zaspokojenia lub niemożności osiągnięcia celu, jednak we frustracji jesteśmy przekonani, że pożądany cel jest możliwy do osiągnięcia. W deprywacji cel ten jest obiektywnie niemożliwy do osiągnięcia. Dlatego na przykład te dzieci, którym odmawia się komputera, ale które wiedzą, że rodzice nie mogą go kupić, przeżywają deprywację, te zaś które sądzą, że rodzice mogliby go kupić (np. dlatego, ze kiedyś obiecywali), przeżywają frustrację. +Dawid Abrahamowicz + +Dawid Abrahamowicz (ur. 30 czerwca 1839 w Targowicy Polnej, zm. 24 grudnia 1926 we Lwowie) – polski konserwatywny polityk i działacz społeczny; związany z ugrupowaniem "podolaków". Podolski ziemianin pochodzenia ormiańskiego. +Pomimo braku formalnego wykształcenia był bardzo zdolnym i aktywnym politykiem. +Fundator "Bursy Abrahamowiczów" we Lwowie – zakładu szkolno-wychowawczego dla niezamożnej młodzieży (przeznaczył na ten cel a także na zakup dzieł sztuki dla odbudowanego Zamku Królewskiego na Wawelu cały swój majątek). +W budynku bursy Abrahamowiczów w nocy z 3 na 4 lipca 1941 hitlerowcy więzili profesorów lwowskich przed ich rozstrzelaniem na pobliskich Wzgórzach Wuleckich. +Dawid Abrahamowicz został pochowany na cmentarzu Łyczakowskim we Lwowie. +Jego bratem był Adolf, komediopisarz. +Wilhelm II Holenderski + +Wilhelm Fryderyk Jerzy Ludwik Oranje-Nassau ("Willem Frederik George Lodewijk"; ur. 6 grudnia 1792 w Hadze, zm. 17 marca 1849 w Tilburgu) – król Holandii i wielki książę Luksemburga. +Duchowieństwo + +Duchowieństwo, także kler (łac. clerus z gr. kléros) – część społeczeństwa danego kraju będąca kapłanami określonego kościoła. +Pojęcie stanu duchownego powstało w prawie wyznaniowym, które zazwyczaj odróżnia duchowieństwo, czyli kler (gr. "kleros" 'udział'), od wiernych, czyli laikatu (gr. "laos" 'lud'). +W Kościele katolickim duchownym jest ten, który przyjął święcenia, czyli diakon, prezbiter i biskup. Zakonnicy, którzy nie przyjęli świeceń kapłańskich, określani są poprawnie jako osoby konsekrowane. Tak więc osoba zakonna może być osobą konsekrowaną nie należącą do stanu duchownego lub należeć do obu tych stanów jednocześnie. +Z tego punktu widzenia rozróżnia się duchowieństwo zakonne (osoby duchowne, które złożyły równocześnie śluby zakonne) i świeckie (osoby duchowne, które nie złożyły ślubów zakonnych). +Osobami konsekrowanymi są także członkowie instytutów świeckich, którzy jednak z definicji – jako konsekrowane osoby świeckie – nie mogą być osobami duchownymi. +Historia w Polsce. +Jako stan społeczny (a więc w innym sensie) duchowieństwo wyodrębniło się w Polsce w XIII wieku, kiedy arcybiskup Henryk Kietlicz uzyskał od książąt piastowskich przywileje borzykowski (1210) i wolborski (1215), nadające immunitety sądowy i podatkowy dobrom kościelnym. Tym samym Kościół w Polsce wyodrębnił się spod władzy książąt, zwolniony z podatków na rzecz państwa i poddany wyłącznie własnym sądom kościelnym. W średniowieczu duchowieństwo miało największy bezpośredni wpływ na ludność danego państwa, a pośredni poprzez papieża i biskupów na króla i władców tego kraju. Przykładem może być pełnienie przez prymasa urzędu interrexa. Od innych średniowiecznych stanów różnił się tym, że był zasilany wyłącznie przez osoby z innych stanów, a to ze względu na obowiązujący w Kościele rzymskokatolickim celibat. +Kościół Świętych Apostołów Piotra i Pawła w Lachowicach + +Kościół pw. Świętych Apostołów Piotra i Pawła w Lachowicach – drewniany kościół parafialny parafii śś. Ap. Piotra i Pawła w Lachowicach (gmina Stryszawa, powiat suski), którego powstanie datuje się na koniec wieku XVIII (1789-1791). Kościół znajduje się na Szlaku Architektury Drewnianej województwa małopolskiego. +Z chwilą rozpoczęcia budowy kościoła wyburzono drewnianą kaplicę cmentarną z 1707 r., która została ufundowana przez Annę Małachowską – dziedziczkę Suchej Beskidzkiej. Kaplica cmentarna służyła miejscowej ludności przede wszystkim do odprawiania modłów za swoich zmarłych, gdyż cmentarz parafialny był oddalony wówczas o 10 km i mieścił się przy kościele parafialnym w Suchej. Uroczyste poświęcenie nowego kościoła miało miejsce 1 stycznia 1792 r. +Kościół położony jest na nieznacznym wzniesieniu nad wsią, pośród cmentarza, otoczony starymi drzewami i parkanem z belek wiązanych na zrąb, z przęsłami krytymi siodłowymi daszkami gontowymi. W ogrodzeniu trzy bramki czworoboczne konstrukcji słupowej, po bokach szalowane deskami i nakryte ostrosłupowymi dachami gontowymi. Po lewej stronie kościoła współczesna, drewniana dzwonnica. Na cmentarzu zmarli chowani są do dnia dzisiejszego. +Konstrukcja. +Świątynia jest orientowana. Drewniana, konstrukcji zrębowej, na podmurowaniu. Drewno zapewniła inicjatorka jego budowy hrabina Teresa Pankracja Wielopolska. Kościół jest jednonawowy. Prostokątna nawa ma wymiary 12,35 × 9,85 m, węższe prezbiterium, zamknięte trzema bokami ośmioboku, odpowiednio 9,75 (wraz z apsydą) x 6,60 m. Od północy do prezbiterium przylega zakrystia. Ściany pobite od zewnątrz deskami. Nawa i prezbiterium kryte osobnymi dachami o nieznacznie załamanych połaciach, dach znad prezbiterium przedłużony nad zakrystię. Na kalenicy nawy sześcioboczna, zwężająca się ku górze wieżyczka na sygnaturkę, przechodząca w latarnię o cebulastym zwieńczeniu. +Od zachodu do nawy dobudowana jest czworoboczna wieża konstrukcji słupowej o pochyłych ścianach opartych na 4 potężnych drewnianych słupach. Ściany pokryte deskami, rozczłonkowane obiegającym wieżę daszkiem. Wieża posiada nadwieszoną izbicę szalowaną pionowo deskami ozdobnie u dołu wycinanymi, nakrytą hełmem złożonym z niskiego daszku namiotowego i wieńczącej go cebulastej bani z kulą i krzyżem. +Dachy kryte gontami, hełm wieży i wieżyczka sygnaturki – blachą. Cały kościół otoczony jest otwartymi sobotami z kruchtami od zachodu i południa, szalowanymi jedynie od zachodu, nakrytymi gontowym dachem pulpitowym wygiętym łukowato nad oknem we wschodniej ścianie zakrystii. Zadaszenie sobót jest mniej spadziste niż kościelne. Po prawej stronie – patrząc od wejścia do kościoła w stronę prezbiterium – znajdują się drewniane drzwi, łączące soboty z wnętrzem świątyni, ze starą masywną, zdobioną metalową kłódką. +Nawa i prezbiterium kryte są pozornymi sklepieniami kolebkowymi, węższymi niż obie przykrywane przestrzenie, wspierającymi się na podłużnych płatwiach. System krokwi w więźbie dachowej zdwojony (krokwie wewnętrzne, bardziej strome, obejmują łuki sklepień). Otwór tęczowy podwójny: górny mniejszy (w strefie sklepień), półkolisty z drewnianym krucyfiksem, dolny większy (w zrębie), zamknięty półkolistym profilowanym łukiem, po bokach filarki z półkolumnami dźwigające belkowanie. Od zachodu w nawie chór muzyczny wsparty na dwóch profilowanych słupach, z parapetem wybrzuszonym pośrodku ku nawie. +Wyposażenie wnętrza kościoła. +Wyposażenie kościoła w większości późnobarokowe. Ołtarz główny drewniany, dwukondygnacyjny, z obrazami Matki Boskiej z Dzieciątkiem oraz św. św. Piotra i Pawła. Dwa ołtarze boczne (przy tęczy) i dwa kolejne na ścianach bocznych również w stylu późnobarokowym, zapewne z początku XIX w. Ambona drewniana z baldachimem z czterema wolutami. Na sklepieniu prezbiterium znajduje się duży obraz Niepokalanej wzorowany na słynnym obrazie mistrza hiszpańskiego Murillo. Na ścianach znajdują się postacie 12 apostołów wymalowane w 1891. Cały kościół był malowany w 1794, a potem kilka razy odnawiany, ostatni raz w 1930. Organy barokowo-klasycystyczne, wykonane w 1836 r. przez Marcina Gracza z Pcimia. Kamienna chrzcielnica w typie kielichowym z drewnianą pokrywą, barokowa, zapewne z ok. 1789 r. +Spośród obrazów największą wartość posiada namalowany na desce obraz Madonny z ołtarza głównego, który pierwotnie zdobił ściany kaplicy cmentarnej. Jest to barokowa kopia gotyckiego obrazu w typie czeskiej Madonny Dudlebskiej (w Polsce: Matki Boskiej Piekarskiej). +Z 1802 r. pochodzi sygnaturka odlana przez J. G. Knoblocha z Bańskiej Bystrzycy. Z pracowni tego samego rzemieślnika pochodził odlany w 1807 r. dzwon ufundowany przez Teresę Wielopolską, ale został on zarekwirowany przez okupanta niemieckiego w 1942 r. Nowe dzwony umieszczono w dzwonnicy zbudowanej obok kościoła. +DBd + +dBd to jednostka miary zysku energetycznego anteny. +Zysk energetyczny anteny wyrażony w dBd mówi o tym o ile decybeli zysk energetyczny listka głównego charakterystyki promieniowania anteny jest większy w stosunku do zysku energetycznego dipola półfalowego. Przykładowo antena o zysku 8 dBd nadaje sygnał 100,8 = 6,31 razy "silniej" od dipola półfalowego. +G= G[dBi - 2.15 +Zobacz też: dBm, dBi, ERP, EIRP +Horst Schumann + +Horst Schumann (ur. 1 maja 1906 w Halle, zm. 5 maja 1983 we Frankfurcie nad Menem) - niemiecki lekarz-rentgenolog, hitlerowski zbrodniarz wojenny, Oberstleutnant Luftwaffe oraz SS-Sturmbannführer. +Do NSDAP wstąpił w 1930 (nr legitymacji partyjnej 190002), należał do najbardziej zagorzałych zwolenników ideologii rasistowskiej. W 1933 obronił doktorat, na podstawie rozprawy "„Frage der Jodresorption und der therapeutischen Wirkung sog. Jodbäder“" ("Przyczynek do zagadnienia resorpcji jodu i znaczenia leczniczego tzw. kąpieli jodowych"). W tym samym roku wstąpił do SA i aktywnie włączył się w działalność narodowo socjalistyczną. +Od 1937 zajął się realizacją programu eutanazji "osób niepełnowartościowych" (tzw. "T4 Aktion"), polegającego na uśmiercaniu osób chorych psychicznie i kalekich. Wyselekcjował 14549 takich osób w przytułkach w Grafeneck i Sonnenstein; ludzi tych zgładzono w różnych ośrodkach uśmiercania, m.in. w Sonnenstein koło Pirny, którego Schumann był dyrektorem. Do ośrodka tego skierował 28 lipca 1941 osobiście wyselekcjonowanych 575 więźniów z obozu Auschwitz, w ramach tzw. "Aktion 14f13". Jesienią 1942 wraz Carlem Claubergiem rozpoczął w Auschwitz-Birkenau (w bloku 30) doświadczenia nad sterylizacją rentgenowską i chemiczną kobiet i mężczyzn. Sterylizacja chemiczna u kobiet polegała na wprowadzaniu do dróg rodnych ok. 5-10 ml środków drażniących, które miały spowodować zarośnięcie jajowodów. Sprawdzał on (u dziewczynek już od 8 lat) za pomocą rysunku jajowodów, uzyskanego na zdjęciach rentgenowskich po wprowadzeniu kontrastu do dróg rodnych (salpinografia), czy dokonany zabieg sterylizacyjny spełnił zadanie i zamknął jajowód. Przy zabiegach tych nie stosował narkozy. W ten sposób wysterylizowano i prześwietlono m.in. 120-140 cygańskich dziewcząt. Sterylizacja rentgenowska kobiet i mężczyżn polegała na naświetalaniu okolic gonad promieniami rentgenowskimi, zwykle powodując oparzenia skóry i uszkodzenie jelit. Naświetlone gruczoły płciowe były brutalnie usuwane więźniom (żywym lub po śmierci) i przesyłane do badania mikroskopowego w Zakładzie Medycyny Sądowej we Wrocławiu. W styczniu 1945 Schumann przybył z Auschwitz do obozu Ravensbrück . +Po wojnie osiedlił się w Gladbeck, pracując tam jako lekarz sportowy. W 1950 rozpoznano go w Halle, kiedy wystąpił o pozwolenie na broń. Gdy ujawniono jego przeszłość, uciekł z Niemiec do Japonii, a następnie pracował jako lekarz okrętowy, często zmieniając statki. W końcu osiedlił się w Afryce, pracując jako lekarz w Sudanie 1955-1959. Zwrócono na niego ponownie uwagę w 1959 po reportażu na temat jego pracy w Sudanie, którą porównywano do działalności Alberta Schweitzera. Wtedy Schumann uciekł do Liberii, a stamtąd do Ghany. Władze Ghany w lutym 1966 przekazały Schumanna władzom niemieckim. We wrześniu 1970 rozpoczął się jego proces we Frankfurcie nad Menem. Nigdy się jednak nie zakończył; ze względu na zły stan zdrowia Schumann został wypuszczony z więzienia i pozostawał pod nadzorem policji. Na wezwania sądu nie zgłaszał się z powodu złego stanu zdrowia, uciekając w ten sposób przed wymierzeniem mu kary (Schumann symulował chorobę upuszczając sobie krew z żyły, a następnie ją pił, w ten sposób symulując krwawienie z wrzodu dwunastnicy). Zmarł 5 maja 1983 we Frankfurcie. Przedtem jednak odebrano mu prawo wykonywania zawodu lekarskiego i pozbawiono tytułu lekarza medycyny. +Rośliny kauczukodajne + +Rośliny kauczukodajne - drzewa, krzewy lub rośliny zielne dwuliścienne wytwarzające substancje z grupy węglowodorów nienasyconych, które są zawarte w soku mlecznym - lateksie. Z niego otrzymuje się kauczuk naturalny. Są to rośliny rosnące dziko lub uprawiane. +Marian Bublewicz + +Marian Bublewicz (ur. 25 sierpnia 1950 w Olsztynie, zm. 20 lutego 1993 w Lądku-Zdroju) – polski kierowca wyścigowy i rajdowy, ojciec posłanki Beaty Bublewicz. +Życiorys. +Wicemistrz Europy w 1992 roku, Mistrz Polski w latach: 1975, 1983, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992. Łącznie wliczając starty w innych klasach zdobywca 20 tytułów mistrzowskich w Polsce. Twórca pierwszego w Polsce profesjonalnego teamu rajdowego ("Marlboro Rally Team Poland"). +W 1993 roku znalazł się na priorytetowej liście "A" − 31 najlepszych kierowców rajdowych świata – publikowanej przez FIA. +Największe sukcesy odnosił z pilotami: Ryszardem Żyszkowskim i Grzegorzem Gacem. +Zmarł w szpitalu, w Lądku-Zdroju, na skutek ran odniesionych w wypadku podczas Zimowego Rajdu Dolnośląskiego, 2 km od startu 5. odcinka specjalnego Orłowiec – Złoty Stok, 20 lutego 1993. Jego samochód wypadł z zakrętu i uderzył w drzewo lewą stroną na wysokości przednich drzwi. Kierowca był przytomny, jednak profesjonalna pomoc nadeszła za późno i szanse Bublewicza na przeżycie drastycznie zmalały. +Upamiętnienie. +Od sezonu '94 RSMP Rajd Zimowy nosi nazwę „Memoriału Mariana Bublewicza”. W 1993 roku, nakładem Wydawnictwa J&J Wrocław, ukazała się książka pt. Odcinek specjalny, poświęcona pamięci kierowcy i jego sukcesów. W 2000 w plebiscycie czytelników miesięcznika „Auto Moto i Sport” został wybrany najlepszym polskim kierowcą rajdowym XX wieku. Obecnie w miejscu wypadku, przy drodze wojewódzkiej nr 390 znajduje się tablica poświęcona pamięci Mariana Bublewicza. +Marian Bublewicz jest patronem Zespołu Szkół Ogólnokształcących Mistrzostwa Sportowego w Olsztynie. +Bund (partia) + +Bund (w jęz. jidysz בונד - Związek); pełna nazwa - אַלגעמיינער ייִדישער אַרבעטערסבונד אין ליטע, פּוילן און רוסלאַנד (Allgemejner Jidisher Arbeiterbund in Lite, Poilen un Rusland) - Powszechny Żydowski Związek Robotniczy na Litwie, w Polsce i Rosji; ros. Всеобщий еврейский рабочий союз в Литве, Польше и России) – istniejąca w latach 1897-1948 lewicowa, antysyjonistyczna partia żydowska działająca w kilku państwach europejskich w okresie od lat 90. XIX wieku do drugiej połowy lat 40. XX wieku. Bund stanowił autonomiczną część Socjaldemokratycznej Partii Robotniczej Rosji w latach 1898-1903 i 1906-1912. +Organizacyjne pozostałości po tym ugrupowaniu wciąż prowadzą działalność w USA, Kanadzie, Australii i Wielkiej Brytanii. Członek Bundu w języku jidysz nazywany był "bundist" ("bundistn" w liczbie mnogiej). +Ideologia. +Bund był partią lewicowo-socjalistyczną, opowiadającą się za głęboką demokracją i uspołecznieniem środków produkcji, lokującą się w tradycji demokratycznego marksizmu. Bund opowiadał się za kulturalną autonomią dla Żydów wschodnioeuropejskich, utworzeniem laickiego szkolnictwa i wspieraniem kultury w języku jidysz. Bundowcy wierzyli, że dzięki temu Żydzi nie ulegną asymilacji i zachowają swoją odrębność. Bund był partią antysyjonistyczną (przeciwną ruchowi na rzecz powrotu do Palestyny) oraz antyreligijną - w opozycji do opartego na religijnej ortodoksji Agudas Israel, traktującego Żydów jako wspólnotę wyznaniową, a nie narodową, Bund uważał Żydów za odrębny naród, posiadający własną kulturę. +Historia. +Początki. +Bund został założony 7 października 1897 roku w Wilnie. Celem tego ugrupowanie było zjednoczenie wszystkich żydowskich robotników Imperium Rosyjskiego w jednej, socjalistycznej partii. W skład Imperium Rosyjskiego wchodziły wówczas tereny dzisiejszych państw takich jak Litwa, Łotwa, Białoruś, Ukraina i większość terytorium Polski. Były to obszary, na których zamieszkiwała wówczas większość wszystkich Żydów na świecie. Początkowo Bund dążył więc do tego, aby przyłączyć się do szerszego ruchu socjaldemokratycznego i współtworzyć demokratyczną i socjalistyczną Rosję. Żyjący w takim państwie Żydzi mieli zostać oficjalnie uznani za naród i otrzymać status pełnoprawnej mniejszości narodowej. +W 1898 roku partia weszła w skład Socjaldemokratycznej Partii Robotniczej Rosji, stając się jedną z organizacji założycielskich na I Kongresie w Mińsku w marcu 1898 roku. Do 1902 Bund był autonomiczną częścią SDPRR. Przez ten czas postrzegany był jako reprezentacja Żydów wewnątrz SDPRR, pomimo tego jednak wielu rosyjskich socjalistów o żydowskich korzeniach, zwłaszcza pochodzący spoza tzw. Strefy Osiedlenia, wstąpiło bezpośrednio do SDPRR. +Na II Kongresie SDPRR, który odbył się w Brukseli i Londynie w sierpniu 1903 roku, autonomiczna pozycja Bundu w ramach organizacji została zanegowana przez większość delegatów. W odpowiedzi przedstawiciele Bundu opuścili obrady kongresu i doszło do wyjścia tej partii z SDPRR. Był to jeden z wielu rozłamów, jakie nastąpiły później w łonie rosyjskiego ruchu socjalistycznego. Bund formalnie ponownie połączył się z SDRPP, kiedy to wszystkie frakcje zjednoczyły się na IV Kongresie w Sztokholmie, który odbył się w kwietniu 1906 roku. Pomimo tego partia zachowała pewną niezależność. Bund generalnie opowiadał się za linią programową mienszewickiej frakcji, przewodzonej przez Julija Martowa, a przeciwko frakcji bolszewickiej Włodzimierza Lenina. +Bundowcy tworzyli organizacje walczące z pogromami oraz urzędowym antysemityzmem czarnej sotni. Okres największej popularności partii to czas rewolucji w 1905 roku, Bund szczególnie aktywnie działał w dzisiejszych miastach białoruskich. Później nastąpił silny kryzys w szeregach organizacji, spowodowany znacznym spadkiem liczby członków, wywołanym przez emigrację Żydów z terenów cesarstwa rosyjskiego. +W 1910 roku powstała młodzieżowa organizacja partii, Cukunft ("Przyszłość"). +W 1915 Bund podzielił się na dwie samodzielne partie: rosyjską i polską. Rosyjski Bund poparł zdecydowanie rewolucję lutową w 1917 roku, podobnie jak inne socjalistyczne partie rosyjskie. Nie wsparł jednak rewolucji październikowej, podczas której bolszewicy doszli do władzy. Podobnie jak mienszewicy i inne nie-bolszewickie ugrupowania, Bund wzywał do zebrania Konstytuanty. Czołowym ówczesnym działaczem bundowskim w Piotrogrodzie był Michaił Liber, który został później aresztowany na rozkaz Lenina. Wojna domowa w Rosji oraz zwiększający się antysemityzm owocujący kolejnymi pogromami urządzanymi przez nacjonalistów i "Białych", sprawiły iż Bund zmuszony był uznać rząd radziecki. Wielu członków partii walczyło w szeregach Armii Czerwonej. Efektem tego był rozłam, kiedy to lewe skrzydło Bundu przyłączyło się do bolszewików (później podobnie postąpiło centrum partii pod przywództwem Mojsze Rafesa). Na Ukrainie przez krótki czas działał Komunistyczny Bund. W 1922 roku rosyjski Bund zakończył swą działalność jako niezależne ugrupowanie. Wielu byłych bundystów stało się ofiarami stalinowskich czystek w latach 30. +Bund w Polsce. +Tuż przed odzyskaniem przez Polskę niepodległości, Bund zorganizował na jej terenie dwie nielegalne konferencje partyjne: w 1917 i 1918 roku. Partia wzięła także udział w pierwszych wyborach parlamentarnych w 1919 roku. W 1920 miała miejsce kolejna konferencja krajowa, podczas której doszło do zjednoczenia z Żydowską Partią Socjal-Demokratyczną. W tym czasie w łonie organizacji zaczęły rysować się silne podziały ideologiczne. Przedmiotem sporu był stosunek żydostwa do takich kwestii jak np. dyktatura proletariatu, demokracja parlamentarna, II Międzynarodówka. Z tego powodu na początku lat 20. oderwała się od partii tzw. grupa kombundowska, która następnie wstąpiła w szeregi Komunistycznej Partii Polski. Pomimo tego spory programowe miały miejsce także później, w latach 30. +Bund należał do Paryskiego Biura Rewolucyjnych Socjalistycznych Partii, jednak w czerwcu 1930 roku, na zjeździe partyjnym w Łodzi zadecydowano, iż przystąpi on do II Międzynarodówki Socjalistycznej. 14 lutego to data uchwalenie rezolucji ideowej, będącej programem partii. ""Bund uznawał się w niej za socjalistyczną partię żydowskiej klasy robotniczej i organiczną część ruchu socjalistycznego w Polsce i na świecie. Krytykowano Związek Radziecki i politykę komunistów, równocześnie wzywając do współpracy z nimi. Bund uznawał, że narodowe i społeczne wyzwolenie mas żydowskich nastąpi wraz z upadkiem kapitalizmu. Syjonizm postrzegano jako utopię, zaś w środowiskach ortodoksyjnych widziano przeszkodę w drodze do postępu. Żądano zniesienia wszelkich ograniczeń wobec ludności żydowskiej, domagając się jej pełnego równouprawnienia, a także swobodnego rozwoju świeckiej kultury żydowskiej"". +W tym czasie wpływy Bundu w Polsce środkowej i południowo-wschodniej były bardzo znaczne. Partia posiadała własną sieć organizacji kulturowych i społecznych, skupiających m.in. kobiety, osoby uprawiające sport, dzieci. Istniały także bundowskie żydowskie związki zawodowe i partyjne spółdzielnie. +Najbardziej znanymi członkami Bundu w okresie międzywojennym byli m.in. Wiktor Alter, Henryk Ehrlich, Maurycy Orzech i Szmul Zygelbojm. +Twórcą hymnu Bundu - pieśni "Di Szwue" ("Przysięga") był Szymon Anski. +Struktura. +Organizacja partyjna opierała się na grupach miejscowych, będących najmniejszymi komórkami organizacyjnymi. Każda grupa miejscowa miała swój komitet partyjny. Najwyższą władzą Bundu był Zjazd Partyjny. Wybierał on Centralny Komitet oraz Radę Partyjną (organ doradczy). W skład Centralnego Komitetu wchodzili delegaci desygnowani przez większe organizacje lokalne partii. +W 1929 roku zmieniono wewnętrzną organizację partii. Radę Partyjną zastąpiła Rada Naczelna. Powoływana ona była przez Zjazd Partyjny. Rada wybierała spośród zasiadających w niej osób, członków Centralnego Komitetu. Przyjęcie uchwały partyjnej wymagało zatwierdzenie jej przez Plenum. +II wojna światowa. +Bundowcy podczas II wojny światowej aktywnie organizowali żydowski ruch oporu (np. w powstaniu w getcie warszawskim, walczyli tam m.in. bundowcy Abrasza Blum, Michał Klepfisz i Marek Edelman). Jednakże Bund nie wszedł w skład Bloku Antyfaszystowskiego czy Żydowskiego Komitetu Narodowego, prowadząc jedynie współpracę z ŻKN poprzez organa Żydowskiej Komisji Koordynacyjnej. Bund utworzył kilka oddziałów w ramach Żydowskiej Organizacji Bojowej, działającej na terenie getta warszawskiego. Leon Feiner reprezentował partię w prezydium Rady Pomocy Żydom „Żegota”. W Polskiej Radzie Narodowej pełniącej funkcje emigracyjnego parlamentu, przedstawicielem Bundu był Szmul Zygelbojm, który po upadku powstania w getcie warszawskim, popełnił samobójstwo przez samospalenie w proteście przeciw bezczynności aliantów wobec ludobójstwa Żydów. Pozostali przedwojenni liderzy Bundu zginęli zamordowani przez Niemców (Maurycy Orzech) oraz NKWD (Wiktor Alter i Henryk Ehrlich). +Po wojnie. +Holocaust zdziesiątkował Bund, który jednak niemal od razu po wojnie aktywnie wznowił legalną i jawną działalność. I konferencja partyjna odbyła się już w listopadzie 1944 roku. Bund wziął udział w wyborach parlamentarnych w 1947 roku, tworząc wspólną listę z PPS, co zaowocowało wejściem do parlamentu jednego przedstawiciela Bundu. W ramach uczestnictwa w Centralnym Komitecie Żydów Polskich (CKŻP), Bund stanowił przeciwwagę dla ugrupowań syjonistycznych. Zamiast emigracji do Palestyny, propagował odbudowę społeczności żydowskiej w Polsce. Jednak doświadczenia wojenne spowodowały spadek popularności tego programu - partia liczyła w 1947 roku tylko ok. 1,5 tys. członków. +Pomimo tego osłabienia, Bund nadal prowadził działalność społeczną i kulturalną. Zakładał domy dziecka, kluby, biblioteki, kuchnie ludowe, szkoły, czytelnie, bursy, spółdzielnie itd. Kontynuował także sięgającą swymi korzeniami okresu międzywojennego, współpracę z PPS. Pomoc materialną otrzymywał od funkcjonujących za granicą, zwłaszcza w USA i Francji, organizacji bundowskich. Jednak PPR dążyła do osłabienia wpływów Bundu, rozbicia go i wchłonięcia jego członków. Popierała ona wewnętrzną frakcję w łonie Bundu, opowiadającą się za połączeniem z komunistami. Efektem tego było wstąpienie części Bundu do PPR w 1948 roku. W wyniku tego powstała tzw. Frakcja PZPR przy CKŻP. Ci, którzy nie zgodzili się na takie posunięcia, zostali zmuszeni do migracji, lub wyjechali dobrowolnie (głównie do Francji). W tym czasie czołowymi działaczami partyjnymi Bundu byli m.in. Salo Fiszgrund, Szloma Herszenhorn, Ignacy Falk, Gerszon Fogiel, Michał Szuldenfrei. +Zakończenie historii Bundu w Polsce to styczeń 1949 roku. Wówczas to Nadzwyczajny Zjazd partii, zdominowanej już w przeważającym stopniu przez komunistów, opowiedział się za rozwiązaniem partii i złożył samokrytykę swojej poprzedniej działalności. Wezwał także swoich członków do wstępowania do PZPR. +Bund dziś. +Bund przetrwał obecnie jako niewielki ruch polityczny, działający w kilku żydowskich wspólnotach takich jak USA, Izraelu i Australii. W Wielkiej Brytanii Żydowska Grupa Socjalistyczna twierdzi, iż kontynuuje działalność Bundu. Do lat 70. Bund był pełnoprawnym członkiem Międzynarodówki Socjalistycznej, który to status stracił wskutek nacisków Izraelskiej Partii Pracy +W 1997 roku obchodzona była setna rocznica powstania Bundu. Uroczystości odbyły się w m.in. Nowym Jorku, Londynie, Warszawie i Brukseli. +Rośliny miododajne + +Rośliny miododajne, rośliny pszczelarskie, rośliny pożytkowe – rośliny o kwiatach barwnych i wonnych, kwitnące długo i obficie, które dostarczają pszczołom surowca do produkcji miodu – nektaru, spadzi i pyłku. Poprawniej są nazywane roślinami nektarodajnymi, gdyż produktem roślinnym jest nektar, a pszczelim – miód. +Niektóre gatunki roślin miododajnych obcego pochodzenia bardzo łatwo dziczeją z upraw i określane są jako gatunki inwazyjne (np. nawłoć kanadyjska, nawłoć późna, rdestowce, robinia akacjowa, klon jesionolistny), stanowiące zagrożenie dla środowiska przyrodniczego z powodu wypierania rodzimych gatunków roślin i innych oddziaływań. Dlatego zaleca się odstąpienie od ich uprawy, szczególnie na terenach cennych przyrodniczo. Paradoksalnie, pomimo dużej produkcji nektaru, niektóre z nich wypierając gatunki rodzime i powodując przerwanie taśmy pokarmowej wpływają negatywnie na różnorodność gatunkową i liczebność dzikich zapylaczy (np. pszczół samotnic i motyli). +Zarośla + +Zarośla – potoczne określenie krzewiastej formacji roślinnej. +W naszym klimacie zarośla występują najczęściej jako naturalne zbiorowiska roślinne na skrajach lasów (tzw. oszyjki lasu), w piętrze subalpejskim w górach lub jako seralne stadium sukcesyjne. +Zagrodnik + +Zagrodnik (łac. hortulanus) – dawniej: chłop posiadający niewielki przydział ziemi, niewystarczający do wyżywienia rodziny. Aby przeżyć, musiał najmować się do pracy. Był zobowiązany do pańszczyzny pieszej. Chłop był najniżej w feudalnej piramidzie społeczeństwa Europy zachodniej w średniowieczu. +Wisła Mała + +Wisła Mała (niem. "Deutsch Weichsel") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie śląskim, w powiecie pszczyńskim, w gminie Pszczyna, nad Jeziorem Goczałkowickim. +Historia. +Miejscowość została po raz pierwszy wzmiankowana w dokumencie protekcyjnym biskupa wrocławskiego Wawrzyńca z dnia 25 maja 1223 roku wydanym na prośbę księcia opolsko-raciborskiego Kazimierza dla klasztoru premonstrantek w Rybniku, w którym to wymieniono około 30 miejscowości mających im płacić dziesięcinę. Pośród 14 miejsowości kasztelanii cieszyńskiej wymieniona jest również "Vizla". Około 1290 roku najpewniej na rzece Wiśle została ustanowiona granica pomiędzy nowym księstwem cieszyńskim a księstwem raciborskim, pozostawiając Wisłę po stronie raciborskiej. +W następnym stuleciach ujawniają się już dwie miejscowości o nazwie Wisła. Jako pierwsza ujawnia się "Wisła Niemiecka", a właściwie miejscowa parafia, która zostaje wzmiankowana w spisie świętopietrza z 1326. Początkowo należała ona do dekanatu Oświęcim a od ok. 1350 do obwodu dekanalnego pszczyńskiego, przy czym oba były podległe diecezji krakowskiej. Pomimo tego, że w XII i XIII wieku tutejsza granica pomiędzy diecezjami wrocławską i krakowską ciągle się zmieniała, można założyć, że okolice późniejszej Pszczyny, w tym więc i Wisły Małej zostały podarowane wraz z Oświęcimiem i Bytomiem około 1177 Mieszkowi I Plątonogiemu, powiększając jego księstwo raciborskie. +Prawdopodobnie w drugiej połowie XIV wieku we wschodniej części wsi nastąpiła ponowna jej lokacja, na prawie polskim. Stąd w następnych wieku, w 1424 lub 1427 ujawniła się Wisła Polska, a więc obecna Wisła Wielka. Rozróżnienie Wisły Niemieckiej od Polskiej wiązało się zapewne z tym, że ta pierwsza funkcjonowała na prawie niemieckim a druga urządzona była według polskiego prawa osadniczego. Ponadto odróżniało je to, że Wisła Niemiecka była wsią szlachecką, kiedy Polska Wisła stanowiła własność panów na Pszczynie. +W 1742 po zwycięskiej I wojnie śląskiej Prusy zaanektowały większość Śląska, w tym Wisłę Niemiecką, a nowa granica prusko-austriacka przebiegała na południu wsi wzdłuż rzeki Wisły. +W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa katowickiego. +Zabytki. +Znajduje się tu kościół pod wezwaniem św. Jakuba Starszego Apostoła, zbudowany w latach 1775-82. +Sport. +W miejscowości funkcjonuje klub sportowy LKS Wisła Mała. Powstał w 2000 roku, jego barwy są niebiesko-białe. Obecnie gra w B klasie, podokręgu Tychy. +Potencjał biotyczny + +Potencjał biotyczny określa zdolność organizmu do przetrwania w walce o byt, pomimo niesprzyjających warunków środowiska zewnętrznego. +Potencjał biotyczny jest wyznaczany na podstawie analizy płodności i śmiertelności osobników danego gatunku. +Potencjał biotyczny - podstawową charakterystykę gatunku, zdefiniował Chapman (1925) jako "nieodłączną moc organizmów do reprodukcji i przetrwania". W 1931 r. Chapman rozwinął tę myśl: "Jest to rodzaj sumy algebraicznej liczby młodych rodzących się podczas każdej reprodukcji, liczba reprodukcji w danym okresie, stosunek płci gatunków i ich ogólna zdolność do przetrwania w danych warunkach fizycznych". +Potencjał biotyczny jest najwyższym możliwym indeksem witalności gatunku; dlatego oblicza się go dla najwyższego wskaźnika urodzeń i najniższego wskaźnika zgonów gatunku. +Niemścice + +Niemścice – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie świętokrzyskim, w powiecie staszowskim, w gminie Staszów, licząca ponad 50 gospodarstw i 220 mieszkańców. Znajduje się na trasie Staszów–Kurozwęki. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa tarnobrzeskiego. +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka o miejscowości pojawia się w zapiskach Jana Długosza jako "Nyemsczicze". W XVI w. nazywano ją już "Niemsczice". Nazwa pochodzi od imienia Niemsta. Potem miejscowość nazywano "Niemścice-Zaraś", ta ostatnia nazwa pochodzi od nazwy niedalekiego przyczółka, gdzie kiedyś miała być zaraza. W 1827 r. wieś liczyła 9 domów zamieszkiwanych przez 71 mieszkańców, do dziś liczba ta wzrosła trzykrotnie. +W trakcie II wojny światowej w pobliżu wsi toczyły się ciężkie walki pomiędzy wojskami rosyjskimi i niemieckimi. 12 sierpnia 1944 r. miała miejsce ofensywa niemieckiej 16. Dywizji Pancernej na Staszów, zakończona druzgocącą klęską i zniszczeniem łącznie 14 sztuk najnowszych czołgów PzKpfw VI B Königstiger. Przez ewakuowane z ludności cywilnej Niemścice (oznaczane na wojskowych mapach jako "Nemetsine") przeszła 53. Brygada Pancerna Gwardii płk. Wasyla Archipowa, należąca do 6. Korpusu Pancernego Gwardii, złożona z 2. oraz 3. Batalionu Czołgów. Na rozdrożu prowadzącym do przyczółka Zaraś st. por. Gwardii Kimenkow z 71. Samodzielnego Pułku Czołgów Ciężkich Gwardii unieruchomił jeden z niemieckich czołgów Königstiger. +Do niedawna sołtysem Niemścic był nieprzerwanie od 45 lat Wincenty Krakówka, obecnie jest nim Barbara Suchorowska. W przeszłości miejscowość wchodziła w skład dóbr Łubnice. +Powiat jędrzejowski + +Powiat jędrzejowski - powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Jędrzejów. +Gminy. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Charakterystyka geograficzna. +Powiat jędrzejowski położony jest na Wyżynie Małopolskiej w większości w obrębie Niecki Nidziańskiej a jego północno-zachodnie tereny leżą na Wyżynie Przedborskiej. W skład Niecki wchodzi charakterystyczny dla tego regionu Płaskowyż Jędrzejowski. Teren płaskowyżu jest pofałdowany i opada łagodnymi garbami z zachodu na wschód. Dominują tu gleby urodzajne, przeważnie rędziny. Obszar zbudowany jest z utworów węglanowych górnej kredy. +Historia powiatu. +Przed I wojną światową powiat należał do guberni kieleckiej, zaś po wojnie do województwa kieleckiego. Po II wojnie światowej ponownie włączono go do województwa kieleckiego. Powiat istniał aż do reformy administracyjnej w 1975 roku. Kolejna reforma w 1999 roku przywróciła powiat jędrzejowski i włączyła go do województwa świętokrzyskiego. +Osadnictwo na terenie powiatu jędrzejowskiego ma długą historię. W wyniku badań archeologicznych w okolicy Sobkowa i Nagłowic odkryto liczne stanowiska kultury łużyckiej oraz świadectwa wpływów rzymskich na tych terenach. +Podczas walk narodowowyzwoleńczych w obrębie powiatu rozegrano wiele potyczek, w tym najkrwawszą bitwę powstania styczniowego w 1863 roku pod Małogoszczem. W ramach reperkusji po stłumieniu powstania miastom powiatu (Jędrzejów, Małogoszcz, Sobków, Wodzisław) odebrano prawa miejskie. +Podczas II wojny światowej na terenie powiatu walczyły oddziały Batalionów Chłopskich i Armii Krajowej. +Wilhelmina (królowa Holandii) + +Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria van Oranje-Nassau (ur. 31 sierpnia 1880 w Hadze, zm. 28 listopada 1962 w zamku Het Loo k. Apeldoorn) – królowa Holandii w latach 1890-1948, potem abdykowała i żyła jako Królowa Matka z tytułem księżnej. +Biografia. +Córka Wilhelma III i jego drugiej żony – Emmy Waldeck-Pyrmont. Kiedy się urodziła, żył jeszcze jej przyrodni brat Aleksander, z małżeństwa jej ojca z Zofią Wirtemberską, i Wilhelmina nie była brana pod uwagę jako przyszła królowa. Jednak jej ojciec przeżył swego syna i zmarł, kiedy dziewczynka miała 10 lat. Na skutek zmian w prawie mogła objąć tron, jednak do uzyskania przez nią pełnoletności władzę sprawowała jej matka – jako regentka. +Wilhelmina tak opisywała swoje trudne dzieciństwo w zamknięciu: „Zawsze otaczały mnie mury nie do przebicia [...] rzadko mogłam choćby zobaczyć społeczeństwo. Od czasu do czasu dalekie echa życia na zewnątrz przedzierały się przez otaczającą mnie pustkę, ale nic ponadto”. +W 1901 poślubiła Henryka, księcia Mecklenburg-Schwerin, o którym mówiono, iż był playboyem i alkoholikiem. Podobno ją zdradzał i miał kilkoro nieślubnych dzieci. Ich jedyne dziecko – Juliana - przyszło na świat 30 kwietnia 1909. Dzień ten był uroczyście świętowany w Holandii, a narodziny Juliany zostały – jak się uważa – odebrane jako cud. +10 maja 1940 wojska hitlerowskich Niemiec uderzyły na Holandię. Królowa Wilhelmina chciała zostać w kraju – planowała przeniesienie się na południe, do Zelandii, gdzie mogłaby koordynować działania własnych wojsk w oparciu o bazę w miejscowości Breskens, w oczekiwaniu na nadejście alianckiej odsieczy tak, jak król Belgii, Albert I zrobił w czasie I wojny światowej. Opuściła więc Hagę na pokładzie brytyjskiego niszczyciela, który miał ją zawieżć na południe, jednakże gdy była w morzu, Zelandia znalazła się pod silnymi nalotami Luftwaffe i uznano, że jej powrót będzie zbyt niebezpieczny. Wilhelminie nie pozostało nic innego niż skorzystać z oferty Jerzego VI i przyjąć azyl w Wielkiej Brytanii. Udała się więc do Zjednoczonego Królestwa gotowa wrócić do kraju tak szybko, jak się tylko da. +Holenderskie siły zbrojne skapitulowały 15 maja. Królowa Wilhelmina stanęła na czele holenderskiego rządu na uchodźstwie, ustalając zakresy obowiązków i natychmiast powiadamiając o tym naród. Stosunki między rządem a królową były napięte, a wzajemna niechęć narastała w miarę trwania wojny. Tymczasem Wilhelmina była bardzo popularna i szanowana przez światowych przywódców. Rząd nie miał parlamentu, który mógłby go wspierać, a urzędników raczej niewielu. Premier Dirk Jan de Geer uważał, że alianci przegrają wojnę i zamierzał wynegocjować z Niemcami separatystyczny układ pokojowy. W tej sytuacji Wilhelmina nie widziała innego wyjścia, jak zdymisjonować premiera. +Królowa Wilhelmina odwiedziła Stany Zjednoczone w dniach 24 czerwca – 11 sierpnia 1942 na zaproszenie amerykańskiego rządu. Spędziła wakacje w Lee w stanie Massachusetts, odwiedziła Nowy Jork i Boston. 5 sierpnia 1942, jako pierwsza królowa w dziejach Ameryki, wystąpiła przed obiema izbami Kongresu. W czerwcu 1943 odwiedziła również Kanadę, gdzie w Ottawie uczestniczyła w chrzcinach swej wnuczki, księżniczki Margriet. +Podczas wojny królowa ledwie uniknęła śmierci podczas bombardowania, w którym zginęło kilku ochroniarzy, a jej wiejska posiadłość w Anglii została poważnie uszkodzona. W 1944 Wilhelmina, jako druga kobieta w historii, została odznaczona Orderem Podwiązki. Churchill mawiał o niej, że jest to jedyny prawdziwy mężczyzna wśród przedstawicieli rządów na wychodźstwie w Londynie. +W roku 1945 powróciła triumfalnie do Holandii. Trzy lata później – 4 września 1948, po 58 latach i 50 dniach rządów, chora Wilhelmina abdykowała na rzecz córki, Juliany. +W 1923 została odznaczona Orderem Orła Białego. +Gabber (program) + +Gabber to klient Jabbera dla linuksowego środowiska graficznego GNOME. +Pierwsza wersja, stworzona przez Dave'a Smitha i Juliana Missiga, była jednym z pierwszych klientów Jabbera. +Busz + +Busz – formacja roślinna, charakterystyczna dla suchych obszarów podzwrotnikowych, głównie południowej Afryki, Australii (lokalne określenie scrub), w mniejszej skali wschodniej Afryki i Ameryki Południowej. Przeważają w nim krzewy, często kolczaste, zrzucające liście na okres suszy. +Palmyra (terytorium) + +Palmyra (ang. "Palmyra Atoll") – niewielki atol w północnej części Oceanu Spokojnego w archipelagu Sporadów Środkowopolinezyjskich, na południe od Hawajów, w połowie drogi między nimi a Samoa Amerykańskim. Składa się z około 50 koralowych wysepek o łącznej powierzchni 12 km², porośniętych lasami palmowymi; długość linii brzegowej 14,5 km. +Historia. +Palmyra została po raz pierwszy dostrzeżona z pokładu statku w 1798, jednakże pierwszy człowiek wylądował na niej dopiero w 1802, gdy u jej wybrzeży rozbił się amerykański statek "Palmyra". W połowie XIX wieku atol wzbudzał zainteresowanie kompanii zajmujących się eksploatacją guano, ale okazało się, że nie występuje ono tutaj z powodu obfitych opadów, które spłukiwały je do morza. +W 1862 hawajski władca Kamehameha IV nakazał zajęcie wysp i 15 kwietnia tegoż roku stały się formalnie częścią królestwa Hawajów. W dalszych latach Palmyra dostała się w ręce prywatne, kilkakrotnie zmieniając właścicieli. Prawa do wysp rościła sobie również Wielka Brytania. Pod koniec XIX wieku próbowano ją skolonizować, ale pierwsze wysłane na nią małżeństwo wytrzymało tam tylko od września 1885 do sierpnia 1886. +W 1898 Palmyra, wraz z Hawajami, została formalnie zaanektowana przez Stany Zjednoczone, co zostało potwierdzone ponownie, aby uniknąć dalszych brytyjskich pretensji, w 1911. Atol pozostawał w rękach różnych firm i osób prywatnych, z wyjątkiem okresu II wojny światowej, aż do czasów współczesnych. +W 1940 atol został przejęty przez Ministerstwo Marynarki USA, które w czasie II wojny światowej zorganizowało na niej bazę lotnictwa morskiego. Ze zbudowanego na największej wyspie lotniska startowały samoloty zwiadowcze wykonujące dalekie loty nad Pacyfikiem. Po zakończeniu wojny, wyrokiem sądu z 1947, została zwrócona byłemu właścicielowi, rodzinnej firmie Fullard-Leo, która posiadała ją od 1922, aż do wybuchu wojny. Po uznaniu Hawajów za kolejny stan USA w 1959, atol, który dotychczas formalnie wchodził w skład Terytorium Hawajów, otrzymał odrębność administracyjną. Tragiczne wydarzenie miało miejsce na wyspie w 1974, kiedy to zostało zamordowane małżeństwo, które przybyło jachtem na wyspę (historia ta stała się kanwą powieści Vincenta Bugliosi "And the Sea Will Tell" z 1991, na podstawie której nakręcono miniserial telewizyjny, emitowany również w polskiej telewizji). +W 1998 atol został wystawiony na sprzedaż, pojawiły się, zagrażające prawie że dziewiczej przyrodzie atolu, koncepcje jego zagospodarowania jako składowiska odpadów promieniotwórczych lub urządzenia na nim luksusowego ośrodka turystycznego czy kompleksu kasyn. Aby uniemożliwić takie działania, w styczniu 2000 Palmyra została zakupiona za kwotę 37 mln dolarów przez istniejącą od 1951 międzynarodową organizację "The Nature Conservancy" zajmującą się ochroną przyrody. Teren miał podlegać ochronie na zasadzie rezerwatu przyrody. Od 2001 wody terytorialne otaczające atol, o szerokości 12 mil morskich, również podlegają ochronie jako "Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge". +Flaga Mołdawii + +Flaga Mołdawii jest prostokątem podzielonym na trzy pionowe pasy, od lewej są to kolejno: niebieski, żółty i czerwony. Pośrodku żółtego pasa znajduje się herb Mołdawii, umieszczony tutaj dla odróżnienia od flagi rumuńskiej, która zawiera te same kolory (herb jest jednak tylko po jednej stronie flagi). Godło przedstawia orła z tarczą, na której wyobrażona jest głowa tura. +Historia. +W 1924 roku na niewielkim skrawku obszaru ówczesnej Ukraińskiej SRR zamieszkanym częściowo przez Mołdawian (Rumunów) utworzono Mołdawską ASRR, która miała być wstępem do przyłączenia do ZSRR wschodnich obszarów historycznej Mołdawii, do końca I wojny światowej należących do Rosji. Flaga, którą otrzymała ta autonomia, podobnie jak flagi innych członów ZSRR była cała barwy czerwonej z sierpem i młotem i umieszczoną nazwą kraju. +W 1940 roku zamiary aneksji rumuńskich ziem, dawniej władanych przez carów, zostały zrealizowane i Besarabia wraz z północną Bukowiną – główne części historycznej Mołdawii, obecnie stanowiące podstawę obszaru Republiki Mołdawii, zostały przyłączone do Związku Radzieckiego. Z większości tego obszaru (po dołączeniu około połowy dotyczas istniejącej Mołdawskiej ASRR) utworzono Mołdawską Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką. Republika ta otrzymała flagę wzorowaną na innych radzieckich flagach, przypominającą flagę Mołdawskiej ASRR – czerwoną, z sierpem i młotem i ze skrótem nazwy kraju. +W 1952 roku flaga ta została zastąpiona inną, pozbawioną napisów, a zatem bardziej przypominającą tradycyjne flagi, która przetrwała aż do uzyskania niepodległości przez Mołdawię. +Po uzyskaniu niepodległości na początku lat 90., dążąc do ponownego złączenia z Rumunią władze Mołdawii zrezygnowały z symbolizującej komunizm flagi Mołdawskiej SRR i jako oficjalny sztandar przyjęły flagę identyczną z flagą Rumunii, a dla odróżnienia w jej centrum umieściły herb Mołdawii – orła wołoskiego z herbem mołdawskim na piersi. Oficjalnie flaga ta została przyjęta 27 kwietnia 1990. +Dawna flaga Mołdawskiej SRR została z kolei zachowana separatystycznym Naddniestrzu, gdzie została uznana za oficjalną flagę tej samozwańczej republiki. +Hampshire + +Hampshire – hrabstwo ceremonialne i niemetropolitalne w południowej Anglii, w regionie South East England, położone nad Kanałem La Manche i cieśniną Solent. +Jako hrabstwo ceremonialne liczy 3769 km², natomiast jako jednostka administracyjna – 3679 km². Liczba ludności hrabstwa ceremonialnego wynosi 1 759 800, a administracyjnego – 1 317 800. Stolicą jest miasto Winchester, posiadające status "city", położone w środkowej części hrabstwa. +Na południowym wybrzeżu Hampshire zlokalizowane są dwa największe miasta – Southampton i Portsmouth, oba posiadające status "city" i będące jednymi z głównych brytyjskich portów morskich. Innymi większymi miastami w hrabstwie są Basingstoke, Gosport, Waterlooville, Aldershot, Farnborough, Fareham oraz Eastleigh. +Na terenie hrabstwa znajdują się dwa parki narodowe – New Forest oraz South Downs. +Na zachodzie Hampshire graniczy z hrabstwami Dorset i Wiltshire, na północy z Berkshire, a na wschodzie z Surrey i West Sussex. Na południe od hrabstwa znajduje się oddzielona cieśniną Solent wyspa Wight. +Podział administracyjny. +W skład hrabstwa wchodzi jedenaście dystryktów. Jako hrabstwo ceremonialne Hampshire obejmuje dodatkowo dwie jednolite jednostki administracyjne ("unitary authority"). +Pokolenie Kolumbów + +Pokolenie Kolumbów (również jako: pokolenie "czasu burz" i "apokalipsy spełnionej") – nazwa pokolenia młodych polskich poetów i literatów, urodzonych około roku 1920, dla których okres wchodzenia w dorosłość przypadł na lata II wojny światowej. To właśnie wojna była przeżyciem, które ukształtowało ich świadomość i tożsamość w największym stopniu. +Pokolenie to wzięło aktywny udział w ruchu oporu przeciwko okupantowi niemieckiemu oraz w powstaniu warszawskim. Nazwa pochodzi od tytułu książki Romana Bratnego "Kolumbowie. Rocznik 20". Przedstawiciele owego pokolenia przesiąknięci byli katastrofizmem. Rzeczywistość wojenna nie pozwalała im cieszyć się młodością, szczęściem, miłością, czy też innymi wartościami, zamiast bierności wybrali nierówną walkę z okupantem. +Doświadczeniom tego pokolenia poświęcono wiele powieści, opowiadań, filmów, np. Popiół i diament (film), Pięć lat kacetu... +Powiat kazimierski + +Powiat kazimierski - powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kazimierza Wielka. +Podział administracyjny. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Historia. +1 lipca 1956 roku do powiatu kazimierskiego przyłączono gromadę Chwalibogowice, którą włączono z powiatu buskiego. +Na uwagę zasługuje fakt, iż w momencie utworzenia powiatu kazimierskiego jego stolica była osiedlem; prawa miejskie Kazimierza Wielka otrzymała dopiero 1 stycznia 1959 roku; tego dnia z wyłączono też z powiatu kazimierskiego gromadę Pełczyska i włączono ją z powrotem do powiatu pińczowskiego. +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku całe terytorium zniesionego powiatu kazimierskiego weszło w skład nowego (mniejszego) województwa kieleckiego. +1 lipca 1976 roku zniesiono gminę Wielgus a jej obszar przyłączono do gminy Kazimierza Wielka. Tego samego dnia do gminy Działoszyce przyłączono główną część znoszonej gminy Stępocice. 1 stycznia 1984 roku z gminy Działoszyce wyłączono sołectwo Węchadłów i włączono je do gminy Michałów. 1 stycznia 1992 roku jednoimienne miasta i gminy wiejskie Działoszyce, Kazimierza Wielka i Skalbmierz połączono we wspólne gminy miejsko-wiejskie. 1 stycznia 1994 roku z gminy Bejsce wyłączono wieś Jankowice i włączono ją do gminy Koszyce. +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku w nowym województwie świętokrzyskim przywrócono powiat kazimierski. W porównaniu z obszarem z 1975 roku został on zmniejszony o gminę Działoszyce (która znalazła się w powiecie pińczowskim w tymże województwie) i gminę Koszyce (która zmieniła przynależność wojewódzką przez przyłączenie do powiatu proszowickiego w województwie małopolskim). Gmina Wielgus nie została reaktywowana. +W porównaniu z obszarem z 1956 roku miasto Działoszyce oraz obszar dawnych gromad Dzierążnia, Dziekanowice, Jakubowice i Pełczyska leżą obecnie na terenie powiatu pińczowskiego a obszar dawnych gromad Koszyce, Książnice i Przemyków są obecnie w powiecie proszowickim w województwie małopolskim - pozostałe są ponownie w powiecie kazimierskim. +Wspólnoty wyznaniowe. +W 1283 roku opat tyniecki Tomasz założył w Opatowcu klasztor dominikanów. W Kazimierzy Małej w XV w. Długosz wymieniał istnienie "kościoła pw. Wniebowzięcia NMP". Kościół drewniany został zbudowany w 1698 roku. W XV w. powstała parafia małoszowska, z drewnianym kościołem. W 1500 roku w Opatowcu, przy kościele parafialnym, biskup krakowski Fryderyk założył bractwo literackie, skupiające mężczyzn umiejących czytać. W połowie XVI w. w Rogowie jej właściciele - Szafrańcowie oddali go pod zastaw Włochowi Prosperowi Provanie. Był on gorliwym wyznawcą kalwinizmu, a później poglądów Fausta Socyna. Wspólnie z Szafrańcami Provana przekształcił miejscowy kościół parafialny w zbór ariański (braci polskich). W 1562 roku w Rogowie odbył się zjazd przywódców ruchu antytrynitarskiego. W 1836 roku został wystawiony kolejny kościół drewniany w Kazimierzy Małej, który został później przeniesiony do miejscowości Topola, a na jego miejscu stanął wzniesiony w latach 1958–1973 obecny, murowany kościół. +Zysk energetyczny anteny + +Zysk energetyczny anteny – jest to stosunek gęstości mocy wypromieniowanej przez antenę w danym kierunku U(Θ,φ) do gęstości mocy wypromieniowanej przez antenę wzorcową, najczęściej antenę izotropową, zakładając, że do obu anten została doprowadzona taka sama moc. +W przeciwieństwie do zysku kierunkowego, który zależy jedynie od charakterystyki promieniowania anteny, uwzględnia również jej sprawność. +formula_1 +Najczęściej zysk energetyczny anteny podawany jest w odniesieniu do anteny izotropowej i wyrażany jest w jednostkach dBi. Czasem też podawany jest w stosunku do anteny dipolowej i wyrażany jest w jednostkach dBd. +Zysk energetyczny anteny jest zależny od jej kierunkowości i strat energetycznych anteny wynikających z materiału, z którego jest wykonana. +Titan (rakieta transportowa) + +Titan – rodzina amerykańskich transportowych rakiet kosmicznych jednokrotnego użytku. +Większość rakiet Titan stanowi rozwinięcie pocisku balistycznego ICBM Titan II. "Titan II" był dwustopniowym pociskiem, wykorzystywanym przez USAF od połowy lat sześćdziesiątych do połowy lat osiemdziesiątych. W latach osiemdziesiątych, część wycofywanych ze służby pocisków zmodyfikowano do roli rakiet nośnych. Ostatnia z tych zmodyfikowanych rakiet wyniosła z bazy sił powietrznych Vandenberg satelitę meteorologicznego w 2003 roku. Rakiety Titan II wykorzystywano także do wynoszenia amerykańskich załogowych pojazdów kosmicznych Gemini. +Warianty. +Titan I był pierwszą rakietą z rodziny Titan. Początkowo opracowywany jako rezerwa dla opracowywanego równolegle projektu pocisków Atlas. Był dwustopniową rakietą napędzaną RP-1 i LOX. Pociski międzykontynentalne Titan i Atlas wymagały tankowania paliwa przed startem co sprawiało, że ich odpalenie zajmowało około pół godziny. +Titan 23B i jego pochodne (24B, 33B i 34B) to rakiety Titan II ze stopniem Agena. Były zdolne do wyniesienia ładunku 3 000 kilogramów. +Titan IIIC to przedłużona wersja Titana II z opcjonalnymi silnikami wspomagającymi na paliwo stałe. Została opracowana przez USAF w celu wynoszenia ciężkich ładunków, szczególnie satelitów rozpoznania oraz komunikacyjnych. Pochodne konstrukcje rakiety (Titan IIID, Titan IIIE, Titan 34D, Commercial Titan III) wykorzystywano do wystrzelenia kilku sond kosmicznych NASA, między innymi sond Viking, Voyager i Mars Observer. +Titan IV to przedłużona wersja rakiety Titan III z rakietami wspomagającymi na paliwo stałe. Jest wykorzystywana niemal wyłącznie do wynoszenia na orbitę amerykańskich ładunków wojskowych, choć wykorzystano ją także do wyniesienia międzyplanetarnej sondy Cassini po tym, jak katastrofa promu Challenger uniemożliwiła wyniesienie jej na pokładzie promu kosmicznego. Jest jedną z największych wykorzystywanych obecnie rakiet kosmicznych i jest niezwykle kosztowna w wykorzystaniu. +Służba. +Ciekły tlen stanowi duże zagrożenie w zamkniętych pomieszczeniach, takich jak silos rakietowy. Kilka rakiet Atlas i Titan I eksplodowało w swoich wyrzutniach. Producent Titana, Martin, zdołał w opracowanej wersji Titan II bez znaczącego przekonstruowywania silników pierwszego stopnia zmienić rodzaj paliwa na nadające się do długotrwałego przechowywania. +Wypadki. +W silosach rakiet Titan II doszło do kilku śmiertelnych wypadków. W sierpniu 1965 roku zginęło 53 techników, gdy zapaliło się paliwo Titana III znajdującego się w silosie w Arkansas. W latach osiemdziesiątych w innej wyrzutni Titana II w Arkansas, eksplozja wyciekającego paliwa rakietowego wyrzuciła ważącą 6,000 funtów głowicę jądrową na odległość kilkuset metrów. Ten wypadek stanowił początek końca służby pocisków międzykontynentalnych Titan. 54 pozostające w służbie Titany II zostały zastąpione przez 50 pocisków LGM-118A Peacekeeper. +Koniec służby. +Skończyła się także kariera Titana jako rakiety nośnej. Ostatni start rakiety Titan IV miał miejsce w kosmodromie Vandenberg 19 października 2005 roku. Nie złożono zamówień na następne egzemplarze. Aktualny producent rakiet Titan, Lockheed-Martin zdecydował się wstrzymać rozwój rakiet Titan, skupiając się na rozwijaniu serii Atlas co oznacza, że w roku 2009 rakiety Titan przeszły do historii. Zostały one zastąpione przez rakiety Atlas V. +Wyrzutnie pocisków Titan. +Zniszczono wszystkie wyrzutnie pocisków Titan, z wyjątkiem jednej, w pobliżu Tucson w Arizonie, w której urządzono muzeum pocisków Titan. Kompleksy startowe nr 40 i 41 znajdujące się na Florydzie zostały przebudowane pod rakiety Atlas V (LC-41) i Falcon 9 (LC-40). +Gburzy + +Gburzy – gburowie (st. wys. niem. "giburo") – w XV-XIX wieku, na Pomorzu, gospodarze, zamożni chłopi, posiadający własne duże gospodarstwa (tzw. gburstwa), od jednego do dwóch łanów. W większości wolni. +Wasal + +Wasal (łac. "vassus", z celt. "gwas", sługa) – we wczesnym średniowieczu osoba wolna oddająca się pod opiekę seniora w akcie komendacji. W zamian za lenno wasal zobowiązywał się służyć wiernie seniorowi radą i pomocą orężną. Uroczystą ceremonią przekazania lenna była inwestytura. Później wasal to osoba, która złożyła hołd lenny i przysięgę na wierność. Z uwagi na popularność zasady w feudalizmie europejskim "wasal mojego wasala nie jest moim wasalem" stosunki lenne tworzyły skomplikowaną strukturę społeczną. +Sady (powiat poznański) + +Sady – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim, w gminie Tarnowo Podgórne. +Historia: Za "Słownikiem Geograficznym Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich" Bronisława Chlebowskiego (1889) można przytoczyć, że przed 1388 rokiem z Sadów w parafii Lusowo pisali się różni Sadowscy (Acta gr. poz. Wyd. 1888). Od XVI wieku wieś Sady należała do Sadowskich herbu Nałęcz, którzy przy kościele parafialnym w Lusowie posiadali "w dawniejszych czasach kaplicę murowaną z grobami familijnymi", ale już w 1695 Zalaszewski zastał ją zrujnowaną. Od 1793 roku Sady należały do Konozowskich, potem do Kąsinowskich. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie poznańskim. +Od 1998 roku działa tu duża fabryka autobusów koncernu MAN produkująca autobusy tej marki oraz od 2005 roku autobusy marki Neoplan. Od 1 sierpnia 2003 roku fabryka ta działa w ramach firmy MAN STAR Trucks & Busses Sp. z o.o.. Jest to obecnie największa fabryka autobusów w Polsce. +Zobacz też: Sady, Sady Dolne, Sady Górne, Sady-Kolonia +Ciemna mgławica + +Ciemne mgławice – rodzaj mgławic, które na niebie wyglądają jak obszary pozbawione gwiazd, gdyż na drodze gwiazda - Ziemia znajduje się pochłaniająca światło mgławica ciemna. +Mgławice ciemne są wielkimi chmurami gazu i pyłu o niskiej temperaturze. Zawierają większość masy środowiska międzygwiezdnego. Niektóre mają rozmiar około 150 lat świetlnych, gęstość od 100 do 300 molekuł w cm3 a temperaturę między 7 a 15 K. Mgławica zawiera gaz i pył oraz gwiazdy. Chmura posiada również swoje wewnętrzne pole magnetyczne. +W mgławicach tych następują procesy formowania się gwiazd w początkowym stadium. +Nie istnieje w nich wiele gwiazd o dużej jasności, gdyż promieniowanie wysyłane przez gwiazdy rozgrzałoby oraz rozproszyłoby pył i gaz. Jasne gwiazdy znajdujące się blisko powierzchni ciemnej mgławicy rozświetliłyby pył i gaz. +Dane o strukturze ciemnych galaktyk uzyskuje się poprzez obserwację ich w zakresie mikrofal i promieniowania radiowego, które przenikają przez pył i chłodny gaz. +370 ciemnych mgławic zostało skatalogowanych w katalogu Barnarda. +Wilhelm III Holenderski + +Wilhelm III Holenderski, właściwie: "Aleksander Paweł Fryderyk Ludwik", z domu Oranje-Nassau (ur. 19 lutego 1817 w Brukseli, zm. 23 listopada 1890 w Het Loo koło Apeldoorn) – od 1849 król Holandii i wielki książę Luksemburga. +Był synem Wilhelma II i jego żony Anny Pawłowny Romanownej - siostry cara Rosji, Aleksandra I. +Zofia zmarła w 1877 i Wilhelm postanowił ponownie się ożenić. Kandydatkami były m.in. księżniczka Paulina Waldeck-Pyrmont i księżniczka Thyra Duńska. Ostatecznie 17 stycznia 1879 Wilhelm ożenił się z młodszą siostrą Pauliny - Emmą Waldeck-Pyrmont. Para miała jedynie jedno dziecko - córkę Wilhelminę Helenę Paulinę, urodzoną 31 sierpnia 1880. +Rajdowe Samochodowe Mistrzostwa Polski + +Rajdowe Samochodowe Mistrzostwa Polski (w skrócie RSMP) – coroczny cykl mistrzowski o tytuł mistrza Polski w rajdach samochodowych, składający się z kilku rund rozgrywanych na różnych nawierzchniach na terenie całej Polski. Organizatorem i właścicielem cyklu jest PZM. +Warunkiem koniecznym do startu w rajdach zaliczanych do cyklu RSMP jest posiadanie licencji rajdowej stopnia „R” lub „R "co-driver only"” (upoważnia do startu tylko w charakterze pilota). +Historia. +Zawody samochodowe odbywają się w Polsce od 1927 roku. Przed wojną były to Mistrzostwa Polski w Jeździe Automobilowej. Po II wojnie światowej wznowiono rywalizację na polskich trasach w 1949 roku. W latach 1949-1954 mistrzów wyłaniano w zawodach Jednodniowej Jazdy Konkursowej. Od 1955 roku zaczęto rozgrywać rajdy-eliminacje składające się na cykl Mistrzostw Polski w Rajdach Samochodowych. Początkowo tytuły mistrzowskie przyznawano wyłącznie w poszczególnych klasach - nie było klasyfikacji generalnej. Sytuacja taka trwała do 1967 roku, kiedy wprowadzono klasyfikację generalną. +Od 2007 roku punkty w klasyfikacji mistrzostw mogą zdobywać obcokrajowcy. W 2008 roku głównym sponsorem cyklu była spółka Orlen Oil, a jego pełna nazwa brzmiała Platinum Rajdowe Samochodowe Mistrzostwa Polski. +Aktualna edycja. +Aktualnym mistrzem Polski jest Kajetan Kajetanowicz, który w sezonie 2011 wygrał dwie z siedmiu rozegranych rund. Najwięcej rajdów, cztery, wygrał wicemistrz kraju Bryan Bouffier. Sezon 2011 rozpoczął się 18 lutego Rajdem Lotos Baltic Cup, a zakończył się 15 października Rajdem Koszyc. +PR rating + +PR rating (znany także jako wskaźnik PR i wskaźnik PR-rating) - system opracowany przez firmę AMD w połowie lat dziewięćdziesiątych jako metoda służąca do porównywania ich własnych procesorów, zgodnych z modelem programowym IA-32, z procesorami x86 Intela. Litery "PR" oznaczają "Performance Rating" – "wskaźnik wydajności", choć wiele osób omyłkowo uważało, że znaczyły one "Pentium Rating" ("wskaźnik Pentium"), jako że "PR rating" był najczęściej używany do porównań z procesorami Pentium produkowanymi przez Intel. +Powstanie i rozwój. +System ten po raz pierwszy został użyty w 1996 roku w kontekście procesora AMD 5x86. Do nazwy procesora dodano oznakowanie "PR75", co miało oznaczać, że był tak samo wydajny jak Pentium o szybkości taktowania zegara 75 MHz, pomimo że chip AMD był taktowany inną częstotliwością. +Nieco później w tym samym roku, firma Cyrix zaadaptowała ten sam system do oznakowania ich procesorów serii 6x86 i 6x86MX. Te procesory działające w środowisku Windows 95 były znacznie bardziej wydajne niż ich Intelowskie odpowiedniki taktowane tą samą częstotliwością zegara, a więc Cyrix dał swoim chipom wskaźnik o stopień lub dwa wyższy, niż wynikałoby to tylko z samej częstotliwości taktowania. AMD zrobił podobnie z własnym procesorem K5, ale porzucił ten system po wejściu na rynek procesora K6. +Po zniknięciu z rynku Cyrixa MII (sprzedawanego wcześniej jako 6x86MX) w 1999 roku wydawało się, że schemat PR odszedł razem z nim, ale AMD wznowiło go w 2001 po wypuszczeniu na rynek linii procesorów Athlon XP. W przypadku Athlonów, nie są one jednak porównywane do produktów Intela, ale raczej do wczesnych modeli Athlona - wersji Thunderbird. +Krytyka. +Schemat PR rating był od początku kontrowersyjny i krytykowany przez wielu ekspertów. Opierał się on jedynie na zbiorze testów porównawczych ("benchmark"), które mierzyły tylko wydajność procesora przy obliczeniach stałoprzecinkowych, które były szczególnie mocną strona K5 i 6x86. Oba te procesory wyraźniej ustępowały jednak Pentium przy obliczeniach zmiennoprzecinkowych. Wielu ekspertów uważało, że procesory oznakowane "PR" były kiepskim wyborem do zadań takich jak gry, obróbka wideo czy muzyki, inni uważali jednak, że większość użytkowników spędza najwięcej czasu używając aplikacji biurowych, oraz że znacznie niższe ceny tych procesorów ogólnie usprawiedliwiają takie oznakowania. W każdym razie kwestia PR rating jest kontrowersyjna do dnia dzisiejszego. +Sam system PR rating nie jest już tak samo krytykowany jak kiedyś, gdyż wszystkie wersje Athlona przeprowadzają operacje zarówno stałoprzecinkowe jak i zmiennoprzecinkowe z wydajnością podobną do procesorów Intela. Jednakże oznaczanie procesorów samą częstotliwością czy też używając wskaźnika PR nie daje pełnej informacji o realnej mocy procesora. +Lej mołdawski + +Lej mołdawski (rum. leu, l.mn. lei) – oficjalna jednostka płatnicza w Mołdawii. Jeden lej dzieli się na 100 bani (l. poj.: ban). +Lej mołdawski został wprowadzony jako oficjalna waluta Mołdawii 29 listopada 1993, dwa lata po uzyskaniu przez ten kraj niepodległości. Nazwa waluty nawiązuje do przeszłości kraju i do okresu sprzed włączenia do ZSRR w 1940 r., kiedy w użyciu były rumuńskie leje. +Aktualny kurs leja mołdawskiego wynosi 1 MDL = 0,2919 PLN (stan na dzień 27 maja 2012). +Banknoty. +Pierwsza seria banknotów była krótko w obiegu i obejmowała zaledwie trzy nominały: 1, 5 oraz 10 lei. +Maorysi + +Maorysi, Māori – grupa etniczna Nowej Zelandii, posługująca się językiem maoryskim. +Według badań, Maorysi są potomkami klanów Polinezyjczyków z wysp wschodniej części Oceanu Spokojnego (m.in. Tahiti), którzy jako pierwsi ludzie dotarli do brzegów Wyspy Północnej około roku 1280 naszej ery. Jak głosi legenda, przybyli na 7 olbrzymich łodziach żaglowych, każda z nich dała początek jednemu plemieniu. Dowódca najwcześniej przybyłej łodzi – "Kupe" uchodzi za odkrywcę "Aotearoa" (czyli „kraju białej chmury”, jak Maorysi nazywają Nową Zelandię). Wykopaliska archeologiczne dowodzą jednak, że pierwsi Maorysi osiedlili się na Wyspie Południowej. Stosunkowo szybko opanowali obydwie wyspy, zdecydowanie jednak preferując cieplejszą i bardziej gościnną Wyspę Północną. +Maorysi zajmowali się uprawą roślin, hodowlą i rybołówstwem; zasłynęli z wojowniczości i uzdolnień artystycznych w zakresie rzeźby, budownictwa i bardzo rozpowszechnionego tatuażu; po podboju przez Brytyjczyków (pocz. XIX w.) zaczęli przejmować kulturę europejską. +Eurocon + +Eurocon najważniejszy europejski konwent miłośników literatury, filmu, Internetu i gier dotyczących science fiction i technologii przyszłości, fantasy i mitologii, horroru, kosmonautyki i astronomii, UFO i tajemnic, historii i przyszłości. Konwent ten odbywa się co roku, w różnych miastach Europy. +Po raz pierwszy odbył się we Włoszech w roku 1972. Poprzedzała go jednak działalność fanów SF, którzy z jednej strony korzystali z doświadczeń z USA, gdzie fandom posiada silną bazę i wiele form działalności (np. Worldcon), z drugiej zaś wydeptywała własne ścieżki. +W przeciwieństwie do USA, gdzie ze względu na wielkość rynku i istnienie studiów filmowych w Hollywood powstały organizacje profesjonalne, w Europie działalność fandomów narodowych pozostaje w płaszczyźnie działalności społecznej i nie wynagradzanej. Ruchy fanów w poszczególnych krajach wcześniej czy później przemieniły się w formy zorganizowane – fandom – ale nie doprowdziły ich do kształtu organizacji profesjonalnych z etatową administracją. Mimo to aktywni fani zorganizowali i ogranizują tysiące akcji kulturalnych, towarzyskich i sportowych dla innych fanów i dla osób niezrzeszonych, zwłaszcza młodzieży. +Eurocon powstał jako reakcja na potrzebę spotykania się i wymieniania doświadczeń na skalę europejską. Na Euroconach spotykają się przedstawiciele narodowych fandomów, by m.in. rozwiązać pewne kwestie organizacyjne, głosować w sprawie przyznawania nagród dla autorów z całej Europy, decydować o miejscu organizacji kolejnego Euroconu. Głosowanie przedstawicieli europejskiego fandomu w sprawie organizacji kolejnego Euroconu odbywa się z dwuletnim wyprzedzeniem. Eurocony odbywają się co roku, zazwyczej w krajach Europy Zachodniej i w większych miastach. +Linki zewnętrzne. +European Science Fiction Society +Vladimir Voronin + +Vladimir Voronin (w polskich publikacjach prasowych także: Władimir Woronin lub Włodzimierz Woronin, ur. 25 maja 1941 we wsi Corjova w Rejonie Dubosary) − polityk mołdawski, prezydent kraju od 2001 do 2009. +Zarys biografii. +W latach 1989-1990 zajmował stanowisko ministra spraw wewnętrznych Mołdawskiej SRR, wcześniej był generałem radzieckiej milicji. W 1994 został pierwszym sekretarzem Mołdawskiej Partii Komunistycznej. Cztery lata później (1998) został posłem do parlamentu mołdawskiego, natomiast od 4 kwietnia 2001 do 11 września 2009 pełnił funkcję prezydenta Mołdawii. +Od 12 maja 2009 do 28 sierpnia 2009 Vladimir Voronin zajmował stanowisko przewodniczącego Parlamentu Republiki Mołdawii. +11 września 2009 Vladimir Voronin przesłał do parlamentu swoją rezygnację z funkcji prezydenta Mołdawii. Zgodnie z konstytucją, funkcję tę objął z urzędu Mihai Ghimpu jako nowy przewodniczący parlamentu. +Jest żonaty, ma dwoje dzieci. +Bractwo Akashic + +Bractwo Akaszy (ang. Akashic Brotherhood) jest fikcyjną magów z gry fabularnej . +Bracia Akaszy wierzą w jedność umysłu jednostkowego i umysłu Wszechświata. Choć jest to idea buddyjska (propagowana w szczególności przez szkołę Czittamatra), tradycja ta obejmuje raczej eklektyczną mieszankę mistycyzmu dalekowschodniego. Składają się na nią prócz buddyzmu także elementy wedanty, taoizmu, Zen i ich wariacji. +Mistycy z Bractwa podzielają pogląd wspólny większości tradycji mistycznych świata, mianowicie, że wewnętrzny mikrokosmos człowieka (Akaszyci mówią o jego umyśle) i makrokosmos natury są wzajemnymi odbiciami. Jednak w odróżnieniu od hermetycznego ""Jako w Niebie, tak i na Ziemi"", wyznają oni pogląd, że Wszechświat jest w zasadzie iluzją, a rzeczywistość to Akaśa czyli pustka (nazywana w buddyzmie "Śiunjata", w wedancie - "Brahmanem" a "Dao" w taoizmie). +Bracia Akashic koncentrują się na ćwiczeniu umysłu. Ich celem jest osiągnięcie jedności zarówno z wewnętrznym jak i zewnętrznym kosmosem, spokojnej transcendencji w kreatywnej pustce umysłu Wszechświata. By to osiągnąć stosują różnorodne techniki, m.in.: sztuki walki (zarówno zewnętrzne jak i wewnętrzne), kontemplacje i medytacje. +Większość z tych praktyk oprócz zbliżania maga do Oświecenia ma też bezpośredni wpływ na życie w normalnym świecie. Ćwiczenia fizyczne wyrabiają świadomość energii i kontrolowanie przepływu Qi. Dzięki temu Akaszycy mają renomę niekwestionowanych mistrzów sztuk walki - potrafią robić rzeczy normalnie zarezerwowane dla filmów kanonu Wuxia. Umiejętność kierowania Qi pozwala im także uzdrawiać i w inny sposób wpływać na ciało i umysł, a świadomość esencji Wszechświata - wyczuwać rytm kosmicznej harmonii, przez co z działają przez Wu wei - instynktownie i bez wysiłku. +Muzeum Książąt Czartoryskich w Krakowie + +Muzeum Książąt Czartoryskich w Krakowie – jedno z najstarszych muzeów w Polsce, otwarte w 1878. Jego początki sięgają roku 1801 i zbiorów księżnej Izabeli Czartoryskiej, prezentowanych w jej puławskim muzeum. Z końcem XIX wieku zbiory przeniesiono do Krakowa. +Muzeum Książąt Czartoryskich jest własnością Fundacji Książąt Czartoryskich, opiekę nad zbiorami sprawuje Muzeum Narodowe w Krakowie. +Muzeum gromadzi dzieła malarstwa europejskiego XIII-XVIII w., zabytki europejskiego i islamskiego rzemiosła artystycznego od średniowiecza do XIX w., grafiki, sztuki starożytnej oraz militaria. Najcenniejszym dziełem w muzeum jest "Dama z gronostajem" Leonarda da Vinci. +Historia. +W 1801 otwarto Świątynię Sybilli w Puławach – prywatne muzeum założone przez księżnę Izabelę Czartoryską, małżonkę księcia Adama Kazimierza Czartoryskiego. +Zbiory puławskie uległy częściowemu rozproszeniu i zniszczeniu po upadku powstania listopadowego i konfiskacie majątku Czartoryskich przez Rosjan, większość jednak udało się uchronić i następnie przewieźć do Paryża do Hôtelu Lambert. W 1870 roku książę Władysław Czartoryski zdecydował o przeniesieniu zbiorów do Krakowa, gdzie ostatecznie trafiły w roku 1876. W tym samym roku Czartoryscy przekazali również swój wielki księgozbiór do użytku publicznego w Krakowie (Biblioteka Czartoryskich). Muzealne zbiory Czartoryskich początkowo zostały umieszczone w Arsenale Miejskim, który został przekazany na cele muzealne przez władze miejskie. Następnie ks. Władysław Czartoryski zakupił wschodnią część klasztoru Pijarów (tzw. klasztorek pijarski) i trzy kamienice na rogu ulic Pijarskiej i św. Jana, które zostały scalone i przekształcone w jednolitą budowlę pałacową przez architektów: Alberta Bitnera, Wandalina Beringera i Zygmunta Hendla. Przebudowa miała miejsce w l. 1879-1901. W jej wyniku powstała rezydencja z attyką i renesansowym dziedziińcem ozdobionym kolumnadą. Przebudowy pałacu na muzeum dokonał Maurycy Ouradou, uczeń Viollet le Duc'a. Architekt ten zaprojektował fasady od strony ul. Pijarskiej i od strony baszty Pasamoników oraz ozdobiony herbami kryty ganek przerzucony nad ul. Pijarską, łączący budynek główny pałacu z "klasztorkiem" i dalej z Arsenałem oraz z częścią murów miejskich z basztami Stolarską i Ciesielską. W ten sposób powstał zespół pałacowo-muzealny. Samo Muzeum Książąt Czartoryskich zostało otwarte w 1880 roku i początkowo zajmowało tylko część pomieszczeń późniejszego kompleksu muzealnego. Po wybuchu II wojny światowej najcenniejsza część zbiorów została ewakuowana i ukryta w pałacu w Sieniawie, lecz mimo tego Niemcy zdołali je częściowo rozgrabić lub wywieźć. Po wojnie większość eksponatów odzyskano. Do zaginionych należy m.in. obraz "Portret młodzieńca", przypisywany Rafaelowi. W 1950 roku Muzeum Czartoryskich zostało przejęte przez państwo i włączone do krakowskiego Muzeum Narodowego jako jeden z jego oddziałów. +Obecnie pieczę nad zbiorami pełni Fundacja Książąt Czartoryskich powstała w 1991 roku z inicjatywy Adama Karola Czartoryskiego. 11 stycznia 2010 roku rozpoczęto gruntowny remont muzeum, który ma potrwać 2-3 lata; przez ten czas muzeum będzie zamknięte. +Pamiątki z dziejów Polski XIV-XVII w. i europejskie rzemiosło artystyczne. +Obie połączone wystawy zajmują pierwsze piętro pałacu. Znajdują się tam m.in. portrety ostatnich Jagiellonów wykonane w warsztacie Łukasza Cranacha Młodszego w połowie XVI wieku, oprawione w XIX wieku w jedną ramę, a także całopostaciowe wizerunki marszałka wielkiego koronnego Łukasza Opalińskiego i Agnieszki z Tęczyńskich Firlejowej. Ekspozycja prezentuje historię Polski uszeregowaną chronologicznie od czasów Jagiellonów do czasów króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. +Zbrojownia i pamiątki puławskie. +Stała ekspozycja prezentowana jest w klasztorku, który z pałacem muzealnym połączony został przewiązką. +Zebrano tu pamiątki rodu Czartoryskich, przede wszystkim portrety największych przedstawicieli rodu, a także militaria polskie, europejskie i bliskowschodnie. +Galeria sztuki starożytnej. +Galeria sztuki starożytnej mieści się w dawnym arsenale miejskim. Wejście do wielkiej sali wystawowej prowadzi przez przewiązkę między klasztorkiem a dawnym arsenałem. +Znajdują się tam zabytki kultury greckiej, egipskiej, etruskiej oraz rzymskiej. Zgromadzone obiekty pochodzące z okresu od III tysiąclecia p.n.e. do IV wieku n.e. a wśród nich m.in. sarkofagi egipskie wraz z mumią, grobowce etruskie oraz liczne rzeźby. +DBm + +dBm – logarytmiczna jednostka miary mocy odniesiona do 1 mW (dB odniesiony do mW – stąd nazwa dBm). +Moc wyrażona w dBm mówi o ile decybeli moc ta jest większa (lub mniejsza) od mocy 1 mW. +P – 30 = [dBW +Rośliny garbnikodajne + +Rośliny garbnikodajne - drzewa i rośliny zielne, które dostarczają garbników. +Carl Clauberg + +Carl Clauberg (ur. 28 września 1898 w Wupperhof (obecnie część Solingen), zm. 9 sierpnia 1957 w Kilonii), ginekolog niemiecki oraz SS-Brigadeführer. Zbrodniarz wojenny. Podczas II wojny światowej prowadził eksperymenty na ludziach w obozach koncentracyjnych. +Podczas I wojny światowej służył w piechocie, później studiował medycynę w Kilonii, Hamburgu i Grazu, w 1925 obronił doktorat. Był m.in. ordynatorem uniwersyteckiego szpitala dla kobiet w Kilonii. W 1933 wstąpił do NSDAP (nr legitymacji partyjnej 2733970) i bez zastrzeżeń podpisywał się pod ideologią nazistowską; doszedł do stopnia SS-Brigadeführera. 30 sierpnia 1937 mianowany został profesorem ginekologii i położnictwa uniwersytetu w Królewcu; opublikował wiele prac naukowych w swej dziedzinie, do 1940 miał na swoim koncie ponad 50 publikacji naukowych i kilka książek, m.in. "Die weiblichen Sexualhormone" (1933) oraz "Sekretion der Ovarien und der Placenta", która została przetłumaczona na hiszpański i angielski. +Mianowany dyrektorem kliniki ginekologicznej na Górnym Śląsku, w Chorzowie-Königshutte (obecny szpital przy ul. Karola Miarki), Clauberg z własnej inicjatywy zgłosił się do Heinricha Himmlera, wiedząc o jego zainteresowaniach "demografią negatywną" (tj. sterylizacją bezoperacyjną) i poprosił o zgodę na przeprowadzenie sterylizacji przez wstrzykiwanie do macicy podrażniających związków chemicznych. W lipcu 1942 Himmler oddelegował go do obozu koncentracyjnego w Ravensbrück, a następnie udostępnił Blok Doświadczalny 10 w Auschwitz, gdzie Clauberg mógł kontynuować swe eksperymenty. Do jego dyspozycji oddano dużą grupę więzionych lekarzy, w tym polskiego lekarza obozowego Władysława Deringa. +Wskutek działań Clauberga wiele kobiet straciło życie, niejednokrotnie w straszliwych męczarniach. +W latach 1942-1944 Clauberg przeprowadzał na Żydówkach i niekiedy Cygankach masowe zabiegi sterylizacyjne bez znieczulenia, powodujące straszliwe cierpienie i śmierć ofiar. Clauberg opracował metodę bezoperacyjnej sterylizacji, która polegała na wprowadzeniu do kobiecych narządów rodnych (po uprzednim stwierdzeniu drożności jajowodów) specjalnie spreparowanego drażniącego środka farmakologicznego, którego działanie polegało na wywołaniu ostrego stanu zapalnego; w następstwie po kilku tygodniach dochodziło do zrośnięcia się jajowodów i w konsekwencji niepłodności. Rezultaty tych eksperymentów były każdorazowo sprawdzane aparatami rentgenowskimi. Cały zabieg przeprowadzany był pod pretekstem rutynowego badania ginekologicznego. Zabiegi były przeprowadzane w bardzo brutalny sposób, często wywoływały powikłania w postaci zapalenia otrzewnej i krwotoków z dróg rodnych, przebiegających z wysoką gorączką i ogólną posocznicą, równie często dochodziło do zapaści, będącej przyczyną zgonów. W raporcie dla Himmlera z 7 czerwca 1943 Clausberg stwierdził z dumą: ""Niedaleki jest moment, kiedy będę mógł powiedzieć, że jeden lekarz z pomocą może dziesięciu asystentów, będzie w stanie przeprowadzić kilkaset, jeżeli nie tysiąc sterylizacji dziennie."" +Po zakończeniu wojny Clauberg został deportowany do ZSRR i postawiony przed sądem w Moskwie za rolę, jaką odegrał w ""masowej zagładzie obywateli sowieckich"". Skazany na 25 lat pozbawienia wolności, po 10 latach spędzonych w sowieckim więzieniu został amnestiowany. Na mocy porozumienia Bułganina i Adenauera w sprawie repatriacji więźniów niemieckich powrócił do Kilonii w północnych Niemczech. Nie okazał skruchy za swe zbrodnie, a nawet chlubił się swymi ""osiągnięciami naukowymi"". W październiku 1955 Centralna Rada Żydów w Niemczech wniosła pozew o ""wielokrotne spowodowanie poważnych obrażeń ciała"" żydowskich więźniarek, na których przeprowadzał eksperymenty sterylizacyjne w Auschwitz. 22 listopada 1955 Clausberg został aresztowany przez policję; 9 sierpnia 1957 zmarł w szpitalu kilońskim na krótko przed planowanym rozpoczęciem procesu. +Żółw jaszczurowaty + +Żółw jaszczurowaty, skorpucha jaszczurowata, żółw kajmanowy ("Chelydra serpentina") – gatunek gada z rodziny żółwi skorpuchowatych z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych. +Liza Marklund + +Liza Marklund, właśc. Eva Elisabeth Marklund (ur. 9 września 1962 w Piteå, Norrbotten) – szwedzka dziennikarka i autorka powieści kryminalnych. Popularność przyniosła jej seria książek, których bohaterką jest dziennikarka-detektyw Annika Bengtzon. Dwie powieści z tej serii zostały sfilmowane. +Liza Marklund prowadzi kampanie przeciw przemocy wobec kobiet, bierze też aktywny udział w społecznych debatach dotyczących problemów demograficznych Norrlandii. +Autorka ma trójkę dzieci, jest mężatką. +Indywiduum chemiczne + +Indywiduum chemiczne, indywiduum cząsteczkowe lub indywiduum molekularne − termin stosowany w chemii określający dowolny atom, cząsteczkę, jon, rodnik, kationorodnik, kompleks lub konformer. Termin ten jest uznawany przez Międzynarodową Unię Chemii Czystej i Stosowanej (IUPAC) +Rubel naddniestrzański + +Rubel naddniestrzański - oficjalna jednostka płatnicza w nieuznawanej Republice Naddniestrzańskiej. Wprowadzona jako oficjalna waluta republiki w sierpniu 1994 r. W związku ze statusem Naddniestrza, waluta nie posiada kodu ISO 4217 dla waluty, choć niektóre instytucje naddniestrzańskie (Agroprombank i Gazprombank) używają kodu PRB, a Bank Republiki Naddniestrzańskiej niekiedy określa go jako RUP. +Na wypuszczonych banknotach znajdowały się podobizny rosyjskiego dowódcy Aleksandra Suworowa, który był założycielem Tyraspola, będącego stolicą republiki, oraz ukraińskiego hetmana Bohdana Chmielnickiego. Galopująca hiperinflacja doprowadziła do bardzo szybkiego spadku wartości waluty: w 2000 r. najmniejszy pozostający w obrocie banknot miał wartość 10 000 rubli. +Na początku 2001 przeprowadzono denominację rubla naddniestrzańskiego w stosunku 1 000 000 : 1. +Na nowych banknotach widnieją podobizny Aleksandra Suworowa (banknoty o wartości 1, 5, 10, 25 rubli), ukraińskiego poety Tarasa Szewczenki (banknot o wartości 50 rubli) oraz mołdawskiego hospodara Dymitra Cantemira (banknot sturublowy). +Istanu + +Istanu - w mitologii hetyckiej bóg-słońce. +Atrybutem Istanu była skrzydlata tarcza słoneczna. Na czterokonnym rydwanie codziennie pojawiał się na niebie. Jako wszechwiedzący był najwyższym sędzią i gwarantem umów. +Konglomerat (ekonomia) + +W konglomeracie występuje ograniczony zakres wspólnych kosztów działalności operacyjnej przedsiębiorstw przy jednoczesnym przenoszeniu tych kosztów do określonych przedsiębiorstw w ramach całego konglomeratu. +Surveyor 1 + +Surveyor 1 (z ang. "geodeta" indeks COSPAR 1966-45A) – amerykańska, bezzałogowa sonda kosmiczna, której celem było wykonanie pierwszego miękkiego lądowania na powierzchni Księżyca oraz wykonanie pomiarów na jego powierzchni. +Plan przebiegu misji. +Lądownik Surveyor 1 umieszczany był na szczycie rakiety klasy Atlas-Centaur LV-3C. Po osiągnięciu orbity, odpalono ostatni człon rakiety, który nakierowywał próbnik na trajektorię lotu w kierunku Księżyca. Na wysokości ok. 3.500 km następowało odseparowanie statku od wypalonego członu rakiety, po czym następowała pierwsza faza lądowania. Po osiągnięciu ok. 4 m nad powierzchnią, silniki wyhamowujące miały zostać automatycznie wyłączone, a pojazd miał swobodnie opaść na powierzchnię. Niemobilny próbnik miał za zadanie wykonać przede wszystkim zdjęcia miejsca lądowania. +Konstrukcja próbnika. +Konstruktorem statków serii Surveyor była firma Hughes Aircraft, masa lądownika Surveyor 1 wynosiła 292 kg. Wysokość pojazdu mającego wylądować na Księżycu wynosiła 3,3 m, średnica zaś 4,5 m. Konstrukcja statku opierała się na aluminiowym szkielecie, do którego przymocowane były różne urządzenia naukowe (m.in. kamera pokładowa). Na szczycie szkieletu znajdowały się 2 panele baterii słonecznych o łącznej powierzchni 3 m². Moc tych paneli to 85 watów. Jednak wraz z główną, nieładowalną baterią, pojazd dysponował mocą aż 4096 watów. Pojazd posiadał jedną płaską antenę i dwie małe anteny kierunkowe, a także radar pokładowy. Z uwagi na swoje zastosowanie, pojazd wyposażony został oczywiście w silniczki wyhamowujące lądowanie, które automatycznie wyłączyły się na wysokości 3,4 metra nad powierzchnią Księżyca.Główne urządzenie badawcze aparatu stanowiła teleskopowa kamera operacyjna. Obiektyw tej kamery był zwrócony pionowo ku górze; na wysokości 1,5 metra nad nim znajdowało się zwierciadło, które mogło być kierowane tak, by można było uzyskać obraz dowolnych fragmentów powierzchni otaczającej miejsce lądowania aparatu. Przed obiektywem kamery umieszczone były wymienne filtry barwne. Jednym z elementów badań przeprowadzonych z Surveyora były próby zaobserwowania pyłu pokrywającego powierzchnię Księżyca. Wkrótce po wylądowaniu aparatu z dyszy zwróconej ku powierzchni księżycowej wypuszczono strumień sprężonego azotu, jednak nie zaobserwowano spodziewanego obłoku pyłu. +Przebieg misji. +Surveyor 1 był pierwszym amerykańskim pojazdem, który łagodnie osiadł na powierzchni Księżyca. Przedtem jednak dokonali tego Rosjanie, którzy już czwarty raz z rzędu pokonali swych zachodnich rywali. Za pierwszym razem było to umieszczenie sztucznego satelity na orbicie okołoziemskiej (Sputnik 1), później trafienie sztucznym obiektem w Księżyc (Łuna 2), następnie pierwszy lot człowieka w kosmosie (Gagarin w statku Wostok 1), wreszcie pierwsze udane lądowanie sondy księżycowej (Łuna 9). Jednak Amerykanie dokonali udanej sztuki lądowania już za pierwszym podejściem (w międzyczasie Rosjanie już od paru lat bezskutecznie próbowali lądować na powierzchni Srebrnego Globu – patrz misje Łuna 4, 5, 6, 7 i 8). +Surveyor 1 wylądował obok bardzo płytkiego, 200 metrowego krateru znajdującego się na obszarze silnie zniszczonego krateru Flamsteed P o stukilometrowej średnicy, sąsiadującego z kolei z dużo młodszym kraterem Flamsteed. Oba obiekty selenograficzne znajdują się w południowo-zachodniej części Oceanu Burz, w pobliżu księżycowego równika. Wybranie rejonu równikowego było celowe, w jednym z nich planowano bowiem wyznaczyć miejsce pierwszego lądowania człowieka na Srebrnym Globie. +Wstępna faza lądowania sondy rozpoczęła się już na wysokości 3.200 km nad powierzchnią Księżyca, w momencie gdy statek poruszał się z prędkością 9.700 km/h. Po odpaleniu silniczków hamujących, prędkość ta została zredukowana do zaledwie 5,6 km/h, a w momencie gdy odległość statku od powierzchni wynosiła już tylko 3,4 metra, silniczki zostały wyłączone a Surveyor 1 swobodnie na nią opadł. Prędkość opadania wynosiła 13 km/h. Ostatnia faza lądowania była bardzo precyzyjna, wszystkie trzy talerzowate podpory lądownika osiągnęły powierzchnię naszego naturalnego satelity niemal w tym samym ułamku sekundy. Próbnik wylądował co prawda aż 15 km od wyznaczonego, planowego punktu, ale biorąc pod uwagę fakt, że była to pierwsza w ogóle amerykańska próba łagodnego posadzenia aparatury badawczej na Księżycu, trzeba powiedzieć, że osiągnięto ogromny sukces. Podpory pewnie utrzymały lądownik na twardej powierzchni, dowodząc tym samym, że operacja posadzenia na powierzchni testowanego na Ziemi w tym czasie lądownika załogowego LM, jest w pełni możliwa. Dodać trzeba, że podczas fazy lądowania nie wykorzystano jednej z kamer pokładowych, która służyła do przekazywania zdjęć Księżyca podczas tej fazy misji. +Wkrótce po wylądowaniu Surveyor 1 przystąpił do realizacji swej misji, której głównym celem było wykonanie dokładnych, panoramicznych zdjęć otaczającej próbnik okolicy, wykonanie zdjęć gruntu, na którym Surveyor 1 wylądował, wykonanie zdjęć samego lądownika a zwłaszcza talerzowatych podpór celem sprawdzenia mechaniki gruntu, oraz przekazanie na Ziemię serii danych naukowych o wytrzymałości gruntu, pyle księżycowym i temperaturze powierzchni. Surveyor 1 nie był wyposażony – w przeciwieństwie do późniejszych statków tego programu – w dodatkowe, specyficzne urządzenia naukowe, jednakże dzięki prawie 100 sensorom, był w stanie przekazać na Ziemię podstawowe informacje o napotkanych warunkach. Najwięcej danych o powierzchni księżycowej Surveyor 1 dostarczył przede wszystkim w pierwszych dwóch dniach swojej misji (2 i 3 czerwca). W okresie od 14 czerwca do 7 lipca 1966 w rejonie lądowiska statku Surveyor 1 panowała noc księżycowa, stąd wszelkie operacje naukowe były wstrzymane.7 lipca udało się uruchomić urządzenia aparatu: działając z przerwami do 14 lipca przekazały one jeszcze 815 obrazów.Ku zdumieniu uczonych lądownik jeszcze raz zareagował na wysłane ku niemu sygnały radiowe w dniu 9 listopada 1966 roku, a następnie w dniu 6 stycznia 1967 roku. Najcenniejszy chyba jest obraz pokazujący jedną z trzech podpór 279-kilogramowego aparatu (masa po wylądowaniu), na którym widać wyraźnie, że zapadła się ona na głębokość około 2,5 centymetra w substancję przypominającą zgranulowany piasek. Gęstość tej substancji oceniono na 1,5 g/cm3, wytrzymałość - na 0,4 kg/cm2. Próbnik zakończył swą misję dnia 14 lipca 1966 roku, wykonując do tego czasu m.in. 11.237 doskonałej jakości zdjęć. Wszystkie zdjęcia ujawniły, że teren w starym kraterze Flamsteed P jest wyjątkowo równinny, z niewielką ilością kamieni i drobnych, bardzo płytkich kraterów. Lądowisko statku Surveyor 1 stanowiło zatem przykład doskonałego, potencjalnego miejsca lądowania dla późniejszych misji Apollo. +Badania i analizy zdjęć oraz innych danych naukowych trwały do stycznia 1967. +Efekty misji. +Surveyor 1 był pierwszym automatycznym pojazdem amerykańskim, który udanie wylądował na Księżycu, przeprowadził zaplanowane badania jego powierzchni oraz jako pierwszy sporządził fotograficzną dokumentację miejsca lądowania. +Odmiana (biologia) + +Odmiana (łac. "morpha") – kategoria systematyczna niższa od podgatunku, wyższa od formy. Wyróżniana na podstawie zbioru cech stanowiących odchylenie od wzorca gatunku, występującego u dużej grupy osobników. Jako odmianę klasyfikuje się grupę osobników tworzących mniej lub bardziej wyraźny wariant lokalny gatunku, ukształtowany zwykle pod specyficznym wpływem środowiska (za odmianę może zatem zostać uznana rasa ekologiczna, ekotyp lub ekodem). Odmiany danego gatunku mogą się swobodnie krzyżować między sobą. +W rolnictwie (w szczególności w ogrodnictwie) wyróżnia się odmiennie definiowane odmiany uprawne (hodowlane) zwane kultywarami ("cultivar", kategoria uznana przez ICNCP) – np. "Juniperus virginiana" L. 'Skyrocket'. +W zoologii istniała wprowadzona przez Karola Linneusza odmiana ("aberratio"), używana dla określenia zmienności osobniczej, form ekologicznych lub ras geograficznych. Obecnie uznawana jest za termin źle zdefiniowany i została wykreślona z nomenklatury zoologicznej. +Klerykalizm + +Klerykalizm – dążenie do uzyskania instytucjonalnego wpływu duchowieństwa na życie społeczne, polityczne i kulturalne; pojęcie używane głównie przez zwolenników świeckiego charakteru państwa (administracji, wojska i szkolnictwa). +Termin pojawił się we Francji w 1848 w okresie Wiosny Ludów ze strony krytyków Kościoła katolickiego, który stał wtedy po stronie monarchistów przeciwnych rewolucji. +Piotr Abakanowicz + +Piotr Abakanowicz pseud. "Barski" (ur. 21 czerwca 1890 w Warszawie, zm. 1 czerwca 1948 w więzieniu we Wronkach) – podpułkownik lotnictwa polskiego, członek Narodowych Sił Zbrojnych. +Życiorys. +Był synem oficera gwardii carskiej; rodzina pieczętowała się herbem Awdaniec. W 1912 po ukończeniu Korpusu Kadetów w Petersburgu rozpoczął służbę w Wołyńskim Pułku Gwardii w stopniu podporucznika. Po wybuchu I wojny światowej wraz z pułkiem walczył na terenie Prus Wschodnich. W sierpniu 1916 na własną prośbę został przeniesiony do lotnictwa. W grudniu 1916 po ukończeniu Wojennej Szkoły Pilotów został wysłany do Anglii na kurs pilotów instruktorów. +W styczniu 1918 ppłk Abakanowicz zgłosił się do służby w I Korpusie Polskim gen. Józefa Dowbor-Muśnickiego, w którym sformował i dowodził eskadrą 16 samolotów (o nazwie Awiacja I Korpusu). W czerwcu 1918, gdy I Korpus został zmuszony do złożenia broni, rozkazał spalić samoloty, aby nie zostały przejęte przez wojska niemieckie. Podczas próby przedostania się do Francji został aresztowany przez bolszewików, ale uwolniono go pod warunkiem wstąpienia do lotnictwa sowieckiego. Wcielono go do zgrupowania Aleksjeja Szyrinkina. Po skierowaniu jego eskadry na front polski, 1 maja 1920 podczas lotu odłączył się od grupy i wylądował myśliwcem Nieuport 24bis na polskim lotnisku wojskowym w Żodzinie koło Borysowa. Polski Oficerski Trybunał Orzekający uwolnił go od zarzutu zdrady i przywrócił stopień pułkownika, otrzymał także za to Polową Odznakę Pilota. W latach 1921-1930 służył w lotnictwie polskim, m.in. dowodził 11., a potem 5. pułkiem lotniczym. W 1921 został odznaczony Krzyżem Virtuti Militari. W 1930 z powodów zdrowotnych (przeżył dwie katastrofy lotnicze), został przeniesiony do rezerwy. +W latach 1921 - 1930 pełnił wiele odpowiedzialnych funkcji, min. kierował Wyższą Szkołą Lotniczą w Grudziądzu, dowodził najpier 11, a potem 5 pułkiem lotniczym. w 1930 roku z powodów zdrowotnych został przeniesiony do rezerwy. Być może na ten stan zaważyły inne względy - Abakanowicz krytycznie odnosił się do niektórych decyzji władz lotnictwa wojskowego (min. stanu technicznego sprzętu lotniczego). wiadomo też, że ówczesne władze wojskowe pomijały go w awansach. +Nie brał udziału w wojnie obronnej 1939 roku - gdy dotarł na wyznaczone lotnisko, okazało się, że jest ono juz zniszczone przez samoloty niemieckie. +Podczas okupacji niemieckiej w czasie II wojny światowej związany był z Narodowymi Siłami Zbrojnymi, używał pseudonimów "Barski", "Grey", "Grządziel". Po rozłamie w organizacji na tle scalenia z Armią Krajową pozostał w szeregach NSZ-ZJ. Od czerwca do sierpnia 1944 pełnił funkcję komendanta Okręgu VI NSZ obejmującego powiat warszawski. Od października 1944 był szefem sztabu NSZ. W styczniu 1945 otrzymał awans do stopnia pułkownika NSZ oraz funkcję komendanta Obszaru Południe NSZ. +W październiku 1945 został aresztowany przez Urząd Bezpieczeństwa, a następnie w procesie przed Wojskowym Sądem Rejonowym w więzieniu na Mokotowie został skazany na karę śmierci. Kara śmierci został zamieniona na karę dożywotniego więzienia, a w 1947 zmniejszono mu karę do 15 lat więzienia. Zmarł 1 czerwca 1948 w więzieniu we Wronkach po pobiciu przez funkcjonariuszy aparatu bezpieczeństwa. Relacje świadków są sprzeczne, jako przyczynę śmierci podawano również samobójstwo. +Został odznaczony Krzyżem Narodowego Czynu Zbrojnego. W czerwcu 1991 prochy ppłk. Abakanowicza zostały ekshumowane z kwater więziennych cmentarza we Wronkach. Powtórny pogrzeb odbył się na Cmentarzu Wojskowym na Powązkach w Warszawie w asyście Kompanii Reprezentacyjnej Wojska Polskiego. +Metakwalon + +Metakwalon (INN) – organiczny związek chemiczny, pochodna chinazolinonu. Stosowany jako sedatywny, hipnotyczny lek o działaniu zbliżonym do barbituranów. Powoduje spowolnienie akcji serca. W Polsce został wykreślony ze spisu leków, w niektórych krajach Europy jest wciąż używany. +Solwoliza + +Solwoliza – reakcja chemiczna, w wyniku której dany związek chemiczny znajdujący się w roztworze reaguje z rozpuszczalnikiem (np. typu ROH), jonem lioniowym (odpowiednio ) lub jonem liatowym (odpowiednio ). Zazwyczaj termin ten odnosi się do reakcji, w których cząsteczka rozpuszczalnika działa jako czynnik nukleofilowy. +Reakcje solwolizy mają często nadawane szczegółowe nazwy pochodzące od reagującego rozpuszczalnika, np. woda – hydroliza, alkohol – alkoholiza, kwas octowy – acetoliza. +Solwolizą określa się także reakcje w mieszaninie rozpuszczalników, pod warunkiem, że czynnik nukleofilowy występuje w środowisku reakcji w bardzo dużym nadmiarze w stosunku do głównego substratu, np. solwolizą nazywa się hydrolizę w układzie aceton – woda 4:1. +Drzonków + +Drzonków (do 1945 niem. "Drentkau") - wieś w Polsce położona w województwie lubuskim, w powiecie zielonogórskim, w gminie Zielona Góra. +Historia. +Nazwa miejscowości pochodzi od staropolskiego słowa "drzeń" oznaczającego "drewno". Wieś wzmiankowana po raz pierwszy w 1305 pod nazwą "Dronkow". Następna wzmianka, która pochodziła z 1376 roku, odnosiła się do drzonkowskiego kościoła i właścicielem wsi był w tym czasie ród von Kittlitz. Później część Drzonkowa zakupili Rothenburgowie i do 1611 obydwa rody utrzymywały swoje własności. Od Kittlitzów majątek kupił Hans von Kalkreuth, a po niedługim czasie odsprzedał go rodzinie von Knobelsdorf. Drzonków od 1688 roku dzielił się na dwie części, a od 1722 roku na trzy. Wspomniano wówczas jako właścicieli dóbr: Christiana Ernesta von Rothenburga, Sigmunda von Knobelsdorfa i Ottona Sigfrieda von Unruha. Baron Gottlieb von Cersdorf w 1743 scalił dwie części, a trzecia pozostawała we władaniu Gustava Christiana von Prittwitza. Cześć majątków została w drugiej połowie XVIII stulecia połączona przez hrabiego Ludwiga von Schlabrendorfa, który w 1782 roku sprzedał je hrabinie Friderice von Cosel. Majątek został w 1785 przejęty przez jej syna, a w 1789 przedstawiciela rodziny von Johnstohn. W tej partii wsi znajdowały się w tym czasie m.in. 2 folwarki i 5 młynów wodnych, a w 102 gospodarstwach mieszkało 546 osób. Należąca w 1743 do Gustava von Prittwitza część wsi była już w 1761 własnością barona Gelsdorfa, a od 1768 przedstawicielki rodu von Knobelsdorf. Znajdował się tutaj około 1790 folwark, a także 13 gospodarstw, w których mieszkało 68 osób. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa zielonogórskiego. +Wojewódzki Ośrodek Sportu i Rekreacji. +Na terenie wsi znajduje się Wojewódzki Ośrodek Sportu i Rekreacji (WOSiR), który cieszy się popularnością wśród profesjonalnych polskich i zagranicznych sportowców, w szczególności pięcioboistów nowoczesnych. Do Wojewódzkiego Ośrodka Sportu i Rekreacji należy basen olimpijski oraz drugi basen kryty, wykorzystywany do nauki pływania przez cały rok. Z basenów tych korzysta Szkoła Ogólnokształcąca z Zielonej Góry, która prowadzi klasy o profilu sportowym. +Pałac Zimowy + +Pałac Zimowy w Petersburgu (rus. Зимний дворец) – położony na brzegu Newy barokowy pałac budowany w latach 1754 - 1762 według projektu Bartolomeo Rastrellego dla Elżbiety (wzorowany był na francuskim Wersalu). Budowę ukończono po jej śmierci. Jako pierwsza zamieszkała w nim cesarzowa Katarzyna II. +Historia. +W latach 1711-1754 w mieście powstało pięć Pałaców Zimowych. Pierwszy "Dom Zimowy" zbudowany został dla Cara Piotra I w 1711 roku, na brzegu Zimowego Kanału, drugi - na miejscu obecnego Teatru Ermitażu (wybudowany w latach 1716-19 według projektu architekta G. I. Mattarnowi, przebudowany w latach dwudziestych XVIII wieku według projektu architekta Domenico Trezziniego). W 1732 architekt Bartolomeo Rastrelli rozpoczął budowę trzeciego Pałacu Zimowego z fasadą skierowaną na rzekę Newę i Plac Pałacu. Czwarty - drewniany Pałac Zimowy został zaprojektowany również przez Rastrelliego i zbudowany w 1755 roku, przy Newskim Prospekcie. Obecny, piąty Pałac Zimowy zaprojektowany przez tegoż architekta, a wybudowano w latach 1754-62 w stylu barokowym. +Do roku 1905 był roku zimową rezydencją carów Rosji, po upadku caratu w lutym 1917 część pałacu zamieniono na szpital, a część zajmowała siedziba Rządu Tymczasowego. Zajęcie pałacu przez bolszewików 7 listopada 1917 jest jednym z symboli Rewolucji Październikowej. Warto jednak pamiętać, że słynna scena filmowa Eisensteina "Szturm na Pałac Zimowy" kręcona była już po zwycięstwie Rewolucji i jest apokryficzna – pałacu broniła jedynie kompania kobieca. +Od 1922 pałac jest częścią Ermitażu, a wiele spośród jego 1057 sal i pokojów udostępnionych jest zwiedzającym. Pałac ma 1786 drzwi wewnętrznych i 1945 okien. +Po wielkim pożarze do jakiego doszło w 1837, na rozkaz Mikołaja I rozpoczęto odbudowę Pałacu. Jego wnętrza uzyskały wtedy wystrój klasycystyczny. Car postanowił, że odbudowa zostanie ukończona w ciągu roku, dla przyspieszenia wysychania ścian we wnętrzach Pałacu palono ognie, podczas gdy na zewnątrz panowała zima. Robotnicy okładali czapki lodem, by znieść tę różnicę temperatur, około 20 000 z nich przypłaciło tę pracę życiem. +Plac przed Pałacem był miejscem tak zwanej "krwawej niedzieli", która stała się bezpośrednią przyczyną wybuchu rewolucji w 1905. Tłum około 30 000 robotników zgromadził się przed Pałacem trzymając w rękach ikony i portrety cara. Na rozkaz cara wojsko otworzyło ogień, zabitych zostało około tysiąca osób, a kilka tysięcy zostało rannych. +W 1918 r., część a w 1922 r. wszystkie zabudowania przekazano Państwowemu Muzeum Ermitaż. Obecnie Pałac Zimowy i Plac Pałacowy stanowi rdzeń współczesnego miasta i jest jednym z głównych obiektów rosyjskiej i międzynarodowej turystyki. +Justyna Majkowska + +Justyna Majkowska (ur. 17 lipca 1977 w Zduńskiej Woli) – piosenkarka, była wokalistka Ich Troje. Absolwentka Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, pedagog. +Działalność artystyczna. +Współpraca zaowocowała wydaną 2 kwietnia 2004 roku płytą "Nie czekam na cud" a 16 kwietnia odbył się transmitowany na żywo koncert w studio S1 im. Henryka Debicha w Polskim Radio Łódź. +Na początku 2006 roku na zaproszenie Michała Wiśniewskiego zdecydowała się wspólnie z grupą uczcić przypadające 10-lecie istnienia zespołu. Wzięła udział w występie na ESC 2006 razem z Ich Troje w składzie poszerzonym o Magdę Femme, ją oraz rapera Reala McCoya. Wokalistka również w 2006 roku uczestniczyła w trasie koncertowej Ich Troje + One Dwie. +Latem 2010 roku dała szereg koncertów charytatywnych, wspierając chore dzieci z okolic swojej rodzinnej miejscowości. +14 listopada 2011 roku ukazała się jej solowa płyta pt. "Zakochana od jutra". Nad produkcją całości czuwał duet Piotr Remiszewski i Mario Szaban. Teksty napisali m.in. Piotr Remiszewski, Jacek Dewódzki, Bogusław Jedynowicz czy Magda Femme. Na krążku znalazło się 10 premierowych utworów i piosenka z czasów zespołu Ich Troje - "Zawsze pójdę w Twoją stronę" w zupełnie nowej aranżacji. +Działalność pozamuzyczna. +Jest ambasadorem zduńskowolskiej Fundacji AMI, pomagającej dzieciom z upośledzeniami. W 2009 roku pełniła funkcję doradcy prezydenta miasta Sieradza ds Festiwalu Open Hair. Pomogła w przygotowaniu imprezy upamiętniającej 100 lecie krótkiej kobiecej fryzury i postaci Antoniego Cierplikowskiego - fryzjera światowej sławy, który urodził się w Sieradzu. +Życie prywatne. +7 maja 2005 roku Justyna wzięła ślub z Jarosławem Miśkiewiczem, a 25 września 2005 urodziła pierwsze dziecko - syna Ignacego. Obecnie mieszka w Zduńskiej Woli. +Common Intermediate Language + +Common Intermediate Language (z ang. "Wspólny Język Pośredni", w skrócie CIL, lub IL) - język najniższego poziomu dla platformy Microsoft .NET odczytywalny przez człowieka. Jest to odpowiednik asemblera jako języka pośredniego dla typowych języków wysokiego poziomu (tu: Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) wyrażający kod w C#, Visual Basic .NET, Managed C++ lub dowolnym języku z wielu (40+) języków kompilowanych do CIL). CIL jest tłumaczony bezpośrednio na kod bajtowy. +CIL przypomina obiektowy asembler w całości oparty na stosie. Jego wykonanie następuje za pomocą maszyny wirtualnej. +Początkowo CIL nosił nazwę "Microsoft Intermediate Language" (MSIL), ale uległa ona zmianie wskutek standaryzacji C# i CLI. Czasem jednak można jeszcze spotkać zastosowanie poprzedniej nazwy, szczególnie wśród starszych użytkowników .NET. +"ilasm.exe" - Kompilator języka CIL, dołączony do .NET Framework SDK. +"*.il" - Umowne (wynik przyjętej konwencji) rozszerzenie plików zawierających kod CIL. +O-Bahn + +Adelaide O-Bahn – jest najszybszym i najdłuższym na świecie (12 km) torem autobusowym. Tor O-Bahn został otwarty w Adelaide w 1986, cena całego projektu wyniosła 98.000.000 dolarów australijskich. Tor zaczyna się w centrum miasta i biegnie do dzielnicy Tea Tree Gully, gdzie kończy się przy centrum handlowym Tea Tree Plaza. Cała podróż, włączając część przejechaną po normalnych ulicach Adelaidy, zajmuje około 20 minut. +Zasada działania O-Bahnu jest bardzo prosta, sama konstrukcja składa się ze specjalnie zbudowanego, betonowego toru, niewiele szerszego od autobusu. Specjalnie zmodyfikowane autobusy mają zamontowane dodatkowe kółeczko prowadzące, które jest podłączone do przedniej osi. Po wjeździe na tor, autobus sterowany jest automatycznie, a kierowca zmienia jedynie prędkość pojazdu. Modyfikacja autobusu jest na tyle drobna, że pojazdy przystosowane do jazdy po O-Bahn poruszają się także normalnie na zwykłych drogach. Tak zmodyfikowane autobusy mogą jeździć po torze O-Bahnu z prędkością ponad 100 km/h. W obecnej postaci system jest zdolny do przetransportowania 18.000 osób na godzinę w każdą stronę. +JBoss Application Server + +JBoss Application Server – serwer aplikacji w Javie na licencji LGPL, na bazie technologii Enterprise JavaBeans (EJB). JBoss implementuje pełen zestaw usług Java EE (J2EE). Obecnie jest utrzymywany i wydawany przez firmę Red Hat. +Serwer został napisany w całości w języku Java, dzięki czemu JBoss jest dostępny na niemal wszystkie platformy. Jest również zintegrowany z darmowym środowiskiem programistycznym Eclipse (poprzez wtyczki Lomboz lub JBossTools), które umożliwia wytwarzanie komponentów dla tego serwera. +Instalacja serwera polega na skopiowaniu plików udostępnionych na stronie JBossa i uruchomieniu pliku run.bat (dla Windows) lub run.sh (dla systemów Unix i Linux). Osadzenie komponentów na JBossie również nie stanowi problemu. Każdy komponent (zarówno serwlet, strona JSP, strona HTML, komponent EJB lub jakikolwiek inny zasób) jest umieszczany w pliku JAR (pliki te posiadają różne rozszerzenia zależnie od typu komponentu). Opis plików w postaci dokumentów XML znajduje się również w tym samym pliku (jar). Skopiowanie pliku do katalogu o nazwie "deploy" powoduje automatyczne załadowanie komponentu. +Serwer JBoss od wersji 3.x posiada już zaawansowane mechanizmy dostępne w komercyjnych serwerach aplikacji (jak np. tworzenie klastra w oparciu o wiele serwerów). JBossa otacza wiele otwartych projektów. Do wersji 3.2.x stworzony został komponent udostępniający komponenty EJB w postaci usług sieciowych (ang. "web services"). Początkowo ich serwer opierał się o projekt AXIS, potem AXIS został obudowany komponentem jboss.net, a w wersji 4.0 JBoss dostarcza już własny serwer web service. +JBoss to także nazwa firmy zajmującej się rozwojem tego oprogramowania, a zarabiającej na komercyjnym wsparciu produktu. Podobne usługi, częściowo we współpracy z firmą, zaoferował niedawno także Hewlett-Packard. +Z JBoss korzysta między innymi serwis gier Sims Online oraz SEKAP – System Elektronicznej Komunikacji Administracji Publicznej używany w śląskich urzędach. +Korzysta z niego również aplikacja kompleksowej obsługi Urzędów Pracy Syriusz – stworzona przez firmę Sygnity, oraz Ministerstwo Edukacji przy projekcie Systemu Informacji Oświatowej. +Dworzec Wiedeński + +Dworzec Wiedeński – nieistniejący dworzec kolejowy w Warszawie. Był budowany od 14 lipca 1844 do 14 czerwca 1845 dla Kolei Warszawsko-Wiedeńskiej, według projektu Henryka Marconiego. Był położony na rogu Alej Jerozolimskich i ulicy Marszałkowskiej. 14 czerwca 1845 dokonano otwarcia drogi dworca i pierwszego odcinka linii kolejowej. +Na początku XX wieku dworzec został rozbudowany o nowy budynek dla przyjezdnych, a w okresie międzywojennym rozebrany w związku z budową warszawskiej linii średnicowej. Zastąpił go zupełnie nowy budynek dworca głównego zaczęto budować w 1932, jednak pozostał on niedokończony i został ostatecznie zburzony w 1944 przez Niemców, po upadku powstania warszawskiego. +Historia. +Dworzec miał 160 m długości, tyle ile przeciętny pociąg w tamtych czasach. Został zaprojektowany tak, aby przypominał dwa stykające się parowozy. Elewacje miały formy charakterystyczne dla renesansu florenckiego. Składał się z dwupiętrowego środkowego gmachu, dwóch trzypiętrowych wież po bokach. Środkową część z wieżami łączyły piętrowe oficyny. W zachodniej wieży umieszczono telegraf, we wschodniej – zegar. Perony znajdowały się na tyłach budynku. +Przed dworcem posadzono dwa rzędy włoskich topoli. W środku nie było wielkiej hali. W niewielkich pomieszczeniach urządzono oddzielne kasy, poczekalnie, i bufety dla pasażerów trzech klas, dla wojskowych, oddzielne pokoje dla dam i osób wysoko sytuowanych. W późniejszych latach dokonano niewielkiej rozbudowy oficyn. W czasie jednego z remontów usunięto rzeźby na balustradach w głównym budynku. +Pod koniec XIX wieku podjęto decyzję o budowie nowego dworca. Sporządzenie projektu zlecono Józefowi Hussowi. Nowy dworzec miał być wzorowany na dworcu Kolei Magdebursko-Halbersztadzkiej w Berlinie. Miał mieć renesansową elewacje przypominającą Łuk Triumfalny. W środku miała znajdować się wielka hala z peronami nakryta przeszklonym, walcowatym dachem. Fasada miała być zwrócona w stronę ulicy Marszałkowskiej, a nie jak dotychczas do Alei Jerozolimskich. Projekt nie został zaakceptowany, gdyż nie przewidywał połączenia z szerokimi torami Towarzystw Kolejowych z lewego brzegu Wisły. Władze zażądały również zmiany elewacji z renesansowej na bizantyjską, na co nie zgodził się projektant. +Ostatecznie w 1900 dobudowano od strony ulicy Chmielnej niewielki eklektyczny dworzec przyjazdowy, nazwany „Nową Poczekalnią”. Nowy budynek dworca miał 62 m długości i 13,5 m szerokości. Stary budynek dworca służył głównie osobom wyjeżdżającym. Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości dworzec nazwano Warszawa Główna. +W latach 30. XX wieku rozpoczęto budowę linii średnicowej. Wymagało to odsunięcia przyszłego dworca na zachód oraz zburzenia skrzydła zachodniego dworca „wiedeńskiego”, aby zmieścić przed nim głowice torową wschodnią wychodzącą spod Al. Jerozolimskich. Wyłączono go z eksploatacji, a na czas do wybudowania nowego dworca wybudowano prowizoryczny dworzec czołowy (przejął on funkcje dworca Warszawa Główna) przy ulicy Chmielnej. Częściowo na miejscu zburzonego skrzydła zachodniego (z wieżą telegrafu) rozpoczęto budowę nowoczesnego Dworca Głównego nad torami linii średnicowej. Pozostała część budynku została spalona we wrześniu 1939, a ruiny rozebrano przed 1944. W czasie budowy placu Defilad w 1955 r. niedaleko miejsca wieży wschodniej (znajdowała się tam, gdzie znajduje się jezdnia poszerzonej ul. Marszałkowskiej) pojawiła się tablica pamiątkowa. Tekst brzmiał: tu stała wieża zegarowa dworca Kolei Warszawsko-Wiedeńskiej. Zaginęła ona przy budowie stacji metra. Dziś w tym miejscu znajduje się zagłębiony plac przed stacją metra „Centrum”. Istnieje propozycja nazwania placu narożnego po zabudowie „pl. Warszawsko-Wiedeński”. +PhpGroupWare + +phpGroupWare – oprogramowanie do pracy grupowej, rozwijane obecnie w ramach projektu DotGNU. +W DotGNU znajduje zastosowanie jako zbiór komponentów usług sieciowych. Komponenty te można wykorzystać, poprzez XML-RPC, w innych aplikacjach przeznaczonych do pracy w sieci, a stworzonych z zastosowaniem DotGNU. Nazwa pochodzi od wykorzystanego do stworzenia pakietu języka programowania - PHP. +Architektura 64-bitowa + +Architektura 64-bitowa już stosunkowo dawno znalazła zastosowanie w superkomputerach oraz maszynach wielu ośrodków naukowych i firm, gdzie potrzebna jest duża moc obliczeniowa. +Szerokość szyn w architekturze 64-bitowej. +Termin "architektura 64-bitowa" nie musi odnosić się do szerokości szyny danych oraz możliwości adresowych takiego procesora (szerokości szyny adresowej). Przykładowo procesory UltraSPARC połączone za pomocą Sun Fireplane Interconnect posiadają szerokość szyny danych 32-bajtową, czyli 256-bitów. +W odniesieniu do możliwości adresowania pamięci, 64 bity określają ilość możliwych do zaadresowania komórek. Istnieje 264 wariacji 64-bitowego adresu, czyli bezpośrednio można adresować 18 446 744 073 709 551 616 (16 E) komórek. Komórki mają rozmiar 1 bajta. Jest to kolejny postęp w stosunku do architektury 32-bitowej gdzie występowało ograniczenie na fizycznie adresowalny obszar pamięci do 4 GiB. W przypadku pewnych architektur procesorów 32-bitowych stosowano techniki umożliwiające obejście tego ograniczenia poprzez zwiększenie ilości fizycznych linii adresowych i stosowne modyfikacje w jednostkach MMU komputerów (np. w x86 - PAE). W obecnie produkowanych procesorach 64-bitowych z reguły stosuje się mniejszą niż 64-bity szerokość szyny adresowej, co w sposób bezpośredni przekłada się na wielkość fizycznej pamięci jaką można podłączyć do procesorów. Ograniczenie to wynika ze zmniejszenia kosztów produkcji procesorów oraz układów wspomagających. +Rozwój komputerów domowych także podąża w tym kierunku, lecz moc maszyn do użytku domowego jest nieporównywalnie mniejsza od komputerów obliczeniowych. +Wybory prezydenckie w Polsce w 2005 roku + +Wybory prezydenckie w Polsce odbyły się na terenie całego kraju oraz w kilkudziesięciu obwodach wyborczych ulokowanych za granicą Polski. W wyniku głosowania czwartym prezydentem III Rzeczypospolitej (a trzecim wybranym w wyborach powszechnych) został Lech Kaczyński, który zastąpił Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego. +Państwowa Komisja Wyborcza zarejestrowała oficjalnie szesnastu kandydatów. Na kartach do głosowania znalazło się 14 kandydatów, dwóch kolejnych wykreślono przed datą wyborów. Pierwsza tura wyborów prezydenckich odbyła się 9 października 2005, druga tura, do której przeszli Lech Kaczyński oraz Donald Tusk, odbyła się dwa tygodnie później w dniu 23 października 2005. +Nowo wybrany prezydent Lech Kaczyński został zaprzysiężony przed Zgromadzeniem Narodowym 23 grudnia 2005. +Kandydaci na urząd prezydenta RP. +Inne osoby zgłaszające chęć startu w wyborach. +Jedenaście osób zgłosiło chęć kandydowania w wyborach i zarejestrowało swoje komitety wyborcze, jednak nie zdołało uzbierać wymaganych 100 000 podpisów, byli to: Arnold Buzdygan, Stanisław Ceberek, Gabriel Janowski, Jan Antoni Kiełb, Waldemar Janusz Kossakowski, Marian Romuald Rembelski, Zbigniew Roliński, Sławomir Salomon, Maria Szyszkowska, Bolesław Tejkowski, Leszek Wierzchowski. +Kampania przedwyborcza. +"Zobacz też: czarny PR podczas kampanii przed wyborami prezydenckimi w 2005" +Kampania przedwyborcza Lecha Kaczyńskiego. +19 marca 2005 jako pierwszy zgłosił swoją chęć wystartowania w wyborach prezydenckich w 2005 z ramienia Prawa i Sprawiedliwości. Jego sztab wyborczy został zarejestrowany przez Państwową Komisję Wyborczą 23 czerwca 2005. +Poparcia udzieliły mu: Chrześcijański Ruch Samorządowy, Forum Młodych Prawo i Sprawiedliwość, Niezależny Samorządny Związek Zawodowy Solidarność, Polski Ruch Uwłaszczeniowy, Rodzina Radia Maryja, Społeczne Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej, Stowarzyszenie Patriotyczne "Viritim", Zjednoczenie Chrześcijańsko-Narodowe. +W I turze wyborów, 9 października, głosy na Lecha Kaczyńskiego oddało 4 947 927 wyborców (33,10%), dzięki czemu zajął drugie miejsce tuż za Donaldem Tuskiem i zmierzył się z nim w II turze, 23 października 2005. +Kampania przedwyborcza Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza. +28 czerwca 2005 Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz ogłosił, że będzie kandydował na urząd prezydenta w wyborach. Poparcia udzieliło mu Stowarzyszenia Ordynacka, które całym kraju zebrało prawie 50 tysięcy głosów poparcia dla kandydatury Cimoszewicza na urząd Prezydenta RP oraz urzędujący Prezydent Aleksander Kwaśniewski +3 lipca na konwencji wyborczej SLD Cimoszewicz uzyskał poparcie tej partii w nadchodzących wyborach, a wcześniej, 2 lipca poparcie uzyskał także od Unii Lewicy III RP. Poparcia udzieliły mu także Federacja Młodych Socjaldemokratów i fundacja Jolanty Kwaśniewskiej "Porozumienie bez barier". +Szefem komitetu wyborczego została Jolanta Kwaśniewska, natomiast szefową sztabu wyborczego została była wiceprzewodnicząca SLD Katarzyna Piekarska. W skład komitetu wyborczego Cimoszewicza weszli politycy SLD i innych formacji lewicowych, w tym m.in. ostatni premier PRL Mieczysław Rakowski, a także niektórzy zwolennicy byłej Unii Wolności m.in. wicemarszałek Senatu Kazimierz Kutz oraz inne osoby publiczne – jak np. prof. Aleksander Krawczuk, prof. Karol Modzelewski, prof. Jacek Wódz, prof. Jacek Majchrowski, prof. Janusz Czapiński, Jerzy Hoffman, Olga Lipińska, Bohdan Łazuka, Janusz Stanny, Xymena Zaniewska, Grzegorz Lato, Andrzej Piasek Piaseczny, Zbigniew Wodecki. +14 września 2005 roku ogłosił rezygnację z kandydowania na urząd prezydenta oraz wycofanie się z życia publicznego. 16 września członkowie jego sztabu założyli stowarzyszenie Fair Play w Polityce, które za swój cel wzięło "walkę o czystość zasad w polityce". +Sprawa zakupu akcji PKN Orlen. +W końcu lipca tygodnik "Wprost", zarzucił Cimoszewiczowi, że kupił akcje PKN Orlen w kluczowych dla losów spółki dniach (tj. gdy decydowała się sprawa zakupu pakietu akcji tej spółki przez Jana Kulczyka),zarabiając na tej transakcji około 160 000 złotych. Do posiadania tych akcji nie przyznał się zaś w oświadczeniu majątkowym. Cimoszewicz bronił się, iż był jedynie pośrednikiem, a akcje kupił za pieniądze córki i zięcia, zamieszkałych na stałe w Stanach Zjednoczonych. "Wprost" stwierdził wówczas, że Cimoszewicz dopuścił się przestępstwa skarbowego, gdyż nie zgłosił pożyczki urzędowi skarbowemu. +Po tej sprawie poparcie w sondażach dla Cimoszewicza zaczęło spadać. +Cztery lata po wyborach, w roku 2009, Małgorzata Cimoszewicz-Harlan (córka Cimoszewicza), wygrała przed sądem amerykańskim proces o zniesławienie, wytoczony tygodnikowi "Wprost". Ława przysięgłych w Chicago orzekła, że informacje podane przez tygodnik są nieprawdziwe i znieważył on godność osobistą państwa Harlan; zasądzono kwotę odszkodowania w wysokości 5 milionów dolarów. +Sprawa Anny Jaruckiej. +11 sierpnia, w czwartek, do komisji śledczej ds. PKN Orlen dotarło oświadczenie byłej asystentki Cimoszewicza. Anna Jarucka twierdziła w nim, iż dostała pisemne pozwolenie Cimoszewicza (przedstawiła ksero) na zmianę treści jego oświadczenia majątkowego w kwestii akcji PKN Orlen, które nie były do niego wpisane. Jarucka zgłosiła się najpierw do Wojciecha Brochwicza, byłego wiceministra spraw wewnętrznych i oficera służb specjalnych, radcy prawnego i eksperta PO, członka jej Rady Programowej. Ten zainteresował tą sprawą posła PO, członka komisji ds. PKN Orlen Konstantego Miodowicza, który uwierzył w słowa Jaruckiej i zdecydował się przedstawić ją opinii publicznej. +Wcześniej już członkowie komisji śledczej ds. PKN Orlen wezwali Cimoszewicza do stawienia się przed jej obliczem. Ten jednak odmówił, co było szeroko komentowane w mediach. +Lewica otwarcie oskarżała o prowokację służby specjalne. Tomasz Nałęcz, szef sztabu wyborczego Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza, w swoich wypowiedziach chętnie przypominał o posiadanym przez Miodowicza stopniu pułkownika. Donald Tusk, unikający do tej pory wypowiedzi na temat sprawy Jaruckiej, nazwał Nałęcza "najemnikiem Cimoszewicza", ponieważ ten oskarżał PO o spreparowanie całej sprawy. Nałęcz stwierdził, iż Cimoszewicz pozwie Tuska do sądu za wypowiedź o "najemniku". +Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz bronił się twierdząc, że zamiana oświadczenia w świetle prawa nie jest możliwa (można jedynie zamieścić aneks do oświadczenia majątkowego, poprawiający błędy). Jego upoważnienie było zaś nieudolnie podrobione, sygnowane nieużywanym faksymile, które miała przywłaszczyć sobie Jarucka. Zdaniem Cimoszewicza Jarucka mogła mieć żal do niego za odmowę protekcji w sprawie jej wyjazdu z mężem na placówkę zagraniczną (przedstawił wysłany do niego list z prośbą o poparcie). Istniała również kwestia problemów Jaruckiej z prawem, dotyczących domniemanej kradzieży pieniędzy dokonanej przez Jarucką. +Efektem dochodzenia prokuratury było ostatecznie przedstawienie zarzutów Annie Jaruckiej, między innymi o składanie fałszywych zeznań i ujawnienie tajemnicy służbowej. +Po tych wydarzeniach Cimoszewicz zrezygnował ze startu w I turze wyborów. Powodami tej decyzji miały być według niego ataki ze strony oponentów politycznych na niego samego i jego rodzinę. Pozostali kandydaci odrzucali tę argumentację, podkreślając że Cimoszewicz zrezygnował z uwagi na topniejące poparcie w sondażach. To zaś utracił jeszcze przed sprawą Jaruckiej. +31 maja 2010 roku Anna Jarucka została skazana na 1,5 roku więzienia w zawieszeniu na 5 lat przez Sąd Okręgowy w Warszawie. Uznano ją za winną wszystkich przedstawionych jej zarzutów tj. +Spór o biografię dziadka Donalda Tuska. +Jacek Kurski w czasie kampanii prezydenckiej, stwierdził, że Józef Tusk, nieżyjący dziadek Donalda Tuska, ochotniczo wstąpił do Wehrmachtu. +Dla Kurskiego służba dziadka Tuska w Wehrmachcie miała być podstawą do zarzucenia kandydatowi PO proniemieckich poglądów. Donald Tusk odrzucił te oskarżenia twierdząc, że jego dziadek nigdy nie służył w hitlerowskiej armii. Przeciwnicy zarzucili kandydatowi PO, że musiał jako historyk znać losy Józefa Tuska, ale ukrył je obawiając się ich negatywnego wpływu na kampanię. Po kilku dniach media ujawniły pełną historię dziadka. Wielu Kaszubów czy Ślązaków zostało w czasie II wojny światowej zmuszonych do służby w Wehrmachcie. Józef Tusk był jednym z nich. Jednak po kilku miesiącach Józef Tusk zniknął z niemieckiej ewidencji, a potem służył w Polskich Siłach Zbrojnych w Wielkiej Brytanii. +Kurskiemu zarzucono przedstawianie Józefa Tuska w fałszywym świetle. Lech Kaczyński przed drugą turą wyborów odciął się od działań Kurskiego, który został przez sąd partyjny wykluczony z PiS. Jednak po wygranych wyborach, Kurskiego przywrócono jako członka partii. Spór o dziadka stał się jednym z konfliktów, który być może był jedną z przyczyn rozpadu przedwyborczej koalicji PO-PiS i utworzenia rządu Marcinkiewicza z poparciem PiS, Samoobrony, LPR i PSL. +Poparcie kandydatów po pierwszej turze. +Lech Kaczyński zabiegał po pierwszej turze o poparcie innych kandydatów. Poparł go m.in. przewodniczący Samoobrony Andrzej Lepper oraz liderzy PSL. Uzyskał też poparcie LPR, a także związków zawodowych (NSZZ Solidarność), jak również niektórych polityków lewicowych, m.in. Ryszarda Bugaja (dawniej Unia Pracy) czy Adama Gierka (syn byłego I sekretarza KC PZPR Edwarda Gierka). Poparł go również znany przedsiębiorca Roman Kluska, a także media związane z Radiem Maryja. Prezydent Aleksander Kwaśniewski, były prezydent Lech Wałęsa oraz Henryka Bochniarz w II turze udzielili poparcia Donaldowi Tuskowi. +SLD ogłosił, że nie popiera żadnego z kandydatów na prezydenta w drugiej turze i pozostawia decyzje wyborcom. +Kalendarium. +Lech Kaczyński rozpoczął prezentację spotów reklamowych na antenie TVP przed ogłoszeniem kalendarza wyborczego, co wywołało jednak kontrowersje, gdyż Państwowa Komisja Wyborcza uznała za niezgodne z prawem prowadzenie kampanii wyborczej przed oficjalnym ogłoszeniem kalendarza wyborczego. +PKW w swoim oświadczeniu uznała, że emitowanie spotów telewizyjnych jest dozwolone wyłącznie od 15 dnia przed terminem wyborów. Mimo to ukazały się również spoty z udziałem Donalda Tuska i Marka Borowskiego. Kandydaci i ich sztaby bronią się przed zarzutami, twierdząc, że spoty reklamowe promują ich partie, a nie osoby kandydatów na prezydenta. +Anna Jarucka przesłała pismo komisji ds. PKN Orlen, dotyczące domniemanej zmiany oświadczenia majątkowego przez marszałka Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza. +Zbigniew Religa oficjalnie ogłosił, że rezygnuje. Swoje poparcie przekazał Donaldowi Tuskowi. +Z kandydowania zrezygnował Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz. Cimoszewicz nie udzielił żadnemu kandydatowi swojego poparcia oraz zapowiedział wycofanie się z życia publicznego. +Zginął w wypadku samochodowym Daniel Podrzycki, kandydat Polskiej Partii Pracy. +Maciej Giertych wycofał się z wyborów prezydenckich. Wezwał też innych kandydatów, którzy nie mają szans na zwycięstwo, aby również zrezygnowali, umożliwiając rozstrzygnięcie tych wyborów już w I turze. +Leszek Bubel, Adam Słomka, Liwiusz Ilasz, Stanisław Tymiński i Jan Pyszko złożyli protest do PKW przeciwko dyskryminowaniu ich przez media publiczne. +Partia Demokratyczna zdecydowała, iż w drugiej turze wyborów prezydenckich poprze Donalda Tuska. +Marek Borowski stwierdził, iż w drugiej turze wyborów prezydenckich bliżej jest mu do Donalda Tuska i to na niego odda swój głos. +Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe i Jarosław Kalinowski poparli przed drugą turą wyborów prezydenckich kandydaturę Lecha Kaczyńskiego. +Andrzej Lepper oficjalnie poparł kandydaturę Lecha Kaczyńskiego. +Sprawozdania z kampanii. +Zgodnie z prawem wszystkie komitety wyborcze złożyły raporty dotyczące wydatków do Państwowej Komisji Wyborcze. Raporty sztabów Donalda Tuska, Andrzeja Leppera, Leszka Bubla, Jana Pyszki, Liwiusza Ilasza oraz Janusza Korwin-Mikkego zostały odrzucone, co wiązało się z nałożeniem na nie kar finansowych. Komitet Tuska przekroczył limit sumy wydatków oraz zbyt wiele przeznaczył na ogłoszenia wyborcze w telewizji. Uchybienia innych komitetów miały różny charakter i dotyczyły zwykle niezgodności w finansach z prawem wyborczym. Sprawozdania Lecha Kaczyńskiego, Henryki Bochniarz, Marka Borowskiego, Jarosława Kalinowskiego, Stanisława Tymińskiego oraz Adama Słomki zostały przyjęte przez PKW. +Należy pokreślić, że komisja oceniała wyłącznie zgodność informacji przedstawionych przez komitety z ustawą. Jeżeli zataili niekorzystne wydatki lub posłużyli się "kreatywną księgowością", PKW nie była w stanie ocenić skali takich zjawisk. Prawo nie zezwalało tej instytucji na rzeczywiste sprawdzenie wydatków poniesionych w czasie kampanii. Jeżeli komitet złamał prawo i o sam na siebie nie doniósł w sprawozdaniu, zostało ono przyjęte. +Próbę niezależnej oceny faktycznych kosztów kampanii podjęła Fundacja Batorego. W sporządzonym raporcie oceniono zarówno jakość sprawozdań, jak i rzetelność w przedstawieniu rzeczywistych wydatków. Niezależni eksperci doszukali się wielu nieprawidłowości również w wydatkach komitetów, których sprawozdania zaakceptował PKW. Fundacja stworzyła zespół monitorujący, który w oparciu o niezależne dane szacował koszt reklam wyborczych. Potem przeprowadzono analizę raportów finansowych. Porównano sposób zaksięgowania wydatków z załączonymi fakturami. Okazało się, że komitet wyborczy Lecha Kaczyńskiego źle przypisał sporą część wydatków na kampanię zewnętrzną, co zmniejszyło oficjalną kwotę wydatków na tablice reklamowe. +W programie TVN 14 czerwca 2006 roku Jacek Kurski oskarżył komitet wyborczy Donalda Tuska o wykorzystanie billboardów odkupionych za bezcen od PZU w czasie kampanii wyborczej. Poseł PiS stwierdził, że pochodziły one z akcji na rzecz bezpieczeństwa na drogach "Stop wariatom drogowym", którą ubezpieczyciel miał nagle przerwać, aby przekazać miejsca na reklamy kandydatowi PO. Według Kurskiego był to efekt zmowy między pracownikami PZU oraz sztabem Tuska. W reakcji na doniesienia posła PiS, 19 czerwca prokuratora wszczęła śledztwo w tej sprawie. +W odpowiedzi 20 czerwca przedstawiciele sztabu Tuska zarzucili komitetowi Kaczyńskiego, że to on korzystał z usług firm, które wcześniej prowadziły kampanię "Stop wariatom drogowym". Posłowie PO stwierdzili, że w sprawozdaniu komitetu wyborczego Kaczyńskiego wykazano zakup większej ilości tablic reklamowych, za mniejszą sumę, niż w sprawozdaniu komitetu Tuska. Zdaniem posłów PO, miało to prowadzić do wniosku, że kandydat PiS kupował swoje billboardy niezwykle tanio. +Wybory prezydenckie, wyniki. +Pierwsze głosowanie. +Frekwencja. +Według informacji podanej przez PKW frekwencja w wyborach do godz. 10:30 wyniosła w skali kraju 8,19%, a do godz. 16:30 – 34,58%. Ostatecznie do urn poszło 15 051 157 Polaków, a frekwencja w skali kraju wyniosła 49,74%. +Najwyższą frekwencję zanotowano w woj. mazowieckim (54,55%), a najniższą w opolskim (41,24%). Wśród powiatów najwyższą frekwencję zanotowano w Sopocie (64,06%), a najniższą w powiecie krapkowickim (32,44%). +Ponowne głosowanie. +Frekwencja. +Według komunikatu podanego przez PKW do godz. 10.30 frekwencja w skali kraju wyniosła 8,56%. Najwyższa 28,53% była w gminie Korzenna w powiecie nowosądeckim w województwie małopolskim zaś najniższa 1,65% w gminie Wądroże Wielkie w powiecie jaworskim w województwie dolnośląskim. +Do godz. 16.30 frekwencja w skali kraju wyniosła 35.45% i była wyższa w stosunku do pierwszego głosowania o blisko punkt procentowy. Najwyższa 60,13% była w gminie Godziszów w powiecie janowskim w województwie lubelskim zaś najniższa 16,29% w gminie Trzciel w powiecie międzyrzeckim w województwie lubuskim. +Najwyższą frekwencję zanotowano w woj. mazowieckim (54,55%), a najniższą w opolskim (41,24%). Wśród powiatów najwyższą frekwencję zanotowano w Sopocie (64,06%), a najniższą w powiecie krapkowickim (32,44%). +Zwycięstwo Lecha Kaczyńskiego. +Lech Kaczyński wygrał wybory prezydenckie uzyskując poparcie 54,04% wyborców przy frekwencji 50,99%. Po raz pierwszy w historii bezpośrednich wyborów prezydenckich w Polsce zwycięskiemu kandydatowi I tury wyborów nie udało się osiągnąć ostatecznego sukcesu w II turze. +Największe poparcie uzyskał w województwach: podkarpackim, lubelskim, świętokrzyskim, podlaskim, małopolskim, łódzkim, mazowieckim i kujawsko-pomorskim. +Ważność wyborów. +23 listopada 2005 roku Sąd Najwyższy w składzie całej Izby Pracy, Ubezpieczeń Społecznych i Spraw Publicznych po rozpoznaniu wniesionych protestów wyborczych rozstrzygnął uchwałą (III SW 195/05) o ważności wyboru Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej w dniu 23 października 2005 r. +Luboszyce (województwo opolskie) + +Luboszyce (dodatkowa nazwa w j. niem. Luboschütz) – wieś w Polsce, położona w województwie opolskim, w powiecie opolskim, w gminie Łubniany, nad rzekami Małą Panwią i Jemielnicą, na północ od Opola. Miejscowość liczy ok. 1000 mieszkańców. +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki w źródłach historycznych o istnieniu Luboszyc pochodzą z 1295 r. Nazwa miejscowości w języku polskim w XIX w. to Lubościce. +Przed II wojną światową do miejscowości jeździł z Opola autobus miejski linii nr 4. 8 czerwca 1936 r. w miejsce nazwy Luboschütz wprowadzono niemiecką nazwę Liebtal. 15 marca 1947 r. nadano miejscowości nazwę Luboszyce. W latach 1954–1972 Luboszyce były siedzibą Gromadzkiej Rady Narodowej. W skład gromady wchodziły oprócz Luboszyc pobliskie miejscowości: Zawada, Gosławice i Biadacz. W tym czasie w Luboszycach funkcjonowała dwuletnia Szkoła Przysposobienia Rolniczego. +Klemens XIV + +Klemens XIV (łac. "Clemens XIV"), właściwie Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio Ganganelli (ur. 31 października 1705 w Santarcangelo di Romagna - zm. 22 września 1774) – papież w okresie od 19 maja 1769 do 22 września 1774, franciszkanin konwentualny. +Urodził się w Sant’Arcangelo koło Rimini w rodzinie wiejskiego lekarza Lorenza Ganganelli. Po wstąpieniu do zakonu franciszkanów przyjął imię Lorenzo (pol. Wawrzyniec), po swoim ojcu. W 1724 uzyskał święcenie kapłańskie. W 1731 obronił doktorat teologii, był nauczycielem w szkołach zakonnych. Został wybrany na rektora Kolegium Św. Bonifacego w Rzymie (1740), w 1741 powierzono mu godność generalnego definitora zakonu. W 1753 i 1756 nie przyjął wyboru na generała franciszkanów. Jako uznany teolog został mianowany radcą Św. Oficjum (inkwizycji), a 24 września 1759 wyniesiony przez papieża Klemensa XIII do godności kardynalskiej, z tytułem prezbitera S. Lorenzo in Panisperna. Podobno na nominację kardynalską o. Ganganelliego nalegał przełożony generalny zakonu jezuitów Lorenzo Ricci. +Konklawe 1769 po śmierci Klemensa XIII przebiegało pod znakiem problemu likwidacji zakonu jezuitów. Upadła m.in. kandydatura kardynała Branciforte, którego ewentualny wybór zawetowali przedstawiciele Francji. Jedyny zakonnik w gronie elektorów, Ganganelli, oświadczył niejednoznacznie, że przeprowadzenie kasaty jakiegokolwiek zakonu jest możliwe do przeprowadzenia w zgodzie z prawem kanonicznym. Zdanie to przeważyło – 19 maja 1769 został wybrany na papieża i przyjął imię Klemensa XIV. Nie był w tym momencie jeszcze biskupem, został konsekrowany 28 maja 1769, a 4 czerwca 1769 koronowany. +Zdanie wypowiedziane na konklawe nie oznaczało faktycznie zgody papieża na likwidację jezuitów. W przypadku Klemensa XIV było to szczególnie trudne, gdyż przed wyborem wielokrotnie popierał sprawy jezuitów, a jedną ze swoich prac teologicznych "Diatriba theologica" (1743) dedykował pamięci założyciela jezuitów Ignacego Loyoli. Wpływ europejskich mocarstw był jednak zbyt silny i po kilku latach 21 lipca 1773 papież podpisał brewe Dominus ac Redemptor noster, rozwiązujące zakon jezuitów i likwidujące domy zakonne w Europie (poza Prusami i Rosją, których władcy nie uznali pisma papieskiego). Jezuici zatrudnieni w administracji państwa papieskiego utracili swoje stanowiska, a przełożony Ricci wraz z najbliższymi współpracownikami trafił do więzienia na Zamku Św. Anioła w Rzymie. Lorenzo Ricci zmarł w więzieniu. +Z innych wydarzeń z okresu pontyfikatu Klemensa XIV można wymienić uregulowanie stosunków dyplomatycznych z Portugalią (m.in. za cenę serii nominacji biskupich po myśli portugalskiego pierwszego ministra Pombala oraz miejsca w Kolegium Kardynalskim dla brata Pombala) oraz I rozbiór Polski, któremu papież próbował daremnie zapobiec w 1772. Klemens XIV wycofał się z poparcia dla wygnanej katolickiej dynastii Stuartów, zyskując przychylność Anglii. +Klemens XIV zmarł w Rzymie i został pochowany w kościele SS. Apostoli (Św. Apostołów). +Płyta birmańska + +Płyta birmańska – niewielka płyta tektoniczna, położona w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej, uznawana za część większej płyty euroazjatyckiej. Na tej płycie położone są wyspy Andamany, Nikobary oraz północno-zachodnia część Sumatry. +Na wschód od niej leży płyta sundajska, od której oddzielona jest strefą ryftową i uskokami transformacyjnymi (rozbieżna granica płyt tektonicznych). Na zachód znajduje się płyta indoaustralijska (płyta indyjska). +26 grudnia 2004 na granicy między płytą birmańską i indoaustralijską nastąpiło przesunięcie na odcinku o długości blisko 1200 km. Przesunięcie pionowe na granicznym uskoku tektonicznym wyniosło około 15 metrów. Trzęsienie ziemi, którego magnituda osiągnęła 9,0 stopni, wywołało przesunięcie znacznego obszaru dna oceanicznego oraz fale tsunami, które zabiły ponad 150 tys. osób na wybrzeżach Oceanu Indyjskiego. +Według teorii tektoniki płyt w strefie subdukcji uformował się Rów Sundajski, w którym płyta indoaustralijska zanurza się pod płytę birmańską. +Pacyficzny pierścień ognia + +Pacyficzny pierścień ognia – strefa częstych trzęsień ziemi i erupcji wulkanicznych, która otacza Ocean Spokojny. Obejmuje nieomal ciągły pas rowów oceanicznych oraz wulkanicznych łańcuchów górskich. Nazywany jest także okołopacyficznym pasem sejsmicznym. Ocenia się, że zdarza się tutaj około 81% większych trzęsień ziemi, występuje tam 90% wszystkich czynnych wulkanów. +Twierdzenie o związku spinu ze statystyką + +Związek spinu ze statystyką – grupa obrotów posiada w przestrzeni trójwymiarowej dwa rodzaje reprezentacji: reprezentacje proste oraz reprezentacje nakrywające. Jeżeli funkcja falowa cząstki transformuje się podczas obrotów zgodnie z regułami reprezentacji prostych, to jest ona bozonem. Bozony mają spin o wartościach całkowitych. Drugą grupę stanowią cząstki, których funkcja falowa transformuje się zgodnie z regułami reprezentacji nakrywającej; nazywamy je fermionami, zaś ich spin przyjmuje wartości będące liczbami ułamkowymi (1/2, 3/2 itp). Dla innych wymiarów przestrzeni (np. w dwóch wymiarach) możliwe są także reprezentacje grupy obrotów o bardziej skomplikowanych własnościach, i tym samym podział na bozony i fermiony może nie być właściwy. +W kwantowej teorii pola istnieje ogólne twierdzenie o związku między spinem a statystyką. Twierdzenie to wynika z podstawowego postulatu przyczynowości zjawisk fizycznych. Twierdzenie to jest prawdziwe w czterowymiarowej czasoprzestrzeni Minkowskiego. Jeżeli układ fizyczny realizowany jest w przestrzeni mniej wymiarowej (np. gaz elektronowy mający zdolność ruchu tylko w płaszczyźnie) to związek ten nie musi obowiązywać (anyony, kwantowy efekt Halla). +Postulat o związku spinu ze statystyką dla cząstek nierozróżnialnych – Funkcja falowa układu cząstek nierozróżnialnych o spinie połówkowym (tzn. 1/2, 3/2 itd) musi być antysymetryczna względem zamiany współrzędnych przestrzennych i spinowych dowolnej pary cząstek. +Analogicznie → dla cząstek o spinie całkowitym (tzn. 0,1,2 itd) musi być symetryczna. +Wynika stąd, że dwa fermiony (cząstki o spinie połówkowym) nie mogą być w tym samym stanie kwantowym (Zakaz Pauliego). +Protekcjonizm + +Protekcjonizm – polityka ochrony produkcji i handlu krajowego przed konkurencją zagraniczną, głównie za pomocą ceł nakładanych na przywożone towary oraz koncesji i zakazów. +W stosunku do rynku krajowego głównym narzędziem tej polityki są cła przywozowe i cła eksportowe oraz subsydia. Ochrona produkcji krajowej może również dotyczyć rynków eksportowych, narzędziem ochrony są w tym przypadku premie eksportowe. +Niektóre kraje wykorzystują pozacelne formy protekcjonizmu, takie jak przepisy sanitarno-zdrowotne, przepisy o ochronie środowiska naturalnego w odniesieniu do towarów importowanych na ich terytorium. +Protekcjonizm może także dotyczyć ochrony waluty własnego kraju. Protekcjonizm walutowy ("protectionism of the currency") polega na stosowaniu odpowiednich restrykcji, których celem jest sterowanie ruchem kursu rynkowego waluty w kierunku zgodnym z polityką gospodarczą rządu. +Protekcjonizm często prowadził do wojny celnej: pomiędzy Francją i Włochami (1887-1898), pomiędzy Francją i Szwajcarią (1893-1895), pomiędzy Niemcami a Rosją (1893) oraz ostatnia najbardziej odczuwalna dla Europy, pomiędzy Ameryką a państwami Europejskimi (1930) tj."Ustawa Smoota-Hawleya" podpisana 17 czerwca 1930 roku w Stanach Zjednoczonych zwiększała do rekordowych poziomów cła na ponad 20 tysięcy towarów importowych czego min. efektem było spowolnienie gospodarcze i wzrost bezrobocia i jedną z kilku głównych przyczyn depresji w Niemczech. +W 1845 roku Frédéric Bastiat opublikował satyrę pt. Petycja producentów świec, wyśmiewającą politykę protekcjonizmu. +Masatoshi Koshiba + +Ukończył Uniwersytet Tokijski w 1951, od 1970 był wieloletnim profesorem tej uczelni. Doktorat obronił w 1955 na Uniwersytecie Rochester w stanie Nowy Jork. Na Uniwersytecie Tokijskim pracował w Międzynarodowym Centrum Fizyki Cząstek Elementarnych. +Opracował detektory neutrin Kamiokande i SuperKamiokande (zaczął działać pod koniec 1996). Detektory te potwierdziły wyniki badań R. Davisa. Podstawowa różnica między detektorami Davisa i Koshiby polegała na tym, że Kamiokande rejestrował czas zjawiska i kierunek, z którego dochodziły neutrina. Mógł też dowieść, że mierzone neutrina pochodziły ze Słońca. Aparatura Kamiokande odkryła też neutrina, które dotarły do nas po wybuchu supernowej SN 1987A w lutym 1987. W 2002 otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie fizyki, wspólnie z amerykańskim badaczem Raymondem Davisem. Uhonorowano ich za prace nad detekcją kosmicznych neutrin. Koshiba i Davis otrzymali wspólnie połowę nagrody, druga połowa przypadła Riccardo Giacconiemu. +Został odznaczony m.in. japońskim Orderem Kultury. +Ozonoliza + +Ozonoliza - technika analityczna ustalania struktury chemicznej węglowodorowej części organicznych związków chemicznych opierająca się na reakcji chemicznej ozonu z tymi związkami i jednocześnie nazwa samej reakcji. +Stosunkowo nietrwałe ozonki pod wpływem wody rozkładają się do odpowiednich aldehydów. Rodzaj aldehydów dowodzi miejsca występowania wiązania podwójnego. Gdy wiązanie podwójne występuje w pozycji 1 - powstaje aldehyd mrówkowy (metanal), gdy wiązanie występuje w pozycji 2 powstaje aldehyd octowy (etanal), gdy w pozycji 3 aldehyd propionowy (propanal) itd. W toku rozpadu ozonku pod wpływem wody powstaje też nadtlenek wodoru. Aby nie utleniał on tworzących się aldehydów do środowiska reakcji dodaje się cynk. +Współcześnie ozonoliza nie jest już stosowana praktycznie do badania struktury związków organicznych, gdyż ogólnie dostępne są szybsze techniki analizy strukturalnej takiej jak NMR czy spektrometria mas. +Oprócz znaczenia analitycznego, ozonoliza ma też znaczenie technologiczne. Jest ona stosowana w przemyśle do przyspieszania biodegradacji ścieków organicznych oraz jako jeden z etapów syntezy niektórych kwasów karboksylowych i aldehydów. +Mechanizm reakcji jest dość złożony. Pierwszym stadium jest tworzenie orientacyjnego kompleksu przedreakcyjnego. Jego istnienie stwierdzono na drodze obliczeń hiperpowierzchni energii potencjalnej reakcji ozonu z etylenem oraz potwierdzono na drodze eksperymentalnej . Następnie ma miejsce tworzenie pięcioczłonowego cykloadduktu zgodnie z regułami cykloaddycji . Dopiero w wyniku przegrupowania pierwotnego produktu powstają ozonki. +Rentgenografia strukturalna + +Rentgenografia strukturalna to technika analityczna stosowana w krystalografii i chemii. +W krystalografii technika ta jest stosowana w celu ustalenia wymiarów i geometrii komórki elementarnej tworzącej daną sieć krystaliczną. W chemii metoda ta umożliwia dokładne ustalenie struktury związków chemicznych tworzących analizowane kryształy. +Zasada działania. +Wykonywanie pomiaru. +Do wykonania analizy potrzebny jest monokryształ danego związku chemicznego o możliwie jak najbardziej regularnym kształcie i posiadający jak najmniej defektów. Kryształ ten umieszcza się w dyfraktometrze i niekiedy schładza przy pomocy par ciekłego azotu do temperatury rzędu 100 K (przy użyciu par helu nawet do kilku K), aby zmniejszyć niedokładności wynikające z termicznych drgań atomów. Kryształ naświetla się silną, monochromatyczną wiązką promieni X, zmieniając stopniowo kąt jej padania na kryształ (poprzez jego obrót) i rejestrując zmiany w obrazie dyfrakcyjnym po przejściu promieni przez kryształ. Obecnie do rejestracji obrazów dyfrakcyjnych używa się kamer CCD - są to matryce CCD chłodzone ogniwami Peltiera do temperatury ok. -60 °C w celu zmniejszenia szumów termicznych. Elementem kamery jest też odpowiedni scyntylator, który pochłania energię promieniowania X, a następnie emituje światło rejestrowane przez matrycę CCD. W przeszłości dane dyfrakcyjne były rejestrowane za pomocą detektora punktowego lub metodami fotograficznymi. +Oprócz próbek monokrystalicznych w rentgenografii strukturalnej bada się także próbki polikrystaliczne (proszki). Do ich badania stosuje się tzw. metodę proszkową – badana próbka jest rozcierana na proszek, a następnie umieszczana w specjalnej kuwecie, mocowanej w uchwycie goniometru dyfraktometru. +Zastosowania. +Metoda ta jest podstawowym narzędziem w chemii organicznej, metaloorganicznej i biochemii do ustalania rzeczywistych struktur złożonych związków chemicznych. Metoda ta umożliwiła m.in. wyznaczenie dokładnej struktury mioglobiny przez Maxa Perutza i Johna Cowdery Kendrewa w 1958, za co otrzymali oni Nagrodę Nobla (w roku 1962). Technika ta odegrała też decydującą rolę w ustaleniu struktury podwójnej helisy DNA przez Rosalindę Franklin, Jamesa Watsona i Francisa Cricka. +Nie można jej stosować dla ustalania struktury cząsteczek w fazie gazowej i ciekłej, która często może być inna od tej, jaką przyjmują te same cząsteczki w fazie krystalicznej. +Dane strukturalne pochodzące z rentgenografii są gromadzone w specjalnych bazach danych, do których dostęp można uzyskać albo poprzez wysłanie do nich określonej liczby własnych danych lub na zasadach komercyjnych. Do najbardziej znanych tego rodzaju baz zalicza się: Protein Databank (makrocząsteczki), Cambridge Structure Database (związki organiczne i metaloorganiczne) oraz ICSD (związki nieorganiczne). +Wady i zalety. +Ważną i podstawową zaletą rentgenografii strukturalnej jest fakt, że w przeciwieństwie do wielu innych metod jakościowych i ilościowych stosowanych w chemii próbka zwykle nie ulega zniszczeniu w trakcie badania. Oznacza to, że można ją ponownie wykorzystać do innych badań. Ma to duże znaczenie w badaniu unikatowych materiałów np. archeologicznych, zabytkowych lub medycznych, ale także np. hodowanego długo i pieczołowicie kryształu. +Ogromną zaletą tej metody jest możliwość dokładnego ustalenia struktury chemicznej związków chemicznych z niemal absolutną pewnością, umożliwiającą zbudowanie ich rzeczywistego modelu przestrzennego. Żadna inna metoda analityczna nie daje takiej pewności i zawsze zostawia możliwość różnej interpretacji wyników. Jest to również jedyna metoda pozwalająca bezpośrednio określić absolutną konfigurację cząsteczek chiralnych. +Wadą rentgenografii jest konieczność uzyskania czystego monokryształu analizowanego związku chemicznego o wymiarach liniowych rzędu 0,1–1 mm. W przypadku niektórych związków chemicznych wyhodowanie takiego kryształu jest z wielu względów bardzo trudne, a czasem wręcz niemożliwe. Niektóre kryształy mogą być nietrwałe w temperaturze pokojowej, bądź ulegać rozkładowi pod wpływem promieniowania X, co również stwarza pewne ograniczenia. +Inną wadą rentgenografii jest stosunkowo wysoki koszt i czasochłonność wykonywania takiej analizy. Nowoczesny monokrystaliczny dyfraktometr rentgenowski kosztuje w granicach 100–500 tys. €. Pomiar danych dla przeciętnego związku organicznego lub metaloorganicznego zabiera w zależności od urządzenia od kilku godzin do ok. dwóch tygodni. Analiza otrzymanych danych (rozwiązanie struktury związku), jeśli jego struktura jest w miarę prosta, jest dość szybka, natomiast w przypadku bardzo złożonych struktur, np. kryształów białek, czas ten może wynosić nawet kilka tygodni. +W początkowym okresie rozwoju rentgenografii jej najistotniejszą wadą był sam fakt używania silnego promieniowania X, na które narażone były osoby obsługujące dyfraktometry, co mogło u nich wywoływać chorobę popromienną. Aparaty te wymagały stałej obecności operatora, co wielu z nich przypłaciło życiem (m.in. Rosalind Franklin). Współcześnie jednak aparaty te umieszcza się w obudowach tak skonstruowanych, aby nie przepuszczały promieniowania rentgenowskiego i są one obsługiwane zdalnie za pomocą komputera. Jednym z podstawowych zabezpieczeń nowoczesnego dyfraktometru rentgenowskiego jest zestaw czujników uniemożliwiających rozpoczęcie pomiaru w przypadku, gdy jego obudowa jest otwarta. +Heera Lal Devpura + +Heera Lal Devpura (ur. 1925, zm 22 grudnia 2004), polityk indyjski. +Z wykształcenia prawnik. Działał w ruchu niepodległościowym, w 1942 r. był krótko więziony. Wieloletni członek Indyjskiej Partii Kongresowej, przez siedem kadencji deputowany do zgromadzenia stanowego Radżastanu, minister w kilku gabinetach stanowych. W 1985 r. (luty-marzec) był premierem rządu stanowego Radżastanu. +Oligomery + +Oligomery – to związki chemiczne utworzone z niewielkiej liczby powtarzających się fragmentów (z greckiego ολιγος lub oligos - kilka) zwanych merami. +Granica między oligomerami a polimerami jest bardzo płynna. W praktyce, przyjmuje się, że oligomerem jest związek, który nie posiada jeszcze w pełni wykształconych cech fizycznych (np. temperatury topnienia, lepkości itp.) charakterystycznych dla "prawdziwego" polimeru zbudowanego z tych samych merów. W większości przypadków masowo stosowanych tworzyw syntetycznych (np. polietylenu) graniczną liczbą merów przy której związek zaczyna mieć już typowe cechy użytkowe polimeru jest ok. 100. Dalszy wzrost stopnia polimeryzacji nie ma już dużego wpływu na własności fizyczne polimerów, aczkolwiek jest on wciąż zauważalny. +Oligomery są zwykle produktami ubocznymi procesów polimeryzacji i często usuwa się je z końcowego produktu, gdyż "psują" one jego własności fizyczne. Niektóre oligomery produkuje się jednak celowo, czasami po to aby je dalej przetworzyć (tzw. makromonomery), a czasami mają one same z siebie interesujące własności użytkowe i są stosowane jako dodatki do farb, substancje zagęszczające, oleje hydrauliczne a nawet dodatki do kosmetyków. +Oligomery o bardzo małej liczbie merów (do mniej więcej dziesięciu) nazywa się dodając do słowa mer, greckie liczebniki (di-, tri-, tetra-): np. dimery, trimery, tetramery itd. +Wiele oligomerów cyklicznych jest zdolna do dalszej polimeryzacji poprzez otwarcie pierścienia. Np. wcześniej wspomniany trioksan łatwo polimeryzuje do odpowiedniego polieteru - polioksymetylenu (POM), który jest tworzywem konstrukcyjnym o bardzo dobrych własnościach mechanicznych. Innymi przykładem oligomerów cyklicznych, z których otrzymuje się polimery są: cyklosiloksany, substraty do syntezy silikonów. +Oligomery w chemii bioorganicznej. +Biocząsteczki takie jak oligonukleotydy, oligosacharydy czy oligopeptydy zbudowane są jednostek (merów) nieidentycznych, odpowiednio nukleotydów, cukrów i aminokwasów. +Flerovium + +Flerovium (Fl) – pierwiastek chemiczny leżący w układzie okresowym w bloku p bezpośrednio pod ołowiem. +Pierwiastek ten został odkryty w styczniu 1999 roku przez rosyjskich naukowców w Zjednoczonym Instytucie Badań Jądrowych w Dubnej. Wyniki tych badań zostały potwierdzone przez zespoły badaczy z Berkeley i GSI w 2009 roku. Odkrycie zostało uznane przez IUPAC 1 czerwca 2011 roku. +Szczególnie interesujący jest nieodkryty dotąd izotop ze 184 neutronami w jądrze. Model powłokowy budowy jądra atomowego przewiduje, że takie jądro będzie miało wyjątkowo długi czas życia. +Nazwa. +Ze względu na położenie w układzie okresowym pod ołowiem, nazywany jest zwyczajowo eka-ołowiem. Wstępna nazwa ununquadium (Uuq) pochodzi od liczby atomowej tego pierwiastka zgodnie z systematyczną terminologią IUPAC dla transuranowców. 1 grudnia 2011 IUPAC zaproponowała ostateczną angielską nazwę pierwiastka 114 jako "flerovium" (symbol Fl). Gieorgij Florow (1913–1990) był dyrektorem Laboratorium Reakcji Jądrowych Zjednoczonego Instytutu Badań Jądrowych w Dubnej. 30 maja 2012 roku IUPAC oficjalnie zatwierdziła tę nazwę. +Winnipeg (jezioro) + +Winnipeg (ang. "Lake Winnipeg", fr. "Lac Winnipeg") – jezioro słodkowodne w środkowej części Ameryki Północnej. Leży w Kanadzie, w prowincji Manitoba, około 55 km na północ od miasta Winnipeg. Z powierzchnią 24 400 km² jest szóstym co do wielkości jeziorem w Kanadzie, wyprzedzając Ontario, jedno z Wielkich Jezior Ameryki Północnej. Długość jeziora wynosi 416 km, głębokość maksymalna 18 m, a położenie nad poziomem morza 217 m. +Jezioro Winnipeg jest pozostałością po istniejącym do ok. 8000 lat temu w tej części kontynentu amerykańskiego ogromnym (o powierzchni szacowanej na ok. 134 tys. km²) lodowcowym jeziorze Agassiz. +Jan Koteja + +Jan Koteja (ur. 17 września 1932 w Siemianowicach Śląskich, zm. 19 sierpnia 2004 w Krakowie), zoolog, profesor Akademii Rolniczej im. Hugona Kołłątaja (obecnie: Uniwersytet Rolniczy) w Krakowie. +Studia magisterskie na Wydziale Biologii i Nauk o Ziemi Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego ukończył w roku 1959 (praca magisterska "Wpływ alkaloidów sporyszu na rozwielitki") i rozpoczął pracę na Akademii Rolniczej. Rozprawę doktorską ("Morfologia i biologia Luzulaspis frontalis i L. nemorosa (Homoptera, Coccoidea)", 1966, promotor Stanisław Smreczyński młodszy) i habilitacyjną ("Comparative studies on the labium in the Coccinea (Homoptera)", 1975) obronił na Wydziale Biologii i Nauk o Ziemi UJ. W roku 1983 uzyskał tytuł profesora, ale ze względu na działalność w „Solidarności” decyzja o nadaniu tytułu została mu przekazana dopiero w roku 1987. Specjalizował się w entomologii i paleontologii, badał głównie czerwce. Był autorem wielu publikacji w tej dziedzinie (m.in. "Jak rozpoznawać czerwce", w: "Diagnostyka szkodników roślin i ich wrogów naturalnych", Warszawa 1996, redakcja J. Boczek). +Był dyrektorem Instytutu Zoologii Stosowanej (1989 - 1993), kierownikiem Katedry Zoologii i Ekologii (1993 - 1994) i prorektorem ds. studentów (1991 - 1994) Akademii Rolniczej. +W latach 1990 - 1996 redagował i wydawał akademickie pismo ""Sowizdrzał - Listy Bractwa Sowizdrzalskiego AR w Krakowie"" (ukazywało się nieregularnie). W 1985 rozpoczął wydawanie pisma "Inclusion" (pol. "Wrostek") w języku angielskim, poświęconego badaniu życia zastygłego w bursztynie. Zainicjował także wydawanie kwartalnika "Meganeura" (dotyczącego śladów życia w żywicach kopalnych), ukazującego się nakładem Fundacji Nauki Rady Europy w Strasburgu. W 2001 Stowarzyszenie Bursztynników w Polsce nadało mu tytuł "Bursztynnika Roku 2000". Był też autorem licznych artykułów publicystycznych (między innymi w Forum Akademickim) i pośmiertnie wydanej książki dotyczącej problemu niepełnosprawności ("1981 Rok Niepełnosprawnych"; Rafael, 2008). +Apollodoros z Aten (historyk) + +Apollodoros z Aten (gr. , "Apollodoros ho Athenaios", ur. około 180 p.n.e., zm. około 109 p.n.e.) – filolog, geograf i kronikarz grecki. +Karierę naukową rozpoczął w Atenach, w których studiował pod kierunkiem Diogenesa z Seleukei. Po wyjeździe Diogenesa do Rzymu w 156 p.n.e., Apollodoros udał się do Aleksandrii, by studiować u ówczesnego kierownika Biblioteki Aleksandryjskiej – Arystarcha z Samotraki. Po roku 145 p.n.e., kiedy Ptolemeusz VIII Fyskon wygnał z Aleksandrii wszystkich uczonych z muzeum i biblioteki, Apollodoros udał się początkowo na Cypr, następnie do Pergamonu, gdzie przebywał kilkanaście lat, wreszcie dotarł do Aten. +Jego głównym dziełem były zaginione "Chronika" () – wzorowany na chronologicznych badaniach Eratostenesa z Cyreny zarys dziejów cywilizacji greckiej od wojny trojańskiej (którą za Eratostenesem datował na 1184 p.n.e.) do roku 144 p.n.e. Jego filologiczne zainteresowania ogniskowały się wokół dzieł Homera. W pracy "Peri neon katalogu" (; O katalogu okrętów) dał komentarz do tzw. Katalogu Okrętów z II księgi Iliady. W liczącej 24 księgi pracy "Peri theon" (; O bogach) odnosił się do homeryckiego panteonu, dając pierwszy grecki traktat filologiczno-teologiczny. Inne dzieła Apollodorosa to: "Ges periodos" (; Opis ziemi) i "Bibliotheke" (). +Karta affinity + +Karta affinity (z ang. "to have affinity with" – darzyć kogoś sympatią) – karta płatnicza, wydawana przez bank w porozumieniu z instytucją lub organizacją działalności niekomercyjnej (non profit), w celu wspierania jej działalności. +Bank przekazuje danej jednostce część pieniędzy z prowizji (pobieranej przy każdorazowym użyciu karty przez jej posiadacza, czasami również część opłaty za wydanie. Dodatkowo niektóre banki obarczają posiadacza karty dodatkową prowizją z tytułu korzystania z tego rodzaju karty. Klient chcąc wesprzeć wybraną przez siebie organizację może dokonać wyboru spośród różnych kart. +W Polsce karty affinity stopniowo zyskują popularność, wydawane są m.in. z wyższymi uczelniami (np. UJ, AGH) i fundacjami (np. WOŚP, Fundacją Rozwoju Kardiochirurgii). +Wąż zbożowy + +Wąż zbożowy ("Pantherophis guttatus") – gatunek węża z rodziny połozowatych. +Do niedawna klasyfikowany w rodzaju "Elaphe". +Często występuje także dzika hybryda węża zbożowego i "Panthetrophis emoryi" (eng. Great Plains Ratsnake). +Wygląd. +Ubarwienie niezwykle zróżnicowane, najczęściej występujące to: tło pomarańczowe lub rudo-brązowe, na nim występują duże, nieregularne czerwone plamy w czarnych obwódkach. Brzuch jest białawy z czarnymi plamami w kształcie prostokątów. Głowa niewielka, a pysk zaokrąglony, oczy zaś mają okrągłe źrenice i złociste tęczówki. Całe ciało muskularne. +W chwili obecnej na skutek intensywnej hodowli istnieje około stu odmian barwnych węża zbożowego. +Zwykle dorasta do ok. 130 cm. Rekordowe osobniki osiągały ok. 180 cm. Waga dorosłego osobnika to ok. 400-500 g; zdarzają się osobniki ważące blisko 1kg. +Pożywienie. +Odżywia się głównie gryzoniami i jaszczurkami (głównie za młodu), sporadycznie nietoperzami i ptakami. +Rozmnażanie. +W warunkach naturalnych gody odbywają się zwykle wiosną. Samica po ok. dwóch miesiącach składa od kilku do nawet 30 jaj, z których po ok. 55-60 dniach wykluwają się młode o długości ok. 25-30 cm. Przez pierwszy tydzień odżywiają się zapasami z jaja, po czym przechodzą pierwszą wylinkę i przystępują do samodzielnego żerowania. +Występowanie. +Występuje najczęściej na polach uprawnych, zadrzewieniach i nieużytkach środkowej i południowo-wschodniej części Ameryki Północnej. +Informacje dodatkowe. +Jest to wąż powszechnie hodowany w warunkach domowych. Jest to dobry wybór dla początkujących terrarystów; nie jest objęty ochroną przepisami Unii Europejskiej. Łatwy w utrzymaniu, hodowli i rozmnażaniu, jednak karmienie młodych osobników bywa uciążliwe. +Owocem wieloletniej selektywnej hodowli jest ogromna gama odmian barwnych, oferująca mutacje w zakresie koloru i wzoru, gdzie niektóre odmiany nieznacznie tylko przypominają żyjące na wolności osobniki. +Common Language Runtime + +Common Language Runtime (z ang. Środowisko Uruchomieniowe Wspólnego Języka, w skrócie CLR) to środowisko uruchomieniowe dla platformy .NET, przewidziane do pracy na wielu systemach operacyjnych i maszynach, jak Microsoft Windows, Unix czy Macintosh. Jest to maszyna wirtualna, która wykonuje kod wyrażony w Common Intermediate Language (CIL). "Specyfikacja Wspólnego Języka" (z ang. "Common Language Specification", w skrócie CLS) określa podzbiór CLR, który kompilatory powinny obsługiwać, aby być kompatybilnymi z językami .NET. +Wspólne środowisko uruchomieniowe (Common Language Runtime, w skrócie CLR) to podstawa całego systemu .NET Framework. Wszystkie języki środowiska .NET (na przykład C# czy Visual Basic .NET), a także wszystkie biblioteki klas obecne w .NET Framework (ASP.NET, ADO.NET i inne) oparte są na CLR. Ponieważ nowe, tworzone przez Microsoft oprogramowanie, także oparte jest na .NET Framework, każdy, kto chce korzystać ze środowiska Microsoft, prędzej czy później będzie musiał zetknąć się z CLR. +Środowisko CLR kompiluje i wykonuje zapisany w standardowym języku pośrednim Microsoft (MSIL) kod aplikacji zwany kodem zarządzanym (ang. managed code), zapewniając wszystkie podstawowe funkcje konieczne do działania aplikacji. Podstawowym elementem CLR jest standardowy zestaw typów danych, wykorzystywanych przez wszystkie języki oparte na CLR, a także standardowy format metadanych, służących do opisu oprogramowania wykorzystującego te typy danych. CLR zapewnia także mechanizmy umożliwiające pakowanie kodu zarządzanego w jednostki zwane podzespołami. +W CLR wbudowane są także mechanizmy kontroli bezpieczeństwa wykonywania aplikacji — bezpieczeństwo oparte na uprawnieniach kodu (Code Access Security — CAS) oraz bezpieczeństwo oparte na rolach (Role-Based Security — RBS). +Kit pszczeli + +Kit pszczeli, propolis (z gr. "προ „przed“" i "πόλις „miasto“") – lepka substancja żywiczna powstająca z żywic roślinnych zebranych przez pszczoły z pączków i młodych pędów topoli, brzozy, świerku, kasztanowca i innych drzew oraz roślin zielonych. +Kit służy pszczołom głównie jako materiał uszczelniający i dezynfekujący. Powlekają nim wgłębienia, uszkodzenia i szpary w ścianach ula, regulują szerokość wylotka na zimę. Pokrywają też nim („mumifikują“ – w celu zapobieżenia ich rozkładowi) ciała martwych szkodników, które wtargnęły do ula (ryjówki, myszy), a których, ze względu na rozmiary, nie są w stanie usunąć na zewnątrz. +Skład i właściwości. +Kit pszczeli dobrze rozpuszcza się w alkoholach, acetonie i chloroformie. Nie jest prawie wcale rozpuszczalny w wodzie. Jest dużo twardszy i odporniejszy na temperaturę niż wosk (mięknie powyżej 36 °C). +Propolis wykazuje silne działanie bakteriobójcze. Ta właściwość znalazła zastosowanie w lecznictwie. Kit pszczeli przyśpiesza procesy gojenia i regeneracji tkanek, jest skuteczny również w przypadku oparzeń. Ponadto może być używany przy przeziębieniu, paradontozie i chorobach układu pokarmowego (tylko pod kontrolą lekarza). +Firmy farmaceutyczne produkują obecnie wiele parafarmaceutyków opartych na propolisie. Stosuje się go głównie pod postacią 3% lub 5% maści, tabletek lub roztworu alkoholowego. Preparaty te w niektórych przypadkach mogą powodować objawy nadwrażliwości lub odczyny alergiczne. +Po roku przechowywania kit pszczeli traci częściowo swoją aktywność biologiczną, po dwóch latach nie wykazuje jej prawie wcale. +Historia. +Propolis był znany kapłanom egipskim już tysiące lat przed naszą erą. Stosowali go starożytni Persowie i Grecy. Arystoteles używał kitu pszczelego przy opatrywaniu ran i leczeniu chorób skóry. W pierwszym stuleciu przed naszą erą pisał o nim Wergiliusz. Kit pszczeli stosowano do dezynfekcji ran w okresie drugiej wojny burskiej w południowej Afryce ok. roku 1900. +Współcześnie preparaty oparte na kicie pszczelim są produkowane przez wiele firm jako tzw. parafarmaceutyki. +Kōichi Tanaka + +W 1983 ukończył Uniwersytet Tōhoku w Sendai. Pracował jako inżynier w korporacji Shimadzu w Kioto. +W 2002 otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie chemii za opracowanie nowej techniki jonizacji – desorpcji laserowej z udziałem matrycy (MALDI), która po połączeniu z detektorem mierzącym czas przelotu jonów (TOF) umożliwia bezpośrednie mierzenie mas cząsteczkowych polimerów w spektrometrach mas. Wraz z nim nagrodę otrzymali Szwajcar Kurt Wüthrich i Amerykanin John Fenn. +Został odznaczony m.in. japońskim Orderem Kultury. +Raymond Davis + +Raymond Davis, Junior (ur. 14 października 1914 w Waszyngtonie, zm. 31 maja 2006 w Nowym Jorku), fizyk amerykański, laureat Nagrody Nobla 2002. +Studiował na University of Maryland, College Park, w 1942 obronił doktorat z chemii na Uniwersytecie Yale. Służył w armii amerykańskiej podczas II wojny światowej. Od 1946 pracował w Narodowym Laboratorium Chemicznym w Brookhaven (stan Nowy Jork), był profesorem (następnie z tytułem "professor emeritus") na Uniwersytecie Pensylwanii w Filadelfii. +W laboratorium w Brookhaven opracował pionierską metodę wychwytywania neutrin za pomocą tetrachloroetylenu. Należał do zespołu ekspertów NASA badającego próbki księżycowego gruntu, dostarczonego przez misję Apollo 11. W 2002 został uhonorowany Nagrodą Nobla w dziedzinie fizyki za prace nad detekcją neutrin kosmicznych. Mając 88 lat, Raymond Davis stał się najstarszym laureatem Nagrody Nobla w historii. Wraz z nim wyróżniono badacza japońskiego Masatoshi Koshiba; Koshiba i Davis otrzymali połowę nagrody, a druga jej część przypadła Riccardowi Giacconiemu. +Zbigniew Prusinkiewicz + +Zbigniew Andrzej Prusinkiewicz (ur. 18 listopada 1923 w Poznaniu, zm. 19 grudnia 2004) – polski uczony, gleboznawca. +Studiował na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim (ukończył studia w 1950), w 1957 obronił doktorat, w 1962 habilitował się. W 1969 został mianowany profesorem nadzwyczajnym, w 1977 – profesorem zwyczajnym. W latach 1950–1952 był asystentem na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim, następnie starszym asystentem i adiunktem w poznańskiej Wyższej Szkole Rolniczej (do 1963). Od 1963 związany z Uniwersytetem Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu, początkowo docent, od 1969 profesor. Kierował Zakładem Gleboznawstwa na UMK. Członek i wiceprezes Polskiego Towarzystwa Gleboznawczego, wchodził w skład Komitetu Badań Czwartorzędu PAN oraz Komitetu Nauk Leśnych PAN. +Laureat nagród resortowych, nagrody PAN, Nagrody im. Oczapowskiego, został także odznaczony m.in. Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +C. Elmer Anderson + +Clyde Elmer Anderson (16 marca 1912 - 12 stycznia 1998), polityk amerykański. +Przodkowie Andersona pochodzili ze Szwecji. Działał w Partii Republikańskiej, od 27 września 1951 do 5 stycznia 1955 sprawował funkcję gubernatora Minnesoty. Jego poprzednikiem na tym stanowisku był republikanin Luther Wallace Youngdahl, a następcą demokrata Orville Freeman. Dwukrotnie sprawował funkcję zastępcy gubernatora - w latach 1939-1943 i 1945-1951. Przeszedł na stanowisko gubernatora po nominacji Youngdahla na sędziego Sądu Okręgowego w Waszyngtonie, w 1953 wygrał wybory na gubernatora z Freemanem, ale uległ mu dwa lata później. +Inny działacz Partii Republikańskiej o podobnym nazwisku Elmer Andersen był gubernatorem Minnesoty w latach 1961-1963. +Alfred Wielki + +Alfred Wielki (ur. 849, zm. 26 października 899 pochowany został w Newminister Abbey w Winchester ) - syn Aethelwulfa, szósty król Wesseksu. Jeden z najwybitniejszych królów wczesnej historii Anglii. Panował od 871 w mało sprzyjających okolicznościach przejmując władzę po swoim bracie, Aethelredzie I, który zginął z rąk Duńczyków pustoszących kraj. Mimo że wojna doprowadziła rolnictwo do upadku, zdołał skonsolidować grupę małych państewek w państwo zdolne stawić im silny opór zbrojny. Jego życie i polityka były opisywane przez wielu kronikarzy (np. "Kronika anglosaska"), ale najdokładniej opisuje je Asser, jego osobisty biograf. +Przed objęciem tronu. +Urodził się między 847 a 849 r. w miejscowości Wantage na terenie obecnego hrabstwa Oxfordshire (wówczas było to Berkshire). Był najmłodszym synem króla Wesseksu Ethelwulfa i jego pierwszej żony, Osburgi, córki królewskiego cześnika, Oslaca. +Prawdopodobnie w wieku 5 lat został wysłany na naukę do Rzymu. Został tam przyjęty przez papieża Leona IV, który (wg "Kroniki anglosaskiej") "namaścił go na króla". Historycy doby wiktoriańskiej zinterpretowali to jako akt koronacji Alfreda, zagwarantowania jego praw do tronu Wesseksu. Wydarzenie to jest jednak nieprawdopodobne, zważywszy na fakt, że Alfred miał trzech starszych braci. W 855 r. towarzyszył ojcu, kiedy ten przybył do Rzymu z pielgrzymką. W drodze powrotnej przebywał pewien czas na dworze króla Franków Zachodnich Karola Łysego. Do Anglii wrócił w 856 r. +Asser przekazuje nam z tego okresu życia Alfreda opowieść o tym, jak jego matka, Osburga, obiecała dać tom poezji anglosaskiej temu z jej synów, który pierwszy będzie umiał jej przeczytać fragment księgi. Alfred wówczas zaniósł książkę swojemu opiekunowi i kazał mu ją tak długo sobie czytać, dopóki nie nauczył się jej na pamięć. W ten sposób dostał księgę. Ta historia może być prawdziwa, może być również wymyślona w celu zilustrowania jaką młody Alfred przejawiał chęć do nauki. +Ojciec Alfreda zmarł w 858 r. i tron objął najstarszy z braci, Ethelbald. Po jego rychłej śmierci (w 860 r.) korona przypadła kolejnemu z braci, Ethelbertowi. Gdy i ten zmarł ok. 865 r. tron objął trzeci z braci Alfreda, Ethelred I. Nic nie wiemy o życiu Alfreda w okresie rządów jego dwóch najstarszych braci. Na scenę polityczną wkracza dopiero podczas panowania Ethelreda I. Był wówczas uznany następcą tronu i otrzymał tytuł "secundariusa". W 868 r. stawał u boku swojego brata podczas kampanii przeciwko Duńczykom w Mercji. Uczestniczył we wszystkich bitwach z wielkim duńskim najazdem 870/871 r. - zwycięstwie pod Englefield (31 grudnia 870 r.), klęsce pod Reading (4 stycznia 871 r.), kolejnym sukcesie Ashdown (8 stycznia 871 r.) i klęsce pod Basing (22 stycznia 871 r.). +Wojny z Duńczykami. +23 kwietnia 871 r., z ran odniesionych w bitwie pod Merton, zmarł król Ethelred, pozostawiając koronę swojemu młodszemu bratu. Zajęty ceremoniami pogrzebowymi Alfred nie mógł dać skutecznego oporu Duńczykom, którzy w maju 871 r. dwukrotnie pokonali Anglosasów. W czerwcu Alfred był zmuszony podpisać pokój, w którym uznawał duńską władzę na północy Anglii. Pokój przetrwał 5 lat. W 876 r. nowy wódz Duńczyków, Guthrum, poprowadził swoich ludzi na południe. Ominął wojska królewskie i zdobył Wareham w hrabstwie Dorset. Na początku 877 r., pod pretekstem negocjacji, przesunął swoje wojska na zachód i zdobył Exeter. Tam jednak został otoczony przez wojska Alfreda. Duńska flota została zniszczona przez sztorm, wobec czego Guthrum zdecydował się zawrzeć pokój z Alfredem. Wycofali się do Mercji, ale w styczniu 878 r. niespodziewanie zaatakowali Chippenham, gdzie od Bożego Narodzenia przebywał Alfred. Miasto zostało zdobyte, a ludność wymordowana. Alfred z niewielkim orszakiem uciekł Duńczykom i wędrując lasami i bagnami dotarł na Wielkanoc do Athenley, gdzie rozpoczął zbieranie armii. +Asser przekazał nam z tego okresu opowieść jak Alfred uciekał przez Somerset Levels. Znalazł wtedy schronienie u pewnej kobiety, która (nie poznawszy króla) kazała mu pilnować piekących się ciastek. Alfred zadumał się jednak nad nieszczęściami królestwa i zapomniał o ciastkach, które spaliły się. Został za to zwyzywany przez kobietę po jej powrocie. Po zorientowaniu się w tożsamości gościa kobieta zaczęła przepraszać. Wówczas król odrzekł, że to on powinien prosić o wybaczenie. Po dotarciu do Athenley Alfred rozpoczął zbieranie lokalnych wojsk z Somerset, Wiltshire i Hampshire. +Inna opowieść przedstawia jak Alfred zakradł się w przebraniu śpiewaka do duńskiego obozu, aby poznać plany wroga. Nie wiadomo, czy ta opowieść jest prawdziwa. W każdym razie na wiosnę 878 r. Alfred zebrał armię i ruszył przeciwko Duńczykom. Do decydującej bitwy doszło w maju pod Edington. Po całodniowej walce Duńczycy złamali szyk i rzucili się do ucieczki. Guthrum z niedobitkami schronił się w Chippenham i skapitulował po 14 dniach oblężenia. Na mocy podpisanego traktatu w Wedmore, Guthrum i 21 jego towarzyszy przyjęło chrzest. Dokonano również podziału Brytanii. Alfred miał rządzić południowo-zachodnią częścią kraju. Północny wschód przypadł Duńczykom i otrzymał nazwę Danelaw. +Przez kilka lat panował spokój. Dopiero w 884 r. (lub 885) miał miejsce najazd Duńczyków na Kent. Został on odparty, ale zachęcił do wystąpienia Duńczyków z Anglii Wschodniej. Kontrakcja Alfreda zakończyła się zdobyciem Londynu (885 lub 886 r.) i kolejnym traktatem między Alfredem a Guthrumem. Na kilka lat znowu zapanował spokój. Duńczycy zaatakowali ponownie jesienią 892 lub 893 r. Najeźdźcy zaatakowali w dwóch grupach, liczących łącznie 330 łodzi. Ich celem był podbój i kolonizacja. Jedna z grup wylądowała w Appledore w Kencie, druga, pod dowództwem Haestena, również w Kencie, w Milton. Alfred zajął pozycję, dzięki której mógł kontrolować działania obu grup. Podczas negocjacji z Haestenem Duńczycy z Appledore przełamali blokadę i ruszyli na północny zachód. Ich śladem ruszył syn króla, Edward. Doścignął on Duńczyków i zmusił do wycofania się na wyspę Hertfordshire Colne. Następnie wycofali się do Essex, gdzie, po kolejnej porażce, połączyli się z Haestenem. +Alfred był w drodze na spotkanie ze swoim synem, gdy otrzymał wieści, że Duńczycy z Nortumbrii i Anglii Wschodniej oblegli Exeter i inną, nieznaną nam, fortecę w północnym Devon. Król błyskawicznie ruszył na odsiecz i uwolnił Exeter od oblężenia. Tymczasem Haesten ze swoimi ludźmi ruszył w drogę doliną Tamizy na spotkanie Duńczyków z Północy. Na ich drodze stanęły jednak siły anglosaskie pod wodzą earldormanów Mercji, Wiltshire i Somerset. Zmusili oni Duńczyków do odwrotu na północny zachód, na koniec oblegli ich w Buttington. Próba przebicia się Duńczyków zakończyła się klęską. Korzystając jednak z uśpienia czujności oblegających przebili się w końcu do Chester. Ponieważ zbliżała się zima Anglosasi nie ryzykowali zimowego oblężenia, ale zniszczyli całe zapasy żywności w okolicy. Na początku następnego roku (894 lub 895) głód zmusił Duńczyków do kolejnej próby przebicia się do Essex. Na przełomie 894 i 895 r. (lub 895 i 896) Duńczycy spuścili swoje statki na Tamizę i umocnili się na nich 21 mil od Londynu. Bezpośredni atak na statki nie przyniósł powodzenia, ale później tego samego roku Alfred zablokował rzekę uniemożliwiając Duńczykom ewakuację. W 896 lub 897 r. odeszli w większości do Nortumbrii i Anglii Wschodniej. Reszta wróciła na kontynent. Kampania dobiegła końca. +Militaria. +Aby móc skutecznie odpierać ataki Duńczyków z Nortumbrii i Anglii Wschodniej na wybrzeża Wesseksu, Alfred zdecydował się rozbudować flotę wojenną. Wbrew powszechnym wyobrażeniom król Alfred nie był twórcą brytyjskiej marynarki wojennej. Bitwy morskie toczył już jego ojciec Ethelwulf w 851 r. Wiadomości o walkach na morzu pochodzą również z lat 833 i 840 r. Alfred wprowadził jednak do służby nowy typ okrętów, jak podaje "Kronika anglosaska" był on "szybszy, stabilniejszy oraz posiadał wyższe burty niż każdy inny". Były poruszane przez 60 wioseł. Do ich budowy sprowadzano rzemieślników z Fryzji i to Fryzowie stanowili trzon ich załóg. Okręty te nie odnosiły jednak większych sukcesów, często natomiast tonęły podczas sztormów. Mimo to, zarówno brytyjska Royal Navy jak i amerykańska US Navy, uważają Afreda za swojego założyciela. Pierwszy okręt przydzielony do amerykańskiej Floty Kontynentalnej podczas wojny o niepodległość nazywał się właśnie "Alfred". +Trzon lądowej armii anglosaskiej, pospolite ruszenie "fyrd", również zostało zreorganizowane. Podzielono je na dwie części, z których jedna pozostawała w domach, druga natomiast brała udział w walkach. Administrację wojskową stanowili "thesaurius" (skarbnik), "cellararius" (odpowiadał za zaopatrzenie w żywność) i "pincerna" (zajmował się sprawami organizacyjnymi). Król wzmocnił również swoją straż przyboczną, która była jedynym stałym wojskiem anglosaskim. +Alfred zajął się również najsłabszym ogniwem w anglosaskim systemie obrony, mianowicie fortecami, z których większość znajdowała się w opłakanym stanie, a wiele było pozbawionych załóg. Alfred wybudował w całym kraju sieć umocnionych wzgórz, tzw. "burhs" (lub "boroughs"). W tych grodach stacjonowały stałe garnizony. Owe fortece, lepiej niż inne osiedla zabezpieczone od najazdów wikingów, stawały się z czasem zalążkami miast i wielkich centrów handlowych. Król popierał osadnictwo w tych grodach, gdyż mógł od osiadłej ludności pobierać podatki. +Król przeprowadził również reformy administracyjne, tworząc system "shire'ów", ziemskich jednostek administracyjnych. Przeprowadził również kodyfikację praw lokalnych dla każdej ziemi swojego królestwa (tzw. "Doom Book"). +Polityka zagraniczna. +Niewiele wiadomo o polityce zagranicznej króla Alfreda. Pewnym jest, że korespondował z Eliaszem III, patriarchą Jerozolimy w latach 878-907. Podobno wysłał również misję do Indii. Utrzymywano również kontakty z dworem kalifa w Bagdadzie. Szczególną wagę Alfred przywiązywał do kontaktów z papiestwem. Ok. 890 r. Wulfstan z Haithabu odbył podróż z Półwyspu Jutlandzkiego na Bałtyk, gdzie odwiedził pruskie miasto handlowe Truso. Po tej podróży pozostała relacja pióra samego Alfreda. +Więcej wiemy o stosunkach Alfreda z książętami walijskimi. Wg Assera, książęta południowej Walii, zagrożeni przez mieszkańców Walii północnej oraz Mercji, oddali się pod opiekę władcy Wesseksu. Później w ich ślady poszli książęta północnej Walii, wspierając czynnie Alfreda w walkach z Duńczykami w 893 r. Interesował się również Irlandią wysyłając poselstwa do tamtejszych klasztorów oraz przyjmując na swoim dworze irlandzkich mnichów. Zmyślona jest natomiast historia o tym, że Alfred został w dzieciństwie oddany na naukę do jednego z irlandzkich klasztorów. +Religia i kultura. +Kościół angielski przeżywał pod koniec IX w. ciężkie czasy. Następował upadek życia klasztornego, gdyż klasztory były częstymi celami duńskich ataków. Król Alfred ufundował dwa lub trzy nowe klasztory i osadził w nich zagranicznych mnichów, ale to nie powstrzymało topnienia angielskiej sieci klasztornej. Wraz z upadkiem klasztorów nastąpił upadek edukacji i zanik umiejętności czytania. Król Alfred pisał, że "nauka tak strasznie podupadła, że po naszej stronie rzeki Humber niewielu było takich, którzy by potrafili przetłumaczyć mszał na angielski lub przełożyć listy z łaciny". W tej sytuacji Alfred oparł się na uczonych zagranicznych, których, wzorem Karola Wielkiego, sprowadzał na swój dwór. Byli to m.in. Walijczyk Asser, Flandryjczyk Grimbald czy uczony mnich Jan z Korbei. Przy ich pomocy Alfred założył szkołę pałacową i hojnie uposażył szkołę w Oksfordzie. Wartym odnotowania jest fakt, że król nie chciał ograniczyć edukacji do kręgu możnych i duchownych, ale udostępnić ją wszystkim poddanym. Wprowadził coś na kształt przymusu szkolnego, nakazując posiadającym więcej niż 2 łany ziemi posyłanie swoich dzieci do szkoły. Bardziej uzdolnieni chłopcy mieli kontynuować naukę na wyższym poziomie. Do szkoły pałacowej przyjmowano nie tylko dzieci arystokratów, ale także zdolnych chłopców z niższych warstw społecznych. +Król dbał również o rozwój języka narodowego. Osobiście tłumaczył na staroangielski różne łacińskie dzieła, np. "Pociechę filozofii" Boecjusza, "Historia adversus paganos" Orozjusza, czy "Cura pastoralis" Grzegorza Wielkiego. To ostatnie dzieło Alfred rozesłał do wszystkich biskupów w swoim królestwie z zaleceniem, aby bezzwłocznie przystąpili do podniesienia stanu oświaty w swoich diecezjach. Alfred przetłumaczył też "Historię kościelną ludu angielskiego" autorstwa Bedy Czcigodnego. Zainspirował też napisanie w języku narodowym "Kroniki anglosaskiej". +Śmierć. +Król Alfred zmarł 26 października 899 r. Data podana w "Kronice anglosaskiej", rok 901, jest uważana za mało prawdopodobną. Przyczyna jego śmierci jest nieznana. Początkowo został pochowany w Old Minster w Winchesterze. Później jego ciało zostało przeniesione do New Minster, a stamtąd w 1110 r. do opactwa Hyde. Grób został zniszczony w 1788 r., kiedy budowano tam więzienie. W latach 60. XIX w. odkryto tam ludzkie kości, które uznano za szczątki Alfreda. Zostały one pogrzebane w Hyde. W 1999 r. odsłonięto pozostałości grobu Alfreda. +Karta co-branded + +Karta co-branded – karta płatnicza wydawana przez bank w porozumieniu najczęściej z firmą usługowo-handlową, w celu dostarczenia klientowi korzyści płynących z potencjału obu partnerów. +Zazwyczaj taka karta posiada logo obu partnerów i łączy się z programem lojalnościowym, uprawnia do korzystania z różnych promocji i rabatów związanych z produktami i usługami danej firmy. +Ununoctium + +Ununoctium, ununokt (Uuo, eka-radon) – pierwiastek chemiczny, prawdopodobnie z grupy gazów szlachetnych w układzie okresowym. Nazwa "ununoctium" wywodzi się z liczby atomowej tego pierwiastka zgodnie z systematyczną terminologią IUPAC dla transuranowców. +Historia odkrycia. +W 1999 r. badacze z "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory" ogłosili odkrycie pierwiastków 116 i 118 w publikacji w czasopiśmie "Physical Review Letters". Rok później ukazała się publikacja, w której autorzy opisywali niemożność powtórzenia otrzymania tych pierwiastków. Po przeprowadzonym dochodzeniu, w lipcu 2002 r. dyrektor laboratorium w Berkeley przyznał, że rzekome odkrycie zostało sfabrykowane przez Wiktora Ninowa, głównego autora publikacji z 1999 roku. +Informacje o wytworzeniu kilku atomów tego pierwiastka w Zjednoczonym Instytucie Badań Jądrowych w Dubnej w 2002 r. nie znalazły początkowo oficjalnego potwierdzenia, ale istnienie pierwiastka zostało potwierdzone 10 października 2006. Powstał poprzez bombardowanie kalifornu jonami wapnia. +Nazwa. +Pierwiastek 118 nie posiada jeszcze ostatecznej nazwy. Proponowane były nazwy "dubnadium" (Dn), "flyorium" (od Gieorgija Florowa) i "moskowium" (od obwodu moskiewskiego, gdzie leży Dubna). +Morze Południowochińskie + +Morze Południowochińskie, (chiń. 南海 "Nán Hǎi", wietn. "Biển Đông", indonez., malajskie "Laut Tiongkong Selatan", khmerskie "Samot Czen", ang. "South China Sea") – morze przybrzeżne w zachodniej części Oceanu Spokojnego. +Granice morza wyznaczają południowo-wschodnie wybrzeża Chin, wyspy: Tajwan, Luzon, Palawan, Borneo, Belitung, Bangka, Sumatra, półwyspy: Malajski i Indochiński. Cieśnina Tajwańska łączy go z Morzem Wschodniochińskim, cieśniny: Singapurska i Malakka z Oceanem Indyjskim (Morze Andamańskie); Bangka, Gaspar i Karimata z Morzem Jawajskim, zaś Mindoro, Linapacan i Balabac z Morzem Sulu. +Największe zatoki: Zat. Tajlandzka i Zat. Tonkińska. Ponad połowę powierzchni dna stanowi szelf – liczne płycizny, rafy koralowe, wyspy i archipelagi, m.in.: Hajnan, Anambas, Spratly, W. Paracelskie. Temperatura wód powierzchniowych +26 do +31 °C w lecie, +20 do +27 °C w zimie. Pływy morskie: 2-3 m, maksymalne u wybrzeży Borneo – 5,5 m i w Zatoce Tonkińskiej – 5,9 m. +Do zlewiska Morza Południowochińskiego należą rzeki: Mekong, Menam (Czau Phraja), Czerwona, Kapuas, Xi Jiang (Rzeka Perłowa) i wiele innych. +Zagospodarowanie: rozwinięte rybołówstwo – połowy tuńczyków, śledzi, sardynek; wydobycie ropy naftowej i gazu ziemnego z dna morskiego; szlaki żeglugowe. Główne porty: Hongkong, Kanton ("Guangzhou"), Zhanjiang, Manila, Hajfong, Ho Chi Minh, Bangkok, Singapur. +Pius VI + +Pius VI "(łac. Pius VI)", właściwie Giovanni Angelo Braschi, (ur. 25 grudnia 1717 w Cesena, zm. 29 sierpnia 1799 w Valence (Drôme)) – papież w okresie od 15 lutego 1775 do 29 sierpnia 1799. +Pochodził z zubożałej rodziny arystokratycznej (hrabiowskiej). Był najstarszym z ośmiorga dzieci Marcantonia Braschi i Anny Teresy Bandi. Studiował klasyczny antyk i prawo w kolegium jezuickim w Cesenie, gdzie obronił w młodym wieku (1734) doktorat prawa, następnie na uniwersytecie w Ferrarze. Pracował jako sekretarz kardynała Tommaso Ruffo, był asystentem kardynała w czasie obrad konklawe 1740, a po wyniesieniu Ruffo do godności kardynała-biskupa Ostii i Velletri reprezentował go w tych diecezjach. Przebywał z misją dyplomatyczną w Neapolu. W 1753 został prywatnym sekretarzem papieża Benedykta XIV, który obdarzył go godnością kanonika patriarchalnej Bazyliki Watykańskiej.W tym samym roku zaproponowano mu kapłaństwo i objęcie diecezji św. Piotra. Giovanni odmówił, gdyż niedługo miał zawrzeć związek małżeński. Wkrótce jednak zmienił zdanie za zgodą narzeczonej, która została zakonnicą. W 1758 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie i został prałatem. +W okresie pontyfikatu kolejnego papieża Klemensa XIII pełnił szereg funkcji we władzach państwa papieskiego. W 1766 został skarbnikiem generalnym Komnaty Apostolskiej, był również sekretarzem kardynała Carlo Rezzonico (bratanka Klemensa XIII). +26 kwietnia 1773 papież Klemens XIV obdarzył ks. Braschiego godnością kardynalską, z tytułem prezbitera S. Onofrio. Po śmierci Klemensa XIV burzliwe i długie konklawe wybrało Braschiego na papieża 15 lutego 1775. Elekcję zawdzięczał zręczności dyplomatycznej, która pozwoliła uchodzić mu zależnie od potrzeby za przeciwnika lub zwolennika skasowanego właśnie zakonu jezuitów. Nowy papież przyjął imię Piusa VI na cześć św. Piusa V, 22 lutego 1775 przyjął sakrę biskupią (z rąk kardynała-biskupa Porto e S. Rufina i dziekana Kolegium Kardynalskiego Gianfrancesco Albaniego) i tego samego dnia został koronowany. +Przywiązywał wagę do protokołu i ceremoniału dworskiego, przywrócił praktykę nepotyzmu. Kardynałami mianował m.in. swojego wuja Giovanniego Bandiego i bratanka Romoaldo Braschi-Onesti, wystawił okazały pałac Braschi na rzymskim Piazza Navone. Zarządził czterokrotnie obchody Roku Jubileuszowego – 1775, 1782, 1790 i 1792. W 1784 mianował Johna Carolla (byłego jezuitę) pierwszym biskupem w USA. +W Europie papież musiał sprzeciwiać się ideom jansenizmu, odbył m.in. w tej sprawie podróż do Wiednia, gdzie bezskutecznie próbował przekonać cesarza Józefa II do wycofania się ze sprzyjania jansenizmowi. W 1794 papież potępił synod jansenistyczny w Pistoi konstytucją Auctorem fidei, uważaną za dokument zawierający nauczanie nieomylne. +Sytuacja europejska zmusiła Piusa VI do zajęcia stanowiska w wielu drażliwych sprawach. Początkowo uznał Konstytucję Trzeciego Maja (z zastrzeżeniem, że nie ulegną naruszeniu prawa Kościoła katolickiego w Polsce), ale następnie pobłogosławił konfederację targowicką i wyraził życzenie: "aby stworzenie konfederacji stało się początkiem niewzruszonej spokojności i szczęścia Rzeczypospolitej", w 1795 potępił insurekcję kościuszkowską, a rok później zlikwidował warszawską nuncjaturę. Po trzecim rozbiorze Polski skierował do biskupa Ignacego Krasickiego 16 grudnia 1795 brewe, nakazując mu wpajać w naród polski "obowiązek wierności, posłuszeństwa i miłości panom i królom". +Szczególnie trudne stosunki miał Pius VI z Francją po tym, jak w 1791 potępił wydaną w czasie rewolucji francuskiej konstytucję cywilną kleru. Kilka lat później po sukcesach Napoleona państwo papieskie podporządkowano władzy francuskiej, a sam papież został uwięziony i wywieziony do Sieny, następnie do Florencji i kilku innych miast. Później, ciężko chory i na poły sparaliżowany, został przetransportowany przez przełęcz Montgenèvre do Briançon, gdzie 30 kwietnia 1799 r. osadzono go pod strażą w miejscowym klasztorze. Gdy pod koniec maja generał Suworow zajął Turyn, papieża ewakuowano przez Gap i Grenoble do cytadeli w Valence, gdzie zmarł. Przed śmiercią miał powiedzieć: ""Polećcie mojemu następcy wybaczyć Francuzom, tak jak ja im wybaczyłem"". +W Muzeum Towarzystwa Jezusowego Prowincji Polski Południowej w Starej Wsi k. Brzozowa przechowywany jest pantofel papieża Piusa VI. +Raczki Elbląskie + +Raczki Elbląskie – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim, w powiecie elbląskim, w gminie Elbląg. +W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie elbląskim. +Wieś leży na Żuławach Elbląskich w pobliżu jeziora Druzno. +Według danych Instytutu Geodezji i Kartografii na terenie Raczek Elbląskich znajduje się najniżej położony punkt Polski – depresja 1,8 m p.p.m. +Danelagh + +Danelagh, Danelaw za panowania Alfreda Wielkiego obszar jurysdykcji duńskiej w północno-wschodniej części Anglii oddzielony linią demarkacyjną od Wesseksu. Powstał na mocy traktatu z 878 roku między Alfredem, królem Wesseksu, a pokonanym przezeń w morderczej walce dowódcą duńskich wikingów, Guthrumem. Traktat nie był zbyt korzystny dla Wesseksu, bo choć Londyn znalazł się pod władzą Alfreda, to handel morski Londynu był nadzorowany przez Duńczyków. +Należy pamiętać, że określenie "Duńczycy" w kontekście średniowiecznych podbojów wikingów nie oznacza bynajmniej ani narodu, ani jakiejś grupy etnicznej, pochodzi bowiem od staroangielskiego słowa "thegn" (wojownik) i używane było w odniesieniu do Normanów napadających grupami północne wybrzeża imperium Karolingów. +Pomimo odzyskania przez Anglosasów już w pierwszej połowie X wieku kontroli nad obszarem Danelagh, odrębności prawne oraz językowe przetrwały tam aż do XII - XIII wieku. +Jasełka + +Jasełka to widowiska o Bożym Narodzeniu wzorowane na średniowiecznych misteriach franciszkańskich. +Za twórcę przedstawień bożonarodzeniowych uważany jest św. Franciszek z Asyżu. Ich treścią była historia narodzenia Jezusa w Betlejem i spisku Heroda. Początkowo figury Dzieciątka, Maryi, Józefa, Trzech Królów i pozostałych osób dramatu były nieruchome. Za sprawą zakonów franciszkańskich i bernardyńskich wprowadzono w ich miejsce marionetki. +W pierwszej połowie XVIII wieku biskupi polscy zakazali wystawiania jasełek w kościołach. Przyczyną było coraz szersze przenikanie do treści przedstawień scen i postaci o charakterze ludycznym. Z szopkami zaczęli wówczas kolędować poza murami świątyń żacy, czeladnicy itp. Dały one początek wędrownym teatrzykom ludowym o świeckim charakterze. +Teksty jasełkowe, najczęściej gwarowe, były w większości anonimowe. Przerabiano je wielokrotnie, między innymi ze względu na fakt, że zawierały wątki odwołujące się do aktualnych wydarzeń. +Do znanych opracowań literackich należą jasełka napisane przez Lucjana Rydla pt. "Betlejem polskie". +Do czerpiących z tradycji polskich szopek współczesnych należy szopka dominikańska w Poznaniu z tekstami Jacka Kowalskiego, wystawiana przez Teatrzyk Towarzyski. +Marian Januszajtis-Żegota + +Marian Józef Januszajtis-Żegota (ur. 3 kwietnia 1889 w Mirowie k. Częstochowy, zm. 24 marca 1973 w Royal Tunbridge Wells) – inżynier rolnik, polski dowódca wojskowy, komendant "Armii Polskiej" i Polskich Drużyn Strzeleckich (1912–1914), ostatni dowódca I Brygady Legionów Polskich (1916 –1917), generał dywizji Wojska Polskiego. +Życiorys. +Młodość. +Od 1908 roku studiował na Wydziale Budowy Maszyn Politechniki Lwowskiej, a w latach 1909–1912 na Wydziale Rolno-Lasowym Akademii Rolniczej w Dublanach (tam uzyskał dyplom agronoma). Był członkiem i organizatorem polskich organizacji paramilitarnych w zaborze austriackim – m.in. tajnej organizacji narodowej "Zet", brał udział w tworzeniu "Zarzewia", a w latach 1912–1914 był komendantem tajnej organizacji wojskowej "Armia Polska" i jej jawnej formy Polskich Drużyn Strzeleckich we Lwowie. W 1912 roku został komendantem drużyn. Od 1912 roku członek Wojskowej Komisji Porozumiewawczej i Skarbu Wojskowego przy Komisji Tymczasowej Skonfederowanych Stronnictw Niepodległościowych. +I wojna światowa. +Tuż przed wybuchem I wojny światowej podporządkował Drużyny Strzeleckie Józefowi Piłsudskiemu i znalazł się w Legionach Polskich. Od sierpnia 1914 roku dowodził batalionem, a potem 2. Pułkiem Piechoty w II Brygadzie Legionów Polskich w Karpatach, na Bukowinie, w Galicji i na Wołyniu. Dzięki talentowi dowódczemu i odwadze szybko awansował: wrzesień 1914 – kapitan, w listopadzie 1914 – major, marzec 1915 – podpułkownik, w listopadzie 1915 – pułkownik. +Był najmłodszym pułkownikiem legionowym – został nim w wieku 26 lat. W lipcu 1916 roku, po odejściu Józefa Piłsudskiego, objął dowództwo I Brygady, które zakończył w kwietniu 1917 roku jako dowódca I Brygady Legionów. W latach 1917–1918 był szefem sztabu Inspektoratu Wyszkolenia Polskiej Siły Zbrojnej oraz wicedyrektorem Komisji Wojskowej. Chcąc ratować od rozpadu choćby część wojska, opowiedział się za złożeniem przysięgi na wierność Niemcom i Austro-Węgrom. Faktycznie kierując Komisją Wojskową stworzył zawiązki przyszłego Sztabu Generalnego Wojska Polskiego i Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych. +W czasach legionowych Januszajtis blisko się przyjaźnił z Michałem Żymierskim i mecenasem sztuki prof. Jerzym Mycielskim. Żona regenta Zdzisława Lubomirskiego Maria z Branickich bardzo pozytywnie opisała wrażenie, które odniosła przy pierwszym spotkaniu z Januszajtisem z okazji uroczystego obiadu wydanego na cześć legionistów w Warszawie 8 maja 1917 roku, (na którym obecni byli m.in. Żymierski, Sikorski, Berbecki i Nieniewski). +Dwudziestolecie międzywojenne. +Od 1 listopada 1918 roku w Wojsku Polskim. Dowódca Okręgu Generalnego "Białystok" w Łapach i dowódca Grupy "Łapy". Ułatwił tam ewakuację wojsk niemieckich do Prus Wschodnich. Organizator zamachu stanu na rząd Jędrzeja Moraczewskiego (w nocy z 4 na 5 stycznia 1919 roku), firmowanego przez ks. Eustachego Sapiehę. Mimo początkowego powodzenia zamach po 8 godzinach wygasł, a płk Januszajtis został zawieszony w czynnościach. Po zamachu przeniesiony do rezerwy. 1 lutego 1920 roku powołany do czynnej służby i mianowany dowódcą Obozu Warownego "Chełmno". Od 19 marca 1920 do sierpnia 1924 roku dowódca 12. Dywizji Piechoty w Tarnopolu. Dywizją dowodził podczas wojny polsko-bolszewickiej, wyróżniając się w bitwach pod Mikulińcami, Przemyślanami i Lwowem. +22 maja 1920 zatwierdzony został w stopniu pułkownika z dniem 1 kwietnia tego roku. 28 lutego 1921 roku Naczelny Wódz mianował go generałem podporucznikiem z dniem 1 kwietnia 1920. 3 maja 1922 roku zweryfikowany został w stopniu generała brygady ze starszeństwem z 1 czerwca 1919 roku. +Po wojnie nadal dowodził 12 Dywizją, aż do sierpnia 1924 roku, kiedy to na prośbę gen. Władysława Sikorskiego, objął stanowisko generała-wojewody nowogródzkiego dla zaprowadzenia porządku na tym terenie, nękanym komunistycznymi bandami przenikającymi przez granicę ze wschodu. 1 grudnia 1924 roku awansowany do stopnia generała dywizji ze starszeństwem z 15 sierpnia 1924 roku. Z dniem 27 sierpnia 1924 rokuprzeniesiony w stan nieczynny na okres 12 miesięcy bez prawa do poborów. Przeniesienie w stan nieczynny miało związek z mianowaniem na stanowisko wojewody nowogródzkiego. Funkcję wojewody sprawował do 24 sierpnia 1926 roku. Do listopada 1929 roku pozostawał w dyspozycji Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych. +Z dniem 30 listopada 1929 roku przeniesiony w stan spoczynku. +Będąc w stanie spoczynku gospodarował na działce wojskowej w osadzie Szyły pod Krzemieńcem, jako inżynier rolnik. Stworzył tam wzorową placówkę doświadczalną, uprawiając wiele roślin w Polsce nieznanych i krzyżując różne rasy bydła. +W latach trzydziestych XX w. członek Związku Osadników Wojskowych oraz Stronnictwa Narodowego, działający na Wołyniu i w Komitecie Głównym w Warszawie. W latach 1936–1939 był członkiem Komitetu Głównego Zarządu Okręgowego Stronnictwa Narodowego we Lwowie. +II wojna światowa. +Ponownie zmobilizowany we wrześniu 1939. Zgłosił się jako ochotnik – przydziału nie otrzymał – uczestnik obrony Lwowa, organizator Korpusu Ochotniczego i oddziałów "benzyniarzy" do walki z czołgami niemieckimi. Po zajęciu Lwowa przez Sowietów organizator podziemnego ruchu oporu związanego ze Stronnictwem Narodowym. Od 22 września 1939 roku stał na czele Polskiej Organizacji Walki o Wolność, zaś od 13 października był komendantem organizacji wojskowej Stronnictwa Narodowego. Aresztowany przez NKWD 27 października 1939 roku, był więziony we Lwowie i na Łubiance w Moskwie, gdzie rozmawiał m.in. z Ławrientijem Berią i Wsiewołodem Mierkułowem na temat przyszłej polsko-sowieckiej współpracy wojskowej w wypadku wojny niemiecko-sowieckiej. +Ławrientij Beria zorganizował wykład generała dla 150 wyższych oficerów sowieckich. Zwolniony z więzienia na mocy układu Sikorski-Majski (31 lipca 1941 roku). Za zezwoleniem władz sowieckich zwiedził wiele fabryk, sowchozów i kołchozów, aby zorientować się o istotnym położeniu ZSRR. Rozmawiał z Ilją Erenburgiem, Aleksiejem Tołstojem, wdową po Maksimie Gorkim i innymi osobistościami. +Na wezwanie Władysława Sikorskiego odleciał do Londynu, gdzie od września tego roku został przywrócony do służby (do roku 1942 pozostawał w dyspozycji Naczelnego Wodza). W Londynie przekazał swoje spostrzeżenia na temat potencjału wojennego ZSRR. Uważany jest za komunizującego generała. Krytycznie oceniał układ polsko-sowiecki, ze względu na brak w nim potwierdzenia polskiej granicy wschodniej. To doprowadziło do konfliktu z gen. Sikorskim. Zamiast odegrania czołowej roli otrzymał podrzędne stanowiska. W latach 1943–1944 był szefem Inspektoratu ds. Zarządu Wojskowego oraz do 1945 roku szefem Biura Ziem Zachodnich i Północnych w Sztabie Głównym w Londynie oraz Przewodniczącym Wojskowego Trybunału Orzekającego do 1947 roku. +Okres powojenny. +Po wojnie pozostał na emigracji w Wielkiej Brytanii. Założył dużą farmę pieczarkarską koło Crowley, którą prowadził do 1956 roku. W latach 1947–1955 był członkiem III i IV Rady Narodowej Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Był doradcą prezydenta na uchodźstwie, jednym z założycieli Koła Generałów i Pułkowników, przewodniczącym Instytutu Spraw Zamorskich i Rady Związków Rolników Polskich oraz innych organizacji. W latach 1956–1959 mieszkał w Outwood (hrabstwo Surrey), a w latach 1959–1968 w Londynie. Ostatnie pięć lat spędził w domu syna w Royal Tunbridge Wells w hrabstwie Kent. Pisał pamiętniki, badał najnowsze dzieje Polski, hodował kwiaty i uprawiał warzywa. Zmarł 24 marca 1973 w Tunbridge Wells, pochowany na cmentarzu w Crowley obok żony. W listopadzie 1981 roku jego prochy sprowadzono do Polski – spoczęły na Cmentarzu Nowym w kwaterze legionowej w Zakopanem. +Miał dwóch synów, mieszkających w Anglii: Jerzego – właściciela firmy inżynierskiej i Marka – fotografa artystycznego. +Spuścizna literacka. +Autor "Życie moje tak burzliwe...", dwóch opracowań: "Zamach 5 stycznia 1919" i "Rozmowy z Berią". +Linki zewnętrzne. + +Alfred Bester (Babylon 5) + +Alfred Bester to jedna z postaci telewizyjnego serialu science fiction "Babilon 5", nazwana na cześć pisarza Alfreda Bestera. W jego rolę wcielił się Walter Koenig. +Żyrafowate + +Żyrafowate (Giraffidae) – rodzina dużych ssaków z podrzędu przeżuwaczy. +Występowanie: Afryka +Cechy charakterystyczne. +Wydłużona szyja i długie, dwupalczaste kończyny (przednie dłuższe od tylnych) oraz 2–5 wyrostków kostnych na czubku głowy pokrytych owłosioną skórą nadają żyrafowatym charakterystyczny wygląd. W uzębieniu 32 zęby, brak siekaczy i kłów, zęby policzkowe niskie. Górna warga ruchliwa. Język długi i chwytny. Nozdrza zamykają się. +Aktywne dniem i nocą. Żywią się głównie liśćmi drzew. +Bibliografia. +Rodzaje na podstawie angielskiej Wikipedii +Lisa + +Lisa – przełomowy komputer osobisty zaprojektowany przez Apple Computer we wczesnych latach 80. XX wieku. Projekt Lisa został zapoczątkowany w 1978 roku i powoli przeobraził się w potężny komputer osobisty z graficznym interfejsem użytkownika (GUI). Około roku 1982, Steve Jobs został wyrzucony z projektu Lisa i przyłączył się do Macintosha. Wbrew powszechnej opinii, Macintosh nie wywodzi się bezpośrednio od Lisy, choć istnieje wiele oczywistych podobieństw pomiędzy tymi systemami. Premiera Lisy miała miejsce 19 stycznia 1983 roku. +Etymologia. +Choć w dokumentacji dołączonej do oryginalnej Lisy występuje tylko nazwa "The Lisa", Apple oficjalnie utrzymywał, że nazwa ta, to akronim od "Local Integrated Software Architecture" (Lokalnie Zintegrowana Architektura Oprogramowania). Jednak mając na uwadze, że urodzona w 1978 roku pierwsza córka Steve'a Jobsa otrzymała imię Lisa, nazwa systemu prawdopodobnie miała wymiar osobisty a akronim wymyślony został później jako rozwinięcie imienia, co przyznał sam Jobs. +Sprzęt. +Lisa, kosztująca w dniu premiery 9 995 USD, była jednym z pierwszych dostępnych na rynku komputerów osobistych z GUI i myszą. Oparta o procesor Motorola 68000 o częstotliwości pracy 5 MHz, miała 1 MB RAM-u. Pierwsza Lisa miała także dwie stacje dyskietek 5¼ cala, z których każda posiadała dwie głowice, po jednej na każdą stronę. Napędy te wymagały specjalnych nośników z dwoma otworami przezywanymi "Twiggy". Opcjonalnie można było dostać zewnętrzny dysk twardy Apple ProFile o pojemności 5 MB, oryginalnie zaprojektowany dla Apple III. Późniejsze modele Lisa 2 używały pojedynczej stacji dyskietek 3½ cala i opcjonalnie wewnętrznego dysku twardego o pojemności 5 lub 10 MB. W 1984 roku, w czasie kiedy oficjalnie został zaprezentowany Macintosh, Apple ogłosił, że dostarczy darmowe dyski twarde o pojemności 5 MB wszystkim posiadaczom Lisy 1. +Oprogramowanie. +Lisa OS to wielozadaniowy, niewywłaszczający system operacyjny z pamięcią wirtualną. Na tamte czasy były to rozwiązania wysoce zaawansowane, jednak pamięć wirtualna w połączeniu z bardzo wolnymi dyskami znacznie spowalniała pracę systemu. Lisa inspirowana była komputerami Xerox Star, które także były pomyślane jako system biurowy; dlatego Lisa miała dwa główne tryby pracy: pakiet biurowy (The Lisa Office System) i warsztat (The Workshop). Tryb biurowy to środowisko z graficznym interfejsem użytkownika, przeznaczone dla odbiorców końcowych. Warsztat to środowisko programistyczne, niemal w całości tekstowe, choć używało okienkowego edytora tekstu. Pakiet biurowy nazwany został później "7/7", nawiązując do siedmiu składających się na niego aplikacji. +Lisa na rynku. +Lisa okazała się największą porażką finansową firmy Apple od czasu niepowodzeń Apple III z roku 1980. Za sprawą wysokiej ceny przegrywała konkurencję z tańszymi komputerami IBM PC, które już wtedy zaczynały dominować na rynku komputerów biurowych. Lisa postrzegana była jako komputer powolny, co było związane z interfejsem użytkownika. Apple Lisa z racji tego interfejsu wymagała układu generującego grafikę kolorową w stosunkowo wysokiej (jak na owe czasy) rozdzielczości. Okazało się jednak, że nie udało się opracować układu wystarczająco szybkiego i jego współdziałanie z procesorem powodowało częste konflikty o pamięć obrazu (procesor próbował zapisywać do niej nowe dane zanim układ graficzny zdążył pobrać dane zapisane wcześniej) — konstruktorzy Lisy byli zmuszeni po pierwsze użyć procesora o niskiej częstotliwości zegara (5 MHz, a w 1982 r. były już dostępne procesory o częstotliwości 12,5 MHz), a po drugie wprowadzić do kodu systemu programowe pętle opóźniające, aby procesor za często nie próbował odwoływać się do pamięci obrazu. Ostatnim gwoździem do trumny Lisy był Apple Macintosh, zaprezentowany w 1984 roku, który także miał graficzny interfejs użytkownika (wybrano tutaj grafikę monochromatyczną, co umożliwiło skonstruowanie układu generującego obraz wystarczająco szybkiego, aby nie spowalniać pracy procesora) i mysz, a który był znacznie tańszy. Wyprodukowano jeszcze dwa modele Lisy (Lisa 2 i Macintosh XL), po czym w roku 1986 zaprzestano produkcji tej linii komputerów. +W czasie kiedy 96 KB RAM-u uważane było za ekstrawagancje, wysoka cena Lisy, przez co także jej finansowe niepowodzenie, zależne było od dużej ilości RAM-u w jaki system został wyposażony. 1 MB RAM-u stał się standardem w komputerach osobistych dopiero pod koniec lat 80. +Znaczenie historyczne. +Choć projekt Lisa zakończył się finansowym niepowodzeniem, to jednak w pewnym aspekcie odniesiony został sukces. Mimo że Lisa była zbyt droga dla osób prywatnych, przez pewien czas była bardzo popularna w średnich firmach i organizacjach, które miały jeden lub dwie Lisy w każdym biurze. Chociaż Lisa działała wolno i oprogramowanie było raczej skromne, to jednak zadania w swoim zakresie wykonywała dostatecznie dobrze. Używając oprogramowania Lisa i drukarki igłowej Apple można było uzyskać bardzo dobrze wyglądające dokumenty (w porównaniu z innymi dostępnymi opcjami). W wyniku tego Lisa trafiła do dużych biur, gdzie każdy komputer używany był przez wielu ludzi, a to oznaczało, że gdy tańszy Macintosh pojawił się na rynku, było już dość dużo osób przekonanych do zalet graficznego interfejsu użytkownika w komputerach osobistych. +Koniec Lisy. +W 1987 roku, Sun Remarketing kupił około 5 tys. Macintoshy XL i ulepszył je. Niektóre pozostałe Lisy i części do nich są nadal dostępne. +W 1989 roku, firma Apple wywiozła około 2 700 szt. niesprzedanych komputerów Lisa na strzeżone wysypisko śmieci w Logan, Utah. +Podobnie jak wszystkie wczesne komputery z graficznym interfejsem użytkownika, działające Lisy są teraz wartościowym przedmiotem kolekcjonerskim. +Maria Pasło-Wiśniewska + +Maria Pasło-Wiśniewska (ur. 27 marca 1959 w Szamotułach) – polska ekonomistka, bankowiec i polityk, w latach 2005-2007 posłanka na Sejm. +Życiorys. +Ukończyła Szkołę Podstawową nr 54 im. Jana Kasprowicza, maturę zdała w VIII Liceum Ogólnokształcącym im. Adam Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. Następnie skończyła studia ekonomiczne w Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu oraz studia podyplomowe w latach 1989-1990 w Kellog School of Management na Northwestern University w Chicago. +Po ukończeniu studiów w 1983 rozpoczęła pracę w Oddziale Narodowego Banku Polskiego w Poznaniu. Po trzech latach przeniesiono ją do Oddziału Wojewódzkiego NBP, gdzie zajmowała się problematyką kredytową. W 1988 została zaproszona przez pełnomocnika ds. zorganizowania Wielkopolskiego Banku Kredytowego Franciszka Pospiecha do zespołu, którego zadaniem było utworzenie banku komercyjnego w Poznaniu. W WBK pracowała jako dyrektor departamentu kredytów, następnie do 1996 jako wiceprezes zarządu. W 1997 została prezesem Towarzystwa Funduszy Powierniczych "Skarbiec". Na początku 1998 objęła funkcję prezesa zarządu Banku Pekao S.A., z którym była związana do września 2003. +Dwukrotnie znalazła się na liście dwudziestu pięciu najbardziej wpływowych kobiet Europy, ogłaszanej przez "Wall Street Journal". W 2003 trafiła na listę "25 Stars of Europe" tygodnika "Business Week". +Wykłada na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim oraz na Uniwersytecie Gdańskim. Jest przewodniczącą Rady Konsultacyjnej Polskiej Konfederacji Pracodawców Prywatnych, prezesem zarządu spółki Central European Pharmaceutical Distribution (CEPD), przewodniczącą Rady Programowej Polskiego Instytutu Dyrektorów oraz międzynarodowym doradcą The Conference Board. +W 2005 uzyskała mandat poselski z listy Platformy Obywatelskiej w okręgu poznańskim. W wyborach samorządowych w 2006 była kandydatką PO na prezydenta Poznania. W pierwszej turze zajęła drugie miejsce za dotychczasowym prezydentem Ryszardem Grobelnym, w drugiej turze przegrała z nim, otrzymując 41,17% głosów. +Nie ubiegała się o reelekcję w wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007. +Wartość dodana + +Wartość dodana – przyrost wartości dóbr w wyniku określonego procesu produkcji lub tworzenia usługi. Źródłem wartości dodanej jest praca. W działalności gospodarczej jest to różnica między całkowitym przychodem ze sprzedaży a całkowitymi kosztami zasobów zewnętrznych zużytych do produkcji (surowców, energii i usług zewnętrznych związanych z daną produkcją). +John Fenn + +John Bennett Fenn (ur. 15 czerwca 1917 w Nowym Jorku, zm. 10 grudnia 2010 w Richmond w stanie Wirginia) - chemik amerykański, laureat Nagrody Nobla 2002. +Studiował w Berea College w Berea (Kentucky), doktorat obronił na Uniwersytecie Yale. Przez wiele lat pracował w Yale, następnie był profesorem na Virginia Commonwealth University w Richmond (Wirginia). +Jako pierwszy zastosował metodę jonizacji substancji przez elektrorozpylanie do analizy wielkocząsteczkowych biopolimerów w spektrometrach mas. +Za prace te otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla z chemii w 2002, wspólnie z Szwajcarem Kurtem Wüthrichem i Japończykiem Koichi Tanaką. +GNU Compiler for Java + +The GNU Compiler for Java (GCJ) - zestaw narzędzi dla języka Java, który jest częścią zestawu kompilatorów GCC z projektu GNU. +GCJ kompiluje zarówno pliki źródłowe Javy (rozszerzenie codice_1) jak i kod bajtowy (rozszerzenie codice_2, ang. "bytecode") Javy do postaci kodu maszynowego. Mimo wszystko kod programu skompilowanego ze źródeł jest lepiej zoptymalizowany niż kod kompilowany z kodu bajtowego. +Stopień zaawansowania GCJ pozwala już między innymi na kompilację tak złożonego projektu jak Eclipse. +Huáscar (1866) + +Huáscar – okręt pancerny klasy monitor z II połowy XIX wieku, służący w Marynarce Wojennej Peru i Chile. Został zbudowany w Wielkiej Brytanii w 1865 dla floty wojennej Peru. Odznaczył się szczególnie podczas wojny o Pacyfik w 1879, w toku której został zdobyty i wcielony do marynarki wojennej Chile. Obecnie, od 1952, jako pomnik chwały morskiej obu krajów, pełni rolę okrętu-muzeum w chilijskim porcie wojennym Talcahuano. Jest jednym z najsłynniejszych i najbardziej zasłużonych okrętów Ameryki Południowej. +Budowa. +Monitor "Huáscar" został zbudowany w stoczni Laird Brothers w Birkenhead w Wielkiej Brytanii na zamówienie marynarki wojennej Peru. Wraz z fregatą pancerną "Independecia", były one pierwszymi okrętami pancernymi marynarki wojennej Peru, zamówionymi w Europie w ramach programu rozwoju marynarki, wymuszonego przez napięte stosunki z sąsiednimi państwami i z dawną metropolią kolonialną, Hiszpanią. Wcześniej flota Peru posiadała jedynie kilka niewielkich drewnianych okrętów. Nowy okręt został zamówiony 12 sierpnia 1864, klasyfikowany początkowo jako wieżowy pancernik obrony wybrzeża. Koszt budowy wyniósł 71 000 funtów (około 5 milionów według współczesnej wartości funta). Okręt wodowano 7 października 1865. Z inicjatywy prezydenta Pezeta otrzymał nazwę na cześć władcy Inków, Huascara. +W momencie budowy "Huáscar" był nowoczesną i silną jednostką. Zaprojektowany przez konstruktora Cowpera Colesa, był jednym z pierwszych okrętów wyposażonych w wieżę artyleryjską, której koncepcję Coles forsował równolegle do Johna Ericssona (twórcy USS "Monitor"). W odróżnieniu od oryginalnego "Monitora", otrzymał wyższe burty, zwłaszcza na dziobie i w części rufowej, co dawało mu znacznie lepsze własności morskie. Na śródokręciu, gdzie umieszczona była wieża, burty obniżały się. Główne uzbrojenie okrętu w postaci dwóch dział odprzodowych kalibru 254 mm umieszczone było w wieży obrotowej. W celu załadowania działa były chowane do wieży. Wieża osadzona była na centralnej osi opierającej się na stępce okrętu, a jej ściany opierały się na łożysku rolkowym. Wieża obracana była ręcznie przez 16 ludzi, a czas pełnego obrotu wynosił 15 minut. Napęd wieży i uzbrojenie później zmodernizowano. +Kadłub wykonany był z żelaza i podzielony grodziami na 5 przedziałów wodoszczelnych. Pancerz burtowy rozciągał się od górnego pokładu na 90 cm poniżej linii wodnej i miał grubość 114 mm na śródokręciu – od wieży artyleryjskiej do maszynowni. Na dziobie i rufie jego grubość spadała do 64 mm. Pancerz umieszczony był na poszyciu na drewnianej podkładce. Śródokręcie było ponadto chronione pokładem pancernym, opancerzona była też wieża artyleryjska i umieszczone za nią stanowisko dowodzenia. Dziób okrętu był wykonany w formie taranu. Główny napęd okrętu stanowiła pozioma maszyna parowa pojedynczego rozprężania, o mocy 1200 KM. Okręt posiadał też pomocnicze ożaglowanie typu bryg, które jednak ostatecznie zdjęto przed 1879 wraz z przednim masztem i bukszprytem, jako niepraktyczne. +Służba w Peru. +"Huáscar" został odebrany przez peruwiańską załogę 12 stycznia 1866, pod dowództwem komandora Jose Marii Salcedo. Trzy dni później Peru przystąpiło do wojny Chile z Hiszpanią i "Huáscar" pośpiesznie opuścił Wielką Brytanię w obawie przed internowaniem. Po spotkaniu w Breście z nowo zbudowaną fregatą pancerną "Independencia", oba okręty wyruszyły 27 lutego przez Atlantyk. 28 lutego "Huáscar" został lekko uszkodzony w kolizji obu okrętów; remont udało się przeprowadzić dopiero w Rio de Janeiro, gdzie okręty dopłynęły 1 kwietnia. +Nie zdążyły one wziąć udziału w aktywnych działaniach wojennych. Przepłynęły przez Cieśninę Magellana 24 maja i dołączyły do sojuszniczej floty w Ancud w Chile dopiero 7 czerwca. Po drodze zdołały jednak zatopić trzy hiszpańskie statki handlowe u brzegów Brazylii. 11 czerwca flota sojusznicza została przebazowana do zniszczonego niedawno przez Hiszpanów Valparaiso. Rząd Peru planował użycie "Huáscara" i innych okrętów w ekspedycji odwetowej do hiszpańskiej kolonii na Filipinach, jednak plan ten ostatecznie zarzucono. Po rozwiązaniu wspólnej eskadry i zakończeniu aktywnych działań bojowych, "Huáscar" przeszedł do Peru, bazując głównie w Callao. +W lutym 1868 dowódcą monitora został komandor Miguel Grau, piastując to stanowisko aż do lipca 1876. Postawa dowódcy "Huáscara" przyczyniła się do niepowodzenia próby zamachu stanu braci Gutiérrez przeciw nowemu prezydentowi elektowi Manuelowi Pardo 22 lipca 1872. Na początku 1873 monitor patrolował wody wzdłuż wybrzeży Chile i Boliwii w związku z napięciem się stosunków między tymi krajami. Od kwietnia 1874 do stycznia 1875 monitor w składzie eskadry szkolnej ("Escuadra de Evoluciones") uczestniczył w zespołowych ćwiczeniach taktyki morskiej. 2 listopada 1874 "Huáscar" przechwycił w zatoce Pacocha statek "Talismán" z ładunkiem broni, udaremniając powstanie antyrządowe generała Nicolása de Piéroli. +Powstanie Pieroli. +W maju 1877 Nicolás de Piérola podjął kolejną próbę zamachu stanu w Peru, jednak nie udało mu się obalić prawowitych władz. Niemniej 6 maja zwolennicy Pieroli opanowali "Huáscar", który stał się następnie kwaterą samozwańczego prezydenta. Przeciw okrętowi skierowana został eskadra rządowych okrętów peruwiańskich. 27 maja doszło do potyczki, podczas której "Huáscar" spowodował niewielkie szkody na pokładzie fregaty pancernej "Independecia" i sam zdołał umknąć. 28 maja ostrzelał port Pisagua, który następnie opanowali członkowie jego załogi. Jednak, na skutek wcześniejszego zatrzymania i skontrolowania dwóch brytyjskich statków handlowych, przeciw "Huáscarowi", oskarżanemu o piractwo, wyruszyła brytyjska eskadra w składzie silnie uzbrojonej i znacznie większej żelaznej fregaty śrubowej HMS "Shah" i korwety HMS "Amethyst". +29 maja po południu, po odrzuceniu przez Pierolę oferty poddania się, doszło do potyczki z brytyjską eskadrą w zatoce Pacocha, koło portu Ilo. Po zaciętym, ponad dwugodzinnym pojedynku, "Huáscar", dobrze manewrując po płytkich wodach, na które brytyjska fregata obawiała się wpłynąć, zdołał umknąć pod osłoną ciemności. W czasie walki otrzymał kilkadziesiąt trafień, które nie spowodowały poważniejszych zniszczeń, a tylko jedno przebiło pancerz. Straty w załodze były niewielkie. Okręt uniknął również trafienia wystrzeloną do niego torpedą Whiteheada, po prostu zwiększając prędkość – było to pierwsze użycie bojowe torped w historii, i stąd "mało istotna potyczka pod Ilo weszła do historii wojen morskich". Prawdopodobnie też po raz pierwszy w potyczce morskiej użyto kartaczownicy Gatlinga, ostrzeliwując nią "Huáscara" z masztu "Shaha" podczas zbliżenia się okrętów. Starcie to uważane było za prestiżową porażkę Royal Navy, ponieważ okręty brytyjskie nie zatopiły ani nie zatrzymały "Huáscara", jednakże pod względem taktycznym zwyciężali Brytyjczycy. Mimo to, 30 maja okręt poddał się siłom rządowym w Iquique, ponieważ na pancerniku kończyły się zapasy amunicji. +Wojna o Pacyfik. +5 kwietnia 1879 roku wybuchła tzw. wojna o Pacyfik (wojna o saletrę) między Peru i Boliwią a Chile. "Huáscar" był jedną z czterech najsilniejszych jednostek floty Peru i jedną z dwóch najbardziej wartościowych. Drugą, fregatę "Independencia", wkrótce stracono. Jego dowódcą od 28 marca ponownie był Miguel Grau. 21 maja "Huáscar" zatopił w bitwie pod Iquique chilijską korwetę "Esmeralda", blokującą Iquique. Mimo że jego ogień był niecelny, "Huáscar" trzykrotnie staranował "Esmeraldę", przy czym dowódca "Esmeraldy" Arturo Prat poniósł śmierć na pokładzie "Huáscara", próbując abordażować monitor i zyskując przez to status chilijskiego bohatera narodowego. +W ciągu następnych miesięcy, monitor pod dowództwem komandora Grau, mianowanego później kontradmirałem, prowadził śmiałe działania rajderskie na chilijskich liniach komunikacyjnych, topiąc statki handlowe, atakując porty i stając się najbardziej dokuczliwym zagrożeniem dla Chile. Między innymi, podczas rajdu w czerwcu zatopił 13 niewielkich statków, uwolnił dwa peruwiańskie szkunery, przerwał podwodny kabel telegraficzny między Valparaiso i Antofagasta i walczył z bateriami nadbrzeżnymi w Antofagasta. +23 lipca 1879 pod Antofagasta wraz z korwetą "Unión" zdobył statek "Rimac" transportujący szwadron chilijskiej kawalerii pułku "Carabineros de Yungay" (258 żołnierzy), konie i sprzęt wojskowy. Fakt ten spowodował w Chile demonstracje antyrządowe, zmiany w rządzie i dowództwie. Chilijczycy przygotowali główny zespół floty specjalnie w celu przechwycenia "Huáscara", remontując swoje okręty i czyszcząc im kadłuby dla osiągnięcia większych prędkości. Mimo to, 28 sierpnia w starciu na redzie portu Antofagosta z korwetą "Abtao", kanonierką "Magallanes" i bateriami nadbrzeżnymi, "Huáscar" poważnie uszkodził "Abtao" i spowodował szkody w artylerii nadbrzeżnej, sam odnosząc niewielkie uszkodzenia (1 zabity). +8 października 1879 rano "Huáscar" i korweta "Unión" zostały ostatecznie przechwycone przez główne siły chilijskie. W bitwie koło przylądka Angamos z silniejszymi chilijskimi pancernikami kazamatowymi "Almirante Cochrane" i "Blanco Encalada", "Huáscar" został poważnie uszkodzony kilkudziesięcioma trafieniami z ciężkich dział, w tym co najmniej 20 pociskami przeciwpancernymi Pallisera, przebijającymi pancerz. Okręt został trafiony m.in. w wieżę artyleryjską. Zginęło 33 (wg innych źródeł 64) członków jego załogi, w tym admirał Grau na skutek trafienia w wieżę dowodzenia, niedługo po rozpoczęciu walki; wielu zostało rannych. Po zaciętej walce, Peruwiańczycy podjęli próbę samozatopienia obezwładnionego okrętu, lecz chilijski oddział abordażowy zapobiegł zatonięciu, opanowując okręt. Według relacji amerykańskiego oficera oglądającego okręt po bitwie, "trudno było znaleźć jard kwadratowy powierzchni nadbudówek bez śladu pocisków różnych kalibrów". Utrata "Huáscara" zaważyła na biegu wojny, dając Chilijczykom swobodę działań na morzu i transportu wojsk. +Służba w Chile. +Po przejęciu "Huáscar" został wyremontowany w Valparaiso i wcielony do marynarki wojennej Chile, biorąc udział w dalszych działaniach wojennych przeciwko Peru. Początkowo uczestniczył w blokadzie portu Arica. 27 lutego 1880 został tam uszkodzony w pojedynku z bateriami nadbrzeżnymi i powolnym, ale silnym monitorem "Manco Cápac" (amerykańskiego typu "Canonicus"; było to prawdopodobnie pierwsze starcie monitorów). "Huáscar" został trafiony 12 pociskami, w tym dwoma kalibru 381 mm z "Manco Cápac", w momencie gdy usiłował staranować peruwiański monitor, przy czym poniósł śmierć dowódca "Huáscara", komandor porucznik Manuel Thomson Porto Mariño. +17 marca 1880 "Huáscar" pod nowym dowódcą ostrzeliwał baterie nadbrzeżne w Arica, a następnie blokował Callao, walcząc 22 kwietnia i 10 maja z bateriami nadbrzeżnymi. Podczas drugiego starcia, został trafiony trzy razy, w tym raz poniżej linii wodnej. Po remoncie, od listopada ponownie blokował Callao. 11 grudnia wraz z innymi jednostkami walczył tam z peruwiańskim monitorem "Atahualpa". 13 stycznia 1881 wspierał wojska lądowe w zwycięskiej bitwie pod Chorillos na przedpolu Limy, a następnie pod Miraflores. Na skutek zwycięstw Chile na lądzie, zakończyły się działania morskie wojny. +W 1882 okręt został zmodernizowany, m.in. wymieniono działa artylerii głównej na nowocześniejsze odtylcowe działa kaliber 203 mm o dłuższej lufie i lepszych własnościach balistycznych, a na skutek zastąpienia ręcznego mechanizmu obrotu wieży parowym skrócił się czas jej pełnego obrotu z 15 do 5 minut. Wymieniono też na nowe kotły. W 1885 na odtylcowe wymieniono działa artylerii średniej, zamontowano też nowe stanowisko dowodzenia i wymieniono śrubę. W 1890 okręt przeszedł do rezerwy. +W 1891, podczas wojny domowej między Kongresem a prezydentem Jose Balmaceda, "Huáscar" razem z flotą Chile wszedł w skład sił partii Kongresu. 19 lutego 1891 wraz z "Blanco Encalada" i nowym krążownikiem "Esmeralda" odparł atak oddziałów prezydenckich na Iquique. Brał też ograniczony udział w dalszych działaniach morskich wojny domowej. Po zakończeniu działań, w 1891, trafił ponownie do rezerwy, a w 1896 poddano go remontowi. +Po remoncie, w 1897 doszło na nim do wybuchu kotła, w którym zginęło 14 ludzi, po czym "Huáscar" już nie powrócił do służby liniowej. W 1901 został wycofany ze służby i zakotwiczony w bazie Talcahuano jako stacjonarny hulk koszarowy, po zdemontowaniu kotłów. W latach 1917-1930 służył jako okręt-baza okrętów podwodnych. W kolejnych latach pozostawał nadal zakotwiczony w Talcahuano. W 1934 okręt udostępniono do zwiedzania i ustawiono na nim 4 działka salutacyjne, podnosząc na nim proporzec Dowódcy 2. Strefy Morskiej. +Muzeum. +W rocznicę bitwy pod Angamos, 8 października 1952, po odrestaurowaniu, "Huáscar" został otwarty jako okręt-muzeum w bazie marynarki wojennej Chile w Talcahuano. Stał się pomnikiem morskiej chwały obu narodów. W odrestaurowanym salonie dowódcy okrętu na rufie znajdują się portrety zarówno dwóch poległych na jego pokładzie dowódców chilijskich – Arturo Prata i Manuela Thomsona, jak i peruwiańskiego admirała Miguela Grau. W pomieszczeniach kotłowni urządzono kaplicę. W latach 1971-1972 okręt przeszedł remont i dalszy etap restauracji. +Ununtrium + +Ununtrium (Uut) – pierwiastek chemiczny, znajdujący się w układzie okresowym w bloku p bezpośrednio pod talem, stąd nazywany czasami nieoficjalnie eka-talem. Nazwa "ununtrium" wywodzi się z liczby atomowej tego pierwiastka zgodnie z systematyczną terminologią IUPAC dla transuranowców. +Historia. +1 lutego 2004 roku zespół złożony z rosyjskich naukowców z Instytutu Badań Atomowych w Dubnej oraz amerykańskich naukowców z Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory doniósł o wytworzeniu czterech atomów ununpentium, które po rozpadzie utworzyły atomy ununtrium. Izotop tego pierwiastka o najdłuższym czasie życia, , zaobserwowano w łańcuchu rozpadów jądra ununseptium, również wytworzonego w Dubnej, w 2009 roku. +28 września 2004 roku, zespół japońskich naukowców z instytutu Riken doniósł, że również odniósł sukces w syntetyzowaniu ununtrium, uzyskując pojedynczy atom lżejszego izotopu tego pierwiastka, . W 2012 roku japońskiemu zespołowi udało się uzyskać kolejny atom tego izotopu, który rozpadł się przez szereg sześciu kolejnych rozpadów alfa, prowadzący do znanych izotopów. Jądro potomne nie rozpadło się przez spontaniczne rozszczepienie, jak poprzednim razem, ale przez emisję cząstki alfa, zgodnie z wcześniejszymi obserwacjami tego izotopu. To potwierdziło, że zsyntetyzowane jądro atomowe istotnie było jądrem pierwiastka 113. +Otocjon + +Otocjon ("Otocyon megalotis") – gatunek drapieżnego ssaka z rodziny psowatych (Canidae), jedyny przedstawiciel rodzaju "Otocyon". +Opis. +Osiąga długość ciała 46-66 cm, ogona 23-34 cm, wysokość w kłębie 30-40 cm. Masa ciała 3-5,3 kg. Ma charakterystyczną sylwetkę: tułów zbliżony do tułowia lisa, ale głowę zaokrągloną, z krótkim i szerokim pyskiem i olbrzymimi (do 12 cm długości) uszami - "megalotis" znaczy dosłownie "wielkouchy". Uszy umożliwiają otocjonom zarejestrowanie dźwięków tak delikatnych, jak ruch owadów znajdujących się pod ziemią. Przyłożywszy ucho do gruntu, potrafią dokładnie zlokalizować ofiarę, by następnie za pomocą długich (2 cm) pazurów wydobyć ją spod ziemi. +Otocjony zamieszkują Afrykę; występują tam w dwóch izolowanych populacjach: od płd. Zambii po Angolę i RPA i od Somalii i płd. Sudanu po Tanzanię. Żyją w małych grupach rodzinnych. +Na uwagę zasługuje również uzębienie otocjonów - mają od 46 do 50 drobnych zębów (najwięcej spośród wszystkich ssaków), którymi potrafią przeżuwać pokarm z niewiarygodną prędkością 5 ugryzień na sekundę. Pożywienie otocjonów stanowią przede wszystkim termity i duże owady typu szarańczaków, ale także owoce, jaja oraz pisklęta ptaków. Zimą otocjony najbardziej aktywne są za dnia, natomiast latem - w nocy. +Torfianka + +Torfianka – niewielki zbiornik wodny pochodzenia antropogenicznego, powstały w wyniku napełnienia wodą zagłębienia terenu po wydobyciu torfu. Obecność kwasów humusowych nadaje mu charakter dystroficzny. +Zobacz też: glinianka, suchar. +Julia Hartwig + +Julia Hartwig (ur. 14 sierpnia 1921 w Lublinie) – polska poetka, eseistka i tłumaczka literatury pięknej. +Biografia. +Jest córką fotografa Ludwika Hartwiga i Marii Birjukow, siostrą Edwarda, fotografika i Walentego, endokrynologa. Uczyła się w Gimnazjum im. Unii Lubelskiej w Lublinie (matura w 1939). W 1936, w gazetce szkolnej „W słońce” opublikowała swój pierwszy wiersz. Podczas II wojny światowej była łączniczką AK, uczestniczką podziemnego życia kulturalnego. Studiowała polonistykę i romanistykę na Tajnym Uniwersytecie Warszawskim (1942-1944) i Uniwersytecie Warszawskim (1946) oraz Katolickim Uniwersytecie Lubelskim. W latach 1947-50 przebywała we Francji, gdzie była stypendystką rządu francuskiego i urzędniczką w dziale kulturalnym Ambasady Polskiej w Paryżu, w tym okresie związana była z Ksawerym Pruszyńskim i Zygmuntem Kałużyńskim. Mieszkała następnie w Warszawie. W latach 1952-69 była autorką słuchowisk nadawanych w Polskim Radiu. +W latach 1970-74, razem z mężem, Arturem Międzyrzeckim przebywała w USA, była uczestnikiem programu International Writing Program, a następnie wykładowcą Drake University. Prowadziła też wykłady w University of Ottawa (1971) i Carleton University (1973) w Kanadzie. W 1976 była sygnatariuszką „Memoriału 101”. W 1979 roku ponownie przebywała w USA na zaproszenie Departamentu Stanu. W 1989 roku była członkiem Komitetu Obywatelskiego przy Przewodniczącym NSZZ „Solidarność” Lechu Wałęsie. +Swoje wiersze i artykuły ogłaszała w pismach: „Odrodzenie”, „Nowa Kultura”, „Świat”, „Nowe Książki”, „Poezja”, „Tygodnik Powszechny”, „Twórczość”, „Kresy”, „NaGłos”, „Zeszyty Literackie”, „Odra”, „Więź”, „Kwartalnik Artystyczny”. +Tłumaczyła na język polski twórczość takich pisarzy, jak: Guillaume Apollinaire, Allen Ginsberg, Max Jacob, Blaise Cendrars, Pierre Reverdy, Marianne Moore, William Carlos Williams. +Była członkiem Związku Literatów Polskich (1945-83, była w Zarządzie Głównym w latach 1980-82), Polskiego PEN-Clubu (od 1956), NSZZ „Solidarność” (1986-91), Stowarzyszenia Pisarzy Polskich (1989, wiceprezes w latach 1990-99). Od 2008 jest przewodniczącą jury Nagrody Mediów Publicznych w dziedzinie literatury pięknej COGITO. +W 2003 powstał o poetce film dokumentalny pt.: "Ułamki codzienności. Julia Hartwig" (scenariusz i realizacja: Elżbieta Rottermund). W 2009 otrzymała honorowe obywatelstwo Lublina oraz została laureatką Nagrody "Kamień", przyznawanej podczas Lubelskiego Festiwalu "Miasto Poezji" +Mieszka w Warszawie, przy ul. Marszałkowskiej. +Józef Hen + +Józef Hen, właściwie Józef Henryk Cukier (ur. 8 listopada 1923 w Warszawie) – polski pisarz, publicysta, dramaturg, scenarzysta i reportażysta żydowskiego pochodzenia. +Biografia. +Urodzony 8 listopada 1923 w Warszawie na Nowolipiu, w rodzinie rzemieślniczej. Tam ukończył gimnazjum im. M. Kryńskiego (mała matura). Jako dziecko współpracowł z założonym przez Janusza Korczaka "Małym Przeglądem". +Wrzesień 1939 roku spędził w Warszawie na Nowolipiu. Stolicę opuścił w listopadzie 1939 roku. Wojnę spędził w Związku Radzieckim. Pracował przy budowie szosy Lwów-Kijów, a potem trafił do Samarkandy w Uzbekistanie. Pomimo dobrej formy fizycznej nie został przyjęty do armii Andersa. W 1944 wstąpił do Wojska Polskiego, opublikował też wtedy pierwszy wiersz ("Łódź wierna") w piśmie "Głos Żołnierza". W czasie wojny stracił ojca, zabitego w 1945 w Buchenwaldzie, brata Mojżesza (ur. 1920), który zaginął w ZSRR oraz siostrę Mirkę (1917-1942). Wojnę przeżyły matka i siostra Stella (ur. 1915). W 1944 przyjął pseudonim literacki "Hen", który z czasem zaczął mu służyć za nazwisko. Zaraz po wojnie był redaktorem tygodnika "Żołnierz Polski". Służbę wojskową zakończył w stopniu kapitana w 1952. +Już w 1947 opublikował pierwszą książkę "Kijów, Taszkent, Berlin. Dzieje włóczęgi", która została uznana za obiecujący debiut. Pisał reportaże, nowele, opowiadania, prozę historyczną i powieści dla dorosłych i młodzieży, a także scenariusze filmowe, które niekiedy też reżyserował, m.in. "Autobusy jak żółwie". Na podstawie jego utworów nakręcono na początku lat 60. m.in. filmy "Krzyż walecznych", "Nikt nie woła", "Kwiecień" oraz "Prawo i pięść". Później sfilmowano też "Crimen". Był także autorem scenariusza serialu historycznego "Królewskie sny", opublikowanego później także w wersji książkowej. Publikował też m.in. na łamach tygodnika "Świat". +W latach 1967-69 był zajadle atakowany przez środowisko tzw. "partyzantów". Nawiązał wówczas współpracę z paryską "Kulturą" Jerzego Giedroycia, w której opublikował trzy opowiadania pod pseudonimem Korab ("Western", "Oko Dajana", "Bliźniak"). +Wydał m.in. powieść dla dzieci "Bitwę o Kozi Dwór" (1955), nawiązującą częściowo do "Chłopców z Placu Broni" Molnára, powieść wojenną "Kwiecień" (1960), dwie autobiograficzne powieści tworzące cykl "Teatr Heroda" o dojrzewaniu tuż przed II wojną światową i podczas oblężenia Warszawy w 1939 roku ("Przed wielką Pauzą" i "Opór"), liczne zbiory opowiadań, w tym "Krzyż walecznych" (1964), literaturę historyczną "Crimen. Opowieść jarmarczna" (1975) oraz tomy esejów "Nie boję się bezsennych nocy" (1987) i wspomnień "Nowolipie" (1991). Inną pozycją w jego dorobku są beletryzowane biografie, wśród nich "Ja, Michał z Montaigne" (1978) – panorama XVI-wiecznej Europy ujęta na tle życiorysu francuskiego pisarza, myśliciela i eseisty Michela de Montaigne, oraz "Błazen - wielki mąż" (1998) – obszerny szkic postaci i wielostronnej działalności Tadeusza Boya-Żeleńskiego, przetykany refleksjami autora na temat epoki, która była jego dzieciństwem (powieść ta miała już trzy wydania). +Hen przez lata doczekał się kilkunastu tłumaczeń, w tym na czeski, niemiecki, francuski i rosyjski. Przez długie lata (do 1982) był działaczem Związku Literatów Polskich. Był też członkiem komitetu wyborczego Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza w wyborach prezydenckich w 2005. Jest członkiem Stowarzyszenia Pisarzy Polskich. +Mieszka w Warszawie. Z małżeństwa z Ireną z domu Lebewal (1922–2010) ma dwoje dzieci: Magdalenę (ur. 1950) i Macieja (ur. 1955). +Odznaczony Krzyżem Walecznych oraz Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (1998). +W listopadzie 2006 został odznaczony Złotym Medalem „Zasłużony Kulturze Gloria Artis”. +W 2009 roku otrzymał Nagrody Literackiej m. st. Warszawy w kategorii "Warszawski twórca". +Muszkiet + +Muszkiet – gładkolufowa broń palna długa, ładowana od wylotu lufy czyli odprzodowo, kalibru od 13 do 25 milimetrów. +Pojawił się na polach bitew w początkach XVI wieku w armiach włoskich i hiszpańskich (pierwsza wzmianka pochodzi z roku 1512 z Rawenny), następnie rozpowszechnił się w całej Europie. Początkowo był cięższą wersją arkebuzu, zaś uzbrojeni weń żołnierze byli wsparciem dla arkebuzerów oraz pikinierów. Termin "muszkiet" odnosił się do wielu broni, począwszy od długich i ciężkich rusznic z zamkiem lontowym bądź kołowym, których lufę opierano na forkiecie, po lekkie wersje z zamkami skałkowymi i bagnetem, strzelające pociskami typu Minié. +Maksymalna donośność muszkietów gładkolufowych wynosiła około 300 m, jednak skuteczny zasięg prowadzenia celnego ognia to zaledwie 50-60 metrów. XIX-to wieczne muszkiety gwintowane były w stanie prowadzić celny ostrzał na odległość 450 metrów. Szybkostrzelność zmieniała się wraz z postępem technologicznym od 1 strzału na 12 minut do 3 strzałów na 1 minutę na początku XIX wieku. Żołnierze, których główną bronią był muszkiet, nosili nazwę muszkieterów. +Początkowo pociski do muszkietów miały postać okrągłych ołowianych kul, zaś proch znajdował się w osobnej prochownicy. Później pojawiły się tzw. patrony, zawierające zarówno kulę jak i proch – przed załadowaniem przegryzano je, a następnie podsypywano niewielką ilość prochu na panewkę, zaś resztę do lufy. Patrony jako pierwszy w Europie wprowadził do wyposażenia Stefan Batory w piechocie polskiej. +Niewielka szybkostrzelność i zasada oddawania ognia salwami spowodowała, że oddziały piechoty ustawiane były w szyki złożone z kilku szeregów i stosowały taktykę walki zwaną kontrmarszem. Po oddaniu ognia pierwszy szereg przemieszczał się na koniec szyku dla nabicia broni, dając jednocześnie miejsce do oddania strzału drugiemu szeregowi. Rosła dzięki temu intensywność prowadzonego ognia. Dla ochrony muszkieterów w sytuacji bezpośredniego starcia z kawalerią służyli pikinierzy, później dzięki wprowadzeniu bagnetu szpuntowego muszkieterzy sami byli zdolni bronić się przed atakami jazdy. +Muszkiety były stosowane w armiach europejskich do końca drugiej dekady XIX wieku, zaś w USA używano ich jeszcze podczas wojny secesyjnej. Zostały wyparte z uzbrojenia przez muszkiety gwintowane i wreszcie karabiny na amunicję zespoloną. Istniała też wersja myśliwska i sportowa tej broni. Lżejsza, bogato zdobiona, wyposażona w zamek kołowy, a następnie skałkowy. Duża siła ognia muszkietu wojskowego przyczyniła się do zaniku uzbrojenia ochronnego na przełomie XVII i XVIII wieku, jako już nieprzydatnego. W efekcie zastosowania w formacjach piechoty na przełomie XVII i XVIII karabinu skałkowego z bagnetem, muszkiet i wraz z nim oddziały muszkieterów i pikinierów w piechocie zanikły. +W języku polskim od XVII wieku przyjęło się nazywanie tego typu broni "karabinem". +Jan z Kijan + +Jan z Kijan (przełom XVI i XVII wieku), pseudonim nieznanego polskiego poety plebejskiego, czołowego twórcy literatury sowizdrzalskiej. +W formie paradoksalnych dowcipów w utworach tych autor krytykował panujące współcześnie stosunki społeczne, zwracając m.in. uwagę na upadek autorytetów moralnych i religijnych. +Pisał w nich o Krośnie, (gdzie "w mięsopusty z chrzanem gorzałkę popijają"), Bieczu, Dukli, Jaśle, Wieliczce, Brzostku i Dębicy. +Pustków (województwo podkarpackie) + +Pustków – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie podkarpackim, w powiecie dębickim, w gminie Dębica. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie tarnowskim. +Teatr bulwarowy + +Teatr bulwarowy to teatr prezentujący repertuar o lekkim charakterze: komedie, farsy, których fabuła podejmuje tematykę zdrady małżeńskiej, romansów, trójkątów miłosnych. +Nazwa pierwotnie odnosiła się do XIX-wiecznych teatrzyków działających w Paryżu przy ulicy Boulevard du Temple, która ze względu na tematykę wystawianych tu sztuk zyskała miano Boulevard du Crime (Ulicy Złoczyńców). W repertuarze dominowały niewyszukane melodramaty, w których sprawiedliwość zawsze triumfowała, dobrzybohaterowie dokonywali pomsty za krzywdy uciśnionych niewinnych dzieci czy dziewic. Siłą teatru bulwarowego były liczne perypetie bohaterów, nagłe zwroty akcji, częste zmiany dekoracji. Choć teatr bulwarowy zyskał miano niewyszukanej rozrywki, to jednak wywarł istotny wpływ na kształtowanie się teatru romantycznego z jego zamiłowaniem do bogatej scenografii. Sztuki bulwarowe wywarły takze wpływ na twórczość teatralną polskich romatyków: Adama Mickiewicza, Juliusza Słowackiego, Zygmunta Krasińskiego. +Krzyżówka (zagadka) + +Krzyżówka - zagadka słowno-literowa polegająca na odgadywaniu lub dopasowywaniu haseł i wpisywaniu ich w krzyżujące się ze sobą rubryki. Krzyżówki różnią się od siebie stopniem trudności, wielkością, wiekiem potencjalnego odbiorcy. Można je konstruować tylko w tych językach, gdzie pojedyncza litera alfabetu reprezentuje indywidualną głoskę, dlatego niemożliwe jest układanie krzyżówek w języku np. chińskim. Na koncepcji krzyżówki opiera się również gra Scrabble. +Historia krzyżówki. +Pomysłodawcą krzyżówki jest Amerykanin Arthur Wynne, pracownik "działu sztuczek i kawałów" gazety New York World. Pierwszą krzyżówkę zamieścił w niedzielnym dodatku "Fun" ("Zabawa") do "New York World" z dnia 21 grudnia 1913 r. Była ona wzorowana na grze towarzyskiej, w którą grywał jego dziadek - "Magiczny kwadrat albo podwójny akrostych". "Original crossword puzzle" zawierała 32 hasła. Rubryki oddzielone były czarnymi odstępami. Pomysł spotkał się z tak dużym entuzjazmem ze strony czytelników, że w 1924 r. ukazała się książka "Crossworld puzzle". Zawierała wybór 50 krzyżówek publikowanych dotychczas w "Fun". Okazała się bestsellerem. W ciągu miesiąca rozeszła się w nakładzie przeszło pół miliona egzemplarzy. Wynalazek nie został opatentowany. W kilka miesięcy potem nowinka trafiła do Brytyjczyków, którzy rozprzestrzenili ją na inne kraje Europy. +Pojawiły się też czasopisma poświęcone wyłącznie temu rodzajowi rozrywek umysłowych, nad którymi łamią sobie głowy miliony ludzi na całym świecie. +Krzyżówka w Polsce. +W "Kurierze Warszawskim" z 31 stycznia 1925 r. w dziale zadań redagowanym przez autora licznych szarad, Karola Hoffmana, opublikowana została anonimowo "łamigłówka krzyżowa". Redakcja ufundowała 5 nagród dla osób, które nadeślą poprawne rozwiązanie. W tydzień po tym krzyżówkę autorstwa Kazimierza Makarczyka załączono do warszawskiego tygodnika "Ilustracja". To ten szachista właśnie jako pierwszy podał nazwę "krzyżówka" będącą tłumaczeniem angielskiego wyrażenia "cross word puzzle". Wkrótce krzyżówki zaczęły publikować kolejne polskie gazety. +Ununpentium + +Ununpentium (Uup) – pierwiastek chemiczny znajdujący się w bloku p bezpośrednio pod bizmutem w układzie okresowym i stąd nazywany nieoficjalnie eka-bizmutem. Nazwa "ununpentium" wywodzi się z liczby atomowej tego pierwiastka zgodnie z systematyczną terminologią IUPAC dla transuranowców. +Historia. +1 lutego 2004 roku zespół złożony z naukowców Międzynarodowego Instytutu Badań Jądrowych w Dubnej oraz amerykańskich naukowców z Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory doniósł o wytworzeniu czterech atomów ununpentium w wyniku bombardowania ameryku-243 jonami wapnia-48. Atomy te uległy rozpadowi do ununtrium w ciągu ok. 100 ms z emisją cząstek alfa. +Dyżurny ruchu + +Dyżurny ruchu – wykwalifikowany pracownik kolei, którego głównym obowiązkiem jest prowadzenie ruchu na stacji i przyległych szlakach. +Pozostałe zadania dyżurnego ruchu to: +Kierujący prowadzeniem ruchu na stacji dyżurny ruchu tzw. dysponujący może mieć przydzielonych do pomocy dodatkowych pracowników, wśród nich: dyżurnego ruchu pomocniczego, dyżurnego ruchu manewrowego i dyżurnego ruchu peronowego. +Miejscem pracy dyżurnego ruchu zazwyczaj jest nastawnia. +Zbiornik wodny + +Zbiornik wodny – zagłębienie terenu wypełnione wodą stojącą (w przeciwieństwie do cieków - wód płynących). +Wyróżnia się zbiorniki wodne naturalne nazywane jeziorami oraz sztuczne zbiorniki wodne (zbiorniki antropogeniczne), które w zależności od sposobu powstania misy dzieli się na: zaporowe, poeksploatacyjne, groblowe, w nieckach z osiadania, zapadliskowe, poregulacyjne, sadzawki, baseny różnego typu. Zbiorniki wodne (zarówno jeziora jak i zbiorniki antropogeniczne) według kryterium przepływowości dzieli się na dopływowe, odpływowe, przepływowe i bezodpływowe. W innym podziale - według kryterium czasu funkcjonowania - wyróżnia się zbiorniki wodne stałe i okresowe (wysychające). +Mianem zbiorników wodnych określa się czasami oceany i ich części tj. baseny morskie, morza, zatoki, zalewy, kanały morskie. +Rektyfikacja okręgu + +Rektyfikacja okręgu czyli wyprostowanie okręgu – zadanie polegające na skonstruowaniu przy użyciu cyrkla i linijki bez podziałki, odcinka, którego długość jest równa obwodowi danego okręgu. Konstrukcja ta jest niewykonalna, co wynika z faktu, iż π jest liczbą przestępną. Znanych jest wiele konstrukcji przybliżonych, jedna z nich została podana w 1685 roku przez nadwornego matematyka króla Jana III Sobieskiego, Adama Adamandego Kochańskiego. +Rektyfikacja okręgu jest bezpośrednio związana z kwadraturą koła – gdyby jedna z tych konstrukcji była wykonalna, wykonalna byłaby i druga. +Rektyfikacji okręgu dokonać można jednak jeśli mamy daną spiralę Archimedesa. Krzywa ta jest jednak niemożliwa do skonstruowania z użyciem cyrkla i linijki. Można ją natomiast uzyskać konstruując odpowiedni przyrząd mechaniczny. +Konstrukcja Kochańskiego. +Następująca konstrukcja daje mimo swej prostoty, stosunkowo dokładne przybliżenie liczby formula_1: dany jest okrąg i styczna w punkcie "A". Z punktu "A" promieniem okręgu zakreślamy łuk, który przecina okrąg w punkcie "C". Z punktu "C" promieniem okręgu zakreślamy łuk – oba łuki przecinają się w punkcie "D". Prosta "OD" przecina daną styczną do okręgu w punkcie "E". Od "E" odkładamy trzy długości promienia |"OA"| w kierunku punktu "A" i otrzymujemy punkt "F". Odcinek "FB" łączy "F" z końcem średnicy okręgu wyznaczonej przez "OA". Jego długość jest w przybliżeniu równa połowie obwodu okręgu. Obliczona dla tej konstrukcji wartość formula_1 jest równa 3,14153334..., podczas gdy dokładna wynosi 3,14159265..., zatem błąd obliczeń jest nie większy niż 0,002%. +Edward Starszy + +Edward I Starszy (ur. ok. 871, zm. 17 lipca 924 w Farndon-on-Dee w Cheshire) – siódmy król Wesseksu od 899, syn Alfreda Wielkiego i Ealhswith, córki Ethelreda Muncila, earla Gaini. +Początki panowania. +Objęcie tronu przez Edwarda po śmierci jego ojca nie przebiegło bezproblemowo. Po śmierci Alfreda w 899 r. pretensje do korony zgłosił Aethelwold, syn króla Ethelreda I, starszego brata Alfreda. Opanował dwa ważne miasta w hrabstwie Dorset - Wimborne Minster i Christchurch. Edward ruszył w odpowiedzi do Badbury i starał się sprowokować kuzyna do bitwy. Aethelwold jednak odmówił i wycofał się do Wimborne. Edward rozpoczął przygotowania do ataku na miasto. Aethelwold zorientował się w tych planach i pod osłoną nocy uciekł z miasta i przedostał się do Duńczyków w Nortumbrii, gdzie został okrzyknięty królem Wesseksu. Edward w tym czasie koronował się (8 czerwca 900 r. w Kingston upon Thames). Przyjął również tytuł "króla Anglów i Sasów". +W 901 r. Aethelwold na czele duńskiej floty zaatakował wybrzeża Essexu. Powstanie wywołali również Duńczycy z Anglii Wschodniej. W następnym roku zaatakował Cricklade i Braydon. Edward ruszył przeciwko rywalowi i po długich podchodach zmusił go do bitwy niedaleko miejscowości Holme. Edward przegrał bitwę, ale zginęli w niej zarówno Aethelwold jak i wspierający go król Anglii Wschodniej Eohric. Niedługo później Edward zawarł pokój z Duńczykami z północy, jak mówi "Kronika anglosaska", zawarł ten pokój "z konieczności". Z 907 r. pochodzi wzmianka o zajęciu miasta Chester, ale o ewentualnych działaniach wojennych nie ma żadnych wiadomości. +W 909 r. Edward zaatakował Nortumbrię i wymusił haracz. W odwecie, rok później potężna duńska armia zaatakowała Mercję. 5 sierpnia 910 r. Edward zmusił Duńczyków do bitwy pod Tettenhal, która zakończyła się zniszczeniem armii duńskiej. Był to ostatni najazd tak licznej armii duńskiej na Anglię. Od tamtej pory Duńczycy z Północy nie przekraczali linii rzeki Humber. Anglosasi przejęli inicjatywę w wojnie. Edward nie przedsięwziął jednak prób podboju Danelaw, ograniczając się do oczyszczenia z Duńczyków terenów na południe od rzeki Humber i wprowadzenia tam anglosaskiej administracji. Dla ochrony swoich ziem przed duńskimi atakami wybudował szereg fortec (tzw. "burghs"), m.in. w Hertford, Witham, Birdgnorth, Tamworth, Stafford, Eddisbury i Warwick. +Zdobycze Edwarda. +Najważniejszą zdobyczą króla Edwarda było ostateczne podporządkowanie władcom Wesseksu Mercji. W 918 r. zmarła pani Mercjan Ethelfleda, siostra Edwarda. Jej dziedziczką miała zostać jej córka, Aelfwinn, ale Edward usunął siostrzenicę i osobiście przejął rządy w Mercji. Przyłączył również do swego państwa miasta Londyn i Oksford, a także tereny Oxfordshire i Middlesex. +Kolejne lata panowania upłynęły Edwardowi na walkach z norweskimi najazdami na północ kraju. Najazdy zostały odparte, a w latach 918-920 udało się Edwardowi narzucić swoją zwierzchność władcom Walii, Szkocji i Danelawu, którzy tytułowali go "swoim ojcem i panem". +Król zreorganizował również kościół w Wesseksie. Utworzono nowe biskupstwa - Ramsbury i Sonning (909 r.), Welles oraz Crediton. Edward nie był tak religijny jak jego ojciec i dziad. Zachowało się upomnienie od papieża, aby więcej uwagi poświęcał sprawom religijnym. +Król zmarł w 924 r., prowadząc armię przeciwko rebeliantom w Mercji. Został pochowany w New Minster w Winchesterze, które sam ufundował w roku 901. Po normańskim podboju jego ciało przeniesiono do opactwa Hyde. Przydomek "Starszy" pojawił się po raz pierwszy w pochodzącym z X wieku "Życiu św. Ethelwolda", aby odróżnić go od jednego z jego następców, Edwarda Męczennika. +Rodzina. +Po objęciu tronu Edward oddalił Ecgwynn i poślubił ok. 901 r. Aelffaedę (zm. 920), córkę Ethelhelma, earla Wiltshire, i Elswithy. Małżonkowie mieli razem +Według niektórych średniowiecznych źródeł Edward był ojcem Tyry Danebod, żony pierwszego króla Danii - Gorma Starego. Informację tę traktuje się jednak jako bardzo niepewną. +Alfred Bester + +Alfred Bester (ur. 18 grudnia 1913, zm. 30 września 1987) – amerykański pisarz fantastycznonaukowy. Był pierwszym pisarzem, który zdobył Nagrodę Hugo w 1953 roku za "The Demolished Man" ("Człowiek do przeróbki"). +Sławę przyniosły mu przede wszystkim dwie powieści "Człowiek do przeróbki" i "Gwiazdy moim przeznaczeniem". +Jego opowiadania zostały zebrane w wydanych w 1958 roku tomie "Starburst", w 1964 roku "The Dark Side of the Earth" oraz innymi w latach 70. +Na jego cześć jedna z postaci telewizyjnego serialu sf Babilon 5 nosi nazwisko Alfred Bester. +Bob Matsui + +Robert Takeo (Bob) Matsui (17 września 1941 − 1 stycznia 2005), polityk amerykański, pochodzący z rodziny emigrantów japońskich. +Urodził się w Sacramento (Kalifornia). Jako półroczne dziecko znalazł się − razem z rodzicami − w obozie internowania Tule Lake dla osób pochodzenia japońskiego, zorganizowanym przez władze USA po ataku na Pearl Harbor. W późniejszych latach był jednym z inicjatorów aktu oficjalnych przeprosin rządu federalnego (1988) za traktowanie obywateli amerykańskich pochodzenia japońskiego w czasie II wojny światowej. W efekcie m.in. jego działań utworzono muzeum pamięci tych zdarzeń w byłym obozie Manzanar. +Studiował prawo na Uniwersytecie Kalifornijskim w Berkeley oraz w Hastings College of Law (ukończył w 1966). W 1967 rozpoczął praktykę prawniczą w Sacramento. W 1971 został wybrany do rady miejskiej Sacramento, w 1977 został zastępcą burmistrza. +Od 1978 zasiadał w Izbie Reprezentantów USA jako reprezentant kalifornijskiej Partii Demokratycznej. Pełnił mandat parlamentarny przez 13 kadencji, do końca życia; zmarł krótko po zwycięskich wyborach jesienią 2004. W chwili śmierci pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego Komitetu Partii Demokratycznej ds. Kampanii do Kongresu. +Arnold Denker + +Arnold Sheldon Denker (ur. 20 lutego 1914 w Nowym Jorku, zm. 2 stycznia 2005 w Fort Lauderdale) – szachista amerykański, arcymistrz. +Biografia. +Zanim zajął się karierą szachową był obiecującym bokserem. W latach 30. zaliczał się obok Samuela Reshevsky'ego i Reubena Fine do ścisłej czołówki amerykańskich szachistów. W 1944 zdobył mistrzostwo USA. +Brał udział w radiowym meczu szachowym USA-ZSRR w 1945, przegrywając dwa pojedynki z Michaiłem Botwinnikiem. Przegrał także dwa mecze z Wasilijem Smysłowem w spotkaniu rewanżowym, rozegranym już po wojnie w 1946 w Moskwie. Wybitni historycy szachów, Ken Whyld i David Hooper, w książce "Oxford Companion to Chess" oceniali, że wojna zabrała Denkerowi najlepsze lata kariery szachowej, wskutek czego nie wykorzystał swoich dużych możliwości. +Według retrospektywnego systemu Chessmetrics, najwyższy ranking osiągnął w styczniu 1935 r., z wynikiem 2677 punktów zajmował wówczas 8. miejsce na świecie. +W 1950 r. otrzymał tytuł mistrza międzynarodowego, a w 1981 r. Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa nadała mu honorowy tytuł arcymistrza. Występował nadal w turniejach, ale bez większych sukcesów. Był znanym działaczem FIDE, organizował m.in. młodzieżowy turniej "Arnold Denker Tournament of High School Champions". Był współautorem (z Larry Parrem) książki "The Bobby Fischer I Knew, and other stories", a także innych publikacji o tematyce szachowej. +Livermorium + +Livermorium (Lv) – pierwiastek chemiczny z bloku p, leżący w układzie okresowym pod polonem. +19 czerwca 2000 roku naukowcy z Dubnej zaobserwowali pojedynczy rozpad atomu pierwiastka 116. W 2001 roku udało się im otrzymać dwa kolejne atomy. Wyniki te zostały potwierdzone w 2003 roku w kolejnych eksperymentach. Otrzymany atom został pierwotnie zidentyfikowany jako , co później skorygowano na . +Odkrycie tego pierwiastka zostało uznane przez IUPAC 1 czerwca 2011 roku. +Rzekome odkrycie. +W 1999 roku badacze z Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ogłosili odkrycie pierwiastków 116 i 118 w publikacji w czasopiśmie "Physical Review Letters". Rok później ukazała się publikacja, w której autorzy opisywali niemożność powtórzenia otrzymania tych pierwiastków. Po przeprowadzonym dochodzeniu w lipcu 2002 roku, dyrektor Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory przyznał, że rzekome odkrycie zostało sfabrykowane przez Wiktora Ninowa, głównego autora publikacji z 1999 roku. +Nazwa. +Do czasu ustalenia obecnej nazwy, określany był jako "ununhexium" (Uuh), zgodnie z systematyczną wstępną terminologią IUPAC dla transuranowców. Ze względu na położenie w układzie okresowym pod polonem, nazywany jest zwyczajowo eka-polonem. 1 grudnia 2011 roku IUPAC zaproponowała ostateczną angielską nazwę pierwiastka 116 jako "livermorium" (symbol Lv). W Livermore znajduje się Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, gdzie otrzymano szereg pierwiastków transuranowych. 30 maja 2012 roku IUPAC oficjalnie zatwierdziła tę nazwę. +Dolina Małej Zimnej Wody + +Dolina Małej Zimnej Wody (słow. "Malá Studená dolina", niem. "Kleines Kaltbachtal", węg. "Kis-Tarpataki-völgy") – tatrzańska dolina o długości ok. 4 km, położona na terenie Słowacji po południowej stronie głównej grani Tatr Wysokich. Ułożona tarasowo otwiera się w kierunku wschodnim i południowo-wschodnim, łącząc się z Doliną Staroleśną ("Veľká Studená dolina") i tworząc walną Dolinę Zimnej Wody. +Topografia. +Dolne piętro doliny, porośnięte lasem, wznosi się stromo, przechodząc w części środkowej w obszar porośnięty kosodrzewiną, trawami i kwiatami. Część górna, skalista, oddzielona wysoką ścianą stawiarską – tzw. Złotymi Spadami ("Jazerná stena") – nazywana jest Doliną Pięciu Stawów Spiskich ("kotlina Piatich Spišských plies"), a piętro podchodzące pod Lodową Przełęcz ("Sedielko") – Dolinką Lodową ("Dolina pod Sedielkom"). +Wody. +Dnem doliny płynie potok Mała Zimna Woda ("Malý Studený potok"), na którym u wejścia do doliny znajduje się Wodospad Olbrzymi ("Obrovský vodopád"). Poniżej, w pobliżu Schroniska Bilíka, na Małej Zimnej Wodzie i Staroleśnym Potoku ("Veľký Studený potok") połączonych w potok Zimnej Wody ("Studený potok") jest jeszcze kilka wodospadów, określane wspólną nazwą Wodospady Zimnej Wody ("Vodopády Studeného potoka"). Poprowadzono przy nich szlak turystyczny ze Starego Smokowca do górnych odgałęzień Doliny Zimnej Wody. +W górnej części doliny, w Dolinie Pięciu Stawów Spiskich, znajduje się Pięć Stawów Spiskich ("Päť spišských plies"), od których wzięła swoją nazwę ta dolina. Są to Wielki Staw Spiski, Pośredni Staw Spiski, Niżni Staw Spiski, Zadni Staw Spiski i Mały Staw Spiski. Wyżej (ok. 2207 m), pod ścianą Baranich Rogów leży jeszcze jeden, niewielki i okresowo zanikający Barani Stawek ("Baranie pliesko"). Jest to najwyżej położony staw w Tatrach. +W Dolince Lodowej na wysokości ok. 2157 m znajduje się inny niewielki staw: Lodowy Stawek ("Modré pleso") o powierzchni ok. 0,4 ha i głębokości 4,5 m (najwyżej położony stały staw w Tatrach). +Turystyka. +Przez Dolinę Małej Zimnej Wody poprowadzone są dwa znakowane szlaki turystyczne: na Lodową Przełęcz i dalej do Doliny Jaworowej oraz przez przełęcz Czerwona Ławka ("Priečne sedlo") do Doliny Staroleśnej. W dolnej części doliny (na wysokości 1475 m) znajduje się Schronisko Zamkovskiego ("Zamkovského chata"), które przez pewien czas nosiło imię kapitana Nálepki ("chata kapitána Nálepku"), a w Dolinie Pięciu Stawów Spiskich na wysokości 2015 m – Schronisko Téryego („Terinka”, "Téryho chata"). +Na niektórych mapach Dolina Małej Zimnej Wody jest nieprawidłowo podpisywana jako Dolina Zimnej Wody. +Pierwszą osobą znaną z nazwiska, jaka dotarła do Doliny Małej Zimnej Wody, był Robert Townson, który z przewodnikami przechodził przez nią w drodze na Łomnicę 14-18 sierpnia 1793 r. Później dolina była odwiedzana częściej w związku z rozwojem Smokowca, chodzono nią na okoliczne szczyty. Zimą dolinę przeszli jako pierwsi Theodor Wundt i przewodnik Jakob Horvay w dniach 27-28 grudnia 1891 r. +Nośniki ładunku + +Nośnik ładunku – obiekt przenoszący ładunek elektryczny podczas przepływu prądu. Rodzaj nośnika ładunku zależy od budowy materiału, w którym dochodzi do transportu ładunku. +W metalach nośnikami ładunku elektrony. W półprzewodnikach są to elektrony, a gdy przewodnictwo zachodzi w paśmie walencyjnym stosuje opis przewodnictwa za pomocą pojęcia dziur. W elektrolitach, na przykład w roztworach dysocjujących soli są to jony. +W bardziej złożonych materiałach nośniki ładunku mogą być jeszcze bardziej wyszukane: dla materiałów w stanie nadprzewodzącym nośnikami ładunku są tzw. pary Coopera, z wielkim bogactwem nośników można zetknąć się w teorii ciała stałego. +Karta debetowa + +Karta debetowa – karta płatnicza wydawana do rachunku bankowego. Obciąża ona konto posiadacza na kwotę transakcji w momencie jej wykonywania. Kwota transakcji nie może przekroczyć stanu środków dostępnych na koncie posiadacza karty. +European Students Earth Orbiter + +ESEO ("ang. European Students Earth Orbiter") to mikrosatelita projektowany przez europejskich studentów. Projektem opiekuje się Europejska Agencja Kosmiczna i stowarzyszenie SSETI. Montaż prototypu przewidywany był na początek roku 2007, a start na koniec roku 2008, jednak terminy te uległy znacznemu opóźnieniu. +Zespoły studenckie rozproszone są po całej Europie. Prace koordynowane są poprzez internet i odbywające się co pół roku warsztaty. W pracach biorą także udział studenci Politechniki Warszawskiej i Wrocławskiej. +OASIS + +OASIS, Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards, to międzynarodowe konsorcjum o charakterze non-profit, zajmujące się rozwojem standardów e-biznesu, w tym także standardów sieciowych. Konsorcjum powstało w 1993 roku pod nazwą SGML Open, w celu promocji języka SGML, zmiana nazwy nastąpiła w 1998 roku, aby odzwierciedlić poszerzenie obszaru działań organizacji. W skład OASIS wchodzi ponad 5 tysięcy podmiotów z ponad 100 krajów, w tym ponad 600 organizacji. +Proces podejmowania decyzji przez członków konsorcjum jest otwarty i demokratyczny. Prace odbywają się obecnie między innymi w takich działach jak usługi sieciowe, e-handel, bezpieczeństwo, prawo i administracja, aplikacje, dokumenty, przetwarzanie XML czy zgodność i współpraca. +Błąd bezwzględny + +W metrologii błędem bezwzględnym nazywa się różnicę pomiędzy wartością zmierzoną "x", a wartością dokładną "x"0 +przy czym wartość dokładna nie jest znana. Może być ona określona w sposób przybliżony np. jako wynik teoretycznych obliczeń, średnia arytmetyczna wzięta z dużej liczby pomiarów lub jako założony parametr w procesie technologicznym. Może to być również wynik pomiaru przyrządem charakteryzującym się znacznie większą dokładnością. +Pomiar zawsze obarczony jest błędem pomiarowym, ponieważ dokonywany jest za pomocą przyrządu pomiarowego, np. woltomierza, amperomierza, suwmiarki, o skończonej dokładności. +Wartość błędu może zostać również obliczona według podanej klasy miernika analogowego. Błąd bezwzględny pomiaru oblicza się wówczas z wykorzystaniem wzoru: +gdzie +Oznacza to, że w każdym punkcie podziałki danego miernika może nastąpić błąd mieszczący się w granicach wartości mierzonej +Jeżeli przyrząd pomiarowy wyposażony jest w podziałkę i nie jest podana klasa przyrządu (np. linijka, kątomierz, mechaniczna waga szalkowa, mechaniczny stoper), wówczas niepewność pojedynczego pomiaru nie może być mniejsza od wartości wyznaczonej przez najmniejszą odległość między działkami podziałki. +W błędach systematycznych. +W przypadku błędu systematycznego, jeżeli jego wartość jest przewidywalna i znana (np. związana ze znaną zmianą temperatury), wartość błędu bezwzględnego nazywana jest "poprawką". Po dodaniu poprawki do wyniku pomiaru "x" otrzymuje się wartość skorygowaną o błąd systematyczny. Poprawka może mieć wartość ujemną lub dodatnią, w zależności od czynnika wpływającego na zmianę wartości pomiaru. +W błędach losowych. +W przypadku błędów losowych, inaczej niż w błędach systematycznych, nie jest istotne, czy odchylenie wyniku pomiaru od wartości oczekiwanej nastąpiło w górę, czy w dół, dlatego rozpatruje się moduł błędu bezwzględnego +Cybina + +Cybina – rzeka w województwie wielkopolskim będąca prawym dopływem Warty. Jej źródła znajdują się wśród łąk we wsi Nekielka, na wysokości około 120 m n.p.m. Początkowo płynie na południe, od przysiółka Leśna Grobla na zachód, przez Jezioro Góra na północny zachód, skąd dalej w kierunku zachodnim. Przepływa przez gminy: Kostrzyn, Pobiedziska, Swarzędz i miasto Poznań. Stan wody w ciągu roku zmienia się nawet o 1,5 m. +Opis. +Dolina Cybiny jest niemal bezleśna i dość głęboko wcięta. Ciekawy krajobrazowo jest fragment doliny od wsi Uzarzewo, przez tereny wsi Gruszczyn i Gortatowo do Swarzędza, gdzie przechodzi w rynnę Jeziora Swarzędzkiego. Dolina ma około trzech kilometrów długości i 300-700 metrów szerokości. Dno doliny zajmują liczne rozlewiska Cybiny. Jedynie początkowy i końcowy fragment doliny jest zalesiony. Planuje się objąć dolinę ochroną w ramach Parku Krajobrazowego Doliny Cybiny. +Rzeka przepływa przez liczne jeziora z których największym jest Jezioro Swarzędzkie. Inne to Jezioro Góra, Jezioro Uzarzewskie oraz leżące na terenie Poznania stawy: Antoninek, Młyński, Browarny i Olszak. W dolnym odcinku, tuż przy ujściu powstało zaporowe Jezioro Maltańskie. Dalej przepływa pod ul. Jana Pawła II wykorzystując XIX w. przepust Śluzy Cybińskiej. Cybina uchodzi do Warty na kilometrze 240,5. Dokładniej jest to prawe ramię Warty opływające Ostrów Tumski, zwane również Cybiną lub Kanałem Ulgi (właściwie Wschodnim Kanałem Ulgi, powstałym w ramach prac przy budowie Twierdzy Poznań). +Krótkofalówka + +Modulacja fali następuje w nadajniku radiowym, zaś jej demodulacja w odbiorniku. W amatorskiej radiokomunikacji najczęściej stosuje się modulację amplitudy i częstotliwości. Krótkofalówki dzielą się na urządzenia stacjonarne i przenośne. Zasięgi krótkofalówki zależą od: mocy nadajnika, rodzaju anteny, zakresu częstotliwości pracy oraz od propagacji fal radiowych, czyli zdolności do rozchodzenia się fal radiowych w przestrzeni. Propagacja zmienia się w zależności od: pory dnia, pory roku oraz warunków atmosferycznych. +Spolegliwość + +Spolegliwość – pewność, możliwość polegania na kimś. Ktoś spolegliwy jest osobą na której można polegać, na kim można się oprzeć, to ktoś troskliwy, opiekuńczy, godny zaufania. Potocznie słowo to jest używane przede wszystkim w sensie "uległości" lub "podporządkowywania się innym", i to drugie znaczenie uzyskało również status poprawnego (jako wyrażenie potoczne) . +Do filozofii, pojęcie to zostało wprowadzone przez Tadeusza Kotarbińskiego w jego pracach na temat teorii skutecznego działania (prakseologia), zwłaszcza natomiast w pismach na temat "etyki niezależnej". Termin pochodzi według autora od niemieckiego "zuverlässig", i znany jest na Śląsku. Inne źródła wskazują na czeski przymiotnik "spolehlivý", znaczący tyle co "godny zaufania". +Spolegliwy opiekun winien być życzliwie nastawiony wobec podopiecznych, "wrażliwy na cudze potrzeby i skłonny do pomagania". Na podstawie tak skonstruowanego modelu dobrego człowieka Kotarbiński chciał udowodnić, że ten wzorzec "nie spadł z zaświatów, ani nie jest jakimś echem niezmiennego ideału bytującego w rejonach czystych idei" (). Do przyzwoitego zachowania się nie jest więc potrzebna, według filozofa, wiara w ideał transcendentalny, ale zwykła wrażliwość, której kryteria nie zmieniają się w czasie. Kotarbiński bronił możliwości stworzenia etyki, która byłaby niezależna od poglądu filozoficznego lub religijnego i która mogłaby przetrwać nawet wtedy, gdy zniknie w nas przekonanie o słuszności jakiegokolwiek przekonania metafizycznego. +Karabin StG44 + +Sturmgewehr 44 (MP.43, MP.44, StG.44) – niemiecki karabinek automatyczny zbudowany w 1943 roku. Jeden z pierwszych karabinków automatycznych na nabój pośredni wprowadzonych do uzbrojenia. +Historia. +W 1942 roku Niemcy rozpoczęli pracę nad zaprojektowaniem karabinka automatycznego, który miał połączyć cechy pistoletu maszynowego z karabinem maszynowym tj. charakteryzować się stosunkowo niską masą, możliwością strzelania ogniem ciągłym na odległość do 1000 m, dużą siłą ognia i szybkostrzelnością. +Projekt takiego karabinka oznaczono jako "MKb 42" (niem. "Maschinenkarabiner 42"). Pracę nad tym projektem podjęły dwie wytwórnie broni: "Karl Walther" oraz "C.G. Haenel". W broni tej użyto naboi pośrednich "Karabinerpatrone 7,9 x 33 mm" wytwórni amunicji "Polte". Dzięki zastosowaniu takiej amunicji zasięg efektywny broni wynosił 600 metrów, a prędkość początkowa wynosiła 680 m/s. +Po przebadaniu obu projektów: "MKb 42(W)" firmy Walther i "MKb 42(H)" firmy C.G. Haenel, ostatecznie przyjęto projekt "MKb 42(H)" zaprojektowany przez Hugona Schmeissera. Został przyjęty do produkcji seryjnej jako "MP 43/1" (niem. "Maschinenpistole 43/1") i wprowadzony na uzbrojenie oddziałów pancernych Wehrmachtu i Waffen SS. W toku dalszych prób karabinek ten został zmodyfikowany i produkowany był pod kilkoma desygnatami. +Historia nazwy tej broni jest wyraźnym przykładem problemów i bałaganu w nazewnictwie z tamtego okresu. Określano ją początkowo (od grudnia 1941 do stycznia 1942) jako MK42 H.S. (Maschinenkarabiner 42 Haenel/Schmeisser), czyli nazwą fabryczną, od 16 do 21 stycznia 1942 na konferencji WaA i Polte w Kummersdorfie nadano jej miano MP42S (Maschinenpistole 42 Schwer), którą następnie (od 21 do 28 stycznia 1942) zmieniono na sMP42 (schwere Maschinenpistole 42), nadaną po prezentacji przez WaA sekcji uzbrojenia In2. Od 28 stycznia do 7 lutego 1942 nazwę zmieniono na MK42 (Maschinenkarabiner 42), decyzją In2, na którą zgodził się GendInf. W czasie od 7 lutego 1942 do 24 stycznia 1943 broń nosiła miano MKb.42 bowiem skrót MK był już zajęty i rozwijany jako Maschinenkanone (armata automatyczna), później, po 27 marca 1942, nastąpił podział na modele z Walthera i z Haenela, czyli MKb.42(W) i MKb.42(H). Od 24 stycznia 1943 do 4 kwietnia 1944 nazwę zmieniono na MP43 (Maschinenpistole 43) w dokumentach GendInf rozróżniających G43, MP43 i FG42, choć formalnie to MKb.42(H) przemianowano na MP43A, a poprawioną wersję MP43/1 na MP43B. Od 4 kwietnia 1944 (pierwsze listy z nową nazwą z OrgAbt do GenInf) do 22 listopada 1944 powrócono do określenia MP44 (Maschinenpistole 44), przy czym oficjalna zmiana następuje od 25 kwietnia 1944, w tym samym czasie G43 staje się K43. W końcu, od 22 listopada 1944 ostatecznie, zgodnie z oficjalnym rozkazem Adolfa Hitlera, broni nadana jest desygnata StG.44 (Sturmgewehr 44). +Karabinek StG.44 produkowano w wersji standardowej, ale istniała też wersja posiadająca specjalną nakładkę z lufą wygiętą pod kątem 30 stopni do strzelania z czołgu. Wadą tej broni było to, że szybko się zużywała a pocisk mógł rozpaść się w lufie. Żywotność broni wynosiła ok. 300 strzałów. +Łącznie w latach 1943 – 1944 wyprodukowano 425 977 sztuk karabinków wszystkich wersji. Następcą StG.44 miał być StG45(M) ("Mauser Sturmgewehr 1945") o zbliżonych parametrach technicznych, ale lepiej przystosowany do masowej produkcji. Nigdy nie został on wdrożony do takiej produkcji, ale jego prototyp z zamkiem półswobodnym był dalekim przodkiem karabinów "CETME" i "G3" oraz pistoletu maszynowego "MP5". +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej StG.44 znajdował się na wyposażeniu niektórych oddziałów podziemia antykomunistycznego w Polsce, był również używany przez milicję Niemieckiej Republiki Demokratycznej oraz jugosłowiańskich spadochroniarzy. Broń trafiła także w ręce członków rozmaitych organizacji zbrojnych w krajach trzeciego świata. Zakończenie w 1961 r. produkcji amunicji 7,92 mm x 33 Kurz w NRD (milicja enerdowska zastąpiła StG.44 karabinkiem AK) spowodowało spadek użyteczności tego pierwszego jako konstrukcji wojskowej. Nadal był używany m.in. w Afryce i jest cenioną bronią kolekcjonerską w USA. Przez lata amunicję produkowano w Jugosławii w zakładach Prvi Partizan, zaś liczba w pełni sprawnych egzemplarzy StG.44 okazała się tak duża, że w 2004 r. niemiecka firma SM Chemnitzer Sportwaffen und Munitionfabrik GmbH ponownie uruchomiła produkcję amunicji 7,92 x 33 mm. +Należy dodać, że obiegowe opinie, jakoby radziecki karabinek AK miał być kopią lub modyfikacją karabinu StG44, bazujące na pewnym podobieństwie zewnętrznym obu broni, są całkowicie fałszywe, a konstrukcje te nie są ze sobą związane. +Opis techniczny. +Karabinek działa na zasadzie odprowadzenia gazów przez boczny otwór w ściance lufy. Komora gazowa typu zamkniętego ma stałą objętość. +Broń składa się z następujących części: lufy z komorą gazową, komory zamkowej z płaszczem lufy, komory spustowej z rękojeścią, zamka, mechanizmów: ryglowego, spustowego i uderzeniowego; sprężyny powrotnej, tylca z kolbą i magazynka z mechanizmem podawania. +Ryglowanie przewodu lufy następuje przez wychylenie zamka w płaszczyźnie pionowej podczas ryglowania. Ryglowania i odryglowania dokonuje się za pomocą współpracujących ze sobą odpowiednio pochyłych płaszczyzn na zamku i suwadle. Karabinek posiada mechanizm uderzeniowy typu kurkowego. Mechanizm spustowy pozwala na prowadzenie ognia zarówno pojedynczego, jak i ciągłego. +Celownik krzywkowy pozwala na prowadzenie ognia do 800 m. Podziałka celownika naniesiona jest na ramię celownika. Każda podziałka odpowiada zmianie odległości o 50 m. Szczerbinka i muszka o zarysie trójkąta. +Zasilanie karabinka odbywa się z wymiennego magazynka łukowego o pojemności 30 naboi z dwurzędowym ułożeniem naboi. +Oryginalną cechą StG.44 jest to, że większość części jest tłoczona, a do ich łączenia najczęściej stosowano nitowanie i spawanie punktowe. +Janusz Christa + +Janusz Christa (ur. 19 lipca 1934 w Wilnie, zm. 15 listopada 2008 w Sopocie) – autor komiksów, rysownik i scenarzysta, z wykształcenia ekonomista. Autor jednej z najpopularniejszych polskich serii komiksów – "Kajko i Kokosz". +Życiorys. +Zadebiutował w 1957. Nie wiadomo, czy początkiem były jednostronicowe historyjki o dwóch chłopcach, "Kuku Ryku", publikowane w magazynie "Przygoda", czy całostronicowy komiks bez dymków "Opowieść o Armstrongu", drukowany w magazynie "Jazz". W 1958 związał się z "Wieczorem Wybrzeża" i drukował w nim najpierw przygody "Kajtka-Majtka", potem "Kajtka i Koka" (z najdłuższą polską epopeją komiksową "W Kosmosie"), oraz trzy pierwsze historyjki o Kajku i Kokoszu ("Złoty puchar", "Szranki i konkury", "Woje Mirmiła"). +Jego najpopularniejsze dzieło, "Kajko i Kokosz", powstało w 1972 i zasłynęło na całą Polskę, gdy po raz pierwszy ukazało się, jako odcinkowa historia jednostronicowa, w Świecie Młodych (de facto była to czwarta historyjka o obu wojach). Gucek i Roch to dwóch nowych bohaterów stworzonych w 1978. Christa był autorem scenariusza, chociaż podpisał go nazwiskiem Adama Kołodziejczyka. +Na początku lat 90. XX wieku przestał tworzyć ze względu na stan zdrowia. Na początku XXI wieku wydawnictwo Egmont Polska zaczęło wydawać tomy jego klasycznych, w większości "wybrzeżowych", komiksów. Natomiast w listopadzie 2005 ukazały się edycja śląska "Szkoły latania" ("Szkoła furganio") i kaszubska "Na wczasach" ("Na latowisku"), w 2006 edycja góralska "Wielkiego turnieju" ("Ogromniasto gońba"). +23 czerwca 2006 miała miejsce ogólnoświatowa premiera filmu krótkometrażowego – Kajko i Kokosz, na bazie jednego z wątków zaczerpniętych z komiksu "Zamach na Milusia”. I choć jeszcze za czasów PRL-u twórca komiksu, Janusz Christa próbował zrobić film animowany w studiu w Bielsku-Białej, to skończyło się tylko kilkoma próbnymi testami. Od 2001 trwały prace nad fabularną adaptacją Kajka i Kokosza, które zostały wstrzymane z powodu zbyt niskiego budżetu. Również inni twórcy komiksowi, czy filmowi od lat czerpali z motywu naszych rodzimych bohaterów, jednak dopiero w 2006 udało się zrealizować animację 3d, w pełni odwzorowującą jedną z kluczowych historyjek komiksowych Janusza Christy. Historia ta została przedstawiona z pryzmatu przyglądającej się mrówki, pokrywa się w dużej mierze z pierwowzorem i wypełniają ją zabawne scenki oraz żarty głównych bohaterów. Krytyka dotyka zwłaszcza Kajka, którego głos podkłada Maciej Stuhr. Nieprawidłowo oddając humor i odbierając postaci powagę, czyni ją niezbieżną charakterem w stosunku do pierwowzoru. Jednak nie zabrakło też pozytywnych opinii, gdyż film jest chwalony za oryginalną ścieżkę dźwiękową, zaś animacja momentami jest bardzo ciekawie wykonana. Całość oglądana nie przez pryzmat komiksu tworzy intrygującą i zwięzłą zapowiedź, która miała być zaledwie namiastką dużo większego projektu, wykonanego ze znacznie większym rozmachem. Niestety, do śmierci twórcy komiksu nie udało się go zrealizować. +31 maja 2007 został odznaczony przez ministra kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego Kazimierza Michała Ujazdowskiego Srebrnym Medalem Zasłużony Kulturze Gloria Artis. W 2008, na Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Komiksu w Łodzi, świętowano 50-lecie narodzin Kajtka i Koka. +Od 1945 mieszkał w Sopocie, kolejno przy ul. Helskiej, 23 Marca, Wybickiego. +Władze Sopotu planują utworzyć w mieście gród Kajka i Kokosza, by mogli stać się jednym z symbolów kurortu. +Objaw Blumberga + +Objaw Blumberga (ang. Blumberg sign, rebound tenderness) – objaw stwierdzany w badaniu przedmiotowym u chorych z ostrym zapaleniem otrzewnej. Objaw charakteryzuje się brakiem lub słabo nasiloną bolesnością podczas delikatnego i powolnego wpuklania powłok brzusznych, z charakterystycznym wywołaniem ostrego, silnego bólu w momencie gwałtownego zwolnienia ucisku. Proponowany mechanizm patofizjologiczny objawu to rozklejanie się blaszek otrzewnej, bolesne w wyniku zapalenia oraz nagła zmiana ciśnienia w jamie brzusznej. +Objaw opisał w 1907 roku Jacob Moritz Blumberg (1873-1955), niemiecki chirurg i ginekolog. +Osip Mandelsztam + +Osip Emiljewicz Mandelsztam (ros. "Осип Эмильевич Мандельштам", ur. 15 stycznia (3 stycznia według starego stylu) 1891 w Warszawie, zm. 27 grudnia 1938 w łagrze pod Władywostokiem) – rosyjski poeta i prozaik pochodzenia żydowskiego. Jeden z głównych przedstawicieli akmeizmu. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Osip Mandelsztam urodził się w Warszawie, jako syn dobrze prosperującego handlarza wyrobami skórzanymi i nauczycielki muzyki. W dzieciństwie pobierał nauki w swym domu, pod kierunkiem guwernantek oraz nauczycieli. W latach 1907–1908 odbył podróż do Paryża (studiował na Sorbonie), później do Niemiec, gdzie w latach 1909–1910 studiował klasyczną literaturę francuską na uniwersytecie w Heidelbergu. Od 1911 do 1917 roku studiował natomiast filozofię na uniwersytecie w Sankt Petersburgu, której jednak nie ukończył. +Twórczość. +Jako poeta debiutował w 1910 roku, w piśmie "Apollon". Sławę zyskał trzy lata później zbiorem wierszy "Kamień", a wydany w 1922 tom "Tristia" umocnił jego pozycję w środowisku poetów. Inspiracją wierszy z tego okresu była przede wszystkim kultura starożytna oraz mistyczny świat dawnej kultury rosyjskiej. Napisany przez niego w 1913 i wydany w 1919 roku manifest "Świt akmeizmu" określał ramy tej poezji. +W twórczości Mandelsztama pojawiały się również wątki judaistyczne, choć on sam nie był praktykującym żydem, a niekiedy do religii tej odnosił się nawet z niechęcią. Tom "Wiersze" (1928) był ostatnim wydanym za życia poety z tego nurtu. +Z początkiem lat 30. Mandelsztam zwrócił się ku prozie. W 1933 ukończył ostatnią książkę "Podróż do Armenii", będącą poetyckim opisem autentycznej wyprawy na Kaukaz. Tytułowa podróż to proza poetycka, będąca owocem podróży, jaką Mandelsztam odbył wraz z żoną we wczesnych latach 30. Nie było to krajoznawstwo, lecz podróż – zgodnie z historiozofią poety – do źródeł czasu. Mandelsztam wierzył, że kultury Kaukazu i Czarmomorza są jak księgi, z których uczyli się pierwsi ludzie. +Pisane przez niego później wiersze nie mogły już zostać wydane ze względu na wszechobecny stalinowski terror. Dużą część utworów napisanych pod koniec życia poety przechowała i uchroniła przed zapomnieniem jego żona. Początek światowej sławy Osipa rozpoczął się dopiero w latach siedemdziesiątych XX w., za sprawą wdowy, Nadieżdy Mandelsztam, opisującej w swojej książce "Nadzieja w beznadziei" los swego zmarłego męża. Ocalone wiersze złożyły się na "Woroneskie zeszyty". +Obecnie Osipa Mandelsztama, obok Borysa Pasternaka i Anny Achmatowej, stawia się na piedestale największych poetów rosyjskich XX wieku. +Represje. +Wiersz ten poeta powtórzył w trakcie przesłuchania i został on zanotowany w protokole, który po dziś dzień znajduje się w rosyjskich archiwach. W maju 1938 roku Mandelsztam został ponownie aresztowany i skazany na pięcioletnie zesłanie za działalność antyrewolucyjną. Nie było jednak szans, by przeżył wyrok. Był bowiem u skraju fizycznej wytrzymałości i trudność sprawiało mu samo utrzymanie się na nogach. +Zmarł w obozie przejściowym Wtoraja Rieczka (Вторая Речка) pod Władywostokiem. Jako oficjalną przyczynę śmierci podano zawał serca. Ciało złożono we wspólnej mogile. +Rehabilitacja. +Mandelsztam został pośmiertnie rehabilitowany. Częściowo w 1956 i ostatecznie 28 października 1987 r. +To ostatnie wydarzenie było natchnieniem dla Jacka Kaczmarskiego do napisania piosenki "Zmartwychwstanie Mandelsztama". +18 maja 2012 nadano ulicy na terenie Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego przy Krakowskim Przedmieściu imię Osipa Mandelstama. +Maciej z Mąkolina + +Maciej z Mąkolina (Maciej Kalecki) herbu Kotwicz (ur. ok. 1498 w Mąkolinie, zm. 30 grudnia 1576 w Pułtusku), sekretarz królowej Bony i Zygmunta Augusta. +Pochodził z rodziny plebejskiej, jego ojciec Stanisław był wójtem wsi w Mąkolinie na Mazowszu. Dzięki protekcji Andrzeja Krzyckiego zdobył wykształcenie. Na sejmie w dniu 25 stycznia 1533 nobilitowany razem z braćmi, został przyjęty do herbu Kotwicz Krzyckich. Tego roku nabył razem z bratem Pawłem majątek Kaleczyce w powiecie Lidzkim w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim, przyjął nazwisko Kalecki. Niedługo po nobilitacji został sekretarzem królowej Bony, a ok. 1547 także sekretarzem Zygmunta Augusta. Za służbę otrzymał liczne, dochodowe prebendy. Na starość osiadł w Pułtusku na Mazowszu, gdzie zarządzał swoimi mazowieckimi prebendami. +Giovanni Villani + +Giovanni Villani (ur. ok. 1275, zm. 1348), polityk i kronikarz florencki. +Był zaangażowany w ważne działania dyplomatyczne Florencji; autor znanego dzieła "Nuova Cronica", kontynuowanego później przez jego brata Matteo (do 1363) i bratanka Filippo (do 1410). +Marsyliusz z Padwy + +Marsyliusz z Padwy, "Marsilio da Padova, Marsilio Mainardini" (ur. ok. 1275 w Padwie, zm. 1343 w Monachium) – włoski średniowieczny filozof i pisarz polityczny. +Studiował medycynę w Padwie i sztuki wyzwolone na Sorbonie, gdzie przez krótki okres był rektorem. Zwolennik awerroizmu w filozofii, w 1324 opublikował dzieło "Obrońca Pokoju" ("Defensor Pacis"), w którym rozgraniczał wyraźnie władzę religijną kleru od władzy świeckiej. Oskarżany o antyklerykalizm został ekskomunikowany. W tym samym czasie wszedł na służbę Ludwika Bawarskiego jako nadworny lekarz. Na rok przed śmiercią opublikował "Mniejszego Obrońcę" ("Defensor Minor"), w którym rozwinął swoją krytykę ambicji kleru do sprawowania władzy świeckiej. +Teoria państwa wg Marsyliusza. +Jednostki nie są indywidualne, bo wchodzą w skład wielkiego organizmu, jakim jest społeczeństwo. Celem państwa jest rozstrzyganie konfliktów, sporów i to ono ma zaspokajać potrzeby ludzi. Państwo jest obrońcą pokoju, rząd ma rozkazywać, bo on ma monopol decyzji administracyjnych, sądzenia i kontroli. Najlepsze ustroje to monarchia i demokracja. Lud tworzy prawo, ustanawia rząd i go kontroluje. Prawo powinno posiadać przymus i wolę ustawodawczą. Odrzuca on prawo natury, a prawo kościelne nie jest dla niego prawem. +Stosunek do Kościoła: jest to wspólnota wszystkich wiernych, a papieskie dekrety to obraza majestatu ludzkiego ustawodawstwa. Władza pochodzi od ludu, a Kościół ma być podporządkowany państwu. +Suwerenność ludu staje się jedną z podstawowych zasad organizacji nowoczesnego państwa. Marsyliusz wychodził z założenia społecznej natury człowieka skłaniającej jednostkę do życia w zbiorowości oraz skuteczniejszego zabezpieczenia przez zbiorowość indywidualnych praw poszczególnych jej członkom. Niebezpieczeństwem jednak w tym dążeniu do zapewnienia sobie dostatecznych warunków życia okazuje się egoizm mogący prowadzić do ogólniejszego chaosu i anarchii. +Władza państwowa powinna wspierać się na woli suwerennego ludu nazywanego przez Marsyliusza prawodawcą (legislator). Jedynie w takim wypadku spodziewać się można spokojnego, trwałego funkcjonowania państwa oraz poszanowania ustanowionych w nim praw. Suwerenność ludu oznacza udział wszystkich obywateli w powoływaniu organów państwowych oraz stanowieniu praw. Przewaga rządów ludowych nad elitarnymi opiera się także i na tym, iż "ilość mniej wykształconego ludu może być powiększona do takich rozmiarów, iż zdolny jest on sądzić sprawy na równi, a nawet lepiej od tych, którzy są bardziej uczeni". +Idea suwerenności ludu staje się gwarancją wolności obywatelskich. W rezultacie każdy podmiot opowiadający się przeciw ludowładztwu występuje przeciw wolności, niejako dobrowolnie popadając w jarzmo tyranii. Idea suwerenności pomyślana była na tyle szeroko, iż lud powinien wybierać hierarchię kościelną wraz z papieżem. +Organizacja państwowa jest także dziełem woli ludu powstałym jednak w procesie nieco dłuższej ewolucji. Państwo staje się organizacją w najpełniejszy sposób gwarantującą suwerenność ludu, ponieważ lud może kontrolować wszystkie formy instytucjonalne. +Każda grupa posiada swój twórczy udział w funkcjonowaniu państwa, lecz wyróżniają się rządzący, na których spoczywa odpowiedzialność. Monarcha lub rząd, posiadając do swej dyspozycji siły zbrojne, nie może ich użyć przeciwko ludowi, ponieważ groziłoby to niebezpieczeństwem zamachu na ludowładztwo. +Teoria rządu opiera się na przedstawionym już założeniu jego wybieralności przez lud. Także stała kontrola nad poczynaniami rządu należy do ludu, co nie oznacza słabej egzekutywy. Egzekutywa powinna być silna, sprawna, bezwzględnie podporządkowując się prawu i działając legalnie. Marsyliusz nie był zwolennikiem jakichkolwiek form podziału władzy. Rząd powinien niepodzielnie posiadać całość uprawnień w swym ręku, sprawując do pewnego stopnia władzę totalitarną, odpowiadającą jednak woli ludu. Nie jest tutaj ważna kwestia formy rządu - może to być monarchia lub jakakolwiek inna forma. +Teoria prawa zawiera silne zabarwienie pozytywistyczne. Marsyliusz zarzuca dotychczasowe pojęcia i struktury, hierarchizując źródła począwszy od prawa bożego, przez prawo natury, do prawa pisanego. +Sprawiedliwość boska oraz prawo boże, podobnie jak prawo natury, stanowią określoną teorię zaleceń i zakazów postępowania, niemającą jednak mocy wiążącej. Jest to po prostu doktryna prawa bożego czy praw natury. Dla Marsyliusza prawo musi mieć formę pisaną, ustanowioną przez ustawodawcę i posiadać sankcje przymusu państwowego. +Dwa elementy: wola ustawodawcy i przymus, czyli sankcja nadana przez państwo, przesądzają jednoznacznie o fakcie istnienia samego prawa. W konsekwencji sprawiedliwością okazują się treści jedynie uznane przez ustawodawcę za sprawiedliwe. Inne formy sprawiedliwości mogą obowiązywać w sferach, do których są przeznaczone, np. sprawiedliwość na Sądzie Ostatecznym. +Problem państwa i Kościoła zawiera zupełnie nowe opracowanie treściowe przedstawione przez Marsyliusza. Z nich wynika konieczność utrzymania przewagi rządu nad organizacją kościelną w tym przede wszystkim sensie, iż Kościół nie jest jakąś samodzielną częścią niezależną od państwa. Rząd i suweren powinni decydować o spawach organizacji kościelnej, a przynależność wiernych do Kościoła jest sprawą indywidualną, nie można nikogo zmuszać do praktyk religijnych. Kościół może jedynie formułować zalecenia przyjmowane przez wiernych. Kościół jest częścią państwa, a zatem każde państwo powinno mieć swój wewnętrzny Kościół, co staje się zapowiedzią głębokiego kryzysu, będącego przesłanką późniejszej reformacji. +Znaczenie myśli Marsyliusza w wielu sprawach wyprzedza ówczesne pojęcia. Teoria silnego rządu, urzeczywistniającego pokój i sprawiedliwość pomiędzy poddanymi, jest sygnałem zwiastującym późniejszą doktrynę Hobbesa, a teoria suwerenności ludu znalazła odzwierciedlenie u Rousseau. W tym samym stopniu idea państwa i praworządności nawiązywała do czołowych tez pozytywizmu. +Hafciarstwo + +Hafciarstwo – metoda ozdabiania tkanin, filcu lub skóry polegająca na wyszywaniu na nich wzorów za pomocą igły lub szydełka oraz nici i różnych dodatków. Haftuje się ręcznie, czasem przy pomocy krosienek, od połowy XVIII wieku przy użyciu tamborka, a od 1828 również maszynowo. +Haft (z niemieckiego "spięcie", "spojenie") wyszywany jest na materiale (tle), którym może być tkanina, rzadziej skóra, filc czy papier. +Kobieta zajmującą się zawodowo wykonywaniem haftów na różnego rodzaju przedmiotach i materiałach to hafciarka. +W zależności od podłoża hafty dzielą się na ciężkie (wykonane na grubej tkaninie, zazwyczaj kosztownym materiałem) i lekkie (w Polsce taki rodzaj haftowania nazywano w XVI - XVII wieku szyciem) - wykonane nićmi lnianymi lub bawełnianymi proste wzory z ograniczoną kolorystyką na płótnie. +Odzież zdobiono w ten sposób już w starożytności. Mistrzostwo w tym kunszcie osiągnęli między innymi peruwiańscy Indianie, żyjący w Ameryce Południowej jeszcze przed Inkami, oraz starożytni Chińczycy. Najdawniejsze przykłady haftów pochodzą z wykopalisk z V-IV w. p.n.e. w Attyce (dekoracja na lnie) oraz górach Ałtaj; w Polsce jest to m.in. piękny ornat przedstawiający sceny z życia św. Stanisława, który wykonano ok. 1504 r. W ciągu wieków powstało wiele technik hafciarskich. Wszystkie polegają na wyszukiwaniu ornamentu wg określonego wzoru w taki sposób, że elementy ozdobne wydają się doczepione do tkaniny będącej dla nich tłem (słowo 'haftowanie' pochodzi od niemieckiego wyrazu "haften" – być przyczepionym). +Najstarszy haft został wykonany 2300 lat temu. +Rusinowa Polana + +Rusinowa Polana – polana reglowa w polskich Tatrach Wysokich. +Opis polany. +Poza wymienioną powyżej polana nosiła i nosi szereg nazw: "Rusinowa Jaworzyna", "Rusinka", "Rusinówka" i "Polana". Jest to polana o całkowitej powierzchni 100 ha (w tym 20 ha łąk) w partii reglowej Tatr Wysokich. Leży pomiędzy Gęsią Szyją (1489 m n.p.m.) a Gołym Wierchem (1205 m n.p.m.). Polana graniczy od północnego zachodu z odnogą doliny Filipki – Doliną Złotą (oddziela je Złoty Potok) i od południa z Doliną Waksmundzką. Polana jest przełamana i ma dwa piętra. Rozciąga się na wysokości od około 1170 m n.p.m. do 1300 m n.p.m. +Z rzadkich w Polsce gatunków roślin stwierdzono występowanie złoci małej. +Gospodarka pasterska. +Wchodziła w skład Hali Jaworzyna Rusinowa, która od dawna była miejscem wypasu owiec i krów. Nazwę hali i polany wywodzi się od nazwiska Rusinów, sołtysów z Gronia, którym została nadana przez króla Zygmunta III Wazę w roku 1628. Na Rusinowej Polanie zlokalizowana była osada pasterska, licząca w połowie XX wieku 20 obiektów drewnianych – szałasów i szop. Według zachowanych informacji wypasano tam nawet do 400 owiec, choć bliższa wydaje się liczba 200. Osada ta zamieszkiwana była w części przez cały rok. Po utworzeniu Tatrzańskiego Parku Narodowego uznano, że wypas bydła i owiec na terenie parku stanowi zagrożenie dla roślinności i stopniowo wprowadzono zakaz wypasu (ostatnie owce wypasał Jan Murzański nielegalnie w 1973 r.). Zabudowania osady pasterskiej zostały uznane za obiekty zabytkowe, co nie uchroniło ich od zniszczenia, dewastacji lub pożaru. Obecnie zachowało się w różnym stanie około 6 obiektów. W 1981 r. przywrócono ponownie wypas owiec – do 200 sztuk. +Turystyka. +Od początku ruchu turystycznego w Tatrach przez Rusinową Polanę przebiegały szlaki turystyczne. Już Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski w swoim przewodniku "Tatry" z 1886 r. opisuje ją jako dogodne miejsce dla dłuższego wypoczynku. +Rusinowa Polana ceniona jest wśród turystów ze względu na piękne widoki na wschodnią część Tatr i leżącą poniżej Dolinę Białej Wody. Nie bez znaczenia dla części turystów jest możliwość odwiedzenia położonego w bezpośredniej bliskości Sanktuarium Matki Boskiej na Wiktorówkach. Na polanie tej bywał kardynał Karol Wojtyła. W bacówce sprzedawane są oscypki i inne wyroby z mleka owiec (stan z 2009). +Riwiera Makarska + +Makarska Riwiera – jeden z najpiękniejszych zakątków Chorwacji, gdzie wysokie góry schodzą niemal do samego morza. Ciągnie się na odcinku około 60 km i na całej swojej długości występuje ciąg żwirowych plaż, miejscami, przy wejściu do morza, przechodzących w drobny piasek. +Nazwę swą przyjęła od największej letniskowej miejscowości w tym rejonie – Makarska. +Piccolo Coro dell'Antoniano + +Piccolo Coro dell' Antoniano "(Mały Chór Antoniański)" – boloński chór dziecięcy, założony w 1963 roku przez Mariele Ventre przy franciszkańskim Instytucie Antoniano. Śpiewające w nim dzieci (głównie dziewczynki) mają od 3 do 13 lat. +Historia zespołu. +Początkowo była to grupka kilkorga dzieci, mających towarzyszyć młodym wykonawcom w ramach festiwalu Zecchino d'Oro. Zespół bardzo szybko się jednak rozrósł i liczba występujących w nim dzieci (średnio ok. 40) sięgała nawet liczby 80. +Oprócz corocznych występów na Zecchino d'Oro, chór daje regularne koncerty bożonarodzeniowe, wielkanocne i na Dzień Matki. Koncertują również na terenie całych Włoch i poza ich granicami (między innymi w Ziemi Świętej). +Po śmierci Mariele Ventre w roku 1995, opiekę nad zespołem przejęła Sabrina Simoni, a chór zmienił nieco swoją nazwę na Piccolo Coro "Mariele Ventre" dell' Antoniano. +Dziecko opuszczające zespół z powodu wieku, może kontynuować śpiewanie w chórze młodzieżowym - Verdi Note dell' Antoniano "(Zielone Nuty z Antoniano)", a później także i w Coro dei Genitori "(Chór Rodziców)". +Piccolo Coro w Polsce. +Dodatkowo, w 1990, kraj odwiedziła Mariele Ventre - tym razem bez chóru, po odbiór Złotej Płyty. Natomiast na wiosnę 1992 roku, na zaproszenie Tęczowego Music-Boxu, Cristina Quarta przyjechała z krótkim występem. +ODBC + +ODBC (ang. "Open DataBase Connectivity" - otwarte łącze baz danych) - interfejs pozwalający programom łączyć się z systemami zarządzającymi bazami danych. Jest to API niezależne od języka programowania, systemu operacyjnego i bazy danych. Standard ten został opracowany przez SQL Access Group we wrześniu 1992 roku. W skład ODBC wchodzą wywołania wbudowane w aplikacje oraz sterowniki ODBC. +Pierwsza implementacja ODBC pojawiła się w systemie Microsoft Windows, lecz obecnie możliwe jest korzystanie z niego na platformach Unix, OS/2 oraz Macintosh. +W systemach bazodanowych typu klient-serwer (np. Oracle lub PostgreSQL) sterowniki dają dostęp do silnika baz danych, natomiast w programach dla komputerów osobistych sterowniki sięgają bezpośrednio do danych. Mechanizm ODBC współpracuje zarówno z bazami obsługującymi język SQL, jak i nieobsługującymi go - w tym ostatnim przypadku język SQL jest przekładany na oryginalny język bazy danych. +WGF + +Windows Graphic Foundation (WGF) – nowe biblioteki grafiki 3D w Windows Vista, które zastąpiły dotychczasowe biblioteki DirectX. +Dziupla Cezara + +Dziupla Cezara - 13-odcinkowy polski serial komediowy z 2004 w reżyserii Wojciecha Adamczyka. +Okres zdjęciowy rozpoczął się w styczniu 2004 +Obsada. +Wystąpili także +Dendrogram + +Dendrogram – diagram w kształcie drzewa ukazujący związki pomiędzy wybranymi elementami na podstawie przyjętego kryterium. Dendrogramem jest filogram, kladogram i fenogram. Dendrogram stosowany jest powszechnie w naukach przyrodniczych do przedstawiania zależności ewolucyjnych i podobieństw między organizmami i zespołami roślinnymi lub zwierzęcymi. +Dendrogramy sporządza się na podstawie przekształcenia macierzy danych (tabeli) składającej się z rubryk, w których wpisane zostały podstawowe dane na temat interesujących nas obiektów. Każdemu z tych obiektów przypisany jest wiersz, w którym wyszczególnione są kolejno cechy obiektu, w kolejności takiej jak w nagłówku. Różne stany tej cechy właściwe poszczególnym obiektom tworzą kolumny tabeli. +Łyżwiarstwo synchroniczne + +Łyżwiarstwo synchroniczne jest odmianą łyżwiarstwa figurowego, w ramach której rywalizują między sobą drużyny "(tzw. formacje)", składające się z od 12 do 20 osób, w formacjach novices i juniorskich, a w formacjach seniorskich od 16 do 20 "(płeć nie ma znaczenia)", które do wybranej wcześniej muzyki prezentują swoje programy (krótki i dowolny). Członkowie formacji juniorskich muszą mieć pomiędzy 12 a 18 lat. Drużyny synchroniczne są również jedną z konkurencji wrotkarstwa artystycznego. +Początki tej dyscypliny sięgają lat 50., kiedy to - w roku 1956 - Amerykanin Richard Porter, założył grupę określaną mianem "zespołu łyżwiarstwa precyzyjnego". Konkurencja ta rozwijała się przez kolejne lata głównie w USA, a w latach 80. dołączyły do nich odpowiednio Kanada, Australia i Japonia. Dziś jest ono szczególnie popularne w krajach skandynawskich. Jako jedna z kategorii łyżwiarstwa figurowego, została ona jednak oficjalnie zakwalifikowana przez ISU dopiero w roku 1996. +Programy. +W łyżwiarstwie synchronicznym występuje znacznie mniej skoków (mogą być one wykonywane tylko przez część drużyny w tzw. izolacji). Takie elementy jak spirale i piruety, są znacznie ograniczone. Najważniejszymi elementami łyżwiarstwa synchronicznego są kroki i przejścia. Oprócz typowych elementów łyżwiarskich, formacje synchroniczne wykonują też: koła, intersekcje, młyny,blok itp. +Zawody. +Łyżwiarze synchroniczni, jeżdżący w kategorii seniorów, mają od niedawna własne Mistrzostwa Świata (wcześniej występowali na nieoficjalnych mistrzostwach zw. challengami). Juniorom wciąż pozostają na razie tylko mistrzostwa nieoficjalne ("World Challenge Cup for Juniors"). Wszystkie kategorie wiekowe, oprócz mistrzostw świata, mają możliwość startów także w wielu innych zawodach międzynarodowych i krajowych. Prawdopodobnie w 2010 roku łyżwiarstwo synchroniczne zostanie wprowadzone do programu Zimowej Uniwersjady, a 2014 będzie dyscypliną pokazową na Igrzyskach Olimpijskich. +W sezonie 2005/2006 mistrzostwa świata obyły się w Pradze, natomiast Mistrzostwa Świata Juniorów - w których wystąpiła również ekipa polska "Amber Dance" - zorganizowane zostały w Helsinkach. +W sezonie 2007/2008 odbyły się zawody Ogólnopolskie w Opolu z czego 1 miejsce zajęła drużyna Amber Dance z Gdańska 2. MKS Axel Toruń - Le Soleil 3.Olivia Dance z Gdańska 4. UIKŁF Piruette Opole - Desire Dance. +Formacje łyżwiarstwa synchronicznego. +Formacje łyżwiarstwa synchronicznego w Polsce. +W Polsce w 2006/2007 trenowała gdańska drużyna Amber Dance, w 2007/2008 trenowały Formacja Novices: Axel Toruń - Le Soleil, Olivia Dance Gdańsk oraz UIKŁF Piruette Opole- Desire Dance, a w Formacji Seniorskiej Amber Dance. +Formacja Novices +Formacje Juniorskie +Formacja amatorska +Ze względu na brak warunków pozostają w zawieszeniu drużyny z Warszawy (LilIce) i Krakowa. +Powiat jarociński + +Powiat jarociński - powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Jarocin. +Henryk Pietrzak + +Henryk Pietrzak (ur. 6 marca 1914 w Rudzie Pabianickiej, zm. 28 stycznia 1990 w Wielkiej Brytanii) – chorąży pilot Wojska Polskiego, major (ang. "Squadron Leader") Królewskich Sił Powietrznych, as myśliwski II wojny światowej. +Służbę w lotnictwie rozpoczął podczas odbywania zasadniczej służby wojskowej w 4 Pułku Lotniczym w Toruniu, gdzie latał jako pilot w 114 Eskadrze Myśliwskiej. Następnie został instruktorem w Centrum Wyszkolenia Lotnictwa w Dęblinie. +We wrześniu 1939 został ewakuowany do Rumunii, skąd przedostał się do Francji, gdzie został powołany do odtwarzanego lotnictwa polskiego. W czerwcu 1940 walczył w składzie Groupe de Chasse III/9 (Grupa Pościgowa III/9) w rejonie Lyonu. Po klęsce Francji poprzez Afrykę północną ewakuował się do Wielkiej Brytanii. Po przeszkoleniu latał w dywizjonie 306, w którym 16 sierpnia 1941 uzyskał swoje pierwsze zestrzelenie (Bf-109) a kolejny samolot uszkodził. 1 czerwca został promowany na stopień oficerski. +Od 15 listopada do 9 grudnia 1942 był pilotem doświadczalnym w Aircraft and Armament Experimental Establishment (Ośrodek Doświadczalny Samolotów i Uzbrojenia). +Do latania bojowego powrócił w dywizjonie 306, w którym 31 grudnia 1942 zaliczono zestrzelenie FW-190 uznane za 500 zwycięstwo polskich pilotów w trakcie wojny. +Od 5 maja do 23 listopada był instruktorem pilotażu najpierw w 58 OTU, potem w 61 OTU. Powróciwszy ponownie do dywizjonu 306 7 czerwca 1944 uzyskał zestrzelenie dwóch samolotów FW-190 oraz jednego Bf-109 prawdopodobnie zestrzelonego. 25 czerwca 1944 został przeniesiony do dywizjonu 315, gdzie objął dowództwo eskadry A. swój drugi wielki dzień Pietrzak miał 18 sierpnia 1944r, kiedy to w okolicach Beauvais zestrzelił na pewno 3 samoloty FW-190 w tym jeden zespołowo. +31 października został przeniesiony do sztabu Dowództwa Sił Powietrznych. 22 maja 1945 otrzymał przydział do dowództwa 2 Skrzydła Myśliwskiego, zaś 16 lipca otrzymał stanowisko dowódcy dywizjonu 309. +Po rozwiązaniu dywizjonu 309 i demobilizacji pozostał w Wielkiej Brytanii. Zmarł 28 stycznia 1990 r. +Zestrzelenia. +Na liście Bajana sklasyfikowany został na 21 pozycji z 7 ½ zestrzeleniami pewnymi, 1 prawdopodobnym i 1 uszkodzeniem +zestrzelenia pewne +zestrzelenia prawdopodobne +uszkodzenia +Ponadto zestrzelił pięć pocisków V-1. +Juliusz Kleiner + +Juliusz Kleiner (ur. 24 kwietnia 1886 we Lwowie, zm. 23 marca 1957 w Krakowie) – polski historyk literatury polskiej. +Biografia. +Pochodził ze spolonizowanej rodziny inżyniera kolejowego Hermana. Ukończył gimnazjum we Lwowie, następnie studiował polonistykę, germanistykę i filozofię na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim. Pomiędzy 1905 a 1908 był stypendystą Ossolineum. W 1908 uzyskał doktorat z polonistyki i germanistyki i rozpoczął pracę w szkolnictwie średnim. W latach 1910-1911 studiował w Niemczech i Francji. W 1912 habilitował się na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim. W latach 1916-1920 był profesorem Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, a od 1920 Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie, gdzie kierował Oddziałem Filologii Polskiej Nowszej Zakładu Filologii Polskiej. Od 1919 był członkiem PAU, od 1933 Polskiej Akademii Literatury, od 1951 PAN. W czasie okupacji radzieckiej Lwowa (1939-1941) był zatrudniony na lwowskim Uniwersytecie, który wówczas nosił okupacyjną nazwę im. Iwana Franki, broniąc zajęć po polsku. 17 września 1940 roku wstąpił do Związku Radzieckich Pisarzy Ukrainy. W czasie okupacji niemieckiej (1941-1944) ukrywał się jako Jan Zalutyński na Lubelszczyźnie – Stefania Skwarczyńska, uratowana przezeń z Kazachstanu, umieściła go u pp. Fudakowskich, Teleżyńskich i Żółtowskich (Krasnobród, Wilkołaz k. Kraśnika, Milejów). Po wojnie zamieszkał w Lublinie. W latach 1944-1947 był tam profesorem KUL, zaś w 1947 przeniósł się do Krakowa, gdzie był profesorem Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. W Krakowie mieszkał już do śmierci. +Pracę naukową rozpoczął wcześnie. W 1906 ukazała się w czasopiśmie "Biblioteka Warszawska" pierwsza jego rozprawa pt. "Patriotyzm Słowackiego". W 1910 wyszła jego pierwsza książka "Studia o Słowackim", a w dwa lata później dwutomowa monografia "Zygmunt Krasiński. Dzieje myśli". Podczas swej pracy naukowej koncentrował się na poetach romantycznych, a najwięcej czasu poświęcił Słowackiemu. Owocem tego jest wielka monografia o Słowackim. Tom pierwszy pt. "Twórczość młodzieńcza" ukazał się w 1919, tom drugi pt. "Od Balladyny do Lilli Wenedy" w 1920, tom trzeci pt. "Okres Beniowskiego" w 1923, natomiast tom czwarty "Poeta mistyk" w 1927. Wiele lat poświęcił również badaniu twórczości Mickiewicza. W 1934 ukazał się pierwszy tom monografii pt. "Dzieje Gustawa". Został on wznowiony po wojnie w 1948, w tym samym roku ukazał się tom drugi "Dzieje Konrada". Inny dział jego twórczości naukowej obejmują studia z zakresu teorii literatury. Pierwsza - teoretyczna rozprawa - nosi tytuł "Charakter i przedmiot badań literackich". W 1925 wydał obszerny tom pt. "Studia z zakresu teorii literatury i filozofii", zawierający m.in. rozprawy: "Romantyzm, Treść i forma w poezji, Z zagadnień bergsonizmu i romantyzmu". +Śmierć przerwała pracę uczonego nad pomnikowym wydaniem krytycznym "Dzieł wszystkich" Słowackiego, zainicjowanym w 1924. Wydał, uporządkował lub zrekonstruował wiele tekstów poezji romantycznej. Jego ostatnią pracę nad uporządkowaniem i zrekonstruowaniem dramatu "Zawisza Czarny" nazwano „poematem filologicznym”. Po jego śmierci edycję "Dzieł wszystkich" dokończył Władysław Floryan ze wspólpracownikami (ostatni tom, XVII, ukazał się w 1976). +Jest autorem podręcznikowego "Zarysu historii literatury polskiej" (dwa tomy, 1932 i 1939, oraz wyd. wznowione od 1947 przez Ossolineum we Wrocławiu)), tomu szkiców pt. "W kręgu Mickiewicza i Goethego", wielu rozpraw, recenzji, sprawozdań, wspomnień. Odegrał wielką, nowatorską rolę w dziejach polskiej humanistyki na początku XX wieku. Bronił tezy – wbrew przekonaniom pozytywistów (Hippolyte Taine) – o odrębności przedmiotu i metod badawczych nauk humanistycznych oraz nauk przyrodniczych. Był Prezesem Towarzystwa Literackiego im. Adama Mickiewicza. +Pochowany został na Cmentarzu Rakowickim w Krakowie, na obrzeżu kwatery zasłużonych (lecz poza jej właściwym obszarem) od strony kw. LXVIII. +Peja (raper) + +Peja, właściwie Ryszard Waldemar Andrzejewski (ur. 17 września 1976 w Poznaniu), znany również jako Onomato, Onomatopeja, Rychu Peja SoLUfka, Sykuś oraz Charlie P – polski raper i producent muzyczny, a także przedsiębiorca związany z kulturą hip-hopową. +Ryszard Andrzejewski znany jest przede wszystkim z wieloletnich występów w grupie muzycznej Slums Attack, której był współzałożycielem. W 2002 roku wraz z zespołem otrzymał nagrodę polskiego przemysłu fonograficznego Fryderyka. W latach 2000-2004 współtworzył formację Ski Skład. Prowadzi także solową działalność artystyczną. +Peja współpracował ponadto m.in. z takimi wykonawcami jak: Bolec, Pih, Wiśnix, Medi Top Glon, Włodi, Hemp Gru, WWO, Tewu, Pięć Dwa Dębiec, Trzeci Wymiar, Zipera, Sweet Noise, DonGURALesko oraz Nagły Atak Spawacza. W 2011 roku raper został sklasyfikowany na 1. miejscu listy 30 najlepszych polskich raperów według magazynu Machina. Publikacje na temat twórczości rapera ukazały się m.in. w czasopismach "The New York Times" i "The Source". Poza działalnością artystyczną prowadzi wytwórnię płytową RPS Enterteyment. Jest także współwłaścicielem marki odzieżowej Terrorym. +Biografia. +Młodość. +Ryszard Waldemar Andrzejewski urodził się 17 września 1976 roku na poznańskich Jeżycach. Wychowywał się w rodzinie robotniczej, matka zmarła gdy miał 12 lat. Ojciec ożenił się ponownie, jednakże zmarł w 1996 roku z powodu nowotworu. Ukończył Szkołę Podstawową nr 81 w Poznaniu. Hip-hopem zainteresował się w 1987 roku za sprawą albumu "Licensed to Ill" zespołu Beastie Boys. Kolejnymi twórcami po których sięgał przyszły raper byli m.in. Run–D.M.C., Geto Boys, Ice T, Ice Cube czy N.W.A. Równolegle Andrzejewski interesował się sportem, grał w piłkę nożną, uprawiał karate. W 1988 roku zainspirowany igrzyskami olimpijskimi w Seulu rozpoczął treningi judo. W latach 1988–1995 był wychowankiem klubu Olimpia Poznań. Uczestniczył w Drużynowych Mistrzostwach Polski juniorów i juniorów młodszych oraz turniejach w Niemczech, Austrii i Danii. W 1991 i 1992 roku został mistrzem Polski Młodzików. +Działalność artystyczna. +W 1993 roku Andrzejewski wraz z Marcinem "Icemanem" Maćkowiakiem znanym wówczas jako DJ Def założył grupę muzyczną Slums Attack. Pierwsze nagrania muzycy rejestrowali w domu na odtwarzaczu kaset magnetofonowych. Również w 1993 roku zostało wydane pierwsze wydawnictwo Slums Attack zatytułowane "Demo Staszica". W 1995 roku ukazało się kolejne demo pt. "Demo Studio Czad". Natomiast rok później ukazał się pierwszy album duetu pt. "Slums Attack" wydany nakładem własnym. Nagrania na wydawnictwie były inspirowane amerykańskim nurtem gangsta rap. W 1996 roku ukazał się singel zatytułowany "Mordercy", który zwiastował drugi album Slums Attack. +W czerwcu 1997 roku nakładem PH Kopalnia ukazał się album "Zwykła codzienność". W ramach promocji został zrealizowany pierwszy w historii zespołu teledysk. Premiera nagrania odbyła się w programie Telewizji Polskiej Klipol. W 1997 roku Maćkowiak zrezygnował z występów w Slums Attack, jednakże pozostał oficjalnym członkiem zespołu. W 1998 roku Peja poznał Dariusza Działaka znanego jako DJ Decks z którym kontynuował działalność Slums Attack. W nowym składzie zostało przygotowane demo z nagraniami, które przyczyniły się do podpisania kontraktu z wytwórnią muzyczną Camey Studio. W 1999 roku został wydany trzeci album pt. "Całkiem nowe oblicze". Wydawnictwo ukazało się nakładem wytwórni muzycznej Camey Studio. Natomiast rok później ukazał się album pt. "I nie zmienia się nic". Tego samego roku wraz z Łukaszem Wiśniewskim Peja założył zespół Ski Skład. +W 2001 roku ukazał się piąty album Slums Attack pt. "Na legalu?". Kompozycje z przeznaczeniem na płytę zostały zarejestrowane w studiu nagraniowym producenta muzycznego Magiery. Jednakże utwory uległy zniszczeniu wkrótce po nagraniach. Część odzyskanego materiału zarejestrowano ponownie w przeciągu trzech dni. Wydawnictwo odniosło niespodziewany przez muzyków sukces sprzedając się w nakładzie przekraczającym 100 000 egzemplarzy. Płyta "Na legalu?" ponadto uzyskała nagrodę polskiego przemysłu fonograficznego Fryderyka w kategorii "album roku – hip-hop". W 2002 roku mimo sprzeciwu członków zespołu ukazała się kompilacja nagrań Slums Attack zatytułowana "Uliczne historie". Wynagrodzenie z tytułu sprzedaży płyty zespół przekazał w całości na cele charytatywne. +W 2003 roku nakładem T1-Teraz ukazał się album Ski Skład zatytułowany "Wspólne zadanie". Gościnnie na płycie wystąpili m.in. Fu, O.S.T.R., WNB i Analogia. Wydawnictwo promował singel pt. "Dzień zagłady". Rok później z niewyjaśnionych przyczyn zespół został rozwiązany. Również w 2003 roku Peja rozpoczął pracę nad kolejnym wydawnictwem zespołu Slums Attack. Pierwsze partie wokalne do około dziesięciu utworów zostały zarejestrowane w studiu nagraniowym należącym do Dominika "Donia" Grabowskiego związanego z zespołem Ascetoholix. Jednakże w wyniku nieporozumień Peja zakończył współpracę z Grabowskim, który przygotował również część bitów z przeznaczeniem na płytę. Latem 2004 roku w zmienionym studiu nagrań kontynuowano prace we współpracy z producentami muzycznymi Tabbem i Magierą. Ponadto nad kompozycjami pracował DJ Decks, wraz z którym zarejestrowane zostały m.in. utwory "Kurewskie życie" i "Reprezentuje biedę". Od października do grudnia zrealizowano kolejne utwory w studiu Noise Records należącym do Piotra "Glacy" Mohameda. W związku z brakiem kontraktu fonograficznego i nieuregulowaną sytuacją prawną z wytwórnią T1-Teraz została opóźniona premiera nowego wydawnictwa. 7 lutego 2005 nakładem wytwórni muzycznej Fonografika został wydany dwupłytowy album zatytułowany "Najlepszą obroną jest atak". Album zadebiutował na 2 miejscu listy OLiS w Polsce. +20 października 2006 roku ukazał się siódmy album Slums Attack pt. "Szacunek ludzi ulicy". Wydawnictwo uzyskało status złotej płyty sprzedając się w nakładzie 15 000 egzemplarzy. Kompozycje zostały zarejestrowane w Druga Strefa Records w Poznaniu. Głównym producentem był DJ Decks, beaty przygotowali również Sqry, DJ-a Zela, Barka, Zielonego i DJ Story. 31 października 2008 wystąpił podczas koncertu charytatywnego "Hip-Hop Dzieciom" w poznańskim klubie Eskulap. Natomiast 5 grudnia ukazał się pierwszy solowy album rapera zatytułowany "Styl życia G'N.O.J.A.". Wkrótce wydawnictwo uzyskało status złotej płyty. 17 września 2009 ukazał się drugi album solowy Andrzejewskiego pt. "Na serio". Peja do współpracy zaprosił m.in. takich wykonawców jak Pih, który wystąpił w utworze "Zbyt dużo bólu", Mrozu w utworze "Poszukując ideału", Kaczor w utworze "Śmiertelna pasja rap" czy Marek Pospieszalski w utworze "Kochana mamo". Nagrania wyprodukowali m.in. Magiera, Brahu i Sqra, którzy zawarli w kompozycjach wpływy takich stylów muzycznych jak west coast hip hop czy crunk. W tekstach Andrzejewski opisuje m.in. wolny styl życia, refleksje nad sławą, moralność czy miłość. W lutym 2010 roku raper został wyróżnionym tytułem freestyleowca roku w plebiscycie Podsumowanie 2009 serwisu Poznanskirap.com. +Procesy sądowe. +6 kwietnia 2010 Sąd Rejonowy w Zielonej Górze wydał wyrok w sprawie zajścia w Zielonej Górze. Raper został ukarany grzywną w wysokości 6 tys. złotych, nawiązką na cel społeczny oraz kosztami procesu i odszkodowaniem dla poszkodowanego nastolatka. +Pod koniec 2009 roku zawiadomienie do prokuratury w sprawie o nawoływanie do zabijania policjantów złożył szef Ogólnopolskiego Komitetu Obrony przed Sektami Ryszard Nowak. Zdaniem Nowaka raper publicznie w trakcie wykonywania utworu pt. "997" nawoływał do popełnienia zbrodni, za co grozi kara do lat 3 pozbawienia wolności. W lutym 2010 roku prokuratura odmówiła wszczęcia postępowania w sprawie. +Działalność pozamuzyczna. +W 2001 roku raper wystąpił w filmie dokumentalnym zatytułowanym "Blokersi" w reżyserii Sylwestra Latkowskiego. +W 2010 roku Peja powołał wytwórnię płytową RPS Enterteyment, którą prowadzi m.in. wraz z żoną. Pierwsza w katalogu wytwórni była płyta poznańskiego rapera Kobry zatytułowana "Na żywo z miasta grzechu". Rok później nakładem RPS ukazał się pierwszy legalny album hypemana Pei - Gandziora, a także Vixen i Veffekt Viruz. W 2012 roku z firmą związali się kolejni wykonawczy w tym HZOP, Śliwa, Kroolik Underwood, LudwiK oraz Tewu. +Poza działalnością wydawniczą raper jest także współwłaścicielem sklepu i marki odzieżowej Terrorym. +Życie prywatne. +Andrzejewski od urodzenia mieszka w Poznaniu. W latach 90. poznał swoją przyszłą żonę Monikę, z którą ożenił się po czterech latach narzeczeństwa. Para wzięła rozwód kilka lat później. W 2012 roku ożenił się po raz drugi ze swoją menadżerką i wieloletnią narzeczoną Pauliną Stefańską. W 2013 roku urodziła się córka rapera Lilia. +Raper od wczesnego dzieciństwa uprawiał różne dyscypliny sportowe. Posiada 1 stopień kyū w judo. Jest także dwukrotnym Mistrzem Polski Młodzików w tej dyscyplinie. W 2005 roku otrzymał wyróżnienie Polskiego Związku Judo - honorową srebrną odznakę za zasługi dla sportu w kraju. Andrzejewski trenował również brazylijskie jiu-jitsu. Pracował na dziecięcych turniejach w sztukach walki. Artysta jest również kolekcjonerem płyt takich wykonawców i kompozytorów jak Percy Sledge, Anna Dąbrowska, SBB czy Johann Sebastian Bach. +Makropory + +Makropory – według IUPAC pory w ciele stałym o charakterystycznym wymiarze poprzecznym (średnica) w zakresie powyżej 50 nm (czasami średnica określana jest jako większa niż 100 nm). Podobnie jak w mniejszych porach, może w nich następować kondensacja kapilarna cząsteczek gazów (par), jednak efekt ten jest dużo słabszy niż w przypadku mezoporów. Makropory bada się za pomocą metod porozymetrii rtęciowej lub piknometrycznie. +Pory mniejsze niż makropory to mezopory i mikropory. +Karbonylki + +Karbonylki - nieorganiczne związki kompleksowe, w których ligandem jest tlenek węgla, stosowane w chemii metaloorganicznej. Nazwę karbonylek stosuje się także na określenie samego ligandu karbonylkowego, CO (nie należy mylić go z organiczną grupą karbonylową). +Mond zastosował proces syntezy, destylacji i rozkładu termicznego tetrakarbonylku niklu do otrzymywania bardzo czystego niklu w swojej hucie w Walii. Proces ten do dziś jest z powodzeniem stosowany przy produkcji tego metalu. Synteza karbonylków wielu innych metali jest równie prosta, choć czasem wymaga nieco drastyczniejszych warunków lub stosowania dodatkowych "tricków" syntetycznych. +Wiązanie σ jest wiązaniem koordynacyjnym, w którym funkcję donora elektronów pełni karbonylek – samo w sobie jest ono jednak energetycznie niekorzystne i, jak dowodzą obliczenia kwantowo-mechaniczne, jest ono właściwie lekko antywiążące. Cały układ jest dopiero stabilizowany przez wiązania π między orbitalami sp tlenku węgla i orbitalami d metalu, przy czym rolę donora elektronów odgrywa tu metal, a nie karbonylek. +Labilne własności karbonylków metali połączone z łatwością ich syntezy powodują, że są one bardzo często podstawowym, wyjściowym substratem do otrzymywania wielu związków metaloorganicznych. Łatwość zrywania i tworzenia wiązań metal-karbonylek jest też bardzo przydatna w katalizie i dlatego ogromna większość katalizatorów metaloorganicznych zawiera zwykle przynajmniej jeden ligand tego rodzaju – kompleksy czysto karbonylkowe są jednak zbyt reaktywne aby same pełnić tę rolę. Jedyny wyjątek stanowi Fe2(CO)9, który był stosowany w latach 1925-1945 jako dodatek przeciwstukowy do benzyny w Niemczech i krajach okupowanych przez Niemcy w czasach II wojny światowej. +Napisane częściowo na podstawie: M.Bochmann, "Organometallics 1", seria: Oxford Chemistry Primer, Oxford University Press, 1992. +Zatoka Chesapeake + +Zatoka Chesapeake (ang. "Chesapeake Bay") - największe estuarium w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Zatoka połączona jest z Oceanem Atlantyckim, jej brzegi należą do stanów Wirginia i Maryland. Dorzecze zatoki ma powierzchnię ponad 166 tys. km². Zatoka ma powierzchnię ok. 11 600 km² i długość ok. 300 km od ujścia rzeki Susquehanna na północy do Atlantyku na południu. +Zatoka jest oddzielona od Atlantyku półwyspem Delmarva. W najwęższym punkcie, niedaleko miasta Annapolis w stanie Maryland, szerokość zatoki wynosi tylko 6,9 km i w tym miejscu przebiega przez nią most, William Preston Lane Jr. Memorial Bridge, otwarty w 1952. Największa szerokość zatoki wynosi ok. 50 km w pobliżu ujścia rzeki Potomak. +Zatoka łączy się z Atlantykiem wejściem o szerokości 37 km, między południowym końcem półwyspu Delmarva i miastem Norfolk w stanie Wirginia. Przez wejście zbudowano tunel-most autostradowy Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel, otwarty w 1964. +Do zatoki uchodzi około 150 rzek i strumieni. Największe z nich to: Susquehanna, Potomak, James, Appomattox, Rappahannock, Patuxent, Choptank i York. +Mirosław Żuławski + +Mirosław Żuławski (ur. 16 stycznia 1913 w Nisku, zm. 17 lutego 1995) – polski pisarz, dyplomata. +Ukończył prawo i Studium Dyplomatyczne na Uniwersytecie Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie. +W czasie okupacji mieszkał z rodziną we Lwowie, tam urodził się jego syn Andrzej. Działał w AK – pisał biuletyny informacyjne, działał w podziemnym życiu kulturalnym. Był karmicielem, a później preparatorem wszy w Instytucie Badań nad Tyfusem Plamistym i Wirusami prof. Rudolfa Weigla, co skutecznie chroniło przed represjami okupanta. Po zajęciu miasta przez Armię Czerwoną wyjechał ze Lwowa. Był zastępcą redaktora „Rzeczpospolitej” w Lublinie. +W latach 1945-1949 przebywał jako radca kulturalny W Ambasadzie RP w Paryżu, w latach 1949-1952 w Pradze. W latach 1952-1957 wchodził w skład zespołu redakcyjnego „Przeglądu Kulturalnego”, publikował też w tygodniku „Świat”. W latach 1956-1965 znów pracował w Paryżu reprezentując Polskę w UNESCO. Od 1971 był wicedyrektorem departamentu MSZ. Lata 1974-1977 spędził w Dakarze jako Ambasador PRL w Senegalu; w 1978 przeszedł na emeryturę. +Jako poeta debiutował na łamach lwowskich „Sygnałów”. Ojciec reżysera Andrzej Żuławskiego. +W 1953 roku otrzymał nagrodę państwową III. stopnia. +Książki. +Napisał scenariusz filmu "Opowieść atlantycka" w reż. Wandy Jakubowskiej według własnego opowiadania pod tym tytułem. +Simone Simon + +Simone Simon (ur. 23 kwietnia 1910 w Béthune, Francja, zm. 22 lutego 2005 w Paryżu) – francuska aktorka filmowa. +Karierę filmową rozpoczynała we Francji w 1931. Darryl F. Zanuck po zobaczeniu jej w filmie "Lac Aux Dames" zaproponował jej pracę w Hollywood dla wytwórni 20th Century Fox. Pierwszym jej filmem miał być "Under Two Flags" z 1936, jednak po dwóch tygodniach zdjęć reżyser Frank Lloyd zwolnił ją, a jej postać ostatecznie zagrała inna francuska aktorka Claudette Colbert. W tym samym roku zadebiutowała w filmie "Girls' Dormitory" w reżyserii Irvinga Cummingsa. W 1937 wystąpiła u boku Jamesa Stewarta w filmie pt. "Siódme niebo". W 1938 powróciła do Francji, gdzie zagrała u Jeana Renoira w "Bestii ludzkiej" ("La Bête humaine"). Po wybuchu II wojny światowej ponownie wyjechała do USA, gdzie wystąpiła w kilku produkcjach RKO Studios, m.in. "The Devil and Daniel Webster" (1941) i w horrorach "Cat People" (1942), "The Curse of the Cat People" (1944). Jednak te filmy nie odniosły już takiego sukcesu jak te sprzed wojny. W 1946 powróciła do Francji, gdzie po zagraniu jeszcze w kilku filmach ostatecznie zakończyła karierę w 1956. +Mieczysław Orgelbrand + +Mieczysław Orgelbrand (ur. 1847 w Warszawie - 6 października 1903 tamże), syn Samuela i młodszy brat Hipolita, wydawca, księgarz i drukarz. +Po ukończeniu II Gimnazjum w Warszawie rozpoczął w 1865 studia w Szkole Głównej Warszawskiej kończąc ją w 1869 z tytułem magistra prawa i administracji. Nosząc się z zamiarem wydawania pisma ilustrowanego "Wieniec" objechał w 1871 wiele miast polskich w celu nawiązania kontaktów z księgarzami, pisarzami, drzeworytnikami i rysownikami. Z początkiem 1872 formalnie objął jako współwłaściciel (wraz z bratem Hipolitem) firmę - drukarnię, odlewnię czcionek i księgarnię nakładową przy ul. Bednarskiej 20 (Krakowskie Przedmieście 66) w Warszawie, założoną przez ojca, Samuela. Przedsiębiorstwo to odtąd nosiło nazwę ""Zakłady S. Orgelbranda Synów"" i prężnie się rozwijało. Uruchomiono w nim drzeworytnię (w 1871, z początku na potrzeby pisma "Wieniec", pod kierownictwem W. Gersona), dział litografii (w 1875), chemigrafii (fotocynkografii), fabrykę i magazyn maszyn drukarskich oraz skład papieru. +Mieczysław Orgelbrand sprowadzał z zagranicy maszyny i matryce odlewnicze, założył grawernię matryc i stempli, wytwórnię linii mosiężnych, zakład galwanoplastyczny. Zakupił m.in. około roku 1899 dwie nowoczesne odlewnie czcionek - Sikorskiego oraz Lewentala. +W 1896 bracia Orgelbrand przekształcili swój zakład w ""Towarzystwo Akcyjne Odlewni Czcionek i Drukarni S. Orgelbranda Synów"" o kapitale zakładowym 350 tysięcy rubli, którego Mieczysław został dyrektorem zarządzającym. Produkcja "Towarzystwa" w roku 1897 osiągnęła wartość 290 718 rubli, to jest 25% wartości wszystkich zakładów poligraficznych w Warszawie. Zapewniwszy sobie w Rosji rynek zbytu dla produkcji czcionek "Towarzystwo" otworzyło w Petersburgu, Moskwie i kilku innych większych miastach Cesarstwa i Kongresówki składy czcionek. W 1899 zakupiono dużą drukarnię od spółki Reszke, Ruszkowski i Rundo, a w 1901 rozpoczęto remont i rozbudowę (zakończone w 1908) siedziby firmy (przeniesionej na ten czas na ul. Hożą 41 oraz na ul. Zgoda 7, gdzie mieściła się tymczasowo księgarnia). "Towarzystwo" akcyjne braci Orgelbrandów dokonało w latach 1901-1902 fuzji z "Warszawskim Towarzystwem Akcyjnym Artystyczno-Wydawniczym", po której kapitał zakładowy firmy wzrósł do 850 000 rubli, a pod nową nazwą "Towarzystwo Akcyjne Odlewni Czcionek, Drukarni i Litografii S. Orgelbranda Synów" zatrudniała ona 600 osób przy 215 maszynach. Mieczysław był głównym akcjonariuszem "Towarzystwa" z pakietem 122 akcji na 871 ogółem. +Skupiając się na działalności poligraficznej Mieczysław ograniczył profil wydawniczy "Towarzystwa", co nie znaczy jednak, że został całkowicie zarzucony. Zmniejszoną do dwunastu tomów wersję ""Encyklopedii Powszechnej"", dzieła ojca - Samuela, wydano w sumie trzykrotnie: pierwsze wydanie w latach 1872-1876 oraz dwa wydania "stereotypowe" w latach 1877-1878 z Suplementem w 1879 oraz w latach 1883-1884 z Suplementem II w 1884. W 1895 przystąpiono do opracowania 18-tomowej ilustrowanej wersji "S. Orgelbranda Encyklopedii Powszechnej", której tom pierwszy ukazał się w 1898, a szesnasty - po śmierci Mieczysława, w 1904; dwa kolejne, dodatkowe tomy z Suplementami ukazały się później, w 1911 i 1912 roku. +Oprócz "Encyklopedii" wydawano w "Towarzystwie" m.in. kosztowne wydawnictwa ilustrowane (np. w 1877, wspólnie z Drzeworytnią Warszawską, ""Wilanów. Album widoków i pamiątek"" W. Gersona i H. Skimborowicza), wznawiano starsze publikacje (np. w latach 1885-1887 ""Starożytną Polskę"" T. Lipińskiego i M. Balińskiego z uzupełnieniami F.K. Martynowskiego), dzieła popularnonaukowe, słowniki (grecko-polski Z. Węclewskiego, łacińsko-polski Ł. Koncewicza). Spośród czasopism wydawano w 1872 wspomniany już ""Wieniec"" i (1882-1887)""Kurier Codzienny"", których Mieczysław był redaktorem naczelnym, a jego brat Hipolit - wydawcą, ponadto od 1902 ilustrowane czasopismo dla kobiet ""Tygodnik Mód i Powieści"" i w tym samym czasie również ilustrowany tygodnik ""Przyjaciel Dzieci"". +Czasopisma te "Towarzystwo" wydawało i drukowało we własnej drukarni, ale jej możliwości produkcyjne były daleko większe, toteż korzystali z niej także inni wydawcy - Gebethner i Wolff, Józef Ungier, a także stryj Mieczysława i Hipolita - Maurycy Orgelbrand. Z maszyn "Towarzystwa S. Orgelbranda Synów" schodziło też wiele warszawskich czasopism, m.in.: ""Biesiada Literacka", Bluszcz", "Chimera", "Echo Muzyczne, Teatralne i Artystyczne", "Sport", "Tygodnik Ilustrowany", "Wiadomości Farmaceutyczne"". Produkowano masowo urzędowe druki, rozkłady jazdy, katalogi. "Towarzystwo" za swoje produkty i wydawnictwa było wielokrotnie nagradzane dyplomami i medalami na różnych wystawach, np. w Wiedniu w 1873, w Warszawie (1875), Petersburgu (1895), Niżnym Nowogrodzie (1896). +Mieczysław Orgelbrand był od 1899 członkiem Zgromadzenia Drukarzy Warszawskich, projektował założenie w Warszawie szkoły drukarskiej. Był żonaty z Gabrielą (ur. 28 października 1856 - zm. 14 listopada 1927), córką warszawskiego bankiera Samuela Lewenberga, z którą miał syna Wacława, inżyniera technologa i inspektora pracy w Ministerstwie Pracy i Opieki Społecznej (20 września 1878 - 16 października 1927), oraz córkę Romanę (1881 - 22 października 1899). +Maksymilian Fajans + +Maksymilian Fajans (ur. w 1825 w Sieradzu, zm. 28 lipca 1890 w Warszawie) – polski rysownik żydowskiego pochodzenia, specjalista w dziedzinie litografii i fotografii. +Urodził się jako syn sieradzkiego kupca Hermana (XVIII-XIX w.) i Leontyny Kon. Był bratem Maurycego Fajansa. +W latach 1844–1849 uczył się w Szkole Sztuk Pięknych w Warszawie, a w 1850–1853 – w Paryżu, gdzie był uczniem holenderskiego malarza i grafika Arego Scheffera. +Założył w Warszawie jeden z pierwszych zakładów fotograficznych. W latach 1851–1863 wydał 14 zeszytów "Wizerunków polskich" według własnych rysunków i 24 zeszyty (1851–1861) "Wzorów sztuki średniowiecznej" według rysunków L. Łepkowskiego, Bolesława Podczaszyńskiego i innych. +W chromolitografii wydał "Kwiaty i poezje" (1858, według własnych rysunków), ilustracje do albumów i książek ("Karola Gustawa trofea..." E. Tyszkiewicza, 1856, "Album widoków historycznych Polski" Napoleona Ordy, 1875–1883). Współpracował także m.in. z Samuelem Orgelbrandem. Zajmował się również grafiką użytkową (kalendarze, dyplomy). +Nagradzany m.in. na Międzynarodowej Wystawie Fotograficznej zorganizowanej w 1865 w Berlinie i w 1873 na Wystawie Wiedeńskiej. +Był dwukrotnie żonaty. Po raz pierwszy z Pauliną Lindau (1836-1857), a po raz drugi z Miną Gerstenzweig (1841-1933). Z pierwszego małżeństwa miał córkę Paulinę (ur. 1856). +Maksymilian Fajans pochowany jest obok żony Miny na cmentarzu żydowskim przy ulicy Okopowej w Warszawie (kwatera 33, rząd 11). Nagrobek z 1892 jest autorstwa Bolesława Syrewicza. +Roman Cieślewicz + +Roman Cieślewicz (ur. 13 stycznia 1930 roku we Lwowie, zm. 21 stycznia 1996 w Paryżu), polski artysta grafik, czołowy przedstawiciel polskiej szkoły plakatu. +Życiorys. +Uczeń szkoły im. M. Konopnickiej przy ul. Zielonej 10 we Lwowie. Jako 14-15 letni chłopiec śpiewał solo w kościele pw. św. Wincentego a Paulo przy ul. Snopkowskiej. W latach 1943-1946 uczęszczał do Szkoły Przemysłu Artystycznego we Lwowie. Po wojnie uczył się w Liceum Sztuk Plastycznych w Krakowie, które ukończył w 1949, następnie studiował na wydziale plakatu krakowskiej ASP. Po dyplomie (1955) przeniósł się do Warszawy. W latach 1959-1962 był dyrektorem artystycznym miesięcznika "Ty i Ja". Od 1963 za granicą: w RFN, Włoszech, Francji. W 1971 otrzymał obywatelstwo francuskie. +Był szefem artystycznym tygodnika "Elle", współpracował z magazynem "Vogue" i założoną przez Rolanda Topora grupą "Panique". Na początku lat 80. zaprojektował dekorację gmachu francuskiego parlamentu dla uczczenia Rewolucji Francuskiej oraz udekorował paryski ratusz z okazji 100. rocznicy urodzin de Gaulle'a. Po śmierci żony (Alina Szapocznikow, rzeźbiarka, zm. w 1973) odniósł największe sukcesy – projekty katalogów i plakaty do prestiżowych wystaw w Centrum Pompidou (m.in. "Paryż-Berlin", "Paryż-Moskwa"). W 1994 po raz ostatni przyjechał do kraju z okazji wystawy jego twórczości w warszawskiej Zachęcie. +Miał ponad sto wystaw indywidualnych grafiki, fotomontażu, plakatu, fotografii. Brał udział w wielu prezentacjach sztuki plakatu na całym świecie. +Akmeizm + +Akmeizm (od "akme", gr. "akmḗ" — szczyt, wyższy stopień czegoś, pora rozkwitu; także adamizm, klaryzm) — modernistyczny kierunek w poezji i literaturze rosyjskiej przypadający na lata 1912–1932, odmiana neoklasycyzmu. Wyszedł on od krytyki symbolizmu przeprowadzonej przez młodych twórców z grupy „cech poetów”. Inicjatorem powstania ruchu był Nikołaj Gumilow, a głównymi jego przedstawicielami byli Osip Mandelsztam, Anna Achmatowa, Michaił Kuzmin, Siergiej Gorodiecki. Głównym organem akmeistów było czasopismo "Apollon". +Nazwa tego kierunku wywodzi się od greckiego słowa "akme" oznaczającego szczyt, punkt kulminacyjny. Akmeiści głosili odejście od wieloznaczności w poezji (uważali, że nie można poznać istoty rzeczy) na korzyść opisu realnego świata, rzeczywistości takiej, jaka ona jest, jednocześnie pamiętając o tym, co niepoznawalne, jednakże nie traktując tego jako główny temat. Futuryzmowi i symbolizmowi przeciwstawiali powrót do klasycystycznych wartości i tradycji. +Leczo + + Leczo (węg. "lecsó") potrawa węgierska, rodzaj ragoût warzywnego z pomidorów i świeżej papryki duszonych na smalcu z dodatkiem wędzonej słoniny i z podsmażoną na złocisty kolor cebulą, doprawionych papryką w proszku. +Tak przyrządzone leczo podaje się na Węgrzech jako dodatek do potraw mięsnych np. kotletów schabowych, lub jako samodzielną potrawę. W tym drugim przypadku dodaje się często do niego w trakcie duszenia kiełbasę w całości lub w plasterkach. Można też tuż przed końcem duszenia wmieszać do lecza jajka, po jednym na osobę. Innym sposobem jest dodanie na początku duszenia ryżu, który gotując się zagęszcza potrawę. +W Polsce leczo przyrządza się często na oleju i z dodatkiem cukinii lub bakłażanów, przez co zbliża się raczej do prowansalskiego ratatouille. +Powiat kolski + +Powiat kolski – powiat w Polsce, we wschodniej części województwa wielkopolskiego, z siedzibą w Kole; przywrócony w wyniku reformy administracyjnej przeprowadzonej w 1999. +Powiat kolski powstał w 1867 w wyniku wydzielenia z wschodniej części powiatu konińskiego w guberni kaliskiej Królestwa Polskiego. +Przez powiat kolski przebiega autostrada A2 i droga krajowa nr 92 oraz linia kolejowa nr 3 (Warszawa–Kunowice) i linia kolejowa nr 131 (magistrala węglowa Chorzów–Tczew). +Geografia. +Pod względem ukształtowania powierzchni powiat kolski to obszar typowo nizinny. Na jego terenie znajdują się Kotlina Kolska i Wysoczyzna Kłodawska (Nizina Południowowielkopolska) oraz Pojezierze Kujawskie. Najważniejszą rzeką regionu jest Warta oraz jej dopływy Ner, Rgielewka i Kiełbaska oraz przepływająca przez północne krańce powiatu Noteć. Powiat kolski graniczy z powiatami: konińskim, tureckim (województwo wielkopolskie), kutnowskim, łęczyckim, poddębickim (województwo łódzkie), radziejowskim oraz włocławskim (województwo kujawsko-pomorskie). +Historia. +W okresie kształtowania się podziału administracyjnego państwa polskiego, to jest w czasach panowania Bolesława Chrobrego, większość dzisiejszego powiatu z obecnym miastem Koło należała do kasztelanii lądzkiej i wchodziła w skład Wielkopolski. Lubotyń, Brdów i Przedecz należały do Kujaw, z kolei Dąbie i Kłodawa do kasztelanii łęczyckiej. Po reformie administracji państwowej w XIV wieku Ziemia Kolska znalazła się w powiecie konińskim, województwie kaliskim. Po drugim rozbiorze została włączona do tzw. Prus Południowych. Na mocy decyzji kongresu wiedeńskiego z 1815 r. ziemie te stanowiły część zaboru rosyjskiego w ramach Królestwa Polskiego. W wyniku dokonanego podziału administracyjnego Królestwa w 1837 r. Ziemia Kolska znalazła się w granicach guberni mazowieckiej. +W czasie I wojny światowej ziemie te były pod okupacją cesarskich Niemiec i powiat kolski został włączony do gubernatorstwa we Włocławku. Ustawą sejmową z 2 sierpnia 1919 r. utworzono województwo łódzkie, w skład którego wszedł powiat kolski. W 1921 r. powiat ogółem zamieszkiwało 112 280 osób, z czego Polacy stanowili 86,5%, Żydzi 7,71% i Niemcy 5,75%. Stan taki utrzymywał się do 1 kwietnia 1938 r., kiedy powiat kolski – pomniejszony o gminy Koźmin i Brudzew – włączono do województwa poznańskiego. W okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej powiat kolski znalazł się w Kraju Warty. +Po wyzwoleniu spod panowania niemieckiego przywrócono stan sprzed 1 września 1939 r. W okresie II wojny światowej i w pierwszych latach po wyzwoleniu nastąpiły ogromne zmiany demograficzne, tak pod względem liczby mieszkańców, jak i składu narodowo-wyznaniowego. Ludność żydowska w znacznej większości zginęła w obozie zagłady w Chełmnie nad Nerem. Według spisu z 1 lutego 1945 r. powiat zamieszkiwało ogółem 89 220 osób, w tym 90% Polaków i 9,5% Niemców. W tym czasie nie odnotowano żadnego mieszkańca obywatelstwa żydowskiego. Pod względem wyznaniowym znaczną większość stanowili rzymscy katolicy. Powierzchnia wynosiła 1097 km². Powiat kolski w niezmienionym kształcie (od 1938 r.) funkcjonował do 28 maja 1975 r., kiedy to wprowadzono nowy podział administracyjny, likwidując powiaty i tworząc nowe 49 województw. Wówczas większa część obszaru dawnego powiatu kolskiego znalazła się w województwie konińskim, jedynie okolice Izbicy Kujawskiej weszły w skład województwa włocławskiego. +Powiat kolski ponownie utworzono 1 stycznia 1999 r. Obecnie administracyjnie jest częścią województwa wielkopolskiego. Zamieszkuje go ponad 88 tys. mieszkańców. Obejmuje powierzchnię 1011 km². W skład powiatu wchodzi 11 gmin (7 wiejskich: Babiak, Chodów, Grzegorzew, Koło, Kościelec, Olszówka i Osiek Mały; 3 miejsko-wiejskie: Dąbie, Kłodawa i Przedecz; 1 miejska: miasto Koło). +Starostowie +Turystyka. +Powiat kolski nie jest obszarem o dużym potencjale turystycznym. Obecnie najważniejszym ośrodkiem turystycznym regionu jest stolica – Koło, ośrodek zagłady w Chełmnie, kopalnia soli w Kłodawie oraz miejscowości położone nad brzegiem jezior: Brdów (Jezioro Brdowskie), Przedecz (Jezioro Przedeckie), Lubotyń (Jezioro Lubotyńskie). Obecnie trwają prace nad utworzeniem w kłodawskiej kopalni uzdrowiska. +Gospodarka. +Na terenie powiatu istnieje kilkanaście prężnie działających zakładów przemysłowych, których wyroby znane są nie tylko w Polsce, ale także w Europie. Działające firmy wzmagają potencjał gospodarczy i przyczyniają się do jego rozwoju. Do największych należy zaliczyć: Sanitec Koło, Zakłady Mięsne "Sokołów" i Wood Mizer (Koło), kopalnia soli (Kłodawa) i Bovinas (Chodów). +W powiecie, powstała Kolska Izba Gospodarcza. Zrzesza ona większość przedsiębiorców z terenu powiatu kolskiego. Reprezentuje miejscowe firmy i dba o ich interesy. Czynnie promuje swoje wyroby poprzez uczestnictwo w targach, wystawach. +W regionie nie ma zbyt wielu bogactw naturalnych. W rejonie Kłodawy występują duże pokłady soli kamiennej, natomiast w gminie Osiek Mały złoża węgla brunatnego. +Istnieje możliwość wykorzystania źródeł wód geotermalnych, których znaczne pokłady znajdują się na terenie miasta Koła oraz gminy Dąbie. +Transport. +Drogi. +Główną trasą drogową powiatu kolskiego jest droga krajowa ("dawna droga krajowa nr 2") Poznań-Warszawa przebiegająca z zachodu na wschód powiatu, przez dwa główne miasta Koło i Kłodawę. Przez południowe krańce przebiega 25 km odcinek autostrady , na której znajdują się dwa zjazdy na teren powiatu: "węzeł Koło" i "węzeł Dąbie". +Od drogi krajowej odchodzą drogi wojewódzkie: +Kolej. +Głównymi stacjami kolejowymi powiatu są Koło i Kłodawa, które powstały w 1922 r. Położone są przy linii kolejowej nr 3: Frankfurt nad Odrą-Warszawa. Oprócz nich, na tej linii znajdują się jeszcze stacje: Budki Nowe, Barłogi i Turzynów. +Z południa na północ powiatu przebiega linia kolejowa tzw. Magistrala węglowa z Chorzowa do Gdyni. Przy tej trasie położone są stacje: Babiak, Lipie Góry, Ponętów i Dąbie nad Nerem. +Palcówka (seks) + +Palcówka (ang. "fingering") – pieszczoty wejścia do pochwy, okolic odbytu lub łechtaczki dłonią lub palcami partnera (połączone zazwyczaj z wkładaniem palców do pochwy lub odbytu). Dotyczy zachowań heteroseksualnych i homoseksualnych. +Samodzielna palcówka to jedna z form kobiecej masturbacji. Może przechodzić w fisting. +Palcówka łechtaczki. +Nazwa potoczna. Forma stymulacji seksualnej kobiety wykonywana przez nią samą lub przez partnera lub partnerkę, polegająca na stymulacji łechtaczki za pomocą palca lub palców. Może prowadzić do tzw. orgazmu łechtaczkowego. +Palcówka pochwy. +Nazwa potoczna. Forma pieszczot polegająca na wsuwaniu palca lub palców do pochwy w celu osiągania orgazmu przez kobietę m.in. dzięki stymulacji punktu G. Stosowana przez partnerów w pettingu lub samodzielnie jako technika masturbacji. +Palcówka odbytu. +Nazwa nieprawidłowa. Forma pieszczoty seksualnej polegająca na masowaniu palcem okolic odbytu lub wsuwania tam palca (niekiedy kilku palców lub całej dłoni), stosowana we wzajemnych pieszczotach w trakcie petting lub stosunku, jak również samodzielnie w celu sprawienia sobie przyjemności lub wspomagania w trakcie masturbacji. +U mężczyzn wprowadzanie palca do odbytu może być skuteczną metodą stymulacji prostaty prowadzącą nawet do osiągnięcia orgazmu. +Powiat grodziski (województwo wielkopolskie) + +Powiat grodziski — powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Grodzisk Wielkopolski. +Powiat grodziski istniał w latach 1887-1932, 1941-1945 i od 1999. +Historia Powiatu Grodziskiego. +Po śmierci Henryka I w 1309 roku, wspólne rządy nad księstwem sprawowali jego synowie. +W tymże 1954 roku, dokonano wielu zmiam na mapie województwa poznańskiego. Z powiatu kępińskiego wydzielono powiat ostrzeszowski, w 1956 wydzielono z powiatu jarocińskiego powiat pleszewski,a z powiatu wrzesińskiego, powiat słupecki. +W 1971 r. zostało przeprowadzono spotkanie miejscowego społeczenstwa z władzą lokalną, powiatową i wojewódzką. Podjęto szereg decyzji dotyczących życia gospodarczego i społecznego, jednak nie wydzielono miasta z terytorium powiatu, co było jednym z postulatów. W 1972 r., do pracy i do szkół w Poznaniu dojeżdżało ponad 1200 osób. Stopniowe wychodzenie z 30-letniego marazmu nastąpiło dopiero po likwidacji powiatów w 1975 r. +Wywołało to gwałtowny protest wśród mieszkańców miasta. Podjęto natychmiastową akcję protestacyjną w Warszawie. Konflikt między Grodziskiem, a Nowym Tomyślem nazywano "Wielkopolskimi Bałkanami" i określano jako największy punkt zapalny w Wielkopolsce. W efekcie podjętych starań oba miasta zostały siedzibami powiatu. +Majka Jeżowska + +Maria Jeżowska, znana jako Majka Jeżowska (ur. 25 maja 1960 w Nowym Sączu) – polska piosenkarka, kompozytorka, reżyser. +Edukacja. +Jest absolwentką II Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. Marii Konopnickiej w Nowym Sączu. +Ukończyła Wydział Muzyki Rozrywkowej Akademii Muzycznej w Katowicach pod kierunkiem Krystyny Prońko. +Twórczość pop. +W 1978 zdobyła nagrodę ZAKR-u na Festiwalu Piosenki Radzieckiej w Zielonej Górze. W 1979 na Festiwalu w Opolu uczestniczyła w konkursie premier, na którym otrzymała wyróżnienie za "interesującą interpretację wykonywanych piosenek" za "Nutka w nutkę". Po tym sukcesie wydała swoją pierwszą płytę autorską "Jadę w świat", na której znalazły się jej przeboje "Od rana mam dobry humor", tytułowa "Jadę w świat" oraz "Najpiękniejsza w klasie". Na Festiwalu w Opolu w 1980 uczestniczyła w konkursie premier, na którym otrzymała III nagrodę za piosenkę "Reggae o pierwszych wynalazcach". +W 1981 wyjechała do Stanów Zjednoczonych. W 1982 r. poślubiła gitarzystę Toma Logana i osiadła w Chicago. W USA mieszkała do 1993 r. jednocześnie kontynuując karierę w Polsce. W 1987 zdobyła na koncercie premier Festiwalu w Opolu I nagrodę, śpiewając w trio z Krystyną Prońko i Piotrem Szulcem piosenkę "Czekamy na wyrok". W 1988 ponownie zdobyła I nagrodę na koncercie premier w Opolu, tym razem za solowe wykonanie piosenki "Edek". +Jej druga płyta autorska "Wibracje" ukazała się w 1987. W latach 90. XX w. kilka razy prowadziła własny show na Pikniku Country w Mrągowie. Wykonywała piosenki skomponowane przez Krzesimira Dębskiego w filmach Juliusza Machulskiego "Kingsajz" i "Deja Vu". Jej piosenka "Kolor serca" promowała w 1993 akcję Wielkiej Orkiestry Świątecznej Pomocy. +Twórczość dla dzieci. +Równolegle ze swoją główną twórczością pop, Maria Jeżowska zajmuje się komponowaniem i wykonywaniem piosenek skierowanych do dzieci. Jak sama stwierdziła w jednym z wywiadów prasowych inspiracją dla twórczości dla dzieci stała się chęć nagrania piosenki dla swojego syna. Szukając w archiwach zorientowała się, że polska twórczość piosenkarska dla dzieci jest bardzo uboga i niskiej jakości. W 1984 wykorzystała tekst Agnieszki Osieckiej, "A ja wolę moją mamę", do którego skomponowała muzykę i nagrała piosenkę pod tym samym tytułem dla III Programu Polskiego Radia. Piosenka ta uzyskała dużą popularność, która skłoniła ją do wydania całej płyty pod tym samym tytułem. Płyta ta jak na ówczesne czasy okazała się dużym sukcesem i została sprzedana w 50 000 egzemplarzy. Na kanwie płyty powstał też musical pod tym samym tytułem, do którego libretto napisał Jacek Cygan. +Dla odróżnienia swojej twórczości dla dzieci od twórczości pop dla dorosłych zaczęła używać zdrobniałej wersji swojego imienia "Majka". Inne znane przeboje Majki Jeżowskiej to piosenki "Wszystkie dzieci nasze są", "Dłonie", a także "On nie kochał nas", śpiewana wspólnie z Krystyną Prońko. +Od lutego 2008 prowadzi w TV Puls program dla dzieci pt. "Singa Dinga". +Działalność wydawnicza i promotorska. +W latach 80. współpracowała z Jackiem Cyganem. Wspólnie wypromowali wiele dziecięcych i młodzieżowych gwiazdek tamtych czasów, m.in.: Kasię Fronczewską i Magdę Fronczewską, Krzysztofa Antkowiaka, Annę Jurksztowicz oraz Papa Dance. +Po powrocie na stałe do Polski w 1994, założyła własną firmę fonograficzną "JA MAJKA Music", w ramach której wydała kilkanaście swoich płyt z muzyką dla dzieci, zorganizowała kilka tysięcy własnych koncertów oraz różnego rodzaju imprez dla dzieci i rodzin. +Należy do grona kawalerów Orderu Uśmiechu, a od roku 2003 jest ambasadorem dobrej woli przy UNICEF-ie w 2007 została ambasadorem organizacji Polish American Youth w Chicago. +Ashton-Tate + +Ashton-Tate - amerykańskie przedsiębiorstwo software'owe założone w 1980 r. przez Hala Lashlee i George'a Tate'a, którego głównym produktem był system obsługi baz danych dBASE II, opracowany przez C. Wayne'a Ratliffa. Przedsiębiorstwo rozwijało też inne produkty, m.in. pierwszy pakiet biurowy dla MS-DOS Framework, MultiMate i dBASE dla Macintosha. W połowie lat 80 Ashton-Tate był jednym z czołowych producentów oprogramowania dla maszyn PC, jednak w 1991 r. przedsiębiorstwo wykupił Borland, który zrezygnował z wszystkich produktów z wyjątkiem dBASE i InterBase. +Ciemna materia + +Ciemna materia – hipotetyczna materia nieemitująca i nieodbijająca promieniowania elektromagnetycznego, której istnienie zdradzają jedynie wywierane przez nią efekty grawitacyjne. Według danych obserwacyjnych zebranych na podstawie obserwacji dużych struktur kosmicznych interpretowanych w kategoriach równań Friedmana i metryki Friedmana-Lemaître'a-Robertsona-Walkera, ciemna materia to ok. 22–23% bilansu masy-energii Wszechświata, obok materii zwykłej (widzialnej) i dominującej ciemnej energii. +Postulat istnienia ciemnej materii jest obecnie dominującym wytłumaczeniem obserwowanych anomalii w rotacji galaktyk oraz ruchu galaktyk w gromadach, ale nadal materia ta nie została odkryta eksperymentalnie, a jej natura pozostaje nieznana. Proponowane są także inne, obecnie mniej popularne teorie starające się wyjaśniać fakty obserwacyjne, takie jak zmodyfikowana dynamika newtonowska i inne teorie zmodyfikowanej grawitacji, między innymi grawitacja kwantowa. +Historia. +W 1933 roku Fritz Zwicky zauważył, że galaktyki należące do gromady Coma poruszają się tak szybko, że biorąc pod uwagę oddziaływanie grawitacyjne jedynie widzialnej materii, niektóre z galaktyk powinny być wyrzucone z gromady. Jego wyliczenia wskazywały, że większość masy gromady musi być skoncentrowana w jakiejś niewidzialnej, ciemnej materii. Do podobnych wniosków doszedł Sinclair Smith z Mount Wilson Observatory na podstawie obserwacji gromady w Pannie. Początkowe obserwacje i wnioski z nich wynikające były obarczone szeregiem niepewności i ograniczeń, a obserwacje Zwicky'ego i Smitha nie przekonały środowiska naukowego. +W latach 70. i 80. XX wieku liczne obserwacje, zwłaszcza krzywych rotacji galaktyk przeprowadzone przez Verę Rubin i współpracowników wykazały, że masa obserwowanej materii we Wszechświecie jest niewystarczająca, aby wytłumaczyć istniejące siły grawitacji wewnątrz galaktyk i pomiędzy nimi. W szczególności gwiazdy na obrzeżach galaktyk poruszają się znacznie szybciej, niż wynikałoby to z przyciągania przez obserwowaną materię. +Tę sytuację próbowano tłumaczyć m.in., zakładając, że grawitacja na dużych odległościach działa inaczej, niż to wynika z mechaniki klasycznej (patrz MOND), albo że galaktyki otacza niewidoczne dla nas halo, zawierające brakującą masę. +Początkowo termin „ciemna materia” był bardzo kontrowersyjny, gdyż sprawiał wrażenie typowej hipotezy stworzonej "ad hoc". Obserwacje soczewkowania grawitacyjnego umożliwiły z czasem określenie prawdopodobnego rozkładu nieobserwowanej materii, co przekonało do jej istnienia większość środowiska naukowego. +Dane obserwacyjne. +Istnieje pięć detektorów ciemnej materii, do tej pory jednak nigdy bezpośrednio nie zaobserwowano żadnych cząstek ciemnej materii. +Za jeden z dowodów jej istnienia przyjmuje się dane obserwacyjne gromady galaktyk Pocisk, opublikowane w sierpniu 2006. Obok miejsca zderzenia dwóch gromad galaktyk znajdują się obszary soczewkujące grawitacyjnie, w których nie znajdują się gwiazdy ani gaz. Zawierają one prawdopodobnie materię nieoddziałującą ze zwykłą materią, która nie została wyhamowana w czasie zderzenia. +Ograniczeń na zawartość ciemnej materii we Wszechświecie opisanym standardowym modelem kosmologicznym dostarczają dane z obserwacji mikrofalowego promieniowania tła z satelity WMAP, w połączeniu z danymi o odległościach uzyskanych z obserwacji supernowych typu Ia oraz danymi o wielkoskalowej strukturze Wszechświata na podstawie obserwacji rentgenowskich gromad galaktyk dokonanych przez satelity Chandra i ROSAT. +Oprócz danych obserwacyjnych pośrednio świadczących o istnieniu ciemnej materii, istnieją także dane obserwacyjne przeczące teoriom o istnieniu i rozmieszczeniu ciemnej materii. Badania wskazują, że ciemna materia nie jest obecna w naszej części Drogi Mlecznej jak przewiduje to teoria opisująca wpływ ciemnej materii na prędkość rotacji gwiazd w Galaktyce. Według teorii przewidujących istnienie ciemnej materii, w części Galaktyki w której znajduje się nasze Słońce powinno znajdować się pomiędzy 0,4 a 1 kg ciemnej materii w przestrzeni równej objętości Ziemi. Według badań European Southern Observatory (ESO) faktyczna zawartość ciemnej materii wynosi 0,00±0,07 kg w objętości o rozmiarach Ziemi, co kwestionuje współcześnie znane modele ciemnej materii. +Właściwości i hipotezy wyjaśniające. +Zgodnie ze współczesnymi hipotezami, ciemna materia występuje w całym Wszechświecie, zarówno w przestrzeni międzygwiezdnej wewnątrz galaktyk (w Drodze Mlecznej tworzy dysk o grubości około 300 lat świetlnych, a halo może sięgać nawet 500–600 tysięcy lat świetlnych), jak i między galaktykami. Nie świeci ona i nie wywiera ciśnienia. Wpływa w istotny sposób na powstawanie galaktyk, anizotropię mikrofalowego promieniowania tła i ewolucję Wszechświata. +Jedynymi znanymi cząstkami niebarionowej ciemnej materii są neutrina. Prawdopodobne wydają się aksjony, WIMPy i ciemna materia Kaluzy-Kleina (ang. "Kaluza-Klein Dark Matter", zob. teoria Kaluzy-Kleina). Rozważa się też takie cząstki, jak neutrino sterylne, WIMPzilla (o masie rzędu 1013 GeV) i LIMPy ("leptophilic interacting massive particle"). +Postuluje się także, że ciemna materia może istnieć w formie atomowej, a nie cząstkowej. Oznaczałoby by, że składa się ona nie z cząstek ale raczej z atomów (zwanych "dark atoms" – „ciemnymi atomami”). „Ciemne atomy” miałby się składać z ciemno-materiowych odpowiedników protonów i elektronów. Ta hipoteza ma zdaniem jej odkrywców tłumaczyć różnego typu rozbieżności w wynikach dotychczas przeprowadzonych eksperymentów związanych z próbami detekcji ciemnej materii. +Możliwości detekcji. +Ciemna materia stanowi relikt termiczny Wielkiego Wybuchu, ponieważ w wyniku ekspansji Wszechświata w ciągu pierwszych 10 nanosekund odległości między jej cząstkami stały się już tak duże, że nie mogły anihilować ze sobą. W ten sposób ciemna materia została „zamrożona” z ustaloną gęstością. +W wyniku anihilacji cząstek ciemnej materii ze sobą (mogą one być tzw. cząstkami Majorany), mogłaby być wyprodukowana znaczna liczba fotonów gamma, jak również protony i antyprotony. Poszukiwaniem tego typu sygnału w kosmosie zajmuje się m.in. teleskop Fermiego, przeszukując okolice Centrum Galaktyki. Także teleskopy naziemne działające w zakresie TeV, takie jak HESS, zajmują się poszukiwaniem sygnałów obecności ciemnej materii w galaktykach karłowatych i gromadach galaktyk, aczkolwiek aby uzyskać wiarygodne ograniczenia, trzeba przeanalizować również inne źródła wysokoenergetycznego promieniowania, takie jak pulsary. +Bezpośrednia detekcja cząstek ciemnej materii w wyniku rozpraszania wymaga bardzo czułych detektorów umieszczonych głęboko pod ziemią, ponieważ uzyskiwane energie fotonów emitowanych w wyniku odrzutu powinny być rzędu co najwyżej 100 keV. Jak na razie jedynie eksperyment DAMA/LIBRA szczyci się uzyskaniem pozytywnego wyniku, jednak budzi on jeszcze wiele kontrowersji, ponieważ analiza danych została oparta na okresowej modulacji sygnału w cyklu rocznego ruchu Ziemi. Inne eksperymenty, takie jak XENON, EDELWEISS czy ZEPLIN, podają wyniki oparte na dokładniejszej analizie tła i jak na razie nie potwierdziły obserwacji cząstek WIMP. +Produkcję cząstek ciemnej materii próbuje się odkryć przy użyciu wielkich zderzaczy: LHC i Tevatronu. Metoda detekcji jest pośrednia i polega w tym wypadku na ustaleniu brakującej energii, którą uniosła ze sobą powstała w wyniku zderzenia cząstka ciemnej materii. Cząstka ta jest nierejestrowalna, a niepewność dotyczy także czasu jej stabilności (z eksperymentu wiadomo byłoby jedynie, że cząstka żyje co najmniej tak długo, aby opuścić detektor). +Według fizyków z Brown University minimalna masa cząstek ciemnej materii musi wynosić przynajmniej 40 GeV, co podaje w wątpliwość wyniki eksperymentów DAMA/LIBRA, CoGeNT i CRESST, w ramach których odkryto cząstki podejrzewane o bycie ciemną materią, ale z mniejszą masą wynoszącą pomiędzy 7 a 12 GeV. +Hipotezy alternatywne. +Mechanika kwantowa i teoria względności nie przewidują istnienia ciemnej materii. Istnieje kilka hipotez alternatywnych, próbujących tłumaczyć w inny sposób zjawiska, z powodu których stworzono hipotezę ciemnej materii. Są to między innymi grawitacja kwantowa i opracowana przez izraelskiego fizyka Mordehaia Milgroma (Zmodyfikowana dynamika newtonowska). W jego dynamice prawo mówiące, że siła jest wprost proporcjonalna do masy i odwrotnie proporcjonalna do kwadratu odległości, ulega modyfikacji w przypadku, gdy oddziaływanie jest bardzo słabe. +gdzie a0 jest stałą o wymiarze przyspieszenia, a0 ~ 10-8 cm/s². +Według tej teorii siła grawitacji w większych odległościach byłaby większa, niż się obecnie przypuszcza, a to tłumaczyłoby stabilność dysków galaktyk spiralnych. Idea zmodyfikowanej teorii grawitacji dobrze tłumaczy krzywe rotacji galaktyk i nie wymaga wprowadzania ciemnej materii. Relatywistycznym uogólnieniem MOND jest grawitacja tensorowo wektorowo skalarna (TeVeS, Tensor-vector-scalar gravity). +Inaczej zjawisko wzrostu siły przyciągania materii próbowała wyjaśniać teoria plazmowej kosmologii. Przyjmuje się w niej, iż ośrodek międzygwiezdny i międzygalaktyczny to rozrzedzona plazma, której przepływy generują oddziaływanie elektromagnetyczne, mające stanowić tę dodatkową siłę. +Według naukowca CERN-u Dragana Hajdukovica efekty przypisywane istnieniu ciemnej materii mogą być wyjaśnione „grawitacyjną polaryzacją próżni kwantowej” ("gravitational polarization of the quantum vacuum"). Według współczesnych teorii fizyki kwantowej, próżnia nie jest nigdy całkowicie pusta, tworzone są w niej ciągle cząstki wirtualne materii i antymaterii, które pojawiają się i znikają w bardzo krótkim czasie. Hajdukovic opracował model matematyczny, według którego cząstki wirtualne materii i antymaterii mają nie tylko przeciwne ładunki elektryczne, ale także mają przeciwne oddziaływanie grawitacyjne. Teorie na podobny temat były już wcześniej proponowane przez innych naukowców. Według Hajdukovica materia ma pozytywny „ładunek grawitacyjny” (przyciągający), a ładunek grawitacyjny antymaterii jest ujemny (odpychający). Według tej teorii materia i antymateria odpychają się wzajemnie, ale ich odpychanie grawitacyjne jest znacznie słabsze od przyciągania elektrostatycznego i pomimo odpychania się, nadal kolidowałyby ze sobą tuż po ich powstaniu w fluktuacjach kwantowych. Według Hajdukovica w procesie tworzenia się i znikania cząstek wirtualnych mogą się tworzyć spolaryzowane dipole grawitacyjne, których istnienie tłumaczyłoby zachowanie materii w galaktykach bez odwoływania się do ciemnej materii. +W 2011 polsko-chilijski zespół badawczy przy współpracy ze szwajcarskim astrofizykiem z Universität Zürich odkrył istnienie gwiazd o niskiej masie w gromadzie kulistej dzięki wykorzystaniu efektu mikrosoczewkowania grawitacyjnego. Odkrycie wcześniej niewidzialnych gwiazd w gromadzie M22 może wyjaśniać problem brakującej masy w gromadach kulistych bez odwoływania się do hipotezy ciemniej materii. +W 2012 belgijski astrofizyk Pierre Magain opracował model Wszechświata odrzucający założenia modelu Lambda-CDM. Według nowego modelu wiek Wszechświata wynosi pomiędzy 15,4 a 16,5 miliardów lat, a nie 13,75 miliardów jak się obecnie powszechnie przyjmuje. Model zakłada wolniejsze rozszerzanie się Wszechświata w pierwszej fazie po Wielkim Wybuchu i opisuje go bez uciekania się do hipotetycznych założeń takich jak ciemna materia. +Xenogears + +Xenogears – japoński RPG, wyprodukowany przez firmę Square Co., Ltd. w 1998 roku. +Fabuła gry, koncentruje się wokół Feia Fonga Wonga, który po nieumyślnym zniszczeniu wioski, w jakiej dane mu było żyć przez ostatnie trzy lata, musi stawić czoło swojej mrocznej, zapomnianej przez niego samego przeszłości. Wydarzenia zawarte w grze mają miejsce w fikcyjnym świecie, aczkolwiek niektóre elementy fabuły mogą sugerować, iż wszystko dzieje się w odległej przyszłości na planecie podobnej do Ziemi. +Elementem charakterystycznym dla Xenogears jest występowanie Gearów, wielkich robotów bojowych, typowych dla wielu produkcji japońskich, nie tylko z zakresu gier komputerowych. Ich modele są trójwymiarowe, tak jak lokacje i modele większych przeciwników, w przeciwieństwie do dwuwymiarowych spriteów pozostałych postaci (w tym głównych bohaterów). W grze występują też animowane przerywniki zrealizowane w koncepcji anime. Ścieżkę dźwiękową skomponował Yasunori Mitsuda. +Xenogears bywa krytykowane za odstępujący nieco od standardów system walk, zbyt częste losowe walki i długie dialogi pomiędzy postaciami, występujące jako przerywniki pomiędzy kontrolowaną przez gracza akcją. Ostatni zarzut pada najczęściej pod adresem akcji umieszczonej na drugiej płycie gry, gdzie akcja zmienia charakter na bardziej bierny (czynną eksplorację kolejnych lokacji często zastępują streszczenia dalszej fabuły padające z ust bohaterów) i traci na interaktywności. Ukończenie gry z poznaniem sekretów i całej fabuły zajmuje przynajmniej 60 godzin. +Za kontynuację Xenogears uważana jest seria Xenosaga wydana przez Namco na PlayStation 2 (wydane dotychczas dwie części owej serii odpowiadałyby pierwszym dwóm z zaplanowanej sagi). +DBASE Mac + +dBASE Mac - baza danych opracowana przez firmę Ashton-Tate, twórcę dBASE, który nigdy się nie przyjęła w praktycznym użyciu, głównie ze względu na niezgodność w formatem dla komputerów PC, aczkolwiek zawierała wygodny, graficzny interfejs użytkownika, i pozwalała wykonywać wiele złożonych zadań łatwiej niż bazy znakowe. Z konkurencji w tym środowisku zwycięsko wyszły takie programy, jak 4th Dimension, Helix i FileMaker. +Alessandro Farnese (1520-1589) + +Aleksander Farnese, Alessandro Farnese (ur. 5 października 1520 w Valentano - zm. 2 marca 1589 w Rzymie), kardynał-protektor Królestwa Polskiego przy Stolicy Apostolskiej. +Życie i działalność. +Pierworodny syn Pierluigiego Farnese (księcia Parmy), wnuk papieża Pawła III, nosił to samo imię co dziadek. Studiował w Bolonii prawo i teologię pod kierunkiem Filippo Manzolego. Mianowany kardynałem w wieku 14 lat tuż po wybraniu dziadka na tron papieski; w 1535 został wicekanclerzem Kurii. Na przełomie lat trzydziestych i czterdziestych kilkakrotnie wysyłany z misjami dyplomatycznymi na dwór francuski i habsburski. Współuczestniczył w przygotowaniach do soboru trydenckiego. W 1545 po śmierci kardynała Antonio Pucciego, dotychczasowego protektora Królestwa Polskiego w Rzymie, Zygmunt I Stary zaproponował na tę funkcję Farnesego, który, skwapliwie zaakceptowany przez Pawła III, pełnił ją aż do swojej śmierci reprezentując interesy polskie przy Kurii Papieskiej. Farnese nawiązał i utrzymywał liczne kontakty z Polakami, m.in. ze Stanisławem Orzechowskim, Marcinem Kromerem, Stanisławem Hozjuszem oraz Stanisławem Reszką. Dużo wysiłku włożył w promowanie w Polsce działalności kontrreformacyjnej oraz zakonu jezuitów, przyczynił się również wydatnie do ustanowienia nad Wisłą stałej nuncjatury (ambasady) apostolskiej. +W początku lat pięćdziesiątych odsunięty od wpływów Farnese mało przebywał w Rzymie, jednak już wkrótce jego pozycja wzmocniła się na tyle, że od następnej dekady regularnie podczas kolejnych konklawe była wysuwana - bezskutecznie - jego kandydatura na papieża. W 1580 został dziekanem Kolegium Kardynalskiego (biskupem Ostii i Velletri). +Dysponujący pokaźnym majątkiem Aleksander Farnese był znanym kolekcjonerem i mecenasem sztuki - to on sprowadził do Rzymu w latach czterdziestych Tycjana, któremu zlecił wykonanie serii obrazów, m.in. portretów członków rodziny oraz "Danae". Dla Farnesego pracowali również Giorgio Vasari oraz Vignola, który zaprojektował z polecenia kardynała wspaniałą rezydencję w Capraroli, na północ od Rzymu. Również Vignola sporządził projekt kościoła "Il Gesu", który Farnese ufundował dla nowo powstałego zakonu jezuitów i w którym został pochowany. +Operator Laplace'a + +Operator Laplace'a (laplasjan) – operator różniczkowy drugiego rzędu, szczególnie ważny element klasy operatorów eliptycznych. Jego nazwa pochodzi od nazwiska Pierre'a Simona de Laplace'a. +Znajduje on wiele zastosowań w modelach fizycznych, pojawiając się na przykład w równaniu przewodnictwa cieplnego, propagacji fal, równaniu Helmholtza. W mechanice kwantowej występuje jako część hamiltonianu oraz jako przestrzenna składowa operatora d'Alemberta. W probabilistyce laplasjan jest generatorem ruchu Browna. Operator ten w działaniu na funkcję skalarną f można zdefiniować za pomocą operatorów gradientu i dywergencji w tej kolejności +a w działaniu na funkcję wektorową formula_2 w jego definicji występuje dodatkowo operator rotacji +gdzie: +qi – i-ta współrzędna +hi – współczynniki Lamego, hi = ( gii )1/2 +gii to diagonalne wyrazy tensora metrycznego. +Wyprowadzenie +formula_8 +formula_9 +formula_10 +a w innych układach współrzędnych jego działanie wyraża się bardziej złożonym wzorem. +Kerman + +Kerman – miasto w Iranie, stolica prowincji (ostanu) o tej samej nazwie, położonej w dolinie między górami Kuh-e Rid i Kuh-e Banan. +Liczba mieszkańców w 2003 roku wynosiła ok. 425 tys. +Brzeziny + +Brzeziny – miasto i gmina w województwie łódzkim, w powiecie brzezińskim. Położone jest na wschód od Łodzi, w pobliżu Parku Krajobrazowego Wzniesień Łódzkich, w dolinie rzeki Mrożycy. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2008 miasto liczyło 12 331 mieszkańców. +Ośrodek wypoczynkowy; drobny przemysł m.in. odzieżowy. Zbiornik wodny na Mrożycy. +Muzeum regionalne z dużym działem krawiectwa. +Położenie. +Miasto stanowi 6,02% powierzchni powiatu brzezińskiego. +Historia. +Wedle poznanych dokumentów Brzeziny jako osada prawdopodobnie istniały już w XI-XII wieku, zdaje się to potwierdzać, istniejąca w tym miejscu przed 1139 rokiem siedziba parafii rzymskokatolickiej. Pierwszą wzmianka potwierdzającą miejski charakter Brzezin pochodzi z 1332 roku w dokumencie Władysława Siemowitowicza – księcia dobrzyńskiego i łęczyckiego. Przypuszcza się jednak, że status ten zyskały znacznie wcześniej, być może jeszcze w końcu XIII stulecia. Przywilej lokacyjny i prawa nadane miastu potwierdził w 1364 roku król Kazimierz Wielki. Najwcześniejsza informacja o Brzezinach jako siedzibie powiatu pochodzi z 1386 roku i dotyczy sądownictwa. Niewątpliwie wczesny rozwój miasta związany był z handlem i korzystnym położeniem osady na szlaku drogi toruńsko – ruskiej, przy ważnych traktach handlowych łączących Wielkopolskę i Pomorze z Mazowszem, Podlasiem i Rusią oraz Litwę z Małopolską. Szczególnie intensywny rozwój Brzezin przypadł na okres od II połowy XV wieku do początków XVII wieku. +W drugiej połowie XV stulecia Brzeziny przeszły w ręce rodziny Lasockich, którzy pozostawali ich właścicielami – podobnie jak okolicznych włości – przez kolejne 330 lat. Lasoccy dbali o swoje dobra i między innymi dzięki temu, szczególnie intensywny rozwój Brzezin przypadł na okres od połowy XV do początków XVII wieku. W okresie tym Brzeziny były znaczącym ośrodkiem produkcji rzemieślniczej i nakładczej, sukienniczej i krawieckiej, także piwowarskiej. W tym okresie w mieście funkcjonowało około 300 warsztatów, a Brzeziny były najważniejszym centrum produkcji sukna w Polsce. Na ten okres przypada też czas rozkwitu miasta, które zamieszkiwało ponad 2,5 tys. mieszkańców (co było liczbą na ówczesne czasy znaczną). +Według opinii S. Sarnickiego z 1585 r. Brzeziny były miastem "znakomitym, wybornymi rzemieślnikami sławnym". Miasto znane było również (za sprawą przybyłych tu w XVI w. Szkotów jako znaczny ośrodek browarnictwa. Pod względem gospodarczym ówczesne Brzeziny przerastały nawet stolicę województwa – Łęczycę, a przydomek "Krakówek", jakim wówczas je określano, świadczy o dużym znaczeniu grodu nad Mrożycą. Z wysokiego poziomu nauczania słynęła brzezińska szkoła miejska, której uczniem był m.in. Maciej Stryjkowski, historyk, poeta i kronikarz. Z Brzezin pochodził pisarz ariański i ideolog reformacji Grzegorz Paweł z Brzezin, założyciel drugiej w Polsce szkoły protestanckiej oraz Adam Burski – filozof i rektor Akademii Zamojskiej. Z miastem 20 lat swojego życia związał również pisarz i publicysta polityczny epoki renesansu Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, główny reprezentant postępowej myśli społeczno-politycznej polskiego Odrodzenia, autor traktu "O naprawie Rzeczypospolitej". +Od XVII wieku rozpoczął się okres upadku gospodarczego i kulturalnego miasta, na co złożyły się kolejne wojny ze Szwecją a później okres panowania saskiego. Mimo napływu kolejnych osadników, w tym Żydów (pierwsza wiadomość z 1736 r.) oraz kolonistów niemieckich (od 1752 r.) w czasach rozbiorów Brzeziny wiodły żywot podupadającego miasteczka. Gdy w latach 20. XIX wieku rozpoczął się dynamiczny okres rozwoju Łodzi, równoczesne próby przekształcenia Brzezin w znaczny ośrodek włókienniczy nie powiodły się i miasto na kolejną szansę rozwoju musiało czekać aż do lat 70. XIX wieku. Wtedy rozwój miasta doznał istotnego przyspieszenia. Dzięki ówczesnej, korzystnej koniunkturze gospodarczej Brzeziny stały się dużym ośrodkiem produkcji odzieżowej, największym w Królestwie Polskim ośrodkiem chałupnictwa krawieckiego. W mieście powstawały m.in. pasiaki dla Księżaków Łowickich. Produkowane w Brzezinach tanie wyroby przeznaczone były dla uboższych warstw społecznych Królestwa Polskiego. Dużą część produkcji odzieżowej eksportowano na rynki rosyjskie. Liczba ludności Brzezin wzrosła w 1885 roku do 6 tys. a w przeddzień wybuchu I wojny światowej miasto liczyło już 18 tys. mieszkańców. +Podczas I wojny światowej, pod koniec 1914 roku w pobliżu Brzezin miała miejsce bitwa, w wyniku której armia rosyjska została zmuszona do wycofania na linię Bzury, Rawki i Pilicy. Miasto, podobnie jak i okoliczne wioski, zostały wówczas zniszczone i znacznie wyludnione. Okres międzywojenny w przypadku Brzezin charakteryzował się rozwojem produkcji krawieckiej. W 1918 roku powstał w mieście Związek Producentów Konfekcji Męskiej. W mieście wytwarzano nadal, w większości tanią odzież bawełnianą. W 1937 roku w ówczesnym powiecie brzezińskim działało aż 649 zakładów krawieckich. +8 września 1939 r. w rejonie Brzezin miała miejsce bitwa oddziałów Armii Łódź z niemiecką 10. Dywizją Piechoty. Wówczas, podobnie jak pod koniec wojny, Brzeziny zostały zbombardowane. Niemcy włączyli miasto w granice Rzeszy, przemianowali je na "Löwenstadt" i rozpoczęli brutalne prześladowania ludności żydowskiej. Likwidacja utworzonego przez Niemców brzezińskiego getta nastąpiła w maju 1942 roku – jego mieszkańców wywieziono do obozów zagłady w Chełmnie i Oświęcimiu. W dniach 18 i 19 stycznia 1945 roku wojska radzieckie wyparły Niemców. W toczonych wówczas walkach zginęło około 200 żołnierzy radzieckich, których podobnie jak polskich żołnierzy „września”, pochowano na cmentarzu przy ul. Łódzkiej. W czasie wojny zniszczeniu lub poważnemu uszkodzeniu uległo prawie 60% budynków, a liczba ludności zmalała do ok. 6000. Obecnie Brzeziny liczą ok. 13 tys. mieszkańców. +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa skierniewickiego. W wyniku ostatniej reformy administracyjnej miasto na krótko pozbawiono roli powiatu. +Religia. +Miasto jest siedzibą dekanatu brzezińskiego. +W mieście mieszkają również Świadkowie Jehowy, których zbór mieści się przy ul. Stefana Żeromskiego, diaspora Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów, pozostająca pod opieką parafii Przenajświętszego Sakramentu w Grzmiącej oraz wyznawcy Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów, którzy należą do parafii w Woli Cyrusowej, w Grzmiącej i w Lipce. +Wierni Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów z Brzezin odprawiają adorację ubłagania 13. dnia każdego miesiąca. +Transport. +Drogi. +Do miasta dojeżdża linia 53 obsługiwana przez Miejskie Przedsiębiorstwo Komunikacyjne - Łódź, która łączy Brzeziny z placem Dąbrowskiego w Łodzi. +Maseru + +Maseru – stolica i największe miasto Lesotho, położone w zachodniej części kraju, w pobliżu granicy z RPA, nad rzeką Caledon. Ludność: ok. 253 tys. (2010). Także stolica administracyjnego dystryktu Maseru. +Stanowi główny ośrodek handlowy i turystyczny. Rozwinął się tu przemysł spożywczy (głównie mleczarski) oraz produkcja spadochronów. Miasto obsługiwane jest przez międzynarodowy port lotniczy. Powstał tu uniwersytet National University of Lesotho. +Istniejącą w tym miejscu niewielką osadę handlową podniósł do rangi stolicy król Moshoeshoe I w 1869. Maseru było następnie stolicą brytyjskiego protektoratu Basuto w latach 1869-1871 i 1884-1966, kiedy to stało się stolicą niepodległego Lesotho. +Fenogram + +Fenogram - diagram w kształcie dendrogramu ukazujący schemat podobieństw między grupami organizmów (populacjami, kompleksami roślinnymi, taksonami). Długość gałęzi fenogramu symbolizuje stopień podobieństwa, którego miarą jest współczynnik podobieństwa. +Błąd względny + +Błąd względny w metrologii i statystyce to iloraz błędu bezwzględnego i wartości dokładnej "x"0 +gdzie +przy czym zazwyczaj, gdy błąd jest błędem losowym, określa się moduł błędu względnego +Błąd względny jest bezwymiarowy, najczęściej wyrażany w procentach +i nazywany jest wówczas błędem procentowym. Jeśli błąd jest bardzo mały, używa się również promili. W metrologii służy głównie do oceny dokładności przyrządów pomiarowych pracujących na różnych zakresach pomiarowych. W statystyce porównywane są w ten sposób wariancje rozkładów różniących się wartością oczekiwaną np. błędy prognoz dwóch różnych wielkości. +DBASE + +dBASE – pierwszy powszechnie stosowany system baz danych dla mikrokomputerów, opracowany przez firmę Ashton-Tate dla systemu operacyjnego CP/M, a później dla maszyn Apple II, Apple Macintosh i IBM PC z DOS, gdzie stał się jednym z najlepiej sprzedających się przez lata narzędzi. +dBASE nie został nigdy w pełni przyjęty w środowisku Windows, gdzie został szybko wyparty przez nowe produkty, jak Paradox, Clipper i FoxPro. Ashton-Tate została w 1991 r. sprzedana firmie Borland, która z kolei w 1999 r. sprzedała prawa do bazy nowo utworzonej firmie dBASE Inc. +Macierzysty format pliku . DBF jest szeroko używany przez wiele aplikacji wymagających prostego formatu do gromadzenia ustrukturalizowanych danych. +dBASE jest licencjonowany na okres 50 lat, aczkolwiek mało prawdopodobne jest korzystanie z bazy w tym formacie przez tak długi okres. +Historia. +Historię dBASE można prześledzić wstecz do połowy lat 60., aż do systemu RETRIEVE, który był sprzedawany przez Tymshare Corporation. Jednym z użytkowników RETRIEVE było Jet Propulsion Laboratory, które pod koniec lat 60. zwróciło się do jednego z jego programistów, Jeba Longa, o opracowanie zmodyfikowanej wersji. W wyniku powstał JPLDIS (Jet Propulsion Laboratory Display Information System), napisany w języku FORTRAN, uruchamiany na maszynie mainframe UNIVAC 1108. +W 1978 r. C. Wayne Ratliff, inny programista z JPL i przyjaciel Jeba Longa, napisał w asemblerze program bazodanowy dla systemu operacyjnego CP/M, który został nazwany Vulcan (nazwa pochodząca z filmu Star Trek). Program miał początkowo pomagać w obstawianiu zakładów piłkarskich w biurze, potem został wykorzystany w obliczaniu podatków, aż autor uznał, że program mógłby być użyty w innych, komercyjnych zastosowaniach. +W październiku 1979 r. i przez kilka kolejnych miesięcy w magazynie BYTE ukazywały się reklamy Vulcana, który był sprzedawany po 50 USD za kopię. Odzew nie był bardzo duży, ale i tak większy niż spodziewał się autor, który zaczął mieć kłopoty z obsługą sprzedaży – reklamy zostały wycofane i Ratliff ograniczył się do obsługi już istniejących klientów. +Ashton-Tate. +George Tate i Hal Lashlee, prowadzący firmę Discount Software, po obejrzeniu demonstracyjnej wersji Vulcana zaproponowali Ratliffowi przejęcie na siebie marketingu – umowa obowiązywała przez kilka lat, po czym w 1982 firma zaoferowała Ratliffowi stanowisko wiceprezesa ds. nowych technologii. +Ratliff został następnie szefem projektu dBASE III, jak również jego głównym programistą. Firma wynajęła także Jeba Longa, który pracował w niej przez 8 lat i stworzył wewnętrzny język programowania dBASE. +dBASE III. +Pierwotne wersje dBASE były pisane bezpośrednio w asemblerze, ale wkrótce program tak się rozrósł, że konieczne stało się przejście na język wysokiego poziomu C. Skutek tego był fatalny – dBASE III, opublikowany w czerwcu 1984, był wystarczająco szybki na nowych maszynach, ale zbyt wolny na starszych komputerach PC, więc większość użytkowników zignorowała go. Ukazały się więc jeszcze poprawki dla wersji dBASE II, natomiast firma pracowała nad wydajnością wersji III, co zakończyło się sukcesem dopiero pod koniec 1985 r. +dBASE dla Macintosha. +W 1986 r. Ashton-Tate poddała się panującej wówczas "macowej gorączce" i rozpoczęła prace nad aplikacjami dla Macintosha. W tym celu wykupiła niewielką firmę Ann Arbor Softworks projektującą aplikacje biznesowe, w tym arkusz kalkulacyjny Full Impact, procesor tekstu FullWrite Professional, a po przejęciu przez Ashton-tate także system bazodanowy dBASE Mac. +FullWrite i FullImpact, które nie odnosiły sukcesu rynkowego, zostały wkrótce wstrzymane przez Ashton-Tate. dBASE Mac był z kolei produktem w znaczący sposób odmiennym od produktów dla PC – zawierał graficzny interfejs użytkownika i potrafił wykonywać wiele złożonych zadań prościej niż programy w systemie znakowym. Jego największą wadą była jednak niezgodność z produktem dla PC, wskutek czego konkurował jedynie z programami dla Macintosha, jak 4th Dimension, Helix i FileMaker. Program został ostatecznie zarzucony. +dBASE IV. +dBASE IV ukazał się w październiku 1988 r., zawierając mnóstwo błędów. Sprzedaż zaczęła się załamywać, m.in. wskutek pojawienia się na rynku klonów dBASE'a, jak FoxBase i Clipper. Ashton-Tate zdecydował się nawet wnieść pozew przeciwko FoxBase, ale proces szybko się zakończył niepowodzeniem. +W 1991 r. Ashton-Tate został wykupiony przez firmę Borland. Błędy dBASE IV zostały w końcu poprawione, a sam produkt przeniesiony na inne platformy, jak Sun SPARC, IBM-owski AIX i DEC VMS. dBASE IV pozostał głównym produktem aż do 1993 r. +Od tej wersji dołączono obsługę SQL. +dBASE 5. +dBASE 5.0 powrócił do swoich korzeni, jako produkt wyłącznie dla komputerów PC, zarówno w DOS, jak i Windows. Sprzedaż programu jednak sukcesywnie malała i ostatecznie w 1999 r. Borland zdecydował się sprzedać prawa do programu powstałej firmie dBASE Inc., która podtrzymuje go przy życiu na platformie Windows (zorientowana obiektowo aktualizacja dBASE Plus), ale dBASE jest już produktem marginalnym, nie stanowiącym konkurencji dla współczesnych programów zgodnych ze standardem SQL. +Witalij Jurczenko + +Witalij Jurczenko (ur. 1936), pułkownik KGB, oficer wywiadu radzieckiego, płk Komitetu Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego Związku Radzieckiego (KGB ZSRR), który w 1985 roku zbiegł na Zachód, a następnie dobrowolnie powrócił do Związku Radzieckiego. +Pochodzenie. +Witalij Jurczenko urodził się w 1936 roku, pochodził z rodziny robotniczej; ojciec zginął w czasie II wojny światowej. Ukończył szkołę wojskową i służył na okrętach podwodnych. Ukończył także wydział nawigacji w 1958 roku i otrzymał stopień porucznika Marynarki Wojennej oraz przydział do Floty Pacyfiku z dowództwem we Władywostoku. Od 1959 roku służył w KGB w dziale kontrwywiadu wojskowego. Ożenił się w 1958 roku, żona była inżynierem, w 1961 roku urodziła się im córeczka, następnie adoptowali chłopca urodzonego w 1969 roku. +Służba w KGB. +Jurczenko doskonale znał amerykańskie służby wywiadowcze, był bowiem w latach 1975-1980 oficerem bezpieczeństwa KGB w ambasadzie radzieckiej w Waszyngtonie. Z racji swojej pracy miał stały kontakt z agentami FBI. Często bywał z nimi w lokalu Dankers przy E street w północno-zachodnim Waszyngtonie, nieopodal głównej siedziby FBI. Jego ulubionym trunkiem była szkocka whisky. Po zakończeniu misji w Stanach Zjednoczonych powrócił do Moskwy, tam został głównym oficerem kontrwywiadu ds. bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznego. Współpracował ze szpiegami, którzy zbiegli do Związku Radzieckiego, m.in. Haroldem (Kimem) Philbym oraz George'em Blake. W kwietniu 1985 roku Jurczenko został mianowany zastępcą szefa I Zarządu Głównego KGB. +Dezercja. +CIA oceniało Jurczenkę jako weterana KGB o piętnastoletnim stażu, oczekującego awansu na generała, człowieka który koordynował szpiegowską działalność przeciwko obywatelom amerykańskim. W ocenie CIA był piątym człowiekiem w hierarchii KGB, najważniejszym odstępcą całej dekady. Delegowany przez centralę do Rzymu mieszkał na terenie ambasady ZSRR. 1 sierpnia 1985 roku powiedział koledze, że idzie do Muzeów Watykańskich, lecz z budki telefonicznej stojącej naprzeciwko ambasady Stanów Zjednoczonych zatelefonował do pracownika CIA, który doradził mu natychmiastowe wejście na teren ambasady USA. Zaproponowano mu pozostanie we Włoszech, lecz Jurczenko zażądał wywiezienia za Ocean do USA. Szef rzymskiej placówki Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej porozumiał się z kierownictwem w Langley (siedziba CIA), przekazując, że Jurczenko podał informację o dwóch radzieckich kretach, człowieku o ps. "Robert" oraz pracowniku Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. +Jednym z pierwszych czytelników raportu przysłanego przez szefa rzymskiej placówki CIA był Aldrich Ames, funkcjonariusz kontrwywiadu CIA oraz kret KGB od 1985 roku. Po przewiezieniu Jurczenki do centrali CIA, Langley, Ames był także pierwszym funkcjonariuszem CIA, który przesłuchiwał Jurczenkę, a następnie poinformował o zeznaniach Jurczenki swojego oficera prowadzącego z KGB. Wiadomości przekazane przez Jurczenkę doprowadziły do zdemaskowania Ronalda Peltona, analityka z NSA sprzedającego informacje wywiadowcze wywiadowi radzieckiemu, oraz byłego pracownika Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej Edwarda Lee Howarda. Przedstawił wiarygodną wersję tajemniczej śmierci podwójnego agenta Nicholasa Shadriana, który zmarł w 1975 roku. W rozmowach z przesłuchującymi go agentami CIA i FBI Jurczenko określił sprawę Johna W. Walkera, radiooperatora Marynarki Wojennej USA (US Navy), jako jedną z najważniejszych w historii KGB. W ocenach Jurczenki dostarczone przez Walkera informacje pozwoliły na rozszyfrowanie ponad miliona amerykańskich depesz. +Powrót do ZSRR. +Jurczenko zdezerterował z KGB w sierpniu 1985 roku. Po trzech miesiącach, sobotniego wieczoru 2 listopada, siedząc z funkcjonariuszami Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej – CIA w restauracji w waszyngtońskiej dzielnicy Georgetown, wstał i powiedział, że chce się przejść. Po wyjściu z restauracji przeszedł dwa kilometry i wszedł na teren ambasady radzieckiej. W ambasadzie spędził resztę sobotniego wieczoru i całą niedzielę, następnie w poniedziałek wystąpił na konferencji prasowej. Oświadczył, że został porwany i uśpiony narkotykami przez agentów CIA i FBI. Jurczenko także zaprzeczył jakoby zdezerterował i z własnej woli złożył zeznania. +Po powrocie Jurczenki do Moskwy pojawiły się pogłoski o jego egzekucji. Jednak w kwietniu 1986 roku wystąpił przed kamerami telewizji niemieckiej, wyjaśniając, że przebywał na kuracji medycznej. W wywiadzie udzielonym w sierpniu 1986 roku jednej z moskiewskich gazet stwierdził, że CIA próbowało go skłonić aby zasugerował powiązania Moskwy z zamachem na papieża Jana Pawła II. +Konkluzje. +Według Davida Wise'a, autora książki "Nightmover" 1995 pol. "Kryptonim Nightmover" 1997, niektórzy pracownicy kontrwywiadu uważali, po ujawnieniu zdrady Amesa że – "Jurczenko mógł zostać nasłany przez KGB, żeby zdradzając Howarda i Peltona, uchronić znacznie cenniejszego agenta, Ricka Amesa. Ames został aresztowany dopiero w lutym 1994 roku. +Jest całkiem możliwe, że oni (tj. KGB) powątpiewali w wiarygodność Amesa i wysłali Jurczenkę, aby sprawdzić czy Ames zawiadomił swojego oficera prowadzącego (KGB) o przesłuchaniu Jurczenki i co z jego zeznań przekaże. Kiedy ustalono co przekazuje Ames, rola Jurczenki skończyła się i kazano mu wracać do domu. +Sprawa ucieczki i powrotu Witalija Jurczenki do Związku Radzieckiego jest nadal zagadkowa. Lecz prawdopodobnie przypuszczenia agenta FBI, Harry'ego B. Brandona, można wykluczyć, gdyż Ames wydając w ręce KGB takich oficerów tej służby współpracujących z CIA, jak Oleg Gordijewski, Sergiej Motorin, major KGB, gen. mjr. Dimitrij Polakow, itd, po stokroć udowodnił swoją wiarygodność, a Gordijewski swoją ucieczką na Zachód potwierdził swoją winę. +Brunetto Latini + +Brunetto Latini (ur. ok. 1220, zm. 1294) – pisarz i polityk włoski. +Florentyńczyk, syn Buonaccorso Latiniego, miejscowego notariusza. Wiadomo, że był żonaty; miał dwóch synów i córkę. +W 1260 roku wszedł w skład poselstwa florenckiej komuny miejskiej do króla Kastylii, Alfonsa X Mądrego, które miało spowodować wystąpienie tego władcy przeciwko Manfredowi Hohenstaufowi. Misja zakończyła się jednak niepowodzeniem. +Podczas powrotu otrzymał od swego ojca wiadomość o klęsce popieranego przez siebie stronnictwa gwelfów w bitwie pod Montaperti. Władzę we Florencji przejęli wspierani przez Hohenstaufów procesarscy gibelini, a Latini wyemigrował do Paryża. Tam, poza czynnościami notarialnymi, zajął się studiami i pracą pisarską. Właśnie wtedy powstały jego dzieła literackie ze "Skarbcem wiedzy" na czele. +W marcu 1266 roku, kilka tygodni po klęsce i śmierci Manfreda Hohenstaufa pod Benewentem, Latini wrócił do Florencji, gdzie wpływy odzyskali gwelfowie, i zajął się już niemal tylko polityką. +Przez ostatnich trzydzieści lat życia awansował na kolejne stanowiska w hierarchii urzędniczej, a ukoronowaniem tej kariery było dziesięcioletnie zasiadanie w wybieralnej florenckiej radzie miejskiej (1282-1292). Ponadto, w 1287 roku pełnił funkcję jednego z priorów. Zyskał szacunek wśród mieszkańców miasta, stając się dla nich ważnym autorytetem, co potwierdzają ponowne wybory do rady miejskiej, jak również dwa świadectwa pisane. +Autorem pierwszego z nich jest florencki kronikarz Giovanni Villani: „W roku 1294 zmarł we Florencji pewien znakomity obywatel, imieniem Ser Brunetto Latini, który był wielkim filozofem i największym mistrzem retoryki, zarówno w umiejętności pięknego mówienia, jak i pisania (...) był on pisarzem naszej komuny (...) był inicjatorem i mistrzem ogłady dla Florentyńczyków, ucząc ich dbałości o piękną wymowę oraz umiejętności kierowania i rządzenia naszą republiką według polityki.” (tłum. M. Frankowska-Terlecka) +Drugie świadectwo wystawił sam Dante Alighieri ("Boska Komedia"), który uważał Latiniego za swego ukochanego mistrza, jednak z niewiadomych przyczyn umieścił go w siódmym kręgu piekła ("Piekło", pieśń XV), razem z cudzołożnikami. Przypuszczalnym powodem takiego potraktowania mogła być popełniona przez niego „zdrada” języka włoskiego na rzecz francuskiego w przypadku "Skarbca wiedzy". +Chersoń + +Chersoń (ukr. "Херсон") - miasto na południu Ukrainy, nad Dnieprem, stolica obwodu chersońskiego. 312 tys. mieszkańców. Port morski i rzeczny. 7 wyższych uczelni. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Chersoń. +Historia. +Miasto zostało założone na mocy ukazu Katarzyny II 18 czerwca 1778 roku na wysokim, prawym brzegu Dniepru jako twierdza i ośrodek stoczniowy Floty Czarnomorskiej. Nazwa utworzona od starożytnego Chersonezu Taurydzkiego. 1783 nadanie praw miasta powiatowego i wodowanie pierwszego statku w miejscowej stoczni. W latach 1783-ok. 1793 w mieście działała Kompania Handlowa Polska (tzw. Kompania Chersońska) - pierwsze polskie przedsiębiorstwo żeglugowe. W 1803 miasto stało się stolicą guberni chersońskiej. Okupowany przez III Rzeszę od 19 sierpnia 1941 do 13 marca 1944 roku. +Kademlia + +Kademlia – protokół komunikacyjny umożliwiający wyszukiwanie zawartości w sieciach takich jak P2P bez potrzeby używania centralnego serwera indeksującego zawartość sieci. Protokół ten oparty jest na algorytmie rozproszonej tablicy mieszającej. Z racji braku serwerów łączenie z siecią realizuje się poprzez podanie adresu IP i portu jakiegokolwiek klienta już podłączonego do Kademlii (tzw. Boot Strap). +Główną zaletą Kademlii jest jej decentralizacja – sieć sama organizuje się i dostraja, by osiągnąć najlepszą wydajność zależnie od liczby użytkowników i możliwości ich połączeń. Dzięki temu jest bardziej odporna na uszkodzenia w dużej skali. +Protokół Kademlia. +Kademlia jest protokołem komunikacji w sieciach peer-to-peer implementującym rozproszone tablice mieszające. Zaprojektowany przez Petara Maymounkova i Davida Mazieresa w celu decentralizacji komputerowych sieci P2P. +Struktura sieci w Kademlii jest reprezentowana przez drzewo binarne, w którym każdy węzeł – liść drzewa posiada swój unikatowy identyfikator określający jego pozycję w drzewie. Jest to jedna z wielu wersji systemów DHT. +Terminologia. +Węzeł. +Sieć Kademlia składa się z pewnej liczby współpracujących węzłów, które komunikują się między sobą oraz przechowują o sobie informacje. Każdy węzeł posiada nodeID – pseudoniepowtarzalny numer binarny, który identyfikuje i określa miejsce węzła w sieci. Węzeł to najprościej mówiąc użytkownik sieci, stacja robocza, na której uruchomiona jest aplikacja obsługująca dany protokół sieciowy, w tym przypadku Kademlię. Oprócz adresu IP węzeł posiada klucz, na podstawie którego może zostać rozpoznany i odnaleziony w sieci. W obrębie sieci blok danych (wartość) może być również skojarzony z ciągiem binarnym o ustalonej długości B (klucz wartości). Węzeł, potrzebując wartości, szuka jej na węzłach najbliższych kluczowi. Węzeł, potrzebując zachować wartość, przechowuje ją na węzłach najbliższych kluczowi. +ID węzła (nodeID). +Komputery w sieci są identyfikowane za pomocą adresów IP oraz kluczy określających ich położenie w Kademlii. ID węzła (nodeID) jest liczbą binarną o długości B=160 bitów. W podstawowej wersji Kademlii każdy węzeł wybiera swoje ID wg bliżej nieokreślonej pseudolosowej procedury. Ważne jest, aby każdy nodeID był unikatowy i jednakowo rozproszony – projekt sieci właśnie na tym polega. +Klucze. +Dane przechowywane w Kademlii są określane jako wartość, przypisane do odpowiedniego klucza. Wynika to z właściwości rozproszonych tablic mieszających. +Dane przechowywane lub otrzymywane z sieci muszą posiadać klucz o długości B. Pary tak jak ID węzłów również powinny być jednakowo rozproszone. +Istnieje kilka sposobów, które mogą to zagwarantować. Najbardziej popularnym jest utworzenie skrótu, za pomocą bezpiecznej funkcji haszującej SHA-1. Pary są przechowywane na węzłach, których ID jest najbliżej klucza. +Dystans: metryka XOR. +Działanie Kademlii oparte jest w dużym stopniu na użyciu operacji XOR (eXclusive OR) jako metryki. Dystans pomiędzy kluczami lub ID węzłów np. x i y jest definiowany następująco: dystans(x,y) = x ^ y , gdzie ^ reprezentuje operator XOR. Rezultat jest otrzymywany z wykonanej operacji XOR na każdym bicie argumentów. Jest to najważniejsza operacja protokołu Kademlia odpowiedzialna za poprawne określanie bliskości między węzłami oraz kluczami a węzłem. +k-pojemnik (k-buckets). +Węzły w Kademlii organizują swoje kontakty, o których wiedzą inne węzły, w pojemniki, które przetrzymują maksymalnie k kontaktów. Są to tak zwane k-pojemniki. Pojemniki są organizowane na podstawie dystansu pomiędzy węzłem a kontaktami w pojemniku. Dla każdego pojemnika i, 0 ≤ i < B, gdzie (B=160) węzeł przechowuje listę trójek . W każdym z tych pojemników węzeł przechowuje kontakty o dystansie znajdującym się w zakresie 2i ≤ dystans(węzeł,kontakt) < 2i+1 od siebie samego. Daje to bardzo dużą przestrzeń adresową. Generalnie dla małych wartości i pojemniki będą puste, gdyż węzeł o odpowiednio małym dystansie nie będzie istniał. Dla dużych wartości i pojemnik może przechowywać do k kontaktów. +Wewnątrz pojemników, kontakty są sortowane wg czasu ostatniej komunikacji. Kontakty, które najczęściej komunikują się z naszym węzłem, są zapisane na końcu listy odpowiedniego pojemnika, a te które najrzadziej się komunikują, przechowywane są na początku takiej listy w pojemniku. +Rozmiar pojemnika. +W Kademlii stała k jest ustawiona na wartość 20, przy której jest wielce nieprawdopodobna, że w dużych sieciach kontakty w każdym pojedynczym pojemniku mogą zniknąć w przeciągu godziny. Próbując obliczyć takie prawdopodobieństwo, powinno się wziąć pod uwagę politykę, która prowadzi do tego, że kontakty o długiej żywotności przechowywane w tablicy, są preferowane jako bardziej aktualne kontakty. k jest systemową wartością protokołu sieciowego Kademlia. +Kontakty. +Projektanci Kademlii nie wzięli pod uwagę użycia adresów IPv6 czy protokołu TCP/IP zamiast UDP oraz możliwości, że węzeł może posiadać wiele adresów IP. W Kademlii jest ważne w miarę szybkie przesyłanych komunikatów między węzłami. W tym celu używany jest bezpołączeniowy protokół komunikacji UDP. Jest to protokół bezpołączeniowy, więc nie ma narzutu na nawiązywanie połączenia i śledzenie sesji (w przeciwieństwie do TCP). Nie ma też mechanizmów kontroli przepływu i retransmisji danych. Korzyścią płynącą z takiego uproszczenia budowy jest większa szybkość transmisji informacji i brak dodatkowych zadań, którymi musi zajmować się użytkownik posługujący się tym protokołem. +Protokół. +Oryginalna dokumentacja Kademlii mówi, że protokół posiada cztery zdalne procedury połączeniowe (RPCs – Remote Procedure Calls) PING, STORE, FIND_NODE, FIND_VALUE, ale także specyfikuje inne procedury, które muszą nastąpić podczas ich wywołania, jako pewien inny protokół. Dobrze jest dodać te procedury i inne protokoły do tego co nazywamy protokołem Kademlia. Podczas komunikacji w sieci, każdy węzeł wysyłając komunikat RPC lub dowolny inny, dostarcza informacje o sobie jego odbiorcy w postaci adresu IP, portu UDP oraz ID węzła. +PING. +Ta procedura RPC pociąga za sobą to, że jeden węzeł wysyła komunikat PING do innego węzła, który przypuszczalnie odpowie komunikatem PONG, jeżeli jest aktywny. Procedura ma dwuskładniowy efekt: odbiorca wiadomości PING musi zaktualizować pojemnik odpowiadający nadawcy i jeżeli jest odpowiedź, nadawca musi zaktualizować właściwy pojemnik dla odbiorcy. Wszystkie pakiety procedur RPC wymagają tego, aby zawierały identyfikator węzła przypisany przez nadawce. Jest to pseudolosowa liczba o długości B (160-bitów). Musi również istnieć możliwość odpowiedzi zwrotnej na komunikat PING za pomocą procedury RPC, aby wymusić albo zezwolić inicjatorowi – nadawcy procedury RPC – dostarczenie dodatkowych informacji do jego odbiorcy. Może to być inny adres IP lub zestaw adresów IP albo preferowany protokół do dalszej komunikacji. Komunikat jest wykorzystywany podczas dodawania kontaktów do pojemnika oraz przy połączeniu startowym – Bootstrap. +STORE. +Nadawca komunikatu RPC STORE dostarcza klucz i blok danych (para ) oraz wymaga, aby odbiorca przechował dane i uczynił je dostępnymi dla późniejszych wyszukiwań wg klucza. Jest to podstawowa operacja udostępniania danych w sieci Kademlia, nieiteracyjna. +FIND_NODE. +Procedura FIND_NODE jako parametr przyjmuje 160-bitowy klucz – ID szukanego węzła. Odbiorca komunikatu zwraca do k kontaktów w postaci trójek , o których wie,że są one najbliższe kluczowi. Odbiorca musi zwrócić k trójek, jeśli jest to możliwe. Może zwrócić mniej niż k kontaktów, jeżeli tylko zwraca wszystkie kontakty, o których wie. Jest to podstawowa operacja wyszukiwania węzłów, a co za tym idzie zasobów w sieci Kademlia, nieiteracyjna. +FIND_VALUE. +Procedura FIND_VALUE jako parametr przyjmuje 160-bitowy klucz szukanej wartości. Jeżeli odpowiadająca kluczowi wartość jest obecna u odbiorcy, to skojarzone z nią dane są zwracane do inicjatora procedury. W przeciwnym razie procedura jest równoznaczna do FIND_NODE i zwracany jest zestaw k najbliższych kontaktów szukanemu kluczowi. Jest to podstawowa operacja wyszukiwania zasobów w sieci Kademlia, nieiteracyjna. +Oprogramowanie P2P wykorzystujące Kademlię. +Poszczególne sieci nie są ze sobą kompatybilne. +Małże + +Małże (Bivalvia, z gr. "bi" – dwa + łac. "valva" – skorupka), dawniej również blaszkoskrzelne (Lamellibranchiata) – takson w randze gromady obejmujący około 8000 gatunków mało aktywnych lub osiadłych, wyłącznie wodnych, bentosowych mięczaków (Mollusca) o bocznie spłaszczonym ciele okrytym dwuklapową muszlą. Ciało małża składa się z tułowia (zwanego workiem trzewiowym) i nogi. Jest pozbawione głowy, szczęki i tarki. Małże pełzają, żyją w dnie, ryją, pływają lub przytwierdzają się bisiorem do podłoża. Liczne gatunki, np. ostrygi, wenerydowate i omułki, są jadalne. Z niektórych pozyskuje się cenne perły oraz masę perłową. Małże są znane od kambru. W wodach śródlądowych Polski stwierdzono występowanie 34 gatunków – m.in.: szczeżuja pospolita ("Anodonta piscinalis"), kilka gatunków skójek ("Unio") i racicznica zmienna ("Dreissena polymorpha") – a w Morzu Bałtyckim 9 gatunków. +Występowanie. +Małże żyją we wszystkich strefach geograficznych, wyłącznie w środowisku wodnym. Większość gatunków zasiedla przybrzeżne płycizny w wodach morskich. Tam często stanowią główny element fauny dennej. Mniej licznie występują w głębinach morskich i w wodach słodkich lub słonawych. +Gatunki występujące w wodach śródlądowych Polski wymieniono w odrębnym artykule. +Budowa. +Ciało małży jest dwubocznie symetryczne, zwykle wydłużone, bocznie spłaszczone i zamknięte między dwiema, zwykle symetrycznymi, połówkami muszli połączonymi na grzbiecie, wytwarzanymi przez dwa boczne płaty płaszcza otaczające worek trzewiowy. +Obie połówki muszli (prawa i lewa) połączone są w okolicach tzw. szczytu muszli konchiolinowym więzadłem (ligamentum) i u niektórych gatunków układem wapiennych listew oraz różnie wykształconych ząbków, zwanym zamkiem muszli. Listwy zamka zapobiegają przesuwaniu się skorup w trakcie ruchu małża. Więzadło, nazywane też wiązadełkiem – w postaci krótkiej poprzecznej, elastycznej taśmy przechodzącej bezpośrednio w zewnętrzną rogową warstwę obu skorup – rozchyla połówki muszli, zaś zamyka je jeden lub dwa mięśnie zwieracze przyrośnięte do wewnętrznej powierzchni obu połówek muszli. Wielkość muszli oraz masa ciała małży są bardzo zróżnicowane, odpowiednio, od kilku milimetrów i ułamka grama u słodkowodnych "Pisidium" do 1,5 metra i 250 kg u przydaczni olbrzymiej ("Tridacna gigas"). +Warstwa perłowa jest zbudowana z drobnych blaszek wapiennych. Po dostaniu się do wnętrza muszli jakiejś drobiny (np. ziarenka piasku), substancja perłowa odkłada się wokół niej i powstaje perła. +U małży nie występuje głowa (stąd dawna nazwa Acephala), zanikła też charakterystyczna dla mięczaków tarka w gardzieli. Noga jest w różnym stopniu rozwinięta, w zależności od trybu życia i środowiska. U gatunków najbardziej pierwotnych pod względem budowy noga zakończona jest płaską podeszwą. Większość małży ma nogę klinowatą, bardzo kurczliwą i silnie umięśnioną, a nieliczne gatunki osiadłe są jej pozbawione. Na nodze większości gatunków osiadłych położony jest gruczoł bisiorowy, produkujący krzepnące nici zwane bisiorem, służące do przymocowania małża do podłoża. Wewnątrz jamy płaszczowej znajdują się silnie orzęsione, parzyste skrzela, zwane ktenidiami. Woda wpływa do jamy płaszcza przez otwór zwany syfonem wlotowym (wpustowym), omywa skrzela i wypływa syfonem odpływowym (wyrzutowym, wypustowym). U gatunków zagrzebujących się pod powierzchnią dna syfony przyjmują postać długich, mięsistych rurek, wystawionych na powierzchnię dna. Woda dostarcza do organizmu małża tlen i drobne zawiesiny organiczne (detrytus, glony, pierwotniaki i bakterie) stanowiące pokarm małża. +Otwór gębowy zaopatrzony jest w 2 pary orzęsionych płatów przygębowych wspomagających przesuwanie pokarmu. Przełyk prowadzi do żołądka, z którego wybiega długie jelito zakończone otworem odbytowym. Układ wydalniczy tworzy narząd Bojanusa i narząd Kebera. Otwarty układ krwionośny zbudowany jest z jednokomorowego serca, pary błoniastych przedsionków oraz szeregu naczyń i zatok krwionośnych. Na słabo rozwinięty układ nerwowy składają się pary zwojów głowowych, nożnych i trzewiowych. +Tryb życia i rozwój. +Większość małży jest osiadła – niektóre całkowicie, przyczepione do podłoża bisiorem lub przyrastające do niego muszlą, a niektóre zachowują zdolność powolnego ruchu – żyją w piasku i mule poruszając się za pomocą nogi. Inne ryją lub wiercą w podłożu (w drewnie lub w skale), a nieliczne pływają poruszając się odrzutowo dzięki prądowi wody wyrzucanej gwałtownym zwieraniem połówek muszli. Nieliczne są komensalami lub pasożytami zewnętrznymi jeżowców i osłonic. Część żyje w symbiozie z bakteriami i wiciowcami. +Są rozdzielnopłciowe lub obojnacze. Zapłodnienie najczęściej zewnętrzne, w wodzie wypełniającej jamę płaszczową lub na zewnątrz organizmu. W rozwoju występują larwy typu trochofora, weliger i – u niektórych – glochidium, pasożytujące na rybach. Znane są gatunki opiekujące się potomstwem. +Długość życia małży jest zależna od gatunku i wynosi od kilku tygodni do wielu lat, np. przydacznie żyją do 100, a perłoródka rzeczna do 120 lat. +Znaczenie. +Małże mają duże znaczenie w ekosystemach wodnych i jednocześnie należą do bezkręgowców o największym znaczeniu gospodarczym. Większość z nich to filtratorzy dużych ilości wody przydennej, oczyszczający zbiorniki wodne z nadmiaru substancji organicznych. Stanowią też pokarm dla wielu innych organizmów, m.in. dla brzuchonogów, wielu skorupiaków, niektórych rozgwiazd, ryb, ptaków i ssaków (wydra morska, mors i fokowate), a także dla człowieka – w wielu krajach są ważnym składnikiem diety. Gatunki jadalne są poławiane, a także hodowane i spożywane przez ludzi na całym świecie. Zawierają wartościowe białko, sole mineralne, węglowodany i znikomą ilość tłuszczu. Duże znaczenie w rybołówstwie mają ostrygowate, omułkowate i wenerydowate. +Ze względu na możliwość kumulowania u małży pochodzących z zanieczyszczonych środowisk substancji lub organizmów szkodliwych dla człowieka, a także z powodu szybko psującego się mięsa, zdarzają się przypadki zatruć pokarmowych. +Z niektórych gatunków małży pozyskiwane są cenne perły wykorzystywane w przemyśle jubilersko-galanteryjnym. Muszle, a zwłaszcza masa perłowa są wykorzystywane do wyrobu przedmiotów ozdobnych, w sztuce i kolekcjonerstwie. +Wrażliwość małży na zanieczyszczenie środowiska pozwala wykorzystywać je jako bioindykatory. +Wśród małży są też gatunki przynoszące szkody gospodarce poprzez niszczenie urządzeń portowych, statków i budowli hydrotechnicznych, np. świdrak okrętowiec, drążący w drewnie kanały o długości do 30 cm i niszczący w ten sposób urządzenia portowe i drewniane kadłuby łodzi, lub racicznica zmienna powodująca uszkodzenia urządzeń hydrotechnicznych. +Systematyka. +Klasyfikacja biologiczna tej grupy mięczaków była przedmiotem wieloletnich sporów i nadal pozostaje nieustalona. Próbowano je klasyfikować na podstawie różnorodnych kryteriów, m.in. budowy zawiasów muszli, syfonów, wykształcenia mięśni zwieraczy lub budowy skrzeli. Paleontolodzy opierają się na elementach zachowanych w budowie muszli. +Olszyna + +Olszyna (niem. "Langenöls") - miasto w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie lubańskim, siedziba gminy Olszyna. Prawa miejskie w 2005 r. Ośrodek przemysłu meblarskiego i drzewnego, fabryka materiałów izolacyjnych. W mieście znajdują się dwie szkoły podstawowe i jedno gimnazjum. +Historycznie leży Dolnym Śląsku przy granicy z Łużycami Górnymi. +Według danych z 31 marca 2011 r. miasto miało 4 527 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Przez miasto przebiega droga krajowa nr 30 oraz szlak kolejowy łączący Jelenią Górę z Węglińcem i Zgorzelcem. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2011 r. powierzchnia miasta wynosiła 20,26 km². +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki pochodzą z 1254 roku. W 1314 roku w Kronikach Gryfowa Śląskiego pojawia się po raz pierwszy kościół katolicki. Wieś była pustoszona podczas wojen husyckich w XV w., mieszkańcy cierpieli wówczas również na skutek epidemii. W połowie XIX w. Robert Ruscheweyh założył pierwszy warsztat meblarski. Rozpoczęto wydobywanie pokładów węgla brunatnego, które trwało do wyczerpania pokładów. +Zabytki. +- dom, ul. Chopina 15, murowano-szachulcowy, z 1792 r., pocz. XX w. +- dom, ul. Żymierskiego 7, drewniany, k. XVIII +Sport. +W mieście działa klub piłkarski o nazwie OKS "OLSZA" OLSZYNA obecnie występujący w Jeleniogórskiej Klasie Okręgowej Klub powstał w 1946 r. (Barwy klubu Biały-Niebieski-Zielony). Drużyna popularnie nazywana jest Olszą. Klub posiada trzy zespoły młodzieżowe i jeden seniorów. +Zatoka Admiralicji + +Zatoka Admiralicji (ang. "Admiralty Bay", hiszp. "Bahía Almirantazgo" (nazwa stosowana przez Chilijczyków, "Bahía Lasserre" (nazwa stosowana przez Argentyńczyków) – największa zatoka w archipelagu Szetlandów Południowych. Zatoka wcina się w Wyspę Króla Jerzego na ok. 17 km, ma 8 km szerokości przy ujściu do Cieśniny Bransfielda oraz 122 km² powierzchni. +Zatoka posiada 3 fiordy: Ezcurra Inlet, Zatoka Mackellara i Zatoka Martela oraz liczne pomniejsze zatoki, m.in. Zatoka Arctowskiego, Zatoka Półksiężyca, Zatoka Suszczewskiego, Zatoka Staszka, Rajska Zatoka, Zatoka Włodka, Zatoka Geofizyków, Zatoka Spery. Na zatoce znajduje się kilka wysp, z których największe to Wyspa Dufayela i Wyspa Chabriera. Średnia głębokość zatoki wynosi 201,7 m, a maksymalna ok. 530 m. +Na wybrzeżach zatoki rozlokowano stacje polarne całoroczne polską Arctowskiego i brazylijską Comandante Ferraz oraz sezonową (letnią) peruwiańską Machu Picchu. +Południowo-zachodnie wybrzeże zatoki chronione jest jako Szczególnie Chroniony Obszar Antarktyki (ASPA) nr 128 "Zachodni brzeg Zatoki Admiralicji". +Zatoka została nazwana Admiralty Bay w czasie wyprawy z lat 1820-22 przez brytyjskiego kapitana George'a Powella na cześć brytyjskiej Komisji Admiralicji (Board of Admiralty). Nazwa chilijska Bahía Almirantazgo nadana została w 1947. +Izogamia + +Izogamia – typ rozmnażania płciowego, gdzie dwie gamety są identyczne pod względem kształtu i ruchliwości ale różniące się biochemią, fizjologią i genetycznie. Gamety oznacza się tu jako "+" i '-". Prawdopodobnie jest to najbardziej pierwotna forma zapłodnienia. Występuje u pierwotniaków (ameby), jednokomórkowych glonów, grzybów, zielenic. +Java DataBase Connectivity + +JDBC (ang. "Java DataBase Connectivity" - łącze do baz danych w języku Java) - interfejs programowania opracowany w 1996 r. przez Sun Microsystems, umożliwiający niezależnym od platformy aplikacjom napisanym w języku Java porozumiewać się z bazami danych za pomocą języka SQL. Interfejs ten jest odpowiednikiem standardu ODBC opracowanego przez SQL Access Group. +Środowisko Java Platform, Standard Edition zawiera API JDBC, natomiast użytkownik musi uzyskać specjalny sterownik JDBC do swojej bazy danych. Możliwe jest łączenie się z ODBC przez specjalne sterowniki, tłumaczące odwołania JDBC na komendy ODBC. +Kazik na Żywo + +Kazik na Żywo (znana również jako KnŻ, knż bądź kaenżet) – polska grupa wykonująca muzykę z pogranicza rapcore i rocka. +Historia. +Zespół (początkowo pod nazwą "Kazik") powstał w 1991 roku w składzie: wokalista Kazik Staszewski, gitarzysta Adam "Burza" Burzyński, basista Michał "Kwiatek" Kwiatkowski oraz perkusista Kuba Jabłoński. Formacja grała początkowo wyłącznie utwory z solowych projektów Kazika, później uległo to zmianie. Najważniejszym koncertem na początku istnienia kapeli był występ podczas festiwalu w Sopocie w 1992 roku. W 1994 roku zespół Kazik wydał swoją pierwszą płytę "Na żywo, ale w studio". +Tuż po nagraniu płyty modyfikacji uległ skład - perkusistę Kubę Jabłońskiego zastąpił Tomasz Goehs, a niedługo po tym w szeregi wstąpił gitarzysta Robert "Litza" Friedrich. W 1995 roku ukazała się druga płyta "Porozumienie ponad podziałami". W 1998 roku zespół dołączył do projektu Muzyka Przeciwko Rasizmowi a jego kawałek znalazł się na pierwszej składance "Muzyka przeciwko rasizmowi", firmowanej przez Stowarzyszenie "Nigdy Więcej". +W 1999 roku grupa wydała trzeci album: "Las Maquinas de la Muerte". W połowie 2000 roku zespół opuścił Robert Friedrich (zastąpił go Olaf "'Off" Deriglasoff). W 2002 roku wyszła ostatnia płyta - wydawnictwo podsumowujące działalność koncertową zespołu pt.: "Występ". +W 2004 roku zespół przerwał działalność, a ostatni koncert grupa zagrała 23 maja 2004 w Warszawie w Parku Skaryszewskim. Rok później menedżer zespołu, Piotr Wieteska, założył zespół Buldog, do którego zaprosił Kazika Staszewskiego oraz eks-członków Kultu. Grupa na koncertach sygnowanych jako Kazik & Buldog grała, oprócz własnych piosenek, najbardziej znane utwory knż. +Dnia 29 maja 2008 zapadła decyzja o reaktywacji zespołu Kazik Na Żywo. Pierwszy koncert po reaktywacji knż odbył się 14 lutego 2009 w toruńskim Studenckim Klubie Pracy Twórczej "Od Nowa". Powrócono do składu z lat 1995-2000 (gitarzystą został ponownie Robert Friedrich). +13 września 2011 oficjalnie poinformowano, że w tym dniu grupa rozpoczęła nagrywanie nowej płyty, która będzie posiadać dwa tytuły: "Bar La Curva / Plamy na słońcu". Nagrywanie albumu odbywało się w studiu RecPublica w miejscowości Lubrza. Realizatorami byli Burzyński, Friedrich i Łukasz Olejarczyk. Album miał premierę 28 listopada i ukazał się ponownie nakładem wytwórni S.P. Records. Album został wyróżniony złota płytą (w ciągu tygodnia od premiery osiągnął sprzedaż co najmniej 15 000 egzemplarzy). +Eryk Lipiński + +Eryk Lipiński (ur. 12 lipca 1908 w Krakowie, zm. 27 września 1991) – polski karykaturzysta, satyryk, dziennikarz, grafik, autor plakatów i ilustracji książkowych, tekstów kabaretowych i felietonów, książek o karykaturze i satyrze, także scenograf. Założyciel tygodnika satyrycznego "Szpilki" i Muzeum Karykatury. +Biografia. +Ukończył malarstwo, grafikę użytkową i scenografię na warszawskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych. Jako karykaturzysta zadebiutował w tygodniku "Pobudka" w roku 1928. +Wraz ze Zbigniewem Mitznerem założył tygodnik satyryczny "Szpilki" w 1935 roku. Był jego redaktorem naczelnym w latach 1935-1937 i po wojnie od roku 1946 do 1953. Współpracował także z innymi polskimi wydawnictwami periodycznymi: "Przekrojem", "Przeglądem Kulturalnym", "Trybuną Ludu", "Panoramą", "Zwierciadłem" i "Expressem Wieczornym". +Dokonania i sukcesy w polskiej sztuce plakatu sprawiły, że stał się również inicjatorem, komisarzem i uczestnikiem I Międzynarodowego Biennale Plakatu w Warszawie w 1966. W 1978 założył Muzeum Karykatury w Warszawie. Był jego pierwszym dyrektorem, funkcję tę sprawował do śmierci w 1991. W 1987 założył Stowarzyszenie Polskich Artystów Karykatury (SPAK), którego był pierwszym prezesem. W 1980 był jednym z założycieli Społecznego Komitetu Opieki nad Cmentarzami i Zabytkami Kultury Żydowskiej w Polsce. W 1991 został uhonorowany tytułem Sprawiedliwy wśród Narodów Świata. +Życie prywatne. +Jego synem jest Tomek Lipiński – polski muzyk rockowy, lider i współzałożyciel zespołów Brygada Kryzys i Tilt. +Wskaźnik spoistości grupy + +SG=\frac{L}{C_{N}^{2}} +gdzie: +C_{N}^{2} = liczba możliwych wyborów wzajemnych + gdzie: d = dopuszczalna liczba wyborów +Operator Hamiltona + +Operator Hamiltona (hamiltonian, operator energii) – w mechanice kwantowej odpowiednik funkcji Hamiltona zwanej hamiltonianem. Jest to operator działający nad przestrzenią funkcji falowych stanów układu fizycznego (lub nad przestrzenią Hilberta wektorów stanu). Wartością własną operatora Hamiltona jest energia cząstki opisywanej daną funkcją własną, natomiast wartością średnią operatora Hamiltona jest energia cząstki w danym stanie kwantowym. +Równanie na wartości własne operatora Hamiltona nazywa się równaniem Schrödingera bez czasu. +Przejście od klasycznego hamiltonianu do kwantowego odpowiednika nazywa się pierwszym kwantowaniem. +Jeżeli założymy, że hamiltonian formula_5 nie zależy od czasu, to rozwiązaniem równania +są +gdzie +Przykład. +Wyrażenie w nawiasie kwadratowym jest operatorem Laplace'a w sferycznym układzie współrzędnych, natomiast potencjał jest potencjałem kulombowskim. +Psychoonkologia + +Podstawowe zadania psychoonkologii to: staranie o poprawę jakości życia pacjentów z chorobą nowotworową i ich rodzin, włączenie problemów psychoonkologicznych do programu nauczania studentów i personelu medycznego, działalność naukowo-badawcza. +W Polsce rozwojem tej dziedziny zajmuje się między innymi Polskie Towarzystwo Psychoonkologiczne oraz czasopismo naukowe "Psychoonkologia" wydawane od 1997 r. przez to towarzystwo. +Sobiesław II gdański + +Sobiesław II (zm. między 1217 a 1223), książę z dynastii Sobiesławiców. Syn Sambora I (zm. 1207) +Po śmierci ojca nie objął namiestnictwa gdańskiego, Władysław Laskonogi na to stanowisko ustanowił jego stryja Mściwoja I. Po ojcu otrzymał majątki ziemskie, które w większości nadał na rzecz klasztoru oliwskiego. Były to druga część Rumi i Starzyna, wsie Żarnowiec, Przybrody, Wadzino (dziś Mezowo), Dzierżążno, Ostrzyce, Pławno (dziś Chmielonko), Skowarcz. +Zmarł według nekrologu oliwskiego 28 grudnia 1217; biorąc pod uwagę ograniczone zaufanie do nekrologów klasztornych przyjmuje się datę pomiędzy 1217 a 1223. +Bohdan Arct + +Bohdan Arct, pseudonimy "Hoffer H.", "Prestone J." (ur. 27 maja 1914 w Warszawie, zm. 14 maja 1973 w Siedlcach), polski pilot myśliwski II wojny światowej, pisarz, autor książek wspomnieniowych i o tematyce batalistycznej. Syn pisarki Marii Buyno-Arctowej. +Życiorys. +Uzyskał maturę w gimnazjum im. Ziemi Mazowieckiej w 1933 r. W 1934 r. ukończył Szkołę Podchorążych Rezerwy Lotnictwa w Dęblinie. W 1935 r. podjął studia na warszawskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, na kierunku grafika użytkowa. Ponadto odbywał loty w 1 pułku lotniczym w Warszawie i w ciągu kolejnych lat korzystał z tej możliwości, latając na Potezach XV i XXVII. W 1936 r. awansowany został na podporucznika pilota. +Jako podporucznik we wrześniu 1939 został zmobilizowany do służby w lotnictwie. Dowodził Plutonem Łącznikowym nr 10 przydzielonym Armii "Łódź". 6 września został pilotem łącznikowym Naczelnego Wodza i w tej służbie został zestrzelony 10 września. Poprzez Rumunię przedostał się do Francji. Od marca 1940 r. przebywał w Algierze, zaś po kapitulacji Francji (22 czerwca 1940 r.) przedostał się do Casablanki, skąd drogą morską trafił do Wielkiej Brytanii. +Po przeszkoleniu na samolotach brytyjskich latał jako tzw. "ferry pilot", dostarczając samoloty do walczących jednostek, zaś w październiku 1941 r. został przydzielony do 306 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego "Toruńskiego". W dywizjonie tym służył do lutego 1943 r. Następnie wszedł w skład Polskiego Zespołu Myśliwskiego. W Afryce zestrzelił pierwszy samolot niemiecki (20 kwietnia – 1 Bf-109) oraz zaliczono mu 1 zestrzelenie prawdopodobne i dwa samoloty uszkodzone. +W lipcu 1943 r. powrócił do Dywizjonu 306 w Wielkiej Brytanii. 11 sierpnia został dowódcą eskadry B w Dywizjonie 303. 17 sierpnia uzyskał kolejne zestrzelenie – tym razem FW-190. +31 stycznia 1944 r. został przydzielony do Dowództwa Obrony Powietrznej Wielkiej Brytanii ("Air Defence of Great Britain"). +Obejmując dowództwo nad 316 Dywizjonem Myśliwskim (26 czerwca 1944 r.) został pierwszym oficerem rezerwy w polskim lotnictwie na takim stanowisku. Trzecie zestrzelenie uzyskał 14 sierpnia 1944 r. (Bf-109), lecz już 6 września po awarii silnika skakał nad terytorium Holandii i dostał się do niemieckiej niewoli, gdzie przebywał do końca wojny. +Po II wojnie światowej wrócił do Polski. Zamieszkał na Podlasiu, w majątku matki pod Kotuniem (blisko Siedlec), a w końcu w Siedlcach, poświęcając się pracy pisarskiej. Zmarł w Siedlcach, gdzie został pochowany na Cmentarzu Centralnym. +Osoba i twórczość Arcta budzą po latach zapomnienia na nowo zainteresowanie. W październiku 2006 w Siedlcach otwarto Gabinet Twórczości Bohdana Arcta (przy Instytucie Filologii Polskiej Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczo-Humanistycznego w Siedlcach. Jego imieniem nazwano także Szkołę Podstawową w Kotuniu, a także jedno z rond w Siedlcach +Zwycięskie walki powietrzne. +Ponadto zestrzelił dwa pociski V-1. Wykonał ogółem 131 lotów bojowych. +Linki zewnętrzne. +__NOTOC__ +Fasolki + +Fasolki – dziecięcy zespół wokalno-taneczny z Warszawy, który powstał dla potrzeb Telewizji Polskiej w 1983 r., a działa i nagrywa do dzisiaj. Ich twórczość cieszy się dużą popularnością. Występowali regularnie w programach dziecięcych, takich jak: "Fasola", "Tik-Tak", "Ciuchcia", "teleferiach" i "Jedyneczka", a obecnie w programie TVP1 w programie Budzik". +Do najbardziej znanych piosenek zespołu należą "Myj zęby", "Mydło lubi zabawę", "Domowa piosenka", "Czuję głód", "Zabiorę brata", "A ja rosnę", "Kropelka złotych marzeń", "Witaminki dla chłopczyka i dziewczynki" i inne. +W ich repertuarze znajdują się utwory pisane przez: Ewę Chotomską, Andrzeja M. Grabowskiego, Krzysztofa Marca, Jarosława Kukulskiego, Adama Skorupkę, Wandę Chotomską, Teresę Niewiarowską i innych. +Z "Fasolek" wywodzi się kilkoro aktorów i piosenkarzy młodego pokolenia, m.in. Joanna Jabłczyńska, Monika Mrozowska, Aneta Zając, Robert Gołaszewski, Sebastian Cybulski, Arkadiusz Niezgoda, Izabella Miko, Jacek Wolszczak, Hanna Górecka. +Zespół "Fasolki" działa nadal - funkcjonuje przy Młodzieżowym Domu Kultury przy ul. Łazienkowskiej w Warszawie. +Stefan Witorzeńć + +Stefan Witorzeńć (ur. 2 stycznia 1908 w Lidzie, zm. 30 grudnia 1994 w Warszawie) – pułkownik pilot Wojska Polskiego, pułkownik (ang. "Group Captain") Królewskich Sił Powietrznych, as myśliwski II wojny światowej +Życiorys. +W 1932 ukończył Szkołę Podchorążych Lotnictwa w Dęblinie (VI promocja, 33. lokata) i otrzymał awans na podporucznika. Służył w 3 Pułku Lotniczym w Poznaniu, a od 1935 jako instruktor w stopniu porucznika w Wyższej Szkole Pilotażu w Grudziądzu. +We wrześniu 1939 r. bronił rejonu Dęblina. Poprzez Rumunię i Francję przedostał się do Wielkiej Brytanii. Od 6 sierpnia 1940 służył w 501 Dywizjonie Myśliwskim RAF (razem ze Stanisławem Skalskim), w którym walczył w okresie Bitwy o Anglię uzyskując 4 i ½ zestrzelenia pewne oraz uszkadzając dwa samoloty . +17 listopada 1940 przeszedł do dywizjonu 306, w którym dowodził eskadrą A (od 22 listopada). +W marcu 1941 otrzymał stopień kapitana. 14 maja 1941 został skierowany do dywizjonu 302, którym dowodził od 27 maja do 24 listopada 1941. We wrześniu 1941 otrzymał stopień majora. +24 listopada 1941 objął funkcję dowódcy 2 Polskiego Skrzydła Myśliwskiego, którym dowodził do 25 września 1942. +1 czerwca uzyskał najwyższe brytyjskie odznaczenie lotnicze Distinguished Flying Cross. +Od 25 września 1942 do kwietnia 1944 był oficerem łącznikowym, a od 24 kwietnia 1944 – szefem wyszkolenia w 61 OTU. We wrześniu 1943 otrzymał stopień podpułkownika. +Od połowy sierpnia 1944 służył w dowództwie 2 Skrzydła Myśliwskiego wykonując równocześnie zadania bojowe. +7 stycznia 1945 został dowódcą 25 Polskiej Szkoły Pilotażu Podstawowego. +Wchodził w skład Kapituły Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari. +W 1948 powrócił do Polski, ale dopiero w 1957 wraz z innymi pilotami PSP umożliwiono mu służbę w lotnictwie. Służył w Dowództwie Wojsk Lotniczych, a potem był Komendantem Centrum Szkolenia Lotniczego w Modlinie. W 1968 przeszedł do rezerwy. +W 1991 został prezesem Stowarzyszenia Lotników Polskich. +Zmarł 30 grudnia 1994. Pośmiertnie został odznaczony Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. Pochowany został 5 stycznia 1995 na cmentarzu Powązkowskim w wydzielonej Kwaterze Żołnierzy Polskich Sił Zbrojnych na Zachodzie. +Zestrzelenia. +Na liście Bajana sklasyfikowany został na 22. pozycji z 5 i 1/2 samolotów Luftwaffe zestrzelonymi na pewno i dwoma uszkodzonymi. +Lewiatan (potwór) + +Lewiatan (hebr. לִוְיָתָן, "Livyatan", jid. "Lewjosn") – legendarny potwór morski, wspominany w kilku miejscach w Starym Testamencie. +Słowo "lewiatan" używane jest także na określenie dużego zwierzęcia morskiego. W literaturze nowożytnej (np. w "Moby Dicku" Hermana Melville'a), odnosi się często do wielorybów. We współczesnym języku hebrajskim oznacza po prostu wieloryba. +Pochodzenie nazwy. +Słowo Lewiatan pochodzi najprawdopodobniej od określenia "lwy" (arab. "lawiya"), oznaczającego "skręcać", "zwijać". +Odniesienia w Biblii. +Lewiatan pojawia się w Biblii w pięciu miejscach. W Księdze Hioba cały rozdział 41 poświęcony jest opisowi tego stworzenia. +Literatura apokryficzna. +Lewiatan pojawia się także w apokryficznej Księdze Henocha, gdzie opisywany jest jako istota rodzaju żeńskiego, w przeciwieństwie do Behemota: +Według 4 Księgi Ezdrasza 6,49-52 Lewiatan wraz z Behemotem staną się pokarmem dla wybranych. +Judaizm. +Święto żydowskie Sukkot kończy się opuszczeniem przez Żydów namiotów ("sukkah") i wypowiadaniem słów: "Niech to będzie Twoja wola Panie, nasz Boże i Boże naszych ojców, że jako że mieszkałem w tym namiocie, abym mógł w przyszłym roku zamieszkać w namiocie ze skóry Lewiatana. Następny rok w Jerozolimie". Żydowski modlitewnik "Artscroll" nawiązuje do tych słów, informując, że "Lewiatan był potworną rybą stworzoną piątego dnia". Dalej przeczytać można, iż "Miszna" ("Nezikin", Bava Bathra 74b) wspomina o tym, że mięso z zabitego Lewiatana zostanie podane prawym ludziom podczas Sądu Ostatecznego, a skóra potwora użyta do pokrycia namiotu, w którym odbędzie się uczta. +Podczas innego święta, "Szawuot", w aszkenazyjskich synagogach odśpiewywany jest natomiast aramejski poemat liturgiczny "Akdamut", zawierający m.in. opis walki Lewiatana z Behemotem, zakończonej zabiciem obu zwierząt przez Boga. Pojawia się tam również wzmianka o tym, że z "pięknej skóry Lewiatana" Bóg stworzy schronienie dla prawych, którzy będą jeść mięso Behemota i Lewiatana podczas radosnego przyjęcia dla nich wyprawionego. +Żydowskie legendy i literatura rabiniczna. +Słowo "Lewiatan" pojawia się w komentarzu Szlomo Jicchakiego (Rasziego) na temat ustępu w Księdze Rodzaju 1:21, mówiącego: "Tak stworzył Bóg wielkie potwory morskie i wszelkiego rodzaju pływające istoty żywe, którymi zaroiły się wody, oraz wszelkie ptactwo skrzydlate różnego rodzaju". W hebrajskim oryginale "wielkie potwory morskie" to "taninim". Raszi pisze: "Zgodnie z legendą, odnosi się to do Lewiatana i jego towarzyszy. Bóg stworzył samca i samicę Lewiatana, później zabił samicę i zostawił dla prawych, ponieważ gdyby Lewiatany rozmnożyły się, świat nie wytrzymałby tego". +W żydowskiej legendzie zapisanej w midraszu "Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer" z VIII/IX w., pojawiła się informacja, że ryba, która połknęła Jonasza, ledwo co uniknęła pożarcia przez Lewiatana, który zjadał jednego wieloryba dziennie. +W hymnie autorstwa Eleazara Kalira, Lewiatan jest wężem, który otacza Ziemię, trzymając ogon w pysku, podobnie jak grecki Uroboros lub nordycki Jormungand. +W literaturze kabalistycznej Lewiatan symbolizował Samaela (anioła śmierci, oskarżyciela, uwodziciela, ducha zniszczenia), który w przyszłości miał zginąć. +Poza legendą o podaniu mięsa Lewiatana (jak również Behemota i Ziza) prawym podczas Sądu Ostatecznego, wzmianki o tym stworzeniu interpretowane są jako symbolizującym morze (podczas gdy Behemot - ziemię, a Ziz - powietrze). +W sztuce. +W żydowskiej sztuce liturgicznej Lewiatan przedstawiany był pod postacią węża lub ryby. Częste były także wyobrażenia potwora jako pół ryby, pół węża. Stworzenie to było przedstawiane jako zwinięte w wieczny krąg, w który wpisywano czasem "Szor ha-bara" lub łódź. Wśród Żydów polskich wizerunek Lewiatana pojawiał się najczęściej w drewnianych "aronot ha-kodesz", w polichromiach synagogalnych, na macewach oraz na dnach miedzianych naczyń, służących do rytualnych obmywań. +Chrześcijaństwo. +W tradycji chrześcijańskiej występuje kilka interpretacji Lewiatana. +Lewiatan jako zwierzę. +W Księdze Hioba, zarówno Behemot, jak i Lewiatan wymieniane są wraz z całym szeregiem pospolitych zwierząt, takich jak kozy, orły i jastrzębie. Stąd część chrześcijańskich uczonych przypuszczała, że biblijne wzmianki o obu potworach odnosiły się do istniejących zwierząt. Wspominano o krokodylu nilowym (podobnie jak Lewiatan, jest on stworzeniem wodnym, wyposażonym w ostre zęby i ciało pokryte łuskami). Inni sugerowali, że być może opis potwora tyczy się wieloryba, choć można znaleźć tam wzmiankę, że "z paszczy tryska mu ogień" (Hi 41:13). +Niektórzy kreacjoniści twierdzą, że Lewiatan był dinozaurem, takim jak parazaurolof (który był jednak zwierzęciem roślinożernym i lądowym) lub wielkim morskim gadem - kronozaurem (zwierzę to nie miało jednak pancerza i wężowatego ciała). Inni kreacjoniści są zdania, że Lewiatanem był wielki krewny krokodyli, sarkozuch, który najlepiej pasuje do opisu zawartego w Biblii. +Metaforyczne interpretacje. +W literaturze chrześcijańskiej Lewiatan jest często wyobrażeniem Szatana, zagrażającym istotom stworzonym przez Boga i próbującym je pożreć. Podobnego zdania był św. Tomasz z Akwinu, który opisywał Lewiatana jako demona zazdrości. +Lewiatan bywa łączony z motywem "piekielnej paszczy" ("Hellmouth"), potwornej istoty, w pysku której skazani na potępienie znikną podczas Sądu Ostatecznego. Stwór taki pojawiał się w sztuce anglosaskiej od ok. 800 r., a później motyw ten rozprzestrzenił się na całą Europę. +Jeden z najsłynniejszych literackich opisów Lewiatana jako Szatana pojawia się w poemacie Williama Blake'a "Zaślubiny nieba i piekła": +Legenda sylwestrowa. +W średniowieczu znana była legenda o uwięzieniu w roku 317 Lewiatana w podziemiach Lateranu (ówczesnej siedziby papieży) przez papieża Sylwestra I. Pod koniec X wieku ludzie spodziewali się nadejścia nadzwyczajnych zdarzeń. Proroctwa Sybilli powiadały, że wraz z przełomem wieków potwór wydostanie się z więzienia i zniszczy ziemię oraz niebo. Przerażenie wzmagała zbieżność tych wizji z nowotestamentową Apokalipsą św. Jana. Znaku zapowiadającego katastrofę dopatrywano się również w osobie ówczesnego papieża, który uprawiał jakoby praktyki czarnoksięskie (w istocie wykształcony był w matematyce, mechanice i astronomii, budował zegary i instrumenty astronomiczne), a przy tym przybrał imię Sylwestra II. Budziło to podejrzenia, że jeden Sylwester uwięził smoka, a drugi go wypuści. Według legendy, gdy nastał nowy rok 1000, a spodziewana katastrofa nie nadeszła, lud ogarnęła euforia. Cieszono się i bawiono do następnego dnia. Zdarzenie to miało dać początek corocznym sylwestrowym zabawom. +Analogie w literaturze bliskowschodniej. +Żydowskie podania o Lewiatanie przypominają kanaanickie legendy o konfrontacji pomiędzy bogiem Baalem i siedmiogłowym potworem Lotanem, którego pokonuje. Tymczasem w babilońskim eposie "Enuma elisz", pojawia się historia walki boga Marduka z potworem morskim, jego babką i boginią chaosu oraz stworzenia Tiamat. Została ona pokonana, a z jej ciała powstaje ziemia i niebo. Te mity starożytnych ludów śródziemnomorskich miały wpływ na powstanie legend żydowskich o Lewiatanie. +Lewiatan w literaturze. +"Lewiatan" to tytuł traktatu filozoficznego napisanego przez Thomasa Hobbesa i opublikowanego w 1651 roku. Dzieło to dotyczy struktury społeczeństwa i usankcjonowanego rządu i jest uznawana za jeden z najwcześniejszych i najbardziej wpływowych przykładów teorii umowy społecznej. +Wzmianka o Lewiatanie znajduje się także w "Panu Tadeuszu" Adama Mickiewicza, gdzie przywoływany jest on w opisie nieba i Gwiazdozbioru Smoka: +O Lewiatanie wspomina także Herman Melville w powieści "Moby Dick" z 1851 roku. Określenie to odnosi się tam do kaszalota. +"Lewiatan" to także tytuł powieści detektywistycznej autorstwa Borisa Akunina z 1998 r., będącej trzecią częścią cyklu o Eraście Fandorinie. +"(...)Sztuczka diabła! zrobili ze mnie wieloryba Lewiatana w złocistym płaszczu, z brodą siwą". +Lewiatan w satanizmie. +Według twórcy Kościoła Szatana, Antona Szandora LaVeya, Lewiatan symbolizuje żywioł wody (łączący się z życiem i stworzeniem) oraz kierunek zachodni. W biblii satanistycznej jest on wymieniany jako jeden z Czterech Koronnych Książąt Piekieł (co zostało zainspirowane przez treść XV-wiecznej "Księgę Świętej Magii Abramelina Maga"). +Kościół Szatana używa także pentagramu Bafometa, na którego rogach widnieją litery hebrajskie. Zaczynając od najniższego z nich i posuwając się przeciwnie z ruchem wskazówek zegara (w hebrajskim czyta się wspak), litery układają się w słowo "לִוְיָתָן" (LVIThN), czyli "Lewiatan". +Kladogram + +Kladogram – diagram w kształcie dendrogramu, przypominający drzewo filogenetyczne, ale nieuwzględniający czasu pojawiania się nowych linii ewolucyjnych. Jest produktem analizy kladystycznej. Z punktu widzenia kladystyki czas ukształtowania się poszczególnych cech nie jest istotny, a każdy z porównywanych współczesnych organizmów ma taki sam "czas ewolucji za sobą". Różnią się one jedynie odległościami momentów wyróżnienia z wcześniejszych linii ewolucyjnych. +Jeśli wyobrazimy sobie kladogram jako drzewo, którego pień stanowią cechy właściwe dla wszystkich opisywanych organizmów, konary cechy większych taksonów, a gałązki cechy poszczególnych gatunków, to śledząc drogę od szczytu (gatunki współczesne) można by było zebrać kompletne dane na temat wszystkich cech danego gatunku. +W znakomitej większości wypadków jest to jednak sytuacja wyidealizowana. W rzeczywistości duża część cech rozmieszczona jest losowo, bez korelacji z innymi, wiele cech zanika, aby pojawić się ponownie, niekoniecznie u podstawy konaru. Przyczyną może być konwergencja, nierównomierność tempa zmian, czy wreszcie fakt, że niektóre zmiany mają po prostu charakter losowy. +Stworzenie wiarygodnego drzewa rodowego wymaga zazwyczaj przyjęcia, że niektóre cechy – czy raczej ich trwałość – nie mają charakteru losowego, ale przyczynowy, a im dawniej się pojawiły, tym są trwalsze. Przykładem choćby struna grzbietowa strunowców, na podstawie której można się było pokusić o stworzenie stosunkowo wiarygodnego drzewa rodowego współczesnych kręgowców. +Hipolit Orgelbrand + +Hipolit Orgelbrand (ur. 29 stycznia 1843 w Warszawie - zm. 13 września 1920 w Warszawie), syn Samuela i starszy brat Mieczysława, wydawca, księgarz, drukarz. Nieznane są szkoły, do których uczęszczał, wiadomo natomiast, że na początku 1865 miał tytuł magistra prawa i administracji. Od śmierci ojca w 1868 kierował wraz z matką jego zakładem drukarnią, odlewnią czcionek i księgarnią nakładową. W 1871 zaznajamiał się za granicą z najnowszymi osiągnięciami technicznymi w dziedzinie poligrafii, a od 1 stycznia 1872 objął wraz z bratem Mieczysławem poojcowską firmę jako współwłaściciel, przy czym zajmował się głównie sprawami związanymi z drukiem, pozostawiwszy Mieczysławowi rozwój technologii i sprawy odlewni czcionek. W 1896 wspólnie z bratem przekształcili firmę w "Towarzystwo Akcyjne", której był jednym z głównych akcjonariuszy posiadając w 1902 114 (Mieczysław miał 122) spośród 871 akcji. Po śmierci brata w 1903 nadal prowadził ""Towarzystwo Akcyjne Odlewni Czcionek, Drukarni i Litografii"", wciąż pod niezmienioną firmą ""... S. Orgelbranda Synów"", które pozostawało największym przedsiębiorstwem tej branży w Warszawie. +Rozwój firmy załamał się w 1907 w wyniku cofnięcia zamówień druku dla rosyjskich kolei żelaznych - druków, formularzy, rozkładów jazdy itp. oraz równoczesnego ograniczenia w Rosji rynków zbytu na czcionki i przybory drukarskie. Bankructwo O. Bunimowicza w Wilnie, jednego z pośredników ratalnej sprzedaży wydawnictw "Towarzystwa" spowodowało dalsze straty i w rezultacie zadłużenie w warszawskim Banku Handlowym, który przejął większość akcji i wyznaczył Zygmunta Rundo dyrektorem zarządzającym firmy, Hipolitowi pozostawiając jedynie stanowisko dyrektora tytularnego. W tym czasie ograniczono działalność pozawydawniczą "Towarzystwa", skupiając się przede wszystkim na publikowaniu wartościowych prac naukowych. +Zabiegi te nie uratowały jednak "Towarzystwa" przed bankructwem. W 1919 cały jego majątek zlicytowano. Po likwidacji księgarni, posesję, zakłady graficzne i magazyny wydawnictw zakupili bracia Koziańscy z Krakowa, którzy prowadzili przedsiębiorstwo pod nazwą ""Zakłady Graficzne Eugeniusza i Dr Kazimierza Koziańskich, dawniej S. Orgelbranda Synów"". +Hipolit Orgelbrand był żonaty z Anną z Weinsteinów (1853 - 26 października 1924), z którą miał córki: Bronisławę (1871-1872), Teresę (ur. 15 października 1876, później żonę adwokata J. Peretza), Amelię Anielę (ur. 1 października 1878, zm. 8 kwietnia 1955, żonę Jana Jakuba Litauera), oraz synów: Stanisława Andrzeja (6 stycznia 1879 - 14 stycznia 1922, podpułkownika Wojska Polskiego, doktora nauk medycznych, dyrektora zakładu hydroterapii w Kaliszu, oraz Bolesława (1884-1957), rektora Szkoły Inżynierskiej w Poznaniu i profesora Politechniki Poznańskiej). Hipolit pochowany został na Cmentarzu Powązkowskim w Warszawie. +Mikropory + +Mikropory – według IUPAC pory w ciele stałym o charakterystycznym wymiarze poprzecznym (średnica) w zakresie poniżej 2 nm. Ze względu na mały rozmiar rzędu nie więcej niż kilku średnic cząsteczkowych, adsorpcja w mikroporach jest zawsze bardzo silna, o ile cząsteczka nie jest zbyt duża aby wejść do poru (efekt sitowy). Pory większe niż mikropory to mezopory oraz makropory. +Mikropory bada się metodami adsorpcyjnymi oraz rentgenowskimi. +Adsorpcję w mikroporach opisuje teoria objętościowego zapełniania mikroporów (TOZM), a podstawowym równaniem izotermy jest izoterma Dubinina-Raduszkiewicza. +Silne właściwości adsorpcyjne mikroporów wykorzystywane są praktycznie w powszechnie używanych i tanich adsorbentach – węglach aktywnych, czy zeolitach. Efekt sitowy wykorzystywany jest np. do osuszania rozpuszczalników organicznych. +Gmina Miłkowice + +Gmina Miłkowice (do 1954 "gmina Grzymalin") - gmina wiejska w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie legnickim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie legnickim. +Siedziba gminy to Miłkowice. Przez gminę przebiega droga z Legnicy do Lubina i z Legnicy do Chojnowa. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2011 gminę zamieszkiwało 6 322 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 11,6% powierzchni powiatu. +Demografia. +Według danych z roku 2002 średni dochód na mieszkańca wynosił 1134,8 zł. +Sołectwa. +Bobrów, Głuchowice, Gniewomirowice, Goślinów, Grzymalin, Jakuszów, Jezierzany, Kochlice, Miłkowice, Pątnówek, Rzeszotary-Dobrzejów, Siedliska, Studnica, Ulesie-Lipce, +Sąsiednie gminy. +Chojnów, Krotoszyce, Kunice, Legnica, Lubin, Złotoryja +AMD K6-2 + +AMD K6-2 był procesorem bazowanym na architekturze x86 produkowanym przez firmę AMD, taktowany zegarem od 233 do 550 MHz. Miał 64 KiB cache (32 KiB przeznaczone na dane i 32 KiB na instrukcje), zasilany był napięciem 2,2 V, produkowany w procesie 0.25 mikrometra, zbudowany był z 9,3 miliona tranzystorów i mógł być używany we wszystkich płytach głównych Socket 7 i Super Socket 7. Jego następcą był AMD K6-III. +K6-2 zaprojektowany został jako alternatywa dla nieco starszego i znacznie droższego Pentium II firmy Intel. Wydajność obu tych układów była podobna: K6 był nieco szybszy w codziennych operacjach komputerowych, Pentium II miał znaczą przewagę w operacjach zmiennoprzecinkowych. K6-2 był jednym z największych sukcesów AMD, jego popularność i dochody jakie przyniósł pozwoliła tej firmie zaprojektować i wypuścić na rynek swój następny procesor Athlon. +K6-2 był pierwszym procesorem w którym wbudowano obsługę operacji zmiennoprzecinkowych SIMD (nazwanych 3DNow!) które znacznie ułatwiały i przyspieszały wykonywanie aplikacji związanych z grafiką trójwymiarową. 3DNow! wyprzedziło pojawienie się na rynku intelowskiego odpowiednika SSE o kilka miesięcy. +Prawie wszystkie K6-2 były zaprojektowane do użycia w płytach głównych Super 7 z główna magistrala taktowaną zegarem 100 MHz. W początkowej fazie najpopularniejszą odmiana K6-2 był K6-2 300, bardzo szybko ustaliła się pozycja rynkowa tego chipu i był on główną alternatywą dla Celerona 300A. Celeron oferował mniejsze, ale za to szybsze cache i znakomitą jednostkę zmiennoprzecinkową, ale K6-2 miał znacznie szybszy dostęp do pamięci RAM i instrukcje graficzne 3DNow!. W tym czasie nowe wersje Pentium II były znacznie szybsze niż obydwa z wyżej wymienionych procesorów, ale były też znacznie droższe. +W miarę postępu czasu, AMD produkował coraz szybsze odmiany K6-2, najbardziej popularne z nich to 350, 400, 450 i 500. W momencie kiedy na rynku pojawiły się odmiany 450 i 500, dostępne już były inne, szybsze procesory ale K6-2 nadal konkurował z Celeronem w kategorii tańszych CPU. Stu megahercowa płyta główna pozwalała na stosunkowo łatwe adaptowanie coraz większych przeliczników taktowania i nawet pod koniec swojej kariery K6-2 był zaskakująco konkurencyjny w stosunku do innych typów procesorów. +Istniała także mało znana odmiana tego chipu K6-2+ z dodatkowym L2 cache o pojemności – 128 kiB, budowany w procesie 0.18 mikrometra (praktycznie, była to mniejsza wersja AMD K6-III+). Ta odmiana była zaprojektowana specjalnie do użycia w komputerach przenośnych i wypuszczona na rynek w momencie kiedy dużą popularność zaczął zdobywać Athlon. Sprzedano go w niewielkich ilościach i choć AMD otwarcie nie reklamował tego, ta odmiana była też dostępna jako normalny procesor do komputerów stacjonarnych. +Workflow + +Workflow (ang. "work" "flow" – przepływ pracy) – w sensie szerszym, pojęcie określające sposób przepływu informacji pomiędzy rozmaitymi obiektami biorącymi udział w jej przetwarzaniu. W węższym sensie jest to określenie sposobu przepływu dokumentów pomiędzy pracownikami wykonującymi pewien zalgorytmizowany zespół czynności. +Według koalicji WFMC (ang. "WorkFlow Management Coalition") "workflow" to: +"automatyzacja procesów biznesowych, w całości lub w części, podczas której dokumenty, informacje lub zadania są przekazywane od jednego uczestnika do następnego, według odpowiednich procedur zarządczych". +Pojęcie "workflow" jest używane w odniesieniu do oprogramowania, zwłaszcza służącego wspomagania pracy grupowej. Oprogramowanie takie pozwala na określenie jakie role w przetwarzaniu dokumentów pełnią osoby uczestniczące w wykonywaniu danej czynności oraz jakie są stany pośrednie dokumentów. Jako przykład można podać realizację obiegu delegacji w firmie. Osoby zlecające wykonanie pracy związanej z podróżą służbową generują dane wejściowe (miejsce do którego ma dojechać określony pracownik), powstaje dokument zgłoszenia delegacji. Dane są następnie odbierane przez osobę realizującą zadanie (proponowany jest np. termin wyjazdu, rodzaj środka transportu itp.), ze zgłoszenia powstaje dokument delegacji. Informacje te trafiają z powrotem do decydentów, którzy akceptują informacje o realizacji zlecenia (np. zezwalają na przelot samolotem z Warszawy do Poznania), dokument delegacji zostaje zatwierdzony do wykonania. Pracownicy realizują zlecenie, potwierdzają odbycie delegacji u klienta, dokument delegacji staje się zrealizowany, po czym następuje akceptacja zwrotów kosztów podroży. Jak widać każdy z etapów przetwarzania takiej informacji charakteryzuje się określonym zbiorem osób wykonujących określone operacje na dokumentach oraz określonym zestawem możliwych stanów dokumentu. Są to charakterystyczne cechy procesu "workflow". +Procesy "workflow" przedstawia się zwykle w postaci grafu. +Istnieje szereg narzędzi komputerowego wspomagania tworzenia procesów "workflow", włącznie z narzędziami pozwalającymi w sposób graficzny projektować i programować gotowe systemy przepływu informacji. +Biegun południowy + +Biegun południowy – najbardziej wysunięty na południe punkt na Ziemi. Określany na kilka różnych sposobów. +Południowy biegun geograficzny – południowy biegun geograficzny to miejsce, gdzie oś obrotu Ziemi przecina jej powierzchnię. Pierwszym człowiekiem, który do niego dotarł był 14 grudnia 1911 roku Roald Amundsen. Jako drugi dokonał tego 18 stycznia 1912 roku Robert Falcon Scott. +Południowy biegun magnetyczny – punkt najbliższy południowego bieguna geograficznego, w którym linie pola magnetycznego biegną prostopadle do powierzchni Ziemi. Obecnie znajduje się w Antarktyce. Po raz pierwszy dotarł do niego 15 stycznia 1909 r. Edgeworth David z dwoma towarzyszami (Douglas Mawson i Leo Cotton). +Południowy biegun geomagnetyczny – najbliższy południu właściwemu biegun pola geomagnetycznego. +Południowy biegun niedostępności – zlokalizowany współrzędnymi: 85°50'S, 65°47'E punkt Antarktydy, który jest najbardziej odległy od Oceanu Południowego. +Południowy biegun zimna – znajduje się koło rosyjskiej stacji antarktycznej Wostok. Zanotowano na nim temperaturę –89,6 °C. +Zimnowoda (województwo śląskie) + +Zimnowoda – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie śląskim, w powiecie kłobuckim, w gminie Lipie, leżąca na południe od Parzymiech. W jej skład wchodzą także Karcze i Podlas. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa częstochowskiego. +W miejscowości znajduje się przedszkole, OSP, warsztaty usługowe, kilka sklepów. Wieś ma połączenia PKS z Częstochową. Mieszkańcy zajmują się głównie indywidualną gospodarką rolną i przemysłem lekkim. +Historia. +Wieś powstała w I połowie XIX wieku. Na północ od dzisiejszej wsi funkcjonowały dwa folwarki: Zimna Woda Stara (do XX wieku) i Zimna Woda Nowa. W 1933 r. wieś liczyła 771 mieszkańców. +1 września 1939 hitlerowscy najeźdźcy prawie zupełnie spalili wieś. Oddziały Wehrmachtu w bestialski sposób (strzałami z karabinów, uderzeniami kolb i dobijając bagnetami) spaliły lub zamordowały 39 osób, w tym 18 mężczyzn, 11 kobiet i 10 dzieci. Wehrmacht zniszczył i spalił także 128 zabudowań gospodarczych, bez żadnej konieczności wojennej. Wielu pozostałych przy życiu mieszkańców wsi wywiezionych zostało na przymusowe roboty do Niemiec. +Nazwiska ofiar: +Po wojnie, w 1952, powołano jednostkę OSP. Przez długi okres funkcjonowała w Zimnowodzie szkoła podstawowa (wszystkie klasy), pod koniec lat 90. zlikwidowano ją, pozostawiając tylko przedszkole i świetlicę środowiskową. +Przyroda. +W pobliżu wsi znajdują się lasy. Niedaleko na zachód, w lesie, jest dość pokaźne rozlewisko ze źródłami strumienia. W tym samym rejonie wznosi się najwyższy pagórek w okolicy (272,8 m n.p.m.). +Zabytki. +Wieś niemal doszczętnie zniszczona na początku II wojny światowej – zachowane pojedyncze domy z czasów wcześniejszych. Do rangi zabytku być może z czasem urośnie budynek szkoły (przedszkola). Wśród obiektów zaliczonych w szereg zabytków województwa częstochowskiego wymienia się zagrodę nr 97 (dom i stodoła z początku XX wieku). +Robert Falcon Scott + +Robert Falcon Scott (ur. 6 czerwca 1868, zm. prawd. 29 marca 1912) – oficer Royal Navy oraz badacz Antarktydy. +Robert Scott, oficer brytyjskiej marynarki wojennej zdobył rozgłos jako badacz Antarktydy. W 1900 roku został dowódcą angielskiej wyprawy antarktycznej, a w 1901 roku, na pokładzie statku "Discovery", wyruszył na południe ze szkockiego miasta Dundee. Jego wyprawa powróciła po dwóch latach dotarłszy na południe dalej niż ktokolwiek inny w tym czasie. W 1910 roku kpt. Scott udał się na wyprawę na Antarktydę, tym razem z zamiarem osiągnięcia jako pierwszy z ludzi bieguna południowego. Dotarł tam jednak dopiero drugi po Amundsenie. W drodze powrotnej zmarł z zimna i głodu. Na bohaterską choć feralną ekspedycję zabrał sanie, kucyki, psy i piłkę, mecz rozegrano na zamarzniętym morzu. +Wyprawa Scotta była źle przygotowana. Nie mając zaufania do psów pociągowych, wyposażył wyprawę w islandzkie kucyki białej maści (wierzył, że biel sierści jest rękojmią sukcesu), oraz nie sprawdzone w warunkach polarnych sanie motorowe. W dodatku przed początkiem zimy antarktycznej zbudował tylko jeden magazyn żywności na Lodowcu Rossa. +Amundsen wyruszył wcześniej, dzięki doskonałemu zaplanowaniu podróży dotarł na biegun bez większych kłopotów. Doskonale sprawdziły się psie zaprzęgi i norweskie narty biegowe, ponadto odpowiednio przygotowane pożywienie (pemikan z jarzynami, suchary, czekolada, focze mięso) pozwoliło uchronić pięciu podróżników przed głodem i chorobami. Za pożywienie, głównie dla zaprzęgu, służyło również mięso 41 zabitych psów. Ludzie nie marzli, bowiem ubrani byli w lapońskie anoraki z foczego futra, a w drodze powrotnej miał do dyspozycji 3 magazyny zbudowane dużo dalej niż zrobił to Scott, który od początku borykał się z trudnościami. +Na samym początku wyprawy Scott musiał porzucić sanie motorowe, bo zamarzały ich silniki. Później padły wszystkie kucyki, nieprzystosowane do polarnych warunków. W wyniku tego, odziani w brezentowe kombinezony Anglicy musieli ciągnąć swoje sanie sami i gdy Amundsen schodził w drodze powrotnej z Płaskowyżu Antarktycznego na Lodowiec Szelfowy Rossa, Scott dopiero nań wchodził. +Uczestnicy brytyjskiej ekspedycji po dotarciu do bieguna znaleźli namiot z norweską flagą, odrobiną żywności i listem od Amundsena. Nie udało im się już pokonać drogi powrotnej. Ekspedycja ratunkowa, która wyruszyła wiosną na poszukiwania znalazła namiot ze zlodowaciałymi ciałami Scotta i jego towarzyszy w odległości zaledwie 12 km od "One Tone Depot" - magazynu z zapasami żywności i paliw. Porucznik Lawrance "Titus" Oates, który poważnie zachorował w czasie drogi powrotnej, nie chcąc opóźniać marszu towarzyszy i zmniejszać ich szans na przeżycie, wyszedł w czasie burzy śnieżnej z namiotu wiedząc, iż oznacza to pewną śmierć. Jego ciała nigdy nie odnaleziono. +Dla Anglików Scott stał się bohaterem narodowym, a to dzięki pamiętnikowi, w którym - zapewne do ostatniego dnia - notował swoje przeżycia i przemyślenia i który stanowi gloryfikację brytyjskiej supremacji w świecie. +Henryk Sawka + +Henryk Sawka (ur. 9 lutego 1958 w Gryfinie) – rysownik, satyryk i ilustrator. +Biografia. +Wychowywał się w Polesinach. Ukończył polonistykę. Debiutował w roku 1985, na łamach czasopisma „Itd.” +Jest laureatem wyróżnienia Festiwalu Artystycznego Młodzieży Akademickiej FAMA'84 (stypendium artystyczne), Nagrody Młodych im. Stanisława Wyspiańskiego (1989), Złotej Szpilki (1992) i Nagrody Artystycznej Prezydenta Miasta Szczecina (1992). W 1995 roku, zdobył Złoty Medal legnickiego Satyrykonu. Laureat Festiwalu Dobrego Humoru (2009). +Wydał kilka książek ze swoimi rysunkami: m.in. Boże, toś Polskę..! (1989), Wprost od Sawki (1992), Sawka większy niż życie (1995), The Best of Sawka. (2008), Sceny z życia małżeńskiego (2009). +Był jurorem wielu konkursów oraz przeglądów kabaretowych, wśród nich Przeglądu Kabaretów PaKA w Krakowie. Hobbystycznie pisze skecze, parodie oraz trawestacje utworów literackich. +Jego rysunki publikowały „Szpilki”, „Tygodnik Gdański”, „Kurier Szczeciński”, „Student”, „Nowy Medyk”, „Sztandar Młodych” , „Gazeta Krakowska”, „Dziennik Polski”, „Playboy”, „Polska the Times”, „Rzeczpospolita”, „Gazeta Wyborcza”, „Wprost”, „Newsweek Polska” . +13 lipca 2012 roku o godzinie 13:13 została otwarta Galeria Henryka Sawki w Szczecinie, przy Alei Wojska Polskiego 40. +Jest ojcem Karoliny Sawki. +Mezopory + +Mezopory – według IUPAC pory w ciele stałym o charakterystycznym wymiarze poprzecznym (średnica) w zakresie od 2 do 50 nm (czasami średnica określana jako 2-100 nm). Ich cechą wyróżniajacą jest zjawisko kondensacji kapilarnej cząsteczek gazów (par), któremu często towarzyszy histereza kapilarna. Pory mniejsze niż mezopory to mikropory, a większe to makropory. +Mezopory bada się porozymetrią rtęciową, metodami adsorpcyjnymi (rozkłady porów metodą BJH) oraz rentgenowskimi. +Międzynarodowa Unia Łyżwiarska + +Międzynarodowa Unia Łyżwiarska ("International Skating Union") – międzynarodowa organizacja zrzeszająca krajowe związki sportów łyżwiarskich. +Organizacja podzielona jest na "sekcje" w zależności od tego, której dyscypliny łyżwiarskiej dotyczy. Jest organizatorem zawodów międzynarodowych, ustala zasady oceniania, wymogi regulaminowe. +Kontrowersje. +Po aferze z sędziowaniem zawodów w łyżwiarstwie figurowym na Olimpiadzie w Salt Lake City w 2002 roku, część działaczy sekcji łyżwiarstwa figurowego postanowiła się oddzielić i utworzyła Światową Federację Łyżwiarską "(World Skating Federation)", która jednak jak dotychczas nie rozpoczęła własnej działalności, a jej założyciele nie zdecydowali się ostatecznie opuścić ISU. +Bolesław Orgelbrand + +Bolesław Orgelbrand (ur. 24 kwietnia 1884 w Warszawie, zm. 13 października 1957 w Poznaniu), polski inżynier mechanik, specjalista w zakresie silników spalinowych. +Pochodził ze znanej rodziny polskich encyklopedystów, był synem Hipolita i Anny Wenstein (nauczycielki języków obcych), wnukiem Samuela Orgelbranda. Ukończył gimnazjum realne w Warszawie (1902) i podjął studia na Politechnice Warszawskiej. Został zmuszony do przerwania nauki w 1905 (wziął udział w demonstracjach domagających się polskiego języka wykładowego), wyjechał do Belgii; w 1909 uzyskał dyplom inżyniera-mechanika z wyróżnieniem na politechnice w Gandawie. +W latach 1909-1921 pracował w przemyśle rosyjskim. Powrócił do niepodległej już Polski w 1922 i został zatrudniony jako konstruktor w warszawskiej Fabryce Silników "Perkun". Jeszcze w tym samym roku przeniósł się do Poznania. Tam pracował w Zakładach H. Cegielski (szef biura technicznego) oraz wykładał w Państwowej Wyższej Szkole Budowy Maszyn i Elektrotechniki; w latach 1930-1936 pełnił funkcję dyrektora tej szkoły. Od 1936 był wizytatorem szkół przemysłowych przy Ministerstwie Wyznań Religijnych i Oświecenia Publicznego w Warszawie. +Pozostał w Warszawie w okresie okupacji, pracując jako kierownik sklepu. Po powstaniu warszawskim znalazł się w obozie pruszkowskim. Krótki czas mieszkał w Częstochowie. W marcu 1945 powrócił do Poznania i obowiązków dyrektora Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Budowy Maszyn i Elektrotechniki; po powołaniu Szkoły Inżynierskiej w Poznaniu wraz z rokiem akademickim 1945/1946 został jej pierwszym (i ostatnim) rektorem. W 1954 został mianowany profesorem nadzwyczajnym. W 1955 Szkołę Inżynierską przemianowano na Politechnikę Poznańską; Orgelbrand pozostał profesorem nowej uczelni, a w 1956 objął kierownictwo katedry motoryzacji rolnictwa (przedtem pod nazwą katedra silników spalinowych) na Wydziale Mechanizacji Rolnictwa. Wieloletni dorobek dydaktyczny zawarł w podręczniku "O silnikach spalinowych" (wydania 1946, 1948, 1957). Działał także w organizacjach społecznych i naukowych, należał m.in. do Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. +Z małżeństwa z Anną z Werlingów miał syna Tadeusza (1918-2002). +Paweł Niemiec + +Paweł Niemiec, ps. "Poppet" (ur. 25 listopada 1913 w Cieszynie, zm. 11 maja 1985 w Buenos Aires) - major pilot Wojska Polskiego, major (ang. "Squadron Leader") Królewskich Sił Powietrznych. +Życiorys. +Był synem fabrykanta mebli. Ukończył Państwowe Gimnazjum Matematyczno-Przyrodnicze w Cieszynie. Od stycznia 1934 roku uczył się w Szkole Podchorążych Lotnictwa w Dęblinie, którą ukończył w 1936 roku ze stopniem podporucznika pilota myśliwskiego. O jego promocji na podporucznika pilota informował m.in. wydawany w Ustroniu "Poseł Ewangelicki". +Następnie służył w 123 Eskadrze Myśliwskiej 2 Pułku Lotniczego w Krakowie. Od jesieni 1937 roku był instruktorem – dowódcą plutonu w szkolnego w Dęblinie. We wrześniu 1939 ewakuował się do Rumunii, a następnie do Francji a w 1940 do Wielkiej Brytanii, gdzie przeszkolił się w lataniu na samolotach brytyjskich. 1 września wstąpił do 17 Dywizjonu RAF, w którym latał do lutego 1941 uzyskując jedno pewne – jedno zespołowe zestrzelenie oraz uszkadzając dwie kolejne maszyny wroga. +26 lutego został przeniesiony do 317 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego "Wileńskiego". 2 czerwca uzyskał pierwsze zestrzelenie dla tego dywizjonu (zespołowo z Sgt T. Baranowskim). W drugiej połowie 1941 służył w naziemnym stanowisku dowodzenia Dywizjonu 317. 1 marca powrócił do latania w tym dywizjonie na stanowisku dowódcy eskadry A, ale już 15 został pechowo ranny w wypadku. Po powrocie pod koniec sierpnia 1942 w dywizjonie 317 objął dowództwo eskadry B. +5 marca objął dowództwo dywizjonu 308, którym dowodził do 15 maja 1943. Następnie służył w dowództwie bazy RAF w Feston, gdzie przebywało 2 Polskie Skrzydło Myśliwskie. W okresie czerwiec – sierpień 1943 był instruktorem taktyki w dywizjonie 309. +W sierpniu 1943 został przydzielony do 316 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego, którego dowódcą został 15 września 1943. 27 czerwca 1944 został dowódcą dywizjonu 306. Po 24 września został oficerem łącznikowym w 13 Grupie Myśliwskiej RAF. +Od 18 kwietnia do 9 maja 1945 był dowódcą jednostki obsługowej 84 Grupy RAF. 17 maja został dowódcą dywizjonu 317, a 12 października 1945 po raz drugi dowódcą dywizjonu 316. 1 stycznia 1946 roku otrzymał stopień majora. +W grudniu 1946 odszedł z polskiego lotnictwa i wyjechał do Argentyny, gdzie zmarł w 1985 w Buenos Aires. +Wojciech Bartos Głowacki + +Wojciech Bartos(z), od 1794 z nazwiskiem Głowacki (ur. 1758 r. w Rzędowicach, zm. w 1794 w Kielcach) – polski chłop, kosynier w czasie insurekcji kościuszkowskiej, chorąży grenadierów krakowskich. +Wziął udział w insurekcji kościuszkowskiej, w bitwie pod Racławicami 4 kwietnia 1794 r. odznaczył się wielkim męstwem (zdobył działo rosyjskie gasząc lont czapką), za co został mianowany chorążym; otrzymał także nazwisko Głowacki. Śmiertelnie ranny podczas bitwy pod Szczekocinami 6 czerwca 1794 r., zmarł i został pochowany w Kielcach. Po klęsce powstania stał się symbolem waleczności i męstwa. +Biografia. +Wojciech Bartosz Głowacki urodził się ok. 1758 r., prawdopodobnie we wsi Rzędowice (co zaznaczył Kościuszko w piśmie z obozu pod Bosutowem (13 kwietnia 1794) w sprawie "Wojciecha Głowackiego (...) rodem z Rzędowic", również patent na chorążego określał, że W. Głowacki "ze wsi Rzędowic"). Był chłopem pańszczyźnianym Antoniego kniazia Szujskiego. +Jednak co do jego miejsca urodzenia powstały wątpliwości, po tym jak stwierdzono, że dokumenty parafialne z Koniuszy z lat 1810-1860 (wcześniejsze księgi tejże parafii, do której należały Rzędowice, spłonęły w 1796 r.) nie wspominają o innych Bartoszach, poza rodziną Wojciecha. Natomiast Ambroży Grabowski we "Wspomnieniach" wymienia miejsce urodzenia Bartosza jako Zakrzów, w pobliżu Skalbmierza. Niestety, również skalbmierskie księgi spłonęły w 1794. Ale autor "Wspomnień" mógł go pomylić ze Stanisławem Świstackim. +Również co do jego wieku nie ma pewności, ale przypuszcza się, że Wojciech przyszedł na świat między 1758 a 1765 rokiem. Należy jednak skłaniać się ku 1765, gdyż pod broń rekruta dymnego powoływano mężczyzn, mających 18-28 lat, a tylko w nielicznych przypadkach przekraczano maksymalny wiek 28 lat, ale nie więcej niż o 2 lata. +Małżeństwo zawarł ok. 1783 z mieszkanką wsi Jadwigą Czernikową, urodzoną ok. 1749 (na podstawie aktu zgonu z 1829, według którego w chwili śmierci miała 80 lat. Należy przypuszczać, że była starsza od Wojciecha o kilka lat, jednak w owych czasach niewielką różnicę stanowiły lata po 60., a na wsi nie pamiętało się daty własnych urodzin, a co dopiero znajomych, co pozwala przypuszczać, że urodziła się później). Nie wniosła posagu. Bartoszowie mieli trzy córki: Helenę (ur. ok. 1784), Cecylię (1790) i Justynę (1794). Mieszkali w lichej, kurnej chałupinie, która jeszcze przed śmiercią Jadwigi zapadła się i została usunięta; chłopi rzędowiccy opowiadali o tym F. Rybarskiemu i J. Styce; toteż późniejsze pokazywanie (J. Styce 10 IV 1894 r.) porządnego domu z belek na zrąb o paru oknach, ze strzechą i kominem, jako pozostałości po Bartoszach, należy uznać za próbę upiększenia smutnej rzeczywistości. Na skutek zawalenia chałupy, wdowa po Wojciechu "została na stare lata komornicą". Zdaniem K. Kozika, gospodarstwo Bartoszów było 4-morgowe, ale S. Szczotka (Polski Słownik Biograficzny) przyjmuje 9-morgowe. Żyło im się ciężko, nie mieli konia, a krowę i nierogaciznę dostali dopiero po Racławicach od Szujskiego. +Wojciech Bartosz został powołany do wojska na mocy uchwały Komisji Porządkowej województwa krakowskiego z 25 marca 1794, która nakazywała "ażeby każde miasto, miasteczko i wsie z 5 dymów jednego człowieka młodego, zdrowego i czerstwego, w 3 dniach od odebrania niniejszego listu okólnego z bronią, to jest z karabinem z kilku ładunkami, albo piką 11 stóp długą 3,28 m i z siekierą, ubranego po wieśniacku, jak pospolicie wieśniacy na wsi chodzą, dostawiona [...] Ażeby każdy z tychże uzbrojonych ludzi miał czapkę, koszul dwie, buty dobre, płachtę, czyli grube prześcieradła z dwóch brytów, żeby był opatrzony sucharami na dni 6 i żeby miał dany lenung żołd w pieniądzach na jeden miesiąc, tj. 15 złp". Dopiero 28 marca Komisja, "zważając potrzebę jak najprędszego uzbrojenia ludu po wsiach", wprowadziła nową, popularną broń, kosę osadzoną na wprost kija długiego na około 2,40 m (5 łokci), co później doprowadziło do nazwania oddziałów chłopskich kosynierami. Powołanie do wojska Wojciecha Bartosza było spowodowane sprzeciwianiem się administracji dworskiej, czyli rządcy Strawińskiemu i ekonomowi, którzy to właśnie zgłosili go jako rekruta, aby pozbyć się kłopotów z nim związanych. +Do wojska Bartosz został wcielony na początku kwietnia, a już 4 kwietnia doszło do bitwy w pobliżu wsi Racławice, gdzie stanęli: polski naczelnik insurekcji, Tadeusz Kościuszko i gen. rosyjski A.P. Tormasow. Było to pierwsze poważne starcie, w którym Polacy wykorzystali jednostki chłopskie. Tormasow główną rolę wyznaczył artylerii; bateria armat zdążyła oddać tylko jedną salwę, zanim została zdobyta przez kosynierów, wyznaczonych do tego celu przez naczelnika Kościuszkę. W tym szybkim ataku uczestniczył, zdobywając pierwszą armatę, Wojciech Bartosz. +Za męstwo i odwagę okazaną w walce, jak również dla zachęcenia innych chłopów do udziału w powstaniu, naczelnik Kościuszko mianował go chorążym świeżo utworzonych Grenadierów Krakowskich. W związku z nominacją na oficera, zmianie uległo również jego nazwisko, z chłopskiego Bartosz na Głowacki. Zwolniony został z poddaństwa i otrzymał w dziedziczne posiadanie zamieszkiwaną przez siebie zagrodę. Prawie pewne jest również to, że Wojciech Głowacki nie został nobilitowany. +6 czerwca 1794 doszło do bitwy pod Szczekocinami. Siły polskie liczyły 16 batalionów, 47 szwadronów i 33 działa oraz ponad 15 tysięcy żołnierzy. Natomiast wojska prusko-rosyjskie określa się na ponad 27 tys. żołnierzy i 134 działa. Polska bateria 6-działowa zajęła pozycje przy lasku, asekurowana z tyłu przez Regiment Grenadierów Krakowskich płk. Jana Krzyckiego, wśród których znajdował się również i Wojciech Głowacki. O wiele mniejsze siły polskie poniosły klęskę. Straty w ludziach ocenia się na ok. 1200 zabitych i rannych. Wśród 346 poszkodowanych, których niebywałym wysiłkiem uratowano z pola bitwy, był Wojciech Bartosz Głowacki. Niestety stan jego okazał się bardzo ciężki, zbyt ciężki, ażeby go uratować. +Data jego śmierci nie jest jednoznacznie określona. Uznaje się, iż nastąpiła między 6 a 9 czerwca 1794. Według towarzyszy z pola bitwy Bartosza, Dominika Paprockiego z Polikarpic i Jana Sadowskiego z Polanowic, zginął on "śmiertelnie plejzerowany" na polu bitwy. Lecz nie byli oni przy tym pewni, co świadczy po ich zastrzeżeniach, że nic nie wiedzą o jego pogrzebie. Oświadczenie to złożyli w 1810, aby wystawić urzędowe świadectwo śmierci Wojciecha Głowackiego, potrzebne do zamążpójścia jego najmłodszej, niepełnoletniej (16 lat) córki, Justynie. Według innej, bardziej prawdopodobnej tezy, Głowacki zmarł w wyniku odniesionych ran, w lazarecie między Małogoszczem a Kielcami, w czasie cofania się Kościuszki do Warszawy przez Małogoszcz (7 czerwca) i Kielce (9 czerwca). +Pochowany został najprawdopodobniej w kościele NMP w Kielcach, 9 czerwca. Świadczy o tym notatka w księdze zmarłych, dokonana przez ówczesnego proboszcza: "Dnia tego pogrzebano 7 wojskowych z miłosierdzia (za darmo), pomiędzy nimi niejakiego Głowackiego". Potwierdza to również ks. Władysław Siarkowski w książce "Groby kościoła N. Marii Panny w Kielcach..." (1872), pisząc: "W kaplicy na cmentarzu zwanym Ogrójcem znajduje się grób, w którym spoczywały przez kilkanaście lat zwłoki Bartosza Głowackiego, zwanego Kumem spod Racławic, zmarłego w szpitalu kieleckim 9 czerwca 1794 r. Zwłoki te następnie wydobyto i pochowano na cmentarzu kościelnym (katedralnym) między dwoma wiązami po prawej stronie kościoła, obierając za punkt fronton główny i drzwi wielkie kościoła". +Innym argumentem potwierdzającym to jest zeznanie z 9 listopada 1929, wdowy po inżynierze – technologu S. Teraszkiewiczowej. Ofiarowała ona różaniec i krzyż stanowiące własność śp. Bartosza Głowackiego, wraz z następującym oświadczeniem: "W 1870 przy restauracji katedry kieleckiej i pod nią grobów biskupich, odrestaurowano również i Ogrójec przy katedrze. Ojciec mój – Franciszek Pantoczek (...) pamiętając z opowiadania ojca swego, a dziadka mego – Szymona Pantoczka, dawnego i stałego mieszkańca Kielc, że Wojciech Bartosz Głowacki, ciężko ranny w czasie cofania się Tadeusza Kościuszki spod Szczekocin do Małogoszczy przesłany był do Kielc, wkrótce zmarł i pochowany został w Kielcach w Ogrójcu koło kościoła katedralnego w skromnej chłopskiej trumnie, pomalowanej żółtą lubryką, zapragnął przekonać się, czy opowiadania te zgodne są z rzeczywistością, znalazł tam skromną, prostą trumnę, malowaną żółtą lubryką, po otwarciu której ukazały się zasuszone zwłoki, ubrane w chłopską sukmanę, gęsto pokrytą ciemnymi plamami (zacieki od krwi z ran); ręce, owinięte różańcem, złożone były na piersiach. Różaniec ten z krzyżem i przywartym doń kawałkiem sukmany, ojciec mój wziął sobie na pamiątkę". +Podczas jubileuszu 10-lecia Niepodległości (11 listopada 1928) na kieleckim cmentarzu katedralnym umieszczono tablicę pamiątkową, w zachodnim rogu cmentarza, z napisem: "Ś.P. Wojciech Bartosz – Głowacki, bohater spod Racławic". +Z rysunku Michała Stachowicza, który mógł widzieć Bartosza Głowackiego w czasie uroczystej promocji na chorążego (8 kwietnia 1794), wynika, że był to mężczyzna wysoki, krępy, o twarzy ogorzałej, rysach regularnych, ok. lat 30, z bujną czupryną i wąsami ciemnoblond, o wysokim czole; twarz wyrażająca energię i zuchwałość. +Z pisarzy (pamiętnikarzy, historyków, literatów) żaden go nie widział na własne oczy, dlatego piszący później o Wojciechu Bartoszu nie ryzykowali ściślejszego opisu, zadowalając się dość płynnymi wizjami. Czesław Jankowski napisał więc (1907): "dębczak, konopiastą czupryną górował nad rówieśnikami, konie na paśnik pędzał, za kosę imał i cepy, bo w chałupie dydków nie było". Wojciech Skuza (1933) kreślił: "Bartos – bitnik, wąsy kręci – chętnie bywa w karczmie". +Malcolm McDowell + +Malcolm McDowell (ur. 13 czerwca 1943 w Leeds, jako Malcolm John Taylor) – brytyjski aktor filmowy i telewizyjny. +Zadebiutował w filmach Lindsaya Andersona, uważanych za trylogię: "Szczęśliwy człowiek", "Jeżeli..." i "Szpital Britannia". Międzynarodową sławę przyniosła mu rola Aleksa DeLarge'a w kubrickowskiej ekranizacji "Mechanicznej pomarańczy". +Będąc gwiazdą młodego, zaangażowanego kina, McDowell zwrócił się w kierunku filmów, w których ambicje finansowe przewyższały te dotyczące przekazu. Jego triumfalny powrót na duże ekrany związany był z "The Company", filmem z 2003 roku, wyreżyserowanym przez Roberta Altmana. Rola w filmie Mike'a Hodgesa "Odpoczniesz po śmierci" (2004), gdzie McDowell wciela się w postać Boada, inkarnującego zło w postaci najczystszej i przez to przerażającej, przywołuje postać Aleksa DeLarge'a, która trwale naznaczyła karierę aktorską artysty. Drugoplanowa rola w filmie "W doborowym towarzystwie" Paula Weitza (2004), gdzie McDowell gra tajemniczego szefa międzynarodowego koncernu, Teddy'ego K., jest przykładem tego, jak aktor ten potrafi wykorzystywać swój obraz jako kogoś, kto odmawia upubliczniania swoich uczuć. Zebrał pozytywne recenzje za rolę doktora Samuela Loomisa w horrorze "Halloween" Roba Zombie. Krytycy okrzyknęli go aktorem stworzonym do tej roli. Polska publiczność mogła go oglądać m.in. w serialu "Perła" w latach 1996-1997. +Od 1991 roku McDowell jest mężem Kelley Kuhr. +In Through the Out Door + +In Through the Out Door – album brytyjskiej grupy rockowej Led Zeppelin, wydany w roku 1979 (zob. 1979 w muzyce). +Tylko dwa utwory na płycie nawiązują do muzycznego stylu grupy z wcześniejszych +lat jej działalności – otwierający płytę hardrockowy "In the Evening" oraz kończący ją bluesowy "I'm Gonna Crawl". Pozostałe utwory nieco odbiegają od hardrockowo-bluesowego stylu zespołu – "South Bound Saurez" kojarzy się z klasycznym rock'n'rollem à la Elvis Presley czy Chuck Berry, z kolei w "Fool in the Rain" dostrzega się naleciałości samby, a w utworze "Hot Dog" muzyki country. "Carouselambra" to natomiast typowy utwór rockowy, jednak o jego warstwie muzycznej nie decyduje ani gitara elektryczna ani perkusja lecz niezbyt często kojarzony z hardrockowym instrumentarium syntezator. Ten instrument pojawia się też w następnej, nieco sentymentalnej kompozycji "All My Love". +Bukowina + +__NOTOC__ +Jeff Pain + +Jeffrey "Jeff" Pain (ur. 14 grudnia 1970), kanadyjski skeletonista, mistrz świata i zdobywca Pucharu Świata, wicemistrz olimpijski. +Urodził się na Alasce, reprezentuje jednak barwy Kanady. Zdobył tytuł mistrza świata w Nagano (2003) i w Calgary (2005). Po powrocie skeletonu do rodziny sportów olimpijskich w Salt Lake City (2002) zajął 6. miejsce. Cztery lata później w Turynie sięgnął po srebrny medal olimpijski, przegrywając jedynie z rodakiem, weteranem Duffem Gibsonem. +Wielokrotnie zajmował miejsca w czołówce Pucharu Świata - w sezonie 2001/2002 był 4. w klasyfikacji generalnej, 2002/2003 był 2. Zdobył Puchar Świata w sezonie 2004/2005, nie schodząc we wszystkich zawodach sezonu poniżej 5. miejsca (wygrał konkurs pucharowy w Winterbergu). +Kapitulacje osmańskie + +Kapitulacje osmańskie – seria umów międzynarodowych zawartych przez Francję z Imperium Osmańskim, mających za przedmiot wewnętrzne stosunki wyznaniowe w państwie osmańskim. Umowy te zawarli najpierw Franciszek I w 1536, następnie odnowił je Ludwik XIV w 1673 i jeszcze raz Ludwik XV w 1740. W umowach tych sułtanowie osmańscy: +Protektorat ze strony Francji znacznie polepszał sytuację katolików w stosunku do wiernych pozostałych wyznań chrześcijańskich mieszkających pod władzą turecką, którzy byli zdani na łaskę sułtana i lokalnych władz osmańskich. Pośrednio więc kapitulacje osmańskie stały się czynnikiem popychającym wiernych kościołów wschodnich do unii z kościołem rzymskokatolickim. +W miarę upływu czasu (i słabnięcia Imperium Osmańskiego) kapitulacji przybywało - sułtanat udzielał ich pozostałym mocarstwom zachodnioeuropejskim (Wielkiej Brytanii, Austrii). Efektem było wyjęcie spod władzy osmańskiej coraz większej liczby mieszkańców imperium, zwłaszcza pochodzących z Europy. Ponadto sułtanat udzielał państwom zachodnioeuropejskim przywilejów podatkowych i celnych. +W obliczu starć katolicko-prawosławnych w Ziemi Świętej w 1847, w 1852 ówczesny prezydent Francji Ludwik Napoleon jeszcze raz odnowił kapitulacje osmańskie. Wobec sprzeciwu cara Rosji, który uważał się za jedynego obrońcę chrześcijaństwa w Turcji i miał podobne prawa zagwarantowane traktatem w Kuczuk-Kajnardżi (1774), doszło do napięcia w stosunkach francusko-rosyjskich, które zaowocowało wybuchem wojny krymskiej. +Shar pei + +Shar pei – rasa psa zaliczana do grupy molosów w typie mastifa, wyhodowana w XVI wieku w Chinach do polowania, zaganiania oraz do walk psów. Typ dogowaty. Nie podlega próbom pracy. +Rys historyczny. +Pies ten pochodzi z południowych Chin, z terenów prowincji Guangdong. Został rozpropagowany i hodowany w celach wystawowych przez hodowców w USA. Nazwa psa, pochodząca z chińskiego "shā pí" (沙皮), oznacza dosłownie "piaszczysta skóra". +Ta pradawna rasa hodowana była w Chinach do polowań na dziki, a także jako psy pasterskie, zaś w południowej części kraju jego głównym przeznaczeniem było stróżowanie świątyń; używano ich także do walk psów. +Od pierwszych lat istnienia Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej i budowy komunizmu w tym państwie, shar pei traktowany był jako dobro luksusowe, przez co zbyteczne. Nałożono wysokie podatki, którymi obciążone było posiadanie psów tej rasy. W końcu posiadanie psa zostało ogłoszone przez Mao jako przejaw burżuazyjnej dekadencji, a hodowla psów została praktycznie zabroniona. Wtedy to właśnie nastąpiło załamanie populacji shar peia. Liczba zwierząt drastycznie zmalała. Wtedy to, bojąc się o wymarcie rasy Matgo Law będący jednym z hodowców i miłośników psów tej rasy napisał do jednego z amerykańskich czasopism poświęconych kynologii. Apelował on o uratowanie shar peia, zamieszczając bogato ilustrowany artykuł poświęcony tym właśnie psom. +Amerykanie zareagowali na apel bardzo żywiołowo. Psy z Hongkongu zaczęły przybywać do Ameryki. Stały się one synonimem bogactwa i pozycji społecznej. Osiągały one horrendalne ceny, przez co stały się cennym łupem dla złodziei. Popularność shar peia wzrastała bardzo szybko. Wkrótce w Europie powstały hodowle psów tej rasy, a w 1981 roku uznano jej wzorzec tymczasowy, który następnie został zastąpiony wzorcem ostatecznym. +Klasyfikacja FCI. +W klasyfikacji FCI rasa ta została zaliczona do grupy II – Pinczery, sznaucery, molosy i szwajcarskie psy do bydła, sekcja 2.1 – Molosy typu mastifa. +Zgodnie z klasyfikacją amerykańską, należy do grupy psów użytkowych. +Zachowanie i charakter. +Towarzyski, czujny, skłonny do obrony, ale nie agresywny. Przywiązuje się do jednego właściciela. Dobrze znosi warunki miejskie. +Wygląd. +U młodych osobników naturalne jest znaczne pomarszczenie skóry na całym ciele. Skóra u dorosłych jest luźna, pomarszczona tylko w okolicy głowy i ogona. +Budowa. +Szczęki mocne, dokładny zgryz nożycowy, tzn. górne siekacze szczelnie przykrywają dolne i są pionowo ustawione w szczękach. Wypełnienie dolnej wargi nie powinno być na tyle duże, aby wpływało na zgryz. +Szata i umaszczenie. +Według wzorca FCI umaszczenie jest dopuszczalne we wszystkich jednolitych kolorach, z wyjątkiem białego. Szata jest często cieniowana z nieco jaśniejszym włosem na udach i ogonie. +Szata jest sztywna, odstająca od skóry i przylegająca na kończynach. +Występują też psy z tzw. "bear coat" o długości szaty powyżej 2,5 cm, ten typ szaty jest niezgodny ze wzorcem rasy. +Zdrowie i pielęgnacja. +Rasa wymaga cierpliwej i uważnej pielęgnacji, szczególnie szczenięta, które ze względu na pofałdowaną skórę narażone są na różne infekcje. Często występuje u tej rasy entropium – nieprawidłowe podwinięcie powieki, która wraz z rzęsami jest zwrócona do wewnątrz, ku powierzchni oka, co w przypadku braku szybkiej pomocy lekarskiej może doprowadzić do ślepoty. +Popularność w Polsce. +Coraz bardziej popularna. +Terry Goodkind + +Terry Goodkind (ur. 1948 w Omaha) – amerykański pisarz fantasy. Autor serii high fantasy "Miecz Prawdy", która, według danych z 2008 roku, została sprzedana w około 25 milionach egzemplarzy. +Biografia. +Goodkind urodził się w największym mieście stanu Nebraska, Omaha. W młodości uczęszczał do szkoły plastycznej. W 1983 przeprowadził się do domu w lesie. Wysoko ceni sobie swoją prywatność, dlatego nie wiadomo dokładnie gdzie mieszka, poza ogólną informacją, że w zachodniej części Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Zadebiutował w 1994 roku książką "Pierwsze prawo magii". Jako debiutujący pisarz zainkasował za swoją książkę rekordową sumę 275 000$. +Bibliografia. +Seria "Miecz Prawdy" opowiada dzieje Richarda Cyphera znanego również, jako Richard Rahl; Kahlan Amnell oraz czarodzieja Zeddicusa Z'ul Zorandera. +Richard wiedzie spokojne, proste życie leśnego przewodnika, do czasu, gdy jego ojciec George Cypher zostaje zamordowany w brutalny sposób. Od tego momentu jego świat zostaje wywrócony do góry nogami, a to tylko przedsmak tego co ma się wydarzyć. W miesiąc później podczas jednej ze swych wędrówek po lasach pomaga pewnej nieznajomej dziewczynie ściganej przez czterech mężczyzn. +Obecnie ukazała się pierwsza z trzech zakontraktowanych powieści Terry'ego Goodkinda p.t. "Reguła dziewiątek", która w sposób pośredni nawiązuje do serii "Miecz Prawdy", lecz dzieje się w świecie współczesnym w przeciwieństwie do quasi-historycznego osadzenia akcji "Miecza Prawdy". Głównymi bohaterami nowej serii są Alexander Rahl i Jax. +Alexander ma dwadzieścia siedem lat i jest artystą przedstawiającym w swoich dziełach piękno. Jego spokojne życie zmienia się, gdy ratuje kobietę, która wydaje się być nie z tego świata... +Ekranizacja. +Prawo do ekranizacji serii "Miecz Prawdy" zakupił Sam Raimi. Raimi początkowo planował produkcję pięcioczęściowego miniserialu jednak po rozmowach z autorem książki zdecydował o produkcji pełnego sezonu serialu. Serial zadebiutował w USA 1 listopada 2008 roku pod tytułem "Legend of the Seeker". Pierwszy sezon liczył 22 odcinki. Drugi sezon miał swoją premierę 8 listopada 2009 i zakończył się 22 odcinkami 23 maja 2010. +Jezioro Lubiańskie + +Jezioro Lubiańskie - jezioro w woj. warmińsko-mazurskim, w pow. ostródzkim, w gminie Grunwald, leżące na terenie Pojezierza Mazurskiego. +Jezioro o brzegach stromych (z wyjątkiem północno-wschodniej części) i zalesionych. +Historia. +W pobliżu jeziora Lubień znajduje się miejsce bitwy pod Grunwaldem. W nocy z 14 na 15 lipca 1410 roku król Władysław Jagiełło ruszył z armią polsko-litewską spod Dąbrówna. +Najbliższe miejscowości to: Góry Łubiańskie, Ulnowo, Łubianek, Zybułtowo. Niedaleko jeziora znajduje się gospodarstwo Agroturystyczne i Pensjonat Osada Ulnowo (w miejscowości Ulnowo). +Dane morfometryczne. +Powierzchnia zwierciadła wody według różnych źródeł wynosi od 32,1 ha przez 33,8 ha do 35,0 . +Zwierciadło wody położone jest na wysokości 177,7 m n.p.m. Średnia głębokość jeziora wynosi 4,0 m, natomiast głębokość maksymalna 7,5 m. +Hydronimia. +Według urzędowego spisu opracowanego przez Komisję Nazw Miejscowości i Obiektów Fizjograficznych (KNMiOF) nazwa tego jeziora to "Jezioro Lubiańskie". W różnych publikacjach i na mapach topograficznych jezioro to występuje pod nazwą "Lubień, Lubian, Łubian, Lubien" lub "Lubień" lub też "Lubreń" +Persistence of Time + +Persistence Of Time – wydany 21 sierpnia 1990 roku (w USA), to piąty studyjny album zespołu Anthrax. W czasie sesji nagraniowej tej płyty zespół przeżył trzęsienie ziemi i pożar. +Lista utworów. +Japońskie wydanie zostało wzbogacone o utwór "Protest and Survive". +Trzebież + +Trzebież (do 1945 niem. "Ziegenort") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie polickim, w gminie Police. Należy do aglomeracji szczecińskiej. +W latach 1973-1976 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Trzebież. +Geografia. +Położenie. +Pod względem fizycznogeograficznym wieś położona jest na na Równinie Polickiej w Dolinie Dolnej Odry nad brzegiem Zalewu Szczecińskiego, na skraju Puszczy Wkrzańskiej, ok. 35 km na północ od centrum Szczecina, 14 km od centrum Polic (Rynek Starego Miasta w Policach, plac Chrobrego) (droga wojewódzka nr 114) i od ok. 14 km na wschód od granicy z Niemcami. +Wieś znajduje się u ujścia Odry do Zalewu Szczecińskiego (tzw. Roztoka Odrzańska) oraz w bliskim sąsiedztwie Puszczy Wkrzańskiej, stała się ośrodkiem wypoczynkowym. +W Trzebieży zlokalizowany jest największy polski port nad Zalewem Szczecińskim. W rejonie Trzebieży przebiega tor wodny Szczecin-Świnoujście. Na północny wschód od portu znajduje się sztuczna wyspa Chełminek, powstała podczas pogłębiania toru wodnego oraz Wyspa Refulacyjna powstała podczas budowy i pogłębiania portu oraz torów podejściowych do Trzebieży. +Wieś składa się z 2 części: starszej południowo-wschodniej, zwanej Trzebieżą Wielką, i nowszej po stronie północno-zachodniej – Trzebieży Małej, gdzie znajdują się plaże. +Historia. +Pierwsze kronikarskie wzmianki o Trzebieży pochodzą z ok. 1280 r., kiedy to ks. pomorski Bogusław IV nadał wieś mieszczaninowi ze Szczecina. Osada poniosła duże straty w czasie wojen trzydziestoletniej i siedmioletniej. W następnych wiekach Trzebież rozwijała się jako typowa osada nad Zalewem Szczecińskim. W XVIII w. wieś uzyskała własny samorząd. W końcu XIX w. powstał tu port żeglugi pasażerskiej, tranzytowy oraz stocznia. Po roku 1898 Trzebież uzyskała połączenie kolejowe z Policami a w 1910 r. uruchomiono regularne połączenie pasażerskie. Do 1930 r. wody zalewu odsłoniły plażę o czystym piasku. Zapoczątkowało to rozwój ruchu turystycznego. +W czasie II wojny światowej osada ucierpiała w ok. 40% w zabudowie (głównie port oraz tartak). Istniał tu także przejściowy obóz dla polskich robotników przymusowych. Trzebież została zajęta 27 kwietnia 1945 r. przez wojska radzieckie (2 Front Białoruski – 2 Armia Uderzeniowa) i polskie a została oddana pod administrację polską we wrześniu 1946 r. po likwidacji tzw. Enklawy Polickiej. +Przez kilka powojennych miesięcy miejscowość była nazywana przez pierwszych polskich osadników "Zatoką". W 1946 powstał tu Zarząd Lasów Zaodrzańskich, przekształcony później w Nadleśnictwo Trzebież. Do 1948 r. uruchomiono ponownie port, stocznie, tartak, powstała spółdzielnia rybacka. Osada zaczęła się rozwijać dynamicznie. Największy rozkwit Trzebieży przypada na lata 70. XX wieku. +Pochodzenie nazwy miejscowości. +Nazwa polska wsi pochodzi od do wyrazu trzebić – wycinać, karczować las. Jest to historyczne nawiązanie do istniejącego tutaj od czasów średniowiecznych wytrzebionego uroczyska zwanego dawniej "Zerebis", co możemy odczytać jako "Czerebiesz", "Trzebież". +Turystyka i rozrywka. +W sezonie letnim Trzebież pełni funkcję wczasowo-wypoczynkową. Mieszczą się tutaj licznie kolonie młodzieży. Miejscowa ludność wynajmuje też letnikom kwatery prywatne. +Przez wieś i okolice prowadzą szlaki turystyczne: +Planowana jest organizacja szlaku wodnego Berlin - Szczecin - Bałtyk. +Sport. +LKS Rybak Trzebież. +Wieś jest siedzibą klubu piłkarskiego LKS Rybak Trzebież, który został założony w 1948 roku jako Ludowy Zespół Sportowy "Rybak". Aktualnie występuje w A-klasie. +Centralny Ośrodek Żeglarstwa im. Andrzeja Benesza Sp. z o.o.. +W Trzebieży na terenie portu jachtowego Zarząd Główny Polskiego Związku Żeglarskiego powołał 1 stycznia 1959 r. do istnienia Centralny Ośrodek Żeglarstwa Polskiego Związku Żeglarskiego im. Andrzeja Benesza. Obecnie dwa baseny portowe ośrodka mogą pomieścić ok. 90 jachtów. COŻ dysponuje też własnymi jednostkami (jachtami) morskimi (min. SY Kapitan Głowacki, SY Boliński i inne). +Marikultura + +Marikultura – hodowla organizmów morskich (ryb, mięczaków, stawonogów, glonów i in.) w celach konsumpcyjnych i gospodarczych, ale również wykorzystywana w celach rozmnażania innych, rzadkich gatunków morskich stworzeń, forma akwakultury. Hodowla prowadzona jest w wodzie morskiej. Termin obejmuje również wiedzę teoretyczną i badania z tej dziedziny. +Legwan morski + +Legwan morski ("Amblyrhynchus cristatus") – gatunek gada z rodziny legwanów. Jest jedyną jaszczurką żywiącą się w morzu. +Newcastle United F.C. + + Newcastle United Football Club – angielski klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Newcastle upon Tyne, występujący w rozgrywkach Premier League. Jest to zdobywca 4 mistrzostw Anglii. Swoje mecze rozgrywa na Sport Direct Arena. +Historia. +Klub został założony w 1892 roku po fuzji dwóch miejscowych klubów, Newcastle East End i Newcastle West End. Siedzibą klubu jest stadion Sports Direct Arena. Ośrodki szkoleniowe znajdują się na Darsley Park oraz w Little Benton. Newcastle UTD od dawna walczy z lokalnym rywalem Sunderland A.F.C. w znanych na całą Anglię The Tyne-Wear Derby. W roku 2010 Newcastle powróciło do Premier League.Pierwszy swój tytuł mistrzowski Newcastle wygrało w roku 1905. Na drugi tytuł kibice czekali 2 lata, kolejne rozgrywki wygrywali w latach 1908-1909 i 1926-1927. Klub może także pochwalić się sporą ilością Pucharów Angli, a jest ich 6. Udawało im się także wygrywać Superpuchar Anglii, czy Puchar Miast Targowych. W sezonie 2011/12 z zespołu odeszło kilka piłkarzy min:Kevin Nolan, Alan Barton i Jose Enrique. Do klubu dołączyli Yohan Cabaye i Demba Ba. Newcastle w tym sezonie nie odniosło porażki przez 11 meczów, przegrywając dopiero z Manchester City F.C.. Później klub zaczął tracić punkty w lidze i spadli z 3 na 7 miejsce. Jednak w styczniu 2012 roku Sroki pozyskały Papisa Cisse. Newcastle znów zaczęło grać dobrze i awansowało o kilka pozycji w górę. Na koniec sezonu klub pokonał Chelsea 2-0 po dwóch trafieniach Papisa Cisse. Ostatecznie klub zajął 5 miejsce w lidze wyprzedzając Chelsea i Everton, dwa kluby pozostające w europejskich pucharach. +Sezon 2012/13. +Newcastle nowy sezon 2012/13 zaczęło od pokonania Tottenhamu Hotspur. Niestety w drugiej kolejce Sroki przegrały 2-0 z Chelsea. Dalsza faza sezonu w wykonaniu klubu była bardzo zła i musiał bronić się przed strefą spadkową. Jednak później Newcastle zaczęło wygrywać i odbiło się od strefy spadkowej. +Stroje. +Producenci. +2012- +Stroje i odznaki. +Barwy klubu są białe i czarne. Na początku Newcastle grało w czerwonych strojach z białymi szortami. Stroje klubu bardzo często się zmieniały. W latach 1914-1961 grali w białe koszule i czarne spodenki. W roku 2003 Newcastle podpisało umowę z Nothern Rock. W styczniu 2010 roku na koszulkach klubu pojawił się znak Puma. Od sezonu 2012/13 klub sponsoruje firma Virgin Money. +St. James' Park. +Najstarszy i największy stadion w północno-wschodniej Anglii oddany został do użytku w 1880 roku. Stadion ma pojemność 52 387 widzów, jest on trzecim pod względem wielkości stadionem Premier League i siódmym co do wielkości stadionem piłkarskim w Wielkiej Brytanii. Położony w centrum Newcastle; białe skrzydło dachu jest widoczne w całym mieście i jest największym wspornikowym dachem w Europie. +W latach 1998-2000 miała miejsce ostatnia przebudowa stadionu, która zwiększyła pojemność do ponad 52 000 miejsc; koszt całej przebudowy wyniósł około 42mln funtów. +Trenerzy. +Od roku 2010 Newcastle jest prowadzone przez Alana Pardewa. Obecny szkoleniowiec razem z klubem występuje w Premier League. +Kody NATO samolotów ZSRR + +Nazwy kodowe NATO samolotów i śmigłowców używanych w ZSRR i państwach bloku wschodniego. +W zestawieniu występują również samoloty produkcji USA przekazane Rosjanom w ramach pomocy w czasie II wojny światowej oraz kilka konstrukcji chińskich. +Pierwsza litera nazwy samolotu w kodzie NATO jest taka sama, jak nazwa tego typu samolotu, do którego należy, w języku angielskim. Przykładowo, myśliwce zaczynają się od "F" ("fighter"), bombowce od "B" ("bomber") itp. Wyjątkiem są m.in. samoloty szturmowe, które nie posiadają oddzielnej kategorii, lecz kwalifikowane są albo jako bombowce, albo jako myśliwce. Nazwa jednosylabowa oznacza maszynę o napędzie tłokowym, dwusylabowa - odrzutowym (zasada nie stosowana dla śmigłowców). +Część z wymienionych samolotów pozostała jedynie w stadium prototypu lub nie weszła ostatecznie do użycia. +Sound of White Noise + +Sound of White Noise – szósty studyjny album zespołu Anthrax. Został wydany w Stanach Zjednoczonych 17 maja 1993 roku przez wytwórnię płytową Elektra Records. Płyta dotarła do 7. miejsca listy Billboard 200 w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Według danych z kwietnia 2002 album sprzedał się w nakładzie 511, 284 egzemplarzy na terenie Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Konchikultura + +Konchikultura – hodowla małży w celach konsumpcyjnych (ostrygi, omułki i in.) i gospodarczych (perłopławy), forma akwakultury. +Alpy Gailtalskie + +Alpy Gailtalskie (niem. "Gailtaler Alpen" lub "Drauzug") – część Alp Wschodnich w Austrii, między doliną górnej Drawy i jej prawym dopływem Gail. Leżą na terytorium dwóch krajów związkowych: Karyntii i Wschodniego Tyrolu. Zachodnia część pasma, nazywana "Dolomitami Lienzkimi" od pobliskiego miasta Lienz, jest wyższa i bardziej okazała niż wschodnia. Najwyższym szczytem wschodniej części jest Reißkofel (2371 m), jeszcze tylko parę szczytów osiąga ponad 2000 m. W całym paśmie najwyższym szczytem jest Große Sandspitze (2770 m). +Alpy Gailtalskie graniczą z: Ankogelgruppe, Kreuzeckgruppe, Schobergruppe na północy, Villgratner Berge na północnym zachodzie, Alpami Karnickimi i Karawankami na południu oraz z Alpami Gurktalskimi na wschodzie. +Większość pasma nie posiada infrastruktury narciarskiej, poza okolicami Spittal i Villach. Reszta pasma nie nosi zbyt wielu śladów działalności człowieka. Rejon posiada liczne jeziora, z których największe to Weißensee. Rozciąga się ono na 20 km w kierunku z zachodu na wschód i osiąga głębokość prawie 100 m. Innym znaczącym jeziorem jest Pressegger See na wschód od Hermagor, głównego miasta doliny Gailtal. +Wyspy Seszeli + +Republika Seszeli składa się ze 115 wysp, dzielących się na zbudowane głównie ze skał granitowych Wyspy Wewnętrzne oraz koralowe Wyspy Zewnętrzne, rozłożone na powierzchni ponad 400 tys. km2 Oceanu Indyjskiego. +Główne wyspy. +Mahé. +Największa wyspa Seszeli z ponad 60-ma plażami. Leży na niej stolica kraju Victoria, zamieszkana przez prawie połowę ludności Seszeli. Na samej wyspie mieszka natomiast aż blisko 90% mieszkańców kraju. Znajduje się tu też główne międzynarodowe lotnisko - port lotniczy Mahé. Na Mahé przez cały rok utrzymuje się temperatura ok. 27 °C. Najwyższy szczyt Morne Seychellois (905 m n.p.m.) jest zarazem najwyższym wzniesieniem kraju. Mimo rozwoju rolnictwa w ciągu ostatnich 300 lat historii wyspy, wciąż znajdują się tu gęste kompleksy wilgotnego lasu równikowego, a w północnej części Mahé, występują także lasy namorzynowe. +Praslin. +Druga pod względem wielkości wyspa Seszeli. Francuski podróżnik Lazare Picault odkrył tę wyspę w 1774 roku i nazwał ją "Ile de Palmes", zauroczony widokiem lasów i mnogością palm kokosowych. Później Mation Dufresne przemianował wyspę na Praslin w uznaniu zasług Césara Gabriela de Choiseula, księcia de Praslin. Na wyspie znajduje się tylko kilka małych wiosek, a pięć tysięcy mieszkańców to głównie rybacy, rolnicy albo osoby obsługujące turystów. Główną atrakcją wyspy jest rezerwat przyrody Valle de Mai. Wyspa jest atrakcyjnym miejscem dla nurków ze względu na występujące wokół niej rafy koralowe liczące ponad 8000 lat. +Silhouette. +Silhouette jest trzecią co do wielkości wyspą Seszeli. Rośnie na niej jeden z najbardziej zbitych lasów deszczowych na Oceanie Indyjskim. Przez wiele lat mieszkał tu pirat Jean Hodoul, który według miejscowych legend zakopał skarb w jednej ze szczelin skalnych na wyspie. Najwyższym szczytem jest Mont Dauban (740m), otoczony lasem deszczowym, będący siedliskiem endemicznego drzewa balsamowego. Występuje tu też największe bogactwo gatunków fauny i flory na Oceanie Indyjskim. +Infrastruktura turystyczna jest uboga, jednak od niedawana działa tu jeden luksusowy hotel. +La Digue. +La Digue jest przykładem tego, jak wyglądały Seszele zanim przybył na nie człowiek. Nie ma tam asfaltowych dróg i tylko kilka samochodów zakłóca ciszę. Głównym środkiem transportu jest rower lub wołowy zaprzęg. Wyspa La Digue jest uważana za najczystszą na Seszelach, z niezmienioną od wieków tradycją, nawet lokalna ludność używa innego dialektu niż reszta kraju. Na wyspie znajdują się długie i piaszczyste plaże upstrzone granitowymi głazami. Niemal cała wyspa otoczona jest rafą koralową, co sprawia, że przypływające tu promy i łodzie mogą cumować tylko w jednym miejscu - zlokalizowano tu jedyny port wyspy. +Część wyspy objęta jest ochroną w ramach "La Digue Veuve Reserve". +André Vingt-Trois + +André Armand Vingt-Trois (ur. 7 listopada 1942 w Paryżu), francuski duchowny katolicki, arcybiskup Paryża, od 24 listopada 2007 kardynał. +W 1962 r. wstąpił do seminarium "de Saint-Sulpice" w Issy-les-Moulineaux. Ukończył studia w zakresie teologii moralnej w Institut Catholique w Paryżu. 28 czerwca 1969 r. przyjął święcenia kapłańskie z rąk kardynała François Marty (arcybiskupa Paryża) i został inkardynowany do archidiecezji paryskiej. +W latach 1969-1974 był wikarym w parafii św. Joanny Chantal, gdzie proboszczem był ks. Jean-Marie Lustiger. Zajmował się głównie katechizacją i formacją świeckich. W latach 1974-1981 był kierownikiem duchowym oraz wykładowcą teologii moralnej i sakramentalnej w seminarium "de Saint-Sulpice" w Issy-les-Moulineaux. Brał udział w pracach różnych ruchów zajmujących się duszpasterstwem rodzin i przygotowaniem do sakramentu małżeństwa. Prowadził również kursy w ramach stałej formacji kapłanów. +W latach 1981-1999 był wikariuszem generalnym archidiecezji paryskiej i bliskim współpracownikiem kard. Jean-Marie Lustigera, którego jest następcą. W Paryżu zajmował się przede wszystkim szkolnictwem, duszpasterstwem w katedrze, seminarium diecezjalnym, środkami społecznego przekazu, duszpasterstwem rodzin, działalnością charytatywną i katechizacją. +25 czerwca 1988 r. został mianowany przez papieża Jana Pawła II biskupem pomocniczym w Paryżu z biskupią stolicą tytularną Tibili. Święcenia biskupie przyjął 14 października z rąk kolejnego arcybiskupa paryskiego, kardynała Jeana-Marie Lustigera. 21 kwietnia 1999 r. został mianowany metropolitą Tours. Jego ingres odbył się 16 maja. +11 lutego 2005 został mianowany arcybiskupem Paryża i ordynariuszem katolików obrządku wschodniego mieszkających we Francji i nie posiadających własnego ordynariusza, w miejsce odchodzącego w stan spoczynku kardynała Lustigera. Objęcie archidiecezji przez nowego metropolitę nastąpiło 5 marca 2005. +Jest członkiem Kongregacji ds. Biskupów i Papieskiej Rady ds. Rodziny. Podczas zgromadzenia plenarnego Konferencji Episkopatu Francji, które odbyło się na początku listopada 2007 r. w Lourdes, wybrano go na jej przewodniczącego. +Na konsystorzu z dnia 24 listopada 2007 r. został kreowany przez papieża Benedykta XVI kardynałem prezbiterem S. Luigi dei Francesi. +Anders Knutson Ångström + +Anders Knutson Ångström (ur. 28 lutego 1888 w Sztokholmie, zm. 27 października 1981) – szwedzki geofizyk, członek Szwedzkiej Akademii Nauk (od 1948). Syn Knuta Johana Ångströma. +Od 1949 dyrektor instytutu meteorologicznego i hydrologicznego w Sztokholmie. +Prowadził prace dotyczące aktywności Słońca, zmian stałej słonecznej oraz bilansu cieplnego Ziemi i atmosfery ziemskiej. Skonstruował pyranometr. +New York style salsa + +Salsa New York Style on 2 to odmiana salsy. Szczególnie wyjątkowe w prawdziwym Salsa New York Style (w Nowym Jorku jeszcze ciągle nazywanym mambo), jest akcentowanie "na 2", a nie "na 1" lub "na 3", jak w innych odmianach salsy. +W latach 60. XX wieku w dzielnicach kulturalnej "mieszanki" Nowego Jorku, najróżniejsze style taneczne zmieszały się ze sobą i tak powstała salsa. Jej składnikami były: kubański son, rumba i cha-cha, bomba i plena z Puerto Rico i przede wszystkim mambo. Tak powstała szybka mieszanka "Salsa New York Style": szybkie kombinacje kroków i efektowne obroty (wywodzące się z północnoamerykańskich tańców hustle, swing), zmiany między tańcem w parach, a elementami solowymi (wpływy portorykańskie). Ruchy są łagodne, eleganckie i raczej kobiece (dotyczy to również figur męskich). W NY-Style kobieta jest w centrum i to do niej należą liczne, szybkie obroty i seksowne ruchy. +Punkt regularny + +Punkt regularny – w geometrii, punkt leżący na krzywej, taki że przez punkt ten przechodzi dokładnie jedna styczna. Wszystkie punkty regularne krzywej tworzą łuk regularny. +Teoria różniczkowania. +Niech formula_1 będą przestrzeniami Banacha oraz odwzorowanie formula_2 będzie różniczkowalne w punkcie formula_3 takim, że formula_4. Punkt formula_5 nazywamy punktem regularnym zbioru formula_6, jeżeli pochodna odwzorowania formula_7 w punkcie formula_5 jest suriekcją formula_9. +Gmina Stare Czarnowo + +Gmina Stare Czarnowo – gmina wiejska w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w północno-wschodniej części powiatu gryfińskiego. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie szczecińskim. +W skład gminy wchodzi 13 sołectw : Binowo, Dębina, Dobropole Gryfińskie, Glinna, Kartno, Kołbacz, Kołowo, Komorówko, Nieznań, Stare Czarnowo, Żelewo i Żelisławiec. +Siedzibą gminy jest wieś Stare Czarnowo. +powierzchnia 69., ludność 95. +Gmina stanowi 8,2% powierzchni powiatu. +Demografia. +Gminę zamieszkuje 4,7% ludności powiatu. +Przyroda i turystyka. +Gmina leży na Równinie Pyrzycko-Stargardzkiej oraz w obrębie Puszczy Bukowej i Szczecińskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. Na terenie Parku znajduje się 6 rezerwatów przyrody oraz najwyższe wzniesienie okolic Szczecina, Góra Bukowiec o wysokości 148,4 m n.p.m. Ważną część przyrodniczych zasobów gminy stanowią też jeziora: Glinna, Binowskie i Będgoszcz (północna część). Przepływająca przez gminę rzeka Płonia tworząca jezioro Żelewko jest dostępna dla kajaków, w okolicach wsi Żelewo Płonia wpada do jeziora Miedwie. Przez Puszczę Bukową prowadzi wiele szlaków turystycznych. Tereny leśne zajmują 44% powierzchni gminy, a użytki rolne 44%. +Komunikacja. +Przez gminę prowadzi była droga krajowa nr 3 łącząca Stare Czarnowo przez Kołbacz (3 km) ze skrzyżowaniem w granicach Szczecina z drogą krajową nr 10 (10 km) i autostradą A6 (13 km) oraz z Pyrzycami (17 km). Droga wojewódzka nr 120 łączy Stare Czarnowo z Gryfinem (20 km), a droga wojewódzka nr 143 Kołbacz z Kobylanką (8 km). +Stare Czarnowo uzyskało połączenie kolejowe w 1898 r. po wybudowaniu linii ze stacji Szczecin Lotnisko. W 1905 r. linia została przedłużona do Sobieradza położonego na linii Gryfino - Pyrzyce. W ten sposób cała Puszcza Bukowa otoczona została torami. Po 1966 r. linia została zamknięta, a ok. 1992 r. część od Płonii do Sobieradza rozebrana. +W gminie czynny jest 1 urząd pocztowy: Stare Czarnowo (nr 74-106). +Zabytki. +Najbogatszą w zabytki miejscowością na terenie gminy jest Kołbacz. +Ciekawe miejsca. +Cmentarz wojenny. +Na terenie gminy funkcjonuje niemiecki cmentarz wojenny w Glinnej dla poległych i zmarłych w czasie II wojny światowej na Pomorzu. Docelowo ma mieścić do 30 000 szczątków ekshumowanych z różnych miejsc na terenie województwa, np. z likwidowanych cmentarzy. +Ciekawostka. +Pod koniec listopada 2007 r. prezydent Szczecina, Piotr Krzystek przedstawił władzom gminy Stare Czarnowo propozycję włączenia jej terytorium w granice miasta. Propozycja nie została zaakceptowana. +Pozostałe miejscowości niesołeckie. +Miejscowości bez satusu sołectwa: Będogoszcz, Binówko, Modrzewko, Węglino, Kołówko, Gliniec, Małolesie, Osetne Pole. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Szczecin (powiat grodzki), gmina Gryfino (w powiecie gryfińskim), gminy Bielice, Pyrzyce i Warnice (w powiecie pyrzyckim), gminy Kobylanka i Stargard Szczeciński (w powiecie stargardzkim) +Kapłan + +Kapłan – osoba, która spełnia w imieniu wspólnoty funkcje kultowe i rytualne. Funkcje te nadają jej rolę przynajmniej częściowego pośrednika między Bogiem a ludźmi. Na ogół posiada pewne religijne przywileje, w zamian za co musi poddawać się określonym wymogom religijnej czystości. Kapłanom powierza się często również funkcje duchowej opieki oraz władzy religijnej nad członkami wspólnot. Kapłanem zostaje się jako wybrany przez wspólnotę lub też przez innych kapłanów. Dostęp do kapłaństwa może być ograniczony względami fizycznymi, płcią, dyspozycjami psychicznymi bądź też zdolnościami wrodzonymi i nabytymi. Właściwe stawanie się kapłanem (święcenia kapłańskie) stanowi chwilę o wysokim znaczeniu rytualnym, poprzedzoną okresem nauk i prób. +W rozwiniętych społecznościach powstały złożone hierarchie kapłańskie, których niereligijna rola była również olbrzymia, w szczególności w gospodarce, ekonomii władzy, nauce, polityce. Silna pozycja kapłańska wpłynęła również na historię sztuki i architektury. +U dawnych Słowian ofiarnik i kapłan znany był jako Żerca (żyrca, żyrzec, żerzec). Występował także Wołchw, jako swego rodzaju odpowiednik szamana, znanego z innych kultur pierwotnych. +Bardzo często, zarówno we wspólnotach prymitywnych, jak i dzisiaj, istnieje połączenie ról politycznych z religijnymi, w skrajnych sytuacjach wówczas władca polityczny jest również najwyższym kapłanem i głową wspólnoty religijnej (zob. anglikanizm). +Słowo kapłan jest najwłaściwszym określeniem duchownego w mariawityzmie. Wszyscy kapłani mariawiccy obok imienia zakonnego, podczas obłóczyn otrzymują imię Maria. +Brama Zielona + +Brama Zielona Głównego Miasta (niem. "Grünes Tor", dawniej Brama Kogi) – prawdopodobnie najstarsza z bram wodnych Gdańska, wzmiankowana w roku 1357. +Brama Zielona to pierwszy w Gdańsku przykład manieryzmu niderlandzkiego, stylu, który nadał miastu charakterystyczne piętno. +Historia. +Została zbudowana w latach 1564-1568 przez Regniera z Amsterdamu i drezdeńczyka Hansa Kramera, jako gdańska rezydencja królów polskich. +Wraz z bramami Złotą i Wyżynną spinała ciąg ulicy Długiej i Długiego Targu, zwany Drogą Królewską. Dalej, poprzez Zielony Most, Bramę Stągiewną i Długie Ogrody (Brama Żuławska) prowadził trakt na Elbląg i Królewiec. +Mimo swego przeznaczenia, Brama Zielona nigdy polskich królów nie gościła. Zatrzymała się tu jedynie przejazdem przyszła żona Władysława IV, a później Jana Kazimierza, Maria Ludwika Gonzaga (11-20 lutego 1646). Mieściło się tutaj natomiast Towarzystwo Przyrodnicze, przeniesione wkrótce do Domu Przyrodników. +Do budowy bramy wykorzystano niespotykane dotąd w gdańskim budownictwie cegły o małych rozmiarach, nazwane holenderskimi z uwagi na to że zostały sprowadzone jako balast w ładowniach statków z Amsterdamu. +Dzisiaj brama mieści oddział Muzeum Narodowego w Gdańsku. Organizowane są tu wystawy czasowe, różnego rodzaju spotkania, konferencje i pokazy. W jednym z pomieszczeń Zielonej Bramy znajduje się biuro byłego prezydenta III RP Lecha Wałęsy. +Liliowate + +Liliowate ("Liliaceae" Juss.) – rodzina roślin należąca do klasy jednoliściennych. Wszystkie rodzaje i gatunki można spotkać tylko na półkuli północnej. Wyróżniają się one posiadaniem cebuli właściwej, rzadziej kłącza. W wyniku badań filogenetycznych znacznie przebudowana została systematyka tej rodziny. Kiedyś do liliowatych zaliczano liczne rośliny kłączowe i czasami drzewiaste jak np. dracena czy jukka, np. w systemie Cronquista (1981) należało tu 280 rodzajów i 4,8 tysiąca gatunków. Dawne szerokie ujęcie obejmowało nie powiązane filogenetycznie rośliny, z liliowatych wyodrębniono więc szereg rodzin rozdzielonych między dwa rzędy – liliowców i szparagowców. +Charakterystyka. +Geofity obejmujące dwie grupy różniące się morfologią i ekologią. Liliowate preferujące siedliska otwarte (światłolubne) (podrodzina "Lilioideae") to rośliny cebulowe, ze zwykle okazałymi kwiatami, z liśćmi mocno wydłużonymi, owocami są torebki. Gatunki leśne (podrodzina "Streptopoideae") to zwykle rośliny kłączowe, z kwiatami niepozornymi, owocami są jagody. Cecha wspólną jest 6 wolnych listków okwiatu, z pylnikami osadzonymi po zewnętrznej stronie nitki, z zalążnią górną. +Systematyka. +Klad siostrzany dla rodziny kolcoroślowate "Smilacaceae". Wchodzi w skład linii rozwojowej obejmującej także rodziny "Philesiaceae" i "Rhipogonaceae", należącej do kladu liliowców w obrębie jednoliściennych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa jednoliścienne ("Liliopsida" Brongn.), podklasa liliowe ("Liliidae" J.H. Schaffn.), nadrząd "Lilianae" Takht., rząd liliowce ("Liliales" Perleb), podrząd "Liliineae" Rchb., rodzina liliowate ("Liliaceae" Juss.) +Oznaczenie CE + +Oznaczenie/Oznakowanie CE (Conformité Européenne) umieszczone na wyrobie jest deklaracją producenta, że oznakowany produkt spełnia wymagania dyrektyw tzw. "Nowego Podejścia" Unii Europejskiej (UE). +Dyrektywy te dotyczą zagadnień związanych z bezpieczeństwem użytkowania, ochroną zdrowia i ochroną środowiska, określają zagrożenia, które producent powinien wykryć i wyeliminować. Producent oznaczając swój wyrób znakiem CE deklaruje, że wyrób ten spełnia wymagania wszystkich odnoszących się do niego dyrektyw. +Aby oznakować swój wyrób znakiem CE, producent wykonuje analizy i podejmuje działania dla spełnienia odnośnych wymagań, a następnie poddaje produkt procedurze oceny zgodności z odpowiednimi dyrektywami. Przebieg i wyniki działań producent dokumentuje. +Procedura oceny zgodności realizowana jest przez producenta (lub jego upoważnionego przedstawiciela) poprzez wykonanie sekwencji określonych przepisami działań (tzw. modułów oznaczanych zwykle wielkimi literami). Wybór sekwencji modułów zależy od producenta, który wybiera ją według własnego uznania z możliwości określonych w dyrektywie dotyczącej danego wyrobu. Przykładowo, w przypadku licznika energii elektrycznej producent może wybrać sekwencje: B+D, B+F albo H1. Warto zauważyć, że sekwencja ta może składać się z jednego modułu. +W wielu przypadkach (w zależności od wyrobu) procedura oceny zgodności wymaga udziału tzw. Jednostki Notyfikowanej (Strona Trzecia). Jest to organizacja wyznaczona przez władze krajowe do wykonywania zadań wynikających z dyrektyw, (zobacz do Decyzji Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady 768/2008/WE). Jeżeli produkt wymaga tylko oceny zgodnie z modułem A (wewnętrzna kontrola produkcji) – producent sam (bez udziału Strony Trzeciej) dokonuje oceny. W pozostałych przypadkach (moduły B-H2)- producent zgłasza się do wybranej przez siebie Jednostki Notyfikowanej w celu dokonania oceny zgodności swojego produktu. Producent ma swobodę wyboru Jednostki z całego obszaru UE. +Istotnym pojęciem związanym z oceną zgodności jest "domniemanie zgodności" polegające na uznaniu, że wyroby, które spełniają wymagania zawarte w normach krajowych implementujących normy zharmonizowane, których numery opublikowano w Dzienniku Urzędowym Wspólnot Europejskich, są zgodne z wymaganiami zasadniczymi. +Jeśli producent nie zastosował takiej normy, lub zastosował ją częściowo, musi udokumentować działania podjęte w celu spełnienia wymagań zasadniczych oraz ich zasadność. +Działania oceniające zamyka wystawienie przez producenta deklaracji zgodności EC (WE) (wyjątkiem była "stara" Dyrektywa Bezpieczeństwa Zabawek TSD 88/378/EWG, która nie przewidywała wystawiania deklaracji, albowiem "nowa" TSD 2009/48/WE, która weszła w życie 20 lipca 2011 r. już przewiduje wystawienie deklaracji zgodności zabawki). Dla przypadków określonych w pozostałych dyrektywach, deklaracja ta jest dołączona do produktu, albo udostępniana na żądanie organów nadzoru rynku. +Wszystkie te działania zostały ustanowione w celu eliminowania barier w przepływie towarów na rynku Unii. Kraje członkowskie nie mogą zakazać wprowadzenia na swój rynek wyrobu z oznakowaniem CE. +Jeśli dany wyrób podlega przepisom chociaż jednej dyrektywy nowego podejścia, to bez oznakowania CE nie może być wprowadzany do obrotu ani użytkowania na terenie Unii Europejskiej. +Organy nadzoru rynku mają za zadanie egzekwowanie prawa europejskiego chroniącego interesy konsumentów i pracowników oraz zapobieganie nieuczciwej konkurencji. W Polsce zadania organu nadzoru rynku spełnia Prezes Urzędu Ochrony Konkurencji i Konsumenta. +Nie można mylić obowiązkowego w Polsce do dnia 30 kwietnia 2004 r (przed wejściem Polski do UE) znaku bezpieczeństwa "B" z oznakowaniem CE. Dziś znak "B" ma charakter wyłącznie dobrowolny (z wyjątkiem dyrektywy poświęconej materiałom budowlanym). +Znaczenie. +Istniejące w swojej obecnej formie od 1993 roku, oznaczenie CE jest kluczowym wskaźnikiem spełniania przez produkt wymogów prawnych Unii Europejskiej, umożliwiającym wolny przepływ towarów na rynku europejskim. Przez umieszczenie znaku CE na produkcie, wytwórca deklaruje, na własną odpowiedzialność, że jego produkt jest zgodny ze wszystkimi wymaganiami prawnymi, koniecznymi do uzyskania znaku CE, zapewniając tym samym możliwość sprzedaży tego produktu na terenie Europejskiej Strefy Ekonomicznej (EEA, 27 państw członkowskich UE i krajów EFTA- Islandii, Norwegii i Liechtensteinu), jak również Turcji. Dotyczy to również produktów wykonanych w krajach trzeciego świata, sprzedawanych na terenie EEA i Turcji. +Znak CE nie wskazuje, że produkt został wytworzony na terenie EEA, a jedynie poświadcza fakt, iż produkt został przetestowany przed wprowadzeniem go na rynek i tym samym spełnia wymogi prawne (np. wymogi bezpieczeństwa) umożliwiające jego sprzedaż. +Oznacza to, że wytwórca zweryfikował zgodność produktu z odpowiednimi wymogami (tj. z wymogiem bezpieczeństwa, ochrony zdrowia i ochrony środowiska naturalnego) dyrektyw – albo, jeśli to przewidziano w dyrektywach, produkt został przetestowany przez wyznaczony organ kontroli zgodności. +Niemniej jednak nie wszystkie produkty muszą nosić znak CE. Dotyczy to jedynie kategorii produktów podlegających określonych dyrektywom, przewidującym konieczność znakowania CE. +Produkty ze znakiem CE są kupowane nie tylko przez klientów specjalistycznych (jak np. sprzęt medyczny, windy, maszyny i przyrządy pomiarowe), ale również przez zwykłych konsumentów (zabawki, komputery, telefony komórkowe i żarówki). +Kraje, w których jest wymagane oznaczenie CE. +Znakowanie CE jest obowiązkowe dla pewnych grup produktów w Europejskiej Strefie Ekonomicznej (EEA), w której skład wchodzi 27 państw członkowskich UE i kraje EFTA – Islandia, Norwegia i Liechtenstein. Znak ten jest również obowiązkowy dla wszystkich produktów wytworzonych w krajach trzeciego świata, a sprzedawanych w strefie EEA. W takim przypadku importer musi się upewnić, że wytwórca spoza UE podjął niezbędne kroki, pozwalające mu umieścić na swym produkcie znak CE. +Zasady umieszczania znaku CE. +Wytwórca produktu sam umieszcza na nim znak CE, ale musi uprzednio przedsięwziąć odpowiednie kroki. Jego obowiązkiem jest przeprowadzenie kontroli zgodności, stworzenie dokumentacji technicznej i podpisanie deklaracji zgodności EC. Taka dokumentacja musi zostać udostępniona na żądanie odpowiednim organom. +Importerzy produktów muszą zweryfikować, czy wytwórca spoza UE przedsięwziął niezbędne kroki i czy dokumentacja może być udostępniona na żądanie. Importerzy powinni również się upewnić, czy kontakt z wytwórcą może zawsze być ustalony. +Dystrybutorzy muszą być w stanie wykazać władzom krajowym, że postępowali z należytą starannością. Muszą również posiadać zaświadczenie od wytwórcy bądź importera, potwierdzające iż przeprowadzono odpowiednie pomiary. +Jeśli importer bądź dystrybutor sprzedaje produkty pod nazwą własnej marki, przejmuje tym samym obowiązki producenta. W takim wypadku musi posiadać wystarczające informacje na temat projektu i procesu produkcji danego produktu, jako że przejmuje on odpowiedzialność prawną za umieszczenie oznakowania CE. +Konsekwencje prawne. +Istnieją mechanizmy sprawdzające, czy oznakowanie CE jest umieszczane na produktach poprawnie. +Kontrola znaku CE jest obowiązkiem władz publicznych w Państwach Członkowskich, we współpracy z Komisją Europejską. +Jeśli podejrzewa się nadużycia oznakowania CE, lub jeśli bezpieczeństwo produktu jest kwestionowane, obywatele mogą skontaktować się z krajowymi organami nadzoru rynkowego. +Procedury, środki i sankcje stosowane wobec przestępstwa fałszowania CE mogą się różnić, w zależności od krajowego prawa administracyjnego i karnego danego Państwa Członkowskiego. +W zależności od wagi przestępstwa, podmioty gospodarcze mogą podlegać karze grzywny, a w niektórych okolicznościach karze więzienia. +Jednakże, jeśli produkt nie jest uznany za stwarzający bezpośrednie zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa, producent może otrzymać drugą szansę zapewnienia, że jego produkt jest zgodny z obowiązującym prawodawstwem, zanim zostanie on zobowiązany do usunięcia produktu z rynku. +Manomir + +Manomir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Mano-" ("zwodzić, mamić") i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Imię to mogło oznaczać "ten, kto wodzi pokój na manowce" albo "ten, kto mami dobrymi perspektywami". +Manomir imieniny obchodzi 6 stycznia. +Para Para Paradise + +Para Para Paradise jest grą muzyczną polegającą na wykonywaniu rękoma określonych ruchów w rytm odtwarzanych piosenek, zgodnie z układami tanecznymi stylu Para Para lub w stylu dowolnym. +Ruchy rąk są rejestrowane przez pięć czujników podczerwieni, umieszczonych przed graczem, w półkolu od lewej do prawej strony. Prawidłowy ruch polega na przesunięciu dłonią (albo przedramieniem lub łokciem) nad odpowiednim czujnikiem w wyznaczonym przez grę momencie, lub też utrzymaniu dłoni nad czujnikiem przez wyznaczony czas. Wymagane przez grę sekwencje ruchów składają się w układy taneczno-rytmiczne o różnym stopniu trudności. +Warianty. +Koreańska wersja tej gry nosi nazwę "Para Para Dancing". +Istnieje wersja tej gry na konsolę Sony Playstation 2, wykorzystująca specjalistyczny kontroler, dość dobrze imitujący funkcjonowanie automatu. Składa się na niego pięć umieszczanych na podłodze czujników, połączonych kablem. Prawidłowe ułożenie czujników ułatwia dołączony do nich papierowy szablon. +Lokalizacje w Polsce. +W Polsce znajdują się obecnie trzy automaty "Para Para Dancing": dwa w salonie gier w Bydgoszczy oraz jeden automat w ośrodku Skorzęcin, nad jeziorem o tej samej nazwie, znajdującym się w pobliżu Gniezna. W Warszawie nie ma już automatów Para Para. +Mistrzostwa Świata w Piłce Nożnej 1994 (składy) + +Poniżej znajduje się lista zawodników poszczególnych reprezentacji narodowych zgłoszonych do turnieju finałowego Mistrzostw Świata w Piłce Nożnej 1994, który odbył się w USA od 17 czerwca do 17 lipca 1994 roku. +Audyt + +Audyt – danej osoby, organizacji, systemu, procesu, projektu lub produktu. Audyt jest przeprowadzany w celu upewnienia się co do prawdziwości i rzetelności informacji, a także oceny systemu kontroli wewnętrznej. Celem audytu jest wyrażenie opinii na temat osoby / organizacji / systemu itd. w ramach oceny w oparciu o przeprowadzone testy. Ze względów praktycznych, celem audytu jest dostarczenie tylko racjonalnego zapewnienia, o braku istotnych błędów, dlatego w audycie stosowane są często statystyczne metody doboru próby do badania. +Audyt polega na ocenie przez kompetentny i niezależny zespół audytujący czy dany przedmiot audytu spełnia wymagania. Zespół audytujący składa się z jednego lub więcej audytorów. +Celem audytu może być weryfikacja, czy cel wyznaczony przez organizację audytowaną został osiągnięty lub czy jej działania są zgodne z zaakceptowanymi standardami, statusem czy praktykami. Audyt ocenia także procedury kontrolne celem stwierdzenia, czy przedmiot audytu także w przyszłości będzie odpowiadał uzgodnionym do stosowania wymaganiom. Oprócz oceny wskazuje także zalecenia zmian w procedurach, w tym sprawdzających oraz w politykach. +Audyt to ocena zgodności teraz i w przeszłości. +Audyt czy audit. +Słowo audit w praktyce jest błędnie stosowane zamiennie ze słowem audyt. Pomimo tego, że słowo "audit" nie jest poprawnym terminem i nie występuje w słowniku języka polskiego, jednak na stałe wpisało się w słownictwo osób (audytorów, konsultantów, menedżerów) zaangażowanych w systemy zarządzania jakością, środowiskiem i bhp. Stosowanie słowa "audit" jest skutkiem błędnego tłumaczenia norm ISO 9001 i ISO 14001 przez Polski Komitet Normalizacyjny (PKN) – nie jest on jednak konsekwentny w stosowaniu tej formy, gdyż w normie PN-ISO/IEC 27001:2007 użyto terminu "audyt". +RJP interweniowała w tej sprawie w PKN-ie, otrzymała jednak odpowiedź, że forma "audit" została wcześniej zaaprobowana przez językoznawcę, który został poproszony o konsultację. +Korba + +Korba, element mechanizmów dźwigniowych, służący do przeniesienia ruchu obrotowego długiego ramienia R na ruch obrotowy wału o mniejszym promieniu r. Korba ma zazwyczaj konstrukcję w kształcie jednokrotnie lub dwukrotnie zagiętego pręta zaklinowanego jednym końcem na osi wału. Przykładem tego rodzaju korby jest np. korba rowerowa, w której ruch stóp kolarza po obwodzie koła wywołuje obrót całego mechanizmu wokół osi. Ruch tego mechanizmu potem przekazywany jest poprzez przekładnię łańcuchową dalej, do koła napędowego. Zwykła klamka u drzwi też jest odmianą korby (z pręta zagiętego jeden raz). +\frac{QR}{\alpha}=\frac{Fr}{\alpha}, a zatem: formula_1 +Korba występuje też jako element układu korbowego przenosząc ruch obrotowy wału na ruch posuwisto-zwrotny. +Pozytywka + +Pozytywka – instrument muzyczny, wydający dźwięki za pomocą zaczepiania metalowymi wypustkami umieszczonymi na obrotowym wałku o zęby odpowiednio nastrojonego metalowego grzebienia. +Zygmunt Smalcerz + +Zygmunt Antoni Smalcerz (ur. 8 czerwca 1941 w Bestwince koło Bielska-Białej) - polski sztangista, złoty medalista olimpijski, trener oraz działacz sportowy. +Karierę sportową rozpoczął od uprawiania gimnastyki sportowej. W 1960 za namową dr. Augustyna Dziedzica, ówczesnego trenera Waldemara Baszanowskiego, rozpoczął treningi ciężarowca. +W 1971 w Limie zdobył złoty medal mistrzostw świata w wadze muszej oraz był pierwszy w mistrzostwach Europy, a rok później na olimpiadzie w 1972 w Monachium ponownie stanął na najwyższym stopniu podium. Trzeci raz mistrzem świata został w 1975. +Kolejne igrzyska olimpijskie w 1976 w Montrealu, na których miał zdobyć swój drugi złoty medal, zakończyły się porażką. Smalcerz nie zaliczył żadnej próby w rwaniu i nie został sklasyfikowany. +Wszystkie międzynarodowe sukcesy odniósł startując w wadze muszej (do 52 kg). +W latach 1994-1996 i 2005-2009 trener polskiej kadry seniorów. Jest także działaczem w Polskim Komitecie Olimpijskim. +W 2002 r. został wpisany w poczet Galerii Sław Międzynarodowej Federacji Podnoszenia Ciężarów. +W 2009 r. przegrał konkurs na stanowisko trenera reprezentacji Polski w podnoszeniu ciężarów. Po wygraniu w 2010 konkursu w USA Zygmunt Smalcerz został trenerem amerykańskich sztangistów w Colorado Springs. +Akwakultura + +Akwakultura – forma gospodarki ludzkiej, mająca na celu zwiększenie pozyskiwania żywności (rzadziej innych produktów) ze środowiska wodnego; polega na hodowli wybranych rodzajów organizmów wodnych, głównie zwierzęcych, w naturalnych lub sztucznych zbiornikach wodnych – słodko- lub słonowodnych. Najprostszą i najpospolitszą odmianą akwakultury jest zapewnienie korzystnych warunków do bytowania licznym przedstawicielom danego gatunku użytkowego (ryb, mięczaków i in.) w mniej lub bardziej wydzielonej części akwenu. Bardziej intensywną formą jest hodowla w stawach, basenach lub wielkich, zanurzonych w wodzie pojemnikach (sadzach). W takich przypadkach stosuje się dokarmianie, zapewnia, o ile to konieczne, odpowiedni przepływ wody czy natlenianie, ochronę przed drapieżnikami i chorobami, a nawet podgrzewanie wody (np. próby hodowli ryb w basenach z wodą geotermalną) itp. W przypadku organizmów osiadłych (np. glony, ostrygi) zabiegi hodowlane polegają głównie na zwiększeniu powierzchni, na której mogłyby się osiedlać, przez układanie na dnie odpowiednich przedmiotów, np. zużytych opon samochodowych, zawieszanie sieci, sznurów, itp. +Za specyficzną formę akwakultury można uznać hodowlę perłopławów zapoczątkowaną w Japonii w celu uzyskania macicy perłowej i pereł. Mięczaki te są sztucznie pobudzane, przez wprowadzenie ciała obcego między ich muszlę a płaszcz, w celu zainicjowania wytwarzania perły. +W związku z niebezpieczeństwem przełowienia licznych populacji organizmów użytkowych, zwłaszcza morskich, akwakultura postrzegana jest jako alternatywa dla tradycyjnego rybołówstwa; przy odpowiednich zabiegach możliwe jest uzyskanie wydajności rzędu kilkuset ton z jednego hektara powierzchni wody. Tak intensywna hodowla może powodować zanieczyszczenie wód, zwłaszcza ich eutrofizację. +Zobacz też: marikultura, konchikultura. +Zamek Książąt Pomorskich w Szczecinie + +Zamek Książąt Pomorskich – renesansowy zamek usytuowany na Wzgórzu Zamkowym w Szczecinie, w sąsiedztwie Odry, historyczna siedziba rodu Gryfitów, władców księstwa Pomerania, oraz nazwa instytucji kultury, administrującej Zamkiem (niegdyś Wojewódzki Dom Kultury). +Historia. +Przed 1124 rokiem na wzgórzu zamkowym znajdował się gród słowiański z drewnianym dworem księcia Warcisława I. Po przeniesieniu przez księcia Barnima I w 1235 roku stolicy księstwa zachodniopomorskiego z Uznamia do Szczecina dwór został rozbudowany. +Początki dzisiejszego zamku sięgają 1346 roku, kiedy Barnim III, łamiąc przywileje szczecińskiego patrycjatu rozpoczął wznoszenie na wzgórzu zamkowym tzw. kamiennego domu. Obok kamiennego domu stanęła kaplica św. Ottona oraz tzw. duży dom z wieżą więzienną. W 1428 roku w mieście wybuchł bunt wywołany przez biedotę i rzemieślników. W zamian za stłumienie buntu książę Kazimierz V otrzymał od Rady Miejskiej znaczną sumę na rozbudowę i umocnienie kamiennego dworu. Wybudowano wówczas utrzymane w stylu późnogotyckim skrzydło południowe. +Po pożarze w 1530 roku rozpoczęto przebudowę zamku. Trwała 7 lat, w jej trakcie kamienny dom przebudowano w stylu renesansu w dwupiętrową budowlę z dwuspadowym dachem i wieżą zegarową. Dobudowano także wschodnie skrzydło. +W latach 1573−1582 książę Jan Fryderyk dokonał generalnej przebudowy zamku. Zburzono kamienny dom i kościół św. Ottona. Pozostawiono gotyckie skrzydło południowe, podwyższono wschodnie i dobudowano do nich skrzydła północne i zachodnie, zamykając w ten sposób dziedziniec. Do zamku doprowadzono także wodociąg. +Na początku XVII wieku za panowania Filipa II i Franciszka (I) za skrzydłem zachodnim dobudowano dwupiętrowe piąte skrzydło (obecnie skrzydło muzealne), tworząc w ten sposób drugi, mały dziedziniec. +Po wymarciu dynastii Gryfitów, od 1637 roku zamek był siedzibą namiestnika szwedzkiego, a od roku 1720 − garnizonu pruskiego. W 1752 roku Fryderyk II Wielki założył w skrzydle muzealnym mennicę. +Podczas panowania pruskiego zamek wielokrotnie przebudowywano, dostosowując do mieszczącego się tam garnizonu. Usunięto wiele ozdób. Największej dewastacji zamku dokonał garnizon pruski w XIX wieku, kiedy to zburzono sklepienia w skrzydle wschodnim, całkowicie przebudowano skrzydło południowe, wyburzono krużganki, zaś wewnątrz zamku wymurowano klatki schodowe i korytarze. +Po opuszczeniu przez garnizon w 1902 roku, zamek popadał stopniowo w dewastację. Roboty renowacyjne mające przywrócić zamkowi wygląd dawnej rezydencji podjęto w 1925 roku, jednak zaprzestano ich rok później. Mimo wielu planów, władze niemieckie do wybuchu II wojny światowej nie podjęły się kompleksowej renowacji zamku. W 1944 roku zamek został poważnie zniszczony podczas nalotów. +Po II wojnie światowej. +W 1946 roku rozpoczęto zabezpieczanie ruin zamku. Zajmowało się tymi pracami biuro Regionalnej Dyrekcji Planowania Przestrzennego, w której funkcję głównego urbanisty województwa szczecińskiego pełniła Helena Kurcyusz. Pod jej kierownictwem odkryto wówczas m.in. kryptę z sarkofagami książąt pomorskich. W 1948 roku na dziedzińcu zamku rozpoczęły się prace archeologiczne. +W latach 1958−1980 zamek został odbudowany (projekty konserwatorsko-renowacyjne opracował w latach 1958–1970 Stanisław Latour, profesor Politechniki Szczecińskiej). Przywrócono mu XVI-wieczny renesansowy wygląd, rekonstruując bryłę – na podstawie sztychu M. Meriana – oraz wnętrza skrzydła północnego. Na Zamku nie zachowało się wiele reliktów wyposażenia oryginalnego. Przede wszystkim gotyckie sklepienia w piwnicy, dwóch salach parterowych skrzydła południowego i freski w wieży zegarowej tamże. Pod skrzydłem północnym znajdują się też resztki gotyckiego kościoła św. Ottona - odkryta po wojnie krypta z sarkofagami książąt, obecnie udostępnionymi na Zamku. Kości książęce zostały złożone w katedrze św. Jakuba w Szczecinie. Natomiast ubiory i klejnoty książęce zostały przekazane do Muzeum Narodowego w Szczecinie, gdzie są eksponowane na wystawie „Złoty Wiek Pomorza” w gmachu przy ul. Staromłyńskiej. +Zamek jest własnością Zarządu Województwa Zachodniopomorskiego, który ma tam swoją siedzibę. W Zamku działają instytucje kultury: centrum kulturalne pn. „Zamek Książąt Pomorskich” obejmujące salą koncertową im. Bogusława I, sale wystawowe, kino „Zamek” , Teatr Krypta i kabaret Piwnica Przy Krypcie, stałe wystawy wnętrz, oraz Opera na Zamku. Oprócz tego funkcjonuje sala ślubów Urzędu Stanu Cywilnego i dwie restauracje. Na Zamku organizowane są koncerty, wystawy artystyczne i historyczne, spotkania literackie i naukowe, a na dziedzińcu imprezy kulturalne oraz koncerty.Na zamku odbyły się koncerty wielu znakomitych wykonawców muzyki jazzowej i rozrywkowej m.in. Jan Garbarek,Chic Corea,Marcus Miller,Manhattan Transfer,Bobby mc Ferrin ,Chris Botti,Paco de Lucia,Richard Bona,Gotan Project. +Na wieży zamku można podziwiać wahadło Foucaulta − doświadczalny dowód na ruch obrotowy Ziemi, umieszczone tam z inicjatywy profesora Jerzego Stelmacha (Uniwersytet Szczeciński), w ramach cyklu obrazującego dziesięć najpiękniejszych eksperymentów z fizyki. +Stepnica + +Stepnica (do 1945 niem. "Groß Stepenitz", daw. "Stobnica", hist. "Stepenitze") – wieś w północno-zachodniej Polsce, położona w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie goleniowskim, siedziba gminy Stepnica. Położona nad Roztoką Odrzańską, nad rzeką Gowienicą. We wsi znajduje się port morski. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 r. Stepnica miała 2082 mieszkańców. +Do Stepnicy prowadzi droga wojewódzka nr 112 z Goleniowa oraz kolej wąskotorowa z Golczewa i Gryfic (nieczynna od 1996). +Położenie. +Wieś jest położona nad Zatoką Stepnicką, częścią Roztoki Odrzańskiej, która jest południową zatoką Zalewu Szczecińskiego. Miejscowość leży na południe od ujściowego odcinka rzeki Gowienicy – pomiędzy rzeką kanałem Krępą a Łąckim Rowem. +Stepnica znajduje się w północnej części Doliny Dolnej Odry przy granicy z Równiną Goleniowską. +Miejscowość stanowi układ 32 ulic, osiedle 40-lecia PRL, a także dwie dodatkowe części miejscowości zwane Bogusławie (będące osobnym sołectwem) i Czerwonak (obejmuje obszar zabudowań w ciągu ulicy Krzywoustego). +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie szczecińskim. +Historia. +W okresie międzywojennym wieś rozwinęła się jako ośrodek turystyczny. Przybywali tutaj tłumnie mieszkańcy Szczecina i Goleniowa. Znajdowała się tutaj plaża, przystań jachtowa, bogata baza noclegowa, do molo przypływały statki białej floty. Działała również kolej wąskotorowa do Gryfic. +W trakcie II wojny światowej wieś nie ucierpiała. Ostatecznie miejscowość została zajęta w 1945 r. przez Armie Czerwoną i została przekazana administracji polskiej. +Po II wojnie światowej Stepnicę przyłączono do Polski. W latach 1945-1946 miejscowość nosiła przejściowo nazwę "Stobnica", obecną nazwę wprowadzono rozporządzeniem ministrów Administracji Publicznej i Ziem Odzyskanych z dnia 12 listopada 1946 roku. Wtedy także włączono do niej wieś Czerwonak. Nieużytkowaną linię kolejki wąskotorowej pod koniec lat 90. XX wieku zamknięto a później z czasem rozebrano. +We wtorek 3 czerwca 2008 r. w porcie w Rotterdamie odbyło się uroczyste nadanie statkowi duńskiej firmy Maersk imienia "MS Maersk Stepnica". +Zabytki. +Oficjalny status zabytku na terenie Stepnicy posiada jedynie kościół parafialny pw. św. Jacka (1741), ryglowy i otynkowany, wpisany do rejestru zabytków, styl klasycystyczny. +Gospodarka. +W miejscowości zlokalizowany jest port morski Stepnica o znaczeniu lokalnym, pełniący funkcje rybacką, żeglarską, a także handlowo-przeładunkową. We wsi znajdują się także zakłady drzewne szwedzkiej kompanii Sweedwood. Wieś nastawiona jest na usługi turystyczne (smażalnie ryb, restauracje, bary). +Turystyka. +Wieś, położona przy alternatywnej trasie nad morze prowadzącej bezpośrednio do Wolina, stanowi niewielki ośrodek turystyki wypoczynkowej. Stepnica ma plażę oraz przystań jachtową. Plaża posiada zaplecze gastronomiczne, obok niej znajduje się również plac, na którym odbywają się cykliczne imprezy plenerowe, np. wybory "Miss Lata Nad Zalewem" czy "Jarmark Rybacki". Po zalewie można popływać łódką lub surfować. W samej wsi znajdują się miejsca noclegowe dla turystów. +W Stepnicy przy ul. Krzywoustego 39 znajduje się . +W centrum wsi znajduje się początek znakowanego zielonego turystycznego Szlaku Stepnickiego do Wolina (długość 31,0 km). +Przez wieś biegnie zielony Międzynarodowy szlak rowerowy wokół Zalewu Szczecińskiego R-66. +Planowana jest organizacja szlaku wodnego Berlin - Szczecin - Bałtyk. +Na południu rezerwat przyrody "Olszanka", leśno-torfowiskowy, o powierzchni 1354,40 ha. +Northrop B-2 Spirit + +B-2 Spirit – amerykański bombowiec strategiczny wykonany w technologii stealth, zdolny do przenoszenia bomb konwencjonalnych i jądrowych. Konstrukcja samolotu oparta jest na układzie latającego skrzydła. B-2 Spirit napędzany jest czterema turbinowymi silnikami dwuprzepływowymi firmy General Electric. +Historia. +Koncepcja budowy B-2 powstała w latach siedemdziesiątych w wyniku stałego rozwoju radzieckich technologii radiolokacyjnych. Program rozwoju i budowy bombowca B-2 rozpoczęto już w 1981. Sześć lat później Siły Powietrzne Stanów Zjednoczonych złożyły zamówienie na 132 egzemplarze tego bombowca. Upadek ZSRR i zakończenie wyścigu zbrojeń spowodowało znaczne ograniczenie programu B-2. Siły powietrzne zdecydowały się na zamówienie 20 egzemplarzy + 1 przebudowany prototyp. Pierwsza prezentacja B-2 miała miejsce 22 listopada 1988 w bazie Sił Powietrznych w Palmdale w stanie Kalifornia. Pierwszy lot B-2 odbył się 17 lipca 1989. Samolot wykonał wówczas lot z bazy Palmdale do bazy Edwards. Pierwszy egzemplarz "Latającego skrzydła" został dostarczony do 509 Skrzydła Bombowego w Whiteman, w stanie Missouri w dniu 17 grudnia 1993. +Początkowo planowano budowę 135 egzemplarzy, potem, w późnych latach osiemdziesiątych, zredukowano tę liczbę do 75. W wyniku zakończenia zimnej wojny w styczniu 1991 prezydent George H. W. Bush ogłosił zaprzestanie budowy samolotów tego typu. Ostatecznie jednak zamówiono 21 egzemplarzy, z których 20 służy w siłach powietrznych USA do dzisiaj. Wyprodukowanie takiej małej liczby egzemplarzy i ogromne wydatki na zaprojektowanie samolotu spowodowały, że koszt jednego bombowca B-2 wyniósł, według różnych ocen, od $1,157 do $2,2 miliardów dolarów, czyniąc z nich najdroższe samoloty kiedykolwiek zbudowane. Cena ta jest porównywalna na przykład do ceny krążownika rakietowego typu "Ticonderoga". +Budowa. +Samolot zbudowany jest głównie z materiałów kompozytowych, m.in. z kevlaru. Powierzchnia samolotu pokryta jest specjalnym lakierem pochłaniającym fale radarowe. B-2 posiada dwie komory bombowe przystosowane do przenoszenia broni jądrowej. Sterowanie samolotem jest poprzez układ fly-by-wire, zaś stateczność zapewnia rozbudowany komputerowy system sterowania lotem. +Uzbrojenie. +W swoich dwóch komorach bombowych B-2 Spirit może przenosić uzbrojenie zarówno konwencjonalne, jak i bomby jądrowe o całkowitej masie do 22 680 kg. +Zastosowanie bojowe. +Przez pierwsze lata służby samolotu wielu krytyków uważało, że jego zastosowanie bojowe jest wysoce problematyczne, gdyż trudno by było znaleźć cel warty zaatakowania przez samolot, który kosztuje 2 miliardy dolarów, szczególnie gdy inne, o wiele tańsze samoloty mogłyby z powodzeniem wykonać to samo zadanie. Co więcej, strata bombowca B-2 byłaby wielką porażką propagandową dla Ameryki. Ponadto samoloty te mogły operować tylko ze specjalnie wyposażonych lotnisk. +Krytycy w dużej mierze zmienili jednak zdanie, gdy zrozumiano główny atut B-2: globalny zasięg (dzięki tankowaniom w powietrzu), pozwalający mu wykonywać 30-godzinne misje, startujące z lotnisk w kontynentalnych Stanach Zjednoczonych, przeciwko celom na całej kuli ziemskiej (rekord trwania misji wynosi około 50 godzin). Kształt samolotu czyni go nie tylko mniej widzialnym dla radaru, ale daje mu też bardzo dobry zasięg wynoszący około 11 000 km bez tankowania. +Chrzest bojowy samolotu B-2 Spirit miał miejsce podczas operacji "Sprzymierzona Siła" (ang. "Allied Force") w Kosowie w 1999 roku. Wówczas B-2 Spirit sprawdził się bardzo dobrze. Od tego czasu samoloty Spirit brały udział podczas operacji "Trwała Wolność" (ang. "Enduring Freedom") w Afganistanie w latach 2001-2002 oraz operacji "Iracka Wolność" (ang. "Iraqi Freedom") w Iraku. +Podczas operacji "Enduring Freedom" samoloty B-2 Spirit przeprowadzały misje bojowe w Afganistanie, później wracały do bazy wojskowej Diego Garcia położonej na Oceanie Indyjskim, gdzie było uzupełniane paliwo oraz następowała zmiana załóg. Następnie samoloty wykonywały kolejne misje. +Katastrofa. +23 lutego 2008 samolot B-2 rozbił się krótko po starcie z bazy lotniczej na wyspie Guam. Był to ostatni lot przed powrotem 3 bombowców tego typu do bazy w Missouri po 4 miesięcznym pobycie na Guam. Uczestniczyły w misji polegającej na obecności (na zmianę z bombowcami B-52, które przybyły do bazy, aby je zastąpić) tych maszyn na Oceanie Spokojnym. Obydwaj piloci katapultowali się i przeżyli katastrofę - jeden po badaniach lekarskich opuścił szpital, natomiast drugi pozostał pod stałą obserwacją lekarzy. Był to pierwszy wypadek lotniczy z udziałem tego samolotu. +Przyczyną katastrofy było błędne działanie komputerów pokładowych maszyny spowodowane zawilgoceniem czujników zewnętrznych (komputery poderwały maszynę do lotu nim nabrała ona odpowiedniej szybkości, wystarczającej do utrzymania się w powietrzu). +Macka (element w anime) + +Macki – fenomen właściwy anime i mandze, w szczególności gatunkowi hentai. Są to wydłużone, giętkie wypustki, czasami o fallicznym kształcie, występujące u przedstawianych potworów czy demonów, zwanych niekiedy mackostworami. +Po raz pierwszy macki wystąpiły w anime i mandze w latach 80., gdy japońska cenzura kinematograficzna i komiksowa zakazała wyrazistego przedstawiania męskich genitaliów. Jako formę cenzurowania grafiki sugerowano popularne do dziś zasłanianie fragmentów obrazu rozmytymi plamami barw. Producenci filmowi, niechętni takiemu ingerowaniu w obraz, szybko znaleźli sposób na ominięcie nowego przepisu – powstawać zaczęły horrory erotyczne, w których oprócz ludzi występują istoty fantastyczne (potwory, demony, mutanci czy kosmici) zamiast członków posiadający liczne narządy kopulacyjne, czasem kilkumetrowej długości. Paradoksalnie, ukazywanie kopulacji przy pomocy takich organów okazało się zgodne z prawem. +Pierwszych nawiązań do mackokształtnych organów wykorzystywanych w kontekście seksualnym można jednakże dopatrywać się o wiele wcześniej, w XIX-wiecznych rycinach erotycznych typu shunga (np. "Sen żony rybaka"). +Macek nie należy jednak kojarzyć tylko i wyłącznie z animowaną pornografią (hentai). Choć zdecydowanie rzadziej, pojawiają się również w nieerotycznych animowanych horrorach, filmach science-fiction czy fantasy, nie mając znaczenia ściśle seksualnego i stanowiąc jedynie element grozy lub parodii. +Historia. +Przekształcone na tentacle komiksy anime pojawiły się dużo wcześniej przed animowaną pornografią. Wśród najbardziej znanych wczesnych przypadków jest ilustracja z powieści Kinoe bez komatsu 1814 roku autorstwa Katsushika Hokusai. +Męcisław + +Męcisław, Męcsław, Męsław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Męci-" ("gnębić, dręczyć", też "wzburzać, trząść") i "-sław" ("sława"). Prawdopodobnie oznaczało "ten, kto zdobywa sławę przez gnębienie". +State of Euphoria + +State of Euphoria – czwarty studyjny album zespołu Anthrax, wydany 18 września 1988 roku (w USA). +Pat Cadigan + +Patricia Oren Kearney Cadigan (ur. 1953 w Schenectady, Nowy Jork) – amerykańska pisarka science-fiction. Jej utwory są zaliczane do cyberpunku, chociaż sama autorka tak nie uważa. Rodzina Pat od strony matki pochodzi z Polski. +Studiowała na Uniwersytetach Stanowych University of Massachusetts i University of Kansas, studia ukończyła w 1975 r. Zadebiutowała opowiadaniem "Death from Exposure" na łamach czasopisma "Shayol", który współredagowała (jako współredaktorka pisma otrzymała World Fantasy Award w 1981 r.). Po raz pierwszy jej prace zostały opublikowane w 1981. W 1996 przeniosła się do Anglii. +Była jedyną kobietą, której utwór znalazł się klasycznej antologii Bruce’a Sterlinga "Mirrorshades: The Cyberpunk Anthology" (1986). Zdobyła dwukrotnie Nagrodę Arthura C. Clarke'a, w 1992 za powieść "Synners" ("Wgrzesznicy") oraz w 1995 za powieść "Fools", także dwukrotnie Nagrodę Locusa za zbiór "Wzory" w 1990 r. i krótkie opowiadanie "Anioł" ("Angel", wyd. pol. w: "Don Wollheim proponuje 1988", Alfa 1989). Była także wielokrotnie nominowana do innych nagród. +W 2002 r. była redaktorką przekrojowej antologii opowiadań cyberpunkowych "The Ultimate Cyberpunk". +Przez wiele lat Cadigan przyjaźniła się z Robertem A. Heinleinem. +Odwiedzała Polskę, była gościem na konwencie Falcon w Lublinie w listopadzie 2002 oraz na XI Festiwalu Fantastyki na zamku w Nidzicy w 2004 r. +Bibliografia. +Zbiory opowiadań. +"Wzory" w wydaniu z 2002 Wydawnictwa Arteria, różni się odrobinę od oryginału. Trzy opowiadania: "Rock, Rock, Rock" ("Rock on"), "Dwoje" ("Two"), oraz "Moc i pasja" ("The Power and The Passion") – zostały zastąpione tekstami ze zbioru pt. "Dirty Work". Są to: "Chłopcy na deszczu" ("Boys in the Rain"), oraz "W ciemności" ("In the Dark"). +Sala Kolumnowa w Sejmie + +Sala Kolumnowa (oficjalnie Sala im. Kazimierza Pużaka) – druga co do wielkości i reprezentacyjności sala w polskim Sejmie, o powierzchni 600 m². +Po przywróceniu w 1989 roku Senatu, Sala Kolumnowa do maja 1991 była miejscem jego posiedzeń. Obecnie wykorzystywana jest m.in. na posiedzenia sejmowej komisji śledczej. +12 sierpnia 2010 odbyło się w niej nadzwyczajne posiedzenie Sejmu poświęcone pomocy dla poszkodowanych podczas powodzi na Dolnym Śląsku w sierpniu 2010 roku. Nie mogło się ono odbyć w Sali Posiedzeń, gdyż była ona wówczas remontowana. +Wystrój. +Do prostokątnej Sali Kolumnowej, znajdującej się na parterze Budynku C na lewo od Holu Głównego, prowadzą dwuskrzydłowe szklane drzwi z ozdobnymi kutymi kratami. +Sala zawdzięcza swą nazwę symetrycznie rozstawionym kolumnom wspierającym sufit (w dwóch rzędach po 10) ustawionych na pasach z szarego marmuru śląskiego. Marmurową posadzkę zdobią trzy kolorowe rozety z wielobarwnych marmurów (m.in. kararyjskiego, czarnego dębnickiego, czerwonego węgierskiego i Zielonej Marianny) i dolnośląskiego złocistego chalcedonu. Komponują się z nimi koliste stiukowe dekoracje na suficie z motywem liścia laurowego. Jest to najbogatsza dekoracja stiukowa we wnętrzach sejmowych. +Efektownymi elementami wnętrza są wielkie kryształowe kandelabry, wykonane według projektu Tadeusza Gronowskiego. Oprócz funkcji dekoracyjnej miały one także spełniać funkcję praktyczną - doświetlać salę, której okna wychodzą na północ (do tego na drogę wewnętrzną pomiędzy budynkami C i D). +W porównaniu z Holem Głównym Sala Kolumnowa jest stosunkowo niska. Powodem była chęć właściwego wyeksponowania przez architekta powojennej rozbudowy kompleksu sejmowego Bohdana Pniewskiego ogromnego plafonu, który miał znaleźć się na suficie. Ten projekt nie został jednak nigdy zrealizowany. +Alrauna + +Alrauna (z niem.) – korzeń mandragory lekarskiej ("Mandragora officinarum"), któremu przypisywano właściwości magiczne. +W średniowieczu i później silnie zgrubiały, rozgałęziony korzeń mandragory uważany był za środek magiczny. Magiczne właściwości miał jedynie korzeń o humanoidalnych kształtach. Najczęściej szukano go pod szubienicą, skąd odpadające części ciała wisielca miały zapewniać mandragorze doskonałą pożywkę. Według niektórych podań mandragora wyrastała z nasienia skazańca, wytryskającego tuż przed jego śmiercią. +Aby wydobyć korzeń należało poczynić odpowiednie przygotowania. Zalecano najpierw polać roślinę moczem kobiecym, lub krwią menstruacyjną. Następnie można było korzeń ostrożnie i głęboko obkopać dookoła, ale nie wyciągać go z ziemi. Dla pewności trzeba było jeszcze zakreślić dookoła rośliny trzy magiczne kręgi przy użyciu miecza. Mandragorę wyciągnąć powinien z ziemi czarny pies, któremu przywiązywano do szyi sznurek, a drugi koniec do rośliny. Twierdzono, że mandragora wyrywana z ziemi wydawała ludzki krzyk, który zabijał tego kto go usłyszał; tak więc śmierć spotykała psa. +Korzeń przypominający ludzką postać podobno kiwał główką, gdy zadało mu się pytanie i odpowiedź na nie była twierdząca. Często oszuści zamiast mandragory sprzedawali żeń-szeń. +Jagody, nazywane "jabłkami miłości" były uważane za środek przeciw bezpłodności, pobudzający żądze miłosne, próżność w małych dawkach i głupotę w dużych. +Wierzono, że alrauna była stworzona z rajskiej ziemi jako pierwowzór człowieka. Jednak nie spodobała się Stwórcy i dlatego ją wyrzucił. Odtąd alrauna tęskni za rajem i z tego powodu protestuje przy próbie wydobycia jej z ziemi. +Alrauna stanowi nieodłączny atrybut diabła, demonów, czarnoksiężników i osób uprawiających czarną magię. Uważa się ją także za symbol obłędu, czarów, proroctwa, tajemnicy, senności, żądzy, miłości i głupoty. +Jan Radtke + +Jan Radtke (ur. 10 lutego 1872 r. w Dębogórzu na Kępie Oksywskiej, zm. 22 grudnia 1958 r. w Gdyni) – pierwszy polski wójt Gdyni. +23 listopada 1918 roku został wybrany na wójta Gdyni. Był rzecznikiem wykorzystania turystycznego miejscowości, a po odzyskaniu przez Polskę dostępu do morza budowy portu konkurencyjnego dla Gdańska. Zainicjował procedurę wystąpienia o prawa miejskie dla Gdyni (1926). Jego dom przy ul. 10 Lutego (data nadania praw miejskich Gdyni) był miejscem spotkań wielu wybitnych obywateli miasta oraz gości sympatyzujących z ideami rozwoju Gdyni, m.in. Antoniego Abrahama, Stefana Żeromskiego, Tadeusza Wendy, Adolfa Nowaczyńskiego, Feliksa Nowowiejskiego. +Radtke został zmuszony przez Niemców do opuszczenia domu w 1939 roku. Jego pogrzeb na gdyńskim Cmentarzu Witomińskim był wielką manifestacją mieszkańców miasta. +Brat Jana, Stefan Radtke (1890-1940), był księdzem katolickim, budowniczym kościoła Chrystusa Króla w Gdyni; zginął w obozie koncentracyjnym i jest kandydatem do beatyfikacji. Siostrzeniec Abdon Stryszak (1908-1995) był wybitnym weterynarzem, członkiem PAN. +Sebastian Petrycy + +Sebastian Petrycy z Pilzna inna forma nazwiska: "Sebastianus Petricius Pilsnanus", (ur. 1554 w Pilźnie, zm. 22 kwietnia lub 7 grudnia 1626 w Krakowie) – polski wybitny lekarz, pisarz medyczny, filozof i tłumacz. +Życie. +Sebastian Petrycy, syn Stanisława, pochodził z rodziny mieszczańskiej. Początkowe wykształcenie pobierał w rodzinnym mieście. W 1583 ukończył studia na Akademii Krakowskiej, które kontynuował na uniwersytecie w Padwie (1589-1590), gdzie uzyskał doktorat z medycyny. W 1588 został profesorem retoryki na Wydziale Sztuk Wyzwolonych Akademii Krakowskiej. Starał się o nostryfikację swojego padewskiego dyplomu, jednak Wydział Lekarski małodusznie nie dopuszczał do swego grona nowych członków i celowo wydłużał formalności. Zniechęcony Petrycy wyjechał w 1591 do Lwowa. Tu ożenił się i osiadł, otworzył własną praktykę lekarską. Wkrótce jednak spadł na niego ciąg nieszczęśliwych wypadków - zgon żony (28 lutego 1596) oraz strata jedynej córeczki, Zuzanny. W latach 1597-1599 prowadził proces o schedę po teściu, który ostatecznie przegrał w 1600. Wrócił do Krakowa w 1601 i objął stanowisko lekarza przybocznego biskupa krakowskiego kardynała Bernarda Maciejowskiego. Rozpoczyna się okres dworski w życiu Petrycego. Wkrótce wiążę się on z rodem Mniszchów. W 1606 wraz z orszakiem Maryny Mniszchówny udał się na jej wesele z Dymitrem Samozwańcem w Moskwie. Cudem uniknął śmierci w rzezi Polaków. Został przez Rosjan pojmany i przez rok przebywał w więzieniu aż do września 1607. W czasie pobytu w Moskwie ma miejsce jeszcze jedna osobista tragedia w życiu Petrycego - ginie bez wieści jego młodszy syn Gabriel. +W 1603 roku otrzymał ostatecznie zezwolenie na inkorporację do Wydziału Lekarskiego, ale dopiero w 1607 powrócił do działalności akademickiej. W latach 1608-1615 wykładał medycynę na Akademii Krakowskiej. W 1615 rozgorzał spór między Petrycym i jego największym wrogiem Walentym Fontaną. W konflikt zaangażowały się władze uczelni, które opowiedziały się po stronie Fontany. W 1616 Petrycy wystąpił z Wydziału Lekarskiego i powrócił do zawodu lekarza. Nigdy jednak nie zerwał kontaktów z uczelnią. Jego starszy syn Jan Innocenty Petrycy również został profesorem Akademii Krakowskiej. +Twórczość. +W czasie uwięzienia w Moskwie dokonał tłumaczenia i parafrazy wierszy Horacego, wydanego w 1609 jako "Horatius Flaccus w trudach więzienia moskiewskiego". Zasłynął m.in. adaptacją pism Arystotelesa "Rzeczpospolita Polska sposobem Arystotelesowym ułożona". Jest jednym z twórców polskiej terminologii filozoficznej. Próbą przełożenia pojęć greckiej filozofii na język polski były "Przydatki Arystotelesowe", podzielone na trzy tytuły: "Ekonomiki", "Polityki" oraz "Etyki"; Petrycy zajmuje jedno z ważniejszych miejsc w historii polskiej filozofii. Był zwolennikiem umiarkowanego racjonalizmu i empiryzmu. +Kozioróg dębosz + +Kozioróg dębosz ("Cerambyx cerdo") – gatunek chrząszcza z rodziny kózkowatych, największy z występujących w Polsce przedstawicieli tej rodziny. +Zasięg geograficzny. +Zasięg występowania tego gatunku obejmuje Europę, Azję Wschodnią i Afrykę Północną. W Polsce pokrywa się z zasięgiem dębu szypułkowego – występuje tylko na dębach szypułkowych i bezszypułkowych. Preferuje dobrze nasłonecznione, ponad 100-letnie drzewa, rosnące pojedynczo lub w niewielkich skupiskach. Lubi też stare, dobrze prześwietlone dąbrowy. Spotkać go można tylko na żywych drzewach. +Morfologia i cykl rozwojowy. +Dorosły osobnik "Cerambyx cerdo" mierzy do 56 mm długości ciała. Czułki samicy są długości jej ciała, samca – o połowę dłuższe. Samica składa jaja w spękania kory. Larwy żerują początkowo w korze, gdzie spędzają pierwszą zimę, następnie w łyku i twardzieli. Z uszkodzonego drzewa wypływa sok, tworząc na korze ciemne przebarwienia. Czas rozwoju to około 3 lata, w drewnie przesuszonym – nawet do 5 lat. Larwa jest jasnożółta z rdzawą głową, dorasta do 10 cm. Łączna długość żerowiska dochodzi do 1 m. Przepoczwarczenie następuje jesienią, jednak wnętrze drzewa opuszcza dopiero od maja do początku września. +Drzewo zaatakowane przez tego owada jest bardziej podatne na choroby na skutek fizycznego uszkodzenia drewna. +Ochrona. +Kozioróg dębosz w Polsce i krajach sąsiednich objęty jest ochroną gatunkową. Żeruje między innymi na drzewach będących pomnikami przyrody, również na Bartku, który też jest pod ochroną. Od kilkudziesięciu lat obserwuje się stały spadek populacji tego chrząszcza. Najliczniejsza populacja tego gatunku w Polsce występuje na terenie Parku Krajobrazowego Dolina Baryczy. +Powiat płocki + +Powiat płocki − powiat w Polsce (w zachodniej części województwa mazowieckiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Płock. +Miasta. + Drobin (prawa miejskie: 1511-1869; 1994) + Gąbin (1322) + Wyszogród (1398) + Bielsk (1375-1869) + Bodzanów (1351-1869) + Słubice (1406-?) +Kaberu + +Kaberu, szakal (wilk) etiopski (abisyński) ("Canis simensis") – gatunek drapieżnego ssaka z rodziny psowatych. Występuje jedynie w Etiopii, do wysokości 3-4,5 tys. m n.p.m., w kilku izolowanych populacjach. +Charakterystyka ogólna. +Średniej wielkości przedstawiciel rodziny psowatych, wyposażony w długie kończyny, intensywnie rude futro z białymi plamami na szyi i piersiach, puszysty ogon z białymi plamami u nasady. Głowa wydłużona jak u lisa rudego, uszy spiczaste. +Pokarm. +Ich pokarm stanowią małe ssaki, przede wszystkim gryzonie, jak suzu lub szczurokret wielkogłowy, czasem cielęta niektórych antylop. W razie konieczności jest padlinożercą. +Rozród. +Ciąża trwa około 60 dni, w miocie najczęściej 2-6 młodych; młode ssą do 6-8 tygodnia, potem są karmione nadtrawionym pokarmem mięsnym, który im podają wszyscy członkowie grupy. +Tryb życia. +Aktywny zarówno w nocy jak i w dzień lub wyłącznie za dnia (w zależności od obszaru występowania). Żyje samotnie lub w niewielkich grupach złożonych z osobników dorosłych i podrostków. Kaberu porozumiewają się szczeknięciami i skomleniem; grupy wykazują organizację hierarchiczną; młode, 9-miesięczne osobniki spełniają funkcję pomocników, opiekujących się szczeniętami. Samce pozostają w watasze przez całe życie, dojrzałe samice opuszczają rodzinę, by znaleźć partnerów. Watahy wspólnie pilnują swego terytorium i znaczą jego granice moczem. Kaberu, w przeciwieństwie do wilków, a podobniej jak lis, poluje samotnie. +Siedlisko. +Zamieszkuje otwarte przestrzenie, porośnięte trawą wyżyny i góry Etiopii. +Status. +Kaberu należy do najmniej licznych gatunków psowatych. Szacuje się, że po wielkiej epidemii wścieklizny, która w 2003 roku zdziesiątkowała gatunek, łącznie wszystkie populacje tego gatunku liczą prawdopodobnie nie więcej niż 600 osobników. Gatunek ten należy do najbardziej zagrożonych wyginięciem. Prócz chorób, zawleczonych przez psy, jak wścieklizna, nosówka itp, kaberu zagraża też zanieczyszczenie puli genowej: samice tego gatunku krzyżują się z psami, dając mieszańce. +Zagrożenie. +Kategoria EN ("zagrożone") w klasyfikacji IUCN. +Alpy Japońskie + +Mają one kilkanaście szczytów o wysokości przekraczającej 3 000 m. Najwyższe są szczyty Kita (3193 m n.p.m.) i Hotaka (3190 m n.p.m.) +w górach tych narodził się drifting +Pasma. +Trzy pasma to: +Nazwa. +Nazwa "Alpy Japońskie" została nadana przez Williama Gowlanda, zwanego "ojcem japońskiej archeologii" i później spopularyzowana przez wielebnego Waltera Westona (1861–1940), angielskiego misjonarza, którego tablica pamiątkowa znajduje się w dolinie Kamikochi. Pierwotnie Gowland nazwał tak jedynie góry Hida, później nazwa została rozciągnięta na pozostałe dwa pasma. +Krajobraz. +Alpy Japońskie zostały sfałdowane w orogenezie alpejskiej. Znajdują się tam czynne wulkany: Ontake-san (3067 m n.p.m.; ostatnia erupcja - 1980) i Norikura-dake. Góry porastają lasy bukowo-dębowe i iglaste. +Wulkan Ontake (3067 m n.p.m.) jest ważnym ośrodkiem pielgrzymkowym Japonii. +Osów (Szczecin) + +Osów (do 1945 niem. "Wussow", po 1945 "Wąsów") – część miasta i osiedle administracyjne Szczecina, będące jednostką pomocniczą miasta, położone w dzielnicy Zachód. +Według danych z Urzędu Miasta w osiedlu na pobyt stały zameldowanych jest 3589 osób. +Położenie. +Powstało na miejscu wsi leżącej na stokach Wzgórz Warszewskich na wysokości około 75-85 m n.p.m. Obecnie zabudowana około 500 domkami jednorodzinnymi, które powstały w latach 1980-1995 oraz budowane są współcześnie. Od północy, zachodu i południa Osów jest otoczony lasem (Puszcza Wkrzańska). +Zabudowa. +Historyczne centrum stanowi skrzyżowanie obecnych ulic Miodowej i Chorzowskiej. Osów został włączony do terenów miejskich w 1277 przez księcia Pomorza Zachodniego Barnima I. Na skrzyżowaniu odrestaurowany rynek wiejski przez który przechodzą piesze szlaki turystyczne (Szlak "Ścieżkami Dzików") i , neogotycki kościół parafialny pw. "Matki Boskiej Bolesnej" i zabytkowa, wolno stojąca, drewniana dzwonnica. W centrum osiedla znajduje się odnowiony poniemiecki cmentarz z kilkoma płytami nagrobnymi. +Atrakcjami jest ośrodek jeździecki, ośrodek sportów zimowych "Gubałówka" oraz trasy wycieczkowe po Parku Leśnym Arkońskim (część Puszczy Wkrzańskiej) – m.in. Wieża Quistorpa i Dolina Siedmiu Młynów. +Samorząd mieszkańców. +Rada Osiedla Osów liczy zwykle 15 członków. W wyborach do Rady Osiedla Osów 20 maja 2007 roku nie odbyło się głosowanie na kandydatów z powodu ich zbyt małej liczby, mimo że przedłużono zgłaszanie o 3 dni. Na podstawie ordynacji wyborczej za wybranych członków rady osiedla miejska komisja wyborcza uznała 14 zarejestrowanych kandydatów. W wyborach do rady osiedla 13 kwietnia 2003 udział wzięło 124 głosujących, co stanowiło frekwencję 8,30%. +Samorząd osiedla Osów został ustanowiony w 1990 roku. +Zinedine Zidane + +Zinedine Yazid Zidane (arab. زين الدين زيدان, ur. 23 czerwca 1972 roku w Marsylii) – były francuski piłkarz występujący na pozycji pomocnika, nosił przydomek „Zizou”. 108-krotny reprezentant swojego kraju, z którym zdobył Mistrzostwo Świata 1998 oraz Mistrzostwo Europy 2000. Laureat Złotej Piłki w 1998 roku, najlepszy zawodnik Mistrzostw Świata 2006, na których jako kapitan drużyny narodowej dotarł z nią do finału. +Były zawodnik AS Cannes, Girondins Bordeaux, Juventusu oraz Realu Madryt, z którym w 2002 roku zwyciężył w rozgrywkach Ligi Mistrzów. Trzy razy wybierany Piłkarzem Roku FIFA, raz wybierany najlepszym zawodnikiem w Europie. W 2004 roku Brazylijczyk Pelé umieścił go na liście stu najlepszych żyjących piłkarzy na świecie. +Piłkarską karierę Zidane zakończył w 2006 roku po mistrzostwach świata. +Kariera klubowa. +Początki kariery i pobyt w AS Cannes. +Zinedine Zidane już w 1982 roku dołączył do szkółki juniorów klubu US Saint-Henri, którego stadion znajdował się w jednej z dzielnic Marsylii – La Castellane. Następnie młody Francuz trenował w juniorskich zespołach SO Septèmes-les-Vallons. W wieku czternastu lat wyjechał z Septèmes-les-Vallons na nabór do ligi juniorów. Wówczas przykuł na siebie uwagę skauta klubu AS Cannes – Jeana Varrauda. Debiut w dorosłej kadrze tej drużyny Zidane zaliczył jako siedemnastolatek, a swoją pierwszą bramkę dla AS Cannes strzelił 8 lutego 1991 roku. W nagrodę za tego gola francuski gracz otrzymał od prezydenta klubu samochód. W debiutanckim sezonie w zespole z Cannes Zidane rozegrał dwa ligowe spotkania, jednak w kolejnych rozgrywkach na boisku nie pojawił się już ani razu. Sezon 1990/1991 rozpoczął już jednak jako podstawowy zawodnik podopiecznych Boro Primoraca i wystąpił w 28 meczach Ligue 1. W kolejnym sezonie zaliczył 31 występów i strzelił pięć bramek, dzięki czemu został jednym z najlepszych strzelców drużyny. +Bordeaux. +Latem 1992 roku Zidane został piłkarzem Girondins Bordeaux. Już od początku pobytu w ekipie „żyrondystów” francuski pomocnik był podstawowym graczem zespołu. Pierwszy sezon w nowym klubie zakończył z 35 występami i 10 bramkami w ligowych rozgrywkach. Razem z Bordeaux Zidane w 1995 roku zwyciężył w Pucharze Intertoto, a w 1996 roku dotarł do finału Pucharu UEFA. Przez cztery lata gry w tym klubie Francuz w linii pomocy miał okazję grać u boku takich piłkarzy jak Bixente Lizarazu, Christophe Dugarry, Richard Witschge oraz Philippe Vercruysse. W 1995 roku chęć pozyskania Zidane’a oraz Dugarryego wyraził trener Blackburn Rovers – Kenny Dalglish. Właściciel zespołu – Jack Walker skomentował to jednak mówiąc „"po co kupować Zidane’a, skoro mamy w kadrze Tima Sherwooda?"” +Juventus. +W czerwcu 1996 roku Zidane podpisał kontrakt ze zwycięzcą Ligi Mistrzów – Juventusem, do którego trafił za trzy miliony funtów. W drużynie prowadzonej przez Marcello Lippiego grał na pozycji rozgrywającego. Przyczynił się do wywalczenia przez „Starą Damę” mistrzostwa Włoch oraz Pucharu Interkontynentalnego, w którym Juventus pokonał 1:0 Club Atlético River Plate. Podczas sezonu 1996/1997 włoski klub dotarł także do finału Ligi Mistrzów, jednak przegrał wówczas 3:1 z Borussią Dortmund. Pierwszy rok pobytu w Turynie Zidane zakończył z 29 meczami i pięcioma bramkami w Serie A. +Strzelając siedem goli w 32 spotkaniach ligi włoskiej, Zidane pomógł Juventusowi obronić tytuł mistrza kraju. W rozgrywkach Ligi Mistrzów wystąpił trzynaście razy i zdobył pięć bramek, jednak „Stara Dama” w finałowym pojedynku tych rozgrywek przegrała z Realem Madryt 1:0. Rozgrywki ligowe 1998/1999 Juventus zakończył na szóstej pozycji, następnie dwa razy z rzędu zdobył wicemistrzostwo kraju. W 1999 roku zwyciężył w Pucharze Intertoto. Łącznie dla włoskiego zespołu Zidane rozegrał 151 meczów w Serie A i strzelił 24 gole. W Lidze Mistrzów zanotował 35 występów i osiem trafień. +Real Madryt. +W 2001 roku za 76 milionów euro Zidane został zawodnikiem Realu Madryt, dzięki czemu stał się najdroższym piłkarzem w historii aż do 2009 roku. Z ekipą „Królewskich” podpisał czteroletni kontrakt. 15 maja 2002 roku w finale Ligi Mistrzów przeciwko Bayerowi Leverkusen Francuz zdobywając bramkę strzałem z woleja ustalił wynik na 2:1 i zapewnił Realowi dziewiąty w historii klubu triumf w Pucharze Europy. W następnym sezonie Zidane razem ze swoim klubem pokonując w finale Feyenoord Rotterdam zdobył Superpuchar Europy, a ponadto triumfował w rozgrywkach Superpucharu Hiszpanii. Francuskiemu zawodnikowi po raz trzeci przypadła także nagroda Piłkarza Roku FIFA. +Sezon 2005/2006 nie był już dla Zidane’a tak udany. Francuski gracz w meczu przeciwko Sevilli strzelił co prawda swojego pierwszego hat-tricka w karierze, jednak nie odniósł żadnych większych sukcesów. Real z Pucharu Króla został wyeliminowany w półfinale, z Champions League odpadł w 1/8 finału, natomiast w Primera Divisón stracił dwanaście punktów do mistrza kraju – FC Barcelona. W tym sezonie Zidane wystąpił w lidze hiszpańskiej 24 razy (w tym pięć razy wszedł na murawę z ławki rezerwowych), strzelił dziewięć bramek, zaliczył dziesięć asyst, pięć razy został ukarany żółtą kartką. +Po wcześniejszej zapowiedzi zakończenia kariery, Zidane ostatni mecz w barwach Realu Madryt rozegrał 7 maja 2006 roku, a jego drużyna zremisowała wówczas na Estadio Santiago Bernabéu z Villarreal CF 3:3. Wszyscy gracze „Królewskich” wystąpili w tym spotkaniu w specjalnych koszulkach, na których poniżej loga klubu widniał napis „ZIDANE 2001–2006”. +Kariera reprezentacyjna. +Zidane w młodzieżowej reprezentacji Francji U-21 rozegrał łącznie 18 meczów i strzelił trzy gole. W 1995 roku wystąpił w meczu reprezentacji Francji B z Białorusią. +Zidane posiada podwójne obywatelstwo – francuskie i algierskie, a zatem był uprawniony do gry w reprezentacji Algierii. Trener „Les Fennecs” – Abdelhamid Kermali odmówił jednak powoływania go do kadry, ponieważ uważał, że Zidane nie jest wystarczająco szybkim pomocnikiem. „Zizou” zaprzeczył jednak temu w wywiadzie udzielonym w 2005 roku. +Pierwszy występ w barwach reprezentacji Francji Zidane zaliczył 17 sierpnia 1994 roku w towarzyskim meczu z Czechami. Spotkanie zakończyło się wynikiem 2:2, „Zizou” na boisku pojawił się w 63 minucie i strzelając dwie bramki zapewnił swojemu zespołowi remis. Aimé Jacquet – ówczesny trener reprezentacji opierał grę swojego zespołu na Éricu Cantonie, jednak gdy ten został zawieszony za kopnięcie jednego z kibiców, główną rolę w drużynie Francji zaczął odgrywać właśnie Zidane. Decyzja ta spowodowała sporą krytykę ze strony fanów oraz mediów, jednak na Mistrzostwach Europy 1996 podopieczni Jacqueta zostali wyeliminowani dopiero w półfinale, kiedy to przegrali po rzutach karnych z Czechami. +Mundial 1998, Euro 2000. +W 1998 roku Zidane razem ze swoją reprezentacją wywalczył mistrzostwo świata, a sam został wybrany najlepszym piłkarzem finału według FIFA. Zespół prowadzony przez trenera Jacqueta w meczu finałowym pokonał 3:0 Brazylijczyków, a dwie pierwsze bramki zdobył właśnie „Zizou”. Jeszcze w rundzie grupowej Francuz został ukarany czerwoną kartką i był wykluczony z gry w dwóch spotkaniach. +Kolejnym wielkim turniejem w karierze Zidane’a były Mistrzostwa Europy 2000. Francuzi z sześcioma punktami na koncie wyszli ze swojej grupy z drugiego miejsca, a w ćwierćfinale zagrali z Hiszpanami. Podopieczni Rogera Lemerre’a zwyciężyli 2:1, a jedną z bramek w tym spotkaniu bezpośrednim uderzeniem z rzutu wolnego strzelił właśnie Zidane. Następnie Francuz zapewnił swojej drużynie zwycięstwo w dogrywce półfinałowego pojedynku przeciwko Portugalii, kiedy to zdobył zwycięskiego gola z rzutu karnego w 117 minucie. W finałowym spotkaniu Francuzi także okazali się lepsi od swoich rywali i również po dogrywce pokonali reprezentację Włoch. Po zakończeniu mistrzostw zespół narodowy Francji awansował na pierwsze miejsce w rankingu FIFA. +Mundial 2002, Euro 2004. +W 2002 roku Zidane razem ze swoim zespołem pojechał do Korei Południowej i Japonii na mistrzostwa świata. Impreza w Azji okazała się dla Francuzów zupełnie nieudana, ponieważ obrońcy mistrzowskiego tytułu nie strzelili na niej ani jednego gola i zajęli ostatnie miejsce w swojej grupie. Zidane wystąpił tylko w przegranym 0:2 pojedynku z Danią, ponieważ w dwóch pierwszych meczach nie mógł zagrać z powodu kontuzji uda. +Nieudane dla Francuzów okazały się również Mistrzostwa Europy 2004. Drużyna Jacques’a Santiniego w ćwierćfinale została wyeliminowana przez późniejszych triumfatorów turnieju – Greków. W rundzie grupowej Zidane strzelając bramki w 91 i 93 minucie meczu z Anglią zapewnił swojej reprezentacji zwycięstwo 2:1. Zdobył także jednego z goli w zwycięskim spotkaniu przeciwko Szwajcarii, który zakończył się wynikiem 3:1. W 1/4 finału Francuzi musieli jednak uznać wyższość Grecji, która wygrała 1:0, a w drodze po mistrzostwo Europy pokonała jeszcze Czechy oraz Portugalię. +Koniec kariery i powrót. +Po odpadnięciu reprezentacji Francji z Euro 2004 Zidane postanowił zakończyć reprezentacyjną karierę. W 2005 roku na prośbę trenera drużyny narodowej – Raymonda Domenecha „Zizou” powrócił do reprezentacji by pomóc jej w awansie na Mistrzostwa Świata 2006 i ponownie został wybrany jej kapitanem. Razem z nim do kadry powrócili również Claude Makélélé oraz Lilian Thuram. Pierwszy występ po powrocie Zidane zaliczył 3 września 2005 roku, a Francuzi pokonali wówczas Wyspy Owcze 3:0. 25 kwietnia 2006 roku Zidane zapowiedział, że po mundialu 2006 definitywnie zakończy reprezentacyjną karierę. +27 maja tego samego roku Zidane zaliczył swój setny występ w reprezentacji Francji, kiedy to w rozegranym na Stade de France towarzyskim meczu „Trójkolorowi” pokonali 1:0 Meksyk. Był to ostatni mecz, jaki były piłkarz AS Cannes rozegrał na tym stadionie. Zidane został czwartym zawodnikiem w historii drużyny narodowej Francji, który rozegrał dla niej co najmniej 100 meczów. Wcześniej tego wyczynu dokonali tylko Marcel Desailly, Didier Deschamps i Lilian Thuram. +Mundial 2006. +Mistrzostwa Świata 2006 Francuzi rozpoczęli od bezbramkowego remisu ze Szwajcarami. W drugim meczu grupowym zaledwie zremisowali 1:1 z Koreą Południową i o ich awansie do dalszej fazy turnieju miał zadecydował ostatni pojedynek z Togo. Zidane w obu pierwszych spotkaniach został ukarany żółtą kartką i nie mógł wystąpić w spotkaniu z podopiecznymi Otto Pfistera. Francuzi zwyciężyli ostatecznie 2:0 i wyszli z grupy z drugiego miejsca. Zidane do gry powrócił na pojedynek 1/8 finału z Hiszpanią, w którym zaliczył asystę oraz zdobył gola w 92 minucie, dzięki czemu ustalił wynik na 3:1 dla „Trójkolorowych”. W ćwierćfinale Francja zwyciężyła 1:0 z Brazylią, jedyne trafienie zaliczył wówczas Thierry Henry, natomiast „Zizou” został wybrany przez FIFA najlepszym zawodnikiem meczu. Cztery dni później – 5 lipca zespół prowadzony przez Raymonda Domenecha wygrał 1:0 w półfinałowym pojedynku przeciwko Portugalii. Jedynego gola zdobył wówczas Zidane, który w 33 minucie skutecznie wykorzystał rzut karny. +Finałowy mecz mistrzostw świata odbył się 9 lipca. Rywalem Francuzów byli Włosi, którzy w swoich wcześniejszych spotkaniach stracili tylko jednego gola. Już w siódmej minucie finałowego pojedynku Zidane wyprowadził swój zespół na prowadzenie po skutecznym wykorzystaniu rzutu karnego. W dziewiętnastej minucie wyrównał Marco Materazzi, a jak się później okazało o zwycięstwie musiała zadecydować dogrywka. W 110 minucie doszło do starcia zdobywców obu goli, w efekcie czego Zidane został ukarany czerwoną kartką (patrz poniżej). Ostatecznie „Squadra Azzura” pokonała Francuzów po rzutach karnych, które zakończyły się wynikiem 5:3. Mimo wszystko Zidane został wybrany najlepszym piłkarzem całego turnieju. Zgodnie z wcześniejszą zapowiedzią po mistrzostwach „Zizou” zakończył piłkarską karierę. +Konfrontacja z Marco Materazzim. +Po zakończeniu jednej z akcji podczas dogrywki, Zidane i Materazzi zaczęli wycofywać się w kierunku środka boiska. Po krótkiej wymianie zdań Francuz zaczął odchodzić od obrońcy Interu Mediolan. Chwilę później Zidane jednak przystanął, zawrócił, podszedł do Materazziego i uderzył go głową w klatkę piersiową, czym powalił rywala na murawę. Arbiter spotkania – Horacio Elizondo nie zauważył całego zajścia, jednak został o nim poinformowany przez czwartego sędziego – Luisa Medinę Cantalejo. +Po konsultacji ze swoimi asystentami, Elizondo ukarał Zidane’a czerwoną kartką w 110 minucie. Była to czternasta czerwona kartka, jaką Francuz został ukarany w swojej karierze. „Zizou” po Kameruńczyku Rigobercie Songu został drugim zawodnikiem w historii, który został odesłany do szatni w dwóch różnych edycjach mistrzostw świata. Francuz został także czwartym piłkarzem, który został ukarany czerwoną kartką w finałowym meczu mundialu i pierwszym, który został nią ukarany w dogrywce. +Prowokacje. +Zapis wideo daje do zrozumienia, że Zidane’a sprowokowały słowa wypowiedziane przez Materazziego. „The Times”, „The Sun” oraz „Daily Star” zatrudniły osoby zajmujące się odczytywaniem słów z ruchu ust, których zadaniem było rozszyfrowanie tego, co powiedział włoski defensor. Wszystkie te gazety opublikowały informację, jakoby Materazzi używając wulgarnych słów obraził matkę Zidane’a. W 2008 roku „The Sun” i „Daily Star” przeprosiły za pomyłkę, natomiast „The Times” nie złożyło w tej sprawie jeszcze żadnych wyjaśnień. +W pierwszej wypowiedzi na temat meczu finałowego Zidane tylko częściowo wyjaśnił swoje zachowanie, mówiąc, że jego reakcję spowodowało obrażenie przez Materazziego matki oraz siostry Francuza. Włoski piłkarz zaprzeczył tym zarzutom i utrzymywał, że zachowanie Zidane’a było aroganckie i naganne, natomiast jego uwagi są trywialne. Materazzi powtarzał również, że nie obraził matki rywala (która w tym czasie była chora). Powiedział „"nie mógłbym obrazić jego matki; moja matka zaginęła, gdy miałem piętnaście lat i wciąż czuję emocje, mówiąc o niej"”. +W późniejszym czasie były kapitan reprezentacji Francji powiedział, że po usłyszeniu wyzwisk Materazziego na temat swojej rodziny wolał uderzyć go, niż dłużej tego słuchać. Zidane przeprosił również za swoje zachowanie, jednak dał do zrozumienia, że nie żałuje swojej decyzji, natomiast całej zaistniałej sytuacji winien jest Materazzi. Dwa miesiące później zawodnik Interu Mediolan publicznie przeprosił Zidane’a. Przedstawił również swoją wersję wydarzeń, według której w jednej z akcji trzymał Francuza za koszulkę, po czym ten powiedział „jeśli tak bardzo chcesz moją koszulkę, to dam ci ją po meczu”. Włoch miał natomiast odpowiedzieć „wolałbym twoją siostrę”. W jednym z późniejszych wywiadów Materazzi powiedział, że wypowiadając to zdanie użył wulgaryzmu obrażając tym samym siostrę Francuza. +Reakcje. +Prezydent Francji – Jacques Chirac nazwał Zidane’a bohaterem narodowym oraz „"człowiekiem z sercem i przekonaniem"”. Chirac następnie oznajmił, że zachowanie Francuza nie było godne naśladowania, ale wytłumaczyć je można tym, że Francuz został sprowokowany. Algierski prezydent – Abdelaziz Bouteflika wyraził solidarność z Zidane’em w liście poparcia. W późniejszym czasie francuska gazeta Le Figaro nazwała zachowanie francuskiego piłkarza „"odpychającym i niedopuszczalnym"”. Redaktor naczelny L'Équipe porównał Zidane’a do Muhammada Ali, ale dodał również, że w przeciwieństwie do „Zizou” Ali, Jesse Owens oraz Pelé „"nigdy nie złamali najbardziej elementarnych zasad sportu"”. Zapytał również jak Zidane wytłumaczy swój atak na Materazziego przed milionami dzieci na całym świecie, ale następnego dnia przeprosił za ten komentarz. Tygodnik „Time” potraktował incydent jako symbol europejskiego „"zmagania się z wielokulturowością"”. Pomimo zaistniałej sytuacji i krytyki jaka spłynęła na Zidane’a, sponsorzy Francuza postanowili nie zrywać z nim swoich kontraktów. Francusko-kolumbijska polityk, Íngrid Betancourt, która przez sześć lat była więziona przez FARC, po odzyskaniu wolności wyraziła uznanie dla czynu Zidane’a i stwierdziła, że zrobiłaby to samo”. +Incydent ten był szeroko rozpowszechniony w internecie oraz kulturze popularnej. Oprócz mnóstwa parodii filmu przedstawiającego zajście powstała także piosenka pod tytułem "Coup de Boule", która dotarła do szczytów francuskich list przebojów. +Nowa książka, "The Hidden Face Of Zidane", która została napisana przez dziennikarza Besma Lahouriego i opublikowana we wrześniu 2008 roku wykazała, że Zidane musiał wyrazić ubolewanie z powodu zaistniałej sytuacji po rozmowie ze swoim kuzynem. +W świetle oświadczenia Zidane’a, FIFA wszczęła postępowanie dyscyplinarne w sprawie wyjaśnienia szczegółów incydentu. FIFA potwierdziła prawidłowość decyzji sędziego Elizondo, odrzucając możliwość, by Cantalejo wykorzystał do oceny zachowania Francuza transmitowany na telebimie zapis wideo. Ostatecznie Materazzi został ukarany karą finansową pięciu tysięcy franków szwajcarskich oraz dwoma meczami dyskwalifikacji. Francuz dostał natomiast karę 7,5 tysiąca franków szwajcarskich oraz zakaz gry w trzech spotkaniach. Jako że zakończył już jednak piłkarską karierę, przez trzy dni dobrowolnie wykonywał prace społeczne na rzecz FIFA. +Działalność charytatywna. +24 lutego 2007 roku Zidane pojechał do północnej Tajlandii, gdzie zagrał w charytatywnym meczu na rzecz fundacji Keuydaroon, która pomaga dzieciom chorym na AIDS. Pojedynek zakończył się remisem 2:2, a spotkanie przyniosło dochody w postaci 260 tysięcy batów. +19 listopada tego samego roku Zidane wziął udział w piątym meczu przeciwko biedzie panującej w Máladze, który także zakończył się wynikiem 2:2. „Zizou” znany jest także ze współpracy z Brazylijczykiem Ronaldo w ramach Programu Narodów Zjednoczonych ds. Rozwoju, w którym bierze udział także wielu innych sportowców oraz osoby związane z innymi branżami. Od 2001 roku Zidane jest ambasadorem dobrej woli ONZ. W jednym z wywiadów powiedział „"każdy może zrobić coś, żeby uczynić świat lepszym miejscem"”. +13 czerwca 2009 jako uczestnik wyprawy charytatywnej wspiął się na Mont Blanc, na szczycie którego zawiesił flagę fundacji walczącej z leukodystrofią. +Zinedine Zidane i Ronaldo z okazji trzęsienia ziemi na Haiti zorganizowali mecz rozpoczęty 25 stycznia 2010 roku, zebranych gwiazd piłkarskich przeciwko klubowi SL Benfica. Na stadionie Benfiki Estádio da Luz pojawiło się ponad 50 000 widzów i 60 piłkarzy z różnych krajów. Przed rozpoczęciem gry minutą ciszy uczczono pamięć ofiar trzęsienia ziemi, które nawiedziło Haiti 12 stycznia. W meczu zagrali też piłkarze długo po zakończeniu kariery. Również sam 38-letni Zidane wziął udział w tym meczu. Wydarzenie było częścią Programu Rozwoju ONZ, wspieranego przez UEFA. +Nagrody i odznaczenia. +W 2004 roku miesięcznik Forbes umieścił Zidane’a na 42. miejscu wśród najlepiej opłacanych sportowców na świecie. Jego zarobki wyniosły wówczas 15,8 miliona dolarów rocznie. Od 2000 roku Zidane regularnie wybierany był jedną z najpopularniejszych francuskich osobistości jednej z gazet. W plebiscycie tym zajmował pierwsze miejsce w latach 2000, 2003, 2004 i 2006, drugie miejsce w 2005 roku i czwarte miejsce w 2001 i 2002 roku. +W listopadzie 2006 roku Zidane wybrał się do Bangladeszu, gdzie złożył wizytę triumfatorowi Pokojowej Nagrody Nobla – Muhammadowi Yunusowi. Francuz odwiedził również miejsce urodzenia swoich rodziców oraz spotkał się z prezydentem Algierii – Abdelazizem Butefliką. +Sponsorzy. +„Zizou” miał podpisane kontrakty z takimi firmami jak Adidas, LEGO, France Télécom, Orange, Audi, oraz Christian Dior. W swoim ostatnim sezonie w karierze na kontraktach reklamowych zarobił 8,6 miliona euro, natomiast w Realu zarobił 6,4 miliona euro, dzięki czemu znalazł się w pierwszej szóstce najlepiej zarabiających piłkarzy na świecie. +Życie osobiste. +Zidane jest z pochodzenia Kabylem. Jego rodzice – Smail i Malika, w 1953 roku emigrowali ze wsi Aguemone w Kabylii w północno-zachodniej Algierii do Paryża, skąd kilka lat później przeprowadzili się do Marsylii. Zidane dorastał w jednej z jej najbiedniejszych dzielnic – Castellane, która była skupiskiem emigrantów z północnej Afryki. +Francuski pomocnik określa siebie jako niepraktykującego muzułmanina. Swoją żonę, byłą tancerkę oraz modelkę – Veronique Fernández poznał, grając dla zespołu AS Cannes podczas sezonu 1991/1992. Ich synowie – Enzo (ur. 1995) i Luca (ur. 1998), są członkami Real Madrid Infantil B oraz drużyny „Benjamín B”. Małżeństwo ma także dwóch innych synów – Théo (ur. 2002) i Elyaza (ur. 2005). +Alpy Graickie + +Alpy Graickie (wł. "Alpi Graie", fr. "Alpes Grées") – część Alp Zachodnich na granicy Francji (region Rodan-Alpy) i Włoch (Valle d'Aosta i Piemont), między dolinami rzek Isère, Dora Riparia i Dora Baltea. Przełęcz Col des Montets oddziela Alpy Graickie od Prealp Sabaudzkich, przełęcz Col Ferret i rzeka Dora Baltea oddziela je od Alp Pennińskich, przełęcz Mont Cenis oddziela je od Alp Kotyjskich, a rzeka Arc oddziela je od Alp Delfinackich. Zachodnia część Alp Graickich jest dorzeczem rzeki Isère i jej dopływu rzeki Arc, natomiast wschodnia część leży w dorzeczu Padu (rzeki: Dora Baltea, Orco i Stura di Lanzo). Najwyższym szczytem pasma jest Mont Blanc (4810 m) w Masywie Mont Blanc. Szczyt ten jest też najwyższym szczytem całych Alp. +Alpy Graickie zwykle dzieli się na: +Przyducha + +Przyducha – znaczne zmniejszenie ilości tlenu rozpuszczonego w wodzie zbiornika wodnego lub jego części. W skrajnym przypadku może prowadzić do masowego wymierania zamieszkujących go organizmów korzystających z tlenu, (m.in. tzw. śnięcie ryb). +Charakterystyka. +Ilość tlenu w wodzie zależna jest od czynników atmosferycznych, w tym od ciśnienia i temperatury. Im wyższa temperatura, tym mniejsza zawartość tlenu w wodzie. Zapotrzebowanie na tlen może być różnorakie w zależności od liczby i gatunków ryb przebywających w danym zbiorniku. Niewłaściwa aeracja, liczba i rodzaj ryb oraz liczba roślin w zbiorniku mogą być przyczyną występowania przyduchy. +Deficyt tlenowy i objawy duszności u ryb (tzw. "przyducha") może występować również w czasie eutrofizacji, sztucznego nawożenia, dokarmiania, zanieczyszczania zbiornika związkami chemicznymi itp. +Inną przyczyną występowania przyduchy może być długotrwałe zlodowacenie powierzchni zbiornika wodnego wraz z zalegającym go śniegiem, co uniemożliwia fotosyntezę i produkcję tlenu przez rośliny wodne (tzw. "przyducha zimowa"). +Zjawisko przyduchy występuje również w przypadku wiosennego lub jesiennego zakwitu wody. +Objawy. +Objawy przyduchy są bardzo charakterystyczne. W początkowym stadium ryby zaczynają okazywać niecierpliwość, wykonują gwałtowne ruchy, by szybko podpływać pod powierzchnię wody i poprzez tzw. "dzióbkowanie" łapać powietrze. Skóra i skrzela bledną, pojawia się "mleczny śluz". Niekiedy następuje wytrzeszcz oczu. Z czasem pojawia się ogólne osłabienie, utrata równowagi, przewracanie się i w końcu następuje śnięcie. +Skutki przyduchy. +Zmiany spowodowane niedoborem tlenu w wodzie powodują u ryb zmniejszenie odporności. Z braku odpowiedniej przemiany materii i zwolnieniu całego cyklu metabolizmu są one narażone na szkodliwe działanie różnych toksycznych związków organicznych i nieorganicznych. +Noelle Pikus-Pace + +Noelle Pikus-Pace (ur. 8 grudnia 1982 w Orem, Utah), amerykańska skeletonistka. +Jednym z jej największych osiągnięć jest zwycięstwo w klasyfikacji generalnej Pucharu Świata w sezonie 2004/2005. W ciągu sezonu wygrała trzy zawody pucharowe - w Igls, Siguldzie i Winterbergu. W 2005 była wicemistrzynią, a w 2007 mistrzynią świata w skeletonie. +Alpy Kamnickie + +Alpy Kamnickie (słoweń. "Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe", niem. "Steiner Alpen"), znane też jako Alpy Sawińskie (od nazwy rzeki Sawinji) – część Południowych Alp Wapiennych w Słowenii, między dolinami górnej Sawy i Sawinji. +Alpy Kamnickie są najbardziej na wschód wysuniętym łańcuchem Alp Wschodnich. Zajmują obszar ok. 900 km kwadratowych. W budowie podobne są do Alp Karnickich i Alp Julisjkich - strome, poszarpane, z prawie pionowymi północnymi zboczami i łagodniejszymi południowymi. +Najwyższy szczyt to Grintovec (2558 m n.p.m.). +Grafika dwuwymiarowa + +Grafika 2D - grafika dwuwymiarowa. Termin ten może się odnosić zarówno do działu informatyki zajmującego się grafiką dwuwymiarową i technikami dotyczącymi jej obróbki, jak i do samych obrazów cyfrowych mogących składać się z tekstu, grafiki oraz obiektów 2D. +Grafika dwuwymiarowa jest wykorzystywana głównie w tych zastosowaniach, w których pierwotnie używano tradycyjnych technologii drukowania oraz rysowania - m.in. typografii, kartografii, kreślarstwie, reklamie, filmie animowanym itp. +W tych zastosowaniach dwuwymiarowy obraz jest nie tylko reprezentacją obiektu ze świata rzeczywistego, ale niezależnym elementem, któremu nadano konkretne znaczenie. Dwuwymiarowy model jest w tym wypadku preferowany, ponieważ daje bardziej bezpośrednią kontrolę nad obrazem niż model trójwymiarowy, który lepiej odnosi się do fotografii niż do typografii. +Grafika komputerowa 2D rozpoczęła swój rozwój w latach 50. XX wieku od urządzeń grafiki wektorowej. Z czasem zostały one wyparte przez urządzenia grafiki rastrowej. Język PostScript oraz system X Window były jednymi z najważniejszych projektów w tej dziedzinie. +Techniki związane z grafiką 2D. +Grafika 2D może zawierać w sobie modele geometryczne (nazywane grafiką wektorową), obrazy cyfrowe (nazywane grafiką rastrową), tekst (zdefiniowany przez styl i rozmiar czcionki, kolor, pozycję, i orientację), funkcje i równania matematyczne. Składowe te mogą być modyfikowane i manipulowane przez dwuwymiarowe transformacje geometryczne takie jak translacja, rotacja, skalowanie. +W grafice obiektowej, obraz jest opisywany pośrednio przez obiekt stosujący metodę autorenderingu - procedurę, która ustala kolory pikseli obrazu poprzez bezwzględny algorytm. Złożone modele tworzy się z połączenia prostszych obiektów, tak jak w przypadku programowania obiektowego. +Rysowanie bezpośrednie. +Wygodnym sposobem aby stworzyć złożony obraz jest rozpoczęcie pracy od pustego obrazu ("canvas") - mapy rastrowej (jest to tablica pikseli - bitmapa lub pixmapa jeśli obraz jest kolorowy) wypełnionej jakimś jednolitym kolorem tła - następnie "rysowanie", "malowanie" lub "wklejanie" prostych kolorowych fragmentów obrazu w określonym porządku. W szczególnych przypadkach obraz może być przedstawiany jako bufor ramki. +Rozszerzone modele barw. +Tekst, kształty i linie są renderowane kolorem określonym przez klienta. Wiele bibliotek i kart dostarcza kolorowych gradientów, które są pomocne przy wyświetlaniu tła z przejściami tonalnymi między kolorami, efektów cieniowania, itp. (zobacz także cieniowanie Gourauda). Kolory piksela mogą być także pobrane z tekstury, np. z obrazu cyfrowego. +Namalowanie piksela danym kolorem zazwyczaj zastępuje poprzedni kolor. Jednakże, wiele systemów pozwala na malowanie przezroczystymi kolorami, które tylko modyfikują wartość poprzedniego piksela. +Dwa kolory mogą również być wymieszane w bardziej wyszukany sposób, np. poprzez wykonanie na nich bitowej operacji XOR. Ta technika, znana jako odwracanie kolorów (negatyw) jest często używana w interfejsach graficznych (np. w okienkach) do podświetlania elementów, a także innych zastosowań, gdy potrzebne jest zaznaczenie części rysunku bądź interfejsu tylko na chwilę - ponowne wykonanie na tych pikselach operacji XOR przywróci oryginalny jego kolor. +Warstwy. +Modele rysowania 2-wymiarowej grafiki komputerowej nie mają możliwości tworzenia kształtów 3-wymiarowych oraz stosowania takich efektów charakteryzujących przestrzeń trójwymiarową, jak oświetlenie, cienie, odbicia, załamania fal świetlnych itp. Jednakże istnieje możliwość nałożenia na obraz 2D wielu różnorodnych "warstw", czyli czegoś w rodzaju kartki lub półprzezroczystej bądź przezroczystej folii ułożonych na sobie w odpowiedniej kolejności. Kolejność ta jest zwykle zdefiniowana przez pojedynczą liczbę - położenie warstwy lub jej odległość od obserwatora. +Grafika zawierająca warstwy jest czasem nazywana grafiką dwuipółwymiarową (2.5D). Taka technika pozwala na wykorzystanie podobnych możliwości, co w przypadku obróbki obrazu na papierze oraz półprzezroczystych foliach. Możliwe jest wycinanie oraz wklejanie elementów na pojedynczych warstwach nie zmieniając pozostałych warstw. Z tych powodów są one używane w większości edytorów graficznych. Modele warstwowe pozwalają także na lepszy antyaliasing bardziej złożonych obrazów. +Warstwy umożliwiają użytkownikowi na pozostawianie lub usuwanie niepotrzebnych informacji podczas przeglądania bądź drukowania różnego rodzaju dokumentów, np. pozwalają na usunięcie dróg bądź torów kolejowych z map, ścieżek ze schematów układów elektronicznych, bądź odręcznych notatek w jakimś dokumencie. +Końcowy obraz jest tworzony poprzez "malowanie" bądź "wklejanie" każdej z warstw na początkowo czysty obraz, zgodnie z kolejnością położenia każdej z warstw. Każda warstwa jest najpierw renderowana jako pojedynczy obraz, a następnie tak wyrenderowany obraz jest malowany piksel po pikselu na obrazie docelowym. Jeśli część warstwy jest przezroczysta, ta część nie jest oczywiście malowana. Renderowanie i malowanie może odbywać się równolegle, tzn. piksel każdej z warstw może być malowany od razu po tym jak zostanie wyrenderowany. +Jeśli warstwa zawiera bardziej złożone obiekty geometryczne - takie jak tekst, krzywe - może być rozbita na prostsze elementy, np. pojedyncze litery w przypadku tekstu, bądź odcinki linii prostych. Następnie są one malowane jako osobne warstwy, w odpowiedniej kolejności. To rozwiązanie jednak może doprowadzić do utworzenia niepożądanych efektów w obrazie, gdy dwa elementy będą musiały zostać namalowane na jednym pikselu. +Sprzęt grafiki 2D. +Nowoczesne karty graficzne w przeważającej większości wykorzystują technologie rastrowe dzieląc ekran na siatkę pikseli - jest to prostsza i tańsza technologia od tej wykorzystywanej w sprzęcie do grafiki wektorowej. +Oprogramowanie grafiki 2D. +Wiele graficznych interfejsów użytkownika (GUI), takich jak te zawarte w systemach Mac OS, Microsoft Windows lub X Window System, są bazowane na grafice dwuwymiarowej. Oprogramowanie to pozwala użytkownikowi za pomocą interfejsu graficznego wejść w interakcję z komputerem. Zwykle menedżer okien logiczne oddziela interfejsy poszczególnych uruchomionych aplikacji, umieszczając je w osobnych oknach oraz umożliwiając użytkownikowi w prosty sposób przejście w każdej chwili z jednej aplikacji do drugiej. +Dwuwymiarowy interfejs użytkownika jest w pewnym sensie naturalnym rozwiązaniem, chociażby z tego powodu, że najważniejsze urządzenia wejścia, jak mysz komputerowa ma swobodę ruchów ograniczoną do dwóch wymiarów. +Grafika dwuwymiarowa jest intensywnie wykorzystywana w różnych urządzeniach peryferyjnych takich jak: drukarki, plotery, itp., a także w większości gier wideo oraz komputerowych wydanych w XX wieku. Jest też wykorzystywana w prostych grach karcianych i planszowych - solitaire, szachy, mahjongg, i wiele innych... +Edytory grafiki 2D są programami do tworzenia obrazów, diagramów oraz ilustracji poprzez bezpośrednie manipulowanie (za pomocą myszy, tabletu lub podobnego urządzenia) prostymi elementami grafiki. Edytory te zwykle umożliwiają edycję zarówno figur geometrycznych jak i obrazów cyfrowych. Obraz taki jest zwykle reprezentowany jako model warstwowy o strukturze hierarchicznej dla uproszszczenia procesu edycji. Wynikiem pracy takich programów jest plik graficzny, gdzie poszczególne warstwy i figury geometryczne są zapisane w ich oryginalnej postaci. Jednym z pierwszych programów, które można zaliczyć do zaprezentowanej grupy, jest MacDraw, wydany w roku 1984, razem z linią komputerów Macintosh. Do najnowszych przedstawicieli tej grupy można z kolei zaliczyć Adobe Illustrator, CorelDraw oraz darmowy edytor xfig. Jest także wiele edytorów wyspecjalizowanych w specyficznych zastosowaniach, jak diagramy elektryczne, elektroniczne oraz VLSI, mapy topograficzne, fonty komputerowe, itp. +Algorytmy generowania grafiki 2D. +Rasteryzacja +Przycinanie +Symulowanie kolorów +Bukareszt + +Bukareszt (rum. "Bucureşti") – stolica i centrum przemysłowo-usługowe Rumunii. Leży w południowo-wschodniej części kraju (44°25'N 26°06'E), nad rzeką Dymbowicą. +Pierwsze wzmianki o mieście pochodzą z roku 1459, status stolicy kraju Bukareszt uzyskał w 1862 r. Przez XIX i XX wiek przeszło wiele zmian i stało się centrum kulturalnym i medialnym Rumunii. Eklektyczna architektura, która stanowi mieszankę zabudowy historycznej, socrealistycznej i nowoczesnej, odzwierciedla historię miasta. W okresie międzywojennym Bukareszt uzyskał przydomek "Małego Paryża" ("Micul Paris"). Duża część śródmieścia została zniszczona podczas działań wojennych, trzęsień ziemi i wprowadzania w życie programu systematyzującego Nicolae Ceauşescu. Obecnie miasto przeżywa rozwój ekonomiczny i gospodarczy. +Według spisu ludności z 1 stycznia 2009 r., Bukareszt liczy 1 944 367 mieszkańców w obrębie granic miasta. Około 2,1 mln mieszkańców mieszka w miejskiej aglomeracji. Pod względem ekonomicznym miasto oferuje potencjalnym inwestorom najwięcej w Rumunii. Jest również jednym z największych w Europie Południowej centrów przemysłowych i węzłów komunikacyjnych. Jako najważniejsze rumuńskie miasto, Bukareszt posiada również wiele uczelni wyższych. +Pod względem administracyjnym, miasto ma status wydzielonego z okręgu ("Municipiul Bucureşti"). Jest również siedzibą władz administracyjnych okręgu Ilfov. Samo dzieli się na sześć sektorów. +W mieście znajduje się siedziba i fabryka upadłego w 2003 r. rumuńskiego producenta furgonetek, autobusów i trolejbusów Rocar. +Geografia i klimat. +Geografia. +Bukareszt leży na obu brzegach rzeki Dâmboviţa, która wpływa do rzeki Argeş, dopływu Dunaju. W obrębie miasta znajduje się również kilka jezior, z których największe to Floreasca, Tei i Colentina. Leżą one wzdłuż Colentiny, dopływu Dâmboviţy. Dodatkowo, w centrum miasta znajduje się małe, sztuczne jezioro: Cişmigiu. Jest ono otoczone przez Ogrody Cişmigiu, otwarte w 1847 wg planów niemieckiego architekta Karola Meyera. Ogrody mają długą historię, w której często przewijają się znani pisarze i poeci. +Oprócz Cişmigiu, Bukareszt posiada jeszcze dwa inne duże parki: Herăstrău i ogród botaniczny. Herăstrău to duży park w północnej części miasta. Ogród botaniczny należy natomiast do największych na świecie – występuje w nim ponad 10 000 gatunków roślin, w tym wiele egzotycznych. +Miasto ma powierzchnię 228 km². Wysokość nieznacznie się waha: najniżej (55,8 m) jest w okolicach mostu na Dâmbovicie w Căţelu, a najwyżej przy kościele w dzielnicy Militari. Miasto ma kształt zbliżony do koła, ze środkiem (kilometr 0.) na Piaţa Universităţii ("Plac Uniwersytecki"). Odległość od placu do granic miasta waha się między 10 a 12 kilometrami. +Najbliższe okolice Bukaresztu mają jak dotąd charakter wiejski, chociaż po przemianach ustrojowych i rewolucji w 1989 roku w otaczającym miasto okręgu Ilfov obserwuje się rozwój przedmieść. +Klimat. +Bukareszt ma klimat kontynentalny – w mieście występują gorące lata i chłodne zimy. W związku z położeniem miasta na rozległej Równinie Wołoskiej, Bukareszt wystawiony jest na silne wiatry. Temperatury zimą zwykle spadają poniżej 0 °C. Latem średnia temperatura wynosi około 23 °C, chociaż często wzrasta ona nawet do 40 °C w centrum miasta. +Prawo i administracja. +Administracja. +Bukareszt ma unikatowy status w rumuńskiej administracji. Jest jedynym miastem nie wchodzącym w skład żadnego z okręgów kraju. Jego populacja jest jednak większa niż liczba mieszkańców każdego okręgu, a uprawnienia Głównego Urzędu Miasta ("Primăria Generală") są identyczne z uprawnieniami Rad Okręgowych. +Główny Urząd Miasta w Bukareszcie zarządza miastem. Jest zarządzany przez Głównego Mera ("Primar General"), obecnie Sorina Oprescu. Miasto podzielone jest na sześć sektorów ("sectoare"), mających własne ratusze, merów i rady. Główny Urząd Miasta zajmuje się sprawami dotyczącymi całego Bukaresztu, jak gospodarka wodna, komunikacja miejska czy główne drogi i aleje, natomiast urzędy sektorowe opiekują się sprawami lokalnymi – parkami, szkołami, służbami porządkowymi itp. +Sektory są ponumerowane od 1 do 6. Każdy z nich ma pod opieką fragment centrum miasta. Kolejność numeracji jest zgodna z ruchem wskazówek zegara. Sektory dzielą się na dzielnice, które jednak nie posiadają żadnej formy samorządu. Ich granice ustalone są tradycyjnie. +Podobnie jak w innych miastach Rumunii, rady sektorów, Rada Generalna Bukaresztu oraz burmistrzowie są wybierani co cztery lata przez mieszkańców. Oprócz tego, Bukareszt ma przedstawiającego rząd państwa prefekta. Nie może on być członkiem żadnej partii politycznej. Rolą prefekta jest reprezentowanie miasta w rządzie, jako łącznika między parlamentem a lokalnymi władzami. Obecnie prefektem jest Mioara Mantale. +Miasto Bukareszt tworzy wraz z otaczającym go okręgiem Ilfov regiony rozwoju w Rumunii Bukareszt-Ilfov. Odpowiada on poziomowi NUTS-II w Unii Europejskiej i jest przez nią wykorzystywany do badań statystycznych oraz dotowany. Regiony rozwoju nie są jednak jednostkami administracyjnymi. +Historia. +Bukareszt ma bardzo zróżnicowaną historię sięgającą starożytności, chociaż głównym miastem Rumunii stał się dopiero w XIX wieku. Zgodnie z legendą, miasto zostało założone przez pasterza o imieniu Bucur. Jednak potwierdzone historyczne informacje mówią, że założycielem miasta jest Mircza Stary, a sam Bukareszt powstał po zwycięstwie nad Turkami w XIV wieku. Rumuńskie słowo "bucurie" znaczy "radość". +Bukareszt pierwszy raz w źródłach historycznych pojawił się jako "forteca Bucureşti" w 1459 roku. Był wtedy rezydencją wołoskiego księcia Włada Palownika. Wybudowano wtedy Curtea Veche ("Stary Dwór"), który podczas rządów Radu cel Frumosa stał się letnią rezydencją dworu. +Spalony przez Turków w 1595 roku, Bukareszt został odbudowany, po czym coraz szybciej rozwijał się pod względem znaczenia gospodarczego i liczby mieszkańców. Centrum nowego Bukaresztu leżało wokół "Uliţa Mare" (Wielkiej Ulicy), przemianowanej na Lipscani, po mieście Lipsk w Niemczech. W XVII wieku Bukareszt stał się najważniejszym centrum handlu Wołoszczyzny. W 1698 roku Konstantyn Brincoveanu przeniósł tu stolicę kraju z Târgovişte. +W XIX wieku przynależność Bukaresztu do Wołoszczyzny, a później Rumunii, była powodem licznych sporów małego państwa z Imperium osmańskim, Austrią/Austro-Węgrami i Rosją. Rosjanie okupowali miasto dwa razy, w latach 1828 oraz 1853-1854. W 1854 roku garnizon rosyjski został zastąpiony austriackim, który pozostał w mieście do marca 1857. Dodatkowo, 23 marca 1847 roku pożar zniszczył około 2000 budynków, niszcząc tym samym jedną trzecią miasta. +W 1861 roku, gdy Wołoszczyzna i Mołdawia zostały połączone i powstało Księstwo Rumunii, Bukareszt stał się stolicą nowego państwa. W drugiej połowie XIX wieku, dzięki statusowi miasta, liczba mieszkańców znacznie wzrosła. Ekstrawagancka architektura oraz kosmopolityczna kultura tego okresu sprawiły, że zaczęto nazywać Bukareszt "Paryżem Wschodu" albo "Małym Paryżem" ("Paris de Est", "Micul Paris"), z Calea Victoriei w charakterze Pól Elizejskich. Jednakże podział społeczeństwa na bogatych i biednych został opisany przez Ferdinanda Lassalle jako "dziki galimatias". +Między 6 grudnia 1916 a listopadem 1918 roku, Bukareszt był okupowany przez wojska niemieckie, a faktyczną stolicą Rumunii stały się Jassy. Po I wojnie światowej wyzwolone miasto stało się stolicą tzw. "Wielkiej Rumunii" (România Mare). W II wojnie światowej Bukareszt, jako stolica państwa sprzymierzonego z Osią, znacznie ucierpiał w wyniku alianckich bombardowań. 23 sierpnia 1944 roku zamach stanu zakończył rządy Iona Antonescu oraz doprowadził do politycznego przeorientowania Rumunii, sprowadzając na Bukareszt kolejne bombardowania, tym razem dokonane przez Luftwaffe. 8 listopada 1945 władzę przejął popierany przez ZSRR rząd Petru Grozy. +W czasach rządów Nicolae Ceauşescu (1965-1989), znaczna część historycznego centrum miasta została zrównana z ziemią i zastąpiona przez socrealistyczne budynki oraz wysokie apartamentowce i bloki mieszkalne. W samych latach 1960-61 wybudowano tam jakieś 23 tysiące mieszkań. Dobrym przykładem jest jest też rozbudowa "Centru Civic" i wybudowanie Pałacu Parlamentu oraz poprowadzenie reprezentacyjnej alei (B-dul Unirii) mającej swym wyglądem i rozmachem przewyższać słynne Pola Elizejskie , a także poprowadzenie rzeki przez centrum miasta, poprzez budowę tamy na Dymbowicy. Kolejnym uderzeniem dla historycznego centrum było trzęsienie ziemi o sile 7,4 w skali Richtera w 1977 roku. Niemniej jednak część historycznych zabudowań istnieje do dzisiaj i jest otoczona przez władze poszczególnych sektorów szczególną opieką. Ceauşescu wybudował też w całkowitej tajemnicy sieć podziemnych tuneli dostępnych tylko dla niego i jego rodziny. Najważniejsze punkty miasta połączyła tajna linia metra długości 10 km. Powstał też tunel wyłącznie dla samochodów rodziny Ceauşescu oraz czteropiętrowy schron atomowy pod Pałacem Parlamentu. +W 1989 roku fala protestów przeciwko Ceauşescu rozpoczęta w Timişoarze dotarła do Bukaresztu i doprowadziła do pozbawienia władzy reżimu komunistycznego. Niezadowoleni z porewolucyjnych rządów Frontu Wyzwolenia Narodowego studenci zorganizowali protesty na dużą skalę, zatrzymane przez górników z Valea Jiului. +Po roku 2000 miasto unowocześnia się i rozbudowuje. W północnej części miasta rozwijanych jest wiele ekonomicznych projektów, podczas gdy historyczne centrum podlega stopniowej restauracji. +Sport i rekreacja. +W 1981 roku w Bukareszcie odbyła się uniwersjada. +Architektura Bukaresztu i atrakcje turystyczne. +Bukareszt nie jest oblegany przez turystów - znaczna część ruchu turystycznego po Rumunii koncentruje się górach, Siedmiogrodzie, Mołdawii oraz nad Morzem Czarnym. Przyczyną tego stanu są m.in. ogromne zniszczenia zabytkowej architektury stolicy, jakiej doznała w wyniku trzęsień ziemi, II wojny światowej oraz, przede wszystkim, okresu rządów Nicolae Ceauşescu, który wyburzył znaczną część starówki oraz wiele obiektów sakralnych. Mimo tego w Bukareszcie pozostało sporo zabytkowych obiektów, często "zamaskowanych" socrealistyczną zabudową, oraz liczne muzea. +Z obiektów sakralnych najwięcej jest cerkwi prawosławnych i greckokatolickich, ocalało też kilka synagog oraz świątyń katolickich. Miejsca kultu religijnego zostały w okresie rządów komunistycznych obudowane nową zabudową, dlatego obecnie często znajdują się między blokami lub przy ruchliwych ulicach. +W Bukareszcie znajduje się także kilkanaście parków, z których najbardziej znanym jest Park Herăstrău ("Parcul Herăstrău"). Dużą popularnością cieszy się także Ogrody Cişmigiu ("Parcul Cişmigiu") - najstarszy w stolicy, założony w 1860 w klasycznym stylu angielskim. +Audyt finansowy + +Audyt finansowy – to badanie sprawozdania finansowego, zestaw procedur i testów, dzięki którym możliwe jest określenie czy np. wartość sprzedaży, poziom zobowiązań czy wysokość środków pieniężnych przedstawionych w sprawozdaniu finansowym nie są istotnie zniekształcone. +Istotne zniekształcenie to takie, które może wpłynąć na decyzje potencjalnego inwestora, pożyczkodawcy lub innych użytkowników danych finansowych. Do procedur i testów zalicza się m.in. przegląd istotnych umów, uzgodnienie kwot do dokumentów źródłowych (np. faktury), potwierdzenie sald środków pieniężnych i pożyczek z bankami, obserwacja inwentaryzacji zapasów, kontakt z prawnikami spółki, rozmowy z pracownikami. +Wizerunek audytu. +Audyt nie powinien być kojarzony z kolejną "kontrolą" w firmie. Audytorów nie należy traktować jak osób, którym tylko zależy na identyfikowaniu błędów i pomyłek oraz "donoszeniu" na pracowników. Ich główną rolą jest badanie sprawozdań finansowych pod kątem rzetelności i jasności przedstawionych danych, na podstawie których użytkownicy sprawozdań oceniają sytuację majątkową i finansową spółki. Badanie takie często obejmuje także pomoc w rozwiązywaniu problemów księgowych i podatkowych, ocenę efektywności kontroli wewnętrznych oraz identyfikację ryzyk będących nieodłącznym elementem prowadzenia wszelkiej działalności. +Zapotrzebowanie. +Formalne wymogi co do badania sprawozdań finansowych reguluje "Ustawa o rachunkowości" +Podmiot gdy spełni 2 z 3 wymogów musi się poddać badaniu sprawozdania finansowego przez biegłego rewidenta +Jednak nie tylko spółki zobligowane przez ustawę zlecają badanie sprawozdania finansowego. Coraz częściej decydują się na to właściciele prywatnych przedsiębiorstw, uczelnie, różne organizacje i stowarzyszenia. Zależy im na sprawdzeniu przez niezależny podmiot danych finansowych jednostki, ewentualnym poprawieniu efektywności działania i uporządkowaniu procesów kontrolnych. +Artel + +Artel, (ros. "Артель") - początkowo w carskiej Rosji, następnie w ZSRR - zrzeszenie drobnotowarowych producentów (spółdzielnia wytwórcza). +Artel istnieje do dziś w krajach byłego ZSRR. W Rosji zagadnienia tej formy zrzeszenia reguluje Kodeks ziemski. +Karol, książę Walii + +Karol, książę Walii ("Charles, Prince of Wales"), Charles Philip Arthur George Mountbatten-Windsor (ur. 14 listopada 1948 w Londynie) – syn Elżbiety II i księcia Filipa. +Tytuły. +Następca tronu brytyjskiego i 15 państw Commonwealth realm. +Wykształcenie. +Książę Karol w początkowym etapie edukacji uczęszczał do Hill House School w West London; następnie edukację kontynuował w szkole przygotowawczej Cheam Preparatory School w hrabstwie Berkshire w Anglii, do której uczęszczał także jego ojciec; a następnie w szkole Gordonstoun, w północno-wschodnim zakątku Szkocji. W tym okresie spędził również dwa semestry w Geelong Grammar School w Geelong, (Australia), podczas tych studiów w czasie praktyk historycznych odwiedził Papuę Nową Gwineę. Po powrocie z Australii do Gordonstoun, podobnie jak jego ojciec wstąpił do szkoły Head Boy, którą opuścił w 1967 zaliczając egzaminy z historii i języka francuskiego. Po ukończeniu szkoły średniej był również studentem Old College (University of Wales w Aberystwyth), gdzie podjął naukę języka walijskiego oraz historii Walii. Przeciwstawiając się przyjętej tradycji, rezygnuje z akademii wojskowej a dalszą naukę kontynuuje na studiach uniwersyteckich w Trinity College, Cambridge. Był m.in. słuchaczem na kierunkach antropologia, archeologia i historia, zdobywając drugą klasą B.A. 23 czerwca 1970. Pięć lat później 2 sierpnia 1975, został promowany do stopnia Master of Arts uniwersytetu Cambridge. Z wykształcenia książę Karol jest archeologiem, specjalizuje się w historii wypraw krzyżowych. +Małżeństwa. +Diana Spencer. +29 lipca 1981 w katedrze św. Pawła, w Londynie odbył się ślub księcia Walii z lady Dianą Frances Spencer (1 lipca 1961 – 31 sierpnia 1997), najmłodszą córką Edwarda Johna Spencera, wicehrabiego Althorp i jego pierwszej żony Frances Burke Roche. +Para poznała się przez starszą siostrę Diany – Saraę w 1977. Diana spodobała się królowej Elżbiecie i została uznana za idealną kandydatkę na książęcą małżonkę. Ze strony Karola było to małżeństwo z rozsądku (a nawet z przymusu, gdyż to ojciec Karola – książę Filip zmusił syna do ślubu). +24 lutego 1981 ogłoszono zaręczyny pary, a pięć miesięcy później odbył się ślub. Wieczór przed ślubem Karol spędził u swojej przyjaciółki, mężatki Camilli Parker Bowles. Na ślub przybyło zaproszonych 3500 gości – koronowane głowy (z wyjątkiem Jana Karola I króla Hiszpanii – spór o Gibraltar), następcy tronów z całego świata. Transmisję telewizyjną oglądało około miliarda osób. Para zamieszkała w Highgrove w Gloucestershire. +Szybko okazało się, że para do siebie nie pasuje. Pięć lat po ślubie małżeństwo chyliło się ku upadkowi. Mimo to obydwoje nadal razem występowali publicznie i zgodnie poświęcali się działalności dobroczynnej. Do separacji doszło w końcu lat 80. XX wieku – on mieszkał w Highgrove, ona w Pałacu Kensington. +Do oficjalnej separacji doszło w 1992. Rozwód nastąpił 29 sierpnia 1996. +Camilla Parker-Bowles. +9 kwietnia 2005 poślubił Camilę Parker Bowles, swoją długoletnią towarzyszkę. Jak donosiła brytyjska prasa brukowa, książę i Camilla od dawna utrzymywali stosunki intymne. +Zaręczyny ogłoszono 10 lutego 2005 w Clarence House – nowej siedzibie Karola. Ponadto ogłoszono, że ślub cywilny pary odbędzie się 8 kwietnia tego roku w Windsor Castle, a religijne błogosławieństwo para otrzyma w kaplicy St George na zamku. W międzyczasie zmieniono miejsce ślubu na Guildhall w Windsorze 9 kwietnia. Powody zmiany miejsca – gdyby wydano pozwolenie Karolowi na ślub w Windsorze wtedy każda para mogłaby wziąć ślub w siedzibie królowej. 4 kwietnia ogłoszono, że ślub z powodu śmierci i uroczystości pogrzebowych papieża Jana Pawła II przełożono o jeden dzień. +Po ślubie Camilla stała się "Jej Królewską Wysokością Księżną Kornwalii", a nie Księżną Walii ze względu na nacisk ze strony mediów i ludzi, że Diana "była jedyną i prawdziwą księżną Walii" . Po wstąpieniu Karola na tron, Camilla nie będzie nosić tytułu Królowej, ale zostanie Jej Królewską Wysokością, Księżną – Małżonką. +Odznaczenia. +Poniższa lista nie zawiera wszystkich odznaczeń. +Pomoc społeczna + +Pomoc społeczna – jedna z instytucji polityki społecznej państwa, której głównym zadaniem jest pomoc osobom i rodzinom w radzeniu sobie w trudnych sytuacjach życiowych, jakich nie mogą one same pokonać przy wykorzystaniu swoich możliwości, uprawnień i własnych środków. +Historia. +Źródła państwowej pomocy społecznej należy szukać w ustanowionym w Anglii „prawie ubogich” w 1601 r., zgodnie z którym na gminy (hrabstwa) nałożono obowiązek pomocy osobom pozbawionym opieki ze strony rodziny. Znaczenie pomocy społecznej wzrosło w okresie rozwoju przemysłu i rodzenia się kapitalizmu. Zaowocowało to nowymi regulacjami: w Anglii (zreformowane prawo ubogich) w 1834 r. Danii 1849 r. na terenach Polski w 1817 r. +Minigniew + +Minigniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Mini-" ("minąć") oraz "-gniew". Mogło oznaczać "tego, którego gniew szybko mija". +Minigniew imieniny obchodzi 25 września. +Sani Abacha + +Sani Abacha (ur. 20 września 1943 w Kano, zm. 8 czerwca 1998 w Abudży) – nigeryjski generał, wojskowy przywódca Nigerii od 1993 aż do śmierci, członek ludu Hausa. +Po ukończonej państwowej szkole średniej wstąpił do wojska w 1962. Zdobywając kolejne stopnie wojskowe, w 1984 awansował do stopnia generała-majora i został członkiem Najwyższej Rady Wojskowej. W niedługim czasie został mianowany dowódcą armii. Pełnił ten urząd do 1985, kiedy poparł wojskowy zamach stanu swego przyjaciela Ibrahima Babangidy i objął stanowisko szefa sztabu. W 1990 został ministrem obrony. 17 listopada 1993 po obaleniu rządu cywilnego Ernesta Shonekana (rządzącego od 27 sierpnia tego samego roku) przejął władzę. Mimo fali strajków demonstracyjnych zdelegalizował wszystkie demokratyczne instytucje państwowe, a strajki załagodził wycofując się ze swych drakońskich decyzji (m.in. podwyższenia cen paliw o 600%). Zawiesił konstytucję, rozwiązał parlament, prześladował opozycję oraz łamał prawa człowieka. Oparł się wzrastającym międzynarodowym wezwaniom, by położyć kres brutalnemu reżimowi, który zaostrzył się po egzekucji Kena Saro-Wiwy i innych aktywistów demokratycznych. Międzynarodowe protesty nie odniosły skutku gł. dlatego, że zachodnie sankcje nie obejmowały najistotniejszego towaru nigeryjskiego eksportu – ropy naftowej. Pomimo krajowych i międzynarodowych nacisków trzymał się kurczowo władzy. Zmarł w swoim biurze na zawał serca. +Miejski Ośrodek Pomocy Społecznej + +Miejski Ośrodek Pomocy Społecznej (MOPS) – jednostka w systemie +pomocy społecznej. Są one miejscem pierwszego kontaktu osób poszukujących pomocy społecznej. Zgodnie z prawem działają w każdej gminie. Kierują osoby potrzebujące do domów pomocy społecznej lub kwalifikują do wypłaty zasiłku. A przede wszystkim prowadzą szeroko zakrojoną pracę socjalną z ludźmi dotkniętymi patologią, marginalizacją, wykluczeniem lub niedostosowanie społecznym. +Ursula Schröder-Feinen + +Ursula Schröder-Feinen (ur. 21 lipca 1936 w Gelsenkirchen, zm. 9 lutego 2005) - niemiecka śpiewaczka operowa (sopran dramatyczny). +Kształciła się w szkole muzycznej w Essen, w 1963 debiutowała w Gelsenkirchen partią tytułową w "Aidzie" Verdiego. Do 1970 występowała w teatrze operowym w Gelsenkirchen, koncertując gościnnie na innych scenach RFN i w Berlinie Zachodnim. Od 1970 związana z nowojorską Metropolitan Opera, występowała także w La Scali, operach w Montrealu, Paryżu, Wiedniu i Amsterdamie oraz na festiwalach w Bayreauth, Edynburgu i Salzburgu. +Samolot myśliwsko-bombowy + +Samolot myśliwsko-bombowy (myśliwiec bombardujący, samolot myśliwsko-szturmowy) – rodzaj samolotu wojskowego łączący cechy samolotów myśliwskich i bombowych. Obecnie wypierane są przez myśliwce wielozadaniowe. +Okres II wojny światowej. +Kategoria ta wywodzi się konstrukcyjnie z samolotów myśliwskich, a powstała w okresie II wojny światowej. W tym okresie wiele typów myśliwców miało możliwość zabierania bomb, niemniej jednak jako samoloty myśliwsko-bombowe określano jedynie nieliczne typy, których podstawowym zadaniem było niszczenie obiektów naziemnych lub jednostek pływających nieprzyjaciela za pomocą bomb, ewentualnie pocisków rakietowych, a drugoplanowym zadaniem walka z samolotami. W odróżnieniu od nich, dla zwykłych myśliwców zadania bombowe były jedynie dodatkiem do ich podstawowej funkcji - zwalczania samolotów. +Samoloty myśliwsko-bombowe różniły się konstrukcyjnie tylko w niewielkim stopniu, lub nie różniły się w ogóle od standardowych myśliwców wyposażonych w zaczepy bombowe, natomiast ich podział był oparty w głównej mierze na przeznaczeniu. Pod tym kątem też szkolono ich załogi. Na ogół były to jednosilnikowe jednomiejscowe samoloty napędzane silnikiem śmigłowym, uzbrojone w karabiny maszynowe lub działka lotnicze, rzadziej dwusilnikowe wielomiejscowe. Po zrzuceniu bomb, samolot myśliwsko-bombowy stawał się "czystym" myśliwcem, mogącym skutecznie odpierać ataki innych samolotów. Przez to, że standardowe myśliwce, zwłaszcza końcowego okresu wojny, często korzystały z możliwości zabierania bomb, nawet o stosunkowo sporym ładunku (jak np. P-47 Thunderbolt i Supermarine Spitfire), rozgraniczenie między myśliwcami i myśliwco-bombowcami jest nieprecyzyjne i w dużym stopniu zatarte. +Oprócz samolotów myśliwsko-bombowych, budowano także w tym okresie nieliczne bombowce nurkujące oparte na konstrukcji myśliwców, dostosowane do bombardowania z lotu nurkowego, a w mniejszym stopniu do zadań myśliwskich (amerykański A-36 Apache, rumuński IAR.81, brytyjski Blackburn Skua). +Po II wojnie światowej. +Po II wojnie światowej kategoria samolotów myśliwsko-bombowych zaczęła się rozwijać niezależnie od samolotów myśliwskich. O ile wcześniej były to modyfikacje myśliwców, o tyle powojenne samoloty myśliwsko-bombowe były to na ogół specjalnie budowane konstrukcje, cięższe od myśliwców i o większym udźwigu uzbrojenia, lecz z reguły posiadające słabsze osiągi. Samoloty myśliwsko-bombowe ewoluowały razem z rozwojem techniki lotniczej; były to jedno- lub dwusilnikowe samoloty odrzutowe, z załogą jedno- lub dwuosobową. +Stałe uzbrojenie stanowiły działka lotnicze, a uzbrojenie podwieszane składało się początkowo z różnych rodzajów bomb i wyrzutni niekierowanych pocisków rakietowych, rzadziej zasobników z napalmem. Uzbrojenie takie mogła przenosić również większość myśliwców tego okresu, lecz zwykle w mniejszej ilości i nie było to ich pierwszoplanowa rola. Od lat 50. na uzbrojenie części samolotów myśliwsko-bombowych weszły kierowane pociski rakietowe powietrze-ziemia, które rzadziej stanowiły uzbrojenie zwykłych myśliwców. O ile ewolucja myśliwców przebiegała w kierunku zwiększania prędkości i manewrowości oraz wyposażenia ich w radary i kierowane pociski powietrze-powietrze w celu prowadzenia walk powietrznych w każdych warunkach atmosferycznych, to samoloty myśliwsko-bombowe miały gorsze osiągi i były słabo dostosowane do walk powietrznych, a lepiej do lotów z dużą prędkością na małych wysokościach. Ich prędkość z reguły nie przekraczała 2 Ma. Wiele konstrukcji nie miało radaru lub miało radar bez funkcji walki powietrznej, część nie miała w ogóle możliwości przenoszenia pocisków rakietowych powietrze-powietrze, a pozostałe - jedynie pociski bliskiego zasięgu do samoobrony. Skupiano się natomiast nad rozwojem aparatury celowniczej pozwalającej na precyzyjne atakowanie celów naziemnych, w tym za pomocą uzbrojenia naprowadzanego laserowo. Często do roli samolotów myśliwsko-bombowych modyfikowano przestarzałe myśliwce. +W okresie powojennym budowano też lekkie samoloty szturmowe, różniące się od samolotów myśliwsko-bombowych brakiem przystosowania do zadań myśliwskich i słabszymi osiągami (zwykle prędkością nie przekraczającą 1 Ma). Jednakże, granice pomiędzy tymi kategoriami nie są ostre i nazewnictwo niektórych samolotów jako szturmowych lub myśliwsko-bombowych nie jest konsekwentne. Z drugiej strony, nie jest konsekwentne rozróżnianie między samolotami myśliwsko-bombowymi a myśliwcami o zwiększonych możliwościach atakowania celów naziemnych, tym bardziej, że atakowanie takich celów było uważane za jedno z podstawowych zadań myśliwców taktycznych państw NATO w latach 60. i 70. Oprócz tego, rozwijano bombowce taktyczne, nie przystosowane do zadań myśliwskich. +Od lat 80. i 90. XX wieku osobne kategorie samolotów myśliwsko-bombowych, bombowców taktycznych i samolotów myśliwskich zaczęły być ponownie zastępowane przez jedną kategorię myśliwców wielozadaniowych, posiadających na skutek rozwoju techniki rozbudowane elektroniczne systemy kierowania uzbrojeniem zarówno przeciw celom powietrznym, jak i naziemnym oraz odpowiednio duży udźwig i gamę uzbrojenia. Przeznaczenie myśliwców wielozadaniowych obecnie zależne jest głównie od zestawu podwieszonego uzbrojenia, ewentualnie podwieszonej specjalistycznej aparatury kierowania uzbrojeniem. Z drugiej strony, wyodrębniła się kategoria wysoce wyspecjalizowanych samolotów myśliwsko-bombowych przeznaczonych do dokonywania precyzyjnych uderzeń na obiekty na tyłach wroga (ang. "interdictor"), zwykle dwumiejscowych, posiadających bogate wyposażenie elektroniczne i pilotażowe oraz wysokie osiągi, jak F-15E Strike Eagle czy Tornado IDS. +Brama Żuraw w Gdańsku + +Żuraw (niem. "Krantor") – zabytkowy dźwig portowy Gdańska, usadowiony pomiędzy pylonami Bramy Szerokiej nad Motławą. Jest jedną z filii Centralnego Muzeum Morskiego w Gdańsku. +Historia. +Brama Szeroka (jedna z tzw. bram wodnych Głównego Miasta) istniała już w 1363, a z 1367 zachowała się łacińska wzmianka o dźwigu ("caranum"). +W obecnym kształcie żuraw zbudowano w latach 1442-1444. Służył przede wszystkim jako urządzenie portowe do załadunku towarów (głównie piwa) i balastu na statki, oraz do stawiania ich masztów. Urządzenie było w stanie podnieść ciężar czterech ton, na wysokość jedenastu metrów. Mechanizmem są dwa bębny o średnicy około sześciu metrów. Jako siłę napędową wykorzystywano ludzi stąpających wewnątrz tych bębnów (tzw. kół deptakowych). +Żuraw został podpalony w 1945, gdy miasto zdobyła Armia Czerwona. Ocalały mury okalające drewnianą konstrukcję. Po II wojnie światowej zrekonstruowano część drewnianą. +Gmina Grunwald + +Gmina Grunwald – gmina wiejska w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim, w powiecie ostródzkim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie olsztyńskim. +Siedziba gminy to Gierzwałd. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 5698 osób. +Powierzchnia: 179,84 km² (użytki rolne – 72%, użytki leśne – 18%). Największe jeziora to: Tymawskie, Lubień, Mielno oraz Wielki i Mały Omin. W rolnictwie dominuje gospodarka wielokierunkowa, z przewagą produkcji roślinnej. +Najludniejsze miejscowości gminy: Gierzwałd (której powstanie datuje się na XIV wiek) i Zybułtowo. Na terenie gminy znajduje się pole bitwy pod Grunwaldem z 1410. +W historii gminy tylko raz nadano honorowe obywatelstwo. Honorową Obywatelką Gminy Grunwald jest hm. Barbara Bogdańska-Pawłowska – twórczyni, wieloletnia przewodnicząca (1991-2011), a obecnie Honorowa Przewodnicząca Ogólnopolskiego Ruchu Programowo-Metodycznego ZHP "Wspólnota Drużyn Grunwaldzkich". +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 10,19% powierzchni powiatu. +Zabytki i atrakcje. +Zabytki na terenie gminy: kościół z XIV wieku, cmentarz, pałac i park w Dylewie, kościół metodystyczny w Gierzwałdzie, kaplica pobitewna na Polach Grunwaldzkich, kościół i dzwonnica w Mielnie, pałac w Pacółtowie, dzwonnica, drewniany kościółek mazurski, kostnica, park i pałac klasztorny w Rychnowie, kościół w Stębarku i Kiersztanowie, spichlerz, stajnia i rządcówka w Zybułtowie, zespół folwarczny, dworek i park w Grunwaldzie. +Pomniki przyrody i rezerwaty: Park Krajobrazowy Wzgórz Dylewskich, Czarci Jar z dopływami rzeki Drwęcy, hodowle pstrąga w Ośrodku Zarybieniowym w Czarcim Jarze oraz w Rychnowskiej Woli. +Sołectwa. +Domkowo, Dylewo, Frygnowo, Gierzwałd, Glądy, Góry Lubiańskie, Grunwald, Kiersztanowo, Kiersztanówko, Kitnowo, Łodwigowo, Marcinkowo, Mielno, Pacółtowo, Rychnowo, Rychnowska Wola, Stębark, Szczepankowo, Zapieka, Zybułtowo. +Pozostałe miejscowości. +Dąbrowo, Dylewko, Grabiczki, Grunwald (osada), Jędrychowo, Kalwa, Korsztyn, Lipowa Góra, Lubian, Lubianek, Łącko, Omin, Pacółtówko, Rzepki, Tymawa, Ulnowo, Wróble. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Dąbrówno, Kozłowo, Olsztynek, Ostróda +Nihon teria + +Nihon teria – jedna z ras psów, należąca do grupy terierów, zaklasyfikowana do sekcji terierów krótkonożnych. Nie podlega próbom pracy. +Rys historyczny. +Przodkowie tych psów przybyli razem z holenderskimi żeglarzami do Japonii. Rasa ta powstała w wyniku krzyżowania przybyłych psów podobnych do foksterierów z terierem kobe, toy terrierem i minibullterierem. W roku 1932 został utworzony w Japonii Klub Nihon teria, którego pierwszym przewodniczącym był Tamura Kikujiro. Natomiast JKC (Japan Kennel Club) został członkiem FCI w roku 1979. Pierwszy standard tej rasy w organizacji FCI został opublikowany 9 maja 1973 roku, gdzie jeszcze była mowa o "Nihon Fox Terrierze" (smooth). W Polsce jest rasą unikalną. +Temperament. +Inteligentne i przyjacielskie, lubią życie na łonie rodziny. +Wygląd ogólny. +Głowa +Szata i umaszczenie. +Sierść u teriera japońskiego jest krótka, gęsta o gładkim włosie. Umaszczenie spotykane u tej rasy jest trójbarwne o czarnej głowie. Występuje także umaszczenie podpalane i białe, białe ze znaczeniami czarnymi lub podpalanymi lub białe z plamami czarnymi. +Lis wirginijski + +Lis wirginijski ("Urocyon cinereoargenteus") – gatunek drapieżnego ssaka z rodziny psowatych. Żyje samotnie, czasami w wieloletnich związkach. Zamieszkuje własne terytoria, które zaznacza zapachem. Prowadzi przeważnie nocny tryb życia. Często jest mylony z kojotem. Dożywa około 8 lat; w niewoli dożywa 15. +Budowa i wygląd zewnętrzny. +Jest to średniej wielkości lis o szaro cętkowanym futrze, z jaśniejszą spodnią częścią ciała, z głową w kolorze rdzawym z białymi plamkami; podszerstek ma barwę rdzawoczerwoną. dużymi uszami, wąskim pyskiem, długim i Ma gęsto owłosiony, puszysty ogon z czarną pręgą na wierzchu. Charakteryzuje sie długością ciała 42-68 cm, ogona ponad 30 cm, wysokością w kłębie ponad 40 cm, a ciężarem ponad 4 kg. Nogi krótkie i mocne. Posiada pazury ostrzejsze i bardziej zakrzywione od innych psowatych. Często wspina się na drzewa, których korony są dla niego doskonałą kryjówką. Jest on jedynym gatunkiem psowatych, który potrafi tego dokonywać. +Pożywienie. +Jest zwierzęciem wszystkożernym, jednak przeważnie żywi się pokarmem zwierzęcym. Umiejętność wspinaczki po drzewach przydaje mu się podczas zdobywania jagód i innych owoców. Ze zwierząt poluje (zazwyczaj w nocy) na niewielkie ptaki, myszy i inne gryzonie. Z nadmiaru zdobytego pożywienia robi zapasy w postaci podziemnego schowka, który potrafi wyczuć już z odległości 3 metrów. Dzięki wspaniałemu zmysłowi powonienia wyczuje niekiedy zagrzebane w ziemi na kilka centymetrów jaja, które także stanowią część jego diety. +Rozmnażanie. +Na kilka dni przed porodem samica wypędza samca z legowiska, jednak powraca on kilka dni po porodzie i dostarcza pożywienia potomstwu i samicy. Okres rozrodu od sierpnia do września, ciąża trwa 53-58 dni, samica rodzi zwykle 3-6 szczeniąt. Młode ważą około 80g i rodzą się z czarną sierścią. Przez pierwsze dni życia potomstwo jest ślepe i zdane na opiekę osobników dorosłych. Po około sześciu tygodniach młode lisy są już zostawiane same na czas polowania. Opieka nad potomstwem trwa około 5 miesięcy. +Występowanie i ochrona. +Zamieszkuje Amerykę Środkową oraz strefę ciepłą i umiarkowaną Ameryki Północnej. +Gatunek nie jest jeszcze zagrożony, chociaż w latach 1977-1978 liczbę zabitych osobników szacuje się na około 270 tysięcy. Lis wirginijski jest często uciążliwy dla rolników lub ginie w pułapkach przeznaczonych na inne drapieżniki. Niejednokrotnie jest łowiony dla futra. +Legwan galapagoski + +Legwan galapagoski, legwan z Galapagos, legwan lądowy, konolof ("Conolophus subcristatus") – gatunek dużej jaszczurki z rodziny legwanowatych (Iguanidae). Oprócz gatunku "Conolophus subcristatus" występującego na 6 wyspach archipelagu Galapagos wyróżnia się dwa inne gatunki z rodzaju "Conolophus" – "Conolophus pallidus", występujący tylko na wyspie Santa Fé oraz "Conolophus marthae", endemiczny dla wyspy Isabela. Analizy morfologiczne i genetyczne sugerują, że niektóre populacje legwana galapagoskiego mogą zasługiwać na status odrębnych gatunków. +Usłonecznienie + +Usłonecznienie – czas podany w godzinach, podczas którego na określone miejsce na powierzchni Ziemi padają bezpośrednio promienie słoneczne. +Do pomiaru usłonecznienia służy urządzenie zwane heliografem. +Skomielna Biała + +Skomielna Biała – duża wieś letniskowa w (województwie małopolskim) w powiecie myślenickim, gminie Lubień (wraz z Krzeczowem, Tenczynem i Lubniem). W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie nowosądeckim. +Informacje ogólne. +Skomielna Biała (do XVII w. pisana bez przydomku "Biała") znajduje się w Kotlinie Rabczańskiej i na zachodnim stoku Lubonia Małego (896 m n.p.m.) w zachodniej części Beskidu Wyspowego. Przez miejscowość przepływa potok Skomielnianka uchodzący do Raby. W południowej części znajdują się góry: Birtałowa (626 m n.p.m.) i Zbójecka Góra (643 m n.p.m.). +Charakterystycznym punktem Skomielnej jest neoromański kościół, wybudowany na miejscu spalonego 3 września 1939 w trakcie kampanii wrześniowej kościoła modrzewiowego. +W skład wsi wchodzą też zabudowania oddalonej o ponad 4 km Polany Surówki. +Jest kilka hipotez na temat nazwy miejscowości. Według jednej z nich nazwa wzięła się od niejakiego Skomelna, który miał być zasadźcą lub jednym z pierwszych mieszkańców miejscowości. Inna wskazuje na nazwę potoku, który stanowił granicę miejscowości (tu pojawia się pytanie o genezę nazwy tego potoku). +Turystyka. +W okresie wakacyjnym w budynku szkoły działa schronisko młodzieżowe kategorii III. +Historia. +Dane historyczne na temat czasów najdawniejszych są bardzo skąpe. Przyjmuje się, że w latach 1200-400 r. p.n.e., okres łużycki, tereny te były zamieszkane. Świadczą o tym znalezione w dolinie Raby skorupy naczyń, krzesiwo i kamienny toporek, znajdujący się w Muzeum Archeologicznym w Krakowie. Z nieznanych powodów ok. 400 r. p.n.e tereny te opustoszały. W czasach piastowskich prowadzona była mniej lub bardziej intensywna kolonizacja w kierunku Tatr. W XIV wieku król Kazimierz Wielki przeprowadził zakrojoną na szeroką skalę akcję lokacyjną na prawie magdeburskim. Została wtedy przeprowadzona lokacja wsi Lubnia (1360 i Rabki (1364). Prawdopodobnie również wtedy (1364 rok) lokowano Skomielną). Nie można jednak wykluczyć, że początkowo stanowiła jedynie przysiółek dla Rabki i lokowana była dopiero na początku XVI wieku przez ród Jordanów z Zakliczyna, założycieli miasta Jordanowa (patrz Spytek Jordan). Za pierwsze znane udokumentowane użycie nazwy Skomielna przyjmuje się wzmiankę w dokumencie lokacyjnym wsi Rabka (prawo magdeburskie) wystawionym przez Mikołaja, dziedzica z Niewiarowa dla Andrzeja i Piotra, synów kmiecia Jakusza z Olszówki w dniu 16 marca 1446 roku. Znajduje się tam nazwa potoku granicznego miejscowości: "usque ad verticem Skomylna","od nurtu Glynyasty, aż do nurtu Skomylna"). W 1550 z fundacji Jana Spytka Jordana powstaje pierwszy kościół i "fara" (istniała do 1565). W 1565 roku dokonuje się przeniesienie Skomielnej z parafii Łętownia do parafii Rabka. +W 1772 roku w wyniku I rozbioru Polski miejscowość przechodzi pod władzę Austrii Habsburgów. W 1776 roku zakończono budowę kościoła modrzewiowego pod wezwaniem św. Sebastiana. W 1885 roku utworzono szkołę publiczną. W 1896 powstaje parafia Skomielna Biała (po odłączeniu się od Rabki). W 1911 założona zostaje Ochotnicza Straż Pożarna. +3 września 1939 roku wojska niemieckie palą część wsi i kościół w odwecie za czynny opór stawiany przez 10. Brygadę pancerno-motorową płk. Stanisława Maczka (jedna z bitew kampanii wrześniowej znana jako 'bitwa o Wysoką pod Jordanowem'). +Po wojnie w 1953 roku następuje elektryfikacja wsi. W 1973 roku w wypadku samochodowym na 'zakręcie śmierci' ginie trener polskich kolarzy Henryk Łasak. Lata 90. to okres telefonizacji, gazyfikacji i kanalizacji wsi. W latach 1973 – 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej Skomielna Biała wchodzi w skład województwa nowosądeckiego, w ramach gminy Lubień. W latach 1997-2003 dokonuje się gruntowna rozbudowa (nowe skrzydło i hala sportowa) szkoły. W 1999 – po zakończonych skutkiem pozytywnym zabiegach powstaje gimnazjum im. Henryka Łasaka. W 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej Skomielna Biała wchodzi w skład województwa małopolskiego, powiat Myślenice, gmina Lubień. W latach 2003-2005 dochodzi do rozbudowy przebiegającej przez miejscowość "Zakopianki" (m.in. instalacja sygnalizacji świetlnej na skrzyżowaniu dróg krajowych). +Zygmunt Chychła + +Zygmunt Chychła (ur. 5 listopada 1926 w Gdańsku, zm. 26 września 2009 w Hamburgu) – bokser, zdobywca pierwszego po wojnie złotego medalu olimpijskiego dla Polski. +Treningi rozpoczął w 1939 w polskim klubie Gedania. Po rozpoczęciu wojny został przez władze niemieckie pozbawiony obywatelstwa gdańskiego, a w 1944 przymusowo wcielony do Wehrmachtu. We Francji zdezerterował, po czym trafił do 2 Korpusu Polskiego gen. Andersa we Włoszech. Do Polski wrócił w 1946. +W 1947 debiutował w bokserskiej reprezentacji Polski u samego Feliksa Stamma. W 1948 pojechał na igrzyska olimpijskie do Londynu, gdzie dotarł do ćwierćfinału. +W 1951 w Mediolanie zdobył mistrzostwo Europy. W Plebiscycie "Przeglądu Sportowego" został wybrany najlepszym polskim sportowcem roku. +Na kolejnych igrzyskach w Helsinkach w 1952 zdobył złoty medal, wygrywając w finale z reprezentantem ZSRR Siergiejem Szczerbakowem. W drodze do finału zwyciężył mistrza olimpijskiego z Londynu i mistrza Europy z Oslo Júliusa Tormę (Czechosłowacja). W tym samym roku ponownie wygrał Plebiscyt "Przeglądu Sportowego". +Po powrocie z Olimpiady dowiedział się, że jest chory na gruźlicę. Postanowił wycofać się ze sportu, jednak polskie władze sportowe nie chcąc aby zawodnika zabrakło na Mistrzostwach Europy w Warszawie 1953 wprowadziły go w błąd, twierdząc, że choroba się cofnęła. Chychła wystartował w mistrzostwach, zdobywając złoty medal. Wskutek braku leczenia u sportowca rozwinęła się gruźlica, która spowodowała sporą jamę w płucach. Załamany, zakończył karierę sportową w 1953 roku. Na początku lat 70. wyemigrował do Niemiec. +Wystąpił 17 razy w reprezentacji Polski, 15 walk wygrał i 2 przegrał. +Stoczył 263 walki, 241 wygrał, 10 zremisował i 12 przegrał. +W 2003 Rada Miasta Gdańska przyznała bokserowi tytuł Honorowego Obywatela Miasta. +Zygmunt Chychła zmarł w Domu Seniora w Hamburgu. +ABC (dziennik) + +„ABC” (od 1935 r. „ABC – Nowiny Codzienne”) – dziennik związany z polskim ruchem narodowym, wydawany w Warszawie w latach 1926–1939, programowo antysemicki. +Gazeta reklamowała się jako „aktualna, bezpartyjna, ciekawa”, co było nawiązaniem do pierwszych liter tytułu. Od innych polskich pism odróżniała się formułą zaczerpniętą z prasy zachodnioeuropejskiej i amerykańskiej. Na początku lat 30. XX wieku w redakcji rozpoczęła się rywalizacja pomiędzy młodymi działaczami narodowo-radykalnymi a starszymi dziennikarzami, którzy uważani byli za zwolenników parlamentaryzmu i liberalizmu. +Początkowo pismo redagowane przez Stanisława Strzetelskiego, po 1934 roku związane z Obozem Narodowo-Radykalnym. We wrześniu 1936 roku tytuł został wykupiony przez narodowych radykałów od dotychczasowego właściciela, Jerzego Zdziechowskiego. Gazeta stała się organem prasowym działającego tajnie ONR. Funkcję redaktora naczelnego pełnił Wojciech Zaleski, następnie zaś Tadeusz Gluziński (od 1938 roku). W redakcji pracowali m.in. Jan Korolec, Alina Rossmanowa, Maria Rutkowska, Antoni Szperlich i Przemysław Warmiński. +Ostatni numer pisma ukazał się we wrześniu 1939 roku. Wcześniej gazeta była cenzurowana, wielokrotnie konfiskowano również jej nakłady. +Likaon (pies) + +Likaon, simir ("Lycaon pictus") – gatunek drapieżnego ssaka z rodziny psowatych, zaliczany do reliktowej linii psowatych, dawniej występujący na prawie całym kontynencie afrykańskim, łącznie z Saharą, a w starożytności także na Bliskim Wschodzie aż po Babilonię. Obecnie jest jednym z najrzadszych dużych mięsożerców. Likaon ma bardzo silny instynkt stadny, który sprawia, że żyje i poluje w dużych watahach. Jest bardzo wytrzymałym drapieżnikiem – może gonić ofiarę przez wiele kilometrów. Najchętniej poluje na antylopy. Żywi się głównie mięsem, czasami dietę uzupełnia pokarmem roślinnym. Blisko spokrewniony z cyjonem ("Cuon alpinus"), jest jednak od niego trochę większy. Jego główni wrogowie to lwy (które często zabijają likaony) i hieny cętkowane. Inteligencją dorównują wilkom, natomiast przewyższają je stopniem rozwoju zachowań społecznych. Są najbardziej skutecznymi łowcami dużych zwierząt wśród wszystkich ssaków. Obecnie poświęca się coraz więcej uwagi tym bardzo zagrożonym ssakom drapieżnym Afryki (drugi na liście zwierząt zagrożonych ssak drapieżny Afryki - zob. kaberu). +Występowanie i środowisko. +Likaon zamieszkuje suche obszary na południe od Sahary. Występuje w Etiopii, Erytrei, Angoli, Botswanie, Namibii, Somalii, południowym Sudanie, południowym Czadzie, wschodniej Nigerii, Demokratycznej Republice Konga, Kenii, Tanzanii, Angoli, Zambii, Zimbabwe i RPA. Unika wszelkich lasów, jest typowym zwierzęciem otwartych terenów. Zamieszkuje zarośla akacjowe, półpustynie, sawanny drzewiaste, busz, niekiedy pojawia się na obszarach bardziej górzystych, jednak jego główne siedlisko stanowią sawanny trawiaste bogate w duże ssaki roślinożerne takie jak gnu czy zebry. +Ewolucja i systematyka. +Likaon to obecnie jedyny przedstawiciel rodzaju "Lycaon". Jest przedstawicielem reliktowej fauny afrykańskiej występującej niegdyś na obszarze Eurazji. Zapis kopalny dowodzi, że przodkowie likaona istnieli już w pliocenie na obszarze Azji i Europy, zaś we wczesnym plejstocenie (ok. 1,8 mln lat temu) występowały także na obszarze Afryki. + plioceńscy przodkowie byli psami o słabo rozwiniętych łamaczach. Stopniowa modyfikacja zębów pozwoliła na wykształcenia się dzisiejszego uzębienia likaona o szerokich, ostrych łamaczach. Mimo to kopalne zapisy dotyczące przodków likaona są bardzo ubogie, w przeciwieństwie do innych znanych drapieżników np. lwów czy wilków. We wschodniej Afryce na drodze anagenezy, czyli transformacji filetycznej, powstał gatunek "Lycaon pictus" (likaon zwany simirem lub dzikim psem afrykańskim). Prawdopodobnie najbliższego wspólnego przodka likaon miał z cyjonem ("Cuon alpinus"), nie wiadomo jednak kiedy nastąpiło rozdzielenie się gałęzi drzewa kladystycznego obydwu gatunków (Pietrzak, 2007). Nieco dalszymi krewnymi likaona są również afrykańskie pierwotne szakale pręgowane i czaprakowe należące do osobnych podrodzajów rodzaju "Canis" oraz inni przedstawiciele tego rodzaju na czele z wilkiem szarym. +Likaon wcześniej był klasyfikowany do podrodziny Simocyoninae razem z cyjonem i psem leśnym. Ostatnie badania mitochondrialnego DNA (1993) dowiodły bliskie pokrewieństwo z psowatymi z rodzajów "Canis", "Cuon", "Cerdocyon", "Atelocynus", "Dusicyon" i "Lycalopex". +Obecnie likaona zalicza się do podrodziny Caninae, plemienia Canini. Niekiedy wydzielano likaona wraz z cyjonem w podplemię Simocyonina (Pietrzak, 2007). Ostatnio przeważa pogląd, że likaona należy zaliczyć do podplemienia Canina, razem z psami "Canis" i cyjonem. Wiele zachowań, struktura społeczna i rozrodcza jest podobna jak u cyjona i wilka szarego. Tak jak wszystkie psowate z rodzaju "Canis", likaon posiada 78 chromosomów diploidalnych. +Charakterystyka. +Jest to zwierzę o harmonijnej budowie ciała, o dużych, szerokich, zaokrąglonych uszach z krótkim zwężającym się ku końcowi pyskiem. Posiada szczupłą sylwetkę o długich i smukłych kończynach. Ma wąską, ale pojemną i silną klatkę piersiową oraz dobrze rozbudowaną część nosową pyska, także dobrze rozwinięty zmysł powonienia i słuchu. Pysk i zewnętrzne części uszu czarne. Poprzez czoło rozciąga się czarna pręga. +Charakterystyczna jest czarno-brunatna sierść w białe i rudawe plamy oraz puszysty ogon z białą końcówką. Każdy osobnik ma inny układ łat na ciele, więc nie ma dwóch takich samych likaonów. Przez jego krótką i rzadką sierść w niektórych miejscach prześwituje różnobarwna skóra także warunkująca indywidualną barwę sierści poszczególnych członków stada. +Taka budowa likaona (m.in. krótka sierść i duże uszy) jest jednym z przystosowań do życia w podrównikowych terenach trawiastych i pozwala szybko wydalać ciepło z organizmu podczas długotrwałego biegu za zdobyczą. +Likaon waży przeciętnie 17–36 kg. Samce są większe od samic o około 3–7%. Masa ciała zmienna, w zależności od dostępnego pokarmu. Szczenięta są czarne z niektórymi białymi częściami. Likaon w przeciwieństwie do innych psów nie posiada piątego szczątkowego palca na przednich kończynach. Wydziela silny, piżmowy zapach. Samice mają 12–14 sutków. Likaon posiada szeroką, zaokrągloną czaszkę z szerokim łukiem jarzmowym, potężnymi łamaczami, dużymi kłami i silnym zgryzem. Cechą charakterystyczną są szerokie i duże zęby trzonowe przystosowane do kruszenia kości oraz duży grzebień potyliczny stanowiący przyczep dla silnych mięśni karku, podobnie jak u hien. +Tryb życia i zachowanie. +Likaony prowadzą głównie dzienny tryb życia. Watahy afrykańskich likaonów liczą od 10 do 60 osobników, są to największe stada jakie tworzą ssaki drapieżne. Społeczeństwo likaonów jest silnie ze sobą powiązane, występuje hierarchia osobników. Wszyscy członkowie stada śpią, rozmnażają się i polują zawsze razem. Grupie przewodzi dominująca para, a hierarchia jest osobna dla samców, osobna dla samic. +Przewodnikiem stada jest zazwyczaj stary doświadczony samiec. Areały jednego stada mogą liczyć ponad 4000 km², mimo to likaony nie są aż tak terytorialne jak inne ssaki drapieżne. +Wieloletnie badania pokazują, że w stadzie likaonów hierarchia jest bardzo wyraźna, łatwiej zauważalna wśród samic niż samców. Ceremonia pozdrowień przed polowaniem jest uderzająco podobna do obserwowanej u wilków szarych. W przeciwieństwie do wilków przez wiele lat nie obserwowano między likaonami walk o pożywienie w czasie wspólnego jedzenia. Dzięki wieloletnim skrupulatnym badaniom dowiedziono, że dość wyraźnie zaznacza się podział osobników przy jedzeniu. +""...przykłady notorycznej agresji wśród jedzących dorosłych likaonów wystąpiły w stadzie złożonym z czterech dorosłych osobników ... W ciągu pierwszych paru tygodni niższa rangą samica była ciągle odpędzana od każdej zdobyczy i często atakowana przez drugą samicę. W dodatku jeden lub dwa samce często przyłączały się do ataku dominantki, podobnie jak szczenięta, które łączyły się w ataku na przegrywającego w bójce. Jeśli tylko psy nie jadły, dominujący samiec bardzo często bronił podporządkowaną samicę przed atakami dominantki, wciskając się między obie samice i delikatnie odpychając dominantkę..."" van Lawick-Goodall; Jane van Lawick-Goodall, 1971 +Osobnik podporządkowany podkula ogon szybko nim machając, piszczy, obnaża zęby, szyję, kładzie się na ziemi oraz liże osobnika dominującego. Osobnik dominujący w tym wypadku stoi wyprostowany z ogonem uniesionym wysoko z dumną miną, nieraz obniża nieco głowę przysuwając ją ku ziemi. +Pokarm i strategia polowania. +Likaon żywi się prawie wyłącznie mięsem. Zwierzęta te polują w grupach, często dwa razy dziennie a ich ofiarami padają impale, gazele Thompsona, Granta, zebry, gnu oraz inne gatunki gazel i antylop. Likaon żywi się także drobnymi ssakami (np. gryzoniami), ptakami, a także owadami. Ofiary lokalizuje za pomocą węchu i wzroku. Likaony są wytrwałymi łowcami, potrafią biec do 5 km z prędkością 50 km/h. Najszybsze osobniki osiągają prędkość 65 km/h. Z taką prędkością doganiają większość swoich ofiar na dystansie 3 km. Gdy zbliżają się do ofiary każdy osobnik ma przydzieloną rolę w strategii polowania, następnie atakują wyczerpaną zdobycz chwytając za kark i gardło i natychmiast nadal żywe zwierzę jest rozrywane na kawałki. Po minucie zwierzę nie żyje a po kilkunastu minutach pozostają z niego tylko kości i kawałki skóry. +Blisko 80% wszystkich polowań kończy się sukcesem (podczas, gdy w przypadku lwów, uznawanych za najlepszych drapieżników, jest to tylko 30%). +W przeciwieństwie do przyjętych poglądów nie każde pojawienie się likaonów w pobliżu stada np. gnu wywołuje popłoch i panikę. Dopiero gdy likaony zbliżą się zanadto i zaczynają przyśpieszać wywołuje to pobudzenie u potencjalnej zdobyczy. Podczas polowania poszczególne likaony mogą gonić różne ofiary. Takie zachowanie ma na celu wyszukanie odpowiedniej zdobyczy i gdy taka zdobycz zostanie wybrana wszyscy członkowie stada zaczynają ścigać tylko jedną ofiarę. +Po zjedzeniu zdobyczy likaony wracają do stada i zwracają pokarm szczeniętom i opiekującym się nimi samicom. W przeciwieństwie do lwów i wilków likaony ustępują młodym pierwszeństwa w dostępie do pokarmu. Chore i kalekie osobniki, a także osierocone młode pozostają nadal pod opieką watahy. +Korsak + +Korsak, lis stepowy ("Vulpes corsac") – gatunek drapieżnego ssaka z rodziny psowatych. +Występuje na stepach i półpustyniach Azji środkowo-wschodniej (Mongolia i północno-wschodnie Chiny) oraz w południowo-wschodniej Europie. Żyje w norach wykopanych przez inne zwierzęta. W odróżnieniu od większości pozostałych psowatych zwinnie chodzi po drzewach. Prowadzi nocny tryb życia. +Charakterystyka. +Ubarwienie szare lub szarobrązowe, brzuch białawy. Jest dobrze przystosowany do gorącego i suchego klimatu. Wytrzymuje długie okresy bez pożywienia i dostępu do wody. Budowa typowa dla gatunków z rodzaju "Vulpes". Korsak jest mniejszy od lisa pospolitego, ale ma dłuższe od niego nogi i uszy. Żyje w stadach rodzinnych. +Długość ciała: do 60 cm. +Długość ogona: do 35 cm. +Masa ciała: 4-6 kg. +Padlina, drobne kręgowce (gryzonie, ptaki), owady lub owoce. +Ciąża trwa 49-60 dni, samica rodzi od 2 do 11 młodych, przeważnie 5. +Zagrożenia i ochrona. +Stan wielu populacji nie jest dobrze poznany. Pomimo tego gatunek nie jest uważany za zagrożony wyginięciem. +Zybułtowo + +Zybułtowo (niem. "Seewalde") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim, w powiecie ostródzkim, w gminie Grunwald. +W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie olsztyńskim. +Wieś jest położona na wysokości 202 m n.p.m., ok. 40 kilometrów na południowy zachód od Olsztyna, nad rzeką o nazwie Marózka, w odległości około 2 kilometrów od Jeziora Lubień i niecałe 4 kilometry od Jeziora Mielno. +Położenie geograficzne: 53°30′00" N, 20°10′60" E +Zybułtowo zostało założone w XIV wieku. W 2004 roku wieś liczyła około 500 mieszkańców. Do drugiej połowy lat 90. ubiegłego wieku we wsi działała część gospodarstwa Stacja Hodowli Roślin Mielno, będącego przez lata głównym pracodawcą w okolicy. Wraz z reformą szkolnictwa z lat 2003-2004 w Zybułtowie zlikwidowano szkołę podstawową. W 2004 roku ukończono budowę oczyszczalni ścieków. +W Zybułtowie rozpoczyna się tzw. Dębowa Droga, wzdłuż której rośnie 31 okazów dębów szypułkowych o obwodzie 350-420 cm i wysokości do 20 m. W miejscowości znajduje się dom konstrukcji ryglowej z XIX wieku oraz stajnia i spichlerz z XVIII wieku. +W odległości 4 kilometrów od Zybułtowa leży wieś Grunwald – miejsce bitwy pod Grunwaldem. +Gmina Tarnowo Podgórne + +Gmina Tarnowo Podgórne - gmina wiejska w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie poznańskim. Jedna z najbogatszych gmin w Polsce. +Siedziba gminy to Tarnowo Podgórne. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwały 17 743 osoby, natomiast w roku 2010 populacja gminy osiągnęła 20 000 mieszkańców. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 5,34% powierzchni powiatu. +Sołectwa. +Baranowo, Batorowo, Ceradz Kościelny, Chyby, Góra, Jankowice, Kokoszczyn, Lusowo, Lusówko, Przeźmierowo, Rumianek, Sady, Sierosław, Swadzim, Tarnowo Podgórne, Wysogotowo. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Buk, Dopiewo, Duszniki, Kaźmierz, Poznań, Rokietnica +Młode Bra-De-Li + +Młode Bra-De-Li - polski zespół muzyczny wykonujący muzykę szantową, jeden z nielicznych w Polsce żeńskich wykonawców tego rodzaju muzyki. +Założony w 2002 w Radomiu, jest kontynuatorem tradycji nieistniejącego już zespołu Bra-De-Li. Laureat licznych festiwali szantowych: wrocławskiego "Szanty we Wrocławiu", radomskiej "Rafy", festiwalu "Keja" w Strzelcach Krajeńskich oraz "Festiwalu Bałtyckiego" w Gdyni. Kilkukrotny uczestnik festiwal: "Shanties" w Krakowie, "Kubryku" w Łodzi oraz "Zęzy" w Łaziskach Górnych . +Prócz tradycyjnych szant zespół wykonuje również utwory przeznaczone dla młodszej publiczności: bierze udział w skierowanych do dzieci i młodzieży programach edukacyjno-rozrywkowych, występuje również podczas krajowych finałów WOŚP. +Swoją karierę w zespole zaczynali min. Małgorzata Kunc i Norbert Żyła +Cyrenaicy + +Cyrenaicy - szkoła filozoficzna w Starożytnej Grecji założona przez Arystypa z Cyreny. +Cyrenaicy uważali, że sprawy praktyczne są ważniejsze od teoretycznych. Wiedza jest dostarczana tylko przez zmysły. Poznajemy własne stany a nie rzeczy, które je wywołują. Przyjemność jest jedynym dobrem, bo o nią zabiegamy, a przykrość jest złem. Przyjemność jest stanem przelotnym, chwilowym, trwającym tylko, póki działa bodziec. Ta częściowa przyjemność jest celem życia, szczęście tylko zespołem częściowych przyjemności. Należy chwytać każdą jaka się nadarza. Przyjemność jest natury cielesnej, jest stanem pozytywnym (hedonizm). +Arystyp zaprzeczał, że brak cierpienia i przykrości jest przyjemnością. Twierdził, że przyjemności są ruchem, dokonującym się w nas. Przyjemności różnią się tylko intensywnością, a nie różnią się między sobą jakością. Wszystko jest równie dobre, jeśli daje równą przyjemność. To stanowisko było podane w wątpliwość przez wielu przedstawicieli szkoły. Na przykład Hegezjasz uważał, że jedyną przyjemnością, jaką można osiągnąć, jest brak trosk i przykrości. Z tego powodu warunkiem przyjemności jest wyrzeczenie się dóbr, obojętność, wreszcie śmierć, która jedyna może nas na trwałe wyzwolić od przykrości. +Szaman + +Szaman – osoba pełniąca funkcję religijną polegającą na sformalizowanej i instytucjonalnej więzi ekstatycznej z istotami nadludzkimi, duchami przodków lub demonami. +Dzięki badaniom etnologii oraz religioznawstwa wiemy, że fenomen szamaństwa, dawniej kojarzony prawie wyłącznie z obszarem środkowej Syberii (Tunguzi, Buriaci), był obecny w wielu innych systemach wierzeń na wszystkich kontynentach. Wielka zasługa w badaniach szamanizmu przypada Mircei Eliademu. +Słowo "szaman" pochodzi z języka wschodniosyberyjskich Ewenków, dawniej Tunguzów. U Mandżurów występuje jako "sama", a u Goldów "siaman". Czasownik "sa", od którego pochodzi to słowo, odpowiada polskiemu terminowi "znachor" lub "wiedźma". +Osoba szamana, jego atrybuty i rytuały z nim związane różnią się w zależności od epoki, regionu i kultury. Na ogół jednak jego stałymi atrybutami są symbole transu i tańca (bębenek), oś, po której symbolicznie wchodzi w różne światy, znajdujące się na Drzewie Kosmicznym, oraz ubiór naznaczony zdolnościami lotów ekstatycznych (np. pióra). +Instytucja szamana szamanizm nie stanowi religii, jest natomiast bardzo częstym elementem wierzeń animistycznych. +Do początku XX wieku szamanizm był powszechnie praktykowany przez wszystkie ludy tubylcze Syberii. Po rewolucji październikowej rozpoczęła się eksterminacja szamanów, wyplenianie dawnych wierzeń u ludów syberyjskich, budowanie szkół i szpitali, które miały zapełnić lukę po zniknięciu szamana. Szamanizm był praktykowany tylko w najtrudniej dostępnych rejonach kraju. Kilkanaście lat temu szamani zaczęli się ponownie ujawniać, ale pozostało ich niewielu, a wiele obrzędów i tradycji zniknęło bez śladu. +Renée Zellweger + +Renée Kathleen Zellweger (ur. 25 kwietnia 1969 r. w Katy w Teksasie) – aktorka amerykańska pochodzenia szwajcarsko-norweskiego. Laureatka Oscara za drugoplanową rolę w filmie "Wzgórze nadziei". +Biografia. +Urodziła się w Katy w stanie Teksas. Jej ojciec Emil Erich Zellweger pochodzi z kantonu Sankt Gallen w Szwajcarii i z zawodu jest inżynierem mechanikiem. Matka Renée, Kjellfried Irene (z domu Andreassen) jest pochodzenia norwesko-fińskiego (Lapończycy); pracowała jako położna i guwernantka. Renée ma starszego brata, Andrew. +Aktorstwem zainteresowała się już w szkole średniej, gdzie należała do kółka teatralnego. Podczas studiów na University of Texas at Austin jako jeden z przedmiotów wybrała aktorstwo. W kinie debiutowała w 1992 roku rolą w telewizyjnym obrazie "A Taste for Killing" u boku Jasona Batemana. Rozgłos zyskała filmem "". Dwa lata później reżyser Cameron Crowe zaproponował jej główną rolą w filmie "Jerry Maguire" u boku Toma Cruise'a. Renée dostała angaż, detronizując ubiegające się o role takie aktorki jak Bridget Fonda, Marisa Tomei, Cameron Diaz czy Winona Ryder. Szansę wykorzystała, nominowano ją do Satelity, MTV Movie Awards czy nagrody Gildii Aktorów Filmowych. +Następnie wystąpiła w komedii u boku Jima Carreya "Ja, Irena i Ja", oraz w filmie "Siostra Betty", gdzie wcieliła się w postać Betty, kobiety która pod wpływem silnych emocji wmawia sobie że jest bohaterką swojej ulubionej opery mydlanej. Za rolę w filmie otrzymała Złoty Glob. Światowy sukces odniosła grając w kultowym filmie "Dziennik Bridget Jones" na podstawie książki Helen Fielding. Z graną przez Renée postacią Bridget Jones utożsamiły się kobiety na całym świecie. Zellweger otrzymała pierwszą nominację do Oscara. +Następnie przyszedł sukces w musicalu "Chicago", który został nominowany do Oscara w 13. kategoriach. Rok później Renée otrzymuje Oscara dla najlepszej aktorki drugoplanowej za rolę w dramacie "Wzgórze nadziei" w reżyserii Anthony'ego Minghelli. +Ból + +Ból (łac. "dolor"; gr. "algos", "odyne") – według definicji Międzynarodowego Towarzystwa Badania Bólu, subiektywnie przykre i negatywne wrażenie zmysłowe i emocjonalne powstające pod wpływem bodźców uszkadzających tkankę (tzw. nocyceptywnych) lub zagrażających ich uszkodzeniem. Ból jest odczuciem subiektywnym, dlatego jest nim wszystko to, co chory w ten sposób nazywa, bez względu na obiektywne objawy z nim związane. Receptorami bólowymi są nocyceptory. +Odczucie bólu wyzwala również każdy supramaksymalny bodziec specyficzny dla danego receptora, np. silny impuls świetlny powoduje ból gałek ocznych, silny bodziec akustyczny powoduje ból lokalizowany w uchu. +W psychologii ból jest uważany za popęd uruchamiający odpowiednie formy zachowania się zwierzęcia, które prowadzą, często przez uczenie się, do usunięcia się spod działania lub do uniknięcia bodźca bólowego. +Bólowi towarzyszy pobudzenie układu nerwowego współczulnego (przyspieszenie czynności serca, wzrost ciśnienia tętniczego) i wzmożenie wydzielania niektórych hormonów (np. hormonów kory nadnerczy). Ból ma istotne znaczenie dla rozpoznania i umiejscowienia procesu chorobowego. +Niepowodzenie w leczeniu bólu ostrego może w niektórych przypadkach doprowadzić do rozwinięcia się stanu bólu przewlekłego. +Ocena bólu. +Istnieje wiele narzędzi pomagających określić natężenia odczuwanego bólu. Skale oceny stopnia natężenia bólu możemy podzielić na trzy grupy: +Bonifacy II + +Bonifacy II (ur. w Rzymie, zm. 17 października 532 tamże) – papież, którego pontyfikat przypadał w okresie od 22 września 530 do 17 października 532. +Biografia. +Pochodził z rodziny germańskiej, był synem Sigibulda i urodził się w Rzymie. Na papieża wyznaczył go poprzednik, Feliks IV, wbrew woli cesarza Bizancjum Justyniana I. Senat wydał wówczas edykt zakazujący jakiejkolwiek dyskusji nt. sukcesji papieskiej, za życia papieża. W pierwszych tygodniach pontyfikatu przyszło Bonifacemu rywalizować z antypapieżem wspieranym przez Justyniana, Dioskurosem, jednak rywal zmarł niespełna miesiąc później. Po tym krótkim okresie schizmy, papież nakazał 60 duchownym, którzy poparli Dioskura, do pisemnego przyznania się do winy i przyrzeczenia poprawy. Pomimo obowiązujących praw, on także na synodzie w 531 roku chciał wyznaczyć swojego następce – Wigiliusza, jednak wkrótce potem się z tego wycofał. +Za jego pontyfikatu odbył się drugi synod w Orange (lipiec 529), a także syond w 532, który potwierdził prawa Rzymu do Ilirii. Został pochowany w Bazylice św. Piotra. +Czynnik aktywujący płytki + +Czynnik aktywujący płytki krwi (ang. platelet-activating factor, PAF) — pochodna fosfatydylocholiny błony komórkowej. PAF jest mediatorem wytwarzanym przez komórki tuczne, bazofile, makrofagi, monocyty, neutrofile, eozynofile, ale nie przez limfocyty. +Powstaje na skutek bodźca drażniącego komórkę (mediator generowany). Nazwa tego czynnika, odkrytego w latach sześćdziesiątych XX w., została przypadkowo dobrana, gdyż wpływ na trombocyty to jedynie część jego możliwych oddziaływań. +PAF jest w pewnym stopniu odpowiedzialny za wiele objawów reakcji alergicznych m.in. skurcz oskrzeli czy wzrost przepuszczalności naczyń krwionośnych. PAF działa także chemotaktycznie i aktywująco na monocyty i neutrofile. +Ponadto, PAF wydzielany jest przez komórkę jajową po zapłodnieniu i odgrywa ważną rolę w implantacji jaja w ścianie macicy. Jest również produkowany w dużych ilościach w płucach płodu w późnym okresie ciąży i stymuluje produkcję substancji powierzchniowo czynnej (kompleksu białkowo-lipidowego), która zapobiega zapadaniu się płuc u noworodka. +Czynnik aktywujący płytki został odkryty przez francuskiego immunologa Jacques'a Benveniste'a w 1970 roku. +Triangulacja (grafika komputerowa) + +Triangulacja to technika stosowana w grafice komputerowej polegająca na rozbiciu bardziej złożonych obiektów (każdej figury geometrycznej prócz koła) na trójkąty. +podział wielokąta zwykłego na sumę nie nakładających się na siebie trójkątów, których wierzchołkami mogą być tylko wierzchołki danego wielokąta. +George Lucas + +George Lucas, właściwie George Walton Lucas Junior (ur. 14 maja 1944 roku w Modesto, Kalifornia) – amerykański reżyser, producent, scenarzysta, a także okazjonalnie aktor. +Jeden z najbardziej znanych twórców kasowych filmów w Ameryce. Debiutem kinowym Lucasa był antytotalitarny "THX 1138", jednak popularność zyskał dzięki młodzieżowemu filmowi "Amerykańskie graffiti". Zasłynął stworzeniem popularnej serii "Gwiezdne wojny", był także pomysłodawcą filmów i serialu o przygodach Indiany Jonesa. Lucas założył firmy Lucasfilm (produkcja filmów), Industrial Light and Magic (efekty specjalne) oraz LucasArts (gry komputerowe). +Był czterokrotnie nominowany do Oscara. W 1992 roku otrzymał nagrodę im. Irvinga G. Thalberga. +George Lucas określa się w wywiadach jako metodysta-buddysta (metodystą jest po rodzicach, a buddyzm to jego osobista fascynacja). +Nathalie Dechy + +Nathalie Dechy, po mężu Maire-Devallon (ur. 21 lutego 1979 w Abimes, Gwadelupa) – tenisistka francuska. Triumfatorka US Open 2006 w grze podwójnej (w parze z Wierą Zwonariową) oraz US Open 2007 w grze podwójnej (w parze z Dinarą Safiną.) +Oprócz tego największego w swojej karierze triumfu wygrała także jeden turniej zawodowy w singlu (Gold Coast w styczniu 2003) i jeden deblowy (2002, turniej halowy w Paryżu, w parze z Amerykanką Meilen Tu). Wystąpiła ponadto w trzech przegranych finałach turniejowych. Reprezentowała Francję na igrzyskach olimpijskich w 2000 i 2004, a także w Pucharze Federacji od 2000. W 2003 wraz z ekipą narodową zdobyła Puchar Federacji, rok później grała w finale (porażka z Rosją). +Do końca 2004 jej najlepszym rezultatem w turniejach wielkoszlemowych była IV runda, którą osiągnęła na US Open 1998, Wimbledonie 1999 i Australian Open 2004. W styczniu 2005 dotarła do półfinału Australian Open, pokonując po drodze m.in. Rosjankę Myskinę i Szwajcarkę Schnyder; przegrała z liderką rankingu światowego, Amerykanką Davenport. +Jej najwyższe dotychczasowe pozycje w kobiecych rankingach to: 12. w singlu (na koniec 2005 r.) i 26. w deblu. +We wtorek 21 lipca 2009 roku władze WTA wydały oficjalny komunikat o zakończeniu kariery przez Nathalie Dechy. Powodem zakończenia kariery była ciąża. W rankingu z 20 lipca 2009 Dechy zajmowała 88 miejsce w rankingu singlowym. Jej kariera trwała od 1994 roku. +18 września 2004 poślubiła Antoine Maire-Devallon. Nathalie ma brata Nicholasa i siostrę Isabelle. Jej ojciec, Michael, jest nauczycielem matematyki i tenisa. Matka ma korzenie francuskie i kanadyjskie. Jest nauczycielką sportu. +Kutry torpedowe typu G-5 + +G-5 (pełne oznaczenie CAGI-GANT-5) – typ radzieckich lekkich kutrów torpedowych z okresu międzywojennego i II wojny światowej, opracowany w biurze konstrukcyjnym Tupolewa. +Historia. +Lekki kuter torpedowy typu G-5 został opracowany pod koniec lat dwudziestych XX wieku w biurze konstrukcyjnym CAGI, pod kierunkiem gen. Andrieja Tupolewa, znanego konstruktora samolotów pasażerskich i bombowych. Konstrukcja kutra wykorzystywała technologie i elementy zaczerpnięte z konstrukcji samolotów, jak wykorzystanie duraluminium jako materiału konstrukcyjnego, lotnicze silniki spalinowe dużej mocy i zwrócenie uwagi na aerodynamikę. Kształt kadłuba kutra przypominał pływak wodnosamolotu. +Generalny układ konstrukcyjny kutra był wzorowany na brytyjskich kutrach typu CMB z czasów I wojny światowej, z torpedami zrzucanymi ze zrzutni w kierunku rufy. Jako pierwszy skonstruowano w 1927 kuter o oznaczeniu ANT-3 i nazwie "Pierweniec". Jednostka ta była uzbrojona tylko w jedną torpedę kaliber 450 mm i dwa karabiny maszynowe. Wyniki prób wskazały na potrzebę skonstruowania nieco większego okrętu, o silniejszym uzbrojeniu. W 1928 zespół CAGI skonstruował powiększony kuter ANT-4, uzbrojony w dwie torpedy kaliber 450 mm i jeden karabin maszynowy. W 1929 podjęto niewielką produkcję seryjną kutrów ANT-4, pod oznaczeniem Sz-4. +Ponieważ torpedy kalibru 450 mm były bronią przestarzałą i o małej mocy, zespół CAGI opracował w 1930 kolejny, nieco powiększony kuter, oznaczony G-5. Zachowując ogólne cechy ANT-4, był on uzbrojony w dwie torpedy kaliber 533 mm i karabin maszynowy. Mogły one również alternatywnie zabierać 4 bomby głębinowe lub 3 miny morskie. Do produkcji okręt został skierowany w 1930 roku. +W latach 1933-37 zbudowano 176 kutrów, dalsze okręty budowano do 1944. Kuter G-5 był jedną z najszybszych jednostek tej klasy na świecie. +Kutry G-5 były produkowane w kilku seriach. Zmianie ulegał m.in. kształt nadbudówki oraz uzbrojenie strzeleckie. Wczesne serie uzbrojone były w 1, następnie 2 lotnicze karabiny maszynowe typu DA, a następnie SzKAS kalibru 7,62 mm na stanowiskach z tyłu nadbudówki oraz na dziobie. Późniejsze serie miały jeden lub dwa wielkokalibrowe karabiny maszynowe DSzK kal. 12,7 mm. W niektórych późnych seriach drugie stanowisko strzeleckie, oprócz stanowiska na nadbudówce, umieszczano na rufie, nad zrzutniami torped. Na niektórych seriach Floty Czarnomorskiej od 1944 roku montowane były wyrzutnie niekierowanych pocisków rakietowych 82 mm (popularne "katiusze") – według części źródeł, zamiast wyrzutni torped. +Służba. +G-5 był najbardziej masowo budowanym radzieckim małym okrętem. Łącznie bowiem w latach 1934 – 1944 wyprodukowano ponad 200 takich kutrów torpedowych w kilku wersjach (według części źródeł 329 lub ok. 253 przed wojną i 39 podczas wojny). Kutry tego typu używane były we wszystkich flotach radzieckiej marynarki wojennej w czasie II wojny światowej (Flotach: Bałtyckiej, Czarnomorskiej, Północnej i Oceanu Spokojnego). +Cztery kutry zostały sprzedane do republikańskiej Hiszpanii w 1937, podczas hiszpańskiej wojny domowej i nazwane No. 11, No. 21, No. 31 i No. 41. Kutry No. 31 i No. 41 został zniszczony przez lotnictwo w 1937 i 1939 roku. +Kutry TK-141 i TK-51 zostały zdobyte przez Finów w 1941 roku i używane w marynarce fińskiej jako "Vihuri" i "Viima". W 1944 oba zostały zwrócone ZSRR. +Po wojnie znalazły się w uzbrojeniu flot niektórych sojuszników ZSRR. W składzie floty KRLD wzięły udział w wojnie koreańskiej. +Kabaret Moralnego Niepokoju + +Kabaret Moralnego Niepokoju (w skrócie KMN) – polski kabaret, pochodzący z Warszawy. Powstał w 1996. +Twórczość kabaretu. +Kabaret zdobył dużą popularność dzięki częstym występom w telewizji oraz błyskotliwym tekstom Roberta Górskiego. W emitowanym w latach 2003-2006 w TVP2 autorskim programie satyrycznym grupy pt. "Tygodnik Moralnego Niepokoju" co tydzień prezentowane były premierowe skecze. Kabaret skupia się głównie na sprawach społecznych, absurdach życia codziennego oraz nie stroni od polityki. Na przełomie 2007 i 2008 roku kabaret tworzył program pt. "Miesięcznik Moralnego Niepokoju". Corocznie jest gospodarzem Kabaretowej Nocy Listopadowej. +Konstantyn IV Pogonatos + +Konstantyn IV (gr. Κωνσταντίνος Δ' ο Πωγώνατος, ur. 649, zm. 685) – cesarz bizantyjski w latach 668–685. +Był najstarszym synem cesarza Konstansa II i jego żony Fausty. Początkowo współrządził z braćmi Teodozjuszem i Herakliuszem. W 674 roku usunął ich i skazał na karę hańbiącą obcięcia nosa. Ostatecznie po pięcioletnich (674–678) walkach obronił Konstantynopol przed Arabami (podczas tego oblężenia Bizantyjczycy zastosowali pierwszy raz słynny ogień grecki). Rozbił ich flotę i zawarł z nimi pokój, który został odnowiony w 685 roku. W 681 roku. zawarł pokój z Protobułgarami, którzy przekroczyli Dunaj i osiedlili się na ziemiach dzisiejszej Dobrudży. Data ta jest uważana za początek istnienia państwa bułgarskiego. Z inicjatywy Konstantyna IV zwołano w 680 roku sobór konstantynopolitański III. +Abbey Road + +Abbey Road – 11 album studyjny angielskiej grupy The Beatles wydany 26 września 1969 w Wielkiej Brytanii oraz 1 października 1969 w USA. Jest to ostatnia wspólnie nagrana płyta zespołu, wydana jako przedostatnia, przed albumem "Let It Be". +Album był nagrywany od 22 lutego do 18 sierpnia 1969 w londyńskich studiach przy Abbey Road. +Geneza albumu. +Po niezadowalających sesjach nagraniowych do albumu "Let It Be" (pierwotnie mającego nosić tytuł "Get Back"), The Beatles zaproponowali producentowi George'owi Martinowi, że zbiorą się ponownie i nagrają płytę "jak za starych dobrych czasów", nie bacząc na konflikty jakie narosły podczas nagrywania albumu "The Beatles" (znanego też jako "White Album" – "Biały album"). Martin zgodził się, w efekcie czego powstała płyta "Abbey Road". +Cechy charakterystyczne albumu. +Płyta jest szczególnie znana z utworu George'a Harrisona "Something". Wspomniana piosenka, a także inna, "Here Comes the Sun", udowadniają jego potencjał kompozytorski, porównywalny z tym Lennona czy McCartneya. Drugi z wymienionych utworów był oparty na wcześniejszej kompozycji Harrisona i Erica Claptona napisanej dla zespołu Claptona, Cream, "Badge". Inne powszechnie rozpoznawalne utwory z płyty "Abbey Road" to "Come Together" Lennona i "Oh, Darling" McCartneya. Ciekawostką jest śpiewana przez Ringo Starra jego kompozycja "Octopus' Garden". +Abbey Road Medley. +Na drugiej stronie albumu znajduje się szesnastominutowa wiązanka złożona z krótkich piosenek (niektóre z nich są urwane), połączonych przez Beatlesów. Większość z tych utworów powstała i została nagrana w wersji demo podczas sesji do "White Album" oraz "Let It Be". Swoistą suitę rozpoczyna "You Never Give Me Your Money" McCartneya (luźno nawiązujące do problemów finansowych Beatlesów z wytwórnią Apple), po nim następują trzy kompozycje Lennona: "Sun King" (z wyróżniającymi się – podobnie jak w "Because" – harmoniami wokalnymi Lennona, McCartneya i Harrisona), "Mean Mr. Mustard" (napisane podczas niesławnej podróży Beatlesów do Indii) i "Polythene Pam". W dalszej kolejności mamy cztery kompozycje McCartneya: "She Came in Through the Bathroom Window" (napisaną po tym, jak jedna z fanek włamała się do rezydencji Paula, prawdopodobnie przez okno w łazience), "Golden Slumbers" (opartą na XIX-wiecznym wierszu Thomasa Dekkera), "Carry That Weight" (jedną z niewielu piosenek, w której śpiewają wszyscy czterej Beatlesi), a na koniec – ironiczną puentę "The End", zawierającą pierwsze i jedyne solo perkusyjne Starra nagrane na taśmę za jednym razem (jest ono obecne na oryginalnej wersji płyty), a także żywiołowe, grane na zmianę solówki gitarowe Lennona, McCartneya i Harrisona (wersja alternatywna z solówką gitary prowadzącej Harrisona i solo perkusyjnym Starra jest umieszczona na płycie "3" wydawnictwa "The Beatles Anthology"). +Krótki utwór "Her Majesty", kończący drugą stronę płyty, był pierwotnie częścią wiązanki. McCartneyowi nie podobało się jednak jej brzmienie wraz z tą piosenką i kazał ją wyciąć. Inżynier studia, Geoff Emerick, miał nakaz niewyrzucania niczego, co stworzyli Beatlesi – umieścił "Her Majesty" po wiązance, po dwudziestosekundowym okresie ciszy. Beatlesom spodobał się ten przypadkowy interesujący efekt i piosenka pozostała na albumie. Na większości okładek płyty utwór "Her Majesty" nie jest wymieniony. Jego nazwa widnieje jednak na naklejce na samej winylowej płycie. Słuchając uważnie, można na początku "Her Majesty" wychwycić ostatnią nutę utworu "Mean Mr. Mustard", po którym "Her Majesty" był oryginalnie umieszczony, przed wycięciem go. +Słynna fotografia. +Jak wspomina Geoff Emerick, w pewnym momencie dla albumu planowano tytuł "Everest" (od nazwy gatunku papierosów, które palił). Na okładce miało znajdować się zdjęcie Beatlesów w Himalajach. Pomysł jednak upadł – nazwa została zmieniona na "Abbey Road", a fotografię na okładkę zrobiono na ulicy podczas przerwy w nagrywaniu. Zdjęcie to stało się jedną z najsłynniejszych i najczęściej imitowanych okładek w historii rocka. Wokół tejże okładki narosła swego rodzaju legenda – pewne drobiazgi na zdjęciu spowodowały powstanie plotek na temat przypuszczalnej śmierci Paula McCartneya. Paul jest na nim boso, nie kroczy równo z pozostałymi Beatlesami i trzyma papierosa, zaś tablica z numerami samochodu – "281F" (odczytywana "28 if" – choć rzeczone "i" to w rzeczywistości "1") ma wskazywać na to, że miałby 28 lat gdyby żył (ang. "if" – "gdyby"). Uściślając, Paul miał 27 lat w momencie wydania "Abbey Road". +Człowiek stojący na chodniku w tle po prawej stronie to amerykański turysta, Paul Cole. Nie wiedział, że został sfotografowany, do momentu ujrzenia okładki po kilku miesiącach. Z garbusa stojącego po lewej fani ukradli występującą na zdjęciu tablicę rejestracyjną, a samo auto ostatecznie trafiło do Automuseum Volkswagen w Wolfsburgu. +Fotografia przyczyniła się do tego, że to konkretne przejście na pasach przy ulicy Abbey Road stało się popularną atrakcją turystyczną. Codziennie można zobaczyć turystów pozujących do zdjęcia w charakterystycznym ustawieniu, jak na okładce płyty, nie baczących na to, że ulica nie jest wyłączona z ruchu. +Wyróżnienia. +W 2003 album został sklasyfikowany na 14. miejscu listy 500 albumów wszech czasów magazynu Rolling Stone. W tym samym roku kanał telewizyjny VH1 określił "Abbey Road" ósmym najlepszym albumem wszech czasów. +Vice City + +Vice City – fikcyjne miasto w grach z serii "Grand Theft Auto", bazujące na Miami. Jego nazwa nawiązuje do amerykańskiego serialu "Miami Vice" (w Polsce znanego jako Policjanci z Miami). Nawiązaniem do tego może być pewien moment podczas pościgów, gdy jednostki policji ścigając gracza w sportowym wozie Cheetah zatrzymują się i wysiadają dwaj mężczyźni - jeden czarny i jeden biały. +Historia Vice City. +Vice City pierwszy raz pojawiło się w 1997 roku w grze Grand Theft Auto. Było ono wtedy ostatnim, najtrudniejszym miastem w grze. Znaleźć tam można było liczne jeziora i mosty oraz bazę wojskową. +Vice City ponownie pojawiło się dopiero na przełomie 2002 i 2003 roku w grze . Miasto wtedy zmieniło całkowicie swój wygląd - osadzone zostało na archipelagu, dodano liczne budynki np. studio filmowe Interglobal Films, drapacze chmur, lotnisko międzynarodowe "Escobar International". Zachowano bazę wojskową, która otrzymała nazwę Fort Baxter. +Ostatnią odsłonę miasta można było podziwiać w grze , w podobnej scenerii. Akcja gry dzieje się dwa lata przed zdarzeniami w "GTA: Vice City ". Najbardziej zauważalne zmiany w mieście to idealny stan rezydencji na Prawn Island, wesołe miasteczko w Washington Beach, zamiast budowy Avery'ego Carringtona, masa inwestycji do rozbudowania na różne sposoby oraz brak kancelarii prawniczej Kena Rosenberga. +Atrakcyjność miasta. +Głównymi atrakcjami tego miasta jest duża plaża w Ocean Beach, dyskoteka i klub Malibu oraz 2 inne kluby - Pole Position Club, skupiający wielbicieli striptizu oraz inny klub skupiający środowisko homoseksualistów. Atrakcyjność miasta podnosi również piękny krajobraz, dobry klimat. Z powodu atrakcyjności turystycznej Vice City jest gęsto zabudowane hotelami. +Podział miasta. +Miasto podzielone jest na dwie główne wyspy, pomiędzy którymi znajdują się dwie mniejsze ("Prawn Island" i "Starfish Island") oraz grupa trzech ("Leaf Links"), wszystkie stanowiące połączenie pomiędzy dwiema głównymi wyspami. Łatwo można zauważyć, że wschodnie i północne części Vice City są rejonami ludzi średnio i bogato zamożnych. Z kolei południowo-zachodnia część miasta jest wyraźnie ukazana jako dzielnica ludzi biednych, z emigracji. +Potocznie jednak mówi się, że miasto jest podzielone na dwie wyspy zaliczając przy tym Starfish Island, Prawn Island i Leaf Links do pierwszej. Zdarza się też, że niektórzy mówią nie o dwóch wyspach, lecz o dwóch oddzielnych miastach, co jest fałszywym stwierdzeniem. +Teodozjusz III + +Teodozjusz III - (? - 754(?), daty urodzin i śmierci niepewne) cesarz bizantyjski w latach 715-717. +Teodozjusz był poborcą podatkowym w mieście Adramyttium (dziś Edremit w Turcji). W maju 715 r. podczas buntu wymierzonego przeciwko cesarzowi Anastazjuszowi II zbuntowane wojska temu Opsikion obwołały go cesarzem. +Według bizantyjskiego kronikarza, Teofana Wyznawcy, przyjął władzę cesarską wbrew swej woli, niemniej jednak wkrótce po zaakceptowaniu decyzji wojska ruszył na Konstantynopol, rozpoczynając oblężenie. Miasto zostało zdobyte pół roku później, w listopadzie 715 r. Anastazjusz uciekł z miasta do Nicei, gdzie w 716 r. został zmuszony do uznania władzy nowego cesarza i ustąpienia. +Wkrótce po objęciu władzy wybuchło skierowane przeciwko niemu powstanie w Anatolii, a niedługo potem pod mury miasta nadciągnęły okręty arabskie, rozpoczynając oblężenie. W takiej sytuacji Teodozjusz zwrócił się do protobułgarskiego chana Terweła z prośbą o pomoc. Terwel wysłał cesarzowi swe wojska, wymusił jednak na nim korzystny dla siebie traktat, na mocy którego Teodozjusz zobowiązywał się do wypłacania rocznego trybutu w drogich tkaninach i skórach wartości 40 funtów złota. Traktat zawierał również bardzo korzystne dla Bułgarów klauzule handlowe. Traktat ten przez dłuższy czas ustabilizował stosunki bułgarsko-bizantyjskie i zapoczątkował wieloletni rozwój wzajemnych układów. +W 717 r. wybuchło skierowane przeciwko Teodozjuszowi powstanie pod wodzą Leona Izauryjczyka. Leon schwytał w Nikomedii cesarskiego syna, zmuszając Teodozjusza do ustąpienia 25 marca 717 r. Wkrótce później zarówno Teodozjusz, jak i jego syn, wstąpili do klasztoru. +Istnieją informacje świadczące o tym, iż w 729 r. Teodozjusz został biskupem Efezu. Niektórzy historycy przypuszczają jednak, iż chodzi o noszącego to samo imię syna Teodozjusza. Tak czy inaczej, ostatnia informacja na temat tego właśnie biskupa odnosi się do jego obecności w dniu 24 lipca 754 r. na ikonoklastycznym synodzie w miejscowości Hieria. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Wyobrażenie Teodozjusza III na monecie +Eriq La Salle + +Eriq La Salle (ur. 23 lipca 1962 w Hartford, Connecticut) - aktor i reżyser amerykański. +Ukończył studia teatralne na Uniwersytecie w Nowym Jorku (1984). Na początku kariery występował w teatrze w sztukach Szekspira, na Broadwayu oraz produkcjach telewizyjnych. Wśród wielu seriali, w jakich wystąpił, były m.in. "The Human Factor", "One Life to Live", "L.A. Law", "Quantum Leap", "A Different World", "HBO Vietnam War Stories"; prawdopodobnie najwięcej popularności przyniósł mu "Ostry dyżur", gdzie kreował postać doktora Bentona. +Obok produkcji telewizyjnych grał także w filmach kinowych, m.in. "Książę w Nowym Jorku" (1988) i "Zdjęcie w godzinę" (2002). Wystąpił ponadto m.in. w reżyserowanych przez siebie filmach "Psalms from the Underground" i "Angel of Harlem". +Jan I (papież) + +Jan I (ur. w V wieku w Toskanii, zm. 18 maja 526 w Rawennie) – męczennik i święty Kościoła katolickiego, papież w okresie od 13 sierpnia 523 do 18 maja 526. +Biografia. +Jan urodził się w Toskanii, żył na przełomie V i VI wieku. Stolicę Piotrową objął 13 sierpnia 523 r. po swoim poprzedniku, Hormizdasie. W chwili wyboru był człowiekiem schorowanym i w podeszłym wieku. +Wprowadził do kalendarza aleksandryjski system obliczania daty Wielkanocy, według obliczeń Dionizego Małego, mnicha pochodzącego ze Scytii Mniejszej. +W związku z dekretem cesarza Justyna I, nakazującym arianom zwrot wszystkich kościołów katolikom, król Ostrogotów Teodoryk Wielki, przymusił papieża, aby udał się do Konstantynopola w celu uzyskania złagodzenia zarządzenia oraz zgody na powrót do arianizmu przechrzczonych na katolicyzm arian. Jan I został przyjęty na dworze cesarskim z honorami. Dokonał koronacji cesarza i uzyskał zgodę cesarza na zaprzestanie prześladowań arian ale nie wspomniał o drugim żądaniu Teodoryka. Po powrocie do stolicy Ostrogotów, Rawenny, Jan I przedłożył utrzymanie edyktu cesarskiego. Ze względu na brak zgody na rekonwersję arian został przez króla uwięziony. 18 maja 526 r. zmarł w więzieniu z powodu złego traktowania. Dla zatuszowania zbrodni Teodoryk zezwolił na uroczysty pogrzeb z udziałem licznego duchowieństwa i wiernych. Według relacji ówczesnego biskupa Rawenny, Maksyma, w czasie pogrzebu miał zostać uwolniony od szatana pewien opętany. +Cztery lata później ciało papieża przeniesiono do Rzymu i pochowano w przedsionku Bazylice św. Piotra na Watykanie z napisem: Biskup Pana, Ofiara Chrystusa. +Wspomnienie liturgiczne świętego papieża obchodzone jest w Kościele katolickim 18 maja. +W ikonografii św. Jan I przedstawiany jest w stroju papieża. Jego atrybutem jest więzienie. +Przyjacielem papieża był słynny filozof Boecjusz. +Tunel średnicowy w Warszawie + +Tunel średnicowy w Warszawie – kolejowy tunel średnicowy o całkowitej długości 2310 metrów poprowadzony pod centrum Warszawy na trasie warszawskiej linii średnicowej łączącej trzy główne dworce kolejowe: Wschodni, Centralny i Zachodni. Wewnątrz podwójnego tunelu biegną dwa tory linii dalekobieżnej (od strony północnej) i dwa tory linii podmiejskiej. Długość właściwego tunelu, liczona od stacji Powiśle do stacji Śródmieście, wynosi 1175 metrów. +Trasa. +Tunel od wschodu zaczyna się na Powiślu za przystankiem kolejowym Warszawa Powiśle (patrząc od strony mostu średnicowego), drugi koniec tunelu znajduje się na Ochocie, na wysokości przystanku WKD Warszawa Ochota. Na jego trasie znajdują się podziemne dworce: Centralny i Śródmieście; na wysokości ulicy Marszałkowskiej przecina leżącą poniżej linię warszawskiego metra. +Poza głównymi wlotami, tunel w swojej części między stacją Warszawa Śródmieście a Powiślem posiada cztery wyjścia osobowe: dwa ewakuacyjne oraz dwa awaryjne. Wyjścia ewakuacyjne znajdują się w przejściu podziemnym pod rondem Dmowskiego (drzwi) oraz przy Muzeum Narodowym w pobliżu ronda de Gaulle'a (metalowa klapa w chodniku od frontu Centrum Bankowo-Finansowego, dawnego budynku Komitetu Centralnego PZPR). Wyjścia awaryjne znajdują się na wysepce przy południowej jezdni Alej Jerozolimskich przy rondzie Dmowskiego oraz przy ulicy Brackiej (na powierzchni chodnika). +Historia. +Koncepcję budowy płytkiego tunelu, mającego połączyć dworce Wiedeński i Terespolski, przedstawili już w 1884 inżynierowie Rohan i Zieliński. W lipcu 1919 Sejm podjął uchwałę o budowie linii średnicowej, w skład której miał wejść Most Średnicowy na Wiśle, cztery tory oraz tunel. Jego projekt zatwierdzono w 1921 i trzy lata później rozpoczęto budowę. Uroczyste otwarcie tunelu średnicowego nastąpiło 2 września 1933. 15 grudnia 1936, po zakończeniu pierwszego etapu elektryfikacji Warszawskiego Węzła Kolejowego, tunelem przejechał pierwszy pociąg elektryczny. +Podczas II wojny światowej tunel został bardzo zniszczony. Po szybkiej odbudowie, w 1948 oddano do użytku komorę dalekobieżną (dodatkowe dwa tory). Uroczyste otwarcie kompletnego, czterotorowego tunelu miało miejsce w czerwcu 1949. Docelowy układ komunikacyjny tunelu średnicowego wraz z przystankami Śródmieście, Powiśle i Ochota oddano do użytku w 1963. +Jedyny w późniejszym okresie remont tunelu miał miejsce w połowie lat 80. XX w. i ograniczył się w zasadzie do naprawy izolacji stropu oraz ścian. W 2003, w związku z bardzo złym stanem technicznym tunelu południowego (ograniczenie prędkości szlakowej do 20 km/h), podjęto decyzję o generalnym remoncie, który rozpoczął się 1 lipca 2006 r. Termin zakończenia robót był przekładany trzy razy (początkowo planowano październik 2006, następnie 9 grudnia 2006, 18 grudnia 2006). +Otwarcie tunelu nastąpiło 15 stycznia 2007. Remont przewidywał m.in. wymianę podtorza na płytę żelbetową z ułożeniem nawierzchni w systemie szynowych podpór blokowych, nowy system odwodnienia torowiska i konstrukcji nośnej tunelu, nowy układ okablowania dla potrzeb energetycznych i urządzeń sterowania ruchem pociągów, nowoczesne zabezpieczenie przeciwpożarowe wraz z budową nowej instalacji hydrantowej i instalacji oddymiających, dróg ewakuacyjnych, naprawę otuliny konstrukcji nośnej tunelu oraz zabezpieczenie tunelu przed drganiami i hałasem. Po jego zakończeniu dopuszczalna prędkość pociągów w tunelu południowym wzrosła do 60 km/h i mogą one kursować w odstępach trzyminutowych. Jednak zdaniem niektórych ekspertów przy remoncie tunelu popełniono kilka błędów, m.in. w dalszym ciągu nieprawidłowo działa odwodnienie; wskutek ułożenia kolejnej warstwy mieszanki betonowej zmniejszono wysokość tunelu uniemożliwiając przejazd pociągów piętrowych zakupionych przez Koleje Mazowieckie, ponieważ odstęp między siecią trakcyjną a dachem wagonu jest mniejszy, niż pozwalają na to przepisy, w połowie 2012 rozpoczęto prace mające na celu dopuszczenie do ruchu w tunelu wagonów piętrowych. Oficjalne udostępnienie tunelu średnicowego dla wagonów piętrowych nastąpiło w styczniu 2013 roku. +Difosforany + +Difosforany (PPi, dawniej: "pirofosforany"), – grupa związków chemicznych, soli lub estrów kwasu difosforowego. +Anion difosforanowy występujący m.in. w organizmach żywych, zazwyczaj powstaje na drodze hydrolizy ATP do AMP. +Hydroliza ta sprawia, że rozkład ATP do AMP i PPi jest nieodwracalny, oraz, że wszelkie reakcje biochemiczne sprzężone z tym rozkładem również stają się jednokierunkowe. +Wigiliusz (papież) + +Wigiliusz (ur. w Rzymie, zm. 7 czerwca 555 w Syrakuzach) – papież w okresie od 29 marca 537 do 7 czerwca 555. +Biografia. +Pochodził z arystokratycznej rodziny – jego ojciec i brat byli konsulami. +Papież Bonifacy II wyznaczył go początkowo na swojego następcę, ale zmienił decyzję; po śmierci Bonifacego kler rzymski wybrał innego kandydata, kapłana Merkuriusza (Jana II). Wpływowy Wigiliusz został wysłany na dwór cesarza Justyniana I do Konstantynopola jako przedstawiciel papieski; w Konstantynopolu zyskał przychylność cesarza i jego żony Teodory. Dwór bizantyjski wyznaczył Wigiliusza na papieża i wysłał go do Rzymu razem z wyprawą wojskową Belizariusza. W grudniu 536 został usunięty dotychczasowy papież Sylweriusz (przy bezpośrednim udziale Wigiliusza) i ten ostatni zajął jego miejsce. Formalną akceptację duchowieństwa Rzymu nowy biskup zyskał dopiero po śmierci Sylweriusza na wygnaniu w 537. +Pierwsze lata pontyfikatu Wigiliusz spędził w Rzymie, który znajdował się pod ciągłym zagrożeniem najazdu Gotów. Papież nie cieszył się popularnością; kiedy w 545 na rozkaz cesarza Justyniana udał się ponownie do Konstantynopola, żegnany był przez mieszkańców Rzymu wyzwiskami i kamieniami. Wigiliusz miał dodać powagi polityce religijnej cesarza, który szukał kompromisu i zjednoczenia wszystkich odłamów chrześcijaństwa. Papieżowi brakowało do tego przygotowania teologicznego, a także charakteru – chwiejny, często zmieniał decyzje, ulegał łatwo intrygom dworu bizantyjskiego. Nie stawił się na V sobór ekumeniczny, który Justynian zwołał w 5 maja 553 w Konstantynopolu. Uchwała soborowa potępiła papieża i zdjęła go z urzędu, jednak gdy papież ugiął się i uznał sobór jako V sobór powszechny, ekskomunika została zdjęta. Wkrótce potem Wigiliusz zmarł w drodze powrotnej na kamicę żółciową do Rzymu (w Syrakuzach). Został pochowany w kościele San Marcello przy Via Salaria. +W okresie pontyfikatu Wigiliusza wszedł w życie na terenie całego cesarstwa "Kodeks Justyniana". +Anastazjusz II (cesarz bizantyński) + +Anastazjusz II, Artemios (zm. 721), cesarz bizantyjski od 713 do 715 roku. +Nowy cesarz unieważnił dekrety swego poprzednika dotyczące monoteletyzmu. Zniszczono również wizerunki Filipika i zawieszono z powrotem obraz przedstawiający VI sobór powszechny w Konstantynopolu. Anastzjusz zrobił zmiany w armii. Mianował nowego egzarchę Rawenny w Italii, a dowódcą armii na wschodzie uczynił Leona Izauryjczyka, torując mu drogę do korony cesarskiej. +Głównym celem cesarza było zawarcie pokoju z Arabami, najeżdżającymi na Azję Mniejszą. Nie udało się zawrzeć pokoju, gdyż poselstwo bizantyńskie zostało odesłane z powrotem z Damaszku przez kalifa Sulejmana. Poinformowało ono tylko o zbrojeniach arabskich. Cesarz wyznaczył wyspę Rodos jako miejsce koncentracji wszystkich wojsk z temów. Oddziały z temu Opsikon zaraz po wylądowaniu wszczęły rewoltę. Wycofały się następnie do swojego temu i tam w Adramytion obwołały cesarzem poborcę podatkowego, niejakiego Teodozjusza. Ten chciał uciec, lecz żołnierze go złapali i zmusili do przyjęcia tej godności. Rozpoczęła się wojna domowa. Trwała ona sześć miesięcy do końca sierpnia 715 roku. Wtedy to oddziały z temu Opsikon z pomocą Goto-Greków wprowadziły na tron Teodozjusza. Anastazjusz wstąpił do zakonu, chroniąc się w jednym z klasztorów Tesaloniki. Kilka lat później został skazany na śmierć, za próbę uzurpacji przeciw dawnemu podwładnemu wtedy już cesarzowi Leonowi III Izauryjczykowi. +Oliwiusz + +Oliwiusz — męski odpowiednik imienia Oliwia, męska forma (łac. "Olivius") nazwiska rodowego ("nomen gentilicium") "Olivii". +Oliwiusz imieniny obchodzi razem z Oliwią: 5 marca i 15 czerwca. +Theodor Escherich + +Theodor Escherich (ur. 29 listopada 1857 w Ansbach - zm. 15 lutego 1911 w Wiedniu) – austriacki lekarz pediatra. Od 1894 profesor uniwersytetu w Grazu, od 1902 w Wiedniu. Jego badania nad florą jelitową noworodków doprowadziły do odkrycia bakterii "Escherichia coli" oraz do stwierdzenia, że wywołuje ona większość biegunek oraz schorzeń dróg moczowych. Zajmował się również organizacją ochrony zdrowia niemowląt i założył szkołę pielęgniarek. +Feliks IV + +Feliks IV (III) (ur. w prowincji Samnio, łac. "Samnium", zm. 22 września 530) – święty Kościoła katolickiego, papież w okresie od 12 lipca 526 do 22 września 530. +Biografia. +Urodził się jako Samnita i był członkiem delegacji Hormizdasa do Konstantynopola +Wybór kardynała Feliksa, pochodzącego z okolic Benewentu, dokonał się po niemal dwumiesięcznym wakacie pod naciskiem króla Ostrogotów Teodoryka Wielkiego. Teodoryk zmarł półtora miesiąca po wyborze Feliksa, jednak papież nadal utrzymywał dobre stosunki z regentką-wdową Amalasuntą oraz z następcą Teodoryka, Atalarykiem, czego dowodzić może edykt mówiący, że wszystkie kryminalne sprawy duchowieństwa rozstrzyga papież. Feliks popierał biskupa Cezarego z Arles w walce z semipelagianizmem w Galii, a także wyrażał żal z powodu powrotu duchownych do stanu świeckiego. +W okresie tego pontyfikatu powstał słynny klasztor benedyktynów na Monte Cassino. +Chcąc uniknąć wpływów świeckich na elekcje papieskie Feliks IV wyznaczył na swojego następcę Bonifacego. Decyzja papieża wywołała niezadowolenie cesarza Bizancjum Justyniana I i podwójny wybór papieża, ale schizma trwała krótko; rywal Bonifacego Dioskuros zmarł zaledwie trzy tygodnie po elekcji. +Wspomnienie liturgiczne obchodzone jest 22 września. +Jan II (papież) + +Jan II (wł. "Merkuriusz" ur. w Rzymie, zm. 8 maja 535 tamże) – papież w okresie od 2 stycznia 533 do 8 maja 535. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Rzymie jako Merkuriusz, syn Projektusa. Był pierwszym papieżem, który po wyborze zmienił imię. Zrobił to zapewne dlatego, że Merkury jest imieniem rzymskiego boga. +Został wybrany na Stolicę Piotrową po dwuipółmiesięcznym wakacie, który był okresem korupcji i intryg. Za jego pontyfikatu wnuk Teodoryka Wielkiego, Atalaryk wydał dekret zakazujący łapownictwa i kupowania głosów podczas elekcji papieskiej. +Jako papież wspierał politykę religijną cesarza Justyniana I Wielkiego. 15 marca 533 roku papież zaakceptował dekret cesarza, który był zgodny z nauką pierwszych czterech soborów i zawierał formułę teopaschistyczną (odrzuconą wcześniej przez Hormizdasa). Jan II powierzył także Cezaremu z Arles patronat diecezji w Riez, w której powstał wakat na skutek rezygnacji (wymuszonej przez papieża) Contumeliosusa. +Bolesław Jerzy II + +Bolesław Jerzy II, łac. "Georgius dei gracia dux et heres Regni Russie", ukr. Юрій II Болеслав Тройденович (ur. ok. 1310, zm. 7 kwietnia 1340) – "natus dux et dominus Russiae" – książę halicko-wołyński w latach 1323-1340. Ożeniony z córką wielkiego księcia Giedymina (dziadek Jagiełły) księżniczką Eufemią, siostrą królowej Aldony Anny Giedyminówny, pierwszej żony Kazimierza Wielkiego. Bolesław Jerzy był po kądzieli i po mieczu praprawnukiem księcia Konrada mazowieckiego. +Bolesław Jerzy II był najstarszym synem księcia mazowieckiego Trojdena I księcia z rodu Piastów i Marii Halickiej, córki księcia halicko-wołyńskiego Jerzego I Lwowicza. +Na chrzcie książę otrzymał imię Bolesław, dopiero po objęciu tronu w Haliczu i przyjęciu prawosławia przybrał miano na cześć dziadka, Jerzego I. Obrządek prawosławny wkrótce jednak porzucił za namową papieża Jana XXII. +W 1323 zmarli (zapewne otruci) dwaj ostatni książęta z dynastii Rurykowiczów halickich a pretensje do bogatej ziemi wysunęli władcy: polski Władysław Łokietek, węgierski Karol Robert, mazowiecki Trojden I, oraz litewski Giedymin. Kandydatura mazowiecka początkowo wydawała się najsłabsza, syn Trojdena I – Bolesław był jednak osobą, na którą mogły się zgodzić wszystkie strony konfliktu, licząc że będą w stanie roztoczyć pełne zwierzchnictwo nad młodym (15-letnim) Piastowiczem. +Wyprawa zbrojna na Ruś pod wodzą Władysława Łokietka, z posiłkami Karola Roberta, ruszyła jeszcze pod koniec 1323 lub na początku roku następnego. Koalicjantom z powodzeniem udało się pokonać siły wrogie panowaniu na Rusi mazowieckiego Piasta. Nie mniej przez cały okres rządów Bolesław Jerzy II musiał się liczyć z dość silną opozycją wewnętrzną – niechętną zbyt mocnej władzy. Drugim czynnikiem potęgującym stan ciągłego zagrożenia byli – ciągle niezwykle silni – Tatarzy uzurpujący sobie prawo swobodnego osadzania w Haliczu książąt. +Bolesław Jerzy II chcąc zneutralizować niebezpieczeństwo utraty tronu swoje rządy oparł na dobrych stosunkach z Polską Władysława Łokietka i Kazimierza Wielkiego. Na swoją stronę księcia bezskutecznie próbowała przeciągnąć dyplomacja krzyżacka. W celu zabezpieczenia swoich włości przed niebezpieczeństwem litewskim Bolesław Jerzy za pośrednictwem stryja Wacława płockiego nawiązał kontakty z tamtejszym władcą Giedyminem. W 1331 został zawarty nawet formalny sojusz umocniony ślubem księcia z córką Giedymina Eufemią. +Stolicę swojego księstwa ustanowił we Włodzimierzu Wołyńskim. Zarzucano mu nadmierną opiekę nad mieszczanami i cudzoziemcami, zbyt łagodne traktowanie katolickiego kleru i ograniczenie wpływów panów wołyńskich. Jak zapisał jeden z roczników polskich Bolesław Jerzy "usiłował zmienić ich prawa i obyczaje", co nie wpłynęło pozytywnie na jego popularność wśród miejscowych bojarów. +W 1338 książę halicki udał się na zjazd w Wyszehradzie, gdzie wspólnie z Kazimierzem Wielkim i Karolem Robertem zastanawiano się m.in. nad kwestią pomocy wojskowej dla Halicza w celu rozgromienia opozycji. Na spotkaniu tym podpisano również układ przewidujący, że w razie bezpotomnej śmierci Bolesława władzę nad jego księstwem miał przejąć król Polski. W 1339 Bolesław lokował na prawie magdeburskim miasto Sanok jako pierwsze na Rusi Halickiej. +Bolesław Jerzy II zmarł bezpotomnie 7 kwietnia 1340, jak zgodnie informują współczesne źródła, otruty przez bojarów. W tym czasie m.in. podpisany dwa lata wcześniej układ otworzył przed Kazimierzem III Wielkim widoki do ponownego inkorporowania ziem na których zbudowano Ruś Halicką do Polski. +Rejestr zbiorów danych osobowych + +Rejestr zbiorów danych osobowych - ogólnokrajowy, jawny rejestr zbiorów danych osobowych zgłoszonych przez administratorów danych, prowadzony przez Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych na podstawie art. 42 ustawy z dnia 22 stycznia 1997 r. o ochronie danych osobowych. +"Rejestr" prowadzony jest w formie ksiąg rejestrowych według wzoru ustalonego w Zarządzeniu nr 11 Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych z dnia 8 grudnia 1998 r. w sprawie rejestru zbiorów danych osobowych. Księga rejestrowa prowadzona jest osobno dla każdego zarejestrowanego zbioru i zawiera numer porządkowy, nazwę zbioru danych oraz datę jej założenia. Z każdą księgą rejestrową związane są osobne akta rejestrowe zawierające wszelkie dokumenty stanowiące podstawę wpisów do "rejestru". +Od 7 lipca 2006 roku rejestr jest dostępny w internecie dzięki elektronicznej platformie komunikacji e-GIODO. System został zbudowany dzięki unijnemu programowi "Sektorowy Program Operacyjny Wzrost Konkurencyjności Przedsiębiorstw, lata 2004-2006". Kosztował 1,2 mln zł netto i został wykonany przez spółki Emax, Winuel i Max Elektronik. +Jan XXII + +Jan XXII (łac. "Ioannes XXII", właśc. Jacques Duèse; ur. ok. 1244 w Cahors, zm. 4 grudnia 1334 w Awinionie) – papież w okresie od 7 sierpnia 1316 do 4 grudnia 1334. +Biografia. +Urodził się w bogatej mieszczańskiej rodzinie. Studiował prawo i teologię w Cahors i Montpellier, był proboszczem kościoła św. Andrzeja w Cahors. w 1289 wyjechał do Neapolu. Był wychowawcą i doradcą króla Neapolu Karola Roberta; z poręki króla został biskupem Fréjus, a następnie Awinionu. Brał żywy udział w pracach soboru w Vienne w 1311, zwłaszcza w procesie wytoczonym templariuszom. +Po śmierci papieża Klemensa V nastąpił ponad dwuletni wakat na tronie papieskim. Kilka grup kardynałów, skłóconych ze sobą i reprezentujących interesy różnych panujących, nie mogło uzgodnić osoby nowego papieża. Ostatecznie po interwencji króla Francji Filipa V wybór konklawe w Lyonie w 1316 r. padł na biskupa d'Euse, liczącego już około 72 lata. Elekt, który przyjął imię Jana XXII, rządził Kościołem 18 lat i był jednym z energiczniejszych papieży okresu awiniońskiego. +Początkowo chciał przenieść się do Rzymu, jednak na prośby kardynałów, postanowił pozostać w Awinionie. Na początku pontyfikatu zreformował administrację kościelną: zwiększył zakres prowizji papieskich, zakazał posiadania więcej niż dwóch beneficjów, podzielił większe diecezje na mniejsze, wprowadził nakaz płacenia annatów i zreorganizował kurię. +Papież popadł w konflikt z franciszkanami, w wyniku czego doszło do schizmy i nałożenia ekskomuniki na generała zakonu, Michała z Ceseny, który uciekł na dwór króla niemieckiego. Wkrótce potem powstał spór pomiędzy królem Niemiec, Ludwikiem IV, a księciem Austrii, Fryderykiem III o koronę niemiecką. Wprawdzie w 1322 roku Ludwik pokonał Fryderyka, to papież nie chciał go uznać królem. Rok później Jan ekskomunikował Ludwika, co spowodowało potępienie papieża przez Ludwika i koronowanie się na cesarza w 1328 roku. Król nakazał także wybrać na antypapieża, Pietro Rainalducciego, jednak jego pozycja utrzymała się w Rzymie przez 2 lata. Po wyjeździe Ludwika IV, antypapież uznał zwierzchnictwo Jana i został uwięziony w areszcie domowym. +W 1323 roku kanonizował Tomasza z Akwinu, a w 1329 potępił Mistrza Eckharta. Zmarł w wieku niemal dziewięćdziesięciu lat. W czasie swego pontyfikatu mianował wielu kardynałów francuskich, dając im wielką przewagę w kolegium kardynalskim. +Uważał, że dusze po śmierci nie mogą oglądać Boga – ma to nastąpić dopiero po Sądzie Ostatecznym. Tuż przed śmiercią, wyrzekł się swoich poglądów w obecności kardynałów. W rzeczywistości podawał własną interpretację spraw ostatecznych, tego co dzieje się z duszami po śmierci i kiedy dusze "oglądać będą Boga twarzą w twarz". +Wander + +Wander – wolnozmienna fluktuacja fazy, wędrowanie fazy, błądzenie fazy czy też dewiacja fazy sygnału zegarowego. Zmiany fazy są bardzo rozciągnięte w czasie (są to drgania o częstotliwości od 0-10 Hz) i przybierają charakter losowy – są to główne przyczyny tego, że wander, w przeciwieństwie do jittera, nie może być w pełni efektywnie wytłumiony. Sam pomiar błądzenia fazy (w zależności od tego jaki parametr mierzymy) trwa od 15 minut do 24 godzin, co i tak daje nam tylko przybliżona charakterystykę. Odfiltrowanie tego rodzaju drgań jest niemożliwe z uwagi na konieczność stosowania dużych buforów. Wander pojawia się przy niskich częstotliwościach i może się akumulować przez dość długi czasu. Rezultatem tego są nagłe błędy, które mogą spowodować utratę ramki (LOF). +Źródła wolnozmiennych fluktuacji fazy. +Zegary główne. +Źródłem tego rodzaju fluktuacji jest niska jakość synchronizacji urządzeń, a więc poszczególnych zegarów w części odbiorczej i nadawczej systemu. Zegary spóźniają się, spieszą, wyczerpują, nawet zmiana czasu zimowego na letni i odwrotnie może spowodować wprowadzenie do systemu wolnozmiennego drgania fazy. W systemach SDH stosowane są zegary cezowe (sekunda atomowa, to 9 162 770 000 drgań atomu cezu) +Operacje wskaźnikowe. +Różnice w fazie i częstotliwości pomiędzy dwoma elementami sieci można wyrównać przesuwając odpowiednie wskaźniki w zależności od tego czy zegar nadający jest opóźniony, czy przyspieszony co do zegara odbiorczego. Taka adaptacja wskaźników jest przyczyną skoku fazy transportowanego sygnału o 8 lub 24 bity (np. dla 2 Mbit/s strumienia danych). Procesy zegarowe w demultiplekserze wygładzają (wyrównują) takie skoki fazy w sygnale wychodzącym jednak niektóre modulacje pozostają, a składniki niskoczęstotliwościowe zaczynają dominować. Wolnozmienna fluktuacja fazy powoduje niedomiar lub nadmiar elementów sieciowych bufora co wiedzie do straty bitów sygnału. Ponieważ system składa się z zintegrowanego mechanizmu przeciwdziałającemu stracie synchronizacji podczas takiej operacji może usunąć całkowicie daną ramkę. +Całodobowe zmiany czasu propagacji. +Typowa sieć transportowa może dodać do 90μs fluktuacji fazy na dzień do sygnału T1 i E1. Już 18 μs powoduje poślizg. Wander generowany przez dany element sieci przyczynia się do akumulacji wolnozmiennej fluktuacji fazy w całej sieci. Generowanie wolnozmiennej fluktuacji fazy zależy również od zastosowanego medium transmisyjnego. Włókno optyczne generuje 80 ps/km na każdy °C, natomiast kabel miedziany już 725 ps/km. Te zmiany nie wydają się duże, lecz jeśli wziąć pod uwagę możliwą dobową amplitudę temperatury, oraz jak długie są włókna optyczne, czy kable miedziane te zmiany stają się znaczące. Przykładowy kabel miedziany o długości 500 km poddawany dziennym wahaniom temperatury wnosi fluktuacje fazy na poziomie 5,5 μs. Dla porównania - opóźnienie rzędu 18 μs powoduje już błędy w transmisji. +Wykładnia prawa + +Dyrektywy wykładni. +W celu ustalenia rzeczywistej woli ustawodawcy, żadna z dyrektyw nie może być stosowana z pominięciem pozostałych. +Językowe dyrektywy wykładni. +Przykłady: Ustawa z 26.01.1982 r. – Karta Nauczyciela ( z późn. zm.) modyfikuje znaczenie terminu "nauczyciel". W myśl tej ustawy, "nauczycielami" są także osoby, które nie zajmują się bezpośrednio przekazywaniem wiedzy (np. bibliotekarze lub logopedzi zatrudniani w szkołach), a równocześnie nie są nimi dla ustawodawcy np. prywatni korepetytorzy. +- art. 5 ust. 3 ustawy z 27.08.2004 r. o świadczeniach opieki zdrowotnej finansowanych ze środków publicznych (Dz. U. nr 210, poz. 2135). Jest to tzw. definicja legalna, mająca znaczenie tylko dla tej ustawy. +Przykłady: +Art. 201 § 1 kodeksu spółek handlowych: "Zarząd prowadzi sprawy spółki i reprezentuje spółkę." +- spójnik "i" (podobnie jak "oraz") oznacza koniunkcję (zarząd spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością nie może być upoważniony tylko do prowadzenia spraw spółki albo tylko do reprezentacji. Zawsze jest umocowany zarówno do działania "wewnątrz", jak i "na zewnątrz" spółki, tzn. także do zawierania czynności prawnych ze skutkiem bezpośrednio dla samej spółki. Odpowiada więc za całokształt jej bieżącej działalności). +Art. 35 ust. 2 ustawy o finansach publicznych: "Głównym księgowym może być osoba, która:" +"4) ukończyła:" +"a) ekonomiczne jednolite studia magisterskie, ekonomiczne wyższe studia zawodowe, uzupełniające ekonomiczne studia magisterskie lub ekonomiczne studia podyplomowe i posiada co najmniej 3-letnią praktykę w księgowości, lub" +"b) średnią, policealną lub pomaturalną szkołę zawodową o kierunku rachunkowość i posiada co najmniej 6-letnią praktykę w księgowości." +- spójnik "lub" oznacza, że wystarcza spełnienie jednej z alternatywnych przesłanek (alternatywa nierozłączna), ale mogą być także jednocześnie spełnione obie przesłanki (główny księgowy jednostki sektora finansów publicznych może być absolwentem liceum ekonomicznego i jednocześnie spełniać wymaganie wyższego wykształcenia na kierunku ekonomicznym). +Art. 39 § 1 kodeksu cywilnego: "Kto jako organ osoby prawnej zawarł umowę w jej imieniu nie będąc jej organem albo przekraczając zakres umocowania takiego organu, obowiązany jest do zwrotu tego, co otrzymał od drugiej strony w wykonaniu umowy, oraz do naprawienia szkody, którą druga strona poniosła przez to, że zawarła umowę nie wiedząc o braku umocowania." +- spójnik "albo" oznacza alternatywę rozłączną (dla powstania obowiązku zwrotu i odszkodowania wystarczy stwierdzenie jednej z dwóch okoliczności: 1) ktoś działał jako rzekomy organ osoby prawnej, albo 2) ktoś pełnił funkcję organu lub członka organu, ale przekroczył umocowanie; okoliczności te nie mogą wystąpić łącznie). +Leon III Izauryjczyk + +Leon III Izauryjczyk (gr. Λέων Γ' ο Ίσαυρος, ok. 680 - 18 czerwca 741), cesarz bizantyjski od 717 do śmierci, pierwszy władca z dynastii izauryjskiej. +Pochodził z niższych warstw społecznych. Urodził się w rodzinie wieśniaka w 675 roku w Germanikei na północy Syrii. Był więc Syryjczykiem a nie jak wskazują póżniejsze źródła Izauryjczykiem. Jednak obydwa przydomki wskazujące na miejsce pochodzenia Leona, pozostały do dzisiaj. Na jego syryjskie pochodzenie wskazuje też świetna znajomość języka arabskiego. Jako dziecko mieszkał wraz z rodzicami w Syrii północnej, jednak za sprawą migracji ludności, zarządzonej przez Justyniana II przeniósł się wraz z rodzicami do Tracji. Tam zaciągnął się do armii Justyniana II pragnącego odzyskać tron. +Uzyskał tam tytuł spathariosa. Widząc talent wojskowy Leona cesarz Anastazjusz II mianował go strategiem temu Anatolikon, czyli dowódcą jednej z najbogatszych prowincji cesarstwa. Leon został następnie dowódcą wojsk walczących na wschodzie przeciw Arabom. Po upadku Anastazjusza wystąpił przeciwko cesarzowi Teodozjuszowi. 18 kwietnia 716 roku został przez swoich żołnierzy proklamowany cesarzem. Zyskał poparcie swojej prowincji oraz stratega temu Armeniakon, Artabasdesa. Za współdziałanie obiecał mu swoją córkę Annę za żonę i wysokie godności. Po pokonaniu Teodozjusza, 25 marca 717 roku Leon został koronowany na cesarza w Konstantynopolu. Wstąpienie Leona na tron zakończyło okres walk wewnętrznych w Bizancjum. +Z pomocą bułgarskich wojsk chana Terweła odparł Arabów oblegających Konstantynopol na przełomie 717 i 718 r. Wyprowadził cesarstwo z długotrwałego kryzysu umacniając władzę cesarską i wprowadzając szereg reform wojskowych i politycznych. W 726 r. wydał "Eklogę", będącą kolejną po dokonanej w VI w. przez Justyniana Wielkiego kodyfikacją prawa bizantyjskiego. Najogólniej rzecz biorąc była to modyfikacja dotychczasowych praw w duchu chrześcijańskim. Ekloga np. ograniczała władzę ojca rodziny (patria potestas) zwiększając jednocześnie uprawnienia żony i dzieci. +W 726 r. Leon wystąpił przeciwko kultowi ikon, rozpoczynając długi okres ikonoklazmu, co doprowadziło do zerwania stosunków z Rzymem w 730 roku. W 740 r. we Frygii rozbił wojska arabskie. +Otto Stern + +Otto Stern (ur. 17 lutego 1888 w Żorach (wówczas Sohrau), zm. 17 sierpnia 1969 w Berkeley) – niemiecki fizyk, laureat Nagrody Nobla. +Był wnukiem bogatego kupca żydowskiego, właściciela żorskiego młyna Abrahama Sterna. Ojciec Ottona nazywał się Oskar, a matka Eugenia (z domu Rosenthal). Otto był najstarszym spośród pięciorga rodzeństwa: Otto, Berta, Kurt, Lota i Liza. W 1892 r. Sternowie przeprowadzili się do Wrocławia. +Po ukończeniu szkoły podstawowej Stern kontynuował naukę w gimnazjum Jana we Wrocławiu, a następnie podjął studia uniwersyteckie we Fryburgu, Monachium i Wrocławiu. Tytuł doktora chemii fizycznej uzyskał na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim. Jego rozprawa doktorska w zakresie ciśnienia osmotycznego dwutlenku węgla w stężonych roztworach miała charakter zarówno praktyczny, jak też i teoretyczny. W przyszłości ustaliła jego działalność badawczą, dzięki której sam siebie określił jako teoretyka doświadczalnego. +W tym samym roku poszedł za Albertem Einsteinem na Uniwersytet Karola w Pradze, a następnie w 1913 – na Politechnikę w Zurychu. W Szwajcarii zawarł znajomość z takimi wybitnymi fizykami jak Ehrenfest i Laue. W tym czasie jego finansowa niezależność pozwoliła mu obrać miejsce pracy bez oglądania się na osiąganie większych korzyści materialnych. W 1913 r. otrzymał w Wyższej Szkole Technicznej w Zurychu "venia legendi", czyli prawo prowadzenia własnych odczytów. Stał się tym samym tzw. "Privatdozent", co uprawniało go do prowadzenia wykładów na uniwersytetach jednak bez prawa do wynagrodzenia za przeprowadzane wykłady. W latach pierwszej wojny światowej od sierpnia 1914 r. do zakończenia, służył w armii pruskiej jako żołnierz szeregowy w różnych jednostkach technicznych. Po klęsce Prus powrócił do Frankfurtu, gdzie nadal poświęcał się pracy naukowej. Habilitował się we Frankfurcie w 1915. Od 1919 współpracował z Maxem Bornem. +W 1921 r. Stern otrzymał stanowisko profesora fizyki teoretycznej na Uniwersytecie w Rostocku. Tutaj dołączył do swego przyjaciela Maxa Volmera. Pobyt w Rostocku pozwolił mu na poszerzenie swych horyzontów myślowych i na zawarcie nowych znajomości. Nie trwał on jednak długo. W 1923 objął stanowisko dyrektora w nowo powstałym Instytucie Chemii Fizycznej na Uniwersytecie w Hamburgu. Z powodu swojego częściowego pochodzenia żydowskiego po dojściu Hitlera do władzy w 1933 wyemigrował do USA. Do 1945 roku był profesorem na Carnegie Institute of Technology w Pittsburghu. Tam też przystąpił do budowy laboratorium molekularnego, choć ze względu na trudności gospodarcze nie był w stanie rozbudować swej pracowni do tego poziomu jaką posiadał w Hamburgu. Następnie już jako "professor emeritus" osiadł na Uniwersytecie Kalifornijskim w Berkeley. Sporadycznie utrzymywał kontakty z miejscowymi fizykami, lecz unikał już publicznych wystąpień. Do końca swego życia Otto Stern pozostał kawalerem. +W 1922 Stern przeprowadził wraz z Walterem Gerlachem eksperyment zwany doświadczeniem Sterna-Gerlacha dotyczącym przestrzennej kwantyzacji spinowego momentu pędu. +Rok 1943 przyniósł Sternowi Nobla z fizyki "W uznaniu jego wkładu w rozwój metody wiązki molekularnej i jego odkrycia momentu magnetycznego protonu". +Zmarł na zawał serca 17 sierpnia 1969 r. w czasie przedstawienia teatralnego i pochowany został w Berkeley. +18 września 1997 r. podczas sesji wyjazdowej 34. Zjazdu Fizyków Polskich została odsłonięta tablica pamiątkowa, poświęcona Ottonowi Sternowi. Tablicę odsłonili zagraniczni goście – nobliści: Herbert A. Hauptman (Nagroda Nobla z chemii 1985 r.) i Rudolf Mössbauer (Nagroda Nobla z fizyki 1961 r.), a także polski fizyk prof. dr hab. Jerzy Warczewski oraz przedstawiciele miasta Żory Zygmunt Łukaszczyk i Ryszard Ostrowski. Tablica odlana z mosiądzu według projektu Stanisława Szwarca wisi na ścianie frontowej budynku Urzędu Miasta Żory. +Typologia państw w ujęciu marksistowskim + +Państwo niewolnicze. +Podział ludzi na wolnych i niewolników. Ludzie wolni byli właścicielami dóbr materialnych, oraz niewolników. Tworzyli oni klasę patrycjuszy, posiadali podmiotowość polityczną i prawną, mogli sprawować władzę. Spośród nich pochodził monarcha, lub zależnie od panującego systemu wódz, cesarz, imperator. W niektórych państwach ukształtowała się również druga grupa ludzi wolnych zwamych plebejuszami, posiadali oni podmiotowość prawną i polityczną, lecz nie mieli dużych majątków, przez to materialnie byli zależni od patrycjuszy. Jednak najliczniejszą klasą byli niewolnicy, nie posiadali żadnych praw, traktowani byli przedmiotowo. Klasa ta stanowiła podstawę egzystencji całego społeczeństwa. System taki panował głównie w państwach starożytnych na bliskim wschodzie oraz w państwach śródziemnomorskich - w Grecji i Rzymie. Formację niewolniczą dzieli się niekiedy na niewolnictwo typu azjatyckiego (starożytny Egipt, Mezopotamia), gdzie większość niewolników stanowiła własność władcy (utożsamianego z państwem) i niewolnictwo typu antycznego (starożytna Grecja, Rzym), gdzie większość niewolników stanowiła własność osób prywatnych. +Państwo feudalne. +System feudalny kształtował się stopniowo przez przeobrażanie systemu niewolniczego, był też rezultatem osiadłości plemion wędrownych. Podstawą ekonomiczną były duże własności ziemskie tzw. latyfundia, należące do warstw najzamożniejszych czyli monarchów, kleru i rycerstwa. Początkowo wszystkie ziemie należały do monarchy, lecz nadawał je on ludziom zasłużonym dla państwa. Struktura społeczeństwa oparta była na stanie majątkowym i publicznym. Stopniowo zanikała klasa niewolników, lecz w różnym stopniu, zależnym od stanu majątku. W konsekwencji tego ukształtowały się 4 warstwy społeczne: +Jedynie 3 pierwsze warstwy były uprzywilejowane. Chłopów dzieliło się na poddanych czyli na zależnych prawnie od swego pana i na pańszczyźnianych, czyli mieli obowiązek pracy lub innych świadczeń na rzecz pana, ale nie byli całkowicie ubezwłasnowolnieni. Ustrój w feudalizmie oparty był na jednowładztwie monarchy. +Państwo kapitalistyczne. +Ten typ ukształtował się jako efekt walki z feudalnym absolutyzmem. Kształtował się poprzez rewolucję antyfeudalną, burżuazyjną. Podstawowym założeniem dla tego typu jest Deklaracja Praw Człowieka i Obywatela (pierwszy raz opracowana we Francji). W XIX wieku dokonywały się rewolucje w różnych krajach, co umożliwiało likwidację feudalizmu i wprowadzenie kapitalizmu. Podstawą ekonomiczną dla tej tego typu jest ideologia liberalizmu która zakłada swobodę działalności gospodarczej oraz wolny rynek, który ma torować drogę do rozwoju ekonomicznego. Została zniesiona feudalna hierarchia własności. Własność prywatna jest w kapitalizmie nienaruszalna i podlega ochronie prawnej. Ustrój społeczny oparty jest na zasadzie równości wszystkich ludzi wobec prawa, bez względu na pochodzenie, majątek, religię, rasę czy narodowość. +Państwo socjalistyczne. +Stosunki ekonomiczne opierają się na zasadzie własności społecznej środków produkcji, oraz na centralnym planowaniu rozwoju gospodarki narodowej. To wiąże się z ograniczeniem bądź likwidowaniem sektora prywatnego w gospodarce. Opisującymi państwo socjalistyczne hasłami z okresu PRL były „zniesienie wyzysku człowieka przez człowieka” i „każdemu według jego pracy”. Podział społeczny w tym typie wygląda tak: +Ustrój polityczny opiera się na zasadach +Część marksistów opisuje państwa typu PRL jako zdegenerowane państwo robotnicze a nie państwa prawdziwie socjalistyczne. +Operatory kreacji i anihilacji + +Definiując zbiór operatorów kreacji i anihilacji, wraz z odpowiednimi relacjami komutacji (antykomutacji) i stanem próżni, otrzymujmy zbiór stanów wielocząstkowych, otrzymanych jako wynik działania operatorów na stan próżni, które są bazą przestrzeni izomorficznej z przestrzenią Focka (co jest jedną z możliwych definicji przestrzeni Focka). +Reguły komutacji. +Operatory kreacji i anihilacji spełniają następujące relacje komutacyjne (antykomutacyjne): +formula_3 +formula_4 +formula_5 +formula_6 - komutator (antykomutator) +ξ = 1 dla bozonów +ξ = -1 dla fermionów (wtedy powyższe wzory definiują reguły antykomutacji) +Działanie w reprezentacji drugiej kwantyzacji. +Wektory formula_7 należą do przestrzeni Focka. +formula_8 +formula_9 +formula_10 +formula_11 +Dowód (#1) +Trzeba to jeszcze dokończyć. +Gloria Reuben + +Gloria Reuben (ur. 9 czerwca 1964 w Toronto) - aktorka kanadyjska. +Córka pochodzącej z Jamajki śpiewaczki gospel, jedna z sześciorga rodzeństwa (jeden z braci został aktorem broadwayowskim). W młodości uzyskała wykształcenie muzyczne w Kanadyjskim Królewskim Konserwatorium. Występowała w serialach i filmach reklamowych w telewizji kanadyjskiej, następnie wyjechała do Los Angeles (1988). Wystąpiła w wielu serialach, m.in. "The Round Table", "The Young Riders", "China Beach", "Homicide:Live on the Street". W latach 1995-1999 należała do obsady serialu "Ostry dyżur". +Obok pracy w telewizji ma na koncie także role filmowe, m.in. w "TimeCop" (1994), "Nick of Time" (1995), "Pilgrim" (2000), "Shaft" (2000), "1-800-Missing" (2003). W 1996 znalazła się na liście 50 najpiękniejszych ludzi świata według magazynu "People". +Znak Spadochronowy + +Znak Spadochronowy – odznaka bojowa dla żołnierzy, którzy brali udział w bojowej akcji spadochronowej. Prawo do noszenia znaku zwykłego mają żołnierze posiadający wyszkolenie przewidziane dla oddziałów spadochronowych. +Historia. +20 czerwca 1941 Wódz Naczelny Wojska Polskiego gen. Władysław Sikorski podjął decyzję o ustanowieniu Znaku Spadochronowego, jako elementu wyróżniającego nowy rodzaj wojsk polskich podczas tworzenia 1 Samodzielnej Brygady Spadochronowej. +Referentem projektu Znaku Spadochronowego gen. Sikorski wyznaczył kpt. Macieja Kalenkiewicza. Zgodnie z intencją Sikorskiego znak ten miał być odznaką polskiego spadochroniarza, tak jak „gapa” odznaką lotnika. +Projekt graficzny znaku wykonał Marian Walentynowicz. Inspiracją była wcześniej opracowana przez niego okładka do emigracyjnego (wojennego) wydania książki Józefa Kisielewskiego „Ziemia gromadzi prochy”. +20 czerwca 1941 Wódz Naczelny podpisał rozkaz ustanawiający Znak Spadochronowy. +23 września 1941 w obecności Naczelnego Wodza i licznie zaproszonych gości na placu ćwiczeń w rejonie Kincraig w Szkocji, odbyły się pierwsze ćwiczenia bojowe polskich oddziałów spadochronowych – od tego dnia 1 SBS. Po zakończeniu pokazu gen. Sikorski wręczył żołnierzom Brygady oraz zaproszonym gościom: bryg. Gubbinsowi i por. Klauberowi z SOE (ang. "Special Operations Executive") pierwsze zwykłe Znaki Spadochronowe. +Znaki te otrzymali wszyscy spadochroniarze przeszkoleni w ośrodkach spadochronowych w Wielkiej Brytanii, a później we Włoszech, a więc żołnierze Brygady Spadochronowej, cichociemni, żołnierze Samodzielnej Kompanii Grenadierów i kurierzy polityczni przeznaczeni do służby krajowej, polscy skoczkowie skaczący w ramach SOE do różnych krajów okupowanej Europy oraz spadochroniarze innych narodowości, którzy przeszli polskie przeszkolenie. +20 listopada 1944 – dwa miesiące po operacji „Market-Garden” – Minister Obrony Narodowej, wydał rozkaz zmieniający dotychczasowy wzór bojowego Znaku Spadochronowego: „"Do zwykłego Znaku Spadochronowego dodaje się pozłacany wieniec laurowy, przymocowany od spodu do szponów orła"”. +Znak Spadochronowy AK. +5 lutego 1954 w Londynie został ustanowiony Znak Spadochronowy Armii Krajowej. Różni się on od bojowego Znaku Spadochronowego z 20 listopada 1944 tym, że wewnątrz wieńca laurowego ma umieszczoną srebrną kotwicę „Polski Walczącej”. Edycja tej odmiany jest niewielka i obejmuje 316 numerowanych egzemplarzy. Tylko tylu cichociemnych udało przerzucić do kraju, wśród nich sześciu zginęło podczas lotu do kraju a trzech zginęło w czasie skoku nad Polską. +Okres powojenny. +Gdy po wojnie, w ludowym Wojsku Polskim powstała pierwsza jednostka powietrznodesantowa, przyjęte w niej odznaki skoczka i instruktora spadochronowego wojsk lotniczych. Odznaka skoczka, przyznawana po jednym skoku, miała postać spadochroniarza na spadochronie ze zwykłym orłem nad czaszą, natomiast odznaka instruktora to orzeł lotniczy z wieńcem i spadochronem. W związku z wysokim poziomem wyszkolenia w wojskach powietrznodesantowych w 1964 roku wprowadzono odznakę spadochronową W.P.D. w kształcie dotychczasowej odznaki instruktorskiej. Krok ten spotkał się z protestem ze strony wojsk lotniczych, w efekcie czego w 1967 powstały odznaki dla Wojsk Powietrznodesantowych wzorowane na Bojowym Znaku Spadochronowym z 1944 roku. +W tej odznace wprowadzono niewielkie zmiany w stosunku do pierwowzoru: na odwrocie nie było już napisu „"Tobie Ojczyzno"”, w wieńcu umieszczono wymienną wkładkę wskazującą ilość oddanych skoków, lub klasę specjalisty wojskowego (instruktorzy). W Odznace Skoczka orzeł i wieniec są oksydowane, w Odznace Instruktora zachowano wieniec złocony. Zgodnie z zarządzeniem z 1 lipca 1974 roku w obowiązujących wzorach odznak instruktorów spadochronowych wojsk lotniczych i W.P.D., zamiast liczby wykonanych skoków wprowadzony został nr uzyskanej klasy kwalifikacyjnej (I, II, III, M). Odznaki były numerowane do lat 90. +CEBP + +C/EBP (CBF) czyli czynniki transkrypcyjne C/EBP lub białka wiążące się z sekwencja CCAAT (ang. CCAAT enhancer binding proteins, CCAAT binding factor). Czynniki transkrypcyjne kręgowców wiążące się z sekwencją regulatorową CCAAT (ok. 80-60pz od miejsca inicjacji transkrypcji) oraz z sekwencją wzmacniającą TT/GNNGA/CAAT. +Onan + +Onan – postać biblijna, drugi syn Judy i córki pewnego Kananejczyka noszącego imię Szua. Miał on starszego brata Era, oraz młodszych Szele, Peresa i Zeracha. Występuje w 38. rozdziale Księgi Rodzaju jako ten, który po śmierci swego brata Era nie chciał mimo polecenia ojca dopełnić prawa lewiratu. Wiedział bowiem, że potomstwo przez niego spłodzone nie będzie uznane za jego, lecz brata. Dlatego też unikał zapłodnienia ilekroć współżył z żoną brata, Tamar. Oryginalny hebrajski tekst biblijny, a za nim Wulgata podają, że Onan: "(...) tracił z siebie nasienie na ziemię, aby nie wzbudził potomstwa bratu swemu". Biblia Tysiąclecia szczegół o wydalaniu przez Onana nasienia na ziemię zamieszcza w przypisach, a w tekście głównym podaje tylko, że unikał zapłodnienia. Ten sposób postępowania Onana nie podobał się Bogu, więc zgładził Onana. +Od imienia Onana wzięło się również określenie "onanizm" – praktyka seksualna polegająca na samodzielnym zaspokajaniu popędu seksualnego. Biblijny Onan nie uprawiał jednak onanizmu, tylko stosunek przerywany. +Historia Onana była niekiedy przytaczana w teologii moralnej jako argument przeciwko praktykom autoerotycznym. Taka egzegeza była jednak niewłaściwa, ponieważ w potępieniu Onana można doszukiwać się jedynie przyczyn wynikających ze złamania lewiratu lub też egoistycznych pobudek jego zachowania. +Wody artezyjskie + +1. Warstwa wodonośna +2. Warstwa nieprzepuszczalna +3. Obszar zasilania +4. Studnia artezyjska +5. Poziom równowagi hydrostatycznej (linia ciśnień piezometrycznych - zwierciadło piezometryczne) +6. Studnia subartezyjska +7. Źródło artezyjskie]] +Wody artezyjskie – wody podziemne występujące pod ciśnieniem hydrostatycznym, zdolne do samoczynnego wypływu na powierzchnię ze studni. Odpowiednie warunki do wytworzenia ciśnienia hydrostatycznego występują najczęściej na obszarach o nieckowatym układzie warstw skalnych. Od wód gruntowych odróżnia je istnienie warstwy nieprzepuszczalnej w stropie. Dzięki tej izolacji są mniej zanieczyszczone. +Wody artezyjskie najczęściej występują w niecce artezyjskiej w warstwach wodonośnych pod skałami nieprzepuszczalnymi. Występowanie wód artezyjskich może być niekiedy związane także z uskokami i systemem szczelin skalnych. +Odwiert w nadległych warstwach skalnych powoduje podniesienie słupa wody ponad powierzchnię ziemi (wypływ na powierzchnię, np. studnia artezyjska), natomiast w przypadku naturalnego znalezienia możliwości wypływu powstaje źródło artezyjskie (źródło wstępujące). Wody o niższym ciśnieniu hydrostatycznym, w przypadku których słup wody w odwiercie nie sięga powierzchni ziemi to wody subartezyjskie. +Nazwa ""artezyjskie"" pochodzi od krainy geograficznej Artois (Francja), gdzie powstała pierwsza studnia artezyjska w 1126 roku, aczkolwiek technika korzystania z wód artezyjskich była znana już dawniej m.in. w Syrii i Egipcie. +Wody fluwioglacjalne + +Wody fluwioglacjalne to wody spływające z topniejącego lodowca, np. lądolodu. +W wyniku ich działalności powstają formy fluwioglacjalne: ozy, kemy i sandry, a także powstające z połączenia rozrastających się sandrów równiny sandrowe. Z połączenia wód fluwioglacjalnych i wód z obszarów nielodowcowych powstają pradoliny, o równoleżnikowym przebiegu i kierunku prostopadłym do lodowca. +Ocięsław + +Ocięsław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Ocię-" ("odjąć, ująć") i "-sław" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "ten, który pomniejsza sławę". +Christiaan Eijkman + +Christiaan Eijkman (ur. 11 sierpnia 1858 w Nijkerk, zm. 5 listopada 1930 w Utrechcie) – lekarz holenderski, laureat Nagrody Nobla 1929. +W latach 1896-1898 był dyrektorem Instytutu Patologii na Jawie, a 1898-1928 profesorem higieny i medycyny sądowej na uniwersytecie w Utrechcie. +Prowadził badania nad chorobą beri-beri. W 1897 stwierdził, że nie łuszczony ryż zawiera czynnik zapobiegający beri-beri, nazwany później witaminą B1. W 1929 za to odkrycie otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla, równocześnie z odkrywcą witaminy A, Frederickiem Hopkinsem. +Sherry Stringfield + +Sherry Lea Stringfield (ur. 24 czerwca 1967 w Colorado Springs) – aktorka amerykańska. +W 1989 ukończyła studium aktorskie Uniwersytetu Stanowego Nowego Jorku. Występowała w kilku serialach, m.in. "The Guiding Light" (1989-1992), "Nowojorscy gliniarze", "Ostry dyżur" (1995-1998 i 2001-2005). Grała także w produkcjach filmowych (m.in. "Klub 54"; "Miłość w Nowym Jorku") oraz pracowała jako pedagog sztuki aktorskiej w Nowym Jorku. +Życie prywatne. +Sherry Stringfield była żoną Larry'ego Josepha. Para rozwiodła się w 2006. Mają dwójkę dzieci: córka Phoebe (ur. 2001 r.) i syn Milo (ur. 2004 r.). +Nowe Warpno + +Nowe Warpno (do 1945 niem. "Neuwarp") – miasto w północno-zachodniej Polsce, w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie polickim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Nowe Warpno, położone na Półwyspie Nowowarpieńskim, nad Zalewem Szczecińskim i Jeziorem Nowowarpieńskim. +Prawa miejskie od ok. 1295 r. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. miasto miało 1237 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Nowe Warpno znajduje się w północno-zachodniej części województwa zachodniopomorskiego, na północno-zachodnim krańcu powiatu polickiego. +Miasto jest położone Półwyspie Nowowarpieńskim oddzielającym Jezioro Nowowarpieńskie od Zatoki Nowowarpieńskiej, będącej częścią Zalewu Szczecińskiego. Półwysep należy do Równiny Wkrzańskiej. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 całkowita powierzchnia miasta wynosi 24,51 km². +Do Nowego Warpna należą także osiedla (dawne wsie): Grądno, Karszno, Małachowo, Miroszewo, Podgrodzie, Przedborze, Rytka. +W latach 1946–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. szczecińskiego. +Historia. +Najwcześniejsze dzieje. +Miasto Nowe Warpno zostało lokowane najprawdopodobniej w 1295 roku. Lokacja odbyła się na zasadzie translokacji z terenów dzisiejszej dzielnicy Podgrodzie, gdzie znajdował się dawny gród słowiański. Miasteczko znalazło się w granicach Księstwa Zachodniopomorskiego, aż do 1648 roku, kiedy to pokój w Osnabrück po wojnie trzydziestoletniej przyznał tereny te Szwecji, która panowała nad Nowym Warpnem do 1720 roku. +Okres szwedzki. +Szwedzi dążyli do szybkiego ufortyfikowania leżącego na wyspie miasta. W 1678 roku fortyfikator Christian Kanxdorff przedstawił projekt nowej twierdzy. Fortyfikacje miały łączyć trzy wyspy. Obecny półwysep, na którym dziś znajduje się centrum miasta, dawniej nie był połączony z lądem stałym. Plany wybudowania wielkiej twierdzy zrealizowano tylko częściowo. W 1692 roku główna część Nowego Warpna spłonęła w wielkim pożarze. Zniszczony został m.in. ratusz oraz kościół. Świątynię odbudowano, zaś na miejscu starego ratusza wzniesiono nowy, ryglowy budynek w 1697 roku. Po wielkim pożarze mieszkańcy przenieśli się w większości do Starego Warpna, jednak po odbudowie powrócili i miasto liczyło w XVIII wieku ok. 1,3 tys. mieszkańców. +Okres pruski i niemiecki. +W 1720 roku zostało wcielone do państwa pruskiego. Podczas wojny siedmioletniej zajęte przez wojska carskiej Rosji. W 1759 roku, 10 września, na Zalewie Szczecińskim w okolicach Nowego Warpna rozegrała się bitwa morska pomiędzy Szwedami a Prusakami. Była to pierwsza bitwa morska w historii pruskiej floty. Zakończyła się ona zwycięstwem Szwecji, której flotyllą dowodził kapitan Rutensparne. +W XVIII wieku miasto rozbudowało się w kierunku południowym, gdzie istniała dzielnica przedmiejska, obecne Karszno. Tam znajdował się m.in. młyn i waga miejska. Wielkie szwedzkie fortyfikacje rozebrano w XIX wieku. Fosa została zasypana i wyspa stała się półwyspem. W 1846 roku zapadła decyzja o wybudowaniu grobli łączącej Stare Warpno z Nowym Warpnem. Projekt ten został zatwierdzony dopiero w 1908, jednak nigdy nie został zrealizowany. Pod koniec XIX wieku miasteczko zostało połączone ze Stolcem i dalej Szczecinem linią kolejową, co przyspieszyło rozwój gospodarczy. Miasto stało się ośrodkiem rybackim i handlowym. Znajdował się tutaj m.in. dom starców, szpital, poczta, szkoła, dom towarowy prowadzony przez rodzinę żydowską, łaźnia miejska i mleczarnia. W okresie międzywojennym miasto przeżywało rozkwit jako ośrodek turystyczny. Kursowały promy do Starego Warpna, Trzebieży i Szczecina oraz rejsy po Zalewie Szczecińskim. Miasto utrzymywało sześć restauracji, sześć piekarń, dwa warsztaty złotnicze, jeden kuśnierski, cztery krawieckie, pięć szewskich, kwitło przetwórstwo rybne. +Okres po II wojnie światowej. +Od 1945 Nowe Warpno należy do Polski. W październiku 1945 powołano polskie władze miejskie i urzędy. W latach 1945-1946 miejscowość była stolicą przejściowo istniejącego powiatu wieleckiego. Obecnie miasteczko jest małym ośrodkiem turystycznym, siedzibą Urzędu Gminy i Miasta. +W 2007 r. wydano monografię (w serii czas przestrzeń tożsamość) miasta Nowe Warpno autorstwa dr Wojciecha Łopucha, w 2010 r. ukazało się II wydanie, zatytułowane Nowa Warpno i okolice. Autorem zdjęć współczesnych był szczeciński artysta fotograf Andrzej Łazowski. +Architektura. +Obok kościoła pw. Wniebowzięcia NMP znajdują się dwa głazy-pomniki: ku czci zmarłych mieszkańców Nowego Warpna oraz drugi poświęcony Ojcu Świętemu Janowi Pawłowi II. +Gospodarka. +Nowe Warpno nie jest ośrodkiem przemysłowym. Gospodarka ogranicza się do usług i rybołówstwa. Największą firmą jest spółka "Ryb-War" zajmująca się połowem i sprzedażą ryb. Właśnie rybołówstwo stanowi główną część miejskiej gospodarki. W mieście działa kilka sklepów spożywczych i przemysłowych. +Turystyka. +Nowe Warpno to miejscowość turystyczna ze względu na swoje położenie nad Zalewem Szczecińskim oraz zabytki. W mieście znajduje się kemping oraz kilka gospodarstw agroturystycznych. Na południowym brzegu półwyspu znajduje się plaża, użytkowana w miesiącach letnich. Na terenie kempingu znajduje się natomiast plaża strzeżona oraz wypożyczalnia sprzętu wodnego. Miejscowość posiada niewielkie zaplecze gastronomiczne. +Do atrakcji turystycznych należy także okoliczna przyroda. W dzielnicy Miroszewo znajduje się wybrzeże klifowe, zaś w klifach gnieżdżą się jaskółki brzegówki. Okolice miasta to tereny leśne Puszczy Wkrzańskiej. +Przez miasto i okolice prowadzą szlaki turystyczne: +Planowana jest organizacja szlaku wodnego Berlin – Szczecin – Bałtyk. +Komunikacja. +W Nowym Warpnie znajduje się port dla statków białej floty wykonujących kursy do sąsiedniego Altwarp (Stare Warpno) oraz do Ueckermünde i Kamminke. W porcie Nowe Warpno przy Nabrzeżu Przemysłowym (odpraw granicznych) mogą zawijać statki o maksymalnej długości do 40 m i maksymalnej szerokości do 8 m. +Z miasta prowadzi droga wojewódzka nr 114 przez Trzebież (21 km), Police (34 km) do Tanowa. +Przed II wojną światową istniała linia kolejowa prowadząca z Gumieniec przez Stobno, Dołuje, Dobrą, Buk (dziś w Polsce), Glashütte, Hintersee i Rieth w Niemczech do Nowego Warpna. Została ona w 1945 r. rozebrana na odcinku Dobra – Nowe Warpno, wskutek przecięcia jej przez nowowytyczoną granicę państwową. +Administracja. +Miasto jest siedzibą gminy miejsko-wiejskiej. Mieszkańcy Nowego Warpna wybierają do swojej rady miejskiej 11 radnych (11 z 15). Pozostałych 4 radnych wybierają mieszkańcy terenów wiejskich gminy Nowe Warpno. Organem wykonawczym jest burmistrz. Siedzibą władz jest budynek przy placu Zwycięstwa. +Mieszkańcy Nowego Warpna wybierają parlamentarzystów z okręgu wyborczego Szczecin, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. +Kubki smakowe + +Kubki smakowe - zbiorowiska receptorów smaku (każdy skupia ich od 50 do 150). +Kubki smakowe rozmieszczone są na języku, podniebieniu, w nabłonku gardła, nagłośni oraz w górnej części przełyku. Dodatkowo kubki smakowe zlokalizowane na języku skupiają się w widocznych wybrzuszeniach, tzw. brodawkach. Liczba kubków u dorosłego człowieka waha się w granicach 10000. Dostarczają one informacji o czterech podstawowych rodzajach smaku: słodki, słony, kwaśny, gorzki. W 2001 roku odkryto również receptory wykrywające tak zwany "piąty smak" - umami. Niektóre z nich ulegają zniszczeniu już po 10 dniach, lecz na ich miejscu pojawiają się nowe. Zwiększają swoją wrażliwość u kobiet ciężarnych. Wrażliwość na różne smaki, zwłaszcza gorzki i słodki jest uwarunkowana genetycznie, a więc odmienna u każdego człowieka. +Ostrogniew + +Ostrogniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Ostro-" ("ostry") i "-gniew" ("gniew"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, którego gniew jest gwałtowny". +Hormizdas + +Hormizdas – święty Kościoła katolickiego, papież w okresie od 20 lipca 514 do 6 sierpnia 523. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Frosinone i był Italczykiem. Przed wyborem na papieża był żonaty i miał syna, który w 536 sam wstąpił na tron papieski jako Sylweriusz. Po śmierci żony Hormizdas przyjął święcenia diakonatu. +Za jego pontyfikatu zmarł wieloletni cesarz Bizancjum Anastazjusz (518). Nowym cesarzem wybrano Justyna, który wraz ze swoim przyszłym następcą Justynianem postanowił rozprawić się z herezją ariańską. Na życzenie cesarza Justyniana, papież ułożył formułę wiary zgodną z tą z soboru w Chalcedonie, co zakończyło okres schizmy akacjańskiej. Licząc na podniesienie prestiżu papiestwa w Kościołach wschodnich Hormizdas doprowadził do ugody i podpisania tzw. "Formuły Hormizdasa" w 519. W "Formule" podkreślono, że Kościół rzymski zawsze sprzeciwiał się herezji. +Jako święty papież Hormizdas przedstawiany jest z wielbłądem, w młodym wieku. Uważany był za patrona służby stajennej. Zmarł 6 sierpnia 523 roku i został pochowany w Bazylice Św. Piotra. +Wspomnienie liturgiczne przypada 6 sierpnia. +Jeff Hanneman + +Jeff Hanneman (ur. 31 stycznia 1964 w Oakland) - gitarzysta grupy thrashmetalowej Slayer. +Jego ojciec walczył w Normandii w 1944 i zaraził syna zamiłowaniem do kolekcjonowania pamiątek po nazistach. Hobby to sprawiło, że Jeff Hanneman jest autorem jednego z najbardziej znanych utworów thrashmetalowych, opowiadającego o Josefie Mengele "Angel of Death" zamieszczonego na płycie Reign in Blood. W 2004 roku muzyk wraz z Kerrym Kingiem został sklasyfikowany na 10. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych gitarzystów heavymetalowych wszech czasów według magazynu Guitar World. +Od 2011 roku muzyk przechodzi rehabilitację po ukąszeniu pająka, które było przyczyną martwiczego zapalenia powięzi. Hannemana w zespole Slayer zastąpił Gary Holt z formacji Exodus. Okazjonalnie jako drugi gitarzysta w miejsce Holta występował Pat O'Brien znany z występów w deathmetalowym kwintecie Cannibal Corpse. +Instrumentarium. +Gitary i przetworniki +Wzmacniacze i kolumny głośnikowe +Efekty +Struny gitarowe +Chwytacz + +Chwytacz to urządzenie mechaniczne służące do zatrzymania kabiny lub przeciwagi dźwigu w przypadku przekroczenia +dopuszczalnej prędkości jazdy spowodowane spadkiem swobodnym. Dźwigi najczęściej wyposaża się w układ dwóch chwytaczy. +Obłuże + +Obłuże (kaszb."Òblëżé") – północna dzielnica mieszkaniowa Gdyni, zamieszkana przez ok. 20 tysięcy mieszkańców. Dawniej wieś o tej samej nazwie przyłączona do Gdyni w 1933. +Etymologia. +Wykopaliska prowadzone na Obłużu potwierdzają historię osadnictwa tego rejonu od epoki żelaza (kultura wschodniopomorska, kultura oksywska). Możliwe jest zatem, że nazwa ukształtowała się w języku wenetyjskim a następnie była przekształcana do języka kaszubskiego i języka polskiego. +Położenie. +Od wschodu i zachodu Obłuże graniczy z innymi dzielnicami Gdyni: Babimi Dołami, Oksywiem (obie wschód) i Pogórzem (zachód). Od południa zaś sąsiaduje z terenami przemysłowymi i portowymi, od północy z Gminą Kosakowo. Dzielnica położona jest na wysoczyźnie morenowej zwanej Kępą Oksywską. Południowa część zabudowana jest blokami mieszkalnymi, natomiast część wysuniętą na północ zajmują rozległe ogródki działkowe (prawie połowa powierzchni dzielnicy). +Niewielką część powierzchni dzielnicy pokrywa las (głównie sosny, rzadziej drzewa liściaste). Na terenie Starego Obłuża znajduje się niewielki staw, stąd druga nazwa tego obszaru. +Rys historyczny. +Na początku lat 90. tereny wokół stawu, dotychczas wykorzystywane m.in. jako pastwisko dla krów przez sąsiadujące dospodarstwo, przekształcono w nowoczesny teren rekreacyjny. Obecnie znajduje się tam m.in. boisko do koszykówki, duży plac zabaw dla dzieci, mały skatepark oraz duża scena, gdzie odbywają się występy w czasie organizowanych kilka razy do roku festynów. +Zabudowa. +Do połowy lat 70. XX w. przeważała niska zabudowa jednorodzinna skupiona w centralnej części dzielnicy. Wzdłuż głównych ulic występowały również kamienice wielorodzinne. W latach 70. zaczęły powstawać nowe osiedla mieszkaniowe, budowane technologiami OWT-67 i W-70, składające się z budynków 5- i 11-kodygnacyjnych. Tak powstały osiedla Obłuże Leśne, Obłuże Górne i część wschodnia dzielnicy obejmująca część Kaczego Dołu oraz Obłuże Nowe. Największy budynek w Gdyni zbudowany technologią W-70 (11-kondygnacyjny, 12-klatkowy, 272 mieszkania) znajduje się przy ul. Krawieckiej na Obłużu (tzw. "szafa"). Do dzisiaj większość mieszkańców Obłuża mieszka w lokalach wybudowanych w tym okresie, a technologia W-70 jest dominująca. +Większość budynków wielorodzinnych oraz usługowo-handlowych wybudowała Robotnicza Spółdzielnia Mieszkaniowa im. Komuny Paryskiej. Według danych z 31 grudnia 2006 w jej posiadaniu na Obłużu znajduje się 6068 lokali o łącznej powierzchni 306128,39 m². +Komunikacja. +Na Obłużu bierze początek Trasa im. Eugeniusza Kwiatkowskiego, której ukończenie połączyło bezpośrednio Obłuże z drogą ekspresową S6 a dalej z płatną autostradą A1. +Główne ulice. +Przejazd przez Obłuże jest jedyną możliwością dostania się drogą lądową do Oksywia i Babich Dołów. Jest również najchętniej wybieraną możliwością dostania się do Pogórza Dolnego i Górnego z innych dzielnic Gdyni. +Kościoły. +Na terenie Obłuża działa parafialny kościół rzymskokatolicki pw. św. Andrzeja Boboli (pl. św. Andrzeja Boboli 1). Działalność rozpoczął w 1938, a dekret określający granice nowej parafii Obłuże został wydany 30 stycznia 1939. Wcześniej Obłuże należało do parafii Oksywie. Przy kościele znajduje się cmentarz parafialny oraz Zespół Szkół Katolickich im. Jana Pawła II w Gdyni. Aktualnym proboszczem parafii jest ks. kanonik mgr lic. Sławomir Decowski, który pełni tę funkcję od 6 lutego 2011 roku. +Konstantyn V Kopronim + +Konstantyn V Kopronim (ur. 718, zm. 14 września 775) – od 741 cesarz bizantyjski z dynastii izauryjskiej. Jeden z największych obrazoburców bizantyńskich. Przydomek Kopronim ("kopros" - łajno, "onoma" - imię) został mu nadany przez nieprzychylnych ikonoklastom historyków. +Konstantyn V był synem Leona III i jego żony Marii. Już w wieku dwóch lat 31 marca 720 roku został współcesarzem. Był nerwowy, niezrównoważony, namiętny, trapiony dolegliwościami, odważny, a zarazem okrutny dla przeciwników religijnych. Miał też talent dowódcy wojskowego. Pod niektórymi względami przerastał swojego ojca. Sytuacja na początku jego panowania nie była sprzyjająca. W czerwcu 742 roku nowy cesarz ruszył na wyprawę przeciw Arabom. Podczas przemarszu przez tem Opsikon, strategos tego temu Artabasdes napadł i pobił armię Konstantyna. Był to mąż Anny, siostry Konstantyna. To właśnie Artabasdes poparł Leona III, gdy był jeszcze uzurpatorem. Teraz sam ogłosił się cesarzem. W stolicy otworzono przed uzurpatorem bramy. W Konstantynopolu patriarcha Anastazjusz koronował Artabasdesa na cesarza. Nowy cesarz uczynił swojego starszego syna Nicefora współcesarzem, a młodszego Nicetasa naczelnym wodzem armii. Artabasdes zniósł też ikonoklazm. Tymczasem Konstantyn schronił się w Amorion u starych stronników ojca. W obawie przed uzurpatorem poparły Konstantyna temy Anatolikon i Trakesion. Uzurpatora poparły temy, gdzie strategosem był Armeniakon i Opsikon. Szerokie poparcie zyskał też w europejskich prowincjach cesarstwa na czele z temem Tracją. Ikonoklazm był tam znienawidzony. Artabasdes postanowił pokonać Konstantyna, lecz 27 maja 743 roku został pokonany pod Sardes. Wojska syna Artabasdesa zostały rozbite niedaleko Modryny. Wkrótce prawowity cesarz stanął we wrześniu 743 roku pod murami stolicy. Po krótkim oblężeniu Konstantyn 2 listopada wkroczył do stolicy. Uzurpator i jego dwaj synowie zostali ośmieszeni na hipodromie, a następnie oślepieni. Patriarcha Anastazjusz został też upokorzony jazdą na ośle głową do ogona, ale pozostał patriarchą. Stronnikom uzurpatora amputowano stopy lub dłonie, albo stracono. Tak skończyła się trwająca 16 miesięcy uzurpacja Artabasdesa, uznanego w Rzymie przez papieża za legalnego cesarza. W 746 roku cesarz wkroczył do Syrii, zajmując miasto Germanikeę, miejsce urodzenia ojca. Rok później flota arabska z Aleksandrii została pokonana w pobliżu Cypru. Te świetne zwycięstwo i późniejsze triumfy cesarza nie były spowodowane tylko świetnym talentem dowódczym Konstantyna. W 750 roku po długiej wojnie domowej w kalifacie nastąpiła zmiana dynastii. Omajjadów zastąpili Abbasydzi. Stolicę przeniesiono z Damaszku do Bagdadu, a kalifat zaczął powoli się rozpadać na małe państwa. Arabowie nie byli już groźną potęgą. +Cesarz fortyfikacjami zabezpieczył sobie granicę z Bułgarią. Uważał ją za przyszłego wroga Bizancjum i nie mylił się. Konstantyn koncentrował swoją uwagę na Bułgarach i Arabach, lecz nie na Longobardach. W 751 roku zdobyli oni ostatecznie Rawennę. Papież Stefan II wiedział, że nie może liczyć na pomoc cesarza. Spotkał się więc 6 stycznia 751 roku w Ponthion w Galii z królem Franków Pepinem Krótkim. Prosił tam o pomoc przed Longobardami zagrażającymi Rzymowi. Pepin pobił Longobardów w 756 roku, a dawne ziemie bizantyńskiego egzarchatu Rawenny przekazał papieżowi. W ten sposób powstało państwo kościelne, a cesarstwo straciło północną Italię. Konstantyn był o wiele bardziej zajęty wojnami przeciwko Arabom. W roku 752 odniósł zwycięską wyprawę przeciwko nim. +Na synodzie w Hierei (jeden z pałaców w azjatyckiej części Konstantynopola) (754) zakazał przechowywania i wytwarzania jakichkolwiek dzieł sztuki związanych z kultem chrześcijańskim. Synod w Hierei był wstępem do szeroko zakrojonej akcji niszczenia dzieł przedstawiających postaci świętych, św. Trójcy etc., z kościołów wyrywano ściany z mozaikami, palono ilustrowane księgi, dziesiątki klasztorów zamieniono w składy broni i koszary, tysiące mnichów przymusowo ożeniono z byłymi nierządnicami. W 752 wznowił ekspansje Bizancjum w kierunku Armenii i Mezopotamii. Natomiast w 763 roku pokonał Bułgarów pod Anchialos. W celu umocnienia północnych granic zbudował system twierdz i starał się podporządkować Bizancjum sąsiadujące z Bułgarią słowiańskie plemiona zamieszkujące Macedonię. Jego plany podboju Bułgarii nie powiodły się ze względu na jego śmierć podczas kolejnej wyprawy do Bułgarii w 775 roku. +Takt (obyczaje) + +Takt – zachowanie eleganckie i delikatne, spełniające nie tylko zasady dobrego wychowania, ale także zmierzające do nieurażania uczuć innych ludzi, biorące pod uwagę specyfikę sytuacji, oznaczające się swoistą estetyką, adekwatne do okoliczności. +Justyn II (cesarz bizantyński) + +Justyn II, "Flavius Iustinus Iunior Augustus" (ur. ok. 520, zm. 5 października 578) – cesarz bizantyjski od 565 do 578 roku. +Był siostrzeńcem cesarza Justyniana I. Jego żoną była Zofia, siostrzenica ostatniej cesarzowej - Teodory, należącej do dynastii justyniańskiej. Żonie oraz przychylności Kallinika, przełożonego cesarskiej sypialni, zawdzięczał tron. Wcześniej był marszałkiem dworu (pełnił urząd zwany "cura palatii"). W latach 551-552 wchodził w skład cesarskiej komisji prowadzącej rozmowy z papieżem Wigiliuszem. +Rządy Justyna II upłynęły pod znakiem wojen z Persją, podczas których zniszczono bogatą prowincję Syrię. W 575 r. doszło do bitwy pod Melitene, prawdopodobnie największej w dziejach Bizancjum wieku VI. Cesarz utracił również ogromne obszary we Włoszech na rzecz ariańskich Longobardów. Na załamaniu się bizantyjskiego władztwa w Italii skorzystali biskupi rzymscy, odtąd znów faktyczni panowie miasta. Na północy imperium armie Justyna musiały walczyć z Awarami, z Hiszpanii stopniowo wyperali Bizantyjczyków Wizygoci, w Afryce doszło do rebelii Maurów. Zostawił Justyn państwo uszczuplone terytorialnie i osłabione. W polityce wewnętrznej cesarz usiłował doprowadzić do zgody z monofizytami, kiedy jednak ugodowa polityka religijna nie przynosiła spodziewanych rezultatów, wznowił prześladowania. Po ogromnych wydatkach Justyniana próbował przywrócić równowagę budżetową, jak też podołać ciężarom licznych wojen, dlatego zarzucano mu wzmożenie ucisku fiskalnego. +Z powodu pogłębiającej się choroby psychicznej, Justyn zmuszony był wyznaczyć swojego następcę, który pomógłby mu w sprawowaniu rządów. Za radą swojej żony, pominął wszystkich swoich krewnych i wybrał generała Tyberiusza, mianując go cezarem w grudniu 574. Zofia i Tyberiusz rządzili razem jako regenci przez 4 lata, podczas kiedy choroba Justyna ciągle się pogłębiała. +Cep bojowy + +Cep bojowy - broń drzewcowa używana w średniowieczu podobna do zwykłego cepa, ale zakończona żelazną sztabą lub kolcami często połączonymi z rękojeścią łańcuchem. Używana przez piechotę do XVI wieku. Często wykorzystywana w powstaniach chłopskich w XVII wieku. +Przedstawiony na rysunku dębowy cep był używany do XVII wieku przez mieszczan do obrony murów miejskich. Miał on dzierżak o średnicy 5 cm i długości 180 cm. Bijak długości 70 cm był zestrugany na kształt ośmiokątny i wzdłuż całej długości okuty czterema stalowymi sztabkami. Każda z nich była przytwierdzona do bijaka dwunastoma ćwiekami. Duże łby tych ćwieków zwiększały siłę rażenia cepa. Dzierżak był podobnie okuty na górnej połowie swej długości. Gęzwa (ruchome połączenia dzierżaka z bijakiem) cepa bojowego była wykonana z metalu. +W Chinach używano podobnej broni zwanej "samjiegun" (trzyczęściowy kostur, po japońsku "sansetsukon" - 三節棍), wykonanego z trzech drewnianych części (od 60 cm do blisko metra) połączonych krótkim łańcuchem (ok. 6 cm). Dzisiaj naucza się walki takim cepem w wielu szkołach wushu (kung-fu) na całym świecie. Również w Japonii i Okinawie stosowano cepy bojowe - nunchaku i chigiriki. Najczęściej składało się ono z 30-centymetrowych pałek połączonych łańcuchem lub sznurem. Istniały też różne inne wersje, np. z czterema pałkami, z jedną krótszą itp. Obecnie walki tymi typami broni naucza się w sztuce walki kobudō. +W innych językach często nie ma rozróżnienia między cepem bojowym a kiścieniem. +Toki pona + +Toki pona (po tokipońsku "toki pona" znaczy "dobry język" albo "prosty język") jest sztucznym językiem stworzonym przez kanadyjską tłumaczkę i lingwistkę Sonję Elen Kisa. Pierwszy raz zaprezentowany został w połowie 2001. +Toki pona jest uproszczonym językiem, stawiającym na proste pojęcia i elementy obecne w wielu kulturach. Został stworzony do szybkiego przekazania obszernej treści w nieskomplikowany sposób. Składa się z 14 głosek i 118 wyrazów. Nie został jednak opracowany jako pomocniczy język międzynarodowy, lecz był zainspirowany m.in przez filozofię taoizmu. +Język ten miał wpłynąć na sposób myślenia swoich użytkowników, został opracowany dla zademonstrowania prawdziwości hipotezy Sapira-Whorfa. +Przykładowy tekst (Ojcze Nasz) +Społeczność międzynarodowa + +Społeczność międzynarodowa to w najszerszym ujęciu społeczeństwo całej Ziemi traktowane jako podmiot stosunków społecznych i politycznych. Często używanym jej synonimem jest określenie opinia publiczna. +W ujęciu prawa międzynarodowego członkami społeczności międzynarodowej nie są poszczególni ludzie, lecz podmioty prawa międzynarodowego. Lista tych podmiotów jest sporna. W ujęciu wąskim zdaniem niektórych są to tylko państwa lub państwa i organizacje międzynarodowe międzyrządowe. W ujęciu niezwykle szerokim przyznaje się podmiotowość międzynarodową także wszystkim innym organizacjom międzynarodowym, osobom prawnym i fizycznym oraz jednostkom zbiorowym bez osobowości prawnej. +Definicyjnie rzecz ujmując społeczność międzynarodowa w znaczeniu węższym to - ogół państw suwerennych, utrzymujących stosunki wzajemne, które to stosunki regulowane są przez prawo międzynarodowe. Natomiast społeczność międzynarodowa w znaczeniu szerszym to - społeczność międzynarodowa w znaczeniu węższym oraz niesuwerenne podmioty, czyli wszyscy uczestnicy stosunków międzynarodowych, którzy wyposażeni są w zdolność do działań w płaszczyźnie międzynarodowej, których prawa i obowiązki są określone przez prawo międzynarodowe. +Kwestia podmiotowości międzynarodowej osób fizycznych jest bardzo sporna. Na jednostkach ciążą bowiem od pewnego czasu zarówno obowiązki (jak zakaz popełniania zbrodni wojennych, przeciwko ludzkości, ludobójstwa czy zakaz piractwa oraz odpowiedzialność za ich złamanie) jak i prawa (głównie składania petycji i skarg do sądów międzynarodowych) regulowane prawem międzynarodowym. +Ahmed Nazif + +Ahmed Nazif (arab. أحمد نظيف; ur. 8 lipca 1952 w Aleksandrii) - egipski polityk i informatyk, minister komunikacji i techniki informacyjnej w latach 1999-2004, premier Egiptu od 14 lipca 2004 do 29 stycznia 2011. +Biografia. +Ahmed Nazif w 1969 ukończył "El Nasr Boys' School" w Aleksandrii. W 1973 ukończył studia licencjackie na Wydziale Elektroniki i Komunikacji Uniwersytetu Kairskiego. W 1976, również na tej uczelni, zdobył tytuł magistra inżynierii elektrycznej. W 1983 uzyskał doktorat za badania w dziedzinie inżynierii komputerowej na Uniwersytecie McGill w Kanadzie. Po powrocie do kraju wykładał na Uniwersytecie Kairskim, na którym w 1994 otrzymał tytuł profesora. +Ahmed Nazif zajmował wiele eksperckich stanowisk w różnych organizacjach i prywatnych firmach. Był dyrektorem Biura Towarzystwa Prawodawstwa i Rozwoju Systemów Informacyjnych (LADIS), dyrektorem "Data Bank Company", a także członkiem zarządu Przedsiębiorstwa Systemów Informacji Medycznych (MEDYS). +W latach 1985-1999 pracował w Centrum Wspierania Technik Informacyjnych i Decyzyjnych (IDSC, "Information and Decision Support Centre") w Kairze. Zajmował odpowiednio stanowisko konsultanta ds. systemów informacyjnych (1985-1988), menedżera ds. źródeł informacyjnych (1988-1989), dyrektora wykonawczego (1989-1996) oraz wicedyrektora rady doradczej (1996-1999). W tym czasie nadzorował wprowadzanie projektów IT w różnych ministerstwach i agencjach. Był również odpowiedzialny za komputeryzację programu produkcji i wydawania dowodów tożsamości. +5 października 1999 objął stanowisko ministra komunikacji i techniki informacyjnej w gabinecie premiera Atefa Ebeida. Jako minister rozwijał w kraju narodowy plan komunikacji i technik informacyjnych, który w 2003 został przekształcony w Inicjatywę Egipskiego Społeczeństwa Informacyjnego. Prowadził działania zmierzające do rozwoju i liberalizacji działania sektora IT. Opracował plan budowy bezpłatnej sieci internetowej. Skutkiem jego działań było zwiększenie się liczby użytkowników linii telefonicznych, abonentów telefonów komórkowych i użytkowników internetu. Z jego inicjatywy został również utworzony "Nile Technological University". +Premier. +9 lipca 2004 prezydent Hosni Mubarak powierzył Ahmedowi Nazifowi misję sformowania rządu, po tym jak do dymisji podał się premier Ebeid. 14 lipca 2004 Nazif, wraz ze swoim gabinetem, został zaprzysiężony na stanowisku. +27 września 2005 premier Nazif przedstawił rezygnację swojego gabinetu, co umożliwiło prezydentowi rozpisanie wyborów parlamentarnych. 31 grudnia 2005 powtórnie stanął na czele egipskiego rządu. Rząd Nazifa w dużej mierze składał się z technokratów. Wśród jego dokonań można wymienić wprowadzenie nowego prawa podatkowego, obniżenie ceł, redukcję inflacji, liberalizację prawa prasowego oraz reformę konstytucji. +28 stycznia 2011 prezydent Hosni Mubarak zapowiedział dymisję egipskiego rządu, co miało być odpowiedzią na protesty społeczne przeciwko jego władzy. 29 stycznia 2011 rząd Nazifa został zdymisjonowany, a nowym premierem został mianowany Ahmad Szafik. +Zasada najmniejszego działania + +Zasada najmniejszego działania – sformułowana przez Pierre Louis Maupertuisa zasada mówiąca, że w fizyce klasycznej (porównaj: fizyka kwantowa) fizycznie realizowane tory cząstek minimalizują pewien funkcjonał zwany działaniem +Zastosowanie metody znajdowania minimum funkcjonału prowadzi do równań Eulera-Lagrange'a. +Zasada najmniejszego działania jest przykładem tak zwanego podejścia teleologicznego. Prowadzi ono do opisu zachowania się układu w sposób, w którym zachowanie się układu w kolejnych chwilach "t"0 <"t"1 <"t"2...  zależy nie tylko od zachowania się układu w chwilach wcześniejszych, ale także od zachowania się układu w chwili np. formula_2 i wszelkich innych późniejszych. Jak się okazuje, przy dosyć ogólnych założeniach, opis taki jest równoważny opisowi za pomocą równań Eulera-Lagrange'a (choć nie w każdych warunkach), a więc równań różniczkowych, w których układ opisywany jest w sposób deterministyczny (przyczynowy) i w którym zachowanie się układu w chwili "t" zależy wyłącznie od zachowania się układu w chwilach wcześniejszych i, co więcej, tylko dla infinitezymalnie krótkich czasów "dt". +Autostop + +Autostop – forma turystyki lub podróżowania, polegająca na przemieszczaniu się przygodnie zatrzymanymi pojazdami. +Akcja Autostop w Polsce. +W Polsce autostop został formalnie zalegalizowany i jednocześnie częściowo sformalizowany i zinstytucjonalizowany w 1957. Polegało to na tym, że biura turystyczne na początku sezonu wakacyjnego sprzedawały chętnym specjalne książeczki autostopowe w formie małych zeszycików, wewnątrz których znajdowały się kupony, które osoba podróżująca autostopem zostawiała kierowcy. Każdy kupon miał wydrukowaną liczbę kilometrów i zamierzeniem organizatorów "Akcji Autostop" było zachęcenie kierowców do zabierania autostopowiczów i gromadzenia kuponów. Kierowcy zebrane kupony (po wpisaniu swoich danych) mogli odsyłać biurom turystycznym, gdzie odbywało się losowanie nagród. +Osoby zamierzające podróżować po Polsce w ramach tej akcji oprócz książeczki autostopu z kuponami (służyła ona także do zatrzymywania kierowców i była symbolem akcji - na okładce wydrukowany był czerwony okrąg na białym tle, podobny do policyjnego "lizaka") uzyskiwali ubezpieczenie od następstw nieszczęśliwych wypadków. Warunkiem udziału w akcji było przedstawienie dokumentu tożsamości (niepełnoletni okazywali legitymację szkolną oraz zgodę rodziców) oraz wystawionej na swoje nazwisko książeczki oszczędnościowej z dwustuzłotowym wkładem. Ten drugi warunek służyć miał zapewnieniu wędrującemu po kraju autostopowiczowi minimum środków utrzymania przez wakacje. Cena książeczki z kuponami i ubezpieczeniem nie była nadmiernie wysoka, wynosiła (w 1972) 45 ówczesnych złotych. +Na koniec sezonu kierowcy mogli przesłać kupony do biura organizatorów; ten z nich, który zgromadził kupony na największą ilość kilometrów wygrywał i otrzymywał jakąś cenną nagrodę, inne nagrody rozlosowywano pomiędzy pozostałymi uczestnikami akcji. "Akcja Autostop" w tej zinstytucjonalizowanej formie cieszyła się w Polsce dużym powodzeniem do końca lat siedemdziesiątych. Później popularność tej formy gwałtownie spadła, ale książeczki można było nabywać do 1995 r. +Autostop współcześnie. +Obecnie coraz bardziej popularny staje się carpooling, czyli kojarzenie ze sobą kierowcy i pasażera jadących na tej samej trasie przy pomocy specjalnie do tego celu stworzonych serwisów internetowych. +W niektórych miejscach na świecie jazda autostopem (ang. "hitchhiking") jest zabroniona – ma to miejsce np. w wybranych stanach USA, gdzie zakaz może być całkowity lub też warunkowy (np. w pobliżu więzień). +W Polsce zabronione jest zatrzymywanie samochodów bezpośrednio na autostradach, jednak można to robić będąc w zgodzie z przepisami przed wjazdami na autostradę oraz na stacjach benzynowych czy parkingach. Zabronione jest również zatrzymywanie aut będąc pod wpływem alkoholu, oraz robienie tego w sposób zagrażający bezpieczeństwu na drodze. +Od kilkunastu lat w Polsce są organizowane Międzynarodowe Mistrzostwa Autostopowe. Corocznie bierze w nich udział około 300 uczestników. Dotychczas meta była m.in. w Rydze, Splicie, Monachium i Lwowie. +Bibliografia. +Jakub Czupryński (zebrał i opracował), "Autostop polski. PRL i współczesność", wyd. Korporacja Ha!art, Kraków 2005, ISBN 83-89911-18-3 +Maj 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Koncert Petera Gabriela w Poznaniu +George Clooney + +George Timothy Clooney (ur. 6 maja 1961 w Lexington) – amerykański aktor, reżyser, scenarzysta i producent filmowy. Laureat Oscara za rolę w filmie "Syriana" oraz Złotego Globu za "Syrianę" oraz rolę w filmie "Bracie, gdzie jesteś?" braci Coen. +Studiował na Northern Kentucky University oraz aktorstwo w The Beverly Hills Playhouse. Pochodzi z rodziny o tradycjach aktorskich. Ojciec, Nick Clooney, dziennikarz telewizyjny i kandydat demokratów do Izby Reprezentantów z Kentucky w 2004, prowadził talk show "The Nick Clooney Show". Tam właśnie Clooney debiutował jako pięcioletnie dziecko. Ciotka, Rosemary Clooney, była żona aktora i reżysera José Ferrera, była piosenkarką jazzową, a także aktorką, pojawiającą się m.in. w "Ostrym dyżurze". Ich syn, kuzyn i przyjaciel Clooneya, aktor Miguel Ferrer, zaprosił George'a w 1982 do zagrania niewielkiej roli filmowej i przekonał do podjęcia pracy aktora i osiedlenia się w Kalifornii. +Na swoją wielką szansę Clooney czekał prawie 10 lat. Początkowo grywał nieduże role w produkcjach telewizyjnych, m.in. "The Facts of Life", "Roseanne", "Sunset Beat", "Baby Talk", "Bodies of Evidence", "Sisters". Przełomem w karierze okazała się rola doktora Rossa w bardzo popularnym serialu "Ostry dyżur" (1994-2005), która zapewniła mu popularność, dwie nominacje do nagrody Emmy i wiele intratnych propozycji filmowych. +W latach 1989-1993 był żonaty z aktorką Talią Balsam. +Od 2002 ma posiadłość w Laglio nad jeziorem Como we Włoszech. +Czekan (broń) + +Czekan – drzewcowa broń obuchowo-sieczna składająca się z długiego trzonka zakończonego siekierką, zwykle niewielkich rozmiarów, nieco podobna do ciupagi. Od topora bojowego czekan różni się bardziej delikatnym, wąskim żeleźcem, wydatnym, młotkowatym obuchem i zwykle dłuższym styliskiem. +W Europie czekany pojawiły się w epoce brązu. Charakteryzowały się wydatnym młoteczkiem obucha i zwykle bogatymi linearnymi i geometrycznymi zdobieniami. Szczególnie popularne były na terenach Europy Wschodniej i Środkowej (m.in. w kulturze unietyckiej). Poza Europą były bronią popularną wśród koczowniczych jeźdźców Wielkiego Stepu. +W okresie średniowiecza nadal używane, choć wypierane przez cięższe topory bojowe i miecze. +Od XVI w. stają się znów popularne w krajach mających bliskie kontakty z Turcją, głównie na Węgrzech i w Polsce. +Do XVIII wieku w czekany była uzbrojona jazda polska. W czekanach typowo bojowych młotek obucha często był dodatkowo karbowany, by zapobiec ześlizgnięciu się przy uderzeniu w zbroję przeciwnika. +W XVI – XVIII w. czekany (zwane także po staropolsku "obuszkami") wraz z nadziakami były chętnie noszone przez polską szlachtę, stanowiąc codzienną broń, często wykorzystywaną w czasie awantur sejmikowych i bijatyk. +Metamorfizm + +Metamorfizm – jest to zespół procesów prowadzących do zmiany skał, tekstury, struktury, składu mineralnego oraz chemicznego. Typowym środowiskiem metamorfizmu jest wnętrze skorupy ziemskiej, może on wystąpić również na powierzchni Ziemi. Należy mieć jednak na uwadze, że metamorfizmem nazywamy tylko przemiany zachodzące w stanie stałym. +Wydzielono trzy strefy natężenia stopnia metamorfizmu. Epizona - najsłabszy stopień, mezozona - średni stopień, katazona - najwyższy stopień metamorfizmu. Ponadto wydzielono także określone facje (zespoły) minerałów określonych dla danego stopnia, oraz rodzaju przeobrażeń → facje metamorfizmu. +Scena + +Scena – przestrzeń (podwyższenie) w budynku teatralnym przeznaczone dla wystawiania utworów, usytuowana powyżej widowni i oddzielona od niej kurtyną, odpowiednio wyposażona pod względem technicznym, stanowiąca miejsce gry aktorów. Część sceny wysunięta przed kurtynę nosi nazwę proscenium. +W okresie średniowiecza stosowano sceny zbudowane z kilku pawiloników o ażurowych ściankach tzw. "mansjony", w nich kolejno, rozgrywała się akcja przedstawienia. Widz przez cały czas widział dekoracje potrzebne do odegrania całego przedstawienia. Do symultanicznego odgrywania sztuk aranżowano też scenę celkową (terencjańską). Do ustawianej na podium stałej ścianki dostawiano prostopadle przegrody tworząc szereg pawilonów zwanych "celkami". W odróżnieniu od mansjonów celki, w których nie rozgrywano w danej chwili akcji były zasłonięte. +W okresie renesansu, po ponownym odkryciu dramatów greckich, zaprzestano symultanicznego sposobu przedstawiania akcji. Wprowadzono ruchome dekoracje, na których tle rozgrywały się poszczególne sceny. Przed i po przedstawieniu scena zasłaniana była kurtyną. Stosowano też scenę obrotową i zapadnie. +Ostrobod + +Ostrobod – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Ostro-" ("ostry") i "-bod" ("kłuć, uderzać czymś ostrym, bóść"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, którego ciosy są dotkliwe". +Bataliony Chłopskie + +Bataliony Chłopskie (BCh) – oddziały zbrojne polskiego ruchu ludowego w latach 1940–1945. +Historia. +Początkowo ruch ludowy nie tworzył własnej organizacji wojskowej, kierując swoich członków do Związku Walki Zbrojnej. Jednak wzrost wpływów sanacyjnych i piłsudczykowskich wśród kadry kierowniczej ZWZ, utworzenie przez konkurencyjne stronnictwa polityczne i umacnianie się w terenie NOW oraz Gwardii Ludowej WRN, a także chęć zdobycia dominującej pozycji przez ruch ludowy, tak w okresie okupacji, jak i w momencie wyzwolenia kraju i kształtowania jego modelu polityczno-gospodarczego, który miał być oparty na zasadach agraryzmu, spowodował zmianę stanowiska Centralnego Kierownictwa Ruchu Ludowego w kwestii sformowania własnej organizacji wojskowej. +Organizacja utworzona została w sierpniu 1940 jako „Chłopska Straż” kryptonim konspiracyjny „Chłostra”. +Utworzenie „Chłostry”, a następnie masowe przechodzenie do niej ludowców z szeregów ZWZ spotkało się z ostrą krytyką Komendy Głównej ZWZ. Ponieważ jej porządkowo-policyjne zadania i nazwa nie spełniały aspiracji działaczy ruchu ludowego, wiosną 1941 z inicjatywy działaczy okręgu kieleckiego nazwa formacji została przemianowana na Bataliony Chłopskie, chociaż formalnie zatwierdzona oficjalnie przez KG BCh zmiana nazwy nastąpiła dopiero w maju 1944. Organizacja była zbrojnym ramieniem Stronnictwa Ludowego – członkowie SL i ZMW oraz częściowo działacze CZMW "Siew" stanowili trzon organizacji. Zwierzchnictwo nad nią na szczeblu centralnym sprawowało Centralne Kierownictwo Ruchu Ludowego reprezentowane przez Józefa Niećkę, a w terenie okręgowe, obwodowe, rejonowe, gminne i gromadzkie trójki SL -„Roch”. Do organizacji wstępowali głównie mieszkańcy wsi, nie posiadała ona natomiast oddziałów bojowych w wielkich miastach. Komendantem głównym od 8 października 1940 do końca wojny był Franciszek Kamiński. Inicjatorem powołania BCh a później zwierzchnikiem z ramienia Centralnego Kierownictwa Ruchu Ludowego „Roch” był Józef Niećko „Zgrzebniak”. Szefem sztabu Komendy Głównej był Kazimierz Banach „Kamil”. Centralny organ prasowy BCh nosił nazwę „Żywią i bronią”. Negatywnie nastawiona do Narodowych Sił Zbrojnych, które obarczała za napady na chłopów. +Walka. +W 1944 BCh liczyły ok. 160 tys. żołnierzy, będąc drugą co do wielkości formacją konspiracyjną w Polsce. Głównym celem BCh była obrona ludności polskiej wsi przed terrorem okupacyjnym oraz eksploatacją gospodarczą. Do najważniejszych akcji BCh należą walki w obronie pacyfikowanej Zamojszczyzny w latach 1942–1943 zwłaszcza bitwy pod Wojdą i Zaborecznem pod dowództwem Franciszka Bartłomowicza oraz udział w wyzwoleniu tzw. Republiki Pińczowskiej pod dowództwem Jana Pszczoły (od 24 lipca do 12 sierpnia 1944). +Oddziały BCh w czerwcu 1944 wzięły udział w bitwach partyzanckich w lasach janowskich i lipskich oraz w Puszczy Solskiej – największej bitwie partyzanckiej na ziemiach polskich w czasie II wojny światowej. +W 1944 część oddziałów podporządkowała się, wbrew rozkazom, władzy PKWN i weszła w skład AL lub nawiązała z nią współpracę, a następnie zasilała na terenach wyzwolonych oddziały MO oraz LWP. Większość pozostała jednak wierna Rządowi RP w Londynie. W marcu 1945 roku rozkazem komendy głównej BCH zostały rozwiązane, a żołnierzom zalecono wstępowanie do ludowego Wojska Polskiego, choć decyzji tej nie poparły w pełni pozostające w konspiracji struktury polityczne SL. Uwięzienie 16 przywódców Polski podziemnej uniemożliwiło pełne wykonanie decyzji o rozwiązaniu aczkolwiek w konsekwencji rozwiązania BCh kilkadziesiąt tysięcy żołnierzy BCH za zgodą komendanta głównego BCH i przewodniczącego CKRL znalazło się w LWP i MO oraz lokalnej administracji terenowej. Formalne rozwiązywanie BCh zakończono we wrześniu 1945. +Struktura organizacyjna. +BCh obejmowały swoim zasięgiem prawie cały obszar II Rzeczypospolitej z wyjątkiem Pomorza oraz województw wileńskiego, nowogrodzkiego i poleskiego. Terenowa sieć organizacyjna składał się z okręgów (województwa), podokręgów, obwodów (powiatów), rejonów (kilku gmin), gmin i gromad. +Około 80% sił BCh koncentrowała się w okręgach: krakowskim, kieleckim, lubelskim i Warszawa województwo. +BCh składało się z oddziałów taktycznych (przeznaczonych w przyszłości do ogólnonarodowego powstania) podzielonych na sekcje, drużyny, plutony i kompanie i terytorialnych (prowadzących działalność dywersyjną na swoim terenie). W 1942 z oddziałów terytorialnych zaczęto tworzyć Oddziały Specjalne liczące od kilkunastu do kilkudziesięciu ludzi przeznaczone do prowadzenia walki bieżącej. Działało około 300 Oddziałów Specjalnych BCh. Samorzutnie powstały oddziały partyzanckie BCh. Największą aktywność wykazywały one w latach 1943–1944, działało wówczas ponad 70 oddziałów partyzanckich BCh. Najsilniejsze z oddziałów partyzanckich BCh liczyły po kilkuset żołnierzy. +W maju 1943 BCh podpisało umowę scaleniową z AK, faktycznie jednak scalenie nie zakończyło się do końca okupacji. Scaleniu z AK ulegały głównie oddziały taktyczne-zgodnie z umową scaleniową AK miały zostać przekazane wszystkie oddziały taktyczne skupiające około 115 tysięcy ludzi jednak wskutek konfliktów dotyczących głównie obsady stanowisk dowódczych ostatecznie przekazano AK około 51 tysięcy żołnierzy. Część żołnierzy BCh zasiliła Państwowy Korpus Bezpieczeństwa. Komenda BCh jesienią 1943 utworzyła także, nie podlegającą scaleniu z AK, Ludową Straż Bezpieczeństwa LSB. W jej skład której weszły głównie Oddziały Specjalne i oddziały partyzanckie. +International Police Association + +International Police Association – (IPA, Międzynarodowe Stowarzyszenie Policji) to organizacja skupiająca funkcjonariuszy i emerytów służb policyjnych z całego świata. Jej dewizą jest hasło w języku esperanto „Servo Per Amikeco” – "Służyć Poprzez Przyjaźń" a celem tworzenie autentycznych więzów przyjaźni i koleżeństwa zawodowego pomiędzy zatrudnionymi w służbach policyjnych na całym świecie. +Stowarzyszenie powstało w 1950 roku z inicjatywy angielskiego policjanta Arthura Troopa, polscy policjanci przystąpili do niego w 1992 roku. Dzisiaj jest to potężna międzynarodowa organizacja skupiająca ponad 60 krajów świata i kilkaset tysięcy członków. W każdym z krajów członkowskich działa jako sekcja narodowa – w Polsce jest to IPA Sekcja Polska. Najliczniejsze są sekcje narodowe w Niemczech ( 58 642 członków – dane z 2001), Austrii (33 630 członków), Izraelu (20 000 członków). W Polsce w końcu 2004 roku było 6 200 członków IPA. +Znakiem IPA jest gwiazda w wieńcu otaczająca kulę ziemską z napisem International Police Association. Symbolem tym mogą się posługiwać jedynie organizacje i członkowie IPA. Władze krajowe IPA reprezentowane są przez Prezydium Krajowego Zarządu na czele którego stoi Prezydent Sekcji Polskiej IPA, którym jest policjant Arkadiusz Skrzypczak . +W Polsce IPA podzielone jest na 17 Grup Wojewódzkich (16 województw plus grupa stołeczna). Każda z nich corocznie organizuje imprezy sportowe, w których uczestniczą policjanci z Polski i z zagranicy, organizuje wyjazdy zagraniczne połączone ze spotkaniami z lokalnymi przedstawicielami IPA i Policji. IPA Polska przyjmuje również wiele wycieczek policjantów zagranicznych, głównie z Europy ale również z Izraela i USA. +Obciągacz spinakerbomu + +Obciągacz spinakerbomu – urządzenie na jachcie lub łodzi, służące do utrzymywania spinakerbomu w wyznaczonej pozycji w płaszczyźnie poziomej. Na małych łódkach obciągaczem może być pojedyncza linka, na większych jednostkach może to być bardziej złożona talia. Obciągacz spinakerbomu zapobiega zbyt wysokiemu unoszeniu się tego drzewca, a dokładniej jego nawietrznego końca. +Agapit I + +Agapit I (łac. "Agapitus I" ur. w Rzymie, zm. 22 kwietnia 536 w Konstantynopolu) – święty Kościoła katolickiego i prawosławnego ("ros. Святитель Агапит, Папа Римский"), papież. +Jego pontyfikat przypadał w okresie od 13 maja 535 do 22 kwietnia 536. +Biografia. +Rzymianin, pochodził z rodu Anicjuszów, był synem kapłana Giordana i krewnym papieża Feliksa III. Po wyborze na papieża Agapit musiał ulec żądaniom króla Ostrogotów Atalaryka wypłaty wysokiej daniny. Wspólnie ze słynnym historykiem Kasjodorem papież zamierzał stworzyć w Rzymie wyższą uczelnię teologiczną, ale zanim do tego doszło następca Atalaryka, Teodahad, powierzył mu misję dyplomatyczną w Konstantynopolu. Agapit miał przekonać cesarza Justyniana do zaniechania kampanii wojennej przeciwko Gotom w Italii, czego jednak papieżowi nie udało się dokonać. +Według legendy w drodze do Konstantynopola miał spotkać kulawego i niemego człowieka, którego uzdrowił, a następnie po otrzymaniu komunii św. człowiek ów miał przemówić. W samym Konstantynopolu uzdrowić miał innego ślepego i ubogiego. Na zwołanym w owym czasie soborze w Konstantynopolu św. Agapit I miał ostro skrytykować heretyków z Północy (?), którzy twierdzili że Ciało Jezusa Chrystusa miało, podobnie jak każdego innego człowieka, ulec gniciu po śmierci. +W Konstantynopolu papież usunął patriarchę Antyma I, zwolennika monofizytyzmu, i mianował na jego miejsce Menasa. Nie powróciwszy do Rzymu Agapit zmarł w Konstantynopolu. +Kościół katolicki wspomina św. Agapita 22 kwietnia, natomiast Cerkiew prawosławna wspomina świętego papieża rzymskiego 17/30 kwietnia, tj. 30 kwietnia wg kalendarza gregoriańskiego. +Okrzesław + +Okrzesław – być może neologizm polski, powstały jeszcze w czasach staropolskich, lub staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Okrze-" ("okrzesać, przyciąć gałęzie", może też "przywrócić do życia, podnieść") i "-sław" ("sława"). Por. Krzesisław. +Cytochrom c + +Cytochrom c jest to hemoproteina pełniąca funkcję transportera elektronów w łańcuchu oddechowym pomiędzy kompleksem cytochromów "bc1" a oksydazą cytochromową w mitochondriach. Rodzina cytochromów c jest jedną z najlepiej scharakteryzowanych rodzin białek. +Masa cząsteczkowa cytochromu c wynosi 12,4 kDa. Jest to białko o długości 104 aminokwasów w łańcuchu peptydowym połączonym z cząsteczką hemu. +Cytochrom c bierze udział także w procesie apoptozy. Uwolniony do cytoplazmy z przestrzeni międzybłonowej mitochondriów dzięki działaniu białek Bax i Bak, wiąże się z białkami adaptorowymi. Adaptory następnie agregują i wiążą prokaspazy, co rozpoczyna kaskadę kaspaz prowadzącą do apoptozy komórki. +Objęsław + +Objęsław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Obję-" ("objąć") i "-sław" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "ten, który otrzymuje sławę". +Triangulacja (geodezja) + +Triangulacja – metoda pomiaru osnów geodezyjnych, polegająca na określeniu wielkości wszystkich kątów i jednej długości w sieci składającej się z trójkątów. Pomiar służy, po obliczeniu i wyrównaniu wyników pomiarów, określeniu współrzędnych geodezyjnych wszystkich punktów sieci triangulacyjnej. W zależności od dokładności (klasy sieci) boki w triangulacji wynoszą od 2 do 25 kilometrów. +Anastazy II + +Anastazy II (zm. 19 listopada 498), papież, którego pontyfikat przypadał w czasie od 24 listopada 496 do 19 listopada 498. +Był synem rzymskiego kapłana, Piotra. Został wybrany pomimo sprzeciwów wpływowych hierarchów popierających politykę Feliksa III i Gelazego I. +Na synodzie w 495 zrehabilitował biskupa Misenusa, którego ekskomunikował Feliks III. +W czasie niedługiego pontyfikatu Anastazego II król Franków Chlodwig przyjął chrześcijaństwo w Reims, w formule rzymskiej, nie ariańskiej. Papież korespondował z biskupami galijskimi, ale rzekomy list Anastazego II do Chlodwiga jest XVII-wiecznym fałszerstwem. +W 497 roku odnowił także stosunki z, potępionym przez Gelazjusza I, biskupem Andrzejem z Tesalonik, a także przyjął jego diakona Fotyna. Wówczas duchowni papiescy uznali Anastazego za zdrajcę i zerwali z nim jedność – prawdopodobnie wówczas przepadła ostatnia szansa na zjednoczenie Kościołów. W 498 potępił traducjonizm i wkrótce potem zmarł. Został pochowany w portyku Bazyliki Św. Piotra. +Święty Florian + +Święty Florian, właśc. Florian z Lauriacum (ur. 2. połowa III wieku w Ceti, zm. 304) – męczennik i święty katolicki. +Biografia. +Urodził się ok. 250 roku w Zeiselmauer (dawn.Ceti, Dolna Austria). Jego życie przypadło na okres prześladowań chrześcijan. W młodym wieku został powołany do armii cesarza rzymskiego – Dioklecjana (284-305). W roku 304 ujął się za prześladowanymi legionistami chrześcijańskimi, za co został skazany na karę śmierci. 4 maja 304 r. poniósł śmierć męczeńską w nurtach rzeki Enns (Anizy), na terenie dzisiejszej Górnej Austrii, w miejscowości Lauriacum (obecnie Lorch). +Ciało Floriana odnalazła wdowa Waleria. Nad jego grobem z czasem wybudowano kościół i klasztor ojców Benedyktynów, a później klasztor Kanoników laterańskich wg reguły św. Augustyna. W roku 1184 Idzi, biskup Modeny, na prośbę księcia Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego, sprowadził relikwie św. Floriana do Krakowa. +Tradycyjnie przypisywano mu obok funkcji wojskowych dowodzenie oddziałem gaśniczym. Według legendy, ocalił płonącą wioskę jednym wiadrem wody. +W dzielnicy Krakowa – Kleparz, znajduje się kościół pw. św. Floriana, fundacji biskupa krakowskiego Gedki, gdzie według legendy zatrzymały się konie wiozące relikwie świętego na Wawel. Konie tak długo nie chciały się ruszyć z miejsca, aż zadecydowano o wybudowaniu świątyni.Obecnie relikwie Świętego Floriana znajdują się w Chorzowie. +Św. Florian jest patronem wykonawców zawodów wiążących się z ogniem: strażaków, hutników, kominiarzy, garncarzy, piekarzy. Jest również patronem Górnej Austrii obok św. Leopolda oraz Linz, gdzie rozwinięty jest przemysł hutniczy. +19 października 1993 r. Kongregacja do spraw kultu Bożego przy stolicy Apostolskiej nadała miastu Chorzów patrona św. Floriana, gdzie otaczany jest szczególnym kultem. +W ikonografii przedstawiany jest najczęściej w stroju rzymskiego oficera, z naczyniem z wodą do gaszenia ognia, lub wprost gaszącego pożar. Czasami jako książę. Bywa, że w ręku trzyma chorągiew. +Jego atrybutami są: kamień młyński u szyi, kolczuga, krzyż, czerwony i biały krzyż, miecz, palma męczeńska, płonący dom, orzeł, tarcza, zbroja. +Jego wspomnienie liturgiczne w Kościele katolickim obchodzone jest 4 maja. +W polskim Kościele ma rangę wspomnienia obowiązkowego. +Alex Kingston + +Alexandra "Alex" Kingston (ur. 11 marca 1963 w Londynie) – aktorka brytyjska, znana m.in. z roli dr Elizabeth Corday w serialu "Ostry dyżur". +Jako nastolatka wystąpiła w serialu brytyjskim "Grange Hill". Studiowała w Królewskiej Akademii Sztuki Dramatycznej (Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts), po jej ukończeniu należała do zespołu Royal Shakespeare Company i występowała w teatrach brytyjskich w takich sztukach jak "Otello", "Król Lear", "Juliusz Cezar". Obok repertuaru klasycznego, który wykonuje w teatrze, znana jest z wielu ról telewizyjnych, m.in. w serialach i filmach telewizyjnych "Crocodile Shoes", "A Killing Exchange", "The Bill", "Weapons of Mass Distruction", "The Infiltrator". W latach 1997–2004 należała do obsady popularnego serialu "Ostry dyżur". Grała także w filmie "Kucharz, złodziej, jego żona i jej kochanek" Petera Greenawaya (1989). +W latach 1993–1997 była żoną aktora Ralpha Fiennesa. Od 1998 jest żoną Floriana Haertela. W 2001 urodziła im się córka Salome Violetta. +Sojusz + +Sojusz – porozumienie o wspólnym działaniu mającym doprowadzić do osiągnięcia określonego celu. W zależności od liczby sojuszników możemy mówić o sojuszach dwustronnych lub trójstronnych. W przypadku większej niż trzech liczby sojuszników mówimy po prostu o sojuszu. Jako synonimy używane są pojęcia: koalicja, przymierze, pakt, alians. +Unia osobowa + +Unia osobowa (unia hipostatyczna) – jeden z podstawowych terminów chrystologicznych określający związek boskiej i ludzkiej natury Jezusa Chrystusa po Wcieleniu. +Treść. +Pierwsze dwa określenia skierowane są przeciwko nauce Eutychesa, kolejne dwa przeciwko nauczaniu Marcelego z Ancyry. +Zjednoczenie osobowe dokonało się z chwilą poczęcia natury ludzkiej Jezusa w łonie Bogarodzicy i pozostało po śmierci ciała Jezusa. W chwili śmierci na krzyżu dusza Zbawiciela odłączyła się od ciała, ale Syn Boży w dalszym ciągu był zjednoczony ze swoją naturą ludzką - zarówno z ciałem, jak i duszą. +Sobór Chalcedoński charakteryzując zjednoczenie natur w Jezusie Chrystusie, używał określeń negatywnych, chcąc podkreślić tajemnicę tego zjednoczenia. Sobór ten podkreślił także, że Jezus Chrystus jest współistotny Bogu Ojcu co do bóstwa, a nam co do człowieczeństwa. Podobny nam we wszystkim oprócz grzechu. +Pierwszy określenia "unia hipostatyczna" zaczął używać św. Cyryl Aleksandryjski. +Znaczenie. +Pojęcie unii osobowej jest uznane za jedno z podstawowych dla chrześcijaństwa. Papież Leon Wielki (400-461), jeden z ojców tego terminu, podkreślał podstawowe znaczenie "unii osobowej", jako właściwości osoby Chrystusa jako Pana, bez której wiara chrześcijańska traci swą rolę zbawczą. Zbawienie w Chrystusie jest możliwe jedynie, jeśli uzna się we wcielonym Synu Bożym zjednoczenie dwóch natur, boskiej i ludzkiej. +Sobór Watykański II przypomniał, że natura ludzka została przyjęta w Chrystusie bez naruszenia jej, dlatego też także i we wszystkich ludziach uzyskała ona wzniosłą godność. +Związki wyznaniowe nieuznające unii osobowej. +Dogmatowi o zjednoczeniu natur w Chrystusie tradycyjnie sprzeciwia się arianizm, uznany już przez Sobór nicejski (325 r.) za herezję. Po wielu wiekach nauczanie ariańskie podjęło powstałe w XIX w. wyznanie Świadków Jehowy. Odwołując się do wersetu z Listu apostoła Pawła do Kolosan 1,15: "On jest obrazem Boga niewidzialnego - Pierworodnym wobec każdego stworzenia", twierdzą, że Jezus był pierwszym stworzeniem Boga Stwórcy, jednorodzonym Synem (por. Trójca Święta). Jest jedyny w swoim rodzaju, jest jedyną istotą, którą Bóg stworzył osobiście — bez pośrednictwa czy współpracy kogoś innego. Jest jedynym, przy którego współudziale Bóg, jego Ojciec, powołał do istnienia pozostałe stworzenia. Jest pierworodnym i najważniejszym z aniołów (Kol 1:15, 16; Heb 1:5, 6). +Mimo zaprzeczenia podstawowej prawdzie wiary chrześcijańskiej o Bożej naturze Jezusa Chrystusa - zamieniając ją na pojęcie "boskości", rozumiane bardziej jako świętość - Świadkowie Jehowy uważają się za jedynych chrześcijan prawdziwie oddających cześć Bogu i za związek wyznaniowy, który nie zostanie zniszczony przez Armagedon. +Wyspa Bouveta + +Wyspa Bouveta (norw. "Bouvetøya") – należące do Norwegii terytorium zależne, będące bezludną, wulkaniczną wyspą na południowym Atlantyku, na południowy zachód od Przylądka Dobrej Nadziei. +Geografia. +Powierzchnia Wyspy Bouveta wynosi 58,5 km² i jest prawie cała pokryta przez lodowce. Brak portu, statki muszą zakotwiczać z dala od brzegu. Lodowce z grubych warstw lodu tworzą wysokie urwiska spływające do morza albo na czarne plaże wulkanicznego piasku. Również 29,6 km linii brzegowej jest często otoczone przez lodowy pak. Najwyższym punktem na wyspie jest Olavtoppen, który sięga do 780 m n.p.m. +Wyspa Bouveta jest uważana za najbardziej samotną wyspę świata. Najbliższym lądem jest Ziemia Królowej Maud na Antarktydzie, oddalona o 1600 km w kierunku południowym. +Historia. +Wyspę Bouveta odkrył 1 stycznia 1739 francuski żeglarz i odkrywca Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier, który dowodził francuskimi statkami "Aigle" i "Marie". Jednak położenie wyspy nie zostało dokładnie ustalone, ponieważ Bouvet nie opłynął wyspy i pozostało niejasnym, czy była to na pewno wyspa, czy część kontynentu. +Wyspa nie była odwiedzana aż do 1808, kiedy to zawitał tam statek wielorybniczy dowodzony przez niejakiego Lindsaya, ale nikt nie wyszedł na ląd. Pierwsze pomyślne zbliżenie do lądu nastąpiło w 1822, kiedy kapitan Morrell pomyślnie wylądował, polując na foki. W 1825 niejaki kapitan Norris lądował na wyspie nazywanej odtąd "Wyspą Liverpool" i przyłączył ją dla Wielkiej Brytanii. W 1898 niemiecka wyprawa Carla Chuna, płynąca statkiem "Valdivia", dotarła do wyspy, ale nie wysadziła załogi. Pierwszy dłuższy pobyt na wyspie miał miejsce w 1927, kiedy to norweska załoga przebywała na niej około miesiąca, co stało się powodem terytorialnych pretensji Norwegii względem wyspy. Wielka Brytania zrzekła się praw do wyspy na rzecz Norwegii w następnym roku i w 1930 roku wyspa została przyłączona do Norwegii. +W 1971 Wyspa Bouveta i otaczające ją wody terytorialne zostały ogłoszone rezerwatem przyrody. Wyspa nie jest zamieszkana, istnieje tu jedynie zautomatyzowana stacja meteorologiczna, umieszczona przez Norwegów w 1977. Wyspa posiada jednak przydzieloną domenę internetową najwyższego poziomu .bv. Domena nie jest używana. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Dane w "CIA Factbook +Frederick Hopkins + +Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins (ur. 20 czerwca 1861 w Eastbourne, zm. 16 maja 1947 w Cambridge) – laureat Nagrody Nobla 1929. +Studiował na uniwersytecie w Londynie. Od 1914 był profesorem biochemii na Uniwersytecie Cambridge, należał do Royal Society (pełnił m.in. funkcję wiceprezesa), a od 1925 także do Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności. +Prowadził badania w dziedzinie biochemii i dietetyki, był jednym z pionierów nauki o witaminach. W 1892 opracował metodę ilościowego oznaczania kwasu moczowego w płynach ustrojowych. W 1901 wyizolował (razem z S. W. Cole'm) aminokwas tryptofan. W 1906 wyjaśnił rolę kwasu mlekowego w pracy mięśni oraz wyodrębnił witaminę A. Późniejszą witaminę nazwał „dodatkowymi czynnikami pokarmowymi”. W 1921 wyodrębnił glutation – czynnik oddychania komórkowego i pośredniego metabolizmu. +W 1929 otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie fizjologii lub medycyny za wyodrębnienie witaminy A. Razem z nim nagrodą uhonorowano Holendra Christiaana Eijkmana, odkrywcę witaminy B1. +Sylweriusz (papież) + +Sylweriusz (ur. w Frosinone, zm. 2 grudnia 537 na Palmarii) – święty Kościoła katolickiego, papież w okresie od 8 czerwca 536 do 11 listopada 537. +Biografia. +Został wybrany na papieża, gdy był jeszcze subdiakonem po śmierci papieża Agapita I. Jego ojciec, papież Hormizdas po owdowieniu zasiadał na tronie Stolicy Piotrowej w latach 514-523. +Sylweriusz zawdzięczał wybór królowi Gotów Teodahadowi, któremu zależało na obsadzeniu biskupstwa Rzymu zaufanym człowiekiem w obliczu zagrożenia bizantyjskiego. W grudniu 536 do Rzymu wkroczył wódz bizantyjski Belizariusz i usunął Sylweriusza jako zdrajcę interesów cesarstwa bizantyjskiego. W oskarżeniu odegrała znaczącą rolę cesarzowa Teodora, sprzyjająca złożonemu z urzędu przez Agapita I monofizyckiemu patriarsze Konstantynopola Antymosowi I. Został zesłany do Patary w syryjskiej Lycii, lecz po interwencji biskupa Konstantynopola, Justynian polecił odesłać papieża do Rzymu i przeprowadzić proces. Jednak nowy papież Wigiliusz porozumiał się z Belizariuszem i zesłał Sylweriusza na wyspę Palmarię (obecnie Ponza) w Zatoce Gaetańskiej (Morze Liguryjskie). Sylweriusz ustąpił z godności papieża na rzecz Wigiliusza i wkrótce zmarł śmiercią głodową. +Został pochowany na wyspie. Od XI wieku czczony jako męczennik za wiarę. +Wspominany 20 czerwca. +Adobe Dreamweaver + +Adobe Dreamweaver (dawniej Macromedia Dreamweaver) – program komputerowy firmy Adobe (dawniej Macromedia) przeznaczony do tworzenia stron WWW. Aktualnie w sprzedaży znajdują się wersje programu na platformy Windows i Mac OS. Najnowsza wersja programu to "Adobe Dreamweaver CS6", dostępna od 24 kwietnia 2012 roku. +Program posiada rozbudowane opcje tworzenia serwisów internetowych; umożliwia edycję dokumentów w trybie WYSIWYG oraz trybie widoku źródła z opcją kolorowania składni, autouzupełnieniami kodu. Edytor posiada dużą liczbę gotowych akcji ułatwiających tworzenie stron takich jak generowanie przycisków w formacie "Adobe Flash" oraz możliwość obsługi zewnętrznych pluginów. +Podział administracyjny Belgii + +Belgia jest państwem federalnym, a jej podział administracyjny odzwierciedla złożoną strukturę etniczną, językową i kulturową tego kraju. +Belgia podzielona jest na trzy wspólnoty, trzy regiony oraz cztery regiony językowe. Dwa z trzech regionów dzielą się dalej na prowincje, po 5 w każdym. Trzeci region to region stołeczny Brukseli. Ponadto najniższym stopniem podziału są gminy, których jest 589. +Cztery z tych pięciu podziałów mają określone granice geograficzne: regiony, regiony językowe, prowincje i gminy. Natomiast w przypadku wspólnot sprawa jest bardziej skomplikowana. Zostały one bowiem powołane jako instytucje, w których kompetencji leży dbanie o rozwój języka i kultury. Ale zgodnie z prawem nie odnoszą się one do żadnej grupy ludności ani terytorium. Z drugiej strony mają one wyznaczony dokładnie obszar, na którym mogą legalnie działać: wspólnota flamandzka na terenie Flandrii i w Brukseli, francuska - na większości obszaru Walonii i w Brukseli, a niemieckojęzyczna - w niewielkiej części prowincji Liège (Walonia), przy granicy z Niemcami. +Czerwiec 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +21 czerwca 2003. +Niemiecki duet Modern Talking oficjalnie zakończył działalność dając pożegnalny koncert w stolicy Niemiec – Berlinie. +Wysokość w kłębie + +Wysokość w kłębie – pionowy rozmiar zwierzęcia czworonożnego liczony od poziomu ziemi do kłębu, czyli najwyższego punktu tułowia, położonego na szczycie łopatek. +Cech rzemiosła + +Przykłady: cech ślusarzy, cech murarzy, cech krawców, cech rzemiosł skórzanych itp. Potocznie terminem "cech" określa się również budynek będący siedzibą zarządu jakiegoś cechu i miejscem zbierania się jego członków. +Cechy są w środowiskach małych miast i wsi jedynymi, bądź jednymi z niewielu instytucji, aktywizujących miejscową społeczność. Organizują wystawy-kiermasze, współuczestniczą wraz z lokalną administracją w organizacji imprez ogólnomiejskich czy gminnych. Są organizacjami posiadającymi własne siedziby, przeważnie z dużymi salami konferencyjno-widowiskowymi. Organizacje te są więc często nie tylko organizatorami własnych, lecz także gospodarzami imprez, wymagających takich obiektów. +Cechy zrzeszają się w izbach rzemieślniczych. Obecnie w strukturach Związku Rzemiosła Polskiego funkcjonuje 479 cechów. +Obecnie cechy, jako organizacje zrzeszające przedstawicieli zawodów rzemieślniczych tracą na znaczeniu. Organizacjami, które obecnie spełniają rolę cechów ale w stosunku do przedstawicieli wolnych zawodów są powoływane w drodze ustawy samorządy zawodowe np. samorząd lekarski, farmaceutów, adwokacki, radców prawnych, architektów i urbanistów. +Rys historyczny. +Działalność rzemieślnicza wiąże się z powstaniem pierwszych miast. Już Kodeks Hammurabiego z XVIII w. p.n.e. pierwszy przewidział odpowiedzialność karną za działalność zawodową. +Cechy jako organizacje zrzeszające pokrewne warsztaty powstały w średniowieczu najpierw przy klasztorach, a następnie rozwinęły się w miastach w ślad za procesem urbanizacji kraju. +Prawa miejskie nadawane były przez władcę na wniosek pana i obejmowały między innymi prawo targowe (pozwolenie na urządzanie targów), pozwolenie na swobodne uprawianie rzemiosła, prawo składu (zmuszające przejeżdżających kupców do wystawiania swoich towarów na sprzedaż) i prawo mili (ograniczające konkurencję w handlu i rzemiośle), prawo sądowe (spory rozstrzygał sąd) i związane z nim prawo miecza, czyli prawo do zasądzania wyroków śmierci i określające jakie rodzaje kar za jakie przestępstwa można wykonywać (wiązało się to między innymi z powołaniem instytucji kata), prawo do wznoszenia fortyfikacji (które władca przekazywał miastu). Mieszkańcy miast mieli też niekiedy przyznawany przywilej zwalniający ich od płacenia ceł na obszarze całego kraju. +Jedną z najważniejszych cech przywileju lokacyjnego miasta była zasada zbiorowego władania nadaną ziemią. Prowadziło to do ukształtowania specyficznego charakteru samorządu miejskiego. +Pierwsze wzmianki o będących jednocześnie zdunami i garncarzami gdańskich pochodzą z 1374 roku. Podstawową produkcję ich warsztatów stanowił wyrób pieców. +O cechu snycerzy wrocławskich wiadomo, że istniał już w 1386 roku. +W Krakowie, gdy przedstawiciele poszczególnych gałęzi rękodzieła byli słabi liczebnie, łączyli się w jedną konfraternię. W początkowym okresie istnienia cechów snycerze, tokarze, stolarze i malarze tworzyli wspólne bractwo, z którego stolarze wyodrębnili się w 1419 roku, utworzywszy własną korporację. Świetnie rozwijało się w Gdańsku konwisarstwo. Na początku wieku XVI czynnych tutaj było 10 warsztatów, a w latach 1532- 1594 tytuł mistrza uzyskało 33 rzemieślników. Poza drobnymi wyrobami o poziomie tej gałęzi rzemiosła najlepiej świadczą trumny w Grobach Królewskich na Wawelu, archiwalnie stwierdzone dzieła konwisarzy gdańskich. Najstarszą z nich, z roku 1572, w której złożono zwłoki ostatniego z Jagiellonów – Zygmunta Augusta, zdobi sześć płaskorzeźb. +W Poznaniu cech malarsko - snycerski wyodrębnił się dopiero w 1571 roku. Rozkwit ludwisarstwa warszawskiego szacuje się na lata 1520 - 1575. Spośród znanych mistrzów: rodzina Mrugawczyków, których najwybitniejszym przedstawicielem był Maciej (zm. 1564) wykonawca licznych dzwonów między innymi do kolegiaty Św. Jana w Warszawie. Działali też Wojciech i Wawrzyniec Łyszczowie i Aleksy Gocz oraz Maciej Drewno i jego syn Stanisław. Warsztaty te zaspokajały zapotrzebowanie na wyroby odlewnicze z obszaru Mazowsza. +W Starej Warszawie istniała z dawna zasada przynależności rzemieślników, obrabiających ten sam surowiec, do wspólnego cechu. +Układy te zmieniały się stosownie do zaistniałych w danym okresie okoliczności, mających wpływ na rozwój gospodarczy miast (wojny, pomory). W mniejszych miastach częściej dochodziło do akcji scalających zawody różnych branż. Z przywileju, regulującego stosunki społeczne i zawodowe "bractwa pospolitego" z 1769 roku w Pyzdrach, będącego rekonstrukcją statutu, spalonego w czasie pierwszego najazdu szwedzkiego, można odtworzyć obraz tych stosunków, jaki istniał w owym czasie w miastach królewskich. +W wieku ogólnego upadku rzemiosł w miastach i rozpowszechnienia się "partaczy" cechy stolarsko - rzeźbiarskie zachowały nadal swe znaczenie, a niekiedy nawet je rozszerzyły. Np. stolarnie kolbuszowskie zachowały wysoki poziom wytwórczości, trwający przez XVIII i początek XIX stulecia. Czynne były w tym okresie warsztaty snycerskie i meblarskie we Lwowie, Przemyślu, Brzozowie, Tarnowie, Kalwarii Zebrzydowskiej, Krakowie, Poznaniu, Płocku, Warszawie, Toruniu i Gdańsku, a na Śląsku we Wrocławiu i Nysie. +Organizacja. +Udział w władzach miejskich. +Księga praw miejskich Świdnicy z 1328 roku +Organizację bracką tworzyli na podstawie wilkierza cechowego: +Bierne i czynne prawo wyborcze mieli tylko bracia. +Celem zrzeszenia była ochrona interesów zawodowych i regulowanie +stosunków między wytwórcą a klientem. Statut ustalał rozdział zamówień i surowca między warsztaty, normy jakościowe wytworów, a także zakaz nieuczciwej konkurencji. Rzemieślnicy niezrzeszeni, zamieszkali w promieniu dwóch mil od miasta, mogli wystawiać swe wyroby do sprzedaży jedynie na jarmarkach. Np. w Gdańsku monopol zgodnie z królewskim przywilejem z 1678 r., do ślusarzy należało wykonywanie prac z kutego żelaza przy wyposażaniu budowli od fundamentu po szczyt, a także przy studniach, pompach, mostach i bramach. +Często czeladnicy zorganizowani byli w tzw. bractwa czeladnicze, będące przejawem sprzeciwu wobec obowiązków nakładanych na nich przez cechy, m.in. wysokie opłaty wpisowe, obowiązkowe wędrówki czeladnicze, czy utrudnianie promocji mistrzowskiej. +Prawa cechowe. +Ze statutów cechów wrocławskich w XIII w. +Miasta i mieszczaństwo średniowiecza do schyłku XV w. Teksty źródłowe do nauki historii w szkole. Opracował R.Heck, zeszyt 8. Warszawa 1959 +Cyt. za: i statuty, których się mają trzymać igielnicy, druciarze, guzikarze, odlewnicy cyny i różańcarze - +Postanowienia zjazdu krawców miast śląskich w Swidnicy +Dokument rady miejskiej Świdnicy z 14 czerwca l361 r. +Cyt. za: R. Heck, Polska w okresie m0narchii stanowej 1346-1454. Wybór tekstów źródłowych, Warszawa 1955 +Zebrania cechu. +Do takich spotkań dochodziło z okazji np. +u swego mistrza. Następnie po otrzymaniu listów polecających od Rady Miasta i Cechu odbywał obowiązkową wędrówkę "przez rok i sześć niedziel" po warsztatach majstrów krajowych lub zagranicznych. Dopiero mógł zabrać się do "roboty mistrzowskiej" czyli wykonać majstersztyk. Np. 1512 Rada Miejska w Krakowie wydala dla nich oraz innych rzemieślników pracujących w metalu statut: "Statuta contubernii contrifusorum et cuprifusorum…”. Warunkiem uzyskania tytułu mistrza było odlanie dzbana cynowego o pojemności trzech kwart, wykonanie kutych mis oraz talerzy wg przygotowanych własnoręcznie form. +Po złożeniu egzaminu zostawał majstrem cechu i obywatelem danego miasta(łac. album civile). +Życie religijne. +Cechy fundowały w kościołach kaplice i ołtarze swoich świętych patronów. Uczestniczyły w procesjach religijnych pod chorągwiami cechowymi. +Obrona miasta. +Zgoda króla czy księcia na wznoszenie fortyfikacji oznaczało przyjęcie przez mieszczan kolejnego, ważnego obowiązku, tj. samodzielnej obrony wznoszonych obwarowań. Ich poszczególne odcinki powierzano cechom, na których spoczywał obowiązek czuwania nad bezpieczeństwem i kondycją konkretnych baszt, bram i fragmentów łączących je murów, a w razie potrzeby czynnej ich obrony. Oznaczało to wykorzystanie istniejącej i sprawnie funkcjonującej struktury zawodowej do stworzenia nowej, miejskiej struktury obronnej. +Od nazw cechów wzięły się nazwy poszczególnych fragmentów obwarowań, np. Baszta Kotwiczników Baszta Stolarska. Baszta Tkaczy, Ciesielska. Karczmarzy czy Pasamoników. Bramy, jako najważniejsze i najbardziej newralgiczne elementy fortyfikacji, powierzano wstawiennictwu świętych (stąd np. Brama Floriańska w Krakowie, Mikołajska w Krakowie, Brama Rzeźnicza w Krakowie i we Wrocławiu) lub też określano je wyróżnikiem topograficznym (np. Brama Pyskowicka, zwana też Wrocławską i Gliwicka w Bytomiu, Sławkowska – tak w Krakowie, jak i w Bytomiu – czy Świdnicka we Wrocławiu, a Krakowska w Lublinie, by poprzestać na tych kilku przykładach). +Tego szewcy, krawcy, piekarze czy złotnicy musieli się dopiero nauczyć. I temu służyło Bractwo kurkowe, Towarzystwo Strzeleckie "Bractwo Kurkowe" w Krakowie, Cieszyńskie Towarzystwo Strzeleckie czy w Gdańsku Bractwo św.Jerzego (zobacz Dwór Bractwa św. Jerzego w Gdańsku) mające wykształcić sprawnych obrońców, znających żołnierskie rzemiosło, przynajmniej w minimalnym zakresie, którzy w razie potrzeby bez wahania będą mogli stanąć na murach, początkowo z łukiem, potem z kuszą, a od XVI w. z bronią palną w dłoniach. +Jeżowce + +Jeżowce (Echinoidea, z gr. "echinos" – jeż + "eidos" – rodzaj) – gromada morskich zwierząt zaliczanych do typu szkarłupni (Echinodermata), charakteryzujących się kulistym, mniej lub bardziej spłaszczonym, różnorodnie ubarwionym ciałem gęsto pokrytym wapiennymi, ruchomo osadzonymi kolcami. Zamieszkują strefę denną wód słonych o zasoleniu powyżej 20‰ wszystkich stref geograficznych kuli ziemskiej. Większość gatunków występuje w strefie tropikalnej i subtropikalnej. Przeciętnie osiągają 6–12 cm średnicy. Niektóre gatunki są wyposażone w jadowy narząd raniący (tzw. pedicellaria), będące w istocie zmodyfikowanymi, nieco krótszymi kolcami zakończone kleszczykami w postaci trzech twardych ruchomych szponów, przebijających skórę i wprowadzających jad. Gruczoły jadowe znajdują się u nasady kolca. Produkują one toksyny niebezpieczne dla zdrowia człowieka. Do szczególnie niebezpiecznych można zaliczyć Toxopneustes pileolus oraz inne jeżowce należące do rodzaju Tripneustes oraz rodzin Echinothuridae i Diadematidae, których ukłucia wywołują oprócz bólu trudności oddechowe, drgawki i utratę przytomności, a w skrajnych przypadkach śmierć przez uduszenie. U gatunków występujących w strefie tropikalnej niebezpieczne bywają również same kolce, również połączone z gruczołami jadowymi. Jadowitość zachowują nawet wysuszone igły jadowe i pedicellaria. Ukłucia nawet niejadowitych jeżowców mogą wywoływać infekcje bakteryjne. W zapisie kopalnym jeżowce znane są od paleozoiku. +Jeżowce wyposażone są w układ ambulakralny i wapienny pancerz pokryty miękkimi tkankami. Składa się on zazwyczaj z dwudziestu rzędów pięciokątnych płytek zgrupowanych w podwójne, naprzemianległe pasy. Otwór gębowy znajduje się na spodniej części ciała (w grupie jeżowców regularnych, otwór ten jest wyposażony w aparat szczękowy zwany latarnią Arystotelesa – z pomocą tych zębów zbierają one pokarm z podłoża i żują go). Odbyt znajduje się nad otworem gębowym, na wierzchniej części ciała. Tarcza szczytowa jeżowców składa się z dziesięciu płytek, przy czym pięć z nich to płytki oczne z otworkami na światłoczułe zakończenia kanałów promienistych tworzących oczy jeżowca. +Ciało jeżowca chronią kolce, między którymi schronienie znajdują drobne ryby, mięczaki i skorupiaki. Kolce wraz z nóżkami ambulakralnymi pełnią funkcje lokomotoryczne. Jeżowce regularne kroczą z ich pomocą po dnie lub drążą jamy. Inne używają ich do zakotwiczenia się na dnie. +Jeżowce są zwierzętami wszystkożernymi. Zjadają głównie drobne bezkręgowce, rośliny oraz detrytus. Są też wśród nich oczyszczające morza gatunki mułożerne. +Na wybrzeżach skalistych i na kamiennych plażach zalecana jest kąpiel z butami, które mają twarde gumowe podeszwy, gdyż nadepnięcie na jeżowca może być bolesne a nawet niebezpieczne dla zdrowia. +Jeżowce są wykorzystywane w biologii rozwoju i w embriologii jako organizmy modelowe. Na jajach i plemnikach jeżowców zbadano po raz pierwszy procesy dojrzewania jaj, zapłodnienia i bruzdkowania. Zsekwencjonowano cały genom "Strongylocentrotus purpuratus" nazywanego jeżowcem purpurowym. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Specjalne wydanie magazynu "Science" poświęcone wynikom sekwencjonowania genomu jeżowca. +Easy Rider (grupa muzyczna) + +Pierwsze występy to m.in. udział zespołu w I Ogólnopolskim Przeglądzie Muzyki Młodej Generacji w Jarocinie i występy po wrocławskich klubach. +W październiku tego samego roku do zespołu dołączył skrzypek Cezary Czternastek, a w grudniu wystąpił w imprezie "Nowy Rock 1981". +Już w 1981 roku zespół stał się objawieniem pierwszego festiwalu "Rawa Blues". Na krótko do zespołu dołączył nowy basista Zdzisław Noworol, który wystąpił w Jarocinie w 1981 roku. Na jarocińskim festiwalu grupa dostała możliwość wystąpienia w koncercie "Muzyka Młodej Generacji" podczas "Pop Session '81" w Sopocie. W roku 1981 nastąpiły przetasowania w zespole, zamiast Lewowickiego do zespołu dołączył Edmund Stasiak znany z późniejszych występów z Lady Pank, a na miejsce basisty wszedł Marek Błaszczyk. W takim składzie zespół zagrał w Białymstoku na "Jesieni z Bluesem '81" i wziął udział w filmie "Koncert" w reżyserii Andrzeja Tarkowskiego. +W roku 1982 grupa podróżowała z zespołem "Cross", którego liderem był Krzysztof Cugowski, z zespołem Tadeusza Nalepy oraz z walijską grupą Budgie. +W roku 1983 nastąpiła kolejna zmiana na miejscu basisty, którym został Gustaw Szepke. W tym czasie od zespołu odłączył się Cezary Czternastek. +W listopadzie 1984 do zespołu dołączył Jacek Gazda, który osiadł na stałe w zespole. +W roku 1988 zespół nagrał pierwszą swoją płytę "Ridin' Easy". +Druga płyta "Travellin' Band" została nagrana w marcu 1992. +W 2006 roku firma Muzant wydała reedycję pierwszego albumu wzbogaconą materiałem z koncertu w Teatrze STU. Płyta została wydana w niskim nakładzie, ale z odświeżonym dźwiękiem (przez studio Polskich Nagrań) i bogatą książeczką. Dostępna jest głównie na aukcjach internetowych. W 2008 roku miała swoją premierę płyta koncertowa "Live in Myszków". Krążek zawiera standardy muzyki bluesowej w wykonaniu tego legendarnego tria. Zespół ponadto wiele koncertuje, nie tylko w Polsce, ale i w Niemczech, Irlandii, Litwie. +Gmina Postojna + +Postojna - miasto i gmina w zachodniej Słowenii, w dolinie rzeki Pivki, u podnóża góry Sovič (677 m); 8513 mieszkańców. W jego pobliżu znajduje się jaskinia Postojna. Z Postojny pochodzi słoweński koszykarz, Primož Brezec. +Tomasz Kuchar + +Tomasz Kuchar (ur. 16 lipca 1976 we Wrocławiu), kierowca rajdowy, wicemistrz Polski (2007 i 2009). +Syn Andrzeja Kuchara, byłego trenera kadry koszykarzy. Rozpoczął karierę w 1995, zdobył 4 tytuły Mistrza Polski (klasa N-3 w 1998, F-2 w 1999 i 2000, Super 2000 2009). Jest zwycięzcą Volkswagen Sport Trophy '99, w sezonie 2002 był fabrycznym kierowcą zespołu Hyundai-Castrol World Rally Team. W latach 1999-2003 startował w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata. Zasiadał za kierownicą takich samochodów rajdowych jak: Volkswagen Golf Kit-Car, Toyota Corolla WRC, Hyundai Accent WRC, Ford Focus WRC, Mitsubishi Lancer Evo VI, Evo VII (gr.N), Subaru Impreza spec C (gr.N), Fiat Punto Super 1600, Peugeot 207 Super 2000, Peugeot 307 WRC. +W 2001 roku za kierownicą Toyoty Corolli WRC wygrał wraz z pilotem Maciejem Szczepaniakiem Rajd Karkonoski zaliczany do rajdowych Mistrzostw Polski. W sezonie 2007 zwyciężył, tworząc załogę z Jakubem Gerberem, w Rajdzie Magurskim. W sezonie 2010 wraz z Danielem Dymurskim wygrał Rajd Elmot – I Rundę RSMP. +W 2001 roku na zaproszenie zespołu Gładysz Racing Team wystartował w wyścigu na Torze w Miedzianej Górze Volkswagenem Golfem Kit-car zajmując 2. miejsce w klasie do 2000 cm³ oraz 7. w klasyfikacji generalnej Grand Prix Polski. W 2005 roku wystartował gościnnie na Torze w Poznaniu w pucharze VW Castrol Cup, wyścigu nie ukończył. +Doskonałymi wynikami zakończyły się także starty w estońskim Rajdzie E.O.S. w 2001 i 2002 roku był tam trzeci, a w 2003 zajął drugie miejsce, tuż za Markko Märtinem. +W 2009 roku kupił Lotnisko Debrzno, na którym buduje pierwszy w Polsce ośrodek sportów motorowych RALLYLAND. +Rajd Barbórka. +Tomasz Kuchar sześciokrotnie zwyciężył w Rajdzie Barbórka. Pobił w ten sposób rekord Mariana Bublewicza i Pawła Przybylskiego. Był także najszybszy w Kryterium Karowa w latach 2008-2010. +Leon IV Chazar + +Leon IV Chazar (ur. 25 stycznia 750, zm. 8 września 780) – cesarz bizantyjski w latach 775-780. +Jedyny syn Konstantyna V i jego pierwszej żony – Tzitzak ("Ireny z Chazarów"). Jego matka była córką Bihara, władcy Chazarów. Leon został współcesarzem już w 751 podczas rządów jego ojca, a po śmierci ojca został jedynym władcą. Podczas swoich krótkich rządów, Leon walczył z Al-Mahdim, kalifem abbasydzkim. W 776 i 778 wysłał wojska pod dowództwem Michała Lachanodrakona do Syrii, jednak za każdym razem zostały one pokonane. +Leon prowadził zupełnie inną politykę niż jego ojciec. Zaniechał podboju Bułgarii, co było dużym błędem. Ruch ikonoklastyczny za jego panowania poważnie osłabł. Mnisi przestali być prześladowani, a nawet cesarz powierzał im ważne decyzję. Było to spowodowane wpływem Ireny na Leona. On sam rzekomo z woli ludu koronował swego syna Konstantyna na współcesarza 24 kwietnia 776 roku. Sprzecistawili się temu bracia cesarza. Jeden z nich cezar Nicefor zawiązał spisek mający na celu odsunięcie Leona i jego syna od rządów. Leon wykrył spisek i zesłał brata na Krym i ukarał jego popleczników. Zmarł po krótkim panowaniu 8 września 780 roku. Przyczyną śmierci była anemia. +Noah Wyle + +Noah Strausser Speer Wyle (ur. 4 czerwca 1971 w Los Angeles w Kalifornii w USA) – aktor amerykański, odtwórca jednej z głównych ról w popularnym serialu "Ostry dyżur". +Karierę aktorską rozpoczął niedużymi rolami w filmach: "Ślepa wiara", "Zagubione serca", "Ludzie honoru", "Dzieci swinga", "Ostatnie dni raju"). W latach 1994–2005 należał do ekipy serialu "Ostry dyżur" (rola lekarza Johna Cartera). Rola ta przyniosła mu pięć nominacji do nagrody telewizyjnej Emmy i trzy nominacje do Złotego Globu. +Niezależnie od "Ostrego dyżuru" występował także w filmach, m.in. "Zjazd" (1997), "Piraci z Krzemowej Doliny" (1999, w roli Steve'a Jobsa), "Donnie Darko" (2001), "Nigdy więcej" (2002), "Biały oleander" (2002). Gościnnie pojawił się również w jednym z odcinków serialu "Przyjaciele", wspólnie z George'em Clooneyem. +Mukowiscydoza + +Mukowiscydoza (zwłóknienie torbielowate, łac. "mucoviscidosis", ang. "cystic fibrosis", CF, "mucoviscoidosis, mucoviscidosis") – wrodzona choroba uwarunkowana genetycznie, polegająca na zaburzeniu wydzielania przez gruczoły zewnątrzwydzielnicze. +Genetyka. +Molekularne przyczyny mukowiscydozy. +Mukowiscydoza jest jedną z najczęstszych chorób genetycznych u ludzi (średnio 1 na 2 500 żywych urodzeń). Szczególnie często występuje u Europejczyków i Żydów Aszkenazyjskich. +Przyczyną choroby są mutacje genu, odpowiedzialnego za syntezę błonowego kanału chlorkowego CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator). Gen "CFTR" umiejscowiony jest na długim ramieniu chromosomu 7. Do stycznia 2009 roku znanych było ponad 1500 mutacji, odpowiedzialnych za chorobę, do września 2011 roku poznano ponad 1600 takich mutacji. Są to najczęściej mutacje punktowe typu "missens", albo o charakterze małych insercji, rzadziej mutacje typu nonsens i na złączach intron-ekson. Tylko wyjątkowo są to duże delecje. +Najczęstsza mutacja odpowiada za blisko 70% przypadków choroby i oznaczana jest jako ΔF508 (lub F508del); uszkodzenie genu w tym miejscu prawdopodobnie determinuje ciężki przebieg choroby. Mutacja ta polega na delecji trzech nukleotydów, co powoduje usunięcie fenyloalaniny z sekwencji aminokwasowej białka. Tak zmienione białko jest rozpoznawane przez mechanizmy naprawcze komórki i degradowane. +Białko CFTR u około 10% chorych jest znacznie skrócone. Jedną z tego typu mutacji jest W1282X. Polega ona na mutacji nonsensownej w pozycji 1282 (kodon dla tryptofanu zostaje zastąpiony kodonem stop). Ta mutacja odpowiada za prawie 40% przypadków choroby u Żydów. +Kanał chlorkowy tworzony przez białko CFTR u około 5% chorych jest całkowicie zamknięte. Jedną z tego typu mutacji jest G551D. +Dziedziczenie mukowiscydozy. +Mukowiscydoza jest chorobą dziedziczną, która występuje u osób posiadających nieprawidłowy allel genu na chromosomie 7. Dziedziczona jest w sposób autosomalny recesywny. Nosiciele genu odpowiedzialnego za wystąpienie mukowiscydozy stanowią około 5% ludzi rasy białej. Niektórzy naukowcy sugerują, że tak duże rozpowszechnienie wadliwego allelu w populacji może wiązać się z przewagą heterozygot (naddominacja) w przypadku pewnych infekcji (np. cholera, dur brzuszny), jednak jak dotąd nie ustalono, co mogłoby stanowić presję selekcyjną. +Objawy kliniczne. +Mukowiscydoza objawia się tym, że organizm chorego produkuje nadmiernie lepki śluz, który powoduje zaburzenia we wszystkich narządach posiadających gruczoły śluzowe (m.in. płucach, układzie pokarmowym). Mukowiscydoza jest chorobą ogólnoustrojową, objawiającą się przede wszystkim przewlekłą chorobą oskrzelowo-płucną oraz niewydolnością enzymatyczną trzustki z następowymi zaburzeniami trawienia i wchłaniania. Gruczoły potowe wydalają pot o podwyższonym stężeniu chloru i sodu (tzw. "słony pot"). +Rozpoznanie. +Diagnostyka preimplantacyjna. +Diagnostyka preimplantacyjna pozwala na bardzo wczesne wykrycie mutacji powodującej mukowiscydozę. Badanie można przeprowadzić na komórkach rozrodczych przed zapłodnieniem. Jednak ze względu na sposób dziedziczenia (autosomalnie recesywne) bardziej wiarygodne jest badanie komórek po zapłodnieniu bądź też zarodków przed podaniem ich do macicy przyszłej matki. Badanie takie pozwala ocenić, czy dziecko będzie zdrowe i znając obecność mutacji bądź jej brak, podjąć decyzję co do implantacji zarodka. +Leczenie. +Leczenie mukowiscydozy jest wyłącznie objawowe. +Leczenie choroby oskrzelowo-płucnej w przebiegu mukowiscydozy wymaga usunięcia gęstej i lepkiej wydzieliny z dróg oddechowych oraz opanowania zaostrzeń przewlekłego procesu zapalnego i spowolnienia nieodwracalnych zmian oskrzelowo-płucnych antybiotykoterapią. Oczyszczanie oskrzeli z ropnej plwociny wymaga podawania leków upłynniających wydzielinę i fizjoterapii układu oddechowego. Efektywna fizjoterapia nie tylko poprawia drożność oskrzeli, lecz także przez stałe eliminowanie bakterii, substancji zapalnych i proteolitycznych ogranicza nasilenia przewlekłych stanów zapalnych, zwalniając rozwój nieodwracalnych uszkodzeń oskrzeli. Leczenie antybiotykami ma na celu opanowanie zakażenia bakteryjnego oskrzeli i płuc. +Podstawową zasadą jest korygowanie niedoboru enzymów trzustkowych z zapewnieniem wysokoenergetycznej diety, pokrywającej 120–150% dobowego zapotrzebowania kalorycznego. Ponadto należy zwiększyć dawkę podawanych witamin, zwłaszcza A, D, E, K. +Nie ma skutecznej metody leczenia mukowiscydozy. Wymienione powyżej zabiegi i leki pozwalają jedynie na wydłużenie przeżywalności i zwiększenie komfortu życia. +Historia badań. +W 1989 roku odkryto allel genu CFTR wywołujący mukowiscydozę. Zakrojone na szeroką skalę w całym świecie badania naukowe stwarzają nadzieję na leczenie przyczynowe w najbliższych latach. Do podstawowych kierunków można zaliczyć: +Leczenie żywieniowe. +Osoby cierpiące na mukowiscydozę zagrożone są niedożywieniem. Dlatego poleca się stosowanie diet przeznaczonych do leczenia żywieniowego. +Pacjenci dotknięci mukowiscydozą cierpią z powodu hiperkapnii. Leczenie żywieniowe w przypadku tej grupy chorych ma zapewnić odpowiednią podaż kalorii i białka, a jednocześnie zmniejszyć ilość produkowanego przez ich organizm dwutlenku węgla. Ten ostatni postulat można spełnić poprzez stosowanie diet wysokotłuszczowych. Przykładem takiej diety jest preparat Pulmocare – w Polsce dostępny od października 2009 r. +Czterowektor + +Czterowektor – w algebrze tensorowej wektor kontrawariantny. Możliwa jest także konstrukcja wektorów kowariantnych za pomocą izomorfizmu muzycznego oraz tensorów o dowolnej walencji przy pomocy iloczynu tensorowego. Pierwszym elementem czterowektora jest składowa czasowa, a kolejne trzy są to współrzędne przestrzenne. +W fizyce czterowektorem nazywamy element czasoprzestrzeni znanej ze szczególnej teorii względności. Czterowektory są elementami czterowymiarowej przestrzeni wektorowej wyposażonej w symetryczny iloczyn skalarny, tak by w tej przestrzeni czterowymiarowej płaski tensor symetryczny Minkowskiego miał sygnaturę (1,-1,-1,-1). +Czterowektor położenia w czasoprzestrzeni. +W czterowektorze położenia można wydzielić część czasową (formula_2), a także część przestrzenną formula_3. +Część czasowa jest to czas wyrażony w sekundach pomnożony przez prędkość światła, czyli wszystkie współrzędne czterowektora położenia w czasoprzestrzeni są wyrażone w metrach. +Czterowektor prędkości. +Z definicji różniczki interwału czasoprzestrzennego dzieląc obustronnie opisany wzór przez kwadrat interwału czasoprzestrzennego i otrzymamy zależność tensorową kontrwariantnych pochodnych tensora położenia względem interwału czasoprzestrzennego. +Z tego wyrażenia wynika ścisła zależność między kontrwariantnymi czterowekorami prędkości. +Stąd wynika zależność między kontrwariantno-kowarantnymi tensorami czterowektora prędkości. +Elementy przestrzenne i czasowe według można zapisać dia przestrzeni trójwymiarowej(podprzestrzni czterwymiarowej-czasoprzestrzeni) i dlatego wskaźnik na górze tego tensora jest oznaczony literą grecką. +Element czasowy tensora czterowektora prędkośći (element tego tensora o wskaźniku zerowym) jest to funkcja gamma, która zależy od prędkości rozważanej cząstki, która powinna być mniejsza niż prędkość światła (cząstki masowe, wartość masy spoczynkowej jest większa niż zero), a nawet równa jej (cząstki bezmasowe, masą spoczynkowa równa zero, one posiadają tylko masę relatywistyczną i dlatego mają tą właśnie prędkość ). +Uwaga 1: Czterowektor zdefiniowany jako pochodna współrzędnej po interwale nie ma wymiaru prędkości. +Uwaga 2: Każdy sygnał rozprzestrzeniający się z prędkością światła transformuje się jak asymptota diagramu Minkowskiego, a nie zgodnie z transformacją Lorentza. W każdym układzie odniesienia prędkość światła jest stała i parametru zdefiniowanego jako iloczyn "ct" nie można transformować inaczej, gdyż jest to równoznaczne istnieniu rozwiązania asymptotycznego. Czym innym jest upływ czasu, a czym innym propagacja sygnału na odległość "ct". +Uwaga 3: Wartość interwału leżącego na asymptocie jest zawsze równa zeru, zatem zerowa składowa czterowektora prędkości nie +ma sensu fizycznego. +Czterowektor pędu. +Wyznaczmy elementy czterowektora pędu najpierw jej wielkości przestrzenne +Według kontrawariantny tensor pędy w przestrzeni obserwowalnej trójwymiarowej jest to pęd relatywistyczny, który zależy od masy relatywistycznej i prędkości cząstki masowej, czyli masa relatywistyczna zależy od wartości prędkości cząstki. Wyznaczmy element czasowy czterowektora pędu (jej element zerowy). +Współrzędna czasowa czterowektora pędu jest to energia cząstki podzielona przez prędkość światła. +Dla cząstek masowych czterowektor pędu dla przestrzeni trójwymiarowej, która jest podprzestrzenią czasoprzestrzeni jest zależny od masy spoczynkowej i od wartości, wektora prędkości danej cząstki. Jeśli cząstka porusza się z prędkością światła, to wtedy pędy relatywistyczny cząstki zależy tylko od energii cząstki. +Widać, że składowe czterowektora pędu są to wielkości charakteryzujące cząstkę, które są zachowane (energia i pęd cząski- zasada zachowania energii oraz pędu). +Uwaga 4: Zerowa składowa czterowektora pędu dotyczy cząstek poruszających się z prędkością światła po asymptocie diagramu Minkowskiego (np. fotonów), do której nie stosuje się transformacja Lorentza. +Czterowektor siły. +Wyznaczmy elementy czasoprzestrzenne czterowektora siły i przekonamy się później, że jest to wielkość proporcjonalna do relatywistyczna siły znana z drugiej zasady dynamiki Einsteina. +Korzystając z definicji siły relatywistycznej, który jest zdefiniowany jako pochodna obserwowalnego pędy (elementy przestrzenne czterowektora pędu) względem czasu, którą mierzymy w sekundach. +Widzimy, że siła relatywistyczna jest równa zero gdy cząstka się porusza się z prędkością światła przy skończonej jej części przestrzenne czterowektra siły. Można to poznać po definicji funkcji formula_8. +Następnie korzystamy z własności tensorów na tensorach metrycznym a w szczególności tensora metrycznego Minkowskiego, wtedy wzór zapisujemy równoważnie +Związek czterowektora pędu z masą spoczynkową cząstki. +Z definicji energii cząstki oraz jej wartości pędu relatywistycznego zapisujemy według wzoru, którą wyprowadził Albert Einstein, i przedstawimy je w postaci umożliwiającej dalsze obliczenia. +Należy zauważyć, że wektor pędu w przestrzeni można zapisać w postaci wektora współrzędnych wektora pędu, lub w postaci elementów przestrzennych tensora czteropędu. +Jest to ogólny wzór wiążący współrzędne czterowektora pędu z jej masą spoczynkową (masa relatywistyczna cząstki przy jej prędkości zerowej). +Papryka chili + +Papryka chili, chilli, papryka ostra – ogólna nazwa, jaką określa się owoce niektórych odmian, kultywarów i mieszańców papryki ("Capsicum") o bardzo ostrym smaku +Właściwości. +Za ostry smak papryki chili odpowiada zawarta w jej owocach kapsaicyna, która ma własności drażniące i rozgrzewające skórę i błony śluzowe. Wywołuje uczucie ciepła i zaczerwienienie skóry i błon śluzowych, jednak nie powoduje ich stanu zapalnego, jak np. pieprz czy gorczyca. Silnie piekący smak, jaki odczuwamy przy doustnym spożyciu papryki chili wywołany jest przez podrażnienie zakończeń czuciowych oraz termicznych nerwów. Drogą odruchową powoduje to rozszerzenie naczyń krwionośnych błon śluzowych i skóry oraz położonych pod nimi narządów. Kapsaicyna drażni błonę śluzową żołądka, wzmaga apetyt i wydzielanie soków żołądkowych, ułatwiając trawienie. Gdy dostanie się do nosa powoduje kichanie, w krtani kaszel. +W 1912 roku została skonstruowana skala ostrości pikantnych potraw, stosowana głównie do papryk. Skala ta nosi nazwę skali Scoville'a, mierzy ona koncentrację kapsaicyny w potrawie. Najostrzejszą papryką chili jest Trinidad Scorpion Butch. +Operator liczby cząstek + +Operator liczby cząstek – w mechanice kwantowej, dla układów, w których liczba rozpatrywanych cząstek nie jest znana, operator liniowy (obserwabla) "zliczający" ich liczbę. +Formalnie, jeżeli formula_1 jest przestrzenią Hilberta, to "operator liczby cząstek" formula_2 na przestrzeni Foka formula_3 definiuje się jako operator +gdzie +Operator liczby cząstek jest operatorem dodatnim (w szczególności, jest on operatorem samosprzężonym) na formula_3. Z dodatniości wynika, że można w sposób jednoznaczny określić jego pierwiastek formula_7. +System Informacyjny Schengen + +System Informacyjny Schengen (SIS, ang. "Schengen Information System") – komputerowa baza danych, która pozwala na sprawdzenie, czy osoby lub przedmioty przekraczające granicę Strefy Schengen, bądź już znajdujące się na jej terenie, nie są poszukiwane, niejawnie nadzorowane lub czy nie dotyczy ich zakaz wstępu. +Dostęp do niej mają policja i urzędy konsularne oraz straż graniczna i służba celna z państw członkowskich układu z Schengen. +W Polsce listę instytucji uprawnionych do dostępu do SIS definiuje Ustawa o udziale Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w Systemie Informacyjnym Schengen oraz Wizowym Systemie Informacyjnym. +Budowa systemu. +SIS składa się z narodowych sekcji w każdym z krajów członkowskich oraz z układu centralnego. +Centralny serwer SIS znajduje się w Strasburgu. Narodowe bazy danych (N-SIS) są jednakowe w każdym kraju, dzięki stałej aktualizacji informacji za pośrednictwem jednostki koordynującej, tj. Centralnego Rejestru (C-SIS). +Dane w systemie. +System gromadzi dane na temat obserwowanych, podejrzanych lub ściganych osób oraz przedmiotów (skradzionych pojazdów, broni, dokumentów). Za największą zaletę systemu uważa się nieuwzględnienie w tworzonych bazach danych daktyloskopijnych. Pokazuje to skalę zaufania do obywateli oraz zwiększa strefę prywatności obywateli. +Szyfr na krzywych eliptycznych + +Szyfr na krzywych eliptycznych (ang. Elliptic Curve Cryptography, ECC) – algorytm wykorzystujący krzywe eliptyczne w celu szyfrowania informacji (istnieją także inne algorytmy np. algorytm rozkładu liczb złożonych na czynniki pierwsze wykorzystujące krzywe eliptyczne). +Krzywe eliptyczne są obiektem matematycznym pozwalającym w łatwy sposób na generację dużej liczby nietrywialnych grup abelowych. Elementami takich grup są punkty krzywej, zaś jako działanie służy pewna raczej złożona operacja arytmetyczna wymierna na ich współrzędnych. W tak zdefiniowanych grupach może występować wielka, choć skończona liczba elementów (rząd grupy może być skończony) jeśli zawęzić operacje do np. punktów o współrzędnych wymiernych, lub jeśli całą krzywą rozpatrywać wyłącznie w ramach arytmetyki modulo skończona liczba pierwsza p. +Aby zbudować system szyfrujący w oparciu o krzywe eliptyczne, stosuje się jeden ze znanych algorytmów szyfrowania, jak algorytm szyfrowania oparty na problemie logarytmu dyskretnego (porównaj ElGamal). W miejsce grupy modulo p, wprowadza się grupę E generowaną przez określona krzywą eliptyczną. W takim wypadku rolę działania multiplikatywnego pełni potęgowanie punktu w grupie E (które w grupie E polega po prostu na dodawaniu punktu do samego siebie P + P + P = 3 * P co jest równe P^{3} zależnie od sposobu zapisu działania grupowego), zaś wykładnik w takiej grupie może pełnić rolę klucza. Powstałe w ten sposób systemy szyfrowania należą do klasy kryptografii asymetrycznej. Osobą, która zaproponowała po raz pierwszy użycie krzywych eliptycznych, a następnie ich uogólnienia, krzywych hipereliptycznych, w algorytmach kryptograficznych był Neal Koblitz. +Znaczenie kryptografii opartej na krzywych eliptycznych wzrasta, gdyż przy tej samej długości klucza, z powodu złożoności arytmetyki grupowej, oferuje ona większe bezpieczeństwo (jej złamanie wymaga większej ilości obliczeń) w porównaniu z np. RSA. Odwrotnie, to samo bezpieczeństwo osiągamy przy mniejszej długości klucza niż w innych przypadkach szyfrowania asymetrycznego. Tym samym implementacja algorytmów szyfrujących w oparciu o krzywe eliptyczne dobrze nadaje się do użycia w np. kartach chipowych. +Adwersarze argumentują, że algorytmy starsze, takie jak RSA są lepiej przebadane oraz znacznie wydajniejsze (szybsze). Rzeczywiście porównanie szybkości szyfrowania wskazuje, ze DES (a więc szyfr symetryczny) jest ok. 100 razy szybszy niż RSA (asymetryczny), który jest ok. 10 razy szybszy niż kryptografia eliptyczna. +Prowadzone są prace nad standaryzacją szyfrowania opartego na krzywych eliptycznych oraz prace rozwojowe nad rozwojem uogólnienia tego typu szyfrów na krzywe hipereliptyczne. Szczególne miejsce w tych pracach zajmuje określenie jakie krzywe eliptyczne nadają się do stosowania w ramach algorytmów kryptograficznych znane są bowiem pewne ograniczenia czyniące szyfrowanie eliptyczne nieprzydatnym (łatwym do złamania) jeśli zostanie ono zbudowane w oparciu o niewłaściwą krzywą. Warto także zwrócić uwagę, że w dziedzinie matematycznej teorii krzywych eliptycznych notuje się szybki rozwój teoretyczny i może się okazać że za kilka lat opracowane zostaną skuteczne techniki łamania szyfrów tego typu lub że zmienione zostaną zalecenia co do stosowanych klas krzywych. +Układ z Schengen + +Układ z Schengen – porozumienie które znosi kontrolę osób przekraczających granice między państwami członkowskimi układu, a w zamian za to wzmacnia współpracę w zakresie bezpieczeństwa i polityki azylowej. Dotyczy również współpracy przygranicznej. +Porozumienie to zostało zawarte w miejscowości Schengen w Luksemburgu 14 czerwca 1985. +Historia. +Przed 1914 rokiem podróż z Paryża do Petersburga bez paszportu czy innego analogicznego dokumentu była możliwa. +13 lipca 1984 roku RFN i Francja zawarły porozumienie w Saarbrücken. Była to dwustronna umowa w sprawie ułatwiania obywatelom obu państw przekraczania wspólnej granicy. Umowa ta dotyczyła jedynie kontroli na drogowych przejściach granicznych. Umową z Saarbrücken zainteresowały się kraje Beneluksu, mające już doświadczenie w funkcjonowaniu unii paszportowej. Wykorzystano więc część rozwiązań z Saarbrücken i zawarto nową umowę. W dniu 14 czerwca 1985 w miejscowości Schengen podpisano porozumienie o stopniowym znoszeniu kontroli na wspólnych granicach (tzw. Schengen I) między krajami Unii Gospodarczej Beneluksu, Francją i RFN. Umowa ta została zawarta poza wspólnotowym porządkiem prawnym. +Od 1986 wprowadzono zwykłą kontrolę wzrokową na granicy dokonywaną w stosunku do pojazdów przekraczających ją ze zmniejszoną prędkością. Natomiast 26 marca 1995 całkowicie zniesiono kontrolę na granicach. W 1995 na mocy układu z 1990 również Hiszpania i Portugalia stały się pełnoprawnymi członkami Grupy. Włochy, Grecja, Austria oraz pięć krajów nordyckich (Dania, Finlandia, Szwecja, Norwegia, Islandia) uzyskały wówczas status obserwatorów. +Pełnomocnik Rządu do Spraw Przygotowania Organów Administracji Państwowej do Współpracy z Systemem Informacyjnym Schengen i Systemem Informacji Wizowej został ustanowiony już rozporządzeniem Rady Ministrów z dnia 20 grudnia 2004 (). Rządowy projekt ustawy o udziale Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w Systemie Informacyjnym Schengen oraz Systemie Informacji Wizowej wpłynął do Sejmu 5 lipca 2007 jako druk sejmowy nr 1934. Projekt dotyczył uporządkowania i uzupełnienia w niezbędnym zakresie podstaw prawnych dotyczących uczestnictwa Polski w Systemie Informacyjnym Schengen (SIS) i Systemie Informacji Wizowej (VIS), ustalenia w odpowiedni sposób kompetencji poszczególnych organów w zakresie wprowadzania i udostępniania danych SIS i VIS. Nad projektem pracowała Komisja Administracji i Spraw Wewnętrznych. Na posiedzeniu nr 46 V kadencji Sejm uchwalił "ustawę z dnia 24 sierpnia 2007 r. o udziale Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w Systemie Informacyjnym Schengen oraz Systemie Informacji Wizowej" (). 401 posłów było za, 29 przeciw, 8 wstrzymało się. Senat nie wniósł poprawek. 7 września 2007 Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej podpisał ustawę. Ustawa realizuje "decyzję Rady 2004/512/WE z dnia 8 czerwca 2004 r. w sprawie ustanowienia Wizowego Systemu Informacyjnego (VIS)" (Dz. Urz. UE L 213 z 15.06.2004, s. 5-7 ()) i inne. Zgodnie z art. 46 ustawy i decyzją Rady Rzeczpospolita Polska weszła do układu z Schengen 21 grudnia 2007. +W 2011 r. rozpoczęły się prace nad modyfikacją układu, która dałaby możliwość pozwolenia państwom członkowskim na okresowe przywrócenie kontroli na ich granicach wewnętrznych. +Opis. +Układ jest otwarty dla wszystkich członków Unii Europejskiej. Wynikająca z niego swoboda przepływu osób wewnątrz tzw. strefy Schengen dotyczy nie tylko obywateli państw – sygnatariuszy, ale wszystkich osób wszelkiej narodowości i o dowolnym obywatelstwie, które przekraczają granice wewnętrzne na terenie objętym porozumieniem. +Do układu z Schengen należą obecnie 22 państwa Unii Europejskiej oraz Islandia i Norwegia, wchodzące w skład Związku Paszportowego Krajów Nordyckich oraz Szwajcaria i Liechtenstein, który jest z grupą z Schengen stowarzyszony. +Przyjęcie przepisów wynikających z układu z Schengen jest jednym z wymogów uzyskania członkostwa w Unii Europejskiej przez kraje kandydujące, tak więc w przyszłości strefa swobodnego, niekontrolowanego przepływu osób może znacznie się powiększyć i być może obejmie prawie całą Europę. +Tymczasowe przywrócenia kontroli. +Kontrola na granicach wewnętrznych jest tymczasowo przywracana w sytuacjach zagrożenia bezpieczeństwa i porządku publicznego. +W 2011 r. Dania przywróciła częściowe kontrole graniczne. +Marek Ślosarski + +Marek Ślosarski (ur. 1957 w Bytomiu) – aktor filmowy i teatralny, reżyser teatralny. +Studiował na wydziale wokalno-aktorskim Akademii Muzycznej w Katowicach. Pracował w Teatrze Rozrywki w Chorzowie (1982–1983), w Teatrze Polskim w Bielsku-Białej (1983–1989), Teatrze im. Adama Mickiewicza w Częstochowie (dwukrotnie: 1989–1995 i 1998–2007) i w Teatrze Śląskim w Katowicach (1995–1998). Od 2003 do 2006 zastępca dyrektora teatru częstochowskiego. Od 2007 pracuje w Teatrze Powszechnym w Łodzi. +Jest trzykrotnym zdobywcą "Złotej Maski", śląskiej nagrody teatralnej. Uhonorowany Srebrnym Krzyżem Zasługi. +Medal Wolności (USA) + +Presidential Medal of Freedom ("Prezydencki Medal Wolności") – najwyższe odznaczenie cywilne Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki nadawane przez Prezydenta USA obywatelom amerykańskim oraz cudzoziemcom za szczególnie wybitny wkład w dziedzinie bezpieczeństwa lub narodowych interesów Stanów Zjednoczonych, pokoju światowego, kultury, jak również innych znaczących dokonań w sferze publicznej lub prywatnej. Ustanowiony w 1963 roku przez Johna Fitzgeralda Kennedy'ego, zastąpił "Medal Wolności" ustanowiony przez Harry'ego Trumana w 1945 roku, nadawany za służbę i zasługi cywilne podczas II wojny światowej. +Odznaczenie posiada dwa stopnie: +Medal może zostać przyznany pośmiertnie. W dwóch przypadkach medal został nadany tej samej osobie dwukrotnie. +Wstążka medalu jest niebieska z białymi paskami wzdłuż brzegów. +Odznaczeni. +"Prezydencki Medal Wolności" otrzymali m.in.: Edwin Aldrin ("with Distinction"), Neil Armstrong ("with Distinction"), Jan Karski, Zbigniew Brzeziński, Ellsworth Bunker (dwukrotnie "with Distinction"), Michael Collins ("with Distinction"), T.S. Eliot, Duke Ellington, Hugh O'Flaherty, Václav Havel, Stephen Hawking, Audrey Hepburn, Vladimir Horowitz, John Howard, Jan Paweł II, Harper Lee, Carole Lombard, Jan Nowak-Jeziorański, Gregory Peck, Colin Powell (dwukrotnie), Ronald Reagan ("with Distinction"), Artur Rubinstein ("with Distinction"), Frank Sinatra, Matka Teresa z Kalkuty, Margaret Thatcher oraz Lech Wałęsa. +Agranulocyt + +Agranulocyty są to komórki krwi które należą do grupy leukocytów. Wyróżnia się dwa rodzaje agranulocytów – monocyty i limfocyty. Są to komórki które nie zawierają w cytoplazmie granul czyli ziarnistości. +Komputer stacjonarny + +Komputer stacjonarny (ang. "desktop" – na biurko) – rodzaj komputera osobistego, który zwykle jest na stałe umiejscowiony przy biurku. Składa się z co najmniej trzech zasadniczych elementów: jednostki centralnej, monitora i klawiatury. +Niegdyś istniał podział na komputery biurowe i domowe, w którym domowe miały zazwyczaj mniejszą moc obliczeniową, ale za to więcej możliwości multimedialnych. Obecnie jednak zanikł, gdyż multimedialność jest już standardem w komputerach, a gry komputerowe – czyli jedno z popularnych zastosowań komputerów domowych – wymagają nieraz dla wykorzystania pełni ich możliwości naprawdę mocnych maszyn, podczas gdy do typowych prac biurowych wystarczają najprostsze i najtańsze zestawy. +W związku z rozwojem technologicznym oraz przekroczeniem barier miniaturyzacji wielu układów scalonych czy podzespołów elektronicznych, a przede wszystkim w związku z upowszechnieniem się nowoczesnych technologii, a co za tym idzie przeniesieniem produkcji do Azji, spadły ceny komputerów przenośnych, czyli laptopów oraz palmtopów (PDA, asystent elektroniczny), ich ilość w stosunku do komputerów stacjonarnych ciągle rośnie. +Lotus 1-2-3 + +Lotus 1-2-3 – arkusz kalkulacyjny opracowany przez firmę Lotus Development Corporation (obecnie część IBM). +Program ukazał się na rynku 26 stycznia 1983 i w krótkim czasie wyparł z niego bardzo popularny VisiCalc, przyczyniając się w dużej mierze do sukcesu komputerów PC w środowisku korporacyjnym. Przez długie lata był to czołowy produkt w systemie operacyjnym MS-DOS. +Program był początkowo dostarczany z osobnym programem do generowania wykresów, który nie mógł być jednak uruchamiany razem z arkuszem, gdyż DOS nie był systemem wielozadaniowym. Program udostępniał menu sterowane z klawiatury, jak również jednoklawiszowe polecenia przyspieszające obsługę. Zaletą była też kontekstowa pomoc. +W wersji 2.0 pojawiły się makropolecenia i obsługa dodatków, co bardzo wpłynęło na popularność arkusza - wiele firm trzecich rozpoczęło wtedy produkowanie pakietów z makropoleceniami i wyspecjalizowanymi dodatkami, jak aplikacje finansowe czy edytory tekstów. Wczesne wersje posługiwały się rozszerzeniem plików WKS, zmienionym potem na WK1. +Lotus 1-2-3 był wielokrotnie przedmiotem naruszeń prawa przez kopiowanie rozwiązań interfejsu. Najbardziej znane było zastosowanie tych samych poleceń klawiszowych przez Quattro Pro firmy Borland, co spowodowało wniesienie pozwu. +Wejście Microsoft Windows na rynek komputerów osobistych wiązało się z rozwojem konkurencyjnego arkusza Microsoft Excel, który stopniowo zajął pozycję Lotusa, związanego w tym czasie głównie z systemem OS/2. +Następca Lotusa 1-2-3 w środowisku DOS miał być był pakiet Lotus Symphony, który nie odniósł jednak sukcesu. Lotus 1-2-3 został przeniesiony do Windows, gdzie do dzisiaj istnieje jako część pakietu biurowego Lotus SmartSuite. Ostatnią wersją jest wersja 9.8. +Symmachus (papież) + +Symmachus (zm. 19 lipca 514) – papież w okresie od 22 listopada 498 do 19 lipca 514, święty Kościoła katolickiego. +Biografia. +Był Sardyńczykiem konwertytą z pogaństwa, synem Fortunata. Po śmierci Anastazego znowu doszło do wybrania dwóch papieży: prawowitego Symmacha i antypapieża Wawrzyńca. +Król Teodoryk Wielki zaakceptował dobrą wolę Symmacha by zwołać synod. Po opinii króla Teodoryka Symmach zwołał synod, który miał potwierdzić jego prawowity wybór. Kiedy król Teodoryk Wielki przybył z Rawenny do Rzymu papież Symmach witał go, zaś zwolennicy Wawrzyńca oskarżyli papieża o celebrowanie obchodów świąt Wielkiej Nocy według starego kalendarza rzymskiego, a nie aleksandryjskiego. Na wezwanie króla Teodoryka Symmach wyjechał z Rzymu, ale nie dojechał do celu, bo w drodze otrzymał wiadomość, że oskarżono go o pożycie z niewiastą i przywłaszczenie własności kościelnej. Wrócił więc do Rzymu i chwilowo ukrył się w Bazylice św. Piotra. Zwolennicy Wawrzyńca nakłonili Teodoryka by mianował on Piotra, biskupa Altinum, rzymskim wizytatorem i zarządcą Stolicy Apostolskiej. Teodoryk zwołał synod biskupi, by ten zbadał dokładnie oskarżenia padające pod adresem papieża Symmacha. W dniu rozpoczęcia synodu doszło w Rzymie do poważnych starć pomiędzy zwolennikami Wawrzyńca i Symmacha. Pod nieobecność Symmacha synod uznał, że papież może być postawiony tylko przed sądem Bożym, a nie ludzkim. Uchwalono też, że papież Symmach jest prawowitym papieżem, a kto odmawia mu posłuszeństwa jest schizmatykiem. Spory doprowadziły do zebrania poważnych akt odwołujących się do dziejów papiestwa z przekazów ustalonych przez Sylwestra I. Natomiast synod zwołany przez Symmacha w bazylice św. Piotra podjął uchwały ograniczające możliwość ingerowania władzy świeckiej w sprawy Kościoła. +Zarządził śpiewanie Gloria in excelsis Deo w niedzielnych Mszach Świętych (wg "Pontyfikału rzymskiego"). +Wiele lat później Symmach dążył do zwołania soboru w Heraklei. Symmach wysłał pismo do cesarza Bizancjum. W oczekiwaniu na odpowiedź papież zmarł. W czasie jego pontyfikatu na katolicyzm przeszedł Zygmunt, król Burgundów. Symmachus w 514 roku ustanowił Arles diecezją całej Galii i Hiszpanii, a prymat nad nią powierzył św. Cezaremu, który był pierwszym biskupem spoza Italii. +Został pochowany w grotach watykańskiej bazyliki św. Piotra. +Jego wspomnienie liturgiczne obchodzone jest 19 lipca. +Guanyin + +Guanyin – główna postać chińskiego panteonu buddyjskiego, odpowiednik indyjskiego bodhisattwy Awalokiteśwary, przedstawiany w postaci kobiecej. W Chinach Guanyin jest także tradycyjnie czczona w ludowej religii jako bogini miłosierdzia, litości i płodności. +W buddyjskiej ikonografii w Chinach moment pojawienia się Guanyin (VI-VII w. n.e.) zbiega się w czasie z przybyciem nestorian – stąd hipoteza, że do upowszechnienia się żeńskich przedstawień Awalokiteśwary w Państwie Środka przyczynił się rozpowszechniany przez nestorian kult Marii, matki Jezusa. Poza Guanyin wszyscy inni bodhisattwowie w Chinach są przedstawiani jako mężczyźni. Według innej hipotezy stało się to na skutek utożsamienia wierzeń na temat Awalokiteśwary (ideał piękna, obdarzanie kobiet potomstwem) za sferą kobiecą. Na południowym wybrzeżu Chin Guanyin utożsamiana jest z boginią Mazu. +Guanyin pełni w chińskim synkretyzmie religijnym funkcję podobną do Maryi w katolicyzmie, zajmując uprzywilejowaną pozycję po Buddzie Śiakjamunim i obok buddy Amitabhy, któremu pomaga w zarządzaniu Zachodnim Rajem. +Często przedstawiana jest z niemowlęciem na ręku (nie jest to jednak jej dziecko), a kobiety modlą się do niej o szczęśliwe poczęcie, najczęściej syna. Uważana jest za duchową matkę rodzaju ludzkiego. +Do jej atrybutów zaliczają się także wierzbowa witka i waza z wodą święconą. Guanyin oznacza dosł. "obserwować dźwięki", bo uważa się, że wysłuchuje wszystkich próśb. +Z Chin kult Guanyin rozprzestrzenił się także m.in. na Koreę (kor. Kwan-um), Japonię (jap. Kannon) oraz północny Wietnam (wietn. Quan Âm). +Aprozodia + +Aprozodia – zaburzenia dotyczące rozumienia i generowania intonacji i emocjonalnego wyrazu wypowiedzi po prawostronnych uszkodzeniach mózgu. +Million Book Project + +Million Book Project (Projekt Miliona Książek) - projekt Uniwersytetu Carnegie-Mellon, którego celem jest zdigitalizowanie i zindeksowanie do końca roku 2005 miliona książek należących do publicznej domeny i udostępnienie ich w Internecie. Dotychczas został zrealizowany pilotowy "Thousand Book Project". Na początku 2005 dostępnych było ok. 15 tys. tekstów. +Hajime Sorayama + +Styl jego dzieł jest bardziej realistyczny niż typowe anime i manga, tworzy słynne obrazy kobiet-robotów, często o silnie erotycznym charakterze. Rysuje także cyborgi i inne mieszanki postaci ludzi i zwierząt. +Jego pierwszą książką była "Sexy Robot" wydana w 1983. +Antonin (powiat ostrowski) + +Antonin – wieś w gminie Przygodzice, powiecie ostrowskim, województwo wielkopolskie. Około 470 mieszkańców. Ośrodek wypoczynkowy z kąpieliskiem i domkami kempingowymi. Rezerwat przyrody Wydymacz. Ośrodek turystyczny na skraju Parku Krajobrazowego Dolina Baryczy. +Położony około 10 km na południe od Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego, przy zbiegu dróg: +Odbywają się tu: Międzynarodowy Festiwal "Chopin w barwach jesieni" (częściowo w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim), Międzynarodowa Wystawa Ekslibrisu Muzycznego oraz Turniej Pianistów Stypendystów Zagranicznych o nagrodę księcia Antoniego H. Radziwiłła. +Historia. +Początkowo znany jako Szperek, od XIX Antonin, na cześć Antoniego Radziwiłła. Przed rokiem 1878 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do powiatu odolanowskiego, w latach 1975-1998 do województwa kaliskiego, a w latach 1887-1975 i od 1999 do powiatu ostrowskiego. +W Antoninie urodzili się: Władysław Wawrzyniak, dowódca I Pułku Piechoty Polskiej (Republika Ostrowska) oraz Frontu Południowego powstania wielkopolskiego i Krystian Niełacny, lekarz, działacz społeczny, regionalista. +Damnum emergens + +Damnum emergens (łac.) to rzeczywista szkoda, jaką została wyrządzona danemu podmiotowi prawa wskutek zdarzenia, z którym związana jest czyjaś odpowiedzialność. +Przykład: bezprawne zniszczenie czyjegoś samochodu. +Planica + +Planica – dolina górska położona w północno-zachodniej części Słowenii (przy granicy z Włochami i Austrią) w Alpach Julijskich, niedaleko Kranjskiej Gory. Znany ośrodek sportów zimowych. +Obiekty sportowe. +W dolinie tej znajduje się kompleks skoczni narciarskich, z których najbardziej znana jest mamucia skocznia narciarska Letalnica - druga pod względem wielkości skocznia na świecie. Jej rekord wynosi 239 m i został ustanowiony 20 marca 2005 r. przez norweskiego skoczka Bjoerna Einara Romoerena. W tym samym konkursie fiński skoczek Janne Ahonen uzyskał odległość 240 m, ale ze względu na upadek rekord nie został zaliczony. +Najdłuższy skok na Letalnicy oddany przez Polaka wynosi 226 m, odległość ta została uzyskana przez Kamila Stocha 19 marca 2011 r. W trakcie realizacji jest rewitalizacja wszystkich skoczni w Planicy i utworzenie kompleksu Planica Nordic Centrum (docelowo do końca 2012 roku). +Izofona + +Izofona (krzywa izofoniczna) – krzywa jednakowego poziomu głośności dźwięku. Izofony są przedstawiane w układzie logarytmicznej zależności poziomu natężenia dźwięku lub poziomu ciśnienia akustycznego od częstotliwości. Dana krzywa izofoniczna ma tę samą wartość, na przestrzeni różnych częstotliwości, liczoną w fonach, ale różną liczoną w decybelach. Wynika to z różnego odbioru częstotliwości przez ludzkie ucho. +Najniżej położona krzywa (0 fonów) stanowi próg słyszenia, czyli określa najmniejszą wartość poziomu ciśnienia akustycznego tonu o danej częstotliwości wywołującego wrażenie słuchowe. Krzywa położona najwyżej (około 130 fonów) to granica bólu, co oznacza, że tony o określonych przez nią poziomach powodują ból, a nawet mogą uszkodzić słuch. Pomiędzy krzywą progu słyszenia a krzywą granicy bólu leży cała rodzina krzywych izofonicznych, których parametrem jest poziom głośności. +Dolna granica słyszalności i granica bólu wyznaczają obszar (powierzchnię) słyszalności. Zakres odbieranych częstotliwości wynosi średnio od 16 Hz do 20 kHz, a poziomów (dla częstotliwości 3 kHz) od -10 dB do 130 dB. +Ze względu na swój subiektywny charakter, krzywe izofoniczne nie mają ścisłego kształtu, ani położenia i różnią się w zależności od metod badawczych użytych do ich wyznaczenia. +RADIUS + +RADIUS (ang. "Remote Authentication Dial In User Service"), usługa zdalnego uwierzytelniania użytkowników, którzy wdzwaniają się do systemu (poprzez usługę "połączenia dodzwaniane"). +Protokół używany do uwierzytelniania. Stosowany przez dostawców internetowych na serwerach innych niż serwery z systemem Windows. Obecnie jest najpopularniejszym protokołem uwierzytelniania i autoryzowania użytkowników sieci telefonicznych i tunelowych. +Używany również w sieciach bezprzewodowych. +Funkcjonowanie protokołu RADIUS. +W odpowiedzi na próbę zalogowania się użytkownika do sieci serwer dostępowy (NAS) generuje zapytanie o dane użytkownika, w tym jego identyfikator i hasło. Po wprowadzeniu tych danych z poziomu terminala użytkownika, jego identyfikator wraz z zakodowanym hasłem zostają wysłane do serwera RADIUS-a. +Po przejściu z sukcesem etapu uwierzytelniania, serwer RADIUS sprawdza w bazach autoryzacji, jakie usługi są dostępne dla danego użytkownika ( np. telnet, rlogin, połączenia terminalowe LAT, oprogramowanie protokołów SLIP czy PPP, możliwość wywołania interpretera EXEC ). Serwer RADIUS na etapie autoryzacji sprawdza też czy działania danego użytkownika w sieci nie powinny podlegać restrykcjom wynikłym z list dostępu. +RADIUS w sieciach bezprzewodowych. +W sieciach WLAN rolę NAS pełni punkt dostępowy pracujący na stacji bazowej. W przypadku próby podłączenia się klienta radiowego, NAS wysyła zapytanie do serwera RADIUS. Zapytanie zawiera nazwę użytkownika i hasło. W przypadku sieci bezprzewodowych jest to adres MAC urządzenia próbującego uzyskać dostęp do sieci bezprzewodowej. Po pozytywnej autoryzacji w serwerze RADIUS do NAS przesyłany jest komunikat zezwalający na dołączenie urządzenia do WLAN. +Papirologia + +Papirologia (łac. papyrus 'papirus', gr. pápyros) – nauka zajmująca się badaniem i odczytywaniem rękopisów (zwłaszcza greckich, rzadziej łacińskich, zwykle sporządzonych na papirusie). +Definicja i zakres papirologii. +Papirus (Cyperus papyrus) roślina wodna z rodziny turzycowatych, rosnąca w miejscowościach błotnistych Egiptu, Etiopii i Palestyny, zaaklimatyzowana również i na Sycylii. Z drewna papirusu Egipcjanie wyrabiali łodzie, z kory zaś obuwie, sznury, odzież i inne przedmioty codziennego użytku. Z włóknistego rdzenia rośliny wytwarzano materiał piśmienny dla całego regionu śródziemnomorskiego. Rdzeń ten krajano na wąskie pasma, które łamano obok siebie, po czym poprzecznie przykrywano drugą warstwą. Obie warstwy, zalawszy wodą z Nilu, stłaczano pod prasą. Na jednej stronie karty włókna papirusu biegły pionowo, na drugiej poziomo. Po wygładzeniu tej ostatniej fiszbinem lub muszlą używano jej do pisania, niekiedy jednak dla oszczędności pisano również na odwrocie. Szereg kart sklejano w długi zwój i odcinano niego dowolnej długości kawałki. Na papirusie pisano tuszem, sporządzanym z delikatnej sadzy zmieszanej z tartą gumą. Narzędziem pisarskim był kawałek trzciny, zwany po grecku kalamos. Listy i dokumenty pisano na oddzielnych kartkach papirusowych, zwijanych następnie w rulon i zabezpieczanych pieczęciami. Książka papirusowa miała postać zwoju, w którym tekst był ułożony w kolumnach prostopadłych do jego długości. Czytelnik rozwijał trzymany w prawej ręce zwój, lewą ręką zwijał z powrotem już przeczytaną stronę. Dla ponownego przeczytania książki trzeba było cały zwój przewinąć z lewej strony na prawą. +Papirologia (gr. papyros = papirus + logos = nauka) nauka zajmująca się odczytywaniem, wydawaniem i interpretacją starożytnych tekstów greckich (także łacińskich i koptyjskich), pisanych przede wszystkim na papirusie oraz na pergaminie, tabliczkach glinianych i ostrakach (skorupkach glinianych). Papirologia jest więc nauką badającą teksty napisane na papirusach. W praktyce termin ten nie odpowiada ściśle swej treści. Oznacza, bowiem pomocniczą naukę zajmującą się badaniem tekstów z grecko – rzymskiego Egiptu (332 p.n.e. – 641 n.e. ), napisanych zazwyczaj na papirusach w języku greckim. Dodanie określenia „w zasadzie” jest konieczne, dlatego, że papirologia uwzględnia w swych badaniach także teksty napisane w innych językach (egipskim, koptyjskim, łacińskim) i na innych materiałach (gliniane skorupy, kamień, tabliczki woskowane), jeżeli treść tych tekstów jest pokrewna treści greckich tekstów papirusowych z grecko – rzymskiego Egiptu. +W zasadzie papirolog to ten, który wydaje papirusy. W polu jego zainteresowania znajdują się także teksty napisane na innych materiałach piśmienniczych używanych w starożytnym Egipcie (min. ostraka). +Przedmiot badań. +Papirologia pełni rolę nauki pomocniczej w stosunku do szeregu starszych od niej nauk, takich jak: filologia klasyczna, historia starożytna, historia państwa i prawa, historia kultury, historia religii, historia medycyny, geografia historyczna, egiptologia, antropologia i etnografia. Dostarcza ona tym naukom materiały i wyniki prac jako elementy do opracowania syntez. Ponieważ bardzo znacząca ilość tekstów papirusowych dotyczy praw i zwyczajów stosowanych w grecko – rzymskim Egipcie, szczególnie wielkie znaczenie posiada papirologia prawnicza. +Największa ilość znalezisk papirusowych pochodzi z Egiptu. Zawdzięczamy im znajomość uważanych dotąd za zaginione tekstów dzieł antycznych pisarzy greckich. Wśród papirusów ponadto znajdują się dokumenty historyczne, prawne, świadectwa o życiu społecznym i rodzinnym Greków egipskich z okresu hellenistycznego i późniejszego. Najbogatszym źródłem papirusów są śmietniska w okolicy dawnych osiedli. Sporo znajdowało się również w ruinach starożytnych domów, zwłaszcza tam, gdzie całą wieś lub miasteczko zostało opuszczone przez ludność. Niekiedy wkładano trumny zmarłemu zwój papirusowy o treści literackiej, częściej magicznej. +Papirologia obejmuje teksty w sumie z całej wschodniej części basenu Morza Śródziemnego napisane w językach greckim, koptyjskim i łacińskim. +Miejsca i okresy reprezentowane w materiale papirologicznym. +Papirusy, które dotarły do naszych czasów można podzielić na cztery grupy. +Okres, jaki obejmują zachowane teksty to od XVIII w. p.n.e. do VIII w. n.e. Najwięcej tekstów pochodzi z I i II w. n.e. Najczęściej papirusy znajdowane są w miejscu powstania. Wyjątek stanowią: listy prywatne i urzędowe papiery urzędowe, dokumenty prywatne, oraz zwoje. +Papirusy literackie i nieliterackie. +Ważną kategorią są papirusy literackie. Zaliczamy do nich oprócz literatury: komentarze, streszczenia utworów, słowniki, prace naukowe (z większości dziedzin), prawnicze, astrologie, horoskopy, teksty magiczne, modlitwy. Zawierają one piśmiennictwo pisarzy pogańskich i chrześcijańskich (np. apokryfy). Do tej pory odkryto ponad 3000 fragmentów takich zwojów. Zapoznają one nas z dziełami, które nie dotarły do naszych czasów. +Papirusy nieliterackie to dokumenty. W słownictwie papirologicznym dokument to: list prywatny, akt małżeństwa, rachunek itp. Można je podzielić na prywatne i publiczne. Do tej pory opublikowano ponad 20000 takich tekstów. +Metody. Edytorstwo papirusów. +Właściwą pracę edytorską poprzedzają zabiegi konserwatorskie, które polegają na oczyszczeniu papirusu. Dokonują tego specjaliści, aby uchronić zabytek przed zniszczeniem. +Jeśli chodzi o papirusy literackie to odczytanie tekstu nie sprawia problemu ze względu na regularność pisma i czytelność. Większość z nich jest napisana odrębnym pismem tzw. książkowym. Część jednak wymaga znajomości paleografii. +Papirusy nieliterackie są trudniejsze do odczytania. Z reguły pisane są kursywą, brak w nich regularności i dbałości. Utrudnieniem są też zatarcia liter, dziury, ubytki. Zadaniem wydawcy jest określenie rozmiarów strat i zaproponowanie uzupełnień (jeśli jest to możliwe). Następnie ustała się proweniencje i datowanie. To ostatnie jest dość łatwe jeśli chodzi o daty roczne (kalendarz ptolemejski, macedoński, rzymski). Daty miesięczne i dzienne są natomiast trudne do ustalenia, gdyż kalendarz egipski i macedoński miał ruchomy początek roku. Do kolejnych zadań należy wszechstronne objaśnienie tekstu. Ważna jest też identyfikacja postaci (czy występują w innych źródłach), określenie rodzaju dokumentu, wyjaśnienie terminów odnoszących się do życia publicznego. Ostatnim elementem edycji może być przetłumaczenie tekstu. Przekład traktowany jest jako integralna część interpretacji. Pomocą w tych czynnościach są słowniki specjalistyczne. Badania kolejnych osób wprowadzają poprawki do tekstu ustalonego przez wydawcę. Proponują inne uzupełnienia luk oraz zmieniają datowanie i ustalają możliwie inną proweniencje. +Duże znaczenie mają dla papirologów zespoły papirusów powiązanych ze sobą i znalezione w jednym miejscu (archiwa). Większość powstała w języku greckim, choć zdarzają się koptyjskie i łacińskie. +Rozwój badań papirologicznych. +Pierwsze papirusy odkryto w 1752 roku w Herkulanum, willi Kalpurniusza Pizona. Za początkową datę w historii papirologii należy uznać rok 1788, kiedy to profesor uniwersytetu w Kopenhadze N. Schow opublikował pierwszy grecki dokument papirusowy Egiptu (tzw. Charta Borgiana). Około 1820 roku znaleziono szereg dokumentów papirusowych w Memfis i Tebach. Pierwszy literacki papirus, zawierający XXIV pieśń Iliady znaleziono w 1821. Największą ilość tekstów greckich znaleźli: w latach 1884-1890 wybitny egiptolog angielski W.M. Flinders Petrie, po nim Frederic George Kenyon, wreszcie dwaj wybitni uczeni angielscy B.P. Grenfell i A. S. Hunt. Papirologia jako odrębna nauka pomocnicza występuje od końca XIX wieku, kiedy rozpoczęto planowe poszukiwanie papirusów w Oksyrynchos, Elafantynie, Aphrodito, Fajum i w wielu innych miejscowościach. Bardzo duża ilość tekstów opublikowanych przez uczonych tej miary, co C. Wessey, U. Wilcken, B.P. Grenfell, A.S. Hunt, W. Schubert i L. Mittels zwróciła na tę dyscyplinę baczniejszą uwagę historyków i pozwoliła określić jej istotne zadania. +Wybitną rolę w tej dziedzinie odgrywa nauka polska. Pionierem polskiej papirologii był profesor UW Jerzy Manteuffel (1900-1954). Był on twórcą pierwszej w Polsce kolekcji papirusów oraz autor pierwszego polskiego zarysu papirologii. Drugi niemniej ważny to Rafał Taubenschlag (1881-1958), który był założycielem i dyrektorem Instytutu Papirologii UW. Rezultaty jego badań zostały uznane przez świat za niezwykle cenne i doniosłe. Założony przez nich Instytut Papirologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego jest światowym ośrodkiem badań nad prawem grecko – rzymskiego Egiptu. Ich uczniami byli Henryk Kupiszewski (1927-1994), Cezary Kunderewicz (1912-2000) i Józef Modrzejewski. Z młodszych należy wymienić: Anna Świderkównę (1916-2008) i jej ucznia Zbigniewa Borkowskiego (1936-1991). Obecnie papirologią zajmuje się Ewa Wpiszycka i jej uczniowie: Tomasz Derda, Adam Łukaszewicz, Adam Łajtar. Prowadzą oni badania w Zakładzie Papirologii Instytutu Archeologii UW. +W Polsce jednym z pierwszych papirologów był prof. Jerzy Manteuffel (1900 - 1954), organizator Katedry Papirologii na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim (1946) +Mitsubishi G4M + +Historia. +Samolot "Mitsubishi G4M" (amerykańskie oznaczenie kodowe "Betty") został zaprojektowany w 1937 r. dla dowództwa cesarskiej marynarki wojennej jako następca bombowca G3M. +Prototyp samolotu "Mitsubishi G4M" oblatał w dniu 23 października 1939 roku kpt. pil. Katsuzo Shima. W próbach samolot spisywał się poprawnie i miał dobre osiągi, uzyskane dzięki małej masie własnej (nie zastosowano opancerzenia kabiny i samouszczelniających się po przestrzeleniu zbiorników paliwa). +Samolot "Mitsubishi G4M" miał kadłub o konstrukcji metalowej, o przekroju eliptycznym, półskorupowy. W dziobie kadłuba mieściło się oszklone stanowisko nawigatora, który równocześnie pełnił funkcję bombardiera i obsługiwał mieszczący się w dziobie ruchomy karabin maszynowy. Za tym stanowiskiem, w górnej części kadłuba, znajdowała się kabina pilotów, w której lewy fotel zajmował pierwszy pilot, a prawy – drugi. Za kabiną pilotów znajdowała się górna wieżyczka strzelecka, w której strzelec pokładowy obsługiwał ruchomy karabin maszynowy. W środkowej części kadłuba – z prawej i lewej strony – mieściły się stanowiska bocznych strzelców pokładowych, obsługujących ruchome karabiny maszynowe – wystawiane na zewnątrz przez okienka. Na końcu kadłuba zamocowano całkowicie metalowe usterzenie klasyczne. Na końcu kadłuba znajdowało się zakryte, tylne stanowisko strzeleckie z umieszczonym w nim działkiem kalibru 20 mm, obsługiwane przez strzelca pokładowego. Płat metalowy o trapezowym obrysie, dwudźwigarowy, kesonowy, wewnątrz którego umieszczony był integralny zbiornik paliwa o pojemności 4900 litrów. Płat zamontowany był do boków kadłuba tuż za kabiną pilotów. Do płata zamontowano dwie gondole z silnikami gwiazdowymi "Kasei 11 MK4/A". Podwozie główne było całkowicie wciągane w locie do gondoli silnikowych. +W kwietniu 1941 r. uruchomiono produkcję seryjną wersji "G4M1 Model 11", która przenosiła ładunek bomb do 800 kg lub jedną torpedę. Do grudnia 1941 r. wyprodukowano 200 samolotów tej wersji. W 1942 r. zbudowano 370 samolotów wersji "G4M1 Model 12" z silnikami "Kasei 15" o mocy 1280 KM (942 kW) i z samouszczelniającymi się po przestrzeleniu zbiornikami paliwa. Kolejne wersje samolotu "Mitsubishi G4M" różniły się w zasadzie mocą silników i uzbrojeniem. W 1942 r. wyprodukowano wersję "G4M2" i jej odmiany w 1943 r.: "G4M2a", "G4M2b", "G4M2c", "G4M2d". W 1944 r. wyprodukowano wersję "G4M2e", przystosowaną do przenoszenia pod kadłubem bomby latającej "MXY-7 Ohka" – pilotowanej przez pilotów – samobójców (kamikaze). W 1945 r. wyprodukowano wersję "G4M3" z opancerzonymi stanowiskami załogi i silnikami wyposażonymi w turbosprężarki. +Ogółem w latach 1940 – 1945 zbudowano łącznie 2479 samolotów "Mitsubishi G4M" we wszystkich odmianach i wersjach, z tego 1200 wersji "G4M1", 1154 wersji "G4M2" i 60 wersji "G4M3". +Użycie bojowe. +Samolot "Mitsubishi G4M" był podstawowym samolotem bombowo-torpedowym japońskiej marynarki wojennej startującym z baz lądowych w latach 1941 – 1945. Po raz pierwszy został użyty w dniu 8 grudnia 1941 r., gdy 27 samolotów G4M zbombardowało amerykańską bazę lotniczą Clark Field na Filipinach. W dniu 10 grudnia 1941 r. wzięły udział w ataku na eskadrę floty brytyjskiej na Malajach, zatapiając m.in. pancernik „Repulse”. W 1942 r. brały udział w licznych atakach na lotniskowce amerykańskiej. Od kwietnia 1942 brały udział w nalotach na Port Moresby na Nowej Gwinei. Następnie uczestniczyły w walkach w rejonie Wysp Salomona, a w szczególności w atakach na wojska amerykańskie na wyspie Guadalcanal. Po wprowadzeniu przez lotnictwo amerykańskie do akcji w 1943 r. samolotów myśliwskich "F6F Hellcat" i "P-38 Lighting", znacznie zmalała skuteczność działania samolotów "Mitsubishi G4M". +Do czasu wprowadzenia samouszczelniających się zbiorników paliwa w 1942 r., bombowiec ten był określany przez pilotów amerykańskich jako "jednostrzałowa zapalniczka" lub "latające cygaro" ze względu na delikatność konstrukcji i podatność na zapalenie, bez względu na miejsce trafienia. +18 kwietnia 1943 r. na pokładzie samolotu "G4M1" zginął japoński admirał Isoroku Yamamoto, głównodowodzący japońską marynarką wojenną, zestrzelony w rejonie wyspy Bougainville przez samoloty myśliwskie "P 38 Lighting". W listopadzie 1944 r. samolot "G4M2e" przystosowano do transportowania bomb latających MXY-7 Ohka, pilotowanych przez kamikaze (pilotów – samobójców). Pierwszy atak kamikaze przy użyciu bomb "MXY 7 Ohka" nastąpił w dniu 20 marca 1945 r. Po początkowych sukcesach ta forma ataku na okręty przeciwnika nie przynosiła później spodziewanych efektów. +W dniu 19 sierpnia 1945 r. na pokładzie samolotu "Mitsubishi G4M2" przybyła na Iwo-Jimę japońska delegacja w celu podpisania aktu kapitulacji. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot "Mitsubishi G4M" był siedmiomiejscowym samolotem bombowo-torpedowym, średniopłatem o konstrukcji metalowej. Podwozie klasyczne wciągane w locie, napęd: 2 silniki gwiazdowe 14-cylindrowe "Mitsubishi Kasei 11 MK4A", śmigło metalowe, trzyłopatowe (w wersji "G4M1"), a silnik "Mitsubishi Kasei 21 MK4T" lub "Mitsubishi Kasei 25" i śmigło czterołopatowe (w wersji "G4M2") +National Hockey League + +National Hockey League ("NHL") albo Ligue nationale de hockey ("LNH") (pl. "Narodowa Liga Hokeja") – zawodowa organizacja zrzeszająca 30 drużyn hokejowych z Ameryki Północnej. Drużyny należące do NHL każdego sezonu walczą o Puchar Stanleya. Cechuje ją wysoki poziom gry oraz wysokie zarobki graczy (średnia pensja w sezonie 2000/2001 wyniosła 1 400 000 $). Liga ta została założona w 1917 roku w Montrealu w Kanadzie. Obecnie w NHL większość stanowią zespoły ze Stanów Zjednoczonych, a ponad połowa graczy pochodzi z Kanady. Składa się z dwóch konferencji oraz sześciu dywizji. Od kilku lat jedynym Polakiem występującym w NHL jest Wojtek Wolski, Kanadyjczyk polskiego pochodzenia. +Historia. +Po serii dyskusji w kanadyjskiej Narodowej Federacji Hokeja między właścicielem Toronto Blueshirts a właścicielami zespołów: Canadiens de Montréal, Montreal Wanderers, Ottawa Senators, i Quebec Bulldogs ich przedstawiciele zebrali się w Montrealu, gdzie debatowali nad przyszłością National Hockey Association. Powodem dyskusji były zarzuty wobec właściciela Toronto Blueshirts, który był wpływową postacią w National Hockey Association, a którego oskarżano o oszustwa i faworyzowanie jego zespołu przez ligę NHA. +Efektem tych rozmów było stworzenie w 1917 roku National Hockey League. W pierwszym sezonie w rozgrywkach wzięły udział tylko cztery zespoły: Montreal Canadiens, Toronto Arenas, Ottawa Senators oraz Montreal Wanderers. Przez pierwsze siedem sezonów w rozgrywkach brały udział jedynie zespoły z Kanady, dopiero w latach 1924-1925 do rozgrywek przystąpił zespół ze Stanów Zjednoczonych – był nim Boston Bruins. W sezonie 1926-1927 postanowiono po raz pierwszy podzielić ligę na dwie dywizje: amerykańską i kanadyjską. Liga NHL przez 25 sezonów, poczynając od 1942-1943 do 1966-1967 składała się wyłącznie z oryginalnej szóstki. Spowodowane to było wielkim kryzysem i rozpoczęciem II wojny światowej. W sezonie 1974-1975 ligę podzielono na dwie konferencje: +Podział na konferencje i dywizje stosowany w 2008 r. istnieje od sezonu 1998-1999, gdy obecny komisarz ligi postanowił wzorem z ligi NBA nazwać konferencje i dywizje geograficznie. W całej historii NHL tylko dwa razy nie przyznano Pucharu Stanleya. Pierwszy raz w sezonie 1918-1919, kiedy mimo, iż rozegrano pięć meczów finałowych rozgrywki przerwano z powodu epidemii hiszpanki. Natomiast drugi raz nie przyznano go w sezonie 2004-2005 z powodu lokautu w NHL. +W historii ligi do 2008 były trzy przerwy w rozgrywkach. Pierwsza miała miejsce w kwietniu 1992 roku, która była spowodowana strajkiem NHLPA. Jednak trwał on 10 dni i szybko wznowiono rozgrywki. Druga przerwa miała miejsce w sezonie 1994/1995. Powodem przerwy był spór wynagrodzenia dla pierwszoroczniaków. Przerwa w rozgrywkach trwała 104 dni. Spowodowało to zmniejszenie liczby meczów w tym sezonie do 48 sezonu zasadniczego, a playoffs odbyły się na normalnych zasadach. Natomiast trzecia przerwa była spowodowana lokautem w sezonie 2004/2005. Ta przerwa trwała 310 dni co uniemożliwiło rozegranie sezonu. +Drużyny. +W pierwszym sezonie ligi NHL udział wzięły cztery zespoły. Jednak dzięki wielu rozszerzeniom obecnie liga liczy 30 zespołów (23 ze Stanów Zjednoczonych oraz 7 z Kanady). Obecnie najbardziej utytułowanym zespołem ligi jest Canadiens de Montréal, który zdobył Puchar Stanleya aż 24 razy. Drugą najbardziej utytułowaną drużyną jest Toronto Maple Leafs która zdobyła 13 razy Puchar Stanleya (ostatni zdobyła w 1967 roku), a trzecią jest zespół Detroit Red Wings, dziesięciokrotny zdobywca tego trofeum. W NHL gra najwięcej zespołów z Kanady spośród czterech głównych zawodowych lig w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Do 2008 r. grało 50 drużyn, łącznie z tymi, które grają obecnie. Każdy zespół ligi ma swoje kluby satelickie w American Hockey League i East Coast Hockey League. +Liga w 2008 podzielona jest na dwie konferencje. Każda z nich dzieli się na trzy dywizje, w których występuje po pięć drużyn. Obecny podział istnieje od sezonu 1998-1999, a ostatnie zmiany nastąpiły w sezonie 2011-2012 gdy do ligi dołączył zespół Winnipeg Jets. +Konferencja Zachodnia. +Drużyny ligi NHL wielokrotnie w przeszłości brały udział w meczach pokazowych. Jak na przykład: Super Series, Summit Series, Rendez-vous '87, Challenge Cup 1979 i NHL Challenge. Cztery pierwsze były rozgrywane z reprezentacją ZSRR oraz drużynami ze Związku Radzieckiego. Miało to związek z tym że zawodnicy z bloku wschodniego nie mogli grać w lidze NHL, a grali na bardzo wysokim poziomie. Dopiero w 1989 roku gracze z europy wschodniej pojawili się w NHL. NHL Challenge były to mecze towarzyskie z drużynami ze Skandynawii. +Rozszerzenia ligi. +Pierwsze rozszerzenia miały miejsce w sezonach w latach dwudziestych. Wtedy dołączyły zespoły: Boston Bruins, Montreal Maroons, Pittsburgh Pirates, New York Americans, Detroit Cougars, Chicago Black Hawks i New York Rangers. Następna ekspansja miała miejsce w sezonie 1967/1968 gdy Western Hockey League planowała się ogłosić lepszą ligą od NHL. Dołączyło wtedy sześć zespołów: Philadelphia Flyers, St. Louis Blues, Minnesota North Stars, Los Angeles Kings, Oakland Seals i Pittsburgh Penguins. Gdy w 1972 roku powstała World Hockey Association czyli kolejna konkurencja dla NHL liga poszerzyła się o kolejne dwa zespoły: New York Islanders i Atlanta Flames, a dwa lata później dołączyły również Kansas City Scouts i Washington Capitals. Gdy WHA przestała istnieć do NHL dołączyły cztery zespoły z tej ligi: Hartford Whalers, Nordiques de Québec, Edmonton Oilers i Winnipeg Jets. Następne ekspansje miały miejsce w latach dziewięćdziesiątych. Dołączyły wtedy: San Jose Sharks, Ottawa Senators, Tampa Bay Lightning, Anaheim Mighty Ducks, Florida Panthers, Nashville Predators, Atlanta Thrashers, Columbus Blue Jackets, Minnesota Wild. W 2011 skład ligi opuściła drużyna Atlanta Thrashers w związku przeniesieniem klubu do Winnipeg. +Zasady. +W NHL stosuje się ogólne zasady hokeja na lodzie, jednak istnieje kilka różnic w porównaniu z regułami przyjętymi przez IIHF. Zasady NHL są wzorcem dla wszystkich profesjonalnych lig w Ameryce Północnej (w ligach amatorskich stosuje się hybrydy zasad IIHF i NHL). Wspomniane reguły dotyczą przede wszystkim: +W 2005 roku po lokaucie w NHL zniesiono zasadę tzw. podania przez dwie linie (ang. two-line offside pass), która nie obowiązuje w przepisach IIHF od 1998 roku. +System rozgrywek i punktacji. +W sezonie zasadniczym każdy zespół rozgrywa 82 mecze (41 u siebie oraz 41 na wyjeździe). Wśród nich 24 to mecze z zespołami z własnej Dywizji, 40 meczów z drużynami spoza swojej Dywizji, ale z tej samej Konferencji oraz 18 spoza Konferencji. Do fazy play off awansuje 8 najlepszych zespołów z każdej Konferencji. Następnie rozgrywane są ćwierćfinały Konferencji. Zmagania te odbywają się w ośmiu parach (po cztery w każdej Konferencji). Pary ustala się na podstawie miejsca zajętego przez zespół w Konferencji (1. zespół gra z 8., 2. z 7., 3. z 6., 4. z 5.). W play off zwycięża ten zespół, który wygra cztery mecze z przeciwnikiem (tzw. system "best of seven" – pol. "najlepszy w siedmiu meczach"). Zwycięzca z każdej pary awansuje do półfinałów Konferencji. Zwycięzcy półfinałów awansują do finałów Konferencji. A zwycięzcy finałów Konferencji Wschodniej i Zachodniej walczą o Puchar Stanleya. +Władze ligi. +Najwyższym stanowiskiem Ligi jest komisarz. Wcześniej był nim prezes. Stanowisko komisarza zostało stworzone przez Gary'ego Bettmana w 1993 roku. Stanowiska prezesa i komisarza zostały połączone 1 lipca 1993 roku. Do jego zadań należy między innymi prowadzenie zbiorowych negocjacji dotyczące ligi oraz wyznaczanie sędziów i urzędników na wszystkie mecze NHL. +Trofea i nagrody. +NHL przyznaje trofea i nagrody każdego sezonu. Najbardziej prestiżową nagrodą dla zespołu jest Puchar Stanleya, a indywidualną Trofeum Harta. Kandydaci do nagród, które nie wynikają z statystyk są wybierani przez władze NHL lub przez członków Professional Hockey Writers' Association. National Hockey League najpierw publikuje nazwiska trzech kandydatów, a zwycięzcę ogłasza się podczas "NHL Awards Ceremony". +Nagrody idywidualne. +Zawodnicy, trenerzy oraz twórcy zespołów mogą zostać zgłoszeni do Sali Sławy Hokeja (ang. "Hockey Hall of Fame", fr. "Temple de la renommée du hockey"). Zawodnicy mogą wstąpić do Hockey Hall of Fame dopiero po trzech latach od zakończenia zawodowej kariery. Tę zasadę pominięto u trzech graczy NHL: Gordiego Howego, Guya Lafleura i Mario Lemieux. Członkowie Hockey Hall of Fame mogą wrócić do gry. +Polacy w NHL. +W przeszłości w NHL grało trzech rodowitych Polaków legitymującym się polskim obywatelstwem: Peter Sidorkiewicz (1987-1994), Mariusz Czerkawski (1993-2006), Krzysztof Oliwa (1996-2006). Peter Sidorkiewicz jako pierwszy wystąpił w NHL All-Star Game w 1993 roku. Najwięcej meczów rozegrał Mariusz Czerkawski (745), strzelił w nich 215 bramek i zaliczył 220 asyst oraz wystąpił w NHL All-Star Game w 2000 roku. Krzysztof Oliwa w całej swojej karierze w NHL rozegrał 410 meczów i przesiedział aż 1447 minut na ławce kar oraz jako jedyny Polak zdobył Puchar Stanleya w 2000 roku. +Poza tym w lidze występowali zawodnicy mający polskie korzenie: Jan Miszuk (1963-1970), Nick Harbaruk (1969-1974), Ed Olczyk (1984-2000), Brian Rafalski (1999-2011). Polskie korzenie ma także najwybitniejszy hokeista w historii Wayne Gretzky. +Obecnie (2013) w rozgrywkach występuje Wojtek Wolski (od 2005). Ponadto w NHL grają hokeiści mający polskie korzenie, są to m.in. Mike Komisarek (od 2002), Zenon Konopka (od 2005), Lee Stempniak (od 2006), Travis Zajac (od 2006), Joe Pavelski (od 2006), John Tavares (od 2009), Stéphane Da Costa (od 2011). +Poza wymienionymi w drafcie NHL zostali wybrani polscy hokeiści: Patryk Pysz w 1993 przez zespół Chicago Blackhawks oraz Marcin Kolusz w 2003 roku przez Minnesota Wild. Jednak obaj nigdy nie zagrali w żadnym meczu rozgrywek NHL. +Maskotki drużyn. +Większość drużyn posiada maskotkę, z reguły związaną z nazwą lub pochodzeniem klubu. Pierwszą maskotkę stworzył klub Calgary Flames w 1983 roku (nazwaną "Harvey the Hound"). Obecnie jedynie cztery kluby nie posiadają maskotki (Edmonton Oilers, New York Rangers, Philadelphia Flyers i Dallas Stars). +Tytuł wykonawczy + +Tytuł wykonawczy – dokument urzędowy stwierdzający istnienie i zakres nadającego się do egzekucji roszczenia wierzyciela i odpowiadającego mu obowiązku dłużnika. Istnieją następujące rodzaje tytułów wykonawczych: +World Brain + +World Brain – książka z esejami i przemówieniami opublikowana w 1938 r. przez angielskiego pisarza Herberta George'a Wellsa. +Jeden z esejów, zatytułowany "The Idea of a Permanent World Encyclopaedia" (Idea stałej światowej encyklopedii), był szczególnie godny uwagi ze względu na zaprezentowanie wizji podobnej do dzisiejszych Wikipedii. Esej ukazał się pierwotnie w sierpniu 1937 r. w Encyclopédie Française. +Esej "The Brain Organization of the Modern World" przedstawiał wizję Wellsa dotyczącą rodzaju "izby rozrachunkowej" ludzkiego umysłu, magazynu wiedzy i idei pozyskanych, uporządkowanych, podsumowanych, objaśnionych i porównanych. Wells przewidywał, że mogą być w tym użyteczne nowe osiągnięcia techniczne, jak mikrofilmy. Każda zainteresowana osoba mogłaby usiąść przy swoim projektorze i zapoznać się z mikrofilmową repliką każdego zgromadzonego w bazie dokumentu. +Projekt World Brain był odpowiedzią Wellsa na kwestię, który określił mianem "World Problem", tj. możliwość wzajemnego wyniszczenia się narodów w światowym konflikcie wojennym. Pomysł zbudowania takiej sieci wiedzy, podobnej w swojej istocie do dzisiejszego Internetu i World Wide Web, spotkał się z uznaniem jednych, choć inni chcieli w tym dostrzegać rodzaj spiskowego Nowego Porządku Światowego. +Zobacz też. +encyklopedia, projekty encyklopedii internetowych +Przezprzem + +Przezprzem, Biezprzem(?), Biezprzym(?) – staropolskie imię męskie, być może opisowe, a nie życzące, złożone z członów "Przez-", "Biez-"(?, "bez") i "-przem". Być może było utworzone od imienia Przemysł. Zdaniem Aleksandra Bruecknera drugi człon "przem" pochodzi od zapomnianego słowa "przem, przemy" - szczery, otwarty, prosty (stąd wywodzi się słowo uprzejmy); człon "przem" występuje też w imieniu Przemysław. +Algorytm Bellmana-Forda + +Algorytm Bellmana-Forda rozwiązuje problem najkrótszej ścieżki, tj. pozwala znaleźć ścieżkę o najmniejszej wadze pomiędzy dwoma wierzchołkami w grafie ważonym. Idea algorytmu opiera się na metodzie relaksacji (dokładniej następuje relaksacja formula_1 razy każdej z krawędzi). +W odróżnieniu od algorytmu Dijkstry, poprawność algorytmu Bellmana-Forda nie opiera się na założeniu, że wagi w grafie są nieujemne (nie może jednak występować cykl o łącznej ujemnej wadze osiągalny ze źródła). Za tę ogólność płaci się jednak wyższą złożonością czasową. Działa on w czasie O(V*E). +Na algorytmie Bellmana-Forda bazuje protokół RIP - Routing Information Protocol. +Zapis w pseudokodzie. +Dla grafu "G", funkcji wagowej "w" i wierzchołka "s" otrzymamy tablicę "d"["u"] odległości każdego wierzchołka grafu od wierzchołka "s". +Biezdziad + +Biezdziad, Przezdziad – staropolskie imię męskie, być może opisowe, a nie życzące, złożone z członów "Biez-", "Przez-" ("bez") i "-dziad" ("dziadek"). Oznaczało "tego, który nie ma dziada" albo "tego, którego męscy przodkowie nie są znani". +Żeński odpowiednik: Biezdziadka +Grupa Jurajska GOPR + +Grupa Jurajska GOPR to najmłodsza z grup regionalnych GOPR-u, powstała w 1998 roku. Obszarem działalności grupy jest teren Jury Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej. +Historia. +Historia zorganizowanego ratownictwa na Jurze zaczyna się praktycznie w roku 1993, kiedy to powstała na Lgotce (obozowisko PZA) w Podlesicach Sezonowa Stacja Ratunkowa Grupy Beskidzkiej GOPR. +W związku z brakiem wsparcia i zapewnienia specjalistycznego sprzętu (uwzględniającego specyfikę terenu) ze strony władz Grupy Beskidzkiej, w roku 1996 powstało Jurajskie Ochotnicze Pogotowie Ratunkowe – JOPR. +Sytuacja sprzętowa poprawiła się, rosły szeregi ratowników, ale jako małe stowarzyszenie "JOPR" zaczął wyczerpywać możliwości dalszego rozwoju, więc po wielu dyskusjach i rozmowach z Członkami Zarządu GOPR postanowiono stworzyć nową, siódmą grupę regionalną GOPR. Decyzją VI Zjazdu Delegatów GOPR, dnia 21 listopada 1998 powołano Grupę Jurajską Górskiego Ochotniczego Pogotowia Ratunkowego. +Chromian potasu + +Chromian potasu, K2CrO4 – nieorganiczny związek chemiczny, sól kwasu chromowego i potasu. +W temperaturze pokojowej jest to jasnożółte ciało krystaliczne o gęstości 2,73 g/cm³. Dobrze rozpuszcza się w wodzie. Krystalizuje w układzie rombowym. Topi się w temp. 971 °C i rozkłada się przed osiągnięciem temperatury wrzenia. Związek ten jest silnym utleniaczem. +Chromian potasu jest używany głównie w garbarstwie, przemyśle tekstylnym, emalierstwie, przy produkcji barwników i w chemii analitycznej. +Związki chromu(VI) (w tym chromian potasu) – w przeciwieństwie do związków chromu(III) – są uważane za silnie toksyczne i stanowią jeden z najbardziej toksycznych składników ścieków z garbarni. +Równowaga chromiany−dichromiany. +Zarówno w chromianach, jak i w dichromianach chrom występuje na stopniu utlenienia +6, ww. reakcje nie są więc procesami redoks. +Pacta sunt servanda + +Pacta sunt servanda (łac. "umów należy dotrzymywać") – zasada wyrażająca się w tym, że osoba, która zawarła w sposób ważny umowę, musi ją wykonać. +Instytucja wywodząca się z prawa rzymskiego, wyprowadzona przez średniowiecznych glosatorów i komentatorów. Opiera się na dobrej wierze stron stosunku zobowiązaniowego i jest fundamentalną zasadą w każdym systemie prawnym. Klauzula generalna wzmacniająca rolę umów prawnych oraz pewność i stabilność prawa, jako podstawowego regulatora stosunków społecznych. +Zasada "pacta sunt servanda" miała pierwotnie zastosowanie w stosunkach cywilistycznych, ale ze względu na swoje kluczowe znaczenie oraz obecność w każdym niemal systemie prawnym stanowi także podstawową zasadę prawa międzynarodowego oraz prawa konstytucyjnego, gdzie wypływa z zasady państwa prawa (art. 2 Konstytucji RP z 1997 r.). Jedna z podstawowych norm w stosunkach międzynarodowych, potwierdzana w wielu aktach prawa międzynarodowego publicznego, począwszy od deklaracji londyńskiej z 1871, Paktu Ligi Narodów, do Karty Narodów Zjednoczonych z 1945 i Deklaracji zasad prawa międzynarodowego z 1970. Zasada uregulowana w prawie międzynarodowym publicznym w Konwencji wiedeńskiej o prawie traktatów. +Zasada "pacta sunt servanda" doznaje ograniczeń na skutek działania klauzuli "rebus sic stantibus". +Odpowiedzialność deliktowa + +Odpowiedzialność deliktowa (łac. "ex delicto" - z czynu niedozwolonego) – jeden z dwóch tradycyjnie wyróżnianych reżimów odpowiedzialności cywilnej. Wyróżnia się ją ze względu na źródło zobowiązania, którym jest dopuszczenie się czynu niedozwolonego. Zdarzenie to powoduje powstanie między sprawcą a poszkodowanym (wyjątkowo - również między sprawcą a inną osobą) cywilnoprawnego stosunku zobowiązaniowego. +Odpowiedzialność deliktowa jako specyficzny reżim odpowiedzialności jest znana w prawie już od czasów starożytnych. Obecny zrąb unormowań odpowiedzialności deliktowej w systemach prawa kontynentalnego wywodzi się zasadniczo z prawa rzymskiego. W systemach prawa rodziny "common law" analogiczna do odpowiedzialności deliktowej jest odpowiedzialność z tytułu "torts". +W polskim prawie cywilnym odpowiedzialność cywilną z tytułu czynów niedozwolonych regulują przepisy art. 415-449 Kodeksu cywilnego. Przepisem fundamentalnym dla tego reżimu jest art. 415: Kto z winy swej wyrządził drugiemu szkodę, obowiązany jest do jej naprawienia. +Pozostałe przepisy uszczegóławiają tę zasadę albo ustanawiają od niej wyjątki. Odpowiedzialność deliktową regulują również ogólne przepisy prawa zobowiązań, zawarte w art. 353-404 Kodeksu cywilnego. +Przesłanki odpowiedzialności. +Brak którejkolwiek z tych przesłanek wyłącza odpowiedzialność sprawcy czynu. Zgodnie z ogólną zasadą prawa cywilnego (art. 6 kc) ciężar dowodu spoczywa na osobie dochodzącej roszczeń z tytułu czynu niedozwolonego, przy czym w przypadku odpowiedzialności za delikt ponoszonej na zasadzie ryzyka wystarczające jest wykazanie powstania szkody, zaś zobowiązany do naprawienia szkody może ekskulpować się po wskazaniu przesłanek uwalniających go od odpowiedzialności (tak np. samoistny posiadacz budowli - art. 434 kc lub posiadacz pojazdu mechanicznego - art. 436 kc). +Szkoda. +Zasady odpowiedzialności za wyrządzoną szkodę w rozumieniu prawa cywilnego wskazuje art. 361 § 1 kc. Zgodnie z nim sprawca ponosi odpowiedzialność za szkodę wyrządzoną wskutek zdarzenia, przy czym dla przyjęcia jego odpowiedzialności musi istnieć związek przyczynowy pomiędzy zdarzeniem oraz powstałą szkodą (czyli szkoda musi powstać wskutek pewnego zdarzenia). +Zasadą jest pełne naprawienie szkody, w odniesieniu do odpowiedzialności deliktowej nie istnieją przepisy pozwalające na miarkowanie odszkodowania, jednak wysokość odszkodowania może być zmniejszona w zależności od okoliczności zdarzenia, jak też i stopnia winy obu stron (np. w przypadku przyczynienia się poszkodowanego) - art. 362 kc. +Czyn niedozwolony. +Pojęcie czynu niedozwolonego rozumie się w sposób specyficzny dla prawa cywilnego - chodzi tu nie tylko o czyn zabroniony pod groźbą kary przez prawo karne lub prawo administracyjne, lecz o każdy czyn naruszający porządek prawny. Tak więc nie każdy czyn niedozwolony jest przestępstwem (wykroczeniem). +Związek przyczynowy. +Aby można było sprawcy czynu niedozwolonego przypisać czyn, należy wykazać istnienie związku przyczynowego między bezprawnością czynu a spowodowaną przezeń szkodą. Należy przede wszystkim sprawdzić, czy pozostają one w relacji następstwa (czyn → szkoda) oraz ustalić adekwatność związku między nimi, to znaczy, ustalić czy zaistniała szkoda jest "normalnym następstwem" czynu. +Wina. +Dla istnienia odpowiedzialności cywilnej stopień winy nie ma znaczenia. +Wyłączenie odpowiedzialności. +Sprawca, który ponosi odpowiedzialność na zasadzie winy musi być poczytalny, czyli wykazywać brak wad w zakresie swobody przejawiania woli i możliwości przewidywania skutków swojego postępowania, chyba że zakłócenie czynności psychicznych ma miejsce wskutek użycia napojów odurzających lub innych podobnych środków (art. 425 par. 2 kc). Jednak przy braku osoby odpowiedzialnej za nadzór takiego sprawcy można mimo wszystko żądać naprawienia szkody bezpośrednio przez sprawcę, zwłaszcza jeśli z porównania stanu majątkowego sprawcy i poszkodowanego wynika, iż wymagają tego zasady współżycia społecznego (art. 428 kc). +Henri Coandă + +Henri Marie Coandă (ur. 7 czerwca 1886 w Bukareszcie, zm. 25 listopada 1972 tamże) – rumuński inżynier i konstruktor lotniczy. Coandă był jednym z pionierów lotnictwa oraz konstruktorem pierwszego samolotu odrzutowego. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Bukareszcie i tam też ukończył akademię wojskową jako oficer artylerii. Naukę kontynuował w Niemczech i Belgii. W 1908 roku powrócił do Rumunii i tam przez krótki czas służył w wojsku, lecz wkrótce porzucił służbę i w 1909 roku podjął studia we Francji na nowo powstałej Wyższej Szkole Inżynierów Lotniczych ("École Nationale Superieure d'Ingenieurs en Construction Aeronautique") w Paryżu, którą ukończył w 1910 roku. +Po przeprowadzeniu dużej liczby badań oraz pionierskich eksperymentów w tunelu aerodynamicznym odkrył nowy efekt aerodynamiczny nazwany później efektem Coandy. W 1910 roku skonstruował zaś samolot znany jako "Coandă 1910". W samolocie tym silnik tłokowy napędzał sprężarkę, która pompowała powietrze do dwóch komór spalania, gdzie następował zapłon paliwa. Była to niedoskonała konstrukcja, lecz jednocześnie był to pierwszy samolot odrzutowy, napędzany energią gazów wylotowych. Coanda zademonstrował go publicznie na 2. Międzynarodowym Salonie Lotniczym w Paryżu. Samolot ten rozbił się po starcie na skutek utraty kontroli podczas swojego pierwszego lotu 16 grudnia 1910 roku. Oblatujący go Coanda wyszedł z katastrofy bez większych obrażeń. Po tym incydencie zarzucił rozwój samolotu odrzutowego. +W latach 1911–1914 pracował jako dyrektor techniczny zakładów lotniczych Bristol Aeroplane Company w Wielkiej Brytanii, gdzie zaprojektował kilka samolotów Bristol-Coandă. W 1912 roku jeden z nich zdobył pierwszą nagrodę na Międzynarodowym Konkursie Lotnictwa Wojskowego w Wielkiej Brytanii. W 1915 roku powrócił do Francji, gdzie podczas I wojny światowej, pracując w zakładach Delaunay-Belleville, zaprojektował trzy modele samolotów, w tym Coandă 1916. +W okresie międzywojennym konstruował różne środki transportu, jak sanie o napędzie odrzutowym i aerodynamiczny pociąg. W 1935 roku skonstruował "Aerodina Lenticulara" – latający poduszkowiec w kształcie dysku, opierający się na odkrytym i zbadanym przez siebie efekcie, który to efekt został opatentowany przez niego we Francji w 1934. +W 1969 roku powrócił do Rumunii i osiadł w Bukareszcie, gdzie podjął pracę jako dyrektor instytutu naukowego INCREST, a następnie pracę naukową na wydziale Inżynierii Lotniczej tamtejszej politechniki. Coandă zmarł w Bukareszcie 25 listopada 1972 roku. +Gleby inicjalne + +Gleby inicjalne – gleby w pierwszej fazie kształtowania, poziom organiczny gleby jest w nich niewielki. Gleby inicjalne mogą tworzyć się, najczęściej w wyniku erozji, na dwóch rodzajach podłoża: twardym oraz sypkim. Ze względu na niewielką żyzność i niską odporność na ruchy masowe praktycznie nie wykorzystywane rolniczo. +Właściwości chemiczne. +Skład chemiczny gleb inicjalnych zależy od skał otaczających, z których ta gleba powstała. Odczyn gleby jest jednak nieco bardziej kwaśny ze względu na roślinność i obecność kwasów humusowych. +Morfologia i właściwości fizyczne. +Gleby inicjalne charakteryzują się niewielką warstwą glebową do 10 cm, pod którą znajduje się bezpośrednio skała macierzysta. Cechą charakterystyczną gleb inicjalnych jest duży rozmiar okruchów skalnych w masie glebowej, szczególnie w niższej, mniej wykształconej warstwie. Na obszarach górskich ze względu na ruchy masowe występowanie tych gleb jest często tymczasowe, gdyż zwietrzelina jest transportowana w dół stoku. +Gleby inicjalne nie mają typowej barwy, gdyż zależy ona od skał otaczających, z których ta gleba powstała. +Niekiedy wyróżnia się jeszcze cienką warstwę organiczną, powoduje to zmianę profilu na O-AC-C. +Występowanie. +Gleby inicjalne powstają głównie w górach, największy zwarty obszar gleb inicjalnych występuje na Saharze. Do typowych przykładów gleb inicjalnych należą m.in: Litosole, Regosole i Pelosole należące do działu gleb litogenicznych. Jako gleby inicjalne nie są uznawane gleby arktyczne i gleby tundrowe mimo, że mają podobne właściwości fizyczne. +Roślinność naturalna i przydatność rolnicza. +Gleby inicjalne w pierwszej fazie tworzenia porasta roślinność naskalna i murawowa. W dalszej fazie kształtowania zaczyna je porastać kosodrzewina oraz świerki. Rozwój roślinności powoduje, że gleby inicjalne przeobrażają się w gleby słabo wykształcone. Przydatność gleb inicjalnych w rolnictwie jest niewielka, ze względu na płytki profil oraz niewielką żyzność. +Appian z Aleksandrii + +Appian z Aleksandrii łac. Appianus Alexandrinus, gr. Ἀππιανὸς ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς (ur. ok. 95, zm. ok.180) – grecki historyk, urodzony w egipskiej Aleksandrii, gdzie pełnił wysokie stanowiska urzędnicze +W okresie powstania żydowskiego za czasów Trajana, uciekał z Egiptu przed Żydami. W 120 r. przybył do Rzymu. Za Hadriana został adwokatem cesarskim ("advocatus fisci"), w 147 roku otrzymał w Egipcie urząd prokuratora cesarskiego (prawdopodobnie za Marka Aureliusza i Werusa). W tej sprawie pisał do cesarza Antoninusa Piusa przyjaciel Appiana, Fronton. Obywatelstwo rzymskie otrzymał prawdopodobnie za czasów Trajana lub Hadriana. Stąd jego łacińskie imię mogło brzmieć "Ulpius" lub "Aelius". +Dzieło. +Dość późno (ok. 160 roku) rozpoczął pisanie swego dzieła "Historia rzymska" ("Ρωμαικα") w 24 księgach. Pisał pod wpływem podziwu dla rzymskiego państwa – jego męstwa, roztropności, wytrwałości, siły, ale także i szczęścia. "Historia" obejmowała czasy od założenia Rzymu do czasu mu współczesnych (panowanie Trajana) i opisywała je według ludów wchodzących w skład imperium rzymskiego. Nie przykładał zbytniej uwagi do chronologii opisywanych wydarzeń, nie jest też ścisły w terminologii wojskowej (podobnie jak Liwiusz i Dionizjusz), popełniał błędy w lokalizacji geograficznej (Gades lokalizuje w Afryce, pisze że Ebro wpada do morza Północnego, Sagunt i Nową Kartaginę uważa za jedno i to samo miasto). Mimo tego jego dzieło stanowi cenne źródło wiadomości i informacji, których nie można znaleźć u innych starożytnych autorów. W niektórych miejscach jest to źródło jedyne (pomiędzy rokiem 167 a 68 przed n.e. Appian jest źródłem głównym, a przeważnie nawet jedynym). Z relacji Appiana najwięcej dowiadujemy się o słynnym powstaniu niewolników pod wodzą Spartakusa i tylko Appian opisał masową egzekucję powstańców: +Dzieła zaginione. +Z obszernego "Wstępu" do "Historii rzymskiej" dowiadujemy się, że Appian napisał odrębną księgę na temat swojego życia i doświadczeń związanych z pełnionymi funkcjami w administracji państwowej. Dzieło nie zachowało się do naszych czasów. +Citroën Visa + +Citroën Visa to samochód kompaktowy firmy Citroën produkowany w latach 1978-1989. +Charakterystyka. +Premiera Visy odbyła się w 1978 roku. Nadwozie opracowane zostało przez własny zespół projektantów Citroëna. Część podzespołów pochodziła ze wspólnego pojazdu Citroëna i Peugeota - Citroëna LN (Peugeot 104), m.in. zawieszenie kół, płyta podłogowa, oraz czterocylindrowe silniki. +Sylwetka pojazdu jest tradycyjna w kształtach i charakterystyczna dla rodziny Citroën (z wyjątkiem modelu LN). Tradycyjnie też udział w nadwoziu elementów z tworzyw jest większy niż w rozwiązaniach innych marek. Pięciodrzwiowe nadwozie, pięciomiejscowe, jest przestronne jak na wielkość samochodu. Tylna kanapa jest dzielona, co pozwala na przewożenie większych przedmiotów. +Visa I. +Charakterystycznym elementem Visy pierwszej generacji był tzw. "świński ryjek" atrapy chłodnicy, (który uważany jest za przyczynę niskiej popularności Visy I generacji) oraz tablica rozdzielcza wraz z przełącznikami określanymi przez użytkowników jako "puszka z piwem i krajalnica do sera". Były umieszczone zgodnie z zasadą PRN: ("Pluie, Route, Nuit" - deszcz, droga, noc) dającą dostęp do wycieraczek, spryskiwaczy, klaksonu, kierunkowskazów, świateł umieszczonych na cylindrycznym elemencie na wyciągnięcie palców. +W modelach późniejszych miejsce zegara analogowego zajął obrotomierz, oraz pojawił się zegar cyfrowy. +Po dwóch latach produkcji wprowadzono kolejny silnik o pojemności 1219 cm³ i mocy 47 kW (64 KM) stosowany wcześniej w Renault 14. +Pierwsza wersja Visy produkowana była w trzech kolorach: czerwonym, zielonym oraz żółtym, późniejsze wersje oferowały większą liczbę kolorów nadwozia. +Visa II. +W marcu 1981 roku do produkcji weszła wersja Visa II, która zyskała większą popularność niż pierwsza generacja Visy. Zmianie uległ wygląd nadwozia za zasługą firmy Heuliez. Zmieniono całkowicie wygląd zderzakówi atrapy chłodnicy; dodano czarne obramowanie wokół bocznych szyb oraz plastikowe elementy ozdobne wokół przednich lamp oraz klapy silnika. +W 1982 roku wyprodukowano krótką serię (200 szt.) wersji sportowej Trophee. W 1983 roku wprowadzono modele Visa Chrono i Visa GT. GT produkowany był seryjnie, zaś obydwa wyposażono w silniki czterocylindrowe typu X o pojemności 1360 cm³ i mocach: Chrono - 67 kW, GT - 57,1 kW. Produkowana była również wersja Plen Aire (1983-1985) ze składanym dachem, oraz Enterprise - bagażowa pozbawiona tylnych siedzeń. +Wersje "17 R" i "17 RD" z silnikami diesla wprowadzono w roku 1984. +W 1985 Visa przeszła kolejny facelifting - przekonstruowano deskę rozdzielczą. "Visa 10" z silnikiem o pojemności 1000 cm³ pojawiła się w 1987 i zrezygnowano w niej z przełączników typu PRN. +Wersje towarowe. +Na bazie modelu Visa II powstała wersja towarowa oznaczona jako C15 (w Wielkiej Brytanii nazywana Citroen Champ) - z oryginału zachowano przód i przednie fotele, natomiast reszta nadwozia otrzymała różne warianty zabudowy zależnie od wymagań. +Gromada gwiazd + +Gromada gwiazd – zgrupowanie gwiazd związanych wspólnym pochodzeniem, tzn. miejscem i czasem powstania z tej samej materii międzygwiazdowej. Gwiazdy należące do jednej gromady mają identyczny skład chemiczny, są też wzajemnie związane siłami grawitacji. Cechą charakterystyczną gromady gwiazd jest jądro, w którym koncentracja gwiazd przewyższa znacznie koncentrację gwiazd w najbliższym otoczeniu gromady. Jądro gromady otacza obszar koronalny mniej bogaty w gwiazdy. Gromady wyróżniają się wśród ogólnego tła, tworząc wyraźne obiekty o pewnych cechach wspólnych lub zbliżonych. +Rozmiary gromady gwiazd zależą od jej całkowitej masy i odległości od centralnych części galaktyki. Zewnętrzna granica gromady, a ściślej – granica jej obszaru koronalnego znajduje się w miejscu, w którym siła przyciągania gromady jest równa sile przyciągania okolicznych gwiazd. Obszar koronalny gromady jest zatem stabilny dynamicznie i związany grawitacyjnie z jej jądrem. +Średnice gromad w naszej Galaktyce wynoszą od kilku do 500 lat świetlnych, przy czym średnice obszarów koronalnych są wielokrotnie większe niż jąder. Zazwyczaj na niebie przez lunetę obserwuje się jedynie jądra gromad, utożsamiając je z całymi gromadami. +Wspólnota gruntowa + +Wspólnota gruntowa - w obecnym polskim prawie cywilnym, nieruchomość stanowiąca przedmiot współwłasności o pewnych szczególnych cechach. Jej istotą jest uprawnienie do korzystania ze wspólnego gruntu ('wykazy imienne uprawnionych włościan w danej wsi to tabele nadawcze i tabele likwidacyjne w Królestwie Polskim'). +Historia. +Jeden i drugi sposób były półśrodkami, rodzącymi sytuacje skomplikowane pod względem prawnym, często niejasne i ze swej natury raczej prowizoryczne. Stosowano je, bo pozwalały zachować dotychczasową gospodarkę ziemią i uniknąć konfliktów społecznych przy zawłaszczaniu gruntów (które miały miejsce np. w Anglii na początku XIX w. podczas tzw. grodzeń). +Wspólnoty gruntowe. +Wspólnot gruntowych nie można było tak łatwo likwidować, a to zarówno ze względu na silniejszy charakter prawa własności, jak i na komplikacje wynikające z dziedziczenia uprawnień. Zmierzające do tego przepisy były wydawane jeszcze pod koniec XIX w. przez państwa zaborcze. Później odpowiednie regulacje wprowadzono w wymienionych wyżej rozporządzeniach. Wreszcie przed samą II wojną światową pojawiła się ustawa z 4 maja 1938 o uporządkowaniu wspólnot gruntowych. +Ustawa ta nie definiowała wspólnoty gruntowej, natomiast szczegółowo określiła rodzaje gruntów uznawane za wspólne oraz sposób zagospodarowania i rozporządzania takimi gruntami. Jako podstawowy sposób postępowania z gruntami wspólnymi ustawa z 1938 ustanowiła zniesienie wspólności przez podział tych gruntów w naturze (jeśli stać było włościan na wynajęcie geometry, geodety na podział gruntów). Wyjątkowo tylko dopuszczano pozostawienie gruntów wspólnych we współwłasności, jednak również wtedy wymagano zamiany wspólnoty na "zwykłą" współwłasność z ustalonymi udziałami w częściach ułamkowych. Do zarządzania gruntami nie podzielonymi można było powoływać specjalne spółki Spółka Ziemska lub Wspólnota Leśna. Zagospodarowanie wspólnoty gruntowej (łąki,nieużytki gruntowe, pastwiska, lasy) następowało w postępowaniu administracyjnym, prowadzonym przez administrację powiatową i wojewódzką. +Współcześnie. +Kolejnym, i jak dotąd ostatnim, aktem prawnym dotyczącym wspólnot gruntowych jest ustawa z 29 czerwca 1963 o zagospodarowaniu wspólnot gruntowych. +Ustawa ta, najwyraźniej ze względów ideologicznych (forsowanie kolektywnego władania ziemią), diametralnie zmieniła zasady postępowania ze wspólnotami gruntowymi w porównaniu do poprzednich zapisów prawa. Podział wspólnoty gruntowej stał się niedopuszczalny - zamiast tego przewidziano obowiązek utworzenia spółki dla jej zagospodarowania. W razie niepowołania takiej spółki przez samych uprawnionych winien powołać ją z urzędu właściwy wójt. Spółka dla zagospodarowania wspólnoty gruntowej może rozporządzić całą wspólnotą (m.in. poprzez "przeznaczenie na cele społeczne lub publiczne" co jest pięknym przykładem mieszania kategorii prawa cywilnego i administracyjnego, rodzącym ogromne komplikacje natury prawnej - nie wiadomo bowiem, czy owo "przeznaczenie" oznacza przeniesienie własności, czy cokolwiek innego). Czynności spółki podlegają kontroli wójta. Ograniczono również swobodę obrotu udziałami we wspólnocie gruntowej - zbycie udziału może nastąpić tylko na rzecz innego uprawnionego lub osoby posiadającej gospodarstwo rolne we właściwej wsi (zachowany numer tabeli likwidacyjnej lub tabeli nadawczej; ten numer z tabeli występuje w aktach notarialnych i księgach hipotecznych w Królestwie Polskim, II Rzeczypospolitej 1918-1939, Polski Ludowej 1944-1989, III Rzeczypospolitej). +Od 1989 roku do chwili obecnej konsekwencją zakazu podziału wspólnoty gruntowej jest wyłączenie zastosowania wobec niej przepisów prawa cywilnego o zniesieniu współwłasności. W praktyce oznacza to, że wniosek o zniesienie współwłasności wspólnoty gruntowej sąd oddali jako niedopuszczalny z mocy samego prawa. Jedynym sposobem likwidacji wspólnoty pozostaje więc zbycie całości wspólnego gruntu. To zaś władna jest zrobić tylko spółka. Tymczasem utworzenie spółki graniczy dziś z niemożliwością, ponieważ w wyniku dziedziczenia liczba uprawnionych sięga czasem wielkiej liczby osób, zamieszkałych często z dala od danego gruntu, zarówno na terenie całej Polski, jak i za granicą. Tak więc wspólnoty gruntowe faktycznie pozostają dobrami martwej ręki. Nawet nabycie gruntu należącego do wspólnoty gruntowej w sposób pierwotny - przez zasiedzenie stało się niemożliwe. Jeżeli bowiem spółka dla zagospodarowania wspólnoty gruntowej nie została powołana - co, ze względu na trudność ustalenia uprawnionych, jest regułą - nie ma podmiotu uprawnionego do reprezentowania wspólnoty jako uczestnika postępowania o stwierdzenie zasiedzenia, to prowadzenie tego postępowania jest w rzeczywistości uniemożliwione. +Zakaz podziału wspólnoty gruntowej wydaje się sprzeczny z konstytucyjnie chronioną istotą prawa własności, jednak kwestia ta nie została jak dotąd podniesiona przed Trybunałem Konstytucyjnym. +Kashira + +Kashira (źródłosłów oznacza "głowę") – zakończenie rękojeści ("tsuki"), czyli głowica miecza japońskiego ("katany", "wakizashi", "tanto") w postaci metalowej lub kościanej nakładki lub grzybka. Zalicza się do części stroju miecza ("koshirae") i w stylu zdobienia powinna odpowiadać reszcie. "Kashira" prócz tego że jest ozdobą, pełni także funkcję wzmacniającą konstrukcję rękojeści oraz ciężaru ułatwiającego wyważenie miecza. +Schody ruchome + +Schody ruchome, eskalator – urządzenie transportowe, zaliczane do grupy przenośników i służące do przewozu osób pomiędzy kondygnacjami budynku. +Składają się z konstrukcji nośnej, taśmy stopni i poręczy napędzanych przez zespół napędowy z silnikiem elektrycznym i przekładnią. Pierwsze schody ruchome opatentował w 1892 r. Jesse Reno. W 1895 r. zbudował schody ruchome w Coney Island. Pasażerowie byli przewożeni na przenośniku taśmowym pod kątem 25 stopni. +Angielską nazwę "escalator" po raz pierwszy użył Karol Seeberger w 1897 roku. +W Polsce pierwsze schody ruchome pojawiły się dopiero w cztery lata po II wojnie światowej, na otwartej 22 lipca 1949 roku w Warszawie Trasie W-Z. Ich producentem była radziecka firma "Метрострой" (Metrostroj). Jednak pierwszymi schodami na obecnym terytorium Polski były te zamontowane w 1930 roku we wrocławskim domu towarowym Wertheim. +Oktawian (imię) + +Oktawian – imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego oznaczające "członek rzymskiego rodu Oktawiuszów". W Polsce imię to pojawiło się dopiero w XIX w. +Oktawian imieniny obchodzi 23 marca, 6 sierpnia, 2 września, 23 grudnia +Zobacz też: Oktawia, Oktawa, Oktawy Cayleya +Bitwa pod Piławcami + +Bitwa pod Piławcami – bitwa rozegrana na pograniczu Podola i Wołynia w dniach 23-25 września 1648 roku. Jedna z najbardziej dotkliwych klęsk w historii oręża polskiego w czasie powstania Chmielnickiego. +Bohdan Chmielnicki (20-25 tys. Kozaków) założył na prawym brzegu rzeki Ikwy ufortyfikowany obóz, na lewym natomiast oszańcował przyczółek, który obsadził oddziałem piechoty i artylerią. +20 września pod Piławce doszli regimentarze polscy: Władysław Dominik Zasławski-Ostrogski, Mikołaj Ostroróg, Aleksander Koniecpolski, którym po klęsce pod Korsuniem sejm konwokacyjny powierzył dowództwo wojsk polskich w miejsce wziętych do niewoli hetmanów. Ze względu na braki wiedzy, doświadczenia i charakteru Bohdan Chmielnicki nazwał ich: Mikołaja Ostroroga – "Łaciną", Koniecpolskiego - "Dzieciną", a Zasławskiego – "Pierzyną". +Na miejsce przybyło ok. 30 tys. wojsk zaciężnych i pocztów prywatnych. Przemieszane ze sobą wojska prywatne i chorągwie koronne, przerażona i czekająca tylko na sygnał do ucieczki szlachta, brak jednoosobowego dowództwa oraz skłóceni dowódcy z góry przesądzały wynik bitwy. +21 września Polacy opanowali przyczółek i przerzucili kilka chorągwi jazdy na prawy brzeg Ikwy. Jednakże wskutek sporów między dowódcami polskimi do rozstrzygającej bitwy nie doszło. W dniu następnym miały miejsce tylko drobne utarczki. W nocy na 23 września Polacy pozyskali częściowo tylko prawdziwe informacje o przybyciu Tatarów, sprzymierzonych z Chmielnickim (podawano przesadzone liczby, podczas gdy faktycznie przybyło ich ok. 4 tys. z ordy budziackiej pod wodzą Islam Gireja). +23 września Chmielnicki uderzył na oddziały polskie na prawym brzegu Ikwy. Polakom przyszła z pomocą niewielka liczba oddziałów z lewego brzegu, reszta z obawy przed Tatarami pozostała na miejscu. Chmielnicki, by sprowokować Polaków do natarcia i uderzyć na ich skrzydła, cofnął swoje centrum. Polacy jednak ze stratą 300 ludzi wycofali się na lewy brzeg Ikwy, a następnie regimentarze, uznawszy tę pozycję za niedogodną do obrony, podjęli decyzję wycofania się w kierunku na Konstantynów. W nocy wśród wojska rozeszła się pogłoska o ucieczce regimentarzy, co wywołało panikę. Porzucając tabory i broń, wojsko polskie zaczęło uciekać. Jeden z pierwszych pole walki opuścił późniejszy zdrajca Hieronim Radziejowski. W porządku wycofała się jedynie piechota pod wodzą obersztera Samuela Osińskiego, która osłaniała odwrót ponosząc duże straty. Rankiem 24 września Kozacy zajęli obóz polski, zagarniając tabory i artylerię (m.in. 100 dział). Kozacy ponieśli minimalne straty (zginął płk. humański Hanża). +Po bitwie połączone wojska Chmielnickiego i Islam Gireja ruszyły w głąb Rzeczypospolitej, docierając bez przeszkód aż pod Lwów i Zamość. W wyniku klęski Rzeczpospolita utraciła na parę lat kontrolę nad znacznymi obszarami Podola i Wołynia. +Waleska + +Waleska (Walaska, Valeska, Valaska lub Valiska) – legendarna założycielka miasta Kłodzko, która miała panować na grodzie na Zamkowej Górze w czasach pogańskich. Postać funkcjonowała w tradycji ludowej ziemi kłodzkiej jeszcze do czasów wymiany narodowościowej na tym terenie po II wojnie światowej. +Postać. +Najstarszy dokument wspominający Waleskę pochodzi z 1625 r. – kłodzki kronikarz Aelurius Georgius w dziele "Glaciographia" poświecił jej cały rozdział. Niektóre podania mówią, że była córką Kraka i siostrą królewny Wandy. Wszystkie za to zgodnie twierdzą, że odznaczała się urodą, wzrostem i wielką tężyzną fizyczną. Miała długie, złote włosy zaplecione w warkocz, znała się na myślistwie i strzelała z łuku. Gołymi rękami potrafiła złamać podkowę. +Jej imię językoznawcy wywodzą od przydomka "złotowłosa" czyli w czeskim brzmieniu "zlatovláska", słowa przeobrażonego przez język niemiecki na "Walaska" lub "Waleska". +Legendy. +Jedna z opowieści mówi, że nadludzką siłę czerpała ze swojego cudownego warkocza. Pokonała dzięki temu smoka ukrytego w jamie pod lipą w Żelaźnie, strzelając do niego z łuku z odległości paru kilometrów. Kraina, którą władała słynęła z bogactwa, co wywołało zazdrość u sąsiadów. Zazdrośni chrześcijańscy Czesi, chcieli zagarnąć jej ziemie. Podstępnie pochwycili ją i pozbawili zaczarowanego warkocza. Zakończyła życie zamurowana żywcem w kościele, który zwano potem "pogańską świątynią". +Była też wersja, że Waleska była pogańską dziewicą, która weszła w konszachty z diabłem. Dzięki temu była okrutna i zła, a zarazem piękna i mężna. Nie dorównywał jej w walce żaden rycerz. Jej siła była zaklęta w pięknych, długich włosach. Była bezlitosna dla poddanych, a układ z diabłem sprowadzał na okolicę nieszczęścia. Poddani zbuntowali się. Nocą, gdy Waleska spała, obcięli jej włosy, przez co stała się bezbronna. Uwięziono ją, a następnie zamurowano w murze zamkowym. Złote włosy oraz cudowny łuk złożono w świątyni, która znajdowała się na Zamkowej Górze. Okazało się przy tym, że łukiem potrafiła władać tylko sama Waleska, a w innych rękach był bezużyteczny. +Historia warkocza. +Jej warkocz był podobno przechowywany do XVIII w. w tzw. "Zielonej Sali" zamku kłodzkiego jako talizman chroniący miasto. Zabrał go dopiero Fryderyk II Wielki, który zdobył Kłodzko i przyłączył całą ziemię kłodzką do Prus. Przy okazji miał też zabrać legendarny bęben obciągnięty skórą przywódcy husytów – Jana Žižki. +Kamienny wizerunek. +Na murze okalającym twierdzę kłodzką istnieje kamienna płaskorzeźba przedstawiająca kobiece popiersie. Tradycja przypisuje temu wizerunkowi portret Waleski. Około roku 1945, po osiedleniu się w Kłodzku ludności polskiej, rzeźba została zniszczona, wandale pozbawili ją zupełnie rysów twarzy. Jej wygląd znany jest obecnie tylko z przedwojennych fotografii. +Guillaume Apollinaire + +Guillaume Albert Vladimir Alexandre Apollinaire de Kostrowitzky ("fr." ) właściwie Wilhelm Apolinary Kostrowicki (ur. 26 sierpnia 1880 w Rzymie, zm. 9 listopada 1918 w Paryżu) – francuski poeta polskiego pochodzenia. Jeden z głównych przedstawicieli francuskiej awangardy poetyckiej. +Biografia. +Pochodzenie. +Pochodził ze szlacheckiej rodziny herbu Wąż. Najprawdopodobniejsza wersja (tzw. "hipoteza rzymska") dotycząca pochodzenia jego ojca, proponowana przez biografa poety Marcela Adéma, mówi, iż był nim włoski arystokrata o szwajcarskich korzeniach, rzymianin Francesco Flugi d'Aspermont. Inne, mniej prawdopodobne, hipotezy utrzymywały, iż ojcem mógł być pewien duchowny wyższego stopnia lub Alzatczyk Juliusz Weil, późniejszy towarzysz życia matki poety (jednakże w roku urodzenia Guillaume'a miał 12 lat). Pewne jest natomiast to, iż matką Guillaume'a była polska szlachcianka Angelika Kostrowicka, o 20 lat młodsza od d'Aspermonta. W dzieciństwie mówiono o niej, iż jest dzieckiem "niezwykle trudnym", zaś w latach późniejszych przejawiała zamiłowanie do hazardu. Poeta był wnukiem Apolinarego Kostrowickiego, byłego kapitana rosyjskiego wojska, papieskiego Szambelana Szpady i Płaszcza. Badacze biografii poety mieli duże problemy ze zidentyfikowaniem jego dziadka. Wcześniejsze przypuszczenia mówiły, iż jest nim szlachcic Michał Kostrowicki (również rosyjski oficer), który został zesłany na Sybir za uczestnictwo w powstaniu, a następnie wyemigrował. Kolejne badania wykazały jednak, iż Michał Kostrowicki i dziadek poety – Apolinary, to dwie różne osoby. Apollinaire żartował niekiedy, że jest synem rosyjskiego generała; jednakże tajemnica własnego pochodzenia była dla niego problemem niezwykle nurtującym, co łatwo można odnaleźć w jego twórczości poetyckiej. +Życie. +Guillaume Apollinaire dzieciństwo spędził w Rzymie z matką i młodszym o dwa lata bratem Albertem. Przez pewien czas rodzina przebywała także w Bolonii. Związek Angeliki z Francesco Flugi d'Aspermontem został zerwany pod presją jego rodziny, po czym matka wraz z dziećmi przeprowadziła się do Monako. Początkowo Guillaume uczył się w kolegium Saint-Charles, następnie w kolegium Stanislas w Cannes, a później w liceum w Nicei. W tych latach przeszedł okres wielkiej żarliwości religijnej; następnie zaczął interesować się literaturą, a w szczególności poezją symbolistów. Wtedy też napisał pierwsze swoje utwory, które wydawał z przyjacielem Ange Toussaint-Luca. Poeta przyjął wtedy pseudonim Guillaume Macabre. Uczył się dobrze, jednak maturę, którą pisał w 1897 – oblał. Po tym wydarzeniu jego zainteresowanie literaturą wzrosło jeszcze bardziej. Matka, wraz ze swym towarzyszem życia – Juliuszem Weilem i synami, postanowiła opuścić Niceę. Rodzina przebywała krótko w Aix-les-Bains i Lyonie, po czym wiosną 1899 osiedliła się w Paryżu. Jeszcze w tym samym roku Angelika i Juliusz wyjechali do Belgii (do Spa), umieszczając chłopców na kilka miesięcy w niedalekim pensjonacie w Stavelot. To tu Guillaume napisał swoje pierwsze opowiadania i szkic do "Gnijącego czarnoksiężnika" ("L'Enchanteur pourrissant"). Gdy poeta powrócił do Paryża, postanowił znaleźć pracę; ukończył także kurs scenografii, jednak nie znalazł zatrudnienia w tym zawodzie. Pracował jako asystent pewnego literata, a także w piśmie "Tabarin". Ok. 1899-1901 zaczął pisać "Poetę zamordowanego" ("Le poète assassiné"); wtedy też powstało kilka wierszy, które później miały wejść do "Alkoholi" ("Alcools"). W sierpniu 1901 wyjechał do Nadrenii, gdzie napisał jeden ze swych ważniejszych cykli "Wiersze nadreńskie (Rhénanes)". Podczas tego pobytu doświadczył również pierwszej wielkiej, lecz nieszczęśliwej miłości; zakochał się w Annie Playden, ona jednak nie przyjęła jego oświadczyn. Następnie udał się w podróż do Niemiec, Czech i Austrii. Szczególnie istotny dla jego twórczości okazał się pobyt w Wiedniu i Pradze (gdzie napisał opowiadania "Przechodzień z Pragi" – "Le passant de Prague" i "Polowanie na orła" – "La chasse à l'aigle"). +15 września 1901 w miesięczniku "La Grande France" przypadł jego debiut poetycki, zaś jako prozaik debiutował w marcu 1902 w piśmie "La Revue blanche" opowiadaniem "L'Hérésiargue (Herezjarcha)" pod pseudonimem Guillaume Apollinaire. W tym czasie następują również początki jego kariery jako dziennikarza. W 1902 wrócił do Paryża. Zaczął wchodzić w środowisko literackie, coraz częściej publikować (m.in. w tygodniku "L'Européen"), a także bywać na Wieczorach "(Soirées)" organizowanych przez miesięcznik "Le Plume" (podczas których czytał swoje "Wiersze reńskie"), gdzie nawiązał liczne znajomości. Podczas wieczorów powstał zarys przyszłej grupy literackiej; osoby te łączyła chęć odnowienia poezji, a także założenia własnego pisma. +Apollinaire był jednym z najważniejszych członków artystycznej społeczności paryskiego Montparnasse'u. Jego przyjaciółmi i współpracownikami byli między innymi Pablo Picasso, Ludwik Marcoussis, Max Jacob, André Salmon, Marie Laurencin, André Breton, André Derain, Faik Konica, Blaise Cendrars, Pierre Reverdy, Jean Cocteau, Erik Satie, Ossip Zadkine, Marc Chagall i Marcel Duchamp. W roku 1911, przyłączył się do Szkoły z Puteaux będącej forpocztą kubizmu. +Krótko po wybuchu pierwszej wojny światowej zaciągnął się do wojska. W roku 1916, z powodu rany głowy po wybuchu granatu, został przeniesiony do rezerwy. +W 1918 roku zmarł w Paryżu z powodu grypy "hiszpanki". +Pochowany na Cmentarzu Père-Lachaise. +Twórczość. +Apollinaire był początkowo związany z fowistami, następnie z kubistami, torował drogę surrealizmowi (twórca tego terminu), trudno jest go wpisać jednak w kontekst jednego z nurtów epoki, bowiem nie interesowały go żadne "izmy", a skupiony był na swojej własnej drodze artystycznej, którą określał czasem mianem "orfizmu dramatycznego". +Chociaż najbardziej znany jest jako poeta, jego twórczość obejmuje także utwory prozatorskie i eseistykę. Najbardziej popularne zbiory jego poezji to "Alkohole" ("Alcools") i "Kaligramy" ("Calligrammes"); napisał powieść "Poeta zamordowany" ("Le poéte assassiné"). Odegrał ważną, często inspirującą rolę w kształtowaniu awangardy, zarówno w poezji, jak i sztuce. Wielokrotnie oceniał obrazy ówczesnych artystów na łamach francuskich magazynów, sympatyzując z kubistami, których twórczość zdawała się najbliższa jego własnej teorii sztuki. Postulował on malarstwo niefiguratywne, abstrakcyjne. +Piosenki do tekstów Apollinaire'a śpiewali m.in. Yves Montand i Georges Brassens. +Był bliskim przyjacielem Gertrudy Stein, Pabla Picasso, René Dupuy. +Flaga gminy Lasowice Wielkie + +Flaga gminy Lasowice Wielkie składa się z trzech jednakowej szerokości poziomych pasów: górnego – zielonego, środkowego – czarnego i dolnego w kolorze ciemnego złota. +Frances Farmer + +Frances Farmer (ur. 19 września 1913 w Seattle, zm. 1 sierpnia 1970) - amerykańska aktorka filmowa. +Życiorys. +Urodziła się 19 września 1913 w Seattle. W szkole średniej otrzymała nagrodę za kontrowersyjny esej na temat ateizmu "God dies" ("Bóg umiera"), co w połączeniu z wygraną wycieczką do ZSRR w 1935 spowodowało następnie postrzeganie jej przez media jako osoby o radykalnych lewicowych przekonaniach. Studiowała następnie aktorstwo na Uniwersytecie Waszyngtońskim (University of Washington). +W 1935 wyjechała do Hollywood, gdzie podpisała siedmioletni kontrakt z wytwórnią Paramount. Tam też zadebiutowała, grając Ann Blane w filmie "Border Flight" (1936). Po dobrze przyjętym debiucie, w tym samym roku partnerowała Bingowi Crosby'emu w filmie "Rhythm On The Range", a następnie zagrała dwie główne role kobiece w filmie "Come and Get It", który przyniósł jej wielkie uznanie krytyki i publiczności. Z powodu talentu i urody, porównywana była do Grety Garbo. W tym roku też wyszła za mąż za aktora Leifa Ericksona. +Dyktat studia filmowego, ograniczającego jej duże aspiracje artystyczne, presja życia gwiazdy oraz nieudane małżeństwo, które zakończyło się rozwodem w 1942, były wśród powodów wpadnięcia Frances Farmer w alkoholizm. Według niektórych źródeł, uzależniła się też od amfetaminy. Następujący splot wypadków, w połączeniu z jej wybuchową osobowością i być może lekkimi zaburzeniami psychicznymi, doprowadził do załamania jej kariery. +W październiku 1942 została oskarżona o jazdę pod wpływem alkoholu i na rozprawie dopuściła się obrazy sędziego, po czym skazana na karę z warunkowym zawieszeniem wykonania. Z powodu niedotrzymania warunków okresu próby, w 1943 aresztowano ją. Przy zatrzymaniu napadła na policjanta, co spowodowało zamknięcie jej w szpitalu psychiatrycznym. Poddawana tam była insulinowej terapii wstrząsowej, a podczas następnych pobytów elektrowstrząsom oraz hydroterapii (bicze wodne zimną wodą). Najdłuższy jej pobyt w szpitalu psychiatrycznym miał miejsce od kwietnia 1946 do marca 1950, kiedy to została ostatecznie zwolniona pod opiekę rodziców. +W 1954, po krótkotrwałym drugim małżeństwie, Farmer przeprowadziła się do Eureki w Kalifornii, gdzie pracowała anonimowo przez 3 lata jako sekretarka, a następnie recepcjonistka hotelowa w San Francisco. W 1957 ponownie zainteresowano się jej osobą; wystąpiła w kilku programach telewizyjnych, jak Ed Sullivan Show. Zagrała też w jednym przeciętnym filmie, lecz przemysł filmowy wkrótce stracił nią zainteresowanie. Od 1958 zaczęła prowadzić w Indianapolis własny popołudniowy program telewizyjny "Frances Farmer Presents", lecz w 1964 została zwolniona z powodu alkoholizmu. Zmarła 1 sierpnia 1970 w Indianapolis na raka przełyku. +Upamiętnienie. +W późniejszej autobiografii, wydanej po śmierci, a częściowo napisanej przez jej przyjaciela Jeana Ratcliffe, Farmer opisała brutalność jej traktowania i ówczesnych metod leczniczych w zakładach psychiatrycznych. Twierdziła, że oprócz tego była tam m.in. bita, gwałcona przez personel i zmuszana do zjadania nieczystości. Jak później ujawnił Ratcliffe, część opisu przeżyć Frances Farmer została jednak wyolbrzymiona lub wręcz dodana przez niego. Kolejne książki na temat Frances Farmer rozwijały tezę o zniszczeniu jej obiecującej kariery aktorskiej przez brutalne i bezpodstawne osadzenie w zakładzie psychiatrycznym. +Dalsza biografia Frances Farmer "Shadowlands" autorstwa Williama Arnolda z 1978 po raz pierwszy zasugerowała, że w 1949 miała być poddana zabiegowi lobotomii. Wersja ta została szeroko rozpowszechniona, w tym w późniejszym filmie biograficznym "Frances" z 1982. Jednak brak jest dowodów potwierdzających tę tezę; oprócz braku dokumentacji medycznej na ten temat, zaprzeczali też temu byli pracownicy szpitala. Również relacje przyjaciół Frances Farmer z ostatnich lat jej życia w Indianapolis o jej zachowaniu nie wskazują na skutki lobotomii. +Nawiązując właśnie do niej swój pseudonim artystyczny przybrała współczesna francuska piosenkarka Mylene Farmer. +Zafascynowany historią aktorki był Kurt Cobain, lider zespołu Nirvana. Poświęcił jej piosenkę z albumu In Utero - "Frances Farmer Will Have Her Revenge on Seattle". +Ciekawostki. +Courtney Love na swoim ślubie z Kurtem Cobainem miała na sobie suknię, która w przeszłości należała do Frances Farmer. +Córka pary, Frances Bean Cobain imię dostała po aktorce, którą zafascynowany był jej ojciec. +Powiat wałbrzyski + +Powiat wałbrzyski – powiat w południowo-zachodniej Polsce, w województwie dolnośląskim, utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Wałbrzych. +Historia. +Powiat utworzono w 1999 roku. W 2002 r. do powiatu wałbrzyskiego włączono Wałbrzych, będący do tej pory miastem na prawach powiatu. Wałbrzych ponownie został wyłączony z powiatu wałbrzyskiego i stał się miastem na prawach powiatu z dniem 1 stycznia 2013 roku. +Ktezyfon + +Ktezyfon (Ktesifon, Ktezyfont, per. تيسفون "Tispun" lub "Tisfun"; arab. المدائن "Al-Madā'in") – starożytne miasto na północno-wschodnim brzegu Tygrysu, u ujścia rzeki Diyala, naprzeciwko Seleucji. Obecnie ruiny 30 km na południowy wschód od Bagdadu. W Ktezyfonie zachowało się największe na świecie pojedyncze ceglane sklepienie łukowe (szerokości 25,5 m, długości 48 m, wysokości 37 m, zbudowane około 600 roku). Jest to pozostałość sali audiencyjnej królów sasanidzkich, zwane obecnie "Taq Kisra". +Pod koniec IV w. p.n.e. Seleukos I Nikator założył na wschodnim brzegu Tygrysu Seleucję, która rychło stała się wielkim ośrodkiem miejskim i – na jakiś czas – stolicą jego imperium. Naprzeciwko Seleucji, na drugim brzegu Tygrysu, leżało miasto Opis, które wkrótce stało się jej przedmieściem. Opis leżało na słynnej perskiej Drodze Królewskiej, żyły w nim obok siebie dwie społeczności – autochtoniczna i grecka. +Po opanowaniu Mezopotamii przez Partów w 129 p.n.e. królowie partyjscy na miejscu Opis założyli Ktezyfon, zwany przez nich "Tyspon". Ktezyfon był zimową stolicą imperium partyjskiego i wkrótce – wraz z bliźniaczą Seleucją – stał się jednym z największych miast starożytnego świata (około 30 km² powierzchni). Po rebelii przeciwko królowi Wardanesowi, do której doszło w Seleucji w 43, Ktezyfon jeszcze zyskał na znaczeniu. W połowie I w., za króla Pakorusa II, został otoczony murami. +Ktezyfon wraz z Seleucją był kilkakrotnie oblegany i zdobywany przez wojska rzymskie podczas wojen partyjsko-rzymskich: w 116 przez cesarza Trajana, w 165 przez cesarza Lucjusza Werusa i w 198 przez cesarza Septymiusza Sewera. Największych zniszczeń Rzymianie dokonali w 165 – zrabowali wtedy ogromne ilości złota i srebra. +Po zwycięskiej rebelii przeciwko Partom w 224, perski władca Ardaszir I z dynastii Sasanidów ustanowił w 226 Ktezyfon stolicą perskiego imperium i osiedlił w mieście nowych mieszkańców. Seleucję natomiast przebudował i nazwał "Veh-Ardaszir" ("dobre miasto Ardaszira"). Miasto pozostało strategicznym celem Rzymian w wojnach rzymsko-sasanidzkich – usiłowali zdobyć Ktezyfon w latach 238 (cesarz Gordian III) i 363 (cesarz Julian Apostata). Tylko cesarzowi Karusowi udało się zdobyć perską stolicę w 283, lecz nie pociągnęło to za sobą poważniejszych następstw. +Po zdobyciu Antiochii Syryjskiej w 540 Chosroes I przesiedlił część jej mieszkańców w okolice Ktezyfonu i Seleucji, zakładając nowe miasto, zwane Antiochią Chosroesa. +Po zdobyciu Jerozolimy przez Persów w roku 613 do Ktezyfonu wywieziono wiele z najważniejszych relikwii chrześcijańskich. +W 637 Ktezyfon został zdobyty i splądrowany przez Arabów, którzy przemianowali bliźniacze miasta na "Al-Madain" ("miasta"). Ktezyfon został opuszczony po tym, jak kalifowie abbasydzcy przenieśli swoją stolicę do Bagdadu w 762, po czym stopniowo popadł w ruinę. Jego budynki służyły jako źródło budulca dla Bagdadu. +Ktezyfon (wraz z Seleucją) był ośrodkiem kościoła nestoriańskiego – do 800 był siedzibą nestoriańskiego Katolikosa-Patriarchy Wschodu. +Organizacja Harcerska „Rodło” + +1. Korytarz +2. Pomieszczenie reprezentacyjne (z kominkiem oraz kątem kuchennym [b) +3. Biuro i archiwum +4. Toaleta +5. Składzik +6. Magazyn, wcześniej pierwsze miejsce spotkań]] +Organizacja Harcerska „Rodło” im. Szarych Szeregów (OH „Rodło”, OHR) – niewielka, lokalna organizacja harcerska, założona w 1993 roku przez grupę instruktorów występujących ze Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego. „Rodło” działa współcześnie głównie w Jarocinie. +Nazwa organizacji pochodzi od symbolu Związku Polaków w Niemczech – rodła. Wyraża ona dążenia założycieli do stworzenia organizacji zachowującej metodę i tradycję Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego, lecz posiadającej od niego rozłączność prawną, podobnie jak działacze Rodła w Niemczech chcieli kultywować polską kulturę i zwyczaje, lecz być równocześnie niezależni od władz Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. +Historia. +Źródeł środowiska harcerskiego tworzącego „Rodło” należy upatrywać w 31 Jarocińskiej Środowiskowej Drużynie Harcerzy Starszych. Jej obrzędowe zawiązanie nastąpiło dnia 27 czerwca 1986 roku, w lesie niedaleko ul. Estkowskiego. Utworzyło ją 11 członków, pochodzących z wielu jarocińskich drużyn. Przyczyną stworzenia nowej jednostki była chęć powrotu do skautowych korzeni, wraz z naciskiem na musztrę oraz puszczański charakter. Pierwsi członkowie na pamiątkę tego wydarzenia zasadzili rosnące tam do dzisiaj drzewko. +Początkowo, za barwy drużyny uchwalono czerwony, żółty i zielony, w takich też kolorach miały być chusty jej członków – czerwono-żółte z zielonym obszyciem. Niestety, założyciele nie byli w stanie odnaleźć na terenie całej ówczesnej Polski dostawcy zielonej tasiemki. W związku z tym, zastąpiono ją taśmą brązową (była używana aż do 2011 roku. Na wybór barw miał wpływ gatunek muzyki, preferowany przez większość członków – reggae. +Z czasem rosły napięcia pomiędzy kadrą a komendą hufca ZHP Jarocin, któremu to podlegała drużyna. Ich eskalacja nastąpiła latem 1992 roku. Wybuchł wówczas konflikt o rozliczenie przez hufiec pieniędzy, które wpłacane były przez uczestników obozu. Tuż po zakończeniu obozu, instruktorzy drużyny wraz z rodzicami harcerzy rozpoczęli starania o prawne wydzielenie się od ZHP. Wówczas z innych części kraju dochodziły już echa lokalnych rozłamów, a także płynące z nich korzyści. +Pierwsze lata działalności. +Organizacja Harcerska „Rodło” została powołana do istnienia 12 marca 1993 roku. Zjazd założycielski miał miejsce w Jarocinie, w siedzibie dawnej spółdzielni mieszkaniowej mieszczącej się przy przy ul. Kościuszki. Założyciele przyjęli statut oraz wyłonili spośród siebie pierwsze władze, na pięcioletnią kadencję. Warto zwrócić uwagę, że statut został wpisany do wojewódzkiego rejestru stowarzyszeń (prowadzonego wówczas przez Sąd Wojewódzki w Kaliszu) 30 stycznia, na kilka tygodni przed Zjazdem. Od początku, palącym problemem był brak siedziby młodej Organizacji. +Komenda na swym pierwszym posiedzeniu potwierdziła przejęcie trzech jednostek: 31 JŚDHS, kręgu instruktorskiego oraz drużyny Nieprzetartego Szlaku. Wkrótce jednak dwie ostatnie zostały skasowane. Odtąd trzon kadry OHR stanowili członkowie 31. Członkowie przejętych jednostek zachowywali bez dodatkowej weryfikacji stopnie harcerskie i instruktorskie zdobyte w Związku, nie musieli również składać ponownie Przyrzeczenia. +Pomimo ewidentnej utraty kontroli nad 31, hufiec nie uznał wydzielenia się drużyny z ZHP. Dlatego nadal figurowała ona w jego rejestrach. Aby zatuszować rozłam oraz osłabić młodą organizację, spośród instruktorów pozostałych w hufcu wyłoniono grupę, która miała stworzyć jednostkę "kontynuującą" tradycję 31 wewnątrz Związku, a więc otrzymać jej nazwę, barwy oraz formalną ciągłość działalności. Skutek był jednak odwrotny do przewidywanego. Rodło nawiązało bowiem kontakt z członkami "kopii" 31. W wyniku pertraktacji, pełny skład drużyny-klonu przeszedł z ZHP do OHR, gdzie kontynuował swoją działalność pod nazwą 1 Jarocińskiej Drużyny Harcerskiej. Oprócz niej, w Organizacji powołano jeszcze cztery nowe jednostki. Oddano je pod opiekę najmłodszych instruktorów „Rodła”, wykształconych przez OHR. +Kolejny zjazd (tym razem nadzwyczajny) odbył się jeszcze przed końcem kadencji, w styczniu 1995. Przyczyną jego zwołania była pilna potrzeba wprowadzenia poprawek do statutu oraz poszerzenie składu osobowego Rady Naczelnej. II Zjazd Zwyczajny zwołano na 23 marca 1998. Oprócz wybrania nowych władz, dokonano przebudowy statutu. Rodzice harcerzy, będący współzałożycielami organizacji, nadal stanowili większość w Radzie Naczelnej. By więcej uprawnień otrzymali ludzie młodzi, działający w drużynach, utworzono Radę Drużynowych i Przybocznych. Przejmowała ona uprawnienia dotychczasowej RN. Tworzyli ją wszyscy drużynowi, a także przyboczni którzy ukończyli 16 rok życia. Pod koniec 1995 roku, w OHR funkcjonowała jedna drużyna zuchowa oraz pięć drużyn harcerskich, skupiających łącznie ponad 100 osób. +U schyłku lat ‘90 do organizacji przynależało średnio 150 członków, skupionych w kilku jednostkach. Oprócz 31 JŚDHS istniało łącznie jeszcze osiem drużyn harcerskich, krąg instruktorski i trzy drużyny zuchowe. Większość jednostek działała na terenie Jarocina (oprócz 5 Śmiełowskiej Drużyny Harcerskiej). +Rodło stało się znane pośród innych organizacji i środowisk harcerskich z całej Polski z przeprowadzanego w latach 1993 do 2000 biwaku-rajdu Nalot. Przygotowania każdej edycji zajmowały członkom OHR wiele miesięcy. Specyficzną cechą Nalotów było zasięganie jego organizatorów do metodyki zuchowej. Tematyka zazwyczaj pochodziła ze świata fantastyki, zaś cały plan biwaku był podporządkowany ściśle tematowi przewodniemu. +Pod znakiem harcówki. +Nowe milenium przyniosło pierwszy w historii regres Organizacji. Jego bezpośrednią przyczyną był spadek ilości aktywnych instruktorów, co z kolei przełożyło się negatywnie na ogólną liczbę członków. Odnotowano spadek ilośsci aktywnych członków ze 120 do 40. Krótkotrwały kryzys przetrwały cztery jednostki (31 JŚDHS, 1 JDH, 1 JDZ i 2 JDZ). Zaprzestano przeprowadzania Nalotów – ostatnia edycja z 2000 roku była przeznaczona tylko dla drużyn z Organizacji. Pojawił się także zalążek 4 Świerklanieckiej Środowiskowej Drużyny Harcerskiej. +W 2003 roku duży nacisk stawiano na rozwój drużyny w Świerklańcu, traktowaną nieformalnie jako filię Rodła na Śląsku. Jej instruktorzy prowadzili stałą współpracę z Komendą Organizacji. Kolejnym ważnym celem, na który pracowali wszyscy członkowie OHR, było osiągnięcie niezależności finansowej Organizacji od osób i instytucji zewnętrznych. Prowadzono serię akcji zarobkowych, m.in. roznoszenie gazetek reklamowych Leroy Merlin (na której to zarobiono ok. 12 tys. PLN). W marcu tego roku w Szkole Podstawowej nr 3 odbył się III Zjazd OHR, który wybrał nowe władze oraz wprowadził kolejne poprawki do statutu, wykluczające niektóre niejasności. +Kolejne lata działalności wyróżniały się ilością różnorakich organizacyjnych biwaków. W czerwcu w Żerkowie odbywał się Biwak Rocznicowy 31 JŚDHS, a na początku września w Klęce – Harcerski Start (biwak rozpoczynający rok harcerski). Łącznie z rozlicznymi biwakami doskonalącymi i doszkalającymi dla kadry oraz okazjonalnymi akcjami różnych drużyn, w latch 2004-2007 liczba imprez wyniosła piętnaście. Wynikiem był stały wzrost jakości oraz atrakcyjności prowadzonej działalności. Kooperacja z drużyną ze Świerklańcu przyniosła już w 2004 widoczne efekty – jej liczba członków wzrosła do trzydziestu. +Lata 2002-2007 zapisały się na kartach historii przede wszystkim intensywnymi pracami remontowymi harcówki Organizacji, stanowiącej jej siedzibę i dumę w tym okresie (patrz sekcja Harcówka). +Skurczenie i reforma. +Zapowiedzią problemów dla prężnie rozwijającej się organizacji był rok harcerski 2005/2006, określany w sprawozdaniu z działalności Rodła jako "słaby". Prawdziwy krach przyniósł jednak wrzesień 2006, gdy liczna kadra OHR zaczęła powoli słabnąć i maleć. Wiele osób z kadr drużyn rozpoczynało studia lub odchodziła z przyczyn osobistych. Skutkiem był gwałtowny spadek liczebności Rodła, z 70 do kilkunastu. W roku harcerskim 2006/07 praktycznie cała kadra przestała funkcjonować, zaś OHR utrzymywała przy istnieniu garstka nastoletnich członków. Chcąc zapobiec dalszemu rozpadowi oraz przywrócić Organizację do normalnego funkcjonowania, już w grudniu 2006 Komendant wziął na siebie szkolenie młodych i reaktywował kursy kształceniowe. We wrześniu 2007 kursanci przeprowadzili nabór harcerzy. Dzięki nowym członkom, OHR mogła na nowo pełnić swoją misję wychowawczą. +Zjazd zwyczajny oznaczony numerem IV, zaplanowany początkowo na 28 marca 2008, przesunięto na 11 kwietnia, w związku ze spłonięciem intensywnie remontowanej harcówki. Pożar był prawdziwym ciosem dla wszystkich instruktorów OHR, a w szczególności tych dłużej z nim związanych. +Delegaci przebudowali w dużej mierze statut – w związku z liczebnym skurczeniem się OHR zawieszono funkcję Namiestnika Drużyn Zuchowych. Podjęto także decyzję o likwidacji Rady Drużynowych i Przybocznych, gdyż uznano ją za nieefektywną – brakowało członków w tych funkcjach, a jedynym czynnym drużynowym był Komendant OHR. Kłóciło się to z rozdzielnością władzy. Dlatego w jej miejsce przywrócono typową Radę Naczelną. +Postanowienia Zjazdu utwierdziły młodą kadrę w dążeniach do stworzenia organizacji niewielkiej liczebnie, lecz dobrze wyszkolonej w harcerskim rzemiośle. Ostatecznie zlikwidowano wszystkie jednostki poza 31 JŚDHS oraz 1 JDZ. Środek ciężkości kształcenia harcerzy przeniósł się z drużynowych na zastępowych. +W dniach 15-17 października 2010 roku odbył się biwak funkcyjnych członków organizacji. Podczas spotkań roboczych podjęto wiele ważnych decyzji, m.in. określono kierunki dalszego rozwoju organizacji, stworzono szkic systemu sprawności, dyskutowano obsadzenie niektórych funkcji instruktorskich. +Wymiernym efektem prac było uchwalenie 28 listopada 2010 przez Radę Naczelną trzech regulaminów: Stopni harcerskich, Stopni instruktorskich i Musztry. Szerokim echem odbił się również Rozkaz L10/2010 Komendanta OHR, odczytany 22 października. Wprowadzał zmianę na funkcji drużynowego 31 JŚDHS, dotychczas niemal nieprzerwanie pełnionej przez Komendanta OHR. Awansowano również na pierwsze stopnie nowych instruktorów. +Od roku 2011 reaktywowano drużynę w Mieszkowie. Jest to pierwsza od wielu lat jednostka harcerska OHR działająca poza granicami miasta. +Harcówka. +Głównym miejscem spotkań członków OHR, symbolicznie spajające ich małą społeczność jest harcówka. Mieści się ona w drewnianym budynku, naprzeciwko Szkoły Podstawowej nr 3 (formalnej siedziby Organizacji). Choć wcześniej przynależał do Szkoły Podstawowej nr 3, nie stanowi integralnej części jej zabudowań. Przekazanie go Organizacji nastąpiło w maju 2002. Wtedy też przystąpiono do generalnego remontu drewnianej konstrukcji. Ściany i dach zostały wymienione, zaś wnętrze podzielono na kilka mniejszych pomieszczeń. Ogromną część funduszy „Rodła” i czasu pracy funkcyjnych pochłaniała właśnie renowacja harcówki. +Aby tak szeroko zakrojone prace były możliwe, intensywnie poszukiwano źródeł dodatkowych środków pieniężnych. Prowadzono zbiórki pieniędzy, w 2002 rozpoczęto sprzedaż lokalnej gazety. Szczyt aktywności przypadł na rok 2003. Po Zjeździe w marcu w każdą wolną sobotę instruktorzy spotykali się na remoncie harcówki. Pod znakiem prac upłynął też cały lipiec. Od sierpnia zaczęto rozprowadzać ulotki reklamowe we Wrześni i Środzie Wielkopolskiej, co kontynuowano aż do 2006 roku. Podjęto się przeprowadzania festynów z okazji Dnia Dziecka dla firmy Inter Elkan, w zamian za to otrzymując od niej stały sponsoring. Dobrze ułożyła się też współpraca z Leroy Merlin ze Swarzędza, który w zamian za pracę członków wspomógł Rodło 12 tysiącami złotych oraz wkładem kominkowym. +Środków pieniężnych Komenda OHR szukała także poza granicami kraju. Odnalazła je w Veldhoven – niewielkiej miejscowości w Holandii. Do jednej z tamtejszych organizacji skautowych Rodło napisało dwa projekty na dofinansowanie remontu (w 2003 i przed 2006). Oba zostały rozpatrzone pozytywnie, a łączna kwota dotacji wyniosła 12 tysięcy złotych. +Nawet spadek liczebności członków z lat 2006-07 nie zmniejszył zapału, z jakim harcerze i instruktorzy remontowali siedzibę swojej organizacji. Zgodnie ze sprawozdaniem z działalności OHR z lat 2003-2008, na rzecz harcówki przepracowano 8000 godzin. +W 2008 Organizacja rozpoczęła przygotowania do IV już zjazdu, zaplanowanego na 28 marca. Tego dnia miało jednak miejsce najbardziej tragiczne wydarzenie w krótkiej historii „Rodła”. W odnawianej od kilku lat harcówce wybuchł pożar. Całkowitemu zniszczeniu uległ dach i większość urządzeń. W opłakanym stanie znalazła się także podłoga. Źródłem zapłonu było zwarcie w instalacji elektrycznej systemu ogrzewania. Ekspertyza, przeprowadzona bezpłatnie przez rzeczoznawcę wykazała, że ściany i fundamenty nie zostały uszkodzone. Szczęśliwie przetrwały także proporce i kroniki. +Następnego dnia wszystkie cenne przedmioty przetransportowano do magazynu OHR, zerwano resztki stropu i pozbyto się spalonych sprzętów. Zabezpieczono także teren pogorzeliska. Później zabezpieczono także sam budynek, przykrywając resztki dachu i nadpalone panele ścienne plandekami. Z pomocą „Rodle” przyszedł burmistrz Jarocina, przekazując 3 tys. zł., a także dyrekcja SP nr 3, która udostępniła szkolną stołówkę na miejsce spotkań członków Organizacji. +Pożar zmienił trwale oblicze organizacji. Członkowie zaniechali wielkich akcji zarobkowych, skupili się za to na pracy z młodzieżą. Od września 2009 główne pomieszczenie jest wyłożone karton-gipsem, a dach izolowany wełną mineralną. Dzięki temu, może ona na powrót pełnić funkcję miejsca spotkań. +Struktura „Rodła”. +Zgodnie z założeniami statutu, Organizacja strukturą wewnętrzną najbardziej przypomina hufiec – jednostkę terenową w organizacjach ogólnopolskich (ZHP czy ZHR) działającą na terenie powiatu lub dzielnicy w dużych miastach. Obecnie jednak bardziej upodabnia się do niewielkiego szczepu. +Drużyny, szczepy i inne jednostki. +Członkowie skupieni są w jednostkach podstawowych: drużynach lub kręgach. Przydział do jednej z jednostek jest obowiązkowy dla zuchów, harcerzy i harcerzy starszych. Drużyny mają swobodę w budowaniu swojej struktury wewnętrznej, jednak najczęściej składają się z 2-4 małych grup (zastępów) harcerek bądź harcerzy. W każdym z zastępów powinno znaleźć się 4-8 członków tej samej płci. Zastępowi przewodzi zastępowy, starszy harcerz wyróżniający się zaradnością, doświadczeniem lub w inny sposób predysponowany do zostania liderem, powoływany do pełnienia tej funkcji przez drużynowego. +W przeciwieństwie do organizacji ogólnopolskich, to zastępowi (a nie drużynowi) są odpowiedzialni za rozwój i wychowanie harcerzy. Zastępy spotykają się regularnie (zazwyczaj co tydzień) na zajęciach – zbiórkach, w trakcie których jego członkowie szlifują swoje umiejętności. +Szefem drużyny jest drużynowy – instruktor przynajmniej w stopniu przewodnika, powołany do pełnienia tej funkcji przez Komendę OHR. Do jego obowiązków należy m.in. organizacja co miesiąc zajęć dla całej drużyny, decydowanie o dopuszczeniu do przyrzeczenia harcerskiego i dbanie o prawidłowe rozliczanie finansowe. Swoje decyzje wydaje w formie rozkazów. +W prowadzeniu zajęć pomagają mu przyboczni. Powinni być to doświadczeni członkowie, najlepiej po ukończeniu specjalnego kursu przygotowującego do pełnienia tej funkcji. Pomagają oni drużynowemu w wypełnianiu obowiązków, a także zastępują go w przypadku jego nieobecności. +W zależności od wieku członków, wyróżnia się: drużyny zuchowe (6-9 lat) i drużyny harcerzy (9-16 lat). Drużyny w Organizacji mogą być dys- i koedukacyjne, tj. składać się zarówno z męskich jak i żeńskich zastępów, lub tylko zastępów jednej płci. +Krąg jest to jednostka o wiele mniejsza liczebnie. Składa się z kilku bądź kilkunastu członków. Kręgi mogą skupiać instruktorów (krąg instruktorski) lub harcerzy starszych (krąg starszoharcerski). Przewodniczącym kręgu jest jeden z jego członków, nominowany przez pozostałych i zatwierdzony przez Komendę OHR. +Kręgi i drużyny mogą dobrowolnie łączyć się w szczepy, lub związki drużyn, którym przewodzi właściwy komendant, wybierany przez ogół instruktorów drużyn tworzących szczep, i zatwierdzany w rozkazie przez Komendanta OHR. Dzięki szczepom, jednostki mogą wspierać się wzajemnie i lepiej dbać o swoje interesy na forum Organizacji. W OHR nigdy jednak nie było żadnego z nich. +Nazewnictwo jednostek nie jest ustalone żadnymi regulaminami. Zakłada się jednak, że w nazwie jednostki powinno wystąpić miejsce działania (np. "jarocińska"), termin "drużyna" a także odpowiednią grupę wiekową ("harcerska" lub "zuchowa"). Pozostałe epitety ("środowiskowa", "męska", "(harcerzy) starszych" itp.) muszą zostać ustalone przez założycieli jednostki z komendą OHR. Wszystkie człony nazwy zapisuje się wielką literą. +Każda jednostka posiada swoje specyficzne symbole, integrujące jej członków: numer, specyficzną nazwę, patrona, barwy i plakietkę. Trzy pierwsze z nich muszą być zatwierdzane przez Komendę OHR. +Władze. +Najwyższym organem prawodawczym i decyzyjnym „Rodła” jest Zjazd. To najwyższa władza, mająca prawo podjąć wszelkie decyzje dotyczące Organizacji. Zjazdy zwyczajne Rada Naczelna zwołuje co 5 lat. Ponadto, można zwoływać Zjazdy nadzwyczajne w innych terminach, jeżeli istnieje taka potrzeba. +Udział w Zjazdach przysługuje delegatom, czyli osobom obdarzonym przez członków największym zaufaniem. Do roku 2008 delegatów mianowała Rada Drużynowych i Przybocznych, dziś funkcję tę przejęła jej prawna kontynuatorka, Rada Naczelna. Stałym elementem każdego zjazdu jest wybór władz międzyzjazdowych, zarządzających Organizacją na co dzień, czyli: Komendanta, Radę Naczelną oraz Komisję Rewizyjną, a także udzielanie absolutorium ustępującym włodarzom. Ponadto delegaci mogą podjąć uchwały w innych sprawach, np. zmienić treść statutu. +Pomiędzy Zjazdami, OHR jest zarządzane przez Komendę OHR. Na jej czele stoi Komendant OHR. Jego zadaniem jest reprezentacja „Rodła” na zewnątrz, zawiadywanie strukturą drużyn (powoływanie, rozwiązywanie), mianowania na funkcje instruktorskie i kierowanie pracą Komendy. Ma prawo wydawać rozkazy. W skład Komendy wchodzą też zastępcy komendanta, skarbnik i kwatermistrz. Członkowie Komendy (oprócz Komendanta) mianowani są przez Radę Naczelną na wniosek Komendanta. +W „Rodle” działa Rada Naczelna OHR, spotykająca się przynajmniej 2 razy do roku. Decyduje o podstawowych sprawach Organizacji pomiędzy Zjazdami, takich jak kierunki pracy wychowawczej, umundurowanie, systemy stopni harcerskich i instruktorskich czy zasady pracy drużyn. Ponadto ma za zadanie nadzorować wprowadzanie w życie decyzji podjętych przez Zjazd. Składa się z przewodniczącego, jego zastępcy i sekretarza. W jej posiedzeniach bierze udział Komendant i Komenda OHR. +Nad Radą i Komendą, a także drużynami czuwa Komisja Rewizyjna. Sprawdza, czy decyzje i działania przez nie podejmowane są zgodne z regulaminami, statutem i przepisami państwowymi. Przed Zjazdem składa sprawozdanie z działalności tych organów. Komisja składa się z przewodniczącego i 2-3 pozostałych członków, powoływanych przez Zjazd. +Zjazdy mogą mianować namiestników – instruktorów odpowiedzialnych za współpracę i koordynację działań pomiędzy drużynami tego samego poziomu wiekowego. Namiestnicy w OHR mają o wiele szersze uprawnienia od swych odpowiedników w organizacjach ogólnopolskich, m. in. mogą powoływać i odwoływać drużynowych drużyn ze swojego pionu wiekowego. Jedynym namiestnikiem powołanym w historii OHR był namiestnik drużyn zuchowych, zwolniony po Zjeździe w 2008. +Za rozwój kadry Organizacji odpowiada Kapituła Stopni i Kursów. Składa się ona z trzech członków: Przewodniczącego (mianowanego przez Komendanta OHR) oraz dwóch pozostałych (zatwierdzanych przez Komendę OHR na wnisek przewodniczącego). Zajmuje się ona kształceniem instruktorów, tworzeniem programów kształcenia kadry (kursów i biwaków kształceniowych) oraz organizowaniem kursów szkoleniowych dla kadr drużyn. Prowadzi również próby na stopnie instruktorskie, a niekiedy także harcerskie. +Jednostki działające przy Rodle. +Obecnie w drużynie używa się również chust z zielonym obszyciem, zgodnie z wolą założycieli drużyny. Chusty takie noszą członkowie patrolu, który wygrał rywalizację na Biwaku Rocznicowym 31 w 2010 roku, patrz Relacja- Biwak Rocznicowy 31 JŚDHS 26-29.06.2010r. +Plik:Plakietka 31 JŚDHS.svg|Plakietka 31 Jarocińskiej Środowiskowej Drużyny Harcerzy Starszych +Plik:Chusta 1 JDZ.svg|Chusta 1 Jarocińskiej Drużyny Zuchowej +Plik:Chusta 2 JDZ.svg|Chusta 2 Jarocińskiej Drużyny Zuchowej +Plik:Chusta 3 JDH.svg|Chusta 3 Jarocińskiej Drużyny Harcerskiej +Plik:Chusta 1 JDH.svg|Chusta 1 Jarocińskiej Drużyny Harcerskiej +Plik:4ŚŚDH.svg|Chusta 4 Świerklanieckiej Środowiskowej Drużyny Harcerskiej +Plik:Chusta 13 JŚDH.svg|Chusta 13 Jarocińskiej Środowiskowej Drużyny Harcerskiej + +Metodyka. +Organizacja Harcerska „Rodło” kształtuje charaktery młodych ludzi w duchu harcerskim i za pomocą metody harcerskiej. Ideologia Organizacji jest zbieżna z prezentowaną przez Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego. +Metoda a religia. +Organizacja Harcerska „Rodło” kładzie duży nacisk na zapewnienie swobody wyznania swoim członkom, gwarantowanej przez metodę i program. Wyraża się on poprzez roty wszystkich ślubowań oraz treść Prawa Harcerskiego, które są pozbawione wszelkich odniesień do Boga. W ten sposób zostają oddalone dylematy, na jakie narażeni są członkowie niewierzący, agnostycy czy wyznawcy religii politeistycznych wszystkich organizacji ogólnopolskich (nawet ZHP, pomimo stautowej swobody wyznania w swoich szeregach, w rocie swojego Przyrzeczenia zawiera zobowiązanie do "służby Bogu"). +Pomimo świeckiego charakteru OHR, w pełni dozwolone jest występowanie jego członków w mundurach (także grupowo, jako reprezentacje jednostek, a nawet całej Organizacji) w trakcie uroczystości religijnych oraz patriotyczno-religijnych, a także stosowanie praktyk religijnych dla wierzących na biwakach, obozach. +Grupy wiekowe. +Należy pamiętać, iż w „Rodle” za członka uznaje się osobę, która została dopuszczona do przyrzeczenia harcerskiego, zobowiązania instruktorskiego lub obietnicy zucha, w zależności od grupy wiekowej. Dla członków z różnych grup stosuje się różne metody i formy pracy. Praca z zuchami opiera się przede wszystkim na Przyrzeczeniu i Prawie Zucha. Na zbiórkach dominuje element zabawy "w kogoś lub w coś". Zuchy zdobywają sprawności grupowo lub indywidualnie – mogą dzięki temu rozwijać swoje zainteresowania. +Z kolei harcerze rozwijają swoje zainteresowania i umiejętności poprzez różne gry, pionierkę, samodzielne zdobywanie sprawności a starszyzna dochodzi do mistrzostwa w wybranych dziedzinach, szuka swojego miejsca w społeczeństwie i dojrzewa do odpowiedzialnego życia obywatelskiego. +Gwiazdki zuchowe. +Gwiazdki zuchowe to specyficzne odznaki, których zdobycie potwierdza osiągnięcie przez zucha określonego etapu rozwoju. Gwiazdki zuchowe wspierają rozwój intelektualny, duchowy, fizyczny i społeczny. Są one pomocne drużynowym zuchowym, gdyż pozwalają kształtować w podopiecznych wyrobienie umiejętności pracy nad sobą, nawyki życzliwego współżycia w społeczeństwie i zrozumienie wpływu człowieka na środowisko naturalne. +Gwiazdki zdobywa się po kolei podczas normalnej pracy w gromadzie. Nie trzeba zgłaszać indywidualnie chęci ich otrzymania. Drużynowy nadaje je, gdy uzna, że zuch spełnił odpowiednie wymagania. Nazwy poszczególnych gwiazdek są zaczerpnięte z metodyki zuchowej ZHP. +Oznakami gwiazdek są... gwiazdki oficerskie wyszyte białą nicią lub wykonane z metalu, noszone na prostokątnej podkładce pod Znaczkiem zucha, nad lewą kieszenią. +Stopnie harcerskie. +Stopnie harcerskie są środkiem motywacji do samorozwoju harcerzy i starszyzny. Zdobycie kolejnych stopni wiąże się z coraz trudniejszymi wymaganiami. Aby zdobyć stopień, członek zgłasza taką chęć swojemu drużynowemu. Powinien także ułożyć kartę próby, czyli wykaz zadań, których wykonanie jest niezbędne do uzyskania stopnia. Czas, w którym stopień jest zdobywany nazywa się próbą. Otwarcie i zamknięcie próby jest dokonywane przez drużynowego w rozkazie. +System stopni harcerskich w OHR składa się z pięciu niezwiązanych z grupą wiekową stopni. Oznakami stopnia są gwiazdki wyszywane na lewym ramieniu tuż pod wszyciem rękawa. +Dokumenty źródłowe określające system stopni harcerskich, uchwalone jeszcze przez Radę Drużynowych i Przybocznych, uległy zniszczeniu w trakcie pożaru harcówki na początku 2008. Po tym wydarzeniu, stopnie zdobywano coraz rzadziej, by wkrótce zupełnie je porzucić. Na restytucję systemu nie trzeba było jednak długo czekać, i w 2010 roku władze organizacji wspólnie podjęły się opracowania i uchwalenia nowych regulaminów, w oparciu o zachowane informacje. Po miesiącach konsultacji, Regulamin stopni harcerskich został przyjęty przez Radę Naczelną na posiedzeniu z dnia 28 listopada 2010. +Stopnie instruktorskie. +Podobnie jak w przypadku innych grup (zuchów, harcerzy i harcerzy starszych) także członkowie przynależący do środowiska instruktorskiego OHR są poddawani gradualizacji. Stopniowania instruktorów pod względem wiedzy harcerskiej, wyrobienia ideowego, doświadczenia w pracy z młodzieżą i zaangażowania w życie Organizacji dokonuje się poprzez stopnie instruktorskie. Ich system w „Rodle” jest trójdzielny. Stopnie zdobywa się po kolei. +Procedura zdobywania stopni rozpoczyna się od złożenia stosownego wniosku do Kapituły Stopni i Kursów. Powinien on zawierać program próby, czyli listę zadań i wyczynów, jakich powinien dokonać kandydat, by otrzymać stopień. Program zależny jest od podejmowanego stopnia oraz indywidualnych predyspozycji realizatora próby. W trakcie próby, KSiK regularnie kontroluje i analizuje jej przebieg, wspomagając w ten sposób opiekuna próby. +Próba jest otwierana i zamykana (pozytywnie lub nie) przez Komendanta OHR, on też przyznaje stopień w rozkazie. Instruktorzy, którzy otrzymali stopnie w ZHP przed wydzieleniem się OHR zachowywali je w nowej organizacji. +Oznakami stopni są filcowe podkładki noszone pod Krzyżem harcerskim. Ich kolory oznaczają posiadany stopień. W OHR nie stosuje się innych oznak stopni, włącznie z lilijką instruktorską (plakietką w kształcie lilijki harcerskiej w kolorze podkładki, noszoną opcjonalnie na lewej kieszeni przez instruktorów m.in. ZHP i ZHR). Nazwy stopni feminizuje się (np. dopuszczalna jest forma "podharcmistrzyni"). +Rodło posiada własny Regulamin stopni instruktorskich, uchwalony 28 listopada 2010 przez Radę Naczelną. Wcześniej, w Rodle obowiązywał regulamin stopni pochodzący ze Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego. +Sprawności. +Sprawność jest to pewna umiejętność potwierdzona w praktyce. Harcerze i starszyzna zdobywa sprawności w podobnym trybie co stopnie harcerskie. Należy wykonać wszystkie wymagania sprawności, nie sporządza się jednak karty próby. W doborze sprawności występuje pełna dowolność – najlepiej gdy sprawności odzwierciedlają zainteresowania zdobywającego. Sprawności zuchowe dzielą się na indywidualne i grupowe. Pierwsze z nich zdobywa się analogicznie jak harcerskie, zaś te drugie związane są z tematyką aktualnych zbiórek i zdobywa się je całą drużyną. +Oznaka zdobytej ma postać krążka (harcerskie) lub trójkąta równobocznego (zuchowe), i widnieje na niej unikalny symbol odpowiedniej sprawności. Znaczki wyszywa się na prawym ramieniu w rzędach po trzy oznaki w każdym. +Przez wiele lat członkowie i drużynowi przy opracowywaniu prób i symboli korzystali z dorobku organizacji ogólnopolskich. Jednakże 14.10.2011r., po długotrwałej współpracy instruktorów, Rada Naczelna uchaliła nowe: Regulamin sprawności harcerskich i Regulamin sprawności zuchowych +Nowy regulamin sprawności harcerskich różni się na wielu płaszczyznach od podobnych regulacji z innych organizacji harcerskich. Występują sprawności jedno-, dwu- i trzygwiazdkowe, przy czym wymagania na sprawności jednogwiazdkowe zawierają w sobie wymagania na stopień harcerski młodzika z danych dziedzin, sprawności dwugwiazdkowe- wymagania na stopień samarytanina itd. Położono też nacisk na praktyczny, a nie wiedzowy charakter wymagań na sprawności oraz uproszczono symbole sprawności, ułatwiając ich wyszywanie. +Wyjątkową pod względem zarówno oznaki jak i trybu zdobywania była tzw. "sprawność OHR". Jej znaczek miał postać podłużnego paska i nosiło się go ponad innymi sprawnościami. Aby ją zdobyć, należało wykazać się wyjątkową służbą na rzecz Organizacji i środowiska lokalnego. Od 2007 roku zaniechano jej nadawania. +Symbolika i obrzędowość. +Ponieważ OHR wywodzi się historycznie ze struktur ZHP, wiele elementów obrzędowości i symboliki zostało przejętych właśnie od niego. +Prawo i Przyrzeczenie Harcerskie. +Postępowanie i system wartości harcerzy i harcerek z „Rodła” wyznacza Przyrzeczenie Harcerskie, i Prawo Harcerskie, które w trakcie Przyrzeczenia zobowiązuje się przestrzegać. Sam moment składania Przyrzeczenia przez nowego członka jest niezwykle wyjątkowy zarówno w życiu drużyny, jak i Organizacji. Do złożenia Przyrzeczenia dopuszcza drużynowy nowicjusza, gdy uzna, że jest już gotów przyjąć na siebie obowiązki harcerza. Biszkopt (jak nazywa się potocznie nowicjusza) obrzędowo dołącza do wielkiej braci harcerskiej i skaut. +Należy zwrócić uwagę na brak odniesienia do Boga w rocie Przyrzeczenia. +Obietnica i Prawo zucha. +Najważniejszą chwilą w życiu każdego kandydata na zucha jest obrzędowe przyjęcie do gromady, którego centralną częścią jest złożenie Obietnicy zucha. W ten sposób deklaruje swoją chęć do stawania się coraz lepszym i jak najlepszego przestrzegania Prawa zucha. Bardzo często Obietnica staje się przedsionkiem do pełnego wyzwań i przygód życia harcerza. +Zobowiązanie Instruktorskie. +Każdy instruktor, tuż po otrzymaniu nominacji na pierwszy stopień instruktorski, składa w obecności innych instruktorów Rodła Zobowiązanie Instruktorskie. W ten sposób deklaruje on zgodność dążeń i ideałów z założeniami OHR, a także ślubuje jak najlepiej opiekować się powierzoną młodzieżą. +Krzyż Harcerski. +Od zatwierdzenia ostatecznego wzoru w 1914 roku, Krzyż harcerski jest najważniejszą odznaką każdego członka ZHP a także wszystkich innych organizacji, które się z niego wywodzą. Każdy element jego rysunku ma swoje ściśle określone znaczenie – cechę lub wartość, którą powinien odznaczać się jego posiadacz. +Krzyż harcerski jest wręczany harcerzowi przez drużynowego tuż po złożeniu Przyrzeczenia harcerskiego. Dowodem na jego posiadanie jest wpis do książeczki harcerskiej (osobistego dokumentu stwierdzającego harcerską tożsamość). Krzyże stosowane w OHR mają wzór Mennicy Państwowej, stosowany od 1966 roku. +Lilijka Organizacji Harcerskiej „Rodło”. +Lilijka OHR to typowa lilijka harcerska tłoczona w srebrnym metalu lub haftowana na filcu srebrną nicią, uzupełniona o litery "ONC" (hasła filaretów) i symbol rodła na środkowym listku. Osoby będące w trakcie próby na harcerza, noszą ją w miejscu zajmowanym zazwyczaj przez Krzyż harcerski, tj. nad prawą kieszenią. Srebrne lilijki noszą na nakryciach głowy harcerze, a także instruktorzy (w przeciwieństwie do ZHP i ZHR, gdzie używają oni lilijek złotych). +Dystrybucja symboli. +W Organizacji Harcerskiej „Rodło” zakupem i rozprowadzaniem symboli pośród członków zajmuje się Komenda OHR, poprzez drużynowych. W przypadku zagubienia Krzyża harcerskiego, Komenda zastrzega sobie prawo do odmówienia wydania członkowi nowego egzemplarza. Decyzja w tej sprawie jest podejmowana najwcześniej pół roku po zgłoszeniu zagubienia. +Proporce. +Każdy zastęp i drużyna ma prawo posiadać własny proporzec. Jest to specyficzne weksylium o trójkątnym płacie i drewnianym, nieskładanym drzewcu. Jego lewa strona zawiera nazwę jednostki, do której należy proporzec. Z kolei prawa zarezerwowana jest dla jednostki nadrzędnej. Proporce drużyn na prawej stronie płatu, zamiast nazwy organizacji, wyszyte mają swoje godło. Zgodnie z lokalną tradycją, nikt oprócz proporcowego i kadry (komendy) jednostki nie może dotykać proporca. Na biwakach i obozach, proporzec drużyny jest wciągany na maszt zamiast flagi. +Mundury. +Umundurowanie członków „Rodła” reguluje "Regulamin Mundurów, Odznak i Oznak Zuchowych, Harcerskich i Instruktorskich" z 1999 roku. Umiejscowienie niektórych oznak jest zbieżne z mundurem ZHP i ZHR. Harcerze i zuchy noszą inne rodzaje umundurowania. +Zuchy. +Dziewczęta noszą szare koszule typu fartuchowego z groszkowanymi guzikami bez naramienników, spięte pasem zuchowym. Chłopcy używają koszul mundurowych w kolorze khaki, także bez naramienników i z groszkowanymi guzikami, wpuszczonych w krótkie spodenki, jednolite dla całej drużyny. Całość dopełnia beret filcowy w kolorze drużyny i białe skarpetki. W okresie zimowym dziewczęta mogą nosić getry. +Harcerze, harcerki, instruktorzy, instruktorki. +Zarówno harcerki jak i harcerze używają koszul mundurowych z naramiennikami, zapinanych na guziki z wytłoczoną lilijką. Chłopcy noszą koszule w kolorze khaki i spodenki w tym samym kolorze lub długie spodnie kroju wojskowego. Dziewczęta noszą bluzy szare, a do tego albo spódniczki za kolano w kolorze szarym, albo długie spodnie. Dolna część garderoby jest jednolita w całej drużynie, i spina ją pas harcerski lub wojskowy. Nakrycie głowy także jest stałe w drużynie, i może nim być beret baskijski (z lilijką pośrodku, a nie nad lewym okiem), rogatywka (w kolorze bluzy) lub kapelusz skautowy. +Oznaki przynależności do jednostki. +Zuchy przynależące do tej samej drużyny noszą identyczne chusty harcerskie, pod kołnierzem i spięte kółkiem. Ponadto na beretach mogą mieć znaczek drużyny. Harcerze także noszą chustę swojej drużyny, a ponadto plakietkę drużyny na lewym ramieniu, pod oznaką stopnia harcerskiego. Dodatkowo, należy nosić patki w barwach jednostki. +Przynależność do „Rodła” sygnalizuje plakietka organizacji, której wzór i miejsce noszenia reguluje Komenda OHR. +Australia Południowa + +Australia Południowa - jeden ze stanów Australii, położony jest w centralno-południowej części kontynentu australijskiego, u brzegów Oceanu Południowego. Ma obszar 1 043 514 km². Stolicą Australii Południowej jest Adelaide, znana jako "City of Churches" (Miasto Kościołów). Australia Południowa została założona jako kolonia Wielkiej Brytanii w 1836 roku i przyłączyła się do Związku Australijskiego (Australii) w 1901. Ludność Południowej Australii to w przybliżeniu 1,60 mln osób (IX 2008), większość z nich mieszka w stolicy stanu, w pobliżu brzegu oceanu i wzdłuż rzeki Murray . +Historia. +Pierwszym Europejczykiem który zobaczył i opisał brzegi Australii Południowej był Francois Thijssen, kapitan holenderskiego statku "Gulden Zeepaert" w 1627 roku, Thijssen nazwał ten rejon "Ziemia Pietera Nuytsa" od nazwiska jednego z pasażerów na statku. Całe wybrzeże Południowej Australii zostało zbadane niezależnie od siebie przez dwóch odkrywców i podróżników - Anglika Matthew Flindersa i Francuza Nicholasa Baudina w 1802. +Południowa Australia została zaplanowana jako wolna kolonia (a nie kolonia karna dla zesłańców), w 1835 "South Australia Company" zaczęła sprzedawać ziemię dla chętnych osadników, sama kolonia została oficjalnie proklamowana w ceremonii pod tzw. The Old Gum Tree 28 grudnia 1836. Kolonizacja Australii Południowej była głównie dziełem Edwarda Gibbona Wakefielda który opracował własną "teorię kolonizacji" i George'a Fife'a Angasa który był głównym udziałowcem i posiadał największe obszary ziemi z nowej kolonii. +Geografia. +Obszar Australii Południowej to głównie suche, nieuprawne niziny z kilkoma niewysokimi pasmami górskimi, najważniejszym z których jest Mt. Lofty Ranges, rozciągający się na przestrzeni 800 km od przylądka Jervis do północnego końca jeziora Torrens. Zachodnia część stanu to prawie niezamieszkana nizina Nullarbor. Australia Południowa graniczy z każdym australijskim stanem i terytorium położonym na stałym lądzie z wyjątkiem Australijskiego Terytorium Stołecznego oraz Terytorium Jervis Bay. Terytorium Północne było pierwotnie częścią Australii Południowej, zostało wyodrębnione jako osobna jednostka administracyjna w 1911. Południową granicę stanu stanowi wybrzeże Oceanu Południowego. Przeciętna temperatura w styczniu wynosi +29°C, a w lipcu +15 °C. W najgorętszych miesiącach, styczniu i lutym, temperatura może sięgać aż do +48 °C. +Demografia. +Prawie 4/5 wszystkich mieszkańców stanu skupia stołeczna Adelaide i kilkanaście niewielkich miasteczkach. +Gospodarka. +Główne gałęzie przemysłu w Australii Południowej to produkcja samochodów, zboża, wina i wełny które stanowią także większość eksportowanych towarów. Ponad połowa wina produkowanego w Australii pochodzi z Australii Południowej. +Przemysł ciężki i przetwórczy stanowi ważną część ekonomii Australii Południowej, generuje 15% produktu stanowego brutto i składa się na większość eksportu. Australia Południowa w większym stopniu niż inne stany jest uzależniona od dochodów z eksportu, łączne roczne dochody z tego źródła wynoszą ponad 10 miliardów dolarów australijskich. +Ustrój polityczny. +Australia Południowa jest monarchią konstytucyjną, głową stanu jest królowa Australii, a jej reprezentantem jest gubernator stanu. Ma dwuizbowy parlament składający się z "House of Assembly" (niższa izba) i "South Australia Legislative Council" (wyższa izba). Obecnym (2004) premierem stanu jest Mike Rann, członek Australijskiej Partii Pracy (partia laburzystowska). +Na początku istnienia stanu, gubernatorem był kapitan John Hindmarsh który miał niemal całkowitą władzę na podległych mu ziemiach (na podstawie "Letters Patent" otrzymanego od rządy Wielkiej Brytanii na podstawie którego założono nową kolonię). Był podległy jedynie brytyjskiemu urzędowi ds. kolonii i w początkowej fazie istnienia stanu, był to twór całkowicie niedemokratyczny. W 1843 stworzono urząd "Legislative Council" który był tylko ciałem doradczym gubernatora, składał się on z trzech osób reprezentujących Anglię i czterech kolonistów nominowanych przez gubernatora, sam gubernator nadal miał w swoich rękach całkowitą władzę wykonawczą i ustawodawczą. +W 1851 r. parlament angielski wprowadził w życie ustawę pod nazwą "Australian Colonies Government Act" która pozwoliła na stworzenie w stanach Australii parlamentów do których mogli być wybierani przedstawiciele kolonistów oraz dała możliwość stworzenia osobnych konstytucji dla poszczególnych kolonii. W tym samym roku odbyły się pierwsze wybory do "Legislative Council", głosować w nich mogli tylko zamożni mężczyźni którzy wybrali 16 przedstawicieli, następnych ośmiu zostało nominowanych przez gubernatora stanu. +Głównym zadaniem pierwszego "parlamentu" było napisanie konstytucji dla Australii Południowej. Nowo powstałe ciało legislacyjne stworzyło projekt najbardziej demokratycznej konstytucji do tamtej pory w ramach imperium brytyjskiego. Założono w niej równość wszystkich wobec prawa – włącznie z biernymi i aktywnymi prawami wyborczymi dla kobiet. Australia Południowa została pierwszym stanem w Australii który umożliwił głosowanie kobietom w wyborach parlamentarnych. Inne główne założenia konstytucji to dwuizbowy parlament. Po raz pierwszy w jakiejkolwiek kolonii brytyjskiej, władze wykonawcze i ustawodawcze były wybierane całkowicie przez kolonistów na wzór westminsterski – rząd stanowiła partia która miała większość w niższej izbie. Australia Południowa przystąpiła do Związku Australijskiego 1 stycznia 1901 roku. +Przezmir + +Przedmir, Przezmir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Przed-", "Przez-" ("przez coś, dzięki czemuś") i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Być może oznaczało "kogoś, kto swoje istnienie zawdzięcza pokojowi". +Lewków + +Lewków – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie ostrowskim, w gminie Ostrów Wielkopolski. +Lewków leży około 6 km na północny-wschód od Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego, nad Niedźwiadą. Około 1 km na zachód od Lewkowa, w Michałkowie znajduje się lotnisko Aeroklubu Ostrowskiego. +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki o Lewkowie pochodzą z 1413. Przez dłuższy czas wieś była własnością Koźmińskich, w XVIII w. często zmieniała właścicieli (Sokolniccy, Gorzeńscy, Krzyżanowscy). W 1786 zakupiona przez Wojciecha Lipskiego herbu Grabie (herb szlachecki), adiutanta króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. W latach 40. XIX wieku ukrywał się tu, u Józefa Lipskiego, poeta Roman Zmorski. W rękach Lipskich pozostawała do wybuchu II wojny światowej. W 1928 Lewków odwiedził prezydent Ignacy Mościcki. Ostatni przedwojenni właściciele Lewkowa to Jan Lipski oraz jego brat, Józef Lipski, ostatni ambasador Rzeczypospolitej w Berlinie (1934-1939). Miejscowość przynależała administracyjnie przed 1887 r. do powiatu odolanowskiego, w latach 1975-1998 do województwa kaliskiego, a w latach 1887-1975 i od 1999 do powiatu ostrowskiego. +Silmarile + +Silmarile (qya. "Silmarilli", lp. "Simarillë") – fikcyjne przedmioty ze stworzonej przez J. R. R. Tolkiena mitologii Śródziemia. +Silmarile były trzema klejnotami stworzonymi przez Fëanora, najzdolniejszego wśród Ñoldorów, który uwięził w nich światło dwóch Drzew Valinoru. Zaklęty był w nich ogień Eä i losy Ardy. +Zostały wykonane przez Fëanora z tajemniczej krystalicznej silimy, przypominającej diament. Dzięki temu były bardzo trwałe. Zostały zaklęte przez Vardę tak, że nikt, kto pożądał Silmarili, nie mógł ich dotknąć, nie ryzykując poparzenia. +Klejnoty te były przedmiotem pożądania Melkora, który ukradł je zabijając ojca Fëanora, Finwego. Kradzież ta stała się przyczyną wojny o klejnoty, na kanwie której oparta jest książka "Silmarillion". +Jeden z Silmarili został wykradziony z żelaznej korony Morgotha przez Berena i Lúthien. Dzięki niemu Eärendil, potomek Tuora i Idril, dopłynął do Valinoru na Vingilocie, mimo że wciąż trwał okres Nurtale Valinoreva i wybłagał pomoc Valarów w wojnie przeciw Morgothowi. Eärendil wybrał los elfa i wzniósł się dzięki Valarom pod niebo, a silmaril świecił na statku jako gwiazda, zaś pozostałe, z powodu chciwości synów Fëanora utonęły w odmętach oceanu i czeluściach ziemi. Nie odnajdą się, dopóki się świat nie odmieni. +Chart polski + +Chart polski – polska rasa psa myśliwskiego, znana prawdopodobnie od czasów Galla Anonima, zaliczana do grupy chartów. Dawniej użytkowana była przede wszystkim do polowań, obecnie jako pies reprezentacyjny. +Rys historyczny. +Pierwsze wzmianki o istnieniu chartów w Polsce pochodzą z czasów Galla Anonima. Za początki istnienia rasy przyjmuje się XII lub XIII wiek. Pierwotnie psy te służyły do polowań na ptactwo – dropie. Chart polski był ulubionym psem szlachty polskiej. Wywodzi się prawdopodobnie od chartów azjatyckich, takich jak np. chart perski (saluki) i chart środkowoazjatycki (tazy). +Po II wojnie światowej hodowle tej rasy zanikły. Zakazano polowań z chartami, a psy w typie charta likwidowano. Ich trzymanie i hodowla została obłożona specjalnym pozwoleniem, przepis ten obowiązuje nadal. Od lat 70. XX wieku przystąpiono do odtwarzania rasy. Współczesną hodowlę chartów polskich zapoczątkował Stanisław Czerniakowski, który zakupił w okolicach Rostowa nad Donem dwie suki – Tajgę i Striełkę oraz jednego psa – Elbrusa. Ze skojarzenia Tajgi i Elbrusa urodził się pierwszy zanotowany miot chartów polskich. +W 1989 rasa została wpisana do rejestru Międzynarodowej Federacji Kynologicznej (FCI). +Klasyfikacja FCI. +Grupa 10 – Charty +Sekcja 3 – Charty krótkowłose. +Nie podlega próbom pracy. +Wygląd. +Budowa. +Smukły pies o wąskim pysku. Chart polski jest wyraźnie mocniejszy i nie tak finezyjny w kształtach jak inne charty. Jest najwyższą z polskich ras. +Chart polski to pies silny, wytrzymały, o dobrze zbalansowanym ciele i proporcjach (wpisany jest w prostokąt oparty na dłuższym boku) pozwalających nie tylko na szybki galop, ale i na pokonywanie dużych odległości wyciągniętym kłusem. Jest psem o okrywie włosowej dobrze chroniącej go przed zimnem, wilgocią i wiatrem. +Szata i umaszczenie. +Wzorzec FCI dopuszcza wszelki rodzaj umaszczenia. +Szata – według wzorca chart polski jest psem krótkowłosym. Włos w dotyku sprężysty, dość twardy, ale nie drutowaty, ani nie jedwabisty. Niejednakowej długości na tułowiu: na kłębie włos dłuższy, na bokach, mostku i kończynach jest najkrótszy, brzuch pokryty delikatnym i rzadkim włosem. Na tylnej stronie ud i na spodniej stronie ogona włos jest dłuższy, ale też twardy. Portki i pióro wyraźne. +W rzeczywistości ze względu na nieznane pochodzenie psów wprowadzonych do hodowli często pojawiają się także charty polskie długowłose, jednak ze względu na niezgodność ze wzorcem są one zazwyczaj gorzej oceniane na wystawach. +Zachowanie i charakter. +Wytrzymały, samodzielny, w stosunku do innych psów dominujący, ale o zrównoważonej psychice. Niektóre osobniki posiadają silny instynkt terytorialny co jest cechą często występującą w tej rasie, a rzadką u chartów w ogóle. +Użytkowość. +Używano chartów polskich zarówno do polowań na zające jak i do polowań na wilki. Prócz charta polskiego tylko wilczarz irlandzki i chart rosyjski (borzoj) polowały na wilki. +Wykorzystywany w torowych wyścigach chartów oraz w coursingach. +Zdrowie i pielęgnacja. +Pies wymagający sporej dawki codziennego ruchu, stąd jest idealnym towarzyszem dla ludzi uprawiających jeździectwo lub jogging. +Popularność. +Ze względu na swoje rozmiary i wymagania chart polski nie jest w Polsce tak popularny jak inne rasy psów myśliwskich. +Ciekawostki. +Chart polski szczególnie imponował szybkością w polowaniu na dropie – największe polskie ptaki. Polowania te odbywały się nad ranem, gdy skrzydła i pióra tych stworzeń były mokre od osiadającej mgły i rosy. Psy były podprowadzane na najbliższą możliwą odległość i gdy dropie zaczynały uciekać rozpoczynała się pogoń. Ptaki przez 150–200 metrów biegły, otrzepując skrzydła z rosy – wcześniej mokre nie mogły się oderwać od ziemi – i to była szansa na skuteczny pościg dla chartów. W takich sytuacjach w grę wchodziła tylko i wyłącznie szybkość, nie było kluczenia jak w przypadku zajęcy, nie było walki z wilkami i innymi drapieżnikami. +Citroën GS + +Citroën GS/GSA - samochód osobowy produkowany w latach 1970-1986 pod marką Citroën, najmniejszy model tej firmy z zawieszeniem hydropneumatycznym. +Historia modelu. +Kąt pochylenia przedniego koła (nieregulowany) 0°±1°, kąt wyprzedzenia sworznia zwrotnicy (nieregulowany) 1°15' +1°25' -1°15', zbieżność kół (zbieżne do przodu) 0...2 mm. +Silnik tego modelu to typowy, chłodzony powietrzem, boxer o 4 cylindrach położonych poziomo, dwa wałki rozrządu - po jednym dla każdej pary cylindrów - napędzane oddzielnymi paskami zębatymi. Kadłub, głowicę i cylindry wykonano ze stopów lekkich. Stosowano skrzynie cztero- i pięciobiegowe, oraz trzybiegową automatyczną. Pierwszy silnik miał pojemność 1015 cm³. Od sierpnia 1972 roku stosowano również silnik o pojemności 1222 cm³, noszący oznaczenie GS 1220. W 1977 roku zamiast silnika o pojemności 1015 cm³ zastosowano boxer o wydłużonym skoku tłoków i pojemności 1129 cm³. Jesienią 1979 w modelu GSA.X3 zastosowano silnik typu boxer o pojemności 1299 cm³ i mocy maksymalnej 48 kW (65 KM). +Od września 1973 do 1975 roku produkowano model GS Birotor wyposażony w silnik Wankla o pojemności 995 cm³ i mocy maksymalnej 78,7 kW (107 KM). +Deska rozdzielcza GS-a tradycyjnie już miała jednoramienną kierownicę, oraz jako ciekawostkę - prędkościomierz, który oprócz szybkości jazdy pokazywał przewidywaną drogę hamowania. To rozwiązanie zostało zarzucone. +Aby obniżyć opór powietrza w wersji GSA.X3 m.in. osłonięto tarcze kół, wyprofilowane zderzaki i spoiler na tylnej ścianie nadwozia. +W ciągu pierwszych 10 lat produkcji powstało 2 miliony samochodów serii Citroën GS/GSA. +Zbrodnia + +Zbrodnia – czyn człowieka, który spotyka się ze szczególnym potępieniem ze strony społeczności. Termin ten zawsze odnoszono do zbrodni umyślnego pozbawienia życia (zabójstwo, morderstwo), jak i zbrodni przeciw majestatowi ("crimen laesae maiestatis"). +Prawo polskie. +W rozumieniu polskiego prawa karnego zbrodnia to czyn zabroniony zagrożony karą pozbawienia wolności na czas nie krótszy od lat 3 albo karą surowszą (zob. rodzaje kar). Zbrodnię można popełnić tylko umyślnie. Warunkowe umorzenie postępowania nie może być stosowane wobec sprawcy zbrodni. +Adolphe Appia + +Adolphe Appia (1 września 1862 w Genewie - 29 lutego 1928 w Nyonie), szwajcarski teoretyk teatru i scenograf. +Appia zajmował się inscenizacjami oper Wagnera, usiłując przelać nastroje muzyczne i treściowe w obrazowość sceny. Tworzył realizacje sceniczne antymalarskie, których głównym walorem były zestawy brył geometrycznych, przydatne do wywoływania gry światła i cienia, związanej z poetyckością tekstu i muzycznością. Tak zrytmizowana przestrzeń sceniczna była w pojęciu Appii dziełem „sztuki żywej”. +Teoria Teatru. +Ważnym elementem teorii Appii jest muzyka, co wynika przede wszystkim z modnego w XIX wieku przeświadczenia, że muzyka jest adekwatną ekspresją życia emocjonalnego. Ten element jest najczęściej krytykowany przez współczesnych teatrologów, ponieważ utwór muzyczny uznawany jest za konstrukcję uformowaną według ścisłych zasad, nie może być więc swobodną wypowiedzią ukazującą pełnię stanu emocjonalnego. +Powiat trzebnicki + +Powiat trzebnicki - powiat istniejący w latach 1946-1975 w Polsce (w północno-wschodniej części województwa wrocławskiego),na dwnych terenach "Landkreis Trebnitz". Jego siedzibą jest miasto Trzebnica. Utworzony na nowo w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej w (w północno-wschodniej części województwa dolnośląskiego). Graniczy z powiatami : milickim, oleśnickim, średzkim, górowskim, wołowskim, wrocławskim, rawickim oraz z Wrocławiem (miasto na prawach powiatu). Jest to powiat bogaty w walory historyczne i przyrodnicze. Przez powiat biegną drogi krajowe nr "5" i nr "15". +Demografia. +W latach 1816-1945 "Landkreis Trebnitz". 1 stycznia 1945 obejmował on dwa miasta Trzebnica i Strupina, 142 gminy i 1 Gutsbezirk. +Marcin Bylica + +Marcin Bylica znany również jako Marcin z Olkusza (ur. 1433 w Olkuszu, zm. 1493) – polski astronom, astrolog i medyk. +Życiorys. +Syn mieszczanina Jana, rurmistrza (dozorcy wodociągów) olkuskiego. Prawdopodobnie był uczniem szkoły parafialnej w Olkuszu. +Współpracował z astronomem austriackim Regiomontanusem (właśc. Johannes Müller) – wspólnie opracowali tablice astronomiczne oraz "Disputationes inter Viennensem et Cracoviensem super Cremonensia in planetarum theoriae deliramenta" ["Dialog między Wiedeńczykiem i Krakowianinem o bredzeniach Gerarda z Kremony na temat teorii planetarnych"] – krytykę przestarzałego podręcznika astronomii. Zaopatrzył Akademię Krakowską w instrumenty astronomiczne, zachowane do dziś. Wykładał także na bratysławskiej Universitas Istropolitana. +W Olkuszu do dziś znajduje się ulica jego imienia. +Apollodoros z Damaszku + +Apollodoros z Damaszku (łac. Apollodorus; ur. około 60, zm. około 130) – architekt rzymski pochodzenia syryjskiego. +Urodził się w Syrii. Stamtąd wyjechał do Rzymu i od 97 pracował dla cesarza Trajana. Pierwsze sukcesy odniósł jako inżynier wojskowy. W czasie I wojny dackiej (101-102 n.e.) wsławił się zbudowaniem mostu pontonowego przez Dunaj. Podczas II wojny dackiej przerzucił przez tę rzekę, niedaleko Żelaznej Bramy, drewniany most stały o długości 1100 metrów, który opierał się na betonowych filarach (ich pozostałości zachowały się do początku XX wieku). Oba mosty zostały uwiecznione na Kolumnie Trajana. +Później Apollodoros zaprojektował i zbudował w Rzymie liczne budowle: Forum Trajana, odeon na kolistym planie, Termy Trajana i – co jednak nie jest pewne – Panteon oraz hale targowe na planie półkola przylegające do Forum Trajana. Przypisuje mu się również projekt portu Trajana w Ostii i łuki Trajana w Benewencie i Ankonie. +Apollodoros wprowadził do architektury rzymskiej wiele elementów zaczerpniętych z budownictwa wschodniego (np. monumentalne założenia, stopniowanie elementów wizualnych i niezwykłą ozdobność). +Kariera Apollodorosa skończyła się, gdy skrytykował zaprojektowaną przez następcę Trajana, Hadriana, podwójną świątynię Wenus i Romy. Na rozkaz cesarza został zesłany, a później prawdopodobnie stracony. +Jest autorem dzieła o sztuce oblężniczej "Poliorketika", które dedykował Hadrianowi. Do naszych czasów zachowały się tylko jego fragmenty z rysunkami w bizantyjskim rękopisie. +Festiwal filmowy + +Festiwal filmowy – wydarzenie kulturalne dotyczące filmu. Organizowane zwykle na zasadzie konkursu, podczas którego jury lub publiczność przyznają nagrody w określonych kategoriach. +Pierwszy festiwal filmowy odbył się w 1932 w Wenecji. +Dariusz Bitner + +Dariusz Bitner (ur. 30 listopada 1954 roku w Gdyni) – prozaik, krytyk literacki, autor utworów dla dzieci i młodzieży. +Od 1958 roku mieszka w Szczecinie. Ukończył Zasadniczą Szkołę Zawodową (jako jej uczeń, w 1970 debiutował w szczecińskim tygodniku "Jantar") i Technikum Budowlane im. Kazimierza Wielkiego. +W 1976 roku nawiązał współpracę z magazynem satyrycznym "60 minut na godzinę" (redakcja rozrywkowa programu III Polskiego Radia), gdzie publikował humorystyczne (groteska, horror) mikrosłuchowiska (najpopularniejsze z nich, "Berek" się ostatecznie w książce pt. "Książka", miało odrębną premierę na antenie, później z tygodnikiem satyrycznym "Karuzela" i Rozgłośnią Polskiego Radia w Szczecinie. W następnych latach jego teksty zaczęły się ukazywać w ogólnopolskich pismach literackich i społeczno-kulturalnych. +Prozę i eseje drukował m.in. w "Twórczości", "Miesięczniku Literackim", "Literaturze", "Nowym Wyrazie", "Piśmie Literacko-Artystycznym", "Odrze", "Akcencie", "Radarze", "Studencie", "Nowym Nurcie", "Pograniczach". +Pracował przy realizacji filmu "Alchemik", jako asystent reżysera; ponadto był stróżem nocnym w Miejskim Ośrodku Kultury w Szczecinie-Dąbiu oraz dziennikarzem w gazecie lokalnej. Pracował w agencji reklamowej Oskar Wegner. Jako scenarzysta współpracował z Teatrem KANA. +Założył i prowadził agencję dziennikarsko-literacką BASIL. Obsługiwał dziennikarsko i literacko kilka pism ogólnopolskich, zajmował się też składem książek, adiustacją tekstów i nadzorem produkcji wydawnictw. +Wydał we własnym zakresie kilka swoich książek oraz książkę autorstwa Henryka Berezy pt. "Epistoły". +Powołał do życia i przez 9 miesięcy wydawał, rozprowadzane bezpłatnie, pismo "BABORAK. Kultura Szczecińska". Jest członkiem Stowarzyszenia Pisarzy Polskich. +Obecnie pracuje w dziale promocji i marketingu w Miejskiej Bibliotece Publicznej w Szczecinie. +Przezprawa + +Przezprawa – staropolskie imię żeńskie, być może opisowe, a nie życzące, złożone z członów "Przez-" ("bez") i "-prawa" ("prawdziwa, sprawiedliwa"). Być może oznaczało "tę, którą omija sprawiedliwość". +Męskie odpowiedniki: Biezpraw, Brzezpraw, Przezpraw. +Citroën Axel + +Citroën Axel - samochód osobowy firmy Citroën produkowany w latach 1984-1992. +Historia modelu. +Samochody Citroën Axel oraz bliźniaczy Oltcit Club były produkowane według licencji Citroëna w mieście Krajowa w Rumunii na podstawie zawartego w roku 1976 porozumienia o utworzeniu francusko-rumuńskiej spółki akcyjnej Oltcit S.A. (udział Citroëna wynosił 36%). +Strona francuska współpracowała przy budowie i wyposażeniu fabryki (w latach 1977-1981) oraz skonstruowała ten samochód. Wzorem dla tego francusko-rumuńskiego samochodu był Citroën Visa, chociaż nadwozie nie ma z Visą ani jednej wspólnej części oraz inne są jego wymiary. Silniki o pojemności skokowej 1129 cm³ oraz 1299 cm³ z drobnymi zmianami są przejęte z samochodu Citroën GSA. Z wersji GSA 1130 przejęto także skrzynię przekładniową i przednie hamulce tarczowe. Na rynek rumuński była produkowana również wersja z silnikiem dwucylindeowym o pojemności 654cm³, który montowano również w modelach Visa i 2CV. Przednie i tylne zawieszenie skonstruowano specjalnie z myślą o nowym samochodzie. Zawieszenie tylne wzorowano na rozwiązaniu tego zespołu w samochodzie Peugeot 205. +Produkcja seryjna samochodu Oltcit Club rozpoczęła się w roku 1982. Pierwsze samochody zmontowano z francuskich części. W roku 1987 udział części francuskich stanowił jeszcze około 60%, lecz w roku 1989 uległ znacznemu zmniejszeniu, wskutek zastosowania w samochodach Oltcit rumuńskiej 4-biegowej skrzyni przekładniowej zamiast dotychczas stosowanej francuskiej. +W sieci handlowej Citroëna samochody sprzedawano pod nazwą Citroën Axel od lipca 1984 do czerwca 1990 roku. Różnią się one od samochodów Oltcit Club przede wszystkim zastosowaniem zespołów wyłącznie francuskiej produkcji oraz plastikowych zderzaków, odchylanych tylnych szyb i ozdobnych listew we wszystkich wersjach. Ponadto większość modeli była oferowana z felgami aluminiowymi i oponami Michelin TRX. +Od początku 1989 samochody Oltcit Club 11 R oraz 11 R L były wyposażone w skrzynię czterobiegową produkcji rumuńskiej o zmienionych wartościach przełożeń w porównaniu ze stosowaną wcześniej czterobiegową skrzynią produkcji francuskiej oraz o odmiennym sposobie włączania wstecznego biegu. Rumuńska skrzynia czterobiegowa, zbliżona konstrukcyjnie do francuskiej, ma oznaczenie 31A-05 (TA 3001). Zawiera większą ilość oleju przekładniowego niż skrzynia francuska. Bieg wsteczny włącza się w niej przesuwając dźwignię zmiany biegów w prawo (od siebie) i do tyłu, a więc tak, jak we francuskiej skrzyni pięciobiegowej. Natomiast wcześniej wyprodukowane samochody były wyposażone we francuską skrzynię czterobiegową, w której bieg wsteczny włączało się przesuwając dźwignię zmiany biegów w prawo (od siebie) i do przodu. +Samochody Citroën Axel są wyposażone w silnik bokser. +Samochody Oltcit są oznakowane znakiem fabrycznym marki Oltcit (pojedynczy daszek wpisany w elipsę) z przodu na kratce wlotu powietrza oraz odpowiednimi napisami z tyłu na pasie tylnym. +Powiat średzki (województwo dolnośląskie) + +Powiat średzki – powiat w Polsce (w środkowej części województwa dolnośląskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Środa Śląska. +Położenie. +Powiat Średzki usytuowany jest w centralnej części województwa dolnośląskiego, 30 km na zachód od jego stolicy - Wrocławia. Na północy graniczy z powiatami: trzebnickim i wołowskim, na zachodzie z legnickim i jaworskim, na południu z powiatem świdnickim. Wschodnim jego sąsiadem jest powiat grodzki wrocławski i ziemski wrocławski. W bliskim sąsiedztwie powiatu leżą również dwie inne duże aglomeracje miejskie: Legnica i Lubin. +Obszar powiatu obejmuje centralną część Niziny Śląskiej, a dokładniej jej trzy mezoregiony fizyczno-geograficzne: Dolinę Odry, Wysoczyznę Średzką i Równinę Kostomłotów. Takie usytuowanie sprawia, że znajduje się w dwóch krajobrazowo odmiennych obszarach. Wysoczyzna Średzka leżąca w centrum regionu jest lekko pagórkowata i bezleśna. Wzniesienia na niej występujące są typowymi wzgórzami morenowymi, pokrytymi cienką warstwą lessu. Zbliżony charakter krajobrazowy ma przylegający do niej płaskowyż, noszący nazwę Równina Kostomłotów. Położona w północnej części regionu Dolina Odry składa się przede wszystkim z piaszczystych wzgórz i równin poprzecinanych głębokimi dolinami dawnych rzek, gdzie utworzyły się zatorfione obniżenia porośnięte liściastymi lasami łęgowymi i trzcinami. Duży stopień naturalności lasów sprawił, że w 1959 r. utworzono tu rezerwat przyrody "Zabór". +Historia. +Powiat Średzki należy do obszarów o najstarszym osadnictwie na Śląsku. Najdawniejsze ślady odkryto w Głosce i szacuje się, że pochodzą z końcowego okresu paleolitu, czyli 8-13 tys. lat temu. Naukowcy twierdzą, że Słowianie przybyli na tereny Powiatu Średzkiego w VI w., zaś do państwa Polan przyłączono je pod koniec X w., za panowania Bolesława Chrobrego. W XII w. na szlaku handlowym pojawiła się osada targowa - Środa Śląska, przemianowana sto lat później na miasto. Lokacja Środy Śląskiej nastąpiła na prawie niemieckim, które po dostosowaniu do miejscowych potrzeb i warunków zaczęto nazywać "prawem średzkim". W 1335 r. region Średzki został włączony do Czech, a w latach 1526 - 1740 z całym Śląskiem, przeszedł pod panowanie Habsburgów. W 1740 r. powiat został przyłączony do Prus. Przechodzenie kolejno pod panowanie czeskie, austriackie i pruskie skutkowało wieloma wojnami wyniszczającymi okolice, ale również wieloma wpływami kulturowymi i religijnymi. Pierwszym starostą średzkim był w latach 1742-1749 Karl Friedrich von Poser - właściciel dóbr w Radkowicach i Zakrzycach. W okresie wojen napoleońskich Środę Śląską odwiedził sam cesarz Napoleon Bonaparte, który w czerwcu 1813 r. oczekiwał tu na zawarcie rozejmu. Pod koniec II wojny światowej region został zajęty przez wojska radzieckie, stając się ich zapleczem w walkach o Wrocław. Po wojnie na mocy postanowień konferencji w Jałcie i Poczdamie, Śląsk - a wraz z nim powiat średzki, powrócił do Polski, kończąc siedmiowiekowe, obce panowanie. Pierwszym starostą po wojnie został Romuald Czapliński, a przewodniczącym Powiatowej Rady Narodowej utworzonej w 1946 r. - Szczepan Koralewicz.. +Lucrum cessans + +Lucrum cessans (łac.) – korzyści, jakich spodziewał się podmiot prawa, ale których nie osiągnął z uwagi na to, że ktoś nie wykonał swego zobowiązania i przez to wyrządził mu szkodę uniemożliwiającą osiągnięcie tych korzyści. +Przykładowo jeżeli osoba zajmująca się transportem samochodowym ma zamówienia na dwa miesiące naprzód i X podpali samochód służący do przewozu towaru, to poszkodowany będzie mógł żądać od sprawcy szkody nie tylko naprawienia rzeczywistej szkody (damnum emergens), czyli naprawy bądź zakupu nowego pojazdu, ale także zwrotu utraconych korzyści, czyli zysków z transportu, które by osiągnął, gdyby samochód był sprawny. +Upoważnienie przemienne + +Upoważnienie przemienne (łac. facultas alternativa) polega na tym, że dłużnik może zwolnić się od swojego zobowiązania, spełniając inne świadczenie. Upoważnienie przemienne powstaje z umowy lub w przypadkach przewidzianych szczególnymi przepisami prawa. +Przykładowo, zgodnie z art. 938 Kodeksu cywilnego, jeżeli dziadkowie spadkodawcy znajdą się w niedostatku i nie mogą otrzymać należnych im środków utrzymania od osób, na których ciąży względem nich ustawowy obowiązek alimentacyjny, mogą żądać od spadkobiercy nie obciążonego takim obowiązkiem środków utrzymania w stosunku do swoich potrzeb i do wartości jego udziału spadkowego. Spadkobierca zwolni się od tego obowiązku, jeżeli zapłaci dziadkom spadkodawcy sumę pieniężną odpowiadającą wartości jednej czwartej tego, co otrzymał w spadku. +Pierwotna niemożliwość świadczenia zasadniczego zawsze powoduje nieważność zobowiązania, chociażby świadczenie zastępcze, objęte upoważnieniem przemiennym, było możliwe. +Powiat wołowski + +Powiat wołowski - powiat w Polsce, województwo dolnośląskie. Od r.1945 powiat należy do województwa z siedzibą we Wrocławiu (z wyjątkiem krótkiego okresu przejściowego w roku 1945, kiedy siedziba znajdowała się w Trzebnicy a potem w Lignicy (obecnie Legnica), które wielokrotnie zmieniało granice i nazwę na skutek reform podziału administracyjnego kraju (1946, 1950, 1957, 1975, 1998). Zlikwidowany w r.1975, odtworzony w 1998 bez terenów zaodrzańskich i m. Ścinawa (285 km kw), które zostały włączone do pow. lubińskiego. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Wołów. +QuickTime + +QuickTime jest techniką multimedialną rozwijaną przez firmę Apple. Program zdolny jest do odtwarzania plików w różnych formatach DV, media, tekstu, dźwięku, animacji, muzyki. Dostępny dla systemu operacyjnego Mac OS (9, 8, 7 itd), Mac OS X oraz Microsoft Windows. Zapewnia również obsługę oprogramowania takiego jak iTunes, Quick Time Player i przeglądarki internetowej Safari. +Jan V Paleolog + +Jan V Paleolog (gr. Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος, "Iōannēs V Palaiologos") - (ur. 18 czerwca 1332, zm. 16 lutego 1391) – cesarz Bizancjum 1341–1391 (z przerwami) z dynastii Paleologów, syn cesarza Andronika III i Anny Sabaudzkiej. +W młodości był świadkiem walki o władzę między swoją matką - regentką, cesarzową matką Anną a zausznikiem ojca Janem Kantakuzenem. Jego ojciec zmarł w czerwcu 1341 roku. Anna wówczas kazała uwięzić Kantakuzena i jego zwolenników, ale sam Kantakuzen zbiegł i przez przeciwników regentki został obwołany cesarzem, jako Jan VI. Wtedy rozpoczął się okres dwuwładzy. Mimo formalnych współrządów w państwie trwał stan ukrytej wojny domowej. Kryzys cesarstwa pogłębiały najazdy Turków, Bułgarów, Serbów i łacinników zamieszkujących feudalne państewka na terenie dzisiejszej Grecji. +Jan V i jego matka cieszyli się poparciem patriarchy Konstantynopola oraz niższych warstw społecznych. Możnowładztwo stanęło po stronie Kantakuzena. Po 6 latach wspólnego rządzenia doszło do eskalacji konfliktu i Jan V utracił władzę na lata 1347 - 1355. Otóż na przełomie lat 1346 i 1347 Kantakuzen zdobył przewagę militarną oraz finansową. W lutym wkroczył do Konstantynopola i 13 maja został koronowany na cesarza, detronizując Jana V. +Wówczas Anna zawarła ugodę z Kantakuzenem, a Jan V został ożeniony z córką Kantakuzena - Heleną Kantakuzen. Jan V miał wówczas 15 lat. Do wybuchu kolejnego konfliktu doszło, gdy Jan V osiągnął pełnoletność. Kantakuzen z pomocą Turków pokonał młodego cesarza, który został wysłany do Tesaloniki, a potem do Tracji. W 1352 Jan V wszczął bunt przeciwko Janowi VI, ale został zesłany na wyspę Tenedos. W marcu rok później znowu wystąpił przeciwko Kantakuzenowi i jego synowi Mateuszowi (który został przez Jana VI ogłoszony współczesarzem), ale ponownie bezskutecznie. Mając 22 lata podjął kolejną próbę obalenia Jana VI tym razem udaną. 29 listopada 1354 roku wraz z dwutysięcznym oddziałem i wspomagany przez Genueńczyków przybył do Konstantynopola. Jan VI 9 grudnia abdykował. Joanna Sabaudzka doczekała upadku Kantakuzena, zmarła 6 lat później w 1360 roku. +Od tego momentu zaczyna się okres samodzielnych rządów Jana V. Przez ten czas starał się pozyskać pomoc z Zachodu przeciwko Turkom osmańskim. Jednak jego panowanie charakteryzowało się coraz większym rozpadem imperium. Przyczyniła się do tego najpierw opisana wyżej wojna domowa z Kantakuzenami: Janem VI oraz jego synem Mateuszem Kantakuzenem; a potem rewolta jego syna Andronika IV i wreszcie najazdy Turków. Nie dbano o gospodarkę Cesarstwa i korzystano z obcych, najemnych armii, co gorsza tureckich. Oddano Genueńczykom wyspy Chios i Lesbos. +W 1359 Osmanowie próbowali zdobyć Konstantynopol. Potem przeszli przez Bosfor i zajęli Adrianopol, który przemianowali na Edirne i tam ustanowili swoją nową stolicę. W 1362 roku, po klęsce w bitwie pod Adrianopolem Jan V uzależnił się od Ottomanów. Udał się w podróż po Europie, ale bezskutecznie. Wracając został zatrzymany w Wenecji przez wierzycieli. Wystąpił o pomoc do swoich synów: Andronika i Manuela. Andronik odmówił wykupienia ojca z rąk wierzycieli, a zrobił to młodszy Manuel. Dlatego też Jan V po powrocie do kraju pozbawił Andronika tronu i wyznaczył na następcę Manuela. +W 1373 roku Andronik zmówił się z synem sułtana Murada i obaj wystąpili przeciwko swoim ojcom. Obaj przegrali - syn sułtana został oślepiony zabity, a sułtan zażądał, aby Jan V uczynił to samo wobec Andronika. Jan V pozostawił Andronika przy życiu, ale kazał pozbawić go częściowo wzroku. W 1376 Andronik ponownie zwrócił się przeciwko ojcu, uwięziwszy go wraz ze swoim bratem Manuelem. Obaj jednak uciekli i poprosili o pomoc sułtana. W 1379 roku Jan V powrócił na tron po wygraniu wojny domowej i walk ulicznych w Konstantynopolu. +Pod koniec życia na kilka miesięcy został odsunięty od władzy tym razem przez swojego wnuka Jana VII Paleologa. Przywrócony został na tron przez swojego syna Manuela II. +Przezpraw + +Biezpraw, Brzezpraw, Przezpraw – staropolskie imię męskie, być może opisowe, a nie życzące, złożone z członów "Biez-", "Brzez-", "Przez-" ("bez") i "-praw" ("prawdziwy, sprawiedliwy"). Być może oznaczało "tego, którego omija sprawiedliwość". +Żeński odpowiednik: Przezprawa +Dolina Barossa + +Rejon w Południowej Australii znany w kraju i na świecie jako obszar produkcji wina na dużą skalę jak również lokalnie jako atrakcja turystyczna. "Barossa Valey" znajduje się 60km od miasta Adelaide. Nazwa "Barossa Valley" została nadana później, zanim miejsce zostało odkryte i opisane przez pułkownika Williama Lighta w 1837 roku. Obszar ten którego nazwa pochodzi od hiszpańskiego regionu "Barrosa" (zmiana w nazwie, dwa "r" na jedno i jedno "s" na dwa było prostą pomyłką przy przepisywaniu notatek Lighta) został po raz pierwszy zasiedlony przez Europejczyków w 1842, kiedy przybyli tam niemieccy i angielscy osadnicy. +Historia. +Największą grupę kolonistów stanowili Niemcy, którzy zdecydowali się wyemigrować ze swojej ojczyzny z powodu prześladowań religijnych. Bardzo szybko mieszkańcy Barossa stworzyli własną unikalną kulturę i styl życia który przetrwał do czasów dzisiejszych. Pierwszym głównym miastem regionu było powstałe w 1842 roku Bethany, wkrótce w okolicy powstały nowe osady – Angaston, Krondorf, Ebenezer, Penrice, Light Pass i Langmeil. To ostatnie miasto zostało założone w 1843 roku przez grupę luteran, którzy przybyli do Adelaide i początkowo osiedli w Klemzig (teraz dzielnica Adelajdy). +Wkrótce w okolice Adelajdy przybyło więcej luteran, którzy stworzyli nowe osady w Tanunda, Gnadenfrei, Hoffnugsthal, New Mecklenburg, Siegerdorf, Neukirch, Nuriootpa i Seppeltsfield, i w rejonie Barossa pojawiło się wiele charakterystycznych kopuł kościołów luterańskich. +Już w 1843 roku jedna z pierwszych gazet w Adelajdzie opisała niemieckich osadników z rejonu Bethany, chwaląc ich jako bardzo zaradnych, pracowitych, uczciwych i wartościowych kolonistów. Jednak nie tylko Niemcy zamieszkiwali region Barossa, wśród tamtejszych kolonistów było też dużo Anglików, Szkotów i Irlandczyków, którzy reprezentowali wiele różnych wyznań – byli tam anglikanie, metodyści, prezbiterianie i katolicy. Niemniej jednak przez trzy generacje to właśnie Niemcy stanowili większość mieszkańców tego malowniczego regionu i to ich zwyczaje, religia, język, ludowe piosenki i stroje, tradycyjne jedzenie i domy budowane w niemieckim stylu pozostawiły po sobie wiele charakterystyce śladów w tym obszarze. Jeszcze dziś wielu z mieszkańców Barossa wywodzących się od pierwszych osadników przestrzega wielu zwyczajów i kultury ich praojców. Do tej pory przetrwał jeden z najstarszych festiwali w Australii, coroczny Liedertafel odbywający się Tanundzie. +Głównymi inicjatorami powstawania nowych osad byli: szkocki biznesmen George Fife Angas, pastor August Kavel i Johannes Menge, którzy sprzedawali jeden akr ziemi za 20 dolarów z 5% odsetkami. Część nowoprzybyłych osadników buntowała się jednak na taki stan rzeczy, oferowano im bowiem ziemię bardzo oddaloną od większych miast, a więc także oddaloną od ewentualnych punktów zbytu na ich produkty rolne – w czasie dalekich podróży tłukły się jajka, psuł ser i masło. Ten problem został częściowo rozwiązany, kiedy osada Kapunda, która powstała przy kopalniach, została rozbudowana do rozmiarów małego miasta. +W ciągu dwóch lat po przybyciu do Australii niektórzy niemieccy osadnicy przyjęli brytyjskie obywatelstwo, pierwsza taka ceremonia odbyła się 24 maja 1839 roku. W latach 40. i 50. XIX wieku do Australii Południowej przyjechało jeszcze więcej Niemców uciekających przed ciężkimi warunkami życia w Europie. Niemiecki pozostał więc głównym językiem Barossa. W przykościelnych szkołach dzieci i młodzież otrzymywała niemiecką edukację, ucząc się przy tym kultury i dziedzictwa swojego rodzinnego kraju. +W grudniu 1847 roku w Barossa pojawiła się pierwsza niemieckojęzyczna gazeta wydawana w Australii, publikowana przez Johanna Menge i Carla Kornhardta. Kiedy Menge przestał wydawać gazetę i poczuł "gorączkę złota", zaczęto wydawać nową gazetę, tym razem w Tanundzie, pod tytułem Die Australische Deutsche Zeitung. +Jednym z najsłynniejszych osadników w tym regionie był Joseph Ernst Seppelt, który wyemigrował do Australii ze Śląska w 1850 roku. Urodzony w 1813 roku Joseph przyjechał do Australii ze swoją żoną Charlotte, dwoma synami Benno i Hugo, córką Otylie, 13 innymi rodzinami i grupą młodych mężczyzn, którzy dla niego pracowali. Początkowo osiedlił się w rejonie Klemzig, ale wkrótce przeprowadził się do Seppelrsfield gdzie Joseph zapoczątkował plantacje tytoniu, zboża i winorośli. W połowie 60. zaczął też budowę dużej tłoczni win, po jego śmierci w 1868 roku budowę dokończył jego syn Benno. +Klimat Barossa nadawał się idealnie do produkcji wina i wkrótce w całej okolicy powstało wiele innych winnic założonych przez niemieckie rodziny, większość z nich przetrwała do dziś i produkuję one jedne z najlepszych i najsłynniejszych win na świecie – Jacobs, Salters, Gramps, Penfolds, Tolleys. +Historia Barossa to nie tylko historia rolnictwa i wina. Już w 1849 roku znaleziono złoto w okolicach rzeki South Para. Kiedy w 1867 roku znaleziono złoto w pobliżu Spike Gully zjechało się tam ponad 4.000 poszukiwaczy. W okolicy powstały aż trzy górnicze miasteczka, z których największe, Barossa, miało pod koniec 1868 roku siedem sklepów kolonialnych, siedem hoteli, a także kilka rzeźników, piekarni, kowali i pubów. Do końca wieku wyeksploatowano jednak całe znalezione zasoby złota i większość górników powróciła do domów, a miasteczka które powstały dla ich potrzeb, straciły rację bytu. +Ci którzy powrócili do swoich farm w Barossa Valley oddali się rolnictwu i planacji winorośli i pod koniec lat 90. XIX wieku wina produkowane w tym regionie stanowiły już większość win które wytwarzano w Australii. +Dezintegracja pozytywna + +Dezintegracja pozytywna – teoria zdrowia psychicznego sformułowana przez Kazimierza Dąbrowskiego, przedstawiciela ruchu higieny psychicznej w Polsce. Zdrowie psychiczne w rozumieniu tej teorii to zdolność do rozwoju wewnętrznego w kierunku wszechstronnego rozumienia, przeżywania, odkrywania i tworzenia coraz wyższej hierarchii rzeczywistości i wartości aż do konkretnego ideału indywidualnego i społecznego poprzez procesy dezintegracji pozytywnej i cząstkowej integracji wtórnej. +Według tej definicji zdrowie psychiczne to dynamiczny proces psychiczny, a nie stan. W pojęciu tym Dąbrowski uwzględniał osiąganie wielopoziomowego dobrostanu, tak osobistego, społecznego jak i duchowego. +Swoją zasadniczą koncepcję oparł na hierarchii wartości, czyli budowaniu układu wartości, gdzie wybory niższego rzędu są podporządkowywane wartościom rzędu wyższego. Proces budowania tej hierarchii jest z założenia twórczy i pełen niepowodzeń, dlatego psychonerwice uważał nie za chorobę, a naturalny sposób tworzenia się tej hierarchii. Choroba to w jego ujęciu stan wyłączenia się jednostki z procesu transgresji (np. psychopatia). +Założenia teorii dezintegracji pozytywnej. +To właśnie ów Czynnik Trzeci odpowiada za samodoskonalenie się, rozwój, a w konsekwencji za zdrowie psychiczne człowieka. Jego obecność objawia się w różnych kanałach, między innymi psychomotorycznym, sensualnym, intelektualnym czy emocjonalnym. Im większa wrażliwość w danym kanale, tym większy potencjał jednostki do rozwoju, ale poszczególne kanały nie są w tym procesie jednakowo uprzywilejowane. +Rozwój polega na szeregu procesów o charakterze dezintegracyjnym i integracyjnym. +Etapy rozwoju. +Dąbrowski wyróżnił 5 zasadniczych etapów rozwoju: +Biała Cerkiew + +Biała Cerkiew (ukr. Бiла Церква, "Biła Cerkwa") – miasto na Ukrainie, największe w obwodzie kijowskim, położone nad rzeką Roś w odległości 80 km na południe od Kijowa, dawna polska rezydencja magnacka. Do miasta należy również miejscowość Aleksandria z pięknym parkiem. +Ośrodek przemysłowy; znajduje się tam fabryka opon, wyrobów gumowych i maszyn rolniczych. Miasto posiada uzdrowisko (wody radoczynne) i wyższą szkołę. +Historia. +Osada założona w XI w. przez Jarosława Mądrego jako gród obronny na skalistym brzegu rzeki Rosi. Szybko stała się jednym z najważniejszych grodów Rusi Kijowskiej. Ten zalążek ośrodka grodowego upadł po kolejnych najazdach Tatarów. +Od 1363 Biała Cerkiew należała do Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego, a od 1569 do województwa kijowskiego Korony Królestwa Polskiego. W roku 1550 wojewoda kijowski Fryderyk Proński wybudował w tym miejscu obronny zamek i twierdzę. +Prawa miejskie Biała Cerkiew otrzymała przywilejem królewskim w roku 1620 podpisanym w Warszawie. +W XVI i XVII wieku ośrodek powstań i buntów kozackich. +Miały tu miejsce dwie bitwy powstań kozackich: w 1626 i w 1651. Ponadto jest to miejsce podpisania ugody w 1651, zawartej po bitwie pod Beresteczkiem. +Od 1793 w Rosji w powiecie wasilkowskim (własność Branickich; Franciszek Ksawery Branicki – od 1774 pierwszy dziedzic Białej Cerkwi z nadania króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego). +W 1880 roku miasto liczyło 8961 prawosławnych, 9808 Żydów (w ostatnich latach XIX wieku udział procentowy Żydów w mieście przekroczył 50% ogółu mieszkańców), 412 katolików. W mieście znajdowały się trzy cerkwie, 2 synagogi oraz kościół parafialny rzymskokatolicki oo jezuitów, należący do dekanatu kijowskiego, wybudowany z fundacji Stanisława Wincentego Jabłonowskiego w roku 1743. W 1911 w Białej Cerkwi urodziła się Stefania Knispel-Wróblowa - polska bibliotekarka, historyk literatury polskiej. +Podczas wojny ukraińsko-radzieckiej i na fali pogromów antyżydowskich, w latach 1919-20 żydowscy mieszkańcy Białej Cerkwi stali się obiektem przemocy zarówno regularnych oddziałów ukraińskich, chłopskich atamana Zelenego, jak i kozackich białogwardzistów. Całkowitą liczbę ofiar śmiertelnych podaje się na 300-850 osób. +W latach 1922–1991 w Ukraińskiej Socjalistycznej Republice Radzieckiej. +22 sierpnia 1941 miała tu miejsce masakra dzieci żydowskich, dokonana przez ukraińskich milicjantów. +Toponimika nazwy. +Dawne nazwy "Jurjew", "Białacerkiew", "Białocerkiew", "Biłaja Cerkow", "Biełaja Cerkow", w okresie Rzeczypospolitej również pod łacińską nazwą "Album Fanum" lub "Alba Capella". +Starostowie. +Starostwo Białocerkiewskie było jednym z najbardziej dochodowych dóbr w I Rzeczypospolitej. +Twierdza i zamek w Białej Cerkwi. +Twierdza i zamek w Białej Cerkwi zostały rozbudowane i umocnione przez wojewodę ruskiego hetmana polnego koronnego Stefana Czarnieckiego, który zorganizował również obronę zamku. +Powiat oleśnicki + +Powiat oleśnicki – powiat istniejący w latach 1945-1975 - powiat w Polsce (województwo dolnośląskie), utworzony na nowo w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Oleśnica. +Zabytki powiatu. +album "Barwy ziemi bierutowskiej" +? "OBLICZE POWIATU OLEŚNICKIEGO" +W gminie wiejskiej Oleśnica +Młodociany + +Młodociany – w prawie karnym osoba, która w chwili popełnienia czynu zabronionego nie osiągnęła 21 roku życia i w chwili orzekania przed sądem pierwszej instancji nie osiągnęła 24 roku życia (Art. 115 § 10 k.k.). Natomiast w Kodeksie karnym wykonawczym nie występuje pojęcie "młodocianego", a jedynie definicja zakładu karnego dla młodocianych, w świetle której w zakładzie karnym dla młodocianych odbywają karę skazani, którzy nie ukończyli 21 roku życia; w uzasadnionych wypadkach skazany może odbywać karę w tym zakładzie po ukończeniu 21 roku życia (art. 84 k.k.w.). Nie jest to więc materialna definicja "młodocianego" przyjęta na potrzeby postępowania wykonawczego, albowiem definicję taką oraz zasady procedowania organów wymiaru sprawiedliwości w stosunku do młodocianych, regulują przepisy Kodeksu karnego. Przepis art. 84 k.k.w. wskazuje bowiem jedynie, na podstawie jakich kryteriów należy kierować skazanych na karę pozbawienia wolności do zakładów karnych tego rodzaju. +Pojęcie młodocianego występuje także na gruncie prawa pracy. Młodocianym według Kodeksu pracy jest osoba, która ukończyła 16 lat, a nie ukończyła 18 lat. Ma to znaczenie ze względu na szczególną ochronę pracy młodocianych (art. 190-206 Kodeksu pracy). +Z powodu niepełnego jeszcze ukształtowania psychiki młodocianych sprawców przestępstw oraz dużej podatności na wpływy otoczenia uwarunkowanych ich młodym wiekiem, przepis art. 54 §1 Kodeksu karnego wprowadza dyrektywę ogólną, że wymierzając karę młodocianemu, sąd kieruje się przede wszystkim tym, aby sprawcę wychować. Z tych samych powodów, jeżeli przemawiają za tym względy wychowawcze, +sąd może zastosować w stosunku do młodocianego nadzwyczajne złagodzenie kary (art. 60 §1 kk). +Powyższe względy stoją również u podstaw szerszego stosowania wobec młodocianych środków probacyjnych, poprzez ustalenie dłuższego okresu próby przy warunkowym zawieszeniu wykonania kary pozbawienia wolności na nie krótszy niż 3 lata (wobec pozostałych sprawców – nie krótszy niż 2 lata, w obu przypadkach maksymalny okres to 5 lat – art. 70 kk). Ponadto, w przypadku warunkowego zawieszenia wykonania kary pozbawienia wolności wobec młodocianego sprawcy przestępstwa umyślnego, obowiązkowy jest dozór kuratora (art. 73 §2 kk). +Powiat oławski + +Powiat oławski - powiat w Polsce (województwo dolnośląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Oława. +Powiat oławski sąsiaduje z powiatami: oleśnickim od północy, wrocławskim od zachodu, strzelińskim od południa oraz z brzeskim i namysłowskim od wschodu. +Geografia. +Powiat oławski obejmuje swoim terytorium fragmenty 3 mezoregionów: Pradoliny Wrocławskiej, Równiny Wrocławskiej i Równiny Oleśnickiej.. W powiecie znajdują się także fragmenty 2 obszarów Natura 2000: Lasy Grędzińskie i Grądy w Dolinie Odry. +Komplementariusz + +Komplementariusz (od łac. "commendarius") – wspólnik w spółce komandytowej lub komandytowo-akcyjnej, który za zobowiązania spółki odpowiada bez ograniczenia całym swoim majątkiem. +Prawa i obowiązki komplementariusza. +Komplementariusz ma prawo reprezentowania spółki oraz prawo i obowiązek prowadzenia jej spraw. Spółkę reprezentują komplementariusze, których z mocy umowy spółki komandytowej (bądź statutu spółki komandytowo-akcyjnej) albo prawomocnego orzeczenia sądu nie pozbawiono prawa reprezentowania spółki. Prawo komplementariusza do reprezentowania spółki dotyczy wszystkich czynności sądowych i pozasądowych spółki. Prawa reprezentowania spółki nie można ograniczyć ze skutkiem wobec osób trzecich. Każdy komplementariusz może bez uprzedniej uchwały komplementariuszy prowadzić sprawy spółki nieprzekraczające zakresu zwykłych czynności spółki. Jeżeli jednak przed załatwieniem sprawy, o której mowa w zdaniu poprzedzającym choćby jeden z pozostałych komplementariuszy sprzeciwi się jej przeprowadzeniu wymagana jest uchwała komplementariuszy uczestniczących w danej spółce. Do dokonania przez komplementariusza czynności przekraczających zakres zwykłych czynności spółki wymagana jest zgoda pozostałych komplementariuszy, a także komandytariuszy uczestniczących w danej spółce komandytowej, chyba że umowa spółki komandytowej stanowi inaczej. Komplementariuszowi spółki komandytowo-akcyjnej nie przysługuje prawo do prowadzenia spraw spółki przekazanych przez statut spółki do kompetencji walnego zgromadzenia lub rady nadzorczej. Komplementariusz jest zobowiązany do powstrzymania się od wszelkiej działalności sprzecznej z interesami spółki. Komplementariusz nie może bez wyraźnej lub dorozumianej zgody pozostałych wspólników, zajmować się interesami konkurencyjnymi, w szczególności uczestniczyć w spółce konkurencyjnej jako wspólnik spółki cywilnej, spółki jawnej, partner, komplementariusz lub członek organu spółki. Komplementariusz jest zobowiązany do wniesienia wkładu do spółki; ma on prawo udziału w zysku. +Nazwisko albo firma (nazwa) co najmniej jednego komplementariusza musi się znaleźć w firmie spółki komandytowej lub komandytowo-akcyjnej. +Odpowiedzialność komplementariusza. +Komplementariusz odpowiada wobec wierzycieli za zobowiązania spółki osobiście, tzn. całym swym majątkiem bez ograniczenia. Odpowiedzialność komplementariusza ma charakter subsydiarny, co oznacza, że wierzyciel może prowadzić egzekucję z jego majątku, dopiero gdy egzekucja z majątku spółki okaże się bezskuteczna. Ponadto odpowiedzialność komplementariusza jest solidarna z pozostałymi wspólnikami (komplementariuszami i komandytariuszami) i ze spółką. Oznacza to, że wierzyciel może żądać całości lub części świadczenia od wszystkich wspólników i spółki łącznie, od kilku z tych podmiotów, lub od każdego z osobna, a zaspokojenie wierzyciela przez któregokolwiek z dłużników zwalnia pozostałych. +Podmioty mogące uczestniczyć w spółce jako komplementariusze. +Komplementariuszem może być osoba fizyczna mająca pełną zdolność do czynności prawnych oraz osoba prawna, w tym także spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością lub spółka akcyjna. Osoby prawne działają jako komplementariusze przez swoje organy. Komplementariuszem może zostać także osobowa spółka prawa handlowego, w tym również inna spółka komandytowa, gdyż spółki te wyposażone zostały w zdolność prawną oraz zdolność do czynności prawnych. Komplementariuszem nie może być natomiast spółka cywilna, ponieważ nie ma zdolności prawnej ani zdolności do czynności prawnych. Komplementariuszami mogą jednak zostać wspólnicy spółki cywilnej, ale występując w charakterze indywidualnych podmiotów. +Rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych + +Rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych - swoisty aspekt mocy prawnej ksiąg wieczystych polegający na tym, że osoba dokonująca czynności prawnej o skutkach rozporządzających (np. zawierająca umowę sprzedaży) z osobą uprawnioną według treści księgi wieczystej (czyli wpisaną do księgi jako właściciel, wieczysty użytkownik lub inny uprawniony) nabywa własność lub inne prawo rzeczowe, choćby stan prawny ujawniony w księdze wieczystej nie był zgodny z rzeczywistym stanem prawnym - właścicielem był w rzeczywistości kto inny - tylko wtedy jeśli nabywca nie wiedział i nie mógł się dowiedzieć o tej niezgodności. W przeciwnym wypadku rzeczywisty właściciel może spowodować uznanie umowy za bezskuteczną względem niego (np. z Art. 59 kodeksu cywilnego) i lub przysługiwać mu będzie roszczenie odszkodowawcze. +Rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych uregulowana jest w ustawie z dnia 6 lipca 1982 r. o księgach wieczystych i hipotece (jedn. tekst ze zm.) +Nabywca, który w dobrej wierze (nie wiedział i nie mógł się wcześniej z łatwością dowiedzieć o wcześniejszym rzeczywistym stanie prawnym nieruchomości) nabył nieruchomość od osoby uprawnionej wedle treści księgi wieczystej, może skutecznie domagać się wydania rzeczy od właściciela, który nie jest ujawniony w księdze (właściciel nieujawniony zostaje pozbawiony własności, jeśli nabywający nie wiedział lub mimo starań nie mógł się dowiedzieć rzeczywistym stanie prawnym). Co za tym idzie, rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych stanowi odstępstwo od zasady, że nikt nie może przenieść na inną osobę więcej praw aniżeli sam posiada - tylko pod warunkiem działania w dobrej wierze. +Wyłączenia rękojmi wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych. +Rękojmia nie działa, jeśli nabywca wiedział lub z łatwością mógł się dowiedzieć o niezgodności treści księgi z rzeczywistym stanem prawnym. +Rękojmia nie chroni nabywcy w wypadku, gdy rozporządzenia dokonywane jest nieodpłatnie (darowizna). +Rękojmię wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych wyłącza wzmianka o wniosku, o skardze na orzeczenie referendarza sądowego, o apelacji lub kasacji oraz ostrzeżenie dotyczące niezgodności stanu prawnego ujawnionego w księdze wieczystej z rzeczywistym stanem prawnym nieruchomości. +Poza wypadkami przewidzianymi wprost w ustawie z dnia 6 lipca 1982 r. o księgach wieczystych i hipotece (jedn. tekst ze zm.) rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych jest wyłączona w sytuacji, gdy w chwili zbycia dla nieruchomości prowadzone są dwie księgi wieczyste, w których wpisani są różni właściciele (uchwała Sądu Najwyższego z dnia 24 października 2003 r., III CZP 70/03). +Inne rejestry. +Inne rejestry wyposażone w rękojmię wiary publicznej to np. Krajowy Rejestr Sądowy i Centralna Ewidencja i Informacja o Działalności Gospodarczej +Tetrahydrofuran + +Tetrahydrofuran (THF) (nazwa systematyczna – oksolan) to organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy eterów cyklicznych, będący pochodną furanu, stosowany głównie jako uniwersalny rozpuszczalnik organiczny. Jego dawna nazwa to czterowodorofuran. +THF jest bezbarwną, niskowrzącą cieczą, o ostrym, drażniącym zapachu. Miesza się w każdych proporcjach z wodą, a jednocześnie rozpuszcza on olbrzymią większość znanych organicznych związków chemicznych, co powoduje, że jest idealnym rozpuszczalnikiem do prowadzenia wielu reakcji chemicznych. Często zastępuje w tej roli eter dietylowy, gdyż często skuteczniej rozpuszcza różne związki i jednocześnie jest mniej lotny. +Otrzymywanie. +Roczna produkcja tetrahydrofuranu na świecie wynosi około 200 milionów kilogramów. Najczęściej stosowaną przemysłową drogą otrzymywania THF jest katalizowana kwasem dehydratacja 1,4-butanodiolu. Alkohol ten jest zwykle otrzymywany poprzez karboksylację acetylenu oraz następcze hydrogenacja powstałego związku. Koncern Du Pont opracował metodę produkcji tetrahydrofuranu za pomocą utlenienia n-butanu do bezwodnika maleinowego oraz jego następcza hydrogenacja. Trzecią istotną metodą produkcji jest hydroformylowanie alkoholu allilowego i w dalszym etapie uwodornienie do butanodiolu, z którego otrzymuje się właściwy produkt. +THF może też być otrzymywany przez katalityczną hydrogenację furanu otrzymywanego z różnych pentoz; nie znalazła ona jednak szerszego zastosowania. +Zastosowania. +THF może ulegać polimeryzacji wywoływanej przez silne kwasy prowadząc do powstania liniowego polimeru nazywanego glikolem poli(tetrahydrometyloetylowym) (PTMEG). Związek ten nazywany jest też PTMO, tlenkiem politetrametylenu. Głównym zastosowaniem tego polimeru jest produkcja elastomerycznych włókien poliuretanowych takich jak Spandex. +Synteza organiczna. +Tetrahydrofuran jest wykorzystywany jako rozpuszczalnik w wielu przemysłowych procesach chemicznych. Stanowi on rozpuszczalnik aprotyczny o stałej dielektrycznej wynoszącej 7.6. Związek ten wykazuje umiarkowanie polarne własności i dobrze rozpuszcza większość związków organicznych. THF wykazuje dobrą mieszalność z wodą, w niskiej temperaturze formuje stałe klatraty. +Inne zastosowania laboratoryjne. +Z powodu obecności atomu tlenu w strukturze tetrahydrofuran może koordynować kationy metali takich jak Li+, Mg2+, oraz inne kwasy Lewisa takie jak borany. Dzięki temu zapewnia on dobre środowisko do reakcji hydroborowania, w wyniku której selektywnie otrzymuje się alkohole pierwszorzędowe oraz do zawieszania związków organometalicznych takich jak związki Grignarda oraz LDA. Tetrahydrofuran jest silniejszą zasadą niż eter dietylowy co pozwala na jego efektywne stosowanie wszędzie tam gdzie wymagana jest silna zdolność do tworzenia kompleksów typu kwas-zasada Lewisa. +THF stosowany jest też w chemii polimerów do rozpuszczania gum i podobnych polimerów w celu wyznaczenia ich mas cząsteczkowych za pomocą chromatografii wykluczania. Ponadto tetrahydrofuran stosowany jest do sklejania ze sobą płytek PVC. +Środki ostrożności. +THF posiada dużą zdolność do penetracji i uszkadzania tkanek miękkich. Wdychanie jego oparów powoduje uszkodzenia błon śluzowych nosa, powodujące krwawienie. Ma też szkodliwy wpływ na oczy i układ oddechowy. Nie posiada natomiast zbyt silnych własności narkotycznych. +Długo przechowywany THF ma tendencję do polimeryzacji oraz do przemiany w nadtlenki. Nadtlenki te wybuchają w trakcie podgrzewania THF-u, co jest częstą przyczyną wypadków w laboratoriach chemicznych i zakładach przemysłowych stosujących ten związek. W celu wyeliminowania tego zagrożenia do handlowego THF dodaje się zwykle inhibitory i tzw. "zmiatacze nadtlenków", takie jak np. BHT. THF-u destylowanego, w którym nie ma inhibitora nie należy zbyt długo przechowywać. +Rozbój + +Rozbój to kradzież połączona z użyciem przemocy wobec osoby lub groźbą natychmiastowego +jej użycia albo dokonana poprzez doprowadzenie człowieka do stanu nieprzytomności lub bezbronności. Na równi z tym należy traktować sytuację, w której pokrzywdzony pod wpływem takiej groźby natychmiast wydaje przedmiot sprawcy. +Doprowadzenie do stanu nieprzytomności lub bezbronności następuje bez użycia przemocy i polega na upiciu pokrzywdzonego alkoholem, podaniu mu środka odurzającego lub skrępowaniu w sytuacji, gdy nie jest w stanie się przed tym bronić. Należą tu także wypadki polegające na zabraniu wózka inwalidzkiego lub kul osobie niepełnosprawnej. Doprowadzeniem do stanu bezbronności jest również sytuacja, gdy sprawcy samą tylko przewagą liczebną paraliżują wolę oporu pokrzywdzonego. +Zabór rzeczy przy wykorzystaniu bezradności pokrzywdzonego niespowodowanej działaniem sprawcy, który tylko wykorzystuje tę sposobność kradzieży jest zwykłą kradzieżą a nie rozbojem. +Niszczenie własności pokrzywdzonego w celu zmuszenia go do określonego działania nie jest przemocą wobec osoby. Może natomiast stanowić element przestępstwa wymuszenia rozbójniczego. +Przestępstwo rozboju posiada surowiej karany typ kwalifikowany. Sprawca, który posługuje się bronią palną, nożem lub innym podobnie niebezpiecznym przedmiotem lub środkiem obezwładniającym, albo działa w inny sposób bezpośrednio zagrażający życiu (np. wystawienie za okno), a także osoby z takim sprawcą współdziałające, popełniają zbrodnię zagrożoną karą pozbawienia wolności na czas nie krótszy niż lat 3. +Broń gazową na gruncie prawa karnego zalicza się do broni palnej. Innym podobnie niebezpiecznym przedmiotem jest każda rzecz, której właściwości lub zwykłe wykorzystanie stwarzają podobne zagrożenie jak nóż czy broń palna. Równie niebezpieczne cechy musi posiadać środek obezwładniający, którym posługuje się sprawca. +Posługiwanie się bronią, nożem lub innym niebezpiecznym przedmiotem nie musi polegać na ich użyciu. Wystarcza, że sprawca demonstruje pokrzywdzonemu fakt ich posiadania, paraliżując tym samym jego wolę oporu. +W przypadkach mniejszej wagi przestępstwo rozboju zagrożone jest karą pozbawienia wolności od 3 miesięcy do 5 lat pozbawienia wolności (typ uprzywilejowany). +Rozbój stanowi przestępstwo niezależnie od wartości ukradzionego mienia. +Swój kwalifikowany typ rozbójniczy posiada przestępstwo zaboru pojazdu w celu krótkotrwałego użycia. +W piśmiennictwie prawniczym przestępstwa rozboju, kradzieży rozbójniczej i wymuszenia rozbójniczego określa się wspólnym mianem triady rozbójniczej lub przestępstw rozbójniczych. +Samael (grupa muzyczna) + +Samael – szwajcarska grupa metalowa założona w 1987 roku. Początkowo wykonująca black metal, później jej styl wyewoluował do metalu industrialnego. Zaliczana wraz z m.in. Mayhem czy Darkthrone do tzw. drugiej fali black metalu z przełomu lat 80. i 90. XX wieku. Do dziś ukazało się dziewięć albumów studyjnych grupy. +Historia. +Początkowo grupa była pod znacznym wpływem zespołów pokroju Hellhammer, Celtic Frost czy Venom i wraz z Mayhem czy Darkthrone jest uznawana za drugą falę black metalu. Należy jednak pamiętać, że muzyka Samaela nigdy nie przypominała muzyki norweskiej sceny i charakteryzowała się własnym, ciężkim brzmieniem. Dwie pierwsze płyty – "Worship Him" i "Blood Ritual" są klasycznymi pozycjami black metalowymi, natomiast na trzeciej – "Ceremony of Opposites" – zespół zaczął wykorzystywać elementy metalu industrialnego, których użycie znacznie rozszerzyło się na kolejnych albumach. Teksty utworów do tego czasu były w mniejszym lub większym stopniu okultystyczne, antyreligijne i satanistyczne. +Wraz z ukazaniem się albumu "Passage" w 1996 zespół w zasadzie zerwał ze sceną black metalową i podążył na dobre w kierunku metalu industrialnego, a tekstowo z szeroko pojętego satanizmu przeszedł w tematykę nacechowaną duchowością Wschodu. Zrezygnowano z perkusji na rzecz automatu perkusyjnego, a Xytras (już jako Xy) zajął się klawiszami i programowaniem. Zaczątek zmian można jednak usłyszeć już na minialbumie "Rebellion", gdzie pojawia się całkowicie elektroniczny utwór "Static Journey", podkreślone zostają syntezatory, a motywem przewodnim tytułowego kawałka jest opozycja, którą można traktować jako opozycję yin-yang. +Wydana w dwa lata po Passage EP "Exodus" nacechowana jest jeszcze głębszym elektronicznym brzmieniem, które zostanie rozbudowane na kolejnym albumie – "Eternal". Wydany w 1999 przy współpracy z producentem Davidem Richardsem , jeszcze dalej odchodzi od kanonów sceny metalowej (brak podwójnej stopy perkusyjnej, wyciszone gitary, wyeksponowane klawisze i automaty perkusyjne). W utworze Supra Karma pojawia się też pierwsza solówka gitarowa w historii zespołu. +"Reign of Light" będąca kolejnym studyjnym nagraniem zespołu z jednej strony dodała więcej elementów orientalnych niż poprzednia płyta, a z drugiej delikatnie przesunęła się ponownie w stronę sceny ciężkiego metalu (m. in. wyraźniejsze gitary). Płytę poprzedzał pierwszy w historii singel "Telepath", a już po premierze płyty pojawił się drugi singel – "On Earth". +W czerwcu 2007 został wydany kolejny krążek zatytułowany "Solar Soul". Jest on rozwinięciem pomysłów z "Reign of Light" i charakteryzuje się zarówno dość znaczną orientalizacją, jak i ciężkimi gitarowymi riffami, ponadto ponownie pojawiły się podwójne stopy. Poprzedzony był singlem "Valkyries' New Ride". +W 2006 roku ukazał się także poboczny projekt Xy i Vorpha – "Era One & Lesson in Magic #1" wydany przez Century Media. Wydawnictwo składa się z dwóch płyt nagranych w 2002 i 2003 roku i zremiksowanych pod koniec roku 2005. Pierwsza płyta składa się z kompozycji elektronicznych (miejscami wręcz tanecznych) połączonych z wokalizacjami Vorpha. Druga płyta to elektro-ambientowa, pozbawiona jakichkolwiek wokali podróż po krainach stworzonych przez Xy. +Grupa ma ponadto na koncie jedno wydawnictwo DVD zatytułowane "Black Trip", które składa się z dwóch płyt zawierających koncerty zespołu z Summer Breeze (2002), Krakowa (1996) i bootleg z Illinois (1994); wywiady z sesji nagraniowych płyty Passage, a także teledyski do utworów "Baphomet's Throne", "Jupiterian Vibe" i "Infra Galaxia". +6 marca 2009 roku ukazał się dziewiąty abmum studyjny grupy – "Above", będący muzycznym hołdem dla korzeni Samaela. Pierwotnie miał być to projekt uboczny muzyków grupy, muzycznie oscylujący wokół pierwszych trzech płyt Samael. +Powiat milicki + +Powiat milicki - jednostka samorządu terytorialnego w Polsce, w północno-wschodniej części województwa dolnośląskiego, utworzona w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jej siedzibą jest miasto Milicz. Ze względu na położenie w parku krajobrazowym i jakość powietrza (prowadzone w 2004 r. przez Państwową Inspekcję Ochrony Środowiska badania jakości powietrza stwierdziły niski w porównaniu do całego obszaru województwa dolnośląskiego poziom zanieczyszczeń dwutlenkami azotu i siarki) powiat swoją przyszłość upatruje w turystyce i agroturystyce. Od 2000 r. organizator Święta Karpia Milickiego - Dni Doliny Baryczy, a od 2007 r. Parady Konstytucji. +Charakterystyka powiatu. +Powiat milicki położony jest w północno-wschodniej części Dolnego Śląska przy granicy z Wielkopolską, w dolinie rzeki Baryczy. Jest jednym z najmniejszych obszarowo powiatów w Polsce. Złożony jest jedynie z trzech gmin. Na jego krajobraz w przeważającej części składają się zróżnicowane kompleksy leśne i stawowe. "Stawy Milickie" stanowią największy ośrodek hodowli karpi w Polsce i Europie. Powstawały przez wieki. Gospodarka stawowa rozwijała się na tych terenach już na początku wieku XI. Dzięki zakonowi cystersów, który osiedlił się tu w 1136 r. wybudowano ponad 2000 ha stawów. Dynamiczny rozwój gospodarki stawowej przypada na XVI i początek XVII wieku. W tym okresie w samym powiecie milickim było 8443 ha stawów. +Obecnie powierzchnia wszystkich stawów przekracza 8 tys. ha. Zasilane są woda z Baryczy i jej dopływów. Unikatowa flora i fauna tego obszaru, bogactwo krajobrazowe i historyczne były powodem, dla którego utworzono tu Park Krajobrazowy Dolina Baryczy. Milicka Dolina Baryczy jest największym parkiem krajobrazowym w Polsce. Jego powierzchnia wynosi 87 tys. ha. Powstał w 1996 r. Składają się nań wielkie kompleksy leśne i wodne. Samych ptaków rozpoznano tu 270 gatunków. Spośród najrzadszych warto wymienić: czaplę purpurową, bąka, bociana czarnego, perkoza rdzawoszyjego, zausznika, żurawia i orła bielika. W 2000 roku "Stawy Milickie" znalazły się wśród 13 obszarów wodnych, objętych światowym programem ochrony jezior Living Lakes, obok takich miejsc jak Jezioro Bodeńskie, jezioro Bajkał czy Morze Martwe. +"Stawy Milickie". +"Stawy Milickie" to nie tylko nazwa akwenów w powiecie milickim, ale również państwowego zakładu budżetowego prowadzącego swoją działalność na obszarze 7600 ha, w tym około 6500 ha zajmują właśnie stawy. Obecnie w skład PZB "Stawy Milickie" wchodzi pięć zakładów rybackich: Krośnice, Potasznia, Radziądz, Ruda Sułowska i Stawno. +W 1963 roku utworzono na tym terenie rezerwat ornitologiczny. Występuje tutaj ponad 270 gatunków ptaków, wśród których można wyróżnić orła bielika, bociana czarnego oraz wiele rzadkich gatunków gęsi i kaczek, spośród których na szczególna uwagę zasługuje zagrożona wyginięciem podgorzałka. +Imprezy kulturalne organizowane przez Starostwo Powiatowe. +- Dni Doliny Baryczy - Święto Karpia Milickiego +Święto Karpia Milickiego – doroczna impreza plenerowa organizowana w od 2000 r. przez Starostwo Powiatowe w Miliczu. W 2007 r. pojawił się w nazwie drugi człon "Dni Doliny Baryczy". Związana z głównym produktem regionu. Tradycją święta jest gotowanie wielkiego gara (kilka tysięcy litrów) zupy rybnej, zwanej "Polewką Rybną z Doliny Baryczy", którą następnie rozdaje się pośród chętnych smakoszy. Od 2008 r. święto wpisane w obchody Dni Dolnego Śląska. Odbywa się w zabytkowym parku w stylu angielskim przy pałacu Maltzanów na tle ruin średniowiecznego piastowskiego zamku książąt oleśnickich. +- Parada Konstytucyjna +Parada Konstytucji 3 maja organizowana przez Starostwo Powiatowe w Miliczu od 2007 r. Jej pomysłodawcy postawili sobie za cel zmianę podejścia do narodowych i państwowych rocznic z ich "obchodzenia" na autentyczne świętowanie. W Paradzie Konstytucji, którą rozpoczyna msza święta za Ojczyznę z udziałem milickich służb mundurowych i kombatantów w kościele pw. św. św. Andrzeja Boboli, biorą udział: orkiestra dęta, jeźdźcy konni w strojach ludowych i z epoki Stanisławowskiej, powozy konne, bractwa kurkowe i rycerskie, policjanci, straż pożarna: państwowa i ochotnicza z zabytkowymi sikawkami, motocykliści, harcerze, Cech Rzemiosł Różnych, uczniowie w strojach z czasów Sejmu Wielkiego, władze lokalne oraz licznie mieszkańcy Milicza. Parada zaczyna się pod urzędem miejskim, gdzie zostaje uroczyście wciągnięta na maszt przy dźwiękach Mazurka Dąbrowskiego polska flaga narodowa, następnie przechodzi pod pomnik niepodległości, tu następuje uroczysta zmiana warty, składany jest wieniec od mieszkańców oraz kwiaty od organizacji, instytucji i zakładów pracy, dalej przechodzi do Rynku, a stamtąd do parku. Kończy ją Majówka Konstytucyjna przy klasycystycznym pałacu hrabiostwa Maltzanów, gdzie odbywają się koncerty orkiestry i pokazy bractw, a na uczestników czeka strażacka grochówka. +Przybor + +Przybor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Przy-" ("obok, przy" lub inne znaczenie) i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). +Architektura 16-bitowa + +Termin architektura 16-bitowa nie musi odnosić się do długości szyny danych oraz możliwości adresowych takiego procesora (długości szyny adresowej). Przykładowo: 16-bitowy procesor 8088 posiada 8-bitową szynę danych (co oznacza, że podczas jednego cyklu odczytu z pamięci może odczytać 8 bitów) oraz 20-bitową szynę adresową (co z kolei umożliwia mu adresowanie 220, czyli megabajt pamięci). +Pierwszym na świecie mikroprocesorem 16-bitowym był TMS9900 wyprodukowany przez firmę Texas Instruments w 1976 roku. +Procesory 16-bitowe stosunkowo dawno wyszły z użycia domowego, obecnie stosowane są głównie w sterownikach przemysłowych i systemach wbudowanych. +Problem najkrótszej ścieżki + +Problem najkrótszej ścieżki jest zagadnieniem polegającym na znalezieniu w grafie ważonym najkrótszego połączenia pomiędzy danymi wierzchołkami. Szczególnymi przypadkami tego problemu są problem najkrótszej ścieżki od jednego wierzchołka do wszystkich innych oraz problem najkrótszej ścieżki pomiędzy wszystkimi parami wierzchołków. +gdzie V to liczba wierzchołków grafu, a E to liczba jego krawędzi. +gdzie V to liczba wierzchołków, a E liczba krawędzi. +Ray Liotta + +Ray Liotta, właściwie Raymond Allen Liotta (ur. 18 grudnia 1954 w Newark, w stanie New Jersey) - amerykański aktor oraz producent filmowy i telewizyjny. +Życiorys. +Kiedy miał sześć miesięcy, został zaadoptowany przez Alfreda Liottę, przewodniczącego lokalnego klubu demokratów i Mary, urzędniczkę obszaru wydzielonego. W 1973 roku ukończył Union High School w Union, w stanie New Jersey. W 1982 roku podjął pracę w supermarkecie "A & P". Studiował aktorstwo na University of Miami w Miami, na Florydzie i występował w studenckim teatrze Jerry Herman Ring Theatre. +Po raz pierwszy wystąpił na szklanym ekranie jako Joey Perrini w operze mydlanej NBC "Inny świat" ("Another World", 1978-81). Następnie pojawiał się gościnnie w serialach NBC: "St. Elsewhere" (1983), "Casablanca" (1983) oraz CBS "Mike Hammer" (1984) i ABC "Poza rodzinny honor" ("Our Family Honor", 1985). +Na dużym ekranie zadebiutował w dramacie "Kobieta samotna" ("The Lonely Lady", 1983) z Pią Zadorą i Lloydem Bochnerem. Za drugoplanową rolę Raya Sinclaira w komedio-dramacie kryminalnym "Dzika namiętność" ("Something Wild", 1986) u boku Melanie Griffith otrzymał nagrodę krytyków w Bostonie i zdobył nominację do nagrody Złotego Globu. +Sławę przyniosła mu postać gangstera Henry’ego Hilla w biograficznym dramacie kryminalnym Martina Scorsese’a "Chłopcy z ferajny" ("Goodfellas", 1990). Swoją pierwszą, główną rolę zagrał w filmie "Kolonia karna" ("No Escape", 1994). +Za rolę Charliego Metcalfa w serialu NBC "Ostry dyżur" ("ER", 2004) został uhonorowany nagrodami - Prism i Emmy. +W 2002 podkładał głos Tommy’emu Vercettiemu, głównemu bohaterowi gry komputerowej "", zdobywając nagrodę Glow. +Spotykał się z aktorkami - Vicky Dawson i Susan Keith oraz kaskaderką Heidi von Beltz. Był żonaty z Michelle Grace (od 15 lutego 1997 do 2004), z którą ma córkę Karsen (ur. 1998). +Managua + +Managua – stolica Nikaragui, położona w zachodniej części kraju nad jeziorem Managua. Miasto zamieszkiwało według spisu ludności z 1995 roku 864,2 tys. mieszkańców, ale szacunki z 2005 wskazują, że liczba jego ludności przekroczyła 1,8 mln. Stanowi tym samym największe miasto kontynentalnej Ameryki Środkowej (z wyłączeniem Meksyku). Managua jest również ośrodkiem administracyjnym departamentu Managua. +Managua, której nazwa oznacza w miejscowym narzeczu nahuatl "miejsce, gdzie jest duża woda", istniała jako duża osada indiańska. jeszcze przed najazdem Hiszpan. Prawa miejskie otrzymała dopiero w 1846, stolicą Nikaragui została w 1855. Była wielokrotnie niszczona przez rozmaite klęski żywiołowe: powódź w 1876, pożary w 1885 i 1936. Silne trzęsienia ziemi nawiedziły miasto 31 marca 1931 i ostatnio 23 grudnia 1972. W czasie tego ostatniego trzęsienia życie straciło ponad 10 tys. osób, a zniszczeniu uległo całe historyczne centrum miasta. Pieniądze przekazane na odbudowę przez społeczność międzynarodową zostały prawdopodobnie zdefraudowane przez dyktatora Anastasio Somozę. Wywołało to duże niezadowolenie społeczne i przyczyniło się do powstania ruch sandinistowskiego, który przejął władzę pod koniec la. 70. Ostatnią poważną klęską, która nawiedziła Managuę był huragan Mitch w 1998. +Mimo to Managua pozostaje głównym ośrodkiem gospodarczym i kulturalnym kraju. Posiada dobre położenie komunikacyjne przy Drodze Panamerykańskiej, połączenie drogowe z najbliższym portem pacyficznym Puerto Somoza oraz połączenie kolejowe z dawną stolicą León oraz głównym portem morskim kraju Corinto. Posiada też międzynarodowy port lotniczy Augusto C. Sandino. Rozwinął się tu głównie przemysł cementowy, włókienniczy i spożywczy. W mieście znajduje się rafineria ropy naftowej. +Managua posiada założony w 1961 uniwersytet Universidad Centro-Americana. Ponadto mieszczą się tutaj archiwum narodowe, biblioteka narodowa oraz liczne muzea. W mieście na skutek licznych klęsk nie zachowały się żadne cenne zabytki. Większość budynków to nowoczesne budowle, do których należą m.in. Pałac Narodowy, rezydencje prezydenta i arcybiskupa, bank narodowy, ambasada USA oraz katedra z lat 40. XX w. +Hamamatsu + +Największe pod względem liczby mieszkańców w tej prefekturze. W lipcu 2005 miasto wchłonęło 11 otaczających je miast i miasteczek i wyprzedziło Shizuokę. +Historia. +W 1570 roku Ieyasu Tokugawa zbudował zamek Hamamatsu. Miasto uzyskało prawa miejskie 1 lipca 1911 roku. +Transport. +Port handlowy; linia superekspresu Shinkansen; port lotniczy. +Ciekawostki. +Znajduje się tu replika pomnika Fryderyka Chopina z warszawskich Łazienek +Jerry Orbach + +Jerry Orbach (ur. 20 października 1935, zm. 28 grudnia 2004) - aktor amerykański, znany głównie jako odtwórca ról telewizyjnych i musicalowych, po matce polskiego pochodzenia. +Studiował na Northwestern University, następnie w "Actors Studio" w Nowym Jorku. Do znanych ról broadwayowskich Orbacha należały: "Promises, Promises", "Chicago", "42nd Street", "The Fantasticks"; był laureatem nagrody Tony dla artystów musicalowych. +Od lat 80. pracował przy produkcjach filmowych i telewizyjnych. Wystąpił m.in. w "Dirty Dancing", "F/X" i "Crimes and Misdemeanors", podkładał głos w filmie animowanym "Piękna i Bestia" (produkowanym przez wytwórnię Disneya). W latach 1992-2004 kreował postać detektywa Lennie Briscoe w serialu "Prawo i porządek"; zagrał także w trzech odcinkach kontynuacji tego serialu - "Law & Order: Trial by Jury", nie dożył jednak ich premiery telewizyjnej. Zmarł po chorobie nowotworowej. +Aport (pseudonauka) + +Aport – pseudonaukowe zjawisko mające towarzyszyć najczęściej seansom spirytystycznym bądź manifestacjom duchów i poltergeistów. Aport polegać ma na przeniesieniu (lub przejściu) przedmiotu z jednego miejsca w inne, często pomimo materialnych przeszkód znajdujących się na drodze tego przeniesienia (np. ścian). +Istnieją paranaukowe wyjaśnienia tego zjawiska, jednak są one całkowicie pozbawione podstaw i często mieszają ze sobą pojęcia z różnych działów fizyki, a także fantastyki. +Kooperacja + +Kooperacja (łac. "cooperativus" współpracujący, "cooperatio" współpraca) – współpraca, współdziałanie. +Kooperacja produkcyjna ma miejsce, gdy przedsiębiorstwo (kooperant) współpracuje z innym w ten sposób, że wykonuje dla niego pewne fazy procesu produkcyjnego. Natomiast kooperacja przedmiotowa wtedy, gdy dostarcza różnych elementów konstrukcyjnych do wytwarzanych przez inny zakład wyrobów. +W formie przestarzałej słowo to oznacza również "spółdzielczość" i stąd kooperatywa to "stowarzyszenie spółdzielcze", "spółdzielnia". +Miejska legenda + +Miejska legenda (ang. "urban legend") – pozornie prawdopodobna informacja rozpowszechniana w mediach, Internecie bądź w kręgach towarzyskich, która budzi wielkie emocje u odbiorców, zazwyczaj nieprawdziwa. +Miejska legenda elektryzuje słuchaczy i prowokuje ich do komentarzy i dalszego jej przekazywania, dotyczy bowiem znanych osób i powszechnych zjawisk (coś, co każdemu może się przytrafić). Era Internetu, szybkiej wymiany informacji znacznie przyspieszyła obieg tego rodzaju plotek, obecnych od wieków w grupach społecznych. Miejskie legendy często są przekształceniem wcześniejszych opowieści ludowych - legenda o "czarnych wołgach porywających ludzi (dzieci) w epoce PRL" przetwarza historyjkę o "Żydach porywających dzieci po to, by wyssać/wytoczyć z nich krew i użyć do rytualnej macy", obecnie popularna opowieść o „pedofilach/narkomanach porywających małe dzieci w centrach handlowych” czy szerzej o "obcych, demonach porywających dzieci". +Miejska legenda w ujęciu memetyki. +Z punktu widzenia memetyki miejska legenda jest przykładem replikującego się memu. Mem czy mempleks miejskiej legendy jest przekazywany kolejnym osobom, i poprzez to, że tego typu opowieści są niesamowite, ich memy rozchodzą się w sposób epidemiczny. Jednakże w czasie rozchodzenia się miejskiej legendy powstaje wiele ich zmutowanych form - historyjka powszednieje i traci wiarygodność, a społeczność uodparnia się na wirusa danej miejskiej legendy. Niektóre legendy miejskie w swych zmutowanych formach pojawiają się w danym społeczeństwie cyklicznie, niejednokrotnie wywołując panikę. +Vizcaya + +Vizcaya (bask. "Bizkaia") – prowincja w północnej Hiszpanii, współtworząca wspólnotę autonomiczną Kraju Basków. Prowincja liczy 1,1 mln mieszkańców (2009), z czego blisko 30% mieszka w stolicy – Bilbao (bask. "Bilbo"). Innymi większymi miastami są: Guernica (bask. "Gernika-Lumo"), Barakaldo, Portugalete, Durango i Balmaseda. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Oficjalna strona prowincji +Jezioro Kierskie + +Jezioro Kierskie - jezioro rynnowe polodowcowe, położone w zachodniej części Poznania. Jest to największy zbiornik wodny miasta i jeden z największych w Wielkopolsce. Jezioro leży na terenie Pojezierza Poznańskiego. +Informacje ogólne. +Jezioro Kierskie leży w zachodnim, golęcińskim klinie zieleni. Powierzchnia zwierciadła wody według różnych źródeł wynosi od 285,0 ha przez 288,1 ha do 310,0 ha. Zwierciadło wody położone jest na wysokości 72,0 m n.p.m. lub 71,9 m n.p.m. Średnia głębokość jeziora wynosi wg różnych źródeł od 10,1 m przez 10,8 m do 11,0 m, natomiast głębokość maksymalna od 34,1 m przez 36,0 m do 37,6 m. +Czystość. +W oparciu o badania przeprowadzone w 2003 roku wody jeziora zaliczono do III klasy czystości i II kategorii podatności na degradację. +Wykorzystanie. +Jest znanym w kraju ośrodkiem sportów wodnych - żeglarskiego i bojerowego. Jedno strzeżone kąpielisko - w Krzyżownikach, liczne ośrodki wypoczynkowe. Co roku na Jeziorze Kierskim odbywają się zawody "Wpław przez Kiekrz". +Badania historyczne. +W 1927 J. Rzóska z PTPN przeprowadził badania limnologiczne akwenu. Obejmowały one termikę, budżet tlenowy, przeźroczystość, faunę i plankton. Zbiornik, jako jezioro eutroficzne, zaliczono wtedy do typu "Plumosus-Bathophilus", według klasyfikacji Thienemanna-Lundbecka. +W latach 1928-1929 J. Jakubisiakowa podczas badań chruścików w jeziorze, znalazła 34 ich gatunki, z których trzy były nowe dla Polski: Leptocerus tineiformis, Ceraclea annulicornis i Beraea maurus, a dwadzieścia dla Polski zachodniej w jej ówczesnych granicach. Przeprowadzono także badania porównawcze w zakresie podobieństwa zespołów larwalnych chruścików z Jeziorem Wigry. +W. Krach, w tych samych latach, przebadał faunę chrząszczy wodnych jeziora i wód przyległych. Stwierdzono występowanie 83 gatunków tych owadów oraz 4 ich odmian. Pierwszy raz w okolicach Poznania stwierdzono wtedy występowanie kilkunastu z nich. +Psametych I + +Psametych I - faraon, władca starożytnego Egiptu, założyciel XXVI dynastii, zwanej Saicką. Prawdopodobnie panował w latach 664 p.n.e. - 610 p.n.e. +Psametych I wywodził się z rodziny panującej w Sais w Delcie. Ród z Sais sięgnął po koronę królewską dzięki najazdom Asarhaddona i Aszurbanipala, władców Asyrii. Asarhaddon zmusił do ucieczki z Egiptu Taharkę, przedostatniego władcę XXV dynastii, wywodzącej się z Nubii. Książęta Sais stale i konsekwentnie sprzeciwali się panowaniu Nubijczyków i trwali w przymierzu z Asyrią. Ojciec Psametycha Necho I zginął w walce z następcą Taharki, Tanutamonem, który próbował, nie bez powodzenia, odzyskać panowanie nad Egiptem. Jedynym jego przeciwnikiem pozostał wówczas Psametych, któremu poparcia, także militarnego, udzielił Aszurbanipal, następca Asarhaddona. Asyryjczycy złupili Teby i wycofali się, pozostawiając władzę Psametychowi. Nowy król szybko uniezależnił się od protektorów, wykorzystując ich zaangażowanie na innych frontach, a około roku 653 p.n.e. być może zadał im militarną klęskę (wspomina o niej Herodot, lecz niektórzy badacze kwestionują wiarygodność tej informacji). Pogłębiający się kryzys imperium asyryjskiego pozwolił Psametychowi odbudować mocarstwową pozycję Egiptu w regionie (choć Egipt nie odzyska już siły, jaką miał w czasach Nowego Państwa). W ostatnich latach panowania to Psametych będzie udzielał pomocy Asyrii, której nie uratuje jednak przed ostatecznym upadkiem. +Kontrolę nad Górnym Egiptem Psametych I zapewnił sobie, wysyłając swoją córkę Nitokris do Teb i wymuszając jej adopcję przez rządzące tam boskie małżonki Amona: Szepenupet II i Amenardis II - siostrę i córkę Taharki. Opowieść o tym wydarzeniu uwieczniono na tzw. steli adopcyjnej. Psametycha I uznał potężny Montuemhat, gubernator Teb z nubijskiego jeszcze mianowania. Zapewne dzięki temu Montuemhat zachował swą pozycję i mógł przygotować sobie monumentalny grobowiec u wejścia do kotliny Deir el-Bahari w Tebach Zachodnich. +Psametych I zasłynął jako władca filohelleński - życzliwie nastawiony do Greków. Wiele miejsca poświęca mu Herodot w swych "Dziejach" (ks. II). Król rozbudowywał armię, sprowadzając najemników z Grecji i osiedlając ich w koloniach na terenie Delty. Od jego panowania rozpoczyna się zainteresowanie greckich elit Egiptem. Obok greckiego Psametych I wspierał również osadnictwo żydowskie. Żydzi utworzyli liczną kolonię na Elefantynie, niezwykle interesującą ze względu na dokonane tam przekształcenia judaizmu. Polityka króla doprowadziła do otwarcia Egiptu na świat śródziemnomorski, wzmożenia kontaktów handlowych i w efekcie rozkwitu ekonomicznego. +Ekonomiczne i militarne otwarcie Egiptu Psametych I łączył z konserwatyzmem w kwestiach religii i działalności artystycznej. W sztuce i ideologii Psametych I i jego następcy z XXVI dynastii podkreślać będą swe związki z tradycją wielkich epok w dziejach Egiptu. Stąd ich panowanie określa się mianem renesansu saickiego. Władcy saiccy będą imitować, bardzo udatnie, styl Starego Państwa. W ramach odradzania czystej tradycji egipskiej Psametych I zwalczał obce kulty (a przy okazji kult egipskiego boga Seta, wiązanego z Azją). Za panowania XXVI dynastii rozpowszechnił się na ogromną skalę kult zwierzęcych wcieleń bóstw, obecny w religii egipskiej od zawsze, lecz nigdy tak nie eksponowany. Psametych I rozpoczął rozbudowę katakumb dla świętych byków - Serapeum w Sakkarze. +Ustrój polityczny Australii + +Australia (właśc. Związek Australijski – "Commonwealth of Australia") – federacyjna monarchia konstytucyjna, połączona unią personalną z Wielką Brytanią jako jeden z Commonwealth realms. +Rys historyczny. +Związek Australijski powstał 1 stycznia 1901 roku jako federacja sześciu kolonii brytyjskich istniejących wcześniej na kontynencie australijskim. Jego inauguracja została poprzedzona trwającymi kilka lat i przebiegającymi dość burzliwie negocjacjami między koloniami w sprawie kształtu ustrojowego federacji. Ostatecznie przyjęto model w znacznie mierze oparty na modelu westminsterskim, do którego dodano jednakże elementy federalizmu zaczerpnięte z systemu politycznego USA. +Początkowo Australia była dominium brytyjskim. W 1931, na mocy statutu westminsterskiego dominia zostały zrównane w swym statusie z Wielką Brytanią, co można uznać za symboliczną datę pełnej niepodległości Australii. Należy jednak pamiętać, iż zmiany prawne usankcjonowane w Statucie, w rzeczywistości zachodziły ewolucyjnie przez wiele lat wcześniej. Dodatkowo, Australia dokonała ratyfikacji Statutu dopiero w roku 1942, choć w ustawie ratyfikacyjnej znalazł się zapis, iż obowiązuje ona retroaktywnie od września 1939 roku. Kolejnym etapem w rozluźnianiu więzi między Australią a jej dawną metropolią były ustawy pod nazwą "Australia Act", przyjęte niemal równocześnie w 1986 roku przez parlamenty w Canberze i Londynie. Wprowadzały one pełne rozdzielenie systemów sądownictwa w obu krajach. +W 1999 w Australii odbyło się referendum w sprawie zniesienia monarchii i wprowadzenia republiki. Zakończyło się ono porażką ruchu republikańskiego, choć temat ten wciąż powraca w australijskiej debacie publicznej. +Konstytucja. +Australia – w przeciwieństwie do Wielkiej Brytanii – posiada spisaną konstytucję. Jej tekst został opracowany przez konstytuantę pracującą w latach 1897-98. Następnie – po pewnych modyfikacjach wprowadzonych podczas ostatnich negocjacji między rządami sześciu kolonii – został przyjęty w referendach przez obywateli każdej z nich. W 1900 parlament brytyjski przyjął ustawę o konstytucji Związku Australijskiego, która oficjalnie przyznawała Australii status dominium i nadawała konstytucję. +Zmiana konstytucji możliwa jest wyłącznie w drodze referendum ogólnokrajowego, przy czym niezbędne jest uzyskanie tzw. podwójnej większości: zmianę musi poprzeć większość mieszkańców Australii liczonych łącznie, ale również większość stanów (tzn. projekt zmian musi uzyskać poparcie większości głosujących w co najmniej czterech stanach). W dotychczasowej historii odbyły się 44 referenda konstytucyjne, ale tylko w ośmiu z nich zmiany zostały przyjęte. Ostatni raz miało to miejsce w 1977 roku. +Władza ustawodawcza. +Władzę ustawodawczą na szczeblu federalnym sprawuje Parlament Australii. Formalnie składa się z trzech izb: królowej Australii, Senatu oraz Izby Reprezentantów. Rola królowej w procesie stanowienia prawa jest symboliczna (patrz niżej), dlatego przyjęło się uważać australijski parlament za bikameralny. +Prawo inicjatywy ustawodawczej przysługuje wyłącznie członkom parlamentu. Przedłożenia rządowe muszą być oficjalnie "sponsorowane" przez jednego z parlamentarzystów. Jako pierwsza projekt rozpatruje ta izba, której członek jest projektodawcą. Do wejścia w życie ustawy niezbędne jest przyjęcie jej w identycznym brzmieniu przez obie izby. Jeśli to się nie uda za pierwszym razem, istnieje wieloetapowa procedura uzgadniania stanowiska izb oraz ponawiania prób przyjęcia ustawy. Jeśli nie przyniesie ona rezultatu, gubernator generalny ma prawo dokonać tzw. podwójnego rozwiązania ("double dissolution"), tzn. rozpisać przedterminowe wybory do obu izb równocześnie. +Spod powyższych zasad wyjęte są ustawy o charakterze budżetowym ("money bills"), dla których obowiązuje specjalna procedura, w której izbą inicjującą i zdecydowanie silniejszą jest Izba Reprezentantów. +Izba Reprezentantów. +Izba Reprezentantów jest formalnie izbą niższą, jednak w praktyce to ona odgrywa kluczową rolę w systemie politycznym. Izba składa się ze 150 członków wybieranych na trzyletnią kadencję. Stosuje się jednomandatowe okręgi wyborcze i ordynację preferencyjną. Miejsca w Izbie są podzielone między stany i terytoria proporcjonalnie do ich ludności. +Senat. +Konstytucja Australii przewiduje, iż każdy stan będzie reprezentowany w Senacie przez taką samą liczbę członków. Liczba ta zmieniała się na przestrzeni dziejów Australii i obecnie wynosi po 12 senatorów z każdego stanu. Dodatkowo po dwa miejsca otrzymały oba terytoria wewnętrzne, co sprawia, iż łącznie Senat liczy 76 członków. Kadencja senatorów liczy 6 lat, przy czym co trzy lata (przy okazji każdych wyborów do Izby Reprezentantów) odnawia się połowę jego składu. Senatorowie wybierani są w wielomandatowych okręgach wyborczych, gdzie każdy stan lub terytorium stanowi jeden okręg. Stosuje się ordynację opartą na zasadzie pojedynczego głosu przechodniego. Powoduje ona, iż do Senatu dostają się często mniejsze ugrupowania, nie mające szans na zaistnienie w izbie niższej. W ostatnich latach korzystają na tym m.in. Australijscy Zieloni. +Władza wykonawcza. +Królowa i gubernator generalny. +Królowa Australii jest formalną głową państwa i zwierzchnikiem sił zbrojnych, kieruje także egzekutywą. Posiada bardzo szerokie kompetencje, obejmujące m.in. prawo weta absolutnego wobec każdej z ustaw, mianowania premiera oraz gabinetu i skracania kadencji parlamentu. Posiada również wyłączność na wydawanie aktów wykonawczych do ustaw. +Australia jest powiązana unią personalną z Wielką Brytanią, co oznacza, iż każdy nowy monarcha brytyjski staje się jednocześnie monarchą Australii (choć od czasu koronacji Elżbiety II funkcje te są formalnie rozdzielone). Powoduje to, iż przez ogromną większość czasu królowa pozostaje poza granicami Australii. W jej zastępstwie wszystkie jej funkcje na szczeblu federalnym wykonywane są przez gubernatora generalnego Australii. Kwestie związane z tym urzędem w ogromnej większości regulowane są przez prawo zwyczajowe, które jednak w Australii – państwie wywodzącym się z tradycji common law – traktowane jest na równi z prawem spisanym. +Oficjalnie gubernator generalny pochodzi z osobistej nominacji królewskiej, choć w praktyce królowa zawsze mianuje kandydata przedstawionego jej przez premiera Australii. Wykonując swe funkcje, gubernator działa w ścisłym porozumieniu z rządem i "de facto" jest mu podporządkowany. Decyzje takie jak rozpisanie wyborów czy zawetowanie ustawy podejmuje wyłącznie na wniosek premiera. Z kolei rozporządzenia wydaje tylko za radą Federalnej Rady Wykonawczej, nad którą kontrolę sprawuje w pełni rząd. Samodzielna rola ustrojowa gubernatora generalnego sprowadza się do funkcji ceremonialnych. Oczekuje się od niego, iż będzie raczej apolitycznym "Ojcem (lub Matką) Narodu". +W wyjątkowych przypadkach gubernator generalny ma prawo korzystać ze swych szerokich uprawnień zupełnie samodzielnie. W nauce prawa konstytucyjnego możliwość ta nosi nazwę "reserve powers" i jest uznawana za swego rodzaju "wentyl bezpieczeństwa" na wypadek np. bardzo poważnego kryzysu politycznego. W praktyce kwestia ta budzi ogromne kontrowersje – choć ostatni raz gubernator generalny skorzystał z "reserve powers" w 1975 (odwołał wówczas premiera Whitlama wbrew woli większości w Izbie Reprezentantów), do dziś nie milkną dyskusje, czy miał do tego prawo. +Rząd i gabinet. +Faktycznym szefem egzekutywy jest premier Australii. Jest on mianowany przez gubernatora generalnego w imieniu królowej, przy czym nominację zawsze otrzymuje przywódca partii lub koalicji mającej większość w Izbie Reprezentantów. Następnie premier przedstawia gubernatorowi skład gabinetu, który ten formalnie powołuje. Wszyscy członkowie rządu muszą być członkami jednej z izb parlamentu. Jeśli nie sprawują mandatu w chwili powołania, mają trzy miesiące na jego zdobycie (np. poprzez wybory uzupełniające) pod rygorem dymisji ze stanowiska rządowego. +Podobnie jak w Wielkiej Brytanii, w Australii pojęcia rządu i gabinetu nie są tożsame. Rząd ("government") obejmuje wszystkich parlamentarzystów powołanych przez premiera w skład egzekutywy. Znaczną część z nich stanowią tzw. "junior ministers" (zwani też "outer ministry"), kierujący pewnym wycinkiem polityki rządu pod nadzorem ministra – członka gabinetu, oraz "parliamentary secretaries", na bieżąco reprezentujący rząd w określonej dziedzinie na forum parlamentu. W skład gabinetu wchodzą tylko wyżsi rangą ministrowie, z których każdy odpowiedzialny jest za szeroką dziedzinę polityki (np. sprawy zagraniczne, obrona) lub też kierowany przez niego dział administracji jest dla rządu szczególnie ważny (np. w obecnym rządzie Australii status członka gabinetu ma minister ds. zmian klimatycznych i efektywności energetycznej, zasiadający tam niezależnie od ministra środowiska). +W australijskim systemie politycznym obowiązuje raczej kolegialny model wypracowywania najważniejszych decyzji. Choć ostatecznie należą one do premiera i ma on możliwość narzucenia swojej woli ministrom, zwyczajowo ważniejsze kwestie są wcześniej przedmiotem dyskusji na forum gabinetu. Z systemu brytyjskiego przejęta została także silna służba cywilna, będąca apolitycznym rdzeniem centralnej administracji państwowej. Na jej czele w każdym z resortów stoi tzw. sekretarz. Podobnie jak w USA, ministerstwa zwane są w Australii departamentami, choć (inaczej niż w Stanach) ich polityczni szefowie noszą tytuły ministrów. +Australijski rząd ani gabinet nie ma formalnej możliwości samodzielnego wydawania aktów wykonawczych. Robi to za pośrednictwem gubernatora generalnego, któremu instrukcje w tej sprawie przekazywane są poprzez Federalną Radę Wykonawczą. +Stany i terytoria. +"Zobacz też hasła w kategorii Polityka stanów i terytoriów Australii." +Australia dzieli się na sześć stanów i trzy terytoria wewnętrzne, przy czym Terytorium Jervis Bay nie posiada żadnego samorządu. Ponadto Australia posiada szereg niewielkich terytoriów zewnętrznych, do których jednak odnoszą się zupełnie odrębne zasady administracji, bliższe rozwiązaniom stosowanym w przypadku np. kolonii brytyjskich. +Stany zachowały swoje konstytucje przyjęte w czasach, gdy były samodzielnymi koloniami brytyjskimi. Konstytucja Australii zawiera listę dziedzin, które zostały objęte wyłączną kompetencją Związku. W pozostałych sprawach władze stanowe mają swobodę kształtowania własnego porządku prawnego. Ogranicza ją jedynie konstytucyjna zasada, iż w przypadku sprzeczności prawa stanowego i federalnego, za wiążące uznaje się to drugie, a przepis stanowy może zostać uchylony. Nieco inaczej wygląda status dwóch autonomicznych terytoriów wewnętrznych (chodzi tu o Terytorium Północne i Australijskie Terytorium Stołeczne), których samodzielność wynika wyłącznie z ustaw zwykłych i nie ma podstaw konstytucyjnych. Tym samym władze federalne zachowują kontrolę nad całością prawodawstwa stanowionego przez terytoria i mogą je uchylać. W praktyce dzieje się to sporadycznie, jednak procedura ta nie została całkowicie zarzucona. +Stany i terytoria wewnętrzne posiadają własne parlamenty oraz rządy. Szefowie rządów stanowych noszą tytuł premierów, natomiast w terytoriach są oni zwani szefami ministrów. Dodatkowo w każdym ze stanów funkcjonuje urząd gubernatora, oficjalnie będącego osobistym reprezentantem królowej, a w praktyce odgrywającego rolę analogiczną do tej, jaką na szczeblu federalnym pełni gubernator generalny. W Terytorium Północnym funkcję tę spełnia administrator, natomiast w terytorium stołecznym urzędu takiego "de facto" nie ma. +Samorząd lokalny. +Kwestie podziału administracyjnego i samorządów lokalnych zostały pozostawione w gestii stanów, które mogą w dowolny sposób dzielić swój obszar na mniejsze jednostki i delegować im uprawnienia. Wszystkie stany stosują podział jednostopniowy, przy czym jednostki samorządu – choć wszystkie są równe pod względem kompetencji, a ich granice nie pokrywają się – używają kilku różnych typów nazw, np. miasto, gmina, hrabstwo, dystrykt itp. Stolice stanowe, będące zarazem największymi miastami Australii, nie stanowią nigdzie jednego organizmu administracyjnego. Zamiast tego funkcjonują jako aglomeracje złożone ze stosunkowo niewielkich samorządów, gdzie kwestie ogólnomiejskie regulują bezpośrednio władze stanowe. +System partyjny. +Już w pierwszej dekadzie XX wieku w Australii ukształtował się system partyjny zdominowany przez dwa bloki: prawicowy i lewicowy. Na lewicy przez cały ten czas dominującym ugrupowaniem pozostaje Australijska Partia Pracy (ALP). Prawica kilkakrotnie przechodziła przeobrażenia i zmiany nazw partii, lecz od lat 40. XX wieku dominuje na niej tzw. Koalicja (zapisywana wielką literą – "the Coalition"), w ramach której współpracują blisko Liberalna Partia Australii (LPA) i, jako tradycyjnie słabszy partner, Narodowa Partia Australii (NPA), do lat 70. działająca jako Partia Wiejska ("Country Party"). W ostatnich latach skład Koalicji uzupełniają regionalne ugrupowania powstałe w wyniku formalnej fuzji struktur LPA i NPA w stanie Queensland (Liberal National Party of Queensland) oraz w Terytorium Północnym (Country Liberal Party). +Oba bloki wymieniają się władzą na szczeblu federalnym. Gdy przywódca jednego z nich jest premierem, szef drugiego pełni funkcję lidera opozycji. Ze względu na ordynację wyborczą, obsadzają one niemal wszystkie miejsca w Izbie Reprezentantów. W Senacie ordynacja umożliwia udział mniejszych partii, które zyskują w ten sposób możliwość prezentowania swego programu szerszej grupie wyborców, jednak ich wpływ na proces polityczny jest bardzo ograniczony. +Podobnie wygląda sytuacja na szczeblu stanowym i terytorialnym, choć tam tradycyjnie nieco silniejsze są mniejsze (często regionalne) ugrupowania oraz politycy niezależni. Premierami stanowymi zostają jednak niemal zawsze politycy ALP lub Koalicji. +Władza sądownicza. +Australijskie sądownictwo podzielone jest na część federalną i stanową. Ogromną większość spraw załatwiają sądy stanowe i terytorialne, w każdym stanie tworzące odrębną strukturę. Każdy stan posiada też własny sąd najwyższy, który jest zarówno instancją odwoławczą, jak i sądem pierwszej instancji w najbardziej skomplikowanych sprawach. +Sądy federalne orzekają w dziedzinach, które zgodnie z konstytucją Australii i ustawodawstwem federalnym, w całości podlegają regulacji prawnej na poziomie Związku. Są to m.in. prawo rodzinne (z wyjątkiem Australii Zachodniej), kwestie imigracyjne oraz szerokie spektrum zagadnień związanych z prawem pracy i prawem gospodarczym. Najwyższą instancją odwoławczą w systemie federalnym jest Sąd Najwyższy Australii, który rozpatruje też kasacje od wyroków stanowych sądów najwyższych. +Wilhelm Aleksander (książę holenderski) + +Wilhelm Aleksander, nid. Willem Alexander, właśc. Willem-Alexander Claus George Ferdinand Amsberg (ur. 27 kwietnia 1967 w Utrechcie) – książę holenderski, następca tronu Holandii, syn królowej Beatrycze i Clausa von Amsberga. +28 stycznia 2013 królowa Beatrycze ogłosiła swoją abdykację, która ma nastąpić 30 kwietnia br. Wtedy Wilhelm Aleksander zostanie królem Holandii. +Zarys biografii. +Studiował historię na Uniwersytecie w Lejdzie. Ze względu na zainteresowania księcia światową gospodarką wodną został powołany w skład Światowej Komisji Wody XXI Wieku. Jest także od 1998 członkiem Międzynarodowego Komitetu Olimpijskiego (wcześniej patronował narodowemu holenderskiemu komitetowi olimpijskiemu). Startował w maratonie nowojorskim. +Jako wolontariusz pracował (pod nazwiskiem "Van Buren") w Kenii w fundacji pomocy edukacyjnej i medycznej (1989) oraz ochrony środowiska (1991). Pełni szereg reprezentacyjnych funkcji królewskich (m.in. wojskowych), jest członkiem holenderskiej Rady Stanu. +W lutym 2002 poślubił Argentynkę Maximę Zorreguietę Cerruti (ur. 1971), pracującą w bankowości; osoba żony następcy tronu wzbudziła pewne kontrowersje – jej ojciec był cywilnym pracownikiem reżimu wojskowego prezydenta Jorge Videli i nie został zaproszony na uroczystości ślubne. +JavaHelp + +JavaHelp – rozwijany przez Sun Microsystems system pomocy, bardzo zbliżony funkcjonalnie do HTML Help (oba te systemy są często zaliczane do wspólnej kategorii HTML-based Help). Podstawową zaletą tego formatu jest międzyplatformowość, pozwalająca uruchamiać sporządzone za jego pomocą materiały wszędzie tam, gdzie istnieje wirtualna maszyna Javy. Wprawdzie JavaHelp jest pomyślana jako narzędzie do wykorzystywania online, tym niemniej może być stosowane lokalnie. +Wsparcie dla systemu jest niezbyt duże, choć wśród firm kooperujących z Sunem są tak znane w branży przedsiębiorstwa, jak ForeFront, BlueSky, Quadralay czy WexTech Systems. +Kriosfera + +Kriosfera - część hydrosfery, obejmująca wody w postaci nie zanikającego lodu lodowcowego, morskiego i gruntowego. +Jacob van Campen + +Jacob van Campen (ur. 2 lutego 1595 w Haarlem, zm. 13 września 1657 w Amersfoort) – holenderski malarz i architekt. +Urodzony w Haarlem w bogatej rodzinie, studiował malarstwo u Fransa de Grebbera. W czasie pobytu we Włoszech zetknął się z pracami architektonicznymi Andrea Palladio. +Van Campen jest uważany za pioniera budownictwa klasycyzującego baroku w Holandii. Najwcześniejszym zachowanym budynkiem projektowanym przez van Campena jest kamienica Coymana w Amsterdamie, zbudowana w 1625. Jego uczniem był Tylman z Gameren. +Hans Bethe + +Hans Albrecht Bethe (ur. 2 lipca 1906 w Strasburgu, zm. 6 marca 2005 w Ithace) – fizyk amerykański pochodzenia niemieckiego. +Laureat Nagrody Nobla z dziedziny fizyki w roku 1967 za prace poświęcone mechanizmom produkcji energii w gwiazdach. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w Strasburgu (wówczas terytorium Niemiec), jego ojcem był fizjolog Albrecht Bethe. Studiował na uniwersytetach we Frankfurcie i Monachium. W roku 1928 uzyskał stopień doktora. Do 1933 prowadził badania naukowe w Niemczech, a po dojściu do władzy Hitlera wyjechał do Anglii gdzie przez rok pracował na University of Manchester. Następnie przeniósł się do USA i przyjął amerykańskie obywatelstwo. Od 1937 był profesorem fizyki teoretycznej na Cornell University w Ithaca, w latach 1943-1956 kierował departamentem fizyki teoretycznej w ośrodku badań atomowych w Los Alamos. Był delegatem na pierwszą Międzynarodową Konferencję o Zakazie Prób Atomowych w Genewie, gdzie przyczynił się do wynegocjowania traktatu o zakazie prób z bronią jądrową w atmosferze. +Był uważany za jednego z najwybitniejszych specjalistów w dziedzinie teorii jądra atomowego, opracował teorię budowy deuteronu. Prowadził badania w dziedzinie widm absorpcyjnych kryształów, widm atomów i elektrodynamiki kwantowej. Przewidział wartości przekrojów czynnych dla wielu reakcji jądrowych. W 1967 otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla za wkład w teorię reakcji jądrowych, szczególnie za odkrycia dotyczące procesu wyzwalania energii w gwiazdach (tzw. cykl Bethego). +Otrzymał także szereg innych prestiżowych wyróżnień naukowych, m.in. Medal Maxa Plancka (1955), Medal Eddingtona (1961), Medal Bruce (2001). Działał na rzecz pokojowego wykorzystania energii jądrowej. +Jego imię nadano asteroidzie 30828 Bethe. +Fernando Cento + +Fernando Cento (10 sierpnia 1883 w Pollenza, diecezja Macerata - 13 stycznia 1973 w Rzymie), włoski duchowny katolicki, dyplomata watykański, kardynał. +Studiował w seminarium w Maceracie oraz na rzymskich uniwersytetach - Gregoriańskim i Królewskim. 23 grudnia 1905 przyjął w Rzymie święcenia kapłańskie. Wykładał w seminarium w Maceracie. Od 1916 związany z dworem papieskim; był sekretarzem majordomusa papieskiego, 15 listopada 1917 otrzymał godność tajnego szambelana. W 1919 został kanonikiem w kapitule katedralnej w Maceracie, wydawał diecezjalne pismo "Il Cittadino". +22 lipca 1922 został mianowany biskupem sycylijskiej diecezji Acireale; otrzymał sakrę biskupią 3 września 1922 w Maceracie z rąk kardynała Giovanniego Tacciego (sekretarza Kongregacji Kościołów Orientalnych). W czerwcu 1926 przeszedł do pracy w dyplomacji papieskiej. Został wyniesiony do godności arcybiskupa tytularnego Seleucia Pieria i mianowany nuncjuszem apostolskim w Wenezueli. Od lipca 1936 był nuncjuszem w Peru. Pracował nad nawiązaniem stosunków dyplomatycznych między Stolicą Apostolską i rządem Ekwadoru, po powodzeniu misji został nuncjuszem w Ekwadorze (lipiec 1937). Był legatem papieża Piusa XII na narodowe kongresy eucharystyczne Boliwii (1939) i Peru (1940). +W marcu 1946 został przeniesiony na placówki europejskie; był początkowo nuncjuszem w Belgii i Luksemburgu, a od października 1953 w Portugalii. W lipcu 1953 był specjalnym wysłannikiem papieża na koronację królowej Wielkiej Brytanii Elżbiety II. +15 grudnia 1958 Jan XXIII wyniósł go na swoim pierwszym konsystorzu do godności kardynalskiej; otrzymał tytuł prezbitera S. Eustachio. Pełnił misje legata papieskiego na narodowy kongres eucharystyczny w Cordobie (Argentyna) oraz na obchody 400-lecia reform św. Teresy z Avila. 12 lutego 1962 - 6 kwietnia 1967 pełnił funkcję Wielkiego Penitencjariusza Papieskiego. Brał udział w obradach Soboru Watykańskiego II (1962-1965) oraz w wyborze papieża na konklawe po śmierci Jana XXIII (1963). +W kwietniu 1965 został promowany do rangi kardynała-biskupa, z nadaniem diecezji podmiejskiej Velletri. Po reformie konklawe dokonanej przez Pawła VI utracił z dniem 1 stycznia 1971 prawo czynnego udziału w wyborach papieża ze względu na wiek (ukończone 80 lat). +Został pochowany w rodzinnej miejscowości Pollenza w kościele parafialnym. +Naomi Klein + +Naomi Klein (ur. 5 maja 1970 r. w Montrealu) − kanadyjska dziennikarka, pisarka i aktywistka społeczna. +Autorka książki "No Logo", która stała się manifestem alterglobalizmu. +Rodzina. +Wychowała się w silnie zaangażowanej społecznie i politycznie rodzinie o żydowskich korzeniach. Dziadkowie od strony ojca byli amerykańskimi marksistami aktywnymi politycznie w USA w latach 30. i 40. Phillip Klein, dziadek Naomi, zawodowy rysownik, zatrudniony w wytwórni Walta Disneya, pracował nad takimi produkcjami jak "Fantazja", "Królewna Śnieżka" czy "Pinokio". W 1941 roku chcąc wyegzekwować zaległe premie od wytwórni zainicjował kilkumiesięczny strajk, zakończony zwolnieniem oraz wciągnięciem go na czarną listę McCarthy’ego. Wiara w ideowy komunizm dziadków Naomi całkowicie upadła po wydarzeniach związanych z podpisaniem przez Stalina paktu Ribbentrop-Mołotow oraz referacie Nikity Chruszczowa w 1956 roku. Ojciec, Michael Klein, był fizykiem zaangażowanym w protesty społeczne przeciwko wojnie wietnamskiej. Gdy Naomi miała sześć lat, przeprowadził się wraz z rodziną do Kanady, kontynuując działalność społeczną. Jej matka, Bonnie Klein, jest znana głównie jako twórczyni filmu "Not a Love Story", będącego krytyką zjawiska pornografii. Jej brat, Seth Klein, jest działaczem określanej jako lewicowa organizacji Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Mąż, Avi Lewis, jest kanadyjskim dziennikarzem i dokumentalistą. +Działalność. +Naomi Klein karierę dziennikarską rozpoczęła dosyć wcześnie, bo już na początku lat 90. podczas studiów filologicznych. Była to współpraca z gazetą studencką "The Varsity", wydawaną na Uniwersytecie Toronto, pełniąc funkcję redaktora naczelnego. Pisząc dla studenckiej gazety skupiała się na tematach feministycznych, stopniowo angażując się w problematykę społeczną, ewoluującą w stronę „anty” markowości czy „anty” brandingowi. Początkowa niechęć do feminizmu, wynikająca z aktywności na tym polu jej matki oraz związanych z tym przykrości ze strony rówieśników, uległa całkowitej zmianie pod wpływem narodowej traumy, jaka również i jej się udzieliła w wyniku wydarzeń na Uniwersytecie w Montrealu w 1989 roku, gdzie szaleniec Marc Lépine zabił czternaście osób, drugie tyle ranił, następnie popełnił samobójstwo. W 1990 roku Naomi Klein w studenckiej gazecie "The Varsity" opublikowała artykuł zatytułowany „Victim do Victimizer”, będący odpowiedzią na brutalną politykę Izraela w Strefie Gazy. Klein pomimo korzeni żydowskich, wezwała w nim Izrael do zaprzestania szykanowania nie tylko Palestyńczyków, ale również izraelskich kobiet. Metaforyczne porównanie przemocy, oskarżenie izraelskich mężczyzn o rasizm i mizoginizm wywołało wściekłość społeczności żydowskiej w Toronto. Po opublikowaniu artykułu otrzymywała liczne pogróżki bombowego zamachu. W 1994 roku Naomi Klein przerwała studia na Uniwersytecie Toronto dla pracy w lokalnej gazecie „Toronto Globe and Mail”. Równocześnie współpracowała z lewicowym periodykiem „This Magazine”, poświęconym polityce, będącym kanadyjskim odpowiednikiem „The Nation”. Dzięki ostrym tekstom o tym, jak młodzi ludzie pozbawiani są przestrzeni w oficjalnych mediach zdobyła uznanie czytelników, co wkrótce zaowocowało awansem na stanowisko redaktora naczelnego. W wieku 24 lat Naomi Klein otrzymała propozycje od Johna Hondericha, wydawcy „The Toronto Star” (jednej z największych gazet w Kanadzie) pisania stałych felietonów. Było to ogromne wyróżnienie z tego względu, iż w USA oraz w Wielkiej Brytanii autorami felietonów są praktycznie tylko doświadczeni dziennikarze. W felietonach poruszała kwestie współzależności między kulturą i polityką, prawami wielkich korporacji i ich wpływem na życie konsumentów, zmianom zachodzącym pod wpływem marketingu w kulturze i społeczeństwie. W 1996 roku powróciła na studia, aby w następnym semestrze ponownie je przerwać. Zmiany, jakie zaszły w przeciągu kilku lat na uniwersytecie, związane z wszechobecną i nachalną reklamą wielkich korporacji, zainspirowały ją do pracy reporterskiej. Naomi Klein podkreślała, że przede wszystkim jest pisarką, a nie reporterką. +No Logo. +W 2000 roku, po czteroletniej pracy, opublikowała "No Logo. Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies". Książka była i jest uznawana za manifest ruchów alterglobalistycznych i antyglobalistycznych. Klein opisała tam negatywny wpływ strategii marketingowych zorientowanych na markę wywierany na życie społeczeństw krajów rozwiniętych oraz działania korporacji w krajach biednych, przyczyniające się do ich dalszego zubożenia. Symbolem obu tych zjawisk stała się korporacja Nike. Samej autorce książka przyniosła ogromną popularność w kręgach alterglobalistycznych. Pomimo stanowczego sprzeciwu zainteresowanej, jej poglądy zaczęto identyfikować jako ideologiczny głos tego ruchu, stawiając je na równi z takimi intelektualistami, jak Noam Chomsky, Octavio Ianni, Manuel Vázquez Montalbán czy Joseph E. Stiglitz. "No logo" w krótkim czasie zyskało status światowego bestsellera. Klein spotkała się z licznymi pozytywnymi recenzjami znanych ekonomistów, jak również z ogromną krytyką, w szczególności dziennikarzy skupionych wokół czasopisma „The Economist”. Gazety takie jak „Financial Times” nazwały tę książkę „Wezwaniem do broni”, „The New York Times” „antykorporacyjnym Kapitałem”, „The Guardian” „Inteligentną książką” a liberalno-lewicowy „The Observer” podsumował swoją recenzję jako: „Inteligentna złość”. Wywołana burza wokół książki Klein została wkrótce nazwana pojedynkiem „No logo kontra Pro logo”, który wypromował także samą autorkę i pozwolił jej, pomimo młodego wieku, stać się bardzo wpływową osobą w anglosaskim dziennikarstwie. Książka Naomi Klein „No logo” w 2003 roku została przeniesiona na ekrany przez Sut Jhally w formie 40-minutowego dokumentu filmowego pod tytułem "No Logo - Brands, Globalization & Resistance". +Mury i wyłomy. +W 2002 roku ukazała się jej druga książka "Mury i wyłomy, czyli bariery i szanse. Doniesienia z linii frontu debaty o globalizacji" (ang. "Fences and Windows. Dispatches from the Front Lines of the Globalization Debate"). W Polsce książka została wydana dopiero w 2008 roku. Jest ona w pewnym sensie postscriptum do "No logo" i stanowi zbiór, mozaikę artykułów prasowych, esejów oraz przemówień opublikowanych dla „The Globe and Mail” i „The Nation” oraz „Los Angeles Times” powstałych w latach 1999–2002 jako efekt 30-miesięcznego tournee po całym świecie w ramach promocji pierwszej książki "No logo". "Mury i wyłomy" to nie tylko książka, to również specjalny fundusz założony przez Naomi Klein, który działał w latach 2002–2004. Zasilała go część dochodu z każdego sprzedanego egzemplarza książki. Pieniądze przeznaczone były dla organizacji pozarządowych, takich jak Corporate Watch z Wielkiej Brytanii publikującej raporty o nieetycznym postępowaniu firm, czy Coalition of Immokalee Workers z USA – aktywistów domagających się m.in. podniesienia płac minimalnych dla robotników zbierających pomidory dla Taco Bell na plantacjach w amerykańskim stanie Floryda. +The Take. +W 2004 roku, wraz z mężem zrealizowała film dokumentalny "The Take", przedstawiający skutki załamania gospodarczego w Argentynie w latach 1999-2002. Na tle radykalnych decyzji rządu Carlosa Saúla Menema, który za radą Międzynarodowego Funduszu Walutowego zamknął liczne fabryki, ukazany jest Ruch Odzyskiwania Fabryk. Dokument przedstawia przykłady desperackiego przejmowania oraz ponownego uruchamiania zamkniętych zakładów przez bezrobotnych pracowników przemysłu samochodowego w 2001 roku. Robotnicy, w myśl hasła "Okupujcie, walczcie, produkujcie" realizują idee od dawna dyskutowane wśród działaczy związkowych i lewicowych intelektualistów, polegające na tworzeniu w miejscu upadłych zakładów spółdzielni pracowniczych i ich zarządzaniu zgodnie z zasadami demokracji pracowniczej. Dokument otrzymał w 2004 roku nagrodę American Film Institute w kategorii film dokumentalny oraz nagrodę publiczności podczas festiwalu AFI Fest w Los Angeles. +Doktryna szoku. +W 2007 roku wydała książkę "Doktryna szoku. Jak współczesny kapitalizm wykorzystuje klęski żywiołowe i kryzysy społeczne" (ang. "The Shock Doctrine. The Rise of Disaster Capitalism"), w której krytykuje współczesny kapitalizm. Od momentu wydania książka Naomi Klein doczekała się licznych recenzji, komentarzy i artykułów. Podobnie jak w przypadku "No Logo", także i "Doktrynę" odebrano pozytywnie, a często entuzjastycznie, szczególnie w środowiskach młodych i lewicowych. Przychylnie do książki odniosły sie takie osobistości, jak laureat ekonomicznej nagrody Nobla Joseph E. Stiglitz czy John N. Gray z London School of Economics, który na łamach „The Guardian” stwierdził, że niewiele jest książek, które naprawdę pomagają nam zrozumieć teraźniejszość, a „Doktryna szoku” jest jedną z nich. Krytyka pojawiła się głównie ze strony establishmentu, w kręgach liberalnych czy libertarialnych, wśród znanych ekonomistów wywodzących się z tzw. „szkoły chicagowskiej”, w tym Leszka Balcerowicza, jak również przez czasopisma finansowe, jak np. „Financial Times” czy „The Economist”. Za "Doktrynę szoku" autorka otrzymała interdyscyplinarną nagrodę Warwick Prize w wysokości 50 tysięcy funtów. Nagroda została ufundowana przez University of Warwick w Wielkiej Brytanii, wyróżniająca co dwa lata anglojęzyczne książki, które przyczyniają się do intelektualnego i naukowego postępu, wyjaśniając zachodzące zjawiska na świecie w sposób jasny i klarowny. "Doktryna szoku" została także przeniesiona na ekran w formie dokumentu reżyserowanym przez Jonasa Cuaróna. Polska premiera tego filmu odbyła się 16 kwietnia 2010 roku. +W dniach 19-20 listopada 2008 roku Klein odwiedziła Warszawę w związku z polskim wydaniem "Doktryny szoku". W trakcie wizyty wygłosiła m.in. wykład na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim oraz wzięła udział w debacie z Janem Krzysztofem Bieleckim, zorganizowanej przez „Dziennik” i tygodnik opinii „Europa” w Collegium Civitas. +Obecnie. +W 2011 roku skorzystała z zaproszenia Sapling Foundation. W styczniu 2011 wystąpiła jako prelegent na konferencji TED, której celem jest popularyzacja "idei wartych rozpowszechniania". +Obecnie Naomi Klein jest reporterem w magazynach takich jak „Harper's Magazine” czy "Rolling Stone", pisze także felietony dla „The Nation” i „The Guardian”. Dodatkowo, jej artykuły pojawiają się również w „The New York Times”, „The Washington Post”, „Newsweek”, „Los Angeles Times”, „The Globe and Mail”, „El Pais, „L'Espresso” i „New Statesman” oraz wielu innych czasopismach. W 2004 Naomi Klein za swoje reportaże z wojny w Iraku dla „Harper’s Magazine” otrzymała nagrodę Jamesa Aronsona, przyznawaną dziennikarzom zaangażowanym w walkę o sprawiedliwość społeczną. Naomi Klein była także wykładowcą w London School of Economics w Wielkiej Brytanii w ramach programu stypendialnego im. Ralpha Milibanda. Ma również honorowy tytuł doktora prawa cywilnego na kanadyjskim uniwersytecie King's College w Nowej Szkocji. +Mieszka w Toronto (Kanada). +Wysoka (powiat strzelecki) + +Wysoka (dodatkowa nazwa w j. niem. Wyssoka) – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie opolskim, w powiecie strzeleckim, w gminie Leśnica. Wieś Wysoka leży na północny zachód od Leśnicy Opolskiej, na północnym stoku grzbietu Chełma. +We wsi znajduje się nieczynny kamieniołom wapieni środkowego triasu (warstwy górażdżańskie) +Historia. +W rejonie wsi znane są stanowiska górnego paleolitu . Teren Wysokiej był zasiedlony w okresie średniowiecza. Potwierdza to odkryte tutaj grodzisko z XIII wieku. Pierwszy raz Wysoka została wymieniona w dokumencie Henryka Brodatego z 1234 roku jako „Visoka”. Należała ona wtedy do klasztoru w Czarnowąsach. Kościół w Wysokiej po raz pierwszy wzmiankowano w 1371 roku. W 1421 roku właścicielem Wysokiej był Petrasz Stral. Około roku 1444 wybudowano tutaj drugi kościół. W 1474 roku ówcześni właściciele wsi zostali powieszeni w lesie koło Wysokiej, a ich zamek zburzono. Była to kara za dokonywane przez nich na drogach rabunki, których ofiarą padali kupcy. Wysoka była od 1630 roku przez następne 100 lat własnością rodziny von Gaschin. W 1799 roku właścicielem wioski został Baltazar von Thun. +Według danych z 1817 roku w Wysokiej było 27 zagrodników, 9 chałupników. W 1843 roku wymienia się w Wysokiej następujące obiekty: zamek, folwark, gorzelnię, browar, wapiennik i 4 gospody. Wioska miała także 13 rzemieślników i jednego kupca. Obszar dworski pozostawał własnością rodziny von Thun aż do 1927 roku. Do 1933 roku wioska nosiła urzędową nazwę Wyssoka, później do 1945 roku – Hohenkirch. Na terenie Wysokiej oprócz kościoła parafialnego św. Floriana cennymi zabytkami są również późnobarokowa rzeźba św. Trójcy z 1748 roku oraz murowany wiatrak typu holenderskiego. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa opolskiego. +Pl.hum.poezja + +pl.hum.poezja ("p.h.p.", "php", "pehap") — polska grupa dyskusyjna w Usenecie poświęcona poezji, głównie twórczości samych uczestników, ale ukazywały się też tłumaczenia, przeważnie dokonane przez samych uczestników, najczęściej z angielskiego. Powstała 6 stycznia 1998, od tamtej pory przewinęło się przez nią kilkuset autorów. Większość poprzestała na pokazaniu się w Internecie. Niektórzy wybili się w ramach tradycyjnych organizacji poetyckich (wydali tomiki, wygrali konkursy, itp). W 2002 roku ukazała się antologia prezentująca ponad 30 autorów spośród regularnie publikujących na pl.hum.poezja, pt. "p.h.p. wiersze". Specyfiką grupy, wynikającą z obecności w Usenecie, w odróżnieniu od bardziej tradycyjnych form przedstawiania własnej twórczości, jest łatwość i swoboda publikacji wierszy — wystarczy po prostu wysłać wiadomość na grupę. Zaletą takiej sytuacji jest to, że najlepsze wiersze nigdy nie są utrącane przez edytorów. Wadą - najgorsze wiersze nigdy nie są utrącane przez edytorów. +Autorzy pl.hum.poezji reprezentują, bez żadnych ograniczeń, wszelakie kierunki artystyczne. Okresami popularne na przykład było haiku. Wystąpili na php między innymi autorzy, którzy odnieśli sukcesy w angielskojęzycznych, międzynarodowych konkursach haiku. W pewnych przypadkach pierwszy serio kontakt tych autorów z haiku nastąpił właśnie na php. +Regularnie odbywały się warsztaty poetyckie i wspólne sympozja, organizowany był comiesięczny konkurs "Wiersze miesiąca" (zwycięskie utwory są zamieszczone w internetowym magazynie kulturalnym "Esensja"), i coroczny "Wiersze roku". +Aktywność - statystyka liczby postów. +Od powstania php w 1998 miesięczna liczba postów rosła dosyć równomiernie aż po lata 2002-2003 (z wyjątkiem listopadowo-grudniowego wybuchu aktywności w 1999r), po czym wyraźnie obniżyła się i odtąd raczej opadała gdzieś od czerwca roku 2004, w którym to miesiącu wyniosła (wg. Google'a) 1986 postów, i miesięczna liczba postów progu 2000 nigdy już nie osiągnęła. +  +1G + +Telefonia komórkowa pierwszej generacji (również 1G, skrót od ang. "1 generation") – technologia pierwszej generacji telefonii komórkowej. Jest to zespół standardów transmisji analogowej, wdrożony we wczesnych latach 80. XX wieku. +Pomysł stworzenia systemu komunikacji radiowej pojawił się już w latach 40. XX wieku w laboratoriach firmy Bell Telephone Company w USA. +Zastosowanie technologii analogowej pociągało za sobą szereg wad, takich jak niski poziom bezpieczeństwa, ograniczone możliwości transmisji danych, brak roamingu międzynarodowego. Największy rozwój telefonii pierwszej generacji nastąpił w latach 90. XX wieku w Finlandii i Szwecji, gdzie gęstość abonentów wynosiła ok. 5%. W innych krajach gęstość nie przekraczała 2%. +W czerwcu 1992 w Polsce powstała sieć Centertel. Była i jest to jedyna sieć komórkowa pierwszej generacji w systemie NMT w tym kraju. +Heliakalny wschód + +Heliakalny wschód – moment, gdy dany obiekt astronomiczny (gwiazda, planeta lub księżyc) staje się po raz pierwszy widoczny na wschodzie o świcie, po okresie gdy był zakryty przez horyzont lub niewidoczny z powodu jasno świecącego Słońca. Po swoim heliakalnym wschodzie każdego następnego dnia gwiazda pojawia się nieco wcześniej i widoczna jest przez dłuższy okres zanim jej światło przestanie być widoczne (Słońce przesuwa się na wschód względem gwiazd po ekliptyce). W końcu gwiazda przestaje być widoczna na niebie o świcie, gdyż znika pod zachodnim horyzontem – jest to heliakalny zachód. Po około roku astronomicznym gwiazda będzie miała ponownie swój heliakalny wschód. +Nie wszystkie gwiazdy mają wschód heliakalny, w zależności od położenia obserwatora na Ziemi niektóre widoczne są bez przerwy ponad horyzontem o świcie zanim ich światło nie przestanie być widoczne z powodu jasności Słońca. +Gwiazdozbiory z gwiazdami mającymi heliakalne wschody były wykorzystywane w starożytności do budowy kalendarzy i rachuby czasu. W starożytnym Egipcie początek roku astronomicznego przypadał na heliakalny wschód Syriusza i zbiegał się raz na 1460 lat (okres Sotisowy) z początkiem przyboru wód Nilu, czyli początkiem roku kalendarzowego (datowanie sotisowe). +Heliakalne wschody gwiazd wykorzystywane były również przez Sumerów, Babilończyków i Greków jako sygnał do rozpoczęcia określonych prac rolnych. +Bibliografia. +Ludwik Zajdler "Dzieje Zegara" Warszawa 1977 wydanie 2 rozszerzone +Dziedziczenie (biologia) + +Dziedziczenie - sposób przekazywania genów potomstwu. Dziedziczenie następuje w momencie łączenia się rodzicielskich gamet i powstawania zygoty u organizmów rozmnażających się płciowo oraz w czasie podziału rodzicielskiej komórki lub fragmentu ciała (np. plechy), którego następstwem jest powstanie nowego osobnika u organizmów rozmnażających się bezpłciowo. +Pierwszą próbę analizy logicznej dziedziczenia podjął w XIX. wieku Grzegorz Mendel, formułując tzw. prawa Mendla na podstawie badań nad grochem jadalnym. Badania T. Morgana pozwoliły zmodyfikować i poszerzyć wnioski Mendla stanowiąc podstawę chromosomowo-genowej teorii dziedziczności. Mechanizmy dziedziczenia opisuje genetyka. Dziedziczy się na całe życie takie cechy jak: wzrost, przemiana metaboliczna decydująca o BMI, kształt ciała, kolor włosów, kolor oczu, kształt żuchwy itp. +Led Zeppelin III + +Led Zeppelin III – trzeci album brytyjskiej grupy rockowej Led Zeppelin, wydany w 1970 roku. +Sprzedaż przedpłacona + +Prepaid (ang. "pre" - przed, "paid" - opłacony), sprzedaż przedpłacona, sprzedaż określonych towarów lub usług na zasadach przedpłaty. +Określenie "prepaid" jest najczęściej używane jako nazwa jednej z ofert sieci telefonii komórkowej, polegającej na zakupieniu przez klienta określonej liczby jednostek taryfikacyjnych. Opłata jest wnoszona z góry, natomiast wykorzystanie nabytych jednostek jest możliwe przez czas określony przez operatora. W zależności od wysokości wniesionej opłaty, czas ten waha się od dwóch do trzystu sześćdziesięciu pięciu dni. Po tym okresie konieczne jest ponowne uzupełnienie konta. Jednostki są odejmowane z konta użytkownika proporcjonalnie do wykonanych połączeń i wykorzystanych usług dodatkowych. Doładowanie konta i odnowienie limitu jednostek następuje po zakupie specjalnego kuponu. Cechą charakterystyczną oferty "prepaid" jest brak konieczności zawarcia pisemnej umowy z operatorem (umowa jest zawierana przez dokonanie czynności faktycznych). +Możliwe jest doładowywanie kont telefonów komórkowych pre-paid przez Internet za pośrednictwem wielu serwisów, a także w bankomatach, z pominięciem tradycyjnych kart-zdrapek. Wyspecjalizowane firmy dostarczają też aplikacje umożliwiające tańsze doładowanie konta przy użyciu drugiego telefonu komórkowego. +W Polsce również w systemie prepaid działa jedna platforma satelitarna n na kartę, oferująca dostęp do podstawowych kanałów za niewielką opłatą. +Seagate Technology + +Seagate Technology () – firma produkująca nośniki danych, głównie dyski twarde, założona w 1979 r. w Kalifornii przez Alana Shugarta i Finisa Connera. Spółka notowana na NYSE. +Pierwszym produktem firmy Seagate (rok 1981) był dysk ST-506 o pojemności 5 megabajtów. Jego następca, ST-412, miał pojemność 10 megabajtów, lecz był wielokrotnie droższy. Dzisiaj popularną serią dysków tej firmy, jest seria Barracuda występujący w wersjach o pojemności do 3 terabajtów (2012). +Obecnie (2008) firma udziela na swoje produkty pięcioletniej gwarancji, po rejestracji produktu na stronie producenta. +W trzecim kwartale roku fiskalnego 2009 Seagate sprzedał około 39 milionów dysków i osiągnął przychód około 2,10 mld dolarów. W czwartym kwartale fiskalnego 2009 Seagate sprzedał około 40,6 milionów dysków i osiągnął przychód około 2,35 mld dolarów. +Prowincja Guipúzcoa + +Gipuzkoa (hiszp. "Guipúzcoa", bask. "Gipuzkoa") – prowincja w północnej Hiszpanii, współtworząca wspólnotę autonomiczną Kraju Basków, ze stolicą w Donostii-San Sebastián. Gipuzkoa jest najmniejszą prowincją Hiszpanii; zajmuje obszar 1980 km². +Bernhard (książę holenderski) + +Książę Bernhard (ur. 29 czerwca 1911 w Jenie, zm. 1 grudnia 2004 w Utrechcie) – niemiecki arystokrata, mąż królowej Holandii Juliany. Ojciec królowej Beatrycze. +Młodość. +Urodził się jako Bernhard Leopold Friedrich Eberhard Julius Curt Karl Gottfried Peter zu Lippe-Biesterfeld, syn księcia Bernharda zur Lippe (młodszego brata panującego ówcześnie księcia Lippe w północnej Nadrenii-Westfalii) i baronessy Armgard von Sierstorpff-Cramm. Małżeństwo rodziców nie spełniało wymogów dworu panującego Lippe, w związku z czym nowo narodzony członek rodu otrzymał jedynie tytuł hrabiowski. Wkrótce jednak (jeszcze w 1911) panujący książę Lippe Leopold IV nadał mu tytuł księcia zur Lippe-Biesterfield. +W wyniku I wojny światowej ród utracił panowanie w księstwie. Książę Bernhard spędził młode lata w pruskiej Prowincji Poznańskiej, później Marchii Granicznej Poznańsko-Zachodniopruskiej, w dobrach rodzinnych Reckenwalde w Nowej Marchii, obecnie Wojnowo koło Sulechowa ("Züllichau") w Polsce. Tam też zdobył podstawowe wykształcenie; gimnazjum ukończył w Berlinie w 1929 r. Studiował prawo na uniwersytetach w Lozannie (Szwajcaria) i Berlinie. Prowadził rozrywkowy tryb życia, był znany jako miłośnik szybkich samochodów, jazdy konnej i wypraw myśliwskich safari. +W okresie dochodzenia do władzy Hitlera odbywał służbę wojskową jako pilot i podjął później pracę w przedsiębiorstwie chemicznym IG Farben. Jego młodszy brat Aschwin publicznie poparł politykę Hitlera i NSDAP. On sam – co ujawniono w 1941 i potwierdzają to odtajnione w 2010 roku dokumenty – był członkiem SS. W połowie lat 30. książę Bernhard – protestant, pochodzący z rodu książęcego – został zaakceptowany przez królową Holandii Wilhelminę jako kandydat na męża jej córki Juliany, następczyni tronu. Wybór ten wzbudził w Holandii kontrowersje, przyszły mąż Juliany uchodził za zwolennika polityki niemieckiej, która groziła wybuchem wojny na skalę europejską. W czasie spotkania z Bernhardem Hitler wskazywał na szanse sojuszu niemiecko-holenderskiego, którego osoba księcia miała być gwarantem. +Małżeństwo i działalność powojenna. +Małżeństwo Bernarda i Juliany zostało zawarte 7 stycznia 1937 w Hadze. Po ślubie młoda para udała się w podróż poślubną do Polski, przebywając m. in. w Krakowie, Krynicy i w Nawojowej. Po wybuchu wojny swoimi działaniami ks. Bernard zyskał uznanie Holendrów. Wspomagał rodzinę królewską w wyjeździe do Anglii po napadzie niemieckim, wysłał następnie żonę z dziećmi do Kanady. Sam pozostał w Anglii, gdzie służył jako pilot (nie zaakceptowano jego oferty pracy w wywiadzie), wspierał holenderski ruch oporu w kraju oraz był osobistym sekretarzem królowej Wilhelminy. W 1944 został naczelnym dowódcą wojsk holenderskich, rok później wraz z rodziną powrócił do Holandii. Uczestniczył w rozmowach kapitulacyjnych w maju 1945. +Po wojnie pozostał w służbie wojskowej, pełniąc m.in. funkcję szefa połączonych sztabów. Pracował także w wielu organizacjach międzynarodowych i miał opinię gospodarczego ambasadora Holandii. W 1948 po abdykacji matki na tron holenderski wstąpiła jego żona Juliana. +Był inicjatorem tzw. Grupy Bilderberg, forum debat liderów intelektualnych i gospodarczych Europy Zachodniej; na spotkaniach Grupy padła m.in. inicjatywa powołania Unii Europejskiej. W 1961 książę Bernhard współtworzył znaną fundację ochrony środowiska "World Wildlife Fund". +Odegrał znaczącą rolę w uznaniu zasług 1.SBS i gen. Stanisława Sosabowskiego dla wyzwalania Holandii. Wbrew naciskom brytyjskim i stanowisku holenderskiego ministerstwa obrony, wspierał inicjatywę mieszkańców gmin o które walczyli Polacy i wolę królowej w sprawie odznaczenia Polaków holenderskimi orderami. +Skandale. +Był bohaterem kilku skandali gospodarczych i obyczajowych, przede wszystkim afery Lockheed; w 1976 ujawniono, że miał przyjąć od amerykańskiej korporacji lotniczej milion dolarów łapówki w zamian za wspieranie działalności firmy w Holandii. Afera Lockheed zatoczyła szerokie kręgi i sięgała m.in. nieuczciwej współpracy z rządem argentyńskim Juana Perona. Inny zarzut wobec księcia i jego działalności wysunął Nelson Mandela; domagał się on wyjaśnienia roli funduszu "World Wildlife Fund" w RPA, zarzucając współfinansowanie reżimu apartheidu. +Do skandali politycznych i gospodarczych należy dodać obyczajowe. Książę Bernhard był ojcem dwóch nieślubnych córek, jednej w Paryżu, drugiej w USA. +Książę Bernhard zmarł po długiej chorobie nowotworowej 1 grudnia 2004, pół roku po śmierci żony. +Teneryfa + +Teneryfa (hiszp. "Tenerife") – należąca do Hiszpanii wyspa na Oceanie Atlantyckim, u północno-zachodnich wybrzeży Afryki, zaliczana do Makaronezji. Jest największą i najludniejszą wyspą w archipelagu Wysp Kanaryjskich i najludniejszą wyspą hiszpańską. Teneryfa, choć geograficznie leży w północnej Afryce, jest integralną częścią Hiszpanii i Unii Europejskiej. Obowiązującą na wyspie walutą jest Euro, a językiem urzędowym język hiszpański. Z mieszkańcami można się też porozumiewać w językach angielskim i niemieckim, w tych językach są też niektóre tablice informacyjne. +Santa Cruz de Tenerife jest największym miastem na wyspie i zarazem jej stolicą oraz prowincji Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Jest też, wspólnie z Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, stolicą autonomii Wysp Kanaryjskich. +Teneryfa oraz sąsiednia wyspa Gran Canaria jest często nazywana "kontynentem w miniaturze" ze względu na kilka typów krajobrazu i kilka stref klimatycznych na nich występujących. Na Teneryfie znajdują się dwa obiekty wpisane na Listę Światowego Dziedzictwa Kulturowego i Przyrodniczego UNESCO: wulkan Teide, który jest parkiem narodowym, oraz zabytkowe miasto La Laguna. +Geografia. +Dane ogólne. +Teneryfa ma 2034 km² powierzchni, około 80 km długości i 50 km szerokości. +Ponadto administracyjnie Teneryfa obejmuje również około 200 małych wysp będącymi nieużytkami. Najczęściej są to duże skały wystające z wody. Łączna ich powierzchnia wynosi 213 835 m². Zalicza się do nich m.in. "Roques de Anaga" czy "Roque de Garachico". +Geologia. +Teneryfa jest wyspą pochodzenia wulkanicznego, której powstanie odbywało się w kilku etapach. Pierwszy szacuje się na około 30 mln lat temu w oligocenie, kiedy to z dna Atlantyku rozpoczęła wydobywać się lawa tworząc wzniesienia, na których powstały Wyspy Kanaryjskie. Kolejny okres rozpoczął się ok. 7 mln lat temu w miocenie. Ponad powierzchnię wody wystawały wówczas masywy Adeje, Anaga i Teno. Na kolejnych etapach rozwoju wyspy głównym elementem kształtującym teren była erozja oraz budowanie się centralnej części Teneryfy poprzez liczne erupcje. W ten sposób powstał najwyższy szczyt całej Hiszpanii Pico del Teide (3718 m n.p.m.). +Położenie. +Teneryfa znajduje się pomiędzy 28° i 29° N i 16° i 17° W. Znajduje się na północ od Zwrotnika Raka, zajmując centralne miejsce między innymi wyspami archipelagu: Gran Canaria na wschodzie oraz La Gomera i La Palma na zachodzie. Wyspa znajduje się około 300 km od kontynentu afrykańskiego (państw: Maroka i Sahary Zachodniej) oraz około 1000 km od Półwyspu Iberyjskiego (państw: Hiszpanii i Portugalii kontynentalnej). +Klimat. +Na kształtowanie się klimatu mają istotny wpływ dwa prądy morskie: Golfstrom (cieplejszy) i Kanaryjski (chłodniejszy). Powoduje to wahania temperatury oceanu od 18 do 20 °C. Mimo niewielkiej powierzchni wyspa ma zróżnicowany klimat. Spowodowane jest to przedzieleniem jej przez wysokie pasmo górskie. Północno-wschodnia część wyspy ma klimat wilgotny, z częstymi mgłami i opadami. Temperatury wahają się w granicach 6 °C pomiędzy najzimniejszym i najcieplejszym miesiącem i oscylują wokół 20 °C. Część południowo-zachodnia ma klimat suchy. Wahania temperatury są mniejsze, a średnioroczna temperatura waha się wokół 25 °C. Informacje te dotyczą wybrzeża wyspy. Wraz ze wzrostem wysokości średnie temperatury spadają, a ilość opadów wzrasta. Pomimo niewielkiej odległości pomiędzy położonymi w górach miejscowościami a wybrzeżem występują duże różnice temperatur (nawet ponad 10 °C) oraz w opadach. W okresie zimowym krater El Pico del Teide często pokryty jest śniegiem. Warunki klimatyczne maja wpływ na szatę roślinną. Północno-wschodnia część wyspy jest zielona i ma dobre warunki dla rolnictwa, część południowo-zachodnia jest uboga w szatę roślinną. W wyższych partiach wyspy rośnie sosna kanaryjska o długich, miękkich igłach, posiadająca zdolność absorbowania wody z mgły. Na stokach wulkanu El Pico del Teide utworzono park narodowy Parque Nacional de las Cañadas del Teide. +Masywy górskie. +Teide. +Teide – masyw wulkaniczny o wysokości 3718 m n.p.m. i wysokości od dna morza 7500 metrów. Jest najwyższym szczytem w Hiszpanii, najwyższym punktem Oceanu Atlantyckiego oraz 13 najwyższym szczytem Unii Europejskiej (jest najwyższym szczytem nie leżącym w Alpach). Ostatnia erupcja wulkanu ("Chinyero") miała miejsce w 1909 roku. +Stożek wulkanu wraz z kraterem o średnicy do 15 km i obwodzie około 40 km i otaczającą go równiną stanowi od 1954 "Park Narodowy Teide" (hiszp. "Parque Nacional del Teide"). Park zajmuje 18 900 ha powierzchni. Czyni go piątym co do wielkości parkiem narodowym w Hiszpanii. Występują tu endemiczne gatunki roślin i zwierząt. +Na wysokości około 2000 m n.p.m. rozłożone są równiny "Cañadas". Teren ten ukształtowany jest przez działalność wulkanu – pokrywają go bazaltowe, pumeksowe i obsydianowe formacje skalne, a przez całą długość zbocza wulkanicznego stożka ciągną się zastygłe strumienie lawy. +Na wysokości 2356 m n.p.m. ma swój początek kolej linowa "Teleférico del Teide" ze stacją końcową na wysokości 3555 m n.p.m. Na wysokości 2400 m n.p.m. znajduje się obserwatorium astrofizyczne "Teide". Na terenie parku znajduje się też schronisko oraz hotel. Na tym obszarze znajdują się także inne szczyty, m.in. "Pico Viejo" ("Montaña Chahorra") o wysokości 3134 m n.p.m., "Montaña Blanca" o wysokości 2750 m n.p.m., "Alto de Guajara" o wysokości 2718 m n.p.m., "Roque de la Grieta" o wysokości 2576 m n.p.m. czy "Chinyero" o wysokości 1561 m n.p.m. +Teno. +Masyw Teno (hiszp. "Macizo de Teno") położony jest w północno-zachodniej części wyspy między gminami Santiago del Teide, Los Silos, El Tanque i Buenavista del Norte. Najwyższym szczytem jest "Montaña de Gala" mający 1342 m n.p.m. Podobnie jak w przypadku masywu Anaga, jest to obszar głębokich wąwozów i skał, które powstały w znacznym stopniu pod wpływem erozji. Powstał od 5 do 7 milionów lat temu. Charakterystyczną częścią masywu są klify Los Gigantes, z pionowymi ścianami, które mogą osiągnąć w niektórych miejscach do 500 metrów wysokości. W górskich wioskach: Masca, Teno Alto, Carrizales, El Palmar, Las Portelas nadal praktykowane są stare tradycje rolnicze z Wysp Kanaryjskich. Istnieje tutaj park wiejski "Teno" o powierzchni 8063 hektarów. Masyw ten charakteryzuje się dużą różnorodnością flory i fauny. Jest to również ważny obszar zasobów morskich i jedno z najlepszych miejsc do nurkowania w archipelagu. Są tu też archeologiczne pozostałości osadnictwa Guanczów wskazujące, że obszar Wysp Kanaryjskich był zamieszkany od czasów antycznych. Pierwsze osadnictwo miało miejsce około 3000 lat p.n.e. +Anaga. +Masyw Anaga (hiszp. "Macizo de Anaga") znajduje się w północno-wschodniej części wyspy. Ma nieregularny i poszarpany profil topograficzny. Najwyższym szczytem jest "Cruz de Taborno" o wysokości 1024 m n.p.m. Na wybrzeżu Anaga zdominowany jest przez skały, w tym regionie znajduje się mała ilość plaż. U podnóża masywu leży stolica – Santa Cruz de Tenerife oraz sąsiadująca z nim La Laguna. Historia powstania masywu sięga od 7 do 9 milionów lat, jest jedną z najstarszych części wyspy. +Adeje. +Masyw Adeje (hiszp. "Macizo de Adeje") znajduje się w południowej części wyspy. Najwyższym szczytem jest "Roque del Conde" o wysokości 1001 m n.p.m. Z powodu intensywnej erozji i procesów geologicznych, które następowały przez tysiące lat masyw Adeje stracił swój pierwotny wygląd i rozmiary. +Hydrografia. +Teneryfa składa się z gleby wulkanicznej, o porowatej i przepuszczalnej powierzchni, dzięki czemu jest w stanie maksymalnie wchłaniać wodę. Woda łatwo wnika do podłoża zarówno po opadach deszczu, po topnieniu czapy lodowej na najwyższych szczytach, jak i po absorpcji wody z mgły w leśnych partiach wyspy (sosna kanaryjska). +Ze względu na różnorodność i nietypowość opadów oraz warunki geologiczne na wyspie, nie stosuje się zwykłych popularnych metod magazynowania i wydobywania wody, takie jak budowa zapór czy zbiorników wodnych. Większość wody (ok. 90%) pochodzi ze studzienek oraz galerii perforowanych (hiszp. "galería filtrante") służących do pozyskiwania hydrologicznych zasobów z ziemi. +Flora i fauna. +Teneryfa pomimo niewielkiej powierzchni ma zróżnicowana faunę i florę. Wynika to z panujących tu różnych mikroklimatów. Flora na wyspie liczy około 1400 gatunków, w tym 200 gatunków endemicznych Wysp Kanaryjskich, z czego 140 występuje tylko i wyłącznie na Teneryfie. Fauna obejmuje około 400 gatunków ryb, 56 gatunków ptaków, 5 gatunków gadów, 2 gatunki płazów, 13 gatunków ssaków lądowych i kilka tysięcy gatunków bezkręgowców. +W wodach przybrzeżnych żyje około 400 gatunków ryb oraz kilka gatunków żółwi morskich, wielorybów i delfinów. W parku naturalnym dziko żyją sprowadzone z innych krajów zwierzęta, m.in. papugi czy goryle. +Ochrona przyrody. +Prawie połowa wyspy (48,6%) jest objęta ochroną zarządzaną przez "Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos". Spośród 146 chronionych obszarów Wysp Kanaryjskich 43 znajdują się na Teneryfie. Znajduje się tu osiem typów obszarów chronionych. Oprócz parku narodowego Teide, znajduje się park naturalny "Parque Natural de la Corona Forestal", dwa parki wiejskie: ("Parque rural de Anaga" i "Parque rural de Teno"), cztery rezerwaty ("El Pijaral", "Ijuana", "Roques de Anaga", "La Resbala"), sześć specjalnych rezerwatów (m.in. "Malpaís de Güímar", "Barranco del Infierno", "Chinyero"), czternaście pomników przyrody, dziewięć obszarów chronionego krajobrazu i sześć miejsc naukowego zainteresowania. +Ekologia. +Na wyspie największe zanieczyszczenia emituje rafineria, dwie elektrociepłownie oraz ruch drogowy. Wyspy Kanaryjskie mają niski poziom zanieczyszczenia powietrza z powodu niewielkiego uprzemysłowienia oraz dzięki wiejącym pasatom. Według danych hiszpańskiego "Ministerstwa Zdrowia i Przemysłu", Teneryfa jest jednym z najczystszych miejsc w kraju. Na Teneryfie (jak i na La Palma) zanieczyszczenia są stale monitorowane, aby nie przeszkadzać pracy obserwatoriów astrofizycznych położonych na szczytach. +Plaże wyspy zostały sklasyfikowane przez "Ministerstwo Zdrowia i Konsumpcji" jako wody nadające się do kąpieli. +Historia. +Legenda głosi, że Teneryfa jest pozostałością zaginionej Atlantydy. Nie potwierdzone hipotezy datują pierwsze osadnictwo na XII wiek p.n.e. Badania archeologiczne i analizy wykonane metodą datowania radiowęglowego wskazują, że ludzie pojawili się na Teneryfie około 200 roku p.n.e. Do 1402 roku, czyli do przybycia na wyspy Hiszpanów, była ona zamieszkana przez Guanczów (nazwa nadana przez Hiszpanów). Według przekazów mieli oni jasną cerę i włosy oraz niebieskie oczy. W świetle ostatnich badań byli ludem pochodzenia berberyjskiego a poprzedni hipotezy o pochodzeniu celtyckim lub, że byli potomkami Wikingów nie zostały potwierdzone. Guanczowie podzielili wyspę na 10 okręgów administracyjnych – królestw. 12 grudnia 1495 w bitwie pod Acentejo Guanczowie zostali pokonani przez hiszpańskich konkwistadorów i ulegli eksterminacji lub zostali wywiezieni do Europy jako niewolnicy. Resztki rdzennej ludności szybko się zasymilowały i przeszły na katolicyzm, a ich język poszedł w zapomnienie. Hiszpanie zakładają miasto La Laguna, które było pierwszą stolicą wyspy (do roku 1723). Lokalizacja w głębi wyspy podyktowana była względami bezpieczeństwa, gdyż wybrzeża nękane były przez angielskich piratów. Duża ilość opadów na tym obszarze zapewniała zaopatrzenie w słodką wodę. +25 lipca 1797 Teneryfa została zaatakowana przez flotę brytyjską. Celem ataku było Santa Cruz de Tenerife, siedziba władz hiszpańskich. Atakiem dowodził Horatio Nelson, który w walce stracił prawe ramię. +Początkowo wyspa wraz z całym archipelagiem przeżywała okres prosperity, znajdowały się na niej porty tranzytowe dla żeglugi do obu Ameryk. Stopniowo jednak wyspa traciła na znaczeniu, a podstawowe produkty: cukier trzcinowy oraz karmin zostały wyparte z rynku przez tańszą konkurencję. W 1821 wyspa została włączona do Hiszpanii jako prowincja ze stolicą w Santa Cruz de Tenerife. W 1936 Teneryfa została opanowana przez wojska generała Franco. Pod jego rządami wyspa popadła w kłopoty gospodarcze. W latach 50. sytuacja była tak dramatyczna, że wielu mieszkańców emigrowało do Wenezueli. Na początku lat 60. wyspa została przekształcona w strefę turystyczną, początkowo dla turystów brytyjskich. W tym okresie na Teneryfę i sąsiednią Gran Canarię pływał z Polski MS Batory z tzw. „wycieczkami orbisowskimi”. +Gospodarka. +Informacje ogólne. +Gospodarka Teneryfy oparta jest usługach, które mają 78,08% udział w całej zdolności produkcyjnej wyspy. Znaczenie pozostałych sektorów gospodarki jest kluczowe dla dalszego rozwoju wyspy. Największym motorem gospodarki Teneryfy jest turystyka, następnie handel oraz lokalny przemysł. +Turystyka. +Teneryfa jest jednym z głównych ośrodków turystycznych świata. Wytwarza około 60% PKB Teneryfy. W 2005 na Wyspy Kanaryjskie przybyło 9 276 963 turystów, z czego około 1/3 (3 442 787) przybyło na Teneryfę (nie licząc turystów z innych części Hiszpanii, co stanowi dodatkowo około 30%). Według sprawozdania Kanaryjskiego Centrum Statystycznego (ISTAC) najwięcej turystów pochodziło z Wielkiej Brytanii – 1 600 000. Na drugim miejscu są turyści z Niemiec, później Belgii, Holandii, Szwecji, Finlandii, Danii, Norwegii, Włoch, Francji, Austrii, Irlandii i Szwajcarii. Teneryfa należy do tych nielicznych ośrodków turystycznych świata, w których sezon trwa cały rok. +Turystyka jest najbardziej rozpowszechniona w południowej części wyspy, w której jest wiele turystycznych miejscowości oraz dobrze rozwinięta infrastruktura turystyczna. +Obszar znany jako "Costa Adeje" (Las Americas, Los Cristianos) ma największy potencjał turystyczny (hotele, centra handlowe, pola golfowe, restauracje, parki wodne i zwierzęce, obiekty kulturalne oraz piaszczyste plaże). +Znane jest także miasto Candelaria, jest to miejsce popularnych pielgrzymek do Sanktuarium Matki Boskiej z Candelaria, patronki Wysp Kanaryjskich. +Rolnictwo i rybołówstwo. +Udział rolnictwa w PKB Teneryfy wynosi mniej niż 10%, choć jego udział jest niezbędny dla wyspy, gdyż utrzymuje obszary wiejskie, jak i wartości kulturowe. W północnej części wyspy uprawiane są m.in. pomidory i banany, w środkowej części (z częstymi opadami deszczu): ziemniaki, zboża i tytoń, w południowej – m.in. cebula. +Większość bananów na Wyspach Kanaryjskich pochodzi z Teneryfy. Roczna produkcja wynosi około 150 000 ton. Plantacje bananów obejmują 4200 hektarów. Nieco ponad 90% uprawy przeznaczonych jest na rynek międzynarodowy. +Po uprawie bananów duże znaczenia mają uprawy pomidorów, winogron, ziemniaków oraz kwiatów. +Rybołówstwo jest ważną gałęzią gospodarki Teneryfy. Są tutaj drugie co do wielkości łowiska ryb w Hiszpanii. +Handel i przemysł. +Handel stanowi prawie 20% PKB z czego większość wytwarzane jest w stolicy Santa Cruz. Przemysł generuje 10% PKB. Do największych zakładów należy rafineria, która dostarczająca produkty ropopochodne dla archipelagu Wysp Kanaryjskich oraz Hiszpanii, Afryki i Ameryki. Teneryfa i Gran Canaria gromadzi ponad 80% obiektów przemysłowych i 90% pracowników zatrudnionych w tym sektorze gospodarki Wysp Kanaryjskich. +Przemysł energetyczny. +Sektor energetyczny generuje 2,85% PKB. Energia elektryczna produkowana jest tylko na rynek wewnętrzny. Mimo że dzięki rozwojowi turystyki ogromnie wzrosło zapotrzebowanie na energię wciąż produkcja prądu jest na niewielką skalę, gdyż jest tu niewielka ilość zakładów przemysłowych. +Większość energii elektrycznej pochodzi z dwóch elektrowni cieplnych zużywających olej napędowy. Jedna znajduje się w gminie Granadilla de Abona, druga w gminie Candelaria. Produkcja energii z wody jest znikoma. Rozwija się produkcja energii elektrycznej z elektrowni wiatrowych, lecz nadal jest to znacznie poniżej możliwości wyspy. +Demografia. +Wyspa Teneryfa jest najgęściej zaludnioną wyspą archipelagu, 1 stycznia 2008 mieszkało tu 886033 mieszkańców, z czego około 25% (221 956 osób) mieszkało w stolicy Santa Cruz de Tenerife i około 50% (424 200 osób) w jej obszarze miejskim, natomiast 581 947 w obszarze metropolitalnym (13 największy obszar metropolitalny w Hiszpanii). +Drugim co do wielkości miastem jest La Laguna – 148 375, miasto graniczące z Santa Cruz. Inne większe miasta to Arona (75 903), Adeje (41 002), La Orotava (40 945), Granadilla de Abona (38 866), Los Realejos (37 385) i Puerto de la Cruz (31 804). +Teneryfa w ostatnich latach notowała znaczny wzrost liczby ludności – znacznie powyżej średniej państwa. W roku 1990 mieszkało tu 663 306 osób natomiast w 2000 roku 709 365 – wzrost liczby ludności – 46 059 osób. W latach 2000-2007 również zanotowano dużą stopę wzrostu ludności – 155 705 osób w 2000 roku, aby zamknąć się liczbą 865070 mieszkańców w 2007. Łącznie od 1990 roku do 2008 liczba mieszkańców wyspy wzrosła o 222 727 osób. +Transport. +Transport drogowy. +Do najważniejszych dróg na Teneryfie zalicza się dwie autostrady biegnące obrzeżami wyspy: TF-5 ("Autopista del Norte") o długości około 40 km łącząca Santa Cruz z gminą Los Realejos znajdującą się w zachodniej części wyspy oraz TF-1 ("Autopista del Sur") o długości około 81 km łącząca Santa Cruz z południem wyspy. Te dwie drogi są połączone autostradą TF-2 ("Autovía de Interconexión Norte-Sur"). +Oprócz autostrad, istnieje tu sieć gminnych dróg. W górach spotykane są serpentyny. Zarządzaniem dróg zajmuje się Cabildo de Tenerife. Pod jego opieką znajduje się obecnie 128 dróg. +Transport lotniczy. +Samoloty są głównym środkiem transportu umożliwiającym dostanie się na Wyspy Kanaryjskie, w tym na Teneryfę. Istnieją tu dwa międzynarodowe lotniska: powstały w 1929 roku – port lotniczy Teneryfa-Północ (hiszp. "Aeropuerto de Tenerife Norte"), który w 2007 roku obsłużył 4 125 034 pasażerów oraz powstały w 1978 roku port lotniczy Teneryfa-Południe (hiszp. "Aeropuerto de Tenerife Sur"), który w 2007 roku obsłużył 8 639 341 pasażerów (łącznie od powstania lotniska obsłużył 173 912 207 pasażerów). Port Teneryfa-Północ leży w obszarze metropolitalnym Santa Cruz niedaleko autostrady TF-5, natomiast Teneryfa-Południe około 60 kilometrów na południe od stolicy, na samym południu wyspy niedaleko autostrady TF-1. +Transport wodny. +Na Teneryfie znajdują się dwa porty morskie: Port Santa Cruz (hiszp. "Puerto de Santa Cruz") oraz Port Los Cristianos (hiszp. "Puerto de Los Cristianos"). Port Santa Cruz jest największym portem Wysp Kanaryjskich. +Istnieją plany budowy trzeciego portu w południowej części wyspy, w gminie Granadilla de Abona. +Transport autobusowy. +Teneryfa posiada rozbudowaną sieć klimatyzowanych autobusów, które na Wyspach Kanaryjskich nazywane są "guaguas". System obejmuje zarówno autobusy miejskie, jak i międzymiastowe łącząc większość populacji wyspy. Największy przystanek znajduje się w centrum przesiadkowym Intercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Autobusy są zarządzane przez TITSA ("Transportes interurbanos de Tenerife"). +Transport tramwajowy. +Tramwaje na Teneryfie kursują na obszarze miasta Santa Cruz de Tenerife i sąsiadującego z nim La Laguna. Infrastruktura obejmuje 21 przystanków i ma zasięg 12,5 km. Dziennie obsługuje 46000 mieszkańców. Podróż na całej linii nr 1 trwa 37 minut. Każdy z 20 tramwajów "Alstom Citadis" ma pojemność 200 pasażerów w tym 60 miejsc siedzących i potrafi osiągnąć maksymalną prędkość 70 km/h. +Na trasie tramwaju znajdują się szpitale, uczelnie, jak i obiekty kulturalne. Tramwaje zarządzane są przez spółkę akcyjną "Metropolitano de Tenerife" (MTSA). Prąd dostarczany do infrastruktury pochodzi z elektrowni wiatrowych. Planowane jest utworzenie dodatkowych 4 przystanków linii nr 1 oraz uruchomienie linii nr 2. +Transport kolejowy. +Na Teneryfie nie ma linii kolejowej. Firma będąca właścicielem tramwajów w latach 2007-2008 rozpoczęła prace nad budową linii kolejowej, która połączy Santa Cruz z południową częścią wyspy. Rada Teneryfy zatwierdziła budowę. Łączna trasa ma wynosić około 80 km a czas podróży całą trasą do 35 minut, natomiast z zatrzymaniem się na każdej stacji – 45 minut. +Sport. +Piłka nożna. +W Federacji Piłkarskiej Teneryfy ("Tinerfeña Federación de Fútbol") jest zarejestrowanych 305 zespołów piłkarskich rywalizujących w różnych ligach i boiskach rozproszonych po całej wyspie. Głównym klubem piłkarskim wyspy jest CD Tenerife, grający obecnie w Segunda División. Stadionem klubowym jest Estadio Heliodoro Rodríguez López (Estadio de Tenerife) mający około 24 000 miejsc dla widzów. +Siatkówka. +Głównym klubem siatkarskim Teneryfy jest Spar Teneryfa Marichal ("Club Voleibol Tenerife"), wielokrotny Mistrz Hiszpanii, zdobywca Superpucharu Ligi, Pucharu Królowej oraz medali w europejskich rozgrywkach. Występuje w ekstralidze hiszpańskiej i gra w hali Pabellón Insular Santiago Martín o pojemności 5100. Innymi ważniejszymi klubami są kobiece kluby: "Club Voleibol Aguere" i "La Caja de Canarias" występujące w rozgrywkach ekstraligi oraz męski "Arona Playa de las Americas" również grający w ekstralidze. Siatkówka cieszy się na Teneryfie coraz większym zaiteresowaniem. +Surfing, windsurfing, kitesurfing. +Na wyspie są praktykowany surfing i windsurfing, jak i rzadziej uprawiany kitesurfing. Znajduje się tu dziesięć szkół, w tym jedna która jest własnością miasta oraz kilka kursów do szybkiej nauki tych sportów. Głównymi miejscowościami gdzie uprawia się te sporty są: Médano, Playa de Las Americas, wybrzeża Santa Cruz de Tenerife, wybrzeża Guimarás i Orotava Valley i Playa del Socorro w Los Realejos. Niektóre te miejsca były gospodarzami Pucharu Świata ("Grand Slam") w tych dyscyplinach. +Pływanie, nurkowanie. +Podobnie jak w przypadku surfingu i windsurfingu wzdłuż wybrzeża można znaleźć szkoły pływania i nurkowania. Pływanie oraz piłka wodna są uprawiane zarówno w wodach przybrzeżnych jaki i sztucznych basenach. Na Teneryfie istnieje szesnaście klubów pływackich. Na wyspie znajduje się ponad trzydzieści punktów nurkowania, gdzie można odkrywać morską florę i faunę, jak również zatopione statki. Wśród najlepszych miejsc do nurkowania są m.in. Las Galletas, Playa Paraiso i Punta de la Rasca, Garachico, Puerto de la Cruz, Punta de Teno. +Sztuki walki. +Na Teneryfie są uprawiane dyscypliny sztuk walki wywodzące się z Wysp Kanaryjskich. Palo canario jest sztuką walki kijem. Praktykowana jeszcze przez potomków rdzennych mieszkańców wysp – Guanczów. W związku z rozwojem turystyki walki stały się ważnym elementem folkloru wysp. "Lucha canaria" to odmiana wrestlingu. Na Teneryfie istnieją 24 szkółki tego sportu. +Pozostałe sporty. +Na wyspie jest dobra infrastruktura do gry w golfa. Znajdują się tu również szkółki do nauki tego sportu. Golf generuje znaczne dochody Teneryfy. Istnieje łącznie dziewięć pól golfowych na wyspie: Real Club de Golf de Tenerife, Abama Golf, Golf Las Americas, Costa Adeje Golf, Golf del Sur, Amarilla Golf & Country Club Centro de Golf Los Palos, Buenavista Golf i Golf La Rosaleda. +Na wyspie oprócz obiektów do gry i nauki piłki nożnej czy siatkówki są także do koszykówki. Istnieje tu kilka klubów koszykówki. Do najważniejszych należy "Tenerife Rural" i "CB Canarias" występujące w drugiej lidze hiszpańskiej. +Spadochroniarstwo i paralotniarstwo odgrywa ważną rolę na wyspie. Rozgrywany jest tutaj Międzynarodowy Festiwal Paralotniarstwa (Festival Internacional de Parapente). +Istnieje tu również infrastruktura do sportów motorowych: motocross, karting i rajdów samochodowych. Przez cały rok rozgrywane są konkursy według różnych podziałów w ramach jazd amatorskich, jak i regionalnych mistrzostw Wysp Kanaryjskich. +Innymi sportami popularnymi na Teneryfie są: jazda na rowerze, wiosłowanie, tenis, squash, jazda konna, judo, karate, lekkoatletyka oraz turystyka. +Edukacja. +Początki systemu edukacji na Teneryfie sięgają XVI wieku. W 1530 roku w zakonie Dominikanów zaczęto studiować filozofię. Rozwój edukacji nastąpił w XVIII i XIX wieku. Dzięki pracy "Económica Real Sociedad de Amigos del País" powstawały nowe instytucje oraz szkoły. Jednym z nich był instytut szkolnictwa średniego utworzony w 1846, który wypełnił lukę po zamknięciu Universidad de San Fernando. W 1850 roku powstała pierwsza elementarna szkoła na Wyspach Kanaryjskich która w 1866 roku została przemieniona w kolegium nauczycielskie. Punktem zwrotnym było powstanie II Republiki Hiszpańskiej ("Segunda República Española"). W latach 1929-1933 liczba szkół wzrosła prawie dwukrotnie. +Na Teneryfie jest obecnie 301 przedszkoli, 297 szkół podstawowych, 140 gimnazjów i 86 szkół średnich. Istnieje tu również pięć uniwersytetów: Uniwersytet La Laguna, "Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia", "Universidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo", "Universidad Alfonso X el Sabio" i "Universidad de Vic" oraz kilkanaście instytutów, w tym Kanaryjski Instytut Astrofizyczny ("Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias"), którego częścią jest obserwatorium astronomiczne na Teide. +Lecznictwo. +Na Teneryfie istnieje łącznie 39 ośrodków podstawowej opieki zdrowotnej oraz specjalistycznych klinik +Głównymi szpitalami na wyspie są: "Hospital Universitario de Canarias" i "Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria". Oba te szpitale są uniwersyteckie i podlegają Uniwersytecie La Laguna. Powstają dodatkowe szpitale specjalistyczne, jeden w gminie Arona. +Powiat piaseczyński + +Powiat piaseczyński- powiat w Polsce w województwie mazowieckim, z siedzibą w Piasecznie. Jeden z najbogatszych i najlepiej rozwijajacych się powiatów w Polsce. +W skład powiatu wchodzą 4 miasta: Góra Kalwaria, Konstancin-Jeziorna, Piaseczno i Tarczyn oraz 223 wsie. +Położenie. +Powiat piaseczyński leży w centralnej części województwa mazowieckiego. Od północy graniczy z Warszawą, od wschodu przez Wisłę z powiatem otwockim, od południa z powiatem grójeckim, a od zachodu z powiatem pruszkowskim. +Krajobraz. +Powiat piaseczyński leży w pasie nizin środkowopolskich, których ukształtowanie jest przede wszystkim dziełem lądolodu i jego wód poroztopowych. Położony jest na Równinie Warszawskiej stanowiącej wysoczyznę lodowcową. Teren ten jest niemal płaski i silnie rozmyty. Przeważającą część powiatu zajmuje płaska równina wysoczyzny dennej, przechodząca w części południowo-zachodniej w równię falistą o bardzo łagodnych i niskich skłonach (od 94 m n.p.m. w części północno-wschodniej w rejonie Skolimowa w gm. Konstancin-Jeziorna do 135 – 138 m n.p.m. w części południowo-zachodniej w rejonie Woli Mrokowskiej w gm. Lesznowola). Równina ta poprzecinana jest dolinami rzecznymi Jeziorki, Czarnej, Utraty oraz ich dopływów. Na wysoczyźnie lodowcowej występują liczne pola piasków wydmowych i wydmy oraz większe obszary piasków pochodzenia wodnego. Największe i najwyższe wydmy (10 – 15 m) występują we wsiach Magdalenka (gm. Lesznowola) i Czarnów (gm. Konstancin-Jeziorna) oraz między Aleksandrowem i Cendrowicami (gm. Góra Kalwaria). +Wschodnią część powiatu obejmuje dolina Wisły, która oddzielona jest od wysoczyzny wysoką (12,5 – 20 m), pięknie zarysowaną skarpą – krawędzią erozyjną. Wzdłuż współczesnego koryta Wisły wytworzył się fragmentarycznie najniższy taras zalewowy, w którym osadzają się piaski rzeczne. Głównym elementem tej doliny jest taras zalewowy wyższy, odgrodzony od koryta rzeki wałami. Wznosi się on około 2 m nad średni poziom Wisły, a jego wysokość bezwzględna wynosi 84,8 – 94,0 m n.p.m. Jest to równina płaska z podłużnymi, niewielkimi zagłębieniami, często wypełnionymi wodą, tzw. starorzeczami. Wzdłuż krawędzi erozyjnej fragmentarycznie (między Wólką Dworską i Brześcami w gm. Góra Kalwaria, a także Cieciszewem i Oborami oraz na terenie Jeziorny i Bielawy w gm. Konstancin-Jeziorna) występuje taras nadzalewowy o średniej wysokości 7,5 m od poziomu Wisły, zbudowany z piasków rzecznych oraz utworów pyłowych. +Ukształtowanie i budowa geologiczna terenu oraz niewielki przepływ cieków odwadniających powodują, że z obszaru zlewni odpływa rocznie około 20% wody z opadów atmosferycznych (w półroczu letnim 10 – 12%). Wywiera to zasadniczy wpływ na stosunki wilgotnościowe gleb i ich właściwości rolnicze. +Rzeźba terenu i budowa geologiczna decydują również o występowaniu wód gruntowych, których głębokość zalegania waha się od 2 m w osadach rzecznych oraz w obrębie obniżeń terenu do 4 – 8 m na obszarach występowania glin zwałowych i 20 m wzdłuż krawędzi erozyjnej. +Roślinność. +Na obszarze powiatu występują naturalne zespoły roślinne: łąkowe, torfowiskowe i leśne. Największe połacie łąk występują w dolinie Wisły. Torfowiska niskie występują przeważnie w dolinie rzeki Jeziorki oraz w okolicach Solca i Baniochy w gminie Góra Kalwaria. Na terenie powiatu przeważają bory i lasy mieszane. Największym zespołem leśnym są Lasy Chojnowskie. +Historia. +Najstarszą spośród miejscowości powiatu jest Czersk – dawna siedziba książąt mazowieckich. Uzyskał prawa miejskie ok. połowy XIV w., potwierdzone w 1386 r. (utracił je w 1869 r.) Tarczyn jest miastem od 1353 r., Piaseczno od 1429 r., a Góra Kalwaria od 1670 r. +Stolica ziemi, Czersk, była miejscem zjazdów sądowych tzw. roków. Tu odbywały się sejmiki szlachty. Sądy czerskie wraz z archiwum po III rozbiorze Polski w 1795 r. Prusacy przenieśli do Góry. Utworzono tu sąd pokoju powiatu czerskiego. Piaseczno i inne miejscowości położone w powiecie warszawskim należały do zakresu kompetencji Sądu Pokoju Okręgu i Miasta Warszawy. Sąd Pokoju w 1845 r. przeniesiono z Góry do Grójca. +Obszar obecnego Powiatu Piaseczyńskiego należał do 1526 r. do Księstwa Mazowieckiego, następnie został włączony do Królestwa Polskiego, województwa mazowieckiego. Do 1795 r. północna część znajdowała się w ziemi warszawskiej, południowa w czerskiej (granica przebiegała wzdłuż rzeki Jeziorki) i w powiatach (wówczas jednostkach podziału sądowego) czerskim, tarczyńskim i warszawskim. +Przed rozbiorami parafie południowego Mazowsza wchodziły w skład diecezji poznańskiej (archidiakonat mazowiecki), od 1798 r. do nowo utworzonej diecezji warszawskiej. Obecnie tereny powiatu podzielone są między dekanaty: czerski, konstanciński i piaseczyński w ramach archidiecezji warszawskiej. +W XVI-XVIII w. Czersk i Piaseczno z sąsiednimi wsiami stanowiły tzw. starostwa niegrodowe, należące do stołowych dóbr królewskich, oddawane w dzierżawę starostom. Wsie Jeziorna i Okrzeszyn znajdowały się w granicach starostwa warszawskiego. Miasto Góra w latach 1670-1795 było miastem kościelnym, należącym do biskupów poznańskich i nosiło nazwę Nowa Jerozolima. Pozostałe miejscowości były wsiami szlacheckimi. +W latach 1796-1814 Piaseczno znajdowało się w powiecie warszawskim, Czersk i Góra w powiecie czerskim z siedzibą w Grójcu. Od 1815 r. wszystkie miejscowości wchodziły w skład obwodu, od 1842 r. powiatu warszawskiego. Taki stan rzeczy trwał do 1867 r. W latach 1867-1879 Góra Kalwaria była miastem powiatowym (powiat górnokalwaryjski), następnie włączona została do powiatu grójeckiego. Pozostałe miejscowości znajdowały się w granicach powiatów grójeckiego, warszawskiego i błońskiego. +W XIX w.powstały zarządy dóbr państwowych (dawnych królewskich) – Ekonomie Narodowe w Lesznowoli i Potyczy. Czersk, Piaseczno i Góra stały się miastami rządowymi (narodowymi). +Po powstaniu styczniowym władze carskie pozbawiły praw miejskich Piaseczno w 1869 r., a Górę Kalwarię w 1883 r. Ponownie zostały podniesienie do rzędu miast przez okupacyjną administrację niemiecką w 1916 r. Na mocy ukazu carskiego z 1864 r. zniesiono pańszczyznę, a włościanie otrzymali ziemię na własność, dlatego obszar majątków ziemskich uległ okrojeniu. +Przez teren obecnego powiatu przebiegały od średniowiecza dwa szlaki komunikacyjne: z Warszawy przez Jeziornę do Czerska i tzw. trakt warecki z Warszawy przez Piaseczno do Warki z odgałęzieniem do Czerska. W drugiej dekadzie XIX w. przeprowadzono trakt rządowy puławski (od 1845 r. zwany nowoaleksandryjskim), którego częścią jest dzisiejsza ulica Puławska. Po uruchomieniu nowej trasy stary trakt warecki stracił na znaczeniu i stał się drogą lokalną. +Miasto Góra, od 1867 r. Góra Kalwaria, od początku Królestwa Kongresowego do końca 2001 r. było miastem garnizonowym. Stacjonowały tu różne formacje wojskowe, a w 2 dekadzie XX w. była siedzibą Centralnej Szkoły Straży Granicznej. +Przez wieki miejscowa ludność trudniła się głównie rzemiosłem, rolnictwem i handlem. Wzdłuż Jeziorki pracowały młyny wodne. W 1760 r. w Jeziornie powstał młyn zbożowo-papierniczy, który dał początek fabryce papieru. W majątkach uruchamiano browary, gorzelnie i cegielnie, które zaopatrywały lokalny rynek.. +Na przełomie XIX i XX w. zbudowano linie wąskotorowych kolejek dojazdowych z Warszawy m.in. do Góry Kalwarii, z których do dziś pozostała, wpisana do rejestru zabytków, linia z Piaseczna przez Grójec do Nowego Miasta nad Pilicą w powiecie grójeckim o długości 72 km. (regularny ruch osobowy zawieszono na niej w 1991, a towarowy w 1996 r.). +W XX w. teren dzisiejszego powiatu piaseczyńskiego przecięły dwie linie kolejowe Warszawa – Radom – Kraków w 1934 r. i Skierniewice – Łuków (z mostem na Wiśle w Górze Kalwarii) w 1953 r. +Zniszczenia miejscowościom powiatu przyniosły potop szwedzki ( w ruinę popadł wówczas zamek w Czersku), wojna północna na początku XVIII w. i insurekcja kościuszkowska. Największa w historii ziem powiatu, nie rozstrzygnięta bitwa między wojskami polskimi i rosyjskimi rozegrała się pod Gołkowem 9 i 10 lipca 1794 r. +Ciężkie walki na tych terenach toczyły się też w czasie I wojny światowej. Po starciach rosyjsko-niemieckich jesienią 1914 i ponownie w lecie 1915 r. pozostały liczne cmentarze wojskowe rozproszone na obszarze całego powiatu. +Okres drugiej wojny światowej ponownie odcisnął się bolesnym piętnem na terenach obecnego powiatu. Przetoczyły się tędy wojska polskie i niemieckie w czasie kampanii wrześniowej. Jesienią 1940 r. miejscowych Żydów uwięziono w gettach w Piasecznie i Górze Kalwarii. W lutym 1941 wszyscy zostali przesiedleni do getta warszawskiego. Na ich miejsce władze okupacyjne przesiedliły rodziny polskie z Pomorza wcielonego do Rzeszy. Lasy Chojnowskie stały się schronieniem dla oddziałów partyzanckich, a podczas powstania warszawskiego jego zapleczem. Tragiczne epizody wojny upamiętniają liczne pomniki i tablice. +Do ważniejszych zabytków w powiecie należą ruiny zamku w Czersku z XV w., kościoły w Piasecznie, Górze Kalwarii, Prażmowie i Słomczynie, ratusze w Piasecznie i Górze Kalwarii, dworki z XIX w. m.in. w Piasecznie – Chyliczkach, Głoskowie, Woli Gołkowskiej, Brześcach, Turowicach, Oborach, Prażmowie, Woli Prażmowskiej, wiatraki w Lininie i Łęgu, najstarsze cmentarze rzymskokatolickie w Piasecznie i Górze Kalwarii, cmentarze żydowskie także w Piasecznie i Górze Kalwarii, dawna papiernia w Konstancinie-Jeziornie, niektóre wille w Piasecznie – Zalesiu Dolnym, Konstancinie-Jeziornie, Zalesiu Górnym. W Czersku zachował się średniowieczny układ urbanistyczny dawnego miasta. +Terytorium dzisiejszego powiatu należało do rozbiorów do województwa mazowieckiego, w latach 1796-1806 do departamentu warszawskiego w prowincji Prusy Południowe, w okresie Księstwa Warszawskiego od 1807 do 1814 r. nadal pozostawało w departamencie warszawskim. W latach 1815-1837 znajdowało się w województwie mazowieckim w Królestwie Polskim, w latach 1837-1845 w guberni mazowieckiej, a w latach 1845-1915 w guberni warszawskiej. W okresie okupacji niemieckiej podczas I wojny światowej (1915-1918) należało do Generał-Gubernatorstwa Warszawskiego. W odrodzonej Polsce znajdowało się w granicach województwa warszawskiego, a w latach II wojny światowej w dystrykcie warszawskim Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Od 1945 do 1975 r. stanowiło część województwa warszawskiego, w latach 1975-1998 województwa stołecznego warszawskiego, a od początku 1999 r. znajduje się w województwie mazowieckim. +Powiat Piaseczyński utworzony został z dniem 1 lipca 1952 r. jako jeden z czterech powstałych po zniesieniu powiatu warszawskiego. W jego skład weszły miasta: Piaseczno i Skolimów-Konstancin (który otrzymało prawa miejskie w 1952 roku) oraz gminy: Falenty, Jeziorna (otrzymała prawa miejskie w 1962 roku, od 1969 roku jako miasto Konstancin-Jeziorna) i Lesznowola z dawnego powiatu warszawskiego. Włączono też Górę Kalwarię z gminami: Czersk, Głosków, Jazgarzew, Kąty, Sobików i Wola Wągrodzka, które należały dotąd do powiatu grójeckiego oraz gminę Mroków z powiatu grodzisko-mazowieckiego (dawnego błońskiego). Powiat zlikwidowano w wyniku reformy administracyjnej 31 maja 1975 r., a reaktywowano w dawnych granicach bez gminy Raszyn z dniem 1 stycznia 1999 r. +1 stycznia 2003 do powiatu piaseczyńskiego przyłączono gminę Tarczyn z powiatu grójeckiego. +Kultura. +W 2009 Powiat Piaseczyński został laureatem konkursu „Stolica Kulturalna Mazowsza 2009” ogłoszonego przez Marszałka Województwa Mazowieckiego Adama Struzika. +Luty 2004 + +__NOTOC__ +Jewgienij Timochin + +Jewgienij Leonidowicz Timochin, ros. Евгений Леонидович Тимохин (ur. 25 marca 1938 w Charkowie, zm. 2006 w Moskwie) – generał pułkownik, naczelnik rosyjskiego wywiadu wojskowego GRU w okresie styczeń 1991- sierpień 1992. +W latach 1945-1952 uczeszczał do średniej szkoły w Charkowie, w 1958 ukończył Sumską Wojskową Szkołę Techniczną, a w 1968 - Wojskowo-inżynieryjną Akademię Radiotechniczną Obrony Przeciwlotniczej. W 1977 ukończył Wojskową Akademię Sztabu Generalnego Sił Zbrojnych ZSRR im. K. J. Woroszyłowa. +Przed objęciem stanowiska szefa GRU Timochin był zastępcą szefa sztabu Wojsk Obrony Powietrznej Kraju. Był jednym z nielicznych oficerów spoza organów bezpieczeństwa lub radzieckich wojsk lądowych, któremu powierzono kierowanie GRU. Timochin na stanowisku szefa GRU zastąpił - po sierpniowym puczu - Władlena Michajłowa. Po odejściu Timochina z GRU (na stanowisko zastępcy szefa sztabu głównego Wojsk Przeciwlotniczych) jego miejsce zajął Fiodor Ładygin. +Shared Source + +Shared Source - termin stworzony przez Microsoft, określający podobną do Otwartego Oprogramowania licencję udostępniania kodu źródłowego oprogramowania. +Różnice z Open Source. +Zgodnie z Shared Source, kod źródłowy udostępnia się razem z oprogramowaniem. Różnica w stosunku do Open Source polega na tym, że tu autorzy zachowują ścisłą kontrolę nad korzystaniem z tego kodu, np. wiele licencji Shared Source dopuszcza wyłącznie użytek akademicki czy niekomercyjny. +Dyskusja o sensowności Shared Source. +Zalety. +Zdaniem twórców Shared Source to krok naprzód od programowania, w którym wyłącznie twórca ma dostęp do źródła, a użytkownik dostaje gotowy produkt. Kod udostępnia się użytkownikom, a oni mogą pracować nad jego doskonaleniem i rozwojem. +Wady. +Shared source ma jednak sporo przeciwników, mówiących, że to przychodzi za późno i daje zbyt mało w porównaniu do już rozwiniętego ruchu FLOSS. Wielu sceptyków przychyla się też do zdania, że Shared Source ma posłużyć nie tylko rozwojowi i doskonaleniu oprogramowania, ale też pozyskiwaniu talentów i potencjalnych konkurentów przez wielkie korporacje. +Rotor Programming. +Jednym z najgłośniejszych programów objętych licencją shared source jest Rotor Programming, środowisko Microsoft .NET CLI. Kod źródłowy jest powszechnie dostępny, ale licencja wprost zabrania użytku komercyjnego i tworzenia oprogramowania FLOSS (jeden z warunków licencji mówi o tym, że licencja programu stworzonego przy użyciu Rotor nie może być słabsza niż oryginalna Shared Source). +Te ograniczenia często przeszkadzają programistom (zarówno ze względów ideologicznych, jak i praktycznych), stąd popularność platformy Mono, stworzonej przez Novell, już bez tych ograniczeń. +Zobacz też. +Wolne Oprogramowanie +Kryzys sueski + +Kryzys sueski (arab. أزمة السويس – العدوان الثلاثي; hebr. מבצע קדש, Operacja „"Kadesz"”) – militarna agresja Wielkiej Brytanii, Francji i Izraela na Egipt, która rozpoczęła się 29 października 1956. Agresja została poprzedzona decyzją Egiptu o nacjonalizacji Kanału Sueskiego (26 lipca 1956), jednak rzeczywistą przyczyną wybuchu wojny było pragnienie Wielkiej Brytanii i Francji utrzymania kontroli nad Kanałem. Państwa te dla realizacji swoich celów posłużyły się Izraelem, którego statki handlowe nie mogły korzystać z Kanału Sueskiego. Izrael miał także własne wystarczające powody, by wziąć udział w wojnie. +Wprowadzenie. +Kryzys Sueski to międzynarodowy konflikt, który rozegrał się na Bliskim Wschodzie wokół Kanału Sueskiego. Kanał został zbudowany w latach 1859-1869 z państwowych funduszy Francji i Egiptu, pod kierunkiem F.M. de Lessepsa. Zbudowano go na Przesmyku Sueskim między deltą Nilu i wyżyną półwyspu Synaj, łącząc w ten sposób Morze Śródziemne z Morzem Czerwonym. W 1875 roku egipskie długi zagraniczne zmusiły chedywa Isma’ila do sprzedania egipskich akcji Brytyjczykom, co zapewniło im decydujący głos w sprawach Kanału. Brytyjczycy przejmując nad nim całkowitą kontrolę, w 1882 utworzyli w strefie Kanału swoje posterunki i bazy wojskowe. +W 1888 w Istambule (obecnie Stambuł) podpisano międzynarodową "Konwencję" o wolności żeglugi na Kanale Sueskim. Zawarta umowa ogłaszała Kanał neutralną strefą pozostającą pod brytyjską kontrolą. +Po proklamowaniu niepodległości Egiptu w 1922, status Kanału nie uległ zmianie, a egipsko-brytyjska umowa z 1936 roku gwarantowała Wielkiej Brytanii prawo do utrzymywania baz wojskowych w jego strefie. Było to niezwykle ważne dla Brytyjczyków, gdyż Kanał miał ogromne znaczenie strategiczne – była to najdogodniejsza droga morska między Wielką Brytanią a Indiami i złożami ropy naftowej na Bliskim Wschodzie. Brytyjczycy zdołali utrzymywać kontrolę nad Kanałem przez całą II wojnę światową, czerpiąc przy okazji spore dochody z żeglugi po Kanale. +Początek konfliktu. +Po przegranej pierwszej wojnie izraelsko-egipskiej, Egipt w 1949 zamknął Kanał Sueski dla izraelskiej żeglugi oraz zablokował rejon Zatoki Akaba. Posunięcie to było to w jawnej sprzeczności z postanowieniami "Konwencji Konstantynopolskiej" 1888, jednak Egipt usprawiedliwiał swoją decyzję stanem wojny z Izraelem. Pomimo to, Izrael oskarżył wówczas Egipt o złamanie warunków zawieszenia broni, nie podjął jednak żadnych działań zmierzających do złamania morskiej blokady. +W sierpniu 1951 brytyjski minister spraw zagranicznych Anthony Eden udzielił Egiptowi pełnych praw do decydowania o Kanale Sueskim. Tym samym udzielił Egiptowi prawa do decydowania o przepuszczaniu lub blokowaniu izraelskich statków pragnących skorzystać z Kanału lub Cieśniny Tirańskiej. Problem zignorowany początkowo przez Wielką Brytanię, został podjęty przez międzynarodową społeczność i 1 września 1951 Rada Bezpieczeństwa ONZ przyjęła Rezolucję nr 95, która nazwała zamknięcie Kanału Sueskiego „nadużyciem ograniczającym prawo” i wezwała Egipt do otwarcia Kanału dla wszystkich statków i wszystkich towarów. W odpowiedzi w 1951 Egipt anulował układ egipsko-brytyjski z 1936, zmuszając wojska brytyjskie do opuszczenia w 1954 strefy Kanału Sueskiego. +W Egipcie postępowała stopniowa radykalizacja nastrojów społecznych i w 1952 oficerowie armii przeprowadzili zamach stanu, który zakończył rządy króla Faruka I będącego brytyjską marionetką i wprowadzili pół-dyktaturę wojskową. Nowy rząd prowadził agresywną politykę antyizraelską, wspierając m.in. rajdy "fedainów" na Izrael, na co izraelska armia odpowiadała rajdami niszczącymi arabskie obozy szkoleniowe w Strefie Gazy. +Dalszą konsekwencją działań było zatrzymanie 24 grudnia 1953 u wejścia do Kanału Sueskiego norweskiego statku płynącego z ładunkiem dla Izraela. Na międzynarodowe protesty, Egipt ponownie odpowiedział, że jest w stanie wojny z Izraelem. 28 września 1954 izraelski statek „"Bat Galim"” podjął próbę przepłynięcia przez Kanał Sueski, został on również zatrzymany, a cała jego załoga aresztowana. Te zdecydowane kroki Egiptu dowodziły o nieprzejednanej postawie Arabów względem Izraela i gotowości wciągnięcia Kanału Sueskiego w strefę wojny, co zagrażało bezpieczeństwu międzynarodowych szlaków morskich. +Zakup broni od państw Bloku Wschodniego. +Nasilający się konflikt izraelsko-arabski nałożył się na spór wokół budowy Wielkiej Tamy Asuańskiej w Egipcie. Początkowo tama miała być współfinansowana przez Stany Zjednoczone, Francję i Wielką Brytanię, ale po formalnym uznaniu przez Egipt Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej rząd amerykański i jego sojusznicy wycofali się ze swoich obietnic. Reakcją Nasera było nawiązanie kontaktów ze Związkiem Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich, który zaproponował pokrycie około jednej trzeciej kosztów budowy tamy. ZSRR zaoferował także pomoc radzieckich inżynierów, sprzęt budowlany oraz pomoc wojskową. W konsekwencji, we wrześniu 1955 Egipt zawarł z Czechosłowacją umowę o dostawach sprzętu wojskowego. W wyniku tego porozumienia, w ciągu roku (do października 1956) do Egiptu dostarczono 230 czołgów, 300 transporterów opancerzonych, 500 dział i moździerzy, 170 samolotów bojowych oraz kilkanaście okrętów. Dodatkowo do Egiptu docierał sprzęt wojskowy zakupiony przez Syrię we Włoszech i Czechosłowacji. +W ten sposób Egipt bardzo szybko zdobywał przewagę wojskową nad Izraelem. Wywołało to wzrost pewności u Egipcjan i w rezultacie 2 marca 1956 prezydent Naser zażądał od Izraela przywrócenia granic ustalonych w Rezolucji nr 181 z 1947 roku. +Nacjonalizacja Kanału Sueskiego. +Na przełomie czerwca i lipca 1956 ostatnie brytyjskie oddziały wojskowe opuściły strefę Kanału, a następnie ewakuowały się z Egiptu, a 26 lipca 1956 prezydent Naser ogłosił nacjonalizację Kanału Sueskiego. Warto wspomnieć, że w "Suez Canal Company" 44% akcji posiadały brytyjskie firmy i banki. W momencie nacjonalizacji całość przeszła na własność skarbu Egiptu. Naser zaplanował, że wysokie opłaty za korzystanie z Kanału Sueskiego pomogą Egiptowi zebrać brakujące fundusze na budowę Wielkiej Tamy Asuańskiej. W praktyce jednak opłaty te całkowicie zablokowały ruch przez Kanał. +Plan agresji na Egipt. +1 sierpnia 1956 odbyło się w Londynie pierwsze spotkanie przedstawicieli Stanów Zjednoczonych (ambasador Robert Daniel Murphy), Wielkiej Brytanii (sekretarz spraw zagranicznych Selwyn Lloyd) i Francji (minister spraw zagranicznych Christian Pineau). Wkrótce po tym spotkaniu zostało zawarte porozumienie brytyjsko-francuskie w sprawie interwencji zbrojnej w Egipcie. Dokument porozumienia podpisali: brytyjski premier Anthony Eden i francuski premier Guy Mollet. Siedzibę wspólnego sztabu umiejscowiono w Londynie, a dowódcami zostali generał Stockwell i admirał Barjot. Inwazję na Egipt planowano przeprowadzić we współpracy z Izraelem. Czas realizacji planu przewidywano na 1956 rok. +Na przełomie sierpnia i września 1956 sztabowcy wojskowi Izraela, Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii zaczęli opracowywać plany wspólnej operacji. Natomiast politycy zajęli się przygotowywaniem właściwego usprawiedliwienia dla rozpoczęcia wojny. Na arenie międzynarodowej polityki powiedziano, że do agresji doszło na mocy zawartej 19 października 1955 umowy brytyjsko-egipskiej, która regulowała tryb i zasady wycofania wojsk brytyjskich z Egiptu. Umowa zakładała, że Brytyjczycy mają prawo obsadzić swoimi wojskami strefę Kanału Sueskiego w przypadku zagrożenia wolności żeglugi na tym szlaku wodnym. A tym zagrożeniem dla wolności żeglugi miała być nowa wojna izraelsko-egipska. +W dniach 22-24 października 1956 w miejscowości Sèvres pod Paryżem, odbyła się tajna narada przedstawicieli rządu Izraela (premier Dawid Ben Gurion, dyrektor departametu w ministerstwie obrony narodowej Szymon Peres, szef sztabu Mosze Dajan), Francji (minister obrony Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury, minister spraw zagranicznych Christian Pineau, szef sztabu Maurice Challe) i Wielkiej Brytanii (sekretarz spraw zagranicznych Selwyn Lloyd i jego asystent Patrick Dean). Podpisano tzw. protokół z Sèvres, w którym zaplanowano, że Izrael dokona inwazji na półwysep Synaj, zaś Francja i Wielka Brytania wystąpią jako „rozjemcy” i wkroczą do Egiptu aby „rozdzielić walczące strony”, przejmując przy okazji kontrolę nad Kanałem Sueskim. +Zgromadzone siły. +Siły Izraela. +Siły Obronne Izraela przeznaczyły do inwazji na półwysep Synaj 45 tys. żołnierzy, zgrupowanych w 12 brygadach wspieranych przez 155 samolotów bojowych. Do obrony granic Izraela przed ewentualną agresją Libanu, Syrii i Jordanii pozostawiono 130 tys. żołnierzy. Dowódcą Sztabu Głównego był generał Mosze Dajan, który osobiście dowodził działaniami wojsk na półwyspie Synaj. +Siły Wielkiej Brytanii i Francji. +Wielka Brytania i Francja rozlokowały trzon swoich sił uderzeniowych w rejonie wysp Malta i Cypr. W dwóch bazach sił powietrznych rozlokowano liczne samoloty bojowe, a wokół wysp zgromadzono lotniskowce: brytyjskie HMS „Eagle” (46 samolotów), HMS „Albion” (42 samoloty), HMS „Bulwark” (46 samolotów) oraz francuskie „Arromanches” (48 samolotów), „La Fayette” (45 samolotów). Dodatkowo dwa brytyjskie lotniskowce HMS „Ocean” i HMS „Theseus” przewoziły śmigłowce do przeprowadzenia desantu z powietrza. Ogółem Brytyjczycy dysponowali w rejonie konfliktu 45 tys. ludzi, a Francuzi 34 tys. ludzi. +Siły Egiptu. +Egipska armia liczyła 300 tys. ludzi pod dowództwem Gamala Abdela Nasera, jednak w rejonie bezpośrednich walk znalazło się 70 tys. żołnierzy. Dodatkowo 25 października 1956 Egipt, Jordania i Syria powołały wspólne dowództwo wojskowe, jednak na froncie jordańskim i syryjskim nie rozpoczęto żadnych większych działań wojskowych. W rzeczywistości Egipt sam musiał stawić czoła agresji trzech państw. +Wojna. +Jeszcze przed rozpoczęciem wojny, rankiem 29 października 1956 oddział izraelskiej straży granicznej ("Mishmar HaGvul") dokonał masakry arabskich mieszkańców wioski Kafr Qasim, na granicy izraelsko-jordańskiej. Przyczyną otworzenia ognia do cywili było naruszenie godziny policyjnej. Zginęło 48 Arabów, w tym 6 kobiet i 23 dzieci. Policja przeprowadziła dochodzenie i sąd wojskowy skazał 8 izraelskich żołnierzy na kary więzienia (dowódca został skazany na 17 lat, dwaj podoficerowie na 15 lat, a pozostali otrzymali mniejsze wyroki). W późniejszym czasie wyroki zostały złagodzone i żołnierze wyszli na wolność po 3,5 roku kary. +Operacja „Kadesz”. +29 października 1956 roku o godzinie 17.00 Izrael rozpoczął Operację „"Kadesz"”. Nazwa operacji pochodziła od nazwy starożytnego miasta Kadesz na półwyspie Synaj, wspominanego w Księdze Powtórzonego Prawa. +Osiągnięcie tych czterech celów strategicznych rozgromiłoby egipską armię, zmuszając ją do wycofania się z Synaju i umożliwiłoby lądowanie brytyjskich i francuskich wojsk w strefie Kanału Sueskiego. +Strefa Gazy. +Wieczorem 29 października 1956 trzy izraelskie brygady przeprowadziły natarcie na Strefę Gazy, otaczając i izolując większość sił egipskich w rejonie miasta Gaza. Podczas nocnych walk Izraelczycy opanowali ważny strategicznie węzeł komunikacyjny Rafah. Rankiem 30 października wyprowadzono stąd główne natarcie, zdobywając egipską bazę wojskową w Al-Arisz. +Przełęcz Mitla. +Wieczorem 29 października 1956 Izraelczycy wysadzili desant spadochronowy siłami jednego batalionu na strategicznie położonej Przełęczy Mitla (315 km od granic Izraela i 45 km od Kanału Sueskiego). Opanowanie tej przełęczy odcięłoby większość egipskich sił na półwyspie Synaj od możliwości otrzymania posiłków i uniemożliwiłoby Egipcjanom przegrupowanie swoich wojsk. +Jednakże nocny desant nie poszedł zgodnie z planem i spadochroniarze wylądowali kilka kilometrów od celu. Zmarnowano cenne godziny i siły fizyczne żołnierzy aby dotrzeć do przełęczy, którą zdołano jednak szybko opanować. Izraelczycy okopali się, otrzymali drogą powietrzną wsparcie w postaci artylerii i oczekiwali na dotarcie drogą lądową pozostałych brygad. +Brytyjskie i francuskie ultimatum. +Zaatakowany Egipt wezwał 30 października 1956 swoich arabskich sojuszników (Syrię i Jordanię) aby uderzyły na Izrael. To właśnie w obawie przed możliwością rozpoczęcia wojny na frontach izraelsko-syryjskim i izraelsko-jordańskim, izraelska armia nie rozpoczynała głównego natarcia na Synaju. Izraelskie brygady pozostawały cały czas w gotowości przegrupowania ich, aby bronić terytorium własnego kraju. Wykorzystując ten czas, egipska armia rozpoczęła przerzucanie swoich rezerwowych oddziałów na wschodni brzeg Kanału Sueskiego, na półwysep Synaj. +30 października 1956 roku Francja i Wielka Brytania wystosowały ultimatum, w którym zażądały od Izraela i Egiptu wstrzymania walk i wycofania wszystkich wojsk na odległość 10 km od obu brzegów Kanału Sueskiego. Egipt odrzucił ultimatum, natomiast Izrael wyraził gotowość przyjęcia ultimatum, co oznaczało rozpoczęcie operacji przesunięcia izraelskich sił na odległość 10 km od Kanału. +Abu Ageila. +31 października 1956 dowództwo izraelskiej armii nie dostrzegając żadnych ruchów wojsk syryjskich i jordańskich, rozpoczęło generalne natarcie na Synaju przy użyciu całości sił uderzeniowych. Główne natarcie skierowało się na przedpola Abu Ageili, którą po ciężkich walkach zdobyto 1 listopada. Równocześnie jedna brygada spadochronowa ruszyła przez pustynię i dotarła do zdobytej wcześniej Przełęczy Mitla. +31 października 1956 roku egipski niszczyciel „Ibrahim al-Awal” wpłynął do Zatoki Hajfy i ostrzelał miasto Hajfę. W odparciu jego ataku uczestniczył między innymi izraelski niszczyciel INS „Eilat”. Egipski okręt wycofał się wówczas i ukrył się w pobliskiej grupie neutralnych okrętów amerykańskich. Został jednak wykryty przez izraelskie bombowce, zaatakowany, uszkodzony, a następnie zdobyty i odholowany do portu w Hajfie. Później był znany jako INS „Haifa”. +Szarm el-Szejk. +2 listopada 1956 izraelskie oddziały dotarły w pobliże Kanału Sueskiego, zatrzymując się w odległości 10 km od jego wschodniego brzegu. Jednak Izraelczycy prowadzili dalsze działania wojenne na południu półwyspu Synaj, kończąc je 5 listopada zdobyciem miasta Szarm el-Szejk i odblokowaniem Cieśniny Tirańskiej. +Operacja „Muszkieter”. +30 października 1956 roku po wystosowaniu ultimatum, Francja i Wielka Brytania przegrupowały swoje morskie siły uderzeniowe z rejonu wysp Malta i Cypr w pobliże Egiptu. Wieczorem 31 października brytyjskie i francuskie samoloty startujące z pokładów lotniskowców rozpoczęły bombardowanie egipskich obiektów wojskowych. W ciągu 2 dni zniszczono 255 egipskich samolotów. +W reakcji na bombardowania, w nocy 31 października prezydent Naser zarządził ewakuację wojsk egipskich z Synaju i koncentrację w rejonie Aleksandrii i Port Saidu. +Reakcja ONZ. +Stany Zjednoczone nie były zainteresowane dalszym trwaniem konfliktu na Bliskim Wschodzie i ewentualnym przejęciem kontroli nad Kanałem Sueskim, gdyż mogło to grozić eskalacją konfliktu na cały region i grozić nieobliczalnymi skutkami. Dodatkowo administracja prezydenta Dwight D. Eisenhowera została zaskoczona powstaniem węgierskim i radziecką interwencją zbrojną na Węgrzech. Eisenhower obawiał się, że Naser może oficjalnie zwrócić się do Związku Radzieckiego z prośbą o pomoc wojskową. Mogłoby to doprowadzić do dalszego wzrostu napięcia z Blokiem Wschodnim i spowodować bezpośredni konflikt wojskowy między Zachodem i ZSRR, i ostatecznie przekształcić zimną wojnę w prawdziwy konflikt zbrojny na skalę globalną. Dlatego Eisenhower wezwał Radę Bezpieczeństwa ONZ do wymuszenia zawieszenia broni w Egipcie. Jednak Wielka Brytania i Francja, jako stali członkowie Rady Bezpieczeństwa ONZ zawetowali projekt rezolucji. +Wówczas Stany Zjednoczone zaapelowały do Zgromadzenia Ogólnego ONZ proponując przyjęcie rezolucji wzywającej do zawieszenia broni, wycofania wojsk i otwarcia Kanału Sueskiego dla powszechnej żeglugi. Zgromadzenie Ogólne zwołało nadzwyczajne posiedzenie i 2 listopada 1956 przyjęło Rezolucję. W tej nowej sytuacji, Izrael na prośbę Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii poprosił Zgromadzenie Ogólne ONZ o sprecyzowanie treści rezolucji. Było to „granie na czas”, z którego korzystały europejskie mocarstwa przygotowujące swoje siły inwazyjne do lądowania w Egipcie. +Desant aliantów. +5 listopada 1956 brytyjscy spadochroniarze wylądowali wieczorem na lotnisku El Gamil, zdobywając teren egipskiej bazy wojskowej. Zaczęły tutaj lądować kolejne samoloty transportowe z oddziałami desantowymi. 6 listopada brytyjska piechota morska wylądowała rano na plażach Port Saidu, w pobliżu Kanału Sueskiego. Doszło do ciężkich walk, w których zniszczone zostały egipskie baterie nadbrzeżne. Po południu francuscy komandosi zajęli mosty w Al-Raswa i opanowali Port Fuad. W walkach zniszczono liczne egipskie czołgi. W ten sposób, prawie 30 tys. brytyjskich i francuskich żołnierzy opanowało 20 km strefę Kanału Sueskiego. Chaotycznie i niezbyt dobrze zorganizowane walki trwały jeszcze do 7 listopada. +Zdesperowany Naser nakazał wówczas zatopienie 40 statków w Kanale Sueskim, blokując na nim żeglugę do 1957 roku. +Zawieszenie broni. +Prezydent USA Eisenhower zagroził Wielkiej Brytanii, że sprzeda amerykańskie rezerwy funta szterlinga i tym samym spowoduje załamanie się brytyjskiej waluty. Dodatkowo Arabia Saudyjska ogłosiła embargo na dostawy ropy naftowej do Wielkiej Brytanii i Francji, a Stany Zjednoczone odmówiły uzupełnienia braków w dostawach paliwa do czasu szybkiego wycofania wojsk brytyjskich i francuskich z Egiptu. +W rezultacie tych nacisków 6 listopada 1956 zostały wstrzymane wszystkie działania wojenne w Egipcie. Następnie 6 grudnia Izrael przesunął swoje oddziały na odległość 30 km od Kanału Sueskiego, a 22 grudnia Wielka Brytania i Francja wycofały swoje oddziały z Egiptu. 7 marca 1957 roku Izrael zakończył wycofywanie swoich wojsk z półwyspu Synaj i Strefy Gazy. +Bilans. +Pod względem militarnym, strategicznym i taktycznym wojna okazała się sukcesem Izraela, Wielkiej Brytanii i Francji. Izraelska armia straciła 197 zabitych, 899 rannych i 4 wziętych do niewoli. W trakcie walk zestrzelonych zostało 15 izraelskich samolotów. Kosztem tych strat armia osiągnęła wszystkie postawione przed nią do wykonania cele. Zniszczone zostały wszystkie bazy szkoleniowe "fedainów" w Strefie Gazy i na Synaju. Zniszczony został trzon egipskiej armii, uniemożliwiając Egiptowi przeprowadzenie w najbliższym czasie jakiejkolwiek agresji na Izrael. W trakcie walk Izraelczycy zdobyli na Synaju 7 tys. ton amunicji, 25 tys. ton benzyny, 100 sprawnych czołgów, 220 dział i około tysiąca różnych pojazdów mechanicznych. Odblokowana została dla izraelskiej żeglugi morskiej Zatoka Akaba i port w Ejlacie. +Brytyjczycy stracili 56 zabitych i 91 rannych, natomiast Francuzi stracili 10 zabitych i 43 rannych. +Egipcjanie stracili w walkach prawie cały sprzęt wojskowy. Ich bazy lotnicze były zniszczone albo poważnie uszkodzone. Utracono cały korpus sił pancernych z wielką liczbą czołgów. Ogółem zginęło 650 Egipcjan, 2,9 tys. zostało rannych, a do niewoli trafiło 2 tys. W ciągu paru dni armia egipska przestała istnieć. +Skutki konfliktu. +Efekty polityczne konfliktu dla Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii okazały się wysoce negatywne. Zdecydowała o tym postawa Stanów Zjednoczonych, dla których konflikt ten był bardzo niewygodny. Groźba kryzysu gospodarczego spowodowała upadek rządu brytyjskiego premiera Anthony Edena. Nowy rząd Harolda MacMillana wycofał siły wojskowe z Egiptu w marcu 1957. Francuzi wycofali swoje wojska kilka tygodni wcześniej. Często twierdzi się, że upadek rządu Anthony Edena był swoistym symbolem końca Imperium Brytyjskiego. Konflikt wykazał, że Wielka Brytania nie może już praktycznie prowadzić całkowicie samodzielnej polityki zagranicznej, gdyż w każdym poważnym konflikcie międzynarodowym decydującą rolę odgrywają relacje między „supermocarstwami”, tj. Stanami Zjednoczonymi i Związkiem Radzieckim. +Francja odebrała zachowanie Stanów Zjednoczonych w konflikcie jako rodzaj „zdrady”, która uświadomiła jej, że nie można opierać swojej polityki na zbyt ścisłym aliansie z tym krajem, gdyż interesy obu państw są często sprzeczne. Konstatacja ta na długo określiła politykę zagraniczną Francji. +Naser, mimo militarnej klęski w tym konflikcie, stał się rodzajem arabskiego bohatera. Wokół niego zaczął się krystalizować ruch panarabski, postulujący wyzwolenie wszystkich krajów arabskich spod kontroli Zachodu. Spadek znaczenia międzynarodowego Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii na skutek konfliktu przyspieszył proces dekolonizacji na całym świecie. Egipt ponownie przejął kontrolę nad Kanałem Sueskim, a Izrael zgodnie z rezolucją ONZ opuścił na wiosnę 1957 Synaj i Strefę Gazy, które przeszły pod tymczasową kontrolę międzynarodowych sił pokojowych UNEF. Sumaryczny efekt konfliktu był jednak dla tego państwa w gruncie rzeczy pozytywny. Mediacji pomiędzy Izraelem a Egiptem podjął się Lester Pearson, minister spraw zagranicznych Kanady. +Grindcore + +Grindcore – styl w muzyce rockowej, którego powstanie datuje się na lata 80. XX wieku. Jest wypadkową stylów: thrash metalu z początku jego istnienia, hardcore i punk rocka reprezentowanego przez grupy z lat 80., jak Discharge, Chaos UK, Doom oraz zespołów łączących stylistyki metalu, hardcore i punka jak Siege, Deep Wound czy Repulsion. +Korzenie grindcore'u są nieco inne w przypadku sceny amerykańskiej i brytyjskiej. Podczas gdy zespoły z Wysp inspirację czerpały głównie ze stylistyki punkowej, w USA grindcore był od początku kojarzony z metalem (Repulsion, Terrorizer). Na scenie brytyjskiej wpływy death i thrash metalu zaczeły być widoczne pod koniec lat 80. Wtedy też czołowe zespoły grindcore'owe z Wysp Brytyjskich, jak Carcass czy Napalm Death, zmieniły stylistykę na bardziej deathmetalową. W przypadku pierwszego zespołu ostatnie dokonania to już typowy death metal niemający nic wspólnego z grindcore'em. +Pomimo oczywistych inspiracji metalem grindcore nie jest jego podgatunkiem (tak samo jak nie jest podgatunkiem punk rocka). Jest to odrębny rodzaj muzyki ekstremalnej. +Wbrew panującej powszechnie opinii, autorem pojęcia "grindcore" nie był Mick Harris – ex-perkusista Napalm Death, lecz nieżyjący już Jesse Pintado – gitarzysta Napalm Death w latach 1989–2004. Jesse Pintado użył po raz pierwszy terminu "grindcore" ok. 1983 r. na określenie uprawianej przez niego wówczas muzyki (mieszanki "chaosu i hałasu" wg jego własnych słów), ale na szerszą skalę grindcore, jako odmiana ekstremalnego metalu, został spopularyzowany dopiero przez Micka Harrisa. Pierwszym grindcore'owym albumem był nagrywany w latach 1986–87 "Scum" Napalm Death. Od początku zaczęto wyróżniać dwa nurty w stylu grind: "polityczny" (mincecore), poruszający problemy współczesnego świata, muzycznie jest w miarę lekki i ma podobieństwa z crustpunkiem, reprezentowany m.in. przez zespoły Brutal Truth, Napalm Death i Agathocles, Cauterized i tzw. "gore'owy" (Goregrind), opisujacy krwawe i odrażające historie, niekiedy prawdziwe, reprezentowany m.in. przez wczesny Carcass, Repulsion, Impetigo i Meat Shits. +Cechuje się dużą szybkością, niewielkim skomplikowaniem kompozycyjnym i prostotą poszczególnych partii instrumentów (zazwyczaj są to dwie gitary, perkusja, gitara basowa i wokal), natomiast w warstwie wokalnej głębokim growlem, który czasami przeplatany jest krzykami i wrzaskami (wokal często przesterowany i modulowany do nieludzkich dźwięków). Grindowe utwory są najczęściej dość krótkie i intensywne (np. utwór "You Suffer" zespołu Napalm Death został w Księdze rekordów Guinessa zapisany jako najkrótszy utwór muzyczny – około 1 sekundy). Albumy grindcore'owe cechuje duża liczba utworów (zespół Anal Cunt na jednym EP zarejestrowała 5643 utwory). Tematyka zespołów grindowych jest bardzo zróżnicowana, często obsceniczna – dotyczy gwałtów, mordów, chorób (goregrind), ale także polityki i problemów społecznych (mincecore). +Grind z czasem ewoluował, wykształcając szereg podgatunków, jak chcociażby "goregrind" (np. Mortician, wczesne Carcass), cybergrind (np. Libido Airbag, Fuck... I'm dead), "deathgrind" (np. Misery Index, Cattle Decapitation), "crustgrind" (np. Afgrund), "pathogrind" (np. County Medical Examiners), grind'n'roll (łączący elementy grindu z hardrockiem w stylu np. Motorhead, np. Blood Duster, Neuropathia), porngrind (GUT), noisecore (cechujący się kompletnym minimalizmem i nihilizmem, za twórców uważa się amerykański zespół Anal Cunt). +Muzyka grind inspirowała i nadal inspiruje twórców innych gatunków muzyki, związanych przede wszystkim ze sceną metalową. Na styku death metalu i grindu powstał gatunek nazwany brutal death metal, bardzo zbliżony (szczególnie pod względem intensywności) do grindu, ale bardziej od niego wyrafinowany technicznie. Jednymi z najbardziej znanych i naśladowanych zespołów tego nurtu są amerykańskie Cannibal Corpse i Suffocation. W Polsce najwybitniejszą grupą, która zaczynała od klasycznego death metalu, a obecnie gra mocno inspirowany grindcorem brutal death metal jest chełmski zespół Parricide. +Aport (tresura) + +Aport – komenda wydawana tresowanemu zwierzęciu, najczęściej psu, oznaczająca nakaz przyniesienia przez zwierzę rzuconej rzeczy (również nazywanej "aportem"), a także sama czynność przynoszenia przez zwierzę tej rzeczy. +W szczególności, podczas polowań z użyciem psów (w szczególności polowań na ptactwo albo drobną zwierzynę, jak lisy lub zające) wykorzystuje się psy aportujące do odszukiwania i przynoszenia zastrzelonej zdobyczy. +Denominacja + +Denominacja – reforma walutowa, polegająca na zastąpieniu dotychczasowej waluty kraju nową, bez ingerencji w kurs walutowy. Denominacji nie należy mylić z dewaluacją, ta bowiem zakłada realne obniżenie wartości waluty krajowej wobec innych walut, podczas gdy denominacja ma charakter usprawnienia czysto technicznego, a wszelkie obniżki mają w tym wypadku charakter wyłącznie nominalny. +Wymiana wszystkich wartości (płace, ceny, kurs walutowy, rachunki bankowe etc.) odbywa się według wcześniej ustalonych proporcji. Denominacja zazwyczaj wynika z wysokiej inflacji, jakiej wcześniej doświadczyła gospodarka danego państwa – i ma sens w momencie, kiedy inflacja jest już opanowana przez bank centralny. Emisja banknotów o coraz wyższych nominałach, rosnące wartości w rozliczeniach finansowych stają się uciążliwe dla funkcjonowania zarówno pojedynczych podmiotów jak i całej gospodarki państwowej – i stąd potrzeba zmniejszenia wartości nominalnej zawieranych transakcji. +Denominacja ma także sens społeczno-psychologiczny. Jednostka pieniądza powinna być wykreowana w taki sposób, aby oddawała w realny sposób swoją wartość, a jednocześnie dawała komfort psychiczny osobom o przeciętnych zarobkach. Uważa się, że dobrze dobrana jednostka powinna stanowić ok. 1/10000 uśrednionego zarobku w danym kraju. +Należy jednak pamiętać, że akcja denominacji waluty pociąga za sobą wielkie koszty, takie jak: druk i wymiana nowych banknotów, zaktualizowanie maszyn obsługujących operacje finansowe, akcje informujące społeczeństwo itp. W 1995 roku koszt denominacji polskiego złotego wyniósł 30 milionów nowych złotych (300 miliardów starych złotych), czyli tyle, co budowa około 4 km autostrady. +Podobną rolę co denominacja spełnia stosowana czasem w podobnych sytuacjach wymiana pieniędzy na nową jednostkę walutową, tak jak wymiana marek polskich na złotówki (1 800 000 mkp → 1 zł) w 1924, węgierskich pengő na forinty (4·1029 P → 1 F) w 1946 albo wymiana argentyńskiego peso na australa (1000 p → 1 ) w 1985 i później ponownie australa na peso (10 000 → 1 peso) z końcem 1991. +Chad Muska + +Chad Muska (ur. 2 maja 1977 w Lorain w Ohio) – skater amerykański. +Zaczął w Phoenix od street skatingu. W wieku 15 lat przeprowadził się do San Diego, gdzie zajął się wkrótce zawodowo skateboardingiem. Odtąd podróżował po świecie i był przedstawiany w wielu skateboardowych czasopismach, zyskując sławę jednego z najbardziej utalentowanych, popularnych i szanowanych skaterów na świecie. Ma własną linię produktów. Jest także muzykiem występującym pod pseudonimem "Muskabeatz", łączącym hip-hop z rapem i deskorolką. Muska występuje również w grze skateboardowej Tony Hawk Pro Skater. +Przyspieszenie dośrodkowe + +Przyspieszenie dośrodkowe (normalne) to przyspieszenie, którego doznaje ciało na skutek działania siły lub jej składowej prostopadłej do wektora prędkości ciała. Kierunek i zwrot tego przyspieszenia jest zgodny z kierunkiem i zwrotem tej siły. W wyniku przyspieszenia normalnego nie zmienia się wartość prędkości, tylko jej kierunek. +Zgodnie z II zasadą dynamiki: +Przykładem jest przyspieszenie wynikające z działania siły grawitacji Słońca na Ziemię lub Ziemi na jej satelitę. +gdzie +W ruchu po okręgu o promieniu "r" przyspieszenie dośrodkowe wynosi: +lub +gdzie +Emerald Isle + +Emerald Isle − niewielka wyspa leżąca w Archipelagu Arktycznym w grupie wysp Królowej Elżbiety i Parry'ego. +Wyspa swoja nazwę (nadaną przez jej odkrywcę, Leopolda M'Clintocka) zawdzięcza relatywnie bogatej i nietypowej szacie roślinnej, odróżniającej ją od sąsiednich wysp. +Open eBook + +Open eBook - jest to inicjatywa wspierana przez kilkadziesiąt firm komputerowych, której celem jest rozwinięcie standardu publikowania materiałów elektronicznych w oparciu o ustalenia języka XML, uniwersalnego standardu wymiany danych w Internecie. Pierwsza specyfikacja, Open eBook Publication Structure, została opublikowana w 1999 r. +Grupa robocza OEB pracuje nad określeniem specyfikacji, która definiowałaby zasady ochrony praw autorskich w dokumentach elektronicznych Digital Rights Management, co ma kluczowe znaczenie w sytuacji, gdyby format Open eBook miał służyć jako narzędzie rozpowszechniania publikacji elektronicznych. +Sancho VI Mądry + +Sancho VI Mądry (hiszp. "el Sabio", ur. ok. 1133, zm. 27 czerwca 1194) – król Nawarry w latach 1150-1194. +Był synem Garcii Ramireza i jego pierwszej żony – Małgorzaty de l'Aigle oraz pierwszym władcą tytułującym się królem Nawarry. Okres jego rządów charakteryzują ciągłe wojny z Katalończykami i Aragonią. W czasie swego panowania nadał przywilej "fuero" wielu miastom, m.in. Vitorii i San Sebastian. Zmarł w Pampelunie. +Ksiądz + +Ksiądz – współcześnie duchowny chrześcijański. W Kościele katolickim oraz Cerkwi prawosławnej potoczne określenie prezbitera, czyli osoby której udzielone zostały stosowne święcenia kapłańskie, albo osoba, której w Kościołach protestanckich powierzono urząd kościelny poprzez ordynację. +Pochodzenie słowa. +Samo słowo "ksiądz" wywodzi się ze słowiańskiego "kъnędzь" i pierwotnie termin ten oznaczał naczelnika plemiennego (z tego samego źródła wywodzą się rosyjskie "kniaź", czeskie "kníže" czy południowosłowiańskie "knez"). Słowo "kъnędzь" do słowiańskiego zostało zapożyczone z germańskiego "kuning" - "książę, naczelnik plemienny" (kuning → kŭnęgŭ → kъnęgъ → kъnędzь). W polszczyźnie słowo uległo dalszym przekształceniom (zanik jerów, zmiana nagłosowego kń- w kś- itd). +We wczesnym średniowieczu zaczęto tak określać ludzi możnych i wpływowych. Mianem tym nazywano później też niekoronowanych władców jako odpowiednik łacińskiego słowa "dux" (dziś w tym znaczeniu polska forma "książę", która pierwotnie znaczyła młodego władcę – "książę" od "ksiądz" (władca) jak "koźlę" od "kozieł" czy "chłopię "od "chłop"). +Znaczenie "duchowny" jest najpóźniejsze (prawdopodobnie przyszło do polszczyzny pod wpływem czeskim) i z początku było stosowane jedynie wobec biskupów (zwanych wówczas często książętami Kościoła). Z czasem jej zakres, rozszerzony został na wszystkich duchownych (w tym również niekatolickich). +Inne określenia duchownych. +W niektórych wyznaniach chrześcijańskich spotykane są też inne określenia duchownych, takie jak pastor (łac. pasterz), starszy, kapłan (mariawici), minister czy ojciec. +Pop. +Popularne określenie księdza prawosławnego "pop" (Na skutek propagandy bolszewickiej słowo to nabrało w niektórych krajach pejoratywnego znaczenia i obecnie jest uważane za obraźliwe!) jest słowem ogólnosłowiańskim, od "popъ -a", stąd też w węgierskim "pap", zapożyczone prawdopodobnie ze s-w-n. "pfaffo" "kapłan". W języku staropolskim słowu ksiądz odpowiadał właśnie pop (np. w Psałterzu floriańskim 70, 77; 109,5; 131,9; 131,17, czy "Pirzwy pop Lasota" - Sylwester I - pierwszy, Lasota - od łac. "silvester" - leśny w "Pieśni o Wiklefie") do II połowy XIV wieku w Małopolsce i na Śląsku i do pierwszej połowy XVI wieku w Wielkopolsce i Mazowszu; w XVI-XVII w. było też nazwaniem figury (gońca) w szachach np. "Pop jeden słucha Królowej spowiedzi..." - Jan Kochanowski "Szachy"; stąd liczne w Polsce nazwy miejscowe typu Popowice czy Popowo. +CommonGround + +CommonGround – konkurencyjna dla PDF technika tworzenia niezależnych od oprogramowania publikacji elektronicznych, rozwijana na początku lat 90., zaniechana jednak w pierwszej połowie dekady. Podstawą był uniwersalny sterownik drukarki przetwarzający dokument do natywnego formatu CommonGround. +Aport (prawo) + +Aport – wkład niepieniężny wniesiony do spółki handlowej na pokrycie kapitału zakładowego, w postaci wartości niematerialnych (praw) lub rzeczy. Jego wniesienie oznacza przeniesienie na spółkę wszelkich praw do przedmiotu wkładu (czyli jego własności). +Aportem mogą być m.in. rzeczy ruchome (ruchomości), nieruchomości, wierzytelności, patenty, a nawet przedsiębiorstwo jako całość. +Ava Gardner + +Ava Lavinia Gardner (ur. 24 grudnia 1922 w Smithfield, zm. 25 stycznia 1990 w Londynie) – amerykańska aktorka. +Urodziła się w małej miejscowości Smithfield (Karolina Północna) jako najmłodsze z siedmiorga dzieci niezamożnego plantatora tytoniu. +Zmarła w Londynie na zapalenie płuc. +Kilkakrotnie zamężna z m.in. Artiem Shawem i Frankiem Sinatrą. +Loris Capovilla + +Loris Francesco Capovilla (ur. 14 października 1915 w Pontelongo) – włoski duchowny katolicki. +23 maja 1940 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. Był osobistym sekretarzem papieża Jana XXIII. Po śmierci papieża Jana XXIII ojciec św. Paweł VI mianował prałata Capovillę biskupem Chieti (26 czerwca 1967) i sam udzielił mu sakry biskupiej 16 lipca 1967. +25 września 1971 został promowany na arcybiskupa tytularnego Mesembria i mianowany prałatem Loreto. Zrezygnował z funkcji prałata Loreto w grudniu 1988, a jego następcą został prałat Pasquale Macchi, który był osobistym sekretarzem Pawła VI. +Sabinian (papież) + +Sabinianus (ur. w Volterrze, zm. 22 lutego 606 w Rzymie) – papież w okresie od 13 września 604 do 22 lutego 606. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Volterrze w Toskanii. W czasach diakonatu, był nuncjuszem w Konstantynopolu za panowania Grzegorza I. Po swojej elekcji musiał czekać około pół roku na zezwolenie od cesarza na objęcie Stolicy Piotrowej. +W czasie pontyfikatu głównie polegał na hierarchach kościelnych, a nie na mnichach, tak jak jego poprzednik. Niepopularny z powodu złych przedsięwzięć ekonomicznych, był oskarżany przez lud Rzymu o wyciąganie korzyści z nadzoru dostaw żywności w okresie klęski głodu. Wprowadził do powszechnego użytku dzwony kościelne i nakazał umieszczanie zegarów słonecznych na każdym kościele. +Pochówek odbył się w Bazylice św. Piotra, jednak orszak pogrzebowy musiał do niej maszerować poza murami miasta, by uniknąć niezadowolonego ludu. +Bitwa pod Spotsylvanią + +Bitwa pod Spotsylvanią miała miejsce 8 maja 1864 r. w trakcie amerykańskiej wojny secesyjnej. +Po starciach roku 1864 pod Wilderness w których zginęło 17000 żołnierzy Unii oraz 7000 konfederatów żadnej ze stron nie udało się uzyskać znaczniejszej przewagi. +Generał unionistów Ulysses Grant zarządził wymarsz w kierunku wsi Spotsylvania. Po drodze jednak musiał obejść lewą flankę armii południowców pod dowództwem generała Roberta E. Lee. Po dotarciu na miejsce Grant natknął się na silna obronę konfederatów skrytych za linią podwójnych okopów. +Pierwszy do natarcia ruszył 2 korpus generała Hancocka, który musiał przekroczyć 2 strumienie. Trwało to na tyle długo że Lee zdążył wzmocnić swoje lewe skrzydło 2 dywizjami. Atak powiódł się tylko częściowo, gdyż zaledwie w kilku miejscach unionistom udało się przerwać linię obrony przeciwnika. +Następnie żołnierze północy pod dowództwem Emory Uptona obeszli drugą linie obrony konfederatów i uderzyli na nich od tyłu biorąc do niewoli ok. 1000 ludzi. Jednak kontratak południowców zmusił Granta do wycofania się przy dużych stratach. Powodem niepowodzenia było nie nadejście w porę posiłków dla unionistów. +Grant skierował wówczas na konfederatów ogień swych 22 dział i zarządził atak 15000 ludzi Hancocka. Atak przyniósł powodzenie, a konfederaci stracili wiele dział i ludzi wziętych do niewoli. +Kolejny kontratak konfederatów w padającym deszczu i mgle spowodował wielkie straty po obu stronach (bitwa nazywana jest krwawą bitwą spotsylwańską). W ograniczonej widoczności walczono głównie na bagnety i kolby karabinów. Dopiero wraz z zapadnięciem zmierzchu Lee, nie widząc sensu dalszej walki, nakazał swoim ludziom odwrót z pola bitwy. +Advanced Mobile Phone Service + +AMPS (ang. "Advanced Mobile Phone System") – system analogowej telefonii komórkowej pierwszej generacji, będący odpowiednikiem europejskiego systemu NMT. Stosowany głównie w krajach Ameryki Północnej. +Każdy z kanałów sieci AMPS o szerokości 30 kHz składa się z dwóch częstotliwości z odstępem 45 MHz: 416 kanałów działa w zakresie częstotliwości 824–849 MHz do transmisji ze stacji mobilnych do stacji bazowych – kanały te są skojarzone z 416 częstotliwościami w zakresie 869–894 MHz do transmisji ze stacji bazowej do stacji mobilnych. +Wybory parlamentarne w Polsce w 2005 roku + +Wybory parlamentarne w Polsce, odbyły się 25 września 2005 roku na terenie Polski oraz w 166 obwodowych komisjach ulokowanych poza Polską. Wbrew wcześniejszym spekulacjom, nie zostały one przeprowadzone razem z wyborami prezydenckimi i referendum 2005 w sprawie traktatu konstytucyjnego UE. +Termin wyborów. +Jesienny termin wyborów poparła 31 stycznia 2005 Rada Krajowa SLD. Bez poparcia SLD nie było możliwe przyjęcie uchwały skracającej kadencję Sejmu. Zgodnie z wcześniejszym porozumieniem, które zawarli 30 grudnia 2004 prezydent Aleksander Kwaśniewski i przewodniczący SLD Józef Oleksy wybory miały odbyć się w czerwcu 2005. Sejm nie podjął decyzji o skróceniu kadencji, więc wybory odbyły się w konstytucyjnym terminie (Sejm dotrwał do końca kadencji). W dniu 23 maja 2005 Prezydent RP zarządził wybory na dzień 25 września 2005. +Kampania wyborcza. +Kampania przedwyborcza do parlamentu w Polsce prowadzona była w sposób spokojny i nieagresywny. Wzmożoną kampanię dało się dopiero zauważyć w jej ostatnich tygodniach. Przed wyborami Prawo i Sprawiedliwość jednoznacznie deklarowało wolę utworzenia koalicji z PO. Dowodem dobrej woli PiS dla jej utworzenia był pomysł Lecha Kaczyńskiego na doprowadzenie do systemu dwupartyjnego z dwiema partiami postsolidarnościowymi: lewicową i centroprawicową. W nowopowstałym, stabilnym według PiS, systemie politycznym było miejsce właśnie dla PiS i PO. Politycy Platformy Obywatelskiej nie byli jednomyślni w deklaracjach na temat przyszłej współpracy. Widoczny był rozdźwięk zwłaszcza pomiędzy Donaldem Tuskiem a Janem Marią Rokitą. Ten ostatni wydawał się być zwolennikiem koalicji z PiS, ale pamiętać należy, że przed wyborami był pewien objęcia funkcji premiera. Natomiast Donald Tusk jeszcze w kampanii wyborczej zaatakował niedoszłych koalicjantów, czym wprowadził Jarosława Kaczyńskiego w zdumienie: „Słuchając takich słów, mam wrażenie, że zatraciliśmy pewne poczucie wspólnoty kulturowej, która nas łączyła z Platformą”. Nie wiadomo czy ostre wystąpienie Donalda Tuska podczas warszawskiej konwencji wyborczej z 19 czerwca 2005 roku było elementem gry przedwyborczej, czy może zwiastunem planu politycznego zorientowanego na walkę z PiS. Według Prezydenta Lecha Kaczyńskiego to właśnie wówczas Donald Tusk odrzucił współbudowanie IV Rzeczypospolitej, a zaczął reprezentować program nazwany przez Jarosława Kaczyńskiego restauracyjnym. Agresywna postawa PO zaskoczyła polityków PiS, jako ich przyszłych koalicjantów, co stało się powodem do kilku zgrzytów między tymi partiami, które przeniosły się na późniejszą kampanię prezydencką. Spekulowano, iż może nie dojść do zawiązania koalicji POPiS. +Samoobrona prowadziła swoją kampanię pod hasłem podobnym z wyborów w 2001 roku – "Oni już byli, oni już rządzili", atakując wszystkie postsolidarnościowe i postkomunistyczne partie startujące w wyborach. +Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej skupił się na stworzeniu swojego wizerunku jako partii odchudzonej i zmienionej. SLD po czterech latach rządów stracił najwięcej przez afery w swoich kręgach, przede wszystkim przez Aferę Rywina. Nowy przewodniczący z młodego pokolenia w spotach, starał się przyciągnąć wyborców, tłumacząc że SLD to jedyna siła lewicowa, która ma szanse znaleźć się w nowym parlamencie. +Wybory i wyniki. +W wyborach do Sejmu na 594 listach zarejestrowanych w 41 okręgach wyborczych przez 22 komitety wyborcze znalazło się łącznie 10 661 kandydatów na posłów, w tym 2613 kobiet (24,51%) i 8848 mężczyzn (75,49%). +W wyborach do Senatu w 40 okręgach wyborczych zarejestrowanych zostało przez 108 komitetów wyborczych 623 kandydatów na senatorów, w tym 99 kobiet (15,89%) i 524 mężczyzn (84,11%). +Próg wyborczy dla partii to 5%. +Frekwencja. +Frekwencja w wyborach wg komunikatu PKW wyniosła w skali kraju 40,57%. Badanie przeprowadzone przez TNS OBOP i PBS dla TVP w ramach sondażu exit poll przewidywało całkowitą frekwencję na poziomie 40,4%. Wynik ten był najgorszy od eurowyborów w 2004 roku, kiedy to frekwencja wyniosła zaledwie 20%. +Ważność wyborów. +Sąd Najwyższy uznał wybory za ważne. +Prawybory. +W dniu 18 września 2005 roku, tradycyjnie we Wrześni, w województwie wielkopolskim, odbyły się Prawybory parlamentarne i prezydenckie 2005 (o charakterze sondażu przedwyborczego). Zobacz: wyniki prawyborów. +Gene Wolfe + +Gene Rodman Wolfe (ur. 7 maja 1931 roku w Nowym Jorku) amerykański pisarz science fiction i fantasy. +Konwencja Antydopingowa Rady Europy + +Konwencja Antydopingowa Rady Europy jest instrumentem harmonizującym międzynarodową kooperację w zakresie zwalczania dopingu i rodzajem zobowiązania dla organów rządowych jej sygnatariuszy. +Jej celem nie jest rozwiązanie skomplikowanych problemów technicznych towarzyszących walce z dopingiem, a jedynie redukowanie i eliminacja zjawiska dopingu ze sportu poprzez jak najdalej zintegrowane działania prawne i uporządkowaną na tym gruncie współpracę międzynarodową. Odnosi się to zarówno do ustanawiania przepisów i regulaminów walki z dopingiem, jak i procesu finansowania i kontrolowania realizacji programów antydopingowych, zawierania porozumień międzynarodowych o współpracy w zakresie kontroli zawodników i zespołów przebywających na terenie danego kraju, organizowania i subsydiowania laboratoriów dopingowych. +3 lipca 2002 r Komitet Ministrów Rady Europy przyjął Protokół Dodatkowy do Konwencji Antydopingowej. Zawiera on dwa bardzo istotne postanowienia. +Światowy Kodeks Antydopingowy + +Światowy Kodeks Antydopingowy – dokument określający zasady walki z dopingiem w rozgrywkach sportowych. Został zaakceptowany i przyjęty do stosowania 5 marca 2003 roku, podczas Światowej Konferencji Antydopingowej w Kopenhadze. W tym samym dniu Kodeks został podpisany przez członków Rady Fundacyjnej Światowej Agencji Antydopingowej (WADA), stając się prawnie obowiązującym dokumentem antydopingowym w środowisku sportowym. +Opracowanie Kodeksu trwało dwa lata, a w proces ten zaangażowanych było wiele instytucji środowisk sportowych. Zastąpił on obowiązujący do tej pory Kodeks Antydopingowy Ruchu Olimpijskiego. +Dwie pierwsze części mają moc prawną, natomiast trzecia część zawiera przykłady dobrych rozwiązań z możliwością ich stosowania. +Źródła. +Tekst Światowego Kodeksu Antydopingowego +Grzywna (prawo) + +Grzywna – kara kryminalna o charakterze majątkowym orzekana za przestępstwa, przestępstwa skarbowe, wykroczenia lub wykroczenia skarbowe. We współczesnych systemach prawnych kara grzywny występuje w dwóch formach. Pierwszą jest grzywna kwotowa, polegająca na wskazaniu przez sąd konkretnej kwoty pieniężnej, którą skazany musi zapłacić. Drugą natomiast jest grzywna orzekana w stawkach dziennych, której wysokość ustalana jest na podstawie możliwości zarobkowych skazanego. W Polsce przyjęto koncepcję stawek dziennych, mającą w założeniu bardziej sprawiedliwy charakter. +__TOC__ +Kara grzywny w polskim prawie karnym. +Wymiar kary. +Granice kary grzywny wyznacza Kodeks karny w Art. 33 § 1. "Grzywnę wymierza się w stawkach dziennych, określając liczbę stawek oraz wysokość jednej stawki; jeżeli ustawa nie stanowi inaczej, najniższa liczba stawek wynosi 10, zaś najwyższa 540." oraz Art. 33 § 3. stanowiący, że: "stawka dzienna nie może być niższa od 10 złotych, ani też przekraczać 2000 złotych". Zgodnie z hierarchią wyrażoną w katalogu kar Kodeksu karnego, grzywna jest najłagodniejszą karą przewidzianą przez polskie prawo karne. Sąd wymierza karę w dwóch niezależnych od siebie etapach. W pierwszym etapie sąd wymierza ilość stawek dziennych na podstawie czynu, który popełnił sprawca. Bierze także pod uwagę winę i społeczną szkodliwość czynu. W drugim etapie sąd określa wysokość jednej stawki dziennej. Tu znaczenie mają możliwości płatnicze sprawcy (ile zarabia, jakie ma dochody), jego warunki osobiste i rodzinne. Grzywna, którą skazany musi uiścić, wynika więc z przemnożenia ilości stawek dziennych przez wysokość jednej stawki. Zgodnie z powyższym, grzywna może wynieść od 100 zł do 1 080 000 zł (a w przypadku zastosowania art. 309 kk do 6 mln zł). +Podstawa wymierzenia kary. +W polskim prawie wyróżnione są dwie formy wymierzania kary grzywny: grzywna samoistna oraz niesamoistna. Jeśli podstawę do orzeczenia grzywny stanowi zagrożenie tą karą danego przestępstwa, to jest to grzywna samoistna. Może być ona także wymierzona, mimo iż nie jest przewidziana w normie, ale sąd odstąpił od wymierzenia kary pozbawienia wolności, a także przy instytucji nadzwyczajnego złagodzenia kary, jeżeli czyn popełniony przez sprawcę stanowi występek. +Obok kary grzywny samoistnej w polskim systemie karnym występuje także grzywna obok kary pozbawienia wolności (kumulatywna). Cele jak i funkcje grzywny obok kary pozbawienia wolności różnią się od kary grzywny samoistnej. Kara ta jest uzupełnieniem stosowanym wobec osób, które popełniły przestępstwo z chęci zysku i zostały skazane na karę pozbawienia wolności. Karę grzywny obok kary pozbawienia wolności sąd może orzec jeżeli: 1) sprawca dopuścił się czynu w celu uzyskania korzyści majątkowej (niezależnie od tego czy korzyść ta została osiągnięta przez sprawcę), 2) sprawca faktycznie osiągnął korzyść majątkową z popełnienia przestępstwa (nie ma tu znaczenia czy korzyść majątkowa była celem sprawcy) (art. 33 § 2 kk) . To, że sprawca dopuścił się czynu w celu korzyści majątkowej nie powinno być przypuszczeniem, powinno wynikać ze zgromadzonego w sprawie materiału dowodowego . Grzywna orzekana obok kary pozbawienia wolności jest fakultatywna, co daje większą gwarancję zarządzenia sprawcy rzeczywistej dolegliwości, a nie tylko zamaskowanej wyższej kary pozbawienia wolności . Jeżeli sprawca dopuścił się przestępstwa określonego w art. 296 § 3, 297 § 1 lub 299 wówczas kara grzywny obok kary pozbawienia wolności może zostać orzeczona do 3000 stawek dziennych (art. 309 kk). Niektóre pozakodeksowe przepisy prawa karnego przewidują obligatoryjne orzekanie grzywny obok kary pozbawienia wolności. Przykładowo prawo o publicznym obrocie papierami wartościowymi za podawanie nieprawdziwych istotnych informacji w prospekcie emisyjnym przewiduje karę pozbawienia wolności od 6 miesięcy do lat 5 i karę grzywny do 5 000 000 zł. Obecny kodeks karny nie przewiduje orzekania grzywny obok kary dożywotniego pozbawienia wolności i 25 lat pozbawienia wolności. +Kolejną, niezależną postacią kary grzywny jest grzywna, którą sąd może orzec w związku z zawieszeniem wykonania kary pozbawienia wolności bądź kary ograniczenia wolności. Art. 71 stanowi, że sąd "zawieszając wykonanie kary pozbawienia wolności lub ograniczenia wolności, może orzec grzywnę […], jeżeli jej wymierzenie na innej podstawie nie jest możliwe". Grzywna ta ma charakter fakultatywny co oznacza, że sąd nie zawsze wymierza grzywnę przy warunkowym zawieszeniu kary. W razie zarządzenia wykonania kary pozbawienia wolności lub ograniczenia wolności: 1. orzeczona grzywna nie podlega wykonaniu, 2. kara pozbawienia wolności lub ograniczenia wolności ulega skróceniu o okres odpowiadający liczbie uiszczonych stawek dziennych z zaokrągleniem do pełnego dnia (art. 71 § 2). Przy warunkowym zawieszeniu kary, grzywna może wynosić w stosunku do kary ograniczenia wolności do 135 stawek, a kary pozbawienia wolności do 270 stawek dziennych. +Kara grzywny przy przestępstwach skarbowych. +Za przestępstwa skarbowe wymierza się karę grzywny w stawkach dziennych w wymiarze od 10 do 720 (reguła), przy czym stawka dzienna nie może być niższa od jednej trzydziestej części minimalnego wynagrodzenia ani też przekraczać jej czterystukrotności. Minimalne wynagrodzenie wynosi w 2011 r. 1386 zł. Minimalne wynagrodzenie jest ustalane na podstawie przepisów Ustawy z 10 października 2002 o minimalnym wynagrodzeniu za pracę (tekst jednolity Dz.U. z r. 2002 nr 200 poz. 1679 ze zmianami). Jak więc widać, ustawodawca wprowadził inne zasady ustalania stawek dziennych grzywny w Kodeksie karnym a inne w Kodeksie karnym skarbowym. +Grzywnę za przestępstwo skarbowe wymierza się na podobnych zasadach co grzywnę określoną w Kodeksie karnym, ale z jednym wyjątkiem – można ją obligatoryjnie wymierzyć obok kary pozbawienia wolności (będzie to grzywna niesamoistna). Ma to miejsce przykładowo wtedy, gdy Kodeks karny skarbowy posługuję się zwrotem: "podlega karze grzywny (...) albo karze pozbawienia wolności (...), albo obu tym karom łącznie." Za wykroczenia i wykroczenia skarbowe wymierza się grzywnę kwotowo stosując podobne zasady co do przestępstw i przestępstw skarbowych. +Kara grzywny za naruszenie przepisów porządkowych. +Powszechnie przyjmuje się, że kara grzywny może być wymierzana także na podstawie przepisów porządkowych stanowionych przez terenowe organy administracji (radę gminy, wójta, radę powiatu, zarząd powiatu oraz wojewodę). Jednak podstawą prawną do wymierzenia grzywny za naruszenie tych przepisów jest zawsze ustawa. Przepisy porządkowe moga wprowadzać nakazy określonego zachowania się, nie mogą jednak wprowadzać nowych wykroczeń i przewidywać za nie sankcji. +Wykonanie kary grzywny. +Fundamentalną formą wykonania kary grzywny jest dobrowolne uiszczenie jej w terminie 30 dni od daty wezwania (art. 44 § 1 kkw). Dotyczy to jej wszystkich rodzajów. Aby karę grzywny wykonać prezes lub upoważniony sędzia sądu zarządza wpisanie jej do dziennika należności sądowych. Następnie wzywa się skazanego do zapłacenia grzywny w określonym ustawowo terminie. Wezwanie takie powinno zawierać wysokość grzywny i być wysłane do skazanego ze zwrotnym zaświadczeniem odbioru, które dodaje się do akt sprawy. +Inną formą wykonania kary grzywny jest rozłożenie jej na raty co daje skazanemu możliwość dobrowolnego jej uiszczenia w późniejszym terminie, a także pozostania na wolności (nieizolacyjny charakter). Zgodnie z art. 49 kkw sąd może rozłożyć grzywnę na raty lub ją odroczyć na czas nieprzekraczający 1 roku, w szczególnych wypadkach na okres do 3 lat. +Dzięki ratom lub odroczeniu osiągany jest zasadniczy rezultat kary u osób niezamożnych. Kara grzywny wykonywana w formie rat jest znakomitą alternatywą dla długiej egzekucji. +Główną przesłanką rozłożenia grzywny na raty jest informacja, że skazany nie jest w stanie jej zapłacić ponieważ pociąga to dla niego i jego rodziny zbyt dotkliwe skutki . +Praca społecznie użyteczna jest kolejną, zastępczą formą wykonania kary grzywny. Sąd może ją orzec wówczas, gdy: +Zamieniając karę grzywny na pracę społecznie użyteczną, przyjmuje się że 10 stawek dziennych jest równych jednemu miesiącowi pracy użytecznej (w zaokrągleniu do pełnego miesiąca). Karę tę wymierza się w miesiącach, wyznaczając wymiar godzin w stosunku miesięcznym. Zastępcza forma kary grzywny w postaci pracy społecznie użytecznej jest rozwiązaniem fakultatywnym tzn. sąd nie musi, lecz może posługiwać się tym rodzajem wykonania kary grzywny. Sąd orzeka ją z urzędu za zgodą skazanego lub na wniosek samego skazanego, jego obrońcy lub prokuratora. Idąc za art. 45 § 2 kkw do wykonania tej zastępczej formy kary grzywny stosuje się odpowiednio niektóre przepisy dotyczące kary ograniczenia wolności. Tak więc, m.in. stosownie do art. 45 § 2 w zw. z art. 55 § 2 kkw i art. 57 § 1 kkw, kontrolowaniem i organizowaniem, jak i określeniem miejsca wykonywania pracy społecznie użytecznej zajmuje się zawodowy kurator sądowy. Praca społecznie użyteczna daje wiele korzyści nie tylko skazanemu ale także społeczeństwu. Skazany pozostając na wolności realnie odczuwa dolegliwość związaną z karą, a społeczeństwo otrzymuje zapłatę za popełnione przez niego przestępstwo. +Następną formą wykonania kary grzywny jest egzekucja, o której mówi art. 44 § 2 kkw: "w razie bezskutecznego upływu wyznaczonego terminu grzywnę ściąga się w drodze egzekucji" (art. 44 § 2 kkw). Egzekucja obejmuje także sytuację gdy grzywna została uiszczona tylko w części. Ta forma wykonania kary grzywny ma nadal na celu wymierzenie sprawcy dolegliwości o charakterze ekonomicznym . +Wszczęcie procesu egzekucyjnego inicjuje sąd, przesyłając "właściwemu komornikowi tytułu wykonawczego z poleceniem jego wykonania". Obok polecenia sąd powinien przekazać także dane osobowe i adresowe skazanego, a w przypadku osób skazanych na karę pozbawienia wolności także informacje na temat zakładu karnego, w którym dana osoba przebywa . Komornik po otrzymaniu zgłoszenia przystępuje do wszczęcia postępowania komorniczego. +Inną przyczyną nieskuteczności egzekucji może być brak majątku, który mógłby być poddany egzekucji oraz niemożność jego ustalenia. +Zastępcza kara pozbawienia wolności. +Orzekając zastępczą karę pozbawienia wolności, przyjmuje się że jeden dzień pozbawienia wolności jest równy dwóm stawkom dziennym. Orzeczona kara nie może jednak przekroczyć 12 miesięcy, chyba że dane przestępstwo nie było zagrożone karą pozbawienia wolności wówczas zastępczą karę pozbawienia wolności orzeka się do 6 miesięcy (46 § 1 kkw). Zasady te dotyczą także gdy grzywna zostanie uiszczona w części. Do wykonania zastępczej kary pozbawienia wolności stosuje się odpowiednio przepisy odnoszące się do kary pozbawienia wolności. +Kara ta jest ostateczną formą wykonania grzywny z uwagi na fakt zamienienia dolegliwości majątkowej na pozbawienie skazanego wolności. Zastępcza kara pozbawienia wolności pełni także funkcję aktywizującą. Sprawia, że skazany odczuwając realną groźbę pozbawienia wolności, uiści grzywnę dobrowolnie bądź podejmie się jej wykonania w innej formie. +Umorzenie. +Umorzenie kary grzywny uregulowane jest w art. 51 kkw. Umorzenie jest fakultatywne i nie uzależnia się od wysokości orzeczonej grzywny. +1. skazany z przyczyn od niego nie zależnych nie może uiścić grzywny – przesłanka ta ma charakter obiektywny. Niemożność uiszczenia grzywny powinna więc wynikać z przyczyn, na które skazany nie miał wpływu (np. ciężka choroba skazanego). +2. Wykonanie kary w innej formie jest niemożliwe lub niecelowe – przyczyny tego mogą leżeć po stronie skazanego (np. stan zdrowia, inwalidztwo, sytuacja materialna lub rodzinna), jak również mogą nie być związane z jego osobą (np. brak możliwości podjęcia zastępczej pracy użytecznej, zdarzenia losowe). +3. Zachodzi szczególnie uzasadniony wypadek – a więc wypadek specjalny, niezwykły i wyjątkowy. +4. Z okoliczności sprawy wynika, że wykonanie kary byłoby bezcelowe – istnieje przekonanie sądu o wysokim prawdopodobieństwie bezskuteczności egzekucji. +Zadaniem umorzenia jest ochrona przed karą pozbawienia wolności tych skazanych, którzy mimo chęci nie mieli możliwości uiszczenia grzywny. +Sigeryk + +Sigeryk (ur. ?, zm. w 415) - król Wizygotów. +W 415 roku w Barcelonie dokonał zamachu na dotychczasowego króla Wizygotów, Ataulfa. Krótko jednak cieszył się władzą, gdyż został zamordowany tydzień później. Jego następcą został Walia. +Bibliografia. +Collins R., "Hiszpania w czasach Wizygotów. 409-711", Wyd. PWN, Warszawa 2007, ISBN 978-83-01-15308-3. +Poręba (gmina Leśnica) + +Poręba (dodatkowa nazwa w j. niem. Poremba) – wieś położona w gminie Leśnica w powiecie strzeleckim, województwo opolskie. +Wieś Poręba leży na północ od Leśnicy Opolskiej. Obszar wsi z uwagi na rzeźbę terenu należy do szczególnie malowniczych. W pobliżu drogi do Leśnicy Opolskiej znajduje się niezamarzające źródło krasowe nazywane „Siedem Źródeł”. Wypływająca stąd woda zasila potok Padół, który przepływa przez Leśnicę i od stuleci zaopatruje ją w wodę. +Historia. +Poręba została po raz pierwszy wzmiankowana w 1485 roku jako „Poramba”. W XV-XVI wieku miejscowość należała do znanego rodu rycerskiego Strela, fundatorów pierwszego kościoła na Górze Świętej Anny, która przez długi czas należała do dóbr w Porębie. Od 1637 roku właścicielem Poręby był Melchior Ferdynand Gaszyn. Do 1936 roku wioska nosiła urzędową nazwę Poremba, a w latach 1936-1945 Mariengrund. Poręba posiada nietypową dla wsi opolskiej łańcuchową zabudowę, położona jest bowiem w wąskiej długiej dolinie. Stąd prowadzi bardzo urozmaicony krajobrazowo szlak kalwarii na Górę Świętej Anny, z wieloma kaplicami i okazałym drzewostanem. W centrum Poręby znajduje się kościół Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Maryi Panny oraz Dom Opieki im. Edmunda Bojanowskiego. +Liczba mieszkańców Poręby. +1720: 97 mieszkańców +1861: 325 +1910: 342 +1939: 369 +1996: 271 +Wyspa Eglinton + +Wyspa Eglington – wyspa leżąca w Archipelagu Arktycznym w grupie Wysp Królowej Elżbiety i Parry'ego. +Wyspa należy do pomniejszych wysp archipelagu i położona jest pomiędzy Wyspą Księcia Patryka a Melville'a. Od pierwszej oddzielona jest cieśniną Crozier Channel, a od drugiej – Kelletta. Powierzchnia wyspy posiada kopulaste ukształtowanie, wznosząc się w centralnym punkcie do poziomu 150 m n.p.m. Jałowe i kamieniste podłoże poprzecinane jest płytkimi wąwozami, którymi w czasie letnich roztopów spływają liczne strumienie. +Matka Boża + +Matka Boża (skr. "MB"), Theotokos (gr. Θεοτόκος), pot. "Matka Boska", "Boża Rodzicielka", Bogurodzica a. "Bogarodzica" – jeden z dwóch (obok „Najświętsza Maryja Panna”) oficjalnych tytułów Marii z Nazaretu, matki Jezusa, używany m.in. w Kościele katolickim i Kościołach prawosławnych (scs. "Boharodzica"). W wersji współczesnej tytuł ten brzmiałby "Matka Boga". +Historia. +Tytuł „Matki Bożej” ogłoszony został dogmatycznie na Soborze Efeskim (431). Było to orzeczenie rozstrzygające w sprawie sporu dotyczącego natury Chrystusa. +Dogmat ten sformułowano w czasie czwartej i piątej sesji soborowej, które miały miejsce w dn. 16-17 lipca 431 r. Sobór odczytał projekt listu do Papieża, przygotowany przez Cyryla (zm. 444 r.). List został uroczyście zatwierdzony i wysłany do papieża, wysłano także list do cesarza. +Tytuł ten daje prawo do nazywania Maryi Matką Boga ("Theotokos") wbrew nestorianom, którzy uważali, że przysługuje jej tylko tytuł „Matka Chrystusa”, jako że Syn Boży był zrodzony przed stworzeniem świata. +Dla uczczenia orzeczenia Soboru efeskiego nt. Marii jako Bożej Rodzicielki, w Rzymie została zbudowana "Bazylika Matki Bożej Większej" - "Santa Maria Maggiore", będąca jedną z czterech bazylik papieskich. Umieszczono w niej ikonę Marii z dzieciątkiem Jezus, tzw. Matki Bożej Śnieżnej która posłużyła za wzór wielu obrazom maryjnym w sanktuariach na całym świecie, np. Matki Bożej Podkamieńskiej, Latyczowskiej, Berdyczowskiej, Agłońskiej a także, choć ze zmianami MB Trybunalskiej i in. +Tomasz z Akwinu (1225–1274) wyjaśniając Boże macierzyństwo Marii, odwoływał się do pojęcia unii osobowej wypracowanego w trakcie dyskusji z nestorianizmem. Stwierdził, że "matką jakiegokolwiek człowieka nazywa się ta kobieta, z której wziął on ciało". A ponieważ z Marii zostało wzięte ( "assumitur") ciało, które jest ciałem Boga, jest ona słusznie nazywana Matką Bożą. Nie wszystko, co składa się na osobę Chrystusa, zostało wzięte z niej, lecz jedynie ciało. Dusza została dana przez Boga, a natura boska jest naturą Logosu – Syna odwiecznie rodzonego przez Ojca. +Kościół katolicki obchodzi uroczystość Bożej Rodzicielki Maryi 1 stycznia. +Jezioro Strzeszyńskie + +Jezioro Strzeszyńskie - jezioro w woj. wielkopolskim, w Poznaniu, leżące na terenie Pojezierza Poznańskiego. Jest to naturalne jezioro położone w dolinie Bogdanki na terenie tzw. zachodniego klina zieleni Poznania. +Linia brzegowa o długości 4,5 km, to teren porośnięty głównie lasami liściastymi i sosnowymi, wykorzystywany przede wszystkim do celów rekreacyjnych. +Jezioro użytkowane jest przez Polski Związek Wędkarski w Poznaniu. Dbając o jak najlepsze warunki do wędkowania, związek prowadzi prace związane z zarybianiem i odłowami. Jezioro zaliczane jest do typu sielawowego. Oprócz sielawy występuje w nim także: karp, węgorz, leszcz, lin, szczupak, krąp, ukleja, płoć, okoń, sieja, karaś i kiełb. +W okresie letnim Jezioro Strzeszyńskie jest miejscem rekreacyjnym, nad którym jest położony ośrodek z kąpieliskiem na 10 tys. osób, motelem oraz restauracją czynną przez cały rok. W skład obiektu wchodzą również domki letniskowe oraz kemping na ok. 150 osób. +Jezioro Strzeszyńskie jest najczystszym z dużych akwenów Poznania. +Jezioro pod koniec 2008 zostało zamknięte z powodu zapadania się dna, jednak zostało na nowo otwarte po przeprowadzonych pracach. +Dane morfometryczne. +Powierzchnia zwierciadła wody według różnych źródeł wynosi od 32,0 ha przez 33,5 ha do 34,9 ha. +Zwierciadło wody położone jest na wysokości 77,3 m n.p.m. lub 76,6 m n.p.m. Średnia głębokość jeziora wynosi 8,4 m lub 8,2 m, natomiast głębokość maksymalna 16,5 m bądź 17,8 m. +W oparciu o badania przeprowadzone w 1994 roku wody jeziora zaliczono do II klasy czystości. +Marceli Motty + +Marceli Motty (ur. 1818 w Poznaniu, zm. 1898 tamże) – nauczyciel, działacz społeczny, pisarz. Ojciec rysownika Władysława Motty. +Biografia. +Pochodził ze spolszczonej rodziny francuskiej. Absolwent Gimnazjum św. Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu. W Berlinie studiował filologię klasyczną i filozofię, w 1840 r. uzyskał doktorat. Od 1843 r. do 1896 r. zajmował się pracą pedagogiczną w Poznaniu. Był nauczycielem m.in. w Gimnazjum św. Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu. Zajmował się również pracą społeczną w Towarzystwie Pomocy Naukowej i Poznańskim Towarzystwie Przyjaciół Nauk. +Sławę przyniosły mu zbiory felietonów - "Przechadzki po mieście" (1957, 1999), "Listy Wojtusia z Zawad" (1983), które stanowią istotny zbiór informacji o XIX-wiecznym Poznaniu. +Marceli Motty spoczywa w Cmentarzu Zasłużonych Wielkopolan na stoku Wzgórza Św. Wojciecha. W 1920 r. jedna z ulic na poznańskim Łazarzu otrzymała imię Marcelego Mottego. +Rusałka (Poznań) + +Rusałka (także "zbiornik Rusałka") – jezioro zaporowe o powierzchni 36,7 ha leżące w Poznaniu, w zachodnim, golęcińskim klinie zieleni. Zasilane przez Bogdankę i Golęcinkę. Powierzchnia zlewni - 26,6 km². +Historia i osobliwości. +Jezioro powstało w 1943 r. poprzez spiętrzenie wód Bogdanki. Do wykonania prac ziemnych związanych z utworzeniem zbiornika zostali zmuszeni Żydzi osadzeni w hitlerowskich obozach pracy przymusowej na terenie Poznania. +W 1960 roku na północnym brzegu jeziora powstał ośrodek wypoczynkowy z trawiasto-piaszczystą plażą, wypożyczalnią sprzętu wodnego i polem kempingowym. +W miejscu obecnego jeziora, pod koniec XIX wieku wzniesiona została niewielka trapezowa bateria stanowiąca element fortyfikacji Twierdzy Poznań zwana Baterią Bogdanka (Bogdanka Batterie). +Dodatkowo przy brzegu zachodnim znajdują się pozostałości mauzoleum ofiar Fortu VII, które w latach 90. XX wieku uległo całkowitej dewastacji i obecnie jest doglądane wyłącznie siłami społecznymi okolicznych mieszkańców. +Przyroda. +Jezioro okalają ubogie zespoły pałki wąskolistnej i trzciny pospolitej. Przy wpływie Bogdanki rośnie manna mielec i sit jeziorny. W wodach występują: wywłócznik, moczarka kanadyjska, mech jawajski, grążel żółty i rzęsa trójrowkowa. Drzewa porastające tereny wokół zbiornika to głównie olsza czarna, olsza szara, wierzba krucha, topola biała i leszczyna. +Oprócz powyższego, w latach 60. XX wieku, stwierdzono w sąsiedztwie akwenu występowanie następujących rzadkich roślin: nasięźrzał pospolity, pępawa różyczkolistna, storczyk samczy i turówka wonna. +Wędkarstwo. +Jezioro typu sandaczowego. Występują także: karp, węgorz europejski, leszcz, lin, ukleja, amur biały, szczupak pospolity, krąp, jazgarz, płoć, wzdręga, okoń europejski i ciernik. Zakaz wędkowania w porze nocnej i używania spinningu. Zbiornik bardzo popularny wśród wędkarzy, zwłaszcza w weekendy. +Inne. +Całe jezioro otoczone jest lasami i stanowi ważny ośrodek rekreacyjny dla mieszkańców miasta. Odbywają się tutaj imprezy sportowe i rekreacyjne różnego szczebla, m.in. Grand Prix Poznania w biegach przełajowych, czy noworoczne spotkania cyklistów. +Akwen jest popularny wśród poznańskich naturystów. Dawniej gromadzili się oni przede wszystkim na plaży południowej. Obecnie jest ich tam mniej - przenieśli się w miejsca styku wody z lasem. +Ciekawostką jest, że jezioro było kilkakrotnie wykorzystywane jako plener przez filmowców, na przykład w filmie Ogniem i mieczem "zagrało" Dniepr +Więcemir + +Więcemir, Więcemiar, Więcemier, Więcmier – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Więce-" ("więcej") i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Oznacza "tego, który przysparza pokoju". +Więcemir imieniny obchodzi 19 września. +Andamany + +Andamany – archipelag leżący na Oceanie Indyjskim pomiędzy Zatoką Bengalską a Morzem Andamańskim. Wchodzi w skład indyjskiego terytorium związkowego Andamany i Nikobary. +Archipelag długości 352 km i szerokości do 51 km składający się z 576 wysp, z których 26 jest zamieszkanych. Od Nikobarów oddziela je Kanał Dziesiątego Stopnia. Andamany zajmują powierzchnię 6408 km² i zamieszkuje je 314 239 mieszkańców (2001). Stolica i główny ośrodek Port Blair. +Główna część archipelagu to Wielki Andaman. Jest to skupiona na obszarze długości 251 km grupa wysp, z których trzy największe to: Andaman Północny, Andaman Środkowy i Andaman Południowy. Na wschód od niego grupa mniejszych wysp tworzy Archipelag Ritchie, natomiast na południe leży czwarta duża wyspa archipelagu Mały Andaman, oddzielona pięćdziesięciokilometrową Cieśniną Duncan, stanowiącą główny szlak morski przez wyspy. Najdalej na wschód wysuniętą wyspą archipelagu, oddaloną 135 km od Wielkiego Andamana, jest wyspa Barren, będąca wierzchołkiem czynnego wulkanu. Geograficznie do archipelagu zaliczają się także Wyspy Kokosowe, terytorialnie należące do Mjanmy. Od indyjskich Andamanów oddziela je Cieśnina Kokosowa. +Andamany to wyspy górzyste, otoczone rafami koralowymi, pokryte gęstym lasem tropikalnym. Początkowo były zamieszkiwane przez negroidalne ludy tubylcze, których ostatni przedstawiciele żyją w izolowanych rezerwatach (zob. Andamanie). Na wyspach znajdują się liczne instalacje wojskowe. +26 grudnia 2004 roku tsunami wywołane trzęsieniem ziemi o sile 9 stopni w skali Richtera poważnie zniszczyło archipelag. +Kurt Furgler + +Kurt Furgler (ur. 24 czerwca 1924 w Sankt Gallen, zm. 23 lipca 2008), polityk szwajcarski, trzykrotny prezydent Konfederacji Szwajcarskiej. +Studiował prawo na uniwersytetach we Fryburgu, Zurychu i Genewie oraz w Instytucie Stosunków Międzynarodowych w Genewie, miał tytuł doktora praw. Od 1950 prowadził praktykę adwokacką w kantonie Sankt Gallen, jednocześnie rozpoczął działalność polityczną w szeregach Chrześcijańsko-Demokratycznej Partii Ludowej. Był kolejno sekretarzem i przewodniczącym kantonalnej organizacji partyjnej w Sankt Gallen. W latach 1954-1971 był członkiem Rady Narodowej (jednej z izb parlamentu), brał udział w pracach kilku komisji (wojskowej, spraw zagranicznych, specjalnej śledczej) oraz kierował frakcją parlamentarną Chrześcijańsko-Demokratycznej Partii Ludowej. +Od grudnia 1971 do grudnia 1986 zasiadał w Radzie Związkowej (rządzie Szwajcarii). Zajął w rządzie miejsce Ludwiga van Moosa i objął kierownictwo resortu sprawiedliwości i policji. W 1983 przeszedł na stanowisko ministra spraw gospodarczych, jednocześnie trzykrotnie był wiceprezydentem (1976, 1980, 1984) i prezydentem Szwajcarii (1977, 1981, 1985). 31 grudnia 1986 został zastąpiony w Radzie Związkowej przez Arnolda Kollera. +Więcemił + +Więcemił – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Więce-" ("więcej") i "-mił" ("miły"). Oznacza "tego, który jest milszy niż inni". +Więcemił imieniny obchodzi 26 maja. +Total Access Communication System + +TACS (ang. "Total Access Communication System") – europejska adaptacja systemu AMPS. +Zmianie uległy zakresy wykorzystywanych częstotliwości – w TACS jest to 900 MHz. Zmniejszony został także odstęp pomiędzy kanałami i wynosi on 25 kHz. +Stosowany jest w Wielkiej Brytanii, krajach europejskich i na Dalekim Wschodzie. +Zobacz też. +AMPS, NMT +Dalia (roślina) + +Dalia, georginia ("Dahlia" Cav.) – rodzaj roślin nasiennych należących do rodziny astrowatych. Pochodzi z Ameryki Środkowej i liczy 15 gatunków. Niektóre są uprawiane w wielu krajach jako rośliny ozdobne. Nazwa wywodzi się od nazwiska szwedzkiego botanika Andersa Dahla. Znana również pod nazwami ludowymi: giergonia, giergona, wielgonia i wielgoń (ostatnie dwie dotyczą zwłaszcza odmian o największych kwiatostanach). Gatunkiem typowym jest "Dahlia pinnata" Cav.. +Morfologia. +Byliny pod ziemią posiadające bulwy. W zależności od odmiany osiągają wysokość od 35 cm do prawie 2 metrów. Kwiaty różnobarwne, zebrane w koszyczki o wielkości od kilku do 25 cm. Kwitną późnym latem i jesienią. +Systematyka. +Angiosperm Phylogeny Website adoptuje podział na podrodziny astrowatych ("Asteraceae") opracowany przez Panero i Funka w 2002, z późniejszymi uzupełnieniami. Zgodnie z tym ujęciem rodzaj "Dahlia" należy do plemienia "Coreopsideae" Lindl., podrodziny "Asteroideae" (Juss.) Chev. W systemie APG III astrowate są jedną z kilkunastu rodzin rzędu astrowców ("Asterales"), wchodzącego w skład kladu astrowych w obrębie dwuliściennych właściwych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa astrowe ("Asteridae" Takht.), nadrząd astropodobne ("Asteranae" Takht.), rząd astrowce ("Asterales" Lindl), rodzina astrowate ("Asteraceae" Dumort.), rodzaj dalia ("Dahlia" Cav.). +Odmiany ozdobne. +Niektóre gatunki są uprawiane jako rośliny ozdobne. Większość jednak uprawianych odmian to mieszańce powstałe ze skrzyżowania "Dahlia coccinea" i "Dahlia pinnata". Określane są wspólną nazwą jako dalia zmienna lub dalia ogrodowa ("Dahlia" hybr.). Ogrodnicy wyhodowali bardzo dużą liczbę odmian ozdobnych. Znane są odmiany o kwiatach odmiany pojedynczych, półpełnych i pełnych. +Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski w RP + +Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej – najstarszy i największy Kościół ewangelicki (protestancki) w Polsce, kościół luterański prawnie działający na terenie Polski, będący członkiem takich organizacji, jak Światowa Rada Kościołów, Światowa Federacja Luterańska, Konferencja Kościołów Europejskich, Polska Rada Ekumeniczna. Organem prasowym jest "Zwiastun Ewangelicki". Zwierzchnikiem Kościoła jest bp Jerzy Samiec. +Historia. +Geneza. +Luteranie w Polsce pojawili się wkrótce po wystąpieniu Marcina Lutra. Nauki Lutra zostały dobrze przyjęte w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej oraz u jej bezpośrednich sąsiadów. Szczególne uznanie zyskały na terenach Prus Książęcych, na Śląsku Cieszyńskim, w Małopolsce i Wielkopolsce. Edykt Zygmunta I Starego z 1523 roku głosił, że każdy, kto by "owe dzieła luterskie wprowadzał, sprzedawał, kupował, czytał; albo zasady Lutra głosił, bronił lub pochwalał, aby prócz spalenia samychże książek, on także śmiercią na stosie i konfiskatą dóbr wszystkich ukarany został".W 1525 roku Albrecht Hohenzollern doprowadził do sekularyzacji Prus Książęcych, wprowadził luteranizm jako religię państwową. Na Śląsku Cieszyńskim luteranizm wprowadził rządzący wtedy Księstwem Cieszyńskim Wacław III Adam, który spopularyzował to wyznanie na tyle, że luteranizm stał się dominującym wyznaniem w Księstwie. +Lata 1918-1939. +Historia Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w RP rozpoczyna się po zakończeniu działań I wojny światowej. Odrodzona Polska powstała z trzech zaborów, które różniły się między sobą nie tylko ustrojowo, ale również religijnie. W granicach Państwa Polskiego znalazło się około 900 000 ewangelików należących do różnych Kościołów, m.in. Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Królestwie Polskim, Kościoła Unijnego w Wielkopolsce (Kościół Ewangelicko-Unijny w Polsce), Kościoła Unijnego na Górnym Śląsku (Kościół Ewangelicko-Unijny na Polskim Górnym Śląsku), Kościoła Unijnego w Galicji (Kościół Ewangelicki Augsburskiego i Helweckiego Wyznania w Małopolsce) oraz Kościoła Staroluterańskiego (Kościół Ewangelicko-Luterański w Polsce ponieważ w 1926). +Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski w RP był spadkobiercą Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Królestwie Polskim, który działał na terenie zaboru rosyjskiego. Po odrodzeniu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej objął swym zasięgiem również parafie z innych regionów kraju. Trudnego dzieła złączenia i budowy struktur Kościoła podjął się pierwszy superintendent generalny, ks. Juliusz Bursche. W 1936 roku, na mocy Dekretu Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z 25 listopada 1936 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, wprowadzono nową Ustawę Kościelną. Zgodnie z jej zapisami na czele Kościoła stał Biskup Kościoła, władzę administracyjną sprawował Konsystorz, władze ustawodawczą Synod. Kościół został podzielony na 10 diecezji, na których czele stali seniorowie. Ustawa gwarantowała również wewnętrzną niezależność Kościoła oraz dała prawną podstawę do jego rozwoju. W okresie międzywojennym powstał diakonat „Eben Ezer” w Dzięgielowie. Utworzono Wydział Teologii Ewangelickiej na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Istniało 5 szpitali ewangelickich, kilka domów opieki, rozwijał się diakonat „Tabita”. +II wojna światowa. +II wojna światowa była ogromnym ciosem dla luteran. Podczas wojny zginęło ok. 30% duchownych kościoła oraz Biskup Kościoła, ks. Juliusz Bursche. Większość księży została aresztowana, mienie ewangelików zostało skonfiskowane. Wprowadzony zakaz odprawiania nabożeństw i czynności kościelnych w języku polskim doprowadził do drastycznego spadku uczestnictwa ewangelików w nabożeństwach. Na skutek działań wojennych Kościół poniósł ogromne straty materialne, zniszczono wiele świątyń oraz budynków kościelnych. W samej tylko Warszawie zniszczono zakłady dobroczynne, szkoły, szpital oraz kościół. +Lata 1945-1989. +Z chwilą zakończenie działań wojennych Kościół znalazł się w zupełnie nowej sytuacji polityczno-państwowej. Dekretem Prezydenta z 19 września 1946 roku uznano za obowiązujący Dekret Prezydenta z 1936 roku, zmieniono jedynie stan terytorialny Kościoła oraz włączono odłamy luteranizmu, które do tego Kościoła przed wojną nie należały. Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski w PRL-u objął swoim działaniem obszary ziem odzyskanych, włączono do jego struktur przedwojenne parafie Kościołów Unijnych, Kościoła Staroluterańskiego, Kościoła Augsburskiego i Helweckiego Wyznania w Małopolsce oraz Braci Morawskich. +Na tej podstawie prawnej zaczęto na nowo organizować władze kościelne. Już w 1945 roku w Łodzi doszło do zebrania żyjących pastorów, którzy powołali ks. Jana Szerudę na tymczasowego zwierzchnika Kościoła. Jego główne wysiłki skierowane były na zwołanie Synodu Kościoła, który dokonać miał wyboru stałych organów kościelnych. Jednak zanim doszło do zwołania Synodu, zorganizowano na nowo diecezje, powołano władze tych diecezji, zapewniono opiekę duszpasterską w nowych parafiach. Pierwszy Synod zebrał się 29 czerwca 1950 roku, dokonano wtedy wyboru Konsystorza. Kolejny Synod w 1951 roku wybrał na Biskupa Kościoła ks. Karola Kotulę. +Głównym problemem Kościoła w okresie powojennym był spadek liczby wiernych, wywołany nie tylko działaniami wojennymi, ale również przesiedleniami (Dolny Śląsk, Mazury). Po wojnie na terenie Polski mieszkało około 240 000 luteran; w ciągu kilku powojennych lat liczba ta zmniejszyła się o połowę. W kolejnych latach nadal się zmniejszała, w 1964 roku było ich 100 000. Kolejnym problemem była odbudowa oraz odzyskanie majątku kościelnego. W pierwszych latach powojennych Kościół utracił wiele świątyń, z których części nadal nie udało się odzyskać. Odbudowa udała się dzięki pomocy nie tylko wiernych z Polski, ale również zagranicznych organizacji kościelnych. W 1954 roku utworzono Chrześcijańską Akademię Teologiczną w Warszawie, na której otwarto Sekcje Teologii Ewangelickiej, kształcącą ewangelickich duchownych. +W okresie stanu wojennego parafianie otrzymywali dary z parafii zachodnich. Wybrany w 1975 roku Biskup Kościoła ks. Janusz Narzyński brał udział w Obradach Okrągłego Stołu. +Po 1989 roku. +Na mocy ustawy z 13 maja 1994 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego uregulowano funkcjonowanie Kościoła w Polsce. Na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski liczył 90 000 wiernych. Nowa regulacja prawna doprowadziła do powstania różnych nowych form działania Kościoła. Powołano do życia Diakonię Kościoła, zajmującą się udzielaniem pomocy osobom potrzebującym. Kościół prowadzi domy opieki dla dorosłych w Dzięgielowie, Konstancinie-Jeziornie, w Bytomiu-Miechowicach, w Mikołajkach, Zagórowie, Węgrowie i Bielsku-Białej. Działają przyparafialne świetlice środowiskowe, wypożyczalnie sprzętu rehabilitacyjnego. Powrotem do przedwojennej tradycji było powołanie w 1995 roku Ewangelickiego Duszpasterstwa Wojskowego. Dzięki inicjatywie ewangelickich towarzystw edukacyjnych, powołano do życia szkoły podstawowe, gimnazja, licea oraz szkoły policealne we Wrocławiu, Krakowie, Bielsku-Białej, Cieszynie, Olsztynie i Gliwicach. Nie zapomniano również o środowiskach polonijnych za granicą, szczególnie w Niemczech i Wielkiej Brytanii. +Wewnętrzną strukturę Kościoła reguluje Zasadnicze Prawo Wewnętrzne Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z 26 października 1996 r., uchwalone przez Synod Kościoła. W 1992 roku powołano do życia Ośrodek Wydawniczy Augustana w Bielsku-Białej, który wydaje literaturę ewangelicką. W 2010 w wyniku tajnego głosowania Synod Kościoła opowiedział się przeciwko ordynacji kobiet na księży. +Nauka Kościoła Luterańskiego. +Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski (Luterański) opiera swoją wiarę na czterech zasadach: tylko Pismo, tylko Chrystus, tylko wiara i tylko łaska. Najistotniejszą z nich jest zasada „Tylko Chrystus”, której podporządkowane są wszystkie inne. Oznacza ona, że tylko Jezus Chrystus, Syn Boga Ojca, prawdziwy Bóg i prawdziwy człowiek, dzięki działaniu Ducha Świętego narodzony z Marii Panny, jest jedynym pośrednikiem między człowiekiem a Bogiem, jedynym Zbawicielem i ratunkiem dla grzesznika, który zbawienie przyjmuje z darowanej łaski, bez własnej zasługi, poprzez wiarę w Ukrzyżowanego i Zmartwychwstałego Pana (teologia krzyża). Nauka o usprawiedliwieniu w Kościele luterańskim podkreśla, że nie zbawiają uczynki, a jedynie wiara w usprawiedliwiające dzieło Chrystusa, dokonane na krzyżu Golgoty. Dobre uczynki pokazują, czy wiara jest prawdziwa – człowiek czyni dobrze nie dlatego, aby być zbawionym, ale czyni dobrze dlatego, że Chrystus złożył z życia swego jedyną i niepowtarzalną ofiarę dla zbawienia całego świata. +Wierni uznają niedzielę za dzień święty. Na nabożeństwach odbywa się spowiedź „powszechna”, jednak na życzenie możliwa jest również spowiedź uszna, praktykowana raczej jako „rozmowa wiary”. Istnieją dwa sakramenty: Chrzest i Komunia Święta. Kościół praktykuje chrzest niemowląt, a Komunia Święta, nazywana Wieczerzą Pańską, Sakramentem Ołtarza, Sakramentem Ciała i Krwi Pańskiej lub Eucharystią, udzielana jest pod dwiema postaciami chleba i wina. Luteranie wierzą, że chrzest święty włącza człowieka do społeczności Kościoła, jest kąpielą nowonarodzenia w Duchu Świętym, zmywa winę za grzech pierworodny (nie sam grzech), który rozumiany jest jako źródło grzesznego stanu całego człowieka (totus homo peccator est). Ewangelicy tradycji augsburskiej wyznają wiarę w cielesną obecność Chrystusa w, pod i z elementami chleba wina (tzw. konsubstancjacja). Luteranie wierzą, że tak, jak ludzka natura Chrystusa przenika się i współistnieje bez konfliktu z jego boską naturą, tak substancja chleba i Ciała oraz wina i Krwi współistnieją obok siebie, i wiarą przyjmowane są przez wierzących podczas liturgii. Sakrament Ołtarza rozumiany jest jako uczestnictwo w ciele i krwi Chrystusa, pamiątka Chrystusa ukrzyżowanego i zmartwychwstałego, społeczność wiernych, antycypacja Królestwa Bożego i ofiara dziękczynienia składana Ojcu. +Administracja Kościoła. +Parafia zgodnie z przepisami wewnętrznego prawa kościelnego „jest określoną terytorialnie lokalną społecznością kościelną i jednostką organizacyjną Kościoła, posiadającą siedzibę oraz władze parafialne”. Członkiem parafii są osoby wyznania ewangelickiego mieszkające na jej terenie. Rozległe parafie mogę tworzyć filiały. Najwyższą władzą parafii jest Zgromadzenie Parafialne, które stanowią członkowie parafii posiadający czynne prawo wyborcze (członek parafii który ukończył 18 rok życia, był konfirmowany, uczęszcza na nabożeństwa, opłacił składkę kościelną). Parafią zarządza Rada Parafialna powołana na 5 letnią kadencję. Zwierzchnikiem duchownym parafii jest proboszcz, który powołany jest na 10 letnią kadencję z możliwością przedłużenia. Kościół dzieli się na 134 parafie, 133 filiały, posiada 194 kościoły i 151 kaplic. +Duchowni. +Prezbiterem i biskupem w Kościele Ewangelicko-Augsburskim w RP może być mężczyzna, który należy do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego, posiada obywatelstwo polskie, cieszy się nieposzlakowaną opinią, wykazuje się dobrym stanem zdrowia, ukończył Chrześcijańską Akademię Teologiczną w Warszawie – Wydział Teologii, zdał egzamin kościelny i uzyskał akceptację władz kościelnych. Duchowni przechodzą na emeryturę w wieku 65 lat lub – jeśli Konsystorz Kościoła wyrazi na to zgodę – w wieku 68 lat. Księży nie obowiązuje celibat. Kobiety mogą być ordynowane na urząd diakona. Obecnie Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski liczy 164 duchownych (biskupów, prezbiterów-księży oraz diakonów). +Diakoni i diakonise. +W luteranizmie diakonat jest posługą duchowną, w Polsce pełnioną zarówno przez mężczyzn jak i kobiety w posłudze diakona. W Kościele pełniona jest również służba ewangelickich diakonis - sióstr żyjących w celibacie i pełniących służbę wśród potrzebujących. Obecnie jest 16 sióstr diakonis w Żeńskim Diakonacie Eben-Ezer w Dzięgielowie na Śląsku Cieszyńskim. +Bratnia Pomoc im. Gustawa Adolfa. +Bratnia Pomoc im. Gustawa Adolfa to organizacja zajmującą się pomocą parafiom Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w RP. Funkcjonuje na zasadzie samopomocy: corocznie we wszystkich parafiach przeprowadzana jest zbiórka pieniężna, zebrane środki przekazywane są do Zarządu BPiGA. Na posiedzeniu zarządu z udziałem delegatów wszystkich parafii następuje podział zebranych pieniędzy pomiędzy parafie, które zgłosiły zapotrzebowanie na te środki. Środki te przeznaczane są na budowę, renowację kościołów i budynków parafialnych, szkół oraz na różną działalność charytatywną (kuchnie dla biednych, domy opieki dla dzieci i starszych. +Diakonia Kościoła. +Diakonia Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w RP to organizacja prowadząca służbę diakonijną przy Kościele Ewangelicko-Augsburskim w Polsce w poszczególnych parafiach. Jej nadrzędnym celem jest niesienie pomocy potrzebującym. Realizuje go przez różnego rodzaju działalności m.in.: wspieranie instytucji i inicjatyw dotyczących udzielania pomocy bliźnim, opiekę nad ludźmi chorymi, starymi, niepełnosprawnymi, udzielanie pomocy rodzinom. Posiada liczne ośrodki opiekuńcze, szpitale czy działające na terenie całego kraju wypożyczalnie sprzętu rehabilitacyjnego, świetlice dla dzieci. Uczestniczy w Wigilijnym Dziele Pomocy Dzieciom wraz z katolicką Caritas i prawosławną Eleos. Posiada status organizacji pożytku publicznego. +Centrum Misji i Ewangelizacji (CME). +Centrum Misji i Ewangelizacji Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w RP prowadzi działalność na terenie całej Polski w ramach Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w RP, docierając do różnych grup wiekowych i środowiskowych. Centrum wytycza sobie pięć kierunków pracy: Promowanie wolontariatu, organizowanie akcji ewangelizacyjnych (jak Tydzień Ewangelizacyjny w Dzięgielowie), wspieranie pracy diakonijnej, prowadzenie działalności wydawniczej i wspieranie powstawania nowych parafii i grup. Posiada status organizacji pożytku publicznego. +Polskie Towarzystwo Ewangelickie (PTEw). +Polskie Towarzystwo Ewangelickie jest ogólnopolskim stowarzyszeniem społeczno-kulturalnym działającym w środowisku Kościołów ewangelickich. Jego celem jest pielęgnowanie więzi wśród społeczności ewangelickiej, kultywowanie jej tradycji oraz obrona interesów i dobrego imienia ewangelicyzmu w Polsce. Powstało na bazie lokalnego stowarzyszenia, które założono w 1919 roku w Poznaniu. W 1983 roku nastąpiło rozszerzenie jego działalności na cały kraj. PTEw działa poprzez oddziały regionalne: Bielsko-Biała, Cieszyn, Jaworze, Katowice, Koszalin, Kraków, Lublin, Łódź, Poznań, Sopot, Ustroń, Warszawa i Wisła. Pracę oddziałów koordynuje Zarząd Główny, którego siedziba mieści się w Katowicach. PTEw jest wydawcą kwartalnika „i Myśl”, poszczególne oddziały prowadzą swą działalność poprzez imprezy muzyczne, odczytowe, sesje popularnonaukowe, działania społeczne, polityczne, wydawnictwa. +Stowarzyszenie Przedsiębiorców Ewangelickich (SPE). +Stowarzyszenie Przedsiębiorców Ewangelickich ma za zadanie rozwijać przedsiębiorczość prywatną w oparciu o zasady ewangelickiego etosu pracy i podnoszenia etyki zawodowej przedsiębiorców. Stowarzyszenie realizuje swe cele poprzez wszechstronne działania zmierzające do budowania ewangelickich postaw etyki gospodarczej i wychowania w szacunku do pracy, wyznania i Kościoła oraz współdziałanie z władzami Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w zakresie kształtowania aktywnych postaw społecznych. +Arsenal Stadium + +Stadion Highbury (właśc. "Arsenal Stadium") - stadion piłkarski położony w północnym Londynie, w dzielnicy Highbury, na którym swe mecze rozgrywała od 1913 do 2006 r. drużyna Arsenalu. +Historia stadionu. +Przenosiny Arsenalu, który pierwotnie grał w południowym Londynie, nastąpiły w roku 1913. Klub wydzierżawił od St. John's College of Divinity nowy teren za 20 tys. funtów na 21 lat pod dodatkowymi warunkami – mecze nie mogły być rozgrywane w Wielki Piątek i Wigilię Bożego Narodzenia. Te ograniczenia zniesiono dopiero w 1925 r., po ostatecznym wykupieniu gruntów za kwotę 64 tys. funtów. Budowa rozpoczęła się w 1914 r. Do najważniejszych zadań należało przede wszystkim wyrównanie terenu, co wymagało wyniesienia północnej części boiska o ponad trzy metry i obniżenia południowej o półtora. Wybudowanie trybuny i bram wejściowych kosztowało 80 tys. funtów – klub był jednak w tak fatalnej kondycji, że nie mógł zapłacić za roboty i dopuścił wykonawcę do udziału w zyskach ze sprzedaży biletów. +W 1932 r. powstała "West Stand", czyli zachodnia trybuna stadionu. Kosztowała 45 tys. funtów, a jej otwarcie 10 grudnia uświetnił następca tronu, Książę Walii. Pierwszy raz na trybunę wpuszczono kibiców dwa dni później, podczas meczu przeciwko Chelsea Londyn, wygranym przez Arsenal 1:0. Była to wówczas największa konstrukcja w całej lidze angielskiej, w której mogło pomieścić się ponad 24 tys. widzów (w tym 4100 na miejscach siedzących na wyższym poziomie, do którego dojeżdżała winda). +Cztery lata później naprzeciwko zachodniej powstała wschodnia trybuna, czyli "East Stand". Miała pierwotnie kosztować tyle samo co jej siostra bliźniaczka, ale jej całkowity koszt zamknął się w aż 130 tys. funtów. Jednym z głównych powodów był fakt, że zewnętrzna fasada "East Stand" nie jest przysłonięta domami, toteż zaprojektowano ją o wiele bardziej reprezentacyjnie. Obie trybuny słyną w świecie jako doskonałe przykłady stylu art déco w architekturze. Kibice po raz pierwszy weszli na wschodnią trybunę w meczu przeciwko Grimsby, zremisowanym 0:0. +Podczas II wojny światowej stadion został zarekwirowany przez obronę przeciwlotniczą, a za południową trybuną ("Clock End") umiejscowiono balon zaporowy. Na płycie rozgrywali swoje mecze żołnierze, czasem nawet po dwa–trzy spotkania dziennie. Podczas bombardowań Londynu na północną trybunę ("North Bank") spadła niemiecka bomba. W tym czasie Arsenal rozgrywał swoje mecze na White Hart Lane, korzystając z uprzejmości lokalnego rywala – Tottenhamu. +Współczesność. +Od sezonu 2006/07 klub rozgrywa swoje mecze na nowym stadionie, nazwanym oficjalnie Emirates Stadium. Highbury jest obecnie przebudowany na obiekt biurowo-usługowy. Powstaną w nim również apartamenty. Na miejscu boiska powstanie zaś park, z alejkami i miejscami do rekreacji. +Komitet planowania ds. ropy naftowej + +Komitet planowania ds. ropy naftowej (ang. "Petroleum Planning Committee" - PPC) został powołany na mocy Trakatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950 roku. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuację zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio pod Wysoki komitet planowania centralnego na sytuacje nadzwyczajnych zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Funkcją komitetu jest zwiększenie gotowości NATO do radzenia sobie z ewentualnymi brakami w zbiorach paliw, wynikającymi z kryzysu lub wojny. Działa on także w zakresie zawierania umów z sektorem cywilnym w zakresie dostaw ropy dla wojsk NATO, zarówno w czasie wojny, jak i pokoju. +Państwowe wyższe szkoły zawodowe w Polsce + +Państwowe wyższe szkoły zawodowe – zawodowe szkoły wyższe powstałe na mocy ustawy o wyższych szkołach zawodowych z 1997. Są uczelniami nowego typu, które kształcą na poziomie zawodowym licencjackim, inżynierskim oraz magisterskim. +Powstawały one zazwyczaj w byłych miastach wojewódzkich w wyniku lokalnego zapotrzebowania na specjalistów w danej dziedzinie. Kierunki i specjalności studiów prowadzone przez PWSZ związane są m.in. z administracją, ekonomią, językami obcymi (filologie), naukami technicznymi, ochroną środowiska, pedagogiką, turystyką oraz również fizjoterapią. +Technikum + +Technikum — szkoła szczebla średniego o profilu technicznym, a obecnie typ szkoły ponadgimnazjalnej, wprowadzona w Polsce w 1948 jako alternatywna wobec liceum. Pierwotnie dostępna dla absolwentów 7-letnich szkół podstawowych (od reformy w 1968 - ośmioletnich) oraz dla absolwentów ponadpodstawowych dwu- lub trzyletnich tzw. zasadniczych szkół zawodowych (ZSZ). Nauka w technikum trwała lat pięć (jeśli podjęta po ZSZ - dwa lata) i kończyła się tak jak w liceum - egzaminem dojrzałości oraz dodatkowo pracą dyplomową. Dyplom ukończenia technikum upoważniał do posługiwania się tytułem technika. Nie wszystkie średnie szkoły techniczne podlegały Ministrowi Oświaty, liczne z nich były resortowe (podlegające ministerstwom odpowiednich gałęzi przemysłu), niektóre zaś były utworzone przy większych fabrykach. +Po reformie w 1999 naukę w technikach skrócono do 4 lat, przy czym naukę w szkole można podjąć dopiero po ukończeniu najpierw sześcioletniej szkoły podstawowej, a potem trzyletniego gimnazjum. +Ukończenie czteroletniego technikum umożliwia uzyskanie dyplomu potwierdzającego kwalifikacje zawodowe po zdaniu egzaminu potwierdzającego kwalifikacje zawodowe, a także uzyskanie świadectwa maturalnego po zdaniu egzaminu maturalnego. Do roku szkolnego 2011/2012 absolwenci zasadniczych szkół zawodowych mogli kontynuować naukę w trzyletnich technikach uzupełniających. +Nauka w technikum (dane na rok szkolny: 2012/2013). +Uczeń technikum będzie musiał wybrać dwa przedmioty na poziomie rozszerzonym, które wiążą się ze zdobywanym zawodem. Jednym z tych przedmiotów musi być: matematyka, biologia, geografia, fizyka lub chemia. Przedmioty na poziomie podstawowym będą nauczane w klasach I i II. +Przedmioty nauczane w technikum. +1) tylko w zakresie podstawowym - przedmioty: wiedza o kulturze, podstawy przedsiębiorczości, wychowanie fizyczne i edukacja dla bezpieczeństwa; +- język polski, język obcy nowożytny, język mniejszości narodowej lub etnicznej, język regionalny, matematyka; uczeń realizuje zakres podstawowy albo zakres rozszerzony (wymagania szczegółowe dla zakresu rozszerzonego obejmują także wszystkie wymagania szczegółowe dla zakresu podstawowego); +- historia, wiedza o społeczeństwie, geografia, biologia, chemia, fizyka, informatyka; uczeń obowiązkowo realizuje zakres podstawowy (zakres rozszerzony stanowi kontynuację nauczania danego przedmiotu w zakresie podstawowym). +3) tylko w zakresie rozszerzonym: historia muzyki, historia sztuki, język łaciński i kultura antyczna, filozofia. +Henryk VI Dobry + +Henryk VI Dobry (Wrocławski) (ur. 18 marca 1294, zm. 24 listopada 1335) – książę wrocławski w latach 1311-1335. +Henryk VI był drugim pod względem starszeństwa synem, a siódmym dzieckiem księcia legnickiego i wrocławskiego Henryka V Brzuchatego i księżniczki wielkopolskiej Elżbiety. +Małoletni w chwili śmierci ojca, znalazł się wraz z rodzeństwem Bolesławem III i Władysławem pod opieką matki (do 1304) i stryja księcia jaworskiego Bolka I Surowego (do 1301). W 1302 po przejściowym sprawowaniu regencji przez biskupa wrocławskiego Henryka z Wierzbna władzę nad księstwem wrocławsko-legnickim przejął osobiście król czeski i polski Wacław II, który sprowadził najstarszego z synów Henryka V na swój dwór do Pragi. Co się w tym samym czasie działo z Henrykiem VI – nie wiadomo. +Za pełnoletniego Henryk został uznany w 1310, kiedy ożenił się ze znacznie starszą od siebie Anną, córką władcy Austrii Albrechta I. Rok później na skutek nacisków możnych zjednoczonej dotychczas dzielnicy wrocławsko-legnickiej doszło do jej podziału na trzy części: wrocławską, legnicką i brzeską. Najbardziej ubogi i najmniej ważny był dział brzeski, do którego bracia zobowiązali się dopłacić łącznie 50 000 grzywien. Jako pierwszy prawo wyboru miał najstarszy Bolesław, który pragnąc zdobyć niezależność finansową wybrał niespodziewanie Brzeg, w związku z czym Wrocław przypadł Henrykowi. Przedsiębiorczy Henryk w przeciwieństwie do najmłodszego z braci Władysława (którego Bolesław w związku z tym wydziedziczył), nie miał kłopotów z spłaceniem zobowiązań (pomocni okazali się zwłaszcza bogaci patrycjusze wrocławscy) i utrzymał się na otrzymanej dzielnicy. +W latach 1312-1317 wybuchł konflikt Bolesława III i Henryka z książętami głogowskimi o ziemie, które zostały wydarte niegdyś ich ojcu. Długotrwała wojna, w której po stronie synów Henryka V uczestniczył Władysław Łokietek, zakończyła się przyłączeniem Uraza do dzierżaw Henryka, zaś Wołowa i Lubiąża do dzierżaw Bolesława. +W 1314 Henryk wsparł również w walkach o tron niemiecki krewnego żony króla Fryderyka Pięknego. +Wojna z Piastami głogowskimi rozgorzała na powrót w 1321, tym razem jednak Henryk nie był przekonany, co do celowości jej prowadzenia, zawierając na początku 1322 separatystyczny pokój z Głogowczykami, uzyskując w zamian Smogorzów z okręgiem. Zawarte porozumienie zostało wsparte małżeństwem córki Henryka Elżbiety z Konradem oleśnickim. +Walki Bolesława III Rozrzutnego z synami Henryka III głogowskiego przeciągnęły się do roku następnego. Wtedy też Bolesław pragnący odzyskać władzę nad potężnym Wrocławiem zaproponował młodszemu bratu wymianę dzielnicy wrocławskiej na legnicką – Henryk VI tej niekorzystnej transakcji oczywiście nie przyjął. +Henryk VI zagrożony polityką brata zmierzającą do pozbawienia go księstwa (doszło nawet do drobnych starć zbrojnych), po nie udanej próbie podporządkowania się Władysławowi Łokietkowi (który bał się w tym momencie interwencji na Śląsku nie chcąc ryzykować wojny z Luksemburgami), złożył 20 kwietnia 1324 hołd lenny cesarzowi rzymskiemu Ludwikowi Bawarskiemu, uzyskując prawo do dziedziczenia po nim jego córek (a więc nastąpiło wydziedziczenie Bolesława III i jego potomków). +Hołd lenny nie zabezpieczył jednak wystarczająco włości Henryka przed ponawianymi ciągle wyprawami Bolka III. W tym celu książę wrocławski w 1325 wydał swoją drugą córkę Eufemię za Bolesława Niemodlińskiego i zawarł rok później sojusz z zakonem krzyżackim skierowany przeciwko głównemu sojusznikowi brata na Śląsku Władysławowi Łokietkowi. +Ostatecznie Henryk pod naciskiem patrycjatu wrocławskiego zdecydował się na układy z królem czeskim Janem Luksemburczykiem. Do podpisania umowy doszło we Wrocławiu 6 kwietnia 1327. Na mocy tego układu księstwo wrocławskie pozostało niezależne od Luksemburga, ale po śmierci Henryka VI miało przejść na własność korony czeskiej. W zamian za te ustępstwa Henryk otrzymał od króla w dożywocie ziemię kłodzką i wysoką rentę jako uposażenie. +W polityce wewnętrznej Henryk opierał swoje rządy na potężnym patrycjacie Wrocławia, który obdarzał licznymi przywilejami. Wobec kościoła był niezwykle stanowczy, przez co w latach 1319-1321 znalazł się pod klątwą kościelną. +Henryk VI Dobry zmarł 24 listopada 1335 i został pochowany w kaplicy św. Jadwigi w klasztorze klarysek we Wrocławiu. Z małżeństwa z Anną Habsburżanką miał trzy córki – Elżbietę, wydaną za Konrada I oleśnickiego, Eufemię, żonę Bolesława Niemodlińskiego i Małgorzatę, klaryskę z Wrocławia. Synów nie pozostawił. +Alfred Brehm + +Alfred Edmund Brehm (ur. 2 lutego 1829 w Unterrenthendorf (dziś Renthendorf) - zm. 11 listopada 1884 tamże) - niemiecki zoolog. +Jego głównym dziełem było "Życie zwierząt" ("Tierleben", 1864-1869), tłumaczone na wiele języków; zyskał dzięki niemu przydomek "ojca zwierząt" (niem. "Tiervater Brehm"). +Kościoły Chrystusowe + +Kościoły Chrystusowe to nurt protestantyzmu utworzony na początku XIX wieku przez Thomasa Campbella - irlandzkiego prezbiterianina, który poszukiwał sposobów przywrócenia jedności chrześcijaństwa. +Charakterystyka. +Kościoły Chrystusowe poszukiwały wiedzy o Bogu tylko w Biblii, odrzucając później stworzone formuły teologiczne i wyznania wiary. Przywiązują dużą wagę do konieczności duchowego odrodzenia. W doktrynie podobni do baptystów, m.in. ze względu na praktykowanie chrztu dorosłych. Ponadto jako pamiątkę ofiary Jezusa Chrystusa obchodzą Wieczerzę Pańską. Zbory mają całkowitą autonomię (kongregacjonalizm). +Żółwiakowate + +Żółwiakowate, żółwiaki, żółwie trójpazurzaste (Trionychidae) – rodzina gadów z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych. Niekiedy bywają też nazywane naleśnikowymi żółwiami ("pancake turtles"). Do żółwiakowatych należą niektóre spośród największych współczesnych słodkowodnych żółwi. Wiele z nich jest też przystosowanych do życia w wodach brachicznych. Żółwiaki występują obecnie w Afryce, Azji, Ameryce Północnej. +Ewolucja. +Najstarsze żółwiaki pochodzą są z wczesnej kredy (barrem-alb) Azji. Najwcześniejsze ślady ich obecności w Ameryce Północnej pochodzą albu i cenomanu. Dawniej uważano, że żółwie trójpazurzaste zasiedliły Europę dopiero w paleocenie, niemniej jednakże Scheyer i współpracownicy (2012) opisywali ich szczątki z datowanych na późną cześć wczesnego kampanu osadów Szwecji. Współczesne żółwiakowate nie występują na tym kontynencie, niemniej jednakże - jak wskazują skamieliny - od eocenu do pliocenu stanowiły tam ważną cześć fauny.. +Kladogram za Joyce i współpracownikami (2009) +Budowa i zachowanie. +Pancerze żółwiakowatych nie są zbudowane z rogowych płytek, niemniej jednak u żółwiaka kolcowatego występują kolczyste wyrostki skórne. Karapaks żółwi trójpazurzastych jest szorstki i miękki, szczególnie na swoich brzegach. Jego środkowa część podpiera się na warstwie mocnych kości (podobnie jak u innych żółwi), w przeciwieństwie do swoich boków. Niektóre gatunki posiadają w plastronie kości skórnego pochodzenia, niepołączone jednak z resztą szkieletu. Lekki i elastyczny pancerz żółwiaków pozwala im łatwiej poruszać się w otwartych wodach i zabłoconych jeziorach. +Stopy posiadają trzy palce (stąd też nazwa Trionychidae, wywodząca się z łacińskiego słowa "tri" - trzy i greckiego "nychus" - szpon, pazur) połączone błoną pławną. +Barwa pancerza danego gatunku żółwiaka wykazuje tendencje do upodabniania się do koloru podłoża (piasku, mułu) spotykanego w miejscu występowania danego gatunku. Stanowi więc formę kamuflażu. +Dymorfizm płciowy przejawia się głównie w rozmiarach - samice są większe od samców. +Występujący w południowej Azji wielki żółw Cantora jest największym współczesnym przedstawicielem Trionychidae. +Trionychidae wykazują szereg przystosowań do wodnego trybu życia. Z powodu braku języka, muszą one połykać pokarm pod wodą (podobnie jak wszystkie wodne żółwie). Większość z nich jest mięsożercami, włączającymi w skład swojej diety głównie ryby, skorupiaki, ślimaki oraz płazy, a sporadycznie także ptaki i małe ssaki. Elastyczne szyje żółwiaków są nieproporcjonalnie długie w stosunku do reszty ciała, co umożliwia im oddychanie powietrzem atmosferycznym, bez konieczności całkowitego wynurzenia się z wody. +Żółwie trójpazurzaste są zdolne także do "oddychania" pod wodą (powietrzem w niej rozpuszczonym) dzięki licznym nitkowatym bogato unaczynionym kosmkom wyścielającym błonę śluzową gardzieli (działającym podobnie jak skrzela u ryb). Pozwala im to przebywać przez dłuższy czas pod wodą bez wynurzania się. Żółwiak chiński potrafi ponadto wydalać mocznik podczas takowego "oddychania", co ułatwia przeżycie w sytuacjach, gdy zwierzę nie ma dostępu do słodkiej wody. +Wiele żółwiaków posiada bardzo silne szczęki, co pozwala np. kruszyć muszle mięczaków. Ugryzienia większych gatunków mogą być niebezpieczne, gdyż są w stanie odciąć palec, a być może nawet dłoń człowieka. +Żółwiakowate jako źródło pokarmu dla ludzi. +Mięso żółwiakowatych jest w wielu krajach (zwłaszcza wschodniej Azji) uważane za przysmak. Jedną z chińskich potraw stanowi duszona mieszanka mięs: żółwiaka i kurczaka. Zgodnie z raportem (1930) historyka sztuki Soame'a Jenynsa resteuracje w Guangdong importowały z Kuangsi w dużych ilościach mięso żółwi trójpazurzastych "jedzone duszone z migdałami, pieczone w sosie chili bądź smażone z pędami bambusa, postrzegane jako wielki rarytas". +Najczęściej konsumowanym na świecie żółwiakowatym jest żółwiak chiński. Jak zauważył biolog Kakichi Mitsukuri (1904) jego japońska odmiana (klasyfikowana niekiedy jako "Trionyx japonicus") zajmuje poczesne miejsce w kuchni tego kraju. Hodowla "słodkiego gada" znanego w Japonii jako "suppon". w celach konsumpcyjnych, została rozwinięta tam już w XIX na skalę przemysłową. +Ze względu na rosnący popyt na mięso żółwiaka chińskiego w połowie lat dziewięćdziesiątych XX wieku jego ceny w Chinach mocno wzrosły. Niemniej jednakże powstanie nowych hodowli i zwiększenie pogłowia tego żółwia do setek milionów, umożliwiają normalizację cen . Innym hodowanym na mięso (jednakże na mniejszą skalę - jego pogłowie wynosi setki tysięcy, a nie milionów) w Chinach żółwiem trzypazurzastym jest "Palea steindachner". +W USA "połowy" żółwi trójpazurzastych (zwłaszcza żółwiaka drapieżnego) były legalne na Florydzie. Spotkało się to jednak z licznymi protestami ze strony środowisk proekologicznych, nawołującej do ograniczenia lub całkowitego zakazania tej praktyki. Pod wpływem tych nacisków Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) ustaliła dzienny limit na ilość upolowanych przez licencjonowanych łowców żółwi na dwadzieścia, co obrońcom żółwi wydaje się zbyt wysokim, biorąc pod uwagę, że ilość zarejestrowanych prawnie florydzkich łowców żółwi wynosi 100-500. Część zdobytego przez nich mięsa jest konsumowana przez miejscowych, niemniej jednakże większość trafia na eksport. +Według szacunków FWC (2008) 1500 kg jest każdego tygodnia eksportowana poprzez port lotniczy Tampa. +20 kwietnia 2009 weszły w życie nowe zasady ograniczające ilość zabijanych żółwi do jednego dziennie na myśliwego, a w maju 2009 całkowicie zakazały polowań na żółwie z rodzaju "Apalone" (w tym żółwiaki drapieżne). Niemniej jednakże zarejestrowane prawnie hodowle żółwi mogą chwytać żyjące na wolności żółwiaki w celu rozpoczęcia chowu. +Również inne stany USA przyjęły ograniczenia na handel mięsem dzikich trójpazurzastych. W 2009 Południowa Karolina przyjęła ustawę ograniczająca międzystanowymi i międzypaństwowym do 10 osoby na osobę jednorazowo lub 20 na osobę rocznie. +Taksonomia. +Rodzina Trionychidae +Komitet Obywatelski "Solidarność" + +Komitet Obywatelski „Solidarność” (najpierw Komitet Obywatelski przy Lechu Wałęsie) – półlegalna organizacja zawiązana 18 grudnia 1988. +Po zakończeniu obrad Okrągłego Stołu i zatwierdzeniu decyzji o wyborach parlamentarnych na 4 czerwca 1989 komitet przekształcił się w spontaniczny ogólnopolski ruch zwolenników zmian ustrojowych w Polsce. Trybuną tego ruchu stała się utworzona specjalnie w tym celu „Gazeta Wyborcza” pod redakcją Adama Michnika, której pierwszy numer ukazał się 8 maja, oraz reaktywowany „Tygodnik Solidarność” pod redakcją Tadeusza Mazowieckiego. +Geneza i powstanie Komitetu Obywatelskiego. +W skład Komitetu weszli niemal wyłącznie doradcy Lecha Wałęsy z lat 1980-1981, osoby ze środowiska dawnego Komitetu Obrony Robotników oraz przywódcy podziemnej „Solidarności”. Poza składem KO znalazły się inne środowiska opozycyjne, w szczególności opozycja niepodległościowa (Konfederacja Polski Niepodległej, Solidarność Walcząca, Liberalno-Demokratyczna Partia "Niepodległość", Polska Partia Niepodległościowa). +Przygotowania do wyborów. +Komitet Obywatelski przyjął koncepcję, że w każdym okręgu wyborczym, w którym zgodnie z ustaleniami obrad Okrągłego Stołu opozycja miała do obsadzenia konkretną liczbę mandatów poselskich, wystawi dokładnie tylu kandydatów, ile było miejsc. W całej Polsce na 460 foteli poselskich sejmu kontraktowego można było zdobyć – zgodnie z zasadą przyjętego przy Okrągłym Stole parytetu 35% – 161 mandatów i tyluż kandydowało z list KO „S”. +W przypadku Senatu, w którym nie było zasady parytetu, o 100 miejsc starało się dokładnie stu rekomendowanych przez KO kandydatów. +Wszyscy kandydaci Komitetu do obu izb zrobili sobie zdjęcia obok Lecha Wałęsy (oprócz Piotra Baumgarta, który nie mógł w sesji zdjęciowej uczestniczyć i który w rezultacie jako jedyny kandydat Komitetu nie dostał się do parlamentu) i wszystkie te zdjęcia trafiły na wyraźne, czytelne plakaty wyborcze, rozkolportowane po całym kraju. Kolportowano też liczne inne plakaty, wydawane i drukowane najczęściej poza oficjalnym obiegiem wydawniczym, kontrolowanym przez wciąż jeszcze działającą cenzurę. +Wybory. +4 czerwca odbyła się pierwsza tura wyborów do Sejmu i Senatu. Kandydaci rekomendowani przez Komitet Obywatelski zdobyli 160 mandatów poselskich (na 161 możliwych) i 92 senatorskie. Frekwencja wynosiła 62%. +Wobec faktu, że po pierwszej turze prawie żaden z 65% mandatów przypadających rządzącej PZPR wraz z satelickimi wobec komunistycznej władzy ugrupowaniami (ZSL, SD, Pax, UChS, PZKS) nie został obsadzony (ich najwyżej notowani kandydaci otrzymali od poniżej 1 do najwyżej paru procent) i nie było szans, żeby którykolwiek z nich osiągnął wymagane ordynacją 50% nawet w drugiej turze, toteż szybko zmieniono ordynację tak, że w drugiej turze wchodził ten z kandydatów, który dostał najwięcej głosów, niekoniecznie ponad 50%. Zmiana ta była kwestionowana jako sprzeczna z prawem (nie wolno zmieniać ordynacji w trakcie trwania wyborów), ale za zgodą zarówno koalicji rządzącej, jak i Komitetu wprowadzono ją jako jedyne sensowne i możliwe do zastosowania rozwiązanie nie pozostawiające kraju bez parlamentu. +W większości okręgów Komitet Obywatelski miał już po pierwszej turze swego kandydata wprowadzonego do parlamentu, toteż przed drugą turą skupił się na wsparciu tych spośród kandydatów strony rządowej, którzy wyróżniali się najmniej antyopozycyjną postawą. +18 czerwca w drugiej turze wyborów również „brakujący” 161. mandat poselski przypadł kandydatowi Komitetu, a z ośmiu mandatów senatorskich kandydaci Komitetu objęli siedem. Jedyny mandat odebrał Komitetowi przedsiębiorca z Piły, senator kolejnych od 1989 do 2005 roku kadencji, Henryk Stokłosa, który pokonał Piotra Baumgarta. W wyniku wspomnianych wyżej działań Komitetu pomiędzy pierwszą a drugą turą, praktycznie wszyscy z popartych przez KO kandydatów koalicji dostali się do Sejmu po drugiej turze. Frekwencja – 26%. +Spośród więc 261 mandatów w obu izbach dostępnych Komitetowi po Okrągłym Stole, aż 260 kandydatów KO „S” wygrało w swych okręgach wybory, najczęściej z przygniatającą przewagą, sięgającą niekiedy ponad 90% ważnych głosów. +Po wyborach. +Po zwycięstwie wyborczym racja dalszego trwania Komitetu Obywatelskiego stała się iluzoryczna. Parlamentarzyści KO „S” utworzyli 23 czerwca Obywatelski Klub Parlamentarny, w którym na przewodniczącego wybrano Bronisława Geremka. Reprezentacja parlamentarna OKP (zwanego niekiedy „Okapem”) liczyła zatem w tym momencie 161 posłów i 99 senatorów, natomiast PZPR - 173 posłów, ZSL - 76, SD - 27, Pax - 10, UChS - 5, PZKS - 5. W Senacie 99% miał OKP, a wspomniany Stokłosa był senatorem niezrzeszonym. W tej formie rozpoczął działalność sejm kontraktowy. +Spontaniczny ruch obywatelski i obywatelską świadomość polityczną i aktywność usiłowano – z częściowym tylko powodzeniem – „zagospodarować” poprzez Ruch Obywatelski Akcja Demokratyczna – „ROAD”, przekształcony później w Unię Demokratyczną, a potem w Unię Wolności i inne partie polityczne. Przykładowo Konfederację Komitetów Obywatelskich Województwa Włocławskiego rozwiązano w 1991 roku po przegłosowaniu, że wszyscy członkowie zrzeszonych gminnych Komitetów Obywatelskich stają się automatycznie członkami partii Porozumienie Centrum. +Heian + +Heian jest najdłuższym z okresów, na które historycy tradycyjnie dzielą dzieje Japonii. To czas względnego spokoju wewnętrznego. Wkrótce po 838 roku oficjalne stosunki z państwem chińskim zostały zerwane, czego skutkiem był intensywny rozwój kultury narodowej, wolnej już od chińskich wpływów. +W epoce Heian granice między poszczególnymi klasami społecznymi stawały się coraz wyraźniejsze. Z czasem przejście z jednej do drugiej stało się rzadkością. Dzięki nadaniom ziemi bardzo wzrosła gospodarcza i polityczna rola arystokracji. Szczególnie silne stały się rody możnowładcze ze wschodu Honsiu, okolic równiny Kantō. Była to szlachta nowego rodzaju - nie dworska, jak mieszkańcy stolicy, a związana ściśle z wojną (otrzymywali nadania ziemi, aby podbijać ziemie zajmowane przez Ajnów). Wkrótce to właśnie ona zaczęła przejmować władzę w państwie. +Jednocześnie zmniejszała się realna władza cesarza. Z czasem zaczął on tylko panować, natomiast najważniejsze decyzje podejmowali kanclerze - . Urząd ten zmonopolizował w tamtych czasach najpotężniejszy ród możnowładczy - Fujiwara. Od 866 r., kiedy głowa tego rodu, Yoshifusa, został regentem sprawującym władzę w imieniu cesarza, pomimo, że ten nie był już dzieckiem - stało się jasne, kto faktycznie rządzi krajem. Ród Fujiwara utrzymywał swoje wpływy w rodzinie cesarskiej regularnie wżeniając się w nią, dzięki czemu każdy kolejny potomek cesarski był równocześnie wnukiem głowy rodu. Kiedy następca tronu dorastał, naciskano na niego, by zrzekł się władzy na rzecz kolejnego pretendenta, co sprawiało, że rzeczywista rola cesarzy była niewielka. Szczyt ich potęgi przypadł na lata sprawowania przywództwa przez Michinagę (966-1027). +Epoka Heian zakończyła się wojną domową Genpei (1180 – 1185), w której walczyły ze sobą rodziny Taira (Heishi) i Minamoto (Genji). Kilkanaście lat wcześniej Taira wymordowali niemal wszystkich członków rodu Minamoto, ci jednak zdołali odbudować swoją potęgę. Podczas wojny Genpei doszło według tradycji do pierwszego seppuku, które popełnił Yorimasa Minamoto. Ostatecznie zwycięstwo walczących pod białym sztandarem Minamoto rozstrzygnęło się w bitwie morskiej w cieśninie Dannoura na Wewnętrznym Morzu Japońskim. Wojna ta była opiewana w wielu charakterystycznych dla tej epoki eposach rycerskich. Najsłynniejszym z nich jest "Genji monogatari" autorstwa kobiety (odgrywały one ogromną rolę w kulturze tamtych czasów) Murasaki Shikibu. W 1192 roku cesarz nadał Yoritomo Minamoto tytuł Seii Taishōgun. Od tego momentu centrum życia politycznego kraju przesunęło się na równinę Kantō. Yoritomo przeniósł swoją stolicę do Kamakury, od której swoją nazwę bierze kolejna epoka, która trwała do 1333. +Friedrichshafen FF.49 + +Friedrichshafen FF.49 – niemiecki wodnosamolot bombowy i patrolowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1917 roku w niemieckiej wytwórni lotniczej "Flugzeugbau Friedrichshafen GmbH". +Historia. +Wodnosamolot "Friedrichshafen FF.49" powstał w specjalizującej się w budowie tego typu samolotów wytwórni "Flugzeugbau Friedrichshafen GmbH". Jego konstrukcje oparto na konstrukcji wcześniejszego typu "Friedrichshafen FF.33" produkowanego już w tej wytwórni. Wodnosamolot "FF.49" miał podobny układ dwupłata, napęd i podwozie, różnił się przede wszystkim wytrzymalszą konstrukcją i kształtem kadłuba – jego tylna część za kabinami załogi była bardziej odchylona do góry w celu ochrony przed uderzeniami fal podczas wodowania i startu z powierzchni wody. Prototyp samolotu oblatano na początku 1917 roku. +Ponieważ wodnosamolot miał dobre osiągi dowództwo niemieckiego lotnictwa zamówiło dwie jego odmiany: bombową oznaczoną "Friedrichshafen FF.49B" i patrolową – "Friedrichshafen FF.49C". Produkcję seryjną odmiany patrolowej "FF.49C" uruchomiono w maju 1917 roku, a odmiany bombowej "FF.49B" w połowie 1917 roku. +Wodnosamolot "Friedrichshafen FF.49" miał płaty dwudźwigarowe o konstrukcji drewnianej, pokryte płótnem. Lotki znajdowały się na obu płatach. Płaty były usztywnione trzema parami słupków stalowych oraz cięgnami stalowymi. W kadłubie z przodu mieścił się silnik rzędowy chłodzony cieczą. Za silnikiem rozmieszczono jedną za drugą dwie kabiny odkryte, osłonięte małym wiatrochronem. W wersji patrolowej "FF.49C" kabina przednia była kabiną pilota, tylna obserwatora, w wersji bombowej "FF.49B" zaś w przedniej kabinie siedział bombardier lub podczas szkolenia uczeń, tylna stanowiła kabinę pilota z urządzeniami sterowniczymi i podstawowymi przyrządami pokładowymi. W kadłubie znajdowały się również zbiorniki paliwa o pojemności maksymalnej 6600 litrów. W tylnej części kadłuba zamontowane było usterzenie klasyczne o konstrukcji drewnianej i pokryciu płóciennym. Kadłub miał konstrukcję kratownicową drewnianą, krytą płótnem. Podwozie stanowiły dwa pływaki drewniane o dwóch redanach, przytwierdzone do dolnego płata i bocznej ściany kadłuba rurami stalowymi. +Obie odmiany wodnosamolotu kierowano sukcesywnie do jednostek lotniczych niemieckiej marynarki wojennej. Do końca I wojny światowej wyprodukowano łącznie 261 wodnosamolotów "Friedrichshafen FF.49", obu odmian, z tej liczby w lotnictwie niemieckim znalazło się 37 wodnosamolotów "FF.49B" i 215 wodnosamolotów "FF.49C". +Użycie samolotu w lotnictwie polskim. +Jeden wodnosamolot "Friedrichshafen FF.49B" został w 1920 roku zakupiony w niemieckiej prywatnej firmie inż. Utgoffa. Skierowano go na wyposażenie Bazy Lotnictwa Morskiego w Pucku. Gdzie używany był do szkolenia w Szkole Lotnictwa Morskiego w Pucku. Eksploatowano do 1924 roku. +Opis techniczny. +Wodnosamolot "Friedrichshafen FF.49B" był ciężkim dwumiejscowym wodnosamolotem bombowym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie pływakowe – stałe. Napęd silnik rzędowy. Śmigło dwułopatowe, drewniane. +Polskie rody książęce + +Polskie rody książęce – rody noszące tytuł książęcy, związane z historią nie tyle samej Polski co Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów. +Potomkowie dynastii Giedyminowiczów. +Pochodzący od wielkiego księcia litewskiego Giedymina (zm. (1341). Wyliczenie oparte na herbarzu Bonieckiego. +Potomkowie dynastii Rurykowiczów. +Pochodzący od Ruryka (zm. 879) władcy Nowogrodu i Ładogi, przodka wielkich książąt kijowskich. +Rody pochodzenia kniaziowskiego – inne. +Pochodzenia różnego (z Litwy, Rusi i Moskwy + rody tatarskie i wołoskie) +Rody książęce z nadania polskich władców lub sejmu. +Polscy władcy elekcyjni nie mogli nadawać tytułów arystokratycznych Polakom, ale mogli nadawać cudzoziemcom. Wettynowie nadając tytuły czynili to jako władcy Saksonii. +Tytuły książęce przysługujące biskupom. +Tytuł książęcy (jak wszystkim biskupom) wraz z krzesłem senatorskim przysługiwał w Rzeczypospolitej osobiście także niektórym hierarchom kościelnym. +Diagram struktury + +Diagram struktury - w inżynierii oprogramowania diagram dodatkowy, opcjonalny, służy głównie do uwidaczniania struktury hierarchicznej danego systemu, pokazuje też parametry wejściowe i wyjściowe. Tego diagramu nie pokazuje się użytkownikowi. Na diagramie struktury każdy prostokąt przedstawia moduł systemu. +Diagram - wykres przedstawiający zależności między wielkościami fiz. (w układzie współrzędnych); graficzny plan czynności jakiegoś urządzenia; schemat, grafik; rysunkowy zapis pozycji szachowej. +Lista polskich rodów margrabiowskich + +Lista polskich rodów margrabiowskich +Henryk Stokłosa + +Henryk Tadeusz Stokłosa (ur. 4 stycznia 1949 w Lipinach) – polski przedsiębiorca, polityk, w latach 1989–2005 senator I, II, III, IV i V kadencji, w 2011 senator VII kadencji. +Życiorys. +Wykształcenie i praca zawodowa. +Ukończył w 1968 technikum samochodowe w Trzciance, a w 1978 studia na poznańskiej Akademii Rolniczej. +Równolegle ze studiami pracował najpierw w Państwowym Ośrodku Maszynowym w Margoninie, a od 1971 w branży turystycznej, w której ostatnio był dyrektorem Przedsiębiorstwa Turystycznego Noteć. W 1980 założył rzemieślniczą firmę utylizacji odpadów rolno-hodowlanych Farmutil H.S. w Śmiłowie. +Prowadzi zespół firm obejmujących głównie różne przetwórnie przemysłu rolno-spożywczego, ale także lokalną prasę oraz sieci handlowe (Stokłosa i Stogrosz), zatrudniających kilka tysięcy osób, będąc jednym z największych pracodawców regionu (byłego województwa pilskiego). W 2005 z majątkiem wycenianym na 950 mln zł znalazł się na około 15. miejscu na liście najbogatszych Polaków tygodnika „Wprost” (w 2004 był 20.). +Działalność polityczna. +W połowie lat 70. wstąpił do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej, z której został wykluczony w 1982. W 1989 prowadził kosztowną kampanię wyborczą w województwie pilskim przed wyborami do Senatu. Dzięki niej uzyskał mandat senatora z najlepszym wynikiem w okręgu, pokonując w drugiej turze m.in. kandydata Komitetu Obywatelskiego Piotra Baumgarta. W Senacie I kadencji był jedynym senatorem niepopieranym przez „Solidarność”. Ponownie uzyskiwał mandat senatora jako kandydat niezależny w okręgu pilskim w 1991, 1993, 1997 i 2001. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2005 nie został ponownie wybrany. +W 2011, startując ze swojego komitetu wyborczego wyborców, został wybrany w okręgu pilskim na senatora w wyborach uzupełniających. Ślubowanie złożył 2 marca 2011. W wyborach parlamentarnych w tym samym roku nie ubiegał się o reelekcję. +Postępowania sądowe. +W styczniu 2007 został wydany europejski nakaz aresztowania byłego senatora w związku z podejrzeniem popełnienia przezeń przestępstw korupcyjnych. 12 listopada 2007 został zatrzymany na podstawie ENA w okolicach Hamburga podczas rutynowej kontroli drogowej. 19 grudnia 2007 został przewieziony do Polski. Jego obrońcą był Zbigniew Ćwiąkalski. Zrezygnował kilka godzin po zatrzymaniu Henryka Stokłosy. 23 grudnia 2008 Sąd Apelacyjny w Poznaniu uchylił decyzję Sądu Okręgowego w Poznaniu przedłużającą okres tymczasowego aresztowania Henrykowi Stokłosie, stosując jednocześnie 3 mln zł poręczenia majątkowego, zatrzymanie paszportu i zakaz opuszczania kraju tytułem środków zapobiegawczych. W dniu 28 lutego 2013 Sąd Okręgowy w Poznaniu skazał Henryka Stokłosę w pierwszej instancji na karę łączną ośmiu lat pozbawienia wolności oraz grzywnę w kwocie 600 tys. zł. +Życie prywatne. +Jest synem rolnika, uczestnika kampanii wrześniowej. Żonaty z Anną, ma trzech synów. +Atman + +Atman (dewanagari आत्म‍ , sanskr. "oddech", आत्मा ) – to w hinduizmie określenie duszy rozumianej jako indywidualna jaźń, obecna w każdej żywej istocie. Atman wciela się w kolejnych żywotach (idea reinkarnacji) w kolejne ciała, podlegając prawu karmy. Pierwsze wzmianki o "atmanie" znaleźć można już w Upaniszadach +Hinduizm. +Atman to dusza w swej czystej postaci , w odróżnieniu od uwikłanej w świecie duszy nazywanej terminem dźiwa . +Mahawakja. +W koncepcji wyrażonej przez sformułowania (mahawakja): +"atman" jest tożsamy z całym wszechświatem, "wszystkim co jest" (Brahmanem). Jest to afirmacja boskości w człowieku (duszy), łączącej go z boskością otaczającego kosmosu. Jest to więc wyrażenie koncepcji Mikro- i Makrokosmosu na gruncie hinduizmu - wskazanie, że skoro człowiek podlega temu samemu porządkowi co wszechświat, to poznanie przez akt autorefleksji istoty samego siebie prowadzi do poznania istoty wszechświata - wyzwolenia. +Według Upaniszad "atman" jest więc kluczem do wyzwolenia, jedyną drogą poznania Brahmana - prawdziwej rzeczywistości i najwyższej, transcendentnej zasady bytu. Poznanie "atmana"-"brahmana" jest możliwe przez wgląd w siebie, przy czym należy posłużyć się intuicją, by obejść przesłaniającego "atmana" osobowe, związane z bieżącą inkarnacją ego, które omamione mają ulega iluzji oddzielenia od Absolutu oraz od reszty istot. +Joga. +Sposobem podążania drogą ku poznaniu "atmana" jest również joga - zdyscyplinowany wysiłek odwrócenia się od świata zmysłów. Nagrodą jest wyzwolenie z samsary - cyklu reinkarnacji, co wyrażone jest w "Praśnopaniszad" słowami: +Ex aequo + +ex æquo (czyt. "egz-ékfo", łac. na równi, jednakowo, w ten sam sposób, w równej mierze, równo) – wyrażenie stosowane najczęściej w odniesieniu do sytuacji, kiedy w jakiejś klasyfikacji (np. sportowej) jeden wynik jest identyczny z drugim (lub większą liczbą wyników) i w efekcie więcej niż jedna osoba zajmuje dane miejsce w klasyfikacji. +Ha!art + +Ha!art – interdyscyplinarny magazyn poświęcony szeroko rozumianej nowej kulturze. Rozpoczął działalność w 1999 roku w Krakowie jako pismo studenckie. +Od września 2008 roku w skład redakcji pisma wchodzą: Katarzyna Bojarska, Katarzyna Czeczot, Iga Gańczarczyk, Łucja Iwanczewska, Ewa Majewska, Ewa Małgorzata Tatar oraz Karolina Więckowska (arkusz "Literatura"), Katarzyna Bazarnik i Zenon Fajfer (arkusz "Liberatura"). +Pismo przechodziło stopniową ewolucję od magazynu interdyscyplinarnego (literatura, komiks, teatr, muzyka, film, media) do pisma młodoliterackiego z zacięciem antropologiczno-socjologicznym i z powrotem. Obecnie każdy numer ma promujący nowe zjawiska, twórców, czy też ich reinterpretacje dział "Polityka autorska", ma także stałe części: film, literatura, liberatura, sztuka i muzyka. Specjalnością "Ha!artu" są duże przekrojowe eseje (np. "Recycling" Michała Witkowskiego, "Europa" Igora Stokfiszewskiego) oraz działy tematyczne – wspomniana "PA", omawiające konkretne zjawiska, m.in. sztuka nowych mediów, street art, literatura zaangażowana, camp, literatura polityczna, literatura gejowska i lesbijska, avant-pop, liberatura, cyberpunk, liternet, minimalizm, neolingwizm, warszawska scena internetowa, kino azjatyckie, czasopisma kulturalne, proza i poezja "roczników siedemdziesiątych", letnio-feministyczny, intermedialność, czy też twórców i ich działania, m.in. Marian Pankowski, Franciszka i Stefan Themerson, Michał Witkowski, Krzysztof Niemczyk, Wilhelm Sasnal. W kwartalniku drukują autorzy, którzy wykazują się wiedzą interdyscyplinarną. Pismo uznawane jest za jedno z najważniejszych mediów programowo prezentujących twórczość młodych ludzi w Polsce, stanowi także o obrazie młodego Krakowa (jeden z numerów nosił tytuł "Kraków potrzebuje świeżej krwi!"). We wszystkich omówieniach podkreśla się bądź polemizuje ze stwierdzeniem,że "Ha!art" to pismo formacyjne dla ludzi urodzonych w latach 70. +“Ha!art” jest pismem lewicującym, ustosunkowanym wrogo wobec współczesnej dominacji wolnego rynku i ekonomii nad resztą życia społecznego. Znajdowało to wyraz nie tylko w tekstach ukazujących się łamach magazynu (szczególnie w zaangażowanych, programowych tekstach redaktora Jana Sowy np. "Sezon w teatrze lalek" czy "System konsumpcji czyli o co gramy" czy w preferowanej literaturze np. twórczości Sławomira Shutego), ale również w strategii jego rozwoju. Wbrew podstawowym zasadom marketingu, “Ha!art” w każdym numerze zmienia swoją identyfikację wizualną (logotyp, układ działów i oprawę graficzną), dążąc tym samym do zbudowania nieświadomości marki. Do współpracy przy tworzeniu pisma zaprasza młodych twórców niekoniecznie związanych na co dzień z redakcją, którzy projektują wizualną stronę numeru. Byli to między innymi Anna Ostoya, Karolina Kowalska, Endo, Jan Simon, Sławomir Shuty, Zenkasi, Małgorzata Dawidek-Gryglicka, Grupa Pif-Paf, Anna Okrasko, Anna-Maria Karczmarska, Anna i Adam Witkowscy. +Korporacja Ha!art. +Redaktorzy magazynu prowadzą też działalność wydawniczą. W 2002 roku ukazała się antologia “Tekstylia. O rocznikach siedemdziesiątych” pod redakcją Piotra Mareckiego i Igora Stokfiszewskiego, Michała Witkowskiego, a w 2003 roku “liternet.pl” – zbiór tekstów poświęconych związkom literatury z nowymi mediami (w tym głównie z internetem). Od 1999 roku “Ha!art” wydaje serię tomów poezji i prozy, która liczy już ponad pięćdziesiąt pozycji (m.in. proza gejowska Michała Witkowskiego, antykonsumpcyjne książki Sławomira Shutego, proza Mariana Pankowskiego i Marty Dzido, wiersze Adama Pluszki, Piotra Macierzyńskiego, Piotra Czerskiego, Pawła Lekszyckiego, Roberta Króla, Piotra Czerniawskiego). "Ha!art" jest także wydawcą powieści hipertekstowej Radosława Nowakowskiego, pt. "Koniec świata według Emeryka" (2005) i audiobooka "Lubiewo" Michała Witkowskiego. +W 2006 roku ukazała się "druga część" "Tekstyliów" – "Tekstylia bis. Słownik młodej polskiej kultury", obejmujący już nie tylko literaturę, ale także m.in. sztukę, film, teatr, muzykę, komiks, idee. +Pismo wydawane jest przez Fundację Korporacja Ha!art (do grudnia 2008 działającą pod nazwą Fundacja Krakowska Alternatywa stowarzyszenie, zarejestrowaną w maju 2004 roku i powołaną przez Piotra Mareckiego i Jana Sowę. Do czerwca 2007 prezesem Fundacji był Piotr Marecki, od czerwca 2007 do maja 2009 Martyna Sztaba. Od maja 2009 prezesem ponownie został Piotr Marecki. Organizacja działa pod szyldem Korporacji Ha!art. Korporacja wydaje młodą prozę i poezję, albumy, antologie, tomy rozmów oraz prowadzi serie wydawnicze: Linię Radykalną (red. Jan Sowa), Linię Wizualną (red. Ewa Małgorzata Tatar), Linię Filmową (red. Kuba Mikurda), Linię Teatralną (red. Iga Gańczarczyk), Linię Muzyczną (red. Daniel Cichy) i Linię Krytyczną (red. Grzegorz Jankowicz). +"Ha!art" jest organizatorem festiwali literackich: "Zapowiadających Się" (2000), "Tekstylia" (2001), "Europa" (2002), "Rzeczywistość" (2003), "Plan Pięcioletni Wykonany" (2004), "gej/les: polska odmiana" (2005), "Minimalizm" (2006), sesji literaturoznawczych: "Liternet" (2001), "Czyczujemy" (2001), "Panko" (2003), "Salamądrość" (2005), konkursu literackiego im. Stanisława Czycza, cyklicznych imprez pt. "Haartowanie kultury" oraz współorganizatorem Targów Wydawnictw Niszowych i Targów Taniej Sztuki. +Do stycznia 2012 roku ukazały się 34 numery pisma. +Kościół katolicki obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego + +Kościół katolicki obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego (ukr. "Українська Греко-Католицька Церква") – większy arcybiskupi Kościół wschodni działający obecnie na terenie Ukrainy oraz wśród diaspory ukraińskiej, uznający władzę i autorytet papieża. +Nazwa. +Oficjalną nazwą Kościoła, używaną przez Stolicę Apostolską, jest Kościół katolicki obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego, nazwa ta została nadana w roku 1975, po otrzymaniu przez kardynała Josyfa Slipego godności patriarchy Kijowa-Halicza. Przez wyznawców nazywany jest również Ukraińską Cerkwią greckokatolicką, Bizantyjskim Katolickim Kościołem Ukraińskim, Greckokatolicką Cerkwią Ukraińską lub Ukraińskim Kościołem katolickim. Dla porównania Kościoła z Kościołem rzymskokatolickim można użyć nazwy Kościół ukraińskokatolicki, jest to jednak nazwa mylącą, ponieważ może wskazywać że Kościół ten działa wyłącznie na Ukrainie. Zwyczajowo jest nazywany Kościołem unickim (nazwa pochodzi od unii brzeskiej) bądź greckokatolickim. Według Konkordatu pomiędzy Stolicą Apostolską a Rzecząpospolitą Polską z 10 lutego 1925 nazywany był obrządkiem grecko-rusińskim. Określenie Kościół bizantyjsko-ukraiński również bywa mylące, bowiem tak określa się czasem ukraińską część Rosyjskiej Cerkwi Prawosławnej. +Nazwę "Kościół greckokatolicki" wprowadziła cesarzowa Maria Teresa w 1774 dla odróżnienia wiernych tej wspólnoty od wiernych Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego oraz Kościoła ormiańskokatolickiego. Natomiast nazwa "Ukraiński Kościół Katolicki" w dokumentach figuruje od 1960 roku. W 1999 zaproponowano by nazwać Kościół: kijowskim, kijowskokatolickim czy Kijowskim Kościołem katolickim. +Historia. +I Rzeczpospolita. +W 988 książę Rusi Kijowskiej Włodzimierz I Wielki przyjął chrzest w obrządku wschodnim z rąk patriarchy Konstantynopola, co oznaczało wejście Rusi w krąg chrześcijaństwa bizantyjskiego. +Po wielkiej schizmie wschodniej w 1054 Kościół ruski formalnie dalej podlegał patriarsze Konstantynopola. Pomimo nieuznania papieża jako swojego zwierzchnika, Kościół ruski oficjalnie nie zerwał komunii (jedności) z Rzymem aż do XIII w. Nie zważając na fakt, że obie strony – Rzym i Konstantynopol – obłożyły się wzajemnie ekskomuniką, delegaci Kościoła ruskiego uczestniczyli w soborach w Lyonie (1245 i 1274) oraz w Konstancji (1414-1417). W końcu jednak ruska Cerkiew porozumiała się z patriarchą Konstantynopola i odeszła od komunii z Kościołem rzymskim. Ruscy hierarchowie aktywnie uczestniczyli w pracach nad unią florencką, nie wysłali jednak delegatów na sobór w Trydencie. +W 1299 r. podczas wojny pomiędzy chanami złotoordyjskimi Toktą i Nogajem metropolita kijowski Maksym przeniósł swą siedzibę ze zniszczonego Kijowa do Włodzimierza nad Klaźmą. W 1325 r. metropolita Wszechrusi Piotr przeniósł swą siedzibę z Włodzimierza nad Klaźmą do Moskwy. W wyniku zaistniałej sytuacji książęta halicko-wołyńscy rozpoczęli starania o utworzenie nowej, drugiej metropolii na Rusi z siedzibą w Kijowie, na co patriarcha Konstantynopola wyraził zgodę. +W 1448 roku metropolia moskiewska uzyskała niezależność od Patriarchatu Konstantynopolitańskiego (status autokefalii), a metropolita Jonasz tytuł Metropolity Moskwy i Wszechrusi. Działo się to zaledwie na 5 lat przed upadkiem Konstantynopola, toteż Moskwa zaczęła być postrzegana jako sukcesorka jego tradycji, co zrodziło pojęcie Trzeciego Rzymu. W 1589 roku metropolita Jow stał się pierwszym patriarchą Moskwy i Wszechrusi. Odtąd Rosyjski Kościół Prawosławny zajmuje piąte miejsce w dyptychu Kościołów prawosławnych, tuż po czterech patriarchatach starożytnych. W ciągu następnych lat wraz z osłabianiem się potęgi domu carskiego patriarchowie (zwłaszcza Hermogen i Filaret) stali się wpływowymi figurami w państwie. +Ruscy hierarchowie ponawiali próby przywrócenia jedności z Rzymem i w 1596 zawarli unię brzeską. Na jej mocy Cerkwi prawosławnej na terytorium Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów przyjęła zwierzchnictwo papieża, zachowując jednak własną strukturę administracyjną oraz wschodnią liturgię. Oficjalne przyjęcie Kościoła ruskiego do wspólnoty z Rzymem nastąpiło 23 grudnia 1595. +Pierwszy synod Katolickiego Kościoła Ruskiego odbył się w 1626. Następne planowane (a nawet zwoływane) w 1647, oraz w 1683-1684 nie doszły do skutku, chociaż formalnie miały odbywać się co 4 lata. +Dwóch prawosławnych hierarchów z terenów Rzeczypospolitej odrzuciło unię, pozostając pod zwierzchnictwem patriarchy Konstantynopola. W 1686 Cerkiew prawosławna Rzeczypospolitej została podporządkowana patriarchatowi moskiewskiemu. +Diecezje położone w późniejszej Galicji, czyli na obszarze największej współcześnie aktywności ukraińskiej cerkwi greckokatolickiej, przystąpiły do unii z Rzymem stosunkowo późno – diecezja przemyska w 1692, diecezja lwowska w 1700. Do końca XVIII wieku ponad dwie trzecie mieszkańców tych ziem stało się grekokatolikami. Po przyłączeniu się wymienionych diecezji struktura organizacyjna kościoła wyglądała następująco: metropolia kijowska, archidiecezja połocka, oraz 6 eparchii: pińsko-turowska, włodzimiersko-brzeska, chełmsko-bełska, łucko-ostrogska, lwowsko-halicko-kamieniecka i przemysko-samborska. +Drugim synodem kościoła unickiego był synod zamojski, zwołany w 1720. +Diecezje unickie dzieliły się na parafie, dekanaty i oficjalaty. Diecezje unickie były znacznie większe od rzymskokatolickich, przeciętnie liczyły ponad 60 tysięcy km². Archidiecezja kijowska zajmowała ok. 50% ogólnej powierzchni diecezji unickich, a wraz z archidiecezją połocką prawie 70%. W XVII i XVIII wieku nastąpił żywiołowy rozwój sieci parafialnej. Miały na to wpływ między innymi finanse – fundacja cerkwi była przedsięwzięciem dużo tańszym od fundacji kościoła rzymskokatolickiego. Początkowo fundacje odbywały się poza kontrolą biskupów. Dopiero w XVIII wieku biskupi zaczęli dbać o równomierne rozłożenie parafii i odpowiednie zabezpieczenie materialne proboszczów. +Rosja. +Już w czasach rozbiorów Rzeczypospolitej Rosja zaplanowała likwidację Cerkwi greckokatolickiej poprzez jej włączenie („powrót”) do Cerkwi prawosławnej. W swojej polityce rosyjscy carowie nie przewidywali miejsca dla konkurentów prawosławia, będącego religią państwową. +Większość duchowieństwa greckokatolickiego wyraziła oficjalnie swoje poparcie w sprawie likwidacji unii. Wśród nich znajdowali się biskupi uniccy Józef Siemaszko, Wasyl Łużyński, Antoni Zubko, którzy w 1838 roku zgłosili w tajemnicy swój akces do Cerkwi prawosławnej, ponadto Siemaszko i Łużyński rozpoczęli zbieranie wśród duchowieństwa unickiego podpisów za masową konwersją na prawosławie. W diecezji litewskiej zebrano ich 760 (więcej niż połowa wszystkich duchownych z tego obszaru), a w diecezji białoruskiej 186 (mniej niż połowa). Na synodzie w Połocku w lutym 1839 przedstawiciele duchowieństwa, wraz z wymienionymi wyżej biskupami, podjęli decyzję o połączeniu Cerkwi greckokatolickiej z Patriarchatem Moskiewskim. Następnie wystosowano petycję do cara, na której znalazły się podpisy 1305 duchownych (jedynie 500 duchownych odmówiło pod nią podpisu). Po zapoznaniu z nią władz rosyjskich Cerkwi prawosławnej doszło dnia 25 marca 1839 roku (starego stylu) do formalnego wyrażenia zgody na przyłączenie Kościoła unickiego do prawosławia. Tym samym Cerkiew unicka na obszarze Cesarstwa Rosyjskiego zachowała się jedynie w Królestwie Polskim (Chełmszczyzna), jednak i tutaj unia została zlikwidowana. W styczniu 1874 przy użyciu siły rosyjscy żołnierze zabili 26 unitów w Pratulinie i Drelowie. Tak więc Cerkiew greckokatolicka na terenie zaboru rosyjskiego została niemal całkowicie zniesiona, trwając tylko na niektórych terenach w podziemiu. +Austria. +W zbliżonym okresie do unii z Kościołem rzymskim przystąpiła również część prawosławnej hierarchii i wiernych Zakarpacia (unia użhorodzka – 1646, unia mukaczewska – 1664, unia marmaroska – 1713) i Siedmiogrodu (unia w Baia Mare – 1700). Powstała w ten sposób odrębna od ukraińskiej rusińska cerkiew greckokatolicka, z której później rozwinęły się greckokatolickie cerkwie słowacka, węgierska i rumuńska. +Katolicyzm w obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskim przetrwał w Galicji, która w 1772 znalazła się pod rządami austriackimi. W jej skład weszła unicka diecezja przemyska (1253 parafie), większa część diecezji lwowskiej (990 parafii), oraz część diecezji halickiej i kamienieckiej (w sumie 3432 parafie). Po zajęciu Bukowiny w 1786 tamtejsi wierni zostali podporządkowani jurysdykcji biskupa lwowskiego. +W 1774 cesarzowa Maria Teresa zmieniła nazwę kościoła z „unicki” na „greckokatolicki”, zakazano również stosowania określenia „pop” na rzecz księdza i proboszcza. Księża greckokatoliccy zostali zrównani w prawach z duchowieństwem łacińskim, a ich synom zapewniono teoretycznie dostęp do urzędów na równi ze szlachtą. +W Wiedniu w 1774 otwarto seminarium – „Barbareum”, natomiast w 1783 otwarto we Lwowie Greckokatolickie Seminarium Generalne, kształcące rocznie 50 alumnów. +Również w 1774 biskup lwowski Lew Szeptycki rozpoczął starania o odnowienie metropolii halickiej, uwieńczone sukcesem w 1808. Pierwszym arcybiskupem został biskup przemyski Anton Anhełłowycz. W 1850 powołano diecezję stanisławowską (której podlegali również wierni z Bukowiny), jednak rozpoczęła ona działalność dopiero w 1885, po decyzji papieża Leona XIII. Jej pierwszym biskupem był Julian Pełesz. +Okres I wojny światowej. +Słabość Cerkwi unickiej, oraz szerzące się rusofilstwo wśród duchowieństwa greckokatolickiego, wyraźnie zarysowała się po inwazji na tereny Galicji Imperium Rosyjskiego. W okresie tym na ogólną liczbę 2483 duchownych greckokatolickich w całej Galicji: 30 bezpośrednio przeszło na prawosławie (nie wliczając eparchii stanisławowskiej), 61 z własnej woli opuściło Galicję i wyjechało do Rosji (nie wliczając eparchii stanisławowskiej), ponad 350 kapłanów o poglądach rusofilskich, uznanych za niebezpiecznych dla państwa ze względu na swoje poglądy polityczne zostało aresztowanych przez władze austriackie przed wkroczeniem Rosjan, i internowanych w obozie w Talerhofie, 350 kapłanów „uciekinierów” opuściło Galicję wraz z armią austriacką, poza tym wielu duchownych (nawet kilkaset), którzy pozostali w swoich parafiach współpracowało jawnie z duchowieństwem prawosławnym. Duchownych unickich aktywistów, którzy wyraźnie przeciwstawiali się narzuconemu reżimowi rosyjskiemu było zaledwie, według różnych szacunków od 56 do około 100. +Według źródeł rosyjskich w okresie I wojny światowej, i obecności na ziemiach dawnej Galicji armii rosyjskiej, około 500 parafii unickich (prawie 1/4 ogółu) przyjęło prawosławie, w większości pod przymusem. Zdarzały się jednak wypadki, że sami wierni greckokatoliccy usuwali proboszczów unickich z parafii, po czym na ich miejsce wprowadzano duchownych prawosławnych, Rosjan. +II Rzeczpospolita. +Wraz z odrodzeniem Polski po I wojnie światowej nastąpiła akcja misyjna wśród prawosławnej ludności pounickiej na Wołyniu i na Białorusi (neounityzm). Bardzo silny rozwój kościoła greckokatolickiego miał miejsce w zaborze austriackim – w Galicji, a później w Małopolsce Wschodniej, za czasów metropolity Andrzeja Szeptyckiego (1900-1944). W 1939 cerkiew greckokatolicka na terenach Polski składała się z archieparchii lwowskiej, z eparchii przemyskiej (w jej ramach istniała Apostolska Administracja Łemkowszczyzny) i z eparchii stanisławowskiej (od 1885). Pod koniec XIX wieku emigranci z Galicji Wschodniej założyli parafie greckokatolickie w Brazylii, Kanadzie i Stanach Zjednoczonych. +W okresie całego dwudziestolecia międzywojennego była prowadzona systematyczna ukrainizacja Kościoła greckokatolickiego, a jednym z jej sposobów było tzw. oczyszczanie obrządku greckokatolickiego z naleciałości łacińskich. Ukrainizacja spotkała się z wyraźnym sprzeciwem ludności ruskiej na Łemkowszczyźnie, gdzie w wyniku oporu do tej akcji zaczęło się szerzyć prawosławie. +Kościół greckokatolicki w 1938 roku na terenie II Rzeczypospolitej posiadał 138 tys. ha ziemi i lasów i był zrównany w prawach z Kościołem rzymskim. Państwo wypłacało duchowieństwu pensje i emerytury, pokrywało koszty administracji kościelnej i koszty funduszów budowlanych. Florentyna Rzemieniuk opisuje stosunek władz państwowych do Kościoła, przez cały okres międzywojenny, jako „poprawny, choć nacechowany nieufnością”. +W latach 1923-1939 Kościół Katolicki w II Rzeczypospolitej podjął próbę przywrócenia unii z kościołem prawosławnym, ostatecznie skasowanej przez władze rosyjskie w 1875 (likwidacja unickiej diecezji chełmskiej). Watykan powołał w 1924 kościół bizantyjsko-słowiański w Polsce. +Po powstaniu Związku Radzieckiego i zajęciu przez niego wschodnich ziem Rzeczypospolitej historia z czasów zaborów się powtórzyła, z dodatkowym czynnikiem w postaci programowej ateizacji. Ukraiński Kościół greckokatolicki padł ofiarą szczególnie silnych prześladowań, w toku których został oficjalnie wcielony do rosyjskiej Cerkwi prawosławnej. +Po II wojnie światowej. +W 1945 wszyscy biskupi ukraińskiej Cerkwi greckokatolickiej zostali aresztowani i skazani na długie wyroki więzienia. Na początku 1946 we Lwowie odbył się pseudosynod, w którym udział wzięło 214 z 1270 duchownych greckokatolickich, a który pod nadzorem tajnej policji politycznej zjednoczył grekokatolików z Rosyjskim Kościołem Prawosławnym. W 1949 podobny pseudosynod miał miejsce na Zakarpaciu. W komunistycznej Polsce kres działalności ukraińskiej Cerkwi greckokatolickiej jako zorganizowanej całości przyniosła Akcja „Wisła” w 1947. Po wysiedleniu do ZSRR w 1946 r. biskupów i kurii przemyskiej Stolica Apostolska wyposażyła w nadzwyczajne uprawnienia kardynałów Hlonda i Sapiehę, a następnie papież Pius XII mianował kard. A.Hlonda delegatem specjalnym dla obrządków wschodnich w Polsce, po jego śmierci analogiczne uprawnienia uzyskał kardynał Stefan Wyszyński. Prymas Stefan Wyszyński umożliwił funkcjonowanie Cerkwi greckokatolickiej w ramach struktury administracyjnej Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego w Polsce, w 1967 ustanowił on funkcję Wikariusza Generalnego Prymasa Polski dla wiernych obrządku greckokatolickiego. Jednak cenzura nakazywała „eliminować wszelkie informacje o istnieniu – aktualnie w Polsce – obrządku greckokatolickiego, jego podporządkowaniu ks. Wyszyńskiemu oraz jakiejkolwiek działalności unitów w naszym kraju”. W 1981 delegatem apostolskim dla wiernych obrządków wschodnich w Polsce z prawami ordynariusza miejsca został Prymas Polski, kardynał Józef Glemp, który następnie powołał dwu Wikariuszy Generalnych dla wiernych obrządku greckokatolickiego – dla Polski północnej i Polski południowej. W 1989 Prymas Polski kardynał Józef Glemp ponownie ustanowił jednego Wikariusza Generalnego dla całego obszaru Polski. +Ukraińska Cerkiew Greckokatolicka w diasporze i w podziemiu (1945-1991). +Ukraiński Kościół Greckokatolicki przetrwał wśród diaspory ukraińskiej na emigracji oraz w podziemiu. Dzięki temu po czterdziestu latach przerwy w legalnej pracy, w okresie pierestrojki cerkiew kontynuowała działalność w zorganizowanej strukturze, dzięki tajnie wyświęconym biskupom, nielegalnym seminariom, przygotowującym kandydatów do święceń, działalności zgromadzeń zakonnych oraz wielu świeckich, oddanych kościołowi. +W latach 1946-1990 Kościół greckokatolicki był największą podziemną organizacją religijną w ZSRR, udzielającą wbrew sowieckim władzom sakramentów i nauczającą potajemnie religii. W katedrze łacińskiej we Lwowie o. Rafał Kiernicki udzielał sakramentów wiernym Kościoła greckokatolickiego. Samizdatowe pismo Kościoła greckokatolickiego "Віра Батьків (Wira Bat’kiw)" (pol. "Wiara ojców") redagował i wydawał Teodozjusz Starak, po uzyskaniu niepodległości przez Ukrainę pierwszy poseł Ukrainy w Polsce. +Odrodzenie Ukraińskiej Cerkwi Greckokatolickiej. Beatyfikacje męczenników Cerkwi. +Pod koniec listopada 1988 Rada ds. Religii przy Radzie Ministrów USRR zarejestrowała pierwsze wspólnoty greckokatolickie w zachodniej części kraju. W chwili legalizacji Cerkiew unicka posiadała trzy diecezje: lwowską, iwano-frankowską i mukaczewską. Niemal natychmiast rozpoczęto prace nad reorganizacją struktury terytorialnej Cerkwi poprzez włączenie w jej struktury części diecezji przemyskiej oraz Bukowiny, która w granicach Ukrainy znalazła się w 1940. Pierwszy synod biskupów odrodzonej Cerkwi, który w maju 1992 obradował we Lwowie pod przewodnictwem kardynała Myrosława Iwana Lubaczywskiego (w marcu 1991 wrócił do Lwowa z emigracji w Rzymie), podjął decyzję o utworzeniu diecezji kołomyjsko-czerniowieckiej, samborsko-drohobyckiej, tarnopolskiej i zborowskiej. Aby objąć opieką duszpasterską wiernych żyjących na Ukrainie Wschodniej i w Kazachstanie w kwietniu 1996 utworzono egzarchat kijowsko-wyszogrodzki kierowany przez Lubomyra Huzara (od 2001 kardynał). Dalsza reorganizacja Cerkwi nastąpiła podczas synodu w sierpniu 2000, kiedy utworzono diecezje buczacką, sokalską i stryjską oraz w lipcu 2003, kiedy z egzarchatu kijowskiego wydzielono egzarchat odesko-krymski. +27 czerwca 2001 na hipodromie we Lwowie podczas Mszy Świętej odprawionej w obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskim, Jan Paweł II dokonał beatyfikacji 28 męczenników Kościoła katolickiego obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego. Są wśród nich greckokatoliccy biskupi: Hryhoryj Chomyszyn, Nikita Budka, Hryhoryj Łakota, Jozafat Kocyłowski, Mykoła Czarnecki, Wasyl Wełyczkowski, Teodor Romża, Iwan Słeziuk i archimandryta Klemens Szeptycki. +10 lutego 2011 kardynał Huzar zrezygnował z urzędu związku z zaawansowanym wiekiem. Administratorem ukraińskiej cerkwi greckokatolickiej został tymczasowo arcybiskup Ihor Woźniak. 23 marca 2011 synod biskupów Kościoła obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego wybrał Światosława Szewczuka arcybiskupem większym kijowsko-halickim. +Organizacja. +Zwierzchnikiem Cerkwi na Ukrainie i poza jej granicami jest obecnie arcybiskup większy Światosław Szewczuk, metropolita Kijowa i Galicji. +21 sierpnia 2005 odbyła się uroczystość przeniesienia rezydencji zwierzchnika Cerkwi ze Lwowa do Kijowa. Faktycznie do dzisiaj Lwów pozostaje najważniejszym ośrodkiem ukraińskiej cerkwi. +Jednostki administracyjne +Ukraińska Cerkiew greckokatolicka w Polsce. +Zwierzchnikiem ukraińskiej Cerkwi greckokatolickiej w Polsce jest abp Jan Martyniak, metropolita przemysko-warszawski. Metropolia jest niezależna od zwierzchnika cerkwi na Ukrainie i podlega bezpośrednio Stolicy Apostolskiej. W jej skład wchodzą Archieparchia przemysko-warszawska i Eparchia wrocławsko-gdańska z ordynariuszem Włodzimierzem Juszczakiem. Eparchie te dzielą się na dekanaty. +W Warszawie działają obecnie dwie cerkwie greckokatolickie. Jedna z nich, zbudowana w latach 1781-1784 według klasycystycznego projektu Dominika Merliniego, znajduje się przy ul. Miodowej i jest zarazem siedzibą zakonu Bazylianów. Druga została uruchomiona trzy lata temu z powodu coraz większej liczby osób wyznania greckokatolickiego znajdujących się w Warszawie i jest afiliowana przy kościele o. Augustianów w Łomiankach pod Warszawą. Parafia warszawska istnieje od 1721. +Od kilkunastu lat Kościół greckokatolicki w Polsce organizuje coroczne spotkania młodych – "Sarepta" w Beskidzie Niskim. +Podobnie jak w cerkwi na Ukrainie, wszystkich duchownych greckokatolickich w Polsce obowiązuje celibat, co oznacza, że po przyjęciu święceń kapłańskich nie mogą oni już dostąpić sakramentu małżeństwa. Zasada ta nie stoi jednak w sprzeczności z możliwością zawarcia małżeństwa przez kandydata na duchownego, zanim zostanie on księdzem, gdyż takie małżeństwo jest ważne także po przyjęciu święceń i nie uniemożliwia przystąpienia do stanu duchownego. Reguła ta nie dotyczy wyższych duchownych (biskupów itd.), którzy rekrutują się spośród zakonników, ślubujących m.in. bezżenność, w związku z czym od samego początku sprawowania posługi duszpasterskiej pozostają w stanie celibatu. +Lilja 4-ever + +Lilja 4-ever ("4-ever" to skrótowa wersja angielskiego słowa "forever", znaczącego "na zawsze") − film koprodukcji szwedzko-duńskiej z 2002 roku, wyreżyserowany przez Lukasa Moodyssona. Jest trzecim filmem pełnometrażowym w dorobku reżysera. "Lilja 4-ever", podobnie jak "Fucking Åmål" z 1998 roku, został pozytywnie przyjęty przez krytykę i widzów i został zgłoszony przez jury Guldbagge jako szwedzki kandydat do Oscara. +Reżyser zadedykował film "milionom dzieci, wykorzystywanym na całym świecie w seksbiznesie". W Polsce film obejrzeć można było podczas 5. edycji Filmostrady (2004-2005), wydany został on także na nośnikach DVD. +Opis. +Film rozpoczyna się utworem "Mein Herz brennt" (z niem. − "me serce płonie") zespołu Rammstein, który staje się tłem dla obrazu na ekranie: nastoletniej dziewczyny, biegnącej w niewiadomym kierunku. Dziewczyna staje na moście, z zamiarem popełnienia samobójstwa − nim jednak dowiemy się, czy dziewczyna zdecyduje się na ostateczny krok, poznajemy jej tragiczną historię. Lilja mieszkała na terenach byłego Związku Radzieckiego. Jej matka wyjechała z kochankiem do Stanów Zjednoczonych obiecując, że Lilja niedługo do nich dołączy. Jakiś czas po wyjeździe matki do Stanów przychodzi od niej list, w którym zrzeka się ona praw rodzicielskich do Lilji... +Associated Press + +Associated Press - amerykańska agencja prasowa, spółdzielnia typu "Not-for-profit". +4100 pracowników w 240 biurach zaopatruje w wiadomości około 6000 stacji radiowych i telewizyjnych oraz 1700 gazet w USA. Poza USA ma około 8500 klientów. +Serwisy Associated Press dostarczają dziennie ok. 10.000 wiadomości (łącznie ok. 20 milionów wyrazów i 1000 zdjęć). Wiadomości są tłumaczone na 5 języków obcych: hiszpański, niemiecki, francuski, niderlandzki i szwedzki. +Serwis codzienny. +Serwis graficzny i fotograficzny przesyłane są w odrębnych zastawach: +Nara (okres) + +Gospodarka i administracja. +Władcy epoki Nara wzorowali się na modelu chińskim także w innych dziedzinach. Przede wszystkim dążyli do scentralizowania państwa, stosując wprowadzony jeszcze w 702 pierwszy japoński pisany kodeks prawny - . +Wprowadzał on zmiany w kwestiach społecznych, gospodarczych oraz administracyjnych. Dokonano podziału społeczeństwa na 3 grupy: cesarz i rodzina, wolni poddani (ryōmin), do których zaliczali się urzędnicy i dzierżawcy państwowi oraz ostatnia grupa jaką stanowili niewolni poddani (semmin). Utworzono nową strukturę zarządzania. Przy cesarzu znajdowały się Urząd do Spraw Kultu oraz Rada Państwowa stanowiące główny aparat władzy. Dodatkowo powstało 8 ministerstw (shō): Sekretariat Cesarski, Ministerstwo Ceremonii i Personelu Urzędniczego, Ministerstwo Wojny, Ministerstwo do Spraw Rodów Arystokratycznych, Ministerstwo do Spraw Ludności, Ministerstwo Dworu, Ministerstwo Skarbu, Ministerstwo Prawa. Jednak nigdy nie zaakceptowano chińskiego modelu rekrutacji urzędników, stanowiska były dziedziczne i zależne od stanu urodzenia. +Podział administracyjny. +Kraj podzielono na prowincje (kuni), którymi zarządzali prowincjonalni gubernatorzy (kokushi). Prowincje dzieliły się na powiaty (kōri lub gun) i były zarządzane przez naczelników (gunji). Ze względu na to, że obszary powiatów pokrywały się w znacznym stopniu z dawnymi kuni, funkcje gunji pełnili często członkowie rodów kuni-no miyatsuko sprzed okresu Taika. Najmniejszą jednostką administracyjną była gmina (ri, a w późniejszym okresie gō). +Nastąpiło ogólne usprawnienie aparatu administracyjnego. Powstała sieć dróg łącząca stolicę cesarską z najważniejszymi ośrodkami w kraju. Przeprowadzono rozbudowaną reformę rolnictwa opartą na trzech punktach. Po pierwsze, dążono do pełnej kontroli siły roboczej poprzez spisy ludności według domostw (ko). Dodatkowo, wprowadzono nowy system podziału ziemi zwany jōri. Pola ryżowe zostały podzielone na kwadraty o boku ok. 800 m, a te z kolei na 36 czworoboków (tsubo) o powierzchni 1 chō. Podzielone dalej na 10 pasów o powierzchni 1 tan. Tan było podstawową jednostką ziemi o powierzchni 0,12 ha. Mężczyzna dostawał 2 tan, a kobieta 2/3 tego przydziału. Nadana w ten sposób ziemia była zwana kubunden, czyli "ziemia dana na twarz". +Ostatnim krokiem reformy było ujednolicenie opodatkowania. Podatki płacone były w plonach oraz tkaninach, preferowana jednak była robocizna i służba wojskowa oraz trwałe wyroby ze względu na problem jakim był transport dużych ilości produktów rolnych. Szczególnie cenny był jedwab używany wówczas jako środek płatniczy. Dodatkowym elementem przy reformie rolnej miało być stworzenie armii poborowej, którego nie udało się w pełni zrealizować. 1/3 mężczyzn w wieku 20-59 lat miała pełnić rotacyjnie służbę przez jeden rok w stolicy oraz trzy lata na granicy. Żołnierze mieli być utrzymywani przez swoje ko. Niezdyscyplinowane oddziały ulegały stopniowej degeneracji i ostatecznie zostały przekształcone w grupy robocze. +Zbyt wysokie podatki stały się powodem masowych ucieczek z ziemi do klasztorów lub na służbę do pańskich rezydencji. Pomimo wielu prób rząd nie był w stanie powstrzymać tego procederu. Ucieczki powodowały zwiększenie podatków, co tylko dawało powód do porzucenia ziemi przez kolejnych rolników. Kolejnym szkodliwym zjawiskiem dla władzy centralnej były nadania arystokracji lub instytucjom religijnym ziem całkowicie lub częściowo zwolnionych od podatków. W 722 roku rząd wypracował plan zagospodarowania nowizn na obszarze ziemi wielkości miliona "chō". Z braku zainteresowania w 723 roku wydano dekret mający na celu zachęcenie rolników do przyjęcia ziemi. Przyznawał on prawo pełnego użytkowania nowizn przez trzy pokolenia, natomiast przy zagospodarowaniu ziemi porzuconej, ale uprzednio przystosowanej do uprawy, nadawano dożywotnie immunitety ekonomiczne. W 743 r. wydano dekret o "prawie wieczystego posiadania nowizn". +Buddyzm. +Patronat rodu Soga w okresie Asuka zapewnił religii stabilną pozycję w okresie Nara. Jako religia państwowa, buddyzm zyskał przychylność i wsparcie materialne możnych. W kwestii ideologicznej nie wyparł wierzeń shintō, gdyż odpowiadał innym potrzebom duchowym. Przyniósł nowe, odrębne wierzenia, kulturę chińską oraz stał się ważnym czynnikiem politycznym. Wiedza z kontynentu była w znaczącym stopniu przefiltrowana przez kler buddyjski. +W początkowym stadium buddyzm był kultem, który miał chronić ludzi przed złem. Stąd właśnie wywodzą się postacie, takie jak Yakushi (Budda Uzdrowiciel), Shi-tennō (Czterech Niebiańskich Władców) czy Kannon (Bodhisattwa Miłosierdzia). Mnisi buddyjscy zajmowali się nie tylko praktyką religijną. Byli wśród nich nauczyciele, lekarze, inżynierowie, a w ramach działania świątyń opiekowano się także sierotami oraz osobami starszymi. +Ważnym faktem z okresu Nara jest wyodrębnienie się sześciu szkół buddyjskich kultywujących chińskie kierunki hinajanistyczne: , , , , , . Z czasem zaczęły pełnić one rolę ważnego aparatu obrony państwa. +W 736 r. ustanowiono system oficjalnego powoływania mnichów sekty "kegon" do recytowania sutr ochronnych. W 741 r. postanowiono wybudować świątynie tejże sekty w każdej prowincji. Kulminacyjnym momentem dla buddyzmu w Japonii była budowa (w latach 747-752) posągu Buddy Rushany z polecenia cesarza Shōmu. Ceremonia „otwarcia oczu’’ zgromadziła w 752 r. przedstawicieli duchowieństwa z całego rejonu Azji Wschodniej. +Kler buddyjski nie miał na celu osiągnięcie duchowego zwierzchnictwa i zdominowania świeckiej władzy. Na tym polu instytucja buddyzmu nie przejawiała żadnego zagrożenia dla cesarza i klasy panującej. Jednak rosnąca popularność i wpływy świątyń buddyjskich - dzięki wsparciu rodziny cesarskiej oraz poszczególnych możnych - stworzyły warunki do stopniowego mieszania się mnichów w sprawy rządzenia. Dodatkowo, arystokracja ograniczona przez stan urodzenia lub ze zwykłej wygody przenikała do kleru buddyjskiego, który oferował ponętny styl życia oraz niemal nieograniczone możliwości awansu. Proces ten spowodował niebezpieczne upolitycznienie samej instytucji oraz wzmocnił ingerencję kleru w sprawy państwowe, która uwidoczniła się już w trakcie budowy posągu Wielkiego Buddy. Punktem kulminacyjnym tego stanu było ujawnienie romansu cesarzowej Shōtoku z mnichem Dōkyō. Burzliwe następstwa tego związku doprowadziły ostatecznie do budowy nowej stolicy bez starych świątyń. +Przenosiny stolicy. +Cesarz Kammu zdecydował się na ufundowanie nowej stolicy w miejscowości Nagaoka-kyō w historycznej prowincji Yamashiro. Jej budowa rozpoczęła się w 784 r. Kolejne intrygi pałacowe inspirowane przez Fujiwarów i pasmo nieszczęść, które spotkało cesarza i jego poddanych (śmierć dwóch żon i matki cesarza, epidemia czarnej ospy) przypisywane w ówczesnym czasie mściwemu duchowi księcia Sawary, który popełnił samobójstwo niesłusznie oskarżony o zamach stanu, sprawiły, że Kammu zdecydował o ponownych przenosinach stolicy w 794 r., tym razem do Heian-kyō (dzisiejsze Kioto). +Komitet planowania ds. żywności i rolnictwa + +Komitet planowania ds. żywności i rolnictwa ("Food and Agriculture Planning Committee" - FAPC) został powołany na mocy Trakatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950 roku. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuację zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio pod wysoki komitet planowania centralnego na sytuacje nadzwyczajnych zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Komitet planowania ds. żywności i rolnictwa monitoruje gotowość państw członkowskich do działania w sytuacji kryzysu i wojny w zakresie dystrybucji żywności i prawidłowego działania sektora rolniczego. Jego celem jest zapewnienie koordynacji między państwami członkowskimi w tym zakresie. +Interdyscyplinarne Centrum Modelowania Matematycznego i Komputerowego Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego + +Interdyscyplinarne Centrum Modelowania Matematycznego i Komputerowego Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (ICM) to instytucja, której zadaniem jest udostępnianie wielkich mocy obliczeniowych środowisku naukowemu z całej Polski. Jest to także instytucja spełniająca funkcję głównego, krajowego centrum udostępniania kilkunastu naukowych baz danych. +ICM powołano uchwałą Senatu Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego z dnia 29 czerwca 1993 roku. Głównym komputerem służącym do zaawansowanego modelowania naukowego jest obecnie 128-procesorowy superkomputer Cray X1E (pierwsza instalacja modelu X1E na świecie), o mocy obliczeniowej ok. 576 GFLOPS i posiadający 128 GB pamięci operacyjnej. Oprócz tego ICM posiada komputer Cray SV1ex oraz klastry – składające się z 98 węzłów opartych na 2 procesorach 2 GHz AMD Opteron z 2 GB pamięci każdy oraz 90 węzłów opartych na 2 procesorach 2.6 GHz AMD Opteron z 4 GB pamięci każdy. +Dostęp do tej mocy jest możliwy dla każdego polskiego naukowca, po przedłożeniu projektu planowanych badań i zaaprobowaniu go przez radę ICM. Oprócz tego ICM realizuje kilkanaście własnych projektów naukowych w oparciu o posiadaną moc obliczeniową. +Oprócz roli ośrodka obliczeniowego, ICM pełni też funkcję głównego, krajowego centrum udostępniania naukowych baz danych. Część z tych baz znajduje się bezpośrednio na serwerach ICM, a dla części ICM odgrywa tylko rolę negocjatora warunków dostępu dla polskich uczelni i instytutów naukowych. +ICM prowadzi także numeryczną prognozę pogody dla Europy Środkowej, którą udostępniał bezpłatnie w Internecie (pod adresem www.meteo.pl). Od 1995 roku ICM udostępnia największe w Polsce archiwa wolnego oprogramowania pod adresem ftp://sunsite.icm.edu.pl/, jest także miejscem, w którym działała pierwsza w Polsce popularna wyszukiwarka internetowa – "Polski Infoseek". +Jest też nadawcą Akademickiej Telewizji Naukowej (ATVN), która jest nadawana bezpłatnie w Internecie w formacie RealMedia. +W ICM wyodrębniony został Dział Sieciowy, świadczący jednostkom Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego m.in. usługi związane z dostępem do uniwersyteckiej sieci szkieletowej oraz do Internetu. +ICM udostępnia jeden z największych serwerów Usenet News w Polsce (oraz archiwum początków Usenetu w Polsce ([news://news-archive.icm.edu.pl). +Uwierzytelnianie + +Uwierzytelnianie (ang. "authentication") – proces polegający na potwierdzeniu zadeklarowanej tożsamości podmiotu biorącego udział w procesie komunikacji. Celem uwierzytelniania jest uzyskanie określonego poziomu pewności, że dany podmiot jest w rzeczywistości tym, za który się podaje. Spotykane są niepoprawne warianty: "autentykacja, autentyfikacja". +Metody uwierzytelniania. +W zależności od kanału komunikacyjnego stosuje się różne metody i protokoły uwierzytelniania. +Uwierzytelnianie dwuskładnikowe. +Uwierzytelnienie dwuskładnikowe stosuje większość banków internetowych, a także platformy gier (Battle.net), usługa poczty Gmail i wiele innych. Stosowane są zarówno +tokeny sprzętowe, jak i programowe generatory haseł (np. Google Authenticator) oraz hasła jednorazowe przesyłane za pomocą SMS. +Blizzard (wiatr) + +Blizzard - (ang. "zamieć," "zadymka") to mroźny, silny (do 80-90 km/h) wiatr północno-zachodni wiejący w południowej Kanadzie i północnej części Stanów Zjednoczonych. Przynosi on znaczne spadki temperatury (sięgające nawet -30°C) oraz bardzo obfite opady śniegu. Jest powodowany brakiem naturalnych barier geograficznych hamujących ruch powietrza wzdłuż Gór Skalistych. +Zobacz też: zamieć śnieżna +Grabownica Starzeńska + +Grabownica Starzeńska to wieś położona w południowo-wschodniej części Polski, w województwie podkarpackim, w powiecie brzozowskim, w gminie Brzozów. +Miejscowość położona jest przy drodze wojewódzkiej nr 886 Domaradz - Brzozów - Sanok. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie krośnieńskim. +Warunki naturalne. +Grabownica Starzeńska wchodzi w skład regionu brzozowskiego. Jest wsią położoną nad rzeką Stobnicą, na Pogórzu Dynowskim. Przez wieś przebiega droga łącząca Brzozów z Sanokiem, oraz droga relacji Grabownica-Dynów. Obszar Grabownicy graniczy od strony południowo-wschodniej z Pakoszówką i Lalinem, od wschodu z Niebockiem, od północy z Humniskami a od zachodu z Górkami. W skład wsi wchodzą następujące przysiółki: Polana, Folwark, Wieliwiszczyzna, Zakościele, Ksawerów, Dół, Duża i Mała Strona, Kopalnia. Od strony wschodniej i zachodniej Grabownica otoczona jest lasami liściastymi z niewielką ilością drzew iglastych. +Budowa geologiczna obszaru. +Region brzozowski charakteryzuje się skomplikowaną budową geologiczną, związaną z ruchami tektonicznymi starszego trzeciorzędu. W Grabownicy występują warstwy dolnokredowe, które charakteryzują się stosunkowo stromymi wzgórzami. Najwyższe wzniesienie dochodzi do 476 metrów n.p.m., jest to Wroczeń. Z warstwami dolnokredowymi związane są złoża ropy Grabownicy. Fałd Grabownicy zbudowany jest z pięciu poziomów, bazujących na elementach piaskowców i łupków. Pogórze Dynowskie, w skład którego wchodzi Grabownica, charakteryzuje się krajobrazem pogórskim o rusztowym układzie grzbietów. Teren wsi jest bardzo urozmaicony, najwyższy fałd Grabownicy występuje w formie wąskich wydłużonych siodeł. Wzgórza ciągną się z południowego wschodu na północny zachód. Wzgórza znajdujące się po prawej części doliny noszą nazwę Dąbkówki. Wąwozy przecinają fałdy wzgórz, przebiegając z południowego zachodu na północny wschód. +Przez Grabownicę przepływa rzeka Stobnica, która bierze swój początek na północnym stoku góry Wroczeń (501 m n.p.m.), która znajduje się w obrębie wsi Lalin. Płynie ona przez Grabownicę w kierunku północno-wschodnim. W niedalekiej bliskości środka wsi uchodzi do niej prawy dopływ – potok Grabownica (niekiedy podaje się inną nazwę tego potoku, a mianowicie Niebocki Potok, stosowana jest również nazwa Meczka), który wypływa z góry Soszne. Stobnica jest rzeką krętą, brzegi jej są bardzo zarośnięte i dlatego często wylewa. W centrum Grabownicy wpada do Stobnicy z kierunku zachodniego mały strumyk, niemający swojej nazwy. +Największym bogactwem naturalnym Grabownicy są złoża ropy naftowej, które są związane z warstwami dolnej kredy. Złoża te są częścią wielkiej antyklinalnej jednostki tektonicznej, znanej jako fałd Międzybrodzia-Bykowiec-Załuża-Grabownicy-Starej Wsi-Bliznego-Domaradza, która jest skrajnie północnym elementem tektonicznym jednostki śląskiej. W rejonie Grabownicy występują niższe jednostki tego fałdu. Cały fałd obniża się z południowego wschodu w kierunku północno-zachodnim. Warstwa dolnokredowa znajduje się w części południowo-wschodniej złoża na powierzchni, a w części północno-zachodniej, tj. w rejonie Humnisk, na głębokości dziewięciuset metrów, a więc o znacznym obniżeniu. Złoże ropy Grabownicy należy do złóż strukturalnych, warstwowych, litologicznie ograniczonych, o powierzchni około stu osiemdziesięciu hektarów. Ropa z tego złoża należy do słabo parafinowanych, posiada ciężar właściwy od 170 do 830 kg/m³, temperaturę krzepnięcia -40ºC. +Na terenie Grabownicy występują w warstwach istebniańskich złoża gazu ziemnego. Złoża te są ekranowane w ramach litostratygraficznego następstwa nadległym kompleksem pstrego eocenu, łupków menilitowych i około sześciuset metrów grubych warstw krośnieńskich. Złoże to znajduje się na głębokości około tysiąca metrów. Złoże gazu, podobnie jak ropy, jest strukturalne, warstwowe, litologicznie ograniczone. Złoże ma powierzchnię siedmiu hektarów, jego efektywna miąższość wynosi 33 metry. Porowatość piaskowców 10,63%, natomiast woda złożowa występuje w izobacie – 856 metrów i jest solanką węglanowo-sodową. W warstwach istebniańskich stwierdzono występowanie solanek chlorkowo-wapniowych. W wielu otworach wiertniczych eksploatuje się solanki jodowe. +Gleby. +Gleby regionu brzozowskiego są typowymi glebami górskimi. W Grabownicy nie należą one do najlepszych. Występują tutaj następujące ich rodzaje: piaszczyste, glinka podkarpacka, rędzinowe. Gleby te są w większości trudne do uprawy. Szczególnie północne stoki są ciężkie do uprawy, gdyż długo leży na nich śnieg, podglebie jest nieprzepuszczalne i trzeba długo czekać, aby gleba wyschła i była zdatna do uprawy. Łąki są również podmokłe, o małej wydajności siana. Gleba grabownicka nie sprzyja również sadownictwu. +Lasy. +Lasy Grabownicy wchodzą w skład kompleksu powierzchniowego wsi: Grabówki, Grabownicy, Humnisk, Domaradza, Baryczy, Wesołej, Hłudna. Około 1881 roku powierzchnia lasów Grabownicy wynosiła pięćset siedemdziesiąt pięć metrów. Las w życiu wsi odgrywał istotną rolę, ponieważ dostarczał materiału budowlanego i opałowego, trawy dla bydła, pożywienia itp. W Grabownicy występują lasy liściaste (w większości są to buki, graby, brzozy, dęby), z niewielką ilością drzew iglastych (sosny, świerki, jodły, modrzewie). Powierzchnia lasu w miarę upływu czasu kurczyła się na skutek karczowania i coraz to większego głodu ziemi. Widoczne są niektóre pola wchodzące w głąb lasu. W obejściu kościoła, w chwili obecnej, znajdują się drzewa – pomniki przyrody. Są to: jesion o obwodzie 346 cm, wysokości trzydziestu metrów oraz dwa dęby o obwodzie 466 i 467 cm i wysokości ok. 19 metrów. +Historia. +Pradzieje. +Ciekawe znaleziska grabownickie przypadają na młodszą epokę kamienia – neolit (5200-3700 lat p.n.e). Zabytkami archeologicznymi z tego czasu są dwie siekierki znalezione na terenie Grabownicy, które znajdują się w miejscowej szkole podstawowej – płaska czworościenna i gruba czworościenna o uszkodzonym obuchu. +W III i II tysiącleciu przed naszą erą (późny neolit) Grabownicę zamieszkiwała ludność związana z kulturą ceramiki sznurowej, która zajmowała się głównie pasterstwem. Świadczyły o tym znalezione w Grabownicy, a także w pobliskiej Strachocinie, toporki „sznurowe”. +Okres wpływów rzymskich (ok. 375 rok n.e.) upłynął na ziemiach Polski południowej pod znakiem dominacji kultury przeworskiej. W Grabownicy odnotowano punkt osadniczy pochodzący z tego okresu – stanowisko trzynaste, w którym znaleziono cztery fragmenty ceramiki. Duże znaczenie dla ludności kultury przeworskiej stanowiły kontakty z Cesarstwem Rzymskim. Spośród tysięcy przedmiotów, które dzięki ożywionej wymianie handlowej napływały z terenu Imperium na ziemie polskie, największą część stanowiły monety. Rozrzut terytorialny monet świadczył o przebiegu szlaków handlowych, a także informował o skupiskach osad. W Grabownicy odnotowano najliczniejszy w Brzozowskim skarb monet rzymskich. Złożony był z sześciu monet Wespazjana, Antoninusa Piusa i Marka Aureliusza, emitowanych w latach 69-180 naszej ery. Ksiądz J. Reichel w napisanej przez siebie kronice wspomina o siódmej monecie z wizerunkiem Tyberiusza, która jednak zaginęła. +Po raz pierwszy nazwa Grabownica (Grabownicza) pojawiła się w akcie lokacyjnym wsi z 1377 roku. Etymologia nazwy wsi związana była z występowaniem na jej terenie lasu grabowego. W późniejszym okresie pisownia nazwy miejscowości ulegała kilkakrotnie transformacji. W 1646 roku po raz pierwszy pojawiła się funkcjonująca do dzisiaj nazwa – Grabownica. Od XIX wieku nazwa wsi posiadała dodatkowo przydawkę Starzeńska, która pochodziła od nazwiska właścicieli wsi, Starzeńskich. +1300-1700. +Wzmiankowana w 1366 r. +Akt lokacyjny Grabownicy został wystawiony w Sanoku 14 października 1377 roku przez Władysława Opolczyka, księcia opolskiego, wieluńskiego i Rusi. Z dokumentów wynika, iż książę nadał Grabownicę Piotrowi, zięciowi Gruszki. W XV i XVI wieku wieś była w posiadaniu rodzin: Czeszyków i Pełków. +W 1498 roku przez Grabownicę przeszła nawała turecka, docierając do Pakoszówki i Lalina. Przed 1533 r. Grabownicę posiadał Jan Bobola (zm. w 1533 r.). Wydarzeniem, które nie miało dotąd przykładu w Grabownicy, był najazd Tatarów w czerwcu 1624 roku na tereny ziemi przemyskiej i sanockiej. 15 czerwca tegoż roku oddział Kantymira Murzy jechał i zniszczył Grabownicę, gdzie oprócz domów spłonął również dom parafialny i kościół. Na domiar złego, Grabownicę nawiedziła trzykrotnie zaraza (1633, 1652, 1653) a w 1650 roku powódź zniszczyła całkowicie zasiewy i dobytek. +W 1636 roku zmarł Hieronim Nagórski, herbu Ostoja dzieląc uprzednio Grabownicę między swoje córki. Najstarsza z nich, Katarzyna, poślubiła Jacka Krasowskiego i objęła wraz z mężem w posiadanie dwór górny, natomiast młodsza, Salomea, otrzymała dwór dolny i po śmierci rodziców (Jadwiga zmarła w 1640 roku) wychowywała się w domu Mikołaja Pełki. Wspomniane wyżej osoby były głównymi postaciami romantycznego, a zarazem tragicznego w skutkach, wesela grabownickiego: "Niezmiernie romantyczne było porwanie panny Salomei Nagórskiej z Grabownicy przez Stanisława Przedwojowskiego towarzysza roty husarskiej Aleksandra Koniecpolskiego. Panna była posażną sierotą, a fakt porwania był tylko epilogiem intrygi rodzinnej. Panna Salomea po stracie rodziców wychowywała się w domu swego dziadka Mikołaja Pełki, który w 1650 roku odegrał także czynną rolę w krwawym dramacie familijnym, bo przychwytawszy macochę swoją na romansach z rękodajnym sługą Janem Nakielskim, przy pomocy swego brata przyrodniego, a rodzonego syna wiarołomnej, Nakielskiego, porwał, uwiązał do drzewa, rozstrzelał, a zwłoki spalił". +Do opieki nad panienką rościł sobie pretensje szwagier, ożeniony z jej starszą siostrą Katarzyną – Jacek Krasowski z Grabownicy. Wiedziony chciwością chciał odebrać Pełkom pannę Salomeę, bo upatrzył dla niej męża Gabriela Boratyńskiego, który deklarował się kontentować trzecią częścią posagu panny, a z dwóch trzecich kwitować Krasowskiego. Kiedy raz Pełczyna była z panną na mszy w kościele franciszkańskim w Sanoku, wpadł Krasowski ze zbrojną czeladzią do świątyni i, nie zważając na nabożeństwo, właśnie przy samym podniesieniu, porwał Salomeę przemocą i zawiózł ją do Grabownicy. Aby faktem dokonanym ubiec opozycję krewnych, przyspieszył termin ślubu z Boratyńskim, nie zważając na łzy i prośby panny, która serce swoje oddała Przedwojowskiemu. Zbliżał się dzień fatalny. Już pannę młodą poczęto stroić do ślubu, kiedy nagle, w przedostatniej chwili, wpadł do dworu Stanisław Przedwojowski z kilku towarzyszami swojej husarskiej chorągwi. Porwał Salomeę, uniósł ją na konia a następnie do kolasy, w której czekała już na nią jej druga siostra i jej ciotka pani Bylińska wraz z bratem stryjecznym – Nagórskim. Krasowskiemu i niefortunnemu panu młodemu Boratyńskiemu pozostała tylko ta wątpliwa satysfakcja i pociecha, jaką dać mogą piorunujące pretensje zaniesione do ksiąg grodzkich. Niestety niedługo cieszyło się swym szczęściem tak romantycznie skojarzone stadło. Romantyka dziejów rodzinnych tamtych czasów obfituje nie tylko w miłosne i liryczne, ale także tragiczne i krwawe epizody. +W 1645 roku napada nocą na dwór w Grabownicy sąsiad – Stanisław Kozłowski, podczaszy sanocki i pod szablami jego pachołków ginie gwałtowną śmiercią Stanisław Przedwojowski. Rozsiekano go na sztuki. Na jego zwłokach naliczono w grodzie dwadzieścia dwie rany. Stało się to za namową matki podczaszego, Anny z Rytra Kozłowskiej – wdowy po Mikołaju, sędzim ziemi sanockiej. Było epilogiem krwawych i zaciętych wojen sąsiedzkich, w jakie obfitowała ziemia sanocka. Kozłowską skazał trybunał za zbrojny napad i zabójstwo na dwa lata i dwanaście tygodni wieży. Nim ją jednak odbyła, dosięgła ja zemsta z ręki opryszków beskidzkich, którzy napadłszy na jej dom w Humniskach, a chcąc ją zmusić do wskazania kryjówki, gdzie ukryła złoto i klejnoty, wzięli ją na tortury i piekli pochodniami. Srodze skatowana Kozłowska manifestowała się przed aktami grodzkimi, że wieży odsiedzieć nie może, bo stan jej waży się między życiem a śmiercią. Tragiczny los męża nie na długo odebrał pannie Salomei ochotę do życia i miłości. W cztery miesiące po katastrofie została już żoną Jana Fredry. +Olbrzymie zagrożenie dla ludności ziemi sanockiej stanowiły napady zbójców beskidzkich. W celu ukrócenia swawoli zbójników wydano 10 maja 1678 roku w Sanoku "Ordynacyę piechoty prezydyalnej sanockiej ziemi na obronę od zbójców". W myśl tej ordynacji ludność każdej wsi zobowiązana była do pełnienia straży przed napadami zbójników. Poszczególne miejscowości pełniły straże w określonych terminach i okręgach. Mieszkańcom Grabownicy obowiązek obrony przed zbójnikami przypadał w dniach od 15 września do 15 października. Do straży powoływano mężczyzn w sile wieku, którzy musieli być zaopatrzeni w siekierę oraz zapas żywności na czternaście dni. Mieszkańcy napadniętej wsi mieli obowiązek poinformować okoliczne miejscowości poprzez zapalenie stosu smolnego drzewa. +1701-1845. +Pozycja chłopa grabownickiego żyjącego w XVII i XVIII wieku, w stosunku do wcześniejszego okresu, znacznie się pogorszyła. Rysowała się znaczna przepaść między szlachtą, a chłopami. Ciekawe, a zarazem tragiczne wydarzenie, ilustrujące stosunki społeczne w Grabownicy, odnotowano w 1709 roku. Chłop Wojciech Skowyrz, nie mając środków na utrzymanie, a co za tym idzie, nie mogąc odrabiać pańszczyzny, podjął próbę ucieczki do najbliższej wsi, zabierając ze sobą swoją krowę i jałówkę. Został jednak schwytany przez ludzi Piotra Górskiego, właściciela tej części wsi, w której żył ów kmieć. Zabrano mu wspomniany dobytek, a jego samego przywiązano powrozem do konia i prowadzono do dworu. Tutaj, na rozkaz Piotra Górskiego, rozebrano go do naga, przywiązano do kłody i bito kijami, następnie zakuto w dyby i rzucono do więzienia, gdzie trzymano go tylko o wodzie. W wyniku takiego traktowania Wojciech Skowyrz zmarł. Podobny los spotkał w 1714 roku innego chłopa – Simona Lenkowicza. Piotr Górski zapewne zdawał sobie sprawę ze swoich uczynków, skoro nakazał przedstawić siebie na obrazie (1736) jako dobrego łotra. +Bardzo ciekawe wydarzenie, informujące o sposobie rozwiązywania konfliktów społecznych, zanotowano w 1704 roku. Doszło wówczas do sporu między dwoma kmieciami – Wojciechem Sobkowiczem i Pawłem Burnatem, którzy po pijanemu czynili względem siebie zarzuty. W obecności Marcina Kwiatkowskiego – młynarza z Humnisk – oraz Walentego Chlebka – młynarza z Grabownicy – doszło do ugody między stronami, mocą której osoba wzniecająca spór na nowo miała podlegać karze trzydziestu „plag” w pośladek, przy obecności gromady ludzi. Dodatkowo uzgodniono, iż strona nie respektująca postanowień ugody będzie klęczeć w kościele, przed krzyżem, podczas mszy niedzielnej lub świątecznej na przestrzeni miesiąca. +Około 1714 roku miał miejsce pożar w posiadłości Piotra Górskiego w Grabownicy. Musiał on być groźny w skutkach, skoro "Laudum sejmiku wiszeńskiego" na posiedzeniach 5 lutego i 11 września 1714 roku postanowiło przyznać ulgi podatkowe dla właściciela. +29 lipca 1772 roku do Grabownicy weszły wojska austriackie, ustanawiając rządy zaborcze do 1918 roku. Od 1760 roku Piotr Starzeński był samodzielnym właścicielem Grabownicy. Ze związku z Marianną Rogalińską miał syna Ksawerego. Wielką pasją życiową Ksawerego była ichtiologia. Wokół pałacu, wybudowanego przez jego ojca, Piotra, zakładał stawy i sadzawki. Sprowadzał różne gatunki ryb morskich – nawet te najbardziej egzotyczne – i wpuszczał je do słodkiej wody, a następnie krzyżował ze sobą poszczególne gatunki. Wnętrze pałacu zastawione było akwariami różnej wielkości. Nie poprzestając na badaniach i doświadczeniach, zajmował się także teorią, zgromadził w pałacu ogromny, specjalistyczny księgozbiór – jedyny tego rodzaju w Polsce – oraz liczne kolorowe atlasy ryb. Będąc już po trzydziestce pojął za żonę 17-letnią Katarzynę Jaworską z Góry Ropczyckiej. Ślub odbył się w 1799 roku, po czym młoda para zamieszkała w Grabownicy. Katarzyna Starzeńska, nazywana La Belle Gabrielle, znana była ze swej rozwiązłości obyczajowej, napisano o niej: "była matką czworga nieślubnych dzieci, zaś w swym kalendarzu, skromnie licząc, miała zarejestrowanych ponad sześćdziesiąt ofiar naiwnej miłości". W 1803 roku państwo Starzeńscy wyjechali do Paryża. Katarzyna zaczęła bywać w wytwornych salonach paryskich. Najwytworniejszym był salon Julii Recamier, przyjaciółki Józefiny. Pojawienie się w tym salonie piękności z Grabownicy zrobiło na wszystkich olbrzymie wrażenie, szczególnie zaś na płci męskiej. Podczas jednego z przyjęć Katarzyna poznała Eugeniusza Beauharnais, syna Józefiny i pasierba Napoleona, późniejszego wicekróla Italii. Państwo Starzeńscy bywali również u Napoleona i Józefiny. W czasie jednego z przyjęć, Napoleon zainteresował się ichtiologicznymi badaniami Ksawerego, po rozmowie na ten temat zaproponował Starzeńskiemu osiedlenie się we Francji na stałe i kontynuowanie pracy badawczej. Miłość Katarzyny i Eugeniusza stała się głośna, w akcję postanowiła więc wkroczyć Józefina, która nie chciała, aby ten związek przeszkodził synowi w zrobieniu kariery politycznej. Zaprosiła zatem Katarzynę na szczerą rozmowę, w wyniku której Starzeńscy po kilku dniach opuścili Paryż. Po przybyciu do Grabownicy La Belle Gabrielle urodziła syna, pochodzącego ze związku z Eugeniuszem. Dziecko to jednak wkrótce zmarło. Kolejnym obiektem Katarzyny był angielski dyplomata Artur Paget. Owocem tego związku był urodzony w 1809 roku syn Kazimierz. Na liście uwiedzionych przez Katarzynę znaleźli się również: rosyjski generał Teodor Korff, a także o młodszy jedenaście lat kapitan Stanisław Prek z Nozdrzca, uczestnik wojen napoleońskich, brat pamiętnikarza Ksawerego Preka. Między tym ostatnim a Starzeńskim doszło do pojedynku, skutkiem którego właściciel Grabownicy został poważnie ranny. W 1828 roku Ksawery Starzeński zmarł. Żałoba Katarzyny nie trwała długo. W dwa lata po śmierci Ksawerego była już żoną Józefa Benedykta Pawlikowskiego z Medyki. +2. połowa XIX wieku, XX wiek. +W następnych latach Grabownica była własnością Józefa Patrycego Gniewosza, który był synem Piotra i Joanny z Borkowskich. Oźeniony w 1820 r. z Łucją Ostaszewską (1802-1894) Józef Patrycy Gniewosz sprzedał w 1845 r. grabownickie dobra swemu szwagrowi Teofilowi Ostaszewskiemu (1807-1889) z Wzdowa, po którym dziedziczył je syn Kazimierz Ostaszewski, znany hodowca koni wyścigowych. +Olbrzymie znaczenie dla Grabownicy, a także regionu brzozowskiego, miała rewolucja 1846 roku. Jednym z przywódców organizującego się powstania w Sanockiem był Teofil Wojciech Ostaszewski, właściciel Wzdowa i Grabownicy. Ostaszewski znany był jako gorący zwolennik zniesienia pańszczyzny, którą w istocie sam zlikwidował przed rokiem 1848 w swoich dobrach, oraz z pracy napisanej w Paryżu w 1842 roku pt. "Oswobodzenie Polski przez zniesienie pańszczyzny". Sanockie pokryło się gęstą siecią konspiracyjną. Z polecenia Leona Mazurkiewicza – organizatora spisku w obwodzie sanockim i przemyskim – agitację w Brzozowskiem prowadził Franciszek Piątkiewicz z Grabownicy. 18 lutego 1846 roku przybył do Wzdowa Julian Goslar – emisariusz Rządu Narodowego, który polecił Ostaszewskiemu ogłosić rewolucję wśród chłopów, zapewniając, że wybucha w całej Polsce powszechne powstanie chłopów i szlachty. Goslar ogłosił również zniesienie pańszczyzny. Ostaszewski obawiał się powstania, a dokładniej jego akcentów rewolucyjnych. Jak tłumaczył później w trakcie dochodzenia, które wytoczyły mu władze austriackie, zaraz po odjeździe Goslara napisał list do władz donosząc o ataku na Sanok sił powstańczych (co jednak nie znajduje potwierdzenia w oryginalnych aktach ze śledztwa, które dowodzą, iż użył tego argumentu by uniknąć kary za udział w przygotowaniu powstania - w konsekwencji spędził dwa lata w więzieniu austriackim). +Rankiem 21 lutego 1846 roku na znacznych obszarach obwodu sanockiego ogłoszono powstanie. Atak powstańców na Sanok, zgodnie z planem, miał pójść od północnego zachodu z okolic Brzozowa – Krosna pod kierunkiem Teofila Ostaszewskiego, oraz od Przełęczy Łupkowskiej, z okolic Kalnicy i Leska pod dowództwem Jerzego Bułharyna, siłami miejscowymi i przywiezionymi ze Słowaczyzny. We Wzdowie, gdzie był punkt zborny oddziału powstańczego, mającego od północy uderzyć na Sanok, wobec chłopskich rozruchów, zjechała się niespełna setka powstańców, wśród których byli mieszkańcy Grabownicy. Oddział majora Bułharyna po paru starciach z chłopami dotarł 21 lutego do Zahutynia, pod Sanokiem, nie mając jednak wsparcia od północy, Jerzy Bułharyn nakazał odwrót na Węgry. Przewidywania Ostaszewskiego, który obawiał się reakcji chłopskiej, sprawdziły się. Do Grabownicy nadciągnęła trzytysięczna gromada chłopów z Lutczy. Chłopi ci zdemolowali i obrabowali dwór grabownicki. Obyło się jednak bez ofiar śmiertelnych. +Na domiar złego w latach (1847-1848) w Grabownicy panowała epidemia cholery, a także tyfusu i czerwonki. W 1847 roku zmarło w Grabownicy 131 osób, zaś w 1848 roku – 90. Pasmo udręk trwało w latach następnych. W wyniku gradobicia, a także powodzi w 1859 roku, zniszczeniu uległy pola uprawne. +Pewne ożywienie gospodarcze nastąpiło w drugiej połowie XIX wieku i na początku wieku XX. Znacznie wzrosła świadomość społeczna, a także przywiązanie do tradycji narodowej. Wymownym tego przykładem był udział mieszkańca Grabownicy, Teodora Kurza, w powstaniu styczniowym (1863).Wzmianka z 1858 roku informuje o tym, iż w Grabownicy był jeden dom murowany, którego właścicielem był hrabia Starzewski. Pozostałe domy w XIX i na początku XX wieku były drewniane i najczęściej pokryte słomą. Usytuowane były w ten sposób, iż stanowiły zwartą zabudowę wsi. W warunkach takich dochodziło często do pożarów. Aby zniwelować skutki pożarów do minimum, utworzono w 1888 roku w Grabownicy Ochotniczą Straż Pożarną. Inicjatorem i pierwszym naczelnikiem tej niewielkiej, bo liczącej dwanaście osób, drużyny był Piotr Trześniowski. +Po śmierci w 1889 r. Teofila Wojciecha Ostaszewskiego, majątek przejął jego syn Kazimierz, który założył tu fabrykę powozów i stadninę koni. Po matce, Emmie z Załuskich, utalentowanej pianistce, wnuczce kompozytora Michała Kleofasa Ogińskiego, odziedziczył pasję do muzyki. Skomponował szereg utworów na fortepian, wydane w latach 1996-1998 w Wielkiej Brytanii na płytach CD "Music of the Oginski Dynasty" (ed. Olympia, vol 1-2). +Ostatnim właścicielem Grabownicy był Paweł Tyszkowski z Huwnik. Zmarł 17 września 1920 roku. Uprzednio testamentem opatrzonym datą 19 października 1912 roku uczynił Krakowską Akademię Umiejętności jedyną dziedziczką i spadkobierczynią jego dóbr, obejmujących osiemnaście miejscowości. +Bardzo ciekawie przedstawiała się sytuacja Grabownicy w momencie wybuchu pierwszej wojny światowej. 29 września 1914 roku wkroczyły tutaj wojska rosyjskie z dwóch stron: od Sanoka i Dynowa. 5 października wkroczyli Austriacy, zaś 11 listopada ponownie wojska rosyjskie. Sytuacja taka trwała do 23 grudnia, kiedy do Grabownicy ponownie wkroczyły wojska austriackie. Austriacy ustawili armaty za murami budującego się kościoła. Stwarzało to wielkie niebezpieczeństwo dla powstającej świątyni. Dzięki prośbom organisty, Piotra Trześniowskiego, a także Wojciecha Boka i księdza Winnickiego, armaty zostały z tego miejsca usunięte. W nocy z 23 na 24 grudnia Austriacy opuścili Grabownicę, a wkroczyły ponownie wojska rosyjskie. +Zabytki. +Pałac Starzeńskich i Ostaszewskich. +Pałac wzniesiony został prawdopodobnie w XVIII lub XIX wieku. Właścicielami obiektu były kolejno rodziny Starzeńskich, Ostaszewskich i Tyszkowskich. Pałac ten, o charakterze eklektycznym, został gruntownie przebudowany w drugiej połowie XIX wieku. Zwrócony jest frontem ku wschodowi, murowany z cegły, potynkowany, na rzucie prostokąta z trójosiowymi ryzalitami na osiach boków dłuższych; jednokondygnacyjny z wysokim przyziemiem; dwutraktowy, o częściowo przekształconym układzie wnętrz; w przyziemiu kilka pomieszczeń zasklepionych kolebkowo z lunetami; na osi od zachodu salon z sufitem z fasetą i z fragmentami parkietu z dwubarwnego drewna; od wschodu sień z neorenesansowym stropem kasetonowym i rozetami; częściowo zachowana klasycystyczna stolarka drzwi i boazerii; elewacje boków dłuższych dziewięcioosiowe, krótszych trójosiowe, z podziałami z XIX lub XX wieku; dach czterospadowy nad ryzalitem zachodnim mansardowy, kryty blachą. +Cmentarz parafialny. +Na cmentarzu parafialnym w Grabownicy znajdują się nagrobki kamienne pochodzące zapewne z przełomu XIX i XX wieku. Wszystkie te obiekty architektoniczne charakteryzują się dość jednolitą formą. Są to figury o formach słupowych, obrobionych w formę graniastosłupa. Najczęściej składają się z kilku obrobionych bloków kamienia, zwieńczonych krzyżem. Teksty na nagrobkach są rytowane bezpośrednio w kamieniu, bądź też na umieszczonych tablicach. Na dwóch nagrobkach widnieją wykonawcy tej tzw. małej architektury, są to kamieniarze z Krosna: W. Dudek i W. Wojtowicz. Analiza inskrypcji nagrobkowych pozwala stwierdzić, iż wykonawcy nie byli biegli w sztuce pisania. Świadczą o tym błędy ortograficzne: "Ian", "curka", "proszom". Niektóre wyrazy są ze sobą połączone: "tuspoczywają", "azmarłej". Charakterystyczne jest to, iż w niektórych przypadkach, litery takie jak „S” i „N”, pisane są odwrotnie. Zastanowienie budzi pisownia samogłoski „E”. Można wnioskować, iż autor nie znał postaci drukowanej tej litery. Podobnie wygląda pisownia litery „I”. +Pomnik upamiętniający bitwę pod Grunwaldem. +Przed budynkiem szkoły podstawowej stoi pomnik, wybudowany w 1910 roku przez społeczeństwo wsi. Na kamiennej podstawie pomnika została umieszczona figura Matki Boskiej, a u jej podnóża rzeźba orła z rozpiętymi skrzydłami i skutego w kajdany oraz tablica pamiątkowa z napisem "1410-1910 Grunwald". +Przydrożne kapliczki i krzyże. +W Grabownicy zanotowano kilka kapliczek przydrożnych pochodzących z XIX i XX wieku. Wszystkie są murowane z cegły, wykonane na planie czworobocznym, dachy dwuspadowe lub trójspadowe pokryte są blachą albo dachówką. Wymienione wyżej kapliczki występują w Grabownicy w dwóch formach architektonicznych, jako domowe i wnękowe. +Kapliczki typu domowego stanowią formę pośrednią między architekturą sakralną a budownictwem ludowym. W Grabownicy zanotowano tylko jedną kapliczkę tego typu. Znajduje się przy skrzyżowaniu drogi głównej z drogą wiodącą do kościoła. Jest murowana z cegły, na zewnątrz tynkowana i pobielona. Dach kapliczki jest dwuspadowy, pokryty blachą. Wewnątrz znajduje się obraz Matki Bożej Różańcowej. Kapliczkę tę mieszkańcy nazywają Cygańską. Zapewne o tej kapliczce pisze F. Kotula w książce "Po Rzeszowskim Podgórzu błądząc", tłumacząc pochodzenie jej nazwy: "We wsi, w części zwanej Polana, stały dawniej dwie cygańskie chałupy. (...) Razu jednego młodej Cygance urodziło się dziecko. Matka jednak rychło stwierdziła, że jest ociemniałe. Porwała tedy niemowlę i pobiegła z nim do kapliczki. Tutaj je położyła na ołtarzyku, sama upadła na kolana i po cygańsku, rozpaczliwym krzykiem rozchodzącym się daleko po wsi, modliła się o wzrok dla swego dziecka. Opowiadają, że stał się cud, że dziecko przejrzało...". +Na terenie Grabownicy występują dwie kapliczki typu wnękowego. Pierwsza znajduje się w niedalekiej bliskości centrum wsi, przy głównej drodze. Została wybudowana z cegieł, które łączy zaprawa gliniana. W dolnej części, na cokole, umiejscowiona jest tablica, na której widnieje napis "Fundator: Jan Pilszak 15 maja R. 1888". Kapliczka jest otynkowana i pobielona, dach wykonany z blachy. We frontonie znajduje się wnęka zamykana oszklonymi drzwiczkami, wewnątrz umiejscowiona jest gipsowa figurka Najświętszej Maryi Panny Niepokalanie Poczętej. Pod dachem znajduje się druga wnęka (mniejsza), a w niej metalowy krzyż bez pasyjki. Kapliczka została ufundowana przez Jana Pilszaka jako wotum dziękczynne, za to, że w pożarze nie spłonął mu cały dobytek.Druga kapliczka typu wnękowego stoi przy drodze głównej, w części Grabownicy zwanej Górą. Wykonana została zapewne w pierwszej ćwierci XX wieku. Wykonawcą był Józef Zajdel. Kapliczka jest murowana z cegły, tynkowana i pobielona, dach dwuspadowy pokryty czerwoną dachówką. Jest ona typu dwuwnękowego: w górnej części stoi gipsowa figura Najświętszego Serca Pana Jezusa, a w dolnej figura Matki Bożej Niepokalanej. +Innym typem ludowego budownictwa sakralnego są krzyże przydrożne. Na szczególną uwagę zasługuje krzyż, który stoi w niedalekiej bliskości szkoły. Został on wykonany w 1875 roku. W XIX wieku mieszkającemu we wsi Józefowi Filipowi bardzo ciężko zachorowała żona. Pewnej nocy przyśnił jej się Pan Jezus na wzniesieniu. Wkrótce po tym śnie kazała na pobliskiej górce postawić krzyż. Wykonał go z dębu i postawił mąż chorej, Józef. Krzyż ten został w 1932 roku wywrócony przez burzę. Jan Ostrowski, ówczesny właściciel gruntu, na którym stał krzyż, postawił nowy. +Domy i chałupy. +Dom lub budynek mieszkalno-gospodarczy pełnił najważniejszą funkcję w gospodarstwie. Najstarszy grabownicki dom został wybudowany około roku 1760 i był jedynym reprezentantem XVIII-wiecznego budownictwa mieszkalnego. Pozostałe budynki zostały wykonane w latach (1840 - 1914). Łączna liczba domów zbudowanych do I wojny światowej wynosiła pięćdziesiąt dwa. Pod wieloma kwestiami budynki te były bardzo zróżnicowane. Ich całkowita powierzchnia oscylowała w granicach 25,4-133,0 m². Długość domów również była różnorodna (7,8-19,8 metrów). Przybliżona wysokość najniższego budynku wynosiła 4,6 m, najwyższego – 6,2 m. +W skład wnętrza domu wchodziły różnorodne pomieszczenia, które posiadały określone funkcje. Do najbardziej pospolitych wnętrz należały: izba, sień, komora, stajnia. Łączna liczba pomieszczeń w chałupach Grabownicy rozpostarta była w granicach od trzech do dziesięciu. +Izba była pomieszczeniem mieszkalnym w wiejskim domu. Najistotniejszą funkcję pełniła tzw. izba główna. Jej nieodzowną częścią był piec kuchenny i piekarniczy. Powierzchnia izb głównych wahała się w granicach 10,6-31,5 m². +Oprócz izby głównej w domach występowały również inne izby, które w XX wieku zaczęto nazywać pokojami. Powierzchnia tych izb oparta była w granicach 5,5-26,5 m², a więc o rozmiarach mniejszych niż izb głównych. Wysokość wszystkich izb zamknięta była w przedziale 2,1-2,8 m. Generalizując, domów z jedną izbą było dwadzieścia jeden, z dwiema – dwadzieścia jeden, a z trzema – dziewięć. Tylko jeden dom posiadał cztery izby. +Sień była przelotowym pomieszczeniem komunikacyjnym, niekiedy pełniącym funkcje gospodarcze, usytuowanym między głównym wejściem a dalszymi pomieszczeniami budynku. Sień występowała we wszystkich domach w Grabownicy, w tym dwa budynki posiadały dwie sienie. Wysokość sieni mieściła się w granicach 2,0-2,8 m. +Komora w dawnych wiejskich domach mieszkalnych była pomieszczeniem magazynowym, zwykle nieocieplanym, służącym do przechowywania zapasów i sprzętu gospodarczego, czasami przeznaczonym do spania. W Grabownicy komorę zanotowano w czterdziestu dwóch domach, w tym jedna komora była w trzydziestu dwu chałupach, dwie w ośmiu, a trzy – w dwóch. Powierzchnia komór oscylowała w granicach 3,1-24,7 m². +Stajnia była pomieszczeniem przeznaczonym dla zwierząt hodowlanych. Wchodziła ona w skład trzydziestu dziewięciu budynków mieszkalno-gospodarczych. Powierzchnia stajni w tych budynkach mieściła się w granicach 7,0-27,5 m², natomiast wysokość 1,8-2,5 m. +W skład budynku wchodziły również inne pomieszczenia. Najczęściej były to: skład, przyczółek, chlew, kurnik, sąsiek, boisko. +Domy w Grabownicy były budowane na planie jednotraktu, półtoratraktu i dwutraktu. Rozplanowanie wnętrz w tych domach było bardzo zróżnicowane. +Najstarszym zachowanym budynkiem, związanym z budownictwem ludowym, jest spichlerz plebański, pochodzący zapewne z 1637 roku. Jest on drewniany, konstrukcji zrębowej, usytuowany na planie prostokąta. Dach tego budynku jest czterospadowy, pokryty gontem. +Do roku 1939 we wsi znajdował się pałac którego właścicielem był +Juliusz hr. Starzeński. +Spłaszczkowate + +Spłaszczkowate, żółwie spłaszczone (Dermatemydidae) – rodzina żółwi z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych. Cechą tej rodziny jest występowanie w miejscu połączenia karapaksu z plastronem kilku rzędów niewielkich tarczek. Rodzina ta pod koniec ery mezozoicznej była bardzo liczna i występowała na wszystkich kontynentach. Współcześnie żyje tylko jeden przedstawiciel tej rodziny i cechy jego budowy przyjmuje się za cechy całej rodziny. +Lista polskich rodów hrabiowskich + +Zestawienie obejmuje okres od Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej do roku 1918 z krótką informacją na temat daty uzyskania tytułu (nadanie, potwierdzenie, uznanie używanego itp.) i od kogo pochodzi oraz ewentualną notą o wygaśnięciu utytułowanej gałęzi rodu w chwili obecnej względnie tytułu. Herby podano w formie podstawowej dla danych rodzin, a nazwiska bez dodatkowych przydomków. +Augustyn Wincenty Locci + +Augustyn Wincenty Locci herbu Lew (ur. ok. 1640 w Warszawie, zm. 22 października 1732) – polski architekt, sekretarz i doradca artystyczny króla Jana III Sobieskiego. +Syn Augustyna Locciego i Urszuli Doroty Giza. W 1673 otrzymał indygenat polski czyli szlachectwo herbu Lew, przy czym przywilej dotyczył wszystkich jego braci – Franciszka, Kazimierza i Jana. Należał do otoczenia Jana III Sobieskiego, nazywany przez króla „najbliższym przyjacielem i naszym sekretarzem”. Wykonał na zlecenie króla wiele prac, projektował i kierował przeróbkami rezydencji królewskich, m.in. dekoracją zamku w Żółkwi, Zamku Królewskiego w Warszawie, w kościele i klasztorze kapucynów i sakramentek. Dziełem życia Locciego był pałac w Wilanowie, rezydencja Jana Sobieskiego, wzniesiona pod jego osobistym kierownictwem w latach 1677–1696. Wykonywał również zamówienia osób prywatnych, na przykład projekt galerii dla Radziwiłłów, przebudowa zamku w Radzyniu Podlaskim, pałacu Sieniawskiego przy Krakowskim Przedmieściu, budowa dworu w Winiarach dla Stanisława Antoniego Szczuki. +Nie posiadał formalnego wykształcenia, ale odznaczał się pomysłowością, polotem i umiejętnościami technicznymi. W jego dziełach charakterystycznym było nawiązywanie do dzieł wielkich klasyków architektury, ale nie szedł niewolniczo za tymi wzorami, lecz twórczo je przetwarzał przystosowując do polskiej tradycji i zwyczaju. +Miarą jego sukcesu na dworze Sobieskiego było otrzymanie dożywotniej pensji 2000 zł na żupach wielickich oraz urzędów ziemskich – podczaszy trembowelski, podczaszy nowogródzki i stolnik wyszogrodzki. Otrzymał również dobra ziemskie – wójtostwo Mokotów, Rakowiec, Witkowiec, Wyględów, Grotów i Grotówek na terenie woj. warszawskiego. W 1706 roku poślubił Annę Szymanowską, która w posagu wniosła mu dobra – Słubica i Bukówka w powiecie tarczyńskim. Cały majątek zapisał swemu bratankowi Franciszkowi, synowi Kazimierza, nie posiadał własnych dzieci. Zmarł 22 października 1732 roku, pochowany w kościele karmelitów na Lesznie w Warszawie. +Biga (poligrafia) + +Biga (z niem. "biegen" – giąć) – w poligrafii element wykrojnika służący do wytłaczania linii zgięcia papieru. +Listwę bigującą wykonuje się ze stali o standaryzowanej grubości: biga dwupunktowa ma grubość 0,7 mm, biga trzypunktowa ma grubość 1,05 mm. Big trzypunktowych używa się do bigowania grubszych materiałów, głównie tektur, gdzie użycie big dwupunktowych mogłoby doprowadzić do pękania materiału. +Aby materiał w sposób trwały i estetyczny został zbigowany używa się antybig. Biga wtłacza materiał do rowka antybigi, którego szerokość i głębokość jest zależna od grubości materiału i kierunku włókien. +Afera mostowa + +Rzekoma afera mostowa wyszła na jaw pod koniec 2003 roku po publikacjach w prasie informacji o niejasnościach związanych z budową Mostu Świętokrzyskiego i Siekierkowskiego w Warszawie. Ceny inwestycji miały być sztucznie zawyżone. Ponadto przetargi na nadzór nad nimi wygrała firma, której szef, Wojciech Ławniczak, był byłym mężem jednej z ówczesnych radnych Unii Wolności, później związanej z Platformą Obywatelską. +Publikacje prasowe ujawniały kolejne, rzekome, przykłady niegospodarności podczas gdy Warszawą rządziła koalicja UW-SLD (potem PO-SLD) m.in. sprawa Złotych Tarasów i tunelu pod Wisłostradą. +W rezultacie władze Platformy zawiesiły kilku samorządowców oraz parlamentarzystów. A także zdegradowały byłego prezydenta Warszawy Pawła Piskorskiego, który utracił funkcję przewodniczącego regionu mazowieckiego PO. +W lipcu 2008 z braku dowodów na tzw. czyny łapownicze Prokuratura Okregowa w Warszawie umorzyła śledztwo w sprawie rzekomej "afery mostowej". Julia Pitera, pełnomocnik ds. walki z korupcją i wieloletnia radna stolicy, rekomendując władzom Warszawy odwołanie sie od decyzji prokuratury, stwierdziła: ""uważam, że odsunięcie działaczy PO było słuszne. To, co działo się w Warszawie, było moralnie niedopuszczalne"". +Cisówka + +Zobacz też: Cisowo +Pracownia Komet i Meteorów + +Pracownia Komet i Meteorów (PKiM) to organizacja astronomiczna zrzeszająca miłośników astronomii z całej Polski. PKiM zajmuje się badaniem małych ciał Układu Słonecznego, głównie aktywnością rojów metorowych. Prowadzona działalność obejmuje obserwacje wizualne, teleskopowe, fotograficzne, video oraz radiowe. Od roku 2004 PKiM prowadzi projekt o nazwie Polska Sieć Bolidowa (ang. Polish Fireball Network), w ramach którego, na terenie całego kraju, pracuje obecnie ponad 20 stacji fotograficznych i wideo. Ich zadaniem jest rejestracja jasnych zjawisk meteorowych z kilku miejsc na raz, co pozwala na wyznaczenie trajektorii ciała w atmosferze, jego orbity a także miejsca potencjalnego spadku meteorytu. +Stowarzyszenie założone zostało przez Janusza Kosinskiego w roku 1987. W 1993 PKiM rozpoczęła współpracę z International Meteor Organization (IMO), największą organizacją zrzeszającą miłośników meteorów na świecie. +Pracownia rokrocznie organizuje letnie obozy astronomiczne w Stacji Obserwacyjnej Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego w Ostrowiku, a także seminaria naukowe na przełomie lutego i marca w Centrum Astronomicznym im. Mikołaja Kopernika PAN w Warszawie. +PKiM została zarejestrowana oficjalnie w sądzie rejonowym w roku 2007. Czasopismem wydawanym przez Pracownię jest dwumiesięcznik Cyrqlarz. +Rzut równoległy + +Rzut równoległy na płaszczyznę – odwzorowanie przestrzeni euklidesowej trójwymiarowej na daną płaszczyznę w ten sposób, że każdemu punktowi przestrzeni przypisany jest punkt przecięcia się prostej, równoległej do kierunku rzutowania, przechodzącej przez dany punkt, z płaszczyzną. +Szczególne rodzaje rzutu równoległego to rzut prostokątny i aksonometria, zaś sam rzut równoległy jest szczególnym przypadkiem rzutu środkowego. +Komitet planowania lotnictwa cywilnego + +Komitet planowania lotnictwa cywilnego ("Civil Aviation Planning Committee" - CAPC) został powołany na mocy Trakatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950 roku. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuację zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio pod wysoki komitet planowania centralnego na sytuacje nadzwyczajnych zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Celem komitetu jest zapewnienie i koordynacja dostępności do cywilnych środków transportu lotniczego dla państw członkowskich NATO w czasie kryzysów i wojny. Działanie komitetu oparte jest na zasadzie, iż lotnictwo cywilne nie może być rozpatrywane jako oddzielny element w każdym z państw członkowskich, ale powinno być postrzegane jako jednolity, międzynarodowy system. +Komitet planowania przemysłowego + +Komitet planowania przemysłowego ("Industrial Planning Committee" - IPC) został powołany na mocy Trakatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950 roku. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuację zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio pod wysoki komitet planowania centralnego na sytuacje nadzwyczajnych zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Komitet planowania przemysłowego zajmuje się zapewnieniem ciągłości produkcji kluczowych zasobów przemysłowych oraz ich dystrybucji pomiędzy państwami Sojuszu w sytuacjach kryzysowych, zarówno dla sektora cywilnego, jak i wojskowego. W zakresie obowiązków komitetu znajduje się również planowanie mobilizacji cywilnych ośrodków przemysłowych na czas kryzysu i wojny. +Aleksander Krzyżanowski + +Aleksander Krzyżanowski, ps. ""Wilk"", ""Wesołowski"", ""Dziemido"", ""Jan Kulczycki"" (ur. 18 lutego 1895, zm. 29 września 1951) – pułkownik artylerii Wojska Polskiego, członek SZP, ZWZ, komendant Okręgu Wileńskiego AK. +Młodość i udział w I wojnie światowej. +Urodził się 18 lutego 1895 roku w Briańsku (gubernia orłowska) w Rosji, jako syn Jakuba i Zofii Wilamowskiej-Knobelsdorf. Był bratem majora Karola Krzyżanowskiego internowanego w Rumunii. Wychowywał się w patriotycznej atmosferze. Uczył się w gimnazjum w Homlu. W 1914 roku jego rodzina przeniosła się do Petersburga. Uczęszczał tam do XII Gimnazjum Klasycznego. Jesienią 1916 roku rozpoczął studia na Wydziale Elektromechanicznym Instytutu Technologicznego. Jednakże jeszcze jako student I roku został powołany do rosyjskiej armii. Na początku 1917 roku został skierowany na półroczny kurs do Konstantynowskiej Szkoły Artylerii w Piotrogrodzie, który ukończył w stopniu chorążego. W lipcu 1917 roku otrzymał przydział do 18 Syberyjskiego Dywizjonu Artylerii Polowej, wchodzącego w skład 6 Korpusu Syberyjskiego. +W październiku 1917 roku przeniósł się do I Korpusu Polskiego dowodzonego przez gen. Józefa Dowbor-Muśnickiego. Początkowo służył w Legii Oficerskiej, a od kwietnia 1918 roku w I Brygadzie Artylerii, jako młodszy oficer. Po rozwiązaniu Korpusu przez Niemców na przełomie maja i czerwca tego roku przyjechał do Warszawy, gdzie rozpoczął studia na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. W przełomowych dniach listopadowych 1918 brał udział w rozbrajaniu żołnierzy niemieckich. +Udział w walkach z Sowietami. +W tym samym miesiącu wstąpił do odradzającego się Wojska Polskiego, po czym został skierowany na kilkunastodniowy kurs oficerski do Dęblina, który ukończył w stopniu podporucznika. Początkowo pozostawał w dyspozycji Departamentu Technicznego Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych jako oficer do zleceń. W połowie grudnia 1918 roku otrzymał przydział do 3 Pułku Artylerii Ciężkiej, z którym w kwietniu 1919 roku wyruszył na front. Za męstwo na polu walki został odznaczony Krzyżem Walecznych i awansowany do stopnia porucznika. Na froncie pozostawał do września 1919 roku, a następnie otrzymał skierowanie na dwumiesięczny kurs dla dowódców baterii artylerii w Rembertowie. Po jego ukończeniu powrócił do pułku, który w międzyczasie przemianowany został na 1 Pułk Artylerii Ciężkiej Legionów. W pułku objął stanowisko pierwszego oficera baterii. W styczniu 1920 roku uczestniczył w ciężkich walkach pod Dyneburgiem. Od lutego tego roku zaliczono go do korpusu oficerów służby stałej. Od 17 marca tego roku pełnił obowiązki dowódcy 5 baterii. 7 grudnia tego roku II dywizjon został przemianowany na 21 Dywizjon Artylerii Ciężkiej. W tym dywizjonie był pierwszym oficerem 2 baterii (dawna 5 bateria), a następnie dowódcą 3 baterii (dawna 6 bateria). 21 grudnia 1920 roku dywizjon został dyslokowany z Fordonu do Niepołomic. +Kariera wojskowa w II RP. +15 czerwca 1921 roku został odkomenderowany do Szkoły Strzelania Artylerii w Toruniu na 3-miesięczny kurs dowódców baterii. 1 września 1921 roku 21 Dywizjon Artylerii Ciężkiej został przemianowany na II dywizjon 5 Pułku Artylerii Ciężkiej i dyslokowany do Krakowa, do koszar im. generała Józefa Bema. Po powrocie z kursu, od 20 września 1921 roku do 12 listopada 1923 roku dowodził 6 baterią. Od 12 listopada 1923 roku do 17 kwietnia 1924 roku przebywał na kursie w Centralnej Wojskowej Szkole Gimnastyki i Sportu w Poznaniu. Od 18 kwietnia do 30 lipca 1924 roku był adiutantem I dywizjonu 5 pac. Od 31 lipca do 28 października 1924 roku ponownie dowodził baterią. +W październiku 1924 roku został przeniesiony do Artyleryjskiej Komisji Doświadczalnej w Rembertowie, gdzie został referentem balistyki zewnętrznej. W grudniu tego roku został awansowany na stopień kapitana. Po roku otrzymał z kolei przydział do Instytutu Badań Materiałów i Uzbrojenia, w którym pracował kolejno na stanowiskach: referenta balistyki zewnętrznej, dowódcy kompanii obsługi i szefa pracowni broni małokalibrowej. W sierpniu 1926 roku wyjechał służbowo na półtoramiesięczną podróż do Francji, Włoch i Czechosłowacji. W marcu 1927 roku ożenił się z Janiną Łopińską. W końcu lata 1929 roku został przeniesiony do 15 Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej w Bydgoszczy, w którym objął funkcję dowódcy 6 baterii. Wiosną 1931 roku został odkomenderowany na 5-miesięczny kurs dla dowódców dywizjonów artylerii do Szkoły Strzelania Artylerii. Po powrocie do jednostki początkowo był komendantem szkoły podoficerskiej w pułku, a w lutym 1932 roku został dowódcą dywizjonu. W tym samym roku uczestniczył w kursie doskonalącym dla kapitanów w Centrum Wyszkolenia Piechoty w Rembertowie i kursie taktycznym dla dowódców dywizjonów w Centrum Wyszkolenia Artylerii w Toruniu. Na przełomie 1933 i 1934 roku ponownie objął dowództwo pułkowej szkoły podoficerskiej. W lutym 1934 roku otrzymał awans na stopień majora. Od kwietnia tego roku dowodził III dywizjonem w 20 Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej w Prużanie. Na początku 1935 roku objął dowództwo I dywizjonu 12 Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej w Tarnopolu. W 1938 roku, po zatargu z dowódcą 12 DP, płk. Gustawem Paszkiewiczem, został przeniesiony na stanowisko dowódcy I dywizjonu 26 Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej w Skierniewicach w składzie 26 DP. +Udział w wojnie obronnej 1939 r.. +Z chwilą wybuchu wojny obronnej 1939 r. 26 DP wchodziła w skład Armii "Poznań" pod dowództwem gen. Tadeusza Kutrzeby. Początkowo zajmowała ona pozycje na płd. brzegu Noteci, następnie została wycofana pod Inowrocław. 6 września przeszła do Armii "Pomorze" gen. Władysława Bortnowskiego jako jej odwód. Żołnierze 26 DP, a wśród nich mjr Krzyżanowski, uczestniczyli w bitwie nad Bzurą, m.in. w uderzeniu na Łowicz. Po rozbiciu polskich jednostek przez Niemców mjr Krzyżanowski zebrał grupę ocalałych żołnierzy, przedostał się z nią w Góry Świętokrzyskie i tam ponownie podjął walkę z wojskami niemieckimi. Jego oddział został jednak rozbity w połowie października w rejonie Świętej Katarzyny. +Początkowy okres konspiracji. +W II połowie października 1939 przedostał się do Warszawy. Związał się z niedawno powstałą Służbą Zwycięstwu Polski, na czele której stał gen. Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski. Już w listopadzie tego roku został wysłany na Wileńszczyznę w celu podporządkowania lokalnych siatek konspiracyjnych SZP. Przybył na miejsce prawdopodobnie na początku 1940 roku. Na przełomie marca i kwietnia tego roku został szefem sztabu i zastępcą komendanta Okręgu, ppłk. Nikodema Sulika. Wkrótce wileńskie SZP przemianowano na ZWZ. 31 marca 1941 roku Naczelny Wódz awansował go na stopień podpułkownika . +Po aresztowaniu przez NKWD w połowie kwietnia tego roku komendanta Okręgu Wileńskiego ZWZ przejął faktycznie dowodzenie organizacją. W sierpniu 1941 roku, po zajęciu Wilna przez wojska niemieckie, komendant główny ZWZ, gen. bryg. Stefan Rowecki zatwierdził go na stanowisku komendanta Okręgu. Jesienią 1942 roku podjął rozmowy z przedstawicielami litewskiej konspiracji niepodległościowej, wznowione następnie na przełomie 1943/1944, które jednak rozbiły się o kwestię przynależności państwowej Wileńszczyzny. Pod koniec 1943 roku nawiązał także kontakty z Białorusinami, ale i one zakończyły się niepowodzeniem. +W związku z tworzeniem od marca 1943 roku na Wileńszczyźnie, gdzie już działały podziemne jednostki radzieckie, polskich oddziałów partyzanckich, podejmowano próby porozumienia w celu skoncentrowaniu wszystkich sił do walki z Niemcami, a nie ze sobą. We wspólnych rozmowach uczestniczył także Komendant Okręgu Wileńskiego AK ppłk Krzyżanowski. W ich wyniku pod koniec stycznia 1944 roku doszło do zawarcia umowy o zawieszeniu broni i wspólnym zwalczaniu bandytyzmu. W rzeczywistości jednak było to ze strony Rosjan posunięcie taktyczne obliczone na zyskanie czasu do rozprawy z polskim podziemiem. +Jednocześnie w tym samym czasie niemieckie władze okupacyjne wszczęły starania w celu nawiązania kontaktu z 5. Brygadą AK dowodzoną przez mjr. Zygmunta Szendzielarza ps. "Łupaszko". Do pierwszego spotkania – z udziałem ppłk. Krzyżanowskiego (występującego incognito) – doszło we wsi Swejginie. Nastąpiło ono bez zawiadomienia o nim KG AK oraz Delegata Rządu na woj. wileńskie. Strona polska nie zgodziła się na zawarcie porozumienia, wyrażono natomiast zgodę na dalsze kontakty. Ppłk Krzyżanowski postawił Niemcom następujące warunki: uznanie niepodległości Polski w granicach z 1939 roku, pokrycie wszystkich strat, poniesionych przez Polskę wskutek inwazji niemieckiej, zwolnienie jeńców wojennych, więźniów obozów koncentracyjnych i wywiezionych na przymusowe roboty oraz przekazanie dla partyzantów uzbrojenia wraz z artylerią i bronią pancerną dla 30 tys. ludzi. Warunki te miały wyłącznie charakter manifestacyjno-propagandowy. Do kolejnego spotkania doszło 10 lutego 1944 roku w jednej z wileńskich restauracji. Ppłk Krzyżanowski liczył przede wszystkim na uzyskanie zgody na wymianę jeńców. Niemcy chcieli natomiast uczynić z oddziałów AK pomocnicze jednostki do zwalczania partyzantki sowieckiej. 12 lutego miała miejsce druga tura rozmów, na której strona polska poruszyła jedynie kwestię jeńców wojennych. +Kilka dni później ppłk Krzyżanowski wyjechał do Warszawy złożyć raport dla KG AK z przeprowadzonych rozmów i ewentualnie uzyskać ich akceptację. Komendant główny AK, gen. bryg. Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski zdecydowanie odrzucił możliwość porozumienia z Niemcami. Zalecał także powstrzymywanie się od wystąpień przeciwko partyzantce sowieckiej. Ponadto nakazał mającą niedługo wkroczyć na ziemie polskie Armię Czerwoną traktować jako sojusznika i współdziałać z nią w walce przeciwko Niemcom. Kiedy na początku marca 1944 roku ppłk Krzyżanowski wrócił do Wilna, odrzucił pisemnie wszelkie propozycje niemieckie i polecił ponadto wzmóc propagandę antyniemiecką. +Walki z Litwinami. +W maju 1944 roku doszło do walk z batalionami Litewskiego Korpusu Posiłkowego pod dowództwem gen. Povilasa Plechavičiusa, który był całkowicie podporządkowany Niemcom. Chcąc zapobiec polsko-litewskiemu konfliktowi, ppłk Krzyżanowski wysłał pismo do gen. P. Plechavičiusa z propozycją zawarcia umowy o nieagresji oraz zawieszenia dotychczasowych walk między Polakami i Litwinami. Ci odrzucili jednak polskie warunki, gdyż domagali się przede wszystkim uznania Wileńszczyzny za część Litwy i w związku z tym wycofania z niej wszystkich oddziałów AK. W rezultacie od początku maja 1944 roku doszło do wzajemnych walk (z osobistym udziałem ppłk. Krzyżanowskiego w części z nich), które doprowadziły w połowie maja do rozbicia litewskich oddziałów Korpusu w bitwie pod Murowaną Oszmianką. +Komendant Okręgu Wileńskiego, chcąc zneutralizować konflikt polsko-litewski przed spodziewaną rozgrywką o Wilno, wystąpił następnie do strony litewskiej o zaprzestanie wspólnych walk i ewentualne współdziałanie przeciwko Niemcom, ale ponownie zostało to przez Litwinów odrzucone. W czerwcu 1944 roku doszło do apogeum konfliktu. 20 czerwca oddział pomocniczej policji niemieckiej w zemście za śmierć kilku policjantów w starciu z brygadą "Łupaszki" wymordował w majątku Glinciszki 38 Polaków. W odpowiedzi ppłk Krzyżanowski rozkazał mjr. M. Potockiemu przeprowadzenie odwetowego rajdu na terytorium Litwy Kowieńskiej. Ponadto 5. Brygada AK 23 czerwca zabiła 27 mieszkańców litewskiej wsi Dubinki . +Akcja "Burza" na Wileńszczyźnie. +Jednocześnie wiosną 1944 roku Komenda Okręgu Wileńskiego AK podjęła ostateczne przygotowania do akcji "Burza". W połowie kwietnia tego roku, z rozkazu ppłk. Krzyżanowskiego utworzono sztab operacyjny oddziałów partyzanckich, którego zadaniem było koordynowanie działań poszczególnych brygad AK oraz rozwijanie ich szkolenia i struktury organizacyjnej. Na początku czerwca 1944 sztab – wraz z komendantem okręgu – przeniósł się w teren, na płd. od Dziewieniszek. W połowie maja z brygad partyzanckich utworzono trzy zgrupowania bojowe: Zgrupowanie nr 1 (Wileńskie) dowodzone przez mjr. Antoniego Olechnowicza ps. "Pohorecki", Zgrupowanie nr 2 (Północne) – mjr. Mieczysława Potockiego ps. "Węgielny" i Zgrupowanie nr 3 (Oszmiańskie) – mjr. Czesława Dębickiego ps. "Jarema". +Początkowo strona polska nie przewidywała walk o większe miasta, gdyż obawiała się znacznych strat. Ostatecznie zmieniono jednak pierwotne ustalenia. Komendant Główny AK gen. Tadeusz Bór-Komorowski nakazał komendantom Okręgów "zajmowanie większych miejscowości po opuszczeniu ich przez Niemców, a przed wkroczeniem Rosjan". Zajęcie Wilna miało być testem dobrej woli władz sowieckich i ich zamierzeń wobec Polski. Na gruncie lokalnym inicjatywa zdobycia Wilna wyszła od mjr. Macieja Kalenkiewicza ps. "Kotwicz", dowódcy Zgrupowania Południe (Nadniemeńskiego) Okręgu Nowogródzkiego AK. Ppłk Krzyżanowski z entuzjazmem zaakceptował ten pomysł. +12 czerwca 1944 na odprawie w KG AK w Warszawie, na której byli ppłk Krzyżanowski i ppłk Janusz Prawdzic-Szlaski komendant Okręgu Nowogródzkiego AK, zostało to także zaaprobowane przez Komendanta Głównego AK. Tego samego dnia gen. Bór-Komorowski upoważnił ppłk. Krzyżanowskiego do występowania w mundurze generała brygady. Miało mu to ułatwić pertraktacje z dowództwem Armii Czerwonej. +19 czerwca ppłk Krzyżanowski powrócił do Wilna. Następnego dnia w mundurze generała brygady przybył do sztabu polowego w Dziewieniszkach. 26 czerwca podpisał Rozkaz operacyjny nr 1 "Ostra brama", zawierający zadania dla poszczególnych zgrupowań. Tego samego dnia wydał także rozkaz do żołnierzy AK. Następne dni upłynęły mu na wizytowaniu oddziałów obu Okręgów. Szybkie posuwanie się Armii Czerwonej w stronę Wilna zmusiło go do przerwania inspekcji i powrotu do sztabu. Podczas nocnej narady z 2 na 3 lipca wyznaczył datę rozpoczęcia operacji "Ostra Brama" na 7 lipca wieczorem. Następnie ze sztabem operacyjnym przeniósł się bliżej Wilna, do leżących 25 km na płd.-wsch. od Wilna Wołkorabiszek. +Wobec błyskawicznej ofensywy wojsk sowieckich data uderzenia na Wilno została przyśpieszona o 24 godziny. Trudności w łączności sprawiły jednak, że nie wszystkie oddziały AK dowiedziały się o tym. 6 lipca w południe odbyła się w sztabie polowym ostatnia odprawa przed akcją. Ustalono na niej trasę przemarszu na Wilno. Wieczorem ppłk Krzyżanowski wraz z pozostałymi oficerami dotarł na przedpole miasta, kiedy trwały już walki. Jednakże następnego dnia – wobec bardzo dużej przewagi Niemców – udał się razem wycofującymi się oddziałami z powrotem do Wołkorabiszek. +Aresztowanie przez Sowietów. +W sytuacji niezrealizowania politycznych planów, czyli wystąpienia w zdobytym Wilnie jako gospodarz, ppłk Krzyżanowski postanowił podjąć rozmowy ze stroną sowiecką. 12 lipca dostał on zaproszenie do kwatery dowódcy 3. Frontu Białoruskiego gen. Iwana Czerniachowskiego w Smorgoniach. Udał się tam zdobycznym samochodem niemieckim w towarzystwie oficerów swojego sztabu: mjr. Zbigniewa Brodzikowskiego ps. "Rańcza", mjr. Kazimierza Radzikowskiego ps. "Dąbek" i por. Władysława Kitowskiego ps. "Grom", a także sowieckiego oficera łącznikowego ppłk. Nikołajewa. Ze strony sowieckiej rozmowy prowadził generał brygady, który jednak nie przedstawił się ani nie określił swojej funkcji. Ppłk Krzyżanowski wystąpił jako "generał Wilk", prosząc później o akceptację takiego postępowania gen. Bora-Komorowskiego. Wystąpił on wobec Sowietów z propozycją kontynuowania współpracy wojskowej. Ci natomiast chcieli tylko wykorzystać żołnierzy AK jako zwiadowców lub przewodników jednostek frontowych. +Jednocześnie 13 lipca zakończyły się wspólne sowiecko-polskie walki o wyzwolenie Wilna. Następnego dnia doszło do kolejnego spotkania, na którym strona sowiecka nieoczekiwanie zgodziła się na postulat utworzenia z oddziałów AK Okręgów Wileńskiego i Nowogródzkiego samodzielnej jednostki w składzie dwóch dywizji piechoty i zmotoryzowanej brygady kawalerii, pod polskim dowództwem w składzie 3. Frontu Białoruskiego. Uzbrojenie, wyposażenie i wyżywienie dostarczyć miała Armia Czerwona. Do 17 lipca ppłk Krzyżanowski zobowiązał się dostarczyć konkretne propozycje dotyczące organizacji podległych mu oddziałów. +W rzeczywistości propozycja sowiecka była wybiegiem, który miał uśpić czujność Polaków i pozwolił przygotować się do likwidacji oddziałów AK. W tym celu w rejon Wilna zostały przerzucone wojska NKWD na czele z gen. NKWD Iwanem Sierowem. Rano 17 lipca sowiecki oficer łącznikowy przekazał ppłk. Krzyżanowskiemu zaproszenie do Wilna od gen. I. Czerniachowskiego w celu podpisania ostatecznego porozumienia. Ponieważ polski dowódca zamierzał się tam udać w asyście szwadronu kawalerii, Rosjanin nalegał na pośpiech. Ostatecznie ppłk Krzyżanowski pojechał do Wilna jedynie ze swoim szefem sztabu mjr. Teodorem Cetysem ps. "Sław" i kierowcą. Na spotkaniu Polacy zostali zdradziecko aresztowani i rozbrojeni. Wieczorem tak samo postąpiono z większością oficerów AK, którzy przybyli w okolice Wołkorabiszek na rzekomą odprawę z komendantem Okręgu. +Ostatnie lata (1944-1951). +Po aresztowaniu ppłk Krzyżanowski, jako Jan Kulczycki, generał "Wilk", został przewieziony do więzienia w Wilnie, gdzie umieszczono go wraz z pozostałymi oficerami AK. W trakcie kilku następnych miesięcy był on nieustannie przesłuchiwany. Był on gotowy pójść na ustępstwa wobec Sowietów, ale w zamian chciał uzyskać gwarancje bezpieczeństwa dla ujawniających się żołnierzy AK. W międzyczasie 28 września 1944 roku Naczelny Wódz, gen. broni Kazimierz Sosnkowski, awansował go na stopień pułkownika. +W maju 1945 roku płk Krzyżanowski został przewieziony do Moskwy. Po półtorarocznym pobycie w więzieniu na Butyrkach, przeniesiono go w październiku 1946 roku do obozu NKWD nr 179 w Diagilewie w okolicy Riazania, w którym przebywali żołnierze i oficerowie AK. W lipcu 1947 roku został z kolei przewieziony do obozu w Griazowcu w okolicy Wołogdy. +11 sierpnia uciekł z obozu i na początku września dotarł do Wilna. Chciał on legalnie przekroczyć granicę polsko-radziecką, dlatego udał się do pełnomocnika rządu polskiego ds. repatriacji, przed którym ujawnił prawdziwe nazwisko i funkcję z AK. W rezultacie 13 września został ponownie aresztowany przez Sowietów i osadzony w więzieniu na Butyrkach. Wkrótce władze sowieckie dołączyły go do grupy obywateli polskich, mających być odesłanych do Polski. +4 października 1947 roku znalazł się w kraju. Po powrocie płk Krzyżanowski zawsze występował pod własnym nazwiskiem, a ponieważ jego sytuacja materialna była nie uregulowana, to często przenosił się z miasta do miasta. Utrzymywał on też kontakty ze swoimi byłymi podkomendnymi, ale miały one wyłącznie charakter towarzyski. Uważał, że konspiracja nie ma już sensu i może przynieść tylko kolejne aresztowania. Zamierzał poświęcić się wyłącznie życiu rodzinnemu i pracy zawodowej. Wiosną 1948 roku podjął pracę na stanowisku dyrektora Centralnej Składnicy Rozliczeniowej Akcji Siewnej Dyrekcji Roszarń Lnu i Konopi w Pakości. +3 lipca podczas narady dyrektorów został aresztowany, tym razem przez UB. Pod koniec lipca został osadzony w więzieniu w Warszawie na Mokotowie. W październiku 1950 roku – bardzo chory – uczestniczył jako świadek w procesie przeciwko członkom Mobilizacyjnego Ośrodka Wileńskiego Okręgu AK. +Zmarł 29 września 1951 roku w szpitalu więziennym na gruźlicę. Jego zwłoki zostały w tajemnicy zakopane na terenie Powązek między cmentarzem komunalnym i wojskowym. W marcu 1957 roku ekshumowano je i następnie uroczyście przeniesiono na Cmentarz Wojskowy na Powązkach w Warszawie. Grób symboliczny znajduje się także w Kwaterze "Na Łączce" tego cmentarza. +Upamiętnienie. +W 1983 roku odznaczony został Gwiazdą Wytrwałości. +W październiku 1989 roku imię płk Aleksandra Krzyżanowskiego "Wilka" nadano jednej z ulic w Gdańsku-Wrzeszczu. Jest on też patronem trzech szkół: gimnazjum we wsi Kadzidło k. Ostrołęki oraz Szkoły Podstawowej nr 3 w Busku-Zdroju, i Szkoły Podstawowej w Szumiłowie k. Torunia. +Postanowieniem Nr W.111-48-94 Prezydenta RP, Lecha Wałęsy z dnia 28 września 1994 roku mianowany został za szczególne zasługi w działalności konspiracyjnej i w walce zbrojnej z niemieckim okupantem, pośmiertnie, do stopnia generała brygady. 27 października 1994 roku minister obrony narodowej wręczył przyznane pośmiertnie przez prezydenta RP nominację generalską dla m.in. Krzyżanowskiego. Dyplom i czapkę z odpowiednimi dystynkcjami odebrała jego córka, Olga Krzyżanowska. +17 maja 2012 postanowieniem Prezydenta RP Bronisława Komorowskiego został pośmiertnie odznaczony Krzyżem Wielkim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. Przekazanie przez prezydenta rodzinie zmarłego Orderu miało miejsce 17 września 2012 roku podczas uroczystości w Pałacu Prezydenckim. Order odebrała jego córka, Olga Krzyżanowska. +Ruptawa + +Ruptawa – sołectwo Jastrzębia-Zdroju. W latach 1973-1975 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Ruptawa. +Historia. +Założenie Ruptawy datować można na schyłkowy okres kolonizacji na prawie zachodnim tj. koniec XIII wieku. Ruptawę ujęto w dokumencie "Liber fundationis episcopatus vratislaviensis" . Do roku 1526 Ruptawa znajdowała się pod panowaniem czeskim. Po roku 1526 przechodzi pod panowanie austriackie. W tym czasie Ruptawa należała do Wodzisławskiego Państwa Stanowego. W 1780 roku właścicielem Ruptawy był Jerzy Mikołaj De Gotschalkowski, który założył kolonię Ruptawiec. Po II wojnie światowej Ruptawa należała do powiatu wodzisławskiego. W roku 1975 Ruptawa została przyłączona administracyjnie do miasta Jastrzębie-Zdrój jako sołectwo Ruptawa z Cisówką. +Charakterystyka dzielnicy. +Ruptawa położona jest ok. 3 kilometrów od centrum miasta przy drodze Jastrzębie-Zdrój – Cieszyn. +Krajobraz Ruptawy ma wiejski charakter – zabudowania to domy jednorodzinne i budynki gospodarskie, ukształtowanie terenu jest pagórkowate z licznymi zagajnikami, lasami, potokami, stawami hodowlanymi, polami uprawnymi, pastwiskami i łąkami. +Miejsce rekreacji mieszkańców miasta – przez Ruptawę przebiegają szlaki piesze m.in. do Zebrzydowic oraz szlaki rowerowe w kierunku m.in. w Marklowic Górnych (a dalej - Czech) oraz Bzia Zameckiego, Strumienia, Kończyc Wielkich i Kończyc Małych. +Przy dobrej pogodzie z Ruptawy widoczna jest rozległa panorama Beskidów ze szczytami Czantorii Wielkiej, Równicy, Skrzycznego i Łysej Góry (Lysej Hory). +Z ważniejszych znajdujących się tu obiektów wymienić można murowany kościół parafialny wybudowany w 1949 r., w którym część wyposażenia (m.in. chrzcielnica) pochodzi z XVII-wiecznego drewnianego kościoła pw. św. Bartłomieja, przeniesionego stąd do pobliskich Kaczyc w 1972 (kościół Podwyższenia Krzyża Świętego w Kaczycach), budynek szkoły z 1885 r. oraz dwa kościoły ewangelickie – z 1912 r. i nowszy, zbudowany w latach 1988-1994. +Tuż obok kościoła rzymskokatolickiego znajduje się 400-letni dąb szypułkowy – pomnik przyrody. +W Ruptawie istniała także zabytkowa kapliczka klasycystyczna z początku XIX w., została jednak zburzona w latach 90. XX w. +Herb Ruptawy to muszla, nad którą umieszczone jest serce, z którego wyrastają pączki kwiatów, nad muszlą umieszczony jest krzyż. +Macierz dołączona + +__NOTOC__ +Macierz dołączona – w algebrze liniowej macierz pełniąca rolę podobną do macierzy odwrotnej do danej macierzy zdefiniowana jednak dla dowolnej macierzy kwadratowej (nie tylko odwracalnej). +Wykazuje ona duży związek z wyznacznikiem danej macierzy, wiążąc wiele wzorów go wykorzystujących, np. "rozwinięcie Laplace'a" (w tym rekurencyjny wzór na wyznacznik), "wzory Cramera" (w tym wzór na macierz odwrotną), "twierdzenie Cauchy'ego dla wyznaczników", "twierdzenie Cayleya-Hamiltona" (i jego uogólnienie: lemat Nakayamy). +Definicje. +Definicja macierzy dołączonej opiera się na pojęciu dopełnienia algebraicznego elementu formula_1 danej macierzy kwadratowej formula_2 stopnia formula_3 definiowanego jako minor formula_4 (tzn. wyznacznik podmacierzy) stopnia formula_5 powstały z usunięcia formula_6-tego wiersza oraz formula_7-tej kolumny macierzy formula_2 pomnożony przez formula_9 Dopełnienie algebraiczne elementu formula_1 macierzy formula_2 będzie oznaczane dalej symbolem formula_12 tzn. +"Macierzą dopełnień algebraicznych" macierzy formula_2 nazywa się macierz formula_15 złożoną z dopełnień algebraicznych elementów formula_1 tej macierzy. Macierzą dołączoną formula_17 do macierzy formula_2 nazywa się transpozycję jej macierzy dopełnień algebraicznych, tzn. +Własności. +Jeśli formula_2 i formula_21 są macierzami kwadratowymi stopnia formula_22 a formula_23 oznacza macierzą jednostkową tego samego stopnia, to +oraz +i dodatkowo +Ze wzoru permutacyjnego na wyznacznik macierzy formula_2 stopnia formula_22 +przy czym sumowanie odbywa się po wszystkich permutacjach zbioru formula_3 początkowych dodatnich liczb całkowitych (tzn. po elementach grupy permutacji formula_31), zaś formula_32 oznacza znak permutacji formula_33 równy formula_34 gdzie formula_35 oznacza liczbę inwersji tej permutacji, wynikają wzory będące przedstawieniami wyznacznika w postaci kombinacji liniowej elementów ustalonego wiersza bądź kolumny, tzn. +bądź +gdzie pierwszy z nich nazywa się "rozwinięciem Laplace'a" wyznacznika macierzy formula_2 względem jej formula_6-tego wiersza, a drugi – względem jej formula_7-tej kolumny. +Wzory te wykorzystuje się niekiedy do rekurencyjnego zdefiniowania wyznacznika (dopełnienia algebraiczne zawierają w sobie wyznaczniki stopnia stopnia niższego o jeden) z warunkiem początkowym dla macierzy stopnia pierwszego (wyznacznik równy jedynemu elementowi) lub zerowego (wyznacznik równy jedności) – wówczas wzór permutacyjny na wyznacznik dowodzony jest jako twierdzenie z tej definicji (oba te wzory są dowodzone jako twierdzenia przy definicji wyznacznika jako wieloliniowej formy alternującej maksymalnego rzędu). +Tłumaczy on uwagę poczynioną we wstępie o związku macierzy dołączonej formula_17 z macierzą odwrotną formula_45 (definiowaną wzorem formula_46) do macierzy formula_47 Jeśli formula_2 jest odwracalna, czyli nieosobliwa, tzn. formula_49 to +Mając dany skądinąd „wzór podstawowy” (np. z twierdzenia Cayleya-Hamiltona, zob. "wielomian charakterystyczny" dalej) można uzyskać z niego rozwinięcie Laplace'a wskazując kombinację liniową współczynników i wektorów elementów przekątnej głównej macierzy formula_51 we „wzorze podstawowym”. +gdzie korzysta się z przemienności mnożenia przez skalar (wyżej: wyznacznik) ze standardowym mnożeniem macierzy (albo z przemienności macierzy skalarnych z pozostałymi macierzami kwadratowymi ustalonego stopnia), skąd +Z powyższego wzoru dla macierzy odwracalnej formula_2 wynika formula_55 czyli +Ponieważ formula_57 to z własności wyznacznika i powyższego wzoru wynika +Jeśli formula_59 to prawostronne przemnożenie obu stron „wzoru podstawowego” przez formula_60 daje formula_61 skąd +o ile tylko formula_63 Elementy macierzy formula_60 nazywane są właśnie "wzorami Cramera". +Jeśli formula_65 jest "wielomianem charakterystycznym" macierzy formula_66 to na mocy twierdzenia Cayleya-Hamiltona zachodzi formula_67 skąd +a ponieważ formula_69 to oznaczając formula_70 otrzymuje się +przy czym formula_72 skąd uzyskuje się „wzór podstawowy”. +"Wzór Jacobiego" na różniczkę wyznacznika macierzy formula_2 ma postać +gdzie formula_75 oznacza różniczkę macierzy formula_66 a symbol formula_77 oznacza ślad macierzy. +Zduństwo + +Zduństwo – dział rzemiosła zajmujący się budową i naprawą pieców (pokojowych, kuchennych, chlebowych, pieco-kominków, ostatnio (po 1990 r.) także kominków). Rzemieślnik uprawiający to rzemiosło to zdun. +W średniowieczu zduństwo nie było odrębnym zawodem. Przygotowywaniem kafli i stawianiem pieców zajmowali się garncarze. Jeszcze do XVIII w., niektórzy z nich na kole garncarskim, prawdopodobnie już tylko na wstawki na miejsce uszkodzonych, robili kafle garnkowe i miskowe. Budowanie kominków należało do obowiązków budowniczych domów. Z czasem coraz częściej piece stawały się standardowym wyposażeniem mieszkania. Stąd garncarze (zdunowie) byli coraz liczniejsi i zakładali własne cechy. Nauka zawodu rozpoczynała się wcześnie, kandydat na zduna najpierw terminował u mistrza, potem zostawał czeladnikiem. Czeladnik, przed zostaniem mistrzem musiał na dwa lata udać się w świat aby znaleźć innego zduna który by go mógł douczyć fachu i znaleźć miejsce gdzie po zrobieniu majstersztyku (zdobyciu mistrzostwa) mógłby wstąpić do cechu i osiąść na stałe. Jeszcze w XIX w. w ramach majstersztyku robiono wielki gliniany garnek lub piec (zależnie od okolicy i potrzeb). Piece kaflowe były konstrukcjami dość drogimi. Stać na nie było szlachtę, duchowieństwo, mieszczaństwo. Chłopi robili piece tylko w kuchni, "domowym sposobem" z gliny i kamienia, mające palenisko na polepie. Często były to piece typu "ruskiego". Zajmowały one blisko 1/4 pomieszczenia i oprócz gotowania służyły jako miejsce do spania, przynajmniej dla chorych, dzieci i osób starych. Główny koszt pieca stanowiły płytowe kafle: reliefowe i gładkie, jednokolorowe i wielokolorowe, jednakowe lub z różnorodnym planem tematycznym. Produkowane już od XIV/XV wieku kafle płytowe produkowano metodą odciskania lica i wycinania kołnierza. Mimo że niektórzy rzemieślnicy do wyrobu kołnierza początkowo stosowali wciąż koło garncarskie, jednak generalnie zaprzestano jego stosowania. Poszczególni zdunowie różnili się też od siebie swoimi umiejętnościami. W technice budowania pieców prawdziwą rewolucję spowodowało zastosowanie do ogrzewania węgla (XVIII/XIX w.). Spowodowało to konieczność budowy kanałów wewnątrz pieca i zastosowania rusztu w palenisku. Podobnym przełomem było zastosowanie w pomieszczeniach kuchennych kuchni angielskich (trzonów kuchennych) z paleniskiem przykrywanym płytami kuchennymi z fajerkami. +W XVIII w. pojawiły się manufaktury, później też fabryki. Stopniowo ich produkcja ulegała specjalizacji. Te zajmujące się wyrobem kafli robiły to znacznie sprawniej niż tradycyjny rzemieślnik. Produkcja rzemieślnicza przestała się opłacać. W tej sytuacji, rzemieślnik mógł już tylko zajmować się zlepianiem gotowych kafli tak aby aby powstał piec zgodny z zamówieniem. W ten sposób w połowie XIX w. nastąpiło rozdzielenie zawodu, garncarz (lub fabrykant) produkował kafle zaś zdun je już tylko składał. Kafle stały się powszechnie dostępne i uwłaszczeni chłopi coraz częściej budowali piece pokojowe z kafli (wcześniej pokoje nie były ogrzewane) a nawet kuchenne. Dziś różnica między zdunem (składaczem) a garncarzem (producentem) jest odczuwana wyraźnie (chociaż zdarza się że zdun ma też fabrykę kafli). +Zwłaszcza na przełomie XIX i XX w. dawne niezależne cechy zostały podporządkowane izbom rzemieślniczym, które pilnowały wykształcenia rzemieślników (powstały szkoły rzemiosła z klasami dla zdunów), pilnowano odprowadzania podatków, wyłapywania i karania nieuczciwej konkurencji (wyłapywano ludzi bez uprawnień i nie płacących podatku), itp. Zwracano też uwagę na znajomość przepisów bezpieczeństwa przez zduna (źle zrobiony piec mógł być przyczyną zaczadzenia mieszkańców). +Po drugiej wojnie światowej, w odbudowywanej Polsce, w tym także Warszawie, jeszcze przez wiele lat głównym źródłem ciepła w mieszkaniach, nawet na wyższych piętrach były piece. Pod koniec lat pięćdziesiątych przewagę zaczęło zdobywać ogrzewanie centralne, najpierw w blokach, później i w indywidualnych domach. Zduństwo stało się zanikającym zawodem. Na przełomie wieków XX/XXI nastąpiło niewielkie ożywienie w tej branży, gdyż wzrosło zainteresowanie tradycyjnymi metodami ogrzewania. Zdunowie zajęli się też budową kominków, jednak specjalistów jest niewielu, a szkoły zawodowe zaniechały kształcenia w tym kierunku. +Materiały i narzędzia. +Materiały używane do budowy pieców to m.in.: cegła pełna, szamotowa, kształtki szamotowe, kafle, drut stalowy cienki do opasywania kafli (zapobiega ich rozpychaniu pod wpływem ciepła), glina, elementy metalowe – ruszty, drzwiczki, płyty kuchenne, w nowych konstrukcjach materiały izolacyjne, wykończeniowe (płytki ceramiczne, itd.). +Narzędzia używane przez zdunów: przecinak do przycinania kafli, gładzik do wygładzania brzegów kafli i miejsc cięcia, punktak do zaznaczania miejsc cięcia, gąbka do mycia kafli z gliny, skrzynia na glinę i mieszadło do jej mieszania z piaskiem, wiadro na wodę, kielnia, przybory pomiarowe (pion murarski, poziomica, kątownica, calówka). +Michalina Wisłocka + +Michalina Anna Wisłocka (ur. 1 lipca 1921 r. w Łodzi, zm. 5 lutego 2005 r. w Warszawie) — polska lekarka, ginekolog, cytolog i seksuolog. +Dyplom lekarza uzyskała 1 września 1952 r., natomiast tytuł naukowy doktora n. med. uzyskała 24.04.1969 r. +Urodzona w rodzinie inteligenckiej. Ojciec – Jan Tymoteusz Braun, był nauczycielem w szkole powszechnej przy ul. Klonowej 11, a następnie (od XII 1926 do IX 1939 r.) kierownikiem Szkoły Powszechnej Nr 30, przy ul. Wspólnej 5/7 w Łodzi; matka – Anna z Żylińskich herbu Ciołek, zajmowała się domem oraz udzielała lekcji języka polskiego. Rodzeństwo – dwóch młodszych braci: Andrzej, znany pisarz i Jan. Jej bratanicą jest Ewa Braun, scenograf i kostiumolog, laureatka Oscara. +Była współzałożycielką Towarzystwa Świadomego Macierzyństwa, w którym zajmowała się leczeniem niepłodności i antykoncepcją. Objęła kierownictwo pierwszej w Polsce Poradni Świadomego Macierzyństwa w Instytucie Matki i Dziecka w Warszawie. W latach 70. XX wieku kierowała Pracownią Cytodiagnostyczną Towarzystwa Planowania Rodziny. +Oprócz książek z dziedziny seksuologii – takich jak: "Sukces w miłości", "Kalejdoskop seksu", "Kultura miłości", "Sztuka kochania" (1976), "Sztuka kochania - w 20 lat później" (1988), "Sztuka kochania - witamina M" (1989), była również autorką pamiętników "Miłość na całe życie. Wspomnienia z czasów beztroski". +Jej popularnonaukowy poradnik z dziedziny seksuologii "Sztuka kochania" wydany w 1976 stał się bestsellerem (nakład łączny 7 mln egzemplarzy) i zapoczątkował większą otwartość w sprawach seksu i życia seksualnego w Polsce. +Zmarła w warszawskim Szpitalu na Solcu z powodu komplikacji kardiologicznych po przebytym zawale serca. 11 lutego 2005 roku została pochowana na Cmentarzu Ewangelicko-Augsburskim w Warszawie. +Mikołaj Zebrzydowski (marszałek wielki koronny) + +Mikołaj Zebrzydowski herbu Radwan (ur. 1553, zm. 17 czerwca 1620) – marszałek wielki koronny, starosta krakowski od 1585, wojewoda lubelski od 1589, wojewoda krakowski od 1601. +Syn Floriana Zebrzydowskiego i Zofii Dzikówny z Pierśni, brat Jana. +W latach 1560-1569 uczył się w kolegium jezuickim w Braniewie, skąd wyniósł dobre wykształcenie oraz głęboką pobożność. Brał udział w wojnie Stefana Batorego z Gdańskiem w 1576 oraz walkach z Carstwem Rosyjskim. Związał się w tym czasie z obozem kanclerza Janem Zamojskim, stając się z czasem politycznym oponentem Zygmunta III Wazy. W 1585 został starostą generalnym krakowskim, w 1589 wojewodą lubelskim, a w latach 1601-1620 był wojewodą krakowskim. W latach 1596-1600 był marszałkiem wielkim koronnym. +Po śmierci Zamoyskiego w 1605 r. stanął na czele opozycji przeciw Zygmuntowi III Wazie. Wzniecił rokosz Zebrzydowskiego (1606), stłumiony w wyniku bitwy pod Guzowem w 1607. +Po klęsce rokoszu odsunął się od życia politycznego i coraz częściej, zwłaszcza w latach po śmierci żony, spędzał czas w klasztorze. Ze względu na znaną w całym kraju pobożność miał znakomite kontakty z Rzymem (Stolicą Apostolską). Pod wpływem dzieła Christiana Adrichomiusza opisującego Jerozolimę w czasach Chrystusa w 1602 postanowił ufundować Kalwarię Zebrzydowską. +Żonaty z Dorotą Herburtówną, córką Jakuba i Elżbiety z Czuryłów. Miał czworo dzieci, z których Anna, najstarsza córka wstąpiła (1603) do klasztoru Bernardynek św. Agnieszki w Krakowie i przyjęła imię Ludgarda; Gryzelda wstąpiła w 1614 r. do klasztoru Karmelitanek bosych w Krakowie, w którym żyła jako Teresa od Świętych; trzecia córka Zofia wyszła za mąż (1608) za Macieja Smoguleckiego, starostę bydgoskiego, a po jego śmierci – za Stanisława Niemojewskiego, kasztelana chełmińskiego. Pierworodnym synem Mikołaja był Jan. +Komitet Ochrony Cywilnej + +Komitet Ochrony Cywilnej ("Civil Protection Committee" - CPC) został powołany na mocy Trakatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuacje zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio Wysokiemu Komitetowi Planowania Cywilnego na Sytuacje Nadzwyczajnych Zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Komitet Ochrony Cywilnej zajmuje się koordynacją wszelkich kwestii związanych z działaniem obrony cywilnej na terenie krajów sojuszniczych. Jego głównym zdaniem jest ochrona ludności cywilnej przed zagrożeniami. W jego gestii leżą wszelkie kwestie związane z prewencyjnym planowaniem na okoliczność zagrożeń oraz z usuwaniem ich skutków. +Waldemar Wspaniały + +Waldemar Franciszek Wspaniały (ur. 2 października 1946 w Sosnowcu) – siatkarz, trener siatkówki, działacz sportowy. +Absolwent kierunku trenerskiego Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Katowicach. Karierę rozpoczynał w sosnowieckim MKS-ie. W latach 1966-1979 siatkarz Płomienia Milowice, z którym zdobył Puchar Europy Siatkarzy (1978) oraz dwukrotne mistrzostwo Polski (1977 i 1979). +Sukcesy siatkarskie +Jest pierwszym polskim trenerem, który pokonał z Polską reprezentację Brazylii 3 razy podczas Ligi Światowej w 2002, przy czym jako jedyny triumfował nad tym zespołem w jego kraju; w 2012 roku udało się ten wynik powtorzyć Andrea Anastasiemu, który czterokrotnie triumfował nad drużyną "canarinhos". W 2000 jedno zwycięstwo nad "Canarhinios" w edycji LŚ zanotował z reprezentacją Polski Ireneusz Mazur. +Odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (2002) oraz Złotym i Brązowym Krzyżem Zasługi. +Pedro Mascarenhas + +Pedro Mascarenhas (ur. około 1484 w Mértola, Portugalia, zm. 23 czerwca 1555 w Goa, Indie), portugalski żeglarz, odkrywca i dyplomata. Odkrył archipelag Maskarenów nazwany jego nazwiskiem. +Mascarenhas służył w portugalskiej flocie. Pływał pod dowództwem Dom Garcia de Noronhas, który później został trzecim Wicekrólem Indii (1538-1542). W tamtym czasie statki przywoziły z Indii głównie przyprawy. W 1510, gdy znajdował się koło Przylądka Dobrej Nadziei dostał wiadomość, aby jak najszybciej popłynął do Goa w związku z konfliktem z Adil Szachem, który chciał wyprzeć Portugalczyków z Goa. Na pomoc Mascarenhasa wzywał ówczesny wicekról Indii Alfonso de Albuquerque. +Pedro Mascarenhas chcąc jak najszybciej dotrzeć do Goa wybrał nieznaną jeszcze trasę kierując się na wschód, by przeciąć Ocean Indyjski. Dotychczas statki płynęły wzdłuż wschodnich wybrzeży Afryki na północ i potem kierowały się na wschód przez Morze Arabskie i żeglując między Lakszadiwami a Malediwami docierały do Wybrzeża Malabarskiego w Indiach. +Po drodze w czasie tej podróży odkrył pewną liczbę wysp, nieznanych wcześniej Europejczykom. Maskareny zawdzięczają swą nazwę odkrywcy. Prawdopodobnie odkrył i nazwał też archipelag Czagos i Peros Banhos. +Później król Dom João III mianował go ambasadorem w Rzymie. W 1554 Mascarenhas został wicekrólem Indii, ale stanowisko piastował tylko przez 9 miesięcy; wkrótce zmarł, w chwili śmierci miał około 70 lat. +Biga (wóz) + +Biga (wóz) (łac. "bigae") – wóz dwukołowy, zaprzężony w dwa konie, rydwan. +W starożytności służył do celów bojowych lub do polowań. +Rekordziści Wielkiej Krokwi + +Pierwsze zawody na Wielkiej Krokwi przeprowadzono 22 marca 1925 roku, najlepszy wówczas rezultat - 36 metrów - osiągnął Stanisław Gąsienica Sieczka i to on został pierwszym rekordzistą skoczni. +Obecnie rekord należy od 23 stycznia 2010 roku do Szwajcara Simona Ammanna i wynosi 140,5 metra. +¹ Od 2005 r. za rekord oficjalny nie uznaje się skoków oddanych podczas Pucharu Kontynentalnego i zawodów niższej rangi. Rekord Juha-Matti Ruuskanena został ustanowiony w czasie zawodów Pucharu Kontynentalnego i uznaje się go jako "najdłuższy skok" lub jako "nieoficjalny rekord skoczni" na Wielkiej Krokwi, a nie za "oficjalny rekord" skoczni. +David Robinson + +David Maurice Robinson, znany też pod pseudonimem „The Admiral” (ur. 6 sierpnia 1965 w Key West na Florydzie) – amerykański koszykarz, występujący przez całą zawodową karierę w San Antonio Spurs w lidze NBA. +Karierę koszykarską rozpoczynał podczas nauki w szkole średniej Osbourn Park w Manassas w stanie Wirginia. Po jej ukończeniu, Robinson wstąpił do Akademia Marynarki Wojennej, gdzie występował w barwach drużyny koszykarskiej Midshipmen. Po czterech latach zgłosił się do draftu NBA 1987, w którym to został wybrany z pierwszym numerem przez San Antonio Spurs. Jednakże w rozgrywkach NBA zadebiutował dopiero dwa lata później, gdyż wcześniej musiał odbyć służbę w wojsku. W ciągu 14 lat gry w Spurs dwókrotnie zdobywał z nimi mistrzostwo ligi. W 2003 roku zakończył zawodową karierę. +Gra Robinsona wielokrotnie była nagradzana. Już w pierwszym roku w barwach Spurs wybrano go debiutantem roku, oraz do trzeciego składu sezonu, a także uczestniczył w Meczu Gwiazd. W tychże meczach uczestniczył w karierze łącznie 10-krotnie i tyle samo razy był członkiem najlepszych składów rozgrywek. Raz udało mu się zdobyć nagrodę najbardziej wartościowego zawodnika NBA, oraz obrońcy roku. W 1996 roku liga NBA wybrała go jednym z 50 najlepszych zawodników w swojej historii. Trzynaście lat później został włączony do koszykarskiej galerii sław. +Przez wiele lat był on też reprezentantem Stanów Zjednoczonych. Jeszcze przed rozpoczęciem kariery zdobył wraz z nią mistrzostwo świata w 1996 roku, rok później igrzyska panamerykańskie, a w 1988 zdobył brązowy medal igrzysk olimpijskich. Był on członkiem legendarnego Dream Teamu, który zdobył złoty medal na olimpiadzie w Barcelonie. Cztery lata później również reprezentował USA w zwycięskich dla nich igrzyskach w Atlancie. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Robinson urodził się 6 sierpnia 1965 w Key West na Florydzie jako drugie dziecko Fredy (z domu Hayes), z zawodu pielęgniarki, i Ambrose'a, oficera marynarki wojennej Stanów Zjednoczonych, specjalisty od sonarów. Gdy miał 6 miesięcy uległ wypadkowi - pozostawiony na chwilę bez opieki zsunął się z łóżka i wpadł w wąską przestrzeń pomiędzy materacem a ścianą, co spowodowało, że zaczął się dusić i stracił przytomność. Znaleziony przez matkę, został szybko reanimowany, ale jego rodzice obawiali się, że brak tlenu mógł spowodować nieodwracalne uszkodzenie mózgu, zwłaszcza że nie wiedziano jak długo przed znalezieniem pozostawał bez powietrza. Szybko jednak odkryto, że zdarzenie nie pozostawiło żadnych negatywnych skutków. +David od początku swojej edukacji uznawany był za wyjątkowo uzdolnionego, zwłaszcza w matematyce. Potrafił szybko liczyć, wcześnie nauczył się czytać. W szkole osiągał znakomite wyniki, uczęszczał do klasy wybijających się uczniów. W wieku 5 lat zaczął naukę gry na pianinie, a niedługo potem komponować własne utwory (na początku lat 90. opanował także grę na saksofonie). Przejawiał też talent sportowy, szczególnie upodobał sobie baseball - potrafił dobrze odbić piłkę trzymając kij zarówno z lewej (Robinson jest leworęczny), jak i z prawej strony. Był niezłym biegaczem i skoczkiem w dal, osiągał drobne sukcesy w golfie. Długo jednak to edukacja była w jego życiu na pierwszym miejscu. +Jego 6 lat młodszy brat Chuck (196 cm) grał w koszykówkę na tej samej uczelni (lata 1989-93). Był najlepszym strzelcem Navy w sezonie 1992/93 (średnia 10,3 punktu na mecz), a w całej karierze uzyskiwał średnio 7,7 punktu i 4,1 zbiórki na mecz. +Kariera. +Szkoła średnia. +W koszykówkę zaczął grywać w szkole podstawowej, ale jako wieczny rezerwowy szybko się zniechęcił. Powrócił do sportu w ostatniej klasie szkoły średniej Osbourn Park w Manassas w stanie Wirginia, głównie za namową kolegów i trenerów, którzy widzieli w nim spore wzmocnienie szkolnej ekipy. Jednak poza słusznym - jak na licealistę - wzrostem (201 cm) i rzadko spotykaną u tak wysokich graczy szybkością nie posiadał szczególnych umiejętności koszykarskich, dlatego musiano wpoić mu podstawy gry środkowego. Dzięki indywidualnemu treningowi i szybkiemu pojmowaniu wskazówek trenera uzyskiwał średnio 14 punktów w meczu (sezon 1982/83). Wybrano go też jednym z najlepszych graczy lokalnych rozgrywek. +NCAA. +Podtrzymując tradycje rodzinne studiował w United States Naval Academy. Grał tam w drużynie Navy Midshipmen i stał się najlepszym koszykarzem tej drużyny w historii. +W pierwszym sezonie uniwersyteckim (1983-84) miał tylko 2,01 m wzrostu i spełniał rolę rezerwowego. W 28 meczach (nie wystąpił w 4 pierwszych z powodu złamanej dłoni) uzyskał średnio 7,6 punktu, 4 zbiórki oraz 1,32 bloku. +W drugim sezonie (1984-85) był już podstawowym graczem zespołu i pomógł Navy - po 25 latach nieobecności - w awansie do uniwersyteckich playoffów ("NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship"), w których odpadli w drugiej rundzie, przegrywając z Maryland (59-64). Zdobywał średnio 23,6 punktu, 11,6 zbiórki i 4 bloki. +W sezonie (1985-86) poprowadził kolegów - po raz drugi w historii uczelni i po raz pierwszy od 32 lat - do finału regionalnego, w którym zwycięstwo dawało awans do krajowego "Final Four". Navy nie sprostała jednak Duke, późniejszym wicemistrzom, przegrywając 50-71 (Robinson zanotował w tym meczu 23 punkty, 10 zbiórek, 3 przechwyty i 2 bloki). Jego średnie z całych rozgrywek to 22,7 punktu, 13 zbiórek (1. miejsce w kraju) i 5,91 bloku (1. miejsce). +Rok później (1986-87) ponownie awansowali do rozgrywek krajowych, ale odpadli już w pierwszej rundzie, ulegając Michigan 82-97. W swoim ostatnim meczu dla Navy Robinson zdobył 50 punktów (wciąż aktualny rekord uczelni, ostatnia do dziś "50" w finałach NCAA) i zebrał z tablic 13 piłek. Średnio uzyskiwał 28,2 punktu (3. wynik w kraju), 11,8 zbiórki, 4,5 bloku (1. miejsce) oraz 2,06 przechwytu. +W ciągu czterech lat gry ustanowił kilkadziesiąt rekordów uczelni i ligi. W meczu przeciwko UNC Wilmington (4 stycznia 1986) ustanowił rekord NCAA (pobity w 2007), blokując 14 rzutów rywali. W tym samym roku osiągnął do dziś niepobite 207 bloków w sezonie (35 meczów) oraz średnią 5,91 bloku/mecz, która była rekordem rozgrywek do 1996 (obecnie jest piątym wynikiem). Nadal jest rekordzistą w największej liczbie "double-doubles" w sezonie (31). W turnieju finałowym NCAA 1986 roku w 4 meczach zablokował 23 rzuty rywali (w tym 9 przeciwko Cleveland State), co było do 2001 roku najlepszym wynikiem w historii. +NBA. +Dzięki świetnej karierze uniwersyteckiej został wybrany z pierwszym numerem w Drafcie 1987 przez San Antonio Spurs (22 czerwca). Jako absolwenta United States Naval Academy obowiązywała go jednak dwuletnia służba w marynarce wojennej Stanów Zjednoczonych (do pewnego czasu istniała też opcja pięcioletnia), z dala od zawodowych parkietów. W mediach sugerowano, że skoro nie będzie mógł od razu grać w NBA, nie powinien zawierać umowy ze słabymi Ostrogami (zgodnie z zasadami naboru po roku straciliby do niego prawa), ani z klubem, który wybrałby go w kolejnym drafcie, i jako wolny agent w 1989 roku podpisać umowę z wybraną przez siebie mocną, gwarantującą sukcesy ekipą, od której mógłby zażądać znacznie większych pieniędzy. +Mimo spekulacji, Robinson, na którym wrażenie zrobiło San Antonio i jego mieszkańcy, a także klub i jego atrakcyjna oferta finansowa, zdecydował się na grę w Teksasie, podpisując 6 listopada 1987 roku - w obecności 500 widzów - ośmioletni kontrakt warty 28 milionów dolarów (w tym 2 miliony za samo złożenie podpisu), czyniący go najlepiej opłacanym koszykarzem na świecie. W podjęciu decyzji pomogła mu także obawa, że długi rozbrat z poważną koszykówką może wpłynąć negatywnie na jego formę i w 1989 jego pozycja w negocjacjach osłabnie. Do czasu debiutu w NBA pełnił nieodpłatnie funkcję asystenta trenera uniwersyteckiej drużyny Jacksonville Dolphins (sezon 1987-88). +Obowiązek wobec ojczyzny wypełnił 19 maja 1989 roku. Wspominał, że podczas odbywania służby żył w dwóch przeciwstawnych światach: milionera, którego na wiele stać, i żołnierza, którego w każdej chwili ktoś starszy stopniem może wysłać do bufetu po kawę. +Sezon 1989-90. +W premierowym sezonie zdobywał średnio 24,3 punktu (10. miejsce w lidze), 12 zbiórek (2. miejsce), 3,89 bloku (3. miejsce) i 1,68 przechwytu (20. miejsce) na mecz. Notował co najmniej 10 punktów w 81 z 82 meczów, jakie rozegrał w sezonie regularnym. Był najlepszym strzelcem zespołu w 46 meczach, a 61 razy najlepszym zbierającym. W meczu z Minnesota Timberwolves (23 lutego) zablokował 12 rzutów rywali - wynik, którego nie udało mu się już nigdy powtórzyć. Uzyskał rekordowe 41 punktów przeciwko Golden State Warriors (2 marca) i 21 zbiórek w spotkaniu z Chicago Bulls (3 lutego). Trzy razy osiągnął "triple-double", gdy do punktów i zbiórek dodał 12, 11 i 10 bloków. +Głównie dzięki Robinsonowi Spurs wygrali 56 meczów, co oznaczało największy w historii NBA postęp w porównaniu do roku poprzedniego, w którym wygrali tylko 21 gier (rekord ten został poprawiony 8 lat później, także przez San Antonio, gdy do zespołu przyszedł Tim Duncan, a Robinson wrócił do gry po kilkumiesięcznej kontuzji). +Był wybierany najlepszym pierwszoroczniakiem w każdym z sześciu miesięcy rozgrywek (listopad 1989-kwiecień 1990). Zdobył jednogłośnie nagrodę NBA Rookie of the Year Award, czyli najlepszego debiutanta ligi. Trzykrotnie uznawany graczem tygodnia. Nominowany do trzeciego składu ligi ("All-NBA Third Team") i drugiego składu defensywnego ("NBA All-Defensive Second Team"). Wziął udział w meczu gwiazd ("NBA All-Star Game") jako jedyny debiutant, notując 15 punktów, 10 zbiórek, 2 przechwyty i blok. Otrzymał "IBM Award" - nagrodę przyznawaną zawodnikowi, którego dokonania statystyczne przekładają się na sukces zespołu w największym stopniu. +W roku 1995 został najbardziej wartościowym graczem ligi NBA (MVP). Został także wybrany najlepszym obrońcą ligi (1991). W roku 1994 w ostatnim meczu sezonu z L.A. Clippers ustanowił najwyższy indywidualny wynik punktowy – zdobył 71 punktów, a na koniec tytuł króla strzelców sezonu zasadniczego. W latach 1999 i 2003, tworząc z młodym skrzydłowym Timem Duncanem duet "Twin Towers", zdobył dla Spurs dwa tytuły mistrzowskie. +Narodową drużynę USA reprezentował trzykrotnie: na olimpiadach: Seul 88' (brąz), Barcelona 92' (złoto) i Atlanta 96' (złoto). Był także członkiem drużyny, która zdobyła tytuł mistrza świata na mistrzostwach w Hiszpanii w 1986 r. +Jest jednym z czterech koszykarzy w historii NBA którzy uzyskali Quadruple-double notując 34 pkt., 10 zb., 10 as., 10 bl. Wydarzenie to miało miejsce 17 lutego 1994 r. w meczu San Antonio Spurs vs. Detroit Pistons. W 1996 r. został wybrany w poczet 50 najwybitniejszych koszykarzy w historii NBA. +Na swej koszulce Spurs zawsze nosił numer 50, na cześć swojego idola – Ralpha Sampsona. +Zakończył karierę w 2003. +Ma stopień "Lieutenant Junior Grade". +11 września 2009 r. Robinson został włączony do Basketball Hall of Fame. +Sezon 1996-97. +W jednym z meczów pokazowych przed rozpoczeniem rozgrywek Robinson nabawił się kontuzji pleców, z powodu której nie wystąpił w pierwszych 18 meczach Ostróg. Drużyna, w której kilku innych graczy również nie było zdolnych do gry, zdołała wygrać w tym czasie zaledwie 3 spotkania. "Admirał" wrócił na boisku 10 grudnia 1996 w wyjazdowej potyczce z Phoenix Suns, zdobywając 9 punktów i zbierając 9 piłek. W swoim 6. występie, w czwartej kwarcie meczu przeciwko Miami Heat (23 grudnia 1996), doznał złamania kości lewej stopy, co w efekcie oznaczało dla niego odpoczynek do końca sezonu. Brak Robinsona bezpośrednio przełożył się na najgorszy wynik w historii Spurs (20 wygranych). +Mistrzostwa Świata 1986. +W lipcu 1986 wziął udział wraz ze złożoną z graczy NCAA reprezentacją Stanów Zjednoczonych w światowym czempionacie w Hiszpanii. Oprócz Robinsona Amerykanie mieli w składzie takich graczy, jak Muggsy Bogues, Brian Shaw, Kenny Smith czy jego późniejsi partnerzy z San Antonio Spurs Sean Elliott, Charles Smith i Steve Kerr. +USA wygrało 9 z 10 meczów (ulegli tylko Argentynie 70-74) i zdobyło tytuł mistrzowski. Robinson, wybrany do najlepszej piątki turnieju, zdobył w sumie 131 punktów, zanotował 68 zbiórek, zablokował 25 rzutów i przechwycił 15 piłek. W finale ze Związkiem Radzieckim (wygrana 87-85) uzyskał 20 punktów. +Komitet planowania łączności cywilnej + +Komitet planowania łączności cywilnej ("Civil Communications Planning Committee" - CCPC) został powołany na mocy Trakatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950 roku. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuację zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio pod Wysoki komitet planowania centralnego na sytuacje nadzwyczajnych zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Komitet zajmuje się wszelkimi kwestiami związanymi z koordynacją kwestii współdziałania cywilnej telekomunikacji ze strukturami NATO w czasie kryzysu i wojny. Sferą zainteresowania komitetu jest utrzymanie działania telekomuniacji na rzecz sektorów politycznego, ekonomicznego i wojskowego. Cywilna komunikacja w rozumieniu komitetu to m.in. wszelkie państwowe i prywatne firmy, świadczące usługi z zakresu telekomunikacji oraz poczta. Komitet nie zajmuje się kwestiami związanymi z urządzeniami telekomunikacyjnymi, które znajdują się w gestii wojska lub NATO. +Wspólny komitet medyczny + +Joint Medical Committee - "Wspólny komitet medyczny", "JMC", został powołany na mocy Trakatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950 roku. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuację zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio pod Wysoki komitet planowania centralnego na sytuacje nadzwyczajnych zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Komitet zajmuje się koordynacją kwestii medycznych w sytuacjach kryzysowych i wojny w ramach Sojuszu, które wychodzą poza zakres indywidualnych państw. +Lista polskich rodów baronowskich + +Zestawienie obejmuje okres od schyłku Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej do roku 1918 z krótką informacją na temat daty uzyskania tytułu (nadanie, potwierdzenie, uznanie używanego itp.) i od kogo pochodzi oraz ewentualną notą o wygaśnięciu utytułowanej gałęzi rodu w chwili obecnej względnie tytułu. Pod terminem baronowie zaliczono tu również tzw. wolnych panów (Freiherr).. Czynnikiem rozstrzygającym o znalezieniu się na tej liście było oprócz polskiego pochodzenia rodu również spolonizowanie danej rodziny osiadłej zwykle na ziemiach dawnej Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów. Herby przy nazwiskach podano w wersji podstawowej zgodnie z zasadami przyjętymi w publikacjach genealogicznych (almanachy gotajskie, Szymon Konarski). +Centrum Chrześcijańskie "Miecz Ducha" w Kaliszu + +Centrum Chrześcijańskie "Miecz Ducha" w Kaliszu - wspólnota początkowo należąca do Kościoła katolickiego (Ruch Odnowy w Duchu Świętym), a od 1997 r. niezależna, zarejestrowała się 14 stycznia 1998 r. Jako kościół odrzuciła nieomylność papieża, doktrynę czyśćca i kult świętych oraz przyjęła charakter neo-zielonoświątkowy/charyzmatyczny. Jest to jedna z liczniejszych grup katolików w Polsce które wystąpiły z tego Kościoła od 1980 r. W 2005 r. podawała swą liczebność w wysokości 360 osób. Wcześniej wspólnota nosiła nazwę Kościół Chrześcijański "Miecz Ducha". +Ephraim Kishon + +Ephraim Kishon (ur. 23 sierpnia 1924 w Budapeszcie, zm. 29 stycznia 2005 w Appenzell), żydowski pisarz, humorysta, felietonista, reżyser. Urodził się na Węgrzech, w czasie wojny więziony w obozach koncentracyjnych, od 1949 – w Izraelu. Pisał wyłącznie w języku nowohebrajskim, dając w ten sposób wyraz swojemu patriotyzmowi. +Zmarł w swym domu w Szwajcarii, przyczyną śmierci był atak serca. +Sergiusz Wołczaniecki + +Sergiusz Wołczaniecki (ur. 9 listopada 1964 w Zaporożu, ZSRR) – polski sztangista, medalista olimpijski. +Treningi rozpoczął w Dynamie Lwów. W 1990 wyszukał go trener polskiej kadry narodowej Ryszard Szewczyk i sprowadził do Polski. W Polsce reprezentował barwy Budowlanych Opole. Dzięki polskim korzeniom (dziadek był Polakiem) w 1992 r. otrzymał polskie obywatelstwo. +W polskich barwach uczestniczył w igrzyskach olimpijskich w 1992 w Barcelonie, gdzie zdobył brązowy medal w wadze do 90 kg (uzyskał w dwuboju 392,5 kg). +W 1993 podczas mistrzostw Europy wywalczył srebrny medal. +W tym samym roku w organizmie zawodnika stwierdzono niedozwolone środki dopingujące. Po dyskwalifikacji opuścił Polskę i powrócił na Ukrainę. +Jatagan + +Jatagan – typowa dla niektórych krajów islamu (np. Turcji) jednosieczna broń biała średniej długości (ok. 70 cm), o podwójnej krzywiźnie ostrza i charakterystycznej rękojeści. Jest dłuższa od kindżału, ale krótsza od szabli. Jego zaletą było doskonałe wyważenie i dostosowanie do cięcia. +Ostrze jataganu jest lekko sierpowate, przy sztychu odgiete do tyłu z wydatnym tylcem. Nie posiada jelca, a jego specyficzną cechą są dwa języki otulające z obu stron głownię rękojeści. Głowica rękojeści jest rozdwojona, tworząca sylwetkę motyla (uformowana w dwa ucha podobne z wyglądu do zakończenia baraniej kości udowej). Okładzina rękojeści wykonywana była z dwóch płytek znitowanych w kilku punktach, wykonanych często z kłów morsa, kości słoniowej lub bydlęcej, rogu lub metalu (mosiądz, srebro). Zdobiona ornamentami z koralu i pokryta filigranem. Powierzchnia głowni jest gładka, zwykle zdobiona wschodnimi motywami dekoracyjnymi (z drutu mosiężnego lub srebrnego) oraz napisami arabskimi (zazwyczaj imionami, np. Hassan, Muhammad, Ahmed). +Używana była od XVI wieku na Bliskim Wschodzie. Wywodzi się prawdopodobnie od greckiej machairy znanej już w starożytności. Większość zachowanych okazów pochodzi z XVII i XIX wieku. Znane są okazy puginałów z podobną rękojeścią nawet z Luristanu (ok. 2600 r. p.n.e.) oraz bagnetów z krajów bałkańskich (np. z Serbii) z XX wieku. +Pamięć ferrytowa + +Pamięć ferrytowa – pamięć komputerowa (pamięć o dostępie swobodnym) przechowująca dane w postaci kierunku namagnesowania rdzeni ferrytowych o prostokątnej pętli histerezy. Prawie wyłącznie oparta jest na rdzeniach toroidalnych. Przy próbie zastąpienia pierścieni otworami w płytce ferrytowej nie udało się uzyskać wymaganej powtarzalności właściwości magnetycznych otworów. Zastąpienie pierścieni rdzeniami wielootworowymi okazało się zbyt drogie i trudne technologicznie. Jedynie pamięci na dwuotworowych biaksach zdobyły niewielką popularność. +Pamięć ta przechowywała dane przy wyłączonym zasilaniu. Dane były kasowane przy każdym odczycie i – w razie potrzeby – ewentualnie niezwłocznie ponownie zapisywane, jeśli zachodziła potrzeba przechowania ich w dalszych cyklach pracy. Nieniszczący odczyt zapewnia pamięć na biaksach o odmiennej zasadzie odczytu. +Dalszy opis dotyczy pamięci RAM na toroidalnych rdzeniach ferrytowych. +Budowa komórki. +Komórka pamięci ferrytowej zdolna przechować 1 bit składa się z jednego, rzadziej dwóch rdzeni o średnicy ok. 1 mm (od 0,2 do 2 mm), przez które zależnie od organizacji przewleczonych jest od 2 do 4 przewodów – maksymalnie: odczytu (S), zakazu (Z) i dwa adresowe (X i Y). Komórki pamięci połączone są w prostokątne płaty. +Zasada działania. +Każda komórka jest miniaturowym transformatorem z magnesem jako rdzeniem. Kierunek namagnesowania jest przechowywaną wiadomością (namagnesowanie w lewo oznacza 0, w prawo 1). +Przy odczycie komórka pamięci jest zerowana prądem w przewodach adresujących. Przemagnesowaniu rdzenia zawierającego 1 towarzyszy duża zmiana pola magnetycznego indukująca napięcie w przewodzie odczytu. Przy braku przemagnesowania rdzenia zawierającego 0 zmiana pola jest niewielka. Efekt wzmacnia prostokątna pętla histerezy rdzenia. W szybkich pamięciach sygnał zakłócający posiada podobną wartość jak użyteczny od przemagnesowanego rdzenia ale towarzyszy przedniemu zboczu prądu odczytu, a sygnał od przemagnesowania jest opóźniony. +Zapis następuje po wyzerowaniu w czasie odczytu. Polega na namagnesowaniu rdzeni odpowiadających 1 w przeciwnym kierunku do namagnesowania w czasie odczytu. +W podstawowej organizacji cykl pracy zawsze składa się z odczytu i następującego bezpośrednio po nim zapisu. W pamięciach z dzielonym cyklem po odczycie pamięć może czekać z zapisem na nową wartość z procesora czytając i zapisując w międzyczasie inne komórki. +Pamięć koincydencyjna (3D). +Rdzenie komórek 3D o średnicy 1 mm. +Nazwa 3D pochodzi od przestrzennego rozmieszczenia rdzeni ferrytowych. +Pamięć składa się z bloku ułożonych jeden na drugim płatów pamięci. Każdy płat odpowiada jednemu bitowi słowa maszynowego. +Płat składa się z siatki prostopadłych przewodów adresowych przewleczonych przez znajdujące się na ich skrzyżowaniach rdzenie. Odpowiadające sobie przewody adresowe wszystkich płatów są połączone szeregowo. Dodatkowo każdy płat posiada dwa swoje indywidualne przewody przewleczone przez wszystkie rdzenie danego płatu – poziomo przebiegający przewód zakazu i skośnie przewód odczytu. +Przewody są tak wszyte aby zakłócenia indukowane między przewodami o różnych funkcjach znosiły się. Stąd szczególny przebieg przewodu odczytu, a w pamięciach trójprzewodowych krzyżowanie jego w połowie długości przewodów adresowych. +W dużych płatach ich wielkość (pojemność) ogranicza długość przewodów odczytu i zakazu dlatego płat jest dzielony na 4 części z oddzielnymi przewodami odczytu i zakazu. +Charakterystyczną cechą pamięci koincydencyjnej jest wzbudzanie wybranego rdzenia przez jednoczesne wzbudzenie dwoma prostopadłymi przewodami adresowymi X i Y. Prąd w nich płynący jest tak dobrany, że pojedynczy przewód nie jest w stanie przemagnesować rdzenia (przemagnesowanie rdzenia następuje tylko na przecięciu wybranych przewodów adresowych). +W czasie odczytu zeruje się wszystkie bity wybranego słowa. Rdzenie bitów zawierające 1 zostają przemagnesowane. Przemagnesowanie wzbudza napięcie w przewodzie odczytu sygnalizując 1. +W czasie zapisu do przewodów adresowych doprowadza się prąd o przeciwnym kierunku zapisując do komórek 1. Na płatach wymagających pozostawienia 0, zapisowi 1 zapobiega podanie na przewód zakazu prądu kompensującego prąd w przewodzie adresowym. +Trzyprzewodowa pamięć koincydencyjna (3D3W). +Przewód odczytu jest wykorzystywany tylko w czasie odczytu, a zakazu tylko w czasie zapisu. W nowszych pamięciach 3D zrezygnowano z najbardziej kłopotliwego przy szyciu przewodu odczytu. Do odczytu wykorzystuje się przewód zakazu rozdzielając ich funkcje w układach sterowania. Usunięcie skośnie przebiegającego przewodu odczytu pozwoliło ustawić wszystkie rdzenie równolegle i zbliżyć je do siebie zwiększając upakowanie i pojemność. +W opisach wspólny przewód oznaczano “zakazu/odczytu” lub “S/Z” (sygnałowy/zakazu). Czasem w opisach w miejsce przewód używa się nazwy linia. Linia odnosi się do funkcji, a przewód do realizacji fizycznej. Mamy dwie linie: zakazu i odczytu będące jednym przewodem zakazu/odczytu. +Pamięć hybrydowa "(płaska, planarna)" (H). +Rozwinięcie trzyprzewodowej pamięci przestrzennej 3D na płaszczyznę, przy zachowaniu organizacji logicznej. +W pamięci 3D przewody adresowe składały się krótkich odcinków na kolejnych płatach lutowanych w całość. Bardzo duża liczba połączeń lutowanych była kłopotliwa w wykonaniu i zawodna. Dodatkowo liczne przewody adresowe łączyły blok pamięci z elektroniką. +Wad tych uniknięto układając płaty poszczególnych bitów, przeważnie dziewięciu, na płaszczyźnie (płycie). +Pamięć wykonywano jako jeden duży płat z wydzielonymi obszarami poszczególnych bitów o własnych przewodach zakazu/odczytu. Przewody adresowe prowadzono zygzakiem kolejno przez obszary wszystkich bitów. +Płat pamięci był montowany bezpośrednio do płytki drukowanej z elementami sterującymi. +Historia. +Pamięć ta ma dzisiaj znaczenie historyczne. Była produkowana m.in. przez zakłady Elwro we Wrocławiu do lat 80. XX w. i stosowana np. w komputerach ZAM 21, ZAM 41, serii Odra, a także w maszynach R-32 (z rodziny RIAD). +Gizarma + +Gizarma – broń drzewcowa o długim, płaskim grocie osadzonym na drzewcu długości 2-2,5 metra, zdobionym często w późniejszym okresie chwostem u nasady żeleźca. Początkowo żeleźce miało kształt kosy osadzonej pionowo, z długim, poziomym szpikulcem po tępej stronie oraz dwoma kolcami sterczącymi na boki. W końcowym okresie średniowiecza i w czasach późniejszych żeleźce uległo znacznym modyfikacjom, pozostał skierowany wprost ku górze ostry grot, poniżej niego znajdował się sierpowaty hak, a pod nim, po przeciwnej stronie kolec skierowany w bok. Przy nasadzie żeleźca znajdowały się kolejne dwa kolce, skierowane w przeciwne strony. +Broń ta była używana przez piechotę, głównie w starciach z konnicą (haki umożliwiały ściągnięcie jeźdźca na ziemię). Gizarma pojawiła się w XI wieku we Francji wywodząc się najprawdopodobniej od narzędzia do trzebienia krzaków, potem w Anglii, w XV w. rozpowszechniła się w Europie Zachodniej, w Polsce używana wyłącznie przez piechotę gdańską. Później wyszła z użycia bojowego, stając się, podobnie jak halabarda i glewia, bronią paradną, aby w XVII w. zaniknąć zupełnie. +Smocza Jama (Tatry) + +Smocza Jama – jaskinia w Tatrach Zachodnich, właściwie krótki, stromy korytarz jaskiniowy przebijający skałę na wylot, znajdujący się w dolnej części Wąwozu Kraków w Dolinie Kościeliskiej. Jaskinia ma długość 37 m i jest tunelem wznoszącym się o 16,5 m. Otwór wejściowy znajduje się na wysokości ok. 1100 m n.p.m. +Jaskinia udostępniona jest do zwiedzania. Prowadzi do niej niewielka ścieżka z drabiną i łańcuchami. W samej jaskini przejście jest również ubezpieczone łańcuchem. Smocza Jama jest kręta i ciemna, do zwiedzania potrzebna jest latarka. Zimą szlak bywa oblodzony, co znacznie utrudnia przejście. Istnieje możliwość obejścia fragmentu szlaku prowadzącego jaskinią – ubezpieczone łańcuchami wejście po skale, w której się ona znajduje. Wariant ten został wytyczony w 1967 r. +Smocza Jama od dawna jest znana i użytkowana turystycznie. Pierwsza pisana wzmianka pochodzi z przewodnika Karla Kolbenhayera z 1876 r. Początkowo była zwiedzana w odwrotną stronę, co zwiększało efektowność przejścia. Pierwotnie szlak był ubezpieczony drewnianymi konstrukcjami, w 1949 r. zmieniono je na stalowe. +Metoda Sainte-Laguë + +Metoda Sainte-Laguë – metoda stosowana do podziału mandatów w systemach wyborczych opartych na proporcjonalnej reprezentacji z listami partyjnymi. Jej nazwa pochodzi od nazwiska francuskiego matematyka André Sainte-Laguë. +Metoda polega na znalezieniu największych, kolejno po sobie następujących ilorazów z liczby uzyskanych głosów. +Podziału dokonuje się, dzieląc liczbę głosów przypadających każdemu komitetowi wyborczemu przez kolejne liczby nieparzyste: 1, 3, 5, 7, itd., a następnie z tak obliczonych ilorazów dla wszystkich komitetów wybieranych jest tyle największych, ile jest mandatów do obsadzenia. +Istnieją różne odmiany tej metody. Niekiedy pomija się pierwszy dzielnik, dzieląc liczbę uzyskanych głosów kolejno przez 3, 5, 7 itd. Popularną modyfikacją jest zastąpienie pierwszego dzielnika 1 przez 1,4, co sprzyja ugrupowaniom większym – system ten znany jest jako zmodyfikowana metoda Sainte-Laguë. +Wykorzystywanie. +Metoda Sainte-Laguë jest stosowana m.in. w systemach wyborczych w Nowej Zelandii, Norwegii, Szwecji, Danii, Bośni i Hercegowinie, Łotwie oraz Kosowie, a od 2009 roku również w Niemczech. Jest stosowana, także w Niemczech w wyborach do Landtagów: Badenii-Wirtembergii, Hamburga, Bremy, Nadrenii Północnej-Westfalii oraz Nadrenii-Palatynatu. Użyto jej również w wyborach w Boliwii w 1993 roku, wyborach do Rady Legislacyjnej Autonomii Palestyńskiej w 2006 roku i w wyborach parlamentarnych w Nepalu w 2008 roku. Zastosowano ją także (w wersji zmodyfikowanej) w Polsce podczas wyborów parlamentarnych w 2001 roku oraz w wyborach do rad gmin (w gminach liczących powyżej 20 tys. mieszkańców) w 1990 i 1994 r. +Metoda Sainte-Laguë generuje wyniki lepiej odzwierciedlające poglądy wyborców, podczas gdy metoda d'Hondta sprzyja większym partiom. +Przykład. +Mamy komitety A, B oraz C, które otrzymały kolejno 720, 300 i 480 głosów, do obsadzenia jest 8 mandatów. +1 krok: obliczenie ilorazów +1 - 720 (A) +2 - 480 (C) +3 - 300 (B) +4 - 240 (A) +5 - 160 (C) +6 - 144 (A) +7 - 103 (A) +8 - 100 (B) +itd. +Cztery mandaty uzyska więc komitet A, a komitety B oraz C po dwa. +Implementacja w języku Python. +V = głosów dla A,liczba głosów dla B,liczba głosów dla C +s = [0,0,0] +print s + +Carolina Kostner + +Carolina Kostner (ur. 8 lutego 1987 w Bolzano) – włoska łyżwiarka figurowa. +Mistrzyni Świata z 2012. W swoim dorobku posiada 3 inne medale Mistrzostw Świata: srebro (2008) i brąz (2005, 2011). Jest również ośmiokrotną medalistką Mistrzostw Europy: złoto (2007, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2013), srebro (2009, 2011) i brąz (2006). +Łyżwiarstwo trenuje od czwartego roku życia. Jest uznawana za jedną z najbardziej utalentowanych obecnie zawodniczek – swobodnie wykonuje na zawodach trudne kombinacje dwóch potrójnych skoków, a w treningach również trzech skoków potrójnych oraz skoku poczwórnego. +Mimo to, znana jest również ze słabych nerwów. Często traci koncentrację w kluczowych momentach swoich programów, dlatego jej kariera jest często postrzegana jako seria wzlotów i upadków. +Jest kuzynką włoskiej narciarki alpejskiej Isoldy Kostner, która była jej świadkiem bierzmowania. +Grudzień 2002 + +__NOTOC__ +Zecchino d'Oro + +Zecchino d'Oro "(Złoty Cekin / Złoty Pieniążek)" – nazwa międzynarodowego festiwalu piosenki dziecięcej, odbywającego się od 1959 roku we Włoszech. Nazwa została zaczerpnięta z książki Carlo Collodiego "Pinokio". Pomysłodawcą imprezy był Cino Tortorella. +Historia. +Pierwsze dwie edycje zostały zorganizowane w Mediolanie, a od roku 1961 festiwal organizowany jest przez boloński Instytut Antoniano założony przez Ojców Franciszkanów. +Młodymi wykonawcami kierowała Mariele Ventre, która w roku 1963 założyła przy Antoniano chórek, który miał pomagać małym solistom przy wykonywaniu piosenek. Zespół bardzo szybko się rozrósł i istnieje do dziś jako Piccolo Coro dell' Antoniano (po śmierci Mariele Ventre w 1995 roku, opiekę nad nim przejęła Sabrina Simoni, a zespół przyjął nazwę Piccolo Coro "Mariele Ventre" dell'Antoniano). +W roku 1976 festiwal z imprezy krajowej przekształcił się w wydarzenie międzynarodowe, w ramach którego konkuruje ze sobą co roku siedem piosenek włoskich i siedem zagranicznych (początkowo, po sześć), a dziecięce jury w formie głosowania nagradza najładniejsze nagrodami Złotego Cekina i Srebrnych Cekinów. +Halikarnas + +Halikarnas (gr. Ἁλικαρνᾱσσός "Halikarnassós") – stanowisko archeologiczne w Bodrum w Turcji. W czasach starożytnych – miasto nad Morzem Egejskim w Karii. Największą sławę przyniosło mu Mauzoleum – jeden z siedmiu cudów świata. +Halikarnas założyli koloniści greccy z Trojzeny i Argos. W VIII wieku p.n.e. należał do heksapolis, związku sześciu miast doryckich razem z Lindos, Kamejros i Ialissos leżącymi na wyspie Rodos oraz z Kos i Knidos. W VI wieku p.n.e. miasto dostało się pod panowanie lidyjskiego króla Krezusa. W V wieku p.n.e. zagarnięte zostało przez Persów. +W latach 377-353 p.n.e. zależnym od Persów władcą Karii był Mauzolos. Przeniósł on stolicę swego państwa z Mylasy do Halikarnasu. Rozbudowując miasto wzorował się na planie Rodos, które otaczało półkolem port i rynek. Gdy zmarł, jego żona, a zarazem siostra, Artemizja, nakazała zbudować grobowiec dla męża. W roku 353 p.n.e. budowla była ukończona. Grobowiec Mauzolosa – Mauzoleum – słynął z piękna i stał się wzorcem dla innych budowli tego typu. +W 334 roku p.n.e. Aleksander Macedoński zdobył bronione przez Persów miasto, które uległo wówczas zniszczeniu. Nigdy już nie podniosło się z upadku. +Mauzoleum przetrwało do początków XVI wieku n.e., kiedy to posłużyło budującym fortecę joannitom jako źródło budulca. Budowla miała prostokątną podstawę o wymiarach 30 na 40 m oraz 45 m wysokości. Część posągów z grobowca, dzieła Skopasa, Leocharesa, Bryaksisa i Timoteosa, można dziś podziwiać w British Museum. +Z Halikarnasu pochodzili historycy Herodot i Dionizjusz. +Klar + +Zrobić klar - Zrobić porządek na pokładzie, w kokpicie i w kabinie, wraz z buchtą (patrz: buchta) lin, umyciem pokładu, kokpitu i kabiny. Na statkach morskich określenie to oznacza zrobienie jakichkolwiek porządków. posprzątanie. W języku marynarskim istnieje też czasownik klarować mający znaczenie: sprzątać, a także: systematyzować, tłumaczyć, wyjaśnić. +Klar portowy - Porządek właściwy dla pozostawienia jachtu w porcie, wszystkie luźno położone na pokładzie przedmioty schowane do kabiny. +Tworzenie postaci + +Tworzenie postaci to proces, w którym gracz kreuje swą postać, by użyć jej w grze fabularnej. Proces ten składa się zazwyczaj z dwóch komponentów: pozamechanicznego, opierającego się na twórczej pracy gracza i polegającego na określaniu (wymyślaniu) ogólnych cech postaci, jej wyglądu zewnętrznego, charakteru, cech zachowania, życiorysu itd., oraz mechanicznego, polegającego na wypełnianiu karty postaci w celu zbudowania podstaw do przeprowadzania testów z udziałem tworzonej postaci. +Element mechaniczny w grach fabularnych jest to na ogół ustalanie zgodnie z mechaniką cech, umiejętności i innych ważnych współczynników postaci, z którą utożsamiać będzie się dany gracz. Poza tym gracz także tworzy luźny opis wyglądu postaci czy też jej biografii. Przy tworzeniu postaci zazwyczaj asystuje mistrz gry zezwalający czasem na pewne ustępstwa od reguł zawartych w mechanice gry. Dane dotyczące postaci gracz zapisuje na specjalnej karcie. +Proces ten wygląda w ten sposób, że zależnie od systemu i świata gry gracz wpierw wybiera typ postaci jaką będzie grać, czyli jej rasę, klan itd. Następnie zgodnie ze wskazówkami odnoszącymi się do danego typu postaci ustala jej współczynniki, cechy, umiejętności, czasami też inne wynikające ze specjalnych zasad systemu. W niektórych systemach wymagany też jest wybór profesji, od której zależeć mogą określane współczynniki. W niektórych systemach wielkości współczynników zależą od mechaniki i rzutów kośćmi, w innych gracz otrzymuje pewną pulę punktów, które może wykorzystać rozdzielając je pomiędzy konkretne współczynniki postaci. +Kolejnym krokiem jest najczęściej ustalenie stanu posiadania, czyli przeważnie podręcznego ekwipunku również zgodnie z mechaniką i najczęściej zawartym w podręczniku. Po tych ustaleniach gracz także tworzy w sposób zazwyczaj dowolny imię dla swojej postaci, określa jej wagę, wzrost, wiek, miejsce pochodzenia czy zamieszkania, a także określa jej biografię. +Wypada wskazać, że element mechaniczny, choć pozornie wydaje się dominować, w rzeczywistości jest drugorzędny, a czasem w ogóle nieobecny - w przypadku, gdy gracz nie tworzy karty postaci. +Shrek 2 + +Shrek 2 – amerykański film animowany z 2004 roku. Powstał dla wytwórni DreamWorks Pictures, a jego reżyserami są Andrew Adamson, Kelly Asbury i Conrad Vernon. Obraz jest sequelem przeboju kasowego z 2001 roku zatytułowanego "Shrek", jego pozostałe kontynuacje typu: "Shrek Trzeci" pojawiła się trzy lata później, a ostatnia "Shrek Forever" sześć lat później. +Opis fabuły. +Shrek i Fiona zostają zaproszeni przez króla Harolda i królową Lilian Zasiedmiogórogrodu, rodziców Fiony, którzy pragną poznać jej „księcia z bajki”. Shrek zgadza się, chociaż bardzo niechętnie. W podróży nie może zabraknąć także Osła, który sam zaprosił się do Zasiedmiogórogrodu. Shrek jest pełen obaw, ma wątpliwości, czy rodzice Fiony zaakceptują go oraz swoją córkę jako ogrzycę. Jego obawy nie okazały się bezpodstawne, król Harold od pierwszej chwili nie polubił Shreka, a przyciśnięty do muru przez Wróżkę Chrzestną, chcącą wyswatać Fionę ze swoim synem, Księciem z Bajki, wynajmuje płatnego pogromcę ogrów, Kota w Butach. Honorowy kot, w zamian za oszczędzenie mu życia postanawia towarzyszyć Shrekowi, co oczywiście nie podoba się Osłu. Shrek bardzo pragnie, aby Fiona i jej rodzice byli szczęśliwi i w końcu go zaakceptowali, dlatego decyduje się zmienić siebie i Fionę w ludzi przez magiczny eliksir "Żyj długo i szczęśliwie". Jednak nie kończy się to dobrze bo Shrek, Osioł i Kot zostają aresztowani pod pretekstem nie zatrzymania się na wezwanie(uciekał wtedy na ośle, który też wypił eliksir i zmienił się w białego konia). Tymczasem Wróżka Chrzestna wymyśla napój, który powoduje, że zakocha się w pierwszym partnerze, którego pocałuje i chce przetestować go na Fionie, żeby poślubiła Księcia z Bajki. +Wersja polska. +Opracowanie wersji polskiej: Start International Polska +Reżyseria: Joanna Wizmur +Dialogi polskie: Bartosz Wierzbięta +Teksty piosenek: Marek Robaczewski, Bartosz Wierzbięta +Kierownictwo muzyczne: Marek Klimczuk +Dźwięk i montaż: Janusz Tokarzewski +Kierownik produkcji: Paweł Araszkiewicz +oraz +i inni +Polskojęzyczną wersję piosenki Bonnie Tyler "Holding Out for a Hero" śpiewa Dorota Zięciowska +Chór: Izabela Bujniewicz, Daria Druzgała, Piotr Gogol, Łukasz Zagrobelny, Kalina Kasprzak, Adam Krylik, Marta Smuk, Tomasz Steciuk +Ścieżka dźwiękowa. +Ścieżka dźwiękowa animowanej komedii "Shrek 2", która została wydana w maju 2004 roku w Stanach Zjednoczonych, towarzysząc premierze filmu. Soundtrack uplasował się w pierwszej dziesiątce zestawienia Billboard 200, a także na 1 miejscu sprzedaży ścieżek dźwiękowych oraz w czołówce 40 najlepiej sprzedających się albumów w Australii. Singel "Accidentaly in Love" zespołu Counting Crows, promujący wydawnictwo, znalazł się w pierwszej dziesiątce zestawienia Billboard Adult Top 40 i w dwudziestce piosenek promujących ścieżki dźwiękowe. Dodatkowo utwór został nominowany do Oscara za najlepszą oryginalną piosenkę filmową ("Academy Award for Best Original Song"). Ścieżka zawiera również dwie wersje hitu Bonnie Tyler z 1980 roku, "Holding Out for a Hero". +Nagrody. +Film otrzymał 2 nominacje do Oscara w kategoriach Najlepszy Film Animowany i Najlepsza Piosenka. Antonio Banderas otrzymał nominację do MTV Movie Awards w kategorii Najlepsza Rola Komediowa. +Counter-Strike + +Counter-Strike (często nazywany skrótowo CS) – gra komputerowa z gatunku first-person shooter, stworzona przez Minha "Gooseman" Le'a i Jessa "Cliffe" Cliffe'a 19 czerwca 1999 i będąca modyfikacją („modem”) gry "Half-Life". Początkowo "Counter-Strike" wymagał do działania "Half-Life'a", jednak wraz z upływem czasu stworzono kolejne jego wersje, które przekształciły się w samodzielne produkcje, jedynie korzystające z silnika oryginalnej gry. +Rozgrywka w "Counter-Strike'u" opiera się na walce terrorystów z antyterrorystami, w której jedna ze stron musi bronić bombsite'u (miejsce gdzie podkłada się bombę) lub uwolnić zakładników, a druga podłożyć bombę albo pilnować zakładników. Gra została stworzona z myślą o grze w sieci, a dopiero z czasem, gdy jej popularność wzrosła, zostały opublikowane dodatki imitujące graczy (tzw. boty) umożliwiające grę w CS-a bez udziału żywych przeciwników. +Gra dostała wsparcie od Valve Software, dzięki czemu jest ciągle uaktualniania i została włączona do projektu Steam. "Counter-Strike" dość szybko zyskał ogromną popularność i stał się platformą turniejową na imprezach e-sportowych, na których znajduje się do dziś. +Cechy gry. +"Counter-Strike" jest grą sieciową, opartą o wspólne działanie drużyny, a nie pojedynczego gracza. Pierwotnie gra zaskakiwała graczy sposobem prowadzenia rozgrywki. Oprócz wspomnianej powyżej wymaganej gry zespołowej, doszły realistyczne reakcje graczy na strzały (często wystarczy wystrzelić jedną kulę, aby unieszkodliwić przeciwnika(w żargonie graczy "headshot" lub w skrócie "HS")), jak również powolne prowadzenie rozgrywki (gracz albo idzie bardzo powoli/skrada się, albo biegnie i jego kroki są słyszane przez przeciwnika), czy zbyt długie pozostawanie w jednym punkcie na danej mapie bez podejmowania ruchu (oczekiwanie na okazje z ukrycia) nazwane ""camping" (pol. kampowanie)". Gracz grający w ten sposób nazywany jest ""kamperem"". +Gracz może się wcielić w antyterrorystę (w skrócie: "CT, antyk") lub terrorystę (w skrócie: "Terro, TT, T"). W skład antyterrorystów wchodzą najsławniejsze jednostki specjalne świata: Seal Team 6 (obecnie Navy SEALs), GSG9, SAS i GIGN. Jako terrorysta można grać wymyślonymi formacjami: Phoenix Connexion, L337 Crew, Arctic Avengers, lub Guerilla Warfare. +Wersja 1.6 gry została wydana 12 września 2003 roku wraz z premierą platformy dystrybucji cyfrowej Steam. Wszystkie kolejne aktualizacje i poprawki są dostarczone poprzez ten system, bez żadnych konkretnych numerów nowej wersji. Nazwa lub skrót "1.6" jest często używany w celu odróżnienia go od kontynuacji gry: ' i '. +Zasady gry. +Standardowo każdy gracz zaczyna grę w punkcie startowym z pistoletem (USP u antyterrorystów, Glock 18 u terrorystów), dwoma magazynkami w zapasie, nożem oraz kwotą 800$. Za każdą udaną misję drużyna dostaje punkty oraz pieniądze. Można za nie (w momencie startu następnych rund) kupić broń palną, kamizelki kuloodporne, granaty, magazynki i inne potrzebne do wykonania misji przedmioty. +Pieniądze dostaje się również za wyeliminowanie przeciwnika, można je również stracić za zabicie zakładnika lub kogoś z własnej drużyny (jeżeli jest włączony tzw. "friendly fire"(FF) – przyjacielski ogień). +Cele drużyn są zawsze sprzeczne ze sobą – jeżeli terroryści mają wysadzić jakiś obiekt, antyterroryści maja nie dopuścić do tego, oraz odwrotnie – jeżeli antyterroryści mają uwolnić zakładników, terroryści mają im to uniemożliwić. +Drużyna, która zdoła osiągnąć swój cel w danej rundzie, albo zabije wszystkich przeciwników z drugiej grupy, wygrywa rundę. +Każda runda jest jeszcze ograniczona przez czas. Po upływie tego czasu przegrywa ta drużyna która nie wykonała zadania. W przypadku CT jest to nieuwolnienie wszystkich zakładników a w przypadku Terrorystów (T) nieustawienie bomby na specjalnym do tego miejscu BS(bombsite). Jednak czas do wybuchu bomby nie jest liczony do czasu na rundę i gdy bomba zostanie podłożona czas rundy znika i jeżeli CT nie rozbroją bomby to TT wygrają. +Oficjalne tryby rozgrywki. +Gra oferuje kilka zróżnicowanych trybów rozgrywki – trzy podstawowe to: odbicie zakładników, podłożenie lub rozbrojenie bomby oraz zamach na ważną osobistość. Poza tymi podstawowymi trybami, tworzone są również mapy realizujące inne scenariusze – np. bezpośredni pojedynek między drużynami, a także np. takie, w których jedynymi dozwolonymi broniami są np. pistolety, granaty, bądź noże. +Hostage Rescue (odbicie zakładników). +Tryb ten rozgrywany jest na mapach z przedrostkiem "'cs_'". Zadaniem antyterrorystów (CT) jest odbicie zakładników przetrzymywanych w bazie terrorystów (T) i doprowadzenie ich do punktu ratunkowego. Terroryści natomiast muszą im w tym przeszkodzić. Rozgrywka kończy się w momencie, gdy antyterroryści uwolnią wszystkich żyjących w danym momencie zakładników (wygrana CT), gdy skończy się czas przeznaczony na rozgrywkę (wygrana T), lub gdy któraś z drużyn straci wszystkich graczy (wygrana drużyny przeciwnej). +Bomb/Defuse (podłożenie / rozbrojenie bomby). +Akcja rozgrywki toczy się na mapach z przedrostkiem "'de_'", a główną rolę odgrywają terroryści. Mają oni za zadanie przedrzeć się do wyznaczonego miejsca (BS – Bomb Site; zazwyczaj są 2 takie punkty), w którym muszą podłożyć bombę, co uniemożliwić mają im antyterroryści. Rozgrywka kończy się w momencie wybuchu bomby (wygrana T), rozbrojenia jej przez antyterrorystów (wygrana CT), skończenia się czasu (wygrana CT) lub w przypadku śmierci wszystkich graczy przez jedną z drużyn (wygrana drużyny przeciwnej). Bomba po podłożeniu przez TT standardowo wybucha po 45 sekundach więc gdy terroryści zdobędą BS wcale nie oznacza to od razu końca rundy. Jeżeli wszyscy terroryści zginą a bomba tyka, runda nie zakończy się aż do wybuchu lub rozbrojenia przez CT. +Assassination (zamach). +Areną działań są mapy z przedrostkiem "'as_'". Jeden z graczy drużyny antyterrorystów staje się VIP-em, którego reszta drużyny musi eskortować do specjalnego punktu ewakuacyjnego. Zadaniem terrorystów jest zabicie VIP-a, a jest ono utrudnione, ponieważ mogą oni kupić jedynie niektóre rodzaje broni. Rozgrywka kończy się, gdy VIP bezpiecznie dotrze do punktu ewakuacyjnego (wygrana CT), terroryści zabiją VIP-a (wygrana T), drużyna straci wszystkich graczy lub czas rozgrywki zostanie przekroczony. VIP nie może kupować broni, ale ma 200% kamizelki czyli 2 razy więcej niż może mieć ktokolwiek inny. +Escape (ucieczka). +Tryb ten został oficjalnie wycofany w "Counter-Strike’u" beta 7.0, jednak możliwość gry pozostała. Miejscem tego rodzaju rozgrywki są mapy "es_". Zadaniem terrorystów jest ucieczka z terenu działań do wyznaczonego punktu. Nie jest to łatwe, gdyż terroryści nie mogą kupować broni – jedyną możliwością jej zdobycia jest odnalezienie miejsca, w którym broń jest składowana (lub zabranie jej zabitemu wrogowi). Antyterroryści muszą oczywiście powstrzymać terrorystów przed ucieczką. Rozgrywka kończy się, gdy połowa terrorystów ucieknie, antyterroryści powstrzymają (zabiją) większość terrorystów, jedna z drużyn straci wszystkich graczy lub skończy się czas. Po ośmiu rozgrywkach w tym trybie, role odwracają się. +Oszukiwanie w grze. +Gracze potocznie nazywają oszukiwanie hackowaniem, haxowaniem, cheatowaniem bądź czitowaniem, a na gracza, korzystającego z niedozwolonego oprogramowania mówią hax, czit, cheater. Również niektóre cheaty posiadają swoje zwyczajowe nazwy. AimBot to aim, WallHack – wh, a SpeedHack gracze nazywają sh. +Aby przeciwdziałać oszustwom w grze, wydawca gry i sami gracze zaczęli tworzyć programy mające zapobiec nieuczciwym praktykom. +Zabezpieczenia przed używaniem cheatów. +Valve Anti-Cheat. +To zabezpieczenie sprawdza, czy nie zostały zmienione pliki wykonywalne gry lub czy równocześnie z grą nie włączono cheatów. W momencie, gdy znalezione zostanie niedozwolone oprogramowanie, gracz dostaje permanentnego bana (wykluczenie z gry) na wszystkich serwerach zabezpieczonych przez Valve Anti-Cheat (VAC), bez możliwości odwołania się od niego. Istnieją serwery, na których wyłączono zabezpieczenie Valve (serwery non-steam) i na nich można grać nawet po dostaniu bana. +ESL WIRE(EWAC). +W lidze Electronic Sports League (ESL) używa się antycheatu o nazwie ESL Wire. Jest to zewnętrzny program, dostarczony przez ligę ESL, który dodaje swód kod do silnika gry. Skanuje configi, oraz sprawdza procesy(systemowe, drivery etc.) Następnie uzyskane dane przesyła na serwery ligi, gdzie są dostępne dla administratorów. Każdy gracz, który chce wziąć udział w lidze ESL musi sam ściągnąć i zainstalować ESL Wire. +Cheating-Death. +Cheating-Death (C-D) jest niezależnym programem, który jest zaporą pomiędzy samą grą, a cheatami. Zamiast sprawdzać działanie poszczególnych programów, które mogą pozwolić na oszukiwanie w grze, utrudnia on używanie cheatów. Gdy gracz nie widzi swojego przeciwnika, C-D symuluje przestawienie oponenta za plecy gracza. Podaje również mylne informacje co do dokładnej pozycji zawodników i sprawdza standardowe miejsca w ustawieniach gry, gdzie zazwyczaj znajdują się cheaty. Poprzez tak dużą ingerencję w działanie samej gry, Cheating-Death nie może być używany równocześnie z Valve Anti-Cheat i HLGuard, a gracze sami muszą go ściągnąć na swoje komputery. Ostatnia wersja programu pochodzi z roku 2007 i wtedy też został wstrzymany jego rozwój. +HLGuard. +Wcześniej był znany jako CSGuard by OLO, a nazwa została zmieniona, gdy program przeszedł w ręce United Admins Limited. Następnie HLGuard został przekazany do zespołu The Z Project, który rozwinął go do wersji 1.8. Program ten działa po stronie serwera, dzięki czemu gracze nie muszą ściągać oprogramowania na swoje komputery. +Ten Antycheat (podobnie jak Cheating-Death) fałszuje miejsce, w którym znajdują się przeciwnicy. Zamiast utrudniać używanie aimbotów, sprawdza on ile razy gracz zachował się w sposób, w który nie zareagowałby zwykły człowiek. Po przekroczeniu pewnej ilości takich reakcji, gracz jest wyrzucany z serwera. HLGuard potrafi także zablokować speedhacki, niedozwolone miejsca na mapie oraz wykryć zakazane ustawienia u poszczególnych graczy. +sXe injected. +Jest to antycheat rozwijany przez Argentyńczyków. Składa się on z dwóch elementów, pierwszy z nich jest instalowany na serwerze gry, natomiast drugi, zwany klientem, gracze instalują sami na swoich komputerach. Działa bardzo podobnie do Cheating-Death i nie należy używać go wraz z Valve Anti-Cheat. Program przeznaczony jest dla serwerów Non-Steam. sXe injected jest ciągle rozwijanym programem, a jego aktualna wersja to 13.0 Beta 3. +Odbiór gry. +Gra stała się jedną z najpopularniejszych gier na świecie. Jej fani tworzyli drużyny – tzw. klany. W późniejszym okresie powstało kilka kolejnych wersji, w których poprawiane były niedoróbki poprzednich, dodawano nowe elementy (jak chociażby dodana w wersji 1.6 – tarcza) oraz modyfikacje tego moda (głównie w zakresie modeli graficznych, tekstur, dźwięków). +Producent "Half-Life'a", Valve Software, zainteresował się na tyle grą, że stworzył oddzielną grę bazującą na pomyśle, z szeregiem misji dla jednego gracza (wspomaganego przez drużynę sterowaną przez komputer), czyli '. Najnowsza wersja gry – ', została oparta o Half-Life'a 2 i jego technologię Source. +W 1999 roku szwedzki muzyk Basshunter stworzył utwór „Counterstrike the Mp3”, który znalazł się na jego debiutanckim internetowym albumie "The Old Shit" zawierającym jedenaście utworów w stylu hardstyle i eurodance. +Foo fighter + +Foo fighter – nazwa niewytłumaczonego do tej pory zjawiska w postaci świetlistych kul, obserwowanego przez żołnierzy, marynarzy i lotników alianckich podczas II wojny światowej. +Relacje. +Pierwszy znany raport o "dziwnych światłach na niebie" pochodzi z września 1941 roku od załogi polskiego transatlantyku SS Pułaski, który pełnił w czasie wojny służbę jako transportowiec dla wojska. W czasie rejsu z Dakaru do Suezu marynarz wachtowy Doroba dostrzegł w nocy kulę zielonkawego światła o rozmiarach połowy tarczy księżyca, utrzymującą się nieco na skos od dziobu i wyraźnie towarzyszącą statkowi. Brytyjski oficer łącznikowy, który wraz z Polakami przez ponad godzinę obserwował zjawisko, poinformował o tym wywiad wojskowy Security Service, dodając, że na koniec "obiekt" skręcił gwałtownie i oddalił się z ogromną szybkością. +Z biegiem czasu przybywało wojennych doniesień o tajemniczych światłach, a lotnicy amerykańscy nadali im miano "foo fighter". Nieznana jest etymologia tej nazwy, ale najprawdopodobniej zapożyczona została z popularnego w końcu lat 30. komiksu "Smokey Stover, the Foo Fighter" – surrealistycznej opowieści o dzielnym strażaku, który co rusz powtarzał, że "gdzie fu tam ogień" (ang. "Where's the foo, there's the fire"). Słowo "foo" w języku angielskim nie istnieje, a próby wywodzenia go z fr. "feu" (ogień) lub "kung-fu" wydają się naciągane. Rysownik Bill Holman, autor komiksu twierdził, że znalazł to słowo na spodzie chińskiej figurki. +Największą zbiorową obserwację odnotowano wczesnym rankiem 25 lutego 1942 roku – nad Los Angeles pojawił się świecący obiekt wielkości (jak podawała miejscowa prasa) sterowca, który wolno przeleciał nad wybrzeżem od Santa Monica do Long Beach. W tym czasie artyleria przeciwlotnicza wystrzeliła w jego stronę kilka tysięcy pocisków. "Obiekt" – doleciawszy do Signal Hill – skręcił najpierw w głąb lądu, a następnie zawrócił i zniknął nad oceanem. Zjawisko to – obserwowane przez tysiące mieszkańców Los Angeles – nigdy nie zostało wyjaśnione. Wydarzenie to nazwane zostało Nalotem na Zachodnie wybrzeże lub "Bitwą o Los Angeles". +28 lutego 1942, tuż przed rozpoczęciem bitwy na Morzu Jawajskim z pokładu ciężkiego krążownika amerykańskiego USS "Houston" dostrzeżono znaczną ilość żółtawych rozbłysków, które oświetlały morze na wiele mil wokół. Nie wiadomo, jak długo trwało to zjawisko, bowiem krążownik wszedł zaraz do bitwy i otrzymał kilka trafień pociskami japońskimi, więc nikt na pokładzie nie śledził już zjawiska. +O godz. 10 rano 12 sierpnia 1942, podczas walk o Guadalcanal amerykańscy żołnierze bazujący na wyspie Tulagi ogłosili alarm przeciwlotniczy, bowiem dostrzegli około 150 świateł, w grupach od 10 do 12, przesuwających się nad wyspą. Żołnierze byli przekonani, że mają do czynienia z bombardowaniem, ale nic takiego nie nastąpiło. Według raportu wywiadu wojskowego żołnierze twierdzili, że obiekty wyglądały jak metaliczne spłaszczone kule, lekko chwiejące się w locie i poruszające się szybciej niż ówczesne samoloty. +Podobne niewyjaśnione zjawiska obserwowane były na innych obszarach działań wojennych, także w Europie. W marcu 1945 magazyn "Times" donosił: ""Jeśli nie mamy do czynienia z mistyfikacją lub złudzeniem optycznym, to nasi piloci z pewnością mieli do czynienia z najdziwniejszą tajną bronią wroga, jaką kiedykolwiek napotkali. W ubiegłym tygodniu stacjonujący we Francji piloci dywizjonu nocnych myśliwców złożyli relację z całego ciągu dziwnych spotkań z kulami ognia, które od miesiąca towarzyszą im w lotach nad Niemcami. Nikt z nich nie był w stanie powiedzieć czego – jego zdaniem – owe kule ognia chciały dokonać. Piloci są zdania, że to nowa broń psychologiczna Niemców. Zgodnie z ich relacjami światła trzymały się bardzo blisko ich maszyn i towarzyszyły im na odcinku wielu mil, by w końcu przyspieszyć i zniknąć."" +Rezultaty badań. +Powołana do zbadania prawdziwości doniesień komisja Kongresu USA nie wniosła nic nowego i zakończyła swe prace przedstawiając bardzo ogólnikowy raport. +UFO. +Na przełomie lat 40. i 50. XX wieku pojawił się w USA, a wkrótce też w Europie, termin "Unindentified Flying Object" (UFO), który odnosi się do ""przedmiotów lub zjawisk zaobserwowanych najczęściej przez osoby przypadkowe, nie dających się zidentyfikować z żadnymi obiektami i zjawiskami znanymi z warunków ziemskich; nie jest wyjaśnione, czy relacje obserwatorów są uwarunkowane psychologicznie, czy dotyczą zjawisk meteorologicznych, optycznych, czy innych, nie poznanych jeszcze zjawisk naturalnych"". Termin ów pojawił się wkrótce po pierwszym próbnym wybuchu bomby nuklearnej na pustyni White Sands w Nowym Meksyku, jaki miał miejsce 16 lipca 1945 roku. W kilka dni po tej detonacji cały stan stał się widownią zjawiska znanego jako "zielone meteory". Nie były to jednak meteory, bo nie spadały na ziemię, lecz poruszały się – z ogromną prędkością – równolegle do niej. Zjawisko trwało kilkanaście dni i ustało samoistnie. +Warto zwrócić uwagę na fakt, że zrodzona wówczas teoria UFO ma swoich zwolenników do dzisiaj i że liczba tych zwolenników rośnie. +Próby wyjaśnienia. +Sądząc z poszczególnych relacji, prawdopodobnie jest to nie jedno, a z co najmniej kilka odrębnych zjawisk: obserwowane obiekty różniły się kształtem, kolorem, wielkością, liczebnością, a jedyną ich cechą wspólną była szybkość i zdolności manewrowe. Większość świadków – poza jednym – nie wspomina także o wydawanych przez "foo fightery" dźwiękach. +Leki przeciwtarczycowe + +Leki przeciwtarczycowe (inna nazwa tyreostatyki) są to grupa leków o różnej budowie chemicznej i różnym mechanizmie działania, których wspólną cechą jest hamowanie syntezy i wydzielania tyroksyny i są używane w leczeniu nadczynności tarczycy. +Zastosowanie. +Leczenie nadczynności tarczycy +Inne substancje tyreostatyczne. +W leczeniu tyreostatycznym wykorzystywany jest również radioaktywny izotop jodu 131I i takie leczenie jest określane jako leczenie "radiojodem". Jod radioaktywny 131I podaje się doustnie. Następnie wbudowuje się on do tarczycy powodując jej zapalenie i następowe włóknienie w przeciągu 6-18 tygodni. +Cechą wspólną wszystkich tyreostatyków jest to, że po pewnym czasie stosowania i zablokowania tym samym produkcji hormonów tarczycy, dochodzi na zasadzie sprzężenia zwrotnego do nadprodukcji hormonu tyreotropowego czyli TSH, którego jednym z działań jest powodowanie przerostu tarczycy czyli wola tarczycy. +Aby temu zapobiec, w trakcie leczenia tyreostatykami po osiągnięciu prawidłowej czynności hormonalnej, do leczenia dołącza się hormony tarczycy czyli tyroksynę, która to działanie blokuje. +Obrona Bastogne + +Obrona Bastogne – jeden z najważniejszych epizodów ofensywy w Ardenach. +Przygotowania obrońców i pierwsze starcie. +Generał McAuliffe, któremu powierzono obronę Bastogne, otrzymał tylko jeden, bardzo prosty rozkaz od swojego przełożonego, generała Middletona – "utrzymaj Bastogne". Oficerowie obu stron konfliktu świetnie zdawali sobie sprawę z pierwszorzędnego znaczenia strategicznego, jakie miało miasto dla przebiegu całej ofensywy niemieckiej. +Przed niemiecką ofensywą w Bastogne mieścił się sztab VIII Korpusu pod dowództwem generała Troya Middletona, ale kiedy stało się oczywiste, że miasto to będzie stanowiło następny cel ataku, generał zdecydował o przeniesieniu sztabu do odległego o 20 mil, bezpieczniejszego Neufchateau. Do bezpośredniej obrony wyznaczono 101. Dywizję Powietrznodesantową, która odpoczywała we Francji po fiasku operacji Market-Garden. Podczas gdy niedobitki jednostek, które wycofywały się ze wschodu i z północy ustalały prowizoryczną obronę rogatek Bastogne, a spadochroniarze przybywali od miasta, prawie cała artyleria należąca do VIII Korpusu (sześć batalionów haubic 155 mm i 204 mm oraz dział 155 mm) przeniosła się na północ od Neufchateau. Nie dała rady dotrzeć na wcześniej przygotowane pozycje obronne, które zostały zajęte przez Niemców. Jeden batalion średnich haubic nie zdążył się wycofać i w całości wpadł w ręce wroga. +Pierwsza kolumna ciężarówek z żołnierzami 101. dywizji dotarła do opłotek Bastogne o 9.00 19 grudnia. Zdążali oni jednak nie do samego Bastogne ale do położonego na północ on niego Werbomont. Aby uniknąć potężnego korka drogowego, pułkownik Shereburne zdecydował się przejechać bezpośrednio przez Bastogne, a nie jak planował początkowo, obok niego. Był to niezmiernie szczęśliwy dla Amerykanów zbieg okoliczności, gdyż w prawie samym centrum miasta kolumna ciężarówek natknęła się na generała McAuliffe’a który poinformował Shereburne’a, że Werbont jest już zajęte przez Niemców i rozkazał mu przyjęcie pozycji obronnych w północnej części Bastogne. To właśnie ci żołnierze odparli pierwszy, próbny niemiecki atak na miasto. Gdyby nie szczęśliwa decyzja Shereburne’a, Bastogne zostałoby najprawdopodobniej zdobyte już pierwszego dnia. +W momencie, kiedy pierwsze oddziały 101. dywizji zaczęły być rozmieszczane wokół Bastogne, do miasta zaczęły przybywać również inne jednostki – część 10. dywizji pancernej, resztki rozbitej 110. dywizji piechoty i oddziały 9. dywizji pancernej. Wkrótce przyłączyły do nich trzy bataliony artylerii 155 mm i dodatkowy batalion artylerii polowej przysłane z mieszczącej się na północy 9. armii. Z tego samego źródła, nieco później pojawił się bardzo potrzebny 705. batalion niszczycieli czołgów. Te mieszane siły amerykańskie miały wkrótce stawić czoła dwóm dywizjom pancernym i dwóm dywizjom piechoty szybko zbliżającej się 5. armii pancernej. +Ciężkie walki które odbyły się już w nocy 19 grudnia i przez cały następny dzień na północ i wschód od Bastogne już od początku postawiły obrońców w bardzo ciężkiej pozycji. Zarówno sami żołnierze jak i wyższe dowództwo wątpiło w możliwość utrzymania miasteczka, z ich punktu widzenia przewaga niemiecka była przytłaczająca i zdobycie Bastogne było kwestią jednego, czy dwóch dni. W tym czasie Patton dopiero zaczynał bardzo trudny manewr zmiany osi ataku całej armii, a sam atak 3. Armii na skrzydło niemieckie w celu przebicia się do Bastogne miał się zacząć dopiero 22 grudnia. +Decyzja o wycofaniu wojsk. +W następnym dniu, sztab grupy armii wydał ustny rozkaz nakazujący ewakuację z Bastogne wszystkich żołnierzy 101. DPD i wszystkich innych oddziałów tam przebywających. W dalszej części, rozkaz polecił aby artyleria VIII korpusu rozpoczęła baraż w celu ukrycia i zabezpieczenia wycofujących się oddziałów. +Rozkaz ten wywołał spore zamieszanie w sztabie korpusu, który sądził, że już wcześniej zdecydowano, iż Bastogne będzie bronione aż do nadejścia odsieczy. Co więcej, istniało duże prawdopodobieństwo, że wycofujące się oddziały mogą się "zderzyć" z nadciągającymi właśnie oddziałami pancernymi SS, a takie zdarzenie byłoby tragiczne w skutkach dla lekko uzbrojonych żołnierzy amerykańskich. Dodatkowy problem stanowił fakt, że artyleria korpusu nie była w stanie przeprowadzić odpowiedniej nawały ogniowej z powodu jej złego ustawienia, a przestawienie wszystkich działonów w odpowiednie miejsce zabrałoby przynajmniej jeden dzień. Innym jeszcze problemem było mierne rozpoznanie i koordynacja ognia artylerii przez piechotę, co mogłoby doprowadzić do ostrzelania własnych oddziałów. +Pomimo tych wszystkich problemów, po długiej dyskusji sztab korpusu zaczął się przygotowywać do wykonania rozkazu, kiedy otrzymano następny, ustny rozkaz, aby zignorować poprzednie polecenie, gdyż droga Bastogne-Neufchateau znajduje się całkowicie w rękach nieprzyjaciela. +W czwartek, późnym rankiem, droga pomiędzy Bastogne i Neufchateu została ostatecznie przerwana przez Niemców i całkowite okrążenie Bastogne stało się faktem. Miasto stało się samotną enklawą obrony wśród terenu zajętego przez wroga, który to chciał w spokoju kontynuować ofensywę bez placówki amerykańskiej na tyłach. +Dalsze oblężenie. +W nocy 21 grudnia 101. dywizja odesłała na zachód puste już ciężarówki, na których przywieziono zaopatrzenie. Ewakuacja bezużytecznych pojazdów odbyła się w samą porę, ostatnie pojazdy zostały ostrzelane przez pierwsze elementy nadciągającej niemieckiej 2. dywizji pancernej. Nie było już więc żadnej możliwości uzupełnienia amunicji, żywności czy środków medycznych. Niska podstawa chmur, śnieżyca i gęsta mgła uniemożliwiała start samolotów. +Następne dwa dni były serią niemieckich ataków z różnych kierunków. Dzięki temu, że Niemcy nie zdecydowali się na jeden duży atak z kilku kierunków na raz, ale próbowali przebijać się kolejno w kilku miejscach, które według ich podejrzeń były słabiej bronione, obrońcy mieli czas na przerzucanie żołnierzy z jednego miejsca na drugie. Alianci przebywali pod nieustanną presją nie tylko ze strony Niemców, ale także nieprzyjaznej pogody. Linie obrony przebiegały przez lasy i pola, większość obrońców nie miała dachu nad głową, a grudzień 1944 roku był najzimniejszym miesiącem odkąd zaczęto notować temperatury. +22 grudnia wczesnym rankiem do obrońców podeszło czterech Niemców, w tym oficer z białą flagą, który zażądał kapitulacji Bastogne. Kiedy obudzono McAuliffe'ego, aby pokazać mu ten dokument, odpowiedział on tylko jednym słowem, "nuts" (pol. bzdura). W pisemnej odpowiedzi generał napisał ledwie kilka zdań, na końcu zaś często powtarzane później w okopach "gówno". +23 grudnia nastąpiła jednak nagła zmiana pogody. Przestał padać śnieg, zza chmur wyszło słońce, ale za to temperatura jeszcze bardziej się obniżyła. Niemniej czyste niebo pozwoliło w tym dniu na start samolotów alianckich, które, gdyby nie ostra zima, dawno już panowałyby w powietrzu. W tym dniu zrzucono 1446 pojemników z zaopatrzeniem, co bez wątpienia ocaliło obrońców Bastogne. Żołnierzom pozostały ostatnie magazynki. Prawie wszystkie dostarczane partie amunicji były dostarczone od razu na front i w kilka chwil wyczerpywane w całości. +Pomimo zrzuconego zaopatrzenia i wsparcia samolotów Republic P-47 Thunderbolt sytuacja obrońców nadal się pogarszała. Mieli oni coraz więcej strat własnych i stracili większość ciężkiego sprzętu. Ich sytuację dodatkowo pogarszała sytuacja pogodowa. Temperatury były tak niskie, że zanotowano przypadki przymarzania kół do ziemi, a wieże niektórych z niszczycieli czołgów zamarzły i nie mogły być obracane. Połowa karabinów nie nadawała się do użytku. +24 grudnia minął bez obiecanej pomocy z zewnątrz i na ciężkich walkach z Niemcami. Nacierająca od strony Neufchateau 5. dywizja pancerna była już tylko 5 mil od Bastogne, ale to nie zniżało w znaczącym stopniu morale żołnierzy. Tego dnia zaś zagorzała niechęć do kadry. Wszyscy wysocy oficerowie zjedli w głównym sztabie uroczystą kolację wigilijną, podczas gdy do okopów przywieziono jedynie zamarznięte plastry indyka i zimną kawę. +Dokładnie o północy w kościele St. Pierre odprawiono pasterkę. Uczestniczyli w niej prawie wszyscy żołnierze nie pełniący służby. Jak wspominają, kościół był pełen. Hełmy turlały się po podłodze, trudno było porozumieć się z miejscowymi cywilami nie znającymi angielskiego. Kapłan w kazaniu przekazał raczej treści mające podbudować wolę walki, niż przekazać radość z narodzenia Chrystusa. Potem błogosławił każdego oddzielnie i udał się do okopów, by tam wyspowiadać żołnierzy i rozdać im Komunię Świętą w przerwie pomiędzy natarciami. W okopach przez cały 25 grudnia śpiewano kolędy, głównie międzynarodową "Cichą noc". +Przełamanie okrążenia. +37. batalion czołgów należący do 5. dywizji pancernej, pod dowództwem podpułkownika Creightona Abramsa (który później został czterogwiazdkowym generałem i szefem sztabu armii) otrzymał rozkaz zajęcia Sibret, małego miasteczka 7 mil od Bastogne. Wiedział jednak, że owe miasto było bardzo silnie bronione, a Assenios, mała wieś pomiędzy nim, a Bastogne, dużo słabiej obsadzona. Zdecydował więc zmienić plan przełamania. Zaatakował Assenios i przejął je bez problemu, potem zaś kontynuował atak w kierunku Bastogne. 26 grudnia, tuż przed godziną 17.00 cztery czołgi z jego batalionu dotarły do linii obrońców. +Korytarz przebity przez linie wroga, w pierwszym momencie bardzo wąski i zagrożony ponownym przerwaniem, szybko został poszerzony i zabezpieczony. Po wzmocnieniu pozycji, III korpus na prawej (wschodniej) flance i VIII korpus, wzmocniony dywizją pancerną i ciągle przebywającą w Bastogne dywizją powietrznodesantową zaatakowały "wybrzuszenie" w linii frontu w celu jego zlikwidowania. Pomimo protestów niektórych żołnierzy i dowódców niższego szczebla, w ataku tym wzięła także udział 101. Dywizja Powietrznodesantowa, która jednak otrzymała bardzo ograniczone zadanie (zlikwidowanie małego "klina") i po jego zakończeniu jednostka została wyłączone z dalszej walki i wycofana na zachód. Owe działania, których szlak bojowy wiódł przez Bois Jacques, Foy i Noville, są w literaturze amerykańskiej uważane za część bitwy o Bastogne, jednak według polskich historyków stanowią oddzielną bitwę +Pterozaury + +Pterozaury, gady latające (Pterosauria, z gr. "pteron" – skrzydło + "sauros" – jaszczur) – rząd latających archozauromorfów, prawdopodobnie archozaurów (gadów naczelnych), żyjących od późnego triasu do końca kredy (230 do 65,5 mln lat temu). Najczęściej klasyfikowane jako archozaury z kladu Avemetatarsalia (obejmującego ptaki i archozaury bliżej spokrewnione z nimi niż z krokodylami) blisko spokrewnione z dinozauromorfami; z niektórych analiz kladystycznych wynika jednak, że mogły być przedstawicielami kladu Archosauriformes nienależącymi do archozaurów lub nawet archozauromorfami nienależącymi do Archosauriformes. +Były pierwszymi aktywnie latającymi kręgowcami i największymi latającymi zwierzętami odkrytymi przez człowieka. Przez 150 milionów lat zanim wymarły dominowały w powietrzu, skolonizowały wszystkie kontynenty i wykształciły wielką rozmaitość form i rozmiarów. Do dzisiaj odkryto ok. 60 rodzajów i 120 gatunków pterozaurów począwszy od wielkości wróbla do rozpiętości skrzydeł powyżej 12 metrów (więcej niż myśliwiec F-16). +Historia odkryć. +Pterozaury zostały odkryte w 1784 w Solnhofen przez włoskiego uczonego Cosimo Colliniego, który sądził, że były zwierzętami pływającymi, a nie latającymi. W XIX wieku Georges Cuvier uznał, że latały. +Co najmniej 60 rodzajów pterozaurów odkryto dotychczas począwszy od wielkości małych ptaków do mających rozpiętość skrzydeł powyżej 12 metrów. Pierwsze skamieniałości pterozaurów odkryto w późnojurajskich wapieniach niemieckiego Solnhofen w 1784. Większość paleontologów obecnie sądzi, że były przystosowane do aktywnego lotu, a nie tylko szybowały jak uważano dawniej. +Większość skamieniałych szczątków nie zachowało się dobrze. Wiele kości było zniekształconych i potrzeba było żmudnej pracy paleontologów aby właściwie je poskładać. Najlepiej zachowane kości są znajdywane od 1974 r. w Araripe Plateau, w Brazylii. +Budowa. +Pierwsze pterozaury miały w pełni uzębione szczęki i długie ogony natomiast u form późniejszych nastąpiła redukcja ogona, a szczęki pozbawione zębów upodobniły się bardziej do dzioba. Prawdopodobnie rozwinęły aktywny lot od samego początku ponieważ nie znaleziono żadnych form przystosowanych jedynie do lotu szybowego polegającego na rzucaniu się z drzew lub skał. Budowa ciała i nogi przypominają małego dwunożnego dinozaura. Chodząc po ziemi utrzymywały pozycję pionową. Mniejsze prawie na pewno mogły biegać i skakać do lotu trzepocząc skrzydłami. Największe musiały wznosić się podobnie jak olbrzymie współczesne ptaki: kondory. Ich skrzydła zbudowane były z błony skórnej rozpiętej między wydłużonym czwartym palcem (serdeczny) przedniej kończyny a bokiem ciała podobnie jak dzisiejsze nietoperze. Skrzydła długie i wąskie mogły częściowo składać się w locie, dzięki temu uzyskiwały większą zwrotność, szybkość i sterowność. Ich dobrze rozwinięty mostek utrzymywał silne mięśnie poruszające skrzydłami. Kości podobnie jak u ptaków puste w środku (pneumatyczne) były bardzo lekkie. Miały wielkie ażurowe czaszki, często wydłużone, prawdopodobnie przystosowane do łapania ryb, owadów i innej małej zdobyczy. Kostne grzebienie u niektórych gatunków były prawdopodobnie oznaką dymorfizmu płciowego. Odnalezione kości czaszek wskazują, że miały stosunkowo duże mózgi i duże oczy. Najbardziej rozrośnięte były części mózgu odpowiedzialne za orientację w przestrzeni i koordynację ruchów w czasie lotu. Rogowe dzioby u pierwszych form były wyposażone w ostre zęby, które u niektórych późniejszych form zanikły. Z czasem dzięki zrośnięciu się kręgów w odcinku piersiowym i krzyżowym kręgosłup nabrał sztywności a tułów uległ skróceniu. Wiele jeżeli nie wszystkie miały złączone błoną stopy, które mogły być dowodem umiejętności pływania lub mogły mieć aerodynamiczną funkcję jak u współczesnych latawców. Obecnie przeważa pogląd, że przynajmniej część musiała być stałocieplna ponieważ wskazuje na to ich aktywny, wysokoenergetyczny tryb życia i odkryte odciśnięte włoski na niektórych skamieniałościach. +Tryb życia. +Poruszanie się. +Naukowcy od dawna zadają sobie pytanie w jakim stopniu były sprawnymi lotnikami. Dawniej sądzono, że były jedynie zdolne do lotu ślizgowego startując z wysoko położonych miejsc i wykorzystywały wznoszące prądy powietrzne nad zbiornikami wodnymi jak to robią współczesne albatrosy. Taki sposób latania nie potrzebuje dużych nakładów energii co jest istotnym argumentem jeśli zakładać, że były zwierzętami zmiennocieplnymi. +Jednak w ten sposób mogły latać jedynie dość duże gatunki, z dużą powierzchnią skrzydeł. Małe pterozaury musiały szybko poruszać skrzydłami podobnie jak nietoperze a więc być w stanie wystartować z miejsca i wznosić się bez pomocy wiatru. Z uwagi na to, że do latania potrzeba wysokiego nakładu energii, uważa się dzisiaj, że były zwierzętami stałocieplnymi czego dodatkowym dowodem mogą być odciśnięte w skałach włosy pokrywające niektóre z nich. +Pojawiła się również teoria zgodnie z którą wzbijały się do lotu podskakując na czerech kończynach tak jak czynią to żaby. Wskazuje na to kilkukrotnie silniejsza budowa skrzydeł od tylnych łap. +Także niewyjaśnioną kwestią pozostaje sposób poruszania się pterozaurów na ziemi. Ścierają się tutaj dwie alternatywne teorie. Jedni naukowcy sądzą, że mogły chodzić po ziemi posługując się nogami w sposób jak robią to dzisiejsze ptaki. Argumentują tę tezę podobną budową anatomiczną nóg obu grup. Inni zaś skłaniają się do twierdzenia, że pterozaury chodziły po ziemi na czterech nogach, a jako drugiej pary nóg używały złożonych wpół do tyłu skrzydlatych ramion podobnie jak współczesne nietoperze wampirowate. Trzecia teoria zakłada, że pomagały sobie przy chodzeniu przednimi kończynami tylko największe pterozaury. +Pożywienie. +Sądząc na podstawie uzębienia większość była zwierzętami mięsożernymi. Wcześniejsze długoogonowe żyły głównie blisko wybrzeży morskich lub innymi większymi wodami i prawdopodobnie odżywiały się głównie rybami i kałamarnicami. Ich dzioby były bardzo wydłużone wypełnione ostrymi, cienkimi zębami, którymi mogły złapać znad powierzchni wody i przytrzymać śliską rybę. Późniejsze małe pterozaury prawdopodobnie polowały na owady. Można domniemywać, że większe gatunki nie były aktywnymi myśliwymi, a podobnie jak dzisiejsze kondory żywiły się padliną. Były też formy mocno wyspecjalizowane jak niezwykły "Pterodaustro" z Ameryki Południowej, który miał bardzo długi dziób i cienkie zęby, którymi mógł filtrować wodę morską lub bogate w glony i skorupiaki słone jeziora jak flamingi. +Środowisko życia. +Pterozaury opanowały nie tylko wybrzeża ale na pewno żyły w innych środowiskach lądowych jak lasy, góry lub nawet pustynie. Prawdopodobnie jak współczesne ptaki morskie zbierające się w duże stada na czas lęgów tak i pterozaury mogły tworzyć większe kolonie. Pogląd taki nie jest tylko teoretycznym przypuszczeniem ale opiera na odkrytym stanowisku na pustyni Atacama w Chile, gdzie na bardzo niewielkiej przestrzeni znaleziono szczątki wielu małych pterozaurów. +Rozmnażanie. +Pterozaury były jak wszystkie archozaury zwierzętami jajorodnymi. W 2004 r. opublikowano opis skamieniałego zarodka z dolnej kredy sprzed około 121 milionów lat znalezionego w północno-wschodniej chińskiej prowincji Liaoning. Dobrze zachowane jajo trochę mniejsze od kurzego zachowało się w całości ponieważ zarodek nie zdążył się wykluć. Prawdopodobnie nastąpiła jakaś naturalna katastrofa i dzięki temu jajo tak dobrze się zachowało. Bardzo dobrze zachowany szkielet, a widoczne kości ramion, klatki piersiowej oraz charakterystyczny wydłużony czwarty palec jednoznacznie wskazują na potomka pterozaura. Embrion miał bardzo dobrze rozwinięte skrzydła co może świadczyć, że mały pterozaur wkrótce po wykluciu był zdolny do samodzielnego lotu. Mógł też być zdolny do samodzielnego zdobywania pożywienia i nie być zależnym od rodziców. +Ewolucja. +Pterozaury były pierwszymi kręgowcami w historii życia na ziemi, które opanowały sztukę aktywnego latania. Oprócz nich udało się to jeszcze ptakom i nietoperzom i choć każda z tych grup rozwijała się niezależnie to można wskazać na konwergencję podobieństwa między nimi. Pterozaury z wyglądu są jakby skrzyżowaniem późniejszych ptaków i nietoperzy. Tak jak ptaki z czasem zredukowały ogon, wykształciły różnego rodzaju dzioby i niektóre utraciły zęby, a tak jak u nietoperzy elementem nośnym skrzydeł była błona skórna. +W toku ewolucji pterozaury wykształciły dwie linie. Wcześniejsze długoogonowe (Rhamphorhynchoidea) charakteryzowały się długim ogonem i stosunkowo krótkimi kośćmi kończyn przednich i późniejsze krótkoogonowe (Pterodactyloidea) miała z kolei tylko bardzo krótkie ogony i długie kości przednich łap. Obecnie odchodzi się już od tego klasycznego podziału i nie zakłada się, że krótkoogonowe pochodzą od długoogonowych ale zgodnie z ich filogenezą stanowią grupę parafiletyczną. +Systematyka. +Pterozaury tradycyjnie były dzielone na 2 podrzędy: wcześniejszy (od późnego triasu do późnej jury) Rhamphorhynchoidea o długich ogonach jak "Dimorphodon" i "Rhamphorhynchus" i późniejsze (od późnej jury do późnej kredy), o krótkich ogonach pterodaktyle (Pterodactyloidea) takie jak "Pterodactylus", "Pteranodon" i ogromny "Quetzalcoatlus". +Flaglinka + +Flaglinka (flaglina) - lina olinowania ruchomego służąca do podnoszenia bandery bądź flag sygnałowych. +Cygaro + +Cygaro (hiszp. "puro") – ułożone rurkowato, spreparowane i sklejone zwinięte liście tytoniu używane do palenia. +Dzisiejsze określenie "cygaro" (ang. cigar – cygaro, cigarette – papierosy) prawdopodobnie pochodzi z języka Majów od słowa "sik'ar", określającego właśnie palenie tytoniu. +Najbardziej markowe cygara są pakowane w pudełka z drewna cedrowego (humidor), które pogłębiają aromat cygar i chronią je przed wyschnięciem. Pudełka są wykonywane w dwóch wersjach: "pudełka ozdobne" ze sklejki cedrowej, oklejone etykietkami i ozdobnymi wykończeniami brzegów oraz "pudełko sekretarzyk" z mosiężnymi zawiasami i gwoździami, które nie zardzewieją w wilgoci pojemnika do przechowywania cygar sklepu tytoniowego. Producenci niezmiennie od XIX wieku aż do dzisiaj ozdabiają pudełka naklejkami zdobnymi w ornamenty. +Historia. +Zwyczaj palenia cygar rozprzestrzenił się po Europie z Hiszpanii, gdzie cygara z kubańskiego tytoniu były produkowane w Sewilli od 1717 roku. Do 1790 roku manufaktury cygar rozprzestrzeniły się na północ od Pirenejów – do Francji i Niemiec. Palenie cygar nie było popularne we Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii aż do wojny na półwyspie (1806-1812) przeciw Napoleonowi, kiedy to powracający brytyjscy i francuscy weterani spopularyzowali zwyczaj palenia cygar, którego nauczyli się w Hiszpanii. W tym czasie fajkę zastąpiła tabaka, a cygara stały się modną metodą palenia tytoniu. Produkcja cygar ruszyła w Anglii w 1820 roku. +Wkrótce pojawiło się zapotrzebowanie na cygara wyższej jakości i "sewille", jak nazywano hiszpańskie cygara, zostały odsunięte na rzecz pochodzących z Kuby (ówczesnej hiszpańskiej kolonii), dzięki dekretowi króla Hiszpanii Ferdynandowi VII w 1821 roku. +Palenie cygar było tak popularne w Brytanii i Francji, że w europejskich pociągach pojawiły się wagony dla palaczy, a do klubów i hoteli wprowadzono specjalne pokoje. +Powszechnie uważa się, że załoga Krzysztofa Kolumba odkryła cygara podczas eksplorowania Kuby. Jej mieszkańcy palili bardzo uproszczoną ich formę podczas swoich religijnych ceremonii. Cygara były zawinięte w kukurydzę i wypełnione liśćmi tytoniu. Załoga Kolumba szybko przejęła zwyczaj palenia i przywiozła próbki "złotego liścia" do Hiszpanii. Z początku uważano palenie za rytuał pogański, który karany był więzieniem. Taki los spotkał jednego z członków załogi Kolumba. Jednak po kilku latach, palenie było szeroko akceptowane. Później Hiszpania zbudowała cały przemysł cygarowy, którego centrum była "Sewilla" – uważana obecnie za miejsce narodzin współczesnych cygar. +Z początku Hiszpanie przywozili surowce z Kuby i sami zwijali cygara. Jednak w roku 1821, Hiszpania zezwoliła Kubie na samodzielną produkcję cygar i tak narodziły się "havany". W uznaniu za ten gest Kubańczycy dostarczali każdego roku królowi hiszpańskiemu skrzynkę swoich najlepszych cygar. Były to osławione "Trynidady". +W Stanach Zjednoczonych cygara stały się popularne w czasach Lincolna. Fabryki powstały w Nowym Jorku, Connecticut i w Pensylwanii. +Przemysł cygarowy prosperował doskonale aż do 1960 roku, kiedy to Amerykanie (a za nimi cały świat) na przykładzie papierosów zdali sobie sprawę ze szkodliwego wpływu palenia na zdrowie. W tym samym czasie Stany nałożyły embargo na Kubę, zakazujące przywozu dóbr z Kuby do Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Budowa. +Budowa zewnętrzna cygara. +W cygarach ręcznie robionych, występuje jeszcze jeden element – kapturek. Jest to doklejany na końcu głowy krążek tytoniu, "zamykający" cygaro, a więc naklejany na pokrywę. Kapturek ma kilka zadań. Po pierwsze, powstrzymuje rozwijanie się korpusu. Po drugie jest elementem "wykańczającym", stanowiącym o całości cygara. Kapturki kubańskich cygar są często zwinięte w charakterystyczny "świński ogonek". Ponadto wskazuje, że cygaro jest "hecho a mano", czyli wykonane ręcznie. Cygara maszynowe wykonywane są z tytoniu ciętego, tak więc poza pokrywą nie ma się tam co rozwijać. Cygara wykonywane maszynowo nie posiadają kapturków (maszyna nie jest w stanie nakleić tego elementu). Zamiast tego zostawia się otwór (dlatego w produkcji maszynowej nie ma potrzeby odcinania czegokolwiek). +Niektórzy producenci do cygar wykonanych maszynowo doklejają ręcznie kapturek i w ten sposób nazywają swoje wyroby "hecho a mano". Jest to nagminne zwłaszcza w Stanach Zjednoczonych. W związku z tym, producenci cygar wykonanych ręcznie coraz częściej używają terminu "totalmente a mano", co nie pozostawia najmniejszych wątpliwości co do sposobu wykonania cygara. +Kapturek jest elementem, który obcinamy przed degustacją, otwierając cygaro. +Pierścień – obecnie pełni funkcję reprezentacyjną, wskazując markę i ewentualnie kraj pochodzenia cygara. Pierścienie były koniecznością w przeszłości, gdy panowie palili cygara w białych rękawiczkach; aby ich nie brudzili, producenci zaczęli owijać cygara kawałkiem ozdobnego papieru. +Budowa wewnętrzna cygara. +Rodzaje liści pokrywowych. +Istnieje mnóstwo rodzajów ozdobnych liści pokrywowych. Rozróżnia się je po wyglądzie i własnościach organoleptycznych, które są wynikiem odmiennych procesów fermentacyjnych. +Typy kształtów i wymiarów – ("vitola"). +Cygara produkowane są w niezliczonych formach i rozmiarach. Powstała równie niezliczona ilość określeń na poszczególne kombinacje kształtów i rozmiarów. Wbrew pozorom, kształt i rozmiar mają duży wpływ na walory smakowe cygara. +Wpływ długości na smak – Po pierwsze, im dłuższe cygaro tym dłużej można się nim delektować. Dobrze zwiniętym "presidente" można się delektować nawet trzy godziny, "churchillem" półtorej godziny, "robusto" około godziny. Dłuższe cygara mają też większy potencjał do zmian smakowych. Wybitnej jakości cygara powinny zmienić swój charakter smakowy przynajmniej trzy razy w ciągu palenia. Cygara u których to zjawisko nie występuje nazywa się "nudnymi", wada ta jest wybaczalna tylko w przypadku bardzo małych cygar. Pozostaje zagadką dlaczego cygara zmieniają smak. Na pewno mają tu wpływ metody zwijania tytoniu, sztuka mieszania tytoni wypełniających oraz zmiany chemiczne w czasie palenia. +Wpływ średnicy na smak – średnica cygara ma większy wpływ na walory smakowe niż jego długość. Cygara o małej średnicy palą się intensywniej, mają w związku z tym ostrzejszy smak. W wąskich cygarach większy jest wkład liści okrywowych w smak. Cygara o dużej średnicy palą się chłodniej, mają łagodniejszy i wysublimowany smak. Obecnie cygara o dużej średnicy są znacznie popularniejsze wśród koneserów, niemniej jednak wiele małych cygar ma spektakularne walory smakowe, zwłaszcza dla miłośników mocniejszych doznań. Stosunkowo rzadkie są cygara o zmiennej średnicy. Są one szczególnie cenione, ze względu na zwiększony potencjał do zmian smaku ("niespodzianek"), oraz dlatego, że tylko najbardziej utalentowani zawijacze ("torcedores") są w stanie opanować technikę ich wyrobu. Sam fakt, że cygaro zostało zwinięte przez wysoko wykwalifikowanego specjalistę podnosi jego walory smakowe. Najsłynniejszym żyjącym "torcedore" jest emerytowany pracownik fabryki "La Corona" w Havanie, Rodolpho Taboada. Cygara zwinięte przez Taboadę, nawet z "domowych" tytoni, osiągają bardzo wysokie ceny na aukcjach. +Terminologia kształtów-rozmiarów ("vitola") cygar jest bardzo rozległa i pełna nieścisłości. Niemniej warto ją znać, bardzo ułatwia zakup cygara o pożądanych walorach. Nazewnictwo wywodzi się z ojczyzny cygar, Kuby, początkowo nazwy związane było konkretnymi wytwórcami. Tak więc fabryka "La Corona" dała początek nazwie kilku vitoli "Corona", Montecristo nr 2 dał początek viltoli "nr 2". Później niektóre vitole kojarzone były ze znanymi osobami, tak więc Julietta nr 2 została Churchilem, Robusto zostało Rotschildem, a Cervantes Lonsdalem (od tytułu sir Hugh Cecila Lowthera, piątego Earla z Lonsdale). Obecnie wielu producentów nie przestrzega tradycyjnego kubańskiego nazewnictwa i wprowadza barwne nazwy w celach marketingowych. Np. cygaro petit corona z serii "CAO Brazilia" Cano Ozgenera nazwane zostało przez producenta "piranha", co zresztą humorystycznie lecz celnie oddaje jego walory smakowe. +Vitola dzielą się na dwie wielkie grupy: "parejo" – o kształcie cylindrycznym z płaską lub półkolistą głową, oraz "figurado", o zmiennym kształcie i średnicy. "Parejo" mogą być wykonywane maszynowo, a mniejsze również przez czeladników. "Figurado" są wykonywalne tylko przez najlepszych "torcedore" +Długość cygar tradycyjnie podaje się w calach, a średnicę w 1/64 cala. +Stosunkowo nową innowacją są cygara "parejo" o kwadratowym, prostokątnym lub rzadziej trójkątnym przekroju ("box pressed"). Innowacja ta znacznie poprawia ciąg cygara, lecz wśród konsumentów cygar przyjęta jest z mieszanymi uczuciami. +Tradycyjne "figurado" +Wpływ na zdrowie. +Szkodliwość cygaro dla zdrowia jest porównywalna do papierosowego dymu. Ich palenie zwiększa ryzyko zachorowania na raka, w szczególności jamy ustnej, schorzeń sercowo-naczyniowych oraz przewlekłego zapalenia oskrzeli. Zygmunt Freud był palaczem cygar, który wskutek wypalania ich 10-20 dziennie zmarł na raka jamy ustnej. Ryzyko wystąpienia zmian chorobowych zmniejsza się, gdy wypala się mniej cygar, oraz nie zaciąga się dymem. Spożywanie napojów alkoholowych wraz z paleniem zwiększa przyswajalność toksyn i tym samym podnosi ryzyko chorobowe. Cygara, jakkolwiek posiadające potencjał do uzależnienia nikotynowego, ze względu na specyfikę palenia i jeśli używane z umiarem, rzadko prowadzą do uzależnień. Podobnie jak w przypadku dymu papierosowego, należy zachować szacunek dla otoczenia. Wiele osób, w tym palacze papierosów, uważają zapach dymu cygarowego za nieprzyjemny. +Sasha Cohen + +Alexandra Pauline Cohen (ur. 26 października 1984 w Westwood, stan Kalifornia), amerykańska łyżwiarka figurowa, startująca w kategorii solistek. +Pochodzi z bardzo wysportowanej rodziny – matka (emigrantka z Rosji) i dziadek(z Chin) byli gimnastykami, a i sama Sasha od tej dyscypliny zaczęła swoją sportową karierę. Łyżwiarstwem zainteresowała się w wieku 5 lat, by jako 8-latka zająć się nim już na poważnie. +Pierwszą znaczącą imprezą w kategorii seniorów, w jakiej wzięła udział, były igrzyska olimpijskie w Salt Lake City w 2002, gdzie zajęła 4. miejsce. Od tamtego momentu plasuje się w najściślejszej światowej czołówce łyżwiarzy figurowych (wicemistrzyni świata 2004 i 2005). Na Zimowych Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w Turynie zdobyła srebrny medal. Jej cechą rozpoznawczą są świetne spirale i piruety w pozycji szpagatu. +W sezonie 2006/2007, Cohen bardzo ograniczyła swoją aktywność łyżwiarską. Postanowiła poświęcić się modelingowi i aktorstwu. Zapowiada jednocześnie chęć kontynuowania kariery sportowej i startu na IO 2010. +Wrotkarstwo + +Wrotkarstwo – dyscyplina sportowa (chętnie i często uprawiana dla celów typowo rekreacyjnych), pokrewna łyżwiarstwu. Do poruszania się wykorzystywane są tu specjalne "buty na kółkach". Wyróżnia się dwa typy wrotek – dwuśladowe (tradycyjne) i jednośladowe (tzw. łyżworolki/rolki/inline-skates). Z tych samych korzeni, co wrotkarstwo, wyłoniły się hulajnoga i deskorolkarstwo. +Dyscypliny. +W ramach wrotkarstwa wyróżnia się kilkanaście dyscyplin. Do każdego z tych stylów używa się innych rolek, różniących się rodzajem butów, ramą kółek, wielkością i twardością kółek. +Wrotkarstwo szybkie. +We wrotkarstwie szybkim stosuje się inny sprzęt niż np. we wrotkarstwie rekreacyjnym. +Najczęstsze rozmiary kół to 100 i 110 mm. W ostatnim czasie popularność zyskują szyny "hybrydowe", pozwalające uniknąć podwyższania środka ciężkości (istotnego przy utrzymaniu równowagi), związanego z większą średnicą kół np 3 × 110 + 1 × 100, 3 × 100 + 1 × 90 itp. +But jest dość twardy (musi sztywno utrzymywać nogę), by nie utrudniać ruchów jest zakończony tuż za kostką. +Najlepsi zawodnicy stosują technikę "double push" (pol. podwójne odepchnięcie). Polega ona na wykorzystaniu zewnętrznej i wewnętrznej krawędzi kół w jednym odepchnięciu. W pierwszej fazie dostawienia nogi odbywa się ruch rolki, połączony z odepchnięciem, pod środek ciężkości zawodnika. Pod koniec tego ruchu zawodnik znajduje się w fazie kontrolowanego opadania na zewnątrz. Następnie odbywa się podstawienie drugiej nogi za i w linii z nogą podpierającą i wyjazd nogi podpierającej, połączony z odepchnięciem na zewnątrz. Tuż po rozpoczęciu odepchnięcia na zewnątrz druga noga rozpoczyna fazę wejścia (odepchnięcia) do wewnątrz. +Do popularyzacji double push przyczynili się Chad Hedrick, Derek Downing, Eddy Matzger. +Zawodnicy najczęściej nie używają gumowych hamulców tylnych. Aby zahamować, należy ciągnąć za sobą jedną z rolek bądź używać techniki "pługu" podobnej do narciarskiej. +Wrotkarstwo rekreacyjne. +Sama jazda na rolkach jest nieco podobna do techniki jazdy na nartach. Zakręty bierze się na krawędziach rolek, przy czym ważne jest zachowanie równowagi bocznej i (na wyższym poziomie) głębokie wejście ciałem do środka zakrętu. Prostszym sposobem zakręcania jest przekładanka: technika znana z jazdy na łyżwach. +W jeździe rekreacyjnej używane są zazwyczaj szyny 4 kołowe o rozmiarach kół do 90mm. +Aggressive Inline Skating. +Używane tutaj rolki maja kółka o wiele mniejsze (około 55 mm) niż w zwykłych rolkach, a ich rama ma specjalny wzmocniony odstęp (groove) pośrodku, przeznaczony do grindów po railach. +Części w większości modeli rolek jazdy agresywnej są zamontowane na śrubach, co pozwala na szybką wymianę każdej części rolki, począwszy od kółek, płozy a skończywszy na klamrach i bucie. +Podstawowe tricki jazdy agresywnej. +Każdy trik może być kombinowany z kilkoma innymi. +Zatoka Adeńska + +Zatoka Adeńska (arab. خليج عدن) – obszar wodny (przez Międzynarodowe Biuro Hydrograficzne uznawany za morze) na Oceanie Indyjskim pomiędzy Jemenem na południowym brzegu Półwyspu Arabskiego, a Somalią w Afryce. Na północnym zachodzie łączy się z Morzem Czerwonym przez cieśninę Bab al-Mandab. +Zatoka Adeńska jest ważną drogą morską przez którą przepływa duża część ropy wydobywanej przez kraje Zatoki Perskiej. Jest prawie niezanieczyszczona, w jej wodach żyje wiele gatunków ryb i koralowców. Główne porty to Aden (po stronie jemeńskiej) oraz Bosaso (dawniej "Bender Qassim") i Berbera (oba w Somalii). +Jest to także bardzo niebezpieczny obszar z powodu niestabilnej sytuacji w krajach, które z nim graniczą. Na wodach zatoki grasuje wielu piratów. +Obwodnica Trójmiasta + +Obwodnica Trójmiasta, Obwodnica trójmiejska (właściwie "(Trasa) Obwodowa" Trójmiasta) – zachodnia obwodnica Trójmiasta będąca częścią drogi ekspresowej S6. Obwodnica przebiega w kierunku północ-południe od Gdyni do Pruszcza Gdańskiego. Jej długość wynosi 38,6 km. +Historia. +W roku 2002 zakończono gruntowny remont drogi. +Obwodnica trójmiejska jest trasą o statusie drogi ekspresowej, pomimo braku pełnowymiarowych pasów awaryjnych. Na całej długości posiada dwupoziomowe skrzyżowania i dwie jezdnie, a każda z jezdni posiada dwa (na niektórych stromych podjazdach – trzy) pasy ruchu. +Większa część Obwodnicy Trójmiasta przebiega przez obszary Trójmiejskiego Parku Krajobrazowego, mimo to ma jedynie jedno – zbudowane przy okazji modernizacji w 2002 roku – przejście dla zwierząt leśnych. +We wrześniu 2007 radni Gdańska zadecydowali o nazwaniu gdańskiego odcinka Obwodnicy Trójmiasta "aleją Kazimierza Jagiellończyka". +Rozbudowa. +W okolicach Rusocina, na końcowym fragmencie obwodnicy trójmiejskiej, powstał węzeł autostradowy, który rozpoczyna autostradę A1 – obwodnica trójmiejska jest jej przedłużeniem. +W 2008 otwarto odgałęzienie obwodnicy trójmiejskiej w Gdyni, które stanowi dokończenie Trasy im. Eugeniusza Kwiatkowskiego, łączące obwodnicę z gdyńskim portem promowym i kontenerowym. +Docelowo, północny koniec obwodnicy trójmiejskiej łączyć ma się z projektowaną obwodnicą północną aglomeracji trójmiejskiej, a na odcinku od węzła z obwodnicą południową do Trasy Kwiatkowskiego, ma posiadać po trzy pasy ruchu w każdym kierunku. +W celu zwiększenia przepustowości węzła Karczemki, będącego skrzyżowaniem z gdańską trasą W-Z, w latach 2011-2012 dokonano jego rozbudowy poprzez budowę drugiego wiaduktu i bezkolizyjnych zjazdów z drugiego pasa obwodnicy. W tym samym czasie przebudowano węzeł w Straszynie, wprowadzając do niego nowo wybudowaną południową obwodnicę Gdańska. +W 2010 r. rozpoczęto konsultacje społeczne dotyczące budowy tzw. obwodnicy metropolitalnej Trójmiasta, którą w przyszłości ma przebiegać trasa S6. Trasa ta ma przebiegać od węzła w Borkowie przez Lublewo, Żukowo do Chwaszczyna, a jej budowa miała się w myśl pierwotnych planów skończyć w 2016. +Wąwóz Kraków + +Wąwóz Kraków – boczna, orograficznie prawa odnoga Doliny Kościeliskiej w polskich Tatrach Zachodnich. Wcięta jest głęboko w stoki masywu Ciemniaka i Upłaziańskiej Kopy. +Topografia. +Oprócz tych dwóch głównych odnóg do Wąwozu Kraków opada kilka mniejszych żlebów i kotłów, m.in. Wolarski Żleb, Upłazkowy Kocioł, Przednie Kamienne, Kocioł pod Saturnem. W dnie wąwozu jest kilka rozszerzeń: Rynek, Płaśń między Progi, Plac pod Ratuszem. +Opis wąwozu. +Wąwóz Kraków uważany jest za najpiękniejszy wąwóz skalny polskich Tatr Zachodnich. Zwiedzano go już w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku. Był też penetrowany przez poszukiwaczy skarbów, o czym świadczą pozostawione przez nich znaki na skałach w trudno dostępnych miejscach. +Zbudowany jest niemal w całości ze skał węglanowych, jedynie najwyższa część Zadniego Kamiennego nakryta jest skałami krystalicznymi, bardzo niewielkie ich ilości znajdują się także na Wysokim Przechodzie i Tomanowym Przechodzie. Powstał w procesie krasowienia skał węglanowych (wapienie, dolomity), czyli w ten sam sposób co dominująca większość jaskiń tatrzańskich. Znajdują się też w nim formy typowe dla obszarów krasowych: liczne jaskinie, nyże, leje, żłobki krasowe, także mosty skalne. +Turystyczna część Wąwozu Kraków. +Najniższa, udostępniona turystycznie część Wąwozu Kraków to wycięty w skałach węglanowych skalny kanion o pionowych lub przewieszonych ścianach, o dnie zarzuconym kamieniami. Ta część wąwozu jest pozostałością korytarza dawnej jaskini, w której zawaliło się sklepienie. Dno wąwozu jest na ogół suche, gdyż Wąwóz Kraków odwadniany jest przez wywierzysko pod Skałą Pisaną, woda płynie nim tylko po obfitych opadach. Wiosną długo zalega w wąwozie śnieg. Po przejściu około 100 metrów rozszerzenie i po lewej stronie żelazna drabinka, którą wspiąć się trzeba na pionową niemal skałę, w której znajduje się wejście do jaskini – Smoczej Jamy (niewielki tunel jaskiniowy) i przez nią z powrotem na Polanę Pisaną (z pomocą łańcuchów i klamer możliwość ominięcia Smoczej Jamy). Po wyjściu ze Smoczej Jamy widok na prześwitujące między drzewami, w odległości kilkuset metrów turnie – Saturn i Ratusz. +Dalsza część Wąwozu Kraków. +Dalsza, znacznie większa część Wąwozu Kraków objęta jest ochroną ścisłą i jest niedostępna ani dla turystów ani taterników. Nazwa wąwozu ma korzenie góralskie: górale wędrujący sporadycznie do Krakowa zauważyli podobieństwo wąskich uliczek krakowskiego Starego Miasta do skalnego wąwozu w Dolinie Kościeliskiej. Stąd pochodzi nazwa całej doliny (Kraków) oraz znajdujących się w jej otoczeniu turni (Ratusz, Baszta, Kościół), jaskiń (Smocza Jama) oraz rozszerzenia doliny (Rynek). Wąwóz zawalony jest tutaj drzewami i poprzegradzany progami (najwyższy z nich ma wysokość około 10 m). Wyżej wąwóz znacznie się rozszerza (Płaśń między Progi). Część doliny zatraca charakter kanionu, jeden z biegów natomiast staje się Żlebem Trzynastu Progów – kolejnym wąwozem, tym razem znacznie bardziej stromym (trudności wspinaczkowe), przypominającym pozbawioną stropu jaskinię. +Przyroda. +W otoczeniu Wąwozu Kraków są liczne przykładu lasu urwiskowego, często bywają tutaj dzikie zwierzęta, włącznie z niedźwiedziem i wilkiem. Porasta go bogata flora roślin, m.in. występuje tutaj opisana tylko z dwóch w Tatrach stanowisk pluskwica europejska (drugie jej stanowisko opisano w Organach). Z rzadkich w Polsce gatunków roślin występują tutaj ponadto: storczyk drobnokwiatowy, starzec pomarańczowy, sparceta górska i ostrołódka karpacka. +Einstein@Home + +Einstein@home – projekt przetwarzania rozproszonego działający na platformie BOINC. Ma on za zadanie wyszukiwanie sygnałów pochodzących z pulsarów w danych pochodzących z Laserowego Interferencyjnego Obserwatorium Fal Grawitacyjnych LIGO w USA i z obserwatorium fal grawitacyjnych GEO 600 w Niemczech. Ponieważ zakłada się, że niektóre z pulsarów nie są idealnie sferyczne, zgodnie z ogólną teorią względności, gwiazdy te powinny emitować charakterystyczne fale grawitacyjne, które LIGO i GEO 600 mają wykryć w najbliższym czasie. +Projekt ten został uruchomiony w ramach Światowego Roku Fizyki (2005) jako próba rozwiązania problemu analizy ogromnych ilości danych w ramach przetwarzania rozproszonego. +Profil lotniczy + +Profil lotniczy – obrys przekroju skrzydła samolotu, łopaty śmigła itp. w płaszczyźnie prostopadłej do osi biegnącej wzdłuż rozpiętości skrzydła (lub promienia śmigła czy wirnika). Cechą charakterystyczną profilu lotniczego jest zdolność do efektywnego wytwarzania siły nośnej pod wpływem powietrza opływającego profil (płat). +Profile lotnicze są przedmiotem badań w tunelach aerodynamicznych: dąży się do otrzymania jak największej siły nośnej oraz minimalizacji oporu profilu. +Zbiór profili lotniczych składa się na kształt płata (płat może mieć różne profile wzdłuż rozpiętości): skrzydła, łopaty śmigła lub łopaty wirnika śmigłowca. Kształt profilu lotniczego mają także łopatki turbin i sprężarek silników odrzutowych. +Rodzaje profili. +W lotnictwie szeroko stosowane są profile rodziny NACA (ang. National Advisory Commitee for Aeronautic). Spotyka się także inne profile, np. RAF (Royal Aircraft Establishment), GAF, CAGI (Centralnyj Aerogidridynamiczeskij Institut), profile Clark, Epplera i Wortmana. +Polskie profile, zaprojektowane w Instytucie Lotnictwa w Warszawie, oznaczone są jako IL (np. ILHX4A1-12M, ILHX4A1-9 – profile łopat wirnika nośnego śmigłowca IS-2). +Klasyczne. +Cechą wyróżniającą jest położenie maksymalnej grubości profilu w ok. 25% długości cięciwy. Za tym punktem następuje przejście warstwy laminarnej w turbulentną, co powoduje wzrost oporu tarcia. Stosowane w samolotach o niskich prędkościach przelotowych ze względu na duży współczynnik siły nośnej. +Laminarne. +Maksymalna grubość znajduje się w zakresie 35-70% długości cięciwy, dzięki czemu na przeważającej długości profilu przepływ jest laminarny (ma mniejsze od turbulentnego opory tarcia). Utrzymanie laminarnej warstwy przyściennej jest możliwe tylko w niewielkim zakresie małych kątów natarcia i jest wrażliwe na odkształcenia i zabrudzenia opływanej powierzchni. +Nadkrytyczne. +Skrzydła nadkrytyczne to skrzydła o profilu wybrzuszonym na spodzie i spłaszczonym na górze co poprawia ich własności zarówno małych i dużych prędkościach. +Opracowane dla samolotów latających w zakresie prędkości transsonicznych, charakteryzujące się prawie płaską górną powierzchnią. Cecha ta wpływa na zmniejszenie krytycznej liczby Macha. +Szybkościowe. +Charakteryzujące się ostrą krawędzią natarcia i spływu, zaprojektowane dla samolotów poruszających z prędkościami naddźwiękowymi. +Opisywanie profilu lotniczego. +Wielkości geometryczne. +Patrząc na płat jako zbiór profili linię łączącą noski profili nazywa się krawędzią natarcia a linię łącząca ostrza – krawędzią spływu. +Wielkości aerodynamiczne. +Wykresy zależności tych współczynników od kąta natarcia tworzą tzw. charakterystykę profilu. +Oznaczenia profili NACA. +Wyróżnia się profile NACA 5 i 4-cyfrowe oraz profile NACA laminarne. Do ich opisu używa się wielkości wyrażonych w procentach względem długości cięciwy. +Santoryn + +Santoryn, gr. Santorini "(Σαντορίνη)", a w odniesieniu do starożytności: Thira "(Θήρα)" – wulkaniczna wyspa na Morzu Egejskim tworząca z kilkoma mniejszymi wyspami, należący do Grecji, mały archipelag o tej samej nazwie, wchodzący w skład archipelagu Cyklad. Wyspa położona jest 175 km na południowy wschód od wybrzeża Grecji i 110 km na północ od wybrzeża Krety. +Nazwa "Santorini" pochodzi z XIII wieku od imienia "św. Ireny" ("Saint Irene"), poprzednie nazwy: Kallisti, Strongili lub Tera/Thira (gr. Θηρα). +Historia. +Przed wybuchem wulkanu Thera istniała na wyspie rozwinięta cywilizacja (kultura minojska), której mieszkańcy opuścili w większości wyspę tuż przed wybuchem wulkanu – po wielkim trzęsieniu ziemi, które nawiedziło wyspę. Wybuch wulkanu przyczynił się prawdopodobnie również do znacznego zniszczenia położonej ponad 110 km (60 mil morskich) na południe Krety (pałac w Knossos). Współcześni badacze przypuszczają, że wybuch wulkanu i późniejsze jego zapadnięcie się na ok. 300-400 m pod powierzchnię obecnego poziomu morza spowodował powstanie olbrzymiej fali tsunami o wysokości dochodzącej do 200 metrów. Jedna z hipotez utożsamia zniszczenie wyspy z mityczną Atlantydą. +Po katastrofie przez 300-500 lat wyspa była niezamieszkana. Ponownie zasiedlili ją greccy Dorowie. +Obecnie na Santorynie (a przede wszystkim na głównej wyspie Thira) silnie rozwija się turystyka, która jest jednym z głównych źródeł dochodu. Główne miejscowości: Akrotiri, Emporio, Faros, Fira, Oia, Kamari, Megalochori, Perissa, Pyrgos. +Znaczenie erupcji dla chronologii starożytnej. +Popioły pochodzące z wybuchu wulkanu Thera zostały odkryte przez archeologów w warstwie zwanej IA (terminologia archeologii egejskiej) związanej z okresem późnominojskim. Na podstawie podobieństwa ceramiki pochodzącej z okresu udało się ustalić, że erupcja miała miejsce za rządów egipskiego króla Ahmosea (Jahmesa) lub nieco później (XVIII. dynastia). Manfred Bietak podczas wykopalisk w Tall ad-Dab (Izbat Hilmi) odkrył ponadto pumeks w kontekście stratygraficznym datowanym na okres pomiędzy panowaniem Ahmosea a Totmesa III. Ponieważ chronologia starożytnego Egiptu została ustalona już wcześniej na podstawie retrokalkulacji dokonanych w oparciu o tzw. cykl Sotisa, egiptolodzy założyli, iż wybuch na Santorynie miał miejsce w II. połowie XVI wieku p.n.e. +Jednakże próbki materiału pochodzącego z erupcji poddane analizie metodą 14C umiejscawiały erupcję w okresie 1760-1540 p.n.e. ze wskazaniem na okres wcześniejszy. Podczas Trzeciego Międzynarodowego Kongresu poświęconemu erupcji Thery uczestnicy założyli, iż omawiane zdarzenie miało miejsce w I. połowie XVII wieku p.n.e. Wnioski wulkanologów zostały jednak stanowczo odrzucone przez egiptologów, którzy nie zamierzali zmieniać ustalonej chronologii egipskiej wskazując na małą wiarogodność datowania za pomocą metody węgla radioaktywnego. Należy przy tym zaznaczyć, że zmiana chronologii starożytnego Egiptu oznaczałaby zmianę całej chronologii starożytnej dla II. tysiąclecia p.n.e. +W latach 80. XX wieku wulkanolodzy oraz dendrolodzy wykryli zależność pomiędzy wielkimi erupcjami wulkanicznymi a krótkotrwałymi ochłodzeniami klimatu powodującymi przedwczesne przymrozki. Pozostawiają one widoczne ślady w słojach drzew pochodzących z roku erupcji lub z roku następnego. Po odkryciu długowiecznych okazów sosny ościstej w Ameryce Północnej udało się ustalić, iż jedyna potężna erupcja w II. tysiącleciu p.n.e. miała miejsce w roku 1627 (±1 rok) p.n.e. Godnym uwagi jest fakt, iż według wulkanologów wybuch Thery był dwukrotnie potężniejszy od erupcji Krakatau. Data dostarczona przez dendrochronologię potwierdziła więc wcześniejsze przypuszczenia wulkanologów datujących erupcję na XVII wiek p.n.e. Pomimo powyższych faktów, egiptolodzy nadal odmawiają dokonania zmian w chronologii starożytnego Egiptu. +Dr Walter Friedrich z duńskiego Uniwersytetu w Aarhus oraz dr Walter Kutschera z austriackiego Uniwersytetu Wiedeńskiego badali próbki gałęzi drzewa oliwnego, posiadającej 72 pierścienie rocznego przyrostu. Dwa drzewa oliwne zostały odnalezione podczas wykopalisk na wyspie Santoryn w pobliżu muru zbudowanego w epoce brązu. Zdaniem naukowców, drzewa były częścią gaju oliwnego znajdującego się tuż obok zabudowań starożytnej osady. Drzewa zostały odsłonięte w pozycji stojącej, tak jak zostały przykryte przez pumeks, skałę wylewną powstałą po szybkim zakrzepnięciu lawy podczas erupcji wulkanu. Badania wykazały, że wielka erupcja wulkanu na Therze nastąpiła 1613 (±10 lat) p.n.e. +Thira przed erupcją. +Już w XIX wieku podczas wydobycia popiołu wulkanicznego potrzebnego do budowy Kanału Sueskiego natrafiono w wiosce Akrotiri na Santorynie na mury domów i przeprowadzono pierwsze wykopaliska. Prace te miały miejsce również w XX wieku. Wykopaliska doprowadziły do stwierdzenia, że na wyspie znajdowało się przed wielkim wybuchem wulkanu starożytne miasto i była ona znacznym ośrodkiem kultury egejskiej. Najważniejsze znaleziska to malowidła freskowe o rozmaitej tematyce (bitwa morska i najazd na miasto u wybrzeży Afryki, walczące na pięści dzieci, sceny z przyrody). Fakt zasypania miasta przez wulkan umożliwił zachowanie się negatywów obiektów wykonanych z drewna, co pozwoliło na ich rekonstrukcję. Interesujące są analogie z kulturą materialną współczesnej wsi kreteńskiej. +Painkiller (gra komputerowa) + +Painkiller – polska gra komputerowa z gatunku first-person shooter stworzona w 2004 roku przez firmę People Can Fly. Według informacji prasowych sprzedano 300 tys. egzemplarzy tej gry. Główny bohater – Daniel Garner – walczy z hordami piekielnych stworów, aby dostąpić wiecznego szczęścia ze swoją ukochaną oraz wypełnić tajny plan jednego z aniołów. Musi zabić czterech generałów Lucyfera i powrócić, lecz okoliczności zmuszają go do zejścia do piekła i zmierzenia się z jego władcą. +Rozgrywka. +"Painkiller" to pierwsza polska gra, w której wykorzystano silnik fizyczny Havok 2. Muzykę, którą słyszy się podczas walk z demonami, nagrał polski zespół Mech. +Fabuła. +Daniel Garner i jego żona zginęli w wypadku samochodowym. Daniel trafił do miejsca między piekłem a niebem, natomiast jego żona od razu dostała się do niebios. Żeby tam trafić, Daniel musi odkupić swoje winy. Jego zadaniem jest znaleźć i zabić czterech generałów piekła oraz samego Lucyfera. Aby to zrobić trzeba zabić wszystkie hordy potworów, które ich ochraniają. W czasie podróży trafia na Ewę, która okazuje się pierwszą kobietą, żoną Adama. Pomaga mu ona w znalezieniu dalszej drogi i towarzyszy, choć nie widać jej w żadnym poziomie. Po zakończeniu czwartego rozdziału (zabiciu Alastora) zostaje porwana przez Lucyfera. +Archanioł mówi mu, że jego misja się skończyła, ale Daniel nie chce zostawić towarzyszki w potrzebie i wędruje do piekła, aby zabić szatana. Gdy mu się to udaje, Ewa wyciąga go z piekła, ale władzę obejmuje tam Alastor, który, jak się okazuje, wcale nie zginął. Dalsza akcja rozgrywa się w dodatku '. Fani gry uznają to zakończenie za kanoniczne, ponieważ jest ono uwzględnione w dodatku ', ale wg twórców, właściwym zakończeniem jest to z poziomu trudności "Trauma". +Alternatywne zakończenie. +Po pokonaniu Alastora główny bohater, jako biała, świecąca postać, dostaje się wreszcie do Nieba. Idąc przez Raj, wspomniane są walki z bossami, jakie Daniel Garner stoczył. Następnie ukazana jest druga biała postać – żona bohatera, która razem z nim zginęła w wypadku. Oboje wreszcie są razem. +Kontynuacje. +Gra zapoczątkowała serię wydawnictw o wspólnym tytule "Painkiller". W 2004 roku ukazało się także rozszerzenie, ', niewymagające podstawowej wersji gry. W 2005 roku ukazała się "Painkiller: Black Edition", zawierająca podstawową wersję gry i dodatek "Painkiller: Battle out of Hell" na jednej płycie DVD. W 2007 roku ukazał się ', prequel, za który odpowiada czeska firma Mindware Studios. W 2009 roku ukazał się ', prequel którego producentem jest austriacka grupa Homegrown Games. W 2011 roku ukazał się dodatek ', którego producentem jest EGGTOOTH TEAM. W 2012 roku ukazała się kolejna część serii o nazwie ' ponownie autorstwa EGGTOOTH TEAM, tym razem jednak za design poziomów odpowiada grupa rosyjskich fanów z Med-Art. W 2012 ukazało się też '. Odpowiedzialne za jego stworzenie jest śląskie studio The Farm 51, które wyprodukowało "Necrovision". Gra została wydana 31 października 2012 roku. +Kwintesencja (fizyka) + +Kwintesencja – hipotetyczna forma ciemnej energii, postulowanej jako czynnik wyjaśniający obserwowane przyspieszanie ekspansji Wszechświata. +Kwintesencją jest pole skalarne o równaniu stanu (wiążącym ciśnienie formula_1 z gęstością energii formula_2) formula_3, gdzie formula_4 jest mniejsze od –. W ogólności, gęstość kwintesencji jak i jej równanie stanu zmieniają się w czasie i przestrzeni, w przeciwieństwie do stałej kosmologicznej, która jest statyczna, ze stałą gęstością energii i formula_4 = –1. +Wiele modeli kwintesencji częściowo rozwiązuje problem stałej kosmologicznej. W tych modelach pole kwintesencji ma gęstość, która jest niewiele mniejsza od gęstości energii promieniowania aż do momentu, w którym gęstość ta staje się równa gęstości materii, po czym kwintesencja zachowuje się podobnie jak "zwyczajna" ciemna energia. +Specjalnymi przypadkami kwintesencji są: energia fantomowa (ang. "phantom energy"), dla której formula_4 < –1 oraz kwintesencja kinetyczna (ang. "k-essence"), która ma niestandardową formę energii kinetycznej. +Nazwa pochodzi od kwintesencji, piątego żywiołu według koncepcji Arystotelesa. +Waleriusz Flakkus + +Waleriusz Flakkus, Gaius Valerius Flaccus (I wiek n.e.) - poeta rzymski. +Był autorem dzieła "Argonautica", powstałego między 70 r. a 95 r. i dedykowanego cesarzowi Wespazjanowi. "Argonautica", historia wyprawy Jazona po Złote Runo, nawiązywała do utworu Apolloniosa Rodyjskiego pod tym samym tytułem. W ośmiu księgach swojego jedynego znanego dzieła Waleriusz Flakkus przedstawił dzieje Argonautów odmiennie od poprzednika, dodając nowe elementy, niektóre rozwijając, inne skracając i pomijając. Sama podróż została przesunięta na dalszy plan (zapewne brakowało autorowi przygotowania geograficznego, jakim dysponował Apollonios, uczony i kierownik Biblioteki Aleksandryjskiej), uwypuklono natomiast poszczególne przygody. Urwana w połowie księga VIII pozwala przypuszczać, że "Argonautica" nie została ukończona, tym bardziej że Kwintylian w dziele "Kształcenie mówcy" wyraził żal z powodu przedwczesnej śmierci Flakkusa. Możliwe także, że "Argonautica" nie zachowała się w całości do czasów współczesnych. +Frottage + +Frottage (fr. "tarcie") – technika odciskania faktury dowolnych przedmiotów (np. drewna, tkaniny, liści, kamieni) na powierzchni papieru przez przyłożenie papieru do danej rzeczy i mocne pocieranie go ołówkiem (lub innym podobnym narzędziem). +Technika użyta jako metoda artystyczna po raz pierwszy w latach 20. XX w. przez Maxa Ernsta. Artysta zainspirował się widokiem starej drewnianej podłogi. W jej zniszczonej powierzchni dostrzegał rozmaite figury. Chcąc je uwiecznić, położył na podłodze kartkę papieru i zaczął rysować po niej miękkim ołówkiem. W wyniku otrzymał rysunek, który przypominał mu tajemniczy las, zamieszkany przez stworzenia podobne do ptaków. Cała seria takich rysunków została przez niego opublikowana w 1926 pod tytułem "Histoire Naturelle" (historia naturalna). +Metoda zdejmowania odcisków z kamiennych, ceramicznych lub metalowych reliefów, choć nie pod współczesną nazwą, była znaną techniką reprodukcyjną w Chinach jeszcze przed naszą erą. W podobny sposób stosowali ją archeologowie. +Inkluz (e-zin RPG) + +Inkluz (e-zin RPG) – elektroniczny, bezpłatny miesięcznik internetowy poświęcony tematyce RPG. Inkluz wydawany był w sieci od 9 kwietnia 1999 roku do 15 sierpnia 2005 roku. Ukazało się 70 numerów zwykłych oraz 7 specjalnych. +20.04.2009 ukazał się okolicznościowy, dodatkowy numer specjalny Inkluza, podsumowujący jego dotychczasową historię. W numerze tym zebrano ponad 150 najciekawszych artykułów, które ukazały się w dotychczasowych numerach. +Założycielami Inkluza są "Paweł Montwiłł" i "GTS". Ten pierwszy prowadził go jako redaktor naczelny do 62 numeru włącznie. Ostatnie 8 numerów zostało wydanych pod przewodnictwem kolejnego rednacza, którym był "Marek 'Rasgan' Bednarczuk". Przez przeszło sześć lat ukazywania się magazynu, na jego łamach opublikowano około 2750 artykułów. +Z uwagi na poziom pisma i jego popularność, Inkluz zdołał zorganizować konkurs z nagrodami, które ufundowały wydawnictwo ISA, home.pl, Edysk.pl oraz wydawnictwo MAG. +Redakcja Inkluza. +Redaktor naczelny: +Linki zewnętrzne. +Witryna pisma +Amazonia + +Amazonia (hiszp. Amazonía, port. Amazônia, fr. Amazonie, ang. Amazonia) – region w Ameryce Południowej w dorzeczu Amazonki, na obszarze Boliwii, Brazylii, Ekwadoru, Gujany, Gujany Francuskiej, Kolumbii, Peru, Surinamu i Wenezueli obejmujący Nizinę Amazonki, południową część Wyżyny Gujańskiej i północno-zachodnią część Wyżyny Brazylijskiej. Teren ten zajmuje obszar siedmiu milionów kilometrów kwadratowych, z czego około 5,5 miliona kilometrów kwadratowych zajmuje amazoński las deszczowy (po portugalsku: "Floresta Amazônica", po hiszpańsku: "Selva Amazónica") – wilgotny las liściasty leżący na terenie dziewięciu państw: Brazylii (60 procent lasu deszczowego), Peru (13 procent, drugie po Brazylii), Kolumbii, Wenezueli, Ekwadoru, Boliwii, Gujany, Surinamu i Gujany Francuskiej. Cztery z nich noszą wobec tego nazwę krajów amazońskich. Amazonia stanowi ponad połowę wszystkich lasów deszczowych oraz największy i najbogatszy gatunkowo obszar na planecie. +Etymologia nazwy. +Nazwa "Amazonia" powstała podobno w związku z wojną, którą Francisco de Orellana toczył z plemieniem Tapuya i z innymi plemionami Południowej Ameryki, gdzie kobiety, według zwyczaju plemienia, walczyły razem z mężczyznami. Opisy Orellany mogą być wierne, jednak niektórzy historycy spekulują, czy Orellana nie pomylił miejscowych mężczyzn noszących "spódniczki z trawy" z kobietami. Orellana zapożyczył nazwę od starożytnych Amazonek z Azji i Afryki opisanych przez Herodota i Diodora w legendach starożytnej Grecji. +Flora i fauna. +Wilgotne lasy tropikalne są najbogatszym w gatunki biomem, a tropikalne lasy w Amerykach są konsekwentnie bogatsze w gatunki niż lasy tropikalne w Afryce i Azji. Jako największy obszar lasów tropikalnych w Amerykach, lasy amazońskie mają niezrównaną różnorodność biologiczną. Jeden na dziesięć znanych gatunków na świecie mieszka w dżungli Amazońskiej. +Region jest zamieszkany przez około 2,5 miliona amazońskich gatunków owadów, dziesiątki tysięcy gatunków roślin i około 2000 gatunków ptaków i ssaków. Do dzisiaj sklasyfikowano tam naukowo co najmniej 40 000 gatunków roślin, 3000 gatunków ryb, 1294 gatunków ptaków, 427 gatunków ssaków, 428 gatunków płazów i 378 gatunków gadów. W samej Brazylii naukowcy opisali od 96 660 do 128 843 gatunków bezkręgowców. +Różnorodność gatunków roślin jest największa na Ziemi. Według niektórych ekspertów na jednym kilometrze kwadratowym może rosnąć w przybliżeniu 75 000 rodzajów drzew i 150 000 gatunków wyższych roślin, a jeden kilometr kwadratowy może mieścić 90 790 ton żywych roślin. Są to największe tego typu ilości na Ziemi. Mieszka tu około 20% wszystkich ptaków Ziemi. Do dzisiaj skatalogowano około 438 000 gatunków roślin o znaczeniu ekonomicznym lub kulturowym, ale nadal pozostało dużo takich, które nie zostały jeszcze opisane, ani nawet odkryte. +Geografia. +Amazonia znajduje się głównie na terenie dorzecza Amazonki i jej ponad 1100 dopływów. Dorzecze zostało ukształtowane w czasie paleozoiku, pomiędzy 500 a 200 milionów lat temu. +Panuje tam wilgotny klimat równikowy o wysokiej średniej sumie opadów (do 4000 mm), ze średnimi rocznymi temperaturami od 24 do 27 °C. +Do lat 70. XX w. obszar był bardzo słabo zagospodarowany i zamieszkany głównie przez łowiecko-zbieracze ludy tubylcze, takie jak Pirahã i Yanomami. Od tego czasu, w związku z licznymi programami osadniczymi (zwłaszcza w Brazylii), rozwija się w Amazonii chów bydła oraz górnictwo – głównie rud żelaza, manganu, cyny i glinu. +Lasy Amazonii są zwane "zielonymi płucami świata". +W lasach Amazonii mieszkają do dziś plemiona, które nie miały styczności z cywilizacją. +Susza w 2005. +W 2005 część dorzecza Amazonki została dotknięta najgorszą od 100 lat suszą. Były również wskazania, że rok 2006 mógł być kolejnym rokiem suszy. Artykuł z 23 lipca 2006 w brytyjskiej gazecie "The Independent" donosił o badaniach wykonanych przez Woods Hole Research Center, wykazujących, że las w swojej obecnej postaci może przetrwać jedynie trzy lata suszy. Naukowcy z brazylijskiego National Institute of Amazonian Research utrzymują, że skutki suszy oraz wycinania lasu w tamtym klimacie mogą doprowadzić do punktu krytycznego, po przekroczeniu którego las nieodwracalnie zacząłby umierać. Wymarcie lasu i jego zamiana w sawannę lub pustynię miałyby katastrofalne skutki dla ziemskiego klimatu. +Według WWF, zmiany klimatu w połączeniu z wycinaniem lasu nasilają efekt wysychania martwych drzew, co stwarza zagrożenie pożarami lasu. +Spory polityczne. +Niektórzy politycy i dziennikarze uważają, że Amazonia jest obszarem międzynarodowym i należy do całej ludzkości. Al Gore powiedział w 1989: ""W przeciwieństwie do tego, co myślą Brazylijczycy, Amazonia nie jest ich własnością, należy do nas wszystkich"." W brazylijskiej prasie temat wywołuje wiele kontrowersji, rząd i społeczeństwo uważają, że takie argumentowanie uderza w ich narodową suwerenność. +W maju 2008 "The New York Times" opublikował artykuł pt. "Czyj więc jest ten las?" Artykuł ten wzbudził wiele kontrowersji w Brazylii, zmuszając prezydenta Lulę do następującej odpowiedzi: ""Amazonia należy do Brazylijczyków"", następnie do dalszych agresywniejszych wypowiedzi: ""Amerykanie nie posiadają prawa moralnego, aby zgłaszać jakieś pretensje co do Amazonii, wskazują palcami brudnymi od ropy."" +W Brazylii trwa publiczna dyskusja o tym, czy Amazonia może być zaatakowana, co doprowadziłoby do wojny. Granica państwa jest patrolowana i strzeżona przez brazylijską armię. +Flagsztok + +Flagsztok (drążek flagowy) to drzewce na którym zawieszana jest bandera. Pięta flagsztoka umieszczona jest na rufie jachtu. Na topie flagsztoka znajduje się jabłko z otworem, poprzez który przechodzi flaglinka. +Aparat strydulacyjny + +Aparat strydulacyjny, narząd strydulacyjny (łac. "organum stridentium") – narząd głosowy, który służy pajęczakom, skorupiakom, wijom oraz owadom do wytwarzania dźwięków, najczęściej poprzez pocieranie o siebie dwóch powierzchni różnych części ciała z pewną częstotliwością. +Narządy te są zwykle silniej rozwinięte u samców lub występują tylko u nich. Wydawane przez nie dźwięki mają zwabić samice. Dźwięk jest charakterystyczny dla każdego gatunku. +Jelec (broń) + +Jelec - zwany także gardą, element broni białej służący do zabezpieczania ręki użytkownika przed ześlizgiwaniem się palców z rękojeści na ostrze i do blokowania ciosów przeciwnika. Czasem terminem "jelec" lub "jelce" określano także całą rękojeść. Jelec miał różną formę w zależności od broni, na jakiej występował, i od rodzaju szermierki, do jakiej broń była wykorzystywana. +Rodzaje jelca. +Niekiedy jako jelec klasyfikowana jest również japońska tsuba +Twierdzenie Ostrogradskiego-Gaussa + +Twierdzenie Ostrogradskiego-Gaussa umożliwia zamianę całki powierzchniowej na objętościową (potrójną) i na odwrót, w zależności od potrzeb, w której funkcją podcałkową po objętości jest dywergencja pola wektorowego formula_1. +Stosowane jest w elektrodynamice teoretycznej, przede wszystkim w teorii pola, elektronice, telekomunikacji i energetyce. +Teza. +formula_7 +Przy czym całka po lewej stronie jest po zewnętrznej stronie powierzchni formula_3. +Uwagi. +Zaletą wzoru zapisanego w ten sposób jest jego zwięzłość. +Noc żywych trupów (film 1968) + +Noc żywych trupów (ang. "Night of the Living Dead") – amerykański horror filmowy z roku 1968, którego reżyserem był George Romero. Dziś film uznawany jest za jeden z klasyków kina grozy. +Film był przełomem – zarówno dla kina grozy jak i kina w ogóle. Wielu uważa, że film Romera zapoczątkował nowożytną epokę horroru, charakteryzującą się tym, iż tego typu kino zapewnia widzowi nie tylko rozrywkę na mocnym poziomie, ale znaleźć można w nim także elementy krytyki społeczeństwa i polityki. Romero w "Nocy żywych trupów" złamał wszelkie dotychczas znane kanony horroru, m.in. poprzez zakończenie (główny bohater, po uporaniu się z hordami zombie, ginie bez przyczyny z ręki człowieka) oraz postaci – głównym bohaterem filmu jest czarnoskóry mężczyzna (Duane Jones), co dotychczas nie miało miejsca. Jak na realia lat 60. XX w. film był także niezwykle krwawy i brutalny. Mimo wszystkich kontrowersji, niskobudżetowy film Romera spodobał się i do dziś powstają liczne jego kontynuacje i remaki, w planach jest także prequel. Romero był także reżyserem "Świtu-" i "Dnia żywych trupów", "Land of the Dead" oraz "Diary of the Dead". +Ciekawe jest to, że właśnie Romero wprowadził do kultury masowej postać zombie, którą znamy dzisiaj – nieumarły, powstający z grobu, aby pożywić się ludzkim mięsem. Wcześniej zombie utożsamiany był z haitańskim kultem voodoo. W roku 1966, dwa lata przed "Nocą żywych trupów", powstał film "Plaga żywych trupów" – w filmie tym martwi także powstawali z grobów, miało to jednak związek właśnie z voodoo. +Film uzyskał status należącego do domeny publicznej i można legalnie oraz bezpłatnie pobrać go z Internetu. +Opis fabuły. +Barbara i Johnny wybrali się w dość daleką podróż, aby złożyć kwiaty i pomodlić się na grobie ich ciotki. Johnny był bardzo niechętny tej podróży, dał się jednak przekonać. Gdy docierają na miejsce, John próbuje nastraszyć Barbarę, opowiadając jej straszne historie. W pewnym momencie dostrzegają dziwnie idącego człowieka, który powoli zbliża się do nich. Mężczyzna atakuje Barbarę, ale ratuje ją Johnny, który po chwili ginie z rąk napastnika. Barbarze udaje się uciec, chroni się w opuszczonym domu. Niedługo później dom zapełnia się – trafiają do niego m.in. czarnoskóry Ben i małżeństwo Cooper z córką, która została pogryziona przez zombie i młodzieniec Tom ze swoją dziewczyną Judy. Zapada noc, a hordy zombie kierują się w kierunku domu, w którym znajduje się ich pożywienie. Siódemka uwięzionych w domu osób stara się odpędzić trupy za pomocą ognia. Później jednak Ben, Tom i Judy zdecydowali się wyjść na zewnątrz i dostać do samochodu. Planowali oblać zombie benzyną i podpalić, co niestety skończyło się tragiczną śmiercią Toma i Judy w eksplozji ciężarówki. Sytuacja przybrała niekorzystny obrót dla pozostałych bohaterów – hordy zombie zaczęły dobijać się do domu. Tymczasem dochodzi do kłótni Bena z Cooperem, co prowadzi do strzelaniny. Ranny Harry Cooper chowa się w piwnicy, gdzie leży jego córka Sarah. Sarah umiera i po chwili powraca jako zombie. Podczas gdy Ben i Barbara walczą z trupami dobijającymi się do domu, pani Cooper schodzi do piwnicy i zastaje martwego męża z córką u boku jedzącą jego zwłoki. Sarah zabija matkę i wychodzi z piwnicy. +Benowi i Barbarze coraz trudniej jest powstrzymać zombie, po chwili Barbarę porywa jej brat Johnny już jako zombie. Żądne krwi trupy wchodzą do domu, a Ben ucieka do piwnicy gdzie ożywają ciała państwa Cooper które Ben zabija a następnie czuwa przez całą noc. Ranem Ben wychodzi z ukrycia i ginie od strzału w głowę z ręki żywego człowieka, który myślał, że za oknem domu stoi zombie. +Seria "żywych trupów". +Na fali popularności powstało także kilka filmów nie będących oficjalną częścią serii, jak np. włoskie "Miasto żywych trupów" w reżyserii Lucio Fulciego (1980) oraz pastisze, chociażby brytyjski horror komediowy "Wysyp żywych trupów" (2004) albo "Children of the Living Dead" (2001). +Netcat + +netcat – uniwersalne narzędzie skanująco-monitorujące oraz prosty serwer, odpowiednik polecenia cat, uzupełniony o komunikację TCP/IP (stąd net-cat, sieciowy cat). +Jest to jedna komenda nc (brak interfejsu graficznego), co umożliwia używanie programu w skryptach. +Andrzej Łozowski (dziennikarz) + +Andrzej Łozowski (ur. 2 stycznia 1942 w Barszczewie, zm. 18 lutego 2005 w Warszawie) – wieloletni dziennikarz sportowy "Rzeczpospolitej". +Absolwent Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. W 1969 rozpoczął pracę w dziale sportowym "Trybuny Ludu". Lata 1976-1982 spędził w "Sztandarze Młodych", a od 1982 pracował w "Rzeczpospolitej". Przez kilka lat był kierownikiem działu sportowego "Rzeczpospolitej", a potem zastępcą kierownika tego działu. +Tolerancja ekologiczna + +Tolerancja ekologiczna (łac. "tolerantia" - "cierpliwa wytrwałość"; od łac. czasownika "tolerare" - "wytrzymywać", "znosić", "przecierpieć") – zdolność przystosowania organizmów do zmian czynników abiotycznych. Każdy gatunek i organizm wykazuje określony zakres tolerancji względem danego czynnika. +Robbie Williams + +Robbie Williams, właściwie Robert Peter Williams (ur. 13 lutego 1974 w Stoke-on-Trent w środkowej Anglii) – brytyjski wokalista, członek zespołu Take That. +Syn Teresy Janette i Petera Williamsa, dorastał w Stoke-On-Trent. Bardzo szybko ujawniły się jego zdolności sceniczne. W 1991 roku zgłosił się na przesłuchanie do Take That. Była to jedna z najsłynniejszych brytyjskich grup popowych na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych, gdyż aż osiem singli Take That dotarło na szczyt brytyjskiej listy przebojów. Jednak Robbiemu coraz mniej odpowiadały oczekiwania i ograniczenia, które mu narzucano. W czerwcu 1995 roku odszedł z zespołu, a Take That rozpadło się niecały rok później, na początku 1996 r. +Historia. +Pierwszy solowy przebój Robbie'ego był coverem singla George'a Michaela "Freedom". Prawdziwa kariera Williamsa rozpoczęła się jednak dopiero wraz z wydaniem pierwszej płyty "Life Thru a Lens" w 1997 roku. Robbie był współtwórcą wszystkich piosenek, większość napisał do spółki z Guyem Chambersem, który później został naczelnym współautorem i producentem Robbiego. Wokalista wspomina, że z płyty tryskało wprost dziecięce zadziwienie: "Jak to? To ja, sam jestem w stanie coś stworzyć?", chociaż z drugiej strony dodaje: "To naprawdę smutne, że byłem wtedy taki pokręcony". +"Life Thru a Lens" odniosło umiarkowany sukces, który jednak całkiem niespodziewanie nabrał rumieńców po wydaniu singla "Angels" (inne hity z "Life Thru a Lens": "Old Before I Die", "Lazy Days", "South of the Border" i "Let Me Entertain You"). +Kolejna płyta – "I've Been Expecting You" stała się prawie natychmiast wielkim przebojem. Większość materiału została napisana przez Robbie'ego i Guya Chambersa w zabójczym wprost tempie na Jamajce. Płyta ukazała się w październiku 1998 roku (największe przeboje z albumu to: "Millennium", "No Regrets", "Strong" i "She's the One"/"It's Only Us",który znalazł sie w soundtracku do gry FIFA 2000.) W tym samym czasie najlepsze utwory z pierwszego i drugiego albumu zostały wydane na pierwszej amerykańskiej płycie Robbiego – "The Ego Has Landed". +Przy trzeciej płycie Robbie rozpoczął pracę nad utworami nieco bardziej rytmicznymi. Współpracował przy tym ze swoimi dawnymi znajomymi ze Stoke-on-Trent z grupy Sound 5. Część tego materiału pojawiła się w sierpniu 2000 roku na płycie "Sing When You're Winning", jednak ostatecznie na albumie przeważały utwory napisane wyłącznie przez Robbie'ego i Guya Chambersa (największe przeboje: "Rock DJ", "Kids", "Supreme" i "Let Love Be Your Energy". Piąta piosenka – "A Road to Mandalay" ukazała się w lipcu 2001 na podwójnym singlu razem z premierowym utworem "Eternity". Duet z Kylie Minogue "Kids" pojawił się również na płycie tej wokalistki – "Light Years", na którą Robbie i Guy Chambers napisali jeszcze dwie inne piosenki). Podobnie do swoich dwóch poprzedniczek, płyta "Sing When You're Winning" sprzedała się w samej Wielkiej Brytanii w ponad dwóch milionach egzemplarzy. +W 2001 roku, po nagraniu z big bandem standardu "Have You Met Miss Jones?" na ścieżkę dźwiękową do filmu Dziennik Bridget Jones, Robbie postanowił nagrać całą płytę właśnie w takim stylu. W ten sposób powstał album "Swing When You're Winning", na którym znalazły się standardy wykonywane niegdyś przez Franka Sinatrę, Deana Martina, Sammy'ego Davisa juniora i in. Były to piosenki, których Robbie słuchał, które kochał, które pamiętał z dzieciństwa. Wiele z nich zostało nagranych w Capitol Recording Studios w Los Angeles, a więc w miejscu, gdzie nagrywano wersje oryginalne. Płytę otwierała jedyna nowa piosenka, którą napisał tandem Williams-Chambers: "I Will Talk and Hollywood Will Listen". Na "Swing..." znalazły się również duety z takimi gwiazdami jak Nicole Kidman (wielki przebój "Somethin' Stupid"), Jon Lovitz, Jane Harrocks, Rupert Everett, Jonathan Wilkes, a także, dzięki życzliwości rozporządzających schedą po Franku Sinatrze, pojawiło się nagranie "It Was a Very Good Year" z udziałem samego Sinatry. +Robbie postanowił, że 2002 rok będzie rokiem przerwy. Jednak już na początku, podczas trasy po Europie, ukazał się film dokumentalny "Nobody Someday", wydany później na DVD, ukazujący życiowe wzloty i upadki artysty. +Tymczasem album "Escapology" dojrzewał. Płyta została nagrana w Los Angeles, artysta zarządził, aby album nagrać szybko, zaś ewentualne niedociągnięcia miały być atutem płyty i dlatego nie zostały poddane żadnemu wygładzaniu. Po raz kolejny większość piosenek wyszła spod pióra Robbiego i Guya Chambersa. Na płycie znajdują się piosenki, które są owocami samodzielnej pracy Robbiego. Mowa tu o "Come Undone" i "Nan's Song". +"To piosenka o mojej babci, która zmarła pięć lat temu" – wyjaśnia. "Myślę, że to nic niezwykłego, że moja pierwsza samodzielnie napisana piosenka jest poświęcona osobie, którą kocham." +Pikantniejszym szczegółem dotyczącym pracy nad "Escapology" może być fakt, iż wiele partii wokalnych na płycie Robbie nagrywał nago. +"To daje poczucie pewnej bezbronności" – komentuje Williams. +Jak głoszą plotki, jeden z utworów, który jednak nie znalazł się na płycie, Robbie zaśpiewał w stroju Supermana. Chociaż sam akt nagrywania piosenek był dla Robbiego bardzo często irytującym obowiązkiem, zwłaszcza, jak mówi, "w czasach, gdy lubił się napić", to jednak tym razem postanowił całkowicie oddać się temu zadaniu od początku do końca. +"Przed "Swing When You're Winning" wydawało mi się, że moja rola kończy się wraz z nagraniem piosenki, trochę na zasadzie: teraz wy idźcie sobie na trzy miesiące do studia i nie zawracajcie mi głowy – przyznaje. "Jednak album "Swing..." zmienił wszystko. To było naprawdę niezwykłe doświadczenie. Przez większość czasu pracowałem z 60-osobową orkiestrą symfoniczną: śpiewałem w studio do ich akompaniamentu i chociaż wcześniej wydawało mi się to niewykonalne, całkiem nieźle dawałem sobie radę. To była ogromna przyjemność. Żałowałem tylko, że nagrywanie swojego własnego materiału nie daje mi tyle radości. Jednak całkiem niespodziewanie przy "Escapology" bawiłem się równie dobrze co wtedy..." +Przeczenie + +Przeczenie – luźna partykuła występująca również w postaci afiksu, która dodana do wypowiedzi lub wyrazu zaprzecza jego treści (negacja zdaniowa i wyrazowa) lub sama stanowi wypowiedź przeczącą (negacja absolutna np. "nie"). +Fotomontaż + +Fotomontaż – obraz fotograficzny otrzymany przez sfotografowanie kompozycji utworzonej z wykorzystaniem odbitek fotograficznych, ilustracji, wydruków, innych obrazów itp., a także różnych przedmiotów. Stosowany m.in. jako plakat, ilustracja prasowa, itp. a nawet jako samodzielne dzieło sztuki. +Fotomontaże dotyczą zarówno fotografii cyfrowej, jak i tradycyjnej. Obecnie najczęściej, z racji na łatwość obsługi i szeroki wachlarz możliwości programów do obróbki grafiki rastrowej, do przygotowywania fotomontaży wykorzystuje się komputery. +Fotomontaże były wykorzystywane do manipulacji faktami. I tak na przykład, KGB usuwało ze zdjęć archiwalnych (metodami ciemni tradycyjnej) wizerunki osób odsuniętych od władzy, co stwarzało wrażenie że takie osoby nigdy nie brały udziału w życiu politycznym. +Grawitacyjna całka działania + +Równania ogólnej teorii względności są konsekwencją minimum funkcjonału (całka działania) ze względu na metrykę czasoprzestrzeni formula_1. Funkcjonał ten ma postać +S\nu}=\int d^4x e L +gdzie e związane jest z przejściem do krzywoliniowego układu współrzędnych +e=\det[e^a_{\mu}]=(-\det[g_{\mu\nu}])^{\frac{1}{2}}, +L jest funkcją Lagrange'a, składającą się z dwóch części - grawitacyjnej - opisującej geometrię czasoprzestrzeni i funkcji Lagrange'a materii (wszystko co nie jest grawitacją) +L = L_g + L_m . +L_g = -\frac{1}{2\kappa}(R-2\Lambda). +Stałe formula_2 i formula_3 są stałymi teorii. Stałą formula_2 definiuje się tak, by nastąpiła zgodność z teorią grawitacji Newtona. formula_3 jest stałą kosmologiczną. +Wariacja całki działania +względem tensora metrycznego (formula_7) daje równania Einsteina +definiując tensor energii-pędu. +Kolisty Żleb + +Kolisty Żleb – boczna, wschodnia odnoga Doliny Kościeliskiej w polskich Tatrach Zachodnich, mająca wylot na wysokości około 1000 m, naprzeciwko skały Sowa. Orograficznie lewe obramowanie Kolistego Żlebu tworzy Czarny Mur mający swój początek w Czarnym Zworniku (ok. 1530 m), prawe grań, która od Czarnego Zwornika poprzez Organy opada w północno-zachodnim kierunku i kończy się turnią Okręt. +Dolna część Kolistego Żlebu to strome, wąskie i zalesione koryto. Wyżej znajdują się w nim trzy większe progi; pierwszy ma wysokość około 15 m, drugi jest pionowy i ma wysokość około 40 m, trzeci jest również pionowy i ma wysokość około 30 m. Ze względu na te progi najłatwiejsza droga do Kolistego Żlebu prowadzi od południowej strony, przez Czarny Przechód (przełączka w Czarnym Murze). Powyżej trzeciego progu dość wybitna grzęda dzieli żleb na dwie odnogi. Prawa (patrząc od dołu) podchodzi pod Czarny Zwornik, lewa pod Dziurawą Ścianę. Ograniczeniem dla prawej odnogi jest Czarny Mur, na który od strony żlebu można łatwo wejść (największym utrudnieniem jest porastająca go kosodrzewina). Lewa odnoga ograniczona jest północno-zachodnią granią, w której znajduje się Dziurawa Ściana, Biała Turnia, Żółta Baszta i Rękawica. Do żlebu opadają one pionowymi ścianami o wysokości 60–110 m. W najwyższej części tej odnogi, pod Dziurawą Ścianą znajduje się Kolisty Kocioł. +Kolisty Żleb znajduje się na obszarze ochrony ścisłej i jest przez ludzi odwiedzany bardzo rzadko. Jest bardzo stromy, zawalony przewróconymi drzewami i ma dziki wygląd. Większą jego część porasta niemal pierwotny i w wielu miejscach urwiskowy las. Turyści mogą go oglądać tylko z daleka (najlepiej widoczny jest z Polany na Stołach), taternicy zaglądają tutaj bardzo rzadko i do tej pory wytyczyli w jego otoczeniu tylko 3 drogi wspinaczkowe. Najczęściej penetrują jego podziemia grotołazi, gdyż cały masyw od Czarnego Muru aż po Wysranki przebity jest często przez nich eksploatowaną Jaskinią Czarną. +Cały rejon Kolistego Żlebu zbudowany jest ze skał węglanowych. Obserwować w nich można dobrze widoczny fałd. Warstwy skał w grzędzie oddzielającej obydwie górne odnogi żlebu, oraz w Czarnym Murze, są ustawione pionowo i tworzą regularne łuki. +Havok + +Havok Game Dynamics SDK, nazywany potocznie Havok, jest silnikiem fizyki stworzonym dla gier komputerowych i telewizyjnych, by umożliwić interakcję różnych obiektów w czasie rzeczywistym. Biblioteka używa detekcji kolizji, by animacja i świat przedstawiony na ekranie monitora czy telewizora były bardziej podobne do rzeczywistości. +Havok jest dostępny na różne platformy sprzętowe, między innymi na Xbox, Nintendo GameCube, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3 oraz PC. Pierwsza wersja Havoka została zaprezentowana na "Game Developers Conference" w 2000 roku. Wersja druga zaś w 2003. +Silnik ten został użyty w ponad 150 grach komputerowych i wideo. Havok został również wykorzystany przy produkcji filmów z serii Matrix. Można go też znaleźć m.in. w programie 3D Studio Max, gdzie występuje jako system symulacji fizyki o nazwie reactor. +Miguel de Icaza + +Miguel de Icaza (ur. 1972 w mieście Meksyk) - programista meksykański, aktywny działacz na rzecz rozwoju projektów free software i open source, twórca m.in. projektu GNOME i Mono. +Biografia. +Wczesne lata. +Miguel de Icaza urodził się w mieście Meksyk i studiował na Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México (UNAM), ale nigdy nie ukończył tam studiów. Pochodził z rodziny naukowców: ojciec był fizykiem, a matka biologiem. Zaczął programować w 1992. +Początki kariery programistycznej. +Jednym z jego pierwszych projektów programistycznych na Linuksa był Midnight Commander, działający w trybie tekstowym menedżer plików. Był też jednym z pierwszych współtwórców Wine. +Pracował również z Davidem Millerem nad portem Linuksa na procesory SPARC i napisał kilka sterowników grafiki i sieci oraz port libc na tę platformę. Później pracowali nad rozszerzeniem Linuksa dla MIPS w celu uruchomienia na komputerach Indy firmy SGI i napisali sterowniki X Window System dla tego systemu. Z Ingo Molnarem napisał pierwszą implementację sterowników RAID-1 i RAID-5 dla Linuksa. +W 1997 roku został zaproszony na rozmowę kwalifikacyjną do zespołu pracującego nad wersję Internet Explorer dla UNIX (port na SPARC), jednakże nie został przyjęty do pracy z powodu nieukończenia nauki na poziomie szkoły średniej i w związku z tym nie otrzymaniu wizy H1-B. Podczas rozmowy kwalifikacyjnej próbował przekonać prowadzących rozmowę kwalifikacyjną do uwolnienia kodu źródłowego IE zanim to zrobi Netscape ze swoją przeglądarką internetową. +GNOME, Ximian, Xamarin, i Mono. +De Icaza założył projekt GNOME wraz z Federico Mena w sierpniu 1997, aby utworzyć w pełni wolne i otwarte środowisko graficzne dla Linuksa i innych systemów uniksopodobnych. Wcześniej utworzył Midnight Commander, menedżer plików pracujący w trybie tekstowym. Utworzył też Gnumeric, arkusz kalkulacyjny. +W 1999 roku założył z Natem Friedmanem firmę Helix Code, firmę skupiającą dużą liczbę programistów GNOME. Helix Code zmieniła w 2001 roku nazwę na Ximian, ogłosił powstanie projektu Mono mającego na celu implementację .NET Framework na Linuksa i systemy uniksopodobne. W 2003 roku Ximian zostało przejęte przez Novell, gdzie Miguel de Icaza został wiceprezesem działu programistycznego. +W maju 2011 założył Xamarin, aby zastąpić MonoTouch i Mono for Android po tym, kiedy Novell zostało przejęte przez Attachmate, a nowy właściciel Novell, Inc. porzucił MonoTouch i Mono for Android. Jednakże niedługo Xamarin i Novell podpisały nową umowę, która zezwoliła na przejęcie tych dwóch projektów przez Xamarin wraz z prawami do rozwoju i sprzedaży. +Wspieranie technologii Microsoftu. +De Icaza poparł standard dokumentów Microsoft Office Open XML (OOXML) pomimo rozpowszechnionej w świecie Open Source i społeczności FLOSS krytyki. +Był również przez długi czas największym zwolennikiem używania Mono - wolnej i otwartej implementacji .NET Framework w GNOME, co wywołało wiele sporów związanych z należącymi do Microsoft patentami i patentami związanymi z .NET. +Nagrody i wyróżnienia. +W 1999 roku otrzymał od Free Software Foundation FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software, nagrodę Innowatora Roku 1999 przyznaną przez [magazyn wydawany przez Massachusetts Institute of Technology "Technology Review" oraz został uznany we wrześniu 2000 przez "Time" jednym ze stu największych innowatorów nadchodzącego stulecia. +Na początku roku 2010 otrzymał tytuł Microsoft MVP. +W marcu 2010 roku został uznany za jeden z pięciu „najważniejszych głosów społeczności Open Source”. +Życie prywatne. +Miguel de Icaza wystąpił w filmie "The Code" z 2001 roku oraz "Konspiracja.com" (2001). +Ożenił się w 2003 roku z Brazylijką Marią Laurą Soares da Silva (obecnie Maria Laura de Icaza). +De Icaza negatywnie postrzega operacje wojsk Izraela przeciwko Palestynyńczykom na Bliskim Wschodzie i podobnie jak Noam Chomsky, nazwał Izrael na swoim blogu „państwem terrorystycznym”. +Georg Christoph Lichtenberg + +Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (ur. 1 lipca 1742 w Ober-Ramstadt koło Darmstadt, zm. 24 lutego 1799 w Getyndze) – niemiecki satyryk, aforysta, krytyk sztuki i znany anglofil. +Przedstawiciel oświecenia. Od 1770 był profesorem matematyki i nauk przyrodniczych na uniwersytecie w Getyndze. Twórca niemieckiej fizyki eksperymentalnej i jeden z najwybitniejszych przedstawicieli niemieckiej aforystyki. Ukazał się m.in. zbiór "Bemerkungen vermischten Inhalts" (1800-1806). W Polsce wydano wybór "Aforyzmy" (1970) oraz "Pochwała wątpienia" (2005). +Jego nauczycielem w Getyndze był Samuel Christian Hollmann +Republika Raguzy + +Republika Raguzy (czasami Republika Dubrownicka) – wolna republika kupiecka istniejąca w latach 1204-1809, o ustroju arystokratycznym, pod zwierzchnością kolejno: Wenecji (do 1358), Węgier i Turcji. Rozciągała się od Kleku na północnym zachodzie do Zatoki Kotorskiej na południu, ze stolicą w Raguzie (w 1909 r. nazwa miasta została zmieniona na Dubrownik). +Utrzymywała swoją niepodległość głównie dzięki zręcznej dyplomacji, polegającej na sprytnym lawirowaniu między Turcją a Wenecją. +Podstawą bytu republiki było przede wszystkim pośrednictwo w handlu między Wschodem a Zachodem. Miała flotę z 300 okrętami i własny system monetarny. Okresami, zwłaszcza po dużych stratach floty weneckiej w XVI w., jej flota była największą na Adriatyku i jedną z większych na Morzu Śródziemnym. Poza milicją miejską, strzegącą potężnych fortyfikacji miasta Raguzy, Republika nie posiadała armii. +Jej przedstawicielstwa dyplomatyczne oraz kupieckie faktorie rozrzucone były na Bałkanach i na wybrzeżu Adriatyku. Przez Raguzę wędrowały towary z Azji Mniejszej do Włoch i odwrotnie, przede wszystkim złoto i srebro, skóry i wełna, miedź i wosk, jedwab i sukno, przyprawy korzenne i broń. Rosnąca siła gospodarcza powodowała rozwój kulturalny miasta, którego największy rozkwit przypadł na XV-XVI w. Wówczas właśnie Raguza zyskała chlubne miano słowiańskich Aten. +W Republice panował demokratyczny, jak na owe czasy, system rządów. Władza należała do 29 rodów szlacheckich oraz wybieranego na rok lub miesiąc księcia-rektora. Rolę parlamentu pełniły "Wielka Rada" i "Mała Rada", zaś "Rada Uproszonych" stanowiła odpowiednik dzisiejszego senatu. +Patronem Republiki był św. Błażej, symbolem – biała flaga. Zawołaniem i hasłem było "„libertas”" (wolność). +Republika straciła na znaczeniu po odkryciu Ameryki i związanej z tym zmianie szlaków handlowych. Prawdopodobnie w wyprawie Kolumba brało udział co najmniej dwóch mieszkańców Raguzy. Paradoksalnie, niekorzystne dla niej okazało się również osłabienie potęgi tureckiej. +Tragedii dopełniły również klęski żywiołowe, epidemie i zarazy, także zdarzające się coraz regularniej trzęsienia ziemi, w tym najtragiczniejsze w 1667 Odtąd republika chyliła się ku upadkowi. +W 1806 do zagrożonej przez wojska rosyjskie Raguzy wkroczyły wojska Napoleona. W 1808 Francuzi zadecydowali o likwidacji republiki, a w kolejnym roku Dubrownik wcielono do Prowincji Iliryjskich. +Sequel + +Sequel (; ang. "kontynuacja", "dalszy ciąg", "następstwo") – kontynuacja jakiegoś dzieła, najczęściej filmu, książki lub gry komputerowej, przedstawiająca dalsze losy poznanych bohaterów lub kontynuująca wątek ukazany w poprzednim filmie. +Sequele przeważnie realizowane są w celach komercyjnych, powstając na fali popularności, albo są z góry zaplanowaną częścią serii. +Obecnie ta pierwsza forma sequela jest realizowana w Hollywood coraz częściej, choć nie cieszy się powszechnym szacunkiem, ani wśród widzów, ani - tym bardziej - wśród krytyki. +Sequele bywają też tworzone przez innych autorów niż dzieło pierwotne, już to w celach komercyjnych, niekiedy w wiele lat po śmierci autora dzieła pierwotnego (jak np. Scarlett - następne pokolenia - sequel powieści Margaret Mitchell "Przeminęło z wiatrem" czy W ręku Boga - sequel "Trylogii" Henryka Sienkiewicza), już to jako fanfikty. +Podobne urozmaicenie jest z bohaterami lub tematem serialu: +Przeciwieństwem sequela jest prequel, opisujący losy bohaterów, które wydarzyły się przed akcją pierwowzoru - np. "", lub przedstawiający genezę wątku głównego, ukazanego w poprzednim filmie. +Kazimierz Kutz + +Kazimierz Julian Kutz (ur. 16 lutego 1929 w Szopienicach) – polski reżyser filmowy, teatralny i telewizyjny, scenarzysta filmowy, członek założyciel Stowarzyszenia Filmowców Polskich (1966), senator IV, V, VI i VIII kadencji, poseł na Sejm VI kadencji. +Wyreżyserował ponad dwadzieścia filmów fabularnych, z czego sześć o Górnym Śląsku. Zrealizował m.in. filmową trylogię śląską "Sól ziemi czarnej" (1970), "Perła w koronie" (1972), "Paciorki jednego różańca" (1979), za który otrzymał Grand Prix Festiwalu Polskich Filmów Fabularnych w 1980 na 7. FPFF. Drugi raz Grand Prix dostał w 1994 na 19. FPFF za film "Zawrócony". Kazimierz Kutz zrealizował także wiele przedstawień dla Teatru Telewizji. +Życiorys. +Rodzina i wykształcenie. +Kazimierz Kutz jest synem Franciszka Kuca, kolejarza i powstańca śląskiego, oraz Anastazji z domu Kamińskiej. Ukończył I LO im. Tadeusza Kościuszki w Mysłowicach. Angażował się w działalność organizacji młodzieżowych, takich jak Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego i OM TUR. W 1953 ukończył studia na wydziale reżyserii PWSF w Łodzi. W czasie studiów był członkiem zarządu uczelnianej organizacji Związku Młodzieży Polskiej. Kazimierz Kutz powrócił do rodowego nazwiska Kutz, które rodzina nosiła w XIX wieku. +Trzykrotnie żonaty, obecnie z Iwoną Świętochowską-Kutz (aktorką, grała w 1983 w filmie Kazimierza Kutza "Na straży swej stać będę"), ma czwórkę dzieci (synów Gabriela i Tymoteusza, córki Wiktorię i Kamilę). +Działalność zawodowa i publiczna w PRL. +Pracę reżyserską rozpoczął w 1955 jako asystent Andrzeja Wajdy przy realizacji "Pokolenia". Samodzielnym debiutem reżyserskim był w 1959 film "Krzyż walecznych". Następnym filmem był źle przyjęty przez ówczesną krytykę "Nikt nie woła". Wśród kolejnych zrealizowanych obrazów są "Ludzie z pociągu" wg opowiadania Mariana Brandysa, parareporterski "Ktokolwiek wie..." oraz komedia "Upał" z Kabaretem Starszych Panów. +W 1968 Kazimierz Kutz opublikował w czasopiśmie "Ekran" (nr z 9 czerwca) tekst krytykujący tryb realizacji filmów, a w szczególności rolę kierowników literackich. W tym czasie trwała nagonka na inteligencję, piętnowaną wówczas przez "moczarowców" i Władysława Gomułkę i opinia reżysera została – zdaniem Tadeusza Konwickiego i Jerzego Markuszewskiego – wykorzystana do poparcia tych ataków. Kazimierz Kutz krytykował też komedie Stanisława Barei, na określenie których stworzył sformułowanie "bareizm", będące w jego intencji synonimem filmów bez artystycznych ambicji. +W 1969 Kazimierz Kutz zrealizował wg własnego scenariusza "Sól ziemi czarnej", pierwszy film z tzw. tryptyku śląskiego, a w 1971 następny, "Perłę w koronie". Od 1971 do 1976 kierował Zespołem Filmowym "Silesia", którego był założycielem. W latach 70. uczestniczył w naradach Komitetu Centralnego PZPR na temat kultury. Od 1976 zajmował stanowisko głównego reżysera w ośrodku TVP Katowice. Po nakręceniu filmu "Linia" (1974) otrzymał Krzyż Komandorski Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. W 1979 odbyła się premiera ostatniej części tryptyku śląskiego, "Paciorków jednego różańca". +Od połowy lat 70. był inwigilowany przez funkcjonariuszy SB w ramach operacji o kryptonimie "Reżyser". W wyniku inwigilacji zanotowano, iż utrzymywał kontakty z osobami aktywnie działającymi w KSS KOR i nawiązywał kontakty z regionalnymi strukturami "Solidarności". Był współorganizatorem I Kongresu Kultury Polskiej w Warszawie. W czasie stanu wojennego został internowany w okresie od 14 do 21 grudnia 1981, następnie zwolniony na skutek interwencji biskupa Herberta Bednorza. Jako powód internowania podano "utrzymywanie kontaktów z działaczami antysocjalistycznymi", a także "negatywny stosunek do władz partyjnych i rzeczywistości społeczno-politycznej w kraju", co zdaniem ówczesnych władz stwarzało zagrożenie dla bezpieczeństwa PRL. Wkrótce w proteście przeciwko wydarzeniom w kopalni "Wujek" zrezygnował ze stanowiska głównego reżysera Ośrodka TV Katowice. +Działalność zawodowa i publiczna w III RP. +Po zmianie ustroju w latach 1989–1991 zajmował stanowisko dyrektora ośrodka TV Kraków. W 1994 odbyła się premiera filmu "Śmierć jak kromka chleba", traktującego o pacyfikacji KWK "Wujek" w grudniu 1981. W tym samym roku zrealizował telewizyjny film "Zawrócony", a w 1995 "Pułkownika Kwiatkowskiego". +Działalność polityczną rozpoczął w 1997, startując z powodzeniem w wyborach do Senatu IV kadencji jako kandydat bezpartyjny z listy Unii Wolności w województwie katowickim. W parlamencie pracował w Komisji Emigracji i Polaków za Granicą i Komisji Nauki i Edukacji. Od października 2001 do października 2005 pełnił funkcję wicemarszałka Senatu V kadencji, którą łączył z zasiadaniem w Komisji Kultury i Środków Przekazu. Był członkiem komitetu wyborczego Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza w wyborach prezydenckich w 2005. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w tym samym roku po raz trzeci został senatorem. Startował z ramienia własnego komitetu wyborczego KWW Kazimierza Kutza, otrzymując 111 907 głosów w okręgu katowickim. W wyborach w 2007 kandydował do Sejmu z listy Platformy Obywatelskiej w tym samym okręgu, otrzymując 113 280 głosów. W październiku 2010 opuścił klub parlamentarny PO w geście solidarności z Januszem Palikotem, wspierając tworzone przez niego ugrupowanie. +W wyborach w 2011 ponownie ubiegał się o mandat senatora jako niezależny w okręgu wyborczym nr 80. Został wybrany na VIII kadencję Senatu, otrzymując 81 662 głosy. 27 października 2011 prezydent Bronisław Komorowski powierzył mu wykonywanie obowiązków Marszałka Seniora Senatu VIII kadencji podczas pierwszego posiedzenia 8 listopada 2011. W Senacie został przewodniczącym Koła Senatorów Niezależnych. +Przewodniczy Społecznemu Komitetowi Budowy Muzeum Śląskiego, jest też patronem Festiwalu Sztuki Reżyserskiej "Interpretacje", Festiwalu Filmów Kultowych oraz Kongresu Kultury na Górnym Śląsku. Należy do Stowarzyszenia Filmowców Polskich oraz ZAIKS. Należał do założycieli Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Śląska w Warszawie. Związany z Górnym Śląskiem, od wielu lat mieszka na mazowieckiej wsi. Zwyciężył w plebiscycie "Gazety Wyborczej" na najwybitniejszego żyjącego Ślązaka. Okresowo publikuje w tym dzienniku. W 2012 przystąpił do think tanku Ruchu Palikota. +Twórczość. +Twórczość literacka. +Jest autorem książki "Klapsy i ścinki. Mój alfabet filmowy i nie tylko" ("Znak", Warszawa 1999, ISBN 83-7006-849-9). Nakreślił w niej portrety przyjaciół i bliskich ze świata filmowego, literackiego i artystycznego, m.in. Krzysztofa Zanussiego, Wojciecha Kilara, Kaliny Jędrusik, Zbigniewa Cybulskiego, Andrzeja Wajdy, Tadeusza Konwickiego, Stanisława Dygata, Tadeusza Łomnickiego i Tadeusza Różewicza. Silnie zarysował w niej elementy autobiograficzne poświęcone matce, ojcu i nieżyjącemu bratu, a także elementy humorystyczne w postaci licznych anegdot ukazujących groteskowość czasów PRL. +W 2010 Kazimierz Kutz zadebiutował jako powieściopisarz książką "Piąta strona świata", wydaną nakładem wydawnictwa "Znak". +Jacobus Kapteyn + +Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn (ur. 19 stycznia 1851 r. w Barneveld, zm. 18 czerwca 1922 r. w Amsterdamie) był holenderskim astronomem, najbardziej znanym z dogłębnych badań Drogi Mlecznej, które doprowadziły do odkrycia jej ruchu obrotowego. +Od roku 1868 Kapteyn studiował matematykę i fizykę na uniwersytecie w Utrechcie. Po ukończeniu w 1875 r. pracy dyplomowej na temat drgań membrany przez trzy lata pracował w obserwatorium w Lejdzie, nim został pierwszym profesorem astronomii i mechaniki teoretycznej na Uniwersytecie w Groningen, gdzie pozostawał do przejścia na emeryturę w 1921 r. +W latach 1896-1900 z powodu braku dostępu do obserwatorium Kapteyn zgłosił się do analizy zdjęć wykonanych przez Davida Gilla, który w Królewskim Obserwatorium na Przylądku Dobrej Nadziei (RPA) prowadził fotograficzny przegląd gwiazd nieba południowego. Rezultatem tej współpracy było opublikowanie trzytomowego "Cape Photographic Durchmusterung" (Fotograficzny przegląd nieba z Przylądka), spisu pozycji i jasności 454 875 gwiazd. Dodatkowo w 1897 r. Kapteyn odkrył nazwaną jego nazwiskiem gwiazdę, mającą największą ze znanych wówczas prędkość ruchu własnego. Obecnie jest ona na drugim miejscu, zaraz za Gwiazdą Barnarda. +W 1902 r. otrzymał Złoty Medal Królewskiego Towarzystwa Astronomicznego. +W 1904 r., badając ruchy własne gwiazd, Kapteyn zauważył, że nie są one przypadkowe, jak wówczas sądzono. Spostrzegł, że wszystkie gwiazdy można podzielić na dwie grupy, poruszające się w niemal przeciwnych kierunkach. Zebrane przez niego dane okazały się pierwszym świadectwem rotacji Galaktyki i pozwoliły na późniejsze udowodnienie przez Bertila Lindblada i Jana Oorta ruchu obrotowego wszystkich galaktyk. +W 1906 r. Kapteyn zainicjował zakrojony na szeroką skalę program badań rozmieszczenia gwiazd w Galaktyce. Plan zakładał pomiar jasności, typu widmowego, prędkości radialnej, ruchów własnych i paralaks gwiazd w 206 polach, równomiernie rozmieszczonych na sferze niebieskiej (tzw. polach kapteynowskich) oraz 46 fragmentach nieba w pobliżu płaszczyzny Galaktyki. Ten nietypowy, jak na tamte czasy, projekt zaangażował ponad 40 obserwatoriów w różnych krajach i był pierwszą analizą statystyczną w astronomii. Opublikowane w 1920 (artykuł w "Astrophysical Journal") i 1922 ("Pierwsza próba teorii położenia i ruchu systemu gwiezdnego") roku wyniki prac pozwoliły na stworzenie modelu soczewkowatego wszechświata (na początku XX stulecia nie wiedziano, czym w istocie jest Galaktyka) o średnicy 40 tys. lat świetlnych, którego gęstość maleje z dala od centrum. Słońce ulokowano 2000 lat świetlnych od środka. Teoria częściowo sprawdzała się, lecz zafałszowywała rzeczywiste rozmiary Drogi Mlecznej i położenie w niej Słońca. +W środowisku astronomów Kapteyn zajmował bardzo wysoką pozycję. Był członkiem Francuskiej Akademii Nauk, brytyjskiego Royal Society oraz jednym z założycieli Międzynarodowej Unii Astronomicznej. Odszedł na emeryturę w wieku 70 lat, jednak powrócił do Leiden na prośbę swego byłego studenta i dyrektora tamtejszego obserwatorium Willema de Sittera, by asystować w prowadzonej właśnie modernizacji sprzętu. Na jego cześć nazwano laboratorium astronomiczne na Uniwersytecie w Groningen, a także metrowy teleskop zamontowany na początku lat osiemdziesiątych XX wieku w obserwatorium na Wyspach Kanaryjskich. +Samuel Pepys + +Samuel Pepys (ur. 23 lutego 1633, zm. 26 maja 1703) – angielski urzędnik państwowy, pamiętnikarz. Wsławił się pamiętnikami pisanymi w latach 1660-1669. +Życiorys. +Pepys urodził się w Londynie, jako syn Jana (ur. 1601, zm. w 1680 r.); z zawodu krawca i Małgorzaty (z domu Kite – zm. w 1667 r.); według jednych źródeł praczki, według innych była służącą – słabo umiejącą czytać i pisać. Najstarszy z czwórki żyjącego rodzeństwa (Pepysowie mieli w sumie jedenaścioro dzieci), pozostali to: Tomasz (ur. 1635, zm. 1664), Paulina (ur. 1640, po mężu Jackson, jej syn John Jackson był jedynym spadkobiercą Samuela), Jan (ur. 1641). Uczył się w przykatedralnej szkole św. Pawła w południowo-zachodnim Londynie, a potem w Kolegium św. Magdaleny Uniwersytetu Cambridge. +Pepysowie byli starym rodem drobnoszlacheckim zamieszkującym okolice Cambridge. Linia Samuela wywodziła się z Brampton, wsi leżącej na północny zachód od Londynu (obecnie Cambridgeshire). Bliskimi ich sąsiadami była rodzina Cromwellów, którzy tamtejsze dobra ziemskie odsprzedali sir Sydneyowi Montagu, ojcu Edwarda Montagu; wujowi Samuela drugiego stopnia. Był on protektorem Pepysa. Nadto wpływ na jego karierę miała rewolucja cromwellowska, która oparła się na niższych warstwach społecznych i wyniosła je – Samuel, jak sam przyznaje, w młodości był zapaloną "okrągłą głową", a więc radykalnym zwolennikiem republikanizmu. A nade wszystko o karierze Pepysa zadecydowały jego wrodzone talenty. +W 1655 Pepys ożenił się z Elizabeth Marchant de St Michel, córką Aleksandra, emigranta – hugenoty z Francji. Zaczął wtedy też służbę u swego protektora Edwarda Montagu. W przededniu przewrotu rojalistycznego był jego sekretarzem. W 1660 został sekretarzem Urzędu Marynarki (Clerk of the Acts to the Navy Board), co zapoczątkowało jego karierę. Samuel Pepys był też szefem kancelarii Tajnej Rady Królewskiej. +1 stycznia 1660 zaczął pisać swój „Dziennik”. Zgodnie z planem, codziennie zapisywał wszystko to, co przykuło jego uwagę, a gdy nie udawało mu się to, szybko nadrabiał zaległości następnego dnia. Opisywał wydarzenia, takie jak powrót Karola II, plotki dotyczące rodziny królewskiej, jak i własną karierę, i nadzieje związane z przyszłością, relacje z członkami rodziny, znajomymi, służbą. Dzięki „Dziennikowi” mamy możność poznania życia Samuela Pepysa, jego intymnych przeżyć dzień po dniu. +31 maja 1669 przestał pisać „Dziennik”. Powodem była, jak nas poinformował, obawa o pogarszający się wzrok. W czerwcu, za zgodą króla wyjechali z żoną w od lat planowaną podróż do Francji. Trwała ona do października. 10 listopada tego samego roku, jego żona Elżbieta zmarła na tyfus. Samuel do końca życia formalnie pozostał wdowcem. Oboje spoczęli w kościele St. Olave's na Hart Street w Londynie. Jedna z uliczek blisko jego kościoła parafialnego nazwana jest jego imieniem (Pepys Street). +„Dziennik” Samuela Pepysa jest utworem wielowątkowym. Wynika to tyleż z istoty tej formy literackiej, co bogatej osobowości piszącego. Jest też niezwykłą pełną paradoksów autokreacją. Jednymi z najbardziej znaczących wątków dzieła są: zagmatwane i przedstawione na wskroś współcześnie życie intymne pisarza, pełne plastyki; sprzeczności, dramaturgii, pasji i pożądania, i poczucia winy... Opis relacji z żoną i sporym gronem kochanek, posunięty chwilami wręcz do masochizmu, to antycypacja powieści modernistycznej. Równie interesującą, rozpisaną na całość dzieła, jest realizacja mitu pucybuta. W momencie rozpoczęcia dziennika poznajemy Samuela, jako biednego i podrzędnego urzędnika. Utwór kończy się, kiedy bohatera stać na własny powóz, na codzienne wizyty w teatrze i organizowanie dużych przyjęć dla przyjaciół. Inne znaczące wątki utworu to opis sławnego wielkiego pożaru Londynu z 1666 roku, czy opis wielkiej zarazy z 1665 r. /zob. też Dziennik roku zarazy, autor Daniel Defoe/. Na marginesie tych dwóch wątków godną uwagi jest postać i postawa piszącego. Sam o sobie często na kartach dziennika pisze, że jest „słabego ducha”, bojaźliwy, nadwrażliwy itp.; np. kiedy jest świadkiem brutalnego i bezwzględnego poboru marynarzy (inna sprawa, że odbywało się to w oparciu o instrukcję, którą sam przygotował) pisze, że prawie płakał nad losem tych biedaków. I oto ten „słabeusz”, jako zresztą jeden z nielicznych jest obecny w Londynie od pierwszego do ostatniego dnia tych kataklizmów. Cały dwór, wszyscy najwyżsi urzędnicy państwowi już na samym początku w panice pouciekali, a on, modląc się do swojego Boga z przygotowanym testamentem dzień w dzień pokonuje drogę przez pełne śmierci ulice Londynu. +Był także człowiekiem, którego charakteryzowała niesłychana ciekawość świata. Miał bardzo szerokie spektrum zainteresowań, między innymi interesował się muzyką, teatrem, książkami. Poliglota władający pięcioma językami. Bogato opisywał w nich m.in. życie kulinarno-gastronomiczne Londynu. Współczesny mu John Evelyn scharakteryzował go jako wszechstronnie wykształconego. W 1665 został członkiem Towarzystwa Królewskiego, a później nawet jego prezesem. +W 1685 r., po ustąpieniu z tronu Jakuba II Stuarta odszedł z życia publicznego, jego miejsce w Urzędzie Marynarki zajął William Herwer, najbliższy przyjaciel domu, u którego Samuel mieszkał w ostatnich latach swojego życia. +Za życia Pepysa w 1690 r. ukazała się jego historia marynarki, pt. Memories of the Navy. +Samuel Pepys zapisał cały swój księgozbiór, a był namiętnym bibliofilem, w testamencie na rzecz Magdalen College. Miał on stanowić odrębną całość i zostać nazwany, zgodnie z wolą testatora: Bibliotheca Pepysiana. Księgozbiór – 3 tysiące tomów: książek drukowanych, rękopisów, rycin, trafił na miejsce swojego przeznaczenia w 1724. Chyba najważniejszą pozycją w tej bibliotece był oryginalny rękopis „Dzienników” Samuela Pepysa. +Samuel Pepys pisał swój dziennik używając, jednego z wielu popularnych w tamtych czasach stenogramu. Był to rodzaj szyfru, który umożliwiał skrótowe zapisywanie. Autorem tego „szyfru” był Thomas Shelton, po raz pierwszy opublikował go w 1626 (Short Writing), potem ulepszył swój system i nazwał go „Tachygraphy” – wydawcą został Uniwersytet Cambridge. Wśród młodych ludzi zapanowała swoista moda na używanie tego systemu, przede wszystkim do zapisywania treści kazań. Samuel Pepys najprawdopodobniej nauczył się go podczas swoich studiów w Cambridge, gdyż podczas spisywania pamiętników był już bardzo wprawiony w używaniu szyfru Sheltona. +Po śmierci Pepysa myślano jednak, że „Dzienniki” zostały napisane jakimś nieznanym szyfrem, wymyślonym przez samego autora. +John Smith, nieświadomy, że w bibliotece Pepysa znajduje się klucz do szyfru, jakim zostały zapisane „Dzienniki”, podjął trud zdekodowania zapisków. Udało mu się to w latach 1819–1822. Dziennik po raz pierwszy został wydany w 1825, ale w skróconej formie. Skróty wydawane były też między innymi w 1828, 1848–1849 i 1854. Cały tekst (ponad 3800 stron) został wydany dopiero w 1893 przez Henry B. Wheatleya. Najbardziej nam współczesne pełne wydanie to londyńskie, jedenastotomowe wydanie R. Lathama, R. Matthewsa z lat 1970-1983. Nie jest ono jednak dostępne w języku polskim. +W Polsce „Dziennik” ukazał się w wyborze w dwóch tomach (prawie 1000 stron tekstu) w tłumaczeniu Marii Dąbrowskiej, nakładem wydawnictwa PIW w 1952 r.; II wydanie w1954 r.; III wydanie w 1966 r. ostatnie IV wydanie, pochodzi z 1978 r. +Model Lambda-CDM + +Model Lambda-CDM (Λ-CDM, ang. "Lambda-cold dark matter") – jeden z najpowszechniej uznawanych modeli kosmologicznych. Jego nazwa pochodzi od dwóch głównych składników wszechświata: stałej kosmologicznej (oznaczanej przez Λ) i zimnej ciemnej materii. Model ten wyjaśnia mikrofalowe promieniowanie tła (CMB), obserwowaną strukturę wielkoskalową oraz przyspieszanie ekspansji wszechświata. +Λ (lambda) jest stała kosmologiczną, czyli ciemną energią, odpowiedzialną za obecnie obserwowane coraz szybsze rozszerzanie się wszechświata. W ramach modelu Λ-CDM uważa się, że stanowi ona obecnie około 70% gęstości energii we wszechświecie. +Zimna ciemna materia jest to nierelatywistyczna ("powolna") ciemna materia, która jest niebarionowa i oddziałuje z materią barionową wyłącznie grawitacyjnie. Składnik ten stanowi ok. 26% gęstości energii obecnego wszechświata. +Pozostałe 4% przypada na atomy, które stanowią budulec planet, gwiazd i materii międzygwiazdowej, a także fotony (głównie w postaci CMB). +Damon Hill + +Damon Graham Devereux Hill OBE (ur. 17 września 1960 w Londynie) – były brytyjski kierowca wyścigowy, Mistrz Świata Formuły 1 w sezonie 1996. +Jest synem dwukrotnego Mistrza Świata Formuły 1, Grahama Hilla. Dwukrotnie stawał się Sportową Osobistością Roku BBC, w roku 1994 i 1996. Tylko troje ludzi zostało nagrodzonych dwukrotnie tym prestiżowym wyróżnieniem. +Damon jest żonaty z Susan (Susan George, znana jako Georgie), z którą ma czwórkę dzieci: Olivera, Joshuę, Tabithę i Rosie. Oliver urodził się z upośledzeniem umysłowym zwanym zespołem Downa. Damon i Susan są aktywnymi uczestnikami akcji charytatywnych. Obecnie zajmuje się biznesem i prowadzeniem kariery sportowej syna Joshuy. +Kariera. +Wczesna. +Jego kariera rozpoczęła się w wyścigach motocyklowych. W wyścigach jednomiejscowych pojazdów zadebiutował dopiero w 1984 roku. Rywalizował w Formule 3 i Formule 3000, czasami pokazując swoją szybkość. +Formuła 1. +W sezonie 1992 dzięki zespołowi Brabham rozpoczął starty w Formule 1, zdołał się zakwalifikować do dwóch wyścigów w środku sezonu. Był także kierowcą testowym stajni Williams-Renault, który w tym okresie rozpoczynał swoją dominację w sporcie. +Gdy mistrz świata, Nigel Mansell odszedł z zespołu do serii IndyCar, Hill został partnerem Alaina Prosta w Williamsie. W swoim pierwszym pełnym sezonie w F1, Damon zdołał wygrać trzy wyścigi i ukończył sezon na 3 miejscu, za swoim doświadczonym partnerem zespołu, który po zdobyciu 4 mistrzostwa świata definitywnie zakończył karierę, oraz młodym niemieckim kierowcą Benettona, Michaelem Schumacherem. +W sezonie 1994 był partnerem Ayrtona Senny, a po jego tragicznej śmierci został głównym kierowcą stajni. Odniósł 6 zwycięstw i do samego końca sezonu walczył o tytuł mistrza świata. Ostatecznie jednak nie zdołał go zdobyć, po tym jak w ostatnim wyścigu zderzył się z Michaelem Schumacherem. Było to bardzo kontrowersyjne wydarzenie, ponieważ to Niemiec (swym wcześniej uszkodzonym bolidem) najechał na szybszego Hilla, w wyniku czego obaj musieli wycofać się z wyścigu, a kierowca Benettona jednym punktem zdobył swój pierwszy mistrzowski tytuł. +W 1995 Schumacher zdobył kolejny tytuł. Tym razem obyło się bez większych kontrowersji, a Hill dzięki 4 wygranym wyścigom ponownie został wicemistrzem świata, aczkolwiek jego strata do Niemca była stosunkowo duża. Od sezonu 1996 samochód Williamsa znów był najszybszym w stawce i Hill zdobył tytuł wyprzedzając swojego partnera z zespołu, kanadyjskiego debiutanta Jacques'a Villeneuve'a. Został pierwszym synem Mistrza Świata, który sam zdobył tytuł mistrzowski. Po sezonie zakończył się jego kontrakt z Williamsem i Damon opuścił zespół. +Ponieważ miejsca we wszystkich czołowych teamach były już zakontraktowane, w sezonie 1997 Hill jeździł dla zespołu Arrows. Co ciekawe, był bliski wygrania wyścigu w bardzo słabym samochodzie (Grand Prix Węgier w 1997), ostatecznie wskutek awarii bolidu ukończył wyścig na drugim miejscu. Przez dwa kolejne sezony jeździł dla zespołu Jordan. W tym czasie zdobył dla irlandzkiego teamu pierwsze podwójne zwycięstwo (pamiętne Grand Prix Belgii w 1998). Po sezonie 1999 Damon Hill zakończył karierę. +Tichon Chriennikow + +Tichon Nikołajewicz Chriennikow, Тихон Николаевич Хренников (ur. 10 czerwca 1913, zm. 14 sierpnia 2007 w Moskwie) – rosyjski i radziecki kompozytor. +Urodził się 10 czerwca (28 maja według starego stylu) 1913 w Jelcu w obwodzie Orłowskim, w muzykalnej rodzinie. W dzieciństwie zaczął naukę gry na fortepianie. W wieku kilkunastu lat przeniósł się do Moskwy, gdzie studiował kompozycję i grę na fortepianie w szkole muzycznej Gnesinów (1929-1932) i moskiewskim konserwatorium (1932-1936), u Wisariona Szebaldina i Heinricha Neuhausa. Podczas studiów skomponował koncert fortepianowy nr 1 i symfonię nr 1. W 1939 skomponował operę "Burza" o tematyce rewolucyjnej. +W 1947 wstąpił do partii komunistycznej. Od 1948 z woli ówczesnych władz ZSRR został wybrany generalnym sekretarzem Związku Kompozytorów ZSRR, którą funkcję pełnił aż do 1991 roku. Przez tę nominację i swoją pozycję postrzegany był jako stalinowski komisarz, realizujący partyjną linię w muzyce. Na zjeździe kompozytorów w 1948 wygłosił przygotowany przez władze partyjne referat, w którym oskarżył Prokofjewa, Szostakowicza i Chaczaturiana o formalizm i naśladowanie Zachodu, co było elementem kampanii władz przeciw tym kompozytorom. Mimo to, dostrzega się też, że dzięki swojej pozycji starał się następnie chronić kompozytorów przed atakami władz i pomagać im, miał m.in. udział w przyznaniu +Prokofjewowi i Szostakowiczowi nagród stalinowskich. +Skomponował 3 symfonie, 4 koncert fortepianowe, 2 koncerty skrzypcowe, 2 koncerty wiolonczelowe, opery, operetki, balety, muzykę kameralną i filmową. Jego muzyka realizowała estetykę socrealistyczną, nawiązywała do rosyjskich pieśni ludowych, była melodyjna, przeznaczona dla mas, pozbawiona eksperymentów formalnych. +Za swoje dokonania był nagradzany przez władze ZSRR tytułami Ludowego Artysty ZSRR (1963), Bohatera Pracy Socjalistycznej (1973), trzykrotnie Nagrodą Stalinowską (1942, 1946, 1952), Nagrodą Państwową (1967), Nagrodą Leninowską (1974), w Rosji Nagrodą Prezydencką (2003). +Kultura materialna + +Kultura materialna – termin określający wszelkie fizycznie istniejące rzeczowe wytwory pochodzące z przejawów działalności człowieka - zarówno przedmioty sztuki jak i przedmioty użytkowe, narzędzia oraz przedmioty życia codziennego. Do kultury materialnej zalicza się również sposoby wytwarzania przedmiotów np. technologia produkcji stali, sposoby uprawy roślin i hodowli zwierząt itp. +Zespół Conna + +Zespół Conna, inaczej pierwotny hiperaldosteronizm (ang. Conn syndrome, primary hyperaldosteronism) – zespół chorobowy wywołany zwiększonym wytwarzaniem aldosteronu z jednoczesnym zahamowaniem aktywności reninowej osocza. Stwierdzany jest najczęściej u osób między 3. a 5. dekadą życia. +Historia. +Po raz pierwszy przypadek guza nadnercza, przebiegającego z nadciśnieniem tętniczym i hipokaliemią opisał w 1953 polski lekarz Michał Lityński. Rok później pełny opis zespołu i jego powiązanie z podwyższonym wydzielaniem aldosteronu przedstawił Jerome W. Conn (1907-1994). Dlatego też w polskim piśmiennictwie medycznym postulowano swego czasu nazywanie tej jednostki chorobowej zespołem Lityńskiego-Conna. +Przyczyny. +Nadmierna produkcja tego hormonu spowodowana jest najczęściej łagodnym guzem nadnercza - gruczolakiem (ok. 40% przypadków), lub też przerostem warstwy kłębkowej kory nadnerczy (ok. 60% przypadków). Guz nadnercza bardzo rzadko ma charakter złośliwy. Innymi, rzadkimi postaciami pierwotnego hiperaldosteronizmu (maksymalnie 1% wszystkich przypadków) jest tzw. hiperaldosteronizm rodzinny. Jedną z jego form jest hiperaldosteronizm poddający się leczeniu glikokortykosteroidami (ang. "glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism" GRA), w którym dochodzi do mutacji, polegającej na rekombinacji genów odpowiedzialnych za wytwarzanie aldosteronu i kortyzolu i w efekcie na powstaniu genu chimerycznego. +Diagnostyka. +Diagnostyka obrazowa gruczolaków nadnerczy obejmuje tomografię komputerową i rezonans magnetyczny. Ultrasonografia ma mniejsze znaczenie w rozpoznaniu gruczolaków ze względu na ich z reguły niewielkie rozmiary (poniżej 1 cm średnicy). Cennym badaniem, przeprowadzanym w ośrodkach specjalistycznych w przypadkach wątpliwych jest scyntygrafia kory nadnerczy. Ponadto możliwe jest także cewnikowanie żył nadnerczowych z pobraniem próbek krwi i następnie oznaczeniem w nich stężenia aldosteronu i aktywności reninowej. Różnice pomiędzy uzyskanymi wartościami wskazują na autonomiczną aktywność nadnercza. +Powikłania. +Rozpoznanie pierwotnego hiperaldosteronizmu ma znaczenie z powodu istotnego zagrożenia wystąpieniem w tej jednostce chorobowej zaburzeń rytmu serca, zawału serca oraz udaru mózgu. Ponadto istnieją możliwości przeprowadzenia leczenia przyczynowego, prowadzącego często do pełnego powrotu do zdrowia. +Leczenie. +Leczeniem z wyboru pierwotnego hiperaldosteronizmu w przebiegu gruczolaka nadnercza jest obecnie adrenalektomia (usunięcie całego nadnercza) lub usunięcie guza, najczęściej metodą laparoskopową. Leczenie farmakologiczne (m.in, podawanie antagonisty receptora dla aldosteronu – spironolaktonu lub nowszego leku eplerenonu) zarezerwowane jest dla przerostu kory nadnerczy oraz dla przypadków gruczolaka, z różnych powodów dyskwalifikowanych od zabiegu operacyjnego. U ok. 30% chorych po adrenalektomii możliwe jest całkowite odstawienie leków hipotensyjnych ze względu na pełną normalizację ciśnienia tętniczego. +Take That + +Take That – nagrodzony nagrodami BRIT's brytyjski boysband, który powstał w 1990 r. w Manchesterze. Członkami grupy są Mark Owen, Jason Orange, Howard Donald, Gary Barlow i Robbie Williams. Do roku 1996 grupa wydała cztery płyty, po czym zespół zawiesił swoją działalność, a jego członkowie rozpoczęli solowe kariery. Niepełne 10 lat później, bo w roku 2005 zespół reaktywował się (już bez Robbiego Williamsa). W listopadzie 2006 r. wydał nową studyjną płytę "Beautiful World", która okazała się sukcesem. Single z tej płyty – "Patience" oraz "Shine" przez długi czas utrzymywały się na 1. miejscach list przebojów. W grudniu 2008 pojawiła się ich najnowsza płyta "The Circus". Singlem, który poprzedził wydanie płyty był utwór "Greatest Day".Jego premiera miała +miejsce 24 listopada 2008 roku. +Historia. +Powstanie. +Nigel Martin – Smith postanowił założyć angielski odpowiednik amerykańskiego zespołu New Kids On The Block. Jedna z ciotek Gary'ego Barlowa doradziła mu, by zgłosił się do agencji Nigela. W agencji pojawił się następnego dnia z kasetami demo, zaprezentował umiejętności swoje i swojego kolegi – Marka Owena, z którym w przeszłości tworzyli duet Cutest Ruch. Obaj spodobali się Nigelowi. Tymczasem Jason Orange i Howard Donald założyli grupę breakdance o nazwie Street Beat. Jason w 1988 r. został zaangażowany jako tancerz w telewizyjnym show, gdzie poznał Nigela. Przez dwa lata jednak nic z tego nie wynikło. W marcu 1990 r. Jason przyszedł z Howardem do Nigela Martin – Smitha i zapytał czy ten nie mógłby im pomóc w zrobieniu kariery. Nigel Martin – Smith poznał ich z Markiem i Garym. Do kompletu brakowało jeszcze jednej osoby. Nigel dał ogłoszenie w gazecie. Babcia szesnastoletniego Robbiego Williamsa wysłała go na casting. Robbie zaśpiewał piosenkę Jasona Donovana. "Pamiętam jak otworzyłem okno i krzyknąłem do ludzi w sąsiednim pubie: będę sławny" – wspomina. I tak oto, we wrześniu 1990 r., powstała grupa Take That. +Początki. +Take That po raz pierwszy pokazali się w telewizji podczas "The Hitman & Her" w 1990 roku, gdzie wykonali jeszcze nie zrealizowane utwory "Love" oraz "My kind of girl". W późniejszym czasie pokazali się tam jeszcze raz, śpiewając "Waiting around", który stał się B-sidem do singla "Do what u like". Ich rozpoznawalność w Wielkiej Brytanii jednak była dalej mała. +Przełomowym momentem dla grupy był singiel jednocześnie będący cover istniejącego już w latach 70. zespołu "Taveres" – "It only takes a minute", który wskoczył na miejsce 7. UK Singles Chart. Sukces następnie został powtórzony utworem "I found heaven", a także "A million love songs" – obydwie osiągnęły czołową dwudziestkę listy brytyjskiej. Jako ostatni przed wydaniem oficjalnej płyty ukazał się singiel "Could it be magic", który również był coverem. Ten utwór dał im największy do tamtej pory sukces, osiągając miejsce 3. w brytyjskim zestawieniu. +W 1992 roku zespół wydał pierwszy krążek. Nazwany "Take That and Party!", zawierał wszystkie dotychczasowe utwory. +Okres sławy. +W 1993 roku ukazała się płyta "Everything Changes", bazująca na oryginalnych materiałach jednego z członków zespołu – G.Barlowa. Z krążka wypłynęły takie hity jak "Pray", "Relight my fire", "Babe", oraz tutułowy utwór "Everything changes" – wszystkie osiągnęły przynajmniej raz numer 1. na liście notowań muzycznych w Wielkiej Brytanii. Piąta piosenka z albumu – "Love ain't here anymore" znalazła się na 3. miejscu listy UK Singles Chart. Dzięki temu, zespół zdobył międzynarodową sławę w Europie i Azji, jednak nie podbił rynku amerykańskiego. W 1995 roku grupa zdecydowała się na pierwszą trasę zagraniczną. +W trakcie lat 1993-95 Boysband osiagnął ogromną sławę w Wielkiej Brytanii, czego dowodem są liczne okładki czołowych pism w Anglii tj. "Smash Hits" czy "GQ". Byli jedną z najlepiej promowanych grup ich czasów, chętnie zapraszano ich na liczne koncerty, uroczystości i rozdania nagród, a ich wizerunek znajdował się na takich przedmiotach jak plakatach, lalkach, biżuterii, czapkach, koszulkach, a nawet szczoteczkach do zębów. Warto również dodać, że wokół członków bandu stworzyły się liczne fankluby płci pięknej. +W 1995 zrealizowali swój 3 album, nazwany "Nobody Else", po raz kolejny bazujący na materiałach Barlowa. Utwór promujący płytę "Sure" osiągnął znowu numer 1. na liście brytyjskiej. Jednak największym sukcesem okazał się drugi singiel z płyty – "Back for good", który wylądował na 1. miejscu aż 31 list krajowych na całym świecie, a do dziś został już 89 razy na nowo zaranżowany przez różnych wykonawców. Jak się okazało, był to również ich jedyny hit, który podbił listy amerykańskiego rynku, plasując się w pierwszej dziesiątce zestawienia. +Odejście Williamsa. +W lipcu 1995 roku uzależnienie od narkotyków Robbiego Williamsa nabrało poważnych rozmiarów o niemal doprowadzając do śmiertelnego przedawkowania w trakcie nocy poprzedzającej oficjalny występ na MTV Europe Music Awards. Jak zostało ukazane 10 lat później w dokumencie "For the record" – Robbie Williams był nieszczęśliwy z powodu braku zainteresowania i wsparcia jego aranżacjami bardziej zmierzającymi w kierunku gatunków tj. hip-hop czy rap, które odbiegały od standardowo granych przez grupę ballad. Zniechęcenie objawiało się bardzo często w absencji na próbach, a nawet występach. Doprowadziło to do licznych konfliktów wewnątrz zespołu, a zachowanie Robbiego ostatecznie zostało ukarane wykluczeniem go z planowanej trasy koncertowej po obu Amerykach. Williams przystał na ten pomysł jednocześnie oznajmując, że odchodzi z zespołu. Zapoczątkowało to 12-letnią przerwę we wspólnych występach z Take That. +Zaraz po rozstaniu, Williams został sfotografowany przez prasę podczas imprezowania z członkami grupy Oasis w Glastonbury, a także z George'em Michaelem we Francji. Liczne były również doniesienia o próbach podjęcia przez Williamsa solowej kariery, jednak do momentu rozwiązania Take That było to niemożliwe ze względu na wciąż obowiązujący go kontrakt z grupą. Ostatecznie zdecydował się rozpocząć karierę solo, co łączyło się z zapłaceniem kary w wysokości 200 000 funtów szterlingów. +Rozpad. +W tym samym czasie pozostali członkowie Take That starali się niezależnie od sytuacji promować dalej krążek "Nobody Else". "Never forget" również okazał się hitem, jednak mimo to grupa dość szybko zakończyła jego promocję, kończąc trasę koncertową w lipcu 1995 roku. +Dnia 13 lutego 1996, Take That oficjalnie ogłosiło, że zespół zaprzestał swojej działaności. Zostało to potwierdzone wydaniem największych hitów z całej ich twórczości pod postacią albumu "The Greatest Hits" na przełomie wiosny i lata 1996 roku. Ich ostatni wspólny występ został odnotowany w kwietniu 1996 roku w Amsterdamie. +Powrót i "Beautiful World". +Dnia 14 listopada 2005 czwórka z Take That ogłosiła, że wznawia swoje występy, a do sprzedaży trafił krążek zatytułowany "Never Forget – The Ultimate Collection". Była to nowa kompilacja najlepiej sprzedających się ich utworów, a do tego dołączona została piosenka "Today I've Lost You", oryginalnie napisana przez Barlowa jako przedłużenie "Back for good", jednak nigdy wcześniej nie została zrealizowana. Już 2 dni później grupa zdecydowała się wziąć udział w kręceniu materiału dokumentalnego o nich – "Take That – For The Record", w którym wszyscy wykonawcy wyrazili swoje refleksje i poglądy na temat istnienia grupy, a także rozpadu. +Niedługo później, podczas oficjalnej konferencji prasowej, zostało zaanonsowane, że podczas zbliżającej się trasy koncertowej "Ultimate Tour 2006" z zespołem zaśpiewa sam Robbie Williams. Podczas koncertów jako support wystąpowały takie zespoły jak Pussycat Dolls czy Sugababes, a cała trasa okazała się wielkim sukcesem. +Zachęceni powodzeniem i wciąż niespadającą popularnością, członkowie zespołu powrócili do studio, aby rozpocząć prace nad następnym krążkiem. Kontrakt z wytwórnią Polydor Records był warty 3 miliony funtów brytyjskich. Wprowadzony pod koniec 2006 roku album "Beautiful World" rozszedł się w ponad 2,6-milionowym nakładzie w samej Wielkiej Brytanii podbijając tamtejszą listę UK Album Charts. Jak do teraz, płyta znajduje się na 35. miejscu najlepiej sprzedających się płyt w Wielkiej Brytanii w historii. Promujący ją singiel – "Patience" został wydany 20 listopada 2006 i już po 2 tygodniach od wejścia na listy przebojów osiągnął numer 1. Pod koniec 2006 roku zespół wystąpił na żywo z Leoną Lewis w programie "X Factor", wykonując w finałowym odcinku utwór "A million love songs". +Do promocji płyty boysband powrócił już z drugim singlem – "Shine", który ukazał się 25 stycznia 2007 roku. Do utworu został nakręcony wideoklip, a jego sukces został przypieczętowany wieloma nagrodami, występami na rozdaniach nagród, np. nagrodą BRIT za najlepszy brytyjski singiel 2006 roku – "Patience". +Jako trzeci utwór ukazała się ballada "I'd wait for life", która zdołała osiągnąć jedynie 17. miejsce na brytyjskim notowaniu, a już następnego tygodnia wypadła z czołowej 40. Jest to uznawane za wynik braku zaangażowania Take That w dalszą promocję krążka, po części spowodowaną zbliżającą się trasą koncertową, która rozpoczęła się 11 sierpnia 2007 w Belfaście. W skład trasy wchodziło 49 występów w Europie i Wielkiej Brytanii, a zakończyła się 23 grudnia w Manchesterze. Ponadto zespół otrzymał 4nominacje do 2008 BRIT AWARDS w kategorii: Najlepsza Brytyjska Grupa, Najlepszy Brytyjski Album („Beautiful WorldI”), Najlepszy Brytyjski Singiel (”Shine”) i Najlepszy Występ na Żywo, a zwyciężył w 2 kategoriach: za Najlepszy Singiel i Występ na Żywo +Do końca 2007 roku zespół zrealizował jeszcze specjalny utwór na potrzeby filmu "Stardust – Gwiezdny pył" – zatytułowany "Rule the world". Został on dobrze przyjęty zarówno w Wielkiej Brytanii, jak i w Europie kontynentalnej. Został on 5. najlepiej sprzedającym się utworem 2007 roku na wyspach. +"The Circus". +Nieco ponad rok później, 13 października 2008, ukazał się utwór "Greatest Day", który za zadanie miał promować mający niedługo później się ukazać album "The Circus". Zarówno "Greatest Day" jak i "The Circus" zadebiutowały na 1. miejscu brytyjskich list, a album pozostał niepokonany przez kolejne 5 tygodni. Już późną jesienią 2008 roku Radio 1 podało wiadomość, że Take That znowu wystąpi na żywo już na przełomie lipca i sierpnia nadchodzącego roku. Wszystkie bilety na tournee rozeszły się w pierwszych dniach sprzedaży, a jak podkreślają promoterzy, trasa koncertowa była najszybciej sprzedaną w historii Anglii, 650 000 biletów w niepełne 5 godzin. +Powrót Robbiego Williamsa i nowy album. +15 lipca 2010 roku Robbie Williams ogłosił powrót do Take That co zostało potwierdzone przez zespół w oficjalnym wystąpieniu. Singlem promującym album został wydany 8 listopada utwór „The Flood”, który zajął 2 miejsce na UK Singles Chart, odnosząc również duży sukces w Europie. Natomiast wydany 15 listopada album „Progress” stał się najszybciej sprzedającym się albumem stulecia, ze sprzedanymi 235 000 kopii jednego dnia, a w ciągu tygodnia liczba ta urosła do 520 000 co spowodowało, że Progress stał się drugim najlepiej sprzedającym się albumem w historii Angielskiej muzyki. +Album odniósł też sukces w Europie, debiutując na pierwszych miejscach list przebojów w Irlandii, Grecji i Dani, a także na European Top 100 Albums, natomiast na listach przebojów Austrii, Włoszech, Szwecji, Szwajcarii i Holandii zadebiutował w pierwszej 10. +19 maja Take That wydali EP nazwane "Progressed", które zawiera 8 nowych piosenek napisanych przez zespół od momentu ich powrotu do śpiewania w piątkę. Na płycie znajdują się m.in. piosenki: "Love, love" która stała się piosenką przewodnią do filmu: , oraz "When we were Young" – singiel który będzie promować najnowszą adaptację filmu o trzech muszkieterach. +26 sierpnia 2011 zespół zapowiedział swoją ogromną trasę koncertową "Progress Live" po Wielkiej Brytanii i Europie, która rozpoczęła się 27 maja 2011 w Sunderland, a zakończyła się 29 lipca w Monachium. Bilety na koncerty sprzedały się w przeciągu jednego dnia na poziomie 1,1 mln, a fani chcący je kupić spowodowali zawieszenie lub spowolnienie stron internetowych prowadzących sprzedaż biletów. Zespół podzielił każdy występ na trzy części: w pierwszej wykonywali utwory z działalności w czwórkę, druga część należała do solowego występu Robbiego Williamsa, a trzecia była wspólnym występem całej piątki. +W dniach 30 VI; 1,2,4,5,6,8,9 VII Take That zapełniło do ostatniego miejsca Stadion Wembley, ustanawiając tym samym nowy rekord w ilości występów. Dotychczasowy należał do Michaela Jacksona który zebrał komplet widzów na Wembley „tylko” przez 7 występów. +Zakończona trasa po Wielkiej Brytanii zebrała w sumie 1.806.473 widzów i zarobiła $185,175,360. +16 lipca 2011 – pierwszy odwołany koncert w karierze. +Podczas Europejskiej części Progress Tour, Take That zostali zmuszeni do odwołanie koncertu w Kopenhadze 16lipca 2011, z powodu zatrucia pokarmowego Robbiego Williamsa. W wydanym oświadczeniu zespół napisał, że fani mogliby być niezadowoleni, że nie ma z nimi Robbiego na scenie, zważywszy że duża część koncertu opiera się na jego występach. Był to pierwszy odwołany koncert zespołu w jego karierze. +Abel Tasman + + Abel Janszoon Tasman (ur. w 1603 w Lutjegast w Republice Niderlandów, zm. 10 października 1659 w Batawii w Holenderskich Indiach Wschodnich) – holenderski żeglarz, odkrywca i kupiec. +Był pierwszym Europejczykiem, który dopłynął do Tasmanii i Nowej Zelandii podczas wyprawy w latach 1642-43 zorganizowanej przez Holenderską Kompanię Wschodnioindyjską (hol. "Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie" (VOC)). +Tasmanię nazwał "Anthoonij van Diemenslandt" na cześć swojego sponsora, gubernatora Holenderskich Indii Wschodnich. Anglicy skrócili nazwę do Ziemi Van Diemena, a potem (w 1855 r.) zmienili ją na Tasmania. +Podczas drugiej wyprawy w (1644) sporządził mapy północnego wybrzeża Australii. +Życie w Holandii. +Tasman przyszedł na świat w 1603 w Lutjegast w prowincji Groningen w Holandii. Niewiele wiadomo na temat jego dzieciństwa i lat młodzieńczych. Pierwsze informacje o młodym Tasmanie dotyczą jego ślubu z Jannetije Tjaers, którą pojął za żonę jako wdowiec w 1632. Z pierwszego związku, Tasman posiadał córkę. +Praca dla Holenderskiej Kompanii Wschodnioindyjskiej. +Wkrótce po ślubie, Tasman został zatrudniony przez Holenderską Kompanię Wschodnioindyjską (hol. "Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie" (VOC)), podpisując w 1633 kontrakt na trzy lata. Do 1634 pływał jako oficer na statku handlowym pomiędzy Batawią a Molukami. W lipcu 1634 został mianowany szyprem małego statku "Mocha". +W 1637 odwiedził Holandię, by uregulować swoje sprawy i w październiku 1638 powrócił wraz z żoną na stałe do Batawii. Po upływie pierwszego kontraktu z VOC, podpisał drugi dziesięcioletni. +Tasman brał udział w kolejnych wyprawach organizowanych przez kompanię. W 1639 wysłano go pod komendą Mathijsa Quasta na wschód celem odkrycia legendarnych "Wysp Złota i Srebra", które miały leżeć na wschód od Japonii. Wyprawa zakończyła się fiaskiem. W 1640 i 1641 popłynął do Japonii, a w 1642 na Sumatrę, gdzie podpisał traktat handlowy z sułtanem. +Pierwsza wyprawa (1642-43). +W sierpniu 1642 Tasman przewodził wyprawie mającej na celu odkrycie nieznanego lądu na południu – "Terra Australis", który miał leżeć na południowym Pacyfiku. Tasman miał na bieżąco sporządzać mapy i zapisywać swoje obserwacje. Ponadto celem ekspedycji było również znalezienie połączenia drogą morską z Pacyfikiem, umożliwiającego żeglugę do Ameryki Południowej poprzez wody Australii. W wyprawie brały udział dwa statki: "Heemskerck" (kapitan: Abel Tasman) i "Zeehaan" (kapitan: Gerrit Jansz z Leiden) oraz 110 osób załogi. +By obrać właściwy kurs, Tasman najpierw popłynął na Mauritius, gdzie zrobił zwrot na południowy wschód, wykorzystując korzystny układ wiatrów, i dotarł do południowego wybrzeża Australii. +Tasmania. +24 listopada 1642 żeglarze ujrzeli zachodnie wybrzeże Tasmanii na wysokości portu Macquarie. Nowy ląd Tasman nazwał Ziemią Van Diemena na cześć Antoniego van Diemena generalnego gubernatora Holenderskich Indii Wschodnich. Następnie odkrywcy udali się na południowy kraniec Tasmanii, skręcając na północny wschód, aż opuścili wody Przylądka Fredericka Hendricka na półwyspie Forestiera. Podjęto próbę wylądowania, która się nie powiodła z powodu zbyt wysokich fal. Niemniej jednak, 3 grudnia 1642. cieśla okrętowy dopłynął do brzegu i zatknął flagę holenderską. +Nowa Zelandia. +Tasman zamierzał kontynuować wyprawę w kierunku północnym, ale z powodu niekorzystnych wiatrów popłynął na wschód. 13 grudnia 1642 żeglarze ponownie ujrzeli nowy ląd – północno-zachodnie wybrzeże Wyspy Południowej Nowej Zelandii. Tasman nazwał Nową Zelandię "Staten Landt", zakładając, że ląd ten był połączony z wyspą "Staten Island" w Argentynie na południowym krańcu Ameryki Południowej. +Jedna z łodzi Tasmana, która popłynęła najpierw na północ a później na wschód, została zaatakowana przez Maorysów w ich tradycyjnych łodziach, tzw. wakach. Czterech żeglarzy zginęło, ofiary po stronie Maorysów nie są znane. Tasman nazwał te wody Zatoką Morderców (hol. "Moordenaarsbaai") – obecnie Złota Zatoka (ang. "Golden Bay"). +Tasman skierował wyprawę dalej na północ. Wziął jednak Cieśninę Cooka za zatokę, którą nazwał Zatoką Zeehaen (ang. "Zeehaen Bight"). Do tej pory zachowały się dwie oryginalne nazwy nadane przez Tasmana: przylądek Maria van Diemen (ang. "Cape Maria van Diemen") oraz Wyspy Trzech Króli (ang. "Three Kings Islands"). +Droga powrotna. +W drodze powrotnej do Batawii, żeglarze minęli archipelag Tonga 21 stycznia 1643. Niedaleko od wysp Fidżi statki Tasmana omal nie rozbiły się na podwodnych rafach na północnym wschodzie archipelagu. Tasman sporządził mapę wschodniego krańca wyspy Vanua Levu oraz Cikobii. Odkrywcy powrócili do Batawii 15 czerwca 1643. +Druga wyprawa (1644). +Celem drugiej wyprawy Tasmana w 1644 było znalezienie cieśniny pomiędzy Nową Gwineą a Australią. Tasman dowodził trzema statkami ("Limmen", "Zeemeeuw" i "Braek"), które skierował ku południowym wybrzeżom Nowej Gwinei. Ominął jednak Cieśninę Torresa i kontynuował swoją podróż wzdłuż wybrzeża Australii, konkludując, że cieśnina pomiędzy Nową Gwineą a Australią nie istnieje. W trakcie wyprawy na bieżąco sporządzał mapy północnego wybrzeża Australii oraz notatki na temat nowego lądu i jego mieszkańców. +Życie w Batawii. +2 listopada 1644 Abel Tasman został mianowany członkiem rady sprawiedliwości w Batawii. W 1646 Tasman pożeglował na Sumatrę a w sierpniu 1647 udał się jako przedstawiciel kompanii do króla Syjamu. W maju 1648, w czasie negocjacji pokojowych dążących do zakończenia wojny trzydziestoletniej, Tasman przewodził ekspedycji na Filipiny do Manili, której celem był atak na statki hiszpańskie przewożące srebro z Ameryki. Tasman dowodził flotą ośmiu dobrze uzbrojonych statków. Zaatakowani Hiszpanie wyrzucili cenny ładunek za burtę, podpalając statek, by nie wpadł w ręce Holendrów. Wyprawa zakończyła się fiaskiem, a Tasman powrócił do Batawii w styczniu 1649. +W trakcie wyprawy na Filipiny, miał miejsce przykry incydent – Tasman uznał dwóch żeglarzy za dezerterów za nie wykonanie jego zakazu (pod groźbą śmierci) schodzenia na ląd Wysp Babuyan i rozkazał ich powiesić. Dzięki interwencji pierwszego oficera, żeglarze przeżyli. Po powrocie do Batawii, Tasman został postawiony przed sądem i uznany winnym złamania prawa. Wymierzona kara była bardzo surowa. Tasman został zawieszony w funkcji komandora, nałożono na niego grzywnę oraz obowiązek zapłaty rekompensaty rodzinom ofiar. 5 stycznia 1651 przywrócono mu rangę komandora. Tasman spędził resztę życia Batawii. Ok. 1652 wystąpił z kompanii i stał się niezależnym kupcem. Zmarł w Batawii w październiku 1659. +Znaczenie. +Tasman odkrył, że Australia nie jest połączona z Antarktydą. W trakcie wypraw sporządził mapy: północnego wybrzeża Australii, Ziemi Van Diemena, Nowej Zelandii, Tonga oraz Fidżi. Kompania uznała jednak ekspedycje Tasmana za fiasko. Tasman nie odkrył ani bogatych w surowce ziemi, ani nie nawiązał interesujących kontaktów handlowych. Nie udało mu się też znaleźć drogi na Pacyfik. Przez ponad 100 lat, aż do czasu Jamesa Cooka, Tasmania i Nowa Zelandia nie były odwiedzane przez Europejczyków. Do brzegów Australii docierały jedynie pojedyncze zagubione statki. +Dziedzictwo Tasmana. +Ponadto istnieją: most Tasmana, autostrada Tasmana, prom Abel Tasman na Tasmanii oraz Park Narodowy im. Abla Tasmana w Nowej Zelandii. +Spirale + +Spirale – jeden z elementów obowiązkowych dobrze wyważonego programu łyżwiarskiego, w którym zawodnik (najczęściej zawodniczka), jedzie na jednej nodze, z drugą uniesioną w górze np. w pozycji potocznie zwanej "jaskółki". +W dobrze wykonanej spirali noga jest uniesiona przynajmniej na wysokość bioder. Większość łyżwiarzy jednak jest w stanie unieść ją wyżej – najlepsi niemal do pozycji szpagatu. +Spirale mogą być wykonywane zarówno podczas jazdy w przód, jak i do tyłu, na obu nogach i na obu krawędziach łyżwy. +Gradzina (meteorologia) + +Gradzina – bryłka lodu o średnicy przekraczającej 5 mm, występująca w czasie opadów gradu oraz pewien czas po nich. Najczęściej posiada kształt kulisty. +Gradziny powstają, gdy drobiny lodu będąc unoszone lub opadając w chmurze kłębiastej deszczowej, napotkają zimne krople bądź kropelki wody. Wtedy w wyniku kolizji z kryształkami lodu krople przymarzają. Zatrzymują w sobie pęcherzyki powietrza, co sprawia, że powstały lód jest nieprzezroczysty. Gdy powstała bryłka lodu zderzy się z kolejną kroplą wody, to ta tworzy na lodzie płynną warstewkę, która następnie zamarza. Cykl przymarzania kolejnych warstewek lodu trwa, ponieważ powstałe gradziny są unoszone przez prąd wstępujący do szczytowych części chmury, następnie opadają w kierunku podstawy chmury, po czym znowu są unoszone. Na ziemię opadają dopiero wtedy, gdy stają się zbyt ciężkie dla prądu wstępującego. Prędkość spadania gradzin może osiągać 160 km/h. +Bolton Wanderers F.C. + +Bolton Wanderers Football Club – angielski zawodowy klub piłkarski, mający siedzibę w Horwich, Metropolitan Borough of Bolton, Greater Manchester w Anglii. W sezonie 2012/13 drużyna występuje w Championship +Historia. +Klub powstał w roku 1874. Bolton Wanderers był jednym z założycieli The Football League, w latach 20. drużyna trzykrotnie zdobyła Puchar Anglii. Czwarty raz powtórzyła to w roku 1958, dzięki dwóm bramkom Nata Lofthouse'a. W roku 1987 Bolton występował w Fourth Division, do pierwszej ligi powrócił jednak w roku 1995 po piętnastoletniej nieobecności. W sezonie 2005/06 klub pierwszy raz od 32 lat wystąpił w europejskich pucharach. W następnym sezonie zajął 7. miejsce w lidze, dzięki czemu awansował do Pucharu UEFA. Rozgrywki te zakończył na 1/8 finału, w którym przegrał ze Sportingiem Lizbona. W sezonie 2011/12 zespół zajął 18.miejsce w Premiership i spadł do Championship. +Od roku 1997 klub swoje domowe mecze rozgrywa na Reebok Stadium. Wcześniej występowali na Burnden Park. +Zawodnicy. +Obecny skład. +"Stan na 21 września 2012" +Everton F.C. + +Everton Football Club – angielski klub piłkarski założony w 1878 roku w Liverpoolu, w dzielnicy Everton. Od 1954 nieprzerwanie gra w Premier League. Everton jest jednym z 12 klubów – założycieli angielskiej ekstraklasy w 1888 roku. Sezon 2011/2012 jest 109. sezonem drużyny w ekstraklasie. +Historia. +Everton to najstarszy angielski pierwszoligowiec. Został założony w 1878 roku pod nazwą St. Domingo FC, jednak już rok później przekształcił się w Everton Football Club. W 1888 roku wraz z jedenastoma innymi klubami założył angielską ekstraklasę. Już dwa lata później został wicemistrzem Anglii, zaś w 1891 roku wygrał po raz pierwszy te rozgrywki. Pierwszy raz w rozgrywkach Pucharu Anglii Everton zwyciężył w 1906 roku pokonując w finale 1:0 Newcastle United po golu Alex Younga. Po 63 latach gry w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej w Anglii, klub spadł do drugiej ligi. Absencja trwała trzy kolejne lata. Ostatnim triumfem w The Football League było zwycięstwo w 1987 roku. Ostatni raz Everton wygrał Puchar Anglii w 1995 roku. W roku 2009 Everton przegrał 2-1 z Chelsea w Pucharze Anglii 2-1. W sezonie 2010/11 Everton zajął 7 miejsce w lidze z dorobkiem 54 punktów. Następny sezon był dla The Toffers barzo podobny gdyż zajmowali odpowiednio tę samą pozycję. +Jedynym jak do tej pory sukcesem w pucharach europejskich było zwycięstwo Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów w sezonie 1984/85. Najpierw pokonał irlandzki University College Dublin, a następnie Inter Mediolan, Fortunę Sittard oraz Bayern Monachium. W finale Everton pokonał Rapid Wiedeń. +W sezonie 1985/86 klub nie uczestniczył w rozgrywkach Pucharu Europy, ponieważ angielskie drużyny zostały wykluczone z europejskich pucharów na pięć lat po tragedii na brukselskim stadionie Heysel w której zginęło 39 osób. +Stadion. +Everton rozgrywa swoje mecze na stadionie Goodison Park. W skład stadionu wchodzą cztery trybuny: Main Stand, Bullens Road, Gwladys Street Stand oraz The Park End. Na stadionie tym może zasiąść 40 158 widzów. Obiekt został otwarty 24 sierpnia 1892 roku. Pierwszy meczem rozegranym na tym stadionie było spotkanie Evertonu z Boltonem Wanderers, zaś najwięcej osób oglądało tutaj mecz z em 18 września 1948. Wtedy na obiekcie było 78 299 osób. Wymiary boiska to 102 na 71 metrów. +Kibice i rywale. +Everton pod względem średniej liczby widzów na mecz plasuje się na dziewiątym miejscu w Anglii. Fani pochodzą najczęściej z regionu North West England, szczególnie z Merseyside oraz Cheshire. Everton ma również wielu kibiców z Walii oraz z Irlandii. Fani klubu mieszkają również w takich miejscach jak Ameryka Północna, Singapur, Norwegia, Cypr czy Tajlandia. Everton ma również kibiców w Australii, skąd pochodzi Tim Cahill. Oficjalnym stowarzyszeniem fanów drużyny jest "Evertonia". Wydają oni magazyny fanowskie, między innymi "When Skies are Grey" czy "Speke from the Harbour", które są sprzedawane w czasie meczów na Goodison Park. +Największym rywalem Evertonu jest Liverpool, mecze między nimi są określane jako Derby Liverpoolu lub Derby Merseyside. +Hymn. +"Grand Old Team" +"For it's a Grand Old Team to play for," +"And it's a Grand Old team to support," +"And if you know your history," +"It's enough to make your heart go woooooah...," +"We don't care what the Red shite say," +"What the fuck do we care," +"Because we only know," +"That there's gonna be a show," +"When the Everton boys are there." +"Everton, Everton, Everton, Everton, Everton. +Tomasz Lipnicki + +Tomasz "Lipa" Lipnicki (ur. 26 sierpnia 1969 w Gdańsku) – polski muzyk muzyk, kompozytor, wokalista i autor tekstów, gitarzysta. Członek Akademii Fonograficznej ZPAV. Trzykrotny laureat nagrody polskiego przemysłu fonograficznego Fryderyka. Tomasz Lipnicki znany jest przede wszystkim z występów w grupie muzycznej Illusion w której występował z przerwami w latach 1992-2012. W zespole pełnił funkcję lidera, wokalisty, autora tekstów i głównego kompozytora. Wcześniej grał w zespołach She i Skawalker. W 2000 roku utworzył solowy projekt pod nazwą Lipali, przekształcony w latach późniejszych w zespół. Przez krótki okres był także członkiem Acid Drinkers. +Muzyk używa głównie instrumentów firmy Dean oraz Samick. Żonaty, ojciec dwójki dzieci. +Działalność artystyczna. +W 1986 roku wraz z perkusistą Radosławem Zblewskim i basistą Ireneuszem Mazurkiem tworzy zespół She. Formacja ta nagrała dwie płyty: "Miejsce którego wszyscy szukamy..." i anglojęzyczną "Big City Lights". W 1990 Lipnicki pojawił się na krótko w składzie zespołu Skawalker, którego liderem był Grzegorz Skawiński. +Dwa lata później, po rozwiązaniu się She pojawił się na scenie ze swoim najbardziej znanym projektem, zespołem Illusion, założonym wraz z gitarzystą Jerzym Rutkowskim oraz perkusistą Pawłem Herbashem. Kilka miesięcy później do grupy dołączył basista Jarek Śmigiel. W 1995 i 1996 Lipnicki był nominowany do nagrody "Fryderyk '95, '96" w kategorii "wokalista roku". Nagrał z Illusion pięć płyt, w tym jedną koncertową. Zespół zakończył działalność w 1999. +W 2000 zaprezentował swój kolejny projekt pod nazwą Lipali, który przekształcił się w zespół w stałym składzie: Tomasz Lipnicki, Adrian Kulik, Łukasz Jeleniewski pod koniec 2003. W 2003 pojawił się także w oficjalnym składzie Acid Drinkers i nagrał z tym zespołem nagrodzoną Fryderykiem płytę "Rock Is Not Enough". Uczestniczył ponadto w nagraniach zespołów Flapjack, KarmaComa oraz Ametria. +W 2008 został uhonorowany Fryderykiem w kategorii "wokalista roku". W 2008 nagrał piosenkę "Każda chwila" promująca Ogólnopolską Kampanię Społeczno-Edukacyjną pt. "Hospicjum to też życie". Pomysłodawcą kampanii był Fundacja Hospicyjna. W utworze "Każda chwila" wraz z Tomaszem Lipnickim śpiewa również Krystyna Prońko. W lutym 2010 roku muzyk uzyskał nominację do nagrody polskiego przemysłu fonograficznego Fryderyka w kategorii "kompozytor roku". +Dyskonto rzeczywiste proste + +Dyskonto proste (rzeczywiste) – to wartość o jaką należy pomniejszyć kwotę przyszłą (FV), aby otrzymać bieżącą kwotę (PV) (przy założeniu oprocentowania prostego). Dyskontowanie proste jest działaniem odwrotnym do oprocentowania prostego. +Obliczanie dyskonta prostego. +Dyskonto stanowi różnicę pomiędzy wartością przyszłą, a wartością bieżącą: +Paul Otlet + +Paul-Marie-Ghislain Otlet (ur. 23 sierpnia 1868 w Brukseli, zm. 10 grudnia 1944 w Brukseli) - belgijski naukowiec, twórca informacji naukowej, znanej wcześniej jako bibliografia. +Z wykształcenia prawnik; studiował na uniwersytecie w Louvain i Wolnym Uniwersytecie w Brukseli, dyplom z nauk prawnych uzyskał w 1890. +Największym osiągnięciem Otleta jest Uniwersalna Klasyfikacja Dziesiętna, system powszechnie stosowany w bibliotekach całego świata, oraz seria prac naukowych dotyczących sposobów organizowania zasobów wiedzy, m.in. "Traite de documentation" (1934) i "Monde: Essai d'universalisme" (1935). Otlet założył Międzynarodowy Instytut Bibliograficzny (1895, wspólnie z Henri La Fontaine), "Mundaneum" i działającą do dzisiaj Union of International Organizations. +Ideą Otleta było utworzenie systemu gromadzenia wiedzy i udostępniania jej jak największej liczbie ludzi. Chociaż żył i pracował w erze przed zaistnieniem sieci komputerowych, antycypował wiele późniejszych idei i przyczynił się do rozwoju pomysłów, które doprowadziły po dziesięcioleciach do powstania WWW. Jedną z jego wizji była wiedza zatomizowana w postaci precyzyjnie sklasyfikowanych pojęć, powiązanych ze sobą za pomocą hiperłączy. +Wkład Otleta popadł częściowo w zapomnienie po tym, jak w czasie II wojny naziści zniszczyli jego najbardziej ambitny projekt, Mundaneum. Po wojnie, już po śmierci Otleta, ciężar prac przeniósł się do świata anglojęzycznego, gdzie największy wkład w pierwszych dziesięcioleciach wnieśli tacy naukowcy, jak Vannevar Bush i Douglas Engelbart. Prace Belga powróciły w postaci reprintów, m.in. w 1990 prof. W. Boyd Rayward opublikował angielskie tłumaczenie najważniejszych dzieł Otleta. +Mundaneum w Mons, Belgia, mieści obecnie muzeum i archiwa Paula Otleta. +Zobacz też. +IIB - International Institute of Bibliography +Folklor + +Folklor (ang. "folk-lore" "wiedza ludu") – symboliczno-artystyczna dziedzina kultury ludowej, mająca charakter wieloskładnikowy, niejednolity i synkretyczny. +Historia pojęcia i jego zakres. +Termin "folklor" wprowadził do obiegu naukowego brytyjski pisarz William Thoms w 1846 roku, określając nim najstarsze składniki kultury takie jak "pradawne zwyczaje, obyczaje, obrzędy, zabobony, ballady, przysłowia etc.". Z biegiem czasu termin ten upowszechnił się na całym świecie, a zwłaszcza w Europie, gdzie sprzyjały mu panujące wówczas prądy umysłowe, a w szczególności gloryfikujący kulturę ludową romantyzm. Początkowo badania folkloru prowadzono w ramach etnografii, literaturoznawstwa, historii sztuki, religioznawstwa, językoznawstwa i muzykologii. Dopiero w latach trzydziestych XX wieku, za sprawą uczonych europejskich wyodrębniła się folklorystyka - samodzielna dyscyplina naukowa, której przedmiotem poznania jest folklor. +Od samego początku istnienia terminu "folklor", pojawiły się wśród badaczy daleko idące rozbieżności w rozumieniu zakresu tego pojęcia. Zajmowano w tej sprawie trzy stanowiska. +Pierwsze z nich, reprezentowane np. przez Archera Taylora, wyznaczało maksymalnie szeroki zakres folkloru, włączając doń nie tylko kulturę symboliczną i społeczną, ale także elementy kultury materialnej (np. narzędzia, stroje, kształty wsi, budownictwo itp.). Przeciwieństwem tego stanowiska była orientacja literaturoznawcza, reprezentowana np. przez J.M. Sokołowa, która zawężała folklor wyłącznie do literatury ustnej (bajki, podania, legendy, pieśni, przysłowia). Współczesna folklorystyka zajmuje stanowisko pośrednie włączając w zakres folkloru dziedzinę zwyczajów, obrzędów i wierzeń wraz z kulturą artystyczną obejmującą literaturę ustną, muzykę i taniec. +Typologie folkloru. +Obejmuje on klasyczne gatunki literatury ustnej, oraz wokalno-muzyczne i choreograficzne relikty dawnej obrzędowości. +Jest wyrazem aktywności twórczej poszczególnych subkultur, ale obejmuje również przekaz interspołeczny, zaspokajając różne potrzeby międzyludzkiej komunikacji. Transmisja treści następuje zarówno w kontaktach bezpośrednich, jak i poprzez różnego rodzaju środki przekazu (słowo drukowane, telewizja, internet). Obejmuje takie formy jak: pogłoska, plotka, anegdota, dowcip, satyra towarzyska, stereotypowy toast, formuła życzeniowa, porzekadło, przysłowie sytuacyjne, parodia, legenda miejska, itd. +Jest to zjawisko wtórne, obejmujące teksty i obrzędy wyuczone, opracowane stylistycznie i przedstawiane w sytuacjach celowo zaaranżowanych (np. kapele grające na tradycyjnych instrumentach, zespoły wokalne i taneczne, np. Zespół Tańca Ludowego Politechniki Poznańskiej "Poligrodzianie", Zespół Pieśni i Tańca Akademii Górniczo-Hutniczej im. Wiesława Białowąsa "Krakus", Zespół Pieśni i Tańca Politechniki Warszawskiej, zespół "Mazowsze") Określa się je jako folkloryzm. +Charakterystyka przekazu folklorystycznego. +Transmisja tekstów folkloru jest anonimowa, spontaniczna, ekspresyjna i następuje w warunkach bezpośredniego kontaktu nadawcy i odbiorcy. Odbywa się w określonych okolicznościach (sytuacjach folklorotwórczych) np. podczas obrzędów rodzinnych, dorocznych, zabawy i wymaga odpowiednich kompetencji kulturowych odbiorcy (np. podzielania określonego stosunku do norm społecznych, znajomości faktów związanych z przekazywanym tekstem itp.). Nadawcami są kompetentni reprezentanci tradycji, zwykle jednostki uzdolnione. Przekaz folklorystyczny zakłada wymienność ról między nadawcą i odbiorcą. Odbiorcy przekazu współdeterminują jego formę (np. gdy słuchacze wyrażają niedowierzanie, co do opowiadanych treści, gawędziarz rozbudowuje w danym fragmencie szczegółowe opisy detali, aby przekonać słuchaczy o autentyczności zdarzenia). +Z kolei transmisja umiejętności wokalno-muzycznych i choreograficznych następuje poprzez naśladownictwo, lub przez celowe przyuczenie u przekazującego (np. gry na instrumencie). +Funkcje folkloru. +W swym środowisku macierzystym folklor wyraża i zaspokaja podstawowe potrzeby egzystencjalne i jest jedyną rzeczywistością symboliczną. W treściach folkloru wyraża się sposób pojmowania rzeczywistości, a także określony do niej stosunek. +Rola folkloru w historii kultury. +Z wartości artystycznych folkloru czerpali poeci, pisarze i muzycy. Ludowość inspirowała twórczość romantyków, a także neoromantyków (Młoda Polska, Młode Włochy), była kluczowym czynnikiem w procesie kształtowania się literatur narodowych i ważnym składnikiem idei politycznych i artystycznych. W XIX wieku folklor przyczyniał się do wzrostu świadomości narodowej i stał się podstawą tożsamości etnicznej narodów europejskich, był też składnikiem ideologii politycznych, np. realnego socjalizmu. +Myrosław Lubacziwśkyj + +Myrosław Iwan Lubacziwśkyj, ukr. Миросла́в Іва́н Любачі́вський, pol. Mirosław Jan Lubaczewski (ur. 24 czerwca 1914 w Dolinie, zm. 14 grudnia 2000 we Lwowie) – ukraiński duchowny katolicki, arcybiskup większy Lwowa, od 1984 zwierzchnik Kościoła greckokatolickiego na Ukrainie, kardynał. +Studiował w seminarium we Lwowie, następnie na Uniwersytecie w Innsbrucku (Austria) i na Wydziale Teologicznym w Sionie (Szwajcaria). Kształcił się także w Rzymie - na Papieskim Uniwersytecie Gregoriańskim oraz w Papieskim Instytucie Biblijnym (gdzie obronił doktorat z teologii). Przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 28 września 1938 we Lwowie, następnie prowadził działalność duszpasterską we Lwowie. +W 1942 wyjechał ze Lwowa. Do 1947 uzupełniał studia w Rzymie, następnie wyjechał na kilkadziesiąt lat do USA. Prowadził pracę duszpasterską wśród wiernych obrządku greckokatolickiego w Michigan, Pensylwanii, Ohio i Wisconsin. Pełnił m.in. funkcję sekretarza arcybiskupa Filadelfii oraz wykładał w seminarium greckokatolickim w Stamford. Prowadził także przez rok (1968) wykłady w Papieskim Kolegium Greckokatolickim św. Jozafata w Rzymie oraz współpracował z Radiem Watykańskim. Od 1969 był dyrektorem duchowym seminariów w Waszyngtonie i Stamford. +13 września 1979 został mianowany arcybiskupem Filadelfii rytu greckokatolickiego, przyjął sakrę biskupią 12 listopada 1979 w Watykanie z rąk papieża Jana Pawła II. 27 marca 1980 otrzymał nominację na koadiutora arcybiskupa większego Lwowa (kardynała Slipyja); 7 września 1984, po śmierci Slipyja, został arcybiskupem większym Lwowa i zwierzchnikiem Kościoła Greckokatolickiego na Ukrainie. Wielokrotnie brał udział w sesjach Światowego Synodu Biskupów w Watykanie, a w maju 1985 został wyniesiony do godności kardynalskiej, z tytułem prezbitera S. Sofia a Via Boccea. +31 marca 1991, w związku z legalizacją Kościoła katolickiego obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego w USRR uroczyście powrócił do Lwowa, by objąć obowiązki arcybiskupa większego Lwowa i zwierzchnika Ukraińskiej Cerkwi Greckokatolickiej na Ukrainie. +W 1996, w związku ze stanem zdrowia otrzymał koadiutora w osobie Lubomyra Huzara, jako biskupa pomocniczego. +Objaw Brudzińskiego + +Objaw Brudzińskiego – objaw należący do grupy objawów oponowych obecny u 5% dorosłych z zapaleniem opon mózgowo rdzeniowych. +Zespół rzekomoopuszkowy + +Zespół rzekomooopuszkowy (porażenie rzekomoopuszkowe, łac. "syndroma pseudobulbare") – neurologiczny zespół chorobowy powstający w wyniku obustronnego uszkodzenia dróg korowo-jądrowych biegnących (jest to uszkodzenie górnego neuronu ruchowego) do jąder nerwu językowo-gardłowego, nerwu błędnego oraz nerwu podjęzykowego. Do uszkodzenia dochodzi na różnej wysokości drogi korowo-opuszkowej: na poziomie kory ruchowej, torebki wewnętrznej, śródmózgowia lub mostu przed przełączeniem synaptycznym na dolny neuron ruchowy. +Objawy i przebieg. +Dominującymi objawami są zaburzenia połykania (dysfagia) oraz dyzartria. Dyzartria ma charakter spastyczny, mowa jest spowolniała, niewyraźna. Objawem odróżniającym od zespołu opuszkowego jest brak zaników mięśniowych. Dodatkowo często stwierdza się występowanie odruchów piramidowych oraz pojawienie się odruchów pierwotnych (deliberacyjnych). Może być obecny objaw Babińskiego. Dochodzi do wzmożenia odruchu żuchwowego, podniebiennego, gardłowego. Chory przejawia labilność emocjonalną, wynikającą z przerwania kontrolujących ekspresję emocji połączeń między płatami czołowymi a pniem mózgu. Najczęstszą przyczyną zespołu są obustronne zmiany niedokrwienne na tle miażdżycy, poza tym stwardnienie rozsiane, stwardnienie zanikowe boczne, rzadsze to np. postępujące porażenie nadjądrowe. +Manchester City F.C. + +Manchester City Football Club – angielski zawodowy klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Manchesterze. Obecnie występuje w Premier League. +Klub powstał w 1880 roku jako St. Marks (West Gorton), w 1887 został przemianowany na Ardwick A.F.C., a obecną nazwę nosi od 1894. Zdobył trzy tytuły Mistrza Anglii, pięć razy wygrał Puchar Anglii, dwa razy – Puchar Ligi Angielskiej, a raz – Puchar Zdobywców Pucharów. Największe sukcesy osiągnął w latach 60. i 70. XX wieku, pod kierunkiem trenerów Joe Mercera i Malcolma Allisona mających do dyspozycji między innymi takich piłkarzy jak Colin Bell i Francis Lee. +W latach 90. zespół dwukrotnie spadł – najpierw z Premier League, następnie z Division One. Od 2002 roku nieprzerwanie występuje w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej. W sezonie 2011/2012 zespół zdobył tytuł mistrza Anglii. +Historia. +Przed drugą wojną światową. +Manchester City został założony w 1880 roku jako St. Marks (West Gorton) przez Annę Connell, córkę proboszcza kościoła pod wezwaniem św. Marka w dystrykcie Gorton i dwóch strażników z tegoż kościoła, zarazem pracowników pobliskiej huty. W roku 1887 Manchester City zaczął grać na nowym stadionie Hyde Road, położonym w dystrykcie Ardwick, na wschód od centrum miasta, i zmienił nazwę na Ardwick A.F.C., by odzwierciedlić przeprowadzkę. Pod tą nazwą w 1892 roku dołączył do the Football League jako członek-założyciel Second Division, drugiej ligi. Problemy finansowe w sezonie 1893/1894 doprowadziły do reorganizacji klubu, w ramach której jego nazwa została zmieniona na Manchester City F.C. +Pierwszym osiągnięciem Manchesteru City było wygranie Second Division w 1899 roku i zarazem awans do najwyższej klasy rozgrywkowej, First Division, ale pierwszym znaczącym trofeum był dopiero Puchar Anglii zdobyty 23 kwietnia 1904 roku dzięki finałowemu zwycięstwu 1:0 nad Bolton Wanderers. City miało zresztą szansę na zdobycie w tym sezonie podwójnej korony, ale ostatecznie drużyna ukończyła rozgrywki ligowe na drugim miejscu w tabeli. +W kolejnych sezonach klub musiał stawić czoła oskarżeniom o nieprawidłowości finansowe, które ostatecznie doprowadziły do zawieszenia siedemnastu graczy, w tym kapitana, Billy'ego Mereditha, w 1906 roku; Meredith wkrótce odszedł do Manchesteru United. W 1920 roku pożar na Hyde Road zniszczył główną trybunę, a trzy lata później klub przeniósł się na nowy, specjalnie dlań wybudowany stadion – Maine Road w Moss Side. +W latach 30. Manchester City dwa razy z rzędu docierał do meczów finałowych Pucharu Anglii – w 1933 roku przegrał z Evertonem, a w 1934 roku wygrał z Portsmouth F.C.. Trzy lata później triumfował w walce o mistrzostwo Anglii, ale w następnym sezonie spadł z ligi, chociaż strzelił więcej goli niż którakolwiek z pozostałych ekip. +Po drugiej wojnie światowej. +Dwadzieścia lat później drużyna, dzięki systemowi taktycznemu zwanemu "Revie Plan" ("plan Reviego"), dwa razy z rzędu dotarła do finału Pucharu Anglii, pierwszy z nich przegrała (w 1955 z Newcastle United), a wygrała drugi (w 1956 3:1 z Birmingham City; mecz jest znany z powodu występu Berta Trautmanna, który grał w nim, nie wiedząc, iż odniósł poważną kontuzję szyi). +W styczniu 1965, dwa lata po spadku do drugiej dywizji Manchester City ustanowił ponury rekord najmniejszej frekwencji kibiców na własnym stadionie – 8015 widzów. Było to w meczu przeciwko drużynie Swindon Town. W lecie 1965 trenerem klubu został Joe Mercer wraz z Malcolmem Allisonem. W pierwszym sezonie pod wodzą Mercera Manchester City wygrał drugą dywizję, a najważniejszymi piłkarzami klubu byli: Mike Summerbee i Colin Bell. Dwa sezony później, w latach 1967–1968, Manchester City po raz drugi zdobył mistrzostwo Anglii, tytuł zapewniając sobie dzięki zwycięstwu 4:3 nad Newcastle United ostatniego dnia sezonu. Kolejne zdobyte trofea to Puchar Anglii w roku 1969 oraz Puchar Zdobywców Pucharów w roku 1970, uzyskany w Wiedniu po zwycięstwie 2:1 nad Górnikiem Zabrze. W tym samym sezonie zespół zdobył także Puchar Ligi, stając się jednocześnie drugim angielskim klubem, któremu udało się zdobyć puchar krajowy i europejski w tym samym sezonie. +Lata 70. to dalsza walka o laury, zwieńczona dwukrotnie drugim miejscem w lidze, kiedy to zespół dwukrotnie kończył sezon mając stratę jednego punktu do lidera. W roku 1974 Manchester City udało się awansować do meczu finałowego Pucharu Ligi, który zakończył się jednak porażką 2:1 z Wolverhampton Wanderers. "Szczególnie zapamiętanym" spotkaniem z tego okresu jest ostatni mecz sezonu 1973/1974 przeciwko derbowym rywalom z Manchester United. Potrzebowali oni jedynie jednego zwycięstwa, by pozostać w pierwszej lidze. Denis Law, były gracz United zdobył gola strzałem piętą, pieczętując spadek rywali do drugiej ligi. Zwieńczeniem tego obfitego w sukcesy okresu było zwycięstwo w Pucharze Ligi roku 1976, w którym City pokonało 2:1 Newcastle United. +Kolejne lata to znaczna zniżka formy w porównaniu z sukcesami lat 60. oraz 70. Malcolm Allison w 1979 roku po raz drugi objął posadę menedżera, jednak nietrafione transfery, takie jak kupno Steve'a Daley'ego kosztowały go utratę stanowiska. W klubie zaczęła się intensywna rotacja szkoleniowców – w samych latach 80. było ich ośmiu. W 1981 roku City dotarło do finału Pucharu Anglii, w którym uległo Tottenhamowi Hotspur 2:3 (było to drugie spotkanie, w pierwszym padł remis 1:1). W latach 1983 i 1987 klub spadł do niższej ligi. Pod wodzą Petera Reida zespół odbudował się w Division One, dwukrotnie kończąc rozgrywki w pierwszej piątce. Była to jednak tylko chwilowa zwyżka, po odejściu Reida zespół ponownie popadł w marazm. City było jednym z założycieli Premier League, jednak w roku 1992 po raz kolejny spadło do Division One. Po dwóch sezonach spędzonych w tej lidze drużynie przypadł w udziale wątpliwy zaszczyt bycia pierwszym w historii zespołem ze zwycięstwem w europejskim pucharze, który spadł do trzeciej ligi. +Po spadku klub przeszedł gruntowną wewnętrzną reformę pod rządami nowego prezesa, Davida Bernstaina, który m.in. wprowadził znacznie wydajniejszą kontrolę finansową. City awansowało poziom wyżej już w pierwszym sezonie, po dramatycznym meczu z Gillingham. W następnym sezonie zespół znów awansował, jednak Premier League okazało się zbyt mocne dla City, co skończyło się kolejnym spadkiem w 2001 roku. Jako menedżer zatrudniony został Kevin Keegan, prowadząc zespół do szturmu na pierwszą ligę w sezonie 2001/2002, kiedy to klub pobił rekordy liczby zdobytych punktów i strzelonych bramek w jednym sezonie. +Przejście na nowy stadion. +Sezon 2002/2003 był ostatnim, w którym Manchester rozgrywał mecze na Maine Road. Wygrał wówczas derby Manchesteru 3:1, na co musiał czekać aż 13 lat. City zakwalifikowało się także do Pucharu UEFA, ponieważ zwyciężył w rankingu Fair-Play. Po raz pierwszy od 25 lat Manchester zagrał w europejskich pucharach. W roku 2003 "The Citizens" zaczęli grać na nowym stadionie o nazwie City of Manchester Stadium. +W marcu 2005 roku Kevin Keegan opuścił klub, a pełniącym obowiązki menedżera został Stuart Pearce, który poprowadził zespół do ośmiu zwycięstw z rzędu, co niemalże pozwoliło zespołowi zakwalifikować się do europejskich pucharów. Pearce został nagrodzony pełnoprawną rolą menedżera. Do listopada 2005 roku City utrzymywało się w pierwszej szóstce. Forma spadła jednak w drugiej połowie sezonu, co poskutkowało 15 pozycją na zakończenie rozgrywek. +W sezonie 2006/2007 City miało problemy ze strzelaniem bramek, zwłaszcza w meczach przed własną publicznością. Dość powiedzieć, że zespół zdobył na swoim boisku jedynie 10 goli, co stanowiło nowy rekord (Sunderland w sezonie 2002/2003 zdobył bramek 14, zaś rekord należał do Woolwich Arsenal, który w sezonie 1912/1913 strzelił 11 goli). W ostatnich dwóch domowych meczach sezonu zawodnicy City nie wykorzystali dwóch rzutów karnych i zakończyli sezon na 14 pozycji. Dopełnieniem tego sezonu było zwolnienie Pearce'a i jego sztabu szkoleniowego. +Następca Pearce'a, Sven-Göran Eriksson, przejął stery w zespole w lipcu 2007 roku, po opuszczeniu stanowiska selekcjonera zespołu narodowego Anglii. City wygrało pierwsze trzy mecze sezonu (w tym także derby przeciwko Manchesterowi United), nie tracąc żadnej bramki. Passę zatrzymał dopiero w czwartym meczu Arsenal. Na własnym stadionie zespół zdołał utrzymać passę dziesięciu zwycięstw z rzędu, rozpoczętą od zwycięstwa nad Derby 5 sierpnia, a zakończoną na porażce 2:0 z Tottenhamem Hotspur 18 grudnia. Po tym wszystkim, pomimo dwukrotnego zwycięstwa nad Manchesterem United, występy w dalszej części sezonu były słabsze niż w pierwszej połowie sezonu. Gdy do końca rozgrywek zostawały dwa spotkania, prezes klubu Thaksin Shinawatra postanowił zwolnić po sezonie Erikssona, co wywarło protesty ze stronów fanów. Dwie z największych organizacji kibicowskich mocno skrytykowało Shinawatrę, którego działania, mogły wrogo nastawić kibiców do jego osoby. Pod koniec sezonu, gdy w klubie panował lekki zgiełk, City przegrało ostatni mecz sezonu z Middlesbrough 8:1, mimo to zakwalifikowało się do Pucharu UEFA, poprzez ranking fair play. Eriksson zabrał drużynę na tournée po Tajlandii i Hongkongu, po czym 2 czerwca 2008 roku został zwolniony ze stanowiska. Dwa dni później jego posadę objął Mark Hughes. +1 września 2008 roku za kwotę 32,5 miliona funtów do Manchesteru City dołączył Robinho. "The Citizens" ustanowili zarazem rekord transferowy na Wyspach Brytyjskich. W pierwszych kolejkach sezonu drużyna była w czołówce tabeli, seria porażek sprawiła jednak, że pod koniec 2008 roku klub był tuż nad strefą spadkową. Lepsza forma prezentowana w roku 2009 sprawiła, jednak, że klub zajmuje miejsce w środkowej części tabeli. Manchester City dotarł także do ćwierćfinału Pucharu UEFA, jednak przegrał w nim z Hamburger SV. W letnim okienku transferowym, przed sezonem 2009/2010 Manchester City wydało ponad 120 milionów funtów na transfery. Klub kupił Garetha Barry'ego, Roque Santa Cruza, Emmanuela Adebayora, Carlosa Téveza, Joleona Lescotta oraz Kolo Toure. 19 grudnia 2009 roku zwolniono Marka Hughesa i zatrudniono Roberto Manciniego. +Symbole klubowe. +Barwy. +Barwy Citizens to błękit i biel. Tradycyjne stroje wyjazdowe były albo kasztanowe, albo (od lat 60.) czerwono-czarne, w ostatnich latach jednak w użyciu są także inne kolory. W sezonie 2004/2005 zespół nosił białe koszulki, fioletowe spodenki i białe getry, zaś w następnym stroje wyjazdowe były już w całości granatowe. Natomiast w sezonie 2006/2007 stroje były czarne z szarym paskiem. W starciach na wyjeździe z zespołami z Premiership, których stroje podstawowe były ciemnoniebieskie, City najczęściej występowało w trzecim komplecie, na który składały się żółta koszulka oraz czarne spodenki i getry. W jednym z programów meczowych próbowano usprawiedliwiać ten wybór, tłumacząc, że żółty kolor nawiązuje do barw strojów z lat 50. i 60. W rzeczywistości jednak kolor ten był bursztynowy z kasztanowym paskiem i używano go bardzo rzadko. +Od sezonu 2007/2008 białe paski pojawiły się zarówno na koszulkach wyjazdowych (fioletowe z białymi paskami), jak i domowych (błękitne z białymi paskami). Do dyspozycji zespół ma też trzeci zestaw – białe koszulki z poprzecznym błękitnym paskiem, błękitne spodenki i białe getry. +Nie jest jasne dlaczego klub gra w takim zestawie kolorów, są jednak dowody, że błękit jest kolorem Manchesteru co najmniej od 1892 roku. Według jednej z plotek przywiązanie do tego koloru jest łączone z ruchem wolnomularskim. Według broszury zatytułowanej "Famous Football Clubs – Manchester City", opublikowanej w 1940 roku zespół pierwotnie, jeszcze jako West Gorton (St. Marks) nosił szkarłat i czerń. Według relacji datowanych na rok 1884 zawodnicy nosili czarne koszulki z białym krzyżem, podkreślające chrześcijańskie korzenie klubu. Pomysł na czerwono-czarne stroje wyjazdowe wyszedł od ówczesnego asystenta menedżera Malcolma Allisona, który twierdził, że użycie barw A.C. Milan natchnie zespół do zwycięstw. +Herb. +Obecny herb został ustanowiony jako oficjalny w 1997 roku, ponieważ wcześniejszy emblemat nie mógł zostać zarejestrowany jako znak towarowy. Jest on wzorowany na herbie miasta Manchester i składa się z tarczy na tle złotego orła. Na tarczy widnieje statek, reprezentujący Kanał Manchesterski oraz, w dolnej części, trzy ukośne linie, symbolizujące trzy rzeki, które płyną przez miasto. Na dole herbu widnieje dewiza z łacińską sentencją "Superbia in Praelia" ("dumni w walce"). Nad orłem znajdują się trzy gwiazdy, będące motywem czysto dekoracyjnym. +W przeszłości City miało dwa inne herby. Pierwszy, zaprezentowany w 1970 roku, bazował na wzorze używanym w oficjalnych korespondencjach klubu od późnych lat 60. Herb ten był okrągły, na obwodzie znajdowała się nazwa klubu, w środku zaś tarcza, identyczna z tą używaną współcześnie. Emblemat ten został zastąpiony w roku 1972 w wersję, w której górną część tarczy zastąpiono czerwoną różą z Lancashire. W wypadku występów w finałach ważnych imprez klub nie używa oficjalnego loga zespołu, zastępując je herbem miasta, co ma podkreślić dumę z reprezentowania Manchesteru. Ta tradycja pochodzi z czasów, gdy na koszulkach nie było herbu, jednak przetrwała do czasów współczesnych. +Stadion. +Obecnym stadionem zespołu jest Etihad Stadium, nowoczesny 48-tysięcznik, usytuowany we wschodnim Manchesterze. Jest on własnością miasta, na stałe wynajmowaną przez City. Zespół przeniósł się na ten obiekt po zakończeniu sezonu 2002/2003, opuszczając Maine Road. Wcześniej stadion nazywał się City of Manchester Stadium, jednak w lipcu 2011 nazwa stadionu została sprzedana sponsorowi Obywateli, emirackim liniom lotniczym Etihad Airways . +Przed przeprowadzką City zainwestowało w obiekt około 35 milionów funtów, dzięki czemu obniżono płytę boiska pod poziom gruntu, dodano nowy rząd siedzeń oraz wybudowano trybunę północną. Meczem inauguracyjnym było spotkanie z FC Barceloną, zakończone zwycięstwem 2:1. Pierwszym strzelcem gola na nowym obiekcie był Nicolas Anelka. +W przeszłości Manchester City występował na wielu innych boiskach. W latach 1880-1887, po występach na pięciu różnych obiektach klub w końcu osiadł na Hyde Road, gdzie grał przez 36 lat. Po pożarze, który zniszczył główną trybunę w roku 1920 zaczęto rozglądać się za nowym stadionem. W 1923 klub przeniósł się na Maine Road, nazywanym przez projektantów "Wembley Północy". Stadion ten mógł pomieścić 84 tysięcy ludzi i był świadkiem najwyższej frekwencji w historii meczów drużyn klubowych w Anglii, kiedy to 84,569 kibiców oglądało zwycięstwo ze Stoke City w ramach Pucharu Anglii. Maine Road było kilkukrotnie rozbudowywane w ciągu 80 lat, jednak w 1995 jego pojemność została ograniczona do 32 tysięcy co zmusiło zespół do przeprowadzki na City of Manchester Stadium. Pojemność nowego stadionu to 47 726 co plasuje obiekt na piątym miejscy w Premier League. +Kibice. +Manchester City pomimo braku znaczących sukcesów w ostatnich latach posiada wielu oddanych fanów. Od czasu przeprowadzki na City of Manchester Stadium, średnia frekwencja na meczach plasowała się w pierwszej szóstce w kraju. W sezonie 2006/2007 średnia nieznacznie spadła, na każdy mecz przychodziło około 40 tysięcy kibiców. Nawet w późnych latach 90., kiedy to klub dwukrotnie w ciągu trzech lat relegowano do niższej klasy rozgrywkowej, udało się osiągnąć średnią na poziomie 30 tysięcy kibiców. Warto zauważyć, że w League One (wówczas Divison One) średnia wynosiła niecałe 8 tysięcy. Badanie zlecone przez zespół wykazały, że klub może poszczycić się bazą fanów wynoszącą 886 tysięcy osób w Wielkiej Brytanii oraz ponad 2 milionami osób na całym świecie. +Manchester City posiada wiele fan clubów, z czego trzy są oficjalne: Official Supporters Club, Centenary Supporters Association oraz International Supporters Club. Publikowanych jest kilka fanowskich magazynów, takich jak najstarszy – "King of the Kippax", czy też "City till I Cry". +Znani kibice City to na przykład bracia Liam i Noel Gallagher z pochodzącego z Manchesteru zespołu rockowego Oasis. 27 i 28 kwietnia 1996 roku zespół zagrał na Main Road koncert, zapis którego ukazał się na wideo ...There And Then później tego samego roku. +Hymnem fanów jest "Blue Moon", który pomimo melancholijnego nastroju jest skomponowany z zapałem godnym heroicznego hymnu. Kibice City uważają, że nieprzewidywalność jest wrodzoną cechą zespołu. Zgodnie z tą zasadą wszelkie niespodziewane rezultaty i osiągnięcia są określane jako "typowe dla City". Jako przykłady podawane są takie wydarzenia, jak na przykład bycie pierwszymi obrońcami tytułu relegowanymi do niższej ligi (w 1938) czy zdobycie i stracenie ponad 100 bramek w jednym sezonie (1957/1958) jako pierwszy zespół w historii. City to także jedyny zespół, który pokonał Chelsea w sezonie 2004/2005. Dalej w tym samym sezonie Oldham Athletic, zespół grający dwie klasy rozrywkowe niżej wyeliminował Manchester z Pucharu Anglii, co także określono jako "typowe dla City". +Największym rywalem City jest derbowy rywal, Manchester United. Mecze pomiędzy tymi zespołami nazywane są Derbami Manchesteru. W odróżnieniu od innych wielkich rywali z tych samych miast, jak to ma miejsce w Glasgow czy Sewilli, rywalizacja między City a United nie bierze się z różnic religijnych. Przed II wojną światową, kiedy wyjazdy na mecze wyjazdowe były rzadkością, wielu kibiców uczęszczało na mecze obydwu drużyn. Praktyka ta trwała w latach 60., lecz później, gdy koszty transportu malały, a bilety drożały, kibicowanie dwóm zespołom stało się rzadkością. +Według popularnego stereotypu kibic City pochodzi z samego miasta, kiedy to zwolennik United wywodzi się z jego okolic. w 2002 roku badania przeprowadzone przez Manchester Metropolitan University wykazały, że City ma proporcjonalnie więcej kibiców mieszkających w mieście niż rywal. City ma także zdecydowanie więcej fanów w południowych i wschodnich częściach miasta, podczas gdy fani United wywodzą się głównie z części północnej i zachodniej. +W późnych latach 80. fani zaczęli przynosić na mecze różne nadmuchiwane przedmioty, przede wszystkim wielkie banany. Początków tego zjawiska można upatrywać się w meczu przeciwko West Bromwich Albion, kiedy to fani nawołujący do wprowadzenia na boisko Imre Varadiego przekręcili jego nazwisko na "Imre Banana". Trybuny zapełnione fanami wymachującymi nadmuchiwanymi zabawkami stały się częstym widokiem w sezonie 1988/1989, kiedy to moda przeniosła się na inne zespoły (dmuchaną rybę upodobali sobie fani Grimsby Town). Fenomen ten osiągnął punkt kulminacyjny podczas meczu przeciwko Stoke City 26 grudnia 1988, zapowiadany w fanowskich magazynach jako bal przebierańców. Tradycja odrodziła się w sezonie 2006/2007, kiedy to występy City w Pucharze Anglii przyciągały na trybuny tysiące kibiców z żółtymi i niebieskimi dmuchanymi balonami w dłoniach. +W sierpniu 2006 roku klub został pierwszą drużyną w Premier League, która wprowadziła politykę "gay-friendly", dotyczącą zarówno piłkarzy jak i kibiców. +Oficjalnymi maskotkami zespołu są kosmici "Moonchester" i "Moonbeam", ich imiona stworzono na podstawie tytułu hymnu kibiców – piosenki "Blue Moon". +Kibice Manhesteru City zostali przez BFFA (British Football Fans Association) uznani najlojalniejszymi kibicami w Premier League, zaraz za nimi znaleźli się sympatycy Liverpoolu i Portsmouth. +Własność. +Spółką nadrzędną dla Manchester City F.C. jest prywatna spółka kapitałowa Manchester City Limited. Klub wyemitował około 54 miliony akcji. Latem 2007 roku główni udziałowcy zgodzili się odsprzedać swoje udziały spółce UK Sports Investments Limited (UKSIL), kontrolowanej przez byłego premiera Tajlandii Thaksina Shinawatrę. Po przejęciu UKSIL złożył ofertę wykupu akcji od pozostałych, mniejszych udziałowców. +Przed przejęciem, klub był notowany od 1995 roku na niezależnej giełdzie papierów wartościowych PLUS (dawne OFEX). 6 lipca 2007, po przejęciu ponad 75% akcji Thaksin wycofał klub z PLUSa i zarejestrował jako prywatną firmę. Do sierpnia UKSIL przejął ponad 90% akcji i użył prawa do "wyciśnięcia" pozostałych 10%. Thaksin Shinawatra jest prezesem klubu, podczas gdy Garry Cook obecnie jest jego zastępcą. Przed Cookiem urząd ten piastował John Wardle, jednak w lipcu 2008 zrezygnował z pełnienia tej funkcji. Dwójka dzieci Shinawatry: Pintongta i Panthongtae zasiada w zarządzie. +Zaraz po przejęciu klubu Tajlandczyk rozpoczął działania na rynku transferowym, wydając ponad 30 milionów funtów, kiedy to w poprzednich kilku sezonach wydatki transferowy City były jednymi z najniższych w lidze. Shinawatra zawiązał także związki partnerskie z klubami z Chin (Shanghai Shenhua), RPA (Thanda Royahaksinl Zulu), Rosji (FK Moskwa), Szwajcarii (Grasshoppers), Tajlandii (Chonburi) i Australii (Perth Glory). +1 września 2008 roku, grupa Abu Dhabi United Group Investment and Development Limited przejęła Manchester City (większościowym udziałowcem został szejk Mansour bin Zayed). Transakcja o wartości 200 milionów funtów, została potwierdzona 1 września w godzinach porannych. W czasie napiętego ostatniego dnia okna transferowego City złożyło wartą 30 milionów funtów ofertę za Dymitara Berbatowa, który jednak zdecydował się przejść do Manchesteru United. Na minuty przed zamknięciem letniego okna transferowgo na City of Manchester Stadium trafił za 32,5 miliona funtów Robinho, który stał się najdroższym transferem w historii brytyjskiego futbolu. Władze City złożyły też ofertę za Ruuda van Nistelrooya, która jednak została odrzucona. +Zawodnicy i sztab szkoleniowy. +"Stan na 1 lutego 2013" +Zastrzeżone numery. +Od roku 2003 w składzie Manchesteru City nie ma numeru 23. Jest on zastrzeżony aby uczcić pamięć Marca-Viviena Foé. Gracz ten został wypożyczony z Olympique Lyon do City i zmarł w czasie meczu reprezentacji Kamerunu w ramach Pucharu Konfederacji w 2003 roku. +Lista trenerów. +Pełna lista trenerów klubu od założenia klubu. Kursywą zaznaczeni są trenerzy tymczasowi. +Pentium II + +Pentium II - mikroprocesor bazujący na architekturze serii x86, zaprojektowany i wytwarzany przez firmę Intel, oficjalnie zaprezentowany 7 maja 1997. Bazuje na rdzeniu P6, który po raz pierwszy został użyty w Pentium Pro, ma dodatkowe instrukcje MMX i poprawioną obsługę programów 16-bitowych. +Pierwsze wersje Pentium II "Klamath" taktowane zegarem 233 i 266 MHz były produkowane w technologii 350 nm i były bardzo gorące (w porównaniu z innymi procesorami z tamtego okresu). Używały magistrali FSB taktowanej częstotliwością 66 MHz, co było niewystarczające do uzyskania pełnego potencjału tych procesorów. Nieco później pojawiła się odmiana z zegarem 300 MHz. +Następna wersja, "Deschutes" zadebiutowała w styczniu 1998 i dzięki temu, że zmieniono technologię produkcji na 250 nm, wydzielały one zdecydowanie mniej ciepła. Pierwsza wersja procesora o szybkości 333 MHz wciąż używała magistrali FSB 66 MHz, jednak przyspieszono ją później do 100 MHz, co znacznie poprawiło wydajność. W 1998 ukazały się wersje o szybkości 350, 400 i 450 MHz. W tym samym czasie co Pentium II na rynku komputerowym pojawiły się także takie nowości jak SDRAM i magistrala graficzna AGP, co jeszcze bardziej poprawiło osiągi procesora. +W odróżnieniu od poprzednich wersji Pentium, Pentium II nie miał obudowy typu "socket" (gniazdo) ale "slot" (łącze krawędziowe). Takie rozwiązanie było wymagane z dwóch powodów: po pierwsze ułatwiało pozbycie się dużych ilości ciepła generowanych przez Pentium II, a po drugie umożliwiło odseparowanie cache L2 od procesora ale nadal pozwalało na bliskie położenie tych dwóch komponentów. Zewnętrzny cache Pentium II był wolniejszy od rozwiązania użytego w Pentium Pro (pamięć cache pracowała z połową częstotliwości procesora) ale to rozwiązanie pozwoliło zwiększyć wydajność produkcji i obniżyć ceny. +Tańsza wersja Pentium II (całkowicie bez cache lub z mniejszym cache) była sprzedawana pod nazwą "Celeron". Wersja serwerowa była sprzedawana pod nazwą Pentium II Xeon. +Pentium II zostało zastąpione przez Pentium III na początku 1999 roku. +Julius Schreck + +Julius Schreck (ur. 13 lipca 1898 w Monachium, zm. 16 maja 1936, tamże) – kierowca i ochroniarz Adolfa Hitlera, pierwszy dowódca Schutzstaffeln (SS). +Biografia. +Członek NSDAP od 1920 - wstąpił do partii w tym samym czasie co Adolf Hitler (nr NSDAP – 53, nr SS – 5, Blutorder nr 349). W 1921 był jednym z założycieli SA. W marcu 1923 na polecenie Hitlera zorganizował niewielki oddział do ochrony wodza – tzw. Stabswache (warta sztabowa), 16 maja 1923 przemianowaną na Stosstrupp Adolf Hitler (oddział uderzeniowy Adolfa Hitlera). Była to zaledwie 12-osobowa grupa bojówkarzy, jednakże starannie wyselekcjonowana i bezwzględnie lojalna wobec fuehrera. +W listopadzie 1923 Schreck uczestniczył w nieudanym puczu monachijskim, po którym został osadzony w twierdzy Landsberg razem z innymi przywódcami nazistowskimi; Stosstrupp Adolf Hitler przestał istnieć. +W 1925 Schreck ponownie podjął działalność i przystąpił do organizacji oddziału, składającego się początkowo z członków dawnego Stosstrupp Adolf Hitler. Nowa organizacja, nazwana Schutzstaffeln (SS, sztafety ochronne), liczyła najpierw zaledwie 8 osób, a na wiosnę 1926 w jej skład wchodziło już 75 truppen (oddziałów), teoretycznie po 10 członków (faktycznie mniej). +W kwietniu 1926 zdał dowództwo nad SS w ręce Josepha Berchtolda, a sam do 1936 był osobistym szoferem i adiutantem führera, pozostając członkiem SS. 20 lutego 1932 został awansowany do stopnia SS-Sturmführera, 30 stycznia 1933 – do stopnia SS-Standarteführera (z pominięciem pośrednich stopni), 27 lutego 1934 – do stopnia SS-Oberführera. W dniu 1 stycznia 1935 otrzymał rangę SS-Brigadeführera (według niektórych źródeł, jego najwyższym stopniem w SS był Oberführer). +Zmarł na zapalenie opon mózgowych w 1936 i został pochowany na koszt państwa. Był nazywany „chodzącą karykaturą Hitlera”, ze względu na uderzające podobieństwo. Często mylnie nazywany pierwszym Reichsführerem SS. W rzeczywistości, Schreck dowodząc SS, używał tytułu Staffelführer, a pierwszym dowódcą SS, używającym tytułu Reichsführer, był Joseph Berchtold. +Powiat średzki (województwo wielkopolskie) + +Powiat średzki - powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Środa Wielkopolska. +Pod nazwą "powiat średzki" funkcjonowała również jednostka administracyjna m.in. w okresie I Rzeczypospolitej (1791-1793), II Rzeczypospolitej (1919-1939) oraz w latach Polski Ludowej (1945-1975). +Sztuka sakralna + +Sztuka sakralna – twórczość związana z wierzeniami, wiarą i życiem religijnym. +Sam termin "sztuka sakralna" wymyka się jednoznacznym definicjom. Najszerzej rozumiana sztuka sakralna odnosi się do sztuki związanej z sacrum (z łaciny: 'rzecz święta') w odróżnieniu od profanum (dziedzina spraw świeckich). +Sztuka sakralna powstała zanim pojawiła się sztuka świecka i jej dzieje sięgają najdawniejszych form realizacji przedmiotów magicznych, muzyki, śpiewu i tańca jakie ludzie tworzyli w celach błagalnych wobec sił nadprzyrodzonych. +Węższe znaczenie dotyczy sztuki budowania świątyń, ich dekorowania, przedstawiania postaci bogów i duchów w rzeźbie i malarstwie oraz tworzenia dzieł poetyckich. +Najczęściej jednak termin "sztuka sakralna" jest stosowany w odniesieniu do sztuki chrześcijanskiej i dotyczy architektury kościelnej, rzeźby i malarstwa świątyń oraz muzyki i pieśni wykonywanych podczas liturgii. +Pierwsze dzieła sakralne pochodzą już z czasów prehistorycznych. Były to przeważnie malowidła jaskiniowe zachowane w dużej ilości na terenach Francji (Lascaux) i Afryki. Sztuka tego okresu nie opierała się jedynie na malowidłach, do naszych czasów zachowały się również formy rzeźbiarskie z terenów Grecji- Cyklady (Cykladzcy harfiści), Francji (Żubry z Tuc d’Audoubert,Wenus z Brassempouy). +Najwięcej dzieł czysto religijnych zachowało się z czasów II i IIIw.p.n.e szczególnie w Egipcie (Posągi ka Tutanchamona, Piramida Dżesera w Sakkarze, Posąg Mykerinosa i królowej Chamerernebti, Malowidła z grobowca Nebamona, Pektorały Tutanchamona, Młody hipopotam), Grecji (Dyskobol,Posąg Zeusa, Posąg Ateny, Amfiteatr) i Rzymie (Baalbek, Panteon w Rzymie, Ucieczka Dariusza III przed Aleksandrem Wielkim, Sarkofag Dionizosa)- malowidła, rzeźby, architektura sakralna oraz rzemiosło artystyczne. Na terenie Egiptu rozwinął się kult bogów, których przedstawiano na rozmaite sposoby zarówno w malowidłach na ścianach pałaców jak i grobowców jak i w rzeźbach. Jako że swych władców uważali za wcielenie bóstwa na ziemi zachowało się do naszych czasów wiele sarkofagów i rzeźb przedstawiających realnie żyjące wówczas postacie. +W Grecji dzięki twórcom takim jak Fidiasz powstał kanon który stosowany jest po dziś dzień, a sztuka rzymska jest tylko rozwinięciem sztuki greckiej. +Rzymianie przejęli większą część kultury Greckiej, miało się to również do sztuki gdzie dzięki ich doskonałym kopiom możemy wiedzieć jak wyglądały dzieła Greckich twórców. +Middlesbrough F.C. + +Middlesbrough Football Club - angielski klub piłkarski, założony w Middlesbrough w 1876 roku. Od 1995 roku gra na obecnym obiekcie, Riverside Stadium. +Od sezonu 1997/98 do 2008/09 zespół nieprzerwanie grał w Premiership. +Steve McClaren, były trener reprezentacji Anglii, zanim objął drużynę narodową, pracował w Middlesbrough w latach 2001-06. +Statystyki klubowe. +Najwięcej występów: Tim Williamson - 602 +Najwięcej bramek: George Camsell - 345 +Najwyższe zwycięstwo:11-0 ze Scarborough F.C. - 4 października 1890 roku +Najwyższe zwycięstwo w Premiership:8-1 z Manchester City - 11 maja 2008 roku +Najwyższa porażka w Premiership:0-7 z Arsenalem - 14 stycznia 2006 roku +Aktualna kadra. +Zawodnicy. +"Stan na 25 września 2012" +Charlton Athletic F.C. + +Charlton Athletic Football Club – angielski klub piłkarski założony 9 czerwca 1905 roku w Londynie, w dzielnicy Charlton. Największym jego sukcesem jest zdobycie Pucharu Anglii w 1947 roku. Zespół rozgrywa swoje mecze na stadionie The Valley mogącym pomieścić 27 111 widzów. Obecnie występuje w Football League Championship. +Aktualny skład. +"Stan na 21 września 2012" +Karykatura + +Karykatura (wł. "caricatura") – przedstawienie osoby, wydarzenia lub przedmiotu, które cechuje się przesadą w oddaniu charakterystycznych elementów, właściwości, cech. Karykatura uwydatnia te cechy zwykle w celu ośmieszenia danej osoby, zjawiska itd. +Terminem tym określa się także dzieło zawierające właśnie takie przedstawienie. Często jest to rysunek (zazwyczaj portret), rzadziej rzeźba (np. karykatury autorstwa Józefa Gosławskiego). Także forma literacka, gdzie sposób przedstawienia postaci literackiej, polega na wyolbrzymieniu i pełnym przesady wyjaskrawieniu pewnych cech jej wyglądu zewnętrznego lub postawy wobec życia, mający na celu ośmieszającą charakterystykę. Karykatura jest jednym z uprzywilejowanych instrumentów satyry. +Słowo karykatura jest także używane na określenie zniekształcenia, wykrzywienia właściwego, naturalnego charakteru kogoś lub czegoś (deformacja). +Aldus Corporation + +Aldus Corporation – nieistniejące już amerykańskie przedsiębiorstwo software'owe (jego nazwa pochodziła od nazwiska XV-wiecznego drukarza weneckiego Aldusa Manutiusa), znane przede wszystkim jako twórca przełomowego programu do DTP, Aldus PageMaker. Założycielem i prezesem Aldusa był Paul Brainerd. +PageMaker dla komputerów Macintosh został pokazany w lipcu 1985 r. – opierał się na języku opisu stron Adobe PostScript, a do wydruku używał postscriptowych drukarek laserowych Apple LaserWriter. Rok później ukazała się wersja dla komputerów PC. Innym produktem Aldusa był FreeHand (licencjonowany od przedsiębiorstwa Altsys, znanego z edytora fontów Fontographer), przejęty potem przez Macromedia. +W latach 90. rynek został zdominowany przez konkurencyjny program DTP, QuarkXPress firmy Quark. Przedsiębiorstwo Adobe Systems, twórca PostScriptu, zdecydowało się przejąć Aldusa, co nastąpiło we wrześniu 1994 r. +West Bromwich Albion F.C. + +West Bromwich Albion Football Club (WBA, West Brom) (wymawiaj: ) – angielski zawodowy klub piłkarski, mający swoją siedzibę w West Bromwich w West Midlands; występujący w sezonie 2011/2012 w rozgrywkach Premier League. +Historia. +Klub założony został w 1878 roku jako West Bromwich Strollers przez pracowników firmy George'a Saltera. Status profesjonalny uzyskał w roku 1885. +West Bromwich Albion jest jednym z założycieli The Football League i większość lat spędził w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej w Anglii. Mistrzem Anglii był jeden raz, w sezonie 1919/1920, oprócz tego pięć razy zdobył Puchar kraju. Pierwszy raz uczynił to w roku 1888, zaś ostatni raz w 1968. W roku 1966 zdobył także Puchar Ligi. W latach 1986/2002 drużyna spędziła najdłuższy okres w swojej historii poza pierwszą ligą. +Od 11 lutego 2011 roku szkoleniowcem zespołu jest Roy Hodgson. Obecnie drużyna występuje w Premier League. +Barwy klubu to niebieski i biały. Największym rywalem W.B.A. jest Wolverhampton Wanderers; mecze pomiędzy tymi drużynami noszą nazwę Black Country derby. +Stadion. +Drużyna West Bromwich Albion swoje mecze rozgrywa na The Hawthorns. Stadion ten został oddany został do użytku w 1900 roku. Został wtedy szóstym kolejnym obiektem używanym przez klub. Po przebudowie obiektu w roku 2001 roku, jego obecna pojemność wynosi 28 003 miejsc. Rekordową frekwencję, wynoszącą 64 815 osób, odnotowano w 1937 roku podczas meczu ligowego pomiędzy West Bromwich Albion F.C. a Arsenalem. +Teren wybrany pod stadion znajdował się po raz pierwszy poza centrum miasta. Obszar był porośnięty głogiem i stąd nazwa The Hawthorns. Podpisano umowę dającą prawo wykupu terenu przez klub w ciągu 14 lat, co nastąpiło w 1913 roku. +Na początku pojemność stadionu wynosiła 35,500 miejsc. Pierwszy mecz odbył się 3 września 1900 r., gdy WBA zremisowało z Derby County. Na meczy zjawiło się 20,104 ludzi. Pierwsza bramka została zapisana na konto Steve'a Bloomera z Derby a pierwszą dla West Brom ustrzelił Chippy Simmons. +Crystal Palace F.C. + +Crystal Palace Football Club - angielski klub piłkarski, założony w Londynie w 1905 roku, występujący obecnie w Football League Championship. +Historia. +Crystal Palace został założony w 1905 roku w południowym Londynie. Swoje pierwsze spotkanie drużyna rozegrała 2 września 1905 roku z rezerwami Southampton w ramach Southern League Division Two. W 1924 roku Palace przenieśli się na stadion Selhurst Park, gdzie rozgrywają swoje mecze do dziś. Pierwszy mecz na tym stadionie rozegrany został 30 sierpnia, a rywalem był zespół Sheffield Wednesday. +W 1969 roku drużyna zajęła 2. miejsce w Division Two, uzyskując pierwszy raz w historii awans do najwyższej klasy rozgrywkowej w Anglii, gdzie spędziła następne 4 sezony. Inauguracyjny sezon w pierwszej lidze Palace zakończyli na ostatnim bezpiecznym 20. miejscu. W 1973 roku drużyna zajęła 21. miejsce spadając z ligi. W tym roku po raz pierwszy w herbie klubu pojawił się orzeł, który stał się w późniejszych latach jednym z najważniejszych symboli Palace. W kolejnym sezonie drużyna zaliczyła kolejny spadek do Division Three. W 1977 roku managerem został mianowany Terry Venables, który przez dwa lata wywalczył dwa kolejne awanse, wprowadzając Palace z powrotem do pierwszej ligi. W pierwszym sezonie po powrocie drużyna zajęła 13 miejsce. Natomiast w sezonie 1980/81 zespół znów spadł do Division Two. +Po 8 sezonach w Division Two Steve Coppell wprowadził Palace na najwyższy poziom rozgrywek, wygrywając w 1989 roku 3-0 baraż z drużyną Blackburn Rovers. W 1990 roku drużyna awansowała po raz pierwszy w historii do finału pucharu Anglii. Pierwsze spotkanie z Manchesterem United na Wembley zakończyło się wynikiem 3:3. W powtórzonym spotkaniu Palace przegrali 0:1. W sezonie 1990/91 drużyna zajęła 3. miejsce w pierwszej lidze, co było najlepszym osiągnięciem w historii Crystal Palace. W tym sezonie piłkarze Orłów wrócili także na Wembley, gdzie pokonali Everton, zdobywając Zenith Data Systems Cup. Po sezonie 1992/93 zespół spadł z nowo powstałej Premier League, aby po roku do niej powrócić, wygrywając tytuł First Division. Sezon 1994/95 Palace ukończyli na 19 miejscu, które oznaczało spadek z Premier League. Rok 1997 przyniósł kolejny awans do najwyższej klasy rozgrywkowej po wygraniu na Wembley finału baraży z Sheffield United 1:0. Pomimo wzmocnienia drużyny takimi piłkarzami jak Attilio Lombardo i Tomas Brolin drużyna zajęła ostatnie miejsce w Premier League. Na końcu tego sezonu drużyna zaliczyła jedyny w historii start w europejskich pucharach, przegrywając dwa razy 0:2 z tureckim zespołem Samsunspor w trzeciej rundzie Pucharu Intertoto. Sezon Crystal Palace zakończyli z poważnymi problemami finansowymi i weszli na dwa lata pod zarząd administracyjny. W lipcu 2000 roku nowym właścicielem klubu został Simon Jordan, wyprowadzając Palace z zarządu administracyjnego. +W 2004 roku drużyna awansowała do finału baraży o Premier League, gdzie na stadionie Millenium w Cardiff pokonała 1:0 West Ham United. Pobyt w Premier League zakończył się znowu po roku. Od sezonu 2005/06 drużyna nieprzerwanie występuje na drugim stopniu rozgrywek. W 2006 i 2008 roku Palace zakwalifikowali się do baraży o Premier League, jednak w półfinałach przegrali odpowiednio z Watford w 2006 roku i z Bristol City w 2008. W sezonie 2009/2010 do klubu ponownie wszedł pod zarząd administracyjny. W połowie rozgrywek drużynie odjęto 10 punktów, co zmusiło Palace do heroicznej walki o utrzymanie do ostatniej kolejki, gdzie w decydującym starciu na stadionie Hillsborough z ekipą Sheffield Wednesday zremisowali 2:2 zapewniając sobie utrzymanie po bramkach Alana Lee i Darrena Ambrose'a. W lecie 2010 klubowi groziła likwidacja. Został on jednak przejęty przez konsorcjum CPFC2010, co pozwoliło Palace przetrwać. W sezonie 2011/2012 Orły po zwycięstwie 2:1 nad Manchesterem United na Old Trafford awansowały do półfinału Carling Cup, gdzie jednak musiały uznać wyższość Cardiff City po rzutach karnych. Sezon ten drużyna zakończyła na bezpiecznym 17. miejscu w tabeli. +Zapotekowie + +Zapotekowie – grupa rdzennych mieszkańców Meksyku, zamieszkujących środkowo-wschodnią część obecnego stanu Oaxaca. +Obecnie ich populacja liczy ok. 400 tys., większość posługuje się językiem hiszpańskim, w użyciu jest też silnie rozdrobniony dialektalnie język zapotecki z rodziny oto-mangueskiej. +W czasach prekolumbijskich stworzyli jedną z trzech wielkich kultur mezoamerykańskich. Najważniejszym ośrodkiem tej kultury było miasto Monte Albán. Pozostałe to: Lambityeco, Dainzu, Mitla, Yagul, San Jose Mogote i Zaachila. +Najbardziej znanym Zapotekiem był Benito Juárez. +Chłopomania + +Chłopomania (ludomania) - zjawisko artystyczne, które pojawiło się wśród inteligencji młodopolskiej i ukraińskiej w drugiej połowie XIX wieku. +Charakteryzowała się fascynacją folklorem i codziennym życiem chłopów. Mężczyźni z inteligencji często brali sobie za żony chłopki. Powodem owego zachwytu była wiara, że stagnacja jaka opanowała środowisko inteligencji oraz postępujący kryzys kulturowy spowodowane są życiem w mieście. Dlatego też postulowano powrót do natury, najlepiej na wieś, która miała być źródłem odnowy sił witalnych i artystycznych, nadwątlonych w wyniku dostosowania się do współczesnego trybu życia (np. w "Weselu" Wyspiańskiego). +Chłopomania na Ukrainie. +W Imperium Rosyjskim, na Prawobrzeżnej Ukrainie zjawisko to rozwinęło się najpełniej w latach 50. i 60. XIX wieku. Głównymi przedstawicielami tego ruchu byli: Wołodymyr Antonowycz, Tadej Rylśkyj, Borys Poznanśkyj, Kostiantyn Mychalczuk, Pawło Żytećkyj, Pawło Czubynśkyj. +Kodeks prawa kanonicznego z 1917 + +Codex Iuris Canonici, Pii X Pontificis Maximi iussu digestus, Benedicti Papae XV auctoritate promulgatus (pol. kodeks prawa kanonicznego) to pierwsza nowoczesna kodyfikacja prawa kanonicznego Kościoła katolickiego obrządku łacińskiego promulgowana 27 maja 1917 r. przez Benedykta XV bullą "Providentissima Mater Ecclesia". Kodeks wszedł w życie 19 maja 1918. +"Kodeks" składa się z pięciu ksiąg, które dzielą się na części (oprócz pierwszej), działy, tytuły, rozdziały i artykuły. Zawiera 2414 kanony, w razie potrzeby podzielone na paragrafy, a te - na numery. +"Kodeks" zastąpił wszystkie dotychczasowe przepisy z wyjątkami, które zostały określone w kan. 2-5. Obowiązywał Kościół obrządku łacińskiego, jednakże dotyczył również Kościołów wschodnich w sprawach wyraźnie wskazanych lub z samej ich natury. Uporządkował wiele instytucji przez włączenie norm, które wynikały do tej pory ze zwyczaju lub doktryny, a wiele z nich uregulował na nowo i w sposób odpowiadający potrzebom epoki. +Nie był jednak pozbawiony wad wśród których wskazywano przede wszystkim systematykę, w niektórych przypadkach zbytnią zwięzłość przepisów powodującą niejasność, niekonsekwencję terminologiczną, niejednolitość redakcji i odwoływanie się przy wykładni do prawa pozakodeksowego. +Przebieg prac kodyfikacyjnych +19 marca 1904 papież Pius X w "motu proprio" "Arduum sane munus" powołał do życia Komisję Kodyfikacyjną oraz kolegium konsultorów w celu odnowienia dyscypliny kościelnej. Sekretarzem Komisji został mianowany Piotr Gasparri, który odegrał znaczącą rolę w przygotowywaniu kodyfikacji. Zwrócono się również do episkopatów o zgłaszanie propozycji, wyznaczenie swojego reprezentanta wśród członków Komisji lub też przedstawienie jednego duchownego spoza Rzymu, który miałby być w stałym kontakcie z organami ustanowionymi przez papieża. Również uczelnie kościelne mogły fakultatywnie uczestniczyć w pracach kodyfikacyjnych. Przesłane przez biskupów uwagi i propozycje poddane zostały opracowaniu przez konsultorów. +Szczegóły prac Komisji Kodyfikacyjnej nie są dokładnie znane. Po ośmiu latach prac projekt kodeksu został ukończony i w latach 1912-1914 został przesłany częściami biskupom i tym, którzy mieli prawo do udziału w soborze powszechnym do zaopiniowania. Treść projektu była objęta tajemnicą. Tym razem uwagi były opracowywane tylko przez Komisję Kodyfikacyjną. +W 1914 zmarł Pius X. Jego następca kontynuował prace z taką samą wytrwałością. Zrewidowany projekt został w 1916 przesłany do konsultacji, tym razem kardynałom i prałatom Kurii Rzymskiej. Na podstawie przesłanych uwag dokonano kolejnej redakcji projektu. Kodeks był już gotowy 4 grudnia 1916, kiedy to na konsystorzu tajnym papież zapowiedział promulgację kodeksu. Jednak jeszcze przed promulgacją papież ogłosił motu prioprio "Alloquentes" (marzec 1917) i "Dei providentes" (maj 1917) wprowadzając nowe regulacje dotyczące Kurii Rzymskiej. Wpłynęło to na ostateczną redakcję kodeksu. +Został zastąpiony przez kodeks prawa kanonicznego z 1983. +Wojciech Olszowski + +Wojciech Stanisław Olszowski (ur. 18 marca 1916 w Żywcu, zm. 21 kwietnia 1972 w Bogatyni) – polski prezbiter katolicki obrządku łacińskiego, biskup nominat stolicy tytularnej Atrybia. +Studiował w seminarium obrządku łacińskiego we Lwowie i na Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego; 20 września 1939 we Lwowie przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. Pracował jako wikariusz w Bolechowie koło Stryja, Bukaczowcach i Bursztynie koło Stanisławowa. Prowadził w okresie wojennym gorliwą działalność duszpasterską, organizował pomoc żywnościową dla głodującej ludności. +Po wojnie mimo zmiany granic i związanego przymusu ekspatriacji nie opuścił rodzinnych stron. Pracował nadal jako duszpasterz w Stryju i Stanisławowie, w latach 1947-1956 w okolicach Karagandy. Od 1956 przebywał w Kazachstanie, pracował w miejscowościach Żmerynka, Brahiłów, Czeczelnik, Krasne. +8 listopada 1958 Olszowski został mianowany biskupem tytularnym Atrybi i administratorem apostolskim "pro catholicis urbem Kiev eandemque Rempublicam Ucrainam". Władze radzieckie uznały nominację za nielegalną i wydaliły biskupa nominata do PRL w marcu 1959. Olszowski spędził pierwsze miesiące w Krakowie, następnie w czerwcu 1959 osiadł we Wrocławiu, gdzie został wikariuszem i prefektem religii parafii katedralnej oraz diecezjalnym duszpasterzem niewidomych. Od 1 września 1960 pełnił funkcję dziekana dekanatu Głogów oraz administratora parafii św. Mikołaja w Głogowie. +Od czerwca do września 1962 przebywał w Rzymie na zaproszenie prałata Władysława Rubina (późniejszego kardynała). Tam dowiedział się, że z powodu zaistniałych trudności jego nominacja biskupia została cofnięta już w 1959. Został przyjęty na prywatnej audiencji przez Jana XXIII w letniej rezydencji Castelgandolfo, a 24 listopada 1962 mianowany papieskim szambelanem honorowym. +Wkrótce pogorszeniu uległ jego stan zdrowia. W latach 1966-1968 przebywał na urlopie zdrowotnym w Świeradowie-Zdroju, gdzie pełnił funkcję kapelana Sióstr Zmartwychwstanek. 15 lipca 1968 został mianowany proboszczem parafii w Biedrzychowicach Górnych koło Bogatyni. W 1972 zmarł wskutek choroby nowotworowej. +Erwin Wilczek + +Erwin Feliks Wilczek (ur. 20 listopada 1940 w Wirku, Ruda Śląska), piłkarz polski, reprezentant Polski, wielokrotny mistrz Polski, trener. Nadano mu przydomek boiskowy "Biba"; z wykształcenia technik górniczy. +Grał na boisku na pozycjach napastnika, pomocnika i rozgrywającego. Karierę rozpoczynał w klubie Wawel Wirek Ruda Śląska, w 1954 przeszedł do Zrywu Chorzów. W latach 1959-1973 bronił barw Górnika Zabrze; przez piętnaście sezonów wystąpił w 293 meczach ligowych, w innych oficjalnych rozgrywkach (Puchar Polski, europejskie puchary, Puchar Ligi) zaliczył dalsze 101 meczów. W spotkaniach polskiej ekstraklasy strzelił 96 bramek. Odniósł wraz z Górnikiem szereg sukcesów – 9 tytułów mistrza Polski (1959, 1961, 1963-1967, 1971, 1972), 6 Pucharów Polski (1965, 1968-1972), finał Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów (1970). +W latach 1961-1969 wystąpił w 16 oficjalnych meczach reprezentacji Polski, zdobywając w nich 2 bramki. Reprezentował także barwy narodowe w kadrze juniorów jeszcze jako piłkarz Zrywu Chorzów. +W 1973 przeszedł do ligi francuskiej. W barwach US Valenciennes (do 1975) był m.in. najlepszym strzelcem II ligi francuskiej. Po zakończeniu kariery zawodniczej podjął pracę trenerską. Zajmował się zespołami młodzieżowymi Górnika, potem pracował w Valenciennes. Gaboński zespół AS Sogara Port Gentil doprowadził do finału Pucharu Mistrzów Afryki (1987). W 1986 przez krótki czas prowadził kadrę narodową Gabonu. +W okresie gry w Górniku był uważany za lidera zespołu, dysponującego dobrym przeglądem boiskowej sytuacji. Był także skutecznym strzelcem. +Legenda – imię i nazwisko / liczba strzelonych bramek / liczba meczów, w których zawodnik strzelał bramki / liczba rozegranych meczów ogółem. +Erwin Wilczek – 2 / 2 / 16 +T – 2/2 +1962-10-11 Warszawa Polska – Maroko 1:1 (0:0) – T +Albert Szent-Györgyi + +Albert Szent-Györgyi de Nagyrápolt (ur. 16 września 1893 w Budapeszcie, Austro-Węgry (ob. Węgry), zm. 22 października 1986 w Woods Hole, Massachusetts, Stany Zjednoczone) – biochemik węgierski, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie medycyny 1937. +Obronił doktorat w Cambridge (1927), gdzie przebywał jako stypendysta Fundacji Rockefellera. Pracował w Instytucie Higieny Tropikalnej w Hamburgu, następnie w Instytucie Fizjologii w holenderskim Groningen. Był profesorem Uniwersytetu w Segedynie (1931-1945), następnie uniwersytetu w Budapeszcie (do 1947). Został wybrany do wielu akademii i towarzystw naukowych, m.in. PAU (1937). W 1947 roku wyjechał do USA, gdzie został profesorem w Princeton. W 1954 roku, został laureatem nagrody im. Alberta Laskera. +Wyodrębnił z owoców papryki i zidentyfikował witaminę C (1933); odkrył witaminę P (1936). Wykazał, że kwas adenozynotrifosforowy (ATP) jest niezbędnym źródłem energii umożliwiającej skurcz mięśni. Za odkrycia dotyczące procesów spalania biologicznego, a szczególnie za odkrycie i ustalenie budowy chemicznej witaminy C (kwasu askorbinowego), otrzymał w 1937 roku Nagrodę Nobla. +W 1974 roku zaproponował zastąpienie terminu negentropia słowem syntropia. +Konferansjer + +Konferansjer (fr. "conférencier") – osoba prowadząca przedstawienie, zapowiadająca poszczególne punkty programu, nadająca kształt widowiskom artystycznym o charakterze estradowym. Zadaniem konferansjera jest przedstawianie artystów, przygotowanie publiczności na ich występ, urozmaicanie przedstawień anegdotami i dowcipami. +. Konferansjerzy bardzo często wynajmowani są przez agencje artystyczne. +Egon Krulisz + +Egon Kazimierz Franciszek Krulisz (ur. 7 kwietnia 1895 w Sirowicach, Czechy, zm. 19 kwietnia 1936 w Warszawie) – inżynier elektryk, radiotechnik, podpułkownik łączności Wojska Polskiego. +Życiorys. +Był synem Franciszka, kapitana Cesarskiej i Królewskiej Armii, i Adeli z Łateckich. Krótko po ukończeniu szkoły średniej został powołany do C. i K. Armii w związku z wybuchem I wojny światowej. Początkowo służył w piechocie, następnie w łączności. W 1918 dosłużył się stopnia podporucznika. W listopadzie tego roku wstąpił do Wojska Polskiego. +Był uczestnikiem wojny polsko-ukraińskiej, wziął udział w walkach o Lwów i Przemyśl, był dwukrotnie ranny. W 1919, w randze porucznika, był wykładowcą na kursach dla przyszłych oficerów Wojsk Łączności, a rok później, jako szef łączności 11 Dywizji Piechoty, uczestniczył w bitwie o Warszawę. We wrześniu 1920 został awansowany na kapitana. +Po wojnie z bolszewikami skierowany został na studia na Politechnice Lwowskiej, które ukończył w 1922 z dyplomem inżyniera elektryka. Przeniesiony do Rezerwy z równoczesnym pozostawieniem w służbie czynnej. Przydzielony do Centralnych Zakładów Wojsk Łączności w Warszawie, a po ich przeformowaniu do Biura Badań Inżynieryjnych. Jednocześnie pozostawał na ewidencji 1 Pułku Łączności, a następnie Pułku Radiotelegraficznego. Później był wykładowcą w Szkole Podchorążych Inżynierii w Warszawie oraz kierownikiem laboratorium radiotechnicznego w Wojskowym Instytucie Badań Inżynierii. Od sierpnia 1935 kierował wydziałem wojskowym w Państwowym Instytucie Telekomunikacyjnym. +Działał także w środowisku naukowym i technicznym poza wojskiem. Był aktywnym członkiem Stowarzyszenia Radiotechników Polskich, przekształconego w 1929 w Sekcję Radiotechniczną Stowarzyszenia Elektryków Polskich (m.in. wiceprezesem i prezesem) oraz redaktorem "Przeglądu Radiotechnicznego" (1924-1928). Uczestniczył w pracach Polskiego Komitetu Elektrotechnicznego, Centralnej Komisji Normalizacji Elektrotechnicznej, Towarzystwa Wojskowo-Technicznego, Stowarzyszenia Teletechników Polskich. W 1926 został prezesem Polskiego Klubu Radionadawców w Warszawie, a w 1933 prezesem okręgu warszawskiego Polskiego Związku Krótkofalowców. W 1939, pośmiertnie, nadano mu tytuł honorowego członka Stowarzyszenia Elektryków Polskich. +Prowadził działalność dydaktyczną. Wykładał radiotechnikę w Wyższej Szkole Budowy Maszyn i Elektrotechniki im. H. Wawelberga i S. Rotwanda w Warszawie. Opracował kilka skryptów i wiele artykułów naukowych i popularyzatorskich (na łamach "Przeglądu Radiotechnicznego", "Wiadomości i Prac Instytutu Radiotechnicznego", "Przeglądu Elektrotechnicznego", "Przeglądu Wojskowo-Technicznego", "Przewodnika po I Ogólnokrajowej Wystawie Radiowej" 1926). Najważniejszym dziełem Krulisza był zaplanowany na wiele tomów wykład akademicki teorii radiotechniki "Zasady radiotechniki"; ukazały się dwa tomy - "Podstawy teoretyczne" (1932) i "Lampy elektronowe" (1937). Inżynier Krulisz opracował ponadto m.in. "poradinik dla radioamatorów" (1927), "Radiotechnika" (1928), "Części konstrukcji radiotechnicznych" (1928). Był delegatem Polski na wielu międzynarodowych konferencjach technicznych. +Razem ze Stefanem Jasińskim uzyskał patent polski na "urządzenie do kontroli i korekcji nastawienia częstotliwości radiostacji o ciągłym zakresie fal" (1935). Wynalazek ten znalazł szerokie zastosowanie w wojsku. +Zmarł po krótkiej chorobie w kwietniu 1936 i został pochowany na Powązkach. Był żonaty z Anną Henryką z Lisowskich, miał troje dzieci (synów Jerzego i Macieja oraz córkę Zuzannę). +Zielony Balonik + +Zielony Balonik – pierwszy polski kabaret literacki, założony przez krakowskich poetów, pisarzy i plastyków w cukierni Apolinarego J. Michalika (zwanej Jamą Michalikową) w październiku 1905 roku, działający do 1912 roku (sporadycznie wystawiano przedstawienia do 1915 roku). +Historia powstania kabaretu. +Wokół powstania pierwszego polskiego kabaretu literackiego narosło wiele legend i mitów. Według Adama Grzymały-Siedleckiego pomysłodawcami byli Edward Żeleński (brat Boya), Stanisław Kuczborski i Jan August Kisielewski. Według Boya-Żeleńskiego pierwszą osobą, która zainicjowała kabaret, był Kisielewski. Sam Boy nie brał udziału w stworzeniu kabaretu – dołączył do zespołu dopiero później. W świetle problemu z ustaleniem inicjatora (lub inicjatorów) "Zielonego Balonika" najbardziej prawdopodobna wydaje się teza Tomasza Weissa, zgodnie z którą pomysł zorganizowania kabaretu literackiego zaprzątał przez dłuższy czas myśli wielu osób – głównie malarzy i plastyków, ale także ludzi nie związanych ze środowiskiem artystycznym (Edward Żeleński, Tadeusz Zakrzewski, Leopold Starzewski). +Otwarcie "Zielonego Balonika" nastąpiło w dniu 7 października 1905 roku. Jako kabaret artystów był on instytucją o charakterze elitarnym. Od pierwszego spotkania w cukierni Michalika przy ulicy Floriańskiej dbano pieczołowicie, aby "Zielony Balonik" nie był dostępny dla wszystkich. Taką elitarność zapewniały zaproszenia. Jeśli gość nie wykazywał zachwytu w trakcie kabaretowego spotkania – nie zapraszano go już więcej. Wskutek tych zabiegów bywalcy "Zielonego Balonika" stanowili elitarną, niewielką, zamkniętą grupę o nie zmieniającym się składzie. Jednak elitarność niosła ze sobą zagrożenie: mogła doprowadzić do wyczerpania się tematów na piosenki i teksty. I tak też się stało. Cytowany przez Weissa Sierosławski stwierdza, że z biegiem czasu zaczęło "Zielonemu Balonikowi" brakować humoru. Powodami tego stanu rzeczy były także pogarszające się warunki życia oraz niechęć bywalców Jamy Michalika do poruszania w swojej satyrze problematyki politycznej (jest to jedna z cech odróżniających "Zielony Balonik" od większości kabaretów francuskich czy niemieckich). Przypuszcza się dzisiaj, że chciano uniknąć w ten sposób interwencji cenzury prewencyjnej w spotkania, ponieważ wszystkie imprezy publiczne w tamtym czasie podlegały kontroli. +Charakterystyka kabaretu. +Jedną z cech "Zielonego Balonika", oprócz elitarności, jest także brak narzuconego, ułożonego wcześniej programu. Zasada głosiła, że każdy miał prawo (w pewnym sensie nawet obowiązek) wystąpić ze swoim tekstem lub piosenką przed publicznością (musiał się jednak liczyć z tym, że może zostać wygwizdany). Dopiero z czasem spotkania w Jamie Michalika zostały oparte na szczegółowo opracowanym repertuarze, wykonywanym przez osoby, które wcześniej sprawdziły się w takiej roli na scenie. Oczywiście do końca istnienia kabaretu można było zaprezentować w nim spontanicznie własną twórczość, o ile zostało się zaproszonym. +Specyfiką spotkań kabaretowych "Zielonego Balonika" było połączenie słowa i rysunku – wiele programów konstruowano kojarząc świadomie prezentację satyrycznych grafik i pisanych do nich tekstów. Rysunki powstawały w pierwszej kolejności, a teksty były nimi inspirowane, stanowiąc słowny komentarz. Grafiki tworzone były w większości przez karykaturzystów współpracujących z czasopismem „Liberum Veto”. Rysunki te służyły również do zdobienia ścian lokalu. Główny litograf tego grona, Zenon Pruszyński, wydał w 1930 r. broszurę-przewodnik po Jamie pt. "Jama Michalika. Lokal Zielonego Balonika". Publikacja zawiera inwentarz lokalu wraz z informacjami dotyczącymi sensu i genezy większości obrazów i rysunków. +Grafiki, oprócz dekorowania sali, pojawiały się także na zaproszeniach "Zielonego Balonika". Zazwyczaj miały charakter satyryczny, a ich motywem przewodnim były humorystyczne portrety. Zdarzały się także scenki z udziałem przedstawicieli kabaretowego grona oraz jego sympatyków w różnych sytuacjach. Rzadsze były rysunki o charakterze neutralnym, nie zawierające aluzji. Rysunkowi zawsze towarzyszył tekst, który przeważnie w dowcipny sposób zapraszał na spotkanie. +W "Zielonym Baloniku" funkcję konferansjera pełnił m.in. Jan August Kisielewski, który każdemu przybyłemu na spotkanie gościowi wygłaszał obraźliwą mowę powitalną (na wzór Aristide Bruanta z paryskiego kabaretu "Le Mirliton"). +Twórcy "Zielonego Balonika" (przede wszystkim Boy-Żeleński i Nowaczyński) programowo wyśmiewali konserwatywny establishment Krakowa (głównie środowisko skupione wokół rektora Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego Stanisława Tarnowskiego) oraz „koturnowość” literatury Młodej Polski, podważali neoromantyczną rolę artysty jako kapłana sztuki przeciwstawiając temu modelowi tradycję artysty-błazna, wesołka i prześmiewcy – Sowizdrzała. Z perspektywy współczesnej widoczny jest również ich racjonalizm i liberalizm. Przygotowywali tym samym grunt pod literaturę dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, w swojej początkowej fazie wolnej od społecznych i metafizycznych powinności. +Szopka satyryczna. +W "Zielonym Baloniku" wystawiono także pięć noworocznych szopek satyrycznych (w latach 1906, 1907, 1908, 1911 i 1912) pod nazwą "Szopka krakowska". Z trzech pierwszych zachowały się tylko fragmenty, teksty szopek z lat 1911 i 1912 zostały w całości opublikowane drukiem. Problematyka w nich podejmowana jest już dzisiaj nieczytelna, dotyczy np. spraw środowiska malarskiego i literackiego, projektu Jana Styki wymalowania panoramy na Barbakanie, rozdania nagród Barczewskiego za osiągnięcia artystyczne itd. Niezmiennie nie poruszano problemów politycznych. +Popularność "Zielonego Balonika". +Mimo ataków krytyki na łamach prasy (zgorszenie, unikanie konfrontacji z zaborcą w repertuarze, autocenzura) popularność "Zielonego Balonika" była ogromna – odczuwano bowiem wielką potrzebę tego typu rozrywki. Dowodzi tego masowe zakładanie nowych kabaretów: "Figlików" (Kraków) czy kabaretu "Momus" (Warszawa, 1909 r.), których inicjatorem był Arnold Szyfman, a także setek innych kabaretów zakładanych na prowincji, które jednak niewiele miały wspólnego z ideą "Zielonego Balonika". Zjawisko to jest łudząco podobne do mody na kabarety we Francji po sukcesie paryskiego "Chat Noir". I tam, i na ziemiach polskich wszystkie naśladownicze instytucje nie prezentowały swoim programem wysokiego poziomu, a ich komercyjny charakter był sprzeczny z intencjami założycieli "Zielonego Balonika". +Morane-Saulnier MS.35 + +Morane-Saulnier MS.35 EP2 (AR.35EP) – francuski samolot szkolno-akrobacyjny. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1918 roku w wytwórni lotniczej Aeroplanes Morane-Saulnier S.A. w Villacoublay pod Paryżem. +Historia. +W 1918 roku inż. Leon Morane opracował samolot szkolno-akrobacyjny, który oznaczono jako Morane-Saulnier AR.35EP, choć bardziej znany jest pod nazwą MS.35 EP2. Samolot ten był wersją opracowanego w 1915 roku samolotu oznaczonego jako Morane-Saulnier AR i stanowił dwumiejscową odmianę jednomiejscowego samolotu szkolno-bojowego MS.30E1 zbudowanego w układzie tzw. parasola. Samolot MS.35 EP2 oblatano w 1919 roku. Wykazywał on doskonałe właściwości pilotażowe i dobrą zwrotność. Był łatwy w pilotażu i miał bardzo małą prędkość lądowania, krótki rozbieg i dobieg. Nadawał się więc do zarówno do wstępnego szkolenia, jak i treningów, a także nauki akrobacji. +Od swojego poprzednika, samolotu Morane-Saulnier MS.30, różnił się przede wszystkim trochę większymi wymiarami, innym kształtem i zamocowaniem płata, bardziej smukłym kadłubem mieszczącym zamiast jednej dwie odkryte kabiny oraz usterzeniem o nieco mniejszej powierzchni. Kadłub o konstrukcji kratownicowej drewnianej mieścił z przodu na łożu metalowym silnik rotacyjny. Za silnikiem pod płatem znajdowała się odkryta kabina ucznia lub trenującego pilota wyposażona w komplet niezbędnych przyrządów pokładowych oraz urządzenia sterujące. Tuż za nią znajdowała się druga odkryta kabina instruktora z tylko z najważniejszymi przyrządami pokładowymi i urządzeniami sterowniczymi. Na końcu kadłuba zamontowano usterzenie klasyczne składające się ze stateczników i sterów krytych płótnem. Pokrycie przedniej części kadłuba stanowiła blacha aluminiowa, środkowa część przy kabinach sklejką, tylna zaś płótnem. Płat niedzielony o kształcie prostokątnym, drewniany, kryty płótnem, był mocowany do kadłuba za pomocą słupków oraz usztywniony wieloma cięgnami z drutu stalowego. U góry na płacie zamocowano tzw. kozioł przeciwkapotażowy, który jednocześnie spełniał rolę wysięgnika dla cięgieł usztywniających płat. Podwozie dwugoleniowe wykonane z profilowanych rur stalowych, wypełnionych drewnem. Zastosowano w nim gumowe amortyzatory oraz tłumiki drgań. +Łącznie wyprodukowano ok. 450 samolotów tego typu, z tego 30 sztuk na licencji w Rumunii. Cieszył się on dużym uznaniem wśród pilotów i używany był w lotnictwie w latach dwudziestych i trzydziestych. Używano go w lotnictwie Francji, Związku Radzieckiego, Argentyny, Belgii, Gwatemali, Brazylii, Turcji, Rumunii i Polski. +Użycie samolotu w lotnictwie polskim. +W 1922 roku na polecenie gen. bryg. Włodzimierza Zagórskiego zakupiono we Francji dla Sił Powietrznych 70 samolotów Morane-Saulnier MS.35 EP2. Dostarczono je do Polski w 1925 roku. Stosowano je w latach 1925 – 1934 w dywizjonach szkolnych i eskadrach treningowych pułków lotniczych oraz szkołach lotniczych do nauki pilotażu i podstawowych figur akrobacji. W pułkach lotniczych używano ich również jako samoloty łącznikowe oraz do współpracy z artylerią i wojskami służby granicznej. +Samoloty te znalazły się również na wyposażeniu Centrum Wyszkolenia Lotnictwa w Dęblinie, gdzie w latach 1931 – 1932 przeszkoliło się na nich wielu znanych później pilotów. M.in. dowódcą jednego z kursów pilotażu na samolotach MS-35 EP2 był tam por. pil. Franciszek Żwirko, a eskadrą szkolną dowodził por. pil. Janusz Meissner. +W 1934 roku samoloty Morane-Saulnier MS-35 EP2 wycofano z jednostek wojskowych i przekazano lotnictwu cywilnemu oraz do Ośrodków Lotniczego Przysposobienia Wojskowego, gdzie eksploatowano je do 1938 roku aż do prawie całkowitego ich zużycia. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot Morane-Saulnier MS-35 EP2 był dwumiejscowym samolotem szkolno-akrobacyjnym, górnopłatem typu parasol o konstrukcji mieszanej, przeważnie drewnianej. Podwozie samolotu było klasyczne, stałe. Napęd stanowił silnik rotacyjny (wirujący) z dwułopatowym drewnianym śmigłem o stałym skoku. +Waldemar Tkaczyk + +Waldemar Tkaczyk (ur. 18 maja 1954 w Mławie) – polski muzyk rockowy, basista, kompozytor, autor tekstów. +Karierę muzyczną zaczynał od gry w lokalnych zespołach amatorskich. Później razem z Grzegorzem Skawińskim w mławskim Kameleonie. Od 1974 w zespole Akcenty, przekształconym później w Kombi. +Dołączył ponownie do Grzegorza Skawińskiego, gdy ten tworzył najpierw Skawalkera, a potem O.N.A.. Jest autorem tekstów wielu znanych przebojów, m.in.: "Nasze randez-vous", "Kochać cię-za późno", "Nie ma zysku", "Sen się spełni", "Znalazłam", "Nietykalni". Obecnie gra w zespole Kombii. Mieszka w Gdyni. +Filmografia. +Źródło. +Southampton F.C. + +Southampton Football Club – angielski klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Southampton w hrabstwie Hampshire. Założony w 1885 jako "St. Mary's YMA". +Stadion. +"St Mary's Stadium" jest siedzibą klubu od 2001. Wcześniej Southampton rozgrywał swoje spotkania na "The Dell", który służył klubowi z Hampshire od 1898. Prawa do nazwy nowego stadionu "Świętych" nabyła firma ubezpieczeniowa "Friends Provident". +Polacy w Southampton. +W Southampton grało sześciu Polaków. Pierwszym był pomocnik Kamil Kosowski który w 2004 roku trafił tu z niemieckiego 1. FC Kaiserslautern. Po dwóch latach gry, odszedł do włoskiego Chievo Werona. W 2005 roku drużynę zasilił Tomasz Hajto. W tym samym czasie klub kupił dwóch napastników - Grzegorza Rasiaka z angielskiego Tottenham Hotspur i Marka Saganowskiego z francuskiego Troyes AC oraz bramkarza Bartosza Białkowskiego z polskiego Górnika Zabrze. Wkrótce Polacy stali się najlepszymi zawodnikami klubu. W rundzie jesiennej pierwszego sezonu Rasiak z 11 golami na koncie został królem strzelców rundy jesiennej. W rundzie wiosennej najwięcej bramek strzelił Saganowski (10). W latach 2006–2012 zawodnikiem klubu był Bartosz Białkowski. Od września 2012 roku bramkarzem w zespole jest Artur Boruc +Kadra. +"stan na 1 luty 2013" +Bosak + +Bosak – długi drąg zakończony metalowym hakiem i grotem (szpikulcem). +Antoni Czubiński + +Antoni Czubiński (ur. 22 listopada 1928 w Koninie, zm. 10 lutego 2003 w Poznaniu) – polski historyk i uczony, uczeń Kazimierza Piwarskiego i Janusza Pajewskiego. +Młodość. +Ojciec Czubińskiego był działaczem przedwojennej Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej, z zawodu szewcem. W Koninie Antoni Czubiński rozpoczął edukację szkolną, przerwaną przez wybuch wojny. W marcu 1942 r., wieku niespełna 14 lat, został wywieziony na roboty przymusowe do III Rzeszy, gdzie pozostał i pracował w gospodarstwie rolnym w Westerstede do końca wojny. Następnie uczęszczał do szkoły powszechnej w Brual-Rhede, rozpoczynając naukę od klasy piątej. +Kształcenie się. +Po powrocie do Polski w 1946 r. kontynuował naukę. Już maju 1950 uzyskał maturę w Liceum Pedagogicznym w Morzysławiu koło Konina, po czym podjął studia historyczne na Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. Ukończył je w 1955 magisterium pod kierunkiem prof. Kazimierza Piwarskiego. Następnie przez dwa lata przebywał na aspiranturze na Uniwersytecie Państwowym im. Łomonosowa w Moskwie, doktoryzował się jednak w Poznaniu w 1959 u prof. Janusza Pajewskiego. Dysertację habilitacyjną obronił w 1963, uzyskując stopień naukowy doktora habilitowanego. W 1968 otrzymał tytuł naukowy profesora nadzwyczajnego, a w 1976 – profesora zwyczajnego. +Praca naukowa i zawodowa. +A. Czubiński wywarł duży wpływ na organizacyjny rozwój Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza, pełniąc kolejno obowiązki kierownika: Zakładu Historii Ruchów Społecznych (1965-1969), Zakładu Historii Niemiec (1969-1979), Zakładu Historii Powszechnej XIX i XX wieku (1979-1998). W latach 1963-1964 był prodziekanem, a w latach 1964-1966 dziekanem Wydziału Filozoficzno-Historycznego UAM. Od 1969 do 1971 pełnił obowiązki wicedyrektora Instytutu Historii Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza. Był członkiem Zjednoczenia Patriotycznego "Grunwald", członkiem Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej (członkiem Egzekutywy Komitetu Wojewódzkiego w Poznaniu). Na przełomie lat '60 i '70 przystał do reformatorskiego skrzydła wokół Edwarda Gierka. +W 1971 powołany został na stanowisko dyrektora Instytutu Historii Polskiego Ruchu Robotniczego i prorektora Wyższej Szkoły Nauk Społecznych przy KC PZPR w Warszawie. Obowiązki te łączył z pracą na UAM. +Przynależność do PZPR nie przeszkodziła mu w opublikowaniu w 1973 roku pracy "Kraj Rad. Lata zmagań i zwycięstw", w której zakwestionował fragment dotyczący kolektywizacji rolnictwa, co stało się powodem usunięcia A. Czubińskiego z Wyższej Szkoły Nauk Społecznych przy KC PZPR w Warszawie na wniosek władz Związku Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich z inspiracji prof. Janusza Gołębiowskiego. Praca ta miała zresztą pierwotnie podtytuł "lata klęsk i zwycięstw" ("klęski" na "zmagania" Czubiński musiał zmienić na skutek ingerencji cenzury prewencyjnej już w wydawnictwie). W 1973 r. z kolei przeforsował zatrudnienie w swoim Zakładzie Historii Powszechnej XIX i XX wieku UAM dra Edmunda Makowskiego, zwolnionego z Wydawnictwa Poznańskiego za dopuszczenie kontrowersyjnej pod względem politycznym książki. +Jednocześnie kierował innymi ważnymi placówkami naukowymi. W latach 1978-1991 był dyrektorem Instytutu Zachodniego w Poznaniu, a wkrótce także współprzewodniczącym Wspólnej Komisji Polska-RFN do spraw Podręczników Szkolnych z Historii i Geografii UNESCO. W latach 1971-1991 był członkiem, a następnie wiceprzewodniczącym Centralnej Komisji Kwalifikacyjnej Kadr Naukowych przy Prezesie Rady Ministrów, był członkiem Prezydium Komitetu Nauk Historycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk oraz licznych rad naukowych, redaktorem wielu czasopism historycznych (m.in. "Kwartalnika Historycznego", "Dziejów Najnowszych", "Roczników Historycznych", "Przeglądu Zachodniego" i innych), organizatorem kilkudziesięciu zespołowych przedsięwzięć wydawniczych. W latach 1986-1989 był członkiem Ogólnopolskiego Komitetu Grunwaldzkiego. Był długoletnim przewodniczącym Komitetu Redakcyjnego kwartalnika KC PZPR "Z Pola Walki", w którym publikowano artykuły na temat historii polskiego i międzynarodowego ruchu robotniczego i komunistycznego. Wieloletni członek Komitetu Redakcyjnego kwartalnika historii wojskowości "Wojskowy Przegląd Historyczny". +W 1971 wystąpił, jako kierownik Zakładu Historii Niemiec, z inicjatywą wydawania czasopisma naukowego poświęconego dziejom Niemiec i szeroko rozumianym stosunkom słowiańsko-germańskim. Pierwszy zeszyt Studiów Historica Slavo-Germanica ukazał się w 1972, a jego komitet redakcyjny tworzyli: Antoni Czubiński, Hubert Orłowski, Bernard Piotrowski, Jerzy Strzelczyk. W 1973 r. przeforsował zatrudnienie w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza wyrzuconego z Wydawnictwa Poznańskiego Edmunda Makowskiego i przyjął go do swojego Zakładu Historii Niemiec. +W 1975 Ministerstwo Nauki, Szkolnictwa Wyższego i Techniki powierzyło Instytutowi Historii UAM koordynację Problemu Resortowego Badań Podstawowych nt. "Zagadnienia historii Niemiec i stosunków słowiańsko-germańskich i niemiecko-polskich". Koordynatorem głównym został wyznaczony prof. A. Czubiński. W 1986 profesor został koordynatorem I stopnia Centralnego Programu Badań Podstawowych nt.: "Polacy-Niemcy. Tradycje i dążenia". W wyniku realizacji całości tematyki wchodzącej w skład problemu uformował się zespół 30 samodzielnych pracowników naukowych z 6 dużych, krajowych ośrodków niemcoznawczych, prowadzący wspólne prace nad wytyczaniem dla tych badań nowej perspektywy. Ważną rolę odegrały liczne sesje, sympozja i spotkania naukowe organizowane w Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza przez głównego koordynatora. +Współpracował z regionalnymi towarzystwami naukowymi i kulturalnymi. Był niezmordowanym +popularyzatorem wiedzy historycznej, utrzymując ścisłe kontakty z lokalnymi towarzystwami kulturalnymi i historycznymi, zwłaszcza w Wielkopolsce (w Gnieźnie, Koninie, Lesznie, Pile, Śremie), a także w Koszalinie, Opolu, Szczecinie i Zielonej Górze. +W latach osiemdziesiątych XX wieku zarzucono mu dokonanie plagiatu z pracy zbiorowej, której redaktorami byli prof. Tadeusz Cegielski i prof. Włodzimierz Borodziej. W pośmiertnym wykazie publikacji plagiat pominięto. +W III RP zachował silnie lewicowe poglądy i sympatię dla PRL (jednakże złagodzoną). Na konferencjach, w publikacjach i polemikach konsekwentnie bronił dorobku PRL. Według jego historiozofii, w latach 1944-1989 Polska stopniowo uniezależniała się od ZSRR, przechodząc od pełnej zależności do daleko posuniętej autonomii, jej sytuacja była lepsza aniżeli innych "demoludów", a zasługę w tym oprócz nieokiełznanego narodu ma również wielu ówczesnych przywódców. Pozytywnie o stosunkach wytworzonych w Polsce w latach 1944-1989 miał świadczyć też przebieg historii po 1989 r. - to dzięki nim według Czubińskiego możliwe było przejście "ze stanu demokracji ludowej do stanu demokracji parlamentarnej" i "od stanu pseudosocjalizmu do stanu gospodarki rynkowej". Podkreślał też zasługi krajowej lewicy dla utrzymania państwowości polskiej (która w myśl porozumienia Hitlera i Stalina miała zniknąć całkowicie), chwalił podjęcie odbudowy państwa polskiego w ramach kurateli radzieckiej ("innej alernatywy wówczas nie było"). Przekonywał też, że ogólny bilans rozwoju ekonomiczno-społecznego PRL jest pozytywny i prognozował, że teza ta z czasem będzie zyskiwać coraz więcej zwolenników. Jego wypowiedzi w tym zakresie spotykały się z dezaprobatą wielu innych historyków epoki. +Uczniowie. +Przez czterdzieści lat pracy dydaktyczno-naukowej wypromował ponad dwustu magistrów i ponad pięćdziesięciu doktorów. Jego uczniami i bliskimi współpracownikami byli: prof. Przemysław Hauser, prof. Tadeusz Kotłowski, prof. Michał Musielak, dr hab. Krzysztof Rzepa, prof. Tomasz Schramm, prof. Stanisław Sierpowski, dr Ryszard Wryk. +Dorobek naukowy. +Zajmował się historią najnowszą Polski i Niemiec, historią powszechną, międzynarodowymi stosunkami politycznymi oraz historią Poznania i Wielkopolski. Opublikował około 40 książek, kilkaset artykułów, studiów, rozpraw, recenzji naukowych etc. Jego pionierskie publikacje wywarły istotny wpływ na rozwój badań historycznych w kraju. Ważne miejsce w jego twórczości naukowej zajmują podręczniki akademickie i syntezy. Był także świetnym dydaktykiem i organizatorem, wypromował około 280 magistrów, ponad 50 doktorów. +Prywatnie. +Mąż Barbary z domu Sikorskiej, z którą miał dwójkę dzieci: syna Piotra i córkę Annę. Powracając wraz synem w 1974 r. do Poznania, rozstał się z żoną (która wraz z córką pozostała w Warszawie) i w 1975 r. poślubił Barbarę Szulc, zatrudnioną od 1968 r. na stanowisku administracyjnym w Instytucie Historii UAM (w latach 1972-1989 jako wicedyrektor instytutu ds. administracyjnych). W 1993 r. owdowiał. +Odznaczenia. +Za "wszechstronne osiągnięcia" został odznaczony m.in.: Srebrnym i Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi, Krzyżem Kawalerskim i Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, Orderem Sztandaru Pracy II klasy, Medalem Komisji Edukacji Narodowej, odznaczeniami zagranicznymi i regionalnymi. Był laureatem nagród państwowych, resortowych i uniwersyteckich. Prezydent RP pośmiertnie odznaczył go Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Karin Boye + +Karin Boye (ur. 26 października 1900 w Göteborgu, zm. 24 kwietnia 1941 w Alingsås), szwedzka poetka i powieściopisarka. +Pomimo jej krótkotrwałego związku małżeńskiego z Leifem Björckem, Karin była lesbijką. W 1932 po zerwaniu małżeństwa związała się z Gunnel Bergström, która rozstała się ze swoim mężem poetą Gunnarem Ekelöfem. +Karin Boye zasłynęła głównie jako poetka. Najbardziej znane jej wiersze to "Pewnie, że boli" (szw. "Ja visst gör det ont") oraz "I rörelse" ("W ruchu") ze zbiorów "Härdarna" (1927) i "För trädets skull" (1935). Była członkiem ważnej szwedzkiej instytucji literackiej Samfundet De Nio (miejsce nr 9) od 1931 do swojej śmierci. +Poza Szwecją najbardziej doceniana jest jej powieść "Kallocain" ("Kalokaina"), przedstawiająca wizję państwa totalitarnego podobną do tych przedstawionych w "Roku 1984" George'a Orwella czy "Nowym wspaniałym świecie" Aldousa Huxleya. Pewne znaczenie ma też powieść "Kris" ("Kryzys") opowiadająca, podobnie jak "Szklany klosz" Sylvii Plath, o przedsamobójczym kryzysie. +Zginęła śmiercią samobójczą po zażyciu tabletek nasennych, gdy wyszła z domu 23 kwietnia 1941. Została znaleziona, jak mówi raport policyjny z Archiwum Regionalnego w Göteborgu, 27 kwietnia 1941. Natrafił na nią rolnik, który wybrał się na spacer, na skale znajdującej się na wzgórzu z widokiem prosto na północ od Alingsås, w pobliżu Bolltorpsvägen. Skała ta stanowi obecnie miejsce pamięci Karin Boye. +W 2004 jeden z oddziałów Biblioteki Uniwersyteckiej w Uppsali został nazwany jej imieniem (Karin Boye-biblioteket). +Widłogonki + +Widłogonki, mysiogony (Diplura) – rząd stawonogów z podtypu Hexapoda, zaliczany niegdyś do owadów bezskrzydłych (Apterygota). +Znanych jest około 800 gatunków widłogonków, z czego w Europie występuje około 280. W Polsce rozpoznano dotychczas 10 gatunków z rodziny Campodeidae. Obejmują one gatunki o długości do 6 mm, żyjące pod kamieniami, w glebie, martwym drewnie lub ściółce. Nazwa pochodzi od przysadek odwłokowych na zakończeniu odwłoka, przypominających widełki (z grec. "diplos" – dwa i "ouros" – ogon). +Ciało zwykle wąskie, wydłużone, bezbarwne lub białe. Nie mają oczu. Na głowie znajduje się para czułków, natomiast tylne wyrostki, będące narządami czucia, zwykle długie i cienkie, mogą być także przekształcone w szczypce, które służą gatunkom drapieżnym do zdobywania pokarmu. +W większości są roślinożerne i żywią się martwymi szczątkami organicznymi, niektóre polują na inne małe stawonogi. Występując w ściółce leśnej odgrywają rolę w jej rozkładzie. +Systematyka. +Do widłogonków zaliczane są rzędy Dicellurata i Rhabdura. Analiza filogenetyczna przeprowadzona przez Luana i współpracowników sugeruje, że widłogonki są najbliżej spokrewnione z pierwogonkami, a następnie ze skoczogonkami, razem z tymi dwiema grupami tworząc klad siostrzany dla owadów. +Centrum handlowe + +Centrum handlowe – miejsce skupiające wiele sklepów i punktów usługowych. +Każdy ze sklepów występuje tam pod własną marką, natomiast samo centrum promuje się pod swoją nazwą. Obiekty tego typu znajdują się w kontekście podmiejskim, są najczęściej jedno- ale także dwu- lub trzykondygnacyjne, posiadają wewnętrzną strukturę zorganizowaną wokół przeszklonego pasażu, zaś parkingi organizuje się jako terenowe. Największym tego typu obiektem w Polsce jest łódzka Manufaktura (powierzchnia GLA: 110 000), drugim w kolejności jest Port Łódź (powierzchnia GLA: 103 000), natomiast trzecim warszawska Arkadia (powierzchnia GLA: 103 000). +Istnieją także internetowe odpowiedniki centrum handlowego skupiające wiele sklepów internetowych. +Kazimierz Sichulski + +Kazimierz Sichulski (ur. 17 stycznia 1879 we Lwowie, zm. 6 listopada 1942 we Lwowie) – polski malarz, rysownik i grafik. Reprezentant sztuki Młodej Polski. +Biografia. +Studiował w latach 1900–1908 na Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie pod okiem Leona Wyczółkowskiego, Józefa Mehoffera i Stanisława Wyspiańskiego. Kształcił się również w Rzymie, Paryżu i Monachium. +Ożenił się ze znaną aktorką i ówczesną pięknością, Bronisławą Rudlicką. +Debiutował w 1903 roku w Towarzystwie Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie. W latach 1903–1905 współpracował jako rysownik z satyrycznym czasopismem "Liberum Veto", a od 1905 należał do kabaretu "Zielony Balonik" oraz Towarzystwa Artystów Polskich "Sztuka". Był członkiem wiedeńskiego ugrupowania Hagenbund. +W czasie I wojny światowej walczył w szeregach Legionów Polskich. Początkowo był przydzielony do Departamentu Wojskowego Naczelnego Komitetu Narodowego, następnie do 3 batalionu 1 dyonu artystycznego. Był oficerem ordynansowym w sztabie Komendy Legionów, w kadrze artylerii Komendy Legionów w Kozienicach, a następnie w 4 batalionie 1 Pułku Artylerii jako komendant plutonu. Przystąpił do armii austriackiej, otrzymał stopień chorążego i został skierowany do dyspozycji Ministerstwa Obrony Krajowej. +W 1920–1930 był profesorem Państwowej Szkoły Przemysłowej we Lwowie, a w 1930–1939 Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie. +Pozostał do końca życia pod ogromnym urokiem Huculszczyzny, począwszy od swego pierwszego tam pobytu w zimie 1905 (wraz z Władysławem Jarockim oraz Fryderykiem Pautschem). Fascynował go folklor Huculszczyzny, koloryt strojów, specyfika obrzędów cerkiewnych. +W 1938 został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim Polskiej Akademii Literatury "za wybitne zasługi dla polskiej sztuki w ogóle". +Zuzanna Szwed + +Zuzanna Szwed (ur. 19 lipca 1977 w Warszawie) - polska łyżwiarka figurowa, olimpijka. +Uczestniczka igrzysk olimpijskich w Albertville 1992, gdzie zajęła 19 miejsce. +Najwyższe zajęte miejsce na mistrzostwach świata - 14 w 1993, a na mistrzostwach Europy - 7 w tym samym roku. +Mistrzyni Polski juniorek w 1990, 5-krotna mistrzyni Polski seniorek (1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996) oraz 2-krotna wicemistrzyni kraju (1994, 1997). +Karierę zakończyła w 1997. Obecnie mieszka oraz pracuje jako choreograf w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Powiat pleszewski + +Powiat pleszewski - powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Pleszew. +Historia. +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku terytorium zniesionego powiatu pleszewskiego włączono do nowo utworzonego województwa kaliskiego . +2 lipca 1976 roku do gminy Gołuchów przyłączono część obszaru zniesionej gminy Dobrzec (sołectwa Borczysko oraz Kościelna Wieś Pierwsza i Druga) . 1 grudnia 1979 roku do Pleszewa włączono część obszaru wsi Nowa Wieś z gminy Pleszew . 1 stycznia 1996 roku do gminy Gołuchów przyłączono wieś Cieśle z gminy Pleszew . +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku przywrócono w województwie wielkopolskim powiat pleszewski o kształcie i podziale administracyjnym identycznych do tych z 1975 roku (jedynie miasto i gmina Pleszew zostały połączone 1 stycznia 1992 roku we wspólną gminę miejsko-wiejską Pleszew ). +Powiat śremski + +Powiat śremski – powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Śrem. +Demografia. +Przyrost naturalny wg danych z 2008 roku wyniósł 0,37%. +Położenie geograficzne. +Powiat śremski leży w centralnej części województwa wielkopolskiego w Polsce. Zajmuje powierzchnię 574,7 km² w tym miasta 20,36 km², wsie 554,32 km². Powiat rozciąga się w trzech krainach geograficznych. Środkową część zajmuje Pradolina Warszawsko-Berlińska, dnem jej płynie rzeka Warta. Rzeka oddziela tereny Pojezierza Wielkopolskiego na północy od Pojezierza Leszczyńskiego na południu. +Unia Gospodarcza Miast Regionu Śremskiego. +Na początku 1993 roku została utworzona Unia Gospodarcza Miast Regionu Śremskiego. W jej skład obecnie wchodzą cztery gminy powiatu śremskiego: Brodnica, Dolsk, Książ Wielkopolski oraz Śrem (na początku było ich sześć z Kórnikiem i Czempiniem). W 1995 roku sześć gmin podpisało porozumienie komunalne, które rozpoczęło ich współpracę partnerską. Celami współpracy są: integracja działań i skoncentrowanie środków dla rozwoju regionu oraz tworzenia nowych miejsc pracy. +Jednostką koordynującą i realizującą cele strategii jest Śremski Ośrodek Wspierania Małej Przedsiębiorczości. +W dniu 14 lutego 2005 roku Sąd Rejonowy w Poznaniu zarejestrował zmiany w statucie stowarzyszenia, którego następstwem jest zmiana nazwy na Unia Gospodarcza Regionu Śremskiego – Śremski Ośrodek Wspierania Małej Przedsiębiorczości. +Nowe stowarzyszenie jest kontynuatorem działalności prowadzonej przez Unię Gospodarczą Miast Regionu Śremskiego oraz Śremski Ośrodek Wspierania Małej Przedsiębiorczości, m.in. w zakresie promocji, wspierania przedsiębiorczości, aktywizacji gospodarczej, integracji społeczności lokalnej, obsługi Funduszu Rozwoju Przedsiębiorczości oraz przeciwdziałania bezrobociu. +Środowisko przyrodnicze. +Teren powiatu śremskiego należy do obszarów nizinnych oraz pojezierzy. Został on ukształtowany w wyniku działalności lądolodu skandynawskiego. Ustępujący lądolód pozostawił jeziora, wzgórza moreny czołowej, wydmy i szeroką pradolinę. Północna część powiatu to płaska równina z wysokimi wałami wydmowymi (gmina Śrem) oraz ciągi ozów (gmina Brodnica) porośnięte borem sosnowym. Południowa część powiatu to między innymi Pagórki Dolskie (najwyższe wzniesienie znajduje się koło Ostrowieczna 149 m n.p.m.). Pośrodku pradoliny płynie Warta, znajdują się tu jej starorzecza i łąki zalewowe (łęgi topolowe i topolowo-wierzbowe z licznymi wiekowymi dębami, na których znajdują się lasy łęgowez bogatą fauną i florą. +Krajobraz wiejski to m.in. parki podworskie w Górze, Jaszkowie, Łęgu, Manieczkach, Mechlinie, Międzychodzie, Mszczyczynie, Włościejwkach, znajdują się w nich drzewa – pomniki przyrody: dęby szypułkowe, lipy drobnolistne, kasztanowce zwyczajne i platany. najwięcej pomników przyrody znajduje się w parku w Mechlinie, dębów niedaleko osady Kotowo. +Największe skupisko głazów narzutowych uznanych za pomniki przyrody w Wielkopolsce znajduje się w gminie Dolsk. Miejsca występowania głazów narzutowych to: teren między Brześnicą a Lipówką – przyciągnięte przez lodowiec eratyki pochodzące z Półwyspu Skandynawskiego, Księginki, Małachowo, Drewniany Kamień przy północnym brzegu Jeziora Dolskiego Wielkiego. +Wody płynące i jeziora w powiecie śremskim znajdują się w dorzeczu Warty, znajdują się w powiecie liczne strumienie (Bystrzek, Pysząca), kanałów oraz zalewy w Śremie (77 ha), a także stawy hodowlane. +W powiecie śremskim możemy wybrać różne formy aktywnego wypoczynku. Rzeka Warta oraz liczne jeziora zachęcają do wędkowania, uprawiania sportów wodnych oraz kąpieli. Znajdą tutaj wiele atrakcji zwolennicy wędrówek pieszych, zbieracze grzybów i jagód, amatorzy jazdy konnej i rowerzyści (300 km znakowanych szlaków rowerowych). +Jeziora. +Jezioro Grzymisławskie +Jezioro Dolskie Wielkie +Jezioro Cichowo +Jezioro Mórka +Jezioro Ostrowieczno +Jezioro Lubiatówko +Jezioro Jarosławskie +Jezioro Nowiec +Jezioro Szymanowskie +Jezioro Trąbinek +Jezioro Mełpińskie Wielkie +Jezioro Mełpińskie Małe +Inne Jeziora +Znakowane szlaki turystyczne. +Szlaki rowerowe. +Sieć 252 km szlaków dla rowerzystów w powiecie śremskim, które łączą ze sobą miasta i wsie atrakcyjne turystycznie i historycznie. Szlaki mają długość od 7,9 km do 68,5 km. Większość z nich to pętle, a także tzw. łączniki. +Trasa kajakowa. +planowana: Gogolewo – Śrem – Jaszkowo – Poznań. +Sąsiednie powiaty. +Powiat poznański | Powiat średzki | Powiat jarociński | Powiat gostyński | Powiat kościański +Mariusz Biedrzycki + +Mariusz Biedrzycki (ur. 1971 w Koprze w Słowenii), polski biolog, pierwszy w Polsce popularyzator memetyki, były dyrektor działu komunikacji marketingowej w Onet.pl, a obecnie prezes zarządu spółki biotechnologicznej Trigendo. Brat poety Miłosza Biedrzyckiego, syn Katariny Šalamun-Biedrzyckiej, wnuk Emila Biedrzyckiego. Pasjonat wspinaczki zarówno po drogach ubezpieczonych jak i na własnej asekuracji. Aktywista środowiska wspinaczkowego. +Jako student na Wydziale Biologii i Nauk o Ziemi Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego był stypendystą w Szwecji na uniwersytecie w Lund, gdzie zainteresował się koncepcją memu. Po studiach napisał książkę pod tytułem "Genetyka kultury", w której zawarł własne koncepcje dotyczące rozwoju nauki i ewolucji kulturowej. +W środowisku wspinaczkowym jest znany jako bieDruń. Wspina się od 1986 roku, jest miłośnikiem wspinaczki tradycyjnej i autorem lub współautorem ponad 260 dróg w skałkach i górach na terenie Polski, Albanii, Austrii, Chorwacji, Słowenii, Grecji i Wenezueli. Jest pomysłodawcą Inicjatywy Środowisk Wspinaczkowych "Nasze Skały" - powołanej w celu rozwiązywania konfliktów pomiędzy wspinaczami a właścicielami terenów skalnych. Akcja ta ma na celu zapewnienie wspinaczom dostępu do skał. +20 lipca 2010 zrealizował projekt jurajskiej "łańcuchówki" - w ciągu jednego dnia przeszedł samotnie, bez asekuracji, 50 różnych dróg skalnych w stopniu trudności od III do VI+. +Wybrane publikacje. +"Genetyka kultury", Warszawa 1998, Prószyński i S-ka, ISBN 83-7180-347-8 +Włodzimierz Krukowski + +Włodzimierz Krukowski (ur. 19 września 1887 w Radomiu, zm. 3/4 lipca 1941 we Lwowie) – polski uczony, inżynier elektryk, profesor Politechniki Lwowskiej. +Był synem Antoniego (sędziego) i Heleny z Chmielewskich. Gimnazjum ukończył w Narwi, następnie rozpoczął studia na wydziale matematyczno-fizycznym uniwersytetu w Petersburgu; w 1906 przeniósł się na wydział elektrotechniczny politechniki w Darmstadt, ukończył tę uczelnię w 1913 z dyplomem inżyniera elektryka. Już w trakcie studiów pracował jako asystent w Instytucie Sejsmograficznym Darmstadt-Jugenheim, a także uzyskał dwie nagrody w konkursach fizycznym i elektrotechnicznym. Po kilku latach pracy w Instytucie Fizycznym Politechniki w Darmstadt obronił doktorat (1918). +W latach 1912-1926 był kolejno inżynierem i naczelnym inżynierem w firmie Siemens-Schuckert w Norymberdze; pełnił tam także funkcje zastępcy kierownika i kierownika laboratorium elektrotechnicznego. Laboratorium to sam zaprojektował, wzór ten wykorzystano w tworzeniu analogicznego laboratorium Głównego Urzędu Miar w Warszawie. Od 1920 Krukowski był doradcą naukowym i członkiem Komisji Elektrycznej przy Głównym Urzędzie Miar. W latach 1926-1930 wchodził w skład dyrekcji Polskich Zakładów Siemens-Schuckert w Warszawie, z racji tej pracy odbył serię podróży naukowych po Niemczech i Włoszech. +Zajmował się także pracą dydaktyczną. W latach 1928-1930 prowadził zlecone wykłady z liczników elektrycznych na Wydziale Elektrycznym Politechniki Warszawskiej. W 1930 przeniósł się do Lwowa, gdzie został profesorem pomiarów elektrotechnicznych Politechniki Lwowskiej oraz kierownikiem Laboratorium Elektrotechnicznego. Od 1934 był członkiem-korespondentem Akademii Nauk Technicznych (od 1936 członkiem czynnym), od 1937 członkiem Towarzystwa Naukowego we Lwowie. +W okresie sowieckiej okupacji Lwowa 1939-1940 nadal prowadził działalność naukową. Od 1939 prorektor sowieckiej Politechniki Lwowskiej. Został zamordowany przez Niemców w nocy z 3 na 4 lipca 1941 wraz z grupą uczonych lwowskich. Z małżeństwa z lekarką Heleną z Wasilkowskich nie miał dzieci. +Włodzimierz Krukowski był czołowym polskim metrologiem, wybitnym specjalistą techniki licznikowej, wzorów i pomiarów. Opublikował ponad 20 prac naukowych i zgłosił 60 patentów (w Niemczech, Danii, Włoszech, Holandii, Szwecji, Szwajcarii, Japonii, Anglii i Austrii). Najbardziej znanym patentem Krukowskiego był licznik elektrolityczny o elektrodzie specjalnej; do 1939 działało w Europie ponad milion takich liczników. Był znanym kolekcjonerem zegarów i książek o tematyce zegarmistrzowskiej. +W 1956 wydano wybór artykułów "Prace Włodzimierza Krukowskiego". +Zespół chorobowy + +Zespół chorobowy (łac. "syndroma"; słowo pochodzenia greckiego (σύνδρομο); "syn" - wspólnie, "dromos" - droga, przebieg) – grupa objawów klinicznych, laboratoryjnych i innych, które występując wspólnie, są charakterystyczne dla danej jednostki chorobowej lub grupy chorób. +APOP + +Alternatywna metoda uwierzytelniania zapewniająca dodatkowe zabezpieczenie przed przesyłaniem hasła jawnym tekstem podczas sesji POP3. Wykorzystuje w tym celu tzw. znacznik czasowy będący częścią składową bannera powitalnego przekazywanego przez serwer POP3 po podłączeniu się klienta. Oprogramowanie klienckie skleja ten znacznik z hasłem użytkownika i oblicza sumę kontrolną algorytmem MD5. +Przykład. +Poniżej przestawiony przykład obrazuje użycie komendy APOP do przeprowadzenia uwierzytelnienia użytkownika "mrose" o haśle "tanstaaf". +Argumentami APOP są kolejno nazwa użytkownika oraz suma kontrolna obliczona w tym przypadku na ciągu +wynosząca +Bufor ramki + +Bufor ramki (ang. "frame buffer") jest częścią pamięci RAM karty graficznej przeznaczoną do przechowywania informacji o pojedynczej ramce obrazu. W buforze przechowywane są informacje o wartości każdego piksela tworzącego ramkę. Wartości pikseli zapisywane są w jednym lub więcej bitach, w zależności od wybranej dla karty graficznej ilości wyświetlanych kolorów. Stosowane są zapisy pikseli: jednobitowy (dla obrazu monochromatycznego), czterobitowy, ośmiobitowy (dla 256 kolorów), szesnastobitowy (tryb "high color" – dla 65,5 tys. kolorów) i dwudziestoczterobitowy (tryb "true color" – dla 16,7 mln kolorów). +Na przykład dla ustawień karty: 800x600@16b: +Pierwszy znany eksperymentalny bufor ramki użyty w 1969 roku wyświetlał obraz w trzybitowej głębi kolorów (było ich zaledwie 8). W 1972 roku w laboratoriach Xerox PARC zbudowano bufor z 311 040 bajtami pamięci, zdolny do wyświetlania obrazu w rozdzielczości 640 x 480 pikseli z ośmiobitowym kolorem. +Bufory ramki zdobyły popularność wraz z upowszechnieniem minikomputerów i stacji roboczych. +Lwia spółka + +Lwia spółka (łac. "societas leonina") – spółka osobowa, w której jeden ze wspólników jest wyłączony od udziału w stratach, a drugi od udziału w zyskach. +Nazwa "lwia spółka" pochodzi ze starożytnego Rzymu i już od czasów Ulpiana zawieranie kontraktów lwich spółek było zakazane. +W Polsce umowa spółki przewidująca zwolnienie wspólnika z udziału w zyskach nie będzie w tym zakresie obowiązywać, gdyż zgodnie z art. 51 § 3 polskiego Kodeksu spółek handlowych można zwolnić wspólnika od udziału w stratach, jednak zgodnie z § 1 tego samego przepisu "a contrario" nie można go pozbawić (ani ograniczyć mu) udziału w zyskach. Ponadto zawarcie "spółki lwiej" byłoby sprzeczne z zasadami współżycia społecznego (art. 58 Kodeksu Cywilnego). +W innych państwach możliwość zawierania lwich spółek może być - tak jak w Polsce - zakazana (np. Włochy), albo dozwolona (np. Austria, zgodnie z obowiązującym tam "Allgemeines bürgerliches Gesetzbuch") +Małgorzata z Nawarry + +Małgorzata z Nawarry, zwana również jako Małgorzata z Angoulême (ur. 11 kwietnia 1492, zm. 21 grudnia 1549) – małżonka króla Henryka II z Nawarry i królowa tego państwa. Jako patronka humanistów i reformatorów oraz autorka literacka, była wybitną postacią francuskiego renesansu. Samuel Putnan nazwał ją "pierwszą nowoczesną kobietą". +Ojciec Małgorzaty, Karol Orleański, hrabia Angoulême, był bezpośrednim potomkiem Karola V i odziedziczyłby koronę gdyby zarówno Karolowi VIII i przypuszczalnemu potomkowi, Ludwikowi, księciu orleańskiemu, nie udało się spłodzić męskiego potomka. W roku 1488 Karol ożenił się z piętnastoletnią Ludwiką Sabaudzką – uważaną za jedną z najinteligentniejszych kobiet we Francji. Ludwika nazwała swoją pierwszą córkę Małgorzatą po jej matczynej babce, Małgorzacie de Burbon (córce Karola I, księcia de Burbon). +Dwa lata po narodzinach Małgorzaty, cała rodzina przeniosła się z Angoulême do Cognac, "gdzie włoskie wpływy były ogromne, a gdzie Boccaccio był tylko trochę mniej ważny od boga". Jej brat, Franciszek, który stać się miał królem Francji Franciszkiem I, urodził się tam 12 września 1494. Dzięki swojej matce, Małgorzata uczyła się u znakomitych nauczycieli od najwcześniejszych lat. Kształciła się w łacinie oraz czytała Biblię i dzieła Sofoklesa w tym języku. Młoda księżniczka nazywana była "mecenasem uczonych królestwa swego brata". +Ludwika Sabaudzka owdowiała w wieku dwudziestu lat, gdy córka miała cztery lata. Roczny syn był już wtedy (z powodu śmierci ojca) możliwym sukcesorem tronu francuskiego. Kiedy Małgorzata miała dziesięć lat, Ludwika starała się zeswatać ją z księciem Walii, późniejszym królem Anglii – Henrykiem VIII, ale mariaż ten nie doszedł do skutku. +Ktoś napisał o Małgorzacie, że bardziej potrzebowała kochać niż być kochaną. "Człowiek, który nigdy nie kochał miłością doskonałą jakiejś istoty na tym świecie nigdy nie dostąpi doskonałej miłości Boga" – pisała. Możliwe, że jedyną prawdziwą miłością jej życia był Gaston de Foix, bratanek króla Ludwika XII. Jednak Gaston wyjechał do Włoch gdzie zginął jako bohater Rawenny, kiedy to Francuzi pokonali połączone siły hiszpańskie i papieskie. +Małgorzata w wieku siedemnastu lat została wydana za dwudziestoletniego wtedy Karola, księcia Alençon, z inicjatywy Ludwika XII (który również zaaranżował małżeństwo jego dziesięcioletniej córki, Klaudii, z Franciszkiem). Ta czarująca, inteligentna i wyróżniająco dobrze wyedukowana dziewczyna została zmuszona do poślubienia ogólnie rzecz biorąc miłego, ale całkowicie niewykształconego mężczyzny z powodów politycznych – została przehandlowana, aby uratować królewską dumę Ludwika i zachować hrabstwo Armagnac w rodzinie. +Po śmierci pierwszego męża w 1525, Małgorzata wyszła za Henryka II, króla Nawarry. Urodziła mu córkę, Joannę d'Albret (królową Nawarry, żonę Antoniego de Burbon-Vendôme i matkę króla Francji Henryka IV). +Jej pierwszy i jedyny syn, Jan, urodził się w Blois w lipcu 1530 roku, kiedy Małgorzata miała 38 lat i według szesnastowiecznych standardów wkraczała już w wiek podeszły. Dziecko zmarło jednak w Dzień Bożego Narodzenia tego samego roku. Uczeni wierzą, że to właśnie jej żal spowodował rozpoczęcie prac nad jej najbardziej kontrowersyjnym dziełem, "Miroir de l'âme pécheresse" ("Zwierciadło grzesznej duszy") w roku 1531. Teolodzy z Sorbony potępili utwór jako herezję, a jeden z mnichów powiedział, że Małgorzata powinna zostać zamknięta w torbie i wrzucona do Sekwany. Studenci z Uczelni Nawarry wyszydzali ją w sztuce jako "wściekłość piekieł". Jej brat wymusił jednak unieważnienie zarzutu i przeprosiny z Sorbony. +Małgorzata stała się najbardziej, po jej matce, wpływową kobietą we Francji, kiedy jej brat został koronowany jako Franciszek I w 1515. Jej komnaty były znane jako "Nowy Parnas". Pisarz, Pierre Brantôme, napisał o niej: "Była wspaniałą księżną. W dodatku, była bardzo miła, grzeczna, uprzejma, hojna, rozrzutna w jałmużnach i przyjazna dla wszystkich". Humanista holenderski, Erazm z Rotterdamu, pisał: "Od długiego czasu wielbię wszystkie dary, które Bóg na ciebie zesłał: rozsądek godny filozofów, cnotliwość, umiarkowanie, pobożność, ogromną siłę charakteru oraz godne pozazdroszczenia lekceważenie wszystkich próżności tego świata. Któż mógłby się oprzeć wielbieniu takich cech w królewskiej siostrze, tak rzadkich nawet wśród kleryków i mnichów?" +Napisała wiele poematów, sztuk oraz jeden zbiór opowiadań, "Heptameron". Anna Boleyn, zanim została drugą żoną króla Henryka VIII, była damą dworu u Małgorzaty, która dała jej skrypt swojego najbardziej kontrowersyjnego poematu – "Zwierciadło grzesznej duszy". Później, córka Anny, Elżbieta (przyszła Elżbieta I) w wieku dwunastu lat przetłumaczyła to dzieło na język angielski. +Jako patronka sztuk, Małgorzata przyjaźniła się i chroniła wielu artystów i pisarzy, m.in. François Rabelais (1483-1553), Clementa Marota (1496-1544), i Pierre'a Ronsarda (1524-1585). Była ona również mediatorką pomiędzy kościołem rzymskokatolickim a protestantami (włączając w to Kalwina). Pomimo, że była zwolenniczką reform w Kościele, nigdy nie została kalwinistką. Starała się jednak jak mogła pomóc w ochranianiu protestantów i wszelkimi możliwymi sposobami odradzała Franciszkowi I nietolerancję. +Czasy nietolerancji religijnej nadeszły już po jej śmierci. Było sześć "wojen katolickich", włączając w to straszliwą Noc Świętego Bartłomieja roku 1572. Amerykański historyk Will Durant pisał: "Za czasów Małgorzaty renesans i reformacja przez pewną chwilę były jednym. Jej wpływ sięgał wszystkich zakątków Francji. Każdy wolny duch patrzył na nią jak na protektorkę i ideał. Była ucieleśnieniem dobroci i hojności. Chodziłaby tylko ulicami Pau pozwalając każdemu na zbliżenie się do niej i wysłuchiwałaby żalów wszystkich ludzi." Sama siebie nazywała "przewodniczką biednych ludzi". Henryk, jej mąż, król Nawarry, wierzył w to co robiła nawet do tego stopnia, że zarządził modernizację systemu robót publicznych tak, aby przypominał francuski. Razem z Małgorzatą finansował biednych studentów. +Jules Michelet (1798-1874), najbardziej szanowany historyk swoich czasów, pisał o niej: "Zawsze pamiętajmy tę delikatną Królową Nawarry, w której ramionach nasi ludzie, uciekając od więzienia lub stosu, znajdowali bezpieczeństwo, honor i przyjaźń. Chwała tobie, Matko naszego renesansu! Twoje serce, gniazdo naszej wolności." +Pierre Bayle (1647-1706), francuski filozof, autor "Dictionnaire historique et critique" (Słownik historyczny i krytyczny, 1697), dzieła, które zainspirowało encyklopedystów i racjonalnych filozofów wieku osiemnastego, takich jak Wolter lub Diderot, cenił ją wysoko i pisał o niej w te słowy: "(...) królowa która gwarantowała schronienie ludziom (...); otworzyła dla nich sanktuarium; chroniła ich przed płomieniami; (...) aby wybawić ich od kłopotów i niewygód ich wygnania była heroiczną wspaniałomyślnością bez precedensu (...)". +Najbardziej znaczącą przygodą Małgorzaty było oswobodzenie jej brata, króla Franciszka, schwytanego po bitwie o Pawię w 1525 i przetrzymywanego jako więźnia przez Karola V, cesarza Świętego Narodu Niemieckiego (który swego czasu był pretendentem do ręki Małgorzaty). W krytycznym okresie negocjacji, Małgorzata jechała konno po dwanaście godzin na dobę przez wiele dni, aby uporać się ze wszystkim przed nieprzekraczalnym terminem, a listy pisząc w nocy. +Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) zmarł jako gość Małgorzaty i jej brata, jakiś czas po zaprojektowania dla nich willi. +Portsmouth F.C. + +Portsmouth Football Club (wymowa: /ˈpɔərtsməθ/; nazywany również Pompey) – angielski klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Portsmouth. W sezonie 2011/2012 występował w Football League Championship, ale zajął 22. miejsce i spadł do trzeciej ligi. W sezonie 2012/2013 będzie wystepować w League One. +Od roku 1898 swoje mecze domowe rozgrywa na stadionie Fratton Park. Od czerwca 2010 roku szkoleniowcem klubu jest Steve Cotterill. Klub dwukrotnie był mistrzem kraju (w roku 1949 i 1950) oraz tyle samo razy zdobył Puchar Anglii (w roku 1939 oraz 2008). +Norwich City F.C. + +Norwich City Football Club – angielski klub piłkarski, założony w Norwich w 1902 roku. Obecnie występuje w Premier Leaguedo którego awansowało w sezonie 2010/11.W sezonie 2011/12 zajęło 13 pozycję w lidze. +Sukcesy. +Puchar Ligi Angielskiej (2): 1962, 1985 +Aktualny skład. +"stan na 1 lutego 2013" +Linki zewnętrzne. +Oficjalna strona klubu +Grzegorz Skawiński + +Grzegorz Bogdan Skawiński (ur. 6 lipca 1954 w Mławie), znany również jako Skawa – polski muzyk, kompozytor, wokalista i autor tekstów, gitarzysta, a także producent muzyczny. Członek Akademii Fonograficznej ZPAV. +Biografia. +Ukończył I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. S. Wyspiańskiego w Mławie, w którym poznał Waldemara Tkaczyka. Razem założyli zespół Kameleon. +Od 1974 był członkiem zespołu Akcenty, który w 1976 przekształcił się w Kombi i istniał oficjalnie do 1992. +Pod koniec lat 80. rozpoczął karierę solową jako Skawiński, a w 1991 roku razem z Waldemarem Tkaczykiem, Zbigniewem Kraszewskim (ex-TSA) i Piotrem Łukaszewskim powołał do życia grupę Skawalker. W 1994 po przyjęciu do zespołu wokalistki Agnieszki Chylińskiej zmieniono nazwę kapeli na O.N.A. (w międzyczasie z grupy odszedł Łukaszewski, a dołączył Wojciech Horny). Zespół ten oficjalnie zakończył działalność w 2003 z powodu "rozbieżnych wizji artystycznych". +W 2003 wraz z dwoma byłymi muzykami Kombi – Waldemarem Tkaczykiem i Janem Plutą – założył zespół Kombii, z którym obecnie występuje. +Skawiński uczestniczył również w nagraniach płyt takich wykonawców jak Wanda Kwietniewska, Vader, Acid Drinkers, IRA, Golden Life, Liroy, Robert Janson i innych. +Wskaźnik rozwoju społecznego + +[UNDP Human Development Report Quartiles .png|thumb|400px|Państwa świata według wskaźnika rozwoju społecznego, podzielonego na kwartyle, według danych na rok 2010 +Wskaźnik rozwoju społecznego (ang. "Human Development Index, HDI"; czasem tłumaczony jako „wskaźnik rozwoju ludzkiego”) – syntetyczny miernik opisujący efekty w zakresie społeczno-ekonomicznego rozwoju poszczególnych krajów (stąd czasem nazywany wskaźnikiem rozwoju społeczno-ekonomicznego). System ten wprowadzony został przez ONZ dla celów porównań międzynarodowych. Wskaźnik został opracowany w roku 1990 przez pakistańskiego ekonomistę Mahbuba ul Haqa. Od 1993 wykorzystuje go w swoich corocznych raportach oenzetowska agenda ds. rozwoju (UNDP). +Liderzy rankingu w poszczególnych latach. +Polska zajmuje stosunkowo niskie miejsce nr. 39, a np. sąsiednie Czechy 27. +Leon Schiller + +Leon Schiller, właściwie Leon Schiller de Schildenfeld (ur. 14 marca 1887 w Krakowie, zm. 25 marca 1954 w Warszawie) – polski reżyser, krytyk i teoretyk teatralny, autor scenariuszy teatralnych i radiowych, kompozytor i pieśniarz polski pochodzenia austriackiego, poseł na Sejm Ustawodawczy z ramienia PPR, potem PZPR. +Życiorys. +Pochodził z nobilitowanej przez cesarzową Marię Teresę katolickiej rodziny austriackiej, osiadłej w XIX wieku w Polsce. +Zasłynął interpretacjami dramatów Mickiewicza – legendarne "Dziady" w Teatrze Polskim w Warszawie 1934; wystawiane wcześniej we Lwowie (1932), Wilnie (1933) oraz później w Sofii (1937). +Studiował filozofię i polonistykę na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim oraz na Sorbonie w Paryżu. Współpracował z teatrami w Warszawie (Teatr Polski, Reduta, Teatr im. W. Bogusławskiego, Teatr Ateneum), Łodzi i Lwowie. +Debiutował jako piosenkarz w kabarecie Zielony Balonik w 1906, a jako reżyser w 1917 w Teatrze Polskim w Warszawie. W latach 1930–1932 był kierownikiem artystycznym i reżyserem dramatu w Teatrze Wielkim, Rozmaitości i Małym we Lwowie. We Lwowie rozwinął swoją koncepcję teatru monumentalnego, która zaowocowała m.in. realizacjami utworów wielkich romantyków ("Kordian" – 1930, "Dziady" – 1932, "Sen srebrny Salomei" – 1932). W tym czasie wystawił na trzech scenach (w Teatrze Wielkim, w Teatrze Małym w sali Domu Katolickiego na Gródeckiej oraz w Teatrze Rozmaitości przy ul. Rutowskiego) 29 premier w dziale dramatu oraz kilkanaście wodewilów i operetek. Związki Schillera ze Lwowem trwały sporadycznie do 1939 – reżyserował kilka spektakli w czasie dyrektorowania Wilama Horzycy. +Od 1933 kierownik wydziału reżyserskiego Państwowego Instytutu Sztuki Teatralnej (PIST). W 1935 został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim Polskiej Akademii Literatury "za szerzenie zamiłowania do polskiej literatury dramatycznej". +Więziony na Pawiaku i w niemieckim obozie koncentracyjnym Auschwitz-Birkenau w związku z represjami po zastrzeleniu w marcu 1941 Igo Syma. Wykupiony z Auschwitz w maju tego roku przez siostrę, Annę Jackowską, za 12 tysięcy złotych za sprzedane klejnoty. +Po II wojnie światowej, w latach 1946–1949, rektor Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Teatralnej w Łodzi (PWST). Redaktor naczelny pisma "Teatr" (1947–1949), twórca pisma "Pamiętnik Teatralny" (1952). +W 1949 Prezydent RP Bolesław Bierut nadał mu Order Sztandaru Pracy I klasy. +Powiat szamotulski + +Powiat szamotulski – powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Szamotuły. +Położenie geograficzne. +Powiat szamotulski (gminy i miasta: Duszniki, Kaźmierz, Obrzycko, Ostroróg, Pniewy, Szamotuły, Wronki) położony jest na północny zachód od Poznania, w odległości od 24 do 64 km od stolicy Wielkopolski. Zajmuje obszar 1117 km². Najdalej na północ wysuniętym osiedlem w powiecie jest Dębogóra (gm. Wronki), na południu – Zalesie (gm. Duszniki), na wschodzie – Przecław (gm. Szamotuły), a na zachodzie – Szostaki (gm. Wronki). Granica północna od południowej oddalona jest o 43,5 km, natomiast wschodnia od zachodniej o 37 km. +Powiat szamotulski leży w dorzeczu dolnej Warty, w północno-zachodniej części województwa wielkopolskiego, na Wysoczyźnie Poznańskiej, w jej części zwanej Równiną Szamotulską (75-110 m n.p.m.). Tereny położone na północ od Warty stanowią fragment Kotliny Gorzowskiej, będącej jednym z mezoregionów Pojezierza Zachodniopomorskiego. Obejmują one dolinę Warty oraz jej środkową i wydmową trasę, wznoszącą się od 50 do 75 m n.p.m. Znacznie większa część południowa powiatu wchodzi w skład Pojezierza Wielkopolskiego, ściślej – Pojezierza Poznańskiego. +Obszar powiatu szamotulskiego, na odcinku od Gaju Wielkiego do Pniew, przecina droga krajowa nr 92 z Warszawy do Berlina. Południowym skrajem powiatu, oddzielając Zalesie od pobliskiego Sędzinka, przebiega także autostrada A2 z Berlina do Warszawy. Ważne znaczenie dla ruchu komunikacyjnego regionu mają drogi z Szamotuł do Poznania, z Pniew przez Szamotuły do Obornik oraz z Szamotuł przez Obrzycko do Czarnkowa. W ruchu lokalnym istotną rolę odgrywają także drogi z Pniew do Wronek i Sierakowa, z Ostroroga do Dusznik i Buku jak również z Szamotuł przez Kaźmierz do Buku. +Z południowego wschodu na północny zachód przecina powiat szamotulski ważna linia kolejowa Poznań – Szczecin, do której na tym terenie dochodzą 3 linie lokalne: Rokietnica – Kaźmierz – Pniewy – Międzychód, Szamotuły – Ostroróg – Sieraków – Międzychód oraz Wronki – Obrzycko – Oborniki. Wszystkie linie lokalne są już niestety, nieczynne. Na północy powiat szamotulski graniczy z powiatem czarnkowsko-trzcianeckim, na południu – z nowotomyskim, na zachodzie – z międzychodzkim, a na wschodzie – z obornickim i poznańskim. +Izoterma DA + +Izoterma DA, czyli izoterma Dubinina i Astachowa opisuje adsorpcję w niewielkich porach, tzw. mikroporach, o średnicach porównywalnych z rozmiarami cząsteczki adsorbatu (< 2nm wg IUPAC). Adsorpcja w małych porach jest znacznie silniejsza niż na takiej samej chemicznie powierzchni płaskiej (większa ilość atomów adsorbatu oddziałuje z bliska z adsorbatem) i najczęściej jest opisywana za pomocą równania Dubinina-Raduszkiewicza (izoterma DR), izotermy Dubinina-Astachowa - uogólnienia izotermy DR i Freundlicha - lub równań pochodnych. +gdzie: +Dla n=2 z izotermy DA otrzymujemy izotermę DR, a dla n=1 izotermę Freundlicha. +Równanie izotermy DA może być uważane za jedno z rozwiązań całkowego równania Stoeckliego, które pozwala na opisanie adsorpcji na mikroporach o zróżnicowanej strukturze i rozmiarze. +formula_7 +Niestety stosowanie tej zależności do wyznaczania parametrów równania wymaga uprzedniego wyznaczenia wartości parametrów n i po. Można je jednak stosować również w celu zademonstrowania zgodności danych doświadczalnych z modelem po uprzednim dopasowaniu parametrów np. metodą najmniejszych kwadratów. +Zobacz też: adsorpcja, izoterma adsorpcji oraz teoria objętościowego zapełniania mikroporów. +Pentium Pro + +Pentium Pro to mikroprocesor szóstej generacji należący do rodziny x86, zaprojektowany i produkowany przez firmę Intel. +W oryginalnym zamierzeniu miał on zastąpić Pentium „Classic” jako główny procesor Intela, ale z różnych powodów był używany jako procesor do serwerów i w rzadkich tylko wypadkach jako procesor komputerów „z wyższej półki”. Używał stosunkowo dużej, podłużnej podstawki Socket 8. Zadebiutował w październiku 1995. W późniejszym czasie został zastąpiony procesorem Xeon. +"Speculative execution" pozwala w wielu przypadkach na znaczne podniesienie wydajności procesora, ale jeżeli procesor „nie trafi”, zgadując w jakim kierunku ma się potoczyć wykonanie programu, może też poważnie zwolnić jego pracę – Pentium Pro otrzymał dużo bardziej skomplikowany i zaawansowany algorytm przewidywania rozgałęzień (ang. "branch prediction") w porównaniu z pierwszym Pentium. Dodano też dodatkową instrukcję codice_1 (przesłanie warunkowe, realizujące działanie operatora warunkowego), która w niektórych przypadkach pozwalała zrezygnować z instrukcji skoku w ogóle. +Wydajność pracy z kodem 32-bitowym była znakomita, ale Pentium Pro był często wolniejszy od zwykłego Pentium przy wykonywaniu kodu 16-bitowego. Był to jeden z głównych powodów dlaczego procesor ten nie stał się bardziej popularny. Większość domowych komputerów używała wtedy jeszcze 16-bitowego środowiska operacyjnego Microsoft Windows 3.x. +Pentium Pro miał w zależności od modelu – 256 lub 512 KB pamięci podręcznej (późniejszy model miał 1 MB), zaprojektowanej w unikatowy sposób. Procesor i pamięć podręczna były produkowane na osobnych rdzeniach i łączone je dopiero w momencie wkładania ich w obudowy. Niemożliwe było testowanie obu tych części osobno. Możliwe było to dopiero po ich połączeniu, co oznaczało że ukryta wada jednej z części zmuszała do odrzucenia całości. Przez to produkcja Pentium Pro była bardzo kosztowna, wydajność aplikacji 16-bitowych niska, a ceny sklepowe bardzo wysokie (szczególnie modelu z 1 MB pamięci podręcznej). +Stosunkowa powolność Pentium Pro w wykonywaniu 16-bitowych programów była spowodowana umyślną decyzją Intela o zoptymalizowaniu tego procesora pod kod 32-bitowy po przeprowadzonych rozmowach z firmą Microsoft o przyszłych produktach tej firmy. Kiedy jednak okazało się, że Windows 95 jest wciąż częściowo 16-bitowe, Pentium Pro znalazł się na nie najlepszej pozycji. Intel postanowił sprzedawać go jako procesor do serwerów i komputerów z systemami operacyjnymi Unix i Windows NT. +Pentium Pro były dostępne w wersjach 150, 166, 180 i 200 MHz, z magistralą FSB taktowaną 60 lub 66 MHz. Wielu użytkowników „podkręcało” swoje procesory – wersja 200 MHz nie miała problemu z pracą przy taktowaniu 220 MHz, a 150 MHz – jako 166 MHz. Pentium Pro był bardzo popularny w zastosowaniach SMP (symetryczne przetwarzanie wieloprocesorowe) – dwu- i czteroprocesorowych serwerach. Wiele z nich używanych jest do tej pory. +Był to pierwszy procesor Intela, który zapewniał komfortową pracę w systemach graficznych 32-bitowych takich jak Windows NT czy NextStep. +Następcą Pentium Pro był Pentium II, była to nowsza, ulepszona wersja Pentium Pro z dodanymi instrukcjami MMX i poprawioną wydajnością przetwarzania kodu 16-bitowego. Powstała także specjalna wersja Pentium II 333 MHz w obudowie Socket 8, aby umożliwić użytkownikom Pentium Pro łatwe ulepszenie. +Grzegorz Filipowski + +Grzegorz Filipowski (ur. 28 lipca 1966 w Łodzi) – polski łyżwiarz figurowy, medalista mistrzostw świata. +Najlepszy w historii polski łyżwiarz figurowy w kategorii solistów. Pierwszy medal (brązowy) na arenie międzynarodowej zdobył w 1985 podczas mistrzostw Europy. W 1989 w mistrzostwach kontynentu wywalczył srebrny medal, przegrywając z Aleksandrem Fadiejewem. +Największy sukces osiągnął w czasie mistrzostw świata w 1989 w Paryżu. Zajął trzecie miejsce (najlepsze z Europejczyków), ustępując jedynie Kanadyjczykowi Kurtowi Browningowi i Amerykaninowi Christopherowi Bowmanowi. Jest jedynym do tej pory łyżwiarzem z Polski, który stanął na podium mistrzostw świata w konkurencji solistów. +Trzykrotnie uczestniczył w igrzyskach olimpijskich (Sarajewo 1984, Calgary 1988, Albertville 1992). Najlepszą lokatę uzyskał w Calgary, gdzie był piąty. +W latach 1981–1986 zdobywał mistrzostwo Polski. +Czynne uprawianie łyżwiarstwa zakończył w 1997. Obecnie mieszka w Kanadzie, gdzie pracuje jako trener łyżwiarzy figurowych. +Iwan Franko + +Iwan Jakowycz Franko, ukr. Іван Якович Франко [] (ur. 27 sierpnia 1856 w Nahujowicach, zm. 28 maja 1916 we Lwowie) – ukraiński poeta i pisarz, slawista, tłumacz, działacz społeczny i polityczny; obok Tarasa Szewczenki uważany jest za jednego z najwybitniejszych przedstawicieli ukraińskiej myśli politycznej i literatury. +Dorobek pisarski. +Poważną część prac literackich, naukowych i publicystycznych napisał Franko i ogłosił po polsku. +Poezje. +Jego poezja odznacza się ogromnym bogactwem tematów oraz nieznaną dotychczas w literaturze ukraińskiej różnorodnością form. +Opowiadania i powieści. +Napisał też powieść historyczną +Odrębne miejsce zajmuje w jego twórczości wielka powieść społeczna "Filary społeczeństwa" wymierzona przeciw ziemiaństwu i pseudodemokratom wciskającym się między lud i starającym się ubijać tam swoje interesy polityczne. Powieść tę oparł Franko na głośnym w jego czasach procesie tzw. kukizowskim, w którym na ławie oskarżonych zasiadła ziemiańsko-arystokratyczna rodzina, oskarżona o zabójstwo w celach rabunkowych greckokatolickiego proboszcza. +Dramaty. +W latach dziewięćdziesiątych zajął się Franko dramatem. Napisał wówczas sztukę "Skradzione szczęście", jeden z najlepszych dramatów w literaturze ukraińskiej z życia zapadłej wsi huculskiej z jej nędzą, ciemnotą i tragicznymi powikłaniami. +Literatura dla dzieci. +Franko był też najwybitniejszym w swoim czasie przedstawicielem ukraińskiej literatury dla dzieci i młodzieży. Napisał dla nich kilka nowel (najczęściej opartych na przeżyciach z własnego dzieciństwa), wierszy, poematów o dużej wartości artystycznej i wychowawczej. +Kontakty z Polakami. +Od wczesnej młodości utrzymywał bliskie stosunki osobiste z przedstawicielami kultury polskiej. Korespondował z Elizą Orzeszkową, przez szereg lat przyjaźnił się z Janem Kasprowiczem, kilkakrotnie wypowiadał się w druku o Henryku Sienkiewiczu. Po raz pierwszy w krytyce literackiej potraktował w sposób właściwy problem chłopski w twórczości Marii Konopnickiej i Bolesława Prusa. Zajmował się też problemami polskiego pozytywizmu. Jedną z najciekawszych prac Franki na temat współczesnej literatury polskiej była jego recenzja "Placówki" Prusa. Z punktu widzenia tematyki chłopskiej oceniał również poezję Kasprowicza. Jako historyk literatury poświęcił wiele uwagi polskiej poezji średniowiecznej, literaturze XVI i XVII wieków, twórczości Seweryna Goszczyńskiego, Józefa Bohdana Zaleskiego, Mickiewicza, Słowackiego i Krasińskiego. +Lubomyr Huzar + +Lubomyr Huzar MSU (ukr. Любомир Гузар) (ur. 26 lutego 1933 we Lwowie) – ukraiński duchowny greckokatolicki, kardynał, studyta, arcybiskup większy kijowsko-halicki, zwierzchnik Kościoła katolickiego obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego. +__NOTOC__ +Życiorys. +Urodził się we Lwowie. Młodość spędził na terytorium Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. W 1944 roku przed nadejściem wojsk radzieckich opuścił wraz z rodziną Ukrainę i udał się na emigrację do Austrii. W latach 1944-1949 przebywał w Salzburgu, później w Stanach Zjednoczonych Ameryki. +Studiował filozofię i teologię w Kolegium Świętego Bazylego w Stamford, na Katolickim Uniwersytecie Ameryki w Waszyngtonie, na Fordham University w Nowym Jorku i na Papieskim Uniwersytecie Urbaniana w Rzymie. +W latach 1958-1969 pracował jako wykładowca akademicki w Stamford. W latach 1969-1972 był profesorem eklezjologii na Papieskim Uniwersytecie Urbaniana w Rzymie. +30 marca 1958 w katedrze w Stamford przyjął święcenia kapłańskie w obrządku bizantyjskim. W latach 1966-1969 pełnił funkcje proboszcza parafii greckokatolickiej w Kerhonkson. W 1972 roku wstąpił do zakonu studytów. Od 1974 roku był przełożonym klasztoru w Grottaferrata. +2 kwietnia 1977 został mianowany przez arcybiskupa Josyfa Slipyja sufraganem i otrzymał w Castel Gandolfo potajemnie sakrę biskupią bez wcześniejszego zatwierdzenia papieskiego. Pełnił funkcję archimandryty mnichów studytów na Europę i Amerykę. +W 1993 powrócił na Ukrainę z zadaniem zorganizowania klasztoru studytów w diecezji tarnopolskiej. +W 1995 roku Lubomyr Huzar został wybrany przez Synod Biskupów Ukraińskiego Kościoła Greckokatolickiego na egzarchę kijowsko-wyszhorodzkiego. W 1996 roku uzyskał potwierdzenie kanoniczności swoich święceń biskupich od papieża Jana Pawła II i 22 lutego 1996 roku został mianowany biskupem tytularnym Nisa di Licia. +W październiku 1996 został biskupem pomocniczym arcybiskupa wiekszego lwowskiego, z tytułem koadiutora i nadzwyczajnymi pełnomocnictwami duszpasterskimi. Po śmierci kardynała Myrosława Lubaczewskiego 23 grudnia 2000 został mianowany administratorem apostolskim archidiecezji lwowskiej. +25 stycznia 2001 roku został wybrany przez Synod Biskupów Ukraińskiego Kościoła Greckokatolickiego arcybiskupem większym Lwowa i następnego dnia otrzymał zatwierdzenie swojego tytułu od papieża. W lutym 2001 roku otrzymał nominację kardynalską, z tytułem kardynała prezbitera S. Sofia a Via Boccea. +W 2005 roku brał udział w konklawe po śmierci Jana Pawła II. Od sierpnia 2005 roku jako zwierzchnik Kościoła katolickiego obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego nosił tytuł arcybiskupa większego Kijowa i Halicza. W latach 2005-2010 podejmował starania o podniesienie swojej metropolii do rangi patriarchatu. +10 lutego 2011 kardynał Lubomyr Huzar złożył rezygnację z funkcji arcybiskupa większego halicko-kijowskiego i zwierzchnika Kościoła katolickiego obrządku bizantyjsko-ukraińskiego. Funkcję locum tenens po jego dymisji przejął do czasu zwołania Synodu Biskupów Ukraińskiego Kościoła Greckokatolickiego, arcybiskup lwowski Ihor Woźniak. +26 lutego 2013 r., w związku z ukończeniem 80 roku życia, utracił prawo do udziału w konklawe. +Suspens + +Suspens - chwyt narracyjny, stosowany w filmach lub powieściach polegający na okresowym wstrzymaniu (zawieszeniu) biegu akcji i jej emocjonalnym wyciszeniu używany w celu wzmożenia napięcia albo zaskoczenia widza lub czytelnika niespodziewanym zwrotem akcji lub poprzedzający moment grozy. Pozwala on osiągnąć zwielokrotniony efekt dramaturgii. +Program Gemini + +Program Gemini był amerykańskim programem lotów kosmicznych, następcą programu Mercury, realizowanym w latach 1963–1966. Miał na celu opracowanie zaawansowanych technik lotu kosmicznego, potrzebnych do realizacji programu Apollo, mającego na celu wysłanie ludzi na Księżyc. Program Gemini, jako pierwszy amerykański program lotów kosmicznych, obejmował wyjścia astronautów w przestrzeń kosmiczną i manewry orbitalne, takie jak spotkania orbitalne i dokowanie. +Gemini miał być początkowo jedynie prostym rozwinięciem programu Merkury i w pierwszych stadiach rozwoju nazywany był "Mercury Mark II". Ostateczna wersja pojazdu nie miała już wiele wspólnego z kapsułą Merkury, a pod niektórymi względami przewyższała nawet kapsułę Apollo (szczególnie wersja Big Gemini). Było to rezultatem późnego rozpoczęcia projektu, co pozwoliło konstruktorom wykorzystać wiedzę zdobytą przy tworzeniu programu Apollo (który, mimo późniejszego rozpoczęcia startów, zaczęto realizować przed Gemini). +Główną różnicą między kapsułą Gemini a kapsułą Mercury było to, że szereg systemów zasilania, podtrzymywania życia i napędu pojazdu Gemini umieszczono w odrzucanym module, podczas gdy wszystkie systemy Mercury znajdowały się w kapsule pilota. Początkowo zamierzano wyposażyć Gemini w paralotnię zamiast spadochronu, co pozwoliłoby na kontrolowane lądowanie pojazdu. Wczesne wersje pojazdu zasilały akumulatory. Późniejsze egzemplarze, jako pierwsze załogowe pojazdy kosmiczne, zasilane były przez ogniwa paliwowe. +Oznaczenie "Gemini" wywodzi się z dwuosobowej załogi statku – "gemini" oznacza po łacinie "bliźnięta". +Był to również pierwszy amerykański kosmiczny pojazd załogowy wyposażony w komputer pokładowy, Gemini Guidance Computer, wspomagający przeprowadzanie manewrów orbitalnych. +Głównym producentem pojazdu była firma McDonnell, która wcześniej przegrała kontrakt na budowę pojazdu Apollo. McDonnell próbował przekonać NASA do rozszerzenia misji pojazdu. Proponowali przystosowanie pojazdu do misji wokółksiężycowych, a nawet do przeprowadzenia załogowego lądowania na Księżycu – kosztem mniejszym, niż w wypadku programu Apollo. Sugestie odrzucono. +Program Gemini kosztował 5,4 mld USD (w przeliczeniu na wartość dolara USA z 1994 roku). +Początek projektu. +NASA ogłosiła 7 grudnia 1961 plan rozszerzenia programu lotów kosmicznych o pojazd dwumiejscowy. Oficjalną nazwę Gemini ogłoszono 3 stycznia 1962 roku. +Zastosowania Gemini. +Siły Powietrzne Stanów Zjednoczonych (ang. USAF) wyraziły zainteresowanie programem i postanowiły wykorzystać pojazd jako prom dla Załogowego Laboratorium Orbitalnego. USAF miało również zamiar przystosować pojazd Gemini do zastosowań militarnych, takich jak obserwacja (choć pojazd nie był w stanie przenosić skomplikowanych kamer) i inspekcja podejrzanych satelitów. Projekt nazwano Blue Gemini. Siłom Powietrznym nie podobało się to, że pojazd wydobywałaby US Navy, przewidywali więc przywrócenie Blue Gemini paralotni i podwozia płozowego, przewidzianych w oryginalnym projekcie Gemini. +Początkowo NASA chętnie przyjęła możliwość podziału kosztów z USAF, lecz później doszła do wniosku, że lepiej będzie, jeżeli Gemini pozostanie całkowicie w rękach NASA. Projekt laboratorium orbitalnego sił powietrznych odwołano w 1968 roku, wkrótce potem upadł również projekt Blue Gemini. +Misje. +Program Gemini objął 12 lotów kosmicznych, w tym dwa próbne bezzałogowe. +Załogowe. +23 marca 1965 +Virgil "Gus" Grissom, John W. Young +Czas trwania misji: 4 godziny, 52 minuty i 31 sekund +Pierwszy lot załogowy Gemini, pojazd wykonał trzy orbity. +Jedyny incydent podczas tego lotu wyniknął z przemycenia na pokład przez Younga kanapki z wołowiną. Obaj członkowie załogi zdążyli zjeść po kilka kęsów, zanim kontrola lotów nie rozkazała schować kanapki. Obawiano się, że okruchy z kanapki mogą zniszczyć układy elektroniczne statku. Załoga otrzymała reprymendę po powrocie na Ziemię, a kolejne załogi ostrzeżono przed konsekwencjami takich wybryków. +3–7 czerwca 1965 +James A. McDivitt, Edward H. White II +Czas trwania misji: 4 dni, 1 godzina, 56 minut i 12 sekund +Lot obejmował pierwsze wyjście amerykańskiego astronauty w przestrzeń kosmiczną. „Spacer kosmiczny” White'a trwał 22 minuty. +21–29 sierpnia 1965 +L. Gordon Cooper, Jr., Charles Conrad, Jr. +Czas trwania misji: 7 dni, 22 godziny, 55 minut i 14 sekund +Pierwsza tygodniowa misja. +Pierwsze wykorzystanie ogniw paliwowych do zasilania pojazdu. +Ocena możliwości wykorzystania systemów naprowadzania i nawigacji do przyszłych misji. 120 +orbit. +4–18 grudnia 1965 +Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr. +Czas trwania misji: 13 dni, 18 godzin, 35 minut i 1 sekunda +Po odwołaniu misji Gemini VI spowodowanym awarią pojazdu Agena Target Vehicle, z którym miał dokować Gemini, podjęto decyzję o przeprowadzeniu spotkania orbitalnego. Misja miała dowieść, że człowiek jest w stanie przeżyć 14 dni na orbicie. +15–16 grudnia 1965 +Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Thomas P. Stafford +Czas trwania misji: 1 dzień, 1 godzina, 51 minut i 24 sekundy +Spotkanie orbitalne z Gemini VII, pojazdy przez 5 godzin utrzymywały się w odległości od 0,3 do 90 metrów od siebie. +16 marca 1966 +Neil A. Armstrong, David R. Scott +Czas trwania misji: 10 godzin, 41 minut i 26 sekund +Pierwszy manewr dokowania z innym pojazdem na orbicie. Wykorzystano w tym celu bezzałogowy pojazd Agena. Awaria spowodowała gwałtowny ruch wirowy pojazdu. Załoga odłączyła swój statek i wykonała pierwsze awaryjne lądowanie w historii amerykańskiego programu kosmicznego. +3–6 czerwca 1966 +Thomas P. Stafford, Eugene A. Cernan +Czas trwania misji: 3 dni, 20 minut i 50 sekund +Planowano przeprowadzenie manewru dokowania, jednak awaria pojazdu – celu uniemożliwiła połączenie. Przeprowadzono 3 różne spotkania orbitalne i dwie godziny wyjść w przestrzeń kosmiczną. +18–21 lipca 1966 +John W. Young, Michael Collins +Czas trwania misji: 2 dni, 22 godziny, 46 minut i 39 sekund +Po raz pierwszy wykorzystano napęd pojazdu Agena. Przeprowadzono także spotkanie z pojazdem-celem pozostałym z misji Gemini VIII. +12–15 września 1966 +Charles Conrad, Jr., Richard F. Gordon, Jr. +Czas trwania misji: 2 dni, 23 godziny, 17 minut i 8 sekund +Rekord wysokości lotu pojazdu Gemini wynoszący 1369 km (osiągnięty przy wykorzystaniu napędu pojazdu Agena). +11–15 listopada 1966 +James A. Lovell, Jr., Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin +Czas trwania misji: 3 dni, 22 godziny, 34 minut i 31 sekund +Ostatni lot Gemini. Spotkanie z pojazdem Agena i ręczne dokowanie. Aldrin ustanowił rekord długości wyjścia w przestrzeń – 5 godzin i 30 minut +Podsumowanie. +Osiągnięte zostały wszystkie cele programu Gemini, w tym opanowanie przez astronautów technik pracy w otwartej przestrzeni kosmicznej (EVA) oraz procedur manewrowania połączonymi statkami (ten ostatni element został dodany już po rozpoczęciu programu). +Spotkanie na orbicie. +Podczas programu 10 razy wykonano procedurę spotkania na orbicie. Wykorzystywano różne techniki, od ręcznych manewrów i wizualnego namierzania celu, aż po spotkanie kontrolowane przez komputery pokładowe lub naziemne. +Dokowanie. +Zostało wykonanych dziewięć połączeń z czterema różnymi statkami Agena. +Manewry połączonymi statkami.. +Podczas misji Gemini 10 i Gemini 11 wykonano bardzo skomplikowane manewry połączonymi statkami Gemini-Agena. Posługując się silnikiem Ageny, Conrad i Gordon na pokładzie Gemini 11 ustanowili nowy rekord wysokości – 1369 kilometrów. +EVA. +Astronauci wychodzili w otwartą przestrzeń kosmiczną podczas pięciu różnych misji, spędzając poza statkiem łącznie 12 godzin i 22 minuty. Rekord łącznej długości pracy poza statkiem – 5 godzin i 30 minut – ustanowił Buzz Aldrin podczas misji Gemini 12. +Długotrwałe loty. +Misja Gemini 7 udowodniła, że astronauci mogą spędzić w kosmosie całe dwa tygodnie. Gemini 5 było misją ośmiodniową, a dwie inne misje trwały po cztery dni. +Sterowane przejście przez atmosferę (precyzyjne lądowanie). +Poczynając od Gemini 6, każdy ze statków wodował w odległości zaledwie kilku kilometrów od zaplanowanego miejsca. +Eksperymenty. +Każda misja miała w planie eksperymenty. Podczas całego programu przeprowadzono łącznie 43 udane eksperymenty. +Spośród wszystkich 14 podjętych prób przeprowadzenia misji, w 10 zostały osiągnięte wszystkie podstawowe cele wyznaczone przed startem. +Agnetha Fältskog + +Agnetha Åse Fältskog (ur. 5 kwietnia 1950 w Jönköping) – piosenkarka szwedzka. Światową sławę uzyskała współtworząc z Anni-Frid Lyngstad, Björnem Ulvaeusem i Bennym Anderssonem zespół ABBA. +Biografia. +Jest starszą córką menedżera Knuta Ingvara Fältskoga i Birgit Margarety Johansson. Wychowywała się w prowincjonalnym Jönköping. Od najmłodszych lat pasją Agnethy Fältskog była muzyka – uczyła się gry na pianinie, śpiewała w chórze kościelnym, pragnęła jednak zostać piosenkarką. Jej zainteresowania spotykały się z życzliwym nastawieniem rodziców. Jako sześcioletnie dziecko wystąpiła w zorganizowanym przez ojca przedstawieniu z okazji świąt Bożego Narodzenia. Bardzo wcześnie zaczęła komponować własne piosenki. +W 1960 r. założyła ze swymi przyjaciółkami Leną Johansson i Elisabeth Strub trio muzyczne The Chambers, które występowało w lokalnych klubach. +W wieku 15 lat porzuciła szkołę z postanowieniem zrobienia kariery muzycznej. Dorabiała pracując w centrali telefonicznej w Jönköping. Rok później związała się na dwa lata z zespołem tanecznym Bernta Enghardta, w którym śpiewała po szwedzku własne kompozycje. Jej pierwszym znaczącym przebojem była piosenka "Jag var så kär" ("I was so in love"), napisana pod wpływem zerwania z chłopakiem. Pierwszą płytę nagrała w wieku 17 lat. Szybko została zauważona przez krytyków muzycznych, którzy docenili w niej utalentowaną piosenkarkę, kompozytorkę i autorkę tekstów. +Poza własnymi utworami nagrywała covery zagranicznych przebojów, wykonując je na koncertach w całej Szwecji. Podczas występu w telewizji w styczniu 1968 spotkała po raz pierwszy Anni-Frid Lyngstad. Pod koniec lat 60. Agnetha Fältskog osiągnęła w Szwecji znaczną popularność, mając na koncie dwa albumy i kilka singlowych przebojów. +W maju 1969 podczas nagrań programu w telewizji poznała Björna Ulvaeusa. Początkowa przyjaźń przemieniła się w miłość. Ślub miał miejsce 6 lipca 1971. Owocem małżeństwa, które rozpadło się w 1979, były dzieci Linda i Christian. +W 1973 zagrała główną rolę żeńską, Marii Magdaleny, w szwedzkiej wersji rock opery "Jesus Christ Superstar". +Po rozpadzie zespołu ABBA w 1982 kontynuowała działalność solową, wydając trzy płyty w latach 80. W kolejnej dekadzie wycofała się z działalności muzycznej. W 2004 powróciła na scenę muzyczną, wydając płytę "My colouring book". +Po raz drugi wyszła za mąż 15 grudnia 1990, za chirurga Tomasa Sonnenfelda. Związek przetrwał niespełna trzy lata. +Od 1997 była związana przez dwa lata z Holendrem Gerem van der Graafem. Van der Graaf był jej wielkim fanem, utrzymywał że zakochał się w Fältskog w 1974 jako sześcioletni chłopiec, po usłyszeniu piosenki "Waterloo". W 1997 przeniósł się do Szwecji i zamieszkał w pobliżu piosenkarki. Udało mu się nawiązać kontakt – początkowo wspólnie spacerowali, później zamieszkali razem. Holender nie przyjął jednak do wiadomości zakończenia związku (artystka nazwała byłego kochanka "niestabilnym emocjonalnie") i nękał ją telefonami oraz listami. Fältskog uzyskała sądowy zakaz zbliżania się van der Graafa do swej osoby i doprowadziła do jego deportacji ze Szwecji. W 2005 zakaz jednak wygasł i były kochanek powrócił – widywano go w pobliżu domu artystki na wyspie Ekerö niedaleko Sztokholmu. +Latem 2008 Agnetha Fältskog wraz z pozostałą trójką z grupy ABBA wzięła udział w imprezach z okazji oficjalnej premiery filmu "Mamma Mia!", w którym wykorzystano największe przeboje zespołu ABBA. +Park Krajobrazowy Dolina Baryczy + +Park Krajobrazowy Dolina Baryczy – park krajobrazowy w województwie dolnośląskim i wielkopolskim, położony między Żmigrodem i Przygodzicami. +Powierzchnia parku wynosi 87 040 ha (część dolnośląska 70 040 ha, część wielkopolska 17 000 ha). Powołany 3 czerwca 1996 roku. Obejmuje swoim zasięgiem 3 typy siedlisk: stawy rybne, podmokłe łąki i lasy. Obszar Parku objęty jest konwencją ochrony środowisk wodnych z Ramsar. Europejska Ostoja Ptaków - występuje tu około 300 gatunków. Jednocześnie Obszar Specjalnej Ochrony Ptaków "Dolina Baryczy" w ramach europejskiej sieci Natura2000. Na terenie Parku znajduje się także jeden z największych w Europie kompleks stawów rybnych, w skład którego wchodzi m.in. prawie 300 stawów w rejonie Milicza i Żmigrodu. +Objawy oponowe + +Objawy oponowe – grupa objawów neurologicznych, występujących w przypadku podrażnienia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych. Najczęściej pojawiają się w zapaleniu opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych, zapaleniu mózgu, w krwotoku podpajęczynówkowym. Mogą towarzyszyć guzom wewnątrzczaszkowym oraz być następstwem urazów. +Powiat rawicki + +Powiat rawicki – powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Rawicz. Jest to najmniejszy pod względem powierzchni powiat w województwie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2011 r. powierzchnia powiatu wynosiła 553,52 km². Powiat rawicki jest powiatem o najmniejszej powierzchni w woj. wielkopolskim (nie dotyczy miast na prawach powiatu). +Demografia. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. powiat miał 60 056 mieszkańców. +Jerzy Gorgoń + +Jerzy Paweł Gorgoń (ur. 18 lipca 1949 w Zabrzu-Mikulczycach) – piłkarz polski, reprezentant Polski, mistrz i wicemistrz olimpijski, medalista mistrzostw świata. Z wykształcenia technik-górnik i instruktor piłki nożnej, nosił przydomek boiskowy "Długi" (ze względu na wzrost – 192 cm), bywał też nazywany "Białą górą". Przez Anglików nazywany "The Telephone Booth" (budka telefoniczna), dlatego że z postury i w czerwonej koszulce przypominał wyspiarzom londyńskie, czerwone budki. Grał w obronie. +Był wychowankiem Międzyzakładowego Górniczego Klubu Sportowego (MGKS) Mikulczyce (późniejsza Sparta Mikulczyce Zabrze). Od 1967 grał w Górniku Zabrze. Zaliczył dwanaście sezonów w ekstraklasie i jeden w II lidze (1979), występując łącznie w 220 meczach i strzelając 18 bramek. Miał udział zarówno w wielkich sukcesach Górnika – mistrzostwo Polski 1971 i 1972, pięć Pucharów Polski (1968-1972), finał Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów 1970 – jak i porażkach (spadek z ligi 1978). +W 1973 w plebiscycie katowickiego "Sportu" uhonorowany został "Złotymi Butami". +W latach 70. był czołowym piłkarzem kadry narodowej. Występował jeszcze jako piłkarz Mikulczyc w reprezentacji juniorskiej , a w zespole seniorskim zadebiutował w 1970 w meczu z Irlandią. Do 1978 zaliczył 55 oficjalnych spotkań w kadrze, w jednym pełnił funkcję kapitana. Miał swój udział we wszystkich wielkich sukcesach zespołu selekcjonera Kazimierza Górskiego – złocie olimpiady w Monachium (1972, strzelił dwie bramki w grupowym meczu z NRD), meczu na Wembley, medalu mistrzostw świata (1974), wicemistrzostwie olimpijskim z Montrealu (1976). Znalazł się także w kadrze Jacka Gmocha na mundial w Argentynie w 1978; trener nie wystawił go jednak w kluczowym meczu z gospodarzami mistrzostw, co niektórzy znawcy piłki uznali za pomyłkę i przyczynę porażki. Po występie w mistrzostwach Gorgoń zakończył reprezentacyjną karierę. +Ostatnie lata kariery zawodniczej (1980-1983) spędził w szwajcarskim FC Sankt Gallen. Tam także próbował pracy trenerskiej, opiekując się zespołem rezerwowym i juniorskim i zespołem Blau-Weiss St. Gallen. Pracował później w szkółce piłkarskiej w Gossau. +Jako piłkarz był uważany za znakomitego obrońcę, potężną posturą wzbudzającego respekt rywali. Potrafił także zaskoczyć potężnym strzałem z daleka. Obecnie mieszka w Szwajcarii. +Powiat słupecki + +Powiat słupecki – powiat w Polsce, we wschodniej części województwa wielkopolskiego, z siedzibą w Słupcy; przywrócony w wyniku reformy administracyjnej przeprowadzonej w 1999. +Powiat słupecki powstał w 1867 w wyniku wydzielenia z zachodniej części powiatu konińskiego w guberni kaliskiej Królestwa Polskiego. +Przez powiat słupecki przebiega autostrada A2 i droga krajowa nr 92 oraz linia kolejowa nr 3. +Położenie. +Powiat słupecki znajduje się w środkowo-wschodniej części województwa wielkopolskiego; cechuje go wydłużony południkowy kształt. Sąsiaduje z 4 powiatami województwa wielkopolskiego: od północnego zachodu z powiatem gnieźnieńskim, od zachodniej strony z powiatem wrzesińskim, od południa z pleszewskim, od wschodu z konińskim. Od północy z powiatem mogileńskim, należącym do województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego. Gminy powiatu słupeckiego przed reformą administracyjną należały do województwa konińskiego. +Historia. +Dzisiejszy powiat słupecki jest czwartym w historii powiatem z siedzibą w Słupcy. +1867-1918 +Pierwszy powiat słupecki istniał w latach 1867-1918 w ramach guberni kaliskiej, utworzonej przez władze carskie w Królestwie Polskim na mocy ukazu z 31 grudnia 1866 roku. Gubernia kaliska (utworzona 23 lutego 1837 na miejscu województwa kaliskiego i dzieliła się na 8 powiatów (ujazdów): kaliski, kolski, koniński, łęczycki, sieradzki, słupecki, turecki, wieluński; oraz na 142 gminy. +1919-1932 +Drugi powiat słupecki istniał w latach 1919-1932. Na podstawie tymczasowej ustawy o organizacji władz administracyjnych II Rzeczypospolitej utworzono m.in. województwo łódzkie, w skład którego wszedł powiat słupecki. W 1930 roku województwo łódzkie było podzielone na 13 powiatów ziemskich oraz 1 miejski. W skład województwa wchodziło 46 miast (1930) i 232 gminy. +1956-1972 +1 stycznia 1957 roku do powiatu słupeckiego przyłączono gromady Ostrowite i Siernicze Wielkie z powiatu konińskiego. +1 stycznia 1960 roku zniesiono gromadę Graboszewo (włączono do gromady Strzałkowo) a w 1961 roku gromadę Kąty (włączono do gromady Słupca). W 1971 roku zlikwidowano gromady Brudzewo i Ostrowo Kościelne a ich terytorium włączono do gromady Strzałkowo. +1973-1975 +Powiat nie obejmował wówczas gminy Powidz, która należała do powiatu gnieźnieńskiego (woj. poznańskie) ani gminy Orchowo, którą powołano w powiecie mogileńskim w województwie bydgoskim. +1975-1998 +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku terytorium zniesionego powiatu słupeckiego włączono do nowo utworzonego województwa konińskiego. +15 stycznia 1976 roku w województwie konińskim zniesiono gminę Powidz i właczono ją do gminy Witkowo. 1 kwietnia 1983 roku z gminy Słupca wyłączono sołectwo Lubiecz i przyłączono je do gminy Golina. 1 lutego 1991 roku miasto i gminę Zagórów połączono we wspólną gminę miejsko-wiejską Zagórów. 30 grudnia 1994 roku przywrócono gminę Powidz. 27 listopada 1996 roku miasto Słupca określono jako gmina miejska. +1999 do dziś +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku przywrócono w województwie wielkopolskim powiat słupecki (po raz czwarty). W porównaniu z obszarem z 1975 roku powiat został zwiększony o gminy Powidz i Orchowo. +Powiat słupecki zajmuje powierzchnię 837,9 km², co stanowi 2,8% województwa wielkopolskiego i jest 14. pod względem powierzchni powiatem w województwie. +Edukacja. +Dodatkowo funkcjonuje w strukturach powiatu Międzyszkolny Ośrodek Sportowy i Poradnia Psychologiczno-Pedagogiczna. +Komunikacja. +1. W powiecie słupeckim można wyróżnić trzy obszary o różnym stopniu rozwoju sieci drogowej. +2. Przez powiat słupecki przebiega także równoleżnikowo magistrala kolejowa Berlin - Moskwa. Na terenie powiatu usytuowanych jest pięć stacji kolejowych: w Wólce, Strzałkowie, Słupcy, Cienienie Zabornym i Cieninie Kościelnym. +Ze stacji znajdujących sie w powiecie obsługiwanych przez pociągi PKP są bezpośrednie połączenia do: Poznania, Warszawy, Konina, Wrześni i innych mniejszych miast. +Demografia. +Pod względem liczby ludności powiat słupecki plasuje się na 21 miejscu pośród powiatów Wielkopolski. Współczynnik urbanizacji dla powiatu słupeckiego wynosi zaledwie 29,4% (17 337 mieszkańców miast), co oznacza, że zdecydowana większość ludności powiatu zamieszkuje wsie - ponad 70%. Fakt ten wynika z istnienia w powiecie słupeckim tylko dwóch niewielkich ośrodków miejskich - Słupcy i Zagórowa. +Miejsca i obiekty godne obejrzenia. +Miasto Słupca +Gmina Lądek +Gmina Ostrowite +Gmina Powidz +Gmina Słupca +Gmina Strzałkowo +Gmina Zagórów +Izoterma DR + +Izoterma DR, czyli izoterma Dubinina i Raduszkiewicza (1947 r.) opisuje adsorpcję w niewielkich porach, tzw. mikroporach, o średnicach porównywalnych z rozmiarami cząsteczki adsorbatu (< 2nm wg IUPAC). Adsorpcja w małych porach jest znacznie silniejsza niż na takiej samej chemicznie powierzchni płaskiej (większa ilość atomów adsorbatu oddziałuje z bliska z adsorbatem) i najczęściej jest opisywana za pomocą równania Dubinina-Raduszkiewicza, izotermy Dubinina-Astachowa (DA) – uogólnienia izotermy DR i Freundlicha – lub równań pochodnych. +gdzie: +Równanie izotermy DR służy jako tzw. izoterma lokalna w całkowym równaniu Stoeckliego, które pozwala na opisanie adsorpcji na mikroporach o zróżnicowanej strukturze i rozmiarze. +Zobacz też: adsorpcja, izoterma adsorpcji oraz teoria objętościowego zapełniania mikroporów +Sztucer + +Sztucer – myśliwska broń kulowa z gwintowaną lufą (często zaopatrzona w celownik optyczny) używana do polowania na grubą zwierzynę. +W XVIII i XIX w. sztucerów używali w wojsku strzelcy wyborowi (np. jegrów w Prusach, Austrii i Rosji). +Spotyka się też sztucery jednolufowe, wielostrzałowe, samopowtarzalne tzw. "automaty" (w Polsce rzadkie) +Nazwa wywodzi się z niemieckiego "stutzen" – "obcinać", nawiązuje do krótkiej ("obciętej") lufy, która nie wystawała powyżej pasa stojącego na baczność żołnierza. Broń typu "Stutzen" jest zwykle krótsza niż inne karabiny i ma łoże do końca lufy. +Sztucer pomysłu Mierosławskiego. +W Muzeum Wojska Polskiego w Warszawie znajduje się taki "sztuciec" należący do Apolinarego Kurowskiego. +Pentium M + +Pentium M to mikroprocesor należący do rodziny x86 zaprojektowany i produkowany przez firmę Intel, zadebiutował w marcu 2003 roku. Pentium M był oryginalnie przeznaczony wyłącznie do użytku w komputerach przenośnych, nazwa kodowa pierwszego modelu to "Banias". Wszystkie nazwy Pentium M pochodzą od nazw miejsc w Izraelu, gdzie mieści się zespół, który go zaprojektował. +Pentium M reprezentuje dużą zmianę filozofii Intela, nie jest to bowiem niskonapięciowa wersja Pentium 4, ale poważnie zmodyfikowany Pentium III (który z kolei wywodzi się od Pentium Pro). Pentium M został zoptymalizowany, aby zużywać jak najmniej prądu i wydzielać jak najmniej ciepła, co jest niezmiernie ważne w notebookach. Zużywając mniej energii, Pentium M jest taktowany znacznie wolniejszym zegarem niż współczesne mu Pentium 4, ale ma bardzo podobne osiągi, na przykład wersja Pentium M z zegarem 1,6 GHz osiąga, a w niektórych testach nawet prześciga, Pentium 4 "Northwood" z zegarem 2,4 GHZ (FSB 400 MHz, układ bez Hyper Threadingu). +Pentium M łączy w sobie zmodyfikowany rdzeń Pentium III połączony z magistralą kompatybilną z Pentium 4, ma poprawioną funkcję branch prediction, dodatkowe instrukcje SSE i SSE2, a także większą pamięć cache. Cache drugiego poziomu, która jest zazwyczaj bardzo prądożerna, zbudowana jest w specjalny sposób, który pozwala na wyłączenie tych jej części, które nie są używane. Inne metody ograniczenia zużycia prądu pozwalają na dynamiczną zmianę szybkości taktowania i zasilania rdzenia, pozwalając Pentium M na znaczne spowolnienie (do około 600 MHz), kiedy nie jest wymagana cała moc procesora. +Procesor ten jest częścią platformy Intela Centrino. +Pomimo że początkowo Pentium M był przeznaczony wyłącznie do laptopów, na początku 2004 zaczęły się pojawiać płyty główne do komputerów stacjonarnych przeznaczone do użycia z Pentium M, a Intel rozpoczął prace nad modyfikacją procesora, przygotowując się do produkcji nowej wersji dla komputerów stacjonarnych. +Banias. +Pierwsza wersja procesora nosiła nazwę Banias, była produkowana przy użyciu procesu 0.13 mikrometra, taktowana zegarem od 1,3 do 1,7 GHz i miała 1 MB cache L2 (dla porównania, współczesne mu wersje P4 i Athlona miały 256 KB lub 512 KB cache). Banias nie posiadał funkcji Hyper Threading, ale większość analityków uważała, że dodanie tej funkcji nie zmieniłoby w znaczący sposób wydajności procesora z powodu dużych różnic architekturalnych pomiędzy rdzeniem P6 użytym w Pentium M a rdzeniem "Netburst" z P4. Banias jest dużo mniej wydajny od procesorów z rodziny Dothan, ponieważ ma tylko 1 MB cache, porównując procesory z podobnymi specyfikacjami (m.in. prędkość FSB, częstotliwość). +Dothan. +Udoskonalona wersja Pentium M wypuszczona przez Intel 10 maja 2004 nosiła nazwę "Dothan". Był to jeden z pierwszych procesorów sprzedawanych przez Intel, który otrzymał nowy "numer kodowy" jako nazwę zamiast szybkości taktowania zegara – Pentium M 715 (1,5 GHz), 725 (1,6 GHz), 735 (1,7 GHz), 745 (1,8 GHz), 755 (2,0 GHz) i 765 (2,1 GHz). +Na początku 2005 dostępne modele Dothana były taktowane od 1,0 do 2,13 GHz. Wersje taktowane niższym zegarem niż pierwsze modele są albo niskonapięciowe, albo bardzo niskonapięciowe. 718 (1,3 GHz) i 738 (1,4 GHz) to modele niskonapięciowe, a 723 i 733 (1,0 i 1,3 GHz) to modele bardzo niskonapięciowe. +Procesory serii 700 mają tę samą architekturę jak pozostałe Pentium M, ale są wykonane w technologii 90 nm. Wielkość samego procesora pozostała taka same, 84 mm², pomimo że bardzo zwiększyła się ilość tranzystorów (około 140 milionów) z powodu zwiększenia wielkości cache do 2 MB. Zmniejszyła się za to ilość wydzielanego ciepła (zaledwie 21 W w porównaniu z 24,5 W w przypadku Banias). +W pierwszym kwartale 2005 roku wydana została nowa wersja Dothana z FSB 533 MHz i funkcją XD-bit. Najszybszym procesorem w tej serii był ten oznaczony symbolem M 770 z zegarem 2,13 GHz. Potem pojawił się Pentium M o rdzeniu Dothan oznaczony symbolem M 780 taktowany zegarem 2,267GHz. Na obudowie miał wydrukowane oznaczenie SL7VB. +Core Solo & Core Duo. +Nowa generacja procesorów korzystająca z architektury Pentium M, nazwa kodowa "Yonah". Został on wydany pod marką Intel Core, jako Core Duo i Core Solo. Jest wykonany w technologii 65nm. +Merom. +Jest rdzeniem Conroe przystosowanym do pracy w notebookach. Cechuje się niskim poborem energii, niskim napięciem rdzenia oraz pamięcią cache drugiego poziomu wielkości 2MB lub 4MB. +Conroe. +Data wydania została określona na 23 lipca 2006 roku. Jest to jednostka dwurdzeniowa wykonana w 65nm (0,065μm). W pierwszym teście tego procesora okazał się on szybszy nawet od podkręconego do 2,8 Ghz Athlona FX-60. +W przeciwieństwie do Pentium D nie jest klasyczną konstrukcją SMP (dwa osobne jądra wycięte z wafla i połączone z laminatem) lecz od początku przygotowaną jako dwa rdzenie ze współdzieloną pamięcią cache (w zależności od modelu rdzenia: Allendale – 2MB L2 cache, Conroe – 4MB L2 cache) co eliminuje problem spójności danych i potrzebę korzystania z komunikacji przez FSB (Front Side Bus). +Adobe PageMaker + +Adobe PageMaker (dawniej "Aldus Pagemaker") – pierwszy program typu DTP, zaprojektowany w 1985 r. przez Aldus Corporation, pierwotnie dla komputerów Macintosh, ale wkrótce także dla komputerów PC na procesorach Intela. +W 1994 r. Aldus Corporation została kupiona przez Adobe Systems, która rozwija program jako Adobe PageMaker, obecnie w wersji 7 istniejącej od 9 lipca 2001, ale kilkakrotnie aktualizowanej - użytkownicy programu mogą dokonać aktualizacji do Adobe InDesign. PageMaker jest kierowany do małego biznesu, natomiast InDesign do korporacji. Program jest przeznaczony przede wszystkim do tworzenia broszur i ulotek, chociaż zawiera narzędzia do tworzenia złożonych czasopism - wiele polskich tytułów czasopism było składanych w latach 90. XX wieku właśnie za pomocą PageMakera. +Podstawową różnicą PageMakera, w odniesieniu do innych programów DTP, był brak ramek. Tekst osadzało się w tzw. wątkach. Wadą tego rozwiązania był brak możliwości tworzenia szablonów publikacji; wątek bez osadzonego tekstu znikał. W efekcie PageMaker jako program do składu przypominał bardziej CorelDRAW niż QuarkXPressa. Dlatego był bardzo prosty w obsłudze. Dodatkowo jako pierwszy program do składu posiadał polski interfejs, co znacząco przyczyniło się do jego popularności w Polsce. Grafiki zewnętrzne osadzane były jednak jako linki, czym różnił się od CorelDRAW. Od wersji 6.5 program realizował zarówno system wątków jak i ramek. PageMaker wyposażony był w system plug-inów z Photoshopa. +Stosunek żyromagnetyczny + +Stosunek magnetogiryczny elektronu - wielkość fizyczna określająca stosunek orbitalnego lub spinowego momentu pędu elektronu do jego momentu magnetycznego. +Elektron w atomie w przybliżeniu porusza się po pewnej orbicie kołowej. Z ruchem tym związany jest pewien orbitalny moment pędu. Jednocześnie elektron posiada spinowy moment pędu. +Ponieważ elektron jest obdarzony ładunkiem elektrycznym, więc z obydwie te wielkości powodują powstawanie momentu magnetycznego elektronu. +\gamma_e=\frac{\mu_e^{orb}}{m_l^{orb}}=\frac{\sqrt{l(l+1)}}{\sqrt{l(l+1)}\hbar}\frac{e\hbar}{2m_e}=1\frac{e}{2m_e}=g_e^{orb}\frac{e}{2m_e} +\gamma_e=\frac{\mu_e^{spin}}{m_s^{spin}}=2\frac{\sqrt{s(s+1)}}{\sqrt{s(s+1)}\hbar}\frac{e\hbar}{2m_e}=2\frac{e}{2m_e}=g_e^{spin}\frac{e}{2m_e} +Powiat pilski + +Powiat pilski - powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Siedzibą jego władz jest miasto Piła. Powiat charakteryzuje się najwyższym wskaźnikiem urbanizacji, wśród powiatów ziemskich województwa wielkopolskiego, wynoszącym w 2009 r. 65,1 %. +Transport. +Transport kolejowy. +Na terenie powiatu znajduje się 14 dworców, stacji lub przystanków kolejowych. +Transport lotniczy. +W północno-zachodniej części Piły zlokalizowane jest duże lotnisko, do niedawna użytkowane przez wojsko. Obecnie jego część jest użytkowana przez Aeroklub Ziemi Pilskiej. Od 2004 roku padały propozycje wykorzystania lotniska do regionalnego ruchu pasażerskiego. +Fulham F.C. + +Fulham Football Club (wymowa: /ˈfʊləm/) – angielski klub piłkarski mający siedzibę w Londynie w dzielnicy Hammersmith and Fulham założony w 1879 roku. Fulham jest najstarszym zawodowym klubem piłkarskim w Londynie (najstarszym klubem jest półzawodowy Cray Wanderers). +Historia. +Klub został założony w 1879 roku jako "Fulham St Andrew's Church Sunday School" przez wyznawców Kościoła Anglii z Kensington. W październiku 1885 zespół rozegrał swój pierwszy mecz w rozgrywkach piłkarskich. Było to spotkanie w ramach London FA Cup z zespołem Hendon, przegrane 0:9. W następnym sezonie Fulham wygrał rozgrywki West London Cup, wygrywając w finale 2:1 z drużyną St Matthew's. W grudniu 1888 roku klub zmienił swoją nazwę na "Fulham Football Club", której używa do dziś. W sezonie 1892/1893 Fulham wygrał rozgrywki West London League, a cztery lata później rozpoczął grę w Second Division London League. 12 grudnia 1898 roku Fulham stał się zawodowym klubem i w tym samym roku dołączył do Second Division Southern League. +W sezonie 1899/1900 Fulham zajął drugie miejsce w Second Division, ale przegrał mecz o awans z Thames Ironworks. W sezonach 1901/1902 i 1902/1903 klub rozgrywki ligowe, jednak nie zdołał zwyciężyć w meczu decydującym o awansie. Mimo to zdecydowano się powiększyć First Division i Fulham awansował do najwyższej klasy rozgrywek Southern League. +W 1904 roku klub zatrudnił Harry'ego Bradshawa na stanowisku menadżera zespołu. W sezonie 1905/1906 Fulham wygrał rozgrywki Southern League i rok później powtórzył to osiągnięcie. W sezonie 1907/1908 stał się członkiem the Football League i rozpoczął grę w Second Division. W tym samym roku zespół doszedł do półfinału Pucharu Anglii. Po dwudziestu latach klub spadł do Third Division, ale po czterech sezonach awansował do Second Division. W sezonie 1935/1936 Fulham powtórzył wcześniejsze osiągnięcie – doszedł do półfinału krajowego pucharu. W czasie II wojny światowej oficjalne rozgrywki piłkarskie w Anglii zostały zawieszone. +Po zakończeniu wojny, w sezonie 1948/1949 klub wygrał rozgrywki Second Division i awansował do najwyższej ligi piłkarskiej w Anglii. Po trzech latach ponownie spadł do drugiej ligi, a po siedmiu kolejnych sezonach powrócił do First Division. Pod koniec lat 60. klub przeżył spadek formy – w ciągu dwóch lat trafił do trzeciej ligi. Szybko jednak awansował do Second Division, gdzie grał do 1980 roku, kiedy to ponownie został zdegradowany do niższej ligi. Po kilkunastu latach gry, Fulham w 1994 roku spadł do czwartej ligi. Trzy lata później zdołał awansować o ligę wyżej, a w sezonie 1999/2000 występował już w drugiej lidze. Rok później klub wygrał rozgrywki ligowe i awansował do Premier League, w któej występuje do dziś. W sezonie 2009/2010 Fulham zajęło 12. miejsce w lidze oraz dotarło do finału Ligi Europy, w którym przegrało 1:2 z Atlético Madryt. +Zawodnicy. +Obecna kadra +"Stan na 2 luty 2013" +Derby zachodniego Londynu. +Mecze z Chelsea to dla kibiców jedne z najważniejszych pojedynków w sezonie. Pierwsze oficjalne spotkanie pomiędzy tymi drużynami odbyło się 3 grudnia 1910 roku w ramach rozgrywek English Division 2. Fulham wygrało ten mecz 1:0. Pierwsze zwycięstwo Chelsea miało miejsce cztery miesiące później - 8 kwietnia 1911 roku. "The Blues" wygrali tamto spotkanie 2:0. +Zespół móżdżkowy + +Zespół móżdżkowy (zespół cerebelarny) – neurologiczny zespół chorobowy występujący w uszkodzeniu móżdżku, objawiający się zaburzeniami chodu oraz niezbornością ruchową (ataksja). Dodatkowo często występuje skandowana mowa, drżenie zamiarowe, oczopląs, obniżone napięcie mięśniowe. +Gradzina (narzędzie) + +Gradzina (dłuto zębate) - typ dłuta o ostrzu płaskim, ząbkowanym. Używane do obróbki kamienia w celu uzyskania faktury prążkowanej. Stosowane do obróbki materiałów miękkich oraz fug. Wykonywane do pracy ręcznej i do elektronarzędzi. +Piperazyna + +Piperazyna – organiczny związek heterocykliczny z dwoma heteroatomami azotu w pozycjach 1,4. Szkielet piperazyny występuje w wielu związkach aktywnych biologicznie, między innymi w cząsteczce sildenafilu oraz w szeregu związków psychoaktywnych. Nazwa piperazyny wynika z jej strukturalnego podobieństwa do piperydyny. +Niektóre leki z tej grupy (tioproperazyna, trójfluoroperazyna) uchodziły za najsilniejsze leki neuroleptyczne stosowane w lecznictwie, najsłabsze z tej grupy (np. perazyna) są stosowane do dziś. +Boraks rodzimy + +Boraks rodzimy (tinkal) – minerał z gromady boranów, zbudowany głównie z uwodnionego boranu sodu. +Najczęściej tworzy skupienia ziemiste, zbite i naskorupienia. Kryształy mają pokrój tabliczkowy, słupkowy – czasami widać wyraźne pionowe prążkowanie. Jest kruchy, przezroczysty, charakteryzuje się słodkawo-cierpkim smakiem, jest rozpuszczalny w wodzie. Na powietrzu mętnieje, traci wodę i przechodzi stopniowo w tynkalkonit 4 x 3 H2O), który otacza go coraz to grubszą warstwą i niszczy kryształy. +Występowanie. +Występuje wyłącznie w skałach osadowych. Krystalizuje z wód słonych jezior boranowych jako produkt ich odparowania. Tworzy się w klimacie pustynnym (gorącym i suchym). Współwystępuje z: halitem, natronem = sodą rodzimą, uleksytem. +Miejsca występowania: +USA – Boron, Searles Lake, Clear Lake w Kalifornii także Dolina Śmierci, Tybet – okolice Lhassy (rejon jezior Łob-Nor i Tengri-Nor), Kaszmir, Włochy – w fumarolach w Larderello, na pustyni Atacama w Chile, Kazachstan, Iran. +Zastosowanie. +W analizie chemicznej stosuje się go do otrzymywania pereł boranowych zbudowanych z metaboranu sodowego (NaBO2), które umożliwiają szybkie wykrywanie niektórych kationów metali. +Serdab + +Serdab – jest to niewielka komora wewnątrz mastaby lub piramidy, w której ustawiony był posąg zmarłego. Serdaby były całkowicie odizolowane od reszty pomieszczeń, a jedynie wąska szpara w murze służyła do przenikania dymów z kadzidełek rytualnych i umożliwiała obejrzenie posągu (szpara ta pozwalała posągowi obserwować to, co się dzieje, a nie nam oglądać posąg – Egipcjanie nie budowali z myślą o turystach). +Patopoja + +Patopoja - tzw. figura retoryczna stosowana w muzyce baroku i renesansu. Był to ruch chromatyczny w górę lub (rzadziej) w dół. Figura ta wyrażała cierpienie. +Intelligent Dance Music + +IDM (ang. "Intelligent Dance Music") – nazwa gatunku muzyki elektronicznej. +Styl ten powstał we wczesnych latach 90. i wtedy też zaczęto używać tego terminu, początkowo na określenie sceny twórców eksperymentalnego techno i jungle skupionych wokół wytwórni Warp. Obecnie definicja IDM wydaje się obejmować wiele różnorodnych eksperymentalnych stylów elektroniki wywodzących się z elektronicznej muzyki tanecznej, jak również inne style muzyki ściśle związane z cyfrowym brzmieniem (np. glitch). +Często zarzuca się, że termin IDM nie jest aktualny, nazwa nie pokrywa się z tym co oddaje ta muzyka, że przede wszystkim muzyka ta nie jest taneczna, natomiast nazwa jest taka a nie inna, ponieważ styl ten wywodzi się z techno, które jest taneczne, ciężkie, agresywne, szybkie. W założeniu gatunek ten jest od techno mniej agresywny, bardziej melodyjny, improwizacyjny i abstrakcyjny. Dlatego używa się też nazw: "intelligent techno", "listening techno", "art techno", "braindance". +Prekursorami IDM są tacy artyści jak Richard D. James, Autechre, Plaid, Speedy J i inni, którzy znaleźli się na albumach Artificial Intelligence I i II wydanych przez Warp Records. +Charakterystycznymi elementami tej muzyki są eksperymenty w tworzeniu dźwięków, a jednocześnie precyzja w ich doborze i kompozycji. +Premierzy Norwegii + +Zobacz też. +władcy Norwegii +Przemęt (imię) + +Przemęt – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Prze-" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń) i "-męt" ("gnębić, dręczyć", też "wzburzać, trząść"). +Urasz (bóg) + +Urasz – lokalne bóstwo w północnobabilońskim mieście Dilbat. W jednym z przekazów uważany jest za przodka boga Ana, a w późniejszych okresach utożsamiano go z Anem oraz Ninurtą. +W Babilonie znajduje się brama Urasz, która została tak nazwana prawdopodobnie dlatego, że prowadziła w kierunku Dilbat. +Nieprzebąd + +Nieprzebąd, Nieprzebud, Nieprzebysz – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "Nie-" (przeczenie), "prze" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń) i "-bąd", "-bud" ("bądź"). +Usługa inteligentnego transferu w tle + +Usługa inteligentnego transferu w tle (ang. "Background Intelligent Transfer Service", BITS) - usługa umożliwiająca asynchroniczny transfer plików pomiędzy klientem a serwerem. +Przemysława + +Przemysława – żeński odpowiednik imienia Przemysław – formy staropolskiego imienia Przemysł, utworzonej, kiedy świadomość jego pochodzenia zatarła się i błędnie zostało ono uznane za imię kończące się członem "-sław" (zamiast "-mysł"). W źródłach poświadczone w XII wieku (1155 – 1156). +Przemysława obchodzi imieniny: 13 kwietnia. +MiG-17 + +MiG-17 (ros. МиГ-17) (oznaczenie NATO "Fresco") – radziecki samolot myśliwski. Służył w wojskach lotniczych (siłach powietrznych) czterdziestu krajów świata. +Historia rozwoju. +Samolot powstał w 1949, a pierwszy prototyp oblatano w 1950. Stanowił on rozwinięcie i udoskonalenie myśliwca MiG-15. Pierwszą wersją produkcyjną był różniący się od prototypu silnikiem MiG-17F, następnie wprowadzono wersje przechwytujące wyposażone w radar – MiG-17PF oraz w radar i możliwość przenoszenia pocisków naprowadzanych radarowo – MiG-17PFU. Od 1956 produkowano go również w Polsce jako Lim-5. Produkowano również MiG-17PF jako Lim-5P. W 1963 polscy inżynierowie opracowali wersję rozwojową Lim-6bis wyposażoną w wysięgniki na dodatkowe, podwieszane uzbrojenie oraz spadochron hamujący. Zmieniło się również przeznaczenie – nowa maszyna miała pełnić funkcję samolotu szturmowego. Na jego bazie powstała wersja rozpoznawcza Lim-6bisR. Limy-6 powstałe w wyniku przebudowy Limów-5P otrzymały oznaczenie Lim-6M. Samoloty eksportowane do Chin otrzymały oznaczenie J-4, zaś produkowane w Chinach J-5. Chińczycy opracowali również wersję dwumiejscową JJ-5 eksportowaną do innych krajów pod oznaczeniem FT-5. +Samolot był myśliwcem poddźwiękowym, jednakże w locie nurkowym, z użyciem dopalacza udawało się przekroczyć prędkość dźwięku (1 Ma). Z powodu silnych drgań w zakresie prędkości okołodźwiękowych wprowadzono pewne ograniczenia i loty z prędkością ponad 1 Ma praktycznie nie były wykonywane. +Opis konstrukcji. +Jednomiejscowy (poza chińską wersją JJ-5), jednosilnikowy średniopłat o konstrukcji całkowicie metalowej (duraluminium) i skośnych skrzydłach. Skrzydła o zmiennym skosie krawędzi natarcia, przy kadłubie 45°, dalej 42°, o profilu laminarnym, wielodźwigarowe. Na każdym ze skrzydeł trzy kierownice strug powietrza. Na tylnej krawędzi klapy i lotki. Usterzenie klasyczne, skośne (pionowe – o kącie skosu 56°). Usterzenie poziome zamocowane powyżej połowy wysokości pionowego. Kadłub o konstrukcji półskorupowej. W części przedniej wlot powietrza do silnika, rozdzielający się pionową przegrodą na dwa kanały wzdłuż burt. Kabina pilota hermetyzowana, typu wentylowanego, w przedniej części kadłuba. Kilkuczęściowa oszklona osłona o kształcie kroplowym, dzieląca się na stały wiatrochron i osłonę odsuwaną do tyłu. Kabina wyposażona w fotel wyrzucany (minimalna wysokość do katapultowania 250 m). Silnik odrzutowy w tylnej części kadłuba. Po obu stronach tylnej części kadłuba hamulce aerodynamiczne o łącznej powierzchni 0,98 m². Podwozie samolotu trójkołowe, z pojedynczymi kołami; golenie główne wciągane w skrzydła, w stronę kadłuba, rozstaw kół 3,849 m. +Napęd stanowił jeden silnik turboodrzutowy ze sprężarką odśrodkową WK-1F o ciągu 33,1 kN z dopalaczem, 25,5 kN bez dopalania. Paliwo w dwóch zbiornikach w kadłubie o pojemności łącznie 1415 l. Z reguły podwieszano dwa dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa pod skrzydłami o pojemności po 400 l. +Uzbrojenie stałe: dwa działka lotnicze NR-23 kalibru 23 mm (po 80 nabojów) i jedno N-37D kalibru 37 mm (40 nabojów), na wspólnej opuszczanej lawecie pod przednią częścią kadłuba. MiG-17PF był uzbrojony w trzy działka NR-23 23 mm. Automatyczny optyczny celownik żyroskopowy ASP-4NM Krokus z radiodalmierzem SRD-1M Radal-M. MiG-17PF miał stację radiolokacyjną RP-1, potem RP-5 Izumrud. +Zamiast dodatkowych zbiorników paliwa, na dwóch belkach pod skrzydłami można było podwiesić bomby o masie do 250 kg lub wyrzutnie niekierowanych pocisków rakietowych. Bułgarskie samoloty z pułków myśliwsko-bombowych począwszy od 1968 roku były modyfikowane do przenoszenia bomb do 250 kg na czterech belkach. +Stosunek społeczny + +Stosunek społeczny – normatywnie określona relacja i oczekiwany schemat interakcji pomiędzy co najmniej dwiema osobami, wynikająca z posiadanych przez nich ról i pozycji społecznych, podlegająca kontroli społecznej. +Układ ten składa się również z łącznika pomiędzy tymi osobami, który jest przedmiotem materialnym lub symbolicznym, oraz sytuacji, w której powinności i obowiązki partnerów się rozgrywają. W stosunku tym zachowania jednej strony wywołują reakcję drugiej strony. Przykładami stosunku społecznego może być np. rodzicielstwo, małżeństwo. +Klasyfikacja stosunków społecznych. +"Egalitarność stosunku społecznego"-- równość lub podobieństwo miejsca partnerów w hierarchii bogactwa, władzy, prestiżu, wykształcenia i podobne. +Openwall + +Openwall - kolekcja łat autorstwa Solar Designera, zwiększającą bezpieczeństwo jądra Linux. +W chwili obecnej wydawane są wersje dla jąder serii 2.0, 2.2 oraz 2.4. Z wypowiedzi autora wynika, że obecnie nie ma planów tworzenia łatek dla najnowszej serii jąder 2.6. +Exec Shield + +Exec Shield – łata na jądro Linux, zwiększającą bezpieczeństwo systemu poprzez emulację bitu NX dla architektury x86. Autorem łatki jest Ingo Molnár z Red Hat. Łata jest domyślnie stosowana w dystrybucji Fedora Core. +Exec Shield oznacza sekcję danych jako niewykonywalną, a pamięć programu jako niezapisywalną. Chroni to przed całą gamą ataków opartych o przepełnienie bufora. Łata dodaje również losowość do funkcji mmap() i sterty. +Konrad Bloch + +Konrad Emil Bloch (ur. 21 stycznia 1912 w Nysie, zm. 15 października 2000 w Burlington, Massachusetts) – niemiecko-amerykański biochemik pochodzenia żydowskiego. Laureat Nagrody Nobla z fizjologii i medycyny z 1964 roku. +Studiował na politechnice w Monachium, w 1934 musiał opuścić Niemcy w związku z dojściem Hitlera do władzy. Schronił się w Szwajcarii, a w 1936 roku wyjechał do Stanów Zjednoczonych. W 1938 roku obronił doktorat z biochemii, od 1941 roku wykładał kolejno na uniwersytetach Columbia, Chicago i Harvardzie. Przeszedł na emeryturę w 1982 roku. +W 1964 otrzymał, razem z Feodorem Lynenem, Nagrodę Nobla, za badania nad zwalczaniem i zapobieganiem miażdżycy, w szczególności za odkrycie przebiegu syntezy cholesterolu w organizmie ludzkim. +Pomnik Czynu Rewolucyjnego w Sosnowcu + +Pomnik Czynu Rewolucyjnego − zbudowany według projektu Heleny i Romana Husarskich oraz Witolda Cęckiewicza usytuowany został w Parku Sieleckim w dzielnicy Sielec w 50 rocznicę Wielkiej Socjalistycznej Rewolucji Październikowej i 25 rocznicę istnienia PPR. +Uroczyste odsłonięcie miało miejsce 16 września 1967. Jego konstrukcja zdominowana została przez strzeliste rury, na drugim planie sjenitowa bryła obrazująca zaciśniętą pięść robotnika. Na bryle umieszczone zostały płaskorzeźby przedstawiające walkę robotników Czerwonego Zagłębia. Projekt ten uczestniczył w konkursie na "Pomnik Powstańców Śląskich", w którym zajął drugie miejsce. Po korektach wykorzystany został dla budowy pomnika upamiętniającego sosnowieckich rewolucjonistów poległych pod "Hutą Katarzyna" w 1905 (co najmniej 38 osób). +W tle pomnika w okresie Polski Ludowej zapoczątkowano organizację uroczystości państwowych i miejskich, która to tradycja przetrwała do dziś. Ówcześnie nie omijały go pochody pierwszomajowe. Gościli pod nim Leonid Breżniew (w 1974) a także Mirosław Hermaszewski i Piotr Klimuk. Mało kto wie, że na placu przy pomniku pojawił się Fidel Castro podczas pierwszomajowego pochodu w 1972. +Potocznie przez mieszkańców Sosnowca pomnik zwano "Hydraulikiem" albo "Rurami". +26 października 1990 solidarnościowe władze miasta, na fali rozliczeń z czasami PRL-u i "Czerwonego Zagłębia", podjęły decyzję o zburzeniu pomnika. Realizację tej decyzji ułatwił okres przełomu oraz widok rur podtrzymywanych przez dźwig, co tłumaczono możliwością zawalenia wykonanej z prototypowej stali konstrukcji. +Obecnie w miejscu Pomnika Czynu Rewolucyjnego stoi o wiele mniejszy pomnik "Wolność, Praca, Godność". +Elbląska Uczelnia Humanistyczno-Ekonomiczna + +O uczelni. +Elbląska Uczelnia Humanistyczno-Ekonomiczna (EUHE) jest niepaństwową szkołą wyższą, która na początku funkcjonowała jako uczelnia zawodowa, a od lutego 2004 jako uczelnia akademicka, z prawem prowadzenia studiów magisterskich. +Uczelnia dysponuje bazą dydaktyczno-materialną. Zatrudnia 26 profesorów oraz 18 doktorów habilitowanych. +Działalność studencka obejmuje koła naukowe, chór akademicki, parlament studencki itp. Działalność naukowa obejmuje organizacę różnych przedsięwzięć naukowych takich jak konferencje lub sympozja. Uczelnia wydaje również publikacje naukowe, dydaktyczne, popularnonaukowe i popularyzatorskie (np. książki o Elblągu) oraz serię 'Acta Elbingensia'. +Struktura EUH-E. +Wydział Administracji. +- administracja (studia zawodowe - licencjackie) +Wydział Nauk Ekonomicznych. +- zarządzanie i marketing (studia zawodowe - licencjackie) +- politologia (studia zawodowe - licencjackie) +Wydział Pedagogiki. +- pedagogika (studia zawodowe - licencjackie, studia magisterskie) +Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu. +- fizjoterapia (studia zawodowe - licencjackie) +- pielęgniarstwo (studia zawodowe - licencjackie) +- ratownictwo medyczne (studia zawodowe - licencjackie) +Współpraca zagraniczna. +Dobrze rozwija się współpraca EUHE z innymi ośrodkami akademickimi i to zarówno w zakresie międzynarodowym jak i krajowym. +strona EUHE: http://www.euh-e.edu.pl +Polskie piekiełko + +Polskie piekiełko lub polskie piekło – popularne polskie określenie dotyczące najbardziej negatywnych cech charakterologicznych i społecznych kojarzących się z Polakami. Brak jest jednego, powszechnego znaczenia tego określenia - najczęściej zależy od kontekstu, w jakim zostało użyte. +Podstawowym utworem literackim nawiązującym do "polskiego piekła", i poniekąd je definiującym, jest opublikowany w 1926 r. w "Cyruliku Warszawskim" (nr 18 z 1926 r.), wiersz Konstantego Ildefonsa Gałczyńskiego pt. "Piekło polskie". Autor poruszał kwestie narodowych przesądów, zawiści i uprzedzeń (Żydzi, masoni, cykliści), pisząc: "a ja nad Piekłem z masonem latałem". +Określenie "polskie piekiełko" ma swoją genezę w dramatycznych kartach historii Polski. Upadek Rzeczypospolitej, rozbiory kraju, brak konsolidacji narodowej w chwilach największej potrzeby – pokazały, że "polskie piekiełko" może mieć tragiczne skutki. +Powiedzenie "Ilu Polaków, tyle poglądów" w swoim pejoratywnym znaczeniu chyba najtrafniej oddaje sens "polskiego piekiełka". +Władysław Kopaliński podaje, że wyrażenie "polskie piekło" spopularyzowane zostało przemówieniem Tadeusza Mazowieckiego, który 31 marca 1990 r. w przemówieniu na posiedzeniu Komitetu Obywatelskiego powiedział: "Abyśmy tej zaczynającej się polskiej demokracji nie zamienili w polskie piekło (...) swarów, podgryzań i walk." +Pojęcie "polskie piekło" jako "polityczną diagnozę polskich kłótni, swarów" podaje również "Praktyczny słownik współczesnej polszczyzny" wydany w 2000 r. +Zjawisko ma swoje odpowiedniki w innych kulturach, np. Paulo Coelho wspomina o "Prawie Jante" w literaturze skandynawskiej. Prawo Jante, znane od wieków w Skandynawii, formalnie ogłoszone w 1933 przez pisarza Aksela Sandemose’a w opowiadaniu "Uciekinier przełamuje bariery". Jante to nazwa miasta pojawiająca się w książkach, a jego pierwowzorem był duński port Nykobing. +Kołowrót (maszyna prosta) + +Kołowrót służy do podnoszenia i opuszczania ładunku zawieszonego na linie (lub łańcuchu) przez nawijanie jej na obracający się wał, napędzany korbą. +Urządzenie to znalazło zastosowanie w studniach, z których wyciąga się wodę za pomocą "kołowrotu studziennego" oraz w kopalniach do wyciągania urobku. +Kołowrót zalicza się do maszyn prostych i może być traktowany jako rodzaj dźwigni. +W zależności od położenia korby, kołowrót pracuje jako dźwignia jedno- albo dwustronna. +Roponercze + +W niektórych przypadkach, przy istniejącym zakażeniu, gromadzący się w nadmiarze w miedniczce nerkowej mocz może przybierać charakter treści ropnej. Stan taki nazywamy roponerczem (łac. "pyonephrosis"). Objawia się on przede wszystkim znacznym nasileniem bólów i opornymi zazwyczaj na leczenie bakteriobójcze stanami septycznymi. Zmiany w moczu wyrażają się podwyższoną liczbą krwinek białych i bakterii w osadzie moczu. +Roponercze jest zazwyczaj wskazaniem do leczenia operacyjnego z równoczesną intensywną osłoną zabiegu operacyjnego lekami przeciwbakteryjnymi. Nieskuteczne leczenie roponercza grozi ogólnoustrojowym zakażeniem septycznym i ropniami nerki. +National Football League + +National Football League (skrót: NFL, "Narodowa Liga Futbolowa") – największa zawodowa liga futbolu amerykańskiego, złożona z 32 zespołów. Liga powstała w roku 1920, jako American Professional Football Association ("Amerykańskie Stowarzyszenie Futbolu Zawodowego") i zmieniła nazwę na obecną dwa lata później. +Drużyny ligi podzielone są obecnie pomiędzy dwie konferencje: American Football Conference (skrót: AFC, "Amerykańska Konferencja Futbolowa") i National Football Conference (skrót: NFC, "Krajowa Konferencja Futbolowa"). Obie konferencje dzielą się z kolei na 4 dywizje zrzeszające po 4 zespoły każda. Dla rozróżnienia dywizjom nadano określenia: "Wschodnia", "Północna", "Południowa" i "Zachodnia". +Podczas sezonu każdy z zespołów ligi rozgrywa 16 meczów w przeciągu 17 tygodni – zazwyczaj w okresie od września do grudnia. Po zakończeniu sezonu następuje faza rozgrywek play-off, w której uczestniczy po 6 najlepszych zespołów w obu konferencjach: czterech zwycięzców dywizji oraz dwie drużyny niezwycięskie („dzikie karty”) z najlepszym dorobkiem punktowym w danej konferencji. Faza kończy się zwycięstwem jednej z drużyn, która staje się mistrzem swojej konferencji i awansuje do finału ligi, Super Bowl, w którym mierzy się z mistrzem drugiej konferencji. Super Bowl rozgrywa się na uprzednio wybranym obiekcie – zazwyczaj jest to stadion jednej z drużyn ligi. Tydzień przed finałem, odbywa się Pro Bowl, mecz gwiazd obu konferencji. +Zespoły. +W lidze NFL grają 32 zespoły. Każdemu z klubów wolno zgłosić 53 zawodników do rozgrywek w sezonie. W przeciwieństwie do innych lig zawodowych w Stanach Zjednoczonych, takich jak MLB, MLS, NBA czy NHL, w lidze NFL nie grają żadne drużyny kanadyjskie. +Większość największych miast Stanów Zjednoczonych gości drużynę ligi NFL. Ważniejszymi wyjątkami są: drugie co do wielkości miasto Ameryki, Los Angeles, które nie ma zespołu futbolowego nawet w okolicach swojej metropolii oraz siódme co do wielkości, San Antonio, w Teksasie. Ponieważ większość zawodowych lig sportowych w Stanach Zjednoczonych opartych jest o system franczyzowy, NFL jest w stanie dość łatwo przenieść zespół z jednego miejsca w drugie. Liga niekiedy używa (w formie „straszaka”) argumentu o możliwości przenosin drużyny do Los Angeles, gdy np. negocjuje z władzami danego miasta udział w finansowaniu nowego stadionu dla lokalnego zespołu. Drużyna Washington Redskins ma największą wartość rynkową wśród wszystkich profesjonalnych zespołów sportowych w Ameryce: około 1,4 miliarda USD. +Sezon ligowy. +Faza sparingowa. +Okres letni, od początku sierpnia do początku września, wykorzystywany jest przez większość drużyn NFL do rozgrywania gier pokazowych ("exhibition game"), które liga zaleca nazywać przedsezonowymi ("preseason"). Dwa zespoły wybierane są do meczu Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, co sprawia, że liczba meczów przedsezonowych tych drużyn rośnie do pięciu. +Gry pokazowe są dobrym sposobem na przygotowanie nowych zawodników zespołu do występów przed wielką liczbą kibiców. Szefostwo klubów często wykorzystuje te mecze do określenia wartości sportowej nowo zatrudnionych graczy. Zawodnicy z dużym stażem zazwyczaj rozgrywają jedną kwartę w każdym meczu, w celu uniknięcia możliwych kontuzji tuż przed sezonem. +Sezon zasadniczy. +Na sezon zasadniczy ("regular season") ligi składa się 17 tygodni rozgrywek rozpoczynających się we wrześniu a zakończanych w grudniu. Każdy z 32 zespołów ligi gra po dwa mecze (u siebie i na wyjeździe) z trzema pozostałymi drużynami w swojej dywizji oraz 10 meczów z pozostałymi drużynami NFL, które zostały mu przydzielone przez ligę w poprzednim roku. Dwa z tych dziesięciu spotkań ustala się na podstawie wyniku drużyny w poprzednim sezonie. Pozostałe 8 meczów zespół rozgrywa z drużynami dwóch innych dywizji, jednej z konferencji AFC, a drugiej z konferencji NFC, zmienianych co sezon. +Ten sposób rozgrywek jest dla wszystkich drużyn jednej dywizji gwarancją gry przeciw wspólnym rywalom z handicapem 2 spotkań przydzielonych na podstawie siły drużyny z poprzedniego sezonu. +Ponieważ sezon trwa o jedną kolejkę dłużej niż wymaga kalendarz spotkań jednego zespołu (16 meczów), każda drużyna ma przyznany jeden tydzień odpoczynku ("bye week"), w którym nie spotyka się z rywalami. W obu konferencjach ligi rozgrywki prowadzone są w identycznym systemie. +Faza play-off. +Zespoły z miejsc 3 i 6 oraz 4 i 5 grają przeciw sobie w pierwszym tygodniu rozgrywek play-off – w fazie "dzikich kart". NFL nazywa te mecze „weekendem dzikich kart”. W tym czasie zespoły z miejsc 1 i 2 mają przerwę którą zazwyczaj pożytkują na odpoczynek – niejako w nagrodę za udany sezon zasadniczy – i automatycznie przechodzą do następnej rundy, "fazy dywizyjnej". Specyfiką tej rundy jest to, że w danej „gałęzi” rozgrywek drużyna sklasyfikowana najwyżej spotyka się z najniżej klasyfikowaną drużyną awansującą z poprzedniej rundy. Dodatkowo zespół klasyfikowany wyżej przystępuje do pojedynku jako gospodarz, tzn. mecz rozgrywa się na jego stadionie, co może stanowić dużą przewagę nad rywalami. +Dwa zwycięskie zespoły rundy meczów dywizyjnych przechodzą do "fazy konferencyjnej", w której walczą o tytuł "Mistrza Konferencji". Dwa tygodnie później mistrzowie obu konferencji spotykają się w finale ligi – Super Bowl. +Zaciąg. +Co roku, w kwietniu, liga organizuje spotkanie swoich zespołów z absolwentami lig uniwersyteckich, zwane zaciągiem ("NFL Draft"). +Drużyny wybierają nowych zawodników w kolejności odwrotnej do wyników z poprzedniego sezonu ligi, tzn. zespół najsłabszy wybiera pierwszy, zespół z przedostatniego miejsca w tabeli wybiera drugi itd. Bez względu na wyniki w sezonie zwycięzca Super Bowl "zawsze" wybiera jako ostatni, zaś wicemistrz ligi – jako 31. +Zaciąg przebiega w siedmiu rundach. Rundy 1-3 odbywają się w sobotę weekendu zaciągowego, zaś rundy 4-7 w niedzielę. Kluby mają ograniczony czas na wybór zawodnika. Jeśli zespół nie podejmie decyzji w wyznaczonym czasie, wyboru może dokonać klub następny w kolejności. Taka sytuacja przydarzyła się drużynie Minnesota Vikings w roku 2003. +Kluby mogą „handlować” z innymi zespołami wymieniając własną możliwość zaciągu na inny zaciąg, zawodnika, pieniądze lub dowolną kombinację tychże. W przeciwieństwie do innych lig zawodowych rzadko wymienia się zawodnika na zawodnika po rozpoczęciu sezonu. Jednak w dniu zaciągu zdarza się to często. W roku 1989 doszło do jednej z najsławniejszych wymian – Dallas Cowboys oddali drużynie Minnesota Vikings znajdującego się w szczycie formy biegacza Herschela Walkera w zamian za pięciu doświadczonych zawodników i sześć kolejek zaciągu przez następne 3 lata. W wyniku tej operacji Cowboys, dokonując w następnych latach kolejnych wymian i zaciągów, zbudowali gwiazdorską drużynę – opartą o takich graczy jak Emmitt Smith, Russell Maryland czy Darren Woodson – z którą trzykrotnie osiągnęli w latach 90. zwycięstwo w Super Bowl. +Zawodnik wybrany jako pierwszy w całym zaciągu jest często uważany za najlepszego w swojej klasie, co niekoniecznie musi być prawdą, gdyż zespoły często wybierają graczy ze względu na określone potrzeby, a nie na ogólną ocenę futbolisty. Trudno także porównywać umiejętności zawodników grających na różnych pozycjach. Wciąż jednak uważa się za duży przywilej bycie wybranym w pierwszej kolejce zaciągu. Zawodnikowi zaciągniętemu jako ostatni z całej puli nadaje się przydomek "Mr. Irrelevant" ("Pan Nieistotny"), a na jego cześć – w przewrotny sposób – wystawia się uroczysty obiad. +Zawodnik zaciągnięty może negocjować "tylko" z drużyną, która go wybrała, lub z zespołem, do którego został „przehandlowany”. Klub ma rok na zawarcie kontraktu z graczem. Jeśli tego nie zrobi, zawodnik może w przystąpić do następnego zaciągu i zostać wybrany przez inną drużynę. W ten sposób rok „na ławce” spędził sławny Bo Jackson. +Kontrakty i wynagrodzenia zawodników. +Wszyscy zwodnicy NFL są członkami związku zawodowego NFLPA. Związek negocjuje wynagrodzenia minimalne obowiązujące w lidze z właścicielami franczyz, czyli z władzami klubów. Wynikiem rozmów jest umowa zwana kontraktem grupowym (ang. "Collective Bargaining Agreement", skrót: "CBA"), która stanowi podstawę do zawierania przez zawodników indywidualnych kontraktów z klubami. Obecny kontrakt grupowy jest wiążący od roku 1993, z poprawkami z lat 1998 i 2006. W NFL nie było przerw związanych ze strajkami zawodników od roku 1987, w przeciwieństwie do innych głównych lig amerykańskich: MLB, NBA czy NHL. +Co pewien określony sezon klub może nazwać jednego ze swoich graczy zawodnikiem franczyzowym ("Franchise Player"), co znacząco ogranicza jego prawa do negocjacji. +Wynagrodzenia. +Kontrakt grupowy stanowi, że wynagrodzenie gracza zawiera „uposażenie w pieniądzach, przedmiotach, inwestycjach, pożyczkach i innych walorach, które można przekazać zawodnikowi NFL” z wyjątkiem ubezpieczeń i emerytur. Na wynagrodzenie może składać się pensja i premia zaciągowa ("signing bonus"), którą wypłaca się po zawarciu kontraktu indywidualnego. W celu zracjonalizowania puli nakładów pieniężnych w klubach, koszt wypłaty "premii zaciągowej" klub rozciąga na cały okres kontraktu. +W przeciwieństwie do premii zaciągowej, wynagrodzenia wynikające z kontraktów zawodniczych "nie" są gwarantowane. Klub jest zobligowany do wypłacania uposażeń tak długo, jak zawodnik pozostaje członkiem drużyny. Po zerwaniu kontraktu – czy to przez zawodnika, czy przez klub – pozostała kwota nie jest graczowi wypłacana. +Kontrakt grupowy ustanawia m.in. kwoty płac minimalnych dla zawodników ligi, które wzrastają progresywnie wraz z latami pracy w lidze. Futboliści oraz ich menedżerowie mogą negocjować z klubami wyższe płace. W sezonie roku 2005 najwyżej opłacanym zawodnikiem był rozgrywający drużyny Atlanta Falcons, Michael Vick, na którego pierwotnie przeznaczono "pulę nakładów" wysokości niemal 8 milionów USD. Vickowi udało się wynegocjować 10-letni kontrakt na kwotę 130 milionów USD, co dawało 13 milionów dolarów rocznie, włączając „premię zaciągową” i pensję. +Pula nakładów. +Pulą nakładów ("salary cap") określa się najwyższą kwotę, którą zespół może przeznaczyć na uposażenia swoich zawodników. Kwoty wydatków określonych pulą nakładów klub nie może przekroczyć pod żadnym pozorem. Tym NFL różni się od innych lig zawodowych, takich jak NBA, która zezwala na pewne odstępstwa, czy MLB, w której na wysokość puli mają wpływ „podatki od luksusu”. +Wysokość puli nakładów w całej NFL określa formuła zdefiniowana przez kontrakt grupowy: jest to określony procent całości przychodów ligi zakładanych na przyszły rok. Ta kwota, po podzieleniu przez liczbę klubów, określa pulę nakładów na jeden zespół. W roku 2006 jej wartość wyniosła 102 miliony USD na drużynę. W roku 2007 przewidziano wzrost puli zespołu do 109 milionów dolarów. +Zawodnicy i ich menedżerowie często uciekają się do pomysłowych sztuczek, by zmieścić wynagrodzenia w ograniczonej puli klubu. Wcześniej – w czasach gdy "premia zaciągowa" była wypłacana „z góry”, nie wliczano jej do puli. Później wprowadzono zapis według którego "premię" zaczęto księgować jako rozłożoną "równomiernie" na wszystkie lata kontraktu i wliczać ją do puli nakładów. Dlatego np. 5-letni kontrakt ustalający wysokość "premii zaciągowej" na 10 milionów dolarów sprawiał, że co roku 2 miliony dolarów premii pomniejszały pulę nakładów przeznaczoną na zawodnika, choćby sama premia wypłacona była w całości w pierwszym roku kontraktu. Gdy klub decyduje się na rozwiązanie kontraktu z zawodnikiem, pozostała (księgowa) część jego "premii zaciągowej" pomniejsza pulę nakładów klubu w nadchodzącym sezonie. Z kolei pozostała część pensji zawodnika zostaje anulowana i nie wlicza się do puli klubu. +Kontrakty zawodnicze najczęściej budowane są tak, że wysokość pensji nie jest równo rozłożona na wszystkie lata umowy, ale rośnie od wartości minimalnej w pierwszym roku do wysokich kwot w roku ostatnim. Jeśli zatem umowa opiewa np. na 10 milionów dolarów pensji (nie wliczając "premii zaciągowej"), zawodnikowi w pierwszym roku kontraktu zostanie wypłacony 1 milion, w drugim – 2 miliony, w trzecim – 3 miliony a w czwartym – 4 miliony dolarów. Jeżeli klub zdecyduje się na rozwiązanie umowy np. po pierwszym roku kontraktu, 9 milionów wynagrodzenia (2+3+4) nie zostanie wypłacone i – co ważniejsze dla właścicieli drużyny – nie obciąży puli nakładów klubu w następnych latach. Jednakże wartość księgowa "premii zaciągowej" przypadająca na lata, których zwolniony zawodnik już nie spędzi w drużynie, pomniejszają pulę klubu w sezonie następującym po rozwiązaniu umowy. +Wolni agenci. +Kontrakt grupowy określa, że wolny agent to zawodnik, który nie jest objęty kontraktem z żadnym klubem, przez co może negocjować z dowolną drużyną warunki nowego kontraktu. +Takich zawodników rozróżnia się ponadto według dwóch kategorii – "ograniczonych wolnych agentów" i "nieograniczonych wolnych agentów" – ze względu na swobodę negocjacji. Dodatkowo kluby mogą nałożyć na niektórych wolnych agentów "znak franczyzowy" ("franchise tag") lub "przejściowy" ("transition tag"), co nakłada na nich dodatkowe ograniczenia negocjacyjne. +Ograniczony wolny agent. +Zawodnik z bagażem 3-5 sezonów w lidze, po wygaśnięciu kontraktu, może stać się "ograniczonym wolnym agentem" i może starać się zawrzeć z dowolnym klubem następną umowę, która jednak może zostać zablokowana przez jego klub macierzysty. +Dotychczasowemu klubowi ograniczonego wolnego agenta przysługuje "prawo do przebicia oferty" ("first refusal right") oraz dodatkowe rekompensaty ze strony klubu, z którym wolny agent chce podpisać nowy kontrakt. Czym dłuższy jest staż zawodnika w lidze i czym wyższa jest kwota nowego kontraktu, tym większa staje się rekompensata – klub macierzysty może otrzymać od nowego klubu możliwość wyboru w pierwszych rundach zaciągu. +Nieograniczony wolny agent. +Zawodnik po 5 sezonach w lidze, w momencie wygaśnięcia kontraktu, staje się "nieograniczonym wolnym agentem" i może zawrzeć następną umowę z dowolnym klubem, który nie musi tej zmiany rekompensować jego klubowi macierzystemu. +Zawodnicy franczyzowi i przejściowi. +Kluby mają możliwość zmniejszania możliwości negocjacyjnych zawodników o statusie nieograniczonego wolnego agenta. Przez nałożenie na takiego gracza znaku franczyzowego ("franchise tag"), klub zobowiązuje się do jednorocznego kontraktu opiewającego na kwotę średniej z 5 najwyższych zarobków graczy na tej samej pozycji (lub 120% jego zarobków z poprzedniego roku – którakolwiek suma jest wyższa). Drużyna w lidze NFL może nałożyć znak franczyzowy tylko na jednego zawodnika w sezonie, choć może go nakładać na tego samego gracza przez kolejne lata. Zawodnik „oznakowany” może negocjować z innymi klubami, jednak klub macierzysty ma prawo do dużej rekompensaty od nowego klubu – aż "dwóch" kolejek nowego zaciągu. +Nałożenie przez klub znaku przejściowego ("transition tag") na zawodnika o statusie nieograniczonego wolnego agenta, zamienia go w agenta o statusie ograniczonym ze zobowiązaniem klubu macierzystego do jednorocznego kontraktu opiewającego na kwotę średniej z 10 najwyższych zarobków graczy na tej samej pozycji. +Pensje zawodników „oznakowanych” – w przeciwieństwie do zwykłych pensji wynikających z kontraktów – są "gwarantowane", tzn. muszą być w całości wypłacone nawet w przypadku rozwiązania umowy. +Polityka antydopingowa. +Polityka antydopingowa ligi NFL znalazła swoich zwolenników i przeciwników. Faktem pozostaje to, że jest najstarszym zbiorem zasad tego typu w sporcie zawodowym (przyjęta w 1987). Od roku 1989 przepisy ligi zawieszają zawodników bez prawa do wynagrodzeń w momencie uzyskania pozytywnych wyników testów dopingowych: na 4 mecze po pierwszym przewinieniu (co stanowi 1/4 sezonu zasadniczego), na 8 meczów po drugim przewinieniu i na 12 meczów po trzecim przewinieniu. Do zawieszonych gier zalicza się mecze w sezonie jak i w fazie play-off. W porównaniu do lig MLB i NHL, gdzie dyskwalifikuje się zawodników po trzecim przewinieniu, przepisy NFL są najłagodniejsze. +Jako że NFL rozpoczęła serię losowych, całorocznych testów na obecność substancji dopingowych i polepszających wydajność znacznie wcześniej niż inne ligi, na zabronionych praktykach przyłapano więcej zawodników niż w innych sportach. Do kwietnia 2005 testy dały wynik pozytywny w przypadku 111 zawodników NFL, z czego zawieszono 54. +Numery zawodników. +Do roku 2004 skrzydłowi mogli nosić tylko numery z zakresu 80-89. Liga poszerzyła ten zakres to numerów 10-19, aby pomóc klubom w zwiększeniu liczby skrzydłowych i końcowych wystawianych do rozgrywek. Przed tą zmianą zawodnik mógł jednakże dostać numer z zakresu nieodpowiadającego jego pozycji, jeżeli w drużynie zabrakło wolnych numerów w jego formacji. Najbardziej znanym przypadkiem był Keyshawn Johnson, skrzydłowy New York Jets, któremu przydzielono numer 19. +Niekiedy zawodnicy proszą ligę o zezwolenie na noszenie numerów spoza puli odpowiedniej dla ich pozycji. W roku 2006 Reggie Bush, biegacz New Orleans Saints, poprosił NFL o zezwolenie na zatrzymanie numeru 5, który nosił na koszulce drużyny University of Southern California. Liga jednakże odmówiła. +Należy zauważyć, żę system numerowania koszulek zawodników ligi opiera się na "podstawowej" pozycji zawodnika. "Każdy" gracz z "dowolnym" numerem może grać na "dowolnej" pozycji w "dowolnej" chwili – z wyjątkiem zawodników z numerami w zakresie 50-79 (linia ataku), którzy muszą o tym poinformować sędziów spotkania. Nierzadko szybcy biegacze ustawiają się na pozycjach skrzydłowych, a masywni liniowi ataku wykorzystywani są jako biegacze lub końcowi w wypadku krótkich, siłowych gier dołem. +Dodatkowo, w fazie sparingowej sezonu, gdy kluby poszerzają składy drużyn, zawodnicy mogą nosić numery z dowolnych zakresów. Tuż przed rozpoczęciem sezonu zasadniczego, gdy 53-osobowy skład zespołu zostaje ukształtowany, numery zawodników muszą zostać uporządkowane według odpowiednich zakresów. +NFL w mediach i rozrywce. +Telewizja. +Prawo do transmisji rozgrywek NFL są najdroższym i najkorzystniejszym finansowo kontraktem nie tylko wśród wszystkich amerykańskich dyscyplin sportowych, ale w całym przemyśle rozrywkowym Ameryki. Mimo podziału rynku telewizyjnego pomiędzy stacje specjalizujące się w konkretnych, coraz węższych formatach mediowych, sport w mediach zawsze gwarantuje ogromną i zróżnicowaną widownię. Co więcej, widownię chętną na oglądanie programu na żywo. +Super Bowl co roku plasuje się w czołówce wydarzeń telewizyjnych. Finały ligi zajmują 4 z 10 miejsc rankingu oglądalności Nielsen Media Research. Nadawcy telewizyjni – zarówno stacje publiczne jak i nadające w sieciach kablowych – wykupują prawa do transmisji gier NFL w celu podniesienia swojej całkowitej oglądalności. Sama liga emituje własny program w sieciach kablowych – NFL Network. +Radio. +Każdy zespół w ligi ma swoją stację radiową. NFL także prowadzi swój program. Audycje dedykowane futbolowi nadawane są na falach radia satelitarnego. +Gry wideo. +Firma Electronic Arts wydaje grę komputerową "Madden NFL", nazwaną imieniem byłego trenera a obecnie komentatora sportowego, Johna Maddena. Przed rokiem 2005 na rynku pojawiały się też inne produkcje, jednakże w grudniu 2004 r. Electronic Arts podpisała z NFL 5-letnią umowę na wyłączność na gry przedstawiające zawodników i zespoły ligi. +Polacy w Lidze. +Jedynym Polakiem grającym obecnie w NFL jest urodzony w Wałbrzychu Sebastian Janikowski, grający od roku 2000 w drużynie Oakland Raiders na pozycji kopacza. W latach siedemdziesiątych na tej samej pozycji grali Czesław Marcol i Ryszard Szaro. W latach dziewięćdziesiątych na pozycji defensive tackle grał Zbigniew Maniecki. +W latach 2008 i 2009, w meczach przedsezonowych Baltimore Ravens i Pittsburgh Steelers na pozycji kopacza próbowany był urodzony w Oleśnicy Piotr Czech. +Historia. +Podobnie jak futbol uniwersytecki, z którego się wywodzi, futbol zawodowy wyewoluował z rugby, które przybyło do Stanów Zjednoczonych przez Kanadę w roku 1874. W tym roku studenci uniwersytetu Harvard, grający w grę zwaną Boston game, rozegrali dwa mecze przeciwko studentom kanadyjskiego uniwersytetu McGill, grającym w rugby. Pierwszy mecz, w którym zwycieżyli Amerykanie 3-0, rozegrano okrągłą piłką na zasadach „Boston game”. Drugi mecz, zakończony bezpunktowym remisem, rozegrano owalną piłką na zasadach rugby. Większość zasad z rugby zostało przejętych przez studentów z Harvardu, którzy zaczęli je popularyzować wsród innych uniwersytetów grających do tamtej pory w piłkę nożną. Z czasem zaczęto modyfikować zasady rugby, dzięki czemu powstał futbol amerykański, zdobywający z każdym rokiem coraz większą popularność wśród sportowych środowisk uniwersyteckich. +Lata 1892-1920. +Powstanie zawodowego futbolu w Stanów Zjednoczonych datuje się na rok 1892, gdy pewien klub sportowy zapłacił Williamowi „Pudge” Heffelfingerowi 500 dolarów (bardzo wysoka kwota w tamtych czasach) za wzięcie udziału w meczu. Tamto spotkanie uznaje się za pierwszy występ zawodowy w futbolu amerykańskim. Choć przez kilkadziesiąt następnych lat rozgrywki uczelniane drużyn ze Wschodniego Wybrzeża skupiały większą uwagę kibiców, futbol zawodowy zaczął zyskiwać ogromną popularność w stanach Środkowego Zachodu, w szczególności w Ohio, gdzie np. w roku 1903 amatorski zespół Massillon Tigers zatrudnił czterech graczy zawodowych z Pittsburgha do rozegrania meczu kończącego sezon. +W roku 1920 utworzono zawodową ligę "American Professional Football Association". Siedzibą "APFA" był salon samochodowy w Canton, w stanie Ohio, a pierwszym prezydentem (prezesem) ligi wybrano legendarnego zawodnika Jima Thorpe’a. Grupa jedenastu stowarzyszonych klubów, z których wszystkie oprócz jednego miały siedziby na Środkowym Zachodzie kraju, z początku mniej przypominała prawdziwą ligę a bardziej była układem partnerów przystających do umowy o wzajemnym niezabieraniu sobie zawodników. W pierwszych latach ligi, jej członkowie rozgrywali mecze z zespołami nie należącymi do APFA. +Lata 1920-1950. +Od roku 1921 APFA zaczęła działać jak regularna liga, prowadząc oficjalne statystyki. Rok później zmieniono jej nazwę na "National Football League", choć wciąż trudno było określić ją jako zawodową ligę o zasięgu krajowym. Różnorakie zespoły często dołączały i równie regularnie odchodziły. +Stopniowo jednak rozgrywki futbolu zawodowego zyskiwały na popularności, a kluby coraz częściej sięgały po takie byłe gwiazdy drużyn uniwersyteckich jak Red Grange czy Benny Friedman. Do roku 1934 wszystkie małomiasteczkowe luby ligi, z wyjątkiem Green Bay Packers, przeniosły swoje siedziby lub zostały zastąpione przez drużyny z wielkich miast. Dodatkowe zainteresowanie ze strony kibiców wzbudzał "mecz o mistrzostwo ligi", rozgrywany corocznie od sezonu 1933. +W okresie II wojny światowej mecze futbolu zawodowego zaczęły rywalizować z rozgrywkami uczelnianymi i wabić nowych kibiców. Upowszechnienie formacji T w taktyce futbolowej poskutkowało szybszymi zagraniami, prowadzącymi do wyższych wyników, co z kolei przyciągnęło rekordową liczbę widzów. W roku 1945 zespół Cleveland Rams przeniósł się do Los Angeles, stając się pierwszym dużym zawodowym klubem sportowym na Zachodnim Wybrzeżu. Pięć lat później do ligi trafiły trzy zespoły ze świeżo rozwiązanej All-America Football Conference, zwiększając liczbę drużyn NFL do trzynastu. +Lata 1950-1970. +Od lat 50. nikt już nie podważał pozycji futbolu zawodowego. Rozgrywki NFL zagarnęły czas antenowy. Gwiazdami przekazów telewizyjnych stali się zawodnicy ligi, tacy jak Bobby Layne, Paul Hornung, Otto Graham czy Johnny Unitas. Mecz o mistrzostwo NFL w roku 1958 przyciągnął rekordową liczbę telewidzów, kreując Unitasa i jego kolegów z Baltimore Colts na nowe narodowe sławy. Wzrost popularności rozgrywek profesjonalnych był tak silny, że w połowie lat 60. futbol prześcignął baseball w niektórych rankingach ulubionych sportów widowiskowych Amerykanów. +Gdy pod koniec lat 50. NFL odmówiła prośbie promotora sportowego i wizjonera, Lamara Hunta, o pozwolenie na zakup istniejącej lub wprowadzenie nowej franczyzy do ligi, Hunt zawiązał w roku 1960 konkurencyjną American Football League (AFL). Udało mu się zjednać siedmiu innych przedsiębiorców do zaangażowania się w nowe przedsięwzięcie. Grupę tych ośmiu założycieli ligi nazywano „Klubem Durniów” („Foolish Club”), ponieważ właściciele klubów AFL byli mniej stabilni finansowo od rywali z NFL, co w powszechnym mniemaniu skazywało ich na porażkę podobną do upadku AAFC. +Liga AFL wprowadziła do dyscypliny klika nowinek nieobecnych w NFL, takich jak nowa taktyka otwartych gier ofensywnych górą, nazwiska zawodników wypisane na koszulkach czy oficjalny zegar czasu gry widziany przez widownię (w NFL czas mierzony był według zegarków sędziów i oznajmiany przez nich w pewnych odstępach). Nowej lidze udało się także zyskać stabilność finansową po tym, gdy ustalono równy podział zysków z przychodów za bilety i przekazy mediowe pomiędzy wszystkie zespoły oraz zawarto umowy telewizyjne na wszystkie mecze w AFL. +Pojawienie się AFL stało się bodźcem do rozwoju NFL: w Teksasie powstała drużyna Dallas Cowboys, aby zdystansować popularność zespołu Hunta – Dallas Texans, który przeniósłszy się w roku 1963 do Kansas City zmienił nazwę na Chiefs; NFL skusiła Maksa Wintera pozwoleniem na założenie klubu Minnesota Vikings w zamian za odejśce z AFL; nowo powstała drużyna Atlanta Falcons została własnością Rankina Smitha, którego NFL udało się skłonić do porzucenia pomysłu wystawienia zespołu Miami Dolphins w ramach AFL. +Między NFL i AFL rozpoczęła się wojna o zawodników, doprowadzająca niemal do upadku obu lig. Dlatego w roku 1966 obie organizacje postanowiły połączyć się przed sezonem roku 1970. Dziesięć drużyn AFL oraz trzy drużyny NFL weszły w skład konferencji AFC, zaś pozostałe trzynaście zespołów NFL uformowało konferencję NFC w ramach nowej ligi NFL. Dodatkowo, od roku 1966, pomiędzy obiema – już współpracującymi ze sobą – organizacjami rozgrywano "Finał o Mistrzostwo Świata AFL-NFL" ("AFL-NFL Championship"), który przed połączeniem lig wyłaniał tzw. "Mistrza Świata Futbolu Zawodowego" ("World Championship of Professional Football"). Po roku 1970 finał stał się meczem o mistrzostwo NFL i przemianowany został na Super Bowl. +Od roku 1970. +W latach 70. i 80. liga utwierdziła swoją wiodącą rolę w sportach widowiskowych Ameryki i stała się ważną częścią amerykańskiej kultury masowej. Dzień rozgrywania Super Bowl stał się nieoficjalnym świętem a sam mecz jednym z najchętniej oglądanych przekazów telewizyjnych w całym roku. Monday Night Football, po raz pierwszy nadany w roku 1970, od razu stał się jednym z najlepiej ocenianych programów łączących sport i rozrywkę. W przepisach ligowych wprowadzono zmiany skutkujące jeszcze szybszymi akcjami, przyciągającymi uwagę nowych widzów. +Pojawienie się United States Football League na początku lat 80. było największym wyzwaniem dla ligi po połączeniu z AFL. Nowa liga była dobrze opłaconą konkurencją ze znanymi zawodnikami i kontraktem telewizyjnym ze stacjami krajowymi. Jednakże po trzech latach działalności USFL rozwiązano ze względu na poziom przychodów finansowych. +W ostatnim czasie NFL zaangażowała się nowe przedsięwzięcia i weszła na nowe rynki. W roku 1986 liga rozpoczęła serię przedsezonowych meczów pokazowych nazywanych American Bowl, które rozgrywa się poza Stanami Zjednoczonymi. W roku 1991 pod auspicjami ligi powstała "World League of American Football" (zwana teraz NFL Europa), z drużynami z siedzibami w Niemczech i Holandii. W roku 2005 rozegrano pilotowy mecz sezonu regularnego w stolicy Meksyku. Liga utworzyła w roku 2003 własną stację telewizji kablowej – NFL Network. +Czarnoskórzy. +W czasach American Professional Football Association oraz w początkach NFL kilku zawodników czarnoskórych grało w lidze, a nawet uważanych było za klubowe gwiazdy. Jednak, gdy w roku 1932 znany ze swoich rasistowskich poglądów George Preston Marshall wprowadził do ligi swój zespół Boston Braves (który po latach stał się Washington Redskins), Murzyni szybko zniknęli ze składów drużyn. Dopiero w połowie lat 40., idąc śladem ligi AAFC, niektóre z klubów NFL zaczęły zatrudniać czarnoskórych, choć aż do roku 1949 nie uwzględniano ich w "zaciągach" absolwentów uniwersytetów. W tym roku do ligi wybrano pięciu Murzynów a pierwszym z nich, który zaczął regularnie grać w sezonie, był Wally Triplett, biegacz z Pennsylvania State University, występujący później w drużynach Detroit Lions i Chicago Bears. +W tamtych czasach zawodnicy czarnoskórzy, którym udało się stać członkami drużyn, stawali się obiektami niepisanych, ale przestrzeganych „limitów” na liczbę Murzynów w zespole i pozycji, na których mogli występować. Nie było wtedy w NFL czarnoskórych rozgrywających, środkowych linii ataku ani środkowych wspomagających. Liga tradycyjnie ignorowała podczas zaciągów środowiska małych, „czarnych” college’ów. +Z kolei AFL chętnie zaciągała obiecujących zawodników z uczelni murzyńskich i obsadzała ich na pozycjach „zabronionych” w NFL. I tak w roku 1963 zespół ligi, Kansas City Chiefs, został pierwszą drużyną w historii futbolu zawodowego, która w pierwszej turze zaciągu sięgnęła po zawodnika z małej uczelni murzyńskiej – liniowego obrony Bucka Buchanana (z college’u Grambling State), który wcześniej nie został wybrany przez kilkanaście tur zaciągu w NFL. W roku 1990 Buchanan trafił do "Galerii Gwiazd Futbolu Zawodowego". Ten wybór uruchomił lawinę wybitnych czarnoskórych zawodników starających się o zaciąg do AFL, w której mieli zdecydowanie większe szanse na grę w porównaniu z konkurencyjnymi ligami. Chiefs zatrudnili także Willie Laniera (także wybrany do "Galerii Gwiazd"), który został pierwszym czarnoskórym środkowym wspomagającym. Z kolei Marlin Briscoe, grający w innej drużynie AFL – Denver Broncos, był pierwszym Murzynem na pozycji rozgrywającego z pierwszego składu. +W ten sposób AFL stała się pionierem zmian stosunku ligi NFL do czarnoskórych sportowców. Zaowocowało to udziałem Murzynów w aktywności klubów nie tylko w charakterze zawodników, ale także asystentów trenerskich a ostatecznie – trenerów drużyn. W roku 2007 Tony Dungy, trener Indianapolis Colts, został pierwszym czarnoskórym, który doprowadził swoją drużynę do zwycięstwa w Super Bowl. +Przenosiny i połączenia klubów. +Na początku swojej działalności NFL była niestabilna a zespoły wielokroć zmieniały swoje siedziby. Do połączeń drużyn dochodziło często podczas II wojny światowej, gdy kluby opuszczali zawodnicy wcielani do wojska. +Przenosiny zespołów zaczęły wzbudzać o wiele więcej kontrowersji u schyłku XX wieku, gdy liga pozwoliła wielu swoim członkom na porzucenie wieloletnich siedzib na rzecz nowych, atrakcyjnych marketingowo lokalizacji. Mimo że właściciele klubów niezmiennie argumentowali swoje ruchy kłopotami pieniężnymi, rósł niesmak fanów uważających ligę za stabilną finansowo. Duże miasta traciły swoje drużyny: z Cleveland uciekli Rams, z Baltimore – Colts, z Houston – Oilers, a z Saint Louis – Cardinals. Jednak po latach miastom udało się zaprosić nowe franczyzy – odpowiednio: Browns, Ravens, Texans i Rams. +Miasto Los Angeles, drugi co do wielkości rynek mediowy w Ameryce, nie gościło żadnego klubu ligi NFL od roku 1994, po tym gdy Raiders i Rams przeniosły się do nowych siedzib. +Dodatkowo, wraz z rozkwitem przedmieść wielkich miast amerykańskich, w latach 70. XX wieku narodził się trend do budowy nowych stadionów i siedzib klubowych poza metropolią centralną regionu. Od przełomu wieku zauważa się jednak tendencję powrotu obiektów sportowych do dużych miast. +Sabil + +Sabil, sebil w architekturze islamu jest to studnia publiczna najczęściej umieszczana w pawilonie, gdzie była otoczona ozdobną kratą. +Sahn + +Sahn – jest to dziedziniec meczetu, który otoczony jest kolumnowymi galeriami a pośrodku znajduje się studnia. +Graphviz + +Graphviz to zestaw narzędzi do tworzenia diagramów za pomocą grafów. +Diagramy tworzy się w języku DOT. Graphviz stworzony został w laboratoriach AT&T, jest rozwijany jako otwarte oprogramowanie i udostępniany na licencji CPL. +TFMPP + +TFMPP – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy pochodnych piperazyny. Substancja psychoaktywna o działaniu stymulującym. TFMPP używane bywa jako legalny substytut MDMA i amfetaminy. W Polsce nielegalny od 8.06.2011. +Farmakologia i działanie. +TFMPP jest nieselektywnym agonistą receptorów serotoninowych 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A i 5-HT2C. TFMPP rzadko rozpatrywane jest jako substancja psychoaktywna sama w sobie, zwykle używana jest w połączeniu z BZP, które podnosi poziom serotoniny i dopaminy w synapsach. Testy na zwierzętach dowiodły, że połączenie TFMPP i BZP wywołuje efekt zbliżony do MDMA. Efekty działania tej mieszanki u ludzi opisywane są jako podobne do MDMA ale w niektórych płaszczyznach odmienne, między innymi nie obejmują żadnych enteogenicznych doświadczeń. Inni przyrównują je do małej dawki LSD i sporej amfetaminy. +Efekty uboczne. +Podobnie jak znaczna większość substancji psychoaktywnych będących pochodnymi piperazyny, TFMPP (w połączeniu z BZP) powoduje wiele efektów ubocznych. Do najczęstszych należą: bezsenność, niepokój, mdłości i wymioty, bóle mięśni i głowy, drgawki, okresowa impotencja a rzadziej psychozy. Ciężko stwierdzić jednoznacznie które z tych efektów są spowodowane samym TFMPP. +Przemił + +Przemił, Przemieł — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Prze-" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń) i "-mił", "-mieł" ("miły"). Być może oznaczało "najmilszy". +Staropolskie zdrobnienia: Przech, Przechno, Przeczek, Przeczko, Przeczk, Przeczka (m.), Przeczeń, Przesz, Przeszek, Przeszko. +Przemił imieniny obchodzi 17 stycznia i 7 listopada. +Mecanorma + +Mecanorma - przedsiębiorstwo produkujące aktualizowany co roku katalog czcionek, z dziedziny wiedzy zajmującej się wzornictwem liter. +Jednym z projektantów czcionek z katalogu "Mecanormy" był polski artysta grafik Bogdan Żochowski. +Janusz Dobrosz + +Janusz Konrad Dobrosz (ur. 7 marca 1954 w Wieruszowie) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm w latach 1989–1991 i 1993–2007 (X, II, III, IV i V kadencji), wicemarszałek Sejmu V kadencji. +Życiorys. +Wykształcenie i praca zawodowa. +W 1977 ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. +Należał do Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego. Od 1977 do 1979 pracował jako inspektor we Wrocławskich Zakładach Remontowo-Montażowych. Następnie, do 1981 był kierownikiem wydziału w zarządzie wojewódzkim Związku Socjalistycznej Młodzieży Polskiej. W latach 1981–1986 pełnił funkcję wiceprzewodniczącego zarządu wojewódzkiego Związku Młodzieży Wiejskiej. Od 1986 do 1987 był dyrektorem Ośrodka ds. Informacji w Dolnośląskich Zakładach Doskonalenia Zawodowego, a od 1987 do 1989 dyrektorem ds. promocji w Agrotechnice. W okresie 1989–1990 kierował radą nadzorczą PHP "Delmex". Od 1993 do 1995 pracował jako dyrektor ds. promocji w firmie STEFPOOL. +Działalność polityczna. +W 1978 wstąpił do Zjednoczonego Stronnictwa Ludowego i zasiadł w jego władzach wojewódzkich. Pełnił funkcję posła w latach 1989–1991 (X kadencja) z puli przeznaczonej dla tej partii. Równocześnie od 1990 do 1991 zasiadał w Krajowej Radzie Sądownictwa. Przez następnie dwa lata pełnił funkcję członka Trybunału Stanu. W 1990 został przewodniczącym władz wojewódzkich Polskiego Stronnictwa Ludowego. Pełnił też m.in. funkcję rzecznika prasowego oraz wiceprezesa tego ugrupowania. W 1993, 1997 i 2001 uzyskiwał z ramienia tego ugrupowania mandat poselski. Od 1997 do 2001 przewodniczył klubowi parlamentarnemu PSL. W Sejmie IV kadencji był zastępcą przewodniczącego Komisji Spraw Zagranicznych oraz przewodniczącym sejmowej komisji śledczej ds. prywatyzacji PZU. +W październiku 2003 przeszedł do Ligi Polskich Rodzin. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2005 z ramienia LPR został wybrany na posła na Sejm V kadencji z okręgu wrocławskiego (otrzymał 14 655 głosów). Od 2005 do 2006 przewodniczył Komisji Łączności z Polakami za Granicą. W latach 2005–2008 przewodniczył radzie politycznej LPR. W 2006 został także przewodniczącym klubu parlamentarnego tej partii w miejsce Romana Giertycha. W tym samym roku kandydował bezskutecznie na urząd prezydenta Wrocławia, uzyskując 7,48% głosów w pierwszej turze. 16 listopada 2006 został wybrany przez Sejm na stanowisko wicemarszałka izby, pełnił tę funkcję do końca kadencji. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007 bez powodzenia ubiegał się o reelekcję (otrzymał 2458 głosów). +W czerwcu 2008 wystąpił z LPR. Następnie zaangażował się w budowę nowego ugrupowania politycznego – Naprzód Polsko. Od listopada 2008 do maja 2009 pełnił funkcję prezesa partii. +W 2009 znalazł się na liście KW Libertas w wyborach do Parlamentu Europejskiego w okręgu wyborczym Wrocław (otrzymał 4793 głosy). Komitet nie przekroczył progu wyborczego, a Janusz Dobrosz w wyniku decyzji o starcie z jego list, 30 maja tego samego roku został wykluczony z Naprzód Polsko. +W 1997 został odznaczony Orderem Uśmiechu. Jest autorem wydanej w 2007 książki "Zniewalanie Polski". +Życie prywatne. +Jest żonaty. Ma trzy córki, Justynę (dziennikarkę TVP1), Joannę i Paulinę. +Góra Oliwna + +Góra Oliwna (arab. "Dżabal at-Tur", hebr. הר הזיתים – Har ha-Zeitim) – wzniesienie położone we Wschodniej Jerozolimie w Izraelu (818 m n.p.m.). +Od Starego Miasta i Ofelu oddziela je Dolina Cedronu. Jest równoległe do Wzgórza Świątynnego. Na jego stokach od strony wschodniej znajdują się arabskie osiedla Al Azarija (Betania) oraz Betfage. U podnóża góry od strony zachodniej rozciąga się Getsemani. +Od czasów chrześcijańskich wzniesienie było uważane za miejsce święte. Helena, matka cesarza Konstantyna, wzniosła na szczycie bazylikę nazywaną "Eleona". Obok niej pochowany został św. Cyryl Jerozolimski. W roku 378 zamożna niewiasta Pomenia wystawiła kościół upamiętniający Wniebowstąpienie Chrystusa. Hiszpańska pątniczka Egeria, która nawiedziła Ziemię Świętą w 380 roku, nazwała go w swoim pamiętniku z podróży "Imbomon". W V w., według różnych świadectw, wzgórze było zabudowane klasztorami i świątyniami. M.in. św. Melania założyła tuż obok Kościoła Wniebowstąpienia klasztor "Apostolion" wraz z przyległą kaplicą "Martyrium". +Wykopaliska na Górze Oliwnej przeprowadzili w roku 1910 ojcowie biali (ruiny bazyliki bizantyjskiej – "Eleona") oraz w 1959 franciszkanie na terenie swojej posesji przy sanktuarium Wniebowstąpienia. Wykazano, że góra nie była zamieszkana w czasach Chrystusa. +Na szczycie Góry Oliwnej i na jej stokach znajdują się dzisiaj następujące sanktuaria chrześcijańskie: kaplica Wniebowstąpienia (w rękach muzułmanów), grota św. Pelagii, grecki kościół Viri Galilei, francuski karmel Ojcze nasz, klasztor benedyktynek, kościół Dominus flevit, rosyjska cerkiew św. Marii Magdaleny, skała św. Tomasza, Ogród Oliwny i bazylika w Getsemani, polski klasztor elżbietanek – Home of Peace, sanktuarium w Betfage oraz sanktuarium w Betanii. +Góra Oliwna w Biblii. +W czasach starotestamentalnego Dawida Góra Oliwna była miejscem oddawania czci Jahwe. +Przez Górę Oliwną uciekał Dawid przed Absalomem (2 Sm 15,30). Od jej strony wjechał do Jerozolimy Jezus (Łk 19:37). +Miejsce pojmania Jezusa (Łk 22,39, Mt 26,30, Mt 26,36, Mk 14,26, J 18,1) +Jest wymieniana w Księgach Samuela, Królewskich, Ezechiela i Zachariasza. Wedle proroctwa w Księdze Zachariasza 14,4, ma stanąć na niej Jahwe (w egzegezie chrześcijańskiej utożsamiany z Chrystusem) w dniu Jahwe. Według Ewangelii Św. Łukasza, Jezus ostatnie noce swojego życia spędzał właśnie na górze Oliwnej (Łk 21,37). Dzieje Apostolskie umiejscawiają na jej szczycie Wniebowstąpienie Pańskie (por. Dz 1, 3-12). +Leki moczopędne + +Leki moczopędne, inaczej diuretyki lub też natriuretyki – grupa leków, których działanie polega na zwiększaniu objętości wydalanego moczu, czyli zwiększaniu diurezy. W zdecydowanej większości ich działanie opiera się na powodowaniu wzrostu wydalania jonów sodowych (Na+) co powoduje zwiększanie wydalania wody. +Pod względem chemicznym jest to grupa niejednorodna. Najczęstszym kryterium podziału jest "mechanizm" działania, który jest skorelowany z "umiejscowieniem" działania w organizmie. +Działanie diuretyków. +Działanie diuretyków polega na zwiększaniu ilości produkowanego moczu. Zdecydowana większość leków moczopędnych działa na etapie produkcji moczu w nerkach. Ich zadaniem jest zwiększenie ilości wody pozostającej w świetle kanalika, poprzez zahamowanie jej wchłaniania. Działanie diuretyków opiera się na fakcie, że woda jest wchłaniana w nerkach poprzez wchłanianie jonów sodu. Wiedząc o tym, konstruuje się leki blokujące poszczególne etapy filtracji i zwrotnej resorpcji jonów sodu w kanalikach nerkowych. Spowodowany działaniem leków wzrost stężenia Na+ w świetle kanalików powoduje pozostanie w nich wody, która jest następnie wydalana z moczem. +Zwiększenie wydalania wody z moczem powoduje obniżenie się objętości płynów ustrojowych, w tym krwi. W związku z tym zmniejsza się obciążenie wstępne i następcze serca, spada ciśnienie krwi i zmniejszają się obrzęki, co jest pomocne w leczeniu wielu chorób. +Niektóre diuretyki, takie jak acetazolamid, zmieniają odczyn moczu na bardziej zasadowy i pomagają w wydalaniu substancji takich jak aspiryna w przypadku przedawkowania i zatrucia. +Trzeba jednak zaznaczyć, że niektóre środki moczopędne, szczególnie tiazydy, potrafią obniżać ciśnienie niezależnie od swoich właściwości moczopędnych. Oznacza to, że obniżenie ciśnienia krwi nie wynika jedynie ze zmniejszenia jej objętości spowodowanym wzmożoną produkcją moczu, ale następuje w wyniku innych procesów zachodzących przy niższych dawkach leku niż jest to potrzebne do wywołania efektu moczopędnego. +Zastosowanie. +W farmakoterapii leki moczopędne znajdują zastosowanie w leczeniu wielu chorób. Rzadko są stosowane jako jedyne leki w terapii, częściej zażywa się je w skojarzeniu z innymi lekami. +Diuretyki bywają też stosowane w kulturystyce, oraz w odchudzaniu. Zmniejszenie ilości wody w tkankach podskórnych powoduje uwypuklenie mięśni i wyszczupla sylwetkę. Używanie diuretyków bez wskazań lekarskich może jednak doprowadzić do odwodnienia i zaburzenia równowagi elektrolitowej, co jest bezpośrednim zagrożeniem dla życia. +Grupy diuretyków. +Diuretyki działające na kanalik kręty I rzędu. +Diuretyki osmotyczne. +Mechanizm działania. +Są to związki osmotycznie czynne, nieresorbowane (niewchłaniane) zwrotnie w nerkach. Po spożyciu, lub wlewie dożylnym roztworu hipertonicznego dostają się do krwi, z której przechodzą do kanalików nerkowych, tak samo jak inne rozpuszczone w niej substancje. Ponieważ nie są zwrotnie wchłaniane do krwi, pozostają w przesączu kłębuszkowym, zwiększając jego ciśnienie osmotyczne. W ten sposób utrudniają przechodzenie wody ze światła kanalika do komórek nabłonka. Woda pozostaje więc w przesączu i jest wydalana z moczem zwiększając diurezę. +Przykłady. +mannitol, mocznik, sorbitol. +Stosowanie. +Leki te można stosować tylko u pacjentów ze sprawnymi czynnościowo nerkami. Leki z tej grupy są stosowane w leczeniu obrzęków, szczególnie śródczaszkowych (mannitol), obniżania ciśnienia śródgałkowego przed zabiegami okulistycznymi oraz do wymuszania diurezy w zatruciach. +Mannitol może być również stosowany w diagnostyce, do rozpoznawania przyczyn skąpomoczu i bezmoczu. Brak diurezy po podaniu mannitolu wskazuje na uszkodzenie nerek. +Działania niepożądane. +wzmożone pragnienie, suchość w ustach, bóle i zawroty głowy, drgawki, nudności, zaburzenia elektrolitów. +Inhibitory anhydrazy węglanowej. +Mechanizm działania. +Leki te hamują działanie enzymu: anhydraza węglanowa odpowiedzialną za przeprowadzanie w nerkach reakcji wody z dwutlenkiem węgla (CO2) w wyniku której powstaje kwas węglowy dysocjujący do jonu wodorowego i anionu wodorowęglanu (HCO3-). Powoduje to zmniejszenie wytwarzania jonów H+ w komórkach nabłonka kanalika nerkowego. Zmniejsza to jego wydalanie do światła kanalika. Jony wodorowe są w cewce bliższej wydalane drogą antyportową z jonami sodu. Zahamowanie wypływu jonów H+ (spowodowane przez działanie leków z tej grupy) powoduje spadek napływu jonów Na+ do komórki, a zatem spadek resorpcji wody. +Inną konsekwencją zahamowania wydalania jonów H+ do moczu jest jego alkalizacja (podwyższenie się pH). Jednocześnie spada pH krwi - wynika to ze spadku stężenia drugiego produktu anhydrazy węglanowej, czyli jonów wodorowęglanowych, które w warunkach fizjologicznych odpowiadają za alkalizację krwi. Po pewnym czasie stosowania tych leków, we krwi spada poziom wodorowęglanów i dwutlenku węgla, co z kolei zmniejsza przechodzenie CO2 do komórek nabłonka w kanaliku bliższym nerki. Proces ten prowadzi do spadku znaczenia działania anhydrazy węglanowej w regulacji poziomu diurezy i działanie leku obniża się. +Zahamowanie resorpcji jonów Na+ na tak wczesnym etapie produkcji moczu (w cewce bliższej) powoduje, że do kanalika dalszego napływa przesącz o dużej zawartości jonów sodu, które są tam resorbowane na drodze antyportu z jonami K+. Powoduje to nasilone wchłanianie jonów sodu tą drogą, a to powoduje większą, niż w warunkach fizjologicznych, utratę jonów K+, co może być niebezpieczne dla zdrowia. +Przykłady. +acetazolamid (diuramid), propazolamid, metazolamid. +Stosowanie. +Ich znaczenie w lecznictwie w roli leków moczopędnych jest małe, z uwagi na to, że mechanizm resorpcji jonów sodu, który hamują ma niewielkie znaczenie w regulacji ilości wydalanego moczu. Acetazolamid bywa jednak stosowany w leczeniu obrzęków, w jaskrze, i padaczce (kwasica metaboliczna wywoływana przez acetazolamid podnosi próg pobudliwości neuronów i zapobiega napadom). +Działania niepożądane. +Bóle i zawroty głowy, senność, kwasica metaboliczna, wzrost poziomu wapnia (hiperkalcemia) i spadek poziomu potasu (hipokalemia). +Diuretyki pętlowe. +Mechanizm działania. +Punktem uchwytu działania diuretyków z tej grupy jest część wstępującą pętli Henlego, jednak leki te wpływają zarówno na część wstępującą jak i zstępującą. W komórkach nabłonka części wstępującej blokują działanie jednego z transporterów błonowych - synportu, jonów K+, Na+ i Cl-. Hamują w ten sposób resorpcję wszystkich tych jonów i ich przedostawanie się do układu naczyń rzekomych, które w normalnych warunkach transportują elektrolity w rejon ramienia zstępującego i umożliwiają resorpcję wody w tamtej części. Spadek stężenia jonów, głównie Na+, w komórkach nabłonka części zstępującej, powoduje obniżenie siły ssącej i hamuje przedostawanie się wody do tych komórek. W ten sposób spada wchłanianie wody ze światła kanalików, a tym samym zwiększa się ilość produkowanego w nerkach moczu. +leki te, podobnie jak inhibitory anhydrazy węglanowej, powodują utratę jonów K+. +Przykłady. +furosemid, azosemid, piretanid, torasemid. +Mechanizm działania innych diuretyków pętlowych, takich jak kwas etakrynowy, czy etazolin nie jest obecnie dokładnie wyjaśniony. Wiadomo natomiast, że leki te również hamują resorpcję jonów Na+ w pętli Henlego. +Stosowanie. +Najpopularniejszym lekiem z tej grupy jest furosemid. Jest on stosowany w różnego pochodzenia obrzękach płuc, mózgu i innych narządów. W leczeniu zatruć podaje się go razem z dużymi ilościami płynów (forsowna diureza). Może też służyć do leczenia hiperkalcemii (zbyt dużego poziomu wapnia we krwi). +Diuretyki pętlowe są jednymi z najsilniejszych leków moczopędnych. +Działania niepożądane. +Leki z tej grupy nasilają tez działania toksyczne innych leków, np. glikozydów nasercowych, aminoglikozydów, cefalosporyn, kwasu acetylosalicylowego. +Diuretyki działające na kanalik kręty drugiego rzędu. +Tiazydy. +Mechanizm działania. +Tiazydy blokują kanał dla Na+ i Cl- znajdujący się w błonie kanalika dalszego. Wnikanie jonów Na+ przez ten kanał jest uwarunkowane gradientem ich stężenia, zapewnianym, przez działanie pompy sodowo-potasowej po drugiej stronie komórki nabłonka kanalika. Pompa ta, przy udziale energii z ATP wypompowuje jony Na+ z komórki. Powoduje to, że ich stężenie jest mniejsze w komórce niż na zewnątrz w wyniku czego możliwe jest bierne wnikanie jonów Na+ przez wspomniany kanał. Zablokowanie kanału dla jonów sodu nie wpływa na działanie pompy sodowo-potasowej, zatem leki te nie hamują przemieszczania jonów K+ do komórki i ich wydostawania się do światła kanalika. Jest to zatem kolejna grupa diuretyków powodująca utratę potasu. +W dużych dawkach mogą hamować anhydrazę węglanową podobnie jak acetazolamid. +Poza działaniem moczopędnym, tiazydy wykazują też działanie rozkurczające na naczynia krwionośne. Powodują zatem obniżenie oporów naczyniowych, i co za tym idzie, ciśnienia tętniczego krwi. +Przykłady. +butiazyd, hydrochlorotiazyd. +Stosowanie. +Ze względu na działanie rozszerzające naczynia stosuje się je powszechnie w leczeniu nadciśnienia tętniczego, najczęściej w połączeniu z lekami oszczędzającymi potas, takimi jak inhibitory konwertazy angiotensyny. Są również używane w leczeniu obrzęków spowodowanych niewydolnością krążenia oraz w diagnostyce, do rozpoznawania moczówki prostej z towarzyszącą jej utratą płynów przez pocenie. +Analogi tiazydów. +chlortalidon, +indapamid, +klopamid, +ksypamid. +Antagoniści aldosteronu. +Mechanizm działania. +Aldosteron jest endogenną (naturalnie występującą) substancją, odpowiedzialną za zmniejszenie diurezy. Jego działanie polega na stymulowaniu kaskady przemian, prowadzącej do otwarcia kanałów dla jonów Na+ w błonie kanalika dalszego. Jony sodu wnikają do komórki biernie, (przez otwarty kanał) dzięki utrzymywaniu ich niskiego poziomu w komórce przez pompę sodowo-potasową po drugiej stronie komórki nabłonka kanalika, podobnie jak ma to miejsce w kanałach blokowanych przez tiazydy. Antagoniści aldosteronu hamują opisany proces na samym początku, na etapie wiązania się aldosteronu z receptorem. Nie dochodzi zatem do otwarcia kanału dla sodu ani do uruchomienia pompy sodowo-potasowej odpowiedzialnej za wypompowywanie potasu. Leki te zwiększając diurezę nie obniżają poziomu potasu. +Podstawowym wskazaniem do stosowania leków z tej grupy jest hiperaldosteronizm (zbyt duży poziom aldosteronu) Leki z tej grupy można łączyć z innymi diuretykami. +Przykłady. +spironolakton, eplerenon. +Stosowanie. +Leków tych rzadko używa się w celach wyłącznie moczopędnych, najczęściej stosuje się je w terapii hiperaldoseronizmu (zbyt dużego poziomu aldosteronu) lub w obrzękach nie dających się leczyć innymi lekami. +Działania niepożądane. +Bóle głowy, senność, niezborność ruchów, zaburzenia żołądkowo-jelitowe, zaburzenia hormonalne (ginekomastia u mężczyzn, zaburzenia miesiączkowania u kobiet). Zaleca się ostrożność w stosowaniu tych leków z innymi lekami oszczędzającymi potas (np. inhibitorami konwertazy angiotensyny) gdyż sumowanie się ich wpływu na poziom potasu może niekiedy doprowadzić do groźnej dla życia hiperkalemii. +Cykliczne amidyny. +Mechanizm działania. +Mechanizm działania opiera się na blokowaniu kanałów sodowych oraz potasowych w ścianie kanalika dalszego. Są to zatem diuretyki oszczędzające potas. +Przykłady. +amiloryd, triamteren. +Stosowanie. +Są stosowane w różnych schorzeniach wymagających zwiększenia diurezy. +Substancje wpływające na poziom lub działanie wazopresyny. +Mechanizm działania. +Działanie diuretyczne tych substancji polega na blokowaniu działania lub obniżaniu stężenia wazopresyny, naturalnego hormonu zmniejszającego wydalanie moczu. Substancje blokujące receptory V2 (receptory dla wazopresyny) to akwaretyki. +Środki te mają hamować wchłanianie wody w kanalikach dalszych i zbiorczych. Substancje o takim działaniu, mogące być wykorzystane jako leki są na etapie badań klinicznych. +Substancją hamującą wydzielanie wazopresyny, i na tej drodze działającą diuretycznie jest np. etanol. +Leki zwiększające przesączanie kłębuszkowe. +Roślinne leki moczopędne. +Mechanizm działania. +Niektóre surowce roślinne drażnią miąższ nerek powodując ich przekrwienie i w ten sposób nasilają filtrację w ciałku nerkowym. Zwiększenie ilości przesączu powoduje wzrost ilości wydalanego moczu. +Przykłady surowców ziołowych. +kłącze perzu, owoc jałowca, ziele skrzypu, liść brzozy, korzeń lubczyku, ziele połonicznika. +Stosowanie. +Roślinne leki moczopędne są stosowane pomocniczo w terapii wielu schorzeń. +Metyloksantyny. +Mechanizm działania. +Zwiększają ukrwienie rdzenia nerki wymuszając zwiększone przesączanie w ciałku nerkowym. Zwiększenie ilości przesączu powoduje wzrost ilości wydalanego moczu. +Przykłady. +aminofilina, kofeina, teofilina. +Stosowanie. +Wśród metyloksantyn jako środek moczopędny stosowana jest jedynie aminofilina. +Break snookerowy + +Break snookerowy – liczba punktów zdobyta we fragmencie meczu snookera rozgrywanym nieprzerwanie przez jednego zawodnika (w czasie jednego podejścia do stołu). +Breaki stupunktowe. +Break stupunktowy (ang. century break) to określenie breaka, w którym zawodnik osiągnie 100 lub więcej punktów. Jest on uznawany za wielkie osiągnięcie i nagradzany przez publiczność gromkimi brawami. Pierwszy udokumentowany stupunktowy break w historii został osiągnięty przez Joe Davisa w 1928 roku. Poprawił on ten wynik w roku 1934, wbijając 110 oczek, co było pierwszym oficjalnie zarejestrowanym breakiem powyżej 100 pkt w mistrzostwach świata. Jego następne rekordy wynosiły 137 i 138 pkt (oba w 1937), 146 pkt (1950), aż wreszcie osiągnął pierwszy break maksymalny w roku 1955. W 1962 wbity przez niego break 100 w meczu z Johnem Pulmanem był jednocześnie historycznym, pierwszym udokumentowanym przez transmisję telewizyjną breakiem stupunktowym na świecie. W ciągu całej swojej kariery Davis uzyskał łącznie 687 breaków stupunktowych (z uwzględnieniem również meczów nieoficjalnych), co było absolutnym rekordem jego czasów. +Mistrzem w tej dziedzinie jest jednak Stephen Hendry, który zdobył dotychczas 751 breaków powyżej 100 pkt, a ponadto wbił ich najwięcej w ciągu jednego sezonu - 52 (1995/1996), turnieju - 16 (mistrzostwa świata 2002) oraz meczu - 7 (finał UK Championship 1994). Najszybszym z kolei jest Tony Drago, który potrzebował na wbicie setki zaledwie 3 minut i 31 sekund (UK Championship 1996). +Breaki maksymalne. +Za break maksymalny uważa się oficjalnie break 147-punktowy oraz 155-punktowy. Ten drugi jest możliwy do uzyskania tylko w jednej sytuacji – musi nastąpić faul z free ballem (wolną bilą) przy 15 czerwonych bilach na stole. Taka sytuacja jest bardzo mało prawdopodobna. Należałoby sobie wyobrazić sytuację, w której to zawodnik przy w miarę rozrzuconych czerwonych chce zagrać jedną z bil na "lakier" i popełnia faul, a jednocześnie biała bila ustawia się tak, iż zasłonięte są wszystkie czerwone bile. Dopiero wówczas drugi zawodnik otrzyma "free balla", czyli będzie mógł wbijać dowolną bilę kolorową (traktowaną jak czerwoną), ale potem będzie musiał jeszcze dojść do czarnej i wszystkie bile czerwone wbić razem z czarną, a na koniec wbić jeszcze wszystkie kolorowe bile (od żółtej do czarnej). +Do tej pory żadnemu graczowi nie udało się uzyskać 155-punktowego breaka w oficjalnym turnieju, odnotowano jednak taki wynik w meczu treningowym, a dokonał tego Jamie Cope latem 2005 roku. Najwyższym breakiem w turnieju rankingowym był break 148-punktowy Jamiego Burnetta, który padł w eliminacjach do UK Championship w 2004 roku. +Najszybciej wykonany break maksymalny należy do Ronniego O'Sullivana (5 minut 20 sekund), który ma najwięcej (11) breaków maksymalnych na koncie (ex aequo z Stephenem Hendrym). Jako jedyny wbił także 3 breaki maksymalne w trakcie jednego sezonu oraz jako jedyny dokonał trzykrotnie tej sztuki na mistrzostwach świata. +Podczas mistrzostw świata w 2008 po raz pierwszy w historii tego turnieju break maksymalny został wbity dwukrotnie. +Józef Czapski + +Józef Marian Franciszek Czapski herbu Leliwa (właśc. hrabia Hutten-Czapski, przydomka i tytułu nie używał, pseud. "Marek Sienny", "J. Cz.", "jcz", ur. 3 kwietnia 1896 r. w Pradze, zm. 12 stycznia 1993 r. w Maisons-Laffitte) – polski artysta malarz i pisarz. +Zarys biografii. + +Syn Jerzego hr. Hutten-Czapskiego (1861-1930) i Józefy Leopoldyny z hr. Thun-Hohenstein (1867-1903), wnuk hr. Emeryka Huttena-Czapskiego, brat Marii Czapskiej. +Rozpoczął studia prawnicze w Petersburgu. We wrześniu 1917 r. na krótko w 1 Pułku Ułanów Krechowieckich, formowanym w Mińsku. W październiku 1918 r. zapisał się do warszawskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, ale wkrótce potem wyjechał do Petersburga, z misją poszukiwania zaginionych ułanów 1 Pułku Ułanów Krechowieckich. Walczył w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej 1919-1921 i otrzymał Order Virtuti Militari. W latach 1921-1924 kontynuował naukę w krakowskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, m.in. u Józefa Pankiewicza. Od 1924 do 1931 r. przebywał z grupą kapistów (m.in. z Janem Cybisem i Zygmuntem Waliszewskim) w Paryżu. W latach 30. w Warszawie, współpracował m.in. z "Głosem Plastyków" i "Wiadomościami Literackimi". +We wrześniu 1939 r. zmobilizowany, 27 września wzięty do niewoli w miejscowości Chmielek. W czasie II wojny światowej więziony w obozach jenieckich ZSRR – internowany w Starobielsku, Pawliszczew Borze i Griazowcu pod Wołogdą. Zwolniony w 1941 r. na mocy układu Sikorski-Majski, wstąpił do tworzonych w Tockoje Polskich Sił Zbrojnych w ZSRR (Armia Andersa), gdzie zajmował się (do kwietnia 1942 r.) bezskutecznym poszukiwaniem "zaginionych" oficerów polskich w ZSRR, jak się okazało w kwietniu 1943 – ofiar zbrodni katyńskiej. Następnie szef przysztabowego Wydziału Propagandy i Informacji, odpowiedzialny za sprawy kulturalno-oświatowe w armii. Współredagował pierwsze numery "Orła Białego". Przewędrował szlakiem 2. Korpusu przez Bliski Wschód do Włoch, gdzie brał udział w kampanii włoskiej. Uczestniczył, jako delegat rządu RP na emigracji, w międzynarodowej komisji badającej zbrodnię katyńską. Przeżycia z pobytu w Sowietach opisał w książkach "Wspomnienia starobielskie" i "Na nieludzkiej ziemi". Od 1946 r. w Paryżu, współtworzył paryską "Kulturę" (od 1947 r. do śmierci mieszkał w domu – redakcji "Kultury" w Maisons-Laffitte przy Avenue de Poissy 91). Swoje artykuły i eseje umieszczał ponadto w pismach francuskich, m.in. "Le Figaro Littéraire", "Preuves", "Gavroche", "Nova et Vettera", "Carrefour". Współorganizował Kongres Wolności Kultury w Berlinie (1950). +Swoje obrazy pokazywał na wystawach we Francji, Szwajcarii, Wielkiej Brytanii, Brazylii, Belgii. W Polsce jego twórczość była praktycznie niedostępna – po przełomie października 1956, w 1957 r. odbyły się wystawy w Muzeum Narodowym w Poznaniu i TPSP w Krakowie, ale zorganizowanie kolejnej było możliwe dopiero w 1986 r. w Muzeum Archidiecezjalnym w Warszawie. Jego twórczość malarska i pisarska została upowszechniona w Polsce dopiero po 1989 r. +Malował portrety, wnętrza, pejzaże, widoki miejskie, kwiaty, martwe natury, sceny z przedstawień teatralnych, w których najważniejszą rolę odgrywał kolor i światło. Przywiązywał większą wagę do konstrukcji obrazu niż inni kapiści, dążył do syntetycznego ujęcia przedmiotu i wydobycia dramatycznego wyrazu. Po II wojnie światowej malował najprostsze motywy z życia codziennego, sceny miejskie, postać ludzką na tle pospolitego otoczenia, pogłębiając studia natury, jej form i barw. +Pochowany 15 stycznia 1993 r. na cmentarzu w sąsiadującej z Maisons-Laffitte miejscowości Le Mesnil-le-Roi, obok zmarłej w 1981 r. siostry Marii. +Przemyślibor + +Przemyślibor — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "Prze-" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń), "-myśli" ("myśleć") i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, kto nie wdaje się w walkę bez namysłu". +Przemyślibor imieniny obchodzi 9 marca. +Benzylopiperazyna + +Benzylopiperazyna (BZP) – substancja psychoaktywna o działaniu stymulującym, pochodna piperazyny. Mechanizm działania benzylopiperazyny jest zbliżony do MDMA, a efekty działania porównywalne do amfetaminy. +Efekty działania. +Efekty działania BZP są bardzo podobne do amfetaminy i obejmują pobudzenie, euforię, zwiększenie koncentracji oraz ogólne uczucie przyjemności. Odbiór bodźców zewnętrznych jak dotyk czy muzyka może być zintensyfikowany pod wpływem BZP. Czas działania waha się zależnie od przyjętej dawki ale zwykle mieści się w granicach 6-10 godzin. Działanie BZP w połączeniu z TFMPP może przypominać MDMA, istnieją jednak pewne wyraźne różnice. Piperazyny zwykle mają więcej efektów ubocznych niż pochodne fenyloetyloaminy, w przypadku BZP są to: drgawki, podniesienie temperatury ciała, uczucie zagubienia, psychozy, bezsenność (czasem mogąca trwać nawet 3 doby po przyjęciu dawki), tachykardia, mdłości, wymioty i bóle głowy. Opisano przypadek nefrotoksyczności po spożyciu 5 tabletek BZP, a także zgonów po spożyciu BZP w połączeniu z MDMA, MDA i alkoholem. Nie są opisywane przypadki uzależnienia od tej substancji. Z powodu tak dużej ilości efektów ubocznych piperazyny są dużo mniej popularne niż fenetylaminy, jak np. amfetamina czy metamfetamina. +Dostępność. +W niektórych krajach obrót BZP jest zabroniony (stan Oklahoma w USA, Belgia, Dania, Niemcy, Estonia, Grecja, Litwa, Finlandia, Szwecja, Chorwacja) lub kontrolowany. W Polsce BZP jest nielegalne od roku 2009. W większości jednak prawo nie reguluje obrotu tymi substancjami i dostępne są w internetowych "smartshopach", zwykle w połączeniu z TFMPP. +Przebąd + +Przebąd – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Prze-" (o różnych znaczeniach zależnych od drugiego członu) i "-bąd" ("być, istnieć, żyć"). Być może oznaczało "ten, kto żyje pełnią życia". +Home From Home + +Home from Home jest albumem szwedzkiej punk rockowej grupy Millencolin. Wydany został 12 marca 2002 roku (zob. 2002 w muzyce). +Radocha + +Radocha to centralna, nieduża dzielnica Sosnowca. Jako wieś, wespół z innymi: Ostrą Górką, Pogonią, Sielcem i Starym Sosnowcem, zapoczątkowała na mocy ukazu carskiego w 1902 miasto "Sosnowice", dzisiejszy Sosnowiec. +Graniczy od północy i zachodu ze Śródmieściem (od północy właściwie z historyczną Ostrą Górką), od wschodu z Dębową Górą, którą to granicę wyznacza przepływająca tutaj rzeka Czarna Przemsza a uchodząca do niej tutaj Brynica wyznacza granicę południową, z Mysłowicami. +Przecięta torowiskiem historycznej Kolei Iwangorodzko-Dąbrowskiej nie posiadającym tutaj stacji i rzadko już używanym na tym odcinku, jednak dzięki któremu ówcześnie nabrała istotnego znaczenia gospodarczego. +Torana + +W architekturze buddyzmu "torana" to brama o konstrukcji słupowo-belkowej, jedna z czterech prowadzących do stupy. +Stańczyk (obraz Jana Matejki) + +Stańczyk, właściwie Stańczyk w czasie balu na dworze królowej Bony wobec straconego Smoleńska ("Stańczyk w czasie balu na dworze królowej Bony, kiedy wieść przychodzi o utracie Smoleńska") – obraz Jana Matejki z 1862 roku. Dzięki niemu 24-letni Matejko zdobył rozgłos, sławę i uznanie. +Ciekawostki. +Na obrazie, na stole leży list z datą 1514 r. donoszący o utracie Smoleńska przez Rzeczpospolitą. Smoleńsk został odbity Polsce przez Rosję. Twarz błazna to autoportret samego Matejki. Stańczyka Matejko przedstawił jeszcze kilkakrotnie w swojej twórczości m.in. w obrazach "Hołd pruski" i "Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta" i na wszystkich tych obrazach, konsekwentnie twarz Stańczyka to autoportret artysty. Obraz "Stańczyk" został w 1944 r wywieziony do ZSRR i odzyskany przez Polskę dopiero w 1956 r. +Na pierwszym planie dzieła znajduje się Stańczyk. Widać, że nad czymś rozmyśla. Z dawnego tytułu brzmiącego „Stańczyk w czasie balu na dworze królowej Bony wobec straconego Smoleńska” możemy się domyślać, iż Stańczyk myśli o przyszłości Polski. +Opis obrazu. +Postać jest bardzo dobrze oświetlona. Znajduje się z dala od zgiełku zabawy toczącej się w królewskich komnatach. Twarz błazna to autoportret autora (Jana Matejki). Maluje się na niej niepokój, jakby Stańczyk przewidywał, co stanie się z jego Ojczyzną. Jego splecione ręce wyrażają dezaprobatę dla działalności władców. Za oknem widać wieżę oraz kometę, która symbolizuje zniszczenie Polski. +Kontrastem, a zarazem tłem ubrania, koloru gorącej czerwieni błazna są ściany pałacu zdobione tkaninami. W tym przypadku są to odcienie ciemnej zieleni. +Drugi plan to społeczność dworska zgromadzona na balu. Wnikliwy obserwator może dostrzec szczęśliwe miny gości. Obraz malowany w wąskiej, ściemnionej gamie barwnej z której odznacza się gorąca czerwień, ogólnie są to ugry, wszelkiego rodzaju brązy, ciemne zielenie oraz głównie czernie. Kompozycja na obrazie jest statyczna, postać błazna zdaje się nie poruszać, trwa w smutku i melancholii, permanentnym zamyśle. Efekt ciągłości czasowej autor uzyskał dzięki wprowadzeniu do obrazu cześć zabawy balowej. +Powszechne błędy – tło historyczne. +Przedstawione przez artystę wydarzenie dotyczy upadku Smoleńska z 30 lipca 1514, gdy z powodu braku odsieczy wojewoda smoleński Jurij Sołłohub skapitulował przed wojskami Wielkiego Księstwa Moskiewskiego dowodzonymi przez wielkiego księcia moskiewskiego Wasyla III podczas wojny litewsko-moskiewskiej 1512-1522. W tym czasie Królową Polski i Wielką Księżną Litewską była Barbara Zápolya – pierwsza żona króla Zygmunta Starego, zmarła 2 października 1515. Królowa Bona poślubiła króla Zygmunta i została koronowana na Królową Polski 18 kwietnia 1518. +Prawidłowy tytuł obrazu powinien brzmieć: "Stańczyk w czasie balu na dworze królowej Barbary Zápolyi wobec straconego Smoleńska". +Skat + +Skat – gra karciana, szczególnie rozpowszechniona w Niemczech oraz na Śląsku i Kaszubach. W Polsce często nazywany "śląskim brydżem". W grze biorą udział trzy osoby, przy czym w każdej rozgrywce 2 osoby grają przeciwko jednej, która wygrała licytację poprzedzającą daną rozgrywkę. W skacie sportowym partia, czyli pojedyncza sesja, na której zbierają się gracze w skata, składa się z 24 rozgrywek. W skacie otwartym nie ma tego typu limitu oraz istnieją odrębne zasady liczenia punktów oraz występują różne dodatkowe reguły mające urozmaicić grę, są one jednak potępiane przez PZSkat. +Talia do gry. +Talia ta rozpoczyna się od "siódemek" i kończy na asach. Szata graficzna jest w skacie specyficzna, inaczej prezentowane są kolory, charakterystyczne są także "koszulki", wizerunki figur (np. dama jest uzbrojonym mężczyzną) oraz blotek. W polskiej tradycji wydawniczej na kartach blotek prezentowane są ważniejsze polskie miasta. +Rozgrywka. +Każda rozgrywka w partii składa się z 5 faz: "Rozdanie kart", "Licytacja", "Gra", "Zliczanie punktów z kart", "zapisanie wyniku rozgrywki". Schemat rozdania kart, licytacji i wpisywanie wyniku rozgrywki wygląda zawsze tak samo, natomiast gra i zliczanie punktów z kart zależy od typu rozgrywki. +Rozdanie kart. +Każda rozgrywka rozpoczyna się od rozdania kart. W kolejnych rozgrywkach osoby grające rozdają karty kolejno zgodnie z ruchem wskazówek zegara. Każda z osób otrzymuje 10 kart, a 2 karty (nazywane "skatem" lub "tajlongiem") kładzione są na stół. W dalszej części gry osoba, która wygra licytację będzie mogła je wymienić z własnymi kartami. +Sposób rozdania kart wygląda następująco. Rozdający rozdaje po trzy karty każdemu z graczy zaczynając od tego po swojej lewej ręce zgodnie z ruchem wskazówek zegara. Następnie odkłada dwie karty do skata i dalej rozdaje po cztery karty każdemu z trzech grających i na koniec po trzy karty każdemu. +Licytacja. +Po rozdaniu kart osoba znajdująca się po prawej stronie od rozdającego rozpoczyna licytację. Jej przeciwnikiem w licytacji jest osoba po jej prawej stronie. Jeżeli wycofuje się z licytacji, następną osobą, która podejmuje licytację jest rozdający w tej rozgrywce. Licytacja polega na deklarowaniu wyniku gry jaki może dana osoba uzyskać w rozgrywce. Licytacja zawsze zaczyna się od liczby 18, która jest najniższym wynikiem punktowym jaki można uzyskać w skacie. Jeżeli pierwsza osoba rezygnuje z licytacji, mówi pas, ramsz lub "17". Jeżeli decyduje się na licytację, osoba przeciw której licytuje potwierdza (mówiąc "mam") dalszy swój udział w licytacji lub wycofuje się, ale nie może podwyższać liczby. Gracz, który wygrywa licytację, podnosi dwie karty ze stołu i wymienia z własnymi lub deklaruje rozgrywkę "z ręki". W danej rozgrywce osoba wygrywająca licytację jest nazywana "grającą", osobą, która w danej rozgrywce "gra". +Karty, które jako dodatkowe leżą na stole są kartami osoby "grającej" i wliczają się w wynik końcowy rozgrywki i punktację gry. +Gra. +Niezależnie od deklarowanego przez grającego zaraz po licytacji typu rozgrywki, osobą, która wychodzi, czyli rzuca na stół pierwszą kartę, jest gracz znajdujący się po lewej stronie od rozdającego (w języku śląskim, jest na tzw. przodku). W każdym typie rozgrywki gra polega na tym, że (poza pierwszą kolejką) osoba wygrywająca poprzednią kolejkę jest wychodzącą, czyli jako pierwsza rzuca kartę, następnie kartę rzuca osoba po jej lewej stronie i w końcu ostatni uczestnik. Z trzech kart rzuconych na stół określa się, która w danym typie rozgrywki jest "najsilniejsza" i cała lewa zabierana jest przez właściciela najsilniejszej karty. Zbierane w ten sposób karty układane są w stos koszulkami do góry przy graczach wygrywających kolejne lewy. Kolorem wiążącym jest kolor karty rzuconej na stół przez pierwszego gracza w danej turze rozgrywki, co oznacza że każdy następny gracz musi rzucić kartę z tego koloru, jeżeli taką posiada "na ręce". +W rozgrywce typu kolor "grający" deklaruje, że jeden z czterech kolorów talii będzie tromfem. W trakcie rozgrywki gracz nie posiadający koloru, który "leży" na stole może użyć tromfa w postaci kart z "granego" koloru lub waleta, przy czym w każdej rozgrywce najsilniejszy jest walet trefl, dalej walet pik, walet kier i walet karo, a następnie dopiero karty z koloru, który jest tromfem - w kolejności: as, dziesiątka, król, dama, dziewiątka, ósemka i siódemka. Lewę w tej rozgrywce zabiera osoba, która użyła najwyższej karty w danym kolorze lub najwyższego tromfa. Rzucanie tromfa nie jest obowiązkowe, jednakże nie można go rzucać, jeżeli ma się karty z koloru, który został rzucony przez pierwszego gracza w danej turze rozgrywki. Jeżeli natomiast przez pierwszego gracza zostanie rzucony walet, pozostali gracze także muszą rzucać walety, jeśli posiadają je na ręce. +Rozgrywka typu grand jest podobna do poprzedniej, jednakże jednymi tromfami są walety w kolejności od "najsilniejszego": trefl, pik, kier, karo. Zasady "tromfowania" są jednak takie same. Specyfika tej rozgrywki polega na tym, że w grze tylko cztery karty (walety) są tromfami, gdy w grze typu kolor jest ich 11 (4 walety oraz as, dziesiątka, król, dama, dziewiątka, ósemka i siódemka). Jednak dzięki temu gra tego typu jest o wiele lepiej punktowana. +W rozgrywce typu "null" osoba grająca nie może zdobyć żadnej lewy, przy rozgrywce typu "null over" po pierwszej turze dodatkowo osoba grająca musi pokazać swoje karty, a przy rozgrywce typu "rewolucja" (ten rodzaj gry nie występuje w oficjalnych rozgrywkach turniejowych) osoba grająca pokazuje karty przed rozpoczęciem pierwszej tury, a jej przeciwnicy mogą wymieniać się kartami. W rozgrywkach tego typu nie ma żadnych tromfów i zmienia się hierarchia siły kart, gdyż dziesiątka jest słabsza od waleta i mocniejsza od dziewiątki, natomiast walet znajduje się w tej hierarchii karcianej między słabszą dziesiątką i silniejszą damą. +Rozgrywki z ręki polegają na tym, że osoba grająca nie wymienia dwóch kart z tymi leżącymi na stole i nie ma w nie wglądu, podobnie jak pozostali gracze. Tego typu rozgrywki są wyżej punktowane. +Gracz w tej grze (gra musi być koniecznie grana z ręki tzn. bez podniesienia skata) może zapowiedzieć przeciwnikom, że nie będą mieli tzw. wyjścia czyli inaczej mówiąc zostaną Schneider (czyt. sznajder) tj. nie zbiorą więcej niż 30 punktów. Jeżeli gracz jest pewien, że przeciwnicy w rozgrywce nie wezmą ani jednej lewy (wziątki, sztychu) to może zapowiedzieć że, zostawi ich Schwarc (na czarno). +Jeżeli dodatkowo zawodnik grający jest pewny, że może zostawić przeciwników Schwarc (na czarno) grając z nimi w otwarte karty, tzn. wykładając swoje karty na stół przed pierwszym wybiciem, to zapowiada grę "over" kolorową lub grand. Gra ta jest liczona automatycznie jako zapowiedziany Schneider i zapowiedziany Schwarc. +Zliczanie punktów z kart. +W przypadku rozgrywek typu "kolor" czy "grand" osoba grająca musi uzbierać minimum 61 punktów. Zliczanie wygląda następująco: Każdy z graczy zlicza punkty z zebranych lew (w gwarze śląskiej "sztychów") – za każdego asa w lewie otrzymuje 11 pkt., za dziesiątkę 10, za króla 4, za damę 3, za waleta 2. Pozostałe karty nie są punktowane. Osoba grająca dodaje też liczbę oczek z kart, które wcześniej odłożyła na stół. Jeżeli któraś ze stron zdobyła mniej niż 30 oczek, wówczas ogłaszany jest sznajder, jeżeli jedna ze stron nie zdobyła żadnej lewy, wówczas ogłaszany jest sznajder szwarc. +Zapisywanie wyniku rozgrywki. +Wynik rozgrywki zapisywany jest zgodnie z tabelą wyników gry w skata, przy czym punkty otrzymuje jedynie osoba grająca. Jeżeli wygrała rozgrywkę, wówczas otrzymuje dodatnią liczbę punktów, jeżeli przegrała liczbę punktów mnoży się razy dwa i wpisuje ze znakiem ujemnym. W skacie sportowym dodatkowo za wygraną otrzymuje 50 pkt., a w sytuacji gdy przegra otrzymuje -50 pkt., a jej przeciwnicy po 40 (jeśli jest ich trzech) lub po 30 (jeśli w grze bierze udział 4 graczy). +Suchedniów + +Suchedniów – miasto w woj. świętokrzyskim, w powiecie skarżyskim. Jest siedzibą miejsko-wiejskiej gminy Suchedniów. W latach 1975–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. kieleckiego. +Położenie. +Suchedniów leży w północnej części województwa świętokrzyskiego, w powiecie skarżyskim. Przez miasto prowadzi droga krajowa nr 7 z Warszawy do Krakowa, oraz droga wojewódzka nr 751, poprzez Góry Świętokrzyskie do Ostrowca Świętokrzyskiego. Przez miasto przebiega także linia kolejowa z Krakowa do Warszawy. Na terenie miasta znajdują się 3 stacje PKP, w tym jedna główna, na której zatrzymują się także pociągi pośpieszne. Miasto położone jest pośród lasów Puszczy Świętokrzyskiej. +Turystyka i rekreacja. +Suchedniów jest punktem początkowym niebieskiego szlaku turystycznego prowadzącego do Berezowa oraz czarnego szlaku turystycznego prowadzącego do rezerwatu przyrody Dalejów. Przez miasto przechodzi zielony szlak turystyczny ze Skarżyska-Kamiennej na Wykus oraz czarny szlak rowerowy ze Skarżyska-Kamiennej do Mostek. Przez lasy suchedniowskie wiedzie zaś szlak konny „Burzący stok”. +Oprócz tego po mieście prowadzi ścieżka dydaktyczna, śladami Gustawa Herlinga-Grudzińskiego. +Na terenie gminy Suchedniów znajdują się 2 zbiorniki wodne oraz ośrodek rekreacji. Istnieje też kilka gospodarstw agroturystycznych. +Środowisko naturalne. +Suchedniów leży pośród lasów Puszczy Świętokrzyskiej. W obrębie tych lasów znajdują się 2 parki krajobrazowe: od zachodu Suchedniowsko-Oblęgorski, a od wschodu Sieradowicki. W lasach nadleśnictwa i w jego okolicach znajduje się wiele ciekawych miejsc: rezerwatów przyrody, użytków ekologicznych i źródeł. +W lasach dominuje sosna (60–70%). Rosną tu także: dąb, świerk, jawor i brzoza. Bogate jest tu runo leśne, występują jagody i jeżyny. +W pobliskim kamieniołomie "Kopulak" odkryto tropy płazów i gadów żyjących w okresie triasu, m.in. archozaurów, czyli pierwotnych gadów z których wyewoluowały dinozaury. Występują tu także skamieniałości śladowe bezkręgowców oraz szczątki roślinne. +Historia. +Starożytność. +Suchedniów leży na terenach dawnego Staropolskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego, którego początki sięgają II wieku p.n.e. O tym, że w starożytności wytapiano tu żelazo, w prymitywnych piecach – dymarkach, świadczą pozostałości żużlu posiadającego znaczny procent żelaza. +Początki osady. +Pierwsza pisemna wzmianka o Suchedniowie pochodzi z 1510. Mówi ona o trzech kuźnicach: Alberta Berezy (ulica Berezów, dawniej wieś), Andrissa (wieś Jędrów, obecnie ul. Koszykowa) oraz Stanisława Suchini (wieś Suchiniów, centrum dawnej osady). Nazwa "Suchiniów" przekształciła się w Suchedniów. +Osada była własnością biskupów krakowskich, którzy rozwijali tu przemysł. Do powstania Suchedniowa i pobliskich miejscowości przyczyniło się utworzenie traktu krakowskiego, który wiódł przez Miechów, Jędrzejów, Chęciny, Kielce, Łączną, Suchedniów, Skarżysko, Radom i Białobrzegi. Trakt ten powstał na skutek przeniesienia stolicy z Krakowa do Warszawy w 1596. Spowodował przy tym wycinkę lasów, zakładanie gospodarstw, spiętrzanie wody w rzekach, tworzenie osad i gmin. Utwardzono go w poł. XIX, pod zaborem rosyjskim, dla potrzeb wojska i pocztowych kurierek. +W XVII wieku na terenach Suchedniowa było już 7 kuźnic: Błoto, Berezów, Andryszów, Suchiniów, Baltazarek, Ogonów i Ostojów. +Czasy świetności. +W XVIII wieku przemysł w Suchedniowie dalej się rozwijał. Suchedniów stał się ośrodkiem przemysłu żelaznego. Do rozwoju osady przyczynił się w tym czasie biskup Andrzej Załuski, zakładając wielkie piece, fryszerki i blacharnie, a w 1758 wznosząc kaplicę murowaną, krytą gontem, z trzema złoconymi ołtarzami. +Działał tu także Stanisław Staszic, rozwijając górnictwo. Opracował on plan urbanistyczny "nowego Suchedniowa". Na początku XIX wieku władze carskie umieściły tu zarząd górnictwa całego okręgu przemysłowego. Rozdzielono go potem na dwa okręgi: Zachodni z siedzibą w Dąbrowej Górniczej i Wschodni z siedzibą w Suchedniowie. O tym jak ważna była to osada przemysłowa świadczy to, że np. działał tu jeden z trzech w kraju pieców do przetapiania i uszlachetniania żelaza, czy też jedyne w Polsce blachownie: w Parszowie i w Mostkach. +Od powstania styczniowego do 1918. +Mieszkańcy Suchedniowa brali czynny udział w powstaniu styczniowym. Utworzono tu oddział liczący ok. 400 ludzi, głównie robotników i urzędników. Dowodzili nim bracia Dawidowicze. Uderzyli oni z Suchedniowa na Bodzentyn, gdzie stacjonowała rota piechoty rosyjskiej. W okolicach Suchedniowa bitwy toczył Marian Langiewicz. Za pomoc powstańcom i udział w powstaniu Suchedniów został częściowo spalony 3 lutego 1863. +W 1906 r. bojówka PPS dokonała udanego ataku na kwatery rosyjskich żandarmów w Suchedniowie. Żandarmów rozbrojono. +Na początku XX wieku zarząd górnictwa został zlikwidowany i przeniesiony do Warszawy. W tym samym czasie do osady przybył Ludwik Sztarke, który na ruinach kuźnicy Baltazarek założył nowoczesną odlewnię żelaza. +Dwudziestolecie międzywojenne. +W 1918 Polska odzyskała niepodległość. Suchedniów nadal był niewielką osadą. Przez dwa lata od 1918 trwała tu epidemia tyfusu. Zmarłych chowano wtedy w łąkach, w lesie, lub w lasku Berezowskim. +Na terenie osady znajdowały się następujące ulice: Słowackiego, Mickiewicza, Polna, Spokojna, Bodzentyńska, Pasternik, Dolna, Jasna, Kościuszki, Kościelna, Kielecka, Ogrodowa, Handlowa i Nowa. Do gminy Suchedniów należały wsie: Błoto, Kruk, Wierzbka, Stokowiec, Jędrów, Kleszczyny, Baranów, Berezów, Bugaj. W centrum osady istniało wiele sklepików i warsztatów rzemieślniczych. Dawniej były najczęściej własnością Żydów, dość licznie tu zamieszkujących. Mieli tu swoją synagogę i cmentarz. Dom rabina mieścił się przy ulicy Mickiewicza. +W Suchedniowie kwitła kultura. W 1926 powstała pierwsza szkoła siedmioklasowa, następnie wybudowano szkołę na Ostojowie, w 1933, a na Pasterniku w 1937. Wcześniej istniały szkoły pięcioklasowe oraz dwuklasowe. Znajdowała się tu również szkoła zawodowa, jednakże większość młodzieży uczęszczało do szkół w Kielcach i w Skarżysku. W 1928 powstał teatr amatorski, a w 1926 biblioteka publiczna. W Suchedniowie działały stowarzyszenia zrzeszające tutejszą inteligencję. W 1937 powstało nowoczesne boisko sportowe, 400-metrowa bieżnia, boiska do siatkówki, skocznie i trybuny. Od 1931 działał klub sportowy „Strzelec”. +Zdrowiem opiekował się dr Witold Poziomski, który zorganizował w tym okresie niewielki szpital. W 1938 droga nr 7 dostała powierzchnię asfaltową. Suchedniów rozwijał się również jako miejscowość turystyczna. Planowano tu założyć uzdrowisko. Powstały liczne pensjonaty. Suchedniów był szeroko znany w całej Polsce jako miejscowość letniskowa. +II wojna światowa. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej już w 1939 organizowano tu konspirację. Przez osadę przechodził oddział mjr. Henryka Dobrzańskiego „Hubala”, który zatrzymał się na pewien czas w gajówce Kruk. W lasach działały oddziały partyzanckie AK "„Ponurego”", „Nurta” i „Szarego”. Dokonywały one licznych akcji. W fabryce Tańskich zorganizowano potajemną produkcję pistoletów maszynowych „Sten” dla tych oddziałów. Prace nad nimi prowadził inż. Piotr Wilniewczyc. W odwecie za pomoc partyzantom Niemcy dokonywali licznych zbrodni. Miały tu miejsce masowe egzekucje (16 ludzi w Klonowie, egzekucja nad Zalewem Suchedniowskim). Największą zbrodnią była pacyfikacja i spalenie Michniowa oraz zamordowanie 203 jego mieszkańców. W centrum gminy Niemcy założyli getto. +Po wojnie. +Po II wojnie światowej, w czasach PRL Suchedniów zaczął prężnie się rozwijać. W 1962 Suchedniów uzyskał prawa miejskie. Powstał ośrodek kultury. Rozwijała się infrastruktura, powstały nowe nawierzchnie asfaltowe, oczyszczalnie ścieków i wodociągi. +Na początku XXI wieku upadł największy w mieście zakład przemysłowy, "Fabryka Urządzeń Transportowych (FUT)" Suchedniów, który produkował wózki widłowe marki RAK. Zwolnienie ponad 600 pracowników spowodowało gwałtowny wzrost stopy bezrobocia i zahamowało rozwój miasta. +Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Elblągu + +O uczelni. +Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa, pierwsza samodzielna uczelnia w Elblągu utworzona 1 lipca 1998 roku jako jedna z pierwszych szkół zawodowych. Kształcenie przebiega tutaj na poziomie studiów zawodowych (licencjackich, inżynierskich) oraz w ramach studiów podyplomowych. +Elbląska Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa jest podmiotem znaczącym dla elbląskiego środowiska akademickiego. Organizowane są tutaj bowiem konferencje, warsztaty, sympozja, sesje. Studenci uczelni stanowią prawie 50% z ponad 10 000 elbląskich żaków. +PWSZ w Elblągu w roku 2005 została uznana za najlepszą szkołę wyższą tego typu (według Rankingu "Perspektyw" oraz "Rzeczpospolitej"). W roku 2006, w tym samym rankingu elbląska PWSZ uzyskała 3 lokatę. Sukces uczelni z roku 2006 został powtórzony także w roku 2009, kiedy to PWSZ w Elblągu została zakwalifikowana na 3 pozycji w Rankingu "Perspektyw" oraz "Rzeczpospolitej"). +Współpraca. +Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa w Elblągu współpracuje z uczelniami oraz innymi instytucjami w zakresie wymiany studentów i pracowników naukowo-dydaktycznych, realizacji wspólnych projektów badawczych, korzystania ze specjalistycznej bazy laboratoryjnej czy stwarzania możliwości doktoryzowania i habilitacji pracowników PWSZ w Elblągu na wydziałach uczelni partnerskich. Ponadto uczelnia współpracuje ze szkołami średnimi oraz innymi instytucjami w Elblągu i regionie, co stwarza dodatkowe możliwości uatrakcyjniania i wzbogacania oferty dydaktycznej uczelni w zakresie prowadzonych kierunków studiów (praktyki w instytucjach samorządowych oraz przedsiębiorstwach dla studentów; zajęcia sportowe w Jachtklubie Elbląg czy w Aeroklubie w Elblągu). +Państwo przylądkowe + +Państwo Przylądkowe (Capensis) - najmniejsze państwo florystyczne na świecie. Obejmuje terytorium o powierzchni ok. 85000 km2 na południowym krańcu Afryki (RPA). Mimo małego terytorium, to miejsce charakteryzuje się nadzwyczaj bogatą florą, liczącą ponad 8500 gatunków. 6 rodzin endemicznych. Bardzo licznie reprezentowane są m.in. rodzaje: pelargonia (2300 gatunków) i przypołudnik (2500 gatunków). Te ostatnie zwane są "żywymi kamieniami". Owocem tych roślin jest torebka, która otwiera się podczas deszczu. +Dzięki izolacji przez łańcuchy górskie i obszary pustynne roślinność posiada wybitnie odrębny charakter - wśród występujących tu gatunków aż 73% stanowią endemity. +We florze przylądkowej człowiek nie znalazł ważnych gospodarczo roślin, dała ona jednak ponad +1000 gatunków roślin ozdobnych z rodzajów takich jak: kliwia, pelargonia ("Pelargonium"), gerbera ("Gerbera"), mieczyk ("Gladiolus"), amarylis ("Amaryllis"), frezja ("Freesia") i liczne rośliny gruboszowate. +Dominującą formacją roślinną są zarośla twardolistne (fynbos). Mniejsze powierzchnie zajmują mezofilne zbiorowiska leśne i formacje kserofitów. +Embraer 170 + +Embraer 170 – samolot pasażerski brazylijskiej firmy Embraer. Jest to średniego zasięgu odrzutowiec, zabierający na pokład maksymalnie 70 pasażerów. Pierwszy lot Embraer 170 odbył 19 lutego 2002 roku. +Pierwszym przewoźnikiem używającym Embraera 170 były Polskie Linie Lotnicze LOT. Samolotem tym LOT odbył pierwszy rejs komercyjny – na trasie Warszawa (WAW) – Wiedeń (VIE) – rejs LO 225 w marcu 2004. +Obecnie LOT użytkuje 10 egzemplarzy E170 (4 w wersji 170ST i 6 w wersji 170LR) i 13 egzemplarzy E175 (w wersji 175LR). +Leopold Vietoris + +Leopold Vietoris (ur. 4 czerwca 1891 w Radkersburgu, zm. 9 kwietnia 2002 w Innsbrucku) - austriacki matematyk, znany również z długowieczności. +Biografia. +Studiował na Uniwersytecie i Politechnice w Wiedniu. Służył w wojsku podczas I wojny światowej (m.in. jako przewodnik górski), był ranny, a krótko przed końcem wojny trafił do niewoli włoskiej. Po wojnie dokończył studia i pracował jako wykładowca na politechnice w Grazu; w Wiedniu obronił doktorat. Od 1927 był zastępcą profesora na politechnice w Innsbrucku, w latach 1928-1930 profesorem politechniki wiedeńskiej. Od 1930 pracował jako profesor w Innsbrucku. +W pracy naukowej zajmował się głównie topologią, jego nazwiskiem określany jest m.in. ciąg Mayera-Vietorisa czy topologia Vietorisa. Interesował się także historią matematyki. +Dodatkową sławę przyniosła mu długowieczność. Zmarł w wieku 110 lat i 309 dni, co stanowi rekord długości życia mężczyzn w Austrii. Był jedną z nielicznych osób w wieku ponad 110 lat, których sława wynikała nie tylko z sędziwego wieku. 100 lat dożyła również jego żona, Maria Josefa Vincentia Vietoris, z domu Riccabona von Reichenfels (ur. 18 lipca 1901, zm. 24 marca 2002); stanowili tym samym jedną z najstarszych par małżeńskich na świecie. Owdowiały Vietoris przeżył żonę o nieco ponad dwa tygodnie. +Krążek przesuwny + +Krążek przesuwny - krążek podparty swobodnie, przez który przeplata się cięgno. Krążek w trakcie przesuwania się cięgna obtacza się po nim z założenia bez poślizgu. Krążek przesuwny umożliwia zmianę wartości siły. +----Krążek przesuwny jako maszyna prosta +W układach idealizowanych przyjmuje się, że krążek jest nieważki, cięgno nieważkie i doskonale elastyczne i nierozciągliwe i nie występują opory ruchu krążka a cały układ jest płaskim układem sił. +formula_1 +gdzie P - siła poruszająca, Q - siła użyteczna +----Krążek przesuwny w układach rzeczywistych +W układach rzeczywistych dochodzą zjawiska dynamiczne, związane z inercją układu oraz straty mechaniczne związane z oporami ruchu. W naszym przypadku przyjmujemy, że ruch w układzie jest ruchem ustalonym. +Wtedy spełnione jest równanie: formula_2 +gdzie formula_3 - sprawność krążka przesuwnego przy określonej sprawności krążka stałego formula_4 +Kaloger + +Kaloger z Sycylii (ur. w Chalkedoni, zm. ok. 485 na Sycylii) – eremita, święty Kościoła katolickiego. +Pochodzący z Konstantynopola Kaloger pielgrzymował do Rzymu, a po odwiedzeniu grobu św. Piotra zamieszkał w pobliżu Sciacca na Sycylii. Tam na "Monte Gemmariaro" (obecnie "Monte Kronio") wiódł pustelnicze życie do śmierci. Brak pism zawierających szczegóły jego życia, jednak kult świętego jest bardzo popularny na Sycylii i stał się elementem miejscowego folkloru. +Jego wspomnienie liturgiczne obchodzone jest 18 czerwca. +Państwo paleotropikalne + +Państwo paleotropikalne – drugie co do wielkości państwo roślinne. Flora jest bardzo bogata i silnie zróżnicowana – pod tym względem jest to najbogatsze państwo roślinne świata. Ponad 65 tys. gatunków okrytonasiennych. 50 rodzin endemicznych. Palaeotropis jest ojczyzną licznych roślin użytkowych. Z Afryki pochodzi kawa, sorgo, arbuz, z Azji – ryż, bawełna, ogórek, banan, trzcina cukrowa, palma kokosowa, herbata, cynamonowiec, pieprz, goździkowiec korzenny, muszkatołowiec, bakłażan, +rącznik, mandarynka. +W państwie paleotropikalnym występują następujące formacje roślinne: +Palconogie + +Nadrodzina: kotokształtne (Feloidea) (obecnie podrząd: Feliformia – kotokształtne) +Nadrodzina: Canoidea (obecnie podrząd: Caniformia – psokształtne) +Zobacz też: płetwonogie +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 1996 + +XXVI Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie odbyły się w Atlancie w Stanach Zjednoczonych w dniach 19 lipca - 4 sierpnia 1996 roku. +Cieniem na przebiegu zmagań sportowych położyły się wydarzenia w Parku Olimpijskim, gdzie Eric Robert Rudolph dokonał zamachu bombowego, w wyniku którego śmierć poniosły 2 osoby i 111 zostało rannych. +W Atlancie sportowcy zmagali się w 3 nowych konkurencjach siatkówce plażowej, kolarstwie górskim i piłce nożnej kobiet oraz w jednej dyscyplinie softballu. +Wybór gospodarza. +18 września 1990 roku podczas 96. sesji Międzynarodowego Komitetu Olimpijskiego w Tokio, jako gospodarza igrzysk w 1996 wybrano Atlantę. Innymi kandydatami do goszczenia igrzysk były: Ateny (Grecja), Toronto (Kanada), Melbourne (Australia), Manchester (Wielka Brytania) i Belgrad (Jugosławia).Wygrana Atlanty w finałowym starci z Atenami wywołała sporo kontrowersji.Słynne było wówczas powiedzenie przeciwników tego wyboru którzy twierdzili że "Olimpijska tradycja przegrała z coca-colą". +Państwa biorące udział w XXVI Letnich Igrzyskach Olimpijskich. +[[Plik:1996 Summer Olympic games countries.png|thumb|240px|Państwa uczestniczące. Niebieski - Po raz pierwszy. +Zielony - Po raz kolejny. Fioletowy - nie uczestniczące. +Kwadratem zaznaczono Atlantę]] +Na Igrzyskach w Atlancie wzięło udział 197 krajów, wystąpiło 10 318 zawodników. Dwadzieścia cztery kraje, w tym jedenaście reprezentujących w 1992 Wspólnotę Niepodległych Państw, debiutowały na Igrzyskach. Federalna Republika Jugosławii brała udział jako Jugosławia. +Czternaście krajów debiutowało na Igrzyskach Olimpijskich: Azerbejdżan, Burundi, Dominikana, Gwinea-Bissau, Komory, Macedonia, Nauru, Palestyna, Republika Zielonego Przylądka, Saint Kitts i Nevis, Saint Lucia, Wyspy Świętego Tomasza i Książęca, Tadżykistan i Turkmenistan. +Dziesięć debiutowało na Letnich Igrzyskach (wcześniej brali udział w ZIO 1994 w Lillehammer): Armenia, Białoruś, Czechy, Gruzja, Kazachstan, Kirgistan, Mołdawia, Słowacja, Ukraina i Uzbekistan. +Maskotka. +Maskotką igrzysk olimpijskich w 1996 roku był Izzy. Jego nazwa pochodzi od ang. słowa "What is it?" (pol.) – "Co to jest?" +Oficjalny utwór polskiej reprezentacji. +Oficjalną piosenką polskiej reprezentacji na XXVI Letnich Igrzyskach Olimpijskich był utwór skomponowany przez Rafała Paczkowskiego do słów Jacka Cygana "To Atlanta". Piosenkę, która ukazała się na singlu komercyjnym w trzech wersjach i do której został nagrany teledysk, wykonywała Edyta Górniak. W przedsięwzięciu wzięli udział tacy muzycy jak: Bogdan Wawrzynowicz (gitary), Jacek Królik (gitara 12-strunowa), Rafał Paczkowski (instrumenty klawiszowe), Wojciech Kowalewski (perkusja, inst. perkusyjne) oraz orkiestra smyczkowa pd. Krzesimira Dębskiego, Marek Wroński (koncertmistrz) i zespół wokalny Magdy Steczkowskiej. Produkcją nagrań i aranżacją zajął się Rafał Paczkowski, mastering Grzegorz Piwkowski i Jarek Regulski. +Przemir + +Przemir — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Prze-" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń) i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Imię to jest notowane w Polsce od 1427 roku. +Niektóre możliwe staropolskie zdrobnienia: Przemek, Przemko, Przesz, Przeszek. +Przemir imieniny obchodzi 9 stycznia. +Galdhøpiggen + +Galdhøpiggen (2469 m n.p.m.) – najwyższy szczyt Norwegii, Gór Skandynawskich i Półwyspu Skandynawskiego. Góra położona jest w pobliżu miejscowości Lom w Parku Narodowym Jotunheimen w łańcuchu górskim Jotunheimen. +Droga na szczyt, łatwa technicznie, rozpoczyna się nieopodal schroniska Spiterstulen i biegnie m.in. przez Keilhaus topp. Czas potrzebny na dotarcie na szczyt to około 4,5 godziny, na zejście około 2,5 godziny. Ze szczytu, przy dobrej widoczności, roztacza się widok na obszar ponad 35 tysięcy km². Według niektórych źródeł i map Galdhøpiggen nie jest najwyższym szczytem Norwegii, ustępując wysokością wierzchołkowi Glittertind. Dane te nie są jednak prawdziwe, gdyż opierają się na pomiarach dokonanych przed roztopami lodowca znajdującego się na szczycie Glittertind, którego obecna wysokość wynosi 2464 m n.p.m. (skała sięga do 2452 m n.p.m.). +Schron na szczycie. +W 1888 Knut O. Vole wybudował na Galdhøpiggen niewielki, drewniany schron w kształcie prostej budki. Służył on za schronienie turystom, których zastało w górach załamanie pogody. W 1925 obok stanął drugi obiekt, który wybudował Lars Sulheim, właściciel Spiterstulen – drewniany domek nazwano "Steinarstugu", od Steinera Sulheima, jednego z pierwszych zdobywców Galdhøpiggen. Knut Vole, który był właścicielem schroniska Juvasshytta, w następnym roku postawił nowe "Vole-hytta". W latach 50. XX wieku "Steinarstugu" doczekało się własnego stempla pocztowego, z kolei w 1960 "Vole-hytta" zaczęło serwować posiłki. +Ciężkie warunki atmosferyczne położyły kres istnieniu obu obiektów – w Niedzielę Palmową 1961 silny wiatr zniszczył "Steinarstugu", której kawałki znaleziono nawet w dolinie Visdalen, 6 mil od wierzchołka. "Vole-hytta" została pokonana przez wichurę w 1970. +Obecnie na szczycie znajduje się nowa konstrukcja z 1975, którą tym razem wybudowano z kamienia. Działa pod nazwą "Knut Voles hytte" – nie udziela noclegów, ale funkcjonuje w niej bufet. +Leśna (park w Sosnowcu) + +Leśna to ośrodek rekreacji i wypoczynku w Sosnowcu Kazimierzu Górniczym, w skład którego wchodzi park z dwoma jeziorami :Leśny i Smug. Główną atrakcją bogato urządzonego parku jest niewielki ogród zoologiczny. W parku Leśna można spotkać dużo roślin wszelkiego gatunku, oraz zwierzęta swobodnie przemieszczające się (wiewiórki i różne gatunki ptaków). Park w centralnym swym punkcie posiada restauracje bankietową, w której organizowane są wesela, studniówki i inne imprezy okolicznościowe. Na terenie kompleksu parkowego znajdują się dwa bary (z posiłkami na gorąco i lodziarnia) oraz muszla koncertowa. Od 2007 roku w Parku odbywają się również koncerty organizowane przez MDK Sosnowiec m.in. Młodzieżowe Dni Miasta (w czerwcu). Wokół zbiorników wodnych rozmieszczone są place zabaw dla dzieci i różnorakie figury zwierząt urozmaicające krajobraz. Przez Park przebiegają dwa szlaki spacerowe. We wrześniu 2011 parkowi uroczyście nadano imię Jacka Kuronia. +Pistolet maszynowy PPD + +Pistolet maszynowy PPD (ros. "Пистолет Пулемет Дегтярева ППД") – radziecki pistolet maszynowy z okresu II wojny światowej. +Historia konstrukcji. +Prace nad pistoletami maszynowymi prowadzono w ZSRR od połowy lat 20. XX w. Przez pierwszych kilka lat nie powstała żadna udana konstrukcja, ponieważ próbowano je zasilać nabojami 7,62 × 38 mm R (amunicja przepisowej broni bocznej Armii Czerwonej rewolweru Nagant wz. 1895. Była to amunicja teleskopowa z kryzą wystającą, zupełnie nie nadająca się do zasilania broni automatycznej). +Po przyjęciu do uzbrojenia w 1930 roku pistoletu TT i amunicji 7,62 x 25 mm prace wznowiono. Początkowo rezultaty nie były zbyt zachęcające. Nowe konstrukcje były skomplikowane i zawodne, w konsekwencji kolejno odrzucane w trakcie prób. Konstrukcją przełomową okazał się pistolet maszynowy Diegtariewa PPD-34, przyjęty do uzbrojenia w styczniu 1935 roku. Produkcja początkowo niewielka (do 1936 roku wyprodukowano tylko 67 sztuk), na większą skalę rozpoczęła się w 1937 roku. Zaczęto wtedy produkować ulepszoną wersję PPD-34/38 wyposażona między innymi w bagnet. +Produkcję PPD-34/38 zakończono w 1939 po wyprodukowaniu ok. 4100 egzemplarzy, ponieważ uznano pistolety maszynowe za broń nieperspektywiczną. Miały je zastąpić karabiny samoczynne na nabój pośredni. Decyzja okazałą się przedwczesna. Nowy nabój, ani broń nim strzelająca, nie powstały i Armia Czerwona przystąpiła do wojny z Finlandią bez indywidualnej broni maszynowej. Efekty były opłakane. O ile na dużych dystansach piechota obu stron miała porównywalną siłę ognia, to przy dystansach poniżej 200 metrów przewaga Finów, uzbrojonych w pistolety maszynowe Suomi, była olbrzymia. Z tego powodu Armia Czerwona musiała sięgnąć po wycofany z uzbrojenia w 1925 roku i zalegający w magazynach karabin Fiodorowa. +Doświadczenia wojny radziecko-fińskiej otrzeźwiły radzieckich decydentów i w styczniu 1940 roku wznowiono produkcję zmodernizowanego PPD zasilanego z magazynków identycznych z magazynkami Suomi. Pistolety PPD miały dwupozycyjne wyprowadzenie nabojów z magazynka, natomiast Suomi jednopozycyjne. Aby magazynek bębnowy mógł być zastosowany w PPD należało przekonstruować zamek lub obciąć jedną szczękę magazynka (inaczej zamek nie domykał się). Pod presją czasu Diegtariew wybrał drugie rozwiązanie, co skutkowało częstszymi zacięciami. Pomimo tej wady do końca roku wyprodukowano około 80 tysięcy pistoletów maszynowych PPD-40. Jednocześnie ogłoszono konkurs na nowy pistolet maszynowy. Nowa konstrukcja miała być łatwiejsza i tańsza w produkcji niż PPD-40. Diegtariew kolejny raz zmodernizował swój pistolet maszynowy jednak, jego broń okazała się pod każdym względem słabsza od pistoletu maszynowego skonstruowanego przez G. S. Szpagina, który został przyjęty do uzbrojenia jako PPSz. Mimo to wyprodukowane już pistolety pozostały w uzbrojeniu wojska. Niewielkie ilości PPD znalazły się nawet w uzbrojeniu polskiej 1 Dywizji Piechoty im. T. Kościuszki. Pistolet maszynowy PPD nie był eksportowany, ale zdobyczne egzemplarze tej broni znalazły się na uzbrojeniu armii fińskiej i Wehrmachtu (niemieckie oznaczenia MP 716(r) (PPD-34/38) i MP 715(r) (PPD-40)). +Opis konstrukcji. +Pistolet maszynowy PPD wz. 1940 jest indywidualną bronią samoczynno-samopowtarzalną. Zasada działania oparta o odrzut swobodny zamka. Strzelanie z zamka otwartego, ogniem pojedynczym lub seriami. Zasilanie magazynkowe (magazynki 71-nabojowe bębnowe lub 34-nabojowe łukowe). Przyrządy celownicze składają się z muszki i nastawnego celownika krzywiznowego. +Państwo australijskie + +Państwo australijskie – państwo roślinne obejmujące obszar Australii oraz Tasmanii. Jego długotrwała izolacja geograficzna wywarła ogromne piętno na florze, która przeszła swoistą ewolucję. Dlatego zachowało się tu wiele reliktów, a całe państwo jest zdominowane przez wiele gatunków, a nawet rodzajów roślin +endemicznych. We florze australijskiej jest 13 endemicznych rodzin, około 570 endemicznych rodzajów. Endemity stanowią 90% flory, której szczególną cechą jest obecność rodzaju eukaliptusa i akacji, która ma tu swe centrum występowania. +Flora państwa nie jest zbyt bogata, liczy około 13 tys. okrytonasiennych, 1686 rodzajów. +Wielkich zmian we florze tego państwa dokonał człowiek. Wyrąb i wypalanie lasów, wypas i wprowadzanie kultur rolnych spowodowały wyginięcie niektórych gatunków roślin. Człowiek wprowadził na te tereny ponad 200 nowych gatunków roślin, w tym amerykańskie opuncje. +Państwo holarktyczne + +Państwo holoarktyczne, holoarktyka, wokółbiegunowe państwo północne ("Holarctis") – państwo roślinne zajmujące największy obszar kuli ziemskiej, całą północną strefę umiarkowaną i zimną. W jego granicach znajduje się Europa, północna część Afryki, Azja z wyjątkiem jej części południowej oraz prawie cała Ameryka Północna. Sięga ono od bieguna północnego poza zwrotnik Raka. +Wielki obszar zajmowany przez państwo wykazuje dużą jednolitość flory. Jest to spowodowane czynnikami historycznymi. Bogata flora obejmuje 50 tys. gatunków roślin okrytonasiennych. Około 45 rodzin endemicznych lub subendemicznych. Ze względu na znaczne zróżnicowanie termiczne i wilgotnościowe występuje różnorodność formacji roślinnych. Na południu są to lasy wilgotne na pól zimozielone oraz lasy twardolistne, bardziej na północ lasy zrzucające liście na zimę oraz lasy borealne. Na terenach suchych występują stepu, pustynie i półpustynie. +Reprezentantami państwa są rodziny: wierzbowate, brzozowate, klonowate, różowate, krzyżowe, skalnicowate, jaskrowate, selerowate. Licznie są tu reprezentowane trawy oraz gatunki z rodziny astrowatych i motylkowatych. Z nagonasiennych obficie występują: sosna, jodła, świerk, modrzew i jałowiec. +Intuicjonizm (matematyka) + +Intuicjonizm w matematyce to pogląd filozoficzny w zakresie istnienia obiektów matematycznych. Intuicjonizm jest prądem blisko związanym z finityzmem i innymi nurtami konstruktywizmu. Powstał głównie w związku z pojawieniem się teorii mnogości i paradoksów ujawnionych w jej ramach, jednak jego kontekst jest szerszy i ogólnie obejmuje odpowiedź na problemy wynikające z koncepcji nieskończoności i granicy w matematyce. Intuicjoniści uważają, że pewne atrybuty niektórych prostych obiektów matematycznych, jak np. liczb naturalnych czy obiektów geometrycznych lub własności przestrzeni, są nam dane i są dostępne poznaniu dzięki intuicjom jakie posiadamy na ich temat. Uważają oni, że treść twierdzeń matematycznych, a zwłaszcza mechanizmy prowadzące do rozwoju wiedzy matematycznej w znacznej mierze dostępne są dzięki intuicji, możliwości wglądu i zrozumienia ich znaczenia dzięki pewnym często pierwotnym intuicjom umysłu matematyków. Głównym twórcą intuicjonizmu był Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer, który proponował budowę spójnej bazy zasad matematycznych w celu budowy systemu podstaw matematyki z pominięciem koncepcji, które intuicjonizm krytykuje, a więc niekonstruktywne dowody, żonglowanie nieskończonością aktualną itp. +Intuicjonizm neguje prawdziwość niektórych z aksjomatów logiki formalnej, a zwłaszcza aksjomat wyłączonego środka (formula_1), twierdząc, że w niektórych przypadkach +fakt udowodnienia fałszywości negacji zdania formula_2 nie implikuje prawdziwości zdania formula_2 +(zobacz: dowód nie wprost), zwłaszcza gdy sensem udowodnionego zdania p jest teza o istnieniu pewnych obiektów (p. dowód niekonstruktywny). +Tym samym prawo wyłączonego środka stosuje się zdaniem intuicjonistów tylko do określonych zdań i nie obejmuje zdań stwierdzających o istnieniu obiektów. Intuicjoniści twierdzą, że z faktu, iż - z założenia, że pewne obiekty nie istnieją, wynika sprzeczność - nie wynika jeszcze ich istnienie; jeśli nie podano sposobu konstrukcji takich obiektów, to w istocie nie wykazano ich istnienia (pomimo że założenie o ich nieistnieniu prowadzi do sprzeczności). Tym samym stawiają oni znak zapytania w zagadnieniu istnienia tak podstawowych obiektów jak liczby rzeczywiste niewymierne, czy pojęcie "dowolna liczba", które jest dla ortodoksyjnego intuicjonisty pozbawione sensu (można za to wypowiadać sądy o dowolnych konkretnych liczbach). +Intuicjonizm stoi w niejakiej opozycji w stosunku do poglądów upatrujących sensu twierdzeń matematycznych wyłącznie w ich wyprowadzalności z aksjomatów, jak logicyzm, a zwłaszcza formalizm. Szczególnie mocno podkreśla on, że matematyka zawiera pewną treść, zaś udowadnianie i tworzenie nowych twierdzeń jest aktem twórczym nie polegającym wyłącznie na żonglowaniu symbolami matematycznymi. +Program intuicjonizmu realizowany przez Brouwera i jego uczniów nie doczekał się wielu kontynuatorów, pomimo pewnych sukcesów i udanej przebudowy niektórych działów matematyki, by pozostawały w zgodzie z zasadniczymi tezami budowniczych szkoły intuicjonistycznej. Współcześnie intuicjonizm nie ma znaczenia dla rozwoju matematyki, zwłaszcza jako program budowy jej fundamentów i pozostaje raczej prywatnym poglądem intuicjonistów na znaczenie tez matematycznych. +Dziwnów + +Dziwnów (hist. "Dyuennow", "Diuenow", "Dievenau", niem. "Dievenow") – miasto w północno-zachodniej Polsce, nad Morzem Bałtyckim, w woj. zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie kamieńskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Dziwnów przy drodze nr 102. Miejscowość wypoczynkowa, kąpielisko morskie, port morski. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. miasto miało 2867 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Dziwnów leży w środkowej części wybrzeża woj. zachodniopomorskiego, w północnej części powiatu kamieńskiego. Miasto położone jest nad Morzem Bałtyckiem, przy ujściu cieśniny Dziwny do morza. Od południa miasto leży nad Zalewem Kamieńskim i Zatoką Wrzosowską, które są częścią Dziwny. +Miejscowość znajduje się na Pobrzeżu Szczecińskim. Południowo-zachodnia cześć miasta leży na wyspie Wolin, natomiast północno-wschodnia na części Mierzei Dziwny, należącej do mezoregionu Wybrzeże Trzebiatowskie. Według danych z 1 stycznia 2010 powierzchnia miasta wynosi 4,97 km². +Dziwnów znajduje się w północnej części Pomorza Zachodniego. +W latach 1946–1998 Dziwnów administracyjnie należał do woj. szczecińskiego. +Historia. +Dziwnów po raz pierwszy został wymieniony w dokumencie z 1243 roku. We wczesnym średniowieczu wiódł tędy ważny szlak handlowy łączący Zalew Szczeciński z Bałtykiem. W XIII w. Dziwna uległa zapiaszczeniu i straciła swoje znaczenie handlowe. W latach 1820-30 zaczęli napływać do Dziwnowa pierwsi kuracjusze rozpoczynając w ten sposób rozwój miejscowości jako kąpieliska morskiego. Już w 1823 znany jest jako uzdrowisko. Odkrycie w 1896 roku źródeł solankowych przyczyniło się do budowy łazienek solankowych i borowinowych. Uzdrowisko funkcjonowało w Dziwnowie jeszcze przez krótki czas po wojnie. Obecnie solanki nie są eksploatowane. +Dziwnów powstał w XIX wieku, dzięki wzrastającej popularności wyjazdów nad morze. W dodatku założono tam uzdrowisko (solanka i borowina). +W latach 1958–1972 miejscowość miała status osiedla typu miejskiego. +. Dziwnów Dolny, Dziwnów Górny i Dziwna połączyły się w jedną miejscowość, której 1 stycznia 2004 roku nadano prawa miejskie. +Atrakcje turystyczne. +W Dziwnowie nad morzem wyznaczono letnie kąpielisko obejmujące 800 m linii brzegowej (od ul. Parkowej do ul. Żeromskiego). +Most zwodzony nad Dziwną, łączący z wyspą Wolin, na zachodnim skraju miasta, u wjazdu drogą od strony Międzyzdrojów. +U wejścia do portu dwa falochrony, jednakowej długości 350 m. Widokowa promenada nadmorska wzdłuż Parku Zdrojowego z okazałym starodrzewem. +Port rybacki przy nabrzeżu Dziwny wraz z zabudowaniami byłej spółdzielni rybackiej Belona. Obok marina na około 20 jachtów. +Latem z przystani pasażerskiej trzy "pirackie" statki: Roza Weneda i Korsarz, które zabierają turystów w 2,5-godzinne rejsy po Bałtyku. Natomiast kolejny statek- Victoria I kursuje do Kamienia Pomorskiego i z powrotem. +Aleja Gwiazd Sportu, na której znajdują się repliki medali słynnych sportowców i hala sportowa. Festiwal od 2001 odbywa się w każde wakacje. +Finałem sportowego festiwalu, tradycyjnie odbywającego się w okolicach 17 sierpnia, jest bieg memoriałowy Cztery mile Jarka – pamięci lekkoatlety Jarosława Marca, byłego reprezentanta Polski w biegu na 400 m. Jarosław Marzec pochodził z Dziwnowa, zginął w tragicznym wypadku samochodowym, 17 sierpnia 1998, na drodze pod Ostromicami. +W 2010 roku w mieście wdrożony został System Informacji Mobilnej, oparty o kody 2d, który swoim zasięgiem obejmuje wszystkie miejscowości gminy. +Planowana jest organizacja szlaku wodnego Berlin - Szczecin - Bałtyk. +W 2012 otwarto Nadmorski Park Miniatur przedstawiający miniatury zabytków polskiego wybrzeża, w tym np. latarnie morskie. Po parku kursuje miniaturowa kolejka wąskotorowa +Infrastruktura. +W mieście działa port oraz stacje ratownictwa morskiego MSPiR i Grupa Ratownictwa Wodnego. +Siły zbrojne. +W latach 1964–1986 we wsi Dziwnów stacjonował 1 Batalion Szturmowy, protoplasta 1 Pułku Specjalnego Komandosów. +Sformowany na podstawie zarządzenia szefa sztabu generalnego WP nr 0073/MON z 30 lipca 1963. Podporządkowany Zarządowi II SG WP. Stacjonował w Dziwnowie. Dowództwo pułku pełniło jednoczesnie obowiązki dowództwa garnizonu. +12 października 1963 do Dziwnowa przybyła grupa operacyjna 127 żołnierzy. W jej skład wchodzili: mjr Izydor Malinowski, mjr Czesław Hlebowicz, ppor. Zygfryd Głuchowski, ppor. Tadeusz Gawarecki, ppor. Jan Jarzębek, ppor. Józef Chmiel, por. Tadeusz Dzięgielewski, ppor. Czesław Chołdys i 187 szeregowych. 31.10.1963 zakończono proces formowania. +W dziwnowskim garnizonie stacjonują obecnie 8 Kołobrzeski Batalion Saperów i 8 Dywizjon Przeciwlotniczy należące do 8 Flotylli Obrony Wybrzeża ze Świnoujścia. +Sport. +W mieście ma swoją siedzibę Dziwnowski Klub Sportowy "Jantar" Dziwnów, który został założony w 1977 r. i ma barwy klubowe niebiesko-żółte. W sezonie 2009/2010 zespół piłkarski grał A-klasie, w grupie szczecińskiej I. +Od 2000 r. działa Ludowy Uczniowski Klub Sportowy "Bałtyk", który specjalizuje się w lekkiej atletyce. Ponadto, organizuje wiele imprez sportowych o zasięgu międzynarodowym /Międzynarodowy Bieg "Cztery mile Jarka"/, krajowym /Młodzieżowe Mistrzostwa Polski w Biegach na Przełaj, "Kwietny Bieg"/wojewódzkim /"Sportowa Majówka"/i lokalnym /zawody sportowo - pożarnicze, regaty żeglarskie, biegi przełajowe, festyny rekreacyjno - sportowe i zawody dla dzieci i młodzieży/. Klub został wielokrotnie wyróżniony m.in. znakiem Omega - wyróżnieniem centralnym za organizowanie imprez sportowych. +Administracja. +Miasto jest siedzibą gminy miejsko-wiejskiej. W Radzie Miejskiej w Dziwnowie zasiada 15 radnych. Organem wykonawczym jest burmistrz. Siedzibą władz jest urząd miejski przy ul. Szosowej. +Mieszkańcy Dziwnowa wybierają parlamentarzystów z okręgów wyborczych Szczecin, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. +Amalaka + +Amalaka – element architektoniczny o kształcie pierścieniowym ze żłobkowanymi ścianami bocznymi, który wieńczy wieżową część śikhary. +Amalaka kształtem przypomina zgnieciony indyjski owoc o nazwie amalaka (Phyllanthus emblica - Mirobalanus embilica)) +Przebor + +Przebor – słowiańskie/staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Prze-" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń) i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Być może oznaczało "tego, kto najlepiej walczy". +Przebor imieniny obchodzi 9 maja. +Philip Showalter Hench + +Philip Showalter Hench (ur. 28 lutego 1896 w Pittsburghu, Pensylwania, Stany Zjednoczone, zm. 30 marca 1965 w Ocho Rios, Jamajka) – amerykański lekarz reumatolog, laureat Nagrody Nobla 1950. +Był profesorem Kliniki Mayo w Rochester (Minnesota). +W 1950 otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla, razem z Tadeuszem Reichsteinem i Edwardem Kendallem, za odkrycia dotyczące budowy chemicznej i działania hormonów kory nadnerczy, a także za zastosowanie tych hormonów w walce z chorobami reumatycznymi. +Jan Woleński + +Jan Woleński, właściwie Jan Hertrich-Woleński (ur. 21 września 1940 w Radomiu) – polski filozof analityczny, logik i epistemolog, teoretyk prawdy oraz filozof języka, profesor Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +Życiorys. +Edukacja. +W latach 1958-1963 studiował prawo na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim (UJ), w latach 1960-1964 filozofię na tej samej uczelni. +W roku 1968 obronił pracę doktorską z analitycznej teorii prawa ("Filozofia lingwistyczna a jurysprudencja analityczna") na Wydziale Prawa UJ, zaś w 1972 r. przeprowadził przewód habilitacyjny z teorii prawa ("Logiczne problemy wykładni prawa") na tej samej uczelni. +Działalność społeczna. +Jan Woleński był członkiem PZPR od 1965 r. Opuścił szeregi tej partii po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego w 1981 r. W latach 1980-1990 był członkiem NSZZ „Solidarność”. +W latach 1983-1985 był wydawcą podziemnej gazetki "Riposta" ukazującej się we Wrocławiu. Z powodu wystąpienia z PZPR nie otrzymywał paszportu w latach 1982-1986 i był objęty zakazem prowadzenia zajęć dydaktycznych na Politechnice Wrocławskiej w latach 1982-1988. W latach 1982-1988 wstrzymano wniosek o nadanie mu tytułu profesora. +Był jednym z założycieli Ruchu na Rzecz Demokracji w Krakowie w roku 2007. Jest członkiem Rady Programowej Konwersatorium "Doświadczenie i Przyszłość". Od 2007 jest wiceprezydentem loży B'nai B'rith Polin. +W latach 60. XX wieku był związany ze Stowarzyszeniem Ateistów i Wolnomyślicieli. Od 2007 roku członek Komitetu Honorowego Polskiego Stowarzyszenia Racjonalistów. +Nagrody naukowe i członkostwo w towarzystwach naukowych. +Jan Woleński jest członkiem: +Jest też prezydentem Europejskiego Towarzystwa Filozofii Analitycznej wybranym na kadencję 2005-2008. Bierze udział w pracy komitetu redakcyjnego czasopisma Theoria (en). +Otrzymał następujące nagrody: +W listopadzie 2004 roku za książkę "Granice niewiary" uhonorowany został nagrodą Krakowska Książka Miesiąca. +Dorobek naukowy. +Jan Woleński jest uważany za kontynuatora tradycji Szkoły Lwowsko-Warszawskiej. Do lutego 2008 był autorem lub współautorem 1540 publikacji naukowych i popularnych, z czego 493 były napisane w ośmiu językach obcych. W tym: książki – 14, skrypty – 5, artykuły naukowe – 368, autoreferaty i abstrakty – 84, głosy w dyskusjach, polemiki, artykuły informacyjne, artykuły słownikowe, artykuły okolicznościowe, artykuły popularno–naukowe, przedmowy, posłowia i listy – 363, recenzje – 195, prace edytorskie – 30, przedruki – 15, przekłady – 6. +Jan Woleński był promotorem 12 prac doktorskich i recenzentem 27 prac doktorskich i habilitacyjnych. +Potok Zagórski + +Potok Zagórski – mały ciek wodny na Wyżynie Śląskiej, lewy dopływ Czarnej Przemszy, na terenie miasta Sosnowiec. Źródła ma w Sosnowcu-Zagórzu, uchodzi ponorem w Będzinie; należy do lewobrzeżnego dorzecza Wisły. +Długość ok. 4 km, z czego 3,3 km jako woda powierzchniowa a 0,7 km podziemna, średni przepływ ok. 550 l/s. +Przepływa przez niegdyś bagniste obszary Środuli, gdzie dla zapobieżenia zalewaniu dawnych wyrobisk górniczych koryto zostało w latach 1981–1986 uregulowane. Jednocześnie ekolodzy przypuszczają, że wybudowane na tym terenie w latach 90. XX wieku hipermarkety mogły naruszyć ekosystem tego cieku wodnego, w dolinie którego znajdują się lęgowiska wielu gatunków ptaków, występuje też wiele rzadkich gatunków roślin. +Stacy Peralta + +Stacy Peralta (ur. 1957) – amerykański profesjonalny skater, surfer oraz przedsiębiorca. Znany jest ze swoich pionierskich umiejętności na rampie (vert). Jazdę na deskorolce ćwiczył w sposób przypominający surfing. +Życiorys. +W wieku 19 lat Peralta stał się najwyżej ocenianym profesjonalnym skateboarderem. Później razem z George'em Powellem stworzył firmę Powell Peralta i zaczął produkcję pierwszego klipu z udziałem takich gwiazd, jak Tony Hawk. +W 1991 Peralta opuścił firmę i zaczął pracować na pełny etat w telewizji. Jego film "Dogtown and Z-Boys" został w 2001 nagrodzony na Sundance Film Festival. +Doświadczenie Peralty jako twórcy filmów skateboardingowych zostało wykorzystane przy produkcji gry komputerowej "Tony Hawk's Underground", w której Peralta grał samego siebie. +w 2005 Catherine Hardwicke nakręciła film "Królowie Dogtown" ("Lords of Dogtown") opisujący losy jego (John Robinson), Tony'ego Alvy (Victor Rasuk) oraz Jaya Adamsa (Emile Hirsch). +Krążek stały + +Krążek stały to krążek przytwierdzony do stałego podłoża, przez który przeplata się cięgno, które z założenia nie ślizga się po krążku, lecz wprawia go w ruch obrotowy. Krążek stały umożliwia tylko zmianę kierunku siły, bez zmiany jej wartości. +Krążek stały jako maszyna prosta. +W układach idealizowanych (izolowanych) przyjmuje się, że krążek jest nieważki, cięgno nieważkie i doskonale elastyczne i nierozciągliwe i nie występują opory ruchu krążka a cały układ jest płaskim układem sił. +gdzie +Krążek stały w układach rzeczywistych. +W układach rzeczywistych dochodzą zjawiska dynamiczne, związane z inercją układu oraz straty mechaniczne związane z oporami ruchu. W naszym przypadku przyjmujemy, że ruch w układzie jest ruchem ustalonym. +Wtedy przy określonej sprawności krążka η spełnione jest równanie +Nmap + +Nmap (z ang. "Network mapper") – program komputerowy autorstwa Fyodora (Gordon Lyon), służący do skanowania portów i wykrywania usług w sieci. +Program implementuje wiele różnych technik testowania portów TCP, w tym niestandardowe podejścia wynikające ze specyfiki implementacji stosów sieciowych, które potencjalnie mogą omijać zapory sieciowe lub platformy Intrusion Detection System. Dodatkowo Nmap posiada możliwość identyfikacji systemów operacyjnych na skanowanych hostach. +Metody skanowania portów. +nmap jest jednak skanerem aktywnym. Wiąże się to z generowaniem przez niego dużej ilości ruchu, a w związku z tym – mimo dużej skuteczności – można wykryć jego używanie. Z pomocą przychodzą tu tzw. skanery pasywne, np. p0f, właściwie skanujące wcześniej uzyskany zapis (z np. dumpcap czy tcpdump) z sieci. Opcje nmap pozwalają relatywnie utrudnić wykrycie IP, z którego przeprowadzany jest skan z -D , gdzie wprowadza się szereg mylących hostów. Inna opcja pozwala 'obciążyć winą' inny (zombie) komputer np. # namp -sI , który może być wykazywany w niezbyt zaawansowanym systemie rozpoznającym skanowania sieci. +przykład +w efekcie powinno się uzyskać informacje o prawdopodobnym sprzęcie i wersjach oprogramowania komputerów w tej sieci, o czasie ich włączenia (uptime) o otwartych i zblokowanych portach i o wszystkich MAC adresach każdego PC. Dla admina informacje sprzętowe są to informacje przydatne do inwentaryzacji sieci, a wersje oprogramowania w połączeniu z otwartymi portami mogą służyć do uszczelnienia sieci. +Nieśwież + +Nieśwież (biał. Нясвіж) – miasto na Białorusi, w obwodzie mińskim, siedziba rejonu nieświeskiego, do 1945 w Polsce, w województwie nowogródzkim, siedziba powiatu nieświeskiego. +Galeria. +Plik:Belarus-Niasvizh-Panorama.jpg|Panorama Nieświeża +Plik:Belarus-Niasvizh-Radziwill Castle-8.jpg|Nieśwież – zespół zamkowo-pałacowy, dawna rezydencja Radziwiłłów +Plik:Belarus-Niasvizh-Town Hall and Market Rows-2.jpg|Ratusz z sukiennicami + +Feodor Lynen + +Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen (6 kwietnia 1911 w Monachium – 6 sierpnia 1979 w Monachium) – biochemik niemiecki, laureat Nagrody Nobla z medycyny 1964 roku. +Był profesorem uniwersytetu w Monachium. +Prowadził badania nad syntezą cholesterolu w organizmie człowieka, a także nad rolą cholesterolu w biosyntezie witaminy D, hormonów nadnercza i płciowych. Za badania nad cholesterolem, które przyczyniły się do zwalczania miażdżycy, otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w 1964 roku, razem z Konradem Blochem. +Państwo antarktyczne + +Państwo antarktyczne, państwo holantarktyczne, "Holantarctis" – państwo roślinne, którego flora na znacznych przestrzeniach jest skrajnie uboga i odznacza się wysokim stopniem endemizmu. Poniżej 10 tys. gatunków roślin okrytonasiennych. 8 rodzin endemicznych. +Obszary zimne charakteryzuje niemal zupełny brak roślin kwiatowych. Na Antarktydzie występują jedynie dwa gatunki okrytonasiennych: śmiałek antarktyczny ("Deschampsia antarctica") i kolobant antarktyczny ("Colobanthus quitensis"). Dużo jest mszaków i porostów. +Pomijając lodowe pustynie, dominującą formacją roślinną jest tundra. W części amerykańskiej występują lasy złożone z drzew liściastych (np. buki południowe) i iglastych oraz stepy. +Wraz z ocieplaniem klimatu i ekspansją człowieka pojawia się na tych niegościnnych terenach coraz więcej gatunków zawlekanych z cieplejszych regionów np. wiechlina roczna "Poa annua". +Mangustowate + +Mangustowate, ichneumony (Herpestidae) – rodzina ssaków łożyskowych z rzędu drapieżnych, zaliczana do kotokształtnych (Feliformia). +Opis. +Mangustowate są niewielkimi drapieżnikami. Największe gatunki rzadko przekraczają wagę 3 kg. Wszystkie mają stosunkowo długie ciało z krótkimi ale silnymi kończynami. Łapy zakończone są silnymi, słabo zakrzywionymi pazurami, bardzo przydatnymi przy zdobywaniu pożywienia lub wykopywaniu nor. Głowa mangustowatych jest niewielka, ze stosunkowo krótkim pyskiem i małymi okrągłymi uszami. Są to kolejne przystosowania ułatwiające drążenie jam w ziemi. Bardzo charakterystyczną cechą większości mangust jest kształt źrenicy. Jest ona owalna i pozioma, podobnie jak u niektórych ssaków parzystokopytnych (np. kóz). Większość innych Carnivora ma źrenicę okrągłą lub pionową (jak np. u kotowatych). +Mangustowate odżywiają się głównie niewielkimi zwierzętami: owadami, pajęczakami w tym również skorpionami, niewielkimi kręgowcami, gryzoniami, jaszczurkami i wężami, niekiedy również ptasimi jajami i pisklętami. Mangusty są bardzo znane z tego, że potrafią upolować jadowite węże, takie jak żmije i kobry. Nie są odporne na jad węży, ale mają wystarczająco szybki refleks, aby uniknąć ukąszenia. +Wiele gatunków mangustowatych posiada bardzo rozwiniętą strukturę społeczną. Surykatki żyją w grupach od 20 do 50 osobników, wśród których występuje podział na funkcje. Niektóre są strażnikami kolonii, inne zajmują się szczeniętami, podczas gdy pozostałe okazy poszukują pożywienia. +Systematyka. +Badania molekularne wskazują na bliskie pokrewieństwo mangust z hienowatymi. +Szerida + +Szerida (akadyjska Aja) – w mitologii mezopotamskiej bogini światła, uważana za małżonkę Utu (akadyjskiego Szamasza), boga słońca. Jest związana z miłością fizyczną i urodzajnością. Kult tej bogini był szczególnie popularny w okresie starobabilońskim i ponownie w nowobabilońskim. Szerida/Aja była czczona razem z Utu/Szamaszem w świątyniach w Sippar i w Larsie. +Jan Pospieszalski + +Jan Pospieszalski (ur. 29 stycznia 1955 w Częstochowie) – muzyk, aranżer i kompozytor, publicysta, autor programów radiowych i telewizyjnych. +Życiorys. +Kariera muzyczna. +Pierwszy zespół muzyczny Niedzielna Szkółka Ojca Stanisława założył w liceum plastycznym (z młodszymi braćmi), po maturze i ukończeniu szkoły muzycznej II stopnia grał na kontrabasie w zespołach jazzowych. +W 1976 zastąpił Ryszarda Kaczmarka w zespole Czerwone Gitary (gitara basowa), wraz z którym koncertował w Polsce (1977 udział w festiwalu w Sopocie), USA, ZSRR, Kanadzie, Austrii, Kubie i NRD (gdzie zespół zyskał szczególną popularność). +Od 1980 współpracował z duetem fortepianowym Marek i Wacek. W połowie lat 80. grał w zespole Woo Boo Doo, którego był także menedżerem, a po jego rozpadzie od 1986 do 1998 był basistą i menedżerem zespołu Voo Voo (kilkanaście płyt). W 1993 wydał z rodziną autorskie opracowanie kolęd - "Kolędy Pospieszalskich". W 1999 skomponował i nagrał z polskimi wokalistami płytę "Osiem Błogosławieństw", wydaną z okazji wizyty papieża w Polsce. +Opracował zbiór 60 piosenek dla potrzeb kształcenia początkowego, komponował wiele piosenek religijnych oraz muzykę filmową (m.in. film animowany "Odwrócona góra albo film pod strasznym tytułem", reż. Leszek Gałysz). W 2000 ukazała się druga część "Kolęd Pospieszalskich" (wspólnie m.in. z Anną Marią Jopek i Arką Noego), a w 2003 płyta "Najcieplejsze Święta". +Działalność medialna. +W telewizji publicznej w latach 1994-1997 realizował i prowadził program "Swojskie klimaty", opracował także kilka telewizyjnych widowisk muzycznych, m.in. "Henryk Mikołaj Górecki - Spotkanie". +Po likwidacji cyklu "Swojskie klimaty" w 1997 (wkrótce po dymisji prezesa Wiesława Walendziaka) był m.in. współtwórcą telewizyjnej kampanii wyborczej AWS, a następnie dyrektorem artystycznym sieci katolickich rozgłośni radiowych "Plus", skąd odszedł w lipcu 2001 wobec planów zmiany profilu sieci przez nowego inwestora. Od 2001 organizował koncerty z okazji Dnia Papieskiego w Teatrze Wielkim. +Od 2001 pracował w katolickiej TV Puls, gdzie prowadził "Studio Otwarte". Publikuje na łamach "Rzeczpospolitej", "Przewodnika Katolickiego", "Gazety Polskiej Codziennie" i rzadziej "Naszego Dziennika". Stowarzyszenie KoLiber przyznało mu tytuł członka honorowego za "poszanowanie historii Polski i promowanie wartości rodzinnych" +W 2010 Jan Pospieszalski nakręcił wraz z Ewą Stankiewicz film dokumentalny "Solidarni 2010", w którym zebrane zostały wypowiedzi ludzi składających hołd parze prezydenckiej, która poniosła śmierć w wyniku katastrofy lotniczej w Smoleńsku w 2010. Wypowiedzi osób uwiecznionych w filmie oraz sposób relacjonowanie obserwowanych zdarzeń przez Pospieszalskiego wywołały kontrowersje w wyniku czego Rada Etyki Mediów niejednogłośnie uznała, że Jan Pospieszalski w prowadzonych przez siebie relacjach przeżyć ludzi przychodzących w dniach żałoby pod Pałac Prezydencki naruszył zapisane w Karcie Etycznej Mediów zasady obiektywizmu, a także szacunku i tolerancji (z orzeczeniem nie zgodzili się członkowie Teresa Bochwic i Tomasz Bieszczad). Jest także współautorem scenariusza i współreżyserem dokumentu "Lista pasażerów". Był współtwórcą Stowarzyszenia Solidarni 2010. +Od 2004 do lutego 2011 prowadził w TVP1 program publicystyczny "Warto rozmawiać". Od listopada 2011 tworzy audycję o identycznej formule zatytułowaną "" emitowaną w TVP Info. Współpracuje także z Radiem Maryja i Telewizją Trwam. +Życie prywatne. +Urodził się w Częstochowie jako trzeci z dziewięciorga rodzeństwa. Jest członkiem znanej muzykującej rodziny Pospieszalskich. Bratanek Antoniego Pospieszalskiego. Jest żonaty (od 1978 z Marią z domu Bielunas), ma dwoje dzieci (Franciszka i Barbarę). +7 sierpnia 1999 na jeziorze Dadaj pod Biskupcem w eksplozji motorówki, na której znajdowała się rodzina Pospieszalskich, zginął jego czteroletni syn Antoni. Przyczyną wybuchu były rozgrzane upałem opary benzyny. Jak twierdzi Jan Pospieszalski, ten wypadek stał się początkiem przemiany duchowej, która wzmocniła jego wiarę. +Lim-6 + +Lim-6 ("LiM" - skrót od Licencyjny Myśliwiec) to polski lekki samolot myśliwsko-szturmowy, opracowany na bazie licencyjnego myśliwca MiG-17. +Rozwój. +W 1955 Polska zakupiła licencję na wytwarzanie radzieckiego myśliwca MiG-17, będącego wówczas podstawowym samolotem tej klasy państw Układu Warszawskiego. Wytwarzane w Polsce, w WSK-Mielec samoloty, otrzymały oznaczenie Lim-5 (skrót od "licencyjny myśliwiec"), kryptonim "samolot CF". Pierwszy Lim-5 został wyprodukowany 28 listopada 1956, zastępując w produkcji model Lim-2 (MiG-15bis). Do końca produkcji w 1960, zbudowano 477 Limów-5, które stały się najliczniejszymi myśliwcami lotnictwa polskiego. Część z nich zbudowano w wersji samolotów rozpoznawczych Lim-5R, z aparatem fotograficznym AFA-39. Od 1959 budowano także licencyjne myśliwce przechwytujące MiG-17PF z radarem RP-5 Izumrud-5, oznaczone Lim-5P. Do końca 1960 zbudowano ich 129. +Już pod koniec lat 50. rozpoczęto w Polsce prace nad rozwinięciem własnego wariantu lekkiego samolotu szturmowego, bazując na konstrukcji Lim-5. Zwykłe MiG-17 i Lim-5 mogły przenosić jedynie dwie bomby po 250 kg, zamiast podskrzydłowych zbiorników paliwa. Bodźcem do rozpoczęcia prac było zapoznanie się z wymaganiami stawianymi przez państwa NATO na analogiczną maszynę. W 1958 zbudowano dwa prototypy oznaczone "samolot CM" (CM-I i CM-II), przebudowane z seryjnych Limów-5. Samoloty te przebudowywano, badając różne konfiguracje, po czym przystąpiono do produkcji samolotu szturmowego Lim-5M. Pierwszy został wyprodukowany 30 listopada 1960. Wprowadzono w nim kilka modyfikacji w stosunku do wersji myśliwskiej, głównie w celu umożliwienia bazowania na lotniskach gruntowych, w razie zniszczenia lotnisk podczas wojny. Miał on zdwojone koła podwozia głównego, spadochron hamujący pod tylną częścią kadłuba i zaczepy dla rakiet wspomagających start (RATO). Najbardziej zauważalną zmianą były powiększone zbiorniki paliwa w pogrubionych przykadłubowych częściach skrzydeł, stanowiących zarazem owiewki nowego podwozia. Zamiast bomb, podwieszanych na dwóch pylonach podskrzydłowych, można było przenosić wyrzutnie Mars-1 dla 8 niekierowanych pocisków rakietowych powietrze-ziemia S-5 kalibru 57 mm. Do 10 maja 1961 zbudowano 60 Limów-5M, które od listopada 1961 przekazano Wojskom Lotniczym i lotnictwu Marynarki Wojennej. Nie okazały się one jednak udane; grubsze skrzydła pogarszały ich osiągi i powodowały niestabilny pilotaż, podczas gdy zasięg samolotu się nie zwiększył z powodu stawianych przez nie zwiększonych oporów. Lim-5M uznano jedynie za wariant przejściowy i prowadzono dalsze prace, testując różne rozwiązania. +Od maja 1961 zbudowano 40 samolotów nowej wersji Lim-6. Wprowadzono na nich klapy szczelinowe z nadmuchem, lecz próby wykazały problemy ze zmodyfikowanymi w tym celu silnikami Lis-6 oraz ich pilotażem i samoloty te nie trafiły na wyposażenie lotnictwa. Ponadto, nadmuch wywierał niewielki wpływ na długość rozbiegu. W wersji tej wprowadzono ponadto spadochron hamujący w pojemniku u nasady steru kierunku. Ostatecznie, po dalszych pracach nad rozwojem samolotu, postanowiono zrezygnować z pogrubionych części skrzydeł, klap z nadmuchem, podwójnych kół i przyspieszaczy startowych i powrócić zamiast tego do jedynie w niewielkim stopniu zmodyfikowanego Lima-5, ze zwiększonym udźwigiem uzbrojenia. Próby prototypu CM 10-30, przebudowanego według tych założeń na prototyp Lim-6bis, rozpoczęto 5 grudnia 1962. +Lim-6bis. +W 1963 rozpoczęto produkcję ostatecznego wariantu szturmowego Lim-6bis. Miał on standardowe skrzydła i pojedyncze koła, jak myśliwiec Lim-5. Główną zmianą było dodanie dwóch małych podskrzydłowych pylonów do podwieszania uzbrojenia, blisko kadłuba. Zachowano też spadochron hamujący w pojemniku u nasady steru kierunku. Samoloty te zaczęły wchodzić na wyposażenie polskiego lotnictwa od 1963, lecz oficjalnie przyjęto je na uzbrojenie dopiero po próbach państwowych 14 września 1964. Początkowo, do 1964, nie miały jeszcze zamontowanych dodatkowych pylonów. +Do lutego 1964 zbudowano 70 Lim-6bis, ponadto samoloty Lim-5M i Lim-6 zostały przebudowane do standardu Lim-6bis. Część z nich została wykonana w wariancie szturmowo-rozpoznawczym Lim-6R (lub Lim-6bisR) z aparatem fotograficznym AFA-39 pod kadłubem. +W miarę, jak myśliwce przechwytujące Lim-5P stały się przestarzałe, od 1971 przebudowywano je do standardu Lim-6bis, oznaczając Lim-6M. Usunięto z nich radary, pozostawiając ich osłony nad wlotem powietrza do silnika i w przegrodzie tego wlotu. Wyposażono je w dodatkowe pylony podskrzydłowe, ale nie w spadochrony hamujące. Niektóre zmodyfikowano do wariantu rozpoznawczego Lim-6MR. +Lim-6bis, 6R, 6M i 6MR były używane przez lotnictwo polskie jako najliczniejsze samoloty szturmowe aż do lat 80. Ostatnie z nich wycofano w 1992. +Według niektórych publikacji, część wyeksportowano do NRD, Egiptu i Indonezji. +Opis konstrukcji. +Jednosilnikowy średniopłat o konstrukcji całkowicie metalowej i skośnych skrzydłach. Skrzydła o zmiennym kącie skosu krawędzi natarcia, przy kadłubie 45°, dalej 42°, o profilu laminarnym, wielodźwigarowe. Na każdym ze skrzydeł trzy kierownice strug powietrza. Na tylnej krawędzi klapy i lotki. Usterzenie klasyczne, skośne (pionowe - o kącie skosu 56°). Usterzenie poziome zamocowane powyżej połowy wysokości pionowego. U nasady usterzenia pionowego pojemnik spadochronu hamującego. Kadłub o konstrukcji półskorupowej, w części przedniej wlot powietrza do silnika, rozdzielający się pionową przegrodą na dwa kanały wzdłuż burt. Kabina pilota hermetyczna, w przedniej części kadłuba, zakryta kilkuczęściową oszkloną osłoną o kształcie kroplowym, składającą się ze stałego wiatrochronu i osłony odsuwanej do tyłu. kabina wyposażona w fotel wyrzucany (minimalna wysokość do katapultowania 250 m). Silnik odrzutowy w tylnej części kadłuba. Po obu stronach tylnej części kadłuba hamulce aerodynamiczne o łącznej powierzchni 0,98 m². Podwozie samolotu trójkołowe, z pojedynczymi kołami; golenie główne wciągane w skrzydła, w stronę kadłuba, rozstaw kół 3,849 m. +Napęd stanowił jeden silnik turboodrzutowy ze sprężarką odśrodkową WK-1F o ciągu 33,1 kN z dopalaczem, 25,5 kN bez dopalania. Paliwo w dwóch zbiornikach w kadłubie o pojemności łącznie 1415 l. Z reguły podwieszano dwa dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa pod skrzydłami o pojemności po 400 l. +Uzbrojenie stałe Lim-6bis: dwa działka lotnicze NR-23 kalibru 23 mm (po 80 nabojów) i jedno N-37D kalibru 37 mm (40 nabojów), na wspólnej opuszczanej lawecie pod przednią częścią kadłuba. Lim-6M prawdopodobnie był uzbrojony w trzy działka NR-23 23 mm, jak MiG-17PF i Lim-5P. Automatyczny optyczny celownik żyroskopowy ASP-4NM Krokus z radiodalmierzem SRD-1M Radal-M (radiodalmierz nie we wszystkich). +Uzbrojenie podwieszane maksymalnie na czterech pylonach podskrzydłowych. Typowym uzbrojeniem były dwie wyrzutnie Mars-2 po 16 niekierowanych pocisków rakietowych powietrze-ziemia S-5 kalibru 57 lub dwie bomby wagomiaru do 100 kg (OFAB-100, SAB-100MN, AO-50-100, ZAB-100-114, P-50, FOTAB-100-50). Samolot mógł również przenosić bomby o masie do 250 kg (FAB-250TS, RBK-250, ZAB-250-200, AGITAB-250-85, ZB-360) lub wyrzutnie rakiet na zewnętrznych pylonach, lecz zwykle były one zajęte przez dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa pojemności po 400 l. +Zobacz też. +Pokrewne konstrukcje: MiG-15 - MiG-17 - Shenyang J-5 +Porównywalne samoloty: F-86D Sabre - Fiat G.91 +Ciąg oznaczeń: Lim-1 - Lim-2 - Lim-5 - Lim-6 +Jotunheimen + +Jotunheimen (w wolnym tłumaczeniu "Dom Gigantów") – łańcuch górski położony na południu Norwegii, zajmujący powierzchnię około 3500 km². Znajdują się tam dwa najwyższe szczyty Skandynawii, w tym najwyższy szczyt Europy Północnej – Galdhøpiggen (2469 m n.p.m.) i Glittertind (2452 m n.p.m.) – drugi najwyższy szczyt Półwyspu Skandynawskiego. Jotunheimen znajduje się w regionie Oppland i Sogn og Fjordane. Od 1980 roku 1145 km² łańcucha górskiego zostało wydzielone i objęte ochroną w ramach Parku Narodowego Jotunheimen. +Spektroskopia EPR + +Spektroskopia EPR ("spektroskopia elektronowego rezonansu paramagnetycznego", zwana również "elektronowym rezonansem spinowym", "ESR", dla odróżnienia od rezonansu cyklotronowego) – technika spektroskopii pozwalająca na wykrycie substancji zawierających jeden lub więcej niesparowanych elektronów, takich jak wolne rodniki, jony metali przejściowych, pierwiastki ziem rzadkich, aktynowce, defekty w dielektrykach i węglu oraz elektrony przewodnictwa w metalach i półprzewodnikach. +Podstawowe fizyczne założenia techniki są analogiczne do tych wykorzystywanych w spektroskopii NMR, ale badane są spiny elektronów, a nie spiny jąder atomowych. Z powodu różnic w masie pomiędzy jądrami a elektronami, w technice EPR używane są słabsze pola magnetyczne i wyższe częstotliwości promieniowania mikrofalowego niż w spektroskopii NMR. Dla elektronów, rezonans paramagnetyczny w polu magnetycznym o wartości ok. 0,3 T zachodzi przy częstotliwości ok. 10 GHz (tzw. pasmo X). +Spektroskopia EPR jest wykorzystywana m.in. w fizyce ciała stałego do identyfikacji wolnych rodników, w chemii do badań przebiegu reakcji oraz w biologii i medycynie do śledzenia znaczników spinowych. Metoda EPR jest też stosowana do datowania w badaniach archeologicznych, np. wieku szkliwa zębów (hydroksyapatyt pochodzenia biologicznego). +Ponieważ wolne rodniki są bardzo reaktywne, nie występują one w układach biologicznych w wysokich stężeniach. Aby badać układy biologiczne zaprojektowano małoreaktywne molekuły (tzw. "pułapki spinowe") mogące wiązać się w specyficznych miejscach w komórce czy białku. Pozwala to na otrzymanie informacji o otoczeniu danej próbki spinowej. +Wstęp historyczny. +Po raz pierwszy rezonans magnetyczny został zaobserwowany w 1938 roku, w związku z techniką wiązek molekularnych. Przez analogię poszukiwano podobnego zjawiska w układzie spinów jądrowych. Próbował to osiągnąć Cornelius Gorter, ale udało się dopiero Jewgienijowi Zawojskiemu w 1944 roku. Zawojski w swoich badaniach w Kazaniu po raz pierwszy zaobserwował absorpcję rezonansową w solach metali przejściowych. Wyniki doświadczeń Zawojskiego objaśnił Jakow Frenkel jako elektronowy rezonans paramagnetyczny (1945). Już w pierwszych swoich pracach Zawojski stwierdził, że rezonansowa częstotliwość zmian pola jest proporcjonalna do częstotliwości pola mikrofalowego. Dla CrCl3 przy dwóch różnych częstotliwościach mikrofalowych: pierwszej = 2190 MHz i drugiej = 2760 MHz, uzyskano rezonans odpowiednio w polach o natężeniu 0,08 T i 0,1 T. Stąd uzyskano bardzo ważny związek między częstotliwością pola wysokich częstotliwości i natężeniem rezonansowego pola magnetycznego: +Stała "a" uzyskana w doświadczeniu Zawojskiego wyniosła 27,5 GHz/T, co jest wartością zbliżoną do wartości 28 GHz/T, charakteryzującej elektron swobodny. +Teoria. +Podstawy. +Podstawę EPR stanowi efekt Zeemana polegający na rozszczepieniu poziomów energetycznych w paramagnetykach znajdujących się w polu magnetycznym. Po umieszczeniu próbki o momencie magnetycznym "μ" w polu magnetycznym "B" osiąga ona energię "E" +Dla atomu o całkowitym momencie pędu "J" całkowity dipolowy moment magnetyczny +gdzie +Wektor "J" każdego atomu może posiadać jedynie niektóre dozwolone orientacje determinowane przez zbiór wartości liczby kwantowej "MJ". Jest to przyczyną ograniczenia energii do zbioru "MJ". +gdzie: "MJ" = "J", "J"−1..., 1, 0, −1..., −"J"+1, −"J". +W zewnętrznym polu magnetycznym rozszczepienie pojedynczego poziomu "J" na 2"J"+1 podpoziomów zwane jest rozszczepieniem zeemanowskim. Jeżeli na stałe pole magnetyczne "B" nałożymy zmienne pole magnetyczne "B"1 o odpowiedniej częstotliwości "ν", w próbce zaczną zachodzić przejścia pomiędzy poziomami zeemanowskimi. Przejścia te zależne są od: +Rozkład Boltzmanna. +W praktyce nigdy nie mamy do czynienia z pojedynczą próbką, ale z populacją próbek z wieloma centrami paramagnetycznymi. Jeżeli ta konfiguracja znajdzie się w stanie równowagi termicznej, obsadzenie poziomów energetycznych jest opisywane przez rozkład Boltzmanna +gdzie +Dla pasma X ( "ν" = 10 GHz) i pokojowej temperatury stosunek "n""J"+1 / "n""J" jest równy 0,998, ponieważ niższy poziom zawiera więcej elektronów niż wyższy i przejścia z "dołu na górę" są bardziej prawdopodobne. +Obserwację sygnału EPR można prowadzić mierząc zmiany rezonansowej absorpcji energii w zależności od częstotliwości "ν" promieniowania elektromagnetycznego przy stałej wartości indukcji pola magnetycznego. Z drugiej strony możemy prowadzić pomiary odwrotnie, zmieniając pole magnetyczne "B" przy stałej częstotliwości "ν". Z powodów technicznych drugi sposób jest wygodniejszy. +Dla najczęściej używanej częstotliwości "ν" = 9,5 GHz (pasmo X mikrofal), rezonans zachodzi przy "B" = 0,34 T (3400 Gs). +Parametry widma EPR. +Współczynnik rozszczepienia spektralnego "g". +Znajomość współczynnika "g"(współczynnik magnetogiryczny, gyromagnetyczny) daje informacje o strukturze centrum paramagnetycznego. Dla wolnych rodników i jonów w fazie stałej bądź ciekłej spin elektronu jest silnie powiązany ze środowiskiem i nie może występować w dowolnym ułożeniu w polu magnetycznym. Prowadzi to do zjawiska "zamrażania" orbitalnego momentu magnetycznego w sieci krystalicznej. Z tego powodu parametr "g" sygnału EPR dla wielu paramagnetycznych atomów w skondensowanych fazach wynosi "g" = 2,002256, gdzie dodatek 0,002256 pochodzi od relatywistycznej poprawki związanej z ruchem elektronów w atomie. +W przypadku wolnego jonu, współczynnik "g" posiada właściwości izotropowe. W krysztale natomiast wartość "g" zależy od kierunku zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego. +Definicja szerokości linii rezonansowej. +Szerokości linii rezonansowej wyraża się w jednostkach indukcji magnetycznej "B" i mierzone są wzdłuż osi odciętych od środka linii do linii rzędnej przechodzącej przez wybrany punkt krzywej. Tak zdefiniowane szerokości mają tę zaletę, że dla linii asymetrycznej można podawać szerokości połówkowe. +Szerokość połówkowa formula_15 jest to dystans od centrum linii do punktu w którym absorpcja wynosi połowę maksymalnej wartości w środku linii rezonansowej. +Pierwsza szerokość nachyleniowa formula_16 jest to odległość od środka linii do punktu o maksymalnym nachylenia krzywej absorpcji. +Umiak + +Umiak – duża inuicka (eskimoska) łódź wiosłowo-żaglowa wykonana ze skór foczych rozpiętych na szkielecie z drewna wyrzuconego przez morze lub kości wielorybów. Może mieć od 6 do 10 m długości i pomieścić do 20 osób oraz ich bagaże (w tym namioty). Służy do transportu i przewozu dobytku inuickich rodzin podczas letnich wędrówek na tereny łowieckie oraz do grupowych polowań na wieloryby (wówczas na umiaku rozpina się niewielki żagiel). +Wykorzystywany przez tubylczych mieszkańców Arktyki prawdopodobnie już od VIII tysiąclecia p.n.e. Początkowo owalny, stopniowo coraz większy i bardziej wydłużony, wyposażony z czasem w prosty ster i prostokątny żagiel. Obok dłubanek zapewne jeden z najstarszych typów łodzi morskich. Według tradycji inuickiej (zwłaszcza na Grenlandii, a po upadku lokalnego wielorybnictwa także w Arktyce Wschodniej i na Alasce) umiaki należały do wiosłujących w nich kobiet, a mniejsze kajaki – do mężczyzn. +Właściciel umiaka, przewodzący grupie myśliwych polujących na wieloryby, prowadzący towarzyszące temu ceremonie i rozdzielający następnie mięso upolowanego zwierzęcia, nazywany był "umialik" i cieszył się dużym szacunkiem całej inuickiej społeczności. +Przeborka + +Przeborka – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członów "Prze-" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń) i "-bor-ka" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Być może oznaczało "tę, która najlepiej walczy". +Przeborka imieniny obchodzi 18 czerwca. +Wina + +Wina – pojęcie wiążące się z zagadnieniem wolności człowieka. Wina jest to wadliwość procesu decyzyjnego, polegająca na wolnym wyborze z katalogu możliwych zachowań zachowania sprzecznego z obowiązującą w danym społeczeństwie normą postępowania. +Wina w polskim Kodeksie karnym z 1997 r.. +Obecnie obowiązujący polski Kodeks karny z 1997 r. nie definiuje pojęcia winy. Ustawodawca w uzasadnieniu projektu stwierdził, że nie jest w powołany do przecięcia sporów doktrynalnych i pozostawił pojęcie winy do zdefiniowania doktrynie. +Według niektórych, kodeks karny oparty jest na czystej teorii normatywnej – wina to zarzucalność popełnienia czynu zabronionego. Wina jest odrębną w strukturze przestępstwa kwestią od znamion strony podmiotowej, czyli umyślności i nieumyślności (Andrzej Zoll), a pojęcia "winy umyślnej" i "winy nieumyślnej" są obarczone na gruncie przyjmowanej teorii błędem przesunięcia kategorialnego, pomieszaniem płaszczyzny faktycznej (umyślność, nieumyślność) z normatywną (wina). +Warto zaznaczyć, że jest to tylko jedno z wielu stanowisk odnośnie tej kwestii, szeroko reprezentowany jest również pogląd o zastosowaniu psychologicznej teorii winy. +Spory doktrynalne. +W wielu wypadkach oskarżyciel musi udowodnić przed sądem winę zabarwioną celem (dolus coloratus). Przykładem niech będą art. 278§1, 281, 282, 286, 289§1 Kodeksu Karnego. Cel postępowania sprawcy jest w takich sytuacjach elementem podstawowym rozpatrywanym przez sąd. Ma to kapitalne znaczenie dla kwalifikacji czynu, a w konsekwencji na wymiar kary. +Zgodnie z przeciwnym poglądem, cel zachowania się sprawcy decyduje o zamiarze bezpośrednim (tak zwane przestępstwa kierunkowe) i nie ma to niczego wspólnego z kwestią winy (czysta teoria normatywna). +Lajkonik + +Pochód Lajkonika, Harce Lajkonika – ludowa zabawa, która odbywa się w Krakowie co roku w pierwszy czwartek po święcie Bożego Ciała (w "oktawę Bożego Ciała"). Główny bohater zabawy – "lajkonik, (konik zwierzyniecki, tatarzyn)" – brodaty jeździec w pseudoorientalnym stroju poruszający się na sztucznym koniku przytwierdzonym do pasa, przemierza tradycyjny szlak ze Zwierzyńca na Rynek Główny w Krakowie w towarzystwie kapeli Mlaskotów oraz orszaku włóczków odzianych w stroje krakowskie i "tatarskie". +Współczesny przebieg pochodu. +Harce lajkonika rozpoczynają się już przed południem, około godziny 10.00, gdy główny bohater, wraz z chorążym niosącym sztandar, orszakiem włóczków uzbrojonych w buńczuki i kapelą Mlaskotów opuszcza siedzibę Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Krakowa. +Następuje wówczas pierwszy taniec i „obijanie” pracowników muzeum buławą. Chwilę potem zabawa zostaje przerwana, aż do godziny 12.00, kiedy orszak pojawia się na Zwierzyńcu przy ulicy Senatorskiej 1, w siedzibie Miejskiego Przedsiębiorstwa Wodociągów i Kanalizacji – instytucji kontynuującej tradycje krakowskich włóczków. +Pośród licznie zgromadzonej publiczności, lajkonik przy dźwiękach kapeli wykonuje taniec, rozrzuca dzieciom cukierki, po czym na czele orszaku rusza tradycyjnym szlakiem na krakowski rynek. W trakcie całego pochodu, który trwa do późnego wieczora lajkonik bije buławą każdego napotkanego przechodnia, zagląda do wszystkich mijanych sklepów i zbiera datki do sakwy, którą niesie towarzyszący mu włóczek. Orszak kilkakrotnie zatrzymuje się dla odpoczynku w barach i restauracjach. +Po opuszczeniu Wodociągów pierwszym celem jest klasztor sióstr Norbertanek. Barwny korowód podąża ulicą Senatorską w kierunku ulicy Kościuszki, odwiedza targ na placu Na Stawach, gdzie tatarzyn zbiera zbierając datki od każdego straganu, następnie przekracza most na Rudawie i wchodzi na klasztorny dziedziniec, gdzie następuje pierwszy obrzędowy taniec ze sztandarem. Ksieni ss. norbertanek, a także proboszcz miejscowej parafii oglądają go z okna. Najważniejszym i najtrudniejszym momentem rytualnego tańca lajkonika, jest tzw. „zawijanie chorągwią”: podczas gdy chorąży zatacza sztandarem zamocowanym na sześciometrowym drzewcu koło, lajkonik biegnie za nim, próbując uderzyć buławą w orła widniejącego na chorągwi. Po krótkim odpoczynku i gościnie u ksieni, lajkonik wraz z obstawą rusza ulicą Kościuszki i Zwierzyniecką. Pod siedzibą krakowskiej filharmonii – na skrzyżowaniu ulic Zwierzynieckiej i Straszewskiego, towarzysząca pochodowi policja na kilkanaście minut zatrzymuje ruch, co umożliwia lajkonikowi wykonanie drugiego obrzędowego tańca z chorągwią. Następnie pochód rusza ulicą Franciszkańską i Grodzką. Około godziny 19.00 dociera do rynku i wstępuje na otoczoną tłumem widzów estradę pod wieżą ratuszową. Następuje wówczas kulminacja obrzędu: lajkonik przyjmuje od ojców miasta haracz w wielkiej sakwie, wychyla wraz z prezydentem, dyrektorem muzeum historycznego i dyrektorem wodociągów puchar wina i w podzięce wykonuje trzeci rytualny taniec ze sztandarem zwany "urbem salutare" – pokłon miastu. Następnie orszak udaje się do restauracji Wierzynek. Godzinę później ponownie ukazuje się na Rynku, okrąża sukiennice. Harce kończą się zwyczajową kolacją w restauracji "Hawełka". +Uczestnicy. +W rolę lajkonika od 1988 roku wciela się Zbigniew Glonek. Jest on, podobnie jak duża część członków orszaku, pracownikiem Miejskiego Przedsiębiorstwa Wodociągów i Kanalizacji. Wcześniej, w postać tę wcielali się m.in. Jan Jelonek (lata 1975-1987), Zdzisław Dudzik (1958 -1974) i Stanisław Andrasz (1928-1957). +Kapelę „Mlaskoty” (flet, trąbka, klarnet, akordeon, bęben, bas i para skrzypiec) tworzą ludowi muzycy w większości pochodzący z Woli Justowskiej. Wieloletni kierownik i opiekun kapeli – Albin Mazur przejął funkcję od swojego ojca – Stanisława Mazura i grał w niej nieprzerwanie od roku 1936 do 2007 roku. Obecnie kapelą kieruje jego syn – Andrzej Mazur. +Autorstwo melodii nie jest pewne: według jednych skomponował ją około 1820 roku wodewilista i dyrygent krakowskiej orkiestry teatralnej Józef Wygrzywalski, według innych kompozytor i dyrygent Franciszek Mirecki. Marsz ten jest bardzo podobny do pierwszej części Marsza Sobieskiego roku granego przez Polaków wracających z „odsieczy wiedeńskiej” w 1683 roku. +Historia pochodu. +Historyczne początki pochodu nie są znane; wiadomo jednak, że urządzali go zwierzynieccy włóczkowie, którzy od XIII lub XIV wieku tworzyli bractwo zajmujące się m.in. spławianiem drewna na potrzeby kopalń soli w Bochni i Wieliczce. Włóczkowie przez długi czas brali udział w procesji Bożego Ciała organizowanej przez ss. norbertanki w kościele Najświętszego Salwatora w Zwierzyńcu. Najstarsza wzmianka potwierdzająca ten fakt pochodzi z 13 czerwca 1700 roku – w aktach klasztoru zapisano pod tą datą, że po procesji Bożego Ciała w Zwierzyńcu "włóczkowie zwyczajnie na podworcu grali". Natomiast pierwsza wzmianka o pochodzie konika zwierzynieckiego pochodzi z roku 1738. Jest to informacja o bójce, która wybuchła wśród włóczków podczas uczty na Kazimierzu. +Po trzecim rozbiorze bractwo włóczków przestało istnieć, lecz coroczny pochód nadal się odbywał; z biegiem czasu harce podczas Bożego Ciała stały się zabawą tak wesołą, że biskup sufragan krakowski Józef Olechowski uznał, iż nie licuje ona z powagą religijnego święta i w maju 1787 roku nakazał by bractwa i cechy brały udział w procesji "bez wymysłów, bez strojów dziwacznych lub nadto światowych, albo do śmiechu pobudzających, ale aby były podług myśli i ustaw Kościoła Bożego, zagrzewająca do cnót chrześcijańskich i pobożności". Odtąd konik wraz orszakiem nie miał już prawa wstępu na krakowski rynek i po przybyciu z dziedzińca klasztoru norbertanek w okolice Bramy Wiślnej kontynuował harce przed pałacem biskupim. +Przez pierwszą połowę XIX stulecia, finansowo wspierały obchód norbertanki. W drugiej połowie tego wieku, finansowania uroczystości podjął się magistrat, a samą organizacją zajmowali się Micińscy – rodzina ogrodników z Półwsia Zwierzynieckiego, potomków dawnych włóczków. W ostatnich latach XIX wieku władze miejskie zobowiązały nowo powstałe Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa do czuwania nad pochodem i uregulowała zasady współpracy z rodziną Micińskich przy jego organizacji. Ustalono, że w skład zespołu obok samego lajkonika, kapeli i chorążego wchodzić będzie 14 członków asysty, a rekwizyty będą przechowywane w Archiwum Akt Dawnych Miasta Krakowa. Opieka towarzystwa zaczęła przynosić dobre rezultaty. W roku 1900 sprawiono nową chorągiew, z herbem miasta na niebieskim tle z jednej strony, i z białym orłem z drugiej. W roku 1901 roku Tatarzyn otrzymał nowego "konika". Drewniany korpus ofiarowała firma Rudolf Weil i Sp. w Krakowie, a rzeźbiarz z Dębnik za 8 florenów dorobił doń głowę i szyję. +Strój. +W latach 1903-1904 wykonano według projektu Stanisława Wyspiańskiego nowy strój dla lajkonika. W tej kreacji występuje on aż do dziś. Składa się on z wysokiego, wzorzystego i bogato zdobionego turbana, zwieńczonego półksiężycem i wysadzanego szklanymi koralikami oraz koralami. Kolejne elementy to: turecki kaftan z karminowego płótna, o szerokich rękawach i zapinany na haftki, okazały czerwony kontusz o kroju długiej zapinanej sukni, oraz obszyty złotymi nićmi i frędzlami pas w kolorze purpury. U boku Tatarzyna zwisa jatagan – krótka turecka szabla o zakrzywionej klindze i ozdobnej rękojeści. W ręku zaś dzierży lajkonik drewnianą buławę. Grzbiet konika okryty jest bordowym czaprakiem – ozdobną kapą o wschodnich motywach, zapinaną na guzy, i wyszywaną tysiącem pereł i korali w artystyczny ornament nawiązujący do perskich kobierców. U jej dołu zwisają metalowe dzwoneczki i półksiężyce. Z kolei szyję konika okrywa ozdobny napierśnik z trzema złotymi krążkami, a nad głową sterczy pióropusz z białych strusich piór. Jeździec nosi wysokie buty z cholewami z czerwonej skóry. +Od lat 50. XX wieku do roku 1996 roku członkowie orszaku nosili stroje według projektu Witolda Chomicza, od 1997 orszak występuje w strojach zaprojektowanych przez Krystynę Zachwatowicz. +Problem genezy. +Spory dotyczące początków pochodu lajkonika sprowokowane zostały przez pisarza Konstantego Majeranowskiego, który 9 czerwca 1820 roku opublikował w wydawanym przez siebie piśmie "Pszczółka Krakowska" artykuł pt. "Konik". W tekście tym po raz pierwszy pojawia się legenda o zwierzynieckich włóczkach, opisująca wydarzenia, które według autora miały dać początek tradycji corocznych lajkonikowych harców. +Wyjaśnienie podane przez Majeranowskiego nie zyskało akceptacji i wkrótce potem pojawiły się głosy tłumaczące początki zabawy w zupełnie inny sposób. Koncepcje te zrekapitulował Franciszek Gawełek w swojej pracy pt. "Konik Zwierzyniecki". +Geneza nazwy "lajkonik". +W kronikach klasztoru norbertanek pojawia się sformułowanie "dobosz z konikiem". Ambroży Grabowski pisze o "turku na koniu", a Konstanty Majeranowski o "człowieku po tatarsku ubranym". Po raz pierwszy słowo "lajkonik" zanotował w 1866 roku archeolog Józef Łepkowski. +Według folklorysty Juliana Krzyżanowskiego słowo "lajkonik" wywodzi się ze staroniemieckiego słowa "Lai" oznaczającego bractwo cechowe. Według innego przypuszczenia jest to skrót okrzyku "lej" (czyli: "bij!"), którym zachęcano tatarzyna do rozdawania ciosów buławą, lub też "Hulaj!". Niektórzy badacze (Ludwik Krzywicki) twierdzili, że źródłosłów lać – lej wynikał oblewania ludzi wodą (dyngusem), co miał rzekomo czynić tatarzyn w przeszłości; jeszcze inni (Ludwik Młynek) wyprowadzają wyraz "laj" z niemieckiego „Lauf”, „läuf”, jak mieli na konika wołać dawni niemieckojęzyczni mieszkańcy miasta, a także z „Leibpferd” (Szymon Matusiak) i "heiliger König". Istnieje też prawdopodobieństwo, że nazwa ta dotarła do Krakowa ze Śląska, gdzie w miejscowej mowie wiosenny obchód króla majowego nazywano słowem "Leichkonik" (König = król). +Inne "lajkoniki". +Lajkonik jest jednym z nieoficjalnych symboli Krakowa, jego nazwę wykorzystują biura podróży, zespoły artystyczne, a nawet pociąg relacji Kraków-Gdynia. +W Krakowie można spotkać innych brodatych jeźdźców nieco podobnych do lajkonika; jeden z nich występuje jako maskotka na stadionie Cracovii, inny pojawia się na rynku w trakcie zabawy sylwestrowej. Odziani są oni w stroje wzorowane na stroju Stanisława Wyspiańskiego i nie mają nic wspólnego z tradycją zwierzynieckiego pochodu. +Grsecurity + +grsecurity jest łatą nakładaną na kod źródłowy jądra Linux, zwiększającą jego bezpieczeństwo. +Początkowo łatka była jedynie portem łaty dla jąder serii 2.4 tworzonej przez Solar Designera. Jako że Solar opracowywał łatki jedynie dla serii 2.2 i starszych, zadania ich przeniesienia na nowszą gałąź podjął się Brad Spengler. Obecnie zaimplementowano w nim wiele nowych rozwiązań, a grsecurity dostępny jest dla jąder gałęzi 2.4 jak i najnowszych 2.6. +Podsumowanie. +Nie ma złotego środka na wszystkie możliwe metody ataku. Grsecurity może być jedną z warstw ochrony przed intruzami, zarówno wewnętrznymi jak i zewnętrznymi. W połączeniu z innymi narzędziami (jak dynamicznie linkowana biblioteka libsafe), restrykcyjną zaporą sieciową i poważnym podejściem do zagadnień z dziedziny zabezpieczeń, pozwoli osiągnąć zadowalający poziom bezpieczeństwa. +Należy jednak pamiętać, że nic nie daje 100% pewności, a nie ma nic bardziej zgubnego niż fałszywe poczucie bezpieczeństwa. +Postępujące kostniejące zapalenie mięśni + +Postępujące kostniejące zapalenie mięśni (fibrodysplazja, postępujące skostnienia mięśni, choroba Münchmeyera, łac. "myositis ossificans progressiva", ang. fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, FOP) – rzadka choroba genetyczna. +Przebieg i opis choroby. +W przebiegu FOP dochodzi do postępującego skostnienia tkanki łącznej i mięśniowej. Tkanka kostna rozrasta się stopniowo w sposób niekontrolowany. Chorzy nie mogą poruszać się i są zdani na ciągłą pomoc innych osób. +Naukowcy poszukiwali przyczyn choroby w podstawowych elementach budowy ciała człowieka. Od lat poszukiwano genu odpowiedzialnego za patogenezę FOP. W roku 2006 udało się wyodrębnić gen zespołowi doktora Frederika S. Kaplana. Naukowcy odkryli, że dotknięci tą chorobą ludzie posiadają nadmiar BMP-4 w białych ciałkach krwi, które powinny chronić organizm przed zagrożeniami z zewnątrz. BMP-4 jest białkiem odpowiedzialnym za budowę kości. W toku choroby białe ciałka krwi wydzielają BMP-4 w przypadku powstawania ran, co w praktyce oznacza, że ciało „reperuje” skaleczone miejsce tkanką kostną. Poza tym organizm chorych wykazuje znaczny niedobór innego białka (noginy), które pełni funkcję antagonisty BMP-4, czyli zatrzymuje rozrost kości. Obecnie choroba ta jest nieuleczalna. +Chorzy na FOP muszą unikać wszelkich skaleczeń. Np. zastrzyk znieczulający u stomatologa może sprawić, że już nigdy nie będą mogli poruszyć żuchwą. +Jedynym, rozpoznawalnym na pierwszy rzut oka objawem choroby u małych dzieci jest charakterystyczne skrzywienie dużych palców u stóp. +W przypadku chorych na FOP przypuszcza się najpierw, że zostali oni dotknięci nowotworem, ponieważ na ich ciele pojawiają się dziwne guzy. +Brak środków na badania. +FOP jest niezwykle rzadka. Np. w Niemczech choruje na nią obecnie tylko 47 osób, zaś w Polsce zarejestrowano jak dotąd (sierpień 2010) tylko 17 przypadków tej choroby . Rzadkość choroby powoduje, że firmy farmaceutyczne nie prowadzą badań nad lekiem na nią. Rozwój badań w tym zakresie finansowany jest wyłącznie ze środków prywatnych. +Stowarzyszenie pomocy chorym. +W Ameryce istnieje stowarzyszenie IFOPA (International FOP Association), którego działalność badawczą finansuje, prawie całkowicie, Fred Kaplan. Stowarzyszenie to, założone w roku 1988 jest jedynym ważnym źródłem informacji i porad dla chorych i ich rodzin. Jednym z najbardziej znanych przypadków był przypadek Harry’ego Eastlacka. Harry Eastlack zapisał swój szkielet na cele naukowe. Można go zobaczyć w Mütter Museum w Filadelfii. +Kur (mitologia) + +Kur ("obca kraina") lub ki-gal ("wielka kraina") - tak Sumerowie określali obszar kosmiczny oddzielający ziemię od podziemnego oceanu wód pierwotnych, w którym mieścił się świat zmarłych (arali). +W Babilonii kraina ta była nazywana "ziemią bez powrotu", lub "krainą bez powrotu", czasem Arallu, Irkalla, Kutu lub ersetu ("ziemia"). +Sumerowie prawdopodobnie wierzyli w to, że wejście do świata podziemnego znajduje się w górach. Chociaż były też inne wejścia, np. dla osoby zmarłej wejściem do kur był grób. +Z ziemi do świata podziemnego wchodziło się przez specjalny otwór. Następnie trzeba było z przewoźnikiem przepłynąć rzeką "pożerającą człowieka", by przejść przez siedem bram, wyznaczających siedem okręgów prawdziwego kur. W centrum był pałac z lazurytu będący siedzibą bogini Ereszkigal. Równorzędnym królem podziemi był Nergal, jej małżonek. Oprócz pary władców w siedmiu okręgach kur było siedmiu bogów (określanych jako "sędziowie Anunaki"). Strażnikiem bramy (Ganzir) był Neti (Nedu). Także bogowie Utu i Nanna po swej codziennej wędrówce po nieboskłonie schodzą do podziemi, by tam sądzić zmarłych. Jednym z sędziów świata zmarłych został Gilgamesz. +Świat podziemny opisywany był jako nieprzyjemny, pogrążony w ciemności i pełen pyłu. Zmarli błąkają się tam spragnieni i głodni. Życie w zaświatach może być trochę bardziej znośne, gdy żyjący regularnie składają zmarłym ofiary z jedzenia i picia. W najgorszym położeniu byli ci, którzy nie uzyskali właściwego pochówku. W kur nie mieli oni nawet swego gidim (duch zmarłych). Ereszkigal wydawała na dusze wyrok śmierci, a ich imiona były zapisywane przez Gesztinanę (babilońska Beletseri) na tabliczce. Dopiero wtedy śmierć stawała się faktem. W świecie podziemnym były też różne demony, m.in. galla. +Zwięzłość gleby + +Zwięzłość gleby - cecha gleby wskazująca na stopień (siłę) związania poszczególnych cząstek glebowych ze sobą, dzięki czemu gleba stawia większy lub mniejszy opór siłom zewnętrznym (na przykład rozcinanie pługiem). Zależy głównie od składu granulometrycznego, struktury, układu, zawartości koloidów, wilgotności. +Nadmierna zwięzłość gleby może utrudniać zakorzenianie się roślin. +W zależności od zwięzłości gleby dzielimy na: +Balaton (Sosnowiec) + +Balaton - ośrodek rekreacji i wypoczynku w Sosnowcu Porąbce (właściwie w "Zawodziu"), którego zasadniczym elementem jest otoczony lasami staw Balaton o powierzchni około 10 ha. +Miejsce w sezonie letnim chętnie odwiedzane przez mieszkańców miasta. +Ruch Patriotyczny Ojczyzna + +Ruch Patriotyczny "Ojczyzna" to koalicja ugrupowań politycznych startująca w wyborach samorządowych w 1998. +W jej skład wchodziły: +Przywódcy: +Ruch Patriotyczny "Ojczyzna" uzyskał w wyborach samorządowych w 1998 256 mandatów radnych (2 radnych wojewódzkich, 48 radnych powiatowych i 206 radnych gminnych). +MiG-15 + +MiG-15 (ros. МиГ-15) - radziecki samolot myśliwski, skonstruowany w końcu lat czterdziestych. Ten typ maszyn brał udział w wojnie koreańskiej. Oznaczenie NATO - "FAGOT". +Historia rozwoju. +W 1947 biuro Mikojana i Guriewicza zaprojektowało nowoczesny płatowiec myśliwca oznaczony jako I-310 ("I" od "istriebitiel" – myśliwiec), brakowało jednak w Związku Radzieckim silnika odpowiedniego dla tej nowoczesnej maszyny. Problem ten rozwiązał się, gdy rząd brytyjski udostępnił ZSRR swój nowy silnik turboodrzutowy Rolls-Royce Nene Mk. I, który w dość krótkim czasie skopiowano i oznaczono Klimow RD-45. Rozwiązało to problem i trzeci prototyp z nowym silnikiem wzbił się w powietrze 30 grudnia 1947 roku. Nowy typ maszyn pod oznaczeniem MiG-15 wszedł do służby na początku 1949 roku. +Samoloty użytkowane przez fińskie lotnictwo nosiły oznaczenia od MU-1 do MU-4, natomiast przez Chiny oznaczano J-2 (MiG-15), J-3 (MiG-15bis) oraz JJ-2 (MiG-15 UTI z silnikiem RD-45) i JJ-3 (MiG-15 UTI z silnikiem WK-1). W Polsce produkowano również na licencji silniki jako Lis-1 (RD-45F) i Lis-2 (WK-1A) ("Lis" od "Licencyjny silnik"). +Opis konstrukcji. +Jednomiejscowy samolot myśliwski (MiG-15 UTI i jego odpowiedniki były dwumiejscowe) o konstrukcji półskorupowej, metalowej, z kółkiem przednim, chowane. Średniopłat o skosie skrzydeł +35° +Ribat + +Ribat (arab. رباط) – jest to wojskowy klasztor muzułmański, ufortyfikowany, zwykle położony przy granicy. Budynek otoczony murem posiadał wieżę, salę modlitw (np. ribat w Tunezji w mieście Susa, stąd częste przekształcanie w późniejszych czasach ribatów w meczety). Ich powstanie wiązane jest z obowiązkiem prowadzenia świętej wojny i strzeżenia granic państwowych. +Terminu tego na terenie Iranu z biegiem czasu zaczęto używać na określenie umocnionych karawanserajów. +Najbardziej znany tunezyjski ribat znajduje się w Monastirze - na jego terenie kręcono takie filmy, jak: ""Angielski Pacjent"", ""Żywot Briana"", ""Matrix 2"" czy polskie ""W pustyni i w puszczy"". +Od nazwy "al murabitin" (mieszkańcy klasztoru) pochodzi nazwa Almorawidzi - nazwa trzech berberyjskich dynastii. +Przedabog + +Przedabog – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "Prze-" ("przez" i wiele innych znaczeń), "-da" ("dać") i "-bog" ("Bóg", ale pierwotnie "los, dola, szczęście"). Prawdopodobnie imię to ma charakter wybitnie życzący i może oznaczać "niech Bóg (los) obdarzy". +Anti Fungal Protein + +AFP (ang. "Anti Fungal Protein") to małe białko (5,6kDa, 51 AA) o charakterze zasadowym pochodzące z grzyba "Aspergillus giganteus". +Inhibuje wzrost wielu komórek grzybow (poprzez permobilizacje ściany komórkowej), nie zagrażając przy tym komórkom zwierzęcym i roślinnym. Możliwe wykorzystanie jako fungicyd nowej generacji. +AFP Alpha-Fetoprotein marker nowotworowy +Proletariusze + +Proletarianie (z łac. "proles": "potomstwo", "winna latorośl"), w starożytnym Rzymie warstwa najuboższych niemających ziemi obywateli, wolna w zasadzie od podatków i służby wojskowej, u schyłku republiki w znacznym stopniu utrzymywana przez państwo. Szczególnie dużą rolę proletariusze odgrywali podczas walk wyborczych. Od państwa otrzymywali jedzenie i prawo do bezpłatnych igrzysk ("panem et circenses - chleba i igrzysk"). +Leon Wegner + +Leon Wegner (ur. 31 marca 1824 w Poznaniu, zm. 9 lipca 1873 tamże) – ekonomista, historyk, jeden z twórców Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. +Pochodził z niezamożnej rodziny, ukończył poznańskie gimnazjum Marii Magdaleny. W 1849 ukończył prawo na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim; w trakcie studiów należał do Towarzystwa Literacko-Słowiańskiego. Po studiach powrócił do Poznania i podjął prywatną praktykę adwokacką. Bronił oskarżonych o udział w rewolucji 1848. W latach 1870 – 1873 był zatrudniony jako syndyk (rzecznik prawny) Bazaru Poznańskiego, dla którego opracował ustawę Spółki Akcyjnej Bazaru (1872). +Aktywnie uczestniczył w życiu społecznym Poznania. Wchodził m.in. w skład prezydium Koła Towarzyskiego przy Bazarze Poznańskim. Był członkiem dyrekcji Towarzystwa Pomocy Naukowej im. Karola Marcinkowskiego, członkiem rady miejskiej Poznania, kilkakrotnym posłem na sejm pruski (po raz pierwszy wybrany w 1854). Należał do grona współtwórców Polskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk, jako pierwszy pełnił funkcję sekretarza generalnego (1857-1868) i był członkiem czynnym Wydziału Historycznego. Redagował "Roczniki PTPN", na łamach których - mimo braku historycznego wykształcenia - ogłosił wiele prac historycznych, poświęconych głównie ostatnim latom I Rzeczypospolitej (m.in. prace biograficzne o Kołłątaju, Reytanie i Kościuszce, opracowania o bitwie pod Maciejowicami i sejmie grodzieńskim 1793). W uznaniu dorobku historycznego został wybrany na członka korespondenta krakowskiej Akademii Umiejętności. +Brał udział w pracach wielu komitetów okolicznościowych, m.in. organizującego uroczystości patriotyczne po śmierci Mickiewicza w 1855. +Z małżeństwa z Bronisławą z Jarochowskich miał czworo dzieci, córki Marię, Wandę i Zofię oraz syna Stanisława, publicystę i księgarza. +Walenty Stefański + +Walenty Maciej Stefański (ur. 12 lutego 1813 w Śródce k. Poznania, zm. 30 czerwca 1877 w Pelplinie) – księgarz, drukarz, działacz polityczny, jeden z organizatorów Ligi Polskiej. +Działalność polityczna w Wielkopolsce. +Był synem rybaka. Kształcił się początkowo u księży reformatów w Śródce, następnie praktykował w drukarni E. Deckera w Poznaniu i uzupełniał wykształcenie samodzielnie. W 1831 wziął udział w powstaniu listopadowym, otrzymując nawet odznaczenie wojskowe za dzielność. Władze pruskie ukarały go więzieniem i konfiskatą majątku, jednak jako nieletni został amnestionowany i skierowany do służby wojskowej w Nadrenii. Po odbyciu służby powrócił do pracy w poznańskiej drukarni Deckera. +W 1838 rozpoczął samodzielną działalność na rynku księgarskim. Otworzył w Poznaniu księgarnię, a w 1840 także drukarnię. Przez krótki czas wydawał pismo gospodarczo-społeczne "Postęp" (1842), rychło zamknięte przez cenzurę, w latach 1845-46 redagował i wydawał pismo miesięczne "Obrona prawdy" o tematyce religijnej i literackiej. Działał w Związku Plebejuszy, przygotowującym w porozumieniu z innymi zaborami zbrojne powstanie. W 1845 założył kasyno rzemieślnicze w Poznaniu ("Gospoda Miejska"). Wkrótce został aresztowany, ale bez konsekwencji karnych. Po zwolnieniu (z braku dowodów) powrócił do działalności konspiracyjnej i brał udział w przygotowaniach wydarzeń Wiosny Ludów w Wielkopolsce. +Jeden z organizatorów Ligi Polskiej, w latach 1848-1850 redagował (wspólnie z ks. Aleksym Prusinowskim) ludowe pismo "Wielkopolanin"; wydawał także inne pisma, m.in. "Krzyż a Miecz". Był wydawcą syntezy dziejów Słowiańszczyzny, "Słowiańskie starożytności" (czes. "Slovanské starožitnosti") autorstwa Pawła Józefa Szafarzyka, w przekładzie Hieronima Napoleona Bońkowskiego. +W 1851 władze zamknęły jego drukarnię. Zajął się wówczas bez większego powodzenia handlem, co zmusiło go do częstych zmian miejsca pobytu. +Działalność polityczna na Pomorzu. +Przeniósł się na Pomorze, wreszcie w 1864 osiadł na stałe w Pelplinie; brał nadal udział w działalności narodowej, w latach 1863-1864 był więziony w Świnoujściu. W Pelplinie założył Towarzystwo Rolnicze oraz kasę pożyczkową. W ostatnich latach ograniczył działalność społeczną. +Z małżeństwa z Pauliną Stefańską (kuzynką) miał pięcioro dzieci, syna i cztery córki. +Zmarł w 1877 i został pochowany w Pelplinie. +Kontrybucja + +Kontrybucja – danina, składka, jednorazowy podatek wojenny bądź odszkodowanie wojenne, zwrot kosztów wojennych. +Bieg na 200 metrów + +Bieg na 200 metrów – bieg sprinterski rozgrywany zarówno na otwartym stadionie, jak i w hali. +Zentiva + +Grupa ZENTIVA to holding farmaceutyczny, który powstał w sierpniu 2003 roku poprzez połączenie dwóch odnoszących sukcesy, największych spółek farmaceutycznych w Czechach i na Słowacji: Léčiva i Slovakofarma. Spółka akcyjna notowana w Pradze. +11 sierpnia 2003 urząd antymonopolowy Republiki Słowackiej wydał zgodę na to, aby firma Zentiva B. V., która jest głównym akcjonariuszem spółki akcyjnej Léčiva, przejęła większość udziałów w akcjach spółki Slovakofarma a.s. 18 sierpnia 2003 przejęcie Slovakofarmy przez nowego większościowego udziałowca było ukończone. Produkty obu spółek zaczęły być sprzedawane pod nową wspólna nazwą Zentiva od 1 września 2003. +Początków firmy Zentiva, a.s. Praha (Léčiva) należy poszukiwać w piętnastowiecznej praskiej aptece „Pod Czarnym Orłem”, zakupionej w 1857 roku przez Benjamina Fragnera. Pierwsze, produkujące ma masową skalę, zakłady wytwórcze zostały uruchomione w 1930 roku. Firma została nazwana „Léčiva a.s.” po prywatyzacji w 1993 roku. +Początki firmy Zentiva, a.s. Hlohovec (Slovakofarma) związane są z rokiem 1941 kiedy to została uruchomiona fabryka chemiczna „Słowackie alkaloidy” (Slovenské alkaloidy). +Zentiva jest nowoczesną, dynamiczną grupą specjalizującą się w opracowywaniu, produkcji i sprzedaży odpowiedników leków oryginalnych. Zajmuje wiodącą pozycję na rynku czeskim i słowackim i jest jednym z ważniejszych uczestników rynku farmaceutycznego w regionie Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. +Polskie przedstawicielstwo firmy Léčiva powstało w 1996 r. +Spółka SLOVAKOFARMA-POLSKA powstała w 1996 r. +Otwarcie firmy Zentiva PL Sp. z o.o nastąpiło w 2003 r. +Zentiva PL Sp. z o.o. skupia swoją działalność na rejestracji i promocji wyrobów farmaceutycznych. Główne dziedziny to gastrologia, urologia, kardiologia i neurologia. Oprócz leków etycznych (wydawanych na receptę) Zentiva PL wprowadza na rynek również leki wydawane bez recepty. +Miękławka + +Miękławka, mękławka, amia ("Amia calva") – jedyny współcześnie żyjący przedstawiciel ryb z rodziny amiowatych (Amiidae). Ryba o niewielkim znaczeniu gospodarczym, poławiana przez wędkarzy, spotykana w akwariach publicznych. +Występowanie. +Żyje w silnie zarośniętych rzekach w Ameryce Północnej, w dorzeczach Wielkich Jezior (z wyjątkiem Jeziora Górnego) i Missisipi. +Opis. +Ciało wydłużone, wrzecionowate, nie wyróżniające się barwą spośród otoczenia (spód jasny, wierzch oliwkowy), długość ciała: 0,6–1 m; płetwa grzbietowa pojedyncza, podłużna, prawie sięga ogona, płetwa ogonowa symetryczna, osadzona na szerokiej podstawie; całe ciało pokryte łuskami cykloidalnymi, na głowie dodatkowo płytki kostne ukryte pod skórą. Dymorfizm płciowy widoczny w rozmiarach i ubarwieniu. Samiec jest mniejszy od samicy, cechą pozwalającą na łatwą identyfikację dorosłego samca jest niewielka, okrągła, czarna plama w żółtej lub pomarańczowej obwódce położona u nasady ogona. Poza tym, w okresie rozrodu zmienia ubarwienie. +Tryb życia. +Amia zamieszkuje wody słodkie, zimą głębokie, latem wypływa na płycizny. W wysychających zbiornikach może obyć się bez wody, ponieważ za pomocą pęcherza pławnego oddycha powietrzem atmosferycznym. Przy wysokich temperaturach zapada w stan estywacji. Jest zwierzęciem o nocnym trybie życia. +Odżywianie. +Jest to ryba drapieżna, poluje o zmierzchu na inne, mniejsze ryby. Młode amie zjadają różnego rodzaju bezkręgowce, np. skorupiaki, mięczaki, z wiekiem w ich diecie zaczynają dominować ryby. +Rozmnażanie. +Tarło odbywa się wiosną od kwietnia do czerwca w temperaturze około 25 stopni Celsjusza. Samica składa ikrę (około 64 000 ziaren) do okrągłego gniazda, zbudowanego przez samca z roślin, piasku i kamieni. Ikrą i larwami opiekuje się wyłącznie samiec. Świeżo wylęgłe larwy przyczepiają się do ścianek gniazda za pomocą wydzieliny tzw. narządu cementowego mieszczącego się na głowie. +Miriam Hyde + +Miriam Hyde (15 stycznia 1913 w Adelajdzie - 11 stycznia 2005), australijska kompozytorka, pianistka, poetka; pedagog muzyczny. +W dorobku kompozytorskim miała utwory na fortepian i inne instrumenty, także utwoy na orkiestrę oraz piosenki. Występowała jako pianistka ze znanymi dyrygentami, m.in. Sir Malcolmem Sargentem, Sir Bernardem Heinze oraz Geoffreyem Simonem. Wykształcenie muzyczne zdobyła w konserwatorium w Adelajdzie oraz Royal College of Music w Londynie. Obok aktywnej działalności kompozytorskiej i koncertowej nagrała wiele płyt oraz przez lata była pedagogiem muzycznym w Sydney. +Cieszyła się dużym uznaniem w Australii, m.in. uroczystymi koncertami obchodzono jej 90. urodziny. Otrzymała Order Imperium Brytyjskiego (1961), Order Australii (1991), a także doktorat honorowy Macquarie University w Sydney. Była laureatką nagród kompozytorskich. Jej utwór "Happy Occasion Uverture" zainaugurował w 1957 działalność Australijskiej Orkiestry Młodzieżowej w Sydney. W 1992 otrzymała australijski tytuł "Kobiety Roku". Rok wcześniej opublikowała autobiografię "Complete Accord". +Tonokilometr + +Tonokilometr ("tkm"; ang.: "ton·km=ton·kilometre") – stosowana w transporcie towarowym jednostka miary pracy przewozowej wykonanej przez środek transportu towarowego w określonym czasie (np. doby, miesiąca, roku, wybranego kursu itp.). +James Forman + +James Forman (ur. 4 października 1928 w Chicago, zm. 10 stycznia 2005 w Waszyngtonie), amerykański działacz praw człowieka. +Służył w armii podczas wojny koreańskiej. Jako Afroamerykanin doświadczył na sobie prześladowań rasistowskich ze strony policji. Na uczelni w Chicago był liderem ruchu studenckiego, w latach 1964-1966 sekretarzem Studenckiego Komitetu Antywojennego ("Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee"). W 1963 był jednym z głównych organizatorów Marszu na Waszyngton. +Praca przewozowa + +Praca przewozowa – w transporcie: iloczyn wykonanych przez środki transportu: długości drogi (liczby kilometrów; w transporcie kołowym: wozokilometrów) i +Zobacz też: pasażerokilometr, tonokilometr, wozogodzina, wozokilometr, ekonomika transportu. +Bieg na 5000 metrów + +Bieg na 5000 metrów – konkurencja lekkoatletyczna, zaliczana do biegów długich. Zawodnicy pokonują 12,5 okrążeń bieżni stadionu bądź 25 okrążeń w hali, choć ten dystans nie jest rozgrywany na najważniejszych imprezach halowych. +Konkurencja rozgrywana jest przez mężczyzn od Igrzysk w Sztokholmie w 1912, natomiast przez kobiety dopiero od 1996 (wcześniej na Igrzyskach w 1984, 1988 i 1992 biegały na krótszym dystansie 3000 metrów). +Najszybsi zawodnicy wszech czasów. +mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczy na 5000 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 6 lipca 2012). +Zobacz więcej na stronie IAAF. +kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczek na 5000 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 29 lipca 2011). +Zobacz więcej na stronie IAAF. +Najszybsi zawodnicy w historii w hali. +kobiety. +Zobacz więcej na stronie IAAF. +Proteusz (księżyc) + +Proteusz (Neptun VIII) – drugi pod względem wielkości księżyc Neptuna, odkryty w 1989 roku przez S. Synotta, na podstawie fotografii wykonanych przez sondę Voyager 2. Jego nazwa pochodzi od mitologicznego bożka morskiego, który potrafił dowolnie zmieniać swój wygląd. +Charakterystyka. +Naukowcy przypuszczają, że ze średnicą ok. 420 km, Proteusz jest największym obiektem jaki może być nieregularną bryłą. Gdyby był odrobinę większy, znalazłby się w stanie równowagi hydrostatycznej i własna grawitacja nadała by mu kulisty kształt. Nieco mniejszy od niego satelita Saturna, Mimas, jest w równowadze hydrostatycznej ze względu na niższą gęstość. +Mimo że Proteusz jest większy od zaobserwowanej w 1949 roku Nereidy, nie został odkryty przez ziemskie teleskopy. Jednym z powodów jest znacznie mniejsza odległość od Neptuna, drugim zaś to, że jest to jeden z najciemniejszych obiektów w Układzie Słonecznym. Podobnie jak Febe (księżyc Saturna), odbija on zaledwie 6% padającego nań światła. Powierzchnia Proteusza jest gęsto pokryta kraterami i nie przejawia śladów jakiejkolwiek aktywności geologicznej. Jedyny nazwany krater na jego powierzchni to Pharos. +Istnieje również podobnie nazwana planetoida, 9313 Protea. +Heinrich Tiedemann + +Heinrich von Tiedemann-Seeheim (ur. 22 października 1843 w Dembogórsku, zm. 2 stycznia 1922 w Berlinie) - polityk niemiecki, ziemianin, jeden z założycieli Hakaty i jej pierwszy wieloletni przewodniczący. +Pochodził z rodziny ziemiańskiej z Pomorza Gdańskiego. Od 1863 służył w armii pruskiej. Brał udział w wojnie z Austrią (1866, był ciężko ranny w bitwie pod Halmstadt) i Francją (1871), otrzymał ordery wojskowe - Order Koronny z Mieczami i Żelazny Krzyż. Pod koniec służby wojskowej dowodził regimentem w Kassel; odszedł z armii w 1883 w stopniu kapitana, potem został awansowany na majora. Stopnia majora chętnie używał w późniejszej działalności publicznej. +W 1881 osiedlił się w Poznańskiem, gdzie był jednym z bogatych pruskich właścicieli ziemskich. Jednocześnie poprzez małżeństwo z córką znanego kupca berlińskiego Dorą von Hardt (1872) wszedł do życia gospodarczego stolicy; w 1898 został współwłaścicielem firmy eksportowej swojego szwagra. Działał w samorządzie lokalnym i Kościele protestanckim. Należał do Partii Konserwatywnej. +W 1894 był jednym z inicjatorów wizyty delegacji pruskich ziemian w rezydencji byłego kanclerza Bismarcka w Warcinie; ta wyprawa leżała u podstaw powstania Związku Popierania Niemczyzny na Kresach Wschodnich (Hakaty). 3 listopada 1894 na zebraniu inicjującym działalność Hakaty został wybrany na przewodniczącego zarządu głównego. +Przez kilkadziesiąt lat stał na czele władz wykonawczych Hakaty, podejmując liczne inicjatywy germanizacyjne. Razem z weteranem ruchu niemieckiego w Wielkopolsce Kennemannem otrzymał honorowe członkostwo na 10-lecie związku (1904). Konsekwentnie zwalczał opozycję wewnętrzną, niezmiennie prezentując postawę antypolską. +W zmienionej sytuacji politycznej po I wojnie światowej zrezygnował z pełnionej funkcji w styczniu 1920, także ze względu na podeszły wiek. Przewodnictwo Hakaty objął po nim generał Ernst von Wrisberg. Zmarł dwa lata później. +Z małżeństwa z Dorą von Hardt był ojcem sześciorga dzieci. Jednym z jego wnuków był dyplomata niemiecki Hans von Herwarth. +Prawdopodobnie bratem (lub kuzynem) Heinricha był Erich Tiedemann-Kranz (zm. 1897), właściciel majątku koło Babimostu, który sprawował mandat deputowanego do parlamentu pruskiego od 1879 do końca życia z ramienia konserwatystów. +Kapusta warzywna brukselska + +Kapusta warzywna brukselka, popularnie nazywana brukselką ("Brassica oleracea" L. var. "gemmifera" (DC.) Zenker) – odmiana botaniczna kapusty warzywnej. Jest to roślina dwuletnia należąca do rodziny kapustowatych. Prawdopodobnie powstała ze skrzyżowania jarmużu i kapusty głowiastej w Belgii. Uprawiana od XVII wieku głównie w Europie Zachodniej i Północnej. +Karol Rzepecki + +Karol Rzepecki (ur. 21 czerwca 1865 w Poznaniu, zm. 14 grudnia 1931 w Poznaniu) – księgarz, działacz społeczny i polityczny, redaktor "Sokoła", poseł na Sejm I kadencji w II RP. +Życiorys. +Był synem księgarza Ludwika Władysława Rzepeckiego. W 1885 zdał maturę w gimnazjum Pallotyńskim w Lublinie i wyjechał do Szczecina, gdzie pracował w firmie handlowej, był ministrantem; później zatrudniony w banku w Berlinie. W 1894 po śmierci ojca osiadł w Poznaniu i podjął pracę w "Gońcu Wielkopolskim" i drukarni W. Simona. W 1908 został wspólnikiem Zdzisława Rzepeckiego w firmie księgarsko-wydawniczej, a w latach 1913–1929 prowadził własną Wielkopolską Księgarnię Nakładową. Od 1929 był kierownikiem swojej dawnej księgarni, przekształconej w spółkę z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością ze względu na trudności finansowe. +Prowadził aktywną działalność polityczną. W okresie zaborów wydawał wiele dzieł polskich – historycznych, poetyckich, śpiewników narodowych. Publikował artykuły na łamach "Gońca Wielkopolskiego" (1895–1896), "Sokoła" (1902–1907), "Pracy" (1905–1907), był członkiem i prezesem okręgu poznańskiego Towarzystwa Gimnastycznego "Sokół", działał w Towarzystwie Czytelni Ludowych, Związku Towarzystw Przemysłowych i Rzemieślniczych, Związku Towarzystw Kupieckich. Wielokrotnie stawał przed sądami niemieckimi za działalność narodową. +W latach 1909–1919 wchodził w skład Rady Głównej i Zarządu Głównego Polskiego Towarzystwa Demokratycznego w zaborze pruskim (późniejsze Towarzystwo Narodowo-Demokratyczne), a 1898–1918 był prezesem komitetu wyborczego miasta Poznania. Działał w Tajnej Organizacji Niepodległościowej. W grudniu 1918 został członkiem Rady Ludowej w Poznaniu (a także jej sekretarzem), współtworzył 14. kompanię Straży Ludowej, aktywną w wyzwalaniu Poznania. Został pierwszym polskim prezydentem policji miasta Poznania, ale odszedł ze stanowiska już wiosną 1920, obciążony odpowiedzialnością za krwawe stłumienie manifestacji kolejarzy. Jako naczelnik Wydziału Spraw Wewnętrznych wydał rozkaz otwarcia ognia do protestujących robotników, po dotarciu demonstracji przed Zamek. W wyniku czego zginęło 7 robotników, 32 zostało rannych, dwóch zmarło w wyniku odniesionych ran w szpitalu. +W kolejnych latach był urzędnikiem w Urzędzie Wojewódzkim w Poznaniu, a w 1921 skoncentrował się na pracy wydawniczej. W latach 1922–1927 sprawował mandat poselski z okręgu szamotulskiego. Był aktywnym członkiem stowarzyszeń weteranów oraz Stronnictwa Narodowego (wiceprezes zarządu miejskiego w Poznaniu). +Edo Murtić + +Edo Murtić (ur. 4 maja 1921 w Velika Pisanica - zm. 2 stycznia 2005 w Zagrzebiu), malarz chorwacki. +Studiował w akademiach sztuk pięknych w Zagrzebiu i Belgradzie. Od młodości zafascynowany ideami socjalistycznymi, brał udział w antyfaszystowskim ruchu oporu w okresie II wojny światowej; z czasów wojennych pochodzą ilustracje, plakaty i rysunki propagandowe. +Pierwszą wystawę indywidualną miał w 1952, od tego czasu zyskał sławę zarówno w Jugosławii, jak i na całym świecie jako przedstawiciel abstrakcyjnego ekspresjonizmu. Uczestniczył w ponad 300 wystawach zbiorowych. Został członkiem Chorwackiej Akademii Nauk i Sztuki (1997), działał także w chorwackim Komitecie Helsińskim. +Kapodaster + +Kapodaster ("capo", "capotasto") - przyrząd skracający menzurę strun w chordofonach (gitarach, banjo itp.) w ten sposób, że można tworzyć siodełko w dowolnej pozycji podstrunnicy. Jest to doraźne ułatwienie, jednocześnie ograniczające jednak możliwości techniczne muzyka wykorzystującego skomplikowane konstrukcje akordowe (np. w jazzie). Założenie kapodastra na wysokości pierwszego progu podstrunnicy powoduje, że wszystkie puste struny instrumentu stroją o pół tonu wyżej na każdy próg. +Berlin Wschodni + +Berlin Wschodni (oficjalnie: niem. "Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR"; pol. "Berlin, stolica NRD") – sektor radziecki miasta Berlina w latach 1949–1990, obejmujący centrum i wschodnie dzielnice miasta. +Historia. +Zimna wojna. +6 września 1948 r. członkowie SED zajęli Ratusz Miejski, nie dopuszczając do zebrania się dotychczasowej Rady Miejskiej. Wtedy to większość radnych zadecydowała o przeniesieniu jej siedziby z sektora radzieckiego do amerykańskiego (Ratusz Schöneberg). 30 listopada 1948 zgromadzenie radnych pozostających w starej siedzibie, zdominowane przez członków SED wybrało nowy zarząd miejski, na którego czele stanął Friedrich Ebert jr., który objął stanowisko tzw. nadburmistrza Berlina Wschodniego. +5 grudnia 1948 r. władze radzieckie nie dopuściły do wyborów miejskich na terenie swojego sektora. Natomiast w tym samym czasie w sektorach zachodnich SPD odniosła zwycięstwo a Ernst Reuter objął stanowisko tzw. burmistrza Berlina Zachodniego. Od tego czasu Berlin faktycznie został podzielony na dwa niezależne miasta. +Berlin Wschodni był stolicą NRD od 7 października 1949 do 3 października 1990. Od 13 sierpnia 1961 do 9 listopada 1989 wschodnia część miasta była oddzielona od zachodniej murem berlińskim. +3 października 1990 r. RFN i NRD zjednoczyły się. Ten dzień uznawany jest za formalny koniec istnienia Berlina Wschodniego. +Dziś. +Od zjednoczenia, rząd niemiecki wydał ogromne ilości pieniędzy na scalenie dwóch części Berlina i dostosowanie infrastruktury we wschodniej części miasta do standardów ustanowionych w Berlinie Zachodnim. +Mimo to, nadal istnieją wyraźne różnice między Berlinem Wschodnim i Zachodnim (np. tzw. Ampelmännchen na sygnalizatorach ulicznych). Dawny Berlin Wschodni ma też wyraźnie inny aspekt architektoniczny, częściowo ze względu na charakterystyczny wielkomiejski styl obecny w byłej NRD. Pozostawiono też niewielką liczbę nazw z czasów Niemiec Wschodnich upamiętniających bohaterów socjalistycznych, takich jak Karl-Marx-Allee, Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße. +Geografia. +Demografia. +Największa liczba mieszkańców zamieszkiwała Berlin Wschodni w 1988 roku tj. ok. 1 280 000 os., natomiast najniższa była w 1961 r. tj. ok. 1 060 000 os. w okresie budowy muru berlińskiego. +Aniela Tułodziecka + +Aniela Tułodziecka (ur.2 października 1853 w Dąbrowie Starej, powiat Wolsztyn, zm.11 października 1932 w Poznaniu) – działaczka społeczna i oświatowa, wieloletnia przewodnicząca Towarzystwa „Warta”. +Była córką dzierżawcy Dąbrowy Starej Antoniego. Od 1866 mieszkała w Poznaniu, gdzie kształciła się na pensji Antoniny Estkowskiej. W okresie nasilenia akcji germanizacyjnej uczestniczyła w tajnym nauczaniu języka polskiego. Zainicjowała powstanie 29 maja 1894 w Poznaniu Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Wzajemnego Pouczania się i Opieki nad Dziećmi "Warta" i przez kilkadziesiąt lat koordynowała jego działalność, zarówno jawną (obejmującą głównie opiekę nad ubogimi i upośledzonymi dziećmi z Poznania), jak i tajną, polegającą na kształceniu polskich kadr pedagogicznych, opracowywaniu programów nauczania, redakcji i wydawaniu polskich podręczników. Tułodziecka zorganizowała także bibliotekę pedagogiczną oraz prowadziła kursy dla rodziców, a w 1899 uruchomiła przytułek dla dzieci. Wielokrotnie była celem represji władz niemieckich, m.in. w 1913 odsiedziała 12-dniową karę więzienia (2-14 czerwca 1913). Reprezentowała wielkopolskie środowisko kobiece na zjazdach kobiet z wszystkich trzech zaborów. +W 1920 Towarzystwo „Warta” przekazało swoje zbiory książkowe i pomoce naukowe poznańskim szkołom powszechnym. Aniela Tułodziecka w uznaniu zasług została mianowana honorowym inspektorem szkolnym; kilka lat później w 1927 zrezygnowała z funkcji przewodniczącej „Warty”. +Zasłużoną działaczką społeczną w Wielkopolsce doby zaborów była także siostra Anieli, Zofia Tułodziecka. +Polska Partia Socjalistyczna - Lewica + +Polska Partia Socjalistyczna - Lewica — partia socjalistów polskich powstała w 1906 r. po IX zjeździe PPS w Wiedniu. Jej działacze odrzucili program natychmiastowego odzyskania niepodległości Polski, stawiając na drogę rewolucji robotniczej w sojuszu z organizacjami rosyjskimi na rzecz obalenia caratu rosyjskiego, zbudowania republiki demokratycznej z uzyskaniem autonomii. +Jej organem prasowym był: ""Robotnik"" oraz "Głos Robotniczy". +Rozłam w PPS. +Na IX Zjeździe PPS w Wiedniu w listopadzie 1906 r. doszło do rozłamu pomiędzy częścią działaczy PPS a przedstawicielami Wydziału Bojowego PPS na tle strategii i taktyki PPS. Przedstawiciele Wydziału Bojowego usunięci z PPS utworzyli PPS Frakcję Rewolucyjną. Pozostali na IX Zjeździe delegaci wydali specjalną odezwę, w której wyjaśniając przyczyny rozłamu stwierdził:. +Program PPS-Lewicy. +W grudniu 1917 r. na konferencji w Warszawie doszło do ujawnienia się podziałów w PPS-Lewicy odnośnie postulatu niepodległości Polski. +W grudniu 1918 r. po XII Zjeździe, połączyła się z SDKPiL w Komunistyczną Partię Robotniczą Polski. +Większość organizacji łódzkiej i pabianickiej jako Opozycja Robotnicza PPS-Lewicy z Antonim Szczerkowskim powróciła do PPS. +Absurd (pojęcie) + +Przez absurd (łac. "absurdus" – niewłaściwy, niestosowny, absurdalny) rozumie się przekonania absurdalne i ich zastosowania. +W logice. +Przekonanie absurdalne to każde przekonanie, które w sposób oczywisty nie jest możliwe do utrzymania. W węższym sensie jest to każde zdanie sprzeczne z prawami logiki (zob. "reductio ad absurdum"). Żaden absurd nie jest nonsensem, wyrażenie nonsensowne (jako pozbawione znaczenia) nie może być bowiem sprzeczne z żadnym zdaniem, w tym z żadnym prawem logiki. W języku potocznym termin "absurd" interpretowany jest psychologistycznie, tj. nie jako pewne przekonanie czy pewne zdanie, ale jako stan mentalny towarzyszący temu przekonaniu/zdaniu w odpowiednich sensach. +W filozofii egzystencji. +Filozofia egzystencji rozumie termin "absurd" tak, jak rozumie się go w języku potocznym. Absurdalność przypisywana przez egzystencjalistów życiu ludzkiemu i wszelkim ludzkim działaniom to specyficzne stany mentalne (takie jak trwoga czy poczucie braku celu) stanowiące wg egzystencjalistów fundament bycia człowieka. +Royal York + +Royal York – historyczny budynek na Front Street w Toronto, zbudowany w 1929 r. W budynku mieści się luksusowy hotel o nazwie Fairmont Royal York (dawniej Royal York Hotel). +Jeden z największych hoteli w Toronto, posiadający charakterystyczny wygląd, przypominający połączenie wczesnych biurowców z zamkiem. Obiekt znajduje się często na pocztówkach i zdjęciach, ponieważ stoi przed resztą drapaczy chmur dzielnicy finansowej. +W podobnym stylu powstawało wtedy wiele hoteli i budynków w Ameryce. Zarówno stację jak i hotel zaprojektowali architekci z Montrealu – Ross i Macdonald. +W hotelu, przy okazji wizyt w Toronto, zatrzymuje się królowa Elżbieta. Oprócz rodziny królewskiej niektóre znane postaci, które były gośćmi hotelu to Winston Churchill, Nelson Rockefeller czy Frank Sinatra. +Władysław Oleszczyński + +Władysław Tomasz Kazimierz Oleszczyński (ur. 17 grudnia 1807 w Końskowoli, zm. 11 kwietnia 1866 w Rzymie) – polski rzeźbiarz, medalier i grafik. +Był synem Kazimierza (sędziego pokoju w Krasnymstawie) i Salomei z Kosińskich. Wybitnymi artystami byli także jego dwaj starsi bracia – grafik Antoni (1794-1879) oraz litograf i ilustrator Seweryn (1801-1876). +Urodził się w Końskowoli, w tamtejszej parafii został ochrzczony, a jego ojcem chrzestnym został Franciszek Zabłocki. W 1824 rozpoczął studia na Oddziale Sztuk Pięknych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego; po roku uzyskał stypendium rządowe, dzięki któremu mógł wyjechać na kształcenie artystyczne do Francji. W podróży towarzyszył mu brat Antoni. Nauczycielami Oleszczyńskiego byli kolejno: F. J. Heim (rysunek) i A. L. Dantan (rzeźba), a w latach 1826-1829 w Ecole des Beaux-Arts w Paryżu P. J. David d’Angers (rzeźba) i N. Tiolier (medalierstwo). Pod koniec studiów Oleszczyński wykonał m.in. posąg cesarza Aleksandra I oraz – na zamówienie Warszawskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego – medal Kopernika z okazji odsłonięcia pomnika astronoma w Warszawie. +W maju 1830 powrócił do Warszawy i podjął pracę w mennicy. Wkrótce wziął udział w powstaniu listopadowym, po którego upadku udał się na emigrację. Kolejne 25 lat życia spędził w Paryżu, gdzie stał się głównym rzeźbiarzem Wielkiej Emigracji. Wykonał szereg pomników i nagrobków przedstawicieli polskiego środowiska emigracyjnego, m.in. Maurycego Mochnackiego w Auxerre, Ludwika Michała Paca w Smyrnie, Juliana Ursyna Niemcewicza i Karola Kniaziewicza w Montmorency, Juliusza Słowackiego na paryskim Montmartre, Klementyny z Tańskich Hoffmanowej na Pere Lachaise w Paryżu. Był także twórcą wielu statuetek portretowych (m.in. Niemcewicza, Mickiewicza, Józefa Hoene-Wrońskiego), wykonywał odlewane w brązie medaliony portretowe (brata Antoniego, Słowackiego, Mickiewicza, Józefa Bohdana Zaleskiego, Augusta Cieszkowskiego, Henryka Dembińskiego) oraz medale (m.in. króla Francji Ludwika Filipa I). +Twórczość Oleszczyńskiego z tego okresu obejmowała także litografie i miedzioryty, poświęcone tematycznie Polsce dawnej i współczesnej, wykorzystywane jako ilustracje w polskich wydawnictwach emigracyjnych ukazujących się w Paryżu. Rzeźbiarz miał w dorobku ponadto dekoracje, m.in. dla paryskiego kościoła St. Marie Madeleine wykonał grupę z patronką parafii, a dla mauzoleum Napoleona u Inwalidów serię alegorycznych posągów. Był autorem szeregu artykułów o sztuce. +W 1856 wykonał na zamówienie poznańskiego Komitetu Pamięci Mickiewicza pomnik poety, który odsłonięto w Poznaniu. Wkrótce we wrześniu 1857 przyjechał do Polski i osiadł w Warszawie. Otrzymał pracownię na Zamku Królewskim i kontynuował działalność rzeźbiarską w kraju. Był twórcą wielu epitafiów i pomników, m.in. Jana Pawła Woronicza i Kopernika (w Wieńcu, 1860). Wykonał także posągi i płaskorzeźby do ołtarza Matki Boskiej w kościele kapucynów w Lublinie (1859-1860). Wśród osobistości, których popiersia portretowe wykonał Oleszczyński, byli m.in. Zygmunt Krasiński, Henryk Levittoux, abp Antoni Melchior Fijałkowski, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, Wincenty Pol, Teofil Lenartowicz, Julian Bartoszewicz, Kazimierz Władysław Wójcicki, Jadwiga Łuszczewska (Deotyma). +Należał do grona członków-założycieli Towarzystwa Zachęty Sztuk Pięknych. W 1865 rozpoczął pracę nad warszawskim pomnikiem Jana Kochanowskiego; dla wykucia pomnika wyjechał do Rzymu, tam zmarł i został pochowany. +Jako rzeźbiarz posługiwał się marmurem, gliną, gipsem i brązem, w grafice stosował litografię i miedzioryt. Jest uważany za najwybitniejszego przedstawiciela romantyzmu w polskiej rzeźbie. +Po śmierci został pochowany na cmentarzu Les Champeaux w Montmorency. +Gustaw Potworowski + +Gustaw Potworowski herbu Dębno, (ur. 3 czerwca 1800 w Bielewie, powiat kościański - zm. 23 listopada 1860 w Poznaniu), wielkopolski działacz polityczny i gospodarczy, założyciel Kasyna w Gostyniu. +Biografia. +Był synem Andrzeja Potworowskiego (1764 - 1810), i jego żony Ludwiki z Żychlińskich (zm.1804). Oboje rodzice wywodzili się ze starych rodzin kalwińskich (ewangelicko-reformowanych). Nauki początkowe pobierał w szkole pijarskiej w Warszawie, następnie przeniósł się do Gimnazjum św. Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu, którego jednak nie ukończył. Bez ukończonej szkoły średniej słuchał wykładów z prawa, nauk politycznych i kameralistyki w Bonn, Heidelbergu i Berlinie. Należał w tym okresie do studenckiej organizacji niepodległościowej "Polonia", której wykrycie przypłacił karą więzienia. Jako kawalerzysta wziął udział w powstaniu listopadowym, zdobywając rangę porucznika. Ranny, został internowany pod Kłajpedą, skąd udało mu się zbiec. +Po 1831 skoncentrował się na działalności gospodarczej i społecznej w Wielkopolsce. W majątku Potworowskiego Gola (koło Gostynia) często spotykali się rzecznicy pracy organicznej. W 1835 stamtąd wypłynęła inicjatywa założenia Kasyna Gostyńskiego, na czele którego Potworowski stanął w 1838. To samo środowisko zawiązało spółkę budującą Bazar w Poznaniu (1838) i Towarzystwo Naukowej Pomocy dla Młodzieży Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego (1841). Również w kierownictwie tych instytucji czołowe miejsca zajmował Gustaw Potworowski (prezes Towarzystwa Naukowej Pomocy od 1846). +Wielokrotnie sprawował mandat posła na sejmy prowincjonalne (od 1843). W 1848 kierował Komitetem Narodowym w Poznaniu w okresie wydarzeń Wiosny Ludów. Był posłem pierwszej pruskiej konstytuanty, a także w kolejnych kadencjach sejmu pruskiego. Zdecydowanie występował w obronie uprawnień Polaków, zarówno w mowach sejmowych, jak i publikacjach. Kierował Kołem Polskim, a w latach 1848-1850 także Ligą Polską. Jako wieloletni przywódca opozycji polskiej w Wielkopolsce cieszył się dużym autorytetem moralnym wśród ludności polskiej. +Został pochowany 27 listopada 1860 roku w Lesznie. Całe życie pozostawał członkiem tamtejszej ewangelicko-reformowanej parafii św. Jana (braci czeskich). +Z małżeństwa z Klementyną z Chłapowskich miał trzech synów i córkę. +Bieg na 400 metrów przez płotki + +Bieg na 400 metrów przez płotki – jedna z biegowych konkurencji lekkoatletycznych, bieg płotkarski rozgrywane na otwartym stadionie zarówno dla mężczyzn, jak i kobiet. Zawodnicy muszą pokonać 10 płotków rozmieszczonych równomiernie na dystansie równym jednemu okrążeniu stadionu. Mężczyźni pokonują płotki o wysokości 91,40 cm, a kobiety – o wysokości 76,20 cm. Płotki są niższe o kilkanaście centymetrów od tych ustawianych w biegach na 100 metrów kobiet i 110 metrów przez płotki mężczyzn. +Konkurencja ta w wykonaniu mężczyzn rozgrywana jest już od drugich Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w Paryżu (z wyjątkiem Igrzysk w Sztokholmie). Na Igrzyskach w 1900 i 1904 rozgrywano ponadto bieg płotkarski na dystansie 200 m. Historia kobiecych występów na Igrzyskach w biegu na 400 m przez płotki jest o wiele krótsze. Po raz pierwszy została rozegrana na Igrzyskach w 1984. Podobnie ma się rzecz jeżeli chodzi o mistrzostwa Europy: mężczyźni startowali w biegu na 400 m ppł już od pierwszych mistrzostw w 1934, kobiety dopiero o mistrzostw w 1978. +Incydentalnie bieg na 400 metrów przez płotki znajduje się w programie mityngów w hali, halowym rekordzistą świata w tej konkurencji jest Félix Sánchez (48,78 w 2012). +Bieg na 100 metrów przez płotki + +Bieg na 100 metrów przez płotki – jedna z biegowych konkurencji lekkoatletycznych, najkrótszy dystans płotkarski dla kobiet na otwartym stadionie (mężczyźni biegają dystans 110 metrów). Zawodniczki muszą w jak najszybszym czasie pokonać dziesięć płotków o wysokości 84 cm rozstawionych na dystansie 100 m. Pierwszy płotek pokonują po 13 m od startu, kolejne są co 8,5 m, a od ostatniego płotka do mety dzieli je 10,5 m. +Konkurencja ta pojawiła się po raz pierwszy na igrzyskach olimpijskich w 1972. Wcześniej od 1932 kobiety biegały na dystansie 80 m. +Polki od początku należały do ścisłej czołówki światowej tej konkurencji. Ustanawiały rekordy świata (po trzy razy Teresa Sukniewicz i Grażyna Rabsztyn), wygrywały wiele międzynarodowych zawodów z mistrzostwami Europy (Lucyna Langer-Kałek w 1982 r.). Aż trudno uwierzyć, że plonem olimpijskich zmagań Polek na tym dystansie jest tylko jeden brązowy medal ostatniej z wymienionych zawodniczek, wywalczony podczas igrzysk w Moskwie (1980). +Po zakończeniu kariery przez Lucynę Kałek nastąpiła w tej konkurencji w Polsce kilkunastoletnia posucha, przerwana pojawieniem się utalentowanej Aurelii Trywiańskiej, finalistki mistrzostw świata w 2003 r. +Najlepsze zawodniczki wszech czasów. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę najszybszych płotkarek w historii. +Legia Cudzoziemska + +Legia Cudzoziemska (fr. "La Légion étrangère") – francuska elitarna zawodowa jednostka bojowa, w której formalnie mogą służyć wyłącznie obywatele obcych państw. W praktyce jednak od 5% do 10% żołnierzy stanowią rodowici Francuzi, którzy dostają przy rekrutacji obywatelstwo Belgii, Szwajcarii lub Luksemburga. +Historia. +Jednostka została utworzona 9 marca 1831, głównie w celu ochrony francuskich terytoriów zamorskich podczas wojny w Algierii. Do dzisiaj posiada ona zakaz prowadzenia działań bojowych na terenie samej Francji. Zwykle jest ona wysyłana w najbardziej zapalne tereny, gdzie stanowi pierwszą linię frontu lub prowadzi działania poza jego linią. +W szeregach Legii Cudzoziemskiej zginęło 35 781 legionistów, podoficerów i oficerów we wszystkich wojnach, w których Francja brała udział. Ostatnią ofiarą poległą w boju jest legionista 1. klasy Goran Franjkovic. Został zastrzelony 14 listopada 2011 w prowincji Kapisa. Służył w 2REP, wstąpił do Legii w 2010 po podpisaniu pięcioletniego kontraktu. Był 76. żołnierzem francuskim poległym w Afganistanie, z pochodzenia Serbem, miał 25 lat. +Skład Legii Cudzoziemskiej. +Legia Cudzoziemska obecnie liczy 7699 żołnierzy, w tym 413 oficerów, 1741 podoficerów i 5545 legionistów w 11 pułkach (regimentach), z których każdy posiada unikalną funkcję. +Najbardziej znany i uważany za „elitarny” jest 2 REP (spadochroniarze) z bazą na Korsyce w Calvi. Jest to regiment o najbardziej zaostrzonej dyscyplinie, w stanie ciągłej gotowości bojowej. 1 Cudzoziemski Pułk Kawalerii zachował najwięcej tradycji Legii i w nim należy szukać dawnych ideałów. Nazywany jest potocznie pułkiem tradycji. +Kodeks Honorowy Legionisty. +Artykuł 1 +Artykuł 2 +Artykuł 3 +Artykuł 4 +Artykuł 5 +Artykuł 6 +Artykuł 7 +Stan obecny. +Legia Cudzoziemska rekrutuje mężczyzn z całego świata w wieku od 17 do 40 lat. Dawniej żołnierze wstępujący do Legii mieli zapewnioną pełną anonimowość w trakcie pełnienia służby, a po jej odbyciu otrzymywali obywatelstwo francuskie i nowe dokumenty. Przyciągało to do Legii wielu kryminalistów – obecnie zasady naboru zmieniły się i Legia nie przyjmuje już w swoje szeregi osób podejrzanych o poważne przestępstwa. +Skład narodowy Legii jest bardzo zmienny, obecnie w szeregach Legii Cudzoziemskiej reprezentowanych jest ponad 140 narodowości. Niemal wszyscy wyżsi oficerowie są Francuzami, często przysyłanymi do Legii z innych jednostek Armii Francuskiej. Do połowy lat 80. XX w. większość składu stanowili „Belgowie”, Brytyjczycy, oraz obywatele państw Wspólnoty Francuskiej. Obecnie coraz większa część składu pochodzi z krajów Europy Środkowej, w tym z Polski. Legia nie ujawnia jednak pełnych danych statystycznych na ten temat. Aktualnie coraz więcej kandydatów pochodzi z Ameryki Południowej. +Ważnym świętem dla Legii jest Dzień Camerone obchodzony 30 kwietnia na pamiątkę bitwy o Camerone. +Rekrutacja. +Rekrutacja do Legii Cudzoziemskiej odbywa się w jednym z jedenastu punktów werbunkowych rozsianych po całym terytorium Francji. Miejscowości, w których znajdują się te punkty to: Paryż, Lille, Nantes, Strasburg, Aubagne, Bordeaux, Lyon, Marsylia, Nicea, Perpignan, Tuluza. +Ponadto Legia nie dopuszcza do zwerbowania ludzi niezrównoważonych psychicznie lub ściganych przez policję. Nie jest ważny za to stan cywilny – niezależnie od tego czy rekrut jest kawalerem czy jest żonaty, kontrakt podpisuje jako kawaler. Przed wstąpieniem do Legii Cudzoziemskiej trzeba także zaliczyć testy sportowe, medyczne i psychologiczne. Ma to na celu wyeliminowanie ludzi niezdolnych do służby fizycznie i psychicznie oraz kryminalistów. +Średnio na jedno miejsce w Legii Cudzoziemskiej przypada rocznie ośmiu kandydatów. +Battōdō + +Battōdō (jap.抜刀道, ""battō"" – "wyciągnąć miecz i zadać cios" oraz ""dō"" – "droga życiowa, praktyka") – zaliczany do kenjutsu nowożytny styl szermierki mieczem japońskim ("katana", "wakizashi", "tantō"). Główny nacisk położony na ćwiczenie ostrym mieczem, zwanym shinken, a przede wszystkim na testach cięć zrolowanych słomianych mat – tameshigiri. Początek tej sztuki walki datuje się na przełom XIX i XX wieku, kiedy to Japońska Cesarska Akademia Wojenna wprowadziła na nowo szkolenia z bojowego zastosowania miecza. "Battodo" czerpie bezpośrednio techniki z czasów wojen dzielnicowych w Japonii przed ustanowieniem shōgunatu. W odróżnieniu od szkół iaido główny nacisk położony jest na efektywność i realność technik przy uproszczeniu ruchów. Nie stosuje się także technik w siadzie wychodząc z założenia, że w pozycji siedzącej samuraj nigdy nie miał długiego miecza za pasem. Duży nacisk położony jest na kontrolowany sparring z uzyciem bokuto, a także na praktykę tameshigiri. Głównym propagatorem "battodo" w Japonii był Taizaburo Nakamura. +Od 2005 roku istnieje Międzynarodowa Federacja Battodo – Zen Nihon Battodo Renmei oraz działające od kilkunastu lat federacje narodowe: japońska i amerykańska. W Polsce ta sztuka walki propagowana jest z ramienia japońskiej federacji przez Tomasza Piotrkowicza. +Lady Pank + +Lady Pank – polski zespół rockowy założony w 1981 w Warszawie przez Jana Borysewicza i Andrzeja Mogielnickiego. Jedna z najpopularniejszych grup w historii polskiego rocka. +Zespół wydał ponad 20 płyt i dziesiątki przebojów, m.in. "Tańcz głupia, tańcz", "Mniej niż zero", "Wciąż bardziej obcy", "Kryzysowa narzeczona", "Zamki na piasku", "Vademecum skauta", "Tacy sami", "Zostawcie Titanica", "Mała wojna", "Zawsze tam gdzie ty", "Na co komu dziś", "Znowu pada deszcz", "Na granicy", "Stacja Warszawa", "Strach się bać", "Dobra konstelacja". Nazwa grupy pochodzi od tytułu pierwszego nagrania "Mała Lady Punk" (z nieco zmienioną pisownią). Pierwszy koncert pod szyldem Lady Pank zespół zagrał w czteroosobowym składzie (Jan Borysewicz – wokal, gitara; Edmund Stasiak – gitara; Paweł "Kawka" Mielczarek – gitara basowa; Andrzej Polak – perkusja) 14 sierpnia 1982 roku z okazji otwarcia studenckiego klubu Park. +Muzycy. +Skład zespołu kilkukrotnie się zmieniał. Zawsze jednak w zespole występowali Jan Borysewicz i Janusz Panasewicz. W czasie największej popularności w zespole występowali również Paweł Mścisławski (gitara basowa), Edmund Stasiak (gitara rytmiczna) oraz Jarosław Szlagowski (perkusja). W tym składzie zespół odnosił największe sukcesy. +Historia. +Początki (1981-1983). +Zespół Lady Pank powstał pod koniec 1981, lecz oficjalną datą powstania jest 11 września 1981. Został założony przez gitarzystę i kompozytora Jana Borysewicza oraz autora tekstów Andrzeja Mogielnickiego. Pierwszy utwór "Mała Lady Punk" Jan Borysewicz nagrał razem z Wojciechem Bruślikiem i Andrzejem Dylewskim podczas sesji nagraniowej płyty "Układy" Izabeli Trojanowskiej w grudniu 1981 w krakowskim studio Teatru Stu. Drugi, "Minus 10 w Rio" został już nagrany z Edmundem Stasiakiem, Januszem Panasewiczem, Andrzejem Polakiem i Pawłem Mielczarkiem (zwrotki śpiewa Jan Borysewicz, a refren Janusz Panasewicz). W tym czasie zespół nie ma jeszcze ustalonego składu. Wśród osób którym Jan Borysewicz proponuje współpracę są Mieczysław Jurecki i Wojciech Morawski. Kolejne nagrania powstają w czerwcu 1982 również w krakowskim studio Teatru Stu. +W sierpniu 1982 w warszawskim klubie Park zespół oficjalnie zadebiutował w składzie: Jan Borysewicz, Edmund Stasiak, Paweł Mielczarek i Andrzej Polak (w tym składzie zespół zagrał 5 koncertów). Wkrótce powstaje tam pierwszy fan klub zespołu. W tym czasie wychodzi też pierwszy singel "Mała Lady Punk" / "Minus 10 w Rio". Wkrótce krystalizuje się skład zespołu: Jan Borysewicz – gitara solowa; Janusz Panasewicz – śpiew; Paweł Mścisławski – bas; Edmund Stasiak – gitara oraz Jarosław Szlagowski – perkusja. W tym okresie muzyka zespołu oscylowała zdecydowanie w rozwijającym się wtedy stylu "New Wave" (Nowa fala). +Popularność (1983-1986). +Szczyt popularności przypadł na rok 1983 kiedy to zespół dał ponad 360 koncertów (m.in.: na Rock Arenie w Poznaniu i na KFPP w Opolu). W listopadzie 1983 miał miejsce galowy koncert zespołu w Hali Gwardii w Warszawie. Spektakl zarejestrowała TVP. Wylansowano wówczas takie utwory jak: "Tańcz głupia tańcz", "Kryzysowa narzeczona", "Zamki na piasku", "Wciąż bardziej obcy", "Moje Kilimandżaro", "Vademecum skauta". Oprócz "Tańcz głupia tańcz" wszystkie znalazły się na albumie pt. "Lady Pank" wydanym pod koniec roku. Zespół wówczas konkurował głównie z Republiką oraz innymi grupami takimi jak Perfect, Oddział Zamknięty, Lombard, Bajm i Maanam. +Na drugim albumie zespołu pt. "Ohyda" wydanym w 1984 roku zespół przedstawił utwory bardziej urozmaicone i bogato zaaranżowane. Zespół wystąpił w Sali Kongresowej z okazji setnego wydania listy przebojów Radiowej Trójki. Najlepszy koncert na Rock Arenie w Poznaniu. W Opolu zespół zaprezentował kolejny festiwalowy przebój pt. "To jest tylko rock and roll". Na listach przebojów znalazły się piosenki: "Zabij to", "A to ohyda" i "Tango stulecia". Ponadto wystąpił w filmie Pawła Karpińskiego pt. "To tylko Rock". W grudniu zespół otrzymał złote płyty za "Lady Pank" Tonpressu i "Ohydę" Savitoru. W tym czasie znane stały się liczne zabawy w hotelach organizowane przez Jana Borysewicza. Oprócz tego w 1984 dla żartu zagrali "Augustowskie noce" Marii Koterbskiej (muzyka Franciszka Leszczyńska, słowa Andrzej Tylczyński i Zbigniew Zapert) oraz "Białą flagę" Republiki (prowokacyjnie). Wówczas powstała rywalizacja Lady Panku z Republiką zorganizowana przez fanów obu grup muzycznych. Sami muzycy znali się i nie wywoływali konfliktów co później przypieczętowano tekstami Grzegorza Ciechowskiego do albumu "Tacy sami". +Pod koniec roku 1985 zespół zaczął występy zagraniczne – w Wielkiej Brytanii, Finlandii (festiwal Ruisrock), ZSRR, a także trzytygodniową trasę koncertową po USA. O podboju Ameryki przez Lady Pank w polskich mediach było głośno. W Stanach został wydana płyta "Drop Everything" (odpowiednik "Lady Pank"), która była promowana singlem i teledyskiem "Minus Zero". Sami muzycy nie znający wówczas języka angielskiego oraz zbytnio niestarający się nie osiągnęli kariery w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Po powrocie z USA w radio pojawiły się dwa przeboje Lady Pank – "Someone's round the corner", oraz wydana już w Polsce "Sztuka latania" zamieszczona na składance różnych wykonawców właśnie pod tytułem "Sztuka latania". Niedługo potem zespół wydał kolejny singel "Raport z N." / "Rysunkowa postać". +W tym samym roku zespół wystąpił jako gwiazda festiwalu w Sopocie. Był to pierwszy koncert gdy perkusistę, Jarosława Szlagowskiego, zastąpił Andrzej Dylewski (ten sam który wziął udział w nagraniu pierwszego utworu "Mała Lady Punk"). Zespół, a w zasadzie sam Jan Borysewicz, wspomagany wokalnie przez Janusza Panasewicza nagrał muzykę do filmu "O dwóch takich, co ukradli księżyc", którą prezentował już w pełnym składzie w cyklu koncertów pt. "Jacek i Placek, czyli Lady Pank w poszukiwaniu krainy leniuchów". Album "O dwóch takich co ukradli księżyc" został wydany w dwóch częściach w 1986 i 1988 roku. Jeszcze w tym samym roku doszedł singel "Sly" (komp. i sł. Phil Garland) / "This is only rock'N'roll". Zespół Lady Pank koncertował na festiwalu Midem w Cannes oraz w Tokio gdzie otrzymał wyróżnienie i główną nagrodę dla Borysewicza jako najlepszego kompozytora za "Mniej niż zero" na Tokio Music Festiwal. +Kryzys grupy (1986-1994). +Niedługo potem Lady Pank na mocy włodarzy kultury zostało zawieszone po tym jak 1 czerwca we Wrocławiu podczas koncertu z okazji dnia dziecka pijany Borysewicz pokazał się w całej męskiej krasie. Zupełnie przypadkowo okładka albumu "LP3 – nigdy za wiele rokendrola!" autorstwa Mścisławskiego, którego promocja przypadała na czerwiec 1986 roku przedstawia ludzika ze zsuniętymi spodniami. +Lady Pank powróciło w 1987 roku. Już bez Dylewskiego, który wyemigrował do USA, za to z Wiesławem Golą (Oddział Zamknięty), a także z gościnnie grającym na instrumentach klawiszowych Jerzym Suchockim. Zespół dał kilka samodzielnych koncertów (pierwszy 27 stycznia w Ursusie, następny w Zabrzu). Wówczas Jan Borysewicz i Janusz Panasewicz wzięli udział w akcji charytatywnej "Nasz Wspólny Świat" biorąc udział w nagraniu hymnu tej imprezy zatytułowanego "Stanie się cud" (skomponowanego przez Borysewicza) zaśpiewanej oprócz nich także z muzykami TSA, Kombi i Lombardu. Zespół dawnej popularności nie odzyskał, lecz i tak został ciepło przyjęty przez fanów. +Akcje zespołu poszły mocno w górę w roku 1988, którego początek zaczął się niezwykle przebojowo, od hitów "To, co mam" i "Tacy sami". Andrzej Mogielnicki, który po wrocławskim ekscesie udzieliwszy stanowczego wywiadu dla Polityki rozstał się z Lady Pank został zastąpiony przez: Zbigniewa Hołdysa, Grzegorza Ciechowskiego, Marka Dutkiewicza i Jacka Skubikowskiego. W połowie roku w radio ukazał się utwór "Zostawcie Titanica". Latem grupa wyruszyła do USA, gdzie wydana została jej pierwsza płyta kompaktowa. W Stanach doszło do podziału grupy. Jan Borysewicz oraz Janusz Panasewicz występowali razem. Reszta jako The Mix. "Żywa legenda" Lady Pank jakby przygasła. Wieści dochodzące zza oceanu wskazywały na kryzys grupy. Jesienią w kraju pojawiła się kaseta magnetofonowa "Królowa ciszy" zrealizowana w czerwcu tego samego roku. Była to pierwsza produkcja solowa lidera Lady Pank. +W 1989 roku do Borysewicza i Panasewicza ponownie dołączył Jarosław Szlagowski oraz na koncerty w ZSRR Robert Jaszewski, a na koncerty w Czechosłowacji Bogdan Kowalewski. W tym samym roku ukazała się solowa płyta Jana Bo. "Królowa ciszy", której materiał znany był już fanom z ubiegłorocznej kasety Polmarku. Nieco później został wydany singel "Gwiazdkowe dzieci" / "Gwiazda na wietrze", który wraz z "Królową ciszy" złożył się na "Pastorałki" Jana Bo. +W 1990 roku do Borysewicza, Panasewicza i Szlagowskiego dołączyli Piotr Urbanek i Kostek Joriadis. Nowemu wydaniu Lady Pank początkowo wiodło się różnie, dali świetny koncert podsumowujący dekadę na Rock Opolu, ale przed meczem Legia – Lech Poznań na stadionie Wojska Polskiego w Warszawie w pobliżu sceny kręciło się tylko kilkanaście osób. Niedługo potem zespół wypromował kolejny przebój – balladę "Zawsze tam gdzie ty". "Zawsze tam gdzie ty" dało tytuł kolejnemu albumowi i zadecydowało o jego popularności. Na nowej płycie wydanej również w USA wszystkie teksty napisał Jacek Skubikowski. "Zawsze tam gdzie ty" brzmiało nieco ciężej niż poprzednie płyty zespołu. Koncertowy program zespołu uzupełniał pierwszy przebój Borysewicza napisany jeszcze dla Budki Suflera "Nie wierz nigdy kobiecie". +W lipcu 1991 roku zespół wystąpił podczas Trzech Dekad Rocka w Polsce, potem znów znalazł się w USA, gdzie ponownie zawiesił działalność. W tym czasie media lansowały kolejne przeboje z "Zawsze tam gdzie ty" m.in. "Co mnie to obchodzi" i "Niedokończoną ulicę". W telewizji często emitowany był teledysk do utworu "Zawsze tam gdzie ty". Zespół, mimo iż nie istniał nadal cieszył się ogromną popularnością. W tym też roku ukazał się album "The Best of Lady Pank". +Reaktywacja (1994-1997). +Zespół wrócił w 1994 roku w nowym składzie: Jan Borysewicz, Janusz Panasewicz, Krzysztof Kieliszkiewicz, Kuba Jabłoński i Andrzej Łabędzki. Zaczynali w warszawskim klubie Van Beethoven, odbywając samodzielną trasę koncertową, zaliczyli też Rock Opole. Muzycy promowali na tych koncertach album "Na na", na którym Panasewicz zadebiutował w roli autora tekstów ("Młode orły" i "Rozbitkowie" – pozostałe napisał Bogdan Olewicz). Największymi przebojami z tej płyty był utwory "Na na" i "Na co komu dziś". Kolejne wydanie Lady Pank przyjęło się na estradach. W grudniu 1994 muzycy wsparci przez Wojtka Olszaka i Piotra Wolskiego dali akustyczny koncert w studio radia Łódź, który udokumentowała płyta "Akustycznie: Mała wojna" z przekrojowym repertuarem. Materiał ten został też zarejestrowany na potrzeby telewizji. +W 1995 roku, w którym wydano płytę "Akustycznie: Mała wojna" zespół dał cykl koncertów nadmorskich oraz wziął udział w Rockstocku we Wrocławiu i festiwalu w Węgorzewie – zbierając dobre recenzje. +W 1996 roku na festiwalu Opolskim w koncercie poświęconym Krzysztofowi Klenczonowi zespół wykonał "Spotkanie z diabłem". Poza tym ponownie odwiedził USA oraz gościł w Niemczech. We wrześniu 1996 ukazał się zbliżony brzmieniowo do "NANY" album "Międzyzdroje", na którym teksty pisał wyłącznie Panasewicz. Na "Międzyzdrojach", a konkretnie w "Czy czujesz jak", który promował album muzyka zabarwiła się na bluesowo. Drugim singlem z tej płyty jaki pojawił się w rozgłośniach radiowych był "Nie chcę litości". Pod koniec 1996 roku zespół przedstawił muzykę z piosenkami gwiazdkowymi – "Zimowe graffiti" – którą promował program telewizyjny. +W 1997 roku na prośbę autora tekstu, Jacka Skubikowskiego zespół nagrał utwór "Niedawno" (znanego też pod tytułami "Jest taki kraj" i "Moje sny"), który w wyborach parlamentarnych 1997 stał się hymnem Unii Wolności. W nagraniu utworu wziął udział mistrz boksu, Dariusz Michalczewski. W tym okresie grupa zaczęła w swym scenicznym repertuarze umieszczać utwory w wersjach transowych. I właśnie transowe utwory trafiły na album "W transie", (którego druga płyta zawierała wyłącznie podkład instrumentalny). +Dalsza działalność (1998-2007). +W roku 1998 zespół wylansował utwór "Znowu pada deszcz". Cała płyta "Łowcy głów", z której pochodził ten utwór mogła uchodzić za najlepszą wizytówkę grupy tamtego okresu. Do utworu "Prawda i serce" zespół nakręcił teledysk w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Kolejny album został nagrany w marcu 1999 w Krakowie. Był pierwszym oficjalnym albumem live z koncertu elektrycznego w dorobku Lady Pank. "Koncertową" zdominowały starsze utwory, uwagę zwracała rozbudowana wersja "Marchewkowego pola". Całość uzupełniły dwie nowe, studyjne piosenki "Rozmowa z..." i "Do Moniki L.". Ta ostatnia wykorzystana została w filmie Marka Koterskiego pt. "Ajlawju". Latem 1999 kwintet dał dwa koncerty w Kanadzie (Vancouver i Toronto), wystąpił też ponownie w Węgorzewie. +Wydana w 2000 roku "Nasza reputacja" okazała się nie tak udana jak poprzednie płyty, choć przyniosła długo notowany na listach przebojów utwór "Słońcem opętani". Inną piosenkę z tej płyty zespół przedstawił w konkursie premier w Opolu ("Na granicy" ulokowało się na trzecim miejscu). Następnie zespół występował na Morawach i odbył tournée po całej Polsce z okazji 18 rocznicy urodzin. Galowy koncert trasy odbył się pod koniec listopada w Hali Filmów Fabularnych we Wrocławiu, gdzie z zespołem gościnie zagrali i zaśpiewali: Szlagowski i Stasiak ("Du du"), Zbigniew Hołdys ("Mała wojna"), Urszula ("Zawsze tam gdzie ty"), Lech Janerka ("Kryzysowa narzeczona"), Paweł Kukiz ("A to ohyda"), Kasia Nosowska ("Zamki na piasku") i Olaf Lubaszenko ("Nie wierz nigdy kobiecie"). Część materiału z tego trzy godzinnego koncertu zarejestrowała telewizja. +We wrześniu 2001 z zespołu odszedł Andrzej Łabędzki. Zespół koncertował w składzie: Jan Borysewicz, Janusz Pansewicz, Krzysztof Kieliszkiewicz i Kuba Jabłoński, jednakże był on wspomagany na koncertach przez Michała Sitarskiego. +Wiosną 2002 Jan Borysewicz nagrał razem z Pawłem Kukizem ścieżkę dźwiękową do filmu E=mc². W tym też roku z okazji dwóch dekad istnienia zespół wydał płytę pt. "Besta besta", na której znalazły się największe hity Lady Pank wybrane przez internautów oraz dwa premierowe nagrania "7-me niebo nienawiści" oraz "Konie w mojej głowie", do których słowa po długiej przerwie napisał ponownie pierwszy tekściarz zespołu, Andrzej Mogielnicki. 26 czerwca w klubie "Park" odbył się koncert połączony z oficjalną premierą płyty. 29 czerwca zespół wystąpił w Operze Leśnej w Sopocie podczas koncertu związanego z otwarciem MTV Classic. +Na początku 2003 roku ukazała się płyta Jana Borysewicza i Pawła Kukiza pt. "Borysewicz & Kukiz". Płyta zdobyła status (platynowej), a "Bo tutaj jest jak jest" okrzyknięto utworem najczęściej granym w stacjach radiowych 2003 roku. Większą popularność zdobyły także "Jeśli tylko chcesz" i "Jest taki dzień". Duet znajdował się w czołówce popularności polskich wykonawców, lecz wspólnie zdecydowano, iż zawiesza działalność i każdy z muzyków skupi się na swoim rodzimym zespole. +W marcu 2004 Lady Pank rozpoczęło nagrywanie premierowego repertuaru na nową płytę zatytułowaną "Teraz", a jej premiera przypadła na 28 czerwca 2004. Premierę płyty poprzedziła premiera singla "Sexy-plexi", który zdobył umiarkowaną popularność, lecz drugi pt. "Stacja Warszawa" został hitem numer jeden 2004 roku. "Stacja" okazała się przebojem na miarę "Mniej niż zero", trzecim singlem była "Pani moich snów", ale nie powtórzyła sukcesu "Stacji". W sylwestra 2004/2005 zespół zagrał koncert na gdańskiej Starówce. +Na początku następnego roku zespół wystąpił na WOŚP, a w lutym został nominowany w dwóch kategoriach do Fryderyków: kompozytor roku oraz piosenka roku. W sierpniu Lady Pank pojawiło się na dwóch dużych festiwalach "Top Trendy", gdzie wystąpił z "Siódmym niebem nienawiści", "Stacją Warszawa" i "Mniej niż zero" oraz na sopockim Festiwalu Jedynki, gdzie występowały największe gwiazdy polskiego rocka. Ich "Fabryka małp" i "Mniej niż zero" spotkały się z największym aplauzem widowni. +W maju 2006 roku Jan Borysewicz wraz z członkami grupy "Jan Bo" wystąpił we Wrocławiu na koncercie poświęconym pamięci Jimiego Hendriksa. Cały sezon letni zespół spędził koncertując, m.in. w Tychach dając występ na dachu budynku z okazji specjalnej imprezy Antyradia, odbyły się również połączone koncerty Lady Pank i Borysewicz & Kukiz oraz występy poza granicami kraju w Niemczech i Austrii. +Czasy najnowsze (2007-). +W maju 2007 zespół wyruszył w wielką trasę koncertową z okazji 25-lecia Lady Pank. Trasa ta była połączona z obchodami Dnia Strażaka. Po koncertach w każdym regionie Polski przyszedł czas na nieco bardziej okazałe świętowanie na XLIV KFPP w Opolu (15 czerwca), gdzie zespół został przywitany z największymi honorami. Dodatkową atrakcją 25-lecia było wydanie z tej okazji płyty "Strach się bać" z premierowymi utworami. Pierwszym singlem była właśnie kompozycja "Strach się bać", która odniosła duży sukces medialny. Singel ten był także ilustrowany teledyskiem, na którym jednak zabrakło samego lidera grupy. Momentem szczególnym jubileuszu był koncert połączony ze zlotem fanów w Olecku, gdzie zespół otrzymał urodzinowy tort oraz chóralne "sto lat" odśpiewane przez publiczność. Z końcem roku Lady Pank wypuściło kolejny trzeci singel "Dobra konstelacja" (drugim był "Wenus, Mars"). 31 grudnia zespół wystąpił pod Pałacem Kultury w Warszawie na specjalnym sylwestrowym koncercie. +Od 1 marca 2008 zespół Lady Pank jako pierwszy polski zespół muzyczny posiada własne oficjalne internetowe radio „RMF Lady Pank” dostępne w serwisie internetowym RMFon.pl (dawniej MiastoMuzyki.pl). +19 września 2008 Janusz Panasewicz wydał swój solowy album, "Panasewicz", z singlami "Po co słowa", "Obudź się" i "Włóczykij". +10 lutego 2011 na antenie Radia Zet miała miejsce premiera nowego singla "Dziewczyny dzisiaj z byle kim nie tańczą", będącego zwiastunem nowej płyty "Maraton", która ukazała się 20 czerwca 2011 r. +30 marca 2012 roku w katowickim Spodku odbył się koncert z okazji 30 lecia istnienia zespołu. +17 kwietnia 2012 r. miała miejsce premiera solowej płyty basisty zespołu, Krzysztofa "Kielicha" Kieliszkiewicza, "Dziecko szczęścia". Do współpracy zaprosił m.in. Anię Dąbrowską, Marcina Rozynka, Johna Portera i Anię Rusowicz. +Profesor + +Profesor (z łac. "professor") – termin, który może oznaczać: tytuł naukowy nadawany samodzielnym pracownikom naukowym, stanowisko nauczycieli akademickich, tytuł honorowy nadawany w Polsce nauczycielom szkolnictwa podstawowego, gimnazjalnego i ponadgimnazjalnego oraz tytuł zwyczajowy używany w polskim szkolnictwie średnim. +Profesor (tytuł naukowy). +Profesor – tytuł naukowy nadawany za osiągnięcia naukowe i dydaktyczne pracownikom szkół wyższych i instytutów naukowo-badawczych. W Polsce tytuł ten nadaje Prezydent RP po zatwierdzeniu przez Centralną Komisję do spraw Stopni i Tytułów wniosku uczelni macierzystej w sprawie nadania tytułu naukowego. Tytuł ten jest przyznawany w Polsce dożywotnio. +Ponieważ tytuł ten nadaje Prezydent RP, a uroczystość związana z nadawaniem tego tytułu odbywała się dawniej w Belwederze, to osoba, której ten tytuł został nadany, nazywana jest także przy mniej oficjalnych okolicznościach "profesorem belwederskim" lub coraz częściej "profesorem prezydenckim". +W Polsce do 1990 roku istniały 2 tytuły naukowe profesora: profesor nadzwyczajny i profesor zwyczajny, oba przyznawane przez Przewodniczącego Rady Państwa. Obecnie oba te tytuły zostały zastąpione tytułem profesora, a terminy "profesor zwyczajny" i "profesor nadzwyczajny" są jedynie nazwami stanowisk pracy pracowników naukowych. +Profesor (stanowisko). +"Profesor uczelniany" to nazwa stanowiska pracy na uczelniach wyższych. W tym znaczeniu profesor to samodzielny pracownik naukowy, który kieruje własnym zespołem naukowym lub jest kierownikiem katedry, instytutu lub innej samodzielnej jednostki uczelnianej. Profesorów uczelnianych dzieli się na "zwyczajnych" lub "nadzwyczajnych", "wizytujących" oraz "emerytów". Na stanowisku "profesora zwyczajnego" może być zatrudniony wyłącznie naukowiec z państwowym tytułem profesora. Na stanowisku "profesora nadzwyczajnego" może być zatrudniony naukowiec posiadający stopień doktora habilitowanego lub tytuł profesora, choć w tym drugim przypadku zdarza się to raczej przejściowo, zanim uczelnia nie wystąpi o mianowanie takiego profesora na stanowisko profesora zwyczajnego. Dana osoba może pracować na dwóch lub większej liczbie stanowisk, w różnych placówkach, będąc na jednym z nich "profesorem zwyczajnym", a na innej "nadzwyczajnym". +Profesor (tytuł zwyczajowy). +Tytuł profesora odnosi się również zwyczajowo do nauczycieli akademickich, zwłaszcza w krajach anglosaskich (np. USA i byłych koloniach brytyjskich np. w Indiach). +W Polsce w szkołach średnich, zwłaszcza w liceach ogólnokształcących tradycyjnie nazywa się wszystkich nauczycieli profesorami, choć formalnie posiadają oni zwykle tytuł zawodowy magistra. +Polskich nauczycieli szkół podstawowych, gimnazjów i szkół ponadgimnazjalnych (tj. licea, technika, szkoły zawodowe) obowiązuje system awansu zawodowego, w ramach którego przewidziany jest tytuł honorowy: profesor oświaty. +Okeanidy + +Okeanidy – w mitologii greckiej nimfy morskie. +Uchodziły za córki tytana Okeanosa i tytanidy Tetydy. Było ich 3 tysiące. Każda z nich była patronką jakiejś rzeki, morza, jeziora lub stawu. +First Canadian Place (kompleks) + +First Canadian Place - kompleks biurowców w kanadyjskim mieście Toronto, w którym wznosi się m.in. najwyższy wieżowiec Toronto, o wysokości 72 pięter. +W jednym z budynków znajduje się giełda Toronto Stock Exchange. To druga po NYSE największa giełda kontynentu. Na poziomach handlowych jest wiele sklepów i restauracji, a w pasażach znajdują się rzeźby i fontanny. Na zewnątrz znajduje się mały park. +Biurowce First Canadian Place, jak pozostałe budynki Financial District połączone są PATH, systemem podziemnych pasaży handlowo-komunikacyjnych. +Ochrona roślin + +Ochrona roślin - dział produkcji roślinnej, którego celem jest zapobieganie obniżaniu plonów przez agrofagi oraz zabezpieczenie ziemiopłodów w magazynach. Wspomagana jest przez fitopatologię, entomologię i herbologię. W ochronie roślin stosuje się metody: +Coraz większego znaczenia nabiera integrowana ochrona roślin, polegająca na łączeniu ww. metod przydatnych pod względem gospodarczym, ekologicznym i toksykologicznym, jak najlepiej powiązanych, w celu utrzymania liczebności agrofagów poniżej progu ekonomicznej szkodliwości, przy czym pierwszeństwo ma świadome wykorzystanie naturalnych czynników ograniczających. Integrowana ochrona roślin łączy wszystkie dostępne metody zwalczania agrofagów przy wykorzystaniu w jak największym zakresie naturalnych procesów samoregulacji zachodzących w agrocenozach i celowym wspomaganiu tych procesów. Podstawowy cel - jakim jest ograniczenie strat plonów - musi być łączony z celem minimalizacji zagrożeń dla konsumentów (pozostałości szkodliwych substancji chemicznych), zwierząt gospodarskich i środowiska przyrodniczego (ochrona wód, gleby i powietrza). Praktyczne zastosowanie integrowanej ochrony roślin wiąże się z wykorzystaniem wszelkich alternatywnych dla ochrony chemicznej metod zwalczania agrofagów. Wyróżnia się dwa rodzaje działań: +Podstawowym aktem prawnym w Polsce dotyczącym ochrony roślin jest ustawa z dnia 18 grudnia 2003 r. o ochronie roślin (Dz. U z 2004 r. Nr 11, poz. 94 z późna. zm.) +Marceli Handelsman + +Marceli Handelsman, ps. "Maciej Romański", "Maciej Targowski" (ur. 8 lipca 1882 w Warszawie, zm. 20 marca 1945 w hitlerowskim obozie koncentracyjnym Dora-Nordhausen w Niemczech) – mediewista, historyk dziejów nowożytnych i najnowszych, metodolog historii, pochodzenia żydowskiego. Jeden z najwybitniejszych historyków polskich I poł. XX wieku. Brat Józefa Handelsmana. +Biografia. +Ukończył prawo na rosyjskim Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, studiował historię na uniwersytecie w Berlinie (wydalony w 1906 za działalność socjalistyczną), kontynuował studia w Paryżu w École de Chartres i Collège de France i Zurychu (doktorat w 1908) oraz w Rapperswilu, Wiedniu i Londynie. +Od 1915 był związany z Uniwersytetem Warszawskim, gdzie w 1919 uzyskał tytuł profesora zwyczajnego. W latach 1930–1931 doprowadził do utworzenia odrębnego Instytutu Historii na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Był członkiem Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności oraz francuskiej Akademii Nauk Moralnych i Politycznych. W latach 1918–1939 był redaktorem Przeglądu Historycznego oraz dyrektorem Archiwum Akt Dawnych w Warszawie. W 1921 współtworzył Instytut Badań Narodowościowych. W latach 1920–1935 był przewodniczącym Komisji Atlasu Historii Ziem Polskich, oraz współzałożycielem Międzynarodowego Komitetu Historycznego, organizatorem Międzynarodowego Kongresu Nauk Historycznych w Warszawie w 1933. +Był zwolennikiem PPS i Józefa Piłsudskiego oraz gorącym orędownikiem współpracy polsko-francuskiej. Uczestnik wojny polsko-bolszewickiej w latach 1919–1920, po wojnie pełnił funkcję rzeczoznawcy strony polskiej podczas rewindykacji dóbr polskich z ZSRR. W latach późniejszych krytykował proces brzeski, naruszanie przez władze autonomii szkół wyższych oraz wprowadzenie getta ławkowego. Za swe przekonania i żydowskie pochodzenie w 1934 r. został pobity przez antysemicko nastawionych studentów. +W.g. wspomnień Stanisławy Mysłakowskiej +"25 grudnia 1940 r. sprowadzili się do nas p. Jadwiga i prof. Marceli Handelsman. Profesora znaliśmy od jego studenckich czasów, kiedy był sekretarzem Stanisława Posnera, przyjaciela mego Ojca. Profesor prowadził w Podkowie seminarium ze swymi dawnymi słuchaczami, którzy do Niego przyjeżdżali. Profesorostwo zwracali nam za swoje utrzymanie, ale mieszkali zaledwie z 1,5 roku. Profesorowa mówiła mi już po wojnie, że wyprowadzili się ze względu na mnie, krępowało ich to bowiem, że gotowałam wówczas sama na 12 osób. Zamieszkali u naszej przyjaciółki Janiny Futasewiczowej, również w Podkowie, a na koniec w Milanówku. Niestety, profesora nie udało się uratować, mimo że nasz szwagier Tadeusz Sokołowski, uczeń profesora, przypadkiem widział jego nazwisko na liście osób przeznaczonych do aresztowania. Natychmiast zawiadomił Podkowę i siostra moja dr Wanda Walcowa, która pracowała w Warszawie, a jedynie urlop spędzała w Podkowie, pojechała uprzedzić i proponowała powrót do nas. Profesor jednak nie chciał się zgodzić. Przewidywał rychły koniec okupantów i nie chciał się już tułać. Było to może zaledwie na tydzień przed Powstaniem. Gdyby mój brat nie był wówczas bardzo ciężko chory, na pewno zabrałby Go siłą, ale siostra nie miała tej energii. W parę dni później Profesor został aresztowany i wywieziony do obozu koncentracyjnego w Niemczech. Zginął w obozie od bomby alianckiej. Śmierć Jego była dla mnie bardzo bolesna, bo Profesor bardzo serdecznie zajmował się moim synem i uczył go historii." +Mimo ukrywania się w czasie II wojny światowej (rodzina pochodzenia żydowskiego), uczestniczył w tajnym nauczaniu. Od 1942 współpracował z Biurem Informacji i Propagandy KG AK. W 1944 trafił do obozu koncentracyjnego w Gross-Rosen. Następnie został przeniesiony do Dora-Nardhausen, gdzie zmarł w wieku 62 lat. +Jako historyk interesował się szczególnie działalnością Hotelu Lambert i księcia Adama Czartoryskiego oraz dziejami Wielkiej Emigracji. W latach 1948–1950 wydano pośmiertnie niedokończoną biografię jego autorstwa pt. "Adam Czartoryski" (tomy 1–3). Jako wszechstronny historyk podejmował badania w dziedzinie historii prawa, ustroju, idei, historii społecznej i politycznej. Badał średniowiecze, okres napoleoński i XIX wiek. Metodolog i teoretyk badań historycznych, bliski postawom neopozytywistycznym. Wychowawca pokoleń historyków, m.in. Stanisław Arnold, Aleksy Franciszek Bachulski, Aleksander Gieysztor, Stefan Kieniewicz, Tadeusz Manteuffel, Marian Małowist, Wanda Moszczeńska, Marian Henryk Serejski, Mieczysław Żywczyński. +OsCommerce + +osCommerce to powstała na licencji GNU GPL platforma do prowadzenia sklepu internetowego. Nazwa pochodzi od ang. "Open Source Commerce". +Sklep osCommerce zbudowany jest na tradycyjnym szablonie – nagłówek, trzykolumnowe centrum i stopka, choć spotyka się sklepy oparte na osCommerce odbiegające od tego schematu. Podstawowa wersja zawiera mechanizmy prezentacji towaru, system logowania klientów, system recenzji, informowanie o produktach, newsletter, system prezentacji nowości, moduł promocji. Panel administracyjny pozwala dodawać towary, obsługiwać zamówienia, konfigurować sklep. +Oprogramowanie obsługuje wiele języków, wiele walut – potrafi przełączać się między nimi i przeliczać wartości. +Wszystkie projekty osCommerce są dostępne za darmo, można je pobrać, zainstalować i używać bez konieczności ponoszenia jakichkolwiek kosztów. +Skupiona wokół tych projektów społeczność wymienia się poglądami na listach dyskusyjnych, tworzy moduły, poprawki i nowe funkcje zwane kontrybucjami ("contributions"). +NetBIOS + +NetBIOS (ang. "Network Basic Input/Output System") — oryginalnie zaprojektowany przez firmę IBM. Zapewnia podstawowy interfejs łączenia aplikacji z innymi komputerami oraz współdzielenie danych. NetBIOS działa w warstwie sesji modelu OSI. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Netbios działa w warstwie 5 modelu OSI +Szkolnictwo + +Szkolnictwo – całokształt zagadnień związanych z nauczaniem i organizacją szkół w danym państwie. +Szczypiorno + +Szczypiorno – dzielnica Kalisza znajdująca się na południowo-zachodnim krańcu miasta, przy wylocie na Ostrów Wielkopolski i dalej Wrocław, Katowice (droga krajowa nr 25, stacja kolejowa Kalisz Szczypiorno), włączona do miasta w 1976. +Znajduje się tutaj Centralny Ośrodek Szkolenia Służby Więziennej, Ukraiński Cmentarz Wojskowy, Zespół Szkolno - Przedszkolny nr 2. +W Szczypiornie urodzili się Stanisław Okęcki, Janina Ordężanka, Roman Statkowski +W czasie I wojny światowej znajdował się tam obóz dla internowanych żołnierzy Legionów Polskich, w którym polscy jeńcy grali szmacianą piłką w grę, która obecnie znana jest jako piłka ręczna. Właśnie tą drogą ta dyscyplina sportowa została spopularyzowana w Polsce i stąd jej potoczna nazwa "szczypiorniak". W 1918 w Szczypiornie stacjonował kaliski Batalion Pograniczny, który w czasie powstania wielkopolskiego odegrał znaczącą rolę w wyzwoleniu południowo zachodniej części Kaliskiego. Po I wojnie w 1918 r. w Szczypiornie powstał obóz dla więźniów niemieckich. +W latach 1920-1924 funkcjonował tutaj obóz dla internowanych żołnierzy URL. +W okresie II wojny światowej Niemcy dwukrotnie przemianowali nazwę: wpierw na "Friedersbrunn", a potem na "Deutschehren". +W Szczypiornie znajdują się dwa kościoły: kościół św. Barbary i kościół Podwyższenia Krzyża Świętego. +Ważniejszymi ulicami w dzielnicy są: Daleka, Domowa, 25. Dywizji, Opłotki, Piechurów, Pogodna, Poranna, Potulna, Radosna, 25. Pułku Artylerii, 29. Pułku Piechoty, Szczypiornicka, Wesoła, Wrocławska (nr nieparzyste 83-301 i parzyste 52-298). Komunikację z dzielnicą zapewniają linie autobusowe Kaliskich Linii Autobusowych nr: 15, 18, 19 i 19E oraz linia M MZK Ostrów Wlkp.. +Bohater + +Bohater – osoba, która odznaczyła się niezwykłymi czynami, męstwem i ofiarnością dla innych ludzi. Terminem „bohater” określa się także postać w utworze literackim, filmie itp. – zastępuje się jednak go terminem postać literacka, jako że słowo bohater posiada ograniczone konotacje heroizmu i pierwszoplanowości. Nazwa ma pochodzenie irańskie – "bahadur", mężny, atleta itp., węgierskie "bátor" – dzielny, stąd nazwisko króla Stefana Batorego. W języku staropolskim odpowiednikiem było słowo "gardzina", podobnie w czeskim i słowackim "hrdina". +Osoby będące bohaterami często doczekują się poświęconych im dzieł literackich, opowieści w postaci legend, mitów czy epopei. W wielu przypadkach opisywani bohaterowie nie musieli w ogóle istnieć w rzeczywistości, lub ich istnienie jest wątpliwe. Społeczne uznanie jako bohaterowie zyskują ci, których dokonania są w danym społeczeństwie, kulturze i epoce uznawane za ważne, niebezpieczne, nadzwyczajne i trudne.. +Istniejący w zachowanych w kulturze dziełach czy opowieściach bohaterowie są zazwyczaj osobami, które działają zgodnie z przyjętymi imperatywami kulturowymi i są wzorcami moralnymi dla społeczności. Pełnią także często funkcję wychowawczą w socjalizacji jednostki. W mitologiach bohaterowie są osobami, które zazwyczaj potrafią dokonać czynów, jakie przysługują tylko bogom. +Ujęcie pojęcia w biologii ewolucyjnej. +W biologii ewolucyjnej używa się pojęcia bohater na określenie osobnika, który poświęca się na rzecz danej populacji, z którą jest spokrewniony, przyczyniając się tym samym do jej przetrwania. Richard Dawkins tłumaczy zachowania typowe dla bohaterów jako wynik ewolucji na poziomie doboru genowego, gdzie geny, których nosicielem jest bohater mają większe szanse przetrwania, dzięki jego samopoświęceniu. Z punktu widzenia memetyki działanie bohaterów przyczyniają się do przetrwania, a nawet ekspansji pewnych idei. +Trynitarze + +Trynitarze (właściwie Zakon Trójcy Przenajświętszej, dawniej Zakon Świętej Trójcy od Wykupu Niewolników) – katolickie zgromadzenie zakonne, założone w 1193 w dobie wypraw krzyżowych przez św. Jana z Mathy i św. Feliksa de Valois, a następnie zatwierdzone w 1198 bullą papieża Innocentego III "Operante divine dispositionis". Od 1236 istnieje żeński zakon - Trynitarianki (Klauzurowe). +Historia zakonu. +Zakon powstał w celu uwalniania niewolników chrześcijańskich z rąk muzułmanów podczas wypraw krzyżowych. "Encyklopedia Religii PWN" podaje, że Trynitarze uwolnili ok. 900 tys. ludzi. Trynitarze pod koniec XVI w. podzielili się na dwie gałęzie: +Obecnie Trynitarze głównie sprawują duszpasterstwo więźniów, ale także opiekują się chorymi. Prowadzą swoje własne parafie w porozumieniu z biskupami lokalnymi. +Habit. +Trynitarze noszą habit w kolorze białym, przepasany skórzanym czarnym paskiem, na habicie biały szkaplerz z czerwono-niebieskim krzyżem oraz biały kaptur. Płaszcz ciemnobrązowy lub czarny. +Symbolika szkaplerza trynitarskiego. +Biały szkaplerz symbolizuje biel Ducha Świętego, przenikającego głębokości Boga, niebieska pozioma belka krzyża, naszytego na szkaplerz, symbolizuje Boga Ojca Niebieskiego, a czerwona pionowa belka, nałożona na niebieską, symbolizuje Przenajdroższą Krew Syna Bożego. +Działalność na świecie. +Obecnie Zakon Trynitarzy na świecie składa się z siedmiu prowincji, trzech wikariatów oraz dwóch delegatur. Ojcowie Trynitarze są obecni w następujących krajach Włochy, Hiszpania, Francja, Niemcy, Austria, USA, Kanada, Meksyk, Gwatemala, Portoryko, Kolumbia, Brazylia, Peru, Boliwia, Chile, Argentyna, Indie, Madagaskar, Polska oraz Kongo. +Działalność w Polsce. +Lata 1685-1907. +Na ziemie polskie Trynitarianie zostali sprowadzeni za czasów Jana III Sobieskiego w okresie wojen tureckich. Zakon Trynitarzy działał na terenie Polski w latach 1685-1907. Obszar działalności tego zakonu ograniczał się do wschodnich ziem Rzeczypospolitej. Trynitarze byli zakonem kwestującym. Ich zadaniem było wykupywanie Polaków z niewoli tatarskiej (jasyru). Nierzadko zakonnicy, gdy już brakowało pieniędzy, sami oddawali się w ręce Tatarów, w zamian za uwalnianego z niewoli. W latach 1688 - 1783 polscy trynitarze wykupili 517 jeńców za kwotę 573.427 złotych polskich. +Miejscowości, w których założono domy zakonne trynitarzy (w kolejności chronologicznej): Lwów, Kraków, Stanisławów, Beresteczko, Warszawa, Halicz, Antokol i Werki (dziś dzielnice Wilna), Kamieniec Podolski, Orsza, Łuck, Tomaszów Lubelski, Brześć, Lublin, Krotoszyn, Brahiłów, Bursztyn, Szumbar, Czołhan, Babinowicze k. Orszy, Biały Kamień. W Lublinie trynitarze posiadali najpierw dom zakonny, a następnie – z uwagi na zubożenie – zamieszkiwali jedną z wież w murach miejskich, nazywaną Wieżą Trynitarską. +Po pierwszym rozbiorze Polski nastepowały liczne kasaty róznych zakonów, w tym także Trynitarzy. Ostatni trynitarz na ziemiach polskich przebywał do 1907 roku. +Restytucja od 1986 r.. +Wraz z przyjazdem do Polski w 1986 o. Jerzego Kępińskiego doszło do restytucji tego zakonu w kraju. Współcześnie zadaniem i regułą Zakonu jest "wykupywanie" ludzi z rozmaitych rodzajów niewoli – zewnętrznej i wewnętrznej, również uzależnień od alkoholu, narkotyków, internetu itp. +Obecnie jedyny dom zakonny w Polsce znajduje się w Krakowie, przy którym znajduje się kościół Przenajświętszej Trójcy. +Potrynitariańskie zabytki sakralne na ziemiach polsko-litewskich. +Pozostałością po pierwszej obecności Trynitarzy na ziemiach polsko-litewskich są klasztory zniesione w XIX w., które stanowią obecnie zabytki sakralnej architektury barokokowej i rokokowej (m.in. w Krakowei, Krotoszynie, Warszawie), choć nie należą one już do Trynitarzy. +Wśród zachowanych kościołów potrynitariańskich w Polsce znajdują się m.in.: +Wśród zachowanych kościołów potrynitariańskich w dawnej Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów (obecnie: Litwa oraz Ukraina) znajdują się m.in.: +Gospodarka rynkowa + +Gospodarka rynkowa – rodzaj gospodarki, w której decyzje dotyczące zakresu i sposobu produkcji podejmowane są przez podmioty gospodarcze (gospodarstwa domowe, przedsiębiorstwa, instytucje finansowe, rząd), kierujące się własnym interesem i postępujące zgodnie z zasadami racjonalności gospodarowania. Podstawą podejmowania tych decyzji są informacje płynące z rynku, m.in. ceny dóbr i usług, ceny czynników wytwórczych, płace, stopy procentowe, stopy zysku, kursy papierów wartościowych, kursy walutowe oraz oczekiwania podmiotów gospodarczych co do kształtowania się wyżej wymienionych w przyszłości. +Dominującym współcześnie przykładem gospodarki rynkowej jest gospodarka kapitalistyczna. Błędem jest jednak używanie pojęcia "gospodarka rynkowa" w charakterze synonimu kapitalizmu, bowiem "rynki nie są (...) unikatowe dla kapitalizmu i nie ma w nich nic nieodłącznie kapitalistycznego". Zarówno gospodarki przedkapitalistyczne (np. feudalizm), jak też wiele form socjalizmu (np. socjalizm rynkowy) w bardzo dużym stopniu polegało na rynku jako mechanizmie dystrybucji i alokacji, w związku z czym również zalicza się je do kategorii gospodarek rynkowych. +Roman Szymański + +Roman Szymański (ur. 4 sierpnia 1840 w Kostrzynie koło Poznania, zm. 18 grudnia 1908 w Poznaniu) – działacz polityczny, publicysta, redaktor „Orędownika”. +Urodzony w rodzinie mieszczańskiej jako syn Józefa Szymańskiego i Marianny Szymańskiej z domu Koszczyńskiej. W Gimnazjum św. Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu założył z kolegami kółko „Marianów”, którego celem było poznanie literatury polskiej. Współtworzył także przy gimnazjum konspiracyjne Towarzystwo Narodowe. Rozpoczął studia w seminarium duchownym w Poznaniu (1862), ale przerwał je w okresie powstania styczniowego. Walczył w szeregach powstańczych w Królestwie Polskim, brał udział w bitwie pod Nową Wsią i Brdowem. Nie trafił do niewoli i powrócił do Wielkopolski; podjął studia historyczne na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim, które następnie uzupełniał (także w kierunku ekonomii) w Berlinie i Lipsku. W 1867 w Lipsku obronił doktorat z filozofii. +Pierwszym przejawem działalności publicystycznej Szymańskiego była broszura ekonomiczna "Zasady towarzystw przemysłowych" (1868), wydana pod przybranym nazwiskiem Wacław Górecki. Rok później został redaktorem ilustrowanego tygodnika poznańskiego „Sobótka”, współpracował także z „Dziennikiem Poznańskim”, „Gazetą Toruńską” i „Przeglądem Polskim”. Propagował idee pozytywistyczne (m.in. publikacja "O siłach moralnych w ustroju społecznym", 1870). +W 1871 objął stanowisko redaktora naczelnego nowego pisma „Orędownik”. Pismo, współfinansowane przez ziemian wielkopolskich, było skierowane przede wszystkim do mieszczan; pierwszy numer ukazał się 1 kwietnia 1871. Szymański odstąpił nieco od linii politycznej ziemiaństwa, dążąc do politycznej aktywizacji mieszczaństwa; doprowadziło to wkrótce do wycofania się ziemian z finansowania – od końca 1872 redaktor wydawał pismo samodzielnie. W okresie Kulturkampfu "Orędownik" głosił ostrą krytykę polityki pruskiej i bronił polskości Wielkopolski oraz pozycji Kościoła katolickiego. Redaktor Szymański inicjował wiece polityczne oraz akcje petycyjne; zgromadził wokół siebie aktywny ruch mieszczański, określany mianem „ludowego” (pozostający jednak bez związku z tradycyjnym chłopskim ruchem ludowym). Aktywności Szymańskiego nie osłabiły kilkakrotne kary więzienia. Efektem jego działań było m.in. zwiększenie udziału polskiego mieszczaństwa w wyborach powszechnych do władz lokalnych i parlamentu Rzeszy niemieckiej. +W kolejnych latach Szymański popadł w konflikt z wieloma środowiskami politycznymi. Występował przeciwko socjalistom, a w latach 90. XIX wieku zaostrzyły się także stosunki z ziemiaństwem. Naraził się duchowieństwu, kiedy w trakcie walki o mandat w sejmie pruskim w 1893 wystąpił przeciwko arcybiskupowi Stablewskiemu; ostatecznie nie został wybrany, przegrywając ze Stefanem Cegielskim. Na przełomie wieków Szymański i kierowany przez niego ruch ludowy zyskał poparcie narodowej demokracji, która wkrótce (1906) przejęła wydawanie „Orędownika”. Szymański wszedł w skład zarządu Towarzystwa Akcyjnego Nowa Drukarnia Polska, ale stan zdrowia nie pozwolił mu na większą aktywność. Zmarł w grudniu 1908. +Był żonaty z Heleną Wyczyńską (od 1883), miał pięcioro dzieci (trzy córki i dwóch synów). +Bibliografia +Władysław Niegolewski + +Władysław Maurycy Niegolewski (12 września 1819 we Włościejewkach koło Śremu - 19 marca 1885 w Poznaniu), liberalny polityk, prawnik, powstaniec styczniowy. +Biografia. +Był synem ziemianina i działacza społecznego Andrzeja (zm. 1857). Kształcił się w poznańskich Gimnazjach św. Marii Magdaleny i Fryderyka Wilhelma, następnie studiował nauki prawne w Bonn (1845 obronił doktorat praw na podstawie rozprawy "O prawie dzierżawnym"). Nie objął proponowanej mu katedry prawa na Uniwersytecie w Zurychu. Po powrocie do Wielkopolski zaangażował się w ruch niepodległościowy, był jednym z organizatorów planowanego ataku na Cytadelę w Poznaniu 3 marca 1846. Więziony w Poznaniu i Berlinie, został uwolniony po procesie berlińskim. +W 1848 wchodził w skład Komitetu Narodowego w Poznaniu. Jako członek polskiej delegacji występował w obronie spraw polskich w parlamencie we Frankfurcie. W 1849 bronił znanego adwokata Krotowskiego-Krauthofera, oskarżanego przez władze pruskie o udział w powstaniu z 1848. Wielokrotnie sprawował mandat poselski w sejmie pruskim (1849-1852, 1858-1861, 1867-1884), był także posłem do parlamentu niemieckiego (od 1871). Przeciwstawiał się germanizacji. Wypowiadał się w obronie języka polskiego w szkołach i urzędach wielkopolskich, domagał się poszanowania odrębności Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego. W latach 1859-1860 wykrył prowokację prezydenta policji pruskiej, który upozorował w Poznaniu spisek antypruski. +Brał udział w powstaniu styczniowym, był ranny w bitwie pod Ignacewem. Wcześniej, 6 maja 1863 r. płk. Edmund Taczanowski ustanowił go szefem magistratu w Kole. Oskarżony o zdradę stanu, odbył karę więzienia w Głogowie. +Był jednym z współtwórców Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk, które w 1857 zawiązano w jego domu. Niegolewski w początkowym okresie pełnił funkcję wiceprezesa PTPN oraz redagował jego "Roczniki". +Zakładał także Towarzystwo Oświaty Ludowej, Towarzystwo Czytelni Ludowych oraz Centralne Towarzystwo Gospodarcze, pracował nad rozwojem Wyższej Szkoły Rolniczej w Żabikowie, (założonej przez Augusta Cieszkowskiego). Wraz z Ludwikiem Rzepeckim wydawał pismo "Goniec Wielkopolski", na łamach którego zdecydowanie wypowiadał się przeciwko współpracy z władzami pruskimi. +W 1884 przegrał wybory do parlamentu pruskiego ze Stefanem Cegielskim; zmarł rok później. Z małżeństwa z Wandą z Kwileckich nie miał dzieci. +Bieg na 800 metrów + +Bieg na 800 metrów – lekkoatletyczna konkurencja biegowa, zaliczana do biegów średnich. Na otwartym stadionie bieg na 800 metrów to dwa okrążenia stadionu. Pierwsze 100 m zawodnicy biegną po swoich torach, po czym zbiegają ku wewnętrznemu torowi. +Bieg na 800 m mężczyzn jest w programie olimpijskim już od pierwszych igrzysk w Atenach. W przypadku występów kobiet bardzo długo uważano, że nie są one w stanie wytrzymać tego dystansu. Wprawdzie na igrzyskach olimpijskich w 1928 wprowadzono tę konkurencję dla kobiet, ale ze względu na zmęczenie jakiego doświadczyły zawodniczki, rozgrywanie tego biegu zawieszono, by wprowadzić go ponownie na igrzyskach w 1960. Obecnie kobiety biegają na znacznie dłuższych dystansach. W programie mistrzostw Europy bieg na 800 m rozgrywany jest od 1934 (I ME) dla mężczyzn i od 1954 (V ME) dla kobiet. +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów. +mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę najlepszych biegaczy na 800 m mężczyzn w historii (stan na 31 sierpnia 2012). +kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczek na 800 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 22 lipca 2009). +Zobacz więcej na stronach IAAF +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów w hali. +mężczyźni. +Zobacz więcej na stronach IAAF +Andrzej Niegolewski + +Andrzej Marcin Niegolewski (ur. 12 listopada 1787 w Bytyniu koło Szamotuł, zm. 18 lutego 1857 w Poznaniu), pułkownik Wojska Polskiego, uczestnik kampanii napoleońskich, ziemianin, działacz społeczny. +Był synem stolnika wschowskiego Felicjana i Magdaleny z Potockich herbu Szeliga. W listopadzie 1806 wstąpił w Poznaniu do szwadronu gwardii honorowej Napoleona, wkrótce został skierowany do 5. pułku jazdy polskiej; po krótkim czasie otrzymał promocję na podporucznika, potem na porucznika. Walczył na Pomorzu (pod Tczewem i Gdańskiem), a latem 1807 przeszedł do pułku gwardii lekkokonnej, w szeregach której odbył kampanię hiszpańską, biorąc m.in. udział w szarży pod Somosierrą w której jako nieliczny dotarł do czwartej i ostatniej baterii wroga na sam szczyt przełęczy odnosząc przy tym 9 ran od bagnetów i dwie od kul wroga. Za ten brawurowy wyczyn otrzymał prawdopodobnie od samego Napoleona Legię Honorową. W 1809 brał udział w kampanii austriackiej, a 1810-1811 ponownie walczył w Hiszpanii. W trakcie kampanii rosyjskiej 1812-1813 służył w sztabie głównym w stopniu kapitana. Pod koniec 1813 otrzymał urlop zdrowotny, przebywał jakiś czas w Paryżu; w grudniu 1814 powrócił do kraju i mieszkał w Niegolewie koło Buku, a po zawarciu małżeństwa z Anną z Krzyżanowskich (1816) w majątku żony Włościejewki koło Śremu. Przez kilkanaście lat zajmował się gospodarstwem. +Po wybuchu powstania listopadowego przedostał się do Warszawy. Otrzymał przydział do sztabu, następnie - promowany na pułkownika - dowodził pułkiem jazdy sandomierskiej (marzec-czerwiec 1831). Od czerwca 1831 służył w sztabie głównym, ale już we wrześniu ze względów zdrowotnych otrzymał dymisję i powrócił do Wielkopolski. Nie uniknął represji - za udział w powstaniu został ukarany konfiskatą majątku i 9-miesięczną karą więzienia, którą odbył w twierdzy Cosel (ostatecznie karę zmniejszono o połowę). +W kolejnych latach zaliczał się do najaktywniejszych wielkopolskich działaczy społecznych. Przez wiele lat posłował do sejmu prowincjonalnego, występując w obronie języka polskiego w życiu publicznym Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego. Temu zagadnieniu poświęcił pracę "Wola królewska i jej wykonanie w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim" (Lipsk 1857). Publikował także wspomnienia ze służby wojskowej - "Samo-Sierra" (1854) i "Les Polonais a Samo-Sierra" (1854, 1855). Działał jako radca Ziemstwa Kredytowego Poznańskiego, był udziałowcem spółki Bazar w Poznaniu. +Wiek dorosły osiągnęło ośmioro z jego dzieci, pięć córek i trzech synów. Jednym z nich był Władysław Maurycy (1819-1885), prawnik i znany działacz społeczno-polityczny w Wielkopolsce. +Po śmierci pochowano go w grobowcu rodzinnym na cmentarzu w Buku. W niedzielę 14 października 1923 roku w Poznaniu prochy pułkownika Niegolewskiego oraz generałów Antoniego Kosińskiego i Józefa Wybickiego zostały uroczyście złożone w Krypcie Zasłużonych Wielkopolan w kościele św. Wojciecha . +Problem roku 2000 + +Problem roku 2000, Y2K (z ang. "year 2 kilo bug"), pluskwa milenijna (z ang. "millenium bug") – potencjalnie katastroficzne skutki, jakie miał z nastaniem roku 2000 wywołać przyjęty kilkadziesiąt lat wcześniej sposób zapisu daty w programach komputerowych. +W epoce pierwszych komputerów dla zaoszczędzenia pamięci (być może także z innych powodów) rok był zapisywany tylko dwiema ostatnimi cyframi, co nie pozwalało przechować informacji o stuleciu, np. rok 1901 był kodowany tak samo jak rok 2001: jako 01. W nowszych komputerach oraz nowszych wersjach programów nie zmieniano tego sposobu zapisu, głównie aby zapewnić kompatybilność ze starszymi wersjami. Powstało wiele modyfikacji dotychczasowego oprogramowania, dla przykładu korporacja Microsoft w wydawanym w tamtym okresie systemie operacyjnym Windows 98 umieściła w ustawieniach regionalnych odpowiednie opcje pozwalające na interpretację roku zapisanego dwucyfrowo. +Problem Y2K dotyczył głównie starszych programów – nie przewidziano, że będą one używane w XXI wieku. Jednak różne firmy informatyczne sztucznie nagłośniły problem, widząc w tym okazję do zarobienia pieniędzy i oferowały instalację "nowego oprogramowania i sprzętu zgodnego z Y2K", tudzież przetestowanie istniejącego oprogramowania na zgodność z rokiem 2000. Straszono także nastaniem wielkiego chaosu, wyłączeniem ważnych komputerów, elektrowni itp. Jednak, gdy nadszedł 1 stycznia 2000 nic takiego się nie stało. Pewne problemy odnotowano, ale były to przypadki sporadyczne i o niewielkim zasięgu. Apokalipsa, którą straszono, nie nastąpiła. +Pierwszą osobą, która publicznie wypowiedziała się na temat Y2K, był Bob Bemer, który zauważył ten problem już w 1958 roku podczas pracy nad programem do kreślenia drzewa genealogicznego. Przez kolejne dwadzieścia lat starał się on zwrócić uwagę wielkich firm komputerowych na istnienie tego problemu, lecz z marnym lub żadnym skutkiem. Problem ten był ignorowany aż do 1994 roku. +Tak naprawdę pierwsze kłopoty związane z Y2K pojawiły się już kilka lat wcześniej. Przykładem może być np. problem z autoryzacją karty płatniczej, której data ważności (wyrażona dwucyfrowo) przekraczała rok 2000 lub z nieprawidłowo odczytaną datą przydatności do użycia wybranych produktów spożywczych. Co więcej, nawet po roku 2000 niektóre firmy ignorują problem Y2K tak dalece, że nadal używają dla oznaczenia roku tylko dwóch cyfr. Ma to miejsce szczególnie właśnie w przypadku kart płatniczych i produktów o określonej trwałości. Oznaczenie np. "09/07" jest dla odbiorcy bardzo mylące. Nie wie on bowiem, czy data jest zapisana w stylu amerykańskim (najpierw rok, później miesiąc) czy odwrotnie – w stylu europejskim. +PATH + +PATH (ang. ścieżka) - system podziemnych ulic i przejść znajdujący się w Toronto (Ontario, Kanada), o łącznej długości ok. 27 km. System spełnia ważną rolę w komunikacji w mieście szczególnie podczas męczących upałów, burz czy zawieruch. System rocznie przemierza ok. 55 milionów osób. Korytarze są monitorowane przez kamery i ochronę poszczególnych biurowców. +Historię PATH można liczyć od 1900 roku, kiedy dom towarowy Eaton Centre połączył podziemnym przejściem swój aneks. Właściwa sieć podziemnych ulic powstała wraz z rozwojem Financial District, stworzonym głównie w czasie boomu lat 70. Każdy nowy biurowiec przeznaczał jedno lub dwa piętra pod ziemią na ciąg handlowy i przyłączał się do sąsiednich biurowców. +Efektem jest podziemne miasto, które mogłoby funkcjonować autonomicznie. Pod ziemią funkcjonuje ponad 1,100 sklepów, domów towarowych i centrów handlowych, 5 stacji metra, stacja kolejowa, stacja autobusów dalekobieżnych, obiekty sportowe, filharmonia, teatry, kina, restauracje, kawiarnie, punkty usługowe, 52 biurowce, giełda papierów wartościowych, hotele i parę domów mieszkalnych. +Nazwa PATH została nadana w 1992 roku, funkcjonuje także generyczna "Underground City". Kolorowe oznakowanie graficzne wskazuje strony świata, naniesione są również nazwy ulic i budynki, które się mija. W wielu punktach ponadto umieszczono ścienne mapy systemu z zaznaczonym miejscem pobytu. +Dolina Żabia Mięguszowiecka + +Dolina Żabia Mięguszowiecka, Dolina Żabia (słow. "dolina Žabích plies", "kotlina Žabích plies", niem. "Froschseetal", "Kessel der Froschseen", węg. "Békás-tavak-katlan") – tatrzańska dolina położona na terenie Słowacji, w Tatrach Wysokich, górne piętro Doliny Mięguszowieckiej ("Mengusovská dolina"). +Przez Dolinę Żabią poprowadzony jest znakowany szlak turystyczny na Rysy. Jego trasa prowadzi obok Wielkiego Żabiego Stawu, przez Kotlinkę pod Wagą, w której znajduje się położone najwyżej w Tatrach niewielkie schronisko pod Rysami ("chata pod Rysmi"), nieczynne po sezonowym zamknięciu szlaku. Schronisko oddano do użytku w 1933 r. Wielokrotnie było naprawiane i odbudowywane po zniszczeniach spowodowanych lawinami (m.in. w 2000 r.). +Szlaki turystyczne. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +Jura (góry) + +Jura – góry na granicy Francji i Szwajcarii, stanowiące północne odgałęzienie Alp. +Rozciągają się na długości 270 km od łuku Rodanu powyżej Lyonu na pd-zach po dolinę Renu powyżej Bazylei na pn.-wsch. Największą szerokość, ok. 70 km, osiągają pomiędzy jeziorem Neuchâtel a Besançon. Najwyższy szczyt (Crêt de la Neige) osiąga wysokość 1720 m n.p.m. +Od właściwych Alp oddzielają je (idąc od południa): dolina Rodanu, Jezioro Genewskie i Wyżyna Szwajcarska. Od położonych bardziej na północy Wogezów oddziela je Brama Burgundzka. +Najwyższe szczyty Jury: +Czeboksary + +Czeboksary (ros. Чебокса́ры, czuwaskie Шупашкар) - miasto w Federacji Rosyjskiej, stolica Republiki Czuwaszja. Położone na prawym brzegu Wołgi, na trasie pomiędzy Kazaniem a Niżnym Nowogrodem, 768 km na wschód od Moskwy. Populacja w mieście wynosi około 442 600 mieszkańców (2005). +Historia. +Obszar, na którym położone jest miasto, zasiedlony był najprawdopodobniej już w XIII wieku. Dopiero jednak w 1555 roku powstał tu ruski ośrodek obronny. Na koniec XVII wieku przypadło zwiększenie znaczenia miejscowości, jako jednego z ośrodków handlowych na Powołżu. Czeboksary otrzymały status miasta w 1781 r. Należały wtedy do guberni kazańskiej. Następne lata nie przyniosły większych oznak rozwoju miasta. Na początku XX wieku straciło ono swoje handlowe znaczenie, stając się wtedy raczej centrum pielgrzymkowym, ze względu na dużą liczbę cerkwi i rozwinięte życie monasterskie. W 1920 roku Czeboksary ogłoszono centrum Czuwaskiego Obwodu Autonomicznego. Pierwsze lata istnienia państwa radzieckiego nie były jednak łatwe zarówno dla Czeboksar, jak i całej Czuwaszji. W 1922 roku obszary te nawiedziła tragiczna w skutkach klęska głodu. Wkrótce jednak tempo rozwoju miasta zwiększyło się. W 1925 roku stało się ono stolicą Czuwaskiej ASRR. Od 1992 roku Czeboksary są stolicą Republiki Czuwaszja, jednego z 89 podmiotów Federacji Rosyjskiej. +Financial District (Toronto) + +Financial District - jedna z dzielnic kanadyjskiego miasta Toronto, skupiająca większość najwyższych drapaczy chmur w mieście. Nazwa obejmuje całą dzielnicę, czasem jednak używa się także określenia Bay Street jako jej synonimu. +Przy powstawaniu dzielnicy przepisy ograniczały wysokość budynków, dopuszczały jednak odsprzedaż wolnej przestrzeni powyżej dachu - jeśli ktoś chiał postawić wyższy drapacz chmur mógł odkupić prawa od sąsiadów. Sąsiedzi z kolei mieli prawo zakwestionować projekty ze względu na obawę, że cień rzucany przez budynek zasłoni im światło słoneczne przez dłuższą część dnia. +Większość biurowców jest ogrzewana parą dostarczaną rurociągami. W najbliższym czasie biurowce będą także chłodzone centralnie, wodą dostarczaną z dna jeziora Ontario, w którego głębinach panuje stała temperatura 4 °C. Ponadto, także w celach związanych z ochroną środowiska, w okresie przelotów ptaków wędrownych wygaszane są w nocy światła w budynkach, aby nie wprowadzać ptaków w błąd. +Prawdziwy rozwój tej dzielnicy przypada na lata 60.-80., gdy wzniesiono większość obecnych budynków. +Gonzalo Gavira + +Gonzalo Gavira (ur. 31 października 1925, zm. 9 stycznia 2005 w mieście Meksyk), filmowiec meksykański, specjalista efektów dźwiękowych. +Pracował m.in. w zespole dźwiękowym filmu "Egzorcysta" (1973). Dźwięk w tym filmie został wyróżniony Oscarem (nagrodę odebrali Robert Knudson i Chris Newman). +Gavira brał udział także w produkcji m.in. takich filmów, jak "Płonący wieżowiec" i "Dobry, zły i brzydki". +Obrona konieczna + +Obrona konieczna – okoliczność wyłączająca bezprawność czynu zabronionego. Obrona konieczna jest więc jednym z kontratypów. Dokonanie czynu w sytuacji obrony koniecznej oznacza, że sprawca nie będzie zań ścigany – czyn nie był bowiem bezprawny. +Obrona konieczna wyłącza również bezprawność czynu niedozwolonego w prawie cywilnym. +Obrona przed bezprawnym zamachem (atakiem) jest prawem gwarantowanym przez obowiązujący w Polsce Kodeks karny z 1997 roku. Prawo to jest natomiast jednym z podstawowych praw podmiotowych człowieka. +Warunki obrony koniecznej. +Nie każdy zamach na dobro własne lub innej osoby uprawnia jednak do podjęcia obrony. Podjęcie obrony koniecznej uzasadnia tylko zamach, który jest bezprawny, bezpośredni i rzeczywisty. +Ażeby uznać jakiś czyn za zamach, to czyn ten musi mieć charakter czynu bezprawnego. Bezprawność czynu polega na tym, iż czyn ten jest sprzeczny z obowiązującym prawem (normą prawną). Nie chodzi tu oczywiście o bezprawność w ogóle, lecz wyłącznie o bezprawność (sprzeczność z normą prawną), która jest elementem przestępstwa i pociąga za sobą odpowiedzialność karną. Bezprawnie może działać tylko człowiek odpowiadający za swoje czyny, tak więc np. atak zwierzęcia lub osoby niepoczytalnej nie jest zamachem, a zabicie takiego napastnika we własnej obronie nie jest działaniem w obronie koniecznej, lecz działaniem w stanie wyższej konieczności. W pewnych warunkach czyn zawierający znamiona przestępstwa, a więc czyn bezprawny, nie ma cechy bezprawia karnego. Najczęściej występującym przypadkiem braku bezprawności czynu jest działanie w granicach swego prawa lub obowiązku prawnego. +Obrona konieczna nie jest dopuszczalna przeciwko obronie koniecznej, gdyż działanie w obronie koniecznej jest dozwolone przez prawo, a zatem nie posiada cechy bezprawności. +Kolejnym warunkiem dopuszczającym działanie w obronie koniecznej jest to, że zamach musi być rzeczywisty. Zamach musi mieć zatem charakter przedmiotowy, a nie podmiotowy, to znaczy, że zamach musi istnieć w rzeczywistości, a nie w wyobraźni rzekomo napadniętego. Odpowiedzialność w takich przypadkach nie jest rozpatrywana na płaszczyźnie obrony koniecznej, której nie ma, lecz na płaszczyźnie błędu (obrona urojona). +Ostatnim wreszcie warunkiem dopuszczającym obronę konieczną jest wymóg, aby zamach był bezpośredni, to znaczy, aby powodował bezpośrednie niebezpieczeństwo dla zagrożonego dobra. Nie może to być niebezpieczeństwo przewidywane lub minione. Nie oznacza to, że broniący się musi oczekiwać na zamach sprawcy, by móc powoływać się na działanie w ramach obrony koniecznej. Wystarczy, że z okoliczności sytuacji jednoznacznie wynika, iż napastnik przystępuje do ataku na dobro prawem chronione. +Konieczność obrony koniecznej. +Oznacza działanie w taki sposób i takimi środkami, jakie są w danej sytuacji niezbędne do odparcia zamachu; w doktrynie panuje spór czy obrona konieczna ma charakter samoistny czy subsydiarny. +Granice obrony koniecznej. +Istotą działania w obronie koniecznej jest odpieranie zamachu. Adresatem tych działań jest tylko napastnik i jego dobro. Odpieranie zamachu kosztem dobra osoby trzeciej nie będzie działaniem w ramach obrony koniecznej, lecz może w tym przypadku zachodzić stan wyższej konieczności. +Zasada obrony koniecznej sformułowana w Kodeksie karnym nie stawia wymogu, aby dobro zagrożone zamachem przedstawiało większą wartość niż dobro zaatakowane przez broniącego się. Natomiast wartość chronionego dobra powinna mieć wpływ na charakter (środki) podjętej obrony. Im bardziej wartościowe, ważkie jest dobro chronione, tym ostrzejsze środki obrony są dopuszczalne, włącznie z ciężkim naruszeniem ciała lub zabiciem napastnika. Istnieje jednak warunek umiarkowania obrony – nie może wystąpić rażąca dysproporcja między dobrem zaatakowanym zamachem a dobrem napastnika, przeciwko któremu skierowane jest działanie obronne. Prawo do obrony koniecznej jest prawem samoistnym, toteż przysługuje również wówczas, gdy istnieje możliwość uniknięcia zamachu (np. ucieczka, wezwanie policji). +Przekroczenie granic obrony koniecznej. +Przepisy karne wymagają, aby środki obrony nie przekraczały granicy konieczności w zakresie siły i rodzaju, czyli aby były konieczne (niezbędne) dla odparcia zamachu. Osoba odpierająca zamach musi działać w celu jego odparcia, co zakłada świadomość zamachu i wolę obrony dobra zaatakowanego. +Jeżeli działania podjęte w ramach obrony koniecznej nie odpowiadają stawianym im wymogom i powodują naruszenie jakiegokolwiek dobra napastnika: życia, zdrowia, czci, mienia, to wówczas następuje przekroczenie granic obrony koniecznej. Przekroczenie takie ma miejsce, gdy środki lub sposoby obrony były niewspółmierne do niebezpieczeństwa zamachu – sytuację taką określa się mianem ekscesu intensywnego; obrona jest przedwczesna lub spóźniona – określona jako eksces ekstensywny. +Naruszenie jakiegokolwiek dobra napastnika, gdy granica obrony koniecznej jest przekroczona, stanowi przestępstwo. Ponieważ przepisy karne nie znają przestępstwa przekroczenia granic obrony koniecznej, to odpowiedzialność karna, w zależności od przypadku naruszenia czyjegoś dobra w związku z przekroczeniem granic obrony koniecznej, będzie ponoszona w zależności od rodzaju naruszonego dobra. +Jednakże Kodeks karny, uwzględniając fakt, że przestępstwo zostało popełnione nie z własnej winy, i że w momencie zamachu trudno jest określić granice obrony koniecznej, przewiduje, że w razie przekroczenia granic obrony koniecznej sąd może zastosować nadzwyczajne złagodzenie kary, a nawet odstąpić od jej wymierzenia. A w sytuacji, gdy przekroczenie granic byłoby wynikiem strachu lub wzburzenia usprawiedliwionego okolicznościami zamachu, a więc w warunkach tzw. afektu astenicznego, ustawodawca przewidział iż sprawca nie podlega karze (nowelizacja z 2010 r. – wcześniej obligatoryjne odstąpienie od wymierzania kary), co ma istotne znaczenie na gruncie prawa procesowego, albowiem niepodleganie przez sprawcę karze jest negatywną przesłanką procesową (art. 17 § 1 ust. 4 kpk), czyli postępowania karnego nie wszczyna się a wszczęte umarza. +Cząstka swobodna + +W nierelatywistycznej mechanice kwantowej cząstkę swobodną opisuje czasowe równanie Schrödingera + +-\frac{\hbar^2}{2m}\Delta\psi(\vec{x},t)+U(x)\psi(\vec{x},t) = i\hbar \frac{\partial \psi(\vec{x},t)}{\partial t} +z potencjałem U(x)=0 (na cząstkę nie działa żadna siła). Rozwiązaniem tego równania jest kombinacja liniowa fal płaskich (paczką falową) +\psi(\vec{x},t)=\sum_{\vec{k}} c_{k} \exp(i \vec{k} \vec{x}-i \omega_{k} t) + +gdzie formula_1 jest pędem cząstki, formula_2 (formula_3) a formula_4 jest wektorem falowym skierowanym wzdłuż wektora jednostkowego e dla fali monochromatycznej o długości λ. Energia takiej fali jest równa + +Równanie to opisuje zależność dyspersyjną energii od wektora falowego, zależność ta określa prędkość grupową paczki falowej +Dla cząstki nierelatywistycznej otrzymujemy +podobnie jak w mechanice klasycznej. +Więź (miesięcznik) + +Więź – katolicki miesięcznik społeczno-kulturalny wydawany w Warszawie od 1958 roku. Od grudnia 1981 do marca 1982 czasopismo było zawieszone. +Miesięcznik został założony przez świeckich działaczy katolickich, stawiających sobie za cel intelektualne ożywienie polskiego katolicyzmu oraz otwarcie go na współczesną kulturę. Redakcję inspirowała myśl Jana XXIII oraz Soboru Watykańskiego II. W okresie PRL środowisko „Więzi” miało swój udział w tworzeniu opozycji demokratycznej, a następnie „Solidarności”. +We wczesnych latach 60. środowisko „Więzi” uważane było za lewicowe. Dziś współtworzy nową formację centrową, „katolicyzm integralny” (według klasyfikacji Jarosława Gowina z książki "Kościół po komunizmie"). Zbigniew Nosowski, obecny redaktor pisma, stwierdził: "Chcemy tworzyć katolicyzm współczesny, krytyczny, ale zarazem ortodoksyjny". +Miesięcznik „Więź” ściśle współpracuje z Wydawnictwem „Więź”, mającym swój początek w tym samym środowisku. Najnowszą inicjatywą tej grupy jest Laboratorium Więzi – Instytut Analiz Społecznych i Dialogu, instytucja mająca ambicję zostać chrześcijańskim think tankiem. +Od stycznia 2013 wydawany jako kwartalnik. +Skład pierwszego zespołu redakcyjnego (1958). +Stefan Bakinowski, Rudolf Buchała, Zygmunt Drozdek, Juliusz Eska (zastępca red. naczelnego), Krystyna Konarska-Łosiowa, Andrzej Krasiński, Tadeusz Mazowiecki (redaktor naczelny), Tadeusz Myślik, Ignacy Rutkiewicz, Władysław Seńko, Andrzej Siemianowski (sekretarz redakcji), Adam Stanowski, Eugeniusz Tabaczyński, Janusz Zabłocki +Geografia Irlandii + +Irlandia jest niewielkim państwem wyspiarskim leżącym w Europie Północnej, podzielonym na centralną nizinę i średniej wysokości góry na południu i północy. Irlandia jest krajem o łagodnym oceanicznym klimacie, gdzie ogromne obszary zajmują torfowiska. +Powierzchnia, położenie i granice. +Powierzchnia wynosi 70 284 km². +Państwo jest położone w północno-zachodniej Europie, na wyspie Irlandia, oblane od wschodu wodami Morza Irlandzkiego, od południa — Morza Celtyckiego i od zachodu — otwartego Oceanu Atlantyckiego. +Skrajne punkty: północny 55°37'N, południowy 51°27'N, zachodni 10°24'W wschodni 6°00'W. Rozciągłość południkowa wynosi 400 km, a równoleżnikowa 340 km. +Irlandia od północy graniczy z Wielką Brytanią na długości 360 km, której obszar wchodzi w skład irlandzkiej wyspy. Obszar ten zwany jest Irlandią Północną. Od wschodu poprzez wody terytorialne Morza Irlandzkiego, Irlandia także graniczy z Wielką Brytanią. +Linia brzegowa wynosi 1448 km. +Budowa geologiczna i ukształtowanie powierzchni. +Ukształtowanie powierzchni Irlandii jest głównie wynikiem budowy geologicznej oraz działania procesów peryglacjalnych podczas dwóch zlodowaceń. Krajobraz wyspy jest unikalną mozaiką terenów górskich, bagien (torfowisk), wrzosowisk, zbiorników wodnych, a przede wszystkim łąk i pastwisk pokrywających nizinne partie wyspy. +Położona w centrum wyspy Nizina Środkowoirlandzka zajmuje prawie połowę powierzchni Irlandii. Podłoże niziny tworzą wapienie karbońskie, na których zalega dochodząca do 60 m pokrywa utworów polodowcowych. Większość tego obszaru leży na wysokości 60-120 m n.p.m. Obszar niziny obfituje w bagna i jeziora, charakterystycznym elementem północy i zachodu wyspy są rozległe torfowiska. Na północ i południe od Niziny Środkowoirlandzkiej rozpościerają się niezbyt wysokie stare góry i wyżyny. Regiony te uległy wypiętrzeniu w czasie fałdowań kaledońskich i hercyńskich. Zachodzące w kolejnych epokach geologicznych procesy denudacyjne doprowadziły do zrównania pasm górskich, które obecnie przypominają płaskowyże. +Ponad powierzchnię zrównania wznoszą się szczyty zbudowane ze skał bardziej odpornych na niszczenie. W północno-zachodniej Irlandii wznoszą się góry Donegal, z najwyższym szczytem Errigal (752 m n.p.m.). Na południu wyspy znajdują się pasma górskie Kerry, z najwyższym szczytem Irlandii Carrantuohill (irl. Corrán Tuathail – 1041 m n.p.m.). Na wschodnim wybrzeżu wyspy położone są góry Wicklow, będące przedłużeniem Gór Kambryjskich. +Linia brzegowa Irlandii jest bardzo dobrze rozwinięta. Głęboko w głąb lądu wcinają się liczne zatoki m.in. Donegal, Clew, Galway, Shannon, Dingle. Na długich odcinkach występują wybrzeża typu riasowego o skalistych, stromych ścianach. +Klimat. +Klimat Irlandii określa się jako typ klimatu umiarkowanego morskiego wilgotnego. Na jego kształtowanie największy wpływ mają napływające z południowego zachodu masy powietrza znad Oceanu Atlantyckiego i łagodząca działalność Prądu Północnoatlantyckiego (Zatokowego). W obrębie wyspy klimat nie jest zbytnio zróżnicowany. Średnie temperatury powietrza wahają się między 4 a 7 °C w styczniu i lutym (najzimniejsze miesiące w roku) natomiast w najcieplejszych miesiącach (lipcu i sierpniu) wynoszą od 14 do 16 °C (średnia roczna ok. 10 °C). Ilość opadów jest różna: od 760 mm na wschodzie do 2540 mm na zachodnim wybrzeżu (w górach). Średnia dla całej wyspy wynosi 1100 mm. Zróżnicowanie rozmieszczenia opadów, wynika z kierunku mas powietrza – góry zachodniego wybrzeża stanowią barierę dla chmur deszczowych i tam są największe opady, tereny położone na wschód od nich pozostają w cieniu opadowym i opady są niższe. Dni z opadem występują przeciętnie 200-250 razy w roku (część zachodnia). Opady śniegu zdarzają się rzadko, zazwyczaj tylko w górach. Największe dzienne nasłonecznienie jest w maju i czerwcu i wynosi wtedy 5,5 do 6,5 godziny/dobę. +Wody. +Sieć rzeczna Irlandii jest dobrze rozwinięta. Występują rzeki o charakterze górskim – krótkie i o dużych spadkach, zasobne w wodę, a we wnętrzu wyspy rzeki nizinne o małych spadkach i leniwym prądzie, często rozlewające się w jeziora czy bagna. Najdłuższa rzeka to Shannon (długość 336 km), która odwadnia obszar o powierzchni ponad 15000 km²; inne większe rzeki to: Slaney, Liffey i Boyne na wschodzie, Nore, Barrow i Suir na południowym wschodzie, Munster Blackwater, Lee i Bandon – na południu oraz Clare i Moy na zachodzie wyspy. Są to rzeki o typie zasilania deszczowego, brak jest na nich w miesiącach zimowych pokrywy lodowej. Ujścia rzek mają charakter estuariów czy fiordów powstałych w wyniku działalności lądolodu. Są one na tych odcinkach żeglowne i nadają się do tworzenia portów. Gęsta jest także sieć jezior na czele z Lough Neagh (największe jezioro Wysp Brytyjskich). +Środkową część wyspy stanowi kotlina o podłożu w postaci nieprzepuszczalnych glin morenowych co utrudnia odpływ wód i powoduje obfitość jezior, bagien i torfowisk. Zajmują one prawie 20% powierzchni Irlandii. +Naturalną sieć rzeczną uzupełniają kanały, nie posiadające jednak obecnie znaczenia transportowego, wykorzystywane tylko w celach rekreacyjnych. Największe z nich to Kanał Królewski i Wielki Kanał łączące rzekę Shannon z Morzem Irlandzkim. +Gleby. +Typy i rodzaje gleb występujących w Irlandii są ściśle związane z budową geologiczną. Większość powierzchni wyspy pokrywają gleby brunatne, a na zachodnim wybrzeżu gleby bielicowe. Tereny górskie to miejsce występowania gleb górskich, inicjalnych oraz wytworzonych na podłożu wapiennym rędzin. +Roślinność i świat zwierzęcy. +Irlandia należy do atlantyckiej strefy roślinnej, a jej naturalną formacją roślinną jest las liściasty dębowy. Lasy dębowe, jesionowe czy na południu bukowe pokrywały większość obszaru; w wyniku działalności człowieka (pozyskiwanie terenów uprawnych i hodowlanych, wykorzystanie drewna w przemyśle okrętowym) do XVIII wieku nastąpiło prawie całkowite wylesienie wyspy. W momencie uzyskania niepodległości przez Republikę Irlandii w 1922 roku zalesienie wynosiło tylko 1% powierzchni kraju. Obecnie, dzięki wysiłkom rządu następuje proces zalesiania niektórych terenów, ale i tak wskaźnik lesistości (5%) jest jednym z najniższych w Europie. +Fakt, iż podczas zlodowacenia cała Irlandia była pokryta lądolodem, spowodował występowanie charakterystycznych odmian roślin. Istnieje tu niecodzienna kombinacja gatunków arktycznych, alpejskich a nawet wiele gatunków roślin wiecznie zielonych charakterystycznych dla basenu Morza Śródziemnego (wawrzyny, azalie, itp.) czy Ameryki Północnej. Oddzielenie się wyspy w okresie topnienia lądolodu wpłynęło także na faunę obszaru. Nie występują tu niektóre gatunki fauny pospolite na kontynencie, na przykład węże, krety, dzięcioły. Obecnie w Irlandii wstępuje 35 gatunków lądowych ssaków. Najpopularniejsze z nich to: sarny, zające, króliki, lisy, wiewiórki, borsuki. Istnieją także gatunki endemiczne: zająca – "Lepus timidus hibernicus" i gronostaja – "Mustela erminea hibernica" (spotykany także na wyspie Man). +W przeciwieństwie do stosunkowo małej liczby ssaków lądowych zamieszkujących wyspę, ssaki morskie są licznie reprezentowane przez foki, delfiny, morświny i wieloryby. Olbrzymie jest tu także bogactwo ptaków, część z nich migruje tutaj z Grenlandii czy Islandii. Zaobserwowano przedstawicieli 380 gatunków. +Na zachodnim wybrzeżu liczne są kolonie mew, kormoranów, alk, nurzyków, maskonurów i innych, natomiast na terenach podmokłych spotyka się ptactwo wodne: czaple, łabędzie, itp. W rzekach i strumieniach wyspy występuje wiele gatunków ryb – najliczniejsze są: łososie, pstrągi, szczupaki, węgorze. +W celu ochrony środowiska przyrodniczego w Irlandii powołano sześć parków narodowych, Natomiast Irlandii Północnej do tej pory nie powstał żaden park narodowy, natomiast istnieje kilka rezerwatów przyrody. +Harpie (mitologia) + +Harpie (gr. Harpyia, l.mn. Harpyiai, łac. Harpyia, Harpyiae ‘porywaczki’) – w mitologii greckiej duchy (demony) porywające dzieci i dusze oraz uosabiające gwałtowne porywy wiatru. +Harpie mogą także przynosić życie. Harpia była matką koni Achillesa – Ksantosa i Baliosa ("Iliada" XVI 160). +Hezjod ("Teogonia") nazywa harpie „pięknowłosymi” stworzeniami. Obraz harpii jako brzydkiej, uskrzydlonej kobiety-ptaka powstał dość późno, wskutek pomylenia tych stworzeń z syrenami. Rzymscy i bizantyjscy pisarze uszczegółowili ten wizerunek. Na wazie w Muzeum Berlińskim harpia trzyma małą figurkę bohatera w każdym szponie, a jej głowa jest podobna do głowy Gorgony, z wybałuszonymi oczami, sterczącym językiem i kłami. +Mitologia. +Fineus, król Tracji, posiadał zdolność przepowiadania przyszłości. Zeus, zły na króla za to, że wyjawia za dużo tajemnic, postanowił go ukarać. Umieścił go na wyspie, gdzie było pełno jedzenia. Fineus nie mógł jednak się pożywić, gdyż za każdym razem, gdy brał jedzenie do ust, wyrywały mu je z rąk harpie. Potwory zanieczyszczały także żywność. Fineusa oswobodził Jazon i Argonauci. +Harpie często torturowały dusze złych ludzi w Tartarze. Były złośliwe, okrutne i brutalne. Wg. Wergiliusza żyły na Stofadach. +Heraldyka. +W średniowieczu harpie, zwykle zwane „dziewiczymi orłami”, były popularnymi motywami w heraldyce, zwłaszcza we Wschodniej Fryzji. Występują one m.in. na herbach Reitburga, Liechtensteinu i Cirkseny. +Teorie powstania. +R.D. Barnett w swoim eseju "Ancient Oriental Influences on Archaic Greece" sugeruje, że wizerunek harpii pochodzi z ornamentów na brązowych kotłach z Urartu . Inni uczeni podają tę teorię w wątpliwość, gdyż bazuje ona na założeniu, że harpie to ptaki z ludzką głową, co nie jest zgodne z oryginalnymi mitami. +W swojej uskrzydlonej, ludzkiej formie, harpie nie różniły się od wielu innych greckich bóstw i jako takie nie potrzebują specjalnego wytłumaczenia dla swojego powstania. Późniejsza ptasia forma pochodzi najprawdopodobniej z połączenia ich wizerunku z wczesnymi opisami syren. +Harpie w świecie rzeczywistym. +Harpia wielka jest ptakiem nazwanym za mitologicznym stworzeniem. +Danny Sugerman + +Daniel "Danny" Stephen Sugerman (ur. 11 października 1954 w Los Angeles, zm. 5 stycznia 2005 w Los Angeles) - Amerykanin, jeden z menedżerów grupy The Doors po śmierci Jima Morrisona. +Życiorys. +Pracował z zespołem od 14. roku życia, początkowo odpowiadając w imieniu The Doors na listy fanów. Nazywany przez perkusistę Johna Densmore'a "największym fanem The Doors na świecie", był autorem kilku książek poświęconych zespołowi - "No One Here Gets Out Alive" (1981, z Jerry Hopkinsem), "Wonderland Avenue" (autobiograficzna), "Jim Morrison and The Doors". Współpracował przy produkcji filmu Olivera Stone'a "The Doors". +Nałogowy palacz, zmarł po chorobie nowotworowej. +Jego żoną była Fawn Hall. Urodzona w 1959, zyskała sławę jako sekretarka pułkownika Olivera Northa i kluczowy świadek w aferze Iran-Contras. Zwolniona z pracy przez Northa w listopadzie 1986, wyniosła z jego biura wiele dokumentów, które stały się ważnymi dowodami w sprawie. Za Sugermana wyszła już po procesie. +Merchant Ivory Productions + +Merchant Ivory Productions - filmowa grupa producencka, znana głównie dzięki ekranizacjom dramatów kostiumowych nurtu "heritage films". Rdzeń grupy tworzą: reżyser James Ivory, producent Ismail Merchant i scenarzystka Ruth Prawer Jhabvala. +Francis Keiichi Sato + +Francis Keiichi Sato (ur. 11 kwietnia 1928 w Asahikawie, zm. 2 stycznia 2005) – japoński duchowny katolicki, biskup diecezji Niigata. +Wstąpił do zakonu franciszkanów (O.F.M.), 17 września 1959 złożył śluby zakonne, a 7 października 1962 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. 9 marca 1985 został mianowany biskupem Niigata (podlegającej archidiecezji tokijskiej), sakrę biskupią przyjął 9 czerwca 1985 z rąk Petera Shirayanagiego (arcybiskupa Tokio i późniejszego kardynała). Kierował diecezją przez prawie 20 lat, po osiągnięciu wieku emerytalnego złożył rezygnację z godności ordynariusza (14 maja 2004). +Palermo + +Palermo (włoski: "Palermo", sycylijski: "Palermu" lub "Palemmu", grecki: "Panormos") – miejscowość i gmina we Włoszech, w regionie Sycylia, w prowincji Palermo. Panormos powstało już w starożytności, jako kolonia fenicka. Według danych na rok 2009 gminę zamieszkuje 657 936 osób, 4140,6 os./km². +Palermo jest kulturalną, gospodarczą i turystyczną stolicą +Sycylii. Jest miastem bogatym w historię, kulturę, sztukę, muzykę i potrawy regionalne. Palermo przyciąga wiele turystów dobrą, śródziemnomorską pogodą, renomowaną kuchnią i restauracjami,a ponadto romańskimi, gotyckimi i barokowymi kościołami, pałacami i budynkami, nocnym życiem i muzyką. Palermo jest głównym Sycylijskim centrum przemysłowym i handlowym. Główne gałęzie gospodarki to turystyka, usługi, handel i rolnictwo. Palermo obecnie ma międzynarodowe lotnisko. Obecnie Palermo jest wśród głównych celów turystycznych regionu turystów z Włoch i Europy. +Historia. +Powstało jako Panormos (grec.), kolonia fenicka. Od V wieku p.n.e. miasto kartagińskie, a od 254 p.n.e. rzymskie. Palermo zostało w V wieku opanowane przez Wandalów, Gotów, w 535 przez Bizancjum. W roku 831 znalazło się pod panowaniem Arabów, od 1072 Normanów, 1194 Hohenstaufów i później Andegawenów. Palermo było centrum kulturowym królestwa Sycylii. W 1282 doszło do antyfrancuskiego powstania (tzw. Nieszpory sycylijskie), które oddało miasto pod rządy aragońskie i potem hiszpańskie. Palermo podupadało aż do utworzenia w czasie rewolucji (1848-49) tymczasowego rządu. Sytuacja miasta poprawiła się po 1860 gdy doszło do zjednoczenia Włoch. +Zabytki. +Główne zabytki Palermo to pozostałości murów rzymskich, punickiej nekropolii, pałac królewski wzniesiony w XI wieku przez Normanów na ruinach zamku arabskiego, wewnątrz którego znajduje się słynna Capella Palatina z XII wieku, arabsko-bizantyjskie sklepienie stalaktytowe, mozaiki z XII wieku. Inną historyczną budowlą miasta jest katedra S. Rosalia ozdobiona mozaikami (XII w.), posiadająca w sobie grobowce królów. Znajduje się tu również romański kościół S. Cataldo i S. Giovanni degli Eremiti, S. Giovanni dei Lebrossi, della Martorana, del Vespro oraz pałace Zisa i Cuba z XII wieku. Z kościołów gotyckich możemy wymienić tu S. Agostino (XIV w.), della Gancia, delle Ree Pentife i della Catena. Z tego okresu pochodzą też pałace Chiaromonte, Sclafani, Pietratagliata, Abbatelli, Aiutamicristo i Marchesi. Jako przykład zabudowy renesansowej możemy podać kościoły S. Maria dei Miracoli, S. Giovanni di Napoletani, S. Gorgio dei Genovesi i pałace Scavuzzo, Fieravecchia. Liczna jest tu także zabudowa barokowa reprezentowana przez kościoły S. Matteo, S. Giuseppe, S. Teresa, del Salvatore i del Olivella. +Demografia. +Miasto zamieszkuje około 670 000 ludzi. Populacja aglomeracji Palermo jest szacowana przez Eurostat na 855 255 mieszkańców, podczas gdy zespół miejski Palermo jest piątym najbardziej zaludnionym zespołem miejskim we Włoszech i mieszka w nim około 1,2 mln ludzi. Język używany przez mieszkańców Palermo to język włoski i dialekt sycylijski. +W roku 2007 47,6% mieszkańców Palermo stanowili mężczyźni, a 52,4% stanowiły kobiety. Osoby niepełnoletnie stanowiły 21,64% populacji, a emeryci stanowili 16,54% populacji. Wiek przeciętnego mieszkańca Palermo wynosił 37 lat. Pomiędzy rokiem 2002 a 2007 populacja Palermo zmniejszyła się o 2,92%. Przyczyną tego spadku jest ucieczka mieszkańców Palermo terenów podmiejskich i północnych Włoszech. Obecny współczynnik urodzeń w Palermo wynosi 10,75 urodzeń na 1000 mieszkańców. +Sport. +Od 1988 roku odbywa się tu turniej tenisowy WTA Tour. W mieście działa też klub piłkarski US Palermo. +Linki zewnętrzne. +__NOTOC__ +Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska + +Towarzystwo Oświaty Niepodległościowej (TON) – konspiracyjna organizacja Związku Nauczycielstwa Polskiego powstała w październiku 1939 r. w Warszawie (założyciele: Zygmunt Nowicki, Kazimierz Maj, Wacław Tułodziecki, Teofil Wojeński i Czesław Wycech). +Od pierwszych dni okupacji hitlerowskiej organizowała tajne nauczanie, pomoc dla nauczycieli, ukrywała poszukiwanych przedstawicieli inteligencji, pomagała osadzonym w obozach koncentracyjnych i więzieniach. Budowała swoje struktury na terenie całego Generalnego Gubernatorstwa oraz oddziaływała na terenach przyłączonych do Rzeszy (Pomorze, Śląsk). Współpracowała z Delegaturą Rządu na Kraj i ze Związkiem Walki Zbrojnej, a następnie z Komendą Główną Armii Krajowej. Mimo grożących kar za nielegalne nauczanie rzesza nauczycieli nie przerwała swego powołania i przez cały okres II wojny światowej służyła młodzieży. Tysiące straciło życie w obozach koncentracyjnych i więzieniach gestapo. +Bohaterom tajnego nauczania Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego ufundował jako dowód wiecznej pamięci pomnik przed swoją siedzibą w Warszawie na Wybrzeżu Kościuszkowskim. +W dniu 22 października 2012 r. zmarł w wieku 108 lat najstarszy więzień KL Auschwitz. Członek Tajnej Organizacji Nauczycielskiej. Aresztowany w 1942 r. w Rzeszowie, za nielegalne nauczanie polskich dzieci. Osadzony najpierw w KL Auschwitz, następnie stąd wywieziony do KL Gross Rosen, po jakimś czasie wywieziony do KL Sachsenhausen i tu doczekał wyzwolenia w maju 1945 roku. +Uchwałą Rady Miasta Katowice nr VIII/130/11 z dnia 18 kwietnia 2011 skwerowi, położonemu u zbiegu ul. T. Kościuszki i ul. Brynowskiej nadano nazwę "plac Tajnej Organizacji Nauczycielskiej". Uchwała weszła w życie 7 czerwca 2011. +Allied Intelligence Bureau + +Allied Intelligence Bureau – AIB (Sojusznicze Biuro Wywiadu) – działająca w okresie II wojny światowej wspólnota amerykańsko-australijska struktura wywiadowcza dowództwa obszaru południowo-zachodniego Pacyfiku, generała Douglasa MacArthura. +Utworzenie AIB. +Sojusznicze Biuro Wywiadu zostało utworzone 6 lipca 1942 roku w Australii. +Jeszcze tego samego miesiąca AIB podporządkowane zostało wiele istniejących już terenowych oddziałów sabotażowych i grup działających w podziemiu. +Kierownictwo. +Pracą biura kierował główny oficer wywiadu sztabu generała MacArthura, pułkownik Charles Willoughby, funkcję kontrolera sprawował pułkownik G.C. Roberts, Dyrektor Wywiadu Australijskich Sił Lądowych. Zastępcą Robertsa został kapitan Allison Ind, oficer ze sztabu Willoughby'ego. (większość żołnierzy MacArthura stanowili wtedy Australijczycy) +Strażnicy wybrzeża. +Obok zadań związanych z planowaniem i realizacją operacji wywiadowczych, sabotażu i misji wspomagających partyzantkę na Nowej Gwinei, Wyspach Salomona i na Filipinach, AIB utrzymywało sieć tzw. strażników wybrzeża, śledzących ruchy Japończyków w tym rejonie. Grupy sabotażowe i drużyny wywiadowcze AIB przerzucano na miejsce przeznaczenia na pokładach niewielkich jednostek pływających, lub amerykańskich okrętów podwodnych. +Sukcesy/Porażki. +Sojusznicze Biuro Wywiadu zapisało na swoim koncie wiele sukcesów, zdarzały się oczywiście też i niepowodzenia. We wrześniu 1943 roku, trzydziestocztero osobowy zespół który wylądował na zajmowanej przez wojska Japońskie wyspie Timor, na wschód od Jawy, w całości dostał się do niewoli japońskiej. Korzystając ze zdobycznego nadajnika radiowego japończycy zaczęli wysyłać AIB fałszywe meldunki sytuacyjne, w konsekwencji czego w ich ręce wpadły również dwa dalsze zespoły AIB, wysłane na Timor. +AIB vs OSS. +Dochodziło także do sporów między Sojuszniczym Biurem Wywiadu a Biurem Służb Strategicznych (OSS) kierowanym przez generała majora Williama Donovana. Gen. Douglas MacArthur odrzucił projekt wykorzystania Biura Służb Strategicznych do zadań na jego teatrze działań wojennych. Skończyło się na tym że kompletnie zabronił wchodzić agentom OSS na teren pod jego rozkazami. +Likwidacja AIB. +Po zakończeniu działań wojennych na Pacyfiku w 1945 roku AIB zostało zlikwidowane. +Oaza Bungera + +Oaza Bungera - jedna z największych na Antarktydzie powierzchni nie pokrytych lądolodem, położona na granicy Wybrzeża Królowej Mary i Wybrzeża Knoxa. +Współrzędne: 65°54'S - 66°24'S; 100°24'E - 101°30'E +Jej powierzchnia wynosi około 750 km², z czego ląd to 450 km², a 300 km² okresowo zamarzające jeziora, największe Jezioro Figurowe o wymiarach 18 km na 1 km, ma 137 m głębokości. +Klimat tego miejsca jest dość łagodny jak na Antarktydę ze średnią roczną temperaturą -9 °C oraz średnią temperaturą nacieplejszego miesiąca +1,7 °C, a najzimniejszego -20,3 °C. Rekordy temperatury to +12 °C i -43 °C +Roślinność w Oazie Bungera jest dość uboga, głównie porosty, a nad jeziorami i strumieniami - mchy. +W Oazie Bungera położona jest polska stacja badawcza "Dobrowolski", wcześniej użytkowana przez Związek Radziecki. +Polska Partia Socjalistyczna - Frakcja Rewolucyjna + +Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (Frakcja Rewolucyjna) – partia socjalistów polskich utworzona w 1906 w wyniku rozłamu w PPS podczas IX Zjazdu PPS w Wiedniu 19–25 listopada 1906 r. Od sierpnia 1909 r. ponownie pod nazwą Polska Partia Socjalistyczna. +Rozłam. +Formalną przyczyną sporu stał się stosunek do Organizacji Bojowej PPS nie realizującej zaleceń i polityki Centralnego Komitetu Robotniczego. Spośród czterech delegatów OB PPS unieważniono dwa mandaty (w tym Józefa Piłsudskiego). Delegaci Organizacji Bojowej wraz z delegatami OB PPS wybranymi w okręgach opuścili Zjazd. +Delegaci, którzy opuścili Zjazd zwołali 23 listopada 1906 konferencję w Krakowie. Na wniosek Feliksa Perla przyjęto nazwę "Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (Frakcja Rewolucyjna)" wybierając tymczasowy Centralny Komitet Robotniczy oraz postanowiono kontynuować wydawanie "Robotnika". +Według danych na Zjazd po stronie Frakcji Rewolucyjnej opowiedziało się ok. 19,5 tys. członków PPS (z 46 tys. przed rozłamem). Najsilniejsze okręgi pozostające we Frakcji to Łódź, Zagłębie, Częstochowa i częściowo Warszawa. Doszło również do podziałów w Komitecie Zagranicznym PPS. Za Frakcją Rewolucyjną opowiedziały się sekcje w Galicji oraz Lozannie i Fryburgu, pozostałe zaś za PPS (Lewica). Pomimo propozycji federacyjnego zjazdu PPS (Lewica) w styczniu 1907 r. odmówiła domagając się rozwiązania Frakcji Rewolucyjnej. +Program. +Na X Zjeździe PPS (I Zjeździe PPS Frakcji Rewolucyjnej) odbytym w dniach 3–11 marca 1907, w Wiedniu uchwalono Program przygotowany przez Feliksa Perla na podstawie koncepcji zmarłego Kazimierza Kelles-Krauza. Program określił podstawowy cel, stwierdzając, że: +Działania. +W tym okresie partia prowadziła bardzo aktywną działalność bojową. Według informacji partyjnych w 1907, w czasie zamachów Organizacji Bojowej PPS zabito po stronie rządowej 181 osób, w tym 45 policjantów, oraz dokonano 92 zamach celem zdobycia środków finansowych. Organizacja ponosi jednak olbrzymie straty: aresztowano i skazano na karę śmierci m.in. Józefa Montwiłł-Mireckiego, Henryka Barona, Jana Kwapińskiego (zamieniono mu wyrok na katorgę). Liczne aresztowania i odpływ fali rewolucyjnej spowodowały zmniejszenie się liczby członków partii do ok. 3000 członków. +Poważnym ciosem było wykrycie drukarni "Robotnika" w Warszawie we wrześniu 1908. Do ostatnich akcji na większą skalę należały: Akcja pod Bezdanami na pociąg rządowy, we wrześniu 1908, z udziałem Józefa Piłsudskiego, Walerego Sławka, Aleksandra Prystora, Tomasza Arciszewskiego, oraz egzekucja prowokatora Edmunda Taranowicza wykonana w 1909, przez Kazimierza Pużaka wraz z Henrykiem Minkiewiczem. +Na XI Zjeździe PPS (II Zjeździe Frakcji Rewolucyjnej) który odbył się w dnia 25–28 sierpnia 1909, w Wiedniu, partia ponownie powróciła do nazwy Polska Partia Socjalistyczna. Nowo wybrane kierownictwo partii rozpoczęło działania na rzecz budowy szersze współpracy organizacji niepodległościowych koncentrując się na działaniach w Galicji. Rozwinięto aktywną działalność w środowiskach młodzieżowych m.in. doprowadzono do wyodrębnienia we wrześniu 1910, Związku Młodzieży Postępowo-Niepodległościowej. +Z inicjatywy części działaczy PPS doprowadzono do powołania Związku Walki Czynnej co spowodowało spór z członkami Wydziału Bojowego. Spory wobec dalszej działalności partyjnej spowodowały wyodrębnienie się grupy opozycyjnej - PPS Opozycja. +W sierpniu 1914, wybuch I wojny światowej doprowadził do zakończenia sporów. Cześć działaczy z Józefem Piłsudskim podjęła działania czysto wojskowe, zaś część (głównie b. członkowie PPS Opozycja) podjęli dalsze działania na rzecz PPS. Działalność po stronie galicyjskiej podjęli; Feliks Perl, Tomasz Arciszewski i Marian Malinowski, zaś w Warszawie Tymczasowy Komitet Robotniczy tworzyli: Artur Śliwiński i Konstancja Jaworowska. Proces odbudowy PPS po rozpoczęciu wojny został zakończony na XII Zjeździe PPS w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim w styczniu 1916. +Władze PPS Frakcja Rewolucyjna. +W okresie 1909 – 1914 funkcjonowała również Rada Partyjna mająca formę konferencji, w skład której wchodzili członkowie CKR, przedstawicieli Wydziałów (Organizacyjnego-Agitacyjnego, Bojowego i Zagranicznego) oraz specjalnie zaproszeni działacze partii +W okresie I wojny światowej w Warszawie działalność PPS początkowo zamarła. Po stronie austriackiej dotychczasowe kierownictwo włączyło się w działania wojskowe. Niebawem powstał Tymczasowy Komitet Robotniczy w składzie: Artur Śliwiński, Konstancja Jaworowska, oraz od 1915 r. Bolesław Czarkowski. Komitet był podporządkowany kierownictwu (CKR) na obszarze okupacji austriackiej (z dotychczasowej PPS Opozycji w składzie: Feliks Perl, Tomasz Arciszewski "Stanisław", Marian Malinowski "Wojtek". +Lusowo (województwo wielkopolskie) + +Lusowo – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim, w gminie Tarnowo Podgórne, nad Samą. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie poznańskim. +Wieś leży nad brzegiem Jeziora Lusowskiego. 1296 mieszkańców (2010). +Pierwsze wzmianki o Lusowie – akt nadania Lusowa kapitule poznańskiej sygnowany przez księcia Mieszka Starego – pochodzą z 1145 r. W 1288 r. staraniem biskupa Gerbicza powstała we wsi parafia rzymskokatolicka. W rękach biskupich Lusowo pozostawało aż do końca XVIII w. +Po kasacie majątków kościelnych przez władze pruskie majątek kupili Objezierscy herbu Nałęcz. Wieś stanowiła posag Pauliny Objezierskiej (1809-1872) przy jej ślubie w 1823 r. z baronem Wilhelmem von Richthofenem (1799-1882). Po śmierci Wilhelma Lusowo trafiło w posiadanie rodziny von Palm, a później, w początku XX w., w ręce Komisji Kolonizacyjnej. Po I wojnie światowej majątek został rozparcelowany. W Lusowie mieszkał w latach 1920-1937 generał Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki, pochowany na tutejszym cmentarzu. W październiku 1940 Niemcy wysiedlili mieszkańców Lusowa na teren Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. +We wsi neogotycki kościół św. Jadwigi i Jakuba zbudowany w latach 1913-1916 z wykorzystaniem części starszego gotyckiego kościoła z XV w. Wewnątrz nagrobek późnorenesansowy oraz tablica pamiątkowa poświęcona generałowi Dowbor-Muśnickiemu. +W niewielkim parku nad brzegiem jeziora neogotycki pałac wzniesiony ok. 1855 r. dla Pauliny z Objezierskich von Richthofen. Budynek dwukondygnacyjny, na planie prostokąta z dobudowanym na przełomie XIX wiek i XX w. skrzydłem zawierającym salę balową. Pałac zdewastowany, obecnie własność prywatna, w trakcie remontu. +Przy kościele była w dawniejszych czasach kaplica murowana Sadowskich h. Nałęcz z grobami familijnymi, ale już w 1695 r. Zalaszewski zastał ją zrujnowaną. Sadowscy wywodzili się z okolicznej wsi Sady należącej do parafii Lusowo. Przed 1388 r. z Sadów pisali się różni Sadowscy, od w 1793 r. Sady należały do Konozowskich, potem do Kęsiowskich. W Lusowie pochowany zastał Narcyz Olizar herbu Radwan Sowity (ur. w 1794 w Zahorowie na Wołyniu, zm. 9 sierpnia 1862 w Sadach koło Poznania) – hrabia, senator-kasztelan Królestwa Polskiego, poseł na sejm w 1831, działacz polityczny Wielkiej Emigracji, pisarz, publicysta i malarz. +Helmut Losch + +Helmut Losch (ur. 12 października 1947 w Barth, zm. 10 stycznia 2005 w Stralsund), niemiecki ciężarowiec, reprezentant NRD, mistrz świata i medalista olimpijski. +Był jednym z czołowych zawodników w wysokich kategoriach wagowych w latach 70. Jako pierwszy reprezentant NRD zdobył mistrzostwo świata - 1971 w podrzucie w kategorii ciężkiej. Łącznie w ciągu kariery sięgnął po osiem medali mistrzostw świata (1-5-2) i osiem medali mistrzostw Europy (0-5-3). W kategorii superciężkiej zdobył brąz na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Montrealu 1976; cztery lata wcześniej, w Monachium, zajął 4. miejsce w kategorii ciężkiej. Wielokrotnie był mistrzem NRD. +Zakończył karierę zawodniczą w 1978. Zmarł na atak serca. +Florian Stablewski + +Florian Stablewski (ur. 16 października 1841 we Wschowie, zm. 24 listopada 1906 w Poznaniu) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, poseł do sejmu pruskiego w latach 1876–1891, arcybiskup metropolita poznański i gnieźnieński oraz prymas Polski w latach 1891–1906. +Życiorys. +Był synem zubożałego szlachcica Onufrego Stablewskiego herbu Oksza i Emilii z Kurowskich. Kształcił się w Gimnazjum św. Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu i w gimnazjum w Trzemesznie (ukończył w 1861). W latach 1861–1863 studiował w seminarium duchownym w Poznaniu, następnie na uniwersytecie w Monachium. W 1866 obronił doktorat z teologii i w Gnieźnie przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. +Pracował jako duszpasterz w Wielichowie, Tarnowie Podgórnym i Śremie. W Śremie był także katechetą i nauczycielem języka hebrajskiego w gimnazjum. Został usunięty z pracy w 1873 po odmowie podporządkowania się zarządzeniu wykładania religii w języku niemieckim. Objął wówczas funkcję proboszcza we Wrześni, gdzie działał jednocześnie w towarzystwach rzemieślniczych, przemysłowych i rolniczych. Organizował bank ludowy w Śremie. W latach 1876–1891 sprawował mandat poselski w sejmie pruskim i aktywnie działał w szeregach Koła Polskiego, występując m.in. na rzecz zachowania języka polskiego jako wykładowego w szkolnictwie. +14 grudnia 1891 został mianowany arcybiskupem metropolitą gnieźnieńskim i poznańskim (z tytułem prymasa Polski). 13 stycznia 1892 objął archidiecezję, a 17 stycznia przyjął sakrę biskupią. W działalności na stolicy biskupiej, niezależnie od skomplikowanej sytuacji wewnętrznej, na pierwsze miejsce wysuwał sprawy Kościoła. Propagował w archidiecezji tzw. ruch patronacki, przedstawiony w encyklice "Rerum novarum" papieża Leona XIII. Założył pismo „Przewodnik Katolicki” oraz Drukarnię i Księgarnię św. Wojciecha w Poznaniu. Poszukiwał kompromisu w kwestii polskich spraw narodowościowych, w okresie strajków szkolnych (1901–1904, 1906) łagodził napięcia petycjami do cesarza niemieckiego. Jednocześnie ugodowość wobec zaborcy naraziła go na krytykę części społeczeństwa (m.in. skupionego wokół pism „Orędownik” i „Postęp”). Był przeciwny polonizacji (dokonywanej przez działaczy z zaboru pruskiego) Górnoślązaków w Rzeszy. Był członkiem honorowym Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. +Został pochowany w katedrze poznańskiej. +Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich + +Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich (RPO) – jednoosobowy organ władzy państwowej, pełniący funkcję ombudsmana. Urząd ten powstał w Polsce z dniem 1 stycznia 1988 roku. Pierwszym rzecznikiem została prof. Ewa Łętowska, obecnie urząd ten pełni prof. Irena Lipowicz. Działalność Rzecznika reguluje Konstytucja RP i "Ustawa z dnia 15 lipca 1987 r. o Rzeczniku Praw Obywatelskich". +Zadania i możliwości Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich. +Rzecznik, któremu pomagają jego zastępcy oraz Biuro Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich, stoi na straży wolności, praw człowieka i obywatela. Kontroluje a także podejmuje stosowne czynności jeśli stwierdzi, że z powodu celowego działania lub zaniechania przez organ, organizacje albo instytucje zobowiązane do przestrzegania i realizacji wolności człowieka i obywatela nastąpiło naruszenie prawa oraz zasad współżycia i sprawiedliwości społecznej. Należy się zwrócić do Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich w przypadku wykorzystania wszystkich możliwości załatwienia sprawy we właściwym trybie i niewątpliwego stwierdzenia rzeczywistego naruszenia wolności lub praw obywatelskich. +Rzecznik jest ograniczony zakresem jego kompetencji, jego interwencje są uzależnione od wyników analizy okoliczności sprawy i ustalenia, faktycznego naruszenia prawa oraz tego, iż okoliczności te istotnie wymagają ingerencji Rzecznika. +Struktura organizacyjna Biura Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich. +Rzecznik nadaje, w drodze zarządzenia, statut, który określa zadania i organizację Biura. RPO nadzoruje merytorycznie bezpośrednio Zespół Prawa Karnego oraz Prawa Karnego Wykonawczego. Pozostała część kontrolują jego zastępcy oraz Dyrektor Biura sprawujący również nadzór organizacyjny biura +Pełnomocnicy terenowi. +Rzecznik posiada pełnomocników terenowych, rozpatrujących sprawy z obszaru oddalonych od Warszawy województw. +Organem pomocniczym Pełnomocnika Terenowego jest podległy mu Zespół Terenowy. +Nagroda Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich im. Pawła Włodkowica. +Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich jako wyraz uznania dla występowania w obronie podstawowych wartości i prawd, nawet wbrew zdaniu i poglądom większości przyznaje doroczną "Nagrodę Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich im. Pawła Włodkowica". +Działalność. +W styczniu 2008 RPO objął patronatem akcję NZS "Jednomandatowe Okręgi Wyborcze – poseł odpowiedzialny przed wyborcami". +Budżet, zatrudnienie i wynagrodzenia. +Wydatki i dochody Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich są realizowane w części 08 budżetu państwa. +W 2011 wydatki RPO wyniosły 34,6 mln zł, przeciętne zatrudnienie w Biurze Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich w przeliczeniu na pełne etaty 273 osoby, a średnie miesięczne wynagrodzenie brutto – 6 347 zł. +W ustawie budżetowej na 2012 wydatki Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich zaplanowano w wysokości 38 mln zł, natomiast w 2013 – 39,2 mln zł. +Fort zaporowy + +Fort zaporowy - rodzaj fortu przeznaczony do ochrony lub blokady ważnego strategicznie obiektu lub miejsca takiego jak cieśnina, bród rzeczny, trasa komunikacyjna. +Od początku forty tego typu były projektowane do możliwie długiej, samodzielnej obrony okrężnej. Jego elementy czyli szyja, czoło i barki nie są tak wyraźnie zróżnicowane jak w fortach pozostałych typów. Wszystkie budowle na jego terenie są mocno zabezpieczone przed ogniem artylerii wroga przez osypanie warstwą ziemi i zastosowanie wielowarstwowych stropów z rozdzielającymi je poduszkami piaskowymi. Fort tego typu posiada znaczne zapasy materiałów wojennych i żywności. +Bieg na 100 metrów + +Bieg na 100 metrów – najkrótszy dystans w biegach lekkoatletycznych na otwartym stadionie (w hali biega się 60 metrów), klasyczny bieg sprinterski. Rekordzistów świata na tym dystansie określa się często mianem "najszybszego mężczyzny/najszybszej kobiety świata". Rywalizacja na tym dystansie przyciąga zawsze wiele uwagi. +Najszybsi stumetrowcy wszech czasów. +Najszybsze Europejki (według rekordów życiowych). +Najlepsi juniorzy w historii. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych juniorów na 100 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 30 września 2012). +Najlepsze juniorki w historii. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych juniorek na 100 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 30 września 2012). +mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych zawodników na 100 m w historii tej konkurencji biorąc pod uwagę wyłącznie rezultaty uzyskane po 31 grudnia 2000 roku. (stan na 30 września 2012). +kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych zawodniczek na 100 m w historii tej konkurencji biorąc pod uwagę wyłącznie rezultaty uzyskane po 31 grudnia 2000 roku. (stan na 30 września 2012). +Rozwój rekordu świata w biegu na 100 m. +mężczyźni. +Pierwszy rekord świata z biegu na 100 m został odnotowany przez IAAF w 1912. +Bieg na 110 metrów przez płotki + +Bieg na 110 metrów przez płotki – jedna z biegowych konkurencji lekkoatletycznych, najkrótszy dystans płotkarski dla mężczyzn na otwartym stadionie (kobiety biegają dystans 100 metrów). +Zawodnicy muszą w jak najkrótszym czasie przebiec 110 m, pokonując po drodze dziesięć płotków o wysokości 106,7 cm. Pierwszy płotek znajduje się 13,72 m od startu, kolejne są rozstawione co 9,14 m, a od ostatniego płotka do mety dzieli ich 14,02 m. +Konkurencja ta pojawiła się już na pierwszych Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w 1896. +Reprezentanci Polski sięgali dotąd jedynie po medale mistrzostw Europy (bracia Leszek i Mirosław Wodzyńscy, Jan Pusty, Artur Kohutek), duże międzynarodowe sukcesy odnosi także Artur Noga - w kategorii juniorów mistrz świata i Europy; piąty zawodnik igrzysk olimpijskich w Pekinie. +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę najszybszych płotkarzy w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 7 września 2012). +Nripen Chakraborty + +Nripen Chakraborty (ur. 4 kwietnia 1905 w Bikrampur, wschodni Bengal, obecnie Bangladesz, zm. 25 grudnia 2004 w Kolkato, Zachodni Bengal), polityk indyjski. +Studiował ekonomię. Przez wiele lat był związany z ruchem związkowym i komunistycznym (od 1935 członek partii). Wchodził w skład władz Indyjskiej Partii Komunistycznej w stanie Tripura (od 1972 członek Komitetu Centralnego, od 1984 członek Biura Politycznego). Wielokrotnie był wybierany do parlamentu stanowego (1957, 1962, 1972, 1977, 1983, 1988, 1993). Od stycznia 1978 przez 10 lat był premierem rządu stanowego Tripury. +Za krytykę partii i władz lokalnych został usunięty z jej szeregów w kwietniu 1995. W uznaniu wieloletnich zasług przywrócono mu członkostwo kilka dni przed śmiercią. +Zdrowotność + +Zdrowotność – stan zdrowia danej populacji, np. ludności państwa, grupy wiekowej lub zawodowej; ocena według mierników rozwoju fizycznego, zapadalności na choroby i wskaźnika umieralności. +Bieg na 400 metrów + +Bieg na 400 metrów – konkurencja lekkoatletyczna, najdłuższy dystans spośród biegów krótkich. Na standardowym stadionie 400 m stanowi dokładnie jedno okrążenie stadionu po wewnętrznym torze. W hali jest to dystans dwóch okrążeń. +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów. +Mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczy na 400 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 7 sierpnia 2012). +Najszybsi zawodnicy spoza USA. +Z kolei ta tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczy na 400 m w historii pochodzących spoza Stanów Zjednoczonych (stan na 7 sierpnia 2012). +Najlepsi juniorzy w historii. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych juniorów na 400 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 8 września 2011). +Kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczek na 400 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 1 maja 2008). +Najlepsze juniorki wszech czasów. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najszybszych juniorek na 400 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 13 września 2009). +Najlepsi zawodnicy w XXI wieku. +Mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczy na 400 m w historii, biorąc pod uwagę wyłącznie wyniki uzyskane po 31 grudnia 2000 roku. +Kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczek na 400 m w historii, biorąc pod uwagę wyłącznie wyniki uzyskane po 31 grudnia 2000 roku. +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów w hali. +Mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczy na 400 m w hali w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 10 marca 2012). +Kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczek na 400 m w hali w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 29 czerwca 2009). +Royal Bank Plaza + +Royal Bank Plaza - jeden z charakterystycznych biurowców w kanadyjskim mieście Toronto, położony naprzeciw BCE Place. Szyby biurowca pokryte są 2500 uncji złota +Zaprojektowany przez Borisa Zerafa w latach 70. zespół budynków, oprócz wież biurowych obejmuje wielopiętrowe atrium, pasaż handlowy i taras ogrodowy, gdzie umieszczono kolorowe rzeźby "City People". Obok znajdują się starsze budynki stacji kolejowej Union Station i jednego z najpopularniejszych hotelów Toronto - Royal York. +Royal Bank Plaza, jak i inne budynki Financial District Toronto są połączone PATH, systemem pasaży handlowo-komunikacyjnych. +Toronto Dominion Centre + +Toronto Dominion Centre - kompleks handlowo-kulturalny w kanadyjskim mieście Toronto, w Financial District. Składa się z 3 czarnych budynków, zaprojektowanych przez architekta Ludwiga Mies van der Rohe. +Budynki tworzą odgrodzony od ulic dziedziniec, na którym Joe Fafard ustawił 6 odpoczywających krów z brązu. Pomiędzy budynkami stoi także wielkie krzesło. W południe odbywają się koncerty jazzowe. +W kompleksie znajduje się jedna z najważniejszych galerii sztuki Inuitów – "Toronto Dominion Gallery of Inuit Art". +ORP Wilia + +ORP "Wilia" - transportowiec i okręt szkolny Marynarki Wojennej II RP. +ORP "Wilia" został zbudowany w 1906 roku w stoczni "Flensburger Schiffbau Gesellschaft" w Flensburgu w Niemczech jako frachtowiec. W 1925 został zakupiony przez Polską Marynarkę Wojenną, wcześniej nosił nazwy "Ganelon", "Hilda Horn", "Tinos", "Le Bourget" i "Laurent Schaffiano". Polską banderę podniesiono na nim 8 sierpnia 1925 w porcie Hawr (Francja). Początkowo jednostkę wykorzystywano do przewozu broni i sprzętu z Francji do Polski, później służył do praktycznego szkolenia podchorążych wydziału mechanicznego Szkoły Podchorążych Marynarki Wojennej. W końcu września 1935 ORP "Wilia" przywiozła ze Szwecji do Gdyni cztery armaty 152,4 mm, zakupione w firmie Bofors dla najcięższej polskiej baterii budowanej w Helu, zwanej później baterią im. Heliodora Laskowskiego. +Podczas rejsu szkolnego w związku z awarią maszyny ORP "Wilia" zawinął do portu w Casablance, gdzie zastał go wybuch II wojny światowej. W październiku 1939 okręt przeprowadzono wspólnie z ORP "Iskra" do Port Lyautey, a następnie w lipcu 1940 do Wielkiej Brytanii. Polska Marynarka Wojenna nie potrzebowała w tym okresie transportowca, więc 30 lipca 1940 roku jednostkę przekazano Polskiej Marynarce Handlowej, gdzie otrzymała nazwę s/s "Modlin". Morska służbę okręt zakończył 6 czerwca 1944, gdy został umyślnie zatopiony u brzegów Normandii jako element sztucznego portu inwazyjnego. W 1958 roku wrak został wydobyty i pocięty na złom. +W literaturze spotykana jest również inna odmiana nazwy okrętu - ORP "Wilja" oraz "Willia". +Biskup pomocniczy + +Biskup pomocniczy - wyświęcony na biskupa duchowny katolicki, którego zadaniem jest pomoc biskupowi diecezjalnemu w zarządzaniu diecezją zazwyczaj jako wikariusz generalny lub biskupi. +W przypadku niemożności wypełniania obowiązków (choroba, śmierć) przez ordynariusza najstarszy nominacją biskup pomocniczy przejmuje władzę w diecezji do czasu wyboru administratora diecezjalnego. Podczas sediswakancji może bez przeszkód wypełniać władzę, którą posiadał wcześniej jako wikariusz generalny lub biskupi. +W Polsce biskupów pomocniczych potocznie nazywa się sufraganami. Określenie to jednak nie jest właściwe. +EDT + +formula_1 +formula_2 "jest zbiorem produkcji np. "formula_3 +formula_4 formula_5"-zbriór etykiet krawędziowych, " +formula_6"-Unknown" +formula_7"-zbiór etykiet krawędziowych" +Z"-Unknown" +A-(i)formula_8b(cDtB)-(2)formula_8b(vdtB)-(4)formula_8b(vdta(vD))-(2)formula_8(2)formula_8b(vdta(vd)) +formula_15 +Q:=formula_16 +F"-Unknown" +formula_17 "- funkcje przejścia" +Morze Beringa + +Morze Beringa – obszar wodny położony w północnej części Oceanu Spokojnego o powierzchni ok. 2 mln km². Od północy i wschodu graniczy z Alaską, na zachodzie z Syberią, a na południu jego granice wyznaczają Wyspy Aleuckie. Morze Beringa otrzymało nazwę na cześć Vitusa Beringa, duńskiego komandora w służbie rosyjskiej, który je odkrył i opisał. +W czasie ostatniej epoki lodowcowej poziom morza był na tyle niski, że umożliwił migrację zarówno ludziom jak i zwierzętom z Azji do Ameryki Północnej suchą stopą poprzez obszar, który jest teraz znany jako cieśnina Beringa. +Bieg na 1500 metrów + +Bieg na 1500 metrów – lekkoatletyczna konkurencja biegowa, zaliczana do biegów średnich. Na otwartym stadionie zawodnicy biegną najpierw 300 m odcinek, a później trzy pełne okrążenia stadionu. +Powstanie tego nietypowego dystansu (3 i 3/4 okrążenia stadionu) wiążą się z początkami lekkoatletyki na kontynencie europejskim, gdzie biegano na bieżni o długości 500 m. Za to w krajach anglojęzycznych popularny był jeszcze w 2. połowie XX wieku bieg na milę. +Bieg na 1500 m mężczyzn pojawił się już w programie olimpijskim pierwszych igrzysk w Atenach. Za to kobiety biegają 1500 m na Igrzyskach dopiero od 1972. W programie mistrzostw Europy bieg na 1500 m rozgrywany jest od 1934 (I ME) dla mężczyzn i od 1969 (IX ME) dla kobiet. +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów. +mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczy na 1500 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 20 lipca 2012). +kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczek na 1500 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 10 października 2006). +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów w hali. +kobiety. +Poniższa lista przedstawia 10 najszybszych zawodniczek na 1500 metrów w hali. +Bieg na 10 000 metrów + +Bieg na 10 000 metrów – konkurencja lekkoatletyczna, zaliczana do biegów długich. Zawodnicy pokonują 25 okrążeń bieżni stadionu. +Konkurencja rozgrywana jest przez mężczyzn od Igrzysk w Sztokholmie w 1912, natomiast przez kobiety dopiero od 1988. +Najlepsi zawodnicy wszech czasów. +mężczyźni. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczy na 10 000 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 30 marca 2009). +kobiety. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia listę 10 najlepszych biegaczek na 10 000 m w historii tej konkurencji (stan na 12 lipca 2009). +Cabinet + +Cabinet (CAB) - format archiwizacji danych, pierwotnie wykorzystywany w systemie operacyjnym Microsoft Windows. Umożliwia kompresję danych oraz elektroniczne podpisanie archiwum. Jest używany w różnych instalatorach Microsoftu: Setup API, Device Installer, AdvPack (do instalacji formantów ActiveX z Internet Explorera) oraz Windows Installer. +Rozszerzenie pliku CAB jest również używane w wielu instalatorach (InstallShield i innych), aczkolwiek nie zawsze jest to ten sam format. +Konspiracja + +Konspiracja (łac. "conspiratio"), podziemie, spisek – ogólnie: tajemnica lub tajna organizacja; w dziedzinie politycznej, wojskowości, przedsiębiorczości i in.: tajna działalność skierowana przeciwko istniejącej władzy, konkurencji gospodarczej, obywatelom, okupantom i in. prowadzona przez organizacje polityczne, przedsiębiorstwa, organizacje pozarządowe, organizacje zbrojne i in. +Air Canada Centre + +Air Canada Centre – kompleks sportowo-widowiskowy w Toronto (Ontario, Kanada), powstały na terenie składu pocztowego (przy 40 Bay St.). +Fasadę budynku zachowano i włączono w nowoczesną bryłę kryjącą salę na 19 800 widzów, gdzie regularnie rozgrywają się mecze NHL (Toronto Maple Leafs), NBA (Toronto Raptors) i NLL (Toronto Rock). Zmiana parkietu na taflę następuje w ciągu 4-6 godzin. +Obiekt może służyć także jako sala koncertowa "Sears Theatre" na 5200 osób. Ogólnodostępna "Galleria" to pasaż, gdzie oprócz restauracji znajdują się pamiątki po budynku poczty. Obiekt można zwiedzać z "Air Canada Centre Tours". Jest tu także mikrobrowar, którego mistrzem piwowarskim jest kobieta. +Od Harbourfront obiekt oddziela estakada drogi szybkiego ruchu "Gardiner Expressway", która w ramach rewitalizacji terenów przybrzeżnych ("Waterfront") ma zostać zburzona i częściowo poprowadzona tunelami. Z drugiej strony torów znajduje się Union Station, a system PATH łączy podziemnymi przejściami większość Financial District. +11 Karpacki Pułk Artylerii Lekkiej + +11 Karpacki Pułk Artylerii Lekkiej (11 pal) – oddział artylerii lekkiej Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Formowanie i służba pokojowa. +11 Pułk Artylerii Polowej (11 pap) sformowany został 1 października 1921 w garnizonie Stanisławów z połączenia III dywizjonu 5 Pułku Artylerii Polowej stacjonującego wówczas w Kamionce Strumiłowej i II dywizjonu 12 Pułku Artylerii Polowej stacjonującego w Gajach Wielkich koło Tarnopola. Dowództwo pułku zorganizowane zostało na bazie dowództwa XI Brygady Artylerii. Obydwa dywizjony brały udział w wojnie polsko-ukraińskiej i polsko-bolszewickiej. Po utworzeniu jednostki III/5 pap przemianowany został na I dywizjon, a II/12 pap – II dywizjon. +III dywizjon 5 Lwowskiego Pułku Artylerii Polowej powstał w czerwcu 1919 (m.p. Kamionka Strumiłowska). Dywizjon trzybateryjny, baterie czterodziałowe bez jaszczy, 7 bateria miała austriackie polówki 80 mm. , 8 bateria rosyjskie trzycalówki 76,2 mm., a 9 austriackie haubice100 mm. W trakcie działań wojennych baterie były stopniowo przezbrajane w armaty francuskie 75 mm. +II dywizjon 12 Kresowego Pułku Artylerii Polowej (m.p. Gaje Wielkie k. Tarnowa). Dywizjon trzybateryjny, baterie czterodziałowe wyposażone w armaty francuskie 75 mm. Przybył do Polski w lipcu 1919 r. wraz z 6 Dywizją „Błękitnej Armii” gen. Hallera. Oba dywizjony zapisały się chwalebnie w czasie działań wojennych 1920 r. III dywizjon zakończył swój szlak bojowy pod Chmielnikiem, a II dywizjon pod Zbarażem. +11 pap zajmował koszary przy ulicy Bilińskiego oraz baraki przy ulicy Zosina Wola. W skład każdego z dywizjonów wchodziły trzy baterie, a każda z nich uzbrojona była w cztery 75 mm armaty. 3 grudnia 1921 przystąpiono do formowania III dywizjonu. Utworzono dowództwo dywizjonu, a I i II dywizjony wydzieliły ze swego składu po jednej baterii. Po przeprowadzonej reorganizacji pułk liczył trzy dywizjony po dwie baterie (2, 3, 5, 6, 7, i 8). W 1922 I dywizjon dyslokowany został do Kołomyi. +Pułk obchodził swoje święto 2 czerwca na pamiątkę zwycięskiego boju 6 baterii +II dywizjonu pod Obodówką. +11 pap był organiczną jednostką artylerii 11 Karpackiej Dywizji Piechoty. Od 1928 pod względem kontroli stanu wyszkolenia oraz w czasie szkoły ognia podlegał także dowódcy 6 Grupy Artylerii we Lwowie. +1 stycznia 1931 jednostka przemianowana została na 11 Pułk Artylerii Lekkiej. +W 1934 pułk otrzymał nazwę wyróżniającą "Karpacki" oraz prawo noszenia piór cietrzewia na czapkach i znaczek na patkach. Przysięgę składano na działo, od 1938 na sztandar. +26 sierpnia 1935 Minister Spraw Wojskowych koszarom pułku przy ulicy Bilińskiego nadał nazwę Koszary im. Generała Józefa Bema. +Jedna z baterii pułku brała udział w akcji na Zaolziu. Ostatnią honorową baterią pułku była 5 bateria. +22 listopada 1938, we Lwowie, gen. dyw. Tadeusz Kasprzycki wręczył dowódcy pułku sztandar ufundowany przez społeczeństwo województwa stanisławowskiego. Tego samego dnia oddział otrzymał buńczuk. +Działania w kampanii wrześniowej. +W kampanii wrześniowej pułk wziął udział w składzie 11 Karpackiej Dywizji Piechoty w Armii "Karpaty". +Pułk w wyniku spóźnionej mobilizacji i bombardowań lotniczych transportu dopiero 3 września częścią sił znalazł się w rejonie koncentracji i wziął udział w walkach o Bochnię i Brzesko. W dniach 7–8 września bronił rejonu Brzostek–Kołaczyce, następnie w rejonie Barycza w dniach 9–10 września toczył zacięte walki. 13 września walczył w rejonie Krzywczy nad Sanem, aby 14 września wkroczyć do Przemyśla. +W nocy z 15 na 16 września pułk wziął udział w natarciu na Janów, aby następnie toczyć walki obronne w lasach janowskich. 18 września pod Lelechówką przebił się przez pierścień okrążenia wojsk niemieckich, po czym 19–20 września prowadził ciężkie walki pod Brzuchowicami i Hołoskiem. +21 września 1939 roku resztki 11 Karpackiego Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej skapitulowały przed wojskami radzieckimi. +29 sierpnia o godzinie 18.00 pułk otrzymał rozkaz mobilizacji, który po pół godzinie został odwołany. Następnego dnia w południe nadszedł drugi rozkaz mobilizacyjny, wyznaczający termin mobilizacji na dzień 31 VIII 1939. W pierwszym rzucie dotarły z 3/4 września w rejon Brzeska celem zabezpieczenia wyładunku pododdziałów 11 DP I/53 pp z 7 baterią, I/48 pp z 1 baterią i II/49 pp z 2 baterią. Zostały one przechwycone rozkazem dowództwa Armii "Kraków". Pozostałe baterie wyładowywały się w następnych dniach w rejonie Bochni. 9 września pod Baryczą do macierzystego pułku dołączyła tylko 7 bateria (wraz z dowództwem I dywizjonu). Do pułku nie dołączyła zbombardowana w transportach kolejowych 9 bateria. Tak więc pułk wchodził do działań bojowych z sześcioma bateriami – 3,4,5,6,7 i 8, dzieląc swój szlak bojowy z 11 KDP. +9 IX – Barycz, marsz na Dubiecko +11/12 IX – Bircza, Dubice, rozkaz marszu na Przemyśl +13 IX – marsz na Przemyśl, bój pod Łętownią +13/14 – wkroczenie do Przemyśla,marsz na Sądową Wisznię +15 IX – osiągnięcie rejonu Sądowej Wiszni, rozkaz o dalszej akcji na Lasy Janowskie +15/16 IX – rozbicie w nocnym natarciu w rejonie Mużyłowic pułku SS Germania +17 IX – walki w Lasach Janowskich, rozkaz przebijania na Lwów +18 IX – ciężkie walki pod Lelechówką, osiągniecie Brzuchowic, reorganizacja pułku +19 IX – natarcie na Hołosko z zamiarem wejścia do Lwowa otoczonego przez Niemców +19/20 IX – nocne natarcie na Hołosko. +20 IX – ostatnie próby przedarcia się do Lwowa. Około godziny 18.00 rozkaz zniszczenia sprzętu i przedostawania się do Lwowa na własną rękę. 11 Karpacki Pułk Artylerii Lekkiej był najwaleczniejszym z walecznych pułków artylerii w Kampanii Wrześniowej. Nawet u przeciwników z 7 DP (bawarskiej) i 1 DG zdobył podziw i uznanie za swój niezłomny duch bojowy i męstwo. 11 KPAL już po wojnie jako jeden z nielicznych otrzymał Order Virtuti Militari. +1 bateria – włączona do Armii „Kraków”, w GO „Boruta”. Wspierała ofiarnie 6 DP. Brała udział w I bitwie pod Tomaszowem Lubelskim. Kapitulowała wraz z całym zgrupowaniem 20 IX. +2 bateria – włączona do Armii „Kraków”, w GO „Boruta”. W pierwszych dniach września zaginął d-ca ppor. Walczak. Dowództwo objął jego zastępca por. rez. inż. Michał Witowski. 18 IX rozbita w bitwie pod Ulowem. Resztki kapitulują wraz ze zgrupowaniem 20 IX pod Tomaszowem Lubelskim. +3 bateria – po koncentracji w rejonie Bochni włączona do III dywizjonu.W trakcie działań utraciła dwa działony. Dwa pozostałe po reorganizacji pułku w Brzuchowicach włączono do 5 baterii. +4 bateria – 14 IX pozostawiona w Przemyślu dla wzmocnienia obrony. Kontuzjowany zostaje d-ca kpt. Dębiński (zm. w szpitalu w Przemyślu). Wieczorem dwa działony dołączyły do 5 baterii. Pozostałe dwa działony dołączyły również do 5 baterii w Brzuchowicach, gdzie 4 bateria została odtworzona. Dowódcą został por. Schodowski Józef. Po utracie 20 IX jednego działonu i śmierci por. Schodowskiego pozostałe trzy działony wcielono ponownie do 5 baterii. +5 bateria – ostatnia honorowa bateria pułku, w boju od początku działań skutecznie wspiera działania piechoty. M.in. wieczorem 17 IX artylerzyści baterii biorą udział w brawurowym natarciu na bagnety na niemiecki batalion zagradzający drogę do Brzuchowic. Bateria zniszczyła sześć czołgów npla i zestrzeliła jeden samolot. Zasadniczy skład baterii nie zmieniał się. Dołączały do niej działony z innych rozbitych i zagubionych baterii pułku. Na przykład 20 IX pod Hołoskiem bateria posiadała dziewięć dział (cztery własne, trzy z czwartej baterii i dwa z trzeciej. D-ca baterii kpt. Korabiowski został odznaczony VM. +6 bateria – od początku działań w boju. 19 IX w straży przedniej podczas próby marszu na Lwów. W tym dniu poległ jej d-ca kpt. Pietrzak. Dowodzenie baterią obejmuje ppor. Kowalewski Franciszek, wkrótce ciężko ranny. +7 bateria – traci jeden działon 17 IX w Lasach Janowskich. Ranny d-ca kpt. Hałaniewicz dostaje się do niewoli. Dowództwo obejmuje ppor. rez. Łastowski Marian. Po reorganizacji pułku w Brzuchowicach do baterii włączono działon z rozbitej 8 baterii. +8 bateria – 18 IX podczas samotnego marszu na Brzuchowice została zaskoczona w zasadzce pod Łoziną i rozbita przez piechotę nieprzyjaciela. Traci trzy działony. Ocalały działon włączono do 7 baterii. +9 bateria – nie dołączyła do pułku. Weszła w skład Grupy „Jarosław” ppłk Wójcika Jana. Została rozbita przez czołgi niemieckie 11.IX w rejonie Jarosławia. +Ze zgrupowania resztek pułku w Brzuchowicach i po boju o Hołosko część artylerzystów trafiła do niewoli niemieckiej, część została ogarnięta przez sowietów (odnalezieni na listach katyńskich). Niektórzy po licznych perypetiach przedostali się na Zachód, gdzie kontynuowali walkę z Niemcami. M.in. ppłk Obtułowicz dowodził 6 PAL-em w II Korpusie, a kpt. Korabiowski w 1940 roku dowodził 4 baterią Warszawskiego Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej w 2 DSP we Francji. +Żołnierze pułku. +Obsada personalna pułku we wrześniu 1939 +Pułk zorganizował trzy plutony artylerii piechoty (po dwie armaty 75 mm), +Polegli w kampanii wrześniowej i pomordowani w 1940 +Odznaczeni srebrnym krzyżem Orderu „Virtuti Militari” V klasy za wojnę 1918-1920Spis utworzony na podstawie "Zarys historji wojennej 11-go pułku artylerii polowej" s. 31 +Blok szybrowy + +Blok szybrowy – blok (krążek linowy) wbudowany na stałe w pewną część jachtu (np. w kadłub, maszt lub inne drzewce). Jest możliwe wymontowanie takiego bloku, ale wiąże się to z koniecznością wykonania kilku bardziej skomplikowanych czynności niż tylko odkręcenie szekli. +Union Station (Toronto) + +Union Station – stacja kolejowa w kanadyjskim mieście Toronto, w Financial District, zbudowana w 1927 roku na Front St. +Stacja na zewnątrz ozdobiona jest neoklasycystyczną kolumnadą, wewnątrz kryje dużą salę ze zdobionym stropem i frezem z nazwami miast, z którymi istniały połączenia kolejowe. +Korytarze Union Station kryją przejścia z pasażami handlowymi. Obok stoi nowy dworzec autobusowy systemu komunikacji regionalnej GO, który tworzą zarówno linie kolejowe jak i autobusowe. Przejście pod torami na York St. zostało niedawno wyremontowane, a w posadzkę wtopiono różne symbole indiańskie, które są objaśnione na początku pasażu. Niegdyś te korytarze służyły wozom, ciągnionym przez konie, transportującym na perony bagaże i towary. Jak inne budynki Financial District, dworzec połączony jest systemem pasaży handlowo-komunikacyjnych PATH. +Stacja w najbliższym czasie ma zostać przebudowana, utworzony ma być między innymi wyłączony z ruchu plac przed budynkiem. +Na stacji spotykają się wszystkie linie kolejowe systemu GO Transit. +Łapówka + +Łapówka (pot.) – korzyść, najczęściej finansowa, wręczana osobie lub grupie osób, dla osiągnięcia określonego celu, z pominięciem standardowych procedur. +Indeks Przekupstwa (Bribe Payers Index). +Bribe Payers Index – (pol. Indeks Przekupstwa) jest przygotowywanym przez Transparency International badaniem opinii dotyczącym płatników łapówek. +BCE Place + +BCE Place - jeden z kompleksów biurowych Financial District w Toronto (Ontario, Kanada), położony przy 40 Yonge St. +Budynek kryje olbrzymią galerię, a w jej wnętrzu znajduje się cały historyczny budynek - "Commercial Bank of the Midland District" z 1845, który jest najstarszym kamiennym budynkiem miasta. Architekt Santiago Calatrava pozostawił także część budynków z epoki wiktoriańskiej, które służą jako sale restauracji "Mövenpick". Potrawy kuchni z wielu stron świata można zamawiać w pomieszczeniach urządzonych w stylu danego regionu. +W przyległym neoklasycznym budynku Bank of Montreal z 1885, mieści się dziś Hockey Hall of Fame. Jest to największe muzeum hokeja na świecie. Zobaczyć można m.in. najważniejsze trofeum tego sportu - pierwszy, oryginalny i olbrzymi puchar Stanley Cup, który został ufundowany przez pierwszego Gubernatora generalnego Kanady, lorda Charlesa Stanleya w 1893. +Budynek jest połączony systemem PATH z innymi biurowcami Financial District. +Januariusz + +Januariusz - męskie imię pochodzenia łacińskiego, oboczna forma imienia January +Januariusz imieniny obchodzi 19 stycznia i 19 września +Kalevi Hämäläinen + +Kalevi Nikolai Hämäläinen (ur. 13 grudnia 1932 r. - zm. 10 stycznia 2005 r.) - fiński biegacz narciarski, złoty medalista olimpijski oraz trzykrotny medalista mistrzostw świata. +Kariera. +Reprezentował klub Evon Metsäpojat. Jego olimpijskim debiutem były igrzyska w Cortina d'Ampezzo w 1956 roku, gdzie zajął 20 miejsce w biegu na 30 km. Cztery lata później, podczas igrzysk olimpijskich w Squaw Valley osiągnął swój największy sukces olimpijski zdobywając złoty medal w biegu na 50 km techniką klasyczną. Na tych samych igrzyskach zajął także 12 miejsce w biegu na 30 km. Startował także na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Grenoble w 1968 r. zajmując 16 miejsce w biegu na 50 km stylem klasycznym. +W 1958 roku wystartował na mistrzostwach świata w Lahti, gdzie zdobył złoty medal w biegu na 30 km stylem klasycznym. Ponadto wspólnie z Arto Tiainenem, Arvo Viitanenem i Veikko Hakulinenem zdobył brązowy medal w sztafecie 4x10 km. Był to jego jedyny medal zdobyty w sztafecie. Na mistrzostwach świata w Zakopanem w 1962 roku zdobył brązowy medal w biegu na 50 km stylem klasycznym. Zajął także 8 miejsce w biegu na 30 km. Na kolejnych mistrzostwach świata już nie startował. +W 1956 wygrał prestiżowe zawody w Lahti, zarówno na dystansie 18 km, jak i 50 km. Był też trzykrotnie mistrzem Finlandii w biegu na 50 km w latach 1961, 1962 i 1963. +Bezdomność + +Bezdomność – w ujęciu socjologicznym – problem społeczny (zjawisko społeczne), charakteryzujący się brakiem miejsca stałego zamieszkania (brakiem domu). +Bezdomność w ujęciu psychologicznym to kryzysowy stan egzystencji osoby nie posiadającej faktycznego miejsca zamieszkania, pozbawionej środków niezbędnych do zaspokojenia elementarnych potrzeb, trwale wykorzenionej ze środowiska w wyniku rozpadu więzi społecznych i akceptującej swoją rolę społeczną. Jako stan ewidentnej i trwałej deprywacji potrzeb mieszkaniowych, w sytuacji, gdy dotknięta bezdomnością osoba nie jest w stanie jej zapobiec, wiąże się z poważnym upośledzeniem psychicznego i społecznego funkcjonowania człowieka. +Natura bezdomności wyklucza zamkniętą i jednoznaczną klasyfikację jej przyczyn, ponieważ doprowadza do niej cały zespół nakładających się na siebie sił sprawczych, zespół postaw, zachowań determinowanych predyspozycjami osobowościowymi, którym sprzyjają sytuacje społeczne i sposób funkcjonowania służb socjalnych. +Pojęcie bezdomności. +Termin "bezdomny" upowszechnił się w polskim słownictwie na przełomie XVIII/XIX w i był kojarzony z ofiarami wojen i powstań. Przeszedł następnie do polskiego języka prawa i oznaczał osoby, które utraciły zamieszkanie. +Nie ma jednej uznanej definicji bezdomności. Określa się m.in. bezdomność jako "sytuację osób, które w danym czasie nie posiadają i własnym staraniem nie mogą zapewnić sobie takiego schronienia, które mogłyby uważać za swoje i które spełniałoby minimalne warunki, pozwalające uznać je za pomieszczenie mieszkalne". Bezdomność jest określana również jako "względnie trwała sytuacja człowieka pozbawionego dachu nad głową albo nieposiadającego własnego mieszkania". +Istnieje również definicja prawna zawarta w "Ustawie o pomocy społecznej", zgodnie z którą, za osobę bezdomną uważa się osobę niezamieszkującą w lokalu mieszkalnym w rozumieniu przepisów o ochronie praw lokatorów i mieszkaniowym zasobie gminy i niezameldowaną na pobyt stały, w rozumieniu przepisów o ewidencji ludności i dowodach osobistych, a także osobę niezamieszkującą w lokalu mieszkalnym i zameldowaną na pobyt stały w lokalu, w którym nie ma możliwości zamieszkania. +Tego typu definicje jednak trudno odnosić do sytuacji bezdomności, bowiem za bezdomnych w takim rozumieniu uznawać należałoby także mieszkańców krajów Trzeciego Świata nie ewidencjonowanych lub zamieszkujących slumsy na obrzeżach wielkich metropolii. Z tego względu przy definiowaniu bezdomności należy uwzględnić upośledzenie społeczne wynikające z braku posiadania odpowiedniego standardu mieszkalnego typowe dla społeczeństw przemysłowych. Z drugiej strony osoby bezdomne starają się często zagospodarowywać przestrzeń publiczną np. dworców kolejowych w celu wytworzenia poczucia własnego miejsca. Definiuje się zatem osoby bezdomne poprzez nieprzystosowanie społeczne, pozbawienie środków do życia oraz przynależność do grup, np. osób z zaburzeniami psychicznymi, po długotrwałym pobycie w zakładzie karnym, uzależnionych +Bezdomność jest również zjawiskiem społecznym, niepoddającym się opisowi w kategoriach czysto prawniczych. Ani formalne prawo do zamieszkania w danym lokalu ani brak tego prawa nie przesądzają bowiem kwestii bezdomności. Możliwe są sytuacje, gdy konflikty rodzinne uniemożliwiają faktyczne współzamieszkiwanie w lokalu, w którym jest się zameldowanym, lub też zaspokajanie potrzeb mieszkaniowych pomimo braku zameldowania i formalnego prawa do zamieszkiwania w danym lokalu. +Brak domu uniemożliwia normalny rozwój człowieka, wpływa negatywnie na stan zdrowia psychicznego i fizycznego, uniemożliwia rozwijanie aspiracji kulturowych, regenerację sił i wypoczynek. Deprywacji zatem podlegają nie tylko szeroko rozumiane potrzeby mieszkaniowe, ale właściwie wszystkie poziomy potrzeb, począwszy od najbardziej podstawowych potrzeb fizjologicznych, skończywszy zaś na potrzebie samorealizacji. +Przyczyny bezdomności. +Stan ten jest uwarunkowany wieloczynnikowo, między innymi poprzez zmniejszoną zdolność do samodzielnego życia i radzenia sobie, poddania się wymaganiom społeczeństwa, niewielką odporność na sytuacje trudne, czy marginalizację społeczną. Według Teresy Sołtysiak, badaczki zjawiska, jest to wypadkowa splotów determinant i okoliczności egzystencjalno-losowych, jednostek uwikłanych w mikro- i makrospołeczne warunki życia. +Przyczyny według organizacji pozarządowych. +Z informacji posiadanych przez organizacje pozarządowe wynika, iż wśród populacji osób bezdomnych wyraźnej zmianie ulega przekrój zawodowy i społeczny. Do placówek dla bezdomnych coraz częściej zgłaszają się osoby posiadające wykształcenie średnie i wyższe. Obniżeniu ulega wiek bezdomnych, w szczególności samotnych matek z dziećmi oraz narkomanów i nosicieli wirusa HIV. +Jako współwystępujące z bezdomnością wymienia się najczęściej: alkoholizm, przestępczość, narkomanię, dezintegrację rodziny, choroby psychiczne, obniżenie poziomu rozwoju intelektualnego, przemoc w rodzinie, prostytucję, żebractwo, zespół nabytej bezradności, kalectwo i zaniedbane leczenie różnorodnych schorzeń. Trzeba zaznaczyć, że rzadko jedna przyczyna wyjaśnia sytuację osoby bezdomnej, przyczyny przeplatają się i wzajemnie warunkują. +Podejście psychologiczne. +W literaturze o orientacji psychologicznej wspomina się o osobowościowym syndromie bezdomności oraz niemożności poradzenia sobie z trudną sytuacją życiową, która powoduje, że osoby bezdomne, utraciły wolę, umiejętność i motywację do konstruktywnego pomysłu na dalsze życie, są niezdolne do kierowania własnym losem. Syndrom osobowościowy to także skutek bezdomności, przyjęcie filozofii życiowej, charakterystycznego sposobu postępowania bezdomnego, czyli zaakceptowanie w sobie specyficznej osobowości bezdomnego. +Historia. +Stosunkowo niedawno, w latach międzywojennych, bezdomność została uznana za problem społeczny. Po raz pierwszy wspomina o tym Ustawa o opiece społecznej z 16 sierpnia 1923, definiując cel i pojęcie opieki społecznej jako "...zaspokajanie ze środków publicznych niezbędnych potrzeb życiowych tych osób, które trwale lub chwilowo nie dysponują własnymi środkami materialnymi lub własną praca uczynić tego nie mogą (...) opieka nad osobami bezdomnymi - ciężko poszkodowanymi i ofiarami wojny". +Po drugiej wojnie światowej państwo wzięło na siebie odpowiedzialność za rozwiązywanie problemów społecznych, zgodnie z koncepcją ustrojową głoszono, że w Polsce nie ma problemu bezdomności. W latach pięćdziesiątych zlikwidowano wszelkie formy pomocy dla osób bezdomnych. Problem rzeczywiście pozostał zamaskowany, poprzez kwaterowanie "osób bez domu" w hotelach robotniczych. +Po roku 1989 zjawisko bezdomności wzrosło z powodu: masowych zwolnień, utratę miejsc w hotelach robotniczych oraz wzrost bezrobocia +Skala zjawiska. +Brak jest dokładniejszych informacji o skali zjawiska bezdomności w Polsce. Liczbę osób bezdomnych określa się od 30 do nawet 300 tysięcy. Jedynym miarodajnym źródłem wiedzy w tym zakresie jest liczba osób, którym formalnie udzielona została pomoc przez ośrodki pomocy społecznej. Liczba ta ulega okresowym zmianom, oscylując wokół wartości 30 tysięcy. W 2002 roku liczba ta wyniosła 31 382 osoby. +Natomiast ze sprawozdań nadsyłanych przez organizacje pozarządowe do Ministerstwa Pracy i Polityki Społecznej, w związku z udzieloną dotacją na pomoc osobom bezdomnym wynika, iż udzielają one pomocy ok. 80-130 tys. osobom. Szacunkowe dane określające liczbę bezdomnych na 300 tysięcy pochodzą od Stowarzyszenia Monar. +Rozbieżności te wynikają z faktu, iż część osób bezdomnych uzyskuje pomoc z kilku źródeł, co powiększa ogólną liczbę osób objętych pomocą. Nie wszyscy zgłaszający się po pomoc żywnościową i medyczną a deklarujący się jako osoby bezdomne są sprawdzani, co również zawyża statystyki. W dodatku bezdomni, częściej niż inne grupy, przemieszczają się po kraju, bądź nie korzystają z oferowanych oficjalnie form pomocy, co dodatkowo utrudnia ich ewidencję. Bezdomni zostali objęci Spisem Powszechnym w 2002 roku, jednak zapewne uzyskane dane nie będą ścisłe – letnia pogoda nie sprzyjała gromadzeniu się bezdomnych w miejscach, w których łatwo byłoby dokonać spisu (np. dworce, noclegownie). +O randze bezdomności wśród problemów społecznych decydują nie tylko trudne do uchwycenia parametry ilościowe, ale również dynamika zjawiska i zmiany w strukturze populacji. Syntetyczne opracowania z dziedziny polityki społecznej podkreślają narastające tempo zjawiska, wykraczanie jego zasięgu poza grupy i środowiska tradycyjnie kojarzone z bezdomnością. Z bezdomnością związane są też takie negatywne zjawiska, jak alkoholizm, narkomania, żebractwo, prostytucja, przestępczość, zagrożenia epidemiologiczne. +Pomoc bezdomnym. +Zgodnie z ustawą o pomocy społecznej, pomoc bezdomnym należy do zadań własnych gminy. Pomoc ta może mieć formę udzielenia schronienia, posiłku, ubrania, a także zasiłku celowego na leczenie. Gminy mogą zlecać wykonywanie tych zadań organizacjom pozarządowym. Jednymi z najbardziej znanych ogólnopolskich organizacji specjalizujących się w tym zakresie są Towarzystwo Pomocy im. św. Brata Alberta oraz założone przez Marka Kotańskiego Stowarzyszenie "Monar" i jego wyspecjalizowana jednostka organizacyjna "Markot" oraz od lat pomagające osobom bezdomnym placówki Fundacji i Stowarzyszeń BARKA, udzielające nie tylko schronienia ale także oferujące reintegracje społeczno - zawodową. +Kamiliańska Misja Pomocy Społecznej założona przez o. Bogusława Palecznego. +W 2010 roku z inicjatywy Braci Mniejszych Kapucynów oraz ludzi świeckich powołana została w Warszawie Fundacja Kapucyńska im. bł. Aniceta Koplińskiego, która stanowi przystań dla ludzi ubogich i bezdomnych. Przy warszawskim klasztorze działa także Jadłodajnia Miodowa, gdzie bezdomni otrzymują oprócz pożywienia również wsparcie duchowe i pomoc psychologiczną, w ramach prowadzonego przez Braci Mniejszych Kapucynów Duszpasterstwa Bezdomnych. +Bezdomność w kulturze. +Problem bezdomności porusza m.in. polski dramaturg, Janusz Głowacki, w swojej sztuce pt. "Antygona w Nowym Jorku". +Kwestia ta jest częściowo omawiana w książce Paulo Coelho pt. "Zahir". +O francuskich kloszardach opowiada film "Bazyl. Człowiek z kulą w głowie". +Gmina Rutka-Tartak + +Gmina Rutka-Tartak – gmina wiejska w województwie podlaskim, w powiecie suwalskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie suwalskim. +Siedziba gminy to Rutka-Tartak. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2008 gminę zamieszkiwało 2255 osób. +Charakter głównie rolniczy. Z uwagi na walory krajobrazowe stopniowo rozwijająca się turystyka. Na terenie gminy rzeka Szeszupa oraz wiele jezior, m.in. Pobondzie. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 7,06% powierzchni powiatu. +Sołectwa. +Baranowo, Bondziszki, Ejszeryszki, Folusz, Ignatowizna, Jałowo, Jasionowo, Kadaryszki, Krejwiany, Kupowo, Lizdejki, Michałówka, Olszanka, Pobondzie, Postawele, Poszeszupie, Poszeszupie-Folwark, Potopy, Rowele, Rutka-Tartak, Sikorowizna, Smolnica, Trzcianka, Wierzbiszki. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Jeleniewo, Szypliszki, Wiżajny. Gmina sąsiaduje na północy z Litwą. +Powiększenie obszaru gminy. +Z dniem 1 stycznia 2010 gmina powiększyła się o obszar miejscowości: Jodoziory, Polimonie, Kleszczówek, Smolniki, z gminy Wiżajny, o powierzchni 1105,40 ha. +Pierścień obronny + +Pierścień obronny w twierdzy obronnej - ciąg umocnień stałych (forty, stałe baterie artyleryjskie) i polowych (okopy, punkty oporu piechoty) opasujących nieprzerwaną linią broniony obiekt - najczęściej miasto. Może istnieć kilka pierścieni obronnych powiększających w ten sposób głębokość obrony. +Antoni Stychel + +Antoni Stychel (ur. 13 czerwca 1859 w Dłusku w pow. Międzychód, zm. 13 stycznia 1935 w Poznaniu) – polski ksiądz i polityk, prezes Związku Katolickiego Towarzystwa Robotników Polskich, poseł na Sejm Ustawodawczy oraz senator I kadencji w II RP. +Życiorys. +Był synem urzędnika sądowego. W czasie nauki w gimnazjum Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu należał do Towarzystwa Tomasza Zana. Po maturze (1880) rozpoczął studia politechniczne w Berlinie, ale wkrótce przeniósł się do Würzburga na teologię. W czasie studiów był prezesem Naukowego Towarzystwa Akademików Polaków i działał w środowisku polskiej emigracji robotniczej. Przyjął święcenia kapłańskie w 1889. +Pełnił szereg funkcji w archidiecezji poznańskiej. Był m.in. kanclerzem kurii i prepozytem kolegiaty Św. Marii Magdaleny (1896). W 1925 otrzymał honorowy tytuł papieskiego prałata domowego. +Był jednym z pionierów katolickiego ruchu społecznego w Polsce. W 1892 założył Katolickie Towarzystwo Robotników Polskich, wokół którego w ciągu kilku lat skupił jeszcze kilka mniejszych organizacji i po zjednoczeniu przez wiele lat był prezesem (od 1900 do końca życia). W latach 1898–1914 zasiadał w sejmie pruskim, a 1904–1918 w parlamencie Rzeszy Niemieckiej. W 1908 wysuwano jego kandydaturę na prezesa Koła Polskiego w parlamencie (z ramienia narodowej demokracji). Zasłynął w parlamencie Rzeszy jako dobry mówca, zdecydowanie występujący w obronie polskości, m.in. w sprawie dzieci wrzesińskich. Podczas I wojny światowej wchodził w skład tajnego Międzypartyjnego Komitetu Obywatelskiego; w 1918 prowadził w Szwajcarii rozmowy z paryskim Polskim Komitetem Narodowym. +Był członkiem Komitetu Obrony Górnego Śląska w Poznaniu (1919), Związku Obrony Kresów Zachodnich, posłem na Sejm Ustawodawczy (1919–1922) i jego wicemarszałkiem (a także członkiem komisji konstytucyjnej i oświatowej), jednym z członków-założycieli Towarzystwa Miłośników Miasta Poznania. W latach 1923–1928 wicemarszałek Senatu. W 1928 wycofał się z czynnego życia politycznego po zakazie kandydowania duchownych do Sejmu i Senatu, wydanym przez prymasa Hlonda, ale do końca życia pozostał członkiem Stronnictwa Narodowego. +Edward Paluch + +Edward Paluch (ur. 15 września 1937 w Buczkowicach koło Bielska-Białej, zm. 12 stycznia 2005 w Krakowie) – polski trener narciarstwa alpejskiego i snowboardu. +Studiował na Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie. Był trenerem klasy mistrzowskiej narciarstwa zjazdowego, prowadził kadrę narodową polskich alpejek w latach 80. m.in. odnoszące sukcesy międzynarodowe siostry-bliźniaczki Tlałkówny (Dorotę i Małgorzatę). W 2000 został szefem wyszkolenia Polskiego Związku Snowboardowego. +Zmarł nagle, w drodze na mistrzostwa świata w snowboardzie rozgrywane w Kanadzie. +Pozyton + +Pozyton, antyelektron (nazywany też pozytronem wskutek kalkowania ang. nazwy "positron") – elementarna cząstka antymaterii oznaczana symbolem e+, będąca antycząstką elektronu. Należy do grupy leptonów. +Jej ładunek elektryczny jest równy +1 (jednostce ładunku elementarnego), masa jest równa masie elektronu. Spin pozytonu jest połówkowy. +Cechą charakterystyczną jest fakt, że po spotkaniu elektronu z pozytonem najczęściej, bo z prawdopodobieństwem 99,8%, dochodzi do anihilacji na dwa kwanty gamma. Fotony anihilacyjne emitowane są wówczas (w układzie środka masy) w dokładnie przeciwnych kierunkach. Muszą być spełnione zasady zachowania ładunku, pędu jak i energii, stąd też energia każdego z kwantów przy anihilacji dwufotonowej jest równa 511 keV. Obserwowane są również inne kanały anihilacji, wśród których można wymienić anihilację 3-fotonową (3QA), jednak są one znacznie mniej prawdopodobne – na przykład przekrój czynny na anihilację dwufotonową jest 371 razy większy od przekroju na anihilację trójfotonową. +Źródła i zastosowanie pozytonów. +Antyelektrony powstają przede wszystkim przy promieniowaniu beta plus. W rozpadzie tym proton w jądrze atomowym ulega przemianie na neutron, pozyton oraz neutrino elektronowe, np. +Spośród ok. 200 istniejących w przyrodzie takich izotopów tylko część z nich używana jest do badań. Kryterium jest tu maksymalna energia emitowanego pozytonu oraz czas połowicznego rozpadu izotopu. W badaniach materiałowych szczególnie chętnie wykorzystuje się izotop 22Na lub 68Ge. +Pozytony stosuje się w badaniach materiałowych, przede wszystkim do znajdowania defektów struktury krystalicznej, w medycynie do obrazowania w pozytonowej emisyjnej tomografii komputerowej. +Historia odkrycia. +Istnienie pozytonu zostało przewidziane teoretycznie w roku 1928 przez Paula Diraca. Po raz pierwszy zaobserwowany został w komorze mgłowej cztery lata później w roku 1932 przez Carla Andersona. Dirac interpretował pozyton jako dziurę w tzw. morzu Diraca, z kolei Richard Feynman rozważał go jako cząstkę poruszającą się do tyłu w czasie. Po odkryciu pozytonu m.in. małżonkowie Joliot-Curie zaobserwowali tworzenie się pozytonium, czyli stanu związanego e+e-. +Pokój kaliski 1343 + +Pokój kaliski 1343 – polsko-krzyżacki traktat pokojowy zawarty 8 lipca 1343 w Kaliszu, w wyniku którego Kazimierz III Wielki w zamian za zrzeczenie się praw do ziemi chełmińskiej, michałowskiej i Pomorza Gdańskiego odzyskał od zakonu krzyżackiego Kujawy i ziemię dobrzyńską. +Pokój ten oznaczał ustępstwa terytorialne ze strony Polski, lecz z punktu widzenia polskiej racji stanu musiał zostać zawarty. Mimo wyroku papieskiego sądu polubownego, stwierdzającego że Pomorze Gdańskie, ziemia chełmińska i michałowska należą do Polski, zakon krzyżacki nie oddał ich dobrowolnie. +Papież Benedykt XII nie podtrzymał postanowień procesu warszawskiego, zlecając ponowne zbadanie zasadności roszczeń Polski do spornych ziem. Następca Benedykta XII, Klemens VI okazał się sprzymierzeńcem Krzyżaków. W tych warunkach Kazimierz Wielki mógł albo z nimi walczyć, albo zawrzeć pokój. Król wybrał to, co uważał za rozwiązanie mniej szkodzące Królestwu Polskiemu, czyli pokój. Krzyżacy byli wtedy u szczytu swojej potęgi i wynik ewentualnej wojny byłby prawdopodobnie dla Polski niekorzystny. W wyniku postanowień traktatu, Kazimierz III Wielki miał się zrzec tytułu pana i dziedzica Pomorza w tytulaturze i na pieczęciach. Uznawano jednakże zasadę wcześniejszego zwierzchnictwa króla polskiego nad Pomorzem, ziemią chełmińską i michałowską, Kazimierz Wielki nie potwierdzał Zakonowi praw do Pomorza ani nie nadawał go Krzyżakom, zrzekał się jedynie wszelkich praw do tych ziem. Już w samym żądaniu Krzyżaków, aby król zrzekł się praw do Pomorza kryło się jednak uznanie go (zwłaszcza po rezygnacji z pretensji do korony polskiej Jana Luksemburskiego) za prawowitego dziedzica tych ziem. Dużym sukcesem dyplomacji polskiej było zrezygnowanie z wypracowanej w 1335 r. w Wyszehradzie (podczas arbitrażu władców Węgier i Czech) formuły "Pomorza jako wieczystej jałmużny" dla Zakonu. Tym samym w traktacie kaliskim, tak naprawdę zawartym w Wierzbiczanach koło Inowrocławia, król polski dawał jasno do zrozumienia, że został zmuszony do zrzeczenia się praw do Pomorza, a formuła: wieczysta jałmużna - byłaby zbytnim nadużyciem dla ziem, które tak naprawdę należały się Polsce, a bezprawnie zostały przez Krzyżaków zajęte w 1308 r. +Jednocześnie król polski stawał się dobroczyńcą i patronem zakonu, który został zobowiązany do pomocy wojskowej i honorowych danin w pieniądzach i w naturze. W wypadku podjęcia przez zakon walki przeciw Polsce, tracił on teoretycznie prawa do otrzymanych darowizn. +Warunki pokoju kaliskiego, mimo odsunięcia w czasie możliwości odzyskania ziem pomorskich, miały niezwykle ważne znaczenie w ugruntowaniu idei ich zjednoczenia z Królestwem. +Władysław głogowski + +Władysław (Włodko) (ur. ok. 1420, zm. w lutym (około 14) 1460) – książę cieszyński i głogowsko-ścinawski od 1431, (do 1442 razem z braćmi), w wyniku podziału połowa Głogowa i Ścinawy. +Władysław był drugim pod względem starszeństwa synem księcia cieszyńskiego Bolesława I i Eufemii Mazowieckiej. Od 1431 (tj. od śmierci ojca) do 1442 sprawował władzę w Księstwie Cieszyńskim wraz z matką i braćmi. Po podziale księstwa w dniu 29 listopada 1442 Władysław objął Głogów z częścią księstwa i nosił odtąd tytuły księcia cieszyńskiego i głogowskiego. +Miał niewielkie związki z polityką Cieszyna (właściwie jedyną aktywność w tym rejonie stanowiła zgoda na sprzedaż księstwa siewierskiego przez brata Wacława w 1443), związał się za to z przynależnym mu Głogowem. +W grudniu 1444 pojął za żonę Małgorzatę, córkę Hermana III, hrabiego Cilly (zm.1480). Małżeństwo to pozostało bezdzietne. +Przejawem uczestnictwa Władysława w życiu politycznym epoki był wyjazd w1447 Władysława do Krakowa, gdzie uczestniczył w koronacji Kazimierza Jagiellończyka na króla Polski. +W 1452 książę głogowski wziął udział w podróży do Włoch, gdzie m.in. odwiedził Pizę. Kazał tam odnowić grobowiec zmarłego 1355 w tym mieście Władysława cieszyńskiego. +Zaangażował się w spór pomiędzy książętami dolnośląskimi a królem Czech, Jerzym z Podiebradów, stając po stronie tego ostatniego. 24 sierpnia 1459 wraz z innymi władcami ze Śląska złożył hołd lenny Jerzemu w Świdnicy. W szeregach króla czeskiego walczył następnie pod Wrocławiem. W czasie oblężenia tego miasta 1 października 1459 został ciężko ranny. Na skutek ran zmarł około 14 lutego 1460, nie pozostawiając potomstwa. +Należąca do Władysława połowa księstwa głogowskiego została podzielona pomiędzy jego brata, księcia Przemysława II (który faktycznie przejął całość władzy), i wdowę Małgorzatę, która do śmierci (1480) musiała bronić swego spadku przed zaborczym Janem II, księciem żagańskim. +Greg Rusedski + +Greg Rusedski (ur. 6 września 1973 w Montrealu), tenisista brytyjski pochodzenia kanadyjskiego. Jego matka jest Angielką, a ojciec, urodzony w Niemczech, jest pochodzenia polsko-ukraińskiego. +Jest zawodnikiem leworęcznym. Przeszedł na zawodowstwo w 1991 r., jeszcze jako Kanadyjczyk odniósł pierwsze zwycięstwo turniejowe (na kortach trawiastych w Newport w 1993, w finale z Javierem Franą). W 1995 r. przyjął obywatelstwo brytyjskie. Najlepszym jego osiągnięciem jest awans do finału US Open w 1997 r., gdzie przegrał z Patrickiem Rafterem oraz wygranie turnieju o Puchar Wielkiego Szlema dwa lata później. Triumfował również w halowym turnieju w Paryżu w 1998 r. (w finale pokonał Pete Samprasa), a w roku 1997 osiągnął ćwierćfinał Wimbledonu. Reprezentował Wielką Brytanię w Pucharze Davisa. +Przez jakiś czas dzierżył rekord najszybszego serwisu (239,7 km/h), ale wynik ten został poprawiony przez Andy'ego Roddicka. +W kwietniu 2007 ogłosił zakończenie kariery sportowej. +Potwory i krytycy + +Potwory i krytycy, a ściślej "Beowulf: Potwory i krytycy" (ang. "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics") – tytuł wykładu wygłoszonego przez J. R. R. Tolkiena 25 listopada 1936 roku. +Geneza i przyjęcie. +W latach 1933–1935 J. R. R. Tolkien rozpoczął pracę nad cyklem wykładów zatytułowanych "Beowulf and the Critics", w których krytykował powszechnie podówczas panujący sposób analizowania poematu "Beowulf", w szczególności zaś prace Archibalda Stronga i J. J. Jusseranda, w mniejszym zaś stopniu W. P. Kera i R. W. Chambersa. Tolkien wypunktował historię krytyki literackiej "Beowulfa" i swoje wobec niej zarzuty. Manuskrypt wykładów zachował się w dwóch wersjach i jest przechowywany w Bodleian Library, na Uniwersytecie Oksfordzkim. Wykłady zostały opublikowane w 2002, ale tzw. wersja A manuskryptu była podstawą wykładu z 1936 roku. +25 listopada 1936 roku Tolkien wygłosił wykład w British Academy, w serii Sir Israel Gollancz Memorial Lecture (wykładów pamiątkowych ku czci Israela Gollancza); tekst został następnie wydrukowany w "Proceedings of the British Academy", vol. 22. Michael D. C. Drout określił wydrukowany esej mianem najważniejszego tekstu w historii badań nad "Beowulfem"; jego zdaniem, gdyby Tolkien nie napisał nic poza tym esejem, i tak przeszedłby do historii, ponieważ tekst ten otworzył nowy rozdział w dziejach badań "Beowulfa". Esej należy do najczęściej cytowanych tekstów Tolkiena i powszechnie uznaje się, że był początkiem nowej ery w studiach nad "Beowulfem", choć wiele z jego szczegółowych tez zostało podważonych. +Omówienie. +Tolkien, wspierając swój wywód retoryką i rozbudowanymi alegoriami, pokazał nowy sposób odczytania poematu. Uznał, że dotychczasowi krytycy starali się np. wykorzystać "Beowulfa" do badań historycznych, odrzucając np. elementy fantastyczne, jako zbędne ozdobniki. Tolkien twierdził, że przeciwnie, są one integralną częścią poematu, który należy traktować przede wszystkim jako całościowe dzieło literackie, w przeciwnym razie straci się z oczu sens jego istnienia. Podobnie, fakt, że autor "Beowulfa" wykorzystał do jego konstrukcji wcześniejsze podania i wiersze, które można zidentyfikować jako elementy składowe, nie oznacza, że sam poemat nie stanowi nowej jakości, którą należy docenić. Czytanie poematu wyłącznie jako materiału badawczego dla innych nauk nie pozwala dostrzec jego podstawowego znaczenia, ponadto prowadzi do interpretacji, które często są ze sobą sprzeczne. Podstawowym błędem W. P. Kera i R. W. Chambersa, których poglądy J.R.R. Tolkien najostrzej krytykował w tej wersji wykładu, było właśnie niedostrzeganie wartości poematu, jako takiego. +Z technicznego punktu widzenia Tolkien nie przedstawił nowych odkryć na temat poematu ani nie wykazał, na jakiej podstawie oparł swoje twierdzenia o dacie powstania dzieła (700–750 n.e.). Większość specjalistycznych (głównie filologicznych) uwag umieszczonych jest w aneksie do głównego eseju. Niemniej ukazał "Beowulfa" jako wartościowe dzieło literackie, które dotyka najbardziej fundamentalnych zagadnień życia (śmiertelności człowieka i przemijalności wszelkich jego dzieł). Kanonem stał się też zaproponowany przez Tolkiena podział poematu na dwie części, ukazujące dwie fazy w życiu jego tytułowego bohatera. +Miękkoskórkowate + +Miękkoskórkowate, żółwie dwupazurzaste, żółwie miękkoskóre (Carettochelyidae) – monotypowa rodzina żółwi skrytoszyjnych. Jedynym żyjącym przedstawicielem jest żółw dwupazurzasty ("Carettochelys insculpta") żyjący w Nowej Gwinei i północnej Australii. +Badania DNA wykazują duże pokrewieństwo żółwi miękkoskórowatych i zółwi z rodziny żółwiakowate (Trionychidae). +Dolinka Spadowa + +Dolinka Spadowa (słow. "Spádová dolinka", węg. "Cseh-tavi-katlan") – krótka dolina wisząca położona w Tatrach Wysokich na Słowacji. Jest to boczne odgałęzienie Doliny Ciężkiej ("Ťažká dolina") oddzielone od niej wysokim progiem powyżej Ciężkiego Stawu ("Ťažké pleso"). Z niego spływa potok Spadowa Woda ("Spádová voda") zaczynający się tuż powyżej progu. Wyżej dolina jest sucha i zawalona rumowiskiem skalnym, wśród którego nawet latem często leżą płaty śniegu. Dolina ma ok. 750 m długości. +Przez Dolinkę Spadową nie prowadzi żaden znakowany szlak turystyczny. Korzystają z niej natomiast często polscy taternicy, przez nią prowadzi bowiem najkrótsze połączeniem między Morskim Okiem a Doliną Ciężką. Nazwę doliny wprowadzono dopiero ok. 1930 r., jej autorami są taternicy. Pochodzi od progu oddzielającego ją od Doliny Ciężkiej, zwanego „spadami”. Widoki z dolinki są stosunkowo ograniczone. +Pierwszymi turystami w Dolince Spadowej byli Janusz Chmielowski, Károly Jordán, Adam Kroebl, Stanisław Krygowski i Tadeusz Łopuszański z przewodnikami Jakubem Bachledą, Klemensem Bachledą, Janem Karpielem, Jędrzejem Marusarzem Jarząbkiem i Janem Stopką Ceberniakiem młodszym. Zimą pierwsze były tu Zofia Wysocka i Stefania Bernadzikiewicz 1 stycznia 1935 r. +Dolina Ciężka + +Dolina Ciężka, dawniej Dolina Czeska (słow. "Ťažká dolina", "Česká dolina", niem. "Böhmischseetal", "Verborgenes Tal", węg. "Cseh-tavi-völgy", "Rejtett-völgy") – niewielka dolina zawieszona położona w Tatrach Wysokich na terenie Słowacji. +Opis. +Wraz ze swoim bocznym odgałęzieniem Dolinką Spadową ("Spádová dolinka") ma długość ok. 2,0 km i powierzchnię ok. 2,5 km². Należy do systemu Doliny Białej Wody ("Bielovodská dolina"), odchodzi od niej w kierunku południowo-zachodnim na wysokości Polany pod Wysoką ("Poľana pod Vysokou") i oddzielona jest od Doliny Białej Wody 300-metrowej wysokości ścianą stawiarską. W dolnym piętrze Doliny Ciężkiej znajduje się Ciężki Staw ("Ťažké pleso"), położony na wysokości 1612 m n.p.m. Wypływający z niego Ciężki Potok ("Ťažký potok") opadając w kierunku Doliny Białej Wody tworzy Ciężką Siklawę ("Ťažký vodopád") o wysokości ok. 100 m – najwięcej w Tatrach. W górnym tarasie Doliny Ciężkiej, wśród osuwiska skalnych głazów, na wysokości ok. 1760 m n.p.m. leży Zmarzły Staw pod Wysoką ("Zmrzlé pleso"). Wypływający z niego potok spada kaskadą zwaną Zmarzła Siklawa ("Zmrzlý vodopád"). Najwyżej położone piętro Doliny Ciężkiej zajmuje kocioł Dolinki Spadowej, oddzielają go ściany Ciężkiej Turni ("Ťažká veža", 2254 m), najwyższego szczytu w bocznej grani odchodzącej od Niżnich Rysów ("Malé Rysy", "Nižné Rysy"). +Dawniej dolina była wypasana przez pasterzy z Doliny Białej Wody. Nie mieli oni jednak tutaj szałasu, w razie potrzeby korzystali z naturalnych koleb. +Nazewnictwo. +Pierwotnie dolina nazywała się Ciężkie lub Do Ciężkiego. Nazwa ta pochodzi od tego, że pasterzom z Doliny Białej Wody ciężko było wraz z owcami wspiąć się do tej doliny przez stromą, 300-metrowej wysokości ścianę stawiarską. Potem okoliczna ludność używała nazwy Dolina Ciężka. Przez turystów i taterników została ona zniekształcona na błędną nazwę Dolina Czeska. Ta nazwa i jej tłumaczenia obcojęzyczne utrzymywały się długo, również w piśmiennictwie i na mapach. Dopiero po II wojnie światowej w wyniku żądań ludności Jaworzyny Tatrzańskiej, którzy cały czas używali nazwy Dolina Ciężka, przywrócono dawną, prawidłową nazwę. +Turystyka. +Od około 1860 dolinę zaczęli z rzadka odwiedzać polscy turyści, jako pierwszych znanych wymienia się Edwarda Homolacsa juniora wraz z towarzyszami i przewodnikiem Jędrzejem Walą młodszym (1860). Zimą pierwszy był tutaj Zbigniew Korosadowicz, również w 1860 r. +Obecnie dolina znajduje się na obszarze TANAP-u i nie prowadzi do niej żaden ze znakowanych szlaków turystycznych. Możliwe jest jednak przejście w towarzystwie przewodnika na przełęcz Wagę ("Váha") nieoznaczoną drogą poprowadzoną wzdłuż brzegu Zmarzłego Stawu. Dolina Ciężka od lat była miejscem licznych wspinaczek. Do niej schodzi wysoka (300 m) ściana Galerii Gankowej ("Gánkova Galéria"), którą poprowadzono wiele dróg o różnej skali trudności. +Pomnik króla Jana III Sobieskiego w Gdańsku + +Pomnik króla Jana III Sobieskiego – pomnik konny w Gdańsku. +Historia. +Został ufundowany przez miasto Lwów i odsłonięty 20 listopada 1898 roku. Jest dziełem lwowskiego rzeźbiarza Tadeusza Barącza, odlanym w brązie, w wiedeńskiej firmie Artura Kruppa. Podstawę pomnika, z szarego piaskowca tarnopolskiego, wykonała pracownia rzeźbiarska Juliana Markowskiego ze Lwowa. +Pomnik stanął we Lwowie na skwerze na Wałach Hetmańskich, w najbardziej reprezentacyjnym spacerowym ciągu Lwowa. Dziś miejsce to zajmowane jest przez pomnik Tarasa Szewczenki. +Jedyny król polski, pochodzący z najbliższych okolic Lwowa (urodzony w Olesku, często przebywający w Żółkwi, posiadający kamienicę we Lwowie i często odwiedzający to miasto) przedstawiony został w narodowym stroju, w żupanie i kontuszu, na wspiętym rumaku, przeskakującym obalone działo, kosz faszynowy i strzaskaną lawetę. Postać króla była zwrócona twarzą na południowy wschód, skąd najczęściej nadchodziło niebezpieczeństwo dla Lwowa. +Praca Barącza przypomina swą stylistyką wcześniejszy pomnik Sobieskiego w warszawskich Łazienkach z 1787 roku, zwłaszcza że w obu przypadkach wątpliwość wzbudzają proporcje między sylwetką konia i jeźdźca. +Gdy w lipcu 1944 roku Lwów został ponownie zajęty przez ZSRR, powstał projekt, by Sobieskiego przerobić na Bohdana Chmielnickiego. W roku 1950 przekazano jednak pomnik władzom polskim. Przez 16 lat stał w parku w Wilanowie, po czym przewieziono go do Gdańska. Pomnik, atrakcyjny w swojej formie, starały się pozyskać Kraków i Wrocław. Ustawiono go na jednym z głównych placów Starego Miasta - Targu Drzewnym i 26 czerwca 1965 roku ponownie odsłonięto. Pomnik usytuowano tak, że król zwrócony jest w kierunku zachodnim. Oryginalna tablica z tekstem ""Królowi Janowi III miasto Lwów"" została ukryta i zamontowana dopiero po roku 1989. +Oryginalnych, brązowych tablic kartusza nigdy nie zamontowano z powrotem. Najprawdopodobniej zostały zabetonowane w skrzyniach wewnątrz pomnika. Obecne tablice zostały wykonane w latach dziewięćdziesiątych z piaskowca przez rzeźbiarza Czesława Gajdę, który uprzednio w latach osiemdziesiątych dokonał rekonstrukcji innych części kartusza. +Do postaci króla pozował lwowski przedsiębiorca Marian Stipal. +Kotylozaury + +Kotylozaury (Cotylosauria) – pierwotnie nazwę tę stosowano na określenie najstarszych i najbardziej pierwotnych gadów kopalnych, które miały dać początek wszystkim późniejszym owodniowcom. Obecnie jednak uważa się, że tak definiowane kotylozaury grupowały różne bliżej nie spokrewnione ze sobą zwierzęta czworonogie – m.in. część anapsydów (np. wymarłe pod koniec permu parejazaury) i blisko spokrewnione z diapsydami karbońskie rodziny Captorhinidae (m.in. rodzaj "Captorhinus") i Protorothyrididae (m.in. rodzaj "Hylonomus"), a według niektórych definicji nawet sejmurię i pokrewne jej czworonogie. W dodatku tak definiowane kotylozaury były grupą parafiletyczną, gdyż nie obejmowały bardziej zaawansowanych ewolucyjnie owodniowców, które miały od nich pochodzić. +Obecnie nazwa „kotylozaury” bywa używana na określenie kladu obejmującego wszystkie owodniowce i siostrzany wobec nich, wymarły klad Diadectomorpha, do którego należały m.in. rodzaje "Diadectes", "Limnoscelis" i "Tseajaia". Gauthier, Kluge i Rowe (1988) zdefiniowali Cotylosauria jako klad obejmujący współczesne owodniowce i wszystkie czworonogi bliżej spokrewnione z owodniowcami niż z rodzajem "Solenodonsaurus", zaś Laurin i Reisz (1995) zdefiniowali Cotylosauria jako klad obejmujący ostatniego wspólnego przodka diadektomorfów i synapsydów oraz wszystkich jego potomków. +Przemysław I Noszak + +Przemysław I Noszak (cieszyński) (ur. między 1332 a 1336, zm. 23 sierpnia 1410) – książę cieszyński, bytomski i siewierski od 1358, w latach 1359-1368 i od 1405 strata Siewierza, od 1369 strata północnej części księstwa bytomskiego, a od 1405 reszty, 1378-1382 w Żorach, od 1384 połowa Głogowa i Ścinawy (bez okresu 1404-1406), 1397-1401 w Oleśnie, od 1385 w Strzelinie, 1401-1405 w Toszku. +Przemysław był trzecim pod względem starszeństwa synem księcia Kazimierza I cieszyńskiego i księżnej Eufemii mazowieckiej. Uważany jest za najwybitniejszego władcę Księstwa Cieszyńskiego. Nie wiadomo kiedy się dokładnie urodził, z ustaleń profesora Kazimierza Jasińskiego wynika jednak, że musiało to nastąpić pomiędzy 1332 a 1336. Początkowo wydawało się, że Przemysław nie ma większych szans objęcia schedy po ojcu, w związku jednak ze wcześniejszą śmiercią starszych braci Władysława i Bolesława został głównym następcą Kazimierza I. +Od 1355 angażował się w życie polityczne na dworze cesarza Karola IV, gdzie rok później otrzymał stanowisko sędziego nadwornego po zmarłym bracie Władysławie. Po śmierci ojca w 1358 objął tron cieszyński, nie przerywając swojej kariery dyplomatycznej. +Około 1360 ożenił się z Elżbietą, córką księcia kozielsko-bytomskiego Bolesława, co dało mu dodatkowe prawa do odziedziczonej jeszcze przez Kazimierza I w 1357, po Piastach bytomsko-kozielskich, połowie księstwa. Podział jednolitego dotąd księstwa bytomskiego dokonany pomiędzy książętami oleśnickimi a Przemysłem, został potwierdzony ostatecznie w 1359. Książę cieszyński został wtedy opiekunem córek Bolesława bytomskiego Eufemii i Bolki, które też miały się zrzec z tego tytułu wszelkich pretensji do spadku po ojcu, dzięki czemu książę cieszyński mógł przejąć całość spadku po Bolesławie (z wyjątkiem Koźla, w którym utrzymali się książęta oleśniccy). Niestety nabytek bytomski nie okazał się trwały. +Przemysław szybko stał się najważniejszą postacią na praskim dworze, a cesarz Karol IV powierzał mu coraz liczniejsze, nieraz bardzo trudne, zadania. W 1361 doprowadził do zawarcia układu pomiędzy Pragą a margrabią brandenburskim Karolem V i uczestniczył w przejęciu przez Karola IV spadku po Ludwiku Wittelsbachu. Strzegł też interesów cesarza w Brandenburgii. Powodzeniem zakończyła się podjęta przez Przemysława próba rozbicia sojuszu pomiędzy królem węgierskim Ludwikiem Wielkim Andegaweńskim i książętami niemieckimi. O pozycji księcia cieszyńskiego świadczy fakt, że uczestniczył on w słynnym zjeździe europejskich władców w karczmie u Wierzynka w Krakowie. +W 1380 cieszyński książę rozpoczął wielką karierę polityczną o wymiarach ogólnoeuropejskich. W Paryżu próbował utrzymać zagrożony sojusz czesko-francuski, a następnie udał się do Anglii, gdzie prowadził rokowania w sprawie małżeństwa córki Karola IV, Anny, z angielskim królem Ryszardem II. W nagrodę za pomyślne załatwienie sprawy otrzymał od Ryszarda II coroczne uposażenie w wysokości 500 funtów. Wziął też udział w paryskich rokowaniach pokojowych pomiędzy Anglią i Francją, które od niemal stu lat toczyły ze sobą wojnę. Przy okazji doprowadził do poprawy stosunków króla Francji z Wacławem IV, który przejął po ojcu czeską koronę. Wacław IV, noszący tytuł króla rzymskiego, mianował Przemysława wikariuszem na kraje niemieckie. Zadaniem księcia była pacyfikacja napiętej atmosfery w Rzeszy. Udało mu się doprowadzić walczące strony do rozejmu w Heidelbergu, a następnie do pokoju w Koblencji. Przemysław Noszak pośredniczył też w sporze Związku Miast z książętami niemieckimi w 1389 oraz w rokowaniach dotyczących ustalenia granicy pomiędzy Czechami a Miśnią. +W 1386 podczas nieobecności króla Wacława IV w Pradze Przemysław dostąpił zaszczytu pełnienia funkcji gubernatora Czech, chwilowo sprawując władzę w całym Królestwie. Jednak szlachta czeska nie zgadzała się na tak wysoką pozycję polskiego księcia w Czechach, w związku z czym wkrótce doprowadziła do zastąpienia go w radzie królewskiej przez księcia opawsko-raciborskiego z rodu Przemyślidów. Zrodziło to konflikt pomiędzy Księstwem Cieszyńskim a Księstwem Opawskim, który o mały włos nie doprowadził do wojny. Kulminacyjnym punktem tego konfliktu było zamordowanie w 1406 najstarszego syna Przemysława Noszaka, również Przemysława, który powracał z Gliwic do Cieszyna i w okolicach Rybnika został napadnięty przez Marcina Czecha, działającego z polecenia księcia opawskiego Jana II. Spór zakończyło podpisanie 7 listopada 1407 pokoju w Żorach. +W międzyczasie Przemysław Noszak został jednym z przywódców Związku Śląskiego, który powstał z inicjatywy śląskich książąt, mieszczaństwa i szlachty w trosce o zapewnienie pokoju na terenie całego Śląska, należącego wtedy do coraz mniej stabilnego Królestwa Czech. W ramach tej działalności cieszyński książę doprowadził do zawarcia 12 czerwca 1397 układu z królem Polski Władysławem Jagiełłą o współpracy przygranicznej w zwalczaniu rozbójnictwa. Przemysław zyskał przy tym zaufanie polskiego króla, który wyraził zgodę na przekazanie cieszyńskiemu księciu w zastaw ziemi lublinieckiej i oleskiej przez wojewodę krakowskiego (w ziemi tej utrzymał się książę cieszyński do 1401). Noszak wziął też udział w pertraktacjach polsko-krzyżackich w 1410, które zakończyły się jednak niepowodzeniem. +Po 1378 książę coraz mocniej zaczął się uskarżać na doskwierającą mu podagrę. Choroba w końcu doprowadziła energicznego księcia do całkowitego niedowładu nóg, tak że Przemysław był zmuszony korzystać z pomocy lektyki. Stąd też wziął się przydomek księcia cieszyńskiego: "Noszak". Postępująca choroba zmusiła Przemysława w 1396 do rezygnacji z wpływu na politykę królestwa czeskiego. +Za panowania księcia Przemysława znacznie poszerzyły się granice posiadłości Piastów cieszyńskich. Odziedziczył po ojcu księstwo cieszyńskie i księstwo siewierskie (zakupione przez jego ojca Kazimierza w 1337 r. od Władysława II księcia bytomskiego. Zostało ono następnie sprzedane w 1359 za 2300 grzywien księciu świdnickiemu Bolkowi II. Do Cieszyna wróciło parę lat po po bezpotomnej śmierci Bolka ( 1368 ), ok. 1372 r.) oraz połowę księstwa kozielsko-bytomskiego. O to ostatnie stoczył w latach 1355-1369 ostry spór z Konradem II, który zakończył się ponownym podziałem tych ziem i utrzymaniem się Przemysława w południowej części księstwa. +W latach 1378-1382 udało mu się przejąć część księstwa raciborskiego z Żorami. Wreszcie dzięki poparciu króla Wacława IV znalazł się w 1384 w posiadaniu części księstwa głogowskiego wraz z połową Głogowa i Ścinawy, a następnie (w 1385) odkupił od księcia ziębickiego Bolka III Strzelin. Noszak wszedł też w posiadanie księstwa oświęcimsko-zatorskiego, na które ekspektatywę nadał mu w 1372 sam cesarz Karol IV - Przemysław był bowiem najbliższym krewnym książąt oświęcimskich, a po bezpotomnej śmierci kuzyna, Jana III, w 1405 nabył prawa do tych ziem. +W 1404 Przemysław Noszak wyznaczył dla swojego dorastającego syna noszącego jego imię księstwo głogowsko-ścinawskie. Rok później do władztwa tego dołączył również odziedziczony po Janie III - Oświęcim i Zator, oraz kupione w 1401 księstwo toszeckie. Stan ten utrzymał się do śmierci syna w dniu 1 stycznia 1406, wtedy też Głogów i Ścinawę przyłączył na powrót do swojego władztwa, zaś księstwo oświęcimskie i toszeckie wydzielił kolejnemu synowi Bolesławowi, jako tymczasową dzielnicę. +Książę Przemysław I Noszak zmarł 23 sierpnia 1410, pozostawiając książęcą koronę jedynemu ocalałemu synowi - księciu Bolesławowi, oraz małoletniemu wnukowi (synowi Przemysława Oświęcimskiego) Kazimierzowi I. Z małżeństwa z Elżbietą Bytomską pozostawił również córkę Annę, wydaną za mąż za księcia lubińskiego Henryka IX. Został pochowany w kościele dominikanów w Cieszynie. +Informacja niejawna + +Informacja niejawna – termin prawniczy, który w prawie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej został zdefiniowany w Ustawie o ochronie informacji niejawnych z 5 sierpnia 2010 roku. Oznacza informację, która wymaga ochrony przed nieuprawnionym ujawnieniem, niezależnie od formy i sposobu jej wyrażenia, także w trakcie jej opracowania. +Kontrolę ochrony informacji niejawnych prowadzą ABW i SKW w zakresie opisanym w Ustawie o ochronie informacji niejawnych z 5 sierpnia 2010 roku. +Wacław I cieszyński + +Wacław I cieszyński (urodzony pomiędzy 1413 a 1416-zmarł 1474) – książę cieszyński od 1431 (do 1442 razem z braćmi), w wyniku podziału Cieszyn, połowa Bytomia (do 1459, z przerwą w 1452) i Siewierz (do 1443), od 1452 w Bielsku, od 1468 tylko w Bielsku. +Wacław I był najstarszym synem księcia cieszyńskiego Bolesława I i księżniczki mazowieckiej Eufemii. Po śmierci ojca w 1431, był już uznany za w pełni pełnoletniego i zdolnego do sprawowania rządów, w związku z czym bez przeszkód przejął całą władzę w księstwie, początkowo także w imieniu swoich młodszych braci: Władysława, Przemysława II i Bolesława II +Związany z dworem cesarskim Zygmunta Luksemburskiego. W 1438 złożył hołd królowi czeskiemu. W tym samym roku uczestniczył w decyzji o zdobyciu dla Cieszyna prawa bicia własnej monety. +Pomimo dobrych stosunków z suwerenem w 1434 Wacław zaangażował się po stronie husytów wspomagając zwłaszcza burgrabiego będzińskiego Mikołaja Siestrzeńca Kornicza w jego rajdach przeciko dobrom biskupów krakowskich położonych w Królestwie Polskim. Dopiero odwetowa wyprawa Krystyna Koziegłowskiego na Gliwice skłoniła Wacława do wycofania swojego poparcia i zawarcia ugody z Polską na zjeździe w Będzinie 15 października 1434. +Książę zawarł małżeństwo z Elżbietą Hohenzollern, córką elektora Fryderyka I, wdową po Ludwiku II. Data ślubu pozostaje dyskusyjna. Według relacji Ambrożego z Byczyny para pobrała się 9 grudnia 1438 roku we Wrocławiu. Jednak zdaniem części literatury relacja ta mówi nie o ślubie, lecz o zaręczynach. W każdym razie Wacław poślubił Elżbietę napóźniej 17 lutego 1439 roku. Elżbieta po raz pierwszy jako księżna cieszyńska występuje 5 marca 1439 roku. +Związek ten pozostał bezdzietny i już 1445 się rozpadł. +29 listopada 1442 Wacław ulegając presji braci zgodził się na podział ojcowizny. Działy nie były jednak równe, gdyż Wacław zachował w swoich rękach większość terytoriów oddając młodszemu rodzeństwu tylko dobra głogowsko-ścinawskie (które zostały poważnie zadłużone) i część cieszyńskich, sam zostawiając sobie władzę nad częścią Cieszyna, Siewierzem i Bytomiem. +Pozbycie się części długów i obarczenie nimi młodszego rodzeństwa nie rozwiązało kłopotów finansowych Wacława. W tym celu 24 grudnia 1443 książę cieszyński wystawił dokument, w którym sprzedał księstwo siewierskie biskupowi krakowskiemu Zbigniewowi Oleśnickiemu (od tego czasu ziemia siewierska przestała być traktowana jako część Śląska). Krok ten tylko na jakiś czas zapewnił Wacławowi płynność finansową. Sprzedaż części ojcowizny uwikłała Wacława również w długotrwały spór z księciem głogóweckim Bolkiem V, który nie zaakceptował tej transakcji. Ostatecznie konflikt został zakończony dopiero 1 lipca 1457 kiedy to Wacław zawarł porozumienie z Polską. +Na początku 1452 Wacław zamienił swą część Księstwa Bytomskiego z bratem Bolesławowi II, w zamian za Bielsko. Po śmierci Bolesława II w tym samym roku, objął opiekę nad jego dziećmi. Umożliwiło to najstarszemu synowi Bolesława I ponowne przejęcie Bytomia. Stan ten utrzymał się do 1459, kiedy to sprzedał Księstwo Bytomskie księciu oleśnickiemu Konradowi IX za 1700 grzywien. +W latach sześćdziesiątych aktywność polityczna Wacława uległa znacznemu ograniczeniu. W 1468 nie mający męskiego potomstwa książę przekazał swoje prawa do Cieszyna bratankowi Kazimierzowi II(choć realną władzę objął tam brat Wacław Przemysław II). +W 1471 Wacław sprawujący już wówczas władzę wyłącznie w Bielsku, poparł kandydaturę Władysława Jagiellończyka na króla Czech. +Książę cieszyński zmarł w 1474 w Bielsku. Wzorem przodków Wacław I został pochowany w kryptach kościoła dominikańskiego w Cieszynie. +Ante Trumbić + +Ante Trumbić (17 maja 1864 - 17 listopada 1938), polityk chorwacki. +Działalność polityczną zaczynał jako poddany austriacki. Od 1895 był posłem na Sejm Krajowy Dalmacji. Od 1905 zwolennik antyhabsburskiego sojuszu Chorwacji z Węgrami. Od 1915 był przewodniczącym Komitetu Jugosłowiańskiego, powołanego przez zwolenników wspólnego państwa południowych Słowian. Stałą siedzibą Komitetu Jugosłowiańskiego był Londyn. +W 1917 podpisał tzw. Deklarację z Korfu (obecnie Kerkira) - umowę między Komitetem Jugosłowiańskim a rządem Serbii o utworzeniu po wojnie państwa Słowian południowych pod berłem dynastii Karadziordziewiciów. W latach 1918–1920 był ministrem spraw zagranicznych Królestwa SHS. Krytykował centralizm serbski i opowiadał się za federalizacją Jugosławii. +Hawierzów + +Hawierzów (cz. ) – miasto statutarne w powiecie Karwina, w kraju morawsko-śląskim w Czechach. Jako gmina z rozszerzonymi uprawnieniami (czes. "obec s rozšířenou působností") obejmuje również Suchą Górną, Olbrachcice, Cierlicko i Błędowice Górne. Przez miasto przepływa rzeka Łucyna. +Hawierzów położony jest w granicach historycznego regionu Śląska Cieszyńskiego, na tzw. Zaolziu, ok. 10 km na zachód od granicy polsko-czeskiej, na drodze z Cieszyna do Ostrawy. Od strony północnej sąsiaduje z Pietwałdem, Orłową (z Łazami) i Karwiną (z Dołami), na wschodzie z Suchą Górną, Olbrachcicami i Cierlickiem, na południu z Błędowicami Górnymi a na zachodzie z Szonowem i na krótkim odcinku z należącymi do powiatu Frydek-Mistek Kaniowicami. +Miasto powstało w latach 50. XX wieku jako "sypialnia" dla Zagłębia Ostrawsko-Karwińskiego, pełni więc dla niego podobną funkcję, jak Jastrzębie-Zdrój w ROW czy Tychy w GOP w Polsce; jest zespołem urbanistycznym w stylu socrealistycznym. W przeciwieństwie do np. Karwiny czy Frydka-Mistka, Hawierzów nie posiada historycznego centrum. Zbudowano go od podstaw na terenie kilku starszych wsi. W ciągu 50 lat swego istnienia stał się jednym z największych miast Śląska Cieszyńskiego. +Obecnie Hawierzów jest największym miastem niebędącym siedzibą powiatu, a zarazem jedynym niepowiatowym miastem statutarnym Czech. +Podział administracyjny. +Hawierzów podzielony jest na 31 obrębów ewidencyjnych, składających się na 8 dzielnic, które z kolei objęte są przez 6 gmin katastralnych. + Dzielnice: Bludovice • Dolní Datyně • Dolní Suchá • Město • Podlesí • Prostřední Suchá • Šumbark • Životice +W latach 1975-1990 w administracyjnych granicach Hawierzowa znajdowała się również Sucha Górna. +Ludność. +W 1910 większość współczesnego obszaru Hawierzowa obejmowało 6 ówczesnych gmin: Nieder Dattin, Nieder Bludowitz, Nider Suchau, Mittel Suchau, Schumbarg i Žywotitz. Łącznie zamieszkiwało je 10409 osób, z czego 10257 było zameldowanych na stałe, 7825 (76,3%) było polsko-, 2241 (21,8%) czesko-, 180 (1,7%) niemieckojęzycznymi a 11 (0,1%) posługiwało się jeszcze innym językiem, 4552 (43,7%) było katolikami, 5693 (54,7%) ewangelikami, 20 (0,2%) kalwinistami, 96 (0,9%) wyznawcami judaizmu a 48 (0,5%) innej religii lub wyznania. +Najgęściej zaludnione były miejscowości w północnej części, w Suchej Średniej i Dolnej, gdzie większy wpływ wywarła industrializacja w Zagłębiu Ostrawsko-Karwińskim. Zaś miejscowości na południe dłużej zachowywały charakter rolniczy. Właśnie w tej części po wojnie postanowiono wybudować nowe osiedla robotnicze, do których wyprowadzano mieszkańców starszych kolonii górniczych. Nowe mieszkania oferowano również dotychczasowym mieszkańcom tych obszarów, których domy następnie burzono dzięki czemu socrealistyczne osiedle mogło się dalej rozprzestrzeniać. Do nowych mieszkań przybywali również ludzie z terenów całej Czechosłowacji. Liczba mieszkańców szybko rosła, w 1961 miasto liczyło już ich 51103 (więcej niż Karwina - 49418), w 1970 82068, w 1980 wraz z Suchą Górną 89920. W następnych latach liczba ta zaczęła spadać. W 1991 Hawierzów już bez Suchej Górnej miał jedynie 86297 mieszkańców, a w 2009 81700. +Według czeskiego spisu z 2001 miasto zamieszkiwało 85855 osoby, z czego 72681 (84,7%) było czeskiej, 4518 (5,3%) słowackiej, 2881 (3,4%) polskiej, 1478 (1,7%) morawskiej, 437 (0,5%) śląskiej, 143 (0,2%) niemieckiej, 85 ukraińskiej, 47 romskiej i 20 wietnamskiej narodowości. Osoby wierzące stanowiły jedynie 29,1% populacji (24984 os.), zaś największą grupą wyznaniową byli katolicy (17366 os., 69,5% wierzących). +Najgęściej zaludnione dzielnice to Miasto i Szumbark, gdzie na 31,9% powierzchni (1022,4 ha) żyje 69% pupulacji (56395 os.). Trzecią największą dzielnicą pod względem liczby ludności jest Podlesie (15259), które wraz z Błędowicami i Żywocicami współtworzy gminę katastralną Błędowice (Bludovice) o łącznej powierzchni 935,33 ha i populacji 18958. +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki o osadach na terenie dzisiejszego Hawierzowa sięgają początków XIV wieku, kiedy to w spisie dziesięcin biskupstwa wrocławskiego z około 1305 roku wspomina się Szonów (Schönhof) oraz Suchą Górną i Dolną. W dokumentach z 1335 roku spotykamy zapis o Błędowicach, a w 1438 roku po raz pierwszy wzmiankowany jest Szumbark, który najprawdopodobniej istniał już w XIV wieku. Przez następne kilkaset lat, aż do połowy XX wieku, nie działo się tu nic, co zasługiwałoby na większą uwagę. Nawet po zakończeniu II wojny światowej nic nie wskazywało, że na obszarze tych kilku śląskocieszyńskich wsi powstanie wkrótce miasto. Miejscowa ludność utrzymywała się głównie z rolnictwa, a jej spokojny tryb życia kontrastował z atmosferą pobliskich miast i kolonii górniczych. Jednak rozwijający się po wojnie w okolicach Ostrawy przemysł górniczy i hutniczy spowodował ogromne zapotrzebowanie na siłę roboczą. Odbudowa przemysłu ciężkiego zależała w dużej mierze od pozyskania znacznej liczby pracowników, a decydującym o tym czynnikiem była możliwość otrzymania mieszkania. Dlatego też w 1947 rozpoczęto budowę pierwszych osiedli górniczych na terenie Szumbarku, które w następnych latach rozrosło się również na obszar ówczesnego Szonowa, Suchej Średniej ale najdalej w głąb Błędowic Dolnych. Teren, na którym miało powstać nowe miasto, leżał na granicy trzech powiatów. Gminy Szonów, Datynie Dolne i Szumbark należały w 1949 do powiatu ostrawskiego, z kolei Błędowice Dolne i Żywocice do powiatu czesko-cieszyńskiego, a Sucha Górna i Dolna do powiatu karwińskiego. W ciągu kilku następnych lat nastąpił znaczny rozwój urbanistyczny wspomnianych terenów, a dnia 4 grudnia 1955 decyzją rządu czechosłowackiego ogłoszono powstanie nowego miasta - Haviřova (Hawierzowa). Z początku rozłożone było na 3,44 km² wynikłych z połączenia 230 hektarów Błędowic Dolnych, 61 ha Szonowa i 53 ha Szumbarku. 31 grudnia 1955 nowe miasto liczyło 16640 mieszkańców, a gęstość zaludnienia wyniosła 4837,2 os./km². Nazwę wybrano w trakcie otwartego konkursu z wielu, często niewiarygodnych i karkołomnych językowo propozycji, np. Bezručov, Gottwaldův Hornikov, Stalin, czy Budosociokolektivov. Nazwę "Hawierzów" można wolno przetłumaczyć jako ""miasto górników"" (""haviř"" po czesku to po prostu górnik; w gwarze cieszyńskiej górnik to ""hawiyrz"", dlatego stosuje się polskie tłumaczenie nazwy miasta na Hawierzów). Charakter ""miasta socjalistycznego"" oraz szybkość rozbudowy określiły charakter Hawierzowa jako miasta sypialni, a także miejsca wypoczynku, posiadającego m.in. kina i domy kultury. Od połowy lat 50. nastąpił rozwój przestrzenny miasta, kiedy to sukcesywnie przyłączano do niego resztę Szumbarku i Błędowic Dolnych oraz Żywocice, Suchą Średnią i Dolną (1960), a w połowie lat 70. Datynie Dolne i Suchą Górną. W tym czasie miasto osiągnęło największą powierzchnię i liczyło prawie 42 km² powierzchni. W 1990 usamodzielniła się Sucha Górna, a obszar Hawierzowa zmalał do 32 km². Do dnia dzisiejszego charakter miasta odpowiada założeniom jego twórców, gdyż znaczna część mieszkańców codziennie wyjeżdża do pracy poza Hawierzów. W porównaniu do okolicznych miast jest on uznawany za miejsce o najlepszych warunkach mieszkaniowych, posiadające stosunkowo czyste środowisko i dobre zaplecze wypoczynkowe. Jednak w związku z postępującym upadkiem przemysłu ciężkiego w Zagłębiu Hawierzów systematycznie pustoszeje. +Komunikacja. +Przez miasto przechodzi linia kolejowa nr 321 Český Těšín - Opava. Pociągi ČD kursują w ramach Ostrawskiego Zintegrowanego Systemu Komunikacji (ODIS, "Ostravský dopravní integrovaný systém") na liniach S1 i R1. +Główną rolę w komunikacji miejskiej odgrywają autobusy. Miasto posiada około 60 pojazdów, które obsługują 22 linie. Hawierzowskie autobusy obsługują także okoliczne miejscowości (Błędowice Górne, Cierlicko, Sucha Górna, Olbrachcice, Stonawa, Pietwałd, Szonów). Główne linie prowadzą z dzielnicy Podlesie ("Podlesí"), przez centrum, w kierunku Szumbarku, dobrze skomunikowane są także Żywocice/Padlých Hrdinů oraz osiedla w Suchej Średniej, bardzo dobre połączenia mają Olbrachcice. Tabor składa się w znacznej części z autobusów Irisbus Citelisy, napędzanych metanem oraz autobusów Karosa B 952. Eksploatowanych jest też kilka minibusów, które obsługują linie nr 418-422. Sieć komunikacji miejskiej podzielono na dwie strefy, z czego 1. strefa obejmuje administracyjny teren miasta, drugą stanowi reszta sieci. W 1. strefie można korzystać z biletów ODIS na strefę taryfową nr 40. Komunikacja miejska w Hawierzowie jest obsługiwana przez ČSAD Havířov a. s. +Ponadto z miasta prowadzą linie autobusowe do wszystkich okolicznych miast, z czego najwięcej do Ostrawy, Karwiny i Orłowej. Linie do Karwiny są częścią ODIS. +Superforteca + +Istotny jest fakt nie tyle samej zdolności do działań ofensywnych "superfortecy" (zob. bombardowanie) co jej zdolności do obronnej walki defensywnej - poprzez zastosowanie wielu stanowisk uzbrojonych w broń lufową (karabiny maszynowe i (lub) działka). Rozmieszczenie tych stanowisk i kąty prowadzenia ognia miały dawać możliwość obrony formacji lecących "superfortec" w ciągu dnia bez osłony samolotów myśliwskich. Teza ta okazała się nieprawdziwa; duże straty wśród "superfortec" dokonywały myśliwce przy użyciu pocisków rakietowych, po rozbiciu formacji poszczególne samoloty bombowe stawały się łatwym łupem wroga. +Ciężkie samoloty bombowe przeznaczone do bombardowania nocą (np. Lancaster, Halifax, Stirling, czy używane też do bombardowań dziennych Liberator nie były nazywane "superfortecami", choć udźwig bomb miały większy niż latająca forteca B-17. +Najwłaściwsze jest użycie określenia "superforteca" dla bombowca B-29 - zgodnie z historycznym określeniem tego samolotu. +Sedna (bogini) + +Sedna – bogini morza walcząca z duchami fok, mająca w ten sposób ułatwiać myśliwym polowania. +Wstęp. +Amerykę Północną zamieszkuje wiele plemion, których mitologie znacznie się od siebie różnią. Bywa, że plemiona te czczą inne bóstwa bądź ustalają inną ich hierarchię, Odrębną grupę mieszkańców Ameryki Północnej stanowią z pewnością Eskimosi. Ich życiem, silnie związanym z morzem i jego zasobami, rządzi okrutna bogini Sedna, pani mórz i wszystkiego, co w nich żyje. +Sedna i jej pierwsze małżeństwo. +Sedna, wyobrażana przez mieszkańców arktycznych obszarów Ameryki Północnej jako jednooki potwór, w młodości była dziewczyną o niezwykłej urodzie. Wdzięk i powab Sedny przyciągały wielu kandydatów do jej ręki, żaden z nich nie wydawał się jednak dziewczynie interesujący. Mijały lata i w końcu Sedna wyszła za mąż za zwykłego polarnego psa - zamieszkała z nim na wyspie, tam też rodziła dzieci, jednak wśród jej potomstwa były także szczenięta. Nie potrafił zaakceptować tego ojciec Sedny - Agnut. Rozzłoszczony, zabił psa. Sedna, nie mogąc wyżywić dzieci, wyprawiła je w świat. Swoje szczenięta wysłała za morze (tam - wedle wierzeń Eskimosów - stały się one przodkami Europejczyków, a ludzkie dzieci - w głąb lądu (to od nich wywodzi się lud Eskimosów). +Sedna i jej drugie małżeństwo. +Sedna wróciła do domu ojca z nadzieją na kolejne, bardziej udane małżeństwo. Gdy pewnego dnia przybył do domu Agnuta król mew pod ludzką postacią, Sedna straciła dla niego głowę. Mamiona pięknymi słowami o świetlanej przyszłości, uwierzyła mężczyźnie i - nie pytając ojca o zdanie - wyruszyła w daleką podróż do nowego domu. Po przybyciu do celu okazało się, że kochanek Sednę oszukał. Zrozpaczona dziewczyna oczekiwała od tej pory na pomoc ojca. Po roku Agnut wyruszył na poszukiwanie córki. Dziewczyna była ojcu niezmiernie wdzięczna za wybawienie od oszusta, Agnut zaś - dowiedziawszy się, jak podstępnie jego córka została oszukana - zabił króla mew. +Oszpecenie Sedny. +Podczas drogi powrotnej Agnut i Sedny do domu, mewy - szukające zemsty za zamordowanie ich króla - wszelkimi sposobami starały się wywrócić łódź. W rozszalałej burzy Agnut, chcąc odciążyć łódź, postanowił wyrzucić córkę do morza. Gdy ta złapała się kurczowo palcami burty, Agnut odciął jej palce. Wpadające do morza szczątki ciała dziewczyny zamieniły się w wieloryby, morsy, foki, które odtąd są we władaniu Sedny. +Zemsta na ojcu. +Dziewczyna, poraniona i oszpecona (w walce z ojcem straciła nie tylko palce, ale i oko), obiecała sobie, że zemści się na Agnucie. Pewnej nocy napuściła na śpiącego ojca swoje psy, a te odgryzły mu wszystkie kończyny. W szczelinie, która rozwarła się pod namiotem, przepadli wszyscy: Agnut, Sedna i jej psy. +Żyją odtąd w podziemnej krainie - Advilun, każde z nich zajmując połowę pałacu. Sedna opiekuje się morskimi stworzeniami, a więc pośrednio decyduje o żywiących się nimi Eskimosach, Agnut zaś przyjmuje w swojej siedzibie wszystkich zmarłych (po roku wypuszcza tych, którzy toczyli życie prawe, zatrzymuje jednak wszystkich morderców). +Imię Sedny. +Imieniem Sedny naukowcy nazwali planetoidę 90377 Sedna odkrytą w 2003 roku położoną najdalej od Słońca. +Kląskawka zwyczajna + +Kląskawka zwyczajna, kląskawka ("Saxicola rubicola") – gatunek małego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny muchołówkowatych (Muscicapidae), zamieszkujący Europę oprócz jej północno-wschodniej części oraz zachodnią Turcję i północno-zachodnie wybrzeże Afryki. Ptaki z zachodu Europy i Afryki są osiadłe, pozostałe wędrują na niewielkie odległości (przelot w VIII–X i III–V), zimując na południu Europy i we wschodniej Afryce. W Polsce bardzo nieliczny ptak lęgowy, lokalnie nieliczny, występuje tylko w południowej połowie kraju, stosunkowo najliczniej na Pogórzu Karpackim i Ziemi Przemyskiej. Stopniowo zwiększa liczebność, wykazując ekspansję z południa na północ. +Środowisko. +Suche łąki, wrzosowiska, step, wydmy, zarośla na brzegach górskich rzek, ruiny, wyrobiska, ugory i nasłonecznione zbocza. Preferuje tereny z krzewami, pojedynczymi drzewami, wysokimi bylinami. Zamieszkuje często krajobraz silnie zmieniony przez człowieka – nieużytki, przydroża, tereny ruderalne. +Pożywienie. +Owady, jesienią również nasiona. +Lęgi. +W ciągu roku wyprowadza dwa lęgi, pod koniec kwietnia i w czerwcu. Na południu zasięgu, gdzie są osiadłe, kląskawki mogą mieć 3 lub nawet 4 lęgi w ciągu roku. +Status i ochrona. +Gatunek nie jest zagrożony wg danych IUCN (status LC – least concern). +W Polsce objęty jest ścisłą ochroną gatunkową. +Adam Wacław cieszyński + +Adam Wacław (ur. 12 lub 13 grudnia 1574, zm. 13 lipca 1617) – z rodu Piastów, książę cieszyński w latach 1579-1617 (samodzielnie od 1595). +Adam Wacław był drugim pod względem starszeństwa synem, a czwartym dzieckiem księcia cieszyńskiego Wacława III Adama i jego drugiej żony Katarzyny Sydonii, pochodzącej z bocznej linii saskich Wettynów. +W chwili śmierci ojca (1579) małoletni książę znalazł się pod opieką matki, oraz Jerzego II Brzeskiego i Karola II Ziębickiego. Stan ten trwał do roku 1586, kiedy zmarł najstarszy z regentów książę brzeski, a matka Adama Wacława wyszła powtórnie za mąż za Węgra Emeryka Forgacha nadżupana trenczyńskiego. Pomimo powtórnego małżeństwa Katarzyna Sydonia zachowała jednak wpływ na losy księstwa. +W 1585 Śląsk Cieszyński nawiedziła bardzo groźna epidemia dżumy pozbawiając życia bardzo wielu mieszkańców księstwa cieszyńskiego. Nie oszczędzały też władztwa cieszyńskich Piastów inne plagi np. w 1587 obszar księstwa stał się terenem walk pomiędzy Maksymilianem Habsburgiem i Janem Zamoyskim (był to epizod walk Maksymiliana o koronę polską). +W związku z ciągłymi zagrożeniami Adam Wacław został wysłany w 1587 na dwór saskiego elektora – Chrystiana I, gdzie przebywał osiem lat. Tam też książę zdobył staranne wykształcenie (szczególne spodobała się młodemu władcy edukacja w zakresie wojskowości). Dopiero w 1595 powrócił do Cieszyna, gdzie za zgodą regencji objął samodzielne rządy. +17 września 1595 książę ożenił się z Elżbietą, córką pierwszego księcia kurlandzkiego, Gottarda Kettlera. +Po objęcia samodzielnych rządów Adam Wacław wziął udział w walkach z Turkami i innymi habsburskimi przeciwnikami na Węgrzech w charakterze dowódcy oddziału jazdy. Spowodowało to konieczność wybudowania w południowej części księstwa umocnień obronnych. Sprawa ta nabrała zaś szczególnego znaczenia podczas powstania Bocskaia w latach 1604-1606, kiedy to armia węgierskiego możnowładcy zagroziła Cieszynowi. Dopiero pokój zawarty z Bockaiem w Wiedniu w 1606 pozwolił Adamowi Wacławowi na odwołanie stanu zagrożenia. +W 1609 książę cieszyński wmieszał się w konflikt rodzinny pomiędzy Habsburgami – cesarzem Rudolfem II i arcyksięciem Maciejem, w którym stanął po stronie tego pierwszego. Do walk ostatecznie wtedy nie doszło, gdyż Rudolf II ustąpił i oddał bratu tron czeski, co postawiło w szczególnie niezręcznej sytuacji Adama Wacława, który musiał złożyć w 1611 nowemu królowi hołd lenny we Wrocławiu +Rok 1611 stał się przełomowy dla Adama Wacława z jeszcze z jednego powodu. Otóż ten pochodzący z luterańskich rodziców władca, wychowany na dworze luteranina – elektora saskiego, zdecydował się na konwersje i przeszedł na katolicyzm. Wydarzenie to było tym bardziej zaskakujące dla współczesnych, że jeszcze w 1598 książę cieszyński wydał dla luteran wielki przywilej w którym zobowiązał siebie i swoich następców, że będą do miasta Cieszyna powoływać tylko kaznodziejów luterskich i im tylko oddają kościoły do dyspozycji. Rok 1611 przyniósł całkowitą odmianę w postępowaniu władcy, który zgodnie z zasadą "cuius regio eius religio" rozpoczął walkę z kościołem ewangelickim w duchu kontrreformacji (jedną z pierwszych decyzji Adama Wacława po powrocie na łono kościoła katolickiego było anulowanie przywileju z 1598). Twardy opór szlachty i mieszczan spowodował jednak, że katolicki pozostał tylko dwór książęcy i przymusowo rekatolicyzowane klasztory (m.in. zwrócono kościół i klasztor cieszyńskim dominikanom). Walką z protestantami mieli się zająć sprowadzeni do Cieszyna bernardyni. Nie znamy przyczyn dla których książę cieszyński zdobył się na tak poważny krok – prawdopodobnie władcy chodziło o ułożenie poprawnych stosunków ze swoim suwerenem, a od 1612 również cesarzem Maciejem. +Krok ten jakkolwiek radykalny opłacił się Adamowi Wacławowi, kiedy 6 lutego 1617 został mianowany przez Macieja starostą generalnym Śląska. +Dla księstwa cieszyńskiego panowanie Adama Wacława okazało się niezbyt korzystne. Ciągłe wyjazdy, kosztowne wyprawy zbrojne, wreszcie zamieszanie spowodowane ze zmianą wiary, doprowadziło księstwo na skraj bankructwa. Przykładem rozrzutności cieszyńskiego Piasta był wyjazd do Wrocławia na uroczystość złożenia hołdu lennego Maciejowi, gdzie dotarł w orszaku 285 ludzi, bogato wyposażonych przez niego. Szerokim echem odbiła się także wyprawa Adama Wacława w granice Rzeczypospolitej w 1614, kiedy to jako wotum za cudowne nawrócenie wybrał się na pielgrzymkę do Kalwarii Zebrzydowskiej. Wyprawa ta według zgodnej oceny współczesnych niewiele miała wspólnego jednak z religijnym uniesieniem, a więcej z chęcią pokazania swojego bogactwa. +Książę utrzymywał przyjazne stosunki z cieszyńskimi mieszczanami, u których często się zapożyczał. +Adam Wacław wystawiał dokumenty po łacinie, w języku niemieckim i czeskim, jednak na jego dworze najbardziej rozpowszechniony był język polski. +Z małżeństwa ze zmarłej 19 listopada 1601 Elżbiety kurlandzkiej Adam Wacław doczekał się trzech synów i dwóch córek. Byli to zmarli w dzieciństwie Adam Gotard (ur. 27 lipca 1596, zm. 25 maja 1597) i Chrystian Adam (ur. 1600, zm. 12 marca 1602), następca na cieszyńskim tronie - Fryderyk Wilhelm (ur. 9 listopada 1601, zm. 19 sierpnia 1625), Anna Sydonia (ur. 2 marca 1598, zm. w lipcu 1619) wydana mąż za Jakuba Hannibala II z hrabiów Hohenems oraz Elżbieta Lukrecja (ur. 1 czerwca 1599, zm. 19 maja 1653), ostatnia księżna cieszyńska, wydana za mąż za Gundakera von Liechtestein. Ze związku pozamałżeńskiego Adam Wacław z Małgorzatą Kostlachówną (znaną też jako Małgorzata Koschlinger) posiadał również syna Wacława Gotfryda, późniejszego barona Hohenstein. +Adam Wacław zmarł 13 lipca 1617 w Brandysie (przedmieście Cieszyna) i został pochowany w kościele dominikańskim w Cieszynie. W 1617 roku Adam Bysiński z Bysiny, dziedzic Iłownicy, oskarżył o otrucie Adama Wacława trzech przedstawicieli cieszyńskiej szlachty: Erazma Rudzkiego z Rudz, marszałka i kanclerza ziemskiego, Wacława Pelhrzima, sędziego ziemskiego, i Piotra Gureckiego z Kornic na Jaworzu. 21 grudnia 1622 obie strony zawarły ugodę, a Bysiński odwołał zarzuty. +Zobacz też. +__NOTOC__ +Sakiewki podróżne + +Sakiewki podróżne (fr. "Bourses de voyage" 1903) — dwutomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże". Dotychczas nie jest znane tłumaczenie na język polski . +Tortura + +Tortura – celowe zadawanie komuś cierpień fizycznych, psychicznych bądź moralnych, przede wszystkim poprzez zadawanie silnego bólu. +Teoretycznie torturą są jedynie czynności prowadzone przez funkcjonariuszy państwowych, z ich udziałem bądź za ich zgodą czy poleceniem, jednak pojęcie to jest również stosowane wobec zadających cierpienie osób prywatnych (np. tortury stosowane przez mafiosów). Stosowanie tortur miało miejsce już od starożytności, zaś najpowszechniejsze stało się w okresie od XVI do XVIII w. +Przyczyny stosowania tortur. +Kolejną przyczyną stosowania tortur była zwyczajna chęć zastraszenia bądź złamania oporu osoby torturowanej lub osoby trzeciej. W takim celu najczęściej stosowane były tortury związane z cierpieniem psychicznym albo przewlekle dolegliwe fizycznie (np. zamknięcie w nieogrzewanej celi). +Szczególnym przykładem zastosowania tortur było podjęcie ich wobec osoby trzeciej w celu wydobycia informacji, zeznań czy przyznania się do winy osoby, wobec której bezpośrednio stosowane tortury nie dawały rezultatu. Przykładem może być opisywane przez Sołżenicyna w "Archipelagu GuŁag" postępowanie funkcjonariuszy NKWD, którzy nie mogąc zmusić podejrzanego do przyznania się do winy jakimikolwiek torturami, w końcu na jego oczach poddają torturom członków jego rodziny (np. żonę lub córkę). Tego rodzaju postępowanie z reguły prowadziło do szybszego załamania psychicznego niż bezpośrednie zadawanie bólu. +Znamiona tortur noszą również kary cielesne, które jednak jako przewidziane przez prawo sankcje nie są torturami w ścisłym znaczeniu tego słowa, choć również powodują cierpienie (np. łamanie kołem bądź obcięcie kończyny). Także niektóre ordalia były w istocie torturami. +Historia stosowania tortur. +Starożytność. +Tortury stosowane były zarówno w starożytnej Grecji, jak i starożytnym Rzymie. Powszechnie stosowano je wobec niewolników, więźniów skazanych na śmierć, gladiatorów (w celu zmuszenia ich do walki) czy wyzwoleńców (których jednak torturować było wolno jedynie w wypadku podejrzenia o zdradę). +Różnorakim torturom poddawano w czasach rzymskich (m.in. za panowania Nerona i Domicjana) prześladowanych chrześcijan. Warto wspomnieć, że także Jezus Chrystus według Ewangelii był torturowany w śledztwie: "Tymczasem ludzie, którzy pilnowali Jezusa, naigrawali się i bili Go. Zasłaniali mu oczy i pytali: "Prorokuj, kto Cię uderzył"." [Łk 22, 63-64] +Średniowiecze. +W całej Europie nastąpiło w średniowieczu rozpowszechnienie tortur w związku z prawem, ustanawiającym przyznanie się do winy jako główny i najważniejszy dowód. +Torturom zasadniczo poddawano osoby powyżej czternastego roku życia i nie będące w podeszłym wieku. Nie poddawano torturom kobiet w ciąży i ludzi chorych. Przeszkodą do podjęcia tortur był również stan szlachecki lub duchowny bądź piastowany wysoki urząd. Wszystkie te przeszkody traciły jednak znaczenie, gdy sprawa dotyczyła przestępstwa politycznego. +Mimo że tortury były stosowane właściwie wszędzie, ich stosowanie było w wielu miejscach ograniczone do specjalnych sytuacji. W Anglii na przykład przywilej stosowania tortur miały jedynie sądy specjalne. +Tortury nie rozpowszechniły się wszędzie jednakowo szybko. O ile we Francji zgodnie z prawem stosowano tortury już w XII wieku, to w Polsce jeszcze w wieku XIV stosowanie tortur było sporadyczne. +Do stosowania tortur znacząco przyczyniło się powstanie inkwizycji, poszukującej i sądzącej heretyków. Na stosowanie tortur wobec podejrzanych o herezję czy czary zezwolił papież Innocenty IV w swojej bulli "Ad extirpanda" już w 1252. Ta decyzja była opłakana w skutkach dla osób, które w wyniku donosu trafiały w ręce oprawców i zmuszane były do przyznania się do niepopełnionej winy. Warto jednak w tym miejscu zwrócić uwagę na ograniczenia, jakie inkwizycja nałożyła na stosowanie tortur podczas procesów. Tortury mogły zostać wprowadzone w sytuacji "bez wyjścia", czyli gdy oskarżony wbrew dowodom nie przyznawał się do winy, jednak nie potrafił potwierdzić swej niewinności materiałem dowodowym. Obowiązywały także zakazy podobne do (wyżej wymienionych) tych, które obowiązywały w prawie świeckim, tzn. nie można było torturować szlachciców, duchownych, wysokich urzędników, kobiet w ciąży, dzieci i starców (choć procedura przewidywała wyjątki). Oskarżony mógł także, powołując się na chorobę bądź kalectwo, zażądać wizyty lekarza, jednak inkwizytor nie miał obowiązku brać pod uwagę jego medycznej opinii. Przy samych torturach obecni musieli być, zgodnie z nakazami dekretału "Multorum querela", sędziowie trybunału inkwizycyjnego (inkwizytor i ordynariusz diecezji, gdzie zatrzymano oskarżonego), lub ich oficjalni wikariusze. Tortury można było powtarzać jedynie po dokładnej analizie przypadku i głębokim przemyśleniu sprawy. Inkwizytorzy mieli jednak możliwość obejścia tego zakazu, "zawieszając" tortury. +Poszukiwanie winnych poprzez tortury zarówno w sprawach świeckich jak i kościelnych było powszechne aż do początków XVIII wieku, jednak jej stosowanie przez sądy kościelne zdarzały się rzadziej niż w sądach świeckich. Dlatego w średniowiecznej Anglii stosowanie tortur zostało ograniczone instytucją "przywilej kleru" ("benefit of clergy"). +Wbrew dzisiejszym wyobrażeniom w czasach średniowiecznych tortury nie były tak rozpowszechnione jak w okresach późniejszych. W średniowieczu przeważały kary kompozycyjne, polegające na zapłaceniu kary na rzecz państwa i pokrzywdzonego, tzw. płat. Tortury na szeroką skalę zaczęto stosować w XIV wieku; zostały przewidziane przez Statuty miast włoskich. Apogeum stosowania tortur przypada na XVI-XVII wiek, czyli kilkaset lat po okresie Średniowiecza. W większości krajów europejskich zniesione w XIX wieku. +Czasy nowożytne. +Około roku 1750 coraz więcej przeciwników tortur występowało otwarcie przeciwko ich stosowaniu. Było to oczywiście po części podyktowane względami humanitarnymi, z drugiej zaś argumentami nieprawdziwości zeznań wymuszonych cierpieniem. +Działania przeciwników tortur okazały się skuteczne, bo w kolejnych państwach europejskich zabraniano stosowania tortur (w Prusach w 1754, w Austrii i Polsce w 1776, w Rosji w 1801). Początek wieku XIX przyniósł zakaz stosowania tortur właściwie w całej Europie i Stanach Zjednoczonych, gdzie stosowanie tortur zniesiono 8. poprawką do Konstytucji. +Systemy totalitarne. +Powstanie w XX wieku systemów totalitarnych przyniosło powrót do szerokiego stosowania tortur w czasie śledztwa, jak i dla samego zadania cierpień osobom torturowanym. +Działające w nazistowskich Niemczech służby, szczególnie Gestapo, radzieckie NKWD a także tajna policja włoskich faszystów – OVRA oraz japońska specjalna żandarmeria wielokrotnie i na różne sposoby podejmowały stosowanie tortur zarówno wobec przeciwników politycznych, jak i jeńców oraz osób cywilnych w czasie II wojny światowej. Wiele cech tortur noszą pseudomedyczne eksperymenty prowadzone w obozach koncentracyjnych, na przykład w Auschwitz-Birkenau. +Także po wojnie reżimy totalitarne nowo powstałego bloku sowieckiego stosowały powszechnie tortury w walce z opozycją polityczną. W Polsce do instytucji słynących ze stosowania w śledztwie tortur należało Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego. +Tortury stosowały także reżimy w krajach takich jak Chiny, Kambodża czy Chile. +Współczesność. +Mimo wielu ustanowionych przepisów i konwencji w wielu miejscach na świecie nadal w sposób niejawny stosowane są tortury, przede wszystkim wobec różnego rodzaju opozycji politycznej bądź różnego rodzaju separatystów – także w krajach uznawanych za demokratyczne. +Amnesty International informuje, że współcześnie tortury są stosowane w takich krajach jak Chiny, Rosja, Białoruś, Turcja, Uzbekistan, Arabia Saudyjska, USA i wielu innych. +Głośne stały się również oskarżenia o stosowanie tortur przez żołnierzy amerykańskich m.in. w bazie Guantanamo na Kubie czy w więzieniu Abu-Ghraib w Bagdadzie. +W latach 2000, w Polsce w Ośrodku Kształcenia Kadr Wywiadu w Starych Kiejkutach, podejrzewa się, że torturowani byli członkowie Al-Kaidy, na przykład Chalid Szejk Mohammed, uważany za głównego organizatora zamachu na World Trade Center. Podczas pobytu w Polsce miał on być około 180 razy poddany torturze polegającej na kontrolowanym topieniu (ang. "waterboarding"). +Prowadzenie tortur. +Warunki prowadzenia tortur. +Najczęściej tortury prowadzono w wydzielonym pomieszczeniu, tzw. sali tortur (zwanej też izbą tortur lub katownią). Pomieszczenia takie były najczęściej zbudowane w sposób zapewniający izolację od otoczenia, by na zewnątrz nie dochodziły krzyki torturowanych. Z tego powodu katownie znajdowały się w lochach zamkowych, podziemiach ratusza czy wydzielonych budowlach (np. Katownia w Gdańsku albo pełniąca dawniej funkcje katowni wieża na Kapellbrücke w Lucernie). +Tortury prowadził kat, czasem przy udziale pomocników. Podejrzanych torturowano w obecności osoby przesłuchującej, która zadawała bezpośrednio w czasie tortur pytania, albo wysyłano na tortury w wypadku odmowy zeznań. Jeżeli po powrocie z sesji tortur osoba podejrzana nadal nie wykazywała ochoty zeznawania, wysyłano ją do katowni ponownie, przy czym była zazwyczaj torturowana w znacznie okrutniejszy sposób (oprawca uznawał odmowę zeznań za swoistą obrazę). +Najczęściej tortury prowadzono już od rana, nie podawszy wcześniej torturowanemu posiłku (przy czym warto wspomnieć, że prowadzący śledztwo nierzadko spożywali posiłki bądź alkohol w czasie przesłuchań i tortur). Bywało i tak, że tortury prowadzono bez przerwy przez cały dzień, a nawet znacznie dłużej (takimi torturami były na przykład wielogodzinne przesłuchania, podczas których ofierze nie pozwalano zasnąć – metoda stosowana w ZSRR). +Przebieg tortur. +Najczęściej stosowanie tortur jako elementu śledztwa było poprzedzone próbami wydobycia zeznań przy pomocy zwyczajnych przesłuchań. +Przed zastosowaniem tortur bardzo często stosowano obligatoryjnie działania mające charakter tortur wstępnych: zamknięcie w celi, unieruchomienie w nienaturalnej pozycji, zimno, brak snu, ostre światło, obecność insektów czy szczurów w celi. Często ofiarę głodzono lub pozbawiano wody do picia. +Jeśli podejrzany nie zgadzał się na dobrowolne zeznania, przedstawiano groźbę tortur, ewentualnie pokazywano narzędzia tortur, przedstawiając ich działanie i stopień zadawanego cierpienia. Kiedy mimo to nie uzyskiwano zeznań, przystępowano do tortur właściwych. +Zazwyczaj stosowano stopniowanie przebiegu tortur, rozpoczynając od lżejszych i mniej bolesnych. Najczęściej jako najlżejszą torturę stosowano biczowanie, by poprzez użycie różnorodnych urządzeń kaleczących dojść do tortur o najwyższym stopniu bolesności, trwale okaleczających, takich jak rozciąganie na tzw. łożu sprawiedliwości, przypalaniu ogniem czy użyciu tzw. trzewika. +Wiele systemów prawnych ograniczało długość stosowanych tortur, na przykład pozwalając poddać torturom jedynie trzykrotnie, ale przepisy te były nagminnie obchodzone. +Tortury szybko prowadziły do okaleczeń fizycznych i wyniszczenia psychicznego, do tego stopnia, że torturowana osoba bardzo szybko decydowała się na przyznanie do wszystkich zarzucanych czynów. +Ordalia. +Niektóre ordalia, mimo że z założenia nie miały charakteru tortur, wyraźnie nosiły ich znamiona. Działo się tak przede wszystkim w wypadku procesów o czary, gdy stosowanie ordaliów nie miało charakteru całkowicie dobrowolnego, a mimo to przebiegało w sposób przynoszący podejrzanej osobie cierpienia. +Efektywność. +Toczy się dyskusja nad tym, czy stosujący tortury osiągają swój cel. M.in. Jeannine Bell argumentuje, że tak nie jest. +Aspekty prawne. +Stosowania tortur zabrania także Konstytucja RP z 2 kwietnia 1997 roku, której artykuł 40. głosi, że "Nikt nie może być poddany torturom ani okrutnemu, nieludzkiemu lub poniżającemu traktowaniu i karaniu. (...)". +Zakaz tortur (czy też wolność od tortur) to jedno z niewielu praw człowieka nieposiadających żadnych klauzul limitacyjnych, nie podlega także derogacji. Jest to zakaz bezwzględny, dlatego też ani wobec stanu wyjątkowego, ani wojny zakazu złamać nie wolno. To samo dotyczy medycznych eksperymentów bez zgody poddawanego. +Anapsydy + +Anapsydy (Anapsida) – podgromada zauropsydów o prymitywnej budowie, siostrzana do kladu Eureptilia, obejmującego diapsydy oraz rodziny Captorhinidae i Protorothyrididae. Ich nazwa nawiązuje do braku otworów skroniowych w czaszce, który uważano za charakterystyczną cechę członków tej grupy; związany z tym swoisty układ mięśni w czaszce ogranicza sprawność ruchów żuchwy. Obecnie wiadomo, że część anapsydów (m.in. "Acleistorhinus", "Candelaria" czy "Mesosaurus") miała otwory skroniowe. Obecność dolnego otworu skroniowego u bazalnych przedstawicieli grupy, takich jak mezozaury czy przedstawiciele Lanthanosuchoidea, sugeruje nawet, że anapsydy mogły wyewoluować z owodniowców mających dolny otwór skroniowy. +Grupa ta w starszych klasyfikacjach była często parafiletyczna, a więc grupowała taksony bliższe przedstawicielom innych grup niż sobie nawzajem; do anapsydów zaliczano wiele bliżej nie spokrewnionych bazalnych owodniowców (m.in. rodzinę Captorhinidae z rodzajem "Captorhinus" i rodzinę Protorothyrididae z rodzajem "Hylonomus"; te dwie rodziny łączono, razem z rodzinami Bolosauridae i Acleistorhinidae, w grupę Captorhinomorpha w obrębie anapsydów – obecnie generalnie nie wyróżnianą, ze względu na jej parafiletyzm), uważano też anapsydy za przodków wszystkich innych owodniowców. +Gauthier, Kluge i Rowe (1988) zdefiniowali Anapsida jako klad obejmujący współczesne żółwie i wszystkie wymarłe taksony bliżej spokrewnione z nimi niż z innymi gadami; definicję tę uściślili Laurin i Gauthier (1996), definiując Anapsida jako klad obejmujący współczesne żółwie i wszystkie wymarłe taksony bliżej spokrewnione z nimi niż z innymi "współczesnymi" gadami. Gauthier (1994) zdefiniował Anapsida jako klad obejmujący żółwie i wszystkie owodniowce bliżej spokrewnione z nimi niż z kladem Sauria. Przy przyjęciu którejś z tych definicji to, jakie zwierzęta należałyby do anapsydów, zależałoby od pozycji filogenetycznej żółwi. Np. z analizy Gauthiera, Klugego i Rowe'a (1988) wynikało, że żółwie są siostrzane do rodziny Captorhinidae, a obie te grupy są bliżej spokrewnione z diapsydami niż ze zwierzętami tradycyjnie zaliczanymi do anapsydów; z tego powodu autorzy zaliczyli do Anapsida jedynie żółwie i Captorhinidae, zaś klad tworzony przez inne zauropsydy tradycyjnie zaliczane do anapsydów nazwali jedynie nieformalnie ""parareptiles"". Część autorów w ogóle rezygnuje z dalszego używania nazwy Anapsida; autorzy ci na określenie kladu siostrzanego do Eureptilia używają nazwy Parareptilia. +Z analiz kladystycznych przeprowadzonych przez Maischa (2010) wynika, że do Anapsida / Parareptilia mogły należeć także wymarłe gady morskie z grupy Ichthyopterygia, w tym ichtiozaury; większość autorów zalicza jednak Ichthyopterygia do diapsydów. +Nie ma pewności, czy anapsydy obejmujące wszystkie wyżej wymienione grupy nadal nie byłyby parafiletyczne. Np. mezozaury są klasyfikowane przez niektórych naukowców jako bazalne zauropsydy nienależące ani do anapsydów/Parareptilia, ani do Eureptilia, lub jako grupa siostrzana do kladu obejmującego wszystkie pozostałe owodniowce (a więc również synapsydy); inne analizy potwierdzają jednak ich przynależność do anapsydów. Z kolei żółwie są przez niektórych uznawane za diapsydy z kladu Sauria, które wtórnie straciły otwory skroniowe (przy takim założeniu anapsydy/Parareptilia byłyby grupą wymarłą). Dokładna pozycja systematyczna tych grup jest jeszcze przedmiotem sporu wśród naukowców, choć od 2003 przeważać zaczyna pogląd o przynależności żółwi do diapsydów. +Żółwie wielkogłowe + +Żółwie wielkogłowe, wielkogłowowate (Platysternidae) – monotypowa rodzina żółwi z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych. Ich charakterystyczną cechą jest nieproporcjonalnie duża głowa pokryta jedną dużą, gładką tarczą otaczającą całą grzbietową powierzchnię głowy. Jedynym przedstawicielem tej rodziny jest występujący w Azji żółw wielkogłowy. +Hector Servadac + +Hektor Servadac: podróż wśród gwiazd i planet Układu Słonecznego (inne wersje tytułów wydań po polsku: Hektor Serwadac: podróże i przygody w państwie słonecznem, Hektor Servadac: przygody w podróży po światach słonecznych, Podróż naokoło Słońca) +(fr. "Hector Servadac", 1877). +Dwutomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 24 rozdziałów (tom 1) i 18 rozdziałów (tom 2). +Pierwszy polski anonimowy przekład pojawił najpierw się w odcinkach w 1877 w dwutygodniku dla dzieci i młodzieży "Świat" (pt. "Hektor Serwadac: podróże i przygody w państwie słonecznem") a w postaci książkowej w 1878 (pt. "Hektor Servadac: przygody w podróży po światach słonecznych"). Powieść tłumaczyli także Zbigniew Zamorski, pt. "Podróż naokoło Słońca" (przekład z 1925) i Włodzimierz Topoliński, pt. "Hector Servadac: podróż wśród gwiazd i planet układu słonecznego" (przekład z 1931). +Zarys fabularny. +Hector Servadac, Francuz pochodzący z Saint-Trelody w departamencie Gironde, to bohater tytułowy i główny. Ma za sobą szkołę w Saint-Cyr, wyższą szkołę wojskową, służbę w pułku liniowym, pułku strzelców, pobyt w Algierze oraz wyprawę do Sudanu. Pełni obowiązki kapitana sztabowego w Mostaganem. Otrzymał Legię Honorową. Drugim ważnym bohaterem książki jest ordynans kapitana, Ben-Zouf, paryżanin. +Akcja rozpoczyna się pod koniec grudnia. Wtedy to kapitan i ordynans dostrzegają dziwne zjawiska, takie jak zmiana miejsc wschodu i zachodu słońca, zmniejszone przyciąganie, skrócenie długości dnia, spadek temperatury wrzenia itp. Wizja lokalna prowadzi kapitana do jednego wniosku: nieznany kataklizm spowodował, że podległy jego władzy teren stał się wyspą, a Ziemia została wytrącona ze swej orbity. +Kapitana odwiedza, przypłynąwszy na "Dobrynie" hrabia Wasyl Timaszew. Poczynił on podobne spostrzeżenia jak Servadac. Ten ostatni decyduje się popłynąć z hrabią w celu odszukania innych lądów. W czasie 35-dniowej podróży odnajdują skrawki Gibraltaru, władanego przez angielską załogę; wyławiają z morza butelkę z francuskim tekstem (potwierdzającym hipotezę porucznika Prokopa, podwładnego Timaszewa, o przebywaniu bohaterów na asteroidzie); docierają do resztek Madeleny i ratują jej mieszkankę, małą Ninę; odnajdują kolejny francuski tekst. +Po powrocie na Ostoję (jak nazwano Mostaganem) Servadac (gubernator Ostoi) odkrywa nowych mieszkańców- kilku Hiszpanów (wśród nich chłopca Pabla) i niemieckiego Żyda, Izaaka Hakhabuta, parającego się handlem. +Servadac został jednomyślnie wybrany gubernatorem Ostoi; asteroidzie nadano nazwę Galia (tak nazywały ją francuskie teksty); językiem oficjalnym stał się francuski. W obliczu nadchodzącej zimy rozpoczęto poszukiwania schronienia; znaleziono je w pobliżu czynnego wulkanu; obszar ten nazwano Gorącym Lądem. +Galijczycy otrzymali trzeci francuski tekst, oznajmiający, że księżyc Galii zwie się Nerina. Gołąb, który dostarczył wiadomość, pochodził z Formentery; tam też rozpoczęto poszukiwania nadawcy. Okazał się nim być niegdysiejszy profesor fizyki Servadaca, profesor Palmyrin Rosette. Jego odnalezieniem kończy się część pierwsza. +Trzydziesty szósty Galijczyk wyjaśnił Servadacowi i innym ich sytuację; przelatująca 31 grudnia nad Ziemią kometa (nazwana przezeń Galią) musnęła ją, zabierając jej obszary, które odkryli w czasie podróży Timaszew i Servadac. Profesor podał także do ich wiadomości wszystkie wymiary Galii, posługując się wagą Kakhabatu i prowizorycznym (utworzonym z monet) wzorem kilograma i metra. +Obliczono także czas, jaki potrzebowała kometa, by wrócić na Ziemię; porucznik Prokop zaproponował zbudowanie balonu, który prześlizgnąłby się między atmosferą Galii i Ziemi w odpowiednim momencie. Zanim do tego doszło, kometa rozpadła się na dwie części: załoga posterunku gibraltarskiego "opuściła" Galię. Plan Prokopa powiódł się; Galijczycy wylądowali na Ziemi w tym miejscu, z którego wystartowali. +Kursk + +Kursk (ros. "Курск") – miasto w Rosji, stolica obwodu kurskiego. Liczba mieszkańców 406,4 tys. (2005). +Miasto położone jest w południowo-zachodniej Rosji, na Wyżynie Środkoworosyjskiej, na szlaku drogowym i komunikacyjnym prowadzącym z Moskwy do Jałty. Miasto sławne również ze względu na anomalie magnetyczne, powodowane występowaniem złóż żelaza. +Historia. +Jedno z najstarszych miast Rosji, po raz pierwszy wymienione w dokumentach w 1032 roku. Około 1237 roku zostało doszczętnie zniszczone przez Tatarów Batu-chana i odbudowane dopiero po 1283 roku. +W lipcu 1943 na odcinku frontu na zachód od miasta rozegrała się jedna z największych bitew II wojny światowej – bitwa na Łuku Kurskim. +Biegus krzywodzioby + +Biegus krzywodzioby ("Calidris ferruginea") – gatunek średniego ptaka brodzącego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Archipelag w ogniu + +Archipelag w ogniu (inna wersja tytułu polskiego tłumaczenia: Archipelag w płomieniach) (fr. "L'Archipel en feu", 1884) – jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże". +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w 1925 roku +Bolesław I cieszyński + +Bolesław I cieszyński (ur. po 1363, zm. 6 maja 1431) – książę cieszyński, od 1405 w pd. Bytomiu i Siewierzu, od 1406 w Oświęcimiu i Toszku, od 1410 w Cieszynie, Strzelinie, połowie Głogowa i Ścinawy, 1410-1414 w Oświęcimiu, Toszku i Strzelinie (który przetrzymywał do 1416) tylko jako regent, od 1414 w wyniku podziału w Cieszynie, połowie Bytomia, Siewierzu, połowie Ścinawy i Głogowa. +Bolesław I był młodszym synem księcia cieszyńskiego Przemysława I Noszaka i księżnej bytomskiej Elżbiety. Wprawdzie w kronice Jana Długosza nazwany jest starszym synem, jest to jednak z pewnością pomyłka naszego dziejopisarza, gdyż w innych źródłach Przemysław oświęcimski występuje zawsze jako starszy syn na pierwszym miejscu. +W 1405 ojciec dopuścił dorosłego już Bolesława do formalnych współrządów w księtwie cieszyńskim i powierzył mu władzę w księstwie bytomskim i siewierskim. Rok później po tragicznej śmierci brata Przemysława Bolesław objął też rządy w księstwie oświęcimskim i został następcą cieszyńskiego tronu. W tym czasie ożenił się z Małgorzatą, córką księcia opawskiego Jana I i siostrą księcia Jana II, który doprowadził do śmierci Przemysława oświęcimskiego. Stało się to wg Jana Długosza wbrew woli Przemysława Noszaka, który groził nawet wydziedziczeniem jedynego pozostałego przy życiu syna, jeśli ten zgodzi się na jakiekolwiek kontakty z linią Przemyślidów opawskich. Jak by nie było, Małgorzata zmarła krótko po ślubie, już w 1407. Małżeństwo to przyczyniło się też wydatnie do zawarcia ugody zwaśnionych rodów 7 września 1407. +Po śmierci ojca w 1410 Bolesław objął władzę w Cieszynie, w połowie Głogowa i Ścinawy, Strzelinie, oraz ponownie się ożenił (1412): tym razem jego wybranką została Eufemia, córka Siemowita IV mazowieckiego i Aleksandry Olgierdówny, siostry Władysława Jagiełły. Prawdopodobnie inicjatorem tego małżeństwa był sam polski król, widząc w tym szansę na bliższe związanie Górnego Śląska z Krakowem. Eufemia była ponoć tak urodziwa, że Bolesław nie wzbraniał się przed tym związkiem, ale na zawarcie małżeństwa zgodę musiał wyrazić sam papież, bowiem pomiędzy księciem i księżniczką istniało pokrewieństwo trzeciego stopnia. +Zabiegi Jagiełły przyniosły szybko efekty, bowiem już w 1414 Bolesław wziął aktywny udział w wojnie polsko-krzyżackiej po stronie króla. Nie pojawił się natomiast w 1420 na zjeździe wrocławskim, gdzie król Czech Zygmunt Luksemburski, jako rozjemca pomiędzy Zakonem i Polską, wydał niekorzystny dla Polski wyrok. +Pomimo tego, że Księstwo Cieszyńskie było lennem czeskich królów, Bolesław nie wspierał Luksemburczyka w jego walce o czeski tron, utrzymywał za to dobre stosunki z Krakowem i czeskim obozem narodowym. +W 1422 pomimo czesko-polskiego sporu przebywał jako gość na dworze Władysława Jagiełły i wziął udział w koronacji jego żony, królowej Sonki. +Wcześniej, bo już w 1414 Bolesław zdecydował się na przekazanie swojemu bratankowi Kazimierzowi I (który był synem tragicznie zmarłego Przemysława) Oświęcimia, Siewierza i Toszka, wraz z podległymi tym miastom ziemiami. Podział ten stał się zarzewiem konfliktu, rozwiązanego dopiero dwa lata później, po mediacji księcia lubińskiego Henryka IX dodatkowym wydzieleniem bratankowi Strzelina i wypłacie 300 grzywien. W rękach księcia pozostało Księstwo Cieszyńskie, oraz połowa Księstwa Bytomskiego i Księstwa Głogowskiego. +U schyłku rządów księstwo należące do Bolesława stało się widownią gwałtownych wydarzeń związanych z ruchem husyckim. W 1430 pod ich władzę dostały się m.in. Bytom i Gliwice. +Bolesław wspierał rozwój podległych mu miast, dzięki czemu szereg praw zawdzięczały mu m.in. Bytom (w 1412 roku tamtejsi mieszczanie otrzymali prawo dziedziczenia), Bielsko i Frydek. Prowadził rozważną politykę wewnętrzną i zagraniczną. Z drugiego małżeństwa zapewnił sobie też następców, bowiem oprócz córki Aleksandry (późniejszej żony palatyna węgierskiego Władysława z Gary) miał aż czterech synów. +Po śmierci Bolesława, która nastąpiła 6 maja 1431, władzę w księstwie objęli oni niepodzielnie, wraz ze swoją matką. Wspólne sprawowanie władzy nie zrodziło pomiędzy nimi większych konfliktów, Cieszyn miał jednocześnie czterech Piastów noszących godność księcia cieszyńskiego oraz księżną-matkę. Stan ten trwał do 1442, kiedy księstwo podzielono. Najstarszy syn Bolesława I Wacław (zm. 1474) zasiadł na Bytomiu i Siewierzu, Władysław (zm. 1460) aż do swej śmierci rządził Głogowem, a Bolesław (zm. 1452) został księciem cieszyńskim wraz z bratem Przemysławem (zm. 1477). Ten ostatni po śmierci braci panował już niepodzielnie w Cieszynie i części Głogowa. Bolesław I został pochowany w klasztorze dominikańskim w Cieszynie. +Andrzej Kurek + +Andrzej Jerzy Kurek (ur. 1 stycznia 1947 w Warszawie, zm. 29 września 1989 w Raciborzu-Brzeziu) – polski dziennikarz i popularyzator nauki, z wykształcenia fizyk. +Ukończył Wydział Fizyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (1972). Autor i gospodarz programu popularnonaukowego Sonda, prowadzonego wspólnie ze Zdzisławem Kamińskim, nadawanego w Telewizji Polskiej w latach 1977-1989. +Zginął w wypadku samochodowym 29 września 1989 razem ze Zdzisławem Kamińskim. Samochodem kierował Andrzej Gieysztor, który również poniósł śmierć. Uroczystości pogrzebowe obu autorów "Sondy" odbyły się 6 października 1989 w warszawskim kościele św. Piotra i Pawła. Dziennikarze zostali pochowani obok siebie na cmentarzu w Pyrach. Pośmiertnie odznaczeni Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Kazimierz I cieszyński + +Kazimierz I cieszyński (ur. między 1280 a 1290, zm. 1358) – książę cieszyński w wyniku podziału w 1315, od 1327 dziedziczny lennik czeski, od 1337 w Siewierzu, od 1357 w Bytomiu. +Biogram. +Kazimierz I był drugim pod względem starszeństwa synem Mieszka cieszyńskiego i nieznanej z pochodzenia księżniczki. Po ojcu odziedziczył w 1315 południowo-zachodnią część księstwa ze stolicą w Cieszynie, która odtąd stanowiła właściwe Księstwo Cieszyńskie. +W 1321 ożenił się z córką księcia sochaczewskiego i czerskiego Trojdena I, księżniczką Eufemią, otwierając tym samym tradycję związków Piastów cieszyńskich z Piastami mazowieckimi. +Kazimierz początkowo pozostawał w dobrych stosunkach z księciem, a od 1320 królem polskim Władysławem Łokietkiem. Dobre stosunki zostały zaprzepaszczone w latach w 1321-1324, kiedy księstwo cieszyńskie zostało kilkakrotnie splądrowane przez najazd wojsk litewskich- sojuszników Łokietka. W konsekwencji Kazimierz w odróżnieniu od starszego brata Władysława I oddalił się od Łokietka, zbliżając się politycznie do króla Czech Jana Luksemburskiego, któremu 18 lutego 1327 złożył hołd lenny w Opawie (krok ten już w 1327 przyniósł księciu znaczne profity w postaci obietnicy odziedziczenia księstwa oświęcimskiego po wymarciu tamtejszej linii Piastów). Mocą dyplomu z 23 lutego 1327 Kazimierz otrzymał zapewnienie dziedzicznego posiadania Księstwa Cieszyńskiego oraz daleko idącej suwerenności wewnętrznej. Od tego momentu nastąpiło związanie Cieszyna z Królestwem Czeskim, mające głębokie konsekwencje nawet w dalekiej przyszłości. Polska uznała ten stan prawny ostatecznie w pokoju namysłowskim w 1348. +Kazimierz zabiegał o utrzymanie jedności terytorialnej swojego księstwa, przez co ustanowił tylko jednego spadkobiercę pośród swych pięciu synów, a pozostałych przeznaczył do stanu duchownego. Starał się również o poszerzenie ziem księstwa. W 1337 nabył od książąt bytomskich ziemię siewierską za 720 grzywien z miastami Siewierzem i Czeladzią, wziął też od księcia brzeskiego (okresowo) pod zastaw okręg namysłowski (było to wiano córki Anny). Zaangażował się również w spór o spadek po książętach kozielsko-bytomskich, dzięki czemu na rok przed śmiercią (decyzja zapadła już w 1355, jednak na dwa lata księstwo przejęła, jako oprawę wdowią Małgorzata Morawska, wdowa po Bolesławie bytomskim), objął w posiadanie połowę księstwa kozielsko-bytomskiego (z połową Bytomia i Gliwic, Toszkiem i Pyskowicami). +Nie powiodło się za to Kazimierzowi przejęcia księstwa raciborskiego po bezpotomnej śmierci w 1336 stryjecznego brata Leszka. Ziemię tę otrzymał od Jana Luksemburskiego ostatecznie Przemyślida Mikołaj I. +Wzorem swojego ojca Kazimierz dbał także o rozwój miast. Przebudował cieszyński zamek, a około 1320 lokował Bielsko na prawie niemieckim. +Wzmocnił swoją pozycję wydając swoje córki Annę i Agnieszkę wyszły za książąt dolnośląskich (Anna za Wacława I legnickiego, a Agnieszka za Konrada II). +Kazimierz I cieszyński zmarł w 1358 (choć istnieją pewne przesłanki, że żył jeszcze w 1360, lecz większość historyków przyjmuje te dane za pomyłkę źródła) i został pochowany w krypcie kościoła dominikanów w Cieszynie. +Rządy po nim objął najstarszy z jego żyjących synów - Przemysław I Noszak. +Aston Villa F.C. + +Aston Villa Football Club (znany także jako The Villa, Villa lub The Villans) – angielski klub piłkarski mający swoją siedzibę w dzielnicy Birmingham Aston. W sezonie 2010/2011 występuje w Premier League. Powstał w roku 1874. Od roku 1897 swoje mecze rozgrywa na Villa Park. Aston Villa była jednym z założycieli The Football League w 1888 i Premier League w 1992. Klub został wprowadzony na giełdę przez jego poprzedniego właściciela i prezesa Douga Ellisa, w roku 2006 został kupiony przez Randy'ego Lernera. +Aston Villa jest jednym z najstarszych i najbardziej utytułowanych klubów w Anglii, siedem razy została mistrzem Anglii, a także siedem razy zdobyła Puchar Anglii. Villa w sezonie 1981/82 wygrała Puchar Europy jako jeden z pięciu angielskich klubów, które to uczyniły. Klub z 20 ważniejszymi trofeami jest czwartym najbardziej utytułowanym klubem w historii angielskiej piłki, większość z nich zdobył przed II wojną światową. +Największym rywalem klubu jest Birmingham City, mimo, że równie blisko znajduje się inny zawodowy klub piłkarski - West Bromwich Albion. Derby Birmingham pomiędzy Aston Villą i Birmingham City rozgrywane są od roku 1879. Tradycyjnymi strojami klubu są bordowe koszulki z błękitnymi rękawami, białymi spodenkami i niebieskimi skarpetami. Na herbie widoczny jest złoty lew na jasnoniebieskim tle a pod nim napis "Prepared" (Gotowi), który jest klubowym motto; taka wersja herbu została przyjęta w roku 2007. +Historia. +Aston Villa Football Club został założony w marcu 1874 przez członków Wesleyowskiej kaplicy o nazwie Villa Cross w Aston, obecną częścią miasta Birmingham. Założycielami byli Jack Hughes, Frederick Matthews, Walter Price oraz William Scattergood. Aston Villa pierwszy mecz rozegrała z lokalną drużyną rugby o nazwie Aston Brook St Mary's. Pierwsza połowa meczu była grana w rugby, zaś druga w piłkę nożną. Villa szybko stała się jedną z najlepszych ekip w Midlands, pierwszy sukces odniosła w roku 1880, wygrywając Puchar Birmingham. Kapitanem drużyny był wówczas George Ramsay. +Klub pierwszy raz zdobył Puchar Anglii w roku 1887, kiedy kapitanem zespołu był Archie Hunter. Aston Villa była jednym z 12 zespołów, które założyły Football League w roku 1888 a sam dyrektor drużyny, William McGregor był założycielem ligi. Aston Villa w Epoce wiktoriańskiej była jednym z najbardziej utytułowanych klubów, zdobywając liczne Mistrzostwa Anglii oraz Puchary kraju. W roku 1987 Villa zdobyła dublet oraz przeniosła się na nowy stadion - Aston Lower Grounds. Kibice ten obiekt nazwali "Villa Park"; nie posiadał on oficjalnej nazwy. +Aston Villa zdobył w roku 1920 po raz szósty Puchar Anglii; wkrótce po tym klub stracił miejsce w światowej czołówce i w roku 1936 spadł do drugiej ligi. Villa pobiła przy tym ponury rekord: straciła 110 goli, w tym siedem od gracza Arsenalu Londyn, Teda Drake'a w porażce 1:7 na Villa Park. Podobnie jak wszystkie angielskie drużyny klub stracił siedem sezonów z powodu II wojny światowej. W efekcie czego wielu piłkarzy było zmuszonych przedwcześnie zakończyć swa karierę. Aston Villa została przebudowany pod wodzą jej byłego piłkarze, Alexa Massiego i w roku 1957 drużyna zdobyła swoje pierwsze trofeum od 37 lat. Klub zdobył wówczas Puchar Anglii, po pokonaniu w finale Manchesteru United prowadzonego przez Matta Busby'ego. Dwa lata później Aston Villa spadła do Second Division. W roku 1960 powrócił do pierwszej ligi, zaś w następnym sezonie zdobył Puchar Ligi Angielskiej. +Późne lata 60. były okresem zamieszania wewnątrz klubu. Pod presją kibiców zmieniono właściciela klubu, odeszło również kilku członków sztabu szkoleniowego. Chaos ten został zapoczątkowany poprzez degradację w roku 1967. Rok później fani wezwali zarząd drużyny do dymisji, ponieważ klub zajął 16 miejsce w tabeli Second Division. Początkowo zwolniono trenera Tomy'ego Cummingsa, następnie rezygnację ogłosił cały zarząd. Po tym zamieszaniu kontrolę nad klubem przejął Pat Matthews, który na stanowisko prezesa powołał Douga Ellisa. Mimo to drużyna w sezonie 1969/70 spadła do Third Division. Dwa lata później awansowała jednak do drugiej ligi, kończąc rozgrywki na pierwszej pozycji z 70 punktami na koncie, co było wówczas rekordem. W roku 1973 szkoleniowcem zespołu został Ron Saunders i w ciągu czterech lat doprowadził Aston Villę do pierwszej ligi i do europejskich pucharów. +Villa powróciła do elity i pod wodzą Saundersa świętowała kolejne sukcesy, w tym mistrzostwo kraju w sezonie 1980/81. Saunders w połowie tego sezonu zrezygnował jednak ze swej funkcji, po kłótni z prezesem. Klub dotarł w tym czasie do ćwierćfinału Pucharu Europy. Następcą Saundersa został Tony Barton, który doprowadził drużynę do finału tych rozgrywek, w którym "The Villans" zagrali z Bayernem Monachium. Podopieczni Bartona wygrali to spotkanie 1:0 i sięgnęli po raz pierwszy sięgnęli po europejskie trofeum. Do dziś Villa jest jednym z czterech angielskich klubów, które zdobyły Puchar Europy. W następnych latach Villa grała jednak słabiej. W roku 1987 spadła do drugiej ligi, szybko jednak awansowała do najwyższej klasy rozgrywkowej. +W roku 1992 klub był jednym z założycieli Premier League i w inauguracyjnym sezonie zajął drugą lokatę w tabeli. Późne lata 90. były okresem nierównej gry drużyny, w tym czasie grali pod kierunkiem trzech różnych szkoleniowców, przez co mieli znaczne wahania formy oraz pozycji w tabeli. Mimo to, Aston Villa świętowała dwa razy zdobycie Pucharu Ligi. W roku 2000 po raz pierwszy od 43 lat dotarli do finału Pucharu Anglii, w którym przegrali 0:1 z Chelsea Londyn. W wieku XXI pozycja ligowa drużyny również bardzo się wahała. Kolejni trenerzy nie mogli ustabilizować formy zespołu. W roku 2006 szkoleniowcem zespołu przestał być David O'Leary, zaś jego miejsce zajął Martin O'Neill. Zmieniono również współwłaściciela. Po 23 latach Doug Elis sprzedał swoje 38% udziałów w klubie Randy'emu Lernerowi. Klubowy herb również uległ zmianie. Latem 2007 roku do klubu wszedł nowy sponsor. W sezonie 2007/08 Aston Villa zajęła 6. miejsce w lidze oraz wygrała Puchar Intertoto i awansowała do Pucharu UEFA. W lutym 2010 roku klub wystąpił w finale Pucharu Ligi, w którym przegrał z Manchesterem United. +Sukcesy. +Aston Villa ma w swoim dorobku zarówno europejskie jak i krajowe trofea. Ostatnim ważniejszym sukcesem był zdobyty w roku 1996 Puchar Ligi Angielskiej. Młodzieżowa drużyna zdobyła w 2002 roku Młodzieżowy Puchar Anglii. +Statystyki. +Aston Villa spędziła 98 sezonów w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej w Anglii, tylko Everton dłużej gra w najwyższej lidze. Mecze pomiędzy tymi dwoma drużynami były najwięcej razy rozgrywane w lidze. Aston Villa jest jednym z siedmiu klubów, które występowały w każdym sezonie Premier League, pozostała szóstka to Arsenal, Chelsea, Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United i Tottenham Hotspur. Villa zajmuje piąte miejsce w tabeli wszech czasów Premier League. Aston Villa zdobywając 21 trofeów jest czwartym najbardziej utytułowanym klubem w Anglii. +Aston Villa jest rekordzistą w liczbie zdobytych goli w jednym sezonie; w sezonie 1930/31 strzeliła 128 bramek. Legenda Villi, Archie Hunter jest pierwszym piłkarzem, który zdobył gola w każdej rundzie Pucharu Anglii, dokonał tego w roku 1887. W latach 1888-1901 Aston Villa nie przegrała żadnego meczu na własnym stadionie w Pucharze Anglii. +Aston Villa jest jednym z pięciu klubów angielskich, które zdobyły Puchar Europy/puchar Ligi Mistrzów. Pozostała czwórka to Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest i Chelsea. Villa puchar ten zdobyła 26 maja 1982 wygrywając w finale 1:0 z Bayernem Monachium; jedynego gola w tym spotkaniu zdobył Peter Withe. +Stadion. +Obecnym stadionem Aston Villi jest czterogwiazdkowy w skali UEFA Villa Park, wcześniej klub grał na Aston Park (1874–1876) i Perry Barr (1876–1897). Villa Park jest obecnie największym stadionem piłkarskim w Midlands i ósmym w całej Anglii. Na obiekcie było rozgrywanych 16 meczów międzynarodowych, pierwszy w roku 1899, ostatni zaś w 2005. Dlatego stadion ten jest pierwszym w Anglii, na którym były rozgrywane spotkania reprezentacyjne w trzech różnych wiekach. Na Villi Park było rozgrywanych 55 półfinałów Pucharu Anglii, najwięcej w historii. Klub planuje rozbudować północną trybunę. Jeśli tak się stanie to obiekt będzie mógł pomieścić 51 tysięcy kibiców. +Zawodnicy. +Kapitanowie klubu. +Aston Villa w czasie swojej historii miała 36 kapitanów. Poniżej znajduje się chronologiczna lista kapitanów drużyny. +Zarząd klubu. +Lista trenerów. +Chronologiczna lista trenerów klubu od jego założenia. Na liście uwzględniono tych szkoleniowców, którzy poprowadzili zespół w przynajmniej jednym oficjalnym spotkaniu. +Aston Villa w popkulturze. +Dużo program telewizyjnych w ostatnich kilku dekadach nawiązuje do Aston Villi. W sitcomie "Porridge", Lennie Godber jest kibicem Villi. W pierwszym odcinku serialu "Tak jest, panie ministrze" Jim Hacker mówił, że musi się zwalniać z pracy, żeby obejrzeć grę Aston Villi. Jednak w późniejszym odcinku zorganizował kampanię, żeby uratować fikcyjny lokalny klub - "Aston Wanderers". W czasie odcinków "The Fast Show", kibic Villi Mark William jest przedstawiony w koszulce w koszulce rywalów The Villans - Birminghamu City, co później zepsuło jego reputację. +Edward I Aviz + +Edward I Aviz (ur. 31 października 1391, zm. 13 września 1438) – król Portugalii w latach 1433-1438. +Syn i następca Jana I oraz Filipy Lancaster. Prowadził politykę ekspansji w Afryce Północno-Zachodniej, zajmując w 1437 ważny port handlowy - Tanger. Podjął próbę kodyfikacji prawa portugalskiego. Był autorem traktatu politycznego "Leal Conselheiro", a także dzieł myśliwskich i wierszy. +Edward zmarł w 1438 w czasie zarazy, jego następcą został małoletni syn Alfons. +Kazimierz Moczarski + +Kazimierz Damazy Moczarski (ur. 21 lipca 1907 w Warszawie, zm. 27 września 1975 tamże) – dziennikarz, pisarz, żołnierz Armii Krajowej, szef Biura Informacji i Propagandy ZWZ-AK. +Jego najbardziej znaną książką jest relacja ze wspólnego pobytu w więzieniu z Jürgenem Stroopem, oficerem SS, pt. "Rozmowy z katem". +Życiorys. +Syn Jana Damazego (nauczyciela, dyrektora gimnazjum) i Michaliny Franciszki z domu Wodzinowskiej, nauczycielki. Świadectwo maturalne uzyskał w 1926 w gimnazjum Michała Kreczmara i podjął studia prawnicze na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Równocześnie w latach 1928-1932 studiował w Wyższej Szkole Dziennikarskiej. W 1931 r. odbył praktykę konsularną w Paryżu. +Po ukończeniu studiów w Warszawie kontynuował naukę w Paryżu (1932-1934) w Instytucie Prawa Międzynarodowego. Po powrocie do Polski rozpoczął działalność dziennikarską i związał się z ówczesnym Stronnictwem Demokratycznym. Pracował w Ministerstwie Opieki Społecznej w Warszawie. 31 lipca 1939 poślubił Zofię Płoską, pracownicę referatu prasowego tegoż Ministerstwa. Okupację spędził w Warszawie. +Od stycznia 1940 należał do ZWZ-AK. Od sierpnia 1942 r. pracował w Wydziale Informacji Biura Informacji i Propagandy (BIP) Komendy Głównej AK, używając pseudonimu "Rafał". Od stycznia 1944 r. równocześnie kierował działem dochodzeniowo-śledczym w Okręgowym Kierownictwie Walki Podziemnej Warszawy, używając pseudonimu "Maurycy". Oprócz tego bezpośrednio uczestniczył w kilku akcjach bojowych m.in. w uwolnieniu więźniów ze Szpitala Jana Bożego przy ulicy Bonifraterskiej 11 czerwca 1944. +W trakcie powstania warszawskiego kierował działalnością stacji informacyjno-radiowej, redagował dziennik AK "Wiadomości Powstańcze", a od kwietnia 1945 r. był szefem BIP. Jeszcze w trakcie trwania powstania został odznaczony Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi z Mieczami. Po upadku powstania próbował wznowić działalności BIP AK w Częstochowie i Krakowie. +Pobyt w więzieniu. +11 sierpnia 1945 został aresztowany i osadzony w więzieniu mokotowskim. W śledztwie torturowany (opisał później szczegółowo czterdzieści dziewięć rodzajów tortur, jakim go poddawano), a następnie skazany na 10 lat za działalność w AK. W 1948 jego proces został wznowiony i trwał do 1952, kiedy to wydano wyrok śmierci. W lutym 1948 roku był świadkiem oskarżenia w procesie komendanta NSZ Stanisława Kasznicy. Od 2 marca do 11 listopada 1949 był przetrzymywany w jednej celi z Jürgenem Stroopem. W tym czasie Moczarski namówił swego niedawnego przeciwnika na zwierzenia, które po latach zostały spisane w formie reportażu. +W 1953 Sąd Najwyższy zmienił mu karę śmierci na dożywotnie więzienie. Mimo to przez dwa lata Moczarski przebywał w celi śmierci i dopiero 15 stycznia 1955 poinformowano go o wyroku Sądu Najwyższego. Na fali gomułkowskiej odwilży 21 kwietnia 1956 Sąd Najwyższy wznowił postępowanie w sprawie Moczarskiego, uchylił poprzedni wyrok i przekazał sprawę do ponownego rozpatrzenia. 24 kwietnia Moczarski został zwolniony, a 11 grudnia Sąd Wojewódzki w Warszawie wydał ostateczny wyrok uniewinniający. +Po wyjściu z więzienia. +Po zwolnieniu Kazimierz Moczarski pracował w wydawnictwach związanych ze Stronnictwem Demokratycznym. Był m.in. redaktorem naczelnym głównego organu SD Kuriera Polskiego. Pracował także w Społecznym Komitecie Przeciwalkoholowym i redagował pismo "Problemy Alkoholizmu". +W latach 1972-74 opublikował w odcinkach w miesięczniku Odra "Rozmowy z katem", później wydane jako książka w 1977 roku (pełna, nieocenzurowana wersja ukazała się drukiem dopiero w 1993 roku). Książka ta została przetłumaczona na niemal wszystkie języki europejskie, a także na japoński. W Polsce przez pewien czas była obecna na liście obowiązkowych lektur szkolnych. W 1990 ukazały się, również pośmiertnie, jego "Zapiski" (ISBN 83-06-01861-3) w opracowaniu i z obszernym szkicem biograficznym Andrzeja Kunerta. +W 1975, ciężko chory, przeszedł na emeryturę, a kilka miesięcy później, 27 września, zmarł. +W 2010 został pośmiertnie odznaczony Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Rodzina. +Żonaty z Zofią Moczarską (z domu Płoską) – dziennikarką, w latach II wojny światowej żołnierzem Armii Krajowej i powstańcem warszawskim (ps. "Malina"), odznaczoną Krzyżem Walecznych i Srebrnym Krzyżem Zasługi z Mieczami. Mieli córkę Elżbietę. +Lew Pontriagin + +Lew Pontriagin (ros. Лев Семёнович Понтрягин) (ur. 3 września 1908 w Moskwie, zm. 3 maja 1988) – matematyk rosyjski. +W roku 1922 w wieku 14 lat uległ wypadkowi, w wyniku którego stracił wzrok. Mimo to dzięki pomocy matki skończył w wieku 21 lat Uniwersytet Moskiewski i stał się jednym z najwybitniejszych matematyków XX wieku. +Pontriagin a dydaktyka matematyki. +Seria Знакомство с высшей математикой +Napisał także kilka artykułów dla czasopisma popularnonaukowego dla młodzieży Kwant. +Czarnuszka siewna + +Czarnuszka siewna ("Nigella sativa" L.) – gatunek rośliny z rodziny jaskrowatych. Pochodzi z Europy Południowej i Azji Zachodniej. W Polsce jest uprawiana i czasami przejściowo dziczejąca (ergazjofigofit). +Biologia i ekologia. +Roślina jednoroczna. Dziko występuje na siedliskach ruderalnych i jako chwast zbożowy. +Roślina miododajna, kwitnie od maja do września. Nasiona mają silny, aromatyczny zapach. Liczba chromosomów 2n=12 +Mezosom + +Mezosom – artefakt komórki prokariotycznej w formie wpuklenia błony komórkowej, będący efektem działań środków chemicznych używanych do mikroskopowania. +Pierwszy raz mezosomy zostały zaobserwowane w latach pięćdziesiątych i od tego czasu przepisywano im różne funkcje - m.in. budowa ściany komórkowej podczas podziału mitotycznego i produkcji ATP, czy miejsca przyczepu genoforu. +Pod koniec lat siedemdziesiątych XX w. ustalono, że mezosomy są efektem działań chemikaliów, nie występowały bowiem u bakterii, do badania których ich nie używano. Dzięki nowoczesnym metodom mikroskopowania stwierdzono, że mezosomy nie występują u organizmów żywych. +Wpuklenia uważane za mezosomy zaobserwowano u bakterii badanych przy użyciu m.in. defenzyny, chlorpromazyny, ryfampicyny oraz antybiotyków. Podobny efekt uzyskano podczas stosowania preparatu "Zeylasterone" . +Inwazja morza + +Inwazja morza (Morze na Saharze) (fr. "L’Invasion de la mer" 1905). +Jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże". +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w 1934 +Olej calophyllum + +Olej calophyllum - otrzymywany poprzez tłoczenie z owoców drzewa z rodzaju gumiak ("Calophyllum inophyllum"). Jest to olej aromatyczny, tłusty, o bardzo intensywnym zapachu i brązowo-zielonym zabarwieniu. +Witold Pogorzelski + +Witold Pogorzelski (ur. 13 października 1895 w Warszawie, zm. 13 stycznia 1963) – polski matematyk, profesor Politechniki Warszawskiej, ewangelik reformowany. +Biografia. +W 1922 w wieku 27 lat został profesorem nadzwyczajnym Politechniki Warszawskiej; wykładał w Katedrze Matematyki na Wydziale Chemii, skąd po roku przeniósł się na Katedrę Matematyki na Wydziale Mechanicznym. Profesorem zwyczajnym został w 1938. W latach 1937-1939 pełnił funkcję dziekana Wydziału Mechanicznego Politechniki Warszawskiej. W czasie okupacji niemieckiej uczył na tajnych kompletach Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Po wojnie zaangażowany w odbudowę katedr matematyki na Politechnice Łódzkiej, Politechnice Warszawskiej i WAT. +W 1961 uhonorowany tytułem "doctor honoris causa" Politechniki Łódzkiej. +Biegus zmienny + +Biegus zmienny ("Calidris alpina") – gatunek ptaka z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +W Wielkiej Brytanii to gatunek osiadły. Na zimowiskach natomiast zbierają się w ogromne, liczące tysiące osobników stada, zwłaszcza na wybrzeżach. W Polsce spotyka się na przelotach w marcu-maju i lipcu-listopadzie dwa podgatunki - "C. a. schinzii" i "C. a. alpina" pochodzący z terenów położonych dalej na północ. W końcu XX w. odnotowano lęgi na Bagnach Biebrzańskich, przy ujściu Redy do Zatoki Puckiej, w delcie Świny i nad Jeziorem Łebsko, ale obecnie ten gatunek nie gnieździ się w Polsce. +Fryderyk Wilhelm cieszyński + +Fryderyk Wilhelm Cieszyński (ur. 9 listopada 1601, zm. 19 sierpnia 1625 w Kolonii) – książę cieszyński w latach 1617-1625, (od 1624 samodzielnie). Ostatni legalny potomek Piastów górnośląskich. +Młodość. +Fryderyk Wilhelm, choć był najmłodszym, trzecim synem Adama Wacława, jako jedyny dożył wieku sprawnego. Jego matka Elżbieta Kurlandzka zmarła 10 dni po urodzeniu syna na skutek powikłań przy porodzie. +Fryderyk Wilhelm znajdował się pod opieką ojca, który edukację następcy tronu powierzył wybitnemu śląskiemu humaniście Baltzarowi Exnerowi. Jednak w 1611 roku Adam Wacław przyjął katolicyzm, co skłoniło go do usunięcia ze swojego dworu innowierców, wśród nich również Exnera. Wysłał wówczas syna do kolegium jezuickiego w Monachium. +Rządy. +Okres regencji. +13 lipca 1617 zmarł Adam Wacław. Pomimo tego książę aż do 1624 nadal przebywał w Monachium. Władzę w jego imieniu w księstwie cieszyńskim objęli regenci: biskup wrocławski arcyksiążę Karol Habsburg, książę karniowski i opawski Karol von Liechtestein oraz starosta księstwa opolsko-raciborskiego Jerzy von Oppersdorf. Regenci nie pojawiali się w Cieszynie, pozwalając sprawować rządy w starszej siostrze Fryderyka Wilhelma Elżbiecie Lukrecji. +Księstwa cieszyńskiego zostało kilkakrotnie splądrowane przez armie biorące udział w wojnie trzydziestoletniej. W 1620 zniszczony został Skoczów i Strumień przez przybyłe z Rzeczypospolitej oddziały Lisowczyków, którzy uznali protestanckich mieszkańców tych miast za swoich wrogów. W roku następnym księstwo zostało dotkliwie zniszczone przez stacjonujące tutaj cesarskie wojska pod dowództwem pułkownika Karola Spinellego. Wreszcie w 1622 Cieszyn stał się terenem walk pomiędzy wojskami protestantów Jana Jerzego Hohenzollerna i katolików Karola Hannibala von Dohna. Obie armie prześladowały innowierców zamieszkujących księstwo cieszyńskie. +Samodzielne rządy i śmierć. +Objęcie przez Fryderyka Wilhelma formalnie samodzielnych rządów w 1624 nie przyniosło księstwu ulgi, zresztą wkrótce (na początku 1625 roku) książę wyjechał z polecenia cesarza do Niderlandów, gdzie miał objąć stanowisko dowódcy okręgu wojskowego. Podczas podroży książę niespodziewanie zachorował i 19 sierpnia 1625 zmarł w Kolonii. Szczątki Fryderyka Wilhelma zostały pochowane w kościele dominikanów w Cieszynie. +Władzę w księstwie próbowali przejąć Habsburgowie, jednak opór Elżbiety Lukrecji doprowadził do tego, że cesarz wyraził zgodę na przekazanie jej dożywotniej władzy, lecz bez prawa dysponowania księstwem po śmierć. +Potomstwo. +Fryderyk Wilhelm nie zdążył się ożenić, a jedynym jego potomkiem była nieślubna córka Magdalena, legitymizowana przez cesarza Ferdynanda III w 1640 i wydana za marszałka dworu w Cieszynie Tlucka von Toschonowitz, a po jego śmierci za Mikołaja Rudzkiego z Rudz. Fryderyk Wilhelm okazał się być ostatnim męskim potomkiem cieszyńskich Piastów i jednym z ostatnich Piastów w ogóle. +Przemysław II cieszyński + +Przemysław (Przemysł, Przemko) II cieszyński (ur. ok. 1420, zm. 18 marca 1477), książę cieszyński i głogowski (formalnie od 1431), do 1442 razem z braćmi, w wyniku podziału na połowie Bielska i Skoczowie (formalnie także w Cieszynie), 1460-1476 na połowie Głogowa i Ścinawy, od 1468 w Cieszynie, od 1474 całe Bielsko) +Przemysław II był trzecim pod względem starszeństwa synem księcia cieszyńskiego Bolesława I i Eufemii mazowieckiej. +W chwili śmierci ojca w 1431 małoletni został formalnym władcą w Księstwie Cieszyńskim pod opieką matki i braci. Formalny podział ojcowizny nastąpił 29 listopada 1442 wtedy też Przemko objął dział cieszyński (faktyczne rządy sprawował tu jednak nadal starszy brat Wacław), bielski (razem z bratem Bolkiem II) i skoczowski (samodzielnie). +Przemysław II starał się prowadzić aktywną politykę. U progu swoich rządów wyraził m.in. zgodę na sprzedaż księstwa siewierskiego biskupowi krakowskiemu Zbigniewowi Oleśnickiemu, w zamian za co otrzymał od Wacława I 500 grzywien srebra. W 1447 razem z bratem Bolkiem II uczestniczył w zjeździe w Krakowie, gdzie poparł Polskę w sporze o Siewierz. +W 1447 zmarła matka Przemysława Eufemia, co umożliwiło księciu ostateczne przejęcie, razem z bratem Bolkiem jej wiana w Skoczowie i Frysztacie. +W 1452 zmarł młodszy brat Przemysła Bolko II, pozostawiając jedynego syna Kazimierza. Opiekę nad małoletnim bratankiem przejął wówczas właśnie Przemysł. +Od początku Przemysław angażował się w politykę międzynarodową. Najpierw związał się z narodowym królem czeskim Jerzym z Podiebradów, jednocześnie utrzymując dobre stosunki z dworem polskim. Między innymi gościł w Cieszynie Elżbietę Rakuszankę, gdy ta podążała w 1454 do Krakowa na ślub z Kazimierzem Jagiellończykiem. Dobrych stosunków nie pogorszył nawet spór pomiędzy Polską a księciem oświęcimskim Janem IV - 1 lipca 1457 zgodził się na rozwiązania Krakowa względem tego księstwa. +Trzy lata później Przemysław doprowadził do pojednawczego spotkania pomiędzy polskim królem i Jerzym z Podiebradów w Bytomiu, gdzie pełnił rolę rozjemcy. Kolejnej mediacji podjął się 9 czerwca 1461 pomiędzy Janem IV Oświęcimskim a królem Polskim. +W 1460 po śmierci kolejnego brata, Władysława, Przemysław objął też dział głogowski. W tym samym roku pojął za żonę księżniczkę Annę, córkę Bolesława IV, księcia mazowieckiego. Z małżeństwa tego nie doczekał się upragnionego syna, tylko córkę Jadwigę, późniejszą żonę Stefana z rodu Zapolyów. +Polityka Przemysława II, która miała doprowadzić do zbliżenia Polski i Czech, zaowocowała ponownym spotkaniem obu władców w Głogowie (1462), gdzie właściwie zadecydowały się późniejsze losy korony czeskiej (przekazanie jej w ręce Jagiellonów). W nagrodę za swoje działania Przemysław otrzymał w czasowe posiadanie Wałaskie Międzyrzecze. +W 1466 książę wziął aktywny udział w wyprawie Jerzego z Podiebradów na Kłodzko, co spowodowało napięcie stosunków Cieszyna z potężnym Wrocławiem. +W 1469 Przemysław uczestniczył w elekcji ołomunieckiej króla Węgier Macieja Korwina, który został wówczas wyniesiony do godności króla Czech, głównie dzięki staraniom papieża Pawła II i katolickiej szlachty czeskiej. Na pewien czas książę zbliżył się do węgiersko-czeskiego króla, biorąc nawet udział w wojnie przeciwko jego wrogom na Górnym Śląsku. +Okazało się jednak, że Maciej Korwin nie tylko nie wynagrodził Przemysława za wysiłki, przekazując zdobyte ziemie innym sprzymierzeńcom, ale także dążył do pozbawienia go władzy w Księstwie Cieszyńskim oraz odebrania Cieszynowi autonomii. W tej sytuacji Przemysław II w 1471 przeszedł do opozycji wobec króla, wspierając kandydaturę na króla Czech Władysława Jagiellończyka. Losy jego księstwa stały się coraz mniej pewne. +Próbując lawirować pomiędzy Polską, Czechami a Węgrami w 1473 wsparł Macieja Korwina w jego wojnie przeciwko Wacławowi III, księciu rybnickiemu. Brak jednak korzyści ze wspólnego zwycięstwa ostatecznie zniechęciły Przemysława do współpracy z zaborczym węgierskim monarchą. +W 1474 zmarł ostatni już z braci Przemka, książę cieszyński Wacław, co umożliwiło zjednoczenie w jego rękach większości ojcowizny (bezpowrotnie przepadł tylko Siewierz i księstwo bytomskie). +Wzrost znaczenia Przemysława nie spodobał się jednak Maciejowi Korwinowi, który uzyskawszy od Kazimierza Jagiellończyka gwarancję swoich rządów wysunął w 1475 na zjeździe w Raciborzu pretensje do władztwa księcia cieszyńskiego, grożąc całkowitym pozbawieniem go dziedzictwa jeżeli ten nie zapłaci ogromnej kontrybucji. Od ostatecznego upadku wybawiła księcia wyprawa wojsk polskich przeciwko Korwinowi, poprowadzona przez Jakuba z Dębna, który wsparł obronę Cieszyna. Przemysław II musiał jednak wyrazić zgodę na zagarnięcie przez króla w 1476 dóbr głogowsko-ścinawskich. +Sterany niepokojem o los księstwa Przemysław II zmarł 18 marca 1477, nie pozostawiając następcy. Na książęcym tronie w Cieszynie zasiadł więc bratanek Przemysława, Kazimierz II, syn Bolesława II. Został pochowany w kościele dominikanów w Cieszynie. +Ussuri + +Ussuri (ros. Уссури; ) – rzeka w Azji. Płynie w Rosji i Chinach. Źródła na wysokości 1682 m n.p.m. na stokach góry Śnieżnej w górach fałdowych Sichote Aliń i uchodzi do Amuru, jako jego prawy dopływ. Długość 897 km przy powierzchni dorzecza 193 000 km². Przepływ u ujścia 1150 m³/sek. +W marcu 1969 status wysp na Ussuri był przyczyną konfliktu radziecko-chińskiego. +Plastron (zoologia) + +Plastron – termin z anatomii zwierząt. +U stawonogów (niektóre tchawkowce, roztocze i tępoodwłokowce) jest to kutykularna struktura służąca do oddychania pod wodą lub w przypadku ich okresowego zalania. Składa się z mikroskopijnych hydrofobowych wyrostków (szczecin lub łusek), pomiędzy którymi zbiera się powietrze dyfundujące z otaczającej wody. +U żółwi jest to prawie płaska, brzuszna część pancerza zbudowana z zewnętrznej warstwy płytek rogowych (parzyste tarcze szyjne, ramieniowe, piersiowe, brzuszne, udowe i odbytowe) oraz wewnętrznej warstwy płytek kostnych. U żółwiaków, miękkoskórkowatych i żółwi skórzastych część rogowa nie występuje. +Niektóre rodziny mają pomiędzy karapaksem a plastronem zawias pozwalający żółwiowi prawie zupełnie złączyć obie części. U niektórych gatunków po jego kształcie można rozpoznać płeć danego żółwia. Samce mają plastron wklęsły a samice wypukły. Dopasowanie to ułatwia zajęcie pozycji przy kopulacji. +Kazimierz II cieszyński + +Kazimierz II cieszyński (ur. 1448-1453, zapewne ok. 1449 – zm. 13 grudnia 1528) – książę cieszyński, w latach 1452- 1460 tylko formalnie, od 1460 współrządy z Przemysławem II, od 1477 w całości księstwa, 1479-1509 w Koźlu, od 1493 w Wołowie, 1498-1517 w Pszczynie, od 1506 w Opawie, od 1506 księstwo głogowskie (dożywotnio). Starosta generalny Śląska w latach 1497-1504, 1507-1517 i tylko Górnego Śląska w latach 1517-1528. +Kazimierz II był jedynym synem księcia cieszyńskiego Bolesława II i Anny, córki księcia bielskiego Iwana. +W związku z wczesną śmiercią ojca (w 1452) wychowywali go stryjowie. W 1460 książę Przemysław II cieszyński dopuszczając Kazimierza do formalnych współrządów nadał mu Bielsko z okolicznymi miejscowościami. +W arkana wielkiej polityki Kazimierz II został wprowadzony w 1471, kiedy w konflikcie związanym z obsadą korony czeskiej opowiedział się za Władysławem II Jagiellończykiem. Cztery lata później uczestniczył uroczystościach ślubu córki Kazimierza Jagiellończyka Jadwigi z Jerzym Bawarskim w Krakowie, a następnie odprowadzał królewnę do Bawarii. W chwili śmierci opiekuna - stryja Przemysława II w 1477 był już osobą politycznie wyrobioną. Dopiero jednak po śmierci stryja, Kazimierz jako jedyny męski potomek cieszyńskich władców, przejął władzę w całym księstwie. +Nie udało się za to przejąć Kazimierzowi dóbr głogowskich, gdzie formalne rządy sprawowała nadal Małgorzata, wdowa po drugim ze stryjów Władysławie. Do księstwa tego pretensję wysunęli książę żagański Jan II i król węgierski Maciej Korwin. Pomimo tego początkowo wydawało się, że uda się Kazimierzowi przejąć i ten spadek, zwłaszcza iż hołd lenny, jako opiekunowi Małgorzaty, złożyła mu rada miejska Głogowa. Ten sukces został jednak zaprzepaszczony 8 października 1478, kiedy Kazimierz przegrał bitwę pod Krosnem z oddziałami Jana II. +Nie mogąc przejąć Głogowa siłą, Kazimierz II rozpoczął pertraktacje z władcą węgierskim, Maciejem Korwinem. Wtedy też na mocy układu z 10 października 1479 zrezygnował z księstwa głogowskiego w zamian za Koźle i 2000 florenów. Dodatkowo ceną było również złożenie hołdu lennego, co nastąpiło 12 sierpnia tegoż roku w Ołomuńcu. +Pomimo formalnej rezygnacji z dóbr na Dolnym Śląsku, Kazimierz II nie rezygnował i w 1480 ożenił się z Joanną, córką Wiktoryna z Podiebradów, księcia opawskiego (w posagu otrzymał wówczas ziemię pszczyńską, choć w praktyce przejął ją Kazimierz dopiero w 1498), co miało mu pomóc w odzyskaniu Głogowa, oblężonego przez Jana II Żagańskiego. Kolejna klęska, tym razem w bitwie pod Górą skłoniła Kazimierza do rezygnacji ze spornego terytorium ostatecznie 7 czerwca 1481. +W następnych latach Kazimierz II zbliżył się do narodowego króla Czech, Władysława Jagiellończyka. Dzięki temu po śmierci Macieja Korwina w 1490 i zajęciu przez króla Władysława Śląska, dla Kazimierza II nastał czas awansów w służbie publicznej. Jagiellończyk mianował cieszyńskiego księcia starostą generalnym na Śląsku. Urząd ten piastował Kazimierz do 1504, kiedy król postanowił mianować starostą swego brata, Zygmunta Jagiellończyka. Jednak już w 1506, po śmierci brata Aleksandra, Zygmunt został królem Polski, a godność starosty śląskiego wróciła w ręce księcia cieszyńskiego. Tym razem urząd ten Kazimierz II piastował aż do śmierci. Z poręczenia Zygmunta Kazimierz uzyskał również od Władysława Jagiellończyka wówczas dożywotnio księstwo głogowskie. +Sprawowanie przez Kazimierza rządów starosty generalnego nie cieszyło się wśród współczesnych zbyt wielkim poparciem. Zarzucano księciu cieszyńskiemu m.in. zbyt wielki wyzysk, zwłaszcza jeśli chodzi o sprawy kościoła. Uniemożliwiło to objęcie w 1501 przez syna księcia Fryderyka biskupstwa wrocławskiego na skutek sprzeciwu zniechęconej wobec książąt cieszyńskich kapituły. Dopiero powtórne objęcie urzędu starosty w 1506 po odejściu przez Zygmunta Starego pozwoliło Kazimierzowi częściowo zrehabilitować się np. poprzez wydanie w Prudniku ustawy pozwalającej bezwzględnie tępić wszelkie rozboje. +Bardzo popłatny urząd starosty generalnego umożliwił Kazimierzowi II poszerzenie swojego stanu posiadania, m.in. w 1493 zakupił on Wołów i Oleśnicę, a w 1506 odziedziczył dzięki swojej żonie ziemię opawską. +Znaczna pozycja Kazimierza II na Śląsku wywołała zaniepokojenie książąt opolskich Mikołaja II i Jana II. W tym celu w 1497 doszło do zjazdu w Nysie z udziałem książąt: cieszyńskiego Kazimierza, opolskiego Mikołaja, ziębickiego Wiktoryna, oraz biskupa wrocławskiego Jana Rotha. Podczas spotkania w ratuszu 26 czerwca tegoż roku doszło do tragedii, kiedy to Mikołaj II obawiający się zapewne aresztowania zaatakował (nieskutecznie) sztyletem księcia cieszyńskiego i biskupa Rotha. Atak ten nosi wszelkie znamiona szaleństwa, z tego też powodu dziwić musi fakt szybkiego wydania księcia wbrew panującemu prawu sądowi ławniczemu Nysy (Mikołaja jako księcia prawo sądzić miał wyłącznie sąd królewski), który wydał pod naciskiem Kazimierza wyrok śmierci. Nie przynosi chluby również zagarnięcie przez Kazimierza całego majątku znalezionego przy księciu opolskim. +Apogeum swojego znaczenia Kazimierz II osiągnął w 1512, kiedy król Zygmunt I Stary ożenił się z Barbarą Zapolya, bliską krewną księcia cieszyńskiego. O wyśmienitych stosunkach Kazimierza z Polską wówczas może świadczyć m.in. zakup kilku kamienic w Krakowie i okolicy. Umożliwiło to księciu przetrwanie na intratnym stanowisku pomimo skargi miast śląskich w 1514, kiedy został oskarżony o nieudolność. +6 stycznia 1515 Kazimierz postarał się o uzyskanie od króla czeskiego Władysława Jagiellończyka dyplomu potwierdzającego jego prawa do księstwa opawskiego, niestety tylko dożywotnio. +W 1517 mając przejściowe trudności finansowe zdecydował się na sprzedaż Janowi Thurzo księstwa pszczyńskiego za wysoką sumę 40000 guldenów. +Od około 1510 Kazimierz II zaangażował się w rozgrywkę o spadek po bezdzietnym księciu opolskim, Janie II Dobrym. Kazimierz czynił tak pomimo tego, iż stał za śmiercią brata ostatniego księcia opolskiego - Mikołaja II. Początkowo wydawało się, że sprawa sukcesji jest na dobrej drodze, zwłaszcza gdy Kazimierzowi udało się uzyskać w 1517, wraz Fryderykiem II Legnickim, dokument potwierdzający prawa do dziedziczenia posiadłości po starzejącym się i schorowanym opolskim kuzynie. Niestety ostatecznie okazało się, że Jan II przeżył Kazimierza, a jego księstwo dostało się w ręce Jerzego Hohenzollerna (być może zresztą Kazimierz II przed swoją śmiercią przelał wszelkie swoje prawa właśnie na rzecz Jerzego, zwłaszcza mogło się to wydarzyć po ślubie w 1518 syna księcia cieszyńskiego Wacława II z siostrą Jerzego, Anną). +W 1527 Kazimierz II z ramienia króla polskiego wyjechał na Węgry, gdzie podjął się mediacji pomiędzy Janem Zapolyą a Ferdynandem Habsburgiem, jednakże bezskutecznie. +Kazimierz był nie tylko zręcznym politykiem, ale także bardzo dobrym gospodarzem. Za jego panowania Księstwo Cieszyńskie przeżywało stabilizację gospodarczą. Dzięki przywilejom, które nadawał, miasta prężnie się rozwijały, szczególną zaś troską otaczał Kazimierz Cieszyn, dzięki czemu miasto szybko podniosło się ze zgliszczy po wielkim pożarze u schyłku XV wieku. To właśnie Kazimierz II w 1496 założył obecny rynek i przekazał dwa domy na zbudowanie nowego ratusza. Majątek księcia cieszyńskiego szacowano w 1527 na astronomiczną sumę 670000 florenów, co jednak nie dorównało dochodowi sąsiedniego księstwa opolskiego. Do dochodów księcia cieszyńskiego należała jednak również wysoka pensja starosty generalnego - 1200 guldenów rocznie, oraz dochody z uzyskanych od Zygmunta Starego żup solnych pod Krakowem. Wysokie dochody umożliwiły Kazimierzowi w 1527 wykupienie z rąk biskupa ołomunieckiego miast Mistka i Frydlantu nad Ostrawicą. +Książę doczekał się z małżeństwa z Joanną z Podiebradu (zm. 1496, książę cieszyński ponownie się już nie ożenił) dwóch synów. Starszy Fryderyk (zm. 1507) został przeznaczony do stanu duchownego, natomiast młodszy, Wacław (ur. ok.1490, zm. 1524), miał zostać następcą Kazimierza II. Wacław II zmarł jednak 4 lata przed swoim ojcem, nie doczekawszy objęcia książęcego tronu. W związku z tym po śmierci Kazimierza II 13 grudnia 1528 księciem cieszyńskim został młodociany wnuk księcia - syn Wacława II, Wacław III Adam, aczkolwiek rządy w jego imieniu prowadził zgodnie z wcześniejszą umową Jan z Pernsteinu, wraz z matką Wacława III Adama, Anną Hohenzollern. Nie wiadomo gdzie Kazimierz został pochowany, możemy tylko przypuszczać, że stało się to w którymś z kościołów w Cieszynie lub Opawie. +Mistrzostwa Świata w Piłce Nożnej 1974 + +X Mistrzostwa Świata w Piłce Nożnej odbyły się w dniach 13 czerwca – 7 lipca 1974 roku, w RFN i Berlinie Zachodnim. Pierwsze miejsce zajęła reprezentacja RFN, drugie Holandia, trzecie Polska a na czwartym miejscu uplasowali się obrońcy trofeum z Meksyku z roku 1970 piłkarze Brazylii. +Gra w turnieju po raz pierwszy toczyła się o Puchar Świata, gdyż Puchar Rimeta otrzymała Brazylia za trzykrotne wygranie Mistrzostw Świata. +Królem strzelców z 7 bramkami został Grzegorz Lato. Na drugim miejscu, z 5 golami uplasował się Andrzej Szarmach oraz Holender Johan Neeskens. +Szesnaście drużyn z 96 które zakwalifikowały się do turnieju finałowego zostały podzielone na cztery grupy. Awans z każdej grupy wywalczały dwie najlepsze drużyny. W drugiej rundzie osiem drużyn zostało rozdzielonych na dwie grupy. Zwycięzcy grup z rundy drugiej grali w finale, natomiast drużyny z drugich miejsc grały mecz o trzecie miejsce. +Kwalifikacje. +Kwalifikacje Polski do turnieju finałowego w RFN, a szczególnie mecze z Anglią, przeszły do historii polskiej piłki. W Chorzowie drużyna trenowana przez Kazimierza Górskiego pokonała Anglię 2:0. W rewanżu 17 października 1973 roku Polacy zremisowali 1:1. Gola dla Polski zdobył Jan Domarski, wykorzystując błąd obrońcy. Anglicy strzelili tylko jedną bramkę, gdyż dobrze dysponowana była obrona oraz skutecznie bronił Jan Tomaszewski. Po tym meczu gazety pisały: ""Tomaszewski zatrzymał Anglię"". +Druga runda. +Grupa 1. +Holandia wygrywając grupę awansowała do finału, Brazylijczykom – obrońcom tytułu został tylko mecz o 3. miejsce. +Grupa 2. +Mecz pomiędzy Polską, a RFN odbywał się w trudnych warunkach. Przed meczem nad stadionem we Frankfurcie nad Menem przeszła ulewa. Boiska mimo starań organizatorów nie udało się całkowicie osuszyć. Mecz ten przeszedł do historii piłki nożnej jako "Mecz na wodzie". W 53. minucie meczu Jan Tomaszewski obronił rzut karny. Jedyną bramkę w meczu strzelił Gerd Müller w 76. minucie. +RFN dzięki zwycięstwu nad Polską wygrała grupę i awansowała do finału. Polska wystąpiła w meczu o 3. miejsce. +3. Miejsce. +W meczu o 3. miejsce Polska zmierzyła się z Brazylią. Drużyna Polska prowadzona przez Kazimierza Górskiego pokonała Brazylię 1:0 (0:0), a jedyną bramkę w tym meczu zdobył Grzegorz Lato w 76. minucie meczu. Grzegorz Lato został królem strzelców z 7 bramkami na koncie. +Polska +Tomaszewski – Szymanowski, Gorgoń, Żmuda, Musiał, Maszczyk, Deyna (K), Kasperczak (Ćmikiewicz), Lato, Szarmach (Kapka), Gadocha +Brazylia +Leao – Zé Maria, Alfredo Mostarda, Marinho Peres (K), Marinho Chagas, Carpegiani, Rivelino, Ademir da Guia (Mirandinha), Valdomiro, Jairzinho, Dirceu +Finał. +Turniej wygrali piłkarze gospodarzy pokonując w finale Holandię 2:1. Dla Holandii gola strzelił Neeskens z rzutu karnego w 2. minucie. Bramki dla RFN zdobyli Breitner (25. minuta, karny) oraz Müller (43. minuta).Po meczu Cruyff dostał czerwoną kartke za dyskusje z arbitrem. +Maier – Vogts, Beckenbauer (K), Schwarzenbeck, Breitner – Bonhof, Hoeneß, Overath – Grabowski, G. Müller, Hölzenbein +Jongbloed – Suurbier, Rijsbergen (68. de Jong), Haan, Krol – Jansen, Neeskens, Van Hanegem – Rep, Cruyff (K), Rensenbrink (46. R. van de Kerkhof) +Piłkarze RFN wygrali Mistrzostwa Świata po raz drugi, przedtem tryumfowali w roku 1954 na boiskach Szwajcarii. +MISTRZ ŚWIATA 1974 +RFN '"DRUGI TYTUŁ +Klasyfikacja strzelców turnieju. +7 bramek +5 bramek +4 bramki +3 bramki +Elżbieta Lukrecja + +Elżbieta Lukrecja (ur. 1 czerwca 1599 – zm. 19 maja 1653) – księżna cieszyńska. Ostatnia przedstawicielka Piastów cieszyńskich. +Elżbieta Lukrecja była drugą pod względem starszeństwa córką i trzecim dzieckiem księcia cieszyńskiego Adama Wacława i jego żony Elżbiety kurlandzkiej. Początkowo wychowywana w wierze protestanckiej, w wieku 12 lat razem z ojcem i rodzeństwem przeszła na katolicyzm. +13 lipca 1617 zmarł ojciec księżnej Adam Wacław. Już na początku roku następnego Elżbieta Lukrecja wyszła wbrew swojej woli, za mąż (małżeństwo to zostało postanowione zapewne jeszcze przez Adama Wacława) za o wiele starszego od siebie Gundakera von Liechtestein, brata Karola von Liechtestein ustanowionego przez cesarza wespół z biskupem wrocławskim Karolem Habsburgiem i starostą Jerzym von Oppersdorfem regentem w księstwie cieszyńskim w imieniu małoletniego Fryderyka Wilhelma. Regenci nie przejmowali się jednak zbytnio nałożoną przez z nich rolą, dzięki czemu faktyczną władzę mogła objąć właśnie Elżbieta Lukrecja. +Stan ten utrzymał się również po formalnym objęciu przez Fryderyka Wilhelma tronu cieszyńskiego, gdyż brat Elżbiety Lukrecji w swojej ojcowiznie przebywał sporadycznie. +19 sierpnia 1625 Fryderyk Wilhelm niepodziewanie zmarł, nie pozostawiając następcy. Początkowo cesarz Ferdynand III Habsburg chciał przyłączyć księstwo do domeny swojego rodu, powołując się na prawa suwerena. W końcu jednak zgodził się na objęcie Cieszyna przez Elżbietę Lukrecję mającą prawo do dzielnicy ojca na mocy przywileju Władysława Jagiellończyka wydanego dla Kazimierza II cieszyńskiego w 1498, w którym zezwalano na dziedziczenie w linii żeńskiej do czwartego pokolenia włącznie. Pomimo formalnej zgody na rządy, przetargi z Habsburgami o księstwo trwały aż do 1638, kiedy w końcu Ferdynand III uzyskał zapewnienie, że po śmierci Elżbiety Lukrecji Cieszyn stanie się częścią władztwa pod bezpośrednimi rządami Habsburgów. Jako odszkodowaniem jej potomkowie musieli się zadowolić 50000 talarów. Fakt przejęcia spadku po bracie przez Elżbietę Lukrecję świadczy o jej uporze i zdolnościach politycznych. +Za panowania ostatniej Piastówny księstwo przeszło przez jeden z najtrudniejszych okresów w swej historii. Była to wojna trzydziestoletnia, która regularnie pustoszyła cieszyńską ziemię (na terenie księstwa operowały wojska: w latach 1626-1627 duńskie Ernesta Mansfelda, 1642-1643 i 1645-1647 szwedzkie pod dowództwem odpowiednio pułkownika Rochowa i generała Königsmarcka), zarówno pod względem infrastruktury, jak i finansów. Na dodatek księstwo nawiedzały epidemie i klęski głodu. Ostatecznie doprowadziło to księstwo do załamania ekonomicznego i katastrofy demograficznej, z których nie mogło się podnieść przez następne 100 lat. Sama księżna była kilkakrotnie poważnie zagrożona - np. w 1642, kiedy musiała uchodzić do Jabłonkowa i 1645 kiedy ratowała się wyjazdem do Rzeczypospolitej (do Kęt), gdy Szwedzi zajęli miasto (skapitulowali dopiero w 1646). Dopiero pokój westfalski z 24 października 1648 zapewnił umęczonej ziemi spokój. +Małżeństwo ostatniej Piastówny cieszyńskiej z Gundakerem von Liechtestein nie był zbyt udane. W 1626 doszło do formalnej separacji, w której małżonkowie wytrwali do śmierci. Stało się to pomimo tego, że doczekali się dwóch synów (zmarłego w dzieciństwie Alberta, oraz Ferdynanda Jana) i córki (była to Maria Anna). +Elżbieta Lukrecja zmarła 19 maja 1653 i została pochowana w nekropolii Piastów cieszyńskich, w kościele dominikańskim w Cieszynie. +W kilkanaście lat później ród królewski Piastów wymarł zupełnie, a Elżbieta okazała się jednym z ostatnich rządzących przedstawicieli. Na mocy wcześniejszych układów i lennego stosunku Księstwa cieszyńskeigo do Korony czeskiej, po śmierci księżnej władzę w Księstwie Cieszyńskim objął bezpośrednio cesarz Ferdynand III Habsburg. Kolejni Habsburgowie nosili ten tytuł aż do upadku cesarstwa i likwidacji Księstwa Cieszyńskiego w 1918. +Alfons V Afrykańczyk + +Alfons V Afrykańczyk (15 stycznia 1432 - 28 sierpnia 1481), król Portugalii od 1438. +Początek panowania. +Alfons V był synem króla Edwarda I Avis i Eleonory Aragońskiej. Urodził się i zmarł w Sintrze. Jako dziecko otrzymał staranne wykształcenie, przez co najprawdopodobniej przejawiał szacunek do nauki. Jego wychowawcami byli Stefan z Neapolu i Mateusz z Pizy. Po śmierci ojca w 1438 roku, który zmarł na dżumę, Alfons V odziedziczył tron mając 6 lat. Z powodu małoletności władcy regencję miała sprawować jego matka Eleonora Aragońska, ale w wyniku buntu mieszczan regentem został stryj Alfonsa - książę Coimbry infant Piotr - brat Edwarda I, posiadający poparcie mieszczan, głównie cechów Lizbony, które chciały okrzyknąć go królem. Regent szybko zdominował młodego władcę stając się jedną z najważniejszych osób w królestwie, co więcej Piotr był przeciwny dalszej ekspansji morskiej Portugalczyków. Po osiągnięciu pełnoletności Alfons odsunął od rządów Piotra i zdecydował się zaufać pomocy dwóch innych braci jego ojca tzn. Henryka Żeglarza, księcia Viseu i Alfonsa, księcia Bragança. Ci dwaj książęta reprezentowali odmienne stanowisko niż Piotr. Henryk był zwolennikiem wypraw do Maroka i ekspedycji morskich do Afryki, a Alfons chciał aby korona ponownie oparła się o szlachtę, a nie rozgrywała przeciw niej mieszczan. Z tego powodu postanowili oni wyeliminować Piotra, którego zabito w bitwie pod Alfarrobeira w maju 1449 roku. Od tej pory rozpoczęły się samodzielne rządy Alfonsa, który jednak i tak realizował idee stryjów dzięki którym uzyskał swobodę. Dlatego nie tylko zaangażował się w walki w Afryce ale również pogodził dwór z wieloma rodami szlacheckimi, które utraciły łaskę podczas rządów jego dziadka Jana I. +Walki w Afryce. +Gdy w 1453 Turcy zdobyli Konstantynopol papież Mikołaj V wezwał monarchów europejskich do krucjaty przeciw niewiernym. Jednak czasy krucjat już się zakończyły i chętnych nie było wielu. Jednym z nielicznych był król Portugalii, który zobowiązał się wystawić 12 tysięcy żołnierzy i walczyć z Saracenami. Kiedy okazało się że krucjata na Wschód nie wyruszy Alfons postanowił zgromadzone wojska i środki użyć w Afryce. Wyprawa króla zakończyła się sukcesem, a wojska królewskie zdobyły w 1458 roku Al-Kasr-as-Saghir. Późniejsza wyprawa miała mniej szczęścia ponieważ uległa murom Tangeru w 1463 roku. Mimo to w 1471 roku zorganizowano nową wyprawę której owocem było zdobycie Arzili i Tangeru. Od akcji w Afryce zyskał swój przydomek, a sam król w 1471 roku rozszerzył swoją tytulaturę, która odtąd brzmiała "król Portugalii i Algarve po tej i tamtej stronie Afryki". Zasługi Aflonsa V zostały już wcześniej dostrzeżone i docenione przez papieża Mikołaja V, który w 1455 wydał bullę "Romanus pontifex", w której przyznawał królowi portugalskiemu, jego sukcesorom i infantowi Henrykowi prawo podboju nowych terenów w Afryce, walki z niewiernymi i monopol na handel, a tym którzy by Portugalii utrudniali ich dzieło groził ekskomuniką. Po śmierci stryja Henryka Alfons V przez jakiś czas osobiście interesował się wyprawami portugalskich żeglarzy do Afryki. Podczas jego panowania dopłynęli oni do Przylądka Zielonego, Wyspy Zielonego Przylądka, Zatoki Gwinejskiej oraz zajęto wyspę Fernando Po. +Konflikt z Kastylią. +Na końcowy okres rządów Alfonsa V przypadł konflikt z Kastylią przez który zaniedbał on inne sprawy w tym także kwestię odkryć geograficznych. Po śmierci króla Kastylii Henryka IV w 1474 roku, Alfons podjął próbę zdobycia tronu sąsiedniego królestwa. Najechał Kastylię korzystając z poparcia kilku potężnych kastylijskich rodów szlacheckich. Jednakże przegrał ostateczną bitwę nad rzeką Toro w 1476 roku z główną konkurentką do tronu Izabelą Kastylijską, którą popierała drobna szlachta i niższe warstwy społeczeństwa. Po tej bitwie sprzymierzeńcy Alfonsa przeszli do obozu Izabeli i jej męża Ferdynanda Aragońskiego. Do unormowania stosunków z Kastylią doszło w 1479 roku gdy podpisano traktat pokojowy w Alcáçovas, w którym w zamian za rezygnację z korony kastylijskiej król portugalski otrzymał ważne koncesje i przywileje handlowe w Afryce. +Koniec rządów. +Choć już w 1477 roku Alfons V przekazał rządy swemu synowi to faktycznie obaj sprawowali władzę. Formalnie jego syn Jan zajął się portugalską ekspansją zamorską. Ostatnie lata życia Alfons V poświęcił kulturze i nauce, przejawiając zainteresowania literaturą, jako pierwszy władca założył w Portugalii bibliotekę z siedzibą w Coimbrze. Zmarł podobnie jak jego ojciec podczas epidemii dżumy w 1481 roku w mieście swoich narodzin - Sintrze. +Asystolia + +Asystolia (ang. asystole) – brak czynności elektrycznej serca, co w zapisie EKG objawia się w postaci linii zbliżonej do linii poziomej (linii izoelektrycznej) w co najmniej dwu sąsiadujących odprowadzeniach EKG. Jej wystąpienie oznacza zazwyczaj całkowity brak czynności skurczowej serca, poza przypadkami asystolii rzekomej. W przypadku asystolii rzekomej linia izoelektryczna w zapisie EKG spowodowana jest problemami technicznymi sprzętu do rejestracji EKG, złym przyleganiem elektrod do skóry lub błędami w technice badania; czynność mechaniczna serca jest w tych przypadkach zachowana. +Czterosekundowa asystolia powoduje u ludzi zawroty głowy, a nawet utratę przytomności, trwająca dłużej jest stanem zagrożenia życia. Odsetek chorych przeżywających do wypisu ze szpitala po przebytym nagłym zatrzymaniu krążenia w mechanizmie asystolii wynosi 0-2%. +Bielsko + +Bielsko (śl. "Biylsko", czes. "Bílsko", niem. "Bielitz") – dawne miasto na Śląsku Cieszyńskim, które 1 stycznia 1951 r. zostało połączone z małopolską Białą Krakowską w jeden organizm pod nazwą Bielsko-Biała. +Historia. +Miasto zostało założone pod koniec XIII wieku, pierwsza pisemna wzmianka o nim pochodzi z roku 1312. Pierwotnie należało do księstwa cieszyńskiego i w 1327 r. stało się częścią Korony Czeskiej. Od 1572 r. było centrum państwa stanowego, które w roku 1752 stało się księstwem (istniało do roku 1848). Od XVI wieku stanowiło znaczący ośrodek rzemiosł, zwłaszcza sukiennictwa i garncarstwa, na początku XIX wieku doszło natomiast do szybkiego rozwoju przemysłu, którego główną gałęzią było włókiennictwo. Rozwój przemysłowy i związany z tym wzrost liczby ludności wywołały wielkie przemiany architektoniczno-urbanistyczne. Ze względu na wielkomiejską zabudowę w stylu historyzmu i secesji miasto było nazywane "małym Wiedniem". +Już od średniowiecza Bielsko i okoliczne wsie tworzyły niemiecką wyspę językową. Według niemieckich danych z 1910 r. dla 81,5% mieszkańców językiem domowym był niemiecki. W dobie kontrreformacji miasto zachowało wyraźnie protestancki charakter i pozostało ważnym ośrodkiem Kościoła ewangelickiego także po wydaniu patentu tolerancyjnego. Liczna tu była również społeczność żydowska (około 16%). +Mimo że połączenie Bielska i Białej nastąpiło dopiero w roku 1951, oba miasta tworzyły jedną całość pod względem gospodarczym, społecznym i przestrzennym już sto lat wcześniej. Pierwsze próby ich zjednoczenia datują się na rok 1872, chociaż wtedy znajdowały się w dwóch różnych austriackich krajach – Bielsko na Śląsku Austriackim, Biała natomiast w Galicji. +Dziś pojęcie "Bielsko" ma znaczenie wyłącznie historyczne, jest jednak potocznie używane na oznaczenie całego miasta Bielsko-Biała. +W Bielsku urodził się znany polski poeta i działacz oświatowy Jan Kupiec. +Sigulda + +Sigulda (spotykana też niegdyś pisownia Siggulda; niem. Segewold, dawniej pol. Zygwold) – miasto na Łotwie (10,6 tys. mieszkańców w 2005), ok. 50 km na północny wschód od Rygi, na skraju łotewskiego Parku Narodowego Gauja - tak zwanej ""Szwajcarii Łotewskiej"", nad wąwozem rzeki Gauja. Ośrodek turystyczny, kurort. Miejsce uprawiania sportów zimowych (tor bobslejowy, wyciągi narciarskie). +W średniowieczu Krzyżacy w swoim marszu z Prus Wschodnich przez Liwonię na północ opanowali m.in. dolinę rzeki Gauja i wybudowali ciąg warownych zamków kontrolujących okolicę. Jednemu z nich nadali niem. nazwę "Siegewald" ("Las zwycięstwa", później "Segewald" lub "Segewold"), stąd współczesna łotewska nazwa tego miasta. Znajdująca się poniżej miasta pieczara w piaskowcu nosi nazwę Petershoehle. +W pobliżu ruin średniowiecznej warowni w 1881 postawiono Nowy Zamek, który można podziwiać do dzisiaj. +Stanisław Stadnicki, zwany "diabłem łańcuckim", sławny warchoł i wpływowy szlachcic, otrzymał Siguldę od króla za starostwo i zwał się odtąd starostą zygwulskim. +Pobliskie miejscowości. +Turaida +Olej z czarnuszki + +Olej z czarnuszki - miodowy do ciemnobrązowego olej otrzymywany z tłoczenia nasion czarnuszki siewnej ("Nigella sativa"). Lekko gorzkawy w smaku, o intensywnym, korzennym zapachu. +Olej pełni funkcję przeciwutleniacza, który stabilizuje i chroni nienasycone kwasy tłuszczowe i fosfolipidy wchodzące w skład błon komórkowych przed uszkodzeniem ze strony wolnych rodników. +Bolesław II cieszyński + +Bolesław (Bolko) II cieszyński (ur. ok. 1428, zm. 4 października 1452) – w latach 1431-1442 razem z braćmi w księstwie cieszyńskim (tylko formalnie), w wyniku podziału na połowie Bielska i Frysztacie, 1452 zamiana z bratem Wacławem I na połowę Bytomia. +Najmłodszy syn księcia cieszyńskiego Bolesława I i Eufemii (Ofki) Mazowieckiej. W chwili śmierci ojca małoletni, znalazł się pod opieką matki i starszego rodzeństwa. +Do 29 listopada 1442 sprawował formalnie władzę w Księstwie Cieszyńskim jako jeden z książąt tzw. niedzielnych (tzn. nie posiadających działu). +Po podziale księstwa nadal nosił tytuł księcia cieszyńskiego, jednak faktycznie sprawował władzę nad kilkoma miastami (z największym Frysztatem, uzyskanym zresztą dopiero po śmierci matki w 1447) i wsiami na terenie Księstwa, pozostawiając większość książęcych obowiązków swemu bratu, Przemysławowi II. +Idąc śladami ojca i braci usiłował jednak uczestniczyć w polityce międzynarodowej. W przeciwieństwie do brata Władysława, który związał się z Czechami, Bolesław II opowiadał się za ścisłymi związkami z Polską. W 1443 poparł Polskę w jej sporze z Węgrami, zaś w 1449 był rozjemcą pomiędzy królem polskim Kazimierzem Jagiellończykiem a panami czeskimi. Dobrym stosunkom Bolesława z Polską nie przeszkodziła sprawa sprzedaży księstwa siewierskiego biskupowi krakowskiemu Zbigniewowi Oleśnickiemu, co wywołało na Górnym Śląsku trwającą do lutego 1447 wojnę. +Od 1448 Bolko II był żonaty z Anna, siostrzenicą żony Władysława Jagiełły, Sońki, a córką księcia bielskiego Iwana. Ślub ten spotkał się z aprobatą polskiego monarchy Kazimierza Jagiellończyka, który w prezencie ślubnym ofiarował sporą sumę pieniędzy - 2000 florenów. +Bolesław zabiegał o uzyskanie samodzielnego władztwa, w związku z czym w 1452 wymienił się z bratem Wacławem I Bielsko na część Księstwa Bytomskiego, gdzie planował zasiąść. Jednak jego plany pokrzyżowała nagła śmierć 4 października 1452. +Bolesław pozostawił po sobie dwie córki (była to Zofia, żona Wiktoryna z Podiebradów, syna króla czeskiego Jerzego i Barbara, żona najpierw Baltazara żagańskiego, potem Jana V Zatorskiego), oraz syna Kazimierza, który po śmierci stryja Przemysława II w 1477 okazał się być jedynym męskim przedstawicielem cieszyńskich Piastów. +Resko Przymorskie + +Resko Przymorskie (niem. "Kamper See") – jezioro przybrzeżne Bałtyku na Wybrzeżu Trzebiatowskim, położone w woj. zachodniopomorskim, na terenie gminy Trzebiatów i gminy Kołobrzeg. +Powierzchnia zwierciadła wody jest zmienna i według różnych źródeł wynosi od 553,9 ha do nawet 668,6 ha. +Akwen jako jezioro przymorskie stanowi siedlisko przyrodnicze chronione w obszarze Natura 2000 (specjalnym obszarze ochrony siedlisk) o nazwie Trzebiatowsko-Kołobrzeski Pas Nadmorski. Wody jeziora zostały ocenione jako pozaklasowe, a samo jezioro za nieodporne na degradację biologiczną. +Obszar Reska Przymorskiego jest lęgowiskiem ptaków wodno-błotnych i ostoją dla wędrownych ptaków blaszkodziobych. Nad jeziorem zaobserwowano 13 gatunków lęgowych, w tym 4 zagrożone wyginięciem. +W typologii rybackiej jest to jezioro sandaczowe. +Resko Przymorskie jest płytkim jeziorem polimiktycznym, którego dno znajduje się na kryptodepresji. +Położenie. +Jezioro znajduje się we wschodniej części Wybrzeża Trzebiatowskiego, w północnej części woj. zachodniopomorskiego, na terenie powiatów kołobrzeskiego i gryfickiego. Zachodnia część jeziora należy do gminy Trzebiatów, wschodnia do gminy Kołobrzeg. +Jezioro jest oddzielone od Morza Bałtyckiego wąskim pasem mierzei nadbudowanym przez przybrzeżny wał wydmowy. Szerokość pasa mierzei waha się od 0,3 do 1 km. Wydmy na mierzei jeziora dochodzą do wysokości 16 m n.p.m. Nad jego północno-wschodnim brzegiem Reska Przymorskiego leży miejscowość turystyczna Dźwirzyno, w której znajduje się stanica wodna i przystanią żeglarską. Nad północno-zachodnim brzegiem jeziora leży kolonia Rogowo z dwoma ośrodkami wczasowymi. +Cały obszar Reska Przymorskiego wraz z obrzeżem znajduje się w Trzebiatowsko-Kołobrzeskim Pasie Nadmorskim, będącym specjalnym obszarem ochrony siedlisk programu Natura 2000. Jezioro jest położone także w obszarze specjalnej ochrony ptaków "Wybrzeże Trzebiatowskie". +Informacje hydrologiczne. +Resko Przymorskie jest naturalnym zbiornikiem wodnym powstałym na skutek odcięcia mierzeją dawnej zatoki od morza. +Powierzchnia zwierciadła wody według różnych źródeł wynosi od 553,9 ha przez 559,0 ha, 577,1 ha, 620 ha aż do 668,6 ha. Różnice w podawanych wielkościach są znaczne i wynikają ze zmienności wodostanu jeziora, który zależy od warunków atmosferycznych. Ze względu na swobodne połączenie z morzem zasoby wód w jeziorze i jego powierzchnia zależą od kierunku i siły wiatrów, zwłaszcza podczas spiętrzeń sztormowych. W ciągu doby wody jeziora mogą podnieść się o 0,5 metra, a przy długotrwałych sztormach poziom wody może być wyższy o 1,5 metra od normalnego, sięgając ponad wały okalające jezioro. W 1949 roku napływ wód morskich był tak znaczny, że spowodował powódź. +Zwierciadło wody położone jest na wysokości 0,1 m n.p.m. lub 0,3 m n.p.m. Średnia głębokość jeziora wynosi 1,3 m, natomiast głębokość maksymalna 2,5 m. W środkowo-zachodniej części jeziora znajduje się mielizna o głębokości 1 m. +Objętość wody w zbiorniku wynosi 7703,4 tys. m³. Długość linii brzegowej przy przeciętnym stanie wód określa się na 11,7 km i linia ta wyróżnia się rozwinięciem w porównaniu do innych polskich jezior przymorskich. Dno jeziora jest w większości piaszczyste i na początku lat 80. określane jako słabo zamulone (wówczas przeźroczystość wód dochodziła do 1,5 m). +Zlewnia. +Na zlewnię jeziora składają się zlewnie wpadających do niej cieków wodnych. Zlewnia Reska Przymorskiego należy do dorzecza rzek przymorza Bałtyku. +Do jednej z zachodnich zatok jeziora wpada Stara Rega, będąca starym korytem rzeki Regi, która uchodzi do Morza Bałtyckiego na zachód od Reska Przymorskiego. +Prócz Starej Regi od strony zachodniej i południowej z jeziorem łączą się różnej wielkości rowy melioracyjne. +Na wschodnim brzegu do jeziora uchodzi Łużanka, będąca dolnym biegiem rzeki Dębosznicy. Bardziej na północ do Reska Przymorskiego wpadają wody z tzw. Nowej Błotnicy (także Bagienny Rów), kanału (nowego koryta) rzeki Błotnicy, której dawny bieg z kolei uchodzi do jeziora bardziej na północ na wschodnim brzegu w okolicy Dźwirzyna. +Resko Przymorskie połączone jest z morzem w północno-wschodniej części poprzez szeroką przetokę zwaną Kanałem Resko. Przepływ wód korytem kanału jest swobodny. +Poziom wody w jeziorze jest zmienny, zależny od często wiejących tu wiatrów od morza powodujących cofki, kiedy słona woda z morza wpływa do jeziora – stąd zmienne dane o powierzchni jeziora. +Do jeziora uchodzi także niewielki ciek wodny od południowego brzegu tzw. dopływ spod Gosławia. +Przyroda. +Od strony wschodniej, południowej i zachodniej przylegają rozległe szuwary trzcinowe poprzecinane siecią rowów melioracyjnych. Bardziej stabilny grunt porośnięty lasem znajduje się przy północnym brzegu. +Przymorskie położenie jeziora i swobodna możliwość wymiany wody między nim i morzem jest przyczyną typowego dla jezior przybrzeżnych występowania gatunków zwierząt typowo słodkowodnych i morskich, przy czym powinowactwo z fauną Bałtyku widoczne jest zwłaszcza w pobliżu cieku łączącego jezioro z morzem. +Według danych regionalnego zarządu gospodarki wodnej dominującymi gatunkami ryb w wodach Reska Przymorskiego są: leszcz, krąp, płoć, szczupak pospolity. Pozostałymi gatunkami ryb występujących w jeziorze są: węgorz europejski, okoń europejski, sandacz, lin, wzdręga, jazgarz, ukleja. +Jezioro ma brzegi w znacznym stopniu zarośnięte trzciną i niedostępne, przez co jest schronieniem dla wielu gatunków ptactwa wodnego. Na brzegach w północnej części jeziora w pobliżu wypływu Kanału Resko znajdowało się jedno z trzech stanowisk w Polsce rośliny krytycznie zagrożonej, wymienionej w Polskiej Czerwonej Księdze Roślin – ponikła maleńkiego. +Nad Reskiem Przymorskim zaobserwowano 13 gatunków lęgowych, w tym 4 zaliczone do zagrożonych wyginięciem, przynajmniej w jednej ze skal (międzynarodowej, krajowej lub regionalnej) – gęś gęgawa, gągoł, wąsatka i gąsiorek. Pozostałe gatunki ptaków pojawiają się okresowo w czasie przelotów lub niekiedy zimują, albo wykorzystują wody jeziora przez cały rok jako teren żerowiskowy np. bielik. W porze przelotów zatrzymują się dosyć licznie, bo w stadach od kilkudziesięciu do kilkuset osobników: perkozy, łyski, żurawie, mewy, gęsi i kaczki. +Wśród migrujących ptaków stwierdzono także gatunki, które znajdują się w Czerwonej Księdze Gatunków Zagrożonych, tj. rożeniec i rybołów. Spotykane są także rzadkie w Polsce żurawie, mewy małe i żółtonogie. O jeziorze jako ptasim raju pisał już w 1933 niemiecki ornitolog Artur B.G. Butz. +W 2007 roku gmina Kołobrzeg projektowała użytek ekologiczny we wschodniej części Reska Przymorskiego (zachodnia część należy do gminy Trzebiatów). Obszar ten jest lęgowiskiem ptaków wodno-błotnych i ostoją dla wędrownych ptaków blaszkodziobych, a także miejscem rozrodu płazów, gadów i ssaków. +Stan sanitarny. +W wyniku badań przeprowadzonych w 1996 i w 2003 roku, wody Reska Przymorskiego określone zostały jako pozaklasowe, a samo jezioro za nieodporne na wpływy zewnętrzne. Pod względem zawartości fosforanów i azotu mineralnego wody spełniały wymagania I klasy po względem stanu sanitarnego. Badania wykazały zasobność jeziora w substancję organiczną i mineralną. W wodach występowały bardzo wysokie stężenia azotu, fosforu, chlorofilu i suchej masy sestonu. Przezroczystość wody określono jako bardzo niską. Największym dopływem jeziora jest rzeka Błotnica, której wody mają III klasę jakości. Za punktem pomiaru jakości wód, Błotnica odbiera także wody rzeki Dębosznicy posiadające IV klasę jakości. +Jezioro jest silnie zeutrofizowane, jakość wód nie odpowiada normatywom jakości III klas czystości wód jeziorowych. Jest to akwen płytki i ma utrudnioną wymianę wód. Odpływ wód odbywa się bezpośrednio do morza i jest możliwy przy niskim stanie Bałtyku w rejonie przybrzeżnym. Jakość wód determinują silne zakwity fitoplanktonu, a także wysokie stężenia biopierwiastków i nadmierne ilości związków organicznych. +Ścieki w Rogowie były odprowadzane do wojskowej oczyszczalni ścieków, która jednak była niesprawna pod względem technicznym. Obecnie ścieki są kierowane do oczyszczalni ścieków pod Trzebiatowem. +W 1993 roku Dźwirzyno zostało skanalizowane, a ścieki z miejscowości są odprowadzane do oczyszczalni ścieków w Grzybowie. Wcześniej jeden ośrodek wczasowy posiadał oczyszczalnię typu "Bioblok". Z pozostałych obiektów ścieki były wywożone. +Zagospodarowanie. +Administratorem wód Reska Przymorskiego jest Regionalny Zarząd Gospodarki Wodnej w Szczecinie. Utworzył on obwód rybacki, który obejmuje wody Reska Przymorskiego wraz z wodami cieków uchodzących do tego jeziora nie stanowiących oddzielnych obwodów, czyli bez rzeki Błotnicy i Łużanki. Gospodarzem wód jeziora jest spółka Gospodarstwo Rybackie "Mielno", która prowadzi gospodarkę rybacką na jeziorze i pobiera opłaty za połów ryb. Połowy sieciowe utrudniają zalegające na dnie wraki stanowiące pozostałość po wojnie. +W pobliżu ujścia Starej Regi do jeziora na stawach o powierzchni ok. 2,5 ha znajduje się prywatne łowisko specjalne, gdzie okoliczni turyści uprawiają wędkarstwo. +Według danych Wojewódzkiego Inspektoratu Ochrony Środowiska w Szczecinie z 2004 roku w wielu miejscach nad jeziorem jest pozyskiwana trzcina pospolita. +Zasoby turystyczne. +Resko Przymorskie jest obszarem wykorzystywanym turystycznie w sezonie letnim. +W Rogowie nad jeziorem znajduje się wojskowy dom wczasowy z zapleczem rekreacyjnym, a także drugi ośrodek wczasowy. +W Dźwirzynie przy ujściu Błotnicy do jeziora została wybudowana drewniana stanica wodna wraz z przystanią, przy której znajdują się rowery wodne i jachty. Obszar ten wykorzystuje się jako bazę dla osób uprawiających windsurfing i kitesurfing. +Po mierzei Reska Przymorskiego na drodze powiatowej biegnie międzynarodowy Szlak Rowerowy Wokół Bałtyku (R-10), będący częścią sieci EuroVelo (EV10). Na południe od jeziora biegnie pieszy Szlak Nadmorski (czerwony, Świnoujście–Żarnowiec) przez Mrzeżyno, Roby, Karcino, Dźwirzyno. +Stowarzyszenie turystyki rowerowej z Kołobrzegu wyznaczyło rowerowy "Szlak wokół jeziora Resko Przymorskie" o długości 52 km. Przy wschodniej części jeziora została poprowadzona przyrodniczo-historyczna trasa rowerowa "Ku Słońcu". +Historia. +Najstarsze informacje piśmienne dotyczące jeziora dotyczą świadczeń w naturze w postaci ryb, jakie mieszkańcy wsi rybackiej nadanej w 1180 roku norbertanom i położonej nad jeziorem Resko Przymorskie, dostarczać mieli do klasztoru. +Dawniej rzeka Rega uchodziła do Reska Przymorskiego, pozostałością jej dawnego koryta jest Stara Rega. Nad jeziorem znajdował się port Regoujście, a na rzece odbywała się żegluga handlowa. Port pozostawał pod zarządem Trzebiatowa i stanowił konkurencję dla Kołobrzegu. Według niektórych źródeł w 1456 roku kołobrzeżanie napadli zbrojnie na Regoujście, zatapiając w porcie statki z ładunkiem kamieni, odcinając w ten sposób Trzebiatów od dostępu do morza. Według innych to sztorm zatopił statki, niszcząc port. W następnym roku trzebiatowianie przekopali kanał, którym od tego czasu Rega uchodzi do Morza Bałtyckiego w porcie w Mrzeżynie. Nowy port w Mrzeżynie funkcjonował do 1497 roku, kiedy to sztormy zatopiły kotwiczące tam statki, uniemożliwiając wykorzystanie przystani do 1538 roku. +W okresie przedwojennym nad jeziorem Resko stworzony został posterunek obserwacyjny (niem. "Naturwarte") przez Artura B.G. Butza. Inicjatywa skończyła się jednak skandalem w związku ze "skradzioną literaturą" i po interwencji żandarmów oraz Pruskiej Centralnej Placówki ds. Ochrony Pomników Przyrody (niem. "Prussischen Zentralstelle für Naturdenkmalpflege") placówka została zdyskredytowana. +Do 1935 roku nad Starą Regą ok. 0,5 km od ujścia do jeziora, położona była wieś rybacka Kamp, w której stały chaty pokryte strzechą. W 1936 roku rozpoczęto budowę osiedla koszarowego i lotniska morskiego garnizonu Rogowo. Resko Przymorskie było wykorzystywane przez bazujący tu pułk rozpoznania lotniczego, którego wodnopłaty startowały i lądowały na jeziorze. Nad północnym brzegiem zachował się rozległy betonowy plac, od którego wybiegają w stronę morza i jeziora betonowe pasy. +W 1945 roku Resko Przymorskie było wykorzystywane jako lądowisko wodnopłatowców Luftwaffe. Na początku wiosny (najprawdopodobniej w ostatnich dniach marca), gdy wojska Armii Czerwonej dotarły do brzegów jeziora, od strony wschodniej pojawił się niemiecki samolot transportowy Junkers Ju 52 z zamiarem lądowania. Gdy pilot zdał sobie sprawę, że znajduje się na samej linii frontu, próbował poderwać maszynę do góry, jednak samolot został trafiony przez pocisk radzieckiej artylerii. Junkers uderzył w taflę jeziora w odległości kilkudziesięciu metrów od brzegu opanowanego przez Niemców, którzy mimo ostrzału przystąpili do wyciągnięcia samolotu z Reska. Do czołgów przymocowano stalowe liny, którymi usiłowano owinąć wystającą ponad powierzchnię jeziora kabinę pilota. Akcja ta nie powiodła się, a samolot utonął. Jeńcy niemieccy zeznali później, że transportowiec wystartował z Królewca i przewoził niezwykle cenny ładunek. W sierpniu 1946 miała miejsce nieudana próba wydobycia samolotu przez żołnierzy radzieckich, podczas której przełamał się on na pół. Z kabiny pilota wypłyneło ciało żołnierza w mundurze z generalskimi dystynkcjami. +Po latach były dowódca jednostki Armii Czerwonej płk I.G. Nowikow napisał list do szefa kaliningradzkiej grupy zajmującej się poszukiwaniami zagrabionych dzieł sztuki. Opisał on wydarzania związane z zatonięciem samolotu w Resku Przymorskim wraz z mapką oraz zasugerował, że w zatopionym Junkersie mogły znajdować skrzynie z Bursztynową Komnatą. +Już po śmierci Nowikowa, w 1987 roku, przebadano dno jeziora w celu jej odnalezienia. Polsko-radziecka ekspedycja składała się z grupy płetwonurków woroneskiego klubu "Rif", żołnierzy Wojska Polskiego i harcerzy. Szef grupy Borys Waszkiewicz z ZHP przedstawił, że mimo wykorzystania trałów, ezektorów, magnetometrów i sprzętu wojskowego, napotkali wiele trudności szczególnie z widocznością oraz z trzymetrową warstwą mułu. Po wielu dniach poszukiwań wyciągnięto na powierzchnię kilka drobnych fragmentów przedniej części samolotu, a także część srebrnej zastawy stołowej, wisiorek i obrączkę. Zostały znalezione także dokumenty i kartki żywnościowe z kabiny pilota, które po zbadaniu potwierdzały, że samolot leciał z Królewca. Członkom grupy nurków nie udało się dotrzeć jednak do drugiej części przełamanego samolotu – luku ładunkowego. +Polska Agencja Prasowa poinformowała, że 18 sierpnia 1989 rozpoczęły się kolejne poszukiwania szczątków niemieckiego samolotu w Resku Przymorskim. W odróżnieniu od poprzedniej wersji o modelu wodnopłata, przedstawiono iż zatopionym samolotem miał być Dornier Do 24. +Na początku maja 2009 roku, podczas trzydniowej ekspedycji nurkowej w jeziorze Resko Przymorskie, nurkowie znaleźli elementy niemieckiego samolotu z czasów II wojny światowej. Prezes Fundacji Muzeum-Fort "Rogowo" Mirosław Huryn stwierdził, iż wiele wskazuje na to, że znalezione części to fragmenty niemieckiego wodnosamolotu Dornier Do 24. +Do 2001 roku znaczna część Reska Przymorskiego oraz obszar mierzei od mostu na kanale w Dźwirzynie były niedostępne dla ludności cywilnej, z powodu użytkowania tego terenu przez wojsko. Obszar ten należał do garnizonu Rogowo, gdzie stacjonował m.in. 75 Pułk Artylerii Przeciwlotniczej. +Hydronimia. +Językoznawca Mikołaj Rudnicki przedstawił nazwę "Resko" dla określenia jeziora "Camp" (pol. kęp(a)) przy badaniu etymologii nazwy rzeki Rega w 1935 roku. Wskazał iż derywatami do nazwy rzeki są "Resko (jezioro)" ≤ "*Režъsko jezero", podobnie jak Łeba i Łebsko. +Nazwa jeziora została odnotowana w 1680 roku jako "Campische See" oraz 1789 jako "Campsche See". +Nazwa Resko Przymorskie została wprowadzona urzędowo w 1948 roku, kiedy to zmieniono poprzednią niemiecką nazwę jeziora – "Kamper See". Poprzednia nazwa pochodziła od nazwy wioski rybackiej "Kamp". Obecna nazwa ma związek z rzeką Regą i nadmorskim położeniem. +Brygida Grysiak + +Brygida Grysiak (ur. 18 lipca 1979 w Krakowie) – polska dziennikarka telewizyjna, obecnie związana z TVN24. +Kariera. +Absolwentka Wydziału Zarządzania i Komunikacji Społecznej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, od początku istnienia telewizji TVN24 do września 2005 pełniła obowiązki jej korespondenta w Małopolsce, pracowała też w krakowskim oddziale Faktów jako researcher. +Do lutego 2006 przygotowywała także materiały dla programu Dzień Dobry TVN. Zanim rozpoczęła karierę w TVN24, współpracowała z Gazetą Krakowską, Niezależnym Kwartalnikiem Kulturalnym "Alter Ego", Radiem Kraków oraz TVP2, gdzie prowadziła program edukacyjny Dzieci i ryby. +Jest dwukrotną laureatką nagrody Dziennikarzy Małopolski. +Obecnie jest warszawską reporterką TVN24 i prezenterką serwisów informacyjnych. Przygotowuje materiały przede wszystkim dotyczące życia politycznego i religijnego. +Jest autorką wywiadu-rzeki z księdzem Mieczysławem Mokrzyckim - "Najbardziej lubił wtorki". Książka opowiada o nieznanych dotąd faktach z życia papieża Jana Pawła II. +Życie prywatne. +Od 2007 jest żoną byłego rzecznika prasowego rządu Kazimierza Marcinkiewicza Konrada Ciesiołkiewicza. +Jangada + +Jangada (inne wersje tytułów polskich tłumaczeń: Jangada czyli 800 mil na falach Amazonki, 2000 mil po Amazonce) + (fr. "Jangada", 1881) - dwutomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 20 rozdziałów (1. tom) oraz 20 rozdziałów (2. tom). +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1881 +Miejscem akcji tej kryminalnej powieści jest teren Ameryki Południowej. +Ustrój polityczny + +Ustrój polityczny − struktura organizacyjna, kompetencje i określone prawem wzajemne zależności organów państwa. W innym ujęciu określenie dla dowolnej formy sprawowania władzy publicznej; zespół zasad dotyczących tej władzy w państwie, a także metod jej wykonywania. +Zasady te określają przedmiot władzy państwowej, wytyczają zakres i główne kierunki aktywności państwa, oraz podstawowe prawa, wolności i obowiązki obywateli, precyzują formy i metody ich udziału w realizacji władzy państwowej. Ustrój polityczny opiera się zarówno na zasadach określonych w aktach prawnych jak i na tradycji. Współcześnie najczęściej określony jest konstytucyjnie. +Pojęcie to wywieść można z dzieł Arystotelesa, który stwierdza: "ujęcie w pewien porządek władz w ogóle, a przede wszystkim naczelnej z nich, to jest rządu". +We współczesnej politologii pojęcie to zyskało sobie bliskie koncepcje, takie jak: system polityczny, system konstytucyjny, system rządów i reżim polityczny. +W doktrynie prawa konstytucyjnego ustrój polityczny jest kategorią złożoną, oznaczającą podstawowe zasady struktury władz państwowych oraz główne instytucje polityczne i prawne. +Każdy ustrój polityczny oparty jest na ideologii i tradycji historycznej. Na ich podstawie odnajdują się mechanizmy zdobywania oraz sprawowania władzy w danym ustroju, system gospodarczy w nim funkcjonujący oraz obowiązujący system prawny. +Trzyniec + +Trzyniec (czes. "Třinec", niem. "Trzynietz", słow. "Trinec") – miasto na wschodzie Czech, w kraju morawsko-śląskim, w powiecie Frydek-Mistek, w obrębie Zagłębia Ostrawsko-Karwińskiego, na obszarze historycznego Śląska Cieszyńskiego, nad rzeką Olzą, w kotlinie rozdzielającej Beskid Śląski i Beskid Śląsko-Morawski. Liczy 38 000 mieszkańców. +W mieście znajduje się istniejąca od I poł. XIX wieku huta, obecnie największa w całych Czechach. Jest to także ważny ośrodek mniejszości polskiej, stanowiącej 17% ludności miasta. Przez Trzyniec przebiega jeden z dwóch głównych korytarzy transportowych (drogowo-kolejowy) łączących Czechy ze Słowacją, w tym linia kolejowa - dawna Kolej Koszycko-Bogumińska. Swoją siedzibę mają tu: klub hokejowy HC Oceláři Trzyniec i piłkarski Fotbal Trzyniec. +Podział administracyjny. +Trzyniec podzielony jest na 39 obrębów ewidencyjnych składających się na 13 dzielnic, które z kolei objęte są przez 12 gmin katastralnych. Dzielnica Kanada znajduje się w granicach dwóch gmin katastralnych, "Konská" i "Třinec". który obejmuje także "Staré Město", zaś "Osůvky" w całości znajduje się w gminie katastralnej "Český Puncov". + Dzielnice: Dolní Líštná • Guty • Horní Líštná • Kanada • Karpentná • Kojkovice • Konská • Lyžbice • Nebory • Oldřichovice• Osůvky • Staré Město • Tyra +Historia. +Wieś Trzyniec powstała w XIV wieku, pierwsza pisemna wzmianka o niej pochodzi z 1461 roku. +W 1839 r. uruchomiono tu hutę żelaza, największą na Śląsku Cieszyńskim. W 1871 r. Kolej Koszycko-Bogumińska połączyła wieś z Zagłębiem Ostrawsko-Karwińskim i Słowacją. Przyczynił się to do gwałtownego rozwoju huty i co za tym idzie – samego Trzyńca. +Po podziale Śląska Cieszyńskiego w 1920 r. Trzyniec znalazł się w granicach Czechosłowacji, chociaż 69% mieszkańców stanowiła ludność polskojęzyczna. (potem liczba ta szybko zaczęła się zmniejszać). 1 stycznia 1931 r. miejscowość otrzymała prawa miejskie. W październiku 1938 r. na skutek aneksji Zaolzia Trzyniec został włączony w skład Polski, jednak już rok później ponownie zmienił przynależność państwową, stając się częścią III Rzeszy. +W 1945 r. Trzyniec ponownie znalazł się granicach Czechosłowacji. W latach 50. w południowej części miasta zbudowano monumentalną socrealistyczną dzielnicę, która przejęła funkcję śródmieścia. Późniejszy rozwój przestrzenny to przede wszystkim budowa kilku osiedli bloków mieszkalnych, głównie w części południowo-zachodniej, a także rozbudowa huty (która stała się największą w kraju, co doprowadziło do zniszczenia historycznego centrum Końskiej, stanowiącej przed 1949 r. osobną gminę. +Dąb bezszypułkowy + +Dąb bezszypułkowy ("Quercus petraea" (Mattuschka) Liebl.) – gatunek dębu, drzewa liściastego z rodziny bukowatych, występujący w Europie Środkowej, Irlandii, Wielkiej Brytanii, południowej Skandynawii, aż po tereny Włoch i Bułgarii. W Polsce występuje rzadziej od dębu szypułkowego. Ma u nas swoją północno-wschodnią granicę zasięgu. +Biologia i ekologia. +Kwitnie ok. 2 tygodnie później niż dąb szypułkowy. Gatunek jednopienny. Drzewo zaczyna owocować w wieku 40–50 lat, a gdy rośnie w zwarciu jeszcze później. +Preferuje klimat umiarkowany, łagodny i wilgotny. Tworzy czyste dąbrowy i lasy mieszane z innymi gatunkami dębów, kasztanem, bukiem i grabem. Najlepiej rośnie na glebach piaszczysto-gliniastych, lekko kwaśnych. Najwyżej stwierdzone występowanie - Alpy i Pireneje - 1800 m n.p.m., góry Elbrusu w Azji - 2400 m n.p.m. W Polsce na ogół nie przekracza wysokości 550 m n.p.m. Najwyżej odnotowano go w Gorcach – 750 m n.p.m. +Zmienność. +Tworzy mieszańce z dębem omszonym i d. szypułkowym ("Quercus x rosacea" Bechst. = "Q x intermedia" Boenn.). +Szkodniki i choroby. +- patrz dąb szypułkowy +Strumień (miasto) + +Strumień (niem. "Schwarzwasser", cz. "Strumeň") – miasto w województwie śląskim, w powiecie cieszyńskim, nad rzeką Wisłą. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. miasto miało 3453 mieszkańców. +Historia. +. Po raz pierwszy wieś Strumień wzmiankowana została w 1407. Następnie Strumień stał się własnością niejakiego "Sobka" z Kornic (1430-1446) i "Machna Ogrozieńskiego" (1450-1480). W 1480 księstwo pszczyńskie zostaje nabyte przez Kazimierza II – księcia cieszyńskiego, ten z kolei podarował je swojemu marszałkowi Mikołajowi Brodeckiemu, który był w jego posiadaniu do swojej śmierci w 1518. Pod panowaniem Brodeckiego dotychczasowa wieś wkrótce otrzymało prawa miejskie (1482) oraz podstawowe prawa i przywileje (1491). Po zatwierdzeniu praw miejskich przez Władysława Jagiellończyka w 1503, co pozwoliło na używanie pieczęci i herbu Strumień stało się pełnoprawnym, choć prowincjonalnym, miastem Księstwa Cieszyńskiego, w którym organizowane były cotygodniowe targi, oraz dwa razy do roku jarmark. Dostał też zezwolenie na budowę murów obronnych, jednak nigdy do tego nie doszło. Dzięki położeniu na skrzyżowaniu szlaków handlowych: z Krakowa do Moraw i z Raciborza do Bielska miasto nieustannie rozwijało się. Dodatkowo w okolicznych miejscowościach hodowano duże ilości ryb (pierwszy staw rybny w Strumieniu powstał w 1416 roku), które sprzedawane były nawet do dalekiego Wrocławia i Krakowa. Natomiast w samym mieście licznie osiedlali się rzemieślnicy. +Rozwój miasta został częściowo zahamowany przez klęski żywiołowe jak pożar w 1572, który prawie doszczętnie zniszczył miasto, odbudowa trwała 30 lat. Spokój trwał zaledwie 20 lat, gdyż już w 1623 miasto dopada zaraza, później liczne powodzie (1678 do 1680), w 1688 ponownie pożar, o wcale nie mniejszej sile niż poprzedni. Brzemienne w skutkach były także wojna trzydziestoletnia i prześladowania luteran za czasów Habsburgów. W XVIII wieku nastały wojny śląskie, które poza oczywistymi stratami materialnymi spowodowały też oddzielenie Śląska Cieszyńskiego od Górnego Śląska granicą państwową, przez co przestały też istnieć dotychczasowe szlaki handlowe. W 1793 miasto znów nękane było przez pożar. Warto jednak zaznaczyć, że mimo tylu klęsk, liczba ludności wciąż wzrastała, w 1790 liczyła 1300 mieszkańców. A pod koniec XVIII wieku zaczęto budowę wielu murowanych budynków. Jednak przez protesty mieszkańców w połowie XIX wieku władze miasta nie zgodziły się na budowę Kolei Północnej, co nie polepszyło sytuacji prowincjonalności miasteczka. Dopiero w 1911 roku Strumień doczekał się połączenia kolejowego (wąskotorowego) z Chybiem, mającego cechy tramwaju parowego. +Według austriackiego spisu ludności z 1900 w 183 budynkach w Strumieniu na obszarze 925 hektarów mieszkało 1505 osób, co dawało gęstość zaludnienia równą 162,7 os./km². z tego 1431 (95,1%) mieszkańców było katolikami, 20 (1,3%) ewangelikami a 54 (3,6%) wyznawcami judaizmu, 905 (60,1%) było polsko-, 497 (33%) niemiecko- a 9 (0,6%) czeskojęzycznymi. Do 1910 roku liczba budynków wzrosła do 212 a mieszkańców do 1579, z czego 1484 (94%) było katolikami, 28 (1,8%) ewangelikami, 67 (4,2%) żydami, 824 (54,5%) niemiecko-, 681 (45%) polsko- a 8 (0,5%) czeskojęzycznymi. +We wrześniu 1918 roku, na dwa miesiące przed odzyskaniem przez Polskę niepodległości powstaje "Towarzystwo Śpiewacze „Lutnia”". Inicjatorem była grupa nauczycieli szkoły powszechnej pod przewodnictwem Jana Orszulika, imieniem którego nazwano później stowarzyszenie działające po dzień dzisiejszy. +W okresie międzywojennym Strumień, jako miasto polskie, był jednym z najbiedniejszych miast województwa śląskiego. Sytuacji nie zmieniło wybudowanie tartaku ani rozbudowanie cegielni. Podczas II wojny światowej wokół miasta trwały jedne z najbardziej zażartych walk pomiędzy Armią Czerwoną a Wehrmachtem na Śląsku. Zniszczenia podczas II wojny światowej były na tyle wielkie (85% zniszczeń), iż podważano sensowność odbudowy miasta. Po wojnie starano się zmienić sytuację ekonomiczną w mieście, jednak budowa zbiornika Jeziora Goczałkowickiego podwyższyła wymagania wobec gospodarki ściekowej nowo tworzonych fabryk, które przez to zaniechały umiejscawiania swoich placówek w mieście. +W 2011 władze miejskie przygotowały projekt nowego dwupolowego herbu przedstawiającego pół czarnego orła śląskiego na pierwszym polu oraz błogosławiącą postać św. Barbary na drugim, co nawiązuje do pierwszego herbu z 1503, ale stało się przedmiotem kontrowersji. +Rolnictwo. +Strumień jest gminą typowo rolniczo-turystyczną. Największe znaczenie ma tutaj uprawa roślin okopowych, zbóż oraz rzepaku. Istnieje na tym terenie ponad 900 gospodarstw rolniczych. Wysoce rozwinięte rolnictwo, nowoczesne gospodarstwa oraz intensyfikacja produkcji rolniczej powoduje to że strumieńskie gospodarstwa dostarczają płodów wysokiej jakości. +Gospodarka. +Strumień jest jednym z najmniejszych miast województwa śląskiego. Liczące 3600 mieszkańców miasto jest lokalnym ośrodkiem przemysłowym. Na terenie miasta i gminy rozwija się głównie rolnictwo i turystyka, związana z bliskością ośrodków turystycznych Beskidów, oraz przebiegiem ważnych szlaków drogowych. W mieście istnieje piekarnia, składy budowlane, spółdzielnia mieszkaniowa, Gminna Spółdzielnia „Samopomoc Chłopska”, Przedsiębiorstwo Prefabrykacji Betonów „Befabet”, Zakład Wyrobów Metalowych „Strumet”, Zakład Gospodarki Komunalnej i Mieszkaniowej, firmy: Wesob, Orka, Ledan, F.H.U Decor. Istnieją stacje benzynowe, punkty usługowe i serwisowe, istnieją filie banków: Spółdzielczego w Jasienicy i PKO BP. +Wraz z sąsiednią gminą Chybie, Strumień jest jednym z największych ośrodków hodowli karpia i pstrąga w Polsce. +W Strumieniu działa najstarszy salon fryzjerski w Polsce. Jan Chudy, który uczył się fachu w Wiedniu otworzył salon przy strumieńskim rynku w 1901 roku. +Kultura. +Ruch chóralny. +Strumień ma duże osiągnięcia w zakresie tradycji śpiewaczych. W mieście istnieją dwa chóry: Chór Szkoły Podstawowej i Gimnazjum „Canzonetta” w Strumieniu oraz Towarzystwo Śpiewacze „Lutnia”. Pierwsze z nich zostało założone w 1932 roku przez Fryderyka Króla, ówczesnego dyrektora szkoły. Towarzystwo Śpiewacze „Lutnia” swymi tradycjami sięga roku 1918. Wtedy to grupa nauczycieli szkoły powszechnej pod kierownictwem Jana Orszulika założyło Chór Mieszany. Obydwa chóry strumieńskie należą do grona najbardziej utytułowanych chórów w Polsce. Są one laureatami wielu nagród i wyróżnień na arenie krajowej i światowej. Strumieńskie chóry występowały m.in. w krajach takich jak: Austria, Węgry, Czechy, Niemcy, Francja czy Słowacja. Chóry gościły także występując na antenie telewizji ogólnopolskich oraz ogólnopolskich rozgłośni radiowych. +Transport. +Niedaleko miasta przebiega droga krajowa nr (na krótkim odcinku przecina również granice administracyjne miasta) łącząca Beskid Śląski z Górnośląskim Okręgiem Przemysłowym (Katowice – Harbutowice), przez miasto przebiegają również: droga wojewódzka nr (Pszczyna – Strumień) oraz droga lokalna do Jasienicy przez Chybie. +W mieście zlokalizowana jest nieczynna stacja kolejowa Strumień na linii (Pawłowice Śląskie – Skoczów). +Sport i rekreacja. +W Strumieniu istnieje Ludowy Klub Sportowy „Wisła Strumień”, który posiada dwie sekcje: piłki nożnej oraz szachową. Sekcja piłki nożnej rozgrywa mecze w klasie A. Klub organizuje wiele mistrzostw, w których odnosi sukcesy. Są to: Mistrzostwa Ziemi Cieszyńskiej, Mistrzostwa Powiatu Cieszyńskiego, Turniej Żabiego Kraju, Turniej Młodzików. +Początki sekcji szachowej datuje się na 1987 rok. Zawodnicy sekcji szachowej odnoszą znaczące sukcesy w kraju. +K-141 Kursk + +K-141 Kursk – rosyjski okręt podwodny z napędem jądrowym projektu "949A" (seria: "Antej", kod NATO "Oscar II") przeznaczony do zwalczania dużych jednostek nawodnych, zwłaszcza zachodnich lotniskowców. Budowę jednostki ukończono w maju 1994 roku, 12 sierpnia 2000 roku zaś zatonął wraz z całą, liczącą 118 osób załogą. Nazwa okrętu pochodziła od rosyjskiego miasta Kursk, w pobliżu którego w 1943 roku rozegrała się bitwa na Łuku Kurskim - jedna z największych bitew II wojny światowej. +W marynarce wojennej FR klasyfikowany również jako "atomowy podwodny krążownik rakietowy" (АПРК — атомный подводный ракетный крейсер). +Historia. +Budowę "Kurska" rozpoczęto w stoczni Siewiernoje Maszynostroitielnoje Priedprijatije (Siewmasz) w Siewierodwińsku koło Archangielska w 1992 roku i oficjalnie ukończono w grudniu 1994 roku. Zewnętrzna warstwa zrobiona jest ze stali o wysokiej zawartości niklu i chromu. Taki stop jest odporny na korozję i ma słabe właściwości magnetyczne, co utrudnia wykrycie go przez lotnicze detektory anomalii magnetycznych (MAD) oraz czujniki min magnetycznych. Wewnętrzna warstwa wykonana jest z 5-centymetrowej grubości stali. "Kursk" został wcielony do rosyjskiej Floty Północnej. +Zatonięcie. +"Kursk" zatonął podczas wielkich letnich manewrów Floty Północnej na Morzu Barentsa, w których uczestniczyło około 30 jednostek. Jego rola miała polegać na odpaleniu dwóch torped ćwiczebnych - w tym prawdopodobnie torpedy 298A PV kalibru 650 mm, która do zasilania napędu wykorzystuje stężony nadtlenek wodoru tzw. HTP i naftę. Prawdopodobnie to wyciek nadtlenku wodoru spowodował 12 sierpnia 2000 o 11:28 czasu moskiewskiego (7:28 czasu uniwersalnego) eksplozję o sile 100 kilogramów trotylu, która wywołała wstrząs o sile 1,5 stopnia Richtera. +Wodoszczelne grodzie rozdzielające przedział torpedowy od reszty okrętu były wtedy otwarte, przez co wybuch rozprzestrzenił się na dwa pierwsze z dziewięciu przedziałów okrętu zabijając siedmiu i raniąc, bądź ogłuszając 36 marynarzy. +Rozszerzający się pożar spowodował zapłon i wybuch pozostałych torped. Druga eksplozja zarejestrowana o 11:30 miała siłę 3,5 stopnia w skali Richtera i wyrwała w kadłubie dziurę o średnicy dwóch metrów. Fala uderzeniowa tego wybuchu zniszczyła wszystko na swojej drodze i zatrzymała się dopiero na przedziale reaktorów atomowych. Okręt przechylił się do przodu i opadł na dno osiadając na głębokości 108 metrów na pozycji 69°37'00" N i 37°34'25" E. +Gdy okręt opadał na dno, powinna uwolnić się automatyczna boja sygnalizacyjna pozwalająca określić jego położenie i ułatwiająca dotarcie ratownikom do włazu awaryjnego. Prawdopodobnie została ona jednak zdezaktywowana, ponieważ obawiano się, że podczas gwałtownych manewrów mogłaby się sama uwolnić zdradzając pozycję okrętu uczestniczącym w manewrach wraz z "Kurskiem" jednostkom. +23 marynarzy pracujących w przedziałach od szóstego do dziewiątego ocalało i zgromadziło się w dziewiątym przedziale czekając na pomoc. Ponieważ reaktory atomowe samoczynnie się wyłączyły, a akumulatorowe zasilanie awaryjne wkrótce się wyczerpało, ludzie pozostawali w całkowitych ciemnościach i z coraz mniejszą ilością tlenu. Być może mieli szansę wydostać się na powierzchnię przez właz ewakuacyjny, jednak było to bardzo ryzykowne. +Nie wiadomo, jak długo żyli uwięzieni ludzie - według niektórych teorii zginęli bardzo szybko, według innych przetrwali kilka dni. Mogłyby o tym świadczyć odnalezione przy nich po wydobyciu wraku chemiczne zestawy służące do oczyszczania powietrza z dwutlenku węgla i wzbogacania go w tlen. Prawdopodobnie pożar wywołany zamoczeniem takiego zestawu stał się ostateczną przyczyną śmierci ocalałych z wybuchu marynarzy. +Akcja ratunkowa. +Początkowo pozostałe jednostki uczestniczące w manewrach nie zgłaszały eksplozji sądząc, że to część zaplanowanych ćwiczeń. Dopiero wieczorem, wobec niemożliwości nawiązania kontaktu z "Kurskiem", rozpoczęto akcję ratowniczą. Następnego dnia rano echosonda krążownika "Piotr Wielki" lokalizuje "Kursk" leżący na dnie. Około 8:40 na miejsce przypływa statek ratowniczy "Michaił Rudnicki" i podejmuje nieudane próby połączenia kapsuł ratunkowych z lukiem awaryjnym dziewiątego przedziału. Równocześnie trwają próby dostarczenia na pokład tlenu i elektryczności. +Dopiero w poniedziałek 14 sierpnia 2000 roku władze rosyjskie informują media o katastrofie, początkowo twierdząc, że miała ona miejsce w niedzielę, nie w sobotę. Informowano też, że jest łączność radiowa z załogą, a następnie, że porozumiano się z nią stukaniem w kadłub. +W nocy z poniedziałku na wtorek z ofertą pomocy w akcji ratunkowej występują Brytyjczycy, Amerykanie i Norwegowie. Rosja odmawia. Następnej nocy w kwaterze NATO toczą się rozmowy w sprawie pomocy. W środę po południu Rosja oficjalnie prosi o pomoc Norwegię i Wielką Brytanię. Tego samego dnia wicepremier Rosji Ilja Klebanow mówi, że na "Kursku" nie ma już śladów życia. +W czwartek rano brytyjski batyskaf ratunkowy LR5 wraz z brytyjsko-norweską załogą wyrusza na Morze Barentsa - na miejsce przybywa w sobotę wieczorem. Do tego czasu Rosjanie podejmują wiele nieudanych prób dotarcia do wnętrza "Kurska". Dopiero w niedzielę zezwolono norweskim nurkom na sfilmowanie wraku, a następnie opuszczenie się w dzwonie nurkowym i zbadanie kadłuba. W poniedziałek, 21 sierpnia 2000 roku Norwegowie docierają do wnętrza "Kurska" przez właz awaryjny dziewiątego przedziału. Znajdują tam ciała marynarzy i stwierdzają, że cały pokład jest zatopiony i nie ma szans, by ktoś przeżył. Akcja ratunkowa kończy się. +Podczas całej akcji rosyjskie dowództwo wielokrotnie ogłaszało sprzeczne ze sobą i nieprawdziwe komunikaty narażając się na poważną krytykę mediów i specjalistów. +W 2001 roku wrak "Kurska" został przecięty. Jego większa część, poza dziobem zawierającym przedział torpedowy, została wydobyta z dna przez 3 firmy specjalistyczne, holenderskie Mammoet i Smit Tak, która jest częścią Smit International Group oraz norweską Halliburton Subsea, przy czym Mammoet pełnił funkcję głównego wykonawcy. Brytyjska barka "Gigant-4" przetransportowała wrak do stoczni w Roslakowie koło Siewieromorska, gdzie dotarł w październiku 2001 roku. +Fragmenty części dziobowej wysadzono 20 czerwca 2002 roku. +Przyczyny zatonięcia. +1 lipca 2002 roku rosyjski minister przemysłu i nauki Ilja Klebanow kierujący oficjalną komisją wyjaśnienia okoliczności zatonięcia "Kurska" ogłosił, że przyczyną katastrofy był wybuch torpedy. Spowodował go wyciek nadtlenku wodoru napędzającego torpedę typu 298A PV, który wywołał pożar i wybuch w wyrzutni torpedowej, a następnie eksplozję amunicji. +Dolina Rówienki + +Dolina Rówienki lub Dolina Rówienek, Rówienki (słow. "Rovienky", "dolina Rovienok", niem. "Rovinkital", węg. "Rovinki-völgy") – dolina położona w Tatrach Wysokich, na terenie Słowacji. Jedno z większych (o powierzchni ok. 4 km²) odgałęzień Doliny Białej Wody ("Bielovodská dolina"), od której odchodzi w kierunku wschodnim poniżej Polany pod Wysoką ("Poľana pod Vysokou"). +W górnej części doliny znajdują się trzy niewielkie Rówienkowe Stawki ("Rovienkové plieska"), z których wypływa Rówienkowy Potok ("Rovienkový potok"), dopływ Białej Wody. Wody Rówienkowego Potoku, spadając ze skalnych progów, tworzą Wyżnią Rówienkową Siklawkę ("Rovienkový vodopád") i Niżnią Rówienkową Siklawkę ("Nižný Rovienkový vodopád"). Do doliny nie prowadzi żaden ze znakowanych szlaków turystycznych, jako ścisły rezerwat przyrody jest to miejsce niedostępne dla turystów. Jest widoczna m.in. z polskiej przełęczy Krzyżne i południowego podejścia na nią. +Poszukiwacze skarbów bywali w dolinie już XVII wieku. Później były tu wypasane owce, a pod koniec XIX wieku teren miał zastosowanie myśliwskie. Autorami pierwszego turystycznego przejścia przez dolinę Rówienki byli Kazimierz Łapczyński i przewodnik Wojciech Wala w 1861 r. Zimą w dolinie od dwudziestolecia międzywojennego pojawiali się narciarze. +Pokój w Polanowie + +Pokój wieczysty w Polanowie (od miejscowości Polanowo nad Wiaźmą) pomiędzy Rzecząpospolitą a Carstwem Rosyjskim z 14 czerwca 1634 r. kończył wojnę smoleńską 1632-1634, a w praktyce podsumowywał wojny polsko-rosyjskie toczone w I poł. XVII w. +Chcąc wykorzystać naturalne osłabienie państwa w czasie zmiany władcy, car Michał I Romanow rozpoczął jesienią 1632 roku działania wojenne, mające na celu unieważnienie postanowień rozejmu dywilińskiego (1619). Wojnę smoleńską, którą można uznać za fragment działań wojny trzydziestoletniej (Rosjanie działali w porozumieniu ze Szwecją i Holandią chcącymi w ten sposób zaangażować Rzeczpospolitą na wschodzie), rozstrzygnęła błyskotliwa kampania rozpoczęta przez nowego władcę Władysława IV Wazę jesienią 1633 r., zakończona kapitulacją wojsk rosyjskich dowodzonych przez Michaiła Szeina. +Zrezygnowano jednak z zamierzonej wyprawy na Moskwę, gdy okazało się, że dalsze działania napotkały opór nowych sił rosyjskich, a nastawienie cywilnej ludności jest wrogie i skutkuje nawet czynnym oporem. Dodatkowo sytuację Rzeczypospolitej komplikowała podjęta jesienią 1633 r., nieudana co prawda, wyprawa turecka na Podole, ale przedłużająca się wojna z Rosją mogła wywołać kolejne próby wykorzystania sytuacji przez sprzymierzoną z carem Turcję. +W związku z kończącym się rozejmem ze Szwecją i twardym oporem stawionym przez rosyjską załogę twierdzy Biała Władysław IV postanowił rozpocząć rokowania pokojowe. W tym celu wysłano do Moskwy Mikołaja Woronicza, gdzie na złożone przez niego propozycje rozmów pokojowych chętnie wyrażono zgodę. +Poselstwo polskie pod kierownictwem kanclerza Jakuba Zadzika spotkało się z posłami rosyjskimi 30 kwietnia w Polanowie. Na czele poselstwa rosyjskiego stał Fiodor Szeremietew. Rozmowy były trudne z powodu wygórowanych żądań, jakie początkowo stawiały obie strony. W końcu obie strony doszły do kompromisu i 14 czerwca pokój został podpisany. +Postanowienia. +Władysław IV zdecydował się na podpisanie pokoju wieczystego potwierdzającego nabytki Rzeczypospolitej z 1619 r., czyli województwo smoleńskie dla Wielkiego Księstwa i województwo czernihowskie (ziemia czernihowska i siewierska) dla Korony. I Rzeczpospolita traciła jednak ze swoich nabytków terytorialnych z 1619 12 500 km², w tym Sierpiejsk. Ze swojej strony król za rekompensatę w wysokości 20 tys. rubli zrezygnował z tytułu cara moskiewskiego i zrzekł się pretensji do tronu carskiego. Car rosyjski wyrzekał się swych roszczeń do Estonii, Inflant i Księstwa Kurlandii i Semigalii. Rosja miała także wypłacić kontrybucję wojenną w wysokości 200 000 rubli w srebrze. +Strony traktatu w niezobowiązujący sposób przewidywały wspólne działania w przypadku konfliktów ze Szwecją lub Turcją. +Dodatkowymi postanowieniami pokoju były: ugoda dotycząca wymiany jeńców i umowa handlowa, w której władcy zobowiązali się do popierania kontaktów handlowych między państwami. Obie strony miały także wyznaczyć komisje dla ostatecznego rozgraniczenia ziem między obu państwami. Granice dla kupców miały być otwarte. +Pokój polanowski zakończył okres wojen polsko-rosyjskich w I poł. XVII w., w których Rzeczpospolita była stroną ekspansywną. Rosja obroniła swą niezależność dość niewielkim w rezultacie kosztem strat terytorialnych. Polityka wschodnia Rzeczypospolitej zmierzająca do opanowania Rosji, lub przynajmniej osadzenia na jej tronie uległego albo chociażby przychylnego władcy, zakończyła się fiaskiem. Umacniająca się po okresie wielkiej smuty Rosja pokazała już w ostatnim okresie wojen, że zdolna jest do działań zaczepnych, a jej władcy nie mogą pogodzić się z utratą ziem uważanych za ruskie. +Pokój wieczysty ustabilizował formalnie wschodnie granice Rzeczypospolitej na okres aktywności życiowej jednego pokolenia. Rzeczywisty przebieg granic w terenie był przedmiotem sporów, a jego wytyczenie trwało ponad dziesięć lat. Kolejne komisje graniczne rozchodziły się bez rezultatu. Nieustanne próby renegocjacji ze strony Rosjan, wprowadzanie jednostronnych zmian, próba posługiwania się sfałszowaną kopią traktatu i uniki cara Michała I dotyczące ratyfikacji, przyczyniły się do popularności w Rzeczypospolitej określenia "grecka wiara" jako synonimu niesłowności i niedotrzymywania zobowiązań. Wymuszone na Władysławie IV, chcącym ostatecznie uregulować kwestię granicy wschodniej aby zachować przychylność Rosji w planowanej wojnie z Turcją, ustępstwa o mało nie doprowadziły w 1645 r. do wojny z powodu oporu litewskiej szlachty (incydent trubecki). +W 1654 r., wykorzystując kłopoty wewnętrzne państwa polsko-litewskiego na Ukrainie, Rosja zerwała pokój i ona z kolei rozpoczęła politykę ekspansji w stosunku do Rzeczypospolitej. +Wacław III Adam + +Wacław III Adam, w starszej literaturze Wacław II Adam (ur. w grudniu 1524, zm. 4 listopada 1579) – książę cieszyński w latach 1528-1579, od 1545 samodzielnie, od 1560 rezygnacja z Frysztatu, od 1565 z Bielska (przekazane synowi). +Wacław III Adam był pogrobowym synem księcia cieszyńskiego Wacława II oraz Anny Hohenzollern, córki Fryderyka Starszego, margrabiego brandenburskiego na Ansbach. +Początkowo po urodzeniu, do 1528 opiekę nad nim przejął dziadek, książę Kazimierz II cieszyński. Wacław III miał więc dopiero 4 lata, gdy formalnie obejmował książęcy tron w Cieszynie. W związku z tym, zgodnie z wolą dziadka, Wacław przeszedł pod opiekę regencji, którą objęła matka Anna (do swojej śmierci 7 lutego 1539), oraz czeski magnat Jan z Pernsztajnu zwany Bogatym, hetman ziemski Moraw. +W czasie trwania regencji młody książę spędzał dużo czasu na dworze cesarskim w Wiedniu, gdzie zdobył wykształcenie. Pomimo tego, pod wpływem otoczenia z rodzinnego Cieszyna, Wacław III Adam przyjął wiarę ewangelicką, w której wytrwał do końca swojego życia. +W chwili śmierci matki Anny Wacław III miał już 15 lat, a więc według ówczesnego prawa mógł być już uznany za pełnoletniego. Pomimo tego Jan z Pernsztajnu utrzymał swoje rządy regencyjne aż do 9 maja 1545, kiedy to zrezygnował z władzy dopiero w zamian za uzyskane w zastaw dobra frydecko-misteckie. Wcześniej Wacław III ożenił się z córką swego opiekuna, Marią z Pernsztajnu. Małżeństwo to zostało zaprojektowane przez dziadka księcia Kazimierza II, a zaręczyny dzieci księcia i możnowładcy nastąpiły jeszcze za życia tego pierwszego 8 września 1528. Od teścia książę cieszyński otrzymał 12 000 złotych węgierskich. Z małżeństwa tego Wacław miał syna, Fryderyka Kazimierza (zmarłego w 1571), oraz dwie córki zmarłe w dzieciństwie, Annę i Zofię. +Po śmierci pierwszej żony w 1566, w roku następnym Wacław III ożenił się z Katarzyną Sydonią, córką księcia sasko-lauenburskiego Franciszka I. Z tego małżeństwa książę miał trzech synów (Chrystiana Augusta i Jana Albrechta zmarłych w wieku niespełna roku, oraz Adama Wacława swojego następcę) i trzy córki (Marię Sydonię wydaną za Fryderyka IV Legnickiego, Annę Sybillę kandydatkę na żonę wojewody siedmiogrodzkiego Zygmunta Batorego i trzecią, nieznaną z imienia). +Pod rządami Wacława III księstwo przeżywało okres stabilizacji. W prawdzie podczas rządów regencyjnych stracono należące dotąd do księstwa nabytki dziadka na Dolnym Śląsku i księstwie opawskim, lecz Cieszyn przeżywał wówczas bujny rozwój gospodarczy, co w znaczny sposób pomnożyło dochody górnośląskiego dynasty. Mimo to wydatki żyjącego na wysokim poziomie księcia z trudem bilansowane były przez dochody pochodzące z dóbr panującego. +W 1548 zmarł opiekun Wacława Jan z Pernsztajnu, co umożliwiło wykup z rąk jego synów Jarosława, Wratysława i Wojciecha dóbr frydecko-misteckich. Był to jednak nabytek krótkotrwały, gdyż wkrótce potem ziemie te Wacław oddał w zastaw Janowi z Czechowic. +Jednym z ważniejszych wydarzeń podczas panowania Wacława III Adama była trwająca na terenie księstwa od ok. 1525 reformacja. Książę już u progu swoich samodzielnych rządów zagarnął majątki dominikanów i franciszkanów. W 1560 wyrzucił ze swojego księstwa benedyktynów z Orłowej. Dotychczasowe kościoły i klasztory katolickie zostały zmienione wtedy na kościoły luterańskie, bądź zniszczone. Większość możnowładztwa i ludności księstwa bez oporu przyjęła nową wiarę. Nowsze badania wykazują jednak, że reformacja nie odniosła tak zdecydowanego sukcesu, jak przyjmowała starsza literatura. +Nowy stan rzeczy został też zaakceptowany przez suwerenów tych ziem: Habsbugów. Część przejętego od katolickich zakonów majątku Wacław III przekazał na rzecz szpitala miejskiego w Cieszynie, gdzie leczono również najuboższych. Co ciekawe, książę w młodości wykształcony w naukach medycznych, sam się zajmował pielęgnacją pacjentów, co szczególnego znaczenia zyskało podczas epidemii morowego powietrza w 1570. +24 czerwca 1573 Wacław III Adam wydał tzw. ustawę krajową ("Zřízení zemské Knížecství Těšínského") stanowiącą zbiór wszelkich unormowań prawnych dotyczących księstwa cieszyńskiego. Ustawa ta początkowo przyjmowana z wielką rezerwą została w końcu zaakceptowana przez poddanych. +Oprócz ordynacji ziemskiej wydał książę w 1568 tzw. Porządek kościelny ("Řád církevní"), regulujący liturgiczne życie Kościoła luterańskiego. +W polityce zagranicznej, pomimo przejścia na luteranizm książę oparł swoją karierę o wierną służbę dworowi cesarskiemu w Wiedniu. Był obecny m.in. w Preszburgu na koronacji Maksymiliana II na króla węgierskiego w 1563, czy na pogrzebie Ferdynanda I w 1565 w Wiedniu. +W 1573 w związku z narastającym zagrożeniu ze strony Turków, książę kazał wybudować w okolicach Jabłonkowa kilka szańców obronnych. +W tym samym roku Wacław III Adam kandydował bez powodzenia do godności króla polskiego po wygaśnięciu dynastii Jagiellonów. +Największym problemem okazała się jednak dla księcia rozrzutność jego najstarszego syna, Fryderyka Kazimierza, którego w 1560 uczynił udzielnym władcą we Frysztacie i Skoczowie, a 1565 dodatkowo w Bielsku. Młody Wacławowicz tak zadłużył swoje księstwo, że gdy niespodziewanie w 1571 zmarł, ojciec musiał sprzedać wiele dóbr książęcych w ręce prywatne. W ten sposób Wacław III pozbył się z domeny Piastów Cieszyńskich m.in. Bielska, Frydka i Frysztatu. +Wacław III Adam zmarł po długiej, wyniszczającej chorobie 4 listopada 1579 rażony apopleksją. Został pochowany w byłym kościele dominikańskim w Cieszynie. +Następcą Wacława III Adama został najstarszy z żyjących synów księcia z drugiego małżeństwa pięcioletni Adam Wacław. +Matilda Mk I + +Mk I Matilda I (A11) – brytyjski czołg piechoty z okresu przed II wojną światową. +Historia. +W 1936 roku w brytyjskiej firmie "Vickers-Amstrong" rozpoczęto prace nad opracowaniem czołgu dla wsparcia piechoty. We wrześniu 1936 roku zbudowano prototyp lekkiego czołgu piechoty oznaczonego jako "A11 Matilda Mk I". Był to czołg dobrze opancerzony, lecz o słabym uzbrojeniu, bo składającym się tylko z jednego karabinu maszynowego. Załoga liczyła 2 osoby, czołg napędzany był silnikiem benzynowym o mocy 80 KM (59 kW) i rozwijał niewielką prędkość, do 13 km/h na drodze. +Pomimo tych wad, w 1938 roku rozpoczęto produkcję seryjną. Łącznie wyprodukowano 139 "Matyld", nie licząc prototypu. Produkcję zakończono w 1940 roku, gdy stwierdzono, że czołg nie spełnia wymagań ówczesnego pola walki. +Służba. +Czołgi "Matilda Mk I" były dostarczane do jednostek pancernych armii brytyjskiej od roku 1938. Otrzymały je 4, 7 i 8 królewski pułk czołgów armii brytyjskiej, wchodzące w skład 1 Armijnej Brygady Czołgów. +We wrześniu 1939 roku 4 pułk czołgów skierowano do Francji w składzie Brytyjskiego Korpusu Ekspedycyjnego, a w maju 1940 roku skierowano tam również 7 pułk czołgów. Tam też przeniesiono 1 Armijną Brygadę Czołgów, choć jej trzeci pułk (8 pułk czołgów) pozostał w Wielkiej Brytanii. +W czasie kampanii francuskiej w dniu 21 maja 1940 roku brygada wzięła udział w bitwie pod Arras. Dzięki atakowi brygady oddziałom brytyjskim udało się wyjść z okrążenia i wycofać w kierunku Dunkierki. W trakcie ewakuacji Brytyjskiego Korpusu Interwencyjnego wszystkie czołgi pozostawiono na plażach. +W związku z doświadczeniami, jakie wyniesiono z udziału tych czołgów w walkach w 1940 roku zaniechano ich produkcji, a w roku 1942 pozostałe egzemplarze wycofano z jednostek liniowych, przekazując je do szkolenia. Między innymi na czołgach tych szkolono Polaków w 10 Brygadzie Kawalerii Pancernej w latach 1941-42. Dokładna liczba czołgów użytkowanych przez Polaków nie jest znana. Waha się w różnych opracowaniach od 6 do 18 . +Broker + +Broker - wieloznaczne pojęcie używane na rynku finansowym i kapitałowym w kilku kontekstach znaczeniowych. +W najbardziej generalnym ujęciu brokerem jest podmiot (osoba prawna, osoba fizyczna lub jednostka organizacyjna nieposiadająca osobowości prawnej) świadczący określone usługi (z reguły pośrednictwa) działający na cudzy rachunek (w przeciwieństwie do np. dealera, czyli podmiotu działającego na własny rachunek). Przykładowo broker ubezpieczeniowy reprezentuje interesy ubezpieczeniowe swojego klienta, działając na mocy pełnomocnictwa i doprowadzając do zawarcia umowy ubezpieczenia między ubezpieczającym się (czyli klientem) a zakładem ubezpieczeń. Z kolei dom maklerski prowadzi tzw. działalność brokerską, nabywając i zbywając na giełdzie papierów wartościowych papiery wartościowe na rachunek swoich klientów. +Innym rodzajem brokera jest broker domen internetowych zajmujący się pośrednictwem w sprzedaży domen. +Za swoje usługi brokerzy pobierają prowizję ("brokerage", "commission"), +której wysokość zależy od wartości przeprowadzanej transakcji. Brokerzy +dyskontujący pobierają za swoje usługi niższe stawki prowizyjne. +Broker jest także określeniem osoby dynamicznie poruszającej się na rynku kapitałowym. Aby być brokerem indywidualnym nie trzeba posiadać licencji, lecz aby zostać pełnoprawnym maklerem winno się takową licencję uzyskać. Broker jest niższy rangą od maklera. +Dopiero od brokera giełdowego zaczęto tworzyć kolejne podmioty, takie jak broker ubezpieczeniowy, sprzedający polisy itp. +Hymn Nauru + +Nauru Bwiema ("Nauru, nasza Ojczyzno") - hymn państwowy Nauru. Melodię skomponował australijski kompozytor Laurence Henry Hicks, a słowa napisała Margaret Hendrie. Pieśń została hymnem Nauru w 1968 roku, gdy wyspa ogłosiła swoją niepodległość. +Santa Cruz + +z hiszp. "Święty Krzyż" +John Bush + +John Bush (ur. 24 sierpnia 1963) – amerykański wokalista. Karierę muzyczną rozpoczynał w grupie Armored Saint. Od 1992 do 2005, oraz w 2009 członek zespołu Anthrax. +Zhang Taiheng + +Zhang Taiheng (; ur. 1931, zm. 29 stycznia 2005 w Pekinie) – chiński wojskowy, generał. +Pochodził z powiatu Guangrao (prowincja Szantung). Od 1945 żołnierz Chińskiej Armii Ludowo-Wyzwoleńczej, w 1948 wstąpił do Komunistycznej Partii Chin. Zawodowy wojskowy, w 1988 promowany na generała-porucznika, w 1994 generała. Pełnił m.in. funkcję komendanta Okręgu Wojskowego Jinan. +Pełnił także mandat deputowanego do Ogólnochińskiego Zgromadzenia Przedstawicieli Ludowych w latach 1988-1998 (kadencje VI, VII, VIII), następnie w latach 1998-2003 wchodził w skład Stałego Komitetu Komitetu Krajowego Ludowej Politycznej Konferencji Konsultatywnej Chin (IX kadencja). +Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Nauk Społecznych w Tychach + +Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania i Nauk Społecznych w Tychach (WSZiNS) - niepaństwowa, należąca jednak do miasta (99.9% akcji załozycielskich) uczelnia kształcąca w ramach studiów dziennych i zaocznych na pięciu kierunkach: administracja, informatyka i ekonometria, socjologia oraz zarządzanie i marketing oraz nowo powstałym (2006 r.) stosunkach międzynarodowych. Szkoła powstała 28 marca 1997. +Uczelnia prowadzi również studia podyplomowe, specjalistyczne kursy zawodowe oraz kursy językowe. Jest m.in. lokalnym ośrodkiem egzaminacyjnym TELC – ("The European Language Certificates"). Uczelnia prowadzi też rozmaite kursy w ramach tzw. Uniwersytetu Otwartego. Szkoła posiada swoje wydawnictwo – Śląskie Wydawnictwa Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania i Nauk Społecznych. +W ramach europejskiego programu "Socrates-Erasmus" WSZiNS otrzymała Kartę Erasmusa, na podstawie której uzyskała grant na wprowadzenie Europejskiego Systemu Transferu Punktów (ECTS). +Kadra uczelni liczy ok. 120 osób, z czego 12 osób z naukowym tutułem profesora. W uczelni, w roku akademickim 2004/2005 kształciło się blisko 3500 osób. +Oficjalna strona Szkoły +Piastowie cieszyńscy + +Piastowie cieszyńscy – linia dynastii Piastów śląskich, wywodząca się od Mieszka cieszyńskiego, syna Władysława opolskiego. Od około 1290 roku do 1653 roku panowała w Księstwie Cieszyńskim oraz na czasowo podległych mu ziemiach. W linii męskiej wygasła na Fryderyku Wilhelmie (1625), a w linii żeńskiej na Elżbiecie Lukrecji (1653). +Od Piastów cieszyńskich wywodzą się dwie linie Piastów oświęcimskich: jedna od Władysława oświęcimskiego (syna Mieszka cieszyńskiego), druga od Przemysława oświęcimskiego (syna Przemysława I Noszaka). +Piastowie cieszyńscy byli jedną z najdłużej panujących linii dynastii piastowskiej. +Przedstawiciele. +"Pierwsze pokolenie" +"Drugie pokolenie" +"Trzecie pokolenie" +"Czwarte pokolenie" +"Piąte pokolenie" +"Szóste pokolenie" +"Siódme pokolenie" +"Ósme pokolenie" +"Dziewiąte pokolenie" +"Dziesiąte pokolenie" +Partyzant + +Partyzant (wł. "partigiano" = "stronnik") – żołnierz nieregularnych oddziałów prowadzących walki oraz działania dywersyjne na terenach zajętych przez wroga. +Konwencja Haska IV (1907). +Konwencja haska IV w tym zakresie była niejednokrotnie łamana przez państwa-sygnatariuszy, zwłaszcza przez III Rzeszę i ZSRR w okresie II wojny światowej. +Z uwagi na niezgodne z prawem międzynarodowym stwierdzenie przez Niemcy i ZSRR zaprzestania istnienia państwa polskiego w z 28 września 1939 zarówno żołnierze polscy wzięci do niewoli przez Armię Czerwoną podczas najazdu sowieckiego na Polskę od 17 września 1939 r. jak i żołnierze Armii Krajowej w czasie całych działań wojennych w tym zwłaszcza powstania warszawskiego nie byli uznawani zarówno przez Wehrmacht i inne oddziały niemieckie jak i Armię Czerwoną za stronę wojującą. Dopiero po otwartej deklaracji brytyjskiej z 30 sierpnia 1944 r. uznającej Armię Krajową za stronę wojującą, otwarte naruszanie przez Niemców zasad konwencji haskiej wobec powstańców warszawskich zostało ograniczone – czego konsekwencją były postanowienia układu kapitulacyjnego pomiędzy gen. Tadeuszem "Bór"- Komorowskim a Obergruppenführerem Erichem von dem Bach w przedmiocie kapitulacji garnizonu warszawskiego AK i statusu żołnierzy AK jako jeńców wojennych. +Partyzant a terrorysta lub bandyta. +Określanie konkretnych bojowników mianem partyzantów bądź terrorystów jest w wielu wypadkach wybitnie subiektywne. Zwłaszcza propaganda wojenna zazwyczaj odnosi się do wiernych danej stronie oddziałów jako "partyzanckich", a do wrogich jako "terrorystycznych" (dawniej "bandyckich"). +Sterydy anaboliczne + +Sterydy anaboliczne to grupa steroidów pochodzenia naturalnego lub syntetycznego, która ma silne działanie anaboliczne tzn. powodujące przyspieszenie dzielenia się komórek tworzących określone tkanki organizmu zwierząt w tym ludzi. Są to pochodne testosteronu lub 19-nortestosteronu. +Mechanizm działania. +Działanie niektórych sterydów anabolicznych polega na stymulowaniu wzrostu masy mięśni i czasami również kości poprzez pobudzanie syntezy białka lub wapnia. Efekt ten jest szczególnie ważny w dopingu sportowym. Sterydy anaboliczne mają jednak także wiele ubocznych efektów, gdyż wpływają silnie na ogólną równowagę hormonalną organizmu. Jednym z najbardziej znanych naturalnych sterydów anabolicznych jest testosteron, który pełni też rolę męskiego hormonu płciowego. +Sterydy anaboliczne działają poprzez aktywowanie receptorów androgenowych obecnych na powierzchni błon komórkowych komórek. Efekty tego pobudzania dzieli się zwykle na ogólnie anaboliczne i związane z powstawaniem różnic między płciami. +Zastosowania medyczne. +Sterydy anaboliczne zaczęto stosować w medycynie w latach 40. XX w. ze zmiennym szczęściem. Wiele prób ich stosowania prowadziło często do efektów ubocznych, które były gorsze od samej leczonej choroby, co spowodowało, że obecnie ich stosowanie jest praktycznie zarzucone, z wyjątkiem stosowania testosteronu, w niektórych ściśle ograniczonych przypadkach. +Sterydy anaboliczne i niektóre produkowane z nich preparaty +Zastosowania i nadużycia w dopingu sportowym. +Sterydy anaboliczne są często stosowane przez sportowców jako forma nielegalnego chemicznego dopingu. Początkowo, zwłaszcza w latach 70. i 80. XX w. ich zastosowanie nie było z formalnego punktu widzenia zabronione, gdyż sterydy te dopiero zaczynały pojawiać się na rynku, a ich pojawianie się było szybsze niż zmiany w prawie sportowym. +Sterydy anaboliczne są szczególnie często stosowane w tzw. sportach siłowych, w których o sukcesie decyduje przede wszystkim siła i wytrzymałość mięśni. Dotyczy to zwłaszcza kulturystyki, podnoszenia ciężarów, wielu konkurencji lekkoatletycznych (biegu, skoku w dal itd.), konkurencji pływackich i kolarstwa. W połowie lat 90. XX w. władze Międzynarodowego Komitetu Olimpijskiego całkowicie zabroniły stosowania w oficjalnym sporcie sterydów anabolicznych, co pociągnęło za sobą analogiczne zakazy w większości krajów świata, które wysyłają sportowców na igrzyska olimpijskie. +Współczesne metody wykrywania użycia sterydów anabolicznych (np: chromatografia gazowa ekstraktu z włosów łonowych) umożliwiają wykrycie ich spożycia nawet po 2-3 latach od tego faktu. Niemniej jednak istnieją uzasadnione podejrzenia, że przemysł produkcji i badań nad anabolikami jest wciąż całkiem aktywny. Między laboratoriami antydopingowymi i przemysłem środków dopingowych toczy się bowiem cały czas rodzaj gry. Nowo otrzymane związki chemiczne mające działanie anaboliczne są wprowadzane na rynek zanim laboratoria antydopingowe nauczą się je wykrywać. +Stosowanie sterydów anabolicznych przez osoby uprawiające sport czysto rekreacyjnie nie jest wciąż w większości krajów, w tym w Polsce, zabronione. Ich amatorskie stosowanie w okresie dojrzewania powoduje jednak często niemożność kontynuowania profesjonalnej kariery sportowej w wieku dojrzałym. +22 października 2004 prezydent George W. Bush podpisał ustawę o nazwie "Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004", która weszła w życie 90 dni po jej publikacji 20 stycznia 2005. Ustawa ta wprowadza pełen zakaz wolnego handlu sterydami anabolicznymi i prohormonami na terenie całego USA. Podejrzewa się, że podobne prawo zostanie przyjęte wkrótce także w Unii Europejskiej. +Klaryski od wieczystej Adoracji + +Mniszki Klaryski od Wieczystej Adoracji (początkowa nazwa Franciszkanki Najświętszego Sakramentu) – zakon klauzurowy powstały w 1854 roku we Francji, łączący ideał klariańskiego ubóstwa z wieczystą adoracją Najświętszego Sakramentu w duchu dziękczynienia i ekspiacji. Instytut przynależy do II Zakonu franciszkańskiego. +Założyciele: O. Bonawentura Heurlaut OFMCap. (1816-1887) i M. Maria Klara Bouilleveaux (1820-1871). Do przeniesienia na grunt polski, a następnie rozpowszechnienia na inne kraje, przyczyniła się Matka Maria od Krzyża (Ludwika Nałęcz-Morawska 1842-1906). +Modlitwa wspólnotowa, a zwłaszcza adoracja Najświętszego Sakramentu, wyznacza codzienny rytm dnia każdej mniszki klaryski. Jest sercem ich ukrytego życia i istotą charyzmatu realizowanego w ramach wielkiej rodziny franciszkańskiej. +Każda siostra posiada przywilej odprawiania 1 godz. adoracji w ciągu dnia, w nocy natomiast siostry czuwają przez 2 godz. Pozwala to na prowadzenie nieustającej modlitwy adoracyjnej przez całą dobę. Każda mniszka spędza dziennie na modlitwie i kontemplacji około 7 godzin. Przykładowy plan dnia przeczytać można na stronie słupskiego klasztoru w dziale życie codzienne. +Swoją modlitwą siostry ogarniają aktualne potrzeby Kościoła, jego dzieła misyjne i apostolskie. Często do furty klasztornej pukają ludzie, by prosić o modlitwę w różnych intencjach, które siostry przyjmują. +Poza modlitwą, mniszki zajmują się pracą, pozwalającą na utrzymanie klasztoru, jak np.: krawiectwo i haft liturgiczny, malowanie obrazów, wypiek komunikantów oraz wykonują zwykłe domowe prace w klasztorze i ogrodzie. +Zakon ten jest często mylony z najstarszą gałęzią Klarysek: Zakonem Świętej Klary. Obie wspólnoty żyją zgodnie z regułą II Zakonu świętego Franciszka napisaną w 1253 przez św. Klarę z Asyżu, jednak tylko Klaryski od Wieczystej Adoracji, młodsza gałąź zakonu, zajmują się nieustanną adoracją Jezusa w Najświętszym Sakramencie. +Santa Cruz (Kalifornia) + +Santa Cruz miejscowość wypoczynkowa w stanie Kalifornia około 120 km (75 mil) na południe od San Francisco nad Zatoką Monterey. Stolica hrabstwa o tej samej nazwie. +Santa Cruz liczy ponad 50 tys. mieszkańców. Ośrodek turystyczny. Siedziba filii Uniwersytetu Kalifornijskiego. Przetwórstwo rolno-spożywcze, niewielkie firmy z sektora informatycznego i (ang.) "high technology". +Historia. +Początek Santa Cruz bierze od dwunastej misji katolickiej, o tej samej nazwie, w łańcuchu misji założonych na zachodnim wybrzeżu. Misję założył Ojciec Fermin de Lasuen 28 sierpnia 1791 roku. Budynki misji zostały wykonane z tradycyjnej cegły adobe. Misja funkcjonuje do 1834 roku kiedy zostaje poddana sekularyzacji przez rząd Meksyku. Obecnie na terenie misji zachował się budynek mieszkalny z lat 1822-1824 w którym jest bardzo skromne muzeum. +Ze względu na szereg nieszczęść i katastrof jakie spotykają misję (powodzie, trzęsienia ziemi, kradzieże i bunty Indian) otrzymuje ona potoczną nazwę "Misja Niepowodzeń" ang. "Bad Luc Mission". W 1857 roku trzęsienie ziemi niszczy kościół misji, po latach zostaje on zrekonstruowany. W roku 1989 miejscowość nawiedza kolejne duże trzęsienie ziemi. +W latach 60. ubiegłego stulecia w Santa Cruz i pobliskim Monterey rodzi się ruch hipisów i lansowane jest wśród młodzieży zażywanie LSD. +Dzisiaj. +Odbudowane po trzęsieniu ziemi Santa Cruz jest typowym miasteczkiem turystycznym z licznymi hotelami i pensjonatami i jest bazą wypoczynkową dla niedalekiego San Francisco. Główne atrakcje to piękne wybrzeże klifowe. +Inne atrakcje to drewniane molo z licznymi restauracjami, jedna z najstarszych w USA drewniana kolejka górska "Giant Dipper" licząca około 80 lat. Murowana latarnia morska z prywatnym muzeum surfingu. +Port jachtowy jest zapleczem dla amatorów żeglarstwa. Wysokie fale sprzyjają uprawianiu sportów wodnych (surfing) +W centrum miasta odrestaurowana ulica w stylu lat dwudziestych z butikami i restauracjami. +W Santa Cruz jest takze zlokalizowany UCSC – Univeristy of California – Santa Cruz +W okolicy szereg gospodarstw ekologicznych uprawiających warzywa i owoce. +Santa Cruz jest miastem nie popierającym tzw. "dużego biznesu" jak np. supermarkety lub duże firmy - korporacje. Znaczna część mieszkańców Santa Cruz pracuje w pobliskim San José. +Główny slogan nieoficjalny miasta i regionu to "Keep Santa Cruz Weird" – utrzymuj Santa Cruz dziwnym/szalonym/nadzwyczajnym – który odzwierciedla zachowanie i styl bycia populacji regionu. +Międzynarodowa Federacja Narciarska + +Międzynarodowa Federacja Narciarska (FIS – "Fédération Internationale de Ski") – organizacja założona w 1924 roku, mająca za zadanie dbanie o rozwój narciarstwa na świecie, organizowanie zawodów, formalizowanie przepisów i precyzowanie zasad. +Historia FIS. +Międzynarodowa Komisja Narciarska. +Początki FIS-u sięgają 18 lutego 1910 roku. Wtedy to podczas kongresu narciarskiego w Oslo z udziałem Anglii, Austrii, Czech, Francji, Hiszpanii, Niemiec, Szkocji i Szwecji powołano Międzynarodową Komisję Narciarską. Początkowo komisja miała się składać z dwóch członków - reprezentacja Skandynawii i Europy Środkowej. Ostatecznie w komisji zasiadło dwóch Skandynawów. W 1911 kongres odbył się w Sztokholmie. Wtedy komisję powiększono do pięciu członków, siedzibę ustalono w Oslo. Na tym kongresie ustalono również regulamin międzynarodowych zawodów narciarskich. W 1913 liczbę członków komisji powiększono do siedmiu. W lutym 1922 podczas kongesu w Sztokholmie zdecydowano, że dyscypliny narciarskie będą rozgrywane na igrzyskach olimpijskich, jednak tylko nieoficjalnie. Wtedy również zadecydowano o powstaniu Międzynarodowej Federacji Narciarskiej (Fédération Internationale de Ski). Na kolejnym kongresie w Pradze podjęto już uchwałę o powstaniu federacji. +Początki FIS. +Na kongresie w Chamonix w 1924 z udziałem Anglii, Austrii, Czechosłowacji, Finlandii, Francji, Jugosławii, Norwegii, Polski, Rumunii, USA, Szwajcarii, Szwecji, Węgier i Włoch FIS został ostatecznie powołany. Również w 1924 odbyły się pierwsze zimowe Igrzyska w Chamonix. +FIS obecnie. +Obecnie nadal odbywają się co roku kongresy FIS-u na których podejmowane są sprawy związane z urozmaiceniem narciarstwa. Federacja ma swoją siedzibę w Szwajcarii, w Oberhofen am Thunersee. +Adres: +Władze FIS. +Zarząd. +Przewodniczący zarządu: +Wiceprzewodniczący: +Punkt przeznaczenia + +Punkty przeznaczenia (PP), termin używany w grach fabularnych, pochodzący z gry Warhammer Fantasy Roleplay. W trakcie gry postać gracza, zużywając punkt przeznaczenia, może uniknąć śmierci bądź innego katastrofalnego niepowodzenia. Po wydaniu PP Mistrz Gry zmienia na bieżąco fabułę, tak aby postać uniknęła niepomyślnego zdarzenia. Liczba Punktów Przeznaczenia postaci jest ograniczona i zazwyczaj losowana w trakcie tworzenia postaci. Punkty te można także zdobywać w trakcie gry. +W wyjątkowych przypadkach również bohaterowie niezależni mogą posiadać punkty przeznaczenia. +Magia i Miecz (czasopismo) + +Magia i Miecz - pierwsze i najdłużej istniejące (1993-2002) czasopismo o grach fabularnych na polskim rynku. Jako prekursor tej tematyki w Polsce, odegrało ogromną rolę w popularyzacji idei RPG. Wydawcą "Magii i Miecza" było wydawnictwo MAG, założycielem Jacek Rodek. Z pismem współpracowali m.in. Artur Szyndler, Andrzej Sapkowski i Tomasz Kołodziejczak. +Przez długi czas było jedynym czasopismem o grach fabularnych w Polsce. W pierwszych numerach prawie cała objętość pisma poświęcona była publikacji systemu RPG "Kryształy Czasu". Następnie kształt pisma zmieniał się na przestrzeni lat, by stać się czasopismem o szerokiej tematyce (wieści, materiały do gier, literatura, recenzje, artykuły luźno związane z RPG). Ukazały się 103 numery "Magii i Miecza" - obecnie to pismo nie jest już wydawane. +Do 71 numeru pismo ukazywało się w formacie A4, od numeru 72 C5. Najgrubszy numer liczył 208 stron (nr 91-92) i kosztował 15zł. +Sodalicja Mariańska + +Sodalicja Mariańska (Kongregacja Mariańska, łac. "Congregatio Mariana") – katolickie stowarzyszenie świeckich, którego celem było łączenie życia chrześcijańskiego ze studiami. Sodalicja powstała w środowisku studentów Rzymu. Jej inicjatorem był Jan Leunis SJ. +Historia. +Pierwszą Kongregację erygował Grzegorz XIII (5 grudnia 1584). Generał jezuitów otrzymał wtedy pozwolenie na zakładanie kongregacji przy kolegiach i włączanie ich do Kongregacji Rzymskiej. Przywilej ten rozszerzyli: Sykstus V (1587), Benedykt XIV (1748, 1751), Leon XII (1825) oraz Pius X (1910). +Początkowo Leunis postawił na niezależność w wyborze kierownictwa stowarzyszenia. Jednakże generał Klaudiusz Aquaviva ("Reguły wspólne", 1587) wypracował model bardziej scentralizowany Sodalicji. Po kasacie jezuitów kongregacje były pod opieką biskupów. Nowe Reguły Sodalicji (1910) przewidywały funkcję dyrektora, co przekreślało ich dawną autonomię. W celu koordynacji działań poszczególnych stowarzyszeń generał Włodzimierz Ledóchowski w 1922 r. utworzył w Rzymie Centralny Sekretariat Kongregacji Mariańskich. Podobnie Pius XII chciał zunifikować cały ruch. W tym celu powołano Światową Federację Kongregacji Mariańskich (1953), której przewodził abp Józef Gawlina. Po II Soborze Watykańskim Sodalicje Mariańskie przeobrażały się stopniowo głównie we Wspólnoty Życia Chrześcijańskiego. +Powiat miński + +Powiat miński – powiat w Polsce (województwo mazowieckie), w aglomeracji warszawskiej, reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Mińsk Mazowiecki. +Powiat miński należy do największych powiatów ziemskich w Polsce. Zajmuje pod tym względem 27 miejsce (nie liczono tu kilkudziesięciu większych miast na prawach powiatu). +Powiat nie jest bardzo zurbanizowany. 44,33% (31 XII 2007) ludności powiatu mieszka w miastach, podczas gdy odsetek ten dla Polski wynosi 61,1%. Przy czym występują tu liczne dawne miasta jak Dobre Stanisławów, Siennica, Latowicz, Cegłów, Kuflew, Jeruzal i Okuniew; a także duże wsie które nigdy miastami nie były: Mrozy (3368 mieszkańców), Dębe Wielkie (2750) czy Stojadła (986). +Podział administracyjny. +Największe miejscowości powiatu wg liczby mieszkańców (dane z 2008 roku) +Historia. +Historia powiatu mińskiego jest ściśle związana z historią miasta Mińsk Mazowiecki, które uzyskało prawa miejskie w 1421 roku. W okresie I Rzeczypospolitej miasto wraz z okolicznymi ziemiami znajdowało się w województwie mazowieckim. W okresie rozbiorów w 1795 roku, na krótko znalazł się w zaborze austriackim, od 1809 w Księstwie Warszawskim, a po jego upadku 1815 w zaborze rosyjskim w utworzonym Królestwie Polskim. Wprowadzono wówczas nowy podział administracyjny tworząc województwa i obwody. Obwody składały się natomiast z powiatów będących okręgami wyborczymi i sądowniczymi. Utworzono obwód stanisławowski, w którego skład wchodziły dwa powiaty: siennicki i stanisławowski. Pierwotnie jego siedzibą miał się stać Okuniew, ostatecznie 16 stycznia 1816, kiedy to nowy podział administracyjny został zatwierdzony przez gen. Józefa Zajączka powstał obwód stanisławowski z siedzibą w Mińsku. +W 1866 na mocy ukazu zlikwidowano powiat stanisławowski, a jego tereny zajęły dwa nowo utworzone powiaty: miński i radzymiński. W 1868 nazwę powiatu mińskiego zmieniono na nowomiński, ze względu na zmianę nazwy głównego miasta na Nowo-Mińsk. +W okresie I wojny światowej powiat miński znalazł się w części Królestwa Polskiego będącej pod okupacją niemiecką. 22 marca 1916 roku połączono powiaty miński i radzymiński w jeden powiat miński. +Po wojnie powrócono do przedwojennego podziału administracyjnego i Mińsk Mazowiecki i powiat miński ponownie znalazły się w województwie warszawskim. +W 1954 w wyniku kolejnej reformy administracyjnej zlikwidowano podział na gminy i wprowadzono podział na mniejsze gromady. W 1968 powiat mińsko-mazowiecki obejmował następujące gromady: Cegłów, Dębe Wielkie, Dobre, Grodzisk, Groszki Nowe, Iwowe, Jakubów, Jeruzal, Kałuszyn, Kuflew, Latowicz, Ładzyń, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Mrozy, Pustelnik, Rudzienko k. Dobrego, Rudzienko k. Kołbieli, Siennica, Sołki, Stanisławów, Stojadła, Wielgolas i Wiśniew. +W 1973 przywrócono podział na gminy. Obszar powiatu mińskiego podzielono na 2 miasta i 11 gmin. Gmina Kołbiel znalazła się w powiecie otwockim. Natomiast z powiatu otwockiego do powiatu mińskiego przełączono obszary 17 sołectw (oraz z miasta Sulejówka – Długą Szlachecką), które ustanowiły główną część odtworzonej gminy Halinów w powiecie mińskim (osiemnaste sołectwo Teresław przyłączono do gminy Dębe Wielkie), pozostałe sołectwa gminy Halinów zostały przyłączone z powiatu wołomińskiego. Równocześnie z powiatu mińskiego wyłączono sołectwa Dobrzyniec, Oleksin, Rudno i Rudzienko koło Kołbieli, które włączono do gminy Kołbiel w powiecie otwockim, a także sołectwa Iwowe, Laliny i Łopacianka, które włączono do gminy Borowie w powiecie garwolińskim. +1 czerwca 1975 wprowadzono dwustopniowy podział administracyjny. Utworzono województwo siedleckie, w skład którego ze zniesionego powiatu mińskiego weszły miasta Mińsk Mazowiecki i Kałuszyn oraz gminy Cegłów, Dębe Wielkie, Dobre, Jakubów, Kałuszyn, Latowicz, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Mrozy, Siennica i Stanisławów. Jedynie gmina Halinów znalazła się w nowym województwie stołecznym warszawskim. +W 1990, kiedy powrócono do idei samorządu terytorialnego, utworzono Urząd Rejonowy w Mińsku Mazowieckim obejmujący miasto Mińsk Mazowiecki oraz gminy: Cegłów, Dębe Wielkie, Dobre, Jakubów, Kałuszyn – miasto i gminę, Kołbiel, Latowicz, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Mrozy, Poświętne, Siennica, Stanisławów oraz Strachówka. +Obecny powiat miński. +1 stycznia 1999 roku wprowadzono zasadniczą reformę administracyjną, w wyniku której utworzono 16 nowych województw składających się z powiatów. Powstał powiat miński, który znalazł się w województwie mazowieckim. Powiat miński objął swoim obszarem 11 gmin z obszaru byłego województwa siedleckiego: miasto Mińsk Mazowiecki, gminę miejsko-wiejską Kałuszyn i oraz gminy wiejskie: Cegłów, Dębe Wielkie, Dobre, Jakubów, Latowicz, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Mrozy, Siennica i Stanisławów oraz trzy gminy z byłego województwa warszawskiego: miasta Wesoła i Sulejówek oraz gminę wiejską Halinów. +1 stycznia 2002 roku z powiatu wyłączono gminy miejskie Sulejówek (przejściowo) i Wesołą i przyłączono je do powiatu warszawskiego, po czym wraz z jego zlikwidowaniem 27 października 2002 roku, Wesoła stała się dzielnicą Warszawy, a Sulejówek powrócił do powiatu mińskiego. +Warunki naturalne. +Do innych cennych form przyrodniczych zalicza się także nie objęte ochroną: „Torfowisko” w gminie Jakubów, „Dęby Piaseczyńskie” w gminie Cegłów oraz „Strugi Krzywickie” w gminie Siennica. +Na terenie powiatu znajduje się obejmujący ok. 30 000 ha Miński Obszar Chronionego Krajobrazu oraz fragmenty Warszawskiego Obszaru Chronionego krajobrazu oraz nadwiślańskiego Obszaru Chronionego Krajobrazu. +Na terenie gminy Kałuszyn znajduje się obejmujący zgrupowanie sosny zwyczajnej użytek ekologiczny nazywany „Sosny Olszewickie”. Wiek 14 najstarszych sosen z tego użytku szacuje się na ok. 300 lat. +Infrastruktura. +Powiat miński położony jest wzdłuż drogi krajowej nr 2. Przez powiat przebiega także droga krajowa nr 50. Obydwie drogi krzyżują się w miejscowości Stojadła dwupoziomowym węzłem. +Łączna długość dróg w powiecie wynosi 1658 km, z czego na drogi krajowe przypada: 77,5 km; drogi wojewódzkie: 76,3 km, powiatowe: 512,1 oraz gminne: 991,9 km. +Przez powiat przebiegają także linia kolejowa nr 2 wchodząca w skład magistrali kolejowej Paryż – Berlin – Warszawa – Moskwa oraz linia kolejowa nr 13 łącząca Krusze i Pilawę +Na terenie powiatu, znajduje się także lotnisko, jednak pomimo prób przekształcenia go w lotnisko obsługujące loty cywilne, ciągle pozostaje lotniskiem wojskowym. +Oprócz dróg powiat ma także infrastrukturę komunalną rozwiniętą zależnie od regionu (sieci wodociągowe, oczyszczalnie ścieków, sieci gazowe, elektroenergetyczne i telefoniczne). +Administracja i samorząd. +Obecnie przewodniczącym Rady Powiatu jest Mirosław Krusiewicz. +Segowia + +Segowia (hiszp. "Segovia") − miasto w środkowej Hiszpanii, w regionie Kastylia i León, stolica prowincji Segovia, ok. 56 tys. mieszkańców (2003). Położone u podnóża gór Sierra de Guadarrama, na wysokości 1000 m n.p.m. +Przemysł lekki, ośrodek handlowy i turystyczny. +Hospitanci + +Hospitant – w Niemczech osoba nie należąca do żadnej partii politycznej. Osoby te mogą jednak przystępować do dowolnie wybranej przez siebie frakcji parlamentarnej (do czego jest potrzebna zgoda organów frakcji), co w znacznym stopniu ułatwia sprawowanie przez nich mandatu, jako że członkom frakcji przysługują określone przywileje. W niektórych przypadkach hospitantów nie wlicza się jednak jako pełnowartościowych członków frakcji. Do tych sytuacji należy: obowiązek posiadania przez pozostałych członków frakcji 5% mandatów Bundestagu (wymóg niezbędny do istnienia frakcji) oraz obliczanie siły liczebnej frakcji (która wpływa np. na kolejność przemawiania). W Bundesracie nie ma hospitantów, jako że deputowani do tej izby nie zrzeszają się we frakcje, reprezentują bowiem kraj związkowy niezależnie od orientacji politycznej. +Aksolotl + +Aksolotl (nah. "āxōlōtl") – neoteniczna, wodna forma niektórych płazów ogoniastych z rodzaju "Ambystoma" w obrębie rodziny ambystomowatych (Ambystomatidae). +Aksolotl a ambystoma meksykańska. +Obydwie nazwy: "aksolotl" i "ambystoma meksykańska" są często stosowane w literaturze zamiennie, co może powodować nieporozumienia w interpretacji tych terminów, zwłaszcza, że w wielu językach nazwą "axolotl" również określana jest ambystoma meksykańska. +W języku polskim termin "aksolotl", w ścisłym znaczeniu, oznacza stan rozwoju osobniczego – charakterystyczne, wodne stadium larwalne (larwa neoteniczna) kilku różnych gatunków płazów (niektóre źródła przypisują ten stan tylko jednemu gatunkowi – ambystomie meksykańskiej), natomiast "ambystoma meksykańska", zwana też "aksolotlem meksykańskim", a czasem w skrócie "aksolotlem", to nazwa konkretnego gatunku opisanego naukowo pod nazwą "Ambystoma mexicanum" – pospolitego w hodowlach amatorskich i laboratoryjnych. +Przeobrażenie aksolotla w ambystomę. +Aksolotl z gatunku "Ambystoma mexicanum" został wykorzystany przez polską uczoną Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, biolog i genetyk Laurę Kaufmann. Jako pierwsza wykorzystała do tego celu wyciąg z tarczycy wyrośniętych i przeobrażonych ambystom, oraz tarczyc pochodzących od innych zwierząt. W wyniku karmienia tym wyciągiem nastąpiło pełne przeobrażenie w ambystomę. . +W wyniku przeobrażenia u aksolotlów następują zmiany w budowie ciała, następuje częściowy zanik skrzeli i płetwy ogonowej. Larwa zaczyna coraz częściej pobierać i oddychać powietrzem atmosferycznym. Po całościowej metamorfozie ogon staje się zaokrąglony. W końcowej fazie przeobrażenia następuje coraz częstsze zrzucanie nabłonka z całej powierzchni ciała. +Składopis + +Składopis - elektromechaniczne lub elektroniczne urządzenie do składu tekstów, stosowane jeszcze w okresie pierwszych lat rozwoju komputerów, które było rozwiązaniem pośrednim między elektrycznymi maszynami do pisania a komputerami. Jego cechami charakterystycznymi były możliwość automatycznego lub ręcznego wyrównywania wierszy oraz, w przypadku urządzenia elektronicznego, wymiana głowic z czcionkami, dzięki któremu można było zmieniać krój i wprowadzać atrybuty czcionki, jak pochylenie lub wytłuszczenie pisma. +Przykładem prostszego urządzenia był składopis NRD-owskiej firmy Robotron, podobny do elektrycznej maszyny do pisania, w którym jednak istniała funkcja tzw. mikrojustowania - zbliżając się do końca wiersza można było przejść do trybu podziału spacji na drobniejsze fragmenty, co pozwalało ręcznie dopasować zakończenie wiersza do napisanych już wcześniej wierszy. Rozwiązanie takie, choć prymitywne, pozwalało uzyskać mniej postrzępiony prawy brzeg tekstu, zaś jego ostateczny wygląd zależał w dużej mierze od zręczności piszącego. Błędy musiały być poprawiane za pomocą korektora stosowanego w zwykłych maszynach do pisania. +Znacznie bardziej zaawansowanym przykładem był elektroniczny składopis firmy "Brother", który zawierał jednowierszowy wyświetlacz z pamięcią oraz funkcję automatycznego justowania, znacznie doskonalszą niż ręczne justowanie. Maszyna drukowała wiersz po przekroczeniu punktu krytycznego w wyświetlaczu, który był obliczany w zależności od użytej rozetkowej głowicy z czcionką. Po wydrukowaniu wiersza maszyna przechodziła do następnego wiersza i oczekiwała na wprowadzenie tekstu do pamięci. Korekty można było dokonywać w ramach jednego wiersza, co znacznie usprawniało pisanie i zmniejszało liczbę błędów, dużo bardziej precyzyjne było również justowanie tekstu. Urządzenie tego typu nadawało się do składu broszur i biuletynów, jednak było rozwiązaniem kosztownym, którego cena przekraczała w latach 80. 5 tys. USD. Największą popularność zdobył składopis "Vari-Typer" oraz "IBM" z wymienioną głowicą czcionkową. +Symon Petlura + +Symon Wasylowycz Petlura (ukr. Си́мон Васи́льович Петлю́ра; ur. w Połtawie, zm. 25 maja 1926 w Paryżu) – ukraiński polityk socjaldemokratyczny i narodowy, naczelny dowódca wojsk URL, pisarz, dziennikarz, publicysta, prezydent Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej w latach 1919–1926. +Biografia. +Symon Petlura urodził się w Połtawie, w rodzinie o tradycjach kozackich. Uczył się w połtawskim seminarium duchownym. Pracował jako dziennikarz. W 1900 roku został członkiem Ukraińskiej Partii Rewolucyjnej, był socjalistą uznającym odrębność narodową Ukrainy, jednym liderów Ukraińskiej Socjal-Demokratycznej Partii Robotniczej (nazwa Ukraińskiej Partii Rewolucyjnej od grudnia 1905). W czasie I wojny światowej pracował we Wszechrosyjskim związku ziemstw i miast (tzw. "Ziemgorze"), ogólnorosyjskiej organizacji samorządowej utworzonej w 1914 w celu pomocy państwu rosyjskiemu w organizacji zaopatrzenia i zaplecza szpitalnego dla armii. +Od rewolucji lutowej i obalenia caratu w 1917 roku związany z organizacjami dążącymi do budowy niepodległego państwa ukraińskiego, dowodził Hajdamackim Koszem Słobodzkiej Ukrainy. Po okupacji w lutym 1918 terytorium Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej przez wojska niemieckie i austro-węgierskie (w konsekwencji traktatu brzeskiego), obaleniu 28 kwietnia 1918 przy udziale wojsk niemieckich rządu URL i ustanowieniu Hetmanatu Pawła Skoropadskiego Petlura znalazł się w opozycji. W listopadzie 1918 roku, po zawieszeniu broni zawartym w Compiègne przez Ententę z Niemcami, wzniecił powstanie przeciw Skoropadskiemu, który uprzednio cieszył się wsparciem niemieckim. 14 grudnia siły Petlury, których trzon stanowił korpus Strzelców Siczowych (pod dowództwem płk Jewhena Konowalca) zajęły Kijów restytuując Ukraińską Republikę Ludową. Naczelnym Atamanem (wodzem naczelnym) Armii URL został Petlura. +Po upadku Hetmanatu Rosja Sowiecka ogłosiła, że w związku z anulowaniem traktatu brzeskiego przestaje uznawać niepodległość Ukrainy. W grudniu 1918 na terytorium Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej wkroczyły z kierunku Kurska oddziały Armii Czerwonej, posuwając się w głąb kraju. 3 stycznia 1919 zajęły Charków, instalując tam marionetkowy Tymczasowy Robotniczo-Chłopski Rząd Ukrainy, który proklamował 29 stycznia 1919 powstanie Ukraińskiej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej. 5 lutego rząd Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej pod naporem nacierającej Armii Czerwonej opuścił Kijów udając się kolejno do Winnicy, Równego i Kamieńca Podolskiego. Z Dyrektoriatu Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej ustąpił wówczas Wołodymyr Wynnyczenko, a Symon Petlura zawiesił członkostwo w Ukraińskiej Socjal-Demokratycznej Partii Robotniczej i 13 lutego 1919 objął funkcję prezesa Dyrektoriatu URL, którą pełnił aż do śmierci (od 19 listopada 1920 roku wykonywał obowiązki na uchodźstwie). Dyrektoriat sprawował faktyczną władzę na pasie Wołynia i części Podola - pomiędzy pozycjami Wojska Polskiego a liniami Armii Czerwonej, a później przejściowo armii gen. Denikina, która we wrześniu - grudniu 1919 zajmowała Kijów i Naddnieprze. W 1919 przez Ukrainę pod wszystkimi administracjami sprawującymi władzę na jej terytorium przetoczyła się fala pogromów antyżydowskich, w której życie straciło blisko 100.000 ludzi, w tym większość padła ofiarą napadów rabunkowych przeprowadzanych przez lokalne bandy chłopskie, oddziały podporządkowane URL, Kozaków dońskich z oddziałów Armii Ochotniczej gen. Antona Denikina lub oddziałów Armii Czerwonej (Armia Konna Budionnego) sukcesywnie sprawujących faktyczną władzę na obszarze Ukrainy w latach 1919–1921. Do połowy grudnia 1919 terytorium zajmowane przez Armię URL było pasem buforowym pomiędzy Wojskiem Polskim a Armią Czerwoną i wojskami Denikina na południe od błot poleskich. W konsekwencji front wojny polsko-bolszewickiej przebiegał wówczas tylko na Białorusi. +Od sierpnia 1919 toczyły się w Warszawie poufne rokowania polsko-ukraińskie, początkowo wojskowe (o zawarcie rozejmu, który zaczął obowiązywać 1 września 1919 - w dzień po zajęciu Kijowa przez armię Denikina), a następnie polityczne - w sprawie rozgraniczenia terytorialnego pomiędzy Ukraińską Republiką Ludową a Polską i wzajemnej współpracy skierowanej przeciw Armii Czerwonej i Rosji Sowieckiej. 2 grudnia 1919 delegacja URL pod przewodnictwem Andrija Liwickiego zawarła porozumienie terytorialne i graniczne z Polską, w formie deklaracji, które 7 grudnia 1919 zaaprobował przybyły do Warszawy Petlura. 21 kwietnia 1920 roku Petlura zawarł układ sojuszniczy z Polską i od polsko-ukraińskiej ofensywy na Kijów do zawieszenia broni w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej (12 października 1920 r.) był jedyną uznawaną międzynarodowo głową państwa Ukrainy. +Po wycofaniu międzynarodowego uznania Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej, co było jednym z warunków traktatu ryskiego, przebywał w Polsce. Po żądaniu ekspulsji przez dyplomację sowiecką był ukrywany w Polsce przez Henryka Józewskiego i Stanisława Stempowskiego w ich mieszkaniach i domach, przy tolerancji władz polskich. Po objęciu władzy przez koalicję Chjenopiasta został zmuszony do opuszczenia Polski 31 grudnia 1923 roku, na emigracji kolejno w Budapeszcie, Wiedniu, Genewie i w Paryżu. +Zamordowany przez zamachowca Szolema Szwarcbarda 25 maja 1926 roku. Zginął najpewniej z inspiracji OGPU, choć kwestia inspiracji zamachu nie została wyjaśniona jednoznacznie. Szwarcbard podczas procesu w Paryżu utrzymywał, że morderstwa dokonał w akcie zemsty za wymordowanie jego rodziny na Ukrainie w okresie rządów Petlury i został przez ławę przysięgłych (i w konsekwencji sąd) uniewinniony. +Symon Petlura został pochowany na paryskim cmentarzu Montparnasse. +Zobacz też. +__NOTOC__ +Park Krajobrazowy Nadgoplański Park Tysiąclecia + +Park Krajobrazowy Nadgoplański Park Tysiąclecia – park krajobrazowy w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim utworzony na mocy rozporządzenia nr 252 z dn. 10.12.1992 wydanego przez Wojewodę Bydgoskiego. Powierzchnia parku to 8898 ha, w 2002 r. – 9982,71 ha. Park powstał na bazie istniejącego na tym terenie rezerwatu przyrody Rezerwat przyrody Nadgoplański Park Tysiąclecia. W rezultacie z rezerwatu powstał obszar chroniony, częściowo funkcjonujący jako park krajobrazowy, a częściowo jako rezerwat przyrody. +Rezerwat został założony 15 września 1967 r. na powierzchni 12683,76 ha, w powiatach ówczesnego województwa bydgoskiego: inowrocławskim, radziejowskim, mogieleńskim oraz w powiecie konińskim woj. poznańskiego. +Celem powołania rezerwatu było zachowanie ze względów naukowych i dydaktycznych licznych miejsc lęgowych ptactwa wodnego, błotnego i lądowego, zabezpieczenie wartości historycznych tego rejonu związanych z początkami Państwa Polskiego, ochrona naturalnych właściwości środowiska przyrodniczego i swoistych cech krajobrazu (Jezioro Gopło, obszar gruntów i lasów do niego przylegających, ostoja ptactwa wodnego i błotnego). +Mieszko cieszyński + +Mieszko cieszyński (ur. 1252/1256, zm. 1314 lub 1315) – od 1281/2 wspólnie z bratem Przemysławem w Cieszynie, Oświęcimiu i Raciborzu, od 1290 po podziale samodzielny książę cieszyńsko-oświęcimski, sojusznik (być może także lennik w latach 1292-1305) króla Czech Wacława II. Założyciel linii Piastów cieszyńskich. +W opracowaniach popularnonaukowych występuje czasami jako Mieszko III Opolski oraz Mieszko I Cieszyński. Numeracja ta jednak nie przyjęła się w nauce historycznej. +Mieszko za życia ojca. +Był najstarszym synem księcia opolskiego - Władysława i jego żony, Eufemii - córki księcia wielkopolskiego Władysława Odonica. W źródłach po raz pierwszy Mieszko pojawia się 21 października 1258, kiedy razem z ojcem i dwoma młodszymi braćmi wyrażał zgodę na fundację opactwa cysterskiego w Rudach Raciborskich. +Mieszko jako książę raciborski. +Mieszko po śmierci ojca (1281 lub 1282) pomimo tego, że był jego najstarszym synem otrzymał dzielnicę raciborską. Stolicę dzielnicy ojcowskiej Opole przejął trzeci pod względem starszeństwa Bolesław. Mieszko jako najstarszy z braci występował w imieniu najmłodszego Przemysława, który w chwili ojca nie miał wieku sprawnego. Przemysław, tytułujący się księciem oświęcimskim, osiągnął pełnoletność około 1284. +Mieszko jako książę cieszyńsko-oświęcimski. +Do ostatecznego podziału dzielnic między braci doszło w 1290 roku. Przemysław przejął księstwo raciborskie, Mieszko zasiadł na Cieszynie, obejmując we władanie dawne kasztelanie cieszyńską, oświęcimską, chrzanowską i zatorską. Po raz pierwszy jako książę cieszyński figuruje na dokumencie wystawionym 1 stycznia 1290 roku. +W 1285 Mieszko wsparł politycznie biskupa wrocławskiego Tomasza II Zarembę udzielając mu schronienia przed Henrykiem IV Probusem w Raciborzu. Polityka taka ze strony Mieszka zaprzepaściła łączące dotąd przyjazne stosunki pomiędzy książętami opolsko-raciborskimi i wrocławskimi, co stało się przyczyną oddalenia przez Henryka nieznanej z imienia żony (być może nosiła imię Konstancja), a siostry Mieszka. Inną konsekwencją kroku Mieszka I była wyprawa zbrojna księcia wrocławskiego w 1287 zakończona oblężeniem Raciborza i ostatecznym upadkiem politycznym biskupa. +Mieszko cieszyński rozpoczął intensywną kolonizację terenów swego księstwa, potrajając liczbę osad. Nadał m.in. przywileje handlowe Cieszynowi, Oświęcimowi (w 1291 roku nadał skład solny), Bielsku i Frysztatowi. 10 listopada 1292 roku nadał prawa miejskie Zatorowi. W 1290 roku nadał rycerzowi Boguszowi 10 łanów frankońskich w pobliżu Cieszyna, dając w sposób początek wsi Boguszowice (obecnie w granicach Cieszyna). +Mieszko a walki o tron krakowski. +Mieszko cieszyński nie poparł kolejnych pretendentów do korony polskiej (Henryka Probusa, Przemysła II i Władysława Łokietka). Stanął za to po stronie Wacława II, króla Czech. Do zawarcia układu sojuszniczego Mieszka i jego braci Bolesława, Kazimierza i Przemysława doszło formalnie w dniu 17 stycznia 1291 w Ołomuńcu. Kwestią dyskusyjną jest to czy Mieszko złożył później hołd lenny czeskiemu władcy - niektórzy sądzą, że nastąpiło to być może z okazji objęcia przez Wacława II tronu w Krakowie (w historiografii popularna jest zwłaszcza data 11 sierpnia 1292). +Mieszko nie uczestniczył w wyprawie Wacława II na Kraków w 1291 roku, ani w roku następnym w wojnie przeciwko Łokietkowi zakończonej pełnym zwycięstwem Wacława II i hołdem lennym Łokietka złożonym w Sieradzu. Oddał jednak swoje siły zbrojne do dyspozycji Wacława II. +W 1300 wziął udział w koronacji Wacława II w Gnieźnie na króla Polski. Polityka współpracy z czeskimi Przemyślidami była kontynuowana także po śmierci Wacława II. Jego syn i następca, Wacław III, 5 października 1305 roku poślubił córkę Mieszka - Wiolę Elżbietę, dzięki czemu cieszyński książę miał stać się niebawem jedną z najważniejszych postaci w Królestwie Polskim. Niewykluczone, że dzięki tym zabiegom Mieszko próbował sięgnąć nawet po polską koronę. Dobrze zapowiadającą się karierę cieszyńskiego władcy przerwało jednak zamordowanie Wacława III w Ołomuńcu 4 sierpnia 1306. Ponieważ młody król nie pozostawił po sobie potomstwa, królewska linia Przemyślidów wygasła, a Mieszko stracił wypracowane dzięki niej wpływy, których później już nie odzyskał. +Po 1306 aktywność polityczna Mieszka I zmalała niemal do zera. Nie znamy przyczyn tego stanu rzeczy, gdyż liczący niewiele ponad pięćdziesiąt lat książę nie był jeszcze stary. Rządy w księstwie coraz bardziej przejmowali jego synowie Władysław i Kazimierz. Jedynym przejawem jego działalności politycznej po upadku rządów czeskich było oddanie w dzierżawę miasta Kęty biskupowi krakowskiemu Janowi Muskacie przeciwnikowi rządów Władysława Łokietka w Małopolsce. W przeciwieństwie, jednak do brata Bolka I Mieszko nie wsparł buntu wójta Alberta w 1311. +Donacje kościelne Mieszka. +Mieszko znany był ze swej hojności dla kościoła. Dzięki jego donacjom nich m.in. ukończono budowę klasztoru dominikańskiego w Oświęcimiu (krótko po 1283 roku). Władca wspomagał także finansowo klasztor norbertanek w Czarnowąsach koło Opola i dominikanów w Cieszynie. +Data zgonu i miejsce pochowania. +Nie jest znana dokładna data zgonu Mieszka. Ze źródeł dyplomatycznych wynika, że zmarł w 1314 lub w pierwszej połowie 1315 roku (przed 27 czerwca). +Został pochowany najpewniej w kościele dominikańskim w Cieszynie. +Małżeństwo i potomstwo. +Jeszcze za życia ojca ożenił się z nieznaną bliżej księżniczką. Owdowiał najpóźniej w 1302 roku. Z tego małżeństwa doczekał się dwóch synów Władysława i Kazimierza oraz córki Wioli Elżbiety, żony Wacława III, króla Czech. +Pomnik Mieszka. +Okazały pomnik (rzeźba w postaci odlewu) księcia Mieszka cieszyńskiego dłuta Jana Raszki został wykonany w 1931 roku. Znajduje się w Lasku Miejskim w Cieszynie. +Pluskwica europejska + +Pluskwica europejska ("Cimicifuga europaea" Schipcz.), nazywana też pluskwicą cuchnącą – gatunek rośliny z rodziny jaskrowatych. Według nowszych badań filogenetycznych gatunki należące do rodzaju pluskwica ("Cimicifuga") zostały włączone do rodzaju "Actaea", prawidłowa zatem nazwa łacińska tego gatunku to "Actaea europaea". +Rozmieszczenie geograficzne. +Występuje w Europie. W Polsce jest dość rzadka. Główny obszar jej występowania to wyżyny na południu, dorzecze dolnej Wisły oraz Pojezierze Mazurskie. W Karpatach jest bardzo rzadka, podano ją z ok. 20 stanowisk. Tutaj występuje głównie w Pieninach (Zielone Skałki, Upszar, Masyw Trzech Koron, Wąwóz Szopczański, Podskalnia Góra, pod Kopą Siana, podnóża Facimiecha, Małe i Wielkie Przechodki, Wysokie Skałki, Rabsztyn, Ligarki, Kiczora), poza nimi tylko na dwóch stanowiskach na Pogórzu Bukowskim i dwóch w Tatrach Zachodnich (Organy i Wąwóz Kraków). +Biologia i ekologia. +Bylina, hemikryptofit. Rośnie zwłaszcza w liściastych lasach oraz w zaroślach, szczególnie na ich obrzeżu. Preferuje gleby o odczynie obojętnym lub zasadowym, wilgotne. Występuje głównie na próchnicznych rędzinach powstałych z wapieni, rzadko tylko na glebach brunatnych powstałych z lessu i na czarnoziemach. W górach występuje po regiel dolny. Najwyższe opisane jej stanowisko znajduje się w Wąwozie Kraków w Tatrach. Kwitnie w lipcu i sierpniu. Owoce rozsiewane są przez zwierzęta (zoochoria), w sierść których wczepiają się specjalnymi haczykami. +Roślina trująca, zawiera alkaloidy i glikozydy. Liczba chromosomów 2n=16. +Zagrożenia i ochrona. +Roślina objęta w Polsce ścisłą ochroną gatunkową. Zagrożeniem dla gatunku jest zmniejszanie się powierzchni jej siedlisk i gospodarcze użytkowanie lasów, w czasie którego jej siedliska ulegają zniszczeniu. Wiele stanowisk jej występowania jest chronione w parkach narodowych, np. w Ojcwskim, Pienińskim, Roztoczańskim, Tatrzańskim. Tutaj zagrożone są tylko niektóre jej stanowiska w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie szlaków turystycznych. +Zastosowanie. +Z rośliny tej wytwarza się preparat Remens łagodzący objawy klimakterium u kobiet oraz dolegliwości związane z miesiączką: zmniejsza krwawnienia, bóle brzucha, krzyżów, głowy i piersi, reguluje długość cyklu. Może być alternatywnie stosowany przez kobiety mające przeciwskazania do terapii hormonalnej. +Joey Belladonna + +Joey Belladonna (ur. 13 października 1960 w Nowym Jorku) - amerykański muzyk, wokalista. W latach 1985-1992 wokalista grupy Anthrax. Jako oficjalny powód wyrzucenia go z zespołu podano brak zaangażowania w jego działalność. Po odejściu rozpoczął karierę solową. Powrócił do Anthraxu w 2005 roku, aby opuścić go w styczniu 2007 i wrócić ponownie w maju 2010. +Powiat makowski + +Powiat makowski - powiat w Polsce, w północnej części województwa mazowieckiego, utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Maków Mazowiecki. +Pierwszym starostą makowskim w III RP został Kazimierz Białobrzeski. Obecnie starostą makowskim jest Zbigniew Deptuła. Były poseł Sejmu RP w latach 2001-2005. Wicestarostą jest Janusz Gójski a w skład zarządu powiatu wchodzą: Zbigniew Deptuła, Janusz Gójski, Bogdan Żebrowski, Wiesław Lipowski i Marcin Nowotka. +Historia. +XVI w.-1795 +1795-1866 +1866-1918 +Ustawa z 19 (31) grudnia 1866 r. o zarządzie gubernialnym i powiatowym w guberniach Królestwa Polskiego powołała do życia powiat makowski. Powiat ten znalazł się w zachodniej części guberni łomżyńskiej. W jego skład weszły trzy miasta: Maków, Różan i Krasnosielc oraz osiem gmin wiejskich: Karniewo, Perzanowo, Płoniawy, Sielc I, Sielc II, Sieluń, Smrock i Sypniewo. W 1868 r. gminę Sielc I przemianowano na gminę Sielc, zaś gminę Sielc II na gminę Białosielc. Kolejne zmiany nastąpiły w 1870 r. Wraz z odebraniem praw miejskich Różanowi i Krasnosielcowi, miejscowości te jako osady wcielono do sąsiadujących z nimi gmin. Różan przyłączono do gminy Sieluń, natomiast Krasnosielc do gminy Białosielc. Mocą tego samego postanowienia gminę Białosielc przemianowano na gminę Krasnosielc. +1919-1939 +14 sierpnia 1919 r. na mocy ustawy tymczasowej o organizacji władz administracyjnych II instancji powołano do życia województwo warszawskie. Na obszarze tego województwa utworzono powiat makowski. +1939-1945 +8 października 1939 r. Adolf Hitler wydał dekret o organizacji i administracji wschodnich terytoriów włączonych do Rzeszy. Zgodnie z tym dekretem 1 listopada 1939 r. (w rzeczywistości stało się to już 26 października) wcielono do III Rzeszy obszar o powierzchni 91 974 km². Wśród dawnych ziem II RP na terenie Rzeszy znalazła się m.in. północna część województwa warszawskiego. Powiat makowski (niem. Landkreis Mackeim) znalazł się w Rejencji ciechanowskiej (niem. Regierungsbezirk Zichenau), która weszła w skład prowincji Prusy Wschodnie (niem. Ostpreußen). +1945-1950 +22 sierpnia 1944 r. na mocy dekretu Polskiego Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodowego przywrócono przedwojenny podział administracyjny Polski, natomiast samorząd terytorialny zorganizowano dekretem Polskiego Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodowego z dnia 23 listopada 1944 r. o organizacji i zakresie działania samorządu terytorialnego. Powiat makowski, jako jeden z powiatów województwa warszawskiego reaktywowano po wyzwoleniu ziem północnego Mazowsza w zimie 1945 r. Ze względu na zniszczenia wojenne Makowa Mazowieckiego władze powiatu zmuszone były tymczasowo urzędować w Krasnosielcu. +1950-1975 +Ustawą z dnia 20 marca 1950 r. o terenowych organach jednolitej władzy państwowej zniesiono samorząd terytorialny w Polsce. Powiaty jako jednostki administracyjne funkcjonowały nadal, lecz organizacja władz powiatowych uległa daleko posuniętym zmianom. Na terenie powiatu makowskiego powołano do życia powiatową radę narodową. Jej organem wykonawczym stało się prezydium powiatowej rady narodowej. Na czele prezydium stał przewodniczący, będący odpowiednikiem wcześniejszego starosty. Ustawą z dnia 22 listopada 1973 r. o zmianie ustawy o radach narodowych wprowadzono instytucję naczelnika powiatu. Powiat makowski istniał do momentu wejścia w życie ustawy z dnia 28 maja 1975 r. o dwustopniowym podziale administracyjnym Państwa oraz o zmianie ustawy o radach narodowych. W wyniku przeprowadzenia wspomnianej reformy administracyjnej z dniem 1 czerwca 1975 r. powstało 49 województw, które zastąpiły 17 dotychczasowych, podzielonych na powiaty. Prawie całe terytorium powiatu makowskiego znalazło się na obszarze województwa ostrołęckiego, jedynie gmina Karniewo znalazła się w województwie ciechanowskim. +1975-1998 +od 1999 +Ustawą z dnia 24 lipca 1998 r. o wprowadzeniu zasadniczego trójstopniowego podziału terytorialnego państwa przeprowadzono reformę administracyjną w Polsce. Z dniem 1 stycznia 1999 r. powstało 16 województw, które zastąpiły 49 dotychczasowych. Na obszarze województwa mazowieckiego zorganizowano 37 powiatów ziemskich, w tym powiat makowski składający się z 10 gmin. Pierwszym starostą makowskim został Kazimierz Adam Białobrzeski, a przewodniczącym rady powiatu I kadencji Józef Andrzej Stopa. +Poczet starostów. +III Rzeczpospolita +I kadencja (1999-2002) - +Kazimierz Adam Białobrzeski +II kadencja (2002-2006) - +Kazimierz Adam Białobrzeski +III kadencja (2006-2010) - +Zbigniew Roman Deptuła +IV kadencja (2010-2014) - +Zbigniew Roman Deptuła +Poczet przewodniczących rady powiatu. +III Rzeczpospolita +I kadencja (1999-2002) - +Józef Andrzej Stopa +II kadencja (2002-2006) - +Roman Zakrzewski +III kadencja (2006-2010) - +Roman Zakrzewski +IV kadencja (2010-2014) - +Roman Zakrzewski +Sas (herb szlachecki) + +Sas ("Drag") – herb szlachecki. +Opis herbu. +Herb występuje także w wariantach hrabiowskich (m.in. Dzieduszyckich, Komarnickich, Uruskich), z dodanymi koronami rangowymi, odmianami i trzymaczami +Najwcześniejsze wzmianki. +Herb pochodzenia węgierskiego, związany prawdopodobnie z Wołochami osadzanymi od XIII w. przez królów węgierskich na terenach +Marmaroszu, m.in. w celu stworzenia systemu obrony przed Tatarami. +Na Rusi Halickiej pierwsi przedstawiciele rodu Sasów – Dragów, potomkowie pojawili się w 1359. +Ślad wołoskiego pochodzenia herbu zawarty jest w legendzie herbowej przedstawionej przez Kaspra Niesieckiego w jego herbarzu, wywodzącej Sasów od wołoskiego "grafa Wanczałucha", zwanego też "Wańczą Wołoszynem", który w miał otrzymać w XV w. rozległe nadania w okolicach Turki. +Na ziemiach polskich związany z rodami wołoskimi (przede wszystkim z rodem Dragów-Sasów) – wśród kilkuset rodzin pieczętujących się tym herbem najwięcej było przesiedleńców z Mołdawii i Wołoszy, osadzonych jeszcze w XIII a może nawet w XII w na Rusi Halickiej. Przesiedlenia te były próbą stworzenia spójnego systemu obrony przed najazdami tatarskimi a także próbą wprowadzenia nowego typu pasterstwa na ziemie nieużywane. Pierwsze dane o herbie Sas jako herbie polskim pochodzą z 1253 roku. W 1262 odnotowani zostali Drohomireccy herbu Sas, pochodzący z Rusi. Według Franciszka Piekosińskiego najwcześniejsze wzmianki na temat tego herbu w Polsce pochodzą z XV w., a pierwszy zachowany wizerunek na pieczęci z 1464,Większość rodzin to przeważnie wschodniogalicyjska szlachta zaściankowa, choć nie brakowało także znamienitszych rodów z innych rejonów Polski jak np. Jędryczków z Opola. +Nie jest jasne pochodzenie nazwy herbu. +Według jednej z teorii nazwa Dragów – Sasów wywodzi się od imienia, lub przydomku wojewody Sasa, potomka Draga, pochodzącego z rodu, który z ramienia Węgier zarządzał Mołdawią. Wschodnie pogranicze Węgier, a zwłaszcza ziemia siedmiogrodzka, zamieszkiwało wielu osadników saskich. Być może echem związków rodzinnych Wołochów z osadnikami niemieckimi rodowych jest właśnie słowo "Sas", które pierwotnie było przydomkiem, a później stało się nazwą całego rodu. +Teoria opracowana przez mec. Kostrzewskiego wskazuje na nazwę Sas (czytaną z węgierska szasz) alternatywnie z jęz. wołoskiego od słowa "zazz" (Kadlec). W węgierskim słowo to oznacza „orzeł”. Z kolei „drago” oznacza – drogi, ukochany, bezcenny. Węgierskie pochodzenie nazwy wiąże się z historią migracji Wołochów. Całkowicie błędne według niego było natomiast wiązanie tej nazwy z niemieckimi Sasami – stąd najprawdopodobniej funkcjonujące mylne określenie dla Wołochów –„bracia germanie”, chociaż w miejscach w których dotychczas przybywali czyli Rumunia oraz dzisiejsza Słowacja rozwijało się od XII wieku osadnictwa saksońskie, które dało impuls osadniczy w okresie panowania Kazimierza Wielkiego i Ludwika Węgierskiego. Na Węgrzech takim samym herbem (czasem przedstawianym ze złotą strzałą) już od XV w. pięczętuje się rodzina Dragffy, co potwierdza węgierskie pochodzenie herbu, zwłaszcza przy podobieństwie nazwiska do alternatywnej nazwy herbu Sas. +Herbowni. +Lista sporządzona została na postawie wiarygodnych źródeł, zwłaszcza klasycznych i współczesnych herbarzy. Należy jednak zwrócić uwagę na częste zjawisko przypisywania rodom szlacheckim niewłaściwych herbów, szczególnie nasilone w czasie legitymacji szlachectwa przed zaborczymi heroldiami, co zostało następnie utrwalone w wydawanych kolejno herbarzach. Identyczność nazwiska nie musi oznaczać przynależności do danego rodu herbowego. Przynależność taką mogą bezspornie ustalić wyłącznie badania genealogiczne. +Abramowski, Alechnowicz, Aleksandrowicz, Andrzejkowicz, Arszenic, Asłam, Asłamowicz, Asłanowicz, Awramowski. +Babaszyński, Baczański, Baczewski, Baczyński, Badowski, Balicki, Balowicz, Bandrowski, Baniewicz, Banikowski, Bankowski, Bańkowski, Baraniecki, Bardziejowicz, Batowski, Bejarski, Bejdowski, Bejowski, Bereziński, Berezowski, Bereźnicki, Bereżnicki, Bereżyński, Bieliński, Bieniewski, Biernacki, Bilawicz, Biliński, Bilewicz, Billewicz, Blisiewicz, Błażejewicz, Błażewicz, Błażewski, Błażowski, Bobaszyński, Bobrowicz, Boczański, Bodrug, Bogusiewicz, Bohatyrowicz, Bohosiewicz, Bojarowski, Bojarski, Bojarzyński, Bojeniacki, Bondarzewski, Bonowski, Borkowski, Boryczewski, Borysławski, Bosacki, Bosadzki, Brański, Bratkowski, Broszniewski, Broszniowski, Browczyński, Brylewicz, Brylewski, Bryling, Bryliński, Brynk, Brześciański, Brzuski, Buchowski, Budziewicz, Bujarski, Buszyński, Buzdawicz, Byliński, Byszyński. +Charczyński, Charewicz, Chechłowski, Chesłowski, Chłopicki, Chnatusko, Chirowski, Chodakowski, Chodkowski, Chodorowski, Chołodowicz, Chomikowicz, Chordyński, Chosłowski, Chozłowski, Chrustowski, Ciechoński, Ciechowski, Ciecieniewski, Ciecieniowski, Ciemierzyński, Ciemierżyński, Cierciowicz, Cierpiłowski, Cierupowicz, Cieszkowski, Cisowski, Cissowski, Ciurupowicz, Cucyłowski, Czahrowski, Czajkowski, Czapiewski, Czapiński, Czarnota, Czarnowski, Czemierzyński, Czemierżyński, Czepucha, Czerpacki, Czołchański, Czołhański, Czołowski, Czuczepkowicz, Czulewicz, Czułajewski, Czylewski, Czyżewski. +Dachnowicz, Damiłowski, Danejko, Daniełowicz, Danilewicz, Daniłowicz, Daniłowski, Daniszowski, Dasiewicz, Daszkiewicz, Dawkszewicz, Dawszkiewicz, Dąbrowski, Dekański, Delatyński, Demkowicz, Didkowski, Ditkowski, Długopolski, Dmitraszko, Dmitrowicz, Dmoszycki, Dmościcki, Dmytrowicz, Dniestrzański, Dobrocki, Dobrodzki, Dobrokański, Dobrosański, Dobrowlański, Dobrowolski, Dobrożański, Dobrzański, Dobrzyjański, Dodajewski, Doliński, Dołżański, Dombrowski, Domeński, Doroszewicz, Drelachowski, Drelichowski, Drobnicki, Drohomirecki, Drużbicz, Drużyłowski, Dryniewicz, Dubanowicz, Dubieniewicz, Dubracki, Dubrawski, Dubrowlański, Dubrowski, Duchowski, Dulski, Dunajewski, Duniecki, Duszyński, Dwernicki, Dwojakowski, Dydkowski, Dziedoszycki, Dzieduszycki, Dziedzicki, Dziendolet, Dzientolet, Dziewiątkowicz, Dziewulski, Dziurdz, Dziurdziewicz, Dżurdż, Dżurdżewicz. +Esymontowski. +Faleński, Falęski, Faliński, Fedkowicz, Filonowicz, Fiłonowicz, Floriański, Foland, Forkiewicz, Fryzowicz, Fugowski. +Gacicki, Gałecki, Giecewicz, Girski, Giżelewski, Gogoliński, Gojsiewski, Gojziewski, Gojżewski, Goliński, Gorczyński, Gorzeński, Goszowski, Gotkiewicz, Goyżewski, Grabowiecki, Grebnicki, Guranda, Gwozdecki. +Haczyński, Hanczewski, Hatajłowicz, Herman, Hnilecki, Hołobut, Hołonowicz, Hołyński, Hordyński, Horodecki, Horodyński, Horodyski, Horoszkowicz-Jaworski, Horucki, Hossowski, Hrebiński, Hrebnicki, Hrebuński, Hrunicki, Hubiak, Hubicki, Huhernicki, Hulecki, Humecki, Humiatycki, Huniatycki, Huniewicz, Husakowski, Hussakowski, Hussarowski, Huśniański. +Ignaszewicz, Ihnatowicz, Ilnicki, Iwanicki, Iżycki. +Jabłoński, Jamiński, Jamnicki, Janiowicz, Janiszewski, Jaroszewicz, Jasienicki, Jasieński, Jasiewicz, Jasiński, Jaśniski, Jaworowski, Jaworski, Jermałowicz, Jermołowicz, Juchno, Jugiewicz, Jurgiewicz, Jurkiewicz, Jurkowski. +Kaczkowski, Kaleczycki, Kalinowicz, Kałęczycki, Kamiński, Kanafalski, Kaniowski, Kanofojski, Kański, Kapczewski, Karbowski, Karczewski, Karczmarzewski, Karczyński, Karmazyn, Karwowski, Kasprzykowski, Keller, Kędzierski, Kiedrowski, Kierewczycki, Kiernowski, Kierzkowski, Kimakowicz, Klaczowski, Klechniewski, Klechniowski, Kluczyński, Kładnicki, Kłodnicki, Kniaźdworski, Kniehiniński, Kniehiński, Kniehynicki, Knihinicki, Knihiński, Koblański, Kobylański, Kobyleński, Kobyliński, Kokolnicki, Kołkanowicz, Kołodczak, Komarnicki, Komorowski, Konaszewicz, Kopcieński, Kopciński, Kopczeński, Kopczyński, Kopiecki, Kopystyński, Korczmarzewski, Korczmażewski, Korczyński, Kornalewski, Kornelowski, Kornieszowski, Kotecki, Kotel, Kotłowicz, Kozakowski, Kozłowski, Krameński, Krasowski, Krassowski, Kraśniański, Kraśnicki, Krechowicki, Krechowiecki, Krechowski, Kropielnicki, Kropilnicki, Kropiwnicki, Krupicki, Krusielnicki, Kruszelnicki, Kryłoszański, Krynicki, Krzeczkowski, Krzewkowski, Krzywczycki, Kubicki, Kuiłowski, , Kulczycki, Kulhanowicz, Kumarnicki, Kunecki, Kunicki, Kupiecki, Kuszczykiewicz. +Lacki, Lastowski, Lechowicz, Leniewicz, Lepech, Lepiech, Leszczyński, Leśnikiewicz, Lewandowski, Lewicki, Lewiński, Lichacki, Lipecki, Lipiecki, Liskowacki, Liskowski, Liśniekiewicz, Lityński, Lubacki, Lubaczewski, Lubaczowski, Lubieniecki, Lubikowski. +Łabinowicz, Łabunowicz, Łagorzewski, Łagowski, Łapuszański, Łapuszyński, Łastowski, Ławrowski, Łącki, Łęski, Łodyński, Łomia, Łopuszański, Łostowski, Łowczycki, Łoziński, Łubieniecki, Łucki, Łuckiewicz, Łuczaj, Łuczkiewicz, Łuczycki, Łuczyński, Łukawicki, Łukawiecki, Łukcewicz, Łużecki, Łytyński. +Macewicz, Machalewski, Maciulewicz, Maculewicz, Majtkowski, Malikowski, Malinkowski, Malitowski, Malkiewicz, Małuszycki, Manasterski, Manastyrski, Mańczak, Martycz, Matkowski, Medyński, Michniewicz, Mikulski, Misczowski, Miszczowski, Mokrzecki, Mokrzycki, Molitowski, Monasterski, Monastyrski, Morgulec, Morkowski, Morochowski, Moszkowski, Mościszewski, Mujski, Mykitycz, Myszczowski. +Nagwazdan, Nahujowski, Nanowski, Nehrebecki, Niebyszczański, Niedaszkowski, Niedziałkowski, Niedzielski, Niehrebecki, Niemszyński, Nowakowski, Nowicki, Nowosielecki, Nowosielski, Nozdryn. +Obertyński, Obuchowski, Odrzechowski, Odyniak, Olechnowicz, Olegnicki, Oleszkiewicz, Oleszkowicz, Olewnicki, Opolski, Opryszowski, Orłowski, Ortyński, Orzeński, Ostolski, Ostraszewicz. +Pacławski, Palimączyński, Pareński, Parnawski, Paryłowski, Pasławski, Patyłowski, Pawlik, Pawlikowicz, Pawlikowski, Perehuda, Perski, Petraszewicz, Pielecki, Pilik, Piskowski, Płonczyński, Płoszczański, Płoszczyński, Płotnicki, Podgórski, Podgurski, Podhajecki, Podhorecki, Podhorodecki, Podlesiecki, Podłuski, Podwysocki, Pohorecki, Pokutyński, Polański, Politowicz, Popiel, Popielnicki, Popin, Popkowicz, Poradowski, Porudowski, Półtorakiewicz, Procewicz, Proczewicz, Prusinowski, Przygrodzki, Pukiniecki, Pułtorakiewicz, Pumporakiewicz, Putwiński, Puziowicz. +Raczkiewicz, Radiłowski, Radzewic, Radzewicz, Radziewicz, Rafalski, Rajca, Rajkiewicz, Rasko, Rastawiecki, Rastowiecki, Raszko, Raszkowski, Rayca, Raykiewicz, Robaszewski, Rodziewicz, Rozłucki, Rożniatowski, Rożniewski, Rubaszewski, Rubinowski, Rudnicki, Rupczyc, Rybczyc, Rybnicki, Rybotycki, Rychlicki, Rychliński, Rześniewski, Rześniowiecki, Rzodkiewicz. +Sarnowski, Sasimowski, Sasinowski, Saski, Sasowski, Sasulicz, Semkowicz, Serednicki, Sernowski, Siarczyński, Siemakowicz, Siemasz, Siemiasz, Siemiginowski, Sienicki, Sienuszkowicz, Skoinicki, Skolski, Skotnicki, Skowronek, Skulski, Słotyło, Smereczański, Smeroczański, Smolnicki, Snitowski, Sołoma, Soroczyński, Sosiński, Sosnowski, Sozański, Srzednicki, Stanisławski, Steckiewicz,Stefański, Strupiński, Strutyński, Stryjski, Stryski, Strzelbicki, Stupnicki, Stypałkowski, Sulatycki, Swarczyński, Swaryczewski, Symon, Sypajło, Szachnowicz, Szandorowski, Szandrowski, Szandyrowski, Szczeniawski, Szczeniowski, Szczombrowski, Szczurewicz, Szczygielski, Szemetyłło, Szeniowski, Szeptycki, Szeremieciński, Szpakowski, Szumiłło, Szumiło, Szumlański, Szylwiński, Szymański, Szyszka. +Śnitkowski, Świchodowski, Świebodowski, Świerzpot, Świrydowski, Świstelnicki, Świstun. +Taonewicz, Tarnawski, Tarnowiecki, Tarnowski, Tatomir, Telepianowicz, Tenewicz, Terlecki, Ternawski, Ternowski, Terpiłowski, Tokarski, Topolnicki, Toporowicz, Towarnicki, Trachimowski, Trojanowski, Truchanowicz, Trzcina, Turczyński, Turebski, Turecki, Turek, Turkiewicz, Turzański, Tustanowski, Tychowski, Tymiński, Tymowski, Tysarowski, Tysowski, Tyssowski, Tyszarowski, Tyszewicz, Tyzdrowski. +Uhelnicki, Uhernicki, Uhrynowski, Ulnicki, Uniatycki, Uniatyński, Urbański, Urocicki, Urociecki, Uruski, Usarzewski, Ussakowski, Ussowski, Ustyanowski. +Waczewski, Wakulski, Wanczałuch, Wandrowicz, Wandrycz, Wasilkowski, Wasylkiewicz, Weber, Weidman, Werpachowski, Werpechowski, Werycha, Weryha, Wichliński, Winkler, Winnicki, Wisłobocki, Wisłocki, Wismont, Witkowski, Witwicki, Włosiański, Wojutyński, Wolański, Wołczański, Wołkowicki, Wołkowyski, Wołłszowski, Wołosiański, Wołosiecki, Wołosowski, Wołoszowski, Wołoszyn, Wołoszynowski, Wołoszyński, Wołszyński, Worotnicki, Woruski, Woruyski, Worytko, Wysłobocki, Wysoczański, Wyszyński. +Zaczywilkowski, Zaderewnicki, Zadrzewicki, Zajkowski, Zakałużny, Zakaźny, Zankowicz, Zapłatyński, Zarudzki, Zasimowicz, Zatwardnicki, Zatwarnicki, Zawadzki, Zawisza, Zeliszkiewicz, Zeloborski, Zesieliński, Zesteliński, Zeszteliński, Zieliborski, Zieliński, Ziembiński, Ziębiński, Ziętarski, Zuber, Zubr, Zubrzycki, Zukotyński, Zurakowski, Zuroch, Zyzani. +Żabiński, Żejmo, Żeliborski, Żelisko, Żerebecki, Żórakowski, Żubr, Żukociński, Żukotyński, Żukowski, Żurachowski, Żurakowski, Żurawski, Żydykowicz. +Znani herbowni. +Marian Aleksander Baraniecki herbu Sas – matematyk polski, profesor Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Urodzony 8 grudnia 1848 r. w Warszawie, zm. 25 lutego 1895 r. w Krakowie. +Anna Bilińska-Bohdanowiczowa – Malarka polska. (1857-1893). +Leon Biliński herbu Sas - Minister Skarbu, Rektor Uniwersytetu im. Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie +Krzysztof Sas Buchowski - cenił się zaufaniem samego króla.Zygmunt III powierzył mu tytuł łowczego przemyskiego 8 marca 1590 roku. (źródło: ISBN 83-03-02520-1) +Jan Daniłowicz na Olesku herbu Sas (zm. 1628 we Lwowie) – wojewoda ruski od 1613, kasztelan lwowski od 1612, krajczy wielki koronny od 1600, podczaszy wielki koronny, łowczy bełski, starosta bełski, buski, korsuński i czehryński. +Albin Dunajewski herbu Sas – Biskup Krakowski. Urodzony 1 marca 1817 r. w Stanisławowie. Zmarł 19 czerwca 1894 r. w Krakowie. +Julian Dunajewski – Rektor Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, profesor ekonomii, prezydent Krakowa, minister skarbu Austrii. Młodszy brat biskupa Albina Dunajewskiego. +Józef Dwernicki herbu Sas. Generał Polski, dowódca kawalerii w powstaniu listopadowym. +Urodził się 19 marca 1779 w Warszawie. Zmarł 23 listopada 1857 w Łopatynie w Galicji. +Włodzimierz Dzieduszycki herbu Sas. +Bohdan Sas-Jaworski – jeździec, olimpijczyk. +Modest Strzelbicki (1823 – 1902) – biskup wołyński +Antoni Manastyrski (1863-1869) – biskup Przemyski. +Stanisław Tarnawski - chorąży Ziemi Sanockiej (XVI/XVII w.) +Andrzej Tymowski herbu Sas – Socjolog, profesor Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Pracownik Ośrodka Badań nad Tradycją Antyczną w Polsce i Europie Środkowowschodniej UW, Dyrektor Programów Międzynarodowych. Urodzony 22 grudnia 1922 r. w Łodzi, zm. 15 października 2002 r. +Stanisław Wisłocki herbu Sas (ur. 7 lipca 1921 w Rzeszowie, zm. 31 maja 1998 w Warszawie) – polski kompozytor, dyrygent i pianista. Autor utworów orkiestrowych, kameralnych i fortepianowych. +Władysław Ignacy Wisłocki herbu Sas (1841-1900), Profesor Uniwersytetu Jagielońskiego, bibliograf, kustosz Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej. +Jan Sas-Zubrzycki (1860-1935) – architekt. +Janusz Żurakowski (ur. 12 września 1914 w Ryżawce, Ukraina, zm. 9 lutego 2004 w Barry's Bay, Ontario, Kanada) – polski pilot myśliwski i doświadczalny, pułkownik. Otrzymał wiele odznaczeń bojowych za udział w misjach na terenie Niemiec oraz w Bitwie o Anglię, m.in. Virtuti Militari i Krzyż Walecznych (trzykrotnie). Był bratem konstruktora lotniczego i pilota, mgr inż. Bronisława Żurakowskiego. +Bibliografia. +Ludwik Wyrostek: "Ród Dragów – Sasów na Węgrzech i Rusi Halickiej", Kraków, 1932. +Bundeswehra + +Bundeswehra (niem. "die Bundeswehr") − nazwa federalnych sił zbrojnych Niemiec. Za datę utworzenia Bundeswehry uznaje się 5 maja 1955. Bundeswehra wchodzi w skład sił zbrojnych NATO, uczestniczy więc w NATO-wskich akcjach (np. IFOR, SFOR, potem EUFOR w Bośni-Hercegowinie, KFOR w Kosowie i in.), a także w akcjach humanitarnych ONZ (np. UNOSOM w Somalii). +Struktura Bundeswehry. +Do roku 2011 nabór do Bundeswehry opierał się na zasadzie obowiązkowego poboru. W szczytowym okresie zimnej wojny jej liczebność sięgała blisko pół miliona żołnierzy, natomiast na koniec grudnia 2004 już tylko ok. 250 tys. +Historia. +Po zjednoczeniu Niemiec Bundeswehra wchłonęła ok. 20 tys. żołnierzy armii NRD oraz cały jej sprzęt. Część tego sprzętu jako przestarzały wkrótce zniszczono, część odsprzedano lub oddano bezpłatnie innym armiom (np. czołgi - Turcji, helikoptery Mi-24 i +ostatnich 22 MiG-ów-29 - Polsce). +Łączna liczba żołnierzy – ok. 308,4 tys. (2000); zasadnicza służba wojsk. we wszystkich rodzajach wojsk trwa 9 mies.; siły lądowe liczą 211,8 tys. żołnierzy, marynarka – 26 tys., lotnictwo – 70,5 tys.; od 1955 czł. NATO; po zjednoczeniu Niemiec (1990) rozpoczął się proces włączania Nar. Armii Lud. NRD (wraz z jej uzbrojeniem) do Bundeswehry; podpisany 1990 w Moskwie układ między Niemcami a ZSRR o ostatecznej regulacji, zw. układem „2+4”, określił stan sił zbrojnych zjednoczonych Niemiec na poziomie 370 tys. (łącznie siły lądowe, mor. i powietrzne) i zobowiązał ZSRR do wycofania swoich wojsk z terenu Niemiec do końca 1994; Niemcy są sygnatariuszem układu w sprawie konwencjonalnych sił zbrojnych z 1990 i układu o liczbie żołnierzy z 1992, zgodnie z którymi liczebność wojsk będzie wynosić 350 tys. żołnierzy; Niemcy będą mogły posiadać: 4166 czołgów bojowych, 3446 bojowych wozów opancerzonych, 2707 jednostek artylerii o kalibrze powyżej 100 mm, 900 samolotów bojowych, 306 helikopterów uderzeniowych. W realizowanej od 1992 reformie, p.n. Bundeswehra 2000, siły zbrojne Niemiec będą się składać z 2 kategorii: większej części przeznaczonej do obrony terytorium Niemiec i obszaru NATO oraz mniejszej – maksymalnie mobilnych i utrzymujących stałą gotowość bojową sił szybkiego reagowania (7 brygad lądowych, część sił powietrznych i mor.). Budżet wojsk. wynosi 1,5% PKB (2003). W skład wyposażenia wchodzą np. uznane za jedne z najlepszych na świecie czołgi Leopard 2A6. +Po wojnie w NRD i RFN utworzono nowe siły powietrzne (Luftwaffe). Ich rozwój był głównie podporządkowany zimnej wojnie. Zachodnie siły powietrzne zostały powołane do życia w roku 1950. Niemcy z obu stron muru wykorzystywali samoloty zaprojektowane przez obie strony zimnej wojny. Jedyną zbrojną akcją Luftwaffe po wojnie była przeprowadzona w roku 1999 operacja pokojowa w Kosowie. Samoloty NATO bombardowały Serbię, a niemieckie maszyny zwiadu elektronicznego zapewniały im bezpieczeństwo. Mimo że siły Luftwaffe nikogo nie zabiły, użycie ich w konflikcie wywołało w RFN spore kontrowersje. +Budżet niemieckiego resortu obrony na 2007 rok wynosi 28,4 mld euro. +Ray Tomlinson + +Raymond S. Tomlinson (ur. 1941) - amerykański inżynier i programista, absolwent Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, znany jako twórca powszechnie stosowanego znaku @ w adresach poczty elektronicznej i twórca sieciowej poczty elektronicznej; laureat nagrody George R. Stibitz Computer Pioneer Award przyznanej przez American Computer Museum w kwietniu 2000 r. +W 1971 r. Tomlinson pracował jako inżynier w firmie Bolt Beranek and Newman, która zdobyła kontrakt na zbudowanie sieci ARPANET. Badając możliwości wykorzystania sieci, wpadł na pomysł połączenia wewnętrznego programu generującego komunikaty z innym programem do transferowania plików między komputerami sieci ARPANET i zastosował w nim znak @ do oddzielenia nazwy odbiorcy od docelowego adresu. +Nie jest znana dokładna data wysłania pierwszej wiadomości - źródła podają rok 1971 lub 1972, ale najbardziej prawdopodobny jest listopad lub grudzień 1971 r. Wbrew legendzie nie ma też pewności, czy treścią pierwszej wiadomości były znaki QWERTY - sam Tomlinson utrzymuje, że było to "coś w rodzaju QWERTY", co ma oznaczać przypadkowy charakter tej wiadomości. +Neotenia + +Neotenia ("neo"- + gr. "teínein" – napinać, rozciągać) – zdolność płciowego rozmnażania się larw niektórych zwierząt, występująca w następstwie przyspieszonego w stosunku do reszty ciała rozwoju narządów rozrodczych (neotenia pełna albo zupełna), a także zatrzymanie u osobników dorosłych pewnych cech infantylnych (neotenia niepełna albo niezupełna). Neotenia jest szczególnym przypadkiem pedogenezy. +Neotenia pełna występuje u płazów, czerwców, termitów i, prawdopodobnie, u ryb. +Neotenia pełna u płazów wynika z braku reakcji tkanek larw na stymulujący przemianę larw hormon tarczycy (tyroksynę), przy normalnym jej rozwoju, bądź z niedorozwoju tarczycy. Wywołana jest także warunkami środowiskowymi, które hamują rozwój larw, np. niską temperaturą lub brakiem pokarmu. +Zachodnioukraińska Republika Ludowa + +Zachodnioukraińska Republika Ludowa ("ZURL", ukr. "Західно Українська Народна Республіка") – jedno z dwóch państw ukraińskich powstałych w wyniku I wojny światowej. +Historia. +Pod koniec I wojny światowej, wobec klęski militarnej państw centralnych, w tym wielonarodowej monarchii austro-węgierskiej, zaistniały warunki do odzyskania lub uzyskania niepodległości przez wiele narodów Europy Centralnej i Wschodniej. +Na początku października 1918 klub ukraiński w parlamencie Austro-Węgier postanowił zwołać do Lwowa mężów zaufania z następujących ziem Austro-Węgier: Galicji Wschodniej, Bukowiny, Rusi Zakarpackiej. 19 października 1918 na zjeździe we Lwowie ukonstytuowała się Ukraińska Rada Narodowa. Przyjęła ona rezolucję o utworzeniu państwa ukraińskiego (jako części federacyjnej monarchii austriackiej), w którego skład miała wejść wschodnia Galicja wraz z Łemkowszczyzną; poza tym odrzucono "roszczenia" Rady Regencyjnej do ziemi halickiej i włodzimierskiej. W październiku 1918 Ukraińska Rada Narodowa nie wypowiedziała się w sprawie zjednoczenia z Hetmanatem, co więcej, podkreślano odrębność ZURL od państwa ukraińskiego nad Dnieprem. Deklaracja Rady w sprawie połączenia z reaktywowaną po obaleniu Pawła Skoropadskiego Ukraińską Republiką Ludową nastąpiła w styczniu 1919. +Zachodnioukraińska Republika Ludowa proklamowała niepodległość 1 listopada 1918, po zajęciu przez ukraińskie oddziały wojskowe najważniejszych gmachów publicznych i obiektów wojskowych Lwowa. Jednakże miała to być państwowość w ramach państwa austriackiego. Przewodniczącym Ukraińskiej Rady Narodowej został Jewhen Petruszewycz. Prawne podstawy państwa określała przyjęta 13 listopada 1918 "Tymczasowa ustawa zasadnicza o niezależności państwowej ziem ukraińskich byłej monarchii austro-węgierskiej" (konstytucja ZURL). +13 listopada 1918 na posiedzeniu URN powołano rząd (Sekretariat Państwowy), którego premierem został Kost Łewyćkyj. +Do 10 grudnia 1918 państwo nie posiadało nazwy, w tym dniu uchwalono nazwę Państwo Zachodnioukraińskie (Zachidno-Ukrajinska Derżawa). Po uzyskaniu informacji o abdykacji Habsburgów w dniu 14 grudnia zmieniono nazwę na "republikańską" - Zachodnioukraińska Republika Ludowa. +ZURL pretendowała do władzy na następujących obszarach należących do austriackich krajów koronnych Galicji i Lodomerii oraz Bukowiny oraz węgierskich komitatów Szepes (Spisz), Sáros (Szarysz), Zemplén (Zemplín), Bereg, Ugocsa i Máramaros – zgodnie z mapą „Ethnographische Karte der österreichischen Monarchie” Karla Czerniga. Przy tym Bukowina i ziemie dawnego Królestwa Węgier zostały w krótkim czasie zajęte przez wojska rumuńskie, węgierskie i czechosłowackie. Ponieważ ZURL miało obejmować ziemie sporne między Polakami a Ukraińcami w Galicji (granice etniczne były niemożliwe do ustalenia), państwo to od razu znalazło się w stanie wojny z oddziałami polskich ochotników w Galicji Wschodniej, a w konsekwencji ich wsparcia przez regularne Wojsko Polskie ( tzw. odsiecz przemyska) - wojny z odrodzonym państwem polskim. W wyniku zaciętych walk Polacy jeszcze w listopadzie, po wycofaniu wojsk ukraińskich przejęli kontrolę nad Lwowem i rząd zachodnioukraiński przeniósł do Tarnopola, a następnie do Stanisławowa. +22 stycznia 1919 zawarty został Akt Zjednoczenia, w wyniku którego obydwa państwa połączyły się, przy czym ZURL zachowała autonomię. +W maju 1919 Ukraińska Armia Galicyjska wspólnie z oddziałami URL wyruszyły, aby wesprzeć antybolszewickie powstanie na Naddnieprzu. Równolegle na Ukrainę uderzyły wojska Białych Rosjan (Armia Ochotnicza) Denikina, które walczyły zarówno z bolszewikami, jak i z wojskami ukraińskimi (Armia Czynna URL). Po załamaniu się w październiku 1919 r. ofensywy Denikina na Moskwę pod Orłem nastąpił rozpad armii białych Rosjan i ich szybki odwrót na południe. W konsekwencji w grudniu 1919 r. Armia Czerwona ponownie zajęła Kijów, przejmując go z rąk Białych. Oddziały URL tworzyły wówczas enklawę państwowości ukraińskiej w rejonie Kamieńca Podolskiego, zaś UHA najpierw połączyła się z wojskami Denikina (listopad 1919,), a następnie została wcielona do Armii Czerwonej jako tzw. CzUHA. +7 maja 1919 Rada Komisarzy Ludowych USRR wystosowała notę do rządu ZURL w sprawie pomocy oraz propozycji podpisania porozumienia w sprawie wyznaczenia linii demarkacyjnej, jednak rząd ZURL nie odpowiedział na tę notę. +ZURL zakończyła istnienie 16 lipca 1919, kiedy ostatnie oddziały Ukraińskiej Armii Galicyjskiej zostały wyparte po ciężkich walkach (Jazłowiec) przez ofensywę Wojska Polskiego za Zbrucz. Emigracyjny rząd ZURL działał w Wiedniu do 1923 roku, kiedy stało się jasne, że starania o korzystną dla Ukraińców decyzję Ententy są bezskuteczne. Warto dodać, że przywódcy ZURL nie wykazywali chęci znalezienia rozwiązania kompromisowego z rządem polskim, odrzucając wszystkie proponowane linie podziału Galicji Wschodniej, pozostawiające Lwów po stronie polskiej, nawet gdy pozostawiały jednocześnie większość terytorium spornego (i ludności) po stronie ukraińskiej. Propozycja misji gen. Barthelemy z lutego 1919 r. pośredniczącej w rozmowach o polsko-ukraińskie zawieszenie broni została odrzucona z tego względu przez ZURL, pomimo że jej konsekwencją byłoby uznanie przez mocarstwa Ententy (w trakcie trwającej wówczas paryskiej konferencji pokojowej) ZURL jako niepodległego państwa. +Przywódcy ZURL prezentowali postawę bezkompromisową, której podstawą była granica na Sanie (hasło "Lachy za San"), nie do przyjęcia dla strony polskiej. Lekceważyli też niebezpieczeństwo ze strony czerwonej Rosji, mimo że Symon Petlura nalegał na rozejm z Polakami, a delegaci Ukraińców galicyjskich brali udział w negocjacjach Andrija Liwickiego prowadzonych jesienią 1919 r. w Warszawie i zakończonych sojuszem polsko-ukraińskim z kwietnia 1920 r. Delegaci rządu ZURL upełnomocnieni przez Jewhena Petruszewycza ze Stepanem Wytwyckim na czele wycofali się z rozmów w grudniu 1919 r. po zgodzie Petlury na cesje terytorialne na rzecz Polski w Galicji, pomimo deklaracji strony polskiej o autonomicznym statusie Galicji i wzajemnych gwarancjach dla ochrony praw Polaków i Ukraińców w obu państwach. +Odmowa ukraińskich działaczy państwowych i wojskowych ZURL zawarcia w roku 1919 kompromisu terytorialnego z Polską i wsparcia organizacyjnego i kadrowego Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej w czasie wyprawy kijowskiej 1920 r była jedną z najistotniejszych przyczyn tego, że niepodległe demokratyczne państwo ukraińskie (URL) po 1920 r. nie przetrwało. +Położenie Polaków w ZURL. +Zachodnioukraińska Republika Ludowa traktowała Polaków mieszkających na jej terytorium jako obywateli drugiej kategorii. Nowo powołana władza ukraińska na terenie obszaru Galicji Wschodniej nakazała zdejmowanie polskich napisów i szyldów i zastępowanie ich ukraińskimi. Zamykano polskie szkoły, a od dotychczasowych urzędników Monarchii Austro-Węgierskiej narodowości polskiej wymagano złożenia przysięgi na wierność Zachodnioukraińskiej Republice Ludowej, czego konsekwentnie odmawiali, w związku z czym zostali pozbawieni swoich stanowisk. +Państwo zachodnioukraińskie utworzyło liczne obozy internowania dla polskich jeńców wojennych, a także dla ludności cywilnej. Panowały w nich fatalne warunki bytowe – były to nieogrzewane zimą drewniane baraki, bez łóżek, pościeli i opieki lekarskiej. Jeńców głodzono, zdarzały się przypadki okradania, bicia, torturowania i rozstrzeliwania jeńców polskich. Internowanych wykorzystywano także do prac ponad siłę, w warunkach niskich temperatur bez odpowiedniej odzieży przy robotach kolejowo-torowych, drogowych i innych. W obozach notowano wysoką zachorowalność i śmiertelność wskutek chorób zakaźnych, zwłaszcza tyfusu. +W obozie w Kosowie zmarło prawie 900 osób (na 1500), w Mikulińcach według różnych źródeł od 300 do 600 (na tyfus plamisty) , w Kołomyi 100, w Brzeżanach, wskutek przetrzymywania w nieogrzewanych barakach przy temp. do -20 stopni, 16 (na 40). Inne obozy dla Polaków utworzono m.in. w Żółkwi, Złoczowie, Tarnopolu, Strusowie, czy Jazłowcu, były one głównie znane ze względu na okrucieństwo stosowanych tam metod. +Ludność cywilna Galicji Wschodniej, niezależnie od narodowości, cierpiała z powodu powszechnych rekwizycji przeprowadzanych przez Ukraińską Halicką Armię; dwory polskie były niszczone przez chłopów, żołnierze UHA przeprowadzali liczne rekwizycje również we wsiach "ruskich", co wywoływało protesty chłopów ukraińskich. Żołnierze ukraińscy bezcześcili kościoły rzymskokatolickie (niszczono figury świętych, urządzano tańce), szykanowano duchowieństwo +Duchowieństwo greckokatolickie narodowości ukraińskiej poparło czynnie utworzenie Zachodnioukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej, zajmując również stanowiska świeckie, m.in. w radach narodowych, komisariatach powiatowych i gminnych ZURL, czy komisariatach poborowych UHA. Ukraińscy duchowni nawoływali do wstępowania do Ukraińskiej Armii Halickiej, zdarzały się z ich strony przypadki organizacji antypolskich wieców i agitacji do walki z Polską. O wrogiej postawie wobec narodu polskiego kleru ukraińskiego pisał m.in. w swoim liście z dnia 31 marca 1920 roku arcybiskup lwowski obrządku łacińskiego Józef Bilczewski, oraz dowódca wojsk polskich w Małopolsce Wschodniej gen. Tadeusz Rozwadowski, który zapisał: "W czasie trwania walk zbrojnych duchowni greckokatoliccy całkowicie solidaryzowali się zarówno z organizatorami życia politycznego, jak i z ludem dokonującym mordów i rabunków na ludności i mieniu polskim. Ze strony duchowieństwa unickiego nie padł ani jeden głos protestu przeciwko gwałtom i okrucieństwom, nie został podjęty ani jeden krok zmierzający do położenia kresu bezmyślnemu pastwieniu się nad cywilną ludnością polską i polskimi jeńcami.". +W czasie walk o Lwów, 16 listopada 1918 arcybiskupi lwowscy obrządku rzymskokatolickiego Józef Bilczewski i greckokatolickiego Andrzej Szeptycki we wspólnym liście "wezwali polityków polskich i ukraińskich do wzajemnych ustępstw, aby zakończyć bratobójcze walki". Mediacja arcybiskupów doprowadziła do zawarcia 17 listopada we Lwowie zawieszenia broni, które po przedłużeniu obowiązywało do 21 listopada. 22 listopada 1918 wojska UHA, pomimo przewagi liczebnej, nieoczekiwanie wycofały się z granic Lwowa. +Wiosną 1919 w miastach na terenach pozostających pod władzą ZURL (Tarnopol, Stanisławów) ludność polska była dyskryminowana przy rozdziale artykułów żywnościowych w stosunku do Ukraińców i Żydów. W miastach i powiatach Polaków zmuszono do samodzielnego zapewnienia sobie wyżywienia, ponieważ administracja ZURL odmówiła zaopatrzenia w żywność ludności polskiej. "Wszystkie polskie organizacje charytatywne i opiekuńcze zostały zamknięte, a ich majątek skonfiskowany pod pretekstem zdrady stanu". +Doniesienia o zbrodniach dokonywanych na Polakach pod rządami ZURL wstrząsały polską opinią publiczną. Szczególnie bulwersowały przypadki okrutnych tortur, oraz zbrodni wojennych na polskiej ludności cywilnej, jak spalenie podlwowskiej wsi Sokolniki, gdzie podczas akcji pacyfikacyjnej żołnierze UHA spalili ok. 500 gospodarstw i zabili ponad 50 osób, Biłki Szlacheckiej (spalono 96 gospodarstw, zginęło 28 osób), czy też dokonanie licznych morderstw polskich mieszkańców Złoczowa, Dawidowa, Biłki Królewskiej i spalenie ich zabudowań. +Dla zbadania tych zbrodni powołano specjalną komisję sejmową. Na jej czele stanął poseł Jan Zamorski ze Związku Ludowo-Narodowego. Komisja ustaliła, że Ukraińcy dopuścili się względem Polaków w ZURL różnorodnych przestępstw: morderstw, rabunków, podpaleń, niszczenia mienia i innych zbrodni. Kapitulację wojsk ukraińskich i wyrażenia zgody na powołanie wspólnej komisji polsko-ukraińskiej w celu zbadania przestępstw popełnionych na obszarze ZURL proponował (w odpowiedzi na ukraiński postulat zawieszenia broni) jeszcze w czasie trwania konfliktu polski dowódca frontu galicyjsko-wołyńskiego generał Wacław Iwaszkiewicz-Rudoszański, wówczas propozycja ta została przez stronę ukraińską odrzucona. +Wydarzenia te znalazły także odbicie w późniejszej literaturze. Pisali o nich m.in. Kornel Makuszyński w "Radosnych i smutnych" (Warszawa 1922) oraz Jan Brzoza w "Polskim Roku 1919" (Londyn 1988), wydawano także publikacje upamiętniające wydarzenia z roku 1919 np. "Z krwawych dni Złoczowa 1919 r." wydaną przez Komitet Budowy Pomnika-Grobowca dla Ofiar Mordów Ukraińskich. +Położenie Żydów w ZURL. +Żydzi początkowo przychylnie odnosili się do ZURL. "Z tego powodu otrzymali liczne prawa i przywileje, np. przy rozdziale żywności, których nie miała ludność polska. Część z nich masowo denuncjowała Polaków, co w poważny sposób zaostrzyło i tak napięte po pogromie lwowskim stosunki polsko-żydowskie. Jeden z oficerów ukraińskich policji oświadczył, że musiał " mitygować Żydów w zapale donosicielskim". Stosunek Żydów do ZURL uległ istotnej zmianie po informacjach masowych pogromach ludności żydowskiej na Ukrainie popełnionych przez oddziały Petlury oraz po mniejszych pogromach dokonanych przez żołnierzy UHA m.in. w Stanisławowie, Złoczowie i Stryju". +Daley Thompson + +Francis Morgan Oyodélé "Daley" Thompson (ur. 30 lipca 1958 w Londynie) – lekkoatleta brytyjski, wieloboista, dwukrotny mistrz olimpijski w dziesięcioboju i czterokrotny rekordzista świata w tej konkurencji. +Jako osiemnastolatek zadebiutował w dziesięcioboju na igrzyskach olimpijskich w 1976 w Montrealu, zajął wówczas 18. miejsce. W 1977 został mistrzem Europy juniorów. W 1978 został mistrzem igrzysk Wspólnoty Narodów w Edmonton w dziesięcioboju, a następnie srebrnym medalistą mistrzostw Europy w Pradze. +W maju 1980 ustanowił rekord świata w dziesięcioboju w Götzis w Austrii wynikiem 8648 pkt (w czerwcu tego roku stracił go na rzecz Guido Kratschmera). Zdobył złoty medal w tej konkurencji na igrzyskach olimpijskich w 1980 w Moskwie. W maju 1982 w Götzis odzyskał rekord świata uzyskując 8730 pkt, ale w sierpniu ponownie go utracił; tym razem nowym rekordzistą został Jürgen Hingsen z RFN. We wrześniu 1982 Thompson zdobył złoty medal na mistrzostwach Europy w Atenach i jednocześnie poprawił rekord świata na 8774 pkt. Zwyciężył również w igrzyskach Wspólnoty Narodów w 1982 w Brisbane. +Został złotym medalistą w dziesięcioboju na pierwszych mistrzostwach świata w 1983 w Helsinkach. Na igrzyskach olimpijskich 1984) w Los Angeles obronił tytuł mistrzowski, stając się jedynym takim lekkoatletą w historii obok Boba Mathiasa. Wynikiem 8797 pkt wyrównał wówczas rekord świata Hingsena, lecz po wprowadzeniu nowych tabel wynik Thompsona przeliczono na 8847 punkty, co było samodzielnym rekordem świata. Był to niepobity rekord świata przez 9 lat i rekord olimpijski przez 20 lat, do czasu aż czeski dziesięcioboista Roman Šebrle zdobył 8893 punkty na igrzyskach w Atenach. Na igrzyskach w Los Angeles Thompson startował również w sztafecie 4 × 100 metrów, która w finale zajęła 7. miejsce +Zdobył kolejne tytuły mistrzowskie w dziesięcioboju na mistrzostwach Europy w 1986 w Stuttgarcie i na igrzyskach Wspólnoty Narodów w 1986 w Edynburgu. Na tych ostatnich zawodach wywalczył także srebrny medal w sztafecie 4 × 100 m. +Thompson doznał niespodziewanej porażki na mistrzostwach świata w 1987 w Rzymie, gdzie zajął 9. miejsce. Chciał też zdobyć trzecie z rzędu złoto na igrzyskach olimpijskich w 1988 w Seulu, ale poważna kontuzja wyeliminowała go z wyścigu po medale i ukończył rywalizację na czwartym miejscu. +Przez całe lata 80. kibice pasjonowali się jego rywalizacją z Jürgenem Hingsenem. Ta dwójka co jakiś czas biła wzajemnie swoje rekordy świata, ale to Thompson wychodził zwycięsko na najważniejszych imprezach i był na nich niepokonany w latach 1979-1987. +Znany był ze swojego niepokornego charakteru i natury showmana. Podczas dekoracji medalowej na igrzyskach w Los Angeles gwizdał pod nosem brytyjski hymn. Na Igrzyskach Wspólnoty Narodów w 1982 r. odmówił niesienia flagi podczas ceremonii otwarcia, tłumacząc, że zmniejszyłoby to jego szanse na zdobycie złota. Mimo to w 1983 został udekorowany Orderem Imperium Brytyjskiego. +Kaparowce + +Kaparowce ("Capparales" Hutch.) – rząd roślin wyróżniany w licznych XX-wiecznych systemach klasyfikacyjnych okrytonasiennych (np. w Cronquista z 1981, Reveala z lat 1993–1999). W systemach APG, w tym ostatnim z 2009, rośliny tu klasyfikowane włączane są do rzędu kapustowców ("Brassicales"). +Systematyka. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa "Dilleniidae" Takht. ex Reveal & Tahkt. pub. 1993, nadrząd "Capparanae" Reveal, rząd "Capparales" Hutch. +Parzystość P + +Transformacja. +P: \phi(x, y, z, t) \mapsto \phi(-x, -y, -z, t) +Transformacje te tworzą dyskretną grupę formula_1 (formula_2 opisuje transformację tożsamościową i formula_3). +W mechanice kwantowej transformacji tej towarzyszy istnienie operatora parzystości P. Jest to operator unitarny. +Wielkość fizyczna. +Z własności grupy wynika, że formula_3. Funkcje własne o określonej parzystości spełniają równanie własne +P \psi_{\lambda} = \lambda \psi_{\lambda} +z formula_5. Każdemu polu kwantowemu można więc przypisać wielkość fizyczną, którą nazywa się po prostu parzystością. Parzystość może więc być równa -1 lub +1. Stany z parzystością -1 nazywamy stanami lewoskrętnymi a stany z parzystością +1 stanami prawoskrętnymi. +Symetria. +Symetrię względem przekształcenia P nazywa się symetrią parzystości przestrzennej lub symetrią chiralną. +W fizyce mówi się o symetrii chiralnej lub o właściwościach chiralnych (czyli asymetrycznych) fundamentalnych sił i praw. Symetria chiralna ma szczególne zastosowanie w fizyce cząstek elementarnych. Spin jest nieodłącznie związany z cząstką i określa atrybut zwany skrętnością lub chiralnością (ang. chirality), a cecha ta nieodwracalnie wiąże kierunek spinu z kierunkiem ruchu cząstki. +(i\gamma^{\mu}\partial_{\mu}-\frac{m_{0} c}{\hbar})\Psi(x^{\nu})=0 + +Funkcja falowa ψ opisująca cząstki ma postać: +\Psi_{1,2} = Ne^{-ipx}u_{1,2} +\Psi_{3,4} = Ne^{ipx}v_{1,2} +przy czym u1,2 bądź v1,2 są spinorami opisującymi odpowiednio cząstkę u i antycząstkę v. Wskaźniki odpowiadają cząstkom o m równym +1/2 lub też -1/2 oraz o skrętności +1 bądź -1. Jedna z macierzy γ tworzy operator Π, taki, że: +Π+Ψ = ΨR i jednocześnie Π-Ψ = ΨL +Oznacza to, że funkcja falowa będzie sumą ψ = ψR + ψL, gdzie składowe sumy to opisujące cząstkę prawoskrętną ψR oraz cząstkę lewoskrętną ψL. +i\gamma^{\mu}\partial_{\mu}\Psi\partial_{R}=0 +oraz +i\gamma^{\mu}\partial_{\mu}\Psi\partial_{L}=0 +Oznacza to, że jeden składnik opisuje świat cząstek prawoskrętnych R a drugi lewoskrętnych L. Równania ψR i ψL są niezależne. Wynika z tego, że światy R i L są niezależne od siebie i mamy do czynienia z symetrią określaną jako chiralna. +Pogwałcenie symetrii. +W elektrodynamice, chemii (izomeria optyczna, chiralność) istnieje symetria parzystości – obiekty lewoskrętne i prawoskrętne podlegają tym samym prawom. +W biologii i fizyce słabych oddziaływań symetria parzystości jest złamana – obiekty lewoskrętne i prawoskrętne zachowują się inaczej. +Dynastia Obrenowiciów + +Dynastia Obrenowiciów – dynastia książąt i królów serbskich panujacych w XIX wieku. Konkurowała o władzę z dynastią Karadziordziewiciów. +Lista władców +Lista inicjalizacyjna konstruktora + +Lista inicjalizacyjna konstruktora (zwana też jego preambułą) to w językach programowania takich jak C++ czy C# opcjonalny fragment definicji konstruktora zawierający listę wartości, które mają być użyte do inicjalizacji wybranych składowych każdego obiektu tworzonego tym konstruktorem. +Geneza. +Obiektowe języki programowania z reguły umożliwiają tworzenie obiektów tej samej klasy na wiele różnych sposobów. Wymaga się przy tym, by każdy obiekt tuż po utworzeniu był w pełni gotowy do użycia. Oznacza to, że zasadniczo konstruktory powinny dokonywać pełnej inicjalizacji wszystkich danych przechowywanych w obiektach. Jednak sposób inicjalizacji składowych może zależeć od sposobu konstrukcji samego obiektu (np. różne konstruktory mogą przyjmować inne założenia co do wartości domyślnych pewnych składowych). Dlatego informacji potrzebnych do inicjalizacji składowych obiektu nie można podawać w miejscu ich definicji (jak ma to miejsce w przypadku stałych, zmiennych lub całych obiektów), lecz muszą one stanowić integralną część każdego konstruktora. +Zastosowanie. +Gdy klasa bazowa lub obiekt składowy klasy posiada konstruktor domniemany, jego wywołanie nie musi się pojawić na liście inicjalizacyjnej +Tadeusz Chciuk-Celt + +Tadeusz Chciuk-Celt, pseudonimy: Marek Celt, Michał Lasota (ur. 17 października 1916 w Drohobyczu, zm. 10 kwietnia 2001 w Monachium) – cichociemny, kurier ZWZ, redaktor i zastępca dyrektora Sekcji Polskiej RWE, ostatni prezes PSL na Uchodźstwie, autor wspomnień wojennych. Brat pisarza Andrzeja Chciuka. +Życie i działalność. +1916-1939. +Tadeusz Chciuk-Celt urodził się w 1916 w Drohobyczu. Od 1927 był w Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego, podharcmistrz od 1936. Odbył studia prawnicze na Uniwersytecie Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie, które ukończył z tytułem magistra praw w 1939. Rozwijał także zainteresowania muzyczne. Jeszcze w czasach gimnazjalnych pobierał w tym zakresie naukę w Szkole Muzycznej im. M. Łysenki w Drohobyczu, a podczas studiów ukończył średni kurs Konserwatorium Muzycznego im. K. Szymanowskiego we Lwowie. +1940-1945. +Podczas II wojny światowej brał czynny udział w walce zarówno z sowieckim, jak i hitlerowskim okupantem. W maju 1940 roku wstąpił jako ochotnik do Armii Polskiej we Francji, gdzie służył jako podchorąży artylerii w 3 Dywizji Piechoty. Po upadku Francji przedostał się do Wielkiej Brytanii, gdzie służył w 1 Brygadzie Strzelców w Szkocji oraz w Dywizjonie Artylerii Lekkiej Motorowej. Ukończył także, z drugą lokatą, Szkołę Podchorążych Artylerii w Szkocji ze stopniem podporucznika. Później został instruktorem w tej szkole. +W początkowym okresie wojny działał jako tzw. „biały kurier” Związku Walki Zbrojnej pomiędzy okupowaną przez ZSRR Małopolską Wschodnią a Budapesztem. Swoje przeżycia z tego okresu opisał w książce "Biali kurierzy". +W Londynie ponownie zgłosił gotowość do pracy kurierskiej. Odbył przyspieszony kurs skoczków spadochronowych, a następnie, w nocy z 27 na 28 grudnia 1941 wziął udział w operacji „Jacket” i wylądował na spadochronie w okupowanej Polsce jako emisariusz rządu gen. Władysława Sikorskiego. Jego zadaniem było sporządzenie dla Sikorskiego raportu o stanie państwa podziemnego. Do Londynu powrócił jednak, na skutek szeregu przeszkód i trudności, dopiero w czerwcu 1943. Nie zdążył przekazać swojego raportu gen. Sikorskiemu, który 4 lipca tegoż roku zginął w Gibraltarze. Przebieg operacji „Jacket” Chciuk opisał w książce "Koncert – opowiadanie cichociemnego", a przewidziany dla gen. Sikorskiego raport – w książce "Raport z Podziemia – 1942". +Po powrocie do Londynu Chciukowi powierzono funkcję kierownika kurierów w MSW. Równocześnie został członkiem zespołu redakcyjnego tajnej Rozgłośni Polskiej Świt z siedzibą w Anglii. W kwietniu 1944 wziął udział w kolejnej akcji spadochronowej i został zrzucony w kraju, tym razem jako osobisty emisariusz premiera Stanisława Mikołajczyka, a zarazem jako oficjalny przedstawiciel Naczelnego Komitetu Harcerskiego. Jednym z zadań Chciuka podczas tej operacji była opieka nad innym cichociemnym wysłannikiem rządu RP – dr Józefem Retingerem. Chciuk powrócił do Londynu w lipcu tego samego roku tzw. „Trzecim Mostem”. Jego podwójny skok cichociemnego, za każdym razem zakończony szczęśliwym powrotem do centrali w Londynie, był jedynym takim przypadkiem w dziejach tej formacji. Operację „Trzeci Most” opisał w nieukończonej książce o tym tytule. Po powrocie do Londynu w grudniu 1944 r. został dopuszczony do próby na stopień harcmistrza przez hm. RP Olgę Małkowską, Przewodniczącą Komitetu Naczelnego ZHP na czas wojny. +1945-2001. +Po zakończeniu działań wojennych Tadeusz Chciuk-Celt został wysłany w grudniu 1945 do Polski jako sekretarz Misji do spraw Demobilu razem z dr. Józefem Retingerem, twórcą i kierownikiem tej akcji. Celem misji było przekazanie do kraju materiałów i sprzętu pochodzącego z armii amerykańskiej i brytyjskiej. +W kwietniu 1946 został aresztowany przez UB. Zwolniono go po kilku miesiącach, po osobistej interwencji Stanisława Mikołajczyka. W kraju Chciuk pracował krótko w Wojewódzkim Urzędzie Ziemskim w Krakowie. Współdziałał także z Polskim Stronnictwem Ludowym w walce przeciw sowietyzacji kraju. Jednakże, po opuszczeniu Polski przez S. Mikołajczyka, w październiku 1947 nasiliły się prześladowania działaczy ludowych, które nie ominęły także Tadeusza Chciuka, który zmuszony był we wrześniu 1948 uchodzić z Polski. +Po ucieczce z kraju przebywał przez kilka lat we Francji, gdzie m.in. wstąpił do PSL na Uchodźstwie. Zajmował się redagowaniem Biuletynu informacyjnego PSL. Powierzono mu także funkcję prezesa PSL w Okręgu Paryż. Jako przedstawiciel Rady Naczelnej PSL wyjeżdżał kilkakrotnie w sprawach organizacyjnych do Belgii, Szwajcarii i Niemiec. Ponadto udzielał się w harcerstwie jako instruktor oraz jako naczelnik „Sokoła” w Paryżu. W 1966 mianowany harcmistrzem rozkazem L7/66 Naczelnika Harcerzy hm. Jerzego Wittinga z dn. 21 lipca 1966 r. +Od 1952 do śmierci w 2001 Tadeusz Chciuk-Celt przebywał w Monachium. Był współtwórcą działającej od 1952 Sekcji Polskiej Radia Wolna Europa. Był redaktorem działu wiejskiego oraz redaktorem programów poświęconych tematyce wsi, które prowadził pod pseudonimem „Michał Lasota”. Zawołaniem jego audycji było: „tym, co żywią i bronią – chłopom polskim szczęść Boże”. Walczył na falach eteru przeciw komunizacji Polski. Był nadto czołowym komentatorem politycznym rozgłośni, a także autorem słuchowisk radiowych i audycji harcerskich. W latach 1976-1983 (do czasu przejścia na emeryturę) pełnił funkcję zastępcy dyrektora Sekcji Polskiej RWE. +Chciuk-Celt pełnił także funkcję prezesa Syndykatu Dziennikarzy Polskich w Niemczech Zachodnich. Ponadto, od 1981, był prezesem samodzielnego Oddziału byłych Żołnierzy AK w RFN, a od 1988 został prezesem (ostatnim) PSL na Uchodźstwie. +Do Polski przyjechał po raz pierwszy dopiero w 1991. +Zmarł w 2001 w Monachium. Jego prochy złożono z honorami wojskowymi w Panteonie Żołnierzy Polski Walczącej na Cmentarzu Wojskowym na Powązkach w Warszawie. +Ordery, odznaczenia i wyróżnienia. +W dniu 5 września 2008 r. w siedzibie Konsulatu RP w Monachium przy ul. Roentgena 5 odbyła się uroczystość wręczenia przyznanego pośmiertnie Krzyża Komandorskiego z Gwiazdą wdowie pod Tadeuszu Chciuku-Celcie – p. Ewie Chciuk-Celt. Odznaczenie w imieniu rodziny odebrał najmłodszy syn Państwa Chciuk-Celt – Jan Chciuk-Celt. Uroczystość uświetnili obecnością harcerze ze Szczecina z Drużyny "CELT" im. Białych Kurierów, którzy wystawili poczet sztandarowy, a także członkinie zespołu "Ychtis" z Katowic, które wykonały piosenki lwowskie. Laudację przeprowadził p. dr Wojciech Frazik z IPN w Krakowie, a okolicznościowe przemówienia wygłosili: odbierający Order syn T. Chciuka-Celta, p. Romuald Kołudzki-Stobbe ze Stowarzyszenia Przyjaciół Ziemi Drohobyckiej, współpracownicy z Radia Wolna Europa. Wyświetlono też krótki – 20-minutowy film o postaci odznaczonego. +Upamiętnienie. +Tadeuszowi Chciukowi-Celtowi poświęcono film dokumentalny „Emisariusz” (TVP) oraz dwie tablice pamiątkowe. Odsłonięcie jednej z nich miało miejsce podczas Ogólnopolskiego Święta Czynu Chłopskiego w Kałkowie-Godowie, 22 sierpnia 2004. Odsłonięcie drugiej zaplanowano na 15 maja 2005 w Kościele Garnizonowym pw. św. Elżbiety we Wrocławiu. Ponadto, życiu i działalności Chciuka-Celta poświęcono wystawę w Muzeum Historii Polskiego Ruchu Ludowego w Warszawie (ekspozycja prezentowana od stycznia do czerwca 2005), na której prezentowano pamiątki i dokumenty pochodzące z archiwum po Chciuku, przekazanego Muzeum HPRL przez wdowę, Ewę Chciuk-Celt. +Drużyna Harcerska "CELT" im. Białych Kurierów. +W Szczecinie od 1988 działa Drużyna Harcerska, nosząca od 1996 imię Białych Kurierów. Pełna nazwa Drużyny to "25. Szczecińska Jeździecka Drużyna Harcerska "CELT" im. Białych Kurierów", prowadzona przez dalekiego krewnego Tadeusza Chciuka. Drużyna zdobyła sztandar ufundowany m.in. przez Ewę Chciuk-Celt i drużynowego – hm. Rafała Raniowskiego HR. Sztandar został przyznany Rozkazem LS2/2007 z dnia 15 sierpnia 2007 r., a wręczony w dniu 23 września na Skwerze hm. Telesfora Badetki w Szczecinie, na którym co roku odbywają się apele Hufca Szczecin-Pogodno +. Drużyna posiada stronę w internecie. +Modraszkowate + +Modraszkowate (Lycaenidae) − rodzina motyli dziennych, licząca około 2700 gatunków (z czego na terenie Polski wykazano 49 gatunków). Są to motyle małe lub średniej wielkości (od 1,5 cm do 8 cm rozpiętości skrzydeł), występujące we wszystkich zoogeograficznych krainach świata. +Do modraszkowatych należą następujące podrodziny: +Trzy pierwsze występują w Europie, w tym i w Polsce. Jednym z najliczniejszych motyli żyjących w Europie jest modraszek ikar ("Polyommatus icarus"). +Duża liczba gatunków modraszkowatych ma metalicznie ubarwiony wierzch skrzydeł - zazwyczaj w barwach niebieskich, niebieskofioletowych, czerwonopomarańczowych i złocistych. Częsty jest też kolor brunatny, zwłaszcza u samic z podrodziny modraszków Polyommatinae. Na skrzydle tylnym często występują ogonki (charakterystyczne szczególnie dla ogończyków). +Gąsienice modraszkowatych kształtem przypominają stonogi - są spłaszczone i zwężające się na końcach, zielone lub brązowe. Rośliny żywicielskie modraszkowatych są różnorodne, od drzew i krzewów (preferowanych przez ogończyki) po zielne, jak np. szczaw. Gąsienice pewnych gatunków (np. modraszek arion "Maculinea arion") żyją w mrowiskach odżywiając się larwami i jajami mrówek, inne bytując na roślinach żywicielskich są przez mrówki chronione w zamian za słodką wydzielinę produkowaną przez specjalne gruczoły na grzbiecie. Poczwarki są krępe i krótkie, przymocowane do liścia rośliny żywicielskiej jedwabną nicią. +Zobacz też. +Owady Polski +Koparka + +Koparka – maszyna do robót ziemnych, służąca do oddzielania urobku od gruntu i przeniesienia na środki transportowe lub na składowisko. Koparka może również pełnić rolę urządzenia przeładunkowego (wtedy nabiera i przenosi tylko materiał sypki). Są maszynami powszechnie stosowanymi wszędzie tam gdzie zachodzi właśnie konieczność takich procesów, stąd wykorzystywana jest powszechnie przy pracach ziemnych budowlanych, transportowych lub górniczych. +Podział. +Do ciekawych zastosowań koparek należy koparka podwodna przeznaczona do eksploatacji morskich złóż minerałów, tzw. konkrecji. Z innych nietypowych rozwiązań jest koparka linotorowa, którą również zaszeregowuje się do dźwignic linotorowych. +Do drobnych robót ziemnych często wykorzystywane są koparko-ładowarki zbudowane na bazie ciągnika. +Prządkowate (owady) + +Prządkowate, jedwabnikowate, prządki (Bombycidae) – rodzina motyli obejmująca około 300 gatunków występujących w strefach tropikalnych i subtropikalnych Azji i Afryki. +Charakterystyka. +Są to ćmy o grubych masywnych odwłokach. Postacie dorosłe mają uwstecznione narządy gębowe i nie pobierają pokarmu. Skrzydła I pary u wielu gatunków sierpowato wygięte. Gąsienice żywią się liśćmi morwy i pokrewnych roślin, a przed przepoczwarczeniem snują oprzęd. Do prządek należy m.in. jedwabnik morwowy ("Bombyx mori"). +Prządkami bywa też określana cała nadrodzina Bombycoidea, która grupuje inne występujące również w Polsce rodziny jak np. Lasiocampidae, Lemoniidae, Endromididae i Saturniidae. Używając tego określanie należy więc pamiętać jak je w danym momencie traktujemy. +Reguła Scheimpfluga + +Reguła Scheimpfluga - jest stosowana w fotografii, gdy fotografowana płaszczyzna znajduje się pod kątem do aparatu fotograficznego (i płaszczyzny naświetlanego właśnie filmu). +Zdjęcie będzie ostre na całej powierzchni, o ile na jednej prostej przetną się trzy płaszczyzny: fotografowana, filmu, oraz główna płaszczyzna obiektywu prostopadła do jego osi. Inaczej mówiąc: obiektyw musi być ustawiony nierównolegle do płaszczyzny kliszy, ale i nierównolegle do płaszczyzny fotografowanej. Ubocznym tego skutkiem jest, że obiektyw jest również ustawiony niewspółosiowo z resztą aparatu. Taki sposób fotografowania możliwy jest przede wszystkim w aparatach wielkoformatowych; w małoobrazkowych tylko przy zastosowaniu obiektywów typu "tilt". +Dodatkową korzyścią przy takiej korekcji jest prostowanie linii, czyli korekcja perspektywy, co jest przydatne także np. przy fotografowaniu z bliska architektury. Samo prostowanie linii można jednak uzyskać również prostszym sposobem, przesuwając jedynie obiektyw w płaszczyźnie równoległej do filmu (przy założeniu, że obiektyw jest zdolny do rysowania obrazu o przekątnej znacznie większej od rzeczywistego formatu zdjęcia - klatka obrazu nie będzie centralnie w kole obrazu, który daje obiektyw). Musi być jedynie zachowana odpowiednio duża głębia ostrości, co możliwe jest przy fotografowaniu dalszych planów. W fotografii studyjnej trzeba się jednak uciec do reguły Scheimpfluga, ponieważ bardzo bliskie plany charakteryzują się tym, że stosunek odległości od aparatu do najbliższego i najdalszego miejsca motywu na planie bliskim jest znacznie większy niż przy planach dalszych. +Korekcję typu Scheimpfluga można spotkać również w rzutnikach, projektorach itp. +Film niemy + +Film niemy – film, któremu nie towarzyszy nagrana ścieżka dźwiękowa. +Historia filmu niemego. +Kręcenie filmów stało się możliwe dopiero, gdy Thomas Alva Edison wynalazł kinetoskop. Wynalazek ten po raz pierwszy wystawiono publicznie w Nowym Jorku w 1894 roku. Rok później bracia August i Louis Lumière wynaleźli kinematograf, który wyświetlał obrazy na ekranie. 17 metrów taśmy starczyło na nakręcenie ok. 50-sekundowego filmu. Pierwszy pokaz filmowy odbył się 28 grudnia 1895 roku – wystawiane filmy to dwuminutowy obraz pt. "Wyjście robotników z fabryki" oraz "Nadjeżdżający pociąg". Wynalazek braci Lumière szybko znalazł wielu zwolenników. +Jednak dopiero na początku XX wieku zaczęto tworzyć filmy opowiadające jakieś historie, nie zaś tylko odtwarzające realne wydarzenia. Pionierem takich filmów był Georges Méliès, autor "Podróży na księżyc" z 1902 roku. Méliès wykorzystał po raz pierwszy triki i efekty specjalne. Pierwszy film nakręcony w plenerze to "Napad na ekspres" z 1903 roku, autorstwa Edwina S. Portera. +Do roku 1910 istniały już tysiące sal kinowych w Ameryce i Europie, a w 1912 roku nakręcono pierwsze filmy pełnometrażowe. +Filmy nieme opierały się na wyrazistej grze aktorskiej. Wprawdzie filmy były nieme, ale w sali kinowej znaleźli się taperzy, czyli artyści grający muzykę na żywo, obserwując reakcję widzów. Mieli oni utrudnione zadanie, ponieważ byli odwróceni tyłem do ekranu i nie wiedzieli, jaka scena odgrywa się w danej chwili za ich plecami. Często więc grali muzykę nieadekwatną do chwili. +W roku 1927 odbył się pierwszy w historii pokaz filmu dźwiękowego – 6 października 1927 roku pokazano film braci Warnerów "Śpiewak jazzbandu", w którym udźwiękowiono część dialogów, a także można było usłyszeć piosenki tytułowego śpiewaka. +Lei Renmin + +Lei Renmin (; ur. 1909, zm. 25 stycznia 2005) – chiński działacz państwowy. +Pochodził z Pingyao (prowincja Shanxi). Przez wiele lat związany z ruchem komunistycznym, w 1927 wstąpił do Ligi Młodzieży Komunistycznej, a w 1937 do Komunistycznej Partii Chin. Wchodził w skład władz lokalnych i centralnych, zajmując m.in. od 1951 stanowisko wiceministra handlu zagranicznego. Był jednym z współtwórców Chińskiego Towarzystwa Kredytów i Inwestycji Zagranicznych; instytucja ta odegrała wiodącą rolę w pozyskaniu dla Chin rynków światowych w latach 70. +Duan Xuefu + +Duan Xuefu (; 29 lipca 1914 w Huanxian, prowincja Shanxi - 6 lutego 2005) – matematyk chiński. +Studiował na Wydziale Matematycznym Uniwersytetu Tsinghua (ukończył w 1936), doktorat obronił w Princeton (1943). Pracował jako profesor na Uniwersytecie Tsinghua oraz na Uniwersytecie Pekińskim. W 1955 został członkiem Chińskiej Akademii Nauk. +W pracy naukowej zajmował się algebrą – teorią grup oraz algebrą Liego. Z powodzeniem rozwiązał (wraz ze współpracownikami) dwa problemy Brauera. +Bracia Kip + +Les Fréres Kip (fr. "Bracia Kip" 1902) - dwutomowa powieść kryminalna Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 14 (tom 1) oraz 16 (tom 2) rozdziałów. +Po raz pierwszy wydana w języku polskim w 2011 przez Polskie Towarzystwo Juliusza Verne'a jako 26. tom "Biblioteki Andrzeja". +Flaga Radomska + +Flaga Radomska - barwami miasta Radomska są kolory: niebieski, żółty i czerwony, wywodzące się z barw herbu miasta. +Flagą Radomska jest prostokątny płat tkaniny o proporcjach boków 5 : 8, obustronnie jednakowy, o trzech poziomo ułożonych polach barwy czerwonej u góry, żółtej w środku i barwy niebieskiej u dołu. Proporcje szerokości pola barwy czerwonej do żółtej i barwy niebieskiej do żółtej wynoszą 2 : 1, natomiast barwy czerwonej do barwy niebieskiej 1 : 1. Przyjmuje się za wzorcową flagę o wymiarach 100 cm x 160 cm. +Flaga Radomska została uchwalona Uchwałą nr XXV/192/96 Rady Miejskiej w Radomsku w dniu 27 września 1996 roku. +Historia Radomska + +Historia Radomska sięga XI w. Zasadniczymi czynnikami miastotwórczymi, obok grodu, były przechodzące tędy drogi handlowe: ze Śląska na Ruś oraz szlak solny z Bochni do Wielkopolski i na Mazowsze. Istotny wpływ na kształtowanie się miasta miał także ośrodek kultu religijnego – kościół św. Lamberta. +Od czasów najdawniejszych do rozbiorów. +W źródłach pisanych najstarsza wzmianka o Radomsku pochodzi z 1243 r., kiedy to książę Konrad mazowiecki podczas swego pobytu w Radomsku wystawił dokument potwierdzający akt nadania dla dominikanów w Płocku. +Pisownia nazwy miasta nie była jednolita. W dokumentach pochodzących z XIII-XV w. najczęściej występują: "Radomokye", "Radomskye", "Radomske", "Radomsk", "Radomszcze", "Radomskie". Dopiero kilka wieków później została przyjęta powszechnie nazwa Radomsko. +Podstawowy dokument dla Radomska – dokument lokacyjny nadający prawa miejskie został wystawiony w 1266 r. przez księcia sieradzkiego Leszka Czarnego. Także z imieniem Leszka Czarnego wiąże się wybudowanie kościoła pw. Świętego Krzyża i klasztoru oo. Franciszkanów, sprowadzonych do Radomska w 1288. +Administracyjnie Radomsko wchodziło w skład województwa sieradzkiego. W XIV w. został utworzony powiat radomszczański, a w XV w. starostwo niegrodowe. Najstarsza zachowana pieczęć miasta pochodzi z okresu panowania Kazimierza Wielkiego, który będąc królem przebywał niejednokrotnie w pobliskim Przedborzu. +W XIV w. miasto było miejscem ważnych wydarzeń historycznych. Tu odbyły się dwa zjazdy, które zdecydowały o wyborze dynastii panującej w Polsce. +25 listopada 1382 odbył się walny zjazd szlachty wielkopolskiej. Zebrana szlachta nie dopuściła na tron Polski Zygmunta Luksemburczyka zaręczonego z Marią – starszą córką Ludwika Węgierskiego. Na drugim zjeździe podjęto decyzję o obsadzeniu na tronie polskim Jadwigi – młodszej córki Ludwika Węgierskiego, która 14 października 1384 przybyła na Wawel. +Podczas panowania Jagiellonów nastąpił dalszy rozwój miasta. Rozwojowi handlu sprzyjały przechodzące przez Radomsko szlaki handlowe oraz krzyżujące się tu drogi znad Pilicy i Warty. Miejscowi kupcy utrzymywali stosunki handlowe z wieloma miastami, także z ówczesną stolicą – Krakowem. Miejscowość cieszyła się opieką Jagiellonów, a w szczególności Władysława Jagiełły, Zygmunta Starego i jego małżonki – królowej Bony. +Jako właścicielka Radomska interesowała się miastem. Odbudowała kościół św. Marii Magdaleny, zwany w przeszłości "cerkwią na piaskach", zainteresowała się kościołem pw. św. Ducha. +Królowie elekcyjni obdarowywali Radomsko przywilejami, m.in. Stefan Batory w 1583 r. nadał prawo składu, dzięki któremu tutejsi mieszkańcy mieli prawo pierwokupu towarów. W XV w. powstało w Radomsku starostwo niegrodowe zarządzane przez dzierżawcę. Do znakomitszych dzierżawców należeli m.in. ród Kurozwęckich (za Jagiellonów), Stanisław Koniecpolski (za Stefana Batorego), Kacper Denhoff (za Władysława IV), Aleksander Szembek (za Augusta II). +W XVII w. ustawiczne wojny i słabość władzy centralnej przyczyniły się do upadku miast w całej Rzeczypospolitej. Początkiem pauperyzacji Radomska było jego ograbienie i spalenie przez oddziały wojsk najemnych – lisowczyków powracających ze Śląska w 1624 r. Upadło rzemiosło i handel, a epidemia tyfusu zdziesiątkowała ludność. Radomsko zaczęło wychodzić z zastoju w XVIII w. Należało wtedy do nielicznych miast, w których wyodrębniały się przedmieścia. Coraz większą troskę wykazywano o czystość i higienę. Wybudowano kilka studzien publicznych, otworzono aptekę oraz powstał pierwszy projekt budowy szpitala powiatowego. +W dobie Sejmu Czteroletniego miasto włączyło się w nurt krajowych przemian. W 1789 r. utworzona została organizacja samorządowo-administracyjna: Komisja Porządkowa Cywilno-Wojskowa. Radomsko stanowiło przykład realizacji kołłątajowskiej koncepcji ruchu mieszczańskiego. Delegaci miasta wzięli udział w "czarnej procesji" w 1789 r. i opowiedzieli się za Konstytucją 3 maja. Dla poparcia uchwał Sejmu Wielkiego, szczególnie Konstytucji, odbyła się w Radomsku manifestacja mieszkańców, w której uczestniczyli przedstawiciele patriotycznie nastawionej ludności z całego powiatu. +Pod panowaniem pruskim, rosyjskim i austriackim. +Radomsko po II rozbiorze Rzeczypospolitej w 1793 znalazło się pod zaborem pruskim, gdzie pozostawało do 1807 r., kiedy to Napoleon Bonaparte powołał do życia Księstwo Warszawskie i miasto znalazło się w jego granicach. Księstwo przetrwało aż do 1815 r. Rozwiązano je po klęsce Napoleona i utworzono zgodnie z postanowieniami kongresu wiedeńskiego Królestwo Polskie zwane Kongresówką, którego królem został car Rosji. +Wielu mieszkańców Radomska wzięło czynny udział w powstaniu listopadowym. Z zachowanego spisu wynika, że tylko jednego dnia 46 mężczyzn wstąpiło do polskich oddziałów wojskowych. Pod broń zaciągali się także młodzi ludzie ze Stobiecka Miejskiego, Folwarków, Bogwidzowy. Wysiłkiem Polaków z całego powiatu wystawiono batalion Gwardii Ruchomej, który pod koniec stycznia 1831 liczył wraz z kadrą oficerską ok. 790 osób. Klęska powstania listopadowego nie zahamowała polskiej działalności narodowowyzwoleńczej. Po upadku powstania nasilił się proces rusyfikacji. Zmieniono nazwy wielu miejscowości, Radomsko przemianowano na Nowo-Radomsk. +Korzystne położenie miasta wpłynęło na zainteresowanie się nim obcego kapitału. W latach 80. przybyli do Radomska kapitaliści francuscy i wiedeńscy. Francuz Piotr Chanove założył fabrykę metalurgiczną zwaną "Metalurgią". Bracia Thonet z Wiednia wybudowali fabrykę mebli giętych, co było początkiem powstania lokalnego ośrodka przemysłu meblarskiego. Pod koniec XIX w. powstała huta szkła, a w 1912 – fabryka maszyn i odlewnia żeliwa, zwana później firmą "Kryzel i Wojakowski". W początkach XX w. powstały kolejne zakłady meblarskie: "Ksawery Wünsche i S-ka", "Mazovia" oraz fabryka braci Kohn. W tym czasie Radomsko było jednym z najbardziej uprzemysłowionych miast w guberni piotrkowskiej. +W XIX w. Radomsko zaczęło rozwijać się także pod względem urbanistycznym. W 1828 r. został zatwierdzony plan regulacji miasta określający jego zabudowę. Na szeroką skalę zaczęto utwardzanie ulic. W II poł. XIX w. wzniesiono najokazalsze budowle w mieście, a wśród nich ratusz. Miały w nim siedzibę władze miasta, ale znajdował się w nim również areszt i pomieszczenia na skład narzędzi ogniowych. Na parterze wydzielono pomieszczenia dla handlu. Wznoszone były także budowle sakralne. W latach 1869-1876 wybudowany został na miejscu dawnego nowy kościół w stylu neobarokowym pw. św. Lamberta. +Nadszedł okres I wojny światowej. Radomsko znalazło się pod okupacją austriacką. Władze okupacyjne rekwirowały konie, bydło, środki transportu, a także sprzęt potrzebny do urządzenia instytucji okupacyjnych. +W wyniku działań wojskowych, zniszczeniu uległo szereg urządzeń miejskich i fabrycznych. Wszystkie większe fabryki zaprzestały produkcji, co pogarszało sytuację materialną mieszkańców. W miarę przedłużania się wojny społeczeństwo Radomska coraz dotkliwiej odczuwało brak żywności i opału. Pogarszał się stan sanitarny miasta. W 1917 r. wybuchła epidemia tyfusu. +Lata międzywojenne. +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości, przez całe dwudziestolecie międzywojenne, Radomsko wchodziło w skład województwa łódzkiego. Według spisu z 1912 miasto liczyło 18 732 mieszkańców, 10 lat później ich liczba wzrosła do 23 tys. i osiągnęła 25 tys. w 1937 r. +Radomsko nabrało charakteru przemysłowego. W 1927 r. czynnych było 59 większych i mniejszych zakładów przemysłowych zatrudniających 3,5 tys. osób. Pod koniec lat 30. zatrudnienie w przemyśle przekroczyło 4,5 tys. Ponad 50% mieszkańców utrzymywało się z przemysłu i rzemiosła, ok. 18% z handlu, 25% z pozostałych zajęć jak: rolnictwo, administracja, wolne zawody, służba dozoru itd. Zdecydowaną przewagę miał przemysł meblarski, po nim metalurgiczny i szklarski. Pomimo rozwijającej się gospodarki nie dla wszystkich wystarczało pracy. W okresie przednówków liczba bezrobotnych sięgała 2,5 tys. Niskie zarobki, częste redukcje robotników stwarzały sytuacje konfliktowe, w wyniku których dochodziło do strajków. Przybierały one różne formy: od pojedynczych do grupowych i powszechnych, od zwykłych do okupacyjnych. Podczas kryzysu gospodarczego w 1923 r. w ramach ogólnopolskiego strajku powszechnego doszło w mieście do przerwania pracy we wszystkich zakładach. Niskie płace i galopująca inflacja sprawiły, że dzienna przeciętna płaca wynosiła 8-10 tysięcy marek, gdy bochenek chleba kosztował 11-14 tysięcy marek. +Na kształtowanie postaw politycznych i moralnych mieszkańców Radomska wpływały działające partie, stronnictwa polityczne, stowarzyszenia społeczne, a także związki zawodowe. Miejscem konfrontacji programów politycznych była m.in. Rada Miejska, a areną walki o wpływy stały się wybory samorządowe (1919, 1922, 1927, 1934, 1939). +Listy wyborcze wystawiały poszczególne ugrupowania polityczne samodzielnie lub w zjednoczonym bloku wyborczym. Polska Partia Socjalistyczna z reguły przystępowała do wyborów samorządowych razem z klasowymi związkami zawodowymi. Ugrupowania narodowe (ND, NPR i inne) łączyły się w tzw. Blok Narodowy. Komunistyczna Partia Polski jako nielegalna ( zdelegalizowana za to że: w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej 1920 r. popierała bolszewików a nie Polaków oraz posiadała siedzibę poza granicami Polski co było niezgodne z konstytucją ) nie mogła oficjalnie wystawić swych list wyborczych toteż zbojkotowała wybory samorządowe w 1919 r. Ugrupowania narodowe stanowiły siłę we wspólnym bloku wyborczym. W wyborach 1919 i 1922 zdobyły po 6 mandatów, w 1927 – 5 mandatów, natomiast w 1939 samej endecji przypadły tylko 2 mandaty (na 24 miejsca w Radzie Miejskiej). Także Chrześcijańska Demokracja przystępując do wyborów jako samodzielna siła polityczna w 1922 i 1927 r. uzyskała po 2 mandaty. Tymczasem z pięciokrotnie przeprowadzonych wyborów pięć razy zwycięstwo jako samodzielna partia odnosiła Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (1919 r. – 9 mandatów; 1922 r. – 3; 1927 r. – 9; 1934 r. – 9; 1939 r. – 12 mandatów). Dwukrotnie utworzyła socjalistyczny magistrat w latach 1919-1922 i 1927-1931. Pod naciskiem kół prawicowych tzw. "czerwone magistraty" zostały rozwiązane na mocy decyzji administracyjnych. +Rada Miejska składała się z 24 członków. Pierwsza jej uchwała dotyczyła przywrócenia miastu dawnej, historycznej nazwy Radomsko. Przeciwko temu wystąpiły władze miasta Radomia argumentując możliwością omyłek. Sprawa przywrócenia byłej nazwy trwała ponad 3 lata (1919-1922). O wiele dłużej kształtowała się nazwa powiatu: przez pierwsze lata radomski, potem radomskowski, dopiero w połowie lat trzydziestych radomszczański. Samorząd miejski ograniczony był przez samorządowe władze powiatowe, stąd też czyniono kilkakrotnie starania, aby Radomsko stało się miastem wydzielonym. Kiedy spełniało już wszystkie wymogi, m.in. przekroczyło 25 tys. mieszkańców, nadszedł wrzesień 1939 r. Z działalności Rady Miejskiej na uwagę zasługuje budowa robotniczego osiedla na Kowalowcu oraz budownictwo komunalne: cegielnia, rzeźnia, łaźnia, elektrownia, tabor miejski itp. Na kilka lat przed wojną opracowany został i przyjęty perspektywiczny plan rozwoju miasta do 1970 r. Wielkość inwestycji komunalnych uzależniona była od możliwości finansowych miasta. Tymczasem budżet z roku na rok był mniejszy. Gdy w 1928 r. sięgał prawie milion złotych to w 1934 mniej niż połowę tej sumy. Wzrastało natomiast zadłużenie Radomska, co było typowym zjawiskiem dla wszystkich miast w Polsce. W 1928 r. dług wynosił 230 tys. zł, tymczasem w 1934 r. już 625 tys. Z tych względów nie powiodły się próby rozwiązania najważniejszych spraw dla mieszkańców miasta, jak chociażby przeprowadzenie kanalizacji. +Ważnym problemem dla władz miejskich było szkolnictwo. W 1920 r. czynnych było 7 szkół powszechnych, ale ani jednej siedmioklasowej; w 1924 r. 9 szkół, w tym 4 o siedmiu oddziałach. W 1927 r. w wyniku połączenia małych szkół powstało 5 szkół siedmiooddziałowych. Radomszczańskie szkoły przyjmowały imiona znanych Polaków: Królowej Jadwigi, M. Konopnickiej, T. Kościuszki, St. Jachowicza, E. Plater, A. Mickiewicza, E. Orzeszkowej, Wł. Reymonta. Dla pracujących zorganizowano szkołę popołudniową. Warunki lokalowe szkół nie były najlepsze. Podjęto decyzję o wybudowaniu kosztem miasta szkoły im. J. Piłsudskiego. Ostatni etap budowy przerwała wojna. Pomimo czynionych wysiłków nie udało się osiągnąć pełnej powszechności nauczania. Główną przeszkodę stanowiły warunki bytowe rodzin robotniczych i bezrobotnych. Doraźna pomoc udzielana przez Magistrat i instytucje opieki społecznej chwilowo łagodziły problem, ale go nie rozwiązywały. Przez okres dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, w poszczególnych jego latach czynne były następujące szkoły średnie: gimnazjum męskie St. Niemca, gimnazjum żeńskie J. Chomiczówny, gimnazjum koedukacyjne L. Weitraubówny oraz gimnazjum męskie im. F. Fabianiego prowadzone przez Towarzystwo im. F. Fabianiego. Ponadto czynna była koedukacyjna szkoła handlowa prowadzona przez Polską Macierz Szkolną. Rada Miejska finansowała działalność dokształcającej szkoły zawodowej. Trudu uporania się z analfabetyzmem, obejmującym po 1918 r. 35% dorosłej ludności Radomska, podjęły się takie organizacje i instytucje jak: czytelnie Polskiej Macierzy Szkolnej, Związek Chrześcijańsko-Młodzieżowy, Uniwersytet Ludowy, Towarzystwo Uniwersytetu Robotniczego, a także Klub Robotniczy prowadzony przez Polską Partię Socjalistyczną. +Wśród 25-tysięcznej ludności przedwojennego Radomska można było wyodrębnić trzy podstawowe grupy wyznaniowe: rzymskokatolicką, ewangelicką i żydowską. Katolicy posiadali jedną parafię, do której obok mieszkańców Radomska należała ludność ze Stobiecka Miejskiego, Bartodziejów, Bogwidzów, Wymysłówka, Zakrzówka, Folwarków, Suchej Wsi, Sanik, Szczepocic, Borowa. Ewangelicy także posiadali rozległą parafię przynależną do kościoła wybudowanego w 1925 r. w stylu neogotyckim przy ul. Reymonta (po wojnie kościół został rozebrany). Do Żydów należała synagoga wybudowana w 1908 r. (zburzona podczas II wojny światowej). W początkach lat 20. rozebrana została cerkiew prawosławna zniszczona podczas I wojny. +Od 1937 r. w życiu miasta zaczęła pojawiać się problematyka związana z przygotowaniem do nadchodzącej wojny. Powołany został komitet obrony przeciwlotniczej i przeciwgazowej. Organizowano drużyny sanitarne i przeciwpożarowe. Na murach budynków i słupach ogłoszeniowych coraz częściej widniały plakaty zawierające instrukcje i zarządzenia powszechnej samoobrony. Odbywały się także wiece protestacyjne, jako odpowiedź na żądania niemieckie pod adresem Polski. +II wojna światowa. +Wybuch II wojny światowej stał się dla Radomszczan faktem wraz z pierwszymi bombami, które spadły na miasto 1 września rano. Naloty powtórzyły się w dniach następnych zmieniając centrum w ruinę. Już 3 września Radomsko zostało zajęte przez Niemców i rozpoczęły urzędowanie władze okupacyjne. 4 września dwa polskie dywizjony bombowe: X i XV, zaatakowały pod miastem maszerującą w kierunku na Piotrków Trybunalski niemiecką 4 Dywizję Pancerną. Nalotu dokonało 27 samolotów bombowych Łoś; po zrzuceniu bomb ostrzelały one kolumny marszowe z broni pokładowej. Dywizjony, nieosłaniane przez myśliwce, poniosły znaczne straty - do bazy nie wróciło 9 samolotów. +Miasto przydzielono do Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Okupant przejął pod swój zarząd większe zakłady przemysłowe przestawiając produkcję na cele wojenne. Zlikwidowano polskie instytucje kulturalne i oświatowe, zakazano działalności organizacji społecznych. +Każdy dzień okupacji naznaczony był terrorem i gwałtem. Już 4 września 1939 r. hitlerowcy rozstrzelali kilkanaście osób na Folwarkach, Bartodziejach, w Stobiecku Miejskim. W 1941 r. aresztowanych zostało w Radomsku 151 osób. Egzekucje były dokonywane na tzw. kopcu oraz w pobliskich miejscowościach jak: na Wygodzie, w Dmeninie, Pławnie, Strzałkowie. Dla zastraszenia ludności stosowano publiczne egzekucje. Barbarzyńskiemu wyniszczeniu uległa przede wszystkim ludność żydowska. Między 10 a 12 października 1942 wywieziono do obozu zagłady w Treblince ok. 7 tys. Żydów – mieszkańców radomszczańskiego getta, a miejscowy kirkut stał się miejscem masowych zbrodni. +Społeczeństwo Radomska wykazywało podczas okupacji postawę patriotyczną, wrogą wobec agresora. Stosowano wszelkie formy walki z okupantem – od biernego oporu przeciw zarządzeniom władz niemieckich, poprzez sabotowanie pracy w fabrykach i na kolei po gromadzenie broni, tworzenie i popieranie oddziałów zbrojnych, prowadzenie walki partyzanckiej. Ruch oporu Radomska nie występował jako siła jednolicie zorganizowana. Podzielony na kilka różniących się odłamów politycznych, miał wspólny cel – walkę z wrogiem o niepodległość kraju. Swój udział w walce z okupantem hitlerowskim miały wszystkie siły polityczne i wojskowe. +Najsilniejszą organizacją walczącą z hitlerowcami była jednak Armia Krajowa, dowodzona przez Stanisława Sojczyńskiego. W 1942 został on z-cą komendanta Armii Krajowej i szefem Kedywu AK w powiecie. Ze swoimi partyzantami Sojczyński zasłynął w 1943, uwalniając kilkudziesięciu więźniów z hitlerowskiego Gestapo w Radomsku. W wyniku przeprowadzonej akcji uwolniono ponad 40 Polaków i 11 Żydów, a oddział zdołał się wycofać z miasta z minimalnymi stratami. W czasie akcji "Burza" Sojczyński dowodził I batalionem 27 pułku piechoty AK, staczając na terenie powiatu Radomsko, wchodzącego w skład Inspektoratu Częstochowskiego AK, wiele potyczek z Niemcami. +Miasto zasłynęło z walki z okupantem, który nadał mu nazwę niem. "Banditenstadt" – "miasto bandytów". +12 września 1944 rozegrała się największa bitwa na ziemi radomszczańskiej bitwa pod Ewiną. Oddziały III Brygady AL im. gen. Bema przyjęły bitwę z 10-krotnie liczebniejszym wojskiem niemieckim. Siły hitlerowskie określano na 200 samochodów z wojskiem (około 6000 ludzi) oraz samochody pancerne. Nieprzyjaciel kilkakrotnie uderzał ze wszystkich stron na zgrupowanie żołnierzy Armii Ludowej. Dzięki bohaterskiej postawie, plan nieprzyjacielski nie powiódł się. Straty wroga oceniano na ok. 100 zabitych i 200 rannych. Na założone przez partyzantów miny najechało kilka pojazdów nieprzyjaciela, a w jednym z samochodów zginęła grupa oficerów niemieckich. Gdy wszystkie jednostki brygady zebrały się w punkcie koncentracji stwierdzono, że straty wyniosły 12 zabitych partyzantów, 11 rannych i kilkunastu zaginionych. Nazwa miejscowości Ewina została wyryta na pomniku Czynu Partyzanckiego w Polichnie wśród nazw największych walk partyzanckich w Polsce. +Równocześnie z walką zbrojną prowadzona była walka o polska oświatę i kulturę oraz o utrzymywanie i wzbogacanie narodowych wartości. Bohaterami tej walki byli przede wszystkim nauczyciele. Władze okupacyjne pozamykały szkoły średnie, a w szkołach podstawowych zabroniły nauczania historii i geografii Polski. Niszczyły polskie księgozbiory. Tylko w jednej ze szkół radomszczańskich zdewastowano 580 tomów z biblioteki uczniowskiej i 200 z nauczycielskiej. W marcu 1940 r., w ramach tzw. akcji AB, wymierzonej przeciwko inteligencji, aresztowano i wywieziono z Radomska do obozów koncentracyjnych 53 osoby. Nie zahamowało to jednak konspiracyjnej pracy oświatowej. Już pod koniec 1939 r. w mieście i powiecie rozpoczęto tajne nauczanie. Powstało ono samorzutnie – narodziło się z inicjatywy nauczycieli, szczególnie działaczy Związku Nauczycielstwa Polskiego oraz rodziców. Na początku 1940 r. powstała Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska, obejmująca swą działalnością szkolnictwo podstawowe, średnie ogólnokształcące i zawodowe oraz oświatę dorosłych. Efektem pracy kompletów tajnego nauczania było otrzymanie w 1943 r. świadectwa dojrzałości przez 30 maturzystów. W tajnym nauczaniu pracowało w Radomsku i powiecie ponad 190 nauczycieli, w tym ponad 80 na szczeblu szkolnictwa średniego. +Wśród cichych bohaterów radomszczańskiej konspiracji nieocenioną rolę odegrały kobiety, często bezimienne, o zapomnianych dziś nazwiskach. Pełniły one funkcje łączniczek, kolporterek konspiracyjnej bibuły, szyły odzież dla partyzantów, donosiły żywność, opatrywały rannych. +Chlubnie zapisała się młodzież harcerska Szarych Szeregów – organizacji, którą powołano w Radomsku na przełomie 1939/1940 r. Miejscowy hufiec ("Rój") przyjął nazwę "Metal". W 1944 r. liczył on 187 osób, w tym 19 instruktorów, 32 członków "Grup Szturmowych" (od 18 lat), 66 członków "Bojowych Szkół" (od 14 do 17 lat) oraz 70 "Zawiszaków" – najmłodszych wiekiem harcerzy (od 12 do 14 lat). Członkowie Szarych Szeregów brali udział w małym sabotażu, w obserwacji okupanta i dostarczaniu informacji wywiadowi AK, czynni byli w akcji "N". Ogromną wagę przykładano do pracy wychowawczej w duchu patriotycznym. Najstarsi wiekiem przechodzili szkolenie wojskowe. +Armia Czerwona wkroczyła do Radomska 16 stycznia 1945. W raporcie o sytuacji miasta na dzień 22 stycznia 1945 r. napisanym przez szefa Zarządu Politycznego I Frontu Ukraińskiego można przeczytać m.in.: "Miasto nie ucierpiało od strzału, paniczna ucieczka Niemców uniemożliwiła im zburzenie budynków i przedsiębiorstw nawet gdzie były miny (fabryka "Metalurgii", budynek żandarmerii). Nie udało się również wywieźć do Niemiec urządzeń fabryk i przedsiębiorstw". +Po przejściu przez Radomsko Armii Radzieckiej bolszewicy z NKWD rozpoczęli liczne aresztowania żołnierzy Narodowych Sił Zbrojnych i Armii Krajowej, podobnie jak robili to w całej Polsce. Nie godząc się z komunistyczną zależnością od ZSRR i sowieckim terrorem, wspieranym przez Armię Ludową, milicję, ORMO i działaczy PPR a później PZPR, Stanisław Sojczyński i jego podkomendni wcześniej walczący z hitlerowcami teraz ponownie musieli powrócić do konspiracji. Na bazie 27 batalionu pp Armii Krajowej Sojczyński zorganizował największą podziemną organizację o nazwie Konspiracyjne Wojsko Polskie. KWP działało na terenie woj. łódzkiego, kieleckiego, śląskiego i poznańskiego walcząc komunistycznym bezprawiem. Kapitan Sojczyński wydał rozkaz określający zadania KWP w zakresie walki z przestępczą działalnością władz komunistycznych i ochrony społeczeństwa oraz żołnierzy podziemia niepodległościowego przed terrorem organów bezpieczeństwa. Pierwszą osobą, która zginęła z jego rozkazu, był Jankiel Jakub Cukierman, szef sekcji śledczej Państwowego Urzędu Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego w Radomsku. Zastrzelono go na ulicy w sierpniu 1945 r. W 1946 r. Sojczyński Pod pseud. „Warszyc” z wiernymi mu żołnierzami z AK KWP, ponownie wsławia się brawurową akcją na to samo więzienie w Radomsku ale już nie pod panowaniem Gestapo a Urzędu Bezpieczeństwa i uwalnia z niego 57 ludzi, w tym wielu kolegów z AK i żołnierzy z NSZ. Rozwścieczone UB wzorując się na hitlerowskim SS i gestapo, po licznych aresztowaniach oraz torturach na żołnierzach z KWP i wykonanych wyrokach śmierci, schwytało dzięki swoim agentom niestety także bohaterskiego „Warszyca”, oraz wielu jego dowódców. Ludowa władza z zemsty poddaje schwytanego kapitana Sojczyńskiego i jego sztabowców ciężkim torturom a w 1947 r wykonuje na nich wyrok śmierci, śpiesząc się z jego wykonaniem przed mającą wejść amnestią. Podobnie postąpiono w przypadku innych antykomunistycznych żołnierzy z podziemia niepodległościowego w całym PRL-u, a także wobec licznych katolickich kapłanów oraz wielu harcerzy z Szarych Szeregów i innych organizacji młodzieżowych. Ich nieustraszoną wiarę w Boga, prawość, patriotyzm oraz umiejętności i doświadczenie konspiracyjne z okupacji, komuniści uznawali za niebezpieczeństwo dla "władzy ludowej". Ostatni żołnierze z KWP schwytani zostali przez komunistów w 1951 r i wielu z nich równie bestialsko zamordowano. Tych co przeżyli z całymi rodzinami inwigilowało i prześladowało UB/SB do końca PRL-u, podobnie jak wszystkich kapłanów czy ludzi z opozycji antykomunistycznej. „Warszyc” i jego koledzy z KWP w PRL-u byli „żołnierzami wyklętymi”. Dopiero po 1989r wywalczona niepodległość Polski przez miliony Polaków z „Solidarności”, w której szeregach nie brakowało byłych żołnierzy z AK, KWP, WiN, NSZ, SzSz a także kapłanów czy innych org. niepodległościowych, przynosi „Warszycowi” i jego żołnierzom pełną rehabilitację. Jednak miejsce grobu legendarnego dowódcy KWP AK kap. Sojczyńskiego do dziś jest nieznane. +Wysalanie białek + +Wysalanie białek – strącanie białek z roztworów poprzez dodanie stężonego roztworu soli. Proces jest wynikiem zaburzenia otoczki solwatacyjnej i agregacji cząsteczek białek w wyniku +łatwiejszego kontaktu pomiędzy polarnymi grupami sąsiadujących cząsteczek. . Proces ten jest przejściem zolu w żel (koagulacja), nie narusza struktury białka (także czwarto- i trzeciorzędowej) i jest odwracalny (nie powoduje denaturacji). +Białko najłatwiej wysolić w pH równym jego punktowi izoelektrycznemu. +Ataman + +Ataman ("wataman, vataman, otaman") — 1. kozacki przywódca pełniący funkcje polityczne i wojskowe. 2. Także u kozaków dowódca wojskowy albo oddzielnego pododdziału, mający władzę wojskową lub administracyjno-wojskową. 3. przywódca niezależnego od władzy państwowej oddziału wojskowego albo grupy (niejednokrotnie zbójniczej) +Stanowisko to występowało w różnych stopniach i rodzajach władzy - oznaczało dowódcę całości wojsk (ataman koszowy), bądź tylko jednego oddziału. Atamanem określano także zarządców terytorialnych - np. kurzeni (batalionu). W Zaporoskich oddziałach kozaków byli atamani koszowi i kurzenni, w oddziałach Dońskich kozaków - wojskowi , polowi, marszowi - wybierani w oddziałach na czas oddzielnych wypraw. Po powstaniu Buławina 1707-1708 atamani Wojsk Dońskich byli wyznaczani przez rząd, a od 1723 otrzymywali nazwę atamana mianowanego. Od 1866 ataman taki otrzymywał prawa generał-gubernatora i dowódcy okręgu wojskowego. W innych formacjach kozaków tytuł atamana mianowanego nosili generałowie gubernatorzy terytorialni, na terenie których były dyslokowane wojska kozaków, albo dowódcy okręgów wojskowych którym te wojska były podporządkowane. Jednostki terytorialne kozaków Dońskich, Amurskich i Usuryjskich, a także oddziały kozaków podporządkowane innym rodzajom wojsk, okręgów wojskowych, stanice i wsi miały także wyznaczanego atamana. Od 1827 tytuł atamana posiadał następca tronu. Tytuł atamana był zlikwidowany po 1917 wraz z likwidacją stanu kozactwa, przywrócony honorowo po 1990. +Źródłosłów. +Istnieje kilka sprzecznych wywodów dotyczących pochodzenia słowa ataman. W pierwszej, słowo to pochodzi z języka turecko-tatarskiego ("Ata" - ojciec). W innej wersji, słowo to pochodzi (tak jak polski hetman) od niemieckiego "hauptmann" oznaczającego dowódcę oddziału. +Kapustowate + +Kapustowate, krzyżowe ("Brassicaceae" Burnett, "Cruciferae" Juss.) – rodzina roślin zielnych, rzadziej drzew i krzewów, należąca do rzędu kapustowców ("Brassicales"). Liczy 381 rodzajów i około 3700 gatunków. +Zastosowanie. +Bardzo ważna rodzina z punktu widzenia gospodarki człowieka. Zawiera wiele gatunków mających znaczenie w rolnictwie (rośliny olejodajne i paszowe), ogrodnictwie (warzywa) jak i ważne gatunki zielarskie. +Systematyka. +Rodzina siostrzana w stosunku do "Cleomaceae" w obrębie rzędu kapustowców. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa ukęślowe ("Dilleniidae" Takht. ex Reveal & Tahkt.), nadrząd "Capparanae" Reveal, rząd kaparowce ("Capparales" Hutch.), podrząd "Capparineae" Engl., rodzina kapustowate ("Brassicaceae" Burnett). +Kazimierz Kaczor (aktor) + +Kazimierz Kaczor (ur. 9 lutego 1941 w Krakowie) – polski aktor teatralny, filmowy i telewizyjny, artysta kabaretowy. +Życiorys. +20 grudnia 1959 zadebiutował jako aktor na scenie teatru. Przez półtora roku studiował w Krakowskiej Wyższej Szkole Rolniczej. Pracował jako magazynier i dyspozytor w Krakowskim Przedsiębiorstwie Budownictwa Przemysłowego, a następnie jako maszynista w Teatrze Lalki, Maski i Aktora "Groteska" w Krakowie. +Absolwent Wydziału Lalkarskiego Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Teatralnej im. Ludwika Solskiego w Krakowie (1965). Aktor Teatru Starego w Krakowie (1965–1973), Teatru Współczesnego w Warszawie (1973–1974), Teatru Powszechnego w Warszawie (od 1974). W latach 1996–2003 prowadził na antenie Programu Drugiego Telewizji Polskiej teleturniej "Va Banque". +Przewodniczący Sekcji Dramatu w ZASP (1990–1993), członek Rady Kultury przy Prezydencie RP (1992–1993), prezes Związku Artystów Scen Polskich (1996–2002). +Był sygnatariuszem petycji przeciwko represjom organów bezpieczeństwa wobec protestujących w Radomiu i Ursusie w 1976 roku (1977). Według zasobu archiwalnego Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej inwigilowany w ramach SOR "Krakus". +Yang Chun + +Yang Chun (ur. 19 marca 1917, zm. 19 stycznia 2005) – chińska działaczka państwowa. +Pochodziła z prowincji Syczuan. Związana z ruchem komunistycznym od 1936, rok później została członkiem Komunistycznej Partii Chin. Pracowała we władzach lokalnych i centralnych, dochodząc w 1980 do stanowiska wiceministra zdrowia. Była deputowaną do Ogólnochińskiego Zgromadzenia Przedstawicieli Ludowych w latach 1954-1975 (kadencje I, II, III), wchodziła także w skład Komitetu Krajowego Ludowej Politycznej Konferencji Konsultatywnej Chin w latach 1983-1993 (kadencje VI i VII). +Merytokracja + +Merytokracja - wieloznaczne pojęcie określające najczęściej system, w którym pozycje uzależnione są od kompetencji, definiowanych jako połączenie inteligencji i edukacji, weryfikowanych za pomocą obiektywnych systemów oceny (np. certyfikatów). Merytokracja stanowi przeciwieństwo władzy budowanej w oparciu o członków rodziny (nepotyzm), klasy (oligarchia) czy narodowość (nacjonalizm). +Pojęcie merytokracji. +Pojęcie merytokracji odnosić się może do metodyki budowania organizacji (państwa, firmy) w oparciu o kompetencje, może też odnosić do systemu władzy zbudowanego na bazie tej metodyki. Może też oznaczać ideologię, determinującą status społeczny lub wartość jednostki w zależności od jej kompetencji. +Choć pojęcie "merytokracji" zostało wprowadzone przez Younga, sama koncepcja pragmatycznego budowania administracji w oparciu o kompetencje wywodzi się z idei legalizmu i myśli Konfucjusza i była praktykowana już przez chińską dynastię Han 200 lat p.n.e.. +Opinie. +Pierwszy nurt krytyki merytokracji jest metodyczny - to znaczy, na ile możliwa jest obiektywna i rzetelna ocena kompetencji danej jednostki? Krytyka ta jest skierowana przede wszystkim przeciwko bardzo konkretnym metodom oceny kompetencji jak na przykład testy inteligencji stosowane w armii amerykańskiej. +Drugi kierunek krytyki jest ideologiczny i wychodzi z pozycji egalitaryzmu - tzn. czy etyczne jest utrwalanie nierówności społecznych przez preferowanie osób o lepszych predyspozycjach? Krytyka ta dotyczy również konkretnych koncepcji edukacyjnych, opierających się na stosunkowo wczesnej ocenie inteligencji uczniów i zapewnianiu lepszej edukacji tym, którzy w testach wypadają lepiej. +Sama książka Younga, oryginalnie wydana w 1958 roku, była z kolei futurystyczną satyrą na ówczesne wysiłki rządu brytyjskiego mające na celu ograniczenie elitaryzmu tamtejszej administracji. Według Younga, nowa elita "merytokratyczna" zbudowana na bazie własnych kompetencji i umiejętności stała się równie odizolowana od reszty społeczeństwa jak elity arystokratyczne, nie ma jednak właściwego tej ostatniej etosu i podbudowy moralnej. +Według innych badaczy w merytokracji rozumianej jako metodyka budowania organizacji w oparciu o osoby mające najlepsze kompetencje do wykonywania określonych zadań nie ma nic niemoralnego i stanowi ona wartościowy środek do rozwoju społecznego oraz poprawy efektywności organizacji. +We współczesnych koncepcjach zarządzania idea ta jest obecna w postaci rozbudowanych systemów ocen pracowników i wynagrodzeń. +Elbert Carvel + +Elbert Nortland Carvel (9 lutego 1910 - 6 lutego 2005 w Laurel, Delaware), polityk amerykański, działacz Partii Demokratycznej. +Był znanym działaczem praw człowieka. W latach 1945-1949 pełnił funkcję zastępcy gubernatora stanu Delaware, a 1949-1953 i 1961-1965 gubernatora Delaware. Bez powodzenia ubiegał się o wybór na gubernatora w 1952, również bezskutecznie kandydował na senatora w 1958 i 1964 (dwukrotnie przegrywał rywalizację z republikaninem Johnem Williamsem). +Jimmy Smith + +Jimmy Smith, właśc. James Oscar Smith (ur. 8 grudnia 1925 lub 1928 w Norristown, zm. 8 lutego 2005 w Phoenix) – amerykański muzyk jazzowy, wirtuoz organów Hammonda. +Smith, który często posługiwał się przydomkami "the incredible" (niewiarygodny) lub "the amazing" (cudowny), spopularyzował w jazzie brzmienie organów Hammonda (po raz pierwszy zagrał na organach w 1951 r.). +Był wychowany w muzycznej rodzinie. W młodości pobierał fachowe lekcje gry na fortepianie i gitarze basowej. Jego pierwszym muzycznym wzorem był Wild Bill Davis. W połowie lat 50. dopracował się własnej odmiany "przydymionego" soul jazzu, którym lansował specyficzną, zrelaksowaną muzykę opartą na bluesie i jazzie. Wynikiem ogromnej liczby nagrań, jakie zrealizował dla wytwórni Blue Note Records, było nie tylko wypromowanie nowego gatunku, ale też pojawienie się wielu nowych mistrzów organów Hammonda (m.in. Jimmy McGriff, "Brother" Jack McDuff, "Big" John Patton, Richard "Groove" Holmes i "Baby Face" Willette). +Smith otaczał się znakomitymi muzykami towarzyszącymi - na perkusji grali z nim Art Blakey i Donald Bailey, na gitarach Eddie McFadden, Quentin Warren i Kenny Burrell. Inni wybitni współpracujący z nim muzycy to Stanley Turrentine (saksofon tenorowy), Lee Morgan (trąbka) i Lou Donaldson (saksofon altowy). Swoją wielką klasę potwierdzał doskonałymi albumami (np. "The Sermon" oraz "Houseparty"). +W 1963 r. Smith przeniósł się do wytwórni Verve Records i stał się jej faworyzowanym artystą. Dla firmy Normana Granza nagrał takie standardy jak "Walk On The Wild Side", "Hobo Flats" czy "Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf". Jazzowe przeboje Smitha zwracały uwagę świetnymi aranżacjami orkiestrowymi autorstwa Olivera Nelsona (które w pewnym stopniu tłumiły brzmienie Smitha). Kolejne szlagiery to "The Cat", "The Organ Grinder's Swing" i "Got My Mojo Working" z chrapliwym głosem Smitha. +Nie tylko single sprzedawały się znakomicie: w latach 1963-66 muzyk umieścił na listach bestsellerów dwanaście albumów, z których wiele dotarło do pierwszej dwudziestki, co jak na jazzmana było sukcesem niewiarygodnym. Popularność Smitha miała ścisły związek z ogromnym zainteresowaniem w latach 60. stylistyką rhythm and bluesa. W 1966 r. sporą popularnością cieszyły się dwa albumy nagrane wraz z Wesem Montgomerym ("Jimmy & Wes The Dynamic Duo" oraz "Further Adventures Of Jimmy And Wes"). Z końcem lat 60. Smith coraz częściej tworzy muzykę środka, w latach 70. zaś skłonił się ku mieszance soulu i funky (sporadycznie używał wtedy elektronicznego syntezatora). Przez wiele lat organowy jazz pozostawał w stagnacji i chociaż Smith był jego czołowym przedstawicielem, to stał się z czasem liderem niemodnego stylu. +Po serii mało znaczących nagrań, w 1982 r. na rynku ukazała się udana płyta "Off The Top". Ponownie wzrosło zainteresowanie muzyką genialnego organisty, a organy Hammonda znów stały się modnym instrumentem jazzu. +Telewizja Wisła + +Telewizja Wisła – to nieistniejąca już polska komercyjna stacja telewizyjna. +Historia. +Założona w 1995 roku, posiadała koncesję na nadawanie programu ponadregionalnego w południowej Polsce. Zasłynęła sprowadzeniem w 1996 roku gwiazdy TVP, Krzysztofa Ibisza. Program informacyjny TV Wisła "Fakty" prowadził prezenter TVN24 i swego czasu prezenter Wydarzeń TV Puls oraz Faktów TVN – Bogdan Rymanowski. +3 października 1997 roku rozpoczęła, wspólnie ze spółką TVN, realizację ogólnopolskiego kanału telewizyjnego pod tą nazwą. Telewizja Wisła została przekształcona tego dnia w TVN Południe i istniała jako firma produkując programy studyjne i reporterskie na rzecz TVN, aż do wygaśnięcia koncesji na nadawanie programu w Polsce południowej, z której korzystał TVN. 1 stycznia 2005 roku nastąpiło wcielenie firmy do TVN24. +Siedziba firmy przez cały czas jej istnienia mieściła się w Krakowie, przy ul. płk. Dąbka 2. +Arnold Bax + +Arnold Edward Trevor Bax (ur. 8 listopada 1883 w Streatham, Londyn, zm. 3 października 1953 w Cork, Irlandia) – angielski kompozytor. +Komponował muzykę symfoniczną, fortepianową, kameralną, baletową i pieśni. +Edward Gibbon + +Edward Gibbon (ur. 27 kwietnia 1737 r. w Putney k. Londynu, zm. 16 stycznia 1794 r. tamże) – brytyjski historyk, członek Parlamentu. +Uważany za najwybitniejszego historyka angielskiego XVIII wieku. Był autorem sześciotomowego dzieła "Zmierzch i upadek cesarstwa rzymskiego" (ang. "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"). Jest to jedna z najsławniejszych książek historycznych wszech czasów. +Gibbon jest uznawany za najnowocześniejszego historyka epoki oświecenia. W swoich pracach opierał się na źródłach, dzięki czemu tworzył narrację precyzyjną naukowo, ale również o wysokich walorach literackich. Dzięki temu jego dzieła do dzisiaj nie straciły aktualności i są nadal podstawą historiografii. +Polski przekład dzieła Gibbona obejmuje czasy od zgonu Marka Areliusza do zabicia Odoakra (180-493 n.e.) +San Francisco + +San Francisco – miasto i hrabstwo w stanie Kalifornia w Stanach Zjednoczonych, położone na półwyspie otoczonym przez Ocean Spokojny na zachodzie, zatokę San Francisco na wschodzie i cieśninę Golden Gate na północy. Czwarte pod względem liczby ludności miasto w Kalifornii i trzynaste w całym kraju. Ósme miasto w Stanach Zjednoczonych pod względem gęstości zaludnienia. San Francisco jest częścią obszaru metropolitalnego San Francisco Bay Area, którego liczba ludności przekracza 7,2 miliona. +Historia San Francisco sięga roku 1776, kiedy to hiszpańscy kolonizatorzy Ameryki Północnej osiedlili się na krańcu półwyspu, zakładając na tym terenie fort oraz misję imienia świętego Franciszka z Asyżu. San Francisco i Kalifornia należały następnie do Meksyku, po uzyskaniu przez niego niepodległości od Hiszpanii, a następnie zostały włączone do Stanów Zjednoczonych. Miasto przeżyło znaczne przyspieszenie rozwoju w 1848 roku podczas krótkiego okresu kalifornijskiej gorączki złota, stając się w tym czasie największym miastem na amerykańskim Zachodnim Wybrzeżu. W 1906 roku San Francisco zostało w większej części zniszczone podczas trzęsienia ziemi i pożarów, które były jego skutkiem. Po kataklizmie zostało szybko odbudowane, dziewięć lat później goszcząc Międzynarodową Wystawę Panamsko-Pacyficzną. Podczas II wojny światowej San Francisco było punktem ekspedycyjnym dla tysięcy żołnierzy walczących na Pacyfiku i ważnym portem wypadowym operującej na tym oceanie floty. W latach powojennych do miasta napłynęły tysiące imigrantów i byłych żołnierzy, co zbiegło się w czasie z gwałtownym rozwjem okolicy. Nadchodzące rozluźnienie norm społecznych i inne czynniki przyczyniły się do początków ruchów społecznych środowisk LGBT. W 1967 roku w mieście zaczęło się tak zwane Lato Miłości. Postępująca liberalizacja i otwartość społeczności wyrobiły San Francisco opinię miasta liberalnego. +Obecnie San Francisco jest dużym ośrodkiem turystycznym, znanym ze swoich atrakcji, włączając w to m.in. Most Golden Gate, więzienie Alcatraz, Coit Tower, tramwaje linowe, fabrykę czekolady Ghirardelli czy chińską dzielnicę – Chinatown. Charakterystyczne dla miasta są jego strome wzgórza i ulice oraz mieszanina stylów architektonicznych, od wiktoriańskiego do postmodernizmu. Miasto słynie także ze swojego zróżnicowania etnicznego, kosmopolityzmu, uniwersytetów oraz wyodrębnionych i wpływowych społeczności azjatyckiej, latynoamerykańskiej oraz LGBT. +Historia. +Najwcześniejsze archeologiczne dowody osadnictwa na terenach miasta pochodzą z roku 3000 p.n.e. Gdy 2 listopada 1769 roku przybyli na te tereny hiszpańscy kolonizatorzy pod dowództwem Gaspara de Portolà, zamieszkiwał je szczep Yelamu ludu Ohlone, który skupił się tu w kilkunastu wsiach. Była to pierwsza udokumentowana wizyta Europejczyków w okolicach Zatoki San Francisco. Siedem lat później, 28 marca 1776 roku, Hiszpanie założyli na tych terenach fort, a następnie misję imienia św. Franciszka z Asyżu (Mission Dolores). +Podczas meksykańskiej wojny o niepodległość z Hiszpanią w 1821 roku, rejon ten został przyłączony do Meksyku. W 1835 roku, William Richardson założył, nieopodal kotwicowiska łodzi w miejscu obecnego Portsmouth Square, pierwsze znaczące osiedle nie leżące w obrębie Mission Dolores. +Razem z alkadem Misji, Francisco de Haro, Richardson sporządził plan przyszłych ulic pod rozwijającą się osadę. Powstałe miasto, wtenczas nazywane Yerba Buena, zaczęło zaludniać się amerykańskimi osadnikami. W trakcie wojny amerykańsko-meksykańskiej, 7 czerwca 1846 roku, amerykański komodor John D. Sloat uznał Kalifornię za tereny należące do Stanów Zjednoczonych, a dwa dni później, kapitan John B. Montgomery przybył do Yerba Buena, by ustanowić tam administrację amerykańską. Rok później Yerba Buena przemianowano na San Francisco. Pomimo atrakcyjnego położenia, będące naturalnym portem i bazą marynarki wojennej San Francisco, wciąż było małą osadą z niesprzyjającymi osadnictwu warunkami geograficznymi. +Kalifornijska gorączka złota spowodowała napływ poszukiwaczy tego kruszcu na tereny stanu. Przybysze osiedlali się masowo w San Francisco, preferując je ponad rywalizujące z nim miasto Benicia. Wizja wzbogacenia się była tak silna, że załogi statków przybywających do portu często porzucały swoje jednostki i masowo udawały się na pola złotonośne. Port miejski wypełnił się opuszczonymi statkami. Do grudnia 1849 roku liczba mieszkańców San Francisco wzrosła z 1000 do 25000. Z tych czasów wywodzi się też jedna z ikon miasta – chleb na zakwasie, będący podstawą wyżywienia XIX-wiecznych górników i robotników. +Kalifornia zyskała wkrótce status stanu, a w mieście zlokalizowano stały garnizon amerykański. Wybudowano fortyfikacje: Fort Point, strzegący wejścia do zatoki przez cieśninę Golden Gate oraz fort na wyspie Alcatraz, zabezpieczający samą zatokę. Odkrycie srebra, m.in. złóż Comstock Lode w 1859 roku w nieodległej Nevadzie, dodatkowo przyspieszyło rozwój miasta. Wraz z napływem poszukiwaczy kruszców, osadników i zwykłych awanturników w mieście szerzyło się bezprawie. Szczególnie część miasta znana jako Barbary Coast wsławiła się jako oaza kryminalistów, prostytutek i hazardzistów. +Wzbogaceni na gorączce złota przedsiębiorcy, szukali możliwości inwestycji swojego kapitału. Pierwszymi beneficjentami były instytucje finansowe: powstały pierwsze banki, jak Wells Fargo w 1852 roku, oraz przemysł kolejowy w osobie magnatów z tak zwanej „Wielkiej Czwórki”, na czele której stał Leland Stanford, która koordynowała powstanie Pierwszej Kolei Transkontynentalnej. +Rozwój Portu San Francisco ugruntował centralną pozycję miasta w handlu w regionie. Wychodząc naprzeciw rosnącemu zapotrzebowaniu ludności na towary i usługi, w mieście powstały liczne manufaktury. Levi Strauss założył przedsiębiorstwo handlowe, a później zaczął produkcję pierwszych dżinsów dla górników. Domingo Ghirardelli rozpoczął produkcję czekolady. Miasto, za sprawą imigrantów, stało się wielokulturowym i wielojęzycznym ośrodkiem. Chińczycy pracujący przy kolei, skupili się w jednej dzielnicy, znanej później jako Chinatown. Pojawiają się także dzielnice imigrantów z Włoch (North Beach), a wciąż duży udział mieszkańców stanowili hiszpańskojęzyczni potomkowie osadników z czasów meksykańskich. Rozwinął się transport, z systemem tramwajów linowych oraz wykształcił się także charakterystyczny dla miasta wiktoriański charakter zabudowy. Skrupulatnie zaplanowano tereny zielone oraz przestrzeń publiczną; założony został Park Golden Gate. Powstały nowe szkoły, kościoły, teatry i inne obiekty użyteczności publicznej. Presidio, teren dawnego hiszpańskiego fortu, przekształcił się w najważniejszą amerykańską instalację wojskową na wybrzeżu Pacyfiku. Na przełomie XIX i XX wieku miasto było znane ze swojego krzykliwego stylu, okazałych hoteli, wytwornych rezydencji skupionych na Nob Hill i rozkwitającej sztuki. +W 1906 roku San Francisco nawiedził największy kataklizm w jego historii. 18 kwietnia o 5:12, silne trzęsienie ziemi obróciło miasto w ruinę. Część budynków zawaliła się od wstrząsów, a następnie, wskutek uszkodzeń linii gazowych, wybuchły gigantyczne, wielodniowe pożary, które strawiły większą część pozostałej zabudowy. Ponieważ uszkodzone wodociągi uniemożliwiały skuteczne gaszenie ognia, artylerzyści z Presidio próbowali opanować rozprzestrzenianie się pożarów, wysadzając w powietrze kwartały budynków, by postawić barierę płomieniom. Wskutek trzęsienia i pożarów, więcej niż trzy czwarte miasta legło w gruzach, włączając w to całe centrum. Ówczesne raporty mówiły o 498 ofiarach śmiertelnych, jednak współczesne badania szacują straty nawet na kilka tysięcy. Ponad połowa z 400 000 mieszkańców została bez dachu nad głową. Ocalali tymczasowo zamieszkali w koczowisku w namiotach w Parku Golden Gate, w Presidio, na plażach oraz tam gdzie było jeszcze miejsce. Wiele osób na stałe wyprowadziło się z miasta w inne rejony Zatoki. +Miasto odbudowano szybko i na wielką skalę. Odrzucając projekty, by wykorzystując okazję całkowicie zmienić układ ulic, wybrano znacznie szybszą opcję z zachowaniem ich historycznego planu. Bank of Italy Amadeo Gianniniego, późniejszy Bank of America, udzielił wielu pożyczek dla poszkodowanych rodzin. W kilka lat odbudowano budynki mieszkalne i użyteczności publicznej, wielokroć w większej liczbie i okazalszej formie niż sprzed kataklizmu. Wiele ulic poszerzono, unowocześniono centrum i część portu znaną jako Fisherman's Wharf. City Hall, siedzibę władz miejskich i administracji, z przepychem odbudowano w stylu Beaux Arts. Miasto świętowało odrodzenie swojego ratusza podczas Międzynarodowej Wystawy Panamsko-Pacyficznej w 1915 roku, która oficjalnie miała celebrować otwarcie Kanału Panamskiego, ale stała się także okazją do pokazania całkowicie odbudowanego i odnowionego San Francisco. Z okazji wystawy wzniesiono dodatkowo jeszcze kilka dużych budynków które, poza Palace of Fine Arts, po zakończeniu wyburzono. +W następnych latach miasto ugruntowało swoją pozycję stolicy finansowej; podczas krachu na giełdzie w 1929 roku nie upadł żaden bank wywodzący się z San Francisco. Co więcej to właśnie podczas wielkiego kryzysu miasto rozpoczęło dwie wielkie inwestycje budowlane, wznosząc jednocześnie Bay Bridge i Golden Gate Bridge, otwarte kolejno w 1936 i 1937 roku. Także w tym okresie zaadaptowano Alcatraz, wcześniej fort, na super-strzeżone więzienie federalne, w którym osadzeni zostali tak znani gangsterzy, jak np. Al Capone z Chicago. W późniejszych latach miasto świętowało swój powrót do świetności goszcząc wystawę światową w 1939 roku, a w kolejnych latach Golden Gate International Exposition, na potrzeby której usypano sztuczną wyspę na Zatoce – Treasure Island. +Podczas II wojny światowej, stocznia marynarki wojennej w San Francisco stała się centrum napraw dokowych dla floty pacyficznej Stanów Zjednoczonych, a Fort Mason głównym punktem punktem ekspedycyjnym dla tysięcy żołnierzy walczących na pacyficznym teatrze działań wojennych. Dostępność pracy przyciągnęła wielu ludzi, szczególnie Afroamerykanów ze stanów południowych, po zakończeniu wojny, wielu powracających żołnierzy, a także pracowników cywilnych, zdecydowało się pozostać w San Francisco na stałe. W 1945 roku w mieście została podpisana Karta Narodów Zjednoczonych, powołująca do życia Organizację Narodów Zjednoczonych, a w 1951 roku traktat pokojowy z San Francisco oficjalnie zakończył wojnę na Pacyfiku. +W latach 50. XX wieku, jak i 60., zachodnia część miasta przeszła gruntowną przebudowę i zmianę zagospodarowania. W tym okresie zbudowano też miejskie autostrady. Jednak wiele z nich, wskutek protestów mieszkańców, powstało tylko częściowo. W 1972 roku ukończono najwyższy budynek w mieście – Transamerica Pyramid, a w kolejnych latach w procesie "manhattanizacji" wyższa zabudowa pojawiła się w całym centrum. W kolejnych latach miasto zaczęło tracić pozycję centrum przemysłowo-komunikacyjnego. Aktywność portowa przeniosła się do niedalekiego Oakland, spadła liczba miejsc pracy związana z transportem morskim, przemysłem i pokrewnymi. Turystyka i jej obsługa zaczęły być najważniejszą częścią ekonomii San Francisco. Gwałtowny rozwój przeżyły przedmieścia, a samo miasto znacznie zmieniło profil demograficzny, gdy na miejsce białej ludności miasta, napłynęli imigranci z Azji czy Ameryki Łacińskiej. W tym samym okresie miasto stało się centrum amerykańskiej kontrkultury i ruchów liberalnych. Pisarze skupieni w dzielnicy North Beach, z generacji bitników przyczynili się do rozkwitu tak zwanego „renesansu z San Francisco”. Masowo do miasta napływali hippisi, zaludniając w latach 60. dzielnicę Haight-Ashbury, by w roku 1967, podczas Lata Miłości, osiągnąć szczyt liczebności. W latach 70. XX wieku miasto było głównym ośrodkiem walki o prawa dla homoseksualistów. Dzielnica Castro przekształciła się w gay village, której znaczną część mieszkańców stanowili homoseksualiści lub sympatycy ruchów LGBT. Także w tym czasie Harvey Milk (razem z burmistrzem George’em Moscone’em zamordowany w 1978 roku), zadeklarowany homoseksualista i prowadzący swoją kampanię wyborczą pod szyldem równouprawnienia, został wybrany do Rady Nadzorczej San Francisco (ang. "Board of Supervisors"). +W 1989 roku miasto nawiedziło trzęsienie ziemi Loma Prieta o sile 7,1 stopni w skali Richtera, które spowodowało straty i ofiary w całym rejonie Zatoki. W San Francisco wstrząsy uszkodziły Marina District i South of Market, a także spowodowały uszkodzenia autostrad miejskich: Embarcadero oraz Central Freeway, które następnie rozebrano (Central Freeway częściowo). Uszkodzony, a w rezultacie przebudowany, został także Bay Bridge. +W latach „bańki internetowej” gospodarkę miasta ożywiły liczne nowopowstałe przedsięwzięcia. Do San Francisco sprowadzili się liczni przedsiębiorcy i deweloperzy z branży informatycznej, a następnie marketingowcy i inne towarzyszące firmy. W znaczący sposób zmieniło to profil wielu biedniejszych rejonów miasta, które gwałtownie się wzbogaciły. Po załamaniu koniunktury w 2001, wiele z firm upadło, ale zaawansowane technologie, przemysł informatyczny i inne pokrewne wciąż są głównymi elementami gospodarki miasta i jego okolic. +Geografia. +San Francisco leży na Zachodnim Wybrzeżu Stanów Zjednoczonych, na szczycie półwyspu San Francisco i oparte jest swoimi granicami o wybrzeża Pacyfiku i Zatoki San Francisco. W skład miasta wchodzi też kilka wysp położonych w Zatoce, między innymi Alcatraz, Wyspa Treasure i sąsiednia Wyspa Yerba Buena, a także małe części wyspy Alameda, Wyspa Angel czy Wyspa Red Rock. Także niezamieszkane Wyspy Farallon położone 43 km w głąb Pacyfiku, podlegają jurysdykcji miasta. Obszar miasta zawiera się z grubsza w kwadracie o boku ok. 11 km. Linia brzegowa miasta, szczególnie wschodnia i północna, jest w większej części sztuczna; rejony takie jak Marina District czy Hunters Point w całości, a Embarcadero w większej części, leżą na sztucznie usypanym lądzie. Podobnie Treasure Island jest sztucznie usypaną wyspą. +San Francisco i cała jego okolica położone są na obszarze aktywnym sejsmicznie, a wstrząsy regularnie nawiedzają miasto. Za trzęsienia ziemi w tym rejonie odpowiedzialne są uskok San Adreas i obszar Hayward Fault Zone (największe trzęsienia ziemi z 1906 i 1989 roku były spowodowane obsunięciem się Hayward Fault Zone), mimo że sam uskok nie przebiega przez miasto. Zagrożenie wstrząsami jest brane pod uwagę przy rozwoju infrastruktury miejskiej. Przy okazji przebudowy całe obszary miasta, zarówno budynki nowo wznoszone, ale i te istniejące, są dostosowywane do wymogów stawianych konstrukcjom przez trzęsienia ziemi. Jakkolwiek w mieście wciąż istnieją tysiące mniejszych budynków, szczególnie tych starszych, które pozostają szczególnie narażone na wstrząsy. Szczególnie wrażliwe okazały się sztucznie usypane fragmenty lądu. Towarzyszące trzęsieniom ziemi wypiętrzenia i zapadliska, a także upłynnienie gruntu, spowodowało duże straty w Marina District podczas trzęsienia ziemi Loma Prieta w 1989 roku. +Charakterystyczną cechą miasta są jego wzgórza, których jest więcej niż 50 w jego granicach i od których wzięły swoje nazwy niektóre dzielnice, jak: Nob Hill, Pacific Heights, Russian Hill, Potrero Hill czy Telegraph Hill. W pobliżu geograficznego środka miasta, na południowy zachód od centrum, leży kilka mniej zaludnionych wzgórz. Dominuje Mount Sutro, na którym stoi Sutro Tower – duża czerwono-biała wieża radiowo-telewizyjna. Obok leżą wzgórza Twin Peaks – para wzgórz będąca jednym z najwyższych punktów w mieście i popularny punkt widokowy. Najwyższe wzgórze San Francisco to Mount Davidson, ok. 282 metrów wysokości, zwieńczone prawie 32 metrowym krzyżem wybudowanym tam w 1934 roku. +Klimat. +San Francisco, jak i cała Kalifornia, leży w strefie klimatu środziemnomorskiego, który cechują łagodne zimy z licznymi opadami i suche lata, co znalazło odzwierciedlenie w niepoprawnie przypisywanemu Markowi Twainowi cytacie: "Najzimniejsza zima jaką kiedykolwiek przeżyłem to było lato w San Francisco" ("The coldest winter I ever spent was a summer in San Francisco."). Dodatkowy wpływ na klimat miasta ma woda, która otacza je z trzech stron. W szczególności zimny Prąd Kalifornijski zmniejsza wariacje klimatu, co owocuje umiarkowanymi temperaturami o małej amplitudzie rocznej. Natomiast połączenie zimnego powietrza znad oceanu i gorących jego mas znad lądu owocuje charakterystycznymi dla miasta mgłami, które wiosną i wczesnym latem spowijają zachodnią część miasta przez cały dzień. Mgła jest mniej widoczna we wschodniej części miasta i zwykle występuje tam późnym latem i jesienią, gdy temperatury są najwyższe. +Średnia najwyższa temperatura w San Francisco to 21 °C, która jest o 9 °C niższa niż dla miejsc położonych bardziej w głąb lądu, jak Livermore. Najwyższa zanotowana temperatura w San Francisco to 39 °C, odnotowana 17 lipca 1988 roku i 14 czerwca 2000 roku. Zimy w mieście są łagodne z najwyższymi temperaturami dziennymi sięgającymi 15 °C. Najniższe rzadko kiedy osiągają 0 °C i mniej, jakkolwiek rekordowa najniższa temperatura to −3 °C odnotowana 11 grudnia 1932 roku. Od maja do września, w okresie letnim, jest bardzo sucho, ale z kolei od listopada aż do marca opady deszczu są bardzo częste. Opady śniegu są niezwykle rzadkie, z około dziesięcioma przypadkami odnotowanymi od 1852. Największy opad śniegu zaobserwowany 5 lutego 1887, wyniósł od 9,4 cm w centrum miasta do 17,8 cm poza nim. Ostatni odnotowany opad śniegu w mieście miał miejsce 5 lutego 1976 roku, gdy spadło go ok. 2,5 cm. +Z powodu urozmaiconej topografii i wpływu wody w San Francisco występuje cała gama lokalnych zjawisk mikroklimatycznych. Wysokie wzgórza w geograficznym centrum miasta są odpowiedzialne za 20% różnicę w rocznych opadach pomiędzy różnymi częściami miasta. Osłaniają one także wschodnie dzielnice przed masami mgieł i zimnym powietrzem znad oceanu, które jest bardziej odczuwalne na zachodzie miasta. Przeciętnie wschodnia część miasta jest bardziej słoneczna, ze średnio 260 słonecznymi dniami w roku i 105 zachmurzonymi. +Podział miasta. +Osiedla. +W San Francisco wyróżnia się tradycyjnie ponad 100 osiedli (ang. "neighborhoods") z unikalnymi nazwami. Mają one różną wielkość, obejmując obszar od kilku do kilkunastu przecznic. Granice między osiedlami są zwykle umowne i oparte na historii okolicy oraz świadomości mieszkańców. +Historyczne centrum miasta leży w jego północno-wschodniej części, ograniczonej od południa Market Street. Tam znajduje się Financial District, Union Square i skupia się większość najwyższych budynków miasta, dużych domów towarowych i hoteli. Tu swój bieg zaczyna linia zabytkowego tramwaju linowego, łącząca centrum z położonym wyżej Chinatown i Nob Hill oraz z leżącym po drugiej stronie miasta portem z będącym atrakcją turystyczną Fisherman's Wharf. Także w tym rejonie znajdują się Russian Hill, osiedle mieszkalne na wzgórzu, na które wspina się osławiona swoimi serpentynami Lombard Street; osiedle włoskich imigrantów North Beach; czyTelegraph Hill z wieżą widokową Coit Tower. Tuż obok centrum znajduje się Tenderloin, osiedle o jednym z najwyższych współczynników przęstepczości i liczbie bezdomnych. +Na południe od Market Street leży osiedle South of Market (SOMA), swojego czasu skupiające zamierający przemysł, a obecnie zmieniające swój profil. Podczas bańki internetowej w okolicy zaczęły się osadzać liczne firmy z branży, powstały wieżowce i apartamentowce ("manhattanizacja"). Przekształciły się także sąsiednie South Beach czy Mission Bay, w którym zlokalizowano część kampusu Uniwersytetu Kalifornijskiego w San Francisco. +Osiedle Mission District, leżące dalej na południe, to od lat 50. XX wieku okolica z przewagą meksykańskich i latynoamerykańskich emigrantów. Osiedle powstało, gdy tereny te zaczęli zaludniać robotnicy-imigranci z Niemiec, Irlandii, Włoch czy krajów skandynawskich. W 1914 roku napłynęła tu dodatkowo fala imigrantów z Ameryki Środkowej, zatrudnionych przy budowie Kanału Panamskiego. +Okolice Golden Gate Park, położonego na wschodzie miasta, zajmują duże obszary mieszkalne. Na północ od niego rozciąga się rozległe osiedle Richmond District, którego część to „Nowe Chinatown”, ale zamieszkują w nim imigranci także z innych krajów azjatyckich i Rosji. Na południe od parku leży Sunset District, w którym dominującą część stanowi ludność pochodzenia azjatyckiego. Oba osiedla to typowe obszary mieszkalne z przewagą klasy średniej, znane pod wspólną nazwą „The Avenues” (od nazewnictwa ulic, patrz: "Drogi i autostrady"). +W południowo-wschodniej części miasta leży osiedle Hunters Point. Jest to jedno z najbiedniejszych osiedli, z wysokim wskaźnikiem przestępczości, pomimo tego, że tereny te były objęte programem miejskiej rewitalizacji. +Południowo-centralna część miasta jest zdominowana przez liczne wzgórza. Tę część miasta charakteryzuje lekka zabudowa mieszkalna, nieregularny układ ulic oraz liczne tereny zielone, rekreacyjne i parki. +Zamieszkałe są także należące do miasta Treasure Island (uprzednio baza wojskowa) i sąsiednia Yerba Buena Island, połączone ze stałym lądem mostem Bay Bridge. +Parki i plaże. +Parki stanowią 18% powierzchni miasta. W sumie 229 parków, skwerów i terenów rekreacyjnych zajmuje 1772 hektary, włączając w to 388 ha poza granicami miasta. Golden Gate Park, pozostałe parki w samym San Francisco i jego okolicy, była baza wojskowa Presidio, wraz z jej częścią zwaną Crissy Field, w którym został przywrócony naturalny ekosystem słonych bagien, oraz wyspa Alcatraz są częściami Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Dodatkowo w południowo-zachodniej części miasta leży Jezioro Merced – słodkowodny zbiornik otoczony terenami parkowymi. +Największym (410 ha) i najczęściej odwiedzanym parkiem w mieście jest Golden Gate Park, który rozciąga się od środka miasta w kierunku Pacyfiku. Pierwotnie teren parku zajmowały wydmy porośnięte miejscowymi trawami, ale w 1870 roku, gdy zakładano park, teren obsadzono tysiącami odmian drzew i innych roślin pochodzących z całego świata. W parku znajdują się liczne dodatkowe obiekty jak: Conservatory of Flowers, Japoński Ogród Herbaciany i Arboretum Strybing. Dodatkowo w mieście rozsianych jest szereg mniejszych parków, skwerów i terenów rekreacyjnych, otoczonych zwykle przez osiedla mieszkalne. +Poczynając od cieśniny Golden Gate na północy, wybrzeże pacyficzne San Francisco stanowią naturalne plaże i klify. Plaże to m.in.: Baker Beach – niewielka, długości ok. 800 m plaża położona na brzegu samej cieśniny, na zachód od mostu Golden Gate. Plaża ta była częścią terenów wojskowych Presidio, po zdemilitaryzowaniu tego rejonu stała się plażą publiczną. Północno-zachodni kraniec półwyspu opada do morza stromymi klifami, natomiast zachodnią granicą miasta jest leżąca nad Pacyfikiem Ocean Beach. Zimne i silne prądy brzegowe nie sprzyjają kąpieli, na plaży odnotowano wypadki utonięć. Poniżej południowego krańca plaży leżą tereny Fortu Funston, dawnej bazy wojskowej, w której stacjonowała bateria rakiet Nike, chroniących wybrzeże. Jest to jedyna część Golden Gate National Recreation Area, gdzie dozwolone jest wyprowadzanie psów bez smyczy. Bezpośrednio na wschód od mostu Golden Gate rozciąga się Crissy Field; nadmorski park-łąka założony na miejscu starego lotniska po zaadaptowaniu i oczyszczeniu tych terenów. Na wschód od Crissy Field cała długość północnego i wschodniego wybrzeża (od strony Zatoki) San Francisco jest uregulowana. Stanowią je nabrzeża portowe, pirsy, mariny i inne konstrukcje związane z portowym charakterem miasta. +Samorząd i administracja. +Administracyjnie San Francisco to miasto-hrabstwo, czyli miasto, które zostało połączone z hrabstwem (ang. "Consolidated city-county"). Status ten posiada od 1856 roku. Jest to jedyny taki twór administracyjny w Kalifornii. Burmistrz San Francisco jest także administratorem hrabstwa, a Rada Nadzorcza hrabstwa San Francisco (ang. "Board of Supervisors") działa jak rada miejska. Regulowana przez status miejski, samorząd San Francisco ma formę dwudzielną. Władza wykonawcza, na czele której stoi burmistrz, to wybieralni oraz mianowani na stanowiska urzędnicy miejscy, a także pracownicy służb publicznych. Władzę ustawodawczą sprawuje 11-to osobowa Rada Nadzorcza, na czele której stoi przewodniczący, i która jest odpowiedzialna za ustanawianie praw, uchwał, budżetu i innych. Udział w uchwalaniu ustaw mogą brać także mieszkańcy miasta w ramach inicjatywy ludowej. +Członkowie Rady Nadzorczej wybierani są jako reprezentanci 11 numerowanych dzielnic-okręgów wyborczych (ang. "districts"), na które oficjalnie podzielone jest San Francisco. W razie śmierci lub rezygnacji aktualnego burmistrza jego urząd przejmuje Przewodniczący Rady Nadzorczej, jak miało to miejsce w 1978 roku, gdy Dianne Feinstein przejęła urząd po morderstwie George’a Moscone’a. +Z powody swojego unikalnego statusu miasta-hrabstwa, lokalny samorząd ma w swojej jurysdykcji także własność i tereny, które leżą poza granicami miasta. Port lotniczy San Francisco, mimo tego że formalnie leży w hrabstwie San Mateo jest własnością i pod administracją Miasta i hrabstwa San Francisco. Miastu, ustawą Rakera z 1913 roku, oddano także w wieczystą dzierżawę Hetch Hetchy Valley oraz jej dorzecze w Parku Narodowym Yosemite. +W 2006 roku Rada Nadzorcza uchwaliła ustawę powołującą do życia program Healthy San Francisco (pol."Zdrowe San Francisco"), czyniącą go pierwszym miastem w Stanach Zjednoczonych zapewniającym opiekę zdrowotną nawet nieubezpieczonym mieszkańcom. +Budżet miejski na rok rozliczeniowy 2007-2008 zamknął się na poziomie ponad 6 miliardów dolarów. +W San Francisco mają swoją siedzibę także jednostki rządu federalnego, m.in.: Sąd Apelacyjny dla Dziewiątego Okręgu, Bank Rezerw Federalnych, Mennica Państwowa. Dodatkowo do roku 1990, zanim je zlikwidowano, w granicach miasta znajdowały się trzy duże instalacje wojskowe: na Presidio, Treasure Island oraz stocznia marynarki wojennej w San Francisco na Hunters Point. Okres stacjonowania wojska w mieście jest wspominany podczas dorocznego festynu – Fleet Week. Dodatkowo San Francisco jest wykorzystywane jako siedziba dla stanowego Kalifornijskiego Sądu Najwyższego (ang. "Supreme Court of California") oraz innych instytucji stanowych. W mieście mają także swoje placówki dyplomatyczne inne państwa; w sumie w San Francisco jest ponad 70 konsulatów. +Demografia. +W 2008 roku San Francisco zamieszkiwało 808 976 osób. Z gęstością zaludnienia 6 688 os./km², San Francisco jest jednym z najgęściej zaludnionych miast Stanów Zjednoczonych. San Francisco jest też główną aglomeracją San Francisco Bay Area, gęsto zaludnionego obszaru metropolitalnego położonego nad Zatoką San Francisco. Ma ponadto duży udział w Połączonym Obszarze Statystycznym (ang. "Combined Statistical Area") San Francisco-San José-Oakland, o liczbie mieszkańców ponad 7 milionów, co czyni go piątym najludniejszym tego typu obszarem w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Jak i w wielu innych dużych miastach Stanów Zjednoczonych, w ludności San Francisco stosunkowo duży udział mają „mniejszości” etniczne. Mieszkańcy rasy białej pochodzenia nie-latynoskiego stanowią mniej niż połowę populacji. Według danych z 2007 ludzie rasy białej stanowili 57,2% mieszkańców (45,0% pochodzenia nie-latynoskiego); 33,1% Azjaci; 7,3% ludzie rasy czarnej (włączając w to Afroamerykanów); 0,9% Indianie Ameryki Północnej lub rdzenni mieszkańcy Alaski; 0,7% rdzenni mieszkańcy Hawajówi innych wysp Pacyfiku; 3,9% innych ras i 2,9% dwóch lub więcej ras. 14,0% ludności stanowili ludzie pochodzenia latynoskiego, z czego około połowa z nich to Meksykanie. +Stosunkowo mało mieszkańców miasta to rodowici mieszkańcy San Francisco. Tylko 35% mieszkańców urodziło się w Kalifornii, a ponad 39% pochodzi spoza Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Zgodnie ze spisem z 2005, San Francisco zamieszkuje największy spośród 50 największych miast Stanów Zjednoczonych odsetek ludzi o orientacji homoseksualnej, którzy stanowią 15,4% ludności. W hrabstwie San Francisco jest także największy odsetek małżeństw i związków homoseksualnych oraz jednopłciowych gospodarstw domowych w całych Stanach Zjednoczonych, a San Francisco Bay Area ma ich największe zagęszczenie spośród obszarów metropolitalnych w kraju. +Mediana wysokości dochodów na gospodarstwo domowe w San Francisco wynosiła w 2005 roku 57 833 $, a na rodzinę 67 809 $, i była trzecią największą spośród dużych miast w kraju. Mieszkańcy plasujący się ze swoimi dochodami poniżej relatywnej granicy ubóstwa stanowią 7,7%, co jest wartością poniżej średniej krajowej i jedną z najniższych dla miast notowanych przez U.S. Census Bureau. Zgodnie z krajowym trendem, migracja poza miasto rodzin klasy średniej powiększa różnice pomiędzy dochodami mieszkańców, a także przyczynia się do obniżenia odsetku dzieci w strukturze ludnościowej. Dzieci stanowią 14,5% ludności miasta, co jest jednym z najniższych wskaźników spośród dużych miast Ameryki. +Bezdomność to chroniczna przypadłość miasta i kontrowersyjny problem począwszy od lat 80. XX wieku. Uważa się, że San Francisco ma jeden z najwyższych odsetków bezdomnych w stosunku do liczby mieszkańców spośród dużych miast amerykańskich. +W 2006 roku w San Francisco odnotowano 875 brutalnych przęstepstw (morderstwa, gwałty itp.) na 100 000 mieszkańców i 4 958 na 100 000 mieszkańców przestępstw przeciwko własności (kradzieże), co jest liczbą większą niż średnia krajowa. W roku 2008, podobnie jak i w 2007, w mieście zanotowano najwyższą od dekady liczbę zabójstw: 98. +Gospodarka. +Obecnie podstawą gospodarki San Francisco jest turystyka. Miasto wraz ze swoimi atrakcjami, spopularyzowane w sztuce i kulturze, stało się szeroko rozpoznawalne na świecie. San Francisco przyciąga czwartą co do wielkości liczbę turystów spośród wszystkich miast w Stanach Zjednoczonych z Pier 39 na Fisherman's Wharf, jako trzecią najpopularniejszą atrakcją turystyczną w kraju. W 2007 roku miasto odwiedziło ponad 16 milionów turystów, wprowadzając do jego gospodarki ponad 8,2 miliarda dolarów. San Francisco, ze swoim dużym zapleczem hotelowym oraz światowej klasy centrum konferencyjnym Moscone Center, jest także jednym spośród dziesięciu najpopularniejszych miejsc do organizowania konferencji i konwentów. +Na początku XX wieku miasto stało się głównym centrum bankowym i finansowym na Zachodnim Wybrzeżu. Montgomery Street w Financial District była znana jako „Wall Street Zachodu” ze znajdującymi się przy niej m.in.: Bankiem Rezerw Federalnych, główną siedzibą korporacji Wells Fargo, a także obecnie już nie działającą Pacific Coast Stock Exchange (Giełda Papierów Wartościowych Wybrzeża Pacyficznego). W San Francisco powstał także Bank of America, pionier usług dla klasy średniej, który na swoją siedzibę wybudował w 1960 roku nowoczesny budynek na 555 California Street. W mieście mają swoje siedziby lub oddziały także inne instytucje finansowe, banki i spółki venture capital, jak m.in.: Charles Schwab Corporation, Bank of the West, Union Bank of California, VISA czy United Commercial Bank. Z ponad trzydziestoma międzynarodowymi instytucjami finansowymi, sześcioma firmami z listy Fortune 500 i rozbudowaną infrastrukturą oraz profesjonalnym rynkiem usług w sektorach takich jak: prawo, public relations, architektura i projektowanie, San Francisco jest uważane za jedną z metropolii globalnych. Miasto w 2005 roku zajmowało piętnastą pozycję na świecie i ósmą w kraju na liście miast z najwyższym PKB. +Gospodarka San Francisco jest ściśle powiązana z sąsiednimi, jak np. od południa z San José i Doliną Krzemową, z którymi dzieli zapotrzebowanie na wykształconych pracowników oraz specjalistów. Samo miasto silnie wspiera przemysł biotechnologiczny oraz biomedyczny, będąc dużym ośrodkiem skupiającym przedsięwzięcia z tychże dziedzin. Mission Bay, w której powstał drugi kampus Uniwersytetu Kalifornijskiego San Francisco, stał się lokalnym centrum z niezbędną do badań infrastrukturą i budynkami. Mieści się tam także siedziba Kalifornijskiego Instytutu Medycyny Regeneracyjnej – agencji publicznej sponsorującej badania komórek macierzystych w stanie Kalifornia. +Małe przedsiębiorstwa zatrudniające mniej niż 10 pracowników oraz przedsięwzięcia jednoosobowe stanowiły w 2006 85% wszystkich firm, a liczba mieszkańców pracujących w przedsiębiorstwach zatrudniających więcej niż 1000 pracowników spadła od 1977 roku o połowę. Miasto świadomie ogranicza rozwój dużych sieci handlowych, hurtowni i hipermarketów w mieście. Rada Nadzorcza wykorzystała w tym celu plan zagospodarowania, by zawęzić tereny, na których dozwolona by była taka działalność gospodarcza, co spotkało się z poparciem mieszkańców. +Transport. +Drogi i autostrady. +Ze względu na szczególne ulokowanie geograficzne, wykluczające praktyczne funkcjonowanie obwodnic, a także na skutek nasilonych tu zwłaszcza pod koniec lat 50. protestów społecznych przeciwko szybkiemu rozwojowi sieci autostrad (tzw. "freeway revolts"), San Francisco jako jedno z nielicznych miast amerykańskich zamiast typowego dla Ameryki systemu autostrad (ang. "highways") przyjęło popularny w Europie system komunikacyjny oparty na sieci arterii drogowych. Tendencja ta uwidacznia się również w decyzjach podjętych po trzęsieniu ziemi Loma Prieta z roku 1989, kiedy to postanowiono zburzyć Embarcadero oraz część Central Freeway i przekształcić je w zwykłe drogi. +Lotniska. +Port lotniczy San Francisco (SFO) położony jest 21 km na południe od centrum miasta na terenie hrabstwa San Mateo, ale znajduje się pod jurysdykcją miasta i hrabstwa San Francisco. Bezpośrednio z lotniskiem graniczą także miasta Millbrae, San Bruno i South San Francisco. Lotnisko San Francisco jest portem międzynarodowym z największym terminalemodpraw międzynarodowych w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Lotnisko jest hubem lotniczym linii United Airlines, największego użytkownika portu. Także decyzja linii Virgin America, by operować z tego portu, odwróciła trend wśród tanich przewoźników, którzy do tej pory omijali SFO na rzecz Oakland czy San Jose. W 2007 roku port lotniczy San Francisco był pod względem liczby odprawionych pasażerów 10-tym najbardziej ruchliwym lotniskiem w Stanach Zjednoczonych, a 21-tym na świecie, odprawiając 37,2 miliona pasażerów. +Porty. +Struktury portu San Francisco rozciągają się wzdłuż północnego, północno-wschodniego i wschodniego wybrzeża miasta (zaczynając od kotwicowiska w pobliżu mostu Golden Gate na zachodzie, do Candlestick Point na wschodzie). W jego skład, oprócz budynków portowych, terminalu promowego, magazynów, wchodzi kilkanaście prostopadłych do brzegu pirsów do których cumowały statki, następnie rozładowywane lub załadowywane (ręcznie lub za pomocą dźwigów), i z których towary były wysyłane do magazynów na lądzie. Obecnie port nie jest wykorzystywany na potrzeby ruchu towarowego, ale dalej obsługuje on ruch promowy oraz innych małych statków pasażerskich. Część struktur portu stanowi atrakcję turystyczną (Fisherman's Wharf, Pirs 39, Pirs 70, Ferry Building). W porcie są także zakotwiczone okręty-muzea: USS Pampanito i SS Jeremiah O'Brien. Organizacyjnie port jest pół-autonomiczną jednostką zarządzaną przez pięcioosobową komisję wybieraną przez burmistrza i zatwierdzaną przez Radę Nadzorczą San Francisco. +Port San Francisco był swojego czasu największym i najbardziej ruchliwym portem na Zachodnim Wybrzeżu Stanów Zjednoczonych. Obsługiwał ruch towarowy z Pacyfiku, jak i Atlantyku i był centrum handlu drzewem na Zachodnim Wybrzeżu. +Oświata i nauka. +Uczelnie. +Największa uczelnia w mieście – Uniwersytet Kalifornijski w San Francisco jest częścią systemu Uniwersytetu Kalifornijskiego. Jego specjalizacją naukową, jak i dydaktyczną, jest medycyna oraz nauki biomedyczne i pokrewne. UCSF jest jedną z pięciu najlepszych uczelni medycznych w Stanach Zjednocznonych, a także zarządza centrum medycznym UCSF Medical Center, które jest jednym z 10 najlepszych szpitali w kraju. UCSF jest także jednym z głównych pracodawców w mieście, ustępując jedynie administracji miejskiej i hrabstwa. Jednostki uczelni są skupione w większości w dwóch kampusach: starszym, zlokalizowanym na Wzgórzach Parnassus, gdzie znajdują się głównie kliniki i nowym, otwartym w 2003 roku w Mission Bay. Kampus w Mission Bay o powierzchni ponad 17 ha jest przeznaczony do prowadzenia działalności naukowej i po ukończeniu pozwoli na podwojenie liczby placówek badawczych uniwersytetu. +Najstarszym uniwersytetem w mieście, a także jednym z najstarszych na zachód od Mississippi, jest założony w 1855 roku Uniwersytet San Francisco. Jest to jezuicka szkoła prywatna. Mieści się ona na Lone Mountain – jednym ze wzgórz w mieście. +University of California, Hastings College of the Law to uniwersytet prawniczy, założony w części miasta zwanej Civic Center w 1878 roku. Jest to najstarsza szkoła prawnicza w Kalifornii, z której wywodzi się więcej sędziów stanowych niż z jakiejkolwiek innej. +Uniwersytet Stanowy San Francisco to część systemu Kalifornijskiego Uniwersytetu Stanowego. Mieści się on niedaleko Jeziora Merced i kształci blisko 30 000 studentów na ponad 100 kierunkach. +College Miejski San Francisco, kształcący około 100 000 studentów, to z kolei jeden z największych community college w kraju. +Uczelnie artystyczne to m.in. San Francisco Art Institute, Academy of Art University i filia zlokalizowanego w Oakland California College of the Arts. San Francisco Conservatory of Music to z kolei jedyna szkoła muzyczna tego typu na zachodnim wybrzeżu Stanów Zjednoczonych, kształcąca w muzyce orkiestrowej i kameralnej, kompozycji oraz dyrygenturze. +W mieście działa także wyższa szkoła kulinarna: California Culinary Academy, która zrzeszona w programie Le Cordon Bleu, oferuje kursy sztuki kulinarnej, piekarnictwa i ciastkarstwa oraz zarządzania lokalami gastronomicznymi. +Szkoły podstawowe i średnie. +Szkoły publiczne, podstawowe i średnie, są zarządzane przez San Francisco Unified School District, a w przypadku niektórych szkół społecznych przez Stanową Komisję Edukacji (ang. "State Board of Education"). W San Francisco znajduje się najstarsza na zachód od Mississippi publiczna szkoła średnia Lowell High School oraz School of the Arts High School, które są dwiema miejskimi szkołami średnimi ze specjalnym programem nauczania (profilowanymi). +Do 100 szkół publicznych lub parafialnych w mieście uczęszcza prawie 30% populacji w wieku szkolnym (w porównaniu do 10% w skali kraju). Prawie 40% tych szkół to szkoły katolickie zarządzane przez Archidiecezję San Francisco. +Kultura. +Sport. +Swoją siedzibę w San Francisco ma występująca w lidze NFL drużyna 49ers. Początkowo grali w All-America Football Conference, jednak w 1950 roku awansowali do NFL, a na obecnym stadionie Candlestick Park, rozgrywają swoje mecze dopiero od 1971 roku. Podczas występów w NFL, 49ers zgromadzili na swoim koncie 5 tytułów Super Bowl. +San Francisco ma swojego reprezentanta w Major League Baseball, którym jest zespół Giants. Do Kalifornii drużyna trafiła w 1958 roku z Nowego Jorku. W 1989 roku zespół dotarł do finału ligi MLB, jednak po 3. meczu miasto nawiedziło trzęsienie ziemi. W 2000 roku Giants zaczęli grać na słynnym AT&T Park, który jest ich siedzibą również obecnie. Na Kezar Stadium swoje mecze rozgrywa San Francisco Bay Seals, który także występuje w lidze United Soccer League. +Miasto jest także reprezentowane w rozgrywkach akademickich przez Uniwersytet San Francisco, który posiada drużynę w NCAA Division I. Jednym ze studentów, a także zawodnikiem drużyny był Bill Russel, który wraz z drużyną koszykarską zdobył mistrzostwo Stanów Zjednoczonych w 1955 i 1956 roku. +Organizowany jest tu także San Francisco Marathon, który corocznie przyciąga około 7 000 uczestników. Co roku rozgrywane są tu także zawody w golfie z cyklu PGA Tour. +Herb Radomska + +Herb Radomska przedstawia w polu błękitnym czerwoną bramę miejską z trzema wieżami, w niej rycerz kroczący (w prawo) z wzniesionym nad głową mieczem i owalną tarczą w ręce. Całość w ozdobnym kartuszu. Herb posiada klejnot: nad pięciopałkową koroną złotą, trzy wieże jak w godle, lecz bez otworów w dolnej kondygnacji. Każda z wież zakończona strusim piórem białym. +Szczegóły herbu. +Mur wokół bramy z zaznaczonym wątkiem ceglanym, prosto zakończony w połowie wysokości pola. Otwór bramy prostokątny, zamknięty łukiem odcinkowym. Nad murem z bramą trzy wieże (bez zaznaczonego wątku). Środkowa wieża większa od bocznych. Wieże dwukondygnacyjne zwieńczone trójzębnym krenelażem. W dolnej kondygnacji wież jeden prostokątny otwór, w górnej po dwa prostokątne otwory. W bramie krocząca postać rycerza, skierowana w prawo, barwy granatowej. W lewej ręce mała, owalna tarcza, która osłania środkową część ciała. W prawej ręce miecz wzniesiony nad głową. Prawa noga w wykroku. Na głowie ukazanej z profilu hełm bez ozdób. Pod stopami rycerza grunt żółty, wznoszący się w prawo. +Historia herbu. +Uchwalona Uchwałą nr IX/75/03 Rady Miejskiej w Radomsku w dniu 27 czerwca 2003 roku. +Planowana jest zmiana herbu Radomska, ponieważ obecny nie spełnia warunków związanych z historią miasta. Nowym herbem miałaby być tarcza z literami "K" bądź "R". "K" - od zjazdów królewskich, które odbywały się w Radomsku, "R" - od pierwszej litery nazwy miasta. +Częstotliwość Nyquista + +Częstotliwość Nyquista jest to maksymalna częstotliwość składowych widmowych sygnału poddawanego procesowi próbkowania, które mogą zostać odtworzone z ciągu próbek bez zniekształceń. Składowe widmowe o częstotliwościach wyższych od częstotliwości Nyquista ulegają podczas próbkowania nałożeniu na składowe o innych częstotliwościach (zjawisko aliasingu), co powoduje, że nie można ich już poprawnie odtworzyć. +Zgodnie z twierdzeniem Kotielnikowa-Shannona, przy próbkowaniu równomiernym z odstępem próbkowania formula_1, warunkiem odtworzenia sygnału jest aby jego szerokość pasma formula_2 była ściśle ograniczona formula_3, lub aby maksymalna częstotliwość sygnału nie przekraczała połowy częstotliwości próbkowania, formula_4, lub formula_5. +Inaczej mówiąc, częstotliwość Nyquista jest równa połowie częstotliwości próbkowania, +formula_6 albo formula_7. +Przykładowo dla częstotliwości próbkowania 44,1 kHz stosowanej na płytach CD częstotliwość Nyquista wynosi 22,05 kHz. Jeśli w sygnale analogowym obecne są składowe o częstotliwości wyższej od częstotliwości Nyquista, spowoduje to powstanie błędów próbkowania (aliasing). Jednak ucho ludzkie nie słyszy częstotliwości wyższych niż 22 kHz, dlatego te składowe sygnału są wycinane przed próbkowaniem poprzez zastosowanie filtru dolnoprzepustowego. +Choć w teorii częstotliwość Nyquista wyznacza górną granicę pasma, które można prawidłowo zapisać przy zastosowaniu określonej częstotliwości próbkowania, to w praktycznie wykorzystywanych systemach granica ta jest nieco niższa od częstotliwości Nyquista. Jest to spowodowane ograniczoną stromością zboczy filtrów. Pomiędzy częstotliwością Nyquista a górnym skrajem pasma musi być pewien przedział częstotliwości, w którym będzie mieścić się zbocze filtru. +Zobacz też. +Harry Nyquist +TV4 (Polska) + +Czwórka (TV4) – stacja należąca formalnie do holdingu Polskie Media Andrzeja Kuchara (od 17 listopada 2011 w 100% należy do Telewizji Polsat). +Historia. +Stacja powstała 1 kwietnia 2000 w wyniku fuzji Naszej TV (1998-2000) i Polsatu 2 w pierwotnej formie (1997-2000) – kodowana od 20 września 2005 na satelicie. Dostępna naziemnie (analogowo w 24 miastach Polski – samodzielnie lub na zachodzie kraju retransmitowana przez TV Odra, cyfrowo w MUX-2 DVB-T), a także na platformie Cyfrowy Polsat, CYFRA+ oraz platformie cyfrowej N. Do 27 kwietnia 2005 stacja nadawała analogowo na satelicie Hot Bird. +Emituje głównie filmy i seriale, ale także programy rozrywkowe, kulturalne oraz programy interaktywne. +Program od marca 2007 do pierwszej połowy 2011 był nadawany całodobowo. Dziś program TV4 rozpoczyna się między 05:05 a 06:40 a kończy się między 02:00 a 04:30. +1 marca 2012 TV4 przeszło na nadawanie w formacie 16:9 z sygnałem WSS. +Transmisje sportowe. +Na antenie TV4 transmitowane są mecze siatkarskiej Plus Ligi mężczyzn i kobiet, PGNiG Superligi Mężczyzn w piłce ręcznej, Ligi Mistrzów piłkarzy ręcznych EHF oraz Ligi Europejskiej UEFA w piłce nożnej. "Czwórka" pokazuje również relacje z Rajdowych Samochodowych Mistrzostw Świata WRC, a także transmituje wyścigi Porsche Supercup. Dawniej TV4 transmitowało relacje z wyścigów Formuły 1. +Big Brother. +Na TV4 były emitowane edycje Big Brother 4.1(2007) i Big Brother 5(2008). W przeciwieństwie do edycji emitowanych w TVN były one mniej popularne i zaprzestano emisji tego reality show. +Dziennik. +Od początku istnienia stacji TV4 emitowała swój program informacyjny Dziennik. Był on emitowany codziennie o godz. 17:45. W maju 2003 roku odświeżono formułę programu, zlikwidowane zostały krótkie wydanie fleszowe. Prowadzącymi zostali Hanna Lis, Diana Rudnik, Iwona Kutyna i Artur Kaczmarski, a program został przeniesiony na godzinę 21:00. W październiku 2003 roku Hanna Lis opuściła TV4 i przeszła do telewizji Polsat. W październiku 2004 roku Dziennik zniknął z wizji i został zastąpiony nowym programem informacyjnym o nazwie Wydarzenia TV4. Jednak na początku kwietnia 2006 roku także Wydarzenia TV4 zniknęły z wizji, a redakcja została rozwiązana i od tego momentu TV4 nie posiada własnego programu informacyjnego. +Nonius + +[[Plik:Hungarianhorse.jpg|300px|thumb|Węgierski koń rasy nonius - litografia z książki "Paardenrassen Kunstalbum" ("Rasy koni - album sztuki") +Otto Eerelman, 1898 r.]] +Charakterystyka, pokrój, eksterier, temperament. +Nonius to koń o szyi dość wysoko osadzonej. U koni w ciężkim typie często duża głowa o garbonosym profilu. Dwa typy: lżejszy i cięższy. Pierwsze, kościste, są przeznaczone do prac gospodarczych i zaprzęgu, drugie, szlachetniejsze, do jeździectwa. Konie obydwu typów są zwykle kare lub ciemnogniade. Białe odmiany niepożądane. +Historia, pochodzenie. +Noniusy zawdzięczają nazwę swemu protoplaście - urodzonemu w Normandii ogierowi Noniusz, wychowanemu w stadzie Deux Ponts (Zweinbrucken), którego zdobyli węgierscy kawalerzyści w 1814 r. Noniusz pochodził od klaczy normandzkiej po ogierze półkrwi angielskiej Orionie. Kojarzony z klaczami węgierskimi, arabskimi, lipicańskimi i andaluzyjskimi dał żywotne, mocne konie, chętne do pracy, +nadające się do różnych kierunków użytkowania. +Rusyfikacja na ziemiach polskich + +Rusyfikacja na ziemiach polskich – proces, szczególnie nasilony w okresie zaborów, w którym państwo rosyjskie dążyło do wynarodowienia Polaków poprzez stopniowe narzucanie języka, kultury, sztuki, religii prawosławnej i zwyczajów rosyjskich. +Silnej rusyfikacji poddano dzieci, ze względu na ich ubogą jeszcze znajomość kultury i języka polskiego. +Historia. +Samowola wielkiego księcia Konstantego oraz łamanie Konstytucji Królestwa Polskiego przyczyniły się do powstawania tajnych związków, a następnie do wybuchu powstania listopadowego (1830-1831). Gwałtowne zaostrzenie rusyfikacji nastąpiło po upadku wcześniej wspomnianego powstania co doprowadziło do zniesienia konstytucji z 1815 roku (która zapewniała Królestwu Polskiemu odrębność państwową), w 1832 wprowadzono Statut Organiczny Królestwa Polskiego, zlikwidowano Sejm i odrębne wojsko polskie, wprowadzono rosyjskie instytucje i rosyjskie prawo, konfiskowano uczestnikom powstania majątki ziemskie. +W 1833 roku wprowadzono stan wojenny. O wszystkim decydowali rosyjscy naczelnicy wojskowi oraz namiestnik rosyjski Iwan Paskiewicz. Zachowana Rada Stanu do 1914 roku składała się w większości z Rosjan. Stopniowo różne dziedziny życia podporządkowano kierownictwu centralnemu w Petersburgu. Zlikwidowano Uniwersytet Wileński, Liceum Krzemienieckie i inne polskie gimnazja. +W 1841 wprowadzono rosyjski system monetarny, a w 1847 rosyjski kodeks. Kolejnym posunięciem rusyfikacyjnym było zlikwidowanie od 1856 armii polskiej i poddanie Królestwa Polskiego pod władzę namiestnika carskiego Iwana Paskiewicza. W 1837 polskie województwa poprzednio występujące jako jednostki administracyjne Królestwa Kongresowego nazwano guberniami na wzór nazewnictwa w Imperium Rosyjskim. +Ponowne zaostrzenie rusyfikacji nastąpiło po upadku powstania styczniowego: wprowadzono ciągły stan wojenny, zrusyfikowano administrację i szkolnictwo, zlikwidowano Kościół unicki - 24 stycznia 1874 rosyjscy żołnierze zabili 13 unitów w Pratulinie. Wysiedlano i wywłaszczano Polaków. Początkowo rozpoczęto przekształcanie nazw polskich miast na rosyjskie, w 1869 została zamknięta Szkoła Główna Warszawska, na której miejscu utworzono uniwersytet z wykładowym językiem rosyjskim. W roku 1869 zlikwidowano także Puławski Instytut Politechniczny, powołując w jego miejsce Instytut Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego i Leśnictwa z wykładowym językiem rosyjskim. W 1869 nastąpiło dodatkowo zamknięcie wszystkich szkół powiatowych. Stopniowo, w latach 1869-1885, następowało całkowite wypieranie języka polskiego z systemu szkolnictwa, zakończone w 1885 sprowadzeniem go do roli języka dodatkowego i nieobowiązkowego. +Budżet Królestwa włączono do ogólnego budżetu Cesarstwa Rosyjskiego. Od 1874 roku urząd namiestnika zastąpiono stanowiskiem generała–gubernatora, który był zarazem dowódcą warszawskiego okręgu wojskowego obejmującego cały obszar Królestwa Polskiego. +Symbolem ówczesnych represji stał się rosyjski kurator okręgu warszawskiego Aleksandr Apuchtin, który wprowadził do miejsc nauczania m.in. system donosów i szpiclowania uczniów, który stał się podstawą systemu policyjnego w szkołach. Także od 1869 język rosyjski stał się jedynym oficjalnym w sądownictwie i administracji. W 1875 dotychczasowa polska procedura sądowa została zniesiona na rzecz rosyjskiej, a w 1885 Bank Polski został zastąpiony przez kantor Rosyjskiego Banku Państwa. +Bardziej radykalne metody rusyfikacyjne zastosowano na ziemiach I Rzeczypospolitej zajętej przez Imperium Rosyjskie po rozbiorach i wcielonych bezpośrednio do państwa rosyjskiego. Zamknięto Uniwersytet Wileński i Liceum Krzemienieckie, jako karę za udział jej studentów i uczonych w powstaniu listopadowym. Ukazem cara Mikołaja I w latach 1832-1834 z terenów Wołynia i Podola zostało wysiedlonych w głąb Rosji kilkanaście tysięcy polskich rodzin. W 1839 zlikwidowano Kościół unicki, a jego księży i wiernych zmuszano do przejścia na prawosławie. Stosowano ograniczenia i restrykcje w stosunku do kościoła rzymskokatolickiego, konfiskując masowo jego majątki jako karę za popieranie powstania styczniowego. Konfiskaty majątków stosowano także wobec uczestników powstania i właścicieli majątków ziemskich, na których także nakładano specjalne podatki. Wprowadzono także zakaz nabywania ziemi przez Polaków. Zlikwidowano całkowicie polskie teatry, czasopisma, szkoły i stowarzyszenia. Podobne metody stosowano wówczas nie tylko wobec Polaków, ale w stosunku do innych nierosyjskich narodów Imperium Rosyjskiego - w zależności jednak od lokalnej sytuacji, z różnym nasileniem. +Do czasu pierwszej wojny światowej obowiązywały w Królestwie prawa wyjątkowe, na mocy których generał-gubernator mógł oddać pod sąd wojenny osoby cywilne lub zsyłać w głąb Rosji Polaków "politycznie podejrzanych" bez postępowania sądowego. Szkolnictwo stopniowo rusyfikowano. Jedyną polską uczelnie akademicką w Królestwie, Szkołę Główną Warszawską założoną w 1862, w 1869 roku przekształcono w rosyjski Uniwersytet Cesarski. W szkołach średnich wprowadzono język rosyjski jako język wykładowy, zachowując nadobowiązkową naukę języka polskiego, ale w języku rosyjskim. Tylko religii uczono po polsku. Wprowadzono podręczniki do historii autorstwa Dmitrija Iłowajskiego, które fałszując historię Polski, stawały się środkiem rusyfikacji. Także w szkołach ludowych wprowadzono naukę w języku rosyjskim. Ostatecznie zabraniano w szkołach nawet rozmawiać po polsku. Myślano również, aby w języku polskim wprowadzić alfabet rosyjski (→ polska cyrylica). Najsilniejsze tendencje rusyfikacyjne wystąpiły na Litwie, Białorusi i Ukrainie, gdzie rusyfikacja skierowana była przeciwko Polakom, ale również przeciwko innym narodom. +Skrwa + +Skrwa (Skrwa Prawa, Skrwa Północna, Płosznica) - polska rzeka płynąca po Pojezierzu Chełmińsko - Dobrzyńskim. Prawy dopływ Wisły, o długości 114 km. Źródło rzeki znajduje się w powiecie żuromińskim w okolicach wsi Płociczno. Powierzchnia dopływów wynosi 1704 km². W górnym biegu meandruje w podmokłej dolinie, przepływa przez lasy nieopodal Sierpca, przez jezioro Skrwilno. Przed ujściem do Wisły wcina się w głęboką dolinę Wysoczyzny Płockiej i Brudzeńskim Parku Krajobrazowym lejkowato uchodzi do Jeziora Włocławskiego. +Wzdłuż rzeki biegnie szlak turystyczny im. Bolesława Krzywoustego. +Skrwa wyznacza granicę między historycznymi ziemiami: Mazowszem i Ziemią dobrzyńską. Jej bieg pokrywa się również po części z aktualną granicą pomiędzy województwami: mazowieckim i kujawsko-pomorskim. +Tower Bridge + +Tower Bridge ("Most Wieżowy") – most zwodzony w Londynie (mylony niekiedy z sąsiednim mostem Londyńskim "London Bridge", przeprowadzony przez Tamizę, w pobliżu Tower of London, od której bierze swą nazwę). Jeden z najbardziej znanych obiektów w Londynie, zbudowany w stylu wiktoriańskim. Jego historia zaczęła się w roku 1872, kiedy to parlament angielski rozpatrzył projekt ustawy dotyczącej budowy drugiego mostu nad Tamizą. Mimo zastrzeżeń zgłaszanych przez zarząd zamku Tower of London ustawa została uchwalona. Postawiono jednak warunek, który został spełniony, styl mostu miał harmonizować ze stylem zamku. Architektem jego był Horace Jones, który zastosował modną podówczas konstrukcję: stalowy szkielet obłożony kamieniem w stylu neogotyckim. Most został ukończony w 1894. Jest mostem zwodzonym, umożliwiającym przepływanie statków oceanicznych do około 40,5 m wysokości powyżej poziomu wody. Przez pierwsze lata był otwierany nawet 6000 razy rocznie, teraz jedynie 1000 razy na rok. +Charakterystycznym elementem mostu są dwie wieże główne, połączone u góry dwoma pomostami - kładkami dla pieszych, zawieszonymi 34 m nad jezdnią i przeszło 44 m nad oznaczeniem górnego poziomu w rzece. Środkową część mostu stanowią dwa podnoszone przęsła - urządzenia dźwigowe z przeciwciężarem. Są to dwa gigantyczne skrzydła, każde o wadze 1 200 ton, uniesione w górze, tworzą z płaszczyzną jezdni kąt 86 stopni. Obecna kolorystyka mostu istnieje od 1977 roku. Wtedy, w 25 rocznicę koronowania królowej Elżbiety II przemalowano go na kolory: niebieski, biały i czerwony. Pierwotnie most miał kolory w tonacji beżowej. +Tower Bridge przecina Tamizę na wschodnim końcu Londynu. Od początku swojego istnienia uznawany był za arcydzieło ówczesnej inżynierii. Porównywano go ze słynną już wieżą Eiffla, zbudowaną pięć lat wcześniej. Potężny, ważący ponad 2000 ton, napędzany parą mechanizm mostu, regulował otwarcie jego środkowej części. Umożliwiał swobodne przepływanie wielkich statków. Stary mechanizm mostu obecnie nie jest już używany. Zastąpiono go nowoczesnym elektrycznym urządzeniem. Nocą most jest oświetlony i widać z niego London Eye oraz budynki, które są budowane w różnych kształtach np. cygara. +Jest jednym z najchętniej odwiedzanych zabytków zaraz po Big Benie. +Ignacy Jan Drygas + +Ignacy Jan Drygas (ur. 1841, zm. ?) – powstaniec styczniowy, autor pamiętnika. +Parobek ze wsi Zimna Woda w powiecie krotoszyńskim w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim. W 1862 roku mając 21 lat został powołany do służby w wojsku pruskim do pułku dragonów. Po wybuchu powstania styczniowego ucieka z wojska pruskiego i przedostaje się do Kongresówki, aby przyłączyć się do powstania. +Little India + +Little India - jedna z dzielnic kanadyjskiego miasta Toronto, zamieszkana głównie przez indyjską mniejszość narodową, położona w okolicach Gerrard St. East i Coxwell. +Według szacunków, w Toronto mieszka ponad 350.000 imigrantów z Indii. Razem z Hindusami, którzy przybyli z innych krajów, przybyłych z południowej Azji jest około pół miliona (wliczając Tamili, Pakistańczyków, oraz mieszkańców Punjabu i Sri Lanki). +Kultura i atmosfera dzielnicy zdominowana jest przez imigrantów. Na ulicach spotkać można riksze oraz Hinduski ubrane w tradycyjne sari. W dzielnicy znajduje się hinduski dom towarowy "Milan Department Store" oraz duża liczba sklepów i restauracji oferujących indyjskie wyroby oraz kulinaria. +Hindusi kultywują swoje tradycje także w Toronto. "Hindu Rathayatra Festival of Chariots" to dwudniowe święto poświęcone Krysznie (15 czerwca). Hindusi śpiewają, tańczą i modlą się, gdy podczas obchodów wielometrowe posągi Kryszny, Baladevy i Subhadra są wożone na odświętnie przybranych rydwanach. Jest to święto upamiętniające powrót Kryszny i zwycięstwo nad złymi demonami. Procesja odbywa się w centrum miasta i podąża od Bloor St. w dół Yonge aż do jeziora, by potem przenieść się na wyspy. Są to jedne z największych tego typu obchodów na świecie poza Indiami, rokrocznie bierze w nich udział ponad 25.000 osób. +Wcześniej, w maju, odbywa się święto "Rathotsavam". Wtedy wielki rzeźbiony w drewnie rydwan bóstwa Ganesh, o wysokości 10 m i wadze 3 ton, ciągnięty jest przez parę tysięcy wiernych wokół świątyni w Richmond Hill (Bayview Ave. / Elgin Mills Rd). "Diwali" to święto światła i przywitanie hinduskiego nowego roku (w październiku). Z tej okazji odbywa się barwny pochód, którego głównym elementem jest odświętnie ubrany słoń, ozdobiony złotem i cennymi kamieniami. Z kolei w kwietniu Sikhowie obchodzą swoje święto "Baisakhi". +Innym znaczącym świętem jest "India Day", czyli dzień uzyskania niepodległości (15 sierpnia). W tym dniu dziesiątki tysięcy Hindusów, mieszkańców Toronto i turystów uczestniczą w paradzie, która wyrusza spod Parlamentu i przez University Ave. dociera do jeziora, gdzie odbywają się degustacje kuchni hinduskiej z różnych rejonów Indii oraz występy artystyczne. W paradzie biorą udział Sikhowie z turbanami na głowie, dziesiątki platform przedstawiających życie w Indiach, jak i kojarzone z Indiami słonie. +Polen-rundschau + +Polen-rundschau - niemieckojęzyczny miesięcznik, ukazujący się od kwietnia 2004 r. w Warszawie. Jest on pierwszą niemieckojęzyczną gazetą na cały kraj od czasów II wojny światowej. +Zwraca się przede wszystkim do Niemców żyjących w Polsce i do Polaków władających językiem niemieckim i zainteresowanych sprawami niemiecko-polskimi. Tematycznie, zajmuje się wszystkimi ważnymi aspektami życia, jak polityka, gospodarka, kultura, wydarzenia itp. Propaguje pojednanie polsko-niemieckie. +W kwietniu 2006 czasopismo zostało sprzedane za pośrednictwem eBay anonimowemu nabywcy z Niemiec. Od tego czasu było drukowane w drukarni Lausitzer Rundschau. Redakcja nadal pozostała w Warszawie. +W marcu 2008 czasopismo ukazało się po raz ostatni w postaci drukowanej. Obecnie wydawane jest wyłącznie w wersji elektronicznej. Cena prenumeraty została w związku z tym obniżona. +Turkmeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Turkmeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Turkmenia (ros. "Туркменская Советская Социалистическая Республика", turkm. "Түркменистан Совет Социалистик Республикасы") – jedna z byłych republik nieistniejącego dziś Związku Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich. 7 sierpnia 1921 została włączona do ZSRR jako obwód turkmeński w Turkiestańskiej ASRR, 13 maja 1925 została jedną z republik jako Turkmeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka. 27 października 1991 r. uzyskała niepodległość jako Turkmenistan. Stolicą był Aszchabad. +Furioso + +Furioso – rasa koni półkrwi, wyhodowana metodą selekcji w stadninie Mezohegyes na Węgrzech, gdzie znajdowały się klacze pochodzące od konia pełnej krwi angielskiej oraz klacze czystej krwi arabskiej. Były one stanowione słynnym ogierem pełnej krwi "Furioso". Został on wyhodowany ok. 1836 roku w węgierskiej stadninie hrabiego Karolyi. +""Furioso łączony był w Mezohegyes z klaczami półkrwi angielskiej oraz arabskiej i dał z nimi doskonałe potomstwo: rosłe, kościste i prawidłowo zbudowane. Pozostawił po sobie 95 synów i 81 córek. Pięciu z synów czynnych było jako ogiery czołowe w Mezohegyes, a trzech w Radowcach"". +Pokrój. +Furioso to majestatyczny koń, mierzący około 160 cm w kłębie. Dopuszczalne są prawie wszystkie maści, a najczęściej spotykane to kare, skarogniade i gniade. Głowa średniej wielkości, szlachetna, z dłuższymi uszami. Kłąb jest dobrze zaznaczony, łopatki i kończyny są zdrowe i mocne. Wpływ przodków koni karetowych przejawia się w ściętym, choć dobrze umięśnionym zadzie. Kończyny, choć mocne i suche, nie są tak dobrze ukształtowane jak u bardzo szybkich koni; pęciny są pochyłe. Kopyta o twardym rogu. Klatka piersiowa szeroka i głęboka, kłoda długa, grzbiet mocny. Konie te są wytrzymałe w pracy. +Wykorzystanie. +Podobnie jak wiele koni wierzchowych, furioso wykorzystywany był przede wszystkim w armii austro-węgierskiej. Jest to koń wszechstronny, w typie huntera (konia do polowań). Bardzo inteligentny, łatwy do powodowania. Pod siodłem doskonale spełnia swoją rolę zarówno jako koń spacerowy, w trudnych rajdach, jak i w steeple-chase, nadaje się także do zawodów cross-country i jazdy rekreacyjnej. Chociaż jego chody nie są idealne, jest dobrym skoczkiem, dość dobrym w ujeżdżeniu, wywierającym wrażenie elegancji. +Hodowla. +W roku 1885 populację koni furioso połączono z linią wytrzymałych koni kawaleryjskich pochodzących od reproduktora pełnej krwi "North-Star", który przybył do Mezohegyes z Anglii w roku 1852. Z biegiem czasu linia north-star straciła na znaczeniu, a populację furioso krzyżowano z reproduktorami niemieckimi dla uzyskania nowoczesnego konia sportowego. +Furioso w Polsce. +Furioso był szeroko wykorzystywany w stadach hodowlanych, zwłaszcza w Europie Wschodniej i przyczynił się do uszlachetnienia wielu wartościowych ras. Przykładem jest polska linia koni "Furioso-Przedświt" hodowana m.in. w Stadninie Koni Kalników (Małopolska). ""Polskie furioso są mniejsze od węgierskich i bardziej szlachetne. Najlepiej łączą się one z north-starami, przedświtami, końmi pełnej krwi angielskiej"". Furioso na terenach Małopolski obecne są od lat 80. XIX wieku, a od roku 1918 zaczęły występować także w innych częściach kraju. W latach 90. XX wieku polska hodowla zaczęła z powodzeniem zmierzać w stronę uzyskania koni sportowych, głównie do skoków. +Ukraińska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Ukraińska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Ukraińska SRR, Ukraina (ros. Украинская Советская Социалистическая Республика, "Ukrainskaja Sowietskaja Socyalisticzeskaja Riespublika", ukr. Українська Радянська Соціалістична Республіка, "Ukrajinśka Radianśka Socialistyczna Respublika") – w latach 1919-1922 państwo marionetkowe zależne od RFSRR, od 1922 republika związkowa ZSRR. +Ukraińska SRR była członkiem założycielem Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych i członkiem większości organizacji wyspecjalizowanych ONZ; obok Białoruskiej SRR i Rosyjskiej FSRR była jedną z trzech republik radzieckich będących podmiotem prawa międzynarodowego. +Historia. +Powstanie. +Ukraińska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka powstała w wyniku rewolucji październikowej w 1917. Bolszewicy próbowali przejąć władzę w Kijowie równolegle do przewrotu w Piotrogrodzie, zostało to jednak uniemożliwione przez oddziały lojalne wobec Ukraińskiej Centralnej Rady, która 20 listopada 1917 proklamowała niepodległość Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej. W konsekwencji 24-25 grudnia 1917 roku w Charkowie bolszewicy stworzyli marionetkową Ukraińską Ludową Republikę Rad (nazwa podobna do Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej). Oddziały bolszewików 8 lutego 1918 roku zajęły Kijów. Po traktacie brzeskim terytorium Ukrainy znalazło się pod okupacją wojsk niemieckich i austro-węgierskich, zaś RFSRR była zmuszona uznać niepodległość Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej i 12 czerwca 1918 zawrzeć z Państwem Ukraińskim (Hetmanatem) zawieszenie broni, preliminaryjne do traktatu pokojowego. W latach 1918-1920 Kijów znajdował się kolejno we władaniu Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej, Hetmanatu, ponownie URL, bolszewików, Armii Ochotniczej gen.Antona Denikina, ponownie URL, bolszewików, władz URL sprzymierzonych z Polską, by od czerwca 1920 ostatecznie znaleźć się pod administracją sowiecką. 5-12 lipca 1918 roku utworzono ukraiński oddział RKP(b)- KPU(b). +Po kapitulacji Niemiec na froncie zachodnim (11 listopada 1918) rząd bolszewicki uznał traktat brzeski za niebyły i równolegle do wycofywania się wojsk niemieckich z tzw. Ober-Ostu rozpoczął zajmowanie opuszczanych przez Niemców terytoriów siłami Armii Czerwonej i proklamowanie w tym celu marionetkowych republik radzieckich. 30 listopada 1918 w Moskwie utworzony został w celu zamaskowania agresji Rosji Sowieckiej przeciw Ukraińskiej Republice Ludowej Tymczasowy Robotniczo-Chłopski Rząd Ukrainy na czele z Jurijem Piatakowem. +3 stycznia 1919 r. Armia Czerwona zajęła Charków, który stał się pierwszą siedzibą rządu i stolicą Ukraińskiej SRR. 25 stycznia 1919 Rząd Tymczasowy uchwalił połączenie Ukrainy z Rosją na zasadach "radzieckiej federacji", a 29 stycznia został przemianowany na Radę Komisarzy Ludowych USRR. 10 marca 1919 roku uchwalono konstytucję USRR. Jej stolicą został Charków. USRR brała udział w negocjacjach pokojowych z Polską prowadzonych w Mińsku i Rydze w 1920 roku. W wyniku traktatu ryskiego rząd Polski uznał USRR za jedynego reprezentanta ludności ukraińskiej, tym samym przekreślając wcześniejsze sojusznicze zobowiązania wobec URL, mimo iż nie zostały one faktycznie nigdy ratyfikowane przez parlament polski. Żołnierze armii URL zostali internowani, nadal natomiast istniał i funkcjonował rząd Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej na emigracji. +Funkcjonowanie kraju. +USRR stanowiła do grudnia 1922 formalnie niezależne państwo, bez własnej armii, posiadające jednak własny komisariat spraw zagranicznych i służbę dyplomatyczną. W grudniu 1922 po utworzeniu Związku Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich stała się republiką związkową ZSRR (największą po RFSRR). Na czele USRR stali w początku lat dwudziestych Stanisław Kosior, Emanuel Kwiring (sekretarze KP(b)U) oraz Chrystian Rakowski (przewodniczący Rady Komisarzy Ludowych), Mykoła Skrypnyk (komisarz oświaty), którzy prowadzili politykę ukrainizacji w szkolnictwie i administracji. W latach 30. zostali oni zamordowani na rozkaz Stalina (Skrypnyk popełnił samobójstwo) pod zarzutem "burżuazyjnego nacjonalizmu". Później władzami Ukrainy kierowali posłuszni wykonawcy poleceń Stalina: Łazar Kaganowicz, Stanisław Kosior oraz Nikita Chruszczow. +Poza czystkę polityczną USRR wstrząsnęła w latach trzydziestych sztucznie wywołana przez Stalina klęska głodu po rozpoczęciu kolektywizacji. Oblicza się, że zginęło wówczas ok. 5 mln obywateli republiki (choć te dane są trudno weryfikowalne). Rozprawiono się również z duchownymi oraz przedstawicielami mniejszości narodowych, szczególnie Polakami. Zlikwidowano polski obwód autonomiczny na Wołyniu (tzw. Marchlewszczyzna), mniejszość polską masowo mordowano i zsyłano w głąb Rosji. Represje dotknęły także polskich komunistów przebywających na obszarze państwa (m.in. Tomasza Dąbala). Począwszy od 1930 przez całe lata trzydzieste OGPU a następnie NKWD prowadziło na terenie USRR masowy terror policyjny, którego ofiarami padli także ukraińscy intelektualiści, a następnie działaczom ukraińskiej partii komunistycznej (sekcji WKP(b)). +W 1934 roku stolicę państwa przeniesiono do Kijowa odsuwając na boczny tor niewygodnych działaczy. Wówczas dokonano też podziału państwa na obwody: kijowski, charkowski, winnicki, zaporoski i doniecki. +Ukrainę przyjęto wraz z Białoruską SRR i ZSRR do ONZ jako pełnoprawnego członka. Uzasadniano to faktem, iż skoro formalnie brytyjskie dominia – Kanada i Australia także były członkami tej organizacji, nie ma przeszkód, by także niektóre z republik ZSRR weszły w skład ONZ, by zrównać brytyjską przewagę. Ponadto prawo do nadreprezentacji mogło być nagrodą za walkę z faszyzmem. +W 1986 roku Ukrainą wstrząsnęła awaria elektrowni w Czarnobylu, którą władze z początku starały się bagatelizować. Główne szkody poczyniła ona jednak na sąsiedniej Białoruskiej SRR. +Likwidacja. +Ukraińska SRR przestała oficjalnie istnieć 16 grudnia 1991, gdy uznane zostało niepodległe państwo ukraińskie. Przywrócono mu tradycyjne godło, hymn oraz wybrano nowe władze. +Przywódcy kraju. +Zobacz też: Rada Komisarzy Ludowych USRR, Rada Ministrów USRR. +Obszar i granice. +Po traktacie ryskim i ustaleniu granicy z Polską (1921) terytorium USRR obejmowało obszar następujących gubernii Imperium Rosyjskiego z 1917: kijowskiej, charkowskiej, katerynosławskiej, połtawskiej, chersońskiej, taurydzkiej i podolskiej, południową część czernihowskiej i wschodnią część wołyńskiej. +18 października 1921 z południowej części byłej guberni taurydzkiej utworzono Krymską Autonomiczną Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką w składzie RFSRR. +Liczba i granice guberni podlegały w następnych latach zmianom. Podział gubernialny został w r. 1932 zastąpiony podziałem na obwody. +Po III Rzeszy i ZSRR na Polskę i okupacji wschodnich terenów Rzeczypospolitej przez Armia Czerwoną nastąpiło przyłączenie do Ukraińskiej SRR (po pseudoplebiscycie) części terenów okupowanych anektowanych przez ZSRR (województwa: wołyńskie, tarnopolskie, stanisławowskie i wschodnia część lwowskiego na wschód od Sanu ze Lwowem, Lubaczowem i częścią Przemyśla). Akt władz ZSRR, sprzeczny z konwencją haską IV był nieważny w świetle prawa międzynarodowego. +W 1940 roku Rumunia została zmuszona do zrzeczenia się na rzecz ZSRR pewnych obszarów, spośród których Bukowinę i południową Besarabię włączono w skład Ukraińskiej SRR. Jednocześnie z obszaru Ukraińskiej SRR wyłączono część terenów wchodzącej dotąd w skład Ukraińskiej SRR Mołdawskiej ASRR. Obszary te wraz z pozostałymi częściami ziem odebranych Rumunii utworzyły Mołdawską SRR. +Po konferencji jałtańskiej (4–11 lutego 1945), wyłoniony w konsekwencji jej ustaleń komunistyczny Tymczasowy Rząd Jedności Narodowej podpisał 16 sierpnia 1945 umowę z ZSRR, uznając nieco zmodyfikowaną linię Curzona za wschodnią granicę Polski, w oparciu o porozumienie o granicy zawarte pomiędzy PKWN i rządem ZSRR 27 lipca 1944. W konsekwencji umowy okupowane od września 1939 tereny województw: wołyńskiego, stanisławowskiego, tarnopolskiego i Lwów ze wschodnią częścią województwa lwowskiego włączono do USRR. Ponadto do Ukraińskiej SRR przyłączono faktycznie w 1945 ( formalnie w 1947- pokój paryski) obszar Rusi Zakarpackiej, które do 1938/39 wchodziły w skład Czechosłowacji, a następnie - Węgier. +Ostatecznie granice Ukraińskiej SRR uformowały się 19 lutego 1954, kiedy to decyzją Nikity Chruszczowa dla upamiętnienia czterechsetnej rocznicy ugody perejasławskiej Rosyjska FSRR przekazała Ukraińskiej SRR terytorium Krymu (obwód krymski RFSRR - dawną Krymską ASRR, z której w roku 1944 NKWD deportowało do Uzbekistanu wszystkich Tatarów). Odtąd Ukraińska SRR obejmowała obszar 603 716 km², który w 1984 roku zamieszkiwało 50,667 milionów osób. +Ukraińska SRR graniczyła z Polską, Węgrami, Czechosłowacją i Rumunią. +Wewnątrz ZSRR graniczyła z Białoruską SRR, Rosyjską FSRR i Mołdawską SRR. +August Okołowicz + +August Adolf Okołowicz (ur. 1834 lub 1835 w Vierzon we Francji, zm. po 1880, prawdopodobnie w Belgii) - generał Komuny Paryskiej. +Nauki pobierał we Francji w szkole batigniolskiej, skąd prawdopodobnie został usunięty. Od 1854 walczył w wojnie krymskiej. Następnie przebywał w Szwajcarii. W 1870, na prośbę Jarosława Dąbrowskiego (w związku z planami utworzenia Polskiego Legionu), przybył do Francji. Jako oficer armii Wogezów walczył w wojnie francusko-pruskiej 1870-1871. W marcu 1871 przybył do Paryża, gdzie został mianowany pułkownikiem Komuny. Dowodził początkowo 90 Batalionem, a od 7 do 27 kwietnia był dowódcą rejonu Asnieres. W tym czasie otrzymał nominację generalską. Wzięty do niewoli podczas leczenia ran w szpitalu, zdołał zbiec i przedostał się do Belgii. Pozostawał tam zapewne do śmierci zarabiając na kupiectwie i renowacji dywanów. +Zweibrucker + +Zweibrucker – koń gorącokrwisty średniej wielkości i masy. Wszystkie maści podstawowe. Znakowane piętnem. +Wysokość: 160 - 170 cm. +Nazwa rasy pochodzi od posiadłości książęcej Zweibrucker, gdzie od XVI wieku hodowano konie. W 1755 roku założono tam stadninę, w której do hodowli używano ogierów orientalnych i klaczy angielskich. Stadnina bardzo ucierpiała na skutek wojen. Najpierw wskutek kampanii napoleońskiej uprowadzili konie Francuzi, w czasie późniejszych wojen trafiały one do Prus i Austrii. Konie te nie należały do najlepszych. Nowe możliwości hodowlane stworzyła pomoc finansowa ze strony Bawarii w 1890 roku. Obecnie hoduje się konie do rekreacji i sportu, używając do krzyżowania koni trakeńskich, hanowerskich i westfalskich. +Selle français + +Selle français – francuski koń gorącokrwisty, rasa bardzo wszechstronna, użytkowana pod wierzch, w skokach, wyścigach płaskich i przeszkodowych i wszechstronnym konkursie konia wierzchowego. Przodkami tej rasy, hodowlanej w północnej Francji, głównie w Normandii, były różne konie krzyżowane z ogierami orientalnymi i holsztyńskimi, a następnie z ogierami pełnej krwi angielskiej i kłusakami. Do niedawna zwierzęta te nazywano anglonormandzkimi i reprezentowały one różne typy. Zapewnianie doskonałych warunków chowu oraz konsekwentna selekcja pozwoliły wyhodować wspaniałe, konie sportowe. +Selle français są wysokie. Ich wysokość: od 155 cm do ponad 175 cm. +Chody tego konia wygodne i elastyczne, predysponują je do wszystkich dyscyplin sportu jeździeckiego. +Umaszczenie zazwyczaj gniade rzadziej kare i siwe. +Albrecht Kossel + +Ludwig Karl Martin Leonhard Albrecht Kossel (ur. 16 września 1853 w Rostocku, zm. 5 lipca 1927 w Heidelbergu) – niemiecki biochemik, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie medycyny w 1910 roku. +Studiował w Strasburgu i Rostocku. Był profesorem, następnie dyrektorem Instytutu Fizjologii w Marburgu i Heidelbergu. +Zajmował się badaniami substancji białkowych, zwłaszcza aminokwasów i kwasów nukleinowych. W 1896 roku odkrył aminokwas histydynę. Za prace nad białkami, szczególnie nukleinami, otrzymał w 1910 Nagrodę Nobla z medycyny. +Bułat Okudżawa + +__NOTOC__ +Bułat Szałwowicz Okudżawa (ros.: Булат Шалвович Окуджава, gruz.: ბულატ ოკუჯავა) (ur. 9 maja 1924 w Moskwie, zm. 12 czerwca 1997 w Paryżu) – rosyjski bard, poeta, prozaik, kompozytor ballad, pieśni lirycznych i satyrycznych, dramaturg. +Bułat Okudżawa był synem Ormianki i Gruzina. Jego rodziców, zagorzałych bolszewików i działaczy komunistycznych, spotkał los podobny do losu wielu ludzi żyjących w epoce terroru stalinowskiego. Ojciec (pierwszy sekretarz lokalnego komitetu partii w Niżnym Tagile) został rozstrzelany w 1937 roku, natomiast matka (pełniąca funkcję sekretarza rajkomu) skazana na dziesięć lat w obozie (łącznie spędziła 18 lat w łagrze). Razem z bratem wychowywał się u babki, w niełatwym czasie i trudnych warunkach życiowych. Po okresie wielkiej czystki, naznaczony stygmatem wroga ludu starał się o zaufanie władzy. Podczas II wojny światowej, w wieku 18 lat przerwał naukę i podjął, jako ochotnik, służbę wojskową. W 1942 roku został wysłany na front. Był kilkakrotnie ranny. Po zakończeniu wojny był pracownikiem fizycznym, zaliczył eksternistycznie pozostałe klasy szkoły średniej i rozpoczął studia na wydziale filologicznym uniwersytetu w Tbilisi. Wtedy też debiutował na łamach gazety "Leninowski sztandar" ("Ленинское знамя"). W 1950 roku, po ukończeniu studiów, rozpoczął pracę jako nauczyciel w wiejskiej szkole w okolicach Kaługi (Калугa). Na fali odwilży wstąpił do partii. Po powrocie w 1956 roku matki z zesłania (została zrehabilitowana) powrócił do Moskwy. Tam też, najpierw w gronie przyjaciół, później już publicznie, zaczął śpiewać swoje wiersze, akompaniując sobie na gitarze. +Od tego momentu, w miarę zdobywania przez Okudżawę popularności, aparat partyjny przyglądał się jego twórczości z rosnącą dezaprobatą, on natomiast coraz bardziej dystansował się wobec swoich wcześniejszych poglądów. Nie mogąc mówić wprost o bieżących sprawach, pisał powieści historyczne (najczęściej osadzone w okresie XIX wieku), których bohaterami byli romantyczni buntownicy sprzeciwiający się tyranii. Walczyli oni na przegranej pozycji, będąc świadomi beznadziejności swego losu. Mimo to bez wahania decydowali się poświęcić swe życie w imię wyznawanych wartości. +Największą sławę zdobył jako poeta i bard. Początkowo jego wiersze dostępne były tylko w drugim obiegu, powielane w samizdacie, dopiero później artysta miał możliwość oficjalnego wykonywania swoich dzieł. W poezji Okudżawy dominuje klimat zadumy, smutku, refleksji nad ludzkim losem. Częstym motywem jest wojna, jednak bywa ona zazwyczaj jedynie tłem dla egzystencjalnych rozważań, najważniejszym tematem jest bowiem dramat jednostki zmagającej się z życiem. W utworach zauważalna jest też więź emocjonalna poety z Arbatem, starą moskiewską ulicą, na której w dzieciństwie mieszkał. Stała się ona symbolem jednoznacznie utożsamianym z Okudżawą. Miejscem szarym, typowym, pełnym codziennych problemów zwykłych ludzi, a jednocześnie pełnym tajemnic. Był blisko związany z Agnieszką Osiecką. +W 1994 roku otrzymał rosyjską Nagrodę Bookera. +Na łożu śmierci według jednych informacji wyraził życzenie i przyjął chrzest, według innych – został ochrzczony w stanie nieświadomości przez swoją żonę, z nadaniem imienia Ioann. +W Polsce twórczość Okudżawy, zwłaszcza jego piosenki, cieszyły się dużą popularnością. Utwory Okudżawy tłumaczyli na język polski m.in. Witold Dąbrowski, Andrzej Drawicz, Ziemowit Fedecki, Andrzej Mandalian i Wiktor Woroszylski. Jacek Kaczmarski poświęcił mu swoja piosenkę "Pożegnanie Okudżawy", zaś Andrzej Sikorowski "Żal za Bułatem O.", utrzymane w klimacie poezji Bułata. +Unia Tarnów + +__NOTOC__ +Zakładowy Klub Sportowy Unia Tarnów – polski wielosekcyjny klub sportowy z Tarnowa, założony w 1928 roku. Do najbardziej znanych sekcji należą sekcja żużlowa (od 2003 Żużlowa Sportowa Spółka Akcyjna) oraz sekcja piłki nożnej. Ponadto istnieje sekcja koszykówki, piłki ręcznej, lekkoatletyczna i sekcja pływacka. W wyniku restrukturyzacji dokonanej w sierpniu 2010 roku w klubie pozostają sekcje: piłkarska oraz lekkoatletyczna. Gmina Miasta Tarnowa wykupiła halę widowiskowo-sportową „Jaskółka”, krytą pływalnię wraz z przyległymi terenami. W pierwszym etapie restrukturyzacji (30 grudnia 2004 r.) stadion piłkarsko-żużlowy stał się obiektem miejskim. W posiadaniu klubu pozostały boiska treningowe oraz stadion lekkoatletyczny. +Sekcja koszykówki. +W sezonie 2009/10 reaktywowana została SSA Unia Tarnów, która po wykupieniu "dzikiej karty" wystawiła zespół do rozgrywek II ligi. Wcześniej Unia Tarnów przez 10 sezonów z rzędu (jako ZKS Unia Tarnów, SSA Unia Tarnów, a także jako zespół łączony Wisła Kraków/Unia Tarnów) występowała w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej. Sezon 2006/2007 był jednak ostatnim w ekstraklasie, gdyż z powodu gigantycznych problemów finansowych, a co za tym idzie także kadrowych zespół spadł do I ligi, z której został wycofany i w konsekwencji zdegradowany do najniższej klasy rozgrywkowej. W drużynie grali m.in.: Herman Alston, Michael Moore, Marek Sobczyński, Jarosław Jechorek, Radosław Hyży, William Brantley, Toree Morris, Marcin Stokłosa, Wojciech Majchrzak, Bartosz Sarzało, Iwo Kitzinger, Wojciech Żurawski, Lewis Lofton, Chaz Carr, Dražen Tomić, Łukasz Seweryn, Brandun Hughes, Michael Ansley, Piotr Szczotka, Adrian Małecki czy Piotr Szybilski. +Sylwestra + +Sylwestra — imię żeńskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, żeński odpowiednik imienia Sylwester, utworzonego od przymiotnika "silvestris", co oznacza "żyjący w lesie, dziki". Istnieje dziesięciu świętych Sylwestrów, patronów tego imienia. +Kuter (jacht) + +[[Plik:Cutter rigging.svg|thumb|200px|Kuter z ożaglowaniem bermudzkim +A - grot +B - fok +C - bukszpryt +D - kliwer +E - latacz]] +Kuter to jednomasztowy jacht żaglowy mający dwa albo trzy przednie żagle (sztaksle). Maszt na kutrze jest zazwyczaj usytuowany blizej środka łodzi (mniej wysunięty ku przodowi) niż w slupie, co pozwala na postawienie większej liczby sztaksli. Położenie masztu było dawniej podstawą do rozróżnienia tych dwóch typów: kuter posiadał maszt w połowie długości, lub nawet bliżej rufy, natomiast slup pomiędzy środkiem a dziobem. +Kuter może nosić grot gaflowy (w takim przypadku możliwy jest również topsel) lub grot bermudzki. Nazywany jest wtedy odpowiednio kutrem gaflowym lub kutrem bermudzkim. +Michel Foucault + +Paul Michel Foucault (fr: miʃɛl fuko, ur. 15 października 1926 w Poitiers we Francji, zm. 25 czerwca 1984 w Paryżu) – francuski filozof, historyk i socjolog. W latach 1970-1984 zasiadał w Collège de France na specjalnie stworzonej dla siebie katedrze "Historia systemów myślenia". +Zazwyczaj łączony z poststrukturalizmem i postmodernizmem, sam odżegnywał się od tych afiliacji, podkreślając przede wszystkim wpływ filozofii Nietzschego na swoją pracę naukową. Przejął od niego przede wszystkim "genealogiczną" metodą badania, wzorowaną na modelu zastosowanym przez Nietzschego w "Z genealogii moralności", i zastosował ją w badaniu "genealogii wiedzy" - odżegnywał się tym samym od telelogicznego rozumienia historii. Swe zainteresowania badawcze kierował w stronę krytycznej analizy instytucji społecznych, takich jak psychiatria, system penitencjarny czy seksualność. +Życiorys. +Młodość i studia. +Urodził się jako drugie dziecko wybitnego chirurga i profesora anatomii Paula-André Foucaulta oraz Anne-Marie Malapert. Ojciec chciał, by – jak on i dziadek, który także był chirurgiem – został lekarzem. +Po ukończeniu jezuickiego kolegium Saint-Stanislas w Poitiers (lata nauki przypadały na okres II wojny światowej – Poitiers znajdowało się początkowo w strefie Vichy, później trafiło pod jurysdykcję niemiecką) w 1946 roku wstąpił do renomowanej paryskiej École Normale Supérieure – w ten sposób wstąpił na klasyczną we Francji drogę kariery akademickiej w naukach humanistycznych. Na lata te przypadają dłuższe okresy poważnej depresji oraz próby samobójcze. +Być może to pod wpływem psychiatry, doktora Gaillot, Foucault zainteresował się psychologią. Studia psychologiczne podjął już po uzyskaniu licencjatu z filozofii – ukończył je w 1947 roku (miał zatem dyplomy z filozofii, psychologii oraz psychopatologii). Foucault-filozof był uczniem Louisa Althussera; Foucault-psycholog był uczniem Ludwiga Binswangera. W 1949 roku ukończył studia broniąc pracy "Konstytucja transcendentalności historycznej w Heglowskiej "Fenomenologii ducha"". +Jak wielu innych ze swego środowiska, w 1950 roku wstąpił (pod wpływem swojego mentora Althussera) do Francuskiej Partii Komunistycznej i był jej członkiem do 1953 (wg innego źródła przez 5 lat) – wg historyka Emmanuela Le Roy Ladurie nie uczestniczył jednak nigdy w pracach organizacji partyjnej. Wystąpił z partii, gdy okazało się, że prominentni członkowie partii nie chcą wyciągnąć żadnych konsekwencji z przedostających się wówczas na Zachód informacji o systemie represji stalinowskich. +Kariera akademicka i działalność społeczna. +Foucaultowi nie udało się w 1950 roku uzyskać agregacji (agrégation), ale powiodło mu się to gdy ponowił starania rok później – tak więc w 1951 roku złożył egzamin państwowy z filozofii, natomiast w 1952 roku zdobył dyplom z psychopatologii. Krótko wykładał w École Normale a następnie (w latach 1953–1954) pracował jako asystent na wydziale psychologii uniwersytetu w Lille (Université Lille Nord de France). Wówczas Foucault nie był zainteresowany karierą nauczycielską i zdecydował się na wyjazd z Francji na dłużej. Poza Francją przebywał w latach 1955-1960 pracując jako wykładowca literatury i języka francuskiego. Dzięki poparciu Georges'a Dumézila – swego przyjaciela i mentora, który zaaranżował mu stanowisko delegata kulturalnego mógł podjąć pracę na uniwersytecie Uppsala w Szwecji. Kierował tam "Maison de France" – placówką zajmującą się propagowaniem kultury francuskiej za granicą (w czasie jego pobytu bywali tam m.in. Albert Camus i Roland Barthes) W latach 1958-1959 był dyrektorem Centrum Francuskiego na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Pobyt w Polsce pogłębił jego rozczarowanie ideologią partii komunistycznej. Warszawę musiał opuścić nagle w wyniku prowokacji ubeckiej na tle seksualnym (Służba Bezpieczeństwa sprowokowała intrygę wykorzystując homoseksualizm Foucaulta). Następnie pracował jakiś czas w Hamburgu w Niemczech, gdzie stanął na czele Instytutu Francuskiego. +Foucault wrócił do Francji, by ukończyć pracę doktorską pisaną poza krajem. Od 1960 roku pracował jako docent psychologii na uniwersytecie w Clermont-Ferrand. W sobotę 20 Maja 1961 r. 35-letni Foucault stanął przed szczelnie wypełnionym amfiteatrem Sorbony i komisją egzaminacyjną. Błyskotliwa obrona rozprawy doktorskiej składającej się z dwóch części (głównej – "Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique" i pomocniczej – tłumaczenie i opracowanie Antropologii Kanta) stanowiło punkt zwrotny w karierze Foucaulta. W roku 1962 Foucault otrzymał nominację profesorską – objął katedrę w Clermont-Ferrand – tam również poznał swego towarzysza życia, Daniela Deferta. W latach 1966-1968 był profesorem filozofii w Tunisie – był tam świadkiem buntu studentów, z którym sympatyzował, ściągając na siebie niechęć władz. W 1968 roku objął stanowisko organizatora Wydziału Filozoficznego na powołanym właśnie do życia w wyniku wydarzeń majowych Uniwersytecie w Vincennes. +W roku 1970 (niewielką większością głosów) otrzymał utworzoną specjalnie dla siebie katedrę "historii systemów myślenia" w Collège de France. W 1970 roku Foucault po raz pierwszy wybrał się do USA – miał tam odtąd wracać wielokrotnie z wykładami (zwłaszcza na Uniwersytet w Berkeley) – to właśnie na ziemi amerykańskiej w Zabriskie Point w Death Valley National Park w 1975 roku eksperymentował z LSD – później miał to określić mianem "najlepszego przeżycia w całym życiu". +Foucault zaangażował się w ruch praw dla więźniów. W 1971 roku powołał nieformalną organizację zajmującą się obserwacją warunków w więzieniach. W 1978 roku Foucault wybrał się do Iranu – w cyklu reportaży z podróży pisanych na zamówienie "Corriere della Sera" (nie kryjąc entuzjazmu) opisywał upadek reżimu szacha Rezy Pahlaviego i ostatnie przygotowania do rewolucji islamskiej (jej losami i wypaczeniami miał się później wielokrotnie zajmować podczas rozmów m.in. z najważniejszymi politykami irańskimi goszczącymi w Paryżu). Na początku lat 80. Foucault aktywnie zaangażował się w pomoc dla Polski. Po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego opublikował wraz z Pierre'em Bourdieu list protestacyjny "Les randez-vous manqués" w "Liberation", a następnie brał udział w wielu inicjatywach, mających na celu wspieranie polskiej opozycji. W 1982 r. Foucault przyjechał do Polski z konwojem żywności i pomocą medyczną zorganizowanym przez Lekarzy Świata, wyrażając poparcie dla ruchu społecznego Solidarność. +Foucault był homoseksualistą. W czerwcu 1984 roku Foucault trafił z objawami przewlekłej grypy do paryskiego szpitala Salpêtrière (tego samego, który opisywał w "Historii szaleństwa"). Po miesięcznym pobycie w szpitalu zmarł w wyniku komplikacji wywołanych na tle – wówczas jeszcze prawie nieznanej – choroby AIDS. +Koncepcje i publikacje. +Publikacje i wykłady Michela Foucaulta, począwszy od lat 60. uzyskały szeroki rozgłos z powodu nowatorskich, śmiałych i kontrowersyjnych poglądów autora. +Foucault jest znany przede wszystkim jako autor krytycznych studiów nad instytucjami społecznymi takimi jak psychiatria, medycyna, nauki humanistyczne, system więziennictwa a także ze swojej pracy na temat historii seksualności. Szeroko dyskutowana była praca Foucaulta na temat władzy i związku między władzą, wiedzą i dyskursem. +Jego prace nie dają się łatwo zakwalifikować mimo związków z filozofią Fryderyka Nietzschego, strukturalizmem i marksizmem. Michel Foucault zastosował własną metodę badań, opartą na studium dyskursu. +W latach 60. Foucaulta często traktowano jako strukturalistę. Foucault później zdystansował się od strukturalizmu. Chociaż zwykle jest określany mianem post-strukturalisty i postmodernisty, to sam Foucault odrzucał tego typu etykietki. Wołał, by jego myśl klasyfikowana była jako historia krytyczna nowoczesności, mająca swoje korzenie w filozofii Kanta. +Michel Foucault podjął refleksję krytyczną nad tradycją filozoficzną związaną z racjonalizmem i empiryzmem. Szczególne znaczenie w filozoficznych dociekaniach Foucaulta zajmowały archeologia wiedzy i genealogia władzy. W dziedzinie archeologii wiedzy podjął próbę analizy dyskursów. Natomiast w ramach genealogii władzy zajmował się wpływem dyskursu na kształtowanie zjawisk społecznych. +Posługiwał się metodą analizy warunków historycznych, w jakich rozwijają się: wiedza, sposoby sprawowania władzy i egzekwowania przymusu. Rozpatrywał sposoby wykluczania i represjonowania pewnych grup, takich jak przestępcy, chorzy umysłowo, trędowaci, zadżumieni, żołnierze, dzieci. +Jest autorem neologizmu biopolityka (1971) odnoszącego się do formy sprawowania władzy nad grupami społecznymi i sposobem życia jednostek za pomocą biowładzy. +W 1954 roku ukazała się drukiem jego pierwsza samodzielna praca "Maladie mentale et personnalité" ("Choroba umysłowa a osobowość") stanowiąca niejako podsumowanie wykładów, jakie prowadził w Paryżu i Lille. Książka bliższa jest raczej egzystencjalizmowi i fenomenologii w wersji Sartre'a. Foucault uważał ją później za swoją najmniej udaną pracę i konsekwentnie pomijał ją w bibliografiach swoich dzieł. Dostępny przekład na język polski oparty jest na gruntownie przerobionej wersji wydanej w 1962 roku pod tytułem "Maladie mentale et psychologie" ("Choroba umysłowa a psychologia"). +Jego rozprawa doktorska "Folie et déraison. Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique" ("Szaleństwo i nierozum. Historia szaleństwa w dobie klasycyzmu") przedłożona do publikacji w renomowanym wydawnictwie Gallimarda została przez redaktorów odrzucona. Gdy ukazała się w końcu nakładem wydawnictwa Plon, została bardzo dobrze przyjęta – pochlebne recenzje napisali m in. Roland Barthes, Michel Serres i czołowy przedstawiciel historycznej szkoły „Annales” Fernand Braudel. Była to pierwsza znacząca książka Foucaulta, napisana w większości podczas pobytu w Szwecji. Przedmiotem studiów, są w niej idee, praktyki, instytucje, sztuka i literatura związana z szaleństwem w historii Zachodu. +Foucault rozpoczyna swoją historię w Średniowieczu, zwracając uwagę na społeczne i fizyczne wykluczenie trędowatych. Dowodzi, że wraz ze stopniowym zanikiem trądu, jego miejsce zajęło szaleństwo. Statek głupców z XV stulecia stanowi literacką wersję jednej z takich praktyk wykluczania – mianowicie wysyłanie szaleńców w morze. W XVII-wiecznej Europie, w ruchu, który Foucault nazwał "Wielkim Uwięzieniem", członkowie populacji „pozbawieni rozumu” byli zamykani i instytucjonalizowani. W XVIII stuleciu zaczęto traktować szaleństwo jako przeciwieństwo Rozsądku, i ostatecznie w XIX wieku jako chorobę psychiczną. +Ponadto Foucault dowodzi, że szaleństwo zostało wyciszone przez Rozsądek, tracąc swoją moc wyznaczania granic porządku społecznego i wskazywania na prawdę. Bada pojawienie się naukowego i „humanitarnego” traktowania szaleńców, mianowicie w rękach Philippe’a Pinela i Samuela Tuke’a (1784-1857), którzy – jak sugeruje – byli pierwszymi, którzy wypracowali koncepcję „choroby umysłowej”. Twierdzi, że te nowe metody leczenia były w istocie w równej mierze przepojone kontrolą jak i poprzednie. Leczenie szalonych przez Pinela sprowadzało się do poszerzonej terapii awersją i polegało na takich zabiegach jak mrożące prysznice czy użycie kaftanów bezpieczeństwa. W opinii Foucaulta takie zabiegi prowadziły do powtarzającej się brutalności do czasu, aż wzorzec osądzania i kary został zinternalizowany przez pacjenta. +Mimo że Foucault podkreślał, że jego zamiarem w żadnym razie nie było atakowanie psychiatrii czy napisanie „manifestu antypsychiatrii” to jego praca przetłumaczona i wydana w Anglii stała się jedną z ewangelii ruchu antypsychiatrów, który doprowadził też wiele zawartych w niej tez do skrajności. +Drugą znaczącą książką Foucaulta była "Naissance de la clinique: une archéologie du regard médical" ("Narodziny kliniki. Archeologia spojrzenia medycznego") opublikowana w roku 1963. Stanowi ona swoistą kontynuację i dopełnienie "Historii szaleństwa". Autor śledzi w niej rozwój profesji medycznej, a w szczególności instytucji kliniki (rozumianej w większości jako szpital, w którym prowadzi się nauczanie). Głównym motywem jest „spojrzenie medyczne” tradycyjnie ograniczone do małych, wyspecjalizowanych instytucji takich jak szpitale i więzienia, ale które Foucault bada w odniesieniu do szerszych przestrzeni społecznych jakie rządzą masową populacją. +Publikując w 1966 roku "Les mots et les choses. Une archéologie des sciences humaines" ("Słowa i rzeczy. Archeologia nauk humanistycznych"), odniósł następny sukces wydawniczy. Choć Foucault wolał nadać swojej pracy tytuł "L'Ordre des Choses" ("Porządek rzeczy") – musiał go zmienić, gdyż była już inna książka o takim tytule. Książkę rozpoczyna rozległa rozprawa na temat obrazu "Las Meninas" autorstwa Diego Velázqueza i złożonych układów jego linii widoków, ukryć i odsłon. Następnie rozwijana jest główna teza: wszystkie okresy w historii posiadały w swej głębi specyficzne uwarunkowania prawdy, która stanowiła, co było akceptowalne jako, na przykład, dyskurs naukowy. Znaczenie ma parezjastyczność wypowiedzi. Michel Foucault analizując to podkreśla, że parezja jest rodzajem aktywności mowy, w której relację z prawdą określa szczerość, relację z życiem definiuje niebezpieczeństwo, relację z sobą i innymi charakteryzuje krytycyzm, zaś z moralnym prawem wyraża wolność i obowiązek. +Foucault dowodzi, że te uwarunkowania dyskursu zmieniały się wraz z upływem czasu w wyniku większych i stosunkowo gwałtownych zmian, od jednego okresu epistemologicznego do innego. Nietzscheańska krytyka wartości oświeceniowych przedstawiona w "Les mots et les choses" miała duży wpływ na historię kultury. To właśnie tu Foucault przedstawił obrazoburczą tezę, że „człowiek jest tylko niedawnym wynalazkiem” i że nadchodzi „koniec człowieka”. Książka ta uczyniła Foucaulta prominentnym intelektualistą francuskim. Za sprawą wypowiedzi na ostatnich stronach tej książki o „śmierci człowieka” nazwisko Foucaulta trafiło na czołówki gazet. Hasło „śmierć człowieka”, choć zatracając swój właściwy sens, stało się od tej pory znakiem rozpoznawczym Foucaulta. +W roku 1969 w Collège de France wygłosił wykład pod tytułem "Czym jest autor?" – wystąpienie to stało się ważnym przyczynkiem w dyskusji na temat roli autora w literaturze współczesnej. W wydanej w 1969 roku rozprawie "L'archéologie de savoir" ("Archeologia wiedzy") rozwijał zastosowaną wcześniej metodę. W 1970 roku w Collège de France w wykładzie inauguracyjnym "L'ordre du discours" ("Porządek dyskursu") nakreślił program badań odwołujący się do tez wyłożonych wcześniej w "Archeologii wiedzy". +W 1975 roku opublikował "Surveiller et punir. La naissance de la prison" ("Nadzorować i karać. Narodziny więzienia"). Praca powstała w czasach aktywnej działalności politycznej Foucaulta (1971-1977), którą kierował przeciwko wszelkim postaciom władzy, które uznawał za represyjne czy zniewalające. Wspiera wysuwane przez niego żądania reformy systemu więziennictwa. Książkę otwiera wymowny opis brutalnej egzekucji publicznej Roberta-François Damiensa z 1757 roku, który usiłował zamordować Ludwika XV. Przeciwstawia temu opisowi bezbarwny harmonogram więzienny z czasów zaledwie o 80 lat późniejszych. Foucault stawia tu pytanie: jak w tak krótkim czasie mogła nastąpić w społeczeństwie francuskim taka zmiana w sposobie karania skazanych. Są to ilustracje dwóch kontrastujących sposobów "technologii karania" Foucaulta. Pierwszy sposób, "karanie monarchiczne" ujmuje represję populacji poprzez brutalne publiczne pokazy egzekucji i tortur. Drugi sposób, "karanie dyscyplinarne" jest tym, co zdaniem Foucaulta, praktykuje się współcześnie. Karanie dyscyplinarne daje profesjonalistom (takim jak psycholodzy, oficerowie więzienni, itp.) władzę nad więźniami – w szczególności to, jak długo więzień pozostanie w więzieniu zależy od osądu profesjonalistów. +Foucault porównuje współczesne społeczeństwo do projektu więzienia w układzie Panoptikonu autorstwa Jeremiego Benthama (projekt ten nigdy nie został zrealizowany w swej oryginalnej postaci, ale mimo to stał się bardzo wpływowy): w Panoptikonie, pojedynczy dozorca może pilnować wielu więźniów, podczas gdy sam pozostaje niewidoczny. Ciemny loch z czasów przedwspółczesnych zastąpiono jasnym nowoczesnym więzieniem, ale Foucault przestrzega, że widoczność stanowi zasadzkę. To właśnie poprzez taką widoczność, jak pisze Foucault, współczesne społeczeństwo egzekwuje władzę i wiedzę swoich systemów kontroli (Foucault sądził, że określenia władza i wiedza są tak zasadniczo ze sobą powiązane, że często tworzył jeden zwrot z łącznikiem: „władza-wiedza”). Wzrost widoczności prowadzi do umieszczania władzy na coraz to bardziej zindywidualizowanym poziomie, co uwidacznia się w możliwości śledzenia przez instytucje jednostek w ciągu ich życia. Foucault sugeruje, że „więziennicze kontinuum” przebiega na wskroś współczesne społeczeństwo, począwszy od więzień charakteryzujących się maksymalnym zabezpieczeniem, poprzez zabezpieczone miejsca pobytu, okresy próby, pracowników społecznych, policję, nauczycieli aż do codziennego życia w pracy i w domu. Wszyscy są powiązani poprzez (rozmyślny lub nierozmyślny) dozór (nadzór, stosowanie norm akceptowalnego zachowania) jednych ludzi przez drugich. W ten sposób Foucault roztoczył dość ponurą wizję współczesnego państwa przenikniętego siecią stosunków władzy. +"Nadzorować i karać. Narodziny więzienia" to praca Foucaulta, która z wszystkich jego prac zdobyła sobie najwyższe uznanie w środowisku socjologów. W ankiecie zorganizowanej przez Międzynarodowe Stowarzyszenie Socjologiczne (ISA), w której głosowano na najważniejsze książki socjologiczne XX wieku "Nadzorować i karać" uplasowała się na 16 pozycji wśród blisko tysiąca innych wskazanych prac. +Podczas cotygodniowych wykładów w Collège de France, jakie prowadził od stycznia do marca 1976 roku zastanawiał się, czy relacje władzy można analizować odwołując się do modelu wojny. Foucault zdefiniował dwa rodzaje władzy: władzę nad ciałami za pomocą technik nadzoru i instytucji karnych oraz biowładzę, która sprawowana jest nad populacją, nad życiem i żywymi istotami. Analizując dyskursy o wojnie ras oraz opowieści o podbojach nakreślił genealogie biowładzy i rasizmów państwowych. W tym czasie Foucault stał się sławny w USA, gdzie odbierano go raczej nie jako filozofa czy historyka, ale bardziej jako myśliciela zajmującego się teorią polityki lub teorią społeczną. +W roku 1976 Foucault opublikował "La volonté de savoir" ("Wola wiedzy") – pierwszy tom zakrojonego na wielką skalę ostatniego dzieła "Histoire de la sexualité" ("Historia seksualności"). Tytuł "Historia seksualności" kryje dwa projekty serii książkowych z roku 1976 i z roku 1984. +Pierwszy projekt przewidywał sześć publikacji, z których ukazała się jedynie pierwsza "La volonté de savoir". Pozostałe pięć miały nosić tytuły "La chair et le corps", "La croisade des enfants", "La femme, la mere et l'hysterique", "Les pervers", "Populations et races", zapewne miały być jedynie rozwinięciem tomu pierwszego i być może dlatego okazały się ostatecznie zbyt nudnym zajęciem dla ich niedoszłego autora. +Pierwszy, najczęściej cytowany tom "Wola wiedzy" został opublikowany w 1976 roku, kiedy Foucault miał 50 lat i dzięki wcześniejszym publikacjom zdobył już sobie opinię jednego z najwybitniejszych filozofów francuskich. Praca ta ukazała się niedługo po wydaniu książki "Nadzorować i karać" i podobnie odwraca wielowiekową formułę, wedle której to „ciało stanowi więzienie duszy” przedstawiając tezę, że to „dusza stanowi więzienie ciała”. Foucault skupia w niej uwagę przede wszystkim na ostatnich dwóch stuleciach i funkcjonowaniu seksualności jako analizy władzy związanej z wyłonieniem się nauki o seksualności ("scientia sexualis") oraz z wyłonieniem się biowładzy na Zachodzie. W tomie tym Foucault szuka odpowiedzi na pytanie, jak we współczesnych społeczeństwach europejskich ukształtowało się w XIX w. doświadczenie seksualności, które wypowiada dyskurs psychoanalityczny. Foucault atakuje „hipotezę represji” – szeroko rozpowszechnioną wiarę, że szczególnie od XIX stulecia, ma miejsce „represja” naturalnego popędu seksualnego. Według Foucaulta hipoteza represji seksualności myli przyczynę ze skutkiem. Autor "Woli wiedzy" stawia tezę, że to, co określa się represją seksualności, faktycznie stanowiło seksualność jako zasadniczą cechę ludzkiej tożsamości i wywołało proliferację dyskursu na ten temat. Innymi słowy seksualność „produkuje” duszę a jednocześnie „pozbawia” ciała – mówi, że wyzwala pragnienie, a w istocie „dyskursywizuje” seks. +Po ośmiu latach Foucault powrócił do pracy nad "Historią seksualności" zmieniły się jednak jego poglądy. Dwa kolejne tomy "Historii Seksualności" ("Użytek z przyjemności" i "Troska o siebie") to w zasadzie akademickie prace historyka idei, poświęcone moralności starożytnej, napisane spokojnym i rzeczowym stylem. Problem stosunku rozumu do siły Foucault próbuje w nich rozwiązać eksplorując rolę seksualności w starożytnej Grecji i starożytnym Rzymie. Szuka odpowiedzi na pytanie, dlaczego zachowania seksualne i związane z nimi rozkosze stanowią przedmiot zainteresowania moralistów i skąd bierze się taka troska, która wpływa na inne dziedziny życia, takie jak reguły żywieniowe czy powinności obywatelskie. +Powstał też czwarty tom "Les aveux de la chair" – owoc studiów nad literaturą wczesnego chrześcijaństwa dotyczący seksualności w chrześcijaństwie. Tom był prawie kompletny przed śmiercią autora, ale nie został nigdy opublikowany z uwagi na zastrzeżenie w testamencie Foucaulta; obecnie przechowywany jest w jego archiwum. Ostatecznie dwa kolejne tomy "Historii seksualności": "L usage des plaisirs" ("Użytek z przyjemności") i "Le souci de soi" ("Troska o siebie") zostały opublikowane przed śmiercią Foucaulta w 1984 r. To ostatnie dzieło Foucaulta, dzieło będące przesłaniem (bądź swoim panem a nie niewolnikiem, zostań swoim własnym dziełem). Tak traktowane było i przez samego autora, który redagując ostatnie tomy zdawał sobie sprawę, że niebawem umrze. +Lurleen Wallace + +Lurleen Burns Wallace (19 września 1926 - 7 maja 1968), pierwsza żona polityka amerykańskiego George'a Wallace, jedyna kobieta wybrana na gubernatora Alabamy. +Zgodnie z przepisami z lat 60., popularny gubernator Alabamy George Wallace nie mógł w 1966 kandydować na kolejną kadencję gubernatorską. Znalazł jednak sposób na obejście przepisów - nakłonił do kandydowania żonę i zyskał poparcie Partii Demokratycznej dla takiego rozwiązania. Lurleen Wallace została wybrana na gubernatora i 16 stycznia 1967 objęła formalnie urząd. +W ciągu krótkiej kadencji lojalnie realizowała politykę męża, ale zgłaszała także własne inicjatywy, m.in. zwiększenie funduszy stanowych na lecznictwo psychiatryczne. Krótko po objęciu urzędu wykryto u niej chorobę nowotworową. Zmarła w maju 1968, a jej mąż utracił wkrótce wpływy w stanie - Lurleen Wallace zastąpił Albert Brewer (dotychczasowy zastępca gubernatora), który prowadził niezależną politykę. +Na jej cześć nazwę Lurleen nadano jednemu z jezior w środkowej Alabamie. +Powiat kłobucki + +Powiat kłobucki – powiat w Polsce położony na północy województwa śląskiego. Utworzony został w 1952 roku. Zlikwidowany w 1975. Ponownie utworzony w 1999 roku w wyniku reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kłobuck. +Historia. +Początki osadnictwa. +Najstarsze ślady pobytu człowieka na tej ziemi pochodzą z ok. X tysiąclecia p.n.e., tuż po ustąpieniu lodowca, ale właściwa kolonizacja rozpoczyna się od IX wieku n.e. Wczesne średniowiecze jest okresem następnej fali osadniczej ludności pochodzącej ze Śląska. Pierwsze wzmianki w dokumentach historycznych – o tych stronach – datowane są na rok 1262 kiedy to w Iwanowicach odbył się zjazd książąt dzielnicowych – Bolesława Pobożnego i Bolesława Wstydliwego. +Historia początków powstania odrębnej jednostki administracyjnej na terenie powiatu kłobuckiego ginie w mrokach dziejów. Wiadomo, że w XI w. ziemie te należały do Ziemi krakowskiej i były własnością Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego (1179 r.). Sto lat później, pierwsze dokumenty wymieniają Adama kasztelana z Krakowa jako zarządzającego tą ziemią. Ten podział administracyjny był utrzymywany prawie do końca XIII w. Początków odrębności administracyjno – terytorialnej należy doszukiwać się po układzie książąt piastowskich (w roku 1296 w Krzywiniu) : po wyłączeniu Kłobucka z zakresu władzy kasztelańskiej i wprowadzeniu urzędu starosty. +Średniowiecze. +Różne źródła historyczne podają różne daty powstania miasta Kłobucka. Jedni autorzy podają rok 1344, w którym dokument Kazimierza Wielkiego wymienia Prutenusa, jako wójta kłobuckiego, inni rok 1339, w którym Kazimierz Wielki zwolnił mieszkańców Kłobucka od wielu danin i powinności, a jeszcze inni poszukując daty powstania miasta podają rok 1244. Jedno jest jednak pewne, że w archiwach dokument lokacyjny czeka jeszcze na odkrycie. +Późniejszy okres życia mieszkańców przebiegał raczej spokojnie, jeżeli nie liczyć odparcia najazdu wojsk Mikołaja księcia opolskiego w 1474 roku. Z kronik wiemy, że los nie oszczędził miastu pożarów, które kilkakrotnie niszczyły nieomal doszczętnie zabudowania. W okresie umacniania władzy królewskiej w Polsce, przywiązywano dużą uwagę Kłobuckowi, czego dowodem były aż trzy wizyty Króla Władysława Jagiełły w tym mieście (w roku 1416, 1420 i 1426). +W latach 1434-1449 żył w Kłobucku kanonik krakowski, historyk Jan Długosz – piastujący tu funkcję proboszcza. Z tego okresu pochodzi opis Kłobucka zamieszczony w Historii Polski. Dzięki położeniu na szlaku handlowym, łączącym Śląsk z Wielkopolską – Kłobuck w średniowieczu rozwijał się prężnie, szczególnie rozwijało się rzeźnictwo w oparciu o pędzone tą trasą bydło. To z kolei spowodowało rozwój miejscowego rolnictwa jako źródła zaopatrzenia już istniejących rzeźni. +Od połowy XIV wieku ośrodkiem władzy administracyjnej na tych ziemiach jest starostwo niegrodowe w Krzepicach. +Degradacja. +W roku 1658, decyzją Sejmu Warszawskiego, wyłączono Kłobuck z starostwa krzepickiego i oddano pod Zarząd Zakonowi Paulinów. Wskutek tej ostatniej decyzji Kłobuck zyskał miano starostwa w powiecie lelowskim. W okresie II rozbioru (1796 r.), odebrano Paulinom starostwo Kłobuckie i tym samym włączono do dóbr rządowych. Wówczas to z nadania króla pruskiego prywatnym właścicielem miasta stał się Chrystian hrabia Luttichau. W cztery lata później miasto dostaje się w ręce pruskiego ministra Christiana hr. Haugwitza. Po przemarszu wojsk napoleońskich, Kłobuck znalazł się w powiecie częstochowskim, departamentu kaliskiego, a po ich klęsce ziemie te znalazły się w województwie kaliskim, obwodzie wieluńskim, powiecie częstochowskim. Kolejna reorganizacja była po upadku powstania listopadowego, wówczas to ziemie te przypisano do guberni warszawskiej. W 1866 roku, na mocy ukazu carskiego, Kłobuck jest w powiecie częstochowskim – guberni piotrkowskiej. Reperkusją po klęsce powstania styczniowego była utrata praw miejskich Kłobucka na mocy postanowienia rosyjskiego Komitetu Urządzającego z dnia 23 stycznia 1870 roku, a następnie włączenie do gminy Kamyk (decyzja gubernatora piotrkowskiego z dnia 30.09.1870 r.). +XX wiek. +Przywrócenie praw miejskich nastąpiło dopiero w 1916 roku, a w rok później otwarto filię częstochowskiego urzędu powiatowego. W czasie II wojny światowej włączony do III Rzeszy, jako część powiatu Blachownia w rejencji opolskiej w prowincji Schlesien (od stycznia 1941 roku w prowincji Oberschlesien). Po II wojnie światowej, z północnej części powiatu częstochowskiego wyodrębniono powiat kłobucki na mocy Rozporządzenia Rady Ministrów z 12 kwietnia 1952 roku. Powiat w tej formie przetrwał do 1 czerwca 1975 roku, kiedy to kolejna reforma administracji państwowej zlikwidowała powiaty. Od 1 stycznia 1999 roku Kłobuck ponownie jest powiatem – związkiem 7 gmin i 2 miast, z których największą terytorialnie jest gmina Wręczyca Wielka, a najmniejszą gmina Panki. Łącznie zamieszkuje te ziemie ok. 86 tys. Mieszkańców, w tym 18,6 tys. w 2 miastach (Kłobucku i Krzepicach). +Infrastruktura. +Drogi. +Wzdłuż wschodniej granicy powiatu przebiegać będzie autostrada . Droga krajowa nr 43 zostanie połączona z autostradą węzłem komunikacyjnym we wsi Lgota. +Galeria. +Plik:Krzepice IX 2005.jpg|Kościół św. Jakuba w Krzepicach +Plik:Rynek Kłobuck 1.jpg|Rynek w Kłobucku, w tle kościół św. Marcina i Małgorzaty +Plik:Mokra Muzeum.JPG|Muzeum Kultury Przeworskiej i Izba Pamięci Bitwy pod Mokrą w Mokrej +Plik:Rtcn klepaczka.jpg|RTCN Klepaczka + +Bogacica (rzeka) + +Bogacica to rzeka w południowej Polsce w prawobrzeżnej części dorzecza Odry. Długość 43,8 km, Dorzecze symetryczne. +Źródło na skraju Progu Woźnickiego na wysokości 240 m N.p.m., ok. 1 km na północ od wsi Łowoszów. Ujście na Równinie Opolskiej (przez którą przepływa w przeważającej części) na wysokości 150 m N.p.m., ok. 3 km na południe od wsi Dąbrowa], jako lewobrzeżny dopływ Stobrawy. Terytorialnie przepływa w całości przez teren województwa opolskiego (powiaty: oleski, kluczborski, opolski i namysłowski). Płynie równoleżnikowo, ze wschodu na zachód, zbierając wody lokalnych, mniejszych dopływów. +Koryto wykształtowane w okresie zlodowacenia środkowopolskiego na podłożu ilastym, obecnie na wielu odcinkach proste i uregulowane. W dolinie rzeki pomiędzy plejstocenem a holocenem powstały rozległe obszary wydmowe (piaski eoliczne); współcześnie jest ona urozmaicona takimi elementami przyrody jak lasy, łąki, stawy, oczka wodne, starorzecza. Powoduje to występowanie bogactwa faunistyczno-florystycznego, m.in. rzadkich, objętych gatunkową ochroną roślin, co stanowiło przyczynę objęcia tego fragmentu Opolszczyzny (w tym niemalże całej doliny rzeki) granicami Stobrawskiego Parku Krajobrazowego; szczególne walory przyrodnicze i krajobrazowe na jego terenie posiada Uroczysko tworzone przez rzekę pomiędzy wsiami Bukowo i Dąbrówka Dolna, będące ostoją dla ptactwa wodno-bagiennego. +Wysokie walory rzeki i jej istotne znaczenie dla środowiska naturalnego są osłabione poprzez skażenie ściekami, spowodowane przede wszystkim brakiem skanalizowania większości położonych nad nią wsi; monitorowana w Domaradzu (bieg dolny) wykazuje jednak od końca lat 90. XX wieku sukcesywną poprawę tego stanu (zwłaszcza zmniejszenie zanieczyszczeń wytwarzanych przez rolnictwo, w tym azotem amonowym), spełniając przy tym normy dla I-III klasy czystości. +Rzekę cechują wiosenne wezbrania, działalność akumulacyjna i erozyjna (wgłębna); z ichtiologicznego punktu widzenia zaliczana jest do "krainy brzany" i udostępniona do wędkowania. +Część zasilanych "Bogacicą" stawów jest wykorzystywana (w gminie Pokój) gospodarczo do hodowli ryb. +W 2004 wykonano remont 5,3 km rzeki. Jednocześnie tworzony jest "Program dla Odry 2006", stanowiący podstawę programową remontów rzek dorzecza Odry, zwłaszcza pod kątem ochrony przeciwpowodziowej. +Gronowice, Lasowice Małe, Jasienie, Radomierowice, Domaradz. +DVD+RW + +DVD+RW jest to płyta kompaktowa o pojemności równej pojemności płyty DVD+R, standardowo 4,7 GB (interpretowane jako ≈ 4.7 · 109, w rzeczywistości jest to 2295104 sektorów po 2048 bajtów każdy). +Format ten został zaprojektowany przez grupę korporacji, znaną jako DVD+RW Alliance pod koniec roku 1997. Format porzucono aż do roku 2001, kiedy to został przeprojektowany, w wyniku czego pojemność nośnika wzrosła z 2,8 GB do 4,7 GB. Często wymienia się firmę Philips, członka DVD+RW Alliance, jako głównego projektanta standardu. Pomimo, że format DVD+RW nie został jeszcze zaakceptowany przez DVD Forum, jest on na tyle popularny, że producentom sprzętu komputerowego trudno tę popularność ignorować, w wyniku czego płyty DVD+RW obsługuje obecnie 3/4 odtwarzaczy DVD. +W przeciwieństwie do formatu DVD-RW, format DVD+RW był standardem wcześniej niż DVD+R. +Formatem konkurującym z DVD+RW jest format DVD-RW. Jak dotąd nie ma jednego standardu nagrywania DVD i z tego powodu bardzo popularne są hybrydowe nagrywarki, które potrafią obsłużyć obydwa te formaty. Takie nagrywarki często posiadają znak "DVD±RW". +Dyski DVD+RW mogą być ponownie nagrywane około 1000 razy, mniej więcej tyle samo co dyski CD-RW. DVD+RW są dosyć często wykorzystywane do zapisywania często zmieniających się danych i wykonywania kopii zapasowych. Nie są jednak tak często wykorzystywane do domowych nagrywarek wideo DVD jak DVD-RW, głównie dlatego, iż były zaprojektowane do przechowywania danych, nie materiałów wideo. +Korzystając z DVD+RW użytkownicy uzyskają do dyspozycji najlepsze cechy dwóch rodzajów urządzeń – będą mogli odtwarzać gotowe płyty z filmami o wysokiej jakości oraz bez najmniejszych kłopotów rejestrować na krążkach DVD własne materiały wideo. Szybkie formatowanie dysków DVD+RW można używać bez czasochłonnego formatowania. Jest to możliwe dzięki temu, że napęd DVD+RW nagrywa bardzo niewielki początkowy obszar i już po upływie kilku sekund jest gotowy do zapisywania danych. +Decydującą zaletą formatu DVD+RW jest jego pewna zgodność z obecnym sprzętem komputerowym i audio-wideo. +Biafra + +Biafra (Republika Biafra) - państwo, które istniało w południowo-wschodniej Nigerii od 30 maja 1967 do 15 stycznia 1970 i obejmowało obszar w okolicy wybrzeży Nigerii i Kamerunu. Jego nazwa pochodzi od Zatoki Biafra, części Zatoki Gwinejskiej. +W styczniu 1966 oficerowie nigeryjskiej armii, pochodzący z ludu Ibo, przeprowadzili nieudany zamach stanu. W maju i wrześniu tego samego roku doszło do masowych wystąpień wobec ludności Ibo w północnej Nigerii. Większość z 8 milionów członków ludu Ibo zamieszkiwało jednak ówczesny Region Wschodni. Gubernator wojskowy tego regionu, pułkownik Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu ogłosił go niepodległym państwem ze stolicą w Enugu. Nowe państwo zostało uznane tylko przez kilka państw świata, w tym przez RPA. Głosy poparcia ze strony kraju prowadzącego politykę apartheidu, spowodowało jednak, że wiele rządów afrykańskich, sympatyzujących z ruchem, wstrzymało się od udzielenia poparcia secesjonistom. +Nigeria odpowiedziała początkowo na zbrojną rebelię blokadą ekonomiczną. W czerwcu 1967 zebrała siły wojskowe i rozpoczęła operację militarną. Początkowo wojska Biafry odnosiły sukcesy, wdzierając się nawet na terytorium Nigerii. Później jednak armii nigeryjskiej udawało się stopniowo zajmować kolejne tereny oderwanego regionu, zmuszając rebeliantów do kilkakrotnego przeniesienia stolicy Biafry, początkowo do miasta Aba, potem do Umuahia, na sam koniec do Owerri. +W 1970 Biafra, całkowicie spustoszona przez wojnę, była już na granicy upadku. Generał Ojukwu uciekł z kraju, a reszta terytorium Biafry powróciła do Nigerii. Ocenia się, że w trakcie konfliktu zginęło około miliona osób, głównie z powodu głodu i chorób. +Siły zbrojne. +Dowódcą sił powietrznych Biafry był polski dawny dowódca dywizjonu 303, Jan Zumbach. W czasie swojego pobytu w Biafrze zasłynął atakiem na nigeryjskie lotnisko w Makurdi, w którym śmierć poniósł szef sztabu armii nigeryjskiej. Na początku w skład sił powietrznych wchodziły dwa B-25 Mitchell, jeden A-26 Invader (pilotowany przez Zumbacha), jeden DC-3 oraz jeden Dove. W 1968 szwedzki pilot Carl Gustaf von Rosen zaproponował program MiniCOIN, polegający na wykorzystaniu zmodyfikowanej wersji lekkich samolotów szkoleniowych MFI-9 produkcji szwedzkiej. Zbudowano pięć takich maszyn, zdolnych do przenoszenia rakiet przeciwpancernych 68 mm. We wrześniu 1969 zakupiono również cztery T-6G, należące wcześniej do Francuskich Sił Powietrznych. Samoloty te służyły aż do stycznia 1970. +Azerbejdżańska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Azerbejdżańska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Azerbejdżan (ros. "Азербайджанская Советская Социалистическая Республика", azer. "Азәрбајҹан Совет Сосиалист Республикасы") - była jedną z republik ZSRR od 28 kwietnia 1920. Od 1922 do 1936 roku wchodziła w skład tego państwa jako jedna z trzech republik Zakaukaskiej FSRR (łącznie z Gruzińską SRR i Armeńską SRR). W latach 1936-1991 była bezpośrednio republiką związkową ZSRR. +W 1991 roku uzyskała niepodległość jako Azerbejdżan. +W skład Azerbejdżańskiej SRR wchodziły dwie autonomiczne jednostki: od 1923 roku Nagorno-Karabachski Obwód Autonomiczny oraz (od 1924 roku) Nachiczewańska Autonomiczna Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka. W Azerskiej SRR istniała Komunistyczna Partia Azerbejdżanu. +Estońska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Estońska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Estonia (est. "Eesti Nõukogude Sotsialistlik Vabariik", rus. "Эстонская Советская Социалистическая Республика") – republika utworzona w sierpniu 1940 roku w wyniku agresji ZSRR na Estonię w czerwcu 1940 i aneksji jej terytorium w sierpniu 1940. Przyjęta w skład ZSRR 6 sierpnia 1940, po ataku III Rzeszy na ZSRR w czerwcu 1941 roku zajęta przez Wehrmacht, pod okupacją niemiecką do 1944. Nadzieje na odbudowę państwowości estońskiej w 1941 roku i po 1945 roku nie ziściły się, jakkolwiek USA i część innych państw nie uznało aneksji Estonii przez ZSRR. +W sierpniu 1991 roku Estonia opuściła ZSRR (deklaracja suwerenności wydana została już w 1988 roku) i została uznana przez społeczność międzynarodową za niepodległe państwo. Okres Estońskiej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej uznano po 1991 roku jako prawnie niebyły i okupację oraz wrócono do uregulowań prawnych (konstytucja, kwestie obywatelstwa) z 1938 roku. +Krystyna Mokrosińska + +Krystyna Maria Mokrosińska (ur. 16 sierpnia 1942 w Warszawie) - polska dziennikarka i filmowiec, dokumentalistka, honorowy prezes Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy Polskich (SDP). +Absolwentka polonistyki na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim i podyplomowego studium dziennikarskiego na tym uniwersytecie. Następnie studiowała na Wyższej Szkole Filmowej, Teatralnej i Telewizyjnej w Łodzi na kierunku realizacja telewizyjna. +W latach 1966-1968 pracowała na Wydziale Dziennikarskim UW, potem w Telewizji Polskiej. W latach 1982-1989 ze względów politycznych została usunięta z pracy w telewizji. Po roku 1989 znów pracowała w TVP, zajmując stanowiska kierownicze w programie 2, m.in. pełniła obowiązki dyrektora TVP2, a w latach 1991-2000 była szefową Działu Form Dokumentalnych „Dwójki”. Za stworzenie cykli filmowych „Małe Ojczyzny” i “Moje miejsce” dostała nominację do „Oskara samorządowego”, film dokumentalny „W duchu i prawdzie” został wyróżniony na festiwalu w Niepokalanowie (podziękowanie od Jana Pawła II), a film „Podsłuchane życie” został nagrodzony „Melchiorem 2009”. Do najważniejszych jej filmów należą też: „Solidarność - jak zerwaliśmy żelazną kurtynę” i „Dialog z księdzem Tischnerem”. +Jest członkiem Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy Polskich od 1972 roku. W roku 1998 była wiceprezesem SDP, a od marca 2001 do października 2011 prezesem tego stowarzyszenia. Od 2011 jest Honorowym Prezesem SDP. +Członek Stowarzyszenia Wolnego Słowa. +W 2012 r. „za zasługi w działalności na rzecz niepodległości i suwerenności Polski oraz respektowania praw człowieka w PRL” została odznaczona Krzyżem Wolności i Solidarności. +Saragossa + +Saragossa (hiszp. Zaragoza) – miasto w północno-wschodniej Hiszpanii, przy ujściu rzeki Huerva i Gallego do Ebro, 700 tysięcy mieszkańców (2010), piąte co do wielkości miasto Hiszpanii. Stolica regionu Aragonia i prowincji Saragossa. Ośrodek przemysłowy, handlowy, naukowy, kulturalny i turystyczny. +Obecna nazwa miasta pochodzi od łacińskiego "Caesaraugusta", po zdobyciu miasta w VIII w. Maurowie przekształcili ją na "Medina Albaida Sarakosta", a Hiszpanie po odbiciu miasta zmodyfikowali na "Zaragoza" (w języku kastylijskim i aragońskim). +16 km na zachód od Saragossy znajduje sie port lotniczy Saragossa (IATA: ZAZ, ICAO: LEZG), który słuzy jako lotnisko cywilne i baza Hiszpańskich Sił Powietrznych. Lotnisko jest wykorzystywane przez NASA jako lądowisko awaryjne dla promów kosmicznych w przypadku TAL (Transoceanic Abort Landing). +Gospodarka. +W Saragossie znajduje się fabryka koncernu Opel zatrudniająca 6700 osób, w której produkowane są modele Corsa, Meriva i Combo. +Wystawa Światowa 2008. +W Saragossie w dniach 14.06.2008-14.09.2008 odbywała się Wystawa Światowa Expo Zaragoza 2008. Dzięki organizacji wystawy Saragossa zyskała nowoczesną infrastrukturę i prestiż Pojawiły się jednak również głosy krytyki: przed Expo 2008 znacznie wzrosły ceny nieruchomości, a w zakolu rzeki, w którym usytuowano tereny wystawowe, wycięto wiele drzew [http://www.expo-no.es/en/. +Kazachska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Kazachska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Kazachstan (ros. "Казахская Советская Социалистическая Республика", kaz. "Қазақ Кеңестік Социалистік Республикасы") - była drugą co do wielkości (po Rosyjskiej FSRR) i jednocześnie z najmniejszą gęstością zaludnienia republiką ZSRR. +Utworzono ją w 1920 roku jako Kirgiską ASRR. W 1925 przemianowano ją na Kazachską ASRR, a w 1936 r. zmieniono jej status i jako Kazachską SRR włączono bezpośrednio w skład ZSRR. +W 1991 r. uzyskała niepodległość jako Kazachstan. Stolica Kazachskiej SRR, Ałma-Ata, była do 1998 r. stolicą niepodległego Kazachstanu. Później przeniesiono stolicę do Astany. +Wdecki Park Krajobrazowy + +Wdecki Park Krajobrazowy – jeden z młodszych polskich parków. Został utworzony na mocy "Rozporządzenia Nr 52/93 Wojewody Bydgoskiego" z dnia 16 lutego 1993 r. Położony na Pojezierzu Południowopomorskim, w środkowo-wschodniej części Borów Tucholskich, w dorzeczu rzeki Wdy i jej dopływów Prusiny, Ryszki i Sobińskiej Strugi. Pod względem administracyjnym Wdecki Park Krajobrazowy znajduje się w całości na obszarze województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego. Swoim zasięgiem obejmuje dwa powiaty: świecki, w tym gminy Drzycim, Jeżewo, Lniano, Osie i Warlubie oraz powiat tucholski, w tym gminy Cekcyn i Śliwice (łącznie 7 gmin). Ok. 70% powierzchni parku leży na terenie Gminy Osie. Siedziba Zarządu Wdeckiego Parku Krajobrazowego znajduje się w Osiu. +Historia. +Po wybudowaniu elektrowni wodnej w Żurze w 1930 r. w wyniku spiętrzenia Wdy i zalania ujściowych odcinków jej dopływów powstał Zbiornik Żurski o powierzchni 440 ha. Spowodowało to podniesienie poziomu wody i połączenie rzeki Wdy z dwoma zalanymi obniżeniami terenu, tj. obecnymi jeziorami Wierzchy i Mukrza. W ten sposób na Zalewie Żurskim powstały liczne, malownicze wyspy. Najbardziej znana z nich to Madera. +Po spiętrzeniu Wdy, ekosystem tego fragmentu Borów Tucholskich uległ zmianie. Stał się siedliskiem nowych gatunków roślin i zwierząt. Dzięki temu obszar ten zwiększył swoje walory turystyczne, zwłaszcza pod względem turystyki wodnej. +Park został utworzony dnia 16 lutego 1993 na podstawie "Rozporządzenia Nr 52/93 Wojewody Bydgoskiego z dnia 16.02.1993 r. w sprawie powołania Wdeckiego Parku Krajobrazowego" +Flora. +Lasy stanowią ok. 60% powierzchni parku. W zdecydowanej większości są to zbiorowiska boru świeżego, z przewagą drzewostanu w postaci sosny zwyczajnej i brzozy brodawkowatej. Na szczególną uwagę wśród rozległych borów sosnowych zasługuje kępa dąbrowy z największym w Europie Środkowej skupiskiem jarzębu brekinii. Licznie reprezentowany jest także bór chrobotkowy oraz bór bagienny. W wyniku działalności człowieka las niegdyś o charakterze puszczańskim przekształcił się w typowy bór. Mimo tego w dolinach rzek i strumieni, na stromych zboczach rzecznych, w zagłębieniach pozostających stale pod wpływem wód powierzchniowych i gruntowych zachowały się lasy liściaste oraz niezwykle rzadkie torfowiska źródliskowe. +Spotykane są również cenne gatunki roślin wpisane do Czerwonej Księgi, np. +Od niedawna do listy rzadko spotykanych roślin występujących na terenie parku dopisano arcydzięgiel litwor – spotykany głównie na terenach górzystych, m.in. w Sudetach i Karpatach. +Fauna. +Zróżnicowanie ekosystemu sprzyja występowaniu rzadkich, nawet w skali kraju, gatunków zwierząt. +Ssaki. +Bory sosnowe zasiedlane są przez stosunkowo niewielką liczbę zwierząt kręgowych. Schronienie dla saren, jeleni, danieli i dzików stanowią więc lasy liściaste i mieszane. +Obiekty architektoniczne. +Nad rzeką Wdą, w okolicach wsi Leosia znajduje się betonowo-ceglany most kolejowy o wysokości ok. 27 m oraz punkt widokowy. +Kirgiska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Kirgiska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Kirgizja (ros. "Киргизская Советская Социалистическая Республика", kirg. "Кыргыз Советтик Социалисттик Республикасы") – była republiką ZSRR w latach 1936-1991. Powstała z przekształcenia istniejącej od 1926 r. Kirgiskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej, która z kolei została utworzona z powstałego w 1924 r. Kara-Kirgiskiego Obwodu Autonomicznego. +W 1991 r. Kirgiska SRR zyskała niepodległość jako Kirgistan, a nazwa stolicy kraju, Frunze została przemianowana na Biszkek. Prezydent Kirgiskiej SRR (od 1990 r.), Askar Akajew był także prezydentem niepodległego Kirgistanu do 2005 r. +Koń wielkopolski + +Koń wielkopolski – jest szlachetnym (gorącokrwistym) koniem wierzchowym, hodowanym w Polsce, użytkowanym w sporcie i rekreacji jeździeckiej. Rasa ta powstała na skutek uszlachetniania miejscowego pogłowia końmi niemieckimi i innymi zachodnimi na ziemiach dawnego zaboru pruskiego. Rasa wywodzi się z dawnych ośrodków hodowlanych w Sierakowie, Gnieźnie i Starogardzie . . +Pokrój. +Koń w typie półkrwi angielskiej, podobny do trakeńskiego. Głowa szlachetna, szyja długa i prawidłowo osadzona. Właściwe dla koni wierzchowych długie łopatki, kłąb wyraźnie zaznaczony. Kłoda zwięzła, głęboka. Mocny, ścięty, doskonale umięśniony zad. Solidne, długie i suche kończyny, bez szczotek pęcinowych. Dobre chody, zadowalające zdolności skokowe. Występują wszystkie maści. Wysokość w kłębie: 165 cm i więcej. Obwód klatki piersiowej: 170-210 cm. +Hodowla. +Główne ośrodki hodowli to stadniny koni w: Racocie, Książu, Gnieźnie, Starogardzie Gdańskim, Partynicach, Strzelcach Opolskich (zlikwidowana), Stadnina Koni Liski, Stadnina Koni Pępowo, Stadnina Koni Dobrzyniewo, Stadnina Koni Kadyny, Stadnina Koni Plękity, Stadnina Koni Rzeczna, Stadnina Koni Posadowo (zlikwidowana), Stadnina Koni Żołędnica (zlikwidowana). +Transatlantyk (statek) + +Transatlantyk - statek pasażerski kursujący na ustalonych liniach żeglugowych. Nazwa pochodzi od statków obsługujących połączenia pomiędzy USA i Europą, przemierzających Ocean Atlantycki. Największe liniowe statki pasażerskie walczyły o Błękitną Wstęgę Atlantyku, a jej zdobycie oznaczało wzrost prestiżu i liczby pasażerów szukających jak najszybszych połączeń w żegludze z Europy do Stanów Zjednoczonych i Kanady. +Najsławniejszym transatlantykiem w historii był "Titanic", który zderzył się z górą lodową i zatonął 15 kwietnia 1912 podczas dziewiczego rejsu. Era transatlantyków trwała około 130 lat i minęła bezpowrotnie wraz z wprowadzeniem transatlantyckiej łączności lotniczej, co nastąpiło w latach sześćdziesiątych XX wieku. Wówczas tradycyjne transatlantyki zastąpiły wycieczkowce, których najwyższym atrybutem jest nie prędkość, a komfort i luksus, jaki można zapewnić pasażerom spragnionym odpoczynku na najatrakcyjniejszych turystycznie akwenach. +Akwen. +Ocean Atlantycki ma 106,5 mln km² powierzchni, jest więc drugim co do wielkości oceanem świata po Pacyfiku. Jest równocześnie oceanem najbardziej rozczłonkowanym i urozmaiconym, a to ze względu na mnogość jego mórz i zatok oraz rozmiaru szelfu kontynentalnego, co sprawia, że jest jednocześnie oceanem najpłytszym (średnia głębokość 3332 m). +Atlantyk jest zbiornikiem bardzo wydłużonym południkowo i stosunkowo wąskim: odległość pomiędzy Freetown w Sierra Leone a przylądkiem São Roque w Brazylii wynosi zaledwie 2840 km. Ten wydłużony a przewężony kształt tworzy wyraźny podział na Atlantyk Północny ze znaczną liczbą należących doń mórz (Śródziemne, Północne, Bałtyk, Celtyckie i in.) i Atlantyk Południowy ze słabo urzeźbioną linią brzegową. +Atlantyk Północny jest akwenem wyjątkowym pod jeszcze jednym względem: w dobie transatlantyków jego brzegi zajmowały najpotężniejsze gospodarczo kraje świata, a więc rola tej części Wszechoceanu jako łącznika między Europą i Ameryką Północną stawiała ją zdecydowanie na pierwszym miejscu wśród wszystkich oceanów. +Szlaki transatlantyckie. +Główny szlak, wiodący z Europy do Nowego Jorku i z powrotem, na którym rozgrywał się nieustający wyścig o Błękitną Wstęgę Atlantyku, prowadził od wylotu kanału La Manche (latarnia morska Bishop Rock) do latarniowca "Nantucket", a następnie do ujścia rzeki Hudson (latarniowiec "Ambrose"), gdzie przyjmowano pilota, by przy jego pomocy wejść do portu nowojorskiego. +Szlak, na odcinku od Bishop Rock do południowego krańca Wielkiej Ławicy Nowofundlandzkiej wiódł według obranej (zależnie od pory roku i pogody) ortodromy, przy czym trasy w kierunku wschodnim biegły nieco bardziej na południe od tych w kierunku zachodnim. Długość trasy wahała się więc od 2708/2735 Mm (1 lipca – 10 kwietnia) do 2769/2806 (11 kwietnia – 30 czerwca). W wyjątkowo niesprzyjających warunkach (dużo gór lodowych) wybierano trasę jeszcze dłuższą: 2848 Mm. +Obok szlaku głównego istniały dwa dodatkowe: "Droga Północna" i "Droga Słoneczna". Pierwsza z nich (korzystały z niej m.in. polskie transatlantyki) wiedzie z Morza Północnego wokół Szkocji, przez cieśninę Pentland Firth i dalej ortodromą j.w. Druga to szlak wakacyjny, wiodący z i na Morze Śródziemne. +Historia. +Bocznokołowce. +Żegluga transatlantycka zapoczątkowana została z końcem XV wieku i rozwijała się coraz dynamiczniej, ale prawdziwy rozkwit nastąpił w XIX wieku, wraz z wprowadzeniem napędu mechanicznego. Prekursorem przyszłych transatlantyków był bocznokołowiec "Savannah", który w roku 1819 przebył Atlantyk docierając do Liverpoolu po 28 dniach i 11 godzinach, częściowo przy pomocy maszyny parowej. +W roku 1838 Isambard Kingdom Brunel zbudował dla specjalnie utworzonej firmy "Great Western Steamship Company" statek "Great Western", którego dwie maszyny parowe o łącznej mocy 750 KM dawały prędkość do 10 w. Ten pierwszy prawdziwy transatlantyk miał kabiny dla 120 pasażerów w klasie I, 20 w klasie II, a mógł przewieźć jeszcze dodatkowo 100 osób. Załoga liczyła 60 ludzi. "Great Western" miał być pierwszym statkiem, który przepłynie Atlantyk bez użycia żagli - tylko przy pomocy silnika parowego. Konkurencyjna firma "British and American Steam Navigation Company" zamówiła w tym samym celu statek "British Queen", ale jego budowa się przedłużyła. Wyczarterowała więc mały bocznokołowiec "Sirius" i wysłała go do Nowego Jorku 4 kwietnia 1838 r., cztery dni przed rozpoczęciem podróży przez "Great Western", którego zatrzymał na Tamizie pożar maszynowni. 22 kwietnia 1938 r. "Sirius", którego załoga paliła już pod kotłami drewnianym wyposażeniem statku, ponieważ zabrakło węgla, wszedł do portu w Nowym Jorku jako pierwszy w historii statek, który pokonał Atlantyk samą siłą maszyn. Powitany został salwami honorowymi okrętów. Dużo szybszy "Great Western" wszedł do portu kilka godzin po nim, tracąc prestiż pierwszego transatlantyku, chociaż oczywiście od razu pobił oceaniczny rekord prędkości. +W tym samym roku Admiralicja ogłosiła przetarg na regularne przewozy poczty z Wielkiej Brytanii do Ameryki Północnej. Zainteresował się tym Samuel Cunard, przedsiębiorca kanadyjski, który stworzył "Brytyjską i Północnoamerykańską Królewską Parowcową Kompanię Pocztową" ("British and North American Royal Mail Steam Packet Company") w Halifax. Firma wygrała przetarg, co pozwoliło jej na używanie skrótu RMS ("Royal Mail Ship") przed nazwami statków. Niedługo potem firma zmieniła nazwę na "Cunard Steamships Limited". +W okresie bocznokołowców na Atlantyku Cunard miał łącznie 14 statków. Jednak istnienie subwencjonowanej przez rząd brytyjski firmy spedycyjnej oznaczało straty dla innych. W Stanach Zjednoczonych uznano to za wyzwanie, którego nie wolno ignorować. Podobne obawy rodziły się w innych krajach europejskich, zainteresowanych wspieraniem emigracji do Ameryki. Powstały więc, podobne do Cunarda, wspierane przez rządy firmy w Belgii i we Francji, ale zamiast zysków przynosiły wyłącznie straty i wkrótce upadły. W USA w roku 1845 Kongres przyjął ustawę o subwencjonowaniu żeglugi parowej i ogłosił przetarg na przewóz poczty. +Przetarg wygrał Edward Knight Collins, armator z Nowego Jorku. W krótkim czasie powołał do życia spółkę z kapitałem miliona dolarów. Za te pieniądze zbudowano cztery statki. Były to, w odróżnieniu od konstrukcji dotychczasowych, jednostki płaskodenne (a więc mogące zawijać do portów Wschodniego Wybrzeża nawet w czasie odpływu) i szybkie. Nie okazały się jednak dość bezpieczne: miały drewniane kadłuby niepodzielone grodziami wodoszczelnymi. Collins nie miał też szczęścia: w roku 1854 jego "Arctic" zderzył sie w mgle z francuskim statkiem "Vesta" i zatonął; wśród 322 ofiar była żona i dwoje dzieci Collinsa. W dwa lata później zaginął bez wieści "Pacific" – przypuszczano, że zderzył się z górą lodową. W rezultacie firma straciła subwencje rządowe, a w 1858 roku Collins Line przestała istnieć. +W czasie trwania wojny krymskiej wypróbowano na Atlantyku nowy, żelazny bocznokołowiec "Persia". Rozwijał prędkość 14 w. i zdobył dla Cunard Line w swej dziwiczej podróży Błękitną Wstęgę osiągając Nowy Jork w 9 dni i 12 godzin. Ten rekord utrzymał do roku 1862. +Ostatnim bocznokołowcem jaki pływał przez Atlantyk był zbudowany w roku 1866 w Wielkiej Brytanii według francuskiego projektu "Napoleon III" o wyporności 3376 BRT. Zatonął po zderzeniu w kanale La Manche w listopadzie 1873. Tak więc bocznokołowce (od "Savannah" do "Napoleona III") przemierzały Ocean Atlantycki przez 54 lata. +Era śrubowców. +Pierwszym transatlantykiem o napędzie śrubowym i na dodatek o całkowicie żelaznej konstrukcji, był "Great Britain" Brunela, który w pierwszy swój rejs do Nowego Jorku wyruszył w 1845 roku. Nie zachwycił ani wyglądem, ani osiągami, ale dowiódł wyższości żelaznych śrubowców nad żaglowcami i kołowcami: podczas swego dziewiczego rejsu, mimo silnego sztormu, posuwał się naprzód z prędkością 8 w.; gdy wylądował na skałach u wybrzeży Irlandii dało się go ściągnąć na wodę i uratować. +Na szlaku transatlantyckim wciąż któlowali armatorzy brytyjscy. Czołowała Cunard Line, ale obok istniały inne silne przedsiębiorstwa, jak Inman Line, Allan Line, Anchor Line, a nieco później dołączyła White Star Line. Pojawiali się okresowo armatorzy niemieccy i tylko Amerykanie nie okazywali zainteresowania żeglugą transoceaniczną. Dopiero w 1886 roku kapitał amerykański przejął upadającą Inman Line. Nowi właściciele zmodernizowali stare statki, budując jednocześnie nowe. W 1888 powstał parowiec "City of New York" o pojemności 10 499 RT i rozwijający prędkość aż 20 w. Zdobył Błękitną Wstęgę Atlantyku, ale rekord odebrał mu siostrzany "City of Paris". Po takich sukcesach właściciele zdecydowali się zmienić nazwę firmy i w ten sposób w roku 1893 powstała pierwsza amerykańska firma armatorska American Line. +Wyścig gigantów. +Pod koniec XIX wieku na Atlantyku pojawiły się niemieckie firmy armatorskie. "Kaiser Wilhelm der Große", który powstał w stoczni Vulcan w Szczecinie, prawie natychmiast powalił przeciwników. Został zwodowany 4 maja 1897 roku, a swój pierwszy rejs odbył 19 września tego samego roku na trasie z Bremerhaven do Nowego Jorku. W momencie zwodowania był największym statkiem, jaki kiedykolwiek zbudowano i pierwszym transatlantykiem o czterech kominach (na przełomie XIX i XX wieku "czterokominowce" uznawane były za statki najbardziej prestiżowe, stąd konstruktorzy dodawali czwarty komin, wentylacyjny). "Kaiser Wilhelm der Große" był pierwszym niemieckim statkiem, któremu udało się zdobyć Błękitną Wstęgę Atlantyku, czego dokonał 29 listopada 1897 roku. W sumie cztery niemieckie czterokominowce zbudowane w Szczecinie biły rekordy: "Kaiser Wilhelm der Große", "Deutschland", "Kronprinz Wilhelm" i "Kaiser Wilhelm II" (piątym była "Kronprinzessin Cecilie"). Ten ostatni był też ostatnim rekordzistą Atlantyku napędzanym tłokową maszyną parową. +Cunard Line odzyskała "wstęgę" dopiero w 1907, kiedy to na atlantycki szlak ruszyła "Lusitania". Statek ten, podobnie jak bliźniacza "Mauretania" napędzany był już jednak turbinami parowymi, co dawało większe możliwości osiągania dużych prędkości. Te dwa statki doprowadziły rekord prędkości na Atlantyku do 30 węzłów. Konkurencyjna White Star Line zamówiła zaś większe o połowę statki "Olympic" i "Titanic", które miały napęd mieszany (dwie śruby napędzane silnikami parowymi, jedna - środkowa, pracująca tylko przy biegu naprzód - turbiną). Były więc wolniejsze, a słynna katastrofa "Titanica" w 1912 r. dowiodła słabej manewrowości mieszanego napędu, przy którym trudno było uzyskać bieg wstecz. +Katastrofa "Titanica" 14 kwietnia 1912 r. była najtragiczniejsza w historii żeglugi transatlantyckiej (ponad 1500 ofiar), jednakże już dwa lata później miała miejsce podobna "Empress of Ireland" zatonął 29 maja 1914 r. z ponad 1000 ofiar wskutek zderzenia na rzece Świętego Wawrzyńca w rejsie do Europy. +Transatlantyki budowano w opisywanym okresie najczęściej parami, po dwa bliźniacze, z założeniem, że będą one pływały na tej samej trasie, płynąc jednocześnie w przeciwnych kierunkach. Rzadziej na linii pływały trzy statki, dając jeszcze szybszą obsługę. Przy budowie bliźniaczych, rekordowo dużych statków następny był zawsze minimalnie większy od poprzedniego, aby można było ze względów reklamowych za każdym razem ogłaszać, że wybudowano największy statek świata (tak było np. w przypadku "Olympica" i "Titanica", a wcześniej stosowali tę metodę Niemcy podczas budowy transatlantyków w Szczecinie). +Niemcy odpowiedzieli tuż przed I wojną światową budową trzech wielkich, trzykominowych transatlantyków (era czterokominowców już się kończyła, łącznie zbudowano ich 12) - "Imperator", "Vaterland" i "Bismarck". Komunikację transatlantycką przerwała wojna, w trakcie której zatonęły m.in. "Lusitania" (storpedowana przez okręt podwodny), "Britannic" zbudowany jako trzeci bliźniak "Olympica" i "Titanica" (nie zdążył wejść do eksploatacji w czasie pokoju, zatonął na minach koło Krety jako statek szpitalny) i "Kaiser Wilhelm der Große" (zatopiony jako krążownik pomocniczy). +Ze słynnych transatlantyków przetrwały "Olympic" (który zasłynął nawet skutecznym staranowaniem i zatopieniem niemieckiego U-boota), "Mauretania", oddana w czasie wojny do eksploatacji "Aquitania" (ostatni brytyjski czterokominowiec, przetrwał również II wojnę światową) oraz trzy nowo zbudowane statki niemieckie, które przejęte zostały jako odszkodowania przez Cunard Line {"Imperator", nazwany "Berengaria"), United States Lines ("Vaterland", nazwany "Leviathan") i White Star Line ("Bismarck", nazwany "Majestic"). Brytyjczycy przejęli też niemal gotowy, zwodowany przed wojną niemiecki transatlantyk "Columbus" i pływał on w barwach Cunard Line jako "Homeric"; jego bliźniak, który miał się nazywać "Hindenburg", został po wojnie przez Niemców dokończony i to on pływał ostatecznie pod nazwą "Columbus". +Wojnę przetrwał też jedyny francuski czterokominowiec "France", któremu po wojnie jako partnera wybudowano nowszy statek "Ile de France" - pierwszy transatlantyk, który miał stałą kaplicę. Ten drugi pływał przez wiele lat i jeszcze w 1956 r. zasłynął w czasie ratowania rozbitków ze statku "Andrea Doria". +Na początku lat trzydziestych XX w. na Atlantyku pojawiły się pierwsze statki z kotłami opalanymi ropą, na ten rodzaj napędu stopniowo przebudowywano potem również inne transatlantyki. Niemieckie transatlantyki "Bremen" i "Europa" odebrały "Mauretanii" posiadany przez nią od wielu lat rekord prędkości. Wkrótce do wyścigu włączyły się Włochy, budując statek "Rex" - także on był posiadaczem rekordu prędkości, a bliźniaczy "Conte di Savoia" był pierwszym transatlantykiem z urządzeniami przeciwprzechyłowymi (zresztą nieudanej konstrukcji). Natomiast nie rozpowszechnił się wówczas wśród transatlantyków napęd dieslowski, głównie dlatego, że silniki Diesla (ówczesnej konstrukcji) powodowały uciążliwy dla pasażerów hałas i były bardziej zawodne, natomiast napęd parowy (zarówno tłokowy, jak i tym bardziej turbinowy) są stosunkowo ciche. +W latach trzydziestych XX w. na Atlantyku pojawiły się polskie statki pasażerskie, eksploatowane przez Polskie Transatlantyckie Towarzystwo Okrętowe, przekształcone później w Gdynia-Ameryka Linie Żeglugowe. +Kolejnymi rekordowymi statkami były wybudowane w połowie lat trzydziestych XX w. "Queen Mary" i "Normandie". Były największymi statkami świata, o wyporności około 80.000 ton. "Queen Mary" zbudowana została dzięki brytyjskiej subwencji rządowej, której warunkiem było połączenie Cunard Line i White Star Line w linię "Cunard White Star" - potocznie jednak używano nadal nazwy Cunard. "Normandie" była statkiem francuskiego Companie Generale Transatlantique. Oba statki odbierały sobie kilkakrotnie rekord prędkości. Trzeci olbrzym, "Queen Elizabeth" ukończony został już w 1940 r., podczas II wojny światowej. +Wyścig o tytuł najszybszego trwał do roku 1952, kiedy to pojawił się na Atlantyku amerykański superliniowiec "United States", który pobił wszystkie rekordy w swej dziewiczej podróży. Osiągnął ponad 35 węzłów (przeszedł Atlantyk w tzy i pół doby), a jego możliwości były jeszcze większe, gdyż był budowany w czasie "zimnej wojny" jako ewentualny szybki transportowiec wojska. Rekordu tego już nie atakowano, gdyż było to nieopłacalne ekonomicznie, nadto wkrótce ilość osób podróżujących przez Atlantyk samolotami przekroczyła ilość pasażerów statków. +Ostatnim transatlantykiem regularnie pływającym na linii międzykontynentalnej był polski TSS Stefan Batory, który zakończył służbę na linii Gdynia - Montreal w 1988 roku. Epoka transatlantyków trwała więc równo 150 lat (1838 - 1988). +Tarkwiniusz Pyszny + +Tarkwiniusz Pyszny, "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus" (żył na przełomie VI i V wieku p.n.e) – według przyjętej tradycji siódmy i ostatni król rzymski pochodzenia etruskiego (535 p.n.e. – 509 p.n.e.). Syn lub wnuk Tarkwiniusza Starszego, ożeniony z córką Serwiusza – Tulią. +Aby zdobyć władzę, ożenił się z królewską córką, ale szybko przekonał się, że jest ona bardziej lojalna względem ojca niż męża. Owdowiawszy Tarkwiniusz ożenił się ze swoją owdowiałą szwagierką. Prawdopodobnie brał udział w spisku i przyczynił się śmierci poprzedniego króla Serwiusza. +Wybudował na wzgórzu Kapitolu wielką świątynię w stylu etruskim, która stała się wzorem dla wszystkich późniejszych świątyń rzymskich; ustawiona była na podwyższeniu i zdobiona malowanymi dekoracjami z terakoty; czczona w niej była triada bóstw: Jupiter (posąg wykonał słynny etruski rzeźbiarz Wulka), Minerwa i Junona. Walczył z ludem Wolsków. Sprawował rządy despotyczne. +Nabył od Sybilli z Kume tzw. Księgi sybillińskie. Legenda mówi, że sama Sybilla zaoferowała królowi dziewięć ksiąg, mówiąc, że ten, kto prawidłowo zinterpretuje ich tekst, pozna przyszłość. Tarkwiniusz odpowiedział, że cena za księgi jest zbyt wysoka, wtedy Sybilla zniszczyła trzy z nich i zażądała za resztę tej samej ceny. Tarkwiniusz znowu odmówił zakupu, a Sybilla zniszczyła kolejne trzy i powtórzyła tę samą cenę. Król kupił wreszcie trzy księgi za cenę, za którą ofiarowano mu dziewięć ksiąg. Księgi te przechowywano w specjalnie wybudowanej świątyni i można było z nich korzystać jedynie w chwilach największego zagrożenia dla Rzymu. +Tarkwiniusz Pyszny był władcą despotycznym. Miał dwóch okrutnych synów, a jednego z nich podobno szykował na swojego następcę - tym samym zrywając z tradycją, że kolejnych królów wybierają sami Rzymianie. Jeden z synów, Sekstus Tarkwiniusz, goszcząc w domu krewniaka Lucjusza Tarkwiniusza Kollatyna zgwałcił jego żonę Lukrecję. Lukrecja, powszechnie uważana za cnotliwą, nie mogąc znieść hańby popełniła samobójstwo - przeszywając swoją pierś sztyletem. Śmierć Lukrecji była bezpośrednią przyczyną wybuchu powstania pod wodzą Lucjusza Juniusza Brutusa. Tarkwiniusz Pyszny został wypędzony z Rzymu, a monarchia obalona - Rzym stał się republiką. Tarkwiniusz chcąc powrócić do Rzymu, zastał bramy miasta przed sobą zamknięte. Rzymianie, a dokładnie comitia centuriata wybrało Brutusa i Kollatyna na pierwszych konsulów. +Tarkwiniusz schronił się u króla etruskiego Larsa Porsenny i snuł plany powrotu na tron. W Rzymie wciąż miał zwolenników, którzy przygotowywali jego powrót. Między nimi byli podobno nawet dwaj synowie Brutusa - Tytus i Tyberiusz. Spisek jednak odkryto, a wszystkich spiskowców bez wyjątku ubiczowano na śmierć. Cały majątek byłego władcy, tzn. pola podmiejskie, zostały poświęcone bogu Marsowi i przeszły we władanie państwa - odtąd nazwane "Polami Marsowymi". Tarkwiniusz, nie dając za wygraną, sprowadził na Rzym oddziały Etrusków. Miasto zdołało odeprzeć wroga, ale w jednej z bitew zginął konsul Brutus. Ostatnia próba odzyskania władzy wiąże się z Porsenną, którego armia zepchnęła Rzymian za Tybr, zająwszy wzgórze na prawym brzegu rzeki, późniejsze przedmieście Janikulum (miejsce, gdzie według tradycji ukrzyżowany został święty Piotr). Dzięki odwadze Horacjusza Koklesa i Mucjusza Scewoli Rzym obroniono. +Tarkwiniusz zmarł na wygnaniu w Kume w Kampanii w 496 p.n.e. +Do jego legendy nawiązuje opera "Muzio Scevola", w której Tarkwiniusz jest jedną z postaci. +Aperitif + +Aperitif (fr. "apéritif", wł. "aperitivo") – napój alkoholowy o zawartości alkoholu 18-35%, mieszanina różnych nalewów na zioła i korzenie z dodatkiem destylatów. Podawany przed posiłkiem dla pobudzenia apetytu. Pije się go na stojąco. +Nazwą aperitif, zwłaszcza we Francji, określa się rodzaj napoju alkoholowego (pije się go przed posiłkiem w celu pobudzenia apetytu) wraz z towarzyszącymi im przekąskami, takimi jak orzeszki ziemne, pistacje, czipsy. +Nie ma jednego rodzaju alkoholu, który można by określać mianem aperitifu. W różnych krajach inne są jednak preferencje i inny rodzaj alkoholu jest głównie serwowany jako aperitif. We Włoszech na przykład jest to wermut, we Francji pastis, w Hiszpanii porto, w Grecji ouzo. +Tadżycka Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Tadżycka Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Tadżykistan (ros. "Таджикская Советская Социалистическая Республика", tadż. "Республикаи Советии Социалистии Тоҷикистон") była jedną z republik ZSRR. +Po ustanowieniu władzy radzieckiej terytorium kraju weszło w skład Turkiestańskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej (w składzie Rosyjskiej Federacyjnej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej). +14 października 1924 r. powstała Tadżycka Autonomiczna Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, znajdująca się w obrębie Uzbeckiej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej. +5 grudnia 1929 r. zmieniono status Tadżyckiej ASRR i ogłoszono powstanie Tadżyckiej SRR - pełnoprawnej republiki ZSRR. Pozostała ona w składzie Związku Radzieckiego do 26 grudnia 1991 r., kiedy to uzyskała niepodległość jako Republika Tadżykistanu. +Od 2 stycznia 1925 w ramach Tadżyckiej ASRR, a potem Tadżyckiej SRR istniał Gorno-Badachszański Obwód Autonomiczny. +Malaga (wino) + +Malaga - słodkie, deserowe wino hiszpańskie z podsuszonych winogron (o tej samej nazwie), o charakterystycznej gęstej konsystencji. Pochodzi z okolic miasta Málaga. +Pleśniawki + +Pleśniawka - powierzchowna infekcja błony śluzowej jamy ustnej drożdżakiem "Candida albicans". Występują one w jamie ustnej, na języku i na podniebieniu w postaci białych plamek przypominających ścięte mleko. Pojedyncze plamki mogą zlewać się w większe wysepki, niekiedy tworzy się jednolita biała warstwa grzyba, który jest przyczyną pleśniawek, tak, że cała błona śluzowa pokryta jest białym kożuchem. W niektórych przypadkach zakażenie może przejść na przełyk, krtań, tchawicę i oskrzela. +Leczenie polega na pędzlowaniu błony śluzowej kilka razy w ciągu dnia 1% roztworem fioletu krystalicznego (gencjany) lub 25% roztworem boraksu w glicerynie z wodą. +Camillo Golgi + +Bartolomeo Camillo Emilio Golgi (ur. 7 lipca 1843 w Corteno, zm. 21 stycznia 1926 w Pawii) – włoski lekarz patolog, profesor Uniwersytetu w Pawii, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie fizjologii lub medycyny (1906), wspólnie z Santiago Ramónem y Cajalem. Autor licznych prac poświęconych histologii układu nerwowego, twórca własnej szkoły histologicznej. Opracował nowe metody barwienia preparatów histologicznych (metody Golgiego). Odkrył strukturę komórkową, nazwaną na jego cześć aparatem Golgiego. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w Corteno w Lombardii (dziś Corteno Golgi) jako Camillini Golgi (w dzieciństwie zmienił imię na Camillo). Był trzecim spośród czterech synów miejscowego lekarza Alessandro Golgiego i jego żony Caroliny z domu Papini. Studiował medycynę na Uniwersytecie w Pawii, tytuł doktora medycyny otrzymał w 1865 roku. Jego nauczycielami byli Paolo Mantegazza, Giulio Bizzozero i Eusebio Oehl. Jeszcze na studiach pracował jako intern w Instytucie Psychiatrii u Cesare Lombroso. Po studiach odbył staż w Ospedale di San Matteo w Pawii. Praktykował też jako chirurg w Ospedale Maggiore della Carità w Novarze i brał udział w zwalczaniu epidemii cholery w okolicach Pawii. W latach 1867 and 1868 na stanowisku asystenta w Ospedale di San Matteo. Wtedy rozpoczął bliższą współpracę z Giulio Bizzozero. Mimo pewnych sukcesów i zdobytej pozycji w środowisku naukowym Pawii nie uzyskał posady na uczelni. Z powodu trudności finansowych, pod presją ojca, przerwał akademicką karierę i od 1 czerwca 1872 podjął dobrze płatną pracę w Pie case degli Incurabili w Abbiategrasso. Z dala od ośrodków akademickich, kontynuował jednak pracę naukową w skromnym laboratorium urządzonym przez siebie w kuchni. +W 1875 przeniósł się do Pawii, w 1876 został mianowany profesorem histologii. W 1881 otrzymał katedrę patologii ogólnej na Uniwersytecie w Pawii. Był dziekanem wydziału medycyny na tej uczelni, a później także rektorem. W 1918 przeszedł na emeryturę. +W 1877 ożenił się z Liną Aletti, siostrzenicą Giulio Bizzozero. Nie mieli dzieci, adoptowali siostrzenicę Golgiego, Carolinę Golgi-Papini, i syna bratowej Golgiego, Aldo Perroncito. +Zmarł 21 stycznia 1926 z powodu grypy powikłanej posocznicą, został pochowany na Cimitero Monumentale di Pavia. W pobliżu jego grobu znajdują się mogiły Bartolomeo Panizzy i Adelchiego Negriego. +Uznanie. +Nagroda Nobla. +W 1906 Golgi i Santiago Ramón y Cajal zostali nagrodzeni Nagrodą Nobla za prace nad budową układu nerwowego. +Inne nagrody i wyróżnienia. +W 1881 został mianowany członkiem korespondentem Królewskiej Akademii Nauk w Turynie. W 1893 przyznano mu Nagrodę Riberiego (premio Riberi) Akademii Medycznej w Turynie. Odznaczony Pour le Mérite w klasie pokojowej (1914). W 1900 roku został mianowany senatorem przez króla Włoch Humberta I. W 1923 uroczyście obchodzono 80. urodziny Golgiego, z tej okazji został wyróżniony nagrodą Insignito del Gran Cordone Mauriziano, wręczoną mu osobiście przez Mussoliniego. +Był profesorem honoris causa Uniwersytetu w Cambrige (1898), Uniwersytetu w Genewie (1909), Uniwersytetu w Kristianii (1912), Uniwersytetu w Atenach (1912) i Sorbony (1923). +Upamiętnienie. +Miejsce narodzin Golgiego od 1956 nosi nazwę Corteno Golgi. Znajduje się tu małe muzeum, w którym przechowywane są m.in. mikroskop i pamiątki związane z Golgim, a także brązowe popiersie. Na terenie uniwersytetu w Pawii postawiono marmurowy pomnik Golgiego. W Muzeum w Pawii znajduje się sala jego imienia. W Abiattegrasso znajduje się Istituto Geriatrico "Camillo Golgi". W Policlinico San Matteo w Pawii znajduje się popiersie uczonego. +W 1962 pierwszy znaczek pocztowy z Golgim wydała poczta kubańska (Scott no 757). W 1994 poczta włoska wydała pamiątkowy znaczek z portretem Golgiego (Scott no 1976). W 1977 znaczek z Golgim wydała poczta Komorów (Scott no A52), 1995 roku znaczek z Golgim wydała poczta Togo, w 1995 Dominika (Scott no 2003), Butan w 2000 (Scott no A171). Znaczek honorujący Golgiego, Cajala i Moissana został wydany w Szwecji w 1966 (Scott no. 711). +Dorobek naukowy. +Pierwszy artykuł Golgiego został opublikowany w 1869 i rozwijał tezę Lombroso, że zaburzenia psychiczne mogą być wywołane przez zmiany organiczne w określonych ośrodkach nerwowych. +Badania nad malarią. +Badania Golgiego i innych włoskich badaczy malarii (Grassiego, Bignamiego, Bastianelliego, Celliego, Marchiafavy) w latach 1885-1892 wyjaśniły cykl rozwojowy zarodźców. określany w dawnej literaturze jako cykl Golgiego. W latach 1885 i 1886 rozróżnił trzeciaczkę i czwartaczkę, a w latach 1889 i 1900, wspólnie z Marchiafavą, dokładniej opisał różnice między tymi postaciami choroby. Związek czasowy między podziałem pasożytów a wzrostem gorączki znana jest jako prawo Golgiego. +Badania układu nerwowego. +16 lutego 1873 Golgi w liście do przyjaciela Nicolò Manfrediego po raz pierwszy przedstawił swoje odkrycie rewolucyjnej techniki barwienia układu nerwowego. W tym samym roku ukazała się praca, w której ten opisał wymyślona przez siebie metodę barwienia preparatów neurohistologicznych przy pomocy soli metali ciężkich. W zastosowanej przez siebie "czarnej reakcji" ("reazione nera") do utwardzenia preparatów zastosowano dwuchromian potasu, a następnie wybarwienie przy pomocy azotanu srebra. +W 1874 po raz pierwszy wykorzystał swoją metodę w pracy kliniczno-patologicznej, opisując zmiany w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym w przypadku pląsawicy. W 1875 w jednej z prac opisujących rezultaty doświadczeń z nową techniką barwienia, Golgi opisał zaobserwowane przez siebie komórki nerwowe w opuszkach węchowych. Wciąż stosuje się wprowadzony przez niego podział na komórki typu I (Golgiego I, neurony projekcyjne) i typu II (Golgiego II, interneurony). +W 1878 opisał proprioceptory, struktury ścięgien, nazwane na jego cześć organami ścięgnistymi Golgiego. W tym samym roku opisał ciałka, zwane dziś ciałkami Golgiego–Mazzoniego. +W latach 1878-79 opracował kolejną metodę barwienia, wykorzystującą dwuchromian potasu i sublimat. W 1891 niewielką zmianę tej metody wprowadził Willem Hendrik Cox – chlorek rtęci został dodany do pierwotnego utrwalacza. Jako metoda Golgiego-Coxa stosowana jest do dziś. +W 1879 opisał struktury osłonek mielinowych, nazywane dziś aparatem Golgiego–Rezzonico. +W 1883 roku ukazała się praca poświęcona histologii hipokampa (rogu Ammona). +W 1885 ukazała się monografia poświęcona histologii ośrodkowego układu nerwowego. +Aparat Golgiego. +W kwietniu 1898 opisał struktury komórek nerwowych, obecnie znane jako aparat Golgiego. Istnieją kontrowersje co do pierwszeństwa tego odkrycia; uważa się, że przed Golgim dokonał tego Adolph Freiherr von La Valette-St. George, który odkrył je w gametach ślimaków w 1867. +Inne. +W 1892 i 1893, niezależnie od Erika Müllera, opisał cewki w ścianie gruczołów żołądka, nazywane cewkami Mullera-Golgiego. +Uczniowie Golgiego. +Uczniami Golgiego byli m.in. Adelchi Negri, Emilio Veratti, Ottorino Rossi, Aldo Perroncito, Ferruccio Tartuferi, Giovanni Marenghi , Edoardo Gemelli, Antonio Pensa, Vittorio Marchi, Achille Monti, Luigi Sala, Casimiro Mondino, Carlo Martinotti. Uczniem Golgiego był późniejszy Noblista Fridtjof Nansen. +Marburg + +Marburg (do 1977 "Marburg an der Lahn") – miasto powiatowe w Niemczech, w kraju związkowym Hesja, w rejencji Gießen, siedziba powiatu Marburg-Biedenkopf, leży nad rzeką Lahn. Liczy 80 609 mieszkańców (30 czerwca 2012), a jego powierzchnia wynosi 124,5 km². Najbliżej położone duże miasta to Frankfurt nad Menem (ok. 100 km na południe), Kassel (ok. 90 km na północny wschód) i Kolonia (ok. 150 km na zachód). +Marburg to miasto o szczególnym statusie "(Sonderstatusstadt)", oznacza to że przejęło niektóre zadania powiatu. +Prawa miejskie Marburg uzyskał w XIII wieku. Miasto jest siedzibą uniwersytetu "(Philipps-Universität)" powstałego w roku 1527. Najbardziej znane zabytki to gotycki zamek i kościół św. Elżbiety "(Elisabethkirche)" z roku 1235. +W Marburgu ma siedzibę Instytut im. Herdera, ponadregionalny, pozauniwersytecki ośrodek badań historycznych nad Europą środkowo-wschodnią. +Historia. +Początki zamku sięgają przełomu IX/X wieku. Miasto zdobyło rozgłos, gdy Elżbieta z Turyngii wybrała je jako siedzibę wdowią zakładając szpital dla ubogich. Zmarła w 1231, cztery lata później została ogłoszona świętą przez papieża Grzegorza IX. W tym samym roku zakon krzyżacki rozpoczął budowę świątyni nad jej grobem. W 1248 Zofia brabancka, córka landgrafa Turyngii Ludwika IV Świętego, zgłosiła roszczenia do ziem ówczesnej zachodniej Turyngii w imieniu swego syna Henryka, kładąc podwaliny pod późniejszą Hesję (Henryk został pierwszym landgrafem heskim). +W czasie reformacji landgraf Filip Wielkoduszny założył w Marburgu pierwszy uniwersytet protestancki. Uczelnia po czasy dzisiejsze jest najważniejszą instytucją miasta oraz największym pracodawcą. W zimowym semestrze 2005 uniwersytet liczył ok. 16 tys. studentów i ponad 7 tys. pracowników. W 1529 w marburskim zamku odbyła się dysputa religijna, w których brali udział m.in. Marcin Luter, Huldrych Zwingli oraz Filip Melanchton. +W 1945 w kościele św. Elżbiety "(Elisabethkirche)" zostały złożone szczątki Paula von Hindenburga, ewakuowane tutaj z Mauzoleum Hindenburga na Mazurach. +W 1967, stwierdzono tu pierwsze udokumentowane zachorowanie wywołane bardzo groźnym wirusem, któremu później nadano nazwę miasta. Miało to miejsce w laboratorium Behringa. Zakażeni zostali pracownicy mający kontakt z małpami (koczkodanami zielonymi) pochodzącymi z Ugandy. +Transport. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Marburg (Lahn) i przystanek kolejowy Marburg Süd. +Bibliografia. +Heski Urząd Statystyczny +Elew + +Elew (fr. "élève" - uczeń) – tytuł żołnierza zasadniczej służby wojskowej lub kandydata na żołnierza +zawodowego, kształcącego się w szkole podoficerskiej. +Zgodnie z Art. 98c. pkt. 3) Ustawy z dnia 21 listopada 1967 r. o powszechnym obowiązku obrony Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej tytuł elewa otrzymywali (z dniem rozpoczęcia pełnienia służby przygotowawczej) żołnierze służby przygotowawczej kształcący się na szeregowego. Tytuł wojskowy elewa został zniesiony Rozporządzeniem Ministra Obrony Narodowej z dnia 23 lutego 2011 r. w sprawie tytułów wojskowych żołnierzy w czynnej służbie wojskowej (Dz. U. 2011 r. Nr 50, poz. 257). +Uzbecka Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Uzbecka Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Uzbekistan (ros. "Узбекская Советская Социалистическая Республика", uzb. "Ўзбекистон Совет Социалистик Республикаси") była jedną z republik ZSRR. +Po ustanowieniu władzy radzieckiej terytorium kraju weszło w skład Turkiestańskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej (w składzie Rosyjskiej Federacyjnej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej). +Od 13 maja 1925 r. Uzbecka SRR jako pełnoprawna republika ZSRR, pozostała w jego składzie do 26 grudnia 1991 r., kiedy to uzyskała niepodległość jako Republika Uzbekistanu. +Republiki autonomiczne. +14 października 1924 r. na części terytorium Uzbeckiej SRR utworzono Tadżycką Autonomiczną Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką, która w 1929 została ostatecznie odłączona od Uzbeckiej SRR i weszła skład ZSRR jako Tadżycka Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka. +W 1936 r. do Uzbeckiej SRR przyłączono powstałą w 1932 r. w ramach Rosyjskiej FSRR +Karakałpacką Autonomiczną Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką. +Wietnamsko-koreańska dzielnica Toronto + +Wietnamsko-koreańska dzielnica Toronto - jedna z dzielnic kanadyjskiego miasta Toronto, znajdująca się za The Annex. Dzielnicę zamieszkuje ok. 43 tysiące Koreańczyków i ok. 45 tysięcy Wietnamczyków. +Dzielnica posiada wiele koreańskich i wietnamskich restauracji oraz kino. Na wiosnę w dzielnicy obchodzony jest "Korean Heritage Dan-O Spring Festival", na pamiątkę pierwszego dnia roku, w którym kobiety mogły wychodzić z domów. Oprócz potraw i pokazów karate, na festiwalu odbywają się tradycyjne zmagania sportu chajeon noir. +Little Portugal + +Little Portugal (ang. Mała Portugalia) - jedna z dzielnic kanadyjskiego miasta Toronto, zamieszkana głównie przez portugalską mniejszość narodowa. Znajduje się na zachód od dzielnicy włoskiej. Wśród jej mieszkańców jest ponad 170 tys. Portugalczyków. +W dzielnicy znajdują się portugalskie kawiarnie, restauracje oraz centrum kultury, ozdabiane tradycyjnymi portugalskimi biało-niebieskimi zdobionymi kafelkami. W dzielnicy odbywają się brazylijskie obchody festiwalowych dni Caribana, podczas których odbywają się pochody i tańce przy dźwiękach samby. +Powiat pszczyński + +Powiat pszczyński – powiat w Polsce (województwo śląskie), utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Pszczyna. +Historia. +Po zagarnięciu Śląska przez Prusy dawna ziemia pszczyńska, a później wolne państwo stanowe przekształcone zostało w 1742 r. w powiat, do którego włączono również ziemię wodzisławską. Powiat ten obejmował rozległy teren od Mysłowic na północnym wschodzie po rzekę Olzę, Wodzisław i przedmieścia Bogumina na południowym zachodzie. W wyniku reformy administracyjnej w latach 1916 – 1917 odłączono od powiatu pszczyńskiego okręg mysłowicki i ziemię wodzisławską. Kolejne zmniejszenia powierzchni powiatu miały miejsce w 1954 r., kiedy powstał nowy powiat tyski, a następnie w 1957 r., w którym pd.-zach. kraniec powiatu pszczyńskiego Bzie włączono do powiatu wodzisławskiego. +Demografia. +Transport. +Przez teren powiatu pszczyńskiego przebiegają drogowe trakty komunikacyjne, ważne dla południowej i zachodniej części województwa śląskiego, tj. droga krajowa nr 1 łącząca północ z południem kraju. Ponadto duże znaczenie komunikacyjne ma droga nr 933 Oświęcim – Wodzisław Śląski, droga nr 935 Pszczyna – Rybnik, droga nr 938 Pawłowice – Cieszyn, nr 939 Pszczyna – Strumień, nr 931 Pszczyna – Bieruń oraz droga nr 928 Kobiór – Mikołów. Wśród szlaków kolejowych największe znaczenie ma trakt Katowice – Bielsko-Biała, pozostałymi tj. Rybnik – Zebrzydowice oraz Rybnik – Pszczyna odbywa się głównie ruch lokalny. +Kompleta + +Kompleta (łac. "Completorium", gr. "apodeipnon", cs. "powieczerije") – w Kościele katolickim ostatnia modlitwa liturgii godzin, odmawiana w nocy przed udaniem się na spoczynek. +Funkcje Komplety w prawosławnym dobowym cyklu nabożeństw spełnia Powieczerze. ; nazwa "kompleta" występuje rzadziej. Nabożeństwo to w monasterach odprawiane jest po wieczornym posiłku. +Dyzunici + +Dyzunici – nazwa prawosławnych w Polsce, przeciwników unii brzeskiej z 1596, którzy nie podporządkowali się papieżowi. W drugiej połowie XVIII wieku carat wykorzystał kwestię dyzunitów jako jeden z pretekstów do ingerowania w wewnętrzne sprawy Rzeczypospolitej. +Kod BCD + +BCD (ang. "Binary-Coded Decimal" czyli "dziesiętny zakodowany dwójkowo") – sposób zapisu liczb polegający na zakodowaniu kolejnych cyfr dziesiętnych liczby dwójkowo przy użyciu czterech bitów stosowany w elektronice i informatyce. Taki zapis pozwala na łatwą konwersję liczby do i z systemu dziesiętnego, jest jednak nadmiarowy (wykorzystuje tylko 10 czterobitowych układów z 16 możliwych). +Kod BCD jest obecnie stosowany głównie w urządzeniach elektronicznych z wyświetlaczem cyfrowym (np. w kalkulatorach, miernikach cyfrowych) i w zastosowaniach finansowych informatyki (ujednoznacznia zapis części ułamkowych kwot i ułatwia dziesiętne zaokrąglanie). +Wiele mikroprocesorów (w tym wszystkie wywodzące się od Intel 8080) posiada rozkazy umożliwiające dodawanie i odejmowanie na liczbach BCD w wersji spakowanej. +Little Italy, Toronto + +Małe Włochy w dzielnicy kanadyjskiego miasta Toronto, zamieszkana głównie przez włoską mniejszość narodową. Mianem tym określa się okolice College Street sąsiadujące z dzielnicą portugalską, oraz nieraz także okolice zwane "Corso Italia", znajdujące się na St. Clair West, pomiędzy Bathurst St. i Old Weston Rd. +Toronto jest największym skupiskiem Włochów poza ojczyzną, liczba imigrantów z Włoch szacowana jest na ok. 650.000. W dzielnicy skupionej wokół College Street znajduje się wiele tradycyjnych włoskich kawiarń z bilardem i ogródkami oraz sklepów. Jest także siedzibą Radia CHIN, założonego w 1966 przez Włocha, które udostępnia czas antenowy wielu audycjom narodowościowym, emitując audycje w 30 językach, w tym po polsku. Stacja nadaje także program TV. Misja integracji pomiędzy grupami narodowościowymi przejawia się także w organizacji pikniku ("CHIN International Picnic", rokrocznie 1 lipca). +Okolice "Corso Italia", drugiej dzielnicy określanej mianem "włoskiej", mają mniej turystyczny charakter, choć znajdują się w niej również tradycyjne włoskie lokale. +Koszt alternatywny + +W ekonomii koszt alternatywny danego dobra to ilość innego dobra, z której trzeba zrezygnować, aby możliwe stało się wytworzenie dodatkowej jednostki tego pierwszego. +Koszt alternatywny w wielu podręcznikach z zakresu ekonomii jest również definiowany jako koszt potencjalnie utraconych możliwości (lub jako koszt utraconych korzyści). +Można to tłumaczyć w następujący sposób: Załóżmy, że otwieramy przedsiębiorstwo. Naszym głównym celem jest osiąganie jak najwyższych zysków, ale może się zdarzyć sytuacja, w której nasze przedsiębiorstwo nie zarobi nic – właśnie wtedy tracimy potencjalne dochody, jakie moglibyśmy zarobić, gdybyśmy zatrudnili się u innego przedsiębiorcy i to właśnie jest koszt alternatywny. +Przykład +Kosztem alternatywnym Twojej edukacji jest to, czego nie zarobisz wtedy, gdy się uczysz. +Prawosławna metropolia kijowska + +Prawosławna metropolia kijowska - prowincja administracyjna Kościoła prawosławnego z siedzibą w Kijowie. Metropolia została założona między 976 a 998 rokiem. Jej metropolici uznawali zwierzchność patriarchy konstantynopolitańskiego. Organizacja wewnętrzna była wzorowana na kościele w Cesarstwie Bizantyjskim. +Metropolia kijowska zajmowała sześćdziesiąte miejsce w hierarchii eparchii Patriarchatu Konstantynopolitańskiego. Pierwszym znanym z imienia jej ordynariuszem był metropolita Teofilakt. Jeszcze za panowania Włodzimierza Wielkiego w ramach metropolii powstała sufragania w Białogrodzie. Z kolei w okresie panowania Jarosława Mądrego powstało podlegające metropolii biskupstwo juriewskie. W 989 powstała eparchia nowogrodzka, przed 1063 - czernihowska (po 1246 przemianowana na briańską i tamże przeniesiona), na pocz. XI w. - perejasławska. Dwie ostatnie z wymienionych struktur posiadały przez pewien czas statut metropolii, jednak zostały ostatecznie zlikwidowane (odpowiednio w 1088 i 1100. +W wyniku rozpadu Rusi Kijowskiej i jej podboju przez Polskę, Litwę i Moskwę, w XIV wieku metropolia kijowska rozpadła się na trzy ośrodki: kijowski (faktycznie włodzimierski), halicki i litewski. +W XVI wieku metropolia kijowska składała się z dziewięciu diecezji. Na skutek wojen z Moskwą, w 1514 roku, została utracona eparchia smoleńska, w 1563 roku - połocka. W 1578 roku Stefan Batory przywrócił diecezje połocką. Przed unią brzeską metropolia kijowsko-halicka była podzielona na osiem eparchii: kijowską, włodzimiersko-brzeską, łucko-ostrogską, połocko-witebską, przemysko-samborską, halicko-lwowsko-kamieniecką. Od 1508 roku metropolici kijowscy tytułowali się metropolitami Kijowa, halicza i całej Rusi. Mimo że stolicą metropolii był Kijów, metropolita przeważnie tam nie przebywał. Rezydował w Nowogródku, Wilnie lub w swojej poprzedniej diecezji, jeżeli był biskupem przed nominacją. +W myśl postanowień unii brzeskiej od 15 grudnia 1596 roku legalnie istniała w Kijowie tylko metropolia unicka. W październiku 1620 roku zaczęła nieoficjalnie funkcjonować prawosławna metropolia, prawnie zatwierdzona dopiero 14 marca 1633 roku przez sejm elekcyjny w 1632 roku i nowo wybranego króla Władysława IV. +Gruzińska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Gruzińska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Gruzja (ros. "Грузинская Советская Социалистическая Республика", "Грузия", gruz. საქართველოს საბჭოთა სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა, საქართველო) - była jedną z 15 republik ZSRR w latach 1936-1991, od 1922 do 1936 r. wchodziła w skład Zakaukaskiej FSRR łącznie z Azerbejdżańską SRR i Armeńską SRR. W 1991 r. odzyskała niepodległość jako Gruzja. +Powiat myszkowski + +Powiat myszkowski - powiat w Polsce (województwo śląskie), reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Myszków. +Historia. +20 grudnia 1956 roku przywrócono województwu stalinogrodzkiemu jego pierwotną nazwę "województwo katowickie" . +1 stycznia 1957 roku do powiatu myszkowskiego przyłączono gromady Markowice i Mrzygłód oraz wieś Bobolice (z gromady Zdów ) z powiatu zawierciańskiego . Równocześnie z gromady Sokolniki w powiecie myszkowskim wyłączono przysiółek "Gaiska", który włączono do gromady Lelów w powiecie włoszczowskim w województwie kieleckim . 1 stycznia 1958 roku do Myszkowa przyłączono kolonię "Bory" z gromady Góra Włodowska . +9 grudnia 1973 roku z gminy Żarki wyłączono sołectwo Góra Włodowska i włączono je do gminy Włodowice w powiecie zawierciańskim . +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku całe terytorium zniesionego powiatu myszkowskiego włączono do nowo utworzonego województwa częstochowskiego . +1 lipca 1981 roku do gminy Poraj włączono część obszaru wsi Wysoka Lelowska (o powierzchni 81,13 ha) z gminy Żarki . 1 grudnia 1983 roku do Myszkowa włączono sołectwa "Mrzygłód", "Mrzygłódka", "Kręciwilk" i "Nierada" oraz miejscowość "Ręby" z gminy Włodowice, a także sołectwo "Potasznia" z gminy Koziegłowy . +1 stycznia 1992 roku jednoimienne miasta oraz gminy wiejskie Koziegłowy i Żarki połączono we wspólne gminy miejsko-wiejskie . 27 listopada 1996 roku miasto Myszków określono jako "gmina miejska" . +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku powiat myszkowski został przywrócony w nowym województwie śląskim . W porównaniu z granicami z 1975 roku powiat myszkowski został terytorialnie tylko lekko okrojony (fragment dawnego obszaru leży na terenie gminy Włodowice w powiecie zawierciańskim), natomiast jego skład administracyjny zmienił się drastycznie (cztery dawne gminy zostały zlikwidowane a cztery inne zostały skomasowane w dwie jednostki ). W całym powiecie dość istotną rolę odgrywa zakład usługowo transportowy z miejscowości Rzeniszów, daje on bowiem miejscowej ludność zatrudnienie . +Roncesvalles (Toronto) + +Roncesvalles Ave. - dzielnica kanadyjskiego miasta Toronto, będąca jedną z dzielnic mniejszości narodowych, zamieszkana głównie przez Polonię. W Toronto mieszka ok. 170 tysięcy osób pochodzenia polskiego. +Dzielnica znajduje się w pobliżu High Park. Oferuje polskie dania i wyroby kulinarne, funkcjonują polskie księgarnie, biura podróży, a w lokalnym kinie jest organizowany Festiwal Filmów Polskich. +Spot (telewizja) + +Spot telewizyjny (ang. "spot" = kropka) – krótki film reklamowy wyświetlany w przerwach między programami telewizyjnymi albo w ich trakcie (przerywając je). Telewizyjne spoty reklamowe trwają najczęściej 30 sekund, ale spotyka się dłuższe i krótsze. Emisja spotów reklamowych jest jednym z głównych źródeł utrzymania prywatnych stacji telewizyjnych oraz stanowi pokaźne źródło dochodów telewizji publicznych. Emisja spotów reklamowych w Polsce poprzedzana jest napisem "Reklama". Aktualnie spoty telewizyjne stają się często wykorzystywanym narzędziem dla prowadzenia akcji reklamowych w Internecie, najczęściej jako "wyskakujące okienka". +Rumień nekrotyczny wędrujący + +Rumień nekrotyczny wędrujący (zespół glukagonoma, ang. necrolytic migratory erythema, glucagonoma syndrome) w ponad 80% przypadków towarzyszy nowotworowi trzustki wywodzącemu się z komórek alfa, wytwarzających glukagon – glukagonoma. +Objawy i przebieg. +Charakteryzuje się wybitnie podwyższonym poziomem glukagonu we krwi oraz umiarkowanie nasiloną cukrzycą słabo reagującą na insulinę. W badaniach laboratoryjnych można stwierdzić również znacznie obniżony poziom cynku oraz aminokwasów we krwi. Może pojawić się zakrzepica żylna, anemia normocytarna, normochromiczna. Charakterystycznymi objawami jest występowanie rozległych zmian rumieniowo-wysiękowych, szerzących się obwodowo, cechujących się nasilonym spełzaniem naskórka (stąd częste pomyłki i w diagnozie – różnicowanie z pęcherzycą liściastą, (łac. "pemphigus foliaceus") oraz z zespołem Lyella). Dodatkowe objawy to często występujące rozlane łysienie (łac. "alopecia diffusa") oraz żywoczerwone zabarwienie języka, zajady oraz paronychia. Zmiany ustępują po usunięciu guza, aczkolwiek często nawracają, gdyż rumień nekrotyczny wędrujący pojawia się najczęściej w zaawansowanej chorobie, w której występują już mnogie przerzuty. +Niekiedy zespół glukagonoma nie towarzyszy nowotworowi trzustki, lecz związany jest z marskością wątroby lub zapaleniem trzustki. Nie stwierdzono natomiast zależności występowania zespołu z wysokim poziomem glukagonu. +Niektóre badania wskazują niedobór aminokwasów i cynku jako patogenezę rumienia, aczkolwiek wskazania te nie są jednoznaczne, gdyż suplementacja ww. składników doprowadziła do remisji tylko u niektórych pacjentów. Najprawdopodobniej etiologia zespołu jest wieloczynnikowa. +Częstość występowania. +Od 1942 roku, w którym po raz pierwszy rozpoznano zespół glukagonoma, na świecie stwierdzono około 200 przypadków. +Zespół paraneoplastyczny + +Zespół paraneoplastyczny (zespół paranowotworowy) – zmiana lub zespół zmian dających charakterystyczne objawy, mogących świadczyć o współistnieniu procesu nowotworowego. +Często są to zmiany skórne. W większości przypadków etiologia zespołu nie jest znana. Niekiedy zmiany są konsekwencją uczulenia (reakcji immunologicznej) na antygeny guza. Potwierdzeniem etiologii zmian jest ich częsty zanik po skutecznym usunięciu nowotworu. +Powiat ostródzki + +Powiat ostródzki – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Ostróda. +Inwestor bierny + +Inwestor bierny - inwestor, który nabywa walory nie w celach spekulacyjnych, lecz jako trwałą lokatę kapitału przynoszącą mu korzyści w formie odsetek lub dywidend. +Ojmiakon + +Ojmiakon (ros. Оймякон, jakucki Өймөкөөн) – wieś w rosyjskiej Jakucji (wschodnia Syberia), w ułusie ojmiakońskim nad Indygirką. Miejscowość liczy 521 mieszkańców (2001 rok). +Nazwa Ojmiakon w języku jakuckim oznacza "niezamarzającą wodę", co jest nawiązaniem do pobliskich gorących źródeł. Pozwoliły one na założenie wsi, pomimo wiecznej zmarzliny. +Ojmiakon nazywany był często biegunem zimna, gdyż do niedawna odnotowano tu najniższą na półkuli północnej temperaturę powietrza. 26 stycznia 1926 termometry wskazały -71.2 °C. Jest to również druga po wiosce Tomtor temperatura powietrza na kuli ziemskiej, jaką zanotowano w miejscowości ze stałą, całoroczną ludnością. Odnotowano tu także najwyższą roczną amplitudę temperatur równą 104 °C (-71 °C; 33 °C). Niższe temperatury spotykane są jedynie w innej wiosce Tomtor, gdzie termometry w styczniu 2004 roku wykazały -72,2 °C i na niezamieszkanej przez stałą ludność Antarktydzie. +Obecna stacja meteorologiczna znajduje się na wysokości 750 m n.p.m., w dolinie leżącej między Ojmiakonem a Tomtorem. +Parśwa + +Parśwa (dewanagari: पार्श्वनाथ, "Parśwanatha", "Ryszi Parśwanatha") – historyczny indyjski reformator religijny żyjący w VIII wieku p.n.e., dwudziesty trzeci tirthanakara dźinizmu. Według zachodniego religioznawstwa był prawdopodobnym założyciel tej religii. +Według tradycji żył w latach 877 p.n.e. - 777 p.n.e., był kszatriją z królewskiej dynastii Ikśwaku, który w wieku 30 lat został wędrownym ascetą. Zwolennicy ogłosili go przedostatnim, czyli 23. tirthankarą ("budowniczym mostów" to znaczy "wiodącym do nirwany") dźinistów. Stworzył podwaliny pierwszego liczącego się indyjskiego systemu filozoficznego podważającego autorytet Wed oraz pierwszego ateistycznego systemu religijnego, rozwiniętego i zreformowanego później przez Wardhamanę, zwanego Mahawirą. Wierzył w cykliczność dziejów świata, istnienie pewnej niezmiennej substancji duchowej oraz niezmiennej substancji materialnej. W odróżnieniu od Wardhamany nie stworzył pełnego systemu. Według wersji dźinijskiej był mniej ascetycznie nastawiony do życia od Wardhamany i swoim zwolennikom pozwalał nosić ubrania. Według wersji adźiwików było dokładnie odwrotnie. +Apocalyptica (album) + +__NOTOC__ +Apocalyptica – piąty album studyjny fińskiej grupy muzycznej Apocalyptica. Wydawnictwo ukazało się 24 stycznia 2005 roku w Europie nakładem wytwórni muzycznej Universal Music Group. Płyta dotarła do 2. miejsca fińskiej listy sprzedaży, czyniąc go najwyżej notowanym w historii formacji. +Album poprzedził wydany 29 listopada 2004 roku singel "Bittersweet" w którym zaśpiewali gościnie Lauri Ylönen z grupy The Rasmus oraz lider zespołu HIM - Ville Valo. Wokaliści wspólnie z zespołem wykonali utwór po raz pierwszy na żywo 17 stycznia 2005 roku podczas koncertu charytatywnego na rzecz ofiar trzęsienia ziemi na Oceanie Indyjskim w 2004 roku. Występ odbył się w Hartwall Arena w Helsinkach. +14 lutego 2005 roku został wydany drugi singel pt. "Wie Weit", natomiast 23 lutego została wydana anglojęzyczna wersja singla pt. "How Far". W obu kompozycjach opartych na instrumentalnym "Quutamo" zaśpiewała Marta Jandová wokalista Die Happy. Ponadto do utworu "Wie Weit" został zrealizowany teledysk. Na singlach ukazała się również francuskojęzyczna wersja utworu pt. "En Vie", którą wykonała Emmanuelle Monet. 11 kwietnia 2005 roku ukazał się trzeci i ostatni singel promujący płytę zatytułowany "Life Burns!". Do utworu został zrealizowany również teledysk. Zdjęcia odbyły się w Tallinnie w Estonii. +Płyta została zarejestrowana w 2004 roku w Susi Studios w Finlandii. Partie perkusji zostały nagrane w Planet Roc Studios w Berlinie w Niemczech. Miksowanie odbyło się w Toytown Studios w Sztokholmie w Szwecji. Z kolei mastering wykonano w Attic Mastering. Gościnnie w nagraniach wziął udział ponadto perkusista formacji Slayer - Dave Lombardo. +Lista utworów. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +Twórcy. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +Monacyt + +Monacyt – minerał, mieszana sól kwasu fosforowego, ceru i kilku lantanowców. Należy do minerałów rzadkich. +Nazwa pochodzi od gr. "monazeis" = jedyny lub "monaxo" = być samotnym; nawiązując do rzadkości występowania. +Właściwości. +Występuje w postaci drobnych ziarn (wrostków w innych minerałach), skupień ziarnistych oraz luźnych ziarn (w aluwiach). Często wykazuje znaczne zawartości innych pierwiastków. Niekiedy tworzy bardzo duże (do 40 kg) i doskonale wykształcone kryształy o pokroju tabliczkowym-spłaszczonym, słupkowym lub klinowatym. Może zwierać uran oraz wszystkie ziemie rzadkie; jego częstym składnikiem bywa wapń. +Bywa silnie promieniotwórczy, tym bardziej im większa zawartość uranu lub toru. Jest kruchy, przezroczysty, jest izostrukturalny z krokoitem. +Występowanie. +Najczęściej występuje w skałach magmowych, przede wszystkim kwaśnych, głównie pegmatytach. Duże, narosłe kryształy bywają spotykane w druzach i szczelinach skalnych. W postaci drobnych wrostków powszechnie występuje w granitoidach, sjenitach i granodiorytach. Rzadziej w skałach metamorficznych (stanowi ich główny składnik zawierający tor). Gromadzi się również w piaskach monacytowych z powodu odporności na wietrzenie. +Zastosowanie. +Stanowi ważne źródło uzyskiwania ceru i innych pierwiastków ziem rzadkich oraz toru. Ma znaczenie naukowe i kolekcjonerskie. Duże ważące nawet kilka kilogramów kryształy spotykane są w pegmatytach granitowych. Pięknie wykształcone okazy znajdowane są na Madagaskarze, USA i w Norwegii. +Mistrzostwa Świata w Narciarstwie Alpejskim 2005 + +38. Mistrzostwa Świata w Narciarstwie Alpejskim odbywały się od 28 stycznia do 13 lutego 2005 r. w Bormio i Santa Caterina w północnych Włoszech. W Bormio mistrzostwa odbyły się już po raz drugi (poprzednio zawodnicy rywalizowali dwadzieścia lat wcześniej, w 1985 roku). +Mężczyźni. +Zjazd. +Data: 5 lutego 2005 +Supergigant. +Data: 29 stycznia 2005 +Gigant. +Data: 10 lutego 2005 +Slalom. +Data: 12 lutego 2005 +Kombinacja. +Data: 3 lutego 2005 (zjazd) / 3 lutego 2005 (slalom) +Kobiety. +Zjazd. +Data: 6 lutego 2005 +Supergigant. +Data: 30 stycznia 2005 +Gigant. +Data: 8 lutego 2005 +Slalom. +Data: 11 lutego 2005 +Kombinacja. +Data: 4 lutego 2005 (zjazd) / 4 lutego 2005 (slalom) +Kombinacja drużynowa mieszana. +Data: 13 lutego 2005 (supergigant) / 13 lutego 2005 (slalom) +Powiat lidzbarski + +Powiat lidzbarski - powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie), utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego stolicą jest miasto Lidzbark Warmiński. +Demografia. +Ludność w latach. +1975-1998 powiat nie istniał +Historia. +Powiat lidzbarski powstał w 1818 r., kiedy Prusy Wschodnie zostały podzielone na cztery powiaty zamiast dotychczasowych dwóch. Do 1975 w granicach powiatu znajdowało się Dobre Miasto, które w latach 1865-1896 było jego siedzibą (po spaleniu się starostwa w Lidzbarku). +Rumień guzowaty + +Rumień guzowaty ("Erythema nodosum") – choroba zapalna skóry, objawiająca się powstaniem dużych, bolesnych, czerwonych guzów, lokalizujących się najczęściej po stronie wyprostnej podudzi, ale pojedyncze guzy mogą występować również na udach i przedramionach. Nie podlegają rozpadowi, ustępują bez pozostawiania blizn. Zmiany rumieniowe (wyraźnie ograniczone zaczerwienienia o podwyższonej ciepłocie) i opuchlizna najczęściej dotyczą stawów skokowych, kolanowych i nadgarstków, choć każdy inny staw może być zajęty. Często są objawem innych chorób lub jako nadwrażliwość na leki. W dużej liczbie przypadków rumień guzowaty jest objawem choroby autoimmunologicznej, której przyczyna nie jest znana. Wówczas występuje przewlekle, z tendencjami do nawrotów. Zaobserwowano korelacje pomiędzy poszczególnymi rzutami choroby a osłabieniem układu odpornościowego, będącego wynikiem długotrwałego prowadzenia niehigienicznego trybu życia (zaburzenia snu, złe nawyki żywieniowe, przewlekły stres). Chorobie towarzyszy podwyższenie temperatury i bóle stawowe. +Leczenie. +Leczenie ogólne zależy od czynników przyczynowych: antybiotyki, kortykosterydy, leczenie przeciwprątkowe. W przypadkach wywołanych lekami konieczne jest odstawienie wywołującego leku. Obecnie istnieje tendencja powrotu do starej metody leczenia jodkiem potasu w ciągu 6-8 tyg. +Leczenie miejscowe: okłady z 2% roztworu ichtiolu, maść ichtiolowa 5-10%, maść metanabolowa, metindolowa, maści zawierające heparynoidy oraz słabo działające sterydy. +Inwestor instytucjonalny + +Inwestor instytucjonalny organizacja powołana w celu dokonywania inwestycji kapitałowych (obejmowanie udziałów lub akcji) w innych podmiotach gospodarczych. Inwestor instytucjonalny lokuje kapitał powierzony mu np. w formie depozytu czy składek ubezpieczeniowych w celu osiągnięcia zysku z inwestycji wyższego, niż z lokat czy obligacji. Typowymi inwestorami instytucjonalnymi są instytucje ubezpieczeniowe i fundusze emerytalne, które lokują część środków pochodzących ze składek klientów w udziały lub akcje przedsiębiorstw. +Deathmatch + +Deathmatch (w skrócie DM; ang. wym. ; znany też jako "Player vs All", "Free For All") – tryb rozgrywki w grach wieloosobowych, znany przede wszystkim z gier FPS. Celem gry w trybie deathmatch jest zabicie (inaczej sfragowanie, czyli zdobycie fraga) jak największej liczby przeciwników przed upływem limitu czasowego bądź do momentu, gdy któryś z graczy zdobędzie odpowiednią ilość fragów. Zazwyczaj zabity gracz musi poczekać na swój respawn, aby grać dalej. +W trybie team deathmatch (TDM) gracze podzieleni są na dwie lub więcej drużyn, mających osobny licznik fragów. Friendly fire (ogień sprzymierzeńców) może zadawać obrażenia lub nie, zależnie od ustawień. Jeżeli zadaje, to gracz, który zabił sprzymierzeńca (taka sytuacja to team kill), zazwyczaj zmniejsza swój wynik, a przez to wynik drużyny, o określoną w ustawieniach ilość punktów. Drużyna z największą ilością zdobytych fragów w momencie końca gry wygrywa. +Innym wariantem jest last man standing, gdzie wygrywa ostatni żywy gracz. +Historia. +Pierwszy deathmatch został rozegrany prawdopodobnie w 1983 roku przez Drewa Majora i Kyle’a Powella w grze "Snipes". Termin "deathmatch" pierwszy raz został oficjalnie użyty przez Johna Romera w 1993 roku podczas zapowiedzi gry "Doom", a później zdobył popularność dzięki serii gier "Quake". +Rubinkowo + +Strona " Rubinkowo " na facebooku .! +Rubinkowo - część urzędowa miasta Torunia, składająca się z osiedli: Rubinkowo I oraz Rubinkowo II. Zbudowane w latach 70. XX wieku na terenie dawnych posiadłości Jakuba Kazimierza Rubinkowskiego, od północy graniczy z terenami przemysłowymi (Elana - dawniej największy zakład w Toruniu, Metalchem), oraz dzielnicami: Jakubskie Przedmieście i Mokre od zachodu, Bielawy od wschodu, Winnica i Na Skarpie (które początkow0 – przed utworzeniem osobnej Spółdzielni Mieszkaniowej było nazywane Rubinkowem III) od południa. +Tworzy, wraz z osiedlem Na Skarpie, największe skupisko ludności we wschodniej części miasta . Duże centrum handlowo-usługowe. +Osiedle jest położone przy Szosie Lubickiej, otoczone ulicami Cyprysową, Leszczynową, Rydygiera, Skłodowskiej-Curie, Bukową, Niesiołowskiego, skrzyżowaniem ulic Szosa Lubicka z Olsztyńską. +Na terenie Rubinkowa znajdują się dwa forty - Fort I (Jan III Sobieski, do 1920 König Wilhelm) z lat 1888-92, jedyny w tej części Europy pruski fort pancerny; oraz Fort II (Stefan Czarniecki, do 1920 Bülow) z lat 1878-82. +Na osiedlu znajduje się wiele marketów znanych sieci, targowisko, a w bezpośredniej bliskości znajdują się pawilony handlowe – "Maciej", "Anna", "Monika", "Karolina" oraz hipermarkety – OBI, Carrefour, Leroy Merlin oraz Galeria Copernicus. +Tereny wchodzące w skład osiedla. +Rubinkowo I. +Na osiedlu znajduje się wiele marketów znanych sieci (Tesco, Biedronka) oraz hipermarket ogrodniczy - Torseed. +Osiedle jest skomunikowane zarówno z centrum miasta jaki i innymi dzielnicami. Przez Rubinkowo I przejeżdża 19 linii autobusowych (nocne: 01, 02 oraz dzienne: 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 25, 26, 30, 31, 33, 34, 40, 41, 42, C i 2 "hipermarketowe"), a jego obrzeżami poprowadzone jest 5 linii tramwajowych (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) oraz 8 autobusowych (22, 23, 29, 35, 101, 102, 103, 104). +Południową granicę Rubinkowa I stanowią drogi krajowe (oraz ). +Rubinkowo II. +Na osiedlu znajduje się wiele marketów znanych sieci, jedno duże targowisko, a po terenie Rubinkowa II kursują dwie linie hipermarketowe, dowożące klientów do pobliskiego "Carrefoura" oraz położonego nieco dalej "Realu". +Komunikacja. +Na obrzeżach osiedla usytuowana została pętla autobusowa na której kończy trasę kilka linii autobusowych. +Osiedle jest skomunikowane zarówno z centrum miasta, jak i innymi dzielnicami. Na obrzeżach Rubinkowa II poprowadzonych są 3 linie tramwajowe (1, 1N, 5) oraz 25 autobusowych (01, 02, 15, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, C, L, 2 inne prywatne i 2 "hipermarketowe", oraz jedna zastępcza 51 (za tramwaj). Przez Rubinkowo II przebiega droga krajowa 15 i 80. +Głównymi arteriami komunikacyjnymi są ulice: Dziewulskiego, Łyskowskiego i Rydygiera. +Stoszowice + +Stoszowice (niem. "Peterwitz", wcześniej "Polnisch Peterwitz") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie ząbkowickim, siedziba gminy Stoszowice. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa wałbrzyskiego. +W 2004 wieś przyciągnęła uwagę mediów ogólnopolskich z uwagi na plany władz gminy niekonwencjonalnego rozwiązania problemów oświaty gminnej poprzez przekazanie prowadzenia szkół fundacji. +W gminie funkcjonuje również Klub Jeździecki Leszczynówka, zajmującym się konnymi skokami przez przeszkody. +Cyberprawo + +Cyberprawo (ang. "cyberlaw") - wykształcająca się dziedzina prawa obejmująca zagadnienia na styku prawa i komputerów, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem funkcjonowania Internetu, jak np. prawo autorskie, prawna odpowiedzialność dostawców usług internetowych, handel elektroniczny, aukcje internetowe, cenzura, poufność i bezpieczeństwo danych itp. +Zadaniem cyberprawa jest zarówno diagnozowanie nowych zjawisk w Internecie, wymagających uregulowań prawnych, jak i prawna interpretacja zdarzeń; wysoce techniczny charakter i dynamika zjawisk związanych z komputerami i Internetem powoduje, że dziedzina ta jest w praktyce zarezerwowana dla prawników obytych z technikami komputerowymi - w wielu krajach powstają kancelarie prawnicze specjalizujące się niemal wyłącznie w tej tematyce. +Zobacz też: Prawo nowych technologii +Pęcherzyca paraneoplastyczna + +Pęcherzyca paraneoplastyczna (łac. "pemphigus paraneoplasticus", ang. paraneoplastic pemphigus, PNP) – stosunkowo rzadki skórny zespół paraneoplastyczny. +Objawy i przebieg. +Pęcherzyca paraneoplastyczna charakteryzuje się występowaniem różnorodnych, polimorficznych zmian skórnych: pęcherzykowych, pęcherzowych, rumieniowych i złuszczających. Zmiany mogą upodabniać się do liszaja płaskiego (łac. "lichen planus") lub do rumienia wielopostaciowego (łac. "erythema multiforme"). Na błonach śluzowych w jamie ustnej występują często bolesne, krwotoczne nadżerki. Nadżerki dotyczą także spojówek, rogówki, okolic narządów płciowych i wałów paznokciowych. Zmiany oczne mogą prowadzić do utraty wzroku. Paznokcie wykazują różnorodne zniekształcenia. +We krwi wykrywa się przeciwciała skierowane przeciw: desmoplakinie I i II, dwóm niescharakteryzowanym antygenom o ciężarze 190 kD (najprawdopodobniej periplakina) i 170 kD oraz tzw. antygen pemfigoidu. +Patogenność przeciwciał PNP nie ogranicza się tylko do nabłonka wielowarstwowego płaskiego skóry, ale także nabłonków innych narządów (płuca, pęcherz moczowy, przewód pokarmowy). W związku z tym objawy mogą też dotyczyć płuc i przewodu pokarmowego. Najgroźniejszym, z reguły śmiertelnym powikłaniem jest zarostowe zapalenie oskrzelików (łac. "bronchiolitis obliterans"). +Pęcherzyca paraneoplastyczna często towarzyszy rozrostom nowotworowym. Najczęściej spotykane to chłoniak wywodzący się z limfocytów B, guz Castlemana, grasiczak. Rzadziej towarzyszący nowotwór to gruczolakorak płuc, rak odoskrzelowy albo mięsak. +Leczenie. +W przypadku guza Castlemana lub grasiczaka wskazany jest zabieg chirurgiczny. Rozrosty limforetikularne są odpowiednio leczone. +Zapalenie skórno-mięśniowe + +Dermatomyositis (zapalenie skórno-mięśniowe, DM) – jest odmianą zapalenia wielomięśniowego, w której zmiany dotyczą głównie mięśni obręczy barkowej i biodrowej. Występuje dwa razy częściej u kobiet niż u mężczyzn. Czasami dochodzi do wystąpienia zmian narządowych z zajęciem przełyku (trudności w połykaniu – dysfagia) i pozostałych mięśni gładkich przewodu pokarmowego, mięśnia serca (myocarditis), mięśni oddechowych. W przypadku zajęcia mięśni oddechowych, może dochodzić do niewydolności oddechowej, która w ciężkich przypadkach może doprowadzić do śmierci. U 20-40% chorych dochodzi do śródmiąższowej choroby płuc, która może doprowadzić do włóknienia płuc. +Objawy i przebieg. +Postępujące, symetryczne osłabienie siły mięśniowej, podwyższony poziom enzymów mięśniowych (aldolazy i kinazy kreatynowej), zmiany w elektromiogramie, zmiany w biopsji mięśnia (zmiany zapalno-zwyrodnieniowe). Towarzyszą temu zmiany skórne zlokalizowane najczęściej w obrębie dłoni (rumienie, grudki nad drobnymi stawami – objaw Gottrona), wybroczyny, rumienie w obrębie wałów paznokciowych, hyperkeratoza na dłoniach („ręce mechanika”) oraz zmiany rumieniowe w obrębie twarzy z nasilonym obrzękiem i rumieniem w okolicy oczodołów („rzekome okulary”, "heliotrop"). Przy długo trwającej chorobie, częściej u dzieci, pojawiają się złogi wapnia w tkance podskórnej. +Odmiana sine myositis charakteryzuje się występowaniem zmian skórnych bez zajęcia mięśni. Często obserwuje się progresję zmian. Początkowo występują tylko zmiany skórne, a później pojawiają się zmiany w mięśniach. +Dermatomyositis jest rewelatorem nowotworowym (w około 20-50% towarzyszy nowotworom narządów wewnętrznych), zwykle u pacjentów, u których choroba pojawiła się po 60. roku życia. U dzieci DM nie jest związane z chorobą nowotworową. +Ghillie suit + +Ghillie suit – strój maskujący używany głównie przez strzelców wyborowych. Ghillie suit różni się od innych metod kamuflowania, swoim naturalnym wyglądem i rozmywaniem sylwetki człowieka. Ghillie suit jest znakomitym strojem maskującym, gdyż ludzka sylwetka i elementy wyposażenia nie wyróżniają się na tle otoczenia. Dobry mundur maskujący powinien rozmazywać sylwetkę, czego nie można uzyskać za pomocą mundurów polowych w barwach maskujących i farby maskującej. W większości armii przygotowanie ghillie suit jest częścią kursu dla snajperów. Ghillie może maskować w terenie lesistym, pustynnym i innych w zależności od potrzeby. +Pierwsze stroje ghillie suit powstały na początku I wojny światowej. W armii angielskiej stworzono oddział snajperów składający się ze Szkotów. Większość z nich pochodziła z rodzin, w których przekazywana była umiejętność robienia strojów ghillie. Szkoccy strzelcy wyborowi przystosowali stroje do potrzeb pola walki I wojny światowej i ciągle je udoskonalali. +W czasie II wojny światowej ghillie suit pojawił się pośród snajperów różnych armii. Tworzone było w oparciu o własne doświadczenia bojowe, często bez wiedzy o istnieniu szkockiego oryginału. +Po wojnie trafił na wyposażenie snajperów armii brytyjskiej i amerykańskiej. Obecnie jest używane przez armie na całym świecie. +György von Hevesy + +György von Hevesy (ur. 1 sierpnia 1885 w Budapeszcie, zm. 5 lipca 1966 we Fryburgu Bryzgowijskim) – fizykochemik węgierski, laureat Nagrody Nobla 1943. Pochodził z rodziny węgierskich Żydów. +Profesor uniwersytetów w Budapeszcie, Fryburgu, Sztokholmie oraz Instytutu N. Bohra w Kopenhadze. Należał m.in. do Polskiego Towarzystwa Chemicznego. +Odkrył (wspólnie z Costerem) hafn. Wprowadził (wraz z Panethem) wskaźniki promieniotwórcze. Określił wartościowość aktynu. Odkrył promieniotwórczość samaru. Rozdzielił (wraz z Brønstedem) izotopy rtęci stosując destylację frakcyjną. Badał reakcje w ciałach stałych i dyfuzję w kryształach. W 1943 za zastosowanie metody wskaźników izotopowych do badań biologicznych otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla. +Knurów + +Knurów (niem. "Knurow") – miasto w południowej Polsce, w województwie śląskim, w powiecie gliwickim. +W latach 1945-1950 siedziba gminy Knurów. W latach 1975–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa katowickiego. +Geografia. +Położenie. +Knurów leży w południowej części Polski, w województwie śląskim, w południowych granicach powiatu gliwickiego. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa katowickiego. Położenie miasta w regionie jest korzystne ze względu na bliskie sąsiedztwo z Gliwicami (odległe o 9 km) oraz Rybnikiem (odległy o 20 km). W administracji kościelnej Knurów należy do metropolii katowickiej. +Knurów umiejscowiony jest na Wyżynie Śląskiej, w obrębie dwóch mezoregionów, którego część północno-wschodnia należy do Wyżyny Katowickiej, natomiast część południowo-zachodnia do Płaskowyżu Rybnickiego. Miasto należy do Górnośląskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego. Graniczy z pięcioma gminami: od północy z miastem Gliwice, od wschodu – z gminami Gierałtowice i Ornontowice, od południowego wschodu i południa z miastem i gminą Czerwionka-Leszczyny, od zachodu – z gminą Pilchowice. +Struktura powierzchni. +Według danych z roku 2002 Knurów ma obszar 33,95 km², z czego 23% (797 ha) to użytki rolne, a 38% (1288 ha) użytki leśne. Miasto stanowi 5,12% powierzchni powiatu gliwickiego i 0,27% województwa śląskiego. +Hydrografia. +Południowo-zachodnia część miasta umiejscowiona jest w lewym brzegu Bierawki, której jednym z dopływów jest Rów Knurowski. W sąsiedztwie Szczygłowic oraz Parku Krajobrazowego Cysterskie Kompozycje Krajobrazowe Rud Wielkich usytuowany jest Potok Książenicki, Szczygłowicki i Krywałdzki. +Rozwój licznych zalewisk ma aspekt ekologiczny, ponieważ przyczynia się do zachowania ginącej gromady gadów. Największym jeziorem w mieście jest Staw Moczury, o współrzędnych , mieszczący się w pobliżu Pól Farskich. W Szygłowicach natomiast zlokalizowany jest Staw Jaskinia. +Środowisko naturalne. +Rzeźba terenu. +Na duże urozmaicenie rzeźby terenu wpływa fakt, że Knurów leży w łagodnej niecce tektonicznej podkarpackiego zapadliska. Powierzchnia miasta nachylona jest zasadniczo w kierunku zachodnim i południowo-zachodnim. Największym wzniesiem Knurowa jest wzgórze w północno-wschodniej części liczące 265 m n.p.m. Działalność kopalń ma też wpływ na ukształtowanie terenu. Najbardziej widoczne są hałdy w rejonie Szczygłowic. Dużym problemem są zapadliska, bagna i zalewiska bezodpływowe, stawy tworzące się w niektórych miejscach gminy – wszystko to jest efektem osiadania gruntu, spowodowanego eksploatacją węgla kamiennego. +Fauna i flora. +W Knurowie dominują państwowe lasy mieszane, które wchodzą w skład Leśnictwa Zacisze i są zarządane przez Nadleśnictwo Rybnik. Są one otoczone od strony zachodniej Nadleśnictwem Rudy Raciborskiej, od północny Nadleśnictwem Brynek i Rudziniec, od wschodu Nadleśnictwem Kobiór i Pszczyna, zaś od południowego wschodu Nadleśnictwem Ustroń. Całość wchodzi w skład Regionalnej Dyrekcji Lasów Państwowych w Katowicach. Lasy iglaste stanowią 61,5%, a liściaste 38,5% ich całkowitej powierzchni. Przeważającymi gatunkami drzew są sosny, świerki, brzozy oraz dęby. W mieście występuje około 250 gatunków synantropijnych. Można tu znaleźć wiele okazów rzadkich i chronionych jak wawrzynek wilczełyko, konwalia majowa, ciemiężyca zielona oraz barwinek pospolity. W Szczygłowicach znajduje się pojedynczy okaz dębu szypułkowego. +Obecnie niektóre tereny Knurowa znajdują się w obrębie Parku Krajobrazowego Cysterskie Kompozycje Krajobrazowe Rud Wielkich. W rejonie górnego i dolnego odcinka Potoku Książenickiego znajdują się uroczyska, mokradła, łąki i rozlewiska wodne. +Nazwa. +W 1295 w kronice łacińskiej "Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis" miejscowość wymieniona jest jako "Cnurowicz". +Historia. +Choć dzisiejszy Knurów uzyskał prawa miejskie stosunkowo niedawno, bo w 1951 roku, w wyniku połączenia z Krywałdem i Szczygłowicami, to jego historia jest znacznie bogatsza. Pierwsze wzmianki o Knurowie pochodzą z „Księgi uposażeń biskupstwa wrocławskiego” założonej ok. 1295 roku. Z najstarszych dokumentów z 1305 i 1447 roku dowiadujemy się, że okolica Knurowa terytorialnie należała do ziemi gliwickiej. +Na przestrzeni wieków losy Knurowa toczyły się podobnie jak całego Górnego Śląska, który przechodząc z rąk do rąk ostatecznie po wojnach śląskich znalazł się w granicach Królestwa Prus. Jednym z najstarszych obiektów w mieście jest XVI-wieczny drewniany kościół pw. św. Wawrzyńca (znajdujący się obecnie w Chorzowie). Na oryginalny wystrój kościółka składały się między innymi cenne rzeźby św. Anny Samotrzeciej, św. Wawrzyńca oraz Pięknej Madonny z Knurowa pochodzące z XV wieku. Szczególnie ta ostatnia, powstała około 1420 roku, jest obok Madonny z Krużlowej jedną z najwspanialszych w Polsce rzeźb przedstawiających średniowieczne Madonny. Obecnie wszystkie knurowskie figury można podziwiać w Muzeum Archidiecezjalnym w Katowicach. Z roku 1655 pochodzą dzwony kościelne wykonane w ludwisarni z Lotaryngii. +Zasadnicze zmiany w historii miejscowości przyniósł wiek XIX, związany z procesem industrializacji. Knurów z osady typowo wiejskiej przekształcił się w ośrodek przemysłowy. Dotychczasowa zabudowa siedliskowa wzbogacona została nowymi obiektami. Na ich tle wyróżniał się wybudowany w poł. XIX wieku na terenie dóbr rycerskich dwór wraz ze stawem. Obecnie mieści się w nim siedziba NOT i Izby Tradycji KWK Knurów przy ul. Dworcowej. +Dynamiczny rozwój górnictwa i rosnące zapotrzebowanie na materiał strzelniczy przyczynił się do powstania w 1875 r. pierwszej fabryki – prochowni na Krywałdzie. Obecnie jedynymi śladami po dawnej świetności zakładu funkcjonującego przez ponad 120 lat pod nazwą Lignose, a później Krywałd ERG jest okazały budynek dyrekcji, neogotycka kapliczka św. Barbary przy ul. Zwycięstwa oraz kościół parafialny pw. św. Antoniego, który mieści się w budynku dawnej cechowni. +Gwałtowny rozwój Knurowa przypada na przełom XIX i XX wieku, kiedy to w wyniku odkrycia bogatych złóż węgla kamiennego podjęto decyzję o budowie koksowni oraz kopalni. Dzięki temu w latach 1900-1921 w północno-wschodniej części Knurowa powstały cztery kolonie dla urzędników i robotników. Są to przykłady tzw. osiedli patronackich, wznoszonych w sąsiedztwie macierzystych zakładów pracy. Twórcą i projektantem knurowskich kolonii był światowej sławy urbanista Karl Henrici. Zespoły te odznaczały się regularnością i geometrycznością układu. Do dziś obiekty te zresztą zachowały swój odrębny charakter od reszty miasta wyróżniając się cechami wiejskiej zabudowy z dużą ilością zieleni. Typowym tego przykładem jest np.: III Kolonia w rejonie ul. Dworcowej, Słoniny i sąsiednich. +Poza domami mieszkalnymi sukcesywnie rozbudowano infrastrukturę towarzyszącą. Uruchomiono w 1908 roku pierwszą linie kolejową, w 1912 roku powstał jeden z najbardziej charakterystycznych budynków – Lecznica Spółki Brackiej (obecnie szpital miejski przy ul. Niepodległości). W rejonie ulic Niepodległości i 1 Maja wzniesiono kilkanaście, w większości modernistycznych kamienic, w latach 1928-1929 wybudowano także ratusz miejski. W pobliżu ul. Dworcowej warto ponadto zwrócić uwagę na odnowioną kapliczkę św. Jana Nepomucena ufundowaną w 1919 roku oraz kościół pw. św. Cyryla i Metodego z oryginalnymi wystrojem projektu Henryka Burzca – rzeźbiarza z Zakopanego. +II wojna światowa dotarła do miasta już 1 września 1939 roku o godz. 5.00, kiedy to oddziały niemieckie przekroczyły granicę polską od strony Szywałdu i zajęły Knurów broniony przez byłych powstańców śląskich. Od strony Nieborowic, Niemcy wkroczyli do Krywałdu i Szczygłowic. Granicy Polski na odcinku knurowskim bronił II batalion OOP. I i II kompanią dowodzili bracia Ryszard i Feliks Michalscy. Samoloty niemieckie ostrzelały m.in. kościół i teren fabryki „Lignoza” w Krywałdzie. Zginęło czterech polskich żołnierzy, w tym dowódca Feliks Michalski, którego pomnik można podziwiać przy Miejskiej Szkole Podstawowej nr 3 przy ul. Michalskiego. +Okres powojenny przynosi miastu dalszy rozwój związany z rozbudową przemysłu, uruchomieniem w 1961 w Szczygłowicach drugiej kopalni oraz tworzeniem nowych osiedli mieszkaniowych. +Demografia. +Knurów jest 25. miastem w województwie śląskim, pod względem liczby mieszkańców (na całkowitą liczbę 72 miast). W Polsce miasto lokuje się na 114. pozycji (na 892 miasta w 2008 roku) i zajmuje 289 lokatę pod względem gęstości zaludnienia. +Największą liczbę ludności Knurów zanotował w 1999 roku. Po tym roku liczba mieszkańców miasta maleje. +Komunikacja. +Transport kolejowy. +Knurów był pozbawiony tras kolejowych do 1908 roku. Najważniejszą przyczyną przeprowadzenia przez Knurów linii kolejowej była budowa przez skarb państwa pruskiego Kopalni Węgla Kamiennego w Knurowie. Projekt trasy istniał w 1905 roku, który to łączył stację Gierałtowice z Orzeszem. +Już 15 lipca 1908 roku oddano do użytku sześciokilometrowy odcinek kolei żelaznej, łączący Knurów z Gierałtowicami, a 1 października 1909 roku przyłączono trasę prowadzącą z Knurowa do Rzędówki przez Szczygłowice o długości jedenastu kilometrów. Na początku cała linia od stacji Rzędówki do Gierałtowic (przebiegająca przez Knurów) była jednotorowa, jednak duża ilość przewozów zdecydowała o dobudowie drugiego toru. +W latach 60. XX wieku powstał przystanek osobowy Knurów Kopalnia, co było dużym udogodnieniem dla mieszkańców miasta, ponieważ znajdował się blisko centrum. W latach 1978-1979 knurowską linią kolejową kursowało 12 pociągów pasażerskich na dobę. Drugi przystanek osobowy Szczygłowice Kopalnia powstał na początku lat 90. XX wieku. Służył on głównie górnikom dojeżdżającym do pracy. +Obecnie przez stację Knurów Kopalnia nie przejeżdżają żadne pociągi pasażerskie. Wnętrza dworca są przebudowane i przystosowane do obsługi ruchu towarowego. Znajdują się tu dwa perony oraz budynek dworca kolejowego. Stacja została zamknięta dla obsług podróżnych 30 października 1998 roku, a wraz z tym zlikwidowano kasę biletową, poczekalnię oraz punkt gospodarczy. Łączna długość stacji wynosi 12 kilometrów. Identycznie działa stacja Knurów Szczygłowice, która ma 17 kilometrów długości. Zamknięto ją dla odprawy pasażerów w 1999 roku, a budynek dworca jest użytkowany jako punkt obsługi ruchu towarowego oraz jako punkt kontroli ruchu. +Obecnie na knurowskiej linii kolejowej nr 149 realizowane są jedynie przewozy towarowe. Przez Knurów kursują pociągi obsługiwane przez PKP Cargo, PTKiGK Zabrze oraz PTKiGK Rybnik. Na stacji Knurów znajduje się, podlegający Dyrekcji PKP Cargo i Zakładowi Przewozów Towarowych w Rybniku, Punkt Rewizji Technicznej Knurów. +Transport drogowy. +Przez miasto przebiegają dwie drogi wojewódzkie: nr 921 oraz nr 924, istnieje też połączenie z z drogą krajową DK 78. W obrębie miasta usytuowany jest też jeden z węzłów autostrady A1. +Komunikacja miejska. +Przez Knurów przebiegają linie autobusowe KZK GOP o numerach: 8, 47, 58, 120, 194, 636, 648, 710 oraz 936. Od poniedziałku do piątku w dni robocze kursuje linia autobusów 100 obsługiwana przez TLA Knurów-Rybnik oraz MZK Szczygłowice KWK – Orzepowice Liceum. W Knurowie jeździ także autobus TESCO Gliwice. Na terenie miasta znajduje się pięć postoi TAXI. +Religia. +Katolicyzm +Protestantyzm +Świadkowie Jehowy +Kultura i edukacja. +Najważniejszą instytucją z dziedziny kultury jest Centrum Kultury, które przygotowuje i realizuje całoroczną ofertę kulturalną miasta oraz prowadzi wystawy, koncerty i warsztaty dla młodzieży. Ponadto zarządza Kinem Scena Kultura, Domem Kultury w Szczygłowicach oraz od 1991 roku wydaje tygodnik Przegląd Lokalny. Kino Scena Kultura (nazwa od 2009 do chwili obecnej, wcześniej od 1997 Casino), powstało tuż przed wojną w budynku, gdzie mieścił się duży sklep Franciszka Konopki, który później z pełnym zaangażowaniem prowadził również kino. +Od 2004 roku działa Klub Kultury Lokalnej „Sztukateria”. Klub organizuje warsztaty taneczne, wieczory poetyckie, koncerty muzyki jazzowej i etnicznej. Kulturę w mieście organizuję również Izba Tradycji Górnicze, pełniąca funkcję nieformalnego muzeum Knurowa. W swych zbiorach posiada wiele unikatowych eksponatów i pamiątek ofiarowywanych przez okolicznych mieszkańców i instytucje. W Knurowie działają cztery biblioteki miejskie i dwie parafialne. +Knurów współpracuje także z miejscowym ośrodkiem artystycznym m.in. chórami "Slavica Musa", Schola Cantorum, Męskim Zespołem Wokalnym "Calvi Cantores", orkiestrą dętą KWK Knurów oraz tenorem Adamem Sobierajskim. Od 1996 roku funkcjonuje Zespół Folklorystyczny „Wrazidloki” – zdobywca wielu krajowych i międzynarodowych nagród, a od 2000 roku działa Zespół Taneczny „Fantazja”. +Knurów, jako jedna z pierwszych gmin w Polsce na początku lat 90. przejęła prowadzenie szkół i placówek oświatowych. Obecnie w mieście znajduje się 7 przedszkoli, 7 szkół podstawowych, 4 gimnazja, 2 licea ogólnokształcące, 2 szkoły zawodowe i jedna szkoła specjalna. +Gospodarka. +Dzięki zasobom środowiska naturalnego, bogatym w złoża węgla koksującego wysokiej jakości, w Knurowie rozwinął się głównie przemysł wydobywczy reprezentowany przez KWK „Knurów” i KWK „Szczygłowice”. Te dwa największe zakłady w mieście zatrudniają łącznie ponad 7 tysięcy pracowników. Od kilkunastu lat Knurów zmierza jednak do przekształcenia się w ośrodek o zróżnicowanej strukturze gospodarczej. Dobrze rozwinięta jest sieć usług finansowych, dostępnych m.in. w pięciu bankach, agencjach kredytowych oraz Śląskiej Spółdzielczej Kasie Oszczędnościowo-Kredytowej. Jednym z wiodących sektorów gospodarki miasta jest mieszkalnictwo reprezentowane przez dwie spółdzielnie mieszkaniowe posiadające łącznie przeszło 50% ogólnej liczby zasobów mieszkaniowych. Starszą z nich jest Lokatorsko-Własnościowa Spółdzielnia Mieszkaniowa założona w 1959 roku. Zarządza ona 134 budynkami mieszkalnymi na 5 osiedlach, zrzeszając ponad 6200 członków. Młodsza z nich to spółdzielnia „Knurowianka” założona w 1982 roku, zarządzająca 598 mieszkaniami i zrzeszająca 532 członków. Obie spółdzielnie stale modernizują swoje zasoby, przy czym LWSM zrealizowała inwestycje termomodernizacji z równoczesną likwidacją azbestu na wszystkich zarządzanych przez siebie budynkach mieszkalnych. +Rozwojowi miasta sprzyja obecność na rynku prywatnych podmiotów gospodarczych; zarówno tych większych – przede wszystkim z branży usługowej, elektronicznej, budowlanej, jak i mikroprzedsiębiorstw, których według stanu na dzień 1 stycznia 2005 roku było ponad 2200. +Nadchodzące lata stać będą pod znakiem dalszych inwestycji, przede wszystkim w infrastrukturę ochrony środowiska oraz w układ komunikacyjny miasta. Kontynuowana będzie m.in. modernizacja istniejącej już oczyszczalni ścieków oraz budowa drugiej oczyszczalni. Przygotowywana jest dokumentacja pod planowaną rozbudowę i modernizację infrastruktury wodno-ściekowej miasta. W dalszym ciągu realizowane będzie budownictwo mieszkaniowe w ramach TBS-ów (kolejne dwa budynki mieszkalne) oraz inwestycje w ciągi pieszo-komunikacyjne. Kolejnym wyzwaniem, przed którym stoi miasto, jest kwestia zagospodarowania terenów poprzemysłowych oraz rewitalizacja starych dzielnic mieszkaniowych. +Sport i rekreacje. +Najstarszym klubem sportowym w mieście jest Concordia Knurów. W sezonach 1986/1987 oraz 1987/1988 rozgrywali mecze barażowe o wejście do I ligi. Obecnie Concordia występuje w IV lidze. Najbardziej znanym i utytuowanym wychowankiem klubu jest Jerzy Dudek, który dwukrotnie grał w Mistrzostwach Świata oraz wygrał Ligę Mistrzów. +Concordia Knurów prowadzi również sekcję boksu i tenisa stołowego. Pięściarze to wielokrotni medaliści drużynowych mistrzostw Polski, a ich największym sukcesem był tytuł mistrzowski wywalczony w 1996 roku. Wychowankowie, Zygmunt Gosiewski i Józef Gilewski, byli wielokrotnymi uczestnikami mistrzostw Europy oraz Świata. Kobieca sekcja tenisa stołowego bierze udział w rozgrywkach III Ligi Kobiet. +Sportami siłowymi zajmuje się Uczniowski Klub Sportowy Eugen, którego szkoleniowcem jest Eugeniusz Mehlich – mistrz Świata i Europy w wyciskaniu sztangi leżąc. W mieście działa również organizacja TKKF Szczygłowice prowadząca sekcję narciarstwa, żeglarstwa, siatkówki oraz pływanie/pływania. Siatkarze TKKF występują w IV lidze piłki siatkowej mężczyzn. Młodzi pływacy zrzeszeni w TKKF uzyskują znaczące wyniki na Śląsku i w Polsce. Do najmłodszych klubów sportowych należy Olimp Szczygłowice oraz Upos Komart Knurów. +Aktualnie ważne miejsce w sportowym krajobrazie miasta zajmuje bieganie. Miłośników biegania zrzeszają Klub Biegacza „Sokół” i Amatorski Klub Biegacza, który corocznie we wrześniu współorganizuje na terenie Knurowa 10-cio kilometrowy Międzynarodowy Bieg Uliczny będący zarazem Mistrzostwami Polski Górników. Knurowscy biegacze znani są też w Polsce z organizacji wielu inicjatyw biegowych m.in. Pielgrzymki Biegowej do grobu Ks. Jerzego Popiełuszki, Biegu Pamięci Jana Pawła II, Sztafety na Przystanek Woodstock i Biegu z okazji Orkiestry Świątecznej Pomocy. +Wizytówką miasta jest Oddział Miejski WOPR, istniejący od 1978 roku. Knurowscy ratownicy wodni to 8-krotni drużynowi Mistrzowie Śląska. +Zabytki. +Miasto nie posiada obiektów zabytkowych wpisanych do rejestru zabytków Wojewódzkiego Konserwatora Zabytków, natomiast posiada obiekty znajdujące się pod ochroną konserwatorską. +P0f + +p0f – pasywny skaner sieciowy stworzony przez Michała Zalewskiego. +Możliwości programu. +Jako skaner pasywny, p0f tak samo dobrze radzi sobie zarówno z hostami posiadającymi publiczny adres IP, jak i tymi znajdującymi się za maskaradą. +Tuomas Holopainen + +Tuomas Lauri Johannes Holopainen (ur. 25 grudnia 1976 w Kitee) – fiński kompozytor, muzyk i poeta, założyciel fińskiego zespołu metalowego Nightwish. +Na pianinie zaczął grać w wieku 8 lat, po namówieniu przez mamę, która jest nauczycielką gry na pianinie. Gdy miał 9 lat rozpoczął naukę na klarnecie; w tym samym czasie kształcił się w szkole muzycznej, gdzie uzyskał dyplom. Później grał na saksofonie w grupie jazzowej oraz na klarnecie w orkiestrze dętej. Na keyboardzie gra od 16. roku życia. Przed Nightwish udzielał się w projektach takich jak Darkwoods My Betrothed czy Furthest Shore, a obecnie sezonowo udziela się w For My Pain..., ale też zdarza mu się komponować dla fińskich muzyków, np. dla Timo Raitiainen. +W szkole muzycznej poznał Emppu (gitarzystę zespołu Nightwish) oraz Tarję (pierwszą wokalistkę zespołu). Przyjmuje się, że zespół powstał w lipcu 1996 roku jako projekt muzyczny Tuomasa. Można uznać go za duszę zespołu: pisze teksty, komponuje muzykę, dodatkowo gra na klawiszach. Tuomas śpiewał na pierwszej płycie Nightwish ("Angels Fall First"). Następnie do współpracy zapraszał profesjonalnych wokalistów: do "Oceanborn" Tapio Wilska oraz Tony Kakko do "Over The Hills and Far Away". Od czasu czwartej płyty zespołu rolę wokalisty przejął basista Marco Hietala.W 2005 roku zespół rozstał się z dotychczasową wokalistką Tarją Turunen. W liście otwartym napisanym przez Tuomasa i podpisanym przez resztę zespołu podane są powody wyrzucenia Tarji z zespołu. W 2007 roku świat obiegła informacja, iż nową wokalistką Nightwish została Szwedka Anette Olzon. +Tuomas jest fanem między innymi Disneya i J.R.R.Tolkiena. Jego ulubionym filmem jest "Osada". Mieszka w domu, który sam zaprojektował, w Kitee, swoim rodzinnym mieście. +Demarketing + +Demarketing to marketing negatywny, skierowany przeciwko określonej marce lub markom. Czasami stosowany w reklamie społecznej (gdy np. jakaś marka jest szczególnie szkodliwa). Może polegać na wycofywaniu produktu z rynku z przyczyn związanych np. ze strategia marketingową, czy cyklem życia produktu. Jest to czasowe lub trwałe zniechęcenie do zakupu produktu, ogółu lub wybranej kategorii klientów np. Yosemite National Park, jest zbyt tłumnie odwiedzany w okresie letnim. +Zobacz też: Subvertising. +William Higinbotham + +William Higinbotham (25 października 1910 - 10 listopada 1994), fizyk amerykański, który zasłynął głównie dzięki stworzeniu prekursora gry Pong o nazwie Tennis for Two. +Wyspy Antypodów + +Wyspy Antypodów (ang. "Antipodes Islands") - grupa wysp, położona na południe od Nowej Zelandii, której to część terytorium stanowią. Oddalone są około 650 km na południowy wschód od wyspy Stewart. W skład Wysp Antypodów wchodzi jedna główna wyspa o powierzchni 20 km², wyspa Bollans - 2 km² oraz liczne niewielkie wysepki. Wyspy są bezludne. +Wyspy zostały odkryte w 1800. Podjęto próbę wprowadzenia na nie bydła, która jednak nie powiodła się, ze względu na surowy klimat. Najdłużej na wyspie przebywało 11 rozbitków ze statku "Spirit of Dawn", który rozbił się w 1893 u wybrzeży głównej wyspy. Przez trzy miesiące żywili się głównie surowym mięsem ptaków morskich. Ironią losu było to, że na drugim krańcu wyspy znajdował się dobrze zaopatrzony skład materiałów i pożywienia przeznaczony dla rozbitków. +Nazwa. +Odkrywca, kapitan Waterhouse z HMS "Reliance" nadał tym wyspom nazwę "Penantipodes", czyli "bliskie antypodom", ze względu na położenie bliskie antypodom Londynu. Nazwa została z czasem skrócona do "Antipodes", prowadząc do nieporozumień. W rzeczywistości leżą one na antypodach gminy Gatteville-le-Phare, położonej w północnej Francji w pobliżu Cherbourga. +Horacjanizm + +Horacjanizm - stworzona przez rzymskiego poetę Horacego postawa wobec życia i moralności. Była swoistym poszukiwaniem złotego środka poprzez połączenie dwóch antycznych filozofii życia: epikureizmu i stoicyzmu. +Najbardziej znanym poetą polskim pisującym wiersze w stylu Horacego był Jan Kochanowski. +I sekretarz + +I sekretarz (również "Sekretarz generalny") – najwyższa funkcja w partiach komunistycznych. W państwach, w których partia komunistyczna jest (lub była) partią rządzącą, jest to (lub było) faktycznie najwyższe stanowisko w państwie. Funkcje pierwszych sekretarzy często bywają w takich systemach łączone z innymi kluczowymi pozycjami w strukturach państwowych, na przykład Wojciech Jaruzelski był równocześnie I sekretarzem KC PZPR, premierem (później przewodniczącym Rady Państwa), ministrem obrony narodowej i najwyższym stopniem dowódcą wojskowym (generałem armii) w służbie czynnej. Podobnie Fidel Castro na Kubie był tam – obok funkcji I sekretarza partii komunistycznej – premierem, prezydentem i najwyższym stopniem generałem. +Liga Republikańska + +Liga Republikańska - polska organizacja prawicowa i antykomunistyczna działająca w latach 1993-2001. +Historia. +Liga została zarejestrowana jako stowarzyszenie 8 grudnia 1993. Działała najaktywniej w latach 1995-1997. Część działaczy znalazła się w partii Przymierze Prawicy, a następnie w Prawie i Sprawiedliwości (m.in. Mariusz Kamiński, Stanisław Pięta, Piotr Babinetz, Anna Sikora). Przewodniczącym organizacji był Mariusz Kamiński. +Stowarzyszenie według deklaracji programowej, powstało jako protest prawicowej części aktywnych politycznie ludzi młodego pokolenia wobec powrotu do władzy postkomunistów w wyniku wyborów parlamentarnych 19 września 1993. Utworzyła je grupa byłych działaczy konspiracyjnego Tajnego Zarządu Niezależnego Zrzeszenia Studentów Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego z lat 80. +Liga była organizacją kierowaną przez ówczesnych trzydziestolatków, którym udało się skupić dookoła siebie pewną liczbę ludzi młodszych od siebie. Najgłośniejszymi działaniami Ligi były demonstracje uliczne (największa w dniu zaprzysiężenia na prezydenta Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego), pikiety, w których uczestniczyła również młodzież szkolna (np. przeciw ówczesnemu ministrowi edukacji Jerzemu Wiatrowi z SLD) oraz manifestacja na galerii sejmowej przeciw oskarżanemu przez nich o współpracę z rosyjskim wywiadem premierowi Józefowi Oleksemu. Liga organizowała też wystawę fotografii "Żołnierze Wyklęci", poświęconą powojennej partyzantce. Wśród działań Ligi były także m.in. demonstracje pod domem Wojciecha Jaruzelskiego 13 grudnia każdego roku, usuwanie syboli radzieckich i komunistycznych z polskich miast, protesty przeciw polityce rosyjskiej w Czeczeni czy działania na rzecz osądzenia sędziów stalinowskich (m.in. Stefana Michnika). +1 maja 1999 członek Ligi Republikańskiej rzucił petardę w tłum. Petarda trafiła w prof. Dunina-Wąsowicza oraz dziennikarzy telewizji RTL 7, w wyniku czego odnieśli oni rany. Krzysztof Dunin-Wąsowicz jest byłym żołnierzem Armii Krajowej, więzieniem Pawiaka i obozu koncentracyjnego KL Stutthof. +Danuta Waniek (szefowa sztabu wyborczego Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego) nazwała Ligę Republikańską płatnymi bojówkami, odnosząc się do zakłócenia spotkań wyborczych Kwaśniewskiego w AWF i pod Teatrem Guliwer w Warszawie 1995. Została za to stwierdzenie pozwana do sądu. Sąd Okręgowy uznał, że Liga była: ""stroną agresywną, atakującą i prowokującą do reakcji"", ""w AWF Liga faktycznie rozbiła spotkanie oraz w istotny sposób zakłóciła spotkanie w teatrze"" oraz, że nazywanie Ligi bojówką było zgodne z stanem faktycznym, jednak na stwierdzenie, że niektórzy członkowie Ligi brali pieniądze za wybryki, Waniek nie przedstawiła wystarczających dowodów. Miała za to przeprosić na łamach "Rzeczpospolitej". +Sąd Apelacyjny uznał w 2004, że użycie słowa "bojówki" było obraźliwe dla Ligi i naruszyło jej dobre imię i nakazał Waniek przeprosiny również za ten epitet. Zarazem sąd uznał, że niewątpliwie Liga wywoływała awantury, które utrudniały dostanie się na wiece wszystkim, którzy chcieli wziąć w nich udział, dlatego pozwana nie musiała przepraszać za słowo "zadymiarze". +Program. +Według Deklaracji Ligi Republikańskiej ""Nasz dzień nadejdzie"", głównym postulatem stowarzyszenia była radykalna dekomunizacja, która miała polegać na całkowitym usunięciu z życia publicznego funkcjonariuszy aparatu PPR, PZPR i ZSMP, funkcjonariuszy i tajnych współpracowników UB, SB i służb wojskowych PRL oraz członków rządów PRL. Liga podejmował też postulat dekomunizacji prawa poprzez deregulację i zmniejszenie biurokracji. +Wśród propozycji Ligi znalazły się także działania mające na celu zbudowania klasy średniej, poprzez reprywatyzacją oraz poszerzanie wolnego rynku, dążenia do usunięcia zasad poprawności politycznej, propagowanie polskiej kultury narodowej oraz tradycyjnych wartości opartych o wiarę katolicką. Podstawowym elementem spajającym Ligę był antykomunizm, inne prawicowe elementy programowe, choć obecne w jej działalności i publikacjach, były słabiej akcentowane. +Carl Auer von Welsbach + +Carl Auer von Welsbach (ur. 1 września 1858 w Wiedniu, zm. 4 sierpnia 1929 w Mölbling) – chemik austriacki, profesor uniwersytetu w Wiedniu. +Prowadził badania pierwiastków ziem rzadkich. W 1885 rozdzielił dydym na pierwiastki prazeodym i neodym. +W 1905 ówczesny iterb rozdzielił na właściwe pierwiastki iterb i kasjop - obecnie lutet. Odkrył luminescencję związków ceru i innych lantanowców w wysokich temperaturach. +Siatki Auera wykonane z dwutlenku toru ThO2 (99%) i CeO2 (1%) w płomieniu gazowym dają intensywne białe światło. +Tennis for Two + +Tennis for Two – gra komputerowa autorstwa Williama Higinbothama, stworzona w 1958 roku na bazie oscyloskopu, stanowiąca symulację tenisa stołowego. Jest jedną z najstarszych gier wideo, niekiedy uznawaną za pierwszą w historii branży mimo braku generowanego sygnału wideo. "Tennis for Two" stanowił pierwowzór dzieła "Pong". +Rozgrywka. +"Tennis for Two" był symulacją tenisa stołowego, w której rolę wyświetlacza odgrywał oscyloskop o przekątnej ekranu 5 cali. Gra przeznaczona była dla dwóch graczy. Obsługiwali ją oni przy pomocy skrzynek z gałkami i przyciskami, których naciśnięcie wpływało na tor lotu piłki. Sam stół był widoczny z boku, zaś piłka za sprawą działań graczy przesuwała się w lewo i prawo. "Tennis for Two" nie podliczał punktów zdobywanych przez graczy, ale uwzględniał czynniki takie, jak prędkość wiatru i grawitacja. +Produkcja i dalsze losy. +"Tennis for Two" powstał w amerykańskim Brookhaven National Laboratory, a jego pomysłodawcą był fizyk William Higinbotham. Ze względu na złą opinię, jaką cieszyło się podejrzewane powszechnie o przeprowadzanie tajemniczych eksperymentów laboratorium, Brookhaven postanowiło zorganizować dni otwarte dla publiczności. Higinbotham z tej okazji postanowił stworzyć grę, która przyniosłaby rozrywkę odwiedzającym. Do symulacji programu użył on komputera analogowego, do którego podłączył oscyloskop pełniący funkcję wyświetlacza. +Premiera "Tennis for Two" odbyła się 16 października 1958 roku. Szybko gra wzbudziła zainteresowanie publiczności, stąd też Brookhaven notowało coraz większą liczbę odwiedzających. Dzieło Higinbothama pojawiło się ponownie na podobnej imprezie w 1959 roku, potem jednak gra została rozmontowana, nie rozpoczęto jej masowej produkcji, w amerykański fizyk nie był skory do jej opatentowania. Dopiero w 2008 roku, już po śmierci twórcy, podczas jubileuszu pięćdziesięciolecia "Tennis for Two" został odbudowany i ponownie pokazany publiczności. +Znaczenie. +"Tennis for Two" za sprawą amerykańskiego dziennikarza Davida Ahla zyskał opinię pierwszej w historii gry wideo, a William Higinbotham został uznany za pierwszego twórcę gier komputerowych. Jednak część historyków gier uznaje, że "Tennis for Two" nie można uznać za grę wideo, gdyż nie nadawała ona samodzielnie sygnału wideo charakterystycznego dla późniejszych dzieł. Mimo to dzieło Higinbothama wywarło znaczący wpływ na rozwój branży: z jego inspiracji Steve Russell stworzył grę "Spacewar!", na jego bazie powstały również konsola Magnavox Odyssey oraz gra komputerowa "Pong". Ta ostatnia w odróżnieniu od pierwowzoru została wypuszczona na rynek i zdobyła wielką popularność. +RFID + +RFID (ang. "Radio-frequency identification") – technika, która wykorzystuje fale radiowe do przesyłania danych oraz zasilania elektronicznego układu (etykieta RFID) stanowiącego etykietę obiektu przez czytnik, w celu identyfikacji obiektu. Technika umożliwia odczyt, a czasami także zapis układu RFID. W zależności od konstrukcji umożliwia odczyt etykiet z odległości do kilkudziesięciu centymetrów lub kilku metrów od anteny czytnika. System odczytu umożliwia identyfikację wielu etykiet znajdujących się jednocześnie w polu odczytu. +RFID przytwierdzony do przedmiotu może być jedną z form zabezpieczenia przedmiotów przed ich fałszowaniem. +Działanie systemu. +Działanie systemu jest następujące: czytnik za pomocą anteny nadajnika wytwarza falę elektromagnetyczną, ta sama lub druga antena odbiera fale elektromagnetyczne, które są następnie filtrowane i dekodowane, tak by odczytać odpowiedzi znaczników. +Znaczniki pasywne nie posiadają własnego zasilania, gdy znajdą się w polu elektromagnetycznym o częstotliwości rezonansowej układu odbiorczego gromadzą odebraną energię w kondensatorze zawartym w strukturze znacznika. Po odebraniu wystarczającej energii, wysyłana jest odpowiedź zawierająca kod znacznika. W większości zastosowań nadawanie fali ładującej i informującej układ o znalezieniu się w polu czytnika jest przerywane, a transpondery odpowiadają w momentach przerw nadawania. Transponder, nie odpowiada natychmiast, lecz po pewnym czasie, a jeśli odpowiedział i pozostaje w polu fali elektromagnetycznej, to pozostaje nieczynny przez określony czas, co umożliwia odczyt wielu transponderów znajdujących się jednocześnie w polu odczytu. +Najczęściej wykorzystywana jest częstotliwość 125 kHz, pozwalająca na odczyt z odległości nie większej niż 0,5 m, ale bardziej skomplikowane systemy, umożliwiające np. zapis i odczyt informacji, pracują przy częstotliwości 13,56 MHz i zapewniają zasięg od metra do kilku metrów. Inne stosowane częstotliwości pracy – 868…956 MHz, 2,4 GHz, 5,8 GHz – zapewniają zasięg do 3, a nawet 6 m. +Historia. +Początki identyfikacji radiowej sięgają lat 40. XX w., gdy pojawiły się urządzenia na bazie wykrywaczy metali. Pierwsze sklepowe systemy antykradzieżowe, oparte na dekodowaniu nalepki z obwodem rezonansowym lub systemy magnetoakustyczne, wykorzystujące namagnesowane blaszki, zaczęły funkcjonować od lat 60. XX w. Pełna identyfikacja radiowa pojawiła się w latach 70. XX w., a pierwszym systemem ogólnie dostępnym był "Tiris" firmy Texas Instruments. +Zastosowanie RFID. +Zarządzanie opakowaniami zwrotnymi. +Wdrożenie systemu RFID do systemu zarządzania opakowaniami zwrotnymi zwiększenia efektywności zarządzania opakowaniami zwrotnymi w łańcuchu dostaw. Wzrastająca skala wykorzystania RTI w procesach logistycznych wpływa na obniżenie kosztów dystrybucji już nie tylko samych opakowań, ale i towarów, do ceny których są przecież ostatecznie doliczane. Niedostateczna dotychczasowa kontrola stanu palet, kratek, piwnych kegów i innych kontenerów skutkowała zwiększonymi stanami zapasów, a także wysokimi kosztami, licznymi błędami i wydłużeniem czasu z racji braku automatyzacji procesów rejestracji. Zastosowanie czytników RFID do potwierdzenia wydań, przyjęć i przesunięć usprawnia lokalizację towarów i sprawdzenie zgodności z zapisem w bazie danych. Co istotne, metki RFID wykorzystywane mogą być na RTI wielokrotnie, aż do momentu utylizacji danego opakowania zwrotnego. Dodatkowo, eliminacja ręcznego ich przeliczania usprawnia na tyle proces zarządzania nimi, że ostatecznie zmniejsza ich liczbę w obiegu. Szczególnie widoczne jest to przy zestawieniu z sytuacją lawinowego zalania rynku opakowaniami jednorazowymi. +Zagrożenia. +Identyfikatory RFID wzbudzają kontrowersje związane z bezpieczeństwem i prywatnością. Technika zdalnego odczytywania danych identyfikacyjnych może prowadzić do niepożądanych efektów, takich jak łatwość dostępu do poufnych danych zapisanych na kartach RFID, czy śledzenie obecności dysponenta takiej karty. +Wykorzystane w sposób niewłaściwy, RFID stanowi zagrożenie dla prywatności konsumentów, doprowadzając do utraty anonimowości kupujących i ograniczenie wolności obywatelskich. +Kseroftalmia + +Kseroftalmia, zespół suchego oka - objaw chorobowy polegający na wysychaniu spojówki, rogówki, a nawet całego oka. +Przyczyny. +Kseroftalmia może być spowodowana niedoborem witaminy A, wyniszczeniem organizmu, zespołem Sjögrena, przebytą jaglicą, urazami oka itp. +Następstwa. +Może prowadzić do całkowitego zaniewidzenia (ślepoty). +Leczenie. +Przyczynowe. +Diagnostyka. +W rozpoznawaniu zespołu suchego oka stosuje się m.in. test Schirmera. +Cyborg + +Cyborg (skrót od ang. "cybernetic organism" - organizm cybernetyczny) – organizm, którego procesy życiowe realizowane są lub wspomagane przez urządzenia techniczne. +Pojęcie to stworzone zostało przez Manfreda Clynesa i Nathana Kline'a, którzy po raz pierwszy użyli go w swoim artykule z 1960 roku, opublikowanym w czasopiśmie "Astronautics". Publikacja ta zawierała rozważania o możliwości integracji człowieka z maszyną oraz przedstawiała zalety takiego podejścia w dziedzinie przyszłej eksploracji kosmosu. Inspiracji dla ukutego pojęcia "cyborg" dostarczyła autorom dynamicznie rozwijająca się wówczas dziedzina nauki cybernetyka. Termin "cyborg" szybko podchwycony został przez autorów książek, filmów i komiksów fantastycznonaukowych. Do najbardziej znanych cyborgów należą: Darth Vader, Generał Grievous oraz Robocop. Występowanie cyborgów jest elementem charakterystycznym literatury nurtu cyberpunk (np. książki Williama Gibsona - "Neuromancer", "Johnny Mnemonic"). +Jeżeli w definicji "cyborga" poprzestanie się na kryterium "połączenia człowieka i maszyny" to za cyborga uznać należałoby każdego człowieka posiadającego jakikolwiek implant będący urządzeniem mechanicznym lub elektronicznym (np. rozrusznik serca). Dlatego termin stosowany jest raczej w odniesieniu do ludzi, których układ nerwowy połączony jest z elementami elektronicznymi (np. komputerem) metodą inwazyjną i ewentualnie także z urządzeniami mechanicznymi. Komputer i układ nerwowy powinny wzajemnie na siebie oddziaływać. Zgodnie z tą definicją "cyborgiem" nie jest np. osoba poddająca się badaniu EEG, której mózg w sposób nieinwazyjny podłączony jest do komputera badającego bioelektryczne czynności centralnego ośrodka nerwowego; nie jest nią również osoba posiadająca w mózgu elektrodę stymulującą jego pracę podczas m.in. choroby Parkinsona (gdyż implant oddziałuje na mózg, zaś mózg nie ma wpływu na działanie implantu). Cyborg jako istota ludzka wsparta urządzeniami elektronicznymi lub mechanicznymi cechuje się posiadaniem dodatkowych (nienaturalnych dla ludzi) umiejętności (np. widzenie w podczerwieni) lub usprawnieniem naturalnych umiejętności lub wydajności (np. lepsza pamięć i zdolności analityczne, większa siła, wyostrzone zmysły). +Tektyty + +Tektyty, empiryty – okruchy, bryłki, zasobnego w krzemionkę naturalnego szkliwa o niejasnym pochodzeniu koloru zielonego, brązowego lub czarnego przyjmującego kształt kilkucentymetrowej kropli. +Nazwa pochodzi od gr. "tektos" = stopiony. +Najbardziej znane tektyty. +Vltavin – występuje w Czechach nad Wełtawą; australit, jawait, filipinit, indochinit, tajlandyt, bilintonit, irgizyt, bediasyt, georgianit, iworyt, rizalit, Muong Nong, bediazyt, zhamanshinit, szkliwo Pustyni Libijskiej. +Do tektytów zalicza się niekiedy queenstownit i lechatelieryt. +Zastosowanie. +Tektyty należą do najbardziej "suchych" materiałów znanych nauce, gdyż zawartość wody związanej w strukturze krystalicznej wynosi tylko około 0,005%. +Zespół Sweeta + +Zespół Sweeta (łac. "dermatosis neutrophilica febrilis acuta"; ang. Sweet's syndrome). +Występuje częściej u kobiet w 5. dekadzie życia, u mężczyzn pojawia się później (6.-9. dekada). Charakteryzuje się pojawieniem intensywnie czerwonych naciekowych ognisk rumieniowych czasami o charakterze obrzęku (rumień guzowaty). Zmianom może towarzyszyć świąd. Pojawieniu się zmian często towarzyszy gorączka, leukocytoza. Zmiany najczęściej lokalizują się na tułowiu, kończynach i twarzy. W obrazie histopatologicznym stwierdza się obfite nacieki neutrofilowe w ogniskach chorobowych. W skórze i we krwi obwodowej spotyka się charakterystyczne komórki Pelgera-Huëta: mielodysplastyczne neutrofile z niekompletnymi segmentami i kondensacją chromatyny jądrowej. Czasami we krwi obwodowej stwierdza się przeciwciała przeciw antygenom cytoplazmatycznym leukocytów wielojądrzastych (ANCA). W części przypadków zespół Sweeta jest zwiastunem ostrej białaczki szpikowej lub też rzadziej innych rozrostów pochodzenia szpikowego. Niekiedy może towarzyszyć nowotworom narządów wewnętrznych. +Młot bojowy + +Młot bojowy, także obuch – jedna z najstarszych form broni obuchowej używana od czasów prehistorycznych do średniowiecza. Składał się z bijaka, kamiennego, później metalowego, osadzonego na trzonie, zwykle drewnianym. Używany był − zarówno przez piechotę jak i rycerstwo (w tym drugim przypadku najczęściej jako broń jednoręczna) − i służył głównie do rozbijania uzbrojenia ochronnego przeciwnika. +Od młota bojowego wywodzą sie prawdopodobnie różne typy młotów rycerskich (np. nadziak), ulepszonych w XV i XVI wieku, o ostrych uformowanych bijakach, przystosowanych do walki z przeciwnikiem ubranym w kolczugę. Bijaki kształtem przypominały masywny dziób, dla którego we Francji broń tę zwano "bec-de-corbin" (wroni dziób) lub "bec-de-faucon" (sokoli dziób). +Piechota szwajcarska do XVI wieku używała młotów bojowych osadzonych na długich, nawet 2-metrowych drzewcach. +W mitologii skandynawskiej występuje jako boski młot Thora – Mjølner, popularny jako symbol religijny, amulet a także godło heraldyczne. +Tarja Turunen + +Tarja Turunen właśc. Tarja Soile Susanna Turunen-Cabuli (ur. 17 sierpnia 1977 w Kitee) – fińska wokalistka, była wokalistka zespołu metalowego Nightwish. +Biografia. +Turunen, dysponująca sopranem lirycznym, który sięga trzech oktaw, rozpoczęła edukację muzyczną w wieku 6 lat. Poza nauką śpiewu brała też lekcje gry na pianinie i flecie. W wieku 18 lat rozpoczęła studia na kierunku śpiew operowy w Sibellius Academy w Kuopio. W tym samym czasie, za namową szkolnego kolegi Tuomasa Holopainena, została wokalistką w zespole Nightwish. Mimo rosnącej popularności zespołu, który zyskał uznanie dzięki wydanemu w 1998 albumowi "Oceanborn", kontynuowała studia, a także występowała jako solistka w operach i baletach, takich jak "Evankeliumi". Studiowała w Akademii Muzycznej w Karlsruhe w Niemczech. +Od stycznia 2003 jej mężem jest Argentyńczyk Marcelo Cabuli, którego poznała podczas nagrywania albumu "Beto Vázquez Infinity". W 2004 razem z zespołem Nightwish wydała album "Once", a także rozpoczęła karierę solową od wydania singla "Yhden Enkelin Unelma". +23 października 2005 na oficjalnej stronie zespołu Nightwish został opublikowany list, napisany przez lidera grupy Tuomasa Holopainena, a podpisany przez wszystkich członków, skierowany do Turunen, w którym skrytykowali jej zachowanie w stosunku do nich w ostatnich miesiącach, narzekali na jej mało uczuciowe, materialistyczne podejście do działalności zespołu i oznajmili o zerwaniu współpracy z nią. +W 2006 wydała świąteczną płytę "Henkäys Ikuisuudesta", która w Finlandii zyskała status platynowej płyty. Promował ją singel "You Would Have Loved This". Turunen występowała również w telewizji – w programie poświęconym środkom transportu i w fińskim "Idolu". 9 listopada 2007 wydała album "My Winter Storm", który w dniu premiery zdobył status złotej płyty. Pierwszy singel promujący tę płytę "I Walk Alone" został wydany 26 października 2007. Poza tym Turunen podpisała kontrakt z wytwórnią płyt Universal Music. Na podstawie piosenki "I Walk Alone" powstały dwie wersje teledysku: single version i artist version. W 2009 roku zaśpiewała gościnnie w piosence Walking with the Angels na płycie niemieckiej wokalistki Doro Fear No Evil, a w 2010 roku zaśpiewała gościnnie w kawałku "The Good Die Young", pochodzącym z ostatniej – według zapowiedzi – studyjnej płyty zespołu Scorpions. +Pomorze Zachodnie + +Pomorze Zachodnie ("Pomorze Nadodrzańskie", kasz. "Zôpadnô Pòmòrskô", niem. "Pommern") – kraina historyczno-geograficzna nad dolną Odrą i mniejszymi rzekami uchodzącymi do Zatoki Pomorskiej, między Reknicą a Łebą. Na zachodzie przechodzi w Meklemburgię i Brandenburgię, na południu w ziemię lubuską oraz Wielkopolskę (Krajnę), a na wschodzie w Pomorze Gdańskie. +Nazwę "Pommern" nosiła również prowincja w Królestwie Prus. +Gospodarka. +Gospodarka Pomorza Zachodniego jest nierozerwalnie związana z morzem. W regionie dominują takie gałęzie przemysłu jak rybołówstwo i przemysł stoczniowy, a także przemysł spożywczy, przetwórczy i chemiczny. Jednym z większych źródeł dochodu regionu jest turystyka. +Powiat nowomiejski + +Powiat nowomiejski – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie), istniał w latach 1948–1975 (jako następca powiatu lubawskiego, a ponownie utworzony w roku 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Nowe Miasto Lubawskie. +Charakterystyka. +Powiat nowomiejski graniczy od północy z powiatem iławskim, od wschodu z powiatem działdowskim, od południa z brodnickim, a od zachodu – z grudziądzkim. Powiat nowomiejski jest jednym z najmniejszych w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim. Zajmuje obszar 69 208 ha, a jego ludność liczy nieco ponad 43 tys. mieszkańców. Średnia gęstość zaludnienia w powiecie wynosi 62,6 osób/km². Sieć osadnicza powiatu związana jest od początków ze szlakami komunikacyjnymi oraz rzeką Drwęcą. Siedziba władz powiatu – Nowe Miasto Lubawskie, mieści się w centrum powiatu nad Drwęcą, przy drodze krajowej nr 15, łączącej zachodnią granicę ze wschodem kraju. Siedziby władz gmin oraz większe miejscowości znajdują się przy drodze krajowej nr 15 i drodze wojewódzkiej nr 538 relacji Radzyń Chełmiński – Rozdroże. +Władze. +Starosta – Ewa Dembek, +Wicestarosta – Marcin Buliński, +Sekretarz – Roman Sosnowski, +Skarbnik – Halina Bartkowska +Przewodniczący Rady Powiatu – Zofia Andrzejewska +Z-ca przewodniczącego – Romuald Koszewski +Historia. +W latach 1818-1948 na terenie obecnego województwa warmińsko-mazurskiego, istniał powiat lubawski poprzednik obecnego powiatu nowomiejskiego. Powiat powstał 1 kwietnia 1818 na terenie Prus Zachodnich. Był jednym z najrdzenniejszych polskich powiatów (o wskaźniku 96,6% ludności polskiej). Mimo że nazwa powiatu wywodzi się od miasta Lubawy, ośrodkiem administracyjnym było ważniejsze pod względem społeczno-gospodarczym Nowe Miasto Lubawskie (dawniej "Nowe Miasto nad Drwęcą"). Urzędował tu landrat pruski). +Na mocy traktatu wersalskiego z 28 czerwca 1919 powiat został przyłączony do Polski. Polskie władze przejęły powiat 19 stycznia 1920). W okresie międzywojennym powiat lubawski należał do województwa pomorskiego z siedzibą w Toruniu i był powiatem przygranicznym (na odcinku ok. 100 km). Również po II wojnie światowej przejściowo (do 1950 roku) podlegał władzom w Bydgoszczy. Na krótko, siedzibą powiatowej rady ludowej przejściowo została Lubawa, jako najsilniejszy ośrodek polski. +W 1948 zmieniono nazwę powiatu na "powiat nowomiejski", który w 1950 przeniesiono do województwa olsztyńskiego (po raz pierwszy w dziejach Lubawy i Nowego Miasta Lubawskiego, miasta te podlegały pod Olsztyn). W 1975 roku, w związku z nową reformą administracyjną (utworzenie 49 województw i likwidacja powiatów), oba silnie ze sobą związane miasta rozdzielono przez nowe województwo olsztyńskie i województwo toruńskie. +Grunty. +Struktura powierzchni gruntów wskazuje, że powiat ma charakter typowo rolniczy. Użytki rolne zajmują większą część powierzchni powiatu – 69,86% (wśród nich grunty orne – 58,07%, łąk i pastwisk – niespełna 9,39%). Lesistość wynosi 20,45%, i mimo ciągłego wzrostu, jest to wartość znacznie niższa od średniej wojewódzkiej i krajowej. Udział gruntów pokrytych wodami (2,94%) jest większy od średniej dla kraju, lecz zdecydowanie niższy, niż w pozostałej części województwa. Grunty zabudowane i zurbanizowane to 3,05% ogólnej powierzchni powiatu. Nieużytki – 3,31% (przeważająca część to tzw. powierzchnie biologicznie czynne: oczka wodne, bagna, torfowiska czy zadrzewienia śródpolne, niezwykle istotne z przyrodniczego punktu widzenia). tereny różne zajmują 0,04% powierzchni. +Ciekawostka. +Powiat nowomiejski jest jednym z bastionów Samoobrony RP. W eurowyborach w 2009 na tę partię zagłosowało 11,75% mieszkańców powiatu. Większość głosów padło na mieszkającą w gminie Kurzętnik byłą posłankę, a obecnie członka prezydium partii Renatę Rochnowską. +Nikola Sarcevic + +Nikola Sarcevic (ur. 9 lipca 1974 w Örebro) – basista, wokalista i twórca tekstów skatepunkowego zespołu Millencolin. +Pochodzi z Örebro w Szwecji, ma jugosłowiańskie korzenie. Obecnie mieszka w Göteborgu (Szwecja) ze swoją dziewczyną Lisą. +Nikola nagrał swój własny album nazwany Lock-Sport-Krock, którego nazwa wzięła się od klubu piłkarskiego, w którym Nikola grał ze swoim bratem, gdy byli młodzi. Album ten całkowicie różni się od albumów zespołu Millencolin. Zawiera brzmienia muzyki country i pop, a nie jak w przypadku zespołu Millencolin skate-punka. +Centrolew + +Centrolew – sojusz partii centrowych i lewicowych zawiązany w 1929 w celu zwalczania systemu rządów sanacji obozu Józefa Piłsudskiego. +W skład Centrolewu weszły: PSL "Wyzwolenie", PSL "Piast", Narodowa Partia Robotnicza, PPS, Stronnictwo Chłopskie i Polskie Stronnictwo Chrześcijańskiej Demokracji (patrz chrześcijańska demokracja). +W wyniku łamania przez obóz sanacyjny zasad obowiązujących w państwie demokratycznym ugrupowania opozycyjne wywodzące się z kręgów lewicowych i centrowych postanowiły się zjednoczyć. W ten sposób w 1929 powstał Centrolew, który dążył do obalenia rządów autorytarnych i przywrócenia w Polsce rządów parlamentarnych. W czerwcu 1930 koalicja Centrolewu na Kongresie Obrony Prawa i Wolności Ludu w Krakowie, proklamowała m.in. "walkę o usunięcie dyktatury Józefa Piłsudskiego, aż do zwycięstwa" oraz chciała powołania "rządu zaufania" Sejmu i społeczeństwa. +Władze sanacyjne zaczęły zdecydowanie przeciwdziałać. 25 sierpnia 1930 powołano nowy rząd którego premierem został sam Piłsudski. 30 sierpnia prezydent Ignacy Mościcki rozwiązał Sejm i Senat i zarządził nowe wybory, wskutek czego parlamentarzyści opozycyjni zostali pozbawieni immunitetu. 10 września nastąpiły aresztowania aktywnych polityków opozycji, oraz dalsze represje. Miało to wpływ na wybory, które przyniosły Centrolewowi dotkliwą porażkę. Spowodowało to całkowity rozpad Centrolewu. Aresztowanych działaczy osadzono w twierdzy brzeskiej nad Bugiem. Proces brzeski odbywał się w Warszawie od 26 października 1931 do 13 stycznia 1932. +Kamienna (dopływ Bobru) + +Kamienna – górska rzeka w Sudetach Zachodnich, lewy dopływ Bobru o długości 33 km i powierzchni zlewni 272,3 km². Początek bierze ze źródła w torfowisku Zielony Klin na północnych zboczach Mumlawskiego Wierchu (1120 m n.p.m.) na granicy Karkonoskiego Parku Narodowego. Koryto kamieniste, kręte, z licznymi, często ogromnymi głazami, z dobrze wykształconymi marmitami, na znacznej długości obmurowane. W górnym biegu rzeki, w Szklarskiej Porębie Dolnej, znajduje się elektrownia wodna. Od Jakuszyc do Piechowic stanowi granicę między Górami Izerskimi a Karkonoszami. Niżej wpływa do Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej. Do Bobru wpada w okolicy Wzgórza Krzywoustego w Jeleniej Górze. +Przepływa przez Jakuszyce, Szklarską Porębę, Piechowice, Jelenią Górę (Sobieszów, Cieplice). +W średniowieczu z rzeki wydobywano złoto. Później w dolinie Kamiennej rozwinęło się hutnictwo szkła. +Co roku, w ostatni weekend kwietnia, na rzece (w Szklarskiej Porębie) odbywają się Mistrzostwa w Kajakarstwie Górskim "AMP Kamienna". +Freetown + +Freetown – stolica i największe miasto Sierra Leone, położone w zachodniej części kraju, na wybrzeżu Oceanu Atlantyckiego. Ludność: 836 574 (2010). +Miasto jest głównym ośrodkiem politycznym, administracyjnym, gospodarczym, naukowym i kulturalnym kraju. Jest ważnym portem morskim, przez który przechodzi większość towarów eksportowych kraju. Znajdują się tu siedziby prezydenta, zgromadzenia narodowego, Rady Ministrów oraz innych władz centralnych. Freetown jest ośrodkiem administracyjnym Obszaru Zachodniego, który jest wydzielonym terytorium kraju, posiadającym status prowincji. +Freetown jest centrum gospodarczym i handlowym Sierra Leone, z wieloma zakładami przemysłowymi i przetwórczymi. Do najważniejszych gałęzi przemysłu reprezentowanych w mieście należą zakłady przetwórstwa ryb, zakłady tytoniowe, powstały rafinerie ropy naftowej oraz zakłady obróbki diamentów. Przemysł miasta koncentruje się głównie w rejonie portu. +Freetown jest największym miastem Sierra Leone jeśli chodzi o liczbę ludności. Według różnych szacunków liczba mieszkańców mogła wynosić od 836 tys., nawet do 1 mln 70 tys. osób. +Warunki naturalne. +Położenie. +Miasto położone jest w zachodniej części kraju, na wysuniętym w morze półwyspie Freetown. Powierzchnia półwyspu jest pagórkowata, pokryta tropikalnymi lasami deszczowymi, dochodzącymi niemal do piaszczystych plaż, otaczających cały półwysep. Większość obszaru lasu pierwotnego została zniszczona w wyniku wycinki, pozostałą część objęto w 2010 r. ochroną, tworząc na terenie półwyspu rezerwat leśny, który ma pomóc w zachowaniu lasów. W południowej części półwyspu, jak również w ujściach rzek występują lasy namorzynowe oraz moczary. +Klimat. +Miasto leży w strefie klimatu równikowego wilgotnego, z zaznaczającą się porą deszczową (od maja do października) oraz suchą. Na początku i na końcu pory deszczowej występują silne burze. Według klasyfikacji Köppena ze względu na duże ilości opadów przypadające na porę deszczową Freetown znajduje się na obszarze klimatu tropikalnego monsunowego. +Dużą wilgotność powietrza w mieście zmniejsza w porze suchej (listopad-luty) harmattan, wiatr wiejący znad obszarów saharyjskich, dzięki któremu pora sucha jest we Freetown najchłodniejszym czasem w roku. Średnie temperatury we Freetown wahają się przez cały rok w przedziale między 21 a 31 stopni Celsjusza. +Historia. +Obszar dzisiejszej stolicy kraju był zasiedlany od 1787 przez byłych niewolników wysyłanych z Anglii przez brytyjskich abolicjonistów, założycieli Sierra Leone Company. W 1792 Freetown (ang. "wolne miasto") zostało oficjalnie założone przez byłych niewolników z Nowej Szkocji. W latach 1808-74 było stolicą Brytyjskiej Afryki Zachodniej. W czasie II wojny światowej stanowiło ważną bazę morską Brytyjczyków. Od 1961 miasto jest stolicą niepodległego państwa Sierra Leone. +W latach 90. XX wieku miasto było areną zaciekłych walk trwającej wówczas wojny domowej. W 1998 zostało zajęte przez wojska Wspólnoty Gospodarczej Państw Afryki Zachodniej, które próbowały przywrócić władzę prezydenta Ahmada Tejana Kabbaha. Później była bez sukcesu atakowana przez rebeliantów ze Zjednoczonego Frontu Rewolucyjnego ("Revolutionary United Front"). O walkach w Freetown i całym kraju opowiada dramat wojenny "Krwawy diament" (2006). +Acanthosis nigricans maligna + +Acanthosis nigricans maligna – zespół paraneoplastyczny. Najczęściej towarzyszy nowotworom przewodu pokarmowego i płuc. Pojawia się nagle i charakteryzuje się szybkim wysiewem zmian. Zmiany hiperkeratotyczne, brodawkujące, koloru brązowego najczęściej występują w okolicach fałdów skórnych. Często pojawiają się w okolicach dołów pachowych, na twarzy i rękach. Towarzyszy im nasilony świąd. +Odmiana łagodna Acanthosis nigricans benigna nie towarzyszy występowaniu zmian nowotworowych. +Związana jest z otyłością i cukrzycą. +Marzec 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Fundusz inwestycyjny + +Fundusz inwestycyjny – forma wspólnego inwestowania polegająca na zbiorowym lokowaniu środków pieniężnych (w bardziej skomplikowanych rozwiązaniach możliwe są wpłaty w postaci np. papierów wartościowych) wpłaconych przez uczestników funduszu. Uczestnikami mogą być zarówno osoby indywidualne (osoby fizyczne), jak i osoby prawne (np. przedsiębiorstwa, miasta, gminy, związki wyznaniowe) oraz podmioty nie posiadające osobowości prawnej. +Idea funduszy inwestycyjnych bierze się z pomysłu wspólnego inwestowania wprowadzonego w Holandii w 1774 r. przez holenderskiego kupca i pośrednika Abrahama van Ketwicha. Dopiero w 1868 r. powstał pierwszy nieholenderski fundusz: the Foreign and Colonial Government Trust (Wielka Brytania). W USA fundusze rozpoczęły działalność w latach 20. XX w. ("Investment Funds", "Mutual Funds"). W Europie lokalne regulacje tworzą różnorodne formy wspólnego inwestowania: niemieckie "Specialfonds", francuskie "SICAV" i "OPCI". +Klasyfikacje funduszy inwestycyjnych. +Kryterium obszaru inwestycji. +Fundusze inwestycyjne różnią się między sobą poziomem ryzyka i związanym z nim rodzajem instrumentu finansowego, w który lokują swoje aktywa. Różnice dotyczą także horyzontu czasowego inwestycji i celów inwestycyjnych. Nie ma dwóch identycznych funduszy inwestycyjnych. +Kryterium celu inwestycyjnego. +Cel, do którego powinien zmierzać fundusz inwestycyjny realizując swoją politykę inwestycyjną. Jest to określona w statucie generalna wytyczna, jaką powinien kierować się fundusz w realizacji polityki inwestycyjnej. Dopuszczalne cele inwestycyjne funduszu otwartego lub specjalistycznego otwartego określa ustawa. Mogą to być: +Cele inwestycyjne funduszy zamkniętych mogą być określone dowolnie. +Fundusze agresywnego wzrostu. +Fundusze agresywnego wzrostu są to najbardziej ryzykowne spośród wszystkich funduszy akcji. Ich celem jest maksymalny przyrost wartości kapitału, dający przy tym niewielki dochód bieżący. Na ogół lokują one swoje środki w akcje nowych spółek i istniejących już spółek wzrostowych. Mogą również inwestować, niezależnie od ich kapitalizacji, w spółki lub branże znajdujące się akurat w niełasce rynku, licząc na potencjał zysków zawartych w niedowartościowanych lub zapomnianych akcjach. Inne tego rodzaju fundusze inwestują we wszystkie spółki ujawniające silny potencjał zysków. +Fundusze akcji małych spółek. +Są również funduszami wysokiego ryzyka. W przeciwieństwie do agresywnych funduszy wzrostu, kupują wyłącznie akcje małych spółek z rynku pozagiełdowego. Obrót tymi akcjami jest niewielki, a ich kursy podlegają znacznym wahaniom. +Fundusze wzrostu kapitałowego. +Podobnie jak ich agresywni poprzednicy, dążą do przyrostu wartości kapitału. Są jednak mniej ryzykowne, ponieważ inwestują w spółki o pewnej pozycji na rynku, wypłacające akcjonariuszom dywidendę. Jednakże dochód z dywidendy traktują jako rzecz drugorzędną. Przyrost wartości kapitału mają im zapewnić szybko rozwijające się firmy. W rankingach efektywności fundusze te są porównywalne z agresywnymi funduszami wzrostu. +Fundusze wzrostu i dochodu z kapitału. +Inwestują w spółki o ugruntowanej pozycji na rynku tzw. blue chips, regularnie wypłacające dywidendę. Charakteryzuje je duży stosunek dywidendy do wartości kapitału i są zainteresowane łączną stopą zwrotu. Fundusze tego typu są mniej ryzykowne od funduszy wzrostu, ponieważ inwestują w spółki o większej kapitalizacji i o większej płynności finansowej umożliwiającej wypłacanie znaczniejszych dywidend. Dywidendy pełnią funkcję finansowej amortyzacji na wypadek spadku kursów. +Fundusze mieszane (zrównoważone). +Ich celem jest zachowanie kapitału. Inwestują w akcje i obligacje. W strukturze portfela, w większości z nich, dominuje następująca proporcja – 60% akcji i 40% obligacji. Są to fundusze stabilniejsze, wahania ich wartości są mniejsze od zmian indeksów giełdowych. W czasie hossy pozostają na ogół w tyle za rynkiem, ale osiągają lepsze wyniki w czasie bessy. +Fundusze łącznej stopy zwrotu. +Są odmianą funduszy mieszanych, dającą jednak inwestorom możliwość osiągnięcia większych zysków. Zarządzający ich portfelem mają większą elastyczność zmiany struktury portfela niż w funduszach mieszanych. W zależności od sytuacji na rynku mogą oni zmieniać dowolnie proporcje pomiędzy akcjami a obligacjami. +Fundusze dochodu z kapitału. +Można je traktować jako substytut funduszy zrównoważonych w nieco większym stopniu nastawionych na wzrost kapitału. Fundusze te starają się uzyskać jak największy dochód bieżący. Kupują w tym celu akcje o wysokiej stopie dywidendy oraz obligacje emitowane przez rząd i przedsiębiorstwa. Ponieważ znaczną część ich przychodów stanowią odsetki i dywidendy, są one bardziej niż inne fundusze akcji narażone na zmiany stóp procentowych. +Fundusze obligacji. +Mogą mieć różne cele inwestycyjne. Mogą różnić się między sobą horyzontem czasowym obligacji, w które inwestują jak i ryzykiem związanym z wiarygodnością emitentów obligacji. Fundusze obligacji służą jako zabezpieczenie przed ewentualnymi stratami z inwestycji w akcje lub w funduszach akcji. Nie są one jednak wolne od ryzyka. Ich wartość może podlegać wahaniom podobnie jak w przypadku akcji. Im dłuższy jest termin wykupu obligacji, tym większe są wahania ich kursów. +Fundusze rynku pieniężnego. +Inwestują one w krótkoterminowe instrumenty rynku pieniężnego, czyli w bony skarbowe, certyfikaty depozytowe, bony komercyjne itp. W tych funduszach nie ma wahań cen, ale uzyskiwany w nich dochód jest niższy. Najbezpieczniejsze z tych funduszy inwestują w bony skarbowe, średniookresowe obligacje rządowe oraz skrypty dłużne agencji rządowych. +Fundusze rynków zagranicznych. +Istnieją dwie odmiany tych funduszy. Fundusze globalne inwestujące na rynku krajowym jak i na rynkach zagranicznych oraz fundusze międzynarodowe, które wyłączają ze swoich portfeli krajowe papiery wartościowe. Atrakcyjność tych funduszy polega na jeszcze większej dywersyfikacji lokat niż w krajowych funduszach akcji czy obligacji. Rynki w innych krajach poruszają się często w rytmie odmiennym od krajowego i dlatego straty z inwestycji krajowych mogą być równoważone zyskami na rynkach zagranicznych. Jednakże z tymi funduszami wiąże się dodatkowe ryzyko związane z kursami walut. +Fundusze branżowe. +Są to wyspecjalizowane fundusze inwestujące w wybrane branże przemysłowe. Inwestowanie w te fundusze jest obarczone wysokim ryzykiem, ponieważ brak w nich dywersyfikacji. Jeśli koniunktura na daną branżę jest dobra, można osiągnąć znaczące zyski. Jednak w przeciwnym wypadku straty dla inwestora mogą okazać się dotkliwe. +Kryterium formy uczestnictwa. +Fundusze otwarte. +Fundusz inwestycyjny otwarty zbywa jednostki uczestnictwa i dokonuje ich odkupienia na żądanie uczestnika funduszu. Odkupienia jednostki uczestnictwa jest tożsame z jej umorzeniem. +Tytułem uczestnictwa jest więc jednostka uczestnictwa, która nie jest papierem wartościowym, nie jest zbywalna (ale jest dziedziczna). +Fundusze inwestycyjne otwarte są jedną z trzech podstawowych kategorii funduszy, których działalność reguluje ustawa o funduszach inwestycyjnych z 2004 r. Otwarte fundusze inwestycyjne są kontynuatorami prawnymi funduszy powierniczych, których działalność regulowała ustawa o publicznym obrocie papierami wartościowymi z 1991 r., i które działają w Polsce od 1992 r. Pod względem liczebności i wartości zgromadzonych aktywów fundusze otwarte są zdecydowanie najbardziej popularnym typem funduszy inwestycyjnych w Polsce. Fundusze otwarte mogą zbywać nieograniczoną liczbę jednostek uczestnictwa i są zobowiązane do ich odkupienia na każde żądanie uczestnika. Gotowość do odkupienia jednostek uczestnictwa oznacza, że fundusz otwarty musi być w stanie dokonać szybkiej zamiany posiadanych lokat na gotówkę. Lokaty funduszy otwartych charakteryzują się więc znacznie większą płynnością niż w przypadku funduszy zamkniętych. Fundusz otwarty jest również zobowiązany do prowadzenia rejestru uczestników. Czynność ta jest najczęściej powierzana wyspecjalizowanej firmie zwanej agentem transferowym. Do zadań agenta transferowego należy też ewidencjonowanie w rejestrach wszelkich zmian, które wynikają ze zleceń składanych przez uczestników funduszu. +Ustawa z dnia 27 maja 2004 roku o funduszach inwestycyjnych (Dz. u. 04.146.1546). +Fundusze zamknięte. +Fundusz inwestycyjny zamknięty emituje certyfikaty inwestycyjne (będące tytułem uczestnictwa), które mogą być przedmiotem wtórnego obrotu (mogą istnieć publiczne ale i niepubliczne certyfikaty inwestycyjne). Certyfikaty mogą być imienne i na okaziciela (publiczne certyfikaty inwestycyjne – zawsze są na okaziciela). Emisje certyfikatów odbywają się w seriach, to jest fundusz może emitować certyfikaty kolejnych serii. Tytułem uczestnictwa jest więc certyfikat inwestycyjny, będący papierem wartościowym, który – jeśli fundusz nie określi tego inaczej, jest zbywalny. Certyfikaty nie podlegają umarzaniu. Fundusz zamknięty ma z góry określoną wielkość kapitału akcyjnego (udziałów) – zmienianą w przypadku zakończenia nowej emisji certyfikatów inwestycyjnych funduszu. +Zasady działania funduszu inwestycyjnego zamkniętego określone są w statucie funduszu. W statucie określa się m.in.: czy certyfikaty są publiczne, czy niepubliczne oraz (dla niepublicznych) czy mają formę dokumentu, czy są zdematerializowane i gdzie jest prowadzona ich ewidencja. +Certyfikaty publiczne powinny być wprowadzone do obrotu na rynku regulowanym (albo – w sytuacjach wskazanych w ustawie – w alternatywnym systemie obrotu). Fundusz z certyfikatami publicznymi podlega większości praw i obowiązków wynikających z przepisów o publicznym obrocie (ustawa o ofercie publicznej, ustawa o obrocie instrumentami finansowymi). +Fundusz dokonuje wyceny aktywów {i ustala wartość zobowiązań – dla wyliczenia wartości aktywów netto funduszu) oraz ustala wartość aktywów netto na certyfikat inwestycyjny. Terminy wycen: nie rzadziej niż raz na 3 miesiące, przed (7 dni) rozpoczęciem zapisów na nową emisję i w dni wykupu certyfikatów. +Poza reprezentującym fundusz (jako organ) towarzystwem funduszy inwestycyjnych w funduszu zamkniętym (jako organ kontrolny) działa rada inwestorów lub zgromadzenie inwestorów. +Kryterium metody ustalania zysku z funduszu. +Zwykle fundusze prezentują porównanie uzyskanych wyników (wzrostu wartości jednostki uczestnictwa) do przyjętych wzorców (zgodnie z przepisami taki wzorzec jest prezentowany w prospekcie informacyjnym funduszu. Fundusze takie określane są mianem "funduszy benchmarkowych". +Szczególna odmianą takich funduszy są fundusze indeksowe, których wycena ma odzwierciedlać wartość wzorca (którym może być jakiś wskaźnik: inflacja, indeks giełdowy). Praktyką jest, że zarządzanie takim fundusze dokonywane jest w oparciu o algorytm tworzący portfel maksymalnie zbliżony do struktury wzorca (lub ją modelujący przez inne instrumenty finansowe syntetyczne wykorzystujące np. instrumenty pochodne, krótką sprzedaż). +Pojawiają się jednakże koncepcje funduszy „absolute return”, dla których wyznacznikiem sukcesu nie jest pokonanie wzorca, ale przyniesienie inwestorowi ponadprzeciętnych zysków, a tym także odpowiednie reagowanie zmianą struktury portfela przy zmianie najkorzystniejszych w danym okresie inwestycji. +Przy takich zasadach zarządzania funduszem pojawiają się nowe formy funduszy, np. wprowadzone do obrotu na GPW w roku 2010 Exchange Traded Funds (ETF) na indeks WIG20. +Kryterium opłaty wstępnej. +Fundusze typu load. +Pobierana jest opłata manipulacyjna. Może ona być pobierana zarówno na wejściu jak i na wyjściu z funduszu. Opłata ta ma związek ze sposobem dystrybucji jednostek funduszu (zwykle jest przeznaczana na wynagrodzenie dla dystrybutorów – pośredniczących w przystępowaniu do funduszu). Zwykle opłata manipulacyjna stanowi określoną część kwoty rozliczenia (ustalana jest procentowo). +Fundusze typu no-load. +Brak opłaty manipulacyjnej +Kryterium wynagradzania za zarządzanie funduszem. +Fundusze pobierają zwykle opłatę (naliczaną przy każdej wycenie funduszu) uzależnioną (jako część procentową) od wielkości funduszu (wartości aktywów netto funduszu) – „management fee”. +Możliwe jest pobieranie także opłaty/wynagrodzenia od uzyskanego zysku z inwestycji. +Kryterium dystrybucji zysków i dochodów. +Fundusze tezaurujące. +Fundusze akumulujące zyski funduszy. Oznacza to, że wszystkie przychody i zyski powiększają wartość całego funduszu, a więc i wartość jednostki uczestnictwa w takim funduszu. +Fundusze wypłacające zyski. +Fundusze wypłacające uczestnikowi funduszu świadczenia, np. dywidendę. +Specyficzne fundusze. +Od połowy lat 2000 fundusze inwestycyjne otwarte w Polsce coraz częściej przyjmują postać pojedynczego funduszu (mającego osobowość prawną) z wydzielonymi subfunduszami. +Exchange Traded Funds. +Od roku 2010 w Polsce zaczęły działać fundusze ETF (Exchange Traded Funds) – fundusze odwzorowujące indeks (Lyxor ETF WIG 20 – WIG20). Tytuły uczestnictwa tych funduszy są handlowane na giełdzie, jak zwykłe akcje. +Uczestnictwo w funduszu inwestycyjnym. +Odpowiednio do formy prawnej funduszu (otwarty, zamknięty, sekurytyzacyjny) uczestnictwo może wiązać się z innymi prawami i korzyściami. +Przykładowo – w funduszu inwestycyjnym otwartym tytuł uczestnictwa nie jest papierem wartościowym (i nie jest obracalny – można go jedynie bez ograniczeń umorzyć, choć można go odziedziczyć), a w przypadku funduszy inwestycyjnych zamkniętych tytuł uczestnictwa ma formę papieru wartościowego, który może być przedmiotem zbycia (fundusz określa, czy jego certyfikaty są dopuszczone do obrotu – np. na giełdzie, w takim przypadku obrót odbywa się na takim rynku). +Szczegółowe zasady uczestnictwa w każdym funduszu mogą być różne i są opisane w dokumentach funduszu (statut, prospekt informacyjny). +Przystąpienie do funduszu, w szczególności, polega na wpłacie pieniężnej do funduszu (są fundusze, w których wpłata może być dokonana w innej formie – zwykle w papierach wartościowych). +Każdy pieniądz, który jest wpłacany na konto w funduszu jest przeliczany na jednostki uczestnictwa (fundusz otwarty) lub certyfikaty inwestycyjne (fundusz zamknięty). Stanowią one formalny tytuł prawny ("Tytuł Uczestnictwa") do uczestnictwa w funduszu. Ich liczba określa udział w majątku funduszu (wszystkie jednostki / certyfikaty inwestycyjnego danego typu dają jednakowe uprawnienia). Certyfikaty inwestycyjne mogą być zbywane w seriach, a w funduszu otwartym – jeśli to zostanie określone w prospekcie – jednostki uczestnictwa mogą istnieć jako jednostki różnych kategorii. +Przystępując do funduszu i dokonując wypłaty warto znać zasady rozliczeń i ponoszone bezpośrednio (w momencie rozliczania) koszty (np. potrącane opłaty manipulacyjne, prowizje, podatki od zysków kapitałowych). +Idea funkcjonowania. +Korzyści. +Wspólne inwestowanie. +Nawet stosunkowo niewielkie wpłaty wielu uczestników tworzą znaczny majątek funduszu (kapitał), który umożliwia inwestycje mające na celu osiąganie zysków wyższych niż przy inwestycji indywidualnej (np. samodzielne inwestowanie na giełdzie, czy też tradycyjna lokata bankowa). Majątek funduszu inwestycyjnego lokowany jest na zasadzie dywersyfikacji ryzyka – tj. inwestowania w tak szerokie spektrum lokat, aby nawet spadek wartości jednej z lokat w niewielkim stopniu wpłynął na wartość całego portfela. Wykorzystany jest tu czynnik skali (wiele małych wpłat stanowi istotną masę). +Majątek funduszu (to znaczy faktycznie klientów) zarządzany jest przez specjalistów. Zadaniem zarządzającego portfelem funduszu (lub odpowiednią jego częścią) (licencjonowanego doradcy inwestycyjnego) jest inwestowanie powierzonych mu pieniędzy w taki sposób, aby osiągnąć jak największy zysk dla uczestników funduszu. Najczęściej w każdej firmie zarządzającej pieniędzmi (towarzystwo funduszy inwestycyjnych – TFI) pracują analitycy oraz kilku zarządzających (minimalną liczbę licencjonowanych doradców zatrudnionych w towarzystwie określa ustawa o funduszach inwestycyjnych). Istotny jest także fakt, że fundusz inwestycyjny i TFI, które nim zarządza, mają oddzielne osobowości prawne. Skutkuje to tym, że w razie problemów finansowych spółki TFI aktywa zgromadzone w funduszach nie wchodzą w skład masy upadłościowej TFI (podobnie zresztą w odniesieniu do banku depozytariusza). A więc aktywa uczestników funduszu są bardzo bezpieczne i mają przypisane tylko ryzyko inwestycyjne (pełną listę ryzyk związanych z inwestowaniem w konkretny fundusz – zgodnie z prawem – fundusz prezentuje w prospekcie informacyjnym. +W przypadku lokat bankowych (bądź innych wehikułów oferowanych przez banki, doradców finansowych) sytuacja jest inna: powierzone środki są obracane we własnym imieniu przez bank i ewentualnie wchodzą w masę upadłościową banku (w przypadku jego upadłości zostają spożytkowane na zaspokojenie zobowiązań banku). Podobnie – na zupełnie inne ryzyka narażeni są inwestorzy samodzielnie inwestujący na rynku kapitałowym (głównie na giełdzie). +Wypełnienie wymogów, koszty uwzględniające efekt skali oraz bezpośredni kontakt z zagranicznymi rynkami jest także łatwiejsze w przypadku dużych, profesjonalnie zarządzanych instytucji. +Elastyczność. +Dla funduszy inwestycyjnych otwartych istnieje ustawowa możliwość przystąpienia do funduszu w dowolnym momencie i prawo złożenia żądania odkupienia posiadanych jednostek uczestnictwa w dowolnej chwili. Wszelkie ograniczenia są opisane w prospekcie informacyjnym funduszu. Przystępowanie jest możliwe w dowolnych kwotach, podobnie przy odkupywania jednostek nie jest konieczne całkowite likwidowanie inwestycji. +Jednostki uczestnictwa są dziedziczne. +Zwykle towarzystwa umożliwiają łatwiejsze przenoszenie inwestycji między funduszami lub subfunduszami w grupie funduszy przez siebie zarządzanych. +Obecnie na rynku istnieje wiele różnych funduszy inwestycyjnych, przez co mogą być tym sposobem zaspokojone różnorodne potrzeby inwestycyjne. +Dywersyfikacja portfela. +Dzięki efektowi skali możliwe jest takie inwestowanie, by było ono ukierunkowane na różnorodne inwestycje, co powinno zmniejszyć ryzyko straty w jednym typie inwestycji (kiedyś podawano przykład, że lepiej mieć różne owoce w jednym koszyku). +Profesjonalne zarządzanie. +Inwestowaniem kieruje wyspecjalizowany podmiot, który zgodnie z prawem powinien posiadać formalne kwalifikacje do takiego zarządzania (jest nadzorowany przez Komisję Nadzoru Finansowego, musi spełniać określone wymogi kapitałowe, musi zatrudniać certyfikowanych zarządzających, wypełniać szereg wymogów dokumentacyjnych [ogłasza prospekt informacyjny, sporządza regularnie sprawozdania finansowe). +Porównywalność i transparentność. +W Polsce istnieje szeroki rynek funduszy inwestycyjnych. Zgodnie z polskim prawem nałożone są na fundusze i towarzystwa różnorodne wymogi informacyjne. Standardowo, wyniki inwestycji funduszy porównywane są przez porównanie kwoty wpłaconej z odzyskiwalną w danym momencie. Fundusze (ich zarządzający) z ustaloną częstotliwością ogłaszają wyniki wycen (zwykle codziennie), a prasa i różne agencje informacyjne analizują te informacje i porównują wyniki osiągane. +W funduszach, co do zasady, nie ma kosztów ukrytych tzn. wszystkie koszty muszą być ujawnione w prospekcie informacyjnym, a faktycznie poniesione można zweryfikować w sprawozdaniach finansowych (ogłaszanych co pół roku: sprawozdania półroczne i roczne). Zgodnie z polskimi regulacjami prawnymi wszystkie elementy istotne dla decydowania co do inwestowania w fundusz są prezentowane przez fundusz w prospekcie informacyjnym (co roku aktualizowanym, zwykle w maju, aktualizowanym także przy okazji innych istotnych zmian w obsłudze funduszu). +Niezależne media oraz wyspecjalizowane instytucje analityczne i informacyjne prezentują dane i porównania funduszy, tworzone są nich rankingi, przy uwzględnieniu grupowania i porównywania podmiotów o podobnym charakterze (np. funduszy wyłącznie obligacyjnych z pominięciem funduszy akcyjnych i innych). +Niektóre fundusze dokonują dodatkowej certyfikacji: np. uzyskują ratingi (najwyżej cenione: Morningstar), publikują wyniki zgodnie ze standardami (np. Global Investment Performance Standards. +Bezpieczeństwo. +W Polsce działanie funduszy inwestycyjnych jest dokładnie uregulowane. Zgodnie z ustawą fundusz ma osobowość prawną, zarządza nim dedykowana spółka. Aktywa funduszu przechowywane są u określonego depozytariusza (w ustawie określono warunki, w tym kapitałowe, niezbędne dla wskazania depozytariusza oraz wskazano, że majątek funduszu jest wyodrębniony z majątku towarzystwa, czy banku depozytariusza – co zapewnia bezpieczeństwo w przypadku własnych kłopotów finansowych tych podmiotów). Nad rynkiem (bezpieczeństwem, prawidłowością działań oraz regulacjami czuwa organ państwa: Komisja Nadzoru Finansowego. +Inne korzyści. +W Polsce fundusze zwolnione są z podatku dochodowego od dywidend (to znaczy fundusz, otrzymując dywidendy z tytułu posiadanych akcji oraz (analogicznie przy odsetkach z obligacji) nie płaci podatku dochodowego. +Fundusze inwestycyjne w Polsce. +Historia funduszy inwestycyjnych w Polsce. +Fundusze powiernicze. +Instytucja zbiorowego inwestowania w Polsce została wprowadzona do systemu prawnego w roku 1991 (wpisana do ustawy o publicznym obrocie papierami wartościowymi – jako pojedynczy artykuł). +Pomysł funduszu powierniczego polegał na stworzeniu ram organizacyjnych dla wspólnego inwestowania, by każdy zainteresowany mógł przystąpić do inwestycji w każdym momencie i w każdym momencie się z niej wycofać. Fundusze inwestują na rynku kapitałowym. Fundusze powiernicze nie miały osobowości prawnej, a prowadzone były przez "towarzystwa funduszy powierniczych". +Przystąpienie do funduszu z nową wpłatą polega na wpłacie i określeniu (przez fundusz), ile jednostek uczestnictwa za tę wpłatę staje się własnością wpłacającego. Liczbę jednostek uczestnictwa określa się poprzez podzielenie kwoty wpłaty przez aktualną na moment wpłaty wartość pojedynczej jednostki uczestnictwa. Przy wpłacie zwiększa się liczba istniejących jednostek uczestnictwa. Oznacza to, że każdy uczestnik ma proporcjonalną część wartości całego funduszu. Przy wypłacie za umarzane jednostki uczestnictwa, a uczestnik otrzymuje proporcjonalną część całego funduszu (liczbę jednostek mnoży się przez aktualną na ten moment wartość jednej jednostki uczestnictwa). +Fundusz był uregulowany ustawą (ustawa o publicznym obrocie papierami wartościowymi i funduszach powierniczych) oraz własnymi zasadami ustalonymi w Regulaminie funduszu. +Z założenia fundusze były mocno uregulowane – co do zakresu inwestycji (wiele limitów inwestycyjnych, zakres możliwych inwestycji, sposób przechowywania majątku funduszu – w banku, uregulowanym ustawowo), co do praw i obowiązków uczestników, co do zasad przystępowania i wychodzenia z inwestycji. +Pierwsze fundusze powiernicze wprowadziła spółka z grupy amerykańskiej Pioneer Group: Pioneer Pierwsze Polskie Towarzystwo Funduszy Powierniczych S.A. (pierwszy w Polsce fundusz: Pioneer Pierwszy Polski Fundusz Powierniczy – utworzony w 1992 roku (latem rozpoczął inwestowanie) – działający obecnie pod nazwą subfunduszu Pioneer Zrównoważony subfunduszu w funduszu umbrellowym Pioneer Fundusz Inwestycyjny Otwarty). +Wyceny jednostek funduszu – po początkowym okresie, gdy sesje na giełdzie w Warszawie odbywały się co tydzień – były ustalane w cyklu tygodniowym, przez wyceny dwukrotne w tygodniu, dziś odbywają się zwykle codziennie. W historii zdarzył się jeden przypadek wstrzymania okresowego wycen – po wrześniu 2001, gdy fundusz inwestycyjny inwestujący na rynku giełdowym w USA nie miał możliwości wyceny swoich akcji. Spółka, która utworzyła pierwszy w Polsce wówczas fundusz powierniczy (Pioneer Pierwsze Polskie Towarzystwo Funduszy Powierniczych S.A.), po kilku zmianach właścicielskich i organizacyjnych istnieje do dziś (Pioneer Pekao Towarzystwo Funduszy Inwestycyjnych S.A.) i zarządza w Polsce funduszami o łącznej wartości majątku 15 mld zł (ca 1/6 rynku – według danych instytucji samorządowej Izba Zarządzających Funduszami i Aktywami). Wartość środków zgromadzonych w funduszach inwestycyjnych przekraczała 100 mld zł (po kryzysie w latach 2008-2009 spadła, by w pierwszej połowie 2010 powrócić do 100 mld zł). +Fundusze inwestycyjne. +Po wprowadzeniu ustawy istniejące fundusze powiernicze zostały przekształcone w fundusze inwestycyjne. Nowe fundusze miały już formę funduszy inwestycyjnych. +Pierwotna ustawa o publicznym obrocie i funduszach powierniczych liczyła – w odniesieniu do funduszy w rozdziale 8 Ustawy – 25 artykułów (art.89 – art.113). Obecnie ustawa kończy się na art. 331. Okresowo przepisy regulujące zasady działania funduszy inwestycyjnych są uszczegółowiane (powstaje szereg dodatkowych przepisów: określenie wymogów na prospekt informacyjny, określenie szczególnych zasad rachunkowości funduszy, określenie wymogów sprawozdawczości dla organów państwa, w tym nadzoru i NBP). +Dzięki regulacjom fundusze na trwałe wrosły w krajobraz możliwych inwestycji w Polsce, rozpropagowały inwestowanie, ale równocześnie z pierwotnej spontanicznej formy współinwestowania przeobraziły się w kolejne instytucje przyjmujące pieniądze swoich klientów i obiecujące zwrot z zyskiem. Nadal jednak są jednymi z bardzie przejrzystych (transparentnych) form inwestowania przez zawodowych inwestorów powierzonych środków. Stały się także narzędziem do budowania specyficznych strategii zarobkowych (fundusze dedykowane inwestorom, tworzenie tarczy podatkowej, programy oszczędnościowe lub emerytalne, w tym w ramach II filara programu emerytalnego). Odpowiednio do potrzeb powstaje szereg konstrukcji funduszy inwestycyjnych (fundusze otwarte, fundusze zamknięte, w tym emitującymi notowane na giełdzie certyfikaty inwestycyjne, fundusze sekurytyzacyjne, fundusze z wydzielonymi subfunduszami, fundusze z wieloma kategoriami zbywanych jednostek uczestnictwa lub zbywane w różnych walutach). +Ramy prawne. +Instytucje wspólnego inwestowania działają w ramach polskiego prawa w oparciu o Ustawę z dnia 27 maja 2004 r. o funduszach inwestycyjnych. Przed wejściem w życie ustawy o funduszach inwestycyjnych – istniały fundusze powiernicze, co do koncepcji działania takie same. +Stopniowo coraz więcej krajowych regulacji będzie wynikało z prawodawstwa europejskiego – polskie fundusze inwestycyjne otwarte są „UCITS-compliant”. +Ustawa o funduszach inwestycyjnych. +Art. 3. 1. Fundusz inwestycyjny jest osobą prawną, której wyłącznym przedmiotem działalności jest lokowanie środków pieniężnych zebranych w drodze publicznego, a w przypadkach określonych w ustawie również niepublicznego, proponowania nabycia jednostek uczestnictwa albo certyfikatów inwestycyjnych, w określone w ustawie papiery wartościowe, instrumenty rynku pieniężnego i inne prawa majątkowe. +2. Przez publiczne proponowanie nabycia, o którym mowa w ust. 1, rozumie się proponowanie nabycia w sposób określony w art. 2 ust. 1 prawa o publicznym obrocie papierami wartościowymi. +3. Fundusz inwestycyjny prowadzi działalność, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem interesu uczestników, przestrzegając zasad ograniczania ryzyka inwestycyjnego określonych w ustawie. +Zgodnie z ustawą, fundusz podlega rejestracji w Rejestrze funduszy inwestycyjnych, przy czym wpis w rejestrze nadaje funduszowi osobowość prawną. +Organem funduszu, wykonującym wszystkie czynności w imieniu i na rzecz funduszu jest towarzystwo funduszy inwestycyjnych. Siedziba funduszu to siedziba towarzystwa. +UCITS IV. +Działające w Polsce fundusze inwestycyjne otwarte są zgodne z UCITS, tzn. fundusze podlegają (częściowo pośrednio) regulacjom europejskim – w tym dyrektywie UCITS ("Undertakings for Collective Investments in Transferible Securitie"s). Wiele wskazuje, że dyrektywa UCITS IV stanie się podstawą istotnych zmian w sposobie działania funduszy inwestycyjnych, także w Polsce (dyrektywa wprowadzi znacznie szersze możliwości działalności transgranicznej). +Towarzystwa Funduszy Inwestycyjnych. +Funduszami zarządzają towarzystwa funduszy inwestycyjnych (TFI) zatrudniające w tym celu doradców inwestycyjnych. Ich zadaniem jest zyskowne i bezpieczne inwestowanie środków funduszu zgodnie z zasadą ograniczania ryzyka inwestycyjnego. Przed każdą decyzją o zakupie określonych papierów wartościowych dokonywana jest szczegółowa analiza opłacalności i bezpieczeństwa inwestycji. +TFI może zlecać niektóre czynności związane z obsługa funduszu (np. zarządzanie portfelem przekazywane jest często do wyspecjalizowanej firmy zarządzającej portfelami, prowadzenie rejestru uczestników funduszu przekazywane jest agentowi transferowemu, a obsługę uczestników zleca się firmom doradztwa finansowego, bankom bądź domom maklerskim ). +TFI mogą zarządzać pojedynczymi funduszami, jak i wieloma i być częścią większych grup finansowych. +Zasady wyceny i rachunkowości funduszy. +Fundusz samodzielnie prowadzi księgi rachunkowe. Zasady wyceny i rachunkowości fundusz spisuje w polityce rachunkowości, której najistotniejsze elementy prezentowane są w prospekcie informacyjnym każdego funduszu oraz w rocznym (i półrocznym) sprawozdaniu finansowym. +Fundusz inwestycyjny otwarty ma obowiązek codziennie (lub rzadziej – jeśli tak jest wskazane w statucie tego funduszu) wyceniać ile jest warta jednostka uczestnictwa. Wartość jednostki jest podawana do publicznej wiadomości. Obecnie wartość jednostek śledzić można przez Internet (na stronach poszczególnych towarzystw, na portalach w sekcjach finansowych), w prasie codziennej, telegazetę. Jest to bardzo wygodna forma kontroli nad inwestycjami. W zależności od ryzyka jakie akceptujemy, oraz od długości czasu inwestowania, można wybierać spośród różnych ofert Towarzystw Funduszy Inwestycyjnych. +Fundusze zamknięte określa w prospekcie częstotliwość wyceny certyfikatów, ale – jeśli zostały dopuszczone do obrotu na rynku – można tam nimi obracać po cenie rynkowej. +Opodatkowanie funduszy inwestycyjnych i uczestników. +W Polsce fundusze inwestycyjne działające na podstawie przepisów ustawy z dnia 27 maja 2004 r. o funduszach inwestycyjnych są zwolnione z podatku dochodowego od osób prawnych (CIT). +Za granicą – polskie fundusze podlegają lokalnym regulacjom podatkowym (z uwzględnieniem zarówno charakteru prawnego funduszu, jak i rezydencji funduszu). +Uczestnicy funduszy inwestycyjnych otwartych (odpowiednio także i do swojej rezydencji w Polsce) są podatnikami od zysków kapitałowych z funduszu. Oznacza to, ze zysk (wyznaczany poprzez zmniejszenie kwoty przychodu uzyskanego przy odkupieniu jednostek w funduszu o kwotę kosztów poniesionych na nabycie tych jednostek) jest opodatkowany. W przypadku osób fizycznych fundusz z kwoty wypłaty potrąca podatek i go odprowadza (miesięcznie, jako płatnik) do odpowiedniego urzędu skarbowego. W przypadku wątpliwości co do prawidłowości pobranego podatku uczestnik może zwrócić się do swojego urzędu skarbowego z odpowiednim wnioskiem, który w ramach wyjaśniania może być uzupełniony o informacje uzyskane bezpośrednio z funduszu. Uczestnicy indywidualni mogą korzystać z optymalizacji podatkowej w przypadku korzystania z oferty funduszu z wydzielonymi subfunduszami. +Statystyki. +Fundusze inwestycyjne stanowią coraz popularniejszą formę oszczędzania. W styczniu 2007 roku kwota zgromadzona przez wszystkie działające w Polsce TFI przekroczyła 100 mld złotych. Według niepełnych danych, w styczniu 2008 przewaga umorzeń nad wpłatami wyniosła 11 mld zł, a w czerwcu – 2,7 mld. +W sierpniu klienci zabrali z funduszy o 893 mln zł więcej niż do nich wpłacili. Był to dziesiąty miesiąc z rzędu kiedy saldo wpłat i umorzeń do funduszy było na minusie. W ciągu ostatniego roku klienci wycofali z nich 22,2 mld zł. +Towarzystwa Funduszy Inwestycyjnych mogą (nie ma obligatoryjności) przystępować do Izby Zarządzających Funduszami i Aktywami. +Na stronie Izby Zarządzających Funduszami i Aktywami można znaleźć podsumowania okresowe zebranych środków, sald wpłat oraz szereg informacji analitycznych dotyczących funduszy. Na koniec kwietnia 2010 wartość aktywów netto 525 funduszy (zebrane dane z 30 TFI) wyniosła: 104 691,8 tys zł. +Lista towarzystw funduszy inwestycyjnych zarejestrowanych w Komisji Nadzoru Finansowego liczy obecnie (w 2010 roku) 46 pozycji. +Izba przygotowała także materiały edukacyjne, umożliwiające uporządkowanie bądź poszerzenie wiedzy o inwestowaniu w fundusze inwestycyjne w Polsce. Został tam też opracowany słownik pojęć związanych z dziedziną inwestowania w fundusze inwestycyjne. +Rating otwartych funduszy inwestycyjnych. +Informacje o części polskich funduszy inwestycyjnych dostępne są w serwisach informacyjnych oraz analitycznych, Bloomberg LP, Morningstar). +Leasing + +Leasing – jest umownym stosunkiem cywilnoprawnym. +W ramach leasingu jedna ze stron umowy (finansujący, leasingodawca) przekazuje drugiej stronie (korzystającemu, leasingobiorcy) prawo do korzystania z określonej rzeczy na pewien uzgodniony w umowie leasingu okres, w zamian za ustalone ratalne opłaty (raty leasingowe). +Nazwa "leasing" pochodzi od angielskiego słowa "to lease" oznaczającego tyle, co "nająć", "wydzierżawić" (prawo anglosaskie nie odróżnia najmu od dzierżawy, tak samo jak nie odróżnia od nich leasingu). +Leasing w polskim systemie prawa. +"„Przez umowę leasingu finansujący zobowiązuje się, w zakresie działalności swego przedsiębiorstwa, nabyć rzecz od oznaczonego zbywcy na warunkach określonych w tej umowie, i oddać tę rzecz korzystającemu do używania, albo używania i pobierania pożytków przez czas oznaczony, a korzystający zobowiązuje się zapłacić finansującemu, w uzgodnionych ratach, wynagrodzenie pieniężne, równe co najmniej cenie, lub wynagrodzeniu z tytułu nabycia rzeczy przez finansującego.”" +Rzeczami, w rozumieniu przepisów Kodeksu cywilnego, są tylko przedmioty materialne (art. 45 KC), zaś przedmioty materialne na gruncie Kodeksu cywilnego są pojęciem znacznie węższym niż dobra materialne wyodrębniane przez ekonomistów. Cechą rzeczy jest materialny charakter oraz wyodrębnienie z przyrody. Nie są rzeczami ciecze i gazy, kopaliny, zwierzęta w stanie wolnym. Rzeczami nie są również przedmioty niematerialne, takie jak energia, dobra intelektualne, dobra osobiste, pieniądze, papiery wartościowe, prawa majątkowe. +Dla celów podatkowych definicja umowy leasingu rozszerzona jest o każdą inną umowę, na mocy której jedna ze stron, zwana „finansującym”, oddaje do odpłatnego używania albo używania i pobierania pożytków na warunkach określonych w ustawie drugiej stronie, zwanej „korzystającym”, podlegające amortyzacji środki trwałe lub wartości niematerialne i prawne, a także grunty. Kodeks cywilny wyszczególnia zaś w art. 70918 umowę, w której "jedna strona zobowiązuje się oddać rzecz stanowiącą jej własność do używania albo do używania i pobierania pożytków drugiej stronie, a druga strona zobowiązuje się zapłacić właścicielowi rzeczy w umówionych ratach wynagrodzenie pieniężne, równe co najmniej wartości rzeczy w chwili zawarcia tej umowy", do której stosuje się odpowiednio przepisy o leasingu. +Rodzaje leasingu. +Za użytkowanie obiektu leasingobiorca płaci w określonych terminach raty leasingowe składające się z dwóch części: składnika kapitałowego odzwierciedlającego wartość użytkowanego obiektu przypadającego na okres leasingu i składnika odsetkowego, stanowiącego wynagrodzenie dla leasingodawcy. +Leasing operacyjny. +Leasing operacyjny (usługowy) – polega na czasowym przekazaniu w użytkowanie dobra inwestycyjnego. Czas ten jest z reguły krótszy niż okres normatywnego zużycia leasingowanej rzeczy. Raty leasingowe stanowią dla leasingobiorcy koszt uzyskania przychodów, a przedmiot leasingu nie podlega u niego amortyzacji. W umowie leasingu operacyjnego leasingobiorca może mieć zagwarantowane prawo zakupu przedmiotu leasingu po zakończeniu umowy, za określoną z góry wartość końcową powiększoną o podatek od towarów i usług (VAT). +Leasing finansowy. +Leasing finansowy (kapitałowy) – polega na oddaniu rzeczy w użytkowanie, w zamian za raty leasingowe. Przedmiot leasingu jest własnością Finansującego, amortyzuje go leasingobiorca, natomiast przeniesienie tytułu własności może być zagwarantowane w umowie. Firma zwiększa więc wartość swojego majątku, nie ponosząc dodatkowych kosztów po zakończeniu umowy, a zwiększona forma amortyzacji pozwala regulować jej koszty i dochody. +Leasing finansowy, podobnie jak operacyjny, charakteryzuje się tym, iż zawiera klauzulę opcji na sprzedaż przedmiotu leasingu po zakończeniu okresu umowy. Oznacza to iż Korzystający ma prawo wykupu (przeniesienia własności) rzeczy oddanej mu w leasing. Leasing finansowy jest więc zbliżony do kredytu lub pożyczki. Przedmiotem "pożyczki" jest tu środek trwały a nie gotówka. +Rata leasingowa w leasingu finansowym podzielona jest na część kapitałową i odsetkową. Część odsetkowa stanowi koszt uzyskania przychodu u Korzystającego, a część kapitałowa traktowana jest jak kapitał przy operacji kredytowej – obniża zysk po opodatkowaniu u leasingobiorcy. +Leasing finansowy dla celów podatku VAT rozliczany jest tak jak leasing operacyjny. +W przypadku leasingu finansowego podatek VAT od rat leasingowych jest płatny z góry za cały okres trwania umowy leasingu (zazwyczaj w ciągu 7 dni po odbiorze przedmiotu leasingu), inaczej niż w leasingu operacyjnym gdzie podatek VAT jest płatny z każdą ratą leasingową. +Leasing zwrotny. +Leasing zwrotny – występuje, gdy firma posiada liczne środki trwałe, nie posiada jednak gotówki, której potrzebuje; może wtedy oddać część majątku trwałego firmie leasingowej w zamian za gotówkę i wziąć te środki w leasing; dzięki takiemu zabiegowi firma ma jednorazowy zastrzyk gotówki. +Leasing konsumencki. +Leasing konsumencki – zwany też prywatnym - przeznaczony dla osób nie prowadzących działalności gospodarczej. Produkt ten jest wciąż mało znany na rynku polskim i stanowi zaledwie 2% rynku w Polsce. +Podmioty leasingu. +Wyróżnia się trzy podmioty umowy leasingu. +Leasingodawca. +Leasingodawca (finansujący) – to właściciel przedmiotu, który daje ten przedmiot w odpłatne użytkowanie drugiej osobie na określony czas i na określonych warunkach. Najczęściej jest to wyspecjalizowana firma zajmująca się świadczeniem usług leasingu. Rzadziej wytwórca przedmiotów, dla którego leasing jest dodatkową formą zarobkowania, oprócz podstawowej działalności – produkcji. Forma prawna leasingodawcy może być dowolna. W praktyce najbardziej liczą się na rynku spółki prawa handlowego, tj. spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością oraz spółki akcyjne. +Leasingobiorca. +Leasingobiorca (korzystający) – to osoba korzystająca z przedmiotu leasingu na warunkach określonych w umowie. Najczęściej jest to przedsiębiorca, rzadziej ze względu na niekorzystne przepisy podatkowe, osoba fizyczna. Przeważają więc spółki handlowe, spółki cywilne i osoby fizyczne, prowadzące działalność gospodarczą na podstawie wpisu do ewidencji działalności gospodarczej, które prowadzą pełną księgowość. +Zbywca. +Zbywca – to osoba, od której finansujący nabywa własność rzeczy. Finansujący obowiązany jest wydać korzystającemu razem z rzeczą odpis umowy ze zbywcą lub odpisy innych posiadanych dokumentów dotyczących tej umowy, w szczególności odpis dokumentu gwarancyjnego co do jakości rzeczy, otrzymanego od zbywcy lub producenta. +Uczestnicy transakcji leasingu. +Poręczyciel – występuje tylko czasami w transakcji leasingu. Jeśli kondycja finansowa lub wiarygodność leasingobiorcy budzi zastrzeżenie leasingodawcy, to do zawarcia umowy dochodzi wówczas, gdy leasingobiorca przedstawi dodatkowe zabezpieczenie transakcji. Może to być poręczenie osoby trzeciej lub zastaw na rzeczy, należącej do osoby trzeciej lub też hipoteka ustanowiona na nieruchomości, której właścicielem jest osoba trzecia. Taki podmiot dostarczający dodatkowego zabezpieczenia, jeśli nie jest nim leasingobiorca, nazywany jest poręczycielem. Może nim być dobrze prosperująca firma lub wiarygodna osoba fizyczna, posiadająca duży majątek, a przez to wypłacalna, np. udziałowiec w spółce. Często firmy leasingowe jako zabezpieczenie przyjmują weksel leasingobiorcy, poręczony przez udziałowców i ich współmałżonków lub też członków zarządu i ich współmałżonków. Oni są wówczas poręczycielami wekslowymi w transakcji leasingu. +Towarzystwo ubezpieczeniowe – ubezpiecza przedmiot leasingu. Najczęściej, jako właściciel, o wyborze ubezpieczenia decyduje leasingodawca. Niektóre firmy leasingowe współpracują z jedną lub dwoma firmami ubezpieczeniowymi i z tytułu stałej współpracy mogą liczyć na korzystniejsze warunki ubezpieczenia. Jeśli leasingobiorcy szczególnie zależy na tym, aby wybrać firmę ubezpieczeniową, może to zrobić, ale wiąże się to z tym, że ponosi koszty ubezpieczenia, a nie może ich zaliczyć do kosztów uzyskania przychodów w swojej firmie, ponieważ nie jest właścicielem przedmiotu ubezpieczonego. Przy dużej szkodowości, na jaką narażona jest rzecz leasingowa, ponoszenie tych kosztów może się jednakże opłacać, ponieważ leasingobiorca musi płacić raty leasingowe nawet wówczas, gdy przedmiot leasingu jest w naprawie. Jeśli ubezpieczenie zwleka z wypłatą ubezpieczenia, to okres, kiedy leasingobiorca nie może używać rzeczy, wydłuża się, a co za tym idzie, straty z tego tytułu rosną. Przykładem takiej sytuacji jest samochód dostawczy, znajdujący się po wypadku w warsztacie, który warunkuje wydanie naprawionego samochodu dokonaniem zapłaty za naprawę. Zapłaty ma dokonać towarzystwo ubezpieczeniowe. Im dłużej trwa proces wypłaty ubezpieczenia, tym dłużej samochód nie pracuje, a leasingobiorca ponosi koszty z tego tytułu. +Jeśli przedmiotem leasingu jest samochód osobowy, który jest przerabiany na ciężarowy, to pojawia się dodatkowo podmiot przerabiający samochód. Zwykle są to firmy powiązane albo z producentem samochodu, albo z dealerem lub z firmą leasingową. Pojawienie się dodatkowo podmiotu przerabiającego samochód podraża transakcję leasingu, ponieważ wlicza się w raty leasingu zapłatę z tego tytułu. Pamiętajmy, że VAT jest naliczany od zwiększonych rat. +Przedmiot umowy leasingu. +Przedmiotem umowy nazwanej leasingu, zgodnie z Kodeksem cywilnym, mogą być tylko rzeczy. Przedmiotem umowy nienazwanej o charakterze umowy leasingu mogą być rzeczy oraz wartości niematerialne i prawne. +Cena detaliczna + +Cena detaliczna – cena jednostkowa, za którą konsumentowi oferowany jest dany produkt lub usługa. Jest zwykle wyższa od ceny hurtowej o marżę detaliczną, która pokrywa koszty (przechowywanie towaru, wolniejsza rotacja) i zapewnia zysk w placówce handlu detalicznego. +Cybersquatting + +Cybersquatting - praktyka rejestrowania domen internetowych znanych marek, osób lub nazw identycznych z nazwą wybranej firmy i odsprzedawania ich po zawyżonej cenie. "Cybersquatter" to "dziki lokator internetowy". +Wbrew niektórym opiniom, pod cybersquatting kwalifikuje się także rejestracja nazw, które nie są zastrzeżonymi znakami towarowymi, ale w dużym stopniu kojarzą się z daną firmą lub produktem istniejącym przed datą rejestracji domeny. +Cybersquatterzy stosując często metodę wykupywania rozmaitych wariantów domen, np. obok domeny zakończonej na .com wykupują domeny zakończone na .net lub .org, korzystając z faktu, że wiele firm wolałoby zabezpieczyć dla siebie szereg domen najwyższego poziomu, a nie tylko domeny typu .com. +Spory. +Spory dotyczące domen globalnych są zwykle rozstrzygane w ramach procesu Uniform Domain Name Resolution Policy (UDRP) opracowanego przez Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). +W Polsce, taką funkcje pełnią Sąd Polubowny ds. Domen Internetowych przy Polskiej Izbie Informatyki i Telekomunikacji w Warszawie oraz Sąd Arbitrażowy przy Krajowej Izbie Gospodarczej w Warszawie. +Niekiedy w rozstrzyganie sporów angażowane są sądy powszechne, aczkolwiek pojawia się problem miejscowej właściwości sądu, która może zależeć od siedziby powoda, pozwanego lub umiejscowienia serwera. Na ogół wybierane jest pośrednictwo ICANN, gdyż jest to procedura tańsza i szybsza, choć ewentualna decyzja sądu ma wyższą moc prawną niż decyzja ICANN. +W niektórych krajach wykształciło się specyficzne ustawodawstwo dotyczące "cybersquattingu", uzupełniające prawo o znaku handlowym. Na przykład w USA funkcjonuje U.S. Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act (ACPA) z 29 listopada 1999 r. +Po decyzji ICANN pomyślnej dla posiadacza znaku handlowego zmiana właściciela domeny może być przeprowadzona albo w drodze jej przekazania, albo przez usunięcie domeny z rejestru i ponowne zarejestrowanie jej przez nowego właściciela. Pod reżimem ACPA "cybersquatter" może być też ukarany grzywną w wysokości do 100 tys. USD. +Znanym polskim przykładem "cybersquattingu" była sprawa łódzkiej firmy "Microsoft", zajmującej się m.in. handlem ziołami, która zarejestrowała domenę microsoft.pl. +Nazwa firmy, różniąca się jedynie formą prawną, była pretekstem do zgodnej z obowiązującym prawem rejestracji domeny. Domena została potem wystawiona na sprzedaż i ostatecznie przejęta w wyniku sporu sądowego przez firmę Microsoft. Dodatkowo były właściciel został ukarany karą odszkodowania w wysokości 30 000 złotych. +Notuje się też, niekiedy udane, próby firm lub osób odzyskania wartościowych domen od ich dotychczasowych posiadaczy przez składanie fałszywych oświadczeń o rzekomym naruszenia znaku handlowego. Praktyka ta jest znana pod nazwą "reverse-cybersquatting" lub "reverse domain hijacking". +Termin "cybersquatting" jest też niekiedy (nietrafnie) odnoszony do osób rejestrujących nazwy domen "hurtowo", choć praktyka ta nie ma charakteru działania skierowanego przeciwko konkretnym posiadaczom znaków handlowych. Również nietrafne jest określanie mianem "cybersquattera" osoby chcącej sprzedać posiadaną domenę. +Alternatywne spojrzenie na kwestię cybersquattingu. +Istnieją również głosy, które przyznają cybersquatterom pewne prawa ze względu na wkład intelektualny związany z prognozą, iż adres domeny może być nowatorskim kanałem marketingu, który zwiększa zyskowność danej marki. Firma będąca posiadaczem praw do marki powinna zapłacić wynagrodzenie osobie, która jako pierwsza wpadła na pomysł wykorzystania nowego narzędzia (w tym przypadku nazwy adresu internetowego) do promowania marki. +Faktem jest to, że cybersquatter zrealizował pewien wkład intelektualny (nowa strategia marketingu) w trakcie wykupienia odpowiedniego adresu (domeny). +Oczywiście samo wykupienie adresu domeny i posiadanie praw do wkładu intelektualnego związanego z formą promocji jaką jest adres domeny, nie upoważnia nikogo do oszukiwania osób wizytujących dany adres internetowy. Innymi słowy, wedle spojrzenia liberalnego, cybersquatter może kupić dowolną domenę, ale nie może podawać się za przedstawiciela lub oddział konkretnej firmy. +Carl Gustaf Mosander + +Carl Gustaf Mosander (ur. 10 września 1797 w Kalmarze, zm. 15 października 1858) – profesor chemii na akademii medycznej w Sztokholmie i mineralogii w Muzeum Historii Naturalnej. Odkrywca kilku pierwiastków tak zwanych ziem rzadkich – lantanu (1839), dydymu (1842), erbu i terbu (1843). +Tlenofon + +Tlenofon to usługa telefonii internetowej oferowana przez firmę Aiton Caldwell (wcześniej przez portal o2.pl). Pozwala ona na prowadzenie bezpłatnych rozmów telefonicznych z innymi użytkownikami usługi Tlenofon oraz płatne z sieciami komórkowymi i stacjonarnymi na całym świecie. +Usługa oparta jest na protokole IAX2 i SIP. +Oferta. +Tlenofon jest kompatybilny z bramkami, telefonami oraz oprogramowaniem obsługującym protokół SIP oraz IAX2. Również Komunikator Tlen.pl oferuje wbudowaną obsługę usługi Tlenofon. +Zobacz też. +Komunikator Tlen.pl +Zblocze + +Zblocze – element urządzenia dźwigowego żurawia, cięgnika lub suwnicy służący do zaczepiania ładunku poprzez zawiesie, rzadziej bezpośrednio. +Zblocze złożone jest z krążka linowego (1), jarzma (2) i ułożyskowanego haka (3), który może być jednorożny, dwurożny lub czterorożny. Całość zawieszona jest na linie nośnej (4). +W zbloczu o dużym udźwigu może być zabudowanych wiele krążków linowych, ze względu na zastosowanie wielu cieńszych lin nośnych. Cieńsze liny nośne pozwalają ograniczyć średnicę krążków i w efekcie wielkość i masę całego zblocza oraz wykorzystać zasadę wielokrążka. +Rybia łuska nabyta + +Rybia łuska nabyta (łac. "ichtyosis acquisita") - należy do zespołów paraneoplastycznych. Charakteryzuje się uogólnionym nadmiernym rogowaceniem z towarzyszącym tworzeniem się rybopodobnych łuski na skórze. Pojawia się w starszym wieku. Nasilenie zmian koreluje dodatnio z rozwojem nowotworu. Często towarzyszy nowotworom narządów wewnętrznych (m.in. rak płuca) oraz chorobie Hodgkina. +Erythema gyratum repens + +Erythema gyratum repens (łac.) jest to rzadko występujący skórny marker nowotworów narządów wewnętrznych. W każdym przypadku istnieje konieczność poszukiwania nowotworu. +Etiologia. +Występuje częściej u mężczyzn między 40 a 60 rokiem życia. W 90% przypadków towarzyszy nowotworom płuc, przełyku, jelit, gruczołu piersiowego. O patogenetycznej roli nowotworów świadczą przypadki gwałtownego ustępowania zmian po udanym zabiegu usunięcia nowotworu. W 10% przypadków nie wykazano związku z nowotworami mimo wieloletniej obserwacji. +Objawy i przebieg. +Zmiany skórne są bardzo charakterystyczne. Są to złuszczające się rumienie, układające się koncentrycznie, przypominające słoje drewna. Szerzą się bardzo szybko, ok. 1 cm na dobę. Najczęściej zajęty jest tułów i kończyny, z zaoszczędzeniem twarzy, dłoni i stóp. Zmianom towarzyszy niezbyt nasilony świąd. +AFNOR + +AFNOR (fr. Association Française de Normalisation - Francuskie Stowarzyszenie Normalizacyjne) - narodowy instytut normalizacyjny. +Linki zewnętrzne +Zespół Lesera-Trélat + +Zespół Lesera-Trélat – nagły wysiew bardzo licznych brodawek starczych (brodawek łojotokowych), zwykle na tułowiu. Jest często oznaką nowotworu narządów wewnętrznych (najczęściej układu pokarmowego, jest wtedy zespołem paraneoplastycznym). Wysiew brodawek łojotokowych może towarzyszyć również rozwojowi nowotworu łagodnego lub ciąży, jednakże wtedy nie jest określany mianem zespołu Lesera-Trélat. +Zespół (objaw) opisali Edmund Leser i Ulysse Trélat. +Ukierunkowane znakowanie spinowe + +Ukierunkowane znakowanie spinowe (ang. "Site-directed spin labeling", SDSL) - technika analityczna pozwalająca badać strukturę i lokalną dynamikę białek przy użyciu spektroskopii EPR. SDSL bazuje na specyficznej reakcji znacznika spinowego z wybranym aminokwasem białka. Znacznik spinowy wbudowany w strukturę białka jest wykrywany za pomocą metod EPR. +Technika ukierunkowanego znakowania spinowego jest bardzo użyteczna w badaniu procesu powstawania trzeciorzędowej struktury białek. +Znakowanie spinowe. +Spośród wielu znaczników spinowych, znaczniki nitroksylowe zyskały największą popularność w badaniach struktur makromolekularnych, gdyż są stabilne i dają prosty sygnał w spektroskopii EPR. +Rodnik nitroksylowy jest najczęściej wbudowany w heterocykliczny pierścień znacznika (np. pirolidyna) a następnie kowalencyjnie połączony z badaną cząsteczką. +Znacznik spinowy może być połączony z badaną cząsteczką za pomocą wielu wiązań. Najczęściej jest wykorzystywane połączenie przez alkilotiosiarczan z resztą cysteiny w białku. Przykładowo znacznik spinowy MTS jest kowalencyjnie połączony z natywną lub wprowadzoną sztucznie resztą cysteiny w białku poprzez mostek disiarczkowy. +Acanthosis palmaris + +Acanthosis palmaris – zespół paraneoplastyczny jest ograniczoną postacią acrokeratosis Bazex lub acanthosis nigricans maligna. Charakteryzuje się wybitną hyperkeratozą (nadmiernym rogowaceniem) skóry dłoni i jej pobruzdowaniem. Towarzyszy najczęściej rakom płuc. +Afryka Północna + +Niekiedy wlicza się także Etiopię, Erytreę i Dżibuti. Z drugiej strony termin ten jest zawężany do krajów Maghrebu. +Historia. +Pierwotnymi mieszkańcami północnej Afryki byli Berberowie. +Islamizacja Afryki północnej (649 – 1055). +Po śmierci Mahometa, twórcy religii islamskiej, jego następcy – kalifowie – podjęli wielkie wyprawy wojenne przeciwko niewiernym. Ich wojska uderzyły między innymi na należący wtedy do Bizancjum Egipt (całkowicie opanowany do 649 roku) oraz Cyrenajkę i Trypolitanię w północnej Afryce. Do początku VIII wieku Arabowie opanowali całą Afrykę Północną, skąd w 711 wdarli się do Hiszpanii na Półwyspie Iberyjskim. +Rządzący z Bagdadu kalifowie dość szybko utracili jednak kontrolę na Afryką Północną, w której władzę przejęły lokalne islamskie dynastie. Egipt stanowił odrębne państwo od 868 roku. W 969 Egipt opanowali szyiccy Fatymidzi. W 971 założyli oni Kair, przyszłą stolicę oraz centrum handlowe i naukowe. Już w 988 powstał tam jeden z pierwszych uniwersytetów średniowiecza i biblioteka, licząca 1600 tys. tomów. +W Maghrebie powstało silne państwo Zirydów, które rozpadło się w wyniku najazdu nomadów (1050 rok), nasłanych przez Fatymidów. +Musée de Cluny + +Musée de Cluny (oficjalna nazwa: Narodowe Muzeum Wieków Średnich, fr. "Musée National du Moyen Âge") – muzeum w Paryżu, mieszczące zbiory sztuki i rzemiosła artystycznego, począwszy od późnoantycznej sztuki Galów, aż do późnego średniowiecza. Położone jest w Piątej Dzielnicy przy placu Paul-Painlevé, na południe od bulwaru Saint-Germain, pomiędzy bulwarem Saint-Michel i ulicą Saint-Jacques. Obok nowojorskiego The Cloisters i kolońskiego Muzeum Aleksandra Schnütgena jest największą na świecie placówką muzealną poświąconą sztuce średniowiecza. +Hôtel de Cluny. +Hôtel de Cluny jest częściowo wzniesiony na rzymskich termach datowanych na I-III w. (znanych jako "Thermes de Cluny"). +Budynek Hôtel de Cluny należy do jednych z najlepiej zachowanych przykładów średniowiecznej architektury świeckiej w stolicy Francji. Swoją nazwę zawdzięcza pierwotnej funkcji – był to bowiem tzw. "hôtel particulier", czyli pewnego rodzaju rezydencja, której gospodarzami byli od 1334 opaci z klasztoru Cluny. Kiedy opaci z Cluny przenieśli się do nowego budynku na Sorbonie, gmach przejął Jacques d'Amboise, biskup Clermont i przełożony opactwa Jumièges. W latach 1485-1510 rozbudowano rezydencję w stylu będącym połączeniem gotyku i renesansu. W 1793 państwo skonfiskowało gmach. W roku 1833 gmach został zaadaptowany na muzeum, w którym kolekcjoner-amator i miłośnik sztuki średniowiecznej Alexandre Du Sommerard urządził zbiory dziedzictwa sztuki średniowiecznej, w tym dzieł ocalałych ze zniszczeń rewolucji. Po jego śmierci w 1842 kolekcję nabyło państwo, a w roku 1843 muzeum zostało otwarte dla zwiedzających. Pierwszym kuratorem zbiorów został syn Alexandra du Sommerarda, Edmond. +Zbiory muzeum. +Muzeum gromadzi zbiory średniowiecznej rzeźby kamiennej (głównie architektonicznej), drewnianej, alabastrowej, malarstwa książkowego, tablicowego i witrażowego oraz rzemiosła artystycznego, głównie złotnictwa. +Rzeźba kamienna. +Do najcenniejszych dzieł rzeźby architektonicznej należy zespół romańskich kapiteli z przedstawieniami figuralnymi, roślinnymi, zoomorficznymi i dekoracją ornamentalną. Wśród nich m.in. głowice kolumn z paryskiego Saint-Germain-des-Prés, kościoła Sainte Geneviève, opactwa Saint-Denis, kapitele z obejścia prezbiterium kościoła opackiego w Cluny oraz kilka kapiteli z Katalonii. Ponadto w zbiorach znajdują się inne elementy rzeźby architektonicznej, głównie gotyckie z XII-XIV w., m.in. konsole, wsporniki, zworniki sklepień. Eksponowane są również fragmenty rzeźb pochodzących z paryskich kościołów, w tym głowy posągów z galerii królewskiej katedry Notre-Dame (XII-XIII w.), odnalezione w 1977 roku i tzw. Adam z Notre Dame, głowy królów z dekoracji opactwa Saint-Denis. Ponadto monumentalne figury apostołów z paryskiej Sainte-Chapelle datowane na ok. 1. poł. XIII wieku, anioł z kolegiaty w Poissy z 1297, marmurowa Madonna z Dzieciątkiem pochodząca z opactwa w Lorchamp z połowy XV w.; późnogotycka Grupa Zwiastowania, wykonana w Normandii, odkryta w 1900 w Rouen. Do plastyki sepulkralnej należą m.in. płyty nagrobne Dieudonné de Gozona i Jacques'a de Milly. +W osobnym pomieszczeniu mieści się bogata kolekcja plastyki alabastrowej z XV w. Są to głównie dzieła wykonane w Anglii, m.in. relief ze Zmartwychwstaniem wykonany w York ok. 1470. +Snycerstwo. +Jednym z najstarszych dzieł snycerskich w zbiorach jest krucyfiks z Owernii z 2. poł. XII wieku. Do gotyckiej plastyki drewnianej należą m.in. zespół kilkunastu Madonn z Dzieciątkiem z XIV-XVI wieku (wyroby francuskie, niemieckie oraz niderlandzkie); pozłacany i polichromowany relikwiarz popiersiowy Św. Mabilli (wyrób sieneński ze schyłku XIV w.); dębowa figura Marii Magdaleny z 1500 (wyrób brukselski); XV-wieczna Madonna szafkowa z Trójcą Świętą wewnątrz i Jezusek Palmowy, (wyrób południowoniemiecki z XV w.). Eksponowane są również zespoły gotyckich retabulów ołtarzowych, m.in. przypisywany Arntowi z Kalkaru tryptyk z tej dolnoreńskiej miejscowości z rzeźbionymi i malowanymi przedstawieniami Pasji Chrystusa z Grupą Ukrzyżowania w polu centralnym. Ponadto tryptyk pasyjny z bazyliki Saint-Denis, dzieło artystów antwerpskich z pocz. XVI w. +Malarstwo witrażowe i tablicowe. +Spośród dzieł malarstwa witrażowego wyróżniają się: zespół pojedynczych kwater pochodzących z różnych okien paryskiej Sainte-Chapelle (m.in. "Wskrzeszenie Zmarłych", "Cztery Temperamenty", "Daniel i Nachubodonozor", "Dawid i Saul", "Kobieta i Diabeł" etc.), romański witraż ze "Śmiercią Św. Benedykta" z opactwa Saint-Denis, późnoromańskie witraże z kościoła św. Szczepana w Troyes, gotyckie szkła z kaplicy zamkowej w Rouen i kościoła w Varennes ("Żywot Św. Marcina"). Cennym dziełem jest witraż ornamentalny ze sceną Ukrzyżowania datowany na 1330, prawdopodobnie z Colmaru. Z witraży późnogotyckich w typie "en grisaille" prezentowane są m.in. "Trzej Królowie u Heroda", cykl tond z przedstawieniami świętych m.in. Sebastiana, Mateusza, Piotra, Pawła. +Do zbiorów malarstwa tablicowego należą: antependium z przedstawieniami "Bożego Narodzenia", "Zaśnięcia Marii", "Pokłonu Trzech Króli", "Nauki Marii", wykonane w Anglii około 1335. XIV-wieczne malarstwo francuskie egzemplifikuje obraz z Ukrzyżowaniem Chrystusa z kościoła Sauvagnat-Sainte-Marthe. Przykładami malarstwa XV-wiecznego są m.in. "Pieta z zamku Tarascone" wykonana w Prowansji w 1475; "Konsekracja Dawida" z katedry w Amiens, datowana na 1475; "Tryptyk Wniebowzięcia NMP", dzieło brugijskie powstałe na zlecenie Adriena Isenbranta. +Złotnictwo. +Z dzieł złotnictwa oglądać można utensilia liturgiczne, limuzyjskie wyroby z emalii, relikwiarze oraz figury kultowe. +Najstarszymi dziełami są wizygockie wiszące korony z VII stulecia, merowińskie brosze w kształcie orła zdobione emaliami. Cennymi dziełami rzeźby i złotnictwa europejskiego są m.in. złote "Antependium z Bazylei" z Chrystusem (którego adorują para cesarska Henryk II i Kunegunda), Trzema Archaniołami i Św. Benedyktem, XI w.; pozłacana i emaliowana tablica z przedstawieniem Zesłania Ducha Świętego pochodząca z Koblencji, wyrób mozański z XII w.; bizantyński krzyż procesyjny z pocz. XII stulecia znaleziony w Eskisehir (Turcja); romański ewangeliarz z pozłacaną i posrebrzaną oprawą przedstawiającą Chrystusa ze świętymi Piotrem i Pawłem oraz patronami Mediolanu. +Wielki zespół plastyki limuzyjskiej z XII-XIII w. tworzą m.in. emaliowane krzyże procesyjne, pyxisy na hostię z dekoracją ornamentalną lub geometryczną, relikwiarze św. Tomasza Becketta oraz św. Franciszka z emaliowanym przedstawieniem Stygmatyzacji św. Franciszka. +Spośród gotyckich figur relikwiarzowych wyróżnia się Tronująca Madonna z Dzieciątkiem z Châlons z 1407 roku, wykonany z pozłacanego srebra zgodnie z XV-wieczną konwencją rzeźbiarską. +Unikatowym dziełem jest "Złota Róża" – dar papieża Jana XXII dla księcia Rudolfa III z Nidau jako znak poparcia klątwy papieskiej na cesarza Ludwika IV. +Wyroby z kości słoniowej. +Cenną kolekcje tworzą bizantyjskie, romańskie i gotyckie wyroby w kości słoniowej z V-XV wieku. Spośród nich wyróżniają się: bizantyńska plakietka z Ariadną, Satyrem i Kupidynem z 1 poł. VI wieku, skrzydło dyptyku konsularnego z wizerunkiem generała Areobindusa z roku 506 (oba wykonane w Konstantynopolu); plakietka z wizerunkiem św. Pawła, plakietka z przedstawieniem Jezusa koronującego cesarza Ottona II i jego żonę, Teofano, datowana na lata 982-983; romańska plakietka z Chrystusem Ukrzyżowanym oraz Bożym Narodzeniem, Wniebowstąpieniem i Maiestas Domini; pokrywa skrzyneczki z przedstawieniem Chrystusa w Majestacie i Tetramorphos z XIII wieku; relikwiarz skrzynkowy z XII w.; przedstawienie figuralne Prezentacji Jezusa w świątyni z XIV w. oraz grupa gotyckich dyptyków i tryptyków dewocyjnych, wykonanych w XIV stuleciu w Paryżu. +Tapiserie i paramenty liturgiczne. +Musée de Cluny zawiera jedną z największych na świecie kolekcji tapiserii. Są to głównie dzieła gotyckie od XIV do XVI wieku. W oddzielnej rotundzie prezentowane jest sześć tapiserii typu "mille-fleurs" tworzących cykl "Damy z jednorożcem" o bogatej treści dotyczącej ludzkich zmysłów i sfery uczuciowej, charakterystycznej dla sztuki dworskiej. Sześć tapiserii południowoniderlandzkich z pocz. XVI w. tworzy cykl "Życie damy dworu". Temat miłości dworskiej przedstawia kilka innych dzieł, m.in. "Dwie pary miłosne" z 3. ćw. XV w. tkanina wykonana w Górnej Nadrenii. Z flamandzkich i brabanckich tapiserii prezentowane są m.in. cykl 12 tapiserii z 1500 r. wykonanych w Brukseli dla katedry w Auxerre przedstawiający żywot św. Szczepana. Z katedry w Beauvais pochodzą tapiseria "Uwolnienie Św. Piotra" wykonana w Tournai w 1461. Cennym przykładem angielskiego tkactwa artystycznego jest tapiseria heraldyczna z przedstawieniem dwóch par lwów angielskich, utkana ze złotej nici na czerwonym tle. +Do dzieł tkactwa południowoeuropejskiego, charakteryzującego się przewagą dekoracji ornamentalnej nad przedstawieniami figuralnymi, zaliczają się m.in. wyroby z Andaluzji: "Całun Św. Sernina z Tuluzy" (XI w.) i "Całun Św. Łazarza z Autun" (XII w.), "Całun Św. Florencjusza", dzieło włoskie z XIV w. Wśród dzieł Orientu znajdują się m.in. tzw. "Całun Samsona" – wyrób bizantyjski z IX w., irańska makata "Feniksy w winnej latorośli" z XIV w., egipskie makaty z okresu fatymidzkiego z XII w. +Osobny zespół dzieł tworzą średniowieczne paramenty liturgiczne, a wśród nich znajdują się m.in. mitra biskupia ze skarbca paryskiej Sainte-Chapelle, flamandzki ornat z krzyżową pretekstą z przedstawieniem Drzewa Jessego, pończochy pontyfikalne kardynała Arnauda de Via, wyrób toskański. Wszystkie trzy dzieła wykonano w XIV wieku. +Podział administracyjny Czech + +Aktualny podział administracyjny Czech obejmuje 13 krajów samorządowych + miasto wydzielone Praga (czes. "Samosprávné kraje"), które są jednostkami samorządu terytorialnego z własną administracją (odpowiednik polskiego województwa) oraz 7 okręgów terytorialnych (+ Praga) (czes. "Územní kraje") z 1960 r. dla licznych instytucji państwowych (sądy, státní zastupitelství i niektóre inne urzędy państwowe). Czeskie "kraje" (czes. "kraj" - odpowiednik województw) są do języka polskiego tłumaczone też jak "kraje" lub "województwa" lub "okręgi" lub "regiony". +Obecny podział na kraje obowiązuje od 2000 roku, wcześniej obecne okręgi terytorialne były jednocześnie jednostkami samorządowymi. Kraje były podzielone na mniejsze jednostki zwane okresami (czes. "okres" - odpowiednik powiatu +). Od 1 stycznia 2003 powiaty nie są już jednostką podziału administracyjnego Czech a ich dotychczasowe uprawnienia przeniesiono częściowo na szczebel wyższy - krajowy i niższy, gdzie powołano nowe jednostki administracyjne w postaci gmin z rozszerzonymi uprawnieniami (czes. "obce s rozšířenou působností") oraz gmin z gminnym urzędem nadzoru (cz. "obce s pověřeným obecním úřadem"). Podział na powiaty zachowały jednak sądy, státní zastupitelství (odpowiednik prokurator), policja i niektóre inne urzędy państwowe. Został również zachowany dla celów statystycznych. +24 czeskie miasta: Brno, Cieplice, Chomutov, Frydek-Mistek, Czeskie Budziejowice, Děčín, Hawierzów, Hradec Králové, Igława, Karlowe Wary, Karwina, Kladno, Liberec, Mladá Boleslav, Most, Ołomuniec, Opawa, Ostrawa, Pardubice, Pilzno, Praga "(de facto)", Przerów, Uście nad Łabą i Zlin to miasta statutarne, których administracja zorganizowana jest według lokalnego prawa zawartego w statucie miejskim. +Kraje samorządowe. + stolica: Pilzno +Gminy z rozszerzonymi uprawnieniami. +Gminy z rozszerzonymi uprawnieniami to gminy o rozszerzonym zakresie kompetencji (czasem nazywane "gminami III stopnia"). Urzędy takich gmin pośredniczą między urzędami krajowymi (cz. "Krajský úřad") a urzędami gmin zwykłych (nazywanymi "gminami I stopnia"). Urzędy gminne w gminach o rozszerzonym zakresie kompetencji funkcjonują zwykle nie tylko dla własnej gminy ale i dla okolicznych tworząc jej obwód. +Gminy z gminnym urzędem nadzoru. +Gminy z gminnym urzędem nadzoru (cz. "obce s pověřeným obecním úřadem") to gminy, w których funkcjonują urzędy gminne podejmujące decyzje w pierwszej instancji prawa administracyjnego przewidzianych dla osób fizycznych i prawnych, chyba że ustawa stanowi inaczej. Z reguły urzędy te pełnią tę rolę nie tylko dla gminy, w której się znajdują (nazywanymi "gminami II stopnia") ale i dla okolicznych tworząc jej obwód, częstokroć pokrywający się z obwodami gmin z rozszerzonymi uprawnieniami. +Mirrodin + +Mirrodin - dodatek do kolekcjonerskiej gry karcianej - , pierwszy dodatek w bloku "Mirrodin". Imprezy premierowe miały miejsce 2 października 2003 roku, uczestnicy otrzymywali specjalnie na tę okazję przygotowane, foliowane karty promocyjne "Sword of Kaldra" z alternatywnym rysunkiem. +Fabuła dodatku. +Mirrodin został stworzony przez golema Karna, jako "Argentum", świat złożony całkowicie z artefaktów, nieposiadający życia biologicznego. Na jego strażnika wyznaczył zbudowanego przez siebie golema Memnarcha, który nadał nową nazwę powierzonemu sobie światu: Mirrodin. Na skutek kontaktu z Phyrexiańskim Olejem nieświadomie pozostawionym przez Karna, Memnarch dostał obłędu i zaczął zmieniać świat tak by mógł on podtrzymać życie. Korzystając z "pułapek dusz" (ang. soul traps) sprowadził na Mirrodin +przedstawicieli wielu żywych gatunków roślin, zwierząt oraz istot inteligentnych. Z czasem, na skutek działania "Mycosynthu" (podobnego do grzyba organizmu powstałego dzięki phyrexiańskiemu olejowi) metal zaczął pokrywać ciała żywych istot, a ciało artefaktów. Dodatek opowiada historię elfki Glissy, szukającej osoby stojącej za zamachem na nią. +Tematyka. +Główną tematyką dodatku są artefakty. Większość kart w jakiś sposób jest z nimi związana, bądź też jest artefaktem. Sporą rolę odgrywają wprowadzone w tym dodatku karty "Artifact - Equipment" (pl. Artefakt - Ekwipunek), które mają za zadanie obrazować używanie przez stwory takich rzeczy jak zbroje i różnego rodzaju broń (głównie broń biała). +Ciekawostki. +Z powodu komplikacji przy drukowaniu kart w nowej ramce, wprowadzonej w głównej, symbole kolorowej many na kartach artefaktów są szare. +W dodatku tym po raz pierwszy karta promocyjna miała alternatywny rysunek oraz po raz pierwszy nie była kartą stwora. +Bibliografia. +Oficjalna strona dodatku +Konfiguracja absolutna + +Konfiguracja absolutna (inaczej "bezwzględna") – jednoznaczny sposób rozróżniania i nazewnictwa izomerów optycznych, a ściśle biorąc ustalania rozmieszczenia w przestrzeni podstawników w enancjomerach i diastereoizomerach. +Enancjomery, jeden z rodzajów izomerów optycznych związków chemicznych różnią się między sobą tak jak lewa i prawa dłoń lub lewo i prawoskrętna skorupa ślimaka, tj. są chiralne i mają się do siebie tak jak lustrzane odbicie do odbijanego przedmiotu. W przypadku związków organicznych ich chiralność wynika najczęściej z faktu występowania czterech różnych podstawników przy centralnym atomie węgla. Dokładne ustalenie wzajemnego umiejscowienia tych podstawników w przestrzeni decyduje o tym, z którym z dwóch enancjomerów ma się do czynienia. W odróżnieniu jednak od skorupy ślimaka, którego "prawoskrętność" i "lewoskrętność" jest łatwo ustalić w intuicyjny sposób, jednoznaczne nazewnictwo enancjomerów wymaga przyjęcia złożonego zbioru zasad, które są opisane poniżej. +Konwencja Cahna-Ingolda-Preloga. +Np.: w przypadku enancjomeru z jednym centrum chiralności o czterech podstawnikach A,B,C i D, których kolejność pierwszeństwa jest A>B>C>D, należy go ustawić w przestrzeni tak aby podstawnik D znalazł się najdalej z tyłu, a potem patrząc od frontu wodzić wzrokiem od podstawnika o największym pierwszeństwie do podstawnika o najmniejszym. Gdy wykonuje się wówczas ruch w prawo jest to konfiguracja R, a gdy w lewo S. +Konfiguracja absolutna a aktywność optyczna. +Często spotykane w biochemii oznaczanie typów enancjomerów (+) i (-) wynika bezpośrednio z tego, jak one skręcają płaszczyznę monochromatycznego światła spolaryzowanego o długości odpowiadającej tzw. pierwszej linii sodowej (por. skręcalność właściwa), natomiast nic nie mówi o ich konfiguracji absolutnej. Enancjomery (+) skręcają to światło w prawo, zaś (-) w lewo. Stąd oznaczenie to nazywa się często konfiguracją względną. +Konfiguracja absolutna cząsteczki może być określona bezpośrednio w wyniku badań metodą rentgenografii strukturalnej lub pośrednio – poprzez przeprowadzenie jej syntezy asymetrycznej z substratów o wcześniej ustalonej konfiguracji absolutnej lub pomiar jądrowego efektu Overhausera dla diastereomerycznej pochodnej. Nie da się jej natomiast wywieść wprost z samych badań skręcalności światła, choć istnieją próby dokonywania tego za pomocą pomiarów skręcalności światła sprzężonych z jej obliczeniami "ab initio" lub DFT. +W wielu grupach organicznych związków chemicznych zbierany przez lata materiał porównawczy pozwala jednak z dużym prawdopodobieństwem przewidzieć konfigurację absolutną na podstawie kierunku skręcania światła. Na przykład w chemii steroidów istnieje tzw. reguła oktantów pozwalająca powiązać absolutną konfigurację cząsteczki z jej aktywnością optyczną. Podobne reguły znane są także dla aminokwasów i węglowodanów. +Praktyczne znaczenie konfiguracji absolutnej. +Konfiguracja absolutna związków organicznych występujących w naturze decyduje o ich aktywności biologicznej. Zazwyczaj z dwóch enancjomerów określonego związku chemicznego (np. glukoza) tylko jeden z nich jest produkowany przez żywe organizmy i spełnia swoją biologiczną funkcję. +Śwetambarowie + +Śwetambarowie (sanskr. श्वेतांबर - "odziani w biel") – jedna z dwóch głównych, obok digambarów, grup w łonie dźinizmu. Podział ten zaistniał prawdopodobnie już w czasach Mahawiry, gdyż śwetambarowie nie przyjęli wszystkich jego reform. Rozłam nasilił się w II wieku n.e., jednak jeszcze do XI wieku istniały wspólne świątynie obu odłamów. Nazwa grupy pochodzi od tego, iż w dawnych wiekach mnisi śwetambarów nosili białe jednoczęściowe szaty, w odróżnieniu od mnichów digambarów, którzy nie ubierali się wcale. Kobiety mogą zostawać mniszkami, co jest zupełnie niespotykane u digambarów. Twierdzą iż posiadają część "kanonu dźinijskiego", który według ich adwersarzy zaginął. +Z biegiem czasu wyróżniły się aż 84 szkoły. +Współcześnie większość dźinistów to śwetambarowie. +Emitent + +Emitent - podmiot (np.: osoba, przedsiębiorstwo, skarb państwa, gmina) wystawiający lub emitujący papiery wartościowe i ogłaszający ich sprzedaż we własnym imieniu i na własny rachunek. +Prawa i obowiązki emitenta określa ustawa o obrocie instrumentami finansowymi oraz ustawa o ofercie publicznej i warunkach wprowadzania instrumentów finansowych do zorganizowanego systemu obrotu oraz o spółkach publicznych z dn. 29 lipca 2005 roku. +Malmö + +Malmö (duń. "Malmø") – miasto i port położone w południowej Szwecji na półwyspie Skania (szw. "Skåne") nad Sundem, ośrodek administracyjny regionu "Skåne", utworzonego w 1997 roku w wyniku połączenia regionów "Malmöhus" oraz "Kristianstad" (przed reformą administracyjną było stolicą regionu Malmöhus). +300 tys. mieszkańców (marzec 2011)., zespół miejski liczy 540,5 tys. (dane z 2005 r.). +Pierwsza nazwa Malmö brzmiała Malmhaug, co znaczy "kopiec piasku". +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka o tej miejscowości pochodzi z 1116 r., prawa miejskie nabyło w 1353 roku. W 1394 miasto zostało zdobyte i splądrowane przez korsarzy. Między XIV a XVI w. "Malmö" było jednym z najważniejszych miast handlowych w tej części Morza Bałtyckiego, do 1658 r. należało do Danii. +Geografia. +Klimat. +Średnia temperatura powietrza w styczniu wynosi -0,2 °C, a w lipcu wynosi +16,8 °C. Usłonecznienie w styczniu 7 godzin, a w lipcu 17 godzin. +Tranzyt i komunikacja. +Od 2000 ma drogowe i kolejowe połączenie z Kopenhagą przez most nad Sundem. Rok później Malmö zostało połączone z Kopenhagą, w jeden zespół portowy liczący około 2,4 miliona mieszkańców, nazwany Oresund. Dworzec kolejowy Malmö centralstation. +Miasto leży na trasie Europejskiego Szlaku Gotyku Ceglanego. +Gospodarka. +Występuje tu przemysł stoczniowy, maszynowy, środków transportu, włókienniczy. +Osoby związane z Malmö. +W Malmö mieszka Basshunter, znany wykonawca muzyki eurodance. +W Malmö mieszkają również: Arash, popularny piosenkarz pochodzący z Teheranu, piłkarz Zlatan Ibrahimović oraz kulturysta i model Binais Begovic. +Edukacja. +Miasto słynie ze Światowego Uniwersytetu Morskiego. +Współpraca zagraniczna. +Miastem partnerskim Malmö jest Stralsund w Niemczech. +Sport. +Znajduje się tu klub piłkarski "Malmö FF", założony w 1910 roku. +Ciekawostki. +Miasto w maju 2013 roku, gościć będzie Konkurs Piosenki Eurowizji +Mariusz Kamiński (ur. 1965) + +Mariusz Kamiński (ur. 25 września 1965 w Sochaczewie) – polski polityk, działacz opozycji antykomunistycznej w okresie PRL, od 2006 do 2009 szef Centralnego Biura Antykorupcyjnego, poseł na Sejm III, IV, V i VII kadencji. +Życiorys. +Absolwent Wydziału Historycznego Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. W 1981 został skazany na rok pobytu w zakładzie poprawczym za zbeszczeszczenie Pomnika Wdzięczności Armii Czerwonej. W maju 1983 został aresztowany za "stawianie czynnego oporu podczas demonstracji". Zwolniono go w lipcu tego samego roku. Został następnie relegowany z liceum. Od 1984 był działaczem niejawnego Niezależnego Zrzeszenia Studentów. Był członkiem tajnego zarządu NZS na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Jako przedstawiciel opozycyjnych organizacji studenckich brał udział w jednym z podzespołów Okrągłego Stołu. +Krótko był działaczem ROAD. W 1991 pracował w Departamencie Zagrożeń Wewnętrznych Biura Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego, później zatrudniony w administracji zarządu Regionu Mazowsze "Solidarności", w Głównym Urzędzie Ceł i w TVP. +Był współtwórcą Fundacji "Pamiętamy" działającej na rzecz upamiętnienia Żołnierzy Wyklętych. W 1993 zakładał, a następnie przewodniczył stowarzyszeniu Liga Republikańska. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 1997 po raz pierwszy został wybrany na posła z listy ogólnopolskiej Akcji Wyborczej Solidarność. W 2001 i 2005 ponownie uzyskiwał mandat jako kandydat Prawa i Sprawiedliwości w okręgu warszawskim. +W latach 2001–2002 był wiceprezesem partii Przymierze Prawicy, następnie z tym ugrupowaniem przystąpił do PiS, w którym od 2004 do 2006 pełnił obowiązki prezesa regionu warszawskiego. W rządzie Kazimierza Marcinkiewicza był sekretarzem stanu w KPRM. +5 lipca 2006 zrezygnował z mandatu poselskiego. Następnego dnia odebrał nominację na pełnomocnika ds. organizacji Centralnego Biura Antykorupcyjnego (Mariusz Kamiński był inicjatorem utworzenia CBA). Zrezygnował też z członkostwa w PiS. 3 sierpnia 2006 premier Jarosław Kaczyński powołał go na szefa nowo utworzonego Centralnego Biura Antykorupcyjnego. +6 października 2009 prokurator Prokuratury Okręgowej w Rzeszowie przedstawił mu zarzuty m.in. przekroczenia uprawnień i popełnienia przestępstw przeciwko wiarygodności dokumentów w związku z tzw. aferą gruntową, do popełnienia których Mariusz Kamiński nie przyznał się. 13 października 2009 premier Donald Tusk odwołał go ze stanowiska. We wrześniu 2010 został przeciwko niemu skierowany do sądu akt oskarżenia. Z tego powodu na podstawie art. 64 znowelizowanej ustawy o CBA, we wrześniu 2010, Mariusz Kamiński został zwolniony ze służby. 20 czerwca 2012 Sąd Rejonowy Warszawa-Śródmieście uwzględnił wnioski obrońców i nieprawomocnie umorzył postępowanie przeciwko Mariuszowi Kamińskiemu i jego podwładnym (w której byli oskarżeni o nadużycia uprawnień i przestępstwa przeciwko dokumentom przy tzw. afery gruntowej), stwierdzając brak znamion czynów zabronionych. Postanowienie to na skutek zażalenia złożonego przez prokuratora postanowieniem sądu okręgowego z 6 grudnia 2012 zostało uchylone, co skutkuje koniecznością przeprowadzenia rozprawy. +W styczniu 2011 ponownie wstąpił do Prawa i Sprawiedliwości i zasiadł w komitecie politycznym tej partii. Został także pełnomocnikiem PiS w Warszawie. W wyborach parlamentarnych w tym samym roku liczbą 17 535 głosów zdobył mandat poselski. 26 listopada 2011 został wybrany przez radę polityczną PiS na wiceprezesa partii. +Odznaczenia i wyróżnienia. +W 2010, za "za wybitne zasługi w działalności na rzecz przemian demokratycznych w Polsce, za osiągnięcia w podejmowanej z pożytkiem dla kraju pracy zawodowej i społecznej", prezydent Lech Kaczyński odznaczył go Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Otrzymał także tytuł "Człowieka Roku" za 2007, przyznany przez "Gazetę Polską". +Lantanowce + +Lantanowce – grupa pierwiastków chemicznych wydzielona z 6. okresu układu okresowego. +Rozpoczyna się ona od lantanu. (liczba atomowa 57) i kończy na lutecie (liczba atomowa 71). Łącznie liczy ona 15 pierwiastków: lantan, cer, prazeodym, neodym, promet, samar, europ, gadolin, terb, dysproz, holm, erb, tul, iterb i lutet. +Lantanowce dzieli się na podgrupę ceru (Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd – tzw. lantanowce lekkie) oraz podgrupę terbu (Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu – tzw. lantanowce ciężkie). +Wszystkie lantanowce mają jednakową budowę zewnętrznej powłoki elektronowej, a rozbudowują podpowłokę 4f, są więc razem z aktynowcami częścią bloku f układu okresowego. Powoduje to, że mają one bardzo zbliżone właściwości fizyczne i chemiczne. Są to metale, które mogą osiągać maksymalny stopień utlenienia +IV, choć najczęściej występują na +III stopniu utlenienia. Możliwość występowania lantanowców na +II i +IV stopniu utlenienia tłumaczy się różnicami stanu energetycznego elektronów na poziomie 4f w zależności od ich liczby. Elektrony najtrwalej są związane wówczas, gdy poziom 4f zapełniony jest do połowy (7 elektronów) lub całkowicie, dlatego najtrwalszą konfigurację poziomu 4f mają gadolin i lutet. Stopień utlenienia +IV przejawiają Ce, Pr, Tb, Dy, a stopień utlenienia +II – Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Tm, Yb, tj. pierwiastki, których liczba elektronów na poziomie 4f jest bliska 0, 7 i 14. +Wpływ elektronów przybywających do podpowłoki 4f, jest słabszy niż elektronów przybywających do podpowłoki "(n-1)"d w pierwiastkach zewnątrzprzejściowych. Przeważającym czynnikiem jest przyciąganie elektronów walencyjnych przez jądro. Ładunek jądra zwiększa się w kierunku od ceru do lutetu, co powoduje zmniejszanie promieni atomowych i jonowych lantanowców ze wzrostem liczby atomowej, czyli tzw. kontrakcję lantanowców. +W przyrodzie występują w formie mieszanych minerałów, z których trudno jest wyodrębnić czyste pierwiastki. Główny minerał, w którym występuje lantan i kilka lantanowców to monacyt. +Lantanowce razem ze skandowcami (itr i skand) określane są zwyczajowo mianem metali ziem rzadkich, gdyż dawniej uważano, że występują one stosunkowo rzadko. Obecnie wiadomo jednak, że ich zawartość w skorupie ziemskiej nie jest mniejsza od zawartości niektórych metali użytkowych, oraz że ich minerały są znacznie bardziej rozpowszechnione niż sądzono dawniej. +W geochemii stosuje się skrót REE (Rare Earth Element) dla pierwiastków ziem rzadkich (lantanowców plus itr i skand). Wchodzą one zazwyczaj wszystkie razem w skład minerałów bardzo trwałych i odpornych na wietrzenie. +Lista lantanowców, oraz ich podstawowe właściwości. +Lantanowce według IUPAC +Reflections + +Reflections – czwarty album studyjny fińskiej grupy muzycznej Apocalyptica. Wydawnictwo ukazało się 10 lutego 2003 roku nakładem wytwórni muzycznej Universal Music Group. Gościnnie w nagraniach wziął udział perkusista grupy Slayer - Dave Lombardo, który zagrał w pięciu utworach. W pozostałych kompozycjach na perkusji zagrał fiński muzyk sesyjny Sami Kuoppamäki. Kobieta widniejąca na okładce płyty to szwedzka wokalistka i modelka Linda Sundblad. +Lista utworów. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +Twórcy. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +Powiat mrągowski + +Powiat mrągowski – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Mrągowo. +Geografia. +Położenie i granice. +Powiat mrągowski leży w środkowej części województwa warmińsko-mazurskiego. Graniczy z pięcioma powiatami. Od północy sąsiaduje z powiatem kętrzyńskim, od północnego wschodu z giżyckim, od południowego wschodu z piskim, od południa i południowego zachodu ze szczycieńskim, a od zachodu z olsztyńskim. Obszar powiatu ma owalny kształt, zbliżony do koła. Największa rozciągłość terenu z północy na południe wynosi 41,9 km, natomiast z zachodu na wschód 42 km. Powierzchnia powiatu wynosi 1065,23 km² +Siedzibą władz powiatowych jest Mrągowo leżące w północno-zachodniej części powiatu nad jeziorem Czos. +Ukształtowanie powierzchni. +Pod względem fizyczno-geograficznym teren powiatu wchodzi w skład dwóch regionów: przeważająca, zachodnia część należy do regionu Pojezierza Mrągowskiego, natomiast wschodnia część powiatu zalicza się do regionu zwanego Krainą Wielkich Jezior Mazurskich. Ukształtowanie powierzchni powiatu nastąpiło w ostatniej fazie zlodowacenia, zwaną bałtycką. Wytworzył się tu krajobraz młodoglacjalny, pagórkowaty, pojezierny. +Teren powiatu pod względem hipsometrycznym jest bardzo urozmaicony. Obok wzgórz morenowych wznoszących się na ponad 200 m n.p.m., występują głębokie rynny jeziorne. Najwyższym punktem jest Królewska Góra 212 m n.p.m. położona na wschód od Mrągowa w okolicy wsi Użeranki, a najniższym wzniesienie w pobliżu jeziora Tałty 116 m n.p.m. Zatem maksymalna deniwelacja dochodzi do 96 m. Lokalnie różnice te są znacznie mniejsze. Cała północno-zachodnia, północna i północno-wschodnia część powiatu leży średnio na wysokości 160-180 m n.p.m., osiągając najwyższe kumulacje w okolicach Surmówki 208 m n.p.m., Kozarka Wielkiego 197 m n.p.m., Kiersztanowa 209 m n.p.m., Użeranek 212 m n.p.m. Najniższe punkty w tej części powiatu leżą nad Jeziorem Kiersztanowskim i Czosem i wynoszą 125 m n.p.m., a więc deniwelacje dochodzą do 89 m. Obszar pomiędzy Jeziorem Gielądzkim a Mrągowem leży o kilkanaście metrów niżej i średnio wznosi się od 150 do 160 m n.p.m., osiągając jedynie w okolicy Stamy wysokość 169-171 m n.p.m. Wyraźnie zarysowuje się równoleżnikowy ciąg wzgórz przebiegający przez Grabowo, Krzywe i Zełwągi w kierunku Mikołajek. Najwyższe punkty kulminacyjne występują tu w Krzywych Górach i dochodzą do 190-206 m n.p.m. Nad jeziorem Wągiel leży najniższy (133,2 m n.p.m.) punkt w tej strefie, stąd deniwelacje dochodzą tu do 73 m. Okolice Rybna leżą średnio na wysokości 150-160 m n.p.m. z najwyższym punktem na północny wschód od Rybna. Obszar położony między Rybnem, a Jeziorem Białym, ciągnie się z północnego zachodu na południowy wschód w kierunku Zyzdrojowego Piecka i wznosi się na wysokości 140-150 m n.p.m. Na wschód od Jeziora Białego, w okolicy Nawiad, osiąga 164 m n.p.m., a na południe od Piecek nawet 67 m n.p.m. Najniżej położoną częścią powiatu jest obszar leżący na południe od Mikołajek. Najniższy jego punkt położony jest w okolicy Jeziora Gardyńskiego. Cały powiat z północy na południe przecinają rynny jezior mrągowskich. Jedna z nich odprowadza wody na północ, a druga na południe. +Budowa geologiczna. +Podłoże geologiczne stanowią iły oraz iły i piaski z węglem brunatnym wytworzone w trzeciorzędowym miocenie. +Wody powierzchniowe. +Powiat mrągowski położony jest w strefie działu wodnego, rozdzielającego dorzecza Wisły i Pregoły, przy czym dział ten wcina się w omawiany obszar głębokim klinem od północy, rozdzielając go na dwie części. +Część zachodnią z Jeziorem Gielądzkim i doliną rzeki Krutyni oraz jeziorami leżącymi wzdłuż niej i część wschodnią z przepływowym ciągiem Wielkich Jezior Mazurskich (Tałty, Jezioro Mikołajskie, Bełdany, Śniardwy). Obszar ten należy do dorzecza Wisły, odprowadzając wody poprzez Kanał Jegliński oraz rzeki Pisę i Narew. +Część środkową, z dwoma ciągami jezior rynnowych (jeziora: Wągiel, Wierzbowskie, Czos, Juno oraz Juksty i Salęt), które poprzez rzekę Dajnę i liczne mniejsze cieki odprowadzają wody do rzeki Guber i dalej na północ poprzez rzekę Łynę do Pregoły. +Jak wspomniano poprzednio, dominującym elementem krajobrazu na analizowanym obszarze są jeziora, ze zdecydowaną dominacją zbiorników rynnowych (jeziora: Tałty-Ryńskie, Mikołajskie, Wągiel, Juno, Gielądzkie, Mokre itd.). Znaczniej mniej liczne są tu jeziora wytopiskowe bądź o złożonej genetyce, wśród których najbardziej charakterystycznym przykładem są Śniardwy. +Większość jezior połączona jest ze sobą bądź to naturalnymi ciekami, bądź kanałami, co powoduje, iż istnieje przynajmniej teoretyczna możliwość regulacji wielkości odpływu z poszczególnych zlewni. +Wody gruntowe. +Obszary występowania wód gruntowych na głębokości od 0-2 m pokrywają się z gruntami bagiennymi i torfami i zajmują dna wszystkich większych zagłębień. W pozostałych miejscach wody zalegają na większych głębokościach. Nawet głębokie studnie wiercone nie przebijają na tym terenie czwartorzędu, którego miąższość waha się w granicach 150-200 m. Stąd wody eksploatowane należą niemal wyłącznie do wód czwartorzędowych. +Opierając się na badaniach hydrograficznych, prowadzonych w powiecie, stwierdzono występowanie dwóch poziomów wód gruntowych. Poziom pierwszy to wody płytkie, pojawiające się w postaci soczewek w piaskach lub żwirach wśród glin zwałowych. Są to tzw. wierzchówki. +Klimat Pojezierza Mazurskiego, charakteryzuje się względnym kontynentalizmem, zaś Pojezierze Mrągowskie, ma największe zachmurzenie, największe prędkości wiatru i poza górami należy do najzimniejszych rejonów Polski. +Średnia roczna temperatura powietrza wynosi tu ok. 6,5 °C, natomiast średnia temperatura powietrza najcieplejszego miesiąca to 17,4 °C w lipcu, zaś najzimniejszego to ok. –3,4 °C w styczniu. +Obszar całych Mazur to strefa stałego ścierania się mas powietrza atlantyckiego i kontynentalnego. Masy powietrza idące znad oceanu spotykają się tu z masami znad kontynentu powodując częste i nagłe zmiany pogody. +Wyniesienie nad poziom morza, duże nagromadzenie otwartych zbiorników wodnych, a także terenów podmokłych powoduje, że poszczególne pory roku wkraczają tu w innych terminach, niż w pozostałych regionach kraju. Wpływ wód powierzchniowych zaznacza się także w wilgotności powietrza, która w okresie letnim (czerwiec-sierpień) waha się od 60 do 80%. +Najwięcej dni słonecznych przypada na maj i czerwiec oraz wrzesień, natomiast najmniej na listopad i grudzień. W ciągu całego roku jest tu ok. 110 dni z pełnym zachmurzeniem i ok. 160 dni z zachmurzeniem częściowym. +Roczna suma opadów wynosi na terenie średnio ok. 544-605 mm. Rozkład opadów jest mocno zróżnicowany. W dolinach i rozległych obniżeniach występuje mniej opadów, natomiast na wysoczyznach i terenach zalesionych więcej. Grubość pokrywy śnieżnej na omawianym terenie osiąga przeciętnie 10-15 cm. Okres jej zalegania wynosi średnio 75-92 dni. +Wiatry są zmienne z kierunków wschodnich i zachodnich, średnia prędkość ok. 4 m/s. +Okres wegetacyjny według kryterium termicznego (średnia dobowa temperatura powietrza wyższa od 5 °C) jest dość krótki. Zaczyna się w połowie kwietnia i kończy w połowie października. Trwa więc ok. 200-205 dni. +klimat powiatu mrągowskiego. +średnia prędkość wiatru: 4 m/s +długość okresu wegetacyjnego: do ok. 205 dni +średnia roczna suma opadów: ok. 544-605 mm +Gleby. +Gleby występujące na terenie powiatu zostały wytworzone głównie z piasków luźnych, słabogliniastych lub gliniastych. Są to przeważnie gleby rdzawe i bielicowe. +Gleby bielicowe to gleby uprawne, które stanowią 10% powierzchni Polski i niemal w całości pokryte są roślinnością leśną. Nie są przydatne dla rolnictwa ponieważ zawierają mało składników pokarmowych i mają kwaśny odczyn. Podobnie jest z glebami rdzawymi, których użytkowanie rolnicze jest bliskie granicy opłacalności. To tłumaczy jak duży procent powierzchni stanowią użytki leśne. +Ludność w latach. +Prognozowana liczba ludności: +Maksymaliści + +Maksymaliści (ros. "максималисты"), Związek socjalistów-rewolucjonistów maksymalistów (ros. "Союз социалистов революционеров максималистов") – rosyjska partia wywodząca się z eserów; głosiła konieczność uspołecznienia ziemi i środków produkcji. Jako drogę do celu akcentowała terror indywidualny i ekspropriacje (przymusowe wywłaszczenia). +Początki partii sięgają 1904 roku, kiedy utworzono grupę na łonie eserów. W czasie I Zjazdu Związku Socjalistów-Rewolucjonistów w styczniu 1906 r. doszło do wystąpienia maksymalistów z partii. +W marcu zapadła decyzja o utworzeniu własnej partii, a w październiku 1906 w Åbo odbyła się konferencja, na której powołano ostatecznie partię. +W czasie pierwszej rewolucji często współpracowali z bolszewikami. W jej trakcie maksymaliści ponieśli duże straty, w 1908 partia utrzymywała działalność w paru miastach (np.: Tobolsk, Mińsk, Białystok). +W czasie rewolucji październikowej współpracowali z bolszewikami, natomiast po pokoju brzeskim zbliżyli się do lewych eserów we wspólnej opozycji względem bolszewików i współpracowali także z anarchistami. Wzywali do ograniczenia roli partii leninowskiej w strukturach państwa i realizacji postulatów socjalistycznych. +Ataki bolszewickie doprowadziły w 1919 r. do rozpadu partii, część członków wstąpiła do RKP(b), część na stanowiska antybolszewickie, reszta starała się legalną drogą ograniczać rolę leninowców. +Od 18 do 24 kwietnia 1920 odbywała się Wszechrosyjska Konferencja Maksymalistów, na której wydano oświadczenie o wejściu w skład RKP(b). Ostateczny kres partii nastąpił w połowie lat 20, kiedy rozwiązano ją. +Demo + +Demo − twórczość np.: muzyczna, plastyczna (grafika komputerowa), filmowa, programistyczna; zapisana i udostępniana jako demonstracja możliwości twórców (często w celach promocyjnych - wyjątek demoscena). +Makpela + +Makpela (hebr. המכפלה "Machpela"; arab. الحرم الإبراهيم "Al-Haram al-Ibrahim") – jaskinia w Hebronie w Palestynie, na terenie Autonomii Palestyńskiej, którą według Starego Testamentu zakupił patriarcha Abraham, by pochować w niej swoją żonę Sarę (por. Rdz 23, 1-20). +Była pierwotnie własnością Efrona Hittyty, zaś Abraham kupił ją za 400 srebrnych sykli. Pomimo tego, iż w kulturze ludów pustyni, którym było z całą pewnością plemię Hebrajczyków, nieznane były pierwotnie sanktuaria plemienne, pamięć o miejscu pochówku Sary była wśród Izraelitów ciągle żywa. Przebywając w niewoli egipskiej, jak podaje biblijna Księga Rodzaju, nigdy nie przestali wspominać miejsca, w którym spoczywali ich przodkowie. W jaskini pochowani zostali bowiem: sam Abraham, Izaak ze swą żoną Rebeką oraz zmarły w Egipcie Jakub. +Ze względu na groby patriarchów w Makpeli król Dawid wybrał Hebron jako swoją pierwszą stolicę. Po zburzeniu Jerozolimy przez Nabuchodonozora Hebron wraz z Makpelą stał się własnością Idumejczyków. Żydzi powrócili do Makpeli po uwolnieniu z Babilonu. Nazwa jaskini jak i samo miasto Hebron nie są nigdy wspominane w Nowym Testamencie. +Jaskinia (grobowiec) jest powszechnie utożsamiana z "Mearat ha-Machpela", znajdującym się w dzisiejszym Hebronie, pod meczetem na terenie muzułmańskiego sanktuarium "Haram al-Chalil". Budynek sakralny, który do dzisiaj chroni jaskinię z grobami – Haram al-Chalil – zbudowany został z rozkazu Heroda Wielkiego. Bizantyńczycy w jego wnętrzu wybudowali kościół, zmieniony następnie przez muzułmanów w meczet. Wnętrze meczetu mahometanie przyozdobili cenotafami upamiętniającymi poszczególnych patriarchów i ich żony. W ten sposób powstało sanktuarium muzułmańskie, wokół którego narodziła się tradycja, związana z jednym z etapów nocnej podróży Mahometa. Muzułmanie pozwolili żydom na postawienie obok swojego sanktuarium synagogi dla uczczenia patriarchy Abrahama. +Krzyżowcy znaleźli budynek w opłakanym stanie. Odrestaurowali go i zamienili ponownie w kościół. Miasto Hebron stało się w związku z tym siedzibą biskupa, zmieniono jego nazwę na Święty Abraham. Istnieją średniowieczne źródła mówiące o odnalezieniu w jaskini Makpela relikwii świętych patriarchów. Miały one być noszone w uroczystej procesji ulicami Hebronu. +Egipski sułtan Saladyn po zdobyciu Hebronu zabronił schodzenia do samej groty. Zakaz obowiązuje do dzisiaj także wyznawców Islamu. Mamelucy dodali do istniejących patriarszych cenotafów jeszcze jeden upamiętniający Józefa syna patriarchy Jakuba – tradycja żydowska doszukuje się jego grobu w okolicach dzisiejszego Nablusu, starożytnego Sychem. +W 1267 roku Bajbars zabronił wchodzenia na teren "Haram al-Chalil" chrześcijanom i żydom. Zakaz obowiązywał do roku 1967, kiedy to miasto Hebron zdobyte zostało przez Izraelczyków. +Diuna (film) + +Diuna – film z gatunku science-fiction, który powstał na podstawie powieści Franka Herberta pod tym samym tytułem. +Historia filmu. +Historia ekranizacji Diuny rozpoczyna się w 1972 roku, gdy Arthur P. Jacobs (producent serialu "Planeta Małp") zakupuje prawa autorskie do ekranizacji powieści. Jednak nagła śmierć Jacobsa i to jeszcze przed wyborem reżysera, uniemożliwiła jakiekolwiek plany adaptacji. Prawa autorskie odkupił Francuz, Michael Seydoux. Powierzył realizację słynnemu awangardowemu reżyserowi z Chile, Alejandro Jodorowsky'emu i wyznaczył datę rozpoczęcia zdjęć na wrzesień 1975 roku. W jego zamysle, miał to być film z rozmachem, jakiego nie widział jeszcze świat. W obsadzie znaleźć się mieli Orson Welles, Charlotte Rampling, a nawet (w roli Cesarza Szaddama IV) słynny malarz surrealistyczny Salvadore Dali. Muzykę miała skomponować i wykonać legendarna już grupa Pink Floyd, natomiast projekty plastyczne przygotowali: Hans Ruedi Giger i Jean "Moebius" Girard. Moebius przygotował także rysunkowy scenariusz (tzw. storyboard). Niestety, ponieważ prace przygotowawcze trwały zbyt długo i pochłonęły ponad dwa miliony dolarów, Seydoux nie potrafił znaleźć finansistów gotowych wydać pieniądze na film i w lipcu 1974 roku odstąpił od ekranizacji. Jak się potem wypowiadał w wywiadach autor powieści Frank Herbert - "Film Jodorowsky'ego musiałby trwać dwadzieścia godzin...". +W 1975 roku książkę odkryła Raffaela De Laurentiis, córka Silvany Mangano i Dino De Laurentiisa (producenta filmowego). Zarekomendowała ją swojemu ojcu, który w 1980 roku nabywa prawa autorskie do całej sagi Herberta. Początkowo reżyserię powierza on Ridleyowi Scottowi, pamiętając o sukcesie jego filmu "Obcy - ósmy pasażer Nostromo". Ale wskutek nieporozumień w rok później Scott zrezygnował z realizacji. Tym razem reżysera proponuje Raffaella De Laurentiis, a proponuje Davida Lyncha, autora głośnego wtedy filmu "Człowiek-słoń". +Produkcja. +Cała realizacja filmu trwała trzy i pół roku, pochłaniając ponad 45 milionów dolarów. Nad efektami specjalnymi pracował w Los Angeles m.in. Albert Whitlock (Ptaki, Przybysz), natomiast nad stworzeniem przekonujących czerwi pustyni i nawigatorów Gildii - Carlo Rambaldi (King Kong, Obcy, E.T.). +Nagrody i nominacje. +Oscary za rok 1984 +Nagrody Saturn 1984 +Piodermia zgorzelinowa + +Piodermia zgorzelinowa (łac. "pyoderma gangrenosum", PG) – rzadkie schorzenie skóry o niejasnej etiologii. Może być objawem innych chorób systemowych, niekiedy występuje jako zespół paranowotworowy. Inna nazwa tej jednostki chorobowej to zgorzelinowe zapalenie skóry. +Epidemiologia. +W około 50% PG występuje razem z innymi chorobami systemowymi. Częstość występowania wynosi około 1/100000 ludności i jest podobna u obu płci. Choroba pojawia się najczęściej w czwartej lub piątej dekadzie życia, ale może wystąpić w każdym wieku. +Patogeneza. +Patogeneza PG nie została dokładnie ustalona, aczkolwiek największą rolę przypisuje się dysfunkcji układu immunologicznego. +Objawy. +Rozległe, szybko postępujące owrzodzenia lokalizujące się najczęściej na kończynach dolnych. Mogą obejmować inne okolice ciała. +Leczenie. +Leczenie: leki immunosupresyjne (Prednizon, Cyklosporyna, Azatiopryna, Mykofenolan mofetylu, Cyklofosfamid, Chlorambucyl, Talidomid, Immunoglobuliny) +Subemitent + +Subemitent inwestycyjny jest to podmiot zobowiązujący się do kupna od emitenta na własny rachunek całości lub części oferowanych walorów, na które subskrybenci nie zapisali się w wyznaczonym terminie. Subemitent spełnia rolę gwaranta, iż określona ilość oferowanych przez emitenta walorów będzie wykupiona. +Subemitent usługowy jest to podmiot zobowiązujący się do kupna od emitenta na własny rachunek całości lub części oferowanych walorów, w celu ich samodzielnego zbywania w obrocie pierwotnym. +Róża nowotworowa + +Róża nowotworowa (łac. "erysipelas carcinomatosum") - zaliczana do zespołów paraneoplastycznych. Jest to odczyn zapalny spowodowany szerzącymi się drogą naczyń chłonnych przerzutami nowotworowymi. Najczęściej dotyczy przerzutów wywodzących się z raka piersi. +Carl Scheele + +Carl (Karl) Wilhelm Scheele (ur. 9 grudnia 1742 w Stralsund - zm. 21 maja 1786 w Köping) – szwedzki aptekarz i chemik. +Urodził się w Stralsundzie na Pomorzu (wówczas Szwecja). Pracował jako aptekarz w Göteborgu, Malmö, Sztokholmie i Köping, zajmując się jednocześnie pracą badawczą. Jego badania doprowadziły do odkrycia tlenu i fluorku krzemu w 1771; chloru, tlenków baru i manganu w 1774; molibdenu w 1778; wolframu w 1781; gliceryny w 1783. Odkrywca wielu kwasów organicznych m.in. winowego, szczawiowego, mlekowego, cytrynowego. Przeprowadził pierwsze badania adsorpcji gazów na węglu drzewnym oraz katalitycznej estryfikacji kwasów organicznych kwasami mineralnymi w 1781. +Artysta + +Artysta – osoba tworząca (wykonująca) przedmioty materialne, lub utwory niematerialne mające cechy dzieła sztuki. +Artysta – twórca tym różni się od rzemieślnika – odtwórcy, że swoje dzieła tworzy w oparciu o własną koncepcję, nadając im niepowtarzalny charakter. Dzięki temu dzieła znanych artystów rozpoznawane są bez potrzeby oglądania ich sygnatur. +W zależności od rodzaju wykonywanej twórczości wykonywany przez artystę zawód będzie nosił nazwę np.: artysta plastyk, artysta muzyk. +Dydym + +Dydym (także didym) – nazwa zaproponowana w 1841 roku przez C. G. Mosandera dla rzekomego pierwiastka chemicznego mającego być jednym z lantanowców (proponowany symbol to Di). Później jednak okazało się, że jest to mieszanina dwóch pierwiastków, nazwanych w 1885 roku przez Auera von Welsbacha neodymem i prazeodymem. +Inwestor czynny + +Inwestor czynny działa w oparciu o krótkoterminowe inwestycje obliczone przede wszystkim na osiąganie jak najwyższej stopy zysku od kapitału dzięki występującym na rynku wahaniom cen papierów wartościowych lub innych instrumentów finansowych. +Dzielnica Łacińska + +Dzielnica Łacińska (fr. "Quartier latin") - uniwersytecka dzielnica Paryża. W VI wieku założono tu opactwo Sainte-Geneviève, w XII Saint-Victor. Poza tym znajdują się tu m.in. kompleks klasztorny benedyktynów Val-de-Grâce, zamieniony po rewolucji francuskiej w szpital wojskowy, dawne opactwo Port-Royal, Kolegium Francuskie, Sorbona, Panteon, muzeum Cluny. +Nazwa dzielnicy pochodzi od języka łacińskiego, którym w średniowieczu i aż do Rewolucji posługiwano się powszechnie na uniwersytetach. +Acrokeratosis neoplastica + +Acrokeratosis neoplastica (zespół Bazexa, ang. "Bazex syndrome", "paraneoplasmatic acroceratosis", łac. "acrokeratosis Bazex") – rzadki zespół paraneoplastyczny, należący do skórnych rewelatorów chorób nowotworowych, charakteryzujący się występowaniem łuszczycopodobnych, złuszczających ognisk barwy czerwonawo-fioletowej na dłoniach, stopach, w obrębie małżowiny usznej, czasami obejmujących grzbiet nosa lub całą twarz. Zmianom tym często towarzyszy nasilona dystrofia paznokci. Z objawów podmiotowych występuje charakterystyczny świąd. +"Zespół Bazexa" może być związany z różnymi typami nowotworów. Pierwszy, opisany przez A. Bazexa pacjent miał raka krtani; później donoszono o zmianach skórnych tego typu u chorych na raki górnych dróg oddechowych, raki języka, błon śluzowych jamy ustnej, płuc, przełyku, a także okrężnicy. Zespół został opisany w 1980 roku przez Bazexa i Griffithsa. +Bleach (album) + +Bleach - debiutancki album zespołu Nirvana wydany 15 czerwca 1989 za pośrednictwem niezależnej wytwórni płytowej Sub Pop Records. Początkowo sprzedaż albumu szacowano na 30 000 kopii, jednak po sukcesie następnego albumu zespołu, "Nevermind", fani grupy zaczęli nabywać również mało znany dotąd debiut zespołu. Album osiągnął status platynowej płyty w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Nagrywanie. +Album został nagrany w Reciprocal Recording Studios w Seattle, album wyprodukował Jack Endino. Nirvana zaczęła proces nagrywania albumu od pięciogodzinnej sesji 24 grudnia 1988. Następne sesje odbyły się w dniach 29-31 grudnia oraz 14 i 24 stycznia. Cały proces nagrywania Endino oszacował na 30 godzin. Trzy spośród piosenek umieszczonych na albumie - "Floyd the Barber", "Paper Cuts" i "Downer" został nagranych podczas wcześniejszych sesji w Reciprocal Recording Studios w 1988 (podczas których na perkusji grał Dale Crover). Pomimo prób ponownego nagrania utworów wraz Chadem Channingiem na perkusji, zespół ostatecznie zdecydował zmiksować i dołączyć wersje nagrane z Croverem do końcowej wersji "Bleach". "Big Long Now" nie został dołączony do albumu, gdyż Cobain uważał, że "było już wystarczająco dużo ciężkiego, wolnego materiału na "Bleach". Nie chciałem wydać tej piosenki". Proces nagrywania albumu i produkcji został zakończony, jednak prezes Sub Pop, Bruce Pavitt, zdecydował o ponownym procesie produkcji albumu i wpisał na listę albumów oczekujących wydania. Premiera albumu była wielokrotnie opóźniana (kilka miesięcy), dopiero w maju 1989 Sub Pop zgromadziło dostateczną ilość pieniędzy niezbędną do wydania albumu. +Należność za sesję nagraniową w wysokości 606 dolarów uiścił Jason Everman, gitarzysta, który był zachwycony demem nagranym przez zespół razem z Croverem. Everman po kilku tygodniach dołączył do zespołu jako drugi gitarzysta. Gitarzysta został zapisany na poligrafii doąłczonej do albumu jako czynny członek zespołu, nie nagrał z grupą jednak żadnego utworu. Krist Novoselic wyjaśnił: "Chcieliśmy, by poczuł się w zespole jak w domu". +Muzyka. +Jak przyznał Cobain, muzyka zaprezentowana na "Bleach" była zgodna z preferencjami Sub Pop Records. "Powstała presja ze strony Sub Pop i sceny grunge'owej, by grać "muzykę rockową". Zredukujcie złożoność swojej muzyki do minimum i uczyńcie z niej drugie Aerosmith". Cobain uważał, ze musi spełnić oczekiwania zarówno fanów jak i krytyków w celu zbudowania rzeszy fanów i świadomie "zepsuł" swój talent do pisania utworów w trakcie nagrywania "Bleach". +Biograf Nirvany Michael Azerrad, ze pomimo braku swobody w komponowaniu materiału, wiele utworów z albumu traktuje o życiu Cobaina i jego życiowych incydentach i perypetiach. "Mr. Moustache" był zainspirowany negatywnym nastawieniem Cobaina do stylu macho. "School" wyrażał krytykę sceny muzycznej w Seattle, a przede wszystkim wytwórni Sub Pop. +Wydanie. +Sub Pop wydała pierwszy 1000 kopii na białym winylu, następne 2000 na czarnym, dalsze wydania znajdowały się na czerwonych i niebieskich płytach. Pierwsze 3000 kopii zostało wydanych wraz z fotografią Jasona Evermana. Wersje winylowe nie zawierają utworów "Big Cheese" i "Downer". Album został wydany w Wielkiej Brytanii za pośrednictwem Tupelo Records w czerwcu 1989 - pierwsze 300 kopii zostało wydanych na białym winylu, następne 2000 - na ciemnozielonym. Reszta wydanych kopii to czarne winyle. Wersja brytyjska również nie zawierała utworu "Downer". W Australii Bleach został wydany za pośrednictwem Waterfront Records i w latach 1990 - 1992 wydany kilkakrotnie z różnymi kolorami płyt i okładek. Sub Pop wydała zmasterowaną wersję albumu na CD i kasecie magnetofonowej w kwietniu 1992. +Opakowanie. +Robocza nazwa albumu brzmiała "Too Many Humans". Nazwa została zmieniona na "Bleach" po tym, jak podczas przejeżdżania przez San Francisco Cobain przeczytał plakat ostrzegający przed zarażeniem AIDS - plakat radził ludziom uzależnionym od narkotyków czyszczenie strzykawek przed zażyciem. +Józef Maroszek (historyk) + +Józef Maroszek (ur. 18 października 1950 w Białymstoku) – polski historyk. W 1974 ukończył studia historyczne na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, w 1981 uzyskał tam stopień naukowy doktora. W 2000 habilitował się na Uniwersytecie Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu. Od 2002 jest profesorem Uniwersytetu w Białymstoku, gdzie pracuje w Instytucie Historii. +Unreal Engine + +Unreal Engine – silnik gry wyprodukowany przez firmę Epic Games. Pierwotnie wykorzystywany w grach FPP, z czasem zaczął być wykorzystywany również w grach komputerowych typu RPG, MMORPG oraz w tak zwanych skradankach. +Jądro silnika zostało napisane w języku C++, przez co silnik charakteryzuje się wieloplatformowością. Głównie ze względu na to wielu deweloperów gier chętnie go wykorzystuje. Obsługuje między innymi platformy Windows, iOS, Mac OS oraz OS X na komputery osobiste, jak również platformy konsol do gier jak Dreamcast, Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2 i PlayStation 3. Duża część kodu silnika została napisana w języku UnrealScript, jednak istnieje możliwość wprowadzania własnych ustawień bez konieczności głębszych modyfikacji kodu. Do silnika producent przygotował również dużą liczbę narzędzi edytorskich. +Wersje silnika. +Unreal Engine 1. +Wersja zadebiutowała w 1998 roku w grze Unreal. Silnik zawierał wtedy mechanizm renderowania, system wykrywania kolizji, system sztucznej inteligencji, system widoczności, zarządzania siecią i systemem plików. Z powodu poziomu technologicznego ówczesnych komputerów zastosowano cylindryczne wykrywanie kolizji, choć dysponowano lepszą technologią. Unreal Engine 1 wykorzystywał Glide API opracowany specjalnie dla procesorów graficznych 3dfx, zamiast OpenGL. Jednym z największych powodów jego popularności było zastosowanie łatwej do modyfikacji architektury silnika i włączenie języka skryptowego. Kolejną innowacją w porównaniu do silników poprzedniej generacji było zastosowanie technologii sieciowej, która znacznie ulepszyła skalowalność silnika w grach multiplayer. Również Unreal jako pierwszy silnik w pełni wykorzystywał model klient-serwer w architekturze silnika. +Unreal Engine 2. +Druga wersja silnika zadebiutowała w 2002 roku w grze America's Army. Największą zmianą jest napisane całkowicie od nowa jądro silnika oraz silnik renderowania. Zintegrowano z silnikiem nowy edytor poziomów UnrealEd 3, a także silnik fizyczny "Karma physics SDK", wykorzystaną między innymi w grach Unreal Tournament 2003 i Unreal Championship. Ponadto zaktualizowano wiele elementów silnika, dodano wsparcie dla platform PlayStation 2, GameCube i Xbox. W wersji UE 2.5 poprawiono renderowanie, dodano fizykę pojazdów oraz wsparcie dla technologii 64-bitowej w Unreal Tournament 2004. Wyspecjalizowana wersja UE 2.5 o nazwie UE2X, wykorzystana w grze Unreal Championship 2, została zoptymalizowana dla pierwszej generacji konsoli Xbox. Dodatkowo wspiera ona technologię dźwięku EAX 3.0. +Unreal Engine 3. +Trzecia wersja silnika pojawiła się w 2006 roku wraz z grą Gears of War. Silnik projektowano z myślą o wykorzystaniu technologii DirectX w wersjach 9, 10 i 11, a także do zastosowania w konsolach PlayStation 3 oraz Xbox 360. Silnik obsługuje zaawansowane technologie takie jak: "High dynamic range rendering", "Per-pixel lighting", a także dynamiczne cienie. W 2009 roku na "Game Developers Conference" zapowiedziano wydanie poprawek do silnika, które zawierały obsługę wysokiej jakości efektów świetlnych, symulacje zniszczeń obiektów oraz symulację tłumu. Silnik jest również wykorzystywany do projektowania obiektów, tworzenia symulatorów jazdy oraz filmów. Licencje na wykorzystywanie silnika zakupiło m.in: Atari, Activision, Capcom, Disney, Electronic Arts, Konami, THQ, Sega, Sony, Ubisoft i wiele innych przedsiębiorstw. +Unreal Engine 4 (planowana). +W 2005 roku wiceprezes Epic Games Mark Rein przyznał, że prace nad Unreal Engine 4 trwają od 2003 roku. Na konferencji DICE Summit w 2010 roku również on powiedział, że silnik nie jest w stanie pracować na obecnej generacji konsol do gier i komputerów oraz że prawdopodobnie będzie wykorzystany w konsolach nowej generacji. W związku z tym wydanie silnika jest planowane na 2014 rok. Pierwszą grą opartą na tym silniku będzie Fortnite. Oficjalnie wsparcie dla silnika Unreal Engine 4 zapowiedziało Sony wraz z konsolą Playstation 4. Grą opartą na tym silniku jest Deep Down.. +Szum kwantyzacji + +Szum kwantyzacji, zwany także "błędem kwantyzacji" jest zniekształceniem sygnału powstającym w procesie kwantyzacji. +Szum kwantyzacji powstaje w przetwornikach analogowo-cyfrowych oraz w przetwornikach CCD cyfrowych aparatów fotograficznych z powodu błędu zaokrąglenia. Podczas konwersji ciągłego sygnału analogowego na postać cyfrową, każda wartość jest zaokrąglana do najbliższej wartości dyskretnej. Powstający w ten sposób błąd określany jest mianem szumu kwantyzacji. Szum ten można zmniejszyć poprzez zwiększenie liczby bitów opisujących każdą próbkę. Zwiększenie liczby bitów o jeden powoduje dwukrotne zwiększenie liczby poziomów kwantyzacji i w rezultacie zmniejszenie szumu kwantyzacji o 20 * log (2) = 6,02 dB. +Obwód czerniowiecki + +Obwód czerniowiecki (ukr. Чернівецька область)(rum. Regiunea Cernăuţi) jest jednym z 24 obwodów Ukrainy. Leży w południowo-zachodniej części Ukrainy, na południu graniczy z Rumunią i Mołdawią, na zachodzie i północnym zachodzie z obwodem iwanofrankowskim, na północy z obwodem tarnopolskim i chmielnickim, na wschodzie z obwodem winnickim. +Stolicą obwodu są Czerniowce. +Historia. +Obwód został utworzony w 1940 roku z północnej części Bukowiny oraz części Besarabii (razem z Chocimiem). +Alkoholik + +Alkoholik - człowiek uzależniony od alkoholu, chory na alkoholizm. +Choroba. +Na skutek utraty zdolności kontrolowanego picia, alkoholik odczuwa silną, niezależną od jego woli potrzebę spożywania alkoholu, najczęściej w stale zwiększanych dawkach. W początkowych fazach alkoholizmu występuje często zwiększona odporność organizmu na alkohol, przy przewlekłym odporność ta zwykle się obniża. +Pozbawienie dostępu do alkoholu, powoduje szereg dolegliwości organizmu o charakterze psychosomatycznym nazywanych zespołem abstynencyjnym. Okresy przerw między ciągami alkoholowymi, trwające zwykle od kilku tygodni do kilku miesięcy, bywają u alkoholików okresami pełnej abstynencji. +Trzeźwienie. +Osoby uzależnione, którym udało się zerwać z nałogiem, określa się mianem trzeźwego lub trzeźwiejącego alkoholika. Nie oznacza to wyleczenia, gdyż niezależnie od upływającego czasu może dojść do nawrotu choroby i powrotu do niekontrolowanego picia. +Puchar Narodów Afryki + +Puchar Narodów Afryki – turniej piłkarski rozgrywany o mistrzostwo Afryki. +Historia. +Organizowany przez Federację Piłkarską Afryki odbywa się od 1957, przy czym rozgrywki mają charakter regularny od 1968, odkąd turnieje finałowe mają miejsce co 2 lata. +W pierwszym Pucharze Narodów Afryki w 1957 startowały tylko trzy reprezentacje: Egipt, Sudan i Etiopia. Od tego czasu rozgrywki znacznie się rozrosły i obecnie biorą w nich udział niemalże wszystkie afrykańskie państwa. Konieczne stało się rozgrywanie eliminacji do turnieju finałowego, w którym od 1998 uczestniczy 16 zespołów. +W maju 2010 roku zmieniono lata rozgrywania Pucharu Narodów Afryki. Od 2013 roku turniej będzie rozgrywany w latach nieparzystych. W związku z tym w latach 2012 i 2013 odbędą się turnieje mistrzowskie. +Na przestrzeni lat na organizotora imprezy wybrano 18 krajów afrykańskich (Afryka liczy łącznie 53 kraje). Najwięcej turniejów (4) organizował Egipt i Ghana. W 11 turniejach (z 27 wszystkich) wygrywała reprezentacja państwa-gospodarza. +Wyniki. +(1) "W 1959 trzy drużyny grały systemem każdy z każdym. Wygrany 2:1 mecz Egiptu z Sudanem, który zadecydował o mistrzostwie, był także ostatnim spotkaniem turnieju." +(2) "W 1976 nie odbył się mecz finałowy. Cztery drużyny, które spotkały się w fazie finałowej, grały systemem każdy z każdym." +(3) "W 1978 trzecie miejsce (wraz z walkowerem 2:0) zostało przyznane Nigerii, po tym jak Tunezja wycofała się przy stanie wyniku 1:1 w 42. minucie meczu o 3. miejsce." +Bezrobocie ukryte + +Bezrobocie ukryte – występuje, gdy zwiększanie liczby pracowników nie powoduje zwiększenia produkcji. Wówczas krańcowa produkcyjność pracy +(zmiana produkcji w firmie związana ze zmianą zatrudnienia o jednostkę) jest równa zero. +Bezrobocie ukryte jest też nazywane agrarnym, gdyż często występuje w rolnictwie. Bezrobocie ukryte występuje też w postaci wcześniejszych emerytur spowodowanych brakiem możliwości zatrudnienia osób w wieku przedemerytalnym. Bezrobocie ukryte oznacza też sytuację, w której osoba pozostaje bez jakiegokolwiek zatrudnienia, jest gotowa do podjęcia pracy, ale nie szuka jej gdyż na podstawie wcześniejszych doświadczeń jest przekonana, że jej nie znajdzie. +Do bezrobocia ukrytego można też zaliczyć zjawisko braku odpowiedniej pracy dla osób wykształconych, które mają nieraz jedynie wybór pomiędzy byciem bezrobotnym lub wykonywanie pracy nieodpowiedniej do poziomu wykształcenia i specjalności. Przykładem na to jest bardzo duża liczba osób z wyższym wykształceniem wykonujących pracę fizyczną lub prostą biurową. +Luis Herrera Campins + +Luis Herrera Campins (ur. 4 maja 1925 w Acarígua, zm. 9 listopada 2007 w Caracas) – wenezuelski prawnik i polityk, prezydent kraju w latach 1979–1984. +Współzałożyciel i od 1946 przywódca Partii Społeczno-Chrześcijańskiej (COPEI). +Linki zewnętrzne. +__NOTOC__ +Kociewiacy + +Kociewiacy – grupa etnograficzna zamieszkująca obszar Pomorza Nadwiślańskiego, głównie region Kociewie, obejmujące tereny powiatu starogardzkiego i część powiatu kwidzyńskiego. +Adam Fischer stwierdził, że Kociewiacy używają gwary kujawskiej, która wyparła dawne narzecze kaszubskie. +Żółw Torniera + +Żółw Torniera, żółw szczelinowy ("Malacochersus tornieri") – gatunek gada z rodziny żółwi lądowych z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych. +Rozmnażanie : Samica składa zwykle jedno jajo, ale do sześciu razy w sezonie. +Wolfgang Lotz + +Wolfgang Lotz (ur. 6 stycznia 1921, zm. 13 maja 1993) – jeden obok Eli Cohena z najskuteczniejszych, legendarnych agentów wywiadu izraelskiego. +Urodzony w Niemczech. W 1937, po śmierci ojca, wyjechał do Palestyny, gdzie wstąpił do żydowskiej paramilitarnej formacji Hagana. We wrześniu 1939 zgłosił się do służby w brytyjskich wojskach powietrznodesantowych, brał udział w walkach w Afryce Północnej z armiami włoską i niemiecką. Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej wrócił do Palestyny, brał udział w walkach o niepodległość Izraela w 1948. Zdemobilizowany został w stopniu majora, w pewien czas później zwerbowany do pracy w Mossadzie. Jako wysoki blondyn biegle władający językiem niemieckim, Lotz był idealnym kandydatem na agenta, którego wywiad izraelski zamierzał użyć do penetracji kolonii nazistów niemieckich w Kairze. Mossad przygotował dla niego nową tożsamość: Lotz wcielił się w postać oficera Afrika Korps, który dorobił się majątku jako hodowca koni wyścigowych w Australii. Aby umocnić tę legendę, wyjechał na rok do Niemiec. W 1959 roku pojawił się w Egipcie, założył pod Kairem stadninę koni i zaczął udawać esesmana - emigranta. Zaprzyjaźnił się z szefem policji egipskiej i kilkoma zatrudnionymi w tym kraju naukowcami niemieckimi, byłymi nazistami. W trosce o dalsze uwiarygodnienie jego postaci, Mossad znalazł mu nawet typową niemiecką żonę, blondynkę o aryjskim wyglądzie, "Waltraud Neumann", z którą wziął uroczysty ślub w Monachium. +Żywot bigamisty, umilany sporadycznymi wizytami w Izraelu, w czasie których odwiedzał swą legalną żonę wraz z potomstwem, Lotz spędził do 1964, kiedy efektywna już wówczas - wyszkolona przez fachowców ze Stanów Zjednoczonych, Wielkiej Brytanii i Związku Radzieckiego - egipska "Tajna Służba" przechwyciła nadane przez niego transmisje radiowe i podczas rewizji znalazła ukryty w wadze łazienkowej nadajnik. Aresztowano Lotza i zgodnie z panującymi w Egipcie zwyczajami poddano torturom. Lotz jednak twardo pozostawał przy wersji, że jest Niemcem, a szpiegował wyłącznie dla pieniędzy. Na swoje szczęście nie był obrzezany, prawdopodobnie dzięki temu pozostał przy życiu. Ostatecznie po czysto formalnym procesie skazano go na dożywotnie ciężkie roboty. Przed sądem stanęła także przybrana żona Wolfganga, Waltraud, która otrzymała wyrok w wysokości trzech lat pozbawienia wolności. +W 1968 Wolfgang Lotz wymieniony został na 9 generałów egipskich wziętych do niewoli przez armię izraelską w czasie tzw. wojny sześciodniowej. Po powrocie do Izraela Lotz rozwiódł się z żoną i poślubił Waltraud Neumann. Po jej śmierci w 1973 ożenił się jeszcze dwukrotnie. W 1972 ukazały się jego wspomnienia - "The Champagne Spy". +Informacje przekazane przez Lotza z Egiptu miały duży wpływ w przyszłych konfliktach zbrojnych, w których jedną z głównych stron był Izrael. +Rumowisko skalne + +Rumowisko skalne – nagromadzenie bloków skalnych różnej wielkości, zarówno ostrokrawędzistych okruchów, jak i zaokrąglonych głazów, efekt rozpadu skał na skutek wietrzenia mechanicznego. +Rumowiska skalne mogą pozostawać na miejscu wietrzenia (rozwalisko skalne) lub gromadzić się na stokach (gołoborze) lub u ich podnóży (piarg). +Uppsala + +Uppsala – miasto we wschodniej części Szwecji położone ok. 70 km na północ od Sztokholmu. Jest czwartym co do wielkości miastem Szwecji i centrum administracyjnym regionu Uppsala (Uppsala län). +Geografia. +Uppsala leży 70 km na północ od Sztokholmu i około 35 km na północ od lotniska Arlanda. Jest czwartą co do wielkości szwedzką aglomeracją (łącznie z gminą). Miasto leży na obu brzegach rzeki Fyrisån, około 8 km w górę od jej wpływu do jeziora Melar "(szw. Mälaren)" w zatoce Ekoln, poniżej, a częściowo w ramach pasma wzgórz Uppsalaåsen. Od południa wiedzie przez miasto droga ciągnąca się ze Sztokholmu na północ do Gävle. +Historia. +Katedra w Uppsali zbudowana w stylu gotyckim jest, ze swoimi wieżami sięgającymi 118,7 m, największą budowlą sakralną w Skandynawii. Jest ona miejscem koronacji i spoczynku królów szwedzkich. W tej świątyni pochowana jest m.in. królowa Szwecji Katarzyna Jagiellonka, żona króla Szwecji Jana III Wazy. Nad jej nagrobkiem znajduje się herb Rzeczypospolitej, a na ścianie powyżej znajduje się fresk wyobrażający Kraków. W katedrze tej znajdują się dwa ogromne dzwony zrabowane przez Szwedów w 1703 z Polski (z Torunia) podczas wojny północnej, jeden z nich jest obecnie największym dzwonem w Szwecji (odlany w 1601 r.) - tzw. Thornan. +W Uppsali znajduje się założony w roku 1477 najstarszy uniwersytet w całej Skandynawii. W mieście przez wiele lat żył Karol Linneusz – w dzisiejszych czasach wciąż można zwiedzać jego dom i ogród. W Uppsali znajduje się też XVI-wieczny zamek królewski. Miasto było poważnie zniszczone w pożarze z roku 1702. Pamiątki historyczne i kulturalne zostały utracone również, podobnie jak w wielu innych szwedzkich miastach, w wyniku wyburzania, jakie miało miejsce w latach 60 i 70 XX wieku. Mimo braku zrozumienia w tych czasach dla wartości starszych budynków wciąż w mieście pozostało wiele historycznych budowli, szczególnie w zachodniej części miasta. +Polityka. +Historycznie Uppsala stanowi centrum konserwatyzmu i liberalizmu, czerpiących swoje ideologiczne podłoże z ruchu umysłowego na Uniwersytecie. +W latach 2002-2006 miasto było rządzone przez socjaldemokratów, Partię Lewicy i Zielonych, a po wyborach w 2006 r. rządzi miastem koalicja składająca się z czterech partii burżuazyjnych: konserwatywna Umiarkowana Partia Koalicyjna "(szw. Moderata Samlingspartiet)", Ludowa Partia Liberałów "(szw. Folkpartiet Liberalerna)", Partia Centrum "(szw. Centerpartiet)" i Chrześcijańska Demokracja "(szw. Kristdemokraterna)". +Ekonomia. +W dzisiejszych czasach Uppsala ma wysoką pozycję w badaniach medycznych i gra wiodącą rolę w przemyśle biotechnologicznym. +Herb. +Najstarszy ślad stosowania przez Uppsalę postaci lwa w herbie pochodzi z roku 1737, kiedy to użyto jej na pieczęciach miasta. Wzór widoczny na stronie pochodzi z roku 1943, obecnie jest używany obraz o bardziej syntetycznej postaci oficjalnie nadany w roku 1986. +Walter Arendt + +Walter Arendt (ur. 17 stycznia 1925, zm. 10 marca 2005), polityk niemiecki, działacz partii socjaldemokratycznej SPD. +Pracował w przemyśle energetycznym. W 1946 wstąpił do SPD; reprezentował partię w Bundestagu w latach 1961-1980 oraz w Parlamencie Europejskim w latach 1961-1969. Był członkiem Prezydium SPD (1973-1979), a w latach 1976-1980 zastępcą przewodniczącego frakcji parlamentarnej SPD w Bundestagu. +Od 22 października 1969 do 14 grudnia 1976 pełnił funkcję ministra pracy i spraw socjalnych w rządzie federalnym Willy Brandta i Helmuta Schmidta. Jego poprzednikiem na tym stanowisku był Hans Katzer, a następcą - Herbert Ehrenberg. +Towarzystwo Naukowe im. Szewczenki + +Towarzystwo Naukowe im. Szewczenki – najstarsza ukraińska instytucja naukowa. +Powstałe 11 grudnia 1873 we Lwowie z inicjatywy Ołeksandra Konyskiego i Ołeksandra Barwinśkyego, pełniło nieformalnie funkcję pierwszej ukraińskiej Akademii Nauk. Jego znanymi członkami byli m.in. Stepan Kaczała, Omelian Ohonowśkyj, Julian Romanczuk. Wsparcie finansowe tej inicjatywie zapewnili Elizaweta Skoropadśka-Miłoradowycz i Ołeksandr Konyśkyj. W dwudziestoleciu międzywojennym Towarzystwo im. Szewczenki było współfinansowane także z budżetu Państwa Polskiego; pieniądze pochodziły z Magistratu Lwowskiego. +Stawiali oni sobie za cel organizację badań naukowych i ich popularyzację. +Towarzystwo zostało zlikwidowane przez Sowietów 12 stycznia 1940, ponownie odtworzone w 1947 w Europie Zachodniej i Ameryce, we Lwowie zostało reaktywowane w 1989. +Archiwum. +Najcenniejsze zbiory archiwum Towarzystwa zostały wywiezione ze Lwowa przez Niemców w 1944 do Adelina (obecnie Zagrodno) na Dolnym Śląsku tuż przed wkroczeniem Armii Czerwonej do Lwowa. Jesienią 1945 zostały one przypadkowo odnalezione, a następnie przewiezione do Warszawy i złożone w Bibliotece Narodowej. +Wiesław Tupaczewski + +Wiesław Tupaczewski (ur. 7 czerwca 1963 r. w Ostrowi Mazowieckiej), satyryk polski, założyciel Kabaretu OT.TO, absolwent Wydziału Elektroniki Politechniki Warszawskiej, basista. +Laureat Festiwalu Piosenki Studenckiej w Krakowie (1984) oraz Festiwalu Artystycznego Młodzieży Akademickiej FAMA w Świnoujściu (1984). Był twórcą i liderem kabaretu studenckiego "17 mgnień wiosny" (1984-1987), a następnie Kabaretu OT.TO (od 1987). +Twórca tekstów, muzyki, scenariuszy filmowych. Autor strony internetowej Kabaretu OT.TO. Z nr 45 gra w Reprezentacji Artystów Polskich (RAP). Ma córkę Katarzynę (ur.1986) i syna Macieja (ur.1992). +W latach 2000-2001 prowadził teleturniej "Podaj dalej" w telewizji RTL 7. +Vauxhall + +Vauxhall Motors Ltd. – brytyjskie przedsiębiorstwo branży motoryzacyjnej, zajmujące się produkcją samochodów osobowych, od 1925 roku należące do koncernu General Motors. Firma, założona w 1857 roku w dzielnicy Vauxhall w Londynie jako fabryka pomp i silników dla statków, w 1903 skonstruowała swój pierwszy samochód, napędzany silnikiem o mocy 5 KM. Obecna siedziba Vauxhall Motors znajduje się w Luton. +Począwszy od lat 70. XX wieku większość samochodów produkowanych i sprzedawanych na rynku brytyjskim pod marką Vauxhall jest odpowiednikami modeli Opla. +Wielkość produkcji w Wielkiej Brytanii w 2002 roku wyniosła 133 448 samochodów osobowych. +Władysław Bodnicki + +Władysław Bodnicki (ur. 7 kwietnia 1910 w Krakowie, zm. 12 czerwca 1983 we Wrocławiu) – pisarz polski. +W 1935 ukończył filologię polską na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Przed wojną był redaktorem miesięcznika literacko-artystycznego "Nasz Wyraz". Po 1945 działał w Związku Literatów Polskich (pełnił m.in. funkcję sekretarza oddziału krakowskiego w latach 1960-1976) oraz publikował na łamach prasy codziennej. +Pisał także felietony, recenzje, wspomnienia, reportaże z podróży. W 1965 został uhonorowany nagrodą miasta Krakowa. +Rząd Leona Kozłowskiego + + Rząd Leona Kozłowskiego – gabinet pod kierownictwem premiera Leona Kozłowskiego, utworzony 15 maja 1934 roku przez prezydenta Ignacego Mościckiego po dymisji rządu Janusza Jędrzejewicza. Premier wraz z gabinetem podał się do dymisji 28 marca 1935 roku. +Piaskowiec (ptak) + +Piaskowiec ("Calidris alba") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Pierce Brosnan + +Pierce Brendan Brosnan (ur. 16 maja 1953 w Navan w Irlandii) – irlandzki aktor i producent filmowy. +W 1980 aktor wziął ślub z Cassandrą Harris, która zmarła w 1991 roku na raka jajników. Od 2001 jego żoną jest Keely Shaye Smith. Pierce Brosnan ma trójkę dzieci: Seana (ur. w 1983), Dylana Thomasa (1997) i Parisa Becketta (2001). +W 1986 Pierce Brosnan miał zakończyć pracę w serialu "Remington Steele". Po rezygnacji Rogera Moore'a z grania Jamesa Bonda rolę agenta 007 zaproponowano irlandzkiemu aktorowi pod warunkiem, że nie wróci już do serialowej roli. Telewizja NBC postanowiła jednak, wbrew wcześniejszym zapewnieniom o zakończeniu produkcji, nagrać kolejne odcinki z Pierce’em Brosnanem w roli głównej. W 1995 roku aktor uzyskał kolejną szansę na zostanie Jamesem Bondem i ją wykorzystał. Jeszcze w tym samym roku Irlandczyk zagrał w "GoldenEye". Później wystąpił jeszcze w 3 filmach o agencie 007. +Kalifat Kordoby + +Kalifat Kordoby - nazwa państwa rządzącego islamską Hiszpanią (Al-Andalus) i północną Afryką w latach 929-1031. Tytuł kalifa przypisał sobie 16 stycznia 929 Abd ar-Rahman III, wcześniej emir Kordoby. Wszyscy kalifowie Kordoby byli członkami dynastii Umajjadów, która rządziła emiratem utworzonym na podbitych przez muzułmanów terenach od 756. +Abd ar-Rahman I został emirem Kordoby w sześć lat po tym, jak jego dynastia utraciła tytuł kalifów Damaszku w 750. Abd ar-Rahman I przez cały ten okres uciekał przed swoimi prześladowcami. Chcąc odzyskać dawną pozycję i władzę, pokonał urzędujących tam władców muzułmańskich i zjednoczył tamtejsze lenna w emirat. +Władcy emiratu używali tytułów emira i sułtana do X wieku, kiedy Abd ar-Rahman III musiał stawić czoła groźbie inwazji Fatymidów, konkurencyjnego imperium islamskiego powstałego w Kairze. Częściowo po to, aby zyskać nowe siły w walce z Fatymidami, którzy przywłaszczyli sobie status kalifatu przekornie do Kalifatu Bagdadu Abbasydów, Rahman III sam ogłosił się kalifem. Zagwarantowało to jemu i jego poddanym prestiż, a tytuł pozostał, mimo że najeźdźcy zostali odparci. +Przez sto następnych lat kalifowie Kordoby rządzili Hiszpanią i północną Afryką. Ten okres odznaczył się ogromnymi sukcesami w rozwoju handlu i kultury; w tym czasie zostało stworzonych wiele arcydzieł muzułmańskiej Hiszpanii. Mimo to, terytoria kalifatu stopniowo się zmniejszały. +Ostatnim kalifem Kordoby był Hiszam III, również z dynastii Umajjadów. W 1031 roku zmarł, a terytoria, które niegdyś kontrolował, zostały rozdzielone na dziesiątki niepodległych królestw zwanych taifami. Te drobne, niezależne twory, niezdolne do efektywnego oporu, zostały stopniowo odzyskane przez kraje chrześcijańskie. +Dudley Robert Herschbach + +Dudley Robert Herschbach (ur. 18 czerwca 1932 w San José, Kalifornia) – amerykański chemik, laureat Nagrody Nobla 1986. +Profesor Uniwersytetu Harvarda w Cambridge, członek m.in. Amerykańskiej Akademii Umiejętności w Bostonie i Narodowej Akademii Nauk w Waszyngtonie. +Nagrodę Nobla otrzymał za poznanie dynamiki elementarnych procesów chemicznych; wraz z nim zostali wyróżnieni John Polanyi i Yuan Tseh Lee. +W 1993 odznaczony tytułem doktora honoris causa Uniwersytetu Karola w Pradze. +Operacje morskie w Cieśninie Dardanelskiej + +Operacje morskie w cieśninie Dardanelskiej – działania w latach 1915-1916 podczas I wojny światowej, prowadzone głównie przez Królewską Marynarkę Wojenną Wielkiej Brytanii (Royal Navy) z dużą pomocą marynarki francuskiej i niewielkim wkładem okrętów z Rosji i Australii. Kampania Dardanelska rozpoczęła się jako operacja wyłącznie morska (z okrętami bombardującymi brzeg nieprzyjaciela), ale z biegiem czasu rola okrętów stała się pomocnicza, działały one jako ruchome baterie wspomagające wojska lądowe. Przez całą kampanię podejmowano także wiele prób przejścia okrętów podwodnych przez cieśninę Dardanelską z nadzieją na przedarcie się na Morze Marmara i zadanie strat marynarce handlowej Imperium osmańskiego. +Preludium. +W momencie wybuchu I wojny światowej Turcja osmańska była krajem neutralnym, nie opowiedziawszy się jeszcze za żadną ze stron konfliktu. Wielka Brytania miała długie tradycje wpływów i duże interesy w tym rejonie, ale w ostatnich czasach to Niemcy starali się pogłębiać przyjazne stosunki z Turcją. Wielka Brytania niezbyt pomogła swojej sprawie, kiedy po wybuchu wojny nie tylko zarekwirowała dwa wybudowane na zamówienie tureckie okręty liniowe (pancerniki), ale także odmówiła oddania zapłaty. W odpowiedzi na to, Niemcy przekazali Turcji dwa okręty wojenne: krążownik liniowy SMS „Goeben” i krążownik lekki SMS „Breslau”. Oba te okręty były obsadzone załogą niemiecką, ale otrzymały formalnie nowe nazwy: „Yavuz Sultan Selim” i „Medili” i stały się główną siłą marynarki tureckiej. W tym czasie „Goeben” był przez prawie rok zdecydowanie najpotężniejszym okrętem na basenie Morza Czarnego. +W październiku 1914 roku Turcja zamknęła cieśninę Dardanelską przed statkami krajów Ententy. 28 października, jeszcze przed wypowiedzeniem wojny, turecka flota wzmocniona obecnością „Goebena” rozpoczęła regularne ataki na rosyjskie statki i instalacje brzegowe na Morzu Czarnym. Turcy zbombardowali Odessę i Sewastopol, zatapiając stawiacz min i kanonierkę. 2 listopada Rosja wypowiedziała wojnę Turcji, a cztery dni później zrobiła to także Wielka Brytania. Po nieudanym tureckim ataku na Rosję przez Kaukaz w grudniu 1914 roku, rząd rosyjski wysłał prośbę o pomoc do rządu Wielkiej Brytanii. +Winston Churchill, który wtedy był Pierwszym Lordem Admiralicji, już wcześniej planował zdobycie kontroli nad Dardanelami. Pat na froncie zachodnim, rosyjska prośba o pomoc i ocena, że Turcja jest słabym przeciwnikiem, uczyniły projekt kampanii w cieśninie Dardanelskiej bardzo interesującym. +11 stycznia, na żądanie Churchilla, dowódca floty brytyjskiej na Morzu Śródziemnym, wiceadmirał Sackville Hamilton Carden, przedstawił plan zdobycia kontroli nad cieśniną, używając do tego siły złożonej z pancerników, okrętów podwodnych i trałowców. 13 stycznia plan ten został zatwierdzony przez gabinet brytyjski i Carden otrzymał do swojej dyspozycji dodatkowe okręty, kilka pancerników generacji przeddrednotów, a także najnowocześniejszy wtedy na świecie pancernik HMS „Queen Elizabeth” i krążownik liniowy HMS „Inflexible”. Francja ze swojej strony dołączyła się z dywizjonem czterech predrednotów, a Rosja wysłała jeden krążownik ("Askold"), który był w drodze z Dalekiego Wschodu. +Żaden z krajów, których okręty miały wziąć udział w operacji morskiej, nie mógł sobie pozwolić, aby skierować też tam oddziały lądowe, a więc miała być to operacja tylko i wyłącznie morska. Na początku lutego zorientowano się jednak, że jakieś oddziały lądowe będą potrzebne i otrzymano jeden oddział królewskich marines, a także skierowano do Egiptu ostatnią dostępną dywizję brytyjską, 29. Dywizję Piechoty. W Egipcie przebywali już na szkoleniu żołnierze australijscy i nowozelandzcy (korpus ANZAC) i postanowiono, że dołączą oni do operacji, jeżeli będą potrzebni. Spodziewano się jednak, że piechota będzie potrzebna jedynie do okupacji Konstantynopola, a nie w trakcie przejmowania kontroli nad cieśniną. +Przełamywanie blokady. +Już 3 listopada 1914 na rozkaz Churchilla flota brytyjska przeprowadziła pierwszy atak w Dardanelach, po rozpoczęciu wojny pomiędzy Rosją a Turcją. W ataku, który odbył się jeszcze przed oficjalnym wypowiedzeniem wojny przez Anglię, wzięły udział 2 angielskie krążowniki liniowe i jeden przestarzały francuski pancernik „Verite”. Zadaniem ataku było sprawdzenie stanu tureckich umocnień, a także czego można się spodziewać ze strony obrońców. Rezultaty z punktu widzenia Brytyjczyków były bardzo zachęcające, po zaledwie dwudziestominutowym bombardowaniu fortu w Sedd el Bahr jeden z pocisków trafił w magazyn amunicyjny. Powstała eksplozja uszkodziła (ale nie zniszczyła) 10 dział tureckich i zabiła 86 żołnierzy. Łączne straty po stronie tureckiej wyniosły 150 żołnierzy, w tym 40 Niemców. +Dardanele były bronione przez system ufortyfikowanej i mobilnej artylerii, ulokowanej w trzech systemach obronnych – zewnętrznym, środkowym i wewnętrznym. Strefa zewnętrzna była położona przy samych wejściach do cieśnin i miała się okazać bardzo podatna na bombardowania, a strefa wewnętrzna, położona była w najwęższych miejscach cieśnin w okolicach Çanakkale. Poza strefą wewnętrzną cieśniny nie były już aktywnie bronione, ale położono tam 10 pól minowych, w których łącznie znajdowało się 370 min. +Operacja, która ostatecznie stała się dziesięciomiesięczną wojną na wyniszczenie, rozpoczęła się o 7.30 rano, 19 lutego 1915 r. Dwa niszczyciele zostały wysłane na zwiady, w ich kierunku otworzyła ogień bateria dział 24 cm z baterii Kum Kale o godzinie 7.58. Dwa pancerniki podeszły bliżej baterii i rozpoczęły z nią pojedynek ogniowy, pierwsze brytyjskie strzały padły o 9.51 z okrętu HMS „Cornwallis”. Dzień ten nie przyniósł jednak tak spektakularnego rezultatu jak test z 3 listopada. +Następna operacja odbyła się sześć dni później, już 25 lutego. Tym razem Turcy ewakuowali linię obrony zewnętrznej i flota brytyjska weszła w głąb cieśnin. Oddziały desantowe królewskich marines wylądowały przy Sedd El Bahr i Kum Kale, wysadzając tamtejsze fortyfikacje prawie bez oporu wroga. 1 marca 4 pancerniki przeprowadziły bombardowanie środkowej linii obrony. +Nie było prawie żadnych postępów przy czyszczeniu pól minowych. Trałowce, które przeznaczono na tę operację, były nieopancerzonymi trawlerami z cywilnymi załogami, które odmówiły pracy pod ostrzałem wroga. Dodatkowo utrudniały pracę silne prądy występujące w cieśninach. Taka sytuacja dodała Turkom ducha bojowego. Kiedy Brytyjczycy przeprowadzili następny rajd na zewnętrzną linię obrony, marines zastali tam tym razem bojowo nastawionych obrońców i stracili w ataku 23 żołnierzy. +Zdecydowano się wreszcie skorzystać z pomocy „Queen Elizabeth”. Okręt ten zbombardował najpierw wewnętrzną linię obrony, strzelając przez cały półwysep od strony Morza Egejskiego, ale później wszedł w głąb cieśnin i kontynuował atak z tej pozycji. W nocy 13 marca zrobiono próbę rozminowania cieśnin, do akcji pod osłoną nocy przystąpiło sześć trałowców ubezpieczanych przez krążownik HMS „Amethyst”, jednak pomimo ciemności baterie tureckie otworzyły bardzo skuteczny ogień, uszkadzając cztery trałowce i bardzo ciężko uszkadzając prowadzący je krążownik. +Po fiasku tej operacji admirał Carden złożył dymisję 15 marca i dowództwo przejął kontradmirał John de Robeck, który otrzymał zgodę na przeprowadzenie ostatecznego ataku w ciągu dnia, używając wszystkich możliwych okrętów, z trałowcami operującymi pod bezpośrednią osłoną całej floty. +Bitwa 18 marca. +Nieporadne, niezdecydowane i nieskoordynowane działania floty brytyjskiej dały Turkom szansę na przegrupowanie sił, częściowe odbudowanie zapasów oraz, co najważniejsze, na ustawienie nowej zagrody minowej. W nocy 8 marca stawiacz min „Nusrat” ustawił linię min morskich wzdłuż zatoki Eren Keui, szerokiego akwenu położonego po azjatyckiej stronie półwyspu, tuż przy wejściu do cieśnin. Turcy zauważyli, że w czasie poprzednich bombardowań brytyjskie okręty wykonały zwrot na sterburtę właśnie w tej zatoce przed powrotem do bazy. Nowa zagroda minowa składała się z 20-26 min, ułożonych w jednej linii, równolegle do brzegu. Zostały zakotwiczone na głębokości 4,5 m w odstępach mniej więcej stumetrowych. +Plan ataku 18 marca zakładał, że brytyjskie pancerniki zniszczą pierwszą linię obrony, umożliwiając w ten sposób trałowcom wyczyszczenie pierwszego pasa zagród minowych, co z kolei pozwoliłoby w następnym dniu na zniszczenie reszty tureckich baterii. +W dniu ataku pancerniki płynęły w formacji trzech równoległych do siebie linii, z okrętami pomocniczymi ubezpieczającymi skrzydła i dwoma okrętami stanowiącymi rezerwę. +Pierwsza linia okrętów brytyjskich otworzyła ogień z zatoki Eren Keui około 11.00. Wkrótce po tym, de Robeck wydał rozkaz, aby do brzegu podeszły okręty francuskie i otworzyły ogień do tureckich fortec, które odpowiedziały celnym ogniem, kilkakrotnie trafiając w „Gaulois”, „Suffren”, „Agamemnon” i „Inflexible”. Niemniej efekty bombardowania przez okręty alianckie były coraz bardziej widoczne i intensywność ognia obrońców tureckich wyraźnie spadła. Około 13.25 większość baterii brzegowych w ogóle przestała odpowiadać ogniem i de Robeck zdecydował się wycofać francuskie okręty i kontynuować atak trzecią linią pancerników, a także „Swiftsure” i „Majestic”. +O 13.54, po wykonaniu zwrotu na sterburtę, francuski pancernik „Bouvet” wszedł na minę, przewrócił się i zatonął w ciągu kilku minut, biorąc ze sobą na dno 600 marynarzy. Brytyjczycy nie zdali sobie jednak sprawy, że wszedł on na minę, myśleli, że został on celnie trafiony pociskiem w magazyn amunicyjny lub też, że został storpedowany. +Okręty brytyjskie kontynuowały atak. Około 16.00 „Inflexible” zaczął się wycofywać ze swojej pozycji i wszedł na minę tuż obok miejsca, gdzie to samo przytrafiło się „Bouvet”. Jednak nie zatonął on i nieco później został osadzony na mieliźnie. +Następnym okrętem, który wszedł na minę, był „Irresistible”. Została z niego zdjęta załoga i „Ocean” próbował go wziąć na hol, ale nie mógł podejść wystarczająco blisko z powodu zbyt małej w tym miejscu głębokości zatoki i w końcu o 18.05 sam wszedł na minę, wybuch której uszkodził jego ster i okręt został porzucony przez załogę. +Wydarzenia 18 marca to niewątpliwie tureckie zwycięstwo, ale pomimo to prasa brytyjska nadal uważała, iż należy kontynuować operację morską. Z wyjątkiem „Inflexible” wszystkie uszkodzone i zatopione okręty były przestarzałe i nie spełniały wymogów ówczesnego pola walki - tylko wybuch wojny uchronił je przed złomowaniem i w opinii wielu osób można było pozwolić na ich stracenie dla dobra operacji. W każdym razie porażka odniesiona w tym dniu przekonała Brytyjczyków, że jedynym sposobem na zneutralizowanie tureckiego panowania nad Cieśninami Dardanelskimi jest opanowanie tamtejszego rejonu przez piechotę. +Operacje okrętów podwodnych. +Ataki brytyjskich okrętów podwodnych rozpoczęły się już w 1914 roku, jeszcze przed oficjalnym rozpoczęciem całej kampanii. 13 grudnia, brytyjski okręt podwodny HMS B11 wszedł w cieśniny skutecznie unikając pięciu pasów pól minowych i storpedował bardzo stary, bo zbudowany w 1874 roku turecki pancernik "Mesudiye", który był zakotwiczony jako pływająca bateria w zatoce Sari Sighlar na południe od Çanakkale. "Mesudiye" wywrócił się 10 minut później, większość z jego załogi liczącej 673 marynarzy znalazła się w potrzasku pod przewróconym kadłubem. Stało się to w wodzie na tyle płytkiej, że większość kadłuba wystawała nad wodę i większość załogi została uratowana – w ataku tym zginęło tylko 37 osób. +Akcja ta była dużym sukcesem Royal Navy, dowodzący B11 kapitan Norman Holbrook otrzymał za nią order Victoria Cross (pierwszy VC przyznany oficerowi marynarki w czasie I wojny światowej), odznaczenia otrzymało także 12 innych członków załogi. +W akcjach poprzedzających właściwe operacje morskie uczestniczyły także francuskie okręty podwodne. 15 stycznia 1915 roku francuski okręt "Saphir" przepłynął przez cieśniny, mijając po drodze 10 pól minowych, ale wpłynął na mieliznę w okolicy Nagara. Według różnych opisów został on później zatopiony przez załogę lub turecki ogień – zginęło przy tym 14 marynarzy, a 13 dostało się do niewoli. +17 kwietnia HMS E15 próbował przejść przez cieśniny, ale zszedł zbyt głęboko i został zniesiony przez silny prąd morski na mieliznę przy Kepez na południowym końcu zatoki Sari Sighlar, tuż pod działami baterii Dardanos. 7 marynarzy zginęło, a reszta dostała się do niewoli. E15 stanowił cenną zdobycz dla Turków, którzy kilkakrotnie ponawiali próby ściągnięcia go z mielizny, ale Brytyjczycy po wielu próbach zdążyli go zniszczyć zanim do tego doszło. +Pierwszym okrętem podwodnym, któremu udało się przejść przez Dardanele, był australijski HMAS AE2, który dokonał tego 25 kwietnia, w dzień rozpoczęcia desantów w zatoce Anzac i zatoce Helles. AE2, pod dowództwem kapitana Stokera, miał kilka okazji, aby zatopić wartościowe dla Turków okręty, ale okazało się, że wszystkie jego torpedy miały defekty. 30 kwietnia AE2 został zatopiony przez turecki torpedowiec w zatoce Artaki i jego załoga dostała się do niewoli. +Drugi okręt podwodny, któremu udało się przejść przez cieśniny, miał więcej szczęścia. 27 kwietnia HMS E14 po dowództwem Edwarda Boyle’a przeszedł na Morze Marmara i przez trzy tygodnie siał tam zamieszanie i zniszczenie w najbardziej chyba udanej akcji całej kampanii morskiej. O ile liczba i wartość zatopionych przez niego statków była stosunkowo niska, efekt psychologiczny i wpływ na morale Turków był nie do przecenienia. Po powrocie do bazy Boyle otrzymał Victoria Cross, a później jeszcze kilkakrotnie z powodzeniem przechodził na Morze Marmara, zaś 21 lipca udało mu się skutecznie przebić się przez cieśniny, pomimo nowej sieci przeciwko okrętom podwodnym zamontowanej przez Turków. +Innym brytyjskim okrętem podwodnym, który z powodzeniem dostał się na Morze Marmara, był HMS E11. Okręt ten pod dowództwem Martina Nasmitha zatopił lub uszkodził 11 statków, z czego aż trzy w jednym dniu: 24 maja w porcie Rodosko, a 8 sierpnia E11 storpedował turecki stary pancernik "Heireddin Barbarossa". +Z pokładów okrętów podwodnych wysyłani byli także na ląd żołnierze w celach dywersyjnych. 8 września porucznik H.V. Lyon popłynął z pokładu HMS E2 w kierunku mostu kolejowego w pobliżu Küçükçekmece z zadaniem jego zniszczenia. Most został rzeczywiście zniszczony, ale porucznik Lyon nie powrócił z akcji. Przeprowadzono też kilka operacji mających na celu utrudnienie komunikacji kolejowej w rejonie zatoki Izmit. W nocy 20 sierpnia porucznik D’Oyly Hughes popłynął z pokładu E11 i wysadził część linii kolejowej, za co otrzymał Distinguished Service Order. 17 lipca HMS E7, w tym samym rejonie ostrzelał szyny kolejowe i ogniem działa uszkodził dwa pociągi, które zostały zmuszone do zatrzymania się. +Po sukcesach brytyjskich także francuskie okręty podwodne nadal próbowały przedrzeć się na Morze Marmara. "Joule" próbujący tego dokonać 1 maja wszedł na minę i zatonął, a 27 lipca prawie się to udało "Marriote", został on jednak zatrzymany przez sieć (tą samą, której udało się wcześniej uniknąć E14) i zmuszony do wynurzenia się. Po ostrzelaniu przez nieprzyjaciela załoga została zmuszona do samozatopienia okrętu. +Pierwszym francuskim okrętem podwodnym, któremu udało się przejść przez cieśniny, był "Turquoise", jednak w czasie powrotu wpłynął na mieliznę i nieuszkodzony został przechwycony przez Turków. Cała załoga została wzięta do niewoli, w ręce nieprzyjaciela dostały się też tajne plany przyszłych operacji – między innymi planowane spotkanie z HMS E20. Na spotkanie E20 udał się niemiecki okręt podwodny U-14, który storpedował E20. "Turquoise" został później ściągnięty z mielizny i włączony do floty tureckiej, nazwany "Onbasi Müstecip", na cześć żołnierza, którego celny ogień zmusił francuskiego dowódcę do poddania się. +Operacje okrętów podwodnych na Morzu Marmara były jedynym znaczącym sukcesem aliantów w czasie całej bitwy o Gallipoli. Pomiędzy kwietniem 1915 a styczniem 1916 brytyjskie okręty podwodne zatopiły dwa pancerniki, jeden niszczyciel, pięć kanonierek, dziewięć transporterów wojska, siedem statków zaopatrzeniowych, 35 parowców i 188 mniejszych statków. Turcy zostali zmuszeni do porzucenia Morza Marmara jako trasy zaopatrzeniowej. +Wspomagając wojska lądowe. +"Śródziemnomorskie Siły Ekspedycyjne" (Mediterranean Expeditionary Force) w sile 70.000 żołnierzy powstały 12 kwietnia pod komendą generała Iana Hamiltona. Na konferencji 22 kwietnia (cztery dni po fiasku operacji morskiej z 18 kwietnia) postanowiono użyć wojsk lądowych w celu przejęcia kontroli nad półwyspem Gallipoli, zdobywając forty i pozwalając w ten sposób na swobodny tranzyt floty na Morze Marmara. Przygotowania do inwazji trwały miesiąc, pozwalając Turkom na przygotowanie obrony i wzmocnienie sił. +Brytyjscy planiści od początku nie doceniali umiejętności, zdeterminowania i sił wojsk tureckich. Oczekiwano, że cała inwazja skończy się bardzo szybko. Siły brytyjskie lądujące przy przylądku Helles miały pokonać odległość 11 km w ciągu pierwszego dnia, a w drugim dniu ataku miały zdobyć wyżynę Kilitbahir, górującą nad cieśninami. W rzeczywistości, po ośmiu miesiącach walk Brytyjczykom udało się pokonać tylko 9 km. Inwazja na Gallipoli była największą operacją amfibijną I wojny światowej. +W desancie w Zatoce Anzac pierwsza fala żołnierzy wyruszyła na ląd z trzech pancerników, a druga z pokładów siedmiu niszczycieli. Desant był osłaniany przez dwa pancerniki i jeden krążownik, a także okręt-bazę wodnopłatowców HMS "Ark Royal" i okręt-bazę balonów na uwięzi HMS "Manica". +Lądowanie na przylądku Helles odbyło się na pięciu osobnych przyczółkach, główne z nich to plaże V i W. O ile lądowanie w zatoce Anzac odbyło się bez przygotowania artyleryjskiego, licząc na zaskoczenie przeciwnika, lądowania na Helles zostały poprzedzone bombardowaniem plaży i tureckich fortów w okolicy. +Artyleria okrętowa była użyta w roli artylerii polowej z powodu chronicznego w tym czasie jej braku. Jednak, z wyjątkiem kilku spektakularnych sukcesów, skuteczność strzelania z okrętów była niska, szczególnie przeciwko okopanym celom. Okręty stały zbyt blisko brzegu i zmuszone były strzelać ogniem o niskiej trajektorii, co znacznie zmniejszało celność i skuteczność takiego bombardowania. +Niemniej, artyleria okrętowa okazała się bardzo skuteczna przeciwko nieosłoniętym grupom żołnierzy. 27 kwietnia turecki 57. regiment poprowadził atak na zboczu Battleship Hill w polu widzenia "Queen Elizabeth". Okręt wystrzelił w kierunku atakujących salwę z dział piętnastocalowych, co skutecznie zakończyło ten atak. Dzień później w pobliżu plaży "Y" obserwatorzy "Queen Elizabeth" zauważyli grupę złożoną z około 100 żołnierzy tureckich. Wystrzelono w ich kierunku jeden pocisk szrapnelowy, zawierający 24.000 odłamków, który zmiótł całą grupę. Przez resztę walk w czasie tej kampanii Turcy starali się nie przesuwać oddziałów w bezpośrednim polu widzenia okrętów. +Także 27 kwietnia okręt balonowy zauważył turecki statek transportowy. "Queen Elizabeth", który był zakotwiczony przy Gaba Tepe, wystrzelił w kierunku tego statku w poprzek całego półwyspu i zatopił go trzecią salwą, strzelając z odległości około 20 km. Przez pozostałą część kampanii Turcy używali głównie transportu kolejowego do zaopatrzenia żołnierzy biorących udział w walkach na Gallipoli. +Szybko stało się oczywiste, że kampania o Gallipoli nie będzie ani łatwa, ani krótka. Przez początkowy okres okręty wspierały wojska lądowe ogniem artyleryjskim, ale po storpedowaniu trzech pancerników (HMS "Goliath" 12 maja przez turecki torpedowiec "Muavenet", a dwóch HMS "Triumph" 25 maja i HMS "Majestic" 27 maja przez niemiecki okręt podwodny U-21) brytyjska admiralicja wycofała z tego regionu pancerniki. Ich miejsce zajęły monitory, krążowniki i niszczyciele. +Żółw śródziemnomorski + +Żółw śródziemnomorski, żółw mauretański, żółw iberyjski ("Testudo graeca") – gatunek gada z rodziny żółwi lądowych z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych. +Izoterma UNILAN + +Izoterma UNILAN jest to monowarstwowa izoterma adsorpcji odpowiadająca prostokątnemu rozkładowi energii adsorpcji (w uproszczonej formie znana jest jako izoterma Tiemkina). Zaletą izotermy UNILAN jest to, że zawiera ograniczenie energii adsorpcji oraz w konsekwencji dla niskich i wysokich ciśnień jej przebieg upodabnia się do izotermy Langmuira, a dla małych ciśnień staje się podobna do izotermy Henry'ego. Jednocześnie dla średnich ciśnień jej przebieg jest bardzo podobny do izotermy Langmuira-Freundlicha i innych równań posiadających quasigaussowskie rozkłady energii. +gdzie: +Edmund Nowicki + +Edmund Nowicki (ur. 13 września 1900 w Trzemesznie, zm. 10 marca 1971 w Warszawie) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, administrator apostolski w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim w latach 1945–1951, biskup koadiutor diecezji gdańskiej w latach 1951–1964, biskup diecezjalny gdański w latach 1964–1971. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i lata młodzieńcze. +Urodził się w Trzemesznie, w rodzinie właściciela browaru. Po ukończeniu Gimnazjum w Trzemesznie rozpoczął studia teologiczne w seminariach w Gnieźnie i w Poznaniu (w tamtym czasie na mocy unii personalnej łączącej archidiecezje poznańską i gnieźnieńską alumni archidiecezji poznańskiej studiowali pierwsze dwa lata w Gnieźnie). +Kapłaństwo. +Święcenia kapłańskie otrzymał w katedrze gnieźnieńskiej 15 marca 1924 z rąk kardynała Edmunda Dalbora. Jego pierwszą placówką duszpasterską była parafia przy kościele Najświętszego Serca Pana Jezusa w Poznaniu, w której pracował od 1 kwietnia 1924 do 30 czerwca 1927. W 1927 został wysłany na studia prawa kanonicznego na Papieskim Uniwersytecie Gregoriańskim w Rzymie. Ukończył je w 1929, uzyskując tytuł doktora prawa kanonicznego. Następnie w latach 1929–1930 odbył aplikanturę w Kongregacji Soboru ds. Duchowieństwa i Trybunale Świętej Roty Rzymskiej. +Po powrocie do Polski, od 1 lipca 1930 zajmował stanowiska notariusza, referenta kurii arcybiskupiej, adwokata, a następnie wiceoficjała Metropolitarnego Sądu Duchownego w Poznaniu. Obowiązki te pełnił do 2 października 1939. Do wybuchu II wojny światowej pracował jako prefekt w Państwowej Szkole Budownictwa, Wyższej Szkole Budowy Maszyn oraz Wyższej Szkole Ogrodnictwa w Poznaniu. Aktywnie uczestniczył w działalności duszpasterstwa akademickiego. Już w okresie międzywojennym był autorem kilkunastu publikacji z zakresu prowadzenia duszpasterstwa, prawa kanonicznego i administracyjnego. Od 1938 aż do 1964 był członkiem Rady Nadzorczej Drukarni i Księgarni św. Wojciecha w Poznaniu. +3 października 1939 został aresztowany przez władze hitlerowskie i osadzony w więzieniu w Poznaniu, z którego 9 listopada 1939 internowano go do klasztoru Bernardynów w Kazimierzu Biskupim. Po kilkumiesięcznym odosobnieniu ponownie został osadzony w Poznaniu, a 4 maja 1940 został więźniem obozu w Dachau. W sierpniu tego roku przeniesiono go do Gusen, a w grudniu 1940 ponownie stał się więźniem Dachau. W lutym 1941 został zwolniony z obozu pod warunkiem porzucenia kapłaństwa. Warunku nie dopełnił. +Administrator apostolski kamieński, lubuski i prałatury pilskiej. +Po zakończeniu wojny w 1945 wrócił do pracy w kurii poznańskiej, gdzie oficjalnie zajmował stanowisko kanclerza. Powojenny problem administracji kościelnej na Ziemiach Odzyskanych skłonił kardynała Augusta Hlonda do udzielenia polskim kapłanom jurysdykcji nad Ziemiami Zachodnimi i Północnymi. 15 sierpnia 1945 Edmund Nowicki został mianowany administratorem kamieńskim, lubuskim i prałatury pilskiej oraz podniesiony do godności infułata. Od podstaw zorganizował kurię (1946) i sąd duchowny (1950) w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim, a także diecezjalny Caritas. Erygował wiele parafii, nadzorował odbudowę zniszczonych kościołów. W 1946 powołał Niższe Seminarium Duchowne w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim oraz Konwikt Biskupi we Wschowie, podniesiony w 1946 do rangi niższego seminarium duchownego. Z jego inicjatywy w 1947 powstało Niższe Seminarium Duchowne w Słupsku oraz Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim. 26 stycznia 1951 w związku z „likwidacją stanu tymczasowości w administracji kościelnej na Ziemiach Zachodnich”, jak motywowała swoją decyzję strona państwowa, musiał opuścić administrację gorzowską. Powrócił do Poznania, gdzie zajął się pracą w kurii, sądzie duchownym oraz seminarium. +Biskup diecezjalny gdański. +24 kwietnia 1951 został mianowany biskupem koadiutorem "sedi datus" w Gdańsku i biskupem tytularnym Hadriane. Sakrę biskupią przyjął 26 września 1954 w Poznaniu z rąk abpa Walentego Dymka, bpa Franciszka Jedwabskiego i bpa Lucjana Bernackiego. +Polski październik 1956 pozwolił na jego przyjazd do Gdańska. 8 grudnia 1956 przejął diecezję gdańską jako biskup koadiutor będącego na emigracji niemieckiego biskupa Karola Marii Spletta, jednocześnie był biskupem tytularnym Thuggi. Ingres do katedry w Oliwie odbył się 25 grudnia 1956. Po śmierci bpa Spletta bullą z 7 marca 1964 został mianowany biskupem diecezjalnym diecezji gdańskiej. Stało się tak, pomimo że po śmierci biskupa Spletta kapituła diecezji gdańskiej (funkcjonująca na emigracji w RFN) podtrzymała trwającą fikcję prawną, wybierając wikariusza generalnego diecezji, jednakże Paweł VI nie uznał jej decyzji za wiążącą. Biskup Nowicki był twórcą struktur diecezjalnych, najważniejszych instytucji diecezji gdańskiej. Rozbudował wydziały kurii, komisje diecezjalne, dokonał reorganizacji sieci dekanalnej diecezji. 27 października 1957 erygował Biskupie Seminarium Duchowne w Gdańsku Oliwie. +Brał udział w obradach soboru watykańskiego II +Zmarł 10 marca 1971 w wyniku powikłań pooperacyjnych w szpitalu na ul. Płockiej w Warszawie. Został pochowany w krypcie biskupów gdańskich w archikatedrze w Gdańsku Oliwie. +Produkt narodowy brutto + +Produkt narodowy brutto (PNB, ang. "Gross National Product, GNP") - miara wartości wszystkich dóbr i usług finalnych wytworzonych przez obywateli danego państwa oraz przez osoby prawne z siedzibą na jego terenie niezależnie od tego, czy podmioty te działają w kraju, czy za granicą. Pomijane są dochody obcokrajowców w danym państwie. +formula_1 +Ciarko PBS Bank Sanok + +Ciarko PBS Bank Sanok – klub hokejowy z siedzibą w Sanoku, występujący w rozgrywkach polskiej ekstraligi PLH. Pierwotnie został założony w 1958 jako sekcja ZKS Stal Sanok. Po 1991 klub istniał jako STS Autosan Sanok, SKH Sanok i KH Sanok. Mecze w Sanoku rozgrywano od 1965 do końca sezonu ligowego 2005/2006 na lodowisku Torsan. Począwszy od sezonu 2006/2007 sanockiemu hokejowi służy hala widowiskowo-sportowa Arena Sanok. +Historia klubu. +Stal Sanok. +Hokej na lodzie pojawił się w Sanoku na początku lat 50. Rozgrywano go w formie rekreacyjnej, najpierw w miejscu dawnego kortu tenisowego obok gmachu Towarzystwa Gimnastycznego Sokół przy ulicy Mickiewicza, a pod koniec lat 50. kilkaset metrów poniżej, w miejscu gdzie obecnie znajduje się hotel "Dom Turysty". W tym czasie decydujące były warunki atmosferyczne pozwalające na uprawianie tego sportu. W 1958 roku z inicjatywy sanockich sympatyków hokeja na lodzie powstała sekcja hokejowa, działająca pod egidą Robotniczego Klubu Sportowego „Sanoczanka” (powstał rok wcześniej w wyniku fuzji KS Górnika Sanoczanka i ZKS Stali Sanok. Drużyna rozgrywała spotkania towarzyskie z okolicznymi zespołami m.in. z Krosna, Przemyśla, Rzeszowa, Jarosławia, a kierował ją Włodzimierz Jacewicz. Wprawdzie były to rozgrywki amatorskie, jednak prowadzone były w ramach rozgrywek III ligi. Stawką tych pojedynków było Mistrzostwo Województwa. Z upływem lat sanoczanie wprawdzie zdominowali te rozgrywki, jednak w walce o awans do II ligi przegrywali systematycznie z zespołami z okręgu krakowskiego i katowickiego. Sekcja została rozwiązana w 1961 roku. Dalsze problemy pojawiły się, gdy w 1962 roku na miejscu dotychczasowego naturalnego lodowiska postanowiono wybudować hotel "Dom Turysty". Działalność sekcji zawieszono wówczas na trzy lata (1962-1965). +W 1965 roku podjęto decyzję o tworzeniu sztucznego lodowiska, którego wykonawcą była Sanocka Fabryka Autobusów "Autosan". Budowę rozpoczęto 1966 roku na terenie byłego amfiteatru przy ulicy Mickiewicza. Po reaktywacji zespołu hokejowego, drużyna została zgłoszona do rozgrywek ligi okręgowej w sezonie 1965/1966, prowadzona przez instruktora Edwarda Pilszaka pod szyldem Stal Sanok uplasowała się na 3. miejscu. Lodowisko Torsan oddano do użytku jesienią 1968 roku, a oficjalnie obiekt został otwarty 9 listopada 1968 roku. W latach 1967-1970 zespół Stali rywalizował w rozgrywkach klubowych z takimi drużynami jak Czuwaj Przemyśl, JKS Jarosław, Karpaty Krosno czy Glinik Gorlice. W 1968 rou oddane do użytku zostało sztuczne lodowisko przy ul. Mickiewicza w Sanoku (oficjalne otwarcie nastąpiło w listopadzie), jednak spotkania ligowe rozgrywane były sporadycznie. Główną przeszkodą były niekorzystne warunki atmosferyczne. +W sezonie 1969/1970 hokeiści Stali wywalczyli w rozgrywkach ligowych pierwszą lokatę, która uprawniała do walki w barażach o awans do II ligi. Spora w tym zasługa trenera Józefa Kurka, którego działaczom Stali udało się pozyskać w maju 1969 roku z zespołu Podhale Nowy Targ (współpracę z tym klubem działacze Stali nawiązali w 1967). Wkrótce jednak Józef Kurek został asystentem trenera reprezentacji Polski, Anatolija Jegorowa. Niemniej jednak w niedługim czasie działaczom Stali udało się pozyskać kolejnego trenera z Nowego Targu – Mieczysława Chmurę (zwanego "ojcem sanockiego hokeja"). Wraz z nowym szkoleniowcem do Sanoka przybyła także grupa kilku zawodników, którzy zostali wypożyczeni do Stali z Nowego Targu. Wzmocnienia te dosyć szybko zaowocowały dobrymi wynikami w rozgrywkach ligowych. Sanoczanie m.in. dwukrotnie rozgromili Karpaty Krosno (odpowiednio 20:1 i 18:2) oraz Czuwaj Przemyśl (17:1 i 6:0). Wprawdzie podopieczni trenera Chmury bezproblemowo zwyciężyli w rozgrywkach ligowych, jednak w walce o awans do II ligi musieli jeszcze uznać wyższość drużyn: Dolmelu Wrocław, Elektro Łaziska i Polonii Bytom. +Uprawianie tej dyscypliny odbywało się wówczas w trudnych warunków, na otwartym terenie, bez odpowiedniego zaplecza, a dodatkowo przy braku sprzętu sportowego. Mimo tego hokej zyskiwał w mieście coraz więcej sympatyków, którzy tłumnie przychodzili na mecze i treningi drużyny. W październiku 1970 roku z klubu odszedł trener Chmura, a jego miejsce zajął były reprezentant Polski, Andrzej Wołkowski. Rok później (sezon 1970/1971) z rozgrywek ligowych wycofały się drużyny z byłego województwa rzeszowskiego i w tej sytuacji zespół Stali Sanok został zgłoszony do rozgrywek okręgu krakowskiego. Do zespołu dołączyło kilku zawodników z Podhala oraz Wisły, a także z Cracovii Kraków. Wzmocniona kadrowo drużyna Stali wywalczyła wicemistrzostwo okręgu i dzięki temu uzyskała awans do turnieju barażowego, którego stawką był awans do II ligi. Hokeiści Stali w swojej grupie eliminacyjnej rywalizowali z zespołami Elektro Łaziska, LZS Czarny Dunajec oraz Podhale II Nowy Targ. O awansie decydować miał ostatni mecz, w którym Stal zmierzyła się z zespołem Elektro (w Łaziskach górą byli gospodarze, którzy wygrali 7:5). W meczu rewanżowym, który rozegrany został w Sanoku 21 marca 1971 roku goście z Łazisk wygrali pierwszą tercję 4:1, drugą 2:1 i przed ostatnią odsłoną wynik brzmiał 2:6 na niekorzyść Stali. Jednak w ostatniej tedrcji sanoczanie zagrali koncertowo, wygrywając ją 8:0 i cały mecz 10:6, a tym samym zapewniając sobie historyczny awans do II ligi. W mieście nastała wielka radość, na ulicach świętowało ok. 10 tys mieszkańców, rozbrzmiewały śpiewy, asystowała im orkiestra dęta. Awans wywalczyła kadra Stali w składzie: Ryszard Giera, Zbigniew Baran (bramkarze), Mieczysław Ćwikła, Adam Łakus, Tadeusz Glimas, Witold Szlendak, Franciszek Bryniarski (obrońcy) oraz Tadeusz Radzki, Tadeusz Garb, Wojciech Mrugała, Jan Paszkiewicz, Zbigniew Krawczyk, Zbigniew Buczek, Jan Łakus, Jan Błażowski (napastnicy). +W tym czasie drużyna sukcesywnie rozwijała się i zbierała cenne doświadczenie. Przyczyniała się do tego przede wszystkim stała i owocna współpraca z Podhalem Nowy Targ (pomoc szkoleniowa, przekazywanie zawodników, sprzętu sportowego). Ponadto sanocka drużyna równolegle z meczami ligowymi rozgrywała spotkania towarzyskie z zespołami pierwszoligowymi oraz zagranicznymi (z Czechosłowacji, Jugosławii, Finlandii, Szwecji). W klubie działała także drużyna juniorów i szkółka hokejowa. +Klub wzmocnili wychowankowie Podhala: Franciszek Pajerski, Adam Radzki, Józef Pyzowski i w inauguracyjnym sezonie w II lidze 1971/1972 Stal zajęła czwarte miejsce. Prze kolejnym sezonem drużynę wzmocnili kolejni zawodnicy z Nowego Targu (bramkarz Kazimierz Mrugała, Wojciech Mrugała, Stanisław Zapała) oraz nowy trener, Czech Jozef Stock - Stal zajęła w edycji 1972/1973 piąte miejsce. Przed kolejnym sezonym pojawili się następni nowotarżanie: Kazimierz Iskrzycki i Franciszek Rekucki, a Stal pod wodzą Stocka w edycji 1973/1974 uplasowała się znów na piątej pozycji. Następnie trenerem został Tadeusz Bujar z Janowa, który pozostawał nim przez trzy kolejne sezony. Prowadzona przez niego drużyna w emocjonującycm sezonie 1974/1975 zajęła trzecie miejsce w II lidze. Pomimo gry utalentowanych zawodników przyjezdnych w barwach sanockiego zespołu, najskuteczniejszym graczem Stali był regularnie rodowity sanoczanin, Jan Paszkiewicz. +Kolejny sezon przyniósł wzrost formy drużyny. Po pierwszej rundzie Stalowcy zajmowali pierwsze miejsce (nie poniosła porażki i miała na koncie 100 goli, co oznacza że średnio zdobywała ok. 7 bramek w meczu). W drugiej części sezonu, pomimo rywalizacji z Unią Oświęcim sanoczanie utrzymali pierwsze miejsce. W marcu 1976 roku spełniło się historyczne rozstrzygnięcie – hokeiści z Sanoka trenowani przez Tadeusza Bujara wygrali II ligę południową i uzyskali historyczny awans do I ligi. W 28 meczach drużyna odniosła 21 zwycięstw, 3 remisy, 4 porażki; bramki 182-84. Królem strzelców i najskuteczniejszych zawodnikiem był ponownie Jan Paszkiewicz (73 punkty za 58 gli i 15 asyst). W składzie zespołu, który wywalczył awans do I ligi, byli: Jan Paszkiewicz (26 lat), Stanisław Zapała (26), Mieczysław Ćwikła (25), Kazimierz Szostak (20), Tomasz Zieliński (18), Zenon Borowik (22), Stanisław Vogel (21), Franciszek Rekucki (21), Kazimierz Iskrzycki (24), Tadeusz Garb (27), Kazimierz Mrugała (25), Franciszek Pajerski (27), Czesław Radwański (19), Adam Wilusz (21), Zbigniew Buczek (24), Jan Mrugała (26), Wojciech Mrugała (25), Jan Łakus (28), Andrzej Bielec (19). Sukces sanockich hokeistów był największym osiągnięciem miejscowego sportu w ówczesnym czasie. Awans był fetowany przez mieszkańców, władze miasta i zakłady pracy. +Przed inauguracyjnym sezonem I ligi 1976/1977 w składzie zespołu nastąpiło kilka zmian (odeszli zawodnicy F. Pajerski, J. Łakus, S. Zapała, Z. Borowik, zaś przybyli bramkarz z Gdańska Jerzy Rożdzyński, z Nowego Targu Leszek Behounek, Marek Jachna oraz Tadeusz Vogel i inni. Drużyna okazała się jednym z najsłabszych zespołów w lidze, jednak pomimo wielu porażek, ponosiła je w nieznacznych rozmiarach, często tocząc wyrównane mecze i prowadząc w nich początkowo z korzystnym wynikiem. W grudniu 1976 roku z pracy zrezygnował Tadeusz Bujar (względy zdrowotne), a jego miejsce w rundzie rewanżowej zajął Kazimierz Bryniarski. Finalnie był to jednoroczny epizod sanoczan w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej. Stal zakończyła sezon na przedostatnim 11. miejscu i została zdegradowana do II ligi. Najskuteczniejszym sanockim zawodnikiem był ponownie Jan Paszkiewicz, który na pierwszoligowych taflach zdobył 31 bramek. Poza najwyższą klasą rozgrywkową drużyna występowała niezmiennie przez następnych kilkanaście lat. +Po spadku drużyna nie zdołała odbudować poziomu najlepszego zespołu drugiej klasy rozgrywkowej. W sezonie 1977/1978 II ligi klub zajął 4. miejsce, w sezonie 1978/1979 5. miejsce. Od 1979 roku nowym szkoleniowcem był Czech Milan Skokan - w sezonie 1979/1980 drużyna zajęła 6. miejsce, w sezonie 1980/1981 7. miejsce. W połowie 1981 roku nowym trenerem został były zawodnik, Franciszek Pajerski. W edycji 1981/1982 drużyna wygrała Grupę Południową II Ligi, a turniejach finałowych rozgrywek zajęła ostatecznie 3. miejsce. +W sezonie 1982/1983 Stal zajęła 4. miejsce w Grupa Południowej II ligi, w sezonie 1983/1984 3. miejsce, w sezonie 1984/1985 4. miejsce, w sezonie 1985/1986 4. miejsce, w sezonie 1986/1987 3. miejsce, w sezonie 1987/1988 5. miejsce, w sezonie 1988/1989 3. miejsce, w sezonie 1989/1990 ponownie 3. miejsce. Po tym sezonie pojawiły się trudności finansowe (odwoływano mecze wyjazdowe, drużyna była karana walkowerami). Na skutek kryzysu gospodarczego, a następnie transformacji ustrojowej stale pogorszała się sytuacja klubu. W lutym 1990 roku wypowiedzenia pracy otrzymali piłkarze i hokeiści Stali Sanok, zatrudniani dotąd przez lata na fabrycznych etatach w Autosanie. Sanocka Fabryka Autobusów Autosan zaprzestała finansowania sportu i klubu. W związku z tym Zarząd klubu zdecydował o zawieszeniu działalności sekcji hokeja na lodzie. Wiosną 1990 roku na płycie i trybunach lodowiska Torsan rozpoczęło działalność targowisko i zaistniała realna groźba końca hokeja w Sanoku. Mimo to drużyna wystartowała w kolejnej edycji rozgrywek 1990/1991. Drużyna awansowała do rywalizacji o awans do ekstraklasy, w półfinale której uległa w dwumeczu Polonii Bydgoszcz (3:4 i 3:6). Był to zarazem ostatni mecz hokeistów w Sanoku jako Stal Sanok. +STS Sanok. +11 czerwca 1991 roku miało miejsce zebranie założycielskie nowego klubu hokejowego pod nazwą Sanockie Towarzystwo Sportowego Sanok. Po zakończeniu działalności sekcji hokejowej w ramach ZKS Stal Sanok, w maju 1992 roku klub przekazał sekcję hokeja na lodzie, wraz z zawodnikami, trenerami, majątkiem, sprzętem itd., na rzecz nowo powstałego klubu. Nowym prezesem STS został były bramkarz hokejowy Stali, pochodzący z Gdańska Jerzy Rożdżyński. W pierwszym sezonie działalności klub odniósł sukces, na który sanoczanie czekali 15 lat. W sezonie 1991/1992 II ligi drużyna zwyciężyła w grupie południowej rozgrywek i w rozgrywce finałowej rywalizowała z najlepszym zespołem grupy północnej Stoczniowcem Gdańsk. Zgodnie z regulaminem do rozegrania potrzebne były cztery spotkania. Pierwsze dwa mecze rozegrano w Gdańsku i padły w nich dwa remisy (2:2 oraz 6:6). Dwa kolejne spotkania odbyły się w Sanoku. Pierwszy mecz wygrali gdańszczanie 3:1, a decydujący czwarty mecz zakończył się zdecydowanym zwycięstwem sanoczan 9:0. Tym samym drugi w historii klubu awans do I ligi stał się faktem. Przegrany w barażach Stoczniowiec również dostąpił gry w ekstraklasie, gdyż przejął w niej ostatecznie miejsce drużyny Zofiówka Jastrzębie, która w międzyczasie wycofała się z rozgrywek. +W premierowym sezonie 1992/1993 STS Sanok był rewelacją rozgrywek i ostatecznie zajął w nich piąte miejsce. W trakcie sezonu w Sanoku zorganizowano mecz z byłymi gwiazdami reprezentacji ZSRR, które STS sensacyjnie wygrał 5:4 (3 gole w tym meczu zdobył Adrian Krzysztofik, obecnie gracz HC GKS Katowice). +Dwa kolejne sezony nie były już jednak tak udane, choć drużyna nadal była ważną siłą w lidze. W sezonie 1993/1994 po I rundzie +drużyna zajmowała szóste miejsce, następnie grupę 5-10 ukończyła na siódmej pozycji, awansując do fazy play-off. W 1/4 finału STS stawił duży opór ówczesnym wicemistrzom Polski, Unii Oświęcim w stosunku 2:3 (w meczach 1:4, 5:4, 2:8, 5:4, 3:5). Ostatecznie STS uplasowało się na na siódmym miejscu w klasyfikacji końcowej sezonu. +W trakcie sezonu 1994/1995, 23 stycznia 1995 roku drużyna z Sanoka została dotknięta tragedią – autobus, którym hokeiści wracali z meczu w Sosnowcu uległ wypadkowi w miejscowości Gniewoszówka koło Beska, w wyniku którego zginęli trzej pasażerowie, w tym jeden hokeista: Piotr Milan, czołowy napastnik STS-u. Osiem osób odniosło obrażenia. Ostatecznie zespół ukończył rozgrywki na dziewiątym miejscu - zdobył 42 punkty w 21 meczach (w tym 5 walkowerem), zdobył 165 goli i stracił 127. +W sezonie 1995/1996 zespół prowadzony przez rosyjskiego trenera Uładzimira Katajewa świetnie rozpoczął rozgrywki. Pierwszy etap w grupie A zakończył na drugim miejscu, potem było już gorzej – w grupie 1-6 drużyna zajęła 5. miejsce. W I rundzie play-off sanoczanie zmierzyli się z TTH Metron Toruń i ulegli w stosunku 0:2 (w meczach 2:5, 4:5). Ostatecznie STS zajął 5. miejsce w klasyfikacji końcowej. +W sezonie 1996/1997 klub po dokonaniu znaczących wzmocnień zakończył I rundę na wysokim czwartym miejscu. W ćwierćfinale rozgrywek drużyna spotkała się z TTH Toruń – rywalizacja tych drużyn była jednocześnie rewanżem za poprzedni sezon. W Sanoku STS wygrał pewnie 10:4, jednak w rewanżu równie zdecydowanie zwycięstwo odnieśli torunianie, zatem decydujący był trzeci mecz. 1 marca 1997 roku sanoczanie wygrali spotkanie 4:2 a całą rywalizację 2:1. Tym samym odnieśli historyczny sukces, po raz pierwszy awansując do najlepszej czwórki w kraju. W półfinale STS zmierzył się z Podhalem Nowy Targ, ulegając w stosunku 2:3 (w meczach 3:4, 4:3k., 5:3, 1:5, 7:2). Następnie w walce o brązowy medal zespół przegrał z ekipą KKH Katowice 1:3 (1:5, 4:2, 1:2k., 0:3). +W kolejnym sezonie 1997/1998 hokeiści z Sanoka początkowo wygrali grupę C, a następnie zajęli wysokie trzecie miejsce w II fazie (grupa 1-6). Jednakże następnie w I rundzie fazy play-off ulegli niżej notowanemu Stoczniowcowi w stosunku 1:3 (w meczach 2:4, 5:3, 2:3, 2:3 k.) i ostatecznie zakończyli sezon na szóstej pozycji. W sezonie 1998/1999, w związku z problemami finansowymi, drużyna z trudem obroniła się przed spadkiem. W fazie play-off uległa TTS Tychy dwukrotnie 6:8 oraz 3:14 i zakończyła sezon na ósmym miejscu. Był to ostatni sezon występów sanockiego klubu pod nazwą STS. +SKH Sanok. +W sezonie 1999/2000, już pod nazwą SKH Sanok zespół prowadzony przez Wincentego Kawę, powtórzył sukces z sezonu 1996/1997, grając o brązowy medal i zajmując ostatecznie 4. miejsce. W fazie play-off wyeliminował drużynę GKS Tychy (3:1), zaś w 1/2 finału uległ Unii Oświęcim (1:2). W walce o brązowy medal SKH Sanok przegrał z ekipą KTH Krynica w stosunku 1:3 (w meczach 0:3, 6:5, 1:5, 2:3). Rok później, w sezonie 2000/2001, sanoczanie przystąpili już do walki o utrzymanie (ze Stoczniowcem Gdańsk), jednak po pierwszym przegranym meczu drużyna nie stawiła się już na dwa kolejne do Gdańska, w związku z czym została zdegradowana o klasę niżej. Tym samym klub opuścił ekstraligę po dziewięciu sezonach występów. +KH Sanok. +W sezonie 2001/2002 pierwszej ligi sanoccy hokeiści już jako KH Sanok zajęli czwarte miejsce, a w sezonach 2002/2003 i 2003/2004 ocierali się o awans do ekstraligi. Przed sezonem 2004/2005 w związku z wycofaniem z rozgrywek drużyny Orlika Opole, KH Sanok zagrał w barażach o awans do ekstraklasy ze spadkowiczem z ekstraligi KTH Krynica. W meczu rozegranym na neutralnym lodowisku w Oświęciumiu drużyna z Sanoka wygrała 7:4 i po czterech latach absencji ponownie przystąpiła do rozgrywek w ekstralidze oraz trzeci raz w historii uzyskała awans do ekstraklasy. Po rundzie zasadniczej sezonu 2004/2005 zespół zajmował siódme miejsce, po meczach o miejsca 5-8 drużyna zagrała o utrzymanie z GKS Katowice. W Sanoku gospodarze przegrali pierwszy mecz 4:2, następnie ulegli także w Katowicach 3:2, w rezultacie przegrywali już 2:0 w serii i spadek stawał się coraz bardziej prawdopodobny. Trzeci mecz Sanok wygrał 2:0, a czwarte spotkanie w Katowicach KH wygrał 4:2 i o losach rywalizacji miał zdecydować ostatni mecz w Sanoku. Do ostatecznego rozstrzygnięcia spotkania oraz całej serii potrzebna była dogrywka. W 63. minucie decydujący o wyniku strzał oddał Maciej Mermer – tym samym drużyna KH Sanok utrzymała się w ekstralidze. +W sezonie 2005/2006 zespół ponownie grał o utrzymanie, tym razem ze Stoczniowcem Gdańsk. KH Sanok przegrał rywalizację play-out 3:2 i spadł po raz kolejny do I ligi. Mimo degradacji hokej na lodzie w Sanoku pozostał jednak na poziomie ekstraligowym, jako że Polska Liga Hokejowa (PLH) została rozszerzona do 10 zespołów, w związku z czym sanoczanie powiększyli grono drużyn w ekstraklasie. +Przed nowym sezonem otwarta została nowa hala, Arena Sanok, która zastąpiła wysłużony obiekt Torsan. W sezonie 2006/2007 KH Sanok również nie potrafił nawiązać walki z najlepszymi i na jego koniec znów zmuszony był do walki o utrzymanie, tym razem z drużyną KTH Krynica, która w sezonie zasadniczym prezentowała się o wiele lepiej od sanoczan i była faworytem fazy play-out. W pierwszym meczu do rozstrzygnięcia konieczne były rzuty karne. Po ośmiu kolejkach nie padły bramki i wynik brzmiał 0:0. W dziewiątej serii Maciej Mermer trafił do siatki i dał wygraną sanoczanom. Mecze nr 2 i 3 odbyły się w Sanoku i zakończyły się pewnymi zwycięstwami KH odpowiednio 5:0 i 5:3. Prowadząc w rywalizacji z KTH 3:0, drużyna udała się na czwarty mecz do Krynicy, licząc na zakończenie serii. Kibice z Sanoka przybyli do zdrojowego miasta w liczbie szacowanej na ponad 500 osób (co stanowi najliczniejszy udział sanockich sympatyków w meczu wyjazdowym. Mecz zakończył się jednak zwycięstwem kryniczan 3:1 – potrzebne było zatem piąte spotkanie, wygrane już przez sanoczan 3:1. Raz jeszcze utrzymanie w ekstralidze stało się faktem. +W sezonie 2007/08 początkowe zwycięstwa z GKS Tychy 0:5 (walkowerem), z Cracovią 5:2 czy z Podhalem sprawiły, że po I rundzie sezonu zasadniczego Sanok zajmował drugie miejsce. Później zawodnicy nie grali już tak skutecznie jak w I rundzie. W trakcie sezonu zwolniony został trener Andrzej Słowakiewicz, a jego miejsce zajął słowacki trener Jozef Čontofalský. Po zakończonym sezonie zasadniczym przyszła pora na play-offy. W nich Sanok zmierzył się z GKS Tychy, przegrywając 0:3, zaś całe rozgrywki zakończył na ósmym miejscu. +Ciarko KH Sanok. +W sezonie 2008/2009 sanocki klub obchodził jubileusz 50-lecia swojego istnienia. Po słabej dyspozycji w sezonie zasadniczym, pomimo zmian w składzie (w trakcie rozgrywek nastąpiła wymiana czterech obcokrajowców, zaś słowackiego trenera Josefa Čontofalskiego zastąpił jego rodak Ľubomír Roháčik), zespołowi nie udało się awansować do fazy play-off. Mecze o utrzymanie KH Sanok rozegrał z Polonią Bytom i rozstrzygnął je na swoją korzyść. W trakcie tego sezonu klub zyskał sponsora tytularnego w postaci sanockiej firmy "Ciarko", produkującej okapy kuchenne. +Do nowego sezonu 2009/2010 zespół przygotowywany pod kierunkiem rosyjskiego szkoleniowca, Wiktora Jakimowa, jednakże tuż przed startem rozgrywek zakończono współpracę z nim oraz sprowadzonym przez niego zawodnikom z Rosji, którzy nie spełnili oczekiwań zarządu klubu, jak i kibiców. Drużyna rozpoczęła ligę pod okiem słowackiego szkoleniowca Jozefa Skokana, lecz także on nie zdołał osiągnąć oczekiwanych sukcesów i w trakcie sezonu został zastąpiony przez Ľubomíra Roháčika, który tym samym po raz drugi podjął się trenowania sanockich hokeistów. Po pierwszym etapie rozgrywek i podziale ligi KH Sanok znalazł się w słabszej Grupie B. Bilans meczów nie pozwolił jednak na zakwalifikowanie się do rundy play-off i sanoczanom pozostała walka o utrzymanie w ekstralidze. W jej ramach drużyna walczyła kolejno z 1-ligowymi zespołami Legii Warszawa, HC GKS Katowice rozstrzygając rywalizację play-down na swoją korzyść. Ostatecznie sanoczanie zmierzyli się z KTH Krynica o 9. miejsce w sezonie 2009/10. Wygrali tę rywalizację i zajęli przedostatnie miejsce w rozgrywkach PLH. Jednocześnie rozwiązano kontrakt z trenerem, Ľubomírem Roháčikiem, natomiast po sezonie karierę zakończył długoletni zawodnik zespołu Tomasz Demkowicz. +Przed nowym sezonem 2010/2011 klub poczynił znaczące wzmocnienia. Zaangażował m.in. duet trenerski Milan Jančuška wraz z asystentem Markiem Ziętarą, prowadzący dotąd Podhale Nowy Targ. Już po kilku miesiącach, 29 grudnia 2010 w Oświęcimiu, drużyna wywalczyła Puchar Polski, pokonując w finale edycji 2010/11 zespół Aksam Unii Oświęcim. Tym samym sanocki klub odniósł największy sukces w swojej dotychczasowej historii. Po rundzie zasadniczej sezonu 2010/11 drużyna uplasowała się na piątej pozycji, w rywalizacji play-off została wybrana do pary przez JKH Jastrzębie i przegrała tę rywalizację w stosunku 2:4 W rywalizacji o miejsca 5.-8. KH Sanok zwyciężył najpierw Zagłębie Sosnowiec, zaś w batalii o 5. miejsce uległ MMKS Podhale Nowy Targ i ostatecznie zajął 6. pozycję. +Ciarko PBS Bank Sanok. +17 czerwca 2011 zapadła decyzja Urzędu Miasta Sanoka o przyłączeniu się urzędu miasta do nowo powstającej spółki z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością, w którą ma przekształcić Klub Hokejowy, do 2011 działający jako stowarzyszenie. Spółkę stworzą cztery podmioty – urząd miasta, klub oraz strategiczni sponsorzy – Podkarpacki Bank Spółdzielczy oraz firma Ciarko. Miasto Sanok ma odpowiadać za utrzymanie i bezpłatne użyczenie obiektów koniecznych do prowadzenia klubu (znajdujące się na lodowisku Arena Sanok). Działalność finansową będzie zapewniać bank PBS i firma Ciarko, którzy wejdą do spółki z jednakowym aportem finasowym. Stosowne porozumienie ma zostać podpisane do końca czerwca 2011. 30 czerwca 2011 aktem notarialnym została zawiązana Rada Nadzorcza spółki. Tworzą ją Wojciech Blecharczyk (burmistrz Sanoka), Ryszard Ziarko (prezes firmy Ciarko), Lesław Wojtas (prezes PBS Banku) i Piotr Krysiak (prezes Klubu Hokejowego). Nowa forma prawna ma działać pod nazwą Ciarko PBS Bank Klub Hokejowy Sanok spółka z o.o., jednak początkowo klub działa w formie stowarzyszenia. +5 października 2011 po 10 kolejkach ligowych (w tym 4 porażkach) trener Milan Jančuška podał się do dymisji, a jego miejsce zajął dotychczasowy asystent Marek Ziętara. Jego podopieczni od 18. kolejki drużyna była liderem tabeli PLH. Równolegle drużyna zaklasyfikowała się do turnieju finałowego Puchar Polski 2011/2012, a Sanok został wybrany gospodarzem tej imprezy w dniach 28-29.12.2011. Drużyna pokonała w półfinale ComArch Cracovię 3:1, a w finale Aksam Unię Oświęcim 3:2 w rzutach karnych i tym samym zdobyła Puchar Polski powtarzając osiągnięcie sprzed roku. W lidze zespół pozostawał na pozycji lidera i w ostatniej rundzie rundy zasadniczej zapewnił sobie pierwsze miejsce przed fazą play-off. W rywalizacji półfinałowej drużyna z Sanoka pokonała JKH GKS Jastrzębie w stosunku 4:0 (w meczach 4:3 u siebie, 1:2 i 0:2 na wyjeździe i 4:1 ponownie w Sanoku) i tym samym 25 lutego 2012 po raz pierwszy w historii klubu awansowała do finału Mistrzostw Polski. W finale PLH sanoczanie zmierzyli się z aktualnym wówczas obrońcą tytułu, ComArch Cracovią. W ciągu siedmiu dni rozegrano 5 spotkań, w których Sanok okazał się lepszy (w stosunku 4:1, w meczach 3:2 d., 2:5, 3:2, 4:2, 5:1) i tym samym 14 marca 2012 wywalczył pierwsze w 54-letniej historii klubu Mistrzostwo Polski +. Sezon 2011/12 drużyna z Sanoka zakończyła dubletem trofeów krajowych w Polsce. Po zakończeniu sezonu nie przedłużono umowy z trenerem Markiem Ziętarą. W kwietniu 2012 nowym trenerem został Słowak Milan Staš, a jego asystentem Marcin Ćwikła. 10 listopada 2012 roku z klubu odszedł trener Staš. Od 12 listopada 2012 roku trenerem został jego rodak, Štefan Mikeš. W dniach 23-25 listopada 2012 roku zespół zadebiutował w europejskich pucharach, uczestnicząc w turnieju III rundy Pucharu Kontynentalnego w sezonie 2012/2013, organizowanym w norweskim mieście Stavanger. Sanoczanie przegrali wszystkie trzy mecze grupowe (z gospodarzami, mistrzem Norwegii Stavanger Oilers 4:7, mistrzem Białorusi Mietałłurgiem Żłobin 3:5 oraz mistrzem Kazachstanu Bejbarysem Atyrau) i zostali wyeliminowani z rozgrywek. W finale Pucharu Polski rozegranym w Sanoku Sanoczanie wygrali w pófinale z Cracovią 5:4 po rzutach karnych i ulegli w finale JKH GKS Jastrzębie 2:4. +Turnieje towarzyskie. +Na przestrzeni lat w Sanoku organizowano towarzyskie turnieje hokejowe. +Zawodnicy. +Wybitni hokeiści. +Na przestrzeni lat aż do czasów obecnych w barwach sanockiej drużyny występowało wielu wybitnych zawodników. Byli wśród nich zarówno wychowankowie klubu i zarazem rodowici sanoczanie, jak też hokeiści przyjezdni – z jednej strony Polacy (w większości sprowadzeni z Podhala Nowy Targ), jak również obcokrajowcy - nierzadko reprezentanci swoich krajów i odnoszący w karierze znaczące sukcesy. +Jan Paszkiewicz (najskuteczniejszy strzelec w historii klubu), Czesław Radwański, Tomasz Demkowicz (reprezentant Polski), Marcin Ćwikła (reprezentant Polski), Piotr Milan, Tomasz Rysz, Sebastian Pajerski, Grzegorz Mermer, Maciej Mermer (reprezentant Polski), Michał Radwański (reprezentant Polski). +Tadeusz Garb, Franciszek Pajerski, Tomasz Jękner, Władysław Balakowicz, Grzegorz Lowas, Andrzej Truty, Piotr Baryła. Pozostali to reprezentanci Polski: Marek Cholewa (3-krotny olimpijczyk), Jerzy Sobera (olimpijczyk), Janusz Syposz, Tomasz Wawrzkiewicz, Sławomir Kiedewicz, Adam Fraszko, Robert Fraszko, Krzysztof Zborowski, Piotr Gil, Filip Drzewiecki, Krystian Dziubiński, Tomasz Malasiński, Krzysztof Zapała, Przemysław Odrobny, Paweł Dronia, Marcin Kolusz, Sławomir Krzak, Wojtek Wolski (jeden z nielicznych Polaków w lidze NHL - zaangażowany w 2012 roku na okres lokautu w sezonie NHL (2012/2013)) +Miejsce adsorpcyjne + +Miejsce adsorpcyjne (ang. "adsorption site"), inaczej centrum adsorpcyjne (ang. "adsorption center"). Jest to umowne określenie obszaru, na którym następuje adsorpcja cząsteczki adsorbatu. W przypadku adsorpcji zlokalizowanej ma to sens płytkiej studni potencjału adsorpcyjnego, w której cząsteczka jest utrzymywana (lokalizowana) dzięki mniej lub bardziej periodycznym zmianom potencjału oddziaływania adsorbat-adsorbent. W przypadku dużych cząsteczek adsorbatu, może się on adsorbować jednocześnie na wielu miejscach adsorpcyjnych. +Max Herrmann + +Max Herrmann (ur. 1865 - zm. 1942) - niemiecki historyk literatury i teatru. +Był inicjatorem naukowych badań nad teatrem (między innymi ustalił zasady metodologii). W 1919 roku założył Stowarzyszenie Historyków Teatru. W 1923 był założycielem Instytutu Badań Teatru w Uniwersytecie Berlińskim. Zmarł w obozie koncentracyjnym. +Energia zredukowana + +Energia zredukowana to wielkość bezwymiarowa, iloraz energii dla jakiegoś procesu albo zjawiska oraz innej wielkości wzorcowej o wymiarze energii, np. kT (w skali mikroskopowej) lub RT (w skali makroskopowej). W przypadku niektórych zjawisk, np. związanych z przemianami fazowymi, stosuje się wielkości zredukowane wyrażone poprzez parametry stanu krytycznego, np. temperatura zredukowana jako T* = T/Tkryt. +Jerzy Benet + +Jerzy Benet herbu Benet (ur. ?, zm. między 1677 a 1680) – szlachcic angielski, sekretarz króla Jana III Sobieskiego. +Na sejmie w 1673 roku otrzymał indygenat polski. Od 1676 roku był sekretarzem królewskim. +Piarg + +Piarg – rodzaj rumowiska skalnego. Jest to nagromadzenie u podnóża stoku ostrokrawędzistych okruchów skalnych, które odpadły od stromego zbocza górskiego, głównie w wyniku procesów wietrzenia fizycznego. Piargi często występują w postaci stożka piargowego u wylotów żlebu. Słowo "piarg" pochodzi z gwary podhalańskiej. W taternictwie używa się określenia "ruchomy piarg," oznaczającego taki piarg, który podczas chodzenia po nim obsuwa się pod stopami. +W Polsce piargi występują w Tatrach i Karkonoszach. Piargi porastają specyficzne zespoły gatunków roślin, tzw. rośliny piargowe. +Rozległy teren pokryty piargiem nie będący stożkiem określa się jako piarżysko. +Marian Jaroczyński + +Marian Jaroczyński (ur. 24 lipca 1819 w Toruniu, zm. 14 stycznia 1901 w Poznaniu), polski malarz, rzeźbiarz i grafik. +Był synem urzędnika sądowego Ignacego i Anastazji z Cieleckich. W Toruniu ukończył gimnazjum, potem studiował w akademii sztuk pięknych w Berlinie. Po studiach pracował przez kilka lat w Kórniku; namówiony przez grafika Kajetana Kielisińskiego, pracującego w Kórniku jako bibliotekarz, wykonywał swoje pierwsze grafiki, oparte na obserwacji natury. +W 1846 przeniósł się do Warszawy, potem do Torunia. W styczniu 1849 był reprezentantem Kórnika na zjeździe Ligi Polskiej w Kórniku, wkrótce na stałe osiadł w Poznaniu. Prowadził tam zakład litograficzny, był nauczycielem rysunków w gimnazjum realnym oraz kierownikiem Wieczorowej Szkoły Rysunków i Modelowania (założonej w 1865 przez Towarzystwo Przemysłowe w Poznaniu). Udzielał pomocy uczestnikom powstania styczniowego, co przypłacił półtorarocznym pobytem w berlińskiej twierdzy Moabit. Od 1871 - po likwidacji zakładu litograficznego - skoncentrował się na twórczości malarskiej. +Prace Jaroczyńskiego to przede wszystkim sceny historyczne i polityczne, związane głównie z wydarzeniami 1848 i uciskiem pruskim; tworzył także obrazy o tematyce religijnej i ludowej (z Wielkopolski i Tatr). Był równocześnie konserwatorem, odnawiał m.in. portrety Władysława Jagiełły i Jadwigi w kościele Bożego Ciała w Poznaniu. Jako rzeźbiarz był m.in. twórcą popiersia Kopernika (1876). +W 1863 poślubił Marię z Millerów, był ojcem zmarłego w dzieciństwie syna Bogdana. +Linia Środkowej Odry + +Linia (Pozycja) Środkowej Odry (niem. "Oderstellung"). Jest to zespół około 650 (z planowanych ok. 780) jednokondygnacyjnych żelbetowych schronów bojowych, obserwacyjnych lub biernych wyposażonych w liczne pancerze forteczne (np. płyty, półkopuły i kopuły pancerne). Zbudowane zostały w latach 1928-1939 (modernizowanych w 1944-45 r.) wzdłuż lewego brzegu Odry od Wrocławia do Krosna Odrzańskiego. Oprócz betonowych umocnień wybudowano także setki schronów drewniano-ziemnych, betonowych stanowisk karabinów maszynowych, okopy, rowy przeciwpancerne i umocnione stanowiska artylerii. Rejony mostów otoczono zasiekami z drutu kolczastego i założono pola minowe. Oprócz zasadniczej linii obrony powstały także fortyfikacje przedpola i umocnione przyczółki mostowe na prawym brzegu Odry, a także fortyfikacje tyłowe na Linii Bobru - tzw. "Rygiel Bobru". +Umocnienia te wraz z Międzyrzeckim Rejonem Umocnionym oraz Wałem Pomorskim (niem. "Pommernstellung") stanowiły główną linię obrony III Rzeszy przed atakiem ze wschodu (chodziło głównie o agresję ze strony Polski). "Oderstellung" miała zabezpieczyć głównie tereny Dolnego Śląska, w 1939 na niektórych odcinkach osłaniała koncentracje oddziałów niemieckich szykujących się do ataku na Polskę. Według planów dowództwa niemieckiego fortyfikacje linii miały zatrzymać ofensywę styczniową Armii Czerwonej, co jednakże nie powiodło się. +Linia "Oderstellung" została przełamana na całej długości w przeciągu kilkunastu dni. 23 stycznia 1945 oddziały sowieckie przełamały linię fortyfikacji w rejonie Ścinawy, co pozwoliło na utworzenie przyczółka na lewym brzegu Odry, natomiast 29 stycznia 1945 oddziały radzieckie utworzyły przyczółek w rejonie Cigacic, desant koło Cigacic został przejściowo odparty przez Niemców, jednakże i ten odcinek frontu został przełamany. 14 lutego na skutek sukcesów wojsk radzieckich w innych sektorach frontu zajęta została m.in. Nowa Sól i Zielona Góra. +Do połowy lutego 1945 opór na większości odcinków Linii Środkowej Odry został przełamany, do 1 kwietnia (Głogów) i 6 maja (Wrocław) 1945 broniły się załogi okrążonych miast-twierdz. +Obecnie obiekty Oderstellung nie są należcie zagospodarowane. Duża część z nich została wysadzona i zniszczona w 1945 r. przez Rosjan oraz w latach 50 przez wojska polskie. Nieliczne zachowane w całości obiekty, szczególnie w wałach przeciwpowodziowych były zasypywane (najczęściej po powodzi w 1997 r.), pozostałe są systematycznie niszczone przez złodziei złomu. +Na dzień dzisiejszy funkcjonują dwa skanseny fortyfikacji (w Cigacicach - Leśnej Górze oraz w okolicach Czerwieńska), których członkowie pieczołowicie remontują kolejne obiekty i w przyszłości udostępnią na większą skalę turystom i miłośnikom fortyfikacji. +Co roku 29 stycznia w Cigacicach odbywa się inscenizacja mająca upamiętnić walki o przyczółek odrzański w styczniu i lutym 1945. +Ryzosfera + +Ryzosfera, strefa korzeniowa – strefa pierwotnego oddziaływania korzeni w glebie o zasięgu zmiennym w czasie i przestrzeni. Różni się składem od innych części gleby i wpływa na obieg azotu. Stymuluje rozwój bakterii, zarówno pod względem ilości, jak i zróżnicowania, natomiast wpływa ograniczająco na zróżnicowanie grzybów. +Edward Wojciech Bogusławski + +Edward Wojciech Bogusławski (ur. 1823, zm. 3 sierpnia 1902) – powieściopisarz. +Edward Romuald Bogusławski + +Edward Romuald Bogusławski (ur. 7 lutego 1848 w Warszawie, zm. 19 marca 1917 tamże) – historyk słowiańszczyzny, publicysta. +Był synem pisarza Edwarda Wojciecha i Rozalii z Karasińskich. Po ukończeniu gimnazjum w Suwałkach (1865) rozpoczął studia na wydziale filologiczno-historycznym Szkoły Głównej (1865-1869). Od 1870 pracował jako nauczyciel prywatny w Warszawie. +Od 1908 był członkiem Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego. +Był słowianofilem; uważał, że głównym wrogiem Polski i Słowiańszczyzny są Niemcy. Był lojalistą, dążył do ugody z Rosją. W swoich pracach udowadniał autochtonizm Słowian, uważał, że Słowianie zamieszkiwali tereny między Renem, Wisłą i Dźwiną. +Sakrament małżeństwa + +Małżeństwo sakramentalne – związek monogamiczny mężczyzny i kobiety będący sakramentalnym znakiem miłości Chrystusa i Kościoła (por. Ef 5, 32). Tak rozumiany jest w Kościele katolickim, starokatolickim, prawosławnym oraz anglikańskim. Teologia protestancka nie uważa małżeństwa za sakrament, choć podkreśla jego świętość. +Historia sakramentu małżeństwa. +I w.: Nowy Testament. +Jezus Chrystus przypomniał o powołaniu mężczyzny do złączenia się z kobietą w stałym, nierozerwalnym związku: ""Czy nie czytaliście, że Stwórca od początku stworzył ich jako mężczyznę i kobietę? I rzekł: Dlatego opuści człowiek ojca i matkę i złączy się ze swoją żoną, i będą oboje jednym ciałem. A tak już nie są dwoje, lecz jedno ciało. Co więc Bóg złączył, niech człowiek nie rozdziela!"" Mt 19, 4b-6 +Teologię małżeństwa, czyli duchowy wymiar sakramentu, rozbudował znacznie Św. Paweł. +Choć św. Paweł sam zachęcał do życia w celibacie, dostrzegał też ogromną wartość małżeństwa: "Co do spraw, o których pisaliście, to dobrze jest mężczyźnie nie łączyć się z kobietą. Ze względu jednak na niebezpieczeństwo rozpusty niech każdy ma swoją żonę, a każda swojego męża. Mąż niech oddaje powinność żonie, podobnie też żona mężowi. Żona nie rozporządza własnym ciałem, lecz jej mąż; podobnie też i mąż nie rozporządza własnym ciałem, ale żona". 1 Kor 7, 1-4 +II - IV w.: Ojcowie Kościoła. +Na określenie doktryny katolickiej wobec małżeństwa w okresie Ojców Kościoła największy wpływ wywarła nauka Augustyna. +Średniowiecze. +Ze względu na sytuację społeczną i polityczną przez pierwsze tysiąclecie Kościół uznawał władzę świecką nad małżeństwem. +Dopiero w okresie X-XII w. kościelne prawo małżeńskie i wyłączna kościelna jurysdykcja nad nim została przyjęta przez narody chrześcijańskie. +W Kościele wschodnim w 893 r. wprowadzono obowiązek obecności kapłana przy ślubie, w przeciwnym razie małżeństwo było nieważne. Kościół zachodni również intensywnie zabiegał o eliminację tzw. małżeństw tajnych, np. w uchwałach Soboru Laterańskiego IV (1215 r.) czy licznych synodów. +Myślicielami, którzy tworzyli doktrynę małżeńską Kościoła w średniowieczu byli m.in. Tomasz z Akwinu oraz Hugon od św. Wiktora, którzy rozwijali nauczanie Augustyna z Hippony. +XVI w.: Sobór Trydencki. +Sobór Trydencki przyjął jako dogmat wiary katolickiej, że małżeństwo jest sakramentem ustanowionym przez Chrystusa, a nie wymyślonym przez ludzi w Kościele. +Sobór trydencki obradujący w latach 1545-1563, uporządkował prawo kanoniczne. Obowiązywało ono do wydania kodeksu z 1917 r.. Nowa wersja, w duchu Soboru watykańskiego II, została opracowana na polecenie Jana Pawła II w 1983 r. +Wiele krajów europejskich posiadało instytucje podobne do "małżeństwa z przyzwyczajenia". Kościół katolicki, w odpowiedzi na wyzwanie protestantów, określił swoje stanowisko i potwierdził swoją dotychczasową doktrynę. W 1563 roku podczas Soboru trydenckiego wydano edykt, zgodnie z którym aby małżeństwo Katolików było ważne musiało być zawarte podczas ceremonii kościelnej przed księdzem i dwoma świadkami. W ten sposób praktycznie wyeliminowano małżeństwa zawierane w sekrecie jak i poprzednio powszechne małżeństwa nieformalne – były one, podobnie do rzymskich małżeństw z przyzwyczajenia ("per usus"), oparte wyłącznie na wzajemnej zgodzie bez formalnej ceremonii zaślubin. Tym samym na mocy uchwały tego soboru małżeństwo stało się po raz pierwszy pełnym sakramentem. Sakrament najpierw celebrowano u kościelnych wrót, a od XVII wieku u samych stóp ołtarza. W ten sposób małżeństwo staje się wspólnotą Kościoła, gdzie mąż reprezentuje Chrystusa-głowę, a żona jest obrazem Jego oblubienicy, wspólnoty Kościoła (por. Ef 5,32). +Prawo kanoniczne z czasów soboru trydenckiego określiło więc warunki powstania ważnego małżeństwa, przeszkody w jego zawarciu, wprowadziło obowiązek ceremonii ślubnej w Kościele. Dokonano w nim rozróżnienia między pierwszorzędnymi celami małżeństwa (prokreacja i wychowanie dzieci) i celami drugorzędnymi takimi jak wzajemna pomoc małżonków. +XX wiek - przed Soborem watykańskim II. +Nauczanie kolejnych papieży, szczególnie Piusa XI i Piusa XII, wprowadziło nowe elementy, potwierdziło zasadę istnienia głowy rodziny (mężczyzny), kobieta została określona jako "serce" rodziny. Głoszono ideę prawa rodziny w państwie: prawa do zawarcia małżeństwa, założenia rodziny, oczekiwania od państwa stworzenia warunków prawnych i ekonomicznych, umożliwiających rodzinie pełnienie jej funkcji. Rodzina została określona jako autonomiczna wobec państwa. Głoszona była zasada równości małżonków przy istniejącym zróżnicowaniu ról i obowiązków; podstawowa rola kobiety to macierzyństwo, prowadzenie domu, a jej rola zawodowa winna być tak kształtowana, aby nie utrudniała jej podstawowych zadań jako kobiety. +XX wiek - po Soborze watykańskim II. +Dalszy rozwój doktryny katolickiej przypada na czasy Soboru Watykańskiego II, który dotychczasowe rozdzielenie pierwszo- i drugorzędnych celów małżeństwa zmienił na współistnienie miłości i prokreacji. Encyklika Pawła VI "Humanae vitae" pogłębiła katolicką doktrynę i podkreśliła obowiązek korzystania przez małżonków jedynie z biologicznych metod regulacji urodzeń. Sprowokowało to liczne kontrowersje, bowiem wielu katolików uznawało prawo do swobodnego decydowania o wyborze metod sterowania płodnością. +Kościół katolicki w tym okresie podjął refleksję nad znaczeniem pożycia seksualnego w małżeństwie, czego przykładem jest rozwijająca się tzw. teologia ciała, uprawiana przez Karola Wojtyłę najpierw w Krakowie a potem, po wyborze na papieża, w Rzymie. Zaczęto tworzyć ośrodki naukowe w uczelniach katolickich, specjalne instytucje w Kurii Rzymskiej. Rozwijano duszpasterstwo rodzin, objęto narzeczonych programami przygotowania do sakramentu małżeństwa w formie nauk przedślubnych. Dotychczasowa forma przekazu etyki seksualnej, skupionej na promowaniu czystości przez zwalczanie postaw prowadzących do nierządu i rozwiązłości, nie była w stanie stawić czoła nowym sytuacjom oraz rozwojowi wiedzy o człowieku. Po wpływem Soboru Watykańskiego II, określanego jako nowa wiosna Kościoła i powrót do źródeł, teologia życia małżeńskiego znalazła nowy język i nowe podejście, polegające na postrzeganiu miłości małżeńskiej w kontekście powołania chrześcijanina do świętości poprzez relację z Chrystusem w Kościele. Nastąpił powrót do nauczania Ojców Kościoła, wiązano tematykę małżeńską z innymi działami teologii, jak dogmatyka, również zaczęto bardziej korzystać z nauk szczegółowych, by nowo ukazać powiązanie chrześcijan i ich seksualności z Osobą Chrystusa, Duchem Świętym, sakramentami i prawem ewangelicznym. Seksualność ludzką, zaczęto na nowo przedstawiać, w kontekście drogi chrześcijanina do świętości realizowanej poprzez pełny rozwój cnót. +Pontyfikat Jana Pawła II i jego liczne nauki, encykliki, książki zaznaczyły się potwierdzeniem tradycyjnej nauki co do niemoralności współżycia przedmałżeńskiego, masturbacji, homoseksualizmu, stosowania sztucznych metod zapobiegania ciąży, przerywania ciąży. Nauczanie papieskie potwierdziło też prawdziwość zasady nierozerwalności małżeństwa oraz podtrzymało celibat duchownych. Jan Paweł II przywrócił więc tradycyjną naukę Kościoła, ale zarazem wzbogacił teologię o nowe akcenty. +Tym niemniej po Soborze Kościół katolicki znalazł się w dużym kryzysie po wpływem środowisk liberalnych, które nie przyjęły oficjalnej katolickiej etyki seksualnej, wyrażonej w encyklice Pawła VI "Humanae vitae". Dokument papieski został odrzucony przez wielu wiernych, tak duszpasterzy, jak same małżeństwa - opór dotyczył szczególnie moralnej oceny antykoncepcji, będącej praktycznie wynalazkiem XX. wieku, a także aborcji. Potwierdzają to wyniki badań socjologicznych pokazujące, że katolicy akceptują dość powszechnie współżycie przedmałżeńskie, rozwody, sztuczne zapobieganie ciąży, masturbację, a religijna wizja małżeństwa ma mniejszą siłę oddziaływania niż kiedyś. +W badaniach Tomasza Szlendaka i Pawła Załęckiego z 2001 roku, przeprowadzonych w Polsce na reprezentatywnej grupie osób w wieku od 19-30 lat, 18,6% ankietowanych wybrała zdanie, że "rozwody są czymś normalnym i powinno się ich udzielać w kościele", 63,1% uważało, że "rozwody są smutną koniecznością i Kościół katolicki powinien je zaakceptować", 13% respondentów było przekonanych, że "rozwody są niedopuszczalne ze względu na dobro członków rodziny" a tylko 5,4% ankietowanych uznało rozwody za niedopuszczalne ze względu na normy religijne. Odnośnie konkubinatu – innej istotnej dla Kościoła katolickiego sprawy – 84,5% ankietowanych było zwolennikami konkubinatu (35,6% ankietowanych zadeklarowało bezwarunkowe przyzwolenie dla konkubinatu 40,3% akceptowało konkubinat pod warunkiem, że parę łączy miłość, 8,6% pod warunkiem, że pary nie stać na ślub), 9% nie miała zdania a tylko 6,5% wyraziło bezwarunkowy brak przyzwolenia na konkubinat. +Wschód i zachód – odmienne spojrzenia, jeden sakrament. +Katechizm Kościoła Katolickiego definiuje małżeństwo jako przymierze mężczyzny i kobiety tworzące "wspólnotę całego życia", podejmowaną dla ich własnego dobra i dla zrodzenia i wychowania potomstwa. Małżeństwo w rozumieniu katolickim jest zatem zjednoczeniem dwojga osób, tworzących związek nierozerwalny do śmierci jednego z małżonków. W prawosławiu, które odwołuje się do nauczania wspólnot apostolskich pierwszych wieków, związek małżeński przypieczętowany Eucharystią zawierany jest na wieczność i trwa po śmierci. Ta różnica wynika z odmiennej perspektywy patrzenia na sakrament małżeństwa. Tradycja prawosławna dopatruje się w duchowej stronie małżeństwa antycypacji życia "aniołów Bożych w niebie". Kościół katolicki, choć postrzega małżeństwo jako rzeczywistość doczesną, widzi również wieczny charakter duchowej wspólnoty i miłości między małżonkami, która w przyszłym wieku ma osiągnąć swoją pełnię. +Kościół katolicki. +Istotne elementy małżeństwa. +Małżeństwo jako sakrament jest wspólnotą naturalną mężczyzny i kobiety, podniesioną do poziomu nadprzyrodzonego, poziomu łaski – tzn. urzeczywistniającego miłość, która łączy Chrystusa z Kościołem. +Jednak, dzięki refleksji nad Objawieniem, chrześcijanie uznają że dla osób ochrzczonych małżeństwo jest jednocześnie wspólnotą duchową. Wspólnotę tę zawiera się przez ślub, który jest świętym i nierozerwalnym przymierzem. By ukazać naturę małżeństwa jako sakramentu Kościoła oraz by uniknąć nadużyć (np. podwójnego zawarcia małżeństwa) jest ustalona forma liturgiczna tego ślubowania. +Katolicka etyka małżeńska. +Antykoncepcja i rozwód są uważane za dwie współczesne choroby małżeństwa. W trudniejszych sytuacjach rozwiązaniem dopuszczalnym, a nawet koniecznym, może się okazać separacja. Naturalne planowanie rodziny jest postawą możliwą dzięki cnocie powściągliwości. Ta zaś jest możliwa kiedy małżonkowie żyją zgodnie z etyką katolicką i odczuwają, że są prowadzeni przez Ducha Świętego, także w sferze seksualnej (por. Rz 8,11-14). +Akt małżeński w rozumieniu katolickiego nauczania to płciowe zjednoczenie małżonków, którzy w duchu wzajemnej miłości nawzajem się sobie oddają i siebie przyjmują. +Aspekty prawno-kanoniczne. +Forma sakramentu. +Ślub, wiążąc młodą parę węzłem małżeńskim ma konsekwencje zarazem sakramentalne i prawno-kanoniczne. Z obydwu racji jest on nierozerwalny. Czasem dochodzi jednak do nieważnego zawarcia małżeństwa – gdy narzeczeni nie są zdolni do jego zawarcia lub gdy próbują zawrzeć małżeństwo z naruszeniem odpowiednich kanonów. +Nieważność małżeństwa. +Według Jana Pawła II nierozerwalność małżeństwa niesie w sobie piękno i dobro, i nie nie należy rozumieć jej jako jakiegoś ograniczenia wolności małżonków w ich dążeniu do «samorealizowania się». +W przypadku, kiedy nie jest możliwe tzw. "uzdrowienie w zalążku" / "sanatio in radice"/, poprzez uzupełnienie brakującego elementu, należy zwrócić się do sądu biskupiego, aby rozpatrzył ważność-nieważność zawartego związku. Do czasu orzeczenia, zgodnie z prawem kanonicznym, domniemywa się, że związek był zawarty ważnie, czyli mężczyzna i kobieta są mężem i żoną. +Przeszkody małżeńskie. +Są to przeszkody tzw. zrywające, gdyż ich stwierdzenie skutkuje albo niemożnością zawarcia związku (z wyjątkiem możliwych dyspens), albo nieważnym zawarciem ślubu. +Braki w formie zawierania związku. +Braki formy dotyczą niedotrzymania określonej procedury, np. ksiądz lub diakon nie jest upoważniony do asystowania przy danym ślubie. +Rozwiązanie małżeństwa. +Może zaistnieć też sytuacja, iż małżeństwo zawarte ważnie nie zostało dopełnione ("matrimonium ratum, sed non consummatum") przez akt seksualny. Małżeństwo niedopełnione może być ze słusznej przyczyny rozwiązane ("dissolutio vinculi") przez Biskupa Rzymskiego (papieża), na prośbę obydwu stron lub tylko jednej, choćby druga się nie zgadzała, o czym stanowi kanon 1142 kodeksu prawa kanonicznego. +Honorowanie małżeństwa kościelnego przez prawo świeckie. +W Polsce małżeństwo sakramentalne nie jest honorowane przez państwo, natomiast istnieje przymus zawarcia kontraktu cywilnego w związku z zawieraniem małżeństwa sakramentalnego, narzucony jeszcze za czasów PRL. W ograniczonym zakresie osoby zawierające sakramentalny związek małżeński mogą zawrzeć kontrakt cywilny w uproszczonym trybie (tzw. "małżeństwo konkordatowe"). "Małżeństwo konkordatowe" nie skutkuje jednak respektowaniem przez państwo nierozerwalności zawartego związku. +W niektórych innych krajach, np. we Włoszech czy w USA małżeństwo sakramentalne jest samo w sobie ważnym małżeństwem w sensie prawa państwowego. Krajami z państwowymi ślubami bez rozwodów są Filipiny oraz Malta. +Kościół prawosławny. +W Kościele prawosławnym w odróżnieniu od Kościoła katolickiego szafarzem małżeństwa jest kapłan, a małżeństwo zatwierdza się symbolicznym ceremoniałem (nałożenie koron, wspólne wypicie wina, trzykrotne obejście anałojczyka, na którym leży ikona) oraz świętymi modlitwami, a nie tzw. przysięgą małżeńską (a więc formułą jurydyczną). Jedna z modlitw brzmi: "Daj im doskonałe zjednoczenie dusz i ciał, daj im łoże nieskalane". Świadczy ona m.in. o tym, iż w prawosławiu nadrzędnym celem małżeństwa jest miłość i duchowa wspólnota obojga małżonków, prokreacja i życie płciowe są celami drugorzędnymi. Z tego też względu prawosławna ortodoksja podkreśla wieczny charakter związku małżeńskiego, gdyż "miłość nigdy nie ustaje" Kor 13, 8 i trwa w królestwie niebieskim. Wieczny charakter związku małżeńskiego podparty jest również teologią związku Chrystusa z Kościołem, ceremonią nałożenia koron, modlitwą o "nierozerwalną pieczęć miłości", symbolikę obrączek (koło oznacza nieskończoność) oraz wspólnym wypiciem wina (symbol przyszłego wspólnego stołu). +Kościół prawosławny dopuszcza rozwód w przypadku stosunków pozamałżeńskich jednego z małżonków. +Małżeństwo a życie pozagrobowe. +Większość katolickich i prawosławnych komentarzy biblistycznych wyjaśnia, że w zacytowanej perykopie mowa jest o dziewiczej, przebóstwionej naturze kobiet i mężczyzn w przyszłym świecie, nie można jednak na tej podstawie wnioskować o tym, że miłość oraz komunia małżeńska przestanie istnieć. W świetle posoborowej teologii katolickiej, związanej z nurtem personalizmu chrześcijańskiego, sakrament małżeństwa ma postać doczesnego świata, który przemija, ale posiada zarazem aspekt eschatologiczny, którym jest wzajemna miłość i jedność życia. Miłość małżeńska dąży do wieczności, dlatego w swojej istocie pomaga dojrzewać do dziewiczej miłości w Królestwie Bożym, o której nauczanie papieskie mówi, że stanowi spełnienie i udoskonalenie każdej ludzkiej relacji. Najczęściej przywoływanymi tekstami Nowego Testamentu są w tym wypadku Ef 5, 21-32 oraz 1 Kor 13, 8. Współczesna teologia mówi bowiem, że skoro w sakramencie małżeństwa realizuje się miłość Chrystusa do Kościoła, to miłość ta jest ze swej natury ukierunkowana na wieczność. +Powiat włoszczowski + +Powiat włoszczowski – powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Włoszczowa. +Gminy. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Transport. +Droga krajowa 78 krzyżuje się poza granicami powiatu z drogą wojewódzką 742 (w Nagłowicach) i drogą wojewódzką 795 (w Szczekocinach). +Drogi wojewódzkie 786, 785 i 742 krzyżują się ze sobą na obszarze miasta Włoszczowa +Drogi wojewódzkie 786 i 795 krzyżują się ze sobą w Seceminie +Puszcza Kamieniecka + +Puszcza Kamieniecka – kompleks leśny na lewym brzegu Bugu naprzeciw Puszczy Białej. Jej nazwa wzięła się od nazwy XV-wiecznego miasta Kamieniec (dzisiaj jest wsią Kamieńczyk koło Wyszkowa). Jest to las głównie sosnowy i dębowy. Niedaleko Puszczy Kamienieckiej znajdują się Lasy Miedzyńskie. +Energia adsorpcji + +Energia adsorpcji to zmiana energii układu fizycznego spowodowana adsorpcją cząsteczki (mikroskopowo) lub mola cząsteczek na miejscu adsorpcyjnym określonego typu. +W wielu zastosowaniach istotna jest nie wielkość samej energii adsorpcji, a wielkość (ε/kT) lub (E/RT) (ε - energia dla 1 cząsteczki, E - energia dla 1 mola cząsteczek), czyli tzw. energia zredukowana. Np. parametry heterogeniczności będące w izotermach adsorpcji miarą niejednorodności energetycznej powierzchni adsorbentu są bezpośrednio powiązane z dyspersją σ zredukowanej energii adsorpcji (E/RT) a nie z samą energią E. Stałe równowagi adsorpcji również zależą od energii zredukowanej. +Olbrzymia większość układów lub zjawisk fizycznych nie jest charakteryzowana pojedynczą wartością energii a raczej poprzez funkcję rozkładu energii. Funkcja taka może mieć charakter dyskretny (nieciągły), gdy energie są w pewien sposób skwantowane, lub ciągły. Przykładem funkcji rozkładu energii adsorpcji są rozkłady odpowiadające izotermom na powierzchniach heterogenicznych. +Beniamin (wojewoda poznański) + +Beniamin (zm. po 1296) – wojewoda poznański, pochodził z wielkopolskiego rodu Zarębów. +Kasztelan międzyrzecki, od 1276 wojewoda poznański. Urzędy te sprawował z krótkimi przerwami za panowania Przemysła II i Władysława I Łokietka, do 1296. +Półwysep Czukocki + +Półwysep Czukocki (ros. "Чукотский Полуостров", "Чукотка") – półwysep w Azji, w syberyjskiej części Rosji, nad Morzem Czukockim i pacyficzną Zatoką Anadyrską Morza Beringa. Półwysep ten jest najdalej na wschód wysuniętą częścią rosyjskiego Dalekiego Wschodu, częścią Czukockiego Okręgu Autonomicznego. Zakończony na wschodzie Przylądkiem Dieżniowa (po przeciwnej stronie Cieśniny Beringa znajduje się Półwysep Seward, będący częścią Alaski), na południu Przylądkiem Czukockim; granica morska między obydwoma półwyspami jest zarazem granicą państwową między Rosją i USA oraz linią zmiany daty. Półwysep Czukocki leży na kole podbiegunowym północnym. +Powierzchnia 49 tys. km², mocno rozbudowana linia brzegowa – liczne zatoki. Teren górzysty, najwyższy szczyt Ischodnaja 1158 m n.p.m. Temperatury w styczniu od -40 do -15 °C, w lipcu od +5 do +10 °C. +Największe obszary zajmuje tundra. Żyją w niej pieśce, renifery, lisy, wilki i inne zwierzęta. Natomiast w wodach przybrzeżnych morsy, foki i białe niedźwiedzie. +Najdalej na wschód wysunięta część półwyspu jest blokiem prekambryjskiej tarczy anadyrskiej. Prekambryjskie podłoże pokryte jest utworami paleozoicznymi i mezozoicznymi. Budowa geologiczna pozwala przypuszczać, że występują tu cenne kopaliny. Stwierdzono występowanie złota, srebra, miedzi, cyny, wolframu i węgla kamiennego. +Półwysep Czukocki zamieszkany jest przez około dziesięć tysięcy osób, głównie Rosjan i Czukczów, zajmujących się łowiectwem zwierząt futerkowych, rybołówstwem, wydobyciem rud cyny i wolframu oraz poszukiwaniem złota. Na wybrzeżu Zat. Anadyrskiej znajduje się główna miejscowość liczącego 5,1 tys. mieszkańców regionu południowego – port (i lądowisko samolotów) Prowidienija (ok.  2800 mieszkańców), w części północnej półwyspu (4,6 tys. mieszk.) znajdują się miejscowości Ławrentia (ok.  1300 mieszk.), Lorino (ok.  1200 mieszk.) i Uelen (ok.  700 mieszk). Na skalistym przylądku Uelen znajduje się czynna od 1936 stacja polarna. +Półwysep Czukocki zdobyty został przez Rosję w XVIII wieku po długotrwałej wojnie z Czukczami. Jednym z głównych zdobywców był rosyjski oficer, polskiego pochodzenia Dymitr Pawłucki. +Skierbieszów + +Skierbieszów (ros. "Скербешов", lit. "Skierbešov") – wieś w województwie lubelskim, w powiecie zamojskim, w dolinie rzeki Wolicy, na terenie Działów Grabowieckich. Miejscowość jest siedzibą władz gminy Skierbieszów. +Prawa miejskie do 15 stycznia 1822. W 2012 roku niepowodzeniem zakończyła się próba ich odzyskania. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa zamojskiego. +Skierbieszów położony jest w południowo-wschodnim regionie Polski. Znajduje się na południowy wschód od Lublina, na północ od Zamościa oraz na południe od Chełma, w odległości 57 km od granicy z Ukrainą. Położony jest przy drodze wojewódzkiej . +Obecnie ośrodek przemysłu drzewnego, agroturystyczny, przemysłu spożywczego, są to główne kierunki rozwoju. +Do najciekawszych zabytków zalicza się: renesansowy kościół WNMP z XVII w., średniowieczny zamek z XVI w. oraz rezydencja biskupów chełmskich z XVIII w. +Geografia. +Toponimika nazwy. +Nazwa miejscowości pochodzi od staropolskiego słowa „skierbiesz”, czyli „skarbnik”. Składa się z dwóch członów pierwszy skierb, drugi biesów. Może też wywodzić się od staropolskiego imienia Skarbisz (podobnie jak inne nazwy miejscowości: Skierbiszow i Skarbiszewo), które z kolei jest imieniem hipokorystycznym powstałym ze Skarbimir. Ponadto wymienia się wyrazy pospolite skarb, skarbowy, skarbić. +Wody. +Od wschodu w kierunku zachodnim przepływa rzeka Wolica, która wpada do Wieprza. +W odległości 1 km od Skierbieszowa znajduje się zalew Broczówka o powierzchni 3,60 ha. +Rzeźba terenu. +Wysokość, na jakiej położony jest Skierbieszów, waha się od ok. 208 do 212 m n.p.m. Leży w obrębie mezoregionu o zróżnicowanej rzeźbie terenu (wzgórza, jary, doliny) – są to Działy Grabowieckie, wchodzące w skład Wyżyny Lubelskiej (makroregion), graniczące od południa z Padołem Zamojskim i Kotliną Hrubieszowską. +Skierbieszowski Park Krajobrazowy. +W 1995 r. został utworzony Skierbieszowski Park Krajobrazowy. Skierbieszów leży w centralnej części parku. Celem utworzenia parku było zachowanie unikatowych walorów przyrodniczych, historycznych, kulturowych i krajobrazowych Działów Grabowieckich. Powierzchnia parku wynosi 35 488 ha. +Klimat. +Klimat w Skierbieszowie, jak niemal w całej Polsce jest klimatem umiarkowanym, przejściowym. Wyróżnia się jednak większym stopniem kontynentalizmu, na co wskazuje dość wysoka roczna amplituda temperatury – najchłodniejszy miesiąc to styczeń (-4,5 °C), a najcieplejszy – lipiec (+ 17,3 °C). Średnia temperatura roczna wynosi ok. 7,3 °C. +Roczna suma opadów, jakie przeważają w ciepłym półroczu (maj – sierpień), nie przekracza 600 mm. +Przyroda. +Najbliższy rezerwat w okolicach to rezerwat „Broczówka”, w którym ochronie podlegają gatunki roślin stepowych oraz fragmentu grądu i świetlistej dąbrowy. Dalszy to rezerwat leśno-krajobrazowy Głęboka Dolina. W odległości ok. 33 km na południowy zachód znajduje się Roztoczański Park Narodowy. +Tereny zielone. +Wśród terenów zielonych, większość stanowią łąki, głównie przy granicach Skierbieszowa. +Ogrody działkowe skupiają się w południowej części, zwłaszcza Os. Pom. Do terenów zielonych należy zaliczyć też m.in. park dworski na osiedlu. +Miejscowość z północnej strony otacza rezerwat leśny Pańska Dolina. +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka Skierbieszowa, początki osadnictwa. +Od strony zachodniej do jeziora wystawał półwysep otoczony z trzech stron wodą. To właśnie miejsce wybrali pierwsi mieszkańcy Skierbieszowa, dawni Słowianie, na budowę obronnego grodu. Były to tereny wyjątkowo obronne, bardzo wygodne do założenia osady. Z trzech stron broniły dostępu: woda i bagna. Od strony zachodniej przekopano kanał, dookoła osady wzniesiono wały obronne. Szczątki tych wałów obronnych i przekopanej sztucznie fosy zachowały sie do dnia dzisiejszego. +Pierwsza wzmianka w kronikach o miejscowości pochodzi z ok. 1428 r., kiedy król Władysław Jagiełło nadał Skierbieszów biskupom chełmskim. Biskup Maciej z Łomży uzyskał w roku 1493-1496 u Jana Olbrachta przywilej na lokację miasta na prawie niemieckim z targami tygodniowymi i jarmarkami. +Według kronik diecezjalnych, pierwszy drewniany kościół w Skierbieszowie zbudował za zgodą króla Władysława Jagiełły w 1432 Zaborowski, biskup chełmski, na cześć „Wniebowzięcia Marii” i Św. Dominiki. Według innych podań, założycielem pierwszego kościoła w Skierbieszowie, miał być Jan z Opatowic, biskup chełmski, w roku 1426, albo Jakub Buczacki w 1502 r. +W dawnych wiekach miasteczko składało się z trzech części oddzielonych rzeką Wolicą. Obecnie istniejące wioski Sady i Zawoda wchodziły w skład miasta natomiast Wójtostwo tworzyło odrębną osadę. +Średniowiecze. +Herbem miasta jest „Ostoja”, herb wyobrażany na pieczęciach z XVI i XVII wieku. Najstarsza pieczęć z 1358, a najstarszy zapis z 1358 r. Pochodzenie herbu nie jest znane. Skierbieszów należał do Grodów Czerwieńskich, które zajął Bolesław Chrobry. +W 1453 r. na prośbę biskupa Jana Kraski, król Kazimierz Jagiellończyk pozwolił lokować tutaj miasto. Nie wiadomo jaką zabudowę miał Skierbieszów jako miasto. Najstarsze znane domy pochodziły z końca XIX wieku. W 1494 r. król Jan Olbracht obdarzył miasto przywilejami na prawie niemieckim. +W środku miasta, tuż przy czworobocznym rynku, mieścił się ratusz. Rządy w mieście sprawował burmistrz, który stał na czele tutejszego magistratu. Obok burmistrza urzędował również wójt gromady Skierbieszów. W skład klucza skierbieszowskiego (tak wówczas nazywano rejon skierbieszowski) wchodziły następujące gromady: Skierbieszów, Cieszyn i Drewniki. Każdą z tych gromad rządził wójt. +Zwierzchnią władzę nad magistratem miasta sprawował mandatariusz z ramienia urzędu cyrkularnego w Zamościu, będący równocześnie oficjalistą dominalnym. Mandatariusz dysponował policją, jemu również przypadła rola głównego sędziego w kolegium sądowym. Pełnił urząd w Zamku Skierbieszowskim, ponieważ tam mieściła się kancelaria Skierbieszowskiego Sądu Dominikalnego oraz kancelaria Dominicali Skierbieszowienis. +Rozkazy i zalecenia magistratu były przekazywane mieszczanom za pośrednictwem „dziesiętników”. Dziesiętnicy byli wybieranie na ogólnym zgromadzeniu w ratuszu. Z czasem miasto rozwinęło się w stronę zachodnią, tylko tam był bowiem teren nadający się do zabudowy. +Miasto zostało rezydencją biskupów chełmskich, drugą po Kumowie. Nieco później powstał zamek biskupi na wzgórzu za miastem, otoczony rozlewiskami, bagnami. W roku 1540 król Zygmunt I wydał dla miasta przywilej na pobór mostowego. +Do odzyskania niepodległości istniała w Skierbieszowie cerkiew, notowana już w 1564 r. +W 1557 r. biskup Jakub Uchański erygował w mieście cerkiew i parafię prawosławną pw. Narodzenia NMP. W jej skład wchodziły także Hajowniki, Wysokie, Cieszyn i Drewniki. W centrum miasta, od strony zachodu znajdował się drewniany kościół św. Ducha, przy którym znajdował się szpital dla 8 ubogich. Wzmiankowany jest już w 1591 r. Fundatorem tego kościoła był arcybiskup chełmski Krzysztof Szemebek. Biskup był inicjatorem pogromu Żydów w Skierbieszowie, których wypędził z miasta i swoich posiadłości. +Warto zwrócić uwagę na nie w pełni zbadane dotąd „Zamczysko”. Po zniszczeniu zamku biskupi wznieśli rezydencję na północ od miasta, za Wolicą, łącząc ją z miastem nową drogą i mostem na rzece. +W okresie szczytowego rozkwitu siedziby biskupiej w Skierbieszowie, „w roku 1619, biskup Remigiusz Koniecpolski, powiększając fundusze miasta wyniósł go do stopnia prepozytury, by zaś wszyscy proboszczowie tej Bazyliki godnością kanonika katedrze chełmskiej zaszczycić się mogli”. +Pod zaborami. +Po 1783 r., za rządów austriackich, dobra biskupie zostały skonfiskowane i sprzedane hr. Józefowi Ostrorogowi. Po zniszczeniu kościoła Św. Ducha w 1719 roku biskup Krzysztof Andrzej Jan Szembek zbudował nowy, rozebrany w 1773 roku. +W okresie powstania styczniowego umęczeni niewolą pańską chłopi skierbieszowscy niechętnie stawali w szeregach powstańców, obawiając się powrotu pańszczyzny dopiero co zniesionej ukazem carskim. Tylko kilkunastu z Ziemi Skierbieszowskiej przyłączyło się do oddziału powstańczego, zorganizowanego przez lekarza z Dubienki. +Oddział ten stoczył jedną zwycięską potyczkę pod Izbicą, później pod Żółkiewką przegrał bitwę z wojskiem rosyjskim. +Istniejący obecnie murowany kościół z kamienia i cegły zbudowany został z gruzów zniszczonego zamku obronnego na początku XVIII wieku, a konsekrowany był w roku 1743. Znajdował się tu także szpital dla 4-ch ubogich, który spłonął na początku XIX wieku. Przed wejściem do kościoła stała niegdyś murowana dzwonnica, na której były zawieszone 4 dzwony. +W roku 1816 uderzenie pioruna zrujnowało mury i wieżę, ta przez następne kilkadziesiąt lat nie naprawiona groziła zawalaniem. +Kościół ten bogaty za czasów biskupich, zostaje 13 lipca 1828 r. doszczętnie okradziony z wszelkich pamiątek i kosztowności. +W wieży więziennej na „małym zamczysku” w 1788 r., został uwięziony burmistrz Skierbieszowa, Bartłomiej Kopciowski, posądzony o buntowanie rekrutów, „nadrabianie pospólstwu” i stawianie oporu cesarskiej władzy. +W 1795 Skierbieszów znalazł się w zaborze austriackim, w 1809 został przyłączony do Księstwa Warszawskiego, a 6 lat później znalazł się w zaborze rosyjskim. +W 1805 zostało zlikwidowane chełmskie biskupstwo rzymskokatolickie (na rzecz diecezji lubelskiej). W 1817 roku w pałacu hr. J. Ostroroga była kaplica prywatna. Po Ostrorogach przeszły do Dunin-Borkowskich. Za jego rządów Skierbieszów utracił prawa miejskie w 1822 roku. +W roku 1885 r. folwark Skierbieszów został własnością Mościckich, ojca przyszłego prezydenta. Na początku XX wieku folwark skierbieszowski w posiadanie Wydżgów. +W dniu 10 lutego 1845 r. naczelnik powiatu krasnostawskiego zobowiązał dziedzica do zbudowania cerkwi greckokatolickiej w ciągu jednego roku. +W czasie pierwszej wojny światowej Skierbieszów przeszedł pod okupację austriacką. +Front rosyjski w Galicji załamał się i do Skierbieszowa wkroczyli Austriacy. +II Rzeczpospolita. +Po odzyskaniu niepodległości, w Skierbieszowie wyłonił się szeroki aktyw społeczny, zainteresowanie w podniesieniu materialnym, kulturalnym i organizacyjnym osady. Przywrócono też funkcje wójta i rady gminnej +W roku 1918 powstała w Skierbieszowie Kasa Pożyczkowo-Zapomogowa „Stefczyk”. Od roku 1932 prezesem kasy został Piotr Węcławik z Skierbieszowa, który wspólnie z innymi członkami zarządu rozwijał nieprzerwanie jej pożyteczną działalność aż do wybuchu II wojny światowej. Głównym celem działalności była pomoc dla biednych chłopów. Udzielano pożyczek do 400 zł. Aby zwiększyć ilość posiadanych pieniędzy, a tym samym zaspokoić potrzeby społeczeństwa, zarząd organizował spędy świń i jarmarki pobierając drobne opłaty od sprzedawanej sztuki trzody. +W 1915 r. zbudowano z Skierbieszowa do Zamościa drogę z inicjatywy Ignacego Mościckiego. +W 1924 r. z inicjatywy lekarza Kapuścińskiego i aptekarza mgr Tadeusza Bortnowskiego powstała w Skierbieszowie mleczarnia. +Prezesem „Spółki Mleczarskiej” został Marcin Polikowski z Skierbieszowa. Działalnością swoją mleczarnia miała wpłynąć na zwiększenie dochodów dla społeczeństwa wiejskiego. +W 1927 r., 19 czerwca był dla Skierbieszowa dniem bardzo pamiętnym. Tego dnia przyjechał Prezydent Ignacy Mościcki +II wojna światowa. +W 1939 roku Zamojszczyzna była miejscem walk z wojskami niemieckimi, które zakończyły się dzień przed kapitulacją Warszawy. Po zakończeniu wojny obronnej 1939 r. Zamojszczyzna została podzielona pomiędzy Niemcy (większość regionu) a Związek Radziecki (południowo-wschodnia część). W południowo-wschodniej części regionu do dziś pozostały resztki umocnień zwanych Linią Mołotowa. +1941, dnia 22 czerwca Niemcy dokonały zbrojnej napaści na Związek Radziecki – swojego dotychczasowego sojusznika. +W roku 1942 Skierbieszów i okoliczne wsie zostały wysiedlone przez okupanta, a wielu mieszkańców dostało się do obozów koncentracyjnych. Niemcy dokonali zmiany nazwy miejscowości poprzez wprowadzenie okupacyjnej nazwy nazistowskiej "Heidenstein". +Akcja wysiedleńcza rozpoczęła się w nocy z 27 na 28 listopada 1942 r. Wysiedleniem Skierbieszowa oraz okolicznych wsi: Lipina Nowa, Suchodębie, Sady i Zawoda. Trwała ona do marca 1943 r. Objęła powiaty: biłgorajski, hrubieszowski, tomaszowski i zamojski. +Ze względu na wiosenną ofensywę partyzancką akcję przerwano. Pomimo trudnej sytuacji na froncie wschodnim, Niemcy zmobilizowali trzy dywizje SS i w dniach 15 czerwca, 15 lipca wznowili wysiedlenie ludności. Część mieszkańców objętych akcją zbiegła i na własną rękę szukała ratunku, najczęściej udając się do rodzin i znajomych. +Całością kierował Sekretarz stanu do spraw bezpieczeństwa G.G. SS – Obergruppenführer Krüger. Nad bezpośrednim przebiegiem akcji czuwał szef SS i policji dystryktu lubelskiego Odilo Globocnik. +Wysiedloną ludność kierowano do obozów przejściowych (pozbawionych najbardziej elementarnych warunków do życia) w Zamościu, Zwierzyńcu, Budzyniu. Nędzy obozowej towarzyszył terror ze strony SS-manów. Szczucie psami, bicie za zbliżanie się do drutów, strzelanie do ludzi w celu zabicia wszy masowo występujących na więźniach – należało do zjawisk powszechnych. W miejscu wysiedlonych i wywiezionych mieszkańców gminy Skierbieszów hitlerowcy sprowadzili w ramach akcji kolonizacyjnej Heim ins Reich niemieckich osadników ze Śląska, Serbii, Chorwacji, Rosji i rumuńskiej Besarabii. Po wysiedleniu ludności Skierbieszowa w 1942 r. Niemcy urządzili w kościele Wniebowzięcia NMP magazyn zbożowy. +W 1943 roku w rodzinie niemieckich chłopów przesiedlonych z zajętej przez ZSRR Besarabii urodził się Horst Köhler, prezydent Niemiec w latach 2004-2010. +Nazwiska 250 mieszkańców osady, którzy zginęli w obozach zagłady znajdują się na pamiątkowej tablicy w kościele parafialnym w Skierbieszowie. +Na zamojskiej Rotundzie powstał obóz zagłady, w którym zginęło ponad 8 tysięcy ludzi. +Pobyt w obozie trwał od kilku do kilkunastu tygodni. Kolejnym etapem gehenny wysiedlonych był transport do różnych miejsc, w zależności od grupy. Dzieci i starców wywożono w kierunku Warszawy. +Skutki były dla Zamojszczyzny tragiczne. Wysiedlono lub spacyfikowano około 290 wsi wysiedlono ponad 120 tysięcy ludzi, w tym około 30 tysięcy dzieci, z czego zmarło około 13 tysięcy, a około 4,5 tysiąca wywieziono do Niemiec w celu zgermanizowania. +Okolice Zamościa były terenem niezwykle ożywionej działalności polskich i radzieckich oddziałów partyzanckich – głównie AK i BCh, które czasami nazywa się "powstaniem zamojskim". +Czasy PRL-u. +Po wyzwoleniu w 1944, pierwszy okres Skierbieszowa za Polski Ludowej był bardzo trudny. Po wojnie Polska stała się państwem socjalistycznym. Do 1948 grasowały tu różnego rodzaju bandy, a także partyzanci UPA. +Skierbieszowscy Żydzi zostali wymordowani podczas wojny. +Wysiedleni skierbieszowianie powrócili do kraju dopiero w latach 1945-1946, odnajdując swoje gospodarstwa zdewastowane. +Za PRLu w Skierbieszowie powstała większość instytucji społecznych i zakładów produkcyjnych oraz wszystkie instytucje kulturalne. Większość z nich działa do dziś. W latach 50. powstał Państwowy Ośrodek Maszynowy. W 1973 w wyniku uderzenia pioruna spłonęła prawie 1/3 osady. +W wyniku reformy administracyjnej w 1975, Skierbieszów znalazł się w województwie zamojskim. W 1980 otworzono przedszkole samorządowe. +Ludność i wiara. +Skierbieszów był miastem trzech wyznań – rzymskokatolickiego, prawosławnego i mojżeszowego, o czym do dziś świadczą byłe skierbieszowskie świątynie (kościoły, cerkiew). +Dopiero 1528 r. w mieście pojawili się żydzi. Nie utworzyli dużej gminy stąd brak było w mieście synagogi. W przeciwieństwie do innych miast Zamojszczyzny stanowili oni znikomy odsetek mieszkańców i nie odgrywali znaczniejszej roli w życiu miasta Skierbieszów. +Zabytki. +Zamek. +Zbudowany prawdopodobnie w XIV w. Średniowieczny zamek, o którym nie zachowały się żadne zapiski w dokumentach. Nie wiadomo, kto był jego budowniczym. Znalezione na jego terenie pieniądze z datą 1382 r. i 1383 oraz inne wykopaliska świadczą o istnieniu zamku już w wieku XIV. Badania archeologiczne na usypanym na wzgórzu kopcu o wysokości 3 m doprowadziły do odkrycia śladów osadnictwa z XIV. Zamek murowany był z cegły i kamienia. +Kościół Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Maryi Panny. +Renesansowy kościół jednonawowy z XVII wieku, na wschód od centrum. Konsekracji tego kościoła, który cechuje styl renesansowy dokonał biskup Józef Eustachy Szembek w 1743 r. Ołtarz główny wykonany został w stylu barokowym. W ołtarzu znajduje się obraz Matki Bożej z Dzieciątkiem w posrebrzanym koronach i sukience. Pochodzenie obrazu nie jest znane. Dokumenty wspominają o licznych wotach przy obrazie świadczące o żywym dawniej kulcie i łaskach. +Kościół skierbieszowski bogaty za czasów biskupich został w 1828 r. doszczętnie okradziony z wszelkich pamiątek i kosztowności. Na chórze muzycznym znajdują się organy 10-głosowe, wykonane przez Antoniego Szydłowskiego z Wrocławia, prospekt organów i prospektowe piszczałki z 2 połowie XVIII wieku. Aparat brzmieniowy z 1860 r. wykonany przez Stanisława Romańskiego z Lublina. +Rezydencja biskupów. +Dawna posiadłość biskupów chełmskich z XVIII w. znajduje się w miejscu (obecnie Os. POM). Została zbudowana przez Władysława Jagiełłę. Rezydencja była siedzibą Biskupów, drugą po Kumowie. Pozostałości folwarku-piwnice, spichlerz murowany z końca XVIII w. Budowniczym był biskup Jerzy Zamoyski ok. 1610 r. +Zamek obronny. +Obok zamku na „Zamczysku” istniał w Skierbieszowie drugi zamek obronny zbudowany przez biskupów chełmskich, na prawym brzegu rzeki Wolicy, na wysokim wapiennym wzniesieniu na terenie biskupiego dworu. Nieznana jest data jego budowy. Zamek przetrwał do XIX w. Pod zamkiem znajdowały się rozległe podziemia z chodnikami podziemnymi w różnych kierunkach, wokół byłego zamku. W chwili obecnej zachowane są główne komory podziemi zamkowych, stąd w różnych kierunkach odchodzą wąskie lochy. Niektóre z nich zostały zamurowane w roku 1908 przez właściciela majątku Wydżgę. Najprawdopodobniej podziemia te miały służyć do wypadów z oblężonego zamku na tyły wroga, w celu zaatakowania go oraz jako ostatnia deska ratunku do ucieczki. +Cmentarze. +Początkowo wokół kościoła istniał cmentarz grzebalny, ale przed 1817 rokiem przeniesiono go poza miasto. Na terenie Skierbieszowa, przy końcu ul. Nadrzecznej znajduje się cmentarz z I wojny światowej. +Na ul. Parkowej znajduje się siedziba parafii rzymskokatolickiej pw. Wniebowzięcia NMP. +W dwóch mogiłach pochowanych jest 50 żołnierzy rosyjskich, a w 13 mogiłach 320 żołnierzy niemieckich. +Największym cmentarzem z najstarszymi nagrobkami jest cmentarz rzymskokatolicki przy ul. Cmentarnej. +Transport. +Skierbieszów jest węzłem drogowym. +oraz drogi lokalne +Do 2020 roku przez Skierbieszów ma przebiegać droga krajowa. +W Skierbieszowie nie ma kolei. Najbliższe stacje kolejowe znajdują się w Zamościu, Biłgoraju i Chełmie. +Skierbieszowski dworzec autobusowy zlokalizowany jest przy ulicy Zielonej. +Dzięki węzłowi drogowemu Skierbieszów ma dogodne połączenia autobusowe, zarówno lokalne, jak i dalekobieżne. +Turystyka. +Infrastruktura. +Położony jest w południowo-wschodnim regionie Polski. +Od 1997 r. we wsi znajduje się 14 gospodarstw agroturystycznych. Na ul. Wąskiej mieści się punkt informacji turystycznej. W 2006 roku została otwarta „Skierbieszowska Trasa Rowerowa” o długości 42km. +Szlaki. +Przez miejscowość przechodzą 3 szlaki turystyczne: niebieski, żółty i zielony +oraz ścieżka przyrodniczo-historyczna „Stryjowskie Wąwozy”. +Sport. +Obiekty sportowe. +Stadion piłkarsko-lekkoatletyczny w Skierbieszowie, +Hala sportowa +Kluby sportowe. +Jedyny w miejscowości działający klub sportowy to Gminny Klub Sportowy Ostoja Skierbieszów. Został założony w 1962 r. Stadion Ostoi mieści się przy ulicy Nadrzecznej. W sezonie 2009/2010 klub występuje w Klasie okręgowej w grupie Zamość. Trenerem zespołu jest Dariusz Kmiecik. +Kultura. +W dniach 6, 7, 8 lipca odbywa się coroczny jarmark, na który zjeżdżają handlarze z całej wschodniej połowy dawnego województwa lubelskiego. W tym czasie odbywa się wiele imprez kulturalnych i muzycznych. Tradycja Kiliańska wiąże się nie tylko z handlem. Od wieków Kilian był dniem załatwiania osobistych porachunków. W dawniejszych czasach miały one bardziej krwawe przebiegi. Obecnie „Kilian” to trzy dni zabawy, odpoczynku, degustacji różnych gatunków piwa oraz zakupów. +Chościsko + +Chościsko – według Galla Anonima ojciec Piasta (łac. "Semovit filius Past Ckosisconis, Pazt filius Chosisconisu"), protoplasty dynastii Piastów. Jego imię oznaczające prawdopodobnie ogon (od "chost/chwost") pojawia się w Kronice polskiej w tym znaczeniu trzykrotnie: +Chościskiem nazwany jest także książę Popiel w tytule rozdziału pierwszego księgi pierwszej. Możliwe, że imienia użyto tu w roli przydomka lub że zostało ono dodane do rękopisu w okresie późniejszym. Druga teoria wydaje się bardziej prawdopodobna, ponieważ oryginalna, łacińska forma zdania "O księciu Popielu zwany Chościsko" jest niepoprawna gramatycznie. Interpolacja ta mogła zostać dokonana pod wpływem "Kroniki wielkopolskiej", która podaje, że Popiel z uwagi na swoje długie włosy otrzymał przydomek Chościsko, czyli miotła. Porównaj dolnołużyckie: ""choscisca" (Pl.) (Mu. F1N 122/2), zu oso. "chość" 'Besenginster' (miotła), vgl. auch oso. "choscisco" 'Besenstiel (kij)". +Chościsko w znaczeniu książę. +Istnieje także mniejszościowy pogląd, że chościsko to przydomek oznaczający po prostu księcia. Można o tym wnioskować m.in. na podstawie zapisu w Kazaniach gnieźnieńskich: "...gdisczy szo kthoremy krolevy, albo xoszoczu szin narodzy..." Wyraz "xoszoczu" oznacza "książęciu". +W XII wieku było ono niezwykle trudne do zapisania alfabetem łacińskim, a to ze względu na brak w łacinie samogłosek nosowych i spółgłosek szumiących (sybilantów). Z kolei literą "x" zapisywano niekiedy głoskę "ch". Istnieje domniemanie, że Gall Anonim pisząc swą "Kronikę..." korzystał z najstarszych źródeł pisanych, gdzie Piasta zapisano jako syna jakiegoś "Choszecza" lub "Choszycza" – "książęcia" lub "księżyca". Teoria ta wydaje się mało prawdopodobna, ponieważ Chościsko był według relacji Galla Anonima zwykłym chłopem. +Podobnie Piast, którego księciem uczyniły dopiero późniejsze źródła kronikarskie. +Inna wersja mówi, że "chościsko" czyli "ogon", "chwost", "kosa" oznacza "warkocz", a więc jeden z symboli władzy we wczesnym średniowieczu. Długie włosy symbolizowały władzę m.in. u królów merowińskich. +W języku dolnołużyckim "choscisco"; to niem. "Besenstiel" znaczy "kij". Pierwotnie słowo kij mogło oznaczyć "młot" i było przezwiskiem naczelnika rodu, podobnie jak Karol Martel "Młot". (porównaj etymologię nazwy Kijów). +Choscisca Schlabendorf-Choscisca (Choscheschze, Chosesce, Choscisca) to również wieś na Łużycach ok. Luckau. +Puszcza Biała + +Puszcza Biała – kompleks leśny ciągnący się od Pułtuska po Ostrów Mazowiecką. Część Niziny Mazowieckiej. Zdominowana przez drzewostan sosnowy (ponad 90%). +Powierzchnia tego obszaru wynosi ok. 85 000 hektarów ( ok. 850 km2) w tym lasy zajmują ok. 51 000 hektarów( ok. 510 km2) przy czym 21,5% to lasy prywatne. +Teren wpisany do obszarów chronionych Natura 2000. +Historia Puszczy. +Od XIII wieku puszcza należała do biskupów płockich. Biskupi ci dość często rezydowali w swojej rezydencji w Pułtusku lub w dworkach w Wyszkowie lub Broku. Ochrona zasobów Puszczy spowodowała , że jeszcze w XVIII wieku były to tereny najsłabiej zaludnione na Mazowszu. By nie naruszyć zasobów leśnych osiedlano głównie ludzi znających gospodarkę leśną, poddając ich wcześniej dokładnej selekcji. Osadnikom pozwalano uprawiać rolę na niewielkich, dokładnie wyznaczonych „nowinach”, które miały wystarczyć na zaspokojenie osobistych potrzeb osadników. Tępiono tych, którzy próbowali samowolnie karczować lasy, bo leśne płody, bartnictwo, smolarnie, potażownie; były źródłem dużych dochodów. +Puszcza w swej historii była widownia wielu starć zbrojnych od czasów średniowiecza do współczesnych. Znane są zwłaszcza walki prowadzone przeciw Szwedom przez mieszkańców Puszczy w czasie Potopu i Wojny północnej. +Upadek Rzeczpospolitej doprowadził do przejęcia Puszczy przez skarb państwa zaborczego. Doprowadziło to w ciągu XIX wieku do dewastacji lasów wchodzących w skład puszczy. O ile jeszcze w XVIII wieku rosły tu olbrzymie dęby to na skutek rabunkowej gospodarki prowadzonej w XIX wieku drzewostan puszczy uległ radykalnej zmianie , znanej nam dzisiaj. +Pierwsze próby ratowania puszczy podjęto dopiero po 1880 roku. Na nowo urządzaniem lasu zajęto się dopiero w 20-lecju międzywojennym i po II wojnie światowej. +Powiat sandomierski + +Powiat sandomierski - powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Sandomierz. +Historia. +Początki powiatu sandomierskiego sięgają czasów Korony Królestwa Polskiego. +Od tamtego czasu powiat sandomierski istnieje nieprzerwanie, jedynie z krótkimi przerwami w XX w. w latach 1939-1944 oraz 1973-1999. +Wg rejestrów z 1508 roku powiat sandomierski obejmował Sandomierz, Osiek, Opatów, Połaniec, Zawichost, Solec, Piórków, Łagów, Bodzentyn, Kunów, Ćmielów. +W 1571 roku powiat sandomierski liczył 46 836 mieszkańców. +Wg dystrybucji soli na zjeździe deputatów z województwa sandomierskiego w Nowym Mieście Korczynie w dniu 12 sierpnia 1688, należnej na dobra szlacheckie ziemskie za lata 1667 - 1668 r., powiat sandomierski obejmował 1 445 1/4 łanów. +Gminy. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Budżet. +ImageSize = width:730 height:350 +PlotArea = left:70 right:50 top:20 bottom:20 +TimeAxis = orientation:vertical +AlignBars = late +Colors = +DateFormat = yyyy +Period = from:0 till:415000001 +ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:450000000 start:0 gridcolor:linegrey +ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:450000000 start:0 gridcolor:linegrey2 +PlotData = +PlotData= + + Rysunek 1.2 Wydatki ogółem w UR Sandomierz (1995-1998) i SP Sandomierz (1999-2010) w latach 1995-2010 (w zł) +Według danych z roku 2010 średni dochód na mieszkańca wynosił 4 588,29 zł (tj. — stan na 31 XII; przy 4 569,13 zł w zestawieniu na 30 VI); jednocześnie średnie wydatki na mieszkańca kształtowały się na poziomie 5 065,52 zł (tj. — stan na 31 XII; przy 5 044,37 zł w zestawieniu na 30 VI). +ImageSize = width:630 height:350 +PlotArea = left:70 right:50 top:20 bottom:20 +TimeAxis = orientation:vertical +AlignBars = late +Colors = +DateFormat = yyyy +Period = from:0 till:90200001 +ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:98000000 start:0 gridcolor:linegrey +ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:98000000 start:0 gridcolor:linegrey2 +PlotData = +PlotData= + Rysunek 1.1 Dochody ogółem w Budżecie Powiatu Sandomierz w latach 1999-2010 (w zł) + Rysunek 1.2 Wydatki ogółem w Budżecie Powiatu Sandomierz w latach 1999-2010 (w zł) +Według danych z roku 2010 średni dochód na mieszkańca wynosił 994,15 zł (tj. — stan na 31 XII; przy 990,00 zł w zestawieniu na 30 VI); jednocześnie średnie wydatki na mieszkańca kształtowały się na poziomie 1 060,89 zł (tj. — stan na 31 XII; przy 1 056,46 zł w zestawieniu na 30 VI). +TVR + +TVR - brytyjska marka samochodów sportowych. Historia firmy TVR, która ma siedzibę w Blackpool rozpoczęła się w 1947 roku, kiedy to młody inżynier - Trevor Wilkinson zbudował samodzielnie lekkie, aluminiowe nadwozie sportowego pojazdu. Cały samochód, oznaczony już symbolem TVR powstał dwa lata później, a do jego napędu posłużył silnik Forda. +Legendarnymi modelami brytyjskiej marki były: Grantura (zaprezentowana w 1958 roku), Griffith (1963), Vixen i Tuscan V8 (1966), cała seria "M" lat 70., w której powstawały coupe, hatchbacki, a także kabriolety, Tasmin (1980), a od 1982 roku, kiedy to kierownictwo TVR objął jego dotychczasowy prezes - Peter Wheeler, który pozostaje w firmie jako konsultant pojawiły się takie auta jak: Griffith, Chimaera (1993), Cerbera, Tuscan i Tamora. +Stożek piargowy + +Stożek piargowy – rodzaj stożka usypiskowego utworzony z piargu, powstający u wylotu żlebu. Tworzy się w górach na skutek gromadzenia materiału skalnego pochodzącego z niszczenia stoków, cechuje się znacznym nachyleniem. +W Polsce stożki piargowe występują w Tatrach i Karkonoszach. +Przemiana fazowa + +Przemiana fazowa (przejście fazowe) – proces termodynamiczny, polegający na przejściu jednej fazy termodynamicznej w drugą, zachodzący w kierunku zapewniającym zmniejszenie energii swobodnej układu +Powiat ostrowiecki + +Powiat ostrowiecki – powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski. +Gminy. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Rezerwat przyrody Parkowe + +Rezerwat przyrody "Parkowe" – rezerwat przyrody na Wyżynie Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej. +Rezerwat znajduje się w miejscowości Złoty Potok, gmina Janów, powiat częstochowski, województwo śląskie. Ma charakter leśno-krajobrazowy. Zarządzany jest przez Nadleśnictwo Złoty Potok. Został utworzony 3 września 1957 r. dla zachowania wzgórz wraz z fragmentami doliny Wiercicy, a także form skalnych i starodrzewia. Powierzchnia 155,22 ha. +Opis. +Na terenie rezerwatu wyróżniamy: łęg jesionowo-olszowy, grąd subkontynentalny, buczynę sudecką, ciepłolubną buczynę storczykową, kwaśną buczynę niżową, bory mieszane sosnowo-dębowe i świeży bór sosnowy. +Kara Mustafa + +Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Paşa (ur. 1634 lub 1635, zm. 25 grudnia 1683 w Belgradzie) – turecki wódz i wezyr Mehmeda IV, przyczynił się do ekspansji imperium osmańskiego w kierunku Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. +Według źródeł tureckich Kara Mustafa urodził się w muzułmańskim roku 1044, a imię Merzifonlu sugeruje, że narodził się blisko miasta Merzifon, w Turcji. +Był synem Uraca Hasan Beja, szybko awansował na tureckiego dowódcę. Źródła chrześcijańskie przedstawiają Kara Mustafę jako człowieka okrutnego i niehonorowego. Twierdzono, że nawet w jego rodzinnym kraju uważano go za takiego, nadając mu przydomek Kara (czarny). Został adoptowany przez potężną rodzinę Köprülü, w młodym wieku został gońcem swojego szwagra, wielkiego wezyra Ahmeda Köprülü. +Niedługo potem Mustafa został wezyrem, a w roku 1663 generałem tureckiego oddziału przy Morzu Egejskim. Służył sułtanowi jako generał wojsk w wojnie przeciwko Polsce w roku 1672, negocjował pokój po zdobyciu Podola. +W roku 1676 gdy wielki wezyr zmarł, jego obowiązki i tytuł przejął Mustafa. Osiągał słabe sukcesy w wojnie z rebelią kozacką w roku 1678. Po kilku walkach, gdy do wojny dołączyła Rosja, Turcy przyjęli pokój w roku 1681, Kozacy zaś wycofali się za Dniepr. W roku 1683 Kara Mustafa rozpoczął kampanię austriacką. Zebrał armię 200 000 ludzi i oblegał Wiedeń broniony przez 18 000 żołnierzy habsburskich (13 tys żołnierzy i 5 tys. członków strazy miejskiej). +Jednak 12 września 1683 wojska polskie i austriackie pod wodzą króla Jana III Sobieskiego wygrały bitwę pod Wiedniem, w której główną rolę odegrał potężny atak polskiej husarii na flankę sił tureckich. +Turcy zostali odepchnięci poza granicę Węgier. Klęska wiedeńska wezyra ostatecznie pogrzebała szansę Imperium Osmańskiego na podbój Europy Środkowej. Przegrana kosztowała też Kara Mustafę utratę pozycji i życie. 25 grudnia 1683 roku Kara Mustafa został w Belgradzie skazany na śmierć z rozkazu dowódcy janczarów. Zdołał jednak uciec. Sprawą zainteresował się sułtan Mehmed IV, który kazał go zabić jedwabnym, zielonym sznurem. Podobno ostatnie słowa Kara Mustafy brzmiały: "Upewnij się, że nie zaciskasz za słabo tego sznura." +Tarflon + +Tarflon konstrukcyjne tworzywo sztuczne na bazie kopolimeru polistyrenu i polipropylenu produkowane przez japoński koncern Idemitsu Petrochemicals. +Tarflonu nie należy mylić z bardzo podobnie brzmiącym tarflenem +Diabolus in Musica + +Diabolus In Musica – siódmy album studyjny thrashmetalowej grupy Slayer, który został wydany 9 lipca 1998 nakładem American Recordings. To druga pełna studyjna płyta na której za perkusją zagrał Paul Bostaph. Album w pierwszym tygodniu sprzedał się w ilości 46,000 kopi w USA i uplasował się na 31 miejscu listy Billboard 200. Według danych z kwietnia 2002 album sprzedał się w nakładzie 253,302 egzemplarzy na terenie Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Jest to druga płyta nagrana z perkusistą Paulem Bostaphem. Prace nad materiałem muzycy ukończyli we wrześniu 1997 roku, a premiera krążka była zapowiedziana na 31 października. Jednak z powodu kłopotów z wytwórnią, album ukazał się dopiero 9 lipca następnego roku. +"Kiedy komponujesz utwór, który ma być otoczony samymi czadami, on automatycznie wychodzi inaczej. "Gemini" jest chyba najwolniejszym numerem w całej naszej karierze, myślę że dodał muzyce nowego smaku. Zawsze próbowaliśmy kombinować z nowymi rzeczami – żeby to ciągle brzmiało jak Slayer, a zarazem trochę inaczej". +Kolejnym zdziwieniem w oczach fanów była oprawa graficzna płyty, nie budziła wielkich kontrowersji, tak jak miało to miejsce w przypadku Divine Intervention. Jeżeli chodzi o teksty, to tym razem nie było piosenek o seryjnych mordercach ("Dead Skin Mask", "213") czy też o zbrodniarzach wojennych ("Angel Of Death", "SS-3"), ale tematycznie dalej nawiązywały do wojny, przemocy, zabijania, śmierci i Boga. Piosenka "Love To Hate" została napisana do filmu Howarda Sterna, "Części intymne", jednak nie została ona umieszczona na soundtracku, ponieważ była zbyt ostra, natomiast "Wicked" i "Unguarded Instinct" to utwory bonusowe, które nie zostały wydane wszędzie ("Wicked" tylko w Europie zaś "Unguarded Instinct" tylko w Japonii). +Album został wydany również w wersji limitowanej, która posiadała drugi krążek z sześcioma starszymi numerami w wersji koncertowej, ponadto multimedialną prezentację wszystkich teledysków zespołu oraz dodatki na komputer (tapety, ikony itp.). +Drzwi Gnieźnieńskie + +Drzwi Gnieźnieńskie (łac. "Porta Enea", Drzwi Spiżowe; "Porta Regia", Drzwi Królewskie, "Porta Aura", Drzwi Złote) – unikatowy zabytek romańskiej sztuki odlewniczej, wykonane za panowania księcia Mieszka III Starego (dokładny czas i miejsce nieznane). Są osadzone w portalu wewnętrznym kruchty południowej archikatedry gnieźnieńskiej. +Wygląd drzwi. +Oba skrzydła są różnej wielkości (lewe szer. 84 cm, wys. 328 cm i prawe 83 × 323 cm), odlane z brązu metodą wosku traconego (lewe, bardziej wypukłe w całości, a prawe w 24 częściach i zlutowane), zawierają po dziewięć kwater z płaskorzeźbami scen figuralnych i obramowanych bordiurą zdobioną ornamentem roślinnym z wplecionymi postaciami ludzi i zwierząt. Umocowane na nich kołatki w kształcie lwich głów odlano oddzielnie. W niektórych miejscach widoczne są pęknięcia spowodowane upadkami czy uderzeniami, oraz spawania i nadlewy powstałe podczas napraw. Ślady po kołkach wskazują na to, że metalowe drzwi były pierwotnie przymocowane do drzwi drewnianych. +Czas powstania. +Badania przeprowadzone w latach pięćdziesiątych pozwalają przypuszczać, że drzwi wykonano na miejscu za czasów Mieszka Starego około 1175 r. W świetle badań wcześniejszych, Drzwi miały powstać w 1 połowie XII w. w kręgu Bolesława Krzywoustego. Obecnie nikt nie podaje w wątpliwość, że dzieło odlane zostało w 2 połowie XII wieku. Zleceniodawcy upatruje się zarówno w osobie ówczesnego księcia seniora Mieszka Starego jak i arcybiskupa gnieźnieńskiego. Mógł to być arcybiskup Zdzisław lub jego następca Bogumił z Dobrowa (ewentualnie w grę wchodzi jeszcze ich poprzednik Jan Gryfita). +Autorzy i miejsce wykonania. +Na pionowej listwie skrzydła lewego istnieje słabo widoczny napis, którego fragmenty (pojedyncze grupy liter) odczytał w XIX wieku kan. Ignacy Polkowski. Zgodnie z inskrypcjami wykonawcą drzwi był pochodzący z Francji albo z Włoch mistrz Piotr. Jest to jednak tylko hipoteza. Do dzisiejszego dnia nikt nie wie, kto był twórcą dzieła. Czy był nim arcybiskup gnieźnieński Piotr, którego kryptogram znaleziono pod lewą antabą ((Petrus?) i nieczytelna dalsza część napisu; na obramieniu zewnętrznym lewego skrzydła napis, który hipotetycznie odczytano jako: ME FECIT ME ... PETRVS lub BOVO LATINVS lub LVITINIVS ME FET), czy też jego imię umieszczono tam tylko jako zwierzchnika katedry – nie wiadomo. +Brak czytelnych sygnatur uniemożliwia identyfikację autorów, lecz zatarte ślady oraz różnice stylistyczne reliefów wskazują, że było trzech wykonawców o różnym stopniu umiejętności. Za najbardziej utalentowanego uznaje się twórcę wszystkich kwater prawej strony oraz kwatery z nocnym widzeniem Wojciecha. +Dietmar Albrecht twierdzi, że drzwi wykonano w Hildesheim, podobnie jak średniowieczne drzwi płockie znajdujące się obecnie w Nowogrodzie Wielkim. W Hildesheim znajdują się drzwi biskupa Bernwarda. +Opis kwater. +Sceny można odczytywać także w linii poziomej. W ten sposób np. narodziny Wojciecha dla świata doczesnego łączą się z narodzinami dla nieba, a podjęcie obowiązków duszpasterskich, usymbolizowane w pastorale, dopełnia ofiara z życia. +Narracja rozpoczyna się u dołu lewego skrzydła i kończy na dole prawego. Drzwi Gnieźnieńskie to najcenniejszy zabytek sztuki romańskiej w Polsce. +Drzwi zdobi 18 scen z życia św. Wojciecha od narodzin do męczeńskiej śmierci. Skrzydło lewe zawiera obrazy z pobytu świętego w Czechach, Niemczech i we Włoszech (w układzie od dołu do góry), a prawe z działalności misyjnej w Polsce i w Prusach (w układzie od góry do dołu). +Typy przedstawień. +Obok reliefów odzwierciedlających konkretną rzeczywistość społeczną (ceremoniał inwestytury czy scena napominania Bolesława Czeskiego za tolerowanie handlu niewolnikami) znajdują się przedstawienia o charakterze religijnym takie, jak ukazanie się Chrystusa Wojciechowi we śnie, opuszczenie przez szatana ciała nawiedzonego, odzyskanie kształtu przez upuszczone naczynie czy wreszcie czuwanie orła nad zwłokami Wojciecha. Odwołują się one do naśladownictwa Chrystusa oraz staczania duchowego boju z poganami. +Program ikonograficzny drzwi wzywa także do kontynuacji ogólnonarodowego zadania polegającego na niesieniu chrześcijańskiej cywilizacji na Prusy i Pomorze. +Bordiura. +Wyżej wymienione sceny otoczone są bordiurami, na których głównymi elementami są wici roślinne z odgałęzieniami i wplecionymi w nie różnymi motywami. Zostały tam umieszczone postacie ludzkie, gady, twory fantastyczne, ptaki i takie zwierzęta jak pies, wiewiórka, zając, kozioł i jeleń. Wśród osiemdziesięciu pięciu rozgałęzień wici rozmieszczono sześćdziesiąt cztery wyobrażenia zoomorficzne. +Znaczenie kwater w zestawieniu z przedstawieniami z bordiury. +Obok sceny narodzin św. Wojciecha, na bordiurze, znajduje się przedstawienie Oriona z psem Syriuszem polujących na zająca. Orion, motyw astrologiczny, w średniowieczu był symbolem męczeństwa, natomiast zając symbolizuje uciekającą duszę. Łącząc oba przedstawienia rysuje się przyszłość św. Wojciecha jako męczennika polującego na dusze. +Przy scenie oddania św. Wojciecha do szkoły magdeburskiej w bordiurze widać łucznika wprawiającego się w strzelaniu polując na wiewiórkę. Strzały symbolizują słowa, którymi św. Wojciech będzie strzelać do pogan. +Święty wznoszący się na wyżyny hierarchii kościelnej przez scenę przekazania inwestytury, przedstawiony jest przy koźle górskim potwierdzającym wznoszenie się ku Bogu. +Motyw winnicy biegnie wzdłuż trzech kwater. Znajdują się tam trzy osoby, jedna ścina winogrona, druga je zjada, trzecia wyciska z nich sok. Scena nawiązuje do przypowieści św. Mateusza o pracy w winnicy, która jest winnicą Chrystusa. Motyw ten znajduje się przy scenie wypędzenia ducha i w związku z tym kontekstem św. Wojciech przedstawiony jest jako „uprawiający” wiarę. +Historię dotycząca sporu pomiędzy księciem Bolesławem Czeskim a świętym i jej konsekwencje uzupełniają sceny z bordiury. Przy kłótni widnieje wilk ścigający jelenia, czyli zło (książę) ścigające dobro (św. Wojciech). Przy scenie gdzie święty chroni się w klasztorze widnieje scena, w której smok siedzi pod drzewem życia a na nim z kolei chroni się kogut, i inny niezidentyfikowany ptak. Ptaki na peridiksionie nie boją się smoka, gdyż nie może ich dosięgnąć jak książę nie może świętego. Poczucie bezpieczeństwa jest jednak złudne, ponieważ poza klasztorem\drzewem czai się zagrożenie. +Prawa strona drzwi ukazuje opowieść o heroicznej walce św. Wojciecha. +W początkowej scenie św. Wojciech przybywa na ziemie pruskie. Przy tej kwaterze znajduje się Herakles depczący smoka i bezskrzydły gryf, strażnik. +Przy scenie zabójstwa świętego przez pogan widnieje centaur z rogiem i maczugą. Ma to związek z rysunkami z kodeksów astrologicznych z konstelacją centaura. Jego pozycja, uniesiona noga wyznaczana przez położenie gwiazd, pochodzi z karolińskich kodeksów astrologicznych. Centaur przedstawiony tu jest nie jako pół człowiek pół koń, lecz pół człowiek pół osioł co podkreśla dzikość i zwierzęcość Prusów. Porównano ich tu do bezrozumnych szaleńców. +Obok sceny z grobem świętego znajduje się ptak z męską, brodatą głową. Postać ta zidentyfikowana jest jako harpia. Stworzenie antyczne, które jest zmuszone zabijać podobnych do siebie i takie samo tragiczne znaczenie nadaje się w Prusom. Postać ta także określa się jako syrena, duszę zmarłego zważywszy na podobieństwo twarzy św. Wojciecha i syrena\harpii. +Przy scenie złożenia relikwii męczennika do grobu w katedrze gnieźnieńskiej znajduje się Centaur galopujący. Jego przednie nogi ustawione są jak do skoku, tors plecami do widza, głowa odchylona do tyłu. Jedno jego ramię przeplecione przez gałąź, druga dłoń chwyta liść. Centaur stoi w konotacji z walczącym Herkulesem i podobnie jak on oznacza negatywne cechy moralne. +Walczący Herkules w sięgającym do kolan kaftanie, przepasany rzemieniem i kroczący naprzód z zachowaniem frontalnego reliefu zwraca się do ptaków identyfikowanych jako żurawie ze stalowymi dziobami i piórami (nawiązanie do jednej z prac Heraklita). Św. Wojciech to misjonarz, w który w Prusach zastał ludzi bezbożnych i dzikich obyczajach czy obłudnej pobożności. Święty wydał im walkę niczym Herkules, który Arkadię uwolnił od ptaków. Męczennik pokonał w sobie cielesne pierwiastki by dać zwyciężyć duchowi (Herkules). Jednak walka jest wieczna i to jest apel do wiernych, aby szli w jego ślady. +Węzeł składający się z węża zwisającego z gałęzi, który chwyta lwa pożerającego ogon węża. Z kolei lew zwrócony jest ku wężowi i depcze cielsko leżącego pod nim smoka. Jest to nawiązanie do Psalmu 90, 13: „Będziesz stąpał po wężach i żmijach, a i smoka będziesz mógł przydeptać”. Węzeł symbolizuje ludy prymitywne wczesnego średniowiecza. Wąż magiczny to forma zaklęcia złych sił i symboli zła pokonanego. +W prawym, dolnym rogu bordiury lewej połowy drzwi znajduje się centaur z wężem. Z jego gęby wyrasta łodyga. W prawej ręce ma wijącego się węża o psiej głowie. Scena ta znajduje się pod sceną narodzenia i kąpieli. Jest to symbol grzechu pierworodnego przy zmysłowości centaura. +Cechy stylistyczne. +Konwencja artystyczna jest antropocentryczna. Postacie w ujęciu trzy czwarte. Charakterystyka osób pozostaje w konwencji przedstawień typów średniowiecznych. +Z sztuki ottońskiej czerpano szczupłą sylwetę i kształtne głowy, stąd tez próby pokazania przebijającego spod szat zarysu ciała. Pozostałością sztuki starożytnej jest klasyczny rysunek draperii, profile linii nosa przechodzące bezpośrednio w czoło, u niektórych młodych diakonów albo orle nosy zaczerpnięte z monet i medali z podobiznami cesarzy rzymskich. Szerokie gesty otwartą dłonią z odsuniętym kciukiem nawiązuje do przedstawień mówców. +Analogie ikonograficzne. +Analogie ikonograficzne wywodzą się głównie z rejonów sztuki mozańskiej bądź z rejonów sąsiedzkich. +Oddanie św. Wojciecha do magdeburskiej szkoły katedralnej jest ikonograficznym nawiązaniem do powierzenia św. Remakla przez rodziców św. Eligiuszowi. +Jahwe ukazujący się śpiącymi Salomonowi z Biblii z Saint-Vaast nawiązuje do nocnego widzenia św. Wojciecha. +Źródło inspiracji. +Za źródło pośredniej inspiracji uznaje się Drzwi Bernwarda z Hildesheim ponieważ skomponowane są według identycznej zasady. Być może znane ze szkicowników, iluminowanych rękopisów zachowanych w katedrze gnieźnieńskiej. Jeśli przyjmie się, że wykonawcy przybyli znad Mozy, możliwe jest kopiowanie drzwi z rękopisów. +Zachętą do przetworzenia żywota gnieźnieńskiego patrona z dwuwymiarowego rysunku na relief plastyczny mogą być okazałe relikwiarze ozdobione reliefami ilustrującymi historie życia świętych (relikwiarz św. Hadelina z Vise czy zaginione, znane jedynie z rysunków, retabulum ołtarzowe św. Remakla ze Stavelot). +Goldschmidt widzi związki stylistyczne pomiędzy drzwiami a miniaturami czeskimi. Dopatruje się ich w żywocie św. Wacława, XI-wiecznym ewangeliarzu króla Wratysława, ilustrowany rękopisach Hildeberta z 1136 roku. Tarczownik z „Ewangeliasza praskiego” przypomina Prusów ze sceny przyjazdu św. Wojciecha. Niezwykle rzadko tez przedstawiano rodzaj płaszcza spiętego na ramieniu i tworzącego odstająca fałdę na plecach tworząc rodzaj kaptura, jaki pojawia się na autoportrecie Hildeberta z kodeksu w praskiej bibliotece metropolitarnej, jest także strojem ojca św. Wojciecha, powtórzonym włącznie z układem fałd. +Widzi też związek z rękopisami południowoniemieckimi (antyfonarz ze scenami z życia św. Ruperta z opactwa św. Piotra +w Salzburgu). Należy jednak pamiętać, że z kręgu malarstwa miniaturowego praskie malarstwo rękopisów iluminowanych jest przedłużeniem bawarskiej „klasztornej szkoły”, i że ulega wpływowi ośrodka salzburskiego. +Za „czeskim” źródłem inspiracji przemawia fakt, że Praga była obok Gniezna drugim ośrodkiem kultu św. Wojciecha. +Bibliografia. +Literatura dodatkowa +Proces endoenergetyczny + +Proces endoenergetyczny – proces fizyczny, w którym pochłaniana jest energia co obniża temperaturę układu i otoczenia (w zależności od układu termodynamicznego). Przykładem procesu endoenergetycznego jest chemiczna reakcja endoenergetyczna. +Zobacz też: proces egzoenergetyczny +Proces egzoenergetyczny + +Proces egzoenergetyczny – proces fizyczny, w którym wydzielana jest energia co podnosi temperaturę układu i otoczenia (w zależności od układu termodynamicznego). Przykładem procesu egzoenergetycznego jest chemiczna reakcja egzoenergetyczna. +Zobacz też: proces endoenergetyczny. +Strzelcy Siczowi + +Strzelcy Siczowi (ukr.: "Січові стрільці") – jedna z regularnych formacji armii Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej w latach 1917-1919, tworzone na Ukrainie od 1917 z Ukraińców galicyjskich, później także z Ukraińców naddnieprzańskich. +Galicyjsko-bukowiński kureń Strzelców Siczowych był organizowany w Kijowie w listopadzie 1917 z jeńców ukraińskich pochodzących z armii austro-węgierskiej, którzy chcieli bronić Ukraińskiej Centralnej Rady przed atakiem bolszewików. Dowódcą był sotnik Ołeksandr Łysenko. Strzelcy Siczowi brali udział w styczniu 1918 w bojach pod Bachmaczem i w Kijowie, potem osłaniali urząd URL podczas wycofywania do Żytomierza. +Od tego czasu Strzelcami do końca istnienia dowodził płk Jewhen Konowalec. Po zdobyciu Kijowa 1 marca 1918 1 Kureń SS zatrzymał się w Kijowie w celu ochrony porządku i rozrósł się w pułk w składzie 2 pieszych kureni i jednego zapasowego, zwiadu konnego i baterii armat. Liczył 3000 podoficerów i żołnierzy ( w tym 1/3 Naddnieprzańców). +Po odmowie Pułku przedłużenia służby po przewrocie hetmańskim, Niemcy go rozbroili, a żołnierzy rozpuścili do domów. Większość tych żołnierzy przeszła na służbę do dywizji zaporoskiej , w której w 2 pułku piechoty (dowódca - płk Petro Bołboczan) utworzyli 3 kureń. Pod koniec sierpnia 1918 hetman Pawło Skoropadski wyraził zgodę na formowanie Zagonu Strzelców Siczowych, a na miejsce formowania wyznaczył Białą Cerkiew. W skład Zagonu wchodziły : 1 kureń piechoty (złożony z 4 sotni), sotnia karabinów maszynowych, zwiad konny, bateria armat, oddział techniczny. Stan oddziału wynosił 59 podoficerów i 1187 żołnierzy (bojowy – 46 podoficerów i 816 żołnierzy). +Stopniowo ich jednostki wzrastały od batalionu do korpusu. Korpus Strzelców Siczowych był podstawą powstania przeciw hetmanowi Pawłowi Skoropadskiemu w grudniu 1918. +Strzelcy Siczowi walczyli następnie przeciw bolszewikom i siłom Armii Ochotniczej Białych Rosjan dowodzonym przez gen. Antona Denikina. +4 grudnia 1919 w Nowej Czantorii koło Lubara odbyła się odprawa, której przewodniczył Symon Petlura. Postanowiono na niej, że ataman Petlura wraz z rządem URL przejdzie na stronę polską. Część wojska pod dowództwem gen. Omelianowycza-Pawłenki miała stworzyć samodzielną grupę, przeznaczoną do działań partyzanckich na tyłach armii Denikina i Armii Czerwonej. Pozostała część wojska, w tym 6-tysięczna grupa Strzelców Siczowych, miała przeprowadzić samodemobilizację. 5 grudnia rząd z atamanem wyjechał do Warszawy, i zaraz po wyjeździe, w nocy z 5/6 grudnia, wojska polskie łamiąc rozejm wkroczyły do Lubara i Nowej Czantorii, rozbroiły i aresztowały Strzelców Siczowych, internując ich w obozach w Łucku i Równem na Wołyniu. Wiosną 1920 roku zezwolono na opuszczenie obozu tym żołnierzom, którzy zrezygnowali ze służby wojskowej. +Oficerami Strzelców Siczowych byli między innymi: płk Andrij Melnyk, płk Marko Bezruczko, ppłk Jurko Otmarsztejn, płk Roman Daszkewycz, płk Roman Suszko, kpt Wasyl Kuczabśkyj, kpt Iwan Andruch, kpt Mychajło Matczak, kpt Jarosław Czyż, kpt Iwan Czornyj. +Ikonoklazm + +Ikonoklazm (gr. "eikōn" – "obraz"; "klao" – "łamać", "obrazoburstwo") – ruch szerzący się w VIII-IX wieku na terenach Bizancjum i państwa Franków oraz w Niderlandach w XVI w. +Wprowadzenie. +Teologiczny problem prezentowania sacrum przewija się w trzech religiach monoteistycznych. Wszystkie trzy przypisują transcendencję do dziedziny sacrum, co sprawia, że zajmuje ona miejsce "poza" i "ponad" widzialnymi sprawami ludzkimi. +"Nie będziesz czynił żadnej rzeźby ani żadnego obrazu tego, co jest na niebie wysoko, ani tego, co jest na ziemi nisko, ani tego, co jest w wodach pod ziemią. Nie będziesz oddawał im pokłonu i nie będziesz im służył, ponieważ Ja Pan, twój Bóg, jestem Bogiem zazdrosnym, który karze występek ojców na synach do trzeciego i czwartego pokolenia względem tych, którzy Mnie nienawidzą. " (Wj 20,4-5, Biblia Tysiąclecia, III wydanie). +Z drugiej strony, według doktryny katolickiej i prawosławnej, zakaz kultu obrazów miał ścisły związek ze Starym Przymierzem (zob. Pwt 4:15 - Bóg nie objawił się Żydom w widzialnej postaci), dlatego uznają one kult obrazów za mający uzasadnienie biblijne - w Nowym Testamencie. Jezus jest bowiem "obrazem Boga niewidzialnego" (Kol 1:15), kto zobaczył Jego, zobaczył i Ojca (por. J 14:9). +Protestanci nie uznają tej interpretacji, uważając ją za nadużycie, a sam kult obrazów za sprzeczny z przykazaniami Bożymi. +Jeśli chodzi o islam – zakaz przedstawiania boskości wynika z zakazu idolatrii, w szczególności kultu świętych głazów lub kamieni ustawianych (w celach kultowych), których istnienie potwierdzają badania archeologiczne prowadzone na terenach zamieszkanych przez pustynne plemiona koczowników i pasterzy. Zakaz przedstawiania Boga został rozszerzony i objął też oblicze proroka. +Chrześcijaństwo. +Ikonoklazm, czyli "Kłótnia o Obrazy", był ruchem wrogim kultowi ikon, świętych obrazów, które stanowiły przedmiot adoracji we Wschodnim Cesarstwie rzymskim. +Na początku IV wieku n.e., krótko przed soborem w Nicei, regionalny synod w Illiberis stwierdzał: "Orzeka się, że nie powinno być w kościele obrazów, żeby to, co jest czczone i adorowane, nie było namalowane na ścianie". +Pojawił się w VIII i IX w. i przejawiał w prowadzonym na szeroką skalę niszczeniu ikonostasów, fresków, a nawet klasztorów i prześladowaniem osób adorujących ikony (ikonoduli). +Pierwszy ikonoklazm (726-787). +Cesarz Leon III Izauryjczyk, panujący w latach 717 do 741, w roku 726 nakazał usunąć obraz Chrystusa, który znajdował się nad drzwiami pałacu cesarskiego, zastępując go zwykłym krzyżem. Dało to początek ikonoklazmowi. Zakazał czczenia ikon Chrystusa, Dziewicy Marii i świętych i nakazał zniszczenie istniejących wizerunków. +Spór na temat ikonoklazmu narodził się wskutek sprzeciwu wobec niszczenia ikonostasów ze strony licznych chrześcijan, zarówno żyjących we Wschodnim Cesarstwie rzymskim, jak i poza nim. +Święty Jan z Damaszku stał na czele jednego z tych ruchów sprzeciwu. Jednak pozycja cesarza zyskała wsparcie w wyniku sukcesów politycznych: oblężenie Konstantynopola w latach 717-718, koniec płacenia daniny plemionom arabskim. Syn Leona III, Konstantyn V (cesarz w latach 741-775) odnosił również sukcesy militarne, co wzmocniło jego pozycję przeciw ikonodulom. +Sobór nicejski II w roku 787 zezwolił ponownie na kult obrazów, zakazując surowo handlowania nimi. +Uzasadnienie doktrynalne było następujące: skoro Chrystus się wcielił, wolno przedstawiać fizyczną postać Syna Bożego i malować wizerunki świętych. +Drugi ikonoklazm (813-843). +Leon V, (cesarz od 813 do 820), natychmiast po objęciu tronu, wprowadził drugi ikonoklazm i to bardziej rygorystyczny od poprzedniego. Jego polityka była kontynuowana przez Michała II i Teofila. Wdowa po Teofilu, Teodora, regentka na rzecz nieletniego syna Michała III, proklamowała 11 marca 843, podczas uroczystości w Hagia Sophia, powrót do ikonolatrii, pod warunkiem że Teofil nie zostanie potępiony. Od tego czasu, na pamiątkę zwycięstwa nad ikonoklazmem, pierwsza niedziela wielkiego postu jest czczona przez Cerkwie prawosławne jako święto "Triumfu Prawosławia" ("Triumfu Ortodoksji"). +Jako jedyny symbol adoracji cesarze usiłowali narzucić monogram Chrystusa w postaci dwóch pierwszych liter jego imienia: greckich X i P (Khi i Rho). Była to religia jedynego Boga, w której postać Chrystusa zajmuje miejsce bliższe świętym. Można więc także interpretować ikonoklazm jako próbę zjednoczenia pod flagą cesarską wszystkich wschodnich chrześcijan w celu wzmocnienia sił wobec poważnego zagrożenia zewnętrznego. Gdy zagrożenie ustało, znikła też potrzeba ikonoklazmu. +Ikonoklazm w Galii (do X w.). +W Europie Zachodniej biskupi katoliccy otwarcie sprzeciwiali się kultowi podobizn i obrazów, szczególnie pod rządami Karolingów. W następstwie Synodu Frankfurckiego (794) zwołanego przez Karola Wielkiego, potępione zostały zarówno ikonodulia, jak i ikonoklazm – podkreślono edukacyjną wartość wizerunków, jednocześnie zakazując ich czci. Z kolei Ludwik I Pobożny ustanowił w 817 arcybiskupem Turynu swojego zaufanego teologa Klaudiusza, który nie tylko otwarcie zwalczał adorację obrazów, ale także wyrażał w swych dziełach typowo protestanckie poglądy (zbawienie z łaski, przez wiarę; modlitwa wyłącznie skierowana do Boga, znaczenie Eucharystii itp. negował np. odpuszczenie grzechów dzięki pielgrzymkom, nieomylność papieży i Magisterium). Innym znanym ikonoklastą galijskim był Agobard z Lyonu. Biskupi z Galii i Hiszpanii ponownie potępili kult obrazów na synodzie w Paryżu w 824. Ikonoklazm na Zachodzie ustał dopiero około X wieku, kiedy rządy objęli władcy całkowicie poddani papieżowi. +Funkcja rozkładu energii + +Funkcja rozkładu energii to rodzaj funkcji rozkładu podajacej prawdopodobieństwo lub gęstość prawdopodobieństwa wystapienia w zjawisku fizycznym określonej wartości energii, np. energii adsorpcji. +Ciągła funkcja rozkładu. +Jeśli funkcja rozkładu energii "χ"("E"), czyli gęstość prawdopodobieństwa wystąpienia energii "E", jest ciągła, wówczas można wyrazić ją wzorem +gdzie +Przy czym z warunku normalizacji wynika, że +Dyskretna funkcja rozkładu. +a warunek normalizacji narzuca zależność +CCR + +CCR (ang. "Comparison Category Rating") – siedmiostopniowa skala oceny jakości próbek dźwiękowych. Jedna ze skal jakości metody MOS (ang. Mean Category Rating). +Słuchacz porównuje jakość dwu próbek dźwiękowych. Dokonuje tego przez subiektywne określenie jakości drugiej próbki dźwiękowej w odniesieniu do pierwszej. +Próbki dźwiękowe odsłuchiwane są tylko jeden raz, w parach A - B. +A - pierwsza próbka dźwiękowa, +B - druga próbka dźwiękowa. +Po odsłuchaniu materiałów, słuchacz przyznaje jedną spośród siedmiu ocen. +Nizina Północnosyberyjska + +Nizina Północnosyberyjska ("Siewiero-Sibirskaja nizmiennost") – rozległa nizina w azjatyckiej części Rosji, pomiędzy ujściowym odcinkiem Jeniseju na zachodzie i rzeką Leną na wschodzie, a Górami Byrranga i wybrzeżem Morza Arktycznego na północy i Wyżyną Środkowosyberyjską na południu. +Długość ok. 1800 km, szerokość do 600 km. +Powierzchnia zasłana jest mezozoicznymi osadami morskimi i utworami polodowcowymi. Teren pagórkowaty, miejscami występują wzgórza o wysokości ponad 500 metrów n.p.m. Liczne tereny podmokłe i jeziora min. Jezioro Tajmyr. Roślinność tundrowa, ku południu przechodząca w lasotundrę. Według niektórych źródeł do Niziny Północnosyberyjskiej zalicza się również leżące dalej ku wschodzie niziny aż po ujście rzeki Kołymy: Nizina Jańsko-Indygirska i Nizina Kołymska. +Tworzy rozległe zapadlisko tektoniczne, wypełnione osadami mezozoicznymi i młodszymi, położone na północy od Wyżyny Środkowosyberyjskiej. Powierzchnia niziny jest płaska, przykryta miąższą warstwą osadów lodowcowych. Panuje tu klimat subpolarny, roślinność reprezentuje tundra, na południu lasotundra. Liczne jeziora oraz bagna związane są z występowaniem wiecznej marzłoci. Obszar odwadniany jest przez Piasinę, Chatangę, Anabar. W części wschodniej nizina dochodzi bezpośrednio do Morza Łaptiewów, na zachodzie zajmuje południową część półwyspu Tajmyr. +Lamassu + +Lamassu – w sztuce asyryjskiej posąg wyobrażający skrzydlatego byka o ludzkiej, brodatej twarzy, czyli tzw. istotę zoomorficzną. Ta monumentalna rzeźba wywodzi się jeszcze z tradycji sumeryjskiej, gdzie byk łączony był z bogiem Księżyca Nanną, ale bezpośrednio Asyryjczycy przejęli je od Hetytów. Odkryto je podczas wykopalisk niemal w każdej stolicy asyryjskiej (Kalchu, Dur-Szarrukin i Niniwie). +Głowę lamassu zazwyczaj zdobi tiara z rogami symbolizującymi jego potęgę. Broda z kolei symbolizuje mądrość, a oznaką magicznej mocy jest pas, którym jest opasany jego tułów. Niektóre lamassu miały lwie łapy, co miało dodawać im cech tego zwierzęcia, jest to jednak późniejsza tradycja. Posągi lamassu wykonane były w technice reliefu przechodzącego w rzeźbę pełną. Najczęściej miały rozmiary ok. 3-4 m. +Dość ciekawym rozwiązaniem było przedstawienie lamassu z pięcioma nogami, jeśli je wszystkie policzyć. Wynikało to z pewnej konwencji przedstawiania tego typu posągów w sztuce asyryjskiej, według której z jednej strony lamassu miał pełnić funkcję rzeźby frontowej, a więc patrząc z przodu widziało się głowę, tors i dwie nogi, które tworzyły stojącą, nieruchomą postać strażnika, przy niewidocznej dalszej części – czyli figurę w pełni statyczną; z kolei patrząc z boku widziało się figurę kroczącą (z czterema nogami), co dawało efekt poruszającego się naprzód lamassu jako figury dynamicznej. +Lamassu, zazwyczaj w parach, znajdowały się przy monumentalnych wejściach do pałaców oraz w samych pałacach przy wejściach, np. do sal tronowych, gdzie miały pełnić funkcję strażników. W kulturze Mezopotamii był to duch opiekuńczy. Ten element zdobniczy został przejęty przez sztukę perską. +Ferromagnetyzm + +Ferromagnetyzm – zjawisko, w którym materia wykazuje własne, spontaniczne namagnesowanie. Jest jedną z najsilniejszych postaci magnetyzmu i jest odpowiedzialny za większość magnetycznych zachowań spotykanych w życiu codziennym. Razem z ferrimagnetyzmem jest podstawą istnienia wszystkich magnesów trwałych (jak i zauważalnego przyciągania innych ferromagnetycznych metali przez magnesy trwałe). +Materiały ferromagnetyczne. +Materiały, które wykazują ferromagnetyzm, zwane są ferromagnetykami. Jest bardzo dużo ich krystalicznych przedstawicieli: żelazo, kobalt, nikiel oraz w niższych temperaturach również gadolin, terb, dysproz, holm i erb wśród pierwiastków oraz wiele stopów i związków chemicznych. Tabela po prawej ukazuje reprezentatywną ich listę, wraz z punktami Curie - temperaturami, powyżej których tracą one właściwości ferromagnetyczne. +Ferromagnetyczne stopy metali, których składniki w czystej formie nie wykazują ferromagnetyzmu, nazywane są stopami Heuslera. +Można również wytworzyć amorficzny (niekrystaliczny, bezpostaciowy) ferromagnetyczny stop metaliczny poprzez bardzo szybkie ochłodzenie płynnego stopu, co skutkuje niemal izotropowymi własnościami magnetycznymi. W zależności od składu chemicznego i obróbki cieplnej amorfiki mogą wykazywać bardzo niską koercję magnetyczną (np. poniżej 1 A/m), wysoką względną przenikalność magnetyczną (do wartości 106) oraz małą stratność właściwą z uwagi na niewielką grubość taśmy (co ogranicza prądy wirowe). Typowym takim materiałem jest stop metali przejściowych (zazwyczaj Fe, Co czy Ni, 80%) z półmetalami (B, C, Si, P), obniżającymi temperaturę topnienia stopu i ułatwiającymi osiągnięcie fazy amorficznej. +Jednym z przykładów takiego amorficznego stopu jest komercyjny stop "Vitrovac 6025" (Co66Fe4Mo2B11.5Si16.5) z temp. Curie 483 K i magnetyczną polaryzacją nasycenia 0.55 T w temp. pokojowej (dla porównania: czyste żelazo: 1043K i 2.15 T). +Wyjaśnienie fizyczne. +Atom jako dipol magnetyczny. +Spin elektronu oraz jego orbitalny moment pędu wytwarza magnetyczny moment dipolowy. Elektron w ruchu, jako obdarzony ładunkiem elektrycznym, wytwarza pole magnetyczne. +W mechanice klasycznej ten układ odpowiada kulce, posiadającej ujemny ładunek elektryczny, krążącej wokół własnej osi (spin) oraz krążącej wokół jądra posiadającego dodatni ładunek elektryczny. Oba zjawiska podobnie jak kołowy przewodnik z prądem wytwarzają pole magnetyczne, ale elektron jako cząstka kwantowa posiada wyraźne różnice - spin może przyjmować tylko dwie wartości (umownie określane jako "góra" i "dół"), a orbitalny moment magnetyczny przyjmuje tylko określone wartości. +W wielu materiałach (ściślej tych, których atomy posiadają zapełnione powłoki elektronowe) całkowity moment dipolowy wszystkich elektronów wynosi zero (tzw. "sparowanie" - taka sama liczba spinów "góra" i "dół" powoduje wzajemne znoszenie się ich momentów). Jedynie atomy z częściowo zapełnioną powłoką (niesparowanymi spinami) posiadają wypadkowy moment magnetyczny różny od zera. Dipole te ustawiają się równolegle do linii zewnętrznego pola, ale z ustawienia tego wytrącane są przez drgania termiczne. W takich materiałach wytwarza się wewnętrzne pole magnetyczne skierowane zgodnie z zewnętrznym polem magnetycznym. Materiały te to paramagnetyki (substancje o przeciwnych własnościach to diamagnetyki). +Wśród paramagnetyków są takie substancje, w których oddziaływania między atomami powodują ustawianie sąsiednich dipoli magnetycznych w tym samym kierunku, nawet bez zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego, co sprawia że wszystkie dipole magnetyczne ustawione są w tym samym kierunku. Materiały te (ferromagnetyki) posiadają pole magnetyczne pomimo braku zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego (namagnesowanie spontaniczne). Drgania cieplne sieci wytrącają atomy z ich uporządkowania, aż w pewnej temperaturze zwanej temperaturą Curie drgania sieci są tak duże, że oddziaływanie atomów nie jest w stanie utrzymać jednakowego ustawienia dipoli magnetycznych, materiał przestaje być ferromagnetykiem. Utrzymanie dużych obszarów jednakowego namagnesowania wytwarza pole magnetyczne w dużym obszarze co jest stanem o bardzo dużej energii, dlatego kryształ może zmienić namagnesowanie części swoich obszarów tak by pole magnetyczne na zewnątrz ciała było jak najmniejsze, tak zachowuje się większość ferromagnetyków. Obszary o jednakowym namagnesowaniu nazywamy domenami magnetycznymi. W zależności od materiału domeny te mogą łatwo (ferromagnetyki miękkie) lub trudno (ferromagnetyki twarde) zmieniać kierunek namagnesowania oraz granice domen. +W ferromagnetykach miękkich bez obecności zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego domeny ustawiają się tak, by zminimalizować energię ciała jako całości. Wokół ciał takich pozostaje tylko niewielkie pole magnetyczne. +W ferromagnetykach twardych wykonanych w obecności silnego zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego uporządkowanie domen pozostaje nawet po usunięciu zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego i nie zmienia się, te materiały znane są jako magnesy trwałe +Domeny magnetyczne. +Nawiązując do klasycznej teorii elektromagnetyzmu, dwa pobliskie dipole magnetyczne powinny ustawiać się w przeciwległych, tzn. antyrównoległych kierunkach, analogicznie do dwóch swobodnych magnesów (co utworzyłoby materiał antyferromagnetyczny). Jednak w ferromagnetyku, gdzie między elektronami zachodzi oddziaływanie elektrostatyczne, stan układu może być bardziej stabilny i energetycznie korzystniejszy wówczas, gdy spinowe momenty magnetyczne elektronów ustawią się w tym samym kierunku (równolegle). Ich energia elektrostatyczna zostaje obniżona i jej różnica nazywana jest energią wymiany, a całe zjawisko - wymiennym oddziaływaniem wzajemnym. Takie grupy dipoli ukierunkowanych równolegle tworzą obszary spontanicznego namagnesowania, zwane domenami magnetycznymi (obszarami Weissa). Materia w domenie jest więc całkowicie namagnesowana w jednym kierunku, zwykle wzdłuż jednej z głównych osi krystalograficznych (w metalu). +Jednak w większej skali (po wielu tysiącach jonów) przewaga energii wymiany ustępuje na korzyść klasycznej tendencji dipoli do ustawiania się antyrównolegle. Wyjaśnia to, dlaczego nienamagnesowany ferromagnetyk nie posiada wypadkowego pola magnetycznego (bądź posiada niewielkie) - momenty magnetyczne wszystkich, bezładnie zorientowanych domen znoszą się, dając zerowy bądź zbliżony do zera wypadkowy moment magnetyczny całego ciała. Przejście pomiędzy dwiema domenami, gdzie magnetyzacja zmienia kierunek, nazywane jest granicą domenową (np. granica Blocha/Néela, zależnie od tego, czy magnetyzacja zmienia się równolegle/prostopadle do powierzchni domeny) i jest stopniowym przejściem w skali atomowej (obejmuje dystans ok. 300 jonów żelaza). +Istnienie domen zostało potwierdzone doświadczalnie przez N.S. Akułowa i jego zespół, mają one rozmiary liniowe rzędu 10-5m-10-4m. +Ferromagnetyk w polu magnetycznym. +Zwykły kawałek materiału ferromagnetycznego (np. żelaza) nie posiada wypadkowego momentu magnetycznego. Jeżeli jednak zostanie on umieszczony w zewnętrznym polu magnetycznym, następuje namagnesowanie, czyli uporządkowanie domen - taki ruch ich ścianek, aby możliwie największa objętość ciała posiadała momenty magnetyczne skierowane równolegle do kierunku pola magnetycznego. Rozmiary domen początkowo namagnesowanych w kierunku zbliżonym do kierunku pola magnesującego zwiększają się kosztem innych, przyłączając sąsiednie atomy. W silnym polu domeny o innych kierunkach pierwotnego namagnesowania obracają się. Ponieważ ruch ścianek domen jest procesem skokowym, obserwuje się charakterystyczną schodkową strukturę krzywej namagnesowania w funkcji zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego (zjawisko Barkhausena). +Wewnątrz ciała ferromagnetycznego pole może setki, nawet tysiące razy przewyższać przyłożone pole zewnętrzne. Domeny pozostaną jednakowo zorientowane nawet wówczas, gdy zewnętrzne pole zostanie usunięte, tworząc trwałą magnetyzację, która, jako funkcja zewnętrznego pola jest uwidoczniona na krzywej histerezy. Jednak wypadkowa magnetyzacja może być zniszczona poprzez podgrzanie, a następnie powolne oziębienie (czyli wyżarzanie) materiału, bez wpływu zewnętrznego pola. +Punkt Curie. +Stopień samorzutnego namagnesowania (istnienia domen), całkowity w temperaturze zera bezwzględnego, w miarę wzrostu temperatury maleje - zwiększają się termiczne oscylacje atomów, "rywalizując" z ich ferromagnetyczną tendencją do odpowiedniego ustawiania się. Kiedy temperatura przekroczy pewną, dla danego materiału ściśle określoną granicę, zwaną punktem Curie, następuje przejście fazowe drugiego rodzaju i ciało traci swoje właściwości ferromagnetyczne, stając się paramagnetykiem. +Podstawy współczesnej teorii ferromagnetyzmu stworzyli, niezależnie od siebie, W. Heisenberg oraz J.I. Frenkel. +Niezwykły ferromagnetyzm. +W 2004 r. podano do informacji, że nanopianka, odmiana alotropowa węgla, wykazuje ferromagnetyzm. Efekt ten znika po kilku godzinach w temperaturze pokojowej, ale trwa dłużej w temperaturach niższych. Materiał ten jest jednocześnie półprzewodnikiem. Uważa się, że podobnie utworzone materiały, jak np. z boru czy azotu, mogą również być ferromagnetykami. +Akrosom + +Akrosom – jest to przekształcony lizosom w przedniej części główki plemnika. +Powstaje z aparatu Golgiego spermatydy i jest swoistą odmianą lizosomu. W pęcherzykach aparatu Golgiego pojawiają się ziarenka węglowodanów, następuje fuzja ich błon i wytworzenie jednego dużego pęcherzyka. Pęcherzyk okrywa część powierzchni jądra przyszłej główki plemnika. Akrosom zawiera nie tylko węglowodany, ale także białka enzymatyczne, w tym hydrolazy. +Lista turystycznych jaskiń Polski + +Obecnie w Polsce istnieje 18 jaskiń, które są przystosowane dla ruchu turystycznego (posiadają odpowiednią infrastrukturę lub prowadzi przez nie szlak turystyczny). Większość z nich znajduje się w Tatrach (6) i na Wyżynie Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej (6); pozostałe w Sudetach (3) po jednej w Beskidach, Górach Świętokrzyskich i na Pomorzu Gdańskim. +Karol Foks + +Karol Foks, właśc. Karl Fox (ur. 26 października 1878 w Biskupcu Reszelskim, zm. 15 stycznia 1953 w Białymstoku) - proboszcz niemieckiej parafii rzymskokatolickiej św. Alberta w Ełku (dziś - katedra pw. św. Wojciecha w Ełku) sprawujący swoją funkcję nieprzerwanie od czasów pierwszej do końca drugiej wojny światowej. W 1945 stał się pierwszym katolickim proboszczem w polskim Ełku, gdzie sprawował swoją funkcję do 1946. +Był synem Karola i Marii z domu Szotowski. Studiował w seminarium w Braniewie, święcenia kapłańskie przyjął 31 stycznia 1904. Na pierwszą placówkę duszpasterską został skierowany w charakterze kapelana (wikariusza) do Klebarka Wielkiego, skąd już 26 marca 1904 przeszedł do Barczewa; tam był najpierw drugim, a od sierpnia 1907 pierwszym wikariuszem, a 20 grudnia 1910 przejął zarząd parafią jako komendariusz. Od października 1912 był proboszczem w Wielbarku, gdzie pozostawał również w czasie wejścia wojsk rosyjskich. Nominację na proboszcza ełckiego otrzymał 12 grudnia 1919. +Po przegranym przez Polskę plebiscycie w Ełku w 1920 r. udzielał pomocy i pomagał ukrywać się polskim aktywistom plebiscytowym z powiatu ełckiego zagrożonym represjami oraz deportacją do Polski. W okresie II wojny światowej pomagał polskim robotnikom zbiegłym z robót przymusowych i niemieckim dezerterom. Kontaktował się z nim wywiad AK. +W styczniu 1945, kiedy jego niemieccy parafianie w pośpiechu opuszczali Ełk przed nadciągającą Armią Czerwoną, on pozostał mimo nakazu ewakuacji. Był Niemcem, mówił po polsku z silnym niemieckim akcentem, zyskał jednak sympatię powojennych polskich osadników, a także otrzymał polskie obywatelstwo. W 1946 został przeniesiony - pomimo tego, że chciał pozostać w parafii św. Wojciecha w Ełku - na pierwszego po wojnie proboszcza do Starych Juch. Zmarł w Szpitalu Wojewódzkim w Białymstoku w 1953. +Gimnazjum i Liceum im. Stefana Batorego w Warszawie + +Gimnazjum i Liceum im. Stefana Batorego w Warszawie – gimnazjum i liceum ogólnokształcące w Warszawie. +Historia szkoły. +Gimnazjum im. Stefana Batorego w Warszawie zostało założone 1 września 1918 jako "Królewsko-Polskie Gimnazjum im. Stefana Batorego" przez Ministra Wyznań Religijnych i Oświecenia Publicznego Antoniego Ponikowskiego, przy istotnym wkładzie prof. Tadeusza Łopuszańskiego. +28 września 1918 r. poświęcony został uroczyście pierwszy gmach szkolny przy ul. Kapucyńskiej 21 w Warszawie. Pierwszym dyrektorem szkoły został wybitny pedagog Zdzisław Rudzki, rekomendowany przez ministra Ponikowskiego. Warunki lokalowe nie pozwalały na efektywne prowadzenie wielu zajęć, np. nauk matematyczno-przyrodniczych, dlatego też, już w 1922 rozpoczęto budowę nowego, znacznie większego gmachu przy ul. Myśliwieckiej 6. Projektantem obiektu był wybitny architekt prof. Tadeusz Tołwiński. Przez cztery lata po rozpoczęciu nauki w nowym budynku (15 września 1924), porządkowano i zagospodarowywano teren wokół niego (stworzono m.in. ogród botaniczny). W tym samym czasie laboratoria szkoły zostały wyposażone w bardzo nowoczesny, jak na tamte czasy, sprzęt. Unikatowe było obserwatorium astronomiczne, umieszczone w wieżyczce w północnym skrzydle budynku (obecnie zamknięte). W podziemiach szkoły znajdował się również dostępny dla uczniów basen, przez wiele lat pozostający jedyną w Polsce wewnętrzną pływalnią szkoły średniej. +Szkoła od samego początku wyróżniała się także doskonałym gronem nauczycielskim. Wśród wielu wybitnych pedagogów, warto by wspomnieć Stanisława Młodożeńca (język polski), Stanisława Arnolda (historia), Stanisława Malca (fizyka) czy Gustawa Wuttke (geografia). Wysoki poziom szkoły pomagali utrzymać jej dyrektorzy: Zdzisław Rudzki, Wiktor Ambroziewicz czy Mieczysław Radwański. Szkoła działała także w czasie drugiej wojny światowej, organizując tajne komplety. W budynku szkoły działała zaś hitlerowska szkoła podstawowa "Deutsche Schule" (1939/1940) oraz średnia "Deutsche Oberschule" (1940/1945). +Po wojnie, ówczesne władze zmieniły szkole nazwę na "Państwowe Gimnazjum i Liceum im. Stefana Batorego", nadały numer drugi i status szkoły koedukacyjnej. Zajęcia odbywały się w przedwojennym budynku szkoły, pomimo zniszczenia jego frontowej części. +W 1952 roku szkole zmieniono nazwę na "X Szkołę Ogólnokształcącą Stopnia Licealnego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Dzieci" i przeniesiona ją do innego gmachu (ul. Czerniakowska 128). Budynek przy ul. Myśliwieckiej 6 został siedzibą Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej w Warszawie. +W 1958 szkoła powróciła do gmachu na ul. Myśliwieckiej i do poprzedniej nazwy szkoły, oficjalnie brzmiącej "II Liceum im. Stefana Batorego". +W stanie wojennym, w lutym 1982 r. uczniowie szkoły zasłynęli ze zorganizowania protestu oficjalnie potępiającego pacyfikację strajku w kopalni "Wujek". Trzynastego każdego miesiąca uczniowie przychodzili ubrani na czarno i na dużych przerwach milczeli. W 1982 ówczesna dyrektor szkoły Teresa Garncarzyk wezwała do szkoły funkcjonariuszy Służby Bezpieczeństwa, którzy na oczach kolegów wyprowadzili skutego w kajdanki ucznia Piotra Cichockiego. Wraz z nim zatrzymano również jego koleżankę Ewę Bogaczyk. Cichocki był następnie sądzony za dystrybucję ulotek "Solidarności". W sądzie bronił go wybitny adwokat Edward Wende, któremu udało się doprowadzić do uniewinnienia chłopca pomimo obciążających zeznań składanych przez dyrektorkę Liceum. +W 1996 roku podczas wizyty w Polsce, szkołę odwiedziła królowa Elżbieta II. +W 1997 roku podczas wizyty w Polsce, szkołę odwiedził Michael Jackson. +W 1999 roku wraz ze zmianą ustroju szkolnego przy Liceum im. Stefana Batorego utworzono gimnazjum ("Gimnazjum Nr 33 im. Stefana Batorego"). Obie szkoły nazwano wtedy "Zespół Szkół Nr 6 Gminy Centrum m.st. Warszawy". W 2004 miasto zmieniło nazwę zespołu na "Zespół Szkół Nr 66 m.st. Warszawy". Mimo istnienia tych nazw zazwyczaj używana jest przedwojenna nazwa szkoły – "Gimnazjum i Liceum im. Stefana Batorego". +W 2005 roku powstał chór szkolny "Batory" pod nadzorem dyrektora artystycznego Jerzego Antepowicza, który regularnie występuje na wszystkich ważnych uroczystościach szkolnych i daje koncerty okolicznościowe w szkole. W latach 2006-2009 dyrygentem chóru był Sławomir Leszczyński. +Od 2005 realizowany jest w szkole w jednej z klas program IB, początkowo pod nadzorem Ewy Dąbrowskiej a następnie Joanny Szcześniak. W roku szkolnym 2011/2012 wicedyrektorem - koordynatorem programu IB był Michał Lis, lecz w roku szkolnym 2012/2013 na stanowisko kordynatora programu IB wróciła pani Szcześniak. +W 2006 roku kolejna zmiana nazwy szkół: "Gimnazjum Nr 33 im. Stefana Batorego z oddziałami dwujęzycznymi" oraz "II Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Stefana Batorego z oddziałami dwujęzycznymi". Nazwa Zespołu Szkół nie uległa zmianie. +W 2006 roku miała również miejsce I edycja Unikatowego Festiwalu Offowego, dziś jednej z największych imprez tego typu w Warszawie. +W dniach 17-19 października 2008 odbyły się uroczystości 90-lecia powstania szkoły i 475. rocznicy urodzin patrona szkoły, króla Stefana Batorego. W obchodach brała udział prezydent Warszawy Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz. +W 2009 roku odbyła się I edycja symulowanych obrad ONZ dla uczniów szkół średnich, czyli Warsaw Model United Nations. +Stowarzyszenie Wychowanków Gimnazjum i Liceum im. Stefana Batorego wydało książkę o historii i obyczajach szkoły. Jej tytuł – "Pochodem idziemy..." nawiązuje do jej hymnu stworzonego przy współpracy ucznia, przyszłego kompozytora światowej sławy, Witolda Lutosławskiego, który napisał muzykę, oraz nauczyciela-poety – Stanisława Młodożeńca (słowa). Opowiada o absolwentach przedwojennych (Baczyński, bohaterowie "Kamieni na szaniec" i inni), a także tych powojennych. +Z okazji 90-lecia szkoły został wydany "Przewodnik po Gimnazjum i Liceum imienia Stefana Batorego w Warszawie", który oprócz historii, opisuje aktualne wydarzenia dziejące się w Batorym. +Ernest Świeżawski + +Ernest Świeżawski (Ernest Świeżawski-Sulimczyk) (ur. 30 maja 1843 w Bogusłowicach koło Płońska, zm. 26 grudnia 1919 w Zakopanem), historyk mediewista, historyk medycyny. +Po ukończeniu gimnazjum warszawskiego, rozpoczął studia w Szkole Głównej (1862-1866). W latach 1866-1879 uczył w warszawskich szkołach średnich. Po wprowadzeniu przez władzę rosyjskie do szkół średnich języka rosyjskiego jako wykładowego zrezygnował z pracy. Od 1891 był sekretarzem Urzędu Starszych Zgromadzenia Kupców w Warszawie. Był współredaktorem "Biblioteki Warszawskiej". +Od r. 1863 publikował szereg prac. +Powiat starachowicki + +Powiat starachowicki – powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Starachowice. +Powiat starachowicki istniał także od 9 grudnia 1973 (po przemianowaniu powiatu iłżeckiego) do 31 maja 1975, gdy w wyniku nowego podziału administracyjnego Polski zniesiono wszystkie powiaty. +Gminy. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Brad Pitt + +William Bradley Pitt, znany jako Brad Pitt (ur. 18 grudnia 1963 w Shawnee w stanie Oklahoma) – amerykański aktor i producent filmowy. +Biografia. +Przyszedł na świat w rodzinie baptystów jako najstarszy syn kierownika firmy transportu ciężarowego Williama A. Pitta i szkolnej pedagog Jane Etty Hillhouse. Ma rodzeństwo – brata Douga i siostrę Julie Neal. Dzieciństwo spędził w Springfield w Missouri. W 1982 ukończył szkołę średnią Kickapoo High School w Springfield. W latach 1982-1986 studiował dziennikarstwo ze specjalizacją w reklamie w Missouri School of Journalism przy University of Missouri-Columbia, lecz w 1986, tuż przed zakończeniem studiów, zdecydował się wyjechać do Hollywood. +Miał studiować reklamę i grafikę w Art Center College of Design w Pasadenie, jednak ostatecznie przez sześć lat uczył się aktorstwa pod opieką Roya Londona. W międzyczasie podjął pracę jako kierowca, a także ubrany w kostium wielkiego, grubego i brzydkiego kurczaka reklamował sieć restauracji El Pollo Loco. Pojawiał się na srebrnym ekranie, m.in. w operach mydlanych: NBC "Inny świat" ("Another World", 1987) i CBS "Dallas" (1987-1988) jako przyjaciel córki Jenny Wade Ewing, sitcomie ABC "Dzieciaki, kłopoty i my" ("Growing Pains", 1987-1989) oraz serialach: Fox "21 Jump Street" (1988) z Johnnym Deppem i "Dni Chwały" ("Glory Days", 1990). Na kinowym ekranie zadebiutował rolą uczestnika party w ekranizacji powieści Breta Eastona Ellisa o zblazowanych bogatych nastolatkach z Los Angeles "Mniej niż zero" ("Less Than Zero"1987) z Robertem Downeyem Jr. Był modelem w reklamowym spocie marki Levi's. Przełomem w karierze stała się postać zadziornego i uwodzicielskiego autostopowicza J.D. w filmie "Thelma i Louise" ("Thelma & Louise", 1991) z Geeną Davis i Susan Sarandon. W ekranizacji autobiograficznej powieści Normana Macleana reżyserowanej przez Roberta Redforda "Rzeka życia" ("A River Runs Through It", 1992) zagrał zbuntowanego i lekkomyślnego młodszego syna fanatycznego kaznodziei Kościoła metodystów. +Dzięki kolejnej roli psychopatycznego seryjnego mordercy, prostaka i cynika oczekującego od życia mocnych wrażeń w dramacie kryminalnym "Kalifornia" (1993) odebrał w 1993 nagrodę ShoWest jako Gwiazdor Jutra. Za postać wampira Louisa de Pointe du Laca w kasowym horrorze "Wywiad z wampirem" ("Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles", 1994) Neila Jordana otrzymał dwie nagrody MTV Movie Awards i nominację do nagrody Saturna, ale jednocześnie dostał wraz z Tomem Cruise antynagrodę Złotej Maliny. Rola nieokrzesanego buntownika i niespokojnego duchem Tristana, pełnego pasji jednego z braci Ludlow w melodramacie wojennym "Wichry namiętności" ("Legends of the Fall", 1994) przyniosła mu nagrodę Brązowego Kowboja i nominację do nagrody Złotego Globu. Znakomite recenzje, nagrodę Złotego Globu, Saturna, Blockbuster Entertainment, Universe Reader's Choice Award i nominację do Oscara dla najlepszego aktora drugoplanowego zdobył za kreację obłąkanego syna znanego naukowca i znawcy wirusów w dramacie sci-fi "12 małp" ("Twelve Monkeys", 1995). Natomiast za rolę aroganckiego detektywa w thrillerze "Siedem" ("Se7en", 1995) został uhonorowany nagrodą MTV Movie Award. +W 2001 w filmie ' ("Ocean's Eleven") wcielił się w postać Rusty'ego Ryana; swoją rolę powtórzył sequelach filmu: ' ("Ocean's Twelve", 2004)) i "Ocean's Thirteen" (2007). Za postać Willa Colberta w sitcomie NBC "Przyjaciele" ("Friends", 2001) nominowany był do nagrody Emmy. Użyczył swojego głosu Patchowi Boomhauerowi, bohaterowi animowanego sitcomu Fox "Bobby kontra wapniaki" ("King of the Hill", 2003). Jako producent filmowy dramatu kryminalnego Martina Scorsese "Infiltracja" ("The Departed", 2006) z Jackiem Nicholsonem, Leonardem DiCaprio, Mattem Damonem, Markiem Wahlbergem i Alekiem Baldwinem otrzymał nominację do nagrody Brytyjskiej Akademii Filmowej. Rola turysty na pustyni w Maroko – męża kobiety postrzelonej w autokarze (z którą wybrał się w podróż mającą poprawić ich małżeńskie relacje po stracie dziecka) w dramacie Alejandro Gonzáleza Iñárritu "Babel" (2006) przyniosła mu nominację do nagrody Złotego Globu. W 2008 został obsadzony w roli Chada Feldheimera w filmie Joela i Ethana Coen "Tajne przez poufne" ("Burn After Reading"). +Życie prywatne. +Spotykał się z aktorkami: Shalane McCall (1987), Jill Schoelen (1989), Robin Givens (1989), Juliette Lewis (1989-1993), Thandie Newton (1994), Gwyneth Paltrow (1994-1997) i Sonitą Henry (1998), a także z Jitką Pohlodek (1993), Niemką Katją von Garnier (1997). +29 lipca 2000 poślubił aktorkę Jennifer Aniston, ale pięć lat później, 7 stycznia 2005, ogłosili separację i 2 października 2005 rozwiedli się. +Brad związał się z Angeliną Jolie, która 27 maja 2006 urodziła jego córkę Shiloh Nouvel, a 12 lipca 2008 bliźnięta: Vivienne Marcheline Jolie-Pitt i Knoxa Leona Jolie-Pitta. Oprócz biologicznych dzieci mają jeszcze trójkę adoptowanych: dwóch chłopców Maddoxa Chivana (od 2001) i Paxa Thiena (od 2007) oraz dziewczynkę – Zaharę Marley (od 2006). +W 2005 magazyn "People" umieścił go na liście 50 najpiękniejszych ludzi świata. +Działalność społeczna. +Jest znany ze swojego społecznego zaangażowania. We wrześniu 2008, wraz ze swoją partnerką Angeliną Jolie, przeznaczył 12 mln $ na rzecz walki z wirusem HIV i epidemią AIDS oraz gruźlicą w Etiopii. Przekazał też 100 tys. $ na fundusz walczący z inicjatywą legislacyjną "Proposition 8", której celem było zablokowanie możliwości zawierania małżeństw osób tej samej płci w Kalifornii. +Pitt i Jolie znaleźli się na liście "Stu najbardziej wpływowych ludzi świata" magazynu "Time". Aktorska para dostała wyróżnienia w kategorii "Bohaterowie i pionierzy". Tygodnik "Time" docenił fakt, że nie tylko mówią o wspieraniu biednych krajów, ale aktywnie angażują się w pomoc ich mieszkańcom. +Japet (księżyc) + +Japet ("Iapetus", Saturn VIII) - trzeci co do wielkości księżyc Saturna, najdalszy spośród dużych lodowych księżyców planety. +Odkrycie. +Japet został zaobserwowany po raz pierwszy przez Giovanniego Cassini w roku 1671, po zachodniej stronie planety. Astronom nie zdołał go jednak odnaleźć po wschodniej stronie na początku następnego roku i znalazł go dopiero pod koniec 1671 r., kiedy księżyc ukazał się po stronie zachodniej. Dopiero w 1701 r., za pomocą ulepszonego teleskopu, Cassini zdołał odnaleźć Japeta po wschodniej stronie Saturna, przy czym księżyc okazał się dużo ciemniejszy. Uczony wysnuł wniosek, że zwraca się on stale tą samą stroną w kierunku planety, przy czym półkula widoczna po stronie zachodniej jest dużo jaśniejsza niż druga. Wniosek ten potwierdziły dalsze obserwacje. Ciemny obszar nazwany został na cześć astronoma "Cassini Regio". +Powierzchnia. +Różnica barw obu półkul Japeta jest uderzająca. Tylna (w ruchu dookoła planety) półkula i bieguny księżyca są bardzo jasne, pokryte lodem odbijającym dużą część padającego światła i przez to dużo chłodniejsze niż druga strona. Półkula przednia jest bardzo ciemna, z czerwonawym odcieniem. +Ciemny materiał na powierzchni jest raczej materią przechwyconą z przestrzeni kosmicznej, niż pochodzącą z wnętrza obiektu. Wykazuje on podobieństwo do substancji organicznych obserwowanych na niektórych meteorytach. W strefie "ciemnej" nie widać również tak wielu kraterów meteorytowych jak w jasnej, co świadczy o stałym odnawianiu powłoki i maskowaniu śladów ewentualnych uderzeń meteorów. +Prawdopodobnym źródłem pochodzenia różnic barw na powierzchni księżyca może być odkryty w październiku 2009 roku pierścień Febe. +Kształt księżyca. +Niska gęstość księżyca świadczy o tym, że zbudowany jest on w 4/5 z lodu. Księżyc jest dość duży, żeby być w równowadze hydrostatycznej i mieć kształt bliski kulistemu, jednak ze względu na spłaszczenie i niezwykły grzbiet ciągnący się wzdłuż równika, przypomina on kształtem raczej orzech włoski. Grzbiet ten ma do 13 km wysokości, 20 km szerokości i 1300 km długości. Znajduje się głównie po ciemnej stronie księżyca, z przedłużeniem w postaci kilkudziesięciokilometrowej wysokości gór po jasnej stronie. Jego pochodzenie jest nieznane, ale ze względu na dużą liczbę kraterów można stwierdzić, że jest utworem geologicznie starym. +CTSS MAIL + +CTSS MAIL - polecenie w systemie CTSS służące przesyłaniu wiadomości pomiędzy użytkownikami tego systemu. Jest to poprzednik obecnie stosowanej poczty elektronicznej. Polecenie to zostało dodane do tego systemu w 1965 roku, stosowane było (tak jak system, na którym działało) na MIT. CTSS MAIL stworzone zostało w celu koordynacji prac nad różnymi projektami. Każdy użytkownik w systemie był przydzielony do konkretnego projektu i posiadał własny numer identyfikacyjny. +Polecenie to zostało użyte do wysłania pierwszego spamu. Miał on charakter antywojenny. +Socket 7 + +Socket 7 jest fizyczną i elektryczną specyfikacją gniazd przeznaczonych dla procesorów Pentium firmy Intel oraz dla procesorów z nimi kompatybilnych. Zastąpił gniazdo typu Socket 5, w stosunku do którego dodano jeden dodatkowy pin i wprowadzono drugie napięcie zasilające procesor. Zachowano kompatybilność wsteczną, więc każdy procesor typu Socket 5 może być umieszczony w podstawce Socket 7. +Socket 7 był stosowany dla procesorów Pentium, AMD K5 do K6, Cyrix 6x86, Cyrix M2, IDT WinChip i kompatybilnych. W późniejszym czasie, w roku 1998, Socket 7 zmodyfikowano tak, aby mógł obsługiwać nowe napięcie i większe częstotliwości dla procesorów AMD serii K6-2 i K6-3. Starsze płyty główne tych procesorów z reguły nie obsługują (kiedyś istniały specjalne podstawki umożliwiające instalację tych procesorów w starszych płytach głównych z tymi gniazdami). +Gniazdo Socket 7 posiadało 321 pinów. Intel odstąpił od niego wprowadzając procesory Pentium II na Slot 1. +Procesory przeznaczone na to gniazdo to: Intel Pentium, Intel Pentium MMX, AMD K5, AMD 5k86, AMD K6, AMD K6-2 oraz AMD K6-3 oraz kompatybilne. Procesory na to gniazdo miały taktowanie od 66 do 550 MHz. +Nadolbrzym + +Nadolbrzym – gwiazda o masie od około 10 do 50 mas Słońca i promieniu dochodzącym nawet ponad 1500 promieni Słońca. Ich czas istnienia jest krótki, od 10 do 50 milionów lat, mogą więc być obserwowane w młodych strukturach, takich jak gromady otwarte, ramiona galaktyk spiralnych, czy galaktyki nieregularne. Nie obserwujemy ich w jądrach spiralnych galaktyk ani w galaktykach eliptycznych. +Nadolbrzymami są gwiazdy błękitne (typ O lub B na ciągu głównym), jak np. Rigel, lub czerwone (typ M ponad ciągiem głównym), jak Betelgeza, będąca najbliższym Ziemi kandydatem na supernową. Powszechnie uważa się, że gwiazdy, zanim się zapadną w wybuchu supernowej do gwiazdy neutronowej lub czarnej dziury, przechodzą przez stadium czerwonego nadolbrzyma. Jednakże progenitor, czyli protoplasta supernowej SN 1987A, był błękitnym nadolbrzymem (ścieżka 5 diagramu ewolucji gwiazd). +Uważa się, że w młodym Wszechświecie była duża liczba nadolbrzymów, tworzących III populację gwiazd. +Hotspot (WLAN) + +Hotspot (ang. "hot spot" – "gorący punkt") – otwarty punkt dostępu, umożliwiający połączenie z Internetem, najczęściej za pomocą sieci bezprzewodowej opartej na standardzie WiFi. +Hotspoty są instalowane najczęściej w hotelach, restauracjach, lotniskach, dworcach, uczelniach, centrach handlowych, centrach miast i innych miejscach publicznych (np. parkach). Umożliwiają one posiadaczom komputerów przenośnych (laptopów), a także palmtopów, telefonów komórkowych i innych urządzeń (np. odbiorników GPS) wyposażonych w bezprzewodową kartę sieciową standardu 802.11 podłączenie się i dostęp do Internetu. Usługa czasami jest bezpłatna lub też płatność następuje za pomocą karty kredytowej lub zakupu odpowiedniej karty zdrapki. Może się zdarzyć, że dostęp jest bezpłatny, ale mamy ograniczony zakres dostępnych usług; na przykład tylko do strony internetowej instytucji udostępniającej hotspot. +Podstawowym elementem hotspotu jest AP (ang. Access Point) – punkt dostępu. +Jest to urządzenie (najczęściej router), które świadczy usługi dostępowe do innej przewodowej sieci komputerowej, umożliwiając poprzez nią świadczenie określonych przez administratora usług, np. dostęp do zasobów sieci, udostępnianie połączenia internetowego lub usług opartych na technologii VoIP. +Niezabezpieczone, otwarte sieci służące jako hotspoty cieszą się coraz większą popularnością w Polsce. +Istnieją również sieci bezprzewodowe w standardzie IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX). +Standard ten oferuje porównywalną przepustowość przy dużo większym zasięgu, ale w chwili obecnej umożliwia tylko tworzenie sieci stacjonarnych. +Przyszłe jego wersje mają kosztem niższej przepustowości zapewniać ciągłą transmisję również podczas poruszania się. +141 Eskadra Myśliwska + +141 Eskadra Myśliwska (141 em) – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Na podstawie rozkazu Departamentu Żeglugi Powietrznej Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych L.dz. 25/ŻP/tj. z 18 marca 1926 sformowana została 123 Eskadra Myśliwska. 26 maja 1926 jednostka przemianowana została na 115 Eskadrę Myśliwską. 30 maja 1928 pododdział przemianowany został na 141 Eskadrę Myśliwską. +Eskadra wchodziła w skład III Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego 4 Pułku Lotniczego w Toruniu. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Pomorze" (1-6 IX), a następnie Brygady Pościgowej. 31 sierpnia przebazowana została na lotnisko polowe w pobliżu wsi Markowo. Na uzbrojeniu znajdowało się dziesięć samolotów PZL P.11c. +Personel eskadry przekroczył granicę z Rumunią 18 września 1939 roku. Ewakuowano 5 samolotów PZL P.11. +Dowódcy eskadry +Obsada etatowa eskadry we wrześniu 1939 +Zwycięstwa pilotów 141 eskadry wg Biura Historycznego PSP w Londynie. +1.9.1939 +2.9.1939 +3.9.1939 +4.9.1939 +6.9.1939 +Szarotka (roślina) + +Szarotka ("Leontopodium") – rodzaj roślin z rodziny astrowatych. Rodzaj obejmuje około 35 gatunków występujących na terenach górskich, głównie na obszarze południowo-wschodniej Azji. Szarotka alpejska występuje w zachodnich Karpatach, zaś pozostałe gatunki na Dalekim Wschodzie, Syberii i w górach Azji środkowej. We florze Polski występuje tylko jeden gatunek. Gatunkiem typowym jest "Leontopodium alpinum" Cass.. +Morfologia. +Byliny pokryte charakterystycznym filcowatym kutnerem. Kwiaty zebrane w kuliste koszyczki na szczytach pędów. Koszyczki te zawierają włącznie kwiaty rurkowate o barwie żółtej lub kremowej i otoczone są filcowato owłosionymi listkami. Wszystkie liście pojedyncze, lancetowate i jak cała roślina pokryte kutnerem. Kutner ten chroni rośliny zarówno przed zimnem, jak i silnym (w wysokich górach) promieniowaniem słonecznym. +Systematyka. +"Simlera" Bubani +Angiosperm Phylogeny Website adoptuje podział na podrodziny astrowatych ("Asteraceae") opracowany przez Panero i Funka w 2002, z późniejszymi uzupełnieniami. Zgodnie z tym ujęciem rodzaj "Dimorphoteca" należy do plemienia "Gnaphalieae" (Cass.) Lecoq & Juillet, podrodziny "Asteroideae" (Juss.) Chev. W systemie APG III astrowate są jedną z kilkunastu rodzin rzędu astrowców ("Asterales"), wchodzącego w skład kladu astrowych w obrębie dwuliściennych właściwych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa astrowe ("Asteridae" Takht.), nadrząd astropodobne ("Asteranae" Takht.), rząd astrowce ("Asterales" Lindl), rodzina astrowate ("Asteraceae" Dumort.), rodzaj szarotka ("Leontopodium" (Pers.) R.Br. ex Cass.). +Zastosowanie. +Niektóre gatunki są uprawiane jako rośliny ozdobne. Są całkowicie mrozoodporne, źle natomiast toleruja długotrwałe, zwłaszcza jesienne deszcze. Szczególnie nadają się do ogródków skalnych. Wymagają słonecznego stanowiska i przepuszczalnego, piaszczystego podłoża. Rozmnaża się je przez nasiona lub podział. +Huesca + +Huesca (wym. uproszcz. "Łeska", arag. "Uesca", kat. "Osca") – miasto w Aragonii, w Hiszpanii. Jest stolicą prowincji o tej samej nazwie. +Za czasów iberyjskich zwana Bolskan, przez Rzymian przemianowana na Osca, zaś podczas rządów arabskich w Hiszpanii – Waskah. Od 1354 r. siedziba Uniwersytetu Sertoriańskiego, którego nazwa nawiązuje do związanego z miastem Sertoriusza. +W 1096 r. miasto zostało zdobyte przez króla Aragonii, Piotra I. +Największe święto Hueski przypada na 10 sierpnia i jest to dzień świętego Wawrzyńca. Obchody trwają 9-15 sierpnia. Św. Wawrzyniec, urodzony w Huesce, był diakonem zamęczonym przez Rzymian poprzez spalenie na ruszcie. Ruszt jest symbolem tego świętego i często pojawia się w pracach artystycznych dotyczących miasta. +Urodził się tu reżyser filmowy Carlos Saura i jego brat, plastyk, Antonio Saura. +W czasie hiszpańskiej wojny domowej (1936-1939) "front Hueski" był miejscem jednych z najkrwawszych walk między republikanami i frankistami. +Gladys Marin + +Gladys Marín Millie (ur. 16 lipca 1941 w Curpeto, zm. 6 marca 2005 na Chile), chilijska działaczka polityczna, poetka, sekretarz generalny Komunistycznej Partii Chile. +Studiowała pedagogikę. Reprezentowała partię komunistyczną od 1965 w Izbie Deputowanych (ponownie wybrana w 1970). Prowadziła aktywną działalność jako sekretarz generalny Związku Młodzieży Komunistycznej Chile, współpracując m.in. z Salvadorem Allende i Pablo Nerudą. Po zamachu stanu generała Pinocheta ukrywała się, następnie szukała schronienia w ambasadzie Holandii. Udało się jej wyjechać do Holandii, później przebywała m.in. w NRD i ZSRR. W 1976 zaginął jej mąż Jorge Munoz, prawdopodobnie zamordowany na zlecenie władz wojskowych. +W 1978 Gladys Marín powróciła potajemnie do Chile i prowadziła działalność podziemną. W latach 80. organizowała masowe protesty przeciwko Pinochetowi, później wielokrotnie domagała się osądzenia przestępstw dokonanych w okresie jego rządów. W 1993 została sekretarzem generalnym Komunistycznej Partii Chile; z ramienia partii kandydowała w wyborach prezydenckich w grudniu 1999, w których zajęła trzecie miejsce z poparciem 3,2%. +Zmarła po długiej chorobie nowotworowej na Kubie, dokąd wyjechała na leczenie. Została uczczona dwudniową żałobą narodową w Chile. +Banu Salama + +Banu Salama z dynastii Tudżybidów był namiestnikiem regionów Hueski oraz Barbastro w północnej części Al-Andalusu między ok. 780-800. Były to tereny graniczne z krajem Franków. +W 800 Bahlul ibn Marzuk wzniecił bunt w Saragossie i obalił Banu Salama. +13 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +13 Eskadra Obserwacyjna (Towarzysząca) – pododdział lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego. +Historia. +Z dniem 1 lutego 1934 rozformowana została 13 Eskadra Liniowa. Na jej bazie zorganizowana została 13 Eskadra Towarzysząca. Nowy pododdział wszedł w skład I Dywizjonu Liniowego 1 Pułku Lotniczego stacjonującego na lotnisku Okęcie w Warszawie. Eskadra liczyła pięć plutonów po trzy samoloty Potez XXV, PWS-5 i PZL Ł.2. W 1934 plutony otrzymały samoloty towarzyszące Lublin R.XIII. Jesienią 1937 na bazie IV i V plutonu sformowane zostały 16 i 19 Eskadry Towarzyszące. Wszystkie trzy pododdziały utworzyły VI/1 Dywizjon Towarzyszący. W maju 1939 eskadra przezbrojona została w samoloty RWD-14b Czapla. 25 sierpnia tego roku, po przeprowadzonej mobilizacji alarmowej jednostka została przemianowana na 13 Eskadrę Obserwacyjną. W nocy z 26 na 27 sierpnia rzut kołowy przemieścił się na lotnisko polowe w m. Czerwony Bór . 28 sierpnia na tym lotnisku wylądował rzut powietrzny: 7 samolotów obserwacyjnych RWD-14b Czapla i 2 samoloty łącznikowe RWD-8. Następnego dnia II pluton odleciał na lądowisko koło folwarku Dobra Wielka, do dyspozycji dowódcy Oddziału Wydzielonego "Suwałki" . +W czasie kampanii wrześniowej 1939 eskadra walczyła w składzie Samodzielnej Grupy Operacyjnej "Narew". 18 września 1939 dowództwo nad częścią personelu eskadry objął por. pil. Edmund Piorunkiewicz z Eskadry Sztabowej. 25 września 1939 uzyskał on zgodę gen. bryg. Franciszka Kleeberga na zorganizowanie 13 Eskadry Szkolnej. Wymieniona jednostka do 6 października 1939 działała w składzie Samodzielnej Grupie Operacyjnej "Polesie". +Personel eskadry. +I/13 Pluton. +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +II/13 Pluton. +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +Kwarta (jednostka objętości) + +Kwarta (ang. "quart") – jednostka objętości. Używana głównie w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Wielkiej Brytanii. Prawidłowy angielski skrót to "qt". Posiada jednak różne znaczenie w obu tych krajach. +Marek Dyduch + +Marek Dyduch (ur. 27 sierpnia 1957 w Świdnicy) – polski polityk, działacz PZPR, polityk, poseł na Sejm II, III i IV kadencji, były wiceminister skarbu państwa. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. W latach 80. wstąpił do Związku Socjalistycznej Młodzieży Polskiej. W latach 1986–1991 sprawował funkcję przewodniczącego Zarządu Wojewódzkiego ZSMP w Wałbrzychu. Od 1982 do rozwiązania należał do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej, od 1988 jako członek Komitetu Wojewódzkiego PZPR. Działał następnie w Socjaldemokracji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, w 1999 przystąpił do Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. +W latach 1993–2005 sprawował mandat posła na Sejm II, III i IV kadencji z ramienia SLD, wybranego w okręgu wałbrzyskim. W 2005 bez powodzenia ubiegał się o mandat senatora. +W latach 2001–2002 był sekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Skarbu Państwa w rządzie Leszka Millera. 23 lutego 2002 został wybrany na sekretarza generalnego SLD (ponownie powoływano go na tę funkcję w 2003 i w 2004), wówczas zrezygnował ze stanowiska wiceministra. 29 maja 2005 złożył dymisję z funkcji sekretarza generalnego. W 2006 został wybrany radnym sejmiku województwa dolnośląskiego z ramienia koalicji Lewica i Demokraci. We wrześniu 2007 odszedł z SLD, w 2008 przystąpił do klubu radnych PSL. W styczniu 2010 powrócił do SLD, a w lutym tego samego roku wystąpił z klubu PSL w sejmiku. W tym samym roku ponownie został radnym województwa. +Pamela Harriman + +Pamela Beryl Harriman, z domu Digby (ur. 20 marca 1920 w Farnborough, Hampshire, zm. 5 lutego 1997 w Paryżu), Angielka, amerykańska działaczka polityczna, autorka wspomnień. Obok działalności publicznej znana była z wielu głośnych romansów. Córka arystokraty Edwarda Kenelma Digby'ego, 11. barona Digby of Geashill i Constance Pameli Alice z domu Bruce, córki 2. barona Aberdare. +Wychowywała ją guwernantka w rodzinnej rezydencji Digbych, Minterne Magna w Dorset. Jako 17-latka spędziła pół roku szkole z internatem w Monachium. Podobno została przedstawiona Hitlerowi. Po powrocie do Anglii pracowała w służbie zagranicznej jako tłumaczka z języka francuskiego. Poznała tam Randolpha Churchilla (syna Winstona), z którym 4 października 1939 r., po zaledwie kilkunastodniowej znajomości, wzięła ślub. Z tego związku urodził się syn Winston (10 października 1940). Pamela pracowała później w ministerstwie zaopatrzenia. Małżeństwo zakończyło się w 1946 rozwodem, z powodu licznych romansów Pameli. +Pamela wychodziła za mąż jeszcze dwukrotnie; w maju 1960 poślubiła znanego hollywoodzkiego producenta Lelanda Haywarda, a po jego śmierci 27 września 1971 polityka amerykańskiego, b. gubernatora stanu Nowy Jork Averella Harrimana (podobno romans Pameli i Averella był główną przyczyną jej rozwodu). +Lata 1946-1959 spędziła w Paryżu, potem przeniosła się do USA. Była bohaterką wielu romansów, m.in. z Giovannim Agnellim, baronem Elie de Rotschildem, księciem Aly Khanem (synem Agi Khana III). Po ślubie z Harrimanem (z którym znajomość zawarła jeszcze w okresie II wojny światowej) zaangażowała się w działalność Partii Demokratycznej. Dążyła do odzyskania przez partię władzy w Białym Domu w okresie prezydentury Reagana i Busha seniora, co nastąpiło ostatecznie w 1992. Wybrany wówczas prezydent Clinton mianował Pamelę Harriman ambasadorem USA we Francji. +Zmarła na wylew krwi do mózgu w Paryżu. Prezydent Jacques Chirac pośmiertnie odznaczył ją Legią Honorową. Podczas jej pogrzebu w Waszyngtonie mowę pogrzebową wygłosił Bill Clinton. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 6 + +Pluton Łącznikowy Nr 6 - pododdział Lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Pluton nie występował w organizacji pokojowej Lotnictwa. Został sformowany, w czasie mobilizacji alarmowej, przez 3 Pułk Lotniczy. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 pluton walczył w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Poznań". +Mira Kuś + +Mira Kuś, wł. Mirosława Kuś, ur. 30 grudnia 1948 w Gorlicach - polska poetka, publicystka, członkini Stowarzyszenia Pisarzy Polskich. +Biografia. +Ukończyła fizykę na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Publikowała m.in. w paryskiej "Kulturze", "Twórczości", "Zeszytach Literackich", "Odrze", "Znaku", "Więzi", "NaGłosie", "Dekadzie Literackiej". Przekłady jej wierszy ukazują się w prasie zagranicznej, głównie w Niemczech i USA, a także w Hiszpanii, Rosji, Macedonii, Chorwacji, Bułgarii, Słowenii, na Węgrzech i na Ukrainie oraz zostały zamieszczone w paru europejskich (Rosja, Węgry, Niemcy) i amerykańskich (USA) wyborach poetów polskich oraz poetów Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej (USA). +Jest laureatką wielu konkursów, zdobyła m.in. I nagrodę w Ogólnopolskim Konkursie Poetyckim "O Jaszczurowy Laur" (Kraków, 1976), I nagrodę w Ogólnopolskim Konkursie Satyrycznym Trzeciego Programu Polskiego Radia (ogłoszonym przez programy "Powtórka z rozrywki" i "60 minut na godzinę"), wyróżnienie w III Ogólnopolskim Konkursie im. Czesława Janczarskiego (twórczość dla dzieci).Stypendystka m.in. Ministerstwa Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, fundacji Literarisches Colloquium Berlin w Berlinie, rządu Szwecji na Gotlandii. +Była redaktorką czasopisma dla dzieci "Główkolandia". Piosenki do jej tekstów śpiewają m.in. Skaldowie. Zajmuje się również krytyką literacką, a także pisuje w prasie, najczęściej na tematy związane z nauką.Jest wnuczką Franciszka Kusia. Mieszka w Krakowie. +Twórczość. +Publikuje również opowiadania i bajki dla dzieci (m.in. w podręcznikach szkolnych). +41 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza + +41 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza – jednostka 4 Pułku Lotniczego w Toruniu, w kampanii wrześniowej w Armii Modlin we wrześniu 1939. +Działania wojenne. +"nie wskazane inaczej to dane z" +Jeszcze przed rozpoczęciem działań wojennych w połowie lipca 1939 r. samolot eskadry z załogą – płk. pil. Bolesław Stachoń ( ówczesny dowódca 4 Pułku Lotniczego w skład którego wchodziła eskadra), por.obs. Czesław Malinowski oraz pchor. obs. Jan Klocek – z rozkazu dowódcy Armii "Pomorze" dokonali rozpoznania wojsk niemieckich w okolicach Królewca i Olsztyna (Prusy Wschodnie) oraz nad granicą z Wolnym Miastem Gdańskiem. +Pierwszy lot bojowy czasie Kampanii Wrześniowej załoga eskadry w skladzie por.obs Czesław Malinowski, ppor. pil. Bolesław Kuzian i st. szer Tadeusz Rybacki, wykonała 2.IX o godzinie 9:50 z lotniska Zdunowo. Wykonano rozpoznanie dróg w rejonie Olsztynek – Nidzica – Wielbark (nad ówczesnymi Prusami Wschodnimi). +Według relacji obserwatora por. Malinowskiego zrzucono także bomby na stację kolejową w Nidzicy. +To pierwsze bombardowanie było samodzielną akcją personelu eskadry, a nie wykonaniem rozkazu wyższego dowództwa. +Ostatni lot bojowy eskadry, dnia 11 IX, zakończył się rozbiciem "Karasia" uszkodzonego w walce powietrznej z "Messerschimtami", na lotnisku w Brześciu nad Bugiem. +18 IX rzut kołowy eskadry, wraz z personelem latającym, przekroczył granicę polsko-rumuńską, wykonując rozkaz ewakuacji. +Straty eskadry to 4 osoby personelu latającego oraz wszystkie 10 samolotów. +Architektura krajobrazu + +Architektura krajobrazu jest dziedziną nauki związaną z kształtowaniem życiowej przestrzeni człowieka za pomocą szaty roślinnej, elementów wodnych i architektonicznych oraz z uwzględnieniem rozmaitych czynników, które tworzą charakter otaczającego krajobrazu. Są to uwarunkowania naturalne, takie jak: rzeźba terenu, istniejąca roślinność, gleba, klimat, a także kultura regionu i miejscowe tradycje czy też potrzeby społeczne. +Charles Eliot definiuje architekturę krajobrazu jako samą w sobie sztukę, której najważniejszą funkcją "jest tworzenie i ochrona piękna w otoczeniu siedzib ludzkich oraz szerzej – w naturalnej scenerii kraju". +We współczesnym rozumieniu architektura krajobrazu jest powiązaniem trzech fundamentalnych dziedzin: architektury, urbanistyki oraz planowania przestrzennego. W celu kształtowania estetycznego i funkcjonalnego krajobrazu (przestrzeni), dla potrzeb człowieka, posługuje się przede wszystkim szeroko pojmowaną sztuką, a więc wykorzystuje wszystko, co może nadać ton i wagę planowanego obszaru. +Szczególną i z pewnością jedną z najważniejszych ról architektury krajobrazu jest kształtowanie i przekształcanie istniejących przestrzeni otwartych, a także inwentaryzacja i rewaloryzacja założeń krajobrazowych i architektonicznych (ogrodów, parków, skwerów, ulic). +Historia architektury krajobrazu. +Genezy powstania architektury krajobrazu można dopatrywać się w spokrewnionej dziedzinie jaką jest ogrodnictwo. Znani ogrodnicy, określani dziś mianem mistrzów planowania i urządzania ogrodów, wzorując się na dotychczasowych poczynaniach, a także własnych obserwacjach i spostrzeżeniach świata przyrodniczego, kreowali osobiste założenia architektoniczne, nie posługując się jeszcze wtedy ujednoliconym zapisem graficznym. +Początki architektury krajobrazu sięgają już czasów starożytnych. W Egipcie, na Dalekim Wschodzie, Cesarstwie Rzymskim ludzie zajmowali się kształtowaniem swojego najbliższego otoczenia tworząc ogrody. Dziedzina ta wraz z historią ludzkości przechodziła wiele istotnych przemian społecznych, kulturowych, gospodarczych i politycznych. Była ona od zawsze kluczowym aspektem rozwoju cywilizacyjnego na przestrzeni wieków. +Współczesna architektura krajobrazu jest młodą dziedziną nauk artystycznych jak i zawodowych, powstałą w XIX wieku. W 1899 roku założono Amerykańskie Stowarzyszenie Architektów Krajobrazu (ASLA), a możliwość studiowania tego rodzaju kierunku zrodziła się w 1900 roku na Uniwersytecie Harvarda. W Polsce głównymi ośrodkami dla jej rozwoju stały się trzy ośrodki naukowe zlokalizowanych w Krakowie na Politechnice Krakowskiej, we Wrocławiu na Uniwersytecie Przyrodniczym oraz Warszawie w Szkole Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego. +Rys rozwoju w poszczególnych epokach historycznych. +Starożytne ogrody spełniały głównie funkcje publiczne lub użytkowe. Zakładano je przy pałacach, świątyniach, miejscach spotkań ludzi. Ogrody chińskie charakteryzowała duża powierzchnia, miniaturyzacja krajobrazu, ogrom roślin oraz punkt dominujący jakim najczęściej był pałac. Architektura krajobrazu w starożytnej Grecji rozwijała się głównie przy szkołach, stadionach. Były to głównie gaje z rzeźbami bohaterów i ołtarzami ofiarnymi. Ogrody prywatne mieściły się w atrium i perystylu. Najbardziej znanym założeniem starożytności są Wiszące ogrody Semiramidy – jeden z Siedmiu Cudów Świata. +Ogrody epoki Średniowiecza mieściły się najczęściej przy klasztorach. Były to ogrody użytkowe, rozmieszczone w kwaterach, obsadzone ziołami i warzywami, z zewnątrz drzewami. Często mieściły się w wirydarzu. Architektura krajobrazu rozwijała się również przy zamkach, były to małe, ozdobne założenia służące wypoczynkowi i zabawie. Ogrody miejskie zaczęły powstawać u schyłku epoki. Miały postać łąki z alejami drzew, stawem lub strumieniem. Ważnym elementem było planowanie przestrzenne miast, rynek na skrzyżowaniu głównych osi, miasto pocięte prostopadłymi ulicami oddzielającymi zabudowania. Miasta bogatsze posiadały mury obronne. +Założenia epoki Odrodzenia zorganizowane były według osi kompozycyjnych. Punktem dominującym był budynek, któremu ogród był podporządkowany. Ważną cechą była geometria i złoty podział. Ogród podzielony na kwadraty i prostokąty, wysadzone roślinami, ozdobione rzeźbami. Nierzadko stosowano labirynty. Zaczęto wydzielać funkcje – użytkową, prywatną, ozdobną. Często zakładano partery ogrodowe. Symetryczne kontury ze strzyżonego bukszpanu, wypełniano roślinami, kolorowymi kamieniami lub kruszywem. +Ogrody były geometryczne, kształtowano je na wzór wnętrz pałacowych. Górował przepych, harmonia i porządek. Stosowano efekty optyczne, partery ogrodowe, szpalery, elementy wodne w postaci kanałów, pawilony, murki oporowe. Wprowadzono dynamikę, która uwidoczniła się w rzeźbach i fontannach. Ogrody barokowe często rozpościerają się na bardzo dużym obszarze. Najbardziej znanymi są Wersal i Vaux-le-Vicomte. Z polskich ogrodów barokowych można wyróżnić warszawski Wilanów i ogród Czartoryskich w Puławach. +Współczesną architekturę krajobrazu cechują szybkie przekształcenia formalne i stylistyczne. Niezwykle istotna dla tych przemian jest rola osiągnięć w zakresie ogrodnictwa, rozwoju technik budowlanych i nowoczesnych technologii. Obecnie projektanci mają coraz mniej ograniczeń technicznych. Współczesny park jest zdefiniowany nie tylko przez zieleń, lecz także przez osiągnięcia cywilizacji, technikę, technologię, naukę i kulturę. Ogrody, parki i place stanowią dopełnienie miast, stają się wyrafinowanym obiektem kultury i dziełem sztuki. Dużym problemem rozwijających się miast są tereny postindustrialne, postmilitarne, tzw. nieużytki urbanistyczne. Część z nich jest z sukcesem rekultywowana, służy wypoczynkowi i rekreacji. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 2 + +Pluton łącznikowy nr 2 - jednostka Lotnictwa Dyspozycjnego Naczelnego Wodza we wrześniu 1939. +Zdzisław Raabe + +Zdzisław Raabe (ur. 19 października 1909 w Krakowie, zm. 12 lutego 1972 w Warszawie), profesor zoologii, dziennikarz, syn Henryka i Julii z Wyleżyńskich, brat Leszka. +Ukończył Gimnazjum im. Mikołaja Reja w Warszawie. Studiował zoologię w Uniwersytecie Warszawskim oraz odbył studia uzupełniające w Instytucie Oceanograficznym w Monako i w Morskiej Stacji Biologicznej w Neapolu. +W latach 1929-1939 był pracownikiem naukowym Państwowego Muzeum Zoologicznego, od 1947 kierownikiem Katedry Zoologii i Parazytologii Uniwersytetu Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie w Lublinie (od 1948 tytuł profesora UMSC). Od 1953 sprawował funkcję dyrektora Instytutu Zoologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Był również członkiem Polskiej Akademii Nauk (1965 członek korespondent, 1971 członek rzeczywisty) oraz założycielem i redaktorem czasopisma międzynarodowego "Acta Protozoologica". Pisał artykuły także do "Annales UMC-S" oraz "Acta Parasitologica Polonica" Opracował podręcznik akademicki "Zarys protozoologii" (1964) i liczne prace popularnonaukowe. +Uważany za jednego z głównych polskich zwolenników kontrowersyjnej teorii radzieckiego uczonego Trofim Łysenko, który odrzucał teorie genetyki (patrz Zoologia dla wyższych szkół rolniczych 1957). +W pracy naukowej zajmował się protozoologią, morfologią porównawczą orzęsków i protoparazytologią. +W latach 1933-1935 odbył służbę wojskową w Szkole Podchorążych Rezerwy Piechoty w Zambrowie. W stopniu podporucznika brał udział w kampanii wrześniowej oraz obronie Warszawy. Podczas okupacji przebywał w oflagu Doessel, gdzie działał w ruchu oporu. +Odznaczony został wieloma nagrodami i odznaczeniami między innymi: Krzyżem Kawalerskim i Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, Krzyżem Walecznych oraz Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Virtuti Militari. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 3 + +Pluton Łącznikowy Nr 3 - jednostka Armii Kraków we wrześniu 1939. +Labraks + +Labraks ("Dicentrarchus labrax") – morska ryba z rodzaju "Dicentrarchus" zaliczanego do rodziny moronowatych (wcześniej był zaliczany do strzępielowatych). +Występowanie. +Ryba ta występuje w Morzu Śródziemnym, Północnym Atlantyku, Morzu Północnym, Morzu Czarnym, okazjonalnie także w Bałtyku (w jego polskiej części). W Jeziorze Szkoderskim oraz rzece Nil w Afryce tworzy słodkowodne, osiadłe formy. +Żyje w ławicach. Często wchodzi do przyujściowych odcinków rzek. Zimę spędza w głębszych partiach wody. +Opis. +Osiąga 1 m długości i 12 kg masy. Ciało wydłużone. W płetwie odbytowej 3 twarde promienie. +Grzbiet jest ciemnoszary, boki jaśniejsze ze srebrzystym połyskiem, brzuch biały. Linia boczna jest czarna. Na górnej, wewnętrznej pokrywie skrzelowej czarnoszara plama. +Odżywianie. +Jest drapieżnikiem. Poluje na małe, żyjące w ławicach ryby (śledzie, sardynki, sardele itp.) +Rozród. +Trze się od V do VIII w ujściach rzek. Ikra jest zaopatrzona w kropelkę tłuszczu, dzięki czemu unosi się na wodzie. +Znaczenie gospodarcze. +Labraks, w handlu nazywany także barem, morenem, okoniem morskim lub (błędnie) wilkiem morskim, jest gatunkiem o wysokiej wartości użytkowej, poławianym i hodowanym w sadzach morskich (w Grecji, we Włoszech, Turcji, Hiszpanii, Francji, Chorwacji i innych krajach śródziemnomorskich). Spożywany najczęściej w postaci filetów rybnych lub ryby patroszonej – pieczonej lub grillowanej. Chętnie łowiony przez wędkarzy. +131 Eskadra Myśliwska + +131 Eskadra Myśliwska – jednostka lotnicza Armii Poznań we wrześniu 1939. +Historia. +Wojnę Obronną Polski w 1939 roku eskadra odbyła w składzie III/3 Dywizjonu w ramach lotnictwa Armii „Poznań”. +W dziewiątym dniu wojny na rozkaz Dowódcy Lotnictwa Armii „Poznań” dowódca dywizjonu rozwiązał eskadrę i odesłał prawie cały personel do Bazy nr 3 w m. Kierz. Część pilotów eskadry, dowódca dywizjonu (mjr Mieczysław Mümler) wcielił do 132 Eskadry. +Działania bojowe. +2.9.1939 +3.9.1939 +4.9.1939 +5.9.1939 +7.9.1939 +8.9.1939 +10.9.1939 +11.9.1939 +13.9.1939 +14.9.1939 +15.9.1939 +Bahlul ibn Marzuk + +Bahlul ibn Marzuk był hiszpańskim muzułmaninem, który wzniecił bunt w Saragossie przeciwko arabskiemu rządowi Al-Andalusu w 798, a w 800 odebrał Huescę z rąk Banu Salama. Emir wysłał przeciwko niemu generała Amrusa ibn Jusufa, który odbił oba miasta. Bahlul uciekł do Pallars, gdzie został zabity przez swojego porucznika Dżalafa ibn Raszida w 802. +III/4 dywizjon myśliwski + +III Dywizjon Myśliwski 4 Pułku Lotniczego (III/4 dm) - pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Dywizjon sformowany został w 1926, na lotnisku w Toruniu, w składzie 4 Pułku Lotniczego. +Pododdział złożony był z dwóch, a w latach 1933-1937 trzech, eskadr (141, 142 i 143). +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 jednostka walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Pomorze" (1-6 IX), a następnie Brygady Pościgowej. +31 sierpnia obie eskadry przebazowane zostały na lotniska polowe w pobliżu wsi Markowo, na południowy zachód od Torunia. +Na uzbrojeniu pododdziału znajdowały się dwadzieścia dwa samoloty PZL P.11c i jeden RWD-8. +2 września poległ dowódca dywizjonu, kpt. pil. Florian Laskowski, zestrzelony w czasie ataku na kolumnę pancerną. +Dowódcy dywizjonu +Organizacja i obsada personalna dywizjonu we wrześniu 1939 +Dowództwo +141 Eskadra Myśliwska +142 Eskadra Myśliwska +Segregacja + +Segregacja jeden z podstawowych procesów ekologicznych polegający na tym, że organizmy należące do różnych gatunków zajmują oddzielną, wydzieloną przestrzeń w ramach danego zbiorowiska, izolując się w ten sposób od innych osobników w tej przestrzeni. +W socjologii proces segregacji oznacza zajmowanie odrębnych obszarów, najczęściej w odniesieniu do przestrzeni miasta przez społeczności należące do różnych kultur, dzięki czemu mogą one zachowywać swoją tożsamość. Naturalna segregacja przyczyniać się może do tworzenia się gett. Możliwa jest też segregacja wymuszona przez sytuację polityczną, gdzie pewne społeczności izolowane są od innych na mocy prawa, np. segregacja rasowa w szkołach. +W genetyce - rozdzielanie się chromosomów w powstających gametach, tak że z każdej pary chromosomów homologicznych w komórce diploidalnej haploidalna gameta otrzymuje tylko po jednym chromosomie. Efektem tego zjawiska jest segregacja genów (swobodne rozdzielanie się genów należących do różnych chromosomów). +Srebyrna + +Srebyrna – rezerwat przyrody i jezioro w Bułgarii. Położony obok wsi Srebyrna, 18 km na zachód od miasta Silistra, a 2 km na południe od Dunaju. Obejmuje jezioro Srebyrna i jego okolice, w sumie teren chroniony zajmuje 600 ha. Status rezerwatu uzyskał w 1948 roku. +Głębokość jeziora waha się od 1 do 3 metrów. W rezerwacie występuje 67 gatunków roślin, 39 gatunków ssaków, 21 gatunków gadów i płazów, i więcej niż 10 gatunków ryb. Rezerwat jest znany przede wszystkim ze 179 gatunków ptaków. Wśród nich są: pelikany, kormorany, czaple i inne. Rezerwat znajduje się na głównej trasie migracyjnej ptaków latających między Europą i Afryką. +W 1983 roku "Srebyrna" została włączona do listy Światowego Dziedzictwa Kultury UNESCO. +Srebyrna to także nazwa początkowego odcinka rzeki Wisoczica w Bułgarii. +III/3 dywizjon myśliwski + +III Dywizjon Myśliwski 3 Pułku Lotniczego (III/3 dm) – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 jednostka walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Poznań". +Skład. +Wyposażenie : 2 samoloty PZL P.11c w dowództwie dywizjonu oraz 20 samolotów PZL P.11c w eskadrach myśliwskich, oraz 2 samoloty łącznikowe RWD-8 +Elefantyna + +Elefantyna (arab. "Dżazirat Aswan") − wyspa na rzece Nil, poniżej pierwszej katarakty. Współcześnie stanowi część miasta Asuan, w południowym Egipcie. Wyspa ma około 1200 m długości i 400 m szerokości w najszerszym miejscu. +Elefantyna znajduje się na granicy Egiptu i Nubii i w czasach starożytnych stanowiła punkt przeładunkowy dla statków, a także stanowisko obronne dla miasta. +Znaczenie archeologiczne wyspy. +Według mitologii egipskiej, na wyspie tej zamieszkiwał Chnum, bóg katarakt o baraniej głowie. Bóg ten kontrolował wody Nilu ze swoich jaskiń pod wyspą. Był czczony jako jeden z trójki, w której skład wchodził on, jego żona Satis i jego córka Anuket. Istnieją dowody na to, że świątynia Chnum znajdowała się na wyspie już podczas panowania III dynastii. Także na południowym krańcu wyspy, znajdują się ruiny późniejszej świątyni Chnuma, która została całkowicie przebudowana w okresie 30. dynastii. +Wykopaliska prowadzone przez Niemiecki Instytut Archeologiczny doprowadziły do wielu odkryć, w tym do odnalezienia zmumifikowanego barana - Chnuma. Znaleziska można obejrzeć w muzeum na Elefantynie. +Na wyspie odnaleziono również artefakty pochodzące z czasów przed istnieniem dynastii. Najstarsze obecne na wyspie ruiny to granitowa piramida schodkowa z czasów trzeciej dynastii oraz mała kaplica, zbudowana przez lokalnego władcę z szóstej dynastii - Hekayiba. +Do innych zabytkowych znalezisk z Elefantyny zaliczyć można fragmenty Kalendarza Elefantyńskiego, datowanego na czasy panowania Tutmosisa (Totmesa) III. Stela ta jest jednym z trzech dokumentów staroegipskich wykorzystanych dla celów datowania sotisowego. Istnienie cyklu Sotisa potwierdzają podwójnie datowane dokumenty wspólnoty żydowskiej, które odkryto także na Elefantynie. +Znajduje się tam również jeden z najstarszych nilometrów w Egipcie. Nilometr ten został zrekonstruowany w czasach starożytnego Rzymu i był używany jeszcze w XIX wieku. Dziewięćdziesiąt stopni, które prowadzą do rzeki, jest ponumerowanych cyframi arabskimi, rzymskimi oraz za pomocą egipskich hieroglifów. +Przed rokiem 1822, na Elefantynie znajdowały się świątynie Tutmosisa III oraz Amenhotepa III, lecz zostały wtedy zniszczone w czasie panowania osmańskiego. +Społeczność żydowska. +Społeczność żydowska na Elefantynie została założona prawdopodobnie gdy powstał obóz wojskowy około 650 roku p.n.e. w czasie panowania Manassesa jako pomoc dla faraona Psametycha I w czasie jego kampanii nubijskiej. Obecność Żydów poświadczają papirusy z Elefantyny, które stanowią prawne dokumenty i listy napisane w języku aramejskim, przez społeczność żydowskich żółnierzy może z domieszką Samarytan, stacjonujących tu w czasie perskiej okupacji Egiptu. Utrzymywali oni tu własną świątynię nazywaną "Domem Jahwe" (Jahou, JHW). Żydowskie dokumenty z Elefantyny obejmują okres od 495 do 399 roku p.n.e. +W 2004 roku w "Brooklyn Museum of Art" otwarto wystawę „Życie Żydów w starożytnym Egipcie: Archiwum rodzinne z Doliny Nilu”, która opisuje Ananjasza, urzędnika w świątyni Jahou (Jahwe), i jego żony, Tamut, która wcześniej była egipską niewolnicą należącą do żydowskiego pana Meszullama. Wystawa ta zawiera informacje dotyczące istotnych podobieństw pomiędzy praktykowanym tam judaizmem a religią starożytnego Egiptu oraz porusza temat ich współistnienia i wymieszania na Elefantynie. +Świątynia na Elefantynie. +Świątynia na Elefantynie nazywana "Domem Jahwe" (Jahou, JHW), była miejscem politeistycznych wierzeń gdyż funkcjonował w niej także kult Chnuma. Związki boga Izraela z Chnumem, wyobrażanym jako mężczyzna z głową barana, kojarzą się z dęciem w róg barani z okazji świąt Rosz ha-Szana. +Jeden z listów z Elefantyny, „Petycja do Baogasa” (obecnie w kolekcji Sayce-Cowley), pochodzący z 17 roku panowania Dariusza II (407 roku p.n.e.) skierowany do Bagoasa perskiego namiestnika Judei, apeluje o pomoc w odbudowie świątyni Jahwe na Elefantynie nieco wcześniej poważnie uszkodzonej przez antyżydowską społeczność miasta. +Wspólnota zwracała się o pomoc do Sanballata Choronity, namiestnika Samarii, i jego synów Delaiaha i Szelemiaha, a także Jochanana ben Eliasziba. Zarówno Sanballat jak i Jochanan zostali wymienieni w biblijnej Księdze Nehemiasza 2:19, 4:1 12:22. +"1Memorandum co Bagoas i Delaiah powiedzieli 2do mnie, mówiąc: Memorandum: możesz powiedzieć w Egipcie (...) 8o budowie na jej miejscu, gdzie stała dawniej (...)". +W połowie IV wieku p.n.e. świątynia na Elefantynie przestała funkcjonować. Istnieją dowody archeologiczne, że miejsce dawnej świątyni JHW zajęła rozbudowana i przebudowana świątynia Chnuma w czasie panowania Nektanebo II (360-343). +Współczesna Elefantyna. +W chwili obecnej, na wyspie znajdują się stanowiska archeologiczne, luksusowy hotel Oberoi, Muzeum Asuańskie oraz kilka nubijskich wiosek. Na wyspę można się dostać z miasta Asuan za pomocą feluki, łodzi motorowej lub promem używanym głównie przez lokalną ludność. +23 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +23 Eskadra Obserwacyjna - jednostka Armii Kraków w kampanii wrześniowej 1939. +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +26 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +26 Eskadra Obserwacyjna – jednostka Armii Kraków w kampanii wrześniowej 1939. +W dniu agresji sowieckiej wchodziła w skład lotnictwa Armii Karpaty w rejonie "przyczółka rumuńskiego". Zakończyła działania bojowe 17 września dwoma lotami rozpoznawczymi w rejon Lwowa. Jeden samolot wykonał lot łącznikowy. 18 września wobec nielotnej pogody i agresywnej postawy miejscowych Ukraińców dowódca eskadry kazał spalić pozostałe 4 samoloty i ewakuować się rzutem kołowym przez Kuty do Rumunii. +I/26 pluton. +Piloci: +42 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza + +42 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza – jednostka 4 Pułku Lotniczego w Toruniu przydzielona do Armii Pomorze we wrześniu 1939. +Stary Cmentarz w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim + +Stary Cmentarz w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim - jest to najstarszy czynny cmentarz katolicki w Polsce (starszy od Cmentarza Rakowickiego w Krakowie i warszawskich Powązek). +Stary Cmentarz. +Założony został w 1782 r. i był jedną z pierwszych w Polsce nekropolii położonych z dala od kościoła, poza obrębem miasta (dotychczas takie miejsce pochówku było uznawane za niegodne). W początkowym okresie działania nie stawiano żadnych trwałych postumentów. Najstarszy z zachowanych nagrobków pochodzi z 1842 r. W 1832 r. zaczęto stawiać murowane ogrodzenie cmentarza. Otoczono go też wówczas głębokim na 2 metry rowem, który zasypano pod koniec XIX w., gdy potrzebowano miejsca dla samobójców. +W latach zaborów Cmentarz był jedynym legalnym miejscem polskich manifestacji patriotycznych. Wynikało to ze zwyczajowego poszanowania przez zaborcę prawa czyniącego z nekropolii miejsca azylu (odróżnienie "sacrum" od "profanum"). +Stary Cmentarz próbowano zlikwidować kilkakrotnie, między innymi w 1820 r. (Prusacy), w latach II wojny światowej, oraz w 1962 r. (komuniści). Ta ostatnia decyzja o likwidacji została formalnie anulowana dopiero w 1982 r. +W latach 1989-1990 zabezpieczono bramy, część murów i nagrobków oraz kapliczek. Od połowy lat 90. działa Towarzystwo, które gromadzi fundusze na renowację zabytkowych grobowców, m.in. podczas corocznych kwest w Zaduszki. +Wśród nagrobków można znaleźć formy klasyczne, neoromantyczne, secesyjne, kubiczne. Dominantę w południowo-zachodniej części stanowi największy, klasycystyczny, grobowiec rodziny Idźkowskich. Pomniki nagrobne były niejednokrotnie wykonywane przez cenionych wielkopolskich rzeźbiarzy. Jeden z nich – "Pielgrzym", dłuta Władysława Marcinkowskiego – znajduje się obecnie w krużganku ostrowskiej konkatedry. +Monograficzną pracą o Starym Cmentarzu jest ilustrowana zdjęcia autora publikacja "Stary cmentarz w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim" (Marian Kostrzewski Ostrów Wlkp. 1982 r., wyd. O.T.K.). +Energetyk ROW Rybnik + +ROW Rybnik – klub sportowy powstały w 1964 roku w Rybniku z połączenia się dwóch klubów sportowych : Górnika Rybnik z Górnikiem Chwałowice (dzielnica Rybnika). W czasach świetności klubu liczył on 13 sekcji, najbardziej popularne: sekcja żużlowa i piłki nożnej. Sekcja żużlowa (od 1994 roku pod nazwą Rybnicki Klub Motorowy) zdobyła 12 mistrzostw Polski oraz 8 wicemistrzostw. Obecnie pod szyldem ROW Rybnik funkcjonują sekcja piłkarska ("KS Energetyk ROW Rybnik"), grająca w II lidze, oraz ekstraklasowa sekcja koszykówki kobiet pod nazwą Utex ROW Rybnik. +Sukcesy piłkarzy. +Piłkarze przez 7 sezonów występowali w Ekstraklasie, 9 sezonów w II lidze, czterokrotnie reprezentowali Polskę na arenie międzynarodowej w rozgrywkach o Puchar Intertoto dwukrotnie wygrywając rozgrywki. W 1975 wystąpili w Finale Pucharu Polski ulegając po rzutach karnych Stali Rzeszów. W klubie występowało wielu uznanych piłkarzy, m.in. Eugeniusz Lerch, Piotr Mowlik, Henryk Wieczorek, Andrzej Frydecki, Stanisław Sobczyński, Edward Lorens, Piotr Mandrysz, Piotr Piekarczyk. +Barwy klubu reprezentowali lub reprezentują też tacy zawodnicy jak: Marcin Malinowski, Bogdan Prusek, Jarosław Tkocz, Paweł Krzysztoporski, Marek Kubisz, Michał Podolak, Roman Skorupa, Marcin Wodecki. +ROW Rybnik w Ekstraklasie. +1968/69 Pierwszy rok występów w gronie pierwszoligowców przynosi rozczarowanie. 0:1 u siebie ze Stalą Rzeszów na początek, wyjazd do Bytomia i porażka z tamtejszymi Szombierkami. Dopiero trzeci mecz daje pierwsze punkty. Po 24 minutach Zagłębie Sosnowiec prowadzi w Rybniku dwoma bramkami, nic nie zapowiada korzystnego wyniku. 50 minuta – faul i jedenastka. Do piłki podchodzi superstrzelec Eugeniusz Lerch (ponad 100 bramek w barwach Ruchu i ROW-u) i pada bramka. Kwadrans później wyrównanie i są pierwsze punkty. Szósta runda to wyjazd do Chorzowa i historyczne pierwsze zwycięstwo nad tamtejszym Ruchem 4:3. Remisy z Legią, Górnikiem, czy Wisłą to jednak za mało na utrzymanie. 16 punktów na finiszu rozgrywek, 5 punktów straty do przedostatniego w tabeli Śląska Wrocław. Rybnicki klub płaci frycowe i spada do drugiej ligi. Sezon 1969\70 przynosi bezsprzeczną wygraną na drugim froncie. 5 punktów nad drugą w tabeli Stalą Mielec, 10 nad trzecim ŁKS-em Łódź i powrót do ekstraklasy. +1970/71 Drugi sezon występów wśród najlepszych kończy się niestety spadkiem. Przedostatnie miejsce w tabeli i zaledwie punkt straty do 12-tej Polonii Bytom. Do sukcesów należy zaliczyć zwycięstwo u siebie z Górnikiem Zabrze, przyszłym Mistrzem Polski. Występy w drugiej lidze w kolejnym sezonie rybniczanie wygrali, ale zaledwie dwoma punktami nad drugim Lechem i trzema nad ekipą z Wałbrzycha. Awans nasi piłkarze mogą zawdzięczać dobrej dyspozycji na własnym boisku. +1972/73 "Do trzech razy sztuka". Tak można powiedzieć o sezonie 1972/73. Rybniczanie wreszcie unikają spadku do 2 ligi, ba na końcu rozgrywek meldują się na siódmej pozycji. Rozgrywki zaczynają się dla nas nieszczęśliwie, od porażki z Górnikiem Zabrze u siebie. potem jest wyjazd do Warszawy, gdzie Kazimierz Deyna wbija nam 2 bramki. 0:3, ale nasi się nie poddają. Drugi mecz u siebie i pogrom drugiego beniaminka. ROW – Kolejorz 4:0. Kolejne mecze przynoszą różne rezultaty. Na wyróżnienie zasługuje remis w Mielcu ze Stalą, czy triumf nad Ruchem Chorzów u siebie. Na finiszu rozgrywek wyprzedzamy Legię Warszawa mając na koncie 8 zwycięstw. Już wiadomo, że mamy silną aczkolwiek nieobliczalną ekipę. +1973/74 Sezon numer 4 potwierdza dobrą formę. Rozpoczyna się od remisu ze Stalą Mielec Grzegorza Laty i Henryka Kasperczaka. Zapowiada się nieźle. Potem jest zwycięstwo z Wałbrzychem i "zimny prysznic" w Chorzowie – 0:4 z Ruchem. Pięć kolejnych meczów to zaledwie trzy remisy. Przełamanie następuje w meczu z Pogonią Szczecin, chociaż prowadzenie w meczu obejmują goście. Następuje jednak wyrównanie, a zwycięską bramkę zalicza oczywiście Eugeniusz Lerch. 11 runda to derby z Górnikiem Zabrze, zwycięstwo 2:1 i dwa samobójcze gole. Solidarnie dla każdej ekipy po jednym. 16 kolejka. Kolejny mecz z ekipą Laty. Widać, że mamy na nich patent – 1:0 po golu Błachuta po kwadransie gry. Nieobliczalność naszej drużyny widać w kolejnych meczach. Potrafimy zremisować z mistrzem Ruchem, czy wygrać z Legią (1:0), ale nie wykorzystujemy szans ze słabeuszami (przegrana z najsłabszym Zagłębiem Wałbrzych). Na koniec wygrane ROW-u ze Śląskiem Wrocław i jednobramkowa wygrana w Poznaniu z Lechem. 29 punktów plasuje rybniczan w środku tabeli, aczkolwiek przy odrobinie lepszej grze można było liczyć na coś więcej. +1974/75 W sezonie 1974/75 już tak różowo nie jest. Rozpoczynamy bardzo dobrze. Remis z silną Wisłą Kraków, zwycięstwo w Warszawie z Legią, Pogonią Szczecin w Rybniku. W sezonie nasi piłkarze notują 12 remisów. Pięć kolejek przed zakończeniem rozgrywek jest nieciekawie. Jednak nasi piłkarze dokonują czegoś niesamowitego. Pokonują przyszłego mistrza Ruch Chorzów 2:1, Polonię Bytom 1:0, oraz wicemistrza Stal Mielec. Kolejne zwycięstwa przedzielają remisy z Gwardią Warszawa i ŁKS-em Łódź. Kapitalny finisz daje 26 punktów i szczęśliwe pozostanie w gronie pierwszoligowców. Warto dodać, że olbrzymi sukces odniosła wtedy nasza drużyna w rozgrywkach o Puchar Polski. ROW Rybnik grając rezerwami dotarł do finału tych rozgrywek eliminując po drodze kolejno Metal Kluczbork, Legię Warszawa (3:2), Polonię Bytom (1:0), Lecha Poznań (2:1) oraz w półfinale Górnik Zabrze (2:1). Finał, który oglądało 15 000 kibiców zakończył się remisem. O wszystkim zadecydowały karne, w których lepsi okazali się piłkarze Stali Rzeszów. +1975/76 Szósty rok pobytu w 1 lidze toczy się pod dyktando Stali Mielec. ROW Rybnik plasuje się na bezpiecznym 11 miejscu gromadząc 28 punktów. Kilka wyników zasługuje jednak na uznanie. Wygrana w Chorzowie z Ruchem (1:0), z Legią (3:2) i Górnikiem (1:0) w Rybniku budzą uznanie. +1976/77 Spadek. Ten rok to ostatni występ ROW-u Rybnik w gronie najlepszych. Fatalny początek i trzy kolejne porażki pokazały, że o utrzymanie będzie bardzo ciężko. Nawet nieoczekiwana wygrana z Ruchem Chorzów w 6 kolejce niczego nie zmieniła. W następnych rundach różnie bywało. Po wygranej z Arką Gdynia w 14 kolejce nastąpiła fatalna seria siedmiu kolejnych meczów bez wygranej. Sukcesem było pokonanie Stali Mielec na własnym boisku w stosunku 3:1. W przedostatniej kolejce rybniczanie spotkali się z bezpośrednim rywalem do utrzymania – Lechem Poznań. Niestety ulegli 1:3. Ostatni mecz z Arką Gdynia zakończony remisem nie odmienił losu. Lech Poznań wygrał ostatni mecz i utrzymał się w 1 lidze. Natomiast nasi piłkarze po kilku sezonach gry z najlepszymi musieli zadowolić się grą w 2 lidze. +Podsumowanie: ROW Rybnik spędził 7 sezonów w Ekstraklasie, gdzie rozegrał 198 meczów odnosząc 50 zwycięstw, 65 remisów, 83 przegrane. Liczba zdobytych bramek: 165, dwukrotnie 7 miejsce w 1 lidze. +Oprócz występów na najwyższym szczeblu rozgrywek rybnicki klub zanotował także 9 sezonów w 2 lidze, gdzie rozegrał 270 meczów odnosząc 109 zwycięstw, 85 remisów, 76 porażek. Liczba zdobytych bramek: 343. +ROW Rybnik w Pucharze Intertoto. +Rok 1971 Pierwszy występ naszych piłkarzy w wymienionych rozgrywkach przypada na rok 1971. Rybniczanie mają za przeciwników szwedzki Atvidabergs FF, austriacki Tirol Insbruck oraz Borussię Dortmund. Trzy zwycięstwa i remis dały ostatecznie drugie miejsce w grupie 5. Mecze ROW-u: +Podsumowanie: Cztery sezony gier w Pucharze Lata to 24 mecze, 13 zwycięstw, 4 remisy, 7 porażek, 42 bramki zdobyte, 33 stracone. Daje to 140,8 pkt i 352 miejsce w rankingu na lata 1970-79 według listy klubowej sporządzonej przez statystyków z european-football-statistics.com.uk Warto dodać, że w latach 1967-1994 nie było w tych rozgrywkach fazy pucharowej. +Hannahanna + +Hannahanna (Nintu, Mah) - hetycka matka bogów i królowa niebios. +132 Eskadra Myśliwska + +132 eskadra myśliwska – jednostka Armii Poznań we wrześniu 1939. +Utworzona w 1928 z przemianowania 15 Eskadry Myśliwskiej, noszącej przejściowo w latach 1925-1928 numer 112 Eskadry Myśliwskiej. +Działania bojowe. +1.9.1939 +2.9.1939 +3.9.1939 +4.9.1939 +5.9.1939 +6.9.1939 +7.9. 1939 +8.9.1939 +9.9.1939 +10.9.1939 +11.9.1939 +12.9.1939 +16.9.1939 +17.9.1939 +161 Eskadra Myśliwska + +161 Eskadra Myśliwska (161 em) – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +Eskadra sformowana została jesienią 1937 roku na lotnisku Lwów-Skniłów, w składzie III Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego 6 Pułku Lotniczego. Organizatorem i pierwszym dowódcą eskadry był por. pil. Tadeusz Jeziorowski. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Łódź", operując z lotniska polowego Widzew-Ksawerów. Na uzbrojeniu osiem samolotów PZL P.11c i dwa PZL P.11a. +Zwycięstwa pilotów 161 eskadry wg Biura Historycznego PSP w Londynie. +2.9.1939 +3.9.1939 +6.9.1939 +16.9.1939 +III/5 dywizjon myśliwski + +III/5 dywizjon myśliwski - jednostka Armii Modlin we wrześniu 1939. +Morski Dywizjon Lotniczy + +Morski Dywizjon Lotniczy – pododdział lotnictwa Marynarki Wojennej II RP. +W lipcu 1920 w Pucku zorganizowana została Baza Lotnictwa Morskiego. Pod koniec 1921 Baza Lotnictwa Morskiego i Szkoła Lotników Morskich przekształcone zostały w jednostkę noszącą nazwę Lotnictwo Morskie i podporządkowaną dowódcy Floty. W maju 1922 Lotnictwo Morskie podporządkowane zostało dowódcy 2 Pułku Lotniczego jako Detaszowany Dywizjon Lotniczo-Wywiadowczy. W połowie 1923 pododdział przemianowany został na Morski Dywizjon Lotniczy, który pod względem personalnym i zaopatrzenia w sprzęt podlegał szefowi Departamentu IV Żeglugi Powietrznej Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych, a pod względem taktycznym i wyszkolenia dowódcy Floty. 6 października 1923 podczas lotu nad Zatoką Pucką kadłub jednego z testowanych samolotów Nieuport Macchi M 9 przełamał się na pół i spadł do morza. W wyniku tej katastrofy zginęła załoga: kpt. obs. Wiktor Karczewski i por. pil. Ludwik Patalas. 9 grudnia 1932 dywizjon włączony został w skład Marynarki Wojennej. +Organizacja i obsada personalna dywizjonu we wrześniu 1939.. +I eskadra wyposażona była w 2 samoloty Lublin R-VIIIter i jeden wodnosamolot CANT Z.506B natomiast II eskadra posiadała na ewidencji 10 samolotów Lublin R-XIIIter i Lublin R-XIIIG. +Działania bojowe w kampanii wrześniowej 1939 +1 września około godz. 6.00 dwadzieścia samolotów Heinkel He 111 zbombardowało bazę dywizjonu w Pucku niszcząc między innymi koszary i magazyn amunicji. W czasie nalotu zginął komandor Szystowski. +2 września załoga wodnosamolotu CANT Z.506B w składzie: kpt. mar. pil. Roman Borowiec, bosman mech. Grzesiak i bosman rtg. Wzorek odleciała na Lubelszczyznę z międzylądowaniem na Wiśle koło Kozienic. +6 września załoga wodnosamolotu Lublin R-XIII G nr 714 w składzie: por. mar. pil. Józef Rudzki i por. pil. obs. Zdzisław Juszczakiewicz wykonała nocny lot na rozpoznanie Zatoki Gdańskiej i próbę nawigacyjnego przelotu do Szwecji. +7 września około godz. 21.00 załoga wodnosamolotu Lublin R-XIII G nr 714 w składzie: por. mar. pil. Józef Rudzki i por. pil. obs. Zdzisław Juszczakiewicz wystartowała z zadaniem ustalenia położenia oraz zbombardowania pancernika "Schleswig-Holstein". Okrętu nie odnaleziono. W trakcie przelotu nad Gdańskiem porucznik Rudzki zbombardował, a por. Juszczakiewicz ostrzelał z karabinów maszynowych, Niemców świętujących zdobycie Wojskowej Składnicy Tranzytowej na Westerplatte. W locie powrotnym zaobserwowano, koło Gdyni, drugi niemiecki pancernik - "Schlesien". Po zakończeniu zadania załoga wodowała w Juracie. +8 września nalot niemiecki zniszczył wszystkie wodnosamoloty z wyjątkiem RWD-17. +Kadra Morskiego Dywizjonu Lotniczego. +Obsada personalna dywizjonu w 1924 roku. +ppłk Antoni Leonkow (dowódca), kpt. Władysław Iwanowski-Krawiec, kpt. Wincenty Braziewicz, kpt. Antoni Romanowski, por. Sergiusz Maciejewski, por. Stanisław Edward Szystowski, por. Julian K. Rajs, por. Mieczysław Wiland, por. Jerzy Czechowicz, por. Jerzy Bohuszewicz, por. Stanisław Godek, por. Alfred Peszke, por. Feliks Ludwik Baczyński, por. Tadeusz Gronek, por. Czesław Wajcht +Współczesność. +. Po ostatnich zmianach prawno-organizacyjych funkcję Prezesa Zarządu (honorowo "Dowódca") pełni p. Jacek Młynarski dysponujący wszechstronnym wykształceniem wojskowym i ogólnym. +Bogumił Labusz + +Bogumił Labusz, niem. Gottlieb Labusch (ur. 24 sierpnia 1860 w Rumach, powiat Szczytno, zm. 13 marca 1919 w Jezioranach koło Reszla), działacz polski na Mazurach, rolnik ze wsi Hozębark, Hozembark (od 1948 Labuszewo). +Życiorys. +Był synem rolnika Jakuba (1820-1901). Kształcił się w niemieckiej szkole ludowej, następnie odbył służbę wojskową w armii pruskiej. Po zakończeniu służby zajął się pracą na roli w Hozębarku (powiat Szczytno). Zaangażował się także w działalność publiczną - był w gronie założycieli Mazurskiej Partii Ludowej (1896, od 1907 prezes) oraz czasopism "Gazeta Ludowa" i "Mazur". W 1898 kierował Związkiem Wyborczym Mazurskiej Partii Ludowej i prowadził akcję na rzecz kandydującego do parlamentu niemieckiego Zenona Lewandowskiego. W 1903 i 1908 o miejsce w parlamencie Rzeszy ubiegał się (bez powodzenia) sam Labusz. W 1910 zakładał Bank Ludowy w Szczytnie, wszedł do jego zarządu. Tworzył kółka rolnicze (jedno z nich prowadził w Hozębarku); zajmował się także biblioteką Towarzystw Ludowych, a w jego domu mieścił się skład wydawniczy serii "Czytelnia Mazurska Lewandowskiego". W 1914 został na krótko uwięziony przez władze pruskie. +Od 1918 reprezentował Mazury w Naczelnej Radzie Ludowej i Sejmie Dzielnicowym w Poznaniu. Zmarł rok później w trakcie podróży ze szpitala w Królewcu do domu; został pochowany w Hozębarku, przemianowanym w 1948 na jego cześć na Labuszewo. +Z małżeństwa z Wilhelminą z Piętków (zmarłą przed wybuchem II wojny światowej) miał pięcioro dzieci, z których szczególną aktywnością w działalności społecznej wyróżnili się syn Bogumił i córka Emilia. Jego prawnuczką jest Urszula Pasławska, wicemarszałek województwa warmińsko-mazurskiego, sekretarz Warmińsko-Mazurskiego ZW PSL. +Kruszyniany + +Kruszyniany – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie podlaskim, w powiecie sokólskim, w gminie Krynki. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa białostockiego. +Wieś położona w pobliżu rzeczki Nietupy na skraju znajdujących się nad nią łąk, lasów oraz wzniesień (rozciągających się w kierunku pd.-wsch. od wsi) dochodzących do 161 m n.p.m. +Wieś została założona prawdopodobnie w wieku XVI. W dniu 12 marca 1679 Jan III Sobieski nadał Tatarom m.in. Kruszyniany oraz pobliskie wsie Nietupa, Łużany jak też część Poniatowicz. Osadzeni muzułmanie, zwani Lipkami walczyli po stronie Polski w wojnie z Turkami. W Kruszynianach (obok ok. 45 innych rodzin) osiadł na stałe płk Samuel Murza Krzeczowski, który uratował życie królowi w bitwie pod Parkanami. W drodze na sejm do Grodna król zatrzymał się u Krzeczkowskiego. Kruszyniany stanowiły duży ośrodek muzułmański. Tutaj sporządzano dzieła o treści religijno-obyczajowej tzw. "kitaby." Jeden z nich powstał w 1792 dzięki kopiście Jusufowi Heliaszewiczowi. +W 1980 w Kruszynianach zamieszkiwało 289 osób, z tego 33 wyznania muzułmańskiego, reszta wyznania prawosławnego (we wsi funkcjonuje parafia prawosławna) i katolickiego. Do dzisiaj mieszka tutaj niewielka mniejszość tatarska. Ludność mówiła specyficzną gwarą – mieszanką białoruskiego i polskiego. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Meczet w Kruszynianach – 360 +151 Eskadra Myśliwska + +151 Eskadra Myśliwska – jednostka SGO Narew we wrześniu 1939. +Historia. +W 1939 roku eskadra mobilizację sierpniową przeprowadziła na lotnisku Porubanek w ramach III/5 dywizjonu). +Działania bojowe. +11.9.1939 +Eskadra w wyniku działań bojowych straciła 6 samolotów. 17 września 4 sprawne samoloty odleciały do Czerniowiec. +Julian Bartoszewicz + +Julian Bartoszewicz (ur. 17 stycznia 1821 w Białej Podlaskiej wówczas Radziwiłłowskiej, zm. 5 listopada 1870 w Warszawie), historyk polski. +W 1839 będąc stypendystą Królestwa Polskiego rozpoczął studia na wydziale historyczno-filologicznym uniwersytetu petersburskiego. W latach 1842-1847 był nauczycielem w gimnazjum warszawskim, mieszczącym się w Pałacu Kazimierzowskim. W 1847 został przeniesiony do Końskich, gdzie pracował w szkole powiatowej. Przyczyną przeniesienia na prowincję był artykuł wydrukowany w "Bibliotece Warszawskiej" o Helenie Iwanownie, córce Iwana III i żonie Aleksandra Jagiellończyka. Cenzura uznała artykuł za niezgodny w swej wymowie z rosyjską racją stanu, cały nakład "Biblioteki Warszawskiej" został skonfiskowany i zniszczony. W latach 1849-1863 Bartoszewicz był nauczycielem w szkole powiatowej w Lesznie; uczył łaciny, a od 1859 języka polskiego. W styczniu 1863 został kustoszem Biblioteki Głównej. W latach 1860-1870 był członkiem honorowym Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. W 1863 współpracował z nielegalnym pismem "Dzwon Duchowy". W latach 1863-1866 wykładał w II Gimnazjum Męskim w Warszawie historię Polski. 1 stycznia 1868 został zwolniony ze służby rządowej i przeszedł na emeryturę. +Uważał, że zadaniem historyka jest zbieranie faktów historycznych. Przez całe życie tworzył prywatny zbiór wypisów źródłowych; w oparciu o zebrane źródła powstawały jego prace. W "Encyklopedii" Orgelbranda opublikował 1291 artykułów. +Początkowo zajmował się badaniami polskiego średniowiecza, później skupił swoją uwagę na XVIII wieku. Duża część jego pracy naukowej jest poświęcona badaniom biograficznym. Podzielał lelewelowskie poglądy na dzieje Polski. +Samolot towarzyszący + +Samolot towarzyszący – samolot wojskowy przeznaczony do współpracy na froncie z jednostkami wojsk lądowych. +Koncepcja lotnictwa towarzyszącego pojawiła się we Francji po zakończeniu I wojny światowej, lecz tylko w Polsce w okresie międzywojennym zaczęto je organizować i rozwijać. W innych krajach natomiast rozwinęło się lotnictwo rozpoznawcze, które spełniało część zadań lotnictwa towarzyszącego. Natomiast dodatkowo w Wielkiej Brytanii w okresie II wojny światowej zaczęto organizować ściśle wyspecjalizowane jednostki lotnicze do współpracy z artylerią. +Do zadań lotnictwa towarzyszącego należały: współpraca z piechotą, artylerią i kawalerią, utrzymanie i zapewnienie im łączności, obserwację pola walki w pierwszej i drugiej linii bojowej do celów taktycznych. Lotnictwo to, jak mówiła jego nazwa, towarzyszyło jednostkom piechoty, artylerii i kawalerii we wszystkich ich poczynaniach i ruchach na froncie oraz ściśle z nimi współdziałało. Jednostką bojową lotnictwa towarzyszącego był pluton w składzie od 3 do 6 samolotów. Lotnictwo towarzyszące istniało w lotnictwie polskim w latach 1921–1939, krótko przed wybuchem II wojny światowej zmieniono jego nazwę na lotnictwo obserwacyjne. W chwili wybuchu wojny w polskim lotnictwie wojskowym istniało 12 eskadr obserwacyjnych. +Na podstawie tak określonych założeń Departament Lotnictwa Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych (dowództwo lotnictwa wojskowego w okresie pokoju w Polsce międzywojennej) pod koniec lat dwudziestych określił cechy samolotu towarzyszącego. Zgodnie z tymi założeniami samolot towarzyszący powinien być lekkim samolotem, przystosowanym do lądowania w przygodnym terenie, charakteryzować się możliwie najkrótszym rozbiegiem i dobiegiem. Mieć składane skrzydła, a po ich złożeniu zmieścić się w bramce o wymiarach 2,5 x 2,8 m. Dzięki składanym skrzydłom samolot towarzyszący mógł być holowany za samochodem po szosie na własnych kołach podwozia oraz hangarowany pod osłoną drzew lub nawet w stodole. Ponadto jako samolot wojskowy powinien być uzbrojony i wyposażony w środki łączności. +Do najbardziej znanych oraz produkowanych seryjnie samolotów towarzyszących należały: PZL Ł.2, RWD-14, Lublin R-XIII. +51 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza + +51 Eskadra Liniowa (Rozpoznawcza) - pododdział lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +27 maja 1925 8 Eskadra Wywiadowcza 2 Pułku Lotniczego przemianowana została na 23 Eskadrę Lotniczą. W 1928 jednostka podporządkowana została dowódcy nowo powstałego 5 Pułku Lotniczego, przebazowana z lotniska rakowickiego w Krakowie na lotnisko w Lidzie i przemianowana na 54 Eskadrę Liniową. W 1933 pododdział przemianowany został na 51 Eskadrę Liniową. Jesienią tego roku, wraz z 53 Eskadrą Towarzyszącą, jednostka przeniesiona została do Wilna na lotnisko Porubanek i włączona w skład Detaszowanego Dywizjonu Lotniczego. We wrześniu 1937 pododdział dyslokowany został ponownie do Lidy. W sierpniu 1939, po przeprowadzeniu mobilizacji alarmowej, jednostka przemianowana została na 51 Eskadrę Rozpoznawczą. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 jednostka walczyła w ramach lotnictwa SGO "Narew". +Huculi + +Huculi – grupa etniczna górali mieszanego pochodzenia rusińskiego i wołoskiego, zamieszkujący ukraińską i rumuńską część Karpat Wschodnich – Gorgany, Czarnohorę, Świdowiec, Karpaty Marmaroskie, Połoniny Hryniawskie i Beskidy Pokucko-Bukowińskie. Obok Bojków, z którymi sąsiadują od zachodu, i Łemków, jest to jedna z trzech głównych grup rusińskich górali mieszkających we wschodniej części łuku karpackiego. Określenie "Huculi" upowszechniło się w XIX wieku. +Huculi stworzyli oryginalną kulturę regionalną w dorzeczu górnego Prutu, obu Czeremoszów: Białego i Czarnego, oraz Cisy, z dala od szlaków handlowych, dróg i dużych miast. Ich tradycyjnym zajęciem jest hodowla bydła, pasterstwo i myślistwo. Zajmowali się również hodowlą koni; wyhodowali uchodzące za piękne i bardzo wytrzymałe konie huculskie. +W latach 90. XX wieku prof. Paul Robert Magocsi oraz prof. Paul Best zaliczyli tę mniejszość autochtoniczną do narodu karpatoruskiego, twierdzą oni, że na terenie obecnej Polski, Słowacji, Ukrainy i Serbii mieszka około 1 200 000 społeczność o proweniencji karpatoruskiej, do której obok Hucułów zaliczyli również Łemków i Bojków, wobec których "nie powiodły się próby ukrainizacji" oraz, że ludność ta ma nadal poczucie swojej karpatorusińskiej odrębności narodowej z aspiracjami do stania się czwartym narodem wschodniosłowiańskim, obok Ukraińców, Rosjan i Białorusinów. +Etymologia. +Istnieje kilka wersji tłumaczących pochodzenie nazwy Hucuł. Jedna z nich twierdzi, że słowo to jest pochodzenia rumuńskiego i oznacza 'opryszka' (w jednym z dialektów rumuńskich 'hotul' to złodziej). Inne wyjaśnienie jest takie, że pochodzi ono od słowiańskiego słowa 'kochul' oznaczającego wędrowca lub nomada. +Historia. +Dzieje osadników huculskich sięgają jeszcze czasów neolitu. Już od IX wieku pasterze rumuńscy z Wołoszczyzny (także mołdawscy i węgierscy z Karpat południowych) wraz z rodzinami i stadami owiec i kóz posuwali się górami i wzdłuż nich w poszukiwaniu pastwisk, dochodząc niemal do Tatr. Prawosławna wspólnota religijna obu grup doprowadziła do zlania się ich i wytworzenia jednego narzecza opartego na języku ruskim z domieszką rumuńską i polską. Ślady pochodzenia rumuńskiego znaleźć można w nazwach miejscowości i gór, nazwach pospolitych, architekturze, strojach ludowych. W XII w. monumentalny łańcuch Czarnohory i jej podnóży należał do Rusi Halicko-Wołyńskiej, zaś od czasów Kazimierza Wielkiego (XIV w.) Huculszczyzna znajdowała się w obrębie Rzeczypospolitej. +Po 1772 Huculszczyzna weszła w skład monarchii austriackiej, a następnie austro-węgierskiej. +W listopadzie 1918 Huculi wywołali rewoltę przeciwko rządom węgierskim, zakończoną proklamacją tzw. Republiki Huculskiej 9 stycznia 1919. Efemeryczna Republika Huculska objęła wschodnie Zakarpacie, zaś jej prezydentem został Stepan Kłoczurak. W lipcu 1919 republika została zlikwidowana przez wojska rumuńskie. +W latach międzywojennych znowu znalazła się w Polsce. Od września 1939 r. Huculszczyzna przestała należeć do Polski. Osiedli tam Polacy i inne nieruskie mniejszości narodowe zostali stamtąd wysiedleni. Między innymi to właśnie było powodem spadku zainteresowania tym obszarem ze strony polskich etnografów. +Wieś huculska. +Charakterystyczną cechą huculskiej wsi było to, że posiadała charakter samotnicy, co w dużej mierze można dostrzec i dziś. Poszczególne gospodarstwa oddalone były od siebie, porozrzucane po okolicznych pagórkach otaczających dolinę i centrum wsi. Dlatego też obszar wsi na ogół zajmował ogromne terytorium. W centrum, w pobliżu rzeki lub strumienia oraz drogi stała cerkiew z probostwem, urząd gminy, szkoła, gospoda. Z czasem pojawiły się sklepy, a w niektórych wsiach wille letniskowe i pensjonaty. +Obecnie większość gospodarstw jest porozrzucanych jak kiedyś, w dużych odległościach od siebie. W centrum doliny stoją budowle służące całej społeczności. Charakterystyczną cechą domów wiejskich było to, że na ogół izbę mieszkalną obudowywano wieńcem pomieszczeń gospodarczych usytuowanych od północy, wschodu i zachodu, po to by chroniły ją przed mrozem i wiatrem. Połacie dachowe z tej strony często schodziły wtedy do samej ziemi. Dach miał konstrukcję krokwiowo-jętkową. Do budowy takiego gospodarstwa wykorzystywano starannie dobierane drewno iglaste, wcześniej gromadzone i sezonowane. +Huculszczyzna w literaturze pięknej. +Motyw huculski pojawia się często w przedwojennej polskiej prozie. O Huculszczyźnie pisali między innymi: Wincenty Pol, Stanisław Vincenz czy Józef Wittlin. Dramat huculski pt. "Karpaccy Górale" napisał Józef Korzeniowski, a opowiadanie "Opryszki w Karpatach" (Poznań, 1836) Eugeniusz Brocki. +Huculszczyzna w malarstwie polskim. +Tematyką huculską prezentowali w swoich dziełach m.in. malarze: Józef Simmler, Artur Grottger, Juliusz Kossak, a przede wszystkim Teodor Axentowicz w swoich dziełach ""Pogrzeb Huculski"" (1882), ""Święto Jordanu"" (1893) i ""Kołomyjka"" (1895). Huculszczyznę szczególnym uwielbieniem obdarzyli przede wszystkim trzej polscy malarze z krakowskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych: Kazimierz Sichulski, Władysław Jarocki i Fryderyk Pautsch. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 9 + +Pluton Łącznikowy Nr 9 - pododdział Lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Pluton nie występował w organizacji pokojowej Lotnictwa. Został sformowany, w I rzucie mobilizacji powszechnej, przez III Dywizjon Myśliwski 5 Pułku Lotniczego na lotnisku Porubanek w Wilnie. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 pluton walczył w składzie lotnictwa SGO "Narew". +36 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +36 Eskadra Obserwacyjna - jednostka Armii Poznań w kampanii wrześniowej 1939. +Personel eskadry. +I/36 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +II/36 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +142 Eskadra Myśliwska + +142 Eskadra Myśliwska (142 em) – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +Na podstawie rozkazu Departamentu Żeglugi Powietrznej Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych L.dz. 25/ŻP/tj. z 18 marca 1926 sformowana została 124 Eskadra Myśliwska. 26 maja 1926 jednostka przemianowana została na 116 Eskadrę Myśliwską. 30 maja 1928 pododdział przemianowany został na 142 Eskadrę Myśliwską. +Eskadra wchodziła w skład III Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego 4 Pułku Lotniczego w Toruniu. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Pomorze" (1-6 IX), a następnie Brygady Pościgowej. 31 sierpnia przebazowana została na lotnisko polowe w pobliżu wsi Markowo. Na uzbrojeniu znajdowało się dziesięć samolotów PZL P.11c. +Zwycięstwa pilotów 141 eskadry wg Biura Historycznego PSP w Londynie. +2 IX 1939 +3 IX 1939 +4 IX 1939 +6 IX 1939 +Eskadra w wyniku działań wojennych utraciła 7 samolotów. +24 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza + +24 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza (Liniowa) - pododdział lotnictwa rozpoznawczego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W marcu 1934 na lotnisku rakowickim w Krakowie rozpoczęto organizację 24 Eskadry Liniowej. Eskadra podporządkowana została dowódcy I Dywizjonu Liniowego 2 Pułku Lotniczego. +W sierpniu 1939, w czasie mobilizacji alarmowej, jednostka przemianowana została na 24 Eskadrę Rozpoznawczą. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Kraków" i Armii "Lublin". +Personel eskadry. +Strzelcy pokładowi. +Eskadra ta, dowodzona bardzo prężnie, mając dobre zaopatrzenie w materiały pędne oraz właściwie dobrane lotniska polowe poniosła w kampanii wrześniowej najniższe straty ze wszystkich eskadr rozpoznawczych, wykonując też najwięcej lotów bojowych spośród tych jednostek, biorąc dodatkowo udział w dwóch dużych wyprawach bombowych. +56 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +56 Eskadra Obserwacyjna - jednostka Armii Karpaty we wrześniu 1939. +Personel eskadry. +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +6 września o godzinie 12:18 w pobliżu miejscowości Ostrovany u Ňaršan klucz słowackich samolotów Avia B-534 w składzie F. Hanovec, M. Žiaran i V. Jaloviar zestrzelił samolot Lublin R.XIIID. Kpr. pil. Marian Piasecki zginął, natomiast por. obs. Edward Porada skakał na spadochronie dostając się do niewoli. Zestrzelenie przyznano sierżantowi Františkowi Hanovec jako jedyne potwierdzone zestrzelenie polskiego samolotu przez pilota słowackiego. +Jednostka zakończyła działania bojowe lotem rozpoznawczym 17 września w rejon Przemyśla. Pod wieczór cztery samoloty eskadry przeleciały do Czerniowiec w Rumunii, następnego dnia dołączył piąty. +Izoterma Kisielewa + +Pełna izoterma Kisielewa. +Od podstawowej izotermy Langmuira różni obie izotermy uwzględnienie wpływu oddziaływań adsorbat-adsorbat, specyficzych w przypadku równania uproszczonego, specyficznych i niespecyficznych w przypadku równania pełnego. Pełne równanie Kisielewa można również uważać za uogólnienie izotermy Fowlera-Guggenheima na przypadek oddziaływań niespecyficznych. +Oba równania izoterm mogą być stosowane jako tzw. izotermy lokalne przy analizie adsorpcji na powierzchniach heterogenicznych przy wykorzystaniu ogólnego równania całkowego. Wymaga to jednak uwzględnienia topografię powierzchni adsorbentu. W taki przypadku w wyrażeniach po prawej stronie (powyżej), pokrycie powierzchni θ' = θ zmienia swój charakter: przy topografia przypadkowa θ' jest to średnie pokrycie całej powierzchni, przy topografii płatowej θ' jest to pokrycie lokalne dla danego płata powierzchniowego (zob. więcej). +Grigorij Rasputin + +Grigorij Jefimowicz Rasputin (ros. "Григо́рий Ефи́мович Распу́тин", ur. najprawdopodobniej 10 stycznia (kal.jul.) 22 stycznia (kal.greg.) 1869 r. w Pokrowskoje k. Tiumeni, zm. 30 grudnia 1916 w Piotrogrodzie) – chłop rosyjski, rzekomy mnich, chłyst, faworyt rodziny cara rosyjskiego Mikołaja II. +Data urodzenia. +Data narodzin Rasputina nie jest pewna. Jego córka, Maria Rasputina, podawała, że urodził się on 23 stycznia 1871 r. (10 stycznia wg kalendarza juliańskiego). W okresie radzieckim w encyklopediach można było znaleźć informację, że przyszedł na świat w 1865 lub 1866 roku. Natomiast z wpisu cerkiewnego z Pokrowskoje można wnioskować, że Rasputin nie urodził się przed 1869 rokiem. Spis ludności tej miejscowości (przechowywany w Tiumieniu) podaje datę 10 stycznia 1869 (dzień św. Grzegorza). Sam Rasputin podawał różne daty swoich narodzin - w 1907 roku, podczas śledztwa przeprowadzonego przez władze cerkwi stwierdził, iż urodził się w 1873 r., w 1911 sugerował, że przyszedł na świat w 1861 r., a w 1914 roku jako datę narodzin podał 1865 r. +Początki. +W życiorysie Rasputina istnieje wiele wydarzeń niepewnych; w literaturze historycznej relacje na temat jego młodości opierają się głównie na legendach i domysłach; nie ma pewności co do jego prawdziwego nazwiska; niektóre opracowania podają jako prawdopodobne nazwisko Nowych, ale spotyka się też informacje, że nazwisko to przybrał dopiero za zgodą Mikołaja II, ponieważ Rasputin kojarzyło się negatywnie. +W rodzinnej wsi miał złą opinię; nie chodził do szkoły i zanim osiągnął wiek dojrzały był już znany ze skłonności do dziewcząt, alkoholu, tytoniu, burd w miejscowej gospodzie i drobnych kradzieży (a może nawet poważniejszych - w lokalnym środowisku przylgnęło do niego określenie "koniokrad"). Sporadycznie pomagał ojcu w furmaństwie, przewożąc ludzi i towary, co umożliwiało mu poznawanie szerszego świata i nawiązywanie znajomości. W 19. roku życia poślubił Praskowię Fiodorownę Dubrowin, z którą miał czwórkę dzieci. +Działalność religijna. +Trudno dowieść, kiedy dokonał się przełom duchowy Rasputina; niektórzy autorzy sugerują, że początkiem przemiany mogła być śmierć 6-miesięcznego pierworodnego syna. Nie znalazłszy odpowiedzi na wiele kwestii dotyczących wiary, Rasputin rozpoczął wędrówkę po klasztorach i pustelniach; z czasem został uznany za mnicha, chociaż nie złożył ślubów. Wtedy też prawdopodobnie wypracował specyficzny styl wypowiadania się i postępowania, właściwy "świętym ojczulkom" i trafiający do serc ludzkich. +W 1893, prawdopodobnie pod wpływem pustelnika Makarego, którego uważał za swego przewodnika duchowego, Rasputin udał się na pielgrzymkę do zespołu klasztornego na górze Athos w Grecji - centrum ortodoksyjnego prawosławia. Dopiero tam rozpoczął edukację teologiczną, przysłuchując się dyskusjom zakonników. Zapamiętał z nich fragmenty z "Pisma Św." i pism Ojców Kościoła. Sam nigdy nie czytał tych dzieł i do końca życia pozostał właściwie półanalfabetą. +Po powrocie w 1896 roku odwiedził wiele miejsc w Rosji wsławionych relikwiami i cudami. Spotykał się zarówno z przedstawicielami Cerkwi oficjalnej, jak z wyznawcami różnych sekt religijnych. W trakcie tych wędrówek zyskał opinię jasnowidza, egzorcysty, uzdrowiciela i przenikliwego kaznodziei, głoszącego Słowo Boże przypadkowym słuchaczom na jarmarkach, stacjach kolejowych i przystaniach rzecznych. Wtedy też powstało tzw. "kółko rasputinowskie", grupujące początkowo ludzi z rodzinnej wsi Rasputina, którzy nazywali siebie "braćmi i siostrami" i oprócz modlitwy oddawali się uciechom cielesnym jako szczegółowej formie kontaktu z Bogiem. Później owo kółko powiększyło się również o osoby spoza lokalnej społeczności. Jego działalność została przez miejscową społeczność prawosławną uznana za herezję oraz źródło demoralizacji i zgorszenia. Na Rasputina i jego zwolenników posypały się oskarżenia, które trafiły do gubernatora, a następnie do władz cerkiewnych. Zarządzone przez Cerkiew śledztwo nie dostarczyło żadnych dowodów przeciwko Rasputinowi. Regularnie uczestniczył on w nabożeństwach cerkiewnych, jak też prowadził przykładne życie męża i ojca; pomimo to był szykanowany przez miejscowe władze administracyjne i cerkiewne. +W 1903 rozpoczął "wielką wędrówkę", aby szukać protekcji w znanych ośrodkach rosyjskiego prawosławia. Trafił do Petersburga, gdzie dzięki wstawiennictwu archimandryty Chryzanta (Szczełkowskiego) spotkał się z rektorem Akademii Duchownej - Sergiuszem, a następnie archimandrytą Teofanem, który zaofiarował mu mieszkanie w swojej celi klasztornej. Prowadząc dysputy religijne z wykładowcami i słuchaczami Akademii, Rasputin zadziwiał prostotą oraz głębokością i szczerością wiary; wkrótce jednak dotarły do Petersburga pogłoski przedstawiające go jako oszusta i rozpustnika. "Opiekunowie" namówili go do opuszczenia na pewien czas miasta. Wiosną 1904 powrócił do Pokrowskoje, gdzie jako "świątobliwego męża" oczekiwał go tłum wielbicielek, w których towarzystwie odbył kilka pielgrzymek do Wierchoturia, na grób jednego za świętych Rosyjskiej Cerkwi Prawosławnej - Szymona Wierchoturskiego. +Faworyt carowej. +W marcu 1905 powrócił do Akademii Duchownej w Petersburgu. Został przyjęty przez Teofana i jego otoczenie, które pozostawało w bliskich stosunkach z dworkami carowej, wielkimi księżnymi Anastazją i Milicą, żonami kuzynów cara Mikołaja II i najlepszymi przyjaciółkami carowej Aleksandry. Za pośrednictwem ich i Anny Wyrubowej 14 listopada 1905 zaprezentowano Rasputina na dworze carskim. Był to trudny okres dla rodziny carskiej; samodzierżawny tron zmuszony został, pod presją wydarzeń rewolucyjnych, do znacznych ustępstw na rzecz poddanych, a jedyny syn Mikołaja II - Aleksy, był chory na hemofilię. Jego matka - caryca Aleksandra Fiodorowna robiła co mogła, by go z niej wyleczyć i w końcu usłyszała o popie mieszkającym na Syberii - rzeczonym Grigoriju Rasputinie. Rasputin, jak mówił, był uzdrowicielem i kilka razy udało mu się zatamować krwotok młodego carewicza. +Carowa uhonorowała go za to specjalnym miejscem na dworze carskim. W związku z tym mógł bez przeszkód przebywać w otoczeniu cara. Po paru miesiącach miał znaczący wpływ na sprawy polityczne Rosji - między innymi doprowadził do dymisji krewnego cara z wysokiej rangi dowódcy wojskowego. +Pierwsze lata jego obecności na dworze petersburskim były przerywane "pielgrzymkami", w tym prawdopodobnie do Jerozolimy w 1911. Podczas jednej z wizyt w rodzinnej wsi w 1914 miał miejsce zamach na jego życie. Uwiedziona i porzucona przez Rasputina Chionia Gusiewa, należąca kiedyś do "kółka rasputinowskiego", wdarła się do jego domu i pchnęła nożem w brzuch; rana była poważna, ale mnich rychło wrócił do zdrowia; domniemywa się, że za tym zamachem mógł stać ktoś z kręgów zakonnych. +Wpływy Rasputina wzrosły gwałtownie po wybuchu I wojny światowej. Rosja okazała się nieprzygotowana do wojny, pod której ciężarem system samodzierżawny zaczął się załamywać. Rasputin przestrzegał cara przed przystąpieniem do konfliktu; miał nawet przepowiedzieć, że wraz z klęską Rosji (i upadkiem czy śmiercią jego samego, jako "proroka" związanego z dworem) upadnie także dynastia. Jednak w literaturze podkreśla się fakt, że wszyscy, którzy znali ówczesną sytuację międzynarodową i miejsce Rosji w niej, zdawali sobie sprawę, że system samowładny nie przetrzyma próby wojny, zwłaszcza, że w samym imperium dochodziły do głosu siły polityczne domagające się radykalnych zmian w sposobie rządzenia krajem. Mikołaj II jako car i naczelny wódz armii carskiej od połowy 1915 roku stracił prestiż nie tylko w oczach żołnierzy i oficerów, ale przede wszystkim w oczach społeczeństwa rosyjskiego; z drugiej strony, chcąc ratować monarchię, car dążył do wzmocnienia swojej władzy przez roszady personalne, sprzeczne jednak z interesem państwowym Rosji. Inspiratorem tych działań był Rasputin, który pod nieobecność w Piotrogrodzie cara (który większość czasu spędzał w kwaterze głównej dowództwa wojsk rosyjskich w Mohylewie), poprzez carową Aleksandrę uzyskał decydujący wpływ na obsadzanie stanowisk w rosyjskim rządzie. Po pewnym czasie miał wielu wrogów na dworze, dlatego uknuto przeciw niemu spisek i postanowiono go zabić. +Zamach. +Po początkowych sukcesach armia rosyjska dowodzona przez samego cara była w odwrocie na wszystkich frontach. Mikołaj II, obwiniany za klęski przez opozycję, nie miał tyle siły politycznej, by móc się jej przeciwstawić. Coraz głośniej mówiło się o potrzebie odsunięcia cara od władzy. Nieliczni monarchiści broniący Mikołaja II obarczali winą Rasputina, zarzucając osłabienie władzy cesarskiej. Oskarżyli też carycę „Niemkę”. Aleksandra Fiodorowna była w owym okresie już całkowicie poddana jego woli. A on przepowiadał rychły upadek Rosji po swojej śmierci. +Jednak nieprzerażeni tymi proroctwami młodzi monarchiści z księciem Feliksem Jusupowem na czele zawiązali spisek na życie przyjaciela carskiej rodziny. Plan był prosty: 30 grudnia 1916 r. Rasputin został potajemnie zwabiony do pałacu Jusupowa pod pretekstem poznania słynącej z urody Iriny Aleksandrowny. Tam poczęstowano go zatrutym winem i ciastem. Ku zaskoczeniu zamachowców trucizna jedynie osłabiła starika (prawdopodobnie użyty cyjanek potasu, przez złe przechowywanie, uległ hydrolizie, przez co w użytej truciźnie nie było wystarczającej ilości jonów cyjankowych). Wtedy Jusupow zdecydował się zastrzelić Rasputina. Pierwszy strzał ranił ofiarę w pierś. Jeszcze po 50 latach książę Jusupow wspominał, jak to Rasputin - otruty i z przestrzeloną piersią - próbował go udusić. Gwałtownie odepchnięty przez księcia wybiegł na dziedziniec i dopiero kiedy deputowany Władimir Puryszkiewicz oddał w niego kolejne strzały, upadł. Dla pewności książę zmiażdżył mu pałką czaszkę. Następnie spiskowcy związali Rasputina i zawieźli nad Newę, gdzie wielki książę Dimitr Pawłowicz osobiście go utopił. Późniejsza sekcja wykazała wodę w jego płucach - oznacza to, że Rasputin jeszcze żył gdy wrzucano go do wody. Przypadkowy świadek zameldował policji o wydarzeniach. Początkowo nikt nie chciał uwierzyć w zeznania, jednak wkrótce rozpoczęto śledztwo. Wyłowione z Newy zwłoki Rasputina nosiły ślady świadczące, że w momencie wrzucenia do rzeki nadal żył - prawa ręka była uwolniona z więzów, a w płucach znajdowała się woda. +Zniknięcie Rasputina wywołało niepokój w Carskim Siole. Szybko odnaleziono ciało i wykryto sprawców morderstwa. Początkowo chciano surowo ukarać spiskowców, sprzeciwili się temu jednak członkowie dalszej rodziny Mikołaja II, dla których zamordowanie Rasputina było czynem patriotycznym. Ostatecznie zdecydowano się jedynie na usunięcie ze stolicy uczestników spisku. +Pogrzeb Grigorija Rasputina odbył się w parku w Carskim Siole. Uczestniczyła w nim rodzina carska. Caryca przed zamknięciem trumny włożyła do niej ikonę, na której podpisali się uczestnicy pogrzebu. +LHC@home + +LHC@home - projekt przetwarzania rozproszonego platformy BOINC. Jego celem jest umożliwienie dokładnej kalibracji akceleratora cząstek elementarnych, Large Hadron Collider (LHC), budowanego przez CERN w Genewie. +Program LHC@home symuluje tor 60 cząstek podróżujących z prędkością bliską prędkości światła wewnątrz kolistego przyspieszacza. Symulacja trwa przez 100 tys. okrążeń, a jej celem jest sprawdzenie czy wiązka cząstek pozostanie stabilna, nie rozproszy się i nie zderzy ze ścianą urządzenia. Spowodowałoby to poważne uszkodzenie i konieczność wyłączenia, celem napraw, tego największego i najdroższego instrumentu badawczego na świecie. Naukowcy i inżynierowie są zdania, że przeprowadzenie takich symulacji tysiące razy, przy różnych parametrach, pozwoli tak wykalibrować akcelerator, aby problem taki nie wystąpił. +Dołączenie do projektu jest możliwe za pomocą funkcjonalnej platformy BOINC rozwijanej przez amerykańską uczelnię w Berkeley. Umożliwia ona swobodne dołączanie i opuszczanie różnorodnych projektów a także zarządzanie dopuszczalnym użyciem zasobów komputera. +Gerard Labuda + +Gerard Labuda (ur. 28 grudnia 1916 w Nowej Hucie koło Kartuz, zm. 1 października 2010 w Poznaniu) – polski historyk, mediewista. Specjalność naukowa: historia powszechna i historia Polski; historia słowiańszczyzny zachodniej w tym historia Pomorza i Kaszub; wydawca źródeł skandynawskich i anglosaskich do historii Słowian zachodnich; historia kultury i cywilizacji, metodologia badań historycznych. Rektor Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w latach 1962-1965. W latach 1984-1989 wiceprezes PAN; w latach 1989-1994 prezes PAU, następnie jej prezes honorowy. Członek Rady Konsultacyjnej przy Przewodniczącym Rady Państwa PRL. Mieszkał w Poznaniu. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Edukację rozpoczął w rodzinnym domu. Rozpoczynając w wieku ośmiu lat naukę w czteroklasowej szkole powszechnej w Luzinie pisał i czytał biegle po polsku i niemiecku – po miesiącu nauki został awansem przeniesiony do drugiej klasy, a po kolejnych kilku tygodniach do trzeciej. Po ukończeniu tej szkoły uczęszczał do gimnazjum klasycznego w Wejherowie. +Studia. +W 1936 roku rozpoczął studia historyczne na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim. Podczas studiów pisał rozprawy historyczne – jego monografia o biskupie Chrystianie zyskała status monumentalnej pozycji w polskiej historiografii. W 1938 pracował przy porządkowaniu archiwum Ordynacji Wielopolskich w Chrobrzu. W roku akademickim 1938-1939 był stypendystą Uniwersytetu w Lund w Szwecji. Studia historyczne przerwał mu wybuch II wojny światowej, kontynuował je na tajnym Uniwersytecie Ziem Zachodnich z siedzibą w Warszawie. Tam otrzymał w 1943 tytuł magistra na podstawie wydanej w 1937 roku publikacji "Polska i krzyżacka misja w Prusach". Doktorat obronił w 1944 roku, również na podstawie przedwojennej rozprawy "Założenia Arcybiskupstwa Magdeburskiego i Biskupstwa Poznańskiego na tle wschodniej polityki misyjnej". W okresie okupacji pracował jako księgowy w niemieckim zarządzie Liegenschaftverwaltung w Chrobrzu, równolegle wykładał konspiracyjnie historię średniowieczną Polski w filii Uniwersytetu Ziem Zachodnich w Kielcach. Potajemnie udostępniał dostępne mu (z racji obowiązków zawodowych) archiwalia do konspiracyjnych badań naukowych. +Kariera naukowa. +Po wojnie zatrudniony na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim, czynnie angażował się w odbudowę biblioteki Seminarium Historycznego. W 1946 habilitował się na podstawie rozprawy "Studia nad początkami państwa polskiego", w większej części napisanej w czasie okupacji. Okresowo pełnił wówczas funkcję prodziekana Wydziału Humanistycznego. +Od 1950 profesor nadzwyczajny Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego; od 1951 członek korespondent PAU, a od 1953 także w Instytucie Historii PAN – tamże na czele Zakładu Historii Pomorza. Profesor zwyczajny 1956, w latach 1958-1961 dyrektor Instytutu Zachodniego, rektor UAM 1962-1965. Do jego zasług organizacyjnych należało powołanie rady doradczej w postaci kolegium rektorskiego oraz istniejącego do dziś Kolegium Rektorów Miasta Poznania. Od 1964 roku członek korespondent PAN, od 1969 członek rzeczywisty, w latach 1972-1994 członek prezydium PAN, 1972-1980 prezes oddziału poznańskiego PAN, 1984-1989 wiceprezes PAN. Członek i wieloletni sekretarz, w latach 1972-1975 i 1980-1981 prezes Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. Członek czynny Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności po jej reaktywacji w 1989, prezez PAU w latach 1989-1994, potem jej prezes honorowy. Był przewodniczącym Rady Naukowej Biblioteki Kórnickiej, redagował m.in. "Historię dyplomacji", "Słownik starożytności słowiańskich" i "Polski Słownik Biograficzny". Przewodniczący Rady Naukowej Instytutu im. O. Kolberga 1960-2008. Członek komisji UNESCO, PRL i RFN ds. podręczników szkolnych 1972-1989. +Wydarzenia marcowe i ich konsekwencje. +W 1968 jego czterej synowie wzięli udział w "protestach marca 1968" na UAM. Wezwany do ministerstwa w celu wyjaśnienia tej sprawy odparł, że jego (jako "dawnego rektora") synowie stanęli w marcu 1968 roku po właściwej stronie. W rezultacie działań komisji wiceministra Mistewicza, z dniem 1 września 1970 r., w ramach "polityki jednoetatowości", zaprzestał pracy na UAM, pozostając w Instytucie Historii PAN. Dzięki wsparciu ze strony ministra szkolnictwa wyższego Henryka Jabłońskiego uzyskał jednak bezterminowy urlop bezpłatny, co umożliwiło mu formalnie zachowanie stanowiska na UAM. Dzięki temu mógł (choć już bez wynagrodzenia) nadal kierować do emerytury w 1986 roku pracami Zakładu Historii Powszechnej i Polski do XV w. Instytutu Historii Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza, a okresowo prowadzić również wykład kursowy. Nieudane próby przerwania owego urlopu w celu przywrócenia pełnego etatu profesorskiego podjęte zostały w latach 1974-1975 przez ówczesnego rektora UAM Benona Miśkiewicza. +Życie prywatne. +W 1943 poślubił hr. Albertę Wielopolską (1917-1999), prawnuczkę słynnego margrabiego Aleksandra Wielopolskiego. Wspomniani wyżej czterej synowie zostali profesorami uniwersytetów odpowiednio w Polsce, USA, Niemczech i Kanadzie. Córka, mieszkająca w Szwajcarii, jest jednym z redaktorów tzw. "Wielkiego Inwentarza Zabytków kantonu genewskiego". O sobie powiedział: "Ja mówię dobrze tylko po kaszubsku, to jest moja matryca językowa." +Pogrzeb. +9 października 2010 został pochowany w Luzinie na Kaszubach. W pogrzebie wziął udział prezes Rady Ministrów Donald Tusk. Homilię wygłosił Prymas Polski senior, arcybiskup Henryk Muszyński. +Studenci. +Uczony wypromował ponad 100 magistrów i kilkudziesięciu doktorów. Jego studentami byli m.in. profesorowie: Jerzy Hauziński, Bogusław Drewniak, Marceli Kosman, Jerzy Strzelczyk, Edward Rymar, Mieczysław Stański oraz docent Irena Radtke. +Odznaczenia i tytuły honorowe. +G. Labuda został odznaczony m.in. Krzyżem Wielkim (postanowieniem prezydenta Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego z 11 listopada 1996), a wcześniej (w latach 1954-1986) Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą, Krzyżem Komandorskim, Oficerskim i Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, Orderem Sztandaru Pracy I klasy. Pośmiertnie uhonorowano go Orderem Orła Białego (2010). +Nagroda Fundacji im. Alfreda Jurzykowskiego (USA, 1983), nagroda im. J.G.Herdera (Austria, 1991). Nagrody państwowe (1949,1951,1970). +W październiku 1988 roku otrzymał Nagrodę I stopnia Ministra Obrony Narodowej w dziedzinie historii wojskowej. +Uzyskał tytuły doktora honoris causa Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego (1985), UMK (1993), Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego (1995), Warszawskiego (1997), Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego (1999), oraz Szczecińskiego (2003). +28 czerwca 1994 roku przyznano mu tytuł Honorowego Obywatela Miasta Gdańska, a 5 lipca 2007 z inicjatywy Stowarzyszenia Czas Przestrzeń Tożsamość ze Szczecina – Honorowego Obywatela Miasta Szczecina. Był także Honorowym Obywatelem miasta Poznania. W 2000 nagrodzony został medalem "Palmae Universitatis Studiorum Posnaniensis". 29 października 2008 roku nadano mu tytuł "Honorowy Obywatel Miasta Gniezna". +Pisma (wybór). +Naukowe dokonania G. Labudy zostały przedstawione m.in. w pracy pod red. J. Dobosza, "Naukowe dzieło Profesora Gerarda Labudy". Łącznie opublikował ponad 2000 prac, w tym ponad 30 książek i kilkaset rozpraw i artykułów. +34 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza + +34 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza - jednostka Armii Poznań we wrześniu 1939. +46 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +46 Eskadra Obserwacyjna - jednostka 4 Pułku Lotniczego w Toruniu przydzielona do Armii Pomorze we wrześniu 1939. +Personel eskadry. +I/46 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +II/46 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +Czesław Śleziak + +Czesław Śleziak (ur. 30 czerwca 1952 w Lalikach) – polski polityk, historyk, poseł na Sejm I, II, III i IV kadencji, minister środowiska w rządzie Leszka Millera w latach 2003–2004. +Życiorys. +W 1977 ukończył studia na Wydziale Nauk Społecznych Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. W latach 1971–1972 pracował jako starszy referent w Prezydium Powiatowej Rady Narodowej w Żywcu. Po ukończeniu studiów podjął pracę naukowo-dydaktyczną jako asystent, a następnie starszy asystent w Instytucie Nauk Politycznych i Dziennikarstwa Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. +Od 1972 do 1990 był członkiem Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. Po jej rozwiązaniu należał do Socjaldemokracji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Od 1991 zasiadał w radzie naczelnej i wojewódzkiej tej partii, był przewodniczącym rady miejskiej w Katowicach. W 1999 znalazł się wśród założycieli Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej, zasiadał we władzach krajowych tego ugrupowania. +Z ramienia Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej od 1991 do 2005 pełnił funkcję posła na Sejm I, II, III i IV kadencji, wybranego w okręgu katowickim. Przez 4 kadencje zasiadał w Komisji Ochrony Środowiska, Zasobów Naturalnych i Leśnictwa, był jej wiceprzewodniczącym (1993–1997) i przewodniczącym (1997–2001). +Od października 2001 pełnił funkcję sekretarza stanu w Ministerstwie Środowiska. 3 marca 2003 po opuszczeniu koalicji rządowej przez Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe zastąpił na stanowisku ministra środowiska Stanisława Żelichowskiego. Urząd ministra sprawował do dymisji rządu Leszka Millera w maju 2004. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2005 nie kandydował. +W przedterminowych wyborach w 2007 bez powodzenia ubiegał się o mandat posła z listy koalicji Lewica i Demokraci. +W latach 1973–1980 należał do Socjalistycznego Związku Studentów Polskich, zaś w latach 1985–1987 do Związku Socjalistycznej Młodzieży Polskiej. Od lat dziewięćdziesiątych działał m.in. w Stowarzyszeniu Propagowania Społecznej Demokracji, Stowarzyszeniu Zintegrowanego Zarządzania Środowiskiem oraz Fundacji "LIVER" Katowickiego Stowarzyszenia Pomocy Chorym. Od marca 2008 przewodniczy radzie Polskiej Izby Ekologii. Jest autorem i współautorem publikacji z zakresu najnowszej historii Polski oraz ekologii. +Lacertydy + +Lacertydy (obiekty typu "BL Lacertae", często nazywane „BL Lac”) – gwiazdopodobne obiekty pozagalaktyczne, charakteryzujące się silnym promieniowaniem w zakresie fal radiowych oraz bardzo szybkimi zmianami jasności i polaryzacji. Podobne cechy wykazuje podgrupa kwazarów – blazary, od których lacertydy odróżnia mniejsze natężenie linii widmowych. Lacertydy uważane są za rodzaj aktywnych jąder galaktyk, których szczególne właściwości spowodowane są skierowaniem strumienia wyrzucanej materii w kierunku obserwatora. +Nazwa pochodzi od pierwszego odkrytego obiektu tego typu – BL Lacertae, który znajduje się w gwiazdozbiorze Jaszczurki. Pierwotnie uznano go za gwiazdę zmienną, dopiero w latach 70. XX wieku poznano jego prawdziwą naturę. +III/6 dywizjon myśliwski + +III Dywizjon Myśliwski 6 Pułku Lotniczego (III/6 dm) - pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego. +Historia. +Dywizjon sformowany został jesienią 1937 roku na lotnisku Lwów-Skniłów, w składzie 6 Pułku Lotniczego. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 roku walczył w składzie lotnictwa i OPL Armii "Łódź". +Jean de La Bruyère + +Jean de La Bruyere (ur. 16 sierpnia 1645 w Paryżu, zm. 10 maja 1696 w Wersalu), eseista francuski. +Studiował prawo, później pracował w skarbowości; w 1684 wstąpił do służby francuskiego wodza, księcia Kondeusza. Opublikował "Charaktery, czyli Przymioty Teofrasta" (1688); ostateczna wersja dzieła z 1696, zatytułowana "Charaktery", zawierała satyryczne portrety współczesnych i ostrą krytykę społeczeństwa, co przysporzyło autorowi wielu wrogów. Przeciwnicy blokowali jego wybór do Akademii Francuskiej, ale ostatecznie został wybrany w 1693.Pod koniec życia wyjechał do Lyonu gdzie opublikował ostatni rozdział "Charakterów..",w którym przyznał,iż krytykowane przez niego wcześniej przymioty natury ludzkiej nie powinny podlegać tak ostrym ocenom negując tym samym swoje wcześniejsze przemyślenia. +Apollo 8 + +Apollo 8 – załogowa misja kierowana przez amerykańską agencję kosmiczną NASA w ramach programu Apollo. Apollo 8 było pierwszą misją, która wyniosła ludzi poza orbitę okołoziemską. +Misja. +Astronauci Apollo 8 byli pierwszymi ludźmi, którzy opuścili niską orbitę okołoziemską i odwiedzili inne ciało niebieskie. Początkowo zakładano, że następna misja po Apollo 7 będzie testem na orbicie okołoziemskiej, tak jak kolejna, Apollo 9. Plany zmieniono z obawy przed szybkimi postępami radzieckiego programu Zond, mającego na celu wysłanie wokół Księżyca pojazdu Sojuz wyniesionego przez rakietę Proton z jednym lub dwoma kosmonautami na pokładzie. W krótkim czasie przystosowano pojazd Apollo 8 do lotu na orbitę wokółksiężycową, mimo że była to dopiero druga misja załogowa Apollo, i mimo braku zabezpieczenia w postaci zdublowanych systemów podtrzymywania życia na pokładzie modułu księżycowego, które później uratowały życie załogi Apollo 13. Podobna awaria zabiłaby astronautów Apollo 8. +Załoga Apollo 8 podróżowała w module dowodzenia. Statek nie posiadał modułu księżycowego. Misja Apollo 8 była pierwszą misją załogową wystrzeloną przez rakietę Saturn V, która odbyła do tego czasu jedynie dwa loty. Rakieta zadziałała idealnie, podobnie jak silnik SPS modułu serwisowego wypróbowany uprzednio podczas misji Apollo 7. Pojazd wszedł na orbitę wokółksiężycową rankiem 24 grudnia 1968 roku i przez następnych 20 godzin okrążał Księżyc. Astronauci wykonali dokumentację fotograficzną i poszukiwali ewentualnych miejsc do lądowania. +Podczas transmisji telewizyjnej w Wigilię Bożego Narodzenia, astronauci odczytali fragmenty księgi Genesis. W tym samym dniu wykonali także słynne pierwsze kolorowe zdjęcie wschodu Ziemi nad Księżycem. +Misja Apollo 8 dowiodła, że podróż na Księżyc i z powrotem jest możliwa. Stanowiło to wielkie osiągnięcie dla programu Apollo i wskrzesiło zaufanie do programu kosmicznego, nadwerężone tragedią załogi Apollo 1. +Moduł dowodzenia jest obecnie eksponatem w Muzeum Nauki i Przemysłu w Chicago. Moduł serwisowy został odrzucony przed wejściem w atmosferę, a moduł księżycowy nie stanowił elementu pojazdu podczas tej misji. +Grzegorz Napieralski + +Grzegorz Bernard Napieralski (ur. 18 marca 1974 w Szczecinie) – polski polityk, od 2004 poseł na Sejm IV, V, VI i VII kadencji, od 2008 do 2011 przewodniczący Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. +Życiorys. +Młodość i wykształcenie. +Syn Bernarda Napieralskiego, etatowego instruktora w szczecińskim Komitecie Wojewódzkim PZPR. Uczęszczał do Szkoły Podstawowej nr 1, a następnie do Technikum Mechanicznego. W 2000 ukończył studia politologiczne na Wydziale Humanistycznym Uniwersytetu Szczecińskiego, uzyskując tytuł zawodowy magistra nauk politycznych z dwiema specjalizacjami w zakresie integracji europejskiej oraz administracji i marketingu politycznego. +Działalność zawodowa i polityczna. +W latach 1994–1995 był pracownikiem technicznym w Zakładach Graficznych "Kema". W latach 1998–1999 pracował na stanowisku kierownika ds. promocji w firmie "Reemtsma Polska" S.A. W 1998 bez powodzenia kandydował do rady miasta Szczecina. Od 1999 do 2001 był sekretarzem wojewódzkiego biura parlamentarno-samorządowego. W latach 2002–2004 pełnił funkcję doradcy wojewody w Zachodniopomorskim Urzędzie Wojewódzkim. W latach 2002–2004 zasiadał w radzie miasta Szczecina. +W latach 1995–1999 był sekretarzem szczecińskiej Socjaldemokracji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Od 1999 pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego rady wojewódzkiej Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej i sekretarza rady krajowej. Od 6 marca 2004 do 29 maja 2005 był wiceprzewodniczącym Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej, 29 maja 2005 powołano go na stanowisko sekretarza generalnego tej partii. 31 maja 2008 został wybrany na przewodniczącego SLD, uzyskując 231 głosów na 450 zgromadzonych na kongresie delegatów. +W 2004 objął mandat poselski w miejsce Bogusława Liberadzkiego (wybranego do Parlamentu Europejskiego). Na posła został wybrany ponownie w wyborach parlamentarnych w 2005 z listy SLD w okręgu szczecińskim. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007 po raz trzeci został posłem, kandydując z listy koalicji Lewica i Demokraci i otrzymując 29 585 głosów. +22 kwietnia 2008 został posłem klubu Lewica. 17 czerwca 2009 został wybrany na jego przewodniczącego, zastępując wybranego do Parlamentu Europejskiego Wojciecha Olejniczaka. Pod koniec września 2010 klub został przemianowany na KP Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. +22 kwietnia 2010 został ogłoszony kandydatem w przyspieszonych wyborach prezydenckich w tym samym roku, po śmierci Jerzego Szmajdzińskiego w katastrofie lotniczej. 6 maja 2010 został zarejestrowany jako kandydat przez PKW. Szefem sztabu wyborczego Grzegorza Napieralskiego został Marek Wikiński, zaś na czele komitetu honorowego stanął Aleksander Kwaśniewski. Kandydaturę Grzegorza Napieralskiego wsparły Partia Regionów (27 kwietnia 2010), generał Wojciech Jaruzelski (7 maja 2010), Unia Pracy (15 maja 2010) oraz Stowarzyszenie Ordynacka (15 maja 2010). +20 maja 2010 został powołany przez tymczasowo wykonującego obowiązki Prezydenta RP Bronisława Komorowskiego w skład Rady Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. +W wyborach prezydenckich w 2010 Grzegorz Napieralski kandydował na urząd Prezydenta RP; w I turze zdobył 2 299 870 głosów (13,68%), zajmując 3. miejsce spośród 10 kandydatów. +W 2011 kandydował w wyborach parlamentarnych z 1. miejsca na liście komitetu wyborczego Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej w okręgu wyborczym nr 41 w Szczecinie i uzyskał mandat poselski. Oddano na niego 23 940 głosów (6,28% głosów oddanych w okręgu). SLD w tych wyborach uzyskał najsłabszy wynik wyborczy w swojej historii. Grzegorz Napieralski zrezygnował następnie z kierowania partią, 10 grudnia 2011 zastąpił go Leszek Miller. +Życie prywatne. +Żonaty (żona Małgorzata), ma dwie córki Aleksandrę i Alicję. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 1 + +Pluton łącznikowy nr 1 - jednostka Lotnictwa Dyspozycyjnego Naczelnego Wodza we wrześniu 1939. +Izoterma HB + +Założeniem izotermy Hilla-deBoera jest swobodny ruch cząsteczek adsorbatu po powierzchni adsorbentu przy uwzględnieniu wpływu niespecyficznych oddziaływań bocznych adsorbat-adsorbat. Izoterma HB jest analogiem izotermy Fowlera-Guggenheima otrzymanej przy założeniu adsorpcji zlokalizowanej (pozostałe założenia obu modeli są takie same). Od podstawowej izotermy Langmuira różni izotermę HB zarówno uwzględnienie oddziaływań bocznych jak i mobilny charakter adsorpcji. +Izoterma Hilla-deBoera może być stosowana jako tzw. izoterma lokalna przy analizie adsorpcji na powierzchniach heterogenicznych przy wykorzystaniu ogólnego równania całkowego. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 11 + +Pluton łącznikowy Nr 11 - jednostka Armii Modlin we wrześniu 1939. +Brygada Bombowa + +Brygada Bombowa - wielka jednostka lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego podczas wojny obronnej 1939. +Jednostka sformowana została w dniu 31 sierpnia 1939 r. na podstawie rozkazu L.dz. 143/Mob/S/Lot Sztabu Głównego WP. Dowództwo brygady zorganizowano w oparciu o dowództwo Zgrupowania Bombowego 1 Pułku Lotniczego. 31 sierpnia 1939 r. dowódca brygady zmienił numerację pododdziałów. Dowództwo brygady stacjonowało w Warszawie, a wysunięty rzut sztabu skierowany został do Dęblina. +Izoterma Volmera + +Założeniem izotermy Volmera jest swobodny ruch cząsteczek adsorbatu po powierzchni adsorbentu bez wpływu oddziaływań bocznych adsorbat-adsorbat. Izoterma Volmera jest analogiem izotermy Langmuira otrzymanej przy założeniu adsorpcji zlokalizowanej (pozostałe założenia obu modeli są takie same). +Izoterma Volmera może być stosowana jako tzw. izoterma lokalna przy analizie adsorpcji na powierzchniach heterogenicznych przy wykorzystaniu ogólnego równania całkowego. +Pierogi ruskie + +Pierogi ruskie – popularny w Polsce i na Ukrainie (czyli na Rusi) typ pierogów, których nazwa wywodzi się od Rusi Czerwonej. Nie należy jej mylić, jak to często jest robione, z Rosją, gdzie ten typ pierogów nie jest zbyt dobrze znany. +Ciasto przygotowuje się z mąki, wody i soli (czasem także jaj), a farsz z masy twarogowo-ziemniaczanej z dodatkiem soli, pieprzu, podsmażonej cebuli oraz niewielkiej ilości skwarek. Ciasto rozwałkowuje się do grubości około 2 mm, farsz oblepia się ciastem i gotuje w wodzie. Potrawę podaje się ze skwarkami, smażoną cebulą lub śmietaną. We Lwowie popularne było podawanie pierogów ruskich posypanych kminkiem. +Niektórzy smakosze szczególnie cenią pierogi ruskie gotowane, a następnie odsmażane. +Jeszcze w XIX w. pod nazwą pierogi ruskie rozumiano pierogi pieczone, z różnorodnym nadzieniem (także z mięsa, kapusty i grzybów). +43 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +43 Eskadra Obserwacyjna - jednostka 4 Pułku Lotniczego w Toruniu. +Jednostka została utworzona rozkazem dowódcy 4 Pułku Lotniczego Augustyna Menczaka z dnia 1 lipca 1929 roku. Organizację eskadry powierzono jej pierwszemu dowódcy kapitanowi pil. Kazimierzowi Benzowi. Początkowo utworzono dwa plutony po trzy samoloty oznaczane odpowiednio I/43 i II/43. Jednostka wyposażona była w samoloty różnych typów m.in. Potez XV oraz Potez XXVII. 25 października 1930 roku dowództwo eskadry przejął kapitan pil. Jerzy Bohuszewicz. W drugiej połowie 1930 roku przystąpiono do organizacji trzeciego plutonu III/43. +Na przełomie lat 1932 i 1933 43 Eskadra Obserwacyjna została wyposażona w nowe samoloty Lublin R-XIII. 21 marca 1933 roku dowództwo nad jednostką przejął kapitan pil. Stanisław Krzymowski, który na stanowisku pozostawał do grudnia 1935 roku. Pierwsze straty jednostka poniosła 15 grudnia 1934 roku. W wypadku pod Sokołowem koło Wrześni zginęli por. pil. Józef Zacharewicz i por. obs. Bronisław Dubniewicz. +W wyniku reorganizacji lotnictwa jesienią 1937 roku w ramach 4 Pułku zaczęto tworzyć 46 Eskadrę Obserwacyjną. Jednostka została utworzona na bazie sprzętu oraz personelu należącego do plutonu III/43. 1 września 1937 roku dowódcą minowano kapitana Roman Rypsonia, a 21 marca 1938 roku dowództwo nad jednostką przejął kpt. obs. Władysław Dawidek. +II wojna światowa. +Po mobilizacji w dniach 23/24 sierpnia 1939 roku z dniem 30 sierpnia została przydzielona do Armii Pomorze. 1 września 1939 roku pierwszy lot bojowy wykonali por. obs. Tadeusz Galler i ppor. pil. Andrzej Wojciechowski. Po południu tego samego dnia jednostka poniosła pierwsze straty. Odbywająca rozpoznanie w okolicach Nakła załoga ppor. Bernard Owczarczak i kpr. pil. Józef Andrzejewski została ostrzelana przez własną artylerię plot. Andrzejewski został ciężko ranny. 13 września w czasie kolejnego lotu bojowego został śmiertelnie ranny ppor. Juliusz Elsner. Dowódca eskadry z kpr. pil Ryszardem Kopytowskim, po rozpoznaniu Puszczy Kampinoskiej wylądowali w Warszawie, gdzie pozostali do kapitulacji stolicy. 17 września trzy pozostałe załogi otrzymały rozkaz ewakuacji do Lublina. Dwie załogi dostały się do niewoli niemieckiej, a jedna w składzie ppor. Stanisław Słomiński i ppor. pil.Stanisław Targowski 18 września przekroczyła granicę Rumunii. +Bilans walk. +Od początku wybuchu wojny do 17 września piloci eskadry wykonali 55 zadań bojowych. Poległ ppor. Juliusz Elsner, ranny został Józef Andrzejewski, do niewoli dostało się 4 żołnierzy. Eskadra utraciła wszystkie samoloty. +Dowódcy Eskadry. +Personel eskadry na dzień 1 IX 1939. +I/43 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +II/43 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +Leszek Raabe + +Leszek Raabe (ur. 1913, zm. 1943) – polski działacz i publicysta socjalistyczny, założyciel i przywódca grupy konspiracyjnej Gwardia, członek Komitetu Centralnego podziemnej partii lewicy socjalistycznej Polscy Socjaliści oraz komendant Socjalistycznej Organizacji Bojowej, ps. „Marek”. +Był synem Henryka Raabego, zoologa i Julii z Wyleżyńskich. Studiował na Wydziale Prawa i Nauk Społecznych Uniwersytetu Wileńskiego. Od 1928 r. działał w młodzieżowych stowarzyszeniach socjalistycznych, jak Związek Niezależnej Młodzieży Socjalistycznej (przewodniczący Związku w Warszawie), Organizacja Młodzieży Towarzystwa Uniwersytetu Robotniczego, Czerwone Harcerstwo TUR. Był też członkiem Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej. Publikował artykuły w piśmie „Akademik Socjalista”. +Brał udział w wojnie obronnej 1939 r. Od końca 1939 r. przewodził grupie konspiracyjnej Gwardia skupionej wokół pisma o tej samej nazwie. Reprezentował ideę zjednoczenia różnych grup socjalistycznych, aby zyskać odpowiednią bazę dla swojej koncepcji prowadzenia czynnej walki z Niemcami. +We wrześniu 1941 r. na podziemnej konferencji w Warszawie był współzałożycielem Polskich Socjalistów (członek Komitetu Centralnego), pełnił też funkcję komendanta Formacji Bojowo-Milicyjnych Polskich Socjalistów. +Z ramienia Polskich Socjalistów był członkiem Głównej Komisji Walki Cywilnej, cywilnej struktury Polskiego Państwa Podziemnego. +Jako członek Komitetu Centralnego Polskich Socjalistów opowiadał się za współpracą z PPS-WRN. Kiedy jednak nie doszło do porozumienia wraz z częścią PS przeszedł do PPS-WRN i powołał w marcu 1943 r. Socjalistyczną Organizację Bojową, zostając jej komendantem. Podporządkował ją pod względem wojskowym AK. W kwietniu tego roku uczestniczył w akcjach niesienia pomocy Żydom walczącym w getcie warszawskim. +Zginął w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach. Zaginął pod koniec 1943 roku. Według relacji Kierownika Walki Cywilnej Stefana Korbońskiego, wywiad AK przeprowadził własne śledztwo i uznał, że prawdopodobnie Leszka Raabego nie zabili Niemcy, tylko komuniści. +17 maja 1946 Prezydium Krajowej Rady Narodowej odznaczyło go pośmiertnie Krzyżem Grunwaldu III klasy. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 10 + +Pluton łącznikowy nr 10 - jednostka Armii Łódź we wrześniu 1939. +Pietro Gasparri + +Pietro Gasparri (ur. 5 maja 1852 w Ussita, Perugia, zm. 18 listopada 1934 w Rzymie) – kardynał włoski, prawnik (doktor prawa kanonicznego i cywilnego), autor bardzo popularnego katechizmu. +Kształcił się w seminarium niższym w Nepi, a później w Rzymie. Święcenia kapłańskie otrzymał 31 marca 1877. Wykładał prawo kanoniczne w paryskim "Institut catholique" w latach 1879–98, a następnie był delegatem Stolicy Apostolskiej w Ameryce Południowej (Boliwia, Peru, Ekwador). 3 marca 1898 otrzymał święcenia biskupie (z arcybiskupią stolicą tytularną Cesarea di Palestina). +W 1904 został powołany przez Piusa X na sekretarza Komisji Kodyfikacyjnej, której zadaniem było stworzenie nowoczesnego kodeksu prawa kanonicznego. Odegrał ogromną rolę w przygotowaniu kodeksu prawa kanonicznego z 1917. 16 grudnia 1907 został kardynałem, a w październiku 1914 papieskim sekretarzem stanu (z nominacji Benedykta XV). W imieniu papieża był sygnatariuszem traktatów laterańskich. Przeszedł na emeryturę w 1930 (zastąpił go kardynał Pacelli, późniejszy papież Pius XII). Jego grób znajduje się w Ussita. Odznaczony Orderem Orła Białego. +66 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +66 Eskadra Obserwacyjna - jednostka Armii Łódź w kampanii wrześniowej 1939. +Eskadra ukończyła mobilizację zgodnie z planem 25 sierpnia 1939 roku na macierzystym lotnisku Skniłów. 26 sierpnia na lotnisko rozdzielcze do Lublinki koło Łodzi wyjechał rzut kołowy, a 31 sierpnia odleciał personel latający. +Personel eskadry. +I/66 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +II/66 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +31 września I/66 pluton został przydzielony do dyspozycji dowódcy 10 DP, a II/66 pluton do współpracy z dowódcą Wołyńskiej Brygady Kawalerii. 1 września dwie załogi eskadry poszukiwały lotnisk polowych dla obu plutonów. Dla I/66 plutonu wyszukano lotnisko Męcka Wola koło Kalisza, a lądowisko Łemków koło Wielunia dla II/66 plutonu. W tym samym dniu z Lublinka odjechał rzut kołowy i odleciał rzut powietrzny. 2 września piloci eskadry rozpoznawali przedpole na odcinku działania 10 DP w rejonie Błaszki - Sieradz, a 3 września w pasie działania WBK rozpoznawali przedpole Rzęsawa - Łękińsko. W czasie kampanii wrześniowej zostało zestrzelonych przez nieprzyjaciela i własne oddziały 5 samolotów. 18 września pozostałe dwa samoloty odleciały do Czerniowiec w Rumunii. W dniach od 1 do 18 września załogi eskadry wykonały 31 zadań bojowych. +Wieczna zmarzlina + +Wieczna lub wieloletnia zmarzlina, zwana też czasem wieczną marzłocią lub marzłocią trwałą lub zlodowaceniem podziemnym lub (ang.) "permafrostem" – zjawisko trwałego (minimum dwa kolejne lata) utrzymywania się części skorupy ziemskiej w temperaturze poniżej punktu zamarzania wody niezależnie od pory roku. Powstaje w warunkach suchego i jednocześnie zimnego klimatu (o średniej temperaturze powietrza poniżej –11 stopni Celsjusza). Obejmuje około  Alaski, większość północnej Kanady i  Syberii (ciągła zmarzlina występuje prawie wyłącznie we wschodniej Syberii, w zachodniej jest obecna tylko na północnym wybrzeżu oceanu). Ciągła zmarzlina sięga aż do północnej Mongolii, punktowo występuje też w Górach Skandynawskich i na Grenlandii. Natomiast nieciągłe zmarzliny zajmują także większość Tybetu, są też znane z Alp. Wieczną zmarzlinę odkryto również w północno-wschodniej Polsce, w okolicy Suwałk na głębokości 357 metrów poniżej poziomu gruntu. Jest to pozostałość po zmarzlinie z okresu ostatniego zlodowacenia, która przetrwała dzięki specyficznym warunkom geologicznym, tak zwanej suwalskiej anomalii geotermiczno-hydrogeochemicznej. +Jej głębokość na tych obszarach, na których przetrwała od plejstocenu waha się w granicach od 150-300 metrów w północnej Kanadzie (maksymalnie dochodzi tam do 700 m), we wschodniej Syberii dochodzi do 1500 m. Przeważnie ma kilkadziesiąt metrów. W miesiącach letnich wierzchnia warstwa gruntu – do około 2 metrów – ulega rozmarznięciu, wskutek czego staje się on często grząskim bagnem, w głąb którego nie może (z powodu zamarzniętych głębszych warstw) wsiąknąć nadmiar wody. Sytuacja ta utrudnia rozwój roślinności, uniemożliwiając m.in. zasiedlanie pokrytych wieczną zmarzliną obszarów drzewom o głębszym systemie korzeniowym, także z powodu niedostatecznej spoistości gleby w miesiącach letnich. Dawniej, zmarzlina znacząco utrudniała wznoszenie budynków. Oparcie fundamentów na zmarzlinie powoduje stopniowe wtapianie się budynku i osiadanie, nieraz o kilka metrów. Typowym przykładem są starsze budynki w Irkucku, których pierwsze piętro znajduje się obecnie na poziomie gruntu. +Wieloletnia zmarzlina ma charakter reliktowy. Jest pozostałością zlodowacenia, które w plejstocenie obejmowało znaczną część obszarów lądowych półkuli północnej. +Marzłoć to warstwa gruntu, leżąca na różnych głębokościach, która co najmniej przez dwa kolejne lata zachowuje temperaturę niższą niż 0 °C (poniżej punktu zamarzania). +Poziom amplitudy zerowej to głębokość, na której ustają wahania temperatury wiecznej marzłoci. +"Odległość pomiędzy stropem a spągiem to miąższość wieloletniej zmarzliny" +III/2 dywizjon myśliwski + +III Dywizjon Myśliwski 2 Pułku Lotniczego (III/2 dm) - pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego. +Dywizjon był organicznym pododdziałem 2 Pułku Lotniczego stacjonującym na lotnisku Kraków-Rakowice. W kampanii wrześniowej walczył (bez jednej eskadry) w składzie lotnictwa i OPL Armii "Kraków". +123 eskadra myśliwska walczyła w składzie Brygady Pościgowej. +Bibliografia. +__NOTOC__ +152 Eskadra Myśliwska + +152 Eskadra Myśliwska – jednostka Armii Modlin we wrześniu 1939. +Działania bojowe. +01.09.1939 +03.09.1939 +04.09.1939 +09.09.1939 +10.09.1939 +Jałowiec + +Jałowiec ("Juniperus" L.) – rodzaj roślin iglastych należący do rodziny cyprysowatych. Liczy ok. 50–71 gatunków, z których w Polsce w warunkach naturalnych występują 2. Rodzaj należy obok sosen do najbardziej rozpowszechnionych przedstawicieli iglastych na Ziemi. Jałowce rosną w strefie klimatu umiarkowanego i subpolarnego na wszystkich kontynentach półkuli północnej, a także w górach w strefie międzyzwrotnikowej. Wiele gatunków i ich odmian uprawianych jest jako rośliny ozdobne. +Systematyka. +Rodzaj z rodziny cyprysowatych blisko spokrewniony z takimi rodzajami jak cyprys ("Cupressus"), biota ("Platycladus") i mikrobiota ("Microbiota"). Od pierwszych lat XXI wieku rodzaj poddawany jest wielu rewizjom taksonomicznym w związku z intensywnymi badaniami z użyciem metod molekularnych. Istotne wyniki dla systematyki tego rodzaju zawarte są w publikacji Mao i in. z 2010. Wynika z nich, że w obrębie rodzaju wyróżnić można 6 głównych kladów. Bazalną jest grupa, której najstarszy przedstawiciel – jałowiec pestkowaty ("J. drupacea") wyodrębnił się ok. 20 milionów lat temu. Specjacja w obrębie pozostałej grupy, obejmującej m.in. jałowca pospolitego ("J. communis") nastąpiła ok. 10 milionów lat temu. Wszystkie pozostałe 5 kladów odpowiada wyróżnianej tradycyjnie sekcji "Sabina" Spach 1841 (czasem podnoszonej do rangi odrębnego rodzaju – "Sabina" Miller 1754). +122 Eskadra Myśliwska + +122 Eskadra Myśliwska – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +Eskadra była pododdziałem 2 Pułku Lotniczego, stacjonującym na lotnisku Kraków-Rakowice. Wraz z 121 i 123 Eskadrą Myśliwską tworzyła III/2 Dywizjon Myśliwski. +W Wojnie Obronnej Polski we wrześniu 1939 walczyła w składzie lotnictwa i obrony przeciwlotniczej Armii "Kraków". +Miejsce stacjonowania: Balice i Bielsko Biała (tylko piloci), wyposażenie: 10 samolotów PZL P.11c. +Obsada etatowa eksadry. +Piloci: +Działania bojowe. +01.09.1939 +02.09.1939 +03.09.1939 +06.09.1939 +Eskadra w wyniku działań wojennych utraciła 4 samoloty. +17.09.1939 – ewakuacja do Rumunii. +Kończyce Małe + +Kończyce Małe – wieś sołecka w gminie Zebrzydowice, w powiecie cieszyńskim, w województwie śląskim, przy drodze Jastrzębie-Zdrój – Cieszyn. Powierzchnia sołectwa wynosi 1194 ha, a liczba ludności 3294, co daje gęstość zaludnienia równą 275,9 os./km². Wieś położona jest nad rzeką Piotrówką, posiada pagórkowate ukształtowanie terenu, liczne potoki i stawy hodowlane oraz tereny leśne. +Historia. +Po raz pierwszy wzmiankowana ok. 1305 r. w dokumencie Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis. +Według austriackiego spisu ludności z 1900 w 226 budynkach w Kończycach Małych na obszarze 1194 hektarów mieszkało 1406 osób, co dawało gęstość zaludnienia równą 117,8 os./km². z tego 1399 (99,5%) mieszkańców było katolikami, 2 (0,1%) ewangelikami, 5 (0,4%) wyznawcami judaizmu, 1388 (98,7%) było polsko-, 11 (0,8%) niemiecko- a 1 (0,1%) czeskojęzycznymi. Do 1910 roku liczba budynków wzrosła do 244 a mieszkańców do 1633, z czego 1618 (99,1%) było katolikami, 11 (0,7%) ewangelikami, 4 (0,2%) żydami, 1602 (98,1%) polsko-, 18 (1,1%) niemiecko- a 12 (0,7%) czeskojęzycznymi. +We wsi miały miejsce walki w czasie starć z wojskimi czeskimi w 1919 r. w trakcie których zginął kpt. Cezary Haller (brat generała Józefa Hallera). +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie katowickim. +Zabytki. +We wsi zachowały się dwa skrzydła obronnego zamku zbudowanego przez Golasowskich w XV wieku w stylu gotyckim i rozbudowanego później w stylu renesansowym w XVI w. przez ród Czelów herbu Kościesza z Czechowic, którzy kupili zamek w 1538 r. Po śmierci ostatniego z Czelów właścicielem zamku został Joachim Bludowski. W 1657 roku właścicielami zamku stali się Pełkowie herbu Pogonia. Zamek został przez nich przebudowywany w XVIII w. W latach 1837 - 1945 właścicielami zamku była rodzina Folwarcznych. Po zniszczeniach wojennych, obiekt wyremontowano w latach 1956-1957 i w latach 1993-1995. Mieści m.in. izbę muzealną, hotel i restaurację. +We wsi znajduje się także wczesnobarokowy kościół parafialny parafii Narodzenia NMP z XVIII w., sanktuarium Matki Boskiej Kończyckiej z późnogotyckim obrazem i renesansową rzeźbą nagrobną. +Komunikacja. +Przez miejscowość przebiega droga wojewódzka nr łącząca Cieszyn z Jastrzębiem-Zdrojem oraz linia kolejowa nr Zebrzydowice - Cieszyn, na której znajduje się przystanek kolejowy. +Przez Kończyce Małe przebiegają szlaki rowerowe łączące je z: Marklowicami (i dalej z Czechami) oraz Cieszynem, Ruptawą, Bziem Zameckim, Kaczycami, Zebrzydowicami, Jastrzębiem-Zdrojem, Ustroniem i Kończycami Wielkimi. +Dziwnówek + +Dziwnówek – wieś w północno-zachodniej Polsce, położona w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie kamieńskim, w gminie Dziwnów, 4,5 km na wschód od mostu zwodzonego w Dziwnowie. +Według danych z 2008 r. wieś miała 404 mieszkańców. +W Dziwnówku nad morzem wyznaczono letnie kąpielisko obejmujące 400 m linii brzegowej. +W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie szczecińskim. +Położenie. +Dziwnówek leży w zachodniej części wybrzeża woj. zachodniopomorskiego, w północnej części powiatu kamieńskiego. +Wieś znajduje się u nasady Mierzei Dziwnowskiej pomiędzy Morzem Bałtyckim a Zatoką Wrzosowską, będącego północną częścią Zalewu Kamieńskiego. przed przerwaniem wskutek silnych sztormów, zwłaszcza wiosennych i jesiennych. +Miejscowość położona jest na Wybrzeżu Trzebiatowskim – jednym z mezoregionów Pobrzeża Szczecińskiego. Historycznie Dziwnówek znajduje się w północnej części Pomorza Zachodniego. +Historia. +Do 1945 miejscowość występowała pod niemiecką nazwą "Klein Dievenow". . W marcu 1945 roku na tych terenach toczyły się ciężkie walki z Niemcami. +W latach 1974–2005 Dziwnówek był uznany przez rząd za miejscowość posiadającą warunki do prowadzenia lecznictwa uzdrowiskowego, dzięki czemu mogły być prowadzone tu zakłady lecznictwa. W oparciu o właściwości warunków naturalnych ustalono dla zakładów lecznictwa w Dziwnówku pierwszoplanowe kierunki leczenia: choroby układu oddechowego wieku dziecięcego i choroby narządów ruchu wieku dziecięcego. Ponadto ustalono drugoplanowy kierunek klimatyczno-usprawniający. +Infrastruktura. +Największą atrakcją turystyczną Dziwnówka jest morze oraz szeroka, piaszczysta plaża. +W Dziwnówku łączą się drogi wojewódzkie: biegnąca wzdłuż wybrzeża droga wojewódzka nr 102 z Międzyzdrojów na wschód do Kołobrzegu z drogą nr 107 przez Kamień Pomorski do drogi krajowej nr 3. +Przy rondzie współczesny kościół parafialny pw. św. Maksymiliana Maria Kolbe (projektował Jerzy Okniński, 1981-82) oraz pomnik (odsłonięty w 1975 r.) poświęcony żołnierzom polskim 2 Dywizji Piechoty I Armii WP walczącym podczas II wojny światowej. +Latarnia morska. +W centrum, przy głównej drodze prowadzącej do Dziwnowa i Międzyzdrojów, znajduje się metalowa atrapa latarni morskiej, w której prowadzony jest obecnie sklep z pamiątkami, a kilkanaście lat temu była tam kawiarnia. Pierwotnie, w latach 70., była zlokalizowana w Kamieniu Pomorskim. +Została tam wybudowana przez mleczarnię na Turniej Miast, organizowany przez telewizję. Władze Gminy Dziwnów zleciły przewiezienie jej do Dziwnówka i funkcjonowała jako kiosk, w którym sprzedawano produkty mleczarni. Następnie została zakupiona przez prywatne osoby. +32 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza + +32 Eskadra Rozpoznawcza - pododdział lotnictwa rozpoznawczego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W sierpniu 1939, w czasie mobilizacji alarmowej, 32 Eskadra Liniowa przemianowana została na 32 Eskadrę Rozpoznawczą. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Łódź". +Eskadra ta poniosła ciężkie straty bojowe. Wynikało to z bardzo trudnego obszaru działania Eskadry (niemiecka OPL) oraz położenia lotnisk polowych zbyt blisko linii frontu, co spowodowało liczne zestrzelenia "Karasi" przez osłaniające niemieckie myśliwce Messerschmitt Bf 109. +Imię eskadry nosi Szkoła Podstawowa w Walichnowach. +Pluton łącznikowy nr 8 + +Pluton Łącznikowy Nr 8 - pododdział Lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Pluton nie występował w organizacji pokojowej Lotnictwa. Został sformowany, w czasie mobilizacji alarmowej, przez 4 Pułk Lotniczy. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 pluton walczył w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Pomorze". +Pluton łącznikowy nr 7 + +Pluton Łącznikowy Nr 7 - pododdział Lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Pluton nie występował w organizacji pokojowej Lotnictwa. Został sformowany, w czasie mobilizacji alarmowej, przez 4 Pułk Lotniczy. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 pluton walczył w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Pomorze". Od 1 września 1939, wykonywał loty łącznikowe. 2 września samolot dowódcy plutonu został zestrzelony przez własne oddziały, lecz pilot przeżył. Od 3 września pluton stacjonował w okolicach Torunia. 4 września pluton nr 7 utworzył wraz z plutonem nr 8 eskadrę łącznikową dowodzoną przez por. obs. Jana Eichstaedta. Był używany do celow łącznikowych do czasu utraty pozostałych samolotów. +Polskie Lotnictwo Wojskowe 1939 + +Polskie Lotnictwo Wojskowe 1939 - Ordre de Bataille polskiego lotnictwa wojskowego w dniu 1 września 1939. +1 września 1939 lotnictwo posiadało 392 samoloty bojowe i 102 samoloty pomocnicze, z tego w dyspozycji Naczelnego Dowódcy Lotnictwa znajdowało się 146 samolotów bojowych i 60 pomocniczych, a w dyspozycji dowódców lotnictwa armijnego 246 samolotów bojowych i 42 samoloty pomocnicze. +Model koncentryczny miasta + +Model koncentryczny miasta konstrukt teoretyczny opracowany przez Ernesta Burgessa w roku 1925 zakładający, że miasto można podzielić na strefy układające się koncentrycznie wokół centralnej dzielnicy biznesu. +Burgess zakładał, że w większych miastach ich centra, czyli strefa pierwsza, zajmowane są przez instytucje związane z handlem, usługami i zarządzaniem przyczyniając się do wzrostu cen ziemi, na których znajdują się lokale tych instytucji. +Druga w kolejności od centrum strefa jest strefą przejściową, zamieszkiwaną przez nieustabilizowane społecznie kategorie, ceny mieszkań są w niej najniższe, a poprzez fakt, że znajduje się w bezpośredniej styczności ze strefą pierwszą, gdzie ceny ziemi i lokali są najwyższe, określana jest jako "strefa cienia". Wśród mieszkańców tej strefy można znaleźć zarówno studentów szukających najtańszych mieszkań, jak również meliny i mieszkania prostytutek. +Trzecia strefa w tym modelu zamieszkiwana jest przez robotników fizycznych, nisko wynagradzanych, starających się zamieszkiwać jak najbliżej miejsc pracy. W strefie tej dominuje mieszkalnictwo czynszowe, przeważnie są to wielkie zespoły mieszkaniowe lub osiedla bloków wielorodzinnych. +Kolejna, czwarta strefa zamieszkiwana jest przez bardziej zamożną część miejskiej zbiorowości, charakteryzuje się budownictwem głównie domków jednorodzinnych, jest to też strefa dojazdów. +Piąta i ostatnia strefa - strefa podmiejska. +Koncentryczny model miasta oparty był na Chicago i charakterystyczny jest raczej dla miast amerykańskich niż europejskich. Charakterystyczną cechą tego modelu, jest wzrost zamożności mieszkańców wraz ze wzrostem odległości od centrum. Tak mogło stać się wyłącznie dlatego, że już w pierwszej połowie XX wieku większość amerykańskiej klasy średniej mogła pozwolić sobie na zakup samochodu i przeniesienie się do stref dojazdu, podczas gdy biedniejsza część społeczeństwa pozostawała w strefach bezpośredniej bliskości centrum, niewymagających dojazdu. +Zobacz też +Predictor@home + +Predictor@home - jeden z nowych projektów przetwarzania rozproszonego. Został stworzony i przystosowany specjalnie dla platformy BOINC. Jest drugim oficjalnie uruchomionym projektem, wykorzystującym Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing. +Celem tego przedsięwzięcia jest ustalanie trójwymiarowej struktury białek, na podstawie sekwencji kodu genetycznego. W założeniach wydaje się to bardzo podobne do projektu Folding@home. Różnica polega na tym, że F@H koncentruje się na badaniu mechanizmów fałdowania się białek, a P@H stara się ustalić ich ostateczną strukturę. +Centrum (Szczecin) + +Centrum – osiedle administracyjne Szczecina, będące jednostką pomocniczą miasta. +Według danych z 4 maja 2010 w osiedlu na pobyt stały zameldowanych było 21 252 osób. +Położenie. +Graniczy z osiedlami: Śródmieście-Północ (od północy), Stare Miasto (od wschodu), Nowe Miasto (od południa) i Śródmieście-Zachód (od południowego zachodu). Liczba mieszkańców w granicach osiedla Centrum wynosi 23 950 (3 miejsce w Szczecinie). Charakterystyczny dla Centrum jest gwiaździsty układ ulic z gwiaździstym placem Grunwaldzkim zainspirowanym najprawdopodobniej paryskim placem Gwiazdy (dziś noszącym imię Charles'a de Gaulle'a). +Zabudowa. +Charakterystycznymi dla Centrum budynkami są: kompleks biurowy PAZIM wraz z hotelem Radisson SAS i biurowcem ZUS-u oraz centrum handlowo-rozrywkowe "Galaxy". +Przy jednym z głównych placów Centrum, pl. Rodła znajduje się Konsulat Królestwa Danii, a przy ul. Śląskiej Konsulat Republiki Cypryjskiej. +Samorząd mieszkańców. +Rada Osiedla Centrum liczy 21 członków. W wyborach do rad osiedli 20 maja 2007 roku udział wzięło 301 głosujących, co stanowiło frekwencję na poziomie 1,61%.W wyborach do rady osiedla 13 kwietnia 2003 udział wzięło 332 głosujących, co stanowiło frekwencję 1,59%. +Samorząd osiedla Centrum został ustanowiony w 1990 roku. +Marchia Graniczna Poznańsko-Zachodniopruska + +Marchia Graniczna Poznańskie-Prusy Zachodnie, także Pogranicze poznańsko-zachodniopruskie (niem. "Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen") – prowincja Prus w latach 1922-1938 utworzona z części Prus Zachodnich i Prowincji Poznańskiej, które pozostały przy Niemczech po traktacie wersalskim. Stolicą prowincji była Piła. W 1933 roku prowincja miała powierzchnię 7695 km² i liczyła 337 578 mieszkańców. +Historia. +Po wybuchu powstania wielkopolskiego większa część prowincji poznańskiej znalazła się w rękach polskich. Traktat wersalski sankcjonował ten stan rzeczy i dodatkowo pozbawił Prusy większej części prowincji zachodniopruskiej (Pomorza Gdańskiego). Z pozostałych przy Prusach terenów postanowiono, rozporządzeniem pruskiego ministra spraw wewnętrznych z 2 sierpnia 1919, utworzyć tymczasową administrację pod nazwą "Regierungsstelle für den Verwaltungsbezirk Grenzmark Westpreußen-Posen". Decyzja ta była jednocześnie przekreśleniem wcześniejszej decyzji rządu Prus z 1 lipca 1919 o rozparcelowaniu przedmiotowego obszaru między sąsiednie prowincje. Należy zaznaczyć, że również na miejscu istniały kontrowersje co do powołania nowej jednostki administracyjnej, np. sejmik powiatu złotowskiego opowiedział się w tym czasie za przyłączeniem do prowincji pomorskiej. Dla prowincji przewidywano początkowo nazwę "Westpreussisch – Posensches Grenzland", jednak 11 stycznia 1921 dla rejencji przyjęto nazwę "Grenzmark Posen – Westpreussen". Na mocy decyzji pruskiego Landtagu, 1 lipca 1922 pod tą samą nazwą utworzono prowincję, tworząc zarazem jako organ przedstawicielski prowincji 30-osobowy Provinziallandtag, na wzór innych prowincji pruskich. Stolicą Marchii – po sporach lokalizacyjnych z Wałczem – stała się Piła. W skład prowincji weszły powiaty: babimojski, wschowski, międzyrzecki, skwierzyński, notecki (pozostawione przy Rzeszy fragmenty powiatów Chodzież, Czarnków i Wieleń) oraz miasto Piła z dotychczasowej prowincji poznańskiej, a także powiaty złotowski, człuchowski i wałecki z prowincji zachodniopruskiej: razem 23 miasta i 390 gmin. Z uwagi na absurdalny kształt tego tworu administracyjnego (3 części nie posiadające ze sobą połączenia), 1 października 1938 marchię podzielono między Śląsk (Wschowa oraz południowa część powiatu babimojskiego), Brandenburgię (Babimost, Międzyrzecz i Skwierzyna) i Pomorze. W Pile pozostawiono siedzibę rejencji, do której przyłączono powiaty choszczeński i strzelecki (z rejencji frankfurckiej Brandenburgii) oraz drawski i szczecinecki (z rejencji koszalińskiej Pomorza). Dla zachowania tradycji byłej prowincji, rejencja w Pile pozostała przy nazwie "Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen". +Podział administracyjny prowincji w dniu 1 stycznia 1938 roku. +Stolica: Piła +Prowincja składała się z jednej rejencji – rejencji pilskiej. +Leniwiec dwupalczasty + +Leniwiec dwupalczasty ("Choloepus didactylus"; nazwa lokalna: "unau") – typowy przedstawiciel leniwców dwupalczastych. Zamieszkuje Gujanę i Wenezuelę, a także dorzecze Amazonki w Peru, Brazylii i Ekwadorze. +Prowadzi tryb życia głównie nocny. Żywi się przede wszystkim liśćmi, owocami i pędami. Potrafi świetnie pływać. Leniwiec jest zwierzęciem, które spędza na drzewie całe życie. Z drzew schodzi tylko raz na tydzień w celach higienicznych, ponieważ nie potrafi sprawnie chodzić, pełznie po ziemi przesuwając się za pomocą pazurów. Tak rzadkie wydalanie możliwe jest dzięki bardzo niskiemu tempu metabolizmu. Niskiemu metabolizmowi leniwiec zawdzięcza też bardzo małą, jak na ssaka, temperaturę ciała 24 do 33 °C. +Osiąga długość około 60 cm i masę około 9 kg. Ogona brak. Przednie kończyny zakończone są dwoma palcami. Futro tworzy warstwa krótkich włosów wełnistych i długie włosy barwy brązowej, jednak w naturze lekko zielone, co wynika z porastania sierści glonami. W futrze leniwców bytują na stałe 4 gatunki chrząszczy i 9 gatunków ciem. +Dzień Kobiet + +Dzień Kobiet – coroczne święto obchodzone 8 marca jako wyraz szacunku dla ofiar walki o równouprawnienie kobiet. Ustanowione zostało w 1910 roku. Dzień Kobiet w Polsce był obchodzony na szeroką skalę do 1993 roku. +Historia. +Za pierwowzór Dnia Kobiet przyjąć można obchodzone w starożytnym Rzymie Matronalia. Było to święto przypadające na pierwszy tydzień marca, związane z początkiem nowego roku, macierzyństwem i płodnością. Z okazji tego święta mężowie obdarowywali swoje żony prezentami i spełniali ich życzenia. +Początki Międzynarodowego Dnia Kobiet wywodzą się z ruchów robotniczych w Ameryce Północnej i Europie. Pierwsze obchody Narodowego Dnia Kobiet odbyły się 28 lutego 1909 r. w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Zapoczątkowane zostały one przez Socjalistyczną Partię Ameryki. +Wersja, jakoby miało ono upamiętniać odbywający się rok wcześniej nowojorski strajk pracownic przemysłu odzieżowego przeciwko złym warunkom pracy i śmierć 126 z nich zamkniętych tam przez właściciela nie znajduje potwierdzenia w źródłach. Prawdopodobnie doszło do pomieszania faktów, gdyż 8 marca 1908 roku na ulicach Nowego Jorku odbył się marsz 15 000 pracownic zakładów odzieżowych (upamiętniających z kolei podobny marsz z 1857 roku), domagających się praw politycznych i ekonomicznych dla kobiet. Zainspirowane tym marszem pracownice zakładów odzieżowych (głównie imigrantki) podjęły trzymiesięczny strajk zimą na przełomie 1909 i 1910 roku przeciwko wyzyskującym je właścicielom fabryk, tzw. "Powstanie dwudziestu tysięcy". Do pożaru natomiast doszło w nowojorskiej fabryce tekstyliów Triangle Shirtwaist 25 marca 1911 roku. Zginęło wtedy 146 osób (129 kobiet i 17 mężczyzn), z czego w większości ofiarami były żydowskie i włoskie imigrantki, w wieku od czternastu do czterdziestu ośmiu lat. Jedną z przyczyn tak dużej ilości ofiar było zamknięcie przez właścicieli większości wyjść z budynku, w tym na zewnętrzne klatki schodowe - powszechnie stosowana praktyka w tamtym czasie, mająca na celu uniemożliwienie dostania się na teren zakładu osób niepowołanych oraz kradzieży. W konsekwencji dwaj właściciele stanęli przed sądem oskarżeni o zabójstwo pierwszego i drugiego stopnia. Wydarzenie to przyczyniło się do powstania kilku komitetów i stowarzyszeń mających na celu poprawę bezpieczeństwa w publicznych zakładach pracy. +W 1910 roku Międzynarodówka Socjalistyczna w Kopenhadze ustanowiła obchodzony na całym świecie Dzień Kobiet, który służyć miał krzewieniu idei praw kobiet oraz budowaniu społecznego wsparcia dla powszechnych praw wyborczych dla kobiet. W konferencji udział wzięło ponad 100 uczestniczek z 17 krajów, w tym trzy kobiety po raz pierwszy wybrane do Parlamentu Fińskiego. Ustanowienie Dnia Kobiet zostało przyjęte w drodze anonimowego głosowania, bez ustalania dokładnej daty jego obchodów. +19 marca 1911 roku po raz pierwszy Międzynarodowy Dzień Kobiet obchodzono w Austrii, Danii, Niemczech i Szwajcarii. Domagano się prawa kobiet do głosowania i obejmowania stanowisk publicznych, praw kobiet do pracy i szkoleń zawodowych oraz zaprzestania dyskryminacji w miejscu pracy. 25 marca tego roku wiele robotnic zginęło w pożarze fabryki Triangle Shirtwaist. +W latach 1913 i 1914 podczas Międzynarodowego Dnia Kobiet odbyły się demonstracje antywojenne. Tego dnia święto było obchodzone po raz pierwszy w Rosji. Wiece odbyły się tam w ostatnią niedzielę lutego, co według kalendarza gregoriańskiego miało miejsce 8 marca. Tego dnia Dzień Kobiet obchodzony był w również innych krajach. +W 1917 roku kobiety w Rosji zorganizowały strajki i protesty pod hasłem "chleb i pokój". Cztery dni później abdykował car, a rząd tymczasowy przyznał kobietom prawa wyborcze. +Po rewolucji październikowej, feministka bolszewicka Aleksandra Kołłontaj przekonała Lenina do ustanowienia tego dnia oficjalnym świętem w Rosji. Stało się tak, ale do 1965 roku był to normalny dzień pracy. 8 maja 1965 roku dekretem Prezydium ZSRR Międzynarodowy Dzień Kobiet ustanowiono dniem wolnym od pracy "w celu upamiętnienia zasług kobiet sowieckich w budowie komunizmu, w obronie ojczyzny podczas Wielkiej Wojny Ojczyźnianej, ich heroizm i bezinteresowność na froncie i na tyłach, a także zaznaczyć duży wkład kobiet w umacnianie przyjaźni między narodami i walkę o pokój". +Dzień Kobiet w czasach PRL. +Wielu osobom Dzień Kobiet kojarzy się z czasami PRL–u i z wręczanymi wtedy masowo goździkami. Z okazji tego dnia publikowano portrety kobiet różnych sektorów życia gospodarczego zgodnie z opinią Władysława Gomułki, że "nie ma dziś w Polsce dziedziny, w której kobiety nie odgrywałyby ważnej roli". W zakładach pracy czy szkołach był obchodzony obowiązkowo. Była to okazja do uzupełniania braków w zaopatrzeniu, dlatego wręczano paniom takie dobra materialne jak rajstopy, ręcznik, ścierka, mydło, kawa. Dzień ten, podobnie jak inne uroczystości: Dzień Czynu Partyjnego, Dzień Hutnika, Dzień Drukarza, Dzień Pracownika Przemysłu Spożywczego – według niektórych istniał po to, aby obywatele nie zapomnieli o "przywiązaniu do Państwa Ludowego, miłości do wielkich idei pokoju i socjalizmu". Świadczą o tym chociażby tytuły ówczesnych artykułów: "Kobiety w szeregach ORMO podejmują zobowiązania dla uczczenia swego święta", "Tysiące kobiet stają w szeregach przodowników pracy", "Kobiety uczczą swoje święto wzmożonym współzawodnictwem pracy". +Dzień Kobiet współcześnie. +Dzień Kobiet jest obecnie oficjalnym świętem w Albanii, Algierii, Armenii, Azerbejdżanie, Białorusi, Bośni i Hercegowinie, Brazylii,Bułgarii, Burkina Faso, Kamerunie, Chinach, Kubie, Włoszech, Laosie, Kazachstanie, Kirgistanie, Macedonii, Mołdawii, Mongolii, Czarnogórze, Polsce, Rumunii, Rosji, Serbii, Tadżykistanie, Ukrainie, Uzbekistanie, Wietnamie i Zambii. Mężczyźni wręczają wtedy znajomym kobietom – matkom, żonom, partnerkom, koleżankom kwiaty i drobne podarunki. W niektórych krajach (jak Rumunia) dzień ten jest równoważny z dniem matki, podczas którego dzieci ofiarują drobne prezenty swoim matkom i babciom. +W Armenii po upadku Związku Radzieckiego zaniechano świętowania MDK, zamiast tego 7 kwietnia wprowadzono święto "Piękna i macierzyństwa". Nowe święto stało się popularne pośród Ormian i jest obchodzone jako upamiętnienie jednego z głównych świąt kościoła ormiańskiego, zwiastowania. Ludzie świętują jednak również 8 marca. Dyskusja publiczna, której tematem były dwa "Dni Kobiet" przyniosła rezultat w postaci "Miesiąca Kobiet", który trwa pomiędzy 8 marca i 7 kwietnia. +We Włoszech kobiety obdarowywane są gałązkami akacji srebrzystej. Akacje srebrzyste i czekolada są także najczęstszym prezentem w Rosji. +W Bośni i Hercegowinie, Bułgarii, Brazylii, Chorwacji, Czarnogórze, Rumunii, Mołdawii, Macedonii, Słowenii, Serbii i Węgrzech kobiety najczęściej dostają kwiaty. Czasami prezenty ofiarują swoim pracownicom również pracodawcy. Często obdarowane przez swoich uczniów zostają nauczycielki. +W Polsce święto było popularne w okresie PRL. W latach 80. do popularnych podarunków dołączyły kwiaty. Początkowo ofiarowywano goździki, a później tulipany. Obecnie corocznie odbywają się organizowane przez feministki manify, czyli demonstracje połączone z happeningiem na rzecz równego traktowania kobiet i mężczyzn. Prezentami są najczęściej kwiaty lub słodycze. +W Portugalii i Rumunii często noc 8 marca grupy kobiet świętują na obiadach i przyjęciach "tylko dla pań" +Międzynarodowy Dzień Kobiet był powodem stosowania przemocy w Teheranie. 4 marca 2007 roku irańska policja pobiła sto osób planujących zgromadzenie. Policja zaaresztowała wiele kobiet. Niektóre z nich relacjonowały kilka dni później, że były zamknięte w odosobnieniu i przesłuchiwane. Shadi Sadr i Mahbubeh Abbasgholizadeh oraz kilku innych aktywistów społecznych zakończyło 19 marca 2007 roku strajk głodowy. +W Tunezji Święto Kobiet obchodzone jest 13 sierpnia. +Organizacja Narodów Zjednoczonych a Dzień Kobiet. +Podpisana w 1945 roku Karta Narodów Zjednoczonych była pierwszym międzynarodowym dokumentem potwierdzającym zasadę równości kobiet i mężczyzn. W ciągu sześćdziesięciu lat ONZ brała udział w opracowywaniu międzynarodowych strategii, standardów, programów i określaniu celów promujących podwyższanie statusu kobiet. +Organizacja Narodów Zjednoczonych i jej wyspecjalizowane agendy propagują równoprawne uczestnictwo kobiet w realizacji celów zrównoważonego rozwoju, pokoju, bezpieczeństwa i pełnego poszanowania praw człowieka. Problematyka uwłasnowolnienia kobiet znajduje się w centrum działań ONZ w dziedzinach społeczno-gospodarczo-politycznych na całym świecie. +Rok 1975 został ogłoszony przez ONZ Międzynarodowym Rokiem Kobiet. Dwa lata później Zgromadzenie Ogólne ONZ przyjęło rezolucję, na mocy której Dzień Praw Kobiet i Pokoju na Świecie mógł być obchodzony w dowolnie wybranym przez Państwa Członkowskie dniu, zgodnie z tradycją danego kraju. Przyjmując rezolucję Zgromadzenie Ogólne uznało znaczącą rolę kobiet w rozwoju społecznym oraz procesach pokojowych. Wezwało również do zakończenia dyskryminacji oraz udzielenia większego wsparcia kobietom, aby mogły w pełni i na równych prawach uczestniczyć w życiu społeczno-politycznym. +17 grudnia 1999 roku Zgromadzenie wyznaczyło dzień 25 listopada jako datę obchodów Międzynarodowego Dnia Eliminacji Przemocy wobec Kobiet i wezwało rządy oraz międzynarodowe i pozarządowe organizacje do organizowania w tym dniu imprez mających na celu uświadomienie opinii publicznej skali tego problemu. Organizacje kobiece organizowały podobne obchody od 1981 roku, aby uczcić rocznicę brutalnego morderstwa trzech dominikańskich aktywistek – sióstr Mirabel – dokonanego w 1961 roku na rozkaz przywódcy tego państwa, Rafaela Trujillo. +18 grudnia 2007 roku Zgromadzenie ustanowiło dzień 15 października jako Międzynarodowy Dzień Kobiet Wiejskich. W rezolucji NZ nakłaniają państwa członkowskie, by przy współpracy z agendami ONZ i społeczeństwem obywatelskim podjęły działania poprawiające sytuację kobiet zamieszkujących obszary rolnicze. +Światowa Organizacja Zdrowia, jako wyspecjalizowana organizacja ONZ, w 2006 roku proklamowała 6 lutego Międzynarodowym Dniem Zerowej Tolerancji dla Okaleczania Żeńskich Narządów Płciowych. Pierwsze obchody odbyły się 6 lutego 2003 roku z inicjatywy pierwszej damy Nigerii Stelli Obasanjo (1945-2005). +Eskadra sztabowa + +Eskadra Sztabowa - pododdział Lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 jednostka pozostawała w dyspozycji Naczelnego Dowódcy Lotnictwa i OPL. Stacjonowała w Powsinie i Pole Mokotowskie. Eskadra posiadała: 28 samolotów RWD-14, Lublin R.XIII, PWS-26, RWD-8 i RWD-13 +Skrzypy + +Skrzypy ("Equisetophyta", "Sphenophyta") – typ (gromada) roślin naczyniowych. Większość gromady stanowią rośliny kopalne, żyjące skrzypy zebrane są w jednym rodzaju – skrzyp ("Equisetum"), który obejmuje ok. 30 gatunków. +Morfologia. +Charakteryzują się okółkowym umieszczeniem liści i gałęzi na pędzie. Zarodnie są umieszczone terminalnie na trzoneczkach u form prymitywnych, a u form ewolucyjnie zaawansowanych zarodnie tworzą parasolowaty twór zwany tarczowatym liściem zarodnionośnym. Główną formą rośliny jest sporofit, gametofit zaś jest drobny i plechowaty. Plemniki opatrzone są wieloma nićmi. +Rozmnażanie. +Ważną rolę w rozmnażaniu i rozprzestrzenianiu się skrzypów odgrywały i odgrywają kłącza umożliwiające rozmnażanie wegetatywne sporofitów. Na nadziemnych ich częściach, na sporofilach przekształconych w sporangiofory skupione w kłos zarodniowy powstają zarodniki. Zarodniki są jednakowe i wydają obupłciowy gametofit, przy czym na podłożu bardziej zasobnym w składniki pokarmowe wykształcają się zazwyczaj gametofity żeńskie, w miejscach uboższych powstają gametofity męskie. Plemniki wielowiciowe zapładniają rodnie. Rozwija się zwykle tylko jeden zarodek sporofitu, który bez okresu spoczynkowego wyrasta w młodociany sporofit. +SSE3 + +Streaming SIMD Extensions 3 (SSE3, oznaczany również przez firmę Intel jako Prescott New Instructions lub PNI) to kolejny zestaw instrukcji SIMD wykorzystywany w architekturze IA-32. Wcześniejsze zestawy SIMD stosowane na platformie x86, od najstarszej to: MMX, 3DNow! (używany tylko przez AMD), SSE i SSE2. +Intel wprowadził SSE3 2 lutego 2004 roku wraz z procesorem Pentium 4 Prescott, natomiast firma AMD w procesorach Athlon 64 od wersji E. +Nowe rozkazy. +Przed wprowadzaniem SSE3 prawie wszystkie rozkazy arytmetyczne występujące w MMX, SSE, SSE2 działały, jak to określa Intel, "pionowo" (ang. "vertical"), tj. argumentami działań zawsze są elementy z dwóch wektorów. Natomiast w SSE3 pojawiły się rozkazy działające "poziomo" (ang. "horizontal") — argumentami operacji arytmetycznych są elementy tego samego wektora; te instrukcje to: HADDPS, HADDPD, HSUBPS, HSUBPD. +FISTTP. +Rozkaz koprocesora arytmetycznego zamieniający liczbę zmiennoprzecinkową zapisaną w wierzchołku stosu na liczbę całkowitą ze znakiem; trybem zaokrąglania zawsze jest "ucinanie" (ang. "chop"), niezależnie od ustawień zapisanych w rejestrze kontrolnym FPU. Liczba całkowita może być 16-, 32- lub 64-bitowa, zależnie od argumentu. +Zgłaszany jest wyjątek w przypadku, gdy konwersja jest niemożliwa (wartość przekracza zakres liczby całkowitej, albo jest klasy plus/minus nieskończoność lub NaN). +Rozkaz FISTTP to uproszczona wersja istniejącej instrukcji FISTP, w której tryb zaokrąglania sterowany jest poprzez słowo kontrolne koprocesora - jego ewentualna zmiana jest kosztowna (trzeba wykonać kilka lub kilkanaście dodatkowych instrukcji: zachować bieżące ustawienia, włączyć inny tryb zaokrąglania, wykonać FISTP, przywrócić poprzedni tryb). +MOVSLDUP, MOVSHDUP. +Np. +MOVDDUP. +Argumentem może być albo lokacja pamięci (wówczas czytane są 64 bity), albo rejestr XMM, wówczas brane są jego 64 najmłodsze bity. +LDDQU. +W przeciwnym razie producent poleca, by nadal używać rozkazów SSE MOVDQU lub MOVDQA. +MONITOR i MWAIT. +Para rozkazów służy do efektywnego synchronizowania wątków. +Rozkaz MONITOR ustala początkowy adres zakresu pamięci (rozmiar tego obszaru jest stały, zależny od modelu procesora), który następnie jest automatycznie monitorowany przez procesor: w przypadku wystąpienia zapisu gdziekolwiek w obserwowanym zakresie ustawiana jest wewnętrzna flaga, którą odczytuje MWAIT. +Wykonanie rozkazu MWAIT powoduje wejście w zoptymalizowaną sprzętową pętlę, która jest przerywana dopiero, gdy wspomniana flaga zostanie ustawiona, a więc gdy nastąpi zapis pod obserwowany adres. +Producenci procesorów mogą rozszerzać funkcjonalność tych rozkazów, dlatego m.in. możliwe jest przejście w tryb oszczędzanie energii na czas wykonywania MWAIT. +Inwazja (proces ekologiczny) + +Inwazja jeden z podstawowych procesów ekologicznych polegający na zajmowaniu danego terytorium przez gatunki zajmowane do tej pory przez przedstawicieli innych gatunków. Najczęściej zachodzi wówczas, gdy w danym ekosystemie pojawia się nowy gatunek, np. nie posiadający wrogów naturalnych (gatunek inwazyjny). Wówczas może przyczynić się on do wyparcia gatunków rodzimych zajmujących podobną niszę ekologiczną. W takiej sytuacja inwazja przeradza się w sukcesję. +Proces inwazji (inwazji-sukcesji) w socjologii miasta. +W socjologii miasta pojęcie to wraz z pojęciami segregacji, centralizacji, koncentracji i sukcesji wprowadzone zostało z ekologii przez szkołę chicagowską. Inwazja oznacza w odniesieniu do przestrzeni miejskiej wkraczanie na dany obszar miasta obcych względem zamieszkujących do grup społecznych czy typów ludzi, m.in. mniejszości etnicznych, powodując początkowo działania wrogie wobec grup inwazyjnych. Gdy liczba osób z grupy inwazyjnej zaczyna rosnąć, dochodzić może do masowego wyprowadzania się zasiedziałych mieszkańców na inne tereny miejskie. Pojęcie to łączone bywa z sukcesją, jako proces inwazji-sukcesji. Inwazja nie musi doprowadzić do sukcesji, a może zakończyć się integracją z zamieszkałą w przestrzeni ludnością. Proces ten dotyczyć może nie tylko populacji, ale również typu działalności w przestrzeni miasta. +Brygada Pościgowa + +Brygada Pościgowa – wielka jednostka lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. Do jej organizacji przystąpiono w maju 1939 roku na bazie 1 Pułku Lotniczego. Dowódcą został płk pil. Stefan Pawlikowski. Zadaniem jednostki było „samodzielne działanie w obszarze na zewnątrz strefy ogniowej artylerii przeciwlotniczej w celu zwalczania wrogich samolotów zbliżających się do Warszawy”, co oznaczało powietrzną obronę stolicy. +31 sierpnia 1939 dowódcy brygady podporządkowana została 123 Eskadra Myśliwska z 2 Pułku Lotniczego w Krakowie-Rakowicach. Eskadra włączona została w skład IV/1 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego. W czasie kampanii wrześniowej 1939 (do 7 września) Brygada Pościgowa broniła obszaru powietrznego nad Warszawą przed nalotami na to miasto. +W dniach 1-3 września eskadry stacjonowały na lotnisku polowym Zielonka (III/1 dm) i Poniatów (IV/1 dm), a w dniach 4-6 września Zaborów (III/1 dm) i Radzików (IV/1 dm). +Walki lotnicze nad Warszawą. +Od pierwszego dnia wojny Warszawa stała się celem niemieckiego lotnictwa. 1 września w godzinach rannych zaatakował stolicę dywizjon bombowców ciężkich startujący z lotnisk w Prusach Wschodnich. Brygada Pościgowa uderzyła całością sił; do walk doszło w rejonie wsi Nieporęt około godz. 7.00. Niemcy nie wytrzymali naporu sił polskich, samoloty w pośpiechu zrzuciły bomby na pola i ratowały się ucieczką. Około godziny 12.00 nastąpił drugi atak na stolicę, a o godz. 16.30 trzeci atak. Pierwszego dnia wojny Brygada zestrzeliła 14 samolotów niemieckich, 5 prawdopodobnie, a 10 uszkodziła. Straty własne były następujące: dwóch pilotów poległo, pięciu nie powróciło z lotów (zagineło), ośmiu rannych. 10 samolotów zostało całkowicie zniszczonych, zaś 24 były uszkodzone i niezdolne do działań w dniu następnym. +2 września Brygada Pościgowa dysponowała już tylko dwudziestoma samolotami gotowymi do działań. Aktywnie Brygada Pościgowa broniła Warszawy do dnia 7 września, kiedy to ostatecznie utraciła zdolność operacyjną. +Organizacja i obsada personalna. +Dowództwo +III/1 Dywizjon Myśliwski +IV/1 Dywizjon Myśliwski +Kompania Łączności. +Kompania Karabinów Maszynowych Przeciwlotniczych . +Pluton Sanitarny. +Łącznie brygada posiadała 54 samoloty myśliwskie PZL P.7a oraz PZL P.11a i PZL P.11c, a także 3 samoloty RWD-8. +Izoterma Hüttiga + +Izoterma Hüttiga to prosta izoterma adsorpcji wielowarstwowej par cieczy (gaz poniżej punktu krytycznego) na powierzchni homogenicznej (powierzchnia energetycznie jednorodna): +Izoterma ta - w odróżnieniu od izotermy BET - jest obecnie b. rzadko stosowana, ale została wykorzystana przy konstrukcji innych izoterm adsorpcji (np. izotermy LGD) - okazało się, że większość izoterm doświadczalnych leży powyżej izotermy Hüttiga, a poniżej izotermy BET. +Brama Brandenburska + +Brama Brandenburska – zabytkowa budowla w Berlinie jest jednym z charakterystycznych punktów miasta, zaprojektowanym przez niemieckiego architekta, pochodzącego z Kamiennej Góry Carla Gottharda Langhansa. Budowana w latach 1788 - 1791. +Budowana po wojnie siedmioletniej, w czasach umacniania Prus podczas gdy w Polsce trwał Sejm Czteroletni, w roku rewolucji francuskiej została wzbogacona kwadrygą, którą powoziła naga wówczas Wiktoria, bogini zwycięstwa uwieńczona dębowymi liśćmi. Na biało pomalowana budowla nazwana została wtedy Bramą Pokoju. +Brama Brandenburska jako symbol Pokoju i Wolności od 3 października 1990, w rocznicę Zjednoczenia Niemiec, jest znowu w swej oryginalnej formie. Remont tej historycznej budowli trwał dwa lata. +Zabytek znajduje się na niemieckich rewersach monet 10, 20 i 50 eurocentów jako symbol zjednoczenia państwa niemieckiego. +Architektura. +Brama Brandenburska ma wysokość 26 m, szerokość 65,5 m i głębokość na 11 m. Wybudowano ją w stylu wczesnoklasycystycznym z piaskowca łabskiego, który wydobywała berlińska firma kamieniarska Zeidler & Wimmel. Została ukształtowana na wzór propylei akropolu ateńskiego. W bramie jest pięć przejazdów, z których środkowy jest odrobinę szerszy od innych, oraz dwie przybudówki. Po obu stronach "Bramy" znajduje się po sześć 15-metrowych kolumn w stylu doryckim z jońskim rowkowaniem. Bazy kolumn mają średnice 1,75 m. Attyka i filary dzielące przejazdy są pokryte reliefami, które przedstawiają m.in. czyny Herkulesa. W obu przybudówkach stoją wielkie posągi przedstawiające Marsa, chowającego miecz do pochwy i boginię Minerwę z lancą. Modele obu rzeźb zostały wykonane przez Johanna Gotfryda Schadowa w 1792 r. Mars został wykonany przez Carla Friedericha Wichmanna, a Minerwa – Johana Daniela Metzlera. Figury zostały zniszczone podczas II wojny światowej i zastąpiono je w latach 1951/1952 kopiami wykonanymi przez zespół rzeźbiarski Kranolda. +Po obu stronach bramy od początku powstania budowli znajdowały się przybudówki dla straży i celników. Po zniesieniu Berlińskiego muru cłowo-akcyzowego na przełomie 1867/68, przybudówki zastąpiono kolumnadami. Wykonał je uczeń szkoły schinkelowskiej Heinrich Strack w 1868. Nowe kolumnady komponowały się o wiele lepiej z bramą. +Zwieńczenie "Bramy" stanowi 5 metrowa miedziana rzeźba, którą także wykonał Schadow. Przedstawia ona uskrzydloną boginię zwycięstwa, która kieruje kwadrygę do miasta. +Historia. +Budowa. +Wraz z berlińskim murem celnym, powstała w 1734 poprzedniczka obecnej Bramy Brandenburskiej, która służyła ówcześnie jako brama miejska na drodze biegnącej w stronę Brandenburga. W związku z rozbudowywaniem muru, z rozkazu króla stworzono od podstaw nową bramę, która miała zarazem upamiętniać jego zmarłego niedawno poprzednika – Fryderyka II, którego blask miał spaść także na jego następców. +W 1793 ustawiono na Bramie figurę kwadrygi powożonej przez uskrzydloną boginię Nike (ew. Wiktorię). Istnieje teoria, że kwadrygą powozi bogini pokoju Ejrene, lecz jest ona z wielu powodów mało prawdopodobna. Jednym z nich jest fakt, że Ejrene nigdy nie była przedstawiana ze skrzydłami. Są też inne dowody, jak choćby protokół między Langhansem i Schadowem z 13 marca 1789, jednoznacznie wskazują na Wiktorię. +Uprowadzenie i powrót Kwadrygi. +Po bitwie pod Jeną-Auerstedt Napoleon zabrał kwadrygę do Paryża, gdzie zamierzał ją umieścić na stałe, nie doszło jednak do tego z powodu obalenia dyktatora. Po zajęciu Paryża gen. Ernst von Pfuel został komendantem pruskiego sektora stolicy Francji. Jemu to właśnie zawdzięczają berlińczycy powrót Wiktorii na Bramę. W 1814 ludzie Blüchera zapakowali Kwadrygę w skrzynie i odesłali do Berlina, gdzie ją odrestaurowano. Podczas renowacji uzupełniono ukoronowanego orła pruskiego siedzącego na wieńcu dębowym o nowy symbol władzy – zaprojektowany przez Karla Friedricha Schinkela – Krzyż Żelazny. Wraz z likwidacją Muru Celnego w latach 80. XIX w. rozebrano prawie wszystkie ówczesne bramy miejskie. Jedyną istniejącą po dziś dzień jest Brama Brandenburska. +Kres czasów cesarzy. +Środkowy przejazd bramy był zarezerwowany wyłącznie dla członków rodziny cesarskiej, ich osobistych gości oraz członków rodu Pfuel, aż do abdykacji cesarza Wilhelma II w 1918. +Narodowy socjalizm. +30 stycznia 1933 SA świętowało przejęcie władzy przez narodowych socjalistów wieczornym przemarszem z pochodniami, którego trasa prowadziła m.in. przez Bramę. +Podczas II wojny światowej wykonano odlew gipsowy kwadrygi. Podczas bitwy o Berlin, została ona kilkukrotnie ostrzelana przez wojska niemieckie, po tym jak zawieszono przy niej czerwoną flagę. W wyniku ostrzału figura uległa zniszczeniu, a jedyną częścią, jaka pozostała w całości, była głowa jednego z koni (znajduje się on obecnie w Märkisches Museum w Berlinie). Także przybudówki bramy zostały mocno zniszczone. +Odbudowa po wojnie. +Berliński magistrat orzekł 21 września 1956, że jedyna zachowana brama miejska ma zostać odbudowana. Obie części miasta współpracowały przy odbudowie, mimo wielu sprzeczek i wzajemnych oskarżeń. Rekonstrukcja została zakończona 14 grudnia 1957. Radni Berlina wschodniego ustalili jednak, że kwadryga ma być pozbawiona orła i Żelaznego Krzyża, jako że były one symbolami pruskiego militaryzmu. +Czasy podziału. +Budowa muru berlińskiego 13 sierpnia 1961 spowodowała, że brama stanęła na środku obszaru granicznego i nie można było jej przekroczyć ani z części wschodniej ani zachodniej. Jedynie NRD-owskie służby graniczne, personel centrum informacyjnego przy Bramie Brandenburskiej oraz odwiedzający (zazwyczaj goście państwowi NRD) zmierzający na platformę widokową mogli się zbliżyć do budowli. +Trafne było późniejsze spostrzeżenie prezydenta Niemiec Richarda von Weizsäckera "Jak długo Brama Brandenburska pozostanie zamknięta, tak długo sprawa Niemiec zostanie otwarta." 12 czerwca 1987, prezydent USA Ronald Reagan, podczas swej wizyty w Berlinie powiedział przed Bramą: "Panie Gorbaczow, niech pan otworzy tę bramę! Panie Gorbaczow, niech pan zburzy ten mur!" +Upadek Muru. +Mur berliński upadł po 28 latach istnienia, w czasie pokojowej rewolucji w Niemczech, tzw. Wendy, będącej częścią Jesieni Ludów w 1989 r. Wraz z upadkiem muru, 22 grudnia 1989 roku odbyło się uroczyste otwarcie Bramy Brandenburskiej, w którym uczestniczyło ponad 100 tys. osób. Krótko po tym usunięto całkowicie także pozostałe umocnienia graniczne. +W czasie nocy sylwestrowej 1989/1990, grupa ludzi wdrapała się na szczyt Bramy i pozbawiła kwadrygę kilku części (min. ogłowia). Wykonane w związku ze zdarzeniem oględziny wykazały istnienie o wiele poważniejszych zniszczeń: od budowy Muru nie wykonywano żadnych prac konserwatorskich przy kwadrydze, przez co większość wewnętrznych, stalowych części było mocno przerdzewiałych. Z tego powodu natychmiastowo zdemontowano i odnowiono figurę, a podczas prac renowacyjnych oddano kwadrydze Krzyż Żelazny i orła. Koszty utrzymania kwadrygi wynoszą rocznie około 200 tys. euro. +Także brama, a głównie jej części z piaskowca wymagały znacznego remontu. 3 października 2002 roku, po 22-miesięcznej renowacji, odbyło się uroczyste odsłonięcie odnowionego monumentu. +Włączenie do ruchu drogowego. +W latach 90. XX w. wielokrotnie prowadzono w Berlinie dyskusje na temat otwarcia Bramy dla ruchu drogowego. Głównym argumentem przeciw były zniszczenia jakie spaliny samochodów wywoływałyby w piaskowcu oraz fakt, iż planowano zamknąć Plac Paryski dla ruchu drogowego. Obecnie Brama Brandenburska jest zamknięta dla komunikacji samochodowej. Pojawiają się jednak propozycje, by wydawać za opłatą specjalne zezwolenia dla pojedynczych przejazdów (np. dla nowożeńców). +Pokój Ciszy. +W północnej przybudówce znajduje się od 1994 pokój do medytacji, zbudowany na wzór "Pokoju Ciszy", jaki kazał utworzyć Dag Hammarskjöld dla siebie i swych współpracowników w kwaterze ONZ w Nowym Jorku. Celem było stworzyć miejsce dla cichego zastanowienia, pośród wielkomiejskiego gwaru. Jest to miejsce tolerancji między narodami i religiami oraz miejsce pokoju. +Odwzorowania i reprodukcje. +Brama widnieje na rewersach niemieckich monet euro o nominale 10, 20 i 50 centów. Znajdowała się także na rewersie banknotów 5-markowych ostatniej serii. Istniała także seria znaczków pocztowych wydawana przez Pocztę niemiecką, poświęcona tej budowli. +W parku rozrywkowym Phantasialand pod Brühl istnieje reprodukcja Bramy Brandenburskiej. Służy ona za wejście do najstarszej części parku, uproszczonej reprodukcji miasta Berlin. Brama jest wybudowana w skali 1:2 i znacznie uproszczona. +53 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +53 Eskadra Obserwacyjna - jednostka 5 Pułku Lotniczego w Lidzie. +Jesienią 1932 roku kapitan pil. Stanisław Pawluć wraz z grupą oficerów w żołnierzy z 5 pułku lotniczego został oddelegowany na lotnisko Porubanek koło Wilna w celu utworzenia nowego wydzielonego oddziału lotniczego. Do końca roku udalo się zorganizować zaczątki późniejszej 53 Eskadry w składzie trzech plutonów. Pierwsze straty jednostka poniosła 7 marca 1933 roku. Przy starcie na samolocie Potez XXV zginął por. obs. Czesław Szczygielski, a por. pil. Wacław Malinowski został ranny. +W kwietniu 1935 roku dowództwo eskadry objął najpierw kapitan Ignacy Skorobohaty, a wkrótce po nim kpt. pil. Janusz Kurnatowski. Na przełomie 1935 i 1936 roku jednostka otrzymała nowe samoloty Lublin R-XIIID. +12 listopada 1937 roku dowództwo eskadrą objął jak się później okazało jej ostatni dowódca kapitan Józef Kierzkowski. Wkrótce przeprowadzono reorganizację jednostki, polegającą na redukcji z trzech do dwóch plutonów. Pluton trzeci z personelem został przeniesiony do nowo tworzonej w Lidzie 59 Eskadry Towarzyszącej. Na wiosną 1939 roku eskadra została przezbrojona w samoloty RWD-14 Czapla. +II wojna światowa. +Po mobilizacji w dniach 23/24 sierpnia 1939 roku z dniem 27 sierpnia jednostka została przeniesiona da lotnisko bojowe Biała Waka (12 km od Wilna). Po dalszych przesunięciach 31 sierpnia 1939 roku eskadra została przeniesiona na lotnisko Warszawa Mokotów w sile bojowej 7 samolotów RWD-14 Czapla oraz 2 RWD-8. Została przydzielona do Armii Modlin. +1 września 1939 roku piloci i obserwatorzy eskadry wykonali swoje pierwsze loty bojowe. 8 września poniosła pierwsze straty w personelu. Z lotu bojowego nie powrócili por. obs. Kazimierz Nowak oraz kpr. pil. Jan Gryc. Ich samolot, w okolicach Węgrowa został zestrzelony przez niemieckiego Dorniera. Obaj żołnierze zginęli. +11 września jednostka rozpoczęła ewakuację na lotnisko w okolicach Brześcia. W czasie przelotu jeden z samolotów RWD-8 został zaatakowany przez samolot niemiecki. Lecący w RWD-8 lotnicy ppor. Stanisław Hudowicz oraz ppor. pil. Oskar Sobol ponieśli śmierć. +Od 13 do 15 września pozostałe załogi eskadry rozpoczęły dalszą ewakuację w okolice Łucka. Tam wykonano kilka lotów dla Dowództwa Obrony Łucka. 17 września załoga kpt. obs. Stanisław Sawczyński (dowódca plutonu I/53) oraz plut. pil. Wincenty Fajks w czasie lotu z rozkazami do Dubna z powodu ciemności i braku paliwa musieli ratować się skokiem na spadochronach i dostali się do niewoli sowieckiej. Po krótkim pobycie w niewoli obu lotnikom udało się uciec i przedostać na Węgry. +Duża część personelu 53 Eskadry Obserwacyjnej 20 września przekroczyła granicę z Węgrami. +Bilans walk. +Od początku wybuchu wojny do 20 września piloci eskadry wykonali 42 zadania bojowe. Poległo 4 lotników: por. obs. Kazimierz Nowak, kpr. pil. Jan Gryc, ppor. Stanisław Hudowicz i ppor. pil. Oskar Sobol. Eskadra utraciła 6 samolotów RWD-14 oraz 2 RWD-8. Jeden samolot RWD-14 został ewakuowany na Węgry. +Dowódcy Eskadry. +Personel eskadry na dzień 1 IX 1939. +I/53 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +II/53 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +Bohoniki + +Bohoniki – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie podlaskim, w powiecie sokólskim, w gminie Sokółka zamieszkiwana przez mniejszość tatarską; we wsi znajduje się meczet muzułmański oraz mizar – cmentarz muzułmański. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie białostockim. +Historia. +Rotmistrz Olejewski otrzymał Bohoniki od króla Sobieskiego jako rekompensatę za niewypłacony żołd. Istnieje także bardziej romantyczna wersja, każąca wierzyć, że król obdarował włościami Tatara, który za wierna służbę u jego boku otrzymać miał tyle ziemi, ile zdąży objechać konno w ciągu całego dnia. W rzeczywistości jednak w 1679 osiedliło się pod Sokółką 30 rodzin lipkowskich, podkomendnych rotmistrzów: Kieńskiego, Olejewskiego i Sieleckiego. Obok Drahli, Malawicz i Kamionki swoje ziemie dostali muzułmanie także w Bohonikach. To właśnie tu postanowili wybudować meczet, którego istnienie odnotowano już w 1717. W 1789 w Bohonikach znajdowały się 3 folwarki i 5 gospodarstw drobnoszlacheckich; zamieszkiwało je 46 Tatarów. W 1921 Bohoniki zamieszkiwało 26 Tatarów. +Obecnie w tej małej wiosce, liczącej zaledwie 30 domów mieszkają cztery rodziny muzułmanów, w sumie 14 osób. Meczet, którym się opiekują, niestety nie jest tym samym, który pamięta jeszcze czasy króla Jana. Według lokalnej tradycji meczet znajdował się w okolicy starego mizaru we wschodniej części wsi i uległ pożarowi . Mimo to odbudowana w XIX wieku świątynia figuruje w rejestrze zabytków i ściąga do Bohonik nie tylko pielgrzymów, ale i turystów. Zarówno meczet, jak i zabytkowy mizar znajdują się w samym centrum wsi po obu stronach przecinającej ją brukowanej ulicy. Ten ostatni, zdewastowany i nieczynny, ogrodzony staraniem miejscowych i opatrzony stosowną tablicą informacyjną w języku polskim i arabskim, nie stanowi atrakcji turystycznej. Mogiły odkryto tu dopiero w latach osiemdziesiątych XX wieku przy próbie wydobywania żwiru. +Znacznie częściej odwiedzany jest drugi cmentarz leżący tuż za Bohonikami przy drodze do Malawicz. Położony na porośniętym lasem wzgórzu jest jedną z dwóch głównych nekropolii Tatarów polskich po 1945. Założony być może wraz z osiedleniem się Tatarów w 1679, choć wydaje się, że bardziej prawdopodobne, że później – w XVIII wieku. Samo określenie cmentarza terminem „mizar” lub „miziar” ludność tatarska na Podlasiu zawdzięcza swoim przodkom - żołnierzom chorągwi lipkowskich, którzy przynieśli tę nazwę z Turcji. +Poza Podlasiem Tatarzy, aby określić cmentarz posługują się zazwyczaj arabskim terminem „zireć”. Aż do XVII stulecia kamienne nagrobki na cmentarzach Tatarów polsko-litewskich nie posiadały żadnych inskrypcji. Pierwsze napisy, zapewne pod wpływem polskim, pojawiły się gdzieś około połowy XVII wieku. Być może wiąże się to z postępującą polonizacją tej grupy etnicznej. +Zazwyczaj umieszczano teksty arabskie lub polskie czy białoruskie arabskimi literami . Choć większość, bo ponad 250 nagrobków na bohonickim cmentarzu pochodzi z okresu powojennego i naśladuje architekturę cmentarzy chrześcijańskich, nadal zachowała orientalny charakter. Na granitowych płytach ozdobionych obowiązkowo półksiężycem i gwiazdą zwiedzający odnaleźć mogą wersety z Koranu wyryte alfabetem arabskim. Z polsko brzmiącymi nazwiskami Smolskich, Baranowskich, Rodkiewiczów sąsiadują na nagrobkach muzułmańskie imiona takie jak Ali, Mustafa, Aysza czy Fatma. +Cmentarz nadal służy polskim muzułmanom za miejsce pochówku. +Meczet obejrzeć można codziennie dzięki uprzejmości opiekującej się nim Tatarki. Pani Eugenia Radkiewicz oprowadza turystów po świątyni, po czym, jak ma w zwyczaju, siada na schodach minbaru i opowiada przyjezdnym o tym, jak król Sobieski wynagrodził Tatarów, o tym jak się modlą, w co wierzą i według jakich nakazów islamu postępują polscy muzułmanie. +Naprzeciwko meczetu, znajduje się dom pielgrzyma, w którym można zanocować. +Sposób wyznawania islamu przez polskich Tatarów, choć niewątpliwie sunnicki, zawiera w sobie także elementy szyizmu (do tej pory obchodzone jest w Polsce szyickie święto Dzień Aszura), sufizmu czy szamanizmu. Islam Tatarów ma więc proweniencję nie tylko arabską, ale też turecką, krymską czy powołżańską. Postępująca asymilacja tatarskiej ludności, znaczne oddalenie od centrów muzułmańskiego świata, a co za tym idzie brak wykształconych opiekunów duchowych wśród polskich muzułmanów, mogły być przyczyną niewielkich odstępstw od tradycji mahometowej, jakich dopuszczają się polscy Tatarzy. Zresztą o „przyćmionym islamie” swych współwyznawców pisał już w połowie XVI wieku nieznany z nazwiska Tatar w traktacie przedłożonym sułtanowi Sulejmanowi Wspaniałemu. +Jedną z bohonickich atrakcji turystycznych może być też możliwość spróbowania tatarskiej kuchni. Dania składające się zazwyczaj z mięsa wołowego można zamówić w gospodarstwach. +Atrakcją Bohonik jest także drewniana zabudowa mieszkalna i gospodarcza z końca XIX i początku XX wieku oraz niezwykła malowniczość i panujący tu spokój. Sezon turystyczny trwa tutaj od maja do sierpnia. Do Bohonik przyjeżdżają również pielgrzymi, aby wziąć udział w nabożeństwach związanych z obchodzeniem muzułmańskich świąt. Tatarzy polscy obchodzą cztery święta w roku, których tureckie nazwy używane przez polskich muzułmanów to Ramadan Bajram, Kurban Bajram, Dzień Aszura i Mewlud. +Obchody wszystkich świąt wiążą się zawsze z odwiedzinami cmentarza. +Organizowane są także spotkania towarzyskie i bale tatarskie, których tradycja pochodzi z Wileńszczyzny i sięga XIX wieku. Raz w miesiącu w bohonickim meczecie odbywają się modlitwy piątkowe. Usłyszeć można wtedy, obok języka polskiego, język arabski, a nawet osmański. +Sieć monitoringu podstawowego + +Sieć monitoringu podstawowego - badania tego rodzaju umożliwiają kontrolę ilości i jakości wód, obejmują 42 rzeki ważne gospodarczo dla kraju. Sieć podstawową tworzy 1027 przekrojów pomiarowych. Badania wykonywane jeden lub dwa razy w miesiącu uwzględniają oznaczanie 23 parametrów jakości. +Metody analityczne stosowane w badaniach jakości wód, są jednolite i zgodne z Polską Normą. Wyniki oceny stanu zanieczyszczenia wód umożliwiają zaliczenie odcinków rzek do poszczególnych klas czystości. +Zobacz też: +Reperowa sieć monitoringu, +Monitoring stanu czystości rzek, +Biomonitoring. +Pluton Łącznikowy Dowództwa Lądowej Obrony Wybrzeża + +Pluton Łącznikowy Dowództwa Lądowej Obrony Wybrzeża - jednostka Marynarki Wojennej we wrześniu 1939. +Historia. +Jednostkę sformowano w dniach 24-31 sierpnia 1939 w ramach mobilizacji. Pluton podlegać miał pod Morski Dywizjon Lotniczy. Dowódcą został ppor. rez. pil. Edmund Jereczek, a wyposażenie stanowiły 2 samoloty RWD-13 (z Aeroklubu Gdańskiego) oraz 1 samolot Lublin R.XIII (przydział z Morskiego Dywizjonu Lotniczego). +1 września 1939 pluton rozkazem dowódcy Lądowej Obrony Wybrzeża został przydzielony do kompanii sztabowej. Samoloty umieszczono najpierw w hangarze portu lotniczego, potem w hangarze aeroklubu. 9 września nastąpiła ewakuacja plutonu na Kępę Oksywską. 13 września dowódca plutonu otrzymał rozkaz przelotu samolotów RWD-13 do Szwecji, samolot Lublin R.XIII miał lecieć z meldunkiem na Hel. Do Szwecji doleciał tylko samolot ppor. Jereczeka, wylądował on w pobliżu Visby. Drugi samolot RWD-13 pilotowany przez szer. Zarudzkiego musiał zawrócić z powodu awarii silnika. 17 września runą do morza samolot R.XIII pilotowany przez mat Czerwińskiego. Pilot zginął, uratowano natomiast pasażera. +162 Eskadra Myśliwska + +162 Eskadra myśliwska - jednostka lotnicza Armii Łódź we wrześniu 1939. +Historia. +Wojnę Obronną Polski w 1939 roku eskadra odbyła w składzie III/6 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego. +Działania bojowe. +2.9.1939 +3.9.1939 +6.9.1939 +16.9.1939 +16 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +16 Eskadra Obserwacyjna (Towarzysząca) - pododdział lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego. +Historia. +16 Eskadra Towarzysząca sformowana została w październiku 1937 na lotnisku Okęcie w Warszawie, w składzie 1 Pułk Lotniczego. Pododdział powstał na bazie IV plutonu 13 Eskadry Towarzycącej. Wraz z 13 i 19 Eskadrą tworzyła VI/1 Dywizjon Towarzyszący. Eskadra nie posiadała własnego godła. 25 sierpnia 1939, po przeprowadzonej mobilizacji alarmowej jednostka została przemianowana na 16 Eskadrę Obserwacyjną. W nocy z 27 na 28 sierpnia rzut kołowy przemieścił się na lotnisko polowe w m. Pęchery. 31 sierpnia na tym lotnisku wylądował rzut powietrzny: 7 samolotów obserwacyjnych Lublin R-XIIID i 2 samoloty łącznikowe RWD-8. +W czasie kampanii wrześniowej 1939 eskadra była jednostką dyspozycyjną dowódcy Okręgu Korpusu Nr I, a następnie Naczelnego Dowódcy Lotnictwa. +Personel eskadry we wrześniu 1939. +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +Kończyce Wielkie + +Kończyce Wielkie (cz. "Velké Kunčice", niem. "Gross-Kuntschitz") – jedna z sześciu wsi sołeckich w gminie Hażlach w powiecie cieszyńskim, w województwie śląskim, w granicach historycznego regionu Śląska Cieszyńskiego. Na obszarze 1445,25 ha zamieszkała jest przez 1848 mieszkańców (2009), co daje gęstość zaludnienia równą 127,9 os./km². Centrum miejscowości położone jest pomiędzy drogami wojewódzkimi 937 i 938. +Historia. +Wieś została założona przez kolonistów na prawie niemieckim, a po raz pierwszy wzmiankowana w 1335 jako "Kończyce Książęce", w spisie parafii dekanatu cieszyńskiego odprowadzających świętopietrze. Do XV w. była własnością książąt cieszyńskich, w 1597 została zakupiona przez Bludowskich, która w następnym roku przeszła w ręce Wilczków, a w XIX hrabiowskiego rodu Larisch von Mönnich. Z Wielkimi Kończycami związani byli również Mniszchowie, którzy obok swojego nazwiska dodawali nazwę tej miejscowości np. Michał Jerzy Wandalin Mniszech "z Wielkich Kończyc" (1742-1806) marszałek wielki koronny, czy jego wnuk malarz Andrzej Jerzy Mniszech. +W okresie reformacji miejscowa ludność w znacznej mierze przyjęłą wyznanie luterańskie, a została prawie całkowicie zrekatolicyzowana w XVIII wieku. +W 1900 roku Kończyce Wielkie stanowiły samodzielną gminę obejmującą również Rudnik o powierzchni 1854 hektarów i liczbie mieszkańców 1561 zamieszkałych w 248 budynkach, z tego w samych Kończycach Wielkich bez Rudnika mieszkało 1257 osób w 199 domach. 1252 (99,6%) mieszkańców było katolikami a 5 (0,4%) wyznawcami judaizmu, 1226 (97,5%) polsko-, 28 (2,2%) niemiecko- a 2 (0,2%) czeskojęzycznymi. Wg spisu z 1910 roku Kończyce Wielkie (bez Rudnika) miały już 1286 mieszkańców zamieszkałych w 207 budynkach na obszarze 1562 hektarów, co dawało gęstość zaludnienia równą 82,3 os./km², z czego 1279 było zameldowanych na stałe, 1236 (96,6%) było polsko-, 31 (2,4%) niemiecko-, 10 (0,8%) czeskojęzycznymi, a 2 osoby posługiwały się jeszcze innym językiem, 1280 (99,5%) było katolikami, 1 osoba była ewangelikiem, 3 żydami a 2 jeszcze innej religii lub wyznania. +26 stycznia 1919 w ramach polsko-czechosłowackiego konfliktu granicznego o Śląsk Cieszyński miała tutaj miejsce przegrana przez polską stronę bitwa, w której zginął kapitan Cezary Haller (1875-1919) – oficer, działacz polityczny i poseł na Sejm w Wiedniu. W lipcu 1920 roku w wyniku decyzji Rady Ambasadorów miejscowość znalazła się w granicach Polski. +W latach 1945-1954 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Kończyce Wielkie a w 1975-1998 położona była w województwie bielskim. +Turystyka i zabytki. +Rośnie tu 750-letni dąb szypułkowy – pomnik przyrody, najstarszy dąb na Śląsku, jeden z najstarszych w Polsce, pozostałość po istniejącej tu przed wiekami puszczy. +Na okolicznym wzgórzu usytuowanym pomiędzy Kończycami Wielkimi a Kończycami Małymi umiejscowiony jest punkt widokowy na Wielką Czantorię. Ponadto przez wieś przebiegają szlaki rowerowe m.in. do Bzia Zameckiego, Ruptawy, Kaczyc, Zebrzydowic, Jastrzębia-Zdroju, Cieszyna, Ustronia oraz Marklowic Górnych i dalej do Czech. +Homo erectus. +W przeprowadzanych w latach 2004 i 2005 badaniach archeologicznych nieopodal żwirowiska przy drodze wojewódzkiej odkryto jak dotąd najstarsze ślady bytności przedstawicieli gatunku Homo erectus w Polsce i na północ od Karpat. Odnalezionych kilkadziesiąt półproduktów i narzędzi datowane są na około 800 tys. lat p.n.e, jednak z czasem pojawiły się wątpliwości co do takiego datowania. Przybyć mieliby oni z południa poprzez Bramę Morawską prawdopodobnie za zwierzyną. +63 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +63 Eskadra Obserwacyjna (Towarzysząca) – pododdział lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 eskadra walczyła w składzie lotnictwa Armii "Łódź", operując z lotniska Lublinek. +Personel eskadry. +I/63 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +II/63 Pluton +Obserwatorzy +Piloci +Drogomyśl + +Drogomyśl (czes. "Drahomyšl", niem. "Drahomischl") – wieś sołecka położona 4 km na południe od Strumienia, w gminie Strumień w powiecie cieszyńskim nad rzekami Wisłą i Knajką (w zachodniej części sołectwa). Powierzchnia sołectwa wynosi 1466 ha (14,66 km²), a liczba ludności 2109, co daje gęstość zaludnienia równą 143,9 os./km². +Historia. +Po raz pierwszy wzmiankowana w 1452 roku. W okresie reformacji znaczna część mieszkańców przeszła na luteranizm. Na początku XVII wieku była w posiadaniu rodziny Czelów z Czechowic a od 1619 roku do rodu Bludowskich poprzez małżeństwo Fryderyka Bludowskiego z Katarzyny Czelo. Dobra te w 1737 Gottlieba Agnet, ich prawnuczka, sprzedała Christianowi Kalischowi. W 1788 postawiono tu kościół ewangelicki, ufundowany przez Fryderyka Kalischa. +Według austriackiego spisu ludności z 1900 w 165 budynkach w Drogomyślu (w tym 26 w Knaju) na obszarze 1466 hektarów mieszkało 1207 osób (w tym 220 w Knaju), co dawało gęstość zaludnienia równą 97,3 os./km². z tego 565 (39,6%) mieszkańców było katolikami, 846 (59,3%) ewangelikami a 16 (1,1%) wyznawcami judaizmu, 1374 (96,3%) było polsko- a 46 (3,2%) niemieckojęzycznymi. Do 1910 roku liczba mieszkańców wzrosła do 1285, z czego 461 (35,9%) było katolikami, 807 (62,8%) ewangelikami a 17 (1,3%) żydami, 1108 (87%) było polsko- a 165 (13%) niemieckojęzycznymi. +Po I wojnie światowej miejscowość znalazła się w granicach Polski. +W 1969 wzniesiono kościół parafialny pw. MB Częstochowskiej według projektu S. Kwaśniewicza. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie bielskim. +Wiesław Szczepański + +Wiesław Andrzej Szczepański (ur. 1 czerwca 1960 w Chrośnicy) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm II, III, V i VI kadencji, były wiceminister infrastruktury. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu. Do rozwiązania był członkiem PZPR. Do początku lat 90. pracował m.in. jako prezes spółki. +W latach 1994–1998 był radnym rady miejskiej w Lesznie, pełnił m.in. funkcję wiceprzewodniczącego. Od 1999 do 2000 zasiadał w sejmiku wielkopolskim, od 2002 do 2005 pełnił funkcję wiceprzewodniczącego sejmiku. Należał do Socjaldemokracji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej od 1995, następnie do Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej. Od 19 grudnia 2004 do 1 czerwca 2008 pełnił funkcję wiceprzewodniczącego partii. +W 1996 i 1997 obejmował mandat posła na Sejm kolejno II i III kadencji, w 2001 kandydował bez powodzenia do Sejmu IV kadencji. W październiku 2001 powołano go na stanowisko wiceprezesa Urzędu Mieszkalnictwa i Rozwoju Miast i pełnił tę funkcję do likwidacji urzędu w grudniu 2003. W latach 2004–2005 był podsekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Infrastruktury. Później pracował jako doradca dyrektora generalnego Poczty Polskiej. +W 2005 powrócił do Sejmu po czteroletniej przerwie. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007 po raz czwarty został posłem, kandydując z listy koalicji Lewica i Demokraci w okręgu kaliskim i otrzymując 10 579 głosów. W kwietniu 2008 zasiadł w Klubie Poselskim Lewica, który we wrześniu 2010 przekształcono w KP SLD. W 2011 nie został ponownie wybrany. +Reperowa sieć monitoringu + +Reperowa sieć monitoringu głównych rzek kraju stanowi źródło informacji o stanie zanieczyszczenia tych rzek oraz dostarcza danych do obliczeń bilansu zanieczyszczeń wprowadzanych do Morza Bałtyckiego. Informacje te są niezbędne do prowadzenia prac badawczych z zakresu oceny jakości wód płynących. +Sieć reperową głównych rzek kraju tworzą przekroje pomiarowe zlokalizowane w zlewni Wisły, Odry oraz na rzekach Przymorza, lub w miejscach zamykających obszary dorzeczy o szczególnym znaczeniu gospodarczym. Badania wykonywane jeden lub dwa razy w tygodniu uwzględniają oznaczanie parametrów jakości wód. +Zobacz też: +Sieć monitoringu podstawowego, +Monitoring stanu czystości rzek +Rabarbar ogrodowy + +Rabarbar ogrodowy (syn: rabarbar zwyczajny, rzewień ogrodowy, rzewień zwyczajny) "Rheum rhaponticum" L. – gatunek byliny należący do rodziny rdestowatych. Pochodzi z obszarów Azji Środkowej, Bułgarii i prawdopodobnie południowej Syberii. W Polsce jest uprawiany. +Zmienność. +Tworzy mieszańce z rabarbarem kędzierzawym ("Rheum hybridum" J.A.M. Murray). +Uprawa. +Rozmnażany jest głównie przez podział karpy. Uprawiany z nasion nie zachowuje cech rośliny, z której pochodzą nasiona. Odcinki mające przynajmniej 1 pąk sadzi się wiosną lub jesienią, tak, by pąki znajdowały się przynajmniej 5 cm pod ziemią. Ogonki liściowe można zrywać dopiero w drugim roku po posadzeniu. Kwiatostany należy usuwać zaraz po po ich pojawieniu się, gdyż wytwarzanie bezużytecznych dla nas nasion osłabia roślinę. Dobrze udaje się na dość wilgotnych, głębokich i średnio zwięzłych glebach. Wymaga silnego nawożenia. Nie powinno się go uprawiać na glebach mokrych i kwaśnych. Jest wytrzymały na mróz, dość dobrze znosi suszę, ale przy silnych upałach dobrze jest go podlewać. +Monitoring stanu czystości rzek + +Monitoring stanu czystości rzek – systematyczne pomiary i obserwacje powierzchniowych wód płynących, prowadzone w Polsce w stałych przekrojach przez Wojewódzki Inspektorat Ochrony Środowiska. Pomiary pozwalają określić stan czystości rzek. +Monitoring rzek polskich realizowany jest w układzie sieci reperowej oraz sieci podstawowej. +33 Eskadra Obserwacyjna + +33 Eskadra Obserwacyjna – jednostka Armii Poznań w kampanii wrześniowej 1939. +I/33 Pluton (3 samoloty) +Piloci +Obserwatorzy +II/33 Pluton(3 samoloty) +Piloci +Obserwatorzy +Stefan Surzyński + +Stefan Surzyński (ur. 31 sierpnia 1855 w Śremie, zm. 6 kwietnia 1919 we Lwowie), polski kompozytor, organista, dyrygent, nauczyciel muzyki. +Był synem Franciszka (organisty i nauczyciela muzyki) i Józefy ze Szmytkowskich. Początkowe nauki muzyczne pobierał u ojca oraz starszego brata Józefa. W latach 1878-1880 pracował jako organista w kościele parafialnym w Buku (po śmierci ojca). Przeniósł się następnie do Poznania, gdzie był dyrygentem chóru Stowarzyszenia Śpiewaczego "Stella" oraz pomagał w pracy bratu Józefowi - organiście przy katedrze. Odbył roczny kurs w szkole muzyki kościelnej w Ratyzbonie (1881). +W latach 1887-1888 przez krótki okres pracował w Brzeżanach, gdzie proboszczem był ksiądz Leonard Solecki. +W 1888 osiadł w Tarnowie, gdzie był organistą i dyrygentem chóru katedralnego oraz nauczycielem w szkole organistowskiej; pełnił także funkcję dyrektora artystycznego Towarzystwa Muzycznego. Ostatnie lata życia spędził we Lwowie; także tam pracował jako organista i dyrygent chóru katedralnego (od 1913). +Był twórcą kompozycji organowych, opublikowanych razem z dziełami innego brata, Mieczysława. Z Mieczysławem wydał także zbiór kwartetów męskich "Bard i Menestrel". Opracował kilka popularnych śpiewników - "Harfiarz", "Echo polskie", "Lirenka", "Śpiewnik kościelny dla użytku organistów" (1891). +Z małżeństwa z Anną z Szulców miał pięcioro dzieci. Jego synem był m.in. znany aktor Władysław. +121 Eskadra Myśliwska + +121 Eskadra Myśliwska – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +Eskadra była pododdziałem 2 Pułku Lotniczego, stacjonującym na lotnisku Kraków-Rakowice. Wraz z 122 i 123 Eskadrą Myśliwską tworzyła III/2 Dywizjon Myśliwski. +W kampanii wrześniowej walczyła w składzie lotnictwa i obrony przeciwlotniczej Armii "Kraków". 1 września 1939 roku eskadra dysponowała 10 samolotami PZL P.11c, z których sześć operowało z lotniska w Balicach, a cztery w Aleksandrowicach, gdzie 20 sierpnia powstała zasadzka myśliwska. Piloci zasadzki w Aleksandrowicach 1 września zestrzelili Do 17 w rejonie Cieszyna oraz uszkodzili Ju 87 w rejonie Kęt oraz Hs 126 w rejonie Pszczyny. Jeden PZL P.11 rozbito przy lądowaniu z powodu odniesionych uszkodzeń. 1 września około godz. 17, 3 maszyny odleciały na lotnisko Igołomia dołączając do swojej macierzystej eskadry. Zasadzka w Aleksandrowicach działała od 20 sierpnia do 1 września 1939. W ramach uzupełnień otrzymano jeden PZL P.11c. +Zwycięstwa pilotów 121 eskadry. +Zestawieni chronologiczne wg danych Biura Historycznego Lotnictwa w Londynie +01.09.1939 +03.09.1939 +05.09.1939 +09.09.1939 +Eskadra w wyniku działań bojowych straciła 5 samolotów. +Koźmin Wielkopolski + +Koźmin Wielkopolski (do końca 1996 "Koźmin", niem. Koschmin) – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie krotoszyńskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Koźmin Wielkopolski. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 6678 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Na terenie miasta oraz przyległych gmin zorganizowana jest komunikacja autobusowa. +Gospodarka. +Przemysł przetwórczy reprezentowany jest przez gałęzie: metalową, drzewną, spożywczą i chemiczną. +Historia. +Gród z podgrodziem istniał tu już w XII w., prawa miejskie Koźmin otrzymał pomiędzy 1251, a 1283 r. W 1338 Kazimierz III Wielki darował miasto Maćkowi Borkowicowi, który zbudował w Koźminie zamek. Po upadku wojewody miasto wielokrotnie zmienia właścicieli. W XVI w. był własnością rodu Górków, po nich między innymi Sapiehów. W czasach I Rzeczypospolitej należał do najsilniejszych grodów w Wielkopolsce. W XVI w. był tu znaczny ośrodek sukienniczy, a w XVII w. znany ośrodek reformacji (w 1561 bracia czescy otworzyli w Koźminie drukarnię). W 1875 wybudowano linię kolejową, co przyspieszyło rozwój miasta. W latach 1887-1932 miasto powiatowe (powiat koźmiński). W 1906 miał miejsce w Koźminie strajk dzieci szkolnych. Już w listopadzie 1918 sformowano tu Radę Robotniczo-Żołnierską oraz, po wybuchu powstania wielkopolskiego, kompanię żołnierską. Zakończenie II wojny światowej nastąpiło w Koźminie 23 stycznia 1945. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. kaliskiego. Przed 1875 i od 1999 w powiecie krotoszyńskim. +W 1995 r. na terenie miasta i gminy odbyło się referendum na podstawie którego Rada Miejska wystapiła do Szefa Urzędu Rady Ministów z prośbą o zmianę nazwy. Zarządzenie Rady Ministrów wydano w 1996, dzięki czemu przymiotnik "Wielkopolski" został dodany do nazwy miejscowosci 1 stycznia 1997. +Sport. +W mieście działa Koźmiński Klub Sportowy Biały Orzeł Koźmin Wielkopolski, grający w sezonie 2009/2010 w IV lidze, grupie wielkopolskiej południowej. +IKS "Spartakus" klub integracyjny propagujący tenis ziemny na wózkach którego prezesem jest Albin Batycki +Samodzielna Grupa Operacyjna Narew + +Samodzielna Grupa Operacyjna "Narew" (SGO "Narew") - związek operacyjny Wojska Polskiego podczas wojny obronnej 1939. +Geneza i zadania. +23 marca 1939 generalny inspektor sił zbrojnych, marszałek Edward Śmigły-Rydz powołał zalążek ścisłego sztabu SGO "Narew" w składzie: gen. bryg. Czesław Młot-Fijałkowski - dowódca, ppłk dypl. Stanisław Podkowiński - szef sztabu, mjr dypl. Jan Gorzko - szef Oddziału III i kpt. dypl. Felicjan Majorkiewicz - oficer Oddziału III. Zadania SGO "Narew" polegały na obronie północno-wschodniego odcinka frontu w oparciu o granicę litewską, oraz utrzymanie linii Narwi i jej dopływu Biebrzy. +Ordre de Bataille i obsada personalna SGO "Narew". +Łącznie SGO "Narew" liczyła: 29 samolotów +Wacław krośnieński + +Wacław krośnieński (urodzony pomiędzy 1389 a 1397 – zmarł w 1430 lub 1431 roku), książę głogowski od 1412/3 z braćmi Henrykiem IX i X, od 1417/8 samodzielnie w Krośnie, Świebodzinie i Bytnicy. +Wacław był czwartym pod względem starszeństwa (najmłodszym) synem księcia żagańskiego Henryka VIII Wróbla i Katarzyny Opolskiej. Od 1412 lub 1413 w wyniku podziału spadku po ojcu objął wraz ze starszymi braćmi Henrykami IX i X księstwo głogowskie. W 1417 lub 1418 roku Henrykowie wydzielili mu udzielne księstwo, które objęło swoim zasięgiem Krosno Odrzańskie, Świebodzin i Bytnicę. +Książę krośnieński jako lennik Zygmunta Luksemburskiego uczestniczył w jego koronacji na króla czeskiego w Pradze 28 lipca 1420, w zjeździe w Preszburgu (Bratysławie) trzy lata później, wreszcie w walkach z wojskami husyckimi. +Wacław Krośnieński zginął w 1430 lub 1431 w wyniku wybuchu armaty, z którą się nieostrożnie obchodził. Ponieważ pozostawał w stanie bezżennym i nie pozostawił potomstwa – całość dziedzictwa po nim otrzymał starszy brat Henryk IX. +Oceania Football Confederation + + Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) – Konfederacja Piłkarska Oceanii – jedna z sześciu kontynentalnych konfederacji piłkarskich wchodzących w skład FIFA. Do 2006 najlepszą drużyną z federacji OFC była Australia, która zakwalifikowała się do Mistrzostw Świata, jednak z dniem 1 stycznia 2006 stała się członkiem Azjatyckiej Federacji Piłkarskiej, opuszczając strefę Oceanii. Siedmiokrotnie rozgrywano Puchar Narodów Oceanii w którym czterokrotnie zwyciężała Australia, a trzykrotnie Nowa Zelandia. +Po opuszczeniu strefy OFC przez Australię rywalizacja w imprezach tej strefy stała się z jednej strony bardziej atrakcyjna (większa rywalizacja), z drugiej jednak strony obniżył się poziom rozgrywek. +Oceania jest najsłabszą strefą w FIFA, jej przedstawiciele tylko cztery razy (geograficznie pięć razy) wystąpili w Mistrzostwach Świata – dwukrotnie Australia (1974, 2006) i dwukrotnie Nowa Zelandia (1982, 2010). Z powodu najsłabszego poziomu piłkarskiego OFC jest jedyną strefą która nie ma zapewnionego udziału w turnieju finałowym Mistrzostw Świata. O awans do Mistrzostw drużyny z tej strefy biorą udział w barażach interkontynentalnych. +W eliminacjach do Mistrzostw Świata w piłce nożnej w 2010 roku Australia zakwalifikowała się do finałów rozgrywek ze strefy azjatyckiej, już jako pełnoprawny członek Azjatyckiej Federacji Piłkarskiej. +Członkowie OFC. +Konfederacja Piłkarska Oceanii zrzesza obecnie (stan z 10 stycznia 2013) 16 federacji narodowych z czego 5 nie należy do FIFA. +Jedynym państwem nie należącym do OFC jest Nauru. +Uczestnicy MŚ ze strefy Oceanii. +Do tej pory w Mistrzostwach Świata wystąpiły tylko dwie drużyny reprezentujące strefę Oceanii - Australia (dwukrotnie) oraz Nowa Zelandia (dwukrotnie). +W latach 1966-1982 drużyny z Oceanii walczyły w jednej strefie eliminacyjnej z drużynami z Azji. +Od roku 1986 zespoły z Oceanii walczą w barażu interkontynelntalnym. +Nowela sierpniowa + +Nowela sierpniowa – ustawa z dnia 2 sierpnia 1926 o zmianie Konstytucji z 17 marca 1921, ogłoszona i obowiązująca od 4 sierpnia 1926. +Przyjęta nowela wzmacniała przede wszystkim pozycję prezydenta. Przyznała mu prawo do rozwiązania parlamentu, prawo do wydawania rozporządzeń z mocą ustawy. +Geneza uchwalenia. +Przewrót majowy był końcem epoki rządów parlamentarno-gabinetowych w Polsce. Mimo formalnego obowiązywania Konstytucji marcowej decyzję m.in. o składzie rządu podejmował marszałek Józef Piłsudski niezależnie od stanowiska Sejmu. Zalecił on na stanowisko premiera, lwowskiego profesora, Kazimierza Bartla. Jednym z pierwszych podjętych przez jego gabinet działań było złożenie projektu zmiany konstytucji. +Projekt miał wyraźny charakter antyparlamentarny uzasadniany propagandową walką z nadmierną rolą partii politycznych, "sejmokracją" i "partyjniactwem". +Swoje projekty złożyły też ugrupowania opozycyjne. Związek Ludowo-Narodowy, Stronnictwo Chrześcijańsko-Demokratyczne, Chrześcijańska Demokracja i PSL „Piast” postulowały widoczne rozszerzenie uprawnień władzy wykonawczej, a ponadto uprawnień Senatu wobec Sejmu czy zmiany w ordynacji wyborczej kosztem mniejszości narodowych. +Projekty rządu i centroprawicy zwalczała lewica. +Uchwalenie. +Ustawa "zmieniająca i uzupełniająca Konstytucję Rzeczypospolitej z 17 marca 1921 r." została uchwalona 2 sierpnia 1926 roku głosami parlamentarzystów od prawicy do Stronnictwa Chłopskiego i PSL „Wyzwolenie”. Przeciwko była PPS, lewica rewolucyjna i mniejszości narodowe. +Wprowadzone zmiany. +Ustawa ta złożona była z ośmiu artykułów wprowadzających zmiany do sześciu artykułów "Konstytucji marcowej". +Oba rodzaje rozporządzeń z mocą ustawy musiały być podpisane przez premiera i wszystkich ministrów oraz złożone w sejmie w ciągu 14 dni po najbliższym od momentu publikacji w Dzienniku Ustaw posiedzeniu Sejmu. Sejm mógł je uchylić mocą własnej uchwały (czyli bez udziału Senatu). +Podsumowanie. +Nowela sierpniowa usankcjonowała kształtowanie się przewagi władzy wykonawczej kosztem ustawodawczej: zmniejszenie kontroli parlamentarnej nad rządem, wyłączne prawo Prezydenta do rozwiązania parlamentu, ograniczenia swobody ustalania prac budżetowych przez izby. Jej rozwiązania były jednak jedynie połowiczne, gdyż stały się wynikiem licznych kompromisów, także w obozie rządzącym. Nowela sierpniowa była krokiem do ustanowienia władzy autorytarnej w Polsce, a także likwidacji faktycznego wpływu frakcji politycznych na kształt ustrojowy państwa. +Aplikacja (prawo) + +Aplikacja – praktyka absolwenta studiów prawniczych, mająca na celu przygotować go do wykonywania poszczególnych zawodów prawniczych. Praktyka ta odbywa się w miejscach i w czasie określonym szczegółowymi przepisami i kończy się zdaniem stosownego egzaminu państwowego. +Celem aplikacji jest przygotowanie aplikanta do należytego i samodzielnego wykonywania zawodu. +Aplikant do zawodów prawniczych musi być nieskazitelnego charakteru, korzystać z pełni praw publicznych, mieć ukończone z tytułem magistra wyższe studia prawnicze polskie albo zagraniczne uznawane w Polsce. Na aplikację przyjmuje się osoby, które złożyły egzamin konkursowy. +Aby ukończyć aplikację, należy przejść cykl szkoleniowy przewidziany programem aplikacji, na który składają się zajęcia teoretyczne (najczęściej raz w tygodniu) oraz zajęcia praktyczne w sądach, prokuraturach, urzędach lub kancelariach prawnych. Ukończenie aplikacji daje możliwość podejścia do egzaminu zawodowego, składającego się z części pisemnej i ustnej. Po pozytywnym złożeniu egzaminu nabywa się uprawnienia zawodowe. +Obecnie należy również odbyć aplikację, aby móc wykonywać zawód sądowego kuratora zawodowego, mówi się wtedy o aplikacji kuratorskiej. W tym przypadku nie jest wymagane tylko posiadanie tytułu magistra prawa, lecz dopuszczalny jest również tytuł magistra pedagogiki, psychologii lub socjologii. +W ostatnim czasie weszły w życie przepisy wprowadzające istotne zmiany do modelu obecnych aplikacji prawniczych. Między innymi, na mocy ustawy z dnia 23 stycznia 2009 oraz rozporządzenia Ministra Sprawiedliwości z dnia 16 kwietnia 2009, utworzono Krajową Szkołę Sądownictwa i Prokuratury w Krakowie, w której odbywają się zajęcia dla aplikantów sądowych i prokuratorskich. +Kręg + +Kręg (łac. "vertebra") – podstawowy element budujący kręgosłup, charakterystyczny dla kręgowców (Vertebrata). +Podział kręgów i ich występowanie. +Kręgi dzieli się na beztrzonowe (kilka luźno połączonych chrząstek osadzonych na strunie grzbietowej), które występują np. u ryb jesiotrowatych i dwudysznych oraz pełnotrzonowe (pojedynczy trzon zrośnięty nieruchomo z wyrostkami). Pełnotrzonowe obejmują dwuwklęsłe (amficeliczne) (u ryb i części gadów, takich jak gekonowate), tyłowklęsłe (opistoceliczne) (u płazów ogoniastych), przodowklęsłe (proceliczne) (u płazów bezogonowych i większości gadów), siodełkowate (heteroceliczne) (występują w szyjnym odcinku kręgosłupa ptaków) oraz płaskie (platyceliczne) (u ssaków). +Budowa kręgu. +Pojedynczy kręg składa się z trzonu kręgu ("corpus vertebrae"), łuku kręgu ("arcus vertebrae") oraz siedmiu wyrostków. +Trzon kręgu i łuk kręgu ograniczają otwór kręgowy ("foramen vertebrae"). Otwory kręgowe wszystkich kręgów tworzą kanał kręgowy ("canalis vertebralis"), wewnątrz którego biegnie rdzeń kręgowy ("medulla spinalis"). +Nieparzysty wyrostek kolczysty ("processus spinosus") odchodzi od kręgu ku tyłowi lub w dół (ten wyrostek można wyczuć na plecach człowieka). Parzyste wyrostki poprzeczne ("processus transversi") biegną ku bokom. Ku górze i ku dołowi skierowane są także parzyste wyrostki stawowe górne i dolne ("processus articulares superiores et inferiores"), biorące udział w tworzeniu połączeń między kręgami. +Człowiek posiada 7 kręgów szyjnych (C1-7), 12 kręgów piersiowych (T1-12), 5 kręgów lędźwiowych (L1-5), 5 kręgów krzyżowych, które jeszcze w fazie rozwoju płodowego łączą się w jedną kość krzyżową i 4-5 kręgów guzicznych (ogonowych), co daje łączną liczbę od 33 do 34 kręgów. Pierwszy kręg szyjny nosi nazwę dźwigacz lub atlas, drugi to kręg obrotowy (są one połączone z czaszką i umożliwiają ruchy głowy). +Różnice w budowie poszczególnych kręgów. +Kręgi poszczególnych odcinków kręgosłupa różnią się od siebie budową i wielkością. Kręgi lędźwiowe (L1-5) charakteryzują się większymi trzonami kręgów, oraz wydłużonymi do tyłu wyrostkami kolczystymi i górnymi wyrostkami stawowymi kręgów. Ich wysokie, zachodzące na górny krąg wyrostki kolczyste, skutecznie utrudniają skręcanie kręgosłupa w obszarze lędźwiowym. +Trzony kręgowe kręgów piersiowych (T1-12) wchodzą w skład krótszych cylindrów, niż te z kręgów w obszarze lędźwiowym. W pobliżu zakończeń wyrostków poprzecznych kręgów znajdują się niewielkie powierzchnie stawowe (gładkie obszary stawowe), które reprezentują miejsca połączeń z żebrami po obu stronach. Wyrostki kolczyste kręgów piersiowych są ostre i skierowane w dół raczej niż wprost do tyłu (jak w przypadku kręgów lędźwiowych). Pomiędzy łukami kręgowymi znajdują się otwory międzykręgowe przez które nerwy kręgowe T1-12 przechodzą w drodze do ściany klatki piersiowej. +Kręgi szyjne (C1-7) posiadają jeszcze mniejsze trzony kręgów niż te w kręgach piersiowych, lecz ich łuki kręgowe są szerokie. Dwa najwyższe kręgi szyjne są przystosowane do łączenia się z czaszką. C1 spoczywa tuż pod czaszką, a C2 zapewnia oś, wokół której obracają się C1 i czaszka, kiedy skręcana jest głowa. +Piotr I Okrutny + +Piotr I Okrutny, hiszp. "Pedro I el Cruel" (ur. 30 sierpnia 1334 w Burgos w Kastylii, zm. 23 marca 1369 w Montiel we Francji) - król Kastylii i Leónu w latach 1350-1369. Zwany był także Sprawiedliwym lub Egzekutorem Prawa. +Był synem króla Alfonsa XI i Marii Portugalskiej. +Jego ukochaną była Maria de Padilla, a ich związek ciągnął się od 1352. Owocem tego związku były 2 córki: +Jednak pod wpływem matki i możnowładców na czele z ministrem i faworytem królowej Janem Alfonsem Albuquerque zgodził się na poślubienie Blanki de Burbon. Nie kochał jednak żony i nakazał jej uwięzienie. Stopniowo uwolnił się od dominacji matki, ale tym większy wpływ zdobyła na niego kochanka. Pod jej wpływem zwrócił się przeciwko Albuquerque. +Podczas jego panowania doszło do wybuchu wojny domowej. Na rozkaz królowej matki stracona została Eleonora de Guzman, kochanka zmarłego króla i ojca Piotra - Alfonsa XI. Synowie zamordowanej: Henryk i Fadryk Alfons Trastamera, przy poparciu Albuquerque, zbuntowali się przeciwko królowi Piotrowi, który jednak szybko pokonał buntowników. Schronili się oni do Aragonii, gdzie uzyskali poparcie króla Piotra IV Aragońskiego. Wybuchła tzw. wojna Dwóch Piotrów, która z niewielkim natężeniem toczyła się do 1365, kiedy to wewnętrzny konflikt hiszpański przez zaangażowanie sił francuskich i angielskich stał się częścią Wojny Stuletniej. Po stronie króla walczyły wojska angielskie Edwarda, słynnego Czarnego Księcia, syna Edwarda III, zaś po stronie przywódcy opozycji Henryka Trastamara walczyły oddziały francuskie pod dowództwem Bertranda du Guesclin. W wojnie tej król cieszył się poparciem kupców i mieszczan oraz mniejszości żydowskiej, jego przeciwnicy zyskali poparcie większości możnowładców i szlachty. +Wojska Piotra Okrutnego, przy wybitnej pomocy słynnych wówczas angielskich łuczników, pokonały wojska Henryka pod Nájera (1367), lecz nie był to koniec konfliktu. Wyczerpująca wojna zmusiła obie strony do poszukiwania radykalnego rozwiązania konfliktu – podczas układów odbywających się osobiście między adwersarzami zamkniętymi w jednym namiocie w pobliżu zamku Montiel Henryk zamordował Piotra i jako zwycięzca opuścił żywy miejsce spotkania, tym samym torując sobie drogę do objęcia tronu. +Przydomek „Okrutny” nadali mu jego przeciwnicy, zwracając uwagę na fakt licznych zabójstw, jakich się dopuścił w celu utrzymania u władzy. Np kazał zamęczyć na śmierć swego poborcę podatkowego Samuela Halevi w 1361. Zarzucali mu również niemoralność i nadmierne uleganie złym wpływom, głównie matki i kochanki. +Jego apologeci nazywali go natomiast „Egzekutor Prawa” ("El Justiciero"), dla podkreślenia faktu, że na śmierć skazywał tylko tych, którzy łamali prawo i nie respektowali praw innych, a w obronę brał tych, którzy większych praw do tej pory nie mieli, jak mieszczan czy Żydów. +Narrenturm + +Narrenturm – powieść historyczna z elementami fantastyki autorstwa Andrzeja Sapkowskiego, wydana w 2002 roku przez SuperNOWĄ. Pierwsza część "Trylogii husyckiej". +Tematem powieści są przygody Reinmara z Bielawy, zwanego Reynevanem. Akcja Narrenturm rozgrywa się na Śląsku w roku 1425. Tłem dla powieści są wojny husyckie. +Akcja rozpoczyna się gdy bracia Sterczowie spotykają Reinmara z Bielawy w łóżku z Adelą von Stercza, żoną Gelfrada von Stercza. Od tamtego momentu bracia Gelfrada chcą zemścić się na Reinmarze, który musi się zemścić. +Sam tytuł, czyli "Wieża Błaznów" ("Narr" - błazen, "turm" - wieża), w średniowieczu oznaczał wieżę, w której trzymano ludzi chorych umysłowo. +Powieść została wydana w Polsce także w postaci audiobooka. +Pasażerokilometr + +Pasażerokilometr ("paskm", "pkm"; ang.: "pass·km=passenger·kilometre") – stosowana w transporcie pasażerskim (zazwyczaj publicznym i regularnym) jednostka miary pracy przewozowej wykonanej przez środki transportu pasażerskiego w określonym czasie (np. doby, miesiąca, roku, wybranego kursu itp.). +Przykład: "Z przewozu tramwajem danej linii komunikacyjnej o długości trasy 5 km w wykonanym przez niego 1 pełnym kursie skorzystało łącznie 120 pasażerów." +"120 pasażerów · 5 km (wkm) = 600 pkm" +"Wykonana w czasie trwania jednego kursu tramwaju praca przewozowa polegająca na przewozie osób wynosi 600 pasażerokilometrów." +Jednostka wykorzystywana w działaniach ekonomicznych, statystycznych; najczęściej jako punkt odniesienia dla innych obliczeń dotyczących przewozu osób, szczególnie kosztowych, bądź składowa ich algorytmów. +Akwilina + +Akwilina - imię żeńskie pochodzenia łacińskiego. Patronką tego imienia jest św. Akwilina (III/IV wiek). +Akwilina imieniny obchodzi 13 czerwca. +Nerw przeponowy + +Nerw przeponowy (łac. "nervus phrenicus") – najdłuższy parzysty nerw wychodzący ze splotu szyjnego. Biegnie ku dołowi po mięśniu pochyłym przednim i przechodzi przez otwór górny klatki piersiowej. +Unerwia ruchowo mięsień przeponowy, a także czuciowo m.in. opłucną ścienną śródpiersiową, przeponową, osklepek opłucnej, otrzewną dolnej powierzchni przepony, wątroby, pęcherzyka żółciowego i osierdzie serca. +Norman (Oklahoma) + +Norman, miasto w USA, w stanie Oklahoma, w hrabstwie +Cleveland ("Cleveland County"). Miasto to chodzi w skład zespołu miejskiego +stolicy stanu - Oklahoma City, położone około 35 km na południe od niego. +Demografia. +Liczba mieszkańców: 111 tys. (2010) +Powierzchnia: 490,8 km² +W mieście Norman znajduje się siedziba stanowej wyższej uczelni - University of Oklahoma. +Kometa Machholza + +Kometa Machholza (nazwa katalogowa C/2004 Q2) - kometa długookresowa, odkryta 27 sierpnia 2004 roku przez Donalda Machholza. +Orbita komety. +"Kometa Machholza" porusza się po orbicie w kształcie bardzo wydłużonej elipsy o mimośrodzie 0,99949. Peryhelium znajduje się w odległości 1,2 j.a. od Słońca, aphelium zaś aż 4781,74 j.a. od niego. Na jeden obieg wokół naszej Dziennej Gwiazdy potrzebuje ona ok. 116951 lat, nachylenie jej orbity do ekliptyki wynosi 38,58˚. +10 stycznia 2005 roku kometa znajdowała się najbliżej Ziemi i można było zobaczyć ją gołym okiem (osiągnęła jasność ok. 3,5 magnitudo). +Gromnica + +Gromnica – duża woskowa świeca, używana w niektórych wyznaniach chrześcijańskich w trakcie najważniejszych wydarzeń religijno-społecznych w życiu wiernego. +W Kościele katolickim święcona w kościele. Zwyczaj święcenia gromnic datuje się od IX wieku. Czyniono to 2 lutego, w Święto Ofiarowania Pańskiego, w Kościele katolickim zwane świętem Matki Boskiej Gromnicznej. Gromnicę wkładano w ręce umierającego, zapalano ją także w czasie +chrztu i I komunii oraz podczas czuwania przy zmarłym. +Według wierzeń ludowych, gromnicę (nazwa pochodzi od słowa "gromny (huczny, grzmiący)") należało także zapalić i postawić w oknie w czasie burzy, gdyż, za wstawiennictwem Matki Bożej Gromnicznej, miało to zabezpieczyć dom i obejście przed uderzeniami piorunów. +Mniszek pospolity + +Mniszek pospolity, mniszek lekarski ("Taraxacum officinale" F. H. Wigg.) – gatunek rośliny wieloletniej z rodziny astrowatych ("Asteraceae"). +Inne nazwy mniszka: mlecz (ze względu na sok mleczny – jest to nazwa myląca, bowiem istnieje inny, całkiem odmienny, rodzaj roślin o nazwie mlecz), mleczaj, brodawnik (Podlasie), pępawa (okolice Sandomierza), wole oczy (Pomorze), mlycz (etnolekt śląski), męska stałość. Owocostan mniszka pospolitego jest potocznie nazywany "dmuchawcem". +Rozmieszczenie geograficzne. +Gatunek eurazjatycki, okołobiegunowy, występuje na obszarach o klimacie suboceanicznym. Gatunek kosmopolityczny, w Polsce jest rośliną bardzo pospolitą. Występuje na całym niżu i w niższych położeniach górskich. +Biologia i ekologia. +Kwiaty są przedprątne, co utrudnia samozapylenie. Roślina kwitnie od kwietnia do sierpnia, zapylana jest przez owady. Nasiona roznoszone przez wiatr na duże odległości. Jedna roślina wydaje w ciągu roku ok. 3000 nasion. W wieloletnich uprawach rolnych, na użytkach zielonych oraz w sadach i ogrodach jest uciążliwym chwastem. +Zastosowanie. +Odwar z korzeni lub nalewka pomagają w schorzeniach dróg żółciowych i kamicy żółciowej oraz przy wszystkich problemach wątrobowych; pomaga przy kłopotach trawiennych. Dzięki interferonowi podnosi odporność organizmu, powinni więc go spożywać anemicy. Obniża poziom cholesterolu, pomaga w leczeniu miażdżycy, początków cukrzycy, otyłości, reumatyzmu i gośćca. Zalecany jest również przy chorobach skóry. Podnosi sprawność seksualną kobiet i mężczyzn. +Kwiaciarstwo + +Kwiaciarstwo – dział ogrodnictwa zajmujący się uprawą i produkcją roślin ozdobnych. +Kwiaty są wykorzystywane do tworzenia różnorodnych kompozycji z żywych lub suszonych roślin co ma zastosowanie w bukieciarstwie. Kompozycje kwiatowe używane są do dekoracji wnętrz (bukiety, wiązanki, stroiki), a także do dekoracji np. nagrobków (wieńce). +Gmina Dąbrowa Chełmińska + +Gmina Dąbrowa Chełmińska – gmina wiejska w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim, w powiecie bydgoskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie bydgoskim. Siedzibą gminy jest Dąbrowa Chełmińska. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 7058 osób. Natomiast według najnowszych danych z 31 grudnia 2011r. gmina liczy obecnie 7792 mieszkańców. +Gmina jest położona w trzech mezoregionach: część centralna na Pojezierzu Chełmińskim, południowa w Kotlinie Toruńskiej, a północno-zachodnia w Dolinie Fordońskiej. W jej obrębie znajdują się jeziora: Jezioro Skrzynka oraz jezioro bez nazwy na zachód od Czarża. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 8,93% powierzchni powiatu. +Lasy. +Całkowita powierzchnia lasów i zadrzewień w gminie wynosi 5853 ha, co stanowi 46,9 % powierzchni gminy. Lasy publiczne znajdują się w zarządzie Nadleśnictwa Toruń. Lasy ochronne, głównie glebochronne i wodnochronne, na terenie gminy zajmują ok. 54 % ogólnej powierzchni lasów. Dominującymi gatunkami drzewostanu w gminie Dąbrowa Chełmińska są – sosna (81,62 %), dąb (5,95 %), i brzoza (4,51 %). Spośród typów siedliskowych przeważają: bór świeży (36,6 %), bór mieszany (30,1 %) i las mieszany świeży (17,3 %). +Ochrona przyrody. +Parki Krajobrazowe. +45% powierzchni gminy Dąbrowa Chełmińska zajmuje Zespół Parków Krajobrazowych Chełmińskiego i Nadwiślańskiego. +Użytki ekologiczne. +W gminie Dąbrowa Chełmińska jest zarejestrowanych 56 użytów ekologicznych +Sołectwa. +Bolumin, Borki, Czarże, Czemlewo, Dąbrowa Chełmińska, Gzin, Janowo, Mozgowina, Nowy Dwór, Ostromecko, Otowice, Rafa, Strzyżawa, Wałdowo Królewskie. +Pozostałe miejscowości. +Bolmin, Boluminek, Dębowiec, Gzin Dolny, Mała Kępa, Oktowo, Pień, Reptowo, Słończ, Wielka Kępa. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Bydgoszcz, Dobrcz, Unisław, Zławieś Wielka +Odlewanie ciągłe + +Odlewanie ciągłe – metoda metalurgiczna pozwalająca na prowadzenie procesu odlewania metali w sposób ciągły. Uzyskiwane półprodukty stanowią różne formy odlewów i wlewków. Linia ciągłego odlewania stali ("COS") jest jednym ze składowych elementów zautomatyzowanej technologii hutniczej stosowanej (obok tradycyjnej) do produkcji hutniczych wyrobów płaskich, zapoczątkowanej przez najbogatsze kraje w latach 60. XX wieku. +W procesie produkcji płynny metal, najczęściej stal o temperaturze około 1550 °C, wlewany jest pod kontrolą z kadzi do przelotowej wlewnicy - krystalizatora, gdzie krzepnąc uzyskuje kształt tej formy i jest sukcesywnie z niej wysuwany. Opuszczający maszynę odlew stalowy ma temperaturę około 1000 °C i jest długim blokiem, który po pocięciu przekazywany jest do dalszej obróbki w walcowni. +Paluch (palec) + +Paluch ("hallux") – leżący najbardziej przyśrodkowo i najsilniejszy palec stopy, stanowiący dla niej znaczną podporę. Paluch, podobnie jak kciuk, posiada jedynie dwa paliczki. Kości te są grubsze niż pozostałe paliczki stopy. +Bekasik + +Bekasik, bekas mały ("Lymnocryptes minimus") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrowny z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Sierpień 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Zatoka tętnicy szyjnej + +Zatoka tętnicy szyjnej (zatoka szyjna, łac. "sinus caroticus") – miejsce tuż przed podziałem tętnicy szyjnej wspólnej na tętnicę szyjną wewnętrzną i zewnętrzną zawierające liczne mechanoreceptory. Receptory te wysyłają impulsację do jądra nerwu błędnego i ośrodka naczynioruchowego w pniu mózgu, a ramię odśrodkowe odruchu stanowią włókna nerwu błędnego dochodzące do węzła zatokowego i węzła przedsionkowo-komorowego. +U niektórych osób odruch jest szczególnie nasilony: ucisk na zatokę może powodować u nich znaczne spowolnienie akcji serca, czego efektem bywa omdlenie. Jednocześnie ten rękoczyn ("masaż zatoki") jest wykorzystywany jako pierwsza interwencja w opanowywaniu niektórych typów częstoskurczu nadkomorowego. +Stojgniew + +Stojgniew, Stoigniew, Stogniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Stoj(i)-" ("stać, stoję") oraz członu "-gniew" ("gniew"). Może oznaczać "ten, którego gniew nie ustaje". +Stojgniew imieniny obchodzi 27 listopada +Ciąża rzekoma + +Ciąża rzekoma - rzadkie zaburzenie występujące u kobiet, u których mimo braku zapłodnienia dochodzi do somatycznych zmian w organizmie jak w przypadku ciąży, tj. powiększenie obwodu brzucha oraz piersi, zatrzymania miesiączki, powiększenia macicy. +Podobnym zespołem do ciąży rzekomej jest zespół kuwada, występujący u mężczyzn podczas ciąży ich partnerki objawiającym się występowaniem porannych nudności oraz dolegliwości ze strony brzucha. +Przyczyny. +U kobiet jest jednym z najpoważniejszych zaburzeń psychicznych związanych z bezpłodnością. Zaburzenie to ma podłoże w skupieniu myśli, marzeń i oczekiwań na problem zajścia w ciążę, dochodzi do nadwartościowej relacji problemu ciąży w stosunku do innych sfer życia. +Ciąża rzekoma może być związana z bardzo silnym pragnieniem ciąży lub z obawą przed zajściem w ciążę. Zaburzenie to jest przykładem wpływów psychicznych na funkcje biologiczne kobiety. Stopniowemu narastaniu przekonania o istnieniu ciąży towarzyszą pewne objawy fizjologiczne charakterystyczne dla ciąży, jak np. brak menstruacji, somatyczne zmiany w narządach płciowych i rodnych. Przekonanie to jest odporne na wszelkie perswazje i argumenty przemawiające przeciwko ciąży. Ciąża rzekoma występuje najczęściej u kobiet samotnych lub zamężnych, lecz bezdzietnych, dla których chęć posiadania potomstwa staje się bardzo silnym pragnieniem, często stymulowanym przez najbliższe otoczenie. +Ponieważ psychoterapia werbalna jest w tym przypadku mało skuteczna, zaleca się farmakologiczne leczenie psychiatryczne, przy ścisłej współpracy psychiatry i ginekologa. +W wielu przypadkach niemoc w poczęciu dziecka stanowi duże obciążenie psychiczne dla kobiety, objawiające się różnymi formami zaburzeń psychicznych: od przejściowych zaburzeń nastroju, najczęściej z odcieniem smutku, przygnębienia, z poczuciem winy lub pokrzywdzenia, przez nerwice, aż do głębokich zaburzeń osobowości. +Ciąża urojona. +Ciąża urojona charakteryzuje się występowaniem urojeń, w których kobieta jest przekonania, że jest w ciąży, jednak w odróżnieniu od ciąży rzekomej nie występują żadne zmiany somatyczne w organizmie, a zaburzenie ma jedynie charakter zaburzeń myślenia. +Mateusz Iżycki + +Mateusz Iżycki de Notto (ur. 22 lutego 1898 w Odessie, zm. 12 lutego 1952 w Lyonie) – generał brygady pilot Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W 1916 rozpoczął studia na Akademii Rolniczej w Moskwie, ale w tym samym roku został powołany do armii rosyjskiej. I wojnę światową spędził w 12 Achtyrskim Pułku Huzarów, następnie w Szkole Kawalerii, wreszcie od stycznia 1918 w 7 Pułku Ułanów III Korpusu Polskiego w Rosji. W listopadzie 1918 wstąpił do Legii Akademickiej w Warszawie, a w grudniu tego roku do Szwadronu Jazdy Wojewódzkiej Warszawskiej Odsieczy Lwowa. W czasie wojny z Ukraińcami odznaczył się w walkach o Lwów, za co otrzymał Order Virtuti Militari V klasy. Następnie walczył w szeregach 12 Pułku Ułanów Podolskich zorganizowanego przez oficerów byłego 7 Pułku Ułanów III Korpusu Polskiego w Rosji. +W latach 1922-1924 był słuchaczem Kursu Normalnego Wyższej Szkoły Wojennej w Warszawie. Z dniem 1 października 1924, po ukończeniu kursu i uzyskaniu dyplomu naukowego oficera Sztabu Generalnego, przydzielony został do Biura Ścisłej Rady Wojennej. Następnie przeniesiony został do lotnictwa i wyznaczony na stanowisko dowódcy 12 Eskadry Lotniczej w Warszawie (IX 1925-VIII 1927). Później był attaché wojskowym w Turcji, dowódcą 22 Eskadry Liniowej (VIII 1929-I 1930), I oficerem sztabu w Dowództwie 2 Grupy Lotniczej, dowódcą 31 Eskadrą Liniowej w Poznaniu-Ławicy (XI 1931-XI 1933), dowódcą I i II Dywizjonu Liniowego w 3 Pułku Lotniczym, zastępcą dowódcy 3 Pułku Lotniczego. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 dowodził lotnictwem i OPL Armii "Łódź", a następnie Armii "Warszawa". Przez Węgry przedostał się do Francji, tam pełnił funkcję szefa Oddziału III Operacyjnego Dowództwa Lotnictwa. Od 17 czerwca 1940 kierował faktycznie ewakuacją lotnictwa polskiego w dniach upadku Francji, w miejsce dowódcy lotnictwa gen. Józefa Zająca. Przez Casablancę ewakuował się w lipcu 1940 do Gibraltaru. W latach 1940-1942 dowódca Polskiego Oddziału Transportowego w Afryce, 1942-1943 delegat Polskich Sił Powietrznych na Środkowym Wschodzie. 14 września 1943 został mianowany Inspektorem Polskich Sił Powietrznych, pełnił funkcję do stycznia 1948 (odpowiednia ranga brytyjska RAF: Vice Air Marshal). +Po demobilizacji przyjął obywatelstwo brytyjskie, dodał sobie wówczas drugi człon nazwiska ("de Notto"). Zmarł we Francji, pochowany został na cmentarzu Northwood pod Londynem. +Żonaty z Krystyną Jackowską (1905-1984); jedyna córka, Ewelina (ur. 1930), żona hr. Przemysława Potockiego, wyemigrowała do Kanady. +Przewrót majowy + +Przewrót majowy (zamach majowy, pucz majowy) – zbrojny zamach stanu dokonany w Polsce przez marszałka Józefa Piłsudskiego w dniach 12–15 maja 1926. Powodami zamachu była pogarszająca się sytuacja polityczna i gospodarcza kraju, zaś bezpośrednią przyczyną seria kryzysów gabinetowych w latach 1925-1926. Zamach rozpoczął się 12 maja 1926. Po bezowocnej rozmowie Piłsudskiego z prezydentem Stanisławem Wojciechowskim, oddziały wierne marszałkowi zajęły pozycje przy warszawskich mostach. Po ultimatum generała Tadeusza Rozwadowskiego, dowodzącego oddziałami prorządowymi, rozpoczęły się w Warszawie drobne potyczki. 12 i 13 maja Maciej Rataj, marszałek Sejmu, podjął ostatnią próbę negocjacji, która zakończyła się niepowodzeniem. 14 maja Piłsudski przejął kontrolę nad Warszawą. W wyniku walk zginęło 379 osób. Legalny rząd Wincentego Witosa podał się do dymisji, a prezydent Wojciechowski złożył swój urząd. Uprawnienia prezydenta przejął Maciej Rataj, który powołał nowy rząd z Kazimierzem Bartlem na czele, w którym Piłsudski został ministrem spraw wojskowych i generalnym inspektorem Sił Zbrojnych. 31 maja Piłsudski został wybrany prezydentem RP przez Zgromadzenia Narodowe, ale godności nie przyjął, rekomendując na to stanowisko profesora Ignacego Mościckiego. Zamach rozpoczął 13-letnie, autorytarne rządy sanacji, którym kres położył wybuch II wojny światowej. +Przyczyny. +Przyczyny wewnętrzne. +Stosunek Piłsudskiego do demokracji parlamentarnej. +Tuż przed odzyskaniem przez Polskę niepodległości, Józef Piłsudski przekonany był o tym, że koniec wojny oznaczać będzie zakończenie także ostrych sporów politycznych w polskim społeczeństwie. Sądził, że w niepodległym państwie polskim partie i stronnictwa polityczne będą w stanie w sprawach najważniejszych znaleźć płaszczyznę kompromisu. Ostra walka rozgrywająca się na scenie politycznej II Rzeczypospolitej zawiodła te nadzieje. +Na początku lat 20. XX wieku Piłsudskiemu udało się skupić w swoim ręku pełnię władzy w młodym państwie. Był Wodzem Naczelnym w trwającej wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej oraz Naczelnikiem Państwa. Z biegiem czasu, wraz z normalizującą się sytuacją społeczno-polityczną, zakres jego władzy ulegał uszczupleniu. Wpłynęło na to np. powołanie Rady Obrony Państwa (ograniczającej uprawnienia Naczelnika Państwa), zakończenie działań wojennych (co oznaczało pozbawienie Piłsudskiego funkcji Naczelnego Wodza), a w końcu uchwalenie przez Sejm Ustawodawczy konstytucji marcowej i wybór przez izbę I kadencji prezydenta RP (któremu Naczelnik Państwa przekazał władzę). Piłsudski krytykował konstytucję marcową, jako ograniczającą uprawnienia władzy wykonawczej i prezydenta na rzecz parlamentu – z tego powodu sam nie zgodził się na objęcie funkcji prezydenta RP. Jak twierdzi Andrzej Garlicki: Pierwszy zjazd legionistów odbył się 5 sierpnia 1922 w Krakowie. Na kolejnych spotkaniach weteranów walk legionowych konsekwentnie budowano kult Piłsudskiego i podkreślano konieczność podjęcia działań mających doprowadzić grupę legionową do władzy. Wiedział o tym m.in. minister spraw wojskowych gen. Stanisław Szeptycki, który wydał rozkaz zakazujący oficerom i urzędnikom wojskowym uczestniczenia w działalności politycznej. Wycofał się z niego pod naciskiem piłsudczyków, zezwalając na uczestnictwo w zjeździe legionowym w 1923 z zaznaczeniem, że w przyszłości podobne zezwolenia nie będą wydawane. +Po przekazaniu władzy Naczelnika Państwa prezydentowi Gabrielowi Narutowiczowi, Piłsudski utracił najważniejszą funkcję polityczną, jaką sprawował. Tuż po zabójstwie Narutowicza mogło dojść do piłsudczykowskiego zamachu stanu. Radykalna grupa zwolenników marszałka planowała przeprowadzenie „akcji karnej” przeciwko narodowej demokracji, którą obwiniali odpowiedzialnością za śmierć prezydenta. Zamierzali oni w tym celu wykorzystać warszawskie bojówki Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej, które przeprowadzić miały fizyczną likwidację wybranych działaczy obozu narodowego. Plan zakładał wkroczenie po 24 godzinach Piłsudskiego na czele wojska, który mógłby w tej sytuacji przywrócić porządek i przejąć władzę w państwie. Zamierzenia te zostały jednak storpedowane przez lidera PPS, Ignacego Daszyńskiego, który nie dopuścił do rozpoczęcia realizacji całego planu. +Po zawarciu tzw. paktu lanckorońskiego (przez PSL „Piast”, Związek Ludowo-Narodowy i Polskie Stronnictwo Chrześcijańskiej Demokracji) i obaleniu rządu Sikorskiego, 28 maja 1923 prezydent Stanisław Wojciechowski powierzył misję utworzenia nowego gabinetu Wincentemu Witosowi. W skład rządu weszli przedstawiciele endecji, chadecji i „Piasta”. Po ostrym starciu z gen. Szeptyckim (z którym prowadził spór na temat organizacji najwyższych władz wojskowych), Piłsudski zrzekł się przewodnictwa Ścisłej Rady Wojennej. Oświadczył, że jako żołnierz nie może bronić rządu złożonego z przedstawicieli partii odpowiedzialnych za śmierć Narutowicza. Zapowiedział także wycofanie się z życia politycznego. 3 lipca 1923 Piłsudski podczas przyjęcia pożegnalnego w Sali Malinowej warszawskiego Hotelu Bristol wygłosił przemówienie, w którym określił endecję mianem "zaplutego, potwornego karła". Mówiąc o zabójstwie Narutowicza, stwierdził: Takie sprecyzowanie przeciwnika politycznego oznaczało zmianę dotychczasowej formuły działalności politycznej Piłsudskiego, zakładającej dystansowanie się marszałka od rozgrywek partyjnych. W tym przypadku jednak występował on jako ten, który podejmuje "walkę z wynaturzeniami życia politycznego, których symbolem jest endecja. Walkę o czystość moralną, o etykę życia politycznego. (...) Ta płaszczyzna, nazwijmy ją etyczna, była dogodna z wielu względów. Przede wszystkim uwalniała od konieczności prezentowania własnego programu politycznego. Ani w skomplikowanych kwestiach gospodarczych, ani w zaognionych problemach polityki wobec mniejszości narodowych, ani w polityce zagranicznej nie musiał Piłsudski formułować propozycji rozwiązań. Było to o tyle ważne, że propozycji tych nie miał i on sam, i jego sztab polityczny". +Już w lecie 1923 w środowiskach piłsudczykowskich pojawił się pomysł utworzenia tajnej organizacji antyrządowej, mającej składać się z wojskowych. Przeciwko tym planom ostro zaprotestował sam przebywający w Sulejówku Piłsudski, który opowiedział się za koniecznością zachowania apolityczności wojska. +Sytuacja społeczna i polityczna. +Lata poprzedzające zamach majowy to okres znacznych niepokojów w polskim życiu społeczno-politycznym. Przykładem tego może być np. wybuch w prochowni w Cytadeli warszawskiej, który miał miejsce 13 października 1923 o godzinie 9 rano. W jej wyniku zginęło 25 osób, a ok. 40 odniosło ciężkie obrażenia. Eksplozja była tragicznym wypadkiem, ale rząd wydał odezwę stwierdzającą, iż "zbrodnicza ręka dokonała w dniu dzisiejszym zamachu w stolicy państwa". +W tym czasie pojawiały się także informacje o możliwym prawicowym zamachu stanu. Marszałek Sejmu Maciej Rataj pisał o swej rozmowie z Wincentym Witosem z 25 września 1923: Chodziło tutaj o organizację pod nazwą Pogotowie Patriotów Polskich, liczącą ok. 800 osób, pod przywództwem Jana Pękosławskiego i Witolda Gorczyńskiego. W styczniu 1924 członkowie PPP zostali aresztowani. +Zła sytuacja gospodarcza przekładała się na masowe strajki robotnicze. W ten sposób protestowali jesienią 1923 m.in. kolejarze i pocztowcy w Krakowie oraz górnicy w Zagłębiu Dąbrowskim. Kolejne rządy odpowiadały się za zdecydowanymi odpowiedziami na strajki – m.in. pacyfikacją protestujących. Doprowadziło to do strajku generalnego proklamowanego 5 listopada 1923 przez PPS oraz starć w Krakowie. Podczas wydarzeń krakowskich doszło do walk ulicznych robotników (którzy zdobyli broń) z policją i wojskiem. Część żołnierzy przeszła na stronę protestujących, a znaczna część miasta znalazła się pod kontrolą uzbrojonej milicji robotniczej. Podobne zajścia miały miejsce w Tarnowie i Borysławiu. Ostatecznie rządowi udało się opanować sytuację, ale w wyniku wydarzeń krakowskich zginęło 18 cywilów, 3 oficerów i 11 szeregowców. Minister spraw wewnętrznych, Władysław Kiernik, który polecił strzelać do protestujących, zyskał wśród przeciwników rządu niechlubny przydomek "Krwawy". +W listopadzie 1925 upadł drugi rząd Władysława Grabskiego, który został zastąpiony gabinetem Aleksandra Skrzyńskiego. Powstał on po utworzeniu dość zaskakującej koalicji z udziałem: Związku Ludowo-Narodowego, Polskiego Stronnictwa Chrześcijańskiej Demokracji (chadecji), Narodowej Partii Robotniczej (NPR), Polskiego Stronnictwa Ludowego „Piast” i Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej (PPS). Była także propozycja wejścia do rządu PSL „Wyzwolenie”, jednak nie została ona zrealizowana. Koalicja ta od początku jednak uważana była za rozwiązanie tymczasowe, mające na celu zażegnanie chaosu w czasie przesilenia gabinetowego. Miała ona istnieć do czasu wyłonienia nowej większości w Sejmie i powołania nowego rządu. +Największym problemem rządu była polityka gospodarcza, która nie mogła być zgodna jednocześnie z programem prawicy (endecja) i lewicy (PPS), co stało się powodem rozpadu koalicji Skrzyńskiego. Jako pierwsza odeszła z niej PPS. Prezydent Wojciechowski misję utworzenia rządu powierzał kolejno Józefowi Chacińskiemu, Janowi Dębskiemu, Wincentemu Witosowi, ponownie Chacińskiemu, ponownie Witosowi, Zygmuntowi Markowi oraz Władysławowi Grabskiemu. Za każdym razem próba stworzenia gabinetu kończyła się fiaskiem. Ostatecznie, po dość burzliwych negocjacjach utworzona została koalicja endecji, chadecji i PSL „Piast” oraz NPR, z Wincentym Witosem na czele. Witos (podobnie jak koalicja tzw. „Chjeno-Piasta”) nie cieszył się poparciem społeczeństwa, czego przyczyną był kryzys gospodarczy trwający od 1923 i związana z nim hiperinflacja. Jak pisał Garlicki: +Sprawa zamachu. +W roku 1924 wywiad wojskowy wpadł na trop przygotowań do zamachu na życie Piłsudskiego. Miały go przygotowywać − według informacji uzyskanych przez rząd Grabskiego − służby specjalne ZSRR. Do ochrony willi w Sulejówku wyznaczono 7 Pułk Ułanów, który skierował do ochrony jedną sekcję (7-8 ludzi) z erkaemami; czuwała również żandarmeria i policja. Do zamachu nie doszło, ale kilkakrotnie willę obrzucano kamieniami, co było prawdopodobnie dziełem bojówek prawicowych. Kilkakrotnie domownicy dostrzegli lub schwytali osobników, którzy próbowali dostać się do ogrodu. Konsekwencji żadnych nie wyciągnięto. +Sytuacja gospodarcza. +Polityka gospodarcza kolejnych rządów była powodem sporego niezadowolenia społecznego. W 1923 roku 74% wydatków budżetu pokryto z dochodów pochodzących z dodrukowywania marek. Zabieg ten był jednak coraz mniej opłacalny – waluta traciła na wartości, więc zwiększanie ilości pieniędzy w obiegu zmniejszało dochód rzeczywisty skarbu państwa. Hiperinflacja wpływała także na spadek opłacalności eksportu, doprowadziła także do bardzo szybkiego wzrostu cen oraz znacznych wahań wartości realnej płacy roboczej. +Sporym problemem kolejnych gabinetów była także kwestia kompromisowej reformy rolnej, która zdaniem ziemiaństwa (popierającego endecję) w ogóle nie powinna zostać przeprowadzona, zaś dla chłopów (popierających PSL) była bardzo niekorzystna. +Działania mające doprowadzić do ożywienia gospodarczego podjął dopiero pozaparlamentarny rząd premiera Władysława Grabskiego, który jednocześnie objął tekę ministra skarbu. Grabski otrzymał od Sejmu specjalne pełnomocnictwa, na mocy których doprowadził do zmiany ustawodawstwa podatkowego, zaciągnięcia niezbędnych pożyczek, wprowadzenia nowej waluty, ogłoszenia statutu Banku Emisyjnego, sprzedaży przedsiębiorstw państwowych i rozpoczęcia akcji oszczędnościowej. Skutkiem tego było zahamowanie hiperinflacji i poprawa sytuacji gospodarczej. Jednak już w pierwszej połowie 1925 nastąpiło jej ponowne pogorszenie. Nieurodzaj z roku poprzedniego doprowadził do kryzysu w rolnictwie. Wzrosło bezrobocie – w I kwartale 1925 bez pracy było 185 tys. osób, a w listopadzie tego roku już 240 tys. Wskaźnik ten wzrósł do 311 tys. w grudniu 1925. W tym czasie wzrastał także deficyt skarbowy – wyniósł on w I kwartale 43 mln zł, w II wzrósł do 47 mln zł. Ponadto powiększała się różnica pomiędzy wartością importu i eksportu – w I połowie 1924 wynosiła ona 56 mln zł, a w I połowie 1925 już 400 mln zł. Wzrastały również ceny, szczególnie duży wzrost miał miejsce w grudniu 1925 – w przypadku artykułów przemysłowych o 15,1%, a żywności o 16,2%. +Wojna celna z Niemcami rozpoczęta w czerwcu 1925 doprowadziła do załamania kursu złotego. Bank Polski podjął interwencję giełdową, której skutkiem było ustabilizowanie kursu, ale pociągnęło to za sobą obniżenie możliwości kredytowych i zmniejszenie wpływów podatkowych. +Początek 1926 to strajki warszawskich tramwajarzy i pracowników telefonów, rozruchy z udziałem bezrobotnych w Kaliszu, a także krwawe starcia z policją protestujących w Stryju, Włocławku i Lublinie. Pomimo tego, wiosną 1926 zaczęły pojawiać się pierwsze sygnały poprawy koniunktury gospodarczej. Dla obozu szykującego zamach stanu, przechwycenie władzy w tym momencie mogło być korzystne – zostałoby przedstawione jako sukces nowego rządu. "Nic nie wskazuje, by ten aspekt brany był przez Piłsudskiego pod uwagę. W ogóle kwestie gospodarcze interesowały Piłsudskiego w minimalnym stopniu, przede wszystkim zaś nie orientował się zupełnie w działaniu mechanizmów ekonomicznych". +Przebieg. +Preludium zamachu. +Kwestią sporną pozostaje odpowiedź na pytanie, czy Piłsudski planował przeprowadzenie zamachu stanu na długo przed majem 1926. Władysław Pobóg-Malinowski pisał, że marszałek "na kilka tygodni przed upadkiem Grabskiego wezwał do Sulejówka prof. Bartla, uprzedzając, że jego właśnie przewiduje na premiera, i polecając mu wyzyskać tych kilka miesięcy na przygotowanie się do oczekującej go roli". Andrzej Garlicki podaje, że od połowy 1924 w otoczeniu marszałka krystalizowała się grupa oddanych mu osób, tworzących ośrodek organizacyjny przyszłego przewrotu. Była to tzw. "Koc-grupa", w skład której wchodzili: Adam Koc, Bogusław Miedziński, Kazimierz Świtalski, Józef Beck, Ignacy Matuszewski, Kazimierz Stamirowski oraz Henryk Floyar-Rajchman. Pomimo tego, tak Andrzej Garlicki, jak i Tomasz Nałęcz twierdzą, że trudno mówić o zorganizowanych przygotowaniach do przeprowadzenia zamachu majowego. +Piłsudski opierał się na swoich dawnych towarzyszach legionowych. Nałęcz podaje, że było to "zjawisko z pogranicza konspiracji, zbliżone do poufnego działania o charakterze na poły mafijnym. Narodzone w latach walk legionowych, kontynuowane w okresie 1918–1923, nie przestało egzystować w czasie usunięcia się w cień przez przywódcę grupy. Powodowało, że ludzie nie związani organizacyjnie już Piłsudskim pozostawali nadal bezgranicznie mu oddani. Nie było to bez znaczenia, ponieważ znajdowali się oni prawie we wszystkich ważniejszych dziedzinach życia: we wpływowych instytucjach w wojsku, w administracji państwowej i sądownictwie, prasie, partiach politycznych itd." Do najbliższego kręgu współpracowników marszałka, którzy później odegrali kluczowe role w przeprowadzeniu zamach należeli: Walery Sławek, Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski, Aleksander Prystor, Bogusław Miedziński, Kazimierz Świtalski, Bronisław Pieracki, Ignacy Matuszewski i Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer. Nieco dalej od osoby Piłsudskiego znajdowali się: Adam Koc, Ignacy Boerner, Kazimierz Stamirowski, Julian Stachiewicz, Tadeusz Hołówko, Józef Beck, Henryk Floyar-Rajchman, Adam Skwarczyński i Wojciech Stpiczyński. Ludzie ci uważali się za realizatorów koncepcji marszałka, choć najczęściej nie uzgadniali z nim podejmowanych inicjatyw. Były one przez niego oceniane już po fakcie – zazwyczaj aprobowane. +Wśród zwolenników zamachu stanu było wielu wolnomularzy. Wielka Loża Narodowa Polski czynnie włączyła się w przygotowanie zamachu, urabiając opinię publiczną, propagując pogląd, "że dla Państwa Polskiego koniecznością jest, aby Marszałek Piłsudski został przywrócony do roli czynnej i twórczej". Andrzej Strug jako wielki mistrz lub szef obrządku szkockiego wyższych stopni odbył kilka rozmów z Józefem Piłsudskim. W toku przygotowań do zamachu stanu doszło do założenia dziennika "Nowy Kurier Polski". +15 listopada 1925 do Sulejówka przyjechali oficerowie garnizonu warszawskiego, aby, pod pretekstem obchodów siódmej rocznicy powrotu Piłsudskiego z Magdeburga, zademonstrować swe poparcie dla marszałka. Generał Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer wygłosił wówczas przemówienie, w którym stwierdził m.in.: Mowa Orlicz-Dreszera została powszechnie odebrana jako deklaracja poparcia dla spodziewanego zamachu wojskowego. Jedyną reakcją Ministra Spraw Wojskowych, gen. dyw. Władysława Sikorskiego było przeniesienie generała Orlicz-Dreszera do Poznania na równorzędne stanowisko służbowe. +16 listopada Maciej Rataj zanotował w swoim dzienniku: Podobne doniesienia o rzekomo rozpoczynającym się zamachu stanu pojawiały się przed majem 1926 jeszcze kilkakrotnie. +27 listopada 1925, po utworzeniu rządu Skrzyńskiego, tekę ministra spraw wojskowych otrzymał piłsudczyk gen. Lucjan Żeligowski. 16 grudnia 1925 ze stanowiska szefa Sztabu Generalnego zwolniony został, popierany przez endecję, gen. dyw. Stanisław Haller. Czasowe pełnienie obowiązków szefa SG powierzone zostało gen. bryg. Edmundowi Kesslerowi. Żeligowski przywrócił generała Orlicz-Dreszera na stanowisko dowódcy 2 Dywizji Kawalerii w Warszawie. Inne zmiany personalne, które okazały się korzystne dla późniejszych zamachowców, to mianowanie: gen. bryg. Stanisława Burhardt-Bukackiego szefem Oddziału III SG, gen. dyw. Daniela Konarzewskiego szefem Administracji Armii i Mieczysława Norwid-Neugebauera pierwszym zastępcą szefa Administracji Armii. Wszyscy oni byli piłsudczykami. +18 kwietnia 1926 Żeligowski wydał rozkaz o zgrupowaniu 10 maja oddziałów w okolicy Rembertowa w celu przeprowadzenia gier wojennych. 8 maja przesłał do Piłsudskiego pismo o treści: "Proszę Pana Marszałka o objęcie dowództwa nad oddziałami skoncentrowanymi w Rembertowie i przeprowadzenie z nimi ćwiczeń międzygarnizonowych". O tym piśmie gen. Żeligowski nie powiadomił nowego ministra, gen. Juliusza Malczewskiego, który w związku z tym nie mógł go anulować. +9 maja ukazał się w „Nowym Kurierze Polskim” wywiad z desygnowanym na premiera Witosem, w którym zwracał się on do Piłsudskiego: Według Maciej Rataja, w pierwotnej wersji w wywiadzie znalazł się również następujący fragment: +10 maja 1926 przy poparciu Chjeno-Piasta utworzono trzeci rząd Wincentego Witosa. Jednocześnie Józef Piłsudski udzielił wywiadu "Kurierowi Porannemu", w którym powiedział m.in. że staje Wywiad ukazał się 11 maja, ale Komisariat Rządu na miasto stołeczne Warszawę podjął decyzję o konfiskacie gazety. Znaczna część nakładu trafiła jednak do czytelników. +W południe we wtorek 11 maja w okolicach Rembertowa znalazł się 7 pułk ułanów z Mińska Mazowieckiego. Jego dowódca, ppłk Kazimierz Stamirowski przyjechał do Sulejówka, gdzie otrzymał od Piłsudskiego polecenie zameldowania się u komendanta garnizonu Rembertów, gen. Rudolfa Pricha. Ten polecił mu wrócić do Mińska i stawić się do raportu u ministra wojny. Stamirowski nie wykonał tego rozkazu. +W nocy z 11 na 12 maja wysłannicy spiskowców dotarli do Siedlec, gdzie mieściło się Dowództwo 9 Dywizji Piechoty (dowódca – gen. bryg. Mieczysław Ryś-Trojanowski) oraz stacjonował 22 pułk piechoty (płk Henryk Krok-Paszkowski). Dowódca 9 DP otrzymał rozkaz przybycia do Rembertowa. Zwolennicy Piłsudskiego dotarli także do dowódcy stacjonującego na Pradze 36 pułku piechoty, płk. Kazimierza Sawickiego. Obsadził on z własnej inicjatywy plutonem piechoty z cekaemami wylot mostu Kierbedzia od strony Warszawy. +Poczynania te zaniepokoiły rząd. W nocy na rozkaz generała Malczewskiego ogłoszono alarm, stawiający warszawski garnizon w stan pogotowia. W tym czasie prezydent Stanisław Wojciechowski podjął decyzję o swoim wyjeździe do Spały, do której przybył ok. godz. 23. Tej samej nocy zadzwonił do niego jednak premier Witos, który poinformował prezydenta o napiętej sytuacji w stolicy. Efektem tego była decyzja głowy państwa o natychmiastowym powrocie do Warszawy. +12 maja. +Rankiem 12 maja w prasie pojawiły się informacje, że dom Piłsudskiego w Sulejówku został ostrzelany. Później okazało się, że były one nieprawdziwe, jednak wywołały oburzenie wśród piłsudczyków. Przysporzyły także nowych zwolenników marszałkowi. W tym samym czasie Piłsudski wyjechał samochodem z Sulejówka i udał się do Belwederu, gdzie zamierzał spotkać się z Wojciechowskim i zażądać od niego ustąpienia rządu Witosa. Prezydent jednak był wówczas w trakcie podróży powrotnej ze Spały, więc do spotkania nie doszło. O planach Piłsudskiego, by negocjować z Wojciechowskim, nie wiedzieli nawet najbliżsi jego współpracownicy, tacy jak Sławek i Świtalski – co może oznaczać, że nie istniał wcześniej przygotowany plan zamachu. Piłsudczycy dążyli jedynie do tego, aby skupić w okolicach Rembertowa pewną ilość oddziałów wiernych marszałkowi. Z powodu nieobecności Wojciechowskiego, który był niezbędny do obalenia rządu Witosa, założenia te uległy modyfikacji. Piłsudski miał wkroczyć do miasta na czele opowiadających się za nim oddziałów. W takim przypadku jednak zamachowcy utracili element zaskoczenia. +Tymczasem gen. Malczewski, pragnąc nie dopuścić do zbrojnego przewrotu, wezwał do Warszawy 10 pułk piechoty z Łowicza, 71 pułk piechoty z Ostrowia Łomżyńskiego, 57 i 58 pułk piechoty z Poznania i 28 pułk piechoty ze Lwowa. Jednocześnie mianował gen. Tadeusza Rozwadowskiego dowódcą obrony Warszawy, a jego szefem sztabu płk Władysława Andersa. Gen. Stanisław Haller został natomiast szefem Sztabu Generalnego. Malczewski zabronił także wszystkim jednostkom wojskowym opuszczania garnizonów bez wyraźnego rozkazu. +O godz. 11 Piłsudski powrócił z Warszawy do Rembertowa. Wezwał gen. Orlicz-Dreszera, któremu polecił obsadzenie mostów łączących oba brzegi Wisły w stolicy. O 12.30 do Warszawy przybył transportem kolejowym 22 pułk piechoty z Siedlec. Oddziały Piłsudskiego wyruszyły na stolicę ok. godz. 14. W stronę Warszawy maszerowały także 11 pułk ułanów z Ciechanowa i 1 pułk strzelców konnych z Garwolina. +Ok. godz. 13 ze Spały wrócił prezydent Wojciechowski. Natychmiast udał się na Krakowskie Przedmieście, gdzie wziął udział w obradach rządu. Ok. 14 wydano komunikat, w którym Rada Ministrów stwierdzała, że: Prezydent wydał odezwę do żołnierzy, w której podkreślał konieczność dotrzymania przysięgi żołnierskiej i dochowania wierności rządowi. Jednocześnie ogłoszono stan wyjątkowy w Warszawie, województwie warszawskim oraz w powiatach siedleckim i łukowskim, leżących w województwie lubelskim. +Generał Malczewski rozkazał wprawdzie obsadzić warszawskie mosty, jednak mający wykonać ten rozkaz oficerowie sztabu dowódcy okręgu gen. Kazimierza Dzierżanowskiego byli zaangażowani w spisek. W związku z tym żołnierzom wiernej rządowi Oficerskiej Szkoły Piechoty pod dowództwem mjr. Mariana Porwita udało się obsadzić 12 maja po południu jedynie most Poniatowskiego (nazywany wówczas Trzecim Mostem). Był on przedtem zajęty przez 2 dywizjon 1 pułku szwoleżerów pod dowództwem mjr Leona Strzeleckiego (późniejszego dowódcę 1 Pułku Ułanów Krechowieckich), wchodzący w skład wojsk zamachowców. +Spotkanie na moście Poniatowskiego. +Około godziny 17 na Moście Poniatowskiego doszło do spotkania Piłsudskiego z prezydentem Wojciechowskim. Mjr Marian Porwit, po przybyciu na wiadukt mostu, złożył meldunek prezydentowi, a następnie zameldował się marszałkowi i był świadkiem rozmowy obu dygnitarzy. Marszałek chciał ustąpienia gabinetu Witosa, prezydent żądał natomiast kapitulacji przeciwnika. Według Wojciechowskiego dialog wyglądał w następujący sposób: +Po załamaniu się pertraktacji i odjeździe prezydenta mjr Porwit odmówił marszałkowi Piłsudskiemu przepuszczenia go przez most Poniatowskiego. Siłom rządowym nie udało się jednak obsadzić 30 pułkiem piechoty Mostu Kierbedzia. Przez niego na drugą stronę rzeki przechodziły siły Piłsudskiego. +Po spotkaniu z prezydentem Piłsudski pojechał do koszar 36 pułku piechoty. Według relacji osób, które mu wówczas towarzyszyły, marszałek sprawiał wrażenie zmęczonego, zniechęconego i załamanego. Prawdopodobnie liczył na chęć współpracy ze strony Wojciechowskiego, z którym łączyła go dawna znajomość, jeszcze z czasów działalności w PPS. Wobec takiego rozwoju wypadków, dowództwo przejął gen. Orlicz-Dreszer i jego szef sztabu ppłk Józef Beck. +Pierwsze starcia. +Około godz. 18:30 na Moście Kierbedzia doszło do starcia pomiędzy 30 (siły rządowe) a 36 pułkiem piechoty (wojska zamachowców). Pierwsze otworzyły ogień wojska wierne rządowi Witosa, wspierane przez ogień działa ustawionego na placu Zamkowym, po odrzuceniu żądania wycofania się buntowników z mostu. Starcie zakończyło się wycofaniem sił rządowych w głąb miasta. Legalne władze ogłosiły w mieście stan wyjątkowy. +Komenda miasta znajdowała się naprzeciw Hotelu Europejskiego i już 12 maja wieczorem była zajęta przez oddziały sprzyjające Piłsudskiemu. Sztab generalny, który zajmował budynki na ówczesnym placu Saskim również musiał opuścić swoje pomieszczenia. Rząd pod osłoną plutonu Szkoły Podchorążych zdążył przejechać samochodami do Belwederu. Członkowie sztabu generalnego, przez ówczesny plac Napoleona i ulicę Bracką udali się pieszo również do Belwederu. By nie przepuścić za linię Alei Jerozolimskich tłumu mieszkańców Warszawy, manifestujących swoje poparcie dla marszałka, zamknięto częścią 21 Pułku Piechoty wylot Nowego Światu na Aleje. Następnie ściągnięto z Mostu Poniatowskiego żołnierzy Szkoły Podchorążych i podjęto decyzję o cofnięciu się na linię ulicy Nowowiejskiej. W ten sposób dowództwo wojsk rządowych odcięło się od ministerstwa kolei, dyrekcji kolei, dworca głównego i centrali telegraficzno-telefonicznej. +Jeszcze przed wykonaniem tej decyzji, od strony ulicy Wiejskiej, a więc na tyły Szkoły Podchorążych, wyszedł atak 1 pułku szwoleżerów, rozbity ogniem karabinów maszynowych podchorążych. Szwoleżerowie cofnęli się do swoich koszar w okolicy Parku Łazienkowskiego. W tym momencie strona rządowa dysponowała: Szkołą Podchorążych i Oficerską Szkołą Piechoty pod dowództwem płk SG Gustawa Paszkiewicza (komendanta szkoły), jednym plutonem 21 pułku piechoty, jednym działem, oddziałem ordynansów Wyższej Szkoły Wojennej, kompanią i szwadronem przybocznym Belwederu, 1 pułkiem lotniczym (na lotnisku mokotowskim), 1 pułkiem artylerii przeciwlotniczej i 30 pułkiem piechoty stacjonującym w warszawskiej Cytadeli. Spodziewano się także, że wkrótce dotrą do Warszawy, wcześniej powiadomione: 10 pułk piechoty z Łowicza, 57 i 58 pułk piechoty z Wielkopolski, 71 pułk piechoty z Ostrowi, 26 pułk piechoty ze Lwowa i ewentualnie 3 pułk ułanów z Tarnowskich Gór. Rząd liczył również na siły stacjonujące w Cytadeli (ok. 3 tys. żołnierzy), nie wiedział jednak o tym, że dowództwo w twierdzy przejęli piłsudczycy. +Wieczorem 12 maja siły rządowe liczyły ok. 1700 żołnierzy, podczas gdy oddziały Piłsudskiego stanowiły 3500 żołnierzy, plus 800 członków Związku Strzeleckiego. +O godzinie 20 do komendy miasta przybył Piłsudski. Około godziny 21 marszałek zdecydował się na rozpoczęcie mediacji, wzywając na rozmowę Macieja Rataja. Przedstawił mu sytuację i podkreślił, że ma znaczną przewagę militarną nad siłami rządowymi. Rataj udał się do Belwederu, jednak Wojciechowski odmówił rozpoczęcia negocjacji. W tym czasie do Poznania odlecieli ministrowie Stanisław Osiecki (resort przemysłu i handlu) oraz Stefan Piechocki (sprawiedliwość), którzy mieli za zadanie przygotować przenosiny rządu do stolicy Wielkopolski. +Po rozmowie z Ratajem, Piłsudski spotkał się z przewodniczącym pozostających w orbicie wpływów PPS kolejarskich związków zawodowych, Adamem Kuryłowiczem. Według planów piłsudczyków, miały one odegrać znaczną rolę w planie opóźnienia przyjazdu do Warszawy dużych sił wiernych rządowi z Wielkopolski i Pomorza. Siłom Piłsudskiego udało się natomiast nocą obsadzić budynek Ministerstwa Kolei i Dyrekcji Kolejowej. Dzięki temu Kuryłowicz mógł przekazać wytyczne związkowcom kolejowym, którzy później znacząco pomogli zamachowcom. +13 maja. +W Belwederze przebywali prezydent, cały rząd, minister spraw wojskowych gen. Malczewski, szefa sztabu generalnego gen. Haller oraz utworzone dowództwo obrony Warszawy – gen. Rozwadowski i szef sztabu płk Anders. Byli też płk Sztabu Generalnego Tadeusz Kutrzeba i płk Sztabu Generalnego Franciszek Kleeberg. +Gmach Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych przy ul. Nowowiejskiej zajmowały oddziały Piłsudskiego, a dowodził nimi gen. Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski, koszar szwoleżerów oprócz żołnierzy bronili członkowie Związku Strzeleckiego. Jedynym połączeniem Belwederu z krajem była radiostacja na lotnisku mokotowskim. W nocy z 12 na 13 maja przybył 10 pułk piechoty z Łowicza, a w ciągu dnia 57 i 58 pułk piechoty z Wielkopolski, dowodzone przez gen. Anatola Kędzierskiego. Tak wzmocnione wojska strony rządowej przypuściły tego dnia zwycięskie ataki – pułki 10 i 57 na koszary szwoleżerów, a Szkoła Podchorążych i 58 pułk piechoty, dowodzone przez gen. Mariana Kukiela, na Ministerstwo Spraw Wojskowych. Równocześnie 71 pułk piechoty, który wyładował się w Ząbkach, przeszedł przez most kolejowy i uderzył od północy, wzdłuż ulicy Nalewki. Pułkiem dowodził płk SG Mieczysław Boruta-Spiechowicz. Tego dnia przybyły również dwa bataliony 37 pułku piechoty z Kutna pod dowództwem pułkownika Sztabu Generalnego Władysława Bortnowskiego, opowiadającego się po stronie Piłsudskiego oraz 1 dywizja Legionów z Wilna dowodzona przez gen. Stefana Dąb-Biernackiego, również wierna marszałkowi. Nie przybyły pułki rządowe ze Lwowa gen. Władysława Sikorskiego. Zadeklarował on wierność rządowi, ale oświadczył, że ze względu na działalność separatystów ukraińskich nie może wysłać wojsk do stolicy. +13 maja próbę mediacji podjęli prymas Aleksander Kakowski oraz marszałek Sejmu Maciej Rataj. Rozmowy te nie przyniosły jednak rezultatu. Wojskom rządowym udało się jeszcze dojść na linię ulicy Pięknej, zajmując wcześniej Szpital Ujazdowski. +Wieczorem tego dnia negocjacje próbowali podjąć generałowie Lucjan Żeligowski, Stefan Majewski i Aleksander Osiński, którzy około godziny 21 przeszli przez linię frontu do Belwederu. Przyjął ich prezydent Wojciechowski, jednak rozmowa zakończyła się fiaskiem. W tym samym czasie mianowano generała Stanisława Szeptyckiego wodzem naczelnym wszystkich wojsk poza Warszawą. +Centralny Komitet Wykonawczy PPS podjął uchwałę o proklamowaniu na 14 maja strajku generalnego. W dokumencie tym napisano: +14–15 maja. +Od godz. 2:30 nad ranem do Warszawy przybyły pierwsze transporty wojsk Piłsudskiego z Wilna, a o godzinie 8:30 na Dworcu Gdańskim rozpoczął się wyładunek sześciu batalionów 3 Dywizji Piechoty Legionów, liczących razem ok. 1700 żołnierzy. Mniej więcej w tym samym czasie na stronę rządu przeszła, licząca ok. 130 żołnierzy, Oficerska Szkoła Inżynierii. +14 maja rano, ok. godziny 5, nastąpił kontratak wojsk Piłsudskiego. Głównym kierunkiem uderzenia było natarcie 21 i 37 pułku piechoty wzdłuż ulicy Towarowej w kierunku Mokotowa, którego celem było opanowanie lotniska. Broniący je 1 pułk lotniczy i 1 pułk artylerii przeciwlotniczej nie utrzymały stanowisk, także Szkoła Podchorążych i Oficerska Szkoła Piechoty musiały wycofać się z przyczółków na Mokotowie. Zdobycie lotniska ok. 14:30 miało znaczenie strategiczne, ponieważ uniemożliwiało stronie rządowej korzystanie z lotnictwa jako siły zbrojnej i środka łączności, odcinało je także od zachodnich dzielnic miasta, gdzie wyładować się miały pułki jadące z Poznania. Umożliwiało to także okrążenie Belwederu od południa. Najpoważniejszy opór wojska rządowe stawiły zamachowcom na osi ulic Marszałkowskiej, Alej Ujazdowskich, Rozbrat i Czerniakowskiej. +W tym czasie wojska Piłsudskiego w Warszawie liczyły już ok. 8500 żołnierzy (plus ok. 800 członków Związku Strzeleckiego), podczas gdy strona przeciwna dysponowała jedynie ok. 2200 żołnierzami. Wojska marszałka ponadto posiadały czołgi i samochody pancerne, a wobec braku artylerii po stronie rządowej, szybko zaczęły uzyskiwać przewagę. +Oddziały „wielkopolskie” walczące na linii ul. Pięknej, po odparciu kilku ataków między Wisłą a Marszałkowską, wycofały się na linię ul. Nowowiejskiej. Walki przeniosły się w bezpośrednie sąsiedztwo Belwederu. Tam oczekiwano na wieści od generała Michała Żymierskiego, którego wysłano na zachodnie obrzeża Warszawy, na spotkanie nadjeżdżających koleją 56 pułku piechoty, 68 pułku piechoty i 15 pułku artylerii lekkiej. Siły te liczyły ok. 1500 żołnierzy. Żymierski wstrzymał pochód części oddziałów, oczekując na przyjazd reszty sił i próbując w ten sposób uformować całą grupę. Wkrótce został jednak odcięty od Belwederu, ponieważ zamachowcy opanowali lotnisko mokotowskie. Wobec tego wycofał się w rejon Ożarowa, gdzie połączył się z grupą gen. Kazimierza Ładosia. +Około godz. 13 Malczewski, Haller, Rozwadowski i Anders podjęli decyzję o wycofaniu się rządu do Wilanowa. O 14 prezydent Wojciechowski wyraził na to zgodę. Haller tak opisywał moment wyjścia z Belwederu (pisownia oryginalna): Podczas tego marszu do kolumny odłączyli się członkowie rządu: Adam Chądzyński, Mieczysław Rybczyński i Józef Radwan. Również oddziały wojskowe wierne rządowi oderwały się „w ogniu” od wojsk drugiej strony i przeszły do Wilanowa. +14 maja weszła w życie decyzja PPS o strajku generalnym. Poparł go Związek Zawodowy Kolejarzy. Strajk ten odciął stolicę od reszty kraju i znacznie utrudnił sprowadzenie z Wielkopolski wiernych rządowi oddziałów. Tymczasem w Wilanowie prezydent i rząd naradzali się z dowódcami wojsk lojalnych wobec gabinetu Witosa. Wojskowi byli zdania, iż należy przenieść się do Poznania i stamtąd kontynuować walkę zbrojną. Przeciwko temu wypowiedzieli się Wojciechowski i Witos, obawiający się długotrwałej wojny domowej, która byłaby niebezpieczna dla niepodległości państwa. O godzinie 17:30, podczas posiedzenia Rady Gabinetowej, prezydent podjął decyzję o rezygnacji z urzędu i wydał rozkaz wojskom rządowym zaprzestania bratobójczych walk. Również premier Witos podał się do dymisji. Tekst rezygnacji prezydenta brzmiał następująco: Sam Wojciechowski 15 maja rano odjechał do Spały. +Zgodnie z postanowieniami konstytucji marcowej obowiązki głowy państwa przejął marszałek Sejmu Maciej Rataj, który przybył do pałacu w Wilanowie w towarzystwie ppłk. Józefa Becka, przedstawiciela marszałka. Pisma dymisyjne rządu i prezydenta datowane były na 14 maja, jednak Rataj przyjął je dopiero 15 maja. Nakazał Malczewskiemu, Rozwadowskiemu i Hallerowi wprowadzenie natychmiastowego zawieszenia broni z pozostawieniem oddziałów na pozycjach. Oświadczył także, że powoła nowy rząd, w którym znajdzie się Józef Piłsudski. Początkowo Rataj planował utworzenie „rządu pojednania narodowego”, w którym premierem zostałby Jan Dębski. Jednak po rozmowie z Piłsudskim rankiem 15 maja, zmuszony był powierzyć misję tworzenia nowego gabinetu wskazanemu przez marszałka Kazimierzowi Bartlowi. +Polityczne następstwa zamachu. +15 maja powołany został pierwszy rząd Kazimierza Bartla. Józef Piłsudski objął w nim tekę ministra spraw wojskowych. Gabinet Bartla miał funkcjonować jedynie do czasu wyboru nowego prezydenta Polski. Siły polityczne, które poparły zamach stanu (przede wszystkim te o lewicowej orientacji), sądziły, że Piłsudski zostanie prezydentem. Liczyły także na to, że marszałek zrealizuje co najmniej niektóre postulaty lewicy. PPS w odezwie Centralnego Komitetu Wykonawczego z 15 maja żądała rozwiązania Sejmu i Senatu, objęcia stanowiska prezydenta RP przez Piłsudskiego, utworzenia "rządu robotniczo-włościańskiego", zmiany polityki wobec mniejszości narodowych oraz pociągnięcia do odpowiedzialności członków gabinetu Witosa. Jak się później okazało, Piłsudski nie planował rozwiązania parlamentu, mając świadomość, że wybory prawdopodobnie zakończą się sukcesem ugrupowań lewicowych. Zamach wymierzony był przeciwko partiom politycznym jako ogółowi, nie chciał więc działać w oparciu o nie, nawiązując później bliskie kontakty z kręgami konserwatywnymi. +Piłsudski nie zamierzał wprowadzać rewolucyjnych zmian. W wywiadzie z 25 maja marszałek stwierdzał: +31 maja Zgromadzenie Narodowe wybrało Piłsudskiego prezydentem. Otrzymał on 292 głosy, a jego endecki kontrkandydat, Adolf Bniński – 193. Marszałek jednak wyboru nie przyjął, uzasadniając tę decyzję zbyt małym zakresem uprawnień, jakie dawała prezydentowi konstytucja marcowa. Wywołało to dezorientację członków Zgromadzenia Narodowego. Sporym zaskoczeniem była również informacja, że Piłsudski zdecydował się wskazać szerzej nieznanego naukowca, Ignacego Mościckiego, jako osobę godną stanowiska prezydenta. 1 czerwca, w drugim głosowaniu, otrzymał on 281 głosów, podczas gdy Bnińskiego poparło 200 członków Zgromadzenia Narodowego. Oddany Piłsudskiemu Mościcki został prezydentem Polski. Po tym wyborze do dymisji podał się Bartel, któremu jednak ponownie powierzono misję tworzenia rządu. +Kolejnym politycznym następstwem zamachu było uchwalenie 2 sierpnia 1926 przez Sejm tzw. noweli sierpniowej. Akt ten usankcjonował przewagę władzy wykonawczej kosztem ustawodawczej: zmniejszył kontrolę parlamentarną nad rządem, wprowadził wyłączne prawo prezydenta do rozwiązania parlamentu, a także ograniczył swobody ustalania prac budżetowych przez izby. +Zamach majowy zakończył epokę rządów parlamentarno-gabinetowych w Polsce. Przewrót doprowadził do obalenia rządu Witosa i umożliwił przejęcie władzy przez grupę zwolenników Piłsudskiego, nazywaną sanacją. Głosząc hasła odnowy moralnej, obsadzili oni wiele kluczowych stanowisk w administracji rządowej. Piłsudski nie zaprowadził otwartej dyktatury, ale wprowadził autorytarny sposób sprawowania władzy. Bardzo częste były procesy polityczne przeciwników nowej władzy (jak np. proces brzeski czy proces Adama Doboszyńskiego), gdzie w większości wyroki kończyły się orzeczeniem winy oskarżonych i wysłaniem ich do więzień bądź do tzw. Miejsca Odosobnienia w Berezie Kartuskiej. Do organizacji represjonowanych i zdelegalizowanych przez rządy sanacyjne należały skupione wokół endecji Obóz Wielkiej Polski (OWP) (rozwiązany 1933), Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny (ONR) (rozwiązany 1934) i Ruch Młodych Stronnictwa Narodowego. Organizacja Ukraińskich Nacjonalistów (OUN) i Komunistyczna Partia Polski (KPP) były od rozpoczęcia działalności (OUN), lub pozostały po 1926 (KPP) organizacjami nielegalnymi. Działalność Stronnictwa Ludowego (SL) czy Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej (PPS) była represjonowana. Następstwem rządów sanacji było ograniczenie wolności prasy czy słowa oraz naruszenia niezawisłości sądów. +Po zamachu majowym znacznie wzrósł udział wolnomularzy w rządach Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej. Według Ludwika Hassa na stanowisku premiera przed 1926 nie było żadnego zidentyfikowanego masona, od 1926 do 1939 spośród 16 stanowisk 12 razy premierem był mason (z tego pięciokrotnie Kazimierz Bartel, trzykrotnie Walery Sławek). Ogółem spośród dziewięciu osób pełniących funkcję premiera po zamachu sześć było masonami. Wśród ministrów przed zamachem zidentyfikowanymi masonami było 7,0%; udział ten wzrósł do ok. 27% po zamachu. W 1938 dekretem prezydenta RP Ignacego Mościckiego działalność wolnomularstwa w Polsce została zakazana, a istniejące loże masońskie zamknięte. +Marszałek Piłsudski faktycznie rządził Polską do swojej śmierci w 1935. Przed swym zgonem zdążył jeszcze zatwierdzić autorytarną konstytucję kwietniową, która znacznie ograniczała uprawnienia Sejmu na rzecz prerogatyw prezydenta. +Stosunek sił politycznych do zamachu. +Działania wojsk Piłsudskiego poparły: Polska Partia Socjalistyczna, Stronnictwo Chłopskie, PSL „Wyzwolenie”, Komunistyczna Partia Polski oraz niektóre ugrupowania mniejszości narodowych. Odezwa Centralnego Komitetu Wykonawczego PPS z 13 maja głosiła: +Odezwa Komitetu Centralnego KPP: KPP już w dwa tygodnie po zamachu odstąpiła od udzielania poparcia Piłsudskiemu – demonstracja poparcia dla marszałka, którą KPP zorganizowała w Warszawie, została brutalnie rozpędzona przez żandarmerię. Swą wcześniejszą decyzję o przychylnym potraktowaniu przewrotu, komuniści nazywali później "błędem majowym". +Od swojego tradycyjnego stanowiska popierającego demokrację parlamentarną odstąpiła masoneria, która poparła zamach Piłsudskiego. Według różnych relacji miała ona uczestniczyć również w przygotowaniach do przewrotu. +Ofiary. +Wedle oficjalnych danych w czasie zamachu zginęło 215 żołnierzy i 164 cywilów. Symboliczną ofiarą był student Karol Levittoux (stryjeczny wnuk znanego polskiego działacza niepodległościowego Karola Levittoux), który zginął najprawdopodobniej z rąk podoficera walczącego po stronie piłsudczyków. +Wśród ofiar zamachu majowego znaleźli się także oficerowie, którzy w sytuacji, gdy musieli wybierać pomiędzy wiernością przysiędze żołnierskiej a poświęceniem Piłsudskiemu, zdecydowali się popełnić samobójstwo. Tak uczynił dowódca 7 pułku piechoty płk Stanisław Więckowski. Nieudaną próbę samobójczą podjął natomiast 13 maja w Poznaniu gen. Kazimierz Sosnkowski, który przestrzelił sobie prawe płuco. +Tuż po zamachu, szereg żołnierzy, jak też dowódców walczących po stronie rządowej zostało osadzonych w więzieniu lub było przetrzymywanych w aresztach śledczych. Niektórzy z nich zmarli w kilka lat po zamachu w okolicznościach, które określane były przez zwolenników strony rządowej jako niejasne. W tej grupie znaleźli się: gen. Włodzimierz Zagórski, gen. Tadeusz Rozwadowski, gen. Jan Hempel, gen. Oswald Frank, kontradmirał Jerzy Zwierkowski, gen. Jan Thullie, gen. Bolesław Jaźwiński. +Oceny przewrotu. +Zdaniem Antoniego Czubińskiego, zamach majowy miał czysto antydemokratyczne oblicze: "Otwierając możliwości rozwoju faszyzmu w Polsce, wyrażającego się w autokratyzowaniu państwa, elitarnym podziale społeczeństwa, likwidacji zdobyczy socjalnych – przewrót majowy jednocześnie zahamował rozwój sił demokratycznych i rewolucyjnych w Polsce". Zupełnie inny pogląd prezentował Leszek Moczulski. Jego zdaniem zamach był wymierzony przeciwko zarówno siłom skrajnie lewicowym, jak i prawicowym, których działania zagrażały istnieniu Polski. Jak pisał, "Tylko stanowcze działanie mogło zapobiec najgorszemu. [Piłsudski] ratował Rzeczpospolitą przed śmiertelnym konfliktem, może wojną domową i upadkiem państwa. Ratował też demokrację. Gdyby zwyciężyła prawica – musiałaby okiełznać lewicę; gdyby zwyciężyła lewica – doszłoby do rewolucji społecznej. Każdy z tych przypadków oznaczał koniec demokracji". Jak wskazywał natomiast Czubiński, "Przewrót majowy oznaczał więc klęskę polityczną tak głównej partii prawicy społecznej, tj. Związku Ludowo-Narodowego, jak i ugrupowań lewicy sejmowej. Miejsce ZLN zajęli piłsudczycy, tworzący od maja 1926 r. szeroki obóz sanacji, w której ramach obok dawnych piłsudczyków skupiali się przedstawiciele klas posiadających oraz prawicy w ogóle. Nastąpiła swego rodzaju nowa konsolidacja tych sił i grup wokół Piłsudskiego". +Jak stwierdził Andrzej Garlicki, przewrót majowy zakończył okres parlamentaryzmu II Rzeczypospolitej, zmieniając nie tylko ustrój, ale i cały szereg stosunków społecznych. Zdaniem historyka, "od tego czasu nie prawo pisane stanowiło najwyższą normę, lecz wola zwycięzcy. On bowiem, niezależnie od zachowania dawnych struktur prawnych, miał nieograniczoną możliwość podejmowania decyzji i on był jedyną instancją odwoławczą. (..) Na tym – niezależnie od form zewnętrznych – polega dyktatura". Z kolei Janusz Żarnowski zwrócił uwagę na dojście do władzy ideowych zwolenników marszałka, jak również koniunkturalistów: "Po przewrocie majowym wytworzyła się nowa warstwa rządząca, złożona z części dawnych legionistów, która objęła teraz różne stanowiska oraz z »nowych« piłsudczyków, tzw. czwartej brygady, która do legionistów dołączyła. Posiadacze stanowisk wyższego i średniego szczebla w wojsku, dykasteriach administracyjnych i w gospodarce zetatyzowanej (pamiętajmy o jej wielkiej roli w ówczesnej Polsce) stanowili trzon tej warstwy". +Według Andrzeja Ajnenkiela, zamach majowy był jednym z "puczów antyparlamentarnych, jakie nastąpiły w Europie lat międzywojennych poczynając od marszu Mussoliniego na Rzym". Tymczasem Paweł Zaremba zauważył, że niezależnie od okoliczności, akcja Piłsudskiego była zamachem stanu, zakończonym siłowym przejęciem władzy przez zwolenników marszałka. Jego zdaniem jednak, polityczna ocena przewrotu może być inna, "jak w każdym przypadku, gdy zamach stanu się udaje i gdy staje za nim w czasie jego trwania i bezpośrednio potem duża część społeczeństwa". +Zdaniem Andrzeja Chojnowskiego, zamach majowy był nieunikniony: "demokracja by się nie utrzymała. Sukces Piłsudskiego polegał na tym, że wyczuł słabość demokracji, która miała więcej krytyków niż powodów do krytyki. Wyolbrzymiano zjawisko korupcji, odmalowywano czarny obraz. Różne środowiska brały w tym udział. Dlatego jeśli nie Piłsudski, zapewne pojawiłby się inny kandydat na dyktatora. Kryzys demokracji musiałby się jakoś uzewnętrznić. Najprawdopodobniej do głosu doszedłby sfanatyzowany nacjonalizm w wydaniu młodej endecji". +Ocena przewrotu majowego do dziś jest przedmiotem wielu kontrowersji. Stosunek do tego wydarzenia dzieli nie tylko historyków, ale także polityków. W 2006 r., w 80. rocznicę wydarzeń, w Sejmie złożono cztery projekty uchwał w tej sprawie. Żaden z nich nie został przyjęty. W maju 2009 r. nowe projekty uchwał przygotowały Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe i Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej. Dokument PSL dotyczy przede wszystkim uczczenia pamięci ofiar zamachu. W projekcie SLD można natomiast przeczytać, że Oba projekty nie uzyskały poparcia największych partii sejmowych – Platformy Obywatelskiej oraz Prawa i Sprawiedliwości. +Wozokilometr + +Wozokilometr ("wkm") – stosowana zwyczajowo w transporcie kołowym jednostka miary długości drogi wykonanej przez środki transportu (wozy) w określonym czasie (np. doby, miesiąca, roku, wybranego kursu itp.), odpowiadająca kilometrowi – uwielokrotnionej podstawowej jednostce długości układu SI. +Przykład: "Dana autobusowa linia komunikacyjna transportu miejskiego ma trasę długości 10 km, która jest obsługiwana przez 2 autobusy (wozy), z których każdy wykonuje na dobę po 36 kursów." +"Dobowa długość drogi tej linii wynosi 720 wozokilometrów." +Jednostka wykorzystywana w działaniach statystycznych (w tym w zestawieniach danych eksploatacyjnych rozkładów jazdy w transporcie pasażerskim, często z dodatkowym podziałem: na typy taboru, jednostki terytorialne), ekonomicznych, a także dla potrzeb planowania, gospodarki materiałowej, itp.; niekiedy jako punkt odniesienia dla innych wyliczeń dotyczących przewozu osób i towarów, zwłaszcza kosztowych, bądź składowa ich algorytmów. +Można ponadto wyróżnić "wozokilometry specjalne", do których zalicza się wozokilometry wykonane w sytuacjach nadzwyczajnych (np. w czasie klęsk żywiołowych), jak też dla indywidualnie wysegregowanych zleceń przewozowych, nietypowych dla danego przewoźnika czy istotnie odbiegających od jego podstawowej działalności, choć "de facto" będą one opatrzonymi dodatkowymi cechami "wozokilometrów handlowych" (praca przewozowa, wprawdzie specyficzna, ale zostanie wykonana) lub "dojazdowych". +Przewoźnicy dla własnych potrzeb rozliczeń kształtują również inne podziały wozokilometrów, definiując je np.: jako "planowane", "wykonane" itp., stosując przy tym tzw. wskaźnik realizacji, będący procentowym stosunkiem wozokilometrów faktycznie zrealizowanych do zleconych (planowanych do realizacji). +Aglomeracja gdańska + +Aglomeracja gdańska (także "Aglomeracja Trójmiasta"; czasami nazywana ) – aglomeracja obszar na północy Polski nad Zatoką Gdańską. Tworzy go Gdańsk, Gdynia, Sopot (Trójmiasto) oraz miejscowości od Tczewa do Wejherowa i Władysławowa. +W zależności od koncepcji i przyjętych kryteriów delimitacji obszarów liczba ludności zamieszkującej aglomerację wynosi od ponad 993 tys. do 1,25 mln osób. Według koncepcji przedstawiających zakres obszarowy aglomeracja obejmuje powierzchnię od 2161,8 do 3719 km². +Miasta zaliczane do aglomeracji gdańskiej: Gdańsk, Gdynia, Hel, Jastarnia, Kartuzy, Pruszcz Gdański, Reda, Rumia, Tczew, Sopot, Wejherowo, Żukowo. +Koncepcje aglomeracji gdańskiej. +Aglomeracja według P. Swianiewicza i U. Klimskiej. +W 2005 r. Paweł Swianiewicz oraz Urszula Klimska wyznaczyli obszar aglomeracji z miastami centralnymi: Gdańsk, Sopot, Gdynia oraz przyległych 28 gmin. Obszar ten w 2002 r. zamieszkiwało 1,21 mln osób. Przy wyznaczaniu aglomeracji przeprowadzono delimitację obszarów przyległych, uwzględniając saldo migracji w latach 1998–2002, gęstość zaludnienia (w 2002 r.), współczynnik zatrudnienia związany z natężeniem dojazdów. +Aglomeracja według urzędu marszałkowskiego. +W 2009 r. Departament Rozwoju Regionalnego i Przestrzennego Urzędu Marszałkowskiego Województwa Pomorskiego opracował Plan zagospodarowania przestrzennego województwa pomorskiego, gdzie scharakteryzował aglomerację Trójmiasta i dokonał delimitacji jego obszaru. Według urzędu marszałkowskiego aglomerację obejmują 3 miasta na prawach powiatu: Gdańsk, Gdynia, Sopot oraz 27 gmin. Przy przeprowadzaniu delimitacji brano pod uwagę m.in. aspekty przestrzenne, uwarunkowania społeczno-gospodarcze, prawno-polityczne, ekologiczne, funkcjonalno-techniczne, ekonomiczne. W wyznaczonym obszarze wyróżniono podstawowe elementy składowe jego struktury oraz rozpatrzono powiązania wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne. +Aglomeracja według J. Paryska. +W 2008 r. Jerzy Jan Parysek przedstawił, że głównym ośrodkiem aglomeracji jest Gdańsk, które funkcje uzupełnia zwłaszcza Gdynia. Do innych ośrodków aglomeracji należą: Sopot, Wejherowo, Reda, Rumia, Pruszcz Gdański. Określił, że aglomeracja stanowi policentryczny układ przestrzenno-funkcjonalny który zamieszkuje ponad 1 mln osób. +Ach, ten Andy! + +Ach, ten Andy! (ang. "What’s with Andy?") – francusko-niemiecki serial animowany zrealizowany we współpracy z kanadyjskim studiem Cinegroupe, powstający od roku 2001. W Polsce emitowany jest przez telewizję Fox Kids/Jetix, od 1 września 2003 roku. +Opis serialu. +Serial opowiada o przygodach Andy’ego Larkina, nastolatka mieszkającego w kanadyjskim miasteczku East Gackle. Pasją Andy’ego są dowcipy – wymyśla ich kilka na dzień, jednak nie wszystkie zostają wykonane. W realizacji dowcipów Andy’emu pomagają przyjaciel Danny Picket oraz Mush, dostawca pizzy. I chociaż Andy i Danny uważają, że dowcipy te są cudowne i genialne, mieszkańcy miasta East Gackle są przeciwnego zdania – przeważnie dowcipy kończą się czymś niemiłym dla Andy’ego i Danny’ego. +Wersja polska. +Opracowanie i udźwiękowienie wersji polskiej: na zlecenie (Fox Kids) Jetix – STUDIO EUROCOM +Kierownictwo produkcji: Marzena Omen-Wiśniewska +Teksty piosenek: Andrzej Gmitrzuk +Kierownictwo muzyczne: Piotr Gogol +Lektor: Tomasz Knapik +i inni +Gamepad + +Gamepad (także "joypad", "pad") – urządzenie sterujące używane w grach wideo i komputerowych. Standardowo jest dodawany do każdego zestawu z konsolą. Każdy producent opracowuje unikatowy dla danej konsoli model, dlatego ważne jest wybranie kontrolera odpowiedniego dla danego urządzenia. +Do konsoli 8- i 16- bitowych, takich jak NES czy SNES, dołączano zwykle dwa pady. Aby zmniejszyć koszty, a przede wszystkim cenę zestawu producenci konsoli PlayStation, Saturna i Nintendo 64 postanowili dołączać do nich tylko jedno urządzenie. Jednakże gdy konsola zdobyła pewną popularność na rynku, twórcy decydują się wypuścić specjalne zestawy zawierające konsole (często w różnych kolorach) wraz z kartami pamięci, czy dwoma gamepadami w cenie niższej niż elementy na niego się składające kupowane oddzielnie. +Z powodu rosnącej popularności gamepadów wśród użytkowników konsoli stawały się one coraz bardziej popularne wśród użytkowników komputerów. Istnieje wiele modeli padów przeznaczonych dla komputerów osobistych, które swoim wyglądem imitują urządzenia konsolowe. Najczęściej wykorzystywanym jest wzór kontrolera do PlayStation oraz Xbox. Istnieją również odpowiednie przejściówki umożliwiające podłączenie padów przeznaczonych dla danej konsoli do komputera osobistego tak, aby zachować pełną ich funkcjonalność. +Porównanie z innymi kontrolerami. +Dżojstik jest kontrolerem zbudowanym z drążka znajdującego się na podstawce umieszczanej na stole, natomiast gamepad trzymany w dłoniach zawiera wyłącznie przyciski kierunkowe (tzw. "krzyżak" albo "D-pad"), przyciski akcji oraz gałki analogowe (najczęściej dwie). +Budowa. +Gamepad BOOMERANG 203. +Przełącznik AUTO/FIRE wpływa na wszystkie przyciski. +Konsole 8- i 16-bitowe. +W erze panowania Nintendo na rynku gier video, konsolowe kontrolery miały bardzo prostą budowę: kształt małego prostopadłościanu, na którym znajdowały się strzałki kierunkowem tworzące tzw. D-pad (z ang. "directional pad") oraz 2 lub 4 okrągłe przyciski. Pad do SNESa wprowadził "przyciski boczne" - znajdujące się z brzegu kontrolera, układające się pod palcami wskazującymi. +Konsole 32- i 64-bitowe. +Konsole 32-bitowe przyniosły nie tylko rewolucję związaną z grafiką 3D, ale także z kształtem kontrolerów. Gamepady przestały być prostymi bryłkami, ich kształt był teraz opływowy, idealnie dopasowany do kształtu rąk. Oprócz pada kierunkowego doszła jeszcze gałka sterownicza (kontroler do Nintendo 64), a liczba przycisków zwiększyła się do sześciu, a w przypadku kontrolera do PlayStation - do ośmiu. Rewolucją na rynku konsolowym kontrolerów był DualShock - pad do PlayStation stworzony kilka lat po premierze tej konsoli. Był to pierwszy kontroler, który posiadał dwie gałki oraz funkcję wibracji. +Konsole 128-bitowe. +Budowa kontrolerów do tych konsoli jest bardziej zróżnicowana, niż w poprzednich generacjach. Począwszy od gamepada do Xbox 360, którego dotknęły jedynie kosmetyczne zmiany, przez pad do PS3 - SIXAXIS, w którym oprócz charakterystycznych zwłaszcza dla DualShock wibracji dodano również wykrywacz nachylenia (wykrywającym nachylenie 6 stopni w każdym z sześciu kierunków - stąd nazwa), po Wiimote (prawdopodobnie nazwa wzięła się z połączenia Wii (nazwa konsoli) oraz remote, co znaczy tyle co pilot zdalnego sterowania), zwany czasem w Polsce "Wiilotem" ze względu na charakterystyczny styl posługiwania się nim (pad jest w formie pilota, jak do telewizora - tylko mniejszy, i wykrywa jakie ruchy gracz nim wykonuje) oraz na wypadki jakie się zdarzały podczas grania na Wii (otóż znane są przypadki, gdy ów pilot wyślizgiwał się z dłoni, a sznurek zabezpieczający się urywał, co owocowało "lotem"), ponadto do Wiimote można podłączyć tzw. Nunchuk, który rozszerza kontroler o drugie urządzenie z wykrywaczem ruchu, z dodatkowym przyciskiem i analogiem. Do Wii dostępny jest też "zwyczajny" pad, lecz służy on tylko do grania w gry z poprzednich generacji konsoli Nintendo. Ponadto w tej generacji stały się standardem kontrolery bezprzewodowe. W niektórych konsolach (na przykład Xbox 360) kontrolery przewodowe (lub podłączenie przewodem bezprzewodowego kontrolera przez specjalne złącze) dostępne są jako opcja. +Porty. +DB9 przez LPT(IEEE 1284) i GamePort. +Istnieje możliwość podłączenia starego gamepada cyfrowego do komputera klasy PC przez port równoległy i przez GamePort. +Zobacz też. +Na górę strony +Pamięć semantyczna + +Pamięć semantyczna – rodzaj pamięci służący do łączenia w grupy informacji o podobnym charakterze. Przypuszczalnie powstała na drodze ewolucji pamięć semantyczna – skojarzeniowa. Działa ona prawdopodobnie w ten sposób, że w mózgu tworzone są zbiory informacji o podobnym charakterze, opatrzone pewnymi etykietami. W zamierzchłych czasach etykiety te niekoniecznie były wyrazami, lecz wraz z upowszechnieniem się języka mówionego słowa szybko nadały się do roli kluczy w pamięci semantycznej. Tak więc pamięć ta w dużej mierze powiązana jest z językiem oraz procesem kojarzenia różnych faktów. Nie ma w niej żadnych reguł co do tego, jak grupowane są poszczególne informacje i ulega ona ciągłemu procesowi nauki. +Szlamnik zwyczajny + +Szlamnik zwyczajny, szlamnik rdzawy, szlamik ("Limosa lapponica") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Zdolność do długiego lotu. +Szlamnik stał się przedmiotem naukowych badań dotyczących ptasich wędrówek. Wszczepienie obserwowanym okazom satelitarnych nadajników pozwoliło precyzyjnie prześledzić trasy przelotów, ich dystanse i długości. Osiągi tych stosunkowo niewielkich ptaków zaskoczyły naukowców. 24 marca 2007 r. samica oznaczona kryptonimem E7 w ciągu 7 dni i 9 godzin pokonała trasę 10 300 km. z Nowej Zelandii do Morza Żółtego. Ta sama samica 2 maja 2007 r. wyruszyła na Alaskę pokonując ok. 6 500 km. W końcu 30 sierpnia wyruszyła w lot powrotny ze znajdującej się na Alasce delty Yukon-Kuskokwim i po 8 dniach i pięciu godzinach nieprzerwanego lotu dotarła na Nową Zelandię pokonawszy dystans 11 680 km . Jest to obecnie rekord długości ptasiego lotu. +Pierre Daninos + +Pierre Daninos (ur. 26 maja 1913 w Paryżu, zm. 7 stycznia 2005 w Paryżu), pisarz francuski, dziennikarz. +Był przede wszystkim autorem humorystycznego cyklu o przywarach narodowych Anglików i Francuzów, połączonego osobą bohatera – majora Thompsona, uosobienia brytyjskości. Pierwsza książka, "Notatnik majora W. Marmaduke'a Thompsona", ukazała się początkowo na łamach "Le Figaro" w 1954 i zyskała wielką popularność; została przetłumaczona na 27 języków, po polsku ukazała się w 1959. Autor przekazał swoje obserwacje, których dokonał służąc jako oficer francuski przy armii brytyjskiej w czasie II wojny światowej. +Jego brat Jean (1906-2001) był konstruktorem luksusowych samochodów Facel Vega. +Hippolita + +Hippolita (także Hippolyta, gr. Hippolýtē, łac. Hippolyte) – w mitologii greckiej królowa Amazonek. Córka boga wojny, Aresa i Otrere. Siostra Pentezylei, Antiopy i Melanippy. +Mit. +Posiadała przepaskę, która nadawała jej nadludzką siłę. Zdobycie przepaski Hippolity było dziewiątą pracą Heraklesa, który zebrał drużynę złożoną z najdzielniejszych wojowników i popłynął do portu Amazonek. Amazonki słyszały o Heraklesie i przyjęły go ciepło, ale bogini Hera rozpuściła plotkę, że wojownicy zamierzają porwać kilka Amazonek (lub wg innej wersji – Hippolitę) i Amazonki chwyciły za broń. Rozegrała się krwawa bitwa, w wyniku której Herakles zabił Hippolitę i zabrał jej pas. Inna wersja mówi, że zakochana Hippolita oddała pas Heraklesowi a Hera puściła plotkę, że to właśnie Herakles chciał zabrać Amazonkę i oddać złoty pas córce Eurysteusa (tchórzliwego kuzyna Heraklesa). Niestety Amazonki uwierzyły w plotkę Hery i zaatakowały Heraklesa. W bitwie przez przypadek zginęła Hippolita. Herakles ze smutkiem odpłynął, ponieważ także zakochał się w pięknej Amazonce i miał zamiar ją poślubić, a pas oddać córce Eurysteusza. Inna wersja tej historii mówi, że Herakles, który nie przywykł do walki z kobietami, rozkochał ją w sobie, a ona w dowód swojej miłości sama podarowała mu pas. Jeszcze inna wersja podaje, że jeden z towarzyszy Heraklesa – królewicz Aten, Tezeusz, porwał siostrę Hippolity – Antiopę razem z pasem (lub też Antiope zakochała się w nim i sama dostarczyła wykradziony pas, a Hippolita stanęła na czele wyprawy przeciw Tezeuszowi) lub też porwał samą Hippolitę. Ożenił się z branką (Antiope lub Hippolitą) i spłodził syna Hippolytosa (Hipolit). Według ostatniej z wersji, Hippolita zginęła podczas polowania, zabita przypadkowo przez inną siostrę – Pentezyleę. +Nigori + +"itd..." +Stefan Hubicki + +Stefan Bolesław Józef Hubicki (ur. 18 marca 1877 w Pilicy, zm. 30 października 1955 w Serocku) - lekarz, ginekolog, generał brygady Wojska Polskiego. +Ukończył medycynę na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. W 1901 uzyskał tytuł doktora nauk medycznych. W latach 1904-1914 pracował w szpitalach warszawskich. Od 1914 służył w armii rosyjskiej, m.in. w 52 Dywizji Piechoty. Od stycznia 1919 roku był sekretarzem delegacji Piłsudskiego w Paryżu. Za pracę w Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej został odznaczony Orderem Virtuti Militari V klasy. +W czasie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej był szefem sanitarnym kolejno Obozu Warownego „Grodno”, Grupy Operacyjnej Edwarda Rydza-Śmigłego, 3 Armii, Frontu Środkowego, 2 Armii (od 18 sierpnia 1920). 29 maja 1920 został zatwierdzony z dniem 1 kwietnia 1920 w stopniu pułkownika, w Korpusie Lekarskim, w „grupie byłych Korpusów Wschodnich i byłej armii rosyjskiej”. +Od listopada 1920 do listopada 1921 był szefem Wydziału Organizacyjnego Departamentu Sanitarnego Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych. Zasłużył się dla rozwoju wojskowego szkolnictwa sanitarnego. Był komendantem Wojskowej Szkoły Aplikacyjnej Sanitarnej, a od listopada 1922 komendantem Wojskowej Szkoły Sanitarnej. Od 1 czerwca 1921 jego oddziałem macierzystym była Kompania Zapasowa Sanitarna Nr I, która w następnym roku została przeformowana w 1 Batalion Sanitarny. 3 maja 1922 został zweryfikowany w stopniu pułkownika ze starszeństwem z 1 czerwca 1919 i 6. lokatą w korpusie oficerów sanitarnych, grupa lekarzy. 23 października 1925 Minister Spraw Wojskowych mianował go II Inspektorem Służby Zdrowia. 11 września 1926 Prezydent RP, Ignacy Mościcki mianował go komendantem Oficerskiej Szkoły Sanitarnej w Warszawie. +1 stycznia 1928 Prezydent RP, Ignacy Mościcki awansował go na generała brygady ze starszeństwem z 1 stycznia 1928 i 1. lokatą w korpusie generałów. 9 sierpnia 1928 kierowana przez niego uczelnia została przemianowana na Szkołę Podchorążych Sanitarnych. +25 września 1929 Prezydent RP mianował go podsekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Pracy i Opieki Społecznej. W związku z wyznaczeniem na stanowisko poza wojskiem złożył prośbę o długoterminowy urlop. Z dniem 1 października 1929 Minister Spraw Wojskowych przeniósł go w stan nieczynny. 5 grudnia 1930 roku został ministrem pracy i opieki społecznej w rządzie Walerego Sławka. W 1931 został przeniesiony w stan spoczynku. +27 maja 1931 został ponownie mianowany ministrem pracy i opieki społecznej w rządzie Aleksandra Prystora. 27 lipca 1932 zajmowany przez niego urząd zmienił nazwę na „Minister Opieki Społecznej”, a kierowany resort na „Ministerstwo Opieki Społecznej”. Od 10 maja 1933 do 15 maja 1934 pełnił urząd Ministra Opieki Społecznej w rządzie Janusza Jędrzejewicza. W latach 1935-1939 był komisarzem Zakładu Ubezpieczeń Społecznych w Warszawie przy ulicy Czerniakowskiej 231. W 1936 był protektorem Rady Głównej Polskiego Towarzystwa Eugenicznego z siedzibą na ulicy Nowy Świat 1. Mieszkał na Żoliborzu przy ulicy Kajetana Koźmiana 11. +Od 1939 roku przebywał na Węgrzech, gdzie organizował środowisko piłsudczyków. Był m.in. szefem Obozu Polski Walczącej na Węgry. W latach 1944-1945 wraz z najbliższymi współpracownikami ukrywał się na Słowacji . Po wojnie powrócił do Polski, pracował jako lekarz. Był autorem wielu prac z medycyny wojskowej. +Od dnia 24 września 2011 roku imię Generała nosi Wojskowe Centrum Kształcenia Medycznego w Łodzi . +Perugia + +Perugia, starożytna "Peruzja" – stolica Umbrii, rejonu administracyjnego środkowych Włoch. Miasto leży między Jeziorem Trazymeńskim a Tybrem, liczy około 150 000 mieszkańców. +Peruzja była jednym z dwunastu miast ligi etruskiej. Pierwsze wzmianki o mieście pochodzą z okresu wojny między Etruskami a Republiką Rzymską w 310 p.n.e. lub 309 p.n.e. +Podczas walk w 216 p.n.e. i 205 p.n.e. w okresie drugiej wojny punickiej miasto stało po stronie Rzymu; później nie było wymieniane w dokumentach aż do roku 41 p.n.e., gdy uciekając przed Oktawianem Augustem schronił się w nim Lucjusz Antoniusz brat Marka Antoniusza, jednego z triumwirów. Po trwającym kilka miesięcy oblężeniu miasto zostało podpalone przez jednego z obrońców i doszczętnie spłonęło, jednak Oktawian August nakazał jego odbudowę. +Później znów słuch o mieście zaginął, aż do VI wieku naszej ery, gdy po długotrwałym oblężeniu dostało się w ręce Gotów Totili. Wzmianki o Perugii pojawiają się też w historii Longobardów (w 593 zdobyta przez Agilulfa), a w IX wieku miasto nadaniami Karola Wielkiego i Ludwika Pobożnego przeszło pod władzę papieży, stając się częścią Państwa Kościelnego. Przez długi czas Perugia utrzymywała względną niezależność tocząc wojny z sąsiednimi terytoriami: Foligno, Asyżem, Spoleto, Todi i innymi. W okresie walk gwelfów z gibelinami Perugia stała po stronie gwelfów. +Miasto było świadkiem kilku konklawe: wybierano tu papieżami Honoriusza II (1124), Honoriusza IV (1285), Celestyna V (1294) i Klemensa V (1305). +W czasach Cola di Rienzi miasto wysłało do niego swych przedstawicieli, aby złożyć mu wyrazy szacunku, odmówiło też dostarczenia papiestwu kontyngentu pieniężnego i wojskowego przeciw niemu. +W XV wieku władzę nad miastem przejęła rodzina Baglioni. Niestety, skończyło się to dla miasta i rodu Baglionich tragicznie – w wyniku ustawicznych zatargów z papiestwem dwóch członków rodu zostało zabitych, a samo miasto zdobyte i splądrowane przez wojska legata papieskiego w roku 1534. Sześć lat później rozpoczęto budowę górującej nad miastem cytadeli Rocca Paolina, mającej być przestrogą dla niesfornych mieszkańców. +W roku 1797 Perugia była zajęta przez wojska francuskie. W latach 1832, 1838 i 1854 nawiedzały ją trzęsienia ziemi. W maju 1849 została zajęta przez Austriaków, aż w końcu, w roku 1860, została wraz z resztą Umbrii przyłączona do Piemontu. +Od Perugii wziął swój pseudonim artystyczny Perugino – Pietro Vanucci, malarz epoki włoskiego Renesansu, który w żył i pracował w tym mieście; współpracował z nim urodzony w Perugii Pinturicchio. +Ważne zabytkowe kościoły Perugii to: San Pietro z X wieku i San Domenico (którego budowę rozpoczęto w 1305). W świątyni tej znajduje się grobowiec papieża Benedykta XI. +Szymon Kobyliński + +Szymon Tadeusz Kobyliński (ur. 22 maja 1927 w Warszawie, zm. 15 kwietnia 2002 w Warszawie) – polski grafik, rysownik, karykaturzysta, satyryk, historyk, scenograf(głównie teatralny, ale także i filmowy), a także jeden z prekursorów polskiego komiksu. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w rodzinie malarskiej (syn Wiktora i Wandy Jasińskiej) i po części kontynuował te tradycje. Swój pierwszy rysunek prasowy opublikował już w 1936. Absolwent XIX LO im. Powstańców Warszawy w Warszawie. Studiował grafikę na warszawskiej ASP oraz historię sztuki na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. +Był także eseistą i pisarzem oraz autorem programów telewizyjnych i radiowych. Popularyzował polską kulturę oraz historię. Był znawcą broni i barwy Wojska Polskiego, broni białej oraz zbroi, głównie z okresu I Rzeczypospolitej. +Działalność pisarską zintensyfikował zwłaszcza w latach 80., kiedy to przestał występować w telewizji, po tym, jak w stanie wojennym wyemitowano, wcześniej nagrany, materiał z udziałem jego i oficerów Wojska Polskiego, sugerujący popieranie działań WRON. +Zajmował się także heraldyką, zaprojektował m.in. herb Jastrzębia-Zdroju i Świętochłowic. +Przewodniczył jury, które wybrało ostateczną wersję Orderu Uśmiechu, autorstwa 9-letniej Ewy Chrobak. 21 marca 1969 roku przyznano mu Order Uśmiechu, a odznaczenie i legitymację z numerem 16 odebrał 18 czerwca 1970 roku w Opolu z rąk Wandy Chotomskiej. Był następnie członkiem Międzynarodowej Kapituły Orderu Uśmiechu. +Jako pierwszemu w PRL-u udało się Kobylińskiemu opublikować (w Panoramie w latach 1971-1973) cykl artykułów pt. "Gawędy herbowe", poświęconych heraldyce i polskim herbom szlacheckim. Wcześniej temat ten był dopuszczany przez cenzurę tylko w pracach ściśle naukowych, a "Gawędy herbowe" stanowiły przełom, po którym zapanowała wręcz moda na szlacheckie tradycje. +Był żonaty z Danutą Will, z którą miał syna Macieja. Palił fajkę. W 1992 r. otrzymał tytuł "Fajczarza Roku" od Rady Polskich Klubów Fajki. Był autorem znaku graficznego Pipe Club Warszawa. +W 2003 roku ukazała się korespondencja między Szymonem Kobylińskim a Aleksandrą Ziółkowską-Boehm pt. "Nie minęło nic, prócz lat". +Telewizja i film. +Był jedną z najbardziej rozpoznawalnych postaci telewizyjnych. Od początku istnienia Telewizji Polskiej prowadził tam swoje ilustrowane gawędy. Występował zwłaszcza w programach dla młodych widzów, np. w Teleranku. Był także uczestnikiem teleturnieju Pojedynek, w którym potykał się z Bernardem Ładyszem. +Wystąpił w filmie i serialu "Ogniem i mieczem", gdzie zagrał senatora Ostroroga. +Rysunki w prasie. +Felietony rysunkowe Kobylińskiego w "Polityce", dzięki którym stał się znany, ukazywały się w latach 1957-1990. +Stojsława + +Stojsława, Stoisława, Tosława – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członu "Stoj(i)-" ("stać, stoję") oraz członu "-sława" ("sława"). Oznacza "ta, która ma stać się sławną". Męskie odpowiedniki: Stojsław, Stoisław, Stosław, Tosław. W źródłach polskich poświadczone w XV wieku (1439 rok). +Stojsława imieniny obchodzi: 22 lipca. +Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa + +Towarzystwo Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa (TMHiZK) powstało 21 listopada 1896, a swą działalność rozpoczęło z dniem 1 stycznia 1897. +Obecnie Towarzystwo ma blisko 700 członków. Siedziba znajduje się na Św. Jana 12 w Krakowie. +W 1923 Towarzystwo zostało członkiem Towarzystwa Miłośników Miasta Poznania. +Struktury. +W skład Towarzystwa wchodzi Komitet opieki nad kopcem Józefa Piłsudskiego. Komitet powstał w czerwcu 1980 w skład TMHiZK znalazł się formalnie w wyniku uchwały Wydziału z dnia 9 stycznia 1981 r. +Celem komitetu jest odnowa kopca Piłsudskiego oraz kultywowanie szeroko pojętej tradycji niepodległościowej. +Przepona (mięsień) + +Przepona (łac. "diaphragma") - główny mięsień oddechowy występujący u ssaków, należy do mięśni poprzecznie prążkowanych płaskich. Oddziela jamę brzuszną od jamy klatki piersiowej i stanowi jej ścianę dolną. Przepona jest uwypuklona w stronę klatki piersiowej w formie dwóch kopuł - prawej i lewej, przy czym na ludzkich zwłokach prawa kopuła jest ustawiona na wysokości czwartej chrząstki żebrowej, a po stronie lewej lewa kopuła przyjmuje położenie na poziomie piątej chrząstki żebrowej. U osoby żywej podczas wydechu prawa kopuła przepony położona jest na wysokości górnego brzegu piątej chrząstki żebrowej, a po stronie lewej lewa kopuła układa się na poziomie dolnego brzegu piątej chrząstki żebrowej. Ruchy przepony są niezależne od woli człowieka, mogą być jednak modyfikowane pośrednio przez inne grupy mięśni (na przykład podczas śpiewu czy wstrzymywania oddechu). +Budowa. +W przeponie wyróżnia się część mięśniową położoną na obwodzie i część ścięgnistą, tworzącą środek ścięgnisty przepony (łac. "centrum tendineum diaphragmae"). +Część mięśniową w zależności od miejsca przyczepu dzieli się na część: +Wszystkie części przepony kierują swe włókna do środka, gdzie tworzą środek ścięgnisty. Na pograniczu poszczególnych części powstają szczeliny, które czasem mogą stać się miejscem powstawania przepuklin, przez które trzewia jamy brzusznej dostają się do klatki piersiowej. Nie leczona przepuklina może doprowadzić nawet do śmierci poprzez uduszenie się. Główne otwory przepony to: rozwór aorty na poziomie XII kręgu piersiowego, rozwór przełyku na poziomie X kręgu piersiowego oraz otwór żyły głównej dolnej na poziomie VIII kręgu piersiowego. +Funkcja. +Przepona oddziela jamę klatki piersiowej od jamy brzusznej. Praca przepony powoduje zmianę kształtu oraz objętości klatki piersiowej, co umożliwia wdychanie i wydychanie powietrza. Skurcz włókien mięśniowych powoduje obniżenie przepony i zmniejszenie ciśnienia w jamie klatki piersiowej, co umożliwia wdech. Ponieważ rozgałęzienia dróg oddechowych kończą się sprężystymi i elastycznymi pęcherzykami płucnymi, dlatego wdychane powietrze wypełniając je, rozszerza płuca. Wydech zaś następuje wskutek uniesienia przepony ku górze, czyli skurczeniu mięśni brzucha przy jednoczesnym rozkurczu przepony. Ponadto, skurcz przepony zwiększa ciśnienie w jamie brzusznej, co jest wykorzystywane w defekacji. +Unerwienie. +Przepona unerwiona jest przez obie gałązki nerwu przeponowego. Nerw przeponowy, mający swój początek w segmencie szyjnym posiada zarówno włókna ruchowe oraz czuciowe, przy czym na powierzchnię dolną przepony przechodzą tylko włókna czuciowe. Mięsień przepony nie posiada proprioceptywnych zakończeń nerwowych. W przypadku puchliny brzusznej (łac. "ascites") bądź po operacjach chirurgicznych w obrębie jamy brzusznej, gdy do wnętrza dostanie się powietrze, przepona przyjmuje niefizjologiczne, wyższe położenie i z receptorów bólowych wysyłane są sygnały do zwoju szyjnego dolnego, przez co chory może się uskarżać na bóle w okolicy dołu nadobojczykowego większego. Ruchy przepony odbywają się autonomicznie i automatycznie bez udziału świadomości człowieka. Nie jest możliwe wpływanie na zmianę jej skurczu i ruchu.. +Tatami + +Ponieważ wymiary tatami były ustalone, pokoje w dawnej Japonii miały wymiary będące wielokrotnościami 90 cm, a wielkość pomieszczenia określała liczba mogących się w nim pomieścić tatami: typowy sklep miał powierzchnię 5 tatami, pokój lub domek przeznaczony do ceremonii picia herbaty miał powierzchnię 4 i pół tatami. Większość domów we współczesnej Japonii nadal ma przynajmniej jeden pokój wyłożony tatami. +Obecnie tatami coraz częściej wykonuje się z dodatkami tworzyw sztucznych. Całkowicie sztuczne tatami używane są podczas treningów sztuk walki dla ochrony ćwiczących przed skutkami upadków. +Współczesne tatami używane jako podłoże w salach treningowych sztuk walki: judo, karate, ju-jitsu, taekwondo i inne, mają wymiary 2m x 1m x 4cm, rzadziej 1m x 1m x 4cm. Wykonane są z pianki poliuretanowej pokrytej winylem o strukturze "słomy ryżowej". Kolory: oliwkowy, czerwony, niebieski, żółty. Twardość pianki PU waha się zazwyczaj między 180-260 kg/m3. Materace bardziej miękkie przeznaczone są dla początkujących zawodników. Materac podklejany jest specjalną gumą antypoślizgową o strukturze wafla, uniemożliwiającą poruszanie się maty po podłożu. +Międzynarodowe Stowarzyszenie Rozwoju + +Międzynarodowe Stowarzyszenie Rozwoju (ang.: "International Development Association", "IDA") - organizacja utworzona 24 września 1960 jako organ wspomagający Bank Światowy. Władze Banku są jednocześnie władzami Stowarzyszenia. Siedziba IDA mieści się w Waszyngtonie. Organizacja ma na celu pomoc najbiedniejszym krajom świata poprzez udzielanie im bardzo korzystnych pożyczek. +Członków IDA można podzielić na dwie grupy: +Z pomocy Stowarzyszenia mogą korzystać wyłącznie państwa, których dochód narodowy per capita jest mniejszy niż określone minimum w skali roku. W roku podatkowym 2008 wartość ta wynosi 1065 USD. +Duże zainteresowanie kredytami doprowadziło do utworzenia w 1982. dodatkowego funduszu, na którym są gromadzone wyodrębnione udziały państw członkowskich oraz specjalnego funduszu pomocy dla krajów saharyjskich w 1985. +Zaciągane kredyty nie są oprocentowane. Okres karencji, czyli odłożenia spłaty kredytu w czasie, wynosi 10 lat, a sam okres spłaty od 35 do 40 lat. Kredytobiorcy są zobowiązani do ponoszenia rocznie niewielkich opłat. Należą do nich opłata manipulacyjna w wysokości 0,75% i opłata dodatkowa – 0,5%. Opłaty te są przeznaczone na pokrycie działalności IDA. +Aby otrzymać kredyt, trzeba uzyskać aprobatę komitetu wyznaczonego przez IDA, który dokonuje oceny projektu. W skład komitetu wchodzi gubernator z danego państwa lub gubernator reprezentujący dane terytorium, które ubiega się o pomoc finansową oraz ludzie z personelu technicznego IDA. Stowarzyszenie wybiera głównie programy, których celem jest redukcja ubóstwa oraz poprawa jakości życia w krajach najmniej rozwiniętych. +Dzięki pieniądzom z IDA udało się ostatnio na przykład zapewnić dostęp do energii elektrycznej 2,7 milionom mieszkańców terenów wiejskich w Wietnamie. +Od roku 1960 IDA przeznaczyła na pomoc najuboższym krajom w sumie 182 mld USD, z czego prawie 50% trafiło do Afryki. +Wszelkie dane zaczerpnięte z oficjalnej strony Stowarzyszenia. +Arthur Seyss-Inquart + +Arthur Seyss-Inquart, właściwie Arthur Zajtich (ur. 22 lipca 1892 w Stonařovie na Morawach w Austro-Węgrzech, stracony 16 października 1946 w Norymberdze) – hitlerowski polityk, namiestnik Rzeszy w Austrii, a później komisarz Rzeszy w Holandii w okresie II wojny światowej. W Norymberdze został uznany za winnego zbrodni przeciwko ludzkości i został stracony. +Biografia. +Młodość, I wojna światowa. +Pochodząca z Moraw rodzina Zajtichów przeniosła się w 1907 roku do Wiednia, gdzie zmienili nazwisko na Seyss-Inquart (niemieckie Seyß-Inquart). Seyss-Inquart studiował prawo na uniwersytecie w Wiedniu, jednak po wybuchu I wojny światowej w 1914 roku wstąpił ochotniczo do armii austriackiej i po otrzymaniu przydziału do Strzelców Tyrolskich walczył na frontach w Rosji, Rumunii i Włoszech. Był wielokrotnie ranny i odznaczany za odwagę. Po rekonwalescencji w 1917 roku ukończył studia, zdając przewidziane egzaminy. +Republika Austriacka i Federalne Państwo Austriackie. +Po wojnie w 1921 roku rozpoczął praktykę prawniczą i szybko zyskał uznanie w tej dziedzinie. W 1933 roku powołano go do rządu kanclerza Dollfussa. Po jego zamordowaniu 25 lipca 1934 roku Seyss-Inquart został radcą stanu w rządzie Kurta von Schuschnigga. +Anschluss Austrii. +12 lutego 1938 Hitler wysunął pod adresem Austrii serię żądań znoszących właściwie jej suwerenność, wśród nich znajdowało się również żądanie mianowania Seyss-Inquarta ministrem Spraw Wewnętrznych. Kanclerz Schuschnigg spełnił jedynie część żądań Hitlera, a jednocześnie ogłosił przeprowadzenie plebiscytu w sprawie przyłączenia Austrii do Niemiec. Spotkało się to z szybką reakcją Hitlera – 11 marca 1938 roku armia niemiecka została postawiona w stan gotowości i otrzymała rozkaz przekroczenia granicy z Austrią, a Schuschnigg wraz z rządem podał się do dymisji. Tego samego dnia w nocy prezydent Austrii Wilhelm Miklas mianował Seyss-Inquarta kanclerzem, a już rankiem 12 marca wojska niemieckie wkroczyły do Wiednia. Dzień później Seyss-Inquart - któremu prezydent Wilhelm Miklas przekazał swoje obowiązki - podpisał ustawę o Anschlussie, czyli przyłączeniu Austrii do Niemiec jako landu Rzeszy Niemieckiej. +W maju 1938 roku Seyss-Inquart wstąpił do NSDAP i został szefem tak zwanej Marchii Wschodniej ("Ostmark"). Otrzymał też stopień "Gruppenführera" SS, a w maju 1939 został ministrem bez teki rządu Rzeszy. +II wojna światowa. +Po niemieckiej inwazji na Polskę Seyss-Inquart został zarządcą południowych terenów Polski, a od utworzenia Generalnego Gubernatorstwa do 1941 r. pełnił funkcję jego szefa rządu. +Po zajęciu Belgii i Holandii w maju 1940 roku Hitler mianował Seyss-Inquarta Komisarzem Rzeszy ("Reichskommissar") okupowanej Holandii i uczynił odpowiedzialnym za kierowanie administracją cywilną oraz współpracę gospodarczą z Rzeszą. W okresie tym Holandia wpłacała do kasy Rzeszy 50 milionów marek tytułem kosztów okupacji. +Seyss-Inquarta obarcza się odpowiedzialnością za śmierć około 800 osób na terenie okupowanej Holandii w okresie od objęcia rządów do przejęcia jego uprawnień przez dowództwo wojskowe w lipcu 1944 roku. Jest też odpowiedzialny za usuwanie Żydów z administracji rządowej, prasy i ich prześladowania ekonomiczne. Szacuje się, że ze 140 000 Żydów zamieszkujących przed wojną Holandię przeżyło około 13 500. +Proces norymberski. +Na procesie norymberskim Seyss-Inquartowi postawiono zarzuty "spiskowania w celu dokonania zbrodni przeciw pokojowi", "planowania i podżegania do wojny i agresji", zbrodnie wojenne i zbrodnie przeciw ludzkości. Uznano go winnym wszystkich zarzutów z wyjątkiem pierwszego i skazano na karę śmierci przez powieszenie. Amerykańskie gazety okrzyknęły go mianem "Konia trojańskiego nazistów". Psycholog więzienny Gustave M. Gilbert podczas swoich badań na osadzonych ustalił ich iloraz inteligencji (IQ) - Seyss-Inquart miał wynik 141 (drugi najwyższy wśród oskarżonych). Jego ostatnie słowa brzmiały: ""Mam nadzieję, że ta egzekucja to ostatnia tragedia podczas drugiej wojny światowej, oraz że nauką płynącą z wojny będzie pokój i zrozumienie, które powinny istnieć wśród ludzi. Wierzę w Niemcy"". Wyrok wykonano 16 października 1946 roku. +Adam Bronikowski (dziennikarz) + +Adam Bronikowski (ur. 6 września 1936) – dziennikarz telewizyjny. +W latach siedemdziesiątych, osiemdziesiątych i dziewięćdziesiątych był jednym z najbardziej znanych telewizyjnych dziennikarzy ekonomicznych. Prowadził wiele programów publicystycznych, m.in. "Pod znakiem jakości" (1967-68), "Klakson", "Kraj" (współautor i prowadzący), "Gra o milion", "Plusy i Minusy", "Tygodnik gospodarczy "TERAZ"" (1986-91), "Rozmowa na telefon" (na żywo); stworzył cykl filmów dokumentalnych o Azji pt. "Tam, gdzie żyją Tygrysy", zdobył liczne nagrody (m.in. "Złoty Ekran" w 1986). Obecnie na emeryturze, ale wciąż czynny zawodowo (publikuje m.in. w Przeglądzie Przemysłowo-Gospodarczym, Solidnej Firmie, VIP i innych). Jego syn Marcin Bronikowski jest śpiewakiem operowym (baryton) o międzynarodowej sławie. +John Carmel Heenan + +John Carmel Heenan (26 stycznia 1905 w Ilford, diecezja Brentwood - 7 listopada 1975 w Londynie), angielski duchowny katolicki, arcybiskup Liverpoolu i Westminster, kardynał. +Kształcił się w Ushaw College w Durham oraz na Papieskim Uniwersytecie Gregoriańskim w Rzymie, w Rzymie przyjął święcenia kapłańskie (16 lipca 1930). Pracował jako duchowny w archidiecezji katolickiej Westminster, był m.in. dyrektorem Towarzystwa Misji Katolickich. +27 stycznia 1951 został mianowany przez papieża Piusa XII biskupem Leeds, otrzymał sakrę biskupią 12 marca 1951 w Leeds z rąk arcybiskupa Williama Godfreya (delegata apostolskiego w Wielkiej Brytanii, późniejszego kardynała i arcybiskupa Westminster). W maju 1957 Heenan został przeniesiony na arcybiskupa Liverpoolu i jako zwierzchnik tej metropolii udał się na Sobór watykański II. W trakcie obrad soborowych przeniesiono go na arcybiskupa Westminster (2 września 1963). +22 lutego 1965 został wyniesiony do godności kardynalskiej przez papieża Pawła VI; otrzymał tytuł prezbitera S. Silvestro in Capite. Brał udział w sesjach Światowego Synodu Biskupów w Watykanie (1967, 1969 i 1971), od 1968 przewodniczył Konferencji Biskupów Anglii i Walii. +Klemens XII + +Klemens XII "(łac. Clemens XII)", właściwie Lorenzo Corsini, (ur. 7 kwietnia 1652 we Florencji – zm. 6 lutego 1740 w Rzymie), papież w okresie od 12 lipca 1730 do 6 lutego 1740. +Pochodził z rodu markizów Castigliano, był dziedzicem tytułu, ale zrzekł się majątku i wstąpił w 1685 do stanu duchownego. Był spokrewniony ze św. Andreą Corsinim (biskupem Fiesole), a jego stryj Neri Corsini został kardynałem w 1664. +Zgodnie z ówczesnymi obyczajami nabył wysoką godność w Komnacie Apostolskiej. 10 kwietnia 1690 został mianowany arcybiskupem tytularnym Nicomedia, otrzymał sakrę biskupią 18 czerwca 1690 w Rzymie z rąk kardynała Flavio Chigiego, nadano mu także tytuł asystenta Tronu Papieskiego. Wysłany z misją nuncjusza do Austrii, nie został przyjęty przez cesarza Leopolda, który pozostawał w konflikcie z papieżem Aleksandrem VIII (papież odmówił wcześniej mianowania kardynałami kandydatów cesarskich). +W grudniu 1695 został skarbnikiem i generalnym poborcą Komnaty Apostolskiej, a także superintendentem Zamku Św. Anioła oraz komisarzem Państwa Papieskiego ds. morskich. 17 maja 1706 papież Klemens XI mianował go kardynałem, z tytułem prezbitera S. Susanna. Pełnił misję legata w Ferrarze, urząd kamerlinga Św. Kolegium Kardynalskiego oraz prefekta Trybunału Sygnatury Apostolskiej. W 1725 został podniesiony do godności kardynała-biskupa Frascati. W 1721 i 1724 brał udział w konklawe, z racji pełnionych funkcji uchodził za kandydata na papieża. Został wybrany ostatecznie 12 lipca 1730 jako następca Benedykta XIII, po burzliwym, czteromiesięcznym konklawe. W oczach elektorów uchodził za papieża "przejściowego", w chwili wyboru miał już 78 lat i chorował na podagrę (wkrótce także utracił wzrok). Mimo to jego pontyfikat – pod imieniem Klemensa XII – trwał 10 lat (dokładnie 9 lat, 6 miesięcy i 25 dni). +Koronacja nowego papieża miała miejsce 16 lipca 1730. Klemens XII w najważniejszych sprawach musiał posługiwać się swoją prawą ręką – bratankiem Neri Marią Corsinim, którego mianował kardynałem-nepotem. Papież stanął przed problemem kryzysu finansów Państwa Papieskiego, wywołanym przez zaufanego współpracownika jego poprzednika, kardynała Niccolo Coscię. Coscia został skazany na karę więzienia, a Klemens XII dla poprawy finansów ustanowił nowe podatki importowe, przywrócił loterię papieską, ustanowił w Ankonie strefę wolnego handlu. Wprowadził do obiegu banknoty. Działania papieża okazały się nieskuteczne, pod koniec pontyfikatu długi państwa były nawet większe. +Nie wiodło się również Klemensowi XII w polityce zagranicznej. Spotkał się z niechęcią większości monarchów europejskich, przez jakiś czas zerwane były stosunki dyplomatyczne z Hiszpanią i Neapolem. W 1738 wydał konstytucję apostolską "In Eminenti", w której zawarł zdecydowane potępienie masonerii. Za pontyfikatu Klemensa XII zreformowano liturgię i prawo kanoniczne Kościoła maronickiego, a także potwierdzono zakaz tzw. rytu chińskiego stosowanego przez misjonarzy jezuickich. W 1739 papież przyznał niezależność Republice San Marino. +Najkorzystniej pontyfikat Klemensa wypada pod kątem kulturalnym. Papież nakazał odnowę fasady Bazyliki Laterańskiej oraz kaplicy poświęconej pamięci kanonizowanego krewnego Andrei Corsiniego wewnątrz tej świątyni. Wybudował słynną Fontana di Trevi oraz powiększył zbiory Biblioteki Watykańskiej. +Prezydent ZSRR + +Prezydent ZSRR - głowa państwa w ostatnim okresie istnienia ZSRR (1990-1991). Funkcję tę pełniła tylko jedna osoba. +Adwokatura + +Adwokatura (tradycyjnie palestra) – ogół adwokatów i aplikantów adwokackich. +W starożytnym Rzymie, w czasie republiki, adwokatem (łac. "advocati") zwano pomocnika strony (który początkowo nie mógł występować zamiast niej) stawiającego wnioski procesowe (łac. "postulationes"). "Advocati" cieszyli się prestiżem osobistym oraz posiadali znajomość prawa. Zastępstwo procesowe wykonywali w tym czasie "cognitor" i "procurator". W późniejszym okresie (za dominatu) adwokatura została zorganizowana w przymusową korporację. Funkcja procesowa adwokatów nie zmieniła się, lecz w praktyce byli oni ustanawiani jako zastępcy procesowi ("procuratores"). Posiadali wykształcenie prawnicze. Przypisani byli do poszczególnych sądów i podlegali władzy danego urzędnika cesarskiego. Swoje wynagrodzenie ("honorarium") pobierali od stron zgodnie z taryfą. +Polska. +W dawnej Polsce palestrą nazywano ogół osób trudniących się zastępstwem procesowym. Palestra uzyskała duże znaczenie już w XVII i XVIII w. do czego walnie przyczyniło się pieniactwo szlachty i przewlekłość procesów sądowych. Prawo procesowe instytucję zastępcy procesowego zna już od XV w. Zawodowe, odpłatne zastępstwo procesowe znano od przeł. XV i XVI w. Przywileje nieszawskie nakazywały dać stronie zastępcę na jej prośbę, jeśli sama nie dawała sobie rady. Początkowo płatnych zastępców procesowych zwano prokuratorami, a ich stanowisko i obowiązki zawodowe określały ordynacje królewskie. Samodzielny zastępca procesowy zwany był patronem, a jego zastępca dependentem. +Lek generyczny + +Przed wprowadzeniem na rynek leku generycznego poddaje się go badaniu dostępności farmaceutycznej, dostępności biologicznej oraz biorównoważności. +Z badań biodostępności i biorównoważności zwolnione są leki zawierające wyłącznie substancje lecznicze dobrze rozpuszczalne w wodzie i dobrze przenikające przez błony biologiczne. Substancje te klasyfikowane są do grupy I w systemie BCS. Dla pozostałych substancji przeprowadza się badanie losów leku w ustroju (farmakokinetyki), najczęściej na grupie zdrowych ochotników. +Wprowadzenie leków generycznych do obrotu pozwala na znaczne ograniczenie kosztów farmakoterapii zarówno w skali państwa, jak i indywidualnego pacjenta. Leki generyczne są tańsze, ponieważ ich producenci nie są monopolistami. Producenci leków generycznych mogą rozpocząć ich produkcję po upływie okresu ochrony patentowej na dany lek, która trwa 20 lat z możliwością przedłużenia do 25 . Dopuszczenie do obrotu wybranych leków generycznych (w zależności od ich rozpuszczalności, wchłanialności i toksyczności), może wymagać przeprowadzenia badania równoważności biologicznej. +Dostępność leków generycznych w Polsce. +W Polsce na prośbę pacjenta farmaceuta ma obowiązek wydać lek generyczny w tej samej dawce i odpowiedniej ilości, niezależnie od tego, czy na recepcie widnieje nazwa międzynarodowa czy handlowa leku. Wyjątkiem jest, kiedy lekarz doda na recepcie adnotację "Nie zamieniać". +Zawartość leku generycznego. +Leki generyczne nie są w żaden sposób gorsze od leków oryginalnych. Identyczność substancji czynnej w obydwu preparatach nie oznacza jednak, że lek oryginalny i zamiennik zawsze będą tak samo wpływały na pacjenta - substancje nie są tymi samymi preparatami. Środki wypełniające, stabilizujące i zanieczyszczenia, które wchodzą - obok substancji czynnej - w skład generyku są oczyszczane i syntezowane odmiennymi metodami. Różnice te nie mają wpływu na efekt leczniczy. Wg badań różnica w przyswajalności leków generycznych i orginalnych wynosi ok. 3,5%, co jest porównywalne z różnicami występującymi dla różnych partii tego samego leku orginalnego. +Leki generyczne spełniają jednakowe w stosunku do ich odpowiedników orginalnych kryteria w odniesieniu do ich jakości, skuteczności i bezpieczeństwa. Kryterium biorównoważności (czyli bezpieczeństwa i skuteczności) wystarcza do uprawomocnienia obecności leku generycznego na rynku. Czynnikami wpływającymi na zróżnicowanie leków są zarówno koszty przeprowadzenia badań (pomijanych lub przeprowadzanych na niewielką skalę przez firmy wprowadzające zamiennik na rynek), jak i problemy z zastosowaniem kryteriów definicyjnych biorównoważności w stosunku np. do leków o działaniu miejscowym. Jednak te same standardy dotyczą wszystkich leków. Tworząc generyk, można się oprzeć na badaniach skuteczności i bezpieczeństwa wykonanych dla leku oryginalnego, co dodatkowo korzystnie wpływa na cenę leku. +Generyki w krajach III świata. +Od 2003 roku Światowa Organizacja Handlu (WTO) zezwoliła na import tanich (bez opłat patentowych) medykamentów do najbiedniejszych krajów. Działania WTO mające na celu zniesienie barier patentowych dla konkretnych preparatów wywołały szeroką dyskusję na temat mechanizmów obiegu i dostępu do leków. Zwolennicy takiego rozwiązania wskazują na konieczność wsparcia krajów, których budżety nie pozwalają na zakup oryginalnych leków. Przeciwnicy - w większości lobby farmaceutyczne - obawiają się przejęcia rynku medykamentów trzeciego świata przez firmy farmaceutyczne z Chin, Indii i Brazylii (główni producenci leków generycznych). Dopuszczenie do obiegu dużej ilości preparatów trudnych do skontrolowania może - w opinii producentów leków innowacyjnych - doprowadzić do zalania rynku światowego nielegalnymi substancjami. +Komisje sejmowe + +Zgodnie z Art.110 Konstytucji można wyróżnić dwa rodzaje komisji sejmowych: komisje stałe i komisje nadzwyczajne - czyli takie, które są powoływane przez Sejm i mają dokładnie określone: cel, zasady i tryb działania. +Specjalnym rodzajem komisji nadzwyczajnej jest komisja śledcza. +Skład osobowy poszczególnych komisji jest wybierany przez Sejm na wniosek Prezydium Sejmu po zasięgniętej uprzednio opinii Konwentu Seniorów. +Pierwsze posiedzenie komisji zwołuje i prowadzi Marszałek Sejmu - na posiedzeniu tym komisja wybiera ze swego grona prezydium komisji w składzie: przewodniczący oraz zastępcy przewodniczącego. Członkowie prezydium są powoływani i odwoływani przez komisję w głosowaniu jawnym, zwykłą większością głosów. +Bieżącą obsługę administracyjną komisji zapewnia Biuro Komisji Sejmowych, a w przypadku Komisji do Spraw Unii Europejskiej - Biuro Spraw Międzynarodowych Kancelarii Sejmu. +Czersk + +Czersk (kaszb. "Czérsk") – miasto w południowej części województwa pomorskiego, w powiecie chojnickim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Czersk. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. bydgoskiego. +Prawa miejskie od 1 lipca 1926 roku. +Historia. +Starożytność. +Osadnictwo w Czersku i okolicach ma swoją genezę w kulturze wschodniopomorskiej. Znaleziska archeologiczne wskazują na to, iż na przełomie naszej ery z Tucholi przez Czersk, Rytel i Chojnice do Bałtyku biegła odnoga szlaku handlowego. Z tego okresu pochodzą także "Kamienne Kręgi" w Odrach. +W Czersku ustalono stanowiska archeologiczne z wczesnej epoki żelaza (ok. 500 p.n.e. - ok. 125 p.n.e.). +Średniowiecze. +Odkryto ślady osadnictwa wczesnośredniowiecznego (VII-XIII wiek) choć rozwijało się ono mało intensywnie ze względu na niekorzystne położenie geograficzne tej krainy. W XII wieku Czersk wchodził w skład tzw. "Zaborów", czyli obszarów leżących "za borami", a te z kolei w skład kasztelanii raciąskiej. Podczas panowania książąt pomorskich osada była urządzona na prawie polskim. Pierwsze wzmianki pochodzą z 1330. Za panowania Krzyżaków, od 1309 Czersk i jego okolice należały do komturstwa tucholskiego. +W XVII wieku we wsi powstał browar i Czersk stał się siedzibą tzw. "Ekonomii Czerskiej", która była dzierżawiona m.in. przez Raczyńskich herbu Nałęcz, Kilińskich herbu Junosza, a od połowy XVII wieku przez Łukowiczów, którym nadano "Ekonomię" w wieczyste użytkowanie. +Potop szwedzki. +W latach 1655-1660 Czersk podupadł, w wyniku zniszczeń wojennych Potopu szwedzkiego. Miejscowa ludność wraz z proboszczem - ks. Gradzikowskim - musiała kryć się przed Szwedami w pobliskich lasach. Dla odbudowy zrujnowanego miasta przyczynić się miało uzyskane od króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego prawo odbywania jarmarków w Czersku. +W administracji kościelnej Czersk wraz ze Starogardem stanowił odrębny dekanat z siedzibą w Czersku. W wieku XVII i XVIII w Czersku istniała szkółka parafialna. +Zabór pruski. +W 1809 w Czersku, za zgodą właściciela dóbr czerskich Jana Warsza (Nepomuka Wazy) Dembińskiego, zorganizowano szkołę dla dzieci z tej wsi i okolic, fundując pensję nauczycielowi. Nauka odbywała się głównie w zimie, a dzieci czytały różne podręczniki gromadzone przez nauczyciela. Jan Dembiński na podstawie zarządzeń państwowych z 1816 przyznał prawo własności 16 gburom w zamian za pracę na jego gruntach przez określoną liczbę dni w tygodniu. Warunki te przez gburów nie zostały przyjęte i proces regulacji stosunków chłopskich w Czersku został zakończony w 1856, a nawet jeszcze w 1916 była rozpatrywana sprawa uprawnień tychże 16 gburów czerskich do połowu ryb. +21 lutego 1832 w Czersku zatrzymał się na nocleg jeden z pierwszych oddziałów Powstania listopadowego maszerujący z Tczewa. Oddział liczył 120 szeregowych i 40 oficerów pod dowództwem Wincentego Pola. Wydarzenie to Wincenty Pol upamiętnił w swoim wierszu. +W latach 1828-1830 dokonano przebudowy tzw. "traktu napoleońskiego" przechodzącego przez Czersk wyznaczając tę szosę na trasę poczty królewskiej. W 1867 we wsi powstała pierwsza apteka, w 1870 uruchomiono ekspedycję pocztową z telegrafem zajmującą się również przewozem podróżnych, a w latach 1871-1873 przez Czersk wybudowano dwutorową linię kolejową z Berlina do Królewca i Gdańska w ramach sieci "Preußische Ostbahn". Czersk uzyskał połączenie ze Szlachtą, a przez nią Laskowicami i Skórczem. Do Szlachty pierwszy pociąg ruszył 20 sierpnia 1908. Czersk stał się ośrodkiem przemysłu drzewnego. Jego rozwój ekonomiczny zaowocował tym, że w 1880 w Czersku był już Bank Ludowy, Spółka Rolniczo-Handlowa, a obok młyna wodnego - tartak (zwany wówczas piłą), cegielnia i browar. W ciągu roku odbywały się cztery wielkie targi kramne i na bydło. +Na przełomie XIX i XX wieku w Czersku powstała Fabryka Maszyn Rolniczych "Victoria". Właściciele tej i innych fabryk i zakładów wyzyskiwali pracujących w nich robotników, co doprowadziło do fali strajków w latach 1904-1910. W tym okresie dochodziło także do strajków szkolnych. W strajku szkolnym od 5 listopada 1906 do 18 kwietnia 1907 wzięło udział 207 uczniów. Dwóch z nich - inicjatorzy strajku przeciwko nauce religii w języku niemieckim Władysław Narloch i Antoni Wiśniewski otrzymali karę chłosty po 12 kijów. +Okres międzywojenny. +W latach międzywojennych w Czersku funkcjonowało kilka fabryk mebli. Około 80% produkcji tych fabryk kierowane było na rynki Śląska i Warszawy, w mieście działała tez odlewnia żelaza, wspomniana już fabryka maszyn rolniczych, 8 tartaków, 3 młyny parowe i jeden wodny oraz 2 browary. w mieście odbywały się systematycznie duże targi i jarmarki. +15 października 1928 oddano do eksploatacji linię kolejową z Czerska do Bąka, będący zarazem dogodnym połączeniem do Gdyni. W latach 1928-1929 wybudowano betonową szosę łączącą Czersk z Tucholą. W mieście powstawały nowe domy prywatne i komunalne. Zmodernizowano gazownię, założono system kanalizacji, uregulowano stosunki wodne. +Istotną część mieszkańców Czerska stanowili Niemcy - w 1910 r. 30% ogółu ludności, w 1934 r. około 12%. Zajmowali oni w mieście silną pozycję ekonomiczną, będąc w posiadaniu około połowy jego zakładów przemysłowych. Sytuacja ta, szczególnie w kontekście złych stosunków polsko-niemieckich i bliskości granicy, powodowała poważne napięcia społeczne. +Nocą z 23 na 24 sierpnia 1939 na Pomorzu zarządzono niejawną, alarmową mobilizację. Do Czerska przybyli rezerwiści z okolicznych wsi i utworzono "Batalion Obrony Narodowej Czersk", któremu nadano kryptonim "85. Baonu Piechoty". Jednostka ta po zmobilizowaniu liczyła około 900 żołnierzy (bez artylerii) i następnie weszła w skład Grupy Operacyjnej "Czersk", której główny trzon stanowiła "Pomorska Brygada Kawalerii". 28 sierpnia 1939 Grupa Operacyjna "Czersk" pod dowództwem gen. Stanisława Grzmot-Skotnickiego przeniosła miejsce dowodzenia z Tucholi do Czerska. Gen. Grzmot-Skotnicki oprócz Grupy Operacyjnej "Czersk" miał także w dyspozycji 81. Dywizjon Pancerny (stanowiący odwód dowódcy) oraz 1. pluton Eskadry towarzyszącej. +II wojna światowa - działania w Czersku. +W pierwszym dniu wojny, w godzinach 16-17, Batalion Obrony Narodowej "Czersk" odpierał napór nieprzyjaciela na stanowiskach obronnych rejonu Chojnice - Jezioro Charzykowskie. W wyniku zmasowanej ofensywy sił niemieckich wycofano się rejon wsi Mylof. Straty własne wynosiły około 50-60%. W takim stanie nastąpiło wycofanie wojsk polskich w okolice Błądzimia i częściowe rozproszenie w Borach Tucholskich. Utrudnieniem były silne bombardowania samolotów niemieckich - znaczna część żołnierzy dostała się do niewoli niemieckiej. +Wojska niemieckie weszły do Czerska 3 września 1939 około godziny 10. Niemieckim komendantem miasta został Gross, który zorganizował aparat okupacyjnego terroru - placówki służby bezpieczeństwa, policji ochronnej ("Schutzpolizei"), żandarmerii (komendant Korsanke) i "Gestapo". Rozebrano synagogę zbudowaną w 1868, a nazwę miasta zmieniono na Heiderode (25 kwietnia 1942). +Okupant przystąpił do systematycznej likwidacji polskiej inteligencji i osób, które zostały uznane za niebezpieczne dla III Rzeszy. 18 października 1939 za współpracę z partyzantami demonstracyjnie zamordowano rodzinę Jana Kiedrowskiego ze Strugi, a 4 listopada dokonano masowej egzekucji 28 mieszkańców Czerska w lesie pod Łukowem. Niemcy wywłaszczali Polaków i zsyłali ich do obozów koncentracyjnych. +Infrastruktura. +Transport kolejowy. +Do dyspozycji podróżnych jest stacja kolejowa Czersk. Miasto posiada bezpośrednie połączenia kolejowe z Tczewem, Chojnicami, Laskowicami, Bydgoszczą, Gdynią, Kościerzyną. Pociągi zapewniają Arriva RP i PKP Przewozy Regionalne. +Transport drogowy. +Komunikację autobusową w Czersku i okolicy zapewniają przedsiębiorstwa PKS Chojnice i PKS Starogard Gdański. Miasto posiada bezpośrednie połączenia autobusowe z Gdańskiem, Bydgoszczą, Chojnicami, Tucholą, Starogardem Gdańskim, Tczewem, Czarną Wodą oraz mniejszymi miejscowościami w bliskiej okolicy. +Confédération Africaine de Football + +CAF (fr. Confédération Africaine de Football), Afrykańska Konfederacja Piłkarska - jedna z sześciu kontynentalnych federacji piłkarskich wchodzących w skład FIFA, zrzeszająca związki piłkarskie państw Afryki. Siedzibą CAF jest Kair. +Historia. +Powstanie organizacji. +Afrykańska Federacja Piłkarska powstała dzięki porozumieniu czterech państw Egiptu, Etiopii, Sudanu i Republiki Południowej Afryki. +Pomimo że pierwsze Zwyczajne Zgromadzenie Ogólne CAF odbyło się w dniach 7-8 czerwca 1956 roku, za datę założenia organizacji przyjmuje się rok 1957 - w tym roku bowiem wybrano pierwszego prezydenta CAF, a FIFA zatwierdziła oficjalnie statut organizacji. +Pierwsze rozgrywki drużynowe. +W 1957 roku CAF rozganizowała w Sudanie pierwszy międzynarodowy turniej piłkarski, który nazwano Pucharem Narodów Afryki. Uczestniczyły w nim Egipt, Etiopia i Sudan. Reprezentacja Republiki Południowej Afryki została wykluczona z udziału w rozgrywkach - było to spowodowane stosowaniem przez RPA polityki rasistowskiej. +Afryka w MŚ. +1930 - "Brak" +1934 - Egipt +1938 - "Wycofały się" +1950 - "Nie grały" +1954 - "Nie grały" +1958 - "Nie grały" +1962 - "Nie grały" +1966 - "Nie grały" +1970 - Maroko +1974 - Zair +1978 - Tunezja +1982 - Algieria, Kamerun +1986 - Maroko, Algieria +1990 - Egipt, Kamerun +1994 - Kamerun, Maroko, Nigeria +1998 - Tunezja, RPA, Kamerun, Maroko, Nigeria +2002 - Kamerun, RPA, Nigeria, Senegal, Tunezja +2006 - Tunezja, Ghana, Togo, WKS, Angola +2010 - Kamerun, Nigeria, Ghana, WKS, RPA, Algieria +Inne formy działalności. +Piłkarza Roku, Młodzieżowego Piłkarza Roku, Trenera Roku, Drużyny Roku, +Legendy Roku i inne. +Piłkarze Roku w Afryce +Członkowie CAF. +CAF zrzesza 56 narodowych federacji podzielonych na sześć stref geograficznych (stan z 10 stycznia 2013). +Adamczowice + +Adamczowice – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie świętokrzyskim, w powiecie sandomierskim, w gminie Klimontów. +Wieś została wspomniana w dziele Długosza. +W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa tarnobrzeskiego. +Tytus Chałubiński + +Tytus Chałubiński (ur. 29 grudnia 1820 w Radomiu, zm. 4 listopada 1889 w Zakopanem, syn Szymona i Teodozji z Wnorowskich) – polski lekarz, profesor patologii, miłośnik przyrody. Był współtwórcą Towarzystwa Tatrzańskiego i jednym z pierwszych badaczy przyrody tatrzańskiej. Na jego cześć nazwano Wrotami Chałubińskiego jedną z przełęczy w głównej grani Tatr. Popularyzator Zakopanego, w dużym stopniu przyczynił się do rozwoju tej miejscowości. Jeden z prekursorów polskiego klimatolecznictwa; jego staraniem Zakopane zyskało pod koniec XIX wieku status stacji klimatycznej jako kurort wspomagający leczenie chorób płucnych. +Biografia. +W latach 1838–1840 studiował medycynę na Akademii Medyko-Chirurgicznej w Wilnie. Po zamknięciu Akademii Wileńskiej kontynuował studia w Dorpacie (dzisiaj Tartu w Estonii). Członek korporacji akademickiej Konwent Polonia. Dyplom doktora medycyny i chirurgii uzyskał w Würzburgu 13 lipca 1844 r. Od roku 1845 mieszkał w Warszawie, praktykę lekarską rozpoczął w Szpitalu Ewangelickim. Praktykował jako lekarz w Tomaszowie Mazowieckim (według Tadeusza Seweryna). Uczestniczył jako lekarz w powstaniu węgierskim 1848. W 1861 r. został członkiem Delegacji Miejskiej. +Należał do ludzi o szerokich horyzontach i wszechstronnych zainteresowaniach, zarówno w zakresie nauk humanistycznych, jak i przyrodniczych. Był z wyboru lekarzem. Zajmował się także filozofią medycyny i należał do polskiej szkoły filozofii medycyny. +Z zamiłowania był przyrodnikiem. Zajmował się badaniem tatrzańskich mchów. Na jego cześć nazwano gatunki bruzdnic: "Peridinium chalubinskii" i "Chalubinskia tatrica". Rozpropagował w Polsce turystykę tatrzańską. Był wielkim przyjacielem i opiekunem górali. W czasie wypraw w Tatry często towarzyszył mu Sabała. Pomnik ich obu stoi w centrum Zakopanego, u zbiegu ulic Chałubińskiego i Zamoyskiego. Drugi zakopiański pomnik Chałubińskiego, przy ul. Chramcówki, dłuta Wojciecha Korpala, ufundowany przez doktora Andrzeja Chramca w 1901 roku, został po całkowitej dewastacji odrestaurowany w roku 2006 przez Fundację Pokolenia-Pokoleniom. +Pierwszą żoną Tytusa Chałubińskiego była Antonina Kozłowska. Po jej śmierci ożenił się z Anną Leszczyńską. Z drugiego małżeństwa miał syna Ludwika oraz córkę Jadwigę, żonę Jana Alfonsa Surzyckiego. Trzecią żoną Tytusa Chałubińskiego była Antonina Wilde, jego pierwsza miłość z czasów studenckich. +Tytus Chałubiński pochowany został na Cmentarzu Zasłużonych na Pęksowym Brzyzku w Zakopanem 8 listopada 1889 r. +Transwersja + +Transwersja – mutacja genowa, punktowa zmiana chemiczna w obrębie nici DNA, w której zasada purynowa ulega zamianie na pirymidynową lub odwrotnie. Ponieważ ten typ mutacji zmienia dramatycznie strukturę chemiczną DNA, ta zmiana może nieść skutki bardziej drastyczne niż tranzycja. +Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny dla Rwandy + +Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny dla Rwandy (MTKR) (ang. "International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda", ICTR; fr. "Tribunal pénal international pour le Rwanda", TPIR) – międzynarodowy trybunał powołany pod auspicjami Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych do zbadania i rozliczenia zbrodni popełnionych w Rwandzie podczas masowego ludobójstwa które miało miejsce od stycznia do grudnia 1994 roku. +Prezesem Trybunału jest od 2003 norweski prawnik Erik Møse. +Struktura. +Biuro Prokuratora mieści się w Hadze, zaś jego zastępcy w Kigali w Rwandzie. +Izby, Izba Apelacyjna, Rejestr mieszczą się w Aruszy w Zjednoczonej Republice Tanzanii +Trybunał składa 14 sędziów wybieranych na 4 lata przez Zgromadzenie Ogólne ONZ na podstawie listy przedłożonej przez Radę Bezpieczeństwa. +Zakres jurysdykcji. +Jurysdykcja Trybunału obejmuje wyłącznie czyny popełnione w roku 1994. +Sejmowa komisja śledcza + +Sejmowa komisja śledcza została ustanowiona ustawą z 21 stycznia 1999, stała się nową, nieznaną wcześniej w polskiej praktyce parlamentarnej instytucją. Sejm nadał komisji śledczej uprawnienia prokuratorskie, a członkowie komisji uzyskali w ten sposób prawo do przesłuchiwania świadków zgodnie z zasadami kodeksu postępowania karnego. Zakończeniem pracy komisji sejmowej jest sprawozdanie, które może skutkować pociągnięciem wskazanych w nim osób do odpowiedzialności przed Trybunałem Stanu. +Politycznymi przesłankami uchwalenia ustawy było m.in. wyjaśnienie afery Olina. +Posiedzenia sejmowej komisji śledczej odbywają się, co do zasady, w Sali Kolumnowej w Sejmie. +Instytucja sejmowej komisji specjalnej w porządku konstytucyjnym Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej istnieje od 8 kwietnia 1989 na skutek wprowadzenia nowelą kwietniową art. 23 ust. 5 w brzmieniu "Sejm może powołać komisję do zbadania określonej sprawy. Uprawnienia i tryb działania komisji ustala Sejm." +Współczesna komisja śledcza. +Powołanie komisji śledczej. +Komisja powoływana jest do zbadania określonej sprawy. Powoływana jest ona przez Sejm w drodze uchwały bezwzględną większością głosów. Projekt uchwały, który powinien wskazywać potrzebę i cel powołania komisji, może być wniesiony przez Prezydium Sejmu, komisję sejmową lub co najmniej 46 posłów. +Skład komisji. +W skład komisji może wchodzić 11 członków, którzy powinni odzwierciedlać reprezentację w Sejmie klubów parlamentarnych i kół poselskich, mających swoich przedstawicieli w Konwencie Seniorów, odpowiednio do jej liczebności. +Wyłączenie posła z komisji. +Poseł nie może być członkiem komisji jeśli badana sprawa dotyczy go bezpośrednio, brał lub bierze udział w jakiejkolwiek roli procesowej lub sprawie przed organem władzy publicznej w postępowaniu w tej samej sprawie, lub istnieje inna okoliczność mogąca wywołać uzasadnioną bezstronność w postępowaniu. +Wyłączenie takie może nastąpić na wniosek: posła lub osoby wezwanej przed komisję w celu złożenia zeznań. O wyłączeniu posła decyduje komisja w drodze uchwały, podjętej w drodze głosowania z wyłączeniem posła, którego to dotyczy. Jeżeli wnioski o wyłączeniu dotyczą większej liczby posłów, uchwałę w tej sprawie podejmuje Prezydium Sejmu. Jeżeli wniosek dotyczy posła kandydującego do składu komisji uchwałę również podejmuje Prezydium Sejmu. Jeżeli istnieje taka potrzeba wyboru uzupełniającego dokonuje Sejm. +Zakres działania komisji. +Sejmowa komisja śledcza związana jest zakresem przedmiotowym określonym w uchwale o jej powołaniu. Komisja powinna korzystać ze swoich uprawnień jedynie w zakresie niezbędnym do wyjaśnienia meritum sprawy, tak aby nie naruszać dóbr osobistych osób trzecich. +Praca komisji. +Pracami komisji kieruje jej prezydium, na zewnątrz reprezentuje ją i działa w jej imieniu przewodniczący komisji lub z jego upoważnienia zastępca przewodniczącego +Świadkowie. +Każda osoba, która jest wezwana przez komisję śledczą ma obowiązek stawić się przed nią i złożyć zeznanie. Osoba ta może ustanowić pełnomocnika. W zakresie przesłuchania świadka komisja powinna kierować się przepisami Kodeksu postępowania karnego dotyczącego wzywania i przesłuchiwania świadków oraz ustanawiania pełnomocnika. +Jeżeli osoba wezwana przez komisję, bez usprawiedliwienia nie stawi się na wezwanie komisji, bez jej zezwolenia odejdzie z miejsca czynności przed jej zakończeniem albo bezpodstawnie uchyli się od złożenia zeznań lub złożenia przyrzeczenia, komisja może zwrócić się do sądu okręgowego w Warszawie kierując wniosek o zastosowanie kary porządkowej. Na terenie Sejmu czynności związane z zastosowaniem kary porządkowej wykonuje, na polecenie sądu, Straż Marszałkowska. +Organy władzy państwowej oraz organy innych osób prawnych i jednostek organizacyjnych nie mających osobowości prawnej, na żądanie komisji składają pisemne wyjaśnienia lub przedstawiają dokumenty będące w ich dyspozycji albo akta każdej sprawy przez nie prowadzonej. +Komisja może zwrócić się do Prokuratora Generalnego o przeprowadzenie określonych czynności w których może brać udział również przewodniczący lub upoważniony przez niego członek komisji. +Prawa świadków. +Osoby wezwane przez komisję mogą na własny wniosek o którym powinny być pouczone, domagać się zwrotu uzasadnionych wydatków jakie poniosły w związku z udziałem w posiedzeniu komisji, również z tytułu utraty zarobków (jednak nie więcej niż trzykrotności najniższego wynagrodzenia pracowników). +Zakończenie prac komisji. +Jeżeli komisja w trakcie postępowania uznała, że dokonane przez nią ustalenia uzasadniają postawienie osobom mającym związek z zakresem przedmiotowym jej powołania zarzutu popełnienia w sposób zawiniony czynu naruszającego Konstytucję lub ustawę, występuje ze wstępnym wnioskiem (postanowionym większością 2/3 głosów w obecności co najmniej połowy liczby jej członków) o pociągnięcie tych osób do odpowiedzialności przed Trybunałem Stanu. +Komisja po zakończeniu swej działalności przekazuje Marszałkowi Sejmu sprawozdanie ze swej działalności. Marszałek Sejmu zarządza drukowanie i doręczenie posłom sprawozdania; jeżeli sprawozdanie zawiera wiadomości o charakterze tajemnicy państwowej, określa on tryb udostępnienia oraz sposób rozpatrywania sprawozdania przez Sejm. +Jeżeli komisja nie zakończyła swej działalności przed końcem kadencji Sejmu, który ją powołał, postępowanie przez nią prowadzone kończy się z dniem zakończenia kadencji. Jeżeli komisja przekazała Marszałkowi Sejmu sprawozdanie, a Sejm nie rozpatrzył go do końca kadencji, Sejm następnej kadencji może je rozpatrzyć. +Tło historyczne. +"konfiskata jego dóbr na rzecz męża lub rodziny (...) z racji raptu dokonanego przez urodzonego Dunina na wdowie po nieboszczyku Mikołaju Tomickim, kasztelanie gnieźnieńskim". +Sprawa odbiła się w ówczesnej Polsce na tyle szerokim echem, że król Zygmunt I powołał specjalną komisję śledczą, złożoną głównie z senatorów do przeprowadzenia śledztwa jak również wizji lokalnej miejsc i okoliczności z nią związanych. +Niezawisłość sędziowska + +Niezawisłość sędziowska – konstytucyjna zasada wymiaru sprawiedliwości, zgodnie z którą sędzia rozstrzygając sprawę podlega wyłącznie Konstytucji i ustawom, nie podlega żadnym naciskom i żadnym zależnościom z zewnątrz, szczególnie ze strony władzy wykonawczej. Niezawisłość jest niezależnością sędziego w orzekaniu, nie oznacza natomiast braku podporządkowania służbowego. Wymaga jednakże, aby kontrola prawidłowości orzeczenia należała wyłącznie do innego sądu i odbywała się w trybie określonym prawem. +Dbałość o niezawisłość sędziów i niezależność sądów uzasadnia się interesem ogółu społeczeństwa. Ma ona zapewniać stabilność w wykonywaniu funkcji wymiaru sprawiedliwości bez względu na zmiany, jakie mogą zachodzić w organach władzy ustawodawczej i wykonawczej. +Gwarancje niezawisłości. +Nieusuwalność z urzędu. +Sędzia w Polsce powoływany jest na urząd dożywotnio, można go pozbawić tego stanowiska wyłącznie orzeczeniem sądu. +Nieusuwalność sędziego i dożywotnie powołanie gwarantuje, że sędzia będzie niezależny od nacisków z zewnątrz, mogąc nieskrępowanie orzekać zgodnie z własnym sumieniem, wskazaniami wiedzy, doświadczeniem życiowym oraz literą prawa. Sędzia może być pewny, iż nawet jeśli wyda wyrok niekorzystny bądź dla organów władzy wykonawczej czy ustawodawczej, bądź dla osób wpływowych, nie zostanie usunięty za to z urzędu. +Dożywotnie powołanie, rozumiane jako niekadencyjność, gwarantuje również, iż sędzia swoimi orzeczeniami nie „pracuje na kolejną kadencję”, czyli nie wydaje rozstrzygnięć, które miałyby zaskarbić mu poparcie. +Nieprzenoszalność. +Aby środkiem nacisku na sędziego nie była groźba przeniesienia na inne stanowisko lub do innej siedziby, Konstytucja gwarantuje, że przeniesienie takie może odbyć się tylko za zgodą sędziego, a w braku jego zgody, tylko na podstawie orzeczenia sądu i tylko w przypadkach określonych w ustawie, chyba że nastąpią zmiany ustroju sądów lub zmiany granic okręgów sądowych (art. 180 ust. 2 i 5 Konstytucji RP). Zasada ta jest skonkretyzowana np. w art. 75-78a Prawa o ustroju sądów powszechnych. +Immunitet sędziowski. +Zgodnie z art. 181 Konstytucji RP, sędzia nie może być, bez uprzedniej zgody sądu dyscyplinarnego określonego w ustawie, pociągnięty do odpowiedzialności karnej ani pozbawiony wolności. +Sędzia nie może być zatrzymany lub aresztowany, z wyjątkiem ujęcia go na gorącym uczynku przestępstwa, jeżeli jego zatrzymanie jest niezbędne do zapewnienia prawidłowego toku postępowania (czyli w celu np. ustalenia tożsamości, zdjęcia odcisków palców, zbadania trzeźwości). O zatrzymaniu niezwłocznie powiadamia się prezesa właściwego miejscowo sądu, który może nakazać natychmiastowe zwolnienie zatrzymanego. +W stosunku do przestępstw jest to więc tzw. immunitet formalny, czyli uniemożliwiający pociągnięcie sędziego do odpowiedzialności bez zgody sądu dyscyplinarnego. +W odniesieniu do wykroczeń sędzia sądu powszechnego posiada immunitet materialny, czyli uchylający karalność za wykroczenie. Zgodnie bowiem z art. 81 Prawa o ustroju sądów powszechnych za wykroczenia sędzia odpowiada wyłącznie dyscyplinarnie. Przepis ten stosuje się także do sędziów wojewódzkich sądów administracyjnych (art. 29 Prawa o ustroju sądów administracyjnych). W związku z tym, odmowa przyjęcia mandatu jest obowiązkiem sędziego, a niewykonanie tego obowiązku może oznaczać chęć uniknięcia odpowiedzialności dyscyplinarnej za dane wykroczenie, przez co samo w sobie jest przewinieniem dyscyplinarnym. +Immunitet i nietykalność gwarantują, iż sędzia będzie wolny od nacisków i szykan oraz szantażu i prowokacji, w szczególności pochodzących od osób niezadowolonych z jego rozstrzygnięć. +Zakaz określonej działalności publicznej. +Sędzia nie może należeć do partii politycznej, związku zawodowego ani prowadzić działalności publicznej nie dającej się pogodzić z zasadami niezależności sądów i niezawisłości sędziów (art. 178 ust. 3 Konstytucji RP). +Zakaz dodatkowego zatrudnienia. +Zgodnie z art. 86 § 1 i 2 Prawa o ustroju sądów powszechnych (w związku z art. 29 Prawa o ustroju sądów administracyjnych i art. 70 § 1 Prawa o ustroju sądów wojskowych) oraz art. 37 ustawy o Sądzie Najwyższym (w związku z art. 49 Prawa o ustroju sądów administracyjnych), sędzia nie może podejmować dodatkowego zatrudnienia, ani innego zajęcia (również nieodpłatnego) bądź sposobu zarobkowania, które przeszkadzałoby w pełnieniu obowiązków sędziego, mogło osłabiać zaufanie do jego bezstronności lub przynieść ujmę godności urzędu sędziego. Ta zasada nie dotyczy stanowisk naukowych i dydaktycznych oraz zajęć, które nie będą przeszkadzać w pełnieniu funkcji sędziego. O zamiarze podjęcia takiego zatrudnienia sędzia powiadamia prezesa właściwego sądu, który może się temu sprzeciwić. Na wniosek sędziego sprawę rozstrzyga ostatecznie kolegium właściwego sądu. +Sędzia nie może być członkiem zarządu, rady nadzorczej lub komisji rewizyjnej spółki prawa handlowego, członkiem zarządu, rady nadzorczej lub komisji rewizyjnej spółdzielni, być członkiem zarządu fundacji prowadzącej działalność gospodarczą. Nie może też prowadzić działalności gospodarczej, czy to sam, czy wspólnie z innymi osobami, ani zarządzać taką działalnością, lub być przedstawicielem przedsiębiorcy. Sędziemu nie wolno również posiadać w spółce prawa handlowego więcej niż 10% akcji lub udziały przedstawiające więcej niż 10% kapitału zakładowego. +W związku z tymi ograniczeniami Konstytucja RP gwarantuje sędziom warunki pracy oraz wynagrodzenie odpowiadające godności urzędu oraz zakresowi ich obowiązków (art. 178 ust. 2). +Emerytura + +Emerytura (zwana dawniej rentą starczą) – świadczenie pieniężne mające służyć jako zabezpieczenie bytu na starość dla osób, które ze względu na wiek nie posiadają już zdolności do pracy zarobkowej (jako pracownicy, przedsiębiorcy, rolnicy i in.) albo utraciły ją w znacznym stopniu oraz nie dysponują innymi źródłami dochodu gwarantującymi możliwość utrzymania się. +Wiek emerytalny na świecie. +Wiek przechodzenia na emeryturę w przypadku kobiet najniższy jest w Rosji, Białorusi i Ukrainie (55 lat), najwyższy: w Norwegii (67 lat). W przypadku mężczyzn najniższy wiek obowiązuje w Rosji, Białorusi i Ukrainie (60 lat), najwyższy również w Norwegii (67 lat). +Pomorze Gdańskie + +Pomorze Gdańskie, Pomorze Nadwiślańskie, Pomorze Wschodnie, Pomerelia (kasz. "Pòrénkòwô Pòmòrskô", niem. "Pommerellen") – historyczna dzielnica Polski nad dolną Wisłą nad Morzem Bałtyckim w przybliżeniu obejmująca swym obszarem szeroki pas na zachód od dolnej Wisły, tj. wschodnią część województwa pomorskiego oraz północno-zachodnią część województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego. Historycznie Pomorze Gdańskie obejmowało także od zachodu Ziemię Sławieńską, która sąsiadowała z Pomorzem Zachodnim, zaś od Wschodu Pomorze Gdańskie sąsiadowało z Pomezanią i Prusami. +Zarys historyczny. +Na początku II wieku n.e. obszar Pomorza Gdańskiego zajęli przybyli ze Skandynawii Gepidzi i Goci, których ślady określane przez archeologów są jako kultura wielbarska. Plemiona germańskie wywędrowały na południe i po V wieku osiedlili się tu Słowianie. Istnieją również teorie autochtoniczne mówiące o słowiańskim charakterze np. kultury łużyckiej. +W X wieku Pomorze Gdańskie zamieszkiwali Pomorzanie, od których wywodzą się współcześni Kaszubi. +Pierwsza wiadomość historyczna o Gdańsku pochodzi z 997 roku dzięki wysłaniu św. Wojciecha przez Bolesława Chrobrego w celu szerzenia wiary chrześcijańskiej – dotarł on do osady o nazwie "Gyddanyzc". Dowodzić ma ta wiadomość, że . +Pomorze Gdańskie zostało na krótko opanowane i przyłączone do Polski w 1090 przez Sieciecha. W ważniejszych grodach pomorskich umieszczono polskie załogi, resztę spalono w celu pozbycia się oporu Pomorzan. W kilka miesięcy później doszło do buntu miejscowych elit, co doprowadziło do przywrócenia stanu niezawisłości od Księstwa Polskiego. W następnym roku zorganizowana próba podporządkowania Polsce ziem Pomorza Gdańskiego nie przyniosła efektu; w bitwie nad Wdą oraz kolejnej jesiennej wyprawie Władysław Herman wspomagany przez załogi czeskie poniósł klęskę. +W latach 1109-1119 podejmowane były kolejne próby ustanowienia podległości Pomorza Gdańskiego Polsce. Polski książę, Bolesław III Krzywousty, pokonał Pomorzan w Bitwie pod Nakłem (1109), kolejny najazd wojsk polskich nastąpił w 1112. W 1119 roku Krzywousty pokonał dwóch książąt pomorskich - sądzi się, że jednym z nich mógł być Świętopełk. Od tego momentu datuje się podległość Pomorza Gdańskiego Polsce, zaś gwarantami zależności mieli być namiestnicy, od drugiej połowy XII w. tworzący dynastię Sobiesławiców. +W 1186 władcy Pomorza przyjęli wyznanie chrześcijańskie od duńskich cystersów, którym przewodził Bernard Dithard; w 1188 roku nastąpiło w Gdańsku uroczyste podpisanie aktu fundacyjnego Opactwa Cystersów w Oliwie, którego Dithard został pierwszym opatem. +W 1210 roku książę Mściwoj I złożył hołd lenny królowi Danii Waldemarowi II. Zależność ta trwała krótko i skończyła staraniem Leszka Białego w 1211. W kolejnych latach książę Świętopełk II Wielki podejmował kolejne próby usamodzielnienia, do którego doszło po śmierci Leszka Białego (1227). W 1231 Świętopełk uzyskał dla siebie, swojej rodziny i swojego księstwa protekcję papieską. Stolica państwa (Gdańsk) uzyskała w tym okresie prawa miejskie według prawa lubeckiego. +W 1282 między księciem gdańskim Mściwojem II a księciem wielkopolskim Przemysłem II zawarty został układ w Kępnie; umowa głosiła, że ten z książąt, który przeżyje drugiego, będzie po nim dziedziczył. Od śmierci Mściwoja II w 1294 roku datuje się ponowne podporządkowanie Pomorza Gdańskiego Polsce. Zjednoczenie dwu dzielnic umożliwiło Przemysłowi II koronację na króla Polski; został on zamordowany w 1296 roku, wskutek czego przez następne kilkanaście lat Pomorze przechodziło z rąk do rąk. Kolejnymi władcami stał się książę Władysław Łokietek, w roku 1300 królem Polski został panujący w Czechach Wacław II; w 1305 roku jego następcą został Wacław III, który zginął w zamachu w 1306 roku. Wówczas Pomorze przejął ponownie Władysław Łokietek, jednak wkrótce je utracił. W roku 1308 stolica, Gdańsk, została zajęta przez Brandenburczyków. Wezwani przez Łokietka do pomocy przy usunięciu Brandenburczyków Krzyżacy zajęli w tym samym roku część grodu i po nadejściu posiłków zaatakowali miasto. 13 listopada 1308, po wycofaniu się Brandenburczyków, doszło do rzezi Gdańszczan i zajęcia miasta przez zakon na okres niemal 150 lat. +W 1343 w wyniku układu pokojowego krzyżacko-polskiego (pokój kaliski, król Polski Kazimierz III Wielki zrzekł się Pomorza Gdańskiego. W tym samym roku Gdańsk ponownie otrzymał prawa miejskie (w dwa lata później działanie prawa lubeckiego całkowicie zastąpiono prawem chełmińskim). +W 1454 r. zostało utworzone województwo pomorskie, które ostatecznie ukształtowało się po II pokoju toruńskim w 1466 r. Było zwyczajowo zaliczane do obszaru Prus Królewskich. +Przez następne stulecia będący formalnie pod wpływami Polski Gdańsk, jak również inne miasta Prus Królewskich – tzw. "trzy wielkie miasta pruskie" (Gdańsk, Toruń i Elbląg), posiadały znaczną samodzielność i przywileje. +W wyniku rozbiorów Polski Pomorze Gdańskie przeszło pod panowanie Prus, później Niemiec, pod nazwą Prus Zachodnich. Stan ten trwał do zakończenia I wojny światowej, oprócz okresu 1807–1814, kiedy istniało Wolne Miasto Gdańsk. Po wojnie w wyniku traktatu wersalskiego Pomorze Gdańskie wróciło do Polski oprócz Gdańska i ziem do niego przylegających, które ponownie utworzyły całkowicie nowe państwo - Wolne Miasto Gdańsk, istniejące w latach 1920–1939. +II wojna światowa przyniosła kolejne zmiany terytorialne: Pomorze Gdańskie i Gdańsk wcielono do III Rzeszy jako Gdańsk-Prusy Zachodnie. W 1945 roku całe Pomorze Gdańskie razem z Gdańskiem znalazło się w Polsce. +Owen McCann + +Owen McCann (29 czerwca 1907 w Woodstock, wikariat apostolski Przylądek Dobrej Nadziei - 26 marca 1994 w Kapsztadzie), południowoafrykański duchowny katolicki, arcybiskup Kapsztadu, kardynał. +Studiował na uczelniach południowoafrykańskich oraz w rzymskim Athenaeum "De Propaganda Fide". 21 grudnia 1935 w Kapsztadzie przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. Po powrocie z uzupełniających studiów w Rzymie kierował pismem "The Southern Cross" oraz udzielał się jako duszpasterz w Kapsztadzie. +12 marca 1950 został mianowany wikariuszem apostolskim Kapsztadu, z biskupią stolicą tytularną Stefforio. Otrzymał sakrę biskupią 18 maja 1950, a już 11 stycznia 1951 wraz z podniesieniem Kapsztadu do rangi metropolii został pierwszym arcybiskupem. 4 października 1962 papież Jan XXIII nadał mu tytuł asystenta Tronu Papieskiego. +Brał udział w Soborze Watykańskim II (1962-1965). 22 lutego 1965 Paweł VI wyniósł go do godności kardynalskiej, z tytułem prezbitera św. Praksedy. Kardynał McCann pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego Konferencji Episkopatu Afryki Południowej, brał także aktywny udział w życiu Kościoła światowego - w sesjach Światowego Synodu Biskupów w Watykanie (1967, 1969, 1971), konklawe 1978 (dwukrotnie), I sesji Kolegium Kardynalskiego w Watykanie (1979). Zrezygnował z rządów archidiecezją kapsztadzką 20 października 1984. +Szyfry wojny + +Szyfry wojny (ang. "Windtalkers") – amerykański film sensacyjny z 2002 roku w reżyserii Johna Woo. +Fabuła. +II wojna światowa, Amerykanie postanawiają wykorzystać język nawaho (język Indian Nawaho) jako szyfr wojenny. Grupa Indian zostaje przeszkolona jako szyfranci (ang. "codetalkers"). Każdy z nich dostaje "opiekuna", którego celem jest ochrona "szyfru" przed wpadnięciem w ręce wroga - nawet za cenę życia "podopiecznego". +Amerykański sierżant (Nicolas Cage) otrzymuje od swych przełożonych zadanie: w bitwie o Saipan ma chronić młodego Indianina z plemienia Nawahów (Adam Beach), który jest szyfrantem. +Tętnica szyjna wspólna + +Tętnica szyjna wspólna (łac. "arteria carotis communis") - główne naczynie tętnicze zaopatrujące głowę i szyję. Lewa odchodzi z łuku aorty, a prawa z pnia ramienno-głowowego. Na szyi biegnie razem z żyłą szyjną wewnętrzną i nerwem błędnym w powrózku naczyniowo-nerwowym. W obrębie trójkąta tętnicy szyjnej wychodzi ona spod przedniego brzegu mięśnia mostkowo-obojczykowo-sutkowego dając możliwość dogodnego badania tętna. W górnym biegu wytwarza zatokę tętnicy szyjnej. Tętnica szyjna wspólna dzieli się na wysokości 3-4 kręgu szyjnego na tętnicę szyjną wewnętrzną i tętnicę szyjną zewnętrzną. W obrębie szyi tętnica szyjna wspólna biegnie tranzytem nie oddając przed podziałem żadnych gałęzi. +Karaczi + +Karaczi (ang. "Karachi", urdu کراچی, "Karaći") – największe miasto w Pakistanie, położone w południowej części kraju, nad Morzem Arabskim, na północnym skrawku delty Indusu. Stolica prowincji Sindh. Miasto zamieszkuje ok. 18 milionów osób. +Historia. +Założone przez kupców indyjskich na początku XVIII w. Dynamiczny rozwój nastąpił po 1947 r., kiedy miasto stało się stolicą Pakistanu (do 1966 roku, straciło ten status na rzecz Islamabadu). W Karaczi często wybuchają zamieszki etniczne i religijne między hindusami i muzułmanami (w 1994 r. w ich wyniku zginęło ok. 1000 osób) oraz między sunnitami i szyitami (w tym wypadku jednak najczęściej ma miejsce podkładanie bomb w meczetach). +W latach 1948- 2010 w Karaczi istniało polskie przedstawicielstwo konsularne, do roku 2000 w randze Konsulatu a w latach 2000 - 2010 Konsulatu Generalnego. +Przemysł. +Miasto jest centrum krajowego włókiennictwa (połowa państwowej branży). Rozwinięty jest tu także przemysł skórzany, obuwniczy, maszynowy i chemiczny. Są 2 rafinerie i huty żelaza. +Znajduje się tu największe lotnisko w kraju oraz siedziba pakistańskich linii lotniczych Pakistan International Airlines. W pobliżu miasta wybudowano pierwszą w Pakistanie elektrownię jądrową o mocy 125 MW. +Phreaking + +Phreaking (lub phreak) to łamanie zabezpieczeń sieci telefonicznych, najczęściej celem uzyskania połączenia darmowego lub tańszego niż tradycyjne. +Osoba trudniąca się tą działalnością to phreak lub phreaker (od "phone freak" - z ang. dosłownie "telefoniczny maniak"). +Phreakera należy odróżnić od "pajęczarza", który podpinając się pod abonenckie linie telefoniczne dzwoni na koszt pojedynczych ludzi. Phreaking najczęściej dotyczy darmowego lub tańszego (np. połączenia międzynarodowe w cenie lokalnych) dzwonienia z budek telefonicznych. +Początki phreakingu wiążą się z rozpowszechnieniem w USA automatycznych central telefonicznych, które komunikowały się między sobą (wysyłając takie informacje jak konieczność naliczenia impulsu - teletaksa) tą samą linią telefoniczną, którą wysyłany był także głos. +Rozwiązanie takie było praktyczne, gdyż eliminowało konieczność podłączania drugiej linii sterującej (bądź implementacji dzielenia jednej linii między głos i sterowanie), jednak nie było bezpieczne - emitując odpowiednie sygnały phreaker mógł kontrolować do pewnego stopnia budkę telefoniczną. +Najczęściej stosowane metody phreakingu. +Sygnały kontrolne składały się z 1 lub przeważnie z 2 częstotliwości. Te pierwsze można było przy odpowiedniej praktyce nawet wygwizdać. Te drugie były generowane za pomocą bardzo prostych urządzeń elektronicznych takich jak tonedialery (zwanych również potocznie dialerami), lub telefonów komórkowych. +Inną popularną techniką było kopiowanie magnetycznych kart telefonicznych bądź nagrywanie specjalnie spreparowanych kart (""świętym graalem"" phreakingu jest karta o nieskończonej pojemności, ale większość systemów nie dopuszcza takich kart, można za to często nagrywać karty o pojemności większej niż największa dostepna w sprzedaży). +Inne stosowane metody to między innymi używanie specjalnych kodów do testowania sieci, wykorzystywanie błędów w oprogramowaniu budek, czy łączenie się z lokalnymi firmowymi centralami telefonicznymi i za ich pośrednictwem uzyskiwanie tańszych połączeń z droższymi numerami. +Zdecydowana większość współczesnych central telefonicznych oraz budek jest w pełni cyfrowa i używa osobnych kanałów do przesyłania głosu, oraz sterowania - co skutecznie uniemożliwia stosowanie dialerów. +Historia. +W latach 70 dwudziestego wieku w USA stosowane były automatyczne centrale telefoniczne, które nawiązywały połączenie i naliczały impulsy, impulsy te były wysyłane tą samą linią, co głos rozmówcy. Sygnały te można było imitować różnymi gwizdkami lub odpowiednio gwiżdżąc do słuchawki oszukując w ten sposób centralę telefoniczną. +Oszustwa te zyskały nazwę phreakingu i stały się popularne gdy w 1971 roku John Draper nawiązał międzymiastowe darmowe połączenie głosowe, gwiżdżąc do słuchawki przy pomocy zabawki-gwizdka, wyjętego z paczki płatków śniadaniowych. +John Draper zyskał pseudonim "Captain Crunch" - nadany żartobliwie od nazwy płatków śniadaniowych, w których znalazł gwizdek. Później opracował on instrukcję budowy urządzenia "blue box", które - tak jak gwizdek - emitowało sygnał o częstotliwości 2600 Hz, wykorzystywany w komunikacji między automatycznymi centralami firmy telefonicznej AT&T. Instrukcję tę opublikował magazyn Esquire, a ujawnione w nim informacje spowodowały, że "Captain Crunch" (John Draper) został skazany i trafił do więzienia. +Rycyk + +Środowisko. +Torfowiska, podmokłe łąki, wilgotne części stepu oraz brzegi różnorodnych wód, zarówno stojących, jak i bieżących. W Europie Środkowej występuje na biotopach wtórnych, np. łąkach i polach rzepaku. Na przelotach można spotkać rycyki na terenach przybrzeżnych i obszarach zalewanych. +Pożywienie. +Bezkręgowce, m.in. skorupiaki i mięczaki, a także nasiona roślin. Rycyki wyłapują bezkręgowce, sondując dno długim dziobem, stojąc po brzuch w wodzie. Żerują najczęściej na torfowiskach i wrzosowiskach. +Status, zagrożenia i ochrona. +Całkowitą liczebność w Polsce szacuje się na 6500–7000 par. +Na terenie Polski gatunek ten jest objęty ścisłą ochroną gatunkową. Wymaga ochrony czynnej. +Notowany spadek liczebności jest skutkiem braku miejsc lęgowych w wyniku osuszania łąk oraz zaprzestania wypasu i wykaszania łąk na bagnach. W krajach, które wdrażają program ochrony ptaków łąkowych (np. w Holandii), rolnictwo stara się dopasowywać gospodarkę, tak by zapewnić spokój rycykowi w czasie lęgów. +Flaga Sri Lanki + +Flaga Sri Lanki, flaga zatwierdzona 7 września 1978. +Historia. +W tradycyjnej literaturze w sanskrycie i języku pali wyspę określa się mianem "Sinhaladvipa". Słowo "sinha" oznacza w języku syngaleskim lwa i właśnie złoty lew trzymający miecz był od XV wieku umieszczony na karminowym płacie chorągwi państwowej. Taka flaga, z żółtym obramowaniem, stała się 4 lutego 1948 pierwszą flagą państwową niepodległego Cejlonu. 2 marca 1951 dodano dwa pasy - zielony i pomarańczowy. Kształt ozdobników w rogach pola kasztanowego zmieniono w 1972, tak by odpowiadały kształem liściom drzewa figowego, pod którym siedział Budda Siakjamuni. +Symbolika. +Złoty lew symbolizuje syngaleską etykę, dążenie do pokoju. Cztery liście symbolizują cztery cnoty buddyzmu - miłość, współczucie, litość i spokój. Złoty miecz to symbol niepodległości, a jego rękojeść symbolizuje cztery żywioły: wodę, ogień, powietrze i ziemię. Kręcona sierść na głowie lwa oznaczają posłuszność, mądrość i medytację. Broda lwa symbolizuje czystość słów. Nos lwa to symbol inteligencji, a jego przednie łapy to praworządne bogacenie się. +Kolor pomarańczowy jednego z pasów oznacza Tamilów, a zielony muzułmanów i Moorów. Żółte obramowanie flagi oznacza inne mniejszości etniczne i religijne zamieszkujące Sri Lankę i odnosi się do kolonialnej przeszłości kraju. +Programowanie neurolingwistyczne + +Programowanie neurolingwistyczne ("NLP") – luźny zbiór technik komunikacji oraz metod pracy z wyobrażeniami, nastawionych na tworzenie i modyfikowanie wzorców postrzegania i myślenia u ludzi. +Nazwa została wymyślona przez twórców NLP, Johna Grindera i Richarda Bandlera, aby podkreślić postulowane powiązanie między procesami neurologicznymi ("neuro"), językiem ("lingwistyczne") i wzorcami zachowań, którymi ludzie się kierują ("programowanie"). +NLP było pierwotnie promowane przez Bandlera i Grindera w latach 70. jako niezwykle efektywna i szybka forma psychoterapii oraz sztuka doskonalenia. +W środowiskach naukowych NLP nie uzyskało do dzisiaj poparcia i jest przedmiotem ostrej krytyki, gdyż wiele postulowanych założeń nie zyskuje potwierdzenia w badaniach i doświadczeniach. Najczęściej NLP pojawia się w szkoleniach z metod służących rozwojowi samomotywacji, zdolności negocjacyjnych, umiejętności uwodzenia, czy prowadzenia kampanii wyborczych. +Historia. +NLP zostało zapoczątkowane przez Richarda Bandlera, który spisując nagrane sesje terapii Gestalt prowadzonej przez Fritza Perlsa odkrył, że akceptacja sugestii Perlsa zależała od obecności w jego wypowiedziach konkretnych słów i fraz. Bandler zainteresował tym odkryciem lingwistę Johna Grindera, wspólnie z którym stworzyli model mający opisywać tę zależność. Przetestowali ten model następnie na sesjach terapeutycznych Virginii Satir. +Swoje prace opisali w książce "The Structure of Magic" w 1975 roku. Główna teza tej książki mówiła, że jest możliwe przeanalizowanie i sformalizowanie metodologii Satir i Perlsa. Ich praca zwróciła uwagę brytyjskiego antropologa Gregory'ego Batesona, który napisał wstęp do książki i zainicjował ich współpracę z Miltonem Ericksonem, amerykańskim psychiatrą znanym z niekonwencjonalnego podejścia do terapii. +Grinder i Bandler wkrótce potem zrezygnowali z pracy akademickiej na rzecz pisania książek popularnych i prowadzenia warsztatów. Ich książka "Frogs into Princes" sprzedała się w ponad 270 000 egzemplarzy. +W kolejnych latach NLP zdobywało coraz większą popularność i stało się obiektem badań naukowych. W ich wyniku zakwestionowano założenia i skuteczność metod NLP. +Od tego czasu NLP jest uznawane za nienaukowe przez środowiska akademickie i medyczne. Sprawą dyskusyjną pozostaje czy NLP to paranauka czy pseudonauka. +Bandler i Grinder zakończyli współpracę w latach 80. i przez kolejne lata niezależnie rozwijali NLP z innymi autorami. W 1996 roku Bandler złożył pozew przeciwko Grinderowi, domagając się uznania wyłączności jego praw autorskich do NLP. +Proces zakończył się w 2001 roku porozumieniem, zgodnie z którym Bandler i Grinder są uznawani za współtwórców NLP. +Z upływem czasu NLP było rozwijane przez wielu praktyków niezależnie i powstało wiele ośrodków certyfikujących znajomość technik NLP. W niektórych krajach istnieją kursy oficjalnie akredytowane przez państwo. +Większość NLP opiera się jednak na prywatnych, niezależnych praktykach, +a ich standardy i jakość mogą się znacznie różnić. +Visual Component Library + +Visual Component Library (ang. VCL) - biblioteka stworzona w języku Object Pascal (obiektowej wersji języka Pascal) przez firmę Borland na potrzeby środowiska Delphi, potem zaadaptowana też do środowiska C++ Builder. +Biblioteka VCL jest biblioteką wspomagającą programowanie w środowisku Windows, zwłaszcza tworzenie interfejsu użytkownika. Była konkurencją dla biblioteki firmy Microsoft – MFC, dołączaną do środowiska Visual Studio. +Obecnie biblioteka VCL integruje w sobie też możliwość korzystania z technologii .NET firmy Microsoft. +Podstawą biblioteki VCL jest klasa bazowa TComponent. Z niej dziedziczą wszystkie pozostałe klasy biblioteki. +Simon Le Bon + +Simon John Charles Le Bon (ur. 27 października 1958 w Bushey koło Londynu) – brytyjski wokalista i autor tekstów grupy Duran Duran. +Biografia. +Przodkowie Le Bona wywodzą się z francuskich hugenotów. Simon w młodości śpiewał w chórku kościelnym i ćwiczył aktorstwo. Pracował w kibucu na pustyni Negew w Izraelu 1978, skąd powrócił do Wielkiej Brytanii, aby podjąć studia na Uniwersytecie Birmingham. +W 1980 dziewczyna Simona, pracująca jako barmanka w Rum Runner, gdzie Duran Duran wtedy grali, poleciła zespołowi swojego chłopaka jako wokalistę. Ten, jak legenda głosi, przyszedł na przesłuchanie w różowych spodniach w lamparcie cętki, trzymając w ręku książkę z poezją własnego autorstwa. Zaśpiewał kilka już istniejących piosenek, ale do instrumentalnego utworu ("Sound of Thunder") dodał własny tekst. Zespół przyjął Simona, który zgodził się śpiewać przez sześć letnich tygodni, pozostał jednak wokalistą Duran Duran do dnia dzisiejszego, do aktorstwa zaś nigdy nie wrócił. +W 1985 poświęcił się swojemu hobby – żeglarstwu. Brał udział w "Whitbread Round the World Race", gdzie zajął trzecie miejsce. +Razem z Nickiem Rhodesem i Rogerem Taylorem brał udział w projekcie Arcadia. +W 1995 roku wystąpił na koncercie charytatywnym "Together for the Children of Bosnia", gdzie razem z tenorem Lucianem Pavarottim zaśpiewał "Ordinary World". +Po roku 1997, tj. po odejściu z zespołu Johna Taylora, Simon Le Bon i Nick Rhodes zostali jedynymi muzykami grającymi w Duran Duran przez cały okres istnienia zespołu. +System instancyjny + +System instancyjny - system umożliwiający przeprowadzenie sprawy (postępowania) przez dwa lub więcej stadiów postępowania przed sądami lub organami administracji w celu zapewnienia sądowi (organowi) wyższemu kontroli nad orzeczeniami sądów (organów) niższych. +Adam Cebula + +Adam Cebula (ur. 8 marca 1959 w Ząbkowicach Śląskich) - polski fizyk, publicysta i pisarz. +Wraz z Eugeniuszem Dębskim, Andrzejem Drzewińskim i Piotrem Surmiakiem jest członkiem piszącej fantastykę spółki autorskiej używającej wspólnie pseudonimu Kareta Wrocławski. +Od 1978 mieszka we Wrocławiu. W 1984 ukończył studia na Wydziale Fizyki Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego, gdzie obecnie pracuje (w Instytucie Fizyki Doświadczalnej). +Oprócz opowiadań, pisze również felietony, artykuły popularnonaukowe, recenzje książkowe i inne teksty publicystyczne do miesięcznika „Science Fiction” oraz do internetowego czasopisma „Fahrenheit”. +BRCA2 + +BRCA2 – ludzki gen zlokalizowany na chromosomie 13. Germinalne mutacje genu prowadzą, podobnie jak mutacje w "BRCA1", do zwiększonego ryzyka raka sutka i jajnika. Białko kodowane przez BRCA2 jest zaangażowane w naprawę DNA (naprawę przez rekombinację uszkodzeń obu nici DNA). +Znaczenie kliniczne. +Wiele mutacji w genie "BRCA2" powoduje zwiększenie ryzyka zapadalności na niektóre nowotwory, przede wszystkim na raka sutka, ale także raka jajnika, prostaty czy trzustki. . Mutacja w obu kopiach genu BRCA2 powoduje niedokrwistość Fanconiego. +Funkcja. +Białko BRCA2 wiąże się z białkiem RAD51 i bierze udział zarówno w regulacji jego lokalizacji wewnątrz komórki, jak i w regulacji jego wiązania się z DNA. Mutacje w BRCA2 powodujące zaburzenia wiązania się BRCA2 z białkiem RAD51 są związane z podwyższonym ryzykiem zapadnięcia na nowotwory. Komórki z mutacją powodującą utratę aktywności białka BRCA2 wykazują zwiększoną wrażliwość na czynniki uszkadzające DNA, np. na promieniowanie jonizujące oraz leki cytostatyczne wywołujące pęknięcia nici DNA. W takich komórkach naprawa DNA odbywa się przy wykorzystaniu alternatywnego szlaku naprawy DNA – naprawy przez wycięcie zasad. BRCA2 jest też zaangażowane w odpowiedź komórki na zablokowaną replikację DNA. +Przeznaczenie + +Przeznaczenie – los, dola, fatum, fortuna; predestynacja; to co powiedziane, przepowiedziane, zarządzone przez bogów; nieodwołalna konieczność. +Jest to koncepcja, według której losy człowieka są z góry określone (zobacz: predeterminizm, kismet). Takie postawienie sprawy działało jednak deprymująco. Dlatego próbowano poznać przyszłość (zobacz: wróżby, astrologia, horoskop, jasnowidzenie, prorokowanie, Yijing), a następnie ją zmienić: poprzez uczynki podporządkowane regułom uznawanym za sposób polepszenia losu, lub za pomocą magii. +Przeznaczeniem nazywa się napotkane szanse, które nie mogą zostać zmienione przez wolę czy starania. +Bóstwa związane z przeznaczeniem: Rod, Fatum, Fortuna, Tyche, Parki, Sybille, Mojry, Ananke. +Cashflow 101 + +Cashflow 101 – gra planszowa wymyślona przez Roberta Kiyosaki, której celem jest nauczenie graczy koncepcji inwestowania i zarabiania pieniędzy. +Na starcie każdy gracz otrzymuje z przydziału zawód, status rodzinny, wysokość zarobków i zobowiązania finansowe (kredyty, pożyczki, rachunki). Pierwszym etapem jest "wyścig szczurów", którego celem jest podniesienie przychodów pasywnych gracza do poziomu, na którym będą przekraczały wydatki. Gracz porusza się po planszy pionkiem w kształcie szczura, który ścigając się po zamkniętym kręgu bieżących wydatków, symbolizuje pogoń za materialną niezależnością. Pionek może zatrzymać się na jednym z trzech rodzajów pól: transakcyjnym, losowym lub rynkowym. +Dopiero jednak po zrealizowaniu etapu pierwszego gracz przechodzi do fazy "szybkiego toru", której przedmiotem jest realizacja założonego przed rozpoczęciem gry celu ("marzenia") bądź zwiększenie miesięcznego cash flow o 50 tys. dolarów, poprzez umiejętne inwestowanie i pomnażanie pieniędzy. +Robert Kiyosaki opracował również następcę gry Cashflow 101, przeznaczoną dla bardziej zaawansowanych graczy, o nazwie Cashflow 202. +BRCA1 + +BRCA1 – ludzki gen supresorowy znajdujący się na długim ramieniu 17 chromosomu w "locus" 17q21. Jest to bardzo duży gen - obejmuje 80 kpz DNA i zawiera 24 egzony. Jego mRNA ma 7,8 kpz. Białko BRCA1 składa się z 1863 aminokwasów. Białko BRCA1 bierze udział w mechanizmie naprawy uszkodzonego DNA. +Budowa i funkcja białka BRCA1. +Białko BRCA1 zawiera dwa godne uwagi typy domen białkowych: palec RING przy N-końcu i dwie domeny BRCT na C-końcu. Palec RING jest domeną zawierającą jon cynku wiążącą białko BARD1 (BRCA1-associated RING domain protein), które to białko, podobnie jak BRCA1, też zawiera N-końcową domenę RING i dwie C-końcowe domeny BRCT. Interakcję BRCA1–BARD1 znoszą mutacje w domenie RING białka BRCA1, predysponujące do nowotworów. Prawdopodobnie supresja nowotworów jest zależna od heteromerycznego kompleksu BRCA1-BARD1. Domena RING białka BRCA1 wchodzi także w interakcję z białkiem BAP1 (BRCA1-associated protein 1), C-końcową hydrolazą ubikwityny. Domeny BRCT białka BRCA1 mogą aktywować transkrypcję i są często spotykane w białkach zaangażowanych w procesy naprawy DNA i regulacji cyklu komórkowego. +Białko BRCA1 jest zlokalizowane w jądrze komórkowym i podlega ekspresji w różnorodnych rodzajach tkanek w rozwijających się mysich zarodkach, szczególnie w proliferujących i różniących się komórkach. +Ekspresja genu "BRCA1" zmienia się w zależności od fazy cyklu komórkowego; szczyt przypada na późną fazę G1 i fazę S. Aczkolwiek myszy "BRCA1+/−" rozwijają się prawidłowo i są płodne, całkowita utrata ekspresji "BRCA1" skutkuje śmiercią zarodka przed 7,5 dniem embriogenezy (E7.5). Mysie zarodki "BRCA1−/−" wykazują również wczesne (około E7.5) zahamowanie proliferacji komórek, któremu towarzyszy ekspresja cyklino-zależnego inhibitora kinaz p21, co sugeruje istotną rolę białka BRCA1 w regulacji proliferacji komórek. Hipotezę tę potwierdzają obserwacje, że mutacje w genie "BRCA1" w komórkach nabłonka gruczołów sutkowych prowadzą do zaburzenia morfogenezy przewodów i apoptozy. Apoptoza komórek "BRCA1−/−" może być wynikiem przerwania punktu kontrolnego cyklu komórkowego, który jest czasowym zatrzymaniem progresji komórek przez fazy G1, S, G2 lub M umożliwiającym naprawę uszkodzonego DNA komórek przed replikacją DNA lub podziałem komórki. Komórki posiadające izoformę genu "BRCA1" pozbawioną egzonu 11 są zatrzymywane w punkcie kontrolnym G2. W niektórych spośród tych komórek dochodzi do amplifikacji funkcjonalnych centrosomów (miejsc inicjacji tworzenia wrzeciona podziałowego), przez co dochodzi do aneuploidii, charakterystycznej dla komórek wielu typów nowotworów. Chociaż funkcja BRCA1 w amplifikacji centrosomów nie jest wyjaśniona, stwierdzono, że hiperfosforylowane białko BRCA1 wchodzi podczas mejozy w interakcję z γ-tubuliną, składową centrosomów. Ponadto, nadmierna ekspresja "BRCA1" dzikiego typu indukuje "in vitro" zatrzymanie komórek w fazie G1–S, podczas gdy ekspresja zmutowanego "BRCA1" osłabia kontrolę w punkcie kontrolnym fazy G2/M. +Mutacje w genie "BRCA1". +Mutacje genu "BRCA1" są spotykane często. Przypuszcza się, ze jest to związane z efektem założyciela, czego potwierdzeniem jest wysoka częstość mutacji w populacjach jednorodnych etnicznie, a co jest z tym związane, bardziej homogennych genetycznie. Populacja taką jest między innymi populacja polska. Mutacje genu mogą wystąpić w każdym jego miejscu, ale obserwuje się zdecydowanie większą częstość zaledwie kilku mutacji. W Polsce są to mutacje c.5382insC, c.C61G i c.4153delA, stanowiące 91% wszystkich mutacji genu. +Kobiety, które odziedziczyły uszkodzoną kopię tego genu, mają zwiększone prawdopodobieństwo zachorowania na raka sutka oraz raka jajnika. Ponadto zwiększone jest ryzyko wystąpienia raka jajowodu, otrzewnej, okrężnicy i prostaty. +U nosicielek mutacji genu "BRCA1" obserwuje się 50-80% ryzyko wystąpienia raka piersi i około 40% ryzyko raka jajnika. Średnia zachorowania na raka sutka w przypadku nosicielstwa mutacji "BRCA1" to około 40 lat. Prawdopodobnie rodzaj i lokalizacja mutacji wpływa na wielkość ryzyka rozwoju nowotworu. +Mutacje "BRCA1" predysponują do raka sutka rdzeniastego, o niskiej ekspresji receptora estrogenowego. W wieloośrodkowym, retrospektywnym badaniu z randomizacją na dużej grupie pacjentek z rakiem sutka wykazano protekcyjny efekt tamoksifenu na wystąpienie raka drugiej piersi. Redukcja zachorowań wynosiła około 50%. +Wykazano również nieskuteczność terapii neoadiuwantowej u pacjentek z rakiem sutka będących nosicielkami mutacji "BRCA1" z zastosowaniem taksanów (docetakselu, paklitakselu). Są natomiast doniesienia o skuteczności cisplatyny w przypadku raka sutka z mutacją BRCA1. Prawdopodobnie obydwa allele "BRCA1" są potrzebne do klinicznej odpowiedzi na leczenie truciznami wrzeciona podziałowego. +Tętnica szyjna wewnętrzna + +Tętnica szyjna wewnętrzna (łac."arteria carotis interna") - główne naczynie zaopatrujące mózg w krew tętniczą. Biegnie od miejsca podziału tętnicy szyjnej wspólnej (3-4 kręg szyjny) do podstawy czaszki. +Tętnica szyjna wewnętrzna biegnie przez szyję tranzytem nie oddając żadnych gałęzi. +Końcowymi odgałęzieniami tętnicy są tętnica przednia mózgu i środkowa mózgu, które zaopatrują w krew mózgowie. Wchodzą one także w skład koła tętniczego mózgu. +Flaga Algierii + +Flaga Algierii jest flagą Frontu Wyzwolenia Narodowego z roku 1920, a jako flaga Algierii od 3 lipca 1962 roku. Zielony pas symbolizuje islam, biały moralną czystość, półksiężyc z gwiazdą to ogólnie przyjęte godło muzułmańskie. +Giovanni Colombo + +Giovanni Colombo (ur. 6 grudnia 1902 w Caronno w archidiecezji mediolańskiej, zm. 20 maja 1992 w Mediolanie) - włoski duchowny katolicki, arcybiskup Mediolanu (1963-1979), kardynał, w latach 1965-1966 członek komitetu zarządzającego Konferencją Episkopatu Włoch. +Studiował w Mediolanie, w seminarium, następnie na Uniwersytecie Katolickim. 29 maja 1926 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie w Mediolanie. Przez kilkadziesiąt lat wykładał zarówno w seminarium, jak i na Uniwersytecie Katolickim, w latach 1953-1960 był rektorem mediolańskiego seminarium. 7 grudnia 1948 został obdarzony godnością papieskiego prałata domowego. +25 października 1960 mianowany biskupem pomocniczym Mediolanu, z biskupią stolicą tytularną Filippoli di Arabia; otrzymał sakrę biskupią 7 grudnia 1960 z rąk ówczesnego arcybiskupa Mediolanu, Giovanniego Battisty Montiniego (późniejszego papieża Pawła VI). Brał udział w obradach Soboru Watykańskiego II. 10 sierpnia 1963 został następcą kardynała Montiniego na stolicy arcybiskupiej Mediolanu, a 22 lutego 1965 kardynałem (z tytułem prezbitera SS. Silvestro e Martino a Monti). We wrześniu 1977 był specjalnym wysłannikiem papieża na XIX Narodowy Kongres Eucharystyczny w Pescarze. +Brał udział w obu konklawe 1978, a także w I sesji Kolegium Kardynalskiego w Watykanie (listopad 1979). 29 grudnia 1979 zrezygnował z rządów archidiecezją w związku z osiągnięciem wieku emerytalnego. +Kieler Woche + +Kieler Woche – regaty rozgrywane w Kilonii w Niemczech. +Historia. +Po raz pierwszy zostały przeprowadzone w roku 1882, następnie były organizowane co roku, z przerwami w latach 1915-1919 i 1940-1946. +Jest to jedna z większych imprez żeglarskich na świecie, gromadzi obecnie około 5000 żeglarzy startujących na łodziach klas olimpijskich, międzynarodowych, narodowych oraz na jachtach morskich – łącznie prawie w 30 klasach. Wraz z regatami odbywają się festyny, koncerty oraz parady jachtów i żaglowców. +PZL.49 Miś + +PZL.49 Miś — prototyp polskiego samolotu bombowego +Proponowanym następcą bombowca Łoś miał być PZL-49 Miś. Projekt opracował Jerzy Dąbrowski przy wydatnej współpracy inż. Piotra Kubickiego. Podstawowym kierunkiem rozwoju było poprawienie osiągów, zwłaszcza prędkości lotu przez zwiększenie mocy zespołu napędowego oraz poprawienie aerodynamiki płatowca. Wzmocnieniu uległo uzbrojenie obronne. Normalny ładunek bomb 2200 kg mógł być zwiększony do 3000 kg, w zamian za zmniejszenie zapasu paliwa. Zasięg normalny wynosił 2000 km, a maksymalny z dodatkowymi zbiornikami paliwa 3000 km. W konstrukcji płatowca wykorzystano około połowy elementów pochodzących z PZL.37. Kadłub został troszkę wydłużony. Aby poprawić opływ, linię grzbietową kadłuba zastosowano bez uskoku dla tylnego górnego stanowiska k.m. Wieża grzbietowa oraz kołyska podkadłubowa były wysuwane tylko na czas akcji bojowej. Kółko ogonowe było również chowane w locie. Zrezygnowano przy tym z wydatnego, ale mało skutecznego przejścia aerodynamicznego skrzydło-kadłub, sięgającego w Łosiu od części spływowej płata aż do połowy tylnej części kadłuba. Podwozie główne jednogoleniowe było konstrukcji inż. Piotra Kubickiego (patent 29 090), wielodźwigniowe dla cięższych samolotów. Napęd stanowiłyby zapewne silniki Bristol Hercules II 14-cylindrowe, w układzie podwójnej gwiazdy, o mocy startowej 949 kW (1290 KM) i maksymalnej na wysokości 1500 m 810-846 kW (1100-1150 KM). Osłonę stanowił pierścień NACA. Licencję na te silniki zakupiła PZL-WS w 1939 r. Grzbietowa wieża obrotowa konstrukcji Jerzego Dąbrowskiego miała być uzbrojona w prototypie Misia w działko Hispano-Suiza typ 404 kal. 20 mm, zakupione jeszcze w 1937 r., dla którego zamówiono w 1938 r. obrotnicę Hispano z terminem dostawy na czerwiec 1939 r. Stanowisko dolne w gondoli wysuwanej pod wpływem masy strzelca, było wzorowane na modelu wypróbowanym w samolotach PZL.42 i PZL.46. +Według memoriału gen. bryg. dr. Józefa Zająca z 28 XI 1938 r., PZL-49 Miś znajdował się w studiach, to znaczy w fazie opracowania projektu, przy czym rysunki samolotu były ukończone. Prace nad projektem przebiegały powoli, bowiem biuro konstrukcyjne PZL jako priorytet traktowało wówczas projekty samolotów myśliwskich. Latem 1939 r. Komisja Dowództwa Lotnictwa, ITL przy udziale przedstawicieli PZL akceptowała makietę użytkową PZL-49. Umożliwiło to ukończenie projektu konstrukcyjnego. Wobec przewidywanego zaangażowania Jerzego Dąbrowskiego przy projekcie myśliwca PZL.62 kierownictwo zespołu Misia miał objąć inż. Piotr Kubicki. Przewidywano przy tym, że produkcja seryjna podjęta będzie przez PZL WP-2 w Mielcu, gdzie miało powstać również biuro konstrukcyjne. Dalsze prace przerwała wojna. Znaczną część dokumentacji przewieziono na początku września 1939 r. do mieszkania Jerzego Dąbrowskiego przy ul. Kazimierzowskiej, a następnie z obawy przed dostaniem się w ręce wroga, spalono w pobliskiej piekarni. Po wojnie do kraju napłynęły od Jerzego Dąbrowskiego skąpe informacje o tym projekcie, jak również szkic koncepcyjny rzutu bocznego projektowanego bombowca. +Olej z dzikiej róży + +Olej z dzikiej róży - rzadki olej o barwie ciemnożółtej do lekko brązowawej wytwarzany z nasion dzikiej róży ("Rosa canina") przez ich ekstrakcję w heksanie. Następnie poddawany jest procesowi rafinacji. Zawiera dużą ilość nienasyconych kwasów tłuszczowych. +Nord-Pas-de-Calais + +Nord-Pas-de-Calais – region administracyjny Francji, położony w północnej części kraju, którego ośrodkiem administracyjnym jest Lille. Graniczy z Belgią oraz regionem Pikardia. +W 1999 r. Miejskie wieże strażnicze beffroi w północnej Francji wspólnie z Belgią we Flandrii, i Walonii – zostało wpisane na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +W 2012 r. tamtejsze zagłębie wydobycia węgla zostało wpisane na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +Desktop Linux Consortium + +Desktop Linux Consortium (DLC) - organizacja non-profit, której celem jest rozwijanie i promocja systemu operacyjnego Linux jako oprogramowania dla komputerów desktop. +Założone 4 lutego 2003 r., jest kierowane przez aktywistę ruchu Open Source, Bruce'a Perensa, jako dyrektora wykonawczego, oraz Jeremy'ego White'a. +Same Old Tunes + +Same Old Tunes (początkowo nazwane Tiny Tunes) to pierwszy album muzyczny szwedzkiego zespołu punkrockowego Millencolin. Wydany został początkowo w 1994 i następnia 22 września 1998 (po zmianie nazwy na "Same Old Tunes"') w Stanach Zjednoczonych na płytach CD. +Kłopoty z wydawaniem płyty były spowodowanie problemami związanymi z prawami autorskimi. Warner Bros. zażądało od zespołu zmiany nazwy utworu i okładki płyty z powodu jego ogromnego podobieństwa do serialu animowanego "Tiny Toons". Ponieważ w samych utworach nie zostały wykonane żadne zmiany, nazwę zmieniono na "Same Old Tunes" (tłum. "Te same, stare dźwięki"). Podobna sytuacja miała miejsce z firmą Walt Disney, która nakazała zmianę nazwy utworu "Disney Time". Nazwa zmieniona została na "Diznee Time". Dodatkowo grupa stworzyła t-shirt promujący utwór "Chiquita Chaser" z logiem imitującym banany Chiquita. Grupa musiała zaprzestać produkcji koszulek pod groźbą sprawy sądowej. +Powiat ostrołęcki + +Powiat ostrołęcki – powiat w Polsce (w północno-wschodniej części województwa mazowieckiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Ostrołęka. Obejmuje w większości terytorium byłego województwa ostrołęckiego. +Poczet starostów. +III Rzeczpospolita +Poczet przewodniczących rady powiatu. +III Rzeczpospolita +Demografia. +W składzie II RP. +Według spisu powszechnego z 1921 roku, powiat w ówczesnych granicach zamieszkiwało 73836 osób, w tym 68814 (93,2%) Polaków, 4957 (6,7%) Żydów, 56 (0,1%) Rosjan, 3 Francuzów, 2 Białorusinów, 1 Niemiec, 1 Rusin, 1 Grek i 1 Łotysz. +Religia. +Według spisu powszechnego z 1921 roku, 66942 (90,7%) mieszkańców powiatu w ówczesnych granicach wyznawało rzymski katolicyzm, 6631 (9,0%) judaizm, 111 (0,2%) prawosławie, 79 (0,1%) protestantyzm, 71 mariawityzm, a 2 greko-katolicyzm. +Marzyciel + +Marzyciel (ang. "Finding Neverland") – film z 2004 roku, opowiadający opartą na faktach historię pisarza Jamesa Matthew Barriego – autora "Piotrusia Pana". +Opis fabuły. +Po porażce swojej ostatniej sztuki, pisarz James Matthew Barrie zaprzyjaźnia się z młodą wdową, Sylvią Llewelyn-Davies, oraz jej czterema synami. Z chłopcami i ich matką zaczyna spędzać więcej czasu niż we własnym domu, co nie podoba się jego żonie, Mary. Wspólne zabawy z Daviesami podsuwają Barriemu pomysł do opowieści o chłopcach, którzy nie chcą dorosnąć. Pisze sztukę o "Piotrusiu Panu", która wbrew obawom okazuje się ogromnym sukcesem. W międzyczasie okazuje się jednak, że Sylvia jest ciężko chora. Barrie wystawia przedstawienie w jej domu, podczas którego ona umiera. Po jej śmierci, zgodnie z wolą Sylvii, wraz z babką chłopców zostaje ich opiekunem. +Obsada i twórcy. +Film został wyreżyserowany przez Marca Forstera, twórcę filmu "Czekając na wyrok", scenariusz zaadaptował David Magee ze sztuki "Człowiek, który był Piotrusiem Panem". W filmie wykorzystano utwór Eltona Johna. +W głównych rolach wystąpili Johnny Depp i Kate Winslet. Udział wzięli także: Dustin Hoffman, Julie Christie oraz Radha Mitchell. +W filmie występuje pies rasy landseer. +Nagrody. +Amerykańska Akademia Sztuki i Wiedzy Filmowej - Oscar +Hollywoodzkie Stowarzyszenie Prasy Zagranicznej - Złote Globy 2004 +Brytyjska Akademia Sztuk Filmowych i Telewizyjnych - BAFTA +Festiwal Filmowy w Wenecji +Akademia Science Fiction, Fantasy i Horroru - Saturn +Gildia Aktorów Filmowych - Aktor +Międzynarodowa Akademia Prasy - Złota Satelita +Amerykańska Gildia Producentów Filmowych - Złoty Laur +Amerykańska Gildia Reżyserów Filmowych +'"Amerykańska Gildia Scenografów" +Amerykańskie Stowarzyszenie Montażystów - Eddie +MTV Movie Awards - Złoty Popcorn +Nagrody Amerykańskiej Publiczności (People's Choice) - Kryształowa Statuetka +Lockheed P-38 Lightning + +Lockheed P-38 Lightning (pol. "błyskawica") – amerykański samolot myśliwski dalekiego zasięgu z okresu II wojny światowej. Był to szybki, silnie uzbrojony samolot używany do wielu zadań w różnorodnych warunkach walki, pomimo pewnych wad konstrukcyjnych był to raczej lubiany i udany samolot. Samolot był zbudowany w układzie dwukadłubowym (tzw. "latająca rama"). Silniki zostały umieszczone w dwóch początkowych sekcjach kadłubów, pomiędzy którymi znajdowała się kabina pilota wraz z systemem uzbrojenia. +Do „Błyskawicy” należy szereg rekordów i ciekawostek: był to pierwszy wojskowy samolot zaprojektowany w zakładach Lockheeda, który trafił do produkcji seryjnej, był to pierwszy dwusilnikowy myśliwiec w lotnictwie amerykańskim, pierwszy seryjnie produkowany samolot z silnikiem widlastym Allison V-1710, pierwszy myśliwiec amerykański z podwoziem z kołem przednim, pierwszy amerykański samolot, który przekroczył 400 mil na godzinę (640 km/h), pierwszy produkcyjny myśliwiec dwukadłubowy, pierwszy amerykański myśliwiec który zestrzelił niemiecki samolot, był to najcięższy amerykański jednoosobowy myśliwiec w okresie II wojny światowej, jedyny samolot produkowany nieprzerwanie od wejścia Stanów Zjednoczonych do wojny aż do jej zakończenia, a wszystkie "Lightningi" zestrzeliły łącznie więcej japońskich samolotów niż jakikolwiek inny amerykański myśliwiec. +Historia powstania. +Samolot powstał w odpowiedzi na konkurs USAAC nr. "X-608" z 1937 na dwusilnikowy myśliwiec przechwytujący, do konkursu zostały zaproszone firmy Boeing, Consolidated, Curtiss, Douglas oraz Vultee. Przed nową konstrukcją postawiono następujące wymagania – prędkość maksymalna przynajmniej 360 mil na godzinę na wysokości 20.000 stóp i 290 mph przy powierzchni ziemi (odpowiednio 580 km/h na wysokości 6100 m i 466 km/h przy powierzchni ziemi), przy czym na pułapie 20.000 stóp miał być zdolny do lotu z prędkością maksymalną przez przynajmniej godzinę. Przy starcie miał być w stanie pokonać przeszkodę o wysokości 50 stóp 2200 stóp od stojącego startu (przeszkoda 15 m z odległości 670 m). W celu ułatwienia obsługi naziemnej samolot miał mieć podwozie z kołem przednim. +XP-38 i YP-38. +Jako jednostki napędowe użyto silników Allison V-1710 wyposażonych w sprężarki. Zespół projektowy kierowany przez Clarence’a Johnsona opracował unikatowy sposób rozmieszczenia silników w dwóch długich belkach i umieszczenia kabiny pilota oraz uzbrojenia pośrodku pomiędzy nimi. W późniejszych wersjach maszyny śmigła samolotu kręciły się w przeciwnych kierunkach, co eliminowało momenty reakcyjne i żyroskopowe od śmigieł. Zastosowano też nowatorski pomysł trzypunktowego wciąganego podwozia. Zwrotność miały zapewniać wysuwane podczas walki klapy Fowlera. Zamówiony w 1937 roku prototyp ukończono w grudniu 1938, a oblatano 27 stycznia 1939. Początkowe oznaczenie fabryczne „Model 22” zmieniono na XP-38. Niestety podczas próbnego przelotu z Kalifornii do Nowego Jorku prototyp został zniszczony, zanim przeprowadzono wszystkie próby. Pomimo tego dowództwo lotnictwa złożyło zamówienie na 13 przedprodukcyjnych YP-38. Pierwszy samolot tej serii ukończono dopiero we wrześniu 1940 r. a ostatni w czerwcu 1941. W YP-38 zastosowano silniki Allison V-1710-27 i V-1710-29 o mocy 1150 KM (858 kW) każdy. W dziobowej części samolotu planowano umieszczenie działko Oldsmobile kalibru 37 mm, 2 karabiny maszynowe 12,7 mm i 2 karabiny maszynowe 7,62 mm. +Produkcja. +Lightning Mk I. +W maju 1940 misje wojskowe Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii zamówiły odpowiednio 417 i 250 tych myśliwców, jednak w obawie przed dużymi opóźnieniami zarówno Francuzi, jak i Brytyjczycy postanowili, wbrew zaleceniom inżynierów Lockheeda, zamówić do swoich samolotów silniki bez sprężarek. W związku z kapitulacją Francji w 1940 r. cały kontrakt przejęła Wielka Brytania. Po dostarczeniu pierwszych 3 egzemplarzy oznaczonych Lightning Mk I wobec niezadowalających osiągów realizację dalszej części zamówienia odwołano, a przeznaczone do Europy samoloty skierowano do jednostek szkolnych jako RP-322. +P-38 i P-38D. +W lipcu 1940 roku lotnictwo armii USA zamówiło 66 egzemplarzy samolotu, oznaczono je po prostu jako P-38. Pierwsze seryjne egzemplarze, miały napęd taki sam jak YP-38, ale były uzbrojone w 37 mm działko i 4 wielkokalibrowe karabiny maszynowe (12,7 mm) Browning. Dodano dla ochrony pilota kuloodporne oszklenie kokpitu i płyty stalowe oraz fluorescencyjne oświetlenie przyrządów w kabinie do lotów nocnych. Wstępna seria liczyła 30 maszyn, te samoloty nigdy nie były przeznaczone do walki, dzięki nim wykryto za to kilka wad myśliwca. Pozostałych 36 należało do wersji P-38D. Bazując na raportach z walk w Europie na wiosnę i w lecie 1941 roku, postanowiono wprowadzić w samolocie zmiany, które uczyniłyby go bardziej dostosowanym do walk powietrznych. Postanowiono oznaczyć tak zmodyfikowane maszyny jako P-38D, rezygnując z rozwijania wersji P-38B i P-38C. Nowa wersja, P-38D, w porównaniu do P-38, miała niskociśnieniową instalację tlenową, samouszczelniające się zbiorniki paliwa, chowane światła do lądowania, na wiatrochronie zamontowano lusterko do obserwacji do tyłu, w aerodynamicznej osłonie. Zastosowano też zamiast działka Oldsmobile działko Madsen kal. 23 mm. Zmieniono też konstrukcję ogona i rozłożenie mas, co z kolei zmniejszyło tendencję do drgań i poprawiło własności samolotu. Pierwotnie planowano nazwać tę wersję i następne jako P-38 „Atlanta”, ale ostatecznie nadano im nazwę „Lightning”. Ta wersja również nie wzięła udziału w walkach, ponieważ uznano, że pomimo tych zmian nie nadaje się do walki. Zbudowano łącznie 66 egzemplarzy P-38. W 1942 roku oznaczenia wersji P-38 i P-38D zmieniono na RP-38 i RP-38D. Litera „R” oznaczała tu „restricted to non-combat role” i używano ich do szkolenia. +P-38E. +Pierwsza wersja „bojowa” – P-38E powstała pod koniec 1941 roku. W wersji tej dokonano ponad 2000 zmian. Zastąpiono w niej stalowe śmigła Hamilton Standard duraluminiowymi Curtiss Electric. Uzbrojenie stanowiło działko Hispano 20 mm z zapasem 150 pocisków, zamiast 15 jak przy działku 30 mm i oczywiście 4 km Browning 12,7 mm. Zmiana uzbrojenia pociągnęła za sobą zmianę kształtu nosa. Wprowadzono również szereg innowacji w wyposażeniu samolotu, w tym przyrządów w kabinie pilota, instalacji hydraulicznej, elektrycznej, zainstalowano nowe radio SCR-274N. Wersja ta była napędzana silnikami Allison V-1710-27/29. Powstało 210 P-38E. Wersję tę uznano również za nie do końca gotową do udziału w walce, powodem tego były drgania usterzenia samolotu i z tego powodu wiele maszyn tej wersji przemianowano na RP-38E. Liczne egzemplarze tej wersji wykorzystano też do różnych testów, dzięki którym powstały potem wersje P-38F, J i K. Interesującą propozycją modyfikacji było powstanie na początku 1942 wobec szybkiej ekspansji Japonii na południowo-zachodnim Pacyfiku, wyposażenie P-38 w dwa pływaki pod kadłubem, które miałby być odrzucane tuż przed walką. Zachowane miało być normalne podwozie. Problem stanowił tutaj ogon, który aby nie dotykał wody, miał zostać podniesiony do góry o 3 stopy (ok. 1 metr). Zbudowano i oblatano jeden egzemplarz tej wersji, ale bez pływaków. W końcu 1941 i w roku następnym przystosowano 99 P-38E do prowadzenia rozpoznania fotograficznego (maszyny te otrzymały oznaczenie F-4). +P-38F. +Następną wersję było 527 P-38F. Wersję tę uznano jako pierwszą w pełni gotową do lotów bojowych. Napęd stanowiły dwa silniki Allison V-1710-49/53 o mocy startowej 973 kW (1325 KM) każdy z turbosprężarkami. Uzbrojenie strzeleckie było takie samo jak w P-38E: 1 działko 20 mm i 4 km 12,7 mm. Przystosowano ją do przenoszenia pod centralnymi sekcjami skrzydeł na zamontowanych belkach dwa dodatkowe odrzucane zbiorniki paliwa o pojemności 284 lub 568 litra lub dwie 454 kg bomby. Powstało kilka odmian tej wersji. Pierwszą była P-38F, bez dodatkowego oznaczenia, której zbudowano 128 egzemplarzy. Następną P-38F-1, która w porównaniu z P-38F, miała wzmocnione belki pod skrzydłami, dzięki czemu zwiększono udźwig i teraz można było przenosić 1174-litrowe zbiorniki paliwa lub dwie bomby albo torpedy lub aparatury do stawiania zasłony dymnej. Zbudowano 149 sztuk tej odmiany. Kolejną była P-38F-5, w której dokonano wielu drobnych modyfikacji m.in. zmodyfikowano światła do lądowania. Zbudowano 100 egzemplarzy. Odmiany P-38F-13 i P-38F-15 pochodziły z brytyjskiego zamówienia, dlatego P-38F-13 miała instrumenty pokładowe zgodne z brytyjskim zamówieniem. Na P-38F-15 wprowadzono klapy Fowlera, które mogły być wychylane pod kątem 8 stopni, dzięki czemu poprawiały zwrotność samolotu podczas szybkich manewrów. Powstała również dwumiejscowa odmiana P-38F-4 szkolno-treningowa. +P-38G. +1082 egzemplarzy wersji P-38G było podobne do wersji F, ale napędzane były silnikami Allison V-1710-51/55, zainstalowano na nich też radio SCR-274N i instalację tlenową A-9. Miały też nowe klapy Fowlera, całkowicie wysuwane poza krawędź spływu skrzydła. Powstało sześć odmian. Pierwsza P-38G-1 (80 egzemplarzy) była jak P-38F-15, ale ze zmianami jak wyżej. P-38G-3 (12 egzemplarzy) miało turbosprężarki B-13. Zbudowano 68 P-38G-5 o zmienionych instrumentach pokładowych w kabinie pilota. P-38G-10 (548 sztuk) mogła przenosić bomby o wadze 736 kg albo rakiety. Odmiany P-38G-13 i P-38G-15 pochodziły jeszcze z brytyjskiego zamówienia. P-38G-13 była identyczna z P-38G-3, a P-38G-15 z P-38G-5. +P-38H. +601 egzemplarzy wersji P-38H było napędzane silnikami Allison V-1710-89/91 o mocy startowej 1425 KM każdy. Wyposażono ją też w automatyczny system sterowania zasłonkami chłodnicy oleju, aby rozwiązać chroniczny problem z ich przegrzewaniem się i co też pozwoliło zwiększyć dopuszczalną moc silnika na większych wysokościach (z 1150 KM do 1240 KM na 7600 m). Zastosowano też w tej wersji nowe ulepszone działko M-2C, zamiast M-1, o tym samym kalibrze 20 mm, a udźwig bomb na każdym zaczepie pod skrzydłem zwiększono do 736 kg. Poza tym wersja ta była identyczna z P-38G-10. Zbudowano 226 sztuk odmiany P-38H-1. W odmianie P-38H-5 (375 sztuk) zastosowano nowe turbosprężarki B-33, co poprawiło osiągi na dużych wysokościach. +P-38J. +Wersję P-38J zaczęto wprowadzać w sierpniu 1943 r. W wersji tej przekonstruowano i powiększono wloty powietrza, co pozwala ją łatwo odróżnić od wcześniejszych wersji („brody” pod silnikami). Dotychczasowy układ chłodzenia, złożony z chłodnic umieszczonych w skrzydłach i skomplikowanego układu rur powodował, że silniki, kiedy osiągały moc ponad 1000 KM, przegrzewały się. Piloci nie mogli więc podczas lotów bojowych korzystać z pełnej mocy silnika, co ograniczało osiągi samolotu. Powiększono też zbiorniki paliwa, wykorzystując wolne miejsce wewnątrz skrzydeł. Wprowadzono też kilka zmian w aerodynamice, likwidując problem blokowania sterów podczas nurkowania w dużej prędkości. Pilotując tę wersję, pilot mógł w razie niebezpieczeństwa zwiększyć na krótko moc silnika do 1600 KM. Pierwszą odmianą była P-38J-1, zbudowana w liczbie 10 sztuk. W następnej P-38J-5 w zwolnione w skrzydłach miejsca po chłodnicach zamontowano dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa. Zbudowano 210 sztuk. Odmiana P-38J-10 (790 sztuk) miała płaski wiatrochron ze zintegrowaną szybą kuloodporną. W P-38J-15 (1400 sztuk) zmodyfikowano system elektryczny i opancerzenie kabiny pilota. W P-38J-20 (350 sztuk) poprawiono system sterowania turbosprężarką. W odmianie P-38J-25 (210 sztuk) dokonano zmian w aerodynamice samolotu, m.in. sterowanie lotkami było hydrauliczne, dodano małe klapki pod skrzydłami sterowane elektrycznie, które pomagały wyjść z nurkowania. Maszyny te potrafiły osiągnąć podczas lotu nurkowego nawet 970 km/h. Zmiany te ogólnie poprawiły zwrotność maszyny. +P-38K. +Zbudowano tylko jeden prototyp tej wersji, powstały z przebudowania jednej maszyny P-38E. Miała być napędzana silnikami Allison V-1710-75/77 o mocy 1445 KM oraz śmigłami Hamilton Standard o szerszych łopatach i o większej średnicy, 3,81 m. Napęd ten miał poprawić osiągi maszyny na dużych wysokościach. Miała ona tylko nieznacznie lepsze osiągi od wersji P-38J, a ponieważ dostawy tych silników nie były pewne, nie podjęto ostatecznie produkcji seryjnej tej wersji. +P-38L. +Ostatnią wersją były 3923 egzemplarze P-38L (z czego 113 wyprodukowano w fabryce Consolidated-Vultee w Nashville pod oznaczeniem P-38L-VN). P-38L były przystosowane do przenoszenia początkowo 7, a później 10 rakiet 127 mm pod każdym skrzydłem. Początkowo podczepiano je bezpośrednio pod skrzydłami na szynach, ale ponieważ ogień z ich silników niszczył pokrycie skrzydła, potem zastosowano specjalne podwieszenie w kształcie odwróconej choinki. Dokonano też zmian w wyposażeniu kabiny pilota – m.in. nowe radio SCR-522. Wersja ta była napędzana silnikami Allison V-1710-111/113 o mocy startowej 1495 KM i maksymalnej bojowej 1622 KM. Miała nową turbosprężarkę, nowy system paliwowy i nowe pompy paliwa do silników. Pilot miał w też więcej możliwości ustawienia ręcznego mocy silników, jak też mogło się to odbywać automatycznie. Zmieniono reflektor do lądowania na stały zamontowany w krawędzi skrzydła, zamiast dotychczasowego chowanego. Zbudowano 1290 sztuki odmiany P-38L-1, które były takie same jak P-38J-25, oprócz silników. W P-38L-5 (2520 sztuk) dokonano zmian w systemie paliwowym i podwieszeniach rakiet. Wzmocniono też zaczepy, także teraz można było podwieszać dwie bomby po 907 kg lub zbiorniki po 1364 litry każdy. Zamontowano też radar AN/APS-13 ostrzegający o ataku z tylnej półsfery samolotu, sygnałem dźwiękowym o optycznym. +P-38M. +80 egzemplarzy wersji P-38L-5, pod koniec 1944 roku przebudowano do wersji P-38M-5 „Night Lightning” (myśliwiec nocny), montując pod dziobem radar AN/APS-6, przemalowując samolot na czarno oraz montując tłumiki płomienia na lufach karabinów i działka. Za kabiną pilota dodano kabinę dla operatora radaru. Wersji tej nie zdążono już użyć bojowo. +„Pathfinder”. +Ładunek bomb, jakie mogły przenosić ostatnie wersje P-38 (do 1814 kg) i ich zasięg był prawie taki sam jak bombowców Boeing B-17. Stąd zrodził się pomysł wykorzystanie ich w roli bombowców, dzięki czemu w porównaniu z B-17 widziano zysk w postaci: większej prędkości maszyny, mniejszego zużycia paliwa i mniej liczebnej załogi samolotu. Stąd pomysł zbudowania wersji P-38, która prowadziłaby taką formację P-38 i naprowadzała na cel, a zrzut bomb całej formacji miał się odbywać na znak od bombardiera umieszczonego w takim samolocie. Przebudowano więc jeden egzemplarz P-38H poprzez umieszczenie w nosie centralnego kadłuba miejsce dla bombardiera, który obsługiwał celownik bombardierski Norden. Maszyny te były pozbawione uzbrojenie strzeleckiego, ale nadal mogły przenosić bomby. Po pozytywnych próbach tej maszyny, przebudowano do tej wersji 23 P-38J. Nie nadano im osobnego oznaczenia, ale nazywano je Droop Snoot. Wyprodukowano ponadto jeszcze 100 zestawów do przeróbki samolotów w jednostkach bojowych. Samolotów tych używano w Europie. Rezultaty użycia takich formacji były dobre, ale sprawdzało się to tylko podczas dobrej bezchmurnej, pogody. Aby umożliwić wykorzystanie takich formacji podczas złej pogody, postanowiono zabudować radar. Tak powstały samoloty, również bez osobnego oznaczenia, ale nazywane Mickey. Powstały one z przebudowy wersji P-38L. W nosie maszyny zabudowano radar AN/APS-15 do wykrywania celów na powierzchni ziemi podczas złej pogody, ale radar miał obsługiwać sam pilot, co sprawiało wiele problemów. W praktyce wykrywanie celów ograniczało się w ich przypadku do rzek, jezior itp. Samoloty te były ponadto mało zwrotne. +Wersje rozpoznawcze. +Część samolotów pozbawiono uzbrojenia zastępując je sprzętem fotograficznym i skierowano do rozpoznania jako F-4 i F-5. W sumie wybudowano od zera lub przebudowano do wersji rozpoznawczej ponad 1400 samolotów P-38. +Wersja F-4 (99 sztuk), to przebudowany płatowiec wersji P-38E, w którego nosie usunięto uzbrojenie i umieszczono zestaw 4 kamer. W części maszyn pozostawiono 2 km. Napędzane były silnikami V-1710-21/29 i przystosowano je do przenoszenia pod skrzydłami dwóch dodatkowych zbiorników paliwa. Część maszyn wyposażono w automatycznego pilota i specjalne celowniki, oznaczono je jako F-4-ZRF-4. Wiele z nich potem przeznaczono do szkolenia i oznaczono RF-4. +F-5A bazowała na wersji P-38G. Odmiany F-5A-1 (20 sztuk), F-5A-3 (20 sztuk) i 140 F-5A-10, miały te same modyfikację, co odmiany G o tej samej numeracji i były produkowane równolegle. Zbudowano jeden egzemplarz F-5A-2, ale powstał on w oparciu o płatowiec wersji P-38E z silnikami V-1719-21/29. +Wersja F-5B-1 powstała z wersji P-38H-1 i P-38J-10. Wyposażone były w różne zestawy kamer, najczęściej 6 kamer K-17. Montowano na nich jako pierwszej wersji automatycznego pilota Sperry. Cztery maszyny tej wersji przekazano marynarce wojennej i oznaczono je jako XFO-1, a potem FO-1. +F-5C-1 identyczne z F-5B-1, ale z ulepszonym zestawem kamer, powstałe z przebudowy P-38J-5. W sumie powstało ich 128 sztuk. +Jeden F-5A-10 przebudowano na XF-5D. Był to dwumiejscowy samolot rozpoznawczy. Drugi członek załogi znajdował się w oszklonym nosie w pozycji leżącej i jego zadaniem prowadzenie było obserwacji. W nosie zainstalowano też 2 km 12,7mm. Kamery umieszczono w pod spodem kadłuba i w ogonach maszyny. Samolot ten nazywano Bobbie 1. +F-5E-2, identyczne jak F-5C-1, ale powstałe z przebudowania P-38J-15. Zbudowano 705 egzemplarzy. Jeden F-5B przerobiono na F-5E. F-5E-3 pochodziły z przeróbki 105 egzemplarzy P-38J-25. F5-E-4 powstały z przeróbki 508 P-38L-1. Miały 4 kamery. +F-5F-3 pochodziły od P-38L-5. Miały dwa skośne i wypukłe okna na dole kadłuba. Wyposażone były w 5 kamer. +F-5G-6 miały wydłużony nos, w którym zamontowano 4 kamery i dodatkową na samym przodzie. Niektóre maszyny miały cały nos oszklony. Przebudowano do tej wersji 63 maszyny P-38L-5. +Użycie bojowe. +Pierwsze zwycięstwo odniesione przez pilotów P-38E miało miejsce 4 sierpnia 1942 w pobliżu Aleutów, a zestrzelono parę japońskich łodzi latających Kawanishi H6K. P-38 operowały w tym rejonie od czerwca 1942 roku, jednak pierwszymi "Lightningami" biorącymi udział w lotach bojowych były rozpoznawcze F-4 działające z Australii i Nowej Gwinei. +Pierwszym samolotem zestrzelonym przez P-38 w Europie był zaś niemiecki Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor lecący w nad Atlantykiem 15 sierpnia 1942. Zwycięski samolot należał do 50 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego stacjonującego na Islandii. Pod koniec 1942 roku, P-38 działały z Północnej Afryki, skutecznie utrudniając Niemcom lotniczy transport zaopatrzenia dla wojska stacjonującego w rejonie Morza Śródziemnego. Piloci Luftwaffe niedługo po pierwszych spotkaniach z P-38 poznali jego główne wady – nieco mniejszą zwrotność od samolotów jednosilnikowych oraz spadek osiągów na dużych wysokościach, jednak kolejne wersje P-38 miały coraz mocniejsze silniki, a duża prędkość wznoszenia pozwalała pilotom Lightningów na ucieczkę przed niebezpieczeństwem. Dzięki umieszczonemu w jednym punkcie silnemu uzbrojeniu atak czołowy na P-38 wiązał się z wielkim ryzykiem. +Późniejsze wersje – P-38J i P-38L wysyłano w 1943 jako eskortę na dalekie wyprawy bombowe w Europie, jednak loty na dużych wysokościach były bardzo męczące dla pilotów, ze względu na brak silnika który ogrzewałby kabinę pilota, samolot ten pilotowało się też trudniej od jednosilnikowych. W Europie latało wiele przedstawicieli wersji rozpoznawczych F-4 oraz F-5. Miały one słabsze wersje silnikowe i śmigła o tym samym kierunku obrotów. Pilotując F-5 poległ w okolicach Marsylii znany pisarz i lotnik francuski, Antoine de Saint-Exupery. +W Azji "Lightningi" odegrały o wiele większą rolę niż w Europie. Działały praktycznie w każdej części Pacyfiku oraz w Chinach i Birmie. Duże znaczenie tutaj miał duży zasięg P-38, który pozwalał na osłonę dużych terytoriów, na których często nie można było budować odpowiednio gęstej sieci lotnisk. Skoncentrowany ogień z działka i karabinów maszynowych był dużo bardziej zabójczy dla lekkich myśliwców japońskich (brak opancerzenia kabiny pilota czy samouszczelniających się zbiorników z paliwem) niż dla opancerzonych maszyn niemieckich. Jako fabryczny pilot Lockheeda, osiągając niejako „przy okazji” kilka zestrzeleń, latał w Azji Charles Lindbergh, słynny lotnik amerykański. Na P-38 latali również Richard Ira Bong i Tom McGuire, amerykańscy piloci o największej liczbie zwycięstw powietrznych podczas II wojny światowej (odpowiednio 40 i 38 zestrzeleń), odznaczeni amerykańskim Medal of Honor. +O świcie 17 kwietnia 1943 roku wysłano 16 P-38 w ramach operacji „I” nad wyspę Bougainville, aby zestrzelić bombowiec z admirałem Isoroku Yamamoto na pokładzie – była to jedna z najbardziej znanych operacji lotniczych na Pacyfiku. Grupą dowodził major John W. Mitchell. Czterech pilotów pod dowództwem kapitana Thomasa G. Lanphiera miało atakować bombowce (leciały tam 2 Mitsubishi G4M), a pozostali mieli zająć się osłoną (6 Mitsubishi A6M). O godzinie 9.34 czasu miejscowego lecące tuż nad wodą P-38 dostrzegły samoloty japońskie. Grupa Mitchella zaczęła wznosić się na 6000 m z wyjątkiem czterech pilotów (Lanphier oraz porucznicy Rex Barber, Raymond Hine i Besby Holmes), którzy ruszyli ku bombowcom. Jeden z japońskich myśliwców osłony zwiększył nagle prędkość i wysunął się przed bombowce, sygnalizując niebezpieczeństwo. G4M „Betty” zaczęły gwałtownie nurkować ku ziemi, a „Zera” z osłony ruszyły do kontrataku, lecz Amerykanie zdawali się nie zwracać na nie uwagi. Lanphier i Barber mknęli za lecącym nieco z tyłu bombowcem i po chwili zostali zaatakowani przez 3 „Zera”. Do jednego z nich, skręcającego z zamiarem przeprowadzenia ataku czołowego, Lanphier oddał krótką serię, dostrzegł że samolot japoński wybucha i zaczął strzelać z całej broni pokładowej do bombowca. Po kilku seriach prawy silnik „Betty” eksplodował i jednocześnie oderwała się końcówka płata. Bombowiec zahaczył lewym skrzydłem o korony palm i zwalił się na ziemię, by po chwili eksplodować. W tej maszynie leciał Yamamoto. W tym czasie Barber atakował drugi bombowiec przewożący kontradmirała Matomi Ugaki. Pilot tego samolotu ocalał i po wojnie udzielił wywiadu o przebiegu akcji. Dużą rolę w tej operacji miały dodatkowe, odrzucane zbiorniki na paliwo, pozwalające na znaczne wydłużenie zasięgu maszyny. Pomimo problemów z niedopracowanym systemem ich odrzucania piloci poradzili sobie w tym zadaniu. +Cechy lotno-pilotażowe. +W przypadku każdego samolotu istotnym elementem jest zespół napędowy. Jednakże w przypadku P-38 było to szczególnie silnie wyraźne. Maszyny z silnikami bezsprężarkowymi i tym samym kierunkiem obrotów śmigieł słabo sprawdzały się podczas walki kołowej, szybko traciły energię, a tym samym i inicjatywę w walce. Dobrze sprawdzały się jedynie w roli maszyn rozpoznawczych. +Wersje z silnikami sprężarkowymi i śmigłami przeciwbieżnymi miały zdecydowanie lepsze właściwości manewrowe i wartość bojową. +Problemem (jak i np. w brytyjskim Bristol Beaufighter) była niedostateczna stateczność kierunkowa. Poważny problem występował podczas awarii jednego z silników podczas startu (zbyt wolna redukcja mocy na sprawnym silniku często doprowadzała do katastrofy). Do największych, z mozołem likwidowanych problemów, można zaliczyć blokowanie sterów przy nurkowaniu z dużymi prędkościami oraz drgania części ogonowej z powodu dość wiotkiej konstrukcji belek kadłubowych. Do ujemnych cech należałoby zaliczyć też wrażliwe na uszkodzenia elementy układu chłodzenia silników, w razie przestrzelenia i utraty glikolu dochodziło po jakimś czasie do zatarcia się silnika. Jeśli w takiej sytuacji pilot (paradoksalnie) nie zmniejszył mocy jedynego pracującego silnika – asymetria ciągu przy niewystarczającej stateczności kierunkowej doprowadzała do przewrócenia się maszyny na plecy i wejścia w korkociąg. Przy pełnych dodatkowych zbiornikach z paliwem dochodziło do uszkodzeń przeciążonych opon podwozia. +Nie miał on samych wad. Posiadał głównie zalety. Silniki bez sprężarek zamontowane były tylko na dwóch egzemplarzach wysłanych do testów do Wlk. Brytanii i na serii nieodebranych przez RAF maszyn używanych jako maszyny szkolne. P-38 był bardzo statecznym myśliwcem i dobrą platformą dla centralnie umieszczonego uzbrojenia. Jego stateczność mogła być wadą, ponieważ przy dużych prędkościach „twardniały lotki” i wejście w beczkę wymagało sporej siły (w 1944 rozwiązano to przez zainstalowanie wspomagania hydraulicznego lotek). P-38 był samolotem asów: dwóch pierwszych pilotów myśliwskich USA (40 i 38 zestrzeleń) i wielu innych latało tym samolotem, opracowując specjalne techniki walki jak odmienne ustawienia obrotów na każdym silniku przy wejściu w beczkę. Był on skomplikowany w obsłudze i miał dosyć niską krytyczną liczbę Macha (0,67). Objawiało się to „wariowaniem” wolantu i „ciężkim nosem” podczas nurkowania z dużych wysokości. Było to spowodowane grubym profilem płata, co z drugiej strony pozwalało na osiąganie sporych kątów natarcia. Dzięki temu (i klapom manewrowym jako standard) osiągał mały promień skrętu, wchodząc na ogon w walce kołowej niemieckim myśliwcom. Miał też bardzo dobre wznoszenie, jako że był projektowany jako myśliwiec przechwytujący. Maszyny używane w ósmej armii lotniczej były początkowo bardzo awaryjne (statystycznie każdy Lightning w 8AF miał wymieniany silnik). Dość często zdarzało się, że piloci musieli wracać do Anglii nawet znad Berlina na jednym silniku. W wersji J zastosowano powiększone chłodnice powietrza doładowującego, co zmniejszyło awaryjność jednostek napędowych, a od wersji J-25 jako standard montowano hydrauliczne wspomaganie lotek i specjalne klapy-hamulce do nurkowania wysuwane elektrycznie. P-38 nie miał wiotkiej konstrukcji – mógł wytrzymać 7,5g przez dłuższy czas (tu ograniczeniem był pilot). Samolot ten był dosyć odporny na ogień ze względu na swoją wytrzymałą konstrukcję i 2 silniki, które były chłodzone cieczą i jak w każdym myśliwcu II wojny światowej napędzanym silnikiem widlastym ich chłodnice były wrażliwe na ostrzał. P-38 był potężnie uzbrojony, oprócz umieszczonych w nosie 4 nkm 12,7mm z zapasem amunicji 450 naboi każdy i działka 20 mm z zapasem 150 naboi mógł przenosić ok. 2 ton bomb, a od wersji L także rakiety niekierowane na prowadnicach zerowych pod skrzydłami. Posiadał (odmiennie od przeważającej większości myśliwców tamtego czasu) trójkołowe podwozie z kołem przednim jak w nowoczesnych samolotach. +LIBOR + +LIBOR (ang. "London Interbank Offered Rate") - stopa procentowa kredytów oferowanych na rynku międzybankowym w Londynie przez cztery główne banki: Bankers Trust, Bank of Tokyo, Barclays i National Westminster. Jest ustalana o godzinie 11:00 GMT. Stanowi bazową stopę procentową dla ustalania oprocentowania kredytów i depozytów na rynku międzybankowym oraz kredytów typu "roll-over". +Wysokość stopy procentowej LIBOR zmienia się w sposób ciągły w zależności od warunków ekonomicznych. +Jednomiesięczną stopą LIBOR jest oprocentowanie depozytów jednomiesięcznych w danym momencie oferowane przez bank innemu bankowi, trzymiesięczną stopą LIBOR jest oprocentowanie depozytów trzymiesięcznych etc. +Jeśli oprocentowanie pożyczki ustanowione jest na poziomie jednomiesięcznej stopy LIBOR, to stopa procentowa tej pożyczki uaktualniana jest w kolejnych okresach miesięcznych według stopy LIBOR, a odsetki płacone są z dołu. Stopy LIBOR dla innych okresów definiuje się analogicznie. +Czas na jaki zaciągnięto pożyczkę, dzielony jest na okresy sześciomiesięczne. Dla każdego okresu oprocentowanie oblicza się dodając 0,5% do poziomu sześciomiesięcznej stopy LIBOR (w skali rocznej) dla początku okresu. Oprocentowanie płacone jest na końcu okresu. +Porównanie dystrybucji Linuksa + +Poniższa tablica porównuje ogólne i techniczne cechy szeregu dystrybucji systemu operacyjnego Linux. +Żylaki przełyku + +Żylaki przełyku (łac. "varices oesophagi") – są spowodowane nadciśnieniem wrotnym i przeciążeniem splotu żołądkowo-przełykowego nadmierną ilością przepływającej krwi. +Objawy kliniczne i przebieg. +Często pierwszym objawem żylaków przełyku jest ich najgroźniejsze powikłanie – krwawienie z żylaków przełyku. Większość pozostałych objawów wynika z choroby podstawowej prowadzącej do nadciśnienia wrotnego i w konsekwencji żylaków przełyku. +Powikłania. +Najgroźniejszym powikłaniem żylaków z przełyku jest krwotok. Może on przebiegać bardzo dramatycznie i doprowadzić do dużej utraty krwi. Objawia się krwistymi, chlustającymi wymiotami, świeżą niestrawioną krwią. Wymioty są spowodowane bezpośrednim emetogennym działaniem krwi. Około 30% krwotoków jest śmiertelnych. Śmierć następuje zarówno z powodu utraty krwi, jak i na skutek śpiączki wątrobowej. Śpiączka spowodowana jest przeciążeniem dużą ilością białka, niewydolnej zazwyczaj (z powodu choroby podstawowej) wątroby. +Rokowanie. +U pacjentów, u których wystąpił już jeden epizod krwotoku z żylaków przełyku, istnieje 70% prawdopodobieństwo powtórnego krwawienia w najbliższym czasie. Około 30% kolejnych krwawień okazuje się śmiertelna. Zgon następuje zazwyczaj w dniu krwawienia lub kilka dni po. +Leczenie. +Leczenie możemy podzielić na trzy etapy: leczenie zachowawcze niekrwawiących żylaków przełyku, leczenie paliatywne żylaków, z których występowały krwotoki oraz leczenie interwencyjne w przypadku krwotoku. +W leczeniu zachowawczym farmakologicznym stosuje się nieselektywne blokery receptorów β-adrenergicznych (beta-blokery), np. propranolol, które obniżając rzut serca zmniejszają napływ krwi do układu wrotnego. W przypadku przeciwwskazań do stosowania beta-blokerów, można podawać długodziałające nitraty. +Leczenie paliatywne stosuje się w celu zapobiegania nawrotom krwawienia. Polega ono na wytworzeniu zespoleń wrotno-układowych (między żyłą wrotną a inną żyłą) co umożliwi ominięcie przepływu krwi przez wątrobę i w konsekwencji obniży ciśnienie wrotne. +Leczenie interwencyjne krwotoku – polega na endoskopowym wstrzykiwaniu miejscu krwawienia środka sklerotyzującego (najczęściej polidokanol) lub na zakładaniu zacisków na krwawiące żylaki. Starszą metodą, obecnie rzadko już stosowaną, jest zakładanie tamponady zgłębnikiem Sengstakena i Blakemore'a lub zgłębnikiem Lintona. W przypadku masywnego krwotoku można podawać dożylnie analogi somatostatyny (oktreotyd), które wywołując skurcz tętnic trzewnych zmniejszą ilość krwi napływających do żylaków i ułatwią działanie endoskopowe. Można również stosować terlipresynę. +Knut Johan Ångström + +Knut Johan Ångström (ur. 12 stycznia 1857 w Uppsali, zm. 4 marca 1910, tamże) – szwedzki geofizyk. +Studiował w Uppsali w latach (1877-1884), później w Strasburgu u Augusta Kundta. Doktoryzował się na Uniwersytecie w Sztokholmie w 1885 roku. Członek Szwedzkiej Akademii Nauk (od 1893). Był synem Andersa Jonasa Ångströma. Od 1896 profesor Uniwersytetu w Uppsali. Prowadził badania dotyczące absorpcji promieniowania podczerwonego przez dwutlenek węgla i parę wodną. Skonstruował pyrheliometr i pyrgeometr. Jego syn Anders Knutson Ångström kontynuował prace ojca. +Michael Cretu + +Michael Cretu (właśc. Mihai Creţu), znany także jako Curly M.C. (ur. 18 maja 1957 w Bukareszcie) - rumuński muzyk, znany głównie jako twórca muzycznego projektu nazwanego Enigma. Szczególną sławę przyniosło mu wydanie albumu "MCMXC A.D.", który trafił na pierwsze miejsca list przebojów w 24 krajach i zdobył 17 platynowych i 24 złote płyty. +Michael studiował muzykę poważną w Bukareszcie, Paryżu oraz we Frankfurcie. Swoją przyszłą żonę Sandrę Lauer poznał w czasie gdy grał na klawiszach w zespole Arabesque. Ożenił się z nią 7 stycznia 1988. Mają bliźniaki, Nikitę i Sebastiana, które urodziły się w 1995. +Po prawie dwudziestu latach, małżeństwo Michaela i Sandry rozpadło się i obecnie żyją oni w separacji w dwóch różnych posiadłościach na Ibizie. Pod koniec października 2007 roku, niemiecka popołudniówka Bild opublikowała oficjalną notę prasową menedżera, który potwierdził złożenie pozwu rozwodowego oraz separację artystów. +W 2009 roku nielegalnie zbudowana posiadłość Michaela Cretu na Ibizie zostaje zburzona zgodnie z rozporządzeniem władz. Artysta przeniósł się do Niemiec. W jakim mieście mieszka, tego dokładnie nie wiadomo. W tym roku także swoją premierę będzie miała składanka największych przebojów Enigmy pod tytułem Platinum Collection. Na trzecim dysku znajdą się chillout-owe utwory wcześniej nie publikowane z okresu Enigmy 7. Pod koniec roku 2010 miało miejsce uczczenie rocznicy 20 - lecia projektu Enigma. Na tą okazję powstała strona "enigmasocialsong.com" na którą fani mogli przesyłać na początku swoje wokale, potem (gdy wybrano wokal) mogli wybrać ostateczną wersję utworu "MMX social song". +Wydania solo. +Pierwszym singlem Michaela Cretu był "Wild River" wydany w 1978. Niedługo potem (1979) wydał on album zatytułowany "Ausgewählte Goldstücke" w niemieckim wydaniu oraz "Moon, Light and Flowers" w wydaniu angielskim. Kolejny, wydany w 1983, "Legionäre" oraz trzeci z kolei solowy album "Die Chinesische Mauer" (1985), zawierały teksty w języku niemieckim. Ten ostatni został jednak wydany także w wersji angielskiej pod tytułem "The Invisible Man". Angielskie wydanie różniło się od niemieckiego m.in. długością trwania poszczególnych utworów. +Żółw wielkogłowy + +Żółw wielkogłowy, wielkogłów potokowy ("Platysternon megacephalum") – gatunek gada z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych, jedyny przedstawiciel rodziny żółwi wielkogłowych (wielkogłowowatych). +Jimmy Doolittle + +James "Jimmy" Harold Doolittle (ur. 14 grudnia 1896 w Alameda, zm. 27 września 1993 w Pebble Beach w Kalifornii) – pilot i generał lotnictwa Stanów Zjednoczonych. Zasłynął przeprowadzeniem podczas II wojny światowej brawurowego "Rajdu Doolittle'a" – pierwszego udanego nalotu bombowego na Tokio. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w Alameda w Kalifornii, lecz młodość spędził na Alasce. W 1925 otrzymał jako jeden z pierwszych tytuł doktora inżynierii lotniczej na Massachusetts Institute of Technology. +Dzięki serii przełomowych, śmiałych lotów stał się w okresie międzywojennym jednym z najsłynniejszych lotników. We wrześniu 1922 dokonał pierwszego z licznych pionierskich wyczynów, które przyniosły mu większość znaczących trofeów lotniczych i międzynarodową sławę. Samolotem DeHavilland DH-4 przeleciał całe USA, z Pablo Beach na Florydzie do San Diego w Kalifornii w 21 godzin i 19 minut, dokonując po drodze zaledwie jednego międzylądowania w celu uzupełnienia paliwa. W 1925, pilotując wodnosamolot Curtiss R3c, zwyciężył w wyścigu o Puchar Schneidera. +Jego najistotniejszym wkładem w rozwój lotnictwa było jednak opracowanie techniki latania przy pomocy instrumentów. Jako pierwszy pilot wystartował, wykonał lot i wylądował samolotem korzystając wyłącznie z instrumentów pokładowych. Był współtwórcą sztucznego horyzontu. +W styczniu 1942, w randze podpułkownika, został członkiem sztabu Sił Lotniczych Armii. Przygotował – i zgłosił się na ochotnika do prowadzenia – pierwszego amerykańskiego nalotu na Japonię. 18 kwietnia 1942 16 średnich bombowców B-25 Mitchell, pilotowanych przez ochotników, wystartowało z lotniskowca Hornet i zaatakowało cele w Tokio, Kobe, Osace i Nagoi. Misja miała niewielkie znaczenie militarne, ale dała ogromny efekt propagandowy. Sam Doolittle wyskoczył ze spadochronem nad Chinami i powrócił do USA. Otrzymał z rąk prezydenta Roosevelta najwyższe amerykańskie odznaczenie – Medal Honoru i awans na generała. +W lipcu 1942 Doolittle został przeniesiony do 8 Armii Lotniczej, a we wrześniu tego samego roku objął dowództwo 12 Armii Lotniczej w Afryce Północnej. W marcu 1943 został dowódcą Strategicznych Sił Lotniczej w Afryce Północnej. Następnie został dowódcą 15 Armii Lotniczej, aż wreszcie w styczniu 1944 objął dowodzenie 8 Armii Lotniczej, którą dowodził – w Europie i na Pacyfiku – do zakończenia wojny. 10 maja 1946 przeszedł do rezerwy i objął stanowisko wiceprezesa Shell Oil, by w późniejszym czasie przejąć kierowanie firmą. +Zmarł 27 września 1993 w Pebble Beach w stanie Kalifornia. Został pochowany na Narodowym Cmentarzu w Arlington w stanie Wirginia. +Life on a Plate + +Life on a Plate to drugi album muzyczny szwedzkiej punkrockowej grupy muzycznej Millencolin wydany 11 października 1995 w Szwecji i 26 marca 1996 w USA. Album uzyskał czwarte miejsce na szwedzkich listach przebojów i uzyskał status złotej płyty w 2002 po sprzedaniu 50 000 kopii w Szwecji. Dodatkowo, okładka albumu zrobiona przez Erika Ohlssona wygrała tytuł "Okładki roku" (1995) szwedzkiego czasopisma Slitz. +Molowce + +Molowce zwane też motylami mniejszymi (Microlepidoptera) – jedna z największych grup motyli, obejmująca kilka rodzin. W samej Europie Środkowej występuje około 3000 gatunków. Jest to grupa bardzo niejednorodna, złożona z wielu różnych bezpośrednio niespokrewnionych rodzin. Należy tu wiele bardzo małych gatunków, które jednak ze względu na swą specjalizację pokarmową i zdolność do szybkiego rozmnażania się mają istotne znaczenie gospodarcze. Wśród molowców znajdują się też formy przejściowe między motylami, a ich najbliższymi krewniakami chruścikami. +Konkatedra + +Konkatedra, współkatedra, Kościół konkatedralny – drugi kościół archidiecezji lub diecezji, druga siedziba ordynariusza. +Najczęstszym powodem ustanawiania w diecezji konkatedry są zmiany stolic diecezji (np. konkatedra w Chełmży) lub chęć wyróżnienia jakiegoś kościoła z uwagi na jego znaczenie w diecezji lub archidiecezji (np. konkatedra w Olsztynie została ustanowiona przy kościele farnym z uwagi na rezydowanie przy nim arcybiskupa warmińskiego). +Obcy - ósmy pasażer Nostromo + +Obcy – ósmy pasażer Nostromo (ang. "Alien") – film Ridleya Scotta z 1979 roku. +Pierwszy z serii filmów połączonych osobą głównej bohaterki – Ellen Ripley, odtwarzanej przez Sigourney Weaver oraz stworzoną przez Hansa Gigera postacią Obcego. +Film zapoczątkował pierwszą amerykańską serię, w której główną, heroiczną rolę gra kobieta. W roku 2002 Biblioteka Kongresu USA uznała film za "znaczący kulturowo". Oznacza to jego szczególną ochronę, jako dziedzictwa kulturowego i przechowywanie w amerykańskim Narodowym Rejestrze Filmowym. +W 2003 roku powstała wersja reżyserska filmu. Pierwotną wersję uzupełniono o wcześniej usunięte sceny oraz cyfrową, stereofoniczną ścieżkę dźwiękową. +Opis fabuły. +Holownik kosmiczny USCSS Nostromo wraca na Ziemię z Thedus wraz z rafinerią do przetwarzania wzbogaconej rudy (20 mln ton rudy). Steruje nim komputer pokładowy o nazwie "Matka" (MU-TH-UR), a załoga pozostaje w stanie hibernacji. Spokój podróży zakłóca tajemniczy sygnał wysyłany z księżyca planety w układzie Zeta 2 Reticuli. Nieznany sygnał błędnie rozpoznany jako SOS, a będący w rzeczywistości ostrzeżeniem został odebrany przez "Matkę", która budzi załogę z anabiozy. +Ludzie lądują Nostromo na (często mylonym z planetą) księżycu Acheron (LV-426), pozostawiając na orbicie rafinerię, w trakcie lądowania statek doznaje kilku uszkodzeń, spowodowanych zassaniem pyłu z atmosfery. Podczas gdy Brett i Parker naprawiają uszkodzenia, do zbadania tajemniczego sygnału zostaje wysłana trzyosobowa ekipa zwiadowcza (Dallas, Lambert i Kane). Znajduje ona stary wrak statku kosmicznego nieznanej cywilizacji. W jego wnętrzu odkrywają szkielet członka obcej załogi, a także olbrzymią ładownię wypełnioną setkami skórzastych jaj. +Kane, który odkrył jaja, zostaje zaatakowany przez pająkowatą formę życia (larwę zwaną facehuggerem, czyli twarzołapem). Z przyczepionym do twarzy organizmem zostaje przetransportowany na prom, gdzie reszta załogi stara się uwolnić Kane'a od intruza. Badania wykazują, że tajemniczy organizm podtrzymuje Kane'a przy życiu i nie sposób go ściągnąć bez szkody dla zainfekowanego oficera. Pozostawiają go więc w takim stanie, zastanawiając się nad dalszymi krokami. Po pewnym czasie organizm odpada i umiera. +Po tym wypadku Kane wraca do zdrowia i zaczyna normalnie funkcjonować. Jednak podczas ostatniego posiłku przed hibernacją z klatki piersiowej mężczyzny wydostaje się wężowata postać (Chestburster), powodując śmierć żywiciela. Ten moment stanie się punktem zwrotnym – młody Obcy przeobraża się z poczwarki w przerażającego potwora, który zabija kolejnych członków załogi. +Trzecią ofiarą obcego pada kapitan statku, Dallas. Wkrótce potem okazuje się że jeden z członków załogi - Ash jest androidem. Od niego bohaterowie dowiadują się straszliwej prawdy że zostali celowo skierowani przez korporację Weyland-Yutani w celu sprowadzenia za wszelką cenę obcej formy życia. Nawet życie załogi miało być drugorzędne. +W końcu przy życiu pozostają jedynie kot Jonesy i Ellen Ripley, której udaje się zdetonować statek kosmiczny i uciec w kapsule ratunkowej. Jednakże przed Ellen na pokład kapsuły ratunkowej przedostaje się także Obcy. Dochodzi do ostatecznego pojedynku Ellen i Obcego, podczas którego Ellen wyrzuca Obcego przez śluzę w przestrzeń kosmiczną. +Odniesienia. +"Obcy – ósmy pasażer Nostromo" i jego sukces stał się fundamentem powstania trylogii opisującej życie Ellen Ripley. Kasowość serii przerosła wszelkie oczekiwania, a twórcy filmowi postanowili zaskoczyć widzów ożywiając Ripley (która ginie w trzeciej części) i stawiając ją raz jeszcze przeciwko Obcemu. Jean-Pierre Jeunet postanowił kontynuować historię "Obcego", m.in. podejmując wątek Davida Finchera. Po śmierci, Ellen została sklonowana na podstawie materiału genetycznego (wątek badań genetycznych zaczerpnięty z poprzedniej części), a klon Ripley osadzony został w laboratorium, będącym zarazem więzieniem (podobnie jak w "Obcym 3"). Dzięki podobnym zabiegom, twórcom udało się raz jeszcze wkupić w łaski widzów, a trylogia Ellen Ripley, zastąpiona została szybko czteropakami serii opisanymi jako "Kwadrylogia Obcego" (ang. "Alien Quadrilogy"). +Liczne są nawiązania do istot pojawiających się w serii – występują one w książkach i komiksach, które budują świat Obcego. W nawiązaniu do komiksowej tradycji przeciwstawiania sobie postaci pochodzących z zupełnie różnych utworów, z inicjatywy reżysera Paula W. S. Andersona powstał crossover "Obcy kontra Predator" ("Alien vs. Predator"), który doczekał się także swojego sequela. +Courrier International + +Courrier International – francuski tygodnik opinii, w którym ukazują się wyłącznie francuskie tłumaczenia artykułów z prasy światowej. +Aleksandr Imeretyński + +Aleksander Bagration-Imeretyński, ros. "Александр Константинович Багратион-Имеретинский" (24 września 1837 - 17 listopada 1900), rosyjski arystokrata (książę), generał-gubernator warszawski, namiestnik cara w Warszawie. +Aleksander Imeretyński pochodził z rodu Bagratydów - dynastii królewskiej, która kiedyś rządziła Gruzją. W latach 1897-1900 pełnił funkcję generał-gubernatora Warszawy z nadania cara, zastępując w fotelu Pawła Szuwałowa. Pozorny zwolennik porozumienia z Polakami i pozyskania ich przychylności dla państwa rosyjskiego. +W rzeczywistości widział zagrożenie we wzrastającym niezadowoleniu Polaków, podgrzewanym podówczas przez coraz liczniejsze wydawnictwa i organizacje nielegalne, jak np wydawany przez Piłsudskiego Robotnik i PPS. +Rozwijający się pod koniec XIXw. na ziemiach Królestwa Polskiego ruch socjalistyczny docierał do do coraz liczniejszych mas - głównie robotników, ale też chłopów i żydów. Ponieważ największy odłam tego ruchu głosił konieczność wyzwolenia się z niewoli cara, Imertyński zdecydował o zmianie dotychczasowej represyjnej polityki wobec Polaków. Pozorne ustępstwa ze strony Rosjan (m.in. przywrócenie prawa do modlitwy w języku ojczystym w szkołach w 1897, zdymisjonowanie znienawidzonego przez Polaków kuratora Aleksandra Apuchtina, polskojęzyczna gazeta, czy też zezwolenie na budowę pomnika Adama Mickiewicza) miały zneutralizować wpływ wydawnictw i ruchów nielegalnych. +W 1898 roku wykradziony został przez działaczy PPS tajny memoriał Imeretyńskiego dotyczący współpracy z caratem, w którym Imeretyński relacjonował carowi założenia swojej polityki pozornych ustępstw, mających doprowadzićde facto do wzrostu tempa rusyfikacji Polaków. Wydany w Londynie wraz z wstępem autorstwa Józefa Piłsudskiego, zdobył niebywały rozgłos i w znacznej mierze przyczynił się do dymisji Imeretyńskiego, jak też zdecydowanego osłabienia pozycji stronnictw ugodowych. +Mułowcowate + +Mułowcowate, żółwie piżmowe, żółwie mułowe (Kinosternidae) – rodzina gadów z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych. Ich cechą charakterystyczną jest wydawanie swoistego zapachu produkowanego przez mocno rozwinięte gruczoły wonne. Rodzina ta obejmuje 4 rodzaje. +Członkowie tej rodziny mają wiele cech wspólnych z żółwiami skorpuchowatymi. +Niektóre gatunki mają ruchomo połączone przednią i tylną część plastronu. U innych na karapaksie występuje 1-3 wzdłużnych rzędów wysokich rogowych guzów. +Systematyka. +Rodzaje "Claudius" i "Staurotypus" wydzielane są jako podrodzina Staurotypinae, czasami traktowana jako rodzina Staurotypidae - krzyżopiersiowate. +Erzincan + +Erzincan (dawna "Arsinga") - miasto we wschodniej Anatolii, w Turcji, o współrzędnych geograficznych: 39° 45' N, 30° 20' E, położone na wysokości 1185 m n.p.m. Ludność: 107,2 tys. (2000). +Miasto położone jest na bardzo aktywnym sejsmicznie uskoku tektonicznym. Wielokrotnie nawiedzane było przez bardzo silne trzęsienia ziemi, m.in. wstrząs z 26 grudnia 1939, który przyniósł 32,7 tys. zabitych. Ostatnie większe trzęsienie ziemi nawiedziło ten rejon w 1992. +Wolf Fang + +Przedsiębiorstwo Wolf Fang P.H. powstało w czerwcu 2003 i zajmuje się głównie wydawaniem gier RPG oraz wydawaniem i dystrybucją gier karcianych. Najważnieszymi dokonaniami są kontynuowanie wydawania Legendy Pięciu Kręgów (poprzednim wydawcą było Tori) oraz wydanie na polskim rynku 7th Sea. W 2004 wydawnictwo Wolf-Fang za pośrednictwem Imperium S.C. wydało grę fabularną Crystalicum; w tej linii wydawniczej ukazała się również gra karciana pod tym samym tytułem. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Strona internetowa Wolf Fang +Magallanes + +Región de Magallanes y de la Antártica Chilena, zwany też Regionem XII – położony najbardziej na południe region Chile, największy i zarazem najrzadziej zaludniony. +W tym regionie znajdują się takie znane miejsca jak jezioro O'Higgins/San Martín, szczyt Torres del Paine, Przylądek Horn, Ziemia Ognista czy Cieśnina Magellana. Według władz w Santiago w jego skład wchodzi także Chilijskie Terytorium Antarktyczne. +Znaleźć tu można wiele rzadkich gatunków roślin i zwierząt. Fauna patagońska reprezentowana jest przez pingwiny, nandu, guanako i kondory. +Gospodarka regionu opiera się na hodowli bydła, wydobyciu ropy naftowej i turystyce. +Polidokanol + +Polidokanol – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy polieterów, zawiera 9 jednostek glikolowych. Dzięki temu, że jest nietoksyczny, stosowany jako emulgator w przemyśle farmaceutycznym i kosmetycznym oraz w medycynie do sklerotyzacji żylaków. +Powiat ostrowski (województwo mazowieckie) + +Powiat ostrowski – powiat w Polsce (w północno-wschodniej części województwa mazowieckiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Ostrów Mazowiecka. W czasach II Rzeczypospolitej powiat o tej samej nazwie, lecz o innych granicach, wchodził w skład województwa białostockiego. +Demografia. +W składzie II Rzeczypospolitej. +Według spisu powszechnego z 1921 roku, powiat w ówczesnych granicach zamieszkiwało 94457 osób, w tym 83427 (88,3%) Polaków, 10493 (11,1%) Żydów, 404 (0,4%) Niemców, 90 (0,1%) Rosjan, 23 Białorusinów, 9 Rusinów, 6 Łotyszy, 2 Litwinów, 1 Czech, 1 Awar i Francuz. +Religia. +Według spisu powszechnego z 1921 roku, 78238 (82,8%) mieszkańców powiatu w ówczesnych granicach wyznawało rzymski katolicyzm, 14799 (15,7%) judaizm, 1233 (1,3%) protestantyzm, 173 (0,2%) prawosławie i 6 islam. 8 osób zadeklarowało brak wyznania. +Pytanie zamknięte + +Pytanie zamknięte to takie, w którym pytający stara się ograniczyć liczbę możliwych odpowiedzi. +Przykład: "Chcesz na obiad kotlet schabowy czy kurczaka?" +W socjologii – typ pytań kwestionariuszowych stosowanych najczęściej w testach lub ankietach i posiadające skończoną liczbę precyzyjnie sformułowanych wypowiedzi do wyboru. Wybór może mieć charakter wyboru jednokrotnego lub wielokrotnego. +Odpowiedzi do tego typu pytań w kwestionariuszach mogą przyjmować formę kafeterii. Najczęściej, gdy są to pytania rozstrzygnięcia odpowiedzi sformułowane są w oparciu o pięciostopniową skalę Likerta. +W przypadku, gdy respondent może zaznaczyć jedną z istniejących w kafeterii odpowiedzi albo udzielić odpowiedzi niewyróżnionej w kwestionariuszu, (często stosowanym zapisem jest pozostawienie dodatkowego miejsca na wpisanie odpowiedzi nie uwzględnionej, lub nieznanej badaczowi) mamy do czynienia z pytaniami półotwartymi. +Viña del Mar + +Viña del Mar (znane także jako La Ciudad Jardín, czyli "Miasto Ogród") – miasto w środkowym Chile, położone na wybrzeżu Oceanu Spokojnego, 110 km na północny wschód od Santiago de Chile, w regionie Valparaíso. Wchodzi w skład aglomeracji Gran Valparaíso. Ludność: 286,9 tys. (2002). +Miasto jest znanym ośrodkiem turystycznym tej części Chile. Turystów przyciągają liczne plaże, kasyno oraz coroczny festiwal muzyczny Festival de la Canción de Viña del Mar. Działa tam także polski konsulat honorowy. +W tym mieście jest organizowany co roku turniej tenisowy ATP. Przyjeżdżają tu największe gwiazdy tenisa. Odbywa się to mniej więcej na przełomie stycznia i lutego. +WIBOR + +WIBOR (ang. "Warsaw Interbank Offered Rate") – wysokość oprocentowania kredytów na polskim rynku międzybankowym. +Funkcjonuje od 1991 roku. Od 1993 ustalany jest w każdy dzień roboczy o godzinie 11.00, na fixingu organizowanym przez ACI – Stowarzyszenie Dealerów (dawniej Forex Polska), na podstawie ofert złożonych przez 16 banków, po odrzuceniu dwóch najwyższych i dwóch najniższych wielkości. +W ciągu 15 minut od publikacji indeksów ustalonych podczas fixingu uczestniczące w nim banki zobowiązane są do zawierania między sobą transakcji według stawek nie gorszych od zgłoszonych tego dnia. +Stopa WIBOR jest wyższa od stopy WIBID, gdyż w przeciwnym wypadku banki traciłyby na pożyczaniu sobie pieniędzy. +Pelagiusz I + +Pelagiusz I (ur. w Rzymie, zm. 4 marca 561 tamże) – papież w okresie od 16 kwietnia 556 do 4 marca 561. +Biografia. +Był synem Jana, wysokiego urzędnika administracji Rzymu. Z nominacji papieża Agapita I pełnił funkcję nuncjusza w Konstantynopolu; towarzyszył Agapitowi w jego nieudanej misji dyplomatycznej w Konstantynopolu w 536. Jeden z kolejnych papieży, Wigiliusz, wyjeżdżając do Konstantynopola powierzył Pelagiuszowi funkcję zarządcy Rzymu. Pelagiusz musiał wykazać się talentem dyplomatycznym, lawirując między chwiejnym stanowiskiem papieża i wolą cesarza Justyniana I. Jednocześnie przyszło mu zmierzyć się z oblężeniem Rzymu przez ostrogockiego króla Totilę. +W 555 papież Wigiliusz, potępiony przez sobór w Konstantynopolu, został pozbawiony urzędu i wkrótce zmarł, a cesarz Justynian wyznaczył na jego następcę Pelagiusza. Jego konsekracja była odłożona, ponieważ żaden biskup nie chciał w niej uczestniczyć (zrobili to dopiero Perugii i Ferentino). Nowy papież zatwierdził decyzję soboru konstantynopolitańskiego, co spotkało się z opozycją kilku biskupów Italii – za heretyka uznali go m.in. biskupi Mediolanu i Akwilei. Pelagiusza oskarżano także o zamordowanie Wigiliusza. Wprawdzie oczyścił się on z zarzutów, składając uroczystą przysięgę, ale z biskupami Mediolanu i Akwilei pojednali się dopiero jego następcy. +Pelagiusz walczył z ubóstwem i głodem, dzięki czemu miał dobrą opinię w Rzymie, jednak na Zachodzie nadal mu nie ufano. Kiedy zmarł został pochowany w Bazylice Św. Piotra. Każdy następca Pelagiusza musiał uzyskać zgodę cesarza w Konstantynopolu na objęcie Stolicy Piotrowej. +Thorshavn + +Thorshavn (farerski "Tórshavn", wym. ; duń. "Thorshavn", wym. ) – największe miasto archipelagu Wysp Owczych, jednocześnie jego stolica i siedziba najwyższych władz tego duńskiego terytorium zależnego. Miasto leży na wyspie Streymoy, zamieszkują je 12 375 osób. Nazwa "Thorshavn" oznacza po duńsku "Port Thora", nordyckiego boga burzy i piorunów. +Geografia. +Położenie. +Miasto leży w południowo-wschodniej części wyspy Streymoy. Port przylega do wód cieśniny Nólsoyarfjørður. Najbliższymi miastami są: Argir i Hoyvik, należące do aglomeracji stolicy. Thorshavn położony jest w dużej mierze na nizinie, wyłącznie jego zachodnie osiedla wspinają się na wzniesienie Húsareyn, sięgające ok. 200 metrów nad poziomem morza. +Klimat. +Thorshavn, podobnie jak reszta archipelagu leży w strefie klimatu umiarkowanego, chłodnego, morskiego. Roczne sumy opadów przekraczają tam zawsze 1000 mm, temperatury natomiast dochodzą do ok. 20 °C. Najcieplejszym miesiącem jest zazwyczaj sierpień, kiedy średnie temperatury powietrza przewyższają często 10 °C, najchłodniejszym zaś luty (3-5 °C). Amplitudy są zazwyczaj dość duże, szczególnie zimą, kiedy wynoszą nawet 16 °C. Klimatodiagramy wyglądają pod względem temperatury bardzo podobnie, opady zaś mogą różnić się diametralnie. Przykładem może być porównanie lutego z lat 2001 i 2002, za pierwszym razem ich suma wyniosła 187 mm, tymczasem rok później 103 mm. +Informacje ogólne. +Populacja. +Ludność Thorshavn to w większości Farerczycy, jednak liczna jest też grupa mniejszości duńskiej. Społeczeństwo jest dość młode, najliczniejszą grupę stanowią osoby w przedziale od 10 do 20 roku życia (2007 osób), na drugim miejscu plasują się ludzie w wieku 40-49 (1794), a na trzecim 0-9 (1704). W stosunku do 2006 zanotowano niewielki przyrost ujemny (ok. -0,7%). Apogeum, jeśli chodzi o liczbę mieszkańców miasto osiągnęło w 1990, kiedy populacja wyniosła 13 124 osoby. Od tamtego czasu notuje się skokowe wzrosty i spadki liczby ludności. W przeciwieństwie do całości archipelagu w Thorshavn panuje równowaga płci. Wedle danych z 1 stycznia 2007 stosunek liczby mężczyzn do liczby kobiet wynosi 6198:6195. +Thorshavn posiada własną aglomerację, należą do niej dwa miasta i jedna osada satelicka – Argir, Hoyvík i Hvítanes. Pierwsze i drugie to jedne z największych miast archipelagu. Aglomeracja posiada 17 526 mieszkańców. +Edukacja. +Thorshavn jest największym na Wyspach Owczych ośrodkiem edukacyjnym. Tak jak w pozostałych miastach archipelagu wykładowym językiem szkół podstawowych ("Fólkaskulin") jest farerski, duński wprowadza się od trzeciej klasy, a angielski od piątej. Prócz licznych szkół podstawowych w Thorshavn działa kilka liceów, a także szkół zawodowych, przygotowujących głównie do pracy w przetwórstwie rybnym. Działają także specjalne placówki, szkolące przyszłe kadry nauczycielskie, personel medyczny oraz rybaków. Istnieje również kilka szkół wyższych, z których najbardziej znaną jest Føroya Fólkaháskúlin, czyli Farerski Uniwersytet Ludowy, który powstał w 1889. Jego twórcą był Símun av Skarði, znany na Wyspach polityk i pisarz, twórca Hymnu Wysp Owczych. Dzisiaj na uniwersytecie wykładane są takie przedmioty jak: język farerski, języki nordyckie, nauki przyrodnicze, matematyka, fizyka, historia oraz teologia. W stolicy mieści się też szkoła muzyczna. Kolejną, bardzo ważną szkołą jest Fróðskaparsetur Føroya, czyli Uniwersytet Farerski. Otworzono go w 1965 pod łacińską nazwą "Academia Færoensis", z inicjatywy rządu Wysp Owczych. W szkole są organizowane kursy kultury farerskiej w języku angielskim. Według danych z 2003 do Szkoły Ludowej uczęszczało 17 osób, a na Uniwersytet około 160. +Transport. +Thorshavn, jako główny port Wysp Owczych, ma połączenia promowe z większością wysp tego archipelagu. Tutaj dociera się także spoza granic tego kraju, jeśli wybierze się podróż morską. Jedynym publicznym środkiem transportu są autobusy. Jeżdżą one nie tylko w obrębie miasta, ale przede wszystkim łączą je z poszczególnymi osadami całego archipelagu. +Wewnątrz miasta kursują cztery linie czerwonych autobusów firmy Bussleiðin, łącząc je też z pobliskimi osadami Argir i Hoyvík. Od 2007 firma otworzyła także linię szkolną. +Niebieskie autobusy należą do firmy Bygdaleiðir, a ich zadaniem jest transport pasażerów do pozostałych miast archipelagu. Korporacja stale współpracuje z przewoźnikami promowymi Wysp. W Thorshavn startują trzy linie – 100, 104 oraz 400 docierające odpowiednio do: Kvívík, Kaldbak oraz Fuglafjørður i Leirvík przez Kollafjørður, a także Oyrarbakki. +W Thorshavn istnieje również kilka niewielkich sieci taksówkowych Bil-Mini Taxi, w ofercie których znajduje się transport autobusami oraz taksówkami. Za jej pośrednictwem można także zwiedzić wiele ciekawych miejsc na archipelagu, takich jak miejscowość Kirkjubøur czy Saksun. Istnieje także sieć Havnar Taxi. +Sport. +Największym ośrodkiem sportu jest centrum sportowe Gundadalur umiejscowione opodal serca miasta. Najważniejszym obiektem jest jedno z dwóch narodowych boisk Wysp Owczych – Tórsvøllur, mieszczące 6000 widzów. Oprócz niego znajdują się tam jeszcze dwa inne boiska do piłki nożnej, kryte korty tenisowe, badmintonowe oraz pływalnia. W mieście ma siedzibę kilka klubów piłkarskich, między innymi dwa pierwszoligowe HB Tórshavn i B36 Tórshavn. Jest tu też siedziba jednego z klubów szachowych – Havnar Talvfelag. +
+Historia. +Miasto założone zostało około X wieku, przez zamieszkujących już ziemię Wysp Owczych wikingów. Początkowo miejsce to ważne było ze względu na wiece – zgromadzenia wolnych mężczyzn decydujące o sprawach istotnych dla wspólnoty, zwane Althingami. Wiece odbywały się na terenie małego, skalistego półwyspu, dziś najstarszej dzielnicy Thorshavn – Tinganesie i miały one rozstrzygnąć spory między mieszkańcami, a także służyć wymianie informacji, bowiem już od najdawniejszych lat ludność archipelagu miała trudności z komunikacją. Spotkania te miały służyć także wymianie towarowej. Nieco później osada stała się punktem handlowym, łączącym resztę świata z Wyspami. Szczególnie korzystał na tym episkopat archipelagu, mający wtedy swą siedzibę w Kirkjubøur. +Początki. +Pierwsze wzmianki o Thorshavn pojawiają się dopiero w końcówce XI wieku, kiedy osada musiała być jeszcze bardzo niewielka i niewykluczone, że nie posiadała stałych mieszkańców. Pierwsze, udowodnione pojawienie się takowych miało miejsce dopiero w XIII wieku, kiedy zbudowany został najstarszy dziś budynek w całym mieście, Munkastovan – siedziba zakonników i prawdopodobnie najważniejsze miejsce duchowe, nie był to jednak kościół. Wiek XIII przynosi też zmiany na arenie politycznej – Wyspy Owcze zostają wcielone do Norwegii w 1271 i usunięty zostaje Althing, a na jego miejsce wprowadza się stały parlament Løgtingið, składający się początkowo z 32 stałych reprezentantów wybieranych przez społeczeństwo. Zmieniło to diametralnie status miasta – odtąd nie zjeżdżali tu już co rok ludzie z całego archipelagu, a jedynie kilku stałych obywateli Thorshavn miało decydować o losach wszystkich Farerczyków. +XIV wiek. +Wiek XIV to dla osady prawdziwy rozkwit. Przekształciła się w spore, regularne targowisko, do którego zaczęła napływać duża liczba nowych mieszkańców. Fakt ten wymógł na władzach osady decyzję o budowie nowych domostw. Do tego celu zatrudniano głównie rzeczonych przybyszów – głównie chłopów islandzkich i norweskich. Już w drugiej połowie XIV wieku powstały pierwsze, typowe do dziś na Wyspach Owczych domy z trawiastymi dachami. Pojawiła się też w tamtym czasie pierwsza, realna groźba zarówno dla mieszkańców miasta, jak i całego archipelagu. Byli to piraci, którzy w tamtym czasie rozpanoszyli się po morzach otaczających Wyspy Owcze, a małe, ale prężnie rozwijające się miasteczko portowe było dla nich wyjątkową zachętą. W związku z pojawieniem się korsarzy postanowiono rozpocząć budowę umocnień, jednak początkowo były to zaledwie wały, przez które łatwo było się przedrzeć napastnikom. Fort z prawdziwego zdarzenia wzniesiono w Thorshavn później. +Wiek XVI i XVII. +Budowę pierwszej warowni na Wyspach Owczych zapoczątkowano dopiero w 1580 z inicjatywy Magnusa Heinasona, jednego z ludzi uznawanych przez Farerczyków za swych bohaterów narodowych. Nazwano go Fortem Skansin. Swą funkcję obiekt wypełnił celująco, odstraszając grabieżców jeszcze przez około sto lat. Warownię przebudowano w czasach napoleońskich. +Wiek XVII przyniósł sporo zmian w Thorshavn. Najważniejszą z nich było rozpoczęcie w 1609 panowania hamburskiej dynastii możnowładczej Gabel, która fatalnie wpisała się historię całego archipelagu. Za jej czasów rozwinęła się korupcja i niemal cała gospodarka uległa rozpadowi. Rządy ich skończyły się równo sto lat później, kiedy Dania postanowiła wydrzeć familii władzę nad Wyspami. Gabelowie rezydowali w Tinganes, przywłaszczając sobie niemal wszystkie budynki dzisiejszej starówki. Istnieje duże prawdopodobieństwo, że to przez nich wybuchł pożar w 1673, który strawił wiele budynków najstarszej dzielnicy. +Te sto lat to jednak nie tylko pożar i pogrążenie gospodarki. To także budowa w 1609 kościoła, ufundowanego z rozkazu króla Danii Chrystiana IV przez norweskiego lorda Bergenshus. Kościół nazwano "Úti á Reyni". +Osada w XVII wieku osiąga liczbę 100 mieszkańców. +Czasy nowożytne. +Wiek XVIII przebiegł na archipelagu spokojnie, odbudowywano głównie zniszczoną przez Gabelów gospodarkę. W 1782 ówczesny premier Wysp Owczych Rasmus Jørgen Winther postanowił rozebrać stary kościół Úti á Reyni, a na jego miejscu zbudować konstrukcję znacznie solidniejszą i większą niż ta z 1609. W 1788 doszło do całkowitej rozbiórki dawnego kościoła, materiały budowlane sprzedano na aukcji, natomiast w pustym miejscu jeszcze w tym samym roku powstał Havnar kirkja, który dziś pełni funkcję katedry. Kościół gruntownie przebudowano w 1865. +Na samym początku XIX wieku w Thorshavn liczyło około 500 mieszkańców. Wtedy też, w 1812 rząd duński postanowił zlikwidować Løgtingið, działający nieprzerwanie od ponad ośmiuset lat. Przywrócono go w 1852, jednak siedziba znalazła się w dzisiejszym centrum miasta, a nie jak wcześniej na starówce. +Kolejnym, bardzo ważnym wydarzeniem dla rozwoju miasta było zniesienie w 1856 duńskiego monopolu handlowego, co spowodowało, znaczny wzrost handlu klipfiszami, tj. suszonymi rybami, z których słynął wtedy archipelag. W 1870 zaczął pracę pierwszy punkt pocztowy na Wyspach. +Wiek XX niesie dla Thorshavn wiele zmian. Pierwszą, niezwykle ważną było nadanie praw miejskich w 1909, kiedy liczba ludności przekroczyła 1800 osób. Rozpoczęto też w latach 20. rozbudowę portu, albowiem stary nie był w stanie obsłużyć wzrastających potrzeb i dobrze funkcjonować przy tak dużej liczbie ludności. +II wojna światowa okazała się mniej łaskawa da archipelagu od pierwszej. W latach 1939/45, Wyspy Owcze stały się aliancką bazą na Morzu Norweskim. Fort Skansin przekształcił się w garnizon sił brytyjskich. Niemcy bombardowali Thorshavn kilkakrotnie, czyniąc niewielkie straty materialne. Życie straciło kilku farerskich rybaków, na których cześć władze miasta wzniosły pomnik. +Najważniejszym wydarzeniem XX wieku było wprowadzenie przez władze Danii Zasady Samostanowienia dla Wysp Owczych. Stało się to w 1948. Po raz pierwszy od XIII wieku rząd Wysp Owczych zyskał niemal pełnię władzy w sprawach polityki wewnętrznej, jednakże polityka zagraniczna do dziś pozostaje w gestii duńskiej metropolii. Siedzibę rządu na powrót przeniesiono do dawnego budynku w Tinganes. +W tym czasie nastąpił też gwałtowny wzrost ludności miasta – do 5 tysięcy. +Lata 60. XX wieku to gigantyczny rozwój gospodarczy i infrastrukturalny Thorshavn. Powstaje bardzo wiele szkół, nowych dróg oraz hoteli, nastąpił też rozrost terytorialny. Po trzydziestu latach rozrost został gwałtownie zahamowany przez kryzys gospodarczy, jaki nawiedził Wyspy Owcze. Splajtowało wtedy wiele przetwórni rybnych, gdyż ceny ich artykułów na rynku światowym drastycznie spadły. Bezrobocie wzrosło do ok. 20% populacji w wieku produkcyjnym. Rząd farerski musiał powziąć odpowiednie kroki: zwrócił się o pomoc do Danii. Ta chętnie jej udzieliła, modernizując farerskie prawo i wprowadzając duże cięcia budżetowe. W końcu lat 90. sytuacja gospodarcza archipelagu ustabilizowała się i Thorshavn znów stał się ekonomiczną potęgą Wysp. +Na początku XXI wieku populacja miasta sięgnęła już powyżej 10 tysięcy, a wedle spisu ludności z 2006 Thorshavn miało zamieszkiwać 12 626 osób. +
+Turystyka. +Podobnie jak cały archipelag Wysp Owczych, Thorshavn ostatnimi czasy otwiera się na turystów. Sytuacja ta powstała między innymi przez uruchomienie linii promowej Norröna do Islandii. Prom na dwa dni zostawia przybyszów z Danii w stolicy, wykonując jeszcze trasę do Bergen i Lerwick na Szetlandach. Czas ten można wykorzystać na zwiedzanie okolic, co promują władze miasta Thorshavn. Uruchomiły w tym celu własną informację turystyczną. Jej siedziba znajduje się bardzo niedaleko miejsca, gdzie przybysze wysiadają z promu. Można tam znaleźć informacje na temat ciekawych obiektów w mieście, a także kupić pamiątki z archipelagu. W sezonie letnim prom "Norröna" przybija do miasta o godzinie 6:00 w poniedziałek po kursie do wybrzeży Norwegii i Szetlandów. Jako że z Thorshavn wypływa dopiero o 18:00 w środę, turyści mają wiele czasu, by zwiedzić stolicę Wysp Owczych, jak również osady położone opodal. +Inną możliwością dotarcia do Thorshavn jest wykupienie biletu na samolot linii lotniczych "Atlantic Airways" (rodzima linia Wysp Owczych), docierających do portu lotniczego Vágar. Stamtąd do Thorshavn nie jest już daleko, ale piesza podróż może sprawić problemy, gdyż trzeba się przedostać na wyspę Streymoy. Najłatwiej jest przejechać przez nowy tunel, który niemal bezpośrednio doprowadza do stolicy, jednak należy posiadać jakiś pojazd, jeśli chce się z niego skorzystać. +Ciekawe miejsca. +Zabytki staromiejskie. +Jak na tak niewielkie miasto w Thorshavn istnieje sporo zabytków umiejscowionych w historycznym centrum miasta – Tinganes. Wiele z nich to nie stare zabytki, lecz rekonstrukcje po pożarze, jaki miał miejsce w 1673. +Hotele. +
+Timor Portugalski + +Timor Portugalski – dawna nazwa obecnie niepodległego państwa Timoru Wschodniego w latach 1515-1975, kiedy znajdował się on pod administracją portugalską. W tym okresie Portugalczycy dzielili wyspę Timor z Holenderskimi Indiami Wschodnimi, a od 1949 z niepodległą Indonezją. +Używania tej nazwy zaprzestano w 1975, kiedy to wojska indonezyjskie wkroczyły na terytorium Timoru Wschodniego, po tym gdy ten ogłosił swoją niepodległość od Portugalii. Formalnie rzecz biorąc Timor Portugalski przestał istnieć jednak dopiero 20 maja 2002, kiedy to Timor Wschodni stał się ostatecznie suwerennym krajem. +Alabaster + +Alabaster − zbity, dobrze prześwitujący, biały lub nieco zabarwiony (np. na żółtawo, zielonkawo, różowawo) minerał, będący drobnoziarnistą odmianą gipsu. +Jest to też nazwa dwóch, zewnętrznie bardzo podobnych, materiałów zdobniczych opartych na dwóch różnych minerałach – gipsie i kalcycie. Już od czasów starożytnych alabaster był wysoko ceniony jako kamień ozdobny i dekoracyjny. Nazwa pochodzi od egipskiego miasta Alabastros. +Rodzaje i rozróżnianie. +W starożytności alabastrem była tylko półprzezroczysta, delikatnie pożyłkowana i gładko wyszlifowana forma kalcytu. Obecnie jest nim także drobnoziarnista odmiana gipsu, stopiona i szybko schłodzona, zbita, półprzeźroczysta, biała lub nieco zabarwiona (na żółtawo, zielonkawo, różowawo itp.). Pomimo ich podobieństwa zewnętrznego oba rodzaje alabastru, gipsowy i kalcytowy, można bardzo łatwo rozróżnić po ich twardości. Alabaster gipsowy można bez trudu porysować paznokciem. Alabaster kalcytowy jest znacznie trudniejszy do porysowania – można tego dokonać dopiero z użyciem ostrego noża z dobrej jakościowo stali. +Oba alabastry można też rozróżnić przy pomocy testu chemicznego: kalcytowy rozpuszcza się w kwasie solnym, a gipsowy nie. +Powiat nowodworski (województwo mazowieckie) + +Powiat nowodworski – powiat w Polsce, w północnej części województwa mazowieckiego, utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki. +Puy de Sancy + +Puy de Sancy (1885 m n.p.m.) - wygasły wulkan w masywie Monts Dore (Francja), stanowi najwyższy szczyt Masywu Centralnego. +Puy de Sancy to typowy stratowulkan. Jego aktywność wulkaniczna zakończyła się około 220 tys. lat temu. Ze zboczy góry wypływają dwa potoki Dore i Dogne, które łączą się tworząc rzekę Dordogne. +Do podnóży góry doprowadzona jest droga z pobliskiego miasta Mont-Dore, na szczyt prowadzi szlak pieszy. Można się tam także dostać kolejką linową. W masywie Puy de Sancy znajdują się dwie znane stacje sportów zimowych: Super Besse i Mont-Dore. +Szczyt położony jest na obszarze Regionalnego Parku Przyrody Wulkanów Owernii. +Żylaki kończyn dolnych + +Żylaki kończyn dolnych ("łac. varices extremitatum inferiorum") - to rodzaj żylaków. Są to workowate lub wrzecionowate poszerzenia żył powierzchownych z towarzyszącym ich wydłużeniem i charakterystycznym poskręcaniem. Występują częściej u kobiet niż u mężczyzn, zazwyczaj po 40 roku życia. +Etiologia. +Żylaki pierwotne spowodowane są występowaniem mniejszej ilości tkanki sprężystej w ścianach naczyń żylnych, co zmniejsza ich odporność na rozciąganie. Rozszerzenie światła przyczynia się do niewydolności zastawek żylnych, co umożliwia cofanie się i zaleganie większej ilości krwi i powoduje dalsze poszerzanie naczynia. Czynnikami sprzyjającymi powstawaniu żylaków jest zastój żylny występujący podczas długiego stania (np. fryzjerzy, chirurdzy), zwiększone ciśnienie w żyłach na skutek utrudnionego odpływu (np. ciąża, podnoszenie ciężarów, zaparcia). Zapobieganie polega na noszeniu elastycznych pończoch, opasek, gimnastykowaniu kończyn. Marsz i gimnastyka zapobiegają tworzeniu się żylaków poprzez ułatwienie odpływu krwi na skutek działania pompy mięśniowej. +Żylaki wtórne powstają na skutek zwiększonego przepływu krwi przez żyły powierzchowne kończyn dolnych spowodowanego niedrożnością żył głębokich. Niedrożność jest następstwem przebytej zakrzepicy. Niekiedy zwiększony przepływ może być spowodowany uszkodzeniem zastawek żył głębokich lub przeszywających. +Żylaki o rzadkiej etiologii spowodowane wrodzonymi lub nabytymi przetokami tętniczo-żylnymi. Zaliczany jest tutaj również Zespół Klippela-Trénaunaya. +Diagnostyka. +W celu ustalenia poziomu niewydolności pomocne są próby czynnościowe Trendelenburga i Perthesa. +Istotnym badaniem, decydującym o sposobie i rodzaju leczenia jest badanie ultrasonograficzne z oceną przepływów w żyłach (tzw. badanie usg z dopplerem). +Leczenie. +Zachowawcze – unoszenie kończyn, noszenie obcisłych pończoch, opasek uciskowych. Farmakologiczne – podawanie leków uszczelniających naczynia. Leczenie operacyjne – polegające na usunięciu żylaków, a także coraz popularniejsza metoda laserowej operacji żylaków EVLT. +Powszechną metodą leczenia małoinwazyjnego jest również skleroterapia. +Zapobieganie żylakom. +Żylaki są przyczyną dolegliwości. Zazwyczaj choroba objawia się uczuciem "ciężkości" nóg, poszerzonymi żyłkami. Mogą występować również bóle nóg, pieczenie, kurcze stóp, kurcze łydek, a nawet obrzęki stóp. +Na "układ żylny" wyjątkowo szkodzi przebywanie przez dłuższy czas w pozycji siedzącej, zakładanie nogi na nogę, gdyż takie ułożenie utrudnia dopływ krwi. Dlatego warto podczas siedzenie często poruszać nogami lub od czasu do czasu wstać i pospacerować. W pozycji pionowej zaleca się ćwiczenia wspinania na palce i opadania na pięty. Dzięki takiemu ćwiczeniu mięśnie łydek 'sprawniej' pompują krew żylną z kończyn dolnych do serca. +W zapobieganiu powstawania żylaków istotna jest również garderoba. Im mniej obcisłe części garderoby, tym lepiej. Należy unikać obcisłych spodni, skarpet z gumką lub wysokich butów z obcisłą cholewką. Nie jest zalecana wysoka temperatura; korzystanie z goracych kąpieli, sauny. Każda kąpiel powinna kończyć się chłodnym prysznicem. +W profilaktyce ważna jest również odpowiednia dieta. Unikanie spożywania soli. Nadwaga to dodatkowe obciążenie dla naszych nóg. Zbyt wysokie dawki hormonów serwowane np. w tabletkach antykoncepcyjnych stanowią również realne zagrożenie. +Marek Błuś + +Marek Błuś (ur. 1949), dziennikarz i publicysta. Ekspert eksploatacji jednostek wodnych, morza, a szczególnie bezpieczeństwa w żegludze. +Kapitan żeglugi wielkiej i wykładowca ratownictwa Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni; współpracownik m.in. "Głosu Wybrzeża" i członek władz Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy RP. +Zajmuje się badaniem przyczyn zatonięć polskich statków, m.in. jachtu SY Bieszczady staranowanego na Morzu Północnym przez tankowiec oraz promu MF Jan Heweliusz (14 stycznia 1993). W analizie katastrofy promu Jan Heweliusz opisał sprawy sądowe, które musiały przejść rodziny ofiar, a także zarzucił matactwa przedstawicielom Prokuratury Okręgowej w Gdańsku i Izby Morskiej w Gdyni; został za to skazany w 2001 na karę grzywny z zakazem pisania o sprawie. +Airco DH.9 + +Airco DH.9 – brytyjski samolot bombowy i rozpoznawczy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1917 roku w wytwórni lotniczej Aircraft Manufacturig Company (Airco). +Historia. +W 1917 roku dowódca Królewskiego Korpusu Lotniczego (RFC) we Francji gen. mjr Hugh Trenchard oraz dyrektor generalny angielskiego lotnictwa wojskowego gen. mjr J. M. Salmond zwrócili się do wytwórni lotniczej Aircraft Manufacturing Company oraz do konstruktora tych zakładów Geoffreya de Havillanda z propozycją opracowania i budowy samolotu wielozadaniowego o lepszych osiągach niż dotychczas używany i produkowany w tej wytwórni samolot bombowy DH.4. Wytwórnia przyjęła zamówienie i rozpoczęła pracę nad nowym samolotem oznaczonym symbolem DH.9. +Sylwetka samolotu DH.9 niewiele różniła się od swojego poprzednika DH.4, lecz była lepiej opracowana pod względem aerodynamicznym i nowa maszyna była lżejsza. Wzmocniono konstrukcję komory płatów, zwiększono także powierzchnię nośną skrzydeł. Zmniejszono natomiast długość kadłuba poprzez zbliżenie do siebie kabin pilota i obserwatora, przez co widoczną różnicą w stosunku do DH.4 stała się kabina pilota przesunięta do tyłu. Do napędu samolotu DH.9 zastosowano silnik rzędowy B.H.P., który w przeciwieństwie do DH.4, nie był zakryty od góry. Dodano również jeden karabin maszynowy przez co wzrosła siła uzbrojenia obronnego samolotu. +Samolot DH.9 został oblatany 21 czerwca 1917 roku. Samolot spełniał wszystkie wymagania konstruktora, zawodził jednak zastosowany w nim silnik B.H.P. Podjęto więc próby z innymi silnikami m.in. FIAT A-12, Lion, Puma. +Jesienią 1917 roku dowództwo Królewskiego Korpusu Lotniczego (RFC) zamówiło w 15 wytwórniach lotniczych ponad 4000 samolotów DH.9. Do końca 1918 roku udało się wyprodukować 3204 samoloty tego typu. +W 1918 roku przystąpiono również do produkcji udoskonalonej wersji samolotu oznaczonej symbolem DH.9A o większej rozpiętości i powierzchni nośnej płatów, lepszych osiągach i większym udźwigu bomb. Zastosowano w nim również lepszy i o większej mocy silnik rzędowy Wright Liberty 12, przy czym silnik otrzymał okapotowanie podobne jak w DH.4. Do zakończenia I wojny światowej wyprodukowano 885 samolotów tej wersji. +Użycie bojowe samolotu. +Samoloty DH.9 w grudniu 1917 roku zostały wprowadzone na wyposażenie 103 dywizjonu RFC, a potem sukcesywnie do kolejnych dywizjonów RFC operujących na froncie zachodnim. +W akcji bojowej zostały użyte po raz pierwszy 9 marca 1918 roku we Francji. Dzięki silnemu uzbrojeniu obronnemu, zastosowaniu lotów grupowych w odpowiednim urzutowaniu, bez eskorty samolotów myśliwskich, małym stratom i sukcesom bojowym, samoloty DH.9 i DH.9A okazały się najlepszymi lekkimi samolotami bombowymi u schyłku I wojny światowej. Użytkowane były przede wszystkim w lotnictwie brytyjskim, m.in. do zwalczania niemieckich okrętów podwodnych u wybrzeża Anglii i Francji, stosowano je także w basenie Morza Śródziemnego, na froncie rosyjskim i na Środkowym Wschodzie. Używane były również w lotnictwie morskim Stanów Zjednoczonych, gdzie pod koniec wojny uruchomiono produkcję licencyjna tych samolotów. W 1918 roku w 18 samolotów DH.9 otrzymało również lotnictwo belgijskie. +Po zakończeniu I wojny światowej samoloty DH.9 i DH.9A oprócz lotnictwa brytyjskiego, gdzie stosowano je do końca lat dwudziestych, znajdowały się w lotnictwie 14 państw. Eksploatowano je niekiedy jeszcze w latach trzydziestych do celów treningowych, pasażerskich (przewóz 2 osób) i pocztowych. +Kopia DH.9A, zmodyfikowana przez Nikołaja Polikarpowa, była produkowana w ZSRR jako samolot rozpoznawczy R-1. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +W 1919 roku polskie lotnictwo wojskowe otrzymało 20 samolotów DH.9 jako dar od króla angielskiego Jerzego V. Samoloty te dostarczono do Polski na początku 1920 roku (przybyły do Gdańska: 2 sztuki w kwietniu, 8 sztuk 4 maja, 10 sztuk 11 maja 1920). Samoloty były w bardzo złym stanie. Z pierwszych dwóch maszyn jedną rozbito podczas oblotu a drugiej już nie montowano. Kolejne 8 równie zniszczonych nie montowano, tylko przekazano do Centralnych Składów Lotniczych (uruchomiono po remontach już po zakończeniu działań wojennych). Kolejna partia 10 sztuk przeznaczona była pierwotnie dla rosyjskiej armii białych gen. Antona Denikina, była montowana w czerwcu - 3 samolotów nie uruchomiono, jeden rozbito podczas oblotu a po 3 sprawne przydzielono do eskadr wywiadowczych: 5. i 6. Stosowano je m.in. do celów rozpoznawczych w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej. Cieszyły się one dobrą opinią. +Niesprawne i uszkodzone samoloty stopniowo remontowano. Pod koniec 1923 roku w lotnictwie było 17 samolotów, w tym 10 sprawnych. W 1924 roku 5 samolotów sprzedano do Estonii. DH9 latały w 4 Pułku Lotniczym do lipca 1925 roku. Ostatni z nich skasowano w lutym 1929. +Opis techniczny samolotu DH.9. +Samolot DH.9 był dwumiejscowym samolotem rozpoznawczym i bombowym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd – silnik rzędowy, śmigło dwułopatowe drewniane. +Jeanne Moreau + +Jeanne Moreau (ur. 23 stycznia 1928 w Paryżu) – francuska aktorka teatralna i filmowa oraz piosenkarka. Obdarzona talentem i elegancją, niebanalną urodą i intrygującą osobowością, stała się jedną z najbardziej popularnych i najczęściej angażowanych gwiazd francuskiego kina. +Początki. +Córka restauratora z paryskiego Montmartre'u. Studiowała w konserwatorium w Paryżu. Karierę rozpoczęła w wieku zaledwie 20 lat od gry na deskach słynnej Comédie-Française i Teatru Jeana Vilara. Występowała przeważnie w repertuarze klasycznym. W filmie debiutowała w 1949. +Kariera. +Przełom w jej karierze filmowej nastąpił w 1958, gdy zagrała w dwóch głośnych, nagradzanych i szeroko wówczas dyskutowanych filmach Louisa Malle'a: "Windą na szafot" i "Kochankowie". Dzięki nim stała się gwiazdą pierwszej wielkości i symbolem seksu. +Współpracę z Mallem kontynuowała w dalszych filmach: "Błędny ognik" (1963) oraz "Viva Maria!" (1965). W tym ostatnim stworzyła duet z Brigitte Bardot, co zaowocowało wielkim sukcesem komercyjnym tego filmu. +Od początku lat 60. grała u największych mistrzów światowego kina: François Truffauta ("Jules i Jim", "Panna młoda w żałobie"), Orsona Wellesa ("Proces", "Falstaff"), Michelangelo Antonioniego ("Noc", "Po tamtej stronie chmur"), Josepha Loseya ("Pan Klein", "Pstrąg") czy Luisa Buñuela ("Dziennik panny służącej" – nagroda aktorska w Karlowych Warach). +Współpracowała także z Peterem Brookiem ("Moderato cantabile" – nagroda aktorska w Cannes), Tonym Richardsonem ("Mademoiselle"), Rainerem Wernerem Fassbinderem ("Querelle") i Wimem Wendersem ("Aż na koniec świata"). +Zajmowała się reżyserią teatralną i filmową ("Światło", "L'adolescente"), a także produkcją filmów. +Mimo podeszłego wieku nie zrezygnowała z grania i wciąż pojawia się na srebrnym ekranie (np. w "Czasie, który pozostał" François Ozona lub w filmach Amosa Gitai). +Życie prywatne. +Jeanne Moreau była dwukrotnie zamężna. Jej pierwszym mężem był aktor francuski Jean-Louis Richard (1949-1951), drugim zaś – znany reżyser amerykański William Friedkin (1977-1979). Jej jedyne dziecko – syn Jerome z pierwszego małżeństwa – jest obecnie uznanym malarzem. +Aktorka romansowała z wieloma znanymi postaciami, m.in. z reżyserami – Louisem Mallem i Tonym Richardsonem, aktorami – Thodorosem Roubanisem i Lee Marvinem czy projektantem mody Pierre'em Cardinem. +Jej wieloletnią przyjaciółką jest amerykańska aktorka Sharon Stone. +Palomares del Rio + +Palomares del Rio – miejscowość w Hiszpanii, mieszcząca się kilka kilometrów na południowy zachód od Sewilli, w pobliżu rzeki Gwadalkiwir. +W roku 2009 zamieszkiwało ją 6811, w tym 3422 mężczyzn i 3389 kobiet. +Wybór jednokrotny + +Wybór jednokrotny – wybór wykonywany poprzez pojedyncze losowanie z puli lub celowe zakreślenie jednego i tylko jednego spośród wielu dostępnych wariantów odpowiedzi np. w testach jednokrotnego wyboru podczas sprawdzianu. +Cmentarz Obrońców Lwowa + +Cmentarz Obrońców Lwowa we Lwowie (także: "Cmentarz Orląt") – autonomiczna część cmentarza Łyczakowskiego we Lwowie. Zajmuje odrębne miejsce - stoki wzgórz od strony Pohulanki. Znajdują się na nim mogiły uczestników obrony Lwowa i Małopolski Wschodniej, poległych w latach 1918–1920 lub zmarłych w latach późniejszych. +Często nazywany jest Cmentarzem Orląt, gdyż spośród pochowanych tam prawie 3 000 żołnierzy, większość to Orlęta Lwowskie, czyli młodzież szkół średnich i wyższych oraz inteligencja. Nazywany on był przez Polaków miejscem świętym ("Campo Santo"). +Historia powstania. +Wybuch polsko-ukraińskiego konfliktu o Lwów. +Pod koniec I wojny światowej, gdy rozpadała się monarchia Habsburgów, dowództwo wojsk austriackich we Lwowie sprzyjało dążeniom kół ukraińskich do przejęcia władzy w mieście. Skutkiem tego w październiku 1918 w mieście stacjonowało kilka tysięcyW książce Macieja Krotofila pt. Ukraińska Armia Halicka 1918-1919 podano: "Większość tych jednostek jesienią 1918 r. znajdowała się na frontach: włoskim i serbskim. Niektóre były na Ukrainie Naddnieprzańskiej. W Galicji nie było w tym czasie oddziałów bojowych składających się w znaczącej mierze z Ukraińców. Stacjonowały tu tylko jednostki zapasowe (kadry), oraz pododdziały asystencyjne, wartownicze i gospodarcze." strona 29. 2. We Lwowie stacjonowało ok. 1500 żołnierzy narodowości ukraińskiej przed wybuchem wojny polsko-ukraińskiej. Kolejny fragment z pracy M. Krotofila, strona 40: "Przejęcia władzy we Lwowie dokonali ukraińscy żołnierze z batalionów zapasowych 15 Pułku Piechoty (ok. 500 ludzi) i 19 Pułku Piechoty Lenwehry (ok. 400 ludzi), 30 Batalionu Strzelców Polowych (ok. 90 ludzi), Batalionu Asystencyjnego 41 Pułku Piechoty (ok. 350 ludzi) oraz pododdziałów wartowniczych i pomocniczych. W sumie na początku walk ukraińskie dowództwo dysponowało ok. 1500 żołnierzy. żołnierzy narodowości ukraińskiej, przy braku we Lwowie żołnierzy narodowości polskiej wysłanych na inne, odległe od Lwowa odcinki frontu. +. 19 października 1918 na zjeździe we Lwowie ukonstytuowała się Ukraińska Rada Narodowa. Przyjęła ona rezolucję o utworzeniu państwa ukraińskiego, w którego skład miała wejść Wschodnia Galicja po San; . +28 października została utworzona w Krakowie Polska Komisja Likwidacyjna (PKL). Komisja ta miała przyjechać do Lwowa i przejąć władzę nad całą Galicją, instalując się w ówczesnej stolicy. Wiadomość o tym przyśpieszyła wystąpienie Ukraińców. +Obrona Lwowa. +1 listopada 1918 nad ranem Ukraiński Komitet Wojskowy przy pomocy żołnierzy ukraińskich ze stacjonujących w mieście austriackich pułków (15 i 19) Obrony Krajowej opanował najważniejsze gmachy publiczne we Lwowie, m.in. Namiestnictwo, galicyjski Sejm, Dyrekcję Policji, Ratusz, Pocztę Główną. Wprawdzie Ukraińcy przejęli władzę wojskową od austriackiej komendy wojskowej, a władzę cywilną od namiestnictwa, jednakże nie zdołali opanować całego Lwowa. Już od rana 1 listopada spontanicznie powstały dwa polskie punkty oporu. Polacy stanowiący przeważającą większość mieszkańców (60% Polaków, 30% Żydów, 10% Ukraińców) Lwowa (co przyznawali także Ukraińcy) nie mogli się pogodzić z myślą, że polskie miasto zostanie opanowane przez mniejszość ukraińską. Po pierwszym szoku do walczących placówek zaczęła napływać przede wszystkim młodzież. Żywiołowo i spontanicznie tworzono różne grupy i małe oddziały, które na własną rękę prowadziły walkę partyzancką. Już w pierwszych dniach w zachodniej części miasta tworzono oddziały i pododdziały, dowodzone przez młodszych oficerów i podchorążych, wywodzących się przede wszystkim z Legionów i POW, a także z armii austriackiej. +W walkach o Lwów, (które trwały w samym mieście do 22 listopada 1918, zaś wokół miasta okrążonego przez siły ukraińskie do połowy 1919), ze względu na ich charakter uliczny, bardzo krwawych, zginęło w czasie od 1 do 22 listopada 1918 439 Polaków, w tym 12 kobiet. Z ówczesnych Obrońców Lwowa jeden miał zaledwie 9 lat, siedmiu po 10, a dwóch weteranów z roku 1863 po 75 lat. +Powstanie cmentarza. +W czasie walk o Lwów poległych grzebano na prowizorycznych cmentarzykach w pobliżu poszczególnych punktów oporu, między innymi obok Szkoły Kadetów, szkoły im. H. Sienkiewicza i w ogrodzie Politechniki. Po wygaśnięciu walk polskie władze Lwowa postanowiły ekshumować ciała zabitych i przenieść je na specjalnie wydzielony obszar, przylegający od strony Pohulanki do cmentarza Łyczakowskiego. Sprawą tą zajęło się powołane w 1919, z inicjatywy Marii Ciszkowej - matki jednego z poległych gimnazjalistów - towarzystwo Straż Mogił Polskich Bohaterów. Po zgromadzeniu odpowiednich funduszy rozpisano w 1921 konkurs na mauzoleum obrońców Lwowa, którego laureatem został student Wydziału Architektury Politechniki Lwowskiej Rudolf Indruch - uczestnik walk o Lwów. +Opis obiektów cmentarza sprzed zniszczenia. +Najważniejszymi częściami Cmentarza Obrońców Lwowa są: +Między nimi rozmieszczono mogiły. +Wybuch II wojny światowej uniemożliwił zbudowanie od strony Pohulanki bramy wejściowej, która miała być zwieńczona rzeźbą orlicy tulącej pisklęta. +Kaplica. +Kaplica Obrońców Lwowa, stojąca na szczycie wzniesienia Cmentarza Obrońców Lwowa, zastąpiła pierwotną drewnianą, wzniesioną na miejscu obecnego Pomnika Chwały, jeszcze podczas walk o Lwów. Ma ona kształt rotundy. Kaplicę zaprojektował Rudolf Indruch. Wybudował ją inż. K. Weiss i poświęcił 28 listopada 1924 arcybiskup Bolesław Twardowski. Na ołtarzu znajduje się figura Matki Boskiej z Dzieciątkiem Jezus - rzeźba artystki rzeźbiarki Luny Drexlerówny. +Katakumby. +Katakumby leżą poniżej kaplicy i schodzi się do nich szerokimi, kamiennymi schodami. W ośmiu ich kryptach spoczywa 72 bohaterów, których ekshumowano z różnych odcinków frontu polsko-ukraińskiego. Spoczęli w nich wybrani przez specjalną komisję, którą stanowili: bryg. Mączyński, prezydium Związku Obrońców Lwowa z listopada 1918, prezydium Straży Mogił Polskich Bohaterów i przedstawiciel władz wojskowych. Komisja ta orzekła, że w katakumbach mają spocząć zwłoki obrońców Lwowa poległych w pierwszych dniach listopada 1918 r., i że mają to być kobiety i mężczyźni, różnego wieku, różnych stanów, rodzajów broni, odcinków obrony Lwowa, dzielnic Polski i odsieczy. +Pomnik lotników amerykańskich. +Historia spoczywających pod nim jest następująca: w lipcu 1919 amerykański kapitan lotnik Merian Cooper zgłosił się wraz ze swym kolegą, majorem Cedrikiem Fauntleroyem, do przebywających w Paryżu podczas pertraktacji pokojowych premiera Ignacego Paderewskiego i gen. Rozwadowskiego z prośbą, aby im i ich kolegom amerykańskim wolno było jako lotnikom w mundurach polskich walczyć w armii polskiej. Utworzyli oni 7 Eskadrę Myśliwską. +Amerykanie zasłużyli się przede wszystkim w walce z konnicą Budionnego. Atakowali ją, opuszczając się tak nisko, że niemal skrzydłami mogli druzgotać głowy jeźdźców i koni. Z siedemnastu przybyłych do Polski w międzyczasie amerykańskich lotników, czternastu wróciło żywych do swej ojczyzny. Trzech pochowanych zostało na Cmentarzu Obrońców Lwowa. +Pomnik lotników amerykańskich, przedstawiający lotnika ze skrzydłami, z głową wzniesioną w górę, był dziełem artysty rzeźbiarza Józefa Starzyńskiego. Tło w kształcie piramidy projektował artysta rzeźbiarz Józef Ludwik Różyski. Projekt ten wybrał sąd konkursowy. U góry znajdują się napisy w języku polskim i angielskim: "Amerykanom Poległym w Obronie Polski w latach 1919–1920". Na płycie grobowej widnieje napis następujący: "Oficerowie Lotnicy z Eskadry myśliwskiej im. Tadeusza Kościuszki". +Pomnik Lotników amerykańskich ufundował Związek Narodowy Polski z Chicago a odsłonięto go uroczyście 30 maja 1925 roku. W roku 1971 pomnik, jak większość cmentarza, został zniszczony przez czołgi i inny ciężki sprzęt Armii Czerwonej. W trakcie odbudowy cmentarza odrestaurowany i umieszczony na dawnym miejscu, jednak bez napisu po angielsku. +Pomnik Francuzów. +Przy prawym skrzydle katakumb wznosi się pomnik ku czci Francuzów poległych i zmarłych w obronie Polski. Początkowo na Cmentarzu Obrońców Lwowa spoczywało 17 Francuzów, między nimi 9 oficerów, dwóch kaprali i sześciu szeregowców. Z czasem ich zwłoki - na prośbę rodzin - przewieziono do Francji, tak że na cmentarzu lwowskim pozostały tylko szczątki szeregowca Jeana Larouet, złożone pod płytą grobową pomnika. Nad nią napis: "Szeregowiec 57 Pułku P. Jean Larouet ur. w Sigolens-Gironde 1899 r. † 14 stycznia 1920". +Po bokach kamiennej figury znajdują się nazwiska 16 Francuzów. Pomnik przedstawia wykutego w kamieniu piechura francuskiego, opartego o karabin, z gałązką wawrzynu. Sąd konkursowy, zebrany 18 XI 1936 r. uznał jednomyślnie za najpiękniejszy i najbardziej odpowiadający celowi, projekt prof. J.Różyskiego i według tego projektu, pod kierownictwem autora, przy pomocy rzeźbiarza Kazimierza Sokolskiego, został wzniesiony pomnik. +Mur oporowy wykonano według planu sporządzonego na Politechnice Lwowskiej pod kierownictwem prof. Bartoszewicza. +Na płycie grobowej umieszczono napis w języku polskim i francuskim: "Bohaterskim Francuzom Poległym i Zmarłym w obronie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej". - W środku tarcza z brązu z herbem Francji i napisem w języku polskim i francuskim "Pod tą tarczą złożono urnę z ziemią przywiezioną z Francji z następujących miejsc: +Odsłonięcie pomnika odbyło się 26 maja 1938 w obecności Marszałka Rydza-Śmigłego i francuskiego attaché wojskowego w Warszawie gen. Musse. +Groby dowódców i działaczy. +Znajdują się one przeważnie poniżej i w bliskości katakumb. +Mogiła Nieznanego Żołnierza. +Grób Nieznanego Żołnierza postanowiono zbudować w Warszawie, pod arkadami gmachu Sztabu Głównego Wojska Polskiego. W tym celu z 15 najważniejszych pobojowisk, na których ginęli polscy żołnierze, wybrano drogą losowania szczątki jednego nieznanego bohatera i uroczyście przeniesiono je do Warszawy. +Los padł między innymi na Lwów. Dnia 29 października 1925 w godzinach popołudniowych nastąpiło rozkopanie trzech mogił na Cmentarzu Obrońców Lwowa, oznaczonych napisem "Nieznany Żołnierz". Trzy trumny wydobyte zawierały zwłoki: szeregowca, kaprala i sierżanta. Stwierdzono, że wszyscy trzej byli żołnierzami liniowymi, że zginęli wskutek ran i że pochowano ich w mundurach postrzępionych i pokrwawionych. +Z tych trzech trumien padł wybór na zwłoki szeregowca, które jako godne pochowania na miejscu czci narodu wybrała Jadwiga Zarugiewiczowa, polska Ormianka rodem z Kut nad Czeremoszem, matka dwóch poległych obrońców Lwowa, w tym jednego z bohaterów zabitych pod Zadwórzem, którego zwłok również nie można było zidentyfikować. +Zwłoki tego Nieznanego Żołnierza po uroczystościach we Lwowie przewieziono uroczyście koleją do Warszawy. W miejscu, gdzie spoczywał we Lwowie, położono płytę projektu Kazimierza Sokalskiego z napisem: "Zwłoki zabrano dnia 29 października 1925 r. i uroczyście przewieziono w dniach 30–31 października i 1 listopada do Warszawy, gdzie pochowano w mogile na placu Marsz. Józefa Piłsudskiego, dawniej Saskim, jako zwłoki Nieznanego Żołnierza". +Mogiła Pięciu Nieznanych z Persenkówki. +Mogiła ta znajduje się tuż przed Pomnikiem Chwały. Kryje ona zwłoki pięciu nieznanych żołnierzy, którzy w obronie Lwowa zginęli na Persenkówce. +Ta mogiła, zajmująca czołowe miejsce na osi Pomnika Chwały, została uczczona płytą z czerwonego, polerowanego marmuru. Na górnej jej powierzchni wyobrażony jest miecz, oraz daty "1918–1920", wykonane z brązu. Od strony Pohulanki widnieje na pionowej ścianie płyty napis: "Mogiła zbiorowa", czoło płyty opatrzone jest napisem: "Nieznanym bohaterom, poległym w obronie Lwowa i Ziem Południowo-Wschodnich". Płytę projektował Stanisław Konieczny. +Pomnik Chwały. +Poniżej Kaplicy Obrońców Lwowa i Katakumb wzniesiono z kamienia polańskiego monumentalny Pomnik Chwały. Miał on kształt wielkiej, łukowej gloriety (12 kolumn), wypukłej w kierunku pagórkowatej Pohulanki. +Wejścia doń od południa strzegły dwa kamienne lwy, z których jeden miał na tarczy napis: "Zawsze wierny", drugi zaś: "Tobie Polsko". +Nad sklepioną bramą środkową, ku której zbiegały się oba skrzydła kolumnady, wyryto łaciński napis: "Mortui sunt ut liberi vivamus" ("Polegli, abyśmy żyli wolni"). Po przeciwnej stronie pomnika znajdowała się płaskorzeźba, przedstawiająca miecz na tle pięknej ornamentacji. +Skrzydła pomnika zamknięte były potężnymi pylonami. +Odsłonięcie "Pomnika Chwały" nastąpiło 11 listopada 1934. +Uczestnicy obrony Lwowa pochowani na cmentarzu. +Kobiety. +W katakumbach pochowane są: +Poza katakumbami leżą; +Okres powojenny. +Dewastacja i zniszczenie. +Po zajęciu Lwowa przez Armię Czerwoną cmentarz był regularnie grabiony i niszczony, rozbito pomniki żołnierzy amerykańskich i francuskich, którzy walczyli po stronie polskiej, a w katakumbach, na których nadbudowano dodatkowe piętro, umieszczono garaże i zakład kamieniarski. Przez część cmentarza poprowadzono drogę. Ostatecznej dewastacji dokonano w latach siedemdziesiątych. 25 sierpnia 1971 roku przy pomocy czołgów i maszyn budowlanych zniszczono kolumnadę, próbowano też zniszczyć wielkie pylony Łuku Chwały, które jednak skutecznie oparły się tym próbom, ostrzelano napisy na pylonach, zrównano z ziemią półkoliście ułożone na tarasach groby. Kamienne lwy, które stały niegdyś przed łukiem triumfalnym, przewieziono na rogatki miasta. W katakumbach w 1975 roku umieszczono zakład kamieniarski. Tak przestała istnieć najsłynniejsza nekropolia II Rzeczypospolitej. +Odbudowa. +Sytuacja zmieniła się w roku 1989 dzięki pracownikom polskiej firmy Energopol, budującej elektrownię atomową w mieście Chmielnicki, którzy w ramach swojego wolnego czasu zaczęli porządkować teren zdewastowanego cmentarza. Prace te podjęto z inicjatywy inżyniera Józefa Bobrowskiego. Pracownicy Energopolu w sposób półlegalny zabezpieczyli i częściowo odrestaurowali Cmentarz Obrońców Lwowa. +Uroczyste otwarcie odbudowanego cmentarza. +24 czerwca 2005 z udziałem prezydentów Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej - Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego i Republiki Ukrainy - Wiktora Juszczenki oraz zwierzchników dwóch katolickich obrządków Lwowa: łacińskiego - kardynała Mariana Jaworskiego i greckokatolickiego - kardynała Lubomyra Huzara odbyło się uroczyste otwarcie odbudowanego cmentarza. +UserLinux + +UserLinux – dystrybucja systemu operacyjnego Linux, bazująca na Debianie i GNOME. Miała być skierowana do środowisk biznesowych i dostarczana razem z niezbędnymi certyfikatami oraz towarzyszącymi usługami, zwłaszcza obsługą techniczną. Projekt został zainicjowany przez Bruce'a Perensa w drugiej połowie 2003 roku, od 2006 nie jest rozwijany. +For Monkeys + +For Monkeys – trzeci album szwedzkiego punk rockowego zespołu Millencolin. Został wydany 20 maja 1997 roku (zob. 1997 w muzyce). +Rockwell B-1B Lancer + +B-1B Lancer (ang. lansjer) – amerykański bombowiec strategiczny dalekiego zasięgu o zmiennej geometrii skrzydeł, zbudowany przez wytwórnię Rockwell International (obecnie Boeing IDS). Wraz z samolotami B-52 Stratofortress i B-2 Spirit stanowi trzon strategicznego lotnictwa bombowego Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Oficjalna nazwa "Lancer" nie została powszechnie przyjęta przez latające tą maszyną załogi. Częściej jest on określany mianem Bone (ang. kość) pochodzącym od fonetycznej nazwy B-1 jako "B-one". +Historia rozwoju. +Program B-1. +Projekt samolotu B-1 powstał podczas zimnej wojny około 1965 roku, w ramach programu zaawansowanego załogowego samolotu strategicznego (AMSA – "Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft"). Zadaniem samolotu tego typu miała być penetracja przestrzeni powietrznej Związku Radzieckiego i przenoszenie broni jądrowej, w ramach amerykańskiej strategii odstraszania nuklearnego. +Po wstępnych pracach rozwojowych, w 1970 powierzono wytwórni Rockwell International zadanie zbudowania nowego bombowca. Pierwszy z czterech prototypów, oznaczony jako B-1A, oblatano 23 grudnia 1974 roku. Maszyna ta miała być zdolna do długodystansowych lotów z prędkościami naddźwiękowymi na niskim pułapie i osiągania prędkości 2,5 Macha na dużych wysokościach. +B-1A nigdy nie wszedł do produkcji ze względu na przerwanie programu budowy tego bombowca w 1977 roku, decyzją prezydenta Jimmy'ego Cartera, ale wszystkie 4 prototypowe maszyny kontynuowały loty testowe do 1981 roku. +Pierwszy z prototypów został przekazany na złom, a drugi wykorzystywano jako platformę badawczą w równolegle prowadzonym programie rozwojowym B-1B, aż do jego katastrofy 29 sierpnia 1984 roku. Egzemplarz ten był wyposażony w nowatorski system ratunkowy w postaci kapsuły ratunkowej zamiast foteli wyrzucanych. Rozwiązanie to umożliwiało pracę załogi w zwykłym ubraniu, bez kombinezonów ciśnieniowych i masek tlenowych, ale podczas katastrofy drugiego prototypu nieprawidłowe rozwinięcie się spadochronu doprowadziło do śmierci pilota. Jedyną maszyną poza B-1A, w której stosuje się wystrzeliwaną kapsułę ratunkową jest F-111 Aardvark. +Dwa pozostałe prototypy ocalały i zostały przekazane do muzeów. Trzeci egzemplarz znajduje się w muzeum "Wings Over the Rockies" w Denver w stanie Kolorado, a czwarty po zakończeniu służby w ramach programu B-1B, przekazano do Narodowego Muzeum Amerykańskich Sił Powietrznych (National Museum of the United States Air Force) koło Dayton w stanie Ohio, a później przeniesiono do Muzeum Sił Strategicznych i Kosmosu w Ashland w Nebrasce. Egzemplarz ten był wyposażony w standardowe fotele wyrzucane, tak jak później produkowany bombowiec B-1B. +Wznowienie programu B-1. +W 1981 roku wznowiono program bombowca B-1 w ramach ogólnej rozbudowy amerykańskich sił zbrojnych. Zgodnie z nową strategią, B-1 miał pełnić funkcję tymczasowego bombowca strategicznego do czasu wprowadzenia nowocześniejszego, zbudowanego w technologii stealth B-2 Spirit. +Pierwszy egzemplarz produkcyjny B-1B wzbił się w powietrze w październiku 1984 roku, a pierwszym dostarczonym bombowcem był samolot "The Star of Abilene" (gwiazda Abilene), który trafił do bazy Dyess w Teksasie. Pełną zdolność bojową maszyny te osiągnęły 1 października 1986 roku, a ostatni B-1B wszedł do służby 2 maja 1988. Zgodnie z założeniami programu konstrukcyjnego, uwzględniając postęp technologiczny radzieckiego masywnego systemu obrony przeciwlotniczej, B-1B zapewnić miał amerykańskiemu lotnictwu możliwość penetracji przestrzeni powietrznej ZSRR do późnych lat 90. XX wieku. Maszyny były przydzielone do pięciu skrzydeł podległych Dowództwu Lotnictwa Strategicznego ("Strategic Air Command"). +Częściowe wycofanie ze służby. +Łącznie zbudowano 100 egzemplarzy produkcyjnych bombowców B-1B, z których 93 pozostało w służbie do 2003. W tym samym roku postanowiono zredukować ich liczbę do 60-ciu, przeznaczając zaoszczędzone w ten sposób pieniądze na utrzymanie pozostałych maszyn, jednak korekta budżetu przeprowadzona w roku 2004, pozwoliła na powtórne wprowadzenie do służby jeszcze 7 bombowców B-1B, co łącznie daje 67 zdolnych do lotu maszyn. Reszta wycofanych maszyn została przeznaczona na części zamienne dla pozostających w służbie egzemplarzy. +Konstrukcja bombowca B-1B Lancer. +Bombowiec B-1B jest dolnopłatem konstrukcji mieszanej tytanowo-aluminiowej o zmiennej geometrii skrzydeł, napędzany wydajnymi dwuprzepływowymi silnikami General Electric z dopalaniem. Taka konstrukcja zapewnia duży zasięg maszyny i duże prawdopodobieństwo przetrwania na polu walki, także skutków fali uderzeniowej wybuchu jądrowego. Skrzydła samolotu mogą być ustawiane pod kątami 15, 25, 55 i 67,7 stopnia, a po modyfikacji przeprowadzonej w latach 1998 – 1999, także 45 stopni. Konfiguracja z rozłożonymi skrzydłami używana jest do startu, lądowania i lotów na dużej wysokości dla zapewnienia maksymalnego zasięgu. Z kolei konfiguracja ze skrzydłami złożonymi umożliwia osiąganie dużych prędkości pod- i naddźwiękowych poprzez zmniejszenie oporów aerodynamicznych. +Silniki zamontowane są parami w rozszerzonej części kadłuba, będącej nasadą skrzydeł. Chociaż mają one większą moc, niż zastosowane w B-1A jednostki napędowe, to w przeciwieństwie do poprzednika nie pozwalają one na osiągnięcie prędkości wyższych niż 2 Ma. Prędkość maksymalna Lancera na dużym pułapie nie przekracza 1,25 Ma (1330 km/h), a na małej wysokości osiąga 0,95 Ma (1118 km/h), co jest wartością większą niż był zdolny osiągnąć B-1A. Pod względem technicznym B-1B Lancer może osiągać większe prędkości, ale jest to ryzykowne ze względu na możliwość uszkodzenia konstrukcji maszyny, a zwłaszcza chwytów powietrza zmodyfikowanych w celu ograniczenia odbicia promieniowania radarowego, co ma duży wpływ na jego wykrywalność. Dodatkowe pokrycie maszyny materiałem absorbującym promieniowanie radarowe RAM (Radar Absorbent Material), pozwoliło na zmniejszenie jego sygnatury do 2%, w porównaniu do samolotów podobnej wielkości, takich jak B-52 Stratofortess. W porównaniu do pierwszej wersji samolotu B-1A, nowy Lancer posiadał szereg modyfikacji mechanicznych, głównie wzmocnień struktury kadłuba, skrzydeł i podwozia. Masa własna samolotu również została zmniejszona. +Samolot zabiera 88450 kg paliwa w ośmiu samouszczelniających się zbiornikach, umieszczonych w nasadzie skrzydeł i w kadłubie. Dodatkowo, w celu zwiększenia zasięgu jest możliwe zainstalowanie dodatkowych zbiorników w komorach bombowych. B-1B może być również tankowany w locie poprzez umieszczony w części dziobowej wlew, a charakterystyczny biały wzór namalowany na górnej części dziobu przed kabiną pilotów, ma na celu ułatwienie operatorowi latającej cysterny trafienie w gniazdo wlewu. +Załoga bombowca składa się z czterech osób: dwóch pilotów oraz dwóch operatorów uzbrojenia obronnego i ofensywnego. Wszyscy członkowie załogi mają możliwość awaryjnego opuszczenia samolotu za pomocą foteli wyrzucanych klasy zero-zero Weber ACES II. +Środki obronne bombowca B-1B, to głównie urządzenia elektroniczne mające na celu ostrzeganie o niebezpieczeństwie ataku i zakłócanie sygnałów wrogich systemów namierzających. Samolot jest wyposażony w osiem wyrzutników pułapek termicznych i elektromagnetycznych, zainstalowany na ogonie dodatkowy radar, ostrzegający przed samolotami i pociskami rakietowymi przeciwnika, urządzenia walki elektronicznej oraz system wabików przeciwrakietowych ALE-50. +Od momentu wprowadzenia do służby, B-1B był kilkakrotnie unowocześniany, a ostatnia modyfikacja została przeprowadzona w ramach programu "Conventional Mission Upgrade Program", w celu unowocześnienia uzbrojenia naprowadzanego, takiego jak JDAM, AGM-154 JSOW i AGM-158 JASSM. Amerykańskie siły powietrzne planują, że B-1B Lancer pozostanie w służbie do roku 2020, ale ostatnio coraz częściej jest wymieniany rok 2040, jako ostateczny termin wycofania tych maszyn z eksploatacji. +Uzbrojenie. +B-1B Lancer może przenosić wiele rodzajów konwencjonalnego i jądrowego uzbrojenia bombowego i rakietowego w trzech wewnętrznych komorach bombowych i na sześciu zewnętrznych węzłach podwieszeń. +Przewidywano użycie broni jądrowej w postaci bomb B28, B61 i B83, oraz pocisków rakietowych AGM-69A. +Użycie operacyjne bombowców B-1B Lancer. +Pierwsze bojowe zastosowanie samolotu B-1 "Lancer" miało miejsce podczas operacji Desert Fox w Iraku, w grudniu 1998 roku. Samoloty B-1 Lancer brały także udział w operacji Allied Force w byłej Jugosławii w 1999 roku. Dokonywały również bombardowań podczas operacji Enduring Freedom w Afganistanie w latach 2001-2002 oraz w trakcie operacji Iraqi Freedom w Iraku. +Frenetyzm + +Frenetyzm – nagromadzenie w utworze elementów budzących grozę. Podkreśla w obrazie świata przedstawionego takie cechy, jak: szaleństwo, gwałtowność, makabra, groza, także ukazuje cechy piekielne. Łączone ze "scenami dantejskimi". Element tzw. obrazowania frenetycznego. +Społeczna Szkoła Baletowa w Częstochowie + +Społeczna Szkoła Baletowa w Częstochowie, do 2005 "Społeczne Ognisko Baletowe" - szkoła baletowa założona w roku szkolnym 1958/1959 przez dyrektora Teatru im. A. Mickiewicza - Adama Nowakiewicza i jego żonę, Jadwigę. Ma swoją siedzibę w Domu Księcia +Obecnie szkoła nawiązała ścisłą współpracę z Teatrem oraz Filharmonią Częstochowską, bierze udział w występach i konkursach baletowych zarówno krajowych, jak i zagranicznych. Aktualnie w szkole uczy się około 300 uczniów. Funkcję dyrektora sprawuje Urszula Brylewska. +Jan III (papież) + +Jan III, ("Katelinus" ur. w Rzymie, zm. 13 lipca 574 tamże) – papież w okresie od 17 lipca 561 do 13 lipca 574. +Biografia. +Jan III pochodził z zamożnej rodziny rzymskiej (jego ojciec Anatazy był senatorem) i przed wyborem nosił imię Katelinus. Jako subdiakon przełożył dzieło Pelagiusza "Księga starszych". +W okresie pontyfikatu Jana III w 568 rozpoczęły się najazdy Longobardów, które nękały Rzym przez kolejne kilkanaście lat. W tym czasie zakończył się także kres schizmy pomiędzy Rzymem, a Kościołami Zachodu, spowodowanej potępieniem "Trzech Rozdziałów". +Ważnym wydarzeniem w tym czasie była także śmierć po wieloletnim panowaniu cesarza Bizancjum Justyniana (565), który w 561 zatwierdził wybór Jana na papieża (po czteromiesięcznym okresie oczekiwania). +Jan III ukończył budowę kościoła św. Filipa i Jakuba, którą rozpoczął Pelagiusz, by uczcić zwycięstwa Narsesa. +Miasta Chile + +Ludność miejska stanowi 86% ogółu ludności Chile. Największym miastem jest stolica kraju Santiago de Chile, w którym mieszka blisko 1/3 ludności kraju. Inne ważne miasta spoza aglomeracji stołecznej to: Antofagasta, Viña del Mar i Valparaíso. +Alfabet semaforowy + +Alfabet semaforowy – stosowany dawniej w żegludze kod naśladujący alfabet, złożony ze znaków nadawanych przez marynarza przy pomocy trzymanych w rękach chorągiewek. Każde ułożenie obu rąk z chorągiewkami względem osi ciała marynarza (także ich ruchy) oznacza inną literę, cyfrę lub znak specjalny. +Po rozpowszechnieniu się łączności UKF wycofany z użycia, pozostał we flotach wojennych ze względu na możliwość podsłuchu komunikacji radiowej. +Do sygnalizacji używamy chorągiewek o wymiarach 40 x 40 cm w dwóch kontrastujących kolorach, które łączy się po przekątnej albo tarcz sygnalizacyjnych o wymiarach 40 x 40 cm z uchwytami pośrodku. +Giacomo Violardo + +Giacomo Violardo (10 maja 1898 w Govone, diecezja Alba - 17 marca 1978 w Rzymie), włoski duchowny katolicki, wysoki urzędnik Kurii Rzymskiej, kardynał. +Studiował w seminarium w Albie, na Uniwersytecie Katolickim w Mediolanie oraz w Papieskim Athenaeum Św. Apolinarego w Rzymie. Przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 29 czerwca 1923 w Rzymie. Wykładał w seminarium Piusa XI w Fano, a w latach 1935-1964 w Papieskim Athenaeum Św. Apolinarego i na Papieskim Uniwersytecie Laterańskim. 14 grudnia 1935 został obdarzony godnością tajnego szambelana papieskiego, a 23 kwietnia 1939 papieskiego prałata domowego. +Przez krótki czas pracował w nuncjaturze we Francji (1938). Od kwietnia 1939 był urzędnikiem w Trybunale Sygnatury Apostolskiej, dochodząc w 1954 do godności podsekretarza. W kwietniu 1962 został sekretarzem Papieskiej Komisji Autentycznej Interpretacji Kodeksu Prawa Kanonicznego, a rok później sekretarzem Komisji Kardynalskiej Rewizji Kodeksu Prawa Kanonicznego. 26 stycznia 1965 został sekretarzem Kongregacji Dyscypliny Sakramentów. +19 lutego 1966 papież Paweł VI mianował go arcybiskupem tytularnym Satali i osobiście udzielił sakry biskupiej 19 marca 1966. Ten sam papież kreował arcybiskupa Violardo kardynałem 28 kwietnia 1969, nadając tytuł diakona S. Eustachio. +Giacomo Violardo zmarł w marcu 1978 i został pochowany w kościele parafialnym w rodzinnym Govone. +Był jednym z założycieli pisma Studi Cattolici (1957). +Statki typu Olympic + +Statki typu Olympic – statki określane mianem trio bliźniaczych liniowców parowych, jakie armator – White Star Line – zamówił w irlandzkiej stoczni Harland and Wolff w 1909 roku. Nazwa typu pochodzi od pierwszego ze zbudowanych w jego ramach statku – Olympica. +Jednostki typu Olympic. +Nazwa trzeciego liniowca miała brzmieć początkowo "Gigantic", jednak zmieniono ją po zatonięciu Titanica na mniej pretensjonalną. Z trzech statków tylko Olympic doczekał się długiej kariery na szlaku północnoatlantyckim, trwającej od 1911 z przerwami do 1934. Titanic zatonął po zderzeniu z górą lodową podczas swojego dziewiczego rejsu, 15 kwietnia 1912. Britannic po zwodowaniu został zarekwirowany i przekształcony w pływający szpital. Zatonął podczas jednego z pierwszych rejsów (21 listopada 1916), po wejściu na minę na Morzu Egejskim. +Ogólna specyfikacja. +Jednostki te były czterokominowymi parowcami o długości ok. 270 metrów, zdolnymi do rozwinięcia prędkości do 23 węzłów (44 km/h), napędzanymi trzema wysokimi na sześć metrów śrubami. Dwie boczne śruby napędzane były parowymi maszynami tłokowymi, natomiast środkowa śruba, pracująca tylko przy kursie naprzód, turbiną parową na parę odlotową z maszyn tłokowych. Było to przejściowe rozwiązanie (turbiny jako dające wyższe prędkości wypierały już maszyny tłokowe na statkach pasażerskich, gdzie prędkość miała duże znaczenie). Fakt, że jedna śruba pracowała tylko naprzód, zmniejszał manewrowość statków, co ujawniło się podczas katastrofy Titanica. +Każdy z trzech statków mógł zabrać na pokład ponad dwa i pół tysiąca pasażerów wraz z załogą. Tonaż jednego statku wynosił około 45 000 ton. Każdy następny był minimalnie większy od poprzedniego, w związku z czym Olympic i Titanic były kolejno największymi statkami świata (Britannic, zbudowany później, nie pobił już rekordu wielkości). Jednostki te cechowały się unikatowym systemem grodzi wodoszczelnych, które jednak, co wykazała katastrofa Titanica, nie sięgały wystarczająco wysoko: po katastrofie przebudowano zatem Olympica i odpowiednio przeprojektowano ostatni statek. Wyróżniały się też niebanalnym wyglądem. Olympic i Titanic były szczytem luksusu, przewyższając standardem zakwaterowania niejednego hotelu na stałym lądzie. Całe trio miało być odpowiedzią linii White Star Line na luksusowe i szybkie parowce Cunard Line – Mauretanię i Lusitanię. Były największymi statkami, jakie zwodowała kiedykolwiek stocznia Harland and Wolff. +Jądro (anatomia) + +Jądra (łac. "testis", dosłownie – świadek, "orchis", "testimonium virile", grec. "didymis" ) – męskie narządy rozrodcze u ludzi i zwierząt odpowiednik rozwojowy jajników. +Samce ssaków posiadają 2 jądra, które najczęściej znajdują się w mosznie – worku skórno-powięziowym, wywodzącym się ze ściany brzucha. U większości ssaków jądra są położone poza obrębem ciała, zawieszone przez powrózek nasienny w worku mosznowym. Jest to spowodowane tym, że spermatogeneza zachodzi wydajniej w temperaturach niższych niż ok. 37 stopni Celsjusza, panująca wewnątrz ciała. +Zwykle jedno jądro wisi niżej od drugiego (zazwyczaj lewe). Jest to głównie spowodowane różnicami w strukturach naczyniowych po prawej i lewej stronie. +Funkcje. +Podobnie jak jajniki (których są odpowiednikami), jądra są składnikiem dwóch układów: rozrodczego (jako gonady) oraz endokrynnego (jako gruczoły dokrewne). +Struktura i fizjologia. +Pod wytrzymałą, włóknistą osłonką-błoną białawą ("tunica albuginea"), jądra zawierają bardzo delikatne kanaliki nasienne ("tubuli seminiferi") kręte ("contorti") i proste ("recti"). Kanaliki są wyłożone warstwą komórek (m.in. komórkami podporowymi-Sertolego), które od okresu dojrzewania do późnego wieku produkują plemniki. Kanaliki nasienne kręte przechodzą w kanaliki proste, tworzące sieć jądra ("rete testis"), z których następnie wychodzą przewody wyprowadzające, prowadzące do najądrza (gdzie nowo utworzone komórki dojrzewają), następnie do nasieniowodu ("vas deferens") i dalej do przewodu wytryskowego ("ductus ejaculatorius"), który łączy się z ostatnim odcinkiem - cewką moczową. Pod wpływem pobudzenia seksualnego, plemniki zaczynają przemieszczać się przez przewód wytryskowy do części sterczowej cewki moczowej, skąd w czasie orgazmu są wypychane przez prostatę (dzięki skurczom mięśni) na zewnątrz prącia. +Pomiędzy kanalikami nasiennymi znajdują się komórki śródmiąższowe Leydiga, które wytwarzają testosteron i inne androgeny. +Mięsień dźwigacz jądra ("musculus cremaster") wchodzi w skład powrózka nasiennego. Dzięki skurczom powrózka nasiennego, wywołanym zbyt niska temperaturą, jądra są przywodzone do ciała. Rozkurcz umożliwia ich odwiedzenie. Jest to swoisty mechanizm termoregulacyjny. To zjawisko jest znane jako odruch mięśnia dźwigacza jądra. Zachodzi ono także w odpowiedzi na stres (jądra zostają podciągnięte ku ciału w celu ich ochrony podczas walki; zjawisko to wykształciło się w toku ewolucji) oraz podczas orgazmu. +Rozmiary jąder. +Rozmiar jąder w stosunku do całego ciała waha się znacznie w zależności od gatunku. U ssaków poligamicznych istnieje tendencja do występowania większych jąder niż u gatunków monogamicznych. Także produkcja spermy w jądrach zwierząt poligamicznych jest większa, co tłumaczy się dostosowaniem do zwiększonej konkurencji. +U zdrowych, dorosłych Europejczyków objętość jąder waha się od około 12 cm³ do 30 cm³, a średnia objętość wynosi 18 cm³. Pomiaru u dorosłych dokonuje się następującymi metodami: (1) porównując jądra z elipsoidami o znanych rozmiarach (orchidometr Pradera) lub (2) mierząc długość, szerokość i głębokość przy pomocy linijki, suwmiarki lub metody USG. Objętość jest wtedy obliczana, przykładowo ze wzoru dla elipsoid: π/6 × długość × szerokość². Zazwyczaj prawe i lewe jądra posiadają podobne rozmiary. +Jądra są w pewnym stopniu elastyczne. Krótkotrwałe, bezpośrednie działanie czynnika uszkadzającego lub poddanie ich niekorzystnym warunkom, na przykład wyższej temperatury niż do której są przystosowane, może spowodować ich obkurczenie. Taki sam efekt wywołuje podanie hormonów steroidowych. Natomiast stymulacja funkcji jąder poprzez hormony gonadotropowe może spowodować zwiększenie ich rozmiarów. +Kwestie zdrowotne. +Usunięcie jednego lub obu jąder to kastracja ("orchidectomia"). +Mioglobina + +Mioglobina (oznaczana również: Mb) - złożone białko globularne biorące udział w magazynowaniu tlenu. Jest pojedynczym łańcuchem białkowym, o masie cząsteczkowej 17053 Da, zbudowanym z 153 reszt aminokwasowych. Jej budowa drugorzędowa i trzeciorzędowa jest bardzo podobna do budowy podjednostki β w hemoglobinie. W 1958 roku John Kendrew i współpracownicy wyznaczyli dokładną strukturę mioglobiny stosując rentgenografię strukturalną. Była to pierwsza poznana struktura białka. Za odkrycie Kendrew otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie chemii w roku 1962, dzieląc ją z Maxem Perutzem. +Budowa. +Mioglobina jest silnie upakowaną, w przybliżeniu kulistą cząsteczką o wymiarach 4,5 x 3,5 x 2,5 nm. Około 75% łańcucha występuje w formie ośmiu prawoskrętnych helis α o długości 7 - 20 aminokwasów. Poszczególne helisy oznacza się literami od A do H. Aby odnieść się do konkretnego aminokwasu określamy w której helisie się on znajduje (np. F) oraz liczbę wskazującą pozycję od końca N (aminowego) w tej helisie. I tak np. "His F8" odpowiada helisie F i ósmemu aminokwasowi na niej, który okazuje się być histydyną. +Grupę prostetyczną mioglobiny stanowi hem. Znajduje się on w zagłębieniu pomiędzy helisami E i F, a w jego centrum jest związane koordynacyjnie żelazo w formie jonu Fe2+. Utlenienie jonu żelaza Fe2+ do Fe3+ powoduje utratę aktywności biologicznej białka. +Zewnętrzna część cząsteczki mioglobiny jest polarna, natomiast jej wnętrze jest niepolarne. Dzieje się tak, gdyż reszty aminokwasowe zawierające grupy polarne kierowane są na zewnątrz cząsteczki, a reszty niepolarne kierowane są do środka. Jedynym wyjątkiem od tej reguły są dwie polarne reszty histydyny (F8 i E7), które skierowane są do wnętrza cząsteczki. His F8 określana jest mianem histydyny proksymalnej, a His E7 - dystalnej. +Funkcja. +Główną funkcją mioglobiny jest magazynowanie tlenu w mięśniach czerwonych (poprzecznie prążkowanych). Podczas nadmiernego wysiłku, kiedy ciśnienie cząsteczkowe tlenu spada w mięśniach do bardzo niskiej wartości 5 mm Hg, mioglobina uwalnia zmagazynowane cząsteczki O2 i pozwala mitochondriom na syntezę ATP na drodze fosforylacji oksydacyjnej. +Kluczową rolę w wiązaniu tlenu przez mioglobinę pełni hem wraz ze związanym koordynacyjnie jonem żelaza(II), oraz histydyna proksymalna i dystalna. Fe2+ wiąże się piątym wiązaniem koordynacyjnym z pierścieniem imidazolowym histydyny proksymalnej. Po przeciwnej stronie płaskiego układu hemu znajduje się histydyna dystalna, która nie wiąże się z żelazem, pełni jednak istotną rolę jako zawada przestrzenna, utrudniając przyłączanie się cząsteczkom tlenku węgla (CO). +Jedna cząsteczka mioglobiny przenosi jedną cząsteczkę tlenu. Tlen zajmuje szóstą pozycję koordynacyjną w atomie żelaza. Przyłączenie cząsteczki O2 powoduje zmianę konformacji części białka. +Titanic (film 1943) + +Titanic – niemiecki film fabularny, nakręcony w 1943 roku, oparty częściowo o autentyczne wydarzenie zatonięcia Titanica z 1912. Został wyreżyserowany przez Wernera Klinglera i Herberta Selpina. Ten ostatni podczas pracy nad filmem wyraził się pogardliwie o jednym z przywódców III Rzeszy, za co trafił do obozu koncentracyjnego, a pracę nad filmem dokończył Klingler. +Ujęcia tonącego statku powstały w Porcie Gdyńskim. Jako atelier do filmu posłużył statek SS Cap Arcona. +Fabuła filmu a propaganda. +Film ma wyraźny podtekst propagandowy (w czasie kręcenia filmu toczyła się II wojna światowa). Fikcyjne wydarzenia i bohaterowie są tak przedstawieni na bazie autentycznych wydarzeń, by podkreślić szlachetność narodu niemieckiego i ukazać Brytyjczyków jako ludzi nierozsądnych i spaczonych. +Przykładowe fikcyjne wydarzenia to: przekupienie kapitana Titanica przez prezesa White Star Line - Ismaya, by ten zwiększył prędkość płynącego statku, nieczyste interesy jednego z najbogatszych pasażerów "Titanica" - Johna Jacoba Astora, zachowanie załogi podczas katastrofy. W filmie występuje tylko jeden szlachetny człowiek - niemiecki oficer - Petersen, który nalegał na zmniejszenie prędkości i uważanie na pola lodowe, jednak był zupełnie ignorowany i karcony przez załogę. Kiedy statek tonął, brytyjscy oficerowie byli niezdolni do podjęcia jakichkolwiek działań, podczas gdy Petersen pomógł pasażerom wydostać się na szalupach z tonącego statku. Niemcowi udało się przeżyć katastrofę, a następnie postawić prezesa Bruce'a Ismaya pod sądem. Sąd uniewinnił go jednak, zrzucając całą odpowiedzialność na nieżyjącego kapitana. +Region (podział administracyjny) + +Region, to najwyższa jednostka terytorialnej organizacji w państwie, bez względu na jego formę prawnoustrojową, o relatywnie dużej powierzchni i znacznej liczbie ludności, jednolita z punktu widzenia gospodarczego, społecznego i kulturowego, w której jest prowadzona odpowiednia do potrzeb polityka gospodarcza, społeczna i kulturalna przez powołane do tego instytucje regionalne. Jednostki terytorialne tego typu mogą nosić różne nazwy, np. województwo, wspólnota autonomiczna. +Arthur Miller + +Arthur Asher Miller (ur. 17 października 1915 w Nowym Jorku, zm. 10 lutego 2005 w Roxbury) – amerykański dramaturg, scenarzysta, eseista i autor słuchowisk radiowych, zdobywca Nagrody Pulitzera. +Odmawiał złożenia zeznań przeciwko innym w Komisji ds. Działalności Antyamerykańskiej Izby Reprezentantów McCarthy'ego (House Un-American Activities Committee). +Biografia. +Urodzony na Manhattanie w Nowym Jorku, w niezamożnej rodzinie polsko-żydowskich imigrantów, Izydora i Augusty (Talal). Ojciec, niepiśmienny, lecz zamożny kupiec, miał duży sklep z odzieżą damską zatrudniający 400 osób. W 1929 wraz z załamaniem się wskutek Wielkiego kryzysu Nowojorskiej Giełdy Papierów Wartościowych i utraty rodzinnego interesu, Millerowie przenieśli się do skromniejszego mieszkania na Brooklynie. +W 1932, po ukończeniu Abraham Lincoln High School w Nowym Yorku, Millerowie nie mieli środków, aby wysłać syna na uniwersytet, dlatego po zapewnieniu sobie miejsca w University of Michigan podejmował on wiele prac pomocniczych aby opłacić swoje czesne w wydziale dziennikarstwa. W uniwersytecie został reporterem i nocnym redaktorem studenckiej gazety, the Michigan Daily. Wtedy właśnie napisał swoją pierwszą sztukę "No Villain". +Po wygraniu Avery Hopwood Award za "No Villain" zaczął studia na wydziale anglistyki, gdzie spotkał profesora Kennetha Rowe, który ukierunkował go na dramaturgię. Przez resztę swojego życia pozostał w ścisłych relacjach ze swoją Alma Mater, ustanawiając uniwersytecką nagrodę Arthur Miller Award w 1985, nagrodę Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing w 1999 oraz zapożyczając swego nazwiska dla Arthur Miller Theatre w 2000. +W 1937 napisał sztukę "Honors at Dawn", która również otrzymała Avery Hopwood Award. +W 1938 uzyskał stopień licencjata na Wydziale Anglistyki. Dołączył do Federal Theater Project oraz do New Deal Agency, agencji założonej by zapewniać pracę w teatrze. Wybrał pracę w teatrze, mimo że otrzymał ofertę pracy jako scenarzysta dla 20th Century Fox. Jednak Amerykański Kongres, obawiając się o możliwe przenikanie komunizmu do projektu, zamknął go. Miller rozpoczął pracę w Brooklyn Navy Yard, pisząc w międzyczasie sztuki radiowe odgrywane w CBS. +Zwolniony z obowiązku służenia w Armii Amerykańskiej podczas II wojny światowej z powodu urazu rzepki kolanowej, nabytego w szkole średniej. +5 sierpnia 1940 ożenił się z ukochaną z czasów studenckich Mary Grace Slattery, katoliczką, córką sprzedawcy ubezpieczeń (mieli 2 dzieci, Jane i Roberta, późniejszego pisarza, dyrektora i producenta, m.in. filmowej wersji "Czarownic z Salem" z 1996), a 11 czerwca 1956 rozwiódł. +29 czerwca 1956 ożenił się z Marilyn Monroe, a 29 stycznia 1961 rozwiódł. +17 lutego 1962 ożenił się z Inge Morath, znaną fotografką (mieli 2 dzieci), a 30 stycznia 2002 owdowiał. +Butapren + +Butapren – nazwa handlowa kleju rozpuszczalnikowego, w którym głównym składnikiem sklejającym jest kauczuk chloroprenowy. Klej ten stosuje się głównie przy łączeniu gumy, skóry naturalnej i sztucznej, tkanin sztucznych i naturalnych oraz filcu. Jest on stosowany głównie w przemyśle obuwniczym, gdyż daje on trwałe, wodoszczelne i elastyczne spoiny. +Klej ten jest z chemicznego punktu widzenia roztworem kauczuku chloroprenowego z dodatkami zagęszczającymi (zwykle jest to żywica fenolowo-formaldehydowa oraz wypełniacze nieorganiczne). +Klej ten stosuje się na zimno, pokrywając obie klejone powierzchnie i łącząc je z sobą po tym, jak z kleju wyparuje większość rozpuszczalnika. +Dawniej często stosowanym rozpuszczalnikiem w tym kleju był tzw. "tri" trichloroeten, który posiada silne własności narkotyczne. Obecnie jest on zastąpiony mieszaniną rozpuszczalników (np. toluen, heksan, aceton). +Sieweczkowate + +Sieweczkowate (Charadriidae) – rodzina ptaków z rzędu siewkowych (Charadriiformes). Obejmuje gatunki występujące od morskich wybrzeży po górskie łąki, zamieszkujące cały świat poza Antarktydą. +Dziadumiła + +Dziadumiła – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członów "Dziadu-" ("dziadowi, przodkowi") i "-miła" ("miła"). Oznaczało "miła swojemu dziadkowi". +Dziadumiła imieniny obchodzi 1 lutego. +Iskra (gazeta) + +"Iskra", pismo periodyczne rosyjskiej partii socjaldemokratycznej (SDPRR), wydawane w języku rosyjskim w Szwajcarii od 1901 do 1905, rozprowadzane bezdebitowo na terenie Imperium Rosyjskiego. +Pierwszym redaktorem pisma był Włodzimierz Lenin. Po rozłamie w SDPRR na frakcje bolszewików i mienszewików, w lipcu 1903 Lenin opuścił redakcję "Iskry", która do października 1905 ukazywała się pod kierownictwem Gieorgija Plechanowa. Wydano 110 numerów (do lipca 1903 - 44 numery). Zadaniem gazety było połączenie różnych ugrupowań robotniczych w Rosji na bazie wspólnej platformy politycznej. Gazeta była drukowana w Szwajcarii i dostarczana w skrzyniach z podwójnym dnem na obszar Imperium Rosyjskiego przy współpracy sympatyzującego z socjaldemokracją rosyjskiego przemysłowca z branży włókienniczej - Sawy Morozowa . +Mottem gazety było ros. ""Из искры возгорится пламя"" (pol. "Z iskry rozgorzeje płomień") — cytat z poematu Puszkina do dekabrystów zesłanych na Syberię. +Członkowie redakcji uczestniczyli w obaleniu caratu w marcu 1917 roku i wydarzeniach rewolucji rosyjskiej wiosny-lata 1917. Po przewrocie bolszewickim znaleźli się w różnych obozach politycznych - Włodzimierz Lenin jako przywódca RFSRR ,mienszewicy - Gieorgij Plechanow, Paweł Akselrod i Lew Martow w opozycji, do czasu wymuszonej emigracji z Rosji sowieckiej. +Druk: Blumenfeld. +Achalazja przełyku + +Achalazja przełyku (kurcz wpustu, łac. "cardiospasmus") – choroba, u której podłoża leży podwyższone spoczynkowe ciśnienie i upośledzony rozkurcz dolnego zwieracza przełyku. +Epidemiologia. +Achalazja występuje głównie w wieku 30–60 lat. Zapadalność szacowana jest na około 1/100000/rok. Achalazja stanowi ponad 70% wszystkich pierwotnych zaburzeń motoryki przełyku. +Etiopatogeneza. +Achalazja spowodowana jest brakiem komórek splotu Auerbacha w dolnej części przełyku, skutkiem czego dolny zwieracz nie ulega rozkurczeniu podczas przechodzenia pokarmu. Powoduje to utrudnienie połykania pokarmów początkowo stałych, a następnie także płynnych. Nad przewężeniem przełyk poszerza się na skutek gromadzenia się treści pokarmowej, która często ulega zwracaniu. Stan chorego jest dobry, odżywienie paradoksalnie prawidłowe, co umożliwia różnicowanie z rakiem przełyku, który w momencie dużego zaawansowania dającego objawy dysfagii, objawia się już również chudnięciem i wyniszczeniem pacjenta. +W patogenezie achalazji bierze się także pod uwagę udział czynników autoimmunologicznych, infekcyjnych (głównie wirusy neurotropowe), środowiskowych oraz genetycznych. Pewną rolę może też odgrywać zmniejszenie wydzielania VIP, który uczestniczy w relaksacji mięśni gładkich. +Objawy kliniczne i przebieg. +W wyniku zarzucania treści pokarmowej do dróg oddechowych może dojść do rozwoju zachłystowego zapalenia płuc. +Rozpoznanie. +Rozpoznanie stawia się na podstawie RTG przełyku po podaniu środka kontrastowego oraz badania endoskopowego. W celu potwierdzenia rozpoznania wykonuje się również manometrię przełyku. +Dylatoskop + +Dylatoskop to przyrząd do demonstrowania rozszerzalności liniowej ciał stałych, czyli wydłużaniu się ciał stałych podczas ogrzewania (wzrostu ich temperatury) i kurczeniu się przy studzeniu (obniżaniu temperatury). +Przyrząd stosowany jako przyrząd pokazowy w nauczaniu początkowym fizyki. +Trzęsienie ziemi w Chile (1960) + +Trzęsienie ziemi w Chile, zwane też wielkim trzęsieniem chilijskim – silne trzęsienie ziemi o magnitudzie 9,5 które nawiedziło południowe Chile 22 maja 1960 o 19:11 UTC (wczesne popołudnie czasu lokalnego). Trzęsienie to uznawane jest za najsilniejszy wstrząs tektoniczny odnotowany w dotychczasowej historii pomiarów sejsmicznych. Dzień wcześniej odnotowano serię wstrząsów wstępnych o sile do 8 stopni około 160 km na północ. +Epicentrum tego wstrząsu znajdowało się w okolicach miasta Valdivia, 700 km na południe od stolicy Santiago de Chile. Wstrząs wywołał fale tsunami, które uderzyły w wybrzeże południowoamerykańskie, inne pokonały cały Pacyfik, uderzając w hawajskie miasto Hilo oddalone o ponad 10 tys. km (61 zabitych), a także w wybrzeża Japonii (138 zabitych) i Filipin (32 zabitych). Łącznie na skutek wstrząsu i fal tsunami zginęło około 3 tys. osób. Ponad 2 mln osób zostało bez dachu nad głową. Straty po trzęsieniu ziemi i tsunami oszacowano na 550 mln dolarów w Chile, 75 mln na Hawajach oraz 50 mln w Japonii. +Trzęsienie ziemi wywołało również osuwiska. Trzy duże osunięcia ziemi doprowadziły do zablokowania przepływu rzeki San Pedro oraz znaczącego podniesienia poziomu jeziora Riñihue, z którego ta rzeka wypływa. Nagromadzone masy wody mogły jednak przerwać ziemną tamę i groziły zalaniem doliny, w której zamieszkiwało wówczas około 100 tys. osób (w tym miasto Valdivia). W ciągu jednego dnia po wstrząsie udało się obniżyć wysokość ziemnej zapory z 24 do 15 m. Prace zabezpieczające trwały 2 kolejne miesiące. Wydarzenie to zostało nazwane Riñihuazo. +Powiat mławski + +Powiat mławski - powiat w Polsce (w północnej części województwa mazowieckiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Mława. +Iquique + +Iquique - miasto w północnym Chile, na wybrzeżu Oceanu Spokojnego, na zachód od Pustyni Atacama, stolica regionu Tarapacá. Współrzędne geograficzne: . Ludność: 214,6 tys. (2002). +W Iquique znajduje się największa w Ameryce Południowej portowa strefa wolnocłowa ("Zona Franca", nazywana "Zofri"). Na obszarze ok. 2,4 km² znajdują się liczne magazyny, oddziały banków oraz restauracje. +W okresie do wojny o Pacyfik ("saletrzanej") 1879-1884, Iquique należało do Peru; przed portem Iquique miała miejsce bitwa morska 21 maja 1879, w której poniósł śmierć chilijski bohater narodowy Arturo Prat. +Zobacz też. +Meczet Bilal +Bnińscy + +Bnińscy – znana wielkopolska rodzina magnacka pochodząca z Bnina pod Poznaniem (komesowie na Bninie), pieczętująca się herbem Łodzia. W Samostrzelu zachował się pałac rodziny Bnińskich. Otrzymali pruski tytuł hrabiowski w XIX wieku. +Po rozbiorach kraju Bnińscy skutkiem działów otrzymali klucze: ostropolski na Wołyniu i zbarażski na Ukrainie. +Punta Arenas + +Punta Arenas (hiszp. ""przylądek piaszczysty"") – to miasto w południowym Chile, nad Cieśniną Magellana, stolica regionu Magallanes y Antártica Chilena. Często uznawana za położone najbardziej na południe miasto świata, choć na położonej bardziej na południe Ziemi Ognistej znajduje się kilka miasteczek. Współrzędne geograficzne miasta: 53° 10' S, 70° 56' W. Ludność miasta wynosi 116 tys. (2002), stanowi ono tym samym największe miasto chilijskiej Patagonii. +Punta Arenas było jednym z najważniejszych portów chilijskich zanim wybudowany został Kanał Panamski. Tutaj właśnie statki przygotowały się do trudnego opłynięcia Przylądka Horn. Dzisiaj gospodarka miasta opiera się głównie na turystyce, miasto stanowi bazę wypadową dla ekspedycji antarktycznych. +Powiat otwocki + +Powiat otwocki – powiat w Polsce (województwo mazowieckie), reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Otwock. +Historia. +Stolica powiatu Otwock nie wchodziła w jego skład, stanowiąc odrębny powiat miejski. +31 grudnia 1959 roku prawa miejskie (utracone w 1870 roku) odzyskał Karczew, 18 lipca 1962 roku status miasta otrzymały osiedla Józefów i Sulejówek a 1 stycznia 1969 roku w poczet miast zaliczono także Wesołą. +Jednocześnie (1 stycznia 1973) z powiatu otwockiego do powiatu mińskiego przełączono obszary 17 sołectw (oraz z miasta Sulejówka – Długą Szlachecką), które ustanowiły główną część odtworzonej gminy Halinów w powiecie mińskim (osiemnaste sołectwo Teresław przyłączono do gminy Dębe Wielkie). Równocześnie z powiatu mińskiego wyłączono sołectwa Dobrzyniec, Oleksin, Rudno i Rudzienko, które włączono do gminy Kołbiel w powiecie otwockim. +9 grudnia 1973 roku z gminy Halinów w powiecie mińskim wyłączono miejscowość Długa Szlachecka i włączono ją do miasta Sulejówek w powiecie otwockim. +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku główną część terytorium zniesionego powiatu otwockiego (łącznie z Otwockiem) włączono do nowo utworzonego województwa stołecznego warszawskiego; jedynie gminy Kołbiel, Osieck i Sobienie-Jeziory znalazły się w nowym województwie siedleckim. +1 stycznia 1992 roku z gminy Wiązowna wyłączono wieś Aleksandrów i przyłączono ją do dzielnicy-gminy Praga Południe (w Warszawie) a miasto Karczew i gminę wiejską Karczew połączono we wspólną gminę miejsko-wiejską. 27 listopada 1996 roku miasta Józefów, Otwock, Sulejówek i Wesoła określono jako "gminy miejskie". +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku powiat otwocki został przywrócony w nowym województwie mazowieckim. W porównaniu z granicami z 1975 roku powiat zmniejszono o gminy miejskie Sulejówek i Wesoła, które początkowo znalazły się w powiecie mińskim w tymże województwie; 1 stycznia 2002 roku zostały przejściowo przyłączone do powiatu warszawskiego, po czym wraz z jego zlikwidowaniem 27 października 2002 roku, Wesoła stała się dzielnicą Warszawy, a Sulejówek powrócił do powiatu mińskiego. +1 stycznia 2004 roku przeprowadzono wymianę niektórych obrębów ewidencyjnych pomiędzy gminą Karczew i Otwockiem. +Kingwood + +Kingwood jest albumem szwedzkiego punk rockowego zespołu Millencolin. Został wydany 30 marca 2005 roku (zob. 2005 w muzyce) w Szwecji i 12 kwietnia 2005 roku w USA. Jest także pierwszą kontynuacją albumu "Home from Home" wydanego w 2002 roku. Z tej płyty wydano dwa single: Ray oraz Shut You Out. +Mandriva + +Mandriva (poprzednio Mandrakesoft) - francuska firma software'owa, twórca systemu Mandriva Linux (poprzednio Mandrakelinux), członek-założyciel Desktop Linux Consortium. +Mandrakesoft został założony w 1998 r. i ma biura w USA i Francji. +W okresie od 27 stycznia 2003 do 30 marca 2004 Mandrakesoft działał pod ochroną ustawy o bankructwie - pomimo wysiłków zmierzających do likwidacji strat i osiągnięcia zysków firma została zmuszona, wskutek serii kwartalnych strat, do wystąpienia o ochronę pod reżimem francuskiego prawa "déclaration de cessation de paiement" (podobnego do amerykańskiego "Chapter 11"), co dało jej ochronę przed wierzycielami. Pierwsze zyski od 1999 r. pojawiły się ponownie w kwartale X-XII 2003. Akcje Mandrakesoft są ponownie notowane na francuskiej giełdzie Euronext Marché Libre i amerykańskiej OTC. +24 stycznia 2005 poinformowano, że Mandrakesoft łączy się z brazylijską firmą Conectiva a 7 kwietnia tego roku o zmianie nazwy z Mandrakesoft na Mandriva i zmianie nazwy dystrybucji z Mandrakelinux na Mandriva Linux. 15 czerwca ogłoszono wykupienie firmy Lycoris, producenta linuksowej dystrybucji Desktop/LX. +Benedykt I + +Benedykt I (ur. w Rzymie, zm. 30 lipca 579) – papież w okresie od 2 czerwca 575 do 30 lipca 579. +Biografia. +Był Rzymianinem, jego ojcem był Bonifacy. +Zatwierdzenie cesarza Justyna II uzyskał dopiero jedenaście miesięcy po wyborze na Stolicę Piotrową. W okresie jego pontyfikatu Rzym nękały najazdy Longobardów (579) oraz klęski głodu i zarazy. Ponieważ pomoc cesarska przychodziła z opóźnieniem lub była zbyt mała, w czasie oblężenia Benedykt zmarł. +Papież szukał porozumienia z innymi biskupami Italii – zawarł porozumienie z biskupem Mediolanu, nie udało mu się jednak pojednać z biskupem Akwilei. W 578 mianował Rzymianina, Jana III na biskupa Rawenny, a także odwołał ze stanu zakonnego i przeniósł do diakonatu Grzegorza I, późniejszego papieża. +Został pochowany w Bazylice św. Piotra. +Digital Equipment Corporation + +Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) - amerykańska firma informatyczna założona w 1957 r. przez Kena Olsena. Nazwa handlowa - Digital. +Pierwszy producent minikomputerów (PDP-5 rok 1963) i 32-bitowych procesorów (VAX rok 1977). +Konstruktor 64-bitowych procesorów RISC Alpha (1991). +Do lat 90. firma działała prawie w każdej dziedzinie rozwiązań informatycznych. +W 1998 roku po przejęciu przez Compaqa firma przestała istnieć, jednak linia procesorów i komputerów była nadal rozwijana. Od 2002 sam Compaq jest częścią koncernu Hewlett-Packard. +Prace nad siecią Ethernet. +Digital w połowie lat 70. w połączeniu z firmami Xerox i Intel podjął prace nad opracowaniem zestawu wspólnych standardów w komunikacji między urządzeniami. Tak zrodziła się idea Ethernetu. Standardy te i oparte na nich produkty stały się znane pod nazwą DIX Ethernet, gdzie określenie DIX jest zlepkiem pierwszych liter trzech wymienionych firm. +W latach 80. powstała druga wersja standardu znana jako DIX Version 2 (DIXv2). Ten standard definiował protokoły i fizyczne szczegóły sieci, która rozpowszechniła się pod nazwą 10BASE5. Niedługo po opublikowaniu tego standardu prace nad Ethernetem zostały przejęte i kontynuowane przez instytut IEEE. +Sara + +Sara (od babil. Szarratu - "księżniczka") – postać biblijna, bohaterka Księgi Rodzaju, żona Abrahama, matka Izaaka. +Sara w Biblii. +Cytowane fragmenty biblijne pochodzą z Biblii Tysiąclecia. +"Abram i Nachor wzięli sobie żony. Imię żony Abrama było Saraj" [...] "Saraj była bezpłodna i nie miała potomstwa".(Rdz 11,29.30. Według Rdz 21,20 Saraj była córką Teracha i przyrodnią siostrą Abrahama, któremu później towarzyszyła w wędrówce na Wschód. +Józef Flawiusz w (DDIVI5) sugeruje, że była raczej bratanicą Abrahama, gdyż była córką Arana, brata Abrahama i siostrą Lota. +Abraham, w obawie przed śmiercią z rąk obcokrajowców, dwukrotnie uciekł się do fortelu przedstawienia ją podczas swych wypraw do obcych narodów, jako swoją siostrę. Uczynił tak podczas wyprawy do Egiptu przed faraonem (Rdz 12,11-20) i Abimelekiem, królem filistyńskiego państwa-miasta Geraru (20,1-20). Za każdym razem została wprowadzona do haremu despotów, jednak kary boskie (choroba faraona i bezpłodność Abimeleka) zmusiły ich do oddalenia kobiety. Jako że sami byli ofiarami oszustwa, historie te budzą wciąż wiele kontrowersji od strony moralnej wśród biblistów. +Kiedy Abraham i Sara byli bardzo starzy, wciąż nie mieli ze sobą dzieci, wszystko wskazywało na to, że Sara była bezpłodna. Bóg zdecydował jednak, że Abraham powinien mieć syna. Bóg kazał policzyć Abrahamowi gwiazdy na niebie, a kiedy ten zgubił się w rachunkach, Bóg oznajmił mu, że jego potomstwo będzie tak liczne jak gwiazdy na niebie. Po pewnym czasie Bóg spotkał się z Abramem (jego imię prawowite, Abrahamem nazwał go Bóg gdy zapowiedział urodzenie Izaaka) przybywając do niego pod postacią jednego z trzech wędrowców. Dwaj z nich (towarzyszący Bogu aniołowie) poszli potem do Lota, zapowiedzieć zagładę Sodomy, zaś trzeci zapowiedział Abrahamowi i Sarze, że niebawem staną się rodzicami. Słysząc to, Sara się uśmiechnęła. A wędrowiec zapytał:- dlaczego Sara się śmieje? Wtedy Sara zdradziła, że ma lat 90 a mąż 100 i wydaje się jej to niemożliwe. Niedługo potem stałą się brzemienna i urodziła syna, którego z rozkazu Boga nazwano Izaakiem. +Sara umarła w wieku stu dwudziestu siedmiu lat. Abraham odkupił miejsce na grób od Eraima jednego z mieszkańców Hebronu. Tam też przygotował sobie grób dla siebie i w swoim czasie został obok Sary pochowany. +Sara w Nowym Testamencie. +List do Hebrajczyków 11,11 wymienia Sarę jako jedną z bohaterów wiary. +Paweł z Tarsu w Liście do Galatów uważa Sarę za alegorię przymierza, jakie zawarł Jezus Chrystus umierając na krzyżu. +Sara w tradycji żydowskiej. +Według tradycji Hagady była jedną z siedmiu prorokiń Izraela. +Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego + +Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego (KBW) – specjalna formacja wojskowa, wchodząca w skład sił zbrojnych PRL, podporządkowana z uwagi na cele działań ministrowi bezpieczeństwa publicznego (1945–1954) a następnie ministrowi spraw wewnętrznych, powołana uchwałą Krajowej Rady Narodowej z dnia 25 maja 1945 roku dla walki z polskim podziemiem niepodległościowym oraz zbrojnymi organizacjami ukraińskimi (UPA) oraz niemieckimi (Werwolf). +Powstanie korpusu. +Geneza KBW jak i poprzedzających tę formację Wojsk Wewnętrznych sięga jesieni 1944 roku. Po upadku powstania warszawskiego i fiasku rozmów z Stanisławem Mikołajczykiem w Moskwie Stalin zadecydował o zaostrzeniu polityki PKWN na terenach zajętych przez Armię Czerwoną. Wtedy to zapadły decyzje o utworzeniu Wojsk Wewnętrznych jako specjalnej formacji wojskowej działającej w ramach resortu bezpieczeństwa publicznego PKWN. Jej zadaniem było zapewnienie porządku wewnętrznego niezbędnego do wprowadzenia w życie decyzji tzw. aparatu władzy ludowej – tym celu do 1953 KBW uczestniczyło w akcjach przeciwko podziemiu antykomunistycznemu, prowadziło pacyfikacje wsi popierających Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe i oddziały partyzanckie, w okresie kampanii przed sfałszowanymi przez komunistów: referendum ludowym z 1946 i wyborami do Sejmu Ustawodawczego w 1947, powołano tzw. Grupy Ochronno-Propagandowe – które wspólnie z UB prowadziły m.in. akcję propagandowo-dezinformacyjną mającą na celu skompromitowanie PSL w oczach społeczeństwa. +Według danych oficjalnych, oddziały KBW zabiły w okresie od marca 1945 do kwietnia 1947 ponad 1 500 żołnierzy podziemia niepodległościowego, raniły 301, wzięły do niewoli 12 200 osób, aresztowały ok. 300 współpracowników podziemia oraz dalszych 13 000 osób oskarżanych o przynależność do antykomunistycznych organizacji konspiracyjnych. W walkach zginęło kilkuset żołnierzy i oficerów KBW. +Bazą do formowania KBW był Samodzielny Batalion Szturmowy, sformowany 18 października 1943, który 21 marca 1944 został przekształcony w Polski Samodzielny Batalion Specjalny. Według założeń komunistów polskich działających w ZSRR, miała być to formacja stanowiąca odpowiednik Wojsk Wewnętrznych NKWD. Batalion ten, mimo że powołany rozkazem dowódcy 1 Korpusu Polskich Sił Zbrojnych w ZSRR, etatowo nie wchodził w jego skład jako jednostka wojskowa, lecz podlegał bezpośrednio wydziałowi krajowemu Związku Patriotów Polskich. W 1944 KBW był podporządkowany Centralnemu Biuru Komunistów Polskich, a następnie przejściowo Polskiemu Sztabowi Partyzanckiemu. 20 października 1944 roku w skład PSBS włączono Samodzielny Batalion Ochrony Jeńców Wojennych. Oba te bataliony dały początek Brygadzie Wojsk Wewnętrznych. Nazwa ta funkcjonowała już w listopadzie 1944 roku. +Kolejne wysiłki organizacyjne nie przynosiły jednak większych rezultatów. Na porządku dziennym były dezercje całych zorganizowanych pododdziałów z szeregów nowo powstałych Wojsk Wewnętrznych, w związku z zadaniami milicyjno-porządkowymi, jakie przydzielano żołnierzom. 26 marca 1945 Rząd Tymczasowy podjął uchwałę o powołaniu KBW. Uchwała ta nakazywała ministrowi bezpieczeństwa publicznego Stanisławowi Radkiewiczowi w terminie do 1 maja sformować Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego. +Wyznaczonej daty 1 maja nie udało się Radkiewiczowi dotrzymać, a w szeregach KBW nastąpiły liczne przypadki dezercji. Tylko w okresie kwiecień-maj 1945 z jednostek KBW zdezerterowało ok. 800 żołnierzy – 23 kwietnia 1945 zdezerterował prawie cały 2 Samodzielny Batalion Operacyjny Wojsk Wewnętrznych z Lubaczowa, 27 kwietnia 1945 – 2 Batalion 1 Brygady Wojsk Wewnętrznych z Sokołowa Górnego, a 1 maja 1945 zdezerterował Samodzielny Batalion Operacyjny 3 Brygady Wojsk Wewnętrznych z Biłgoraja. 24 maja 1945 roku Rząd Tymczasowy polecił ministrowi obrony narodowej dokończyć formowanie korpusu. Przeprowadzone zmiany nie przerwały jednak fali dezercji i przechodzenia żołnierzy KBW na stronę podziemia niepodległościowego. Sytuacja ta, spowodowana również fatalnymi warunkami materialnymi formowanych jednostek KBW, trwała do końca roku 1947. +W konsekwencji wydzielono ze składu Wojska Polskiego 4 Dywizję Piechoty, jako podstawę organizacji KBW. Na czele KBW stanął dotychczasowy dowódca 4 DP gen. Bolesław Kieniewicz, oddelegowany oficer Armii Czerwonej. Tym razem bazę formowania (oprócz 4DP bez artylerii i bsan) stanowiły: istniejące dowództwo korpusu, dwie brygady zaporowe, dziesięć pułków kawalerii, pięć samodzielnych batalionów ochrony, samodzielny batalion łączności, i inne jednostki będące we wstępnej fazie organizacji. +W 1947 brygady KBW wzięły udział w militarno-przesiedleńczej Akcji "Wisła", w czasie tej operacji w walkach z UPA zginęło łącznie 32 żołnierzy KBW. Po wojnie zajmowały się głównie działalnością konwojową i ochronną – ważniejszych obiektów przemysłowych, obozów jenieckich, obozów dla internowanych przeciwników politycznych, obozów odosobnienia i pracy. Ogólna liczba obiektów chronionych przez KBW wzrosła w okresie 1947–1954 od 83 do 109, następnie uległa stopniowemu zmniejszaniu. Zwiększenie liczebności KBW do 40 tys. ludzi w 1953 było związane głównie z ochroną zakładów przemysłowych. W tym celu wprowadzono również, na mocy przyjętej ustawy z 4 lutego 1953, przedłużenie służby wojskowej w KBW do 27 miesięcy. KBW zostało zaangażowane w wyszukiwanie ulotek antykomunistycznych zrzucanych nad Polską w ramach tzw. akcji balonowej (rozpoczętej 12 lutego 1955 z inicjatywy Radia Wolna Europa), ochronę przymusowego ściągania kontyngentów żywnościowych na wsi i ochronę kierujących tą akcją tzw. komisji skupu płodów rolnych. Oddziały KBW brały również udział w osłanianiu operacji wymiany odcinków granicznych pomiędzy Polską i ZSRR w roku 1951, a także kontroli ruchu ludności (w tym celu wykorzystywano tzw. grupy zaporowe i tworzono posterunki kontrolne na drogach i dworcach kolejowych), a także w akcji rozminowywania kraju i zwalczania skutków klęsk żywiołowych (np. powodzi czy pożarów). +Proces powstawania KBW trwał do 22 sierpnia 1945 roku, czyli do czasu przekazania go przez resort obrony narodowej do MBP. W 1945 KBW liczył 29 tys. żołnierzy, w 1950 – 41 tys., a w 1956 – 25 tysięcy. Od marca 1946 terenowe jednostki KBW wraz z UB, MO, ORMO podporządkowane były wojewódzkim komisjom bezpieczeństwa, podległym Państwowej Komisji Bezpieczeństwa. +KBW wziął udział w pacyfikacji wystąpień robotniczych w czasie Poznańskiego Czerwca 1956. W sumie do walk z demonstrantami w dniu 28 czerwca 1956 skierowano 329 żołnierzy KBW stacjonujących w Poznaniu (z 10 Wielkopolskiego Pułku KBW), którzy przy użyciu transporterów opancerzonych mieli odblokować oblężony przez protestujących gmach WUBP, co zakończyło się fiaskiem. Wobec niepowodzenia KBW dostarczało następnie amunicję oddziałom UB. Wobec decyzji władz PZPR o użyciu broni pancernej (głównie czołgi) przeciwko manifestantom, zastępca dowódcy KBW płk. Mieczysław Puteczny – wszedł w skład sztabu dowodzącego operacją gen. Stanisława Popławskiego. Następnie żołnierze KBW zostali podzieleni na kilkunastoosobowe grupy, które w nocy z 28 na 29 czerwca 1956 likwidowały stanowiska ogniowe powstańców. W starciach zginął 1 żołnierz KBW. Wydarzenia poznańskie z roku 1956 były jedną z głównych przyczyn, dla których władze komunistyczne zdecydowały o utrzymaniu dotychczasowej liczebności KBW. +W okresie politycznego przesilenia w październiku 1956 (co nastąpiło po śmierci Bolesława Bieruta w marcu 1956), oddziały KBW zostały użyte do rozstrzygnięcia sporów politycznych w PZPR, zaistniałych po wydarzeniach Poznańskiego Czerwca 1956. Według późniejszych twierdzeń wiceministra spraw wewnętrznych gen. Juliusza Hibnera i dowódcy KBW gen. Włodzimierza Musia – oddziały KBW (na polecenie dowódcy Wojsk Wewnętrznych Wacława Komara, który sympatyzował z Gomułką), skierowano do Warszawy w celu zabezpieczenia stolicy przed interwencją wojsk sowieckich (rozkaz okrążenia Warszawy przez wojska sowieckie i polskie wydał wówczas Konstanty Rokossowski). Twierdzeń gen. Hibnera i gen. Musia nie potwierdzają jednak żadne zachowane dokumenty, a wojska KBW w rzeczywistości miały ochraniać tzw. frakcję puławian w PZPR (skupioną wokół Gomułki), przed ewentualnym zamachem stanu ze strony tzw. frakcji natolińskiej w PZPR. Podczas ówczesnego konfliktu o władzę między obiema frakcjami, w okresie obrad VIII Plenum KC PZPR (październik 1956), oddziały KBW m.in. zabezpieczały w tym celu gmachy użyteczności publicznej w Warszawie. +Zgodnie z zarządzeniem premiera z 24 czerwca 1965 roku Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego do końca 1965 r. uległ rozwiązaniu, a jego jednostki, przemianowane na oddziały Wojsk Obrony Wewnętrznej weszły w skład tworzącego się systemu Obrony Terytorium Kraju. Część jednostek weszła natomiast w skład Nadwiślańskich Jednostek Wojskowych MSW. +W 1962 Śląska Jednostka Wojsk Inżynieryjnych nr KBW-4 wybudowała bieszczadzkie obwodnice. +1 Warszawska Brygada Zmotoryzowana Nadwiślańskich Jednostek Wojskowych MSW (Warszawa) została rozwiązana w 2002 r. w ramach przekształceń BOR. +Struktura organizacyjna. +Stan na 29 września 1961 r. +Dowództwo +KBW chodzące w zielonych mundurach (i pochodne wojska podlegające Min. Spraw Wewnętrznych, MSW) miały granatowe otoki na czapkach, w odróżnieniu od np. czerwonych (wojska lądowe podlegające Min. Obrony Narodowej, MON), czarnych (wojska pancerne), żółtych (1 Warszawska Dywizja Piechoty), białych (Wojskowa Służba Wewnętrzna). +Stan osobowy wojsk KBW na 1.01.1962 r.: etatowo – 26 314 faktycznie – 25 470 +EURIBOR + +EURIBOR (ang. "Euro Interbank Offered Rate") - stopa procentowa kredytów w strefie euro oferowanych przez jeden bank innemu bankowi. Jest to średnie notowanie z 57 największych banków strefy euro - ustalane przez FBE - Federation Bancaire de L'Union Europeenne w Brukseli. +Szubienica + +Szubienica – konstrukcja, zazwyczaj drewniana, wykonana z poprzecznej belki wspartej na słupie lub dwóch słupach, służąca do wykonania kary śmierci przez powieszenie. Osobom skazanym na śmierć przez powieszenie zakłada się na szyję stryczek. +Jest to jeden z najstarszych na świecie sposobów wykonywania kary śmierci. Oprócz drewnianych konstrukcji pojawiały się również szubienice murowane, stosowane w zachodniej części Europy. +Antoine Nguyễn Văn Thiện + +Antoine Nguyễn Văn Thiện (ur. 13 marca 1906 w Cái Cồn, zm. 13 maja 2012 w Paryżu) – wietnamski duchowny katolicki, biskup. +Przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 20 lutego 1932. W listopadzie 1960 został mianowany biskupem diecezji Vĩnh Long, otrzymał sakrę biskupią 22 stycznia 1961. W lipcu 1968 zrezygnował z rządów diecezją, otrzymując jednocześnie biskupią stolicę tytularną Hispellum. +W lutym 2002 obchodził 70-lecie święceń kapłańskich. Był najstarszym żyjącym biskupem katolickim na świecie (po śmierci arcybiskupa Ettore Cuniala 6 października 2005). +20 lutego 2012 obchodził rzadki jubileusz osiemdziesięciolecia święceń kapłańskich. +Europa (jacht) + +Europa – jednoosobowa klasa łodzi żaglowej. Zaprojektowana w roku 1960, jako jeden z typów łodzi spełniających przepisy klasy Moth, dlatego była początkowo znana jako "Moth-Europe". Konstruktor: Alois Roland (Belgia). W latach 1992-2004 klasa olimpijska dla kobiet. +Łodzie klasy Europa są monotypami, produkowanymi przez kilku producentów na świecie, posiadających licencję międzynarodowego związku klasy. Klasa jest przeznaczona dla żeglarzy o wadze w granicach 50-70 kg, zapewnia szerokie możliwości doboru takielunku i osprzętu do wagi i siły zawodniczki lub zawodnika. +W Polsce, najliczniej klasa Europa reprezentowana jest w Poznaniu, innymi ośrodkami są: Mrągowo, Wolsztyn, Olsztyn, Warszawa, Gliwice. Łącznie w kraju ściga się około 50 łódek. +PWS-19 + +PWS-19 – polski samolot rozpoznawczo - bombowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1931 roku w Podlaskiej Wytwórni Samolotów (PWS) w Białej Podlaskiej. +Historia. +Po zakończeniu w Podlaskiej Wytwórni Samolotów produkcji licencyjnego francuskiego samolotu Potez XXV, podjęła się ona opracowania nowoczesnego samolotu, który miał zastąpić samolot Potez XXV. Zadanie to powierzono pod koniec 1929 roku konstruktorom firmy inż. Zbysławowi Ciołkoszowi i inż. Antoniemu Uszackiemu. +W połowie 1930 roku zaprojektowali oni samolot rozpoznawczo-bombardujący oznaczony symbolem "PWS-19". Samolot ten miał mieć dwie wersje: rozpoznawczą – "PWS-19A2" i bombową – "PWS-19B2". Do jego napędu użyto amerykańskiego silnika "Pratt & Whitney Hornet T2". Dwa prototypy samolotu zostały ukończone na początku 1931 roku. Jeden z nich w kwietniu 1931 roku przeszedł udane próby statyczne. Drugi we wrześniu 1931 roku został oblatany na lotnisku w Białej Podlaskiej przez fabrycznego pilota Franciszka Rutkowskiego. Także ta próba była udana. +Prototyp samolotu "PWS-19" miał na ówczesne czasy nowoczesną sylwetkę, dobrze opracowaną pod względem aerodynamicznym sylwetkę zastrzałowego górnopłata. Był to również pierwszy samolot polskiej konstrukcji wyposażony w podwójne usterzenie pionowe, dzięki któremu uzyskano dobre pole ostrzału do tyłu, a pole martwe ostrzału wyniosło tylko 10%, półsfery zakreślonej przez lufę karabinu maszynowego umieszczonego w kabinie obserwatora. Kadłub miał konstrukcję kratownicową z rur stalowych. Był on oprofilowany drewnianymi podłużnicami i kryty płótnem. Tylko w przedniej części jego pokrycie stanowiła blacha duralowa. Z przodu kadłuba zamocowany był silnik gwiazdowy. Za nim, za ścianą ogniową, mieścił się awaryjnie wyrzucany zbiornik paliwa o pojemności 420 litrów. Dalej w kadłubie znajdowały się osłonięte z przodu wiatrochronem dwie odkryte kabiny – pierwsza pilota, druga – obserwatora. U spodu kadłuba za silnikiem umieszczono przednią komorę bombową, a pod kabina pilota komorę tylną. Na końcu kadłuba zamontowano usterzenie z rurek stalowych, kryte płótnem. Usterzenie pionowe było podwójne, stateczniki poziome były podparte zestrzałami, można było je ustawiać w locie. Do umieszczonej na kadłubie wieżyczki wykonanej z rur stalowych przymocowano płat o kształcie prostokątno-trapezowej. Płat w środkowej części miał przewężenie, miał konstrukcję drewnianą, dwudźwigarową i był kryty sklejką, a z wierzchu płótnem. Płat, pomimo swej lekkości miał niewystarczającą sztywność pokrycia, co spowodowało rozbicie maszyny podczas prób w locie. Płat podparto zastrzałami duralowymi w układzie litery „V”. Do spodu kadłuba przymocowane było podwozie stałe, główne o rozstawie 2,3 m, trójgoleniowe, z amortyzacją olejowo-powietrzną. +Wiosną 1932 roku prototyp samolotu "PWS-19" przekazano do dalszych badań do Instytutu Badań Technicznych Lotnictwa w Warszawie. Po dokładnych jego badaniach i próbach fabrycznych prototyp "PWS-19" zmodyfikowano, a dalsze próby wykazały dobre własności lotne. W dniu 17 marca 1933 roku w czasie kolejnej z prób na lotnisku mokotowskim w Warszawie, w czasie nurkowania samolotu nastąpiło odkształcenie skrzydła, w wyniku czego samolot przeszedł w lot odwrócony, po czym rozbił się o płytę lotniska. W wyniku wypadku zginął obserwator lecący samolotem, natomiast pilot doświadczalny, Kazimierz Kazimierczuk uratował się wyskakując ze spadochronem. Po tym wypadku zaniechano dalszych prac nad tym samolotem, szczególnie że w tym czasie bardzo zaawansowana budowa prototypu samolotu PZL 23 „Karaś”, który miał spełniać w lotnictwie polskim zadania samolotu rozpoznawczo-bombowego. +Zbudowało w sumie 2 prototypy samolotu "PWS-19", z tym że tylko jeden był poddany próbom lotniczym. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +Samolot rozpoznawczo-bombardujący "PWS-19" nie był produkowany seryjnie, używano go wyłącznie do lotów próbnych i badań własności lotniczych. +Opis techniczny samolotu PWS-19. +Samolot "PWS-19" był dwumiejscowym samolotem rozpoznawczo-bombardującym, górnopłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd – silnik gwiazdowy, śmigło dwułopatowe drewniane. +Ryby pancerne + +Ryby pancerne, tarczowce, plakodermy (Placodermi) – gromada kopalnych ryb. +Żyły od późnego syluru do samego końca dewonu (od 420 do 360 milionów lat temu). Razem z rybami fałdopłetwymi zaliczane do najstarszych reprezentantów ryb. Miały chrzęstny szkielet osiowy oraz strunę grzbietową. Głowę oraz większą część tułowia osłaniał silny pancerz złożony z dużych płyt (stąd pochodzi ich nazwa). Płyty, które otaczały otwór gębowy, były uzbrojone w duże i ostre zęby, które jednak nie były homologiczne z zębami kręgowców. Specyficzną cechą tej grupy zwierząt był staw łączący czaszkę z pancerzem tułowia. +Przerwanie niemaskowalne + +Przerwanie niemaskowalne (ang. "NMI – Non-Maskable Interrupt") – specjalny rodzaj przerwania występujący w większości architektur procesorów. Tym, co odróżnia je od zwykłego przerwania, jest brak możliwości zignorowania (zamaskowania) go, stąd termin "niemaskowalne". +Obecnie przerwań NMI używa się głównie do debugowania kodu programów, który może wyłączać, zwierając obwód zwykłego przerwania (np. kod systemu operacyjnego). +Dolina Żabich Stawów Białczańskich + +Nad nimi wznoszą się szczyty otaczające dolinę, wśród których wyróżnia się pokryta płytami skalnymi sylwetka Żabiego Szczytu Wyżniego ("Veľký Žabí štít", 2259 m). Z Niżniego Żabiego Stawu Białczańskiego wypływa Żabi Potok Białczański ("Žabí potok bielovodský"), dopływ Białej Wody ("Biela voda"), łączący się z nią powyżej Polany pod Żabiem. +Do 1933 r. w dolinie były wypasane owce przez górali z Jurgowa. Przy górnej granicy lasu stał prymitywny szałas pasterski. W dolinie znajdują się dwie koleby skalne: jedna za północny zachód od Wyżniego Żabiego Stawu, druga na wschód od północnego brzegu Niżniego Żabiego Stawu. Jako pierwsi zimą dolinę odwiedzili Józef Lesiecki i Józef Oppenheim 4 lutego 1914 r. Obecnie Dolina Żabich Stawów Białczańskich jest położona na obszarze ochrony ścisłej. Nie ma w niej wytyczonych szlaków turystycznych i wstęp do niej jest zabroniony. +Górale Dolinę Żabią Białczańską wraz z Żabią Granią i jej zachodnimi stokami określali wspólną nazwą "Żabie". Pochodzi ona od żab, które licznie występują w tej okolicy. +Pennybridge Pioneers + +Pennybridge Pioneers jest czwartym albumem szwedzkiego punk rockowego zespołu Millencolin. Został wydany 22 lutego 2000 roku (zob. 2000 w muzyce). W Australii album ten sprzedał się w 35000 kopii i został nagrodzony złotą płytą. Było to pierwsze wyróżnienie tego zespołu w tej kategorii. +W 2000, utwór "No Cigar" został dołączony do gry komputerowej Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2. Także płyta z utworami z gry Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3 oraz inspirowanymi nią ("CD Music From and Inspired by Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3") zawierała piosenkę "Pepper", mimo iż nie była ona dostępna w grze. +Międzynarodowy Kod Sygnałowy + +Międzynarodowy Kod Sygnałowy. +Do sygnalizacji w żegludze stosuje się Międzynarodowy Kod Sygnałowy (MKS) zatwierdzony przez Międzynarodową Organizację Morską w Londynie w 1969 roku. +MKS jest zbiorem podstawowych komunikatów zakodowanych w sygnałach złożonych z jednej, dwóch lub trzech liter, ale umożliwia również przekazywanie dowolnych informacji w trybie "litera po literze". +Ustalone, znane powszechnie kody umożliwiają precyzyjną komunikację niezależnie od umiejętności językowych rozmówców. +Krótkie kody umożliwiają szybkie przekazywanie wiadomości za pomocą najprostszych metod. Sygnalizację można prowadzić przy pomocy alfabetu semaforowego, głosu, światła, radia, telegrafu lub flag sygnałowych. +Obecnie rzadko używany ze względu na upowszechnienie radiotelefonu UKF. +Sygnalizacja głosem. +Poszczególne znaki kodu sygnałowego mają nazwy z łatwo wymawianych i odróżnianych słów języka angielskiego. Wymawiać je należy powoli, z wyraźnym podziałem na sylaby i akcentem na wyróżnionej sylabie "(patrz: tabele)". +Sygnalizacja alfabetem Morse'a. +Alfabet Morse'a stosowany jest w sygnalizacji światłem, dźwiękiem, telegrafem lub ruchami ramion (dla lepszej widoczności trzymając w rękach chorągiewki w jaskrawych barwach). +Sygnalizacja semaforem. +Semafor to system sygnalizacji. Alfabet semaforowy to zestaw sygnałów oznaczających litery, cyfry lub znaki umowne, przekazywanych za pomocą 2 chorągiewek, trzymanych przez sygnalistę pod różnymi kątami w stosunku do tułowia. Znaki można również przekazywać za pomocą dwu ruchomych skrzydeł urządzenia sygnalizacyjnego (zwanego "semaforem"), ustawianych pod różnymi kątami w stosunku do pionu. +Kod flagowy MKS. +Komplet flag kodu składa się z 26 flag literowych, 10 flag cyfrowych, trzech flag zastępczych i jednej flagi o znaczeniu "odpowiedź". Wezwaniem do rozpoczęcia sygnalizacji flagami jest podniesienie zestawu "YP" lub "CQ". +Nadawanie znaków. +Taka wymiana znaków trwa rzecz jasna dość długo, zwłaszcza jeśli wiadomości nadawane są litera po literze. Dlatego stosowane są rozmaite skróty, a także jednoliterowe sygnały mające dodatkowe znaczenia, zgodnie z tabelą poniżej. +Ezaw + +Ezaw (he: "עשו", "owłosiony; włochaty") (Edom) – postać biblijna (Księga Rodzaju), syn Izaaka i Rebeki, starszy brat bliźniak Jakuba. +Był ulubionym synem Izaaka, natomiast matka Rebeka bardziej kochała Jakuba. Ezaw sprzedał swoje pierworodztwo swemu bratu za miskę soczewicy. Jako młodszy syn Jakub podstępem uzyskał od ojca błogosławieństwo przeznaczone dla pierworodnego. Ezaw chciał go zabić w zemście, czym zmusił go do ucieczki. W wieku 40 lat Ezaw sam sobie wybrał żony. Został poligamistą i w przeciwieństwie do swego ojca Izaaka, który pozwolił, by Abraham wybrał mu na żonę czcicielkę Jahwe, poślubił dwie Hetytki. Po pewnym czasie jednak bracia spotkali się i przebaczyli sobie. Ezaw stanowi ostrzegawczy przykład dla chrześcijan, by nikt nie pozbawił ich łaski Bożej, nie był lekkomyślny, rozpustny i bezbożny (Hbr 12:16). +Z potomków Ezawa wywiodło się plemię Edomitów. +Biblizmy: "oddać coś za miskę soczewicy" – oddać coś niezwykle cennego za bezcen. +Michaił Łomonosow + +Michaił (Michajło) Wasiljewicz Łomonosow, ros. Михаи́л (Миха́йло) Васи́льевич Ломоно́сов (ur. w Denisówce (później Łomonosow) pod Chołmogorami koło Archangielska, zm. w Sankt Petersburgu) – rosyjski uczony i poeta, prekursor chemii fizycznej, twórca Uniwersytetu Moskiewskiego. +Biografia. +Pochodził z pomorskiej rodziny rybackiej, sam nauczył się czytać i pisać. Udało mu się wyjechać do Moskwy, gdzie ukończył szkołę podstawową, a następnie do Petersburga, gdzie chodził do gimnazjum. Jako wyróżniający się uczeń został wysłany na studia do Niemiec. Kształcił się na uniwersytecie w Marburgu (Hesja) pod kierunkiem znanego filozofa Christiana Wolffa. Po powrocie do Rosji objął stanowisko profesora chemii na Petersburskim Uniwersytecie Państwowym. Zorganizował przy uczelni nowoczesne laboratorium. W 1754 zainicjował powołanie państwowego uniwersytetu w Moskwie, który później został nazwany jego imieniem. Był członkiem Petersburskiej Akademii Nauk. +Jedną z jego czołowych zasług jest to, że 26 maja 1761 r. podczas obserwacji przejścia Wenus przed tarczą Słońca, odkrył, że planeta ta posiada grubą i gęstą atmosferę. +Ważną rolę przypisywał eksperymentom. Prowadził także badania w dziedzinie geologii. Swoimi pracami wyprzedził rosyjską współczesność, w tej dziedzinie doceniony po śmierci. +Niezależnie od pracy naukowej był też wybitnym poetą, mistrzem ody panegirycznej. +W pracy "List o zasadach wierszowania rosyjskiego" (1739) wyłożył teorię sylabotoniki. Napisał ponadto podręcznik retoryki oraz gramatyki języka rosyjskiego. W 1764 objął wysokie stanowisko sekretarza stanu. +Imię Łomonosowa nosi od 1940 r. Uniwersytet Moskiewski. Na jego cześć został nazwany także podwodny grzbiet Łomonosowa na Oceanie Arktycznym oraz kratery uderzeniowe na Księżycu i Marsie. +Muraena + +Muraena – rodzaj ryb z rodziny murenowatych (Muraenidae). +Filmoznawstwo + +Filmoznawstwo (również: wiedza o filmie lub filmologia) jest dyscypliną humanistyczną, zajmującą się naukową refleksją nad filmem. Obejmuje trzy zasadnicze dziedziny: teorię filmu (z historią myśli filmowej), historię filmu oraz krytykę filmową. W kręgu zainteresowań filmoznawców znajduje się także wiele innych przenikających się dyscyplin, np. antropologia filmu, teoria nowych mediów i audiowizualności. +Dziedziny filmoznawstwa, jako nauki młodej (rozwój od początku XX wieku, na początku z koniecznością oddzielenia się od dziennikarstwa filmowego i luźnych refleksji na temat kina), wciąż się zmieniają: przybywają nowe (często w związku z wykorzystaniem języków innych nauk, jak choćby kognitywizmu lub hermeneutyki), kończy się zainteresowanie starymi (np. poetyka historyczna filmu, gramatyka filmu). Współcześnie mamy do czynienia z tendencją do łączenia (lub przynajmniej współpracy) różnych dziedzin w obrębie filmoznawstwa (np. teoria filmu i teoria nowych mediów). +Refleksja nad filmem jest wspólnym dorobkiem bardzo różnych osób: naukowców i myślicieli (m.in. Hugo Münsterberg, Jan Mukařovsky, Siegfried Kracauer, Roland Barthes, Jurij Cywjan, Roman Ingarden, formaliści rosyjscy), dziennikarzy i krytyków (np. Louis Delluc, André Bazin, francuska nowa fala, Georges Sadoul), jak i samych artystów (Karol Irzykowski, Siergiej Eisenstein, Andriej Tarkowski, Robert Bresson, Wsiewołod Meyerhold). Pionierem refleksji nad filmem na świecie jest polski fotograf, Bolesław Matuszewski. Pisał na przełomie wieku XIX i XX. +Filmoznawstwo jest przedmiotem studiów uniwersyteckich. W Polsce: na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim (oddzielny Instytut Sztuk Audiowizualnych), Uniwersytecie Łódzkim (Katedra Mediów i Kultury Audiowizualnej), Uniwersytecie Śląskim (Zakład Filmoznawstwa i Wiedzy o Mediach z Pracownią Audiowizualną i Pracownią Badań nad Kulturą Cybernetyczną w Instytucie Nauk o Kulturze) i Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu (Katedra Filmu, Telewizji i Nowych Mediów UAM). +Na większości uczelni filmoznawstwo jest nauczane jako specjalizacja np. polonistyki lub kulturoznawstwa. Jako osobny kierunek, wraz ze specjalnościami, filmoznawstwo istnieje na Wydziale Filologii Polskiej i Klasycznej na Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. +Niektórzy polscy filmoznawcy: prof. Jerzy Toeplitz (autor sześciotomowej "Historii sztuki filmowej", jeden z założycieli szkoły filmowej w Sydney), prof. Alicja Helman (założycielka wielu ośrodków filmoznawczych: na UŚ, na UJ, w Instytucie Sztuki PAN, wykłada obecnie na UŁ, wypromowała ok. 40 doktorów w zakresie wiedzy o filmie), prof. Bolesław Lewicki, prof. Marek Hendrykowski - założyciel ośrodka filmoznawczego na Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu oraz prof. Małgorzata Hendrykowska. +Willi Betz + +Willi Betz (ur. 1928), niemiecki przedsiębiorca, założyciel znanej firmy przewozowej. +W 1945, zaraz po zakończeniu II wojny światowej, nastolatek Betz otworzył firmę transportową, wykorzystując zdemobilizowane pojazdy wojskowe. Firma obecnie używa nazwy Internationale Spedition Willi Betz GmbH & Co. KG i ma siedzibę w Reutlingen, znana jest szerokim odbiorcom pod popularnym skrótem Willi Betz. +Od lat 60. firma specjalizuje się w dostawach do Azji, na Półwysep Arabski i Bliski Wschód. Gdy zamknięto Kanał Sueski, w 1967 pierwsza ciężarówka Willi Betz dotarła do Pakistanu. Betz posiada kilkanaście tysięcy ciężarówek-chłodni i plandek marki Renault i Mercedes-Benz, które jeżdżą na trasach z Niemiec do Rosji, Białorusi, Kazachstanu, Kirgistanu, Azerbejdżanu, Gruzji, Iranu, Uzbekistanu, Turcji i innych krajów. Dla zmniejszenia kosztów większość samochodów zarejestrowanych jest na Białorusi, w Azerbejdżanie i w Bułgarii (w Bułgarii Betz wykupił tamtejszego przewoźnika SOMAT i jego bazy zamienił w bezpieczne przystanki dla swoich TIRów jadących na Bliski Wschód). +O liczbie frachtów tej firmy może świadczyć fakt, iż ma ona własne terminale rzeczne oraz barki, którymi dla usprawnienia transportu wozi całe swoje ciężarówki rzekami z Niemiec do Bułgarii i na odwrót - liczba pojazdów firmy jadących w tych kierunkach jest każdego dnia tak duża, że można nimi wypełnić całe barki. +Betz posiada wiele placówek w całej Euroazji, m.in. w Moskwie, Teheranie, Warszawie, Paryżu i Madrycie. +Przepuklina rozworu przełykowego + +Przepuklina rozworu przełykowego (łac. "hernia hiatus esophagi") – schorzenie układu pokarmowego polegające na przemieszczeniu części żołądka z jamy brzusznej do klatki piersiowej poprzez rozwór przełykowy przepony. +W warunkach prawidłowych przełyk w okolicy swojego dolnego zwieracza przechodzi przez przeponę oddzielającą zawartość klatki piersiowej od jamy brzusznej poprzez strukturę anatomiczną którą nazwana jest rozworem przełykowym. +W pewnych sytuacjach, którym sprzyjają np. otyłość i wzmożone ciśnienie wewnątrzbrzuszne może dochodzić do przemieszczania się części żołądka do klatki piersiowej. +Objawy i przebieg. +Niewielka przepuklina może nie dawać objawów, inne powodują bóle w nadbrzuszu i dołku podsercowym, zgagę (refluks żołądkowo-przełykowy), uczucie odbijania i cofania się treści żołądkowej do przełyku, szczególnie po obfitych posiłkach i w sytuacjach powodujących wzrost ciśnienia wewnątrz jamy brzusznej. Charakterystyczne jest, że dolegliwości nasilają się w pozycji leżącej. +Do nietypowych objawów można zaliczyć chrypkę, szczególnie rano w efekcie drażnienia strun głosowych przez zarzucaną treść żołądkową. W skrajnych przypadkach może wystąpić suchy lub świszczący kaszel, jako objaw zarzucania treści żołądkowej do drzewa oskrzelowego wywołujące objawy astmatyczne, czasem też może dojść do podrażnienia nerwu błędnego i w efekcie skurczu oskrzeli. +Występować również może duszność czy kołatanie serca. +Valdivia + +Valdivia – miasto w południowym Chile, położone u zbiegu trzech rzek Calle Calle, Valdivia i Cau Cau, 15 km na wschód od nadmorskiego miasta Corral. Miasto jest stolicą regionu Los Ríos oraz prowincji Valdivia. Ludność: 151 tys. (2012). +W mieście znajduje się założony w 1954 uniwersytet Universidad Austral de Chile. +Miasto zostało założone w 1552 przez Pedro de Valdivia jako "Santa María la Blanca de Valdivia". +22 maja 1960 miasto zostało zniszczone przez najsilniejsze odnotowane współcześnie trzęsienie ziemi, zwane wielkim trzęsieniem chilijskim. Jego magnituda wyniosła 9,5 stopnia. +Lugiowie + +Lugiowie, Ligiowie (łac. Lugii, Lygii, Lugiones, gr. Lougoi) to lud indoeuropejski. Ich pochodzenie oraz skład etniczny jest niepewny. Mogła być to federacja różnych plemion zamieszkująca już przed naszą erą i w pierwszych wiekach naszej ery górne dorzecze Odry i Wisły, a więc teren dzisiejszej południowej i środkowej Polski, a także podkarpackie tereny zachodniej Ukrainy. Genetycznie pochodzili zapewne w głównej mierze z lokalnych grup ludności używających języków staroeuropejskich lub indoeuropejskich (kultury łużycka i pomorska), uległych celtyckim wpływom kulturowym (nieliczni na ziemiach polskich Celtowie nie mogli stanowić znaczniejszego substratu etnicznego) i zgermanizowanych. Przez archeologów są powszechnie utożsamiani z mieszkańcami kultury przeworskiej. +Etymologia. +Nazwa Lugiowie mogła oznaczać albo plemię "świetlistych", albo "plemię Lugha". +Przez długi czas w nauce polskiej, począwszy od wydanej w 1868 roku pracy Wojciecha Kętrzyńskiego "Die Lygier. Ein Beitrag zur Urgeschichte der Westlawen und Germanen", w świetle teorii autochtonicznej utożsamiano Lugiów ze Słowianami. Pogląd ten zainspirował Henryka Sienkiewicza do wprowadzenia w "Quo vadis" postaci Ligii, pochodzącej z terenów współczesnej Polski. Próbowano wyprowadzić słowiański rodowód nazwy plemienia jako mieszkańców "ługów", "łęgów" tj. podmokłych zarośli, mokradeł, leśnych bagien. W świetle współczesnych badań etymologia ta nie ma żadnego uzasadnienia, a koncepcja o tożsamości Lugiów ze Słowianami czy nawet samego udziału ludności słowiańskiej w związku lugijskim jest pozbawiona jakichkolwiek dowodów i w świetle dzisiejszych poglądów na pochodzenie Słowian została odrzucona. +Lugiowie i Legnica. +Ptolemeusz wymienia plemię Lugiów oraz miejscowość Lugidunum. Niektóre hipotezy wiążą Lugidunum z Legnicą lub Głogowem, i z plemieniem Lugiów-Didunów +Podziały plemienne. +Według Strabona Lugiowie podlegali władzy Marboda, natomiast Tacyt wspominał o ich udziale w walkach, które doprowadziły około roku 50 do zniszczenia państwa Wanniusza. Według Kasjusza Diona Lugiowie występowali za panowania cesarza Domicjana 86-89 jako sojusznicy Rzymu w walce ze Swebami. Według Tacyta siedzibami Lugiów było terytorium między "nieprzerwanym pasmem górskim" dzielącym Swebów na południu i siedzibami Gotów na północy. +Tacyt dzieli Lugów na wiele plemion, Hariów, Helweonów, Manimów, Helizjów i Nahanarwalów. Natomiast Ptolemeusz dzieli ich na Lugiów Omańskich, Lugiów Didunów i Lugiów Burów. +Według Tacyta Lugiowie dzielili się na wiele plemion ("civitates"), z których wymienia pięć najważniejszych: Hariów, Helwekonów, Manimów, Helizjów, Nahanarwalów. Według Klaudiusza Ptolemeusza dzielili się na Lugiów-Omanów (Lougoi-Omanoi), Lugiów-Didunów (Lougoi-Dinounoi) i Lugiów-Burów (Lougoi-Bouroi). Według Tacyta Burowie byli osobnym plemieniem, możliwe więc, że weszli w skład federacji lugijskiej nieco później. +Historia. +Związek lugijski powstał zapewne znacznie wcześniej niż o tym świadczy pierwsza pewna wzmianka w dziele Strabona ('Geographika'). Pierwsi Celtowie przybyli z obszaru Czech i Moraw do południowej Polski około roku 400 p.n.e. i osiedlili się na nad Odrą na Górnym Śląsku oraz na Dolnym Śląsku między Wrocławiem, Legnicą i górą Ślężą, na której znajdował się ich ośrodek kultowy. Około roku 200 p.n.e. inna grupa Celtów z Moraw osiedliła się w okolicach Krakowa, mniejsze grupy na Kujawach i wzdłuż dolnej Wisły. Wszyscy ci Celtowie przynieśli ze sobą zdobycze kultury lateńskiej i po zmieszaniu się z lokalną ludnością odegrali istotną rolę w uformowaniu się kultury przeworskiej. +Według Strabona Lugiowie byli 'wielkim ludem' i podobnie jak kilka innych ludów: Semnoni i bliżej nieznani Zumowie, Butonowie, Mugilonowie i Sibinowie podlegali zwierzchnictwu Marboda, władcy markomańskiego państwa z głównym ośrodkiem w dzisiejszych Czechach (9 rok p.n.e-19 r. n.e.). Następna wzmianka o Lugiach dotyczy czasów cesarza Klaudiusza (41-54): według "Roczników" Tacyta 'niezliczone mnóstwo' Lugiów przyczyniło się do upadku kwadzkiego państwa Wanniusza w roku 50. +Następna wzmianka o Lugiach zawarta jest w dziele Kasjusza Diona, "Historia Rzymska", kiedy mowa o wydarzeniach lat 91-92 za panowania cesarza Domicjana. Lugiowie prowadząc wojnę z germańskimi Swebami, zawarli sojusz z Rzymianami, i poprosili cesarza Domicjana o posiłki, które otrzymali w postaci 100 jeźdźców. +Burowie, którzy według Ptolemeusza wchodzili w skład Lugiów, odegrali ważną rolę w czasie wojen markomańskich (167-180), o czym świadczy zorganizowanie przeciw nim odrębnej wyprawy wojennej (łac. "Expeditio Burica") i zawarcie później przez Marka Aureliusza przymierza z tym ludem. +Dalsze losy Lugiów są niepewne, ale niektórzy historycy przyjmują, że do nich odnoszą się informacje w dziele Zosimosa Nowa historia (Histroria nova) o zwycięskich walkach cesarza Probusa prowadzonych w 279 roku przeciwko ludowi Longiones na terenie prowincji Recji nad rzeką Lygis (najprawdopodobniej rzeka Lech w dzisiejszej Austrii i Bawarii). Następną wzmianką może być wielki lud Lupiones-Sarmatae umieszczony na mapie Tabula Peutingeriana datowanej ogólnie na II-IV wiek n.e. +Gospodarka. +Lugiowie brali udział w wojnach z Rzymem, choć nie w tym stopniu co ich zachodni i południowi sąsiedzi Kwadowie i Markomanowie. Lugiowie rozwinęli na wielką skalę hutnictwo żelaza i bogacili się na handlu bronią. Śladem ożywionego handlu jest również szlak bursztynowy. +Dili + +Dili (port. "Díli") - stolica Timoru Wschodniego, położona na północnym wybrzeżu wyspy Timor, w archipelagu Małych Wysp Sundajskich, nad cieśniną Ombai. Liczba mieszkańców miasta 59 tysięcy, 163 000 w aglomeracji (2006). Miasto stanowi centrum gospodarcze i handlowe kraju - znajduje się tu główny port morski i port lotniczy. Przemysł włókienniczy, chemiczny, spożywczy; rzemiosło. +Demografia. +Dili zostało założone około 1520 przez Portugalczyków. Od 1596 stanowiło stolicę kolonii Timor Portugalski. Podczas II wojny światowej zajęte zostało przez wojska japońskie. 28 listopada 1975 Timor Wschodni ogłosił jednostronnie swoją niepodległość, ale już 9 dni później, 7 grudnia, do stolicy kraju wkroczyły wojska indonezyjskie. 17 lipca 1976 Indonezja dokonała oficjalnej aneksji Timoru Wschodniego jako 27. prowincji kraju ze stolicą w Dili. +Do 1989 prowincja ta była jednak zamknięta dla indonezyjskiej ludności cywilnej i obcokrajowców. Między siłami indonezyjskimi a partyzantką timorską dochodziło do licznych starć. Kiedy w 1991 doszło do tzw. masakry w Dili oczy społeczności międzynarodowej ponownie zwróciły się na ten kraj. W 1999 na Timorze Wschodnim wylądowały siły pokojowe ONZ. W wyniku referendum Timor Wschodni uzyskał niepodległość, a Dili stało się jego stolicą. +Recław + +__NOTOC__ +Recław (do 1945 niem. "Hagen") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie kamieńskim, w gminie Wolin. +W Recławiu znajduje się stacja kolejowa leżąca na linii kolejowej nr 401 Szczecin Dąbie - Świnoujście Port +Położenie. +Recław położony jest przy lokalnej drodze Wolin - Stepnica oraz częściowo przy drodze krajowej nr 3. Wieś leży nad cieśniną Dziwna, na wschodnim brzegu, naprzeciwko Wolina. +Historia. +Jest to stara wieś. Pierwszy raz wzmiankowana była w roku 1291 jako Wenkenhagen. Była wtedy własnością zakonu Cysterek. +W latach 1945-54 siedziba gminy Recław. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa szczecińskiego. +Edukacja. +Dzieci z Recławia chodzą do szkoły podstawowej w Wolinie. Starsza młodzież uczęszcza do gimnazjum w Wolinie. +Klimontów + +4 miejscowości w Polsce: +Zobacz też: Klimontówek +GNUPedia + +GNUPedia (potem przemianowa na GNE) - projekt wolnej encyklopedii internetowej na bazie licencji GNU Free Documentation License prowadzony pod auspicjami Free Software Foundation. +Historia. +Projekt został zaproponowany w 1999 r. przez Richarda Stallmana i oficjalnie uruchomiony w styczniu 2001. +Od chwili uruchomienia GNUPedia była mylona z podobnie brzmiącą Nupedią - projektem, którego twórcami byli Jimmy Wales i Larry Sanger, istniała też kontrowersja co do tego, czy jest to jej odgałęzienie. Co więcej, Wales był już właścicielem domeny "gnupedia.org". +Gdy GNUPedia znajdowała się w stadium dyskusji na temat sposobu moderowania artykułów. Wales zaprosił jej uczestników do rozwijania powstałej w tym samym czasie Wikipedii, która była pobocznym projektem Nupedii. +Wikipedia spotkała się z entuzjastyczną reakcją wielu uczestników GNUPedii, która istniała jeszcze przez pewien czas, zmieniając nazwę na GNE (rekurencyjny akronim od "GNE is Not an Encyclopedia") i redefiniując projekt jako obszerną bibliotekę opinii lub bazę wiedzy. Zmiany te nie uratowały projektu, który stopniowo popadł w zapomnienie, sam Stallman wsparł zaś Wikipedię. +CRW + +CRW - spadochronowa konkurencja sportowa, łączenie się w zespoły, formacje na czaszach (Canopy Relative Work - CRW) lub obecnie stosowany skrót CF (Canopy Formation) +Akrobacja zespołowa na otwartych spadochronach szybujących. +Zadaniem zespołu jest zbudowanie prawidłowo jak największej liczby kolejnych figur i sekwencji (na otwartych czaszach spadochronów), połączonych odpowiednimi przejściami wybranych z puli figur i sekwencji nakazanych, w wyznaczonym czasie pracy. +11 czerwca 2011 został ustanowiony nowy rekord Polski CF 11 Way (formacja 11 osobowa) poprzedni z 1991 był 9 osobowy. +W 2012 r. na przełomie sierpnia i września na Lotnisko Lublin-Radawiec, Aeroklub Lubelski zorganizował I Mistrzostwa Polski CF +Jānis Bērziņš (dyplomata) + +Jānis Bērziņš (ros. "Ян Антонович Берзин"; ur. 11 października 1881, zm. prawdopodobnie 29 sierpnia 1938) – radziecki komunista łotewskiego pochodzenia, dyplomata, minister w rządzie Łotwy. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w rodzinie chłopskiej w guberni liwlandzkiej, z zawodu był nauczycielem. Działalność polityczną zaczął w 1902, zostając członkiem Socjaldemokratycznej Robotniczej Partii Rosji, w której pełnił funkcję sekretarza oddziału petersburskiego. Sześć lat później wyemigrował na Zachód, gdzie wziął udział w konferencji zimmerwaldzkiej w 1915. W 1917 został wybrany w skład Komitetu Centralnego SDPRR. W uznaniu zasług partyjnych mianowany przedstawicielem Rosji sowieckiej przy Konfederacji Helweckiej (kwiecień 1918). Jesienią 1918 misja sowiecka została wyrzucona przez Bundesrat z terenu Szwajcarii (pod zarzutem szpiegostwa i działań prorewolucyjnych), co doprowadziło do zerwania stosunków między Moskwą a Bernem. +W 1919 został mianowany został ministrem oświaty i wychowania w komunistycznym rządzie Łotwy, a w latach 1919–1920 pełnił funkcję sekratarza generalnego Kominternu. Po rezygnacji ze stanowiska, wielokrotnie wysyłany jako ambasadora do krajów europejskich. W 1921 pełnił misję w Helsinkach, w latach 1921–1925 przebywał w Londynie, zaś w okresie 1925–1927 w Wiedniu. W 1927 mianowano go pełnomocnikiem radzieckiego Komisariatu Spraw Zagranicznych przy rządzie Ukrainy. W 1932 objął posadę szefa Archiwum Państwowego ZSRR, ponadto redagował gazetę "Krasnyj Archiw". +Aresztowany pod zarzutem "spiskowania z siłami imperialnymi przeciwko ZSRR", zginął w łagrze radzieckim. Rehabilitowany w 1956. +Racigniew + +Racigniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Raci-" ("walczyć, wojować") oraz "-gniew". Mogło oznaczać "walczący w gniewie". +Racigniew imieniny obchodzi 3 lipca i 14 września. +Kopalnia + +Kopalnia – zakład i przedsiębiorstwo górnicze zajmujące się wydobyciem (eksploatacją) z ziemi kopalin użytecznych. +Hideyoshi Toyotomi + +Wielokrotnie w ciągu życia zmieniał nazwiska. Od 1573 znany jako Hideyoshi Hashiba, najbardziej popularne nazwisko przyjął pod koniec życia. +W 1585 został nominowany regentem (kampaku), a rok później głównym ministrem (dajō-daijin). W 1591 (lub 1592) przekazał władzę swojemu siostrzeńcowi, Hidetsugu, a siebie zaczął nazywać taikō. Był to tytuł odnoszący się do byłych regentów. Nigdy natomiast nie nosił tytułu sioguna. +Lata w służbie Nobunagi Ody. +O jego życiu przed 1570 wiadomo niewiele. Według tradycji, urodził się w wiosce Nakamura (historyczna prowincja Owari) jako syn rolnika. W wieku piętnastu lat miał wyruszyć z rodzinnego domu. Następnie służył kilku możnowładcom, aż powrócił w rodzinne strony, aby robić karierę w armii Nobunagi Ody. Dzięki niebywałym zdolnościom przywódczym, szybko stał się jednym z najważniejszych ludzi w obozie człowieka, który zapoczątkował zjednoczenie kraju. Wsławił się przede wszystkim walkami z armią klanów Asai i Asakura na północ od prowincji Mino, Takeda na równinie Kantō i Mōri na zachodzie Honsiu. +Samodzielne rządy (1582 – 1598). +Po śmierci Nobunagi w 1582 Toyotomi pokonał pod Yamazaki armię jego zdrajcy, Mitsuhide Akechiego. Potem konsekwentnie usuwał z drogi do suwerennej władzy wszystkich oponentów. W 1584 pod Shizugatake zwyciężył wojska Katsuie Shibaty (popełnił samobójstwo). Wkrótce też podbił wszystkie cztery prowincje na Sikoku. W sierpniu cesarz nadał mu tytuł regenta "kampaku". +Od tego momentu na drodze do kontroli nad całym krajem stały jeszcze dwa bardzo silne klany: Shimazu na Kiusiu i Hōjō w okolicy dzisiejszego Tokio. Pierwszą z nich usunął Hideyoshi w 1585. Jego licząca 120 tys. armia zmusiła Shimazu do podporządkowania się i wycofania do trzech prowincji: Satsuma, Osumi i Hyūga. Większą część ziem nadał swoim generałom (była to jego wypróbowana strategia na pacyfikowanie zdobytych terenów). +Ziemie klanu Hōjō zostały podbite dopiero w 1590. W sierpniu tego roku daimyō ostatniego z niezależnych rodów popełnił samobójstwo w zamku Odawara obleganym przez wojska Ieyasu Tokugawy, który walczył u boku Hideyoshiego w zamian za nadanie prowincji Mikawa i Tōtomi. Od tej chwili Toyotomi przez swych wasali sprawował władzę nad wszystkimi wyspami (oczywiście poza Hōkkaido, które Japończycy kolonizowali od XIX wieku). +W 1590 Hideyoshi był zaprzątnięty kolejnymi podbojami. Ponoć pod koniec życia stał się niesamowicie pyszny i chciał sobie zapewnić boską cześć. Zapragnął podboju Korei, a potem Chin, co też szybko zaczął realizować. Jedna z teorii głosi, że wysyłając wojska feudalnych władców (daimyō) na kontynent, chciał osłabić wewnętrzną opozycję. +Początkowo najeźdźcy odnosili wielkie sukcesy. W maju Japończycy zajęli Seul, w czerwcu – Pjongjang. Z czasem jednak wojna zaczęła się przeciągać, a wojska japońskie – wycofywać się. Szczególnie dokuczał brak kontaktu z Japonią, odcięty przez koreańską flotę pod dowództwem admirała Yi Sun Shina. Swoje wojska do Korei wprowadziła także dynastia Ming poproszona o pomoc przez Koreę, co zmusiło Hideyoshiego latem 1591 do negocjowania zawieszenia broni. Ponoć domagał się nawet od Chińczyków cesarskiej córki za żonę. Ostatecznie zachował niewielkie tereny na południowym krańcu półwyspu. +Kolejna próba podboju Korei zakończyła się poniżającą klęską japońskiej floty pod Myongyang, gdzie 16 okrętów obrońców dało sobie radę ze 133 Toyotomiego. +Ostatnie lata jego życia upłynęły na próbach zapewnienia bezpiecznej przyszłości swojemu narodzonemu w 1593 synowi, Hideyoriemu. Nie udało się to jednak pomimo utworzenia w 1598 Rady Regencyjnej, składającej się z pięciu najpotężniejszych (poza "taikō") ludzi: Ieyasu Tokugawy, Toshi'ie Maedy, Terumoto Mōriego, Hideie Ukity, Kagekatsu Uesugiego. +Po śmierci Toyotomiego w tym samym roku rozpoczęła się ostatnia już w okresie sengoku wojna domowa, w czasie której Hideyori został zabity. Władzę ostatecznie przejął Ieyasu Tokugawa, założyciel dynastii siogunów, którzy rządzili krajem do przewrotu Meiji w 1868. +Reformy Toyotomiego. +Poza toczeniem zwycięskich wojen, Toyotomi zapisał się w historii jako wielki reformator. Nałożył między innymi na "daimyō" podatek zależny nie od powierzchni, a od zbiorów z ziemi, tzw. "kokudaka". Związane z tym było dokładne mierzenie gruntów w całym kraju przez jego urzędników. Stale prowadzono też akcję rozbrajania chłopów i mnichów – od tej pory broń mieli posiadać jedynie samuraje ("wielkie polowanie na miecze"). Jego edykty tworzyły bariery, które bardzo utrudniały przejście z klasy np. kupców do samurajów. Odbieranie ziemi wrogom i nadawanie wiernym wasalom miało służyć utrzymaniu supremacji i stabilizacji politycznej kraju. +Wyspa Melville'a (Australia) + +Wyspa Melville'a (w jezyki plemion Tiwi: Yelmalner) – wyspa o powierzchni 5,786 km² położona na morzu Timor, u północnych wybrzeży Australii. Odkryta przez Abla Tasmana w 1644 roku, była pierwszym miejscem w pobliżu Australii, w którym próbowali osiąść Brytyjczycy. Wyspa nizinna, z rafami koralowymi i lasami namorzynowymi. Obecnie (od 1978) jest własnością plemion Tiwi. +Układ Sikorski-Majski + +Układ Sikorski-Majski – układ z dnia 30 lipca 1941 roku między Polską a ZSRR, przywracający stosunki dyplomatyczne między obu państwami, zerwane 17 września 1939 z chwilą agresji ZSRR na Polskę wobec wysuniętego wówczas w oficjalnego stwierdzenia strony radzieckiej o zaprzestaniu istnienia państwa polskiego. Układ miał na celu wspólną walkę obu państw z III Rzeszą w czasie II wojny światowej w ramach koalicji antyhitlerowskiej. +Po agresji III Rzeszy na ZSRR (22 czerwca 1941) rząd Wielkiej Brytanii związany pośredniczył w rozmowach zmierzających do normalizacji polsko-radzieckich stosunków dyplomatycznych. Było to elementem brytyjskiej gry dyplomatycznej zmierzającej do utworzenia faktycznej koalicji antyhitlerowskiej. Rokowania prowadzone za pośrednictwem brytyjskim w Londynie zakończyły się podpisaniem międzypaństwowego porozumienia pomiędzy Polską a ZSRR w dniu 30 lipca 1941 roku. Układ przewidywał przywrócenie stosunków dyplomatycznych między obydwoma krajami oraz budowę armii polskiej w Związku Radzieckim pod dowództwem polskim. Układ podpisany został przez premiera rządu RP na uchodźstwie generała Władysława Sikorskiego i ambasadora ZSRR w Londynie Iwana Majskiego – stąd jego kolokwialna nazwa. W artykule 1 układu Rząd ZSRR uznał, że tracą moc, zaś Rząd RP stwierdzał, że nie jest związany żadnym układem skierowanym przeciw ZSRR. W protokole dodatkowym rząd ZSRR zagwarantował „amnestię” dla obywateli polskich: więźniów politycznych i zesłańców pozbawionych wolności na terenie ZSRR w więzieniach i obozach Gułagu. +Kontrowersje polityczne. +Wobec niejednoznacznych zapisów układu (nie potwierdzającego expressis verbis granicy polsko-radzieckiej ustalonej w traktacie ryskim) przeciw jego zawarciu wypowiedziała się prawie połowa składu rządu RP na uchodźstwie, co doprowadziło do kryzysu gabinetowego połączonego z dymisjami ministrów (ministra spraw zagranicznych Augusta Zaleskiego, Kazimierza Sosnkowskiego i Mariana Seydy). +Jednoczesne stworzenie poprzez układ Sikorski-Majski jednoznacznych warunków prawnych i faktycznych do zwolnienia polskich więźniów Gułagu i stworzenia na ich bazie Polskich Sił Zbrojnych w ZSRR pod dowództwem gen. Władysława Andersa, które jako 2 Korpus Polski stanowiły od 1942 trzon Polskich Sił Zbrojnych na Zachodzie jest dowodem niezasadności zarzutów wysuwanych w chwili podpisania układu wobec gen. Władysława Sikorskiego przez członków Rządu Rzeczypospolitej. +25 kwietnia 1943 po odkryciu przez Niemców zbiorowych grobów oficerów polskich zamordowanych przez NKWD w Katyniu i zwróceniu się przez rząd polski do Międzynarodowego Czerwonego Krzyża o dochodzenie w sprawie, ZSRR jednostronnie zerwał stosunki dyplomatyczne z rządem Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Zerwanie stosunków dyplomatycznych przez Rząd ZSRR z Rządem RP nie oznaczało unieważnienia pozostałych elementów umowy międzynarodowej, w szczególności jednostronnych deklaracji stron zawartych w art. 1 układu. +Powiat lwówecki + +Powiat lwówecki - powiat w Polsce (w zachodniej części województwa dolnośląskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Lwówek Śląski. +Kombi (nadwozie) + +Kombi – typ nadwozia samochodu osobowego o wydłużonej tylnej części, zazwyczaj przeznaczonej na bagaż. W odróżnieniu od typu hatchback wysokość kabiny nie zmniejsza się aż do samego końca samochodu; szyb z boku jest po trzy a nie po dwie; tylna szyba nie jest tak mocno odchylona od pionu. Jest to nadwozie dwubryłowe. +Z reguły współczesne samochody kombi mają relingi dachowe umożliwiające montaż dodatkowego bagażnika na rowery, narty a nawet box dachowy, zazwyczaj mają pięcioro drzwi. Można spotkać jednak trzydrzwiowe odmiany, jak np. oferowany do początku lat 90. XX w. Trabant Universal, studyjny model Renault Clio Grandtour Concept, a także Opel Kadett E. Trzydrzwiowe, jak i niektóre pięciodrzwiowe kombi, posiadające mniejszy bagażnik (jak Peugeot 206 SW i jego następca – 207 SW), pełnią rolę kombi lifestylowego o sportowej linii nadwozia. Popyt na takie samochody zaowocował również wprowadzeniem Mini Clubmana, które bazuje na koncepcjach z lat 60. takich jak Austin Mini Countryman i Mini Morris Traveller. +W latach 1960-70, szczególnie w USA, panowała moda na 3-drzwiowe kombi, produkowane głównie przez GM, Forda, Chevroleta, Edsela i Cadillaca. Jednak po upływie paru lat sami właściciele zauważyli, że jest to rozwiązanie niepraktyczne, auta z każdym rokiem stawały się coraz mniej popularne i sprzedawały się coraz gorzej, aż w końcu zaprzestano produkcji. +Do nadwozi typu kombi zalicza się również większość aut terenowych. +Samochody typu kombi nadają się na karetki Pogotowia Ratunkowego (umożliwiają przewiezienie do szpitala chorego na noszach). +Italik + +Italik, italika – obecnie jest to w polskim języku potocznym synonim kursywy, czyli każdej pochyłej odmiany pisma w postaci czcionki lub fontu, natomiast w terminologii profesjonalnej słowo to jest stosowane dość rzadko, gdyż tylko w swoim podstawowym znaczeniu dotyczącym historii typografii lub estetyki typograficznej. +Historia. +Pierwotnie była to potoczna nazwa kroju pisma wprowadzonego i znacznie spopularyzowanego przez bardzo znanego włoskiego wydawcę i drukarza wł. Aldo Manuzio (łac. Aldus Manutius) żyjącego na przełomie XV i XVI w., dla którego krój ten (jak i wiele innych) został zaprojektowany przez pracującego dla Manuzio włoskiego rytownika i odlewacza czcionek Francesco Griffo da Bologna. Był to pierwszy krój pisma drukarskiego w postaci pochyłych minuskuł i z czasem stał się synonimem wszystkich pochyłych antykw renesansowych i barokowych (przejściowych) – bez różnicy, czy projektowanych w ich epokach, czy też np. w naszych czasach (gdyż pojęcia te odnoszą się do wyglądu znaków, a nie czasu powstania). +Znaczenie współczesne. +Dziś pojęcie italików jest stosowane potocznie acz niezbyt poprawnie do wszelkich pochyłych antykw, nawet tych najnowocześniejszych, czyli znanych od XIX w. antykw typu grotesk i egipcjanka, a nawet w stosunku do krojów wyłamujących się swoim wyglądem tradycyjnym klasyfikacjom, o ile tylko występują prócz odmiany podstawowej właśnie w postaci pochylonej. +Terminu tego używa się jednocześnie na znaki automatycznie pochylane w programach biurowych do edycji tekstu lub w profesjonalnych programach do składu i łamania publikacji. Jednak w najnowszych wersjach profesjonalnego oprogramowania DTP istnieje tendencja do odchodzenia od umieszczania opcji do automatycznego pochylania pisma, jako opcji szkodzącej wyglądowi opracowywanego tekstu, gdyż tekst pochylony powinien być składany krojami w odmianach pochylonych, które zawierają w sobie znacznie więcej zmian w porównaniu z krojami podstawowymi niż tylko automatyczne pochylenie znaków. +Pochodzenie nazwy. +W Polsce słowo 'italik' zostało spopularyzowane wraz z upowszechnieniem się oprogramowania komputerowego i jest kalką słowa 'italic' z języka angielskiego. Nie jest to jednak dokładna kalka, gdyż w terminologii angielskiej (i nie tylko) panuje spory rozrzut znaczeniowy – zarówno jeśli chodzi o terminologię dotyczącą odmian pisma, jak i nazw własnych poszczególnych krojów pisma (praktycznie każdy projektant stosuje tu własne zasady nazewnicze). Natomiast jeśli chodzi o terminologię stosowaną w oprogramowaniu aplikacyjnym, to angielskie słowo 'italic' stało się standardem zarówno jako nazwa opcji sztucznego pochylania znaków, jak i opcji wyboru kroju w stosownej odmianie. Można jedynie domniemywać, że słowo 'italic' zdobyło tę pozycję w interfejsach programów jako krótsze od innych stosowanych w anglosaskim nazewnictwie typograficznym analogicznych słów, jak np. 'oblique' lub 'cursive'. W Polsce utarło się te opcje w interfejsach tłumaczyć na zasadzie właśnie kalki czyli jako 'italik'. +Jednak w polskiej terminologii profesjonalnej, a także w zawodowym języku codziennym (typografowie, projektanci, redaktorzy techniczni, operatorzy DTP) słowa italik używa się (prócz nazw historycznych krojów pisma) wyłącznie na nazwę stosownego przycisku czy opcji w programie, natomiast wobec użycia znaków w postaci pochyłej używa się poprawnego terminu 'kursywa'. Tak więc np. redaktor techniczny prosi operatora DTP o wyróżnienie tekstu kursywą, a ten szuka w programie etykietki oznaczonej jako 'italic'. Stosowanie słowa 'kursywa' (jako ustalonego w polskiej tradycji nazewniczej i, co ważniejsze, jednoznacznego) jest również zalecane w opisach wszelkich zaleceń edytorskich, w publikacjach fachowych itd... Jest to tym bardziej ważne, że termin 'kursywa' odnosi się nie tylko do pisma maszynowego, ale także do ogółu zagadnień literniczych, w tym do liternictwa, a także historii pisma (w tym pisma ręcznego, a więc sprzed ery druku). Można również wyrażać się elokwentniej w brzmieniu 'pismo kursywne' lub prozaiczniej w brzmieniu 'pismo pochyłe'. Natomiast 'italik' jest w większości sytuacji zarezerwowany dla języka potocznego osób spoza branży. +Oko Yrrhedesa + +Oko Yrrhedesa to jeden z pierwszych (1995) wydanych w formie książkowej polski system gry fabularnej (RPG) autorstwa Andrzeja Sapkowskiego, w zamyśle przeznaczony dla osób, które rozpoczynają swoją przygodę z grami fabularnymi. Podręcznik ten nie posiada spisanego świata, lecz odpowiednie zasady, które umożliwiają grę w dowolnym wymyślonym przez nas uniwersum. Wydawcą podręcznika było Wydawnictwo MAG. +Sama książka to 319 stron (formatu A5). Została podzielona na siedem działów (Wstęp, Tym co pierwszy raz, Podręcznik Mistrza Gry, Suplement, Oko Yrrhedesa, Yarra – rzeka śmierci), gdzie wyróżnić możemy zasady dotyczące magii, oraz dwa gotowe scenariusze. +ISBN 83-86572-16-7 +Powiat wołomiński + +Powiat wołomiński − powiat w Polsce leży w centralnej części województwa mazowieckiego, na północny wschód od Warszawy. Został utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Wołomin. +Powiat wołomiński jest jednym z najludniejszych z powiatów ziemskich województwa mazowieckiego. +Położenie. +Powiat graniczy z m.st. Warszawą oraz powiatami ziemskimi: legionowskim, wyszkowskim, węgrowskim, mińskim. +Historia. +Powiat powstał w roku 1952 roku, po przeniesieniu starostwa powiatowego z Radzymina do Wołomina. W stosunku do obecnego terytorium obejmował dodatkowo miasto Rembertów, (obecnie terytorium Warszawy) oraz gminę Zabrodzie, obecnie w powiecie wyszkowskim. +W wyniku reformy administracji państwowej z 1975 roku wszystkie powiaty uległy likwidacji. Reaktywowano je dopiero z dniem 1 stycznia 1999 roku. Powiat powstał z gmin należących do 3 województw: warszawskiego, ostrołęckiego i siedleckiego. +Ted Nelson + +Theodor Holm Nelson (ur. 17 czerwca 1937) – twórca terminu "hipertekst" (1965, w rzeczywistości Nelson mówił już o hipermediach) i pionier technik informacyjnych. Ukuł także terminy transkluzja i "intertwingularity". +Jest synem aktorki Celeste Holm i reżysera telewizyjnego Ralpha Nelsona. W 1959 zdobył tytuł bakałarza w dziedzinie filozofii w Swarthmore College, w 1963 tytuł magistra socjologii w Harvard University, a w 2002 doktorat w z informacji środowiskowej +w Keio University. W 1998 został odznaczony Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award. +Obecnie (2005) jest profesorem na gościnnych wykładach w Oxford University i filozofem, który pracuje na polach informacji, komputerów i interfejsów człowiek-maszyna. W 1960 był twórcą projektu Xanadu. Swoje główne koncepcje na temat hipertekstu oraz Xanadu - idealnej przestrzeni literackiej pamięci - zawarł w książkach "Literary Machines" 1981 (Maszyny literackie) i "Computer Lib/Dream Machines" 1974 (Maszyny snów). W Dream Machines opisuje różnorodne odmiany hipertekstu: hipergramy (rozgałęziające się obrazy), hipermapy (złożone z nawarstwionych na siebie, przeźroczystych nakładek) oraz rozgałęziające się filmy. Większość swojego życia zawodowego poświęcił pracy nad Xanadu i jego promowaniu. +Projekt Xanadu nie ukazał się w funkcjonującej postaci, czego przyczyny są sporne. Amerykański dziennikarz Gary Wolf opublikował w 1995 niepochlebną historię Nelsona i Xanadu. Nelson wyraził zdegustowanie tym faktem i zagroził pozwaniem "krwawego szakala". +Niektóre aspekty jego wizji są realizowane przez wynalazek Tima Berners-Lee, czyli World Wide Web; światowa sieć zawdzięcza wiele pomysłom zawartym w Xanadu. +Nelson nie lubi WWW, Internetu, XML-u i wszystkich związanych z nimi języków, a dzieło Berners-Lee uważa za grube uproszczenie jego własnego dzieła. +Obecnie pracuje nad nową strukturą informacyjną ZigZag, o której można przeczytać na stronach projektu Xanadu, które zawierają także dwie wersje kodu Xanadu. +W 2001 Nelson został uhonorowany tytułem "Officier des Arts et Lettres". W 2004 związał się z Oxford Internet Institute, gdzie prowadzi obecnie badania naukowe. +Front Ludowy + +Front Ludowy , określenie polityki koalicji tworzonych w latach 1935-1938 (po VII Kongresie Kominternu) przez partie komunistyczne z partiami socjalistycznymi i socjaldemokratycznymi w Europie. Łącząc się, przejmowały władzę w państwie wykorzystując demokratyczne procedury wyborcze, tworząc następnie wspólny rząd koalicyjny. +Fronty ludowe z założenia miały być odpowiedzią komunistów na przejęcie władzy w Niemczech przez NSDAP i ekspansję ruchów faszystowskich w Europie. Koncepcja Frontu Ludowego została sformułowana przez Stalina i przedstawiona publicznie przez sekretarza generalnego Kominternu, Georgi Dymitrowa na VII Kongresie Międzynarodówki Komunistycznej w 1935. Zastąpiła w praktyce partii komunistycznych doktrynę socjalfaszyzmu, sprowadzającą się do zakazu wchodzenia partii komunistycznych w koalicje z partiami socjalistycznymi (określanych jako socjalfaszystowskie). Doktryna socjalfaszyzmu (i walka KPD z SPD) była jedną z przyczyn dojścia NSDAP do władzy w Republice Weimarskiej i obalenia ustroju demokratycznego w Niemczech. Polityka Frontu Ludowego miała zastosowanie m.in. we Francji i Hiszpanii, gdzie partie Frontu Ludowego utworzyły rząd. W II Rzeczypospolitej określana była przez KPP jako "polityka jednolitofrontowa" i dotyczyła współpracy organizacyjnej komunistów z częścią środowisk PPS. +Front Ludowy w Hiszpanii. +Koalicja wyborcza frontu ludowego została utworzona w roku 1935 z partii politycznych takich jak: Republikańska Lewica Katalonii, Unia Republikańska, PSOE (Hiszpańska Socjalistyczna Partia Robotnicza), PCE (Komunistyczna Partia Hiszpanii), POUM (Robotnicza Partia Marksistowskiej Unifikacji), Unionistów anarchistycznych ideologii i Unii UGT. Chociaż nie byli częścią koalicji, mieli poparcie w innych ugrupowaniach lewicy takich jak anarchistyczna unia CNT. Celem tej koalicji było przeciwstawienie się w wyborach siłom prawicy, która od początku 1933 roku stawała się coraz bardziej radykalna i zaczęła nabierać cech autorytarnych i faszystowskich. +W wyborach z 16 lutego 1936 roku, Front Ludowy wygrał małą ilością głosów, lecz za sprawą prawa wyborczego zdominował nowy parlament. Z 4,65 milionami głosów uzyskał 278 posłów. Rząd, utworzony wyłącznie z polityków partii republikańskich reformatorów, nie miał w swoim składzie robotników ani przedstawicieli prawicy i dążył do przywrócenia reformy z 1933 roku, ale został zmiażdżony przez masy. Bezpośrednie niebezpieczeństwo rewolucji społecznej sprawiło, że prawica się coraz bardziej sprzeciwiała i była za rządem autorytarnym, który prowadzony przez Calvo Sotelo i wspierany przez Falangę, zdobył wsparcie militarne. 18 lipca wybuchł bunt prowadzony przez Francisco Franco i nowo wybrany rząd musiał opuścić kraj. +Powiat kłodzki + +k +Powiat kłodzki – powiat w Polsce, w województwie dolnośląskim, utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kłodzko. Ma on kształt czworokąta, wcinającego się w obszar Czech. Pod względem liczby ludności (ok. 166 tys. osób) zajmuje drugie miejsce wśród powiatów Dolnego Śląska. Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 100 mieszkańców na 1 km². +W obrębie powiatu znajduje się 11 miast: Duszniki-Zdrój, Kłodzko, Kudowa-Zdrój, Nowa Ruda, Polanica-Zdrój, Bystrzyca Kłodzka, Lądek-Zdrój, Międzylesie, Radków, Stronie Śląskie, Szczytna. +Geografia. +Położenie geograficzne. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia powiatu kłodzkiego wynosi 1643,37 km². +Pod względem wielkości powierzchni powiat kłodzki zajmuje pierwsze miejsce spośród dolnośląskich powiatów (1642 km²). Znajduje się w południowo-zachodniej części Polski, w obrębie łańcucha Sudetów. Powiat kłodzki otoczony jest górami stanowiącymi jego naturalną granicę. Część środkową zajmuje Kotlina Kłodzka otoczona od zachodu Górami Bystrzyckimi, Górami Orlickimi oraz Górami Stołowymi, zaś od północy Górami Sowimi i Górami Bardzkimi, z kolei od wschodu Masywem Śnieżnika, Górami Bialskimi i Górami Złotymi. +Szczytami gór po południowej, zachodniej i wschodniej granicy powiatu przebiega granica z Czechami o długości aż 192 km. Na północy graniczy z powiatami: wałbrzyskim, dzierżoniowskim i ząbkowickim. +Warunki naturalne. +Powiat kłodzki prawie w całości należy do dorzecza Odry i zlewiska Morza Bałtyckiego, a jedynie 4% do zlewiska Morza Czarnego oraz częściowo do Morza Północnego. Dorzecze Odry tworzy w regionie sieć rzek: Nysa Kłodzka wraz ze Ścinawką, Bystrzycą Łomnicką, Bystrzycą Dusznicką i Białą Lądecką. Sieć rzeczna jest bardzo dobrze rozwinięta, mimo to wodne zasoby dyspozycyjne są niewielkie. Górski spad wód zbyt szybko odprowadza wodę ku terenom niżej położonym i tylko budowa większej ilości zbiorników retencyjnych może zapobiec klęskom powodziowym, jakie zaistniały wielokrotnie na tym obszarze, w tym ostatnio w 1997 i 2009 r. +Klimat. +Powiat kłodzki charakteryzuje się umiarkowanym i łagodnym klimatem, sprzyjającym gospodarce rolnej i hodowlanej, a także turystyce w różnych jej formach. Jego cechą są łagodne zimy i nieco mniej upalne niż w centralnej części Polski lata. Najcieplejszym, ale najbardziej obfitującym w opady miesiącem roku jest lipiec ze średnią temperaturą w stolicy regionu – Kłodzku +17 °C. Najzimniejszym miesiącem jest styczeń, podczas którego średnia temperatura w Kłodzku wynosi –2,4 °C. Najmniej opadów przypada na luty i wrzesień, który jest najsłoneczniejszym miesiącem roku. Największe opady śnieżne notowane są w styczniu. +Budowa geologiczna. +Cały obszar powiatu jest bardzo silnie zróżnicowany pod względem fizjogeograficznym. Jego środkową część stanowią Sudety Środkowe. Pod względem geologicznym przedstawiają strukturę nieckowatą, której oś przepitego wzdłuż linii północny zachód – południowy wschód. Obrzeżenie niecki tworzą prekambryjskie, metamorficzne bloki starszych górotworów (Góry Sowie, Góry Orlickie oraz Góry Bystrzyckie). Nieckę wypełniają osady górnopaleozoiczne, przecięte żyłowymi intruzjami magmy i warstwami, które nadbudowują piaskowce trzeciorzędowe. Cały masyw przecinają trzeciorzędowe dyslokacje, dzieląc go na szereg masywów górskich. +Jednym z najciekawszych mezoregionów Sudetów Środkowych są Góry Stołowe, które są jedynym w kraju obszarem o budowie płytowej. Budują go ławice piaskowców, leżące płasko na marglach górnokredowych, w strefie osiowej niecki śródsudeckiej. Masyw Gór Stołowych opada wysokimi, skalistymi progami (300 m) w stronę sąsiednich obniżeń. Kulminację Gór Stołowych stanowią bastiony skalne zbudowane z najodporniejszych piaskowców ciosowych, a przykładem jest Wielki i Mały Szczeliniec (919 m n.p.m.). Sieć spękań, różnice w odporności na wietrzenie pomiędzy poszczególnymi poziomami oraz silna przepuszczalność piaskowców były czynnikami warunkującymi powstanie całego zespołu ostańcowych form rzeźby: kolumn, grzybów i maczug, tworzących malownicze labirynty. +Od południa do Gór Stołowych przylegają metamorficzne i granitowe Góry Orlickie, tworzące słabo rozczłonkowany wał górski z poziomem wierzchowinowym na wysokości ok. 1000 m n.p.m., ponad którym wyrastają kopulaste kulminacje szczytów. Na zachód od nich znajduje się Pogórze Orlickie, obejmujące zbudowane z granitu, skał paleozoicznych i kredowych wzgórza (Grodczyn 803 m n.p.m.). Na wschodzie rozciągają się Góry Bystrzyckie, z najwyższym szczytem – Jagodną (978 m n.p.m.), mające postać stoliwa rozciętego siecią rzadkich dolin równoległych do głównego grzbietu. W części północnej zbudowane są z kredowych, grubych piaskowców ciosowych i margli, zalegających płasko na cokole kambryjskich gnejsów i łupków mikowych. +Południowa część powiatu, pozbawiona pokrywy mezozoicznej, ma trochę odmienny charakter rzeźby. Ku wschodowi Góry Bystrzyckie opadają ku rozległej, tektonicznie uwarunkowanej Kotlinie Kłodzkiej, która jest śródgórskim obniżeniem, oddzielającym Sudety Środkowe od Wschodnich. Jej dno budują paleozoiczne łupki metamorficzne, szarogłazy, amfibolity i sjenity. W części południowej, w obrębie tektonicznego Rowu Górnej Nysy, występują osady górno kredowe. Kotlina Kłodzka jest lekko falistą równiną, rozcinającą wymienione skały podłoża na wysokości 350-450 m n.p.m. Na powierzchni, w części północnej leżą grube pokrywy osadów lodowcowych z domieszką lessów. Ku południowi osady te przechodzą w pokrywy deluwialne. Miejscami na powierzchni sterczą twardzielców ostańce. Wzdłuż większych rzek i potoków ciągną się dobrze rozwinięte plejstoceńskie terasy żwirowe. +Ku północnemu wschodowi Kotlina Kłodzka przechodzi w Obniżenie Ścinawki, wykształcone w obrębie wychodni iłowców oraz piaskowców górnopermskich i dolnotriasowych niecki środkowo sudeckiej. W jej krajobrazie wyróżniają się wyspowe Wzgórza Ścinawskie osiągające wysokość do 550 m n.p.m. W dnie doliny Ścinawki znaczną powierzchnię zajmują wysokie terasy plejstoceńskie. Kotlinę Kłodzką od północy zamykają Góry Bardzkie, których urozmaicony krajobraz jest efektem złożonej budowy geologicznej. Występują tu zlepieńce, piaskowce, łupki i zmetamorfizowane skały dolnopaleozoiczne, ułożone poprzecznie w stosunku do linii grzbietowej. Pomimo niedużej wysokości (500-700 m n.p.m.) pocięte są gęstą siecią dolin wciosowych i jarów, rozdzielonych ostrymi grzbietami. W części północnej, Nysa Kłodzka tworzy malowniczy przełom. Od zachodu Góry Bardzkie sąsiadują z Obniżeniem Nowej Rudy, rozwiniętym w strefie małoodpornych zlepieńców, piaskowców i łupków górnopaleozoicznych. Wschodnia część powiatu obejmuje fragment Sudetów Wschodnich (Masyw Śnieżnika oraz Góry Złote). Główny blok tej części Sudetów stanowią zrównane harceńskie struktury fałdowe o przebiegu południkowym, złożone ze skał górnopaleozoicznych. Masyw Śnieżnika od wschodu zamyka Kotlinę Kłodzką. Kulminacje masywu zbudowane są z gnejsów, a obniżenia dolinne i przełęcze z metamorficznych łupków łyszczykowych. Od centralnej kulminacji, którą jest Śnieżnik (1425 m n.p.m.) promieniście rozchodzą się niższe odgałęzienia, tworząc grzbiety łączące masyw główny z sąsiednimi kulminacjami. Doliny rzek i potoków głęboko wcinają się w zbocza górotworu, tworząc malownicze jary z wodospadami. Na północ od Masywu Śnieżnika, po wschodniej stronie szerokiej doliny Białej Lądeckiej, stanowiącej prawobrzeżny dopływ Nysy Kłodzkiej, rozciągają się Góry Złote. Ich wąski grzbiet rozbity jest na kilka członów, zbudowanych zróżnicowanych pod względem odporności skał: gnejsów, granitów, gabra, wapieni i łupków krystalicznych oraz fyllitów i amfibolitów. Efektem tej różnorodności jest bogactwo form rzeźby. +Gleby. +Zgodnie ze strategią rozwoju obszarów wiejskich województwa dolnośląskiego kłodzkie gleby zostały określone w oparciu o kryteria społeczno-ekonomiczne i przyrodnicze jako Region III, tzn. przemysłowo-rekreacyjno-turystyczny. +Przyroda. +Rezerwaty +Powiat kłodzki jest objęty również ekologicznym programem Natura 2000, który nakłada obowiązek zachowania wartości przyrodniczych figurujących w nim miejsc, których na tym terenie jest aż piętnaście. +Fauna. +Świat zwierzęcy powiatu kłodzkiego jest podobny do innych regionów górskich. Dominują na tym terenie gatunki środkowoeuropejskie. Występują również gatunki górskie jak np. traszka górska i salamandra plamista. Pospolite są gatunki drobniejsze, w tym gryzoni, takich jak: nornik zwyczajny, ryjówka aksamitna, czy kret. Ponadto można spotkać koszatniczkę, jeża europejskiego i zająca szaraka. Nad polami i łąkami zobaczyć można skowronka polnego, jastrzębia, zaś w mieście powszechnie występują wróble, gołębie, kosy oraz szpaki. Większe zwierzęta przebywają najczęściej w lasach gór stanowiących naturalne granice ziemi Kłodzkiej, schodząc wyłącznie na żer. Na przyleśnych łąkach i pastwiskach można spotkać sarny, a na kartofliskach dzika, w Górach Bystrzyckich bobry, a w okolicy Śnieżnika pojawiają się sprowadzone kozice. +Flora. +Wszystkie góry otaczające powiat w większości porastają lasy dolnoreglowe, głównie świerkowe. Roślinność jest typowa dla Pogórza Sudeckiego. W lasach występują elementy środkowoeuropejskie takie jak buk, klon zwyczajny i lipa szerokolistna, rzadziej tojad mocny oraz elementy eurosyberyjskie w postaci sosny zwyczajnej, zaś w niższych piętrach leśnych – marzanka wonna, malina właściwa i borówka czernica. Obecnie większość lasów grądowych zostało przekształconych w łąki, pola i parki, zaś lasy mieszane tworzą zadrzewienie izolowanych wzniesień lub obrzeży obniżeń. Do najbardziej charakterystycznych okazów pierwotnej flory należy pełnik europejski o pięknych kulistych kwiatach złocistej barwy. Jesienią rozkwita podobny do krokusa zimowit jesienny. Spotkać można także licznie występujące storczyki, goryczkę polną, chaber austriacki, śnieżycę wiosenną, pierwiosnkę wyniosłą. Specyficzne zespoły roślinne, głównie drzewiaste, tworzą liczne parki dworskie zakładane powszechnie na przełomie XVIII i XIX w. +Demografia. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2009 roku powiat kłodzki zamieszkiwało 165 059 osób. +Struktura płci i wieku mieszkańców powiatu kłodzkiego według danych z dnia 30 czerwca 2009 r. +W połowie lat 90. XX wieku liczba ludności zamieszkującej wszystkie gminy wchodzące w skład obecnego powiatu kłodzkiego wyniosła maksymalną jak do tej pory liczbę 184 tysięcy mieszkańców. Wraz z transformacją gospodarczą Polski i upadkiem wielu gałęzi gospodarki w regionie zaznaczył się coraz wyraźniej odpływ ludności z tego sudeckiego regionu. Na problem ten złożyło się także załamanie w całym kraju liczby urodzeń. +Perspektywy demograficzne dla powiatu kłodzkiego na najbliższe lata nie są dobre, ponieważ zakładają one dalsze zmniejszanie się liczby ludności oraz starzenie się społeczeństwa. Według szacunków do 2030 roki liczba ta spadnie aż o 20 tysięcy osób. Ludność zamieszkująca wsie stanowi obecnie tylko około 1/3 ogólnej liczby mieszkańców powiatu. Zauważalne jest szybsze starzenie się ludności wiejskiej. W 2006 r. 60% właścicieli gospodarstw indywidualnych było powyżej 40. roku życia. +Największymi miastem regionu jest jego stolica – Kłodzko z liczbą ludności 27,9 tysięcy w 2009 roku. Kolejne miejsca zajmują: (w tys.) Nowa Ruda 23,7; Bystrzyca Kłodzka 10,4; Kudowa-Zdrój 10,1; Polanica-Zdrój 6,9; Stronie Śl. 6,1; Szczytna 5,2; Duszniki-Zdrój 4,9; Radków 2,4. +Większość ludności stanowią Polacy. Poza tym w powiecie występuje kilka mniejszości narodowych i etnicznych, z których najliczniejszą stanowią Romowie, zamieszkujący w Kłodzku i Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej. Okolice Kudowy-Zdroju zamieszkują Czesi. Do tego po II wojnie światowej w powiecie osiedlili się emigranci z Grecji oraz ludność pochodzenia żydowskiego z centralnej Polski i z Kresów. +Historia. +Średniowiecze (do 1459). +Powiat kłodzki usytuowany jest na stylu Śląska, Czech i Moraw. Najstarsze ślady bytności człowieka na tym terenie pochodzą z epoki kamienia, z kolei pierwsze informacje pisane, co prawda bardzo skąpe i banalne pojawiają się w źródłach starożytnych. Ziemia Kłodzka była wówczas ważnym szlakiem tranzytowym. Przechodziły przez nią znane międzynarodowe szlaki komunikacyjne, takie jak szlak bursztynowy. Łączyły one bezpośrednio Kotlinę Czeską z dorzeczem Odry, a pośrednio kraje nadbałtyckie ze światem śródziemnomorskim. +Rejon Kłodzka należał przypuszczalnie pod koniec X wieku do przypuszczalnie suwerennego państwa libickiego, którym władał ród Sławników. Dopiero po wytraceniu całego rodu w 995 roku, tereny którymi władali znalazły się pod panowaniem dynastii Przemyślidów, rządzących w Pradze. Ziemia Kłodzka znajdowała się dwukrotnie w rękach Bolesława Chrobrego w 1003 i 1017 roku, jednak ostatecznie w 1038 roku została ponownie opanowana przez Czechów. W latach 1050-1096 prowincja ta znajdowała się w granicach państwa piastowskiego. Ostatecznie rywalizacja ta została zakończona w 1137 roku pokojem kłodzkim, na mocy którego Śląsk pozostał w granicach Polski, a ziemia kłodzka przypadła Czechom. Jeszcze na krótko w latach 1278-1290 Kłodzczyzna przeszła we władanie Henryka IV Probusa, który następnie poprzez swój testament przekazał ją Wacławowi II Czeskiemu za cenę niemieszania się w sprawy jednoczenia Śląska z Polską. Dynastia Przemyślidów wygasła w 1306 roku, a jeden z ich kolejnych sukcesorów – Jan I Luksemburski oddał ziemię kłodzką w dożywotnie lenno w 1327 roku Henrykowi VI Dobremu, księciu wrocławskiemu. Po jego śmierci w 1335 roku, przeszła ona ponownie jako lenno dożywotnie na Bolka II, księcia ziębickiego (1336), a po jego śmierci w 1341 roku powróciła do Korony Czeskiej. Ostatnie lata panowania Jana Luksemburskiego i jego syna cesarza Karola IV, przyniosły ze sobą falę germanizacyjną, ale przed wszystkim przyczyniły się do znaczącego rozwoju prowincji. +Następcą Karola IV był jego syn – Wacław IV (1378-1400), który poprzez swoją nieudolność, został zdetronizowany przez elektorów Rzeszy. Zastawił on w 1380 roku ziemię kłodzką swojemu powinowatemu – Jodokowi Morawskiemu. Kraina ta wykupiona z zastawu w 1419 roku przeszła na przyrodniego brata Wacława – Zygmunta. Ten ostatni władca z dynastii Luksemburgów przyczyniwszy się do śmierci Jana Husa w 1415 roku, rozpętał długotrwałe i krwawe wojny husyckie, mające miejsce w latach 1419-1436. +Po wygaśnięciu dynastii Luksemburgów, Królestwo Czeskie, a wraz z nim ziemia kłodzka znalazły się pod panowaniem Habsburgów (od 1438). W 1452 roku regentem w imieniu małoletniego króla Władysława Pogrobowca został wybrany Jerzy z Podiebradów, obwołany po bezpotomnej śmierci młodego władcy jego następcą w 1458 roku. Kłodzczyzna w tym czasie znajdowała się w rękach Hinko Krusziny drogą zastawu. +Hrabstwo kłodzkie. +Jerzy z Podiebradów wykupił ją od jego syna i ustanowił swoimi dobrami rodowymi, a następnie w 1459 roku podniósł do rangi „suwerennego hrabstwa”, oddając je w lenno swoim synom: Henrykowi, Wiktorynowi i Hince. Po śmierci króla Jerzego w 1471 roku nastąpił podział jego ziem rodowych. Hrabstwo kłodzkie przypadło Henrykowi Starszemu, który panował w nim do swojej śmierci w 1498 roku Następnie władali nim jego trzej synowie: Albrecht, Jerzy i Karol, którzy panowali wspólnie. +W 1501 roku zdecydowali się sprzedać swoją ojcowiznę swojemu powinowatemu Ulrykowi von Hardeckowi (zm. 1525) za 70 tys. guldenów reńskich. Jego brat i następca Hans sprzedał hrabstwo w 1534 roku królowi czeskiemu Ferdynandowi I Habsburgowi, który zastawił je 3 lata później Janowi z Pernštejnu. Zastaw przeszedł następnie z ręki jego synów w 1549 roku, na księcia Ernesta Bawarskiego. Po śmierci cesarza Karola V Habsburga jego brat Ferdynand I (1556-1564) wykupił częściowo zastaw w 1561 roku, a jego syn Maksymilian II (1564-1576) całkowicie w 1567 roku. Z tą chwilą hrabstwo kłodzkie stało się całkowicie krajem koronnym Habsburgów. +Po ruchu husyckim, który poza hasłami religijnymi wypisywał postulaty przebudowy społecznej, niedługo potem, bo na początku XVI wieku, zaczęły Europę ponownie nurtować poważne prądy, które sumarycznie określono mianem reformacji. Na Śląsku i ziemi kłodzkiej oprócz luteranów pojawili się spadkobiercy arianizmu pod wodzą świeckiego nauczyciela Kaspra von Schwenckfelda Wszystkie te odłamy protestantyzmu dążyły różnymi drogami do sprawiedliwego ładu społecznego i ograniczenia władzy duchowieństwa katolickiego. Ruch reformacyjny rozszedł się po ziemi kłodzkiej już za rządów Jana z Pernštejnu, który był mu przychylny. Z kolei książę Ernest jako dygnitarz Kościoła prowadził zaciętą walkę przeciwko innowiercom tak samo jak cesarz Ferdynand I, skutecznie tępiąc wszelkich reformatorów. Szczególnie dotkliwe kary spadły na samo Kłodzko po wykryciu w 1558 roku organizacji zwolenników nauki Schwenckfelda. +Stosunkowo wcześnie do hrabstwa kłodzkiego przybył zakon jezuitów, popieranych przez swojego wychowanka, cesarza Rudolfa II (1576-1612). Zostali wygnani przez mieszczan kłodzkich, ale powrócili w 1622 roku, biorąc udział w akcji kontrreformacyjnej wspomagani przez odziały cesarskich wojsk. Ponadto przez cały okres XVI wieku sprowadzano nowych osadników. Rozwijało się tutejsze płóciennictwo i sukiennictwo +Tocząca się w latach 1618-1648 wojna trzydziestoletnia wpłynęła na znaczny upadek społeczny i gospodarczy tej krainy, która niszczona była przez przechodzące tędy armie oraz klęski epidemii, rabunkami i pożarami. Ziemia kłodzka bardzo powoli dźwigała się z tego stanu w jakim znalazła się w połowie XVII wieku. Jej zaludnienie spadło o 20%, z czego w miastach do 50%. Uprawa roli, rzemiosło i handel ucierpiały poważnie. W następnych latach dochodziło także do rozruchów chłopskich w latach: 1661, 1668 i 1679. +Pierwsza połowa XVIII wieku przyniosła ze sobą kolejne zmagania wojenne tzw. wojny śląskie. Pierwsza z nich została rozpętana w 1740 roku przez Fryderyka II Wielkiego, króla Prus, który wkroczył do Wrocławia w 1741 roku. Po dalszych porażkach nieudolnie dowodzonych wojsk cesarskich zawarto pokój wrocławski w 1742 roku na mocy którego 80% Śląska wraz z hrabstwem kłodzkim znalazło się w graniach Prus +Landkreis Glatz. +Mimo zawarcia pokoju wrocławskiego, Habsburgowie nie pogodzili się z jego werdyktem, co zapoczątkowało drugą wojnę (1744-1745) i trzecią wojnę śląską, zwaną wojną siedmioletnią (1756-1763), które wyniszczyły kraj bardzo dotkliwie. Ostatecznie zakończył je traktat pokojowy podpisany w 1763 roku w Hubertusburgu Wojny te przyniosły ziemi kłodzkiej spore ubytki ludności i zubożenie materialne. Kolejne straty przyniosła wojna o sukcesję bawarską (1778-1779). +Wkrótce po usadowieniu się na Śląsku Prusacy utworzyli z hrabstwa kłodzkiego osobny powiat. Nie podlegał on jednak, jak pozostałe utworzone na Śląsku powiaty pod jedną z kamer wojenno-dominialnych, a bezpośrednio był podporządkowany śląskiemu prowincjalnemu ministrowi. Odrębność ziemi kłodzkiej została utrzymana także w używanej nazwie nowo zdobytej prowincji. Wszystkie akta urzędowe kierowano do „Śląska i hrabstwa kłodzkiego”. Dla ziemi kłodzkiej mianowano również odrębnego gubernatora wojskowego. Również landrat kłodzki cieszył się nieco wyższym statutem, gdyż był jednocześnie radcą podatkowym. W 1818 roku z jego południowej części wydzielono powiat bystrzycki (Landkreis Habelschwerdt). W latach 1816-1820 cała ziemia kłodzka wchodziła w skład istniejącej przejściowo rejencji dzierżoniowskiej, a po jej likwidacji do rejencji wrocławskiej, w której pozostawała aż do zakończenia II wojny światowej. W międzyczasie w 1854 roku z północnej części powiatu wyodrębniono powiat noworudzki (Landkreis Neuerode), istniejący do 1932 roku, kiedy to ponownie włączono go do powiatu kłodzkiego. +XIX wiek, a zwłaszcza jego druga połowa wpłynęła na rozwój turystyki jako ważnej gałęzi gospodarki polegającej na obsłudze wędrowców, letników i kuracjuszy. Jednak wyraźny rozwój tej gałęzi gospodarki nastąpił dopiero w drugiej połowie stulecia po dotarciu nowoczesnych dróg na obszary podgórskie. W 1874 roku dotarła do Kłodzka pierwsza linia kolejowa, łącząca stolicę powiatu z Wrocławiem. W następnym roku pociągi kursowały już do Międzylesia. W kolejnych latach uruchamiano kolejne połączenia kolejowe do Nowej Rudy i dalej Wałbrzycha oraz do Lądka-Zdroju i Stronia Śląskiego. Jednak turystyka, nawet masowa nie zahamowała coraz silniejszego odpływu ludności. Główną tego przyczyną była nieopłacalność tutejszej gospodarki rolnej +II wojna światowa oszczędziła powiat kłodzki, ponieważ nie było tutaj bezpośrednich działań wojennych. Armia Czerwona wkroczyła na ten teren już po kapitulacji III Rzeszy. Rok 1945 był epokowy dla ziemi kłodzkiej, ponieważ znalazła się ona w graniach państwa polskiego. +Okres po 1945. +Mimo przyłączenia ziemi kłodzkiej do Polski, swoje roszczenia do tego terytorium składała także Czechosłowacja, która próbowała zająć ją zbrojnie w 1946 roku. Do walk zbrojnych ostatecznie nie doszło, a wojska czechosłowackie się wycofały. +W Polsce obszar ten wchodził w skład województwa wrocławskiego, pozostając w nim do 1975 roku, kiedy wszedł on w skład nowo powstałego województwa wałbrzyskiego. Początkowo ziemia kłodzka dzieliła się na dwa powiaty: kłodzki i bystrzycki, a od 1954 reaktywowano powiat noworudzki w nieco innym kształcie niż przed wojną. +Do końca lat 80. XX wieku rozwijano tutaj przejęte gałęzie przemysłu i wielkotowarową produkcję rolną. Wprowadzono i rozwijano przemysł elektrotechniczny i hutnictwo szkła. Likwidacji uległa prywatna baza turystyczna i drobny przemysł zlokalizowany również we wsiach poprzednio skutecznie dofinansowujący rolnictwo. Rozwój prywatnych przedsiębiorstw, bazy turystycznej i uzdrowiskowej oraz usług był skutecznie blokowany przepisami i pozaprawnymi metodami działania. Kryzys lat 80. i 90. XX wieku dotknął przede wszystkim te gałęzie gospodarki, na których rozwój postawiono, a zatem przemysł wydobywczy, głównie górnictwo węglowe, przemysł włókienniczy, przemysł przetwarzający miejscowe surowce, przemysł elektromaszynowy, wielkotowarowy rolnictwa uprzemysłowionego, uzdrowisk, jako centralnie zarządzane kompleksy usług. Ponadto nastąpiło wyludnienie wsi górskich. +W końcu lat 90. XX wieku zauważalny jest rozwój: przemysłu na bazie lub z udziałem kapitału zachodniego, prywatnych usług w zakresie handlu, gastronomii, zdrowia, turystyki i ostatnio także usług w uzdrowiskach, przemysłu wydobywczego materiałów budowlanych, agroturystyki, która stała się istotnym czynnikiem aktywizacji wsi ziemi kłodzkiej. W 1999 roku reaktywowano powiat kłodzki, który objął w całości ziemię kłodzką. Nie przywrócono jednak mimo usilnych starań miejscowych władz powiatu bystrzyckiego, który znajdował się na pierwotnej mapie województwa dolnośląskiego opracowanej przez rząd Jerzego Buzka. +Przystąpienie Polski do Unii Europejskiej w maju 2004 roku pozwoliło na szersze korzystanie ze środków pomocowych, co znacząco wspiera rozwój ziemi kłodzkiej +Gospodarka. +Według danych z 2009 roku na terenie powiatu kłodzkiego działało 16 994 podmiotów gospodarczych, z czego 92,8% stanowiły firmy należące do osób prywatnych. 11 712 z nich stanowiły osoby fizyczne prowadzące działalność gospodarczą. W 2009 r. działalność prowadziło 176 spółek handlowych z udziałem kapitału zagranicznego. Największymi skupiskami obiektów handlowych są największe miasta powiatu: Kłodzko, Nowa Ruda i Bystrzyca Kłodzka. +W końcu grudnia 2009 liczba zarejestrowanych bezrobotnych w powiecie obejmowała około 13,5 tys. mieszkańców, co stanowiło stopę bezrobocia na poziomie 23,9% do aktywnych zawodowo. +Powiat kłodzki jest bardzo ważnym regionem turystycznym Polski. Podstawą turystyki w regionie są liczne walory wynikające ze znajdujących się tutaj uzdrowisk takich jak: Polanica-Zdrój, Duszniki-Zdrój, Kudowa-Zdrój, Lądek-Zdrój oraz Długopole-Zdrój, a także okolicznych gór okalających ziemie kłodzką. Znajdują się w nich liczne sanatoria, domy uzdrowiskowe, hotele, pensjonaty, schroniska. W powiecie znajduje się także wiele gospodarstw agroturystycznych. +Przemysł na ziemi kłodzkiej został dotknięty przez kryzys w końcu lat 70. XX wieku, który pogłębił się znacznie wraz z transformacją gospodarczą kraju po 1989 r. W jego wyniku zlikwidowano większość tutejszych fabryk i zakładów pracy, które niedoinwestowane w okresie PRL nie mogły sprostać wymogom gospodarki wolnorynkowej. W końcu lat 90. XX wieku całkowitemu załamaniu uległ przemysł wydobywczy, co było efektem zamknięcia deficytowych kopalń w dzielnicy Nowej Rudy – Słupcu, ponadto: włókienniczy, elektromaszynowy i przetwórczy. Likwidacja wielu wielkich zakładów pracy wytworzyła zjawisko masowego zakładania własnej działalności gospodarczej, głównie w dziedzinie handlu, który prowadzony był nie tylko w powstających sklepach, ale także na targowiskach sezonowych jak i stałych, których obecnie w powiecie kłodzkim jest 16, a zajmują one łączną powierzchnię 30 835 m². Na przełomie XX i XXI wieku ziemia kłodzka jako region przygraniczny była chętnie odwiedzana przez turystów z Czech, którzy przyjeżdżali w te strony na zakupy, co wpłynęło znacznie na rozwój handlu w powiecie. Początek XXI wieku i rozwój turystyki doprowadził do doprowadził dalej do rozbudowy bazy handlowej i gastronomicznej oraz innych usług związanych z branżą turystyczną. +Na terenie powiatu funkcjonuje Wałbrzyska Specjalna Strefa Ekonomiczna „INVEST-PARK”, założona w 1997 roku, która posiada w tym regionie aż cztery podstrefy w: Kłodzku, Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej, Kudowie-Zdroju i Nowej Rudzie. +Rolnictwo nie odgrywa decydującej roli w powiecie. W 2005 roku 80 823 ha czyli 49,18% obszaru powiatu zajmowały użytki rolne, z czego najwięcej (57,7%) stanowiły grunty orne. +Administracja. +Siedzibą władz powiatu jest miasto Kłodzko. Organem uchwałodawczym jest Rada Powiatu Kłodzkiego, w której skład wchodzi 29 radnych. Rada wybiera organ wykonawczy, którym jest Zarząd Powiatu Kłodzkiego składający się z 5 członków. Na czele zarządu stoi Starosta Powiatu Kłodzkiego. +Na terenie powiatu gryfickiego siedzibę ma szereg instytucji publicznych. Większość z nich w Kłodzku takich jak urząd skarbowy, sąd rejonowy, prokuratura rejonowa, powiatowy urząd pracy, wojskowa komenda uzupełnień. W Kłodzku mieści się także zakład karny. +Jednostkami organizacyjnymi Powiatu Kłodzkiego są: domy dziecka w Kłodzku i w Domaszkowie, placówka opiekuńczo-wychowawcza w Nowej Rudzie; rodzinne domy dziecka w: Gorzanowie, Kątach Bystrzyckich, Krosnowicach i Bartnicy; dom pomocy społecznej w Podzamku, Szczytnej, Ścinawce Dolnej, Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej, Jugowie, Nowej Rudzie; Powiatowe Centrum Doradztwa i Poradnictwa Psychologiczno-Pedagogicznego, Powiatowe Centrum Pomocy Rodzinie, Dom Wczasów Dziecięcych w Dusznikach-Zdrój; szkoły: Regionalna Szkoła Turystyczna w Polanicy-Zdrój, Specjalny Ośrodek Szkolno-Wychowawczy im. Przyjaciół Środowiska w Długopolu-Zdrój; Kłodzka Szkoła Przedsiębiorczości, I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. B. Chrobrego, Zasadnicza, Szkoła Zawodowa Specjalna, Zespół Szkół Ponadgimnazjalnych nr 1, Zespół Szkół Specjalnych i Zespół Placówek Socjoterapeutycznych w Kłodzku; Zespół Szkół Specjalnych, Zespół Szkół Ponadgimnazjalnych i Liceum Ogólnokształcące w Nowej Rudzie; Zespół Szkół Ogólnokształcących i Zespół Szkół Ponadgimnazjalnych im. prof. Sylwestra Kaliskiego w Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej; Zespół Szkół Ogólnokształcących i Zawodowych w Kudowie-Zdrój; Zarząd w Dróg Powiatowych, Powiatowy Urząd Pracy w Kłodzku, Samodzielny Publiczny Zakład Opieki Zdrowotnej. W starostwie działa Inspektorat Nadzoru Budowlanego. +Podział administracyjny. +W skład powiatu wchodzi czternaście gmin, w tym sześć miejsko-wiejskich, pięć miejskich i trzy wiejskie. +Polityka. +Mieszkańcy powiatu kłodzkiego wybierają parlamentarzystów z okręgów wyborczych z siedzibą komisji w Wałbrzychu, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z wrocławskiego okręgu wyborczego. +Posłowie posiadający biura poselskie w powiecie to: Zbigniew Chlebowski (PO), Izabela Mrzygłocka (PO), Jakub Szulc (PO), Monika Wielichowska (PO). W powiecie biura senatorskie mają: Stanisław Jurcewicz (PO) i Roman Ludwiczuk. +Starostowie Powiatu Kłodzkiego +Przewodniczący Rady Powiatu Kłodzkiego +Oświata. +W 2008 roku w powiecie kłodzkim do 8 techników uczęszczało 2146 uczniów, w 14 liceach ogólnokształcących było 2551 uczniów, w 5 liceach profilowanych 336 uczniów, w 6 zasadniczych szkołach zawodowych 737 uczniów. +Kultura. +Ponadto w każdej gminie działają ośrodki kultury koordynują wiele ważnych wydarzeń w regionie. +Wydarzenia kulturalne. +Od kilku lat odbywa się konkurs „Kłodzka Róża”, który stanowi wyróżnienie dla osób i instytucji o najkorzystniejszym i najbardziej pożądanym wizerunku gospodarczym, społecznym oraz kulturalnym powiatu kłodzkiego. Statuetka przyznawana jest w 7 kategoriach. +Wspólnoty wyznaniowe. +Największą i najliczniejszą wspólnotę wyznaniową w powiecie kłodzkim stanowi Kościół katolicki. Teren powiatu wchodzi w skład diecezji świdnickiej, która posiada na tym obszarze 61 parafii, zgrupowanych w dekanatach: kłodzkim, noworudzko-słupeckim, noworudzkim, bystrzyckim, kudowskim, lądeckim, polanickim, międzyleskim i głuszyckim (parafia w Świerkach). +Dużą popularnością wśród wiernych cieszą się sanktuaria maryjne w Wambierzycach, Górze Iglicznej i Starym Wielisławiu. +Licznie reprezentowane są wyznania protestanckie. W Kłodzku znajduje się parafia Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego, która posiada na terenie powiatu jedną filię w Kudowie-Zdroju. W stolicy powiatu swoją działalność duszpasterską prowadzi także Kościół Chrześcijan Baptystów. W Kudowie-Zdroju mieści się zbór Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego w RP, wchodzący w skład okręgu zachodniego tego Kościoła. +Na terenie powiatu znajduje się też 10 Chrześcijańskich Zborów Świadków Jehowy: Kłodzko-Wschód, Kłodzko-Zachód, Kudowa-Zdrój, Bystrzyca Kłodzka, Lądek-Zdrój, Nowa Ruda-Centrum, Nowa Ruda-Słupiec, Polanica-Zdrój, Stronie Śląskie i Szczytna-Duszniki. +Każda gmina posiada cmentarz komunalny. Poza tym w większych miejscowościach działają cmentarze przykościelne. +Komunikacja. +Komunikacja kolejowa. +Przez powiat kłodzki przechodzą obecnie cztery linie kolejowe. Najważniejszą magistralę kolejową stanowi linia kolejowa nr 276 z Międzylesia do z Wrocławia Głównego. Dziennie przejeżdża nią kilkanaście pociągów osobowych należących do Przewozów Regionalnych i Kolei Dolnośląskich (szynobusy) oraz składów towarowych. Łączy ona główne miejscowości powiatu ze stolicą województwa, którym jest Wrocław. Ponadto prowadzi ona do granicy państwa. Trasa obejmuje następujące stacje i przystanki kolejowe na terenie powiatu: "Międzylesie" → Roztoki Bystrzyckie → Domaszków → Długopole Zdrój → Bystrzyca Kłodzka Przedmieście → Bystrzyca Kłodzka → Gorzanów → Krosnowice Kłodzkie → Kłodzko Miasto → Kłodzko Główne → "Ławica". Linia powstała w latach 1874-1875 i jest w pełni zelektryfikowana od 1993 roku. +Drugą pod względem znaczenia trasą kolejową w powiecie jest linia kolejowa nr 309 z Kłodzka Nowego (p.odg.) do Kudowy-Zdroju. Jest to linia jednotorowa, niezelektryfikowana. Powstała w latach 1886-1905. Znajdują się na niej następujące stacje i przystanki osobowe takie jak: "Kłodzko Główne" → Kłodzko Miasto → Kłodzko Książek → Kłodzko Zagórze → Stary Wielisław → Polanica Zdrój → Szczytna → Duszniki Zdrój → Kulin Kłodzki → Lewin Kłodzki → "Kudowa Zdrój". Od 15 marca 2010 roku pociągi przestały kursować, z uwagi na zbyt niską prędkość szlakową (20km/h). Zastąpiono je komunikacją autobusową. +Trzecią i drugą czynną obecnie linią kolejową jest trasa nr 286 wiodąca z Kłodzka do Wałbrzycha, którą obecnie obsługują wyłącznie szynobusy Kolei Dolnośląskich. Podobnie jak poprzednia jest jednotorowa i niezelektryfikowana. Zbudowano ją w latach 1879-1880. Na jej trasie znajdują się przystanki i stacje kolejowe takie jak: "Kłodzko Główne" → Bierkowice → Gorzuchów Kłodzki → Ścinawka Średnia → Nowa Ruda → Nowa Ruda Przedmieście → Zdrojowisko → Ludwikowice Kłodzkie → Świerki Dolne → "Bartnica". +Transport drogowy. +Główny ruch pojazdów na terenie powiatu skupia się na drodze krajowej nr 8 będącej częścią trasy europejskiej E67 (Kudowa-Słone → Wrocław → Piotrków Trybunalski → Warszawa → Białystok → Budzisko). Przechodzi ona przez zachodnią część powiatu kłodzkiego, w tym takie miejscowości uzdrowiskowe jak: Kudowa-Zdrój, Duszniki-Zdrój, Polanica-Zdrój oraz stolicę powiatu – Kłodzko przez które biegnie tzw. "Estakadą Doliny Nysy Kłodzkiej". Łączy się ona na Jurandowie z drogą krajową nr 46 prowadzącą do Szczekocin. W Kłodzku, będącym ważnym węzłem drogowym bierze swój początek jeszcze jedna droga krajowa, której trasa wiedzie na z północy na południe ziemi kłodzkiej i stanowi najważniejszą arterię komunikacyjną regionu. Przechodzi ona przez takie miasta jak: Bystrzyca Kłodzka i Międzylesie do granicy państwa w Boboszowie. +Na terenie powiatu znajduje się siedziba Rejonu Dróg Wojewódzkich Kłodzko, który opiekuje się wszystkimi drogami wojewódzkimi. +Komunikację autobusową zapewnia regionalny przewoźnik: PKS Kłodzko, który posiada dwa oddziały w Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej i Nowej Rudzie. Obsługuje on połączenia autobusowe na terenie powiatu oraz z największymi miastami województwa i kraju. Zarządza ponadto dwoma dworcami autobusowymi, które znajdują się w Kłodzku i Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej. W pozostałych miastach znajdują się stanowiska dla autobusów położone w ich centrach. +Komunikacja lotnicza. +Na terenie powiatu zlokalizowane jest lotnisko polowe w Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej, powstałe po zakończeniu II wojny światowej. Wykorzystywane jest ono głównie dla ratownictwa medycznego. Odbywają się na nim coroczne pokazy skoków spadochronowych. Okazjonalnie służy również jako lotnisko szybowcowe, jak również do przelotów krajobrazowych nad Kotliną Kłodzką, głównie w okresie letnim. W Kłodzku przy szpitalu powiatowym mieści się lądowisko dla helikopterów. +Najbliższy port lotniczy – Port lotniczy Wrocław-Strachowice im. Mikołaja Kopernika znajduje się 94 km od stolicy powiatu we Wrocławiu i jest w pełni przystosowanym lotniskiem do obsługi cywilnego ruchu pasażerskiego i towarowego. +Bezpieczeństwo. +Za porządek publiczny i bezpieczeństwo odpowiadają: komenda powiatowa policji w Kłodzku, komisariaty w Lądku-Zdroju, Kudowie-Zdroju, Polanicy-Zdroju, Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej i Nowej Rudzie, a także 4 posterunki(Duszniki-Zdrój, Stronie Śląskie, Międzylesie, Radków) oraz rewir dzielnicowych w Szczytnej. W Kłodzku działa prokuratura rejonowa. +Placówki Pogotowia Ratunkowego zlokalizowane są w Kłodzku, Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej, Nowej Rudzie, Dusznikach-Zdroju, Lądku-Zdroju i Kudowie-Zdroju. W zakresie zapobiegania powstawaniu chorób zakaźnych i epidemii działa Powiatowa Stacja Sanitarno-Epidemiologiczna. W Kłodzku znajduje się także szpital powiatowy, posiadający filię w Lądku-Zdroju. Głównym ośrodkiem medycznym jest Specjalistyczne Centrum Medyczne w Polanicy-Zdroju, położone na obrzeżach miasta. W jego skład wchodzą oddziały: Chemioterapii Dziennej, Szpitalny Oddział Ratunkowy, Chorób Wewnętrznych, Stacji Dializ, Intensywnej Terapii, Rehabilitacji, Otolaryngologiczny, Okulistyczny, Neonatologiczny, Neurologiczny, Położniczo-Ginekologiczny, Chirurgii Ogólnej i Naczyniowej, Chirurgii Urazowo-Ortopedycznej i Chirurgii Plastycznej. Działają także szpitale uzdrowiskowe w Polanicy-Zdroju, Dusznikach-Zdroju, Długopolu-Zdroju i Kudowie-Zdroju. W Stroniu Śląskim mieści się Wojewódzki Szpital dla Nerwowo i Psychicznie Chorych. +W stolicy powiatu swoją siedzibę ma Komenda Powiatowa Państwowej Straży Pożarnej w Kłodzku, której podlegają 3 jednostki ratowniczo-gaśnicze – w Kłodzku, Nowej Rudzie i Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej. Koordynują one działania działających w każdej gminie jednostkami Ochotniczej Straży Pożarnej, których liczba obecnie wynosi 64 jednostki. Akcje ratunkowe w górach kierowane są przez wałbrzyską-kłodzką grupę Górskiego Ochotniczego Pogotowia Ratunkowego +Powiat kłodzki ze względu na swoje strategiczne położenie ma długą tradycję wojskową. Po zakonczeniu II wojny światowej w jego stolicy stacjonowały dwie jednostki wojskowe: Sudecka Brygada Wojsk Ochrony Pogranicza i pułk pancerny. W 1992 r. zostały one zastąpione odpowiednio przez straż graniczną i 22 Brygadę Piechoty Górskiej Obrony Terytorialnej, przekształconą następnie w 2008 r. w 22 Batalion Piechoty Górskiej. Jej koszary zajmują spore tereny we wschodniej części Kłodzka. +W Kłodzku obecnie swoją siedzibę ma Sudecki Oddział Straży Granicznej oraz wojskowa komenda uzupełnień. +Infrastruktura techniczna. +"do rozbudowania" +Turystyka i sport. +Powiat kłodzki cieszy się ogromnym zainteresowaniem turystów ze względu na swoje liczne atrakcje przyrodnicze w postaci górskiego ukształtowania terenu. Ponadto niewątpliwie do atrakcji turystycznych należą znajdujące się tutaj muzea i skanseny, obiekty zabytkowe takie jak: zamki, pałace, ruiny zamków, zabytki techniki, zabytki militarne, kościoły, kaplice. Dużą popularnością szczególnie wśród gości z zagranicy cieszą się miejscowe uzdrowiska. Ziemia Kłodzka jest także ośrodkiem sportów zimowych. Jest też wiele szlaków turystycznych: pieszych i rowerowych. +Władze powiatu kłodzkiego udzielają wsparcia finansowego i rzeczowego imprezom oraz związkom i stowarzyszeniom sportowym odbywającym się na terenie ziemi kłodzkiej. Ich beneficjentami są m.in. Powiatowy Szkolny Związek Sportowy oraz Ludowe Zespoły Sportowe +W powiecie jest obecnie 60 klubów sportowych, które posiadają własne obiekty sportowe, lecz ich liczba w poszczególnych gminach powiatu kłodzkiego jest bardzo zróżnicowana. Większość obiektów zlokalizowana jest wokół szkół, są to głównie sale gimnastyczne, boiska do koszykówki, siatkówki i piłki nożnej. Na terenie powiatu znajdują się stadiony czterech klubów piłkarskich: IV ligowych Piasta Nowa Ruda, Nysy Kłodzko, Polonii Bystrzyca i Zjednoczonych Ścinawka Średnia. +Promocja. +Niezwykle ważną w rozwoju powiatu kłodzkiego odgrywa jego promocja prowadzona zarówno w kraju jak i za granicą. Cesarzowa Maria Teresa uznawała ziemię kłodzką za najpiękniejszy klejnot w swojej koronie, cenniejszy od Niderlandów. Powiat kłodzki jest niewątpliwie jednym z najatrakcyjniejszych turystycznie i krajobrazowo regionów w Polsce, w związku z tym od początków istnienia powiatu prowadzi się na szeroką skalę kampanię promocyjną. Służyć temu mają wydawane co roku foldery promocyjne, współpraca z gminami wchodzącymi w skład powiatu oraz przyjęcie hasła promocyjnego: "Ziemia Kłodzka – Turystyczne Hrabstwo Sudetów". +Istotną rolę w tych działaniach odgrywa podjęta w 2000 roku idea wskrzeszenia hrabstwa kłodzkiego, które jest inspiracją dla wielu cennych inicjatyw, w ramach których odbywają się m.in. liczne imprezy i wydarzenia kulturalne. Hrabstwo jest też doskonałą platformą integracji osób i społeczności działających na rzecz rozwoju ziemi kłodzkiej. +Mamucia skocznia narciarska + +Mamucia skocznia narciarska – skocznia narciarska, której punkt konstrukcyjny umiejscowiony jest powyżej 170 metra, a punkt sędziowski powyżej 185 m. Istnieje 5 czynnych mamucich skoczni narciarskich, na których co 2 lata organizowane są mistrzostwa świata w lotach narciarskich. +Nieoficjalny rekord świata (od 1985 roku Międzynarodowa Federacja Narciarska nie uznaje rekordów za oficjalne) należy do Johana Remena Evensena (246,5 m). +Obecnie żadna skocznia mamucia nie posiada igelitu. +W Austrii w Parku Narodowym Wysokie Taury rozpoczęto budowę skoczni, na której będzie można skakać nawet 300 metrów. +Artur Balazs + +Artur Krzysztof Balazs (ur. 3 stycznia 1952 w Ełku) – polski polityk, rolnik, działacz opozycji antykomunistycznej w PRL, poseł na Sejm X, I, III i IV kadencji, senator III kadencji, były minister w kilku rządach. +Życiorys. +Wykształcenie i praca zawodowa. +Ukończył w 1985 studia na Wydziale Zootechnicznym Akademii Rolniczej w Szczecinie. Wcześniej od 1974 przez dwa lata pracował jako kierownik służby rolnej w Urzędzie Gminy Wolin. Od 1976 prowadzi wielkoobszarowe indywidualne gospodarstwo rolne. W latach 1991–1998 był prezesem zarządu Europejskiej Fundacji Rozwoju Wsi Polskiej. +Działalność publiczna. +W latach 1978–1980 należał do PZPR. W 1980 wraz z Piotrem Baumgartem założył szczecińskie struktury NSZZ "Solidarność" Rolników Indywidualnych. Od początku zasiadał we władzach tego związku. Wchodził w skład komitetu strajkowego protestu w Ustrzykach Dolnych, którego uczestnicy domagali się rejestracji rolniczej "Solidarności". Następnie był sygnatariuszem porozumień rzeszowsko-ustrzyckich. W stanie wojennym został internowany. Był przetrzymywany m.in. w Goleniowie. Zwolniono go w lipcu 1982. +We wrześniu 1982 został ponownie aresztowany pod zarzutem wydawania nielegalnego pisma "Solidarność Wiejska". W areszcie przebywał do grudnia tego samego roku. W 1986 został członkiem Prezydium Tymczasowej Krajowej Rady Rolników "Solidarność" odpowiedzialnym za współpracę rolniczej "Solidarności" ze związkiem pracowniczym. +Uczestniczył w obradach Okrągłego Stołu w podzespole do spraw rolnictwa, zespole do spraw pluralizmu związkowego oraz grupie roboczej do spraw ustawy o związkach zawodowych rolników indywidualnych. Był członkiem Komitetu Obywatelskiego "Solidarność". W latach 1989–1993 i 1997–2005 sprawował mandat posła Sejmu X, I, III, IV kadencji. Od 1995 do 1997 był senatorem III kadencji, wybranym w wyborach uzupełniających w województwie szczecińskim po rezygnacji Bodo Englinga. Pełnił funkcję ministra ds. warunków życia na wsi w rządzie Tadeusza Mazowieckiego, ministra ds. kontaktów politycznych w gabinecie Jana Olszewskiego i ministra rolnictwa w rządzie Jerzego Buzka. +Po krótkim okresie działalności w Unii Demokratycznej (1990–1991) współorganizował PSL "Solidarność", przekształcone potem w Stronnictwo Ludowo-Chrześcijańskie, w którym pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego. W 1997 wraz z Aleksandrem Hallem doprowadził do powstania Stronnictwa Konserwatywno-Ludowego, z którym przystąpił do Akcji Wyborczej Solidarność. Do Sejmu IV kadencji wszedł z okręgu szczecińskiego z listy Platformy Obywatelskiej. W listopadzie 2001 wystąpił z jej klubu parlamentarnego i współtworzył koło poselskie SKL. W styczniu 2002 objął funkcję prezesa partii Stronnictwo Konserwatywno-Ludowe – Ruch Nowej Polski, kierował nią do samorozwiązania w grudniu 2003 (oficjalnie pozostawał prezesem jeszcze przez pewien okres, zanim partia została wyrejestrowana). +W 2005 nie kandydował do parlamentu. W styczniu 2006 został doradcą Samoobrony RP. Reprezentował to ugrupowanie w rozmowach koalicyjnych z Prawem i Sprawiedliwością. W 2007 reaktywował SKL, do grudnia 2009 pełnił funkcję jego prezesa. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2011 bez powodzenia kandydował do Senatu z własnego komitetu, m.in. z poparciem PiS, uzyskując 41 301 głosów i zajmując trzecie miejsce spośród czterech kandydatów. W 2013 został konsulem honorowym Węgier w Szczecinie. +Odznaczenia. +W 2005, za "wybitne zasługi w działalności na rzecz Fundacji Europejski Fundusz Rozwoju Wsi Polskiej", został odznaczony przez prezydenta Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. W 2012 prezydent Bronisław Komorowski odznaczył go Krzyżem Wolności i Solidarności. +Seraj + +Seraj, saraj – pałac muzułmański wzniesiony na centralnym planie z wewnętrznym dziedzińcem i dekoracyjnym portalem. W środku występuje podział na komnaty i harem np. dawny pałac sułtana tureckiego Topkapı Sarayı w Stambule. +Kolejka (informatyka) + +Kolejka (ang. queue) – liniowa struktura danych, w której nowe dane dopisywane są na końcu kolejki, a z początku kolejki pobierane są dane do dalszego przetwarzania (bufor typu FIFO, "First In, First Out"; "pierwszy na wejściu, pierwszy na wyjściu"). +Specjalną modyfikacją kolejki jest kolejka priorytetowa – każda ze znajdujących się w niej danych dodatkowo ma przypisany priorytet, który modyfikuje kolejność późniejszego wykonania. Oznacza to, że pierwsze na wyjściu niekoniecznie pojawią się te dane, które w kolejce oczekują najdłużej, lecz te o największym priorytecie. +Kolejkę spotyka się przede wszystkim w sytuacjach związanych z różnego rodzaju obsługą zdarzeń. W szczególności w systemach operacyjnych ma zastosowanie kolejka priorytetowa, przydzielająca zasoby sprzętowe uruchomionym procesom. +Przeciwieństwem kolejki jest stos, bufor typu LIFO (ang. "Last In, First Out"; "ostatni na wejściu, pierwszy na wyjściu"), w którym jako pierwsze obsługiwane są dane wprowadzone jako ostatnie. +Bednarstwo + +Bednarstwo - dział rzemiosła zajmujący się wytwarzaniem naczyń drewnianych techniką klepkową: beczek, kadzi, balii, fas, maselnic, dzieży i łopat do chleba, konewek, wiader, cebrzyków, wanienek, kufli. Bednarz wyrabia naczynia z drewna sosnowego, świerkowego, olchowego, lipowego, dębowego. +Tak jak wiele innych produktów rzemieślniczych, wyroby te sprzedawane są na targach i jarmarkach. Jesienią największym powodzeniem cieszą się beczki, ponieważ służą rolnikom do kiszenia ogórków i kapusty. Kiedyś wykorzystywano je także do przechowywania miodu, piwa, wina i zboża. +Rzemieślnik trudniący się bednarstwem to bednarz, a w dawnej Słowiańszczyźnie bednar. +Dzieje. +Technika ręcznego wytwarzania naczyń była tajemnicą każdego bednarza, nie ujawniano jej nawet krewnym. Metody pracy innego rzemieślnika można było poznać tylko analizując materiały i sposób konstrukcji jego wyrobu. Najczęściej naczynie składane było z klepek drewnianych mocowanych obręczami metalowymi. Ten sposób konstrukcji znany był Słowianom już w III-IV wieku (przed XIV-XV w. zamiast metalowych obręczy stosowano, zwłaszcza na wsi, ściągów z łozy, łyka lub smołowanych powrozów; technologia ta sporadycznie jest stosowana do dzisiaj). Zawód ten kiedyś powszechny, w drugiej połowie XX wieku został prawie zapomniany i znajdował zastosowanie głównie w produkcji przedmiotów do celów dekoracyjnych. W związku z rosnącą popularnością produktów typu "slow-food", wytwarzanych i przechowywanych w tradycyjny sposób, obecnie ponownie zaczyna mieć coraz większe znaczenie użytkowe. +Geminidy + +Geminidy (GEM) – rój meteorów, o radiancie w okolicy Kastora, jednej z najjaśniejszych gwiazd w gwiazdozbiorze Bliźniąt, powstały w wyniku rozpadu planetoidy 3200 Phaethon. +Maksimum roju przypada na 14 grudnia (widoczny od 7 do 17 grudnia), można zaobserwować do 160 śladów na godzinę. +Franz von Papen + + (ur. 29 października 1879 w Werl, Westfalia, zm. 2 maja 1969 w Obersasbach, Badenia), polityk Republiki Weimarskiej (Partia Centrum) i początków III Rzeszy, niemiecki dyplomata. +Działalność polityczna. +Od czerwca do grudnia 1932 kanclerz Rzeszy na czele pozaparlamentarnego rządu o profilu skrajnie konserwatywnym. +Najważniejszym posunięciem rządu Papena było odsunięcie od władzy w Prusach socjaldemokratycznego (SPD) rządu Otto Brauna i wprowadzenie zarządu komisarycznego rządu Rzeszy. Oznaczało to utratę kontroli nad administracją największego kraju związkowego Rzeszy (2/3 terytorium państwa) przez największe ugrupowanie republikańskie i antyhitlerowskie i w konsekwencji pośrednie utorowanie drogi do władzy NSDAP – największego ugrupowania antyparlamentarnego i antyrepublikańskiego. Komisarzem Rzeszy w Prusach został sam Franz von Papen. Po odsunięciu Papena od władzy przez Kurta von Schleichera, który obiecał prezydentowi Hindenburgowi stworzenie większości w Reichstagu poprzez dokonanie rozłamu w NSDAP (p. Gregor Strasser), a następnie fiasku polityki Schleichera w tej kwestii, von Papen był osobą pośredniczącą w tajnych rozmowach pomiędzy Hitlerem a Hindenburgiem. Ich efektem było zdymisjonowanie rządu Schleichera (28 stycznia 1933) i mianowanie w dniu 30 stycznia 1933 Adolfa Hitlera kanclerzem Rzeszy. W rządzie Hitlera (początkowo koalicyjnym – NSDAP i DNVP) Papen objął stanowisko wicekanclerza. +Cieszył się zaufaniem prezydenta Paula von Hindenburga. 20 lipca 1933 roku kardynał Pacelli (późniejszy papież Pius XII) podpisał w Rzymie konkordat z Niemcami. Negocjacje konkordatu prowadził w imieniu rządu Rzeszy von Papen i on też ze strony niemieckiej podpisał ten dokument. Na mocy konkordatu Watykan miał wycofać poparcie dla niemieckiej partii katolickiej Centrum (która podjęła jako ostatnia partia demokratyczna Niemiec w dn. 6 lipca 1933 wymuszoną przez reżim decyzję o samorozwiązaniu). Prócz tego artykuł 14 tego układu głosił: "Bulle nominacyjne dla arcybiskupów, biskupów, koadiutorów z prawem następstwa lub prałata niezależnego wtedy dopiero zostaną wydane, gdy nazwisko kandydata przedstawione zostanie pełnomocnikowi Rzeszy w odnośnym kraju i zostanie ustalone, że nie istnieją przeciwko niemu zastrzeżenia natury ogólnopolitycznej". +17 czerwca 1934 na uniwersytecie w Marburgu von Papen wygłosił przemówienie (autorstwa Edgara Junga), w którym publicznie wezwał do powrotu do praworządności i swobody wypowiedzi w życiu publicznym Niemiec, zniweczonej w konsekwencji rządów NSDAP. Rozpowszechnianie tekstu przemówienia wicekanclerza Rzeszy zostało zablokowane przez cenzurę, zaś Adolf Hitler rozpoczął ostateczne przygotowania do krwawej czystki politycznej, mającej zabezpieczyć jego władzę wobec spodziewanej rychłej śmierci prezydenta Hindenburga – formalnego i faktycznego zwierzchnika sił zbrojnych Rzeszy. Czystka została przeprowadzona siłami SS przy faktycznym, uzyskanym w ostatniej chwili przez Hitlera, poparciu armii. Rozpoczęta w nocy z 29 na 30 czerwca 1934 była skierowana z jednej strony przeciwko kierownictwu SA (na czele z Ernstem Roehmem), z drugiej przeciw oponentom Hitlera w kręgach chadeckich, narodowokonserwatywnych i potencjalnym przywódcom opozycji (Kurt von Schleicher, Gregor Strasser). Czystkę określono jako tzw. "Noc długich noży". +Po "nocy długich noży", w czasie której zamordowano również bliskich współpracowników Papena (Herbert von Bose, Edgar Jung), Papen został przejściowo internowany w areszcie domowym. 1 lipca 1934 zrezygnował z urzędu wicekanclerza. Po śmierci Hindenburga (2 sierpnia 1934) wobec połączenia dekretem rządu Rzeszy urzędów Prezydenta i Kanclerza Rzeszy i oficjalnego powierzenia nowego urzędu ("Führer i Kanclerz Rzeszy") Adolfowi Hitlerowi urząd wicekanclerza został zlikwidowany z dniem 7 sierpnia 1934. +Papen był następnie ambasadorem w Austrii (1934-1938 – do Anschlussu), później w Turcji (1939-1945). Nazywany był "Sługusem Hitlera" i "Diabłem w cylindrze". W czasie procesu norymberskiego uniewinniony, lecz skazany przez komisję denazyfikacyjną na osiem lat robót przymusowych. Został zwolniony w 1949. W 1959 otrzymał od Jana XXIII tytuł tajnego szambelana papieskiego. +Kazimierz Tarnowski + +Kazimierz Tarnowski (ur. 1915, zm. 1986) – hodowca psów myśliwskich: wyżłów niemieckich i pointerów. W 1936 r. w Tarnowie założył istniejącą do dzisiaj hodowlę psów myśliwskich "Brutar". W latach siedemdziesiątych podjął próbę stworzenia polskiej rasy wyżła, jednak choroba pokrzyżowała te plany. Od 1988 r. co dwa lata w Tarnowie odbywają się Field Trialsy im. Kazimierza Tarnowskiego. Amatorsko zajmował się malarstwem. +Tracy Chapman + +Tracy Chapman (ur. 30 marca 1964 w Cleveland) – amerykańska piosenkarka i kompozytorka. +Najbardziej znana jest z przebojów "Talkin' Bout a Revolution", "Fast Car" i "Give Me One Reason". +Życiorys. +Chapman nauczyła się grać na gitarze już w dzieciństwie. Wzięła udział w programie "A Better Chance", mającym na celu wyselekcjonowanie i rozwój utalentowanych czarnych uczniów z całego kraju. Została przyjęta do Wooster School w Connecticut, a w końcu rozpoczęła studia na Tufts University w Medford w Massachusetts. W maju 2004 r. Tufts uhonorowało ją tytułem Doktora Sztuk Pięknych za jej zasługi jako świadomą i artystycznie spełnioną artystkę. +W czasie studiów zaczęła występować w małych klubach i kawiarniach. Wkrótce podpisała kontrakt z wytwórnią płytową Elektra Records. Swój pierwszy album zatytułowany po prostu "Tracy Chapman" wydała w 1988 r., zdobywając popularność wśród publiczności, ale także uznanie wśród krytyków. +Wkrótce po jej występie na koncercie z okazji siedemdziesiątych urodzin Nelsona Mandeli w czerwcu 1988 r., singel "Fast Car" zaczął szybko piąć się do góry na amerykańskich listach przebojów. Jej pierwszy album zdobył status platynowej płyty i 4 nagrody Grammy, w tym dla najlepszego nowego artysty (Best New Artist). +Jej drugi album "Crossroads" z 1989 r. nie zdobył już takiej popularności, a jej trzecia płyta "Matters of the Heart" (1992) przeszła prawie bez echa wśród szerokiej publiczności. Niemniej Chapman osiągnęła status kultowej wśród małej, ale oddanej grupy słuchaczy. +Ku zaskoczeniu wielu krytyków, jej następna płyta "New Beginning" wydana w roku 1995 sprzedała się w 3 milionach egzemplarzy w USA i przyniosła przebój "Give Me One Reason", który zdobył Grammy w kategorii Best Rock Song. +Piątym albumem był "Telling Stories" wydany w 2000 r., na którym pojawiło się więcej brzmień rockowych niż folkowych. Kolejnym albumem był "Let It Rain" z 2002 r., promowany na trasach koncertowych w USA i Europie w roku 2003. "Where You Live" to siódmy studyjny album Tracy Chapman; ujrzał światło dzienne we wrześniu 2005 r. Na tej płycie dzięki współpracy z Chadem Blake'em muzyka Tracy zyskała nowocześniejsze brzmienie. W listopadzie 2008 roku ukazał się najnowszy album artystki, zatytułowany "Our Bright Future". +Rosjanie + +Rosjanie (ros. "русские / russkije") – naród wschodniosłowiański, zamieszkujący głównie Rosję oraz inne kraje byłego Związku Radzieckiego, przede wszystkim: Ukrainę, Białoruś, Kazachstan, Uzbekistan, Łotwę, Kirgistan, Estonię, Litwę, Mołdawię i Naddniestrze oraz Turkmenistan. Znaczące diaspory znajdują się w USA, Kanadzie, Wielkiej Brytanii, Brazylii i Niemczech. +Rosjanie są jedną z największych grup etnicznych na świecie a ich liczbę szacuje się na ok. 150 milionów. Zgodnie z rosyjskim powszechnym spisem ludności przeprowadzonym w 2002 roku Rosjanie są największą grupą etniczną Rosji, gdzie żyje ich blisko 115,9 mln (prawie 80%). Językiem ojczystym większości Rosjan jest język rosyjski a religią dominującą jest prawosławie. +Etymologia. +Nazwa „Rosjanie” (ros. "russkije", dosłownie "ruscy", "Rusini") pochodzi od od słowa „Ruś”, którego etymologia zawsze wzbudzała wiele kontrowersji. W historii wywodzono ją od nazwy starożytnego plemienia Roksolanów, od słowa "rossieje", co oznacza "rozsiane" (po ziemi, daleko) i wielu różnych nazw topograficznych. Współcześni językoznawcy wywodzą najczęściej nazwę „Ruś” od ugrofińskiego słowa „Ruotsi”, które oznacza „mieszkańcy wybrzeża”, „brzeżanie”. Finowie do dzisiaj nazywają tak Szwedów, od których słowo to mogli przejąć, gdyż "roslag" oznacza w staronordyjskim „wybrzeże”. +Potocznie słowo "Rosjanie" (ros. "rossijanie") jest używane do określenia wszystkich obywateli Rosji bez względu na przynależność etniczną, podobnie jak często czyniono to wobec obywateli Związku Radzieckiego. Dawniej etnicznych Rosjan nazywano też Wielkorusinami (ros. "wielikorusy"), gdyż zamieszkiwali nie tyle większą, co starszą część państwa, w przeciwieństwie do Małorusinów (dziś Ukraińców). +Etnogeneza. +W czasach prehistorycznych szerokie stepy południowej Rosji były zasiedlone przez pasterskich nomadów. Według teorii kurhanowej ludność praindoeuropejska uformowała się na południu dzisiejszej Rosji (ok. 10 000 lat temu), a następnie migrując do Europy i Azji dała początek m.in. Grekom, Germanom, Celtom, Bałtom, Słowianom i ludom indo-irańskim. Przypuszczalnie ok. 6000-7000 lat temu przywędrowały z okolic Uralu do Europy Północnej pierwsze plemiona ugrofińskie. Nowo przybyłe ludy wkrótce zdominowały ludność paleoeuropejską, która uległa całkowitej asymilacji z migrantami. W okresie starożytnym Step Pontyjski był zamieszkiwany przez Scytów a jego kresy zachodnie również przez Sarmatów. We wczesnym średniowieczu przez terytorium Rosji wędrowały liczne ludy różnego pochodzenia, m.in. Hunowie, Alanowie, Awarowie, Bułgarzy, Chazarowie, Połowcy i Węgrzy. Pomimo istnienia interakcji pomiędzy wymienionymi ludami a Słowianami, nie wiadomo czy ludy te miały bezpośredni wpływ na etnogenezę Rosjan. W poł. VII w. na terenach Północnego Kaukazu powstał Kaganat Chazarski (ok. 650–969) – jedyne znane państwo judaistyczne, którego mieszkańcy nie byli etnicznymi Żydami. Chazarowie opanowali w VIII w. znaczne obszary południowej Rosji i Ukrainy podporządkowując sobie część wschodniej Słowiańszczyzny (m.in. plemię Polan). +Dominujący substrat w etnogenezie Rosjan stanowiły plemiona wschodniosłowiańskie (Krywicze, Radymicze, Siewierzanie, Słowienie, Wiatycze i inne), którym współcześni Rosjanie zawdzięczają swój język i podstawy kultury ludowej. Południowo-Zachodnia Rosja była zasiedlona przez Słowian już w V w. n.e. Niektóre regiony europejskiej części Rosji, zwłaszcza obszary północno-wschodnie, zostały zasiedlone przez ludność słowiańską po 1000 r. Wraz z powstaniem państwa ruskiego, zamieszkujące go niektóre ludy ugrofińskie (Meria, Mieszczera i Muroma), bałtowskie (Goladź) oraz germańscy Waregowie ulegli całkowitej asymilacji z ludnością słowiańską. W tym okresie na kulturę ruską silnie oddziaływała kultura Słowian Południowych (szczególnie bułgarska i serbska), a także kultura bizantyjska i grecka. W wyniku tych kontaktów przyjęto na Rusi chrześcijaństwo wschodniego rytu, zaadaptowano wzorce prawosławnej literatury, architektury i ikonografii oraz zapoznano się z mitologią starożytnej Grecji i Bliskiego Wschodu. +Rozbicie dzielnicowe Rusi (1054-1521), brak jedności politycznej księstw ruskich, polonizacja i katolicyzacja zachodniej Rusi (XIV-XVIII w.) doprowadziły do pogłębiania się różnic pomiędzy ludnością wschodniosłowiańską i formowania się trzech osobnych narodów wschodniosłowiańskich: rosyjskiego, ukraińskiego i białoruskiego. Najazdy tatarskie wywarły trwały wpływ na kulturę rosyjską (np. broń biała, elementy strojów, legendy i inne przejawy folkloru), choć sami Tatarzy ulegli tylko w niewielkim stopniu asymilacji z Rosjanami i do dziś są największą mniejszością etniczną Rosji. W wyniku zniszczenia dzielnicy kijowskiej przez Tatarów (1299) i ucisku feudalnego w Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej, doszło do masowego napływu ludności słowiańskiej z terenów ukrainnych na południe Rosji. Ludność ta organizowała się na sposób kozacki i z podporą caratu ekspandowała na wschód Rosji, zasiedlając tereny od Donu i Kaukazu do Syberii i Pacyfiku (Kozacy dońscy, kubańscy, terscy, uralscy, syberyjscy, amurscy, ussuryjscy i inni). Kwestia podwójnego osiedlenia słowiańskiego w Rosji jest obecnie często przytaczana w kontekście kształtowania się rosyjskiej i ukraińskiej świadomości narodowej. Wraz z ekspansją terytorialną Rosji w kierunku wschodnim, wiele napotkanych przez Rosjan ludów ugrofińskich, tureckich, mongolskich, tunguskich i paleoazjatyckich uległo częściowej lub całkowitej z nimi asymilacji. W wyniku intensywnych kontaktów handlowych na pograniczu norwesko-rosyjskim doszło do asymilacji tamtejszej ludności i powstania języka russenorsk, czyli rosyjsko-norweskiego języka pidżinowego. +Pod względem kulturowym najbliżsi Rosjanom są kolejno: Białorusini, Poleszucy, Ukraińcy, Karpatorusini, Bułgarzy, Macedończycy, Serbowie i Czarnogórcy. Z Rosjanami łączy ich: prawosławie, alfabet cyrylicki, pokrewieństwo językowe i wiele innych aspektów kultury. +O odmienności decyduje silne zabarwienie emocjonalne do omawianej formacji dość często o negatywnej konotacji w kulturze zachodu. +Antropologia fizyczna. +Etniczni Rosjanie są w tradycyjnej antropologii fizycznej zaliczani do białej rasy kaukaskiej. Populacja rosyjska jest zasadniczo jednorodna pod względem fizycznym. Komparatystyka dotychczasowych badań antropologicznych wykazuje na pokrewieństwo z innymi etnosami rasy białej typu środkowoeuropejskiego i nordyckiego z różnym stopniem podobieństwa w zależności od badanego regionu. +Współczesne badania genetyczne nad pokrewieństwem poszczególnych narodów koncentrują się na występowaniu haplogrup w chromosomach Y. W przypadku etnosów słowiańskich charakterystyczną dla nich jest haplogrupa R1a1 (Y-DNA). Według różnych badań częstotliwość występowania tej grupy u Rosjan wynosi 47-55%, co czyni ich największymi nosicielami tej haplogrupy na świecie (ok. 35 mln mężczyzn). +Spośród mieszkańców Rosji występuje wysoka prezentacja grupy krwi B w porównaniu do sąsiednich ugrupowań geograficznych. +Demografia. +Rosjanie stanowią jedną z największych grup etnicznych na świecie, ich łączna liczba wynosi około 150 milionów. Najwięcej Rosjan (około 115,9 milionów) mieszka w Rosji, około 28 milionów zamieszkuje pobliskie kraje, a 2 miliony mieszka w pozostałych częściach świata (głównie w USA, Kanadzie, Brazylii, Australii i Europie Zachodniej). +Język. +Językiem ojczystym Rosjan jest język rosyjski – największy język z rodziny języków słowiańskich. Posługuje się nim jako pierwszym językiem około 145 mln ludzi, ogółem (według różnych źródeł) 250-300 mln. Oprócz samej Rosji język rosyjski jest także językiem urzędowym na Białorusi, w Kazachstanie, Kirgistanie, na Krymie, w Naddniestrzu, Gagauzji, Abchazji i Osetii Południowej. Jest jednym z sześciu języków oficjalnych Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych. Posługuje się pismem zwanym grażdanką, odmianą cyrylicy powstałą na skutek jej uproszczenia. Język literacki rozwinął się bezpośrednio z języka staroruskiego w XV w. +Religia. +Zgodnie z różnymi danymi większość Rosjan jest wyznania prawosławnego – podawane liczby wahają się od 50% do 72% ludności. Od 33% do 48% stanowią ateiści i obojętni wobec kwestii wiary. Rosjanie, którzy identyfikują się z prawosławiem, niekoniecznie są osobami wierzącymi i biorącymi udział w praktykach religijnych. +Kultura. +Literatura. +Rosyjska (ruska) literatura, powstała na przełomie X–XI w. w związku z rozwojem piśmiennictwa i kultury feudalnej Rusi. Jej fundamentem stała się ustna twórczość ludowa – tzw. byliny, skazy, pieśni, legendy i inne przejawy folkloru. W rozwoju staroruskiej literatury XI–XIV w. znaczną rolę odegrały integralne związki Rusi z Bizancjum i kulturą południowosłowiańską, skąd przeniesione zostały na Ruś m.in. wzorce literatury religijnej. +Sztuki piękne. +Główną bazę sztuki rosyjskiej stanowiła kultura plemion południowo- i wschodniosłowiańskich, a także sztuka bizantyjska i grecka. W X w. rozpoczęto budowę pierwszych świątyń opartych na wzorcach bizantyjskich, ale noszących oryginalne cechy lokalne, zaczęła się rozbudowa miast (m.in. Nowogród Wielki, Suzdal, Jarosław) z twierdzą – kremlem, wokół którego mieścił się gród. Oprócz drewnianych budowli z silnymi wpływami budownictwa ludowego wznoszono także okazałe budowle kamienne, m.in. kreml nowogrodzki wraz z Soborem św. Sofii (989, przebudowa 1045-52). W XII w. ukształtowało się kilka odrębnych szkół architektury i malarstwa, z czego na czołowej pozycji uplasowała się szkoła nowogrodzka. W okresie tym powstały bogato zdobione freskami cerkwie nowogrodzkie: Zwiastowania (1180), św. Jerzego (1180) i Spas-Neredica (1198). Inne szkoły – pskowska oraz włodzimiersko-suzdalska – zapoczątkowały wznoszenie budowli z białego kamienia, harmonijnie wpisanych w krajobraz. +Muzyka i balet. +Podstawy muzyki rosyjskiej stanowi bogaty folklor muzyczny, którego historia sięga okresu Rusi Kijowskiej. Dynamiczny rozwój muzyki rosyjskiej nastąpił pod wpływem klasycyzmu na początku XIX w. Do najważniejszych kompozytorów tego okresu należy Michaił Glinka, który wraz ze swymi uczniami z tzw. „potężnej gromadki” (Aleksandr Borodin, Modest Musorgski, Nikołaj Rimski-Korsakow i inni) doprowadził do powstania rosyjskiej muzycznej szkoły narodowej. Do najsłynniejszych dzieł tego okresu należą opery: "Życie za cara" (1836), "Borys Godunow" (1868–1872) i "Kniaź Igor" (1869–1888). Istotnym wydarzeniem było założenie Rosyjskiego Towarzystwa Muzycznego (1859) przez Antona i Nikołaja Rubensteinów. Za najważniejszego kompozytora okresu romantyzmu uważa się powszechnie Piotra Czajkowskiego, autora najbardziej znanych baletów na świecie: "Jezioro łabędzie" (1875–1876), "Dziadka do orzechów" (1891–1892) i "Śpiącej królewny" (1889). Na początku XX w. tancerze Anna Pawłowa i Wacław Niżyński wraz z impresariem Siergiejem Diagilewem i jego Ballets Russes położyli podwaliny pod taniec nowoczesny. +Kuchnia. +Kuchnia rosyjska formowała się w wielu regionach w surowych warunkach klimatycznych a jej podstawy stanowią: ryby, drób, dziczyzna, grzyby, owoce leśne i miód. Ze względu na urodzaj żyta, pszenicy, jęczmienia i prosa na południu kraju, powstało w Rosji wiele rodzajów pieczywa, kwasu chlebowego, piwa i wódki. Głównymi składnikami zup i sosów o różnych smakach są potrawy sezonowe lub magazynowane oraz ryby i mięso. Za tradycyjne dania rosyjskie uważa się m.in. przepiórkę z pierogami, pielmieni, naleśniki, czarny kawior (podawany jako zakąska), wędzone, suszone lub surowe ryby (np. bieługa, jesiotr, tołpyga), paschę, barszcz, botwinę i wiele innych. +Rosjanie w diasporze. +Chiny. +Rosjanie są jedną z 56 mniejszości etnicznych oficjalnie rozpoznawanych przez rząd Chin. Większość chińskich Rosjan mieszka w północnej części Chin. +Kraje nadbałtyckie. +W okresie radzieckim przesiedlono na tereny Estonii, Łotwy i Litwy bardzo wielu Rosjan oraz przedstawicieli innych grup etnicznych. Po uzyskaniu niepodległości przez kraje bałtyckie w 1991 r., rządy tych państw podjęły decyzję o przyznaniu obywatelstwa tylko tym mieszkańcom, którzy lub których przodkowie, byli obywatelami tych państw przed ich włączeniem do ZSRR. Działania te wynikały z obaw przed utratą większości przez etnicznych Łotyszy i Estończyków w swoich republikach. Wszyscy mieszkańcy osiedleni w okresie radzieckim oraz ich potomkowie nie otrzymali obywatelstwa Estonii i Łotwy i muszą się o nie ubiegać jak obcokrajowcy. W praktyce oznacza to, że większość Rosjan mieszkających w krajach bałtyckich została pozbawiona praw obywatelskich. Ze względu na brak znajomości języków estońskiego i łotewskiego znaczna liczba Rosjan nie może absolwować egzaminu decydującego o przyznaniu obywatelstwa. Po wejściu Litwy, Łotwy i Estonii do Unii Europejskiej nastąpił pewien paradoks. Wielu z tamtejszych Rosjan, którym nie przyznano obywatelstwa stało się obywatelami Unii Europejskiej, jednak wielu z nich wciąż nie jest obywatelami żadnego z krajów Unii Europejskiej. +Estonia (26%) +Łotwa (29%) +Litwa (6,5%) +Norah Jones + +Norah Jones, właściwie Geetali Norah Jones Shankar, zmieniła nazwisko w wieku 16 lat (ur. 30 marca 1979 w Nowym Jorku) – piosenkarka i pianistka, jej debiutancki album "Come Away With Me" nagrany w jazzowym stylu z mieszanką soulu i folku zdobył 5 nagród Grammy i sprzedał się w liczbie ponad 22 milionów egzemplarzy na całym świecie. +Jones urodziła się w Nowym Jorku, jest nieślubną córką indyjskiego muzyka Ravi Shankara. Dzieciństwo spędziła ze swoją matką, Sue Jones, w Dallas w Teksasie. Uczęszczała do szkoły muzycznej na Uniwersytecie Północnego Teksasu w klasie fortepianu jazzowego, ale po dwóch latach przeniosła się do Nowego Jorku, gdzie zaczęła występować z grupą Wax Poetic. +Często występuje z gitarzystą Charliem Hunterem, jej muzyka jest często porównywana z dokonaniami Billie Holiday i Niny Simone. +W 2003 roku jej pierwszy album "Come Away With Me" zdobył 5 nagród Grammy, włącznie z wyróżnieniem "Najlepszy Nowy Artysta". Jej drugi album, "Feels Like Home", wydany 9 lutego 2004, stylistycznie był podobny do pierwszego, ale muzyka na nim zawarta jest w większym stopniu inspirowana muzyką country. "Feels Like Home" został sprzedany w liczbie ponad 1 miliona egzemplarzy w ciągu zaledwie jednego tygodnia. W tym samym roku tygodnik "Time" umieścił Jones na swojej liście "najbardziej wpływowych osób w 2004 roku". +W 2007 roku wystąpiła na koncercie galowym rozpoczynającym Sopot Festival, jako gwiazda specjalna. +Również w roku 2007 Norah Jones zadebiutowała jako aktorka. Zagrała jedną z głównych ról w filmie "My Blueberry Nights (Jagodowa Miłość)", w towarzystwie Natalie Portman i Jude Law. W roku 2009 zagrała jedną z ról w niezależnej produkcji "Wah Do Dem". +Kuter uzbrojony + +Kuter uzbrojony to określenie małych okrętów (klasy kutrów), z uzbrojeniem w postaci karabinów maszynowych lub dział małego kalibru. +Jako kutry uzbrojone (w skrócie KU) klasyfikowano w Polsce małe okręty rzeczne. We Flotylli Rzecznej Marynarki Wojennej i Oddziale Wydzielonym Rzeki Wisły w 1939 roku używano kutrów uzbrojonych: KU 1, KU 2, KU 4 - KU 7, KU 21 - KU 24 i KU 30, lekkich kutrów uzbrojonych LKU 16 - LKU 19, LKU 25 - LKU 29 oraz ciężkiego kutra uzbrojonego CKU "Nieuchwytny". +Określenie "kuter uzbrojony" raczej nie jest stosowane jako klasa, rozróżnia się natomiast w zależności od przeznaczenia i uzbrojenia m.in. kuter artyleryjski, kuter pancerny, kuter patrolowy, kuter rakietowy, kuter torpedowy. +Zobacz też: kuter (okręt), kuter. +Wittelsbachowie + +Wittelsbachowie – jedna z najstarszych dynastii niemieckich. Jej przedstawiciele panowali w krajach niemieckich: Bawarii, Palatynacie Reńskim oraz przejściowo w Brandenburgii. Trzykrotnie zdobywali tron władców Niemiec, jednak nie zdołali go utrzymać w swej rodzinie. Zasiadali także przejściowo na tronach kilku państw europejskich: Szwecji, Danii, Węgier, Czech, Holandii, Grecji. Współcześnie, od 1919 roku uznawani przez jakobitów za prawowitych królów Anglii, Szkocji i Irlandii. +Początki. +Nazwa dynastii pochodzi od zamku Wittelsbach koło Aichach w Górnej Bawarii. W 1180 roku Otto V otrzymał księstwo Bawarii (jako Otto I). Jego syn Ludwik I Bawarski w 1214 roku otrzymał także Palatynat Reński. Dynastia kilkakrotnie się dzieliła. Po raz pierwszy w 1253 roku. Młodsza linia dolnobawarska uzyskała w osobie Ottona III w latach 1305-1308 tron Węgier. Linia ta wygasła w 1340 roku na Janie I. Jej ziemie przejęła linia starsza, górnobawarska. Ta ostatnia linia już w drugim pokoleniu podzieliła się na kolejne dwie główne linie. Starsza przejęła dobra w Palatynacie, młodsza w Bawarii. +Linia palatyńska. +Jej założycielem był Rudolf I, od 1294 roku hrabia-palatyn reński. Jego syn Rudolf II w 1329 roku otrzymał uprawnienia elektora Cesarstwa (Rzeszy), czyli prawo do wybierania władcy Niemiec. Ruprecht III panował jako król niemiecki w latach 1400-1410. Rodzina jego potomków znacznie się rozrodziła, dzieląc na kilka mniejszych linii i gałęzi. +Ze związku morganatycznego elektora Fryderyka I Zwycięskiego z Klarą Tott z Augsburga wywodzi się linia książąt Löwenstein-Wertheim. +Z linii Pfalz-Neumarkt pochodził Krzysztof III, który w latach 1440-1448 panował w państwach Danii, Norwegii i Szwecji, połączonych Unią Kalmarską. +Z linii elektorskiej Pfalz-Simmern pochodził Fryderyk V wybrany w 1619 roku królem Czech (tzw. "król zimowy"). Powstanie, jakie wówczas wybuchło przeciwko Habsburgom w Pradze ("defenestracja praska"), stało się początkiem wojny trzydziestoletniej. W latach 1623-1648 linia palatyńska utraciła czasowo godność elektorów, przekazana książętom Bawarii. +Z linii Pfalz-Zweibrücken wywodzili się królowie Szwecji w latach 1654-1720: od Karola X Gustawa (jego najazd na Polskę znany jest jako "potop szwedzki") przez Karola XI do Karola XII (przeciwnik Augusta II Mocnego w wojnie północnej, protektor Stanisława Leszczyńskiego) i Ulryki Eleonory. +Z linii Pfalz-Birkenfeld wywodził się książę Maksymilian I, sojusznik cesarza Napoleona I. Od 1799 elektor Bawarii, w 1805 roku przyjął za zgodą cesarza Francuzów tytuł króla Bawarii. Jego wnuk Otto panował w latach 1832-1862 jako król Grecji. Najbardziej sławnym był jego prawnuk Ludwik II, znany jako budowniczy bajkowych zamków. Z bocznej linii książąt w Bawarii ("Herzog in Bayern") wywodziła się słynna cesarzowa Elżbieta (Sisi), żona cesarza Franciszka Józefa I, a także jej imienniczka Elżbieta Gabriela, żona króla Belgów Alberta I. +Tron bawarski Wittelsbachowie utracili w 1918 r. w wyniku rewolucji listopadowej. Byli zdecydowanymi przeciwnikami narodowego socjalizmu, za co więziono ich w obozach koncentracyjnych. Od 1996 roku spadkobiercą tytułu króla Bawarii jest książę Franciszek von Bayern (ur. 1933 r.), przez współczesnych jakobitów uznawany także za króla Anglii, Szkocji i Irlandii. +Linia bawarska. +Jej założycielem był Ludwik IV, od 1314 roku król niemiecki, a od 1328 roku cesarz. Jego potomkowie rządzili w Brandenburgii w latach 1320-1373 oraz w Holandii w latach 1354-1432. Najważniejsze były jednak posiadłości w Bawarii. +W XV wieku doszło do rozbicia dzielnicowego Bawarii i rozrodzenia dynastii. Zjednoczenia wszystkich rozbitych księstw dokonał książę Monachium Albrecht IV Mądry. Od 1583 roku do 1761 roku młodsi przedstawiciele książąt bawarskich zasiadali na tronie arcybiskupów i elektorów Kolonii. +W czasie wojny trzydziestoletniej, w 1623 roku książę Maksymilian otrzymał odebraną kuzynom z Palatynatu godność elektora Cesarstwa. Po kończącym wojnę traktacie westfalskim 1648 godność elektora przysługiwała obydwu liniom dynastii: bawarskiej i palatyńskiej. +Po wygaśnięciu głównej linii dynastii Habsburgów (1740 rok), na podstawie układów jeszcze z czasów średniowiecza Wittelsbachowie bawarscy zgłosili pretensje do dziedzictwa po nich. Ostatecznie uzyskali chwilowo w latach 1742 – 1745 tylko tron cesarski w osobie Karola VII Albrechta (po kądzieli wnuk polskiego króla Jana III Sobieskiego). Na jego synu Maksymilianie III zmarłym w 1777 roku wygasła linia bawarska Wittelsbachów. Jej spadkobiercami zostali Wittelsbachowie z linii palatyńskiej. +Linie naturalne i morganatyczne. +Genealogia hrabiów von Holnstein aus Bayern na M. Marek, "Genealogy.Eu" +Z potomków małżeństw morganatycznych wywodzi się: +Genealogia rodziny von Löwenstein-Wertheim na M. Marek, "Genealogy.Eu" +Focke-Wulf Fw 56 + +Focke Wulf Fw 56 Stößer (Stösser, pol. "krogulec") – niemiecki samolot myśliwsko – treningowy, jednosilnikowy górnopłat konstrukcji Kurta Tanka. +Historia. +Samolot został skonstruowany zgodnie z wytycznymi Ministerstwa Lotnictwa Rzeszy ("Reichsluftfahrtministeriums"), jako propozycja konkurencyjna wobec konstrukcji Arado Ar 76 i Heinkel He 74. Miała to być konstrukcja łącząca zastosowania lekkiego pomocniczego myśliwca obrony powietrznej i samolotu treningowego dla pilotów myśliwskich. W praktyce używany był jedynie jako samolot treningowy. W listopadzie 1933 r. odbyły się pierwsze loty prototypu, po których samolot został oddany do wytwórni dla wniesienia niezbędnych poprawek. Latem 1935, po serii lotów, w trakcie których porównywano zgłoszone do konkursu projekty, podjęto decyzję o skierowaniu samolotu do produkcji seryjnej. +Jedyną wersją seryjną była Fw 56A-1. Wyprodukowano do 1940 roku około 1000 egzemplarzy tej wersji, z których większość użytkowano w Niemczech, część natomiast w Austrii i na Węgrzech. Samolot był użytkowany nie tylko przez siły zbrojne, lecz także przez prywatne osoby; jeden egzemplarz kupił np. Gerd Achgelis, który wraz z Heinrichem Focke skonstruował później śmigłowiec Fw 61. +Pułkownik Ernst Udet, który był zwolennikiem użycia bombowców szturmowych, osobiście wypróbował na drugim prototypie samolotu, oznaczonym Fw 56 V2, zrzucanie bomb w locie nurkowym. Jego uwagi wykorzystano podczas projektowania i oblatywania bombowców nurkujących Junkers Ju 87. +Wojciech Korda + +Wojciech Korda, właściwe nazwisko Kędziora (ur. 11 marca 1944 w Poznaniu) – polski wokalista, gitarzysta, kompozytor, współtwórca rock-opery "Naga". +Biografia. +W zespole Niebiesko-Czarni od początku 1964 r. do 30 czerwca 1976 r. (czyli do chwili rozwiązania). Następnie występował w duecie z Adą Rusowicz (prywatnie żoną Kordy) w zespole ADA-KORDA i HORDA. W latach 80. i 90. występował w klubach krajów skandynawskich i USA. Po powrocie kontynuował występy wraz z Tomaszem Dziubińskim (z którym współpracuje z przerwami od 1959 roku) i jego zespołem. +Jest laureatem "Złotej Dziesiątki" Festiwalu Muzycznych Talentów w Szczecinie (1962 r.), Festiwalu Polskiej Piosenki w Opolu (1965 r.) oraz "Złotego Kamertonu" w 1991 r., nagrody ustanowionej przez redakcję "Music News". +Jednym ze znanych utworów Wojciecha Kordy jest "Niedziela będzie dla nas". +1 stycznia 1991 wracał wraz żoną Adą Rusowicz i nowo poznanymi znajomymi z koncertu w Warszawie. W wyniku wypadku samochodowego pod Poznaniem zginęli wszyscy poza Wojciechem Kordą. Ma dwójkę dzieci, Bartłomieja (ur. 1977) i Annę (ur. 1983). +Agesander z Rodos + +Agesander z Rodos, Hagesander, Agesandros, Hagesandros, gr. Άγήσανδρος - grecki rzeźbiarz działający ok. 150 p.n.e. +Wywodził się z tak zwanej szkoły rodyjskiej, będącej od czasów Lizypa jednym z głównych ośrodków rzeźby hellenistycznej. Uważany jest za przedstawiciela kierunku nazywanego antycznym barokiem. +Wraz z Atenodorem i Polidorem był współtwórcą grupy Laokoona. +Slow Food + +Slow Food - organizacja i jednocześnie ruch społeczny skupiający osoby zainteresowane ochroną tradycyjnej kuchni różnych regionów świata i związanych z tym upraw rolnych i nasion, zwierząt hodowlanych i metod prowadzenia gospodarstw, charakterystycznych dla tych regionów. +Historia. +Organizacja założona została w 1986 roku przez Carlo Petriniego w USA jako opór przeciwko rosnącej popularności barów fast food (mówi się, iż decyzja zapadła po tym, jak sieć McDonald's otworzyła lokal w zabytkowej części Rzymu), ale wkrótce rozprzestrzeniła się na 50 krajów i obecnie zrzesza ponad 80 tys. członków. Siedzibą organizacji jest miejscowość Bra w Piemoncie, we Włoszech, gdzie pracuje około 100 osób, zaś lokalnymi oddziałami Slow Food na całym świecie kieruje dodatkowo 800 wolontariuszy. +Obecnie ruch ten opisuje siebie samego jako ekogastronomiczna frakcja w ruchu ekologicznym, chociaż wielu mówi również o kulinarnym skrzydle ruchu alterglobalistów. Jednym z jego najważniejszych haseł jest "Obrona prawa do smaku!". +Od czasu do czasu Slow Food dokonuje bezpośrednich interwencji w transakcje rynkowe, na przykład chroniąc cztery tradycyjne rasy indyków amerykańskich poprzez zakup 4000 jaj i zlecenie wyhodowania z nich dorosłych zwierząt, które następnie trafiły na rynek. +Uniwersytet Nauk Gastronomicznych. +Od października 2004 roku działa Uniwersytet Nauk Gastronomicznych w Pollenzo, w Piemoncie. Czołowymi postaciami zaangażowanymi w to przedsięwzięcie są Carlo Petrini i Massimo Montanari, których celem jest promowanie świadomości dobrej żywności i prawidłowego odżywiania się. +Arka Smaku. +W innych krajach opieką objęte są m.in.: wanilia (Madagaskar), olej arganowy (Maroko), ziemniaki andyjskie (Peru), kury znoszące wyłącznie niebieskie jaja (Chile), kawa huehuetenango (Gwatemala), śliwki slatko (Bośnia i Hercegowina), ser z mleka jaków (Tybet), czarna świnia gaskońska (Francja), czarna fasola tolosa (Hiszpania), ser cheddar z hrabstwa Somerset w Anglii. +Przemysł spożywczy w Polsce + +Przemysł spożywczy w Polsce charakteryzuje duża liczba niewielkich i rozproszonych zakładów. Zakłady przetwórcze nawiązują do bazy surowcowej, jak np. przemysł cukrowniczy i owocowo-warzywny lub wykazują powiązania z bazą surowcową i rynkami zbytu, jak przemysł mięsny, mleczarski. +Taizaburo Nakamura + +Założyciel stylu Battōdō Nakamura Ryu. Propagator szermierki mieczem japońskim battōdō, ekspert walki na bagnety. +shodai soke w Nakamura-ryu, 10 dan w battodo, hanshi w shodo (kaligrafii), hanshi 8 dan w jukendo, hanshi 8 dan w tankendo, hanshi 7 dan w kendo, 4 dan w kyudo i 3 dan w judo (dwa ostatnie stopnie uzyskane w młodości). +Członek założyciel i działacz władz Japońskiej i Międzynarodowej Federacji Battodo. Autor wielu opracowań i podręczników szermierki. Duchowy patron polskiej Szkoły Samurajów. +Sergiusz Najar + +Sergiusz Najar (ur. 28 lutego 1959) – polski menedżer i polityk, były wiceminister infrastruktury i spraw zagranicznych. +Życiorys. +W 1983 ukończył studia na Wydziale Zarządzania Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Odbył następnie studia podyplomowe na Wydziale Ekonomicznym UW (1994), a także w Centrum Europejskim UW i Uniwersytetu w Maastricht (2000). +Od 1982 pracował etatowo w strukturach uczelnianych i naczelnych Socjalistycznego Związek Studentów Polskich i Zrzeszenia Studentów Polskich. Był m.in. przewodniczącym rady uczelnianej SZSP na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim i kierownikiem wydziału zagranicznego w centrali ZSP. Pełnił funkcję przedstawiciela tej ostatniej organizacji w sekretariacie Międzynarodowego Związku Studentów w Pradze. Od 1977 należał do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. +Na początku lat 90. pracował m.in. jako dyrektor biura w Polskim Komitecie Olimpijskim i doradca ministra edukacji narodowej. Wkrótce przeszedł do pracy w biznesie, był wicedyrektorem gabinetu prezesa Banku Handlowego w Warszawie. W latach 1996–1997 wchodził w skład zarządu Nafty Polskiej. Następnie przez trzy lata był dyrektorem zarządzający ds. prywatyzacji w Banku Handlowym. W 2000 objął stanowisko dyrektora generalnego ds. bankowości przedsiębiorstw w Citibanku w Pradze. W latach 1996–2001 był współorganizatorem i pierwszym prezesem zarządu Fundacji Bankowej im. Leopolda Kronenberga. +W sierpniu 2002 został podsekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Infrastruktury. W październiku 2003 przeszedł na tożsame stanowisko w Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych. W styczniu 2005 złożył rezygnację. +Również w 2005 został prezesem zarządu Banku Ochrony Środowiska, odwołano go z tej funkcji jeszcze w tym samym roku. Od 2006 obejmował kierownicze stanowiska w polskich oddziałach zagranicznych przedsiębiorstw. W 2007 został dyrektorem oddziału bankowości transgranicznej w BRE Banku. Powoływany też w skład rad nadzorczych banków i innych spółek prawa handlowego. +W 2009 bez powodzenia jako bezpartyjny kandydat z listy SLD-UP ubiegał się o mandat posła do Parlamentu Europejskiego w okręgu dolnośląsko-opolskim, uzyskuąc 4477 głosów. +Jest jednym z liderów Stowarzyszenia Ordynacka, wybrany na wiceprzewodniczącego tej organizacji. +Odznaczony Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi (1999). Wyróżniony Złotym Krzyżem "Za Zasługi dla ZHP" oraz odznaczeniami resortowymi i nagrodami przyznawanymi przez organizacje społecznego i gospodarcze. +Puchar Narodów Oceanii w piłce nożnej + +Puchar Narodów Oceanii (ang. "Oceania Nations Cup") jest najważniejszym turniejem piłkarskim w Oceanii. Pierwszy turniej o "Puchar Oceanii" rozegrano w roku 1973, w latach 80. rozegrano tylko jedne mistrzostwa w roku 1980. Puchar w obecnej formule jest rozgrywany cyklicznie co dwa lata, od 1996 roku, kiedy to Federacja Piłkarska Oceanii połączyła dwa niezależne od siebie, rozgrywane w różnych odstępach czasu, turnieje piłkarskie. Wówczas też przyjęto nazwę Puchar Narodów Oceanii. Zwycięzca Pucharu reprezentuje federację OFC na Pucharze Konfederacji. +Od 2006 roku Australia jest członkiem Azjatyckiej Federacji Piłkarskiej ("AFC") – opuściła tym samym strefę Oceanii, czyniąc rozgrywki z jednej strony bardziej atrakcyjnymi (większa rywalizacja), z drugiej jednak obniżając ich poziom. +Tabela medalowa. +1 – W 1996 nie rozegrano meczu o III miejsce +Tabela wszech czasów (1973 - 2004). +Punktacja: 3 pkt. – zwycięstwo, 1 pkt. – remis. +Puchar Narodów Oceanii 2004 – liczone tylko II i III runda +Pokolenie 27 + +Pokolenie 27 (hiszp. "Generación del 27") – grupa poetycka, która pojawiła się na hiszpańskiej scenie literackiej między rokiem 1923 a 1927. Część z jej późniejszych członków spotkała się, by złożyć hołd Luisowi de Góngora w trzechsetną rocznicę jego śmierci i ten fakt definitywnie połączył ich w grupę poetycką. Od tego momentu zwykło się określać ich mianem Pokolenia 27. Pierwsze publiczne wystąpienie grupy miało miejsce w Ateneum w Sewilli w 1927. +Verner von Heidenstam + +Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam (ur. 6 lipca 1859 w Olshammar w gminie Askersund, zm. 20 maja 1940 na dworze Övralid w gminie Motala) – szwedzki poeta i prozaik, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie literatury w 1916. +Verner von Heidenstam urodził się jako potomek starej szlacheckiej rodziny w Olshammar w regionie Örebro w 1859. Studiował malarstwo w Paryżu i Rzymie. Po zakończeniu studiów udał się w dłuższą podróż w celu poznania świata. Wyprawa ta obejmowała oprócz typowych celów we Francji i Włoszech także Szwajcarię i kraje Europy wschodniej. +W 1912 został wybrany na członka Akademii Szwedzkiej. Był też jednym z założycieli szwedzkiego dziennika "Svenska Dagbladet". +W 1916 Heidenstam otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie literatury „w uznaniu jego znaczenia jako wiodącego reprezentanta nowej ery w literaturze”. Na uznanie to zasłużył on przede wszystkim swoim cyklem epickim "Karolińczycy" z lat 1897–1898. +Swoimi utworami literackimi Verner von Heidenstam wpłynął na rozwój szwedzkiego neoromantyzmu. Później jednak wrócił do tematów historycznych. +W 1938 Heidenstam stał się laureatem jeszcze jednej nagrody – Henrik Steffens-priset. +Verner von Heidenstam zmarł w 1940 na dworze Övralid. Co roku w rocznicę urodzin Heidenstama w Övralid przyznawane są nagrody pisarkom, pisarzom lub innym osobowościom świata kultury. +Stefan Drzewiecki + +Stefan Drzewiecki (ur. 26 lipca 1844 w Kunce, zm. 23 kwietnia 1938 w Paryżu) – polski inżynier, wynalazca, pionier żeglugi podwodnej i lotnictwa. +Życiorys. +Urodził się na Podolu, we wsi Kunka w powiecie hajsyńskim, w polskiej szlacheckiej rodzinie o tradycjach patriotycznych. Dziadek Stefana - Józef Drzewiecki służył pod Kościuszką i Dąbrowskim, a ojciec Karol (dramatopisarz) uczestniczył w powstaniu listopadowym. Dzieciństwo spędził w rodzinnych Jaśkowicach w powiecie latyczowskim. Za młodu został wysłany przez rodziców do Francji, ukończył szkołę średnią w Atueil, a następnie zapisał się do paryskiej "Ecole Centrale", gdzie skończył studia matematyczne z odznaczeniem i zdobył dyplom inżyniera. W wieku 19 lat, na wieść o wybuchu powstania styczniowego, wrócił do Polski. Wobec klęski kolejnego polskiego zrywu narodowościowego, rozgoryczony Drzewiecki opuścił po paru latach kraj i osiadł na krótko we Francji. Wybuch wojny francusko-pruskiej, oblężenie Paryża, a bezpośrednio udział w Komunie Paryskiej skłoniły go ostatecznie do zamieszkania w Wiedniu. +Okres wiedeński. +Tam powstały pierwsze znane wynalazki Drzewieckiego, które zaprezentował na Wystawie Wiedeńskiej w 1872 roku. Dwa z nich - cyrkiel do przekrojów stożkowych i regulator silników parowych i hydraulicznych zostały nagrodzone. Poza nimi Drzewiecki zaprezentował na wystawie automatyczny sprzęg do wagonów, rejestrator prędkości pociągów i dromograf - przyrząd automatycznie kreślący kurs płynącego statku. Ostatni z tych wynalazków zwrócił uwagę przebywającego na wystawie rosyjskiego Wielkiego Księcia Konstantego, który zakomunikował Drzewieckiemu: „Mianuję pana członkiem i doradcą Komitetu Technicznego Marynarki Rosyjskiej z uposażeniem 500 rubli miesięcznie. Proszę też złożyć kosztorys na wykonanie dromografu, odpowiednia kwota zostanie panu wypłacona po przyjeździe do Petersburga”. Drzewiecki przyjął propozycję i zaproszenie po czym udał się do Rosji. +W granicach Rosji. +Po wprowadzonych przez polskiego inżyniera ulepszeniach, dromograf wszedł do użytku w marynarce rosyjskiej. Tymczasem wybuchła kolejna wojna rosyjsko-turecka w której osobiście wziął udział Drzewiecki, za mężna postawę został odznaczony orderem Św. Jerzego IV klasy. Przed wydarzeniami wojennymi rozpoczął prace nad konstrukcją nowego okrętu podwodnego. Efekt swej pracy zaprezentował w roku 1877 w Odessie. Była to pierwszy okręt podwodny (jednoosobowa) poruszana siłą ludzkich mięśni - śmigłem wprowadzanym w ruch za pomocą napędu nożnego. Pierwszą jej załogę stanowił sam konstruktor, który na oczach publiczności przepłynął pod okrętem wojennym zacumowanym w porcie. Drzewiecki był też pierwszym, który zastosował peryskop w okręcie podwodnym. Przez kolejne piętnaście lat konstruktor pracował dla rosyjskiej marynarki wojennej, ulepszając swoje wynalazki (prawie co rok pojawiały się kolejne jednostki o coraz większej wyporności) i wprowadzając dalsze pionierskie, takie jak: pierwszy czteroosobowy okręt podwodny (1881), pierwszy okręt podwodny o napędzie elektrycznym (1888), wraz z Aleksym Kryłowem projekt niezatapialnego okrętu podwodnego o napędzie parowym i wyporności 120 ton (uhonorowany pierwszą nagrodą na Konkursie Międzynarodowym w Paryżu w roku 1898). Od roku 1877 pod kierunkiem Drzewieckiego zbudowanych zostało 50 czteroosobowych okrętów podwodnych. Jednak wobec niemożliwości zrealizowania w Rosji wielu planów konstrukcyjnych, Drzewiecki zdecydował się w roku 1892 na powrót do Francji, do paryskiego Autueil. +Po powrocie do Francji. +Powrót nie był kresem prac wynalazcy nad żeglugą podwodną i kresu jego wpływu na marynarkę rosyjską. W 1901 admiralicje Rosji i Francji wprowadziły u siebie wyrzutnie torped na sprężone powietrze jego konstrukcji, a jeszcze w 1908 Rosjanie zbudowali okręt podwodny według jego projektu o wyporności 350 ton i napędzie spalinowym. Jednym z ostatnich projektów Drzewieckiego z dziedziny żeglugi morskiej był okręt podwodny „wodopancerny”, którego pancerz składać się miał z wlanej w przestrzeń między blachami wody, w zamierzeniu wynalazcy mającej doskonale amortyzować uderzenie. Projekt nigdy nie doczekał się realizacji. +W parę lat po powrocie do Francji był już tam Stefan Drzewiecki cenionym wynalazcą w dziedzinie żeglugi morskiej (wspomniane wyrzutnie torped). Tymczasem już w Rosji rozpoczął się okres fascynacji Polaka aeronautyką. Drzewiecki był pierwszym naukowcem (co jest faktem mało znanym), który stwierdził, że możliwy jest lot maszyny cięższej od powietrza. Miał to być według niego płatowiec poruszający się z odpowiednią prędkością i tworzący z kierunkiem ruchu kąt natarcia. W 1887 (jeszcze w Petersburgu) napisał pierwszą pracę z dziedziny lotnictwa - "Aeropłany w prirodie" ("Samoloty w przyrodzie"), która nie spotkała się ze szczególnym uznaniem rosyjskiego środowiska naukowego. W roku 1892 wydana została po francusku (jak wszystkie następne prace Polaka) kolejna, tak jak poprzednia będąca efektem obserwacji ptaków - "Les oiseaux considérés comme des aeroplanes animés" ("Ptaki jako żywe samoloty"). Zawiera pogłębione matematycznie uzasadnienie poglądów wyrażonych przez autora w pracy poprzedniej, omawia kwestie oporu powietrza i daje pojęcie o optymalnym kącie nachylenia skrzydeł. Jedno z ostatnich większych dzieł naukowych wynalazcy - "L'aviation de demain" ("Lotnictwo dnia jutrzejszego") - wielu zainteresowanych uważa za pierwsze podstawy współczesnej aerodynamiki. W roku 1909 wydał Drzewiecki pracę "Les hélices aériennes. Théorie générale des propulseur hélicoidaux" ("Śmigła powietrzne. Teoria ogólna napędów śmigłowych"), będącą rozwinięciem opublikowanej w 1892 metody rachunkowego wyznaczania śrub napędowych. Prekursorska teoria napędów śmigłowych Drzewieckiego została ogólnie przyjęta w nauce i nagrodzona przez francuską Akademię Nauki w 1920 roku. W tym samym roku Drzewiecki opublikował swoją kolejna pracę ""Ogólna teoria pędnika śrubowego"". +Polski wynalazca i w dziedzinie lotnictwa nie ograniczał się wyłącznie do prac teoretycznych. W 1909 roku zaprezentował model prototypu płatowca „Canard”, który wyposażył w tylne śmigło i - co było zabiegiem prekursorskim - samoczynne urządzenia stabilizacyjne. W 1913 powstał aeroplan „Drzewiecki”, na którym wypróbowano jego rozwiązania. W latach 1926-1929 skonstruował śmigło o łopatkach nastawnych. Przez wiele lat był popularną postacią we francuskim świecie nauki, a jego dom stał zawsze otworem dla licznej grupy młodych - naturalnie w większości polskich i francuskich - naukowców i był częstym miejscem ich dysput. Z inicjatywy Drzewieckiego wybudowano pierwszy we Francji tunel aerodynamiczny. +Niemal do końca pierwszej wojny światowej Drzewiecki pracował w swoim laboratorium doświadczalnym Eiffel przy 67 rue Boileau paryskiej dzielnicy Auteuil, koncentrując się pod koniec życia głównie na dalszych badaniach śmigieł. Bardzo długo utrzymywał się w dobrym zdrowiu (do tego stopnia, że pewnego razu usłyszał od agenta ubezpieczeniowego: "Monsieur Drzewiecki, pan zrujnuje nasze towarzystwo!"), w chwili śmierci miał ponad 93 lata. +Drzewiecki wspierał polskie badania naukowe w dziedzinie aeronautyki, a w testamencie zapisał polskiemu państwu swą paryską pracownię w Auteuil. W 1929 roku otrzymał tytuł Honorowego Członka polskiej organizacji Ligi Obrony Powietrznej Państwa. +Rój meteorów + +Rój meteorów – zjawisko polegające na spalaniu się drobinek materii z roju meteoroidów w górnych warstwach atmosfery ziemskiej. Powstaje wtedy zjawisko tzw. "spadających gwiazd". Meteory, wskutek skrótu perspektywicznego, wybiegają z jednego punktu na sferze niebieskiej zwanego radiantem. +Te drobinki materii i pyłu, które dostają się do atmosfery, obiegały wcześniej Słońce po orbitach eliptycznych i powstały z rozpadu komet lub w wyniku zderzania się planetoid. Astronomowie są w stanie wskazać ich powiązania z konkretnymi kometami na podstawie analizy ich orbit. +Bardzo intensywny rój meteorów zwany jest także deszczem meteorów. +Roje meteorów biorą swe nazwy najczęściej od gwiazdozbiorów, w których znajduje się ich radiant. +Powiat lubiński + +Powiat lubiński – powiat w Polsce (województwo dolnośląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Lubin. +Stopa bezrobocia wynosi 8,9%. +Graniczy z powiatami: wołowskim, górowskim, głogowskim, polkowickim oraz legnickim. +Przemysł. +Dominującą pozycję wśród przedsiębiorstw ma górnicza spółka KGHM Polska Miedź z siedzibą w Lubinie. Na terenie powiatu znajdują się też Zakłady Górnicze Lubin i Huta Miedzi Cedynia w Orsku. Dzięki miedziowemu przemysłowi przeciętne wynagrodzenie w powiecie lubińskim jest najwyższe w Polsce. +Komunikacja. +Przez terytorium powiatu przebiegają ważne szlaki komunikacyjne umożliwiające dogodne połączenia z krajami Europy południowej (Praga, Wiedeń) oraz zachodniej (Berlin, Paryż), ponadto drogi krajowe do Wrocławia, Opola, Warszawy, Częstochowy, Zielonej Góry, Gorzowa Wlkp., Szczecina (DK3) i Poznania. Ważnym węzłem komunikacyjnym jest Ścinawa, przez którą przebiega magistrala kolejowa Górny Śląsk-Szczecin, a także drogi krajowe do Rawicza i dalej do Poznania (DK5) i Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego (DK36). Dzięki położeniu wzdłuż Odry Ścinawa w najbliższych latach ma także szansę stać się ważnym wodnym węzłem komunikacyjnym, co wiąże się z ogólnopolskim programem kompleksowego zagospodarowania Odry – program ODRA 2006. W Lubinie funkcjonuje międzynarodowe lotnisko z asfaltobetonowym pasem startowym o długości 1000 m, umożliwiającym uruchomienie komunikacji pasażerskiej i towarowej. +Sądownictwo wojskowe + +Sądownictwo wojskowe – jeden z rodzajów sądownictwa szczególnego, czyli sądów wyłączonych z sądownictwa powszechnego ze względu na szczególne kategorie podmiotowe (sprawcy) lub przedmiotowe (określone sprawy). +Sądownictwo wojskowe wyodrębnia się w wielu systemach prawnych świata ze względu na specyfikę wymiaru sprawiedliwości w siłach zbrojnych, szczególnie podczas wojny. Sądownictwo wojskowe jest z reguły ograniczone do spraw karnych, przy czym zakres spraw podlegających rozpoznaniu sądów wojskowych od kilkudziesięciu lat stale się kurczy. Jeszcze po II wojnie światowej uznawano za rzecz naturalną, że sądy wojskowe rozpoznają sprawy osób cywilnych oskarżonych o przestępstwa przeciwko państwu i obronności. +Dziś właściwość sądów wojskowych w czasie pokoju jest z reguły ograniczona do przestępstw (ewentualnie także wykroczeń) popełnionych przez żołnierzy w czynnej służbie wojskowej, ponadto podlegają one nadzorowi orzeczniczemu sądów najwyższych. +Jak wykazują doświadczenia historii, zwłaszcza krajów komunistycznych, sądownictwo wojskowe bywało często wykorzystywane jako instrument prześladowań politycznych i ideologicznych (zobacz: Najwyższy Sąd Wojskowy, Sekcja Tajna Sądu Wojewódzkiego w Warszawie). +Kurt von Schleicher + +, "Kurt Ferdinand Friederich Hermann von Schleicher" (ur. 7 kwietnia 1882 w Brandenburgu, zm. 30 czerwca 1934 w Neubabelsberg) – niemiecki polityk, generał i ostatni kanclerz Republiki Weimarskiej (1932-1933), zamordowany podczas nocy długich noży. +Urodził się w Brandenburgii jako syn pruskiego oficera. Do armii pruskiej wstąpił w 1900. W czasie I wojny światowej służył w adiutanturze Groenera. W 1920 awansował na łącznika politycznego wojska niemieckiego. +Wierzył, że armia niemiecka ma także zadania socjalne. Swoją karierę polityczną rozpoczynał w Prusach. Od 1930 był prawą ręką ministra obrony narodowej Republiki Weimarskiej Wilhelma Groenera (w obu rządach Heinricha Brüninga). Stanowisko ministra objął w rządzie von Papena, doprowadzając uprzednio intrygami personalnymi do utraty zaufania prezydenta Hindenburga do Groenera. 3 grudnia 1932 został powołany na urząd kanclerza. Za główne zadania Schleicher stawiał sobie poprawę warunków życia Niemców i powstrzymanie zagrożeń dla demokracji. 28 stycznia 1933 po naciskach von Papena, prezydent odwołał Schleichera. 30 stycznia powstał nowy rząd z Adolfem Hitlerem jako kanclerzem i Franzem von Papenem jako wicekanclerzem. Schleicher sprzeciwiał się budowanemu w Niemczech systemowi totalitarnemu opowiadając się za rządami autorytarnymi opartymi na wojsku (Reichswehrze). +Schleicher swoimi intrygami doprowadził do usunięcia 13 maja 1932 ministra obrony generała Groenera, któremu w dużej mierze zawdzięczał swoją karierę. Odejście Groenera – przeciwnika nazistów (doprowadził on m.in. do zdelegalizowania SA i SS) i jednego z nielicznych zwolenników rządów Republiki Weimarskiej wśród generalicji Reichswehry, było wstępem do zainicjowanego przez Schleichera upadku całego rządu kanclerza Brüninga. W okresie tych przesileń rządowych Schleicher cały czas utrzymywał dobre kontakty z kierownictwem NSDAP i SA, licząc że zapewni sobie ich poparcie w walce z przeciwnikami politycznymi. Sam jednak nie zamierzał brać odpowiedzialności za rządy. Licząc na to, że zachowa pozycję głównego rozgrywającego na scenie politycznej, jako kandydata na kanclerza wysunął Franza von Papena. Uprzednie intrygi Schleichera spowodowały jednak, że Papenowi nie udało się utworzyć większości parlamentarnej. Prezydent von Hindenburg nie chciał się natomiast zgodzić na rządzenie za pomocą prezydenckich dekretów. +Działalność Schleichera doprowadziła do serii wyborów parlamentarnych w Niemczech, w wyniku których jednak żadna z sił politycznych nie zdołała utworzyć rządu mającego stabilną większość parlamentarną. Częściowo przyczynił się do tego Adolf Hitler, który dążył do przejęcia pełni władzy w Niemczech i nie godził się na żadne kompromisowe rozwiązania. Działania takie umożliwiała mu zdobywana ilość miejsc w parlamencie. +NSDAP w kolejnych wyborach od 1930 zdobywała od 30 do 37% głosów, stając się w 1932 najliczebniejszą frakcją parlamentarną w Reichstagu. Tak znaczne poparcie sugerowało konieczność sformowania rządu z udziałem NSDAP. Adolf Hitler konsekwentnie zaś domagał się funkcji kanclerza Rzeszy, na co nie zgadzał się przez długi czas prezydent Paul von Hindenburg. W grudniu 1932 r. Schleicher doprowadził do odwołania Papena ze stanowiska kanclerza, twierdząc na forum Reichstagu, że dalsze jego rządy doprowadzą do wojny domowej w Niemczech, a Reichswehra straciła zaufanie do kanclerza i nie stanie po jego stronie. +Ustąpienie Papena spowodowało, że Schleicher sam musiał objąć tekę kanclerza. Liczył przy tym na to, że uda mu się przekonać von Hindenburga do rządów za pomocą dekretów. Prezydent jednakże kategorycznie nie zgadzał się na to i polecił Schleicherowi utworzyć rząd większościowy. Próby jego utworzenia, oparte na założeniu dokonania rozłamu w NSDAP w oparciu o Gregora Strassera spełzły na niczym wobec załamania się pozycji Strassera w NSDAP. +W tych warunkach von Hindenburg przy zakulisowych intrygach Papena prowadzonych z udziałem i za pośrednictwem syna prezydenta Oskara, zaakceptował kandydaturę Hitlera na kanclerza Rzeszy z Papenem jako wicekanclerzem i parlamentarną większością złożoną z DNVP i NSDAP. Hitler uzyskał jednocześnie z nominacją zgodę prezydenta na rozpisanie kolejnych przedterminowych wyborów do Reichstagu. Działalność polityczna Schleichera w dużej mierze doprowadziła do zdestabilizowania i tak niepewnej sytuacji politycznej w Niemczech. Sprzyjała ona zwiększeniu popularności partii skrajnych – komunistów i nazistów, pogłębieniu podziałów w społeczeństwie i parlamencie niemieckim. Między innymi to dzięki intrygom Schleichera armia straciła do niego zaufanie jako poważnego kandydata do objęcia urzędu kanclerza i opowiedziała się za Hitlerem, w stosunku do którego była dotychczas raczej niechętna. +Ze starcia dwóch osobowości – Hitlera i Schleichera – dążących w sposób bezkompromisowy do przejęcia pełni władzy zwycięsko wyszedł ten pierwszy. W dużej mierze dlatego, że umiał przekonać społeczeństwo, wielki przemysł i armię, że potrafi wyprowadzić państwo z zamętu, jaki spowodował kryzys parlamentarny w Niemczech. Kurt von Schleicher mimo usunięcia się w cień nadal posiadał poważne wpływy, zwłaszcza w kręgach wyższych dowódców armii. Z tego powodu jako niewygodny dla hitlerowców został zamordowany podczas tzw. „Nocy długich noży” w nocy z 29 na 30 czerwca 1934. +Park Krajobrazowy Wzniesień Łódzkich + +Park Krajobrazowy Wzniesień Łódzkich – park krajobrazowy położony w województwie łódzkim (na północny wschód od Łodzi, pod względem administracyjnym na terenie 2 miast – Brzeziny, Łódź oraz 5 gmin – Brzeziny, Dmosin, Nowosolna, Stryków, Zgierz). +Historia powstania. +Na początku lat osiemdziesiątych w Biurze Programowania i Projektowania Rozwoju Łodzi zrodziła się koncepcja ochrony obszaru w dorzeczu Moszczenicy, na terenie gminy Nowosolna, pod roboczą nazwą „Park Krajobrazowy Górnej Moszczenicy”. Wkrótce opracowana została nowa koncepcja ochrony większego obszaru obejmującego także część dorzecza Mrożycy. W końcu 1993 roku została opracowana dokumentacja projektowa PKWŁ zawierająca pełną argumentację naukową. Projekt ten uzyskał pozytywną opinię Państwowej Rady Ochrony Przyrody oraz Ministerstwa Środowiska. Ostateczny kształt granic Parku ustalony został w 1994 r., kiedy to pod patronatem Wojewódzkiej Komisji Ochrony Przyrody doszło do uzgodnień pomiędzy grupą projektantów oraz przedstawicielami samorządów gminnych i władz wojewódzkich. Uzgodniono, że Park obejmie ochroną najcenniejszy pod względem przyrodniczym i krajobrazowym fragment strefy krawędziowej Wzniesień Łódzkich na terenie ówczesnego województwa łódzkiego i skierniewickiego. W procesie delimitacji granic Parku bardzo istotne znaczenie miało rozwiązanie problemu związanego z projektowanym przebiegiem przyszłej autostrady, której wstępna lokalizacja biegła nieomal dnem doliny Moszczenicy. Na wniosek WKOP w Łodzi dokonano korekty przebiegu autostrady przez teren projektowanego parku krajobrazowego, w celu zminimalizowania negatywnych oddziaływań na przyrodę i krajobraz. Usunięta została w ten sposób ostatnia przeszkoda na drodze formalnego uzgodnienia decyzji o powołaniu Parku. +W ostatnim dniu grudnia 1996 roku wojewodowie łódzki i skierniewicki podpisali rozporządzenie o utworzeniu Parku Krajobrazowego Wzniesień Łódzkich. +Położenie geograficzne. +Umiejscowiony pomiędzy Łodzią, Brzezinami i Strykowem Park Krajobrazowy jest częścią "Wyżyny Łódzkiej". +Według regionalizacji fizycznogeograficznej Kondrackiego Park położony jest w obrębie makroregionu Wzniesień Południowomazowieckich, w jego północnej części, która znana jest pod nazwą Wzniesień Łódzkich i obejmuje najsilniej eksponowaną północną krawędź tego mezoregionu, przebiegającą równoleżnikowo od Zgierza na zachodzie, po Brzeziny na wschodzie. Najwyższy punkt na terenie PKWŁ leży na wysokości 284 m n.p.m. (tzw. wzgórze "Radary", koło miejscowości Dąbrowa). Wzgórza w południowej części Parku opadają wyraźnymi stopniami w kierunku północnym, ku Pradolinie Warszawsko-Berlińskiej. Północy skraj Parku, leżący w odległości 7-9 km od krawędzi znajduje się na wysokości 165 m n.p.m. (dolina Moszczenicy pod Strykowem), a nawet poniżej 150 m n.p.m. (dolina Mrożycy w Niesułkowie). +Celem istnienia PKWŁ jest ochrona unikalnych na terenie Polski Środkowej wyżynnych krajobrazów, występujących w strefie krawędziowej Wzniesień Łódzkich. Duże wysokości względne Parku, nadające krajobrazowi wyżynny charakter, można zaobserwować z wielu punktów widokowych (m.in. w okolicach Teolina, Borchówki, Dąbrowy, Janowa, Plichtowa). Umożliwiają one podziwianie panoramy – nieskażonego budownictwem przemysłowym – krajobrazu. +Kompleksy leśne. +Zalesienie Parku jest niewielkie (28%), jednak znajdują się w nim takie "perełki", jak największy w centralnej Polsce las bukowy – "Las Janinowski", czy największy w Europie kompleks leśny w granicach miasta – łódzki "Las Łagiewnicki" (na drugim miejscu jest "Lasek Buloński" w Paryżu). Tutaj biorą swoje początki liczne rzeki i strumienie (przebiega tędy dział wodny I rzędu), m.in. Bzura, Moszczenica, Mrożyca, Mroga, Miazga, tworzące gęstą sieć wodną, której towarzyszą szuwary, torfowiska, kwieciste łąki i roślinność łęgowa. +Rezerwaty. +Planowane jest założenie rezerwatu Torfowisko Żabieniec. Ponadto utworzono zespół przyrodniczo-krajobrazowy Górna Mrożyca. +Obiekty historyczne i kulturowe. +Podczas zwiedzania Parku napotkać można występujące powszechnie głazy narzutowe (czasem o kilkumetrowym obwodzie), przywleczone na obszar środkowej Polski przez lądolód skandynawski w plejstoceńskiej epoce lodowcowej. Niektóre mają wartość historyczną, czego dowodem są umieszczone na nich tablice, upamiętniające ważne wydarzenia w regionie. +Dodatkowym walorem Parku jest nagromadzenie cennych obiektów kulturowych, m.in. średniowieczne grodzisko w Starych Skoszewach (z VI-IX wieku), klasycystyczny dwór w Byszewach (gdzie często bywał Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz), parki podworskie i zespoły pałacowo-parkowe w Łagiewnikach, Klęku, Dobieszkowie (oraz zachowany w stanie szczątkowym park w Niesułkowie), czy obiekty sakralne w Dobrej, Niesułkowie, Starych Skoszewach, Łagiewnikach i Łodzi (przy ul. Wycieczkowej). +Turystyka. +Sąsiedztwo dużej aglomeracji, oprócz pewnych zagrożeń, jest czynnikiem ułatwiającym wykorzystanie Parku do celów turystycznych, rekreacyjnych i dydaktycznych. Sieć szlaków pieszych, a także doskonale oznakowanych tras rowerowych (szlak rowerowy po Parku Krajobrazowym Wzniesień Łódzkich) przebiegających przez najatrakcyjniejsze obszary umożliwia łatwe dotarcie do interesujących miejsc. +Główny Zarząd Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego NKWD + +Główny Zarząd Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego NKWD (GUGB - Gławnoje Uprawlenije Gosudarstwiennoj Bezopastnosti), jeden z czołowych zarządów Ludowego Komisariatu Spraw Wewnętrznych NKWD, odpowiedzialny m.in. za bezpieczeństwo wewnętrzne, ochronę rządu, wywiad zagraniczny i kontrwywiad. +Utworzenie. +Istniejący od 1923 roku Połączony Państwowy Zarząd Polityczny (OGPU) działający niezależnie od NKWD, w 1934 roku został przemianowany na Główny Zarząd Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego i włączony jako główna struktura do Ludowego Komisariatu Spraw Wewnętrznych Związku Radzieckiego. +Naczelnicy GUGB. +Na czele GUGB stał naczelnik, który był także pierwszym zastępcą Ludowego Komisarza Spraw Wewnętrznych, byli nimi: +Struktura. +Od 1936 roku, do 1939 roku, struktura GUGB uległa trzykrotnej zmianie: w listopadzie 1936 roku, po objęciu kierownictwa całego NKWD przez Jeżowa, 9 czerwca 1938 roku rozkazem ludowego komisarza SW nr 00362 wprowadzono nową organizacje tzw. wydziałów operacyjno-czekistowskich NKWD i 29 września 1938 roku, zmieniono struktury NKWD, zwiększając liczbę zarządów. Natomiast liczba wydziałów GUGB została zmieniona do siedmiu. +Wrzesień 1938. +Dla celów konspiracyjnych wprowadzono numerację Wydziałów GUGB i podległych im poszczególnych Oddziałów, np. +Naczelnik Wsiewołod Mierkułow +Stopnie 1935-40. +Główny Zarząd Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego (GUGB NKWD) +Reorganizacje. +Luty 1941 +W lutym 1941 roku na polecenie Józefa Stalina wywiad zagraniczny (INO) i służby bezpieczeństwa (dotychczasowy Główny Zarząd Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego - GUGB), zostały wyłączone z Ludowego Komisariatu Spraw Wewnętrznych NKWD i stały się niezależnym Ludowym Komisariatem Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego ZSRR (NKGB ZSRR), na czele którego stanął Wsiewołod Mierkułow. (Oddział zagraniczny został przemianowany w I Zarząd NKGB) NKWD pozostało pod zwierzchnictwem Ławrientija Berii i zasadniczo zajmowało się wewnętrznymi sprawami policyjnymi i projektami budowlanymi na dużą skalę. +lipiec 1941 +Do stanu poprzedniego powrócono już w lipcu tego samego roku (1941), po wybuchu wojny z Niemcami. NKGB przeformowano na GUGB i włączono z powrotem do Ludowego Komisariatu Spraw Wewnętrznych. +Powody reorganizacji +Tych szczególnych zmian organizacyjnych nigdy w pełni nie wyjaśniono, ale być może miały one coś wspólnego z wchłonięciem przez ZSRR podbitych krajów i narodów - Estonii, Litwy, Łotwy, części Polski i oderwaniem od Rumunii Besarabii i północnej Bukowiny. Liczba aresztowań, deportacji, egzekucji i łagrów zwiększyła się, a to wymagało zreorganizowanych i zwiększonych sił bezpieczeństwa. +(...) Szok spowodowany agresją i szybkimi postępami Wehrmachtu doprowadził w lipcu 1941 roku do fuzji i oba organy znowu połączyły się jako NKWD pod kierownictwem Berii. +marzec 1943 +W marcu 1943 roku dokonano kolejnej reorganizacji, Główny Zarząd Bezpieczeństwa został wyłączony z NKWD celem ponownego utworzenia NKGB. +WAMP + +WAMP (Windows – Apache – MySQL – PHP) – pakiet wolnego oprogramowania do obsługi witryn internetowych w środowisku MS Windows, zawierający programy open source: serwer Apache, język skryptowy PHP, bazę danych MySQL i oprogramowanie uzupełniające. +WAMP jest odpowiednikiem pakietu LAMP dla środowiska Linux i FAMP dla FreeBSD oraz MAMP dla Mac OS X. +Zobacz też. +AMP (oprogramowanie) +Software Development Kit + +SDK (ang. "Software Development Kit") – zestaw narzędzi dla programistów niezbędny w tworzeniu aplikacji korzystających z danej biblioteki (np. DirectX SDK), pod dany system (np. Microsoft Platform SDK), sprzęt itp. +Ważną cechą SDK jest licencja, na której jest ono udostępniane. Z niej wynikają dodatkowe ograniczenia w korzystaniu (np. zakaz wykorzystania do pewnych zastosowań) oraz ponoszone koszty (np. opłaty uzależnione od sprzedaży wytworzonego rozwiązania). +SDK zawiera często przykładowe fragmenty kodów i gotowe aplikacje zbudowane w oparciu o dokumentację i pliki nagłówkowe bibliotek dostępnych w SDK. Dostarczenie działającego kodu źródłowego stanowi formę jego dokumentacji, czytelną dla programisty. +W zależności od zastosowania twórcy SDK decydują się czasem nadać zestawowi unikalną nazwę. Sytuacja taka istnieje np. w przypadku SDK wspomagającego tworzenie sterowników programowych do urządzeń komputerowych. W przypadku Microsoftu i Apple Computer zestaw taki nazywa się "Driver Development Kits (DDK)". Podobnie SDK wspomagające tworzenie oprogramowania dla urządzeń przenośnych pracujących pod kontrolą PalmOS nazywa się "PalmOS Development Kit (PDK)". +Oprócz zastosowań komercyjnych SDK stosowane jest również z powodzeniem przy przeprowadzaniu badań naukowych. Jednym z najbardziej znanych SDK udostępnionych w tym celu publicznie przez Microsoft jest "Kinect for Windows". +Porąbka + +Zobacz też: +Reinholds Bērziņš + +Reinholds Bērziņš (1888-1939) - radziecki działacz komunistyczny pochodzenia łotewskiego, dowódca wojskowy. +Berzin urodził się w guberni inflanckiej w rodzinie chłopsko-robotniczej. W 1905 roku przystąpił do SDPRR. Podczas wojny rosyjsko-niemieckiej oficer armii, po rewolucji lutowej przewodniczący "RewKomu" 40 Korpusu i członek KW Rady Delegatów Żołnierskich (RDŻ), ponadto delegat na II Wszechrosyjski Zjazd RDRiŻ. Jesienią 1917 roku objął dowództwo nad wojskami sowieckimi Białorusi, od końca grudnia 1917 roku stał na czele Mińskiego Oddziału Rewolucyjnego (walczył m.in. z I Korpusem Polskim). W 1918 roku przejął dowództwo II Armii, walczącej z niepodległą Ukrainą (CRU) hetmana Skoropadskiego. W lutym 1918 roku został dowódcą Frontu Zachodniego, cztery miesiące później stanął na czele Frontu Północnouralskiego. Od grudnia 1918 roku inspektor armii sowieckiej Łotwy. +Po zakończehiu wojny polsko-bolszewickiej i walki z siłami kontrrewolucji członek RWR Frontu Turkiestanu (1923-24) oraz Zachodniego Okręgu Wojskowego (1924-27). Po dojściu Stalina do władzy pracował w pionie gospodarczym na podrzędniejszych stanowiskach. Zabity na fali czystek stalinowskich, zrehabilitowany po dojściu Chruszczowa do władzy. +Powiat bolesławiecki + +Powiat bolesławiecki – powiat w Polsce (województwo dolnośląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Bolesławiec. Powiat bolesławiecki leży w południowo-zachodniej części kraju w północno-zachodniej części województwa dolnośląskiego. Jest on drugim co do wielkości powiatem tegoż województwa. Tutaj też przebiega granica pomiędzy województwami dolnośląskim i lubuskim. Powiat bolesławiecki położony jest w pobliżu granic Polski z Czechami i z Niemcami, na skrzyżowaniu dróg łączących Wschodnią i Zachodnią Europę oraz Skandynawię z Europą Południową. Duże obszary leśne zajmujące około 50% powierzchni powiatu determinują położenie i rozwój osadnictwa. Należy jednak wskazać, że powiat bolesławiecki nie należy do grupy subregionów wysoce zurbanizowanych. W ostatnich latach rozwija się na tym terenie ekoturystyka, powstają nowe szlaki turystyczne i ścieżki rowerowe. +Administracja. +Powiat bolesławiecki jest jednym z 26 powiatów wchodzących w skład województwa dolnośląskiego. Pierwszym Starostą bolesławieckim był Piotr Roman, który pełnił tę funkcję w latach 1999-2002. Od 2002 do 2006 r. starostą bolesławieckim był Krzysztof Konopka. Od 2006 roku funkcję starosty pełni Cezary Przybylski. +Sąsiednie powiaty. +Zgorzelecki, lubański, lwówecki, złotoryjski, legnicki, polkowicki, żagański +Transport. +Przez obszar powiatu prowadzą autostrada A4 (44 km; węzły: "Godzieszów", "Bolesławiec" i "Krzyżowa") oraz autostrada A18 (28 km), na której zlokalizowano węzły: "Świętoszów", "Golnice", "Lipiany" i "Krzyżowa", co daje średnią gęstość sieci autostrad 0,059 km na km² powierzchni powiatu (dla porównania w Niemczech wynosi ona 0,035 km/km²). +Przez powiat przechodzi również Droga wojewódzka nr 297 (DW297), która łączy drogę ekspresową S3 z autostradami A18 i A4 oraz drogami krajowymi nr 12 i 30. Duże znaczenie ma również droga krajowa nr 94. +Bolesławiec posiada bezpośrednie połączenie kolejowe z takimi miastami jak Wrocław, Cottbus, Drezno, Berlin, Hamburg, Katowice czy Kraków. +Historia. +Rys historyczny. +W okolicach Bolesławca odnaleźć można sporo śladów najstarszego osadnictwa na ziemiach polskich. To tutaj przed ponad tysiącem lat zamieszkiwało jedno z plemion lechickich – plemię Bobrzan (stąd m.in. nazwa głównej rzeki płynącej przez powiat bolesławiecki: Bóbr). Jednym z najstarszych grodów plemienia Bobrzan na tych ziemiach miał być niedaleki Grodziec – osada na wysokiej (389 m n.p.m.), widocznej z daleka górze pochodzenia wulkanicznego. Do dziś oglądać tam można okazałe ruiny średniowiecznego Zamku Grodziec, zbudowanego na miejscu dawnej osady. W IX-X w. na południowy zachód od wsi Otok znajdował się inny gród plemienia Bobrzan. Zaś w XII w. rycerze w habitach ze słynnego zakonu templariuszy wznieśli w Warcie Bolesławieckiej swoją strażnicę, nazywaną przez długie lata „Gwiezdnym Zamkiem”. +Na terenie powiatu znajduje się sporo obiektów zaliczanych do tzw. pomników średniowiecznego prawa karnego. Są to krzyże pokutne oraz pręgierz. Krzyże – stawiane przez mordercę na miejscu zbrodni, jako wyraz pokuty, ku uwadze i przestrodze potomnych – znajdują się m.in. w Gościszowie, Milikowie, Czernej, Zabłociu, Wykrotach, Raciborowicach. Średniowieczny pręgierz stoi natomiast w Gościszowie. Jest to blisko dwumetrowy obelisk z zachowanymi łańcuchami i uchwytami, do których przywiązywano skazańców. +Od końca XIV w. powiat bolesławiecki (jak cały Śląsk) dostał się pod panowanie czeskie, a od 1526 r. wszedł w granice austriackiej monarchii Habsburgów – stąd też zaczęła tu stopniowo napływać ludność pochodzenia niemieckiego. Od połowy XVIII w. powiat stał się częścią Królestwa Pruskiego. +W okresie wojen napoleońskich toczyły się w tym regionie częste walki pomiędzy wojskami francuskimi, a rosyjskimi i pruskimi. W Bolesławcu i niektórych miejscowościach powiatu kilkakrotnie przebywał sam Napoleon Bonaparte (m.in. w latach 1807, 1812 i 1813). Tutaj też zatrzymał się, ścigający wojska francuskie, naczelny dowódca wojsk rosyjskich – feldmarszałek Michaił Kutuzow. Słynny rosyjski dowódca zachorował na tyfus i zmarł w Bolesławcu 28 kwietnia 1813 r. Stąd w mieście znajduje się jego pomnik autorstwa K. F. Schinkla i G. Schadowa, wzniesiony w 1819 r., ufundowany przez króla pruskiego. Jeszcze w granicach Bolesławca, przy drodze wyjazdowej do Zgorzelca usytuowany jest też cmentarz żołnierzy rosyjskich z czasów napoleońskich i radzieckich poległych w II wojnie światowej, nazywany Cmentarzem Kutuzowa. +O tamtym okresie przypomina również płaskorzeźba przedstawiająca Rosalie von Bonin, będąca dziełem Jenny von Barry-Pousin z 1913 r. umieszczona na wschodniej elewacji miejskiego ratusza. Ukazuje ona wydarzenia z 10 lutego 1807 r., kiedy to dzielna 26-letnia bolesławianka wraz z kilkoma kawalerzystami pojmała stacjonującego w mieście napoleońskiego generała le Brun i przejęła kasę wojskową o wartości 70 tys. talarów. +W Bolesławcu na przestrzeni dziejów urodziło się wielu ludzi związanych z niemiecką kulturą i nauką, wśród nich: słynny teolog luterański Salomon Gesner, wybitny poeta i dyplomata Martin Opitz – nazywany „odnowicielem poezji niemieckiej”, przyrodnik Carl Ferdinand Appun, słynny w całej Europie grafik David Tscherning czy wreszcie Reinhold Röhricht – największy XIX-wieczny badacz historii wypraw krzyżowych. +Z kolei pobliska Osiecznica jest miejscem urodzenia Abrahama G. Wernera – słynnego geologa i mineraloga, profesora Akademii Górniczej we Freibergu, zaś Nowogrodziec – popularnego kompozytora i pedagoga Józefa Schnabla, nazywanego „Śląskim Haydnem”. Swoją działalność zamknął liczbą 1100 koncertów, zaś katalog jego dzieł obejmuje aż 219 kompozycji. W listopadzie 1830 r. poprowadził koncert, w którym wystąpił młody Fryderyk Chopin. +Średniowieczny Wał Śląski koło Wierzbowej. +W północnej części powiatu, około 3,5 km na północ od Wierzbowej, jest zlokalizowany 7,5 kilometrowy fragment Wałów Śląskich – czyli średniowiecznych budowli drewniano-ziemnych o historycznym, prawdopodobnym znaczeniu graniczno-obronnym. Ich łańcuch ciągnie się od Krosna Odrzańskiego na północy, aż po mokradła w okolicy Wierzbowej na południu. W większości owe Wały uległy już zatarciu z racji oddziaływania kilkusetletnich czynników naturalnych i cywilizacyjnych. Odcinek koło Wierzbowej zachował się w relatywnie dobrym stanie z uwagi, iż jest on zlokalizowany na małodostępnych terenach Borów Dolnośląskich (do roku 1993 obejmowała go strefa i otulina poligonu PGWAR – obecny Ośrodek Szkolenia Poligonowego Żagań-Świętoszów). +Góra Polaków ("Polackenberg – Rückenwaldau)". +Niedaleko południowego krańca Wału Śląskiego, około 2,5 km na północ od Wierzbowej, na północnych rubieżach historycznego i teraźniejszego powiatu bolesławieckiego, położone jest niewielkie, śródleśne wzniesienie (153,6 m n.p.m.), wzmiankowane na wielu niemieckich, historycznych mapach oraz w kronikach szkolnych okolicznych wsi, w tym w kronice szkoły w Rückenwaldau (obecnie Wierzbowa). +Wzgórze to nazywane było: "Polackenberg", "Górą Polaków" lub nieściśle "Polską Górą". +Miejsce to i nazwa "Polacken(berg)" świadczy o istniejącym w średniowieczu w tych okolicach osadnictwie polskim, wypartym i napiętnowanym przez kolonizatorów germańskich. +Nazwa Polacken-Berg występuje także w innym miejscu na Dolnym Śląsku – w Kotlinie Jeleniogórskiej – jest to wzniesienie niedaleko wsi Marczyce, na współczesnych polskich mapach zwane Polską Górką. Wskazywałoby to na fakt iż osadnictwo polskie było obecne nawet pod Karkonoszami, co potwierdzałaby też chociażby typowo słowiańska nazwa potoku i wsi Łomnica – Lomnitz, czy rzeki Bóbr – Bober. +Najciekawsze zabytki architektury powiatu bolesławieckiego. +Bolesławiec – Ratusz Miejski. +Pierwotnie późnogotycki, przebudowany gruntownie w latach 1525-1535 pod kierunkiem architekta Wendela Roskopfa i później jeszcze kilkakrotnie w XVIII i XIX w. Szczególnie godne uwagi są późnogotyckie detale kamieniarki i tzw. sklepienie cyrklowe w Sali Ślubów oraz renesansowe portale przeniesione z rynkowych kamienic. +Bolesławiec – Kościół pw. Wniebowzięcia Marii Panny i Świętego Mikołaja, od 2004 r. Sanktuarium Wniebowziętej Matki Kościoła. +Najokazalsza świątynia miasta, późnogotycka (1482-1492, ukończona w 1521 r.), przykład dojrzałego gotyku na Śląsku. Po pożarze w 1642 r. kościół odbudowano w latach 1665-1692 w stylu barokowym. Od 1689 r. odbudowana prowadzona była przez włoskiego architekta Giulio Simonettiego. Obiekt wyróżnia się bogato zdobionymi portalami, ciekawym szczytem zachodnim ze sterczynami oraz wysoką masywną wieżą. Wewnątrz bogate barokowe wyposażenie z 1 poł. XVIII w. W skarbcu przechowywane są relikwiarze św. Jana Nepomucena i Krzyża Św. +Bolesławiec – Wiadukt na Bobrze. +Wiadukt kolejowy z 1846 r. przerzucony nad doliną Bobru – najdłuższy wiadukt kolejowy w Polsce, będący dziełem inżynierskim na skalę europejską. Zbudowany według projektu Engelhardta Gansela w latach 1844-1846, o imponującej długości 490 m, składa się z 35 potężnych łuków. Uroczystego otwarcia dokonał w 1851 r. król pruski Fryderyk Wilhelm IV, co upamiętnia tablica wmurowana w jeden z filarów wiaduktu. +Bolesławiec – Dawne Gimnazjum (obecnie siedziba Sądu Rejonowego). +Gimnazjum zostało wzniesione w latach 1861-1864 według projektu architekta Oppermanna. Charakterystyczna smukła, strzelista budowla z jasnego piaskowca (któremu po roku 2000 przywrócono jego dawny wygląd) nawiązuje do najlepszych wzorów neogotyku angielskiego i jest jedną z najciekawszych realizacji tego typu na Dolnym Śląsku. Główną atrakcją, oprócz samej architektury, jest piękna, wysoka na dwie kondygnacje aula w zachodnim skrzydle. Jej wnętrze było bogato dekorowane – m.in. popiersiami wybitnych postaci kultury i nauki starożytnej oraz niemieckiej. +Bolesławiec – Teatr Stary. +Budynek z 1857 r., powstał na fundamentach dawnego arsenału miejskiego. Swój obecny wygląd zawdzięcza przebudowie przeprowadzonej w latach 1885-1886 przez Wilhelma Döricha i Richarda Schillera. Powstała wówczas neorenesansowa budowla z motywami powtarzających się półkoliście zamkniętych okien oraz wieńczącym fasadę frontonem z akroterionami. W latach 2009-2012, staraniem władz powiatu bolesławieckiego, teatr został poddany gruntownej renowacji, a jego wnętrza przywrócono do dawnej świetności. +Gościszów – Kościół pw. Matki Boskiej Częstochowskiej. +Jeden z najstarszych kościołów w tej części Dolnego Śląska, XIII-wieczna budowla późnoromańska z elementami gotyckimi, przebudowana w XVII w. Wewnątrz podziwiać można gotyckie sklepienie krzyżowo-żebrowe oraz polichromię z początku XV w. ze sceną Zwiastowania, ciekawe wyposażenie renesansowe (m.in. ołtarz, ambonę i chrzcielnicę) oraz płyty epitafijne z XVI-XVIII w. Obok kościoła znajdują się pozostałości zamku, uważanego niegdyś za jedno z najpiękniejszych założeń renesansowych na Dolnym Śląsku, od 1945 roku w postępującej ruinie. +Kliczków – zamek renesansowy. +Zamek stanowił jedną z kilku warowni granicznych wybudowanych przez księcia Bolka I Surowego na południowo-zachodniej granicy księstwa świdnicko-jaworskiego pod koniec XIII w. W latach 90. XIV w. stracił swoje znaczenie obronne, przekształcając się w założenie zamkowo-folwarczne. Na przełomie XVI i XVII w. otrzymał renesansowy wygląd, gruntownie przebudowany w latach 1881-1884 w stylu eklektycznym na polecenie ówczesnego właściciela – hrabiego Fryderyka Jerzego zu Solms-Baruth, zwanego „starym księciem”. Za jego panowania w Kliczkowie kilkakrotnie przebywał sam cesarz Niemiec. Kompletnie zniszczony po wojnie obiekt został w latach 2000-2001 pieczołowicie odrestaurowany i przeznaczony na centrum hotelowo-konferencyjne. Odtworzone zostało również rozległe założenie parkowe. +Kraszowice – elektrownia na Bobrze. +Zbudowana w 1920 r. według projektu Georga Wolffa, wyposażona jest w dwie turbiny o mocy 0,48 MW. W celu spiętrzenia wody wybudowano jaz i kanał doprowadzający wodę do elektrowni. Do 1945 r. równolegle z elektrownią działał młyn. +Modła – ruiny zamku Bibranów. +Zamek wybudowany przez Mikołaja von Bibran w latach 1564-1567, powiększony przez rodzinę Rittbergów w roku 1767. Od 1945 r. pozostaje w ruinie. Obok zamku zachowały się fragmenty zabudowy dworskiej i pozostałości po parku krajobrazowym. Przy pobliskim kościele pw. Matki Boskiej Różańcowej znajduje się mauzoleum rodu Rittberg – największy obiekt tego typu na terenie powiatu. +Nowogrodziec – kościół pw. świętego Piotra i Pawła. +Późnobarokowy z lat 1788-1793, posiada bogaty wystrój i kilka cennych obrazów z 2. poł. XVIII wieku. Przed kościołem usytuowana jest XVIII-wieczna plebania – dom urodzenia kompozytora Józefa Ignacego Schnabla, od 1815 r. kapelmistrza katedralnego we Wrocławiu, nazywanego „Śląskim Haydnem”. +Nowogrodziec – ruiny klasztoru Świętej Marii Magdaleny. +Klasztor został ufundowany w 1217 r. przez św. Jadwigę Śląską, a w 1247 r. przekazany zakonowi magdalenek, które przebywały w nim aż do 1810 r. W 1495 r. zakon stał się właścicielem miasta Nowogrodziec. Klasztor był wielokrotnie przebudowywany i rozbudowywany, m.in. w latach 1726-1729 i 1788-1794. Częściowo uszkodzony w 1813 r. oraz w czasie działań II wojny światowej. Od 1945 r. pozostaje w trwałej ruinie. +Ołdrzychów koło Nowogrodźca – słup poczty polsko-saskiej. +Przy szosie do Lubania stoi jedyny zachowany na Śląsku słup milowy (dystansowy) poczty polsko-saskiej, oznaczony numerem 112. Powstał w 1725 r., ma wysokość ok. 4 m. Odrestaurowany w 2004 r. +Warta Bolesławiecka – dwór renesansowy. +Dwór renesansowy z 1540 r. wybudowany przez rodzinę von Zedlitzów, otoczony fosą, wielokrotnie przebudowywany. Do dworu przylega bardzo dobrze zachowana dawna zabudowa folwarczna i park krajobrazowy ze stawem. Dwór pozostający od wojny w ruinie, od 2006 r. przywracany jest przez prywatnego właściciela do dawnej postaci. +14. Żeliszów – dawny kościół ewangelicki +Kościół wzniesiony został w latach 1796-1797, według projektu przypisywanego znanemu architektowi niemieckiemu – Carlowi Gotthardowi Langhansowi. Ciekawe i oryginalne jest już samo założenie świątyni, oparte na planie elipsy. Do tego budowla posiadała klasycystyczne wnętrze o rzadko spotykanej urodzie. Kościół od lat nieużytkowany, pozostaje w formie zabezpieczonej ruiny. +Osobliwości przyrody. +Osiecznica – zespół skał nad Kwisą. +W dolinie rzekiKwisy, nieopodal domu, w którym urodził się Abraham Werner – współtwórca współczesnej mineralogii i geologii, znajduje się unikatowy zespół skał: Bolesławiecki Dzbanek do Kawy, Słoń ze Słoniątkiem oraz Diabelska Kuchnia. Nazwa pierwszej z wymienionych skał wynika z jej podobieństwa do dzbanka. Według tradycji, bolesławiecki garncarz na jej podobieństwo uformował, słynny potem na całą Europę, kamionkowy garnek. +Osiecznica – przełom Kwisy. +Malowniczy przełom rzeki Kwisy – tzw. Diabli Jaz, ostatni próg wodny przed ujściem do Bobru. Obecny wygląd koryta rzeki ukształtował się po powodzi z końca lat 50. XX wieku. Z uwagi na wysokie walory krajobrazowe na odcinku od miejscowości Ławszowa do Świętoszowa planowane jest utworzenie Parku Krajobrazowego Doliny Kwisy. +Borówki – rezerwat przyrody. +Rezerwat przyrody „Torfowisko Borówki” (gmina Gromadka), położony w obrębie Przemkowskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. Jest to rzadki już dziś przykład torfowiska przejściowego i boru bagiennego z chronionymi i zagrożonymi wyginięciem gatunkami roślin i zwierząt. Powierzchnia rezerwatu wynosi ponad 37 ha, z czego 3 ha stanowią malownicze stawy potorfowiskowe. +Powiaty partnerskie. +Powiat Bolesławiecki posiada dwa niemieckie powiaty partnerskie: Landkreis Bautzen (ze stolicą w Budziszynie) i Rhein-Sieg (ze stolicą w Siegburgu). +Powiat jaworski + +Powiat jaworski – powiat w Polsce (województwo dolnośląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Siedzibą jego władz jest miasto Jawor. +Nobunaga Oda + +Początek kariery. +W 1551 został daimyō klanu Oda, który przejął kontrolę nad prowincją Owari, znajdującą się na zachód od równiny Kantō i dziedzin rodzin Imagawa, Takeda i Hōjō. W 1560 pod Okehazama pokonał armię Imagawa Yoshimoto, który poległ. Tym samym na służbę do Nobunagi trafił Tokugawa Ieasu (wcześniej był zakładnikiem na dworze Imagawa), który obok Hideyoshiego Toyotomi okazał się najważniejszym dowódcą wojsk klanu Oda. +Aby utorować sobie drogę do stolicy kraju, Kioto, Nobunaga po kolei zajął prowincje Mino (1564) i Omi (1568), pokonując klan Saitō. +Kontrola siogunatu Ashikaga. +7 listopada 1568 Nobunaga wkroczył do Kioto, osadzając tam Yoshitaku Ashikaga, przez którego następnie sprawował rządy. W regionie Kantō wojska pod dowództwem Ieasu bez przerwy musiały walczyć z armią klanu Takeda lub Hōjō. Jednocześnie na północ od Mino Nobunaga walczył z wojskami rodzin Asakura i Azai o zdobycie kontroli nad prowincją Echizen. Największą bitwę - nad rzeką Anegawa - wygrał, lecz nie udało mu się osiągnąć głównego celu. Kolejny problem stanowiły potężne klasztory buddyjskie, które dysponowały rozległymi posiadłościami, własnymi armiami mnichów - wojowników (Sōhei) oraz poparciem ludu. Kilka z nich, m.in. Enryaku-ji w 1571 Nobunaga zniszczył doszczętnie. +Przeciwnicy. +W 1573 zmarł jeden z najbardziej znanych dowódców tego okresu, Shingen Takeda. Dwa lata później armia pokonała pod Nagashino wojska klanu Takeda dowodzone przez nowego przywódcę tej rodziny, Katsuyoriego. Zginęło 10 tysięcy ludzi. Szalę zwycięstwa przeważyły muszkiety, które Nobunaga wprowadził efektywnie do swojej armii jako jeden z pierwszych. Jego strzelcy stali w kilku rzędach i kolejno ładowali broń, dzięki czemu nie było długich przerw w salwach. Od tego czasu ten klan nie stanowił już większego zagrożenia dla Nobunagi. +Kolejnym przeciwnikiem był klan Mōri, który kontrolował 10 prowincji na zachodzie Honsiu. Walczyły z nim wojska Nobunagi pod wodzą Hideyoshiego i Mitsuhide Akechi. Nie zdołały jednak pokonać armii daimyō Mōri Motonariego. Mitsuhide okazał się zdrajcą. W czerwcu 1582 roku upozorował wymarsz z Kioto wojsk, którymi dowodził, a następnie przystąpił do oblężenia Nobunagi, który pozostał w zamku z jedynie stu żołnierzami. 21 czerwca Nobunaga zmarł, według jednej wersji w wyniku postrzału, według drugiej - popełnił rytualne samobójstwo (seppuku). +Zapisał się w pamięci i źródłach pisanych jako znakomity dowódca, reformator, a przede wszystkim człowiek bardzo okrutny - nawet jak na standardy sengoku. +Zmodyfikowana data juliańska + +Zmodyfikowana data juliańska - sposób rachuby lat, który zastąpił stosowaną wcześniej datę juliańską. Oznaczeniem zmodyfikowanej daty juliańskiej jest MJD (ang. "Modified Julian Day"). +formula_1 +Sądy szczególne + +Sądy szczególne to sądy, które rozpatrują sprawy z różnych przyczyn wyjęte spod rozpoznania przez sądy powszechne. +Paul Verlaine + +Paul Verlaine (ur. 30 marca 1844 w Metzu, zm. 8 stycznia 1896 w Paryżu) – jeden z największych i najbardziej uznanych poetów francuskich. Zaliczany do grona poetów wyklętych. Przedstawiciel impresjonizmu w literaturze. +Życiorys. +Urodzony w Metzu, po ukończeniu szkoły średniej w Paryżu rozpoczął pracę w służbie cywilnej. Wiersze zaczął pisać już w młodości, ich styl był wzorowany na poezji grupy „Parnassien”, w szczególności na wierszach jej lidera Charlesa Leconte’a de Lisle’a. +Pierwszy opublikowany tomik poezji, zatytułowany "Poemes saturniens" (1867), przyniósł Verlaine’owi uznanie i popularność pomimo ostrej krytyki ze strony Sainte-Beuve’a. Prywatne życie poety i nałóg alkoholowy zaczęły mieć coraz większy wpływ na jego twórczość. W 1872 porzucił żonę (Mathilde Maute) i syna dla poety Arthura Rimbauda. Burzliwy związek zakończył się strzelaniną – będąc pod wpływem alkoholu, powodowany zazdrością Verlaine strzelił w kierunku Rimbauda, raniąc go. Został później aresztowany i trafił do więzienia w Mons, gdzie nawrócił się na katolicyzm, co miało poważny wpływ na jego poezję. Wiersze opublikowane w tomie "Romances sans paroles" opisywały jego stan umysłu w tym okresie. +Po zwolnieniu z więzienia, Verlaine podróżował po Anglii gdzie pracował jako nauczyciel, pisząc także wiersze do jego następnego, bardzo udanego zbioru poezji "Sagesse". Przebywając w Anglii zakochał się w jednym ze swoich uczniów Lucienie Letinois, który stał się dla niego natchnieniem. Po nagłej śmierci Luciena Verlaine powrócił do Francji w 1877 r. Ostatnie lata życia Verlaine spędził w biedzie, stając się coraz bardziej niepoczytalny i coraz bardziej uzależniony od alkoholu. +Jego poezja zdobyła wielkie uznanie współczesnych. Najbardziej znanym z jego wierszy jest "Chanson d’automne", który w czasie II wojny światowej służył aliantom do przekazywania kodowanych wiadomości francuskiemu ruchowi oporu. Poezja Verlaine’a była także bardzo popularna wśród muzyków, jego wiersze były często wykorzystywane jako teksty piosenek. +Istnieje bardzo wiele portretów Verlaine’a namalowanych przez francuskich malarzy, najpiękniejsze z nich są autorstwa: Henri Fantin-Latour, Antonio de La Gandara, Eugène Carrière, Frédéric Cazals i Thèophile-Alexandre Steinlen. +Został pochowany na cmentarzu "Cimetière des Batignolles" w Paryżu. +Piotr Świtalski + +Piotr Antoni Świtalski (ur. 2 sierpnia 1957 w Kutnie) – polski dyplomata, były wiceminister spraw zagranicznych, w latach 2005–2010 stały przedstawiciel RP przy Radzie Europy w Strasburgu w randze ambasadora. +Życiorys. +Absolwent Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, odbył następnie studia doktoranckie w Moskiewskim Państwowym Instytucie Spraw Międzynarodowych (MGIMO). W 1985 uzyskał stopień doktora nauk historycznych. Specjalizuje się w stosunkach międzynarodowych. +Od 1986 zatrudniony w Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych początkowo jako pracownik Departamentu Studiów i Programowania, a później w Departamencie Instytucji Europejskich, gdzie sprawował funkcję naczelnika wydziału. W latach 1990–1993 zajmował stanowisko I sekretarza, a później radcy w przedstawicielstwie Polski przy Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych i Organizacji Bezpieczeństwa i Współpracy w Europie w Wiedniu. Następnie przez trzy lata był zatrudniony w Sekretariacie OBWE na stanowisku dyrektora departamentu, później ponownie w MSZ podjął pracę w Departamencie Systemu Narodów Zjednoczonych, Departamencie Polityki Bezpieczeństwa (p.o. wicedyrektora), Departamencie Polityki Bezpieczeństwa Europejskiego (p.o. wicedyrektora). W latach 1999–2002 pracował w Ambasadzie RP w Nairobi, gdzie sprawował urząd radcy, zastępcy Stałego Przedstawiciela RP przy UNEP i UN-Habitat. W 2002 został pracownikiem Departamentu Strategii i Planowania Polityki Zagranicznej. +Z dniem 11 stycznia 2005 został powołany na stanowisko wiceministra spraw zagranicznych w rządzie Marka Belki. 20 września 2005 został mianowany Stałym Przedstawicielem Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej przy Radzie Europy w Strasburgu. Z tego ostatniego stanowiska został odwołany 1 września 2010. +Kurt Tank + +Kurt Tank (ur. 24 lutego 1898 w Bydgoszczy-Szwederowie, zm. 5 czerwca 1983 w Monachium) – niemiecki inżynier i konstruktor lotniczy. +Do najbardziej znanych i udanych konstrukcji lotniczych Kurta Tanka należą m.in. takie samoloty, jak jeden z najlepszych myśliwców II wojny światowej Focke-Wulf Fw 190 wraz z rozwinięciem, którym był Focke-Wulf Ta 152, czy czterosilnikowy samolot pasażerski i transportowy Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor. Tank skonstruował również tak udane samoloty, jak Focke-Wulf Fw 44 oraz Focke-Wulf Fw 56. W drugiej połowie wojny, konstrukcje Tanka zaczęto oznaczać pierwszymi literami jego nazwiska – Ta, zamiast Fw, jakie nosiły dotychczas samoloty firmy Focke-Wulf. +Pod koniec wojny Kurt Tank pracował nad wielozadaniowym myśliwcem Focke-Wulf Ta 154 Moskito i projektem samolotu bojowego z napędem odrzutowym Focke-Wulf Ta 183, który jednak nie doczekał się realizacji. Prototypy Ta 183, które zostały zdobyte przez wojska radzieckie, zaproponowanymi w nim rozwiązaniami i pomysłami konstruktorskimi wpłynęły na prowadzone w ZSRR badania nad napędem odrzutowym i zostały wykorzystane m.in. przy konstrukcji MiGa-15. +Po zakończeniu wojny Kurt Tank opuścił Niemcy i podjął w Argentynie dalsze badania nad silnikami odrzutowymi w myśliwcu FMA Pulqui II, będącym modyfikacją projektu Ta 183. +Od 1959 pracował jako główny konstruktor hinduskiego przemysłu lotniczego w fabryce Hindustan Aeronautics Limited w Bangalore, konstruując odrzutowy myśliwiec bombardujący HAL HF-24 Marut. Do Niemiec powrócił w 1968 i wkrótce potem otworzył swe własne biuro inżynierskie. +Magdalena Środa + +Magdalena Środa (ur. 7 stycznia 1957 w Warszawie) – teoretyczka etyki, filozof, publicystka, feministka – zajmuje się historią idei etycznych, etyką stosowaną, filozofią polityczną i feministyczną oraz problematyką kobiecą. +Magdalena Środa jest córką socjologa Edwarda Ciupaka, profesora zwyczajnego UW. Ukończyła Liceum im. S. Batorego. +Działalność naukowa. +Studia magisterskie (1976–1981) i doktoranckie (1981–1982) odbyła w Instytucie Filozofii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. W latach 1982–1991 pracowała jako asystent, następnie zaś jako adiunkt w Zakładzie Etyki Instytutu Filozofii UW. +Pracę doktorską ("Godność – ujęcie historyczne i normatywne idei", promotor: prof. dr hab. Henryk Jankowski) obroniła w 1990. W 2004 uzyskała habilitację na podstawie książki "Indywidualizm i jego krytycy. Współczesne spory między liberałami, komunitarianami i feministkami na temat podmiotu, wspólnoty i płci". +Od 1993 redaktor "Przeglądu Filozoficznego", od 1994 sekretarz redakcji pisma "Etyka". Jest członkinią Rady "Societas/Communitas". Była członkinią Europejskiego Centrum Monitoringu Rasizmu i Ksenofobii w Wiedniu. Jest członkinią Europejskiego Instytutu Równości Gender w Wilnie. Jest również założycielką i kierowniczką Podyplomowych Studiów Etyki i Filozofii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, członkinią Komitetu Etyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk oraz Rady Instytutu Spraw Publicznych. Została uhonorowana tytułem "Europejczyk Roku 2010" miesięcznika „Monitor Unii Europejskiej” w kategorii "uczony". +Działalność społeczno-polityczna. +16 sierpnia 2004 premier Marek Belka powołał Magdalenę Środę na stanowisko Pełnomocnika Rządu ds. Równego Statusu Kobiet i Mężczyzn. +Magdalena Środa została odwołana ze stanowiska pełnomocniczki przez premiera Kazimierza Marcinkiewicza 4 listopada 2005. Zadania dotychczas prowadzone przez pełnomocniczkę zostały przekazane do Ministerstwa Pracy i Polityki Społecznej. W 2005 roku Fundacja Ekumeniczna "Tolerancja" przyznała jej tytuł "Zasłużona dla tolerancji". +Kandydowała do Parlamentu Europejskiego w 2009 z listy Porozumienia dla Przyszłości (z rekomendacji Zielonych 2004) w okręgu łódzkim. Oddano na nią 10 798 głosów (2,25% wszystkich głosów oddanych w tym okręgu). Komitet PdP-CentroLewica nie przekroczył progu wyborczego. +Wyróżniona tytułem Polki Roku 2009 w plebiscycie tygodnika "Wysokie Obcasy" (dodatku do "Gazety Wyborczej"). W 2010 roku została laureatką "Kowadła" przyznawanego przez stowarzyszenie "Kuźnica". Jest stałą felietonistką „Gazety Wyborczej”, tygodnika "Wprost" oraz internetowego wydania "Radio TOK FM". Jest członkinią Rady Programowej Kongresu Kobiet i organizatorką I, II i III Kongresu. Sprawuje także funkcję Minister Edukacji, Nauki i Sportu w Gabinecie Cieni Kongresu Kobiet. W 2012 dołączyła do think-tanku Ruchu Palikota. +W lipcu 2011 roku Sąd Apelacyjny w Warszawie nakazał jej za pomówienie przeproszenie Telewizji Polskiej i wpłacenia tytułem zadośćuczynienia 10 tys. zł na rzecz Fundacji im. Brata Alberta. +Kontrowersje. +W rezultacie nacisku mediów premier Marek Belka postanowił ukarać Środę: pełnomocniczka miała stać się podsekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Polityki Społecznej. Magdalena Środa oceniła ten pomysł jako "cios w urząd i prawa kobiet" i zagroziła dymisją; premier ustąpił. +Radioamator + +Radioamator – osoba zajmująca się amatorsko radiotechniką, budująca we własnym zakresie urządzenia radiowe i posługująca się nimi. Pojęcie często mylnie utożsamiane z krótkofalowcem. +Historia radioamatorstwa w Polsce. +Od momentu odzyskania przez Polskę niepodległości w 1918 r. do połowy roku 1924 absolutny monopol na korzystanie z urządzeń radiowych w kraju miało wojsko oraz Ministerstwo Poczt i Telegrafów. Nieliczni pasjonaci spoza kręgów wojskowych i pocztowych mieli możność legalnie zobaczyć z bliska urządzenia radiowe w ramach klubów, tworzonych pod patronatem wojska przez harcerzy i studentów uczelni technicznych. +Przełomowym wydarzeniem dla radioamatorów było ogłoszenie w dniu 3 czerwca 1924 r. ustawy sejmowej o poczcie, telegrafie i telefonie. Na jej podstawie minister przemysłu i handlu w porozumieniu z ministrami spraw wewnętrznych i spraw wojskowych wydał w dniu 10 października 1924 r. rozporządzenie, omawiające warunki udzielania zezwoleń na posiadanie i używanie urządzeń radiotechnicznych. Od tego czasu pełnoletni obywatel mógł uzyskać ""upoważnienie do zakupu i założenia radiostacji odbiorczej i korzystania z niej"". Upoważnienie takie uzyskiwało się po złożeniu pisemnego wniosku i wniesieniu opłaty a warunki używania "stacji odbiorczej" - czyli dzisiejszego odbiornika radiowego, zajmowały kilka stron drobnego druku. +Mała dostępność odbiorników fabrycznych i ich wysokie ceny spowodowały duże zainteresowanie samodzielną budowa odbiorników. Od końca 1923 r. zaczęły się pojawiać się w Polsce pierwsze książki, przeznaczone dla radioamatorów. Wydawnictwa dotyczące techniki radiowej w języku polskim spotykane były wprawdzie już w roku 1917, czyli przed odzyskaniem niepodległości, były to jednak materiały, pisane przez polskich specjalistów wojskowych dla polskich żołnierzy, wcielonych do służby radiotelegraficznej w armiach zaborców. Polska literatura radiotechniczna z lat 1918 - 1923 dotyczyła również niemal wyłącznie radiotelegrafii wojskowej. +Radioamatorzy budowali urządzenia nie tylko w celu odbioru stacji radiowych, często także w celu wzajemnego komunikowania się przy pomocy radia. Ta łączność odbywała się zazwyczaj z wykorzystaniem fal krótkich, stąd przyjęło się określenie "krótkofalowiec". +25 września 1924 r. ukazuje się pierwszy numer dwutygodnika popularnonaukowego "Radjo-Amator", w latach późniejszych liczne, podobne tytuły wydawane są nieprzerwanie do wybuchu II wojny światowej. Po wojnie prasa radiotechniczna zaczyna się ukazywać bardzo szybko, pierwszy numer miesięcznika "Radio" ukazuje się już w marcu 1946 r. i jest wydawany do roku 1950 włącznie. W 1950 r. pojawia się miesięcznik "Radioamator", którego tytuł zostaje w 1961 r. zmieniony na "Radioamator i Krótkofalowiec" i jest wydawany do roku 1978 (później kontynuowany jako "Radioelektronik"). Wymienione czasopisma są cennymi źródłami informacji o najnowszych osiągnięciach radiotechniki, a także o organizacji radiofonii i ruchu radioamatorskiego w Polsce i na świecie. +DocBook + +DocBook - język znaczników do tworzenia dokumentacji technicznej, pierwotnie przeznaczony do opracowywania dokumentów związanych ze sprzętem i oprogramowaniem komputerowym, ale potem wykorzystywany w wielu innych dziedzinach. Można w nim opracowywać zarówno całe książki, jak i zwyczajne artykuły. Dodatkowe znaczniki umożliwiają tworzenie np. indeksów, słowników terminologii itd. Język powstał w roku 1991 jako wspólny projekt HaL Computer Systems oraz O'Reilly & Associates. Obecnie rozwija go DocBook Technical Committee w OASIS (pierwotnie "SGML Open"). +DocBook istnieje zarówno w postaci SGML-owego, jak i XML-owego DTD (Document Type Definition). Początkowo był aplikacją SGML-ową, jednak opracowano również jego XML-owy ekwiwalent, który zastąpił SGML w większości zastosowań - XML DTD pojawiło się razem z wersją 4 SGML DTD. +DocBook jest używany głównie przez wspólnotę Open Source. Przykładami są opisy API w Linux Documentation Project, GNOME i GTK+ API oraz dokumentacja kernela Linuksa. +Norman Walsh i zespół DocBook Project rozwijają zbiór arkuszy stylów XSL (oraz przestarzałych DSSSL) do generowania wydruków, plików PDF, RTF i HTML z dokumentów w formacie DocBook (jak również generowania innych formatów, w tym stron "man" i plików HTML Help. Walsh jest też głównym autorem książki "DocBook: The Definitive Guide", oficjalnej dokumentacji DocBook. Książka jest dostępna online, na licencji GNU FDL, oraz jako publikacja drukowana. +DocBook jest bardzo łatwy do rozszerzania. Każdy, kto tego potrzebuje, może przygotować odpowiednią nakładkę personalizacyjną (ang. "customization layer"), która doda nowe lub usunie niepotrzebne znaczniki. Jeżeli nakładka ma być rozpowszechniana, nie może się ona dalej nazywać "DocBook". +Ponieważ DocBook jest aplikacją XML, dokumenty mogą być tworzone i edytowane w dowolnym edytorze tekstu. Istnieje jednak wiele dedykowanych narzędzi upraszczających ten proces. Edytor Emacs w trybie nXML posiada wbudowane informacje o schemacie DocBook, dzięki czemu użytkownicy mogą szybko dodawać nowe elementy lub przeprowadzać kontrolę dokumentu. Istnieją także narzędzia WYSIWYG (np. XMLmind) potrafiące automatycznie generować odpowiednią strukturę dokumentu DocBook w trakcie pisania. +Przykładowy kod. + + +Powiat jeleniogórski + +Powiat jeleniogórski – powiat w Polsce (województwo dolnośląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Jelenia Góra. +oraz z krajem libereckim w Czechach. +W 2012 roku samorządowcy z Karpacza i Szklarskiej Poręby wysunęli projekt zmiany nazwy powiatu na "powiat karkonoski". +Historia w okresie Pruskim. +Od 1816 roku powiat znajdował się w prowincji Śląsk w rejencji dzierżoniowskiej, z którą w 1820 roku, został włączony do rejencji legnickiej (niem. "Regierungsbezirk Liegnitz"), powiat jeleniogórski znajdował się w jej granicach aż do 1945 roku. W czasach pruskich, nosił on nazwy "Kreis Hirschberg" (pol. "powiat Jelenia Góra"), a od 1927 r. "Landkreis Hirschberg im Riesengebirge" (pol. "powiat ziemski Jelenia Góra w Karkonoszach"). W latach 1919-1938 i 1941-1945 obecny powiat jeleniogórski należał do prowincji Dolny Śląsk, która dwukrotnie tworzona była poprzez podział prowincji Śląsk na dwie prowincje: Dolny i Górny Śląsk. +Dyskobol + +Dyskobol – rzeźba Myrona, wykonana została w V w. p.n.e. przedstawiająca atletę. +Rzeźbiarz stworzył ją najprawdopodobniej we wczesnym okresie swojej twórczości. Uwzględnił w niej grecki kanon piękna. Postać jest wyidealizowana, ciało przedstawione w pełnej syntezie. Autor ukazał ruch i wewnętrzny dynamizm postaci w sposób zrównoważony i opanowany. Sportowiec jest ukazany tuż przed wyrzuceniem dysku (stąd nazwa „dyskobol”). Ramiona są ułożone w taki sposób, że wydaje się jakby tworzyły część okręgu. Głowa pochylona ku przodowi akcentuje oś symetrii ciała przebiegającą równolegle do lewej nogi zgiętej w kolanie, dotykającej dużym palcem ziemi. Jego ciało wydaje się przez to proporcjonalne. Mistrz uwidocznił także większość mięśni, czyli zadbał o szczegóły. Wydaje się jakby atleta został ujęty w momencie spoczynku między dwiema czynnościami, odchyleniem dysku do tyłu, a wyrzuceniem. Jednocześnie brak emocji na twarzy przedstawianej postaci sugeruje ogromne skupienie. Postać ukazana jest w pełni realistycznie, oddaje naturalny ruch, co jest dowodem na to, że za najwyższy wzór Myron obrał naturę, wybierając z niej najdoskonalsze elementy. +Autentyczna rzeźba dłuta Myrona nie zachowała się do naszych czasów – została zrekonstruowana na podstawie późniejszych rzymskich kopii. +Powiat górowski + +Powiat górowski – powiat w Polsce położony w północnej części województwa dolnośląskiego na granicy z województwami wielkopolskim i lubuskim. Graniczy od północy i północnego wschodu z powiatami leszczyńskim i rawickim, od południowego wschodu graniczy z powiatem trzebnickim, od południa z powiatem wołowskim, od południowego zachodu z powiatem lubińskim, a od zachodu z powiatami głogowskim i wschowskim. +Utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Siedzibą władz powiatu jest miasto Góra. Sieć osadniczą tworzą 2 miasta - Góra, Wąsosz i 112 miejscowości wiejskich. W miastach mieszka 41,7% mieszkańców powiatu. +Najwieksze przepływające przez powiat rzeki: Odra, Barycz, Orla, Kopanica (Polski Rów), Śląski Rów +Liczne walory przyrodnicze - ponad 70,4% powierzchni powiatu zajmują obszary prawnie chronione. Lasy stanowią 28% powierzchni powiatu. +Głównym surowcem naturalnym jest gaz ziemny, którego złoża szacuje się na ok 10 mld m³ (dane z 2001r.). +W powiecie działa 2700 podmiotow gospodarczych, z czego 93% to podmioty prywatne. 2000 podmiotów prowadzą osoby fizyczne. Ważną rolę pełni handel, działalność przemysłowa i budowlana. Dominująca funkcję pełni rolnictwo. Użytki rolne stanowią 64% powierzchni powiatu, z czego 74% to grunty rolne, 13% łąki i 9% pastwiska. +Stopa bezrobocia w powiecie wynosi 27,4%(stan na 31 grudnia 2010) +RW + +RW (ang. "relative work") – spadochronowa akrobacja zespołowa wykonywana przez zespół skoczków podczas swobodnego spadania (przed otwarciem spadochronów). +Zadaniem zespołu jest zbudowanie prawidłowo jak największej liczby kolejnych figur, wybranych z puli figur i sekwencji nakazanych, w wyznaczonym czasie pracy. +Enryaku-ji + +Klasztor znajduje się na górze Hiei w Ōtsu, w prefekturze Shiga. Założony w 805 przez Saichō, twórcę sekty Tendai, której był główną bazą. Z czasem ogromnie się wzbogacił dzięki nadaniom ze strony możnowładców. Dysponował własną armią mnichów–wojowników "sōhei", którzy często ścierali się w walce z wojskami innych klasztorów. W 1571 Enryaku-ji zostało całkowicie spalone przez Nobunagę, któremu potęga kleru buddyjskiego przeszkadzała w sprawowaniu niepodzielnej władzy nad centralną częścią Honsiu. Większość z kilku tysięcy mieszkańców została zabita. +Obecne budowle pochodzą z rekonstrukcji prowadzonych od XVI wieku. Zespół świątynny jest podzielony na trzy rejony: Tōdō, Saitō, Yokawa. Każdy z nich posiada główny pawilon ("chūdō") i kilka innych o różnym przeznaczeniu. +W 1994 r. kompleks został wpisany na listę światowego dziedzictwa kulturowego UNESCO. +Sodoma i Gomora + +Sodoma i Gomora (hebr. "מהפכת סדום ועמורה") – biblijne miasta położone w dolinie Siddim. +Opis biblijny. +Według Biblii Abraham po powrocie od króla Egiptu rozdzielił ziemię kananejską pomiędzy siebie i Lota, to właśnie jemu przypadła ziemia w pobliżu miasta Sodomitów. Niebawem Asyryjczycy napadli na Sodomę i wygrali bitwę nakładając na Sodomitów daninę. Po dwunastu latach Sodomici zbuntowali się i Asyryjczycy ponownie wyruszyli, by zdobyć Sodomę. Na pomoc Lotowi i Sodomie przyszedł Abraham i wyzwolił Sodomitów a wraz z nimi Lota, za co Bóg Jahwe obiecał mu wielką nagrodę. +Po pewnym czasie mieszkańcy Sodomy urośli w siłę i nabrali wielkich bogactw, rozzuchwalili się, zaczęli się odnosić wrogo do wszelkich gości. Według Biblii przyczyną zagłady Sodomy i Gomory były: niegodziwości i nieokiełznana rozpusta ich mieszkańców oraz przejawiany przez nich brak szacunku i pogarda dla prawa i autorytetów. Sodoma i Gomora to biblijne miasta zamieszkiwane przez ludzi występnych, nie respektujących zasad religijnych a w szczególności wobec Boga. Bóg Jahwe zamierzał je zniszczyć, ale za namową Abrahama zgodził się, że daruje życie jego mieszkańcom, jeśli wśród nich znajdzie się przynajmniej dziesięciu sprawiedliwych. Nadzieje okazały się płonne. Bóg wysłał do Sodomy dwóch swoich aniołów, którzy spędzili noc w domu Lota. Zanim jeszcze poszli spać, mężczyźni z miasta otoczyli dom Lota, by współżyć z jego gośćmi. Lot oferował im w zamian swe dwie córki – dziewice, jednak oni odmówili. Wtedy zaryglował drzwi domu. Kiedy nadal dobijali się do drzwi i chcieli je wyważyć, aniołowie, którzy przybrali postać ludzką, porazili ślepotą wszystkich owych mężczyzn. Oznajmili też Lotowi, by zebrał wszystkich najbliższych w swoim domu, bo rankiem miasto ma być zniszczone. Lot namawiał przyszłych zięciów, by to uczynili, oni jednak uważali, że żartuje. Z nastaniem świtu aniołowie po naleganiach chwycili Lota, jego żonę i dwie córki i wyprowadzili za miasto. Potem nakazali, by uchodzili nie oglądając się za siebie, by nie zginęli, i mają znaleźć schronienie w pobliskich górach. Lot jednak uprosił Boga, by mógł udać się do najbliższego miasta, Soar, które nie zostało przez to zniszczone. Gdy tam dotarł, Jahwe zniszczył miasta w całym okręgu - oprócz Sodomy i Gomory były to Seboim, oraz Adma (Księga Powtórzonego Prawa 29:22). Żona Lota nie wytrzymała tej próby i wbrew woli Boga obejrzała się. Natychmiast też zamieniła się w słup soli. Ostatecznie Bóg zniszczył deszczem siarki i ognia z nieba całą okolicę wraz ze wszystkimi jej mieszkańcami, a także roślinnością. Wczesnym rankiem Abraham ujrzał, jak z pobliskich miast unosi się gęsty dym. Wkrótce Lot opuścił Soar i zamieszkał w jaskini z córkami. +Historyczne podstawy biblijnej opowieści. +Archeolodzy umiejscawiają Sodomę i Gomorę na dnie Morza Martwego bądź utożsamiają z ruinami miast występującymi na jego wschodnim (jordańskim) wybrzeżu. Najbardziej prawdopodobnymi miejscami położenia Sodomy i Gomory są odpowiednio stanowiska archeologiczne: Bab edh-Dhra oraz Numeira. Obie osady zostały zniszczone przez katastrofy naturalne, których gwałtowność mogła dać początek biblijnej legendzie. +W Izraelu w pobliżu południowej części wybrzeża Morza Martwego znajduje się wzgórze Sodom, które wyróżnia się budową geologiczną – prawie w całości zbudowane jest z halitu (soli kamiennej). Z powodu erozji nastąpiło rozdzielenie masywu. Jeden z oddzielonych filarów nazwany jest potocznie "żona Lota". +Sodoma i Gomora w kulturze popularnej. +Dzisiaj potocznie powiedzenie "Sodoma i Gomora" oznacza tyle, co "siedlisko rozpusty", "jaskinię nierządu", "skrajnie nieprzyzwoite" bądź "zboczone" etc., a szerzej i ogólniej: bałagan, chaos, bezhołowie, zupełny brak kontroli nad niebezpiecznym bądź kłopotliwym przedsięwzięciem, co prowadzi do jego upadku. +Współczesny termin "sodomia" oznacza w języku polskim 'obcowanie płciowe ze zwierzętami'. W innych językach termin ten może mieć inne znaczenia, np. w języku angielskim bywa odnoszony do seksu analnego. +Niektórzy pisarze (np. Erich von Däniken) popularyzują pseudonaukową koncepcję, jakoby Sodoma i Gomora zostały zniszczone za pomocą bomby atomowej przez obcą cywilizację. +Przemysł chemiczny + +Przemysł chemiczny charakteryzuje się wysoką kapitałochłonnością i niską pracochłonnością, ze względu na to, że większość operacji daje się tu dość prosto zautomatyzować. +Grupę krajów o najbardziej rozwiniętym przemyśle chemicznym tworzą: Japonia, USA, Kanada, Niemcy, Francja, Wielka Brytania, Rosja, Ukraina, Włochy, Brazylia, Wenezuela i kraje w rejonie Zatoki Perskiej. +Sielec + +11 miejscowości w Polsce: +Miejscowości na Ukrainie: +Łańcuszek internetowy + +Łańcuszek internetowy – spam zawierający w treści polecenie lub prośbę o rozesłanie danej wiadomości do jak największej liczby odbiorców. W relatywnie krótkim czasie egzystuje w sieci w wielu egzemplarzach, co prowadzi do zapchania łącz internetowych oraz blokady serwerów. +Charakterystyka. +Motywem działania łańcuszków jest przechwycenie adresów mailowych rzeczywistych i aktywnych użytkowników przez firmy zajmujące się masowym rozsyłaniem niezamawianych informacji reklamowych. +Mogą być rodzajem "marketingu wirusowego", którego celem jest zachęcenie odbiorców do wysłania reklamy do swoich znajomych. Odmianą łańcuszków są tak zwane wirusy albańskie, podpowiadające sposób uwolnienia komputera od rzekomego zakażenia wirusem. +Wiele łańcuszków internetowych pojawia się na serwisach społecznościowych takich, jak nk.pl lub Facebook. +Łańcuszki są negatywną formą komunikacji. Powszechnie zalecanym działaniem w przypadku otrzymania listu-łańcuszka jest jego usunięcie i nieprzesyłanie go dalej. +Górnictwo + +Górnictwo (kopalnictwo) – dziedzina przemysłu obejmująca ogół działalności zmierzającej do wydobycia kopaliny i jej przygotowania w procesie wzbogacania (obniżania zawartości zanieczyszczeń) do zastosowania w różnych dziedzinach przemysłu (wydobywanie surowców mineralnych lub organicznych, np. torfu, w kopalniach) bądź bezpośredniego wykorzystania w życiu codziennym. W Polsce górnictwo jest najlepiej rozwinięte na Śląsku. +Kopalnie, ze względu na metodę wydobycia można podzielić na "odkrywkowe", "głębinowe" i "otworowe". Do materiałów często wydobywanych zaliczyć można: boksyty, rudy żelaza, cyny, cynku, magnezu, manganu, miedzi, niklu, ołowiu, srebra, tytan, uranu, diamenty, platynę, sól, węgiel, złoto, ropę naftową, gaz ziemny. Inne wydobywane użyteczne materiały to: glina, piasek, żwir, granit, bazalt i wapień. +Wiele technologii i metod opracowanych w górnictwie znalazło zastosowanie w innych dziedzinach przemysłu, np.: wykonywanie tuneli, przejść i magazynów podziemnych, głębokich wykopów itp. +Kuter (okręt) + +Kuter to nazwa klas małych okrętów, różniących się przeznaczeniem i charakterystykami. Kutry są najmniejszymi okrętami bojowymi, ich wyporność sięga od kilkunastu do ponad 300 ton. Przeznaczone są głównie do działań przybrzeżnych. Kutry torpedowe, artyleryjskie i rakietowe nazywane są też, zwłaszcza w starszej literaturze, mianem ścigaczy. +Kutry jako okręty początkowo były niewielkimi pomocniczymi i łącznikowymi jednostkami żaglowymi, z ożaglowaniem typu kuter. Właściwy rozwój kutrów rozpoczął się w drugiej połowie XIX wieku, po zastosowaniu na nich napędu mechanicznego - początkowo parowego, następnie spalinowego. +Najważniejszą gałęzią rozwoju kutrów był ich rozwój jako jednostek ofensywnych - przeznaczonych do atakowania większych okrętów. Początkowo w tym celu opracowano kutry minowe o napędzie parowym, atakujące za pomocą min wytykowych, następnie torped. Od I wojny światowej zostały one wyparte przez kutry torpedowe o napędzie spalinowym, rozwijające duże prędkości, uzbrojone w torpedy i masowo używane do ok. lat 60. XX wieku. Kutry torpedowe zostały z kolei wyparte przez kutry rakietowe, uzbrojone w rakietowe pociski przeciwokrętowe, rozwijane do czasów obecnych. Równolegle, od początku XX wieku rozwijano kutry artyleryjskie, uzbrojone w działa szybkostrzelne. Z kolei kutry pancerne służyły głównie do działań na rzekach przeciw celom lądowym. Większymi od kutrów klasami okrętów wypełniającymi takie zadania były torpedowce, korwety rakietowe i kanonierki. Pokrewną wyspecjalizowaną klasą były ścigacze okrętów podwodnych. +Oprócz kutrów przeznaczonych do zadań ofensywnych, rozwijano też kutry o innym przeznaczeniu: przede wszystkim kutry patrolowe, kutry desantowe i kutry trałowe (ich większymi odpowiednikami są okręty patrolowe, okręty desantowe i trałowce). +W USA jako kutry ("cutter") klasyfikowane są także średniej wielkości okręty patrolowe Straży Przybrzeżnej ("Coast Guard") - nawet do 2000 t wyporności. +Mniejszymi od kutrów jednostkami pływającymi, głównie pomocniczymi, są motorówki. +A-9/A-10 + +A-9/A-10 (Aggregate-9/Aggregate-10) – nazwa dwustopniowego pocisku międzykontynentalnego o napędzie rakietowym, zaprojektowanego w latach 40. XX wieku przez zespół Wernehra von Brauna w Niemczech. +Projekt. +Pocisk został zaprojektowany jako konstrukcja dwustopniowa. Pierwszy stopień, A-10, miał wynosić drugi, A-9, na wysokość ok. 24 km z maksymalną prędkością 1200 m/s. Na tej wysokości miała następować separacja po której A-9 miał osiągać pułap do 55 km przy maksymalnej prędkości 2900 m/s. Inne źródła podają maksymalne prędkości jako: 2400 m/s (A-10) i 2800 ms (A-9) oraz maksymalny pułap 160 km. Całkowita wysokość pocisku miała wynosić 25,8 m. +Projekt A-10 ulegał w trakcie prac zmianom, początkowo planowano zastosowanie silnika z 6 komorami spalania (stosowanymi już w pociskach A-4, każda o ciągu 27,5 tony). Ostatecznie zdecydowano się za użycie pojedynczego silnika rakietowego napędzanego mieszanką etanolu i tlenu o ciągu ok. 200 ton. +Stopień A-9 oparty był na pocisku A-4, dodano m.in. skrzydła i kabinę pilota. Miał być wynoszony przez stopień A-10 następnie wznosić się przy użyciu własnego silnika, podobnego do stosowanego w pociskach V2. Po wyczerpaniu paliwa miał kontynuować lot balistyczny, przechodząc następnie w lot ślizgowy. +Józef Kapuściński + +Józef Kapuściński (ur. 1818, zm. 31 lipca 1847 w Kleparowie) – emisariusz Towarzystwa Demokratycznego Polskiego. Prowadził przygotowania powstańcze w okręgu Pilzno w Galicji, kierował atakiem na starostę austriackiego. Ujęty przez Austriaków, skazany na śmierć i powieszony wraz z Teofilem Wiśniowskim na Górze Stracenia w Kleparowie pod Lwowem. +Wybory parlamentarne w Portugalii w 2005 roku + +Wybory parlamentarne w Portugalii w 2005 roku odbyły się 20 lutego 2005. Poprzedni parlament został rozwiązany 30 listopada 2004 przez prezydenta, Jorga Sampaio. Powodem decyzji była niego niestabilność centroprawicowych władz koalicyjnych oraz wcześniejsza konieczność wielokrotnego interweniowania w konfliktach między ministrami rządu Pedro Santany Lopesa z Partii Socjaldemokratycznej. +Wybory parlamentarne wygrała Partia Socjalistyczna, zdobywając 45,03% głosów i uzyskując 121 miejsc w parlamencie i utworzyła rząd. Drugie miejsce zajęła rządząca Portugalska Partia Socjaldemokratyczna, tracąc ponad 11% głosów w porównaniu do poprzednich wyborów. Na kolejnych miejscach uplasowały się: Unitarna Koalicja Demokratyczna (CDU): (PCP – PEV), poprawiając swój wynik wyborczy o 0,60% oraz stan posiadania o 2 mandaty, Centrum Demokratyczne i Społeczne – Partia Ludowa (CDS/PP), która w porównaniu z wyborami w 2002 straciła ponad 1,5% poparcia oraz 2 mandaty deputowanych. Próg wyborczy zdołał przekroczyć jeszcze Blok Lewicy (BE) poprawiając swój wynik wyborczy o 3,62% i 5 mandatów. +Ludwik Weiher (syn Ernesta) + +Ludwik Weiher (ur.1580 / 1586 - zm. 1616). Syn Ernesta i Anny Mortęskiej, brat Melchiora. +W 1594 roku był studentem Akademii Wileńskiej, w pierwszych latach XVII wieku studiował też w Ingolstadt, a później w Padwie. Po studiach wileńskich przebywał jakiś czas na dworze Zygmunta III. W 1600 roku był posłem na sejm z województwa pomorskiego. W listopadzie 1600 roku walczył w Inflantach na czele oddziału złożonego ze 100 husarzy i 50 kozaków, który wcześniej zyskał nie najlepszą reputację ze względu na szkody, których dopuścił się na Litwie. +od 1608 rotmistrz królewski, od 1612 podskarbi ziem pruskich i ekonom malborski, od 1613 podkomorzy chełmiński, starosta człuchowski, kościerzyński, nowodworski i tczewski. +Podczas wojny moskiewskiej (dowodził czterema chorągwiami liczącymi w sumie 400 husarzy i 400 piechórów), uczestnik oblężenia Smoleńska. +Katarzyna Grochola + +Katarzyna Grochola (ur. 18 lipca 1957 w Krotoszynie) – polska pisarka i dziennikarka. +Biografia. +Jest córką polonistki i prawnika. Ukończyła warszawskie VII Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Juliusza Słowackiego. Zanim zajęła się literaturą pracowała jako salowa, konsultantka w biurze matrymonialnym, pomocnik cukiernika. Współpracowała m.in. z czasopismami "Jestem", "Poradnik domowy". Jej córką jest Dorota Szelągowska (dziennikarka). Grochola ma też wnuka Antoniego. Uczestniczyła w XI edycji programu TVN, Taniec z gwiazdami i zajęła w nim trzecie miejsce. Jej partnerem był Jan Kliment. +Publikacje. +Wywiady-rzeki. +Napisała także kilka sztuk teatralnych i telewizyjnych. +Nagrody. +Za utwory dramatyczne "Pozwól mi odejść" i "Kot mi schudł" otrzymała 4 nagrody w konkursie dramaturgicznym Tespis 2000. "Nigdy w życiu!" otrzymało w 2001 i 2002 roku nagrodę AS EMPiK-u. +Mścisław Wartenberg + +Mścisław Wartenberg (ur. 26 listopada 1868 w Żninie, zm. 13 kwietnia 1938 we Lwowie) - polski filozof, metafizyk. +Od 1903 profesor filozofii Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego. Specjalista filozofii Kanta i neokantyzmu. +Autor m.in. "Kants Theorie der Kausalität" (1899) i "Obrona metafizyki" (1902) +Enzian + +Enzian - przeciwlotniczy pocisk rakietowy, konstrukcji niemieckiej, z okresu II wojny światowej. +Historia. +Prace nad pociskiem Enzian prowadzone były już w 1942 roku w fabryce Messerschmitta. Był on kierowany drogą radiową. Wersje Enziana o symbolach E-1, E-2 i E-3 napędzane były silnikami Waltera. Wersja E-4 zamontowany miała silnik firmy Konrad DVK. Podobnego silnika, o zwiększonym ciągu, użyto przy opracowywaniu modelu E-5. Kaliber pocisku zmieniał się lekko w zależności od modeli i wynosił dla wersji E-1 880 mm, a dla wersji E-4 915 mm. Prac zaprzestano w 1945 roku z powodu wysokich kosztów produkcji silnika drugiego stopnia. +Użycie bojowe. +W 1944 odpalono 24 rakiety. +Herman Diamand + +Herman Diamand (ur. 30 marca 1860 we Lwowie, zm. 26 lutego 1931 tamże) – polski prawnik i polityk socjalistyczny, poseł do Rady Państwa w Wiedniu XI i XII kadencji, w okresie w II RP poseł na Sejm Ustawodawczy oraz na Sejm I i II kadencji. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w rodzinie mieszczańskiej jako syn Jakuba i Betty (z domu Holländrów). Ukończył szkołę realną we Lwowie, po czym studiował na Uniwersytetach Lwowskim i Wiedeńskim oraz w Czerniowcach, gdzie w 1896 uzyskał doktorat. Już w czasie studiów związał się z ruchem socjalistycznym jako współorganizator Partii Robotniczej w Galicji (październik–listopad 1890). Zasiadał w jej kierownictwie do 1919 (od 1897 ugrupowanie działało jako Polska Partia Socjalno-Demokratyczna Galicji i Śląska Cieszyńskiego). Wspierał finansowo prasę i wydawnictwa partyjne. Od 1904 do 1931 reprezentował socjalistów polskich z trzech zaborów we władzach II Międzynarodówki i Socjalistycznej Międzynarodówki Robotniczej. Podzielał stanowisko Ignacego Daszyńskiego w kwestii m.in. demokratyzacji stosunków galickich, modernizacji gospodarczej kraju, ewolucyjnej realizacji celów socjalistycznych, odzyskania niepodległości, asymilacji Żydów. Popierał działalność militarno-polityczną Józefa Piłsudskiego. Od 1907 do 1918 posłował do wiedeńskiej Rady Państwa. Podczas kadencji zyskał rozgłos i uznanie jako znawca spraw gospodarczych i prawniczych. +W grudniu 1918 został powołany w skład Polskiej Komisji Likwidacyjnej, gdzie kierował wydziałem górniczym. Zabiegał u socjalistów francuskich i angielskich o poparcie starań Polski w sprawie Śląska. Uczestniczył w delegacji polskiej na rokowania handlem z Niemcami (od 1924 do 1928) i na Konferencję Genewską (1927). Był aktywnym działaczem Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej, sprawując w jej kierownictwie funkcję członka Centralnego Komitetu Wykonawczego (od 1919 do 1926) oraz członka, wiceprzewodniczącego i przewodniczącego Rady Naczelnej (od 1919 do 1930). Uchodził za znawcę praktyki parlamentarnej i spraw finansowo-gospodarczych. Publikował artykuły na łamach polskiej i zagranicznej prasy socjalistycznej, m.in. "Naprzodu", "Prawa Ludu", "Robotnika", "Arbeiterzeitung", "Jüdische Volkstime". +Krępa (Ostrów Wielkopolski) + +Krępa (niem. Krempa) - dzielnica Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego umiejscowiona we wschodniej jego części, w pobliżu cieków Ołobok i Krępianka. Także nazwa ostrowskiego osiedla administracyjnego (Osiedle III Krępa). +Historia. +Początkowo wieś rycerska – pierwsze wzmianki o osadzie pochodzą z roku 1403. Przez lata chłopi z Krępy cieszyli się poważaniem nie tylko wśród mieszkańców okolicy, ale i wśród mieszczan z Ostrowa. Krępianie pełnili obowiązki honorowych żałobników zacniejszych mieszkańców XIX-wiecznego Ostrowa. Od początków XIX wieku na Krępie znajdowało się założenie dworskie, siedziba administratora klucza krępskiego (hrabstwo Przygodzice), później z pałacem, małym browarem, młynem, sadem i stawami rybnymi.Gmina wiejska Krępa liczyła przed I wojną światową 62 domów i 781 mieszkańców (w tym 85 ewangelików), a dominium 5 domów i 92 mieszkańców.Folwark istniał jeszcze w latach międzywojennych. W jego pobliżu założona została w 1928 pierwsze w odrodzonej Polsce stacja hodowli jedwabników. Wieś została włączona do Ostrowa w roku 1934. Echem dawnej Krępy jest ulica profesora Kaliny, dawniej Starowiejska. +Osiedla. +Obecnie Krępa dzieli się administracyjnie na dwa osiedla. +Najstarsza, historyczna część Krępy. Miejsce urodzenia Antoniego Kaliny. Fabryka maszyn dla przemysłu spożywczego SPOMAX (tradycje sięgające końca XIX wieku). Wraz z częścią os. Jana Pawła II tworzy duży kompleks zabudowy jednorodzinnej. +(d. Spółdzielcze, Wschód, Manifestu Lipcowego). Duże osiedle bloków wielorodzinnych, uzupełnione o nową zabudowę willową, niską, która wraz z osiedlem Krępa tworzy duży kompleks zabudowy jednorodzinnej. Obejmuje także Osiedle Robotnicze z lat II wojny światowej. +Komunikacja. +Linie autobusowe kursujące na Krępie: 2, 5, 5B, 6, 11, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27, B, C, M, M-E +Jean Mabillon + +Jean Mabillon (ur. 23 listopada 1632, zm. 27 grudnia 1707), francuski historyk, uważany za prekursora dyplomatyki, benedyktyn, należał do pierwszego pokolenia maurystów. +Działalność naukowa. +Wstąpił do benedyktyńskiej reformowanej Kongregacji św. Maura w wieku 21 lat, która poprzez starania o poziom wykształcenia swych członków, stworzyła szkołę historyczno-krytyczną w dziedzinie badań nad tekstami z zakresu duchowości i patrystyki, zwaną maurystami. Należał do pierwszego pokolenia. Po 11 latach ostatecznie osiadł w opactwie Saint Germain w Paryżu, gdzie poświęcił się badaniom autentyczności dokumentów dotyczących powstania i początków zakonu benedyktynów. Współpracował tam z Bernardem de Montfaucon. Jego praca stała się początkiem nowej dyscypliny historycznej - dyplomatyki (łac. diploma – dokument). W latach osiemdziesiątych XVII wieku na zlecenie dworu francuskiego i na jego koszt odbył kilka podróży naukowych po bibliotekach i archiwach włoskich i niemieckich, gdzie gromadził wszelkiego rodzaju materiały wiążące się z dziejami Francji. +Ministerstwo Współpracy Gospodarczej z Zagranicą + +Ministerstwo Współpracy Gospodarczej z Zagranicą istniało do 1997. Jego obowiązki przejęło Ministerstwo Gospodarki, Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych i UKIE. +Teofil Wiśniowski + + Teofil Wiśniowski (ur. 28 grudnia 1805 a. 1806, zm. 31 lipca 1847 w Kleparowie) – uczestnik powstania listopadowego i organizator związków węglarskich w Galicji. Od 1838 członek Towarzystwa Demokratycznego Polskiego, sekretarz jego Centralizacji i redaktor naczelny "Demokraty Polskiego". Od 1844 ponownie w konspiracji powstańczej w Galicji, prezes trybunału powstańczego w Galicji, w 1846 dowódca oddziału powstańczego. +Teofil Wiśniowski ukrywał się w okręgu złoczowskim aż do 3 marca 1846 roku. Tego dnia został jednak wykryty przez rusińskich chłopów w Manajowie. +Aresztowany przez Austriaków i skazany na śmierć, 31 lipca 1847 powieszony wraz z Józefem Kapuścińskim na Górze Stracenia ("Hyclowskiej") we Lwowie. +Góra Stracenia stała się od tego czasu aż do końca rządów austriackich miejscem manifestacyjnego kultu obu przywódców powstańczych. W 1894 społeczeństwo Lwowa ufundowało i postawiło tam pamiątkowy obelisk, który przetrwał do czasów obecnych. +Ministerstwo Gospodarki Przestrzennej i Budownictwa + +Ministerstwo Gospodarki Przestrzennej i Budownictwa - ministerstwo istniało od 23 października 1987 do 31 grudnia 1996 (zlikwidowane w wyniku reformy Centrum). +Ministrowie gospodarki przestrzennej i budownictwa. +Ministerstwo Budownictwa powróciło do życia 5 maja 2005 roku w rządzie Kazimierza Marcinkiewicza. Ministrem został Antoni Jaszczak +Amalowie + +Amalowie – królewski ród plemienia Ostrogotów. Z rodu tego wywodził się Hermanaryk - twórca państwa gockiego na terenach obecnej Ukrainy i Teodoryk Wielki. +V2 (pocisk rakietowy) + +[[Plik:V-2 rocket diagram.svg|thumb|250px|1. Głowica bojowa; +2. Żyroskopowy system naprowadzający; +3. Odbiornik radiowy systemu naprowadzającego; +4. Mieszanina alkoholu etylowego i wody; +5. Korpus pocisku; +6. Zbiornik ciekłego tlenu; +7. Zbiornik nadtlenku wodoru; +8. Butle ze sprężonym azotem; +9. Komora reakcyjna nadtlenku wodoru; +10. Pompa paliwowa; +11. Zapłonniki mieszaniny wodno-alkoholowej; +12. Rama zespołu napędowego; +13. Komora spalania (zewnętrzne powłoki); +14. Skrzydło; +15. Wtryskiwacze alkoholu; +16. Sterownice strumienia gazów wylotowych; +17. Powierzchnie sterowe (lotki);]] +V2 (niem. "Vergeltungswaffe-2" – broń odwetowa nr 2) – pierwszy w historii, udany konstrukcyjnie rakietowy pocisk balistyczny, skonstruowany przez zespół niemieckich konstruktorów pod kierunkiem Wernhera von Brauna w czasie II wojny światowej. Inna używana nazwa to "A4". Pocisk V2 po raz pierwszy w historii ludzkości przekroczył linię Kármána (wysokość 100 kilometrów), wchodząc w przestrzeń kosmiczną. Nazwa pochodzi od niemieckiego słowa Vergeltung oznaczającego odwet. +Prace konstrukcyjne rakiety przed wybuchem wojny. +Projekt rakiety pionowego startu A4 (niem. "Aggregat 4"), znanej później pod wojskowym oznaczeniem V2, opracowano już w połowie lat trzydziestych przez Hermanna Obertha i Wernera von Brauna. Był to projekt konstrukcji nowej broni prowadzony pod nadzorem dowództwa Wojsk Lądowych Wehrmachtu, na który przeznaczono ogromne środki finansowe. Prace prowadzone były w doświadczalnym ośrodku rakietowym w pobliżu wioski Kumersdorf w lasach na południe od Berlina. Kierownikiem projektu z ramienia Wehrmachtu został gen. Walter Dornberger, dyrektorem technicznym kierującym pracami badawczymi był Wernher von Braun. +Ze względu na wagę przywiązywaną do prac nad nową bronią przez kierownictwo III Rzeszy i Adolfa Hitlera oraz z powodu niewystarczających możliwości ośrodka w Kumersdorfie, w 1937 roku wybudowano nowy ośrodek badawczy na wyspie Uznam w pobliżu wioski Peenemünde. W tym samym roku prace nad bronią rakietową zostały przeniesione do nowego ośrodka i były tam prowadzone do końca wojny. +Prace konstrukcyjne i próby rakiety w trakcie wojny. +Pierwszy udany start rakiety A4/V2 przeprowadzono 13 czerwca 1942 roku, ale rakieta eksplodowała po przeleceniu 1300 m. Całkowicie udana próba odbyła się 3 października tego samego roku. +7 marca 1943 roku w swojej kwaterze głównej Wilczy Szaniec Hitler odebrał raport Wernhera von Brauna o stanie prac nad pociskiem rakietowym A4/V2. W czasie spotkania z Hitlerem von Braunowi towarzyszył gen. Walter Dornberger. W uznaniu osiągniętych wyników Hitler nadał von Braunowi tytuł profesorski. +W połowie lata 1943 roku w ośrodku doświadczalnym w Peenemünde uruchomiona została linia montażowa rakiet V2. Uruchomienie drugiej linii oraz szerszą produkcję rakiet uniemożliwił Niemcom nalot na Peenemünde przeprowadzony przez alianckie lotnictwo bombowe w sierpniu 1943 roku. +Masową produkcję rakiet V2 Niemcy uruchomili w październiku 1943 roku i w styczniu 1944 pierwsze rakiety tego typu mogły być już dostarczane na uzbrojenie Wehrmachtu, jednak żadna z nich nie miała odpowiednio wysokiej jakości żeby mogła zostać wykorzystana bojowo. Rakietą całkowicie nie dało się sterować, bardzo trudno było określić dokładny zasięg tych pocisków, a sama rakieta bardzo często chybiła cel o odległość kilku kilometrów. Oznaczało to, że mogła ona zostać użyta tylko jako "broń terroru". Na początku produkowano ok. 500 rakiet V2 miesięcznie, ale celem Niemców było zwiększenie produkcji do 900 sztuk miesięcznie. Należy jednak pamiętać, że ok. 6% wszystkich V2 eksplodowało natychmiast po starcie, a kolejne 60% miało zbyt duże wady techniczne oraz konstrukcyjne i zanim mogły zostać wprowadzone do służby potrzebowały one dodatkowych ulepszeń. +Powstało także wiele projektów, które były bazowane na podstawie V2. Między innymi dwustopniowa wersja, mająca zasięg na ponad 5500 km oraz obsadzona załogą wersja kamikaze tej rakiety. Zbudowano także specjalne okręty podwodne, które miały wystrzeliwać pociski V2 w zanurzeniu. Były to okręty podwodne, które położyły podwaliny pod rozwój okrętów podwodnych przenoszących pociski balistyczne z okresu zimnej wojny. Kryptonim tego projektu nazywał się "Prüfstand XII", czasami nazywany rakietowym U-Bootem. Istniały nawet plany ataku na Nowy Jork za pomocą V2, które miały zostać wystrzelone właśnie z okrętu podwodnego tego typu. +Rozpoznanie roli ośrodka Peenemünde przez aliantów. +Do 1943 roku alianci nie zdawali sobie sprawy z wagi prac prowadzonych przez Niemców w ramach projektu A4/V2 i powstającego w związku z tym zagrożenia dla Wielkiej Brytanii. Nie znali też roli ośrodka doświadczalnego w Peenemünde, którego znaczenie odkryte zostało przez polski wywiad AK w lutym 1943 roku. +Między innymi informacje polskiego wywiadu stały się podstawą decyzji o zbombardowaniu Peenemünde przez brytyjskie lotnictwo bombowe RAF. Bombardowanie odbyło się w nocy z 17 na 18 sierpnia 1943. Zniszczenie znacznej części ośrodka doświadczalnego opóźniło prace nad rozwojem rakiety i co ważniejsze, opóźniło uruchomienie masowej produkcji pocisków (rakieta V2 została użyta przez Niemców dopiero po lądowaniu aliantów w Normandii 6 czerwca 1944). +Nalot uświadomił Niemcom, że ośrodek w Peenemünde znajduje się w zasięgu alianckiego lotnictwa bombowego i że aliantom znana jest jego rola. Zmusiło to Niemców do rozproszenia produkcji pocisków V2 po terenie Rzeszy oraz do przeniesienia prób poligonowych rakiety w bezpieczniejszy rejon. Część produkcji przeniesiona została do ogromnej podziemnej fabryki w Nordhausen w górach Harz, funkcjonującej pod kryptonimem "Dora" (filia obozu koncentracyjnego w Buchenwaldzie). Zarówno żeby zbudować system tuneli w tej fabryce, jak i zbudować rakiety V2 w ogromnej ilości Niemcy wykorzystali do tego robotników przymusowych pochodzących głównie z obozów koncentracyjnych. Do tego celu Niemcy zatrudnili 60 000 więźniów, z których wielu zmarło z powodu głodu, zimna i chorób. Próby poligonowe rakiety V2 przeniesione zostały w rejon Pustków–Blizna (niem. "Heidelager Blizna") na południu Polski. Pierwszą rakietę na nowym poligonie odpalono 5 listopada 1943 roku. +W dniu 20 maja 1944 roku, w okolicach Sarnak, AK przejęła niewybuch V2. Po rozebraniu na części został on zbadany w tajnych laboratoriach AK. W badaniach pocisku udział brali m.in. prof. Janusz Groszkowski, prof. Marceli Struszyński i inż. Antoni Kocjan. Najważniejsze części rakiety oraz wyniki badań zabrane zostały do Wielkiej Brytanii w nocy z 25 na 26 lipca 1944 przez brytyjski samolot, który wylądował na terenie okupowanej Polski w pobliżu Tarnowa (operacja "Most III"). Latem 1944, w związku ze zbliżaniem się frontu, próby balistyczne rakiet przeniesiono na poligon "Heidekraut" (pol. "Wrzos") w okolicach Wierzchucina w Borach Tucholskich. Ostatnie strzelanie stamtąd miało miejsce 11 stycznia 1945, po czym wyposażenie poligonu ewakuowano do miejscowości Wolgast. +W lipcu i sierpniu 1944 Amerykanie dokonali trzech nalotów na Peenemünde, podczas których około 1200 samolotów B-17 latających fortec zrzuciło 3000 ton bomb. Pierwszy z tych nalotów (dzienny) odbył się 18 lipca 1944 roku. 379 ciężkich bombowców pod osłoną lotnictwa myśliwskiego zrzuciło 920,6 ton bomb na Peenemünde. +Bojowe użycie rakiety V2. +Głównym przeznaczeniem pocisków V2 był ostrzał miast Wielkiej Brytanii. W tym celu na francuskim wybrzeżu kanału La Manche (rejon Éperlecques) Niemcy przygotowali schrony-wyrzutnie do wystrzeliwania rakiet. Zniszczenie znacznej części wyrzutni przez alianckie lotnictwo zmusiło Niemców do przygotowania wystrzeliwania rakiet V2 z ruchomych wyrzutni, których 45 miało być rozmieszczonych na wybrzeżu francuskim od Calais do Cherbourga. Inwazja wojsk alianckich w czerwcu 1944 w Normandii uniemożliwiła realizację i tego planu. +Ostatecznie rakiety V2 wystrzeliwano z terenu Holandii z okolic Hagi. Ponieważ stałe wyrzutnie V2 zostały całkowicie zniszczone przez alianckie lotnictwo bombowe, a plan rozmieszczenia 45 ruchomych wyrzutni na wybrzeżu Normandii nie powiódł się, V2 miały być wystrzeliwane z ruchomych ramp. Każda ruchoma jednostka rakietowa składała się z 25 specjalnych pojazdów, które przemieszczały się tylko podczas nocy żeby uniknąć ataku ze strony alianckiego lotnictwa. Rakiety były wystrzeliwane w lasach, aby chronić je zarówno przed wiatrem, jak i nieprzyjacielskim lotnictwem. Pierwsza rakieta V2 odpalona została 7 września 1944 o godz. 8.30 na Paryż. Do 27 marca 1945 roku z Holandii odpalono około 5500 rakiet, z których 2894 trafiły Londyn, a około 1600 Antwerpię. Celem były także inne miasta, m.in. Liège i Bruksela w Belgii, Lille i Paryż we Francji, Maastricht w Holandii i most w Remagen (już po zajęciu przez wojska alianckie). Przeciwko ostatnio wymienionemu celowi wystrzelono 11 rakiet, ale żadna z nich nie trafiła w cel. Od 12 października Hitler wydał rozkaz atakowania rakietami tylko Londynu i Antwerpii (jedynego w 1944 dużego portu aliantów zaopatrującego front zachodni). +Do zakończenia działań bojowych przez jednostki rakietowe ogółem odpalono 5500 rakiet V2. Około 70% z nich trafiło w cele. Ostatnią rakietę odpalono 27 marca 1945. Ogółem ataki rakiet V2 spowodowały śmierć 7250 żołnierzy i cywilów. +Po wojnie. +Po zakończeniu wojny Wernher von Braun przechwycony został przez Amerykanów (zobacz: operacja "Paperclip"). V2 stał się podstawą rozwoju pocisków balistycznych w USA, ZSRR, Chinach oraz Francji. +Duża grupa naukowców i konstruktorów programu V2 została aresztowana, wielu z nich zostało przewiezionych do USA, gdzie stanowili następnie trzon personalny programu balistycznego US Army. Związek Radziecki dla przechwyconych przez siebie niemieckich specjalistów programu V2 utworzył pierwotnie ośrodek naukowo-badawczy Instytut Rabe w Nordhausen, gdzie mieli kontynuować swoją pracę. 22 października 1946 roku jednakże, NKWD aresztowało ich wraz z rodzinami oraz specjalistami innych dziedzin techniki wojskowej i tę grupę około pięciu tysięcy osób wywieziono w głąb ZSRR, gdzie mieli kontynuować swoje prace pod ścisłym nadzorem. W konsekwencji, niemieccy konstruktorzy V2 wnieśli znaczący wkład zarówno do amerykańskich, jak i radzieckich programów balistycznych. +Raketenpanzerbüchse Panzerschreck + +Raketenpanzerbüchse Panzerschreck – niemiecki rakietowy granatnik przeciwpancerny. +Panzerschreck stanowił duży postęp w stosunku do Panzerfausta. Jego budowa była bardziej skomplikowana i droższa, jednak rekompensowane było to przez większy zasięg i lepszą celność, a także przez możliwość wielokrotnego użycia. Panzerschrecki skonstruowano na podstawie amerykańskiej wyrzutni Bazooka o bardzo podobnej budowie, zdobytej przez Niemców w Afryce Północnej; według innych źródeł pierwszą Bazookę zdobyto na froncie wschodnim, gdzie do Armii Czerwonej trafiła w ramach programu "Lend-Lease". +Wyrzutnię wielorazowego użytku stanowiła rura, nazywana przez żołnierzy "Ofenrohr" ("rura piecowa"), gdyż bardzo przypominała komin od popularnego polowego piecyka (tzw. kozy), a ponadto przy strzale wytwarzała chmurę dymu. Pocisk ładowano od tyłu wyrzutni. W modelach RPzB 54 i 54/1 zastosowano płytę pancerną chroniącą żołnierza przed gazami i pyłem, które wydobywały się z pocisku w czasie strzału. Pocisk kalibru 88 mm, z własnym ładunkiem miotającym w tylnej części, odpalany był za pomocą umieszczonej w rękojeści prądnicy, wytwarzającej impuls elektryczny podczas ściśnięcia jej dłonią. Donośność broni wynosiła 150 metrów, jednakże powyżej 100 m szansa trafienia była nikła. +Poważną wadą Panzerschrecka były duże rozmiary tej broni (udało się je ograniczyć w wersji RPzB 54/1). Z braku odpowiedniej liczby armat przeciwpancernych w obliczu rosnącej potęgi pancernej państw alianckich, Panzerschrecki z powodzeniem je zastępowały w walce na bliskim dystansie, wchodząc od wiosny 1944 roku na wyposażenie kompanii przeciwpancernych niemieckich pułków piechoty (na początku każdy pułk miał posiadać ich 36, a później już 54 i 18 w rezerwie). +Na początku powstania warszawskiego w szkole przy ul. Woronicza na Mokotowie zdobyto ok. 180 pocisków, a tydzień później samego Panzerschrecka. Według zdobytego wzoru skopiowano w powstańczych warsztatach co najmniej kilkanaście wyrzutni, co znacznie podniosło skromne przeciwpancerne wyposażenie Mokotowa. +Supermarine Spitfire + +Supermarine Spitfire — brytyjski, jednomiejscowy myśliwiec zbudowany w wytwórni Supermarine w Southampton w Anglii. Jeden z najsłynniejszych używanych podczas II wojny światowej samolotów bojowych, na którym walczyli również Polacy. +Historia. +Jeden z najsłynniejszych samolotów myśliwskich II wojny światowej – brytyjski Spitfire (z ang. złośnik, choleryk) został zaprojektowany w wytwórni Supermarine przez znanego konstruktora głośnych w latach trzydziestych rekordowych wodnosamolotów - inż. Reginalda Josepha Mitchella. W 1931 Ministerstwo Lotnictwa wydało wymagania nr F7/30 na nowy samolot myśliwski. W odpowiedzi na to wytwórnia Supermarine opracowała maszynę oznaczoną jako Typ 224. Był to całkowicie metalowy dolnopłat, ze stałym podwoziem, napędzany najmocniejszym wtedy silnikiem Rolls Royce Goshawk z kondensacyjnym systemem chłodzenia na skrzydłach, który sprawiał duże problemy. Osiągi samolotu nie były lepsze od konkurentów. Maszynę tę w 1935 roku nazwano Spitfire. Konkurs wtedy wygrał i wszedł do produkcji Gloster Gladiator. W lecie 1934 roku rozpoczęto prace nad poprawą osiągów maszyny, maszynie w ten sposób powstałej nadano oznaczenie Typ 300. Postanowiono zastosować nowy silnik PV12, późniejszy Merlin. Podwozie miało być chowane, cieńsze skrzydło o eliptycznym obrysie i kabinę z owiewką oraz pracujące pokrycie. W oparciu o tak poprawiony projekt Ministerstwo Lotnictwa wydało nowe wymagania nr F37/34 i F10/35. Jeszcze w 1935 roku samolot miał mieć powierzchniowy system chłodzenia ale zamieniono go na nowy typ chłodnicy. +Wersje. +F.37/34 Prototyp K5054. +Maszyna prototypowa. Napędzana silnikiem Rolls-Royce Merlin C o mocy 990 KM z dwułopatowym drewnianym śmigłem bez zmiany kąta nastawianie łopat. Maszyna była metalowa, ale powierzchnie sterowe były kryte płótnem. Oblatano go 5 marca 1936. Początkowo prędkość maksymalna nie przekraczała 540 km/h, czyli była prawie taka sama jak u Hawker Hurricane ale po zmianie śmigła osiągnięto 560 km/h. Ponieważ podwozie było po schowaniu całkowicie zakryte, a dodatkowe osłony podwozia sprawiały problem usunięto je. Samolot ten podlegał licznym modyfikacjom i testom. Został rozbity 4 września 1939 roku. +Mk I - Typ 300. +W 1937 przystąpiono do produkcji wersji seryjnej Spitfire Mk I. Bazowała ona ma maszynie prototypowej. Wzmocniono w niej konstrukcję skrzydła, zwiększono zapas paliwa oraz zmodyfikowano kąt wychylenia klap. Napęd stanowił silnik Rolls-Royce Merlin II o mocy 1030 KM oraz dwułopatowe drewniane śmigło, takie samo jak w prototypie. Silnik ten, w porównaniu do silnika głównego przeciwnika, czyli silnika Daimler-Benz DB601 w Messerschmitt Bf109E, miał jedną podstawową wadę, ze względu na konstrukcję gaźnika, nie mógł pracować przy ujemnych przeciążeniach, co z kolei odbijało się na zdolnościach manewrowych samolotu. Podpisano kontrakt na produkcję 1000 samolotów. Pierwszy seryjny egzemplarz oblatano 15 maja 1938 roku. Do końca października 1939 zamówiono łącznie 4000 egzemplarzy. Jeden samolot tego typu zakupiła w celach badawczych i porównawczych także Polska. Maszyna wysłana w sierpniu 1939 nigdy jednak do Polski nie dotarła. Już na początku produkcji zamiast ręcznego chowania podwozia wprowadzono mechanizm chowania elektryczny i zmieniono rozrusznik. Od 78 wyprodukowanego egzemplarza w samolotach Spitfire zaczęto stosować trójłopatowe, metalowe śmigła deHavilland, o zmiennym skoku. A od 175 egzemplarza silniki Rolls-Royce Merlin III o tej samej mocy, które mogły napędzać trójłopatowe śmigła deHavilland albo Rotol. Oba śmigła poprawiły osiągi maszyny, a maszyny ze śmigłem Rotol dodatkowo miały lepsze wznoszenie niż ze śmigłem deHavilland. Podczas produkcji samolotów Spitfire wprowadzono wypukłą osłonę kabiny, co bardzo poprawiło widoczność i komfort pilota. Dodano także szybę pancerną z przodu osłony kabiny i płytę stalową chroniącą tył głowy i barki pilota oraz aparaturę IFF, rozpoznania swój-obcy. Wytwarzano dwie odmiany wersji Mk I z względu na dwa typy stosowanych skrzydeł. Odmiana Mk IA miała skrzydła typu A które pozwalały na uzbrojenie maszyny w 8 karabinów maszynowych Browning 7,7 mm z zapasem 300 pocisków na km. Odmianę Mk IB miała typ skrzydła B, w której uzbrojenie stanowiło 2 działka 20 mm (zapas 60 sztuk amunicji na działko) i 4 karabiny 7,7 mm (zapas 350 sztuk na km). Ogółem wyprodukowano 1566 samolotów Spitfire Mk I, z których 30 przebudowano na wersję IB. +Jeszcze w 1939 roku zaproponowano stworzenie rozpoznawczej wersji samolotu poprzez usunięcie uzbrojenia oraz zamontowanie aparatów fotograficznych i trzykrotne zwiększenie zapasów paliwa. Już na jesieni 1939 roku w paru maszynach wersji Mk I usunięto 2 wewnętrzne km i tam zamontowano aparaty, oznaczono je jako PR Mk IA. Poza tym maszyny były identyczne z myśliwcami. W styczniu 1940 dokonano następnej modyfikacji, za pilotem zamiast balastu umieszczono zbiornik z paliwem. Te maszyny oznaczono jako PR Mk IB. Następnie powstała wersja PR Mk IC z dodatkowym zbiornikiem paliwa pod lewym skrzydłem i owiewką z aparatami pod prawym. Następna wersja PR.ID miała już zbiorniki paliwa w krawędziach skrzydeł i aparaty za kabiną pilota. Wersja PR.IE miała dodatkowe aparaty w owiewce pod skrzydłem i mogła robić zdjęcia z małej wysokości. Wersja PR.IF miała dodatkowy zbiornik za kabiną pilota i dwa zbiorniki pod skrzydłami. Do tego standardu przebudowano wszystkie maszyny wersji B i C. Wersja PR.IG była oparta o wersję E, ale zachowała uzbrojenie z 8 km oraz opancerzony wiatrochron. +Od połowy lipca do końca października 1940 roku Spitfire'y Mk I walczyły nad niebem Anglii z Messerschmittami Bf 109 i Bf 110 o panowanie na niebie Anglii. Pomagali im też piloci Hurricane'ów Mk I, których było w RAF o 3/4 więcej niż Spitfire'ów (chodzi o późne lato 1940 roku). Głównym zadaniem Spitfire'ów było ściąganie na siebie eskorty myśliwskiej (gdyż były szybsze od Hurricane'ów), tak aby Hurricane'y mogły bez przeszkód atakować bombowce Do 17, He 111, Ju 87 i Ju 88. +Mk II - Typ 329. +W 1940 pojawiła się wersja Mk II napędzana dwunastocylindrowym widlastym silnikiem tłokowym Merlin XII. Silnik wyposażono w mechaniczną sprężarkę (kompresor) z regulacją ciśnienia doładowania o mocy 1175 KM. Spitfire wyposażono w trójłopatowe śmigło o zmiennym skoku typu de Havilland lub Rotol. Dzięki temu prędkość maksymalna maszyny wzrosła o 28 km/h, jak też prędkość wznoszenia. Zależnie od konstrukcji płata i zamontowanego w nim uzbrojenia wytwarzano dwie odmiany : A i B. +Samolot Spitfire był zaprojektowany jako maszyna przechwytująca i nie miał dużego zasięgu działania. Kiedy RAF rozpoczął intensywne działania nad Europą w 1941, pojawiał się potrzeba wydłużenia zasięgu maszyny. W związku z tym przebudowano 60 maszyn wersji Mk IIA, przystosowując je do przenoszenia pod skrzydłami dodatkowych zbiorników z paliwem o pojemności 136 l (30 galonów). Oznaczono je jako Mk IIa LR (long range) i wykorzystywano do marca 1942 roku. Prędkość maksymalna tych maszyn spadła do 553 km/h. +Niewielką liczbę Spitfire Mk II używaną w ratownictwie morskim w 1943 roku oznaczono jako Mk IIC. Były one uzbrojone w 2 działka 20 mm i 4 km 7,7 mm, a ponadto dodano w nich zaczepy do przenoszenia bomb dymnych, służących do oznaczania miejsc z rozbitkami. Ponadto w kadłubie wygospodarowano miejsce na nadmuchiwaną łódź i pakiet ratunkowy z flarami, które mogli wykorzystywać sami piloci w razie zestrzelenia czy awarii lub mogły być zrzucane rozbitkom. +Łącznie w wersji Mk II zbudowano 920 samolotów, w tym 751 w wersji Mk IIA. Maszyny te szybko zastąpiły w jednostkach bojowych wersję Mk I, którą odesłano do jednostek treningowych. +Do brytyjskich dywizjonów myśliwskich samoloty Spitfire Mk I zaczęto przekazywać od czerwca 1938, w wersji Mk II od połowy 1940 roku. +Mk III - Typ 348. +Wersja Mk III miała zmienioną i wzmocnioną konstrukcję. Wzmocniono podwozie główne, które teraz miało klapy całkowicie je zakrywające po schowaniu oraz zastosowano całkowicie chowane kółko ogonowe oraz grubsze opancerzenie o masie 40 kg. Zastosowano silnik Merlin XX o mocy 1390 KM z dwubiegową sprężarką oraz nowe śmigło. Obcięto końcówki skrzydła, co zmniejszyło rozpiętość do 9,3 m i powierzchnię nośną do 20,4 m.kw., ale poprawiło szybkość wykonywania beczki. Szybę pancerną montowaną dotychczas na zewnątrz, na wiatrochronie przeniesiono do środka kabiny i zintegrowano z wiatrochronem, co poprawiło widoczność. Opracowano całkiem nowe skrzydło, typ C, bardziej uniwersalne, w którym można było montować albo 8 km 7,7 mm albo 2 działka 20 mm i 4 km 7,7 mm albo 4 działka 20 mm. Zbudowano tylko jeden prototyp, przebudowany z wersji Mk I, oblatany 16 marca 1940 roku, anulowano zamówienie na 1000 sztuk. Wystąpiły braki w dostawach silnika Merlin XX z uwagi na priorytet dla Hurricane Mk II, a ponadto Rolls Royce opracował kolejny wariant silnika Merlin 45, który mógł być montowany na płatowcach wersji Mk I i II, co dało w rezultacie wersję Mk V, podczas gdy produkcja wersji Mk III wymagała zmian w zakładach produkcyjnych z powodu zmienionej konstrukcji. Zmiany wypróbowane na tej wersji, nie poszły na marne i zastosowano je potem w innych wersjach. Konstrukcję płatowca wykorzystano przy pracach nad wersjami Mk VII i VIII, a skrzydło typu C już w wersji Mk V. +Mk IV - Typ 353. +Planowano również uruchomienie produkcji wersji Mk IV bazującej na płatowcu wersji Mk III ale z silnikiem Griffon o mocy 1500 KM. Uzbrojenie miało stanowić aż 6 działek. Z powodu przystąpienia do produkcji wielkoseryjnej wersji Mk V od zamiaru produkcji wersji z silnikiem Griffon jednak chwilowo odstąpiono i potem powrócono w wersji XII. +Oznaczenie Mk IV ostatecznie nosiły samoloty rozpoznania fotograficznego powstałe z przebudowy wersji Mk V. W sumie w 1941 powstało 229 egzemplarzy tego rodzaju samolotów oznaczonych PR Mk IV, znanych również pod nazwą Spitfire D. Napędzane były silnikami Merlin 45 lub 46. Maszyny nie były uzbrojone, a w to miejsce w skrzydłach zamontowano dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa o pojemności aż 518 litrów (118 galonów). Ten typ skrzydła oznaczano literą D. Dzięki temu maszyny te miały zasięg aż 3220 km, co pozwalało im wykonywać lot aż do Szczecina. Weszły do służby w październiku 1940 roku. Zbudowano 229 sztuk tej wersji. +Mk V - Typ 349. +Pod koniec 1940 roku, piloci latający na wersji Mk II zaczęli spotykać nową wersję Messerschmitta Bf 109F, która przewyższała wersję Mk II pod każdym względem, w tym w osiągach na dużych wysokościach. Ponieważ wersja Mk IV z silnikiem Griffon nie była gotowa do produkcji, z uwagi na problemy z silnikiem, a wersja Mk III, nie weszła do produkcji z uwagi na braki w dostawach silnika Merlin XX, postanowiono szukać tymczasowego środka zaradczego. W tym czasie firma Rolls-Royce, opracowała kolejną wersję silnika Merlin 45, która mogła być z łatwością zamontowana na płatowcach wersji Mk I lub II. Postanowiono więc tak zrobić i w styczniu 1941 roku, na płatowcu wersji Mk II wzmocniono konstrukcję łoża silnika i zamontowano silnik Merlin 45 o mocy startowej 1440 KM (później stosowano jego odmianę Merlin 46, 50 i 50A). Silnik ten miał nową jednostopniową sprężarkę, która poprawiła osiągi maszyny na dużych wysokościach. Nowy silnik pozwalał osiągać większą prędkość maksymalną oraz prędkość wznoszenia. Wprowadzono też metalowe pokrycie lotek, zamiast jak w poprzednich wersjach z płótna, poprzez co zmniejszyły się siły potrzebne do sterowania maszyną. Dzięki tym zmianom samolot okazał się co najmniej równorzędnym przeciwnikiem dla nowej wersji Bf 109F i miał porównywalne osiągi z wersją Mk III. W marcu 1941 roku postanowiono rozpocząć produkcję seryjną tak zmodyfikowanej maszyny. Początkowo stosowano dwa typy skrzydeł, na których można było montować różne uzbrojenie, stąd powstały dwie podwersje: Mk Va (skrzydło typ A) - 8 km kal. 7,7 mm i Mk Vb (skrzydło typ B) - 2 działka 20 mm i 4 km 7,7 mm. Od października 1941 roku zaczęto stosować całkiem nowe skrzydło typ C (pierwotnie opracowane dla wersji Mk III), w podwersji Vc, w której wzmocniono główny dźwigar oraz przesunięto go do przodu o 2 cale (5,08 cm). Można było w tym typie stosować różne warianty uzbrojenia: 4 działka 20 mm albo kombinacje uzbrojenia z typu A lub B. W praktyce stosowano 2 działka kal. 20 mm, ale z zapasem 120 sztuk na każde działko oraz 4 km z zapasem 350 na km. Ponadto można było pod każdym skrzydłem podwieszać bombę o masie do 113 kg. Łącznie wyprodukowano 6478 maszyn tej wersji (od wiosny 1941 roku), 94 jako Va, 3923 jako Vb i 2447 jako Vc. +W części maszyn pod nosem zamontowano filtry na wlocie powietrza do gaźnika, przystosowując maszyny do działań w warunkach pustynnych (Afryka Północna), co powodowało jednak spadek osiągów maszyny. Od sierpnia 1941 roku pojawił się Focke-Wulf Fw 190, który przewyższał wersję Mk V osiągami. Aby chociaż częściowo zrekompensować jego przewagę, zaczęto montować na tej wersji silniki Merlin serii 50, z nowym membranowy gaźnikiem, dzięki któremu można było w końcu wykonywać manewry przy ujemnych przeciążeniach. Ponadto opracowano odmianę M silnika (Merlin 45M, 50M i 55M), która miała mniejszą sprężarkę, lepiej spisująca się na małych wysokościach oraz usunięto końcówki skrzydeł, co poprawiło osiągi i zwrotność. Tak zmodyfikowane maszyny oznaczono LF Mk V. Standardową wersję oznaczono od tej pory jako F Mk V. +Mk VI - Typ 350. +Wersja ta była wysokościowym myśliwcem do zwalczania niemieckich maszyn dysponujących dużym pułapem operacyjnym. Napęd stanowił silnik Merlin 45 lub 46 z czterołopatowym śmigłem Rotol o średnicy 3,27 m. Skrzydła miały zwiększoną rozpiętość przez wydłużenie końcówek (typ skrzydła B). Kabinę ciśnieniową uzyskano uszczelniając przednią i tylną przegrodę. Wszelkie linki sterujące i kable elektryczne wyprowadzono przez specjalne, gumowe uszczelniacze. Ponadto zlikwidowano drzwiczki wejściowe w burcie kadłuba oraz zmieniono sposób zamykania osłony kabiny - zakładano ją od góry i mocowano od zewnątrz. W locie można było ją otworzyć tylko przez odrzucenie. Powietrze tłoczyła do kabiny sprężarka, zamontowana z boku silnika. W maszynach produkowanych od końca 1942 roku, w celu uzyskania poprawy osiągów na dużych wysokościach, wprowadzono instalację wtrysku ciekłego tlenu do silnika, była ona jednak bardzo wrażliwa na ogień przeciwnika. Zbudowano tylko 100 egzemplarzy, wobec przejęcia zadań wysokościowych przez wersję Mk IX. +Mk VII - Typ 351. +Była to też wersja wysokościowa. Była też pierwszą wersją, na której zastosowano silnik Merlin serii 60 (konkretnie Merlin 61 lub 64), który miał dwustopniową, dwubiegową sprężarkę, zdecydowanie poprawiającą osiągi na dużych wysokościach. Z uwagi na nową wersję silnika zmieniono system chłodzenia, wprowadzając dwie chłodnice pod każdym skrzydłem, przez co uległa likwidacji wizualna asymetria w wyglądzie. W wersji tej wzmocniono konstrukcję kadłuba, który z uwagi na dłuższy silnik uległ wydłużeniu, zmieniono filtr powietrza do gaźnika na nowy oraz dodano w skrzydłach dwa dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa. Wersja ta miała ciśnieniową kabinę typu "Lobelle", w której powrócono do sposobu zamykania kabiny znanego z wersji Mk I do V, czyli osłona była odsuwana do tyłu i powrócono do drzwiczek ułatwiających wsiadanie i wysiadanie. Hermetyczność uzyskiwano dzięki podwójnym szybom i gumowym nadmuchiwanym uszczelkom. Po prawej stronie silnika zamontowano kompresor do nadmuchu powietrza do kabiny. Zastosowano skrzydło typu C, zwiększono jego rozpiętość do 12,2 m oraz wprowadzono chowane kółko ogonowe. W ostatnich maszynach zrezygnowano jednak z kabiny ciśnieniowej i wprowadzono osłonę kabiny odsuwaną do tyłu oraz powrócono do krótszego skrzydła o normalnych zaokrąglonych końcówkach. Zbudowano 140 maszyn tej wersji, ponieważ maszyny te ustępowały jednak osiągami na dużych wysokościach dodatkowo odciążonym maszynom Mk IX. W ostatniej wyprodukowanej maszynie zastosowano silnik Merlin 71, co jeszcze bardziej poprawiło osiągi na dużych wysokościach. Osiągnęła pułap aż 13475 m. +Mk VIII - Typ 360. +W 1941 roku, rozpoczęto prace nad zastosowaniem w Spitfire nowej odmiany silnika Merlin 61 z dwustopniową, dwubiegową sprężarką. Silnik ten w sierpniu 1941 roku zabudowano na jednym egzemplarzy wersji Mk III (N3297). Testy potwierdzały wzrost osiągów maszyny, pozwalający na uzyskanie przewagi nad FW190. Ponieważ jednak należało dopracować konstrukcję płatowca, co doprowadziło do powstania wersji Mk VII i Mk VIII, jako środek zaradczy, tymczasowy, postanowiono zabudować na płatowcu wersji Mk V silnik Merlin 60 i budować tę wersję jako Mk IX, do czasu zakończenia prac nad wersją definitywną Mk VIII. +W wersji Mk VIII zrezygnowano z ciśnieniowej kabiny pilota. Zwiększono zapas paliwa, powiększając zbiornik paliwa w kadłubie do 96 galonów (436 litrów) oraz dodano w każdym skrzydle zbiornik o pojemności 14 galonów (ok. 64 litrów). Tak jak w wersji Mk VII, kółko ogonowe było wciągane do kadłuba, długość maszyny w związku z nowym silnikiem uległa wydłużeniu i zastosowano nowy system chłodzenia z dwiema chłodnicami pod skrzydłami. Zastosowano też skrzydło typu C, z 2 działkami 20 mm i 4 km 7,7 mm. Ponadto mogła ona przenosić jedną bombę 226 kg pod kadłubem albo 2 (do 113 kg) pod skrzydłami. Napęd stanowił silnik Merlin 61 o mocy 1565 KM albo Merlin 63 o mocy 1710 KM, z 4-łopatowym śmigłem. Część pierwszych wyprodukowanych maszyn miała zwiększoną rozpiętość skrzydeł. Późne egzemplarze tej wersji miały powiększony ster kierunku jak Mk IX. Produkowana była, oprócz wersji podstawowej jeszcze w dwóch odmianach: LF Mk VIII napędzana silnikiem Merlin 66 (1705 KM), przeznaczona do operowania na mniejszych wysokościach i HF Mk VIII z silnikiem Merlin 70 (1655 KM), do operowania na większych wysokościach. Ostatnie serie tej wersji przebudowano obniżając kadłub za kabiną i montując kroplową osłonę kabiny, co radykalnie poprawiło widoczność do tyłu. Wersja ta miała stać się główną wersją w produkcji Spitfire, ale tak się nie stało ze względu na sukces wersji Mk IX. Zbudowano 1652 sztuk. Pierwsze egzemplarze wyprodukowano już w listopadzie 1942 roku, ale pierwszy dywizjon wyposażono w nią dopiero w czerwcu 1943 roku. +Mk IX - Typ 361. +W sierpniu 1941 roku pojawił się Focke-Wulf Fw 190 i okazało się, że jest lepszy od maszyn wersji Mk V. Straty RAF wzrosły tak bardzo, że w listopadzie 1941 roku zawieszono nawet wykonywanie dużej części operacji nad kontynentem. Podobnie było kiedy w marcu 1942 ponownie wznowiono loty. Pilnym stało się więc znalezienie maszyny mogącej stawić mu czoła. +Ponieważ aby wprowadzić wersje Mk VII i VIII do produkcji, wobec zmian w konstrukcji, należało dokonać dość poważnych zmian linii produkcyjnych, postanowiono szukać tymczasowego środka zastępczego. Postanowiono zamontować na płatowcu wersji Mk V ten sam silnik co w wersji Mk VII i VIII, z jak najmniejszą ilością zmian. Zabudowano więc na dwóch płatowcach wersji Mk VC silnik Merlin 61 z 4-łopatowym śmigłem, po wzmocnieniu łoża silnika. Zmiana okazał się tak dobra, że postanowiono rozpocząć produkcję seryjną natychmiast. Maszyna była szybsza od wersji Mk V o 64 km/h, na 1219 metrów wznosiła się w 1 minutę, a pułap wzrósł z 11034 m do 13106 m. Pełna produkcja rozpoczęła się w czerwcu 1942 roku, a maszyny trafiły do jednostki bojowej już w następnym miesiącu. Wyprodukowano łącznie, razem z siostrzaną wersją Mk XVI, 7180 maszyn tej wersji. Z testów ze zdobycznym FW190 wynikało, że maszyny te są równorzędnym dla siebie przeciwnikiem. +Od wiosny 1943 zaczęto montować na Mk IX, zamiast silnika Merlin 61, nowe jego wersje Merlin 63, 66 i 70, które miały m.in. tryb bojowy, pozwalający na 5 minut, poprzez zwiększenie doładowania silnika, zwiększyć znacznie jego moc, co mogło np. pozwolić oderwać się od przeciwnika. Silnik Merlin 66 był zoptymalizowany do działań na niższych wysokościach niż Merlin 61 i 63. Maszyny te oznaczono jako Mk IXB, a maszyny z poprzednimi wersjami silnika, jako Mk IXA. Pod koniec 1943 zmieniono oznaczenia i maszyny z silnikami Merlin 61 i 63 oznaczono jako F.IXC (łącznie zbudowano 1255 maszyn tej odmiany), z silnikiem Merlin 66 jako LF.IXC (najliczniej produkowana odmiana, 4010 maszyn), a z silnikiem Merlin 70, zoptymalizowanym do działań na dużych wysokościach, HF.IXC (410 sztuk). Wszystkie produkowane w tym czasie maszyny wersji IX miały skrzydło typu C z 2 działkami 20 mm i 4 km 7,7 mm. +Żadna z tych zmian nie spowodowała jednak zmiany oznaczeń. +W 1946 roku Izrael zakupił w Czechosłowacji 58 szt. Spitfire LF.Mk IXE. W ramach operacji "Velvetta" przetransportowano te maszyny z Kunowic do izraelskiej bazy lotniczej Ekron. W czasie operacji 6 samolotów uległo zniszczeniu, lądując przymusowo w Jugosławii, zanim uzyskano zgodę na tankowanie w Titogradzie. W sumie do Izraela dotarły 52 maszyny. Izraelscy lotnicy woleli latać na Spitfire'ach aniżeli na Avia S-199 i dlatego odbudowali wybrakowane brytyjskie i uszkodzone egipskie Spitfire'y, uzyskując w ten sposób kolejne 5 maszyn. W latach 1950-51 Izrael przejął 50 szt. LF.Mk IX z Włoch i po przeprowadzeniu remontu sprzedał 30 szt. do Birmy, po czym rozpoczęto przezbrajanie wojsk powietrznych na samoloty odrzutowe. +PR.IX. +Dla celów rozpoznawczych w 1942 roku przerobiono 15 maszyn wersji Mk IX, usuwając całe uzbrojenie i montując w tyle kadłuba aparaturę fotograficzną. Oznaczono ją jako PR.IX. +FR.IX. +W 1944 na kilku maszynach wersji Mk IX zamontowano pojedynczy aparat fotograficzny F.24, nie usunięto jednak uzbrojenia i oznaczono je jako FR.IX. Maszyny wykorzystywano do rozpoznania z niskich wysokościach. +Type 509-Tr 9. +Treningowa wersja dwumiejscowa powstała pod koniec wojny. Wyprodukowano 26 maszyn. +PR.X - Typ 362. +Wersja rozpoznawcza powstała w 1944 roku, już po wersji PR.XI, przez zamontowanie do kadłubów wersji Mk VII skrzydeł z wersji PR.XI. Usunięto całe uzbrojenie, ale pozostawiono kabinę ciśnieniową typu "Lobelle", czyli odsuwaną do tyłu. Napęd stanowił silnik Merlin 77. W skrzydłach, w miejsce uzbrojenie, zamontowano 2 zbiornika paliwa po 302 litry. Nie była przystosowana do działania w warunkach tropikalnych. Powstało w ten sposób 16 maszyn. Wykorzystywana była do rozpoznania z dużych wysokości. Wprowadzona do jednostek w maju 1944 roku a wycofana we wrześniu 1945 roku. +PR.XI - Typ 365. +Wersja rozpoznawcza powstała w oparciu o wersję Mk IX. Pozbawiona uzbrojenia i w to miejscu, poprzez uszczelnianie płata, stworzenie integralnego kesonu, powstały dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa. Z tyłu kadłuba zamontowano uniwersalny uchwyt na aparaty, co pozwalała montować je w różnych kombinacjach, zależnie od potrzeb. Napędzana silnikiem Merlin 61, 63 lub 70. Ponadto miała powiększony zbiornik oleju w nosie, co spowodowało lekką modyfikację osłony oraz chowane kółko ogonowe. Większość egzemplarzy tej wersji przystosowano do działań w warunkach tropikalnych. Osiągała prędkość maksymalną 664 km/h na 7400 m, prędkość przelotową 632 km/h na 9450 m, pułap 13410 m i zasięg 3200 m. Produkowana seryjnie od listopada 1942 roku. Zbudowano 471 sztuk. W jednostkach często montowano pod skrzydłami, w niewielkiej owiewce dodatkowe aparaty. Na jednej maszynie podjęto próby osiągnięcia maksymalnej prędkości w nurkowaniu. Osiągnięto prędkość aż 975 km/h. +Mk XII - Typ 366. +Pierwsza wersja z silnikiem Griffon. Silnik ten miał większą pojemność skokową 36 l, podczas gdy Merlin 27 l, ale był zbudowany w tym samym układzie - 12 cylindrowy V. Obracał się jednak w przeciwnym kierunku. Był jednak tylko 7,5 cm dłuższy, 270 kg cięższy i w przekroju tylko o 6% większy niż Merlin. Śmigło było czterołopatowe. Pod koniec 1941 roku zbudowano 2 maszyny z tym silnikiem i oznaczono je jako Mk IV, miały silnik Griffon IIB z jednostopniową sprężarką i chowane kółko ogonowe oraz skrzydła o normalnej rozpiętości. Wzmocniono przy tym, by móc zamontować ten silnik, podłużnice w kadłubie i zmieniono mocowanie silnika. Pierwszą maszynę, DP845, oblatano 27 listopada 1941 roku. Z uwagi na dłuższy silnik, długość samolotu wzrosła do 9,30 m. Planowano że wersja seryjna maszyny będzie uzbrojona albo w 2 działka 20 mm i 4 km 7,7 mm albo w 4 działka 20 mm. Zamontowano nawet na tym prototypie makiety 6 działek, ale potem wrócono do konfiguracji 2 działka i 4 km. Wkrótce oznaczenie prototypu, DP845, zmieniono na Mk XX, ponieważ oznaczenie Mk IV przydzielono wersji rozpoznawczej PR.ID. A potem na Mk XII, stając się prototypem tej wersji. +Drugi prototyp, DP851, oblatano 8 sierpnia 1942 roku. Jego konstrukcja w porównaniu do DP845 uległa wzmocnieniu. Zainstalowano na nim potem silnik Griffon 61 i stał prototypem wersji Mk 21. +Maszyna DP845 wzięła udział w lipcu 1942 roku w wyścigu z Hawker Typhoon i FW190, w locie na małej wysokości i wygrał go, co było dość niespodziewane dla obserwatorów. Maszyna ta potem przechodziła próby i dokonywano na niej modyfikacji. Wypuszczono krótką serię maszyn tej wersji, 100 sztuk. Produkcję rozpoczęto od października 1942 roku. Płatowiec początkowo bazował na wersji Mk V a potem na wersji Mk VIII. Były one napędzanie silnikiem Griffon III lub IV, które zapewniały bardzo dobre osiągi na małych i średnich wysokościach, ale na dużych były gorsze od wersji Mk IX. Zrezygnowano z chowanego kółka ogonowego. Skrócono końcówki skrzydeł, przystosowując je lepiej do działań na niskich wysokościach. +PR Mk XIII. +Wersja rozpoznawcza bazująca na wersji PR.IG, ale napędzana silnikiem Merlin 32, zoptymalizowanym do działań na małych wysokościach. Pozostawiono w niej uzbrojenie złożone z 4 km. W 1943 roku przebudowano w ten sposób 26 (lub nawet 32) maszyny wersji PR Type G, Mk II i w większości Mk V. Używano ją do działań rozpoznawczych w czasie lądowania w Normandii w 1944 roku. +Mk XIV - Typ 373. +Wersja Mk XII z silnikiem Griffon, pokazała możliwości samolotu, była lepsza od innych wersji na małych i średnich wysokościach, ale była gorsza na dużych od wersji Mk IX. Dlatego poszukiwano dalszej poprawy właściwości na dużych wysokościach. Rozwiązaniem była wersja Mk XIV. Powstała przez zamontowanie na 5 płatowcach (JF316 do JF320) wersji Mk VIII, silnika Griffon 61, który miał już dwustopniową sprężarkę co poprawiło osiągi na dużych wysokościach. Śmigło było pięciołopatowe. Początkowo statecznik był standardowy, ze spiczastym zakończeniem, jak w późnych Mk VIII. Ale potem okazało się, że z uwagi na silnika, potrzebny jest inny statecznik. Powiększono go i obniżono zarazem oraz zmieniono jego obrys. Produkcję rozpoczęto od października 1943 roku. Zbudowano 957 maszyn. Pierwsze maszyny tej wersji miały silnik Griffona 61, ale potem zastąpiono go silnikiem Griffon 65. Na jednym egzemplarzu Mk VIII, przebudowanym do Mk XIV, zamontowano silnik Griffon 65 z przeciwbieżnymi śmigłami. Na jesieni 1944 roku powstała odmiana myśliwsko-rozpoznawcza FR.XIV z zamontowanym dodatkowo w tyle kadłuba aparatem fotograficznym i dodatkowym zbiornikiem paliwa na 148 litrów. Początkowo stosowano w tej wersji skrzydła typu C, ale w lecie 1944 zaczęto produkować ją z takimi samymi zmianami jak w wersji Mk IX w tym skrzydłem typu E i obniżonym kadłubem za kabiną i kroplową osłonę kabiny, poprawiającą widoczność do tyłu oraz uzbrojeniem złożonym z 2 x 20 mm i 2 x 12,7 mm. Do walk z pociskami V-1, w celu zwiększenia prędkości na małych wysokościach, użyto w tej wersji paliwa 150 oktanowego i zwiększono ciśnienie ładowania silnika. Dało to przyrost prędkości o 50 km/h, do 640 km/h na wysokości 600 m. +Mk XV i XVII. +Nie nadawano tych oznaczeń, aby uniknąć pomyłki z tak oznaczonymi wersjami Seafire, pokładowej odmiany Spitfire. +Mk XVI - Typ 361 +Wersja ta, to właściwie wersja Mk IX, wyposażona tylko w zoptymalizowany do pracy na małych wysokościach silnik. Wszystkie maszyny tej wersji, miały skrzydła typu E o skróconych końcówkach (LF Mk XVI). Zastosowano na niej kadłubowy zbiornik paliwa o pojemności powiększonej do 213 litrów. Ponadto, podobnie jak w wersji Mk IX, w tyle kadłuba zamontowano dodatkowy zbiornik na paliwo o pojemności 314 litrów, który normalne nie był wykorzystywany z uwagi na znaczne pogorszenie własności lotnych samolotu, a tylko w razie potrzeby znacznego zwiększenia zasięgu. Od lutego 1945 roku, zaczęto produkować maszyny z obniżonym tyłem kadłuba i kroplową osłoną kabiny. W związku z tym miały one dodatkowy zbiornik paliwa w tyle kadłuba o zmniejszonej pojemności do 300 litów. Zbudowano 1054 sztuk. +Mk XVIII (Mk 18)- Typ 394. +Wersja ta powstała w oparciu o płatowiec wersji Mk XIV ze skrzydłem typu E i tym samym silnikiem Griffon 65 o mocy 2035 KM, ale wzmocnioną konstrukcją skrzydeł, kroplową osłoną kabiny. Powstała w połowie 1945 roku, pierwszy egzemplarz oblatano w czerwcu 1945 roku. Zbudowano 300 sztuk. +Część maszyn przerobiono na wersję myśliwsko-rozpoznawczą FR.18, montując w tylnej części kadłuba dwa zbiorniki paliwa po 140 litrów oraz trzy aparaty fotograficzne. +PR 19 - Typ 389 i 390. +Ostatnia wersja rozpoznawcza, powstała w oparciu o wersję Mk XIV - płatowiec i silnik i Mk XI - zbiorniki paliwa w skrzydłach i aparatura fotograficzna. Nie miała uzbrojenia. Pierwsze 25 maszyn oznaczono jako typ 389. Od 26 maszyny wprowadzono ciśnieniową kabinę oraz jeszcze bardziej zwiększono pojemność zbiorników paliwa, do 387 litrów każdy, co dało w tych egzemplarzach pojemność 3,5 raza większą (łącznie 1152 litrów) niż w prototypie z 1935 roku. Te maszyny miały oznaczenie Typ 390. Zbudowano 225 maszyn. Pierwsze maszyny weszły do służby w maju 1944 roku i zastąpiły tam wersję Mk XI. Służyły do 1954 roku. Maszyna zazwyczaj wykonywała loty z prędkością 595 km/h na wysokości 12200 m, co skutecznie chroniło ją przed myśliwcami przeciwnika. Samolot mógł osiągać pułap nad Europą do 13000 m, a w tropikach jeszcze więcej. Po wojnie, na tej wersji osiągano pułap nawet 14900 m. A 5 lutego 1952 roku, na maszynie z 81 dywizjonu z Hongkongu, osiągnięto pułap 15710 m i prędkość maksymalną 1110 km/h, czyli 0,97 Macha. +Mk XX. +Oznaczenie to nosiły dwie maszyny, pierwotnie oznaczone jako Mk IV, potem przemianowano ich oznaczenie na Mk XX. W końcu jeden z nich stał się prototypem wersji Mk XII a drugi wersji Mk 21. +Mk 21 - Typ 356. +Kiedy na samolocie Spitfire zamontowano silnik Griffon, stało się jasne, że aby wykorzystać w pełni jego możliwości należy zmienić konstrukcję samolotu, i to zasadniczo. Stało się to w wersji Mk 21. W 1942 roku drugą z maszyn prototypowych Mk IV z silnikiem Griffon, DP851, potem oznaczonych jako Mk XX, wyposażono w silnik Griffon 61 zamiast Griffon IIB i oznaczono w grudniu 1942 roku jako Mk 21. Miała ona jeszcze zwykłe skrzydło, ale o zmienionej, wzmocnionej konstrukcji i grubszym poszyciem. Zmieniono dalej wiatrochron i ster kierunku, na taki jak w Mk XIV. Początkowo maszyna ta miała śmigło czterołopatowe, ale po pewnym czasie zastąpiono je pięciołopatowym. Masa startowa tej maszyny wynosiła 4080 kg. Rozwijał prędkość maksymalną 732 km/h na wysokości 7800m. Prędkość wznoszenia na wysokości 2350 m wynosiła 24,5 m/s a czas wznoszenia na 9000 m - 7 min 51 sekund. Pułap wynosił 13000 m. Maszyna ta została złomowana w maju 1943 r. 24 lipca 1943 r. został oblatany właściwy prototyp wersji Mk 21, PP139. Powiększono w nim lotki o 5% i były one dłuższe. Skrzydła się wydłużyły i ich powierzchnia wzrosła. Spowodowało to zdecydowaną zmianę obrysu skrzydła w stosunku do pozostałych wersji Spitfire. Zwiększono pojemność zbiorników paliwa w skrzydłach do 153 litrów. Rozsunięto podwozie o 39 cm i jego golenie wydłużono o 11,5 cm oraz było całkowicie osłonięte osłonami, oraz wprowadzono mechanizm jego skracania o 20 cm, tak aby mieściło się we wnękach w skrzydle. Zastosowano dzięki temu śmigło 5-łopatowe Rotol o większej średnicy, 3,35 m. Uzbrojenie stanowiły 4 działka 20 mm, usunięto karabiny maszynowe. Początkowo maszyna ta miała usterzenie jak w prototypach wersji Mk XIV, ale potem zamontowano na niej powiększone usterzenie jak w seryjnych Mk XIV. Samolot przechodził próby jesienią 1943 r., ale z uwagi na problemy z silnikiem nie udało się ich ukończyć. Pierwszą seryjną maszynę tej wersji (LA187) oblatano w 15 marca 1944 roku. Miała ona ostro zakończone końcówki skrzydeł i usterzenie jak w wersji Mk XIV. Wszystkie powyższe zmiany spowodowały jednak pogorszenie właściwości lotnych samolotu. Próby maszyny LA201 przeprowadzono pod koniec 1944 i wykazały jeszcze gorsze właściwości niż maszyna PP139. Kolejne badania potwierdziły złe charakterystyki samolotu i nie dopuszczono wersji Mk 21 do lotów bojowych do czasu rozwiązania tych problemów. Wywołało to zamieszanie w wytwórni, ponieważ była już gotowa linia produkcyjna tej wersji na 3000 sztuk. Aby to wyeliminować, wprowadzono zmiany w konstrukcji usterzenia, poprzez zmianę trymera na usterzeniu pionowym oraz wzmocnienie konstrukcji usterzenia poziomego. Próby przeprowadzone w marcu 1945 roku na maszynie LA215, wykazały zdecydowaną poprawę właściwości samolotu i uznano go z tymi zmianami za zdatny do służby. Zbudowano 120 sztuk tej wersji, resztę zamówienia z uwagi na koniec wojny anulowano. Kilka egzemplarzy miało silnik Griffon 85 z przeciwbieżnymi trójłopatowymi śmigłami. Loty na nich wykazały zdecydowaną poprawę stateczności maszyny, tak iż nie trzeba było używać w ogóle trymera na usterzeniu pionowym. Silnik z tymi śmigłami jednak nie nadawał się jeszcze do produkcji seryjnej, dochodziło bowiem często do awarii śmigła. +Mk 22 - Typ 356. +Wersja ta w stosunku do wersji Mk 21 miała obniżony tył kadłuba i kroplową osłoną kabiny. Zwiększono ponadto napięcie w układzie elektrycznym z 12V do 24V. Pierwszy egzemplarz oblatano w marcu 1945 roku. Początkowo miała takie samo usterzenie jak Mk 21, ale potem zastosowano powiększone, jak w Spiteful, co spowodowało powiększenie długości samolotu do 9,73 m. Poprawiło to też właściwości samolotu, dlatego przyjęto je za standardowe w kolejnych wersjach. Zbudowano 287 sztuk. Wersji tej używano w RAF do 1951 roku. +Mk 23. +Wersja ta, nigdy nie budowana, miała mieć skrzydło o zmienionym przekroju i laminarnym profilu. Zmiany te wypróbowano na jednym Mk VIII (JG204), modyfikując połączenie skrzydła z kadłubem co miało poprawić opływ powierza i zmniejszyć jego zawirowania. Maszynę tę oblatano w styczniu 1944 roku. Właściwości lotne uległy znacznemu pogorszeniu, więc nie rozwijano dalej tej wersji. +Mk 24 - Typ 356. +Była to ostatnia wersja Spitfire. Bazowała konstrukcyjnie na wersji Mk 22. Miała dwa dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa (po 148 l) w tyle kadłuba. Pod skrzydłami posiadała zaczepy do podwieszania rakiet. Posiadała też usterzenie ogonowe, takie jak ostatnie egzemplarze wersji Mk 22 oraz Spiteful. Ostatnie egzemplarze, uzbrojone były w nowe działka Hispano Mk V kal. 20 mm o krótszej i całkowicie osłoniętej lufie. Ostatni egzemplarz Mk 24 (WN496) ukończono w lutym 1948 roku. Zbudowano 54 maszyny tej wersji, w tym 27 przebudowano z Mk 22. +Ostatnimi samolotami z rodziny Spitfire były Spiteful i Seafang. +Spitfire w polskich muzeach. +W Muzeum Lotnictwa Polskiego w Krakowie eksponowany jest egzemplarz Supermarine Spitfire LF Mk XVIE. +W połowie października 1945 roku do Warszawy na wystawę wysłano trzy samoloty Spitfire, ale jeden wylądował omyłkowo na poznańskim lotnisku Ławica, zajętym wówczas przez jednostkę sowiecką, która lądowanie potraktowała jako naruszenie przestrzeni powietrznej. Po kilku dniach przetrzymywania pilota zezwolono mu na powrót do brytyjskiej strefy okupacyjnej Niemiec.. +Dwa Spitfire’y XVI ze znakami taktycznymi Q-JH z dywizjonu 317 oraz QH-Z z dywizjonu 302, zostały wypożyczone na Wystawę Lotniczą RAF zorganizowaną w 1945 roku w Muzeum Narodowym w Warszawie samoloty były wystawione na podjeździe do Muzeum Narodowego. Po zakończeniu wystawy samoloty zostały przekazane w 1946 roku do Muzeum Wojska Polskiego w Warszawie. +W roku 1950 Główny Zarząd Polityczny Wojska Polskiego, któremu podlegało Muzeum Wojska Polskiego wydał rozkaz zezłomowania samolotów. +Pod koniec 1950 roku grupa podoficerów z Technicznej Szkoły Lotniczej na Boernerowie otrzymała rozkaz zdemontowania eksponatów i przewiezienia na złomowisko, jako reliktów kapitalizmu. Część przyrządów pokładowych udało się jednak uczniom szkoły wynieść z terenu, gdzie pocięte już samoloty były składowane. +Barwy chłodne + +Barwy chłodne – subiektywne określenie barw przesuniętych w widmie barwnym w stronę fioletu. +Określenie to może być bezwzględne (dotyczyć wyłącznie odcieni fioletu, błękitu i zieleni), jak i względne: może dotyczyć właściwie każdej barwy chromatycznej bardziej przesuniętej w stronę fioletu niż barwa subiektywnie odbierana jako "czysta". Np. zieleń o odcieniu oliwkowym jest uznawana za ciepłą, a o odcieniu szmaragdowym za zimną, przy czym to przyporządkowanie może się znacznie różnić w zależności od indywidualnych cech percepcji obserwatora, a przede wszystkim od "otoczenia" barwnego, czyli bezpośredniego sąsiedztwa innej barwy. Odbieranie przez obserwatora barwy jako ciepłej lub chłodnej jest więc względne. +Określenie to może dotyczyć również barw "prawie" achromatycznych, tzn. odcienie szarości również mogą być uznawane za zimne, jeśli zawierają domieszkę barw chłodnych, lub też będąc absolutnie neutralnymi znajdują się w sąsiedztwie barw ciepłych. +Na kole barw barwy chłodne biegną od średniej zieleni poprzez wszystkie odcienie niebieskiego aż do średniego fioletu. +Określenie barw jako chłodnych jest dokładną odwrotnością pojęcia temperatury barwowej, gdyż barwy uznawane za chłodne odpowiadają wyższej temperaturze barwowej. +W powszechnym pojęciu barwy chłodne są uznawane za uspokajające, skłaniające do rozluźnienia i refleksji, czasem przygnębiające. Nie jest to do końca zgodne z empirycznie zweryfikowanym psychologicznym wzorcem działania barw, gdyż ludzie o różnych charakterach mogą na nie reagować odmiennie. +Chinchilla + +W języku polskim nazwa szynszyla ma kilka znaczeń, m.in. stosowana jest również dla szynszyli dużej ("Lagidium peruanum"). +Budowa ciała. +Ciało szynszyli ma krępą budowę, co w połączeniu z gęstym futerkiem nadaje zwierzęciu kulisty kształt. Wyglądem przypomina nieco wiewiórkę i królika. Długość tułowia - 20-37 cm. Samiczki są z reguły trochę większe i mają bardziej zaokrąglone kształty niż samce. Ogon pokryty jest sztywnymi włosami ościstymi, podwinięty do góry, i może osiągać do 1/3 długości ciała (9-17 cm). Jednak bywa łatwo łamany i częściowo tracony. Masa ciała dorosłego osobnika waha się od 400 do 700 g i jest to w dużej mierze cecha indywidualna. Głowa szynszyli jest duża, kształtna i osadzona na prawie niewidocznej szyi. Uszy duże, okrągłe (3-6 cm), prawie nieowłosione. Uszy stanowią doskonale rozwinięty narząd słuchu, ale są również sygnalizatorem nastroju zwierzęcia. Gdy szynszyla jest zaciekawiona, czymś przestraszona lub podniecona, uszy sterczą wysoko nad głową, a podczas snu i gdy jest spokojna - kładzie je po sobie. Oczy szynszyli są duże, okrągłe i lekko wypukłe, a ich kolor zależy od odmiany barwnej zwierzątka. Mogą być czarne, czerwone, brunatne lub rubinowoszare. Na czubku pyszczka znajduje się nieduży nos, stale węszący. Po obu jego stronach sterczą długie wąsy, zwane wibrysami - włosy czuciowe, których długość może dochodzić do 12 cm. +Zęby. +Dorosłe szynszyle mają 20 zębów - 4 siekacze i 16 trzonowców, głęboko osadzonych w kości szczękowej. Wzór zębowy szynszyli: 1013 1013 Górne i dolne zęby trzonowe są ustawione prostopadle do siebie i stykają się całymi powierzchniami trącymi. Siekacze natomiast są łukowato zakrzywione, a ich korony zachodzą na siebie nożycowato - górne na dolne (Jarosz, Rżewska, 1996). Nowo narodzone szynszyle mają 8 zębów trzonowych i 4 siekacze. Zęby szynszyli rosną przez całe życie, dlatego muszą być regularnie ścierane, aby nie uległy przerostowi (Gromadzka-Ostrowska, 1998). Pomiędzy siekaczami i zębami trzonowymi istnieje dosyć duża przerwa, zwana diastemą. Ma ona duże znaczenie, ponieważ pozwala wciągnąć policzki za siekacze, tak że zwierzę może gryźć siekaczami i jednocześnie przed połknięciem żuć trzonowcami fragmenty pokarmu (Alderton, 2002). +Kończyny. +Przednie łapki szynszyli są znacznie mniejsze od tylnych i mają 5 palców, przy czym tylko cztery z nich są chwytne, piąty natomiast jest prawie wcale nieużywany. Dzięki nim zwierzątko może z łatwością przytrzymywać pokarm i wkładać go do pyszczka. Przednie łapki odgrywają również dużą rolę podczas czynności pielęgnacyjnych. Kilka razy dziennie szynszyla bardzo dokładnie przeczesuje łapkami swoje futerko, przede wszystkim w okolicy pyszczka i brzucha, oraz czyści długie wąsy. Kończyny miedniczne mają cztery palce, są znacznie dłuższe i masywniejsze niż piersiowe. Umożliwiają one szynszylom błyskawiczną ucieczkę oraz silne odbicie się od podłoża. Ruchy szynszyli przypominają trochę kicanie królika. Zwierzęta te potrafią jednak skakać na wysokość metra, a także przeskakiwać odległości znacznie przekraczające długość ich ciała. +Ignacy Mycielski (generał) + +Ignacy Mycielski herbu Dołęga (ur. 17 stycznia 1784 w Zbąszyniu, zm. 22 kwietnia 1831 w Warszawie) – hrabia, polski generał. +Był synem starosty oświęcimskiego Jana Nepomucena i Anny z Garczyńskich, wnukiem kasztelana poznańskiego Macieja, bratankiem wojewody inowrocławskiego Józefa i starosty lubiatowskiego i generała Stanisława. Ignacy Mycielski wstąpił w listopadzie 1806 do konnej gwardii honorowej Napoleona, rok później awansował na podporucznika; był adiutantem pułkownika Wincentego Krasińskiego (późniejszego generała). Brał udział w kampaniach 1807 na Pomorzu i w Prusach Wschodnich. +W 1809 awansowany na majora, 1813 na pułkownika. Uczestniczył w kolejnych kampaniach napoleońskich, w 1814 po kolejnej kampanii pozostał przez jakiś czas we Francji, czekając na wyjaśnienie statusu ziem byłego Księstwa Warszawskiego. Powrócił do Warszawy w październiku 1815, w utworzonej armii polskiej został dowódcą 4. pułku piechoty. Na jesieni 1820 mianowany komendantem Korpusu Kadetów w Kaliszu, pozostał na tym stanowisku do wybuchu powstania listopadowego. We wrześniu 1826 otrzymał nominację cara Mikołaja I na generała brygady. +Miał opinię lojalnego oficera wobec rodziny carskiej. Po wybuchu powstania młodzież kaliska dokonała napadu na jego mieszkanie, doszło m.in. do zniszczenia portetów członków rodziny carskiej. Bez względu na zastrzeżenia Józef Chłopicki mianował Mycielskiego 4 stycznia 1831 dowódcą twierdzy Modlin (w miejsce generała Kazimierza Małachowskiego). Generał Mycielski pozostał na stanowisku zaledwie miesiąc, 6 lutego odwołany z powodu postępującej choroby (prawdopodobnie gruźlicy). W kwietniu 1831 zmarł w Warszawie. +Nie założył rodziny. Był wielokrotnie odznaczony, m.in. Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Virtuti Militari (1808), Orderem Legii Honorowej (1812), Orderem Św. Stanisława I klasy (1829), Orderem Św. Anny II klasy. +Był członkiem loży wolnomularskiej "Français et Polonais". +Ruhrstahl X-4 + +X-4 – kierowany pocisk rakietowy powietrze-powietrze opracowany w latach 1942/44 w zakładach Ruhrstahl przez dr. Maxa Kramera. Pierwszy pocisk kierowany przewodowo w zasadniczej części lotu. Wyprodukowano ok. 100 sztuk. Miał znaleźć się na wyposażeniu samolotów Messerschmitt Me 262 oraz Focke-Wulf Fw 190. Charakteryzował się dużym prawdopodobieństwem trafień, wybuchał średnio w odległości 7 m od bombowca – co powodowało całkowite zniszczenie celu. +Pierwsze testowe odpalenie z samolotu miało miejsce 11 sierpnia 1944 (samolot Fw 190). Następnie prowadzono próby na Junkers Ju 88 i Me 262, chociaż z Me 262 nie zostały odpalone. X-4 początkowo miał być używany przez jednomiejscowe myśliwce, lecz okazało się to niewykonalne z powodu trudności w pilotowaniu samolotu i naprowadzaniu pocisku w tym samym czasie. Zamiast tego więc przeznaczono go na uzbrojenie samolotów wielomiejscowych, jak Ju 88, a dla jednomiejscowych myśliwców przewidziano pociski R4/M. +X-4 został zaprojektowany w celu prostego wykonania, przez mało wykwalifikowanych robotników. Do początku 1945 zakłady Ruhrstahl wyprodukowały ponad 1000 płatowców pocisku (podawana jest często liczba 1300), które oczekiwały następnie na silniki rakietowe, jednakże produkująca silniki fabryka BMW w Stargardzie Meklemburskim została zbombardowana. Niewykluczone, że nieliczne X-4 mogły zostać użyte bojowo podczas ostatnich tygodni wojny w Europie, lecz brak jest na to dowodów, a pociski nie zostały dostarczone jednostkom Luftwaffe. +Zacharzew (Ostrów Wielkopolski) + +Zacharzew (niem. "Sacharschew") - dzielnica Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego umiejscowiona w zachodniej jego części. Także niewielka wieś położona przy jego granicy. +Historia. +Znany od 1444 roku. Znajdował się wówczas w granicach parafii ostrowskiej (utworzonej w 1434). Początkowo wieś rycerska. W latach międzywojennych majątek, należący do Radziwiłłów rozparcelowano. W 1934 r. włączono do Ostrowa część wschodnią Zacharzewa, dalsze tereny wsi miasto wchłonęło w roku 1979. Obecnie poza granicami Ostrowa znajduje się tylko licząca ok. 400 mieszkańców część zachodnia. +Osiedla. +Współczesny Zacharzew to wieś Zacharzew oraz osiedla: Parcele Zacharzewskie, Nowe Parcele i częściowo Osiedle Odolanowskie. +Południowa część Zacharzewa. Obejmuje też część dawnych obszarów wsi Lamki i Gorzyce Wielkie. Wraz z osiedlem X tworzy wielki kompleks zabudowy jednorodzinnej. Na peryferiach Nowych Parceli znajdują się m.in. dwie stacje kolejowe (Ostrów Wielkopolski Zachodni towarowy i Ostrów Wielkopolski Gorzyce), baza paliw PKN Orlen, największe w Polsce składowisko węgla Węglozbyt, Zakład Taboru PKP Cargo oraz Urząd Skarbowy i Komenda Policji. +Północna część Zacharzewa. Osiedle obejmuje też częściowo dawne osady Szczygliczka i Stary Staw, zespół punktowców osiedla Dembińskiego oraz tereny ZAP S.A.. Obecnie obszar intensywnej zabudowy jednorodzinnej i willowej, wraz z osiedlem IX tworzy wielki kompleks zabudowy jednorodzinnej. Dawne lotnisko (założone w 1914, w 1954 przeniesione do Michałkowa), zajęte przez bazę PPKS, dworzec komunikacji miejskiej, przedsiębiorstwa produkcyjne i usługowe, strażnicę Straży Pożarnej, centra handlowe oraz, w zachodniej części, cmentarz. Ponadto siedziba ostrowskiego Radia Eska, prokuratura okręgowa. +W granicach tego osiedla znajduje się niewielki fragment Zacharzewa położony na południe od linii kolejowej do Krotoszyna, a rozwijający się dopiero od lat międzywojennych. Dominuje tu zabudowa mieszkaniowa niska oraz obszary zajęte przez hurtownie i składy (elektrotechn., spożywcze, mat. budowlanych). +Bergepanzer Tiger + +Bergepanzer Tiger, nazywany też Bergetiger - niemiecki wóz zabezpieczenia technicznego z okresu II wojny światowej, zbudowany na bazie czołgu ciężkiego PzKpfw VI Tiger Ausf. E. Wóz prawdopodobnie nosił również oznaczenie "Sd.Kfz. 185", lecz nie jest to potwierdzone, gdyż takie samo oznaczenie nosiły już działa pancerne Jagdtiger z armatami kal. 88 mm L/71 (nie produkowane seryjnie). +Historia. +W styczniu 1944 trzy czołgi PzKpfw VI Tiger zostały przebudowane przez 506 batalion ciężkich czołgów (niem. "schwerer Panzer Abteilung", "sPzAbt") na wozy pogotowia technicznego Bergepanzer Tiger. W listopadzie zostały one przeniesione do 501 sPzAbt. Jeden z czołgów Tiger I, uszkodzony pod Anzio, został przez 508 sPzAbt przebudowany w dniach od 1 do 5 marca 1944 przez dodanie dźwigu o nośności do 10 ton i kołowrotu holowniczego w przebudowanej wieży. Pojazd ten został utracony między 20, a 25 maja 1944 i zdobyty przez wojska brytyjskie. Określono go wówczas jako "Bergetiger z żurawiem", lecz nie był on prawdziwym pojazdem Bergetiger, ale specjalnym pojazdem o innym przeznaczeniu. +Konstrukcja. +Czołgi pozbawione były działa, uzbrojone były tylko w karabin maszynowy MG 34. Dźwig skonstruowany w zakładach J.S. Fries & Sohn we Frankfurcie nad Menem, montowany był w przebudowanej wieży zamontowanej na stałe w jednym położeniu. Mechanizm blokowy dźwigu był napędzany przez silnik czołgu. +Buergeryt + +Buergeryt (burgeryt) – turmalin żelazowy, minerał z gromady krzemianów, zaliczany do grupy turmalinów. +Nazwa pochodzi od nazwiska krystalografa Martina Juliana Buergera (1903-1986). Jest minerałem bardzo rzadkim. +Charakterystyka. +Właściwości. +Tworzy kryształy słupkowe, wykazujące zazwyczaj zbrużdżenia. Bywa spotykany w skupieniach ziarnistych. Jest izomorficzny z innymi turmalinami: elbaitem, dravitem, schorlem, uvitem. Jest kruchy, przeświecający. Niekiedy wykazuje barwną migotliwość (iryzację) o barwie brązu. +Występowanie. +Spotykany w niektórych kwaśnych skałach magmowych np. ryolitach, pegmatytach. +Miejsca występowania: Meksyk – Mexquitic. +Breda + +Breda – miasto w południowo-zachodniej Holandii, w prowincji Brabancja Północna, ok. 40 km na pd.-wsch. od Rotterdamu, w pobliżu granicy z Belgią. +Dane ogólne. +Ośrodek kulturalno-naukowy: akademia sztuk pięknych, szkoła teatralna i muzyczna, akademia wojskowa; biblioteki, muzea. Breda jest jednym z głównych skupisk polonijnych w Holandii. +Historia. +W XI wieku Breda była lennem Cesarstwa Niemieckiego, a +jej pierwszym znanym do dzisiaj władcą był Heinrich I van Brunesheim (1080 - 1125). W 1327 roku +Adelheid van Gaveren sprzedał ją Janowi III, Diukowi Brabancji. +W 1350 roku została odsprzedana Janowi II z Wassenaar. W 1403 roku dziedziczka jego linii - +Johanna van Polanen (1392 - 1445) wyszła za mąż za Engelbrechta I van Nassau (1370 - 1442) +i w ten sposób Breda stała się własnością Dynastii Orańskiej-Nassau trafiając ostatecznie +we władanie Wilhelma I Orańskiego, pierwszego namiestnika (stadhoudera) prowincji Niderlandów. +W ten sposób tytuł "Barona Bredy" powiązany był z tytułem hrabiego Nassau, Oranii i +namiestnika prowincji Niderlandów. Ten stan utrzymywał się aż do roku 1795, gdy Breda dostała się pod okupację francuskich sił rewolucyjnych. +Breda uzyskała prawa miejskie w 1252 roku i dzięki temu można było rozpocząć budowę murów obronnych. W XV wieku +nastąpił gwałtowny rozwój miasta. Rozpoczęto budowę katedry z 97 metrową wieżą, a w 1534 średniowieczne mury zostały poważnie rozbudowane przez Henryka III z Nassau, dzięki czemu Breda stała się jedną z potężniejszych twierdz na linii warowni w Niderlandach. W tym samym czasie w mieście zaczęło pojawiać się coraz więcej domów, budowanych przez przedstawicieli znanych holenderskich rodów. Jeden z najbardziej okazałych pałaców został zaprojektowany w renesansowym stylu przez znanego włoskiego architekta Tomassa Vincidora i stał się rezydencją rodziny królewskiej. +Szybki rozwój infrastruktury miejskiej został zatrzymany w 1534 roku przez pożar, który zniszczył większość zabudowań Bredy: spalonych zostało +około 1 300 domów, ocalało tylko 150. +Podczas Wojny osiemdziesięcioletniej Breda została opanowana podstępem przez Hiszpanów w 1581 roku, ale 1590 przeszła z powrotem w ręce Maurycego Orańskiego, Księcia Nassau (dzięki brawurowej akcji 68 ochotników, którzy zdołali się przedostać do miasta w łodziach przykryci darnią). Breda ponownie została zdobyta przez Hiszpanów w roku 1625 po około 10-miesięcznym oblężeniu. Poddanie się obrońców miasta Hiszpanom dowodzonym przez generała Ambrosio Spinola zostało uwiecznione przez Diego Velázqueza na obrazie "Poddanie Bredy". W 1637 Fryderyk Henryk Orański odbił miasto po 4-miesięcznym oblężeniu. Breda została ostatecznie przyłączona do Republiki Zjednoczonych Prowincji w roku 1648 na mocy pokoju westfalskiego. +II wojna światowa. +Podczas II wojny światowej Breda było pod niemiecką okupacją. Została zajęta przez niemiecką 9 Dywizję Pancerną 13 maja 1940 r. Zostało wyzwolone 29 października 1944 roku przez 1 Dywizję Pancerną (1 DPanc.) dowodzoną przez generała Stanisława Maczka w ramach natarcia kanadyjskiej 1 Armii w kierunku ujścia Mozy. W czasie walk o miasto przed frontem 1 DPanc broniły się niemieckie 256, 711, 719 DP. oddziały 1 DPanc. opanowały 28 października Molenschot, Lijndonk, Raaleind, Bavel, w nocy 28/29 października rejon Dorst. rankiem 29 października ruszyły do natarcia główne siły dywizji: 3 Brygada Strzelców (3 BS) wzmocniona czołgami zdobyła Ginneken, wdarła się na przedmieścia miasta i uchwyciła nie uszkodzony most; 10 Brygada Kawalerii Pancernej (10 BKPanc), działając patrolami w rejonie Dorst, oczyszczała teren na północ od toru kolejowego Breda - Tilburg. Pododdziały 3 BS opanowały południowo-zachodnią część Bredy i przeprawy w rejonie Oranienboom. 1 ppanc. zajął północno-wschodnią część Bredy oraz prowadził rozpoznanie stacji kolejowej. 30 października dywizja oczyściła rejon miasta i prowadziła walki o przyczółek na kanale. Po zdobyciu miasta toczono walki o Moerdijk i ujście Mozy. +Polscy żołnierze zostali entuzjastycznie powitani przez mieszkańców Bredy. W każdym oknie i na każdej witrynie sklepowej widniały polskie napisy "Dziękujemy Wam, Polacy". Zarząd miasta okazując wdzięczność Polakom uhonorował ich Srebrnym Medalem Miasta Bredy oraz Honorowym Obywatelstwem Miasta Bredy. Po wojnie, na wniosek ponad 40 000 mieszkańców Bredy, generałowi Stanisławowi Maczkowi przyznano honorowe obywatelstwo Holandii. Na miejskim cmentarzu pośród mogił polskich żołnierzy znajduje się także grób generała. +W okresie od 3 października (wyzwolenie Alphen) do 29 października 1 DPanc. wzięła do niewoli 7 oficerów i 569 niemieckich szeregowców, 3 czołgi, 9 dział różnych kalibrów. Podczas walk 1 DPanc. straciła 151 zabitych i kilkuset rannych. +Walki o Bredę zostały upamiętnione na Grobie Nieznanego Żołnierza w Warszawie, napisem na jednej z tablic - "BREDA 29 - 30 X 1944". +Okres powojenny. +Po wojnie znajdowało się tu więzienie, które funkcjonowało na bazie koncepcji Panoptikonu, w którym odbywali karę niemieccy zbrodniarze wojenni. +Gospodarka. +Ważny ośrodek przemysłu włókienniczego (oprócz tradycyjnych wyrobów - produkcja włókien kokosowych i wyrobów z juty) i maszynowy (zbrojeniowy); drugie po Amsterdamie centrum wyrobów czekoladowych i cukierniczych, browar, przetwórnie owoców, fabryka tworzyw sztucznych (koncern Akzo), zakłady skórzano-obuwnicze. +Transport. +Wielki węzeł drogowy (A16, +A27, A58, +A59) i znaczny węzeł kolejowy ze stacjami Breda i Breda-Prinsenbeek. +Słownictwo + +Słownictwo – jeden z podstawowych zasobów języka naturalnego. Zasób, bogactwo słów jakim posługuje się dana osoba, autor dzieła literackiego, grupa społeczna, naród – w tym wypadku mówimy o słownictwie danego języka, grupa etnograficzna – w tym wypadku mówimy o słownictwie danej gwary bądź dialektu. +William Camden + +William Camden (ur. 2 maja 1551 w Londynie, zm. 9 listopada 1623), angielski antykwariusz, historyk i geograf. +Mieszczanin londyński, dzięki finansowemu wsparciu kanonika Thorntona ukończył studia na Uniwersytecie Oksfordzkim. Utrzymanie zapewniało mu probostwo, które otrzymał, mimo że nie złożył ślubów duchownych. Od 1575 był nauczycielem w szkole Westminsterskiej, a w latach 1593–1597 dyrektorem tej szkoły. Całe swoje życie poświęcił pracy naukowej. +Pistolet maszynowy MP 40 + +MP 40 – niemiecki pistolet maszynowy kalibru 9 x 19 mm Parabellum produkowany w czasie II wojny światowej. +Historia konstrukcji. +W okresie międzywojennym armia niemiecka posiadała 3700 pistoletów maszynowych (głównie MP 18 I i MP 28 II), nie były one jednak przepisowym uzbrojeniem. Dopiero doświadczenia wojen toczonych na świecie w latach 30. XX wieku spowodowały zwiększenie zainteresowania tym rodzajem broni. +Ponieważ używane już typy pistoletów maszynowych uznano za przestarzałe, postanowiono skonstruować nowy pistolet maszynowy. 29 czerwca 1938 roku nowy pistolet został przyjęty do uzbrojenia jako M.P.38. Była to konstrukcja nowoczesna, ale dość kłopotliwa i skomplikowana w produkcji. Najbardziej kłopotliwym w produkcji elementem broni była komora zamkowa. Skomplikowana technologia powodowała że do końca 1940 roku wyprodukowano zaledwie 40 000 egz. MP 38. Było to o wiele za mało jak na potrzeby stale rozwijającego się Wehrmachtu. +W 1939 roku rozpoczęto prace nad modernizacją MP 38. W firmie ERMA opracowano wersję MP 38(L) z komorami zamkową i spustową wykonanymi technologią odlewania z aluminium. MP 38(L) był lżejszy i łatwiejszy w produkcji od MP 38, ale ponieważ pierwszeństwo w dostawach deficytowego aluminium miał przemysł lotniczy, jego produkcji nie uruchomiono. +Poza Ermą prace nad modernizacją MP 38 prowadzono w HWA (Heereswaffenamt, niem. Urząd Uzbrojenia Wojsk Lądowych). Prace w HWA miały na celu nie tylko uproszczenie produkcji, ale także eliminację z konstrukcji MP 38 elementów z materiałów deficytowych (takich jak metale lekkie). +Największą nowością w prototypie opracowanym przez HWA była nowa komora zamkowa. Jej projektantem był inż. Anton Peter. Był on zwolennikiem stosowania w produkcji broni elementów wykonywanych metodą tłoczenia ze stalowej blachy (Anton Peter był nazywany przez współpracowników Stahlblech Peter, niem. Blaszany Piotruś). Zaprojektowana przez niego komora zamkowa była zwijana z blachy stalowej i zgrzewana punktowo. Była ona prostsza w produkcji niż rurowa komora zamkowa MP 38, a jej dodatkową zaletą była mniejsza powierzchnia styku zamka z komorą zamkową, dzięki czemu zmniejszyło się ryzyko zacięć w przypadku zanieczyszczenia broni. Poza nową komorą zamkową nowy był chwyt pistoletowy wykonany także metodą tłoczenia z blachy (MP 38 ta część była aluminiowym odlewem). Przyspieszeniu produkcji służyć miała także rezygnacja z obróbki kosmetycznej (jej rezultatem było nowe gładkie gniazdo magazynka). +Produkcję nowego pistoletu maszynowego uruchomiono na początku 1940 roku. Nowa broń otrzymała oznaczenie MP 40. Pistolet został zaprojektowany przez niemieckiego konstruktora Heinricha Vollmera. Poza zakładami wcześniej produkującymi MP 38 czyli Erfurter Maschinenfabrik B. Geipel GmbH i Waffen- und Fahrradfabrik C.G. Haenel, produkcję MP 40 uruchomiono także w austriackich zakładach Steyr (wcześniej produkujące MP 34(ö), z czasem stały się największym producentem MP 40). Wprowadzono także nowe magazynki wyposażone w pionowe rowki mające zwiększyć sztywność magazynka i jego odporność na zanieczyszczenia. Podobnie jak MP 38, nowy pistolet maszynowy strzelał tylko ogniem seryjnym, ale niska szybkostrzelność umożliwiała doświadczonemu żołnierzowi prowadzenie ognia pojedynczego. Etatowo w pistolety maszynowe uzbrojeni mieli być dowódcy: drużyn, plutonów, kompanii. Zadziwia fakt, że sztab generalny opracował szczegółowe zasady użycia MP dopiero w 1940. +Pomimo rozpoczęcia produkcji seryjnej, prace nad udoskonalaniem MP 40 trwały nadal. Dużą wadą nowego pistoletu maszynowego był podobnie jak w przypadku MP 38 brak możliwości zabezpieczenia broni z zamkiem w przedniej pozycji. 25 czerwca 1942 roku rozpoczęto produkcję MP 40 wyposażonych w nową rękojeść napinania zamka. Składała się ona z trzpienia przyspawanego do zamka i osadzonej na nim ruchomej tulei. Przesunięcie tulei w stronę komory zamkowej powodowało wsunięcie występu tulei w wycięcie komory zamkowej i zabezpieczenie broni. Zastosowane rozwiązanie było wyraźnie wzorowane na bezpieczniku radzieckiego PPSz. Od 1 czerwca 1943 roku nakazano przerobienie rękojeści wcześniej wyprodukowanych MP 38 i MP 40 Wehrmachtu, a 15 lipca 1944 roku Waffen-SS. +W tym samym 1942 roku powstał prototyp wersji MP 40/II. Miała ona poszerzone gniazdo magazynka, w którym można było zamontować dwa magazynki 32-nab. Po wystrzelaniu naboi z jednego magazynka, zespół obu magazynków można było przesunąć w bok i ponownie rozpocząć ogień. Wersja ta powstała jako odpowiedź na uwagi żołnierzy frontowych, którzy postulowali zwiększenie pojemności magazynka MP 40 (bębnowy magazynek radzieckiej pepeszy zawierał 71 naboi). MP 40/II okazał się konstrukcją niepraktyczną i nie był produkowany seryjnie. +W 1942 roku rozpoczęto produkcję pistoletów maszynowych MP 40 wyposażonych w gniazdo magazynka wykonane ze zwiniętej i zgrzanej blachy (w miejsce gniazda frezowanego). Nowe gniazda posiadały charakterystyczne poziome żebra zwiększające sztywność. Pojawiły się także: nowy chwyt pistoletowy, szyna ochraniająca dolną powierzchnię lufy i nakrętka mocująca lufę. Zmiany te miały na celu zmniejszenie czasochłonności produkcji MP 40. +W 1942 coraz wyraźniejsza była perspektywa wprowadzenia do uzbrojenia karabinów szturmowych. Pod koniec tego roku Haenel zakończył produkcję MP 40, przygotowując się do rozpoczęcia produkcji karabinu StG44. W 1943 roku także Erma zakończyła produkcję MP 40 i rozpoczęła wytwarzanie StG44 (a dokładniej jego wczesnych wersji MP 43 i MP 44). Ostatnim producentem MP 40 był Steyr, który zakończył produkcję MP 40 w październiku 1944 roku. Z tych zakładów pochodziła ostatnia wersja produkcyjna MP 40 posiadająca komorę zamkową i spustową wykonaną w postaci jednego elementu z tłoczonej blachy. +Do końca wojny wyprodukowano według różnych źródeł od 746 000 do 1,1 miliona pistoletów maszynowych MP 40. Pomimo pewnych niedoskonałości MP 40 był jedną z najlepszych broni II wojny światowej. Jego konstrukcja stała się podstawą do opracowania angielskiego Stena, szwedzkiego Carl Gustaf m/45 i jugosłowiańskiego Zastava M56. +Po II wojnie światowej pistolet maszynowy MP 40 był nadal powszechnie używany w wielu armiach świata (szczególnie w konfliktach lokalnych) do końca lat 60. Przykładowo do 1956 roku MP 40 był przepisowym pistoletem maszynowym izraelskich spadochroniarzy. +Opis konstrukcji. +Pistolet maszynowy MP 40 był indywidualną bronią samoczynną. Automatyka pistoletu maszynowego MP 40 jest oparta na zasadzie odrzutu swobodnego zamka. Ryglowanie odbywa się masą swobodnego zamka, podpartego sprężyną powrotną. Strzelanie z zamka otwartego seriami. Trzon zamkowy miał postać walca w wydrążeniu którego umieszczona była ruchoma iglica na masywnej żerdzi. Żerdź otoczona sprężyną powrotną. Sprężyna powrotna w osłonie teleskopowej. Mechanizm spustowy umożliwia strzelanie tylko ogniem ciągłym. Zasilanie z magazynka pudełkowego o pojemności 32 nabojów, rozmieszczonych w szachownicę. Przyrządy celownicze składają się z muszki w osłonie i celownika przerzutowego, celownik dwustopniowy: stały – dla odległości 100 m i odchylany dla odległości 200 m. Lufa wkręcona w komorę zamkową zakończona podstawą muszki i hakiem ułatwiającym strzelanie przez otwory strzelnicze pojazdów. Łoże i okładziny chwytu pistoletowego z bakelitu. Kolba metalowa składana pod spód broni. +Ministerstwo ds. Współpracy z Organizacjami Politycznymi i Stowarzyszeniami + +Ministerstwo ds. Współpracy z Organizacjami Politycznymi i Stowarzyszeniami - resort zajmujący się dialogiem politycznym między organizacjami i stowarzyszeniami politycznymi, zlikwidowany w 1993 r. +Ignacy Mycielski (oficer pruski) + +Ignacy Mycielski (ur. 24 czerwca 1842, zm. 11 lutego 1884) – hrabia herbu Dołęga. +Był synem Teodora (oficera powstania listopadowego, ziemianina i działacza społecznego) i jego pierwszej żony Anieli z Mielżyńskich. Urodził się w Chocieszewicach (obecnie: Pępowo), które wraz ze Smogorzewem stanowiły później jego majątek (Chocieszewice sprzedał Wilhelmowi Radziwiłłowi). Brał udział w powstaniu styczniowym, później został oficerem w armii pruskiej. 9 listopada 1865 poślubił Jadwigę Moszczeńską, z którą miał dwóch synów i dwie córki. Zmarł w Smogorzewiu. +Barwy ciepłe + +Barwy ciepłe – subiektywne określenie barw przesuniętych w widmie barwnym w stronę czerwieni. +Określenie to może być bezwzględne (dotyczyć wyłącznie odcieni czerwieni, oranżu i żółcieni), jak i względne: może dotyczyć właściwie każdej barwy chromatycznej bardziej przesuniętej w stronę czerwieni niż barwa subiektywnie odbierana jako „czysta”. Np. zieleń o odcieniu oliwkowym jest uznawana za ciepłą, a o odcieniu szmaragdowym – za zimną, przy czym to przyporządkowanie może się znacznie różnić w zależności od indywidualnych cech percepcji obserwatora. Określenie to może też dotyczyć barw „prawie” achromatycznych, tzn. odcienie szarości również mogą być uznawane za ciepłe, jeśli zawierają domieszkę ciepłych barw lub też będąc absolutnie neutralnymi znajdują się w sąsiedztwie „zimnych” barw. +Na kole barw barwy ciepłe biegną od średniej zieleni poprzez żółcień, oranż i czerwień aż do średniego fioletu. +Określenie barw jako ciepłych jest dokładną odwrotnością pojęcia temperatury barwowej, gdyż barwy uznawane za ciepłe odpowiadają niższym temperaturom barwowym. +W powszechnym pojęciu barwy ciepłe są uznawane za pobudzające, optymistyczne, czasem agresywne. Nie jest to do końca zgodne z empirycznie zweryfikowanym psychologicznym wzorcem działania barw, gdyż ludzie o różnych charakterach mogą na nie reagować odmiennie. +Ministerstwo Transportu i Gospodarki Morskiej + +Ministerstwo Transportu i Gospodarki Morskiej, od 2001 zostało włączone do kompetencji Ministerstwa Infrastruktury. +V1 + +V-1 (niem. "Vergeltungswaffe-1", broń odwetowa nr 1) – niemiecki samolot-pocisk z okresu II wojny światowej. Potocznie nazywany "latającą bombą". +Historia. +Prace nad bronią, którą nazwano później Fieseler Fi-103 (V-1), prowadzone były już pod koniec lat trzydziestych. Prace nad projektem prowadził Fritz Gosslau. W pocisku V-1 zamierzano wykorzystać nowe silniki pulsacyjne. Prace posuwały się dość szybko, co prawdopodobnie spowodowane było naciskiem "sponsora", czyli Ministerstwa Lotnictwa. W połowie 1942 roku przedstawiono projekt do oceny. +Prace nad Fi-103 prowadzone były w Peenemünde. Próby startowania pocisku wykonywano w wielu wariantach, również przy użyciu samolotu, a jedna z koncepcji zakładała kierowanie V-1 przez pilota (wersja "Reichenberg"). Najlepszym rozwiązaniem okazał się start ze specjalnej wyrzutni-katapulty. +Produkcja pocisków V-1 rozrzucona była po całych Niemczech i terenach okupowanych, co spowodowane było potężnym nalotem lotnictwa RAF w nocy z 17 na 18 sierpnia 1943 roku na ośrodek Peenemünde. Pierwszym zakładem była fabryka Volkswagena w Fallersleben oraz Fieseler w Kassel. Później produkcję przejęły zakłady "Dora" (Mittelwerk), położone w podziemnym kompleksie w Turyngii. Skąpe materiały mówią też o wytwarzaniu części do V-1 w Lubiążu, Ząbkowicach Śląskich, Świdnicy. Dla podobnej produkcji przeznaczony był prawdopodobnie kompleks "Riese" budowany w Górach Sowich. Na ziemiach polskich znajdowały się również poligony, na których przygotowywano pierwsze oddziały "artylerii rakietowej". +Pierwsze próby pocisków V-1 przeprowadzono na poligonie w Peenemünde w 1942 roku. W 1943 roku na północnym wybrzeżu Francji Niemcy wybudowali wyrzutnie pocisków V-1 oraz zespoły schronów służących do magazynowania pocisków. Nalot na Peenemünde, dokonany przez RAF w sierpniu 1943 roku, opóźnił bojowe użycie pocisków V-1. Dużą rolę odegrał w tym wywiad AK, zdobywając dane na temat niemieckich prac nad broniami V-1 i V-2, i przekazując aliantom zdobyte materiały wraz z ich analizą wykonaną m.in. przez inż. Antoniego Kocjana. +Poprzez to opóźnienie do dnia lądowania aliantów w Normandii, czyli 6 czerwca 1944 nie odpalono ani jednej latającej bomby. +Zastosowanie bojowe. +Pierwsze bombardowanie pociskami V-1 przeprowadzone zostało w nocy z 13 na 14 czerwca 1944 roku. Z dobrze zamaskowanych wyrzutni odpalono 10 pocisków w kierunku Londynu, z czego 4 tylko dotarły do wysp brytyjskich. 15 czerwca na krótko przed północą z 55 wyrzutni wystrzelono do południa 16 czerwca ok. 100 pocisków V-1. 18 czerwca już 500. Ataki te Niemcy rozpoczęli jednak za późno – gdyby pocisków V-1 użyli do bombardowania skoncentrowanych przed desantem barek i okrętów w brytyjskich portach przed 6 czerwca, wtedy mogliby osiągnąć większy efekt psychologiczny i być może wpłynąć na decyzję o inwazji. +W zależności od lokalizacji wyrzutni i innych czynników czas dolotu pocisku V-1 do Londynu wynosił 20-25 minut. Z racji stosunkowo małej celności broń ta nadawała się do ataków na duże powierzchniowo cele jak miasta: Londyn, a późniejszym okresie Antwerpię i Liege. +W niszczeniu budynków pociski V-1 były o wiele skuteczniejsze niż zwykłe bomby lotnicze o podobnej masie. Ogółem do końca 1944 wystrzelono 6 046 pocisków V-1, z tej liczby rozbiło się niebawem po starcie 1 681. Do końca wojny wystrzelono 1 279 latających bomb (także na Belgię). Razem wszystkie wyrzutnie lądowe wystrzeliły 20 880 pocisków V-1, do celów dotarło 18 435. Około 1 600 sztuk "odpalono" z samolotów (zwykle do tego używano bombowców He 111). +Wyprodukowano około 30 tys. pocisków V-1. Wystrzelono około 10 tys. przeciwko Anglii, z czego 7 tys. "trafiło", tzn. wylądowało gdzieś na angielskim terytorium (z tego 3 876 pocisków w obrębie aglomeracji miejskiej Londynu). +Ponad 3000 pocisków zostało zniszczonych przez samoloty myśliwskie lub balony zaporowe. +Z powodu ataków pociskami V-1 zginęło w Anglii około 5 500 ludzi, a 16 tys. zostało rannych. +Zdobyczne pociski V-1 – przechwycone przez nacierające siły alianckie oraz niewybuchy – posłużyły alianckim konstruktorom do opracowania własnych pocisków rakietowych. W ramach tych projektów powstały m.in. amerykański JB-2, radzieckie pociski Ch-101, Ch-102 i 10ChN oraz francuskie CT.10 i Caisseur. +Szynszylowate + +Szynszylowate (Chinchillidae) – rodzina ssaków z rzędu gryzoni, które występują w południowej oraz zachodniej części Ameryki Południowej. Najbardziej znanym przedstawicielem jest szynszyla mała ("Chinchilla lanigera"). Szynszyla jest nieco większa od wiewiórek naziemnych. Zwierzę to prowadzi nocny tryb życia. Nazwa zwierzęcia wywodzi się od indiańskiego plemienia Chincha, a w dosłownym tłumaczeniu brzmi Mała Chincha. Plemię to wykorzystywało miękkie i gęste futra gryzoni jako okrycia wierzchnie. Ze względu na swoje cenne futro szynszyla stała się obiektem polowań, dlatego już przed końcem XIX wieku gatunek ten niemal zupełnie wyginął. Obecnie większość szynszyli hodowana jest na farmach, a ich futra wykorzystywane są w przemyśle odzieżowym. +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka w literaturze na temat szynszyli pojawiła się w 1599 roku w książce pod tytułem „Historia Natura y Moral de las Indias” napisanej przez Ojca Jose de Acosta. Opisywał on w niej te gryzonie jako „górskie zwierzęta, które tak samo jak wiewiórki są małymi stworzeniami, lecz odróżnia je od nich niebywale miękkie futerko”. +Jednym z pierwszych ludzi, którzy zaczęli hodować szynszyle dla zysku był Jezuita Juan Ignacjo Molina, dzięki któremu w 1810 roku powstał dokładny opis szynszyli. Wielokrotnie próbowano hodować gryzonie w niewoli. Pierwszy rzetelny raport, dotyczący próby hodowli, pochodzi od Federico Alberta, dyrektora zoologiczno-botanicznej stacji badawczej w Chile. W artykule „La Chinchilla” opisał on przypadek Francisco Irrazavala z Santiago, który w 1895 roku otrzymał parę szynszyli, która jeszcze tego samego roku wydała na świat potomstwo. Para kontynuowała reprodukcję aż do wybuchu epidemii w lecie 1896, będącej przyczyną wyginięcia całej hodowli gryzoni. +W 1918 roku Mathias F. Chapman, inżynier górnictwa w Kalifornii, pracując w Chile kupił szynszylę i traktował ją jak zwierzę domowe. Gryzoń okazał się idealnym domownikiem, dlatego Chapman postanowił wyhodować całe ich stado. Ze względu na to, że w ówczesnym czasie szynszyle były bliskie wyginięcia, objęto je ochroną. Chapman starał się jednak o zgodę na przewiezienie kilku osobników do Stanów Zjednoczonych. Jego upór doprowadził do tego, że rząd w Chile wydał pozwolenie na schwytanie i przewiezienie kilku gryzoni. Chapman razem z grupą ludzi przeszukiwali góry przez 3 lata, a złapali zaledwie 11 szynszyli. Mężczyzna poświęcił 12 miesięcy na schodzenie z gór, ponieważ było to konieczne, aby zwierzęta w pełni zaaklimatyzowały się w nowym środowisku. Po przewiezieniu szynszyli do Ameryki okazało się, że tylko 3 z nich są rodzaju żeńskiego. Chapman rozpoczął hodowlę gryzoni. Zarówno on, jak i inni ludzie, mający styczność z tymi zwierzętami potwierdzali, że są one świetnymi towarzyszami. Od połowy lat sześćdziesiątych XX wieku szynszyle stały się niezwykle popularne jako zwierzęta domowe. +Środowisko naturalne. +Szynszyle żyją na terenach skalistych, głównie w Andach w Chile. Zamieszkują nory i szczeliny skalne. Z natury są zwinne, potrafią podskoczyć nawet do wysokości 1,5 metra. +W rodzimym otoczeniu na szynszyle czyhają przeróżne zagrożenia ze strony drapieżników takich jak: skunksy, węże oraz dzikie psy. Dlatego też gryzonie wykształciły różne taktyki obronne. Między innymi jest to rozpryskiwanie moczu bądź odrzucanie nadgryzionego futerka. Szynszyle żywią się roślinnością wysokogórską, owocami, ziarnami oraz małymi insektami. Taka dieta zdecydowanie mogłaby podrażnić układ trawienny domowych szynszyli, które przeważnie jedzą siano. +W środowisku naturalnym zwierzęta te żyją w koloniach zwanych stadami. Mogą się one rozmnażać o każdej porze roku. Ciąża szynszyli trwa 111 dni, czyli znacznie dłużej niż u innych gryzoni. Ze względu na tak długi okres ciąży młode szynszyli rodzą się z otwartymi oczkami i futerkiem na ciele. Miot jest zazwyczaj mały i przeważnie bliźniaczy. +Przemysł futrzany. +Międzynarodowy handel futrami szynszyli rozpoczął się w XVI wieku. Futro gryzoni stało się bardzo popularnym produktem handlowym ze względu na niesamowitą miękkość, spowodowaną wyrastaniem nawet do 60 włosków z jednej torebki włosowej. Kolor włosów jest jednolity, co sprawia, że idealnie nadają się do produkcji dodatków do garderoby (futrzane kołnierze, podszycia) oraz odzieży wierzchniej. Do wyrobu jednego długiego, futrzanego płaszcza potrzeba aż 150 szynszylich futer. Doprowadziło to do wyginięcia szynszyli olbrzymiej oraz przyczyniło się do zmniejszenia populacji pozostałych gatunków szynszyli. Mimo zaprzestania polowań na dzikie gryzonie, hodowla szynszyli domowych na potrzeby rynku wciąż się rozwija. +Domowa szynszyla. +Hodowlane szynszyle mogą być trzymane w domach tak samo jak inne domowe pupile. Są one gryzoniami prowadzącymi nocny tryb życia i zwykle nie lubią, kiedy przeszkadza im się w ciągu dnia. Szynszyla jest płochliwym stworzeniem, dlatego nie lubi być trzymana na rękach, potrafi ona jednak nawiązać silną więź z właścicielem. W związku ze swoim bardzo nerwowym usposobieniem, szynszyle zazwyczaj nie są postrzegane jako odpowiednie zwierzęta dla małych dzieci, jednakże potrafią być bardzo przyjacielskie w stosunku do ludzi, jeżeli jako młode zostaną przyzwyczajone do ludzkiego dotyku. +Szynszyle trzymane w niewoli żyją zazwyczaj 15 lat, lecz znane są także przypadki, kiedy niektóre osobniki żyły 20 lat, a nawet i dłużej. W 2008 roku odnotowano, że najstarsza szynszyla na świecie ma 27 lat i mieszka na terytorium Wielkiej Brytanii. +Aby wyrazić swoje potrzeby lub zlokalizować innego osobnika szynszyle wydają najróżniejsze dźwięki, takie jak: ćwierkanie, piszczenie i szczekanie. W zależności od sytuacji jest to ciche ćwierkanie wysyłane w kierunku potencjalnego partnera, bądź też głośne, agresywne szczekanie w sytuacji zagrożenia. +Młode szynszyli często witają rodziców ćwierkiem o bardzo wysokim tonie, który zazwyczaj sygnalizuje to, że są one głodne. +Pierwsze naukowe badania nad dźwiękami, które wydają szynszyle w swoim środowisku zostały przeprowadzone przez lekarza weterynarii – Dr Bartl z Niemiec. Mówią one o tym, że szynszyle, które są aktywne nocą, wydają dźwięki o wczesnych, porannych godzinach. Natomiast samica szynszyli, która jest zirytowana bądź przestraszona może głośno gdakać i opryskać moczem potencjalnego wroga. +Szynszyle tej samej płci mogą ze sobą mieszkać, jednakże jest wielce prawdopodobne, że w końcu zaczną one ze sobą walczyć. Ciągłe walki oraz życie w dobrych stosunkach zależy indywidualnie od każdego gryzonia. Konflikt pomiędzy szynszylami może być zredukowany jeżeli szynszyle znają się od małego albo stopniowo zapoznają się ze sobą kiedy są już starsze. Samce i samice szynszyli zazwyczaj żyją ze sobą w bardzo dobrych stosunkach, a żeby uniknąć niechcianej reprodukcji można je łatwo wysterylizować. W czasie corocznej reprodukcji szynszyle mają zazwyczaj 2 mioty gryzoni, a w każdym z nich jest od 1 do 3 młodych (przy czym 3 są rzadkością). +Szynszyle potrzebują dużo ruchu, a zatem powinny mieć zapewnione duże koło do ćwiczeń (minimum 38 cm średnicy), w którym będą mogły biegać. Ponadto powierzchnia kołowrotka powinna być wykonana z solidnego tworzywa, ponieważ łapy i palce szynszyli łatwo mogą się wplątać w szczeliny koła, a ogon może wkręcić się w szprychy. Zęby szynszyli muszą być co jakiś czas ścierane, ponieważ nieustannie rosną i jeśli są zbyt długie mogą uniemożliwić szynszylom jedzenie. +W ścieraniu zębów pomocne są: drewniane patyki, pumeks oraz specjalne gryzaki. Natomiast nie poleca się drewna cytrusowego i iglaków, ponieważ zawierają dużą ilość żywicy, olejków oraz fenoli, które są toksyczne dla szynszyli. Drewno brzozy, wierzby, jabłoni, manzanity oraz sosny (wysuszonej w piecu) jest bezpieczne dla tych gryzoni i mogą je one bez problemu żuć, natomiast spożycie plastikowych elementów może spowodować niedrożność jelit. +Ciało szynszyli nie wydziela potu, dlatego też temperatura pomieszczenia, w którym przebywają nie powinna przekraczać 25° C (80° F), w przeciwnym razie zwierzę mogłoby ulec przegrzaniu, a nawet dostać udaru cieplnego. Organizm szynszyli rozprowadza nadmiar ciepła poprzez przekierowywanie krążenia do jego ogromnych uszu, dlatego też sygnałem zbyt wysokiej temperatury ciała są czerwone uszy. +Z natury szynszyle są bardzo żywiołowymi zwierzętami, dlatego należy je od czasu do czasu wypuszczać z klatki, by mogły pobiegać po większym terenie i zaspokoić swoją ciekawość. +Umaszczenie szynszyli może być różnorodne, począwszy od szarości, która jest powszechnym i jedynym kolorem występującym w naturze, poprzez biel, beż, heban i wiele innych. Zwierzęta te instynktownie czyszczą swoje futro (kilka razy w tygodniu), biorąc kąpiele w pyle (drobno starty pumeks), w którym się tarzają. W środowisku naturalnym do tego celu wykorzystują drobne skałki wulkaniczne. Pył wnikając w futro gryzonia pochłania tłuszcz i brud. Szynszyli nie kąpie się w wodzie, ponieważ ich futro jest tak gęste, że nie jest w stanie wyschnąć naturalnie, a zatrzymanie wilgoci blisko skóry może się przyczynić do rozwoju grzyba i gnicia futra. Mokre zwierzę powinno być natychmiast wysuszone ręcznikami lub zimnym strumieniem powietrza suszarki. Jednakże gęste futro ma też swoje zalety, na przykład jest odporne na ataki pasożytów takich jak pchły oraz redukuje łupież zwierzęcy, tym samym sprawiając, że szynszyle są hipoalergicznymi gryzoniami. +Odpowiednia, zdrowa dieta ma ogromny wpływ na prawidłowe funkcjonowanie układu pokarmowego szynszyli. W swoim naturalnym środowisku zwierzęta te żywią się głównie pustynnymi trawami, dlatego też ich organizm nie jest w stanie przetrawić tłustego pożywienia, wysokobiałkowych produktów oraz zbyt wielu zielonych roślin. Wszystkie potrzeby żywieniowe szynszyli są zaspakajane poprzez specjalny, wysokowartościowy granulat oraz stały dostęp do siana. Natomiast granulaty bogate w błonnik mogą być zastąpione rodzynkami lub ziarnami. Nie wskazane jest także podawanie świeżych warzyw i owoców z rzadkim miąższem, ponieważ wywołują one wzdęcia, które w konsekwencji mogą prowadzić do śmierci gryzoni. Spożycie słodyczy i suszonych owoców powinno być ograniczone do jednego lub dwóch w ciągu dnia. Orzechy nie są zalecane ze względu na ich wysoką zawartość tłuszczu, a produkty wysokobiałkowe i siano z lucerny mogą wywołać niewydolność wątroby, dlatego spożycie zarówno jednych jak i drugich powinno być ograniczone. +Należy pamiętać, że szynszyle jedzą i piją w niewielkich ilościach, dlatego też bardzo łatwo je przekarmić. Może to doprowadzić do biegunki, a na dłuższą metę nawet do cukrzycy. +Szynszyla w badaniach naukowych. +Szynszyla jest często wykorzystywana jako modelowe zwierzę w badaniach nad narządem słuchu, ponieważ zakres słyszenia (który wynosi od 20 Hz do 30 kHz) oraz wielkość ślimaka (część ucha wewnętrznego) są zbliżone do ludzkiego. Inne dziedziny badań naukowych wykorzystujących szynszyle to badania nad chorobą Chagasa, zaburzeniami żołądkowo-jelitowymi, zapaleniem płuc, listeriozą, a także infekcjami wywoływanymi bakteriami "Yersinia" i "Pseudomonas". +Lipowiec + +Miejscowości w Polsce: +Miejscowości na Ukrainie: +Zobacz też: Lipowiec Kościelny, Nowy Lipowiec, Stary Lipowiec +Lycoris + +Lycoris Desktop/LX to komercyjna dystrybucja Linuksa dla początkujących, oparta na Debianie. Stylistyką nawiązuje do Windows XP. +Firma Lycoris powstała w 2000 r. 15 czerwca 2005 ogłoszono jej wykupienie przez Mandrivę i zapowiedziano integrację Desktop/LX Personal z Mandriva Discovery.Ta Dystrybucja nie jest rozwijana. +Teoria pola (fizyka) + +Teoria pola (fizyka), dział fizyki wypracowujący metody badania oraz badajaca pola fizyczne, czyli obszary w których występują zjawiska fizyczne. Fizycy matematyzując problem opisują te zjawiska poprzez przypisanie każdemu punktowi przestrzeni matematycznego obiektu, co odpowiada określeniu pewnej funkcji na przestrzeni, w której występuje pole. +Zazwyczaj to samo pole fizyczne można opisywać polami różnego typu np. pole elektryczne można opisywać przez potencjał elektryczny lub przez natężenie pola elektrycznego. +Różniczkowe operatory pola. +Przykładem wyrażenia praw fizycznych z użyciem operatorów różniczkowych są równania Maxwella. +Przedstawianie graficzne pól. +Pola skalarne obrazuje się często poprzez połączenie liniami/powierzchniami punktów o takiej samej wartości np. punkty o takim samym potencjale grawitacyjnym (linie ekwipotencjalne) +Pola wektorowe obrazuje się poprzez rysowanie linii stycznych do wektora pola np. linie pola magnetycznego lub elektrycznego. +Ministerstwo ds. Socjalnych i Cywilizacyjnych Wsi + +Ministerstwo ds. Socjalnych i Cywilizacyjnych Wsi - resort zajmujący się dofinansowywaniem regionów rolniczych w Polsce. Funkcjonował jedynie za rządu premiera Tadeusza Mazowieckiego. +Ministerstwo Rozwoju Regionalnego + +Linki zewnętrzne. +Strona Ministerstwa +Rapperswil + +Rapperswil – szwajcarskie miasteczko na północnym brzegu Jeziora Zuryskiego w kantonie Sankt Gallen, z zamkiem z XIII wieku. Około 7,5 tys. mieszkańców. +Siedziba Muzeum Narodowego Polskiego, założonego 23 października 1870 przez Władysława Platera w celu zabezpieczenia polskich zabytków historycznych i propagowania spraw polskich. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Rapperswil. +Epir + +Epir (grecki " – Ipiros", co po polsku oznacza kontynent lub wnętrze dużego lądu) – górzysta kraina położona w północno-zachodniej części Grecji, nad Morzem Jońskim, na północy graniczy z Albanią, na wschodzie z Tesalią, a na południu z Etolią i Akarnanią. Ponadto istnieje także Epir Północny, czyli zamieszkały przez Albańczykow, Greków i Wołochów obszar, położony po albańskiej stronie granicy. +Grecka część Epiru jest dziś podzielona na cztery prefektury ("nomoi"): Arta, Janina, Preweza i Tesprotia. Graniczy z regionami: Macedonia Zachodnia, Grecja Zachodnia, Grecja Środkowa i Tesalia. Ma powierzchnię 9200 km², około 350 000 mieszkańców. Największym miastem jest Ioannina (Janina), licząca 100 000 mieszkańców. Ludność Epiru stanowią głównie Grecy, są także dwie małe mniejszości etniczne – Albańczycy i Wołosi (Arumuni). +Historyczna kraina Epiru rozciągała się dużo dalej na północ, na tereny dzisiejszej Albanii, gdzie Grecy nadal stanowią zauważalną mniejszość etniczną. Obszar ten jest nazywany przez Greków Północnym Epirem. Mieszkający dawniej w Epirze Albańczycy przenieśli się do Albanii po II wojnie światowej i greckiej wojnie domowej. Grecja przez długi czas uważała, że tereny południowej Albanii należą do niej, ale w końcu obydwa kraje zgodziły się na obecne granice. +Epir jest krainą górzystą; szczyty pasma górskiego Pindos sięgają 2600 m i oddzielają Epir od Macedonii i Tesalii. Większość Epiru leży po zawietrznej stronie Pindos i wiatry znad Morza Jońskiego przynoszą do Epiru znacznie więcej opadów w porównaniu z resztą Grecji, co częściowo niweluje niedostateczną żyzność gleb górskich. Z powodu nieurodzajności ziemi produkcja rolna w Epirze zawsze była jedną z najniższych w Grecji; istotną rolę odgrywało natomiast pasterstwo. W okolicach Janiny uprawia się tytoń. Na niewielką skalę uprawia się też pszenicę, winorośl, oliwki i kukurydzę, ale większość żywności jest importowana z innych regionów kraju. Pomimo wielu atrakcji do Epiru nie przyjeżdża tylu turystów co do innych części Grecji. +Historia. +Antyk. +Greckie słowo "épejros" oznacza "ląd" lub "kontynent" i pierwotnie używane było do określenia całego wybrzeża Zatoki Korynckiej. Antyczni Grecy osiedlili się w Epirze w I tysiącleciu p.n.e., ale przez cały czas były to tereny sporne, o które walczyli także mieszkający nad Adriatykiem Ilirowie. Największe znaczenie miały plemiona: Chaonowie, Tesprotowie i Molossowie. W polityce starożytnej Grecji Epir miał znaczenie marginalne. Greckie państwa-miasta (polis) założyły na jego terytorium wiele kolonii, które służyły głównie jako porty dla statków płynących na Adriatyk i do Italii. +Od V w. p.n.e. Epir był rządzony przez dynastię, która twierdziła, że wywodzi się od Pyrrusa, syna Achillesa. Dla Greków Epir był ważnym miejscem głównie z powodu umiejscowienia tam świątyni i wyroczni w Dodonie – drugiej co do ważności przepowiedni starożytnych Greków ustępującej tylko delfickiej Pytii. W IV w. p.n.e., po wstąpieniu na tron szanowanego w świecie greckim króla Arybbasa, Epir znacznie przybliżył się do świata greckiej polityki i kultury. Siostrzenica Arybbasa, Olimpias poślubiła Filipa II Macedońskiego i urodziła Aleksandra Wielkiego. +Po śmierci Arybbasa na tron wstąpił Aleksander I, który odzyskał niezależność kraju od Macedonii. Przyjął on tytuł króla Epiru i znacznie poprawił wpływy i znaczenie Epiru w innych krajach. Jednym z następców Aleksandra był Ajakides, który został zdetronizowany w 317 p.n.e. Jego syn Pyrrus przejął ostatecznie władzę w 297 p.n.e. i przez sześć lat prowadził działania wojenne przeciwko Rzymowi w południowej Italii oraz Kartaginie na Sycylii. Wojny z Rzymem przysporzyły Epirowi dużej, ale krótkotrwałej sławy. +Po śmierci Pyrrusa w 272 p.n.e. znaczenie Epiru zmalało. W 168 p.n.e. Rzymianie pod wodzą Emiliusza Paulusa splądrowali kraj i praktycznie stał się on zależny. Rządził nim tyran Charops. W r. 157 p.n.e. Epir stał się częścią prowincji Rzymska Macedonia otrzymując nazwę "Epirus Vetus" (dla odróżnienia od krainy zwanej "Epirus Nova" leżącej na wschód). +Przez następne 400 lat Epir był rządzony z Rzymu, aż pod koniec IV w. n.e. przeszedł pod kontrolę Konstantynopola. Jego tereny były wielokrotnie najeżdżane i zasiedlane przez Gotów, później Słowian, i grecki charakter kraju był stopniowo wypierany, ale nie został do końca zapomniany i zagubiony. +Średniowiecze. +Po upadku Konstantynopola w czasie czwartej krucjaty (1204) Epir znalazł się pod władzą krzyżowców. Po okresie zamieszania, Karol II Tocco, władca Cefalonii i Zante przyjął tytuł despoty Epiru. +W 1443 albański przywódca Skanderbeg poprowadził powstanie przeciwko imperium osmańskiemu i opanował większość Epiru. Po jego śmierci obszary te znalazły się w sferze wpływów Wenecji. +Czasy nowożytne. +Pod koniec XV wieku cały region został ponownie podbity przez Imperium osmańskie, które rządziło Epirem przez następne 400 lat. Pod władzą osmańską Epir był podrzędną dzielnicą zamieszkaną przez prawosławnych Greków i Albańczyków oraz muzułmańskich Albańczyków i Turków. +Pod koniec XVIII wieku, w miarę zmniejszania się roli Imperium osmańskiego, Epir został praktycznie niezależnym regionem pod władzą Ali Paszy, albańskiego księcia który otrzymał tytuł "paszy" (czyli gubernatora prowincji) w 1788. Jego wpływy roztaczały się na większość zachodniej Grecji i Albanię. Po wybuchu greckiej wojny o niezależność, Ali próbował stworzyć z Epiru niezależne państwo, ale został zamordowany przez osmańskich szpiegów w 1822. +Po odzyskaniu niepodległości przez Grecję, Epir pozostał pod władzą państwa tureckiego. Porozumienie Berlińskie z 1881 dało Grecji część Epiru, a reszta została przyłączona do Grecji dopiero w trakcie wojnie bałkańskiej 1912-13. Następnie Grekom ciężko było pogodzić się z okolicznością, że zdobyta przez nich, po ciężkich, przełamujących poważne umocnienia, walkach z turecką armią, częściowo greckojęzyczna, północna część Epiru przypadła Albanii. +Po wybuchu I wojny światowej i upadku Albanii, Włosi przejęli jej północne tereny, a Grecja zyskała południową część tego kraju, tzw. Północny Epir. Wewnętrzne podziały wśród Greków spowodowały, że siły greckie zostały wycofane z tego regionu w 1916 r. i zajęte przez Włochów. Konferencja Pokojowa w Paryżu w 1919 r. przyznała te tereny Grecji, ale przegrana tego kraju z wojnie grecko-tureckiej w latach 1919-1922 spowodowała, że Grecja nie mogła ich utrzymać i przeszły pod władanie Albanii. +W 1939 Albanię wraz z północnym Epirem zajęli Włosi, którzy rok później zaatakowali Grecję. W wyniku kontrataku Grecy ponownie zajęli północny Epir, ale niemiecka inwazja w 1941 zakończyła się kapitulacją Grecji i Epir znalazł się pod włoską okupacją do 1943 r., kiedy został przejęty przez Niemców. Górskie wyżyny Epiru stanowiły świetny teren dla działań partyzanckich i wkrótce powstało tam wiele oddziałów greckich, aktywnie stawiających opór okupantowi. Epir był wtedy jedyną prowincją Grecji, zdominowaną przez partyzantów rojalistycznego ugrupowania EDES, dowodzonego przez Napoleona Zerwasa, a nie lewicowo-republikańskiego ELAS. +Po wycofaniu się Niemców z Grecji w 1944, grecki nacjonalistyczny ruch oporu EDES próbował przejąć południową część Albanii na rzecz Grecji, idea ta nie znalazła jednak uznania na scenie międzynarodowej. W czasie greckiej wojny domowej, w górach Epiru toczyły się najcięższe walki, w tym dwukrotnie bitwa w masywach gór Grammos i Vitsi, za drugim razem rozstrzygająca wynik wojny na korzyść królewskiego rządu. +Po Traktacie Lozańskim, muzułmańska mniejszość albańska, w greckim Epirze, została wysiedlona do Albanii i Turcji. Niemniej Grecy nadal orędowali za przejęciem przez Grecję Północnego Epiru, argumentując zamieszkiwaniem go głównie przez ludność narodowości greckiej i doznawanymi przez nią drastycznymi (w okresie komunizmu) prześladowaniami narodowościowymi. Po upadku komunizmu w Albanii w 1991 agitacja z obu stron nie ustała. +Sytuacja obecna. +Jeszcze w 1993 r. Albania deportowała wysokiego dostojnika kościoła greckiego za "działania wywrotowe", co spowodowało krótkotrwały konflikt polityczny. Aktualnie sytuacja ludności greckiej uległa poprawie, zarówno w zakresie szkolnictwa, jak i ekonomicznej, wobec emigracji zarobkowej większej części tej ludności do Grecji (co dotyczy także ok. 800 tysięcy rdzennych Albańczyków). Grecy dysponują już w Albanii prawami mniejszości, niemniej nie we wszystkich miejscowościach, zamieszkałych przez nich oraz wciąż dochodzi do lokalnych zadrażnień, a w mieszanych szkołach do tolerowanych, jeśli nie inspirowanych rękoczynów, np. w dni greckich świąt narodowych. Policja często nie reaguje na zgłoszenia. Sporadycznie dochodzi do mordów na tle czysto narodowościowym., ostro i publicznie potępianych następnie przez albańskie władze państwa. Grecja, kierując się danymi Greckiego Kościoła Prawosławnego, ocenia liczebność swej mniejszości w Albanii na ok. 12% ludności kraju. Albańskie władze uznają, że jest to 3%. Grecki Komitet Helsiński wskazuje na liczącą 300-400 tysięcy osób mniejszość prawosławną, składającą się głównie z Greków i Arumunów. Co potwierdza dane strony greckiej, ponieważ Arumuni w Grecji od co najmniej stuleci, w większej części identyfikują się także jako Grecy. Kwestia Epiru i zamieszkujących ją mniejszości, wciąż kontrowersyjna dla obu krajów, wydaje się zmierzać w stronę dobrosąsiedztwa. Jednocześnie widoczne są szybka modernizacja i zdecydowany wzrost poziomu życia, także w albańskiej części tej prowincji. +Styczeń 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Stanisław Szczepanowski + +Stanisław Szczepanowski (ur. 12 grudnia 1846 w Kościanie, zm. 31 października 1900 w Nauheim) – polski ekonomista, inżynier, przedsiębiorca naftowy, od 1886 poseł do parlamentu austriackiego, od 1889 do Sejmu Krajowego galicyjskiego. +Syn Jana Władysława i Wandy z Poplińskich. Ojciec, ur. w 1813 w Nagłowicach, pow. Jędrzejów, ukończył gimnazjum w Krakowie i prawo na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim ze stopniem doktora. Miał trzy siostry: Teofilę Smoluchowską (matkę fizyka Mariana Smoluchowskiego), Benignę Wolską i Marię Jarecką. Pradziadek był członkiem Konfederacji Barskiej, potem w nieznanych okolicznościach stracił majątek. +Stanisław Szczepanowski uczęszczał w latach 1854–1857 do gimnazjum w Chełmnie i w latach 1857–1862 do szkoły realnej w Wiedniu. Po jej ukończeniu pracował z ojcem w latach 1862–1864 w Oraviczy w Banacie przy budowie kolei. W latach 1864–1867 studiował na wydziale ogólnotechnicznym Politechniki Wiedeńskiej. W latach 1867–1869 studiował chemię i ekonomię w École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures w Paryżu, a w 1869–1871 technologię chemiczną i ekonomię w Londynie, gdzie uzyskał dyplom inżynierski. +W Londynie utrzymywał się początkowo z pracy w prywatnym laboratorium analitycznym, a potem pracował w latach 1870–1879 jako urzędnik wydziału przemysłu i handlu Ministerstwa dla Spraw Indii ("India Office"). Pracował dla tego ministerstwa m.in. w eksperymentalnej dla Indii przędzalni bawełny w Manchesterze, potem poznawał przędzalnictwo lnu i konopi we Włoszech i studiował w Akademii Mleczarskiej w Mediolanie. We Francji zwiedzał fabryki włókiennicze i przemysłu rolno-spożywczego. Dokładnie poznał przemysł i mechanizmy gospodarcze Anglii, Szkocji i Walii. Badał też systemy podatkowe niektórych krajów europejskich i pozaeuropejskich (np. Persji). W 1877 przyjął obywatelstwo Anglii i zachował je do 1889. W 1878 zaproponowano mu, jako ekspertowi do spraw Indii, wspólną podróż do tego kraju z brytyjskim następcą tronu (późniejszym królem Edwardem VII), jednakże odmówił i w 1879 przeniósł się do Galicji. +W Galicji włączył się intensywnie do budowy przemysłu naftowego. W 1879 założył własną kopalnię ropy naftowej w Słobodzie Rungurskiej. Dowiercił się dużych, jak na tamte czasy, ilości ropy naftowej. Słoboda stała się wkrótce największą kopalnią ropy w Galicji. W 1880 założył w Słobodzie pierwszą w Galicji fabrykę maszyn górniczych, a w 1881 założył Pierwsze Towarzystwo Eksploatacji Nafty i Wosku Ziemnego w Słobodzie. W tym samym roku ożenił się z Heleną z Wolskich. Miał z nią dwóch synów i cztery córki. W 1883 wybudował w Peczeniżynie najnowocześniejszą wówczas i największą rafinerię. W 1886 zbudował linię kolejową Peczeniżyn–Kołomyja oraz rurociąg naftowy Słoboda Rungurska–Peczeniżyn. Niestety, w 1887 został wyrugowany ze wszystkich tych interesów przez wspólników. +Nie zrezygnował jednak z dalszej rozbudowy przemysłu naftowego. W latach 1887–1889 miał niewielkie kopalnie w Równem i Wietrznie w powiecie krośnieńskim. W 1889 założył kopalnię w Kosmaczu, powiat Kosów. W latach 1889–1894 posiadał też niewielką kopalnię w Siarach pod Gorlicami. W Rypnem, w powiecie Dolina, miał ze wspólnikami dwie kopalnie. W latach 1894–1896 był właścicielem kopalni w Synowódzku Wyżnym, w powiecie Stryj, a w 1896 założył kopalnię w Grąziowej, powiat Stary Sambor. W 1888 rozbudował małą kopalnię w Schodnicy pod Borysławiem. Wkrótce produkcja tej kopalni przekroczyła ówczesną wydajność Borysławia i innych ośrodków w Galicji. Uruchomił też ze wspólnikiem rurociąg ropny ze Schodnicy, początkowo do Maźnicy, potem do Borysławia. Niestety, i tym razem w wyniku problemów finansowych stracił w 1894 Schodnicę, tuż przed dowierceniem rekordowego odwiertu. Schodnica okazała się bardzo ropodajna i była długi czas ważnym ośrodkiem przemysłu naftowego. Po tym niepowodzeniu Szczepanowski przestał się liczyć jako przedsiębiorca naftowy, odsprzedając też wkrótce pozostałe kopalnie naftowe. +"Trzeźwy entuzjasta", rzecznik uprzemysłowienia Galicji. W 1889 założył Galicyjskie Towarzystwo Akcyjne dla Przemysłu Naftowego; był współzałożycielem Towarzystwa Szkoły Ludowej. +Nazywany był "romantykiem pozytywizmu". Pisali o nim: Bolesław Prus, Henryk Sienkiewicz, Ignacy Sewer-Maciejowski (był bohaterem dwóch powieści: "Nafta" i "Ponad siły"), jemu dedykował "Filozofię romantyzmu polskiego" Stanisław Brzozowski. +Był ideologiem młodzieży w preharcerskich latach. Jego idee "odrodzenia narodowego" niezwykle silnie oddziaływały na młodzież (m.in. "Eleusis", w tym Andrzej Małkowski), która realizowała je w skautingu, Legionach Polskich, harcerstwie. +Pochowany na cmentarzu Łyczakowskim we Lwowie. +Był autorem dzieła "Nędza Galicji w cyfrach i program energicznego rozwoju gospodarstwa krajowego" (1888), studiowanego przez młodego Stefana Żeromskiego. +Hiady + +Hiady (Dżdżownice) – gromada otwarta w gwiazdozbiorze Byka, położona 151 lat świetlnych od Ziemi. Zawiera około 300 młodych gwiazd, z których większości nie można dostrzec gołym okiem. +Podobnie jak inne gromady otwarte, Hiady zajmują w przestrzeni dość duży obszar o średnicy 80 lat świetlnych. O wspólnej przynależności gwiazd świadczy jednakowy ruch w przestrzeni (ok. 43 km/s, w kierunku punktu położonego na wschód od Betelgezy), wskazujący, że wszystkie powstały z jednej mgławicy 600 do 800 milionów lat temu. Z tego samego miejsca pochodzi też prawdopodobnie gromada Messier 44. +Lokalizacja. +Hiady, wraz z Aldebaranem (który nie należy do gromady), tworzą na niebie charakterystyczną literę V. Można ją łatwo odnaleźć dwukrotnie przedłużając linię łączącą Syriusza i pas Oriona. +Historia. +Hiady znane były już w starożytności, wspominali o nich m.in. Homer, Hezjod, Horacy i wielu innych twórców. W mitologii greckiej Hiady, siostry Plejad, nazywano „Płaczkami”, ponieważ rozpaczały po tragicznej śmierci brata Hiasa tak bardzo, że bogowie wynieśli je między gwiazdy. Według innego mitu były piastunkami Dionizosa; Zeus przemienił je w gwiazdy, by uchronić je od gniewu Hery. +Gromadę po raz pierwszy skatalogował Giovanni Batista Hodierna w 1654 r. Uwzględniano ją w większości XVII i XVIII-wiecznych atlasów nieba, jednak fizyczne związki pomiędzy gwiazdami Hiad przedstawił dopiero w 1908 roku Lewis Boss. +Krzysztof Ziemiec + +Krzysztof Ziemiec (ur. 26 czerwca 1967 w Warszawie) – polski dziennikarz, prowadzący "Wiadomości" w TVP1. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Inżynierii Środowiska Politechniki Warszawskiej, a także pracownię radiową polsko-amerykańskiego studium dziennikarskiego. +W latach 1994–2002 pracował w Programie III Polskiego Radia, m.in. jako prowadzący audycję "Zapraszamy do Trójki". Następnie przeszedł do stacji telewizyjnej TVN24, gdzie prowadził bloki programów informacyjnych i "Magazyn 24 godziny". W latach 2004–2006 związany był z TVP1 jako prezenter "Wiadomości" oraz prowadzący programy publicystyczne "Kwadrans po ósmej", "Debaty Polaków" i "A dobro Polski?". Od września 2006 prowadził także "Sygnały dnia" w Programie I Polskiego Radia. Od października 2006 do października 2007 był prezenterem głównego wydania "Panoramy" w TVP2. Od października 2007 prowadził "Puls Raport" w TV Puls. +W czerwcu 2008 uległ ciężkiemu poparzeniu w wyniku wybuchu pożaru w jego mieszkaniu. +Do prowadzenia "Wiadomości" w TVP1 wrócił w grudniu 2009. W 2010 w tej samej stacji prowadził programy publicystyczne "Z refleksem" i "Polskie sprawy" oraz program "Niepokonani". Od stycznia 2011 był gospodarzem programu interwencyjnego "Celownik", a od lutego 2011 razem z Markiem Zającem prowadził talk-show publicystyczny "Mam inne zdanie". +Narrator w filmie dokumentalnym "Jan Paweł II. Szukałem Was..." (2011). +W listopadzie 2012 został publicystą czasopisma „W sieci”. +Nagrody i wyróżnienia. +W 2010 otrzymał Tulipana Narodowego Dnia Życia – nagrodę przyznawaną z okazji Narodowego Dnia Życia. +Jest laureatem Wiktora za rok 2011 w kategorii prezenter tv, a także dwukrotnym laureatem Telekamery: w 2011 w kategorii informacja – osobowość i w 2012 w kategorii prezenter informacji. +W 2012 odebrał Order Ecce Homo. +Xandros + +Xandros Linux to komercyjna, przeznaczona na komputery stacjonarne i netbooki (takie jak ASUS Eee PC) dystrybucja Linuksa oparta na systemie Debian. +Jej pierwsza wersja bazowała na Corel LINUX OS i jest kontynuacją Corel Desktop. +Zaletą systemu Xandros Linux może być bardzo czytelny instalator, a także przyjazna obsługa dla użytkownika migrującego z systemu Windows XP - nietrudno zauważyć podobieństwo interfejsu Xandrosa do tego znanego z systemów rodziny Windows. +System oferuje również ulepszoną integrację z siecią Windows Networks, graficzne zarządzanie zasobami NFS/SAMBA oraz łatwego w konfiguracji klienta VPN. +System Xandros przyjął światową klasyfikację pomocy technicznej. +Jakub Bojko + +Jakub Bojko (ur. 7 lipca 1857 w Gręboszowie, zm. 7 kwietnia 1943 tamże) – działacz, publicysta i pisarz ludowy, jeden z pionierów ruchu ludowego w Galicji, współtwórca Stronnictwa Ludowego w Galicji (1895), wójt Gręboszowa. +Życiorys. +Pochodził z rodziny chłopskiej. Nauczycielem został dzięki samokształceniu, podczas którego pracował we własnym gospodarstwie rolnym. Pisał wiersze i opowiadania. Publikował je w różnych czasopismach ("Chata", "Wieniec", "Pszczółka", "Przyjaciel Ludu"). +Poseł do Sejmu Krajowego we Lwowie (1895) i do parlamentu austriackiego – Rady Państwa (1897). Od 1913 do 1918 prezes PSL "Piast" (był jednym z jego organizatorów). Wicemarszałek Sejmu Ustawodawczego (1919–1922), wicemarszałek Senatu (1922–1927). W 1928 wystąpił z PSL "Piast" (po przewrocie majowym) i wstąpił do BBWR. Utworzył też Zjednoczenie Polski Ludowej, ale nie było ono popularne wśród ludności wiejskiej. +Z życia politycznego wycofał się w 1935. +Bielik amerykański + +Bielik amerykański ("Haliaeetus leucocephalus") – gatunek drapieżnego ptaka z rodziny jastrzębiowatych (Accipitridae), występujący w Ameryce Północnej; jest blisko spokrewniony z bielikiem. Jako symbol narodowy Stanów Zjednoczonych jest najbardziej rozpoznawalnym północnoamerykańskim ptakiem. Zasięg występowania obejmuje Kanadę i Alaskę, 48 „kontynentalnych” stanów USA oraz Meksyk. Jest spotykany nad otwartą wodą w pobliżu dużych zbiorników wodnych (np. jezior) lub nad oceanem. Gniazda zakłada na starych drzewach. Wyróżnia się dwa podgatunki. +"Haliaeetus leucocephalus" to duży ptak o długości ciała od 71 do 96 cm, z rozpiętością skrzydeł od 168 do 244 cm, oraz wagą od 3 do 6,3 kg. Samice o około 25% większe niż samce. Upierzenie ciała dorosłych osobników jest brązowe, mają białą głowę i ogon, jasnożółte tęczówki i szpony oraz mocno zakrzywiony dziób. Podrostki całkowicie brązowe poza żółtymi stopami. Samce i samice identyczne pod względem upierzenia. Żywią się głównie rybami, ale są konsumentami oportunistycznymi. Polują na ryby, wykorzystując lot opadający i wyciągając je z wody za pomocą szponów. Osiągają dojrzałość płciową w wieku czterech lub pięciu lat. Na wolności dożywają do lat trzydziestu, ale zwykle żyją dłużej w niewoli. Budują największe gniazda ze wszystkich ptaków występujących w Ameryce Północnej. Głębokość konstrukcji dochodzi do 4 metrów, szerokość do 2,5 metra, waga do 1 tony. +Pod koniec XX wieku gatunek był na skraju wymarcia na terenie Stanów Zjednoczonych (z wyjątkiem Alaski, gdzie jego populacja rosła, podobnie jak i w Kanadzie), ale obecnie jego populacja utrzymuje się na stabilnym poziomie i ma wkrótce zostać usunięty z rządowej listy zagrożonych gatunków. 12 lipca 1995 bielik amerykański został oficjalnie przeklasyfikowany przez „United States Fish and Wildlife Service” z kategorii „Endangered” (zagrożony wyginięciem) na „Threatened” (narażony na wyginięcie). 6 lipca 1999 zapoczątkowano inicjatywę "To Remove the Bald Eagle in the Lower 48 States From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife" („Zdjęcie bielika amerykańskiego z listy zagrożonych gatunków na terenie 48 stanów USA”). Został usunięty z tej listy 28 lipca 2007. +Systematyka. +Bielik amerykański był jednym z wielu gatunków pierwotnie opisanych przez szwedzkiego przyrodnika Karola Linneusza w jego XVIII-wiecznej pracy – "Systema Naturae". Został przez niego pierwotnie umieszczony w rodzinie sokołowatych (Falconidae) pod nazwą "Falco leucocephalus". +Orłan ten wyglądem bardzo przypomina euroazjatyckiego bielika ("Haliaeetus albicilla"), co doprowadziło badaczy do wniosku, że te gatunki musiały w przeszłości mieć wspólnego przodka, a ich linie rozwojowe rozdzieliły się w wyniku odizolowania populacji we wczesnym miocenie (najwcześniej 10 mln lat temu). Ale możliwe także, że stało się to dużo wcześniej, we wczesnym lub środkowym oligocenie – 28 mln lat temu, jeśli znalezione skamieniałości są prawidłowo kojarzone z tym rodzajem. Do rozejścia się linii rodowych obu orłanów doszło prawdopodobnie nad północną częścią Oceanu Spokojnego (specjacja allopatryczna). Bielik egzystował w Azji i Europie, natomiast bielik amerykański w Ameryce Północnej. Gatunki różnią się jedynie ubarwieniem głowy, która u euroazjatyckiego bielika jest jasna z motywami brązu oraz kolorem grzbietu i brzucha – które są u tego ptaka ciemnobrązowe. Rozmiary obu orłanów są podobne. +Etymologia nazwy. +Polska zwyczajowa nazwa gatunkowa nawiązuje do miejsca jego wyłącznego występowania – kontynentu amerykańskiego. Angielska nazwa gatunkowa – "Bald Eagle" pochodzi od charakterystycznego wyglądu głowy dorosłych osobników. Słowo "bald" pochodzi od średnioangielskiego "balled", co znaczyło „świecąca biel”, lub „błyszcząca biel”, co z kolei sugeruje, że nazwa orłana początkowo opisywała białe piórka na głowie, a nie ich brak, słowo "Eagle" znaczy „orzeł”. Naukowa nazwa rodzaju – "Haliaeetus" oznacza: „orzeł morski” (z klasycznego języka greckiego: "haliaetos"). Natomiast epitet gatunkowy "leucocephalus" to latynizm z greki klasycznej znaczący: "biała głowa" – z greckiego "leukos" („biały”, „jasny”, „błyszczący”, „połyskliwy”) i "kephale" („głowa”). +Morfologia. +Upierzenie dorosłego osobnika równomiernie brązowe poza białą głową i ogonem, który jest umiarkowanie długi i przypomina kształtem klin. Samce i samice identyczne pod względem koloru upierzenia, jednak gatunek wykazuje dymorfizm płciowy co do rozmiarów ciała – samice są większe od samców o 25%. Dziób, stopy i tęczówki jaskrawo żółte. Nogi upierzone, a palce krótkie i silne z dużymi szponami. Wysoce rozwinięte szpony u tylnych palców są używane do przeszywania ważnych obszarów ciała zdobyczy, podczas gdy jest ona przytrzymywana szponami u palców przednich. Dziób duży, haczykowato wygięty, z żółtą woskówką. +Upierzenie młodych osobników brązowe z białymi cętkami do czasu, aż dożyją pięciu (rzadko czterech, bardzo rzadko trzech) lat życia, wtedy osiągają dojrzałość płciową. Młode bieliki są odróżniane od orłów przednich ("Aquila chrysaetos") po bardziej odstającej głowie z większym dziobem, równych skrzydłach, które są opuszczone (nie odrobinę podniesione, jak u orła przedniego) oraz tym, że bieliki amerykańskie trzymają skrzydła podczas lotu bardziej prosto, a ich nogi nie są całkowicie opierzone. Młode mają także jaśniej ubarwione pióra w górnych obszarach ciała, szczególnie powyżej średnich pokryw skrzydłowych. +Długość ciała mieści się w granicach od 71 do 96 cm. Rozpiętość skrzydeł dorosłych samic dochodzi do 2,44 m długości, podczas gdy dorosłych osobników męskich do 1,68 m. Dojrzałe samice ważą około 5,8 kg, samce 4,1 kg. Zgodnie z regułą Bergmanna wielkość tych ptaków zmienia się wraz z lokalizacją – najmniejsze osobniki są znajdowane na Florydzie, gdzie dorosłe samce mogą osiągać wagę do 2,3 kg i rozpiętość skrzydeł do 1,8 m, największe osobniki są natomiast spotykane na Alasce, gdzie samice osiągają do 7,5 kg przy rozpiętości skrzydeł powyżej 2,4 m. +Występowanie. +Środowisko. +Bielik amerykański preferuje środowisko położone w pobliżu wybrzeży morskich, rzek, dużych jezior i innych wielkich otwartych zbiorników wodnych, obfitujących w ryby. Badania wykazały, że terytoria wodne o obwodzie przekraczającym 11 km i jeziora o obszarach powyżej 10 km² są optymalnym środowiskiem dla wychowania młodych. +Preferuje puszcze i stare lasy iglaste lub lasy z drzewami o twardym drewnie, gdzie mógłby zbudować gniazdo. Potrzebuje solidnego drzewa o rozłożystej i gęstej koronie, z którego będzie miał dobrą widoczność na okolicę. Powinno być ono położone w pobliżu obszaru, na którym orłany te mogą polować. Jednak wysokość lub gatunek drzewa nie są tak ważne, jak duża liczba dość wielkich drzew otaczających zbiornik wodny. Korona lasów, w których ptaki zakładają gniazda, powinna osłaniać od 20% do 60% powierzchni ziemi i znajdować się w sąsiedztwie wody. +Jest szczególnie wrażliwy na działalność człowieka, dlatego występuje przede wszystkim na obszarach wolnych od jego działalności. Wybiera miejsca oddalone co najmniej o 1,2 km od obszarów niewielkiej działalności człowieka i 1,8 km od obszarów intensywniejszej działalności ludzkiej. +Zasięg występowania. +Jego naturalne środowisko to znaczna część Ameryki Północnej, w tym większa część Kanady, cały obszar kontynentalny Stanów Zjednoczonych oraz północny Meksyk. To jedyny orłan występujący wyłącznie w Ameryce Północnej. Ptak jest zdolny przeżyć w różnorodnych siedliskach – od zanieczyszczonych rzek Luizjany po Pustynię Sonorę i wschodnie lasy liściaste Quebeku oraz Nowej Anglii. Ptaki występujące na północy migrują, podczas gdy podgatunek południowy rezyduje, nierzadko pozostając na terytorium rozrodczym przez cały rok. Chociaż wcześniej populacja bielika amerykańskiego odbudowywała się, teraz jej liczebność zaczęła spadać na obszarze Alaski, na Aleutach oraz w północnej i wschodniej Kanadzie i Florydzie. +Zdarzało się, że bielik amerykański zalatywał do Irlandii, gdzie odnotowano go dwukrotnie. Po raz pierwszy młodego osobnika tego gatunku zastrzelono nielegalnie w Hrabstwie Fermanagh 11 stycznia 1973 (uznano go błędnie za bielika). Był to pierwszy przypadek odnotowania tego gatunku po wschodniej stronie Oceanu Atlantyckiego. Po raz drugi wyczerpanego młodego bielika amerykańskiego schwytano w Hrabstwie Kerry 15 listopada 1987. +Zimą bieliki amerykańskie zbierają się w miejscach obfitujących w pożywienie. Na przykład od połowy listopada do lutego, od tysiąca do dwóch tysięcy osobników zimuje w okolicy Squamish i Brackendale, w Kolumbii Brytyjskiej, w połowie drogi między Vancouver i Whistler. Ptaki zbierają się tam głównie wzdłuż rzek Squamish, Mamquam i Cheakamus, gdzie polują na łososie odbywające tarło. +Pożywienie. +Strategia żerowania jest oportunistyczna (gatunek korzysta z każdej nadarzającej się okazji, ma szeroką walencję ekologiczną), co jest korzystne w warunkach niestabilnych, o dużej nieciągłości środowiska. Pożywienie ptaka urozmaicone, jednak chwyta głównie ryby. Na zachodnim wybrzeżu Ameryki Północnej orłan poluje na pstrągi i łososie, które stanowią jego główny składnik pożywienia. Miejscowo mogą polegać w dużej mierze na padlinie (głównie zimą), np. żerując na kawałkach ciał wielorybów wyrzuconych na brzeg, małych rybach czy ssakach kopytnych. Czasami dla utrzymania się przy życiu mogą także żywić się na wysypiskach lub kraść jedzenie z kempingów i pikników. Z ssaków polują na króliki, zające, szopy, piżmaki, bobry kanadyjskie, wydry morskie i jelenie. Żywią się też ptakami, takimi jak: perkozy, alki, kaczki, mewy, łyski, czaple i gęsi. Większość ofiar orłana jest od niego nieco mniejsza, ale ten drapieżnik atakuje także tak duże ptaki, jak czaple modre, czy nawet łabędzie, co zostało udokumentowane. Gady, płazy i skorupiaki (zwłaszcza kraby), jeżeli są dostępne – również są zjadane. +Polując na ryby, które są najłatwiejszym do schwytania i zarazem najważniejszym składnikiem pożywienia bielików amerykańskich, nurkują w dół, lecą nisko ponad wodą i chwytają rybę, wyciągając ją szponami. Ptaki żywią się przytrzymując ryby szponami jednej nogi i rozrywając ich ciała drugą. Orłany, podobnie jak rybołowy, mają specjalny układ potężnych szponów na palcach u nóg, co pozwala im chwycić rybę. +Czasami, jeśli ryba jest zbyt ciężka, żeby bielik amerykański mógł ją podnieść, zostaje wciągnięty do wody. Zwykle udaje mu się wypłynąć, jednak niektóre orłany toną lub umierają na skutek hipotermii. W rywalizacji o pokarm orłany zazwyczaj dominują wśród innych drapieżników łowiących ryby, czy wśród padlinożerców, agresywnie wypierając ssaki, takie jak kojoty i lisy oraz ptaki: kruki, mewy, sępy i inne szponiaste. Bieliki amerykańskie mogą być wyparte przez osobniki własnego gatunku lub też przez orły przednie. Żaden z tych gatunków nie jest jednak dominujący. Od czasu do czasu bieliki amerykańskie kradną ryby niewielkich drapieżców, takich jak rybołowy, praktyka ta znana jest jako kleptopasożytnictwo. +Tryb życia i zachowanie. +"Haliaeetus leucocephalus" jest znakomitym lotnikiem i unosi się wykorzystując prądy termiczne. Podczas lotu osiąga prędkość 56–70 km/h, natomiast podczas lotu z rybą około 48 km/h. Część populacji migruje, to jednak zależy od warunków środowiska, w którym żyją. Jeśli ptak na swoim terytorium ma dostęp do niezamarzającego zbiornika wodnego, pozostaje nad nim przez cały rok. Jednak jeśli woda zamarza zimą, co uniemożliwia mu zdobycie pożywienia, przenosi się bardziej na południe lub na wybrzeże. Wybiera takie trasy migracji, na których może korzystać z kominów termicznych, prądów wstępujących i zasobów pożywienia. W czasie wędrówki może unosić się na duże wysokości i szybować, dzięki czemu oszczędza energię potrzebną mu na poruszanie skrzydłami. Migruje zazwyczaj podczas dnia, gdy Słońce nasila pionowe ruchy powietrza w atmosferze. +Głos. +Jego głos to zwykle przenikliwy pisk, przerywany przez „chrząknięcia”. Ptaki nie wydają krzyku, jaki zwykle wykorzystywany jest w filmach z ich udziałem. To odgłos myszołowa rdzawosternego ("Buteo jamaicensis"), który jest tam umieszczany w celu uzyskania lepszego efektu. +Długość życia. +Przeciętna długość życia na wolności wynosi około 20 lat. Najstarsze osobniki przeżywają jednak około 30 lat. W niewoli zwykle żyją nieco dłużej. Jeden ze schwytanych osobników dożył blisko 50 lat. Podobnie jak rozmiar, także i długość życia tych ptaków zależy od miejsca, w którym żyją. +Rozród. +Młode osiągają dojrzałość płciową w wieku czterech, pięciu lat. Gdy są już dorosłe często wracają na obszar, gdzie się wykluły. Uważa się, że bieliki amerykańskie tworzą pary na całe życie. Jednakże, jeśli jeden z partnerów zdechnie albo zniknie, drugi wybiera nowego. Pary, które wielokrotnie nieskutecznie próbowały odchować młode, także mogą się rozejść. Zaloty bielików amerykańskich wiążą się ze skomplikowanymi nawoływaniami i popisami lotniczymi, które obejmują loty nurkowe, pościgi, kołowrotki (kiedy lecą wysoko) i swobodne spadanie kończone tuż przed zderzeniem z ziemią. +Gniazdo największego ptaka Ameryki Północnej jest używane wielokrotnie w ciągu wielu lat, a nowy materiał dodawany każdego roku może powiększyć je do rozmiarów około 4 metrów głębokości, 2,5 metra szerokości i 1 tony wagi. Jedno z gniazd na Florydzie miało 6,1 metra głębokości, 2,9 metra szerokości i ważyło 2,722 tony. Gniazdo jest zbudowane z gałęzi zazwyczaj dużych drzew, położonych w pobliżu wody. Kiedy rozmnaża się w miejscach, gdzie nie ma żadnych drzew, bielik amerykański gnieździ się na ziemi. Orłany znoszą między jednym, a trzema jajami w jednym lęgu, ale rzadko zdarza się, aby wszystkie trzy pisklęta przeżyły. Zarówno samiec, jak i samica na przemian wysiadują jaja. Rodzic, który aktualnie nie siedzi na gnieździe, poszukuje jedzenia lub materiału na gniazdo, które ciągle jest powiększane. Średnia długość jaja to 7,3 cm, a szerokość 5,5 cm. +Okres inkubacji trwa średnio 35 dni, następnie rodzice opiekują się potomstwem do czasu, aż ptaki będą w wieku około czterech tygodni. Pisklęta osiągają pełne upierzenie po 70-92 dniach – czas ten jest uzależniony od płci, kolejności wyklucia, czy szybkości rozwoju. Jajo lub pisklę może zostać zjedzone przez takie drapieżniki, jak sroki amerykańskie, mewy, kruki, wrony, baribale i szopy. Dorosłe osobniki zażarcie bronią swoje młode przed każdym napastnikiem. +Status, zagrożenia i ochrona. +Bielik amerykański był niegdyś gatunkiem powszechnym na dużej części kontynentu amerykańskiego. Jednak w XX wieku jego populacja została dotknięta przez choroby, które wywołane były przez różnorodne czynniki. Szczególnie groźna przypadłość, skutkująca kruchością skorupek jaj tych ptaków, została przypisana wykorzystywaniu pestycydu DDT. Bieliki amerykańskie, jak wiele innych ptaków drapieżnych, były szczególnie dotknięte DDT. Środki przeciw owadom, rozpylane nad polami, pod wpływem deszczów przesiąkały do ekosystemów wodnych. Za pośrednictwem łańcucha pokarmowego pestycydy z planktonu i mniejszych ryb dostawały się do większych i gromadziły w tysiąckrotnie wyższych dawkach. Na końcu łańcucha pokarmowego stały bieliki amerykańskie. Jednak dawki DDT zgromadzone w ich organizmach były już zbyt duże. Zatrucia chemikaliami spowodowały, że w ciałach tych orłów brakowało wapnia, potrzebnego do wytworzenia grubej skorupy jaj. Cienkie skorupki nie wytrzymywały ciężaru wysiadujących je ptaków, które rozgniatały jaja. +We wczesnych latach XVIII wieku populację bielików amerykańskich szacowano na 300-500 tysięcy osobników, ale w 1950 zostało tylko 412 gniazdujących par w 48 kontynentalnych stanach USA. Innymi czynnikami zanikania ich populacji było zmniejszanie się ich naturalnego siedliska i tępienie ptaków, które przedstawiano jako „wiodący powód bezpośredniej śmiertelności u zarówno dorosłych, jak i niedojrzałych osobników bielików amerykańskich” w raporcie zamieszczonym w "Endangered Species Technical Bulletin" z 1978 roku. W 1984, National Wildlife Federation zapisała polowania, linie wysokiego napięcia (ze względu na śmiertelne porażenia prądem elektrycznym) i zderzenia w locie, jako główne powody śmierci orła. Na populacje bielika amerykańskiego negatywny wpływ miały także zanieczyszczenia olejami, ołowiem i rtęcią oraz człowiek i drapieżniki. +Gatunek był początkowo chroniony w USA i Kanadzie przez Ustawę o ptakach wędrownych z 1918 r., która zabraniała ścigania, polowania, łapania, trzymania w niewoli, zabijania lub sprzedawania tego gatunku (i około 800 innych). Od 1936 r. został objęty ochroną w Meksyku, przez co był odtąd chroniony w całej Ameryce Północnej. W 1940 r. w USA weszła w życie Ustawa o ochronie bielika amerykańskiego, która chroni przed łapaniem w pułapki, posiadaniem oraz handlem dwa gatunki ptaków – bielika amerykańskiego i orła przedniego. Bielika amerykańskiego ogłoszono w USA gatunkiem zagrożonym w 1967 r., a między 1962 i 1972 r. wprowadzono dalsze ograniczenia w wykorzystaniu tego ptaka w handlu. W 1972 r. w Stanach Zjednoczonych zabronione zostało stosowanie DDT. Używanie DDT zostało całkowicie zakazane w Kanadzie w 1989, choć jego wykorzystywanie było ograniczone już od 1970. +Kiedy przepisy dotyczące stosowania DDT zmieniły się, populacja orła wróciła do normy. Bielik amerykański jest dziś spotykany w znacznej części Stanów Zjednoczonych i w Kanadzie, szczególnie blisko dużych zbiorników wodnych. Na początku roku 1980 szacowana ogólna liczba osobników wynosiła 100 tys. ptaków, natomiast w 1992 r. od 110 do 115 tysięcy. W USA stanem z największą stałą populacją jest Alaska, gdzie występuje około 40-50 tys. ptaków. Druga pod względem wielkości populacja znajduje się w kanadyjskiej prowincji Kolumbii Brytyjskiej – 20-30 tys. ptaków w 1992 r.. +Bielik amerykański został oficjalnie zdjęty z listy gatunków zagrożonych rządu federalnego USA 12 lipca 1995 r. przez U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, gdy gatunek przeklasyfikowano z rangi „Endangered” (zagrożony wyginięciem) na „Threatened” (narażony na wyginięcie). 6 lipca 1999 r. zapoczątkowana została inicjatywa, by usunąć bielika amerykańskiego z listy gatunków zagrożonych na terenie 48 stanów USA. Ptak został ostatecznie zdjęty z tej listy 28 czerwca 2007 r. Został również zmieniony poziom ryzyka jego wyginięcia w Czerwonej Księdze Gatunków Zagrożonych – na „gatunek najmniejszej troski”. Orłan jest także chroniony przez „Konwencję o międzynarodowym handlu dzikimi zwierzętami i roślinami gatunków zagrożonych wyginięciem” (ang. "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora", CITES). +Podgatunki. +Istnieją dwa poznane podgatunki bielika amerykańskiego. +Bielik amerykański w kulturze człowieka. +W niewoli. +W Stanach Zjednoczonych na trzymanie bielików amerykańskich w niewoli konieczne jest zezwolenie. Wydaje się je głównie placówkom oświatowym, a trafiają tam zazwyczaj orłany trwale niepełnosprawne, które nie poradziłyby sobie na wolności. Obiekty, w których są hodowane, muszą posiadać odpowiednie klatki oraz doświadczonych pracowników, którzy umieją obchodzić się z ptakami. +W Polsce warunki hodowli i utrzymywania orłana szczegółowo określa rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 20 grudnia 2004 r, w którym zawarto m.in. konieczność zapewnienia gatunkom z rodziny jastrzębiowatych (Accipitridae) dostosowanego rozmiarowo pomieszczenia w ogrodach zoologicznych (dla dorosłej samicy bielika amerykańskiego jest to zwykle 5 m²). +Bieliki amerykańskie z reguły nie nadają się do publicznych widowisk, ponieważ są zbyt płochliwe, podatne na stres oraz nieprzewidywalne. W Stanach Zjednoczonych bieliki amerykańskie nie mogą być hodowane dla sokolnictwa. W Kanadzie wymagane jest do tego pozwolenie. +Zezwolenie na trzymanie w niewoli "w celach religijnych" orłów niezdolnych do życia na wolności mogą uzyskać też członkowie północnoamerykańskich plemion Indian. Używają oni piór, które wypadły w sposób naturalny, oraz szczątków padłych orłów (pióra, głowa, kości) podczas ceremonii o charakterze religijnym i kulturowym. +Bielik amerykański może żyć długo w niewoli ("patrz sekcja: Długość życia"), jeśli zaadaptuje się do warunków przetrzymywania, ale może też chorować nawet w teoretycznie najbardziej odpowiednim miejscu. +Rola w kulturze Indian Ameryki Północnej. +Bielik amerykański jest świętym ptakiem w niektórych kulturach tubylczych Ameryki Północnej, a jego pióra, podobnie jak pióra orła przedniego, są jednymi z centralnych elementów religii i duchowych obrzędów Indian Ameryki Północnej. Ptaki te w wielu kulturach Indian są świętymi posłańcami między bogami a ludźmi. +Wielu uczestników pow-wow używa piór, głów i szponów tych orłanów jako elementów ozdobnych strojów tanecznych. Pióra bielika amerykańskiego są często używane w tradycyjnych indiańskich ceremoniach, strojach i ozdobach, w tym do wyrobu wachlarzy, rozet z piór noszonych w tylnej części pasa podczas niektórych tańców pow-wow, czy pióropuszy. +Tradycją plemienia Dakotów jest ofiarowywanie pióra orła, jako formy uhonorowania lub nagrodzenia kogoś. Współcześnie wręcza się je za różne osiągnięcia życiowe, np. z okazji ukończenia college'u. +Paunisi uważali orłany za symbol płodności, gdyż ich gniazda są budowane wysoko nad ziemią, a ptaki te zaciekle bronią swojego potomstwa. Członkowie plemienia Kwakwala rozrzucali orli puch na powitanie ważnych gości. Dla Czoktawów bielik jest symbolem pokoju. +Podczas dorocznej ceremonii religijnej Tańca Słońca, praktykowanej przez niektórych Indian (głównie z Wielkich Równin), orłan ten obecny jest symbolicznie na kilka sposobów. W rozwidleniu centralnego słupa obszernej altany, w której zazwyczaj odbywa się taniec, budowane jest symboliczne gniazdo, a niektóre plemiona (np.: Szoszoni, czy Wrony) umieszczają przy nim (lub u wejścia do altany) wypchanego orła. Tancerze używają obrzędowego gwizdka zrobionego z kości orlego skrzydła i skupiają swój wzrok na symbolicznym gnieździe bielika – "wodza wszystkich stworzeń powietrza" i "strażnika, który chroni ludzi przed złem", "posłańca Słońca", który "może posiadać dar uzdrawiania". Podczas ceremonii "medicine man" może uzdrawiać chorych za pomocą wachlarza z piór orłana. Dotykając wachlarzem najpierw obrzędowego słupa centralnego, a następnie pacjenta, przekazuje mu "moc" płynącą ze słupa. Następnie "medicine man" kieruje wachlarz ku niebu, by orłan mógł zanieść modlitwy o chorego do Stwórcy. +Amerykańskie przepisy federalne o ochronie ptaków drapieżnych i wędrownych (zwane "prawem o orlich piórach", ang. "Eagle feather law") zezwalają na pozyskiwanie piór bielika amerykańskiego lub orła przedniego w celach religijnych lub duchowych jedynie Indianom z plemion uznawanych przez władze federalne. Niektóre grupy północnoamerykańskich Indian kwestionują konstytucyjność tych przepisów uznając, iż ograniczają one ich wolność religii gwarantowaną przez Pierwszą Poprawkę do Konstytucji Stanów Zjednoczonych. Niektórzy twierdzą też, że przepisy te ograniczają wolność religii członkom plemion nie uznawanych przez władze federalne USA (ale np. uznanych przez władze jednego ze stanów). Prawo o orlich piórach bywa też krytykowane za stosowanie preferencji opartych na kryteriach rasowych i ingerowanie w suwerenność plemion. +Jako symbol Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Bielik amerykański jest symbolem narodowym Stanów Zjednoczonych. To jeden z najbardziej rozpoznawalnych państwowych symboli. Pojawia się na większości oficjalnych pieczęci, w tym na Wielkiej Pieczęci Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Obowiązujący do dziś (2009) wzór Wielkiej Pieczęci Stanów Zjednoczonych, przedstawiający bielika amerykańskiego trzymającego w szponach trzynaście strzał i gałązkę oliwną z trzynastoma liśćmi został przyjęty przez Kongres Kontynentalny 20 czerwca 1782. +Po zakończeniu (w 1783) Wojny o Niepodległość Benjamin Franklin w 1784 r. napisał z Paryża do córki list, w którym skrytykował wybór bielika amerykańskiego na symbol USA i zasugerował indyka, jako lepszego przedstawiciela amerykańskich wartości. Przedstawił w nim bielika amerykańskiego jako "ptaka o kiepskim charakterze moralnym", który jest "zbyt leniwy, by samemu łowić ryby", co nawiązywało do okradania przez niego rybołowów z pożywienia. Nazwał również bielika amerykańskiego "kompletnym tchórzem", którego łatwo przegonią z dogodnego miejsca znacznie mniejsze tyrankowate. W liście Franklin napisał, że indyk to "dużo bardziej przyzwoity ptak", opisując go: "trochę próżny i głupi Ptak Odwagi". +Bielik amerykański pozostał jednak godłem Stanów Zjednoczonych. Został też umieszczony na państwowych pieczęciach oraz na rewersie kilku monet (w tym na ćwierćdolarówce bitej do 1999), gdzie przedstawiono go z głową skierowaną w stronę gałązki oliwnej. Między 1916 a 1945 rokiem Flaga Prezydencka ukazywała orłana zwróconego głową w lewą stronę (prawą dla widza), co zrodziło miejską legendę, że orłan zwrócony był w kierunku gałązki oliwnej w czasie pokoju, natomiast w czasie wojny w kierunku strzał. +Heraldyka Filipin. +Na Wielkiej Pieczęci Stanów Zjednoczonych wzorowane jest godło Filipin. W okresie kiedy Filipiny były kolonią Stanów Zjednoczonych (1898–1946), godło i inne znaki państwowe były w obu państwach wspólne od 1935 do 1946. Na godle niepodległych Filipin od 1946 bielik amerykański zajmował miejsce na lazurowym lub niebieskim tle po lewej stronie tarczy, a hiszpański lew stojący umieszczany był na czerwonym lub szkarłatnym tle po prawej stronie tarczy, co miało symbolizować kolonialną historię Filipin. W 1998 przyjęto ustawę nr 8491, w treści której nie uwzględniono orła i lwa w dolnej części tarczy, usuwając je z niej. Jednak zmodyfikowana tarcza nie jest popularna, ponieważ zgodnie z Konstytucją Filipin zmiana ta musi zostać ratyfikowana w drodze referendum. +Micela + + +Micele to cząstki występujące w trwałych emulsjach. Tworzą je związki chemiczne o własnościach amfifilowych. Micele są kulistymi tworami zawierającymi od kilkudziesięciu do kilkuset cząsteczek. +Cząsteczki amfifilowe posiadają zwykle wydłużony kształt, przy czym jeden ich koniec ma własności polarne a drugi apolarne. W rozpuszczalnikach polarnych, polarny koniec każdej cząsteczki "poszukuje" polarnego środowiska, na skutek czego samorzutnie ustawia się na zewnątrz miceli. Drugi, apolarny koniec "chowa" się we wnętrzu miceli na skutek czego ma kontakt z apolarnymi końcami innych cząsteczek i jest jednocześnie odseparowany od rozpuszczalnika. W przypadku gdy emulsja tworzy się w rozpuszczalniku apolarnym struktura miceli jest dokładnie odwrotna - polarne końce cząsteczek znajdują się w jej wnętrzu, zaś apolarne na zewnątrz. +Na granicy micel i rozpuszczalnika zachodzi zjawisko solwatacji, co powoduje, że micela składa się z kłębka cząsteczek substancji rozpuszczonej i cienkiej otoczki cząsteczek rozpuszczalnika na stałe związanej z micelą. +Rheintochter + +Rheintochter Córa Renu – kierowany pocisk rakietowy ziemia-powietrze opracowany przez niemiecką firmę Rheinmetall-Borsig. +Prace nad tym pociskiem rozpoczęto w 1941 roku. Była to rakieta dwustopniowa, kierowana za pomocą fal radiowych, która służyć miała jako skuteczny środek obrony przeciwlotniczej. Pracowano nad kilkoma wersjami pocisku (R 1, R2 i R 3), które docelowo miały osiągać pułap do 14 km. +Pierwszy prototyp wzniósł się w powietrze jesienią 1943, a od 1944 roku główną placówką doświadczalną była Łeba - tzw. Małe Peenemünde. +W skonstruowanej jako pierwsza podźwiękowej wersji Rheintochter, oznaczonej R 1, paliwem silników obu stopni był proch bezdymny, dwunitrodwuglikol. Silnik pierwszego stopnia rakiety, umieszczony za kadłubem drugiego stopnia, pracował 0,6 sekundy i wyposażony był w siedem dysz wylotowych. Do jego korpusu przymocowane były cztery stateczniki ze sklejki. +Po zakończeniu pracy silnika pierwszego stopnia następowało rozdzielenie członów rakiety i uruchomienie silnika drugiego stopnia. Jego czas pracy wynosił 10 sekund. Obok sześciu dysz wylotowych rozmieszczonych dookoła kadłuba znajdowało się sześć skrzydeł wykonanych ze sklejki. Według niektórych opracowań 1/3 cięciwy skrzydeł pokryta była blachą, która służyła za antenę odbiorczą. Głowica bojowa znajdowała się w tylnej części kadłuba, zaś zapalnik zbliżeniowy i przedział kierowania zlokalizowano z przodu - sterowanie pociskiem zapewniały cztery płytowe stateczniki w układzie kaczki. +Pocisk wersji R 1 okazał się jednak nieudany ze względu na zbyt niskie osiągi, stąd też w późniejszym okresie użyto go jedynie do prób układów kierowania itp. +W rozwojowej wersji naddźwiękowej Rheintochter, oznaczonej jako R 3, której pierwszy prototyp wzniósł się w powietrze w końcu 1944 roku, w celu zwiększenia osiągów (prędkości i pułapu) zmieniono układ napędowy. Pierwszy stopień rakiety tworzyły dwa silniki, umieszczone po bokach kadłuba drugiego stopnia - ich czas pracy wynosił 0,9 sekundy, po czym następowało ich odrzucenie. Drugi stopień rakiety napędzany był silnikiem na ciekłe materiały pędne. Utleniaczem była mieszanina kwasu siarkowego i azotowego, oznaczana jako "Sv-Stoff Salbei", zaś paliwem był eter winyloizobutylowy nazwany "Visol" lub mieszanina ksylidyny i trójetyloaminy - "Tonka". Czas pracy silnika wynosił 43 sekundy. Głowicę bojową zlokalizowano tym razem pośrodku kadłuba, pomiędzy zbiornikami materiałów pędnych a liczbę skrzydeł zredukowano do czterech. +Ze względu na problemy z dopracowaniem tego napędu zdecydowano się powrócić do silnika drugiego stopnia na stały materiał pędny - tę wersję pocisku oznaczono R 3P, w odróżnieniu od wersji na paliwo ciekłe R 3F. Układ drugiego stopnia tej odmiany nawiązywał do zastosowanego w pocisku R 1 - z głowicą bojową zlokalizowaną za silnikiem zajmującym środkową część kadłuba. Także i w tym przypadku napotkano jednak na kłopoty z konstrukcją silnika (wynikłe z jego dużych rozmiarów) i najprawdopodobniej do końca wojny żaden z pocisków R 3P nie otrzymał docelowej jednostki napędowej. +Program Rheintochter anulowany został ostatecznie w dniu 6 lutego 1945 ze względu na nieperspektywiczność. Do tego czasu odpalono w ramach testów 51 rakiet w wersji R 1 i siedem R 3P - żaden pocisk Rheintochter nie został użyty bojowo. +Ministerstwo Przekształceń Własnościowych + +Ministerstwo Przekształceń Własnościowych – resort zajmujący się procesami prywatyzacji przedsiębiorstw skarbu państwa. Ministerstwo zostało zlikwidowane w wyniku Reformy Centrum. Jego kompetencje przejęło Ministerstwo Skarbu Państwa. +Kiryśnik czarnoplamy + +Kiryśnik czarnoplamy, kirys czarnoplamy ("Megalechis thoracata") – gatunek ryby z rodziny kiryskowatych. Często pielęgnowany w akwariach. W literaturze akwarystycznej był opisywany najczęściej jako "Hoplosternum thoracatum". +Występowanie. +Ameryka Południowa – w dorzeczach Amazonki, Orinoko, rzeki Paragwaj oraz w rzekach wybrzeża Gujany i północnej Brazylii. Występuje w zamulonych i słabo oświetlonych odcinkach rzek. +Charakterystyka. +Ciało wydłużone, dołem spłaszczone, masywne, pokryte cętkami, mały otwór gębowy w dolnej części pyska, dwie pary wąsów. Długość ok. 12 (w małych akwariach, w większych dorasta do 20) cm. Oddychają jelitowo. +Warunki hodowlane. +Ryby spokojne, ruchliwe, zalecane trzymanie kilku osobników. Jedynie starsze osobniki wykazują niewielką agresję wobec innych przydennych ryb potrącając je bokiem ciała. +Rozmnażanie. +Samiec buduje gniazdo z piany na powierzchni wody, gdzie samica składa ikrę. Liczba jaj waha się od 700 do 800 sztuk. Czasami zestresowany samiec zjada ikrę, jednak zwykle troskliwie się nią opiekuje. Wychów narybku wygląda podobnie jak u spokrewnionych z nim kirysków. +Witiges + +Witiges, Witigis - król Ostrogotów w latach (536-540). Był pierwszym królem spoza rodu Amalów. Jego żoną była córka Amalasunty i siostra Atalaryka - Matasunta. Na tronie zasiadł po zgładzeniu Teodahada w trakcie wojny z wodzem cesarza Justyniana, Belizariuszem. Witiges, chcąc wzmocnić się w Italii, zawarł sojusz z Frankami i Alamanami. Dnia 21 lutego 537 Goci rozpoczęli oblężenie zajętego przez Belizariusza Rzymu. W wyniku dywersji na swoich tyłach musieli w marcu 538 r. odstąpić od oblężenia i pomaszerować na pomoc Rawennie. W 538 w Italii wylądował korpus Narsesa, jednak osobisty konflikt Belizariusza i Narsesa paraliżował skuteczne działania przeciwko Witigesowi. W 539 siostrzeńcowi króla, Uraisowi, udało się zadać klęskę wojskom cesarskim w Ligurii oraz zdobyć Mediolan. Belizariusz szybko odzyskał inicjatywę oblegając Auximum, klucz do Rawenny, w której zamknął się Witiges. W tym czasie do północnej Italii wdarła się armia Franków pod wodzą Teudeberta, który za koncesje terytorialne gotów był poprzeć oblężonego w Rawennie Witigesa. Jednak Witiges poddał się Belizariuszowi, którego wojska w maju 540 weszły do Rawenny. Witiges został odesłany na wschód, a jego następcą został Hildebad. +Andrzej Mleczko + +Andrzej Mleczko (ur. 5 stycznia 1949 w Tarnobrzegu) – polski rysownik, znany przede wszystkim jako autor publikowanych w prasie rysunków satyrycznych. +Życiorys. +Studiował na Wydziale Architektury Politechniki Krakowskiej. Artystycznie debiutował w 1971 w tygodniku „Student”. Opublikował na łamach różnych czasopism około 20 tysięcy rysunków i ilustracji. Jego prace wystawiano na ponad 120 krajowych wystawach indywidualnych i około 30 wystawach za granicą, ukazały się one w ponad 40 książkach i albumach. Stale współpracuje m.in. z tygodnikiem „Polityka”. Zajmuje się również malarstwem, ilustracją książkową, grafiką reklamową, plakatem i, sporadycznie, scenografią. +W 1983 założył w Krakowie przy ul. św. Jana 14 galerię autorską (sprzedawcą w niej był m.in. Jerzy Pilch). Druga taka placówka powstała w 2002 w Warszawie przy ul. Marszałkowskiej. W 2001 w radiu RMF FM Andrzej Mleczko prowadził razem z Pawłem Pawlikiem program "Galeria Andrzeja Mleczki". Wystąpił także w epizodycznych rolach w filmach Olafa Lubaszenki "Chłopaki nie płaczą" (2000) i "E=mc²" (2002). +Jego książka "Seks, mydło i powidło" została wyróżniona nagrodą Krakowska Książka Miesiąca (za listopad 2008). W 2010 Andrzej Mleczko otrzymał Nagrodę Miasta Krakowa za wybitne dokonania twórcze w dziedzinie kultury i sztuki. W tym samym roku został laureatem Nagrody Kisiela w kategorii publicysta. W 2005 minister kultury Waldemar Dąbrowski odznaczył go Srebrnym Medalem Zasłużony Kulturze Gloria Artis. +Barwy złamane + +Barwy złamane – przeciwieństwo barw czystych. Potoczne określenie barw z zauważalną domieszką bieli, szarości lub czerni. Im mocniej "złamana" barwa, tym bardziej zbliża się do achromatyczności. +W praktyce malarskiej złamanie barwy osiąga się raczej przez dodatek farby o kolorze dopełniającym lub zbliżonym do dopełniającego; osiągnięte w ten sposób odcienie barwne są bardziej subtelne i naturalne niż "martwe" odcienie farb z dodatkiem czerni; natomiast farby z dodatkiem czystej bieli (pastelowe) nie są na ogół w terminologii malarskiej uważane za "złamane". +Barwy złamane sprawiają wrażenie mniej kontrastowych i wyrazistych, ale także delikatniejszych i bardziej wyrafinowanych od barw czystych. W malarstwie i innych sztukach wizualnych służą dość często do wyrażenia lub podkreślenia nastroju melancholii, smutku i zagubienia, lub jako tło sprzyjające szczególnie mocnemu uwydatnieniu plam lub obiektów o czystych, jaskrawych barwach. +Schronisko "Orzeł" + +Schronisko Orzeł (dawniej "Eulenkoppenbaude, Bismarckbaude") – schronisko turystyczne położone na wysokości 875 m n.p.m. w Górach Sowich przy drodze z Przełęczy Sokolej do schroniska Sowa i na Wielką Sowę, pod szczytem Sokolicy. +Oferta. +Schronisko oferuje 71 miejsc w pokojach od 1- do 6-osobowych. Schronisko prowadzi zarówno bufet jak i całodzienne wyżywienie. Przy schronisku funkcjonują dwa wyciągi narciarskie. +Historia. +Schronisko powstało w roku 1931, a wybudował je mistrz krawiecki Julius Dinter. Po drugiej wojnie światowej było nieużywane, w roku 1950 przejął je FWP. W roku 1968 zostało oddane w ajencję a od 1992 jest formalnie sprywatyzowane. Od początku pozostaje w rękach tej samej rodziny. +Minister Łączności + +Minister Łączności – centralny organ administracji państwowej i członek Rady Ministrów odpowiedzialny za pocztę i usługi telekomunikacyjne w Polsce (w tym telefonię i telegraf). Urząd zlikwidowano w 2001 r., jego kompetencje przejął Minister Infrastruktury. +Podobozy KL Lublin na Majdanku + +Podobozy KL Lublin na Majdanku – zespół jedenastu obozów śmierci i pracy przymusowej podległych w trakcie II wojny światowej niemieckiemu obozowi KL Lublin na Majdanku. +Plany przyłączania dalszych obozów. +Komendanturze Majdanka zamierzano w 1943 roku podporządkować m.in. obozy w Trawnikach, Poniatowej, Lwowie i Płaszowie. Do tych zmian strukturalnych nie doszło, po powstaniu w Sobiborze trzy pierwsze obozy zamknięto mordując więźniów, a Płaszów stał się samodzielnym Konzentrationslager. +Na podstawie: "Majdanek 1941-1944, red. T. Mencel, z dziejów obozu, red. W. Długoborski, F. Piper, rozdz. XVI (Czesław Rajca, Podobozy Majdanka), (Wydawnictwo Lubelskie) Lublin 1991, s. 379-398." +Piercing + +Piercing (z ang., wym. "pirsing"; inaczej kolczykowanie, przekłuwanie) – forma ozdabiania ciała. +Polega na wykonywaniu przekłuć w specyficznych miejscach ciała (np. nos, język, miejsca intymne) i wprowadzaniu w takie miejsca kolczyków wykonanych z tytanu, bioplastu, teflonu (PTFE) i stali chirurgicznej . Kolczyk po wygojeniu można zamienić na jakikolwiek inny, bardziej pasujący. Ze względu na radykalny charakter takiego ozdabiania ciała, piercing jest zaliczany do jednej z praktyk tzw. modyfikacji ciała. +Zabieg. +Przekłuwanie ciała trwa z reguły około dwóch minut (przy czym samo przekłucie skóry – kilka sekund). Do wykonania zabiegu używa się specjalnych szczypiec do podtrzymywania fałd skórnych (z reguły wcześniej wysterylizowanych w autoklawie), oraz igły wenflonowej bądź specjalnej igły iniekcyjnej. Kiedy piercer ustali z klientem które dokładnie miejsce ma zostać przekłute, łapie je szczypcami, następnie przebija je igłą w którą (lub w jej plastikową obwódkę w przypadku wenflonu) i po przebiciu wkłada bezpośrednio kolczyk. +Czasem zamiast igły i szczypiec używa się specjalnego pistoletu do piercingu, jednak metoda ta może stosowana jedynie do przekłuwania miękkich części uszu (płatków ucha), gdyż w innych miejscach ciała może wyrządzić poważne uszkodzenia i niesie za sobą duże ryzyko wystąpienia komplikacji. Tzw. pistolety nie są przystosowane do żadnej innej części ciała niż płatek ucha, gdyż zamiast przekłuwać tkankę tak jak robi to igła – rozszarpują ją, co utrudnia gojenie, a w przypadku miejsca innego niż płatek ucha – zmniejsza możliwości dokładnego wymierzenia, włożenia kolczyka odpowiedniego rozmiaru i przebicia skóry pod odpowiednim kątem. Ponadto metoda ta uniemożliwia zachowanie sterylności, ponieważ nie da się wysterylizować pistoletu w autoklawie. Do niektórych przebić (między innymi tzw. tuneli) używa się skalpela. +Rodzaje piercingu - opis. +Pępek (navel). +Popularnie znany jako kolczyk w pępku, piercing ten zwykle nie przechodzi dokładnie przez pępek lecz przez płat skóry znajdujący się nad lub pod nim. Piercing bezpośrednio przez pępek jest możliwy tylko jeżeli osoba ma pępek wystający, tzw. "outie". Piercing ten rozpowszechnił się mocno szczególnie wśród młodych kobiet. +Piercing ten jest jednym z najwolniej gojących się, czasem zajmując nawet rok zanim się w pełni wyleczy. Powodem tego jest małe ukrwienie tego obszaru ciała. Biżuterią zazwyczaj stosowaną są pierścienie i skrzywione sztangi. +Sutki (nipple). +Piercing sutków może odbywać się zarówno u mężczyzn jak i kobiet. Przebicie jest zwykle wykonywane poziomo lub pionowo. Czas gojenia wynosi zwykle od 2 do 4 miesięcy. Biżuterią zwykle stosowaną w tych piercingach to najczęściej pierścienie, sztangi oraz tzw. Nipple shield. Piercing ten oprócz walorów estetycznych może mieć także walory funkcjonalne, gdyż sutki należą do stref erogennych. Osoby z tym piercingiem twierdzą, że zwiększa to ich czułość. +Piercing ten nie przeszkadza w karmieniu piersią, lecz nie zaleca się aby karmić z włożoną biżuterią. +Corset. +Jest to podtyp piercingu powierzchniowego. Piercingi typu corset są zwykle ułożone parami i rzędami dookoła kręgosłupa, swoim wyglądem przypominając gorset. Można je często znaleźć u kobiet z subkultury BDSM. Piercingi te odznaczają się dużym prawdopodobieństwem odrzucenia przez ciało. Z tego powodu są one zwykle tylko tymczasowe. +Hand web. +Piercing ten przebija błoniastą skórę pomiędzy kciukiem a palcem wskazującym. Goi się powolnie, od 6 miesięcy do roku. W tym czasie należy zachować higienę okolicy. Piercing ten nie przeszkadza w noszeniu rękawiczek. +Piercing a zdrowie. +Z medycznego punktu widzenia kolczykowanie ciała jest równoznaczne jego okaleczaniu. Przekłucie, w którym umieszczono kolczyk, stanowi otwartą ranę, której gojenie jest długotrwałe. Z tego powodu w piercingu nie używa się biżuterii wykonanej ze srebra lub złota, jako metali niekorzystnie wpływających na proces gojenia. Do świeżych przekłuć używa się stali chirurgicznej 316L (bardziej polecana do zagojonych przekłuć ze względu na znikomą zawartość niklu), tytanu G23, bioplastu i PTFE. Są to materiały hipoalergiczne, pozbawione niklu (który najczęściej jest przyczyną uczuleń) oraz są biokompatybilne. Stal chirurgiczna powoli zostaje wypierana przez te, nowocześniejsze materiały. Przekłucie powinno być wykonane w warunkach sterylnych przez osobę wykwalifikowaną (nazywaną piercerem), aby zminimalizować ryzyko zakażenia np. gronkowcem lub wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu C, wirusem zapalenia wątroby typu B, wirusem HIV. +Piercing wykonywany w jamie ustnej zwiększa ryzyko urazów w uzębieniu, a także licznych ubytków próchnicowych.. +Gojenie. +Świeża rana powinna być skrupulatnie czyszczona za pomocą gazy nasączonej Octeniseptem i solą fizjologiczną – ograniczy to ryzyko wystąpienia infekcji oraz innych powikłań. Osoby z wadą krwi, gorszą krzepliwością czy hemofilią decyzję zrobienia sobie kolczyka powinny skonsultować z lekarzem. +Hecht + +Hecht – jednostopniowy kierowany pocisk rakietowy ziemia-powietrze opracowany w 1943 roku, naprowadzany programowo (leciał po ustalonej trajektorii). +Po pierwszym locie, projekt odrzucony na korzyść pocisku Feuerlilie. +Amalaryk + +Amalaryk (ur. 502 zm. 531) – władca Wizygotów (511-531) z rodu Baltów. +Syn Alaryka II, który zginął w roku 507 pod Vouille w bitwie z wojskiem króla Franków Chlodwiga I. Ze względu na bardzo młody wiek Amalaryka, królem Wizygotów został wybrany Gezalek, nieślubny syn Alaryka II. Podczas jego panowania Wizygoci utracili terytoria we Francji i zostali zmuszeni do wycofania się na Półwysep Iberyjski. +W tej sytuacji w roku 511 zainterweniował król ostrogocki Teodoryk Wielki, otaczając opieką Amalaryka i sprawując władzę w jego imieniu do roku 526. +Zobacz też: Emeryk +Stanisław ze Szczepanowa + +Stanisław ze Szczepanowa (ur. ok. 1030 w Szczepanowie, zm. 11 kwietnia 1079 w Krakowie) – polski duchowny katolicki, biskup krakowski, męczennik, święty Kościoła katolickiego, jeden z głównych patronów Polski. +Żywot świętego. +Pochodzenie i data urodzin Stanisława nie są znane. Według tradycji uznaje się, że urodził się 26 lipca 1030 w Szczepanowie, jako syn Wielisława i Bogny. Odebrał staranne wykształcenie, najpierw w gnieźnieńskiej szkole katedralnej, a w późniejszym czasie we Francji lub w Belgii w Liege. Zasłynął jako kaznodzieja i misjonarz Małopolski, pracował także w kancelarii panującego ówcześnie biskupa krakowskiego Lamberta, który wyznaczył go na swego następcę. Po śmierci Lamberta obrany został ordynariuszem diecezji, a w 1072 za zgodą księcia Bolesława Szczodrego został konsekrowany na biskupa krakowskiego. +Okres posługi biskupiej Stanisława zaliczany jest do najświetniejszych za panowania Piastów. Biskup Stanisław sprowadził do Polski legatów rzymskich, zorganizował od nowa metropolię gnieźnieńską, podjął działania mające na celu koronację Bolesława Szczodrego w 1075 roku. Dzięki wskrzeszeniu metropolii gnieźnieńskiej, ustały pretensje metropolii magdeburskiej do zwierzchnictwa nad diecezjami polskimi. Jako że zależało mu na szerzeniu wiary chrześcijańskiej w ówczesnej Polsce, biskup wspierał także powstawanie i umacnianie klasztorów benedyktyńskich, stanowiących ośrodki istotne ewangelizacyjne. +W wyniku konfliktu z Bolesławem Szczodrym biskup, podając za przekazem Galla Anonima, został skazany na obcięcie członków za zdradę, której się dopuścił. Gall Anonim, piszący swą "Kronikę" trzydzieści kilka lat po śmierci biskupa Stanisława, przedstawił fakt zatargu między Stanisławem a Bolesławem Szczodrym, który zadecydował o chwale pierwszego, a tragicznym końcu drugiego. Nie są znane dokładne przyczyny sporu, jaki powstał pomiędzy nim a królem. Najprawdopodobniej sam kronikarz dobrze je znał, lecz w swoim dziele nie rozwinął owego wątku. Przypuszcza się, że nie mógł tego zrobić, ze względu na panowanie w owym czasie syna Władysława Hermana, który był członkiem opozycji antykrólewskiej. Relacja Galla Anonima pozostaje do dziś jedynym ówczesnym źródłem pisanym. Od Galla dowiadujemy się, że biskup dopuścił się zdrady, za którą król wydał go na śmierć przez obcięcie członków. Gall negatywnie ocenił zarówno postępowanie biskupa, jak i reakcję króla. +Według tradycji, bezpośrednim powodem konfliktu pomiędzy biskupem a królem było to, że Stanisław bezskutecznie upominał Bolesława za niewłaściwe postępowanie wobec poddanych oraz za publiczne powodowanie zgorszenia. Wedle przekazu kroniki Mistrza Wincentego Stanisław "najpierw grozi mu [Bolesławowi] zagładą królestwa, wreszcie wyciąga ku niemu miecz klątwy", nie jest jasne czy należy to rozumieć jako zagrożenie ekskomuniką, czy jej rzucenie, przyjmuje się jednak raczej tę pierwszą ewentualność. Następnie nie stawił się po wezwaniu przed sąd królewski, gdyż nie pozwalało mu na to prawo kanoniczne. Został wówczas przez króla bezprawnie skazany na śmierć. +Według alternatywnej wersji, pozostawionej przez Wincentego Kadłubka, biskup Stanisław stanął w obronie niewiernych żon rycerzy walczących na wyprawie kijowskiej, które król rozkazał okrutnie ukarać, mimo iż ich mężowie im przebaczyli. Król rozkazał swoim sługom zabicie biskupa w kościele na Skałce w czasie odprawiania przez niego mszy świętej, a gdy ci nie chcieli, sam własnoręcznie zamordował świętego. Wersja ta jednak ze względu na moralizatorski charakter kroniki Kadłubka, a także to, że również był biskupem i napisał swoją kronikę w czasie panowania potomków Władysława Hermana jest mało wiarygodna. +Autorem żywota św. Stanisława znanego w dwóch wersjach, krótszej "Vita minor" i dłuższej "Vita maior" jest także Wincenty z Kielczy, natomiast Jan Długosz w "Żywocie św. Stanisława" opisuje cuda, które zdarzyły się po śmierci biskupa. +Historiografia. +Historiografia tematu jest bardzo rozwinięta. Tadeusz Wojciechowski w swojej pracy z 1904 r. "Szkice historyczne jedenastego wieku" wysuwa tezę, iż św. Stanisław został skazany za zdradę narodu. Twierdzenie to opiera się na "Kronice Galla Anonima", gdzie sam autor nazywa go "traditor episcopus" – zdrajca. Słowo "traditor" jest wieloznaczne. Sam Gall używał go w kilku znaczeniach. W Kronice zastosował je w sumie 13 razy, ale tylko trzykrotnie na określenie zdrady polegającej na konszachtach z nieprzyjacielem zewnętrznym. W średniowiecznej łacinie zdrajców określano częściej słowem "proditor". Według tej tezy przedmiotem sporu pomiędzy Bolesławem Szczodrym a św. Stanisławem były nie "niewierne żony", lecz władza w młodym państwie polskim. Wojciechowski stwierdził, że Stanisław reprezentował inną frakcję polityczną – przeciwną królowi, a pochlebną interesom Cesarstwa i być może frakcjom wspierającym Władysława Hermana. Spisek został odkryty, a Stanisław, na mocy sądu arcybiskupiego, został za zdradę króla skazany na śmierć przez poćwiartowanie członków. +Tezy Wojciechowskiego spotkały się z krytyką jako oparte w zbyt dużym stopniu na domysłach, zwłaszcza odnośnie domniemanej ingerencji czesko-niemieckiej w sprawy polskie, na którą w źródłach nie ma najmniejszego dowodu. Zdaniem Romana Grodeckiego stawianie alternatywy "święty czy zdrajca" może być w rzeczywistości pozorne, gdyż nie da się wykluczyć, że postępowanie biskupa wypływało ze szlachetnych, etycznych pobudek, ale jako będące nie na rękę królowi zostało zakwalifikowane jako polityczna zdrada. +Hipoteza Tadeusza Grudzińskiego zakłada, że głównym powodem konfliktu pomiędzy św. Stanisławem a Szczodrym była reforma kościelna, przeprowadzona przez legatów papieskich w 1075 r. Utworzone zostało wówczas biskupstwo płockie (redukcja diecezji krakowskich Stanisława), odnowiono również arcybiskupstwo w Gnieźnie, wykluczając jednocześnie św. Stanisława z z pełnienia funkcji metropolity. Na powyższe wydarzenia miał nałożyć się bunt rycerstwa spowodowany szerokimi nadaniami na rzecz kościoła, a nie możnych. Po wykryciu spisku możnych i św. Stanisława, król miał wydać samodzielny wyrok, wykonany jednak przez kata przed kościołem św. Michała. +W kręgu historycznym dużą popularność zdobyła teza Jana Powierskiego. Powierski sądzi, że skoro w 1071 r. św. Stanisław osadzony został przez króla na biskupstwie krakowskim, a w 1075 r. odmówiono mu stanowczo arcybiskupstwa w Gnieźnie, w przeciągu tych czterech lat musiały nastąpić wydarzenia, które popsuły wizerunek Stanisława w oczach króla. Być może okazał się on osobą niegodną tego urzędu. Wincenty Kadłubek opisał dość szeroko pogłoski, jakoby biskup miał prowadzić niemoralne życie, wkładając te słowa w usta wygnanego króla i określając je jako mało wiarygodne. Nie możemy mieć jednak pewności, czy pogłoski o jego niemoralnym życiu w istocie były jedynie plotkami, czy też miały pewne uzasadnienie. +Dalej, Powierski pisze, że bunt rycerstwa faktycznie miał miejsce i był spowodowany zbyt dużą ilością wypraw wojennych, pozbawionych jednak łupu z racji tego, że były to wyprawy sojusznicze. Rycerze zbuntowali się na skutek braku odczuwalnych sukcesów, jak i na skutek tego, że przez zdecydowaną większość roku brali jedynie udział w wojnach. Bunt nie miał być jednak kierowany przez św. Stanisława, wedle tezy Powierskiego przywódcą buntu był prawdopodobnie Sieciech, palatyn posiadający w kraju ogromną władzę i wpływy. Wedle jego hipotezy, św. Stanisław miał być jedynie pionkiem, wykorzystywanym przez możnych, widzących w nim sojusznika w opozycji przeciw królowi. +Kult. +Kult świętego Stanisława rozpoczął się z chwilą przeniesienia jego relikwii w 1088 roku do katedry krakowskiej, jeszcze za życia Władysława Hermana, brata królewskiego. Powstała później legenda o rozbiciu dzielnicowym Polski, jako karze za ten czyn świętokradczy (za taki uważano właśnie zamordowanie biskupa), według której Polska rozpadła się tak jak członki ćwiartowanego biskupa. Oczekiwano jednak cudu za wstawiennictwem Stanisława, jako patrona zjednoczenia. +W Polsce od końca XII wieku rozwinął się kult Świętego Stanisława, a katedra wawelska, która mieści jego sarkofag, nosi wezwanie jego i św. Wacława Czeskiego. Również w Krakowie znajduje się jego sanktuarium w kościele Paulinów na Skałce. W I niedzielę po święcie św. Stanisława – przypadającym 8 maja – odbywa się procesja z relikwiami świętego z Katedry Wawelskiej do Kościoła św. Michała Archanioła i św. Stanisława Biskupa na Skałce w której bierze udział Episkopat Polski, przedstawiciele duchowieństwa, zakonów i laikatu. +Według części badaczy, pierwsze ślady kultu świętego Stanisława na Śląsku pochodzą jeszcze sprzed roku 1163 (płaskorzeźba w kościele świętego Wincentego na Ołbinie pod Wrocławiem przedstawiająca męczeństwo świętego Stanisława). Z terenów poza Polską można wskazać na dwunastowieczną chrzcielnicę w Tryde pod Lundem w Szwecji (sceny z procesu o wieś Piotrowin i męczeństwo biskupa). Związek obu tych zabytków ze św. Stanisławem jest jednak wątpliwy. +Wstawiennictwu Św. Stanisława przypisywał zwycięstwo w bitwie pod Grunwaldem król Władysław II Jagiełło, Zygmunt I Stary uznał go za swego patrona. +2 maja 1669 krakowska kapituła zamówiła u gdańskiego złotnika Piotra von der Rennen trumienny relikwiarz świętego; data wykonania nie jest znana (rozliczenie należności z wdową nastąpiło po śmierci artysty, zmarłego w 1671). Ozdobiony 12 scenami z życia św. Stanisława sarkofag znajduje się w katedrze wawelskiej. +W 1765 król Stanisław August Poniatowski ustanowił Order Świętego Stanisława. +Kanonizacja. +Starania mające na celu rozpoczęcie procesu kanonizacyjnego rozpoczęto pod wpływem analogicznej historii w Anglii (Tomasz Becket). +8 września 1253, w bazylice świętego Franciszka w Asyżu, Stanisław został kanonizowany przez papieża Innocentego IV. Uroczystość podniesienia relikwii Świętego i ogłoszenia jego kanonizacji w Polsce odbyła się 8 maja 1254 roku. +Dzień obchodów. +Tradycyjne wspomnienie św. Stanisława w Kościele katolickim obchodzone jest 11 kwietnia (dzień śmierci), natomiast w polskim Kościele 8 maja i ma rangę uroczystości liturgicznej (podniesienie relikwii w Polsce). +Patron. +W roku 1963 papież Jan XXIII ustanowił świętego Stanisława, wraz ze Świętym Wojciechem i Najświętszą Maryją Panną Królową Polski, pierwszorzędnym Patronem Polski. Jest również patronem Gniezna (razem ze św. Wojciechem) i Krakowa (wraz ze św. Florianem). +Jan Paweł II nazwał go „patronem chrześcijańskiego ładu moralnego”. +Ikonografia. +W ikonografii osobę polskiego świętego przedstawia się w szatach pontyfikalnych. Jego atrybuty to orzeł, pastorał, umarły Piotrowin. Najstarszym zachowanym do naszych czasów cyklem ikonograficznym przedstawiającym żywot świętego stanowią ilustracje z Legendarium Andegaweńskiego pochodzącym z ok. 1333 roku. W wieku XV rośnie liczba przedstawień polskiego świętego. Od tego czasu ukazuje się go zazwyczaj z postacią wskrzeszonego Piotra, który w miarę upływu czasu przedstawiany jest w ikonografii jako postać o coraz mniejszych rozmiarach. Najczęstszymi scenami pojawiającymi się w średniowiecznych cyklach ikonograficznych związanych z legendą o świętym są: kupno wsi Piotrawin, wskrzeszenie Piotra, Piotr zeznający przed królem, zabójstwo Stanisława, posiekanie zwłok, pilnowanie fragmentów ciała świętego przez cztery orły, pogrzeb. +Św. Stanisław w sztuce. +Jan Matejko przedstawił świętego na obrazie bitwa pod Grunwaldem, w chwili kiedy według "Roczników" Jana Długosza pojawił się on na obłoku. +Św. Stanisławowi zostały poświęcone dwa wielkie dzieła muzyczne. Pierwszym jest oficjum rymowane "Historia gloriosissimi Stanislai" Wincentego z Kielczy, napisane na uroczystość kanonizacji lub translacji (z którego pochodzi sławny hymn "Gaude, mater Polonia" (ok. 1253)), drugim – "Beatus Vir" Henryka Mikołaja Góreckiego, zamówiony w 1978 przez (jeszcze) kardynała Karola Wojtyłę na 900-lecie męczeństwa świętego, a prawykonany w 1979 i dedykowany już papieżowi Janowi Pawłowi II. Przez ostatnie dwanaście lat swego życia Franciszek Liszt pisał oratorium "Św. Stanisław", nie dokończył go jednak. Kilka lat temu Paul Munson zebrał istniejące fragmenty i skompletował dwie sceny (I i IV); pozwoliło to wydać płytę CD z nagraniem utworu oraz wprowadzić utwór do sal koncertowych. +Arbuz zwyczajny + +Arbuz zwyczajny, nazywany także kawonem ("Citrullus lanatus" (Thunb.) Mansf.) – gatunek rośliny z rodziny dyniowatych. Wywodzi się z Afryki. Jest uprawiany w Polsce. +Biologia. +Roślina jednoroczna. Kwiaty są obcopylne. Rośliny są na ogół jednopienne. Najpierw pojawiają się kwiaty męskie, a później po tygodniu żeńskie. Kwiaty otwierają się na bardzo krótki okres, zwykle po wschodzie słońca i pozostają otwarte jeden dzień, potem opadają. +Uprawa. +Roślina światłolubna, ciepłolubna i potrzebująca bardzo dużo wody. Optymalna temperatura powietrza waha się od 21 do 29 st. C minimalna to 18, a maksymalna 35 stopni. Stąd w warunkach naturalnych rośnie w krajach o ciepłym i gorącym klimacie. Dobrze rośnie na glebach o pH 5,5-6,0, próchniczych, bogatych w składniki pokarmowe i na glebach wcześniej nie zajętych pod uprawę. Rośliny wysiewa się pod koniec lutego albo na początku marca. W Polsce uprawiany głównie w szklarniach i tunelach foliowych. +Ludwik Kulczycki + +Ludwik Kulczycki (ur. 22 lipca 1866 w Warszawie, zm. 31 sierpnia 1941 w Warszawie) – polski socjolog i publicysta. Współzałożyciel i autor prac programowych II Proletariatu. +Studiował w Warszawie i Genewie. +Od 1894 członek PPS. Za udział w ruchu rewolucyjnym kilkukrotnie więziony (m.in. w Cytadeli Warszawskiej), a także i zesłany na Syberię wschodnią (1895-1899). W 1899 zbiegł do Lwowa, gdzie rozpoczął działalność publicystyczną i naukową. Zajął się socjologią, historią ruchów społecznych XIX wieku i zagadnieniami prawno-państwowymi. Utracił zaufanie współtowarzyszy i został odsunięty od władz partii. W 1900 dokonał secesji i utworzył III Proletariat, bardzo aktywny w latach 1904–1905. Po 1910 odszedł od ruchu socjalistycznego. W czasie I wojny światowej członek Naczelnego Komitetu Narodowego. W 1917 roku rozpoczął pracę w polskiej służbie państwowej pracując w departamencie spraw wewnętrznych i ministerstwie pracy i opieki społecznej. +Profesor Szkoły Nauk Politycznych (1918–1932) i Wyższej Szkoły Dziennikarskiej (do 1924). +Od 1920 związany z Narodową Partią Robotniczą. +Ludwik Kulczycki spoczywa na Cmentarzu Powązkowskim w Warszawie (kw. 220-I-14/15). +Linki zewnętrzne. +__NOTOC__ +LMTO + +LMTO (ang. "Linear Muffin Tin Orbitals") - jedna z metod obliczeniowych "ab initio" fizyki ciała stałego stosowanych przy modelowaniu struktury elektronowej kryształów. +Metoda ta jest wykorzystuje teorię funkcjonałów gestości. Koordynatorem projektu rozwijania tej metody jest Ole Krogh Andersen. Pierwsza wersja programu wykosztującego metodę LMTO została udostępniona w 1988 roku. Ostatnie zmiany w projekcie TB-LMTO-ASA są datowane na rok 2000. +Hugo III (książę Burgundii) + +Hugo III de Bourgogne (ur. 1148, zm. 25 sierpnia 1192 w Tyrze) - książę Burgundii w latach 1162-1192. Syn księcia Odona II i Marii de Blois. +Hugo popadł w konflikt dotyczący granic burgundzko-francuskich z królem Francji - Ludwikiem VII Młodym. Kiedy w 1180 Ludwik zmarł i na tronie zastąpił go syn - Filip II August, Hugo wykorzystał okazję i przeciągnął kilku możnych na swoją stronę. Filip August stracił kilku wasali - w odwecie najechał Burgundię i zaczął oblężenie Chatillon. Miasto padło, a do francuskiej niewoli dostał się najstraszy syn Hugona. Hugo zmuszony był do zapłacenia wysokiego okupu za syna i zrezygnowania ze swoich ambicji, w zamian Filip August zawarł z Burgundią pokój. W 1187 Hugo przeniósł stolicę Burgundii do Dijon. +Hugo wziął udział w III krucjacie pod dowództwem Filipa Augusta. Został najbardziej zaufanym towarzyszem króla Anglii - Ryszarda Lwie Serce i walczył u jego boku z Saladynem. Kiedy Filip August wrócił do Francji, Hugo został dowódcą oddziałów francuskich w Ziemi Świętej - brał udział w zwycięskiej bitwie pod Arsuf (7 września 1191) i oblężeniu Akki. Zmarł rok później i został pochowany w Cîteaux. +Pop (kapłan) + +Pop – z gr. "papas" (Παππάς) – dawne określenie kapłana w Cerkwi prawosławnej i Kościołach greckokatolickich, w średniowieczu używane także wobec księży katolickich. Na skutek propagandy bolszewickiej słowo to nabrało w niektórych krajach pejoratywnego znaczenia i obecnie jest uważane za obraźliwe. Wierni prawosławni w krajach słowiańskich używają określenia "batiuszka" (biał., "батюшка") lub "otiec" (ros. "отец") z imieniem. Jego żona to matuszka. +W regionach, gdzie dominuje tradycja ukraińska (Łemkowszczyzna, dawna Galicja) spotyka się czasem określanie księdza tytułem "jegomość" (ukr "егомость"), a jego żony – "jejmość" (ukr "їмость"). +Michał VII Dukas + +Michał VII Dukas zwany Parapinakesem (ur. przed 1050, zm. ok. 1090) – cesarz bizantyjski w latach 1071-1078. +Najstarszy syn Konstantyna Dukasa i Eudoksji Mekrembolitissy. W 1059 roku został współrządcą ojca. +Po śmierci Konstantyna X w 1067 Michał został cesarzem, jednak był nim sam od 22 maja do 31 grudnia tego roku. Faktycznie rządy sprawowała jego matka. Eudoksja później poślubiła Romana Diogenesa, ustanawiając go cesarzem-regentem, póki Michał nie dorośnie. Od 1 stycznia 1068 roku Michał VII współrządził z Romanem IV. +Przejął władzę w sierpniu 1071 roku, po pojmaniu Romana Diogenesa przez Turków. Doradcami Michała VII zostali jego stryj Jan Dukas, Michał Psellos i biskup Jan z Side. W 1073 roku Jan Dukas został zmuszony do opuszczenia dworu na pewien czas. +W 1074 roku Michał VII zawarł sojusz z Robertem Guiscardem, zaręczając swojego syna Konstantyna z jego córką Heleną Olimpiadą. +W 1077 roku przeciwko Michałowi zbuntował się Nicefor Bryennios w Europie i Nicefor Botaniates. 31 marca 1078 roku Michał abdykował i usunął się do klasztoru. Później został nawet biskupem. +Jego następcą na tronie cesarskim został Nicefor III Botaniates. +Lagasz + +Lagasz (sum. lagaški zapisywane ŠIR.BUR.LAki) – starożytne miasto-państwo założone przez Sumerów w południowej Mezopotamii; obecnie stanowisko archeologiczne "Tell al-Hiba" w Iraku. Zostało zasiedlone w IV tysiącleciu p.n.e. W drugiej połowie III tysiąclecia p.n.e był to ważny ośrodek polityczny i kulturalny Sumerów. Po upadku, miasto-państwo odrodziło się za rządów Gudei (2144-2124 p.n.e), stając się głównym ośrodkiem sumeryjskim, później utraciło jednak znaczenie. W latach 1877-1933 prowadzono w nim (z przerwami) wykopaliska. Władzy miasta Lagasz podlegał również port morski w Eninkimarze nad Zatoką Perską. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP + +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej – chrześcijański wolny Kościół protestancki o charakterze ewangelikalnym nurtu zielonoświątkowego; drugi, pod względem wielkości Kościół protestancki w Polsce (po Kościele Ewangelicko-Augsburskim w RP), posiadający ponad 23 tysięcy wiernych zrzeszonych w ramach 217 zborów; największy polski Kościół protestancki nurtu ewangelicznego; największa, choć nie jedyna, wspólnota zielonoświątkowców w Polsce, związana z pentekostalną tradycją amerykańskich Zborów Bożych i przyjmująca ustrój kongregacjonalno-synodalny. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP jest członkiem Europejskiej Wspólnoty Zielonoświątkowej, Światowej Wspólnoty Zborów Bożych oraz Towarzystwa Biblijnego w Polsce. Organem prasowym Kościoła jest miesięcznik „Chrześcijanin”. Siedzibą władz Kościoła jest miasto stołeczne Warszawa. Podstawą prawną działalności Kościoła jest Ustawa o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dn. 20 lutego 1997. Obecnym Przewodniczącym Naczelnej Rady Kościoła i Prezbiterem Naczelnym Kościoła jest bp dr Marek Kamiński. +Historia. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w obecnej formie powstał w wyniku rozwiązania federacji wspólnot chrześcijańskich o nazwie Zjednoczony Kościół Ewangeliczny, która w okresie Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej zrzeszała większość ewangelicznych społeczności protestanckich, zarówno zielonoświątkowych, jak i niezielonoświątkowych. Rozpad federacji w 1988 r. spowodował usamodzielnienie się Kościołów, w tym Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego, który stał się największą wspólnotą pentekostalną. +Geneza i sytuacja polskich zielonoświątkowców w pierwszej połowie XX wieku. +Początki ruchu zielonoświątkowego na ziemiach polskich sięgają początków XX wieku. Pośród wyznawców Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego na Śląsku Cieszyńskim działających w ramach ruchu neopietystycznego, tzw. Społeczności Chrześcijańskiej, powstało przebudzenie religijne o charakterze zielonoświątkowym. Wykluczenie tych osób z macierzystej wspólnoty luterańskiej owocowało zawiązaniem się Związku Stanowczych Chrześcijan – pierwszej niezależnej społeczności zielonoświątkowców na ziemiach polskich. Związek zarejestrowany został w Cieszynie dn. 15 lipca 1910 r. przez władze austriackie. W konsekwencji podziału Śląska Cieszyńskiego w 1920 r. między Polskę a Czechosłowację zwierzchnikiem zielonoświątkowców na ziemiach czeskich został Karol Kaleta. W Polsce ruchowi pentekostalnemu przewodzili: Karol Śniegoń (do 1929 r. i po 1937 r.), Karol Kupka (1927–1931) oraz Adolf Małysz (1931–1935). Przed II wojną światową Związek liczył 2 tysiące wiernych. W momencie wkroczenia wojsk niemieckich nabożeństwa zielonoświątkowe zostały zakazane, zaś od 1947 r. wspólnoty pentekostalne ziemi cieszyńskiej zostały włączone do Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego. +Drugi nurt polskiego ruchu zielonoświątkowego, tzw. chrześcijanie wiary ewangelicznej, powstał w maju 1929 r. w Starej Czołnicy, niedaleko Łucka. Kościół ten zrzeszał zbory pentekostalne z Polski centralnej, wschodniej oraz kresów. Przed II wojną światową ruch chrześcijan wiary ewangelicznej był największą wspólnotą zielonoświątkowców w Polsce, zrzeszając 20 tysięcy wiernych w ok. 500 zborach (parafiach) i placówkach. Działał prężnie prowadząc m.in. Dom Sierot, Gdański Instytut Biblijny, którego otwarcie nastąpiło w 2 marca 1930 r., a także organizując konferencje. Nocą 20 września 1950 r. aresztowano wszystkich duchownych zielonoświątkowych przez władze PRL. W roku 1953 nastąpiło ich zwolnienie oraz włączenie chrześcijan wiary ewangelicznej do Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego pod naciskiem władz. +Polscy zielonoświątkowcy w okresie PRL-u. +Po włączeniu zarówno stanowczych chrześcijan, jak i chrześcijan wiary ewangelicznej w struktury Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego, polscy zielonoświątkowcy nie stanowili odrębnego wyznania w okresie Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. Zjednoczony Kościół Ewangeliczny zrzeszał ewangelicznych protestantów, zarówno o orientacji zielonoświątkowej, jak i niezielonoświątkowej. Jednym z pierwszych autonomicznych wyznań zielonoświątkowych była Protestancka Wspólnota Regionu Bieszczadzkiego (rejestracja: styczeń 1981), obecna Ewangeliczna Wspólnota Zielonoświątkowa. Rozpad federacji nastąpił w 1988 r. przez co Kościół Zielonoświątkowy odzyskał samodzielność. +Sytuacja po 1988 r. (Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP). +Uchwałą XII Synodu Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego podjętą dn. 22 maja 1987 r. zdecydowano rozwiązać powołaną po II wojnie światowej federację kościołów ewangelicznych (Zjednoczony Kościół Ewangeliczny). Decyzję tę zatwierdzono 1 lutego 1988 r. w Urzędzie do Spraw Wyznań. Jednocześnie powołano samodzielny Kościół Zielonoświątkowy, w skład którego weszły zbory zielonoświątkowe na Śląsku Cieszyńskim, dawne społeczności stanowczych chrześcijan oraz zbory przedwojennego Kościoła Chrześcijan Wiary Ewangelicznej (oprócz tzw. grupy lubelskiej, która zachowała poprzednią nazwę i stanowi odrębną wspólnotę). Kościół Zielonoświątkowy po usamodzielnieniu się liczył 82 zbory. Do 2010 r. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy był członkiem Aliansu Ewangelicznego w RP. +Nauczanie. +Biblia. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP postrzega Pismo Święte Starego i Nowego Testamentu jako zbiór pism natchnionych przez Ducha Świętego, nieomylne i wystarczające źródło wszelkich przekonań i praktyk religijnych. Przyjmuje się protestancki kanon Biblii, składający się z 39 ksiąg Starego Testamentu i 27 ksiąg Nowego Testamentu. +Bóg. +Bóg, jako stworzyciel wszechświata oraz wszelkiego życia, objawił się w trzech osobach: Ojca, Syna oraz Ducha Świętego. Kościół odrzuca poglądy antytrynitarne, w tym popularną wśród niektórych wspólnot pentekostalnych doktrynę o jedności Bóstwa. Chwała i uwielbienie oddawane są wyłącznie Trójjedynemu Bogu. Nie praktykuje się zatem kultu świętych, obrazów oraz relikwii jako sprzecznych z Biblią. Maria uważana jest za godną naśladowania chrześcijankę oraz służebnicę Pańską, która podobnie, jak każdy człowiek, była grzeszna i potrzebowała zbawienia. Nie uznaje się kultu maryjnego, dogmatu o jej niepokalanym poczęciu oraz wniebowzięciu. +Jezus Chrystus. +Jezus Chrystus postrzegany jest w Kościele Zielonoświątkowym jako jednorodzony Syn Boży, który począł się z Ducha Świętego i przyjął ciało z dziewicy Marii. Posiada on dwie natury: w pełni boską i w pełni ludzką. Jego śmierć na krzyżu za grzech świata uważana jest za doskonałą i zakończoną ofiarę. Kościół wierzy w cielesne zmartwychwstanie Chrystusa, jego wniebowstąpienie oraz powtórne przyjście w dniach ostatecznych. Jezus Chrystus uznawany jest za jedynego pośrednika i orędownika pomiędzy Bogiem a ludźmi. Uznawany jest za głowę Kościoła. +Upadek, zbawienie, nowonarodzenie, uświęcenie. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy uznaje, iż człowiek został stworzony istotą doskonałą na Boże podobieństwo, jednak wskutek grzechu pierwszych rodziców stracił społeczność z Bogiem. Każdy człowiek przychodzący na świat jest grzeszny, oddzielony od Boga i potrzebuje zbawienia. Przez swą śmierć Jezus Chrystus pojednał wierzących z Bogiem i dzięki tej ofierze zbawienie stało się możliwe dla każdego człowieka. Odrzuca się możliwość zbawienia poprzez uczciwe życie, dobre uczynki, czy wyznawaną religię. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy naucza, iż zbawienie jest przekazywane jedynie z łaski Bożej każdemu grzesznikowi, niezależnie od jego uczynków w momencie, gdy wyzna on Jezusa Chrystusa swoim osobistym Panem i Zbawicielem (tzw. nowonarodzenie). W konsekwencji tego wydarzenia, grzesznik zostaje usprawiedliwiony przed Bogiem, odrodzony, usynowiony, jego życie uświęcone i przemienione. Posiada on pewność życia wiecznego. Powołany jest do prowadzenia życia w świętości (w tym bez nałogów), służby, codziennej relacji z Bogiem i spełniania dobrych uczynków. Teologicznie Kościół Zielonoświątkowy wyznaje arminianizm i opowiada się za możliwością utraty zbawienia w konsekwencji odrzucenia Bożej łaski przez człowieka. +Chrzest Duchem Świętym. +Cechą charakterystyczną ruchu zielonoświątkowego jest wywodząca się z pietyzmu osobista pobożność, utrzymywanie żywej relacji z Bogiem, studiowanie Biblii przez wiernych, spontaniczne uwielbianie Boga oraz otwartość na działanie Ducha Świętego. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy postrzega boską osobę Ducha Świętego jako autora Pisma Świętego oraz obiecanego pocieszyciela. Uważa się, iż człowiekowi jest on udzielany podczas nowego narodzenia, doświadczenia chrztu Duchem Świętym, napełnienia, a także w charyzmatach, czyli darach duchowych. Szczególnie podkreślany jest tu chrzest Duchem Świętym, jako wydarzenie wyzwalające Ducha Świętego w wierzącym, któremu towarzyszą przeżycia charyzmatyczne charakterystyczne dla Kościoła wczesnochrześcijańskiego (zob. Pięćdziesiątnica). Celem chrztu Duchem Świętym jest wzmocnienie i udzielenie darów duchowych, czyli charyzmatów nowonarodzonym chrześcijanom. Owocem tego doświadczenia jest przemienione życie i obecność nadnaturalnych znaków, w tym mówienia nieznanymi językami. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy uznaje i praktykuje charyzmaty w postaci prorokowania, uzdrawiania chorych, wypędzania demonów, czy glosolalii. +Ustanowienia. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP, podobnie jak inne Kościoły protestanckie, praktykuje dwa ustanowienia: chrzest oraz Wieczerzę Pańską. Wraz z innymi wspólnotami ewangelicznymi, postrzega je jako ustanowione przez Jezusa Chrystusa obrzędy, które mają wymiar symboliczny. Odrzuca się pogląd, jakoby za pośrednictwem ustanowień przekazywana była zbawiająca łaska Boża. Powołując się na Biblię oraz protestancką zasadę "sola fide", Kościół Zielonoświątkowy postrzega osobistą wiarę jako jedyny element przez który grzesznik otrzymuje odrodzenie i przebaczenie grzechów. Chrztu wodnego udziela się wyłącznie osobom w wieku świadomym, które doświadczyły nowonarodzenia i osobiście wyznały swą wiarę w Jezusa Chrystusa. Praktykuje się wyłącznie chrzest przez całkowite zanurzenie w wodzie. Przed zanurzeniem pastor wypowiada formułę: "Na podstawie twojego wyznania wiary i pragnienia chrztu, chrzczę ciebie w imię Ojca i Syna, i Ducha Świętego". Obrzędu można dokonywać zarówno w baptysteriach, jak również naturalnych zbiornikach. Wieczerza Pańska postrzegana jest jako obrzęd upamiętniający śmierć Jezusa Chrystusa na krzyżu. Odrzuca się pogląd, jakoby ustanowienie to było powtórzeniem bądź uobecnieniem ofiary Chrystusa. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy naucza, że ofiara krzyżowa została zakończona, zaś celem Wieczerzy Pańskiej jest jej wspominanie oraz budowanie wspólnoty wśród wierzących. Komunię świętą praktykuje się zgodnie z Nowym Testamentem pod obiema postaciami. Wszyscy wierni przyjmują zarówno symbol ciała (chleb), jak i krwi (wino). W wielu zborach, ze względów higienicznych, korzysta się ze specjalnych tac z oddzielnymi dla każdego kieliszkami z winem. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP uznaje duchową obecność Chrystusa w Wieczerzy Pańskiej. +Uzdrowienie chorych. +Wiara w aktualność dary Ducha Świętego, żywą obecność Boga w Kościele i życiu wierzących przejawia się także w uzdrowieniu chorych. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy, jakkolwiek wierzy, iż przemienienie ciał będzie towarzyszyć dopiero zmartwychwstaniu, podkreśla, iż łaska uzdrowienia dostępna jest dla każdego, kto zawierzy Bogu poprzez modlitwę. W Kościele przyjmuje się także aktualność nadnaturalnych darów uzdrawiania. Nie kwestionuje się osiągnięć medycyny. Praktykuje się także, zgodnie z Listem Jakuba pomazanie chorych olejkiem ku uzdrowieniu przez starszych zboru. +Kościół. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP uważa, iż Kościół założony przez Jezusa Chrystusa nie jest korporacją czy instytucją, ale duchową wspólnotą wszystkich nowonarodzonych chrześcijan, niezależnie od ich wyznania. Odrzuca zatem pogląd, jakoby był jedynym właściwym kościołem. Utrzymuje pełną komunię z innymi ewangelikalnymi społecznościami. Kościół niewidzialny uznawany jest za powszechny i uniwersalny, czyli obejmujący wszystkich usprawiedliwionych, zarówno żywych jak i umarłych. Jezus Chrystus uważany jest za jedyną głowę Kościoła chrześcijańskiego, a Duch Święty – za jedynego namiestnika. Podobnie, jak pozostałe Kościoły protestanckie, zielonoświątkowcy odrzucają zwierzchnictwo papieża nad Kościołem, a także przypisywanie jakiemukolwiek człowiekowi nieomylności. Kościół widzialny przejawia się w społeczności lokalnej, czyli zborze (parafii). Dla jego budowy ustanowione zostały właściwe służby, np. starsi zborów, pastorzy, diakoni, ewangeliści, nauczyciele etc. +Małżeństwo. +Małżeństwo uznaje się za ustanowiony przy stworzeniu człowieka związek, który łączy jedną kobietę i jednego mężczyznę. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP nie uznaje małżeństw jednopłciowych oraz bigamicznych. Nie akceptuje zawierania małżeństwa między osobami blisko spokrewnionymi. Nie postrzega również małżeństwa w kategoriach sakramentu, choć uznaje je, zgodnie z Biblią, za związek święty. Celem małżeństwa jest nie tylko prokreacja, ale również wspólnota i wzajemna pomoc. +Eschatologia. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy uznaje powtórne przyjście Chrystusa za zwieńczenie nadziei chrześcijańskiej oraz moment zmartwychwstania. Przyjmuje się naukę o przyjściu Pana na obłoki w celu pochwycenia (porwania) Kościoła, o osobistym widzialnym przyjściu w chwale oraz o ustanowieniu Tysiącletniego Królestwa. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy wyznaje dwa zmartwychwstania: pierwsze – zbawionych do życia wiecznego oraz drugie – niesprawiedliwych na wieczne potępienie. Sąd Boży i wyrok potępienia obejmie wszystkich upadłych aniołów oraz niepokutujących grzeszników. Wieczną nagrodą zbawionych będą nowe niebiosa i nowa ziemia, zaś karą niesprawiedliwych – jezioro ogniste. +Nauczanie społeczne i etyczne. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP, utożsamiając się z klasycznym ruchem zielonoświątkowym i czerpiąc z tradycji wiary ruchu uświęceniowego, duży nacisk kładzie na prowadzenie przez chrześcijan świętego, zgodnego z wyznawanymi wartościami życia. Nie akceptuje praktykowania homoseksualizmu; nie dopuszcza aborcji, eutanazji oraz manipulacji genetycznych. W umiarkowanym stopniu akceptuje powtórne małżeństwa (zasadniczo w drodze wyjątków, które dopuszcza Biblia – tzw. klauzula mateuszowa oraz dwie klauzule pawłowe; poszczególni duchowni/lokalne zbory mogą prezentować w temacie odmienne od siebie stanowiska). Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP dopuszcza stosowanie antykoncepcji; nie zgadza się natomiast na niszczenie zapłodnionej komórki jajowej oraz stosowanie środków wczesnoporonnych. Kościół nie akceptuje nadużywania alkoholu, stosowania tytoniu, narkotyków; postuluje prowadzenie uświęconego życia pozbawionego nałogów i nieczystych zwyczajów. +Nabożeństwa. +Nabożeństwa Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego w RP otwarte są dla wszystkich ludzi. Kościół nie sprawuje mszy świętych, uważając ofiarę Chrystusa za zakończoną. Podczas Wieczerzy Pańskiej (nabożeństwa komunijnego) ofiara jest jedynie wspominana, co należy jednak odróżnić od jej powtarzania, czy uobecniania. Nabożeństwa zielonoświątkowe, podobnie jak innych Kościołów ewangelikalnych, cechuje prostota i brak form liturgicznych. Nabożeństwa mają być wyrazem szczerego, osobistego uwielbienia Boga oraz wspólnoty zboru. Na nabożeństwo składa się śpiewanie pieśni, modlitwy, czytanie psalmów, składanie świadectw przez wiernych odnośnie działania Boga w ich życiu, a także kazanie, czyli zwiastowanie Słowa Bożego. Częstotliwość sprawowania Wieczerzy Pańskiej jest różna w poszczególnych zborach. Najczęściej obchodzona jest raz na miesiąc podczas niedzielnego nabożeństwa głównego. Oprócz nabożeństw niedzielnych trwających około dwóch godzin, wiele zborów spotyka się w mniejszych grupach, aby studiować Pismo Święte. Zbory organizują również nabożeństwa modlitewne oraz młodzieżowe. +Pierwszą częścią niedzielnego nabożeństwa głównego jest uwielbienie. Prowadzone jest zazwyczaj przez liderów uwielbienia, a jego głównym celem jest spontaniczne, osobiste oddawanie Bogu chwały i wyrażenie dziękczynienia. Podczas uwielbienia zespół uwielbieniowy śpiewa wraz ze zgromadzeniem pieśni, które przeplatane są modlitwami. Pieśniom towarzyszy akompaniament różnych instrumentów muzycznych, np. fortepianu, perkusji, gitary akustycznej czy elektrycznej. W Kościele Zielonoświątkowym, podobnie jak w innych społecznościach charyzmatycznych, podczas uwielbienia modlą się jednocześnie na głos wszyscy członkowie zboru, bądź własnymi słowami, bądź tzw. językami (glosolalia). Charakterystyczną cechą uwielbienia jest spontaniczność w wyrażaniu Bogu chwały m.in. przez wznoszenie rąk, klaskanie, taniec, okrzyki na chwałę Bożą, głośne modlitwy, drżenie pod wpływem Ducha Świętego oraz inne przeżycia charyzmatyczne. Na nabożeństwach dochodzi do manifestacji darów Ducha Świętego (charyzmatów) w postaci prorokowania, mówienia nieznanymi językami, wypędzania demonów oraz uzdrawiania chorych. Często spotykaną praktyką jest również wkładanie rąk. Zielonoświątkowcy swój styl nabożeństwa opierają na nowotestamentowych relacjach o żywej manifestacji Boga w Kościele wczesnochrześcijańskim od czasu Pięćdziesiątnicy, obecności cudów i pełnego poświęcenia się wierzących Bogu. Członkowie zboru często składają świadectwa przed zgromadzeniem o własnych przeżyciach z Jezusem Chrystusem. Drugą część nabożeństwa stanowi kazanie, które podobnie jak w innych Kościołach protestanckich, wygłaszane jest w oparciu o Pismo Święte. Wierni zazwyczaj śledzą omawiane fragmenty we własnych egzemplarzach Biblii. +Duchowni. +W Kościele Zielonoświątkowym w RP, podobnie jak w innych wyznaniach protestanckich, obowiązuje zasada powszechnego kapłaństwa wszystkich wierzących. Dlatego też duchowny nie jest pośrednikiem, kapłanem, ani przedstawicielem Kościoła wobec Boga, ale urzędem i powołaniem do sprawowania służby Bożej, pełnienia obowiązków duszpasterskich, w tym przede wszystkim kaznodziejstwa. +Duchownych zielonoświątkowych nie obowiązuje celibat. Na stanowiskach kościelnych cenzus wieku duchownych wynosi 70 lat. +Diakonise. +Diakonisą jest kobieta powołana do służby przez Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP. Diakonisę powołuje Naczelna Rada Kościoła na wniosek pastora zaopiniowany przez prezbitera okręgowego. Diakonise mają prawo do ubezpieczenia społecznego. +Ustrój, organizacja i struktura. +Ustrój Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego w RP ma charakter kongregacjonalno-synodalny. Zbór, czyli wspólnota lokalna stanowi podstawową jednostkę administracyjną Kościoła, której przewodzi pastor oraz rada starszych. Do duchownych Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego zalicza się: pastorów, ewangelistów, kaznodziejów, nauczycieli Słowa Bożego, kierowników agend kościelnych, prezbiterów okręgowych oraz prezbitera naczelnego, czyli biskupa. Kościół podzielony jest na okręgi, którym przewodniczą prezbiterzy okręgowi. Synod Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego zwoływany jest raz na cztery lata. Wybiera on prezbitera naczelnego oraz członków Prezydium Rady Naczelnej. +Anuncjata + +Anuncjata – imię żeńskie, wywodzące się z łac. słowa "nuntio", które oznacza "zwiastować, obwieścić". Początkowo imię nadawane dla upamiętnienia Zwiastowania Najświętszej Maryi Pannie. +Anuncjata imieniny obchodzi 25 marca, w dzień Zwiastowania. +Anabaptyzm + +Anabaptyzm (z gr. "anabaptizein" – "na nowo chrzcić"), nowochrzczeńcy – radykalny nurt w reformacji XVI w. +Anabaptyści byli zróżnicowanym ruchem. Łączyło ich odrzucanie chrztu dzieci (który ich zdaniem chrztem nie był) oraz pogląd o konieczności zasadniczej zmiany życia społecznego w celu powrotu do ideałów pierwotnego chrześcijaństwa. Religijny kult anabaptystów odznaczał się prostotą – zrezygnowali z przedmiotów kultu (obrazy, ołtarze, budynki sakralne). +Historia. +Anabaptyzm powstał w Szwajcarii wśród zwolenników Tomasza Muentzera. Część z nich zerwało z nauczycielem, kiedy w 1523 poczynił on pewne ustępstwa wobec władz świeckich. Przyjęli oni 21 stycznia 1525 ponowny chrzest, zakładając w Zollikon koło Zurychu pierwszą gminę anabaptystyczną. Wkrótce zostali wypędzeni, ale ruch rozszerzył się na całą Szwajcarię i szereg krajów Rzeszy. Na konspiracyjnym synodzie w Schleitheim w 1527 powstały tzw. "artykuły schleitheimskie", zawierające teologiczne założenia ruchu. Ich autorem był Michael Sattler, spalony na stosie w 1527 r. +Baltazar Hubmaier rozpowszechnił nauki anabaptystów na Morawach. Po jego śmierci anabaptyści morawscy podzielili się na skrzydło rewolucyjne i skrajnie pacyfistyczne, które od swojego przywódcy Jacoba Huttera przyjęli nazwę huterian lub braci huterskich. Huterianie liczyli około 20 tysięcy członków, zorganizowanych we wspólnotach opartych na braterstwie i wspólnej własności. Odznaczali się skromnym i zdyscyplinowanym życiem; rygoryzm i spory wokół interpretacji Pisma Świętego doprowadziły do licznych podziałów. +Radykalizm anabaptystów, podważający porządek społeczny oraz ich misjonarski zapał przerażał zarówno katolików jak i protestantów i wkrótce doprowadził do prześladowań. Członków wspólnot karano śmiercią na stosie w większości krajów niemieckich. Nieprzyjazny stosunek mieli do anabaptystów przywódcy reformacji: Zwingli, Luter, Kalwin. Szczególnie nieprzejednany względem anabaptystów był bliski współpracownik Lutra Melanchton. W memorandum z 1536 roku nawoływał on do karania śmiercią nawet pokojowo usposobionych anabaptystów. Wśród izolowanych sekt zaczęły przejawiać się coraz bardziej skrajne idee, oczekiwania eschatologiczne, chiliastyczne i tendencje komunistyczne. Niektórzy anabaptyści głosili zniesienie różnic społecznych i wspólną własność na wzór pierwszych chrześcijan. Najbardziej znaną postacią w dziejach anabaptyzmu jest Tomasz Münzer, który pozyskał rzesze chłopstwa i plebsu miejskiego; i którego idee rozpaliły w Niemczech wojnę chłopską. Należy jednak pamiętać, że został on zabity w 1525 r., gdy ruch dopiero się rodził. Liderzy anabaptystów szwajcarskich – Konrad Grebel, Feliks Manz, Jerzy Blaurock odcinali się od rewolucyjnych postulatów Münzera. +W Niderlandach i północnych Niemczech działalność misyjną rozwinął kaznodzieja Melchior Hofmann, który głosił nadejście w roku 1533 tysiącletniego Królestwa Bożego. Po uwięzieniu Hofmanna jego zwolennicy: piekarz Jan Matthijs i 24-letni krawiec Jan z Lejdy uznali się za narzędzie do ustanowienia Królestwa orężnie. Ośrodkiem ich agitacji było Münster w Westfalii, gdzie pozyskali miejscowego kaznodzieję i ochrzcili ponad 1400 dorosłych mieszkańców. Miejscowy biskup Franz von Waldeck wysłał wojsko przeciwko rebelii i obległ miasto, ale został odparty. Po śmierci Matthijsa Jan z Leidy obwołał się królem "Nowego Królestwa Syjonu" i zaprowadził teokratyczną dyktaturę, obowiązek pracy fizycznej i wielożeństwo. Własność prywatna i różnice stanowe były zniesione; zamykanie drzwi od domów było karane śmiercią. Zagrożeni władcy niemieccy wysłali ponownie wojska i zdobyli miasto w czerwcu 1535, przywracając władzę katolickiego biskupa. Jan z Leidy został stracony. +Okrucieństwa i fanatyzm powstania münsterskiego zahamowały rozwój anabaptyzmu. Odnowił go Menno Simmons, były katolicki proboszcz, który zjednoczył umiarkowanych anabaptystów odrzucających wszelką przemoc – których nazwano mennonitami. Mennonici odrzucali instytucję kapłaństwa, tworzyli autonomiczne zbory, rygorystycznie przestrzegali przykazań dekalogu i zasad ewangelicznych. Z powodu prześladowań zmuszeni byli opuścić kolejno Niderlandy, Prusy, Syberię, aż osiedlili się w USA. +Ruralistyka + +Ruralistyka (łac. "ruralis" - "wiejskość") - pojęcie oznaczające projektowanie i kształtowanie krajobrazu otwartego. +Pojęcia tego nie definiuje się wyłącznie jako projektowania krajobrazu wiejskiego, gdyż dotyczy ono także projektowanie przedmieść i otwartych terenów wypoczynkowych. W Polsce aż 80% powierzchni to teren otwarty, tzn. nie objęty typową zabudową miejską, której projektowaniem zajmuje się urbanistyka. +Więźba + +Więźba – szkielet dachu, konstrukcja drewniana dachu. Zasadniczym elementem nośnym więźby są wiązary. W zależności od typu zastosowanych więzarów rozróżnia się więźbę krokwiową, krokwiowo-jętkową, krokwiowo-płatwiową i inne. +Zobacz też: więźba dachowa. +Kąt nutacji + +Kąt nutacji - w ruchu obrotowym kąt θ między chwilową osią obrotu ζ, wokół której następuje obrót własny bryły (Δφ), a osią obrotu z, wokół której następuje precesja (Δψ). Kiedy kąt nutacji jest stały, natomiast prędkość kątowa nutacji wynosi 0, wówczas występuje precesja regularna. +Piotrkowska Kolej Wąskotorowa + +Piotrkowska Kolej Dojazdowa - kolej wąskotorowa uruchomiona w 1902 roku. W roku 1986 zamknięto ruch pasażerski, a trzy lata później towarowy. W roku 1990 powołano Towarzystwo Kolejki Wąskotorowej Piotrków-Sulejów. Kolejka kursowała pomiędzy Piotrkowem Trybunalskim, a Sulejowem. +Stacje. +Na odcinku Starostwo - Bugaj Piotrkowski rozebrana we wrześniu 2005. Odcinek Bugaj Piotrkowski - Sulejów Pilica rozebrany w 2006. +Bandolier + +Bandolier, także bandolet (z fr. "bandoulière" pas przez ramię) – szeroki pas skórzany lub parciany przewieszony przez lewe ramię żołnierza, podtrzymujący broń palną i ładownice. Pierwotnie (w XVI i na początku XVII wieku) do bandoliera podwieszano drewniane tuleje wypełnione potrzebną do wystrzału porcją prochu i ołowianą kulą, które - przy ruchu, zwłaszcza konnego, strzelca - częstokroć powodowały samozapłon i rany, nawet śmiertelne. Charakterystycznym był grzechot uderzających o siebie drewnianych tulei towarzyszący przemarszowi oddziału muszkieterów. +W drugiej połowie XVII stulecia zaczęto stosować ładunki papierowe (tzw. patrony), w których proch był oddzielony od kuli, a ładowanie odbywało się przez odgryzienie papierowego zamknięcia i wsypanie prochu i kuli do lufy muszkietu, przy czym papierowe opakowanie służyło za przybitkę. +W XVII/XVIII wieku bandolier zastąpiony został znacznie poręczniejszą, bo zawieszoną na pasie ładownicą. +W czasach dzisiejszych bandolierami nazywa się (czasami) taśmy nabojów do broni maszynowej przewieszane na skos przez pierś żołnierza obsługującego najczęściej ręczny lub lekki karabin maszynowy, a także podobne pasy z granatami ręcznymi, czy to wystrzeliwanymi z garłaczy (granatników nasadkowych). +Rondo + +Rondo(skrzyżowanie z ruchem okrężnym) – jest skrzyżowaniem z przeszkodą w postaci wyspy środkowej i jezdnią wokół wyspy, na którym pojazdy zobowiązane są objeżdżać wyspę środkową w kierunku przeciwnym do ruchu wskazówek zegara w krajach o ruchu prawostronnym lub w kierunku zgodnym z ruchem wskazówek zegara w krajach o ruchu lewostronnym. Są odstępstwa dotyczące mini rond, gdzie długie pojazdy mogą przejeżdżać przez przejezdną wyspę. +Typowe ronda są obiektami inżynierii ruchu drogowego, na których drogi dochodzące i odchodzące promieniście do/od tarczy ronda, łączą się z jezdnią okalającą wyspę centralną. +Ronda swoją konstrukcją ograniczają prędkość jazdy oraz zapewniają kierującym lepszą widoczność innych uczestników ruchu (w ruchu prawostronnym - pojazdów nadjeżdżających zawsze z lewej strony), dzięki czemu wydatnie podnoszą poziom bezpieczeństwa. +Czasem mianem „rondo” określa się błędnie węzły drogowe (np. "rondo Mikołowskie" w Katowicach) oraz duże skrzyżowania z wyspą centralną (np. "rondo Grunwaldzkie" w Krakowie, "rondo Trzech Krzyży" w Częstochowie, "rondo Wiatraczna" w Warszawie). +Na skrzyżowaniu o ruchu okrężnym obowiązuje zasada, że pojazd będący w ruchu wokół wyspy ustępuje pierwszeństwa pojazdowi dojeżdżającemu do ronda (zasada prawej ręki). Jeżeli jednak przed rondem, ponad znakiem C-12 (ruch okrężny), znajduje się znak A-7 (ustąp pierwszeństwa przejazdu), wtedy pierwszeństwo posiada pojazd znajdujący się na jezdni okrężnej przebiegającej wokół centralnej wyspy i wjeżdżający w jeden z wylotów. +Najwięcej rond w Polsce, bo aż 31, znajduje się w Rybniku. Największe rondo w Polsce, a także jedno z największych w Europie, to Rondo Konstytucji 3 Maja w centrum Głogowa. Jego wyspa środkowa ma powierzchnię ok. 5 ha. +Michał V Kalafates + +Michał V Kalafates (ur. 1015, zm. 24 sierpnia 1042) – cesarz bizantyjski od 1041. Adoptowany syn cesarzowej Zoe - siostrzeniec jej drugiego męża, Michała IV Paflagończyka. +Michał V był synem Stefana i Marii, siostry Michała IV. Jego ojciec w czasie rządów Michała IV został admirałem i poprowadził wyprawę na Sycylię. Mimo że Michał IV darzył większą sympatią innych swoich siostrzeńców, to przyszłego Michała V popierał jego wuj - Jan Eunuch i sama cesarzowa Zoe. Tak więc krótko przed swoją śmiercią, Michał IV nadał Michałowi V tytuł cezara i adoptował go. Dokładnie 10 grudnia 1041, Michał V odziedziczył tron po swoim wuju. +Dążąc do sprawowania samodzielnych rządów Michał V pokłócił się z Janem Eunuchem, a następnie skazał go na wygnanie do klasztoru. W nocy z 18 na 19 kwietnia 1042 Michał V wygnał również swoją przybraną matkę - cesarzową Zoe. Kiedy ogłosił to następnego dnia, wywołało to rewoltę, a pałac otoczył tłum, który żądał przywrócenia Zoe na tron. Jej siostra - Teodora zdetronizowała Michała i sama została cesarzową, współrządząc razem z przywróconą na tron Zoe. Michał V został aresztowany, oślepiony i wykastrowany. Zmarł jako mnich. +Tkactwo + +Tkactwo – dział przemysłu włókienniczego i rzemiosła zajmujący się wytwarzaniem tkanin oraz ich wykończeniem. Jedno z najstarszych rzemiosł uprawianych przez człowieka. Jego początki sięgają neolitu. Powstały wtedy najstarsze, pionowe warsztaty tkackie. +W epoce brązu powstało i rozwinęło się tkactwo tabliczkowe i naalbinding. Naalbinding, czyli tkanie igłą, ze względu na technikę wytwarzania wyrobu zbliżoną do dziania lub koronkarstwa, należy zaliczyć raczej do dziewiarstwa. +Poziome warsztaty tkackie jak i pionowe, praktycznie w niezmienionej formie dotrwały do współczesności i nadal są wykorzystywane w mniej rozwiniętych regionach świata lub do tkactwa artystycznego i ludowego. Podobnie prymitywne techniki tkania bardko i tabliczka są chętnie stosowane w tkactwie ludowym i artystycznym. +Krosno tkackie z prostym ręcznym mechanizmem przerzutowym skonstruował w 1738 roku John Kay. Pierwsze krosno mechaniczne powstało w 1785 r. i stało się przyczyną niepokojów społecznych wznoszonych przez ludzi którzy tracili pracę, połączonych z niszczeniem maszyn. +Na przełomie XVIII i XIX wieku Jacquard opracował mechanizm, który połączony z normalnym krosnem dawał możliwość tkania wielkoformatowych wzorów. Wzór tkaniny programowany jest przy użyciu specjalnych kart perforowanych. Mechanizmy te nazwano od jego nazwiska – mechanizmami żakarda lub maszynami żakarda. Tkaniny tworzone przy użyciu tych maszyn – tkaninami żakardowymi. +W 1876 roku James Northrop skonstruował krosna automatyczne z wymianą wątku bez zatrzymywania pracy krosna. Spowodowało to dalsze zmniejszenie ilości zatrudnianej obsługi. Teraz jeden tkacz może obsługiwać od 30 do 120 krosien. Kolejnym etapem rozwoju tkactwa jest skonstruowanie krosien bezczółenkowych; chwytakowych, pneumatycznych, rapierowych. +Surowcami, z których pierwotnie wytwarzano tkaniny były wyłącznie włókna naturalne, pochodzenia roślinnego – len, konopie, bawełna, pokrzywa i zwierzęcego – wełna owcza, kozia, wielbłądzia, lam. Później opanowano obróbkę jedwabiu. W XX wieku opracowano tworzywa sztuczne, które weszły do powszechnego użytku w latach 40. i 50. (nylon, bistor, sztuczny jedwab) i w latach 70. i 80. – polar i lycra, wynalezione przez koncern DuPont. +Osoba zajmująca się tkactwem to tkacz. +Bazyli I Macedończyk + +Bazyli I Macedończyk, "Bazyli I Macedoński", "Bazyli I Kefalas", "Bazyli I Głowacz" (ur. 811, zm. 29 sierpnia 886) – cesarz bizantyjski od 867, pierwszy cesarz z dynastii macedońskiej. +Potomek rodziny osiadłej w Macedonii. Wysuwano hipotezy, że mógł być słowiańskiego (w tym czasie miała miejsce kolonizacja słowiańska w Macedonii) lub armeńskiego pochodzenia. +Uprowadzony do niewoli bułgarskiej w czasie wojny bizantyjsko-bułgarskiej w latach 811-813. Do kraju powrócił w nieznanych okolicznościach. +Bazyli karierę rozpoczął od stanowiska koniucha na dworze cesarskim (855). Usuwając politycznych przeciwników, został współcesarzem w 866 roku, a mordując Michała III w 867 roku jedynowładcą. Jego panowanie zapoczątkowuje okres rozkwitu Cesarstwa, nazywany renesansem macedońskim. +Odbudował autorytet Bizancjum na Bałkanach, jego flota uwolniła Dubrownik od oblężenia arabskiego (867/868). Bułgaria ostatecznie uznała kościelne zwierzchnictwo Bizancjum (870). Bazylemu udało się również załagodzić spory z papieżem wynikające z tzw. schizmy Focjusza. W 878 zdobył ostatnią fortecę paulicjan — Tefrike we wschodniej Anatolii, jednak nie doprowadziło to do całkowitego upadku herezji. +Prowadził zwycięskie kampanie na wschodzie, korzystając z osłabienia będącego w kryzysie kalifatu Abbasydów, które doprowadziły do opanowania dróg wypadowych w górach Taurusu i Antytaurusu oraz umocnienia się w dolinie Eufratu. Poważne sukcesy w walce z Arabami udało się Bazylemu odnieść również i na zachodzie. Przy pomocy floty weneckiej oczyścił Adriatyk z korsarzy saraceńskich, wreszcie odzyskał Bari w 876 roku i Tarent w południowych Włoszech, umacniając w ten sposób pozycję Cesarstwa w tym regionie. Nie powiodło mu się jedynie na Sycylii, gdzie nie zdołał powstrzymać upadku Syrakuz (878). +Za jego panowania nastąpiła reorganizacja administracji i skarbu państwa. Zapoczątkował ponowną kodyfikację prawa bizantyjskiego, wydając dwa dzieła procheiron i epanagogę. Bazyli zasłynął również jako mecenas artystyczny. +Aleksander (cesarz bizantyński) + +Aleksander (ur. 870, zm. 6 czerwca 913) – cesarz bizantyjski w latach 912 - 913. +Był synem cesarza Bazylego I i jego drugiej żony - Eudokii Ingeriny. Jego starszym bratem był cesarz Leon VI Filozof. W latach 879-912 współrządził ze swym ojcem i bratem. Po śmierci Leona w r. 912 został jego następcą i równocześnie regentem nieletniego bratanka, Konstantyna. +Jako samodzielny cesarz panował bardzo krótko. Nie miał żadnych predyspozycji do sprawowania władzy, gdyż był lekkoduchem i sprawami państwowymi nie interesował się w najmniejszym stopniu. Po śmierci brata zamknął cesarzową w klasztorze, a doradców Leona pozbawił urzędu. W czasie jego krótkiego panowania Bułgarzy zaczęli przygotowywać potężny atak na cesarstwo. Zmarł podczas przygotowań do wojny w r. 913. Na łożu śmierci wyznaczył na swego następcę małoletniego bratanka, Konstantyna, który panował jako Konstantyn VII. +Harrachov + +Harrachov (niem. "Harrachsdorf") – miasto w północnych Czechach położone na terenie kraju libereckiego w Karkonoszach, 4 km od granicy Polski. Przed przystąpieniem Polski i Czech do układu z Schengen istniało tu drogowe przejście graniczne Jakuszyce-Harrachov. +Charakterystyka. +Najważniejszym elementem miasta jest kompleks skoczni narciarskich Čerťák zbudowany na zboczu Čertovej hory. Pierwsza skocznia narciarska została w Harrachovie zbudowana w 1920 roku. Obecnie w mieście funkcjonuje osiem skoczni wraz z największymi obiektami o punktach konstrukcyjnych K-120 i K-90 oraz mamucia K-185. W Harrachovie ma swoją szkołę skoczków narciarskich Pavel Ploc. Miasto oferuje narciarzom 7 km tras zjazdowych. Narciarzy wożą na szczyt Čertovej hory dwa wyciągi krzesełkowe. Miasto jest też ośrodkiem narciarstwa biegowego (ośrodek narciarski Rýžoviště), a latem bazą wypadową w Karkonosze i Góry Izerskie dla turystów pieszych i rowerzystów. +Harrachov znany jest również z, leżącej w części miasta zwanej Nowy Świat ("Nový Svět"), huty i muzeum szklarstwa z zabytkową kaplicą szklarzy (m.in. ołtarz zbudowany z luster i kryształowy dzwon). Mieści się tam Minibrowar Novosad. +Przez miejscowość przebiega trasa międzynarodowa E65, odcinek między Jelenią Górą przez Szklarską Porębę i Turnov do Mladej Boleslavi (czeska droga krajowa nr 10). Połączenie kolejowe z resztą Czech Harrachov uzyskał w 1958, kiedy w drodze międzypaństwowej umowy między Polską a Czechosłowacją dokonano korekty granic i wymiany przygranicznych terenów w pobliżu Harrachova; Czechosłowacja otrzymała wówczas miejscowość Tkacze, odległą od centrum Harrachova o dwa kilometry, a wraz z nią stację kolejową Kolei Izerskiej, łączącą Liberec z Jelenią Górą. Tkacze noszą dziś nazwę Mýtiny i zaliczane są już do Harrachova. +Stela sępów + +Stela sępów – pomnik z wapienia o wysokości ok. 1,80 m, pochodzący z ok. 2450 roku p.n.e., znaleziony w Girsu, do naszych czasów przetrwał we fragmentach. Stela z dwustronnym przedstawieniem figuralnym i opisem zwycięstwa Eanatuma, władcy sumeryjskiego miasta-państwa Lagasz, nad sąsiednim miastem-państwem Umma. Znajduje się obecnie w zbiorach Luwru. +Opis. +Wydarzenia na steli przedstwione są w tradycyjnej sumeryjskiej kompozycji – w tzw. układzie pasowym. Jedna strona wyobraża zwycięstwo Eanatuma: władca, wyraźnie wyodrębniony spośród pozostałych postaci, na czele oddziału żołnierzy o długich nosach, depczących ciała pokonanych wrogów. Poniżej król jest przedstawiony z oszczepem w ręce na rydwanie, również na czele oddziału zbrojnych. Wizerunek władcy nie jest większy od pozostałych przedstawionych sylwetek (taki sposób przedstawiania pozycji panującego w sztuce był charakterystyczny dla późniejszych dzieł). Możliwe, że artysta mógł wyrazić tak więź pomiędzy nim a jego ludem. +Kolejna część wyobraża liczenie poległych i przygotowania do pogrzebu. Ostatnia część, przedstawiająca prawdopodobnie branie w niewolę wrogów, zachowała się tylko we fragmencie. Druga strona steli przedstawia udział bogów w zwycięstwie. Widoczny jest bóg Ningirsu, w lewej ręce trzyma sieć z wrogami oraz wizerunek orła, w prawej maczugę (ten fragment jest niewidoczny na przedstawionych zdjęciach). Również na tej samej stronie steli jest scena rozszarpywania wrogów na pobojowisku przez sępy (drugie zdjęcie), od których zabytek ten jest nazwany. +Góra Parkowa (Krynica-Zdrój) + +Góra Parkowa (742 m) – szczyt w Paśmie Jaworzyny w Beskidzie Sądeckim, na terenie Krynicy-Zdroju. Jest jednym z głównych terenów rekreacyjnych, spacerowych i sportowych miasta Krynica-Zdrój. +Góra Parkowa jako teren rekreacyjny. +Na Górze Parkowej jest sześćdziesięciohektarowy Park Zdrojowy z licznymi ścieżkami spacerowymi i altankami, trzy stawy, ścieżka zdrowia, dwa szlaki turystyczne, tor saneczkowy. Popularnym miejscem wypoczynkowym jest Polana Michasiowa. Na szczyt można wyjechać kolejką linowo-terenową wybudowaną w 1937, zarządzaną przez Polskie Koleje Linowe S.A. Była to pierwsza w Polsce kolej linowo-terenowa. Na szczycie punkt widokowy, Rajskie Zjeżdżalnie, restauracja i wyciąg narciarski przystosowany dla dzieci. Oglądać można również pozostałości po torze saneczkarskim. Na górze rośną licznie gatunki obcego pochodzenia takie jak: daglezja zielona, jodła kaukaska, żywotnik olbrzymi, choina kanadyjska, szydlica japońska, sosna wejmutka czy sosna wydmowa. +Tory zjazdowe na Górze Parkowej. +W 1929 został oddany do użytku tor saneczkowy, na którym w 1930 rozegrano pierwsze Mistrzostwa Polski. W 1938 na szczycie została wybudowana w miejscu starej-drewnianej, nowa, betonowa wieża rozbiegowa. Wieża była wykorzystywana w celach sportowych do końca lat siedemdziesiątych XX wieku. W latach osiemdziesiątych zawodnicy startowali z nieznacznie niżej położonych części toru saneczkowego - było to spowodowane ewolucją sprzętu. Tor nie był przystosowany do coraz szybszych sanek i w związku z tym, aby zapewnić bezpieczeństwo zawodników w końcowej części toru, zdecydowano się na obniżenie miejsc startów. Po zaprzestaniu użytkowania wieży w celach sportowych, wykorzystano ją do uruchomienia rajskich zjeżdżalni – wielkiej atrakcji dla dzieci. +Na Górze Parkowej 2-krotnie rozgrywane były mistrzostwa świata w saneczkarstwie w 1958 i 1962, mistrzostwa Europy w 1935 oraz mistrzostwa Europy juniorów w 1979. +W 2008 rozpoczęto budowę sztucznie mrożonego toru saneczkowo-bobslejowo-skeletonowego. Całkowita planowana długość toru to 1709 m, a długość od startu do mety miała wynosić 1613 m. Krynicki tor miał być trzecim pod względem długości torem na świecie, po torach w Nagano i St. Moritz. Maksymalną prędkość, jaką mieli rozwijać na nim zawodnicy, szacowano na 135 km/h. Strefa hamowania to 300 m. Tor miał spełniać wszystkie wymogi dotyczące organizacji imprez międzynarodowych. Planowany termin zakończenia prac był przewidziany na listopad 2010. Wskutek protestu przeciwników budowa stanęła w miejscu w 2009. Jesienią tego roku wojewoda małopolski zaskarżył decyzję o budowie toru do sądu administracyjnego w związku z nieprawidłowościami przy sporządzaniu planu zagospodarowania. W maju 2011 roku Wojewódzki Sąd Administracyjny w Krakowie unieważnił uchwałę o planie. Władze Krynicy-Zdroju złożyły kasację, jednak Naczelny Sąd Administracyjny podtrzymał decyzję WSA. +Obecnie na Górze Parkowej znajduje się część starego toru o długości 500 m. Drewniany tor jest lodzony starymi metodami - konieczne do tego są odpowiednie temperatury w trakcie wykonywania prac (od -3 do - 8 stopni) oraz obfite opady śniegu. Corocznie w okresie od stycznia do końca lutego jest wykorzystywany przez młodych adeptów saneczkarstwa, rozgrywane są na nim zawody Ogólnopolskich Olimpiad Młodzieży w Sportach Zimowych, Mistrzostwa Polski w różnych kategoriach wiekowych, Międzynarodowe Zawody o Puchar Krynicy. +Zobacz też. +Góra Parkowa +Gwiazda Śmierci + +Gwiazda Śmierci – fikcyjna bojowa stacja kosmiczna zdolna niszczyć całe planety, pojawiająca się w filmach z serii "Gwiezdne wojny". +Gwiazda Śmierci była wytworem Imperium Galaktycznego, zbudowanym w celu unicestwienia Rebelii i ostatecznego zyskania kontroli nad planetami Galaktyki. +W grach komputerowych. +Gwiazda Śmierci pojawia się w wielu grach komputerowych. W ' i "X-Wing Alliance" gracz pilotując odpowiednio myśliwiec i Sokoła Millennium atakuje stacje bojową i doprowadza do jej zniszczenia. W ' grając po stronie Imperium może zbudować i włączyć wiele takich stacji do swojej floty. W "" część misji rozgrywa się na pokładzie pierwszej Gwiazdy Śmierci. Stacja bojowa występuje też jako jeden ze statków w OGame i Galactic Civilization, gdzie powstaje na skutek rozbudowy zwykłej stacji. W grze "Star Wars Empire at War" można zbudować pierwszą Gwiazdę Śmierci, która niszczy całe planety. Na końcu tej gry jest cut-scenka ukazująca zniszczenie tej broni przez Rebelię. W dodatku do tej gry "Forces of Corruption (Siły Korupcji)" możliwe jest używanie Drugiej Gwiazdy. "Gwiazdą Śmierci" zostało też nazwane osiągnięcie w grze Spore, które można zdobyć niszcząc 20 planet. "Gwiazda Śmierci" pojawia się także w grze "Star Wars The Force Unleashed, w której to uczeń Lorda Vadera trafia na ową stację bojową w poszukiwaniu swojego byłego Mistrza +Ciekawostki. +Gwiazda Śmierci przypomina jeden z księżyców Saturna, Mimasa (po prawej). Jest to całkowity zbieg okoliczności - pierwsze zdjęcia Mimasa zostały wykonane dopiero trzy lata po premierze filmu, przez sondę kosmiczną Voyager 1. +Na pierwszej gwieździe śmierci zginął Ben Kenobi, zaś na drugiej - Imperator Palpatine. Obaj zginęli z ręki Dartha Vadera. +Jan II Komnen + +Jan II Komnen (Grecki: Ιωάννης Β΄ Κομνηνός, "Iōannēs II Komnēnos") (ur. 13 września 1087, zm. 8 kwietnia 1143), cesarz bizantyjski od 15 sierpnia 1118. Syn Aleksego I i Ireny Dukas. Był trzecim cesarzem bizantyjskim z dynastii Komnenów po Izaaku I (1057-1059) i ojcu Aleksym I (1081-1118). Jego celem było przywrócenie potęgi Cesarstwa, a także jego terytoriów sprzed klęski w bitwie pod Manzikertem (1071). Jest też znany jako "Kaloïōannēs" (Jan Piękny). +Panowanie. +Konflikt z Wenecją. +Po wstąpieniu na tron Jan II odmówił potwierdzenia traktatu z 1082 roku, zawartego przez jego ojca z Republiką Wenecką, który dawał włoskiej republice wyjątkowe przywileje handlowe w Cesarstwie Bizantyńskim. Lecz ta zmiana w polityce nie była spowodowana przyczynami finansowymi. Obraza członka rodziny cesarskiej przez Wenecjan doprowadziła do groźnego konfliktu, zwłaszcza że Bizancjum polegało do tej pory na weneckiej sile morskiej. Po bizantyńskim ataku odwetowym na Kerkyrze Jan wygnał kupców weneckich z Konstantynopola. Spowodowało to reakcję Republiki Weneckiej, która wysłała flotę 72 okrętów, która splądrowała wyspy na Morzu Egejskim oraz zdobyła Kefalonię na Morzu Jońskim. Jan został zmuszony do pójścia na ugodę: wojna kosztowała go więcej niż to było warte. Cesarz nie zamierzał funduszy przeznaczonych na armię lądową przekazać na budowę nowych statków. Jan potwierdził układ z roku 1082. Niemniej jednak, cała ta sprawa nie została zupełnie zapomniana i zdaje się, że odegrała rolę w zainspirowaniu następcy Jana (Manuela I Komnena) do odbudowy potężnej floty bizantyńskiej niewiele lat później. +Zwycięstwa nad Pieczyngami i Węgrami. +W latach 1119-1121 Jan pokonał Turków Seldżuckich, zajmując południowo-zachodnią Anatolię. Jednak w 1122 przemieścił swe wojska do Europy, by odeprzeć najazd Pieczyngów na Mezję. Owi najeźdźcy byli sprzymierzeńcami księcia kijowskiego. Gdy Pieczyngowie wkroczyli do Tracji, armia bizantyńska otoczyła ich pod Beroią, Jan złożył im obietnicę zawarcia korzystnego układu, po czym zaatakował z zaskoczenia ich obóz. Wywiązała się zażarta walka, lecz z końcem dnia dwudziestotysięczna armia bizantyńska odniosła miażdżące zwycięstwo. Położyło ono kres najazdom Pieczyngów na terytorium cesarstwa. Wielu jeńców zostało osadzonych jako sprzymierzeńcy w granicach Bizancjum. +Następnie Jan wyruszył na odwetową wyprawę przeciw Serbom. Wielu spośród z nich zostało wziętych do niewoli, a następnie wysłanych w region Nikomedii w roli kolonistów wojskowych. Celem tego było częściowo przywrócenie Serbów do porządku (Serbia była nominalnie protektoratem bizantyńskim), a częściowo wzmocnienie wschodniej granicy bizantyńskiej. +Małżeństwo Jana z księżniczką węgierską Piroską dało mu pretekst do ingerencji w walki dynastyczne na Węgrzech. Udzielenie schronienia oślepionemu pretendentowi do tronu - Álmosowi - doprowadziło do węgierskiego ataku w roku 1128. Najeźdźcy zaatakowali Braniczewo nad Dunajem i dotarli aż do przedmieść Filipopola. Po trudnej, dwuletniej kampanii, cesarz zdołał pokonać Węgrów i wspomagających ich Serbów i przywrócić pokój. +Kampanie przeciw Turkom. +Teraz Jan mógł skoncentrować swoją uwagę na Azji Mniejszej, która miała stanowić centrum jego zainteresowania przez większość jego pozostałego panowania. Cesarz dążył do powstrzymania naporu tureckiego na granicę bizantyńską w Anatolii. W latach 1130-1135 podjął kampanię przeciw Daniszmendydom. Następnie podjął próbę przywrócenia kontroli bizantyńskiej w regionie. Zdobył rodową siedzibę Komnenów w Kastamonu, następnie zdobył Gangrę, gdzie zostawił dwutysięczny garnizon. Jednak opór turecki był silny i Jan musiał wkrótce ponownie zdobywać Kastamonu, zajęte ponownie przez Turków. Następnie Jan odniósł zwycięstwo nad Daniszmendydami w północno-wschodniej Azji Mniejszej, a sułtan został w wyniku tej porażki zamordowany przez własnych ludzi. +Lewant. +Cesarz skierował swą uwagę w stronę Lewantu, gdzie miał zamiar narzucić zwierzchnictwo bizantyńskie państwom krzyżowców. w 1137 roku odbił z rąk Rubenidów Tars, Adanę i Mopsuetię, a w 1138 książę Leon I oraz jego rodzina zostali odstawieni jako jeńcy do Konstantynopola. Zwycięstwo nad Ormianami otworzyło drogę do marszu na księstwo Antiochii, którego władca Rajmund z Poitiers, uznał się wasalem cesarza w 1137 roku. W 1138 Jan przybył triumfalnie do miasta. Następnie cesarz powiódł armię bizantyńską, wspieraną przez wojska księcia Antiochii oraz Joscelina II, hrabiego Edessy, przeciw muzułmańskiej Syrii. Nie powiódł się plan zdobycia Aleppo, a oblężenie Szajzaru zakończyło się tylko połowicznym sukcesem. Jednym z powodów była niechęć władców Antiochii i Edessy do cesarza. +Michał VI Stratiotikos + +Michał VI Stratiotikos, Michał Bringas – cesarz bizantyjski w latach 1056-1057. +Był prawdopodobnie krewnym Józefa Bringasa, słynnego i potężnego dworzanina w czasie rządów Romana II. Michał Bringas był patrycjuszem i biurokratą, służył jako minister wojny i stąd zawdzięcza swój przydomek – "Stratiotikos" (ten-który-lubi-wojnę). Michał został wybrany przez cesarzową Teodorę na jej następcę krótko przed jej śmiercią we wrześniu 1056. +Michał panował krótko i został usunięty przez Izaaka Komnena. Patriarcha Konstantynopola – Michał Keroularios przekonał go, aby abdykował na korzyść Izaaka (31 sierpnia 1057). Cesarz wysłuchał jego rady i został mnichem. +Powiat giżycki + +Powiat giżycki – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie), utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Giżycko. +W 2002 z części obszaru utworzono powiat węgorzewski. +Demografia. +Ludność w latach. +1975-1998 nie istniał +Kościół Szatana + +Kościół Szatana (ang. "Church of Satan") – satanistyczna grupa wyznaniowa, założona w nocy z 30 kwietnia na 1 maja 1966 r. (data symboliczna - naprawdę Kościół Szatana zaczął formować się pod koniec roku) w USA przez Antona Szandora LaVeya. +Kierownictwo Kościoła Szatana stanowią Rada Dziewięciu, Wysoki Kapłan i Wysoka Kapłanka. Jego siedziba znajduje się w San Francisco. +Członkiem Kościoła Szatana zostaje się po listownym zarejestrowaniu, którego koszt wynosi 200 dolarów. Kapłanem można zostać jednak tylko z mianowania Rady Dziewięciu. +W Kościele Szatana dwukrotnie doszło do schizmy: w 1975 r., kiedy powstała Świątynia Seta i w październiku 1997 r. - powstanie Pierwszego Kościoła Satanistycznego. +Kościół Szatana liczy obecnie ok. 10 000 członków, głównie w USA. Od roku 2002 najwyższym kapłanem Kościoła Szatana jest Peggy Nadramia. +Konstantyn VIII + +Konstantyn VIII (grec. "Κωνσταντίνος Η' ", ur. 960 - zm. 15 listopada 1028) – cesarz bizantyjski od 15 grudnia 1025. +Godność współcesarza Konstantyn nosił już od 961 roku i teraz rozpoczął osobiste rządy. Był już stary, słabych sił. W młodości był bardzo silny fizycznie, lecz spędzał życie na hulankach. Pozostawał w cieniu swojego wielkiego brata, pomagał mu w początkach jego trudnego panowania. W czasie panowania brata czas spędzał głownie na zabawach, grze w kości, łowach i w teatrze. Wstępując na tron rządy powierzył innym, było mu to obojętne. Miał już 75 lat i był schorowany. Wobec przeciwników był okrutny, wierzył niemal każdej pogłosce o buncie i wymierzał domniemanym winowajcom karę oślepienia. +Po jego śmierci tron przejął jego zięć. +Bronisław Pieracki + +Bronisław Wilhelm Pieracki (ur. 28 maja 1895 w Gorlicach, zamordowany 15 czerwca 1934 w Warszawie) – polski polityk, legionista, pułkownik dyplomowany piechoty Wojska Polskiego, wicepremier, minister spraw wewnętrznych, poseł na Sejm II kadencji w II RP, jeden z najbliższych współpracowników Józefa Piłsudskiego po Przewrocie Majowym, zaliczany do najbardziej czołowych działaczy tzw. grupy pułkowników. +Życiorys. +Wczesne lata. +Bronisław Pieracki urodził się w rodzinie Stanisława Pierackiego, który był naczelnikiem straży skarbowej, oraz Eugenii Budziszewskiej. Jego rodzina osiadła w Galicji, uchodząc przed prześladowaniami rosyjskimi tuż po powstaniu listopadowym. Pieracki przyszedł na świat w Gorlicach, ale dzieciństwo i młodość spędził w Nowym Sączu. Tam uczęszczał do I Gimnazjum. Wkrótce wstąpił do Związku Walki Czynnej i Związku Strzeleckiego, a także tajnej organizacji niepodległościowej o nazwie Związek Jastrzębi. +Działalność niepodległościowa. +W 1913 ukończył szkołę oficerską Związku Strzeleckiego w Nowym Sączu, która zakończyła się dla niego uzyskaniem stopnia chorążego. +W latach 1914–1917 pełnił służbę w Legionach Polskich. Był dowódcą plutonu (od sierpnia 1914 do maja 1915), a później kompanii 2 Pułku Piechoty Legionów. 5 listopada 1914 awansował na podporucznika, a 26 maja 1915 – porucznika. Był już wówczas dowódcą 7 kompanii 4 Pułku Piechoty Legionów. Ciężko ranny podczas bitwy pod Jastkowem. Później (od stycznia do października 1916) walczył na Wołyniu. 1 listopada 1916 awansował na kapitana. Objął wówczas dowództwo II batalionu 4 pułku piechoty Legionów. +Podczas kryzysu przysięgowego odmówił złożenia przysięgi wierności cesarzowi niemieckiemu. W efekcie został zdegradowany i wcielony do armii austro-węgierskiej (do 16 pułku obrony krajowej "Krakau" c.k. armii), w której służył do maja 1918. Następnie objął stanowisko dowódcy okręgu Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej w Nowym Sączu a później we Lwowie. W tym czasie wznowił studia prawnicze na Uniwersytecie Jana Kazimierza. +Służba w Wojsku Polskim. +Z dniem 1 stycznia 1919 został przyjęty do Wojska Polskiego z zatwierdzeniem posiadanego stopnia majora. Był uczestnikiem wojny polsko-ukraińskiej we Lwowie. W marcu 1919 przeszedł do pracy w Ministerstwie Spraw Wojskowych. Do lipca 1920 zajmował stanowisko w I Departamencie MSW, gdzie stał na czele Samodzielnej Sekcji Wyznań Niekatolickich. W lipcu 1920 awansowano go na stopień podpułkownika, a następnie otrzymał przydział do Kwatery Głównej Naczelnego Wodza. W okresie od 1 listopada 1923 do 15 października 1924 był słuchaczem Kursu Doszkolenia Wyższej Szkoły Wojennej w Warszawie. +W 1924 znajdował się w dyspozycji ministra spraw wojskowych i był oficerem nadetatowym 4 Pułku Piechoty Legionów. 1 grudnia 1924 Prezydent RP, Stanisław Wojciechowski na wniosek Ministra Spraw Wojskowych, gen. dyw. Władysława Sikorskiego awansował go na pułkownika ze starszeństwem z 15 sierpnia 1924 i 12. lokatą w korpusie oficerów zawodowych piechoty. +Uczestnik przewrotu majowego. Został wybrany na posła na Sejm w marcu 1928 z listy Bezpartyjnego Bloku Współpracy z Rządem z okręgu 44. (województwo krakowskie). Z dniem 26 marca tego roku przeniesiony z dyspozycji szefa Sztabu Generalnego WP w stan nieczynny na czas trwania kadencji sejmowej. Wkrótce zrzekł się mandatu i powrócił do Wojska Polskiego na stanowisko II zastępcy szefa Sztabu Głównego. Z dniem 22 kwietnia 1929 został przeniesiony w stan nieczynny. +Minister. +Od 1929 zajmował różne stanowiska rządowe. Od kwietnia 1929 roku wiceminister spraw wewnętrznych w rządach Kazimierza Świtalskiego, V rządzie Kazimierza Bartla, I rządzie Walerego Sławka i II rządzie Józefa Piłsudskiego. Odpowiedzialny za realizację tzw. pacyfikacji Małopolski Wschodniej. Od grudnia 1930 do czerwca 1931 minister bez teki w randze wicepremiera w rządzie Walerego Sławka oraz Aleksandra Prystora. W latach 1931–1934 minister spraw wewnętrznych w rządach Aleksandra Prystora, Janusza Jędrzejewicza i Leona Kozłowskiego. Jako szef resortu był zwolennikiem zwalczania sił antypaństwowych, szczególnie komunistów. Opowiadał się także za porozumieniem z umiarkowanymi grupami ukraińskimi, z pominięciem kierownictw radykalnych, nacjonalistycznych organizacji. Powołał m.in. Komitet ds. Narodowościowych (w 1934). Prowadził zdecydowaną politykę, ale potępiał rasizm i terroryzm. +Postrzelony 15 czerwca 1934 przed restauracją przy ul. Foksal, przez członka Organizacji Ukraińskich Nacjonalistów Hryhorija Maciejkę, zmarł tego samego dnia. +16 czerwca 1934 Prezydent RP, Ignacy Mościcki awansował go z dniem 15 czerwca 1934 na stopnień generała brygady. 21 czerwca pochowany na cmentarzu w Nowym Sączu. +Jego śmierć bezpośrednio przyczyniła się do powołania obozu odosobnienia w Berezie Kartuskiej. +Upamiętnienie. +Pośmiertnie został kawalerem Orderu Orła Białego "za istotne i wybitne zasługi położone w pracy nad odzyskaniem i utrwaleniem niepodległości Polski". +Pośmiertnie jego imię otrzymało wiele ulic w polskich miastach, które po wojnie nie powróciły do poprzedniej nazwy. Ulice te to m.in. w Warszawie (obecnie ul. Foksal), Katowicach (obecnie ul. Staromiejska i ul. Zygmunta Waltera-Jankego), Sosnowcu (obecnie al. Zwycięstwa), Zgierzu (obecnie ul. Łęczycka), Poznaniu (obecnie ul. Gwarna), Gdańsku (obecnie ulica Dworcowa), Bydgoszczy (obecnie ul. Karola Chodkiewicza), Tarnowie (obecnie ul. Adama Mickiewicza), Radomiu (obecnie ul. Mieczysława Niedziałkowskiego), Białystoku (obecnie ul. Warszawska), Lublinie (obecnie ul. I Armii Wojska Polskiego), Leżajsku (obecnie ul. burmistrzów Jana i Leopolda Zawilskich), Chełmie (obecnie ul. Adama Mickiewicza), Łomży (obecnie ul. Dworna), Lwowie (obecnie ul. Zaliznyczna), Stanisławowie (obecnie ?). Przed wojną w Częstochowie istniał plac "Bronisława Pierackiego", współcześnie nosi nazwę placu "Biegańskiego ". Obecnie ulice imienia "Bronisława Pierackiego" istnieją m.in. w Krakowie, Nowym Sączu i Łapach. +David Warner (aktor) + +David Warner (ur. 29 lipca 1941 w Manchesterze) - brytyjski aktor grający przeważnie role tzw. "czarnych charakterów". +Sławę zdobył w teatrze rolą Hamleta w adaptacji sztuki Szekspira. +W filmie zadebiutował w 1963 r. w komedii romantycznej "Tom Jones". W 1965 zagrał króla Henryka VI w produkcji BBC "Wojny róż". +W 1967 r. był nominowany do nagrody Brytyjskiej Akademii Filmowej dla najlepszego aktora brytyjskiego za główną rolę w filmie "Morgan: przypadek do leczenia". +Zagrał w wielu seriach telewizyjnych m. in.: "Batman: The Animated Series", "Miasteczko Twin Peaks". +Srebrna waza Enmeteny + +Srebrna waza Enmeteny – waza Enmeteny, władcy sumeryjskiego miasta-państwa Lagasz (ok. 2450 p.n.e.), zdobiona reliefem (motywy zwierzęce w układzie pasowym), opatrzona inskrypcją wotywną poświęcającą ten przedmiot bogu Ningirsu. Obecnie znajduje się w muzeum w Luwrze. +Kościół episkopalny + +Kościołom tym można przeciwstawić purytan i inne grupy wywodzące się z tzw. Niskiego Kościoła ("Low Church"). Nie uznają one hierarchizacji członków wspólnoty. +Stanisław Moniuszko (harcmistrz) + +Stanisław Moniuszko (25 stycznia 1905 w Białymstoku - 4 czerwca 1993), harcmistrz, współtwórca powojennego harcerstwa w Białymstoku. +Jako uczeń szkoły średniej wstąpił do harcerstwa (3. Białostocka Drużyna Harcerzy im. Stefana Czarnieckiego przy szkole rzemieślniczej), był m.in. drużynowym. 5 września 1939 otrzymał stopień harcmistrza, w czasie wojny działał w Szarych Szeregach. +Po wyzwoleniu spod okupacji niemieckiej był jednym z najaktywniejszych działaczy na rzecz odrodzenia ZHP na Białostocczyźnie, od stycznia 1945 do września 1948 pełnił funkcję komendanta Białostockiej Chorągwi ZHP. W 1950 odszedł z harcerstwa po podporządkowaniu ZHP Związkowi Młodzieży Polskiej, ale powrócił po październiku 1956. +Był odznaczony m.in. Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, Medalem Komisji Edukacji Narodowej oraz Srebrnym Krzyżem "Za Zasługi dla ZHP". W maju 1998 imię Stanisława Moniuszki nadano Hufcowi ZHP w Białymstoku. +Powiat ełcki + +Powiat ełcki – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Ełk. +Demografia. +Ludność w latach. +1975-1998 nie istniał +Charakterystyka powiatu. +Historyczny powiat ełcki (Landkreis Lyck) istniał na tym terenie jeszcze w granicach Niemiec, a następnie po II wojnie światowej do 1975 roku. Współczesny powiat ełcki powstał w 1999 r. w wyniku reformy administracyjnej kraju. Położony jest we wschodniej części województwa warmińsko-mazurskiego. Graniczy od północy z powiatem oleckim i suwalskim, od zachodu z giżyckim i piskim, od wschodu z augustowskim i od południa z grajewskim. Zajmuje obszar 1111,9 km2, który zamieszkuje 86 tys. mieszkańców. W skład powiatu ełckiego wchodzą Miasto Ełk oraz gminy Ełk, Kalinowo, Prostki i Stare Juchy. +Powiat obejmuje swoim zasięgiem Pojezierze Ełckie oraz część Mazur Garbatych. Położony jest na ziemiach, które we wczesnym średniowieczu zamieszkiwały plemiona Jaćwingów. Lud ten zanikł z końcem XIII wieku, wymordowany, bądź wysiedlony przez Zakon Krzyżacki. Pozostały po nim jedynie grodziska, kurhany, wzmianki w starych kronikach oraz wiele nazw topograficznych. Kolonizacja ziem powiatu zaczęła się na przełomie XIV i XV wieku. Pierwszym osiedlem na tym terenie była prawdopodobnie Ruska Wieś (założona przez Rusinów w 1376 roku) i w tym samym mniej więcej czasie wieś Klusy. Osiedlali się tutaj osadnicy z Mazowsza. +Klimat powiatu należy do najzimniejszych w Polsce. Niższe średnie temperatury roczne występują tylko na terenach górskich i w sąsiednim powiecie oleckim. Średnia temperatura roczna w powiecie wynosi około 6,6 st. C, temperatura stycznia –4,2 st. C, lipca 17,8 st. C. Ilość opadów jest tu stosunkowo duża, z rzadka występują posuchy, duża jest jednak wietrzność. W lecie przeważają wiatry zachodnie i północno-zachodnie, zimą południowo-wschodnie i zachodnie. +Krajobraz powiatu ełckiego jest typowy dla krajobrazu moreny czołowej. Wyróżniają go liczne zaokrąglone wyniosłości, zamknięte zagłębienia, około 90 większych i mniejszych jezior, niezdecydowana sieć hydrograficzna oraz zawiły układ poziomic. Najwyższe wzniesienie to Płowcza Góra (205 m n.p.m.) leżąca w okolicy Skomacka Wielkiego. Natomiast obszary położone najniżej to pobliża jezior, m.in.: Przepiórki, Białego, Krzywego, Stackiego, a także tereny ciągnące się wzdłuż biegu rzek: Ełku, Przepiórki, Małkiń. Obniżenie tych terenów sięga 120 m n.p.m. +Niemal cały powiat znajduje się w dorzeczu rzeki Ełk. Największym jej dopływem jest rzeka Lega, nosząca w swym środkowym odcinku nazwę Małkiń, a od Jeziora Rajgrodzkiego do ujścia płynie jako Jerzgnia. Lasy powiatu ełckiego zajmujące 23,2 ha to na ogół pozostałości niegdysiejszej Puszczy Jaćwieskiej. Jej fragmentami są: na północy Puszcza Borecka, na wschodzie Puszcza Augustowska i Lasy Ełckie. W lasach powiatu przeważają drzewa iglaste, przede wszystkim świerk i sosna. Ponadto, w drzewostanie występują: lipa, dąb, wierzba, brzoza i olcha. Bogata jest też roślinność wodna: turzyce, skrzypy, manna, jaskry, ponadto: trzciny, sitowie, pałka wodna, a na jeszcze głębszych wodach: grzybienie i grążel żółty. Nie brak tu rezerwatów przyrody czy jej pomnikowych okazów podlegających ochronie. Przykładem jest rezerwat Ostoja Bobrów w Bartoszach - kompleks otoczony z trzech stron jeziorami, na którym występuje ponad 270 gatunków roślin, a także interesujące okazy miejscowej fauny. +Konstantan + +Konstantan – stop miedzi 60% i niklu 40%, charakteryzujący się stałą rezystywnością (znikomą zależnością oporu od temperatury). Używany jako drut oporowy w niskich temperaturach, jako jeden z drutów termopar typu E i typu T; do wyrobu tensometrów drutowych. +Spotyka się też stopy niklu i miedzi o innym składzie, np. isotan (60% Cu, 40% Ni), który jest używany do wyrobu termopar typu U. +Zespół Społecznych Szkół Ogólnokształcących Bednarska + +"Bednarska" to pierwsza szkoła społeczna, która powstała w Polsce po II wojnie światowej – zdobycz ustaleń stolika oświatowego Okrągłego Stołu. Utworzono ją w kilka miesięcy po zamknięciu obrad, w 1989. Początkowo było to tylko liceum ogólnokształcące. +Szkoła powstała z inicjatywy Krystyny Starczewskiej. Za jej sprawą w szkole kładzie się duży nacisk na indywidualne podejście do ucznia i tolerancję: w prawie każdej klasie znajdują się uczniowie z zagranicy, najczęściej dzieci uchodźców. Szkoła znana jest także jako ośrodek promujący edukację wolnościową. +Organem prowadzącym szkołę jest Towarzystwo Przyjaciół I Społecznego Liceum Ogólnokształcącego. Szkoła ma uprawnienia szkoły publicznej. +"Bednarska" jest szkołą, w której istnieje pełen system demokratyczny z klasycznym trójpodziałem władzy: funkcję ustawodawczą pełni Sejm, sądowniczą Sąd Szkolny, wykonawczą zaś Rada Szkoły. W każdej z tych instytucji, obieranej co roku w wyborach powszechnych, zasiadają uczniowie, nauczyciele, rodzice i absolwenci, będący obywatelami "Rzeczypospolitej Szkolnej". Szkoła jest także drugą w Europie, która uchwaliła własną konstytucję. +Odo II Burgundzki + +Odo II ("Eudes II de Bourgogne") (ur. 1118 - zm. 27 czerwca 1162) – książę Burgundii w latach 1142-1162. Najstarszy syn księcia Hugona II i jego żony Matyldy (Felicji) de Mayenne. +Walczył z Maurami w Portugalii. Popadł w konflikt z królem Francji, Ludwikiem VII Młodym; papież Hadrian IV rozsądził ich spór na korzyść króla. Aby odkupić swoje grzechy, Odo udał się na pielgrzymkę do Ziemi Świętej, ale zmarł na początku podróży. Został pochowany w Cîteaux. +Biskupi warszawscy + +Biskupi warszawscy − biskupi diecezjalni i biskupi pomocniczy diecezji, a następnie archidiecezji warszawskiej. +Diecezja została erygowana 19 października 1798 przez papieża Piusa VI bullą "Ad universam agri Dominici curam". +Wspólnota anglikańska + +Wspólnota anglikańska ("Anglican Communion") - międzynarodowe, częściowo nieformalne zrzeszenie Kościołów anglikańskich, obejmujące obecnie 38 niezależnych Kościołów działających na całym świecie. Wszystkie one wywodzą się od Kościoła Anglii i z tego względu jego najwyższy dostojnik, arcybiskup Canterbury, uważany jest za głowę Wspólnoty. Nie posiada on jednak żadnej władzy nad innymi Kościołami, zaś jego rola ma znaczenie wyłącznie honorowe i stanowi symbol jedności anglikanów. Niektóre Kościoły (m.in. szkocki i amerykański) preferują określanie ich mianem "episkopalnych", gdyż słowo "anglikański" nadmiernie podkreśla, ich zdaniem, związki z Anglią. Podobna motywacja kieruje Kościołami czerpiącymi swe nazwy od państw, w których działają (np. Kościół Irlandii). Kościoły członkowskie Wspólnoty nazywane są jej prowincjami, co jednak nie oznacza w żadnym razie jakiegokolwiek podporządkowania. +Europejskie Kościoły Wspólnoty Anglikańskiej należą także do Wspólnoty Porvoo, grupującej sześć Kościołów anglikańskich i sześć luterańskich. +Powstanie i instrumenty. +Kościół Anglii, pierwszy z Kościołów anglikańskich, powstał jako Kościół ściśle narodowy. Jego oficjalną głową byli i są monarchowie brytyjscy. Początkowo nie nastręczało to żadnych kłopotów, gdyż ogromna większość wiernych była jednocześnie poddanymi brytyjskimi. Jednak w miarę politycznego oddzielania się kolejnych obszarów od Wielkiej Brytanii, w miejscach tych powstawały autokefaliczne Kościoły lokalne. Za symboliczny początek istnienia Wspólnoty uznaje się pierwszą (zorganizowaną w 1867) spośród tzw. konferencji w Lambeth, będących cyklicznymi spotkaniami biskupów z różnych Kościołów anglikańskich. Konferencje odbywają się co dziesięć lat w Pałacu Lambeth, londyńskiej rezydencji arcybiskupów Canterbury, od której czerpią swą nazwę. +Wspólnota nie posiada dokumentu, który można by uznać za jej akt stanowiący. W sensie prawa świeckiego jest więc strukturą nieformalną. Posiada cztery główne organy, zwane jej instrumentami. Pierwszym jest arcybiskup Canterbury jako symboliczna głowa Wspólnoty, drugim zaś konferencje w Lambeth, stanowiące najstarsze i najważniejsze forum konsultacji międzykościelnych. Za trzeci instrument uznawana jest istniejąca od 1971 Anglikańska Rada Konsultacyjna, składająca się z biskupów, księży i świeckich wybieranych w poszczególnych prowincjach. Rada spotyka się w pełnym składzie co trzy lata, a ponadto posiada stały sekretariat, tzw. Biuro Wspólnoty Anglikańskiej, formalnie wchodzące w skład Kurii Archidiecezji Canterbury. Ostatni instrument to tzw. Spotkania prymasów, odbywające się zwykle co dwa lata i grupujące zwierzchników poszczególnych prowincji, obradujących pod przewodnictwem arcybiskupa Canterbury. +Podobieństwa i różnice doktrynalne. +Podstawowe prawdy wiary anglikańskiej, wspólne dla wszystkich prowincji Wspólnoty, zostały wyrażone w specjalnej rezolucji przyjętej na konferencji w Lambeth w 1888. Dokument ten oparty był w znaczniej mierze na podobnej deklaracji, uchwalonej dwa lata wcześniej przez zgromadzenie biskupów Amerykańskiego Kościoła Episkopalnego. +W przeciwieństwie do dużej części pozostałych wyznań protestanckich, wszystkie Kościoły anglikańskie podkreślają rolę sukcesji apostolskiej w znaczeniu sukcesji urzędu. +W praktyce prowincje mogą znacząco różnić się od siebie liturgią (choć w większości przypadków jest ona wzorowana na stosowanej przez Kościół Anglii), a nawet pewnymi kwestiami dogmatycznymi. Jedną z głównych ról spotkań w ramach Wspólnoty jest ograniczanie wynikających z tego konfliktów, jednak nie zawsze się to udaje. W ostatnich latach szczególnie ostry spór dotyczy stosunku do homoseksualistów. Podczas gdy np. Amerykański Kościół Episkopalny od 2003 dopuszcza wyświęcanie homoseksualnych biskupów, a w wielu innych prowincjach aktywni homoseksualiści mogą być duchownymi (należy pamiętać, iż w anglikanizmie celibat nie występuje), prowincje afrykańskie czy azjatyckie nie chcą słyszeć nawet o kościelnym uznawaniu związków homoseksualnych. +Kontrowersje. +Koniec wieku XX i początek XXI są określane mianem kryzysu kościoła anglikańskiego. Obecnie bardzo widoczny jest kryzys tożsamościowy i doktrynalny wśród wspólnot anglikańskich. Wiele sporów i rozłamów wśród anglikanów, jak i samych duchownych tej wspólnoty wzbudzają kwestie udzielanych święceń kapłańskich i biskupich kobietom, małżeństw homoseksualnych i możliwość dla tych osób bycia kapłanami, a nawet biskupami. Konflikty pojawiają się także na tle sensu istnienia zakonów, czy celibatu. Część środowisk anglikańskich odrzuca prawdę o boskości Chrystusa oraz podważa prawdę o istnieniu Trójcy Świętej. +4 listopada 2009 została wydana przez papieża Benedykta XVI konstytucja apostolska "Anglicanorum coetibus" będąca odpowiedzią na list 50 biskupów i ponad 100 wspólnot anglikańskich nie uznających m.in. kapłaństwa kobiet, sprzeciwiających się udzielaniu parom homoseksualnym sakramentu małżeństwa i chcących podlegać zwierzchnictwu Stolicy Apostolskiej oraz papieża, jako głowy Kościoła. Dokument ten zatwierdza przyjęcie do Kościoła katolickiego części wspólnot anglikańskich oraz zakłada ich odrębność jurysdykcyjną. Konstytucja przewiduje możliwość posiadania żon przez duchownych anglikańskich. Jednak biskupem nie będzie mógł zostać żaden żonaty duchowny. Według danych szacunkowych w związku z papieskim dekretem Kościół katolicki powiększył się już o ponad 900 tysięcy konserwatywnych anglikanów. Na zbliżenie ze Stolicą Apostolską i łączność z papieżem nie zgadza się liberalne skrzydło anglikańskie, które ostro krytykuje głowę kościoła rzymskokatolickiego za ułatwianie przechodzenia duchownym i wiernym konserwatywnego skrzydła na katolicyzm. +Niektóre wspólnoty sprzeciwiały się beatyfikacji kard. Johna Henry'ego Newmana – konwertyty, który przeszedł na katolicyzm. +Około 100 wspólnot anglikańskich (m.in. Ruch Oksfordzki) uznaje zwierzchnictwo papieża, jako głowy Kościoła, przez co często określani są mianem anglokatolików. +Prowincje. +Ponadto 6 Kościołów lokalnych ma status tzw. pozaprowincjonalnych ("extra-provincial") członków Wspólnoty. Pięć z nich nie może być samodzielnymi prowincjami, ponieważ uznają zwierzchność kanoniczną arcybiskupa Canterbury jako swego metropolity, a więc formalnie przynależą do Kościoła Anglii. W przypadku Kościoła kubańskiego wynika to z uwarunkowań politycznych. +Tomb Raider (seria) + +Tomb Raider ( ) – seria gier komputerowych, komiksów, powieści i filmów opowiadających o przygodach fikcyjnej, brytyjskiej archeolog Lary Croft. Od ukazania się pierwszej części gry w roku 1996 seria stała się dochodową marką wykorzystującą różne media, zaś Lara stała się jedną z głównych ikon przemysłu gier wideo. W 2006 roku znalazła się w "Księdze rekordów Guinnessa", gdzie określono ją jako „bohaterkę gry komputerowej, która odniosła największy sukces w realnym życiu” ("Most Successful Human Videogame Heroine"). +Sześć pierwszych gier z cyklu stworzonych zostało przez Core Design, zaś następne (dotychczas trzy) przez Crystal Dynamics. Wszystkie wydało Eidos Interactive, które posiada prawa do znaku handlowego "Tomb Raider" oraz związanych z serią postaci. Dotychczas nakręcone zostały dwa pełnometrażowe filmy aktorskie (' oraz ') z Angeliną Jolie w roli głównej. Gry z serii sprzedały się w łącznej liczbie ponad trzydziestu milionów egzemplarzy, co czyni "Tomb Raidera" jedną z najlepiej sprzedających się serii gier wideo w historii. Najwyższe wyniki sprzedaży osiągnął "Tomb Raider II", który znalazł około ośmiu milionów nabywców. +Scenariusze. +Istnieją cztery różne wersje biografii Lary. Pierwsza, opowiedziana w częściach od pierwszej do piątej, druga stanowi jedną grę "Tomb Raider Angel Of Darkness". Trzeci scenariusz stanowi gra' i " Tomb Raider Underworld ". Chociaż ' jest remakiem oryginalnego "Tomb Raidera", historia opowiedziana w grze została skorygowana, aby pasowała do trzeciego scenariusza, choć nie zawiera wyraźnych odwołań do fabuły "Legendy". +Pierwszy i drugi scenariusz często nazywany jest scenariuszem Core Design, trzeci zaś scenariuszem Crystal Dynamics. Różnice w nich są szczególnie zauważalne w przypadku postaci Lary, co tyczy się zarówno jej przeszłości, jak i osobowości. Według niektórych osób, osobne scenariusze posiadają również filmy i komiksy. Dla przykładu, w pierwszym scenariuszu i w komiksach wspomina się, że Lara straciła rodziców i narzeczonego w katastrofie samolotu gdy miała dwadzieścia lat, zaś w trzecim, że jej matka zginęła w katastrofie samolotowej gdy Lara miała dziewięć lat. Drugi scenariusz jest prawie taki sam jak pierwszy i wydarzenia w "Tomb Raider Angel Of Darkness" dzieją się tuż po grze "Tomb Raider The Last Revelation". Dlatego są błędne przekonania, że Angel Of Darkness należy do pierwszego scenariusza! Jednakże scenarzyści zmienili trochę biografię Lary, przeszłośc, jej charakter i klimat gry. Dlatego te scenariusze są osobne. Zarówno w trzecim scenariuszu jak i w filmach podaje się, że ojciec Lary zginął w Kambodży. Gry z serii stworzone przez Crystal Dynamics w wielu aspektach powiązane są z filmami, chciano bowiem zachować pomiędzy nimi swego rodzaju spójność, stąd też np. wygląd rezydencji Croftów w "Legendzie" i "Anniversary" jest bardzo podobny do tego znanego z filmów. +W produkcji jest restart serii z zupełnie nowym, czwartym scenariuszem, który został niedawno ujawniony na łamach magazynu Game Informer. Lara Croft (zupełnie nowa postać, niepowiązana z poprzednimi trzema) po ukończeniu studiów w wieku 21 lat wyrusza na ekspedycję na jedną z wysp Japońskich "Yamatai" aby udowodnić światu że nadaje się do archeologii. Jednakże już blisko wyspy statek wpada w sam środek burzy sztormowej. Lara prawie tonie w statku jednak ratuje ją Condrad (kapitan statku)! Statek nagle rozrywa się na pół i Lara musi doskoczyć na drugą część statku aby się uratować! Lara ledwo co doskakuje, jednak łapie ją Condrad! Ręce ma zbyt śliskie więc niechcący puszcza Larę, a ona wpada do morza! Przeżywa jednak i dociera na wyspę! Na wzgórzu widzi ocalonych przyjaciół! Woła ich jednakże ktoś ją ogłusza i porywa! Budzi się związana w grobowcu! Lara z niego ucieka cała zakrwawiona i walczy o przetrwanie! Z czasem ma zamiar odnaleźć wszystkich przyjaciół i uciec z wyspy! Jednak to nie jest takie proste! W osiągnięciu celu przeszkodzą Larze dzikie zwierzęta, niekorzystne warunki pogodowe i brutalni ludzie mieszkający na wyspie żądni jej śmierci! Z biografii dowiadujemy się również, że rodzice Lary nie byli nigdy bogaci i Lara na zapłacenie za studia pracowała w barze jako barmanka na pół etatu. Lara jest pracoholiczką i molem książkowym. Specjalizuje się w mitologii i historii, wspinaczce i łucznictwie. Ma zamiar udowodnić, że zostanie słynną panią archeolog dzięki ciężkiej pracy bez sławnego nazwiska! Ważną informacją jest też, że w tym scenariuszu rodzice Lary żyją! +Lara Croft. +Główną bohaterką "Tomb Raidera" jest Lara Croft, atrakcyjna i inteligentna brytyjska archeolog poszukująca starożytnych skarbów. Pod wieloma względami przypomina Indianę Jonesa. +Lara została stworzona przez projektanta pracującego dla firmy Core Design, Toby’ego Garda, wyewoluowała z wielu pomysłów odrzuconych ze wczesnych koncepcji. Prawie zawsze przedstawiana jest w brązowych szortach, niebieskim topie, z małym brązowym plecakiem oraz dwiema kaburami, w których nosi broń. W poszczególnych częściach serii trochę zmieniał się wygląd bohaterki, który dostosowywany był do rosnących możliwości komputerów (poprawienie animacji, wygładzenie rysów twarzy, poruszające się włosy), jak również oczekiwań fanów (przesadnie powiększany biust, który ostatecznie jednak zmniejszono). +W rolę Lary Croft wcieliło się kilka modelek, m.in. brytyjska aktorka Nell McAndrew, Rhona Mitra (pierwsza oficjalna modelka) oraz amerykańska aktorka Angelina Jolie, grająca Larę w filmach. Obecną oficjalną modelką Lary jest Alison Carroll. +W dziesięć lat po wydaniu pierwszej gry, Lara jest jedną z najbardziej żywotnych i wciąż najlepiej rozpoznawanych postaci z gier komputerowych. Chociaż postrzegana bywa jako ikona seksistowskiego stereotypu, wpływ, jaki wywarła na popkulturze, zdaje się być niekwestionowany. +Gry z serii. +W 1997 roku pojawiła się wersja na przenośną konsolę GameBoy Color. Była to standardowa gra platformowa bazująca na fabule pierwowzoru. W 2002 roku na przenośną konsolę GameBoy Advance pojawiła się gra "". Gra była podobna do tej wydanej w 1997 roku, miała jednak lepszą grafikę, a fabuła nie odnosiła się do pierwszej części gry. Pod koniec roku 2003 na konsoli Nokia N-Gage pojawiła się dokładna konwersja pierwszego "Tomb Raidera", obecnie dostępna na konsoli PSP. "Legenda" i "Anniversary" zostały wydane w 2007 roku na Xboksa 360, Wii, PlayStation 2 i PlayStation Portable. +Lista gier. +Spin-offy +Dodatki +Cechy gier. +Pierwsza część gry wydana została na platformy Sega Saturn, PlayStation i PC. Z niesprawdzonych źródeł wynika, że gra początkowo projektowana była na Atari Jaguar. Jest jednym z tytułów odpowiedzialnych za sukces konsoli PlayStation w latach 90. Gry przedstawiają świat w 3D, na który składa się seria grobowców i innych lokacji, przez które gracz musi przeprowadzić Larę. Po drodze zabija niebezpieczne zwierzęta i inne istoty, zbiera przedmioty i rozwiązuje łamigłówki, aby uzyskać dostęp do ostatecznej nagrody, zwykle będącej potężnym artefaktem. W późniejszych grach celami Lary stali się głównie ludzie, co spotkało się z krytyką osób, które uznały, że gra stała się zbyt brutalna. +"Tomb Raider" jest wczesnym przedstawicielem gier typu third-person shooter, jako że gracz stale widzi główną bohaterkę. Kamera podąża za nią, zwykle pokazując świat sponad jej ramienia lub zza pleców. Do ukazania się gry "The Angel of Darkness", serię charakteryzowała budowa świata oparta na sześcianach. Stopnie, ściany i sufity były umieszczone pod kątem 90 stopni względem siebie, choć projektanci gry używali sprytnych sztuczek, aby to zamaskować. +Powodem tej ortogonalności może być fakt, że twórcy rozszerzyli do grafiki 3D wcześniejsze dwuwymiarowe gry platformowe. Jest to widoczne w rozgrywce "Tomb Raidera", który przypomina starsze gry platformowe, takie jak "Prince of Persia" czy "Flashback", które skupiały się na skakaniu na czas przeplatanym walką. Każda kolejna gra wprowadzała nowe bronie i ruchy. Od czwartej części Lara może zeskakiwać z lin wykonując salto w tył, obrócić się w powietrzu i chwycić znajdującą się za nią krawędź. "Legenda" wprowadziła elektromagnetyczny chwytak, który bohaterka może przyczepić do metalowych przedmiotów, używając go chociażby jako liny lub aby przyciągać do siebie metalowe obiekty i przeciwników. +Podstawowe ruchy Lary to salto, przetoczenie się, wspinaczka, pływanie, jaskółka i stanie na rękach. Ostatnie dwie umiejętności są czysto estetyczne i nie pełnią żadnej funkcji w grze. W "Tomb Raiderze III" wprowadzono sprint, który pozwalał Larze na tymczasowe przyspieszenie, podczas gdy pasek w górnym rogu ekranu reprezentował jej zmniejszającą się wytrzymałość. Z funkcji tej zrezygnowano w projektach zrealizowanych przez Crystal Dynamics, choć została ona przywrócona w "Underworld". +Fabuła opiera się zazwyczaj na zadaniu zdobycia potężnego artefaktu, nim zrobi to zła organizacja lub pojedyncza osoba, która chce go wykorzystać do własnych celów (choć pierwsza, a przede wszystkim piąta odsłona gry, mniej lub bardziej odbiegały od tego schematu). Artefakty posiadają zazwyczaj mistyczne moce i mogą mieć nadprzyrodzone, a nawet obce pochodzenie. Przeciwnicy często używają artefaktu lub jego części jako broni lub do tworzenia przerażających mistycznych potworów, stworzeń i mutantów, które Lara musi pokonywać podczas swojej podróży. +"Tomb Raider" na przenośnych konsolach. +W 1997 roku pojawiła się wersja na przenośną konsolę GameBoy Color. Była to standardowa gra platformowa bazująca na fabule pierwowzoru. W 2002 roku na przenośną konsolę GameBoy Advance pojawiła się gra "". Gra była podobna do tej wydanej w 1997 roku, miała jednak lepszą grafikę, a fabuła nie odnosiła się do pierwszej części gry. Pod koniec roku 2003 na konsoli Nokia N-Gage pojawiła się dokładna konwersja pierwszego "Tomb Raidera", obecnie dostępna na konsoli PSP. Oprócz części przeznaczonych wyłącznie na konsole przenośne, dostępna jest także "Legenda" na Nintendo DS i PlayStation Portable, "Anniversary" na PSP oraz "Underworld" na DS. +Adaptacje. +Komiks. +W grudniu 1997 roku wydawnictwo Top Cow wydało pierwszy komiks z Larą, "Tomb Raider/Witchblade". Jego scenarzystą i rysownikiem był Michael Turner, zaś komiks przedstawiał przygody Lary i Sary Pezzini. Zdobył sporą popularność, więc rok później pojawiła się jego kontynuacja, "Witchblade/Tomb Raider". Gdy i on dobrze się sprzedał, wydawnictwo postanowiło co miesiąc wydawać komiks poświęcony przygodom samej Lary. Scenarzystą serii był Dan Jurgens, zaś rysownikiem Andy Park. Stworzyli kilkanaście komiksów, jednak później pałeczkę przejęli inni autorzy. Do 2005 wydano około pięćdziesięciu komiksów z serii "Tomb Raider", dwanaście z serii "Tomb Raider: Journeys" oraz około dwudziestu wydań specjalnych. +Na polskim rynku wydanych zostało tylko kilkanaście komiksów. W 2002 roku zaprzestano wydawania komiksów "Tomb Raider", co tłumaczono rzekomo niskimi zyskami i słabą podażą. Komiks prawdopodobnie i tak nie przetrwałby kolejnego roku, kiedy to nieudany "The Angel of Darkness" mocno osłabił zainteresowanie tak serią, jak i wszystkim, co z nią związane. +Film. +W 2001 roku na ekranach kin pojawiła się . W postać Lary Croft wcieliła się aktorka Angelina Jolie. Film znacznie odbiegał od fabuły przedstawionej w grze. Druga część filmu (2003), "", nawiązywała klimatem do komputerowego pierwowzoru. Film nie okazał się sukcesem, a zyski nie pokryły kosztów produkcji, o co producenci obwiniali słabą (wydaną w tym samym okresie) 6. część gry. W późniejszym czasie w Internecie wielokrotnie pojawiały się plotki na temat kolejnej części filmu, jednak do pewnego czasu wszystkie dementowano; obecnie wiadomo już, iż 3. część filmu powstaje, lecz na razie jest w bardzo wczesnej fazie produkcji. +Książki. +Na mocy porozumienia Eidos Interactive i wydawnictwa Ballantine Books, powstały trzy książki, z których każda przedstawia autonomiczną przygodę, nie prezentowaną wcześniej w grach. Pierwsza z książek, "The Amulet of Power", stanowi pomost między ' a '. Dodatkowo powstały jeszcze cztery książki na kanwach scenariuszy filmów. +Kłamstwo oświęcimskie + +Kłamstwo oświęcimskie (negacjonizm, rewizjonizm Holocaustu; ang. "Holocaust Denial", niem. "Holocaustleugnung", fra. "négationnisme", hiszp. "negacionismo") – twierdzenie w języku prawnym przyjmujące, że powszechnie przyjęta interpretacja holocaustu jest albo w dużym stopniu przesadzona, albo całkowicie zafałszowana. Zwolennicy, na przykład prezydent Iranu Mahmud Ahmadineżad, twierdzą że dominujące w świecie zachodnim poglądy, to w rzeczywistości efekt ideologicznej manipulacji. Manipulacja ta miałaby służyć legitymizacji tezy o moralnej wyższości zwycięskich idei demokracji liberalnej nad narodowym socjalizmem. +Kłamstwo oświęcimskie jest powszechnie potępione, jako niezgodne z prawdą historyczną oraz niezgodne z pamięcią i czcią dla ofiar Holocaustu. W wielu krajach, w tym w Polsce, istnieją obostrzenia prawne, nakładające na organy państwowe obowiązek ścigania z urzędu osób szerzących kłamstwo oświęcimskie. Według byłego prezesa Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej Leona Kieresa i szefa pionu śledczego IPN Witolda Kuleszy także mówienie o "polskich obozach zagłady" zalicza się do kłamstwa oświęcimskiego. +Kontrowersje. +Zwolennicy używają najchętniej określenia "rewizjonizm historyczny" lub potocznie rewizjonizm, ponieważ obydwa te pojęcia używane są od dawna w innym, szerszym zakresie, jako pewne stanowisko w historii. Przeciwnicy używają raczej określenia "negacjonizm", "rewizjonizm polityczny" lub "Kłamstwo oświęcimskie". Tak też jest to definiowane w oficjalnych komunikatach lub dokumentach. Kluczowym punktem sporu o termin jest pytanie, czy negacjonizm/rewizjonizm (w kontekście Holocaustu) jest stanowiskiem naukowym, czego – jak dotąd bezskutecznie – domagają się jego zwolennicy. Twierdzą też oni, że przyjmowanie "oficjalnej" wersji historii bez żadnej weryfikacji może mieć niekorzystny wpływ na swobodę badań naukowych. Krytycy zaś zaliczają go do spiskowych teorii dziejów. +Propagowanie kłamstwa oświęcimskiego. +W szeregu krajów zachodnich, w tym w Polsce, rozpowszechnianie kłamstwa oświęcimskiego jest karalne. W Iranie i wielu krajach arabskich negacjonizm jest oficjalnie uznawany i propagowany, tam też organizacje poszukują dodatkowych funduszy na swoją działalność. Obecnie większość organizacji, wydawnictw i stron internetowych negacjonistów ma swoje oficjalne siedziby w krajach o wysokim stopniu tolerancji dla kontrowersyjnych poglądów. +Kłamstwo oświęcimskie jako przestępstwo. +Na podstawie art. 55 ustawy "ustawy z dnia 18 grudnia 1998 r. o Instytucie Pamięci Narodowej Komisji Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu" zaprzeczanie publicznie i wbrew faktom zbrodniom, o których mowa w art. 1 pkt 1 powyższej ustawy jest przestępstwem ściganym z urzędu zagrożonym grzywną lub karą pozbawienia wolności do lat 3. Wyrok podawany jest do publicznej wiadomości. +Zoe (cesarzowa bizantyńska) + +Zoe (ur. ok. 978 - zm. 1050) - cesarzowa bizantyjska. Między 15 listopada 1028 a 1050 rokiem współrządziła, a od 19 kwietnia do 11 czerwca 1042 roku rządziła samodzielnie. +Zoe była jedną z nielicznych cesarzowych, które były legalnymi dziećmi rządzącego cesarza. Była córką Konstantyna VIII (i jego żony Heleny), który od 976 był oficjalnie współwładcą Bazylego II, samodzielnie zaś rządził od 1025. Konstantyn panował tylko 3 lata między 15 grudnia 1025 a 15 listopada 1028 r. +Przed śmiercią, 15 listopada 1028, Konstantyn wydał Zoe za wybranego przez siebie następcę - Romana III Argyrosa, eparchę Konstantynopola. Konstantyn miał nadzieję, że Roman pomoże córce kontrolować władzę, ale Roman okazał się niewiernym małżonkiem i nienajlepszym władcą. W 1034 znaleziono go martwego w kąpieli, w związku z czym pojawiły się przypuszczenia, że został zamordowany. Zoe prawie natychmiast wyszła ponownie za mąż. Drugim mężem Zoe stał się Michał IV Paflagończyk, który rządził aż do śmierci w 1041. +Następnym współwładcą obok Zoe stał się jej adoptowany syn Michał V Kalafates, siostrzeniec jej drugiego męża, którego krótkie rządy trwały do następnego roku. Został on obalony, ponieważ chciał coraz bardziej się usamodzielnić. Przez dwa miesiące w 1042 Zoe dzieliła władzę ze swoją siostrą Teodorą, aż do zaślubin z trzecim i ostatnim, według praw Kościoła Wschodniego, mężem. Jej wybór padł na Konstantyna IX Monomacha (rządzącego w latach 1042-1054), który przeżył ją o 4 lata. Zoe zmarła w 1050. +Gmina Kolno (powiat olsztyński) + +Gmina Kolno – gmina wiejska w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim, w powiecie olsztyńskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie olsztyńskim. +Siedziba gminy to Kolno. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 3529 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Według danych z roku 2002 gmina Kolno ma obszar 178,34 km² +Gmina stanowi 6,27% powierzchni powiatu. +Sołectwa. +Bęsia, Górowo, Kabiny, Kolno, Kominki, Kruzy, Lutry, Ryn Reszelski, Samławki, Tarniny, Tejstymy, Wągsty, Wójtowo, Wysoka Dąbrowa. +Pozostałe miejscowości. +Augustówka, Bocianowo, Gajówka Augustowska, Górkowo, Kolenko, Oterki, Otry, Wólka. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Biskupiec, Bisztynek, Jeziorany, Reszel, Sorkwity +Plays Metallica by Four Cellos + +Plays Metallica by Four Cellos – pierwszy album studyjny fińskiej grupy muzycznej Apocalyptica. Wydawnictwo ukazało się 13 czerwca 1996 roku nakładem wytwórni muzycznej Universal Music Group. Płyta zawiera wyłącznie interpretacje utworów z repertuaru Metalliki. +Płyta dotarła do 7. miejsca fińskiej listy sprzedaży. Album "Plays Metallica by Four Cellos" uzyskał status złotej płyty w Polsce oraz platynowej płyty w Finlandii. +Lista utworów. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +Twórcy. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +Teodora (cesarzowa bizantyńska) + +Teodora (981 - 31 sierpnia 1056) – cesarzowa Bizancjum od 11 stycznia 1055. +Córka cesarza Konstantyna VIII i jego żony Heleny. Młodsza siostra Zoe. Obdarzona silnym charakterem i urodą, Teodora odmówiła swojej ręki następcy tronu - Romanowi III Argyrosowi (ten ożenił się więc w 1028 z jej siostrą Zoe). +W 1042 Teodora przez kilka miesięcy współrządziła z Zoe. Potem jej siostra wyszła za mąż po raz trzeci za Konstantyna IX Monomacha, a Teodora zrzekła się tronu na jego korzyść. Po śmierci Konstantyna mimo swoich 70 lat, Teodora z właściwym sobie wigorem sięgnęła znowu po koronę. Jednak wbrew oczekiwaniom nie wyszła za mąż, uważając, że małżeństwo mogłoby ją pozbawić władzy, tak jak to zdarzyło się z jej siostrą Zoe. Teodora nie rozdzieliła nowych stanowisk, co było w zwyczaju, lecz rządziła sama otaczając się tylko ludźmi z jej najbliższego otoczenia. Jej panowanie nie trwało długo. Rok później poważnie zachorowała i będąc na łożu śmierci, jako kobieta bezdzietna i ostatnia z dynastii, wybrała na swojego następcę swojego faworyta - byłego ministra wojny Michała Stratiotikosa. Zmarła 31 sierpnia 1056 roku, a wraz z nią wygasła dynastia macedońska. +Jan I Tzimiskes + +Jan I Tzimiskes (gr. Ιωάννης Τσιμισκής, ur. 11 grudnia 925, zm. 10 stycznia 976), cesarz bizantyjski od 11 grudnia 969. +Był synem siostry cesarza Nicefora II Fokasa, po zamordowaniu którego zdobył tron cesarski. Cesarzem został dzięki pomocy cesarzowej Teofano, wdowie po cesarzu Romanie II i Niceforze II. +Pod wpływem patriarchy Polienkta usunął z dworu Teofano. W listopadzie 970 za namową Bazylego paraikomomena ożenił się z Teodorą, córką cesarza Konstantyna VII Porfirogenety i siostrą cesarza Romana II. +Umocnił granice państwa na północy: pokonując księcia kijowskiego Światosława, w 971 roku przyłączył do Bizancjum wschodnią część Bułgarii. W walkach z Arabami w latach 974 - 975 odzyskał większą część Syrii. +Frances Fisher + +Frances Fisher (ur. 11 maja 1952 w Milford w hrabstwie Hampshire, Wielka Brytania) – amerykańska aktorka brytyjskiego pochodzenia. +Po raz pierwszy zabłysnęła w świecie aktorstwa, grając od 1976 do 1981 r. w operze mydlanej "The Edge of Night". Jej kariera aktorska załamała się w latach 80. Dopiero rola jako Lucille Ball w filmie "" z 1991 r. pozwoliła jej powrócić do świata aktorskiego z pozytywnymi recenzjami. +Zagrała wiele ról w telewizji amerykańskiej, włączając w to serię "Strange Luck", "Becker" oraz "Titus". Zagrała także kluczową rolę w ostatnim telewizyjnym dramacie "The Lyon's Den". Jednak jej najbardziej znaną kreacją aktorską okazała się postać Ruth DeWitt Bukater, matki Rose, w filmie "Titanic" Jamesa Camerona z 1997 r. W serialu Eureka zagrała rolę 107-letniej, nie starzejącej się fizycznie naukowiec o wyglądzie 50-latki. +Wieś placowa + +Wieś placowa, owalnica, oblicówka, rozbudowana okolnica – typ wsi budowanej wokół centralnego placu, zwarte zabudowania tworzą zamknięty pierścień z jednym lub dwoma wejściami do wsi. Plac o zróżnicowanym kształcie (owalnym, eliptycznym) zwany "nawsiem" zabudowany, ale wyłącznie funkcjami wspólnymi dla wszystkich mieszkańców, jak staw, cmentarz, kościół. Często z jednej strony wejścia brama, a z drugiej kościół. +Wieś owalnica – osada o zarysie wrzeciona, z owalnym (wydłużonym) placem między dwiema, łukowatymi liniami zabudowy. +Występuje licznie między Odrą a Łabą. Jest charakterystycznym typem wsi dla Czech. Układ pól regularny niwowy lub blokowy. +Chinolony + +Chinolony, a także ich pochodne fluorochinolony − grupa chemioterapeutyków o działaniu bakteriobójczym. +Ich działanie przeciwbakteryjne zależy od inhibicji gyrazy DNA (bakteryjna topoizomeraza II i IV). Podawane są doustnie, dobrze wchłaniają się z przewodu pokarmowego. +Podział. +Ta szeroka grupa antybiotyków jest podzielona na 4 grupy, zwane +Zakres działania i wskazania terapeutyczne. +Poza nielicznymi wyjątkami (np. kwas pipemidowy w zakażeniu dróg moczowych) chinolony pierwszej generacji nie są już stosowane. +Fluorochinolony drugiej generacji stosowane są głównie w zakażeniach bakteriami Gram-ujemymi, działają też na patogeny atypowe ("Chlamydia", "Mycoplasma" i "Legionella"). Wskazania do stosowania to głównie zakażenia powodowane przez "Salmonella", "Shigella", "Legionella" oraz "Campylobacter" a także zakażenia układu moczowego przez "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" i układu oddechowego u chorych na mukowiscydozę. Wrażliwe są również prątki "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" odpowiedzialne za wywoływanie gruźlicy. Paciorkowce i gronkowce są zwykle oporne. +Fluorochinolony trzeciej generacji cechują się wyższą aktywnością wobec bakterii Gram-dodatnich, głównie gronkowców i paciorkowców, lecz mają mniejszą aktywność wobec bakterii Gram-ujemnych. Działają na patogeny atypowe silniej niż fluorochinolony drugiej generacji. +Chinolony czwartej generacji są aktywne głównie wobec bakterii beztlenowych i Gram-dodatnich oraz atypowych patogenów oddechowych. +Działania niepożądane. +Występują rzadko, lecz mogą przyjąć postać ciężkich reakcji zmuszających do odstawienia leku. Najczęściej są to zaburzenia ze strony przewodu pokarmowego (nudności, wymioty, biegunka), Bardzo rzadko pojawiają się zaburzenia neurologiczne pod postacią bólów głowy, senności, zaburzeń widzenia, niepokoju a nawet psychozy i drgawek. Może dojść do uszkodzenia wątroby lub nerek. Istnieje ryzyko skórnych reakcji uczuleniowych, lecz najczęstszym objawem skórnym jest fototoksyczność, sprawiająca że podczas stosowania chinolonów należy unikać światła słonecznego. Z innych objawów obserwowano ból i obrzęk stawów, a także zaburzenia rytmu serca. +Podkreśla się występowanie zwiększonego ryzyka uszkodzenie ścięgien (tendopatii - zapalenia lub zerwania ścięgna) w przypadkach systemowego stosowania fluorochinolonów. Szczególnie dotyczy to osób po 60 roku życia, po przeszczepie narządów i w trakcie leczenie kortykoidami. +Istotne jest też działanie uszkadzające tkankę chrzęstną (chondrotoksyczność), ograniczające stosowanie leków tej grupy u dzieci i młodzieży. +Fluorochinolony mogą wpływać na niebezpieczne pogorszenie funkcji mięśni u pacjentów z miastenią. +Mechanizmy oporności bakteryjnej na chinolony. +Oporność szczególnie szybko narasta wśród bakterii Gram-dodatnich, u "Enterobacteriaceae" proces ten zachodzi wolniej. +Cieśnina Matoczkin Szar + +Matoczkin Szar (ros. "Ма́точкин Шар") - cieśnina oddzielająca od siebie dwie główne wyspy archipelagu Nowej Ziemi - Wyspę Północną i Wyspę Południową. Łączy Morze Barentsa z Morzem Karskim. Ma długość 100 km, a jej szerokość w najwęższym punkcie wynosi 600 m. Brzegi cieśniny są wysokie i strome. +W latach 1963-1990 Związek Radziecki, a później Rosja prowadziły w cieśninie podwodne próby jądrowe . +Enmetena + +Enmetena (odczytywane wcześniej Entemena) – sumeryjski władca miasta-państwa Lagasz, panujący ok. 2450 r. p.n.e.; syn Enanatuma I, ojciec Enanatuma II. Pokonał Ur-Lummę, króla sąsiedniego miasta-państwa Umma, przywracając ustalony wcześniej przebieg granicy między obu miastami. W swych inskrypcjach przedstawia siebie jako wielkiego budowniczego, wznoszącego liczne świątynie i inne budowle. Jego największym przedsięwzięciem budowlanym była budowa kanału łączącego Eufrat z Tygrysem. Wydał dekret uwalniający ludność od długów. W Girsu (obecne Telloh w Iraku) odkryto srebrną wazę z inskrypcją wotywną Enmeteny oraz posąg tego władcy. Wszystko to zdaje się wskazywać, iż za czasów jego panowania miasto-państwo Lagasz przeżywało okres prosperity i rozwoju, +Roman I Lekapen + +Roman I Lekapen, gr. Romanos Lakapēnos (ur. 870, zm. 15 czerwca 948) – cesarz bizantyński w latach 919-944. +Pochodził z chłopskiej, armeńskiej rodziny. Był drungariosem - dowódcą floty cesarskiej. W 919 został regentem do czasu uzyskania dorosłości przez cesarza Konstantyna VII Porfirogeneta, jednak już w 920 roku został współcesarzem, a niedługo później cesarzem, i usunął na drugi plan swojego podopiecznego. W 924 odparł ataki Symeona I, cara Bułgarii na Konstantynopol i spotkał się z nim osobiście. +Skodyfikował prawo, głównie prawo pierwokupu ziemi przez krewnych i sąsiadów zmarłego lub niewypłacalnego chłopa; dbał o armię i swój lud - wiedząc, czego im potrzeba; jego najlepszym wodzem był Ormianin Jan Kurkuas. W 941 odparł atak Rusinów na Konstantynopol, a w 944 podpisał z nimi umowę, będącą w dużej mierze powtórzeniem umowy z 911. Za jego czasów Kurkuas ruszył na Bliski Wschód - zdobył Martyropolis, Darę, Nisibis i Edessę, gdzie znajdował się tzw. mandylion - chusta z odbitą twarzą Jezusa. +16 grudnia 944 został aresztowany i zesłany na wyspę Proti (dziś Kınalıada) na rozkaz synów, Stefana i Konstatyna, gdzie zmarł jako mnich. +Chrewt + +Chrewt (w latach 1977-1981 Przystań) – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie podkarpackim, w powiecie bieszczadzkim, w gminie Czarna przy drodze wojewódzkiej nr . +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki o Chrewcie pojawiają się w początkach XV wieku. Była to jedna z pierwszych wsi założonych przez Kmitów. +W 1968 większa część wsi została zalana przez wody Jeziora Solińskiego. Obecnie pełni funkcję miejscowości turystycznej. +Roman III Argyros + +Roman III Argyros (ur. 968, zm. 11 kwietnia 1034) – cesarz bizantyjski od 1028 jako pierwszy mąż cesarzowej Zoe (współrządzili razem). +Był prawnukiem cesarza Romana I Lekapena. W czasie rządów Bazylego II Bułgarobójcy był sędzią, a w czasie rządów Konstantyna VIII – prefektem Konstantynopola. Roman przyciągnął uwagę cesarza i ten zmusił go do rozwodu z żoną (odesłano ją do klasztoru) i poślubienia cesarzówny Zoe. Ich ślub miał miejsce 12 listopada 1028, a trzy dni później Konstantyn VIII zmarł i pozostawił tron Romanowi III. +Cesarz okazał się marnym władcą i mężem. Zmarł w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach; został otruty lub "utonął w wannie" podczas kąpieli, najprawdopodobniej z rozkazu swojej rozczarowanej żony. Pochowano go w ufundowanym przez niego klasztorze Peribleptu. +Rodzina. +Z drugą żoną Zoe, nie miał potomstwa. +Jego siostra Maria została poślubiona synowi doży weneckiego Piotra Orseolo, Janowi w 1004 r. Z tego związku narodził się syn. +Leon VI Filozof + +Leon VI Filozof (ur. 19 września 866 w Konstantynopol, zm. 11 maja 912 tamże) – cesarz Bizancjum z dynastii macedońskiej. Swój przydomek zawdzięczał upodobaniom do wygłaszania kazań w kościołach Konstantynopola. +Wstąpił na tron po swym ojcu Bazylim w 886 roku, rozpoczynając panowanie od usunięcia z patriarchatu Focjusza i mianowania na jego miejsce swego brata Stefana. Jego matką była Eudokia Ingerina (kochanka cesarza Michała III Metystesa, skąd niektórzy historycy to jemu przypisują ojcostwo). +Do 904 roku panował wspólnie z bratem Aleksandrem. +Mimo podjęcia prób reorganizacji wojska bizantyjskiego i podniesienia jego sprawności bojowej poniósł szereg klęsk w wojnach z wdzierającymi się w granice państwa Bułgarami (894-896), Arabami (907). Po przegranej wojnie z Rusią Kijowską (911) zawarł traktat gwarantujący Rusinom swobodę handlu z Konstantynopolem. Polecił dokończenie bizantyjskiego kodeksu prawnego Opus Basilicon (uaktualnienie ustaw z kodeksu Justyniana), który przetrwał do upadku Konstantynopola w 1453 roku. Autor prac z zakresu taktyki wojskowej i teologii. +Przylądek Marroquí + +Przylądek Marroquí ("Punta Marroqui", "Punta de Tarifa") – przylądek w Hiszpanii położony nad Cieśniną Gibraltarską. Sięga 35° 58' N 5°37' W. Jest to najdalej na południe wysunięty punkt Półwyspu Iberyjskiego i równocześnie lądowej części Europy. Oblewany wodami Cieśniny Gibraltarskiej. Stosowana niekiedy nazwa Przylądek Tarify pochodzi od miejscowości o tej samej nazwie, położonej na samym przylądku. +Nowa Ziemia + +Nowa Ziemia ("ros. Новая Земля") – grupa wysp na Oceanie Arktycznym administracyjnie należąca do Rosji. Leży w strefie klimatów okołobiegunowych. +Geografia. +Położenie. +Nowa Ziemia leży na północno-wschodnim krańcu Europy. Archipelag otaczają wody Morza Barentsa od zachodu i Morza Karskiego od wschodu. +Od kontynentu (ściślej: od wyspy Wajgacz) oddzielona jest cieśniną Karskie Wrota. +Wschodnim wybrzeżem Nowej Ziemi przebiega umowna granica między Europą a Azją, zaś północno-wschodni cypel – przylądek Flissingski stanowi wysuniętą najdalej na wschód część Europy. +Powierzchnia. +Powierzchnia wysp wynosi ponad 82,6 tys. km². +Wyspy z północy na południe ciągną się na długości 925 km, zaś w najszerszym miejscu Wyspa Południowa w linii wschód-zachód ma szerokość 143 km. +Administracyjnie należą one do obwodu archangielskiego i stanowią odrębny rejon w jego ramach. Archipelag składa się z wielu wysp, wśród których największe to Wyspa Północna i Wyspa Południowa rozdzielone cieśniną Matoczkin Szar. +Około 25% powierzchni pokrywają lodowce. Ich średnia miąższość to 300 m. Główny lodowiec wysp ciągnie się na długości ok. 400 km i ma szerokość 70-75 km. W niektórych miejscach lodowiec kończy się dopiero na brzegu morza. +Z geologicznego punktu widzenia archipelag stanowi przedłużenie gór Ural, zatem powierzchnia wysp jest w większości górzysta (wys. do 1547 m n.p.m.). +Roślinność. +Niepokryte lodem tereny Nowej Ziemi porasta roślinność tundrowa. Flora regionu jest dość bogata pod względem liczby występujących gatunków, zaś największe zróżnicowanie występuje w rejonie półwyspu Gusinyj Nos. W tamtej okolicy rośnie 197 gatunków i podgatunków roślin, spośród których 3 nie występują w żadnym innym miejscu na wyspach. +Miejscowa roślinność składa się z gatunków występujących w tundrach położonych na południu, gdzie klimat jest nieco łagodniejszy; większość to gatunki lubiące obszary podmokłe i silnie zabagnione. +Rosną tutaj liczne gatunki mchów i porostów, trawy i niewielkie krzewinki (znaczenie dla ludzkiej gospodarki mają m.in. moroszki i borówki brusznice). Rośnie tutaj także pewna liczba gatunków roślin kwiatowych, spośród których wymienić można np. siedmiopalecznik błotny. Brak jest natomiast drzew, pomijając formy karłowate (np. brzozy). +Fauna. +Świat zwierzęcy wysp reprezentują głównie ptaki, zarówno pod względem liczby gatunków, jak i liczebności osobników. Wszystkie gatunki żyją tutaj jedynie w ciepłej połowie roku i na zimę odlatują na południe, zaś na Nową Ziemię przylatują w końcu maja i czerwcu na okres lęgowy. Żyją tutaj w dużej liczbie m.in. rybitwy, wydrzyki (tęposterny, ostrosterny i długosterny), sowa śnieżna, pardwa mszarna, nury, kaczki, gęsi (m.in. białoczelna i zbożowa, edredony, myszołów włochaty, oraz drobne wróblowe, wśród których można wymienić np. śniegułę. Spotyka się tutaj także łabędzie. Większość spośród wymienionych ptaków gnieździ się w okolicach podmokłych i zabagnionych, gdzie znajduje się obfitość pokarmu: ryb, bezkręgowców i roślinności wodnej. +Ze ssaków żyją tutaj m.in. lisy polarne (pieśce), niedźwiedzie polarne i lemingi. +W przybrzeżnych wodach żyją morskie ssaki: różne gatunki fok (np. foka wąsata), białuchy. Niegdyś liczba występujących tutaj gatunków fok była większa, jednak zostały one wytępione przez myśliwych. Także populacja morsów zachowała się tylko w północnej części archipelagu. Wody te obfitują także w rozmaite gatunki ryb. +W okresie wiosenno-letnim na lądzie występują także liczne gatunki owadów i innych bezkręgowców. +Klimat. +Na wyspach panuje surowy, polarny klimat, jedynie na południowych skrawkach wysp występuje klimat typu subpolarnego. Lokalny klimat charakteryzuje się długą i chłodną zimą, z silnymi wiatrami, dochodzącymi do 50 m/s i burzami śnieżnymi oraz zamieciami. Zimą temperatury spadają do −40 °C. Dzięki opływającemu wyspy od zachodu ciepłemu prądowi morskiemu - Golfsztromowi temperatury powietrza w zimie są dużo wyższe, niżby wynikało to z położenia geograficznego archipelagu i wynoszą do ok. -14 °C (na południu) do ok. -22 °C (na północnym wschodzie). +Lato jest krótkie i chłodne. Średnia temperatura najcieplejszego miesiąca – sierpnia waha się 2,5 °C na północy do 6,5 °C w południowej części wysp. +Średnio spada tutaj ok. 317 mm opadów, których maksimum przypada na okres od sierpnia do października. +Bogactwa naturalne. +Na wyspach znajdują się złoża rud miedzi, cynku i ołowiu. Znajdują się tutaj także złoża węgla kamiennego. +Ludność. +Stałą ludność wysp stanowi 2.716 osób (2002; dane spisowe). +Stali mieszkańcy zamieszkują wyłącznie Wyspę Południową. Największą i jedyną obecnie stale zamieszkiwaną osadą jest osiedle typu miejskiego Biełuszja Guba, liczące 2,6 tys. mieszkańców (2006). Administracyjnie w jej skład wchodzi też Rogaczowo, położone ok. 12 km od Biełuszjej Guby, gdzie znajduje się lotnisko wojskowe. Niegdyś ok. 350 km na północ istniała także jeszcze jedna osada, wykorzystywana przez badaczy poszukujących surowców mineralnych. +Biełuszja Guba została założona w 1954 w związku z powstaniem poligonu atomowego. Obecnie osada przypomina inne rosyjskie miasteczka: jest tutaj cerkiew, szkoła, przedszkole, szpital (wojskowy), kilka sklepów i punktów usługowych (m.in. fryzjer i studio fotograficzne), basen, 3 hotele itd. Część z tej infrastruktury służy głównie przebywającym tutaj czasowo wojskowym. Ewenementem miasta jest nierównowaga demograficzna stałej populacji: mężczyźni stanowią aż 75,7%. +Stałymi mieszkańcami wysp jest też niespełna 100-osobowa populacja Nieńców, prowadząca półkoczownicze życie myśliwych i rybaków. +Ponadto przebywa tutaj czasowo zmienna liczba osób z personelu wojskowego i badawczego. +Historia. +Do południowych części wysp jako pierwsi dotarli na przełomie XI i XII wieku ruscy kupcy z Nowogrodu, jednak odkrycie to nie pociągnęło za sobą żadnych konsekwencji, jako iż arktyczny archipelag nie przedstawiał wartości ani jako miejsce osadnictwa, ani z gospodarczego punktu widzenia. Pierwsza prawdziwie badawcza ekspedycja dotarła tutaj w 1553 r. Kierował nią Hugh Willoughby, szukający tzw. Przejścia Północno-Wschodniego. W 1591 Willem Barents jako pierwszy dotarł do północnego krańca archipelagu i przezimował na jego wschodnim wybrzeżu. Zmarł w trakcie drogi powrotnej. Tragiczne losy tej wyprawy stały się podstawą filmu "Nova Zembla" +Aż do XIX wieku Nowa Ziemia pozostawała bezludna i jedynymi ludźmi, jacy się na niej pojawiali, byli lądujący tu niekiedy norwescy i rosyjscy rybacy oraz myśliwi polujący na morskie ssaki, operujący na okolicznych wodach. Jakkolwiek wyspy nie przedstawiały żadnego znaczenia i były niezamieszkane, to jednak imperium Rosyjskie uważało je za część terytorium państwa; na tym tle pojawiały się niekiedy konflikty dyplomatyczne z Norwegią. +Dopiero w 2. połowie XIX w., w związku z ociepleniem się klimatu osiadło tutaj kilka rodzin nienieckich. Pierwsi osadnicy pojawili się w 1872, kolejna grupa 6 rodzin (24 osoby) została osadzona tutaj w 1877. W latach 80. XIX wieku ta niewielka kolonia stanowiła już stałą ludność regionu. +W 1905 przybył na Nową Ziemię z Archangielska polski geolog, zesłaniec polityczny Adam Marceli Piwowar, który podczas krótkiej wyprawy opisał wysoczyznę pokrytą lodowcami typu alpejskiego (Centralne Plateau Heima), liczne jeziora, które nazwał jeziorami Ekstama oraz wypływającą z tych jezior rzekę o długości 30 km, nazwaną przez niego rzeką Nałkowskiego. Ponadto ustalił dyslokacyjne pochodzenie cieśniny Matoczkin Szar oraz odkrył złoża węgla kamiennego i rud metali. +Poligon atomowy i skażenie radioaktywne. +W dniu 7 września 1954 ZSRR założył tutaj swój poligon nuklearny. Pierwszą bombę zdetonowano w 1955, 30 października 1961 zdetonowano tam największy jak do tej pory ładunek nuklearny na świecie – "Car Bombę" (ros. "Царь-бомба") o mocy 58 megaton. Od 1963, kiedy to zawarto porozumienie ze Stanami Zjednoczonymi o ograniczeniu prób nuklearnych, przeprowadzano tutaj tylko wybuchy podziemne, o znacznie mniejszej mocy ładunków. W sumie od 21 września 1955 r. do 24 października 1990 na poligonie tym przeprowadzono 135 prób atomowych, z czego nad powierzchnią ziemi 87, 1 – naziemny, 2 – nadwodne, 3 – podwodne i 42 podziemne. +Ponadto doświadczenia z bronią nuklearną przeprowadzano też innych miejscach archipelagu, gdyż oficjalnie poligon atomowy zajmował ponad połowę obszaru Nowej Ziemi. +W wyniku tych doświadczeń w niektórych częściach wysp panuje skażenie radioaktywne. +Wokół Nowej Ziemi znajdują się największe składowiska odpadów radioaktywnych na świecie. +Nicefor II Fokas + +Nicefor II Fokas (gr. Νικηφόρος Β΄ Φωκάς, Nikēphoros II Phōkas) (ur. ok. 912, zm. 11 grudnia 969) – cesarz bizantyjski od 963, jeden z najwybitniejszych bizantyjskich władców X w., zasłużony dla odbudowy militarnej potęgi państwa. +Pochodził z kapadockiej rodziny Fokasów, która wydała wielu sławnych generałów np. ojca Nicefora - Bardasa Fokasa, jego wuja - Leona Fokasa, i dziadka - Nicefora Fokasa Starszego. +Nicefor urodził się ok. 912 r. (data niepewna). Służbę w armii rozpoczął w młodym wieku. W 945 r., za panowania cesarza Konstantyna VII Porfirogenety wyznaczony został dowódcą temu Anatolikon. W 953 r., gdy jego ojciec, Bardas, został raniony w bitwie, Nicefor awansował na głównego dowódcę wojsk wschodniego pogranicza. +Podczas walk z Abbasydami poniósł w 954 r. kilka klęsk, jednak w późniejszym czasie (od 957 r.) niepowodzenia te zostały powetowane zwycięstwami w Syrii. Po wstąpieniu na tron cesarza Romana II, Nicefor został wyznaczony dowódcą wschodniej armii, zaś jego młodszy brat Leon, dowódcą armii zachodniej. W 960 r. Nicefor stanął na czele wojsk, których celem było odbicie Krety z rąk muzułmańskich. W 961 r. po kilkumiesięcznym oblężeniu zdobyta została Kandia, a wkrótce później władztwo bizantyjskie przywrócone zostało nad całą wyspą. Zwycięstwo to, choć imponujące, nie zostało uhonorowane zwyczajowym triumfem w Konstantynopolu, Nicefor otrzymał pozwolenie tylko na owację na hipodromie. +Wkrótce potem Nicefor wrócił na wschód z dużą i dobrze wyposażoną armią. Podczas walk w latach 962-963 zdobył kilka miast Cylicji a także Aleppo. +Po objęciu władzy cesarskiej Nicefor II kontynuował politykę podbojów. W latach 964-966 podporządkował Bizancjum Cylicję a następnie Mezopotamię i Syrię. Po zdobyciu Syrii zburzył większość tamtejszych fortec, a po upadku Antiochii i Aleppo (969) zabezpieczył zdobycze traktatami pokojowymi. W tym też czasie patrycjusz Niketas podbił Cypr. W 967 rozpoczął wojnę z Bułgarami, którym dotychczas cesarstwo płaciło znaczny trybut. Nicefor odrzucił bułgarskie żądania przysłania trybutu a następnie zachęcił ruskiego księcia Światosława, by ten zaatakował Bułgarię od północy. Światosław w 967 r. poprowadził zwycięską wyprawę przeciw Bułgarom: zajął ujście Dunaju i próbował zorganizować tam państwo ze stolicą w Presławiu. Sukcesy Światosława spowodowały, iż Nicefor zmienił front, obawiając się, by władca ruski nie wyrósł z czasem na groźniejszego przeciwnika: odnowił przymierze z Bułgarami zrywając je ze Światosławem. +Mniej udane były kampanie, prowadzone przez cesarza na zachodzie. Dowodzona przez Niketasa wyprawa wojskowa na Sycylię (964-965) zakończyła się niepowodzeniem. Bizantyjczycy zostali zmuszeni do opuszczenia wyspy. W 967 r. cesarz zawarł pokój z Fatymidami po to, by bronić się przez wrogiem, który zagrażał zarówno Arabom, jak i Bizantyjczykom: Otton I Wielki, który ogłosił się cesarzem rzymskim i zaatakował bizantyjskie posiadłości w południowej Italii. Po początkowych sukcesach wojska Ottona zostały jednak odparte. Napięcie, istniejące podówczas między Bizancjum a Zachodem, widoczne jest w bardzo nieżyczliwym portrecie cesarza i jego dworu, zawartym w dziele "Relatio de legatione Constantinopolitana", napisanym przez biskupa Kremony, Liutpranda. +Założył klasztor na górze Athos. Był gorącym wielbicielem św. Atanazego. Anulował on przysługujące biedakom prawo pierwokupu przy sprzedaży majętności możnowładców. +Został zabity z inicjatywy żony, m.in. przez swego następcę (i kochanka żony) Jana I. +Rodzina. +Jego pierwszą żoną była Maleina, z którą Nicefor miał syna, Bardasa Fokasa (zm. przed 969). Druga żoną była Teofano, wdowa po cesarzu Romanie II, z którą Nicefor nie miał dzieci. +Aleksy I Komnen + +Aleksy I Komnen (ur. 1048, zm. 15 sierpnia 1118) – cesarz bizantyjski od 4 kwietnia 1081, syn Jana Komnena i Anny Dalasseny. +Pochodził z arystokratycznego rodu Komnenów z Azji Mniejszej, który miał na dworze wpływy już za czasów dynastii Dukasów. Zasiadł na tronie w drodze zamachu stanu dzięki poparciu braci (Izaaka i Adriana) oraz spowinowaconych z nim Dukasów (dzięki zawartemu w 1077 małżeństwu z Ireną Dukainą). Ojciec m.in. Anny Komneny i Jana II Komnena. +W momencie wstąpienia na tron sytuacja Cesarstwa była bardzo poważna – zagrożenie najazdami Połowców i Kumanów od północy (zza Dunaju), Słowian Południowych z północnego zachodu, Normanów z południowej Italii i Turków seldżuckich ze wschodu (którzy w wyniku miażdżącego zwycięstwa w bitwie pod Manzikertem, 19 sierpnia 1071 podbili niemal całą bizantyńską Azję Mniejszą). Słabość Cesarstwa zwiększały również wewnętrzne rozłamy i niepokoje związane z działalnością sekt (manichejczycy, paulicjanie, bogomili) oraz groźną opozycją wewnętrzną (spiski wojskowe i senatorskie). +Aleksy, w pełni świadomy zagrożenia i słabości państwa, zręcznie walczył z wrogami zewnętrznymi i wewnętrznymi przy pomocy środków zarówno militarnych, jak i dyplomatycznych. Zawarłszy układ pokojowy z Turkami (w 1081 r.), skoncentrował swoje szczupłe siły na prowadzonej z wielkim trudem i zmiennym szczęściem walce z Normanami (1081-1085). Podczas bitwy pod Dyrrachion, 18 października 1081 dzięki osobistemu męstwu cudem uniknął śmierci lub niewoli. (Mimo grożących niebezpieczeństw, Aleksy, jako doświadczony wódz i odważny żołnierz, osobiście prowadził wiele kampanii.) +Po wyparciu Normanów, w latach 1085-1090 bez wyraźnych sukcesów próbował odeprzeć najazdy Połowców i Kumanów (z północy), Serbów (z zachodu) i Turków (ze wschodu). Przywróciwszy chwilowo potęgę Cesarstwa, poprosił Zachód o dostarczenie wojsk zaciężnych, których w Bizancjum brakowało. +Apel został inaczej odebrany – w 1095 papież Urban II wystąpił z projektem krucjaty przeciw Turkom, której celem miała służyć nie tyle pomocy Cesarstwu, co wyparciu muzułmanów z Ziemi Świętej. W 1096 Aleksy wymusił na krzyżowcach złożenie hołdu lennego i obietnicę, że odebrane ziemie zostaną zwrócone Bizancjum. Sam dostarczył floty na przewiezienie krzyżowców przez Bosfor. +Pod koniec życia Aleksy szczególnie aktywnie dążył do pokojowego ograniczenia wpływów sekt chrześcijańskich (głównie paulicjan i bogomiłów). Powodem mogło być zwłaszcza szybkie rozprzestrzenianie się wyznawców tych odłamów chrześcijaństwa na obszarze cesarstwa w II poł. XI wieku. Zapewne w latach 1101- 1104 odbyła się pod jego przewodnictwem debata duchowieństwa bizantyńskiego z bogomiłami. Natomiast w 1114 cesarz spotkał się z paulicjanami i bogomiłami w mieście Filipopol w Tracji. W jego wyniku miało dojść do apostazji kilku tysięcy zwolenników tych sekt, których osadził w nowym mieście niedaleko Filipopola – Aleksjopol (Neokastron). Jednak przynajmniej bogomilizm był już tak mocno zakorzeniony, że nie udało się go poważniej osłabić. +Nicefor III Botaniates + +Nicefor III Botaniates, gr. Νικηφόρος Γ΄ Βοτανειάτης – "Nikēphoros III Botaneiatēs", łac. "Nicephorus Botaniates" (ur. ok. 1001-1002, zm. 1081 lub 1082) – cesarz bizantyjski w latach 1078-1081. +Przed objęciem władzy. +Nicefor pochodził z małoazjatyckiego rodu spokrewnionego z Fokasami. Jak wielu innych przedstawicieli anatolijskiej arystokracji wybrał karierę w armii cesarskiej, uzyskując dowództwo temu Anatolikon. W roku 1057 był jednym z oficerów, którzy wystąpili przeciwko Michałowi VI, popierając Izaaka I Komnena. +Obalenie Michała VII. +W 1077 przeciwko rządom Michała VII wystąpiła armia z prowincji europejskich cesarstwa pod wodzą Nikefora Bryenninosa. W październiku 1077 Nicefor Botaniates stanął na czele analogicznego ruchu w prowincjach Azjatyckich. Siódmego stycznia 1078 został on okrzyknięty cesarzem i ruszył na stolicę. Dysponując niewielką ilością żołnierzy, zdecydował się na werbunek Turków, korzystając z pomocy Sulejmana jednego z kuzynów sułtana Alp Arslana – zwycięzcy spod Manzikert. Z ich pomocą zdobył kolejno Kyzikos, Nikeę – pod którą pokonał wojska cesarskie oraz Nikomedię, Chalkedon i Chryzopol. Następnie stanął pod Konstantynopolem gdzie miał silne poparcie m.in. w duchowieństwie oraz korporacjach rzemieślniczych. Wobec zaistniałej sytuacji 31 marca 1078 Michał VII Dukas abdykował i usunął się do klasztoru. W tych warunkach 3 kwietnia Nicefor, wkroczył do stolicy i przejął ster rządów. Koronacja władcy nastąpiła jednakże dopiero kilka miesięcy później (2 czerwca bądź lipca 1078 roku). Dla umocnienia swej pozycji cesarz poślubił żonę swojego poprzednika – Marię z Alanii i to jeszcze za życia Michała VII. +Na wieść o przewrocie w Bizancjum papież Grzegorz VII obłożył Nicefora klątwą. +Rządy Nicefora III. +Rządy Nicefora III charakteryzowały się brakiem spójnej polityki i początkowo polegały głownie na zjednywaniu sobie stronników obalonego Michała VII. W tym okresie nasiliła się jeszcze walka stronnictw co zwiększyło panujący w kraju chaos wywołany klęską pod Manzikert. Wzrastające wydatki doprowadziły również do wyczerpania skarbu, a w konsekwencji do obniżeniu wartości pieniądza. Wielkie wpływy na dworze uzyskali cesarscy zausznicy: Borył i German. Początkowo podporą rządów Nicefora III była również rodzina Komnenów. +Najgorsze jednak wieści dochodziły do Konstantynopola z prowincji małoazjatyckich. Około roku 1080 pojawił się tam kolejny pretendent – Nikefor Melisen, który w tym samym roku obwołał się cesarzem. Ponadto podobnie jak wcześniej Nicefor III, sprzymierzył się on z Sulejmanem. Ten ostatni korzystając z powstałego zamieszania, którego powstanie było zresztą w niemałym stopniu jego własnym udziałem, opanował całą Bizantyjską Azję Mniejszą – od Cylicji do Hellespontu. Jak podaje G. Ostrogorski: Sulejman „"(...) na tej prastarej bizantyńskiej ziemi założył sułtanat Rumu, czyli rzymski."” Taki był ostateczny rezultat nieudolnej polityki następców Bazylego II, która doprowadziła do rozprężenia się systemu militarnego i administracyjnego Anatolii oraz zaniknięciu instytucji stratiotów-rolników stworzonej jeszcze przez cesarza Herakliusza. +Utrata władzy. +Przeciwko Niceforowi wystąpił najpierw wcześniejszy pretendent Nikefor Bryennios (starszy), a później rodzina Komnenów, która początkowo stanowiła podporę dla rządów nowego władcy, pomagając mu między innymi w rozprawieniu się z Bryenniosem oraz z jego następcą na stanowisku duksa Dyrrachium – Nikeforem Bazylacjuszem. +Czwartego kwietnia 1081, po wkroczeniu do stolicy Izaaka i Aleksego Komnenów, Nicefor III abdykował. Za radą patriarchy wstąpił do klasztoru Peribleptu, gdzie zmarł. +Powiat iławski + +Powiat iławski – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Iława. +Demografia. +Ludność w latach. +1975-1998 nie istniał +Bezrobocie. +Dane z końca września 2006 r. +Michał IV Paflagończyk + +Michał IV Paflagończyk (ur. 1010, zm. 10 grudnia 1041) – cesarz bizantyjski od 11 kwietnia 1034, drugi mąż cesarzowej Zoe (współrządzili razem). +Michał pochodził z paflagońskiej rodziny chłopskiej. Jego starszy brat - Jan Eunuch został jednak zarządcą kobiecej części pałacu cesarskiego i przedstawił swojego brata na dworze. Cesarzowa Zoe bardzo polubiła swojego nowego szambelana i oboje otruli podobno jej pierwszego męża - Romana III. Niedługo po tym jak Zoe została wdową, poślubiła Michała 11 kwietnia 1034, a ten współrządził z nią cesarstwem aż do swojej śmierci. +Krótko przed swoją śmiercią, Michał IV nadał swojemu siostrzeńcowi przyszłemu Michałowi V tytuł cezara i adoptował go razem z Zoe. Po buncie Bułgarów i rozgromieniu ich przez Michała, wracał on do Konstantynopola, aby odbyć triumf, ale niespodziewanie zachorował i zmarł po drodze. +Konstantyn X Dukas + +Konstantyn X Dukas (ur. 1006, zm. 22/23 maja 1067) – cesarz bizantyjski od 1059. +Konstantyn Dukas pochodził z jednego z bardziej znanych rodów arystokratycznych cesarstwa, którego członkowie wielokrotnie uczestniczyli w przeszłości w buntach i zamieszkach wewnętrznych. Za panowania Konstantyna Porfirogenety rebelię wszczął Konstantyn Angelos (Dukas), a za panowania Bazylego Andronik Dukas wspierał rebelię Bardasa Sklerosa. Konstantyn był właśnie synem Andronika. W 1057 był westarchą, wspierał opozycję armii wschodniej przeciw Michałowi VI Stratiotikowi, poparł Izaaka I Komnena, który mianował go proedrosem. +W 1057 uchodził za kandydata do tronu i po abdykacji Izaaka I, mając jego poparcie objął władzę (24 XI 1059). Miał poparcie kręgów administracji cywilnej i dawnych stronników Michała Cerulariusza. Jego drugą żoną była Eudoksja Makrembolitsa, siostrzenica Michała Celariusza. Miał z nią sześcioro dzieci: trzech chłopców i trzy dziewczynki. Władzę otrzymał dzięki staraniom Michała Psellosa, który wysławia go w swojej "Kronice". Mianował swego brata Jana cezarem. Jako cesarz wycofał się z programu reform rozpoczętych przez poprzednika, polegających na wzmocnieniu armii. Praktykował na szeroką skalę dzierżawienie podatków i dokonywał sprzedaży urzędów. Zwiększyły się koszty utrzymania aparatu urzędniczego i Kościoła. Podarunkami utrzymywano przyjazne stosunki obcymi plemionami. W 1061 udaremniono próbę zamachu na cesarza. Cesarstwo nie było w stanie przeciwstawić się ofensywie Turków seldżuckich, którzy w 1064 zdobyli królestwo Ani (Armenia), w 1067 Cezareę. W 1064 Węgrzy zajęli Belgrad. Nie odparto najazdu Uzów na Bałkany (jesień 1064-1065) dokonujących spustoszeń, zaś w 1066 wybuchło powstanie w Tesalii. Normanowie dokonali podboju Apulii i Kalabrii na południu Italii. +W 1066 Konstantyn zapadł na ciężką chorobę. Po śmierci władzę w imieniu małoletniego syna Michała przejęła cesarzowa Eudoksja Makrembolitissa. +Rodzina. +Pierwsza żona – córka Konstantyna Dalassena. +Apocalyptica + +Apocalyptica – fińska grupa muzyczna wykonująca szeroko pojętą muzykę heavy metalową z elementami muzyki poważnej, w tym symfonicznej. Powstała w 1993 roku w Helsinkach jako kwartet smyczkowy. Debiut formacji "Plays Metallica by Four Cellos" wydany w 1996 roku zawierający wyłącznie interpretacje utworów z repertuaru Metalliki cieszył się znaczną popularnością na świecie sprzedając się w nakładzie ponad miliona egzemplarzy. +Od 2003 roku zespół tworzą trzej wiolonczeliści - absolwenci Sibelius-Akatemia: Eicca Toppinen, Paavo Lötjönen i Perttu Kivilaakso oraz perkusista Mikko Sirén. Członkowie zespołu jako Apocalyptica wystąpili gościnnie na ponad dziesięciu albumach m.in. takich wykonawców jak: The Rasmus, HIM, Sepultura czy Amon Amarth. +Historia. +Apocalyptica została utworzona w 1993 roku w Helsinkach składzie: Eicca Toppinen, Paavo Lötjönen, Antero Manninen oraz Max Lilja. Wszyscy muzycy byli wówczas studentami Sibelius-Akatemia. 3 października 1996 roku ukazał się debiutancki album formacji zatytułowany "Plays Metallica by Four Cellos". Wydawnictwo zawierające wyłącznie interpretacje utworów z repertuaru Metalliki cieszyło się znaczną popularnością w ojczyźnie kwartetu gdzie dotarła do 7. miejsca tamtejszej listy sprzedaży. Album "Plays Metallica by Four Cellos" uzyskał ponadto status złotej płyty w Polsce oraz platynowej płyty w Finlandii. +Druga płyta zespołu pt. "Inquisition Symphony" została wydana 22 września 1998 roku. Płyta dotarła do 10. miejsca fińskiej listy sprzedaży. Wszystkie utwory na płycie zaaranżował Eicca Toppinen, poza "One" który przygotował Max Lilja. Nagrania wyprodukowali Otto Donner i Hiili Hiilesmaa. Album nagrał i zmiksował Juha Heininen z Millbrook Studio. Na albumie "Inquisition Symphony" po raz pierwszy ukazały się autorskie kompozycje zespołu. Pozostałe utwory to interpretacje utworów grup Faith No More, Sepultura, Pantera i Metallica. W 1999 roku Manninen opuścił zespół, a zastąpił go Perttu Kivilaakso. 28 kwietnia 2000 roku ukazał się trzeci album studyjny grupy pt. "Cult". 30 lipca 2010 roku ukazało się pierwsze wydawnictwo DVD formacji zatytułowane "Live". +Na początku 2002 roku z zespołu odszedł Max Lilja z powodu nieporozumień z pozostałymi muzykami. Obowiązki czwartego wiolonczelisty objął ponownie Antero Manninen, który dołączył do grupy jako muzyk sesyjny. W międzyczasie zespół podpisał kontrakt ze stacją telewizyjną Fox Sports Net zezwalający na wykorzystanie kompozycji "Hall of the Mountain King" w spotach reklamowych promujących NASCAR w Stanach Zjednoczonych. 21 września w Japonii ukazała się pierwsza w dorobku zespołu kompilacja zatytułowana "Best of Apocalyptica". 19 maja 2003 roku został wydany singel "Faraway Vol.2" promujący nową płytę formacji. Czwarty album studyjny grupy zatytułowany "Reflections" został wydany 2 października. Gościnnie w nagraniach wziął udział perkusista grupy Slayer - Dave Lombardo, który zagrał w pięciu utworach. W pozostałych kompozycjach na perkusji zagrał fiński muzyk sesyjny Sami Kuoppamäki. 6 października został wydany kolejny singel formacji pt. "Seemann". Kompozycja będąca interpretacją utworu z repertuaru Rammstein została nagrana z gościnnym udziałem niemieckiej wokalistki Niny Hagen. Cieszący się popularnością singel dotarł m.in. do 13. miejsca niemieckiej listy przebojów. Wykonanie skomplementował również członek Rammstein - klawiszowiec Christian "Flake" Lorenz, który określił utwór jako nagrodę cenniejszą od Grammy czy Echo. Również w 2003 roku jako muzyk sesyjny do grupy dołączył perkusista Mikko Sirén. +Latem 2004 roku dzięki Harmageddon Publishing po raz pierwszy ukazały się transkrypcje nutowe kompozycji Apocalyptiki. 29 listopada ukazał się singel pt. "Bittersweet" zwiastujący piąty album grupy. Gościnie w utworze zaśpiewali:Lauri Ylönen z grupy The Rasmus oraz lider zespołu HIM - Ville Valo. 24 stycznia 2005 roku został wydany piąty album studyjny formacji pt. "Apocalyptica". Płyta dotarła do 2. miejsca fińskiej listy sprzedaży oraz uzyskała status złotej płyty sprzedając się w nakładzie 15 000 egzemplarzy. +14 lutego 2005 roku został wydany drugi singel pt. "Wie Weit", natomiast 23 lutego została wydana anglojęzyczna wersja singla pt. "How Far". W obu kompozycjach opartych na instrumentalnym "Quutamo" zaśpiewała Marta Jandová wokalista Die Happy. Na singlach ukazała się również francuskojęzyczna wersja utworu pt. "En Vie", którą wykonała Emmanuelle Monet. Również w lutym zespół odbył europejską trase koncertową poprzedzając Rammstein. Z kolei w marcu zespół zagrał po raz pierwszy w historii szereg koncertów w Stanach Zjednoczonych. 11 kwietnia 2005 roku ukazał się trzeci i ostatni singel promujący płytę zatytułowany "Life Burns!". Do utworu został zrealizowany również teledysk. W sierpniu zespół wystąpił podczas ceremonii otwarcia Mistrzostw Świata w Lekkoatletyce w Helsinkach. We wrześniu Apocalyptica ponownie wstąpiła w USA gdzie odwiedziła m.in. Los Angeles, San Francisco i Chicago. Tego samego roku Sirén został oficjalnym członkiem formacji. +22 stycznia 2006 roku zespół wystąpił podczas otwarcia międzynarodowych targów MIDEM w Palais des Festivals w Cannes. Z kolei 13 marca niemiecka stacja telewizyjna ZDF wyemitowała film Die Mandantin w reżyserii Marcusa O. Rosenmüllera zawierający ścieżkę dźwiękową składającą się w całości z kompozycji zespołu. 26 maja została wydana dwupłytowa kompilacja nagrań formacji zatytułowana "Amplified - A Decade of Reinventing the Cello". Wydawnictwo poprzedził wydany 19 maja singel "Repressed" w którym gościnnie wystąpili Max Cavalera z zespołu Soulfly oraz Matt Tuck z Bullet for My Valentine. We wrześniu 2007 roku ukazał się szósty album zespołu zatytułowany "Worlds Collide". Płytę poprzedził singel "I'm Not Jesus", który ukazał się 31 sierpnia 2007 roku. Gościnnie w utworze zaśpiewał Corey Taylor członek formacji Slipknot. Do kompozycji zrealizowany został zrealizowany również teledysk który wyreżyserował Tony Petrossian. +18 stycznia 2008 roku ukazał się drugi singel promujący płytę "S.O.S. (Anything But Love)" w którym zaśpiewała Cristina Scabbia członkini włoskiej formacji Lacuna Coil. 8 marca muzycy wystąpili podczas gali Emma Gaala w Kulttuuritalo w Helsinkiach. Grupie towarzyszyła popowa piosenkarka Hanna Pakarinen z Apocalyptiką wykonała kompozycję "S.O.S. (Anything But Love)". 12 maja grupa zagrała ośmiominutowy medley podczas Konkursu Piosenki Eurowizji. Natomiast 30 maja tego samego roku został wydany trzeci i ostatni singel z płyty "I Don't Care" z gościnnym udziałem Adama Gontiera z grupy Three Days Grace. Do piosenki został zrealizowany również teledysk. Kompozycja została zaprezentowana po raz pierwszy na żywo z udziałem Gontiera 30 kwietnia podczas koncertu Apocalyptiki w The Phoenix w Toronto w Kanadzie. 15 czerwca Apocalyptica dała koncert w ramach Download Festival, podczas prezentacji utworu "S.O.S. (Anything But Love)" do grupy dołączyła wokalistka Cristina Scabbia, która w oryginale wykonała utwór na albumie "Worlds Collide". 16 czerwca zespół otrzymał nagrodę Metal Hammer Golden Gods w kategorii "Breakthough Artist". Ceremonia wręczenia nagród odbyła się w Indigo O2 w Londynie. +27 lipca z okazji obchodów rocznicy powstania warszawskiego zespół wystąpił w Warszawie, w Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego. Natomiast 9 sierpnia w Dallas w USA muzycy wzięli udział w Ozzfest poprzedzając m.in. występy Metalliki, Ozzy'ego Osbourne'a oraz Cavalera Conspiracy. W marcu 2009 została przekazana oficjalna informacja o stałym odejściu Antero Manninena z zespołu. 16 kwietnia zespół wystąpił w warszawskim klubie Stodoła. Ostatni koncert z udziałem Manninena odbył się 20 kwietnia w Pradze w Czechach. W maju grupa wystosowała oświadczenie w którym potępiła wykorzystanie przez czeską republikańską partię Národní Strana kompozycji "Path" pochodzącej z płyty "Cult". Ugrupowanie użyło muzyki zespołu w spocie reklamowym. Prawni właściciele utworu Universal Music Publishing oraz Universal Music Group zapowiedziały dochodzenie swych praw na drodze sądowej. W lipcu Apocalyptica była główną gwiazdą pierwszego dnia Knock Out Festival w Krakowie. +28 kwietnia 2010 roku ukazał się singel "End of Me" zapowiadający siódmy album formacji. Do kompozycji został zrealizowany również teledysk. W sierpniu została wydana płyta "7th Symphony". Nagrania zostały zarejestrowane w dwóch studiach: Sonic Pump Studios w Helsinkach i JHOC Studios w Kalifornii w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Podczas sesji Apocalyptica współpracowała z dwoma producentami muzycznymi Joe Barresim i Howardem Bensonem. Gościnnie w nagraniach wzięli udział perkusista formacji Slayer - Dave Lombardo, wokalistka Lacey Mosley z zespołu Flyleaf, wokalista i gitarzysta Gavin Rossdale lider grupy Bush, Joe Duplantier z zespołu Gojira oraz wokalista grupy Shinedown - Brent Smith. Pod koniec miesiąca został opublikowany drugi obraz promujący płytę do utworu "Sacra". 24 lutego 2011 roku zespół ponownie wystąpił w Krakowie, tym razem w teatrze "Łaźnia Nowa". +Frew McMillan + +Frew Donald McMillan (ur. 20 maja 1942 w Springs) – tenisista południowoafrykański, specjalista gry deblowej. +Przez kilka lat w drugiej połowie lat 70. figurował w czołowej setce rankingu gry pojedynczej, wygrał dwa turnieje (m.in. Monachium 1974) i w dalszych pięciu był w finale, jednak prawdziwą sławę zawdzięcza występom deblowym. W parze z Bobem Hewittem wygrywał Wimbledon (1967, 1972, 1978), US Open (1977), Masters (1978), otwarte mistrzostwa Włoch (1967); w parze z Connorsem wygrał m.in. halowe mistrzostwa USA w 1974. +Odnosił także sukcesy w grze mieszanej. W parze z Van Zyl wygrał międzynarodowe mistrzostwa Francji w 1966, z Holenderką Betty Stöve wygrał Wimbledon w 1978 i 1981 (1979 przegrali w finale). Wygrał także US Open 1977 i 1978 (ze Stove). +Przez lata tworzył z Bobem Hewittem jedną z najlepszych par deblowych w historii tenisa. Sukcesy zawdzięczali przede wszystkim wzajemnemu zrozumieniu na korcie i wzorowej grze wolejowej. W 1967 wygrali turniej wimbledoński nie tylko nie tracąc seta, ale nawet nie przegrywając ani razu własnego podania. +Frew McMillan wyróżniał się na korcie charakterystyczną białą czapeczką, a także rzadkim stylem - grał oburęcznie zarówno forhend, jak i bekhend. Po zakończeniu kariery bez większego powodzenia zajmował się pracą trenerską, a od 1994 również komentowaniem tenisa w telewizji (głównie w stacji "Eurosport"). W 1992 został uhonorowany miejscem w Międzynarodowej Tenisowej Hall of Fame. +Konstantyn IX Monomach + +Konstantyn IX Monomach (1000 - 11 stycznia 1055) – cesarz Bizancjum od 11 czerwca 1042. Trzeci i ostatni mąż cesarzowej Zoe. +Był synem Teodozjusza Monomacha, ważnego biurokraty z okresu rządów cesarzy: Bazylego II Bułgarobójcy i Konstantyna VIII. W pewnym momencie Teodozjusz stał się podejrzanym o spisek i równocześnie z jego karierą ucierpiała kariera jego syna. Pozycja Konstantyna poprawiła się po tym jak poślubił siostrzenicę cesarza Romana III Argyrosa. Następnie "wpadł w oko" samej cesarzowej Zoe i za to został wygnany przez jej drugiego męża - Michała IV Paflagończyka na wyspę Lesbos. Z wygnania powrócił w 1042 i został mianowany sędzią w Grecji, ale zanim jeszcze przyjął posadę, został wezwany do Konstantynopola przez Zoe, która wybrała go na swojego trzeciego męża. Zoe zmarła w 1050, a Konstantyn przeżył ją tylko o 5 lat. W czasie swego panowania dbał o rozwój szkolnictwa wyższego w Konstantynopolu. +Po jego śmierci rządy przejęła młodsza siostra Zoe - Teodora. +Rodzina. +Z trzecią żoną - cesarzową Zoe, Konstantyn również nie miał dzieci, podobnie ze swoją metresą - Marią Sklerainą (siostrzenicą swojej drugiej żony). +Camargue (rasa koni) + +Camargue – rasa konia. +Camargue jest niedużym, za to bardzo wytrzymałym koniem, który przez tysiące lat swojej bytności w niełatwym klimacie i wśród ubogiej roślinności delty Rodanu na francuskim wybrzeżu Morza Śródziemnego doskonale przystosował się do tych niełatwych warunków wegetacji. +Nieznane pochodzenie. +Pochodzenie camargue'a jest sporne; najprawdopodobniej żyje w delcie Rodanu w południowej Francji od tysięcy lat. Na malowidłach naskalnych sprzed 15 000 lat, odnalezionych w jaskiniach Lascaux i Niaux, pojawiają się zwierzęta, które są całkiem podobne do koni camargue, co potwierdziłoby teorię, że siwki są rdzennymi mieszkańcami tego regionu. Być może w żyłach współczesnych koni płynie domieszka krwi azjatyckich i mongolskich koni przywiezionych przed 2 000 lat na południe Francji przez Gotów. Pewne jest, że w VII i VIII wieku miejscowy koń został skrzyżowany z berberem przywiezionym z Afryki Północnej przez Maurów. +W izolacji. +Od tamtej pory dzikie stada koni Camargue, których stada nazywa się "manades" pozostały nietknięte wpływami zewnętrznymi. Żyjąc w geograficznej izolacji, zachowały niezmienione cechy od ponad tysiąca lat – jako jedna z nielicznych europejskich ras. +Koń Camargue został oficjalnie uznany za rasę dopiero w 1968 roku. Od tamtej pory działa związek hodowlany, a ogiery są pod dyskretną opieką państwowej stadniny w Uzes. Populację nadzoruje stacja hodowlana Tour de Valat. Wprawdzie cywilizacja ograniczyła przestrzeń życiową "manades", ale liczba półdzikich stad w przeciągu ostatnich dekad nie tylko nie spadła, ale nawet nieco się powiększyła. +Konie camargue to tradycyjne wierzchowce miejscowych pasterzy przepędzających za ich pomocą bydło. Wraz z rozwojem ruchu turystycznego wokół rezerwatu przyrody – słonego jeziora nieopodal Vaccares, siwy camargue cieszy się też rosnącą popularnością wśród przybyszów chcących zakosztować uroków jazdy na tym malowniczym terenie. +W rodzinnym regionie Camargue wciąż żyje kilka półdzikich stad "siwych koni morskich". +Coruscant + +Coruscant to fikcyjna planeta ze świata "Gwiezdnych wojen", stolica galaktyki oraz imperium Palpatine'a. +Niemal cała powierzchnia planety zajęta jest przez miasto. Niewielkie niezabudowane obszary obejmują jedynie okolice czap polarnych na biegunach oraz fragment pasma Gór Manarai. Klimat planety utrzymywany jest sztucznie, m.in. przy wspomaganiu systemu zwierciadeł orbitalnych, dogrzewających okołobiegunowe obszary planety. +Na Coruscant mieszczą się siedziby wielu ważnych instytucji, w tym Senatu Galaktycznego. Oprócz tego znajduje się tu Świątynia Jedi, a po powstaniu Imperium - Pałac Imperialny. Wtedy też planeta na parędziesiąt lat zmieniła nazwę na Centrum Imperialne. Planeta osłaniana jest podwójną tarczą planetarną, bronioną przez flotę i liczne stacje bojowe, a na niskich i wysokich orbitach okrąża ją wiele stacji kosmicznych oraz skyhooków. +Powierzchnia planety została całkowicie zniszczona podczas wojny z Yuuzhan Vongami. +Szczerbiec + +Szczerbiec – miecz koronacyjny królów Polski, jeden z najcenniejszych zabytków i unikatowe świadectwo polskiej historii. Jedyne zachowane insygnium koronacyjne dynastii piastowskiej. Szczerbiec kładziono na ołtarzu konfesji jeszcze przed przyjściem do katedry orszaku z królem. Był następnie przepasywany królom polskim podczas koronacji. +Wbrew tradycji nazwa miecza wiąże się ze szczerbą ("modica laesura"), która znajduje się nie na ostrzu, lecz w środku głowni. +Historia. +Szczerbiec powstał najprawdopodobniej w Polsce na przełomie XII i XIII wieku lub w kręgu nadreńskiej sztuki złotniczej. Pierwszym udokumentowanym źródłowo jego posiadaczem był książę mazowiecki Bolesław I (1208-1248). Pierwszy raz został użyty w 1320 roku podczas koronacji Władysława Łokietka. +Współcześni autorzy wiążą hipotetycznie pochodzenie Szczerbca z Bolesławem (zm. 1248), synem Konrada mazowieckiego. W późniejszych latach miał się dostać Szczerbiec w ręce Władysława Łokietka i był użyty przy jego koronacji w 1320. +Szczerbiec z nazwy wymienił po raz pierwszy Długosz przy koronacji Kazimierza Jagiellończyka (1447), „Jan Głowacz z Oleśnicy, wojewoda sandomierski, trzymał miecz Szczerbcem zwany". Od tej pory Szczerbiec występuje przy opisach koronacji. Sadowski autor pierwszego naukowego opracowania miecza, datował go na I ćwierć XIII w. i wiązał jego proweniencję z kręgiem nadreńskim. Miecz stanowić miał własność Krzyżaków, od których dostał się w ręce Konrada I mazowieckiego, znanego dobroczyńcy Krzyżaków. +W czasie potopu szwedzkiego król Jan Kazimierz zabrał go ze sobą na Śląsk. +W roku 1795 Szczerbiec został zrabowany ze Skarbca Koronnego na Wawelu przez Prusaków. W roku 1884 został wykupiony z kolekcji ambasadora Rosji w Paryżu, Aleksandra P. Bazilewskiego, i trafił do Ermitażu w Petersburgu. Do Polski, na Wawel, trafił ponownie w 1928 roku, na mocy traktatu ryskiego. W obliczu wybuchu II wojny światowej Szczerbiec wraz z innymi najcenniejszymi zabytkami w 1939 roku został wywieziony do Kanady. W roku 1959 powrócił na Wawel. Szczerbiec obecnie przechowywany jest w Państwowych Zbiorach Sztuki na Wawelu. +Legenda. +Według legendy z "Kroniki wielkopolskiej" miecz został wyszczerbiony, kiedy Bolesław I Chrobry uderzył nim o Złotą Bramę wyjeżdżając z Kijowa w 1018 roku. Miecz ten wraz z koroną i jabłkiem miał otrzymać Chrobry od cesarza Ottona III w r. 1000. +Podanie to nie posiada znamion prawdziwości, ponieważ Złota Brama w tym czasie jeszcze nie istniała (istniała natomiast Wielka brama kijowska księcia Włodzimierza, którą rozbudował jego syn Jarosław, jako Złotą), Kronika Wielkopolska powtórzyła je za Gallem Anonimem, który opisał taką sytuację w "Kronice Polskiej". Gall pisał niemal na sto lat przed prawdopodobnym wykuciem Szczerbca. Autor Kroniki wielkopolskiej chciał najprawdopodobniej dodać nieco splendoru insygniom koronacyjnym polskich władców. Szczerba, rysa powinna była powstać od uderzenia w bramę raczej na brzegu ostrza, jego krawędzi lecz nie w środku głowni. Na mieczu jednak takiej szczerby nie ma. Do skarbca koronnego dostał się miecz dopiero w wieku XIV, i nie miał wcale "szczerby". +Legenda ta w dość niezwykłej interpretacji jest użyta w powieści rosyjskiego pisarza Wladimira Ordanskiego "Klucz Dawida". +Budowa. +Zgodnie z ustaleniami bronioznawców (Andrzej Nadolski) Szczerbiec jest obosiecznym mieczem ceremonialnym, zrobionym w pierwszej połowie XIII stulecia. Ozdobna rękojeść, wykonana w technice niella ("farba lub metal wpuszczane w wyryte rowki; nadreńskich pracowni") i grawerunku, wyobraża obustronnie symbole Baranka Bożego (Agnus Dei) i Ewangelistów. +Miecz ten posiada w swojej klindze "szczerbę", rysę dla umieszczenia w niej relikwii, jak to było praktykowane w zwyczajach średniowiecza. W następnych wiekach w szczerbie umieszczono trójkątną tarczę, z piastowskim herbem. Z XIV wieku pochodzą złote okładziny uchwytu rękojeści. Nie zachowała się pochwa, która według źródeł historycznych była nie mniejszym arcydziełem. Jedyną pozostałością po niej jest srebrna tarcza z orłem. +Ornamentacja. +Głowica, trzon i jelec (elementy rękojeści) zrobione są ze złotych płytek, zdobionych symbolami Baranka Bożego, Ewangelistów oraz ornamentami roślinnymi wykonanymi w technice niello w XIII wieku. Jelec i głownia mają wygrawerowane również symboliczne sentencje. +Na głowicy monogram Boga, tzw. tetragrammaton z literami Α i Ω (Alfa i Omega alfabetu greckiego) oraz napis w języku łacińskim "Haec figura valet ad amorem regum et principum iras iudicum" (ten znak umacnia miłość królów i książąt, a gniew sędziów). Na jelcu wygrawerowany jest tekst w języku hebrajskim, wyrażony literami alfabetu łacińskiego "Con citomon eeve Sedalai Ebrehel" (żarliwą wiarę wzbudzają imiona Boga Sedalai i Ebrehel – chodzi prawdopodobnie o imiona Boga w Starym Testamencie El Szaddai i El-Roeh) oraz tekst łaciński "Quicumque hec nomina Dei secum tulerit nullum periculum ei omnino nocebit" (ktokolwiek te imiona Boga ze sobą nosić będzie, temu żadne niebezpieczeństwo w ogóle nie zaszkodzi). +Symbolika w XX wieku. +W okresie międzywojennym, Szczerbiec Chrobrego, owinięty w biało-czerwony sztandar był symbolem Obozu Wielkiej Polski i Stronnictwa Narodowego, a w okresie okupacji – Narodowych Sił Zbrojnych. Współcześnie motyw Szczerbca również jest wykorzystywany przez niektóre organizacje, odwołujące się do przedwojennych tradycji ruchu narodowego. +Ministerstwo Zdrowia + +Ministerstwo Zdrowia – aparat pomocniczy ministra właściwego w sprawach zdrowia. +Izaak I Komnen + +Izaak I Komnen (ur. ok. 1005, zm. 1061 w Konstantynopolu), cesarz bizantyjski w latach 1057-1059. Pierwszy cesarz z dynastii Komnenów. +Był synem Manuela Komnenosa Erotikosa, oficera pod rządami cesarza Bazylego II Bułgarobójcy, i jednej z jego dwóch żon (o nieznanych imionach). Manuel na łożu śmierci w 1020 powierzył dwóch synów Izaaka i Jana opiece cesarza. Jedynym militarnym przedsięwzięciem Izaaka jako cesarza była wyprawa przeciwko Węgrom i Pieczyngom, którzy pustoszyli północne pogranicze cesarstwa. Wkrótce po zakończeniu zwycięskiej kampanii cesarz ciężko zachorował. Uważając chorobę za śmiertelną, wyznaczył na swego następcę Konstantyna Dukasa, pomijając przy tym swego brata Jana. +Choć choroba nie okazała się śmiertelna, Izaak złożył godność cesarską i wycofał się do klasztoru Studion, gdzie zajął się studiami literackimi. Pozostały po nim komentarze do Iliady i innych dzieł Homera. Zmarł w roku 1061. +Wielką zasługą Izaaka jako cesarza było wzmocnienie władzy cesarskiej, ustabilizowanie sytuacji ekonomicznej państwa oraz zadbanie o obronę zewnętrznych granic imperium. Przeprowadzone przez niego reformy, choć nie spotkały się ze zrozumieniem zarówno duchowieństwa jak też prostego ludu, odsunęły na pewien czas postępującą erozję Bizancjum. +Karl Landsteiner + +Karl Landsteiner (ur. 14 czerwca 1868 w Baden, zm. 26 czerwca 1943 w Nowym Jorku) – austriacki lekarz patolog i immunolog, laureat Nagrody Nobla w 1930 roku. +Był profesorem uniwersytetu w Wiedniu (od 1911) oraz Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research w Nowym Jorku (od 1922). Został wybrany do Narodowej Akademii Nauk w Waszyngtonie. +W 1901 roku odkrył, że w krwinkach czerwonych występują dwa antygeny, które warunkują zjawisko aglutynacji (zlepiania się krwinek) w zetknięciu z krwinkami o odmiennej strukturze antygenowej. Na podstawie tych obserwacji wyróżnił trzy grupy krwi, za co otrzymał w 1930 roku Nagrodę Nobla. W 1940 roku z Alexandrem Wienerem odkrył czynnik Rh. +W 1946 roku został pośmiertnie uhonorowany przyznaniem nagrody Laskera w dziedzinie badań klinicznych. +Christopher Lee + +Sir Christopher Frank Carandini Lee (ur. 27 maja 1922 roku w Belgravii w Londynie) – brytyjski aktor i wokalista odznaczony Orderem Imperium Brytyjskiego i Najczcigodniejszego Zakonu Szpitala św. Jana z Jerozolimy. Został zapisany w księdze rekordów Guinnessa jako aktor z największą ilością zagranych ról. Najbardziej znany z występów w horrorach wytwórni Hammer Film Productions oraz ról Sarumana z filmowej trylogii "Władca Pierścieni" i hrabiego Dooku z "Gwiezdnych wojen". +Biografia. +Jest synem pułkownika 60. korpusu strzelców królewskich i hrabiny Estelle Marie Carandini di Sarzano, słynnej edwardiańskiej piękności, którą uwiecznili na swych płótnach John Lavery, Oswald Birley i Olive Snell. Uczył się w Eton College i Wellington College. Gdy był młody, pracował jako goniec zarabiając funta tygodniowo. W trakcie II wojny światowej służył w Królewskich Siłach Powietrznych RAF. +Gdy wojna się skończyła, Lee związał się z brytyjską wytwórnią filmową Rank. Nagrywał utwory muzyczne, między innymi "Opowieść Żołnierza" Igora Strawinskiego, występował w radiu, teatrze i filmach. +W 1973 pojawił się na okładce albumu Paula McCartneya "Band on the Run". Jest kuzynem Iana Fleminga – autora książek o Jamesie Bondzie. W czasie drugiej wojny światowej wraz z nim służył w wywiadzie brytyjskim. +Rola hrabiego Drakuli w filmie wytwórni Hammer Horror przyniosła mu sławę. Grał w filmach reżyserowanych między innymi przez Johna Hustona, Josepha Loseya, Orsona Wellesa, Nicholasa Raya, Michaela Powella, Billy'ego Wildera, Stevena Spielberga, Johna Landisa, Tima Burtona i Petera Jacksona. Najpopularniejsze filmy, w których zagrał to to między innymi "Człowiek ze złotym pistoletem" (z serii filmów o Jamesie Bondzie) czy też "The Wicker Man". Christopher Lee, mimo swojego sędziwego wieku (90 lat), wciąż jest popularnym i sprawnym aktorem, o czym świadczą jego role w filmach z serii "Władca Pierścieni" (Saruman) czy też "Gwiezdne wojny" (Hrabia Dooku). Grał także kardynała Wyszyńskiego w amerykańskiej wersji "Jana Pawła II". +Znany jest również ze swojego zaangażowania (od 2003 roku) w działalność zespołu Rhapsody of Fire. W ramach tego włoskiego powermetalowego zespołu był lektorem oraz „wokalistą pobocznym” (ze względu na jego niezwykły niski głos). W marcu 2010 roku ukazała się nagrana przez niego płyta w klimatach symfoniczno-metalowych zatytułowana "Charlemagne: By the Sword and the Cross". W tym samym roku z zespołem Manowar nagrał płytę "Battle Hymns MMXI" gdzie zastąpił nieżyjącego Orsona Wellesa w utworze „Dark Avenger”. W grudniu 2012 roku opublikowany został EP "A Heavy Metal Christmas" z wykonywanymi przez niego heavymetalowymi coverami dwóch piosenek bożonarodzeniowych. Na rok 2013 planowane jest wydanie jego heavymetalowej płyty "Charlemagne: The Omens of Death". +Filmografia. +Christopher Lee zapisał się w księdze Guinnesa jako aktor, który zagrał w największej ilości produkcji kinowych i telewizyjnych, w tym wielu nieanglojęzycznych (sam będąc Brytyjczykiem) – włoskich, francuskich, niemieckich, hiszpańskich i rosyjskich. Jego pełen dorobek to ponad 250 ról w tyluż filmach. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Ten artykuł pochodzi z zasobów Biblioteki Ossus (zgodnie z licencją GNU FDL). Jej autorów i historię możesz obejrzeć tutaj +Internetowy Obywatel Roku + +Internetowy Obywatel Roku - honorowy tytuł przyznawany w latach 2001-2005 przez organizację Internet Obywatelski, podczas odbywających się w Warszawie styczniowych targów Komputer Expo. Otrzymywała go osoba, która - zdaniem organizatorów - w roku poprzednim najbardziej przysłużyła się sprawie wykorzystywania Internetu oraz innych środków komunikacji elektronicznej w kontaktach obywateli z władzami, a także za ogólne zasługi na rzecz rozwoju Internetu. Po 2005 roku tytuł nie był przyznawany. +Bernard Hill + +Bernard Hill (ur. 17 grudnia 1944), brytyjski aktor. Wystąpił w wielu sztukach teatralnych. +Kariera filmowa. +Dwie najbardziej znane kreacje aktorskie Bernarda Hilla to postać kapitana Smitha w filmie Jamesa Camerona "Titanic" (z 1997), oraz króla Rohanu Théodena w filmach Petera Jacksona ' i '. +Przez role w powyższych produkcjach Bernard Hill stał się jedynym w historii aktorem grającym w dwóch głośnych filmach, które zdobyły rekordową liczbę 11 Nagród Amerykańskiej Akademii Filmowej ("Titanic" w 1997 r., "Władca Pierścieni: Powrót Króla" w 2003 r.). +Co ciekawe, data jego urodzin pokrywa się z datą światowej premiery "". +Akolita + +Akolita – termin ten pochodzi od greckiego słowa "akólouthos" - "towarzyszący, idący za kimś", czy też czasownika "akóloutheo" - "iść za kimś, naśladować, towarzyszyć". +W Katolickich Kościołach Wschodnich akolitat należy do tzw. "święceń niższych", nazywanych w zachodnim katolicyzmie "posługami". Ustanowionym akolitą, podobnie jak i ustanowionym lektorem może zostać tylko mężczyzna. +Kościół Katolicki (obrządek łaciński). +Historia. +Do 1972 w Kościele łacińskim było to ostatnie z czterech tzw. "święceń niższych" (ostiariat, lektorat, egzorcystat i akolitat) udzielane kandydatowi do kapłaństwa w czasie formacji seminaryjnej. +Współczesność. +Miejsce akolitów w Kościele. +Po Soborze Watykańskim II, ojciec święty Papież Paweł VI postanowił odnowić i zreformować posługi (dawniej nazywane "święceniami niższymi") i wyznaczył akolitom nowe miejsce w Kościele. Dokonał tego w swoim motu proprio "Ministeria Quaedam" z dn. 15 sierpnia 1972 roku. Obecnie akolitat nie jest zastrzeżony dla kandydatów do kapłaństwa, jako pewien "stopień" w hierarchii. Co więcej, papież powierzył akolitom część obowiązków, które dawniej należały do subdiakonów, a także przywrócił część funkcji, które odebrano akolitom na przełomie wieków. +Akolita nie jest już nazywany prawnie "duchownym". Stał się szczególnym sługą ołtarza, ale teraz nie jest ustanawiany jedynie do posługiwania w liturgii, ale tez do posługiwania chorym i cierpiącym. Karmiąc się Eucharystią ma za zadania uczyć się szczerej miłości do potrzebujących. +Uprawnienia akolity w odniesieniu do Eucharystii. +W Kościele rzymskokatolickim częstym błędem ze strony wiernych jest utożsamianie wszystkich nadzwyczajnych szafarzy Komunii Świętej z akolitami. Akolita jest z urzędu nadzwyczajnym szafarzem Komunii, ale zadania akolity wykraczają poza samą liturgię. Inni nadzwyczajni szafarze Komunii są upoważniani przez biskupów jedynie do pełnienia konkretnej funkcji w liturgii; stawia im się niższe wymagania, powołuje na określony czas i do posługiwania w konkretnej diecezji. +Kompetentna władza może zawiesić akolicie właściwe mu uprawnienia, ale później ustanawiania w posłudze już się nie powtarza. +Akolita może udzielać Komunii Świętej w czasie mszy lub poza nią, zanosić ją do chorych lub w wypadku konieczności podać ją umierającemu jako wiatyk. Czyni to jednak tylko gdy ze względu na podeszły wiek lub stan zdrowia kapłan(i) i/lub diakon(i) nie mogą tego czynić, lub liczba osób przystępujących do Komunii jest tak duża, że powodowałoby to znaczne przedłużanie się celebracji. Akolita ustanowiony obrzędem jest więc z urzędu szafarzem nadzwyczajnym Komunii Świętej (zwyczajnymi szafarzami są duchowni: biskup, prezbiter i diakon). Może on również wystawić Najświętszy Sakrament do adoracji, nie ma natomiast prawa udzielenia Nim błogosławieństwa. +Charakterystycznym przywilejem akolity jest puryfikowanie naczyń liturgicznych w przypadku braku diakona. Puryfikacji nie można powierzać żadnemu innemu świeckiemu, nawet nadzwyczajnemu szafarzowi Komunii Świętej. +Powierzanie funkcji liturgicznych akolity innym świeckim. +Gdy w liturgii nie uczestniczą ustanowieni akolici, albo są nieliczni, część zadań wymienionych powyżej powierza się, na zasadzie zastępstwa, innym odpowiednio przygotowanym świeckim, takim jak ministranci czy też nadzwyczajni szafarze Komunii Świętej. +Ustanawianie w posłudze akolity. +Posługi akolitatu udziela biskup lub wyższy przełożony zakonny, będący prezbiterem . Zarówno jeden jak i drugi czyni to wobec osób nad którymi rozciąga się jego jurysdykcja. W czasie tego obrzędu na znak dopuszczenia do służby Eucharystii kandydat otrzymuje z rąk celebransa patenę z chlebem albo kielich z winem. Ustanowieniu towarzyszy modlitwa, a także pouczenie "Przyjmij naczynie z chlebem (lub: z winem) do sprawowania Eucharystii i tak postępuj, abyś mógł godnie służyć Kościołowi przy stole Pańskim". +Inne znaczenia. +Ministrant światła. +Akolitami nazywa się też czasami ministrantów światła (ceroferariuszy), którzy towarzyszą (por. gr. "akóloutheo") niosącemu Krzyż() albo Ewangeliarz. +Stronnik. +Jest też kolejne, rzadko stosowane, znaczenie terminu akolita: przenośnie o czyimś stronniku, popleczniku. +Wzmocnienie prądowe + +Zobacz też. +wzmocnienie napięciowe, wzmacniacz elektryczny +Beskidy Wschodnie + +Beskidy Wschodnie (węg. "Külső-Beszkidek", 522) – część Beskidów zaliczana do Karpat Wschodnich. Rozciągają się na obszarze Polski, Słowacji, Ukrainy i Rumunii. Najwyższym szczytem jest ukraińska Howerla (2061 m n.p.m.). Beskidy Wschodnie charakteryzują się brakiem części pogórskiej, charakterystycznej dla Beskidów Zachodnich i Środkowych. +Australian Open 2005 + +Australian Open 2005 – pierwszy w sezonie wielkoszlemowy turniej tenisowy, który rozegrano w dniach 17-30 stycznia, tradycyjnie na kortach Melbourne Park. Była to 93 edycja rozgrywek. +Mistrzem rozgrywek w konkurencji singla u mężczyzn został Rosjanin Marat Safin, dla którego był to drugi wielkoszlemowy tytuł. Amerykanka Serena Williams zwyciężyła z kolei singlu u kobiet. Williams wygrała zarazem swój siódmy wielkoszlemowy turniej, a drugi w Melbourne. Zawody deblowe wśród panów wygrał duet z Zimbabwe, Wayne Black i Kevin Ullyett. Obaj tenisiści odnieśli drugie zwycięstwo w wielkim szlemie. Turniej debla u kobiet wygrała para Swietłana Kuzniecowa-Alicia Molik, dla których były to pierwsze tytuły wielkoszlemowe w grze podwójnej. +Jeżeli... + +Jeżeli... (ang. "if...") – brytyjski film fabularny z 1968 roku, laureat Złotej Palmy w Cannes w 1969. +Film kręcony był podczas rewolty studentów w maju 1968 w Paryżu, wokoło szkoły do której chodził Lindsay Anderson, reżyser dzieła. Jest pierwszą częścią trylogii złożonej z "O Lucky Man!" (1973) i z "Britannia Hospital" (1982). +Treść. +Spędziwszy lato w Londynie, jednej ze stolic kontrkultury i buntu, Mick Travis (Malcolm McDowell) wraca do swej szkoły, typowo brytyjskiej, z internatem i mundurkami. College House, miejsce w którym mieszka, jest instytucją o ostrych podziałach hierarchicznych i wszechobecnej przemocy wobec osób znajdujących się na niższych szczeblach hierarchii. Wraz z dwoma przyjaciółmi, Wallacem i Knightly, Mick organizuje protest przeciwko istniejącemu systemowi – protest dość klasyczny, swoją drogą, polegający na przemycaniu wódki, zakazanych wyjściach do miasta, itp. Spotyka ich za to kara, która ma stać się dla innych przykładem; kara ta (fizyczna) jest jednak niewspółmiernie wysoka w stosunku do występku. Trzej koledzy, wraz z kilkoma nowymi osobami, wypowiadają tedy wojnę swym przełożonym, instytucji, i biernym kolegom. +Film kończy się w sposób takoż brutalny jak i surrealistyczny: strzelaniną i rzucaniem granatów. Instytucja rzecz jasna umiera. Upadek przełożonych jest natomiast daleki od godnego. +Mistrzostwa Europy w Łyżwiarstwie Figurowym 2005 + +Mistrzostwa Europy w Łyżwiarstwie Figurowym w 2005 odbyły się w hali sportowej Budapest Sport Arena w Turynie, Włochy w dniach 25-30 stycznia 2005. Zmierzyła się w nich elita europejskich łyżwiarzy figurowych w ramach sezonu 2004/2005. Rozegrały się konkurencje w jeździe indywidualnej kobiet i mężczyzn oraz par sportowych i tanecznych. +Zawody stanowiły generalną próbę przed igrzyskami olimpijskimi w 2006. Obok testu areny olimpijskiej dokonano próby generalnej nowego systemu sędziowania. +Pary taneczne obowiązkowo wykonywały Golden Waltz. +Kwalifikacje. +W mistrzostwach mogli wziąć udział europejscy sportowcy zrzeszeni w Międzynarodowej Unii Łyżwiarskiej. Dla łyżwiarzy z Azji, Ameryk, Afryki i Australii odbyły się mistrzostwa czterech kontynentów w łyżwiarstwie figurowym 2005. +Zawodnicy musieli reprezentować jedną z narodowości należących do Międzynarodowej Unii Łyżwiarskiej. Liczba zawodników wystawionych przez każdy z krajów do poszczególnych konkurencji zależała od miejsc, jakie zajęli ich reprezentanci na mistrzostwach Europy w 2004 roku. Było to od 1 do 3 zawodników/par. +Analogicznie, od miejsc jakie zajęli zawodnicy na tych mistrzostwach, zależeć będzie liczba wystawionych reprezentantów na mistrzostwach Europy w 2006 roku. +Polskie rasy psów + +Polskie rasy psów – rasy psa domowego związane historycznie i kulturowo z terenami, na których istniało państwo polskie. Tworzone przez polskich hodowców głównie w celach użytkowych, czasem bez przywiązywania uwagi do eksterieru. +Gough + +Gough (ang. "Gough Island", port. "Gonçalo Alvares") – wulkaniczna wyspa na południowym Oceanie Atlantyckim, której najwyższy szczyt (Edinburgh Peak) sięga 910 m n.p.m.. Znajduje się około 350 km na południowy wschód od brytyjskich wysp Tristan da Cunha, 2700 km od Kapsztadu i ponad 3200 km od najbliższego lądu Ameryki Południowej, na wysokościach 40°19S 9°55W. +Wyspa ma 13,9 km długości i 8 km szerokości. Leży na szlaku silnych wiatrów, tzw. ryczących czterdziestek. Roczny opad przekracza 2500 mm deszczu. Należy do Wielkiej Brytanii, a jedynymi mieszkańcami są pracownicy stacji meteorologicznej, którą Republika Południowej Afryki utrzymuje nieustannie na wyspie od 1956. Obszar zajmowany przez stację należy administracyjnie do RPA i stanowi część miasta Kapsztad. +Historia. +Wyspa Gough została odkryta w 1505 lub 1506 roku przez portugalskiego żeglarza Alvaresa, który nadał jej nazwę Diego Alvarez. Dużo później, bo dopiero w 1731 odwiedził wyspę kapitan Charles Gough z brytyjskiego statku "Richmond". Dokładna lokalizacja nie była znana przez wiele lat, ale ostatecznie odkryli ją brytyjscy i amerykańscy łowcy fok i wielorybnicy, którzy używali nazwy Gough. +Stacja badawcza. +Ekspedycja trwa średnio przez 13 miesięcy od momentu opuszczenia Kapsztadu, zazwyczaj od września do października następnego roku. +Przyroda. +Gough jest chroniona jako rezerwat dzikiej przyrody, wpisany na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO jako jeden z najmniej zniszczonych ekosystemów tego rodzaju i jedno z najbezpieczniejszych miejsc gniazdowania morskich ptaków na Atlantyku. Gnieździ się tu niemal cała światowa populacja albatrosa atlantyckiego ("Diomedea dabbenena") i petrela białobrzuchego ("Pterodroma incerta"), występują także dwa endemiczne gatunki: wyspiarczyk ("Rowettia goughensis") i nielotna kokoszka południowa ("Gallinula comeri"). +W 2007 roku naukowcy badający występującą na Gough populację myszy domowej wykazali, że gryzonie te osiągają rozmiary trzykrotnie większe od typowych (u wyspiarskich populacji drobnych ssaków częsty jest gigantyzm) i są agresywnymi drapieżnikami, atakującymi pisklęta ptaków morskich. +Wzgórze Świątynne + +Wzgórze Świątynne, "Al-Haram al-Sharif", "al-ḥaram al-qudsī ash-sharīf" (arab.الحرم القدسي الشريف); (heb.הַר הַבַּיִת, Har haBáyit) – jeden z największych obszarów sakralnych na świecie, znajdujący się we Wschodniej Jerozolimie. W starożytności na jego terenie znajdowała się Świątynia Jerozolimska, najświętsze miejsce judaizmu. Obecnie na wzgórzu są święte dla muzułmanów: Kopuła na Skale i meczet Al-Aksa. W czasach biblijnych wzgórze nosiło nazwę Moria (מוֹרִיָּה). Po hebrajsku "Moria" oznacza "Wybrane przez Jahwe". +Ogólna charakterystyka. +Wzgórze Świątynne ze złotą kopułą góruje nad Starym Miastem Jerozolimy. Całość wzgórza jest ogrodzona wysokim murem z piętnastoma bramami i zajmuje jedną szóstą część powierzchni Starej Jerozolimy (145 tys. m²). Dla nie muzułmanów otwarte są jedynie dwie bramy znajdujące się przy Zachodnim Murze: Brama Łańcucha ("Bab el-Silsileh") i Brama Maurów ("Bab el-Maghreb"). Muzułmanie mogą korzystać ze wszystkich pozostałych bram - od zachodu: "Bab el-Masatarak", "Bab el-Qatanin", "Bab el-Hadid", "Bab el-Nazir" i "Bab el-Ghawanima", oraz od północy: "Bab el-Atim", "Bab Hitta" i "Bab el-Asbat". +Zabudowa i działalność człowieka spowodowały, że wzgórze ma dziś kształt trapezu, którego zachodni bok ma 488 metrów długości, wschodni bok - 470 metrów, północny - 315 metrów a południowy 280 metrów. +Na jerozolimskiej starówce znajdują się miejsca uznane za święte przez żydów, muzułmanów i chrześcijan. Główny spór palestyńsko-żydowski dotyczy właśnie Wzgórza Świątynnego znajdującego się we wschodniej części Jerozolimy. +Religia. +Liczni Żydzi długo wierzyli, że wzgórze jest centrum nie tylko Jerozolimy, ale i świata. Widok z tego miejsca zdaje się potwierdzać tę teorię. Z jednej strony wznosi się Góra Oliwna przyozdobiona chrześcijańskimi świątyniami kilku wyznań, z drugiej znajdują się skłębione przy wąskich uliczkach szare domy muzułmańsko-żydowsko-chrześcijańskiego miasta, nad którym góruje Wzgórze Świątynne stanowiące centralny punkt dla judaizmu, chrześcijaństwa i islamu. +Judaizm. +Tradycja żydowskiego Midrasza utrzymuje, że jest to miejsce z którego świat rozwinął się do swojej obecnej postaci. To właśnie tutaj Bóg zebrał ziemię, która została użyta do stworzenia pierwszego człowieka, Adama. +Zgodnie z Hagadą w Talmudzie, świat został stworzony ze skały, będącej później fundamentem Świątyni. Według tradycji, na szczycie wzgórza, na tej właśnie skale Abraham ofiarował swojego syna Izaaka (Księga Rodzaju 22,2 i 14). Abraham nazwał wzgórze górą Moria. Talmud podaje, że jest to inna nazwa Wzgórza Świątynnego. Biblia opisuje, że Abraham miał złożyć swego syna w ofierze na jednym z pagórków w "kraju Moria", a miejsce, gdzie zamiast syna złożył w ofierze barana nazwał (Rdz 22:14), w zależności od przekładu "Pan widzi" (Biblia Tysiąclecia), "Pan zaopatruje" (Biblia Warszawska), "Pan obmyśla" (Biblia Gdańska) lub "Jehowa-Jireh" (Przekład Nowego Świata). +Biblia opisuje sen Jakuba o aniołach wstępujących i zstępujących z nieba. Talmud mówi, że sen ten miał miejsce, gdy Jakub spał na skale na Wzgórzu Świątynnym. Raszi mówi także, że na tym miejscu modlili się Izaak i Rebeka o dzieci. +Biblia opisuje jak król Dawid kupił klepisko od Jebuzytów, a dokładnie od Arauny (2 Samuela 24,18–25) z przeznaczeniem pod budowę Świątyni. Dawid planował wybudować świątynię, jednak ponieważ prowadził zbyt wiele wojen, pracę tę wykonał dopiero jego syn, Salomon (w 930 p.n.e.). Tora odnotowuje, że Bóg okazywał swoją obecność w świątyni w postaci Szechina. Około 586 p.n.e. Babilończycy zdobyli Jerozolimę, burząc Świątynię Salomona, natomiast w 70 roku Rzymianie zburzyli Drugą Świątynię. Zachodni Mur (hebr. הכותל המערבי, "HaKotel HaMa'aravi") jest częścią Wzgórza Świątynnego, ocalałym fragmentem Drugiej Świątyni. Ten fragment muru jest szczególnie ważny dla Żydów ze względu na jego lokalizację - blisko miejsca najświętszego w świątyni. Z powodu religijnych ograniczeń judaizmu dotyczących zakazu wchodzenia do miejsca najświętszego Świątyni, wielu Żydów nie wchodzi na Wzgórze Świątynne i ogranicza modlitwy do Ściany Płaczu. Żydzi wierzą, że modlitwy napisane na kartkach i pozostawione w pęknięciach Ściany są wysłuchiwane przez Boga. +Religijni Żydzi twierdzą, że w przyszłości Trzecia Świątynia zostanie wybudowana na tym wzgórzu. Dla laickich Żydów Wzgórze Świątynne jest znaczącym symbolem narodowym. Przejęcie w 1967 r. Ściany Płaczu było wielkim narodowym osiągnięciem nawet dla niereligijnych mieszkańców Izraela. +Chrześcijaństwo. +O Wzgórzu Świątynnym i Świątyni wielokrotnie wspomina także Nowy Testament (np. Ewangelia Marka 11,11). Biblia opisuje Jezusa Chrystusa wypędzającego kupców z dziedzińca i wywracającego ich stoły z towarami (Ewangelia Marka 11,25-26). Jezus również przewidział zniszczenie Drugiej Świątyni (Ewangelia Mateusza 24,2). Księga Objawienia wspomina o 3. świątyni żydowskiej, w związku z panowaniem Antychrysta. +W bezpośredniej styczności ze Wzgórzem Świątynnym znajdują się liczne święte miejsca chrześcijaństwa. Wśród nich można wyróżnić: Bazylikę Grobu Świętego, kościół Świętego Jana Chrzciciela oraz Via Dolorosa. +Islam. +Wzgórze Świątynne jest tradycyjnie trzecim najświętszym miejscem islamu, po Mekce i Medynie. Wynika to z faktu, że Koran opisuje Świątynię Jerozolimską i jej budowniczych (Dawida i Salomona) jako proroków. Muzułmanie wierzą, że Mahomet odbył Miradż - "nocną podróż" na cudownym wierzchowcu "Al-Burāq" z Mekki do Najdalszego Meczetu znajdującego się w Jerozolimie ("Al-Masğid al-Aqsà"). W Jerozolimie Mahomet miał dostąpić wniebowstąpienia w towarzystwie archanioła Dżibrila ze skały, na której dziś znajduje się Kopuła na Skale. Obecnie te dwie budowle wznoszące się na Wzgórzu Świątynnym są szczególnie ważnymi miejscami dla wszystkich Muzułmanów na całym świecie. +Pierwotnie muzułmanie modlili się stojąc twarzą do Wzgórza Świątynnego, jednak później zmieniono kierunek modlitw na Mekkę. +Historia. +Trudno jest ustalić początkowy moment wejścia do historii góry Moria. Można jednak podać daty istnienia Pierwszej Świątyni, która stała na Wzgórzu Świątynnym przez 410 lat, od wybudowania przez Izraelitów w 996 p.n.e. do zburzenia przez Nabuchodonozora w 586 p.n.e.. Budowa Drugiej Świątyni rozpoczęła się w 538 p.n.e. za rządów króla Cyrusa, i została ukończona w 516 p.n.e.. +Około 19 p.n.e. król Herod Wielki rozbudował i upiększył Świątynię. Rozbudował on Świątynię, wzmacniając dziedziniec kamiennymi bryłami o masie dochodzącej do 100 ton. Od tego czasu była ona nazywana Świątynią Heroda. Podczas pierwszej wojny żydowskiej Rzymianie zdobyli w 70 roku Jerozolimę i zburzyli Świątynię. W 132 rzymski cesarz Hadrian odbudował Jerozolimę jako miasto hellenistyczne Colonia Aelia Capitolina. Na Wzgórzu Świątynnym umieszczono wówczas świątynię Jowisza. +Po podziale Cesarstwa rzymskiego (395 r.) miasto znalazło się w Bizancjum. Uważa się dość powszechnie, że chrześcijanie w okresie rzymsko-bizantyńskim nie bardzo interesowali się Wzgórzem Świątynnym. +W VII wieku Jerozolima i Wzgórze Świątynne wpadły w ręce muzułmanów. Na wzgórzu stanęły wówczas Meczet Al-Aksa (który został raczej rozbudowany z chrześcijańskiej bazyliki) i Kopuła na Skale. +Wzgórze kontrolują dziś palestyńscy muzułmanie. Jest ono po Mekce i Medynie trzecim pod względem ważności miejscem świętym islamu. Ma głębokie religijne i polityczne znaczenie dla Palestyńczyków i muzułmanów na całym świecie. Dla Palestyńczyków ich przyszła stolica we wschodniej Jerozolimie stanowi fundamentalną część ich przyszłego państwa. +Turystyka. +Wejście na Wzgórze Świątynne jest bezpłatne, należy jednak pamiętać o odpowiednim skromnym ubraniu. Płatne jest tylko zwiedzanie meczetów. Jedyne wejście dla zwiedzających niebędących muzułmanami znajduje się od strony Bramy Gnojnej, po rampie po przejściu kontroli bezpieczeństwa. Wejście możliwe jest tylko w godzinach rannych. +Szmul Zygelbojm + +Szmul Mordechaj Zygelbojm, ps. "Artur" (jid. שמואל זיגלבוים; ur. 21 lutego 1895 w Warszawie lub Borowicy, zm. 12 maja 1943 w Londynie) – polityk Bundu, sekretarz generalny Sekcji Żydowskiej Centralnej Komisji Związków Zawodowych, redaktor pisma "Arbeiter Fragen", radny Warszawy i Łodzi. Od 1942 członek Rady Narodowej RP w Londynie. +Biografia. +Wczesne lata. +Zygelbojm urodził się w 1895, część źródeł podaje, iż miało to miejsce w Warszawie, część iż w Borowicy (koło Krasnegostawu). Rodzicami byli Józef i Hena Pinkier. Był jednym z dziesięciorga rodzeństwa. Aby uniknąć biedy, był zmuszony rozpocząć pracę w fabryce już w wieku 10 lat. Później, gdy już był żonaty i miał dwójkę dzieci, zaczął pracować jako rzemieślnik, zajmujący się wyrobem rękawiczek. Od małego wykazywał pęd ku wiedzy, edukując się pilnie, w krótkim czasie nadrabiając zaległości z lat biednego dzieciństwa. Wstąpił do Bundu w Chełmie, w którym wkrótce przejawiły się jego talenty organizacyjne i oratorskie. Szybko został wybrany do komitetu centralnego tej partii. +Działalność polityczna. +Wkrótce potem Zygelbojm został sekretarzem generalnym Sekcji Żydowskiej Centralnej Komisji Związków Zawodowych. W 1927 został także wybrany do rady miejskiej Warszawy. W 1936 przeprowadził się do Łodzi, gdzie również został radnym. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej wrócił do Warszawy, gdzie pomagał w zorganizowaniu obrony miasta przed wojskami niemieckimi. Kiedy rozpoczęła się okupacja Polski, organizował podziemny ruch oporu żydowskiego. Na krótko trafił do więzienia, ale okupanci wypuścili Zygelbojma, nie znając jego prawdziwej tożsamości. W 1940, korzystając z wsparcia centralnej organizacji Bundu, udało mu się wydostać z okupowanej Polski (podczas ucieczki został m.in. zawrócony przez władze Holandii spod granicy do Niemiec) i dotrzeć do Brukseli, gdzie wygłosił przemówienie na konferencji europejskich partii socjaldemokratycznych. Jego tematem była sytuacja Żydów polskich. Mowa Zygelbojma zaszokowała obecnych na zebraniu. +Działalność londyńska. +Następnie dotarł do Londynu, gdzie (w 1942) został członkiem Rady Narodowej RP z ramienia swojej partii. Było to ciało opiniodawcze i doradcze, substytut Sejmu, powołany w grudniu 1939 dekretem prezydenta RP Władysława Raczkiewicza. Zygelbojm zasiadał w nim wraz z m.in. reprezentantem syjonistów, Ignacym Schwartzbartem. Działając w Radzie, starał się przekazywać informacje o trwającym w Polsce holokauście. Otrzymywał od polskiego podziemia i organizacji żydowskich obszerne raporty, z którymi następnie próbował dotrzeć do najwyższych władz politycznych i wojskowych. M.in. dostawał informacje od kierownictwa Bundu (które nazwało się Centralnym Komitetem Ruchu Żydowskich Mas Pracujących) i Żydowskiego Komitetu Narodowego, które następnie przekazywał Światowemu Kongresowi Żydów i Amerykańskiemu Kongresowi Żydowskiemu, licząc na wykorzystanie wpływów i środków finansowych obu potężnych organizacji, w celu wywarcia nacisku na rządy alianckie i skłonienie ich do pomocy polskim Żydom. W dążeniach tych wspierał go emigracyjny premier Sikorski. Efektów tych działań nie było widać. +Apele te nie odniosły zamierzonego skutku. Alianci nie chcieli uwierzyć w doniesienia z okupowanej Polski. Zygelbojm wysyłał także listy do prezydenta USA, Roosevelta, przemawiał na antenie radia BBC, a także proponował, aby alianckie samoloty rozrzuciły nad Niemcami ulotki zawierające informacje o zagładzie Żydów. Bezskutecznie. +Śmierć. +Po upadku powstania w getcie warszawskim, 12 maja 1943 (lub 13 maja) popełnił w Londynie samobójstwo przez otrucie się gazem w proteście przeciw bezczynności aliantów wobec ludobójstwa Żydów. Pozostawił po sobie list, datowany na 11 maja, w którym pisał m.in. +List został skierowany do Prezydenta RP Władysława Raczkiewicza i premiera Władysława Sikorskiego. +Cernox + +Cernox – typ termoelementu przeznaczonego do pracy w niskich temperaturach (0,3-400 K) +produkowanego m.in. przez Lakeshore. +Zalety to brak wrażliwości na pole magnetyczne i duża czułość jak i powtarzalność pomiarów. +Mazar + +Mazar – był to typ mauzoleum w architekturze islamu w Azji Środkowej. W średniowieczu mazar był budowany na planie centralnym z cegły palonej, kryty najczęściej kopułą. Fasada frontowa posiadała dekoracyjny portyk lub liwan. +Rezerwat przyrody Prządki + +Prządki - rezerwat przyrody nieożywionej położony między miejscowościami Korczyna i Czarnorzeki w gminie Korczyna w województwie podkarpackim. +Rezerwat obejmuje grupę ostańców skalnych, o wysokości do ponad 20 m, zbudowanych z gruboziarnistego piaskowca ciężkowickiego, który pod wpływem erozji przybrał oryginalne kształty. Poszczególne skały posiadają własne nazwy, m.in.: Prządka-Matka, Prządka-Baba, Herszt. Nazwa rezerwatu pochodzi od legendy głoszącej, że skały są dziewczętami zamienionymi w kamień, ukaranymi za przędzenie lnu w święto. +Kowarski Grzbiet + +Kowarski Grzbiet (czes. "Střecha", niem. "Schmiedeberger Kamm") – krótki grzbiet we wschodnich Karkonoszach. Jest położony na północny wschód od Czarnego Grzbietu i wraz z nim i Śląskim Grzbietem tworzy Główny Grzbiet Karkonoszy. Na całej długości graniczny między Polską a Czechami. Najwyższa jego kulminacja to Skalny Stół (1281 m n.p.m.). +Ciągnie się na długości ok. 4 km od Przełęczy Sowiej (1164 m n.p.m.) i doliny Niedźwiady na zachodzie do Przełęczy Okraj (1046 m n.p.m.) i doliny Jedlicy na wschodzie. Zachodnim zwieńczeniem grzbietu jest Skalny Stół, wschodnim zaś – Czoło (1266 m n.p.m.). Ku północy odchodzą krótkie, strome grzbiety. W grzbiecie wybiegającym od Czoła dominuje kulminacja Wołowej Góry a kończy się on Modrzakiem. Północne zbocze Kowarskiego Grzbietu od góry jest bardzo strome, niżej łagodnie opadające. Zbocze południowe jest łagodniejsze. +Kowarski Grzbiet jest zbudowany ze skał metamorficznych wschodniej osłony granitu karkonoskiego, przede wszystkim łupków łyszczykowych i różnych odmian gnejsów, a także kwarcytów, łupków kwarcowych, skarnów, hornfelsów. +Zbocza Kowarskiego grzbietu przez wieki były obiektem prac górniczych. Wydobywano tu rudy żelaza, a po drugiej wojnie rudy uranu. +Wierzchołek Skalnego Stołu jest częściowo wylesiony i z tego powodu stanowi dobry punkt widokowy w kierunku zachodnim i północno-zachodnim, pozostała część szczytowa grzbietu jest zalesiona. Północne zbocze Kowarskiego Grzbietu od góry jest w całości porośnięte lasem. Zbocze południowe jest porośnięte lasem z wyrębami. +Grzbietem biegnie granica państwowa polsko-czeska oraz ścieżka, po której prowadzi niebieski pieszy szlak turystyczny z Przełęczy Okraj pod Śnieżkę. Ze Skalnego Stołu schodzi pieszy szlak żółty do Kowar. +Południowym zboczem prowadzi czerwony szlak - Droga Przyjaźni Polsko-Czeskiej +Północnymi zboczami schodzi zielony szlak z Przełęczy Okraj do Karpacza - Wilczej Poręby. +Krzesąd + +Krzesąd – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z uproszczonego członu "Krzesi-" ("wskrzeszać, przywracać do życia, podnosić") i członu "-sąd" ("sądzić"). Być może znaczyło "ten, któremu sądzone jest przywracanie życia" albo "ten, który przywraca prawdziwy osąd". +Krzesąd imieniny obchodzi 28 stycznia. +Koń heski + +Koń heski - koń w sportowym typie, o mocnych kończynach. Występują wszystkie maści podstawowe. Znakowane piętnem. +Działająca do dziś stadnina krajowa w Dillenburgu powstała w 1770 r. jako stadnina dworska. Początkowo hodowano tu ciężkie konie robocze, wprowadzając często krew oldenburską i wschodniofryzyjską. W 1962 r. rozpoczęto hodowlę ukierunkowaną na uzyskanie nowoczesnych koni do sportu jeździeckiego, zwłaszcza do ujeżdżenia i skoków przez przeszkody. W tym celu krzyżowano je nie tylko z pełną krwią angielską, ale także z rasą hanowerską i westfalską. Wywarły one duży wpływ na konie heskie. Następnie powrócono do używania ogierów holsztyńskich, oldenburskich, co powiększyło kaliber tych koni. Dzisiejsze konie z Dillenburga są rozpowszechnione w prywatnej hodowli na wsi. +Wysokość: 160 - 170 cm. +Mudéjar + +Mudejar (z arab. "mudadżdżan" – ten, który mógł zostać w Hiszpanii) – styl w hiszpańskiej architekturze i sztuce, który rozwinął się z połączenia elementów islamskich i chrześcijańskich (romańskich i gotyckich). Pojawił się w VIII wieku, i przetrwał do XVII wieku. Największy jego rozkwit nastąpił w okresie gotyku (XV-XVI w.). +Cechy charakterystyczne stylu to bogactwo dekoracji ornamentalnych wykonywanych w stiuku, drewnie i cegle, wykorzystanie łuku. Pomieszczenia przekrywano stropami kasetonowymi i sklepieniami stalaktytowymi. Stosowano "azulejos". +Orlean + +Orlean (fr. "Orléans") – miasto i gmina w środkowej Francji, położone nad Loarą. Stolica Regionu Centralnego i departamentu Loiret. Ważny ośrodek przemysłowy i usługowy. Według danych na rok 2008 gminę zamieszkiwało 116 515 osób, a gęstość zaludnienia wynosiła 4239 osób/km². +Miasto położone jest nad rzeką Loarą w miejscu, gdzie zmienia ona swój kierunek z północno-zachodniego na południowo-zachodni i gdzie wpadają do niej dwa dopływy. Orlean szczególnie związany jest z postacią Joanny d'Arc, która tutaj odparła atak wojsk angielskich. Dziś miasto otoczone jest przez mniejsze miejscowości (m.in. Chapelle-Saint-Mesmin, Fleury-les-Aubrais, Olivet, Saint-Jean-de-la-Ruelle), które wraz z Orleanem tworzą jedną aglomerację (tzw. "Agglomération Orléans Val de Loire", w skrócie "AgglO"), liczącą 271 017 mieszkańców (2008). +Historia. +W starożytności miasto nosiło nazwę Cenabum i było ośrodkiem celtyckiego plemienia Karnutów. Podbite przez Rzymian, w 52 p.n.e. stało się miejscem wybuchu powstania antyrzymskiego, w wyniku czego zburzył je Cezar. W III wieku odbudował je cesarz Aurelian i nazwał "Civitas Aureliani". Z nazwy tej, po przekształceniach fonetycznych i uproszczeniach, wziął się dzisiejszy "Orlean". +W 472 roku Święty Monitor został 12. biskupem Orleanu. W 498 miasto zdobył Chlodwig I, władca Franków. Stało się ono miejscem koronacji królów: Karola Łysego (848) i Roberta II Pobożnego (987). +Podczas wojny stuletniej, w październiku 1428, wojska angielskie rozpoczęły oblężenie miasta. 17-letnia wówczas Joanna d'Arc przybyła obleganym z pomocą, prowadząc armie francuską. 29 kwietnia 1429 wkroczyła do Orleanu. Zamieszkała w domu Jacques'a Bouchera (dziś – po rekonstrukcji – mieści się w nim muzeum-dom Joanny d'Arc). W wyniku toczonych walk 8 maja 1429 miasto zostało wyzwolone. Na pamiątkę tego wydarzenia co roku 8 maja obchodzone jest święto (tzw. "fêtes johanniques"). +Podczas wojen religijnych miasto stało po stronie hugenotów. W 1594 roku zostało włączone do Korony francuskiej. W wiekach XVII i XVIII miał miejsce szczególny rozwój gospodarczy Orleanu. Do portów nad Loarą przybijały statki z towarami z kolonii francuskich z Kanady i Antyli, a Orlean stał się wielkim centrum dystrybucji. +Podczas II wojny światowej, w czerwcu 1940, około 17 ha zabudowy miasta zostało zniszczone wskutek bombardowania przez wojska niemieckie. W latach 1950-1970 trwała odbudowa miasta. Wówczas też (1959) założono na południowych przedmieściach dzielnicę Orléans-la-Source, na której terenie ulokowano uniwersytet wraz z miasteczkiem uniwersyteckim i "Parc Floral" ("Park Kwiatowy"). +Transport i komunikacja. +Orlean jest węzłem drogowym i kolejowym. W centrum miasta, w pobliżu centrum handlowego Place d'Arc znajduje się dworzec kolejowy SNCF i dworzec autobusowy. Komunikację miejską w całej aglomeracji zapewnia SEMTAO ("Société d'exploitation des transports de l'agglomération orléanaise") poprzez sieć autobusów i jedną linię tramwajową. Linia A tramwaju (północ-południe) otwarta została w 2000 roku; linia B (wschód-zachód) jest w trakcie budowy. Uruchomienie linii planowane jest na czerwiec 2012 r. Od 2007 roku w mieście wprowadzany jest system wypożyczania rowerów "Vélo'+". +Zabytki, muzea. +Katedra św. Krzyża. +Katedra Świętego Krzyża ("Cathédrale Sainte-Croix") znajduje się na placu św. Krzyża; fasadą zwrócona jest ku ulicy Joanny d'Arc. Po jej bokach usytuowane są: Muzeum Sztuk Pięknych i budynki urzędów regionu Centre. +Zanim powstała katedra, na jej miejscu stały dwa kościoły: pierwszy (IV-V w.) spalił się w 989 roku, drugi (XI-XII) także uległ zniszczeniu. W 1287 roku rozpoczęto wznoszenie gotyckiej budowli, jednak jej również nie było dane długo istnieć: z końcem XVI wieku zburzyli ją hugenoci. Aż do 1829 roku trwała jej odbudowa, w wyniku czego w budowli, obok elementów wzorowanych na gotyckich, pojawiły się także motywy klasyczne. +Hôtel Groslot. +Hôtel Groslot to renesansowa rezydencja, wznosząca się przy placu de l'Etape, w pobliżu katedry i merostwa. Niegdyś prywatna rezydencja, potem siedziba merostwa, dziś jest udostępniany zwiedzającym i pełni funkcje reprezentacyjne. Budynek został wzniesiony w latach 1549-1555 dla Jakuba Groslot, miejscowego sędziego, prawdopodobnie według projektu Jacques'a Androuet du Cerceau Starszego. W rezydencji gościli królowie Francji; tu zmarł Franciszek II w 1560 roku. W połowie XIX wieku budynek został odrestaurowany. Przed budynkiem stoi pomnik Joanny d'Arc, wyrzeźbiony przez Marię Orleańską. +Dom Joanny d'Arc. +Dom Joanny d'Arc ("Maison de Jeanne d'Arc") znajduje się przy placu de Gaulle'a 3. Ten budynek z szachulcową elewacją powstał w XV wieku dla skarbnika księcia Orleanu, Jacques'a Bouchera. Od 29 kwietnia do 8 maja 1429 mieszkała tu Joanna d'Arc. Dom został zrekonstruowany w XX wieku i dziś służy jako muzeum tej bohaterki, prezentując makiety i pamiątki z nią związane. +Muzeum Sztuk Pięknych. +Muzeum Sztuk Pięknych ("Musée des Beaux-Arts") zostało założone w 1825 roku i początkowo mieściło się w Hôtel des Créneaux. W 1986 roku przeniesiono je do obecnego, nowego gmachu przy placu Świętego Krzyża. Kolekcja obejmuje obrazy, rysunki, grafiki, rzeźby i rzemiosło od średniowiecza do współczesności. Wśród nich są m.in. "Święty Tomasz" Velasqueza, "Autoportret" Jeana Chardina, "Święto Gloanec" Paula Gauguina, obrazy Correggia, Philippe'a de Champaigne, braci Le Nain, Antoine'a Watteau, François Bouchera. +Hôtel Cabu (Muzeum Historyczne i Archeologiczne). +Ta renesansowa budowla została wzniesiona w 1548 roku przez Jacques'a du Cerceau starszego dla adwokata Filipa Cabu. W 1549 roku miała tu mieszkać Diana de Poitiers. Od 1862 w budynku mieści się Muzeum Historyczne i Archeologiczne Orleanii {"Musée historique et archéologique de l'Orléanais"), prezentujące kolekcję brązów galo-rzymskich, odkrytych w 1861 roku w Neuvy-en-Sullias, wyroby rzemiosła, grafikę ludową i inne. +Hôtel des Créneaux. +Hôtel des Créneaux (ul. Sainte Catherine) został wniesiony w latach 1503-1513, łącząc w sobie elementy renesansowe i gotyckie. Do 1790 był tu ratusz, potem Muzeum Sztuk Pięknych, a dziś konserwatorium. +Place du Martroi. +Place du Martroi to plac usytuowany w centrum miasta, otoczony przez budynki wznoszone od XVIII wieku po czasy współczesne. Pośrodku wznosi się pomnik konny Joanny d'Arc z brązu, na wysokim cokole zdobionym reliefami ze scenami z życia bohaterki. Posąg wykonał w 1855 Denis Foyatier, a płaskorzeźby Vital-Gabriel w 1885. +Sport. +W Orleanie znajduje się duży bulodrom do gry w pétanque. Odbywają się tam turnieje; m.in. Puchar Świata Juniorów. +Rosalía de Castro + +Rosalía de Castro (ur. 24 lutego 1837 w Santiago de Compostela, zm. 15 lipca 1885 w Padrón) – poetka i pisarka hiszpańska. +Jedna z najwybitniejszych przedstawicielek hiszpańskiej poezji doby postromantycznej. Pisała w językach kastylijskim i galicyjskim. Jej najważniejsze utwory to powieści "La hija del mar" ("Córka morza", 1859), "El caballero en las botas azules" ("Mężczyzna w niebieskich butach", 1867) oraz tomy poezji: "La Flor" ("Kwiat", 1857), "Cantares gallegos" ("Pieśni galicyjskie", 1863), "Follas novas" ("Świeże liście", 1880) - oba w języku galicyjskim oraz "En las orillas del Sar" ("Nad brzegami rzeki Sar", 1884). W Polsce praktycznie nieznana poza drobnymi fragmentami "Cantares gallegos". W Hiszpanii, a szczególnie w Galicji, do dziś uważana jest za narodowego wieszcza. +Andronik II Paleolog + +Andronik II Paleolog "zwany Starszym" (ur. 25 marca 1259 w Konstantynopolu; zm. 13 lutego 1332 w Konstantynopolu) – cesarz bizantyński, najstarszy syn Michała VIII Paleologa i Teodory Doukainy Watatziny, wnuczki cesarza Jana III Watatzesa. Mąż Anny Węgierskiej - córki Stefana V króla Węgier. Po śmierci Anny żonaty z Jolantą z Montferratu. +Biografia. +Andronik II był pobożnym intelektualistą, zręcznym dyplomatą i rozważnym administratorem na tronie bizantyńskim. Seria nieszczęść, jakie spadły na Cesarstwo za jego panowania, często wypacza ocenę dokonań tej postaci, szczególnie w zestawieniu z poprzednikiem, wojowniczym Michałem VIII, okrytym chwałą restauratora Bizancjum. Andronik nie lubił ojca, diametralnie różnił się odeń temperamentem, a na dodatek musiał stawić czoła trudnemu dziedzictwu rządów Michała. W trosce o spójność państwa natychmiast anulował unię lyońską (1274). Usunął patriarchę Jana Bekkosa i przywrócił na tron patriarchę Józefa. Wraz z kolejnym patriarchą Nifonem doprowadził do zakończenia konfliktu ze stronnictwem arsenitów - zwolenników patriarchy Arseniusza, obalonego przez Michała VIII. +Usiłował zahamować postępy tureckie w zaniedbanej Azji Mniejszej uciekając się do rekrutowania najemników i zabezpieczyć pozycję Bizancjum na Bałkanach poprzez przyjaźń z Serbią (1299). Realizację pierwszego zadania okupił ruiną finansową i spustoszeniem państwa przez Katalończyków, a drugiego – tragicznym losem swej pięcioletniej córeczki Symonidy oddanej za żonę brutalnemu Stefanowi Urošowi II Milutinowi (1282-1321) i utratą północnej Macedonii na rzecz Serbów. +W trakcie jego rządów doszło do daleszego upadku gospodarczego państwa. Andronik II dewaluował monetę i podwyższał podatki by ratować skarb Cesarstwa. Z oszczędności zmniejszył armię i zrezygnował z utrzymywania floty, co okazało się dużym błędem strategicznym. +Bizancjum uległo w tych latach dalszej feudalizacji i decentralizacji, a niemal cała Anatolia padła łupem Osmanów, którzy w 1326 roku zdobyli Bursę. Fatalny okres rządów Andronika zakończyła abdykacja w wyniku przegranej z wnukiem i imiennikiem, Andronikiem III (1328-1341), kolejnej wojny domowej, która pogłębiła rozkład Cesarstwa. +Mimo klęsk politycznych Cesarstwo przeżywało rozwój kultury i nauki. W otoczeniu Andronika II znajdowali się pisarz Teodor Metochita, uczony Nicefor Chumnos, historycy Jerzy Pachymeres oraz Nicefor Gregoras. +Małżeństwo z Jolantą z Montferratu nie należało do udanych, a sama Jolanta za stosunek do męża i wtrącanie się do polityki była krytykowana przez bizantyjskich historyków. +Yuppie + +Yuppie (skrót od ang. "Young Urban Professional" - dosłownie: 'młody wielkomiejski przedstawiciel wolnego zawodu' albo "Young Upwardly Mobile Professionals" - dosłownie: 'młodzi pnący się do góry profesjonaliści') – określenie pokolenia młodzieży z USA, które rozpoczęło pracę zawodową w latach 80. XX wieku, a także grup kierujących się podobnymi wartościami i stylem życia, np. w Polsce w latach 90. +Charakterystycznym atrybutem dla tej kategorii społecznej jest dążenie do profesjonalizmu, pragmatyzm, indywidualizm, zamiłowanie do luksusu, dążenie do kariery i sukcesów finansowych. Dążenie do kariery prowadzące do pracy po kilkanaście godzin dziennie prowadziło do syndromu wypalenia zawodowego. Ponadto kariera okupiona była problemami w życiu rodzinnym i emocjonalnym. W Polsce pogardliwym określeniem na yuppie jest "japiszon", lub jego lokalny odpowiednik "dorobkiewicz". +Kontrola społeczna + +Kontrola społeczna – system nakazów, zakazów i sankcji, które służą grupie lub społeczności do utrzymania konformizmu ich członków wobec przyjętych norm i wartości. +Teorie kontroli społecznej. +Teorie kontroli społecznej łączą różne dyscypliny naukowe. Swe podłoże zawdzięcza psychoanalizie Sigmunda Freuda, psychologii behawioralnej, której przedstawicielami byli Hans J. Eysenck i Gordon Trasler, psychologii społecznej (Ivan F. Nye oraz Albert J. Reiss), jak również socjologii, w której najważniejszą postacią był Émile Durkheim. +Formy i mechanizmy kontroli. +Na pograniczu mechanizmów kontroli społecznej funkcjonują zwyczaje i obyczaje. +Sankcje. +Każdy typ kontroli wyposażony jest w sankcje. Przykładowo: w kontroli wewnętrznej sankcją negatywną jest nieprzyjemne uczucie, występujące przy wyrzutach sumienia. Sankcje negatywne obejmuje nieformalna kontrola zewnętrzna, można do nich zaliczyć: wzrost prestiżu i przejawy szacunku. Oprócz sankcji pozytywnych nieformalna kontrola zewnętrzna zajmuje się sankcjami negatywnymi, takimi jak wykluczenie, pogarda, a także ostracyzm (często są to przejawy szczególnie bolesne). Sankcje formalne i nieformalne można znaleźć wśród systemów religijnych. +Zdarza się, że elementy kontroli społecznej są nieskuteczne. W przypadku elementów formalnych zawodne mogą okazać się: policja, prokuratura, sądy, więzienia. Gdy nieskuteczne stają się nieformalne elementy kontroli społecznej, mogą do nich należeć: rodzina, grupy rówieśnicze, środowisko sąsiedzkie. +Powiat żywiecki + +Powiat żywiecki – powiat ziemski w Polsce (województwo śląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Żywiec. W latach 1945-1975 powiat żywiecki znajdował się w województwie krakowskim. +Historia. +Powiat żywiecki w Galicji. +Początki powiatu żywieckiego datowane są na rok 1867, kiedy to austriackie władze Galicji dokonały podziału tej części monarchii na powiaty. Składał się on z trzech powiatów (obwodów) sądowych: żywieckiego, milowieckiego i ślemieńskiego. W przeciwieństwie do Śląska Cieszyńskiego, wcześniej obwody sądowe nie stanowiły równocześnie powiatów administracyjnych. Do roku 1921 powiat żywiecki obejmował 60 wsi, 2 miasteczka (Milówka i Ślemień) oraz 2 miasta (Żywiec i Sucha od 1896 roku). +W 1891 roku z powiatu żywieckiego wyłączono Tarnawę Górną i Dolną i przeniesiono do powiatu wadowickiego. W 1906 roku dokonano reorganizacji powiatu sądowego ślemieńskiego, którego siedziba została przeniesiona do Suchej. Do powiatu sądowego żywieckiego przeniesiono wówczas Łękawicę, Okrajnik, Łysinę, Kocierz Rychwałdzki, Kocierz Moszczanicki, Gilowice, Rychwałd, Rychwałdek i Pewel Ślemieńską. +Powiat żywiecki po 1918 roku. +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości, austriacki porządek administracyjny przetrwał do 1921 roku. Wówczas to utworzono powiat makowski, którego terytorium stanowił dawny powiat sądowy suski (do 1906 roku ślemieński) z powiatu żywieckiego oraz powiaty sądowe makowski i jordanowski. Z końcem 1931 roku powiat ten uległ jednak likwidacji, gdyż Maków (od 1926 roku "Maków Podhalański") nie potrafił stworzyć silnego ośrodka. Pozostałe miasta wchodzące w skład powiatu krytykowały ustanowienie stolicy powiatu w Makowie. Zwłaszcza okolice Suchej ciążyły do Żywca, który stanowił dla miasta nie tylko stolicę kulturową, ale też ważny rynek zbytu. Po likwidacji powiatu makowskiego jego obszar podzielono między powiaty: żywiecki, myślenicki, wadowicki i nowotarski. W związku z tym powiat żywiecki wrócił do granic sprzed 1921 roku. +Powiat żywiecki w czasie II wojny światowej. +Do momentu wybuchu II wojny światowej nie nastąpiły już żadne zmiany na mapie powiatu. Podczas wojny obronnej 1939 w pierwszych dniach września w rejonie Zwardonia, Milówki, Węgierskiej Górki i Lipowej polskie oddziały stoczyły sławną Bitwa pod Węgierską Górką – zwaną „Westerplatte południa”. +Niemcy włączyli obszar powiatu do Rzeszy jako "Landkreis Saybusch". Podobnie jak na innych obszarach okupanci rozpoczęli oni politykę germanizacyjną. +Na terenie żywiecczyzny Niemcy dokonywali masowych wysiedleń ludności polskiej. Najbardziej znana była tzw. Akcja Saybusch (niem.Aktion Saybusch) przeprowadzona przez wojska niemieckie i hitlerowską policję w czasie okupacji Polski. Podczas pierwszej akcji która odbyła się 22 września 1940 wysiedlono ok. 20 000  mieszkańców powiatu żywieckiego na tereny Generalnego Gubernatorstwa i wprowadzono w ich miejsce w ramach niemieckiej akcji kolonizacyjnej Heim ins Reich ponad 3200 osadników niemieckich,głównie chłopów przesiedlonych z rumuńskiej Bukowiny. Do końca wojny z Żywiecczyzny i jej okolic wysiedlono w sumie około 50 000 osób, czyli blisko jedną trzecią mieszkańców. +Po wkroczeniu Armii Czerwonej przywrócono podział administracyjny sprzed wojny. Wysiedleni gospodarze mogli powrócić do swoich, często zrujnowanych, gospodarstw dopiero po zakończeniu wojny. +Powiat żywiecki w okresie Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. +W związku z połączeniem miast Bielska i Białej Krakowskiej zlikwidowano powiat bialski, który został podzielony między powiaty bielski, żywiecki i nowo powstały powiat oświęcimski. Do powiatu żywieckiego zostały włączone wsie Międzybrodzie Bialskie, Porąbka, Czaniec, Bujaków i Kobiernice. +W 1956 roku powstał powiat ze stolicą w Suchej Beskidzkiej. W jego granice weszły miejscowości z powiatu żywieckiego (Kuków, Hucisko, Pewelka, Kurów, Targoszów, Krzeszów, Stryszawa, Lachowice i Sucha Beskidzka) i wadowickiego. Był to powiat zbliżony powierzchniowo do dawnego powiatu makowskiego. +W roku 1975 zlikwidowano powiaty, a obszar dawnego powiatu żywieckiego włączony został do nowoutworzonego województwa bielskiego. +Powiat żywiecki po 1989 roku. +Podział na powiaty przywrócono w 1999 roku. Reaktywowano wszystkie powiaty z terenów Podbeskidzia sprzed 1975 roku, jednak w zmienionych granicach. Wtedy to powiat żywiecki został włączony do województwa śląskiego, mimo istniejących wcześniej projektów włączenia go razem z powiatem bielskim do województwa małopolskiego, a mimo oporu mieszkańców śląskiej części powiatu bielskiego, w przeprowadzonej w 1998 roku ankiecie 70% ludności powiatu żywieckiego opowiedziała się za przynależnością do województwa małopolskiego. +Kominikacja. +Kolejowa. +Do najważniejszych stacji na terenie powiatu należą: Żywiec, Węgierska Górka, Zwardoń, Łodygowice, Rajcza i Milówka. +Autobusowa. +Siedemnaście linii MZK Żywiec łączy centrum miasta z wszystkimi jego dzielnicami oraz okolicznymi miejscowościami leżącymi na terenie gmin: Buczkowice (powiat bielski), Łodygowice, Czernichów, Gilowice, Świnna, Radziechowy-Wieprz i Lipowa. +Pistolet maszynowy PPSz + +PPSz wz. 1941, PPSz-41 (ros. ППШ-41 - "Пистолет - Пулемёт Шпагина обр. 1941 г. - Pistolet-Puliemiot Szpagina"), potocznie nazywany: pepeszą lub pepeszką - radziecki pistolet maszynowy kaliber 7,62 x25mm, skonstruowany przez Gieorgija Szpagina i wprowadzony na uzbrojenie Armii Czerwonej w 1941 roku. Podstawowa broń tej kategorii na uzbrojeniu Armii Czerwonej podczas II wojny światowej, używany także w licznych krajach świata. Do uzbrojenia Wojska Polskiego wprowadzony w 1943 roku . +Rozwój. +Pistolet maszynowy PPSz został opracowany przez Gieorgija Szpagina na konkurs na nową broń tej klasy w celu zastąpienia zbyt skomplikowanego w produkcji pistoletu maszynowego PPD-40 Diegtariewa. Oprócz PPSz do konkursu stanął ulepszony PPD-40 i pistolet maszynowy konstrukcji Szpitalnego. Próby toczyły się w drugiej połowie 1940 roku i zakończyły zwycięstwem pistoletu PPSz, który najlepiej przeszedł próby niezawodności. 21 grudnia 1940 roku został przyjęty na uzbrojenie Armii Czerwonej pod nazwą "pistolet-pulemiot Szpagina obrazca 1941 goda" - "pistolet maszynowy Szpagina wzór 1941", w skrócie PPSz-41. Popularna nazwa "pepesza" pochodzi od rosyjskich nazw liter inicjału nazwy broni. +Konstrukcja PPSz opierała się na pistolecie maszynowym PPD-40, do którego był bardzo podobny z wyglądu (PPD z kolei był wzorowany na fińskim Suomi). W porównaniu z PPD, konstrukcja PPSz była maksymalnie uproszczona, a przede wszystkim znacznie prostsza w produkcji dzięki zastąpieniu skomplikowanych metod obróbki tłoczeniem i zgrzewaniem. Nowo powstała broń była zarazem wysoce niezawodna i odporna na trudne warunki użytkowania. +Konstrukcja pistoletu nie podlegała znaczącym zmianom podczas produkcji, wprowadzano jedynie drobne ulepszenia szczegółów oraz zmiany mające na celu dalsze uproszczenie produkcji. Uproszczeniom podlegały m.in. przyrządy celownicze. Początkowo pistolet był produkowany jedynie z charakterystycznym wymiennym magazynkiem bębnowym o dużej pojemności 71 nabojów, lecz jego spora masa, skomplikowana budowa i ładowanie spowodowały wprowadzenie już od 12 lutego 1942 roku do produkcji alternatywnych magazynków łukowych o pojemności 35 nabojów. W styczniu 1944 roku zaprzestano w ogóle produkcji magazynków bębnowych. W 1942 powstawały najbardziej uproszczone serie pistoletów, pozbawione przełącznika rodzaju ognia i strzelające jedynie ogniem seryjnym. +Pierwsza partia PPSz została wyprodukowana w fabryce w Zagorsku w czerwcu 1941 roku, tuż przed atakiem Niemiec na ZSRR. Na skutek postępów armii niemieckiej, zakład ewakuowano na wschód do Wiatskich Polan w obwodzie kirowskim. Zakład ten pozostał głównym wytwórcą "pepesz", a ponadto ich produkcję uruchomiono w wielu innych fabrykach. Największą ilość wypuściły fabryki moskiewskie - ok. 3,5 miliona sztuk podczas wojny. W 1941 wyprodukowano 92 766 pistoletów PPSz, a w 1942 roku już 1 499 269 sztuk. Do końca wojny wyprodukowano ich ponad 5,5 miliona. +Wiele pistoletów PPSz podczas działań wojennych wpadło w ręce żołnierzy niemieckich, którzy chętnie używali ich w walce, zastępując nabój Tokariewa niemieckim Mauser 7,63x25 mm, który mając identyczne wymiary był słabszy od rosyjskiego. Wehrmacht nawet wydał oficjalną instrukcję obsługi w języku niemieckim. Ciekawostką jest, że w końcowym okresie wojny w III Rzeszy część z nich przystosowano do strzelania amunicją 9 mm Parabellum. +Wersje pochodne. +W 1942 roku Szpagin skonstruował jeszcze bardziej uproszczony wariant pistoletu maszynowego, PPSz-42, o mniejszej masie i składanej metalowej kolbie. Przeznaczony był na nowy konkurs na pistolet maszynowy o mniejszych gabarytach dla załóg wozów bojowych, zwiadowców i innych wyspecjalizowanych formacji. Nowa broń jednakże nie dorównywała PPSz-41 niezawodnością i w konkursie zwyciężył jeszcze prostszy w konstrukcji pistolet maszynowy Sudajewa PPS-42. Zaczął on uzupełniać "pepeszę" w wyspecjalizowanych zastosowaniach, natomiast PPSz-41 był nadal produkowany dla piechoty. +W 1944 roku Szpagin opracował karabin automatyczny na nabój pośredni wz. 43 kal. 7,62 x 43 mm, oparty o konstrukcję PPSz, lecz nie była to broń udana z powodu zastosowania zbyt silniej amunicji jak na konstrukcję broni. W 1945 roku Szpagin skonstruował wersję rozwojową pistoletu maszynowego PPSz-45, całkowicie metalową i ulepszoną, lecz nie weszła ona do produkcji, a standardową bronią piechoty Armii Radzieckiej stał się karabinek AK. +Po wojnie PPSz był produkowany także w Polsce (od czerwca 1950 roku, wyprodukowano ok. 111 tys. sztuk), w ChRL (oznaczony jako "Type 50"), Jugosławii ("M-49"), KRL-D ("Model 49"), Iranie ("Model 22"), na Węgrzech ("48M"). W Wietnamie Północnym powstał wzorowany na pepeszy pistolet maszynowy K50. +Opis techniczny. +Pistolet maszynowy "PPSz-41" działał na zasadzie odrzutu zamka swobodnego. Zasilanie w naboje bębnowego magazynka o pojemności 71 nabojów lub pudełkowego łukowego magazynka o pojemności 35 nabojów, podczepianego od dołu broni. W górnej części pokrywy komory zamkowej znajdowało się okno wyrzutnika łusek. Do zabezpieczenia pistoletu przy zamku napiętym lub zwolnionym służył bezpiecznik suwakowy w rączce zamka, wsuwany w wycięcia w tylnej i przedniej części komory zamkowej. Broń miała łoże i kolbę drewnianą, szyjka kolby była wyprofilowana w chwyt pistoletowy. Mechanizm spustowy wyposażony był w przełącznik rodzaju ognia (ogień pojedynczy / ciągły), umieszczony przed spustem w kabłąku spustowym. Lufa była osłonięta perforowaną osłoną blaszaną na całej długości, z podłużnymi otworami wentylacyjnymi, przechodzącą u góry w pokrywę komory zamkowej. U wylotu lufy osłona tworzyła urządzenie wylotowe, będące hamulcem wylotowym i osłabiaczem podrzutu. +Przyrządy celownicze: regulowany: celownik krzywkowy z nastawami od 50 do 500 m co 50 m (wczesne serie) lub celownik przerzutowy o nastawach 100 i 200 m i w związku z tym na jednym jego ramieniu jest liczba 10, a na drugim 20 (od 1942 roku). Muszka stała, w osłonie, przy końcu osłony lufy. +Do broni stosowano przybory służące do rozkładania, składania i czyszczenia pistoletu maszynowego . W ich skład wchodził składany wycior, wkrętak, wybijak, szczoteczka, klucz i olejarka dwuwylotowa z dwoma przedziałami: w jednym przedziale znajdował się płyn do czyszczenia, a w drugim smar działowy. +Odkrywca + +Odkrywca to trzeci męski stopień harcerski w ZHP (wprowadzony w 2003 wraz z wprowadzeniem nowego podziału na grupy metodyczne). Jego oznaczeniem jest jedna krokiewka na pagonie oraz (fakultatywnie) srebrna lilijka nabita na krzyżu harcerskim. Zdobywają go harcerze w wieku 13–16 lat (harcerze starsi). +Idea stopnia. +Ocenia siebie i swoje postępowanie odwołując się do Prawa Harcerskiego. Potrafi radzić sobie w różnych sytuacjach. Można na nim polegać. Jest uczynny, odważny, samodzielny. Wywiązuje się z obowiązków wynikających z miejsca w drużynie. +Kosta Chetagurow + +Kosta Chetagurow (oset. Къоста Хетæгкаты, ur. 15 października 1859 r., zm. 1 kwietnia 1906 r.) – osetyjski pisarz, poeta, malarz, publicysta i działacz społeczny, uznawany za najwybitniejszego pisarza, tworzącego w języku osetyjskim. +Studiował w Petersburskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych. Po powrocie do kraju, za swoją działalność wolnościową zesłany do Chersonia, następnie Oczakowa. Jeden ze współtwórców alfabetu osetyjskiego i faktyczny twórca literatury osetyjskiej. Wydany w 1899 r. tom wierszy "Osetyjska lira" ("Ирон фæндыр") uważa się za klasykę literatury osetyjskiej a jednocześnie jedno z najważniejszych dzieł jakie powstały w małych literaturach narodów kaukaskich. Zmarł na gruźlicę. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Wybór wierszy z "Osetyjskiej liry" (po rosyjsku) +Ołtaszyn + +Ołtaszyn (niem. "Oltaschin", od 1937 do 1945 "Herzogshufen", w pierwszych latach po II wojnie światowej "Ołtarzyn") - osiedle w dzielnicy Krzyki leżące w południowo-wschodniej części Wrocławia. Osiedle znajduje się w odległości 6,5 km od dzielnicy Stare Miasto. +Ołtaszyn od strony południowej sąsiaduje z wsią Wysoka (wzdłuż polnej drogi), od północy sięga do linii kolejowej Wrocław – Kobierzyce, od wschodu sąsiaduje z Wojszycami (w linii ulic: Świt, Nenckiego, Gałczyńskiego i Grota-Roweckiego), od zachodu natomiast z Partynicami (w linii ulic: Agrestowej i Obrońców Poczty Gdańskiej). +Historia. +Najstarsze ślady osadnictwa w okolicy Ołtaszyna pochodzą z epoki brązu i żelaza. +Najstarszy znany zapis dotyczący wsi pochodzi z roku 1204, w którym Henryk Brodaty m.in. zwolnił posiadłości klasztoru NMP na Piasku od daniny zwanej podworowem. +W granicach Wrocławia Ołtaszyn znajduje się od 1 stycznia 1951 roku. Dominuje w nim zabudowa jednorodzinna. +Dawna średniowieczna wieś zachowała kształt owalnicowej dwurzędówki z 2 ulicami w osi wschodnio-zachodniej, ujmującymi wspólny plac tzw. nawsie zamknięty od wschodu budynkiem Kościół Wniebowzięcia NMP a od zachodu budynkiem kuźni (z ok. 1880 r.). +Granice osiedla. +Od północy granica Ołtaszyna biegnie przy Parku Południowym (róg ul. Wyścigowej i Ślężnej) wzdłuż linii kolejowej, od wschodu ul. Grota Roweckiego. Od południa granica osiedla pokrywa się z granicą miasta, a od zachodu prowadzi ul. Agrestową i krótkim odcinkiem Wyścigowej. +Ulice osiedla. +R. Agatowa, Abrahama, Ametystowa, Agrestowa, M. Białoszewskiego, Bołtucia, Brylantowa, Bursztynowa, Czołgistów, Dąbka, Diamentowa, Fasolowa,Filipowicza, K.I.Gałczyńskiego, Gerberowa, W.Goetla, gen. S. Grota-Roweckiego, mjr. Hubala, Jarzynowa, Jaspisowa, Kryniczna, Kurpiów, gen. T. Kutrzeby, J. Lechonia, Łubinowa, Motylkowa, Nefrytowa, Nektarowa, M. Nenckiego, Nenufarowa, Obrońców Poczty Gdańskiej, Orawska, Parafialna, Piechoty, Poronińska, Pszczelarska, Rubinowa, Rzepakowa, Skotnickiego, Sojowa, K. Sosnkowskiego, S. Starzyńskiego, Storczykowa, B. Strachowskiego, Strączkowa, H. Sucharskiego, W. Szafera, Szafirowa, Szczepowa, Szmaragdowa, Traktorowa, Turkusowa, Uczniowska, Ułańska, adm. J. Unruga, Włada, Zdrojowa, Zwiadowców. +Geografia. +Pierwotny układ wsi to tzw. ulicówka dwurzędowa. Obecne centrum osiedla, tak jak dawniej, tworzą dwie równoległe ulice: Pszczelarska i Strachowskiego; oraz prostokątny, wydłużony w orientacji wschód-zachód, plac pomiędzy nimi. Drogi te były jednostronnie zabudowane, głównie gospodarstwami rolnymi. Na tyłach tych zabudowań rozciągały się pola uprawne. Centralny plac zajmowały m.in. obiekty publiczne, jak kościół, oraz kuźnia i staw przeciwpożarowy. +Układ ten pozostał w niemal niezmienionym stanie, jednak zamiast pól uprawnych wokół starych domów osiedla rozciąga się nowoczesna zabudowa jednorodzinna, a dawne gospodarstwa rolne nie spełniają już swych pierwotnych funkcji. Okolica placu pomiędzy ww. ulicami do dziś skupia najważniejsze dla mieszkańców budynki: kościół, przychodnia lekarska, sklepy i usługi. +Ołtaszyn jest jednym z najwyżej położonych osiedli, znajduje się na wysoczyźnie morenowej zajmującej południowe rejony miasta, na wysokości 130-136 m n.p.m. Ziemia jest tam bardzo dobra, klasy I i II (czarne ziemie i gleby brunatne), co sprzyjało warunkom rozwoju ogrodnictwa. W latach 80. powstały liczne szklarnie, które obecnie w większości zostały przekształcone w hurtownie, sklepy lub pomieszczenia gospodarskie. +Komunikacja miejska. +Osiedle ma zapewnioną komunikację autobusową z punktami przesiadkowymi przy pętli Krzyki oraz Dworcu Głównym PKP (linie nr 113, 612 oraz nocny 249). +Ormianie w Polsce + +Ormianie — jedna z dziewięciu, ustawowo uznanych mniejszości narodowych w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, stanowiąca część światowej diaspory ormiańskiej, żyjąca w rozproszeniu na terenie całego kraju, o orientalnym rodowodzie, zaawansowanej asymilacji oraz wielowiekowej tradycji osadnictwa na ziemiach Rzeczypospolitej. +Liczebność. +Liczbę Ormian w Polsce szacuje się na 40-80 tys., w tym ok. 8 tys. stanowią przedstawiciele tzw. starej emigracji (tj. potomków Ormian przybywających do Rzeczypospolitej XI-XVII w.), a pozostali to emigranci, którzy przybyli do Polski po II wojnie światowej, a zwłaszcza po upadku Związku Radzieckiego (tzw. nowa emigracja). +W 2002 wg Narodowego Spisu Powszechnego Ludności i Mieszkań, narodowość ormiańską zadeklarowało 262 obywateli polskich, w tym: w województwie mazowieckim - 73, wielkopolskim - 26, śląskim - 23, małopolskim - 22, lubuskim - 20. Przedstawiciele środowisk ormiańskich krytykują te wyniki wskazując, że podczas spisu powszechnego nie było możliwości wskazania więcej niż jednej narodowości oraz nie zadawano pytania o przynależność do grupy etnicznej. Większość członków spolonizowanej od dawna tzw. starej emigracji ormiańskiej, stojąc koniecznością zadeklarowania albo narodowości polskiej, albo ormiańskiej - deklarowała tę pierwszą. Natomiast członkowie tzw. nowej emigracji w znakomitej większości albo nie posiadają obywatelstwa polskiego (nie byli więc zaliczani do ormiańskiej mniejszości narodowej), albo przebywają w Polsce nielegalnie i z natury rzeczy nie uczestniczyli w spisie powszechnym. +Historia Ormian na terenie Polski. +Rozbiór Armenii między Bizancjum i państwo Turków Seldżuków w roku 1080 spowodował masową emigrację Ormian z ojczyzny, m.in. na Ruś. Prawdopodobnie po najazdach mongolskich w XIII wieku kolonie ormiańskie na Rusi zostały zasilone nową falą emigrantów z Armenii zakaukaskiej. W państwie polskim Ormianie znaleźli się w połowie XIV wieku, po przyłączeniu przez Kazimierza Wielkiego Rusi Halickiej ze Lwowem, gdzie istniało ich znaczące skupisko. W 1356 r. król Kazimierz zatwierdził odrębność religijną, samorządową i sądowniczą Ormian lwowskich, a w 1367 r. zezwolił ich biskupowi Grzegorzowi na wykonywanie jurysdykcji biskupiej i budowę katedry w mieście. +Przywileje Kazimierza Wielkiego i jego następców tworzyły podstawę prawno-polityczną bytu Ormian w Polsce. Odtąd liczba ich na wschodzie Polski wzrastała, osiedlali się oni w coraz to nowych miastach i miasteczkach, takich jak Kamieniec Podolski, Bar, Brzeżany, Tyśmienica, Kuty, a nawet Kazimierz nad Wisłą, a od XVI wieku w licznych miastach prywatnych (Zamość, Jazłowiec, Stanisławów, Horodenka, Mohylów Podolski i in.). +Gminy ormiańskie w Polsce miały własny samorząd i rządziły się według zwyczajowego prawa (tzw. Datastanagirk) przeniesionego z Armenii, a opracowanego ok. 1184 przez Mechitara Gosza. Zatwierdzony przez Zygmunta Starego w 1519 tzw. Statut ormiański oparty był głównie na "Datastanagirku", ale uwzględniał przepisy ogólnego prawa polskiego; była to próba uregulowania konfliktów narodowościowych w miastach (gł. we Lwowie) i zatargów pomiędzy miastem a Ormianami, spowodowanych przez odrębność i uprzywilejowane stanowisko Ormian. Statut ormiański, uzupełniony głównie dekretem Jana III, pozostawał w użyciu do 1780-1781, tj. do zniesienia oddzielnych sądów ormiańskich. +Większość Ormian zamieszkujących Polskę zajmowała się handlem ze Wschodem, z którym byli przecież blisko związani i wkrótce handel ten niemal całkowicie zdominowali. Inni parali się złotnictwem, produkując często wspaniałe wyroby. Inni wreszcie rozwinęli w Polsce produkcję dywanów. +Większość polskich Ormian była dobrze wykształcona. Dzięki kontaktom handlowym ze Wschodem potrafili posługiwać się oni orientalnymi językami, z czego korzystali często królowie i panowie polscy - większość oficjalnych poselstw do Persji czy Turcji była sprawowana właśnie przez Ormian. Bogaci kupcy ormiańscy nieraz pożyczali pieniądze wiecznie cierpiącym na brak funduszy polskim królom. +Często podkreślana jest pierwszorzędna rola Ormian w orientalizacji polskiej kultury szlacheckiej. To Ormianie współkształtowali sarmackość, sprowadzając do Polski m.in. nieodłączny atrybut Sarmaty - strój kontuszowy, popularną wśród szlachty szablę ormiańską czy liczne egzotyczne przyprawy i ozdoby. +Ormianie w polskim wojsku. +Ormianie napływali na ziemie polskie przez Krym, Besarabię i Ruś. Osiedlali się na ziemiach południowo-wschodnich Rzeczypospolitej (Bukowina, Kamieniec Podolski, Suczawa, Kijów). Nowa ojczyzna zapewniała im pokój i swobodę egzystencji. Ormianie wnieśli w polską kulturę wiele wartości w różnych dziedzinach. Z ich nacji wywodzą się liczni wybitni politycy, uczeni, artyści i żołnierze – od pól Grunwaldu, przez Warnę, Chocim, Kamieniec Podolski, Lwów, Jazłowiec i Wiedeń – zwycięstwo Jana III Sobieskiego wspomagało pięć tysięcy Ormian. Również podczas dwóch wojen światowych nie brakło ich po polskiej stronie. Krwawą ofiarę złożyło też i duchowieństwo obrządku ormiańskiego, które w czasie wojennych kataklizmów zostało niemal całkowicie wyniszczone. +Unia kościelna Ormian polskich. +Ormianie zamieszkujący od XIV w. wschodnie miasta Rzeczypospolitej, a zwłaszcza Lwów, Kuty, Kołomyję, Kamieniec Podolski i Mohylów Podolski nad Dniestrem wzięli udział w unii brzeskiej. Pod względem kościelnym posiadali własne biskupstwo we Lwowie, zależne od patriarchatu eczmiadzyńskiego Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego. Unią Ormian zaczęli interesować się Polacy jeszcze w XVI w. Ks. Andrzej Lubelczyk zajął się problemem chrztu ormiańskiego, któremu poświęcił dziełko "Baptismus Armenorum" (1544). On też wydał traktat o liturgii ormiańskiej – "Liturgia seu Missa Armenorum" (1649). Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski w księdze "O Kościele" widział powszechność Kościoła łącznie z Kościołem ormiańskim. Podobne stanowisko zajął ks. Stanisław Orzechowski. Obok tych pisarzy, unią z Ormianami zainteresował się praktycznie jezuita B. Herbest, metropolita lwowski Jan Dymitr Solikowski i biskup kamieniecki P. Wołucki (1594-1607). +Nie brakło tendencji unijnych wśród samych Ormian. Wydaje się, że zwolennikiem unii był arcybiskup Grzegorz (1562-1568) i jego następca arcybiskup Barsumas Bogdanowicz (1575-1584). Na początku 1626 r. przybył do Lwowa eks-katolikos Eczmiadzynu Melchizedech, otwarty zwolennik unii z Kościołem rzymskim. On to udzielił sakry biskupiej ks. Mikołajowi Torosowiczowi na ormiańskie arcybiskupstwo we Lwowie (8 stycznia 1627). Arcybiskup ten (1627-1681), przyjąwszy sakrę biskupią wbrew woli kleru i reszty Ormian, szukał oparcia u katolików. Dlatego w 1629 r. złożył prywatne wyznanie wiary na ręce metropolity łacińskiego J. A. Próchnickiego, a 24 października 1630 r. powtórzył to uroczyście w kościele karmelitów lwowskich. Zastrzegł się jednak, że zachowa tradycyjne ceremonie i liturgię oraz ormiański kalendarz kościelny. Tego samego dnia odprawił uroczystą mszę św. w obrządku ormiańskim w archikatedrze łacińskiej we Lwowie. +Ten gest nie zjednał mu jednak wszystkich Ormian, a do swej katedry mógł wejść tylko z pomocą magistratu. Otoczony opieką nuncjusza papieskiego H. Viscontiego i króla Zygmunta III udał się on w 1634 r. do Rzymu, gdzie wobec Urbana VIII powtórzył wyznanie wiary katolickiej i otrzymał od papieża tytuł arcybiskupa metropolity z jurysdykcją na Polskę, Mołdawię i Wołoszczyznę. Zawarta w ten sposób unia kościelna natrafiła na olbrzymie trudności ze strony Ormian. Unię natomiast wspomagali walnie jezuici, a także teatyni, którzy po 1664 r. zajęli się wychowaniem ormiańskiego kleru. Sam arcybiskup, niezwykle konfliktowy, wybrał się powtórnie do Rzymu w 1643, by szukać tam pomocy materialnej i moralnej. Podróże te, wznawiane później, nie przyniosły pełnego rozwiązania sporu wśród Ormian lwowskich. Na pełną akceptację unii przez kler i resztę Ormian wpłynęli teatyni, a zwłaszcza o. Klemens Gołano, niegdyś misjonarz wśród Ormian w Azji Mniejszej. W 1664 r. otworzył on we Lwowie papieskie kolegium dla Ormian. On to wpłynął decydująco na recepcję unii wśród wszystkich Ormian, a ugruntował ją następca arcybiskupa Torosowicza, arcybiskup Wartan Hunanian. Szacuje się, że około 1660 r. Kościół katolicki obrządku ormiańskiego w Polsce liczył około 3500 wiernych, 20 księży i 15 kościołów. Wierni już wówczas byli bardzo mocno spolonizowani. +Dzieje Ormian polskich od XVII do XIX w.. +W wiekach XVIII i XIX kościoły ormiańskie, już (ormiańsko–katolickie), budowane przez bogate ormiańskie kolonie, były niejednokrotnie jedynymi kościołami katolickimi w mniejszych miejscowościach kresowych. Z tego też powodu bardzo często Polacy – z braku własnych – uczęszczali do nich na nabożeństwa. Kazania w nich głoszone były po polsku, z uwagi na fakt, że język ormiański był przez polskich Ormian coraz mniej używany. +Przejawem asymilacji językowej Ormian w Polsce było urabianie przez nich nazwisk rodowych na wzór polskich przy pomocy przyrostka -wicz (pochodzenia wschodniosłowiańskiego, bo w polskim było -wic). Przyrostek ten dodawano do imion rdzennie ormiańskich lub obcych, lecz często przez Ormian używanych. Typowe nazwiska polskich Ormian to: Manugiewicz, Minasowicz, Wartanowicz, Donigiewicz, Sarkisiewicz, (w Armenii nazywali by się: Manukian, Minasjan, Wartanian, Tonikian, Sarkisjan), Bohosiewicz (w Armenii: Poghosjan, od imienia Poghos = Paweł, a nie od ruskiego Boh), Krzysztofowicz, Stefanowicz, Antoniewicz, a także Dawidowicz, Abrahamowicz itd. Nazwiska ostatniego typu, utworzone od imion starotestamentowych, używane były także przez inne grupy etniczne, np. przez Karaimów. Czasem nazwiska ormiańskie były niemal dosłownie tłumaczone na polski (np. Astwacatur «"dar Boga"» - Bogdanowicz, Bohdanowicz). +Wśród polskich Ormian byli zarówno pisarze jak i uczeni. W pierwszej połowie XVII w. wyróżniał się Symeon z Zamościa (ur. w 1584), znany w ormiańskiej literaturze jako Simeon Lehaci (Lehacy, tj. Polak). Przez dwanaście lat podróżował on po krajach Bliskiego Wschodu oraz Italii. Pozostawił po sobie napisane językiem staroormiańskim (grabarem) zapiski podróżne, w których m.in. zamieścił opis Lwowa. +Na przełomie XVII i XVIII w. działał Stepanos Roszka, autor Kroniki oraz słownika ormiańsko-łacińskiego. W XIX w. wielu Ormian polskich, głównie spośród inteligencji ormiańskiej, nie znało języka ormiańskiego. Po polsku pisał swe dzieła dominikanin Sadok Barącz (1814-92). Opublikował on m.in. "Żywoty sławnych Ormian w Polsce" (Lwów, 1856). Jednak istniały całe wioski ormiańskie, zwłaszcza na Rusi, gdzie posługiwano się wyłącznie lokalnymi gwarami języka kipczackiego, który zastępował tam język grabar. +Bardziej znani są Ormianie działający w obrębie kultury polskiej, tacy jak np. poeci Szymon Szymonowic i bracia Zimorowicowie, wybitny działacz oświatowy i pedagog okresu Konstytucji 3 Maja – ks. Grzegorz Piramowicz, czy też malarz Teodor Axentowicz (1859-1938), profesor krakowskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych. Z Krakowem był także związany Jan Jaśkiewicz (1754-1809), chemik i przyrodnik, założyciel krakowskiego ogrodu botanicznego. +Warto tu wspomnieć, że autorem tekstów do tak znanych pieśni kościelnych jak "Nie opuszczaj nas" i "Chwalcie łąki umajone" był urodzony w rodzinie ormiańskiej ksiądz Karol Antoniewicz (1807-52), zaś kompozytorem melodii "Chorału" Kornela Ujejskiego – Józef Nikorowicz (1827-1890). +Ormianie polscy w niepodległej Polsce. +Jedną z najwybitniejszych postaci Ormian polskich w XX wieku był ostatni arcybiskup lwowski obrządku ormiańsko-katolickiego, ks. Józef Teodorowicz (1864-1938). Przedwojenne źródła opisują go jako gorącego polskiego patriotę, polityka udzielającego się w ruchu niepodległościowym, a także wybitnego i popularnego kaznodzieję. Do dziś Ormianie polscy czczą jego pamięć, czego dowodem są uroczyste obchody 70. rocznicy śmierci arcybiskupa, w tym wydanie przez Fundację Kultury i Dziedzictwa Ormian Polskich okolicznościowej publikacji z oryginalnymi nagraniami kazań głoszonych przez niego w 1938. +W przedwojennym Lwowie Ormianie byli znani i szanowani. Wielu Polaków nie związanych z ormiańskim obrządkiem chodziło do ormiańskiej katedry, by słuchać kazań cieszącego się wielką estymą arcybiskupa Teodorowicza. Głośne były również bale ormiańskie, organizowane w okresie karnawału w salach lwowskiego Kasyna Literacko-Artystycznego. Bawili się na nich nie tylko Ormianie, ale i liczni przedstawiciele lwowskiej elity. +Od 1927 r. Ormianie wydawali we Lwowie, po polsku, swoje czasopismo noszące tytuł "Posłaniec św. Grzegorza". Tytuł nawiązywał do postaci pierwszego ormiańskiego świętego, chrystianizatora Armenii z przełomu III i IV wieku. +Ormianie w Kutach aż do II wojny światowej utrzymali w ograniczonym zakresie znajomość języka ormiańskiego. +Do końca II wojny światowej Ormianie polscy zamieszkiwali Czerniowce i Storożyniec na terenie ówczesnej Rumunii. +Lata II wojny światowej. +W okresie II wojny światowej społeczność ormiańska w Polsce poniosła dotkliwe straty. Eksterminowani zarówno przez Sowietów (jako warstwa inteligencka i bezkompromisowo propolska), jak i hitlerowców (którzy z powodu egzotycznego wyglądu często brali ich za Żydów). Ormianie, deklarujący ścisły związek z kulturą i państwowością polską padli również ofiarą Rzezi wołyńskiej oraz Czystki Etnicznej w Małopolsce Wschodniej (19 IV 1944 nacjonaliści ukraińscy z UPA wymordowali mieszkańców kresowej miejscowości Kuty nad Czeremoszem, w tym kilkuset Ormian). Mimo to wielu polskich Ormian wykazało się wspaniałą postawą patriotyczną, np. ks. Dionizy Kajetanowicz, ostatni administrator archidiecezji lwowskiej obrządku ormiańskiego, uratował setki Żydów wydając im fikcyjne metryki chrztu w obrządku ormiańskim, a wielu, jak ppłk Walerian Tumanowicz, wstąpiło do AK. Leon Krzeczunowicz działał w organizacji Uprawa. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej pozostałych przy życiu Ormian, wraz z wielu mieszkańcami Kresów przesiedlono na Ziemie Odzyskane. +Po II wojnie światowej. +Po długich latach rozproszenia Ormianie polscy w różnych miastach Polski jak: Kraków, miasta Górnego Śląska (Gliwice, Opole), a także Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk, Warszawa zaczęli skupiać się w różnych organizacjach. Najpierw, zgodnie z wielowiekową tradycją, wokół Kościoła katolickiego obrządku ormiańskiego (powstały ośrodki ormiańsko-katolickie w Gdańsku i Gliwicach), a następnie w formach świeckich. +W 1980 r. w Krakowie powstało Koło Zainteresowań Kulturą Ormian przy oddziale Polskiego Towarzystwa Ludoznawczego. Podobne koła zawiązały się także w Warszawie i Gdańsku. Obecnie w Krakowie działa również Ormiańskie Towarzystwo Kulturalne. Zebrania krakowskich i warszawskich organizacji odbywają się w lokalnych Muzeach Etnograficznych. +Natomiast w 2006 ówczesny ordynariusz wiernych obrządku ormiańskiego, prymas Józef Glemp, powołał do życia Fundację Kultury i Dziedzictwa Ormian Polskich, która prowadzi ożywioną działalność kulturalną, naukową i wydawniczą oraz zarządza bogatymi zbiorami armeników (zabytków kultury ormiańskiej). +Po upadku ZSRR i w następstwie trudnej sytuacji geopolitycznej i materialnej, w jakiej znalazła się niepodległa Republika Armenii, do Polski zaczęły przybywać tysiące Ormian, szukających pracy i zajmujących się często, jak ich przodkowie w dawnych wiekach, handlem. +Polacy o ormiańskich korzeniach. +Wśród potomków rodzin ormiańskich, zamieszkałych od pokoleń w Polsce można wymienić takie postaci jak: +Duszpasterstwo Ormian. +Po zakończeniu drugiej wojny światowej Ormianie z racji zamieszkiwania na Kresach zostali zmuszeni do opuszczenia swych małych ojczyzn i do osiedlenia się w Polsce centralnej i zachodniej. I tak też powstały ormiańskie świątynie na terenie Krakowa, Gliwic i Gdańska (ks. Kazimierz Filipiak). +Ordynariuszem wiernych obrządku ormiańskiego na terenie Polski jest metropolita warszawski Kazimierz Nycz. +Od 20 listopada 2009 roku na mocy jego dekretu obszar Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej została podzielony pomiędzy trzy parafie ormiańskie: +Szkoły ormiańskie w Polsce. +Warszawa. +Pierwsza szkoła ormiańska w Polsce powstała w 1994 roku. Była to szkoła im. Mesropa Masztoca i znajdowała się w Warszawie, początkowo w budynku szkoły podstawowej przy ul. Lindego 20, a następnie w liceum ogólnokształcącym przy ul. Niskiej 5. Założycielką i dyrektorką szkoły była Marine Restevanyan. Szkoła istniała przez 3 lata (październik 1994 - czerwiec 1997). Zajęcia odbywały się przez sześć dni w tygodniu, od poniedziałku do soboty w godzinach 15 - 20. Szkoła prowadziła zajęcia, według systemu szkolnictwa ormiańskiego (od pierwszej klasy do dziesiątej). Wszystkie przedmioty były prowadzone w języku ormiańskim, uczyły tam dyplomowane nauczycielki pochodzenia ormiańskiego. Oprócz podstawowych przedmiotów odbywały się również zajęcia dodatkowe, takie jak psychologia, prawo, szachy, taniec ormiański. Szkoła wydawała świadectwa, czy też zaświadczenia, które były honorowane w szkołach w Armenii. Została zamknięta 23 czerwca 1997 roku. +Myśl utworzenia sobotniej szkoły dla dzieci ormiańskich uczęszczających do polskich szkół podstawowych i ponad podstawowych zrodziła się w Kole Zainteresowań Kulturą Ormian w Warszawie, w 2002 roku. Realizację tej inicjatywy wziął na siebie Paweł Korczewski - członek Koła. Od 1 września 2003 roku w Szkole Podstawowej nr 1, a od roku 2004 w Szkole Podstawowej nr 210 przy ul. Karmelickiej 13 w Warszawie taka szkoła istnieje. Podstawą działania szkoły jest rozporządzenie Ministerstwa Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu z dnia 3 grudnia 2002 r. "„w sprawie warunków i sposobu wykonywania przez szkoły i placówki publiczne zadań umożliwiających podtrzymanie poczucia tożsamości narodowej, etnicznej, językowej i religijnej uczniów należących do mniejszości narodowych i grup etnicznych”". +Naukę prowadzą dwie dyplomowane nauczycielki, Ormianki, panie Anahit Yeremian i Margarita Yeremian-Woźniakowska. Swój program edukacyjny szkoła realizuje w trzech płaszczyznach: kształcenia językowego w mowie i piśmie, literackiego i kulturalnego, oraz poprzez udział w imprezach ogólnoszkolnych. +Kraków. +W Krakowie szkoła ormiańska powstała w 2004 roku przy Ormiańskim Towarzystwie Kulturalnym. Uczęszczające do niej dzieci uczą się w dwóch grupach. Lekcje odbywają się w każdą sobotę roku szkolnego w budynku Wojewódzkiej Biblioteki Publicznej w Krakowie. Oprócz lekcji języka ormiańskiego odbywają się tam również zajęcia z historii, tańca i muzyki, które mają przybliżyć uczniom kulturę ich kraju. Bardzo często odbywają się przedstawienia szkolne, przygotowane między innymi dla rodziców, które integrują środowisko ormiańskie w Krakowie. Nauczycielkę języka ormiańskiego (dr Gohar Khachatryan) zatrudnia dyrektor Szkoły nr 26 w Krakowie, natomiast nauczycielki historii (Veronika Hovanesyan) i muzyki (Ela Mkrtchyan) są zatrudniane przez Ormiańskie Towarzystwo Kulturalne. +Szkoła ormiańska sprawia, że dzieci nie zapominają o swojej tożsamości narodowej, a także integruje dorosłych, którzy często spotykają się na terenie szkoły. +Łódź. +http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0W9-3acwE4 +Robert Biedroń + +Robert Biedroń (ur. 13 kwietnia 1976 w Rymanowie) – polski działacz na rzecz osób LGBT, publicysta i polityk, poseł na Sejm VII kadencji. +Życiorys. +Wykształcenie i działalność zawodowa. +Ukończył studia z zakresu politologii na Uniwersytecie Warmińsko-Mazurskim w Olsztynie. Odbył także kurs w Szkole Praw Człowieka organizowanej przez Helsińską Fundację Praw Człowieka. W 2006 został doktorantem Wydziału Nauk Politycznych AH w Pułtusku. +Jest właścicielem Wydawnictwa "AdPublik". Zajmował się także działalnością publicystyczną, pisał m.in. w "Gazecie Wyborczej", "Trybunie", "Polityce" i "Rzeczpospolitej". Jest założycielem i prezesem Instytutu Podkarpackiego, prowadził program "Robert Biedroń Subiektywnie" w Pino TV. +Działalność społeczna i polityczna. +Od czasu ukończenia studiów działa w organizacjach społecznych na rzecz praw człowieka i osób LGBT. Był związany z Lambdą, następnie – po wyjeździe z Polski – z organizacją OutRage! z Wielkiej Brytanii. Był pomysłodawcą powołania, współtwórcą w 2001 Kampanii Przeciw Homofobii, do 2009 pełnił funkcję prezesa tej organizacji, następnie został członkiem zarządu tej organizacji. Wchodził w skład rady programowo-konsultacyjnej przy Pełnomocniku Rządu ds. Równego Statusu Kobiet i Mężczyzn. +Wyróżniany przez organizacje LGBT m.in. Tęczowym Laurem (2003) i tytułem "Człowieka Tęczy" (2004). Jest honorowym członkiem Stowarzyszenia "Pracownia Różnorodności". Został także przewodniczącym rady Fundacji Trans-Fuzja oraz członkiem rady Fundacji Równości. +W latach 90. działał w organizacji młodzieżowej SdRP i następnie w samej Socjaldemokracji RP. Później został członkiem Federacji Młodych Socjaldemokratów oraz Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej, zasiadał w krajowym komitecie wykonawczym tej partii. W 2001 jako jeden z pierwszych polityków wziął udział w warszawskiej Paradzie Równości. Z listy SLD kandydował bez powodzenia w wyborach do Sejmu w 2005, otrzymując 1686 głosów (co stanowiło 0,22% wszystkich głosów oddanych w okręgu warszawskim). W tym samym roku wystąpił z SLD. +Został oskarżony w postępowaniu karnym o znieważenie uczuć religijnych, gdy – w reakcji na wypowiedź jednej z działaczek katolickich określającej homoseksualizm jako chorobę – stwierdził, że słowa te oddają "w pełni faszystowsko-nacjonalistyczno-katolicki charakter nagonki na środowisko homoseksualistów". W 2006 Sąd Rejonowy w Elblągu uniewinnił go od popełnienia zarzucanego mu czynu. W 2011 prokurator Prokuratury Rejonowej Warszawa-Śródmieście skierował przeciwko niemu akt oskarżenia o naruszenie nietykalności cielesnej funkcjonariusza policji podczas demonstracji 11 listopada 2010. Robert Biedroń nie przyznał się do sprawstwa, twierdził, iż sam wówczas został pobity przez policjantów – śledztwo w sprawie rzekomego przekroczenia przez nich uprawnień zostało jednak umorzone. +W 2011 zrezygnował z kandydowania w wyborach do Sejmu z listy SLD i został bezpartyjnym kandydatem z pierwszego miejsca na liście Ruchu Palikota w okręgu nr 26 z siedzibą w Gdyni. Uzyskał mandat poselski posła do Sejmu VII kadencji, otrzymując 16 919 głosów (3,73% głosów oddanych w tym okręgu). Jest pierwszą osobą wybraną do polskiego parlamentu, która otwarcie deklaruje orientację homoseksualną. +Życie prywatne. +Jego życiowym partnerem jest Krzysztof Śmiszek, również będący działaczem KPH. +Guadalajara (Hiszpania) + +Guadalajara – miasto w środkowej Hiszpanii, w regionie Kastylia - La Mancha, liczące ok. 84 tysiące mieszkańców (2008). Stolica administracyjna prowincji Guadalajara, ośrodek przemysłowy, handlowy i turystyczny. +Historia. +W starożytności osada iberyjska, później rzymska - znana jako Arriaca. W 714 r. przejęta przez Maurów, następnie w Kastylii. +18 maja 1937 r. wojska generała Franco poniosły porażkę w bitwie z republikanami pod Guadalajarą. +Adam Stefan Sapieha + +Adam Stefan Sapieha, Adam Stefan Stanisław Bonifacy Józef Sapieha herbu Lis (ur. 14 maja 1867 w Krasiczynie, zm. 23 lipca 1951 w Krakowie) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, biskup diecezjalny krakowski w latach 1911–1951 (od 1926 arcybiskup metropolita), kardynał prezbiter od 1946, senator I kadencji w II Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w latach 1922–1923. Przez historyków uznawany za jedną z czołowych postaci w dziejach Kościoła polskiego I połowy XX wieku. Nazywany Księciem Niezłomnym. +Życiorys. +Pochodzenie i początki kapłaństwa. +Urodził się w rodzinie książęcej Sapiehów jako najmłodszy syn (ostatni z siedmiorga rodzeństwa) Adama Stanisława Sapiehy, działacza niepodległościowego, i Jadwigi z Sanguszków. W dzieciństwie i młodości uczestniczył w audiencjach u papieża Leona XIII, który był osobistym przyjacielem jego ojca. Świadectwo dojrzałości uzyskał w lipcu 1886 w IV Wyższym Gimnazjum we Lwowie. +Odbył studia prawnicze na Uniwersytecie Wiedeńskim (w latach 1886–1887), Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w Krakowie (w latach 1887–1888) oraz ponownie na Uniwersytecie Wiedeńskim (w latach 1888–1890), gdzie otrzymał absolutorium w 1891. Jednocześnie był (wraz z bratem Janem Piotrem) słuchaczem Instytutu Katolickiego w Lille. W 1890 rozpoczął studia teologiczne na uniwersytecie jezuickim w Innsbrucku i uzyskał inkardynację do archidiecezji lwowskiej, gdzie w 1892 został wpisany na trzeci rok studiów w seminarium duchownym. Studia teologiczne ukończył w 1894. +Święcenia diakonatu otrzymał 15 lipca 1893 w kaplicy seminaryjnej we Lwowie z rąk ówczesnego biskupa pomocniczego lwowskiego Jana Puzyny, a święcenia kapłańskie 1 października 1893 tamże również z rąk biskupa Jana Puzyny. W 1894 dekretem arcybiskupa Seweryna Morawskiego został skierowany do pracy w parafii w Jazłowcu, gdzie pełnił obowiązki kapelana panien z rodzin ziemiańskich przy domu Zgromadzenia Sióstr Niepokalanego Poczęcia NMP. Ubiegał się o parafię Dunajów, został jednak wysłany do parafii Skała, której ostatecznie nie objął. +W 1895 głosił rekolekcje dla ludności polskiej na Górnym Śląsku. W październiku tego roku wyjechał na studia specjalistyczne do Rzymu, gdzie 10 lipca 1896 uzyskał stopień doktora obojga praw (kanonicznego i cywilnego) w Papieskim Ateneum Laterańskim. Równolegle studiował dyplomację w Kościelnej Akademii Szlacheckiej, doskonaląc przy tym znajomość języków: francuskiego, niemieckiego, włoskiego. Podczas pobytu w Watykanie zacieśnił więzi ze środowiskami watykańskimi: papieżem Leonem XIII oraz polskimi hierarchami przebywającymi w Rzymie – arcybiskupem Franciszkiem Symonem i kardynałem Mieczysławem Ledóchowskim. +W 1896 odbył podróż do Bośni, aby zapoznać się z warunkami życia zamieszkujących na tych terenach Polaków. Po powrocie do kraju w 1897 został mianowany sekretarzem sądu metropolitalnego, egzaminatorem prosynodalnym oraz wicerektorem seminarium duchownego we Lwowie. Rezygnację z tej ostatniej funkcji złożył 27 października 1901 z powodu zniechęcenia do narzucanych mu reguł wychowania młodych księży i lekceważenia przez przełożonych jego uwag odnośnie tego problemu. Następnie odbył półroczną podróż po Stanach Zjednoczonych w sprawach rodzinnych. W październiku 1902 został przez arcybiskupa Józefa Bilczewskiego mianowany wikariuszem parafii św. Mikołaja we Lwowie oraz kanonikiem kapituły katedralnej, podjął także działalność jako duszpasterz sodalicji oraz organizator Związku Katolicko-Społecznego, stowarzyszenia katolickiego inspirowanego encykliką Leona XIII "Rerum novarum". +Tajny szambelan Piusa X. +W 1911 współorganizował polskie biuro prasowe w Rzymie. +Biskup krakowski – początek posługi i I wojna światowa. +8 listopada 1911 cesarz Franciszek Józef mianował go biskupem diecezjalnym diecezji krakowskiej. Konsystorz papieski przyjął tę nominację 27 listopada 1911 i tego samego dnia papież Pius X ogłosił bullę nominacyjną. Sakrę biskupią Sapieha otrzymał z rąk papieża Piusa X w Kaplicy Sykstyńskiej 17 grudnia 1911. Współkonsekratorami byli arcybiskup Augusto Silj, konsultor Kongregacji Soboru, oraz biskup Agostino Zampini, wikariusz generalny Watykanu. W ceremonii uczestniczyli także arcybiskup Józef Teodorowicz, arcybiskup greckokatolicki Lwowa Andrzej Szeptycki, biskup pomocniczy lwowski Władysław Bandurski, biskup pomocniczy krakowski Anatol Nowak oraz biskup przemyski Józef Sebastian Pelczar. +Ingres do katedry wawelskiej Sapieha odbył 3 marca 1912 w obecności rodziny, ośmiu biskupów, dwóch ministrów, marszałka krajowego Galicji Stanisława Badeniego oraz namiestnika Galicji Michała Bobrzyńskiego. Z okazji ingresu zorganizował poczęstunek dla ubogich w Domu Pracy na Kazimierzu. +W 1912 utworzył pierwsze w Krakowie duszpasterstwo akademickie przy kolegiacie św. Anny. W 1913 powołał przyparafialne komitety do spraw opieki nad ubogimi. Dokonał także sprowadzenia zwłok biskupa Karola Skórkowskiego do Krakowa, a w setną rocznicę śmierci księcia Józefa Poniatowskiego odprawił mszę na Błoniach. +Po wybuchu I wojny światowej założył komitet ratunkowy dla dotkniętych klęską wojny. W marcu 1915 komitet ten otrzymał statut i nazwę: Książęco-Biskupi Komitet Pomocy dla Dotkniętych Klęską Wojny (KBK). W jego strukturach działały sekcje: sanitarna, opieki doraźnej, opieki nad dziećmi. W 1917 interweniował u władz w sprawie zniesienia Twierdzy Kraków w celu umożliwienia mieszkańcom obrzeży miasta odbudowy domów oraz w sprawie panującego głodu. +W 1916 nie zezwolił na pochówek Henryka Sienkiewicza w katedrze wawelskiej. 24 grudnia 1916 odwiedził umierającego w schronisku albertynów Adama Chmielowskiego (Brata Alberta). 3 listopada 1918 przewodniczył nabożeństwu z okazji wyzwolenia Krakowa. +W II Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. +Mimo oczekiwań społecznych po utworzeniu niepodległego państwa polskiego Sapieha nie otrzymał nominacji kardynalskiej, tradycyjnie związanej z godnością biskupa krakowskiego. 23 września 1920 papież Benedykt XV mianował go asystentem tronu papieskiego i hrabią rzymskim. +14 grudnia 1919 interweniował w Watykanie w sprawie wizytatora apostolskiego w Rzeczypospolitej Achille Rattiego ze względu na jego domniemane proniemieckie stanowisko w sprawie przynależności państwowej Górnego Śląska. Spierał się następnie z Rattim, wówczas już nuncjuszem apostolskim, sprzeciwiając się jego dążeniom do podpisania z Polską konkordatu. Sapieha, jeden z nielicznych tak ustosunkowanych w Episkopacie Polskim, był zdania, że Kościół polski powinien być całkowicie niezależny od władzy świeckiej. W przeciwieństwie do Rattiego, który zrównywał wagę tytułów prymasowskich, przynależących na skutek rozbiorów zarówno arcybiskupowi gnieźnieńskiemu jak i arcybiskupowi warszawskiemu, domagał się uznania tradycyjnego prymatu arcybiskupa gnieźnieńskiego wśród polskich biskupów. Podczas pierwszego wspólnego powojennego zjazdu polskich biskupów w Gnieźnie (26–30 sierpnia 1919) poprosił Rattiego o opuszczenie sali obrad, gdyż, jak twierdził, „Kościół polski chce rozstrzygać swoje sprawy bez wpływów zewnętrznych”. Napięcia w relacjach pomiędzy Rattim a Sapiehą mogły przyczynić się do tego, że po niespodziewanym wyborze Rattiego na papieża Piusa XI 6 lutego 1922 biskup krakowski nie otrzymał kapelusza kardynalskiego przez cały okres jego pontyfikatu. +12 listopada 1922 Sapieha został wybrany na senatora z listy Chrześcijańskiego Związku Jedności Narodowej. Po zabójstwie prezydenta Gabriela Narutowicza zarządził nabożeństwa żałobne i wydał odezwę piętnującą zbrodnię. Było to pierwsze i ostatnie większe jego wystąpienie jako senatora, gdyż 9 marca 1923 złożył mandat, podporządkowując się papieskiemu zakazowi przyjmowania godności publicznych przez hierarchów kościelnych. +3 czerwca 1924 w trakcie zebrania Konferencji Episkopatu Polski jako jedyny jego członek głosował przeciw utworzeniu metropolii krakowskiej. +Arcybiskup metropolita krakowski. +14 grudnia 1925, półtora miesiąca po podniesieniu diecezji krakowskiej do rangi archidiecezji (28 października 1925), mianowany został przez papieża Piusa XI pierwszym arcybiskupem metropolitą krakowskim. 17 stycznia 1926 odbył ingres do katedry wawelskiej i otrzymał paliusz z rąk najstarszego sufragana metropolii, biskupa tarnowskiego Leona Wałęgi. +W okresie dwudziestolecia międzywojennego zaangażował się silnie w działalność charytatywną. W 1924 utworzył Ratunkowy Komitet Biskupi dla Niesienia Pomocy Biednym, w 1926 Komitet Pomocy dla Dotkniętych Klęską Bezrobocia, a w 1934 Caritas Archidiecezji Krakowskiej (sprzeciwiał się następnie kontrolowaniu tej instytucji przez władze świeckie). Po aresztowaniu we wrześniu 1930 przywódców opozycji i osadzeniu ich w twierdzy brzeskiej wraz z arcybiskupem Józefem Teodorowiczem, a w przeciwieństwie do kardynała Aleksandra Kakowskiego i prymasa Augusta Hlonda, ostro potępił działania władz. +W 1923 powołał Komitet Artystyczno-Doradczy Restauracji Katedry Wawelskiej. W 1927 wydał zgodę na złożenie sprowadzonych z Paryża zwłok Juliusza Słowackiego w Krypcie Wieszczów Narodowych w katedrze wawelskiej i postanowił, że będzie to ostatni pochówek na Wawelu. W maju 1935 wydał jednak pozwolenie na złożenie zwłok marszałka Józefa Piłsudskiego w Krypcie Świętego Leonarda, zastrzegając przy tym, iż jest to lokalizacja tymczasowa, a po przygotowaniu godniejszego miejsca w podziemiach katedry trumna zostanie tam przeniesiona. +W okresie międzywojennym pod jego rządami zbudowano w diecezji pięćdziesiąt nowych kościołów. Dwukrotnie zwoływał synod diecezjalny (w 1923 i 1938). +2 lutego 1939 poprosił papieża Piusa XI o zwolnienie z urzędu arcybiskupa metropolity ze względu na zaawansowany wiek i pogarszający się stan zdrowia. Po śmierci papieża ponowił prośbę u jego następcy Piusa XII podczas audiencji 19 kwietnia 1939. Papież zlecił ustosunkowanie się do tej prośby nuncjuszowi apostolskiemu w Polsce Filippowi Cortesiemu, jednak w trakcie oczekiwania na decyzję papieską, po namowach m.in. Józefa Becka, ze względu zbliżającą się wojnę Sapieha 7 maja 1939 prośbę wycofał i wyraził gotowość kontynuowania posługi. +Konflikt wawelski. +U schyłku lat 30. pomiędzy władzami II Rzeczypospolitej a arcybiskupem Sapiehą wywiązał się tzw. konflikt wawelski. Dotyczył on przeniesienia 23 czerwca 1937 na polecenie arcybiskupa trumny Józefa Piłsudskiego z Krypty Świętego Leonarda pod Wieżę Srebrnych Dzwonów na Wawelu. Ponieważ odbyło się to bez zgody władz państwowych, nastąpiły protesty społeczeństwa, polityków oraz wojska. Postulowano odebranie Sapieże odznaczeń państwowych i wyłączenie Wawelu spod jego jurysdykcji. 24 czerwca tego roku arcybiskup skierował do prezydenta Ignacego Mościckiego pismo zawierające uzasadnienie decyzji o przeniesieniu trumny (wskazywał powody takie jak lepsze zabezpieczenie zwłok marszałka, a także ukrócenie procederu zakłócania powagi miejsca świętego przez tłumy oczekujące do krypty w celu nawiedzenia grobu Piłsudskiego), w efekcie czego oskarżony został o obrazę głowy państwa. Władze państwowe kilkakrotnie interweniowały u nuncjusza apostolskiego w Polsce Filippa Cortesiego oraz w Sekretariacie Stanu Stolicy Apostolskiej, domagając się ukarania Sapiehy. 11 lipca 1937 arcybiskup dyplomatycznie przeprosił prezydenta, co zakończyło sprawę. +II wojna światowa. +Podczas II wojny światowej, pod nieobecność przebywającego we Francji prymasa Augusta Hlonda, był faktycznym przywódcą Kościoła w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie (zwierzchnikiem Kościoła na terenach wcielonych do Rzeszy był bp Walenty Dymek) i jednym z przywódców narodu. Odrzucił możliwość opuszczenia Krakowa i Polski na czas okupacji. Po podziale archidiecezji wskutek włączenia części jej terenów do III Rzeszy a części do Generalnego Gubernatorstwa miał zakaz przebywania na terenach zaanektowanych przez Niemców. +Już w końcu sierpnia 1939 podjął decyzję o ewakuacji najcenniejszych dzieł sztuki z Wawelu i ukryciu ich m.in. w Pałacu Arcybiskupim. 3 listopada 1939 otrzymał od władz okupacyjnych zakaz wstępu na Wawel, a 9 listopada przekazał klucze Wawelu posłańcowi generalnego gubernatora Hansa Franka. +Przez cały okres okupacji był organizatorem i koordynatorem zinstytucjonalizowanej pomocy dla ofiar wojny oraz poszkodowanych w wyniku działań zbrojnych. Tuż po wybuchu wojny, 4 września 1939, powołał Obywatelski Komitet Pomocy z sekcjami: charytatywną, gospodarczą i sanitarną. Komitet ten działał do chwili rozwiązania go przez władze niemieckie w sierpniu 1940. Na rzecz komitetu Sapieha przekazał darowiznę finansową z własnych funduszy. Wspomagał działalność Rady Głównej Opiekuńczej (RGO), jedynej formalnie uznanej przez Niemców (29 maja 1940) polskiej organizacji charytatywnej (w jej skład weszli członkowie dawnego Caritasu). Sapieha nie był wprawdzie oficjalnie jej członkiem, ale sprawował nad nią duchowe kierownictwo i nadzorował jej inicjatywy, a także pośredniczył w pozyskiwaniu przez nią środków pomocy materialnej. Na jego prośbę Stolica Apostolska przekazała RGO darowiznę pieniężną, za którą następnie – także dzięki zabiegom Sapiehy – nuncjatura apostolska w neutralnym Bernie zakupiła żywność, odzież i leki przeznaczone do rozdysponowania przez RGO. +Wielokrotnie apelował do władz okupacyjnych oraz podejmował próby interwencji w sprawie traktowania ludności polskiej pod okupacją. Działania te nie przyniosły realnego efektu w postaci zmiany postępowania władz niemieckich, jednak były jawnym świadectwem postawy arcybiskupa wobec wojny oraz jego odwagi. 2 listopada 1942 wystosował do generalnego gubernatora Hansa Franka list sprzeciwiający się terrorowi stosowanemu przez okupanta wobec Polaków i Żydów. W czerwcu 1943 był inicjatorem ogłoszenia przez Komisję Episkopatu Polski orędzia do władz Generalnego Gubernatorstwa odnośnie ograniczania swobód Polaków. 9 listopada 1943 ponownie skierował do gubernatora Franka list w tej sprawie. 17 grudnia 1943 odbył konferencję z szefem rządu Generalnego Gubernatorstwa Josefem Bühlerem oraz wyższym dowódcą SS i policji Wilhelmem Koppe, podczas której poruszył kwestię częstego stosowania przez Niemców metody odpowiedzialności zbiorowej wobec ludności polskiej. 27 marca 1944 ogłosił odezwę w sprawie masowych rzezi Polaków dokonywanych przez Ukraińską Powstańczą Armię w porozumieniu z Niemcami na wschodnich kresach Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. 5 kwietnia 1944 odbył jedyne w czasie okupacji spotkanie z generalnym gubernatorem Hansem Frankiem, podczas którego gubernator domagał się od niego oficjalnego wystąpienia antybolszewickiego. 2 sierpnia 1944 interweniował w sprawie uznania Krakowa za miasto otwarte, co miało ocalić je od zniszczenia podczas działań wyzwoleńczych. +Współpracował z rządem RP na uchodźstwie i uzyskiwał od niego pomoc materialną. Od początku do zakończenia działań wojennych prowadził stale tajną korespondencję ze Stolicą Apostolską, referując problemy Kościoła i ludności polskiej, i prosząc o wsparcie. Pięciokrotnie pisał do papieża Piusa XII, sugerując konieczność otwartego potępienia niemieckiego terroru przez Kościół. +Zlecił udzielać potajemnie chrztu Żydom i wydawać im fałszywe metryki. Polecenie to podtrzymał po zakazaniu przez okupanta tej praktyki w 1942. Gdy w 1941 władze niemieckie rozwiązały oficjalne seminarium duchowne w Krakowie, zorganizował struktury seminarium podziemnego. +Tuż po zakończeniu II wojny światowej. +Jeszcze przed zakończeniem wojny interesował się kształtem odradzającego się państwa polskiego oraz miejscem i rolą Kościoła w tym państwie. Podczas obrad konferencji jałtańskiej był przez członków delegacji amerykańskiej wskazywany jako kandydat do Rady Prezydenckiej (której zadaniem miało być zorganizowanie akceptowanego przez wszystkich obywateli rządu tymczasowego), a po upadku koncepcji utworzenia Rady, jako ewentualny uczestnik – obok Edwarda Osóbki-Morawskiego, Wincentego Witosa, Stanisława Mikołajczyka, Stanisława Grabskiego – rozmów na temat sytuacji wewnętrznej w Polsce, jakie następnie odbyły się bez jego udziału w Moskwie (tzw. konsultacje moskiewskie). +17 marca 1945 odbył w Krakowie spotkanie z generałem broni Michałem Rolą-Żymierskim, ministrem obrony narodowej w Rządzie Tymczasowym Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Przekazał ministrowi uwagi na temat sposobu przeprowadzenia reformy rolnej oraz gospodarki finansami. +24 marca 1945 pod jego patronatem i z jego inicjatywy rozpoczęto wydawanie „Tygodnika Powszechnego”. +Ze względu na nieobecność w Polsce prymasa Hlonda na dzień 25 czerwca 1945 osobiście zwołał do Częstochowy pierwsze po II wojnie światowej zebranie episkopatu i przewodniczył jego obradom. 3 lipca tego roku odwiedził obóz koncentracyjny w Oświęcimiu. Pod koniec lipca tego roku przekazał pełnię władzy w Kościele polskim prymasowi Hlondowi. 25 sierpnia 1945 ponownie powołał zlikwidowany po wybuchu wojny Caritas i stanął na jego czele. Jako przewodniczący Caritasu w latach 1945–1950 uzyskał na jego potrzeby pomoc od 27 zagranicznych instytucji charytatywnych. 15 września 1945 zaakceptował deklarację ideową organizacji Wolność i Niezawisłość. 7 listopada 1945 złożył w Sądzie Apelacyjnym w Krakowie zeznania dla Międzynarodowego Trybunału Wojennego. +Kardynał – ostatnie lata posługi i stanowisko wobec władz Polski Ludowej. +18 lutego 1946 został mianowany przez papieża Piusa XII kardynałem. Kapelusz kardynalski otrzymał z rąk papieża 23 lutego 1946 w bazylice św. Piotra na Watykanie. Na kościół kardynalski papież przeznaczył mu kościół Santa Maria Nuova na Forum Romanum. Po powrocie z uroczystości do Krakowa został owacyjne powitany przez tłumnie zgromadzoną społeczność miasta, od dawna wyczekującą obdarzenia go godnością kardynalską. 24 października 1946 papież Pius XII nadał mu nadzwyczajne uprawnienia ordynariusza dla duchowieństwa i wiernych obrządku greckokatolickiego w niektórych diecezjach. +Po zerwaniu 12 września 1945 przez polskie władze państwowe konkordatu uczestniczył w posunięciach zmierzających do normalizacji relacji państwo-Kościół. W maju 1947 reprezentował w tej sprawie polski episkopat na rozmowach ze Stolicą Apostolską w Rzymie. 23 kwietnia 1948 wraz z prymasem Hlondem przesłał list do prezydenta Bolesława Bieruta, poruszający kwestię potrzeby rozmów między państwem a Kościołem. W czerwcu tego roku ponownie wyjechał do Rzymu, aby podjąć starania na rzecz powołania eksperta do spraw stosunków między Watykanem a Polską. Jednocześnie otrzymał od papieża Piusa XII zapewnienie, iż Stolica Apostolska nie kwestionuje granic polskich po II wojnie światowej, a więc przynależności Ziem Zachodnich i Północnych do Rzeczypospolitej. +Po śmierci prymasa Hlonda papież Pius XII 5 listopada 1948 rozszerzył nadzwyczajne uprawnienia kardynała Sapiehy w stosunku do duchowieństwa i wiernych greckokatolickich na wszystkie diecezje polskie. W grudniu 1948 kardynał Sapieha wystosował do prezydenta Bieruta memoriał, w którym sprzeciwił się posunięciom władzy państwowej takim jak likwidacja szkół katolickich, utrudnianie i ograniczanie posługi duszpasterskiej chorym i więźniom, niszczenie prasy katolickiej, indoktrynacja obywateli oraz szkalowanie duchowieństwa i hierarchii kościelnej. 4 stycznia 1949 nowy prymas arcybiskup Stefan Wyszyński, dotychczasowy biskup diecezjalny lubelski, złożył na jego ręce przysięgę. +W trakcie czterdziestoletniej posługi biskupiej kardynał Sapieha angażował się mocno w działalność Konferencji Episkopatu Polski, gdzie aktywnie pracował w kilku komisjach, m.in.: Komisji Prawnej, Komisji Prasowej, Komisji Zakładów Dobroczynnych, Komisji Wizytowania w Szkole, Komisji do spraw Beatyfikacji i Kanonizacji, Komisji do spraw Akcji Katolickiej, Komisji do spraw Laikatu. Był przewodniczącym Komisji Ogólnej, Komisji Szkolnej (w latach 1932–1947) oraz Komisji dla Spraw Charytatywnych (od 1945). +W lipcu 1950 poważnie zachorował. W październiku tego roku przeszedł zawał serca. Po chwilowej poprawie stanu zdrowia w pierwszych miesiącach 1951 powrócił do aktywności duszpasterskiej. 19 kwietnia 1951 po raz ostatni przewodniczył mszy świętej. 3 maja tego roku przekazał rządy w archidiecezji wikariuszowi generalnemu, arcybiskupowi Eugeniuszowi Baziakowi, który jako arcybiskup metropolita lwowski obrządku łacińskiego na wygnaniu od 23 marca 1951 był formalnie – przy zachowaniu swoich dotychczasowych funkcji – biskupem koadiutorem kardynała Sapiehy. 10 maja 1951 Sapieha odbył ostatnie spotkanie z prymasem Wyszyńskim. +Zmarł 23 lipca 1951 w osiemdziesiątym czwartym roku życia, pięćdziesiątym ósmym roku kapłaństwa i czterdziestym roku sprawowania władzy biskupiej. Jego pogrzeb odbył się 28 lipca tego roku pod przewodnictwem prymasa Wyszyńskiego i stanowił manifestację pamięci i wdzięczności wiernych oraz duchowieństwa dla posługi kardynała Sapiehy. Pochowany został w katedrze wawelskiej, w krypcie pod Konfesją Świętego Stanisława. +Związki z Karolem Wojtyłą (Janem Pawłem II). +1 listopada 1946 kardynał Adam Stefan Sapieha wyświęcił na kapłana w kaplicy Pałacu Arcybiskupiego w Krakowie Karola Wojtyłę, przyszłego metropolitę krakowskiego i papieża. Uprzednio podjął decyzję o przyśpieszeniu terminu jego święceń kapłańskich, aby wysłać go na studia specjalistyczne do Rzymu na Papieskie Ateneum "Angelicum". +Pierwsze spotkanie Sapiehy z Wojtyłą nastąpiło 6 maja 1938, gdy arcybiskup odbywał wizytację kanoniczną w Wadowicach, rodzinnej miejscowości późniejszego papieża. Osiemnastoletni Wojtyła witał wtedy Sapiehę w swojej parafii, metropolita wyraził natomiast zainteresowanie jego przyszłością zawodową. W 1942 Sapieha zdecydował o przyjęciu Wojtyły do podziemnego seminarium duchownego w Krakowie, a następnie sprawował nadzór nad jego formacją. Opinia Sapiehy sprawiła, iż Wojtyła po otrzymaniu święceń kapłańskich porzucił ostatecznie powzięty wcześniej plan wstąpienia do zakonu karmelitów bosych. +Odznaczenia, tytuły i nagrody. +Zarządzeniem z 24 listopada 1936 prezydenta Ignacego Mościckiego został odznaczony Orderem Orła Białego. Wcześniej został uhonorowany Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, którego nie przyjął (1922) oraz Wielką Wstęgą, czyli Krzyżem Wielkim tego orderu (1924). W 1908 otrzymał Krzyż Komandorski Orderu Franciszka Józefa z Gwiazdą. +Tytuł doctora honoris causa przyznały mu Wydział Teologiczny Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego (1926) i Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski (1949). +Był honorowym obywatelem Nowego Sącza (1916) i Krakowa (1937). +W 1915 otrzymał Nagrodę Fundacji Erazma i Anny Jerzmanowskich przyznaną przez Polską Akademię Umiejętności. +23 lipca 2001 w parku im. Henryka Jordana w Krakowie odsłonięto popiersie kard. Adama Stefana Sapiehy zrealizowane w ramach projektu "Słynni Polacy XX w.". +Lemuria (fikcyjna kraina) + +Lemuria – hipotetyczny zatopiony kontynent na Oceanie Indyjskim, nazwany tak przez Philipa Sclatera, wskazywany przez XIX-wiecznych darwinistów w celu wyjaśnienia izolacji lemurów na Madagaskarze i występowania skamieniałości ich przodków w Afryce i południowo-wschodniej Azji. Ernst Haeckel, niemiecki darwinista, użył teorii o istnieniu Lemurii dla wyjaśnienia braku skamieniałości "brakującego ogniwa" między ludźmi a małpami, twierdząc że znajdują się one pod morzem. +Wszelkie spekulacje na temat tego typu "pomostów lądowych" straciły sens po przyjęciu przez ogół geologów na pocz. XX w. hipotezy izostazji. +Nauczanie ezoteryki. +W międzyczasie jednak, Helena Bławatska publikowała swoje teksty o Lemurii, twierdząc, że miała wizje starożytnej, przed-atlantydzkiej "Księgi Dzyan". To ona sprawiła, że Lemuria stała się w powszechnej świadomości mistycznym, zaginionym kontynentem poprzedzającym Atlantydę i urosła od lądowego pomostu do ogromnego kontynentu w rejonie pasa okołorównikowego, zajmującego większość obszarów Oceanu Indyjskiego i Oceanu Spokojnego. Zdaniem ezoteryków Australia, Oceania i Madagaskar to współcześnie dostępne pozostałości po Lemurii. +Również Rudolf Steiner prowadził wykłady o Lemurii. +Kontynent Mu. +Kontynent Mu, wymyślony przez Augustusa Le Plongeon (1826-1908) prawdopodobnie oparty jest na teoriach dotyczących Lemurii. O Mu wspomina w swych książkach również James Churchward. +Koń lipicański + +Koń lipicański – niezbyt duży, raczej masywny koń o zwięzłej budowie i wysoko osadzonej, silnie umięśnionej szyi. Profil głowy bywa lekko wypukły, co wskazuje na domieszkę krwi ras hiszpańskich u lipicanów. Maść najczęściej siwa, grzywa pofalowana. Lipicany rodzą się skarogniade lub kare, dopiero między 6 a 10 rokiem życia ich maść zmienia się na siwą. Tylko nieliczne z nich pozostają na zawsze kare. +Rasa wzięła nazwę od stadniny, w której została wyhodowana – Lipicy w Słowenii, założonej w 1580. Rasa powstała z rodzimych koni Karster krzyżowanych z końmi hiszpańskimi i neapolitańskimi. Do dziś hodowane są tam silne konie, nie zawsze siwe, do zaprzęgu i jazdy wierzchem. +Innym centrum hodowli tej rasy jest austriacka stadnina koni w Piber, skąd pochodzą młode konie kierowane do najbardziej znanego miejsca użytkowania lipicanów – Hiszpańskiej Szkoły Jazdy w Wiedniu. Szkoli się w niej siwe ogiery zgodnie z kanonami klasycznej szkoły jazdy. +Rudawy Janowickie + +Rudawy Janowickie (niem. "Landeshuter Kamm") (332.38) – pasmo górskie położone we wschodniej części Sudetów Zachodnich, zajmujące powierzchnię prawie 90 km². +Rudawy Janowickie po wojnie do roku 1947 nosiły nazwę Góry Łomnickie. +Na północy, od Gór Kaczawskich, oddziela je przełomowa dolina Bobru. Od zachodu graniczy z Kotliną Jeleniogórską, od wschodu z Kotliną Kamiennogórską, a od południa, poprzez Przełęcz Kowarską, z Lasockim Grzbietem w Karkonoszach. +Rzeźba terenu. +Główny grzbiet ciągnie się z południowego zachodu na północny wschód. Odchodzą od niego boczne grzbiety. Od Bobrzaka odchodzi ku południowemu wschodowi długi grzbiet z Wilkowyją i Jaworową, kończący się w rejonie Pisarzowic. Od Masywu Skalnika odchodzi grzbiet ku zachodowi, ze Średnicą i Brzeźnikiem, kończący się na północ od Kowar. Od niego z kolei odchodzi odgałęzienie ku północy z Płonicą i Mężykową, oddzielający Strużnicę od Gruszkowa i kończący się w rejonie Karpnik. Od Masywu Skalnika odchodzi też grzbiet ku południowemu wschodowi z Jagodną, dochodzący do Pisarzowic. Od Dziczej Góry również odchodzą dwa grzbiety. Grzbiet południowo-wschodni kończy się rozległym masywem Wielkiej Kopy, od której odchodzą w różnych kierunkach podrzędne ramiona, natomiast grzbiet północno-zachodni biegnie przez Masyw Starościńskie Skały i Jańską Górę, a jego zachodnia część, za Przeł. Karpnicką nosi nazwę Gór Sokolich. Wreszcie od Wołka odchodzi szereg grzbietów ku północnemu zachodowi, północy i północnemu wschodowi. Na zachodzie, na granicy z Kotliną Jeleniogórską znajduje się odosobniony masyw Mrowca. +Północno-zachodnia część Rudaw Janowickich nosi nazwę Gór Sokolich, natomiast wschodnia – Wzgórz Karpnickich. +Najwyższy szczyt – Skalnik (945 m n.p.m.). +W Rudawach Janowickich występuje duża ilość skałek, zbudowanych przede wszystkim z granitu, ale też z gnejsów, amfibolitów, zlepieńców. +Miejscowości. +Miejscowości: Bobrów, Bukowiec, Ciechanowice, Czarnów, Gruszków, Janowice Wielkie, Karpniki, Kowary, Leszczyniec, Łomnica, Marciszów, Miedzianka, Mniszków, Mysłakowice, Ogorzelec, Orlina, Pisarzowice, Przybkowice, Rędziny, Strużnica, Trzcińsko, Wieściszowice, Wojanów. +Budowa geologiczna. +W skład Rudaw Janowickich wchodzą fragmenty następujących jednostek geologicznych: bloku karkonosko-izerskiego (masyw karkonoski i wschodnia osłona granitu karkonoskiego), niecki śródsudeckiej i w rejonie Przybkowic – metamorfiku kaczawskiego. +Zachodnia część Rudaw Janowickich ze Skalnikiem i Górami Sokolimi jest zbudowana z waryscyjskiego granitu karkonoskiego (masyw karkonoski). Część środkowa ze skał metamorficznych wieku staropaleozoicznego: gnejsów, łupków łyszczykowych, amfibolitów, łupków amfibolowych, zieleńców i łupków zieleńcowych, fyllitów, marmurów kalcytowych i dolomitowych, łupków serycytowych, łupków chlorytowych. Obszary te znajdują się na bloku karkonosko-izerskim, tworząc jego północno-wschodni fragment – wschodnią osłonę granitu karkonoskiego. Natomiast południowo-wschodnie odgałęzienia zbudowane są z dolnokarbońskich skał osadowych: piaskowców i zlepieńców, podrzędnie łupków ilastych wchodzą już w skład niecki śródsudeckiej. Niewielki północno-wschodni fragment terenu, w rejonie Ciechanowic i Przybkowic jest zbudowany ze skał metamorficznych: zieleńców, fyllitów oraz wapieni krystalicznych i łupków węglanowych, czyli skał budujących leżący na północy metamorfik kaczawski. +W obrębie Rudaw eksploatowane były granity, amfibolity i marmury, czego pozostałością są liczne, opuszczone i częściowo zarośnięte kamieniołomy. Jedyny czynny obecnie kamieniołom marmurów znajduje się w Rędzinach. +Wcześniej poszukiwano bądź wydobywano tu rudy żelaza, miedzi, arsenu, a także złoto, a w XX w. uranu. +Wody. +Rudawy leżą w dorzeczu Bobru, który opływa je od wschodu i północy. Można wyróżnić szereg mniejszych zlewni cząstkowych, oddzielonych grzbietami górskimi. Są to, od wschodu zlewnia Świdnika, Żywicy, Mienicy, od północy zlewnia Janówki i od zachodu zlewnie Jedlicy i Karpnickiego Potoku. +Ochrona przyrody. +Większa część Rudaw Janowickich oraz południowa część przyległych Gór Kaczawskich wchodzi w skład Rudawskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. +Atrakcje turystyczne. +Ciekawe ruiny zamków średniowiecznych (np. Zamek Bolczów) i schronisko "Szwajcarka" u podnóża Krzyżnej Góry (654 m n.p.m.) w Górach Sokolich. Góra Sokolik z licznymi skałkami granitowymi. Atrakcją turystyczną są też kolorowe jeziorka powstałe w wyniku eksploatacji pirytu niedaleko miejscowości Wieściszowice. W całym paśmie licznie występują skałki, zbudowane z granitów, amfibolitów i zlepieńców.W Masywie Starościńskich Skał i zboczach znajduje się nawiększa w Sudetach Zachodnich ilość porozrzucanych skałek +(skalne miasteczko). +Cmentarz Centralny w Szczecinie + +Cmentarz Centralny w Szczecinie (do 1945 niem. "Hauptfriedhof") – największy cmentarz w Polsce, trzeci co do wielkości w Europie i jeden z największych na świecie. Został założony w latach 1899-1900, we wschodniej części Gumieniec, według projektu Wilhelma Meyera-Schwartaua, a ostateczny kształt nadał mu Georg Hannig w roku 1918. Od jego otwarcia pochowano na nim ponad 300 tysięcy zmarłych, a jego dzisiejsza powierzchnia wynosi 167,8 ha. +Historia. +Potrzeba wybudowania nowego cmentarza powstała po roku 1873, gdy małe przykościelne cmentarze zostały przepełnione, a dzięki temu, że Szczecin przestał być twierdzą pojawiły się tereny pod budowę. Za najlepszy teren pod cmentarz uznano ówczesne ziemie rolnicze pomiędzy dzisiejszą ulicą Mieszka I, Ku Słońcu, a linią kolejową na wschodzie. +Cmentarz otwarto 6 grudnia 1901 roku. W latach 1900-1903 pod kierunkiem architekta Wilhelma Meyera-Schwartau zbudowano bramę główną oraz budynki administracji i kaplicę cmentarną. W roku 1918 w nekropolii pochowanych było już 57 tysięcy osób i zajęte kwartały wschodnie i środkowe. Po I wojnie światowej rozpoczęto pochówki w kwartale zachodnim. W roku 1925 do kostnicy dobudowano krematorium. +Od założenia cmentarza, aż do roku 1928 zarządcą cmentarza był Georg Hannig. Po nim Franz Herbert. +Około roku 1930 zbudowano drugą, modernistyczną, kaplicę. Nie doczekała jednak do naszych czasów i rozebrana została w 1984 roku. +Do grudnia 1940 roku na cmentarzu pochowano ponad 117 tysięcy zmarłych. Znaczny przyrost pochówków nastąpił w czasie II wojny światowej wskutek nalotów bombowych na miasto. Po 1945 roku Polaków chowano początkowo na wolnych kwaterach, a następnie w miejscu starych likwidowanych grobów. W teren cmentarza włączono też cmentarz garnizonowy oraz teren wojskowy. Od 1945 r. do końca 2000 r. pochowano 139 tys. osób. +Architektura. +Architektura cmentarza nawiązuje do nekropolii Friedhof Ohlsdorf w Hamburgu. Widać tu połączenie kilkunastu krajobrazów ogrodowych. Projektując cmentarz starano się maksymalnie upodobnić go do parku-ogrodu, a jak najdalej odejść od standardowego stłaczania "jak największej ilości grobów, na jak najmniejszej powierzchni". Dużą część terenu nekropolii przeznaczono na zieleńce, zbiorniki wodne, żywopłoty, szerokie aleje obsadzane szpalerami dekoracyjnych drzew. W starszej (wschodniej) części cmentarza głównym alejom nadano kolisty przebieg, dobrze wykorzystując naturalne ukształtowanie terenu. Nie zapomniano o ułatwiających komunikację schodkach, drewnianych mostkach dla pieszych, a nawet punktach widokowych. Wydano, obwarowany licznymi zakazami, regulamin cmentarza precyzujący wymagania jakie musiały spełniać stawiane tu nagrobki. Na cmentarzu znajduje się kilkadziesiąt pomników poświęconych m.in. Bohaterom Września 1939, ofiarom stalinizmu, "Tym, którzy nie powrócili z morza", Sybirakom, Pionierom Szczecina, a także Krzyż Katyński oraz najstarszy, z czasów cmentarza garnizonowego, krzyż żeliwny upamiętniający żołnierzy poległych w wojnie francusko-pruskiej 1870-71. W pobliżu drugiej bramy pochowano potajemnie ofiary Grudnia 1970. W pobliżu cmentarza, przy ul. Mieszka I, znajduje się XIX-wieczny wiatrak holenderski zaadaptowany na sklep ogrodniczy. +Brama główna. +Bramę główną cmentarza o szerokości 77 metrów, zbudowano w stylu neoromańskim w latach 1901-1903. Głównym projektantem był Wilhelm Meyer-Schwartau (współpracowali: architekt Boldt, miejski asystent budowlany Deitchl). Wystrój rzeźbiarski wykonał szczeciński artysta Bolcke. Do bramy przylegały dwa skrzydła: wschodnie przeznaczone dla administracji cmentarnej oraz zachodnie, w którym zlokalizowano zaplecze gospodarcze. Brama została poważnie uszkodzona we wrześniu 1941 roku podczas alianckiego nalotu na miasto (spłonęła wówczas również cała dokumentacja cmentarza). +Do odbudowy bramy przystąpiono w 1959 r., przy czym nie odtworzono kopuły z krzyżem wieńczącej pierwotnie bramę. Drugą zmianą w stosunku do stanu sprzed wojny było wyburzenie do poziomu gruntu skrzydła wschodniego i wzniesienie na jego miejscu kaplicy cmentarnej (zwanej w ówczesnej nomenklaturze "domem przedpogrzebowym"). Odbudowę zakończono w 1963 r. W roku 2008 brama przeszła gruntowny remont (koszt: 3 mln PLN). +Kaplica. +Główną kaplicę cmentarza wzniesiono według projektu Wilhelma Meyer-Schwartau w latach 1900-1902. Powstała budowla o malowniczej, bogatej elewacji, inspirowanej architekturą romańską. Kaplica, zbudowana na planie krzyża greckiego, zwieńczona została wysoką kopułą. Usytuowana na wzniesieniu, otoczona od zachodu rozległą wolną przestrzenią z basenem i fontanną , stała się centralnym punktem cmentarza i jego najbardziej rozpoznawalnym elementem. +W latach 1924-1925 przy kaplicy wzniesiono krematorium, z wysokim, szesnastometrowym kominem. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej kaplica nie była użytkowana. Dopiero w 1981 przystąpiono do jej odbudowy. W trakcie prac remontowych (w maju 1981 r.) wybuchł pożar, który strawił znaczną część budowli – całkowitemu spaleniu uległa m.in. centralna kopuła. Odbudowa trwała 13 lat. Pierwsza ceremonia pogrzebowa odbyła się w kaplicy w marcu 1994. W 2005 przy kaplicy rozpoczęło pracę krematorium. +Kwatera wojenna. +Kwatera wojenna znajduje się na głównej osi widokowej cmentarza, pomiędzy kaplicą, a Pomnikiem Braterstwa Broni. Składa się z czterech sektorów rozdzielonych pośrodku szeroką, wysadzaną cisowym żywopłotem aleją. +Spoczywa tu łącznie 3379 żołnierzy: 367 żołnierzy polskich (w tym 203 nieznanych) i 3012 żołnierzy radzieckich (2586 nieznanych). Kwatera powstawała sukcesywnie w latach 1946-54, gdy chowano tu żołnierzy ekshumowanych z tymczasowych miejsc pochówku z terenu Pomorza Szczecińskiego (zwłaszcza z okolic Szczecina, Dobrej, Gryfina, Kołbaskowa, Nowogardu, Łobza, Płot). Złożono tu również szczątki żołnierzy poległych na Ziemi Meklemburskiej w czasie operacji berlińskiej. Ostatni pochówek na kwaterze wojennej miał miejsce w 1983 r. +Trakt historyczny. +W 2010 r. we wschodniej – historycznej części Cmentarza wytyczony został trakt historyczny umożliwiający poznanie najbardziej interesujących miejsc tej części nekropolii. Na trasie traktu zlokalizowano 21 stacji wyposażonych w dwujęzyczne tablice informacyjne. Tablice te osadzono na kamiennych, prostopadłościennych postumentach nawiązujących swoim wyglądem do pierwotnych form małej architektury Cmentarza. Trakt rozpoczyna się i kończy przy bramie głównej cmentarza, a jego przejście zajmuje ok. 1,5-2 godz. +Stacje traktu historycznego +Stacja 1. Historia cmentarza i plan traktu historycznego. +Stacja 2. Nagrobki przy dwóch rondach. +W pobliżu znajdują się dwa ronda – dziś trudne do zlokalizowania. Wokół zachowało się kilka nagrobków w formie głazów oraz pomnik poległych w I wojnie światowej żołnierzy z 357 Pułku Piechoty (zdjęcie). Pomnik ma formę niewysokiej, przysadzistej kolumny zwieńczonej figurą orła (rekonstrukcja). Na kolumnie wyryto nazwy pól bitewnych Pułku z okresu I wojny światowej. +Stacja 3. Nagrobek Bernharda Stoewera. +Pomnik w formie głazu upamiętnia szczecińskiego fabrykanta, założyciela wytwórni samochodów "Stoewer" (zdjęcie). W pobliżu zachowały się nagrobki rodziny Borchers (zdjęcie) i Funk (zdjęcie). +Stacja 4. Pomnik rodziny Hentschel. +Nagrobek (zdjęcie) ma formę portyku ozdobionego 4 jońskimi kolumnami. W półkoliście sklepionych niszach znajdowały się niegdyś urny z prochami. Centralnie usytuowane, zamurowane wejście symbolizuje przejście na drugą stronę życia. Obok znajduje się anonimowy nagrobek z czerwonego piaskowca oraz pomnik nagrobny rodziny Kaesemacher-Bauer (zdjęcie) – dzieło berlińskiego rzeźbiarza Ludwiga Vordermeyera. +Stacja 5. Nagrobek rodziny Hindrisched-Ziegler. +Nagrobek urnowy (zdjęcie) z ok. 1910 r. ozdobiony płaskorzeźbionymi figurami mężczyzny i kobiety z dzieckiem. Forma pomnika nawiązuje do sztuki staroegipskiej. W pobliżu znajdują się nagrobki aktorki Stanisławy Engelówny i zasłużonych dla życia muzycznego Szczecina Czesławy i Wacława Piotrowskich. +Stacja 6 i 8. Lapidarium. +Na terenie utworzonego w latach 2006-7, według projektu Joanny Wojteckiej i Marzeny Jaroszek lapidarium zgromadzono kilkadziesiąt nagrobków pochodzących z różnych miejsc Cmentarza Centralnego. Ozdobę lapidarium stanowią zrekonstruowane elementy małej architektury w postaci drewnianego mostku, niewielkiej fontanny oraz ławki z daszkiem. Pierwotnie znajdował się tu gaj urnowy zaprojektowany przez Georga Hanniga. +Wśród nagrobków eksponowanych w lapidarium wyróżnić należy: nagrobek Hermanna Hakena, nagrobek rodziny Neumann z figurą anioła proszącego o ciszę, nagrobek rodziny Plötz, pomnik nagrobny dr Georga Michaelisa – założyciela Towarzystwa Popierania Pochówków Ciałopalnych, nagrobek rodzin Schulze i Schubel w kształcie "latarni umarłych", nagrobek w formie kolumnady, modernistyczny nagrobek Gertrudy Ziegenrűcker z płaskorzeźbionym tekstem na całej powierzchni płyty nagrobnej,stelę rodzin Forell-Schreier, pomnik rodziny Leonhard o zamknięciu w kształcie muszli. +Stacja 7. Nagrobek nadburmistrza Szczecina Hermanna Hakena i jego żony Johanny. +Nagrobek (zdjęcie) zaprojektował Ludwig Manzel. Pierwotnie pomnik znajdował się w innym miejscu cmentarza. W 2006 roku dokonano rekonstrukcji pomnika odtwarzając m.in. zaginione popiersia zmarłych (wykonała je rzeźbiarka – Monika Szpener). Prace renowacyjne zostały sfinansowane przez dawnych, niemieckich mieszkańców Szczecina. +Stacja 9. Nagrobek rodziny Randolf. +Nagrobek (zdjęcie) ma formę steli z płaskorzeźbą oracza przy pracy. Wykonany został przez Kurta Schwerdtfegera w latach dwudziestych XX w. +Stacja 10. Kwatera zasłużonych. +Kwatera powstała w latach sześćdziesiątych XX w. na miejscu przedwojennej kwatery urnowej. Centralne miejsce kwatery zajmuje kolisty basen, wokół którego rozplanowano dwa rzędy mogił. Znajdują się tu nagrobki zarówno prominentnych działaczy partyjno-państwowych z okresu PRL jak i osób, których zasługi dla Szczecina są bezsporne. Spoczywają tu m.in. Guido Reck (artysta malarz, pedagog, działacz kultury), Janina Szczerska (pedagog, pionier szczecińskiego szkolnictwa), Wiesław Dachowski (dziennikarz radiowy), Emanuel Messer (artysta plastyk), Ireneusz Gwidon Kamiński (prozaik), Aleksander Omieczyński, Maksymilian Golisz (działacze polonijni w przedwojennym Szczecinie), Jan Papuga (prozaik), Roman Łyczywek (prawnik), Konstanty Maciejewicz, Antoni Ledóchowski (kapitanowie żeglugi wielkiej, nestorzy polskiego szkolnictwa morskiego), Florian Krygier (polski trener i działacz piłkarski, jeden z twórców Pogoni Szczecin). +Stacja 11. Dawna kwatera grzebalna. +W początkowym okresie funkcjonowania Cmentarza istniała tu wzorcowa kwatera z zalecanymi do stosowania formami nagrobków i przykładami nasadzeń zieleni. Po uruchomieniu krematorium utworzono tu kwaterę grzebalną, z której wiele nagrobków zachowało się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Stacja 12. Nagrobek Wilhelma Meyera-Schwartau. +Nagrobek (zdjęcie) został przypadkowo odnaleziony w 2002 r. Stela wykonana jest z czerwonego piaskowca i wraz z cokołem mierzy prawie 2 m wysokości. Upamiętnia Wilhelma Meyera-Schwartau, jego żonę, dwóch synów i brata. +Stacja 13. Kaplica. +Stacja 14. Grupa nagrobków po północnej stronie basenu. +Znajdują się tu nagrobki i pomniki m.in. rodziny Dewitz (zdjęcie), Hugo Lemckego i jego syna Barnima, Augusta Ahrensa (zdjęcie), Gustava Toepfera (zdjęcie), rodziny Hoerder. W pobliżu ustawiono krzyż i głaz poświęcony dawnym mieszkańcom Szczecina oraz popiersie (cenotaf) Georga Hanniga (częściowo zrekonstruowane). +Stacja 15. Cmentarz wojenny. +Stacja 16. Pomnik "Tym, którzy nie powrócili z morza". +Stacja 17. Krzyż Katyński. +Stacja 18. Grupa nagrobków przy Alei Okólnej, ok. 1920 r. +Na uwagę zasługuje: nagrobek w formie krzyża Hermanna Sarana (zdjęcie) – kartografa i wydawcy przewodników po Szczecinie, nagrobek urnowy rodziny Bruno Franka (zdjęcie), nagrobek rodziny Ziotkowsky (zdjęcie), pomnik kobiety z dzieckiem (zdjęcie) upamiętniający Toni Meister zmarłą podczas porodu; autorem rzeźby jest Christian Nüsslein z Cassel. Pomnik ten często jest błędnie interpretowany jako przedstawienie Madonny z Dzieciątkiem. +Stacja 19. Pomnik Sybiraków. +Stacja 20. Nagrobki rodzin Papenbrock i Kissling. +Nagrobek rodziny Papenbrock (zdjęcie) ma formę stojącego ma postumencie sarkofagu ozdobionego kaduceuszem i puttami trzymającymi girlandę kwiatów. +Nagrobek rodziny Kissling (zdjęcie) składa się z ustawionych półkoliście filarów podpierających poziomą belkę z napisem (w tłumaczeniu) "Działaj, dopóki trwa dzień, gdy nadejdzie noc, nikt nie jest w stanie działać". Oba nagrobki powstały ok. 1910 r. +Stacja 21. Kwatera kombatantów. +Pomniki powstałe przed 1945 r. +Głazy Pamięci +Zabytkowe nagrobki +Na terenie Cmentarza zachowało się ponad 120 zabytkowych nagrobków. Większość z nich znajduje się obecnie na terenie utworzonego w 2007 r. lapidarium. +Przyroda. +choina kanadyjska, głóg ostrogłowy, dąb czerwony, dąb zimozielony, jodła kalifornijska, kielichowiec wonny, klon srebrzysty, lipa amerykańska, sosna amerykańska, sosna żółta, świerk srebrny +forsycja zwisła, miłorząb dwudzielny, modrzew japoński, świerk szydlasty, wiśnia piłkowana, złotlin japoński, żylistek japoński, żywotnik wschodni +buk, cis, leszczyna turecka, limba, platan, świerk serbski +Ścieżka botaniczna. +W październiku 2010 wytyczono we wschodniej części Cmentarza ścieżkę botaniczną. Ustawiono przy niej 32 tablice z opisem interesujących drzew i krzewów rosnących na Cmentarzu. Ścieżka zaczyna się i kończy przy bramie głównej cmentarza. Ścieżkę opracował dr Marcin Kubus (ZUT). +Tablice informacyjne ścieżki botanicznej: 1. Tablica główna, 2. Cis pospolity, 3. Bukszpan wieczniezielony, 4. Platan klonolistny, 5. Grab pospolity, 6. Jodła nikko, 7. Sosna himalajska, 8. Ostrokrzew kolczasty, 9. Buk pospolity, 10. Daglezja zielona (jedlica), 11. Lipa krymska, 12. Bluszcz pospolity, 13. Choina kanadyjska, 14. Sosna wejmutka, 15 Miłorząb dwuklapowy, 16. Dąb zimozielony, 17. Chmielograb europejski, 18. Sosna limba, 19. Modrzew europejski, 20. Świerk serbski "Pendula", 21. Jałowiec pośredni (J. Pfitzera), 22. Dąb szypułkowy f. stożkowata, 23. Jodła, 24. Jodła jednobarwna (kalifornijska) odmiana sina, 25. Jodła koreańska, 26. Świerk kłujący f. sina, 27. Różanecznik katawbijski (fioletowy), 28. Buk pospolity odmiana zwisająca, 29. Buk pospolity odmiana "Purpurea Tricolor", 30. Świerk pospolity odmiana nibywiciowa, 31. Cyprysik Lawsona, 32. Dąb czerwony, 33 Złotokap pospolity. +Hydrografia. +W zachodniej części nekropolii płyną dwa potoki: Cicha i Jasna Woda. +Polidyspersja + +Polidyspersja - rozrzut statystyczny masy cząsteczkowej polimerów. +W odróżnieniu od związków niskocząsteczkowych, które mają jedną, ściśle określoną masę cząsteczkową, polimery statystyczne są zazwyczaj populacjami cząsteczek o różnej masie cząsteczkowej. Ich różne masy cząsteczkowe wynikają z faktu statystycznego charakteru reakcji polimeryzacji. Reakcje te przebiegają jednak różnie, zależnie od ich warunków i mechanizmu co powoduje, że populacje polimerów posiadają różny rozrzut statystyczny mas cząsteczkowych. Polidyspersja ma generalnie negatywny wpływ na własności użytkowe polimerów i dlatego dąży się zazwyczaj do jej ograniczania. +Czym większe I tym większa polidyspersja. Gdy I = 1 to wtedy masa cząsteczkowa wszystkich cząsteczek polimeru jest jednakowa, co jednak w przypadku polimerów syntetycznych nie ma nigdy miejsca. Najmniejsze I (rzędu 1.05) udaje się uzyskiwać w polimeryzacji żyjącej. +W ogromnej większości przypadków polimerów syntetycznych stosowanych przemysłowo indeks ten zawiera się w zakresie od 1.5 do 2. Takie wartości wskazują na to, że reakcja polimeryzacji przebiegała w typowy dla niej sposób. Gdy indeks jest powyżej 2 wskazuje to na pewne, nietypowe zakłócenia polimeryzacji, które należy wyeliminować. +Samarytanka + +Samarytanka – w ZHP i SHK Zawisza czwarty, a w ZHR trzeci żeński stopień harcerski. Oznaczany złotą lilijką nabitą na krzyż (ZHR, ZHP fakultatywnie) bądź dwiema krokiewkami na pagonie (ZHP). Przeznaczony dla dziewcząt w wieku 14–17 lat. +Samarytanką nazywa się także w harcerstwie ogół wiedzy i umiejętności z pierwszej pomocy przedmedycznej. +Idea stopnia w ZHP. +Poszukuje wzorów do naśladowania zgodnych z harcerskimi wartościami. Szuka sytuacji, w których może pomóc zgodnie z wyrażoną w Przyrzeczeniu szczerą wolą. Pracuje nad swoim charakterem. Poszukuje swoich zainteresowań i pasji. Rozwija je zdobywając wiedzę i umiejętności w wybranych dziedzinach. Współtworzy życie drużyny. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +Na samarytance zawsze można polegać. Wykorzystuje nabyte umiejętności pomagając innym. W stosunku do młodszych jest opiekuńcza i odpowiedzialna. Życie harcerskie nie ma dla niej tajemnic. Jest samodzielna i zaradna. Pewnie kroczy harcerską ścieżką. +Samboja + +Samboja – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członu "Sam-" ("samotna, jedyna") oraz członu "-boj-a" ("bicie, walka"). Oznaczało "ta, która walczy samotnie". +Samboja imieniny obchodzi 13 grudnia. +Koń hanowerski + +Koń hanowerski to elegancki koń gorącokrwisty o harmonijnej budowie ciała. Występują wszystkie rodzaje maści. Znakowane piętnem. +Uzyskuje wysokość około 162 - 175 cm. +W roku 1714 Hanower stał się częścią Imperium Brytyjskiego wskutek ślubu księcia regenta z królową angielską. Dzięki temu w hanowerskiej hodowli koni wcześnie przystąpiono do krzyżowania z końmi pełnej krwi angielskiej. Gdy inne hodowle rozpoczynały dopiero krzyżowanie uszlachetniające pełną krew, pogłowie koni hanowerskich było już w okresie konsolidacji - ustalenia i stabilizacji cech dziedzicznych. Ogiery hanowerskie wprowadzano więc do innych hodowli jako element szlachetny. Stadnina krajowa w Celle wyhodowała do czasów motoryzacji wiele bardzo dobrych koni roboczych i kawaleryjskich. Później szybko i z powodzeniem zmieniła kierunek na produkcję nowoczesnych koni do sportu jeździeckiego. +Booroola + +Booroola - rasa owiec, wywodząca się z Australii (Nowej Południowej Walii). Jej najbardziej charakterystyczną cechą jest wyjątkowo wysoka płodność: średnia liczba jagniąt w miocie to ok. 2,4 sztuki, przy rozpiętości od 1 do 6. Owca żadnej innej rasy (owce rasy olkuskiej rodzą czasem siedmioraczki) nie odznacza się tak wysoką płodnością. Booroola ma także inną cechę wyróżniającą ją od innych ras - znacznie dłuższy sezon rozpłodowy, trwający przez większą część roku. +Jaźń subiektywna + +Jaźń subiektywna w socjologii, psychologii i fenomenologii jest to część jaźni, która jest odpowiedzialna za subiektywne postrzeganie jednostki przez samą siebie i przeciwstawiona jest jaźni odzwierciedlonej. W niektórych założeniach jaźń subiektywna utożsamiana jest z pojęciem ego jako elementu wyodrębnianego w triadzie id – ego – superego. +Wally Masur + +Wally Masur (ur. 13 maja 1963 w Southampton, Anglia) − australijski tenisista, reprezentant w Pucharze Davisa. +Treningi tenisowe rozpoczął jako 8-latek. Mistrz Australian Open w deblu juniorów (1980) i narodowy mistrz Australii juniorów (1981), w latach 1982-1996 występował jako tenisista zawodowy. Wygrał w ciągu kariery trzy turnieje w grze pojedynczej (Hongkong 1983, Adelajda 1987, Newport 1988), ponadto ośmiokrotnie docierał do finału. Najlepszym sezonem w karierze singlowej był rok 1993, kiedy dotarł do półfinałów turniejów na wszystkich nawierzchniach (mączce, trawie, betonie i dywanie halowym), był w finałach na trawie w Rosmalen (późniejszy turniej w 's-Hertogenbosch, przegrał w finale z Francuzem Boetschem) i Nottingham (przegrał w finale z rodakiem Stoltenbergiem), w IV rundzie Wimbledonu (przegrał z Szwajcarem Hlaskiem w pięciu setach) oraz osiągnął życiowy sukces - półfinał wielkoszlemowy na US Open. +W turnieju tym, w którym pokonał m.in. znanego Szweda Larssona, popisał się rzadkim wyczynem - skuteczną pogonią za rywalem ze stanu 0:5. W meczu 1/8 finału z rodakiem Morganem przegrywał najpierw 0:2 w setach, ale wyrównał stan i doprowadził do piątego, decydującego seta; rywal wyszedł w nim na 5:0 i miał piłkę meczową, Masur zdołał jednak wygrać kolejne siedem gemów z rzędu i cały mecz, awansując do ćwierćfinału. Ostatecznie dopiero w półfinale uległ Francuzowi Pioline w czterech setach. +Rezultat na US Open dał mu awans na najwyższą pozycję w rankingu światowym, jesienią 1993 był 15. na liście ATP World Tour. Występował również, bez większego powodzenia, w niepunktowanym, ale dobrze płatnym Pucharze Wielkiego Szlema. W półfinale wielkoszlemowym Masur był także w 1987 (Australian Open, pokonał m.in. Borisa Beckera, uległ Stefanowi Edbergowi). W 1983 był w ćwierćfinale Australian Open; odpadł z Johnem McEnroe, którego pokonał na Wimbledonie w 1988. +Masur występował w reprezentacji w Pucharze Davisa w latach 1985-1993. Dwukrotnie przyczynił się znacznie do awansu Australii do finału tych rozgrywek (1990, 1993), ale w obu przypadkach kapitan Neale Fraser nie wystawiał go w meczach finałowych, ze względu na nawierzchnię ziemną, na której Masur nie grał najlepiej. Mimo tych decyzji Australia finał zarówno w 1990 (z USA), jak i w 1993 (z Niemcami) przegrała. Wally Masur bronił barw Australii także w drużynowym Pucharze Świata oraz w mikstowym Pucharze Hopmana. Na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Seulu (1988) przegrał w II rundzie z Niemcem Carlem-Uwe Steebem, a cztery lata później w Barcelonie odpadł w I rundzie z Amerykaninem Samprasem. +Większe sukcesy odnosił w grze podwójnej. W latach 1983-1993 wygrał łącznie 16 turniejów (z różnymi partnerami). Latem 1993 para Masur/Mark Kratzmann zajmowała pozycję nr 1 w rankingu najlepszych debli na świecie. Wspólnie z Kratzmannem występował w deblowym turnieju Masters w 1992 (półfinał) i 1993. Kilkakrotnie docierał do deblowych półfinałów turniejów wielkoszlemowych (French Open 1988 i 1992, Australian Open 1993). +Po zakończeniu kariery sportowej był m.in. trenerem niemieckiego tenisisty Sticha. Współpracował także z australijską reprezentacją daviscupową. +Lech Nikolski + +Lech Stanisław Nikolski (ur. 10 listopada 1955 w Opolu Lubelskim) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm III i IV kadencji, były minister – członek Rady Ministrów. +Życiorys. +W 1978 ukończył studia na Wydziale Humanistycznym Uniwersytetu im. Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie, uzyskując tytuł zawodowy magistra historii. +W latach 1981–1984 przewodniczył Zarządowi Wojewódzkiemu Związku Socjalistycznej Młodzieży Polskiej w Białej Podlaskiej, w okresie 1985–1990 był zatrudniony w Komitecie Wojewódzkim Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej w Białej Podlaskiej. Od 1990 należał do Socjaldemokracji Rzeczpospolitej Polskiej, w latach 1992–1997 zasiadał w centralnym komitecie wykonawczego tej partii. W 1999 przystąpił do Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej, pełnił w nim m.in. funkcję zastępcy sekretarza SLD. +W 1994 rozpoczął pracę w administracji państwowej w Głównym Urzędzie Ceł. W latach 1995–1996 pełnił funkcję podsekretarza stanu w Urzędzie Rady Ministrów i sekretarza Komitetu Społeczno-Politycznego Rady Ministrów. Od stycznia do 28 października 1997 był podsekretarzem stanu w KPRM ds. społeczno-politycznych i pełnomocnikiem rządu ds. realizacji Oświęcimskiego Strategicznego Programu Rządowego. Od 7 stycznia do 30 kwietnia 2003 zajmował stanowisko ministra (członka Rady Ministrów). Kierował pracami Biura ds. Referendum Europejskiego. Od 3 lipca 2003 do 28 października 2005 kierował Rządowym Centrum Studiów Strategicznych w randze ministra – członka Rady Ministrów oraz był Pełnomocnikiem Rządu do Spraw Narodowego Planu Rozwoju na lata 2007–2013. +Z ramienia Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej 1997 do 2005 pełnił funkcję posła na Sejm III i IV kadencji z okręgu chełmskiego. W IV kadencji zasiadał w Komisji Administracji i Spraw Wewnętrznych oraz Komisja Kultury i Środków Przekazu. +Wymieniany jako członek "grupy trzymającej władzę", nieformalnego układu podejrzanego o wysłanie Lwa Rywina z propozycją łapówkową do Agory. +Życie prywatne. +Żonaty (Alicja, etnograf), ma córkę Natalię (absolwentka psychologii społecznej). +Skalny Stół + +Skalny Stół (czes. "Tabule", "Klepý", niem. "Tafelstein") – najwyższy szczyt Kowarskiego Grzbietu w Karkonoszach, na jego zachodnim krańcu, na granicy polsko-czeskiej; wys. 1281 m n.p.m.. +Na południe opada stromo ku Przełęczy Sowiej. Na wschodzie płytka przełęcz Siodło oddziela go od Czoła. Ku północnemu zachodowi odchodzi boczny grzbiet z Kruczą Kopą nad Karpaczem oraz Buławą nad Sowią Doliną. +Zbudowany ze skał metamorficznych należących do wschodniej osłony granitu karkonoskiego, głównie łupków łyszczykowych, miejscami z granatami, podrzędnie z gnejsów z wkładkami amfibolitów i łupków kwarcowych. Na szczycie i pod nim niewielkie skałki. Większe skałki znajdują się na zachodnich i północno-zachodnich zboczach. Są to "Stare Granaty" i "Krukowa". +Szczyt położony jest na obszarze Karkonoskiego Parku Narodowego oraz czeskiego Karkonoskiego Parku Narodowego (czes. "Krkonošský národní park, KRNAP"). +Ze szczytu roztacza się rozległy widok na wschodnie Karkonosze, Kotlinę Jeleniogórską, Rudawy Janowickie, Góry Kaczawskie i okolice. +w przeciwnym kierunku na Przełęcz Okraj, +Marek Nowicki (działacz społeczny) + +Marek Nowicki (ur. 21 lipca 1947 w Łodzi, zm. 10 października 2003 w Warszawie) – polski działacz społeczny, obrońca praw człowieka, z wykształcenia fizyk jądrowy, w latach 1972-1981 pracował na Wydziale Fizyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Jeden z przywódców reaktywowanej w 1987 roku Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej. W latach sześćdziesiątych współtworzył studencki ruch alpinistyczny w Polsce, a w następnej dekadzie był Prezesem Federacji Akademickich Klubów Alpinistycznych i członkiem Zarządu Polskiego Związku Alpinizmu. +W latach 1980-1981 działał w Regionie Mazowsze NSZZ Solidarność, gdzie przewodniczył Komisji Mediacji, a następnie był Szefem Zespołu do spraw Technicznej Organizacji Akcji Protestacyjnych Regionu. Kierował demonstracjami ulicznymi, zajmował się ich organizacją oraz przygotowywaniem planów strajkowych. W stanie wojennym był internowany w Białołęce, Załężu i w Kielcach-Piaskach. +Po wyjściu na wolność w latach osiemdziesiątych założył podziemną oficynę wydawniczą Neutrino, pełnił również funkcję redaktora naczelnego podziemnego kwartalnika "Praworządność. Pismo o prawie i bezprawiu", gdzie występował pod pseudonimem "Man". +Od grudnia 1982 współtworzył podziemny Komitet Helsiński w Polsce. Był współautorem jego pierwszych raportów na temat naruszeń praw i wolności człowieka w PRL, przekazywanych Konferencji Bezpieczeństwa i Współpracy w Europie. Po upadku komunizmu w Polsce członkowie Komitetu Helsińskiego założyli Helsińską Fundację Praw Człowieka. Marek Nowicki stał na jej czele od 1990 . HFPC jest obecnie jedną z najbardziej doświadczonych i profesjonalnie działających organizacji pozarządowych w Europie. +Marek Nowicki był wielokrotnie powoływany w charakterze eksperta w dziedzinie praw człowieka - przez organizacje międzynarodowe, takie jak OBWE, czy ONZ, oraz przez komisje obu izb polskiego parlamentu. Współtworzył projekt "Karty Praw i Wolności", który wpłynął na kształt polskiej Konstytucji. Był autorem licznych publikacji i scenariuszy filmów na temat historii i filozofii praw człowieka, współtwórcą programów edukacyjnych oraz wykładowcą. Zainicjował szeroko zakrojoną działalność edukacyjną w zakresie praw człowieka, powołując między innymi Szkołę Praw Człowieka Helsińskiej Fundacji. Inspirował i wspierał ruch ochrony praw człowieka w państwach autorytarnych oraz w nowych demokracjach - zwłaszcza w Polsce i krajach byłego Związku Radzieckiego. Niemal do końca życia nieustannie podróżował z wykładami do Rosji, Azji Centralnej i Kaukazu. Szczególnie tam też stał się symbolem pokojowej walki o godność i prawa jednostki. +Wiktor Dega + +Wiktor Marian Dega (ur. 7 grudnia 1896 w Poznaniu, zm. 16 lutego 1995 tamże) – lekarz, profesor Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego, a później AM w Poznaniu, naukowiec. Pierwszy Kawaler Orderu Uśmiechu, który odebrał 6 lutego 1969 w Poznaniu, następnie członek Międzynarodowej Kapituły tego orderu. +Biografia. +Urodził się 7 grudnia 1896 w Poznaniu. Jego rodzicami byli Wiktor, wicedyrektor Zakładu Ubezpieczeń, oraz Zofia z domu Korzbok-Tuchołka. Uczył się w Gimnazjum św. Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu, jednak nie ukończył tam nauki z powodu wybuchu I wojny światowej. Podczas nauki w tej placówce należał do Towarzystwa Tomasza Zana. W 1915 powołany został do armii niemieckiej, w której służył do końca I wojny światowej. Następnie wziął udział w powstaniu wielkopolskim, uczestnicząc między innymi w walkach o lotnisko na Ławicy. W czynnej służbie w Wojsku Polskim pozostał do 1920 roku. Jeszcze podczas służby w armii niemieckiej w 1919 zdał maturę w Koblencji, a następnie rozpoczął studia medyczne na uniwersytecie w Berlinie. Po opuszczeniu armii w 1920 wznowił przerwane studia na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, a 1922 przeniósł się na Wydział lLekarski Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego, na którym uzyskał tytuł doktora wszechnauk lekarskich w 1924. +Po studiach specjalizował się w ortopedii i chirurgii ortopedycznej w Klinice Ortopedii Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego pod kierunkiem prof. Ireneusza Wierzejewskiego. W latach 1925-1926 pogłębiał swoją wiedzę w zakresie ortopedii, pracując u prof. Nove-Josseranda w Lyonie oraz prof. Ombredanne'a w Paryżu. Od 1926, jako asystent, prowadził dla studentów wychowania fizycznego UP wykłady z gimnastyki leczniczej i masażu, a w 1928 został kierownikiem Poradni Sportowo-Lekarskiej w Poznaniu. W 1931 został prymariuszem Poznańskiego Zakładu Ortopedycznego im. B. S. Gąsiorowskiego. W 1932 ponownie wyjechał za granicę, gdzie nawiązał kontakty prof. Putti'm z Bolonii oraz prof. Patrikiem Haglundem ze Sztokholmu. W rok później (1933) habilitował się, pisząc rozprawę "Badania z dziedziny etiologii i patogenezy wrodzonego zwichnięcia biodra". W tym okresie został członkiem honorowym poznańskiej Korporacji Akademickiej "Icaria". +W listopadzie 1937 Wiktor Dega był ordynatorem zbudowanego i zorganizowanego według jego planów Oddziału Ortopedycznego Szpitala Wojewódzkiego w Bydgoszczy. Funkcję tę pełnił do 31 sierpnia 1939, kiedy został zmobilizowany. W stopniu kapitana służył w Armii Pomorze, został ranny w bitwie pod Kutnem, a 17 września 1939 wraz ze szpitalem polowym, w którym pracował, dostał się do niewoli. W kwietniu 1940 został zwolniony, po czym objął stanowisko ordynatora Oddziału Chirurgii Dziecięcej w warszawskim Szpitalu Karola i Marii. Podczas powstania warszawskiego był chirurgiem w punkcie opatrunkowym "Sano" przy ul. Lwowskiej. Po kapitulacji ewakuował się ze szpitalem Karola i Marii do Włodzimierzowa koło Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego, gdzie pracował aż do wkroczenia Armii Czerwonej. +Zaraz po wojnie Wiktor Dega powrócił do Poznania, gdzie podjął nauczanie na Uniwersytecie. W grudniu 1945 otrzymał nominację na profesora nadzwyczajnego i posadę kierownika Katedry i Kliniki Ortopedycznej. Po reformie w 1950 wraz z kierowaną przez siebie katedrą i kliniką przeszedł do nowo utworzonej Akademii Medycznej w Poznaniu. Zorganizowanie pracy kliniki od podstaw pozwoliło mu na wdrożenie własnego programu kompleksowego leczenia chorych z upośledzoną czynnością narządu ruchu. W 1956 został mianowany profesorem zwyczajnym. W latach 1957-1967 był ekspertem WHO w zakresie readaptacji, a w okresie 1959-1962 - rektorem AM. W 1960 jako jednemu ze światowych pionierów rehabilitacji udało mu się w Poznaniu utworzyć pierwszą na świecie Katedrę Medycyny Rehabilitacyjnej. Jego sukcesy sprawiły, że w 1969 Ministerstwo Zdrowia włączyło rehabilitację w ramy organizacji opieki medycznej. W tym samym roku otrzymał doktorat Honoris Causa swojej uczelni. W następnym roku Europejskie Biuro WHO uznało jego program kompleksowej rehabilitacji obecnej na każdym etapie leczenia za modelowy. Zmarł 16 lutego 1995 roku w Poznaniu. +Na dorobek naukowy prof. W. Degi składa się ponad 250 prac, z czego około 60 dotyczy wrodzonych zwichnięć stawu biodrowego. Jego badania w tej dziedzinie stały się podstawą do opracowania metody operacyjnego leczenia nazywanej osteotomią transiliakalną. Za swój wkład w tej dziedzinie otrzymał Nagrodę Państwową I stopnia. Sam profesor był również autorem kilku technik operacyjnych. +Otrzymał wiele odznaczeń państwowych, w tym Order Budowniczych Polski Ludowej w 1964, Krzyż Komandorski z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (1971), Krzyż Oficerski Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (1953). Był też pierwszym w historii Kawalerem Orderu Uśmiechu. 21 lipca 1968 roku otrzymał nagrodę państwową I stopnia. +11 lutego 1992 uchwałą Rady Miasta Poznania otrzymał Honorowe Obywatelstwo Miasta Poznania. +Eddy Merckx + +Eddy Merckx, właściwie Edouard Louis Joseph Merckx (ur. 17 czerwca 1945 w Meensel-Kiezegem) – belgijski kolarz szosowy. +W trakcie trwającej od 1965 do 1977 roku kariery był nazywany „Kanibalem” ze względu na wielką chęć wygrywania. Jako jedyny kolarz w historii wygrał w jednym roku trzy główne klasyfikacje (generalną, punktową – tzw. sprinterską – oraz górską) wyścigu Tour de France 1969. Uznawany za jednego z „kolarzy wszech czasów”, potrafił wygrywać w każdego rodzaju wyścigach – od jednodniowych klasyków, poprzez jazdę indywidualną na czas po wieloetapowe „toury”. Dobrze czuł się na stromych, długich podjazdach, jak i na prostych rozstrzygających sprintach. Łącznie odniósł 525 zwycięstw w peletonie, w tym 445 zwycięstw jako zawodowiec. Dodatkowo odniósł 98 zwycięstw na torze i 2 w wyścigach przełajowych. +Kariera. +Już w 1966 roku, drugim roku jego kariery zawodowej, rozpoczął swoją serię wielkich zwycięstw. Wygrał 2 tzw. „monumenty kolarstwa” – Mediolan-San Remo i Tour des Flanders. W kolejnych latach, oprócz wielu wygranych klasyków, zdobył także tytuł mistrza świata oraz odniósł swoje pierwsze zwycięstwo w wyścigu wieloetapowym – Giro d'Italia (jako pierwszy Belg w historii). W 1969 roku po raz pierwszy wziął udział w Tour de France i zdominował cały wyścig w niecodzienny sposób – oprócz generalnej klasyfikacji, dzięki wygranym siedmiu etapom, jako pierwszy kolarz w historii zdobył także dwie pozostałe klasyfikacje – górską i sprinterską. Dzięki temu Belg już jako 24-latek wygrał praktycznie wszystko, co było do wygrania w świecie kolarskim. Ale „era Merckxa” dopiero się zaczynała i przypadała na jego członkostwo w zawodowych grupach Faema (1968-1970) i Molteni (1971-1975). +„Kanibal”. +Imponujące są zwłaszcza statystyki dotyczące jego udziału w Tour de France. Nosił koszulkę lidera w sumie przez 110 dni i wygrał łącznie 34 etapy. Oba wyniki są do dziś niepobitymi rekordami. Francuska gazeta "L'Equipe" przy okazji obchodów 100. lecia Tour de France w 2003 roku okrzyknęła Merckxa największym mistrzem całego touru. +Wszechstronność. +W przeciwieństwie do innych zwycięzców Touru, Merckx wygrywał także w wielu innych wyścigach. Pięciokrotnie zwyciężył w Giro d'Italia (rekord, razem z Fausto Coppi i Alfredo Binda). W 1973 roku wygrał także Vuelta a Espana, dzięki czemu należy do elitarnej grupki pięciu kolarzy, którym udało się wygrać w trzech wielkich wyścigach wieloetapowych. Poza tym, jeden raz wygrał też w innym wyścigu wielodniowym – Tour de Suisse. +Ponadto z powodzeniem występował także w zimowych wyścigach halowych (tzw. wyścigach sześciodniowych, „sześciodniówkach”), w których wygrywał łącznie 17 razy. W 1972 zdobył także rekord w jeździe godzinnej w Meksyku. Na tradycyjnym rowerze torowym, osiągnął wynik 49,431 km w 60 minut. Ten rekord był niepobity przez blisko 30 lat. +Problemy z dopingiem. +Eddy Merckx został w 1969 wykluczony z Giro d’Italia z powodu podejrzeń o stosowanie dopingu. Ze łzami w oczach tłumaczył się prasie i zapewniał o swojej niewinności. Do dziś dnia utrzymuje, że został oszukany przez lekarzy przeprowadzających testy. Twierdzi, że nie było prób kontrolnych, nie wzięto pod uwagę też opinii innych biegłych, poza tym uważał, że był znienawidzony przez wielu zagranicznych kibiców. Potem mówił jeszcze, że etap, na którym rzekomo miał brać niedozwolone środki był bardzo łatwy, więc nie było nawet potrzeby stosowania „dopalaczy”. Belgijski książę Albert wysłał po Merckxa prywatny samolot, aby ten mógł wrócić do kraju. Po szybko przeprowadzonym dochodzeniu, mógł jednak wystartować jeszcze w tym samym roku w Tour de France. Do dziś uważa to zwycięstwo w Tourze za jedno ze swoich najcenniejszych zwycięstw w karierze. +Merckx z zaangażowaniem potępia doping, który jest stale gorącym tematem w świecie zawodowego kolarstwa, jest jednak zdania, że kolarstwo jest pod tym względem niesprawiedliwie traktowane w porównaniu do innych dyscyplin sportu. Wg niego istnieje sporna kwestia, właściwie nie do rozwiązania, między stale rosnącym zapotrzebowaniem na coraz lepsze wyniki a sportem wolnym od dopingu. W latach 90. stał się bliskim przyjacielem Lance’a Armstronga i wspierał go kiedy ten był podejrzany o stosowanie środków niedozwolonych. Często powtarza, że „wierzy bardziej w to co mówi Lance, niż w to, co pisze się w gazetach”. +Załamanie formy i gorsze dni. +Najczarniejszym dniem w jego karierze był wyścig na torze za motorami („Derny” race) pod koniec sezonu 1969, kiedy to uległ poważnemu wypadkowi. Motor nadający tempo innemu zawodnikowi, jadącemu przed Merckxem, przewrócił się, co spowodowało, że również jadący z tyłu Merckx i jego motor przewrócili się. Merckx doznał ciężkiego wstrząsu i stracił przytomność. Jak się okazało później, miał ciężki uraz kręgosłupa i zwichniętą miednicę. W wywiadach kilka lat po tym mówił, że z powodu tych urazów jego ściganie nigdy już nie było takie samo. Często poprawiał ustawienie siodełka swojego roweru podczas jazdy, aby poprawić komfort siedzenia (choć niektórzy uważają, że robił to dla żartu, przy pomocy małego klucza francuskiego). Zawsze też odczuwał ból podczas jazdy, szczególnie podczas jazdy pod górę. +Koniec jego wielkiej kariery w Tourze przyszedł w 1975 roku. Chciał wygrać w tym roku po raz szósty, stał się jednak ofiarą przemocy ze strony jednego z kibiców. Wielu Francuzom było nie w smak to, że Belg może pobić rekord ustanowiony przez Jacques’a Anquetila. Merckx nosił żółtą koszulkę przez 8 dni wyścigu, czym podbił jeszcze swój rekord do 96 dni w koszulce lidera. Jednak na 14. etapie francuski widz wyskoczył z tłumu i uderzył Merckxa w brzuch, w okolice wątroby. To spowodowało, że Belg został wytrącony z rytmu i musiał w bólu jechać dalej. Na domiar złego, następnego dnia zderzył się z duńskim kolarzem, Ole Ritterem i złamał sobie szczękę. Z tego powodu nie mógł przyjmować jedzenia ani mówić, nie zrezygnował jednak z dalszej jazdy. Podczas ostatniego etapu zaatakował nawet lidera Bernarda Théveneta, został jednak wchłonięty przez peleton na ostatnich metrach. Później Merckx przyznał, że decyzja o kontynuowaniu ścigania w TdF po tym wypadku była jego największym błędem w karierze, gdyż znacznie osłabiło to jego siły w późniejszych latach. +Pozasportowe osiągnięcia. +Trzykrotnie był posiadaczem tytułu Sportowca Roku na świecie (1969, 1971, 1974), a w Belgii został uznany za Największego Sportowca XX w. Siedmiokrotnie (1969-1975) zdobywał nagrodę Super Prestige Pernod, co było odpowiednikiem późniejszego Pucharu Świata i dzisiejszej klasyfikacji ProTour. UCI nadało mu tytuł Najlepszego kolarza 20. stulecia. +W roku 2000, belgijski magazyn "Knack" uznał go za „Belga Stulecia”, a cztery lata później, czasopismo "Humo" nazwało go „Największym Belgiem”. +1 grudnia 2005 w belgijskiej telewizji odbyło się głosowanie na największego Belga wszech czasów. Merckx zdobył w tym plebiscycie 3. miejsce, będąc jednocześnie najwyżej sklasyfikowanym żyjącym kandydatem. +Życie prywatne po skończonej karierze. +Dziś Eddy Merckx swoim nazwiskiem firmuje markę rowerów szosowych. Był w latach 90. trenerem belgijskiej kolarskiej drużyny narodowej, jest członkiem Belgijskiego Komitetu Olimpijskiego. Ponadto bierze udział w wielu wyścigach w roli organizatora lub komentatora. Po schudnięciu kilkunastu kilogramów, w wyniku przebytej w 2004 roku operacji przełyku zdecydował się powrócić do kolarstwa i aktywnie uprawia ten sport amatorsko i rekreacyjnie. +W 1967 poślubił Claudine Acou, ślub odbył się w języku francuskim. Zadecydowała o tym matka kolarza, która poprosiła duchownego udzielającego ślubu, aby dokonał tego po francusku. Nie wiedziała wtedy, że jest to kwestia sporna w Belgii, w której wielu ludzi identyfikuje się nawzajem wg języka, którym mówi (język francuski jest w użyciu w Walonii, a język flamandzki we Flandrii). Mimo to, Merckx zyskał sympatię wszystkich Belgów, bez względu na pochodzenie. W 1996 roku, król belgijski Albert II Koburg nadał mu dożywotnio tytuł barona. +Merckx jest znany jako cicha i skromna osoba, człowiek raczej czynu niż wielkich słów. Jego cechą jest lojalność, której przykładem może być fakt, że wielu jego pomocników z czasów kolarskich znalazło pracę w fabryce Merckxa, oraz towarzyszą „Kanibalowi” w jego rekreacyjnych wycieczkach rowerowych. +Jego syn, Axel Merckx jeździł z powodzeniem dla belgijskiej drużyny kolarskiej Davitamon-Lotto i zdobył na Olimpiadzie w Atenach brązowy medal. On, oraz jego siostra Sabrina dali swojemu ojcu już kilkoro wnuków. +Ćwik + +Nazwisko +Język osetyjski + +Język osetyjski, osetyński (Ирон æвзаг, Iron ævzag lub Иронау, Ironau) należy wraz z językiem tackim i tałyskim do podgrupy irańskiej języków indoirańskich, którymi mówi się na Kaukazie. Uważa się, iż jest kontynuacją języka starożytnych Scytów, a ściślej - dialektów zachodnioscytyjskich. +Językiem osetyjskim posługują się Osetyjczycy w leżącej na terenie Federacji Rosyjskiej Republice Północna Osetia - Alania oraz w stanowiącej oficjalnie część Gruzji Osetii Południowej. Ogólna liczba posługujących się tym językiem oceniana jest na ok. 500 tys. osób. +Wyróżnia się dwa główne dialekty: zachodnioosetyjski Digoron oraz wschodnioosetyjski Iron, do którego zalicza się także dialekt Tual, którym posługuje się ludność Osetii Południowej. Osetyjski zachował wiele archaicznych cech, charakterystycznych dla języków irańskich (m.in. zachowanie przypadków), natomiast jego fonetyka jest pod silnym wpływem sąsiednich języków kaukaskich. W słowniku widoczne są silne wpływy języka rosyjskiego. +Początki piśmiennictwa - od XVIII w.. Za najwybitniejszego twórcę posługującego się językiem osetyjskim uważa się tworzącego w drugiej połowie XIX w. Kostę Chetagurowa. +Do zapisu języka osetyjskiego wykorzystywane mogą być alfabety oparte na alfabecie gruzińskim albo łacińskim. Od 1937 r. oficjalnie używany jest alfabet, oparty na rosyjskiej grażdance: +Charakterystyczną literą w alfabecie osetyjskim jest æ, która nie występuje w żadnym innym alfabecie cyrylickim. +Przykładowy tekst w języku osetyjskim (wiersz Kosty Chetagurowa): +W języku osetyjskim prowadzona jest Osetyjska Wikipedia. +Ferhat Abbas + +Ferhat Abbas (ur. 24 października 1899, zm. 23 grudnia 1985) – polityk algierski i działacz niepodległościowy. +Ferhat Abbas . W 1938 założył Algierską Unię Ludową, która głosiła program autonomii wewnętrznej i zrównania w prawach osadników francuskich z ludnością tubylczą. W 1946 powołał Demokratyczną Unię Manifestu Algierskiego. Od 1955 był członkiem Frontu Wyzwolenia Narodowego. W latach 1958-61 stał na czele Tymczasowego Rządu Republiki Algierskiej. W latach 1962-1963 pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego Narodowego Zgromadzenia Konstytucyjnego Algierii, co dawało mu wówczas pozycję głowy państwa. W wyniku różnic w kierownictwie FWN wycofał się z polityki. +Sęczygniew + +Sęczygniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Sęczy-" ("wsączać się, przenikać"), oraz członu "-gniew" ("gniew"). Może oznaczać "ten, który sączy gniew". +Sęczygniew imieniny obchodzi 30 października. +Sieciesława + +Sieciesława, Siecsława, Siecława, Siesława – jest to albo staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członu "Siecie-" ("rozumieć, przypomnieć sobie, domyślać się, czuć, spostrzegać") i "-sława" ("sława"), które może oznaczać "domyślająca się przyszłej sławy", lub też neologizm i jego pochodne, powstały z imienia Sieciech, kiedy świadomość pochodzenia tego imienia zatarła się i błędnie zostało ono uznane za imię kończące się członem "-sław" (zamiast "-ciech"). W źródłach polskich poświadczone jako Sieciesława (XII wiek), Siecsława (1395), Siesława (1497). +Męskie odpowiedniki: Sieciesław, Siecsław, Siecław, Siesław. +Sieciesława imieniny obchodzi 6 kwietnia. +Tropicielka + +Tropicielka - drugi żeński stopień harcerski w ZHP, SHK Zawisza i ZHR. Przeznaczony dla dziewcząt wieku 13-15 lat. Oznaczeniem stopnia jest srebrna lilijka nabita na Krzyżu Harcerskim (ZHR) lub dwie belki na pagonie (ZHP). +Idea stopnia w ZHP. +Przestrzega Prawa i Przyrzeczenia Harcerskiego w codziennym życiu. Zdobywa harcerską wiedzę i doskonali umiejętności z różnych dziedzin. Tropi sytuacje, w których może być pożyteczna. Ćwiczy swoją spostrzegawczość i sprawność. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +Tropicielka jest "zanurzona" w harcerskiej przygodzie. Jest aktywna i ciekawa świata. Obserwuje przyrodę i swoje otoczenie. Tropi przeszłość, teraźniejszość i przyszłość. Życie polowe jest jej żywiołem. Uczestniczy w grach, harcach i biwakach. +Idea stopnia w SHK Zawisza. +Tropicielka wtapia się w życie harcerskie, "tropi" wszystko co ją ciekawi i odkrywa nowe rzeczy. Wypełnia próby, które pomagają jej zgłębiać wiedzę i zrozumieć otaczający ją świat. +Śikhara + +Śikhara (ang. Sikhara) – to zwieńczenie świątyni hinduistycznej stylu północnego, z wieżą w kształcie iglicy nad najważniejszym jej sanktuarium. Śikhara kształtem symbolizuje szczyt góry, płomień ofiarny oraz słup ofiarny ołtarza wedyjskich ceremonii. Na południu Indii odpowiada jej "wimana". +Styl nagara. +W północnoindyjskim stylu architektonicznym nagara, śikharę zwieńczała śikha ("kok na czubku głowy"). Szczyt sikhary reprezentował symbolicznie szew strzałkowy i guz ciemieniowy na kości ciemieniowej czaszki. Zachodzi tu analogia do ciała ludzkiego: przez brahmarandhrę - otwór w szwie strzałkowym, atman opuszczać miał ciało fizyczne, dążąc do połączenia z brahmanem . +Migawka + +Migawka jest częścią aparatu fotograficznego służącą do odsłaniania na odpowiedni czas a następnie zasłaniania z powrotem materiału światłoczułego lub przetwornika optoelektronicznego w celu jego prawidłowej ekspozycji czyli dostarczenia odpowiedniej ilości światła padającego przez obiektyw. +Migawkę zwalnia się spustem, wężykiem lub zdalnie, pilotem. +Migawka szczelinowa. +Migawka szczelinowa stosowana obecnie powszechnie w lustrzankach małoobrazkowych umieszczona jest pomiędzy obiektywem a materiałem światłoczułym. Składa się z dwóch lub więcej równolegle prowadzonych taśm stalowych (lamelek) lub płóciennych. Zmiana położenia taśm względem siebie skutkuje zmianą czasu ekspozycji materiału światłoczułego. Naciągnięcie i zwolnienie mechanizmu migawki powoduje przesuwanie się szczeliny utworzonej przez lamelki wzdłuż materiału światłoczułego, czego skutkiem jest jego równomierne naświetlenie. +Pod względem konstrukcyjnym rozróżnia się migawki szczelinowe poziome i pionowe w zależności od orientacji ruchu lamelek. Migawki pionowe, w związku z krótszą drogą do pokonania, pozwalają na najkrótsze, do s, czasy pełnej synchronizacji standardowego błysku lampy błyskowej. Jest odkryciem polskiego fotografa Stanisława Jurkowskiego. Skonstruował ją, opatentował i w 1883 opublikował dane na jej temat w piśmie "Fotograf". Produkcją migawki szczelinowej zajęły się angielskie i niemieckie firmy. Jednak w literaturze to odkrycie przypisywane jest Ottomarowi Anschützowi. Miałby go dokonać na początku lat 80. XIX w. +W dawniej produkowanych aparatach czas otwarcia migawki regulowany był mechanicznie. Większość obecnie produkowanych modeli ma migawkę sterowaną elektronicznie, co skutkuje większą dokładnością i lepszą powtarzalnością czasu naświetlania. Przedział czasu otwarcia migawki to obecnie od sekundy, do 30 sekund, przy czym popularne lustrzanki oferują węższy zakres od sekundy do 30 sekund. +Migawka centralna. +Migawka centralna, nazwana również irysową, umieszczona jest we wnętrzu obiektywu lub tuż za nim. Składa się z kilku, kilkunastu elementów z bardzo cienkiej blaszki w kształcie sierpa, rozmieszczonych symetrycznie wokół osi optycznej aparatu tworząc okrągły otwór o regulowanej średnicy, dzięki czemu migawka centralna w niektórych obiektywach pełni jednocześnie rolę przysłony. +Uruchomienie mechanizmu spustowego migawki powoduje błyskawiczne rozchylenie elementów do z góry określonej średnicy (funkcja przysłony) otwierając w ten sposób drogę światłu do materiału światłoczułego na określony czas (funkcja migawki), a następnie niemalże natychmiastowe ich zamknięcie (przyspieszenia w mechanizmie migawki centralnej dochodzą do 10 G). Dawniej ten typ migawki występował w aparatach mieszkowych a z czasem również w coraz popularniejszych lustrzankach dwuobiektywowych. +Obecnie występuje niekiedy w kompaktowych aparatach cyfrowych z niewymienną optyką, ale także w obiektywach do aparatów średnio- i wielkoformatowych, a w zastosowaniach zaawansowanych - również jako samodzielny, niezależny od obiektywu moduł. +Konstrukcja migawki centralnej umożliwia synchronizację z lampą błyskową w pełnym zakresie oferowanych czasów. Najkrótsze czasy pracy migawek irysowych dochodzą do s, co pozwala na swobodne mieszanie światła ciągłego i błyskowego bez efektu rozmazania, jaki towarzyszy ekspozycji szybko poruszających się obiektów fotografowanych przy czasach dłuższych niż s przy standardowym obiektywie. +Chinatown (film) + +Chinatown – amerykański film fabularny z 1974 roku w reżyserii Romana Polańskiego. Najbardziej znany film polskiego reżysera, nominowany do 11 Oscarów. Zdjęcia do niego powstawały w Kalifornii, w miastach: Glendale, Los Angeles, Pasadena oraz na wyspie Santa Catalina. +"Chinatown" to czarny kryminał w Chandlerowskim stylu, którego skomplikowana, wielowątkowa fabuła jest osadzona w Los Angeles w latach trzydziestych. Sam tytuł oznacza chińską dzielnicę Los Angeles. Roman Polański wcielił się w filmie w "człowieka z nożem", który rozcina nos głównemu bohaterowi. +Film uznawany jest za jeden z najwybitniejszych obrazów w dziejach kina. Zajmuje drugie miejsce na liście najlepszych filmów kryminalnych wszech czasów sporządzonej przez Amerykański Instytut Filmowy. +Opis fabuły. +Prywatny detektyw Jake Gittes zostaje wynajęty przez kobietę podającą się za panią Mulwray, by śledził jej męża. Gdy kompromitujące fotografie zrobione przez Gittes'a, wyjawiające rzekomy romans Mulwraya przenikają do prasy, pojawia się prawdziwa pani Mulwray grożąc mu procesem o zniesławienie. Wściekły Gittes postanawia się dowiedzieć kto go "wystawił", stopniowo odkrywając ciemne interesy wokół zaopatrzenia w wodę, urzędniczą korupcję oraz przynajmniej jedno morderstwo. Jego śledztwo komplikują złożone relacje uczuciowe, a im więcej się dowiaduje, tym bardziej mroczna i tajemnicza staje się sprawa, w wir której został wplątany. +Niesąd + +Niesąd – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Nie-" (przeczenie) i "-sąd" ("sądzić"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto nie osądza". +Rezerwat przyrody Skamieniałe Miasto + +Skamieniałe Miasto – rezerwat przyrody nieożywionej położony na prawym brzegu rzeki Biała na Pogórzu Ciężkowickim, w pobliżu Ciężkowic (południowa część województwa małopolskiego). Powierzchnia 15,01 ha, utworzony w 1931 (formalnie zatwierdzony 1974). +Rezerwat rozciąga się od dna doliny Białej po szczyt wzgórza Skała (367 m n.p.m.). Wśród lasu mieszanego – (dęby z domieszką sosen) rozrzucona jest grupa skałek dużych rozmiarów, zbudowanych z gruboziarnistego piaskowca ciężkowickiego, fantazyjnie ukształtowanych wskutek procesów erozji. Jest to tzw. skalne miasto. Są wśród nich ambony, maczugi i grzyby skalne. Nadane nazwy odpowiadają ich kształtom, np. "Maczuga", "Piramida", inne to m.in.: "Baszta", "Borsuk", "Grunwald" (z niewielką jaskinią szczelinową i tablicą pamiątkową wmurowaną w pięćsetną rocznicę bitwy pod Grunwaldem), "Ratusz" i "Czarownica". W pobliżu niewielki wodospad. +Legenda o "Grunwaldzie". +Legenda głosi, że u podnóża skały "Grunwald" (nazywanej również "piekłem") od strony drogi można wejść do wnętrza, gdzie jak mówi stara legenda został ukryty skarb. Skała otwiera się tylko raz w roku podczas rezurekcyjnego podniesienia (przeistoczenia) w kościele ciężkowickim i ukazuje swe bogactwa tylko na ten krótki moment. +Nazwa rezerwatu. +Nazwa rezerwatu pochodzi od podania ludowego, według którego owe skały są pozostałością miasta skamieniałego z powodu złamania prawa gościnności lub, w innej wersji, z powodu rozwiązłości jego mieszkańców. +Piotr Morawski + +Piotr Morawski (ur. 27 grudnia 1976, zm. 8 kwietnia 2009 w Nepalu) – polski himalaista, zdobywca 6 ośmiotysięczników, doktor nauk chemicznych i adiunkt na Wydziale Chemicznym Politechniki Warszawskiej, wiceprezes Polskiego Związku Alpinizmu. Jako pierwszy człowiek zdobył w 2005 r. zimą Sziszapangmę, 14. szczyt świata. +Biografia. +Brał udział w wyprawie zimowej na K2 w sezonie 2002/2003. Wraz z Denisem Urubką dotarł wówczas do wysokości 7650 m, co stanowi najwyższy punkt, jaki kiedykolwiek osiągnięto zimą na tej górze. Podczas wyprawy zimowej na Sziszapangmę w sezonie 2003/2004 dokonał pierwszego zimowego przejścia południowej ściany. Sam szczyt został zdobyty rok później: 14 stycznia 2005 Morawski i Simone Moro jako pierwsi himalaiści w historii zdobyli zimą Sziszapangmę. +W tym samym roku Morawski obronił pracę doktorską zatytułowaną: „Wpływ wielkości, kształtu i polarności cząsteczek na równowagi fazowe. Wpływ wysokiego ciśnienia (do 1,5 GPa)” . +W 2006 w ramach wyprawy o nazwie "Tryptyk Himalajski" zdobył dwa kolejne ośmiotysięczniki: 24 kwietnia wraz ze Słowakiem Peterem Hámorem Czo Oju, a 9 lipca Broad Peak po samotnym ataku szczytowym. W ramach "Tryptyku Himalajskiego" zdobył również wraz z Piotrem Pustelnikiem wschodni wierzchołek Annapurny (8010 m n.p.m.), po czym zawrócił, by udzielić pomocy tybetańskiemu himalaiście, który doznał ślepoty śnieżnej. +15 lipca 2007 o 13:40 czasu lokalnego po 12-godzinnej akcji szczytowej, w zespole polsko-słowackim, wraz z Peterem Hámorem i Dodo Kopoldem zdobył szczyt Nanga Parbat drogą Kinshofera, w ramach aklimatyzacji przed głównym celem, niezdobytą wówczas zachodnią ściana K2. +Realizując projekt Trawers Gaszerbrumów od I do III, zdobył Gaszerbrum I (25 czerwca 2008) i Gaszerbrum II (6 lipca 2008). Peter Hámor i Piotr Morawski zdobyli szczyt Gaszerbrum I (8068 m) o 13:30 lokalnego czasu, z sukcesem dokonali trawersu Gaszerbrum I, zdobywając szczyt w stylu alpejskim, pokonując w dolnej części tzw. drogę hiszpańską (prawa grań południowo-zachodniej ściany), a wyżej – drogą pierwszych zdobywców (Amerykanie w 1958 r.) Piotr Morawski i Peter Hámor 6 lipca o godz. 9:15 czasu lokalnego zdobyli Gaszerbrum II (8035 m), wspinając się na wierzchołek w stylu alpejskim normalną drogą. +Okoliczności śmierci. +Zginął podczas polsko-słowackiej wyprawy, której głównym celem było wejście nową drogą na zachodniej ścianie Manaslu w Nepalu. Uczestnicy wyprawy mieli zaplanowane wyjście aklimatyzacyjne normalną drogą na Dhaulagiri. Podczas tego wyjścia, na wysokości ok. 5760 metrów, Morawski spadł w 25-metrową szczelinę i zaklinował się na 20. metrze. Został wydobyty ze szczeliny przez swojego partnera Petera Hámora, Justynę Szepieniec oraz zespół wspinaczy z TOPR-u, którzy w czasie wypadku przebywali na tym masywie. Reanimacja okazała się nieskuteczna i lekarz stwierdził zgon. Zgodnie ze swoją wolą został pochowany w Himalajach. Jego ciało zostało opuszczone na linach do szczeliny lodowej na wysokości 5700 m n.p.m. 13 kwietnia 2009; w ceremonii uczestniczyli: słowacki partner himalaisty, Peter Hámor, Justyna Szepieniec oraz Grzegorz Bargiel, Edward Lichota, Andrzej Mikler i Ryszard Gajewski z zespołu TOPR. +Piotr Morawski pozostawił żonę Olgę Morawską i dwóch synów Ignacego i Gustawa. +Upamiętnienie. +16 kwietnia 2009 odbyła się w Warszawie msza pożegnalna, podczas której himalaista został przez prezydenta Lecha Kaczyńskiego pośmiertnie odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski "za wybitne zasługi dla rozwoju polskiego himalaizmu, za rozsławianie Polski w świecie". +17 października 2009 na Symbolicznym Cmentarzu Ofiar Gór pod Osterwą poświęcono i odsłonięto tablicę pamiątkową Piotra Morawskiego. +Drugą tablicę pamiątkową w październiku 2009 r. umieszczono na Przełęczy Francuzów w rejonie Dhaulagiri. +Od 2010 roku jego imię nosi memoriał "Miej odwagę", wspierający nowe projekty górskie, badawcze i podróżnicze. Do pierwszej edycji Memoriału im. Piotra Morawskiego zgłoszono 120 wypraw. Zwyciężył Stefan Czerniecki i jego projekt "Śladem szeptu amazońskiego potoku". Ponadto powołano Alpinus Test Team i wsparto 5 dalszych wypraw. +Do drugiej edycji zgłoszono 108 wypraw. Zwyciężył Szymon Kowalczyk, z wyprawą "Samotnie na dach Sahary". Dodatkowo wyróżniono 2 wyprawy "Na handbike'u Kobieta na Pico del Veleta" (Karina Jasińska) i "Jak skończę roczek to pojadę pod Kazbek. Z mamą" (Natalia Kozub, Pauliną Kozub) (wyniki ogłoszono na Festiwalu Podróżników "Kolosy" w Gdyni 11 marca 2012. +Po śmierci Piotra Morawskiego jego żona Olga Morawska opracowała i wydała zbiór jego opowiadań i felietonów, które przez lata ukazywały się głównie na łamach magazynu „Góry”. Książka "Zostają góry" zilustrowana została zdjęciami wykonanymi przez Piotra Morawskiego. Dopełniają ją wspomnienia himalaistów Krzysztofa Wielickiego, Simone Moro, Petera Hámora, Dariusza Załuskiego i Piotra Pustelnika. Następnie Olga Morawska wydała książkę "Od początku do końca", która jest historią ich życia. Są to zapiski z dzienników Piotra Morawskiego prowadzone podczas wypraw w góry oraz wspomnienia Olgi Morawskiej. +Nagrody. +Piotr Morawski był laureatem Nagrody Środowisk Wspinaczkowych „Jedynka” za rok 2005, "za pierwsze zimowe wejście na Shisha Pangma 8027 m, drogą klasyczną, w zespole z Simone Moro". Uroczyste wręczenie nagrody odbyło się 11 grudnia 2005 r. podczas III Krakowskiego Festiwalu Górskiego. Za tę wyprawę wraz z uczestnikami polskiej części wyprawy otrzymał też nagrodę "Kolosa" w kategorii "Alpinizm". Ponadto dwukrotnie był finalistą nagrody „Jedynka”: w 2006 r. (wraz z Piotrem Pustelnikiem za "Tryptyk Himalajski - Cho Oyu (droga norm), Annapurna Wschodnia (wsch. grań), Broad Peak (droga normalna) - projekt zrealizowany bez zdobycia głównej Annapurny z powodu konieczności udzielenia pomocy Tybetańczykowi" i w 2008 r. za "Trawers Gasherbrum I 8068m i Gasherbrum II 8035 m oraz próbę na zach. ścianie Annapurnny zakończoną na grani szczytowej. Pomimo niezdobycia szczytu - pokonana została trudna droga na wielkiej ścianie". +Publikacje. +Piotr Morawski publikował relacje z wypraw w magazynach podróżniczych i górskich, od 2008 roku miał swoją stałą rubrykę w magazynie „Góry”. +Linki zewnętrzne. +__NOTOC__ +Wywiadowca + +Wywiadowca - drugi męski stopień harcerski w ZHP, ZHR i SH. Pierwszy w SHK Zawisza. Przeznaczony dla harcerzy w wieku 13-15 lat. Oznaczeniem stopnia są dwie belki na pagonie (ZHP) i srebrna lilijka na krzyżu harcerskim (ZHR, kiedyś również w ZHP). +Idea stopnia w ZHP. +Przestrzega Prawa i Przyrzeczenia Harcerskiego w codziennym życiu. Zdobywa harcerską wiedzę i doskonali umiejętności z różnych dziedzin. Tropi sytuacje, w których może być pożyteczny. Ćwiczy swoją spostrzegawczość i sprawność. Aktywnie uczestniczy w zadaniach zastępu i drużyny. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +Jest samodzielny, potrafi kierować pracą innych. Odkrywa istotę wiary i kieruje się nauką Chrystusa w życiu codziennym. Odnajduje potrzebujących wokół siebie, pomaga im i zachęca innych do pomocy ubogim. Radzi sobie samotnie w lesie, zbuduje schronienie, potrafi znaleźć produkty i ugotować posiłek. Potrafi odnaleźć drogę, czytać mapę, na podstawie własnych szkiców narysuje plan dowolnej okolicy. Potrafi przekazywać wiadomości w terenie i sieci. Stara się być przykładem dla swoich rówieśników, jest podporą dla słabszych i otacza opieką dziewczęta. W domu podejmuje się stałych obowiązków. Zna genezę harcerstwa i jego dzieje, rozumie strukturę i historię ZHR. Zna historię Polski ostatniego wieku i rozumie jej związek ze współczesnością. Rozpoznaje i rozwija swoje talenty, poznaje dorobek kulturowy Polski i Europy. Pracuje nad tężyzną fizyczną, uprawia wybraną dziedzinę sportu. +Idea stopnia w SH. +W swojej służbie wywiadowca szuka harcerskiej przygody, tropi teraźniejszość i przeszłość. Wyrabia swoją spostrzegawczość, sprawność i szybką orientację. W harcach osiągnął wprawę którą może zaimponować młodszym. Zdobywa umiejętności pozwalające prowadzić zastęp lub pełnić inną funkcję w drużynie. +Dmitrij Nielubin + +Dmitrij Władisławowicz Nielubin (ros. Дмитрий Владиславович Нелюбин, ur. 8 lutego 1971 w Leningradzie - zm. 1 stycznia 2005 Sankt Petersburgu) - rosyjski kolarz torowy i szosowy reprezentujący także ZSRR, mistrz olimpijski i trzykrotny medalista torowych mistrzostw świata. +Kariera. +Syn Władysława Nielubina, drugiego kolarza Wyścigu Pokoju w 1972. Dmitrij Nielubin próbował także swoich sił jako kolarz szosowy, ale bez większym sukcesów. Przeszedł do historii jako najmłodszy mistrz olimpijski w kolarstwie torowym, zdobył złoto w ekipie radzieckiej w wyścigu drużynowym na 4000 m (1988). Partnerowali mu Wiaczesław Jekimow, Artūras Kasputis i Gintautas Umaras. W czasie igrzysk w Seulu miał 17 lat. +Zmarł tragicznie, pchnięty nożem w przypadkowej bójce w czasie zabawy noworocznej. +Toxicity + +Toxicity – druga płyta zespołu System of a Down z 2001 roku. Została wyprodukowana przez Ricka Rubina. +Lista utworów. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +CD 1 +Bonus CD 2 +Twórcy. +Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego. +__NOTOC__ +Koń budionnowski + +Koń Buddionowskie - jedna z ras ras konia, wykorzystywana na wyścigach do długo- i krótkodystansowych wyścigów. Znana z wytrzymałości i charakterystycznej płynności ruchu, konie tej rasy odnoszą sukcesy w skokach i ujeżdżeniu. Konie tej rasy są uważane za mające łagodną naturę. +Pochodzenie. +Koń Budionnowski wywodzi się od koni czarnomorskich i klaczy dońskich krytych ogierami Pełnej Krwi Angielskiej. Używano też koni kirgijskich i kazachskich, lecz z gorszym rezultatem. Potomstwo odchowywano bardzo starannie na bogatej paszy i testowano pod względem użytkowości po ukończeniu dwóch i czterech lat życia. Z ogólnej liczby 657 klaczy, od których rozpoczęto hodowlę, 359 stanowiły anglodońskie, 261 mieszańce anglodońskie z czarnomorskimi i 37 angloczarnomorskie. Kryto je ogierami anglodońskimi. Gdy cechy Pełnej Krwi Angielskiej stawały się mniej wyraźne, do hodowli włączano ponownie ogiery tej rasy. +Budowa i wygląd. +Głowa i szyja mają dobre proporcje. Profil jest prosty lub nieznacznie wklęsły. Taka ładna, szlachetna głowa zdradza wpływ koni Pełnej Krwi Angielskiej. Długa i prosta szyja przechodzi w wysoki kłąb i łączy się z umiarkowanie skośnymi łopatkami - nie są one jednak tak długie, jak u konia Pełnej Krwi Angielskiej. +Koń Budionnowski jest lekkiej budowy, ale o stosunkowo masywnym tułowiu. Grzbiet ma krótki, prosty i szeroki, lędźwie wydłużone, a zad długi i zazwyczaj prosty. Kończyny są lekkie, mało masywne, zdarzają się wady w budowie i wielkości stawów. Wadą tej rasy jest iksowata postawa kończyn przednich, powodująca ich wadliwy ruch. Wadę tę rozprzestrzeniło krzyżowanie z końmi dońskimi i kazachskimi. +80% koni Budionnowskich jest maści kasztanowatej, często ze złocistym połyskiem, odziedziczonym po koniach dońskich i czarnomorskich. Występują także konie gniade z tzw. złotym połyskiem. +Przeciętnie koń Budionnowski mierzy ok. 160 cm, chociaż zdarzają się osobniki o wzroście ponad 170 cm. +Lewis Terman + +Lewis Terman (ur. 1877, zm. 1956) – przez 20 lat dziekan katedry Psychologii na Uniwersytecie Stanforda. Zaadaptował test inteligencji Alfreda Bineta i Theophila Simona, by mierzyć i porównywać wyniki ludzi na całym świecie. Terman zainicjował też przedsięwzięcie badań podłużnych, dzięki któremu można było obalić wiele mitów dotyczących geniuszy. Dowiedziono, że to wysportowani, zdrowi i świetnie radzący sobie w życiu ludzie, a nie zagubione, samotne i nieszczęśliwe jednostki. +Terman wprowadził też termin IQ w 1916 r. +Apaszka + +Apaszka – rodzaj kwadratowej chusty (najczęściej jedwabnej), składanej w trójkąt i zawiązywanej na szyi. +Pierwotnie element stroju apasza, czyli ulicznego chuligana, bandyty – stąd jej nazwa. W drugiej połowie XIX wieku noszona przez paryskich robotników. Później, w latach 20. XX wieku stała się popularna w sportowym stroju kobiecym. +Ochotniczka + +Ochotniczka - pierwszy żeński stopień harcerski we wszystkich organizacjach harcerskich w Polsce. Zdobywają go dziewczęta w wieku 10-13 lat. Oznaczeniem stopnia jest oksydowany krzyż harcerski (ZHR) bądź jedna belka na pagonie (ZHP). W zależności od tradycji środowiska jego zdobycie może być związane z dopuszczeniem do złożenia Przyrzeczenia Harcerskiego. +Idea stopnia w ZHP. +Ochotniczka chce przeżyć harcerską przygodę. W swoim postępowaniu kieruje się Prawem Harcerskim. Pamięta o dobrych uczynkach. Chętnie zdobywa nowe wiadomości i umiejętności przydatne w zastępie, drużynie, domu i szkole. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +Ochotniczka swym postępowaniem, w pracy zastępu i drużyny, w domu i najbliższym środowisku (szkoła, parafia, osiedle, miejscowość) stara się zasłużyć na miano harcerki. +W organizacji ZHR istnieje jeszcze stopień: starsza ochotniczka. Jest to stopień łączący pierwsze dwa stopnie. Ten stopień używany jest w przypadku, gdy harcerka ma powyżej 14 lat i wstąpiła do ZHR, żeby później mogła iść dalej zgodnie z kolejnymi stopniami t.j samarytanka, wędrowniczka i Harcerka Rzeczypospolitej. +Bronisąd + +Bronisąd – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Broni-" ("bronić") i "-sąd" ("sądzić"). Być może znaczyło "ten, kto broni swoich osądów". +Bronisąd imieniny obchodzi 20 maja. +Tygodnik Ilustrowany + +Tygodnik Ilustrowany (kiedyś „Tygodnik Illustrowany” (zdjęcie obok)) – warszawskie ilustrowane czasopismo kulturalno-społeczne, wydawane w latach 1859–1939, założone przez Józefa Ungera. Pismo nie było związane z żadną opcją polityczną, publikowało wiele materiałów historycznych i utworów literackich, zamieszczało również reprodukcje dzieł plastycznych. Z pismem współpracowało wielu pisarzy, m.in. Wincenty Pol, Henryk Sienkiewicz i Eliza Orzeszkowa. W okresie pozytywizmu był to najpopularniejszy w Polsce tygodnik ilustrowany. +Historia pisma. +"Tygodnik Ilustrowany" powstał z inicjatywy Franciszka Maksymiliana Sobieszczańskiego, natomiast założył go Józef Ungier. Pierwszym redaktorem pisma był Ludwik Jenike, wspomagany przez komitet redakcyjny (skład komitetu ulegał licznym zmianom, należeli do niego m.in. Julian Bartoszewicz, Kazimierz Kaszewski, Wacław Szymanowski, Jan Konstanty Chęciński, Karol Estreicher i Piotr Chmielowski). W 1882 roku pismo przejęła spółka Gebethner i Wolff, a w 1886 roku redakcję przejął Józef Wolff. W okresie dwudziestolecia redakcja pisma wielokrotnie się zmieniała (redaktorami byli wtedy m.in. Artur Oppman, Stanisław Lam i Zdzisław Dębicki). +Pismo było rozprowadzane na całym terenie Polski, popularny był również wśród mieszkających w Rosji Polaków. Jego czytelnikami byli głównie ludzie starsi, przeważnie o konserwatywnych poglądach. Popularność zyskała mu głównie, pionierska wtedy na terenach polskich, technika drzeworytnicza (wydawca założył własną drzeworytnię na potrzeby pisma), pozwalająca zamieszczać w "Tygodniku" liczne reprodukcje malarstwa (m.in. obrazów Matejki, Chełmońskiego, Stanisława Witkiewicza i Gierymskiego). Zamieszczano również humorystyczne szkice Franciszka Kostrzewskiego, a z inicjatywy Juliusza Kossaka (kierownika artystycznego pisma w latach 1862–1868) wprowadzono stałą rubrykę pt. "Dawne ubiory i uzbrojenie". Pismo wyróżniało się także nietypowym jak na owe czasy formatem (27 x 35 cm) i nowoczesnym sposobem redagowania. Posiadało też bogaty dział historyczny (zawierający m.in. życiorysy polityków, pisarzy i ludzi nauki oraz omówienia ważnych rocznic narodowych). Najbogatszym działem pisma był dział literacki w którym, oprócz recenzji, biografii pisarzy, ikonografii dotyczącej życia i twórczości dawnych i współczesnych pisarzy, publikowano liczne utwory literackie – w "Tygodniku Ilustrowanym" ukazywały się m.in. "Ogniem i mieczem" Henryka Sienkiewicza, "Nad Niemnem" Elizy Orzeszkowej i "Faraon" Bolesława Prusa. Wydawano także liczne przekłady z języków obcych (do grona tłumaczy związanych z czasopismem należeli m.in. Maria Konopnicka, Zenon Przesmycki i Czesław Jankowski) i relacje z życia literackiego i artystycznego za granicą. +Pismo utrzymywało się z prenumeraty. W 1859 roku liczba prenumeratorów wynosiła 3000, natomiast pod koniec wieku zbliżyła się do 11 000. W okresie dwudziestolecia popularność pisma stopniowo malała, aż stało się ono niewyróżniającym się magazynem literackim. +Akcje społeczne i wydawnicze. +Oprócz wydawania czasopisma, redakcja podejmowała szereg akcji wydawniczych. Składały się na nie dołączane do pisma dodatki powieściowe (głównie z literatury obcej), a także serie wydawnicze (m.in. 10-tomowy zbiór utworów Karola Szajnochy oraz zbiorowe wydanie utworów Kraszewskiego). +Redakcja organizowała również liczne akcje społeczne, m.in. zbiórki na pomoc dla rodzin pisarzy, a także na rozmaite inicjatywy narodowe (m.in. na budowę pomnika Adama Mickiewicza w Krakowie, utworzenie muzeum Kopernika w Rzymie i utworzenie stypendium jego imienia). +Sędzisław (imię) + +Sędzisław, Sędosław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Sędzi-" ("sądzić") oraz członu "-sław" ("sława"). Być może oznaczało "ten, komu sądzona jest sława". +Żeński odpowiednik: Sędzisława. +Podobne imiona staropolskie: Sędzimir, Sędziwuj itp. +Sędzisław imieniny obchodzi 7 lipca i 16 września. +Harcerz Rzeczypospolitej + +Harcerz Rzeczypospolitej – we wszystkich polskich organizacjach harcerskich najwyższy męski stopień harcerski. Zdobywany przez harcerzy w wieku powyżej 17-18 lat. Tradycyjnym sposobem oznaczania jest złota lilijka, krąg i wieniec nabite na krzyżu harcerskim. W ZHR jest to sposób podstawowy, zaś w ZHP jest to sposób dodatkowy, gdyż od 2003 roku podstawowym sposobem oznaczania są dwie gwiazdki na naramienniku munduru harcerskiego. +Idea stopnia w ZHP. +Ma własny system wartości wynikający z Prawa Harcerskiego. Kieruje się nim we wszystkich aspektach swojego życia. Potrafi godzić pełnione przeze siebie role, np. w rodzinie, w szkole, w pracy, w działalności społecznej. Osiąga mistrzostwo w wybranych dziedzinach aktywności. Jest świadomym obywatelem Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Swoim życiem daje świadectwo o harcerstwie. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +Zna "Sylwetkę Harcerza Rzeczypospolitej". Staje się autorytetem harcerskim i wzorem dla innych. Daje przykład postawy harcerskiej. Jego życie we wszystkich przejawach jest realizacją chrześcijańskiego systemu wartości oraz Przyrzeczenia i Prawa Harcerskiego. Ma ukształtowaną wiarę, wolę i charakter, które decydują o tym, że wybiera Miłość i stara się zło zwyciężać dobrem. +Systematycznie pracuje nad swym charakterem. Jest samodzielny, obowiązkowy, odpowiedzialny i przedsiębiorczy. Chętnie pełni służbę bliźnim. Jest organizatorem otaczającego go życia. Rozpoznaje i realizuje swoje powołanie w życiu oraz w społeczeństwie. Wie, jak może służyć swojemu krajowi. Buduje swoją przyszłość. Pracuje lub studiuje; ma sprecyzowane plany zawodowe i podnosi swoje kwalifikacje. Wie, jaki ślad chce po sobie pozostawić. +Radsuł + +Radsuł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Rad-" ("zadowolony, cieszący się") i "-suł" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy"). Może oznaczać "ten, który obiecuje radość". +Rezerwat przyrody Kornuty + +Rezerwat przyrody Kornuty – rezerwat przyrody nieożywionej w północno-zachodniej części pasma Magury Wątkowskiej (Beskid Niski), na zboczu góry o tej samej nazwie. Leży na terenie Magurskiego Parku Narodowego. +Powierzchnia 11,9 ha, rok założenia 1953, faktycznie rezerwat istniał od 1938, kiedy to oddział PTT w Gorlicach wykupił z rąk prywatnych pierwsze 7 ha gruntów celem ich ochrony. Obejmowały one wtedy m. in. znaczny fragment łąk, które do dziś w znacznej części zarosły lasem. Poniżej samego rezerwatu istniało przed drugą wojną światową schronisko turystyczne, które jednak spłonęło. Rezerwat Kornuty to najstarszy rezerwat przyrody w Beskidzie Niskim. +Rezerwat obejmuje fragment południowo-zachodniego zbocza Magury Wątkowskiej, poniżej szczytu Kornuty, na którym rozrzucone są fantazyjnie ukształtowane skały, o wysokości do 10 metrów, zbudowane z odporniejszego na erozję gruboławicowego piaskowca magurskiego. Teren rezerwatu pokrywają lokalnie luźne blokowiska głazów i okruchy skalne, będące wynikiem wietrzenia tych skał. Osobliwościami tego rezerwatu są jaskinie szczelinowe (niewielkie, wyjątkiem jest Jaskinia Mroczna – długość korytarzy wynosi prawie 200 m). +Rezerwat porasta buczyna karpacka z przewagą starodrzewu buków, domieszkę stanowią: jawory, jodły, paklony, lipy drobnolistne, czereśnie. W runie występują interesujące rośliny: lilia złotogłów, kokorycz pusta, kopytnik pospolity, goryczka trojeściowa, przetacznik gorzki, kostrzewa górska, paprotka zwyczajna, podrzeń żebrowiec, widłak wroniec i inne. +Osobliwością florystyczną rezerwatu do końca lat 90. XX w. było stanowisko kosodrzewiny. Opis z roku 1936 podawał, że rosły tu 4 krzewy tej rośliny. W połowie lat 90. był to już tylko jeden krzak, rosnący kilkadziesiąt metrów na północny wschód od największego zgrupowania skał, lecz i on wkrótce zginął. Zdania co do pochodzenia stanowiska, odległego o 100 km od Tatr i jeszcze więcej od Czarnohory, gdzie ten gatunek występuje na naturalnych stanowiskach, były podzielone. Obecnie przyjmuje się, że stanowisko to było jednak reliktem z epoki lodowcowej, kiedy klimat był tu znacznie chłodniejszy niż dziś. +Bogaty jest również świat owadów, zwłaszcza chrząszczy. Występuje tu jeszcze rzadki w Karpatach niepylak mnemozyna ("Parnassius mnemosyne L."), spotykany tylko w Pieninach i Tatrach, a także paź żeglarz i paź królowej. Zagrożeniem dla tych motyli jest zarastanie łąk, co grozi zanikiem występowania roślin żywicielskich ich postaci larwalnych (gąsienic). +Jan X (papież) + +Jan X (łac. "Ioannes X", ur. w Borgo Tossignano, zm. w maju 929 w Rzymie) – papież w okresie od marca 914 do maja 928. +Biografia. +W 905 został wybrany na biskupa Bolonii, a później na arcybiskupa Rawenny. Za wstawiennictwem Teodory Starszej wybrany został papieżem. +W grudniu 915 po pokonaniu Saracenów pod Garigliano, koronował na cesarza Berengara I w bazylice św. Piotra. W rok później posłał legatów na synod biskupów wschodniofrankońskich. W 928 roku wziął pod opiekę Stolicy Apostolskiej opactwo benedyktynów w Cluny. Poparł kandydaturę Karola Prostaka na króla zachodniofrankońskiego, a także podtrzymał tron Konrada I poprzez decyzje podjęte na synodzie w Hohenaltheim. Odnowił kontakty z kościołem wschodnim, które zostały zerwane na skutek reakcji Anastazego III, który uznał czwarte małżeństwo Leona VI. +Próby uwolnienia spod władzy rzymskich rodów doprowadziły do nasłania złoczyńców, którzy zamordowawszy jego brata Piotra na oczach papieża (927), zmusili go do rezygnacji. Na skutek intryg Marozji, Jan został wtrącony do więzienia przez Gwidona z Toskanii, męża Marozji. W maju 929 roku został uduszony poduszką w Zamku św. Anioła. +Biernat z Lublina + +Biernat z Lublina, inne formy nazwiska: "Lubelczyk, Bernardus Lublinensis, Bernardus Lublinius", (ur. ok. 1465 w Lublinie, zm. ok. 1529) – polski renesansowy poeta, tłumacz, bajkopisarz. Autor m.in. "Raju dusznego" oraz "Żywota Ezopa Fryga". Przez długi czas uchodził za autora pierwszej książki wydrukowanej w języku polskim – "Raju dusznego", wydanego w 1513 roku (w rzeczywistości jednak pierwsza drukowana polska książka to opublikowana przez anonimowego autora w 1508 roku "Historyja umęczenia Pana naszego Jezusa Chrystusa"). +Biografia. +Biografia Biernata z Lublina znana jest dzięki relacjom osób współczesnym pisarzowi oraz dwóm notkom autobiograficznym, zamieszczonym przez niego na marginesie księgi Antoniego Borromaeusa "De Christiana religione contra Hebraeos" ok. 1501 i 1516 roku. Nie jest to jednak biografia kompletna – większość dat i faktów dotyczących pisarza jest niepewna lub znana jedynie w przybliżeniu. +Pisarz urodził się w Lublinie, pomiędzy 1460 a 1467 rokiem. Był wykształcony, nie wiadomo jednak gdzie pobierał nauki. Pracował jako sekretarz lub pisarz na dworach lub u mieszczan. W wieku osiemnastu lat (a więc w okresie pomiędzy 1478 a 1485) podjął pracę u starosty łukowskiego, Jana Zieleńskiego. Pracował następnie u Gotarda Bystrama, starosty w Rogoźnie, a po jego śmierci ok. 1486, przez rok służył (być może jako kapelan) u jego żony, Marty. Następnym jego pracodawcą był poeta i humanista Filip Buonaccorsi, nazywany Kallimachem (szacuje się, że mogło to mieć miejsce w latach 1487–1490. Kolejnymi pracodawcami Biernata byli: kupiec z Lublina Łazarz, Mikołaj Bystram, wojewoda ruski Jan Pilecki (od 1492) oraz, aż do 1516, syn wojewody, również Jan. +Biernat posiadał bogatą bibliotekę, w której znajdowały się m.in. "De Christiana religione contra Hebraeos" Antoniego Borromaeusa oraz "Opuscula meditationes, soliloquia" św. Augustyna. +Twórczość. +Biernat z Lublina napisał modlitewnik "Raj duszny" (wydany w 1513). Stanowił on przeróbkę modlitewnika "Antidotarius animae". Ok. 1516 lub ok. 1522 ukazał się jego "Żywot Ezopa Fryga" – wierszowana biografia, zawierająca ponadto ponad 200 bajek, opartych na wzorach łacińskich (ich tytuły stanowią pierwszy polski zbiór przysłów). Biernat był także autorem listu do księgarza krakowskiego Szymona (1515), w którym zawarł renesansową filozofię opartą na racjonalności. +Biernatowi przypisuje się także autorstwo "Dialogu Polinura z Karonem" – przekładu czeskiego utworu Mikuláša Konáča. +Sędzisława + +Sędzisława – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członu "Sędzi-" ("sądzić") oraz członu "-sława" ("sława"). Być może oznaczało "ta, której sądzona jest sława". +Męski odpowiednik: Sędzisław, Sędosław. +Sędzisława imieniny obchodzi 7 lipca. +Indywidualne mistrzostwa Polski na żużlu + +Indywidualne Mistrzostwa Polski (IMP) na żużlu to coroczna seria turniejów, wyłaniająca najlepszych spośród polskich żużlowców. Początki rozgrywania IMP sięgają początków sportu żużlowego w Polsce - pierwsze turnieje mistrzowskie rozgrywano na odpowiednio przystosowanych motocyklach drogowych, z podziałem na klasy, w zależności od pojemności silnika. Od 1949 roku, kiedy uformowały się struktury żużlowe w Polsce (m.in. powstały jednolite rozgrywki ligowe i regulamin), indywidualne mistrzostwa Polski rozgrywane są na niemal współczesnych zasadach. Rozgrywki o tytuł IMP prowadzone są pod patronatem Polskiego Związku Motorowego. Turniej finałowy poprzedza system eliminacji (obecnie od ćwierćfinałów). +Zgodnie z tradycją, finał IMP odbywa się na torze drużynowego mistrza Polski z poprzedniego sezonu. +Zwycięzca oprócz medalu, szarfy oraz pucharu otrzymuje tzw. Czapkę Kadyrowa jako nieoficjalne przechodnie trofeum. Na czapce mistrz wyszywa swoje nazwisko oraz rok w którym tryumfował. +Sieciebor + +Sieciebor, Sietbor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Siecie-" ("rozumieć, przypomnieć sobie, domyślać się, czuć, spostrzegać") i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"), które może oznaczać "przeczuwający przyszłą walkę". +Harcerka Rzeczypospolitej + +Harcerka Rzeczypospolitej – w ZHP i ZHR najwyższy, żeński stopień harcerski. Przeznaczony dla harcerek powyżej 17-18 roku życia. W ZHR oznaczany złotą lilijką, kręgiem i wieńcem na krzyżu harcerskim. W ZHP – dwiema gwiazdkami na pagonie munduru harcerskiego, dodatkowo można oznaczać go też nabitymi na krzyżu harcerskim złotą lilijką, kręgiem i wieńcem. +Idea stopnia w ZHP. +Ma własny system wartości wynikający z Prawa Harcerskiego. Kieruje się nim we wszystkich aspektach swojego życia. Potrafi godzić pełnione przez siebie role, np. w rodzinie, w szkole, w pracy, w działalności społecznej. Osiąga mistrzostwo w wybranych dziedzinach aktywności. Jest świadomą obywatelką RP. Swoim życiem daje świadectwo o harcerstwie. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +Harcerka Rzeczypospolitej realizuje w życiu ideały harcerskie. Jest odpowiedzialna za siebie i swoich bliskich. Jest samodzielna, sama stawia przed sobą cele i zadania. +Potrafi godzić pełnione przez siebie role, np. w rodzinie, w szkole, w pracy, w działalności społecznej. Osiąga mistrzostwo w wybranych dziedzinach aktywności. Jest świadomą obywatelką RP. Swoim życiem daje świadectwo o harcerstwie. Drogę wskazuje jej Prawo Harcerskie, którego przestrzega. +Młodzik + +Młodzik - w ZHP, ZHR i SH pierwszy męski stopień harcerski. W SHK Zawisza nie występuje. W zależności od tradycji środowiska jego zdobycie może być związane z dopuszczeniem do złożenia Przyrzeczenia Harcerskiego. Przeznaczony dla harcerzy w wieku 11-14 lat. Oznaczeniem stopnia jest oksydowany krzyż harcerski (ZHR, kiedyś również w ZHP) lub jedna belka na pagonie (ZHP). +Idea stopnia w ZHP. +Poznaje smak harcerskiej przygody. W swoim postępowaniu kieruje się Prawem Harcerskim. Pamięta o codziennym dobrym uczynku. Chętnie zdobywa nowe wiadomości i umiejętności przydatne w zastępie, drużynie, domu i szkole. Jest zaradny, dzielny i pogodny. Musi posiadać Krzyż Harcerski. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +W życiu codziennym stara się być coraz lepszym. Zdobywając nową wiedzę i umiejętności staje się samodzielny i zaradny, potrafi poradzić sobie w lesie, w czasie gier i wędrówek, posiada podstawowe umiejętności samarytańskie, czyta mapę i posługuje się środkami łączności. W potrzebie można na niego liczyć, razem z przyjaciółmi z zastępu szuka osób potrzebujących, by służyć im pomocą. Odróżnia dobro i zło, postępuje według wskazań wiary, stara się być wierny Prawu Harcerskiemu. Rodzina ma w nim wsparcie, a koleżanki obrońcę. Poznaje najnowszą historię Polski i zaczyna rozumieć jej współczesność, poszerza swoje horyzonty i rozpoznaje talenty. Jest sprawny fizycznie, zawsze schludny i czysty. +Idea stopnia w SH. +Młodzik stara się postępować zgodnie z Prawem Harcerskim, jest samodzielny i zaradny, w życiu domowym nie potrzebuje obsługi. +Wędrowniczka + +Wędrowniczka - w ZHR czwarty, a w SHK Zawisza piąty żeński stopień harcerski. Przeznaczony dla harcerek w wieku 16-18 lat. Oznaczany poprzez złota lilijkę i złoty okrąg nabity na krzyż. W niektórych środowiskach ZHP używa się tej nazwy dla stopnia Harcerki Orlej. +Idea stopnia w ZHR. +Dla wędrowniczki życie staje się wezwaniem na szlaki. Wędrowniczka wędruje w sensie dosłownym i przenośnym. Wędrówka w sensie dosłownym to przemierzone w tym okresie dziesiątki kilometrów - wielogodzinne włóczęgi, podczas których czas i przestrzeń stają się prawdziwym wyzwaniem. Wędrówka w sensie przenośnym to przemierzanie ścieżek myśli i aktywności ludzkiej, wędrówka przez zagadnienia i problemy społeczne, polityczne i ekonomiczne. +Gniewosądka + +Gniewosądka – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członów "Gniewo-" ("gniew") i "-sąd-ka" ("sądzić"). +Gniewosądka imieniny obchodzi 8 lutego. +Dmytro Doncow + +Dmytro Iwanowycz Doncow (ukr. "Дмитро Іванович Донцов", ur. 30 sierpnia 1883 w Melitopolu, zm. 30 marca 1973 w Montrealu) – ukraiński pisarz, dziennikarz, działacz polityczny, doktor prawa. Twórca ukraińskiej koncepcji nacjonalizmu, przyjętej w latach 30. XX wieku przez Organizację Ukraińskich Nacjonalistów za podstawę ideologiczną działalności politycznej, a porzuconej w 1943. +Postulował zwrot polityki ukraińskiej na Zachód - całkowite zerwanie więzów politycznych i kulturalnych Ukraińców z Rosją i bliską współpracę z Europą Zachodnią. +Biografia. +Młodość. +Rodzina Dmytra pochodziła z Słobodzkiej Ukrainy, jednak jego ojciec odziedziczył 1500 dziesięcin ziemi w guberni taurydzkiej, przeprowadził się z rodziną do Melitopola, i zajął sprzedażą maszyn rolniczych. Rodzice zmarli w roku 1894 i 1895, musiał więc wcześnie się usamodzielnić. Ukończył szkołę średnią w Carskim Siole, i w 1900 roku rozpoczął studia prawnicze na Uniwersytecie w Petersburgu, tam też działał w Hromadzie i w Rewolucyjnej Partii Ukrainy. +Lata 1905-1914. +W roku 1905 aresztowany za działalność rewolucyjną, wyszedł na wolność w styczniu 1906 na mocy powszechnej amnestii. Przeniósł się do Kijowa, gdzie wstąpił w szeregi Ukraińskiej Socjaldemokratycznej Partii Robotniczej (USDRP), z którą to partią był związany do 1914 roku. Ponownie aresztowany trafia na osiem miesięcy do aresztu. W 1906 na łamach moskiewskiej "Ukrainskoj Żyzni" opublikował pierwszy artykuł, w 1910 wydał pierwszą książkę "Szkoła i relihija". +Wskutek prześladowań władz carskich (aresztowanie w 1907), w 1908 wyjechał do Lwowa, a w latach 1909-1911 kontynuował studia prawnicze w Wiedniu. +W 1913 we Lwowie opublikował pracę "Suczasne polityczne położennia naciji i naszi zawdannia", będącą zapisem referatu wygłoszonego na II Ogólnoukraińskim Zjeździe Studenckim w lipcu 1913. Jednoznacznie opowiedział się w niej za odseparowaniem Ukrainy od Rosji i współpracą z Austro-Węgrami, prezentował proeuropejską orientację kulturową. +Lata 1914-1939. +W 1914 brał udział w organizowaniu we Lwowie Związku Wyzwolenia Ukrainy, następnie przeniósł się do Berlina, gdzie w latach 1914-1916 kierował Służbą Informacyjną Ukraińskiego Klubu Parlamentarnego Rady Państwa w Wiedniu, wydając równocześnie biuletyn "Korrespondenz". W tym okresie skierował do niemieckich kół politycznych trzy memoriały o konieczności utworzenia państwa ukraińskiego. +Między rokiem 1916 a 1917 był kierownikiem biura Narodów Rosji w Bernie i wydawcą biuletynu tegoż biura. Po wybuchu rewolucji lutowej w Rosji wyjechał do Lwowa, gdzie uzyskał na wydziale prawa Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza doktorat. +Po przeprowadzce do Kijowa, objął kierownictwo biura prasowego rządu hetmana Pawła Skoropadskiego i kierował Ukraińską Agencją Telegraficzną. +Po obaleniu Hetmanatu i restytucji Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej kierował w latach 1919-1921 sekcją prasową i informacyjną misji dyplomatycznej URL w Bernie. +Od 1922 roku do 1939 roku mieszkał we Lwowie. Wydał tam pisma: "Literaturno-naukowyj wistnyk" (1922-1932), "Zahrawa" (1923-1924) i "Wistnyk" (pismo skrajnie nacjonalistyczne i antypolskie) (1933-1939). Był współorganizatorem Ukraińskiej Partii Pracy Narodowej, która w roku 1925 weszła w skład UNDO. Doncow wycofał się wówczas z bieżącej działalności politycznej, skupiając się na pisarstwie i publicystyce. Jego publicystyka, przede wszystkim dotycząca USRR, pozwoliła mu rozwinąć się, i aspirować do tytułu lidera, zdolnego konsekwentnie rozumować w kategoriach ogólnoukraińskich, bez względu na różnice światopoglądowe czy mentalne dzielące Ukraińców galicyjskich i tych mieszkających w USRR. +Okres II wojny światowej. +2 września 1939 został aresztowany i uwięziony w Berezie Kartuskiej. Uwolniony po dwóch tygodniach w konsekwencji sowieckiego najazdu na Polskę. Z powodu represji policyjnych NKWD wobec działaczy ukraińskich emigrował przez Gdańsk i Berlin do Bukaresztu, gdzie przez dwa lata wydawał dziennik "Batava" (1940-1941). +W 1943 wyjechał do Pragi, gdzie pisał artykuły o tematyce ukraińskiej do prasy niemieckiej. Również w tym roku z powodu różnic ideologicznych rozeszły się drogi jego oraz kierownictwa OUN-B, które zmierzało do odrzucenia zasad ustroju autorytarnego i "czynnego nacjonalizmu" na rzecz ustroju demokratycznego. W 1943 Doncow napisał znaczącą pracę "Duch naszoji dawnyny". +Od maja 1945 przebywał w amerykańskiej strefie okupacyjnej, by przez Paryż, Londyn i Stany Zjednoczone Ameryki dostać się do Kanady. +Emigracja. +W latach 1949-1952 wykładał literaturę ukraińską na francuskojęzycznym Uniwersytecie w Montrealu oraz dużo publikował. Nie uczestniczył w ukraińskim życiu politycznym. +Zmarł w 1973 w Montrealu, i tam został pochowany. +Poglądy polityczne. +Jego poglądy polityczne ewoluowały od marksizmu (do 1914), przez woluntarystyczną filozofię jednostki i narodu ("czynny nacjonalizm", w latach 20. XX wieku), wzbogaconą w latach 30. o przekonanie o zbawczej roli faszyzmu, do poglądów konserwatywnych w latach 1938-1945. +Naród jako narzędzie postępu. +Doncow przewidywał powstanie po wojnie "Europy wolnych narodów". Podkreślał odpowiedzialność "narodów państwowych" za losy "narodów niepaństwowych", którymi one władają. Twierdził, że Ukraińcy mają własną tradycję historyczną (którą jest tradycja rewolucyjnego chłopstwa). Rewolucje uważał za pozytywne, a Rosję za zagrożenie europejskiej demokracji. +Ideologia. +Dmytro Doncow był twórcą doktryny przyjętej przez Organizację Ukraińskich Nacjonalistów. Jej główne tezy ogłosił w książce Nacjonalizm (1926). Zdecydowanie odrzuca w niej uniwersalizm, intelektualizm, humanitaryzm, liberalizm, demokratyzm i pacyfizm. Jego zdaniem nowa epoka będzie opierała się na takich założeniach jak: "instynkt", "wola", "autorytet", "wodzostwo". Doktryna opiera się na darwinizmie społecznym zakładającym że naród jest gatunkiem, który walczy o miejsce dla siebie tępiąc inne gatunki. W walce dochodzi do eliminacji słabszych kosztem silniejszych. Naród jako gatunek jest dla niego wartością najwyższą, ważniejszą od Boga. +Na czele narodu ukraińskiego miał stać "wódz nacji", mający do dyspozycji tzw. "mniejszość inicjatywną", której obowiązkiem było stosowanie "twórczej przemocy" wobec pozostałej masy narodu ukraińskiego. Według doktryny Doncowa, o państwo ukraińskie należało walczyć przy pomocy wszystkich bez wyjątku środków, w tym też drogą masowych mordów obcoplemieńców, którzy znaleźli się na ziemi ukraińskiej, oraz drogą likwidowania Ukraińców, którzy z takimi metodami działalności nie zgadzają się. ("Nacionalizm", Londyn, 1966, s. 283 inne fragmenty cytatów z Doncowa ). +Zdaniem Bogumiła Grotta tezy "Nacjonalizmu", które autor ten interpretuje jako bliskie nazizmowi o charakterze faszystowskim wprowadziła w życie w 1929 r. powstająca Organizacja Ukraińskich Nacjonalistów, co poskutkowało w latach II wojny światowej ludobójstwem Polaków i Żydów. +Samosąd + +Samosąd, lincz (ang. "lynch", od nazwiska sędziego Charlesa Lyncha z Wirginii w USA) – wymierzenie lub wykonanie kary przez osobę nieuprawnioną, np. wykonanie kary śmierci przez tłum krótko po wzbudzającym silne emocje zdarzeniu. +Alvar Aalto + +Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (ur. 3 lutego 1898 w Kuortane, zm. 11 maja 1976 w Helsinkach) – fiński modernistyczny architekt i projektant form przemysłowych. +Był ceniony za swoje humanistyczne podejście do architektury. Jego prace obejmują architekturę, meble i wyroby szklane. Był jednym z pierwszych i najbardziej wpływowych architektów skandynawskiego ruchu modernistycznego oraz od 1928 członkiem Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne. Najważniejsze prace to gmach kongresowy Finlandia Talo w Helsinkach i zespół szkół uniwersytetu technologii w Helsinkach. Do wyrobów szklanych Aalto'a należy m.in. światowej sławy "Wazon Aalta". +Studiował architekturę na Politechnice w Helsinkach w latach 1916-1921 u Armasa Lindgrena. Wrócił do Jyväskylä, gdzie otworzył swoje pierwsze biuro architektoniczne w 1923. Rok później ożenił się z architektką Aino Marsio. W 1927 przeniósł biuro do Turku, a w 1933 do Helsinek. W 1934 bierze pierwszy raz udział w wystawie wzornictwa przemysłowego, a rok później wraz z żoną Aino, Maire Gullichsen i Nilsem Gustavem Hahlem założył firmę Artek, produkującą wyposażenie wnętrz, przede wszystkim meble i lampy. Aalto opatentował pierwsze krzesło zawieszone o ramie ze sklejki. W 1940 został profesorem architektury na Massachusetts Institute of Technology w Cambridge, gdzie wykładał do 1949. W 1949 zmarła Aino Aalto. W 1952 Alvar Aalto ożenił się ze znacznie od siebie młodszą Elissą Mäkiniemi i wziósł swój dom letni na wyspie Muuratsalo. W 1955 został członkiem Akademii Fińskiej, a w latach 1963-1968 był jej prezesem. +Powiat siemiatycki + +Powiat siemiatycki – powiat w Polsce (województwo podlaskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Siemiatycze. Powiat położony jest na południu województwa podlaskiego. Graniczy z Białorusią, podlaskimi powiatami hajnowskim, bielskim i wysokomazowieckim, lubelskim powiatem bialskim, mazowieckimi powiatami łosickim, siedleckim i sokołowskim. Południową granicę powiatu, z województwami lubelskim i mazowieckim wyznacza rzeka Bug. +Historia. +Po trzecim rozbiorze Polski i Litwy teren powiatu należał do Prus. W 1807 roku (traktat tylżycki) przeszedł pod jurysdykcję Rosji. Po 1918 roku obszar dzisiejszego powiatu siemiatyckiego znalazł się w województwie białostockim, w obrębie powiatu bielskiego. Powiat siemiatycki powstał po II wojnie światowej. Przestał istnieć w 1975 roku, w związku z ówczesną reformą administracyjną. 1 stycznia 1999 r. nastąpiła jego reaktywacja. W stosunku do obszaru sprzed 1975 roku, powiat został zmniejszony o teren gminy Ciechanowiec. +W powiecie siemiatyckim znajdują się dwa miasta: Siemiatycze i Drohiczyn. W granicach powiatu zamieszkuje duża liczba wyznawców prawosławia (ok. 30% mieszkańców). W powiecie siemiatyckim zamieszkuje także wiele osób narodowości białoruskiej. Według wyników ostatniego spisu powszechnego stanowią oni 17% mieszkańców gminy Nurzec-Stacja oraz 13% mieszkańców gminy Milejczyce. +Środowisko przyrodnicze. +Teren powiatu stanowią równinne i lekko faliste tereny Wysoczyzny Drohickiej ukształtowane przez zlodowacenie środkowopolskie. Uwagę zwracają duże kompleksy leśne (32% ogólu powierzchni). W przyrodzie do dzisiejszych czasów zachował się duży kompleks pierwotnej Puszczy Mielnickiej. Szczególnie cenne pod względem przyrodniczym tereny objęte są ochroną rezerwatową. Rezerwat Grąd Radziwiłłowski obejmuje fragment grądu reprezentującego starodrzewie dawnej Puszczy Mielnickiej. Rezerwat Góra Uszeście na skraju miejscowości Mielnik chroni kserotermiczną roślinność stromej skarpy nadbużańskiej. Rezerwat Sokóle w gminie Nurzec-Stacja to starodrzew z dominacją dębu w drzewostanie i dolnym piętrem grabowym. W zespole przyrodniczo-krajobrazowym Głogi (gmina Mielnik) można zaobserwować dobrze zachowane twory polodowcowe, które stanowi seria wzniesień, poprzecinanych siecią wąwozów. Powiat położony jest w dolinie środkowego Bugu (Podlaski Przełom Bugu), która cechuje się unikalnymi walorami przyrodniczo-krajobrazowymi. +Aleksander I Battenberg + +Aleksander I Battenberg, właśc. Aleksander Józef von Battenberg z dynastii Hessen-Darmstadt, (ur. 5 kwietnia 1857 r. w Weronie, zm. 17 listopada 1893 r. w Grazu) – syn księcia Aleksandra Heskiego z morganatycznego małżeństwa z Julią Hauke (córką polskiego generała Maurycego Hauke-Bosak). Jego młodszym bratem był Henryk Battenberg. +Pierwszy władca (posługujący się tytułem księcia) niepodległej Bułgarii od 29 kwietnia 1879 r., panujący do 6 września 1886 r., wybrany przez pierwsze wielkie zgromadzenie narodowe w Wielkim Tyrnowie. Niedoświadczony jeszcze wówczas młodzieniec przyjął imię Aleksandra I. +18 września 1885 r. dokonano zamachu stanu w sąsiedniej Rumelii Wschodniej i proklamowano zjednoczenie z Bułgarią. Ostrożny Battenberg obawiając się reakcji mocarstw, nie przyjął tytułu księcia Rumelii, tylko został jej generałem-gubernatorem. +Niespełna rok później 21 sierpnia 1886 r. grupa liberalnych oficerów prorosyjskiej orientacji przejęła władzę w Sofii, wymuszając na nim abdykację oraz opuszczenie kraju. Mimo szybkiego kontrzamachu i powrotu na tron Bułgarii Aleksander I Battenberg abdykował tym razem dobrowolnie 6 września 1886 r. +Dolina Młynicka + +Dolina Młynicka (słow. "Mlynická dolina", niem. "Mlinicatal", węg. "Mlinica-völgy"), dawniej błędnie nazywana Doliną Młynicy ("Mlynica" lub "dolina Mlynica") – dolina położona na terenie słowackich Tatr Wysokich. Należy do większych dolin tatrzańskich, jej długość to ok. 6,0 km, a powierzchnia ok. 5,8 km². +Geologia i rzeźba terenu. +Rejon doliny zbudowany jest ze skał krystalicznych. W czasie ostatniego zlodowacenia dolinę przykrywał lodowiec, który na jej przedpole wyniósł ogromne ilości materiału morenowego. Dolina Młynicka otwiera się na południe z niewielkim odchyleniem w kierunku wschodnim w pobliżu Szczyrbskiego Jeziora, miejscowości ("Štrbské Pleso") i jeziora ("Štrbské pleso") o tej samej nazwie. Dolna część doliny jest lesista, powyżej wodospadu Skok ("Skok") krajobraz zmienia się na skalisty, w górnej części wznosi się tarasowo, występuje kilka pięter oddzielonych wysokimi progami skalnymi. Najwyższe piętro doliny rozdzielone jest południowym grzbietem Szczyrbskiego Szczytu na dwa dobrze wykształcone cyrki lodowcowe: Capi Kocioł i Kozi Kocioł, w kotłach tych znajdują się stawy. +Historia. +Dolina od dawna była odwiedzana przez mieszkańców Szczyrby, którzy wypasali w niej bydło. Także myśliwi i turyści docierali do Doliny Młynickiej wcześnie. Zimą jako pierwsi w dolinie byli E. Baur, Alfred Martin i H. Schäfer 4 stycznia 1906 r. +Turystyka. +Dolina jest jedną z najczęściej odwiedzanych przez turystów. Do wodospadu Skok trasy czynne są przez cały rok, powyżej tylko w sezonie letnim (15 VI-1 XI). U wylotu doliny, powyżej Szczyrbskiego Jeziora znajduje się luksusowy hotel "Patria", trasy spacerowe i duży ośrodek sportów zimowych. Na zboczach Skrajnego Soliska duży stadion biegowy i skocznia narciarska. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +Krzyż pokutny + +Krzyże pokutne to monolityczne, proste i surowe kamienne formy w kształcie krzyża wznoszone przez zabójców w miejscu, w którym dokonało się morderstwo. Zwyczaj ten przywędrował do Polski z zachodu, a panował w niej prawdopodobnie od XIII w. do poł. XIX w. Na przestrzeni wieków krzyże zmieniały swój wygląd oraz formę. Obszar ich występowania sięga od północy Włoch po Skandynawię. W Europie występuje ok. 7000 krzyży, w tym. ok. 4000 w Niemczech. Największym tego typu obiektem w Europie jest krzyż pokutny w Stargardzie Szczecińskim. Niektóre źródła podają informacje o rzekomych trzech tysiącach zaginionych krzyży. Część została zniszczona podczas wojen oraz w wyniku kradzieży, zaniedbania i wandalizmu. Krzyże były również używane jako materiał budowlany. Na terenie samej Polski znajduje się ok. 600 krzyży, w większości średniowiecznych, choć zdarzają się także XVII-wieczne. Około 400 krzyży umiejscowionych jest na terenie województwa dolnośląskiego, a największy spośród nich to Krzyż pokutny w Kijowicach. Pozostałe są w województwach lubuskim, opolskim i śląskim. W województwach pomorskim, świętokrzyskim, wielkopolskim i zachodniopomorskim są pojedyncze sztuki. Krzyże były również przenoszone ze swoich pierwotnych miejsc na cmentarze, do parków, ogrodów i innych miejsc. +Morderca, oprócz wzniesienia krzyża, był również zobowiązany pokryć koszty pogrzebu i przewodu sądowego. Winien również łożyć na utrzymanie rodziny zabitego. Był zobowiązany wobec Kościoła, np. musiał zakupić świece. Następnie powinien odbyć boso pieszą pielgrzymkę do świętego miejsca. Wystawienie krzyża stanowiło ostatni punkt pokuty. Krzyż był jej wyrazem zadośćuczynienia. Stawiano go ku pamięci, uwadze i przestrodze potomnych. Miał również skłaniać przechodnich do modlitwy za dusze: zabójcy i ofiary. Przy krzyżu następowało pojednanie zabójcy z rodziną ofiary. +Do XIV w. krzyże były proste i pozbawione rytów. Te z wyżłobionymi narzędziami, przy pomocy których dokonano zabójstwa, zaczęły pojawiać się w XV-XVI. Można znaleźć krzyże z rzeźbami kuszy, noży, mieczy, sztyletów, wideł, toporów, włóczni, sierpów, rewolwerów. Zdarzały się też krzyże z atrybutem zawodu ofiary, np. młotem i obcęgami. Napisy informujące o czasie, miejscu, sprawcy, ofierze, powodzie i narzędziu mordu zaczęły się pojawiać wraz z upowszechnieniem pisma. Alternatywę krzyży stanowiły kapliczki pokutne z wnęką na ołtarzyk, figurę lub obraz. +Krzyże wykonywane były z miejscowego surowca. Mógł to być więc piaskowiec, zlepieniec, granit, bazalt. Spotyka się również krzyże z aureolą pełną lub połowiczną. Występują także krzyże wbudowane w mur. Rozróżnia się wiele typów krzyży: św. Antoniego, trójlistne, barokowe, maltańskie, podwójne, greckie, łacińskie. +W Świdnicy istnieje siedziba jedynego polskiego bractwa krzyżowego. +Największą w Polsce liczbą krzyży i kapliczek pokutnych zgrupowanych w jednym miejscu przyciąga Studnica. Znajduje się tam 11 obiektów. +Marsreja + +Marsreja - reja zawieszona na stendze, tzn. pomiędzy marsem, +a bramsalingiem lub topem. Jeśli są tam dwie reje to nazwane są marsreją dolną i górną. +Myrmekochoria + +Myrmekochoria, mrówkosiewność – roznoszenie nasion roślin przez mrówki, jeden z rodzajów zoochorii. Niektóre gatunki roślin wykształciły specjalne przystosowania do tego, np. ich nasiona zaopatrzone są w specjalne wyrostki zw. elajosomami (ciałkami mrówczymi), które mrówki zjadają lub gubią w trakcie transportu do mrowiska. Zjawisko to jest specyficznym przykładem mutualizmu. W niektórych regionach klimatycznych odgrywa znaczącą rolę, np. nawet do 30% roślin w południowoafrykańskiej formacji roślinnej fynbos rozsiewa się w ten sposób. +Około 150 gatunków europejskich roślin posiada elajosomy, dzięki którym nasiona mogą być transportowane przez mrówki na odległość nawet do 20–70 metrów. +Bratoszewice + +Bratoszewice – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie łódzkim, w powiecie zgierskim, w gminie Stryków. Według stanu na 2005 r. w Bratoszewicach mieszka ok. 2000 osób. +Do 1954 roku istniała gmina Bratoszewice. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie łódzkim. +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka o Bratoszewicach pochodzi z 1418 roku. Od 1458 do końca XVII wieku Bratoszewice, obecnie wieś, posiadały prawa miejskie. +Zabytki. +Ciekawsze obiekty: +Gospodarka. +W Bratoszewicach działa Łódzki Ośrodek Doradztwa Rolniczego oraz odbywają się Targi Rolnicze "Agrotechnika" a także tzw. Święto Ziemniaka. +Transport. +Bratoszewice położone są przy drodze krajowej nr 14. Przez wieś przebiega linia kolejowa . +Ultimate frisbee + +Ultimate frisbee – gra zespołowa z użyciem frisbee łącząca w sobie elementy koszykówki, piłki nożnej, piłki ręcznej i rugby. Jest bardzo dynamiczna i widowiskowa, od graczy wymaga wytrzymałości, szybkości i zręczności, lecz jednocześnie proste zasady czynią ją bardzo łatwą do opanowania dla początkujących. Podstawowymi zasadami ultimate są brak fizycznego kontaktu pomiędzy graczami oraz fair play. +Zasady rozgrywki. +W rozgrywce uczestniczą dwie siedmioosobowe drużyny. Boisko do gry ma wymiary 100 x 37 metrów, lecz wymiary mogą ulec nieznacznej zmianie, w zależności od warunków i możliwości organizatorów meczu. Na obu końcach boiska znajdują się strefy punktowe długości 18 m. (zwane "zonami") Drużyna atakująca zdobywa punkty łapiąc frisbee w strefie punktowej (zonie) przeciwnika, zaś drużyna broniąca stara się jej przeszkodzić i przejąć frisbee. Zawodnicy nie mogą biegać z frisbee, po złapaniu dysku należy się zatrzymać i nie odrywając jednej nogi od podłoża, rzucić go do następnego zawodnika. Jeżeli dysk upadnie na ziemię, zostanie złapany poza boiskiem, zostanie przechwycony lub strącony na ziemię przez zawodnika drużyny broniącej inicjatywę przejmuje drużyna która wcześniej broniła, a drużyna atakująca przechodzi do obrony. W przypadku rozgrywek na piasku lub hali wielkość boiska ulega zmniejszeniu. Najczęściej w takich warunkach na boisku gra pięciu zawodników. +W Ultimate frisbee nie uczestniczą arbitrzy. Wszystkie kwestie sporne rozwiązują sami zawodnicy w myśl zasady fair play. W wypadku różnicy zdań sporne zagranie jest powtarzane. +Zderzak (motoryzacja) + +Zderzak w motoryzacji to najbardziej wysunięty w przód i w tył element pojazdu służący do złagodzenia zderzenia pojazdu z innym pojazdem, pieszym lub przeszkodą. Stanowi też ważny element wzorniczy samochodu. +Zasadniczą częścią zderzaka jest zamontowany poziomo stalowy kształtownik. W samochodach osobowych obecnie niemal zawsze zasłonięty elementami z tworzywa sztucznego. +Zderzak zmniejsza uszkodzenia powstających podczas parkowania "na styk", oraz pojazdów zderzających się z niewielką prędkością, nie odgrywając żadnej roli przy zderzeniach z większymi prędkościami. +Przepisy dopuszczenia samochodów do ruchu drogowego w wielu krajach stawiają wymagania co do konstrukcji zderzaków +Piotr Fronczewski + +Piotr Fronczewski (ur. 8 czerwca 1946 w Łodzi) – polski aktor teatralny, radiowy i filmowy, piosenkarz, satyryk. Absolwent, reżyser i profesor nauk teatralnych PWST w Warszawie. Ojciec Magdaleny Fronczewskiej. +Laureat ponad 20 nagród filmowych. W rankingu czytelników tygodnika "Polityka" zajął 15. miejsce na liście najwybitniejszych polskich aktorów. +Życiorys artystyczny. +Debiutował jeszcze jako 12-latek w filmie "Wolne miasto" Stanisława Różewicza. +Grał na scenach teatrów warszawskich: Narodowego (1968–1969), Współczesnego (1969–1973), Dramatycznego (1973–1983), Studio (1984–1987), a obecnie Ateneum (od 1991). Ma w swoim dorobku artystycznym blisko 120 ról filmowych w serialach telewizyjnych i filmach fabularnych. +Grał rozmaite role filmowe, poczynając od roli ojca ("Rodzina zastępcza"), czarodzieja ("Akademia Pana Kleksa"), lekarza ("Cesarskie cięcie"), wariata ("13 posterunek"), a kończąc na rolach gangsterskich. Ceniony za charakterystyczne role w słuchowiskach radiowych (jak np. Grzegorz z "Rodziny Poszepszyńskich"). Użyczał głosu bohaterom gier komputerowych (m.in. Wrota Baldura, , Adaś i Pirat Barnaba i ich kontynuacje). +Pod pseudonimem "Franek Kimono" wydał dwie żartobliwe płyty z muzyką disco. Jest także wykonawcą piosenki aktorskiej. Znany z wykonań przedwojennych szlagierów oraz piosenek do tekstów Gałczyńskiego i Zembatego. Występował także w kabaretach, m.in. w Kabarecie Pod Egidą Jana Pietrzaka i Kabarecie Olgi Lipińskiej. +W latach 70. wraz z Janem Pietrzakiem i Krystyną Jandą był inwigilowany przez SB w ramach akcji wymierzonej przeciwko twórcom Kabaretu Pod Egidą. Komunistyczne władze bardzo bolała popularność kabaretu, budowana na ironii wobec systemu. Wokół kabaretu działało co najmniej kilku tajnych współpracowników SB. Twórcom kabaretu oferowano wyjazdy zagraniczne w zamian za podpisanie tzw. "lojalki", której ani on, ani Janda z Pietrzakiem nigdy nie podpisali. Wiele występów Pod Egidą było nagrywanych przez tajnych współpracowników peerelowskich służb i władza utrudniała udostępnienie grupie lokalu. Wiele dowcipów z tego okresu szersza publiczność usłyszała dopiero w latach 80. +Tadeusz Łomnicki, Zbigniew Zapasiewicz oraz Gustaw Holoubek uznali wspólnie w 1990 roku podczas dyskusji w programie TV, że wśród studentów od 1965 roku Piotr Fronczewski należy do pierwszej trójki najwybitniejszych aktorów teatralnych i dramatycznych w Polsce obok Andrzeja Seweryna, z którym Fronczewski studiował i Wojciecha Pszoniaka. +Dyskografia. +Kasety. +Niektóre wydane płyty m.in. single nie posiadały różnorodnych nazw – te z nich zostały opatrzone pseudonimem śpiewającego. +Radio. +W RMF FM razem z Piotrem Metzem prowadził program "Koniec Wieku". Poza tym też w RMF FM czytał "Harry'ego Pottera", a w Programie Trzecim Polskiego Radia książki "Z głowy" i "Good Night Dżerzi" Janusza Głowackiego. +W wakacje 2004 w audycji "Sekret na lato w RMF FM" emitowano fragmenty książki "Kod Leonarda da Vinci" Dana Browna, czytaną przez Piotra Fronczewskiego +Rodomił + +Rodomił, Rodomieł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Rodo-" (psł. "*rodъ" oznacza "pokolenie, generację, ród", por. niem. "Geschlecht") i "-mił" ("miły"). Może oznaczać "miły swojemu rodowi". +Rodomił imieniny obchodzi 5 lutego. +Mars (żeglarstwo) + +Mars – termin oznaczający ogólnie drugie piętro takielunku na statkach żaglowych. Obejmuje przede wszystkim stengi (dokładnie marsstengi, chociaż termin ten praktycznie nie jest używany), reje zawieszone na stendze, czyli marsreje oraz żagle tych rei, czyli marsle. +Konkretnie marsem nazywa się miejsce połączenia kolumny masztu ze stengą i platformę znajdującą się w tym miejscu, do której mocowane są stenwanty. W nowszych konstrukcjach zarówno to miejsce, jaki i rozpórka, która jest pozostałością platformy, zazwyczaj nazywane są salingami. +Na okrętach od połowy XIX wieku do początku XX wieku na platformach marsów montowano lekkie działka (do 37 mm) i broń maszynową (tzw. marsy bojowe). +Powiat bielski (województwo śląskie) + +Powiat bielski – powiat w Polsce (województwo śląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Bielsko-Biała. +Położony jest w południowo-wschodniej części województwa śląskiego. Powierzchnia powiatu wynosi 458,64 km², zamieszkuje go 156 848 mieszkańców. Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 342 mieszkańców na 1 km² (2010). +Historia powiatu bielskiego. +Powiat bielski w dzisiejszej formie powstał w 1951 roku z dwóch połączonych powiatów – bielskiego i bialskiego. +Powiat bielski do roku 1951. +Powiat bielski powstał w roku 1850 jako jedna z siedmiu podstawowych jednostek administracyjnych Śląska Austriackiego. Składał się z trzech powiatów (obwodów) sądowych – bielskiego, którego podstawą było zniesione właśnie księstwo bielskie (17 gmin), skoczowskiego (35 gmin) i strumieńskiego (15 gmin), które w latach 1855-1868 stanowiły samodzielne powiaty polityczne. W 1870 roku wyłączono z terenu powiatu jego siedzibę – Bielsko, które stało się miastem wydzielonym. +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości i podziale Śląska Cieszyńskiego (rok 1920) powiat bielski znalazł się w granicach Rzeczypospolitej (województwo śląskie). W 1921 roku wyłączono z powiatu obwód sądowy skoczowski (z wyjątkiem gmin: Bielowicko, Grodziec, Łazy, Roztropice, Świętoszówka, Wieszczęta) i przyłączono do powiatu cieszyńskiego, podobnie jak trzy lata później gminy Ochaby i Pruchna. W 1938 roku do powiatu miejskiego Bielsko włączono gminę Aleksandrowice. +W czasie aneksji Górnego Śląska przez III Rzeszę we wrześniu 1939 roku obszar powiatu ("Landkreis Bielitz") włączono w skład III Rzeszy (prowincja górnośląska), powiększając go jednocześnie o część powiatu bialskiego, leżącą na lewym brzegu Soły, a po utworzeniu Generalnego Gubernatorstwa (październik 1939) o część prawobrzeżną i około połowę wadowickiego, na zachód od Skawy. +Po wkroczeniu Armii Czerwonej na teren powiatu bielskiego w zimie 1945 roku i ustanowieniu tymczasowej administracji, powrócił on do przedwojennych granic i wszedł w skład województwa katowickiego. 1 stycznia 1946 roku wszedł w życie nowy podział powiatu na gminy Bystra (Śląska), Chybie, Czechowice, Dziedzice, Grodziec, Jaworze, Międzyrzecze Górne, Mikuszowice (Śląskie), Rudzica, Strumień, Stare Bielsko, Zabrzeg) i miasto Strumień. Taki stan podziału powiatu bielskiego utrzymał się do 1951 roku. +Powiat bialski. +Powiat bialski z siedzibą w Białej (po I wojnie światowej "Biała Krakowska") istniał w latach 1855-1950. Od chwili powstania aż do 1918 roku leżał w austriackiej Galicji, będąc jedną z części obwodu wadowickiego. W latach 1867-1910 w skład powiatu wchodziły obwody sądowe: bialski, kęcki i oświęcimski (ten ostatni jest zasadniczą częścią powiatu oświęcimskiego, istniejącego w latach 1910-1931, 1951-1975 i od 1999 roku). +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości w wyniku rozpadu Austro-Węgier cała Galicja, a z nią powiat bialski wszedł w skład województwa krakowskiego (utworzonego 3 grudnia 1920 roku). +W czasie II wojny światowej teren podległy starostwu w Białej wszedł w skład powiatu bielskiego ("Landkreis Bielitz"). +W 1945 podzielono przywrócony powiat bialski na 6 gmin zbiorowych: Biała-wieś, Bestwina, Bystra-Wilkowice, Kęty, Porąbka, Wilamowice oraz miasta: Biała Krakowska, Kęty i Wilamowice. 1 lipca 1948 Biała zostaje powiatem miejskim. +Historia powiatu bialskiego kończy się w roku 1951, kiedy Bielsko i Białą połączono w jeden organizm miejski, a gminy Biała, Bestwina i Bystra-Wilkowice przyłączono do powiatu bielskiego (pozostałe gminy weszły w skład powiatu oświęcimskiego i żywieckiego). +Powiat bielski w latach 1951-1975. +W dniu zjednoczenia obu powiatów prawa miejskie uzyskała gmina Czechowice, do której włączono gminę Dziedzice (obecna nazwa Czechowice-Dziedzice obowiązuje od 1958 roku). Z powiatu bielskiego wyłączono także obszar dawnego powiatu sądowego strumieńskiego. +W 1954 roku weszła w życie reforma administracyjna znosząca gminy i dzieląca powiaty na gromady i osiedla. +W powiecie bielskim utworzono 27 gromad: Bestwina, Buczkowice, Bystra, Godziszka, Grodziec, Hałcnów, Iłownica, Janowice (zlikwidowana w 1959 roku), Jasienica, Jaworze, Kamienica, Kaniów, Komorowice, Kozy, Ligota, Mazańcowice, Międzyrzecze, Mikuszowice Śląskie, Mikuszowice Krakowskie, Rudzica, Rybarzowice, Stare Bielsko, Straconka, Szczyrk, Wapienica, Wilkowice i Zabrzeg. Później status osiedla uzyskały: Szczyrk (1956) i Mikuszowice Śląskie (1958). +Powiększano także obszar miasta Bielska-Białej – w 1969 roku przyłączono do niego części obszaru gromad Kamienica i Mikuszowice Krakowskie oraz osiedle Mikuszowice Śląskie. +1 stycznia 1973 roku weszła w życie ustawa znosząca gromady. Powiat bielski ponownie podzielono na gminy: Bestwina, Buczkowice, Jasienica, Kozy, Komorowice, Ligota, Stare Bielsko, Wapienica i Wilkowice, a większą część zlikwidowanej gromady Straconka włączono do Bielska-Białej. Tego samego dnia prawa miejskie uzyskał Szczyrk. +Po reformie administracyjnej z dnia 1 czerwca 1975 roku (patrz podział administracyjny Polski 1975-1998) większość terenów powiatu włączono do nowego województwa bielskiego (poza gminami Ligota i Bestwina, pozostającymi w zmniejszonym województwie katowickim, a później włączonymi 1 lutego 1977 roku do gminy Czechowice-Dziedzice). +Rzędzimir + +Rzędzimir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Rzędzi-" ("rządzić") oraz członu "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Może oznaczać "ten, którego rządy zapewniają pokój". +Rzędzimir imieniny obchodzi 27 marca. +Ekspedytor + +Ekspedytor jest to pracownik dokonujący w przedsiębiorstwie przewozowym (np. PKP, PKS itp.) wysyłki towarów i rzeczy. +Zobacz też: spedytor +Dyżurny ruchu peronowy + +Dyżurny ruchu peronowy – wykwalifikowany pracownik kolei, do którego obowiązków należy m.in. nadzór nad przygotowaniem pociągu do wyprawienia i wyprawianie go ze stacji, wydawanie na polecenie dyżurnego ruchu dysponującego ostrzeżeń i rozkazów szczególnych. Dyżurny ruchu peronowy wydaje także pasażerom wszelkiego rodzaju poświadczenia niewykorzystania biletów, utraty skomunikowania itp. +Stanowisko dyżurnego ruchu peronowego istnieje głównie na większych stacjach. Na pozostałych kompetencje dyżurnego ruchu peronowego posiada dyżurny ruchu dysponujący. +Pinto + +Pinto - rasa koni pochodząca z USA. +Wysokość: 130-170 cm. W Niemczech, Austrii i Szwajcarii przeważają konie mniejsze. +Konie Pinto nie są właściwie rasą, lecz populacją o umaszczeniu srokatym. Do księgi stadnej Pinto można wpisać każdego konia srokatego. Zrozumiałe więc, że pod względem eksterieru konie te są bardzo zróżnicowane. Bywają małe w typie kuców i duże, w typie koni gorącokrwistych. +Koń Pinto jest na ogół przyjaznym i chętnym do pracy wierzchowcem. Oficjalnie rasa ta uznawana jest za odłam koni rasy american quarter horse. +Umaszczenie. +Konie rasy pinto mają zwykle srokate umaszczenie, jednak zdarzają się także tarantowate konie tej rasy. +Budowa. +Głowa jest zazwyczaj o prostym profilu, z dużymi, wyrazistymi oczami. +Podobnie jak u wielu amerykańskich koni, kłąb nie jest wydatny. +Grzbiet jest mocny, a zad zaokrąglony i spadzisty. +Głowa jest raczej niewielka, a szyja dość długa i chuda. +Użytkowość. +Koń Pinto jest z reguły godnym zaufania wierzchowcem. +Używany w westernie, rekreacji i skokach przez przeszkody. +Chody. +Wszystkie chody są energiczne, ale nie zawsze regularne. +Koń ten potrafi szybko galopować. +Ichtiofauna + +Ichtiofauna – gatunki ryb zamieszkujące określony ciek, akwen lub obszar w jednym okresie. Do ichtiofauny zaliczane są gatunki ryb chrzęstnoszkieletowych i kostnoszkieletowych (tradycyjnie Pisces) oraz minogi. +Skład i liczebność ichtiofauny w zbiorniku wodnym zmienia się przez odłów, zarybianie, wypieranie przez gatunki obce, zwłaszcza gatunki inwazyjne oraz przez zmiany warunków panujących w zbiornikach wodnych. +Sporządzenie wykazu gatunków danego obszaru nazywa się inwentaryzacją ichtiofauny. +Kamianna + +Kamianna (do 31.12.2012 Kamienna) – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie nowosądeckim, w gminie Łabowa, 17 km na północ od Krynicy-Zdroju. +W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa nowosądeckiego. +Kamianna liczy ok. 200 mieszkańców. W centrum wsi znajduje się drewniany kościół pw. Narodzenia NMP, dawna cerkiew prawosławna pw. świętyh Kosmy i Damiana z 1892 r. Zaś dawna drewniana cerkiew greckokatolicka z 1805 r. pod wezwaniem św. Paraskiewy została w 1949 r. przeniesiona do Bukowca na Pogórzu Rożnowskim, gdzie po znacznej przebudowie służy jako kościół rzymskokatolicki. +Ośrodek pszczelarski znany z dużej produkcji miodu i produktów pszczelich. Światowe Centrum Apiterapii. Muzeum pszczelarstwa. +Demografia. +Ludność według spisów powszechnych, w 2009 wg PESEL. +Madziaryzacja + +Madziaryzacja – proces asymilowania się ludności niemadziarskiej do narodowości węgierskiej. +Madziaryzacja była szczególnie istotnym zjawiskiem społecznym na obszarze Królestwa Węgierskiego, obejmującego od czasów średniowiecznych – poza Węgrami właściwymi – Siedmiogród, Słowację, Banat (w XVIII wieku szlachta tych krajów, nie wliczając napływowej niemieckiej, była prawie w całości zmadziaryzowana) i Chorwację (której elity w znacznej części oparły się madziaryzacji). Szczególnie burzliwy przebieg miała madziaryzacja w wiekach XIX i XX (np. w 1899 zmadziaryzowano dziesiątki nazw miejscowości na terenie dzisiejszej Słowacji, a 2 czerwca 1907 sejm węgierski uchwalił tzw. "Lex Apponyi", w myśl którego język węgierski stał się wykładowym we wszystkich szkołach powszechnych), kiedy nasiliły się zarówno dążenia narodowe nacji niewęgierskich na obszarze krajów korony świętego Stefana, jak i dążenia madziaryzacyjne Pesztu, mające w zamierzeniu nie dopuścić do przyszłego oderwania się tych krajów ("de facto" ich skutek był odwrotny od zamierzonego). +Madziaryzacją szczególnie objęte były narody: serbski, rumuński, rusiński, chorwacki i słowacki. +Stowarzyszenie + +Stowarzyszenie – organizacja społeczna (zrzeszenie) powoływana przez grupę osób mających wspólne cele lub zainteresowania. +Specjalnymi odmianami stowarzyszeń, oddzielnie skodyfikowanymi i mającymi specjalne cele, są w Polsce partie polityczne, komitety wyborcze, związki wyznaniowe, organizacje pracodawców, związki zawodowe, cechy rzemieślnicze. Cechą wspólną wszystkich tych organizacji jest działalność niezarobkowa. +Prawo o stowarzyszeniach obowiązujące w Polsce. +Najwyższym aktem prawnym regulującym istnienie stowarzyszeń w Polsce jest Konstytucja z 2 kwietnia 1997 r., która w artykule dwunastym stanowi, iż „"Rzeczpospolita Polska zapewnia wolność tworzenia i działania związków zawodowych, organizacji społeczno-zawodowych rolników, stowarzyszeń, ruchów obywatelskich, innych dobrowolnych zrzeszeń oraz fundacji"”. +Podstawowym aktem prawnym regulującym problematykę stowarzyszeń, ich zakładania i funkcjonowania jest ustawa z dnia 7 kwietnia 1989 r. – Prawo o stowarzyszeniach (UPS), tekst jednolity: (). +Już preambuła ustawy – Prawo o stowarzyszeniach określa intencje, jakimi kierował się ustawodawca, stanowiąc regulację prawną odnośnie instytucji stowarzyszenia – została ona powołana do życia „"w celu stworzenia warunków do pełnej realizacji gwarantowanej przepisami Konstytucji wolności zrzeszania się zgodnie z Powszechną Deklaracją Praw Człowieka i Międzynarodowym Paktem Praw Obywatelskich i Politycznych, umożliwienia obywatelom równego, bez względu na przekonania, prawa czynnego uczestniczenia w życiu publicznym i wyrażania zróżnicowanych poglądów oraz realizacji indywidualnych zainteresowań, a także uwzględniając tradycje i powszechnie uznawany dorobek ruchu stowarzyszeniowego (...)"”. +W stosunku do tych podmiotów ustawodawca wydaje odrębne regulacje, co podyktowane jest ich szczególnym charakterem oraz doniosłą rolą, jaką pełnią w demokratycznym państwie prawnym. +"Prawo o stowarzyszeniach" ma charakter regulacji generalnej, nawiązującej bezpośrednio do art. 12 i art. 58 Konstytucji, co potwierdza przepis art. 7 ust. 2, zgodnie z którym do określonych organizacji w sprawach nie uregulowanych odrębnie stosuje się przepisy UPS. Dlatego też regulacje wynikające z ustaw szczególnych (regulujących kwestie konkretnych stowarzyszeń) mają charakter swoistych odstępstw i wyjątków wobec przepisów UPS. +Przedmiot ustawy określony jest w art. 1 ust. 1 „Obywatele polscy realizują prawo zrzeszania się w stowarzyszeniach, zgodnie z przepisami Konstytucji oraz porządkiem prawnym określonym w ustawach”. "Prawo o stowarzyszeniach" w art. 1 ust. 2 stanowi, że prawo zrzeszania się może być ograniczone jedynie w akcie prawnym rangi ustawowej, gdy jest to niezbędne do zapewnienia interesów bezpieczeństwa państwowego lub porządku publicznego albo ochrony praw i wolności innych osób. +Ustawa ta określa również definicję legalną stowarzyszenia (art.2 ust. 1 w zw. z art. 2 ust. 2 i 3). Zgodnie z literą UPS stowarzyszenie jest dobrowolnym, trwałym i samorządnym zrzeszeniem o celach niezarobkowych, które samodzielnie określa swoje cele, programy działania i struktury organizacyjne oraz uchwala akty wewnętrzne dotyczące jego działalności, opierając ją na pracy społecznej członków. +"Prawo o stowarzyszeniach" w art. 3 określa podmiotowy zakres wolności zrzeszania się. Generalnie prawo to przysługuje obywatelom polskim mającym pełną zdolność do czynności prawnych oraz nie pozbawionym praw publicznych. UPS stwarza również możliwość przynależności do tego typu zrzeszeń osobom małoletnim i cudzoziemcom oraz zasady i warunki ich funkcjonowania w takich stowarzyszeniach. +Ustawa określa także zasady tworzenia i funkcjonowania na terytorium RP stowarzyszeń międzynarodowych (art. 5). +Ustawa z 1989 r. wyodrębnia dwa główne rodzaje stowarzyszeń: stowarzyszenia oraz stowarzyszenia zwykłe. Stowarzyszenia, które podlegają rejestracji w KRS nazywa się czasami stowarzyszeniami rejestrowymi. +Stowarzyszenia. +Stowarzyszenie (potocznie "stowarzyszenie rejestrowe") posiada osobowość prawną, może zakładać terenowe jednostki organizacyjne, łączyć się w związki stowarzyszeń, przyjmować w poczet swych członków osoby prawne oraz korzystać z ofiarności publicznej i przyjmować dotacje od organów władzy państwowej i innych instytucji. +Kwestię zakładania tego typu stowarzyszeń reguluje rozdział 2 „Tworzenie stowarzyszeń” "ustawy – Prawo o stowarzyszeniach". Zgodnie z art. 9 tej ustawy, do założenia stowarzyszenia niezbędne jest uchwalenie statutu i wybranie komitetu założycielskiego przez co najmniej 15 osób. UPS określa również elementy konstytutywne statutu stowarzyszenia (art. 10) i jego władze – walne zebranie członków, zarząd i organ kontroli wewnętrznej (art.11). +Do finalnego utworzenia stowarzyszenia ustawa Prawo Stowarzyszeń wymaga jego zarejestrowania w Krajowym Rejestrze Sądowym – i o ile kwestie KRS określone są w odrębnej ustawie, to procedura rejestracyjna jest przedmiotem regulacji UPS (art. 13 – art. 21). +Prawo o stowarzyszeniach (art. 22) przewiduje również możliwość łączenia się stowarzyszeń w ich związki – taki związek mogą założyć co najmniej 3 stowarzyszenia – które podlegają rygorom komentowanej ustawy. +W rozdziale 3 ustawy uregulowany został szczegółowo problem nadzoru terytorialnego nad stowarzyszeniami, o którym wspomina już art. 8 ust. 5 ustawy (artykuł ten wskazuje organy nadzoru – wojewodę w odniesieniu do stowarzyszeń jednostek samorządu terytorialnego oraz starostę w odniesieniu do innych stowarzyszeń). +Przepisy dotyczące nadzoru określają w szczególności uprawnienia organów nadzorczych w stosunku do „podległych” im stowarzyszeń oraz sankcje karne mogące być nałożone na zrzeszenia, gdy te nie stosują się do żądań organów nadzorczych (art. 26). W rozdziale tym uregulowane zostały uprawnienia władcze sądu w stosunku do stowarzyszeń (art.29). W rozdziale tym przewidziano również możliwość wprowadzenia do stowarzyszenia zarządu kuratorskiego, gdy statutowy zarząd utracił zdolność podejmowania działań prawnych. +W rozdziale 4 znalazły się przepisy dotyczące majątku stowarzyszenia. Zgodnie z art. 33 majątek ten powstaje ze składek członkowskich, darowizn, spadków, zapisów, dochodów z własnej działalności, dochodów z majątku stowarzyszenia oraz ofiarności publicznej. UPS dopuszcza również możność prowadzenia przez tego typu zrzeszenia działalności gospodarczej, z której zyski przeznaczane mogą być tylko i wyłącznie na działalność statutową stowarzyszenia. UPS nie wyklucza również możliwości otrzymywania przez stowarzyszenia państwowych dotacji. +1 października 2010 w rejestrze REGON zarejestrowanych było 71 tys. stowarzyszeń (nie licząc Ochotniczej Straży Pożarnej). +Stowarzyszenia zwykłe. +"Ustawa – Prawo o stowarzyszeniach" obok stowarzyszeń zajmuje się również kwestią tzw. stowarzyszeń zwykłych, którym poświęcony jest rozdział 6 ustawy. +Ta forma stowarzyszenia ma charakter uproszczony. Nie posiada ono osobowości prawnej (choć z mocy ustawy ma zdolność prawną), a do jego założenia wystarczy działanie jedynie trzech osób, które muszą uchwalić regulamin (a więc nie statut) oraz przedstawiciela reprezentującego dane stowarzyszenie. +To stowarzyszenie, w przeciwieństwie do właściwego "stowarzyszenia", nie podlega obowiązkowi rejestracji w KRS. Jednakże fakt założenia tego typu zrzeszenia musi być zgłoszony na piśmie organowi nadzorującemu właściwemu miejscowo (który ustalany jest na podstawie art. 8 ust. 5 ustawy). Zakaz działalności tego typu stowarzyszeń może wydać tylko i wyłącznie sąd rejestrowy na wniosek prokuratora lub organu nadzorującego, jeżeli nie spełnione zostały wymogi określone w art. 16 UPS. +W przepisie artykułu 42 określone zostały czynności, których stowarzyszenie zwykłe nie może podjąć – a mianowicie chodzi tutaj o powoływanie terenowych jednostek organizacyjnych, łączenie się w związki stowarzyszeń, zrzeszanie osób prawnych, prowadzenie działalności gospodarczej, przyjmowanie spadków, darowizn i zapisów oraz otrzymywanie dotacji czy korzystanie z ofiarności publicznej. Takie stowarzyszenie winno utrzymywać się jedynie ze składek członkowskich. +Przepisy "ustawy – Prawo o stowarzyszeniach" są niewątpliwie gwarancją (z jednej strony) i narzędziem (z drugiej strony) realizacji jednej z podstawowych wolności, nie tylko obywatela, ale i człowieka, zrzeszania się dla osiągnięcia czy wspierania określonych celów – przede wszystkim społecznych. +Jest ona realizacją tej wolności, która gwarantowana jest nie tylko przez polską Ustawę Zasadniczą z 1997 roku, ale i szereg umów międzynarodowych, których stroną jest Polska (chodzi tutaj przede wszystkim o Powszechną Deklarację Praw Człowieka oraz Międzynarodowy Pakt Praw Obywatelskich i Politycznych). +Stanowi ona (w sensie materialnym, a nie formalnym) wyznacznik demokracji, wolności oraz poszanowania podstawowych praw jednostki – wartości te mają charakter uniwersalny i są zarazem wyznacznikiem poziomu cywilizacyjnego, na którym znajduje się państwo. Wszystkie nowoczesne i praworządne państwa XXI wieku bez nich nie mogą się obyć ani z nich zrezygnować bez narażenia się opinii światowej – wyznaczają one markę danego państwa na scenie międzynarodowej. Na nich opiera się także funkcjonowanie Unii Europejskiej (art. 6 ust. 1 Traktatu ustanawiającego Wspólnotę Europejską) jako takiej oraz wszystkich państw w niej uczestniczących. +Selbstschutz + +Powstania śląskie. +Na terenie Górnego Śląska bojówki Selbstschutzu dokonywały ataków na Polaków i śląskich aktywistów opowiadających się za przyłączeniem Śląska do Polski, na siedziby polskojęzycznych gazet i prześladowały lokalną ludność. Brały też udział, po stronie niemieckiej, w walkach w III powstaniu śląskim, przeciwstawiając się przyłączeniu Górnego Śląska do Polski. +Okres międzywojenny. +Paramilitarne bojówki, budowane na bazie niemieckich organizacji mniejszościowych o zabarwieniu pronazistowskim, zaczęły powstawać w Polsce i Czechosłowacji pod koniec lat 30. Między innymi terroryzowały one czeską ludność w rejonie Sudetów, do których III Rzesza zgłaszała pretensje terytorialne, powołując się na prawo samostanowienia narodów. +W okresie międzywojennym w Polsce istniała szeroka siatka organizacji współpracujących z nazistowskimi Niemcami przeciw państwu polskiemu. Organizacje te to między innymi: Jungdeutsche Partei (działała na terenie całej Polski), Deutsche Vereinigung (Pomorze Gdańskie), Deutscher Volksbund (Śląsk), Deutscher Volksverband (Łódzkie), oraz filialne stowarzyszenia i związki. Razem zrzeszały one 25% ludności niemieckiej. +Organizacje te utrzymywały tajne kontakty z partyjnymi i państwowymi centralami berlińskimi: NSDAP, Auslandsorganisation, Gestapo, SD, Abwehrą itp. Prowadziły też wrogą działalność dywersyjną (szpiegowską, sabotażową, prowokacyjną, polityczno-destrukcyjną), opierając się na wytycznych przekazywanych z owych organizacji. +Już w październiku 1938 agenci SD organizowali Selbstschutz na terenie Polski. Przedstawiciele mniejszości niemieckiej, którzy mieli polskie obywatelstwo, otrzymywali szkolenie w zakresie sabotażu oraz walki partyzanckiej. Niektórych kierowano na dodatkowe kusy do Rzeszy lub rządzonego przez nazistów Wolnego Miasta Gdańska. +II wojna światowa. +W Polsce określenie „Selbstschutz” kojarzone jest przede wszystkim z paramilitarną formacją złożoną z przedstawicieli niemieckiej mniejszości narodowej zamieszkującej terytorium II Rzeczypospolitej, którą władze III Rzeszy utworzyły we wrześniu 1939 na okupowanych ziemiach polskich (tzw. "Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz"). Organizację oficjalnie powołano do życia rozkazem Reichsführera SS Himmlera z dnia 26 września 1939. W rzeczywistości rozkaz ten tylko sankcjonował istniejący już stan rzeczy, gdyż plany powołania Selbstschutzu były rozważane jeszcze przed rozpoczęciem wojny, a jego powstanie poprzedziło utworzenie w pierwszych dniach września 1939 rozmaitych formacji o charakterze policyjnym, złożonych z miejscowych volksdeutschów. +Najsilniejszą strukturą Selbstschutzu był Okręg Północny – tzw. "Selbstschutz Westpreussen" – obejmujący zasięgiem swojego działania całe przedwojenne województwo pomorskie oraz niektóre powiaty Wielkopolski. Wynikało to w pierwszym rzędzie z faktu, iż mniejszość niemiecka na tych terenach była stosunkowo liczna oraz bardzo dobrze zorganizowana. 24 września 1939 "Selbstschutz Westpreussen" liczył już 8038 członków, 30 września – 16 370, 28 października – 28 032, a 21 listopada – 38 279. +W pierwszych miesiącach niemieckiej okupacji Selbstschutz aktywnie uczestniczył działaniach eksterminacyjnych wymierzonych w polską inteligencję, a brutalność i samowola jego członków momentami budziła zaniepokojenie nawet w kierownictwie SS. Członkowie tej organizacji byli dla Polaków szczególnie niebezpieczni ze względu na doskonałą znajomość lokalnych stosunków i uwarunkowań społecznych. Ponadto działając w szeregach Selbstschutzu, mogli uregulować wiele zadawnionych sąsiedzkich sporów i porachunków, jak również zagarnąć mienie należące do aresztowanych i mordowanych Polaków. Do końca 1939 roku z rąk bojówek Selbstschutzu zginęły dziesiątki tysięcy Polaków, z czego najwięcej na terenach Pomorza. Zdaniem Jochena Böhlera do końca 1939 Selbstschutz wraz z Policją Bezpieczeństwa zamordował ponad 40 tys. osób – około 30 tysięcy na obszarze Pomorza Gdańskiego, 10 tysięcy w Wielkopolsce, 1500 na Górnym Śląsku i 1000 w rejencji ciechanowskiej (w tym samym czasie w Gemeralnym Gubernatorstwie zgładzono 5000 Polaków). Szczególnie okrutnie zbrodnie miały miejsce w organizowanych przez Selbstschutz aresztach i prowizoryczne obozach koncentracyjnych. Na okupowanym Pomorzu istniało ich 19. Znajdowały się one w następujących miejscowościach: Bydgoszcz, Brodnica, Chełmno, Dorposz Szlachecki, Kamień Krajeński, Karolewo, Lipno, Łobżenica, Nakło nad Notecią, Nowy Wiec k. Skarszew, Nowe nad Wisłą, Piastoszyn, Płutowo, Sępólno Krajeńskie, Solec Kujawski, Tuchola, Wąbrzeźno, Wolental k. Skórcza, Wyrzysk. Polacy i Żydzi więzieni w obozach Selbstschutzu byli torturowani i mordowani w najbrutalniejszy sposób. Relacje świadków mówią m.in. o nagminnych przypadkach gwałtów na kobietach i dziewczynkach, dobijaniu rozstrzeliwanych za pomocą łopat czy zakopywaniu ich żywcem. Bywało, iż matki zmuszano do układania w wykopanych dołach swoich dzieci. +Ze względu na niesubordynacje organizacja została rozwiązana na przełomie 1939 i 1940 r. Po rozwiązaniu Selbstschutzu Hans Frank utworzył na bazie jego członków tzw. Sonderdienst (zwany "prywatną policją Hansa Franka"), działającą do końca wojny na terenie Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Używana ona była m.in. do ściągania kontyngentów, zwalczania partyzantów, a także brała czynny udział w akcjach represyjnych i eksterminacyjnych. Większość członków Selbstschutzu nie poniosła kary za popełnione w Polsce zbrodnie. Po wojnie wielu byłych działaczy tej organizacji zrobiło w Niemczech kariery w lokalnych władzach CDU lub CSU albo w Ziomkostwach i Związku Wypędzonych. +Przeciążanie funkcji + +Przeciążanie funkcji (ang. "overloading") - skrótowa nazwa na przeciążanie nazwy funkcji; w programowaniu występowanie pod taką samą nazwą wielu funkcji różniących się zestawem argumentów. W trakcie kompilacji bądź parsowania program znajduje właściwą funkcję po liczbie oraz typach argumentów. Możliwe jest więc współistnienie kilku funkcji o tej samej nazwie, lecz różniących się typami argumentów. +Przykłady. +Przykład w języku C++. +void funkcja (int); +void funkcja (int, char); +void funkcja (float, int); + +Przykład w języku Object Pascal. +procedure Foo(f: integer); overload; +procedure Foo(s: string; f: integer); overload; +procedure Foo(d: double; f: integer); overload; + +Przeciążanie funkcji w języku Object Pascal dostępne jest od środowiska Delphi w wersji 4. +Przykład w języku PL/1. +Nieco inaczej przeciążanie nazw realizowano w historycznych już dzisiaj językach. Jako przykład posłużyć może deklaracja rodziny procedur w języku PL/1, w którym definiowano różne procedury, a następnie nazwę nowej procedury i listę procedur wywoływanych przez tę nazwę dla konkretnych przypadków listy argumentów. +Przykład w języku Forth. +Jeszcze inaczej przeciążanie funkcji (lub ogólniej identyfikatorów) traktowane jest w języku Forth, co wynika ze specyfiki tego języka. W języku Forth definiujemy słowa (które mogą oznaczać podprogram, stałą, zmienną, słownik, kompilator ("w sensie języka Forth")). Język umożliwia definiowanie słów w określonych słownikach. Dzięki temu można przeciążać nazwy lecz nie w obrębie pojedynczego słownika, ale w obrębie całej ( drzewiastej) struktury słowników, umieszczając słowa o tych samych nazwach w różnych słownikach. Zmieniając kolejność przeszukiwania słowników, wybierane będą różne podprogramy (z różnych słowników o tej samej nazwie). +Powyższy przykład definiuje podprogram OP-D, który w zależności od tego, który ze słowników VOC1, VOC2, VOC3, VOC4 będzie przeszukiwany w pierwszej kolejności wykona dodawanie, mnożenie, odejmowanie lub dzielenie, z zachowaniem argumentów operacji. Działanie powyższych instrukcji spowoduje wyprowadzenie liczby 7 (3+4), a następnie 12 (3*4). +Zoochoria + +Zoochoria, zwierzęcosiewność – jeden ze sposobów rozprzestrzeniania diaspor roślinnych (nasion, zarodników, rozmnóżek) przez zwierzęta. Diaspory mogą być np. przyczepione do sierści, albo zjadane i później wydalane. Rośliny rozsiewające się przez zoochorię mają szczególne przystosowania do takiego sposobu rozsiewania, np. nasiona zaopatrzone w haczyki przyczepiające je do sierści zwierząt, specjalne ciałka zachęcające (tzw. elajosomy) mrówki do zabierania nasion, albo jadalne części owocu. +Zoochoria jest jednym z rodzajów cudzosiewności (allochorii). +Antropochoria + +Antropochoria, hemerochoria - jeden ze sposobów rozprzestrzeniania diaspor roślin, w którym to oddziaływanie człowieka powoduje ich transport. Jeśli udział człowieka sprowadza się do transportu diaspor w sposób typowy dla zwierząt (endochoria i epichoria) to zwykle nie wyodrębnia się tego sposobu ich rozprzestrzeniania od zoochorii. Za antropochorię uważane są te sposoby rozprzestrzeniania diaspor, które są specyficzne dla człowieka i jego cywilizacji. Rozprzestrzenianie to może odbywać się świadomie – za wiedzą i wolą człowieka lub nieświadomie. +Rodzaje atropochorii. +Rośliny rozprzestrzeniane w wyniku antropochorii nazywane są antropofitami. Rośliny wprowadzone celowo na jakiś obszar przez człowieka są gatunkami introdukowanymi. Rośliny zawleczone nieświadomie przez człowieka są gatunkami zawleczonymi. +Krzyżna Góra + +Krzyżna Góra (niem. " Falker Bge." - "Kreuzberg"), 654 m n.p.m. - jeden z dwóch najbardziej znanych wierzchołków Gór Sokolich (drugi, bardziej znany to Sokolik (642 m n.p.m.), w północno-zachodniej części Rudaw Janowickich). +Krzyżna Góra położona jest na południowym wschodzie Gór Sokolich, nad Przełęczą Karpnicką, od której oddziela ją niewielkie wzniesienie Trzy Korony. +Zbudowana z granitu karkonoskiego. Na szczycie i zboczach duże nagromadzenie skałek i bloków skalnych. +Na wierzchołek prowadzą wykute w skale stopnie. +U jej podnóża, pomiędzy nią a Karpnikami, znajduje się schronisko "Szwajcarka". +Dawniej wzgórze nazywane było Sokolą Górą (niem. "Falkenberg"). Dzisiejszą nazwę zawdzięcza siedmiometrowemu żelaznemu krzyżowi, który ufundowała księżna Maria Anna Amalie von Hessen-Homburg, dla upamiętnienia rocznicy urodzin jej męża Wilhelma von Hohenzollerna. Krzyż odlano w hucie gliwickiej w 1830 r., poświęcony został 28 maja 1832 r. Napis na krzyżu (po niemiecku) głosi: "Krzyża błogosławieństwo dla Wilhelma, jego potomnych i całej doliny". +Krzyżna Góra znajduje się na obszarze Rudawskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. +Mistrzostwa Europy w Piłce Nożnej 2008 + +XIII Mistrzostwa Europy w piłce nożnej w 2008 roku odbyły się w Austrii i w Szwajcarii. Mistrzostwa rozpoczęły się 7 czerwca i trwały do 29 czerwca 2008 roku. Mistrzostwo po raz drugi w historii zdobyła reprezentacja Hiszpanii (pierwszy raz w 1964 roku), która reprezentowała Europę podczas Pucharu Konfederacji 2009 w RPA. Pierwszy raz w historii żaden z gospodarzy nie zakwalifikował się do Fazy Pucharowej. +Wybór gospodarza. +Ostatecznie wygrała pierwsza z kandydatur. +Piłka. +Oficjalna piłka Mistrzostw Europy w Piłce Nożnej 2008, wyprodukowana przez firmę Adidas i zaprezentowana oficjalnie podczas ceremonii losowania grup 2 grudnia 2007, w Lucernie. Tak jak jej poprzednik, piłka Teamgeist, składa się z 14 klejonych w wysokiej temperaturze paneli. +Utrzymana jest w kolorystyce szaro-czarnej. Pokryta jest powłoką włókien która ma za zadanie poprawiać kontakt z butem zawodnika w każdych warunkach pogodowych, oraz ma ułatwić jej wyłapanie bramkarzom. +Na powierzchni piłki umieszczono flagi gospodarzy - Austrii i Szwajcarii, w formie znaków wodnych. +Maskotki. +Trix i Flix – tak nazywają się oficjalne maskotki piłkarskich mistrzostw Europy 2008. O wyborze zdecydowali kibice obu alpejskich krajów. W głosowaniu wzięło udział ponad 67 tys. Austriaków i Szwajcarów. Trix i Flix uzyskali 36,3 proc. głosów, wyprzedzając Flitza i Blitza oraz Zagiego i Zigiego. +Maskotki zaprezentowano 27 września 2007 r. w Nyonie. To bracia bliźniacy (symbolizujący dwa kraje – Austrię i Szwajcarię), ubrani w czerwono-białe (kolory narodowe gospodarzy turnieju) stroje piłkarskie, o włosach przypominających alpejskie szczyty. Na koszulkach posiadają numery 20 i 08, które razem tworzą liczbę 2008 - rok, w którym odbywały się mistrzostwa. +Trix i Flix wystąpili w teledyskach do dwóch oficjalnych piosenek Mistrzostw autorstwa Shaggy'ego: "Feel The Rush" i "Like a Superstar". +Eliminacje i uczestnicy. +Eliminacje do EURO 2008 rozpoczęły się 16 sierpnia 2006 i trwały do 21 listopada 2007. Udział w eliminacjach wzięło 50 reprezentacji narodowych z których wyłoniono 14 finalistów. Austria i Szwajcaria jako gospodarze mistrzostw zwolnieni byli z udziału w eliminacjach. +2 grudnia 2007, w Lucernie odbyło się losowanie grup finałowych (A-D) spośród zakwalifikowanych drużyn. Wcześniej finalistów podzielono na 4 koszyki, wedle specjalnie przygotowanego rankingu uwzględniającego wyniki z eliminacji mistrzostw świata 2006 i eliminacji mistrzostw Europy 2008. +Sędziowie. +Sędziowie techniczni. +Na górę strony +Faza grupowa. +Dwie pierwsze drużyny z każdej grupy awansowały do dalszych gier. +Faza pucharowa. +UWAGA: W nawiasach podane są wyniki po rzutach karnych +Finał. +MISTRZ EUROPY 2008 +HISZPANIA DRUGI TYTUŁ +Kartki. +Średnio: 3,94 zółte kartki i 0,1 czerwonej kartki na mecz. +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 1900 + +II Igrzyska Olimpijskie odbyły się w 1900 roku w Paryżu we Francji. Patronem igrzysk był Alexandre Millerand. +Pomimo wysiłków Królestwa Grecji, Międzynarodowy Komitet Olimpijski zdecydował, że każdego roku igrzyska będą się odbywały w innym kraju. +Igrzyska odbyły się w ramach wystawy światowej i odwiedzający ją goście przybywający do Paryża mogli wziąć udział w imprezach olimpijskich. Te Igrzyska charakteryzowała zła organizacja, co przy braku właściwej informacji spowodowało, że miały one marginalne znaczenie. Dochodziło do tego, że niektórzy zawodnicy nie wiedzieli, że uczestniczą w Igrzyskach Olimpijskich. Widzowie musieli błądzić po Paryżu w poszukiwaniu interesujących ich imprez, a zawodnicy narzekali na zły stan obiektów sportowych. +W programie igrzysk znalazły się takie dziwne konkurencje jak strzelanie do żywych gołębi i pływanie na 200 m z przeszkodami. Po raz pierwszy w tych Igrzyskach wzięły udział kobiety (tenis, golf). +Zwycięzcy konkurencji dostawali upominki lub gratyfikację pieniężną, a medale dostawali pocztą po zakończeniu Igrzysk. +Przebieg. +Najbardziej dramatyczny przebieg miał bieg maratoński. Po pokonaniu 35 km, prowadzący z dużą przewagą Szwed Ernst Fast zmylił trasę z winy sędziego. Dzielny maratończyk zorientował się, że biegnie złą trasą dopiero po 4 km, zawrócił jednak i zdołał jeszcze wywalczyć brązowy medal. Dla wielu uczestników to on jednak był największym bohaterem igrzysk. Aż cztery razy złoty medal odbierał Amerykanin Alvin Kraenzlein – zwycięzca biegu na 60 m, 110 i 200 m przez płotki oraz skoku w dal. Po 3 złote medale wywalczyli: strzelec, Szwajcar Konrad Stäheli (zdobył też jeden brąz) oraz specjalista skoków z miejsca, Amerykanin Ray Ewry. Dwukrotnym mistrzem i trzykrotnym wicemistrzem został amerykański lekkoatleta, Indianin, Irving Baxter. Także 5 medali (2 złote, 2 srebrne i 1 brązowy) wywalczył inny Amerykanin, Walter Tewksbury. +Zastosowano kilka nowinek technicznych. Amerykanin Daniel Horton wygrał dodatkowy konkurs skoku o tyczce, po raz pierwszy stosując bambusowy sprzęt, a Czech František Janda-Suk został prekursorem rzutów dyskiem z pełnym obrotem. +Rozgrywane dyscypliny. +Na Letnich Igrzyskach Olimpijskich 1900 rozegranych zostało 89 konkurencji w 20 dyscyplinach, choć czasem pływanie i piłka wodna są podawane pod jedną kategorią jako sporty wodne. W porównaniu do Letnich Igrzysk Olimpijskich 1896 zniknęły dwie dyscypliny: podnoszenie ciężarów oraz zapasy, natomiast kolejnych 13 zostało dodanych. +Feldwebel + +Feldwebel (w formacjach Waffen SS Oberscharführer) - niemiecki, podoficerski stopień wojskowy odpowiednik polskiego sierżanta (wachmistrza). +Stopień też występował w armii rosyjskiej (pisany "feldfebel", ros. "фельдфебель") od reform Piotra I w 1722 do 1917. +Etymologia - niem. Feldwebel 'feldfebel' - Feld 'pole'; Weibel 'woźny sądowy'. +Peron + +Peron jest to element przystanku, dworca kolejowego lub autobusowego służący do bezpiecznego wsiadania i wysiadania podróżnych oraz ładowania bagażu. +W kolejnictwie jest to wydłużona przestrzeń ruchu pieszego znajdująca się wzdłuż toru, zazwyczaj wyniesiona na specjalnej konstrukcji ponad poziom główki szyn (PGS). Standardowe wysokości peronów to 30 cm nad PGS (peron niski), jak również 76 cm, 86 cm lub 96 cm nad PGS (perony wysokie). Dawniej stosowana była również wysokość 115 cm. Szerokość peronów waha się zwykle od 2,8 m do 8 m. Na niektórych sieciach kolejowych (zwłaszcza w USA) budowano głównie perony położone mniej więcej na wysokości główki szyny, na innych sieciach (zwłaszcza w Brytanii) budowano niemal wyłącznie perony wysokie. Wyniesione ponad poziom torowiska perony stosuje się również na sieciach tramwajowych; perony niskie o wysokości nawet ok. 20-25 cm stały się popularne na sieciach obsługiwanych taborem niskopodłogowym. +Długość peronów zależna jest od spodziewanej maksymalnej długości pociągów; waha się od 50 m na SKM do 400 m na sieciach dalekobieżnych. Są też niekiedy stosowane mniej wygodne perony dłuższe, o ile służyć mają dwóm pociągom ustawionym w linii; wówczas pośrodku długości peronu znajduje się zwykle zjazd krzyżowy na sąsiedni tor, umożliwiający ominięcie jednego pociągu przez drugi (np. dworzec Amsterdam Centraal). +Rozróżnia się perony boczne – z jedną krawędzią peronową (czyli obsługujące jeden tor) oraz perony wyspowe – z dwiema krawędziami (czyli obsługujące dwa tory). Niezbyt logicznym terminem peron dwukrawędziowy określa się układ, gdy tor ujęty jest krawędziami peronowymi po obu stronach (rozwiązania te bywają przydatne przy dużej wymianie pasażerów albo dla ułatwienia przesiadania). W Niemczech takie perony określa się czasem jako "układ hiszpański". +Na dworcach o mieszanym, przelotowo-czołowym układzie torów, praktyczne bywają określenia peron czołowy oraz peron przelotowy. +Określenie peron środkowy odnosi się zwykle do szerokiego peronu wyspowego, na którym umieszczone są zabudowania dworca (układ taki był często stosowany na dworcach przesiadkowych). +Na większych dworcach, zwłaszcza niemieckich, budowano na przełomie XIX i XX w. osobne perony pocztowe (inaczej perony bagażowe), służące do dostarczania i odbierania ładunków (np. dworzec Wrocław Główny). Stały się one niepotrzebne wraz z likwidacją ruchu pocztowo-bagażowego na kolei. +Na dworcach czołowych poprzeczną przestrzeń ruchu pieszego położoną przed końcami torów określa się niekiedy peronem poprzecznym. +Na wczesnych dworcach kolejowych perony urządzano wyłącznie wzdłuż budynku dworca. Osobne perony położone przy dalszych torach pojawiły się dopiero w późniejszych fazach rozwoju architektury dworcowej; jeszcze później zaczęto stosować bezkolizyjne dojścia do peronów. +Niezbędnymi elementami wyposażenia peronu jest oświetlenie peronu, tablice z oznaczeniem peronu (i przyległych torów) oraz z nazwą stacji. Peron powinien być wyposażony w system informacji akustycznej (megafony). Na większych dworcach system ten jest zróżnicowany wewnętrznie: umożliwia skierowanie niektórych komunikatów wyłącznie na jeden lub na grupę peronów. System informacji rozbudowuje się w zależności od wielkości stacji i przyjętego standardu obsługi pasażerów. Dla lepszej informacji pasażerów pociągu, nazwa stacji może pojawiać się wielokrotnie na tablicach ustawionych na całej długości peronu. Peron może być podzielony na sektory; wymagają one czytelnego uwidocznienia oznakowaniem pionowym, a także poziomym. Niektóre zarządy stosują na nawierzchni peronu oznaczenia położenia wejść do wagonów wraz z ich numeracją. Przydatnym elementem wyposażenia peronu są tablice z pełnym rozkładem jazdy pociągów odchodzących z dworca oraz diagramy układu wagonów pociągów odchodzących z danego peronu. +System informacji dynamicznej w najprostszej postaci obejmuje indykatory określające rodzaj i kierunek pierwszego odchodzącego pociągu. Takie indykatory bywały pierwotnie obsługiwane ręcznie. Współczesne indykatory elektroniczne, ustawione w kilku miejscach wzdłuż peronu, są w stanie przekazać znacznie więcej informacji, i to w kilku językach i pismach. Niektóre zarządy stosują w odniesieniu do prestiżowych pociągów z miejscami rezerwowanymi (np. TGV) dynamiczną informację pokazującą położenie poszczególnych wagonów w odniesieniu do sektorów peronu. +Coraz więcej szybkich kolei miejskich (w tym większość małych kolei automatycznych) stosuje ścianki bezpieczeństwa na krawędziach peronów, zapobiegające przypadkowemu wtargnięciu na tor. W Japonii ścianki te są najczęściej niepełnej wysokości (ok. 1,5 m). +Mała architektura peronu obejmuje wiaty, miejsca do siedzenia, kasety informacyjne i reklamowe, zatoki dla wózków bagażowych, kolumny telefoniczne i umożliwiające połączenie się z informacją dworcową. Obejmuje też system zadaszeń peronowych. Budowane często zadaszenia całościowe, obejmujące perony i tory, tzw. hale peronowe, stanowią już element "wielkiej architektury", rzutujący na całą bryłę dworca. Popularne na dawnych dużych dworcach peronowe kioski gastronomiczne lub trafiki nie są obecnie projektowane. +W przypadku peronów wyspowych, samo określenie numeru peronu w systemie informacji pasażerskiej nie wystarcza dla precyzyjnej identyfikacji pociągu. Dlatego dla wygody klientów kolei, większość przewoźników kolejowych zrezygnowała z terminu "peron" i używa wyłącznie terminu "tor". Warto przy tym zauważyć, że angielskie określenie "platform" w systemie informacji pasażerskiej praktycznie oznacza "tor" (jeden peron wyspowy tworzą dwa "platforms"). +Ciecierad + +Ciecierad, Ciecirad, Cieciered, Cieciurad, Ciećrad – staropolskie imię męskie złożone z członów "Ciecie-" ("ciotka") i "-rad" ("być zadowolonym, chętnym, cieszyć się"). Mogło zatem oznaczać "ten, który jest życzliwie nastawiony do cioci". +Żeński odpowiednik: Ciecirada. +Rodsław + +Rodsław, Rocsław, Rocław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Rod-" (psł. "*rodъ" oznacza "pokolenie, generację, ród", por. niem. "Geschlecht") i "-sław" ("sława"). Może oznaczać "ten, który przysparza sławy swojemu rodowi". Od tego imienia mogła pochodzić też forma skrócona Rosław. +Rodsław imieniny obchodzi 7 października. +Braturad + +Braturad — staropolskie imię męskie złożone z członów "Bratu-" ("bratu", ale też "człowiek bliski, członek wspólnoty rodowej") i "-rad" ("być zadowolonym, chętnym, cieszyć się"). Mogło zatem oznaczać "ten, który jest pozytywnie nastawiony do ludzi bliskich, do członków rodziny". +Braturad imieniny obchodzi 4 czerwca. +Wacław Jan Przeździecki + +Wacław Jan Przeździecki (ur. 15 lipca 1883 w Leśmierzu, zm. 29 czerwca 1964) – generał brygady Wojska Polskiego. +Życiorys. +Wacław Jan Przeździecki urodził się 15 lipca 1883 w Leśmierzu, w powiecie łęczyckim ówczesnej guberni kaliskiej, w rodzinie szlacheckiej herbu Pierzchała, pozbawionej przez władze rosyjskie majątku ziemskiego. Rodzicami byli Jan, pracownik cukrowni, i Matylda z Kleinszmidt-Zarzyckich. +Kształcił się w Wyższej Szkole Rzemieślniczej w Łodzi – ukończył ją w 1903, a następnie w Instytucie Technologicznym w Charkowie, skąd w 1904 wydalono go za przynależność do organizacji niepodległościowej. W latach 1904-1906 uczył się w szkole wojskowej w Kazaniu, po jej ukończeniu w stopniu podporucznika otrzymał przydział do 260 pułku piechoty w Batumi, jako adiutant przy batalionie szkoły podoficerskiej. W 1913 awansował na kapitana. W czasie I wojny światowej dowodził kompanią, a następnie batalionem. Po ciężkim ranieniu w Prusach został uznany za niezdolnego do służby liniowej i zwolniony z armii. Od maja 1915 przebywał w Warszawie, gdzie pracował w komisji wojskowej. Po rewolucji lutowej działał w różnych polskich organizacjach w Rosji, m.in. w I Korpusie Polskim. Był między innymi szefem sztabu twierdzy Bobrujsk, a później szefem sztabu 2 Dywizji Strzelców Polskich. +25 października 1918 został przyjęty przez Radę Regencyjną do Wojska Polskiego z zatwierdzeniem posiadanego stopnia kapitana ze starszeństwem z 22 marca 1917. 21 listopada 1918 został wyznaczony na stanowisko szefa Wydziału (Oddziału) I Organizacyjnego Sztabu Generalnego w Warszawie. 18 grudnia 1918 został przesunięty na stanowisko szefa Oddziału VII Naukowego SG. +Na początku 1919, razem z grupą oficerów byłego I Korpusu Polskiego w Rosji, został skierowany do Poznania celem udzielenia pomocy w organizacji Armii Wielkopolskiej. 15 stycznia 1919 został oficerem do zleceń głównodowodzącego Siłami Zbrojnymi w byłym zaborze pruskim, generała porucznika Józefa Dowbor-Muśnickiego. 6 marca 1919 został mianowany dowódcą 5 pułku strzelców wielkopolskich. 23 marca 1919 został mianowany inspektorem piechoty 2 Dywizji Strzelców Wielkopolskich. 6 czerwca 1919 Komisariat Naczelnej Rady Ludowej, na wniosek głównodowodzącego, przyjął go oficjalnie do Sił Zbrojnych w byłym zaborze pruskim, w stopniu pułkownika. +W czasie wojny z bolszewikami dowodził kolejno: XXIX Brygadą Piechoty (lipiec 1919 - lipiec 1920), XIII Brygadą Piechoty (lipiec - sierpień 1920) i XXIV Brygadą Piechoty (wrzesień 1920 - październik 1921). 11 czerwca 1920 Naczelny Wódz zatwierdził go w stopniu podpułkownika z dniem 1 kwietnia 1920, w piechocie, w „grupie byłych Korpusów Wschodnich i byłej armii rosyjskiej”, a 21 czerwca 1920 Minister Spraw Wojskowych zezwolił mu „korzystać tytularnie ze stopnia pułkownika”. Dowodząc XXIV Brygadą Piechoty pozostawał w ewidencji 54 pułku piechoty. +W latach 1921-1922 był słuchaczem I Kursu Doszkolenia Wyższej Szkoły Wojennej w Warszawie. 3 maja 1922 został zatwierdzony w stopniu pułkownika ze starszeństwem z 1 czerwca 1919 i 108. lokatą w korpusie oficerów piechoty. We wrześniu 1922, po ukończeniu kursu i uzyskaniu „pełnych kwalifikacji do pełnienia służby na stanowiskach Sztabu Generalnego”, został przydzielony do Inspektoratu Armii Nr 2 na stanowisko I oficera sztabu generała dywizji Lucjana Żeligowskiego. Pełniąc służbę w Inspektoracie Armii Nr 2 pozostawał oficerem nadetatowym 55 pułku piechoty w Lesznie. +20 sierpnia 1926 Prezydent RP Ignacy Mościcki mianował go dowódcą 21 Dywizji Piechoty Górskiej w Bielsku. 16 marca 1927 Prezydent RP Ignacy Mościcki nadał mu stopień generała brygady ze starszeństwem z 1 stycznia 1927 i 17. lokatą w korpusie generałów. Z dniem 30 czerwca 1936 został przeniesiony w stan spoczynku. Na emeryturze mieszkał w folwarku Natalin, w gminie Podorosk (powiat wołkowyski). +Podczas kampanii wrześniowej ochotniczo organizował formacje rezerwowe. Był dowódcą obrony Grodna przed nacierającą Armią Czerwoną. 23 września 1939 wydał podległym sobie oddziałom rozkaz przekroczenia granicy litewskiej. Przekroczył granicę Litwy i został tam internowany. W 1940 został wywieziony przez NKWD i umieszczony w obozie kozielskim. Na rozkaz Berii został przewieziony do Moskwy i osadzony w więzieniu na Łubiance. Otrzymał propozycję podjęcia się utworzenia polskiej armii u boku Armii Czerwonej. Po uwarunkowaniu przyjęcia propozycji od uzyskania zgody rządu polskiego rozmowy przerwano, a generała przewieziono do Griazowca. +Po tzw. amnestii zwolniony, w latach 1942-1947 przebywał w Palestynie. Postrzegany jako piłsudczyk nie uzyskał, pomimo kilkakrotnych próśb, zgody na przyjęcie do służby wojskowej. Zmarł 29 czerwca 1964 w Penley, w Wielkiej Brytanii. Pochowany na cmentarzu Pwllheli. +Bibliografia. +__NOTOC__ +Quarter Horse + + +Quarter Horse - rasa konia o bardzo dobrym, atletycznym umięśnieniu. Delikatna, o klinowatym kształcie głowa, małe uszy i duże oczy. Szyja prosta, nisko osadzona ze skąpą grzywą. Łopatki długie. Kłąb szeroki średnio zarysowany. Grzbiet mocny, klatka piersiowa głęboka i szeroka. Zad ścięty, długi, obficie umięśniony. Ogon osadzony nisko o skąpym owłosieniu. Kończyny mocne i suche, kopyta małe bez szczotek. Chody płaskie, galop niezwykle szybki na krótkich odcinkach. Duża zwrotność i wytrzymałość. Są to konie pojętne w szkoleniu i pracy. Występują wszystkie maści podstawowe. Osiągają wysokość 148 - 155 cm. +Historia. +"Quarter Horse" powstały z mieszaniny krwi koni hiszpańskich i importowanych z Anglii. Swoją nazwę zawdzięcza popularnym wyścigom na ćwierć mili organizowanym na ulicach osad. Rasa ta zyskała sławę, gdyż odznaczała się zwrotnością, spokojem, inteligencją i "wyczuciem bydła". Dziś opiekę nad rasą "Quarter Horse", w celu popularyzacji i zachowania jej wzorca, sprawuje powstała w 1940 roku organizacja zrzeszająca hodowców "American Quarter Horse Association" z siedzibą w Amarillo w Teksasie oraz oddziały regionalne na całym świecie, również w Polsce. +Konie rasy "Quarter Horse" cieszą się dużą popularnością, jako przydatne w równym stopniu do wyścigów, ale przede wszystkim do reiningu, trailu, rodeo i jazdy rekreacyjnej. +Wykorzystanie. +Konie tej rasy wykorzystywane są przede wszystkim w jeździe wierzchem. Nadają się także do lekkich zaprzęgów. +Hodowla koni tej rasy w Polsce. +Obecnie konie tej rasy nie są zbyt popularne w Polsce, jednak grono ich miłośników stale rośnie. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Polski Związek Hodowców American Quarter Horse +Portal poświęcony western riding i koniom American Quarter Horse +Wiroszybowiec + +Wiroszybowiec – wiatrakowiec pozbawiony źródła napędu. Wzlatuje w powietrze dzięki sile nośnej wirnika wywołanej opływem powietrza podczas ruchu postępowego na holu za samolotem, motorówką lub wyciągarką. Po wyczepieniu opada i ląduje dzięki zjawisku autorotacji. +Kuchnia niemiecka + +Kuchnia niemiecka – to zbiorcza nazwa kilku popularnych kuchni regionalnych z różnych regionów Niemiec. Kuchnia niemiecka wbrew obiegowym opiniom jest bogata w różnorodność potraw i dań. To bogactwo tradycji wykracza poza uznane stereotypy dotyczące konsumpcji piwa, podawanego z wieprzowiną, kapustą i ziemniakami. Lokalne praktyki kulinarne, i wielość składników wzbogacone doświadczeniami sąsiadów wpływają na współczesny obraz kuchni niemieckich. W kuchni niemieckiej można spotkać wpływy włoskie, greckie, hiszpańskie, tureckie, polskie, czeskie i słowackie oraz dalekowschodnie. +Istnieje w Niemczech, wiele potraw regionalnych, z których niektóre stały się symbolami całego kraju. Zwyczaje kulinarne różnią się od siebie w zależności od regionu. Na zachodzie, w Schwarzwaldzie i Badenii-Wirtembergii skupiają się wpływy sąsiadów: Szwajcarii, Francji. W tamtejszej kuchni dużą rolę odgrywają warzywa. Na południu jada się o wiele tłuściej, czego przykład stanowi kuchnia bawarska. +Do narodowych potraw niemieckich zaliczamy: zupę z węgorza na rosole wołowym, i golonkę z kapustą lub grochem puree. +Kuchnia regionalna. +Powszechnie na skutek nadmiaru tłuszczu i mięsa kuchnię niemiecką uważana była za „ciężką". Pod tym względem bardzo zbliżona do kuchni niemieckiej jest kuchnia austriacka. +Potrawy z kuchni niemieckiej cechuje duże kaloryczność i pożywność zarazem. Niemcy słyną z zamiłowania do ciężkich, tłustych posiłków (,ma być dużo, tłusto i dobrze"), choć nie brak również wielbicieli świeżych warzyw i sałatek. +W Niemczech nie brak gospód serwujących wiejskie bądź domowe jadło. +Potrawy mączne. +Niemcy spożywają znaczne ilości makaronu ("Nudeln"), głównie w południowo-zachodniej części kraju. Znane są pieczone kluski ("Schinkennudeln"), niektóre są z dodatkiem ziemniaków ("Schupfnudeln"). Również spożywa się kluski gotowane na parze - Dampfnudel. +Kuchnię regionu Szwabii wyróżniają kluski zwane Spätzle i "Maultaschen". +Chleby. +W Niemczech chleb jest bez wątpienia podstawowym artykułem spożywczym. Podróżując po tym kraju, możemy znaleźć około 300 różnych gatunków chleba i około 1200 mniejszych jego części jak np. bułki, rogaliki, paluszki lub precelki. +Warzywa i owoce. +Na rynku niemieckim dostępna jest różnorodność warzyw i owoców. Jednak królową wszystkich warzyw na stole niemieckim jest tradycyjnie kapusta, która stanowi podstawy wielu receptur i przetworów. Do najbardziej preferowanych należą przede wszystkim kiszona kapusta, sałatki z czerwonej kapusty, lub startej (Rotkohl), gotowanej ze smalcem, z dodatkiem cukru i octu. Zieloną kapustę marynuje się jako "Sauerkraut", czerwoną zaś gotuje z jabłkami w celu sporządzenia "Apfelrotkohl". Popularny jest kalafior i brukselka. Istnieje wiele potraw sezonowych na bazie grzybów, szparagów lub rzepy. Sezon na szparagi trwa od kwietnia do czerwca. Wtedy to wiele restauracji serwuje specjalne, szparagowe menu. Seler jest również popularnym warzywem w kuchni niemieckiej. Jesienią Niemcy przygotowują dania z dyni. Cebula obecna jest w wielu daniach, głównym składnikiem jest w potrawie zwanej "Flammkuchen". Sałatki z sałaty, ogórków, buraków, marchewki czy korniszonów traktowane są często jako przystawki. Niemcy lubią przetwory z suszonych owoców. Jabłka są składnikiem znajdującym się w szeregu wielu niemieckich deserów, jak również dań głównych. Wiśnie są dodatkiem przy wypieku ciast. +Dania z ziemniaków. +Ziemniaki są niezbędnym składnikiem każdej kuchni niemieckiej. Można je znaleźć w tradycyjnych niemieckich sałatkach ziemniaczanych, puree, potrawach z ziemniaka gotowanego, smażonych na patelni ("Bratkartoffeln") lub w pierogach ("Kartoffelknödel"). Frytki pojawiły się w kuchni niemieckiej około roku 1960, pod wpływem kulinarnych zwyczajów wakacyjnych panujących w Belgii i Holandii. +Potrawy mięsne. +Kuchnia niemiecka wyróżnia się dużą różnorodnością dań z wieprzowiny, cielęciny, wołowiny, baraniny, drobiu, dziczyzny i ryb. Popularne są też dania z mięsa mielonego. Do dań mięsnych podaje się z reguły sosy brunatne, zaprawiane mąką. +Stałym składnikiem menu niemieckiego jest wieprzowina. Niemcy przetwarzają ja na wszelkie sposoby: różnorodne gatunki kiełbas, kiełbasek (frankfurterki), doskonałe wędliny. Jest ona również głównym składnikiem kiełbasy – nie tylko popularnej przekąski, lecz i podstawowym elementem kuchni niemieckiej. +W dniu św. Marcina, przypadającym 11 listopada na stołach króluje gęś. Zdarzają się nawet potrawy tak wyszukane jak gęsie pipki – nadziewane żołądki z pieca. +Zupy. +Zupy nie należą w Niemczech do tradycji kulinarnej. Ich wybór jest więc dość skromny. Najbardziej znaną jest "Gulaschsuppe" – rozcieńczona wersja podstawowej potrawy węgierskiej ("ungarische"), pochodząca z Serbii, zwykle ostra "Bohnensuppe" oraz "Zwiebelsuppe" – próba naśladowania francuskiej zupy z czerwonej cebuli. Podaje się ją zwykle z grzankami i serem. Niemcy ze wschodu lubują się w soljance - ostrej zupie ukraińskiej z pokrojoną kiełbasą. Bardziej znane od niej są jednak zupy z knedlami, np. bawarska "Leberknödelsuppe". Pozostałe przystawki nie są zbyt wyszukane. To zwykle sałatka, pasztet lub mięso na zimno. Dobrym, szybkim i pożywnym rozwiązaniem jest "Eintopf" – duże, jednogarnkowe danie, które zastępuje cały obiad. W zależności od składników przypomina zupę, potrawkę, bądź gulasz. +Dania z ryb. +Bliskość Morza Bałtyckiego i Północnego zaspakaja rynek niemiecki w duże ilości ryb, m.in. takich jak śledź (wędzone lub marynowane), węgorz – jest podstawą zupy rybnej lub flądrowatych. Wśród pokarmów można spróbować zupy z homarów i małży. W Niemczech wschodnich znajdują się główne hodowle karpia. Dania z pstrąga są spożywane na terenie całego kraju. Z Jeziora Bodeńskiego, Starnberg i Ammersee pochodzi podawana na wędzono sielawa. +Na północy Niemiec panuje duża różnorodność świeżych ryb morskich. Najbardziej znaną rybą jest pstrąg. Smakiem dorównuje mu również okoń czerwony, "Rotbarsch", w smaku przypominający witlinka. +Desery i ciasta. +Wśród deserów szczególnie lubiany jest wywodzący się z Austrii "Apfelstrudel" – gorące ciasto z jabłkami. Farsz składający się z lekko kwaskowatych jabłek, rodzynek maczanych w rumie i cynamonu zawija się w płat cienkiego niczym papier ciasta. Do tego dodaje się gałkę lodów waniliowych lub bitą śmietanę. "Apfelstrudel" podaje się na gorąco. W Saksonii popularnym deserem są smażone placki z twarogiem quarkkäulchen. +Przyprawy i zioła. +Dania kuchni niemieckiej tradycyjnie przyprawione są solą i czarnym pieprzem. Ketchup i majonez jako dodatki znajdują się niemal w każdym domu. Musztarda to popularny dodatek do wędlin, która jest często bardzo ostra. W południowej części kraju używana jest słodka odmiana gorczycy do produkcji musztardy, którą przyprawia się m.in. tradycyjną bawarską kiełbasę oraz pieczeń. Chrzan to również bardzo popularna przyprawy używana obecnie, podobnie jak i czosnek, który przez długi czas ze względu na zapach cieszył się umiarkowaną popularnością, i nigdy nie odgrywał ważnej roli w tradycyjnej kuchni niemieckiej. W ostatnich dziesięcioleciach z powodu dużego wpływu kuchni francuskiej oraz włoskiej rośnie i jego popularność. Ogólnie rzecz ujmując, dania kuchni niemieckich są rzadko kiedy o ostrym smaku - ulubionymi ziołami są między innymi, pietruszka, majeranek, tymianek, liście laurowe, lubczyk, koper i szczypiorek, z przypraw pikantnych używany jest biały pieprz, jałowiec i kminek. +Inne zioła dla podkreślenia smaku potraw to bazylia, rozmaryn, oregano, które w ostatnim czasie zyskały również na popularności. Nie jest to typowy niemiecki zestaw przypraw, który równie dobrze może być zastosowany w daniach kuchni polskiej, czeskiej i słowackiej. +Napoje. +Piwo jest tradycyjnym napojem całych Niemiec, gdzie produkowane jest w licznych gatunkach. Piwa niemieckie są wegańskie, to znaczy, że do ich produkcji nie stosuje się surowców pochodzenia zwierzęcego. Zgodnie z prawem bawarskim aby piwo mogło być piwem musi być wytworzone z czterech następujących składników: wody, ziarna, chmielu i drożdży. Tradycyjne niemieckie piwo nie jest pasteryzowane, podobnie jak i wiele rodzajów piwa amerykańskiego, pozwala to na wydobycie prawdziwego smaku i aromatu chmielowego napoju. Najpopularniejszym gatunkiem jest tradycyjny "Pilsner", w południowych Niemczech produkowane jest pszeniczne piwo "Weizenbier" - jasne i ciemne, w pobliżu Kolonii na zachodzie kraju produkowany jest gatunek piwa zwany "Altbier". Co roku w Niemczech spożywa się ok. 100 mln hektolitrów piwa z lekką tendencją spadkową na korzyść wina, roczne spożycie tego napoju na mieszkańca waha się między 70 i 150 litrów w każdym regionie Niemiec. +Niemcy uwielbiają jedzenie w dużym gronie i biesiady. Największą biesiadą niemiecką jest Oktoberfest – święto piwa. Wśród wielu gatunków do najbardziej znanych należą: "pils" - tradycyjne, gorzkawe, z wyczuwalnym aromacie chmielu lub "weizen" - białe z górnej fermentacji, o 50% udziale słodu pszenicznego. Podczas festynu jada się również wiele białej kiełbasy i golonki. +Wino jest również bardzo popularnym napojem, którego spożycie ciągle wzrasta. Główne obszary uprawy winorośli, położone są wzdłuż Renu, Mozeli, Mainz i Saławy, uprawiane są tu tradycyjne odmiany "Silvaner" jak i wiele innych. Czerwone wino jest bardziej popularne od wina białego. W Niemczech produkuje się również bardzo dobre wina musujące. +Oprócz kawy i herbaty popularne są wody mineralne i soki owocowe. +Niemiecka kuchnia w Polsce. +Ze źródeł wynika, że pod względem doboru potraw nie było daleko idących różnic między kuchnią polską a obcą; w tym również niemiecką, gdyż nasza starała się naśladować tamtą i stawiała na stół obok potraw własnych sprowadzane receptury obce. +W XVIII w. nastąpiły duże zmiany w polskiej obyczajowości, wynikające ze wzmożonych kontaktów z Saksonią. Właśnie dzisiejszy kanon zachowania się przy stole, ukształtował się w tamtych czasach. Na przykład "Kawa od ludzi majętnych przeszła do całego pospólstwa, podniosły się po miastach kafenhauzy, szewcy, krawcy, przekupnie, ... i najostatniejszy motłoch udał się do kawy". Polacy poznali herbatę u schyłku XVII w. Wtedy to dotarła ona do Polski przez Gdańsk i Drezno. Czekolada pojawiła się na początku XVIII w.". +Asymilacja wynalazków kulinarnych sąsiadów powodowała, m.in. że kuchnia polska nabierała w gruncie rzeczy charakteru regionalnego. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, poznańskie podobnie jak i Śląsk oraz Mazury z Pomorzem przejęło wiele cech kuchni niemieckiej, m.in. golonkę, kotlet schabowy, jednogarnkowe dania, kluski drożdżowe na parze itp. +Gimnastyka + +Gimnastyka "(grec. γυμναστική "gymnastike" trening sportowy od "gymnos" nagi)" jest dyscypliną sportową, wywodzącą się ze starożytnej Grecji, w ramach której zawodnicy wykonują specjalne układy, z wykorzystaniem różnych sprzętów. Gimnastyka może być uprawiana zarówno przez kobiety, jak i mężczyzn. +Harmonia ciała i ducha. +Gimnastyka była znana już ludom starożytnym, m.in. Chińczykom, Egipcjanom, Persom i Izraelitom. W dawnej Grecji i Rzymie istniały nawet specjalne instytucje publiczne przeznaczone do codziennych, ogólnorozwojowych ćwiczeń fizycznych (tzw. gimnazjony oraz termy). Na południu Europy preferowano wszechstronny rozwój człowieka zgodnie z zasadą: 'W zdrowym ciele zdrowy duch'. W Grecji ćwiczono nago (gr. "gymnastike" pochodzi od "gymnós", czyli 'obnażony, nagi'). +Zestaw ćwiczeń dla każdego. +Pierwsze nowożytne systemy gimnastyczne (tzw. szwedzki i niemiecki) powstały w zachodniej Europie na przełomie XVIII i XIX w. Za ich twórcę uznaje się J.Ch.F. GutsaMuthsa, później rozwijali je F. Jahn i A. Spiess oraz P.H. Ling wraz z synem H. Lingiem. Oryginalne zestawy ćwiczeń dla chłopców wymyślił N. Bukh, dla dziewcząt - E. Björksten i A. Bertramem, a dla dzieci - E. Falk i J.G. Thulin. Nowoczesna gimnastyka szybko stała się popularna w całej Europie. W Polsce jeden z pierwszych na świecie podręczników z ćwiczeniami, zatytułowany "O fizycznym wychowaniu dzieci", ukazał się już w 1805 r. Jego autorem był Jędrzej Śniadecki. +Bramstenga + +Bramstenga – trzecia, licząc od pokładu, część masztu żaglowca, umocowana do stengi i stanowiąca jej przedłużenie. +Yga Kostrzewa + +Yga Kostrzewa (właśc. Inga Kostrzewa, ur. 12 września 1973) – polska działaczka społeczna, związana z ruchami obrony praw osób ze środowisk LGBT. +Z wykształcenia ekonomistka, ukończyła zarządzanie na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Absolwentka gender studies w Instytucie Stosowanych Nauk Społecznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. +Pracuje w branży reklamowej. Od 1998 działaczka stowarzyszenia Stowarzyszenia Lambda Warszawa; pełniła w nim funkcję przewodniczącej (2005-2007) i rzeczniczki prasowej (od 2002). Przy pomocy UNDP (Program Narodów Zjednoczonych ds. Rozwoju) współorganizowała program "Propagowanie bezpieczniejszych zachowań seksualnych wśród lesbijek i gejów". Jest też członkinią Porozumienia Kobiet 8 Marca. +Uczestniczyła w kampanii informacyjnej "Niech nas zobaczą". Współorganizatorka wszystkich warszawskich Parad Równości oraz marcowych kobiecych "manif". Autorka publikacji prasowych, wykładów i konferencji naukowych na temat środowiska LGBT. Zabierała głos w debatach publicznych na tematy środowisk lesbijsko-gejowskich. Przedstawiła Ministerstwu Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu raport Lambdy o mniejszościach seksualnych w podręcznikach do wychowania o życiu w rodzinie. Jest też inicjatorką ruchu społecznego "Nasza Sprawa". Pomysłodawczyni akcji "Odkrywamy się", we współpracy z "Gazetą Wyborczą". Człowiek Dużego Formatu Gazety Wyborczej 2006. +Jest osobą homoseksualną; publicznego coming outu dokonała w 1998 roku na łamach czasopisma "SHE". Cztery lata później wraz ze swoją partnerką (Anną Zawadzką) wystąpiła na okładce "Newsweeka" (nr 8/2002 z 24.02.2002). +W 2010 roku startowała z rekomendacji partii Zielonych 2004 z listy SLD w wyborach samorządowych w okręgu warszawskiego Mokotowa. +Zaangażowanie w Paradę Równości 2005. +Po tym jak ówczesny Prezydent Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy Lech Kaczyński zakazał Parady Równości w Warszawie 10 czerwca 2005, Yga Kostrzewa była jedną z 7 organizatorów wieców stacjonarnych, które zostały zorganizowane w miejsce zakazanego marszu. Decyzją prezydenta miasta także 5 z tych 7 wieców zostało zakazanych. Sprawa została skierowana do Europejskiego Trybunału Praw Człowieka w Strasburgu, gdzie Tomasz Bączkowski, Tomasz Szypuła, Yga Kostrzewa oraz organizatorzy pozostałych zakazanych wieców, wspierani przez Helsińską Fundację Praw Człowieka, wnieśli swoją skargę. Trybunał wskazał naruszenie Europejskiej Konwencji Praw Człowieka przez zakaz parady. +Pontyfikat + +Pontyfikat – w Kościele katolickim okres sprawowania władzy przez papieża lub biskupa. Pochodzi od łac. słowa "pontifex" (pol. "budowniczy mostów"), a oznaczającego pontyfika – kapłana należącego do kapłańskiego kolegium w starożytnym Rzymie. Termin "pontificatus" oznaczający początkowo władzę pontyfika przeniesiono później na władzę papieża i biskupa. +Nierod + +Nierod – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Nie-" (przeczenie) i "-rod" (psł. "*rodъ" oznacza "pokolenie, generację, ród", por. niem. "Geschlecht"). Być może jest to forma pochodna od imion męskich zaczynających się na "Rod-", jak Rodsław. +Carlo Enrico Di Rovasenda + +Carlo Enrico Di Rovasenda (ur. 17 czerwca 1906 w Turynie, zm. 15 grudnia 2007 w Genui), włoski teolog katolicki, ksiądz, dominikanin. +Profesor teologii i filozofii, wchodził m.in. w skład komisji watykańskiej badającej sprawę Galileusza. Od listopada 1986 był członkiem honorowym Papieskiej Akademii Nauk. +Skrzydłowiec + +Skrzydłowiec ("ornitopter") – to aerodyna napędzana ruchem powierzchni nośnych pracujących tak, jak skrzydła u ptaków. Poza modelami, jedyna dotychczas praktyczna realizacja została dokonana przez profesora Jamesa DeLauriera z Uniwersytetu Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies w 2006. +Selena + +Selena, właśc. Selena Quintanilla Perez (ur. 16 kwietnia 1971 w Lake Jackson, zm. 31 marca 1995 w Corpus Christi) – meksykańsko-amerykańska piosenkarka, jedna z największych gwiazd muzyki Tejano i Latin na świecie. Sławę zdobyła głównie w krajach hiszpańskojęzycznych. +Urodziła się w Lake Jackson w stanie Teksas z małżeństwa Abrahama Quintanilli i Marcelli Samola. W rodzinie była najmłodszym dzieckiem. Jej talent wokalny odkryto kiedy miała 3 lata. Gdy miała 9 lat jej ojciec utworzył grupę Selena y Los Dinos, z którą koncertowała do śmierci. Selena wydała swój pierwszy album w wieku dwunastu lat. Nie było to rozpowszechnione wydawnictwo, które zostało wydane i w całości zakupione przez Abrahama. Wygrała tytuł Wokalistki Roku na rozdaniu Tejano Music Awards w 1987, co zaowocowało podpisaniem kontraktu z wytwórnią EMI Latin kilka lat później. Wytwórnia ta została założona specjalnie dla Seleny przez Jose Behara, który uważał, że odkrył drugą Glorię Estefan. Jej sława rozwijała się w ciągu wczesnych lat dziewięćdziesiątych i do dziś jej piosenki, i życie są rozpoznawane na całym świecie. Otrzymała najważniejszą nagrodę muzyczną Grammy za album ¡Live! Selena. +Śmierć. +Artystka chciała odzyskać dokumenty oraz pieniądze, które zabierała jej Yolanda, wówczas dyrektor butików oraz kierownik fan clubu Seleny. Pokłóciły się. Selena została postrzelona o godzinie 11.48 w motelu Days Inn. Mimo przewiezienia jej do szpitala zmarła o 13.05 z powodu utraty dużej ilości krwi. +Dwa tygodnie po jej śmierci, 12 kwietnia, George W. Bush - ówczesny gubernator Stanu Teksas, ustanowił dzień 16 kwietnia (urodziny piosenkarki) "Dniem Seleny" w Teksasie. Yolanda za morderstwo została skazana na dożywotnią karę więzienia. +Upamiętnienie. +W 1997 roku z inicjatywy Abrahama Quintanilla powstał film "Selena" upamiętniający twórczość i życie piosenkarki. Tytułową rolę zagrała Jennifer Lopez (w scenach, gdzie bohaterka jest dorosła). +Lambic + +Lambic, Lambiek – belgijski rodzaj piwa fermentacji spontanicznej produkowanego ze słodu jęczmiennego z dodatkiem pszenicy. +Metoda fermentacji piwa lambic przy pomocy szczepów dzikich drożdży jest najstarszą znaną metodą produkcji piwa. +Charakterystyka. +Lambic jest piwem regionalnym produkowanym w rejonie Payottenland położonym na zachód od Brukseli. Za najlepsze miejsce do jego fermentacji uznawana jest dolina rzeki Zenne. Wytwarzany jest ze słodu jęczmiennego z dodatkiem pszenicy niesłodowanej. Przy czym ten drugi składnik stanowi ok. 30 % zboża w zasypie. Jako przyprawy stosowany jest stary i wysuszony chmiel. +Piwo powstaje poprzez wystawienie w zimie gorącej brzeczki na otwarte powietrze, w celu przeprowadzenia tzw. fermentacji spontanicznej polegającej na kontakcie płynu z dzikimi drożdżami "Brettanomyces" i innymi mikroorganizmami unoszącymi się w powietrzu. Lambic może dojrzewać do pięciu lat w zbiornikach i beczkach leżakowych, które wcześniej służyły do przechowywania wina. +Jest on podstawą do produkcji różnych gatunków belgijskich piw fermentacji spontanicznej. +Siedlisko przyrodnicze + +Siedlisko przyrodnicze – pojęcie używane w terminologii prawnej Unii Europejskiej w związku z programem Natura 2000. Wprowadzone zostało w celu identyfikacji obszarów lądowych lub wodnych o określonych cechach środowiska przyrodniczego, wyodrębnianych w oparciu o cechy geograficzne, abiotyczne i biotyczne. Termin ten nawiązuje do biogeocenozy albo ekosystemu obejmując postaci lub fragmenty tych układów identyfikowane zwykle przez określone zbiorowiska roślinne lub warunki geograficzno-ekologiczne. +Nie należy mylić tego terminu z definicją siedliska stosowaną w biologii i ekologii oraz z typologią siedlisk leśnych stosowaną w leśnictwie. +Dyrektywa Siedliskowa wymienia typy europejskich siedlisk przyrodniczych, które są zagrożone wyginięciem w Europie i zobowiązuje państwa Unii Europejskiej do ich ochrony w obszarach Natura 2000. W Polsce zakaz "podejmowania działań mogących w znaczący sposób pogorszyć stan siedlisk przyrodniczych" w obszarach Natura 2000 zapisany został w art. 33 ustawy o ochronie przyrody. Zakaz nie obowiązuje tylko w określonych sytuacjach i pod określonymi w ustawie wyjątkami. Zakres koniecznych działań ochronnych określa plan ochrony obszaru Natura 2000. Przepisy dają możliwość wsparcia finansowego lub wypłaty odszkodowań użytkownikom gruntów w przypadku strat związanych z ochroną siedlisk (m.in. w ramach programu rolnośrodowiskowego). +Wykaz siedlisk wymagających ochrony w obszarach Natura 2000 w Polsce. +, znak * oznacza siedlisko priorytetowe) +Frisbee + +Frisbee – termin, którym określa się latające dyski (talerze) używane w sporcie i rekreacji, choć sama nazwa frisbee jest zastrzeżonym znakiem towarowym firmy Wham-O dla produktów opartych na pomyśle Freda Morrisona. Typowe frisbee ma kształt talerza średnicy ok. 20–25 cm i jest wykonane z tworzywa sztucznego. W zależności od zastosowań frisbee mogą się znacznie różnić rozmiarem, ciężarem, twardością materiału i innymi parametrami, które wpływają na zachowanie się frisbee w locie. +Dyżurny ruchu manewrowy + +Dyżurny ruchu manewrowy – wykwalifikowany pracownik kolei, podległy dyżurnemu ruchu dysponującemu, którego zadaniem jest organizowanie i nadzorowanie pracy manewrowej związanej z rozrządem i zestawianiem pociągów oraz obsługą punktów ładunkowych na stacji. Najczęściej dyżurny ruchu manewrowy zawiaduje pracą jednego rejonu manewrowego. +Brodziec piskliwy + +Brodziec piskliwy, brodziec krzykliwy, kuliczek piskliwy, piskliwiec ("Actitis hypoleucos") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Zobacz też: fauna Polski, ptaki Polski. +Ciecirada + +Ciecirada – staropolskie imię żeńskie złożone z członów "Ciecie-" ("ciotka") i "-rada" ("być zadowoloną, chętną, cieszyć się"). Mogło zatem oznaczać "ta, która jest życzliwie nastawiona do cioci". +Męski odpowiednik: Ciecierad, Ciecirad, Cieciered, Cieciurad, Ciećrad. +New + +new (ang. "nowy") - w programowaniu obiektowym jest to instrukcja, która tworzy nowy obiekt. Istnieje w różnych językach programowania obiektowego, takich jak C++, Java i C♯, w każdym jednak inaczej się zachowuje. +new w C++. +Funkcja new jest odpowiedzialna za przydzielanie pamięci i zwraca wskaźnik typu void* do jej początku. Wyrażenie new zawiera słowo kluczowe new oraz wywołanie konstruktora, a jego działanie polega na wywołaniu funkcji operator new, wywołaniu podanego konstruktora na tej przydzielonej pamięci, i zwróceniu wskaźnika na tę pamięć jako wskaźnika na obiekt typu, który podano jako wywołanie konstruktora w wyrażeniu new. +Utworzony w ten sposób obiekt istnieje aż do wywołania delete. Obiekty do których wskaźniki zostały zgubione powodują powstanie wycieku pamięci. W C++ można w niektórych implementacjach stosować opcjonalnie odśmiecanie pamięci. +Jedną ze standardowych postaci funkcji operator new z dwoma argumentami jest tzw. placement new, gdzie drugim argumentem jest wskaźnik typu void*, wskazujący pamięć, pod którą należy umieścić obiekt. Operator ten domyślnie nie robi nic poza zwróceniem swojego drugiego argumentu, zatem wyrażenie new używające tego operatora stanowi jedynie sztuczne wywołanie konstruktora. +To ostatnie jest powszechnie stosowane np. w wyrażeniach throw, służących do zgłoszenia wyjątku. +new w Javie i C#. +Słowo kluczowe new w Javie i C# wraz z wyrażeniem konstruktora stanowi wyrażenie tworzące obiekt. Wyrażenie to zwraca referencję do utworzonego obiektu. Jest to jedyne w tych językach dozwolone wyrażenie pozwalające utworzyć obiekt i obowiązuje również w wyrażeniach throw, przez po słowie throw praktycznie zawsze musi być słowo new. +Obiekt utworzony w ten sposób jest obiektem o nieokreślonej trwałości i istnieje przynajmniej tak długo, jak długo istnieją referencje do niego. Odzyskanie pamięci po "zgubionych" obiektach jest zapewnione przez odśmiecanie pamięci. +W Javie i C# ten sposób tworzenia obiektów jest jedynym sposobem tworzenia obiektów typów klasowych. W C# dodatkowo istnieje typ strukturalny, którego obiekty tworzy się tak, jak obiekty typów wbudowanych. +Luboradz (imię) + +Luboradz – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Lubo-" ("miły, luby, kochany") i "-radz" ("radzić" – dawniej "troszczyć się, dbać o coś"). Imię to mogło oznaczać "tego, kto troszczy się o tych, których kocha". +Luboradz imieniny obchodzi 22 grudnia. +Angelina Jolie + +Angelina Jolie, właśc. Angelina Jolie Voight (ur. 4 czerwca 1975 w Los Angeles) – amerykańska aktorka, Ambasador Dobrej Woli UNHCR oraz członkini Rady Stosunków Międzynarodowych. Laureatka Oscara, trzech Złotych Globów i Nagrody Gildii Aktorów Filmowych. +Choć na srebrnym ekranie po raz pierwszy pojawiła się w 1982 roku, grając u boku swego ojca Jona Voighta w filmie "Szukając wyjścia", prawdziwą karierę filmową rozpoczęła dekadę później od niskobudżetowej produkcji pt. ' (1993). Jej pierwszą znaczącą rolą była postać Kate Libby w "Hakerach" (1995). Następnie wystąpiła w docenionym przez krytyków filmie biograficznym "George Wallace" (1997) oraz w obrazie pt. "Gia" (1999). W roku 2000 Jolie otrzymała Oscara dla najlepszej aktorki drugoplanowej za rolę w dramacie "Przerwana lekcja muzyki" (1999). Międzynarodową sławę zyskała dzięki roli bohaterki popularnej serii gier komputerowych Lary Croft w filmie ' (2001). Od tamtej pory stała się jedną z najbardziej rozpoznawalnych i najlepiej opłacanych aktorek Hollywood. Jej największym sukcesem komercyjnym był udział w komedii sensacyjnej "Mr. & Mrs. Smith" (2005), a także w filmie animowanym pt. "Kung Fu Panda" (2008). W 2003 roku zagrała w teledysku do piosenki "Did my Time" zespołu Korn. +Po dwóch nieudanych małżeństwach z Jonnym Lee Millerem i Billym Bobem Thorntonem, Jolie związała się z aktorem Bradem Pittem, z którym ma troje biologicznych dzieci (Shiloh, Knoxa i Vivienne) oraz troje adoptowanych (Maddoxa, Pax i Zaharę). Aktywnie angażuje się w działalność humanitarną na całym świecie, szczególnie w pomoc uchodźcom w ramach ONZ. +Dzieciństwo. +Angelina Jolie urodziła się w Los Angeles, jest córką aktorów Marcheline Bertrand i Jona Voighta. Jej bratem jest James Haven, a rodzicami chrzestnymi Jacqueline Bisset i Maximilian Schell. Od strony ojca jest w 1/4 Słowaczką, a w 1/4 Niemką. Natomiast jej matka była Franko-Kanadyjką, podobno z domieszką krwi Irokezów, choć sam Voight temu zaprzeczał. +Po separacji rodziców w 1976 roku Jolie i jej brat wychowywali się z matką, która porzuciła aktorstwo i wraz z dziećmi wyprowadziła się do Palisades w stanie Nowy Jork. W dzieciństwie Jolie często oglądała filmy z udziałem swojej matki, co – jak później przyznała – zainspirowało ją do rozpoczęcia kariery aktorskiej. W wieku 11 lat wraz z rodziną ponownie zamieszkała w Los Angeles i zdecydowała zapisać się do Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute, gdzie uczyła się przez dwa lata oraz wystąpiła w kilku przedstawieniach. Uczęszczała także do Beverly Hills High School, gdzie – jak sama wspominała – czuła się obco pośród dzieci z bogatych domów. W szkole często była szykanowana przez innych uczniów za anorektyczną sylwetkę, aparat na zęby i skromne ubrania. Po pierwszych nieudanych próbach podjęcia kariery modelki, wysoka dotąd samoocena przyszłej aktorki drastycznie zmalała. Zaczęła się okaleczać, co skomentowała później słowami: „Kolekcjonowałam noże i różne podobne rzeczy. Z jakiegoś powodu rytuał nacinania się i uczucie bólu było dla mnie w jakiś sposób lecznicze, może dawało mi poczucie, że żyję, uczucie pewnego rodzaju wolności”. +W wieku 14 lat zrezygnowała z lekcji gry aktorskiej i postanowiła zostać reżyserem ceremonii pogrzebowych. W tym okresie zaczęła ubierać się na czarno, przefarbowała włosy na kolor fioletowy i wychodziła ze swoim ówczesnych chłopakiem na zabawy, gdzie tańczyła mosh. Dwa lata później, gdy ich związek się rozpadł, Jolie przeprowadziła się w pobliże domu swojej matki, wróciła na studia aktorskie i ukończyła szkołę średnią, choć odnosząc się do tamtego okresu powiedziała w jednym z wywiadów, że „w głębi serca nadal jest i zawsze będzie po prostu punkowym dzieciakiem z tatuażami”. +Przez długi czas Jolie była zrażona do ojca, choć wielokrotnie próbowali się pogodzić, a także wystąpili wspólnie w filmie "". W lipcu 2002 roku aktorka złożyła wniosek o prawną zmianę nazwiska na Angelina Jolie, porzucając dotychczasowe nazwisko Voight. Oficjalnie, zmiana nastąpiła z dniem 12 września 2002 roku. W sierpniu tego samego roku w programie "Access Hollywood" John Voight stwierdził, że jego córka ma „poważne problemy emocjonalne”. Jolie skomentowała to niedługo później mówiąc, że nie ma zamiaru utrzymywać dłużej kontaktów ze swoim ojcem: „Nie rozmawiam z ojcem. Nie czuję do niego nienawiści. Nie wierzę jednak, że ktoś należy do rodziny tylko ze względu na krew. Mój syn został adoptowany, a mimo to jest członkiem mojej rodziny”. Jolie nie chciała upublicznić powodów, dla których nie utrzymuje relacji z ojcem, ograniczając się do stwierdzenia, że teraz gdy adoptowała syna, nie wydaje jej się, aby kontakt z jej ojcem był dobrym pomysłem. +Początki kariery (1993-1997). +Mając 14 lat, Jolie zaczęła pracować jako modelka dla agencji Finesse Model Management, dzięki czemu pojawiła się na wybiegach w Los Angeles, Nowym Jorku i Londynie. Wkrótce potem wystąpiła w kilku teledyskach m.in. Meat Loafa („Rock and Roll Dreams Come Through”), Antonella Venditti („Alta Marea”), Lenny’ego Kravitza („Stand by My Woman”) i The Lemonheads („It’s About Time”). Gdy skończyła 16 lat wróciła do teatru, gdzie zagrała swoją pierwszą rolę. Z czasem zaczęła uczyć się gry od ojca, przyswajać jego metody obserwacji ludzi i naśladowania ich zachowań, a wzajemne relacje między nimi nie były już tak napięte. +Początkowo występowała w studenckich filmach swojego brata, który uczęszczał do USC School of Cinematic Arts. Jednak profesjonalną karierę aktorki zaczęła w 1993 roku, gdy zagrała swoją pierwszą główną rolę w niskobudżetowej produkcji pt. "". Wcieliła się w niej w postać Caselli „Cash” Reese, androida stworzonego w celu zniszczenia głównej siedziby pewnego przedsiębiorstwa. Następnie pojawiła się w kilku niewyróżniających się filmach, by w roku 1995 zagrać w swej pierwszej hollywoodzkiej produkcji, "Hakerach", na których planie poznała swojego przyszłego męża, Jonny’ego Lee Millera. Choć sam film nie odniósł sukcesu kasowego, otworzył Jolie drogę do wielkiej kariery aktorskiej. +W roku 1996 Jolie wystąpiła w komedii "Love Is All There Is", swobodnej, uwspółcześnionej adaptacji dramatu "Romeo i Julia", w której wcieliła się w rolę Giny Malacici, córki jednego z dwóch włoskich restauratorów, rywalizujących o dominację rynkową na nowojorskim Bronxie. Pojawiła się także w filmie pt. "Mojave Moon", gdzie wcieliła się w postać zakochanej dziewczyny, Eleanor Rigby. W tym samym roku wzięła udział w filmie pt. "Wtajemniczenie", w którym zagrała nastolatkę, która postanowiła wymierzyć sprawiedliwość nauczycielowi molestującemu uczennice. +Rok później aktorka pojawiła się u boku Davida Duchovnego w thrillerze "Udając Boga", przedstawiającym historię chirurga, któremu została odebrana licencja lekarza i który wpada w związki ze światem przestępczym, gdzie poznaje graną przez Jolie postać Claire. Film został jednak źle przyjęty przez krytyków. Następnie aktorka wystąpiła w produkcji telewizyjnej pt. "Prawdziwe kobiety", opartym na powieści Janice Woods Windle, dramacie historycznym osadzonym w realiach Dzikiego Zachodu. W 1997 roku Jolie pojawiła się w teledysku zespołu The Rolling Stones do piosenki „Anybody Seen My Baby?”, która stała się światowym hitem. +Przełom (1997-2001). +Kariera aktorska Jolie nabrała tempa po jej występie w filmie biograficznym pt. "George Wallace" z 1997 roku, w którym zagrała rolę Cornelii Wallace, żony tytułowego bohatera, gubernatora stanu Alabama i zwolennika segregacji rasowej, który został postrzelony i sparaliżowany podczas kampanii prezydenckiej do Białego Domu. Za rolę w tym filmie otrzymała Złoty Glob i nominację do nagrody Emmy. Sam film autorstwa Johna Frankenheimera był bardzo chwalony przez krytyków i otrzymał kilka nagród, w tym Złoty Glob za najlepszy film telewizyjny. +W 1998 roku aktorka zagrała tytułową rolę supermodelki Gii Carangi w produkcji telewizji HBO pt. "Gia". Film opisywał świat seksu, narkotyków i osobistych dramatów modelki, stając się kroniką jej życia, jej uzależnienia od heroiny, powolnego upadku i śmierci na AIDS. Vanessa Vance z "Reel.com" zauważyła, że „Angelina Jolie zyskała szerokie uznanie za rolę Gii i łatwo zrozumieć, dlaczego tak się stało. Jolie jest żywa w swej roli, wypełnia ją uczuciami, wdziękiem i desperacją, a jej gra w tym filmie jest chyba najpiękniej sfilmowanym upadkiem człowieka w historii”. +Po zakończeniu zdjęć, Jolie przeniosła się do Nowego Jorku i na krótki czas przestała występować w filmach, gdyż czuła, że nie jest w stanie „pokazać nic więcej”. Zapisała się na Uniwersytet Nowojorski, gdzie uczyła się w klasie o profilu pisarskim. Jak później wspomniała w programie "Inside the Actors Studio", zajęcia „pomogły jej się pozbierać”. +Jolie wróciła na ekrany kin rok później, występując w filmie gangsterskim "Hell’s Kitchen", w którym zagrała Glorię McNeary oraz w obyczajowej "Grze w serca", gdzie zagrała u boku m.in. Seana Connery’ego, Gillian Anderson i Jona Stewarta. Film w przeważającej mierze zebrał dobre recenzje, a kreacja Jolie była szczególnie chwalona. Za swoją rolę otrzymała nagrodę National Board of Review. +W roku 1999 zagrała w komediodramacie Mike’a Newella "Zmęczenie materiału", na którego planie poznała swojego drugiego męża, Billiego Boba Thorntona. Film został przyjęty dość chłodno, a Jolie za rolę uwodzicielskiej żony bohatera granego przez Thorntona została szczególnie mocno skrytykowana. "Washington Post" napisał, że „Mary (Angelina Jolie) jest wręcz śmieszną kreacją kobiety, która wypłakuje się w kwiaty ketmii, ponieważ umiera, nosi ogromne ilości turkusowych bransoletek i staje się prawdziwie samotna, podczas gdy jej mąż Russel spędza noce poza domem”. Później, Jolie zagrała wraz z Denzelem Washingtonem w opartym na motywach powieści Jefferiego Deavera, thrillerze pt. "Kolekcjoner kości", w którym wcieliła się w postać Amelii Donaghy, policjantki dręczonej wyrzutami sumienia po samobójczej śmierci ojca, która pomaga waszyngtońskiej policji schwytać seryjnego mordercę. Produkcja zarobiła na świecie ponad 151 milionów dolarów, choć przez krytyków została zmieszana z błotem. "Detroit Free Press" stwierdził, że „Jolie, która zawsze wypada świetnie, została po prostu źle obsadzona”. +W 2001 roku Jolie po raz pierwszy wystąpiła w superprodukcji, "60 sekund", w której zagrała Sarah „Sway” Wayland, byłą dziewczynę złodzieja samochodów, w którego rolę wcielił się Nicolas Cage. Jej rola była skromna, co "Washington Post" ujął słowami „wszystko, co zrobiła w tym filmie, to chodzenie dookoła [...] i prowokujące oblizywanie językiem ust oraz zębów”. Jolie wyjaśniła później, że potrzebowała takiej roli po trudnym występie w "Przerwanej lekcji muzyki" oraz że była to wtedy jej najbardziej kasowa produkcja (film zarobił 237 milionów dolarów). +Sukces międzynarodowy. +Chociaż zdolności aktorskie Jolie były oceniane bardzo wysoko, produkcje, w których występowała, nie docierały do szerokiej publiczności. Dopiero rola w filmie "" (2001) uczyniła z niej gwiazdę światowego formatu. Aby zagrać rolę Lary Croft w adaptacji popularnej gry komputerowej "Tomb Raider", Jolie musiała opanować brytyjski akcent i przejść intensywny kurs sztuk walki. Choć aktorka była chwalona za fizyczne przygotowanie do roli, sam film został oceniony bardzo negatywnie. Jeden z popularnych magazynów internetowych "Slant Magazine" napisał, że „Angelina Jolie urodziła się do roli Lary Croft, ale (reżyser) Simon West uczynił z jej przygód grę w "Froggera"”. Pomimo tego film okazał się sukcesem kasowym, zarabiając na całym świecie 275 milionów dolarów i zapewniając aktorce międzynarodowy rozgłos. +W tym samym roku Jolie wystąpiła wraz z Antonio Banderasem w opartym na motywach powieści Cornella Woolricha obrazie "Grzeszna miłość", który okazał się jednak porażką i finansową, i artystyczną. Za rolę w tym filmie oraz "Tomb Raiderze" była nominowana do Złotej Maliny. W 2002 roku Jolie zagrała w dramacie "Co za życie", w którym wcieliła się w postać Lanie Kerrigan, ambitnej reporterki telewizyjnej, która dowiaduje się, że pozostał jej tylko tydzień życia. Film został chłodno przyjęty przez krytyków, choć samą Jolie chwalono za warsztat aktorski (mimo tego była ponownie nominowana do Złotej Maliny). Prezenter telewizji CNN Paul Clinton napisał, że „Jolie jest doskonała w swojej roli. Pomimo kilku bezsensownych scen w środku filmu, ta zdobywczyni Oscara jest nadzwyczaj wiarygodna w swej próbie samopoznania i życia pełną piersią”. +W roku 2003 aktorka ponownie wcieliła się w rolę Lary Croft w filmie "". Choć sequel nie okazał się tak wielkim sukcesem jak część pierwsza, przyniósł prawie 156 milionów dolarów zysku. W tym samym roku Jolie pojawiła się w obrazie "Bez granic" opowiadającym o pracy członków organizacji humanitarnych w Afryce. Chociaż odzwierciedlał działania Jolie w prawdziwym życiu, okazał się niewypałem finansowym i artystycznym (za rolę w nim oraz drugiej części "Tomb Raidera" Jolie była po raz trzeci z rzędu nominowana do Złotej Maliny). "Los Angeles Times" napisał „Jolie, jak pokazała w oscarowej "Przerwanej lekcji muzyki", potrafi wypełnić energią i uwiarygodnić rolę, której nie rozumie w realnym życiu. Potrafi także, co udowodniła filmami o Larze Croft, stworzyć bajkową postać. Ale hybryda charakterów, źle napisana rola człowieka, który wierzy, że naprawi świat, kompletnie ją pokonała”. +Rok później aktorka pojawiła się u boku Ethana Hawke w thrillerze "Złodziej życia", w którym zagrała funkcjonariuszkę FBI przysłaną do pomocy policji w Montrealu w schwytaniu seryjnego mordercy. Obraz otrzymał mieszane oceny, a "The Hollywood Reporter" stwierdził że „Angelina Jolie zagrała swą rolę tak, jakby już to kiedyś robiła, a przy okazji dodaje jej trochę podekscytowania i czaru”. Aktorka użyczyła również głosu Loli, jednej z bohaterek wyprodukowanego przez DreamWorks animowanego filmu "Rybki z ferajny", przy którym pracowała m.in. z Willem Smithem, Martinem Scorsese, Renée Zellweger, Jackiem Blackiem i Robertem De Niro. W tym samym roku Jolie zagrała w wyreżyserowanym przez Kerry’ego Conrana przygodowym filmie science-fiction "Sky Kapitan i świat jutra", stworzonym całkowicie za pomocą technologii blue box. Później aktorka wcieliła się w postać Olimpias, matki Aleksandra Wielkiego, w superprodukcji Olivera Stone’a "Aleksander" (2004). Film przypisujący Aleksandrowi biseksualność nie zdobył popularności w Stanach Zjednoczonych, ale okazał się sporym sukcesem poza granicami tego kraju przynosząc dochód w wysokości 139 milionów dolarów. Mimo tego Jolie została czwarty raz z rzędu nominowana do Złotej Maliny, tym razem w dwóch kategoriach – Najgorsza Aktorka ("Złodziej życia" i "Aleksander") oraz Najgorszy Malinowy Przegrany z 7 nominacjami na koncie (każdą nominowaną do nagrody rolę policzono za jedną nominację). +Jedynym filmem z udziałem Jolie w 2005 roku była komedia sensacyjna "Mr. & Mrs. Smith", który do chwili obecnej jest jej największym sukcesem komercyjnym. Film wyreżyserowany przez Douga Limana opowiada historię znudzonego sobą małżeństwa, które po latach życia w kłamstwie odkrywa, że oboje są płatnymi zabójcami. Angelina zagrała rolę Jane Smith, zaś jej męża Brad Pitt. Obraz został dobrze oceniony przez krytyków, a w szczególności chwalono współpracę obu gwiazd na planie. "Star Tribune" zauważył, że „podczas gdy fabuła wydaje się być chaotyczna, film urzeka galopującą energią, współpracą i termonuklearną chemią między obiema gwiazdami”. Film zarobił na świecie 478 milionów dolarów, stając się jednym z największych hitów roku. +Następną produkcją, w której pojawiła się Jolie był film Roberta De Niro pt. "Dobry agent" (2006), traktujący o wczesnej historii CIA widzianej oczyma jednego z jej pracowników, Edwarda Wilsona, granego przez Matta Damona. Jolie wcieliła się w postać Margaret Russell, zaniedbanej żony Wilsona. Według "Chicago Tribune" „Jolie od początku do końca starzeje się przekonująco, a jej słaby charakter wzbudza sympatię publiczności”. +W 2007 roku Jolie zadebiutowała w roli reżysera filmem dokumentalnym "A Place in Time", który ukazuje 27 różnych miejsc na całym świecie, a do którego powstania zaangażowała m.in. Jude Lawa, Hilary Swank, Colina Farrella i Jonny’ego Lee Millera. Dystrybucją filmu zajęło się National Education Association, które rozprowadza go przede wszystkim w amerykańskich szkołach średnich. W tym samym roku Jolie zagrała rolę Mariane Pearl w stylizowanym na dokument filmie Michaela Winterbottoma "Cena odwagi" (2007) opowiadającym historię porwania i zamordowania w Pakistanie reportera "The Wall Street Journal", Daniela Pearla. Scenariusz oparty został na wspomnieniach Mariane Pearl zawartych w jej powieści pod tym samym tytułem, a premiera filmu miała miejsce na Festiwalu Filmowym w Cannes. "The Hollywood Reporter" opisał rolę Jolie w tym obrazie jako „dobrze przemyślaną i poruszającą”. Film przyniósł jej czwartą nominację do Złotego Globu i trzecią nominację do Nagrody Stowarzyszenia Aktorów Filmowych. Zagrała także matkę Grendela w zrealizowanej za pomocą techniki motion capture animowanej epopei pt. "Beowulf" w reżyserii Roberta Zemeckisa. +Rok 2008 przyniósł trzy świetne kreacje aktorki. Pierwsza z nich – w filmie „"Wanted - Ścigani"” przyniosła jej piąta lokatę na corocznej liście najlepszych ról kobiecych stworzoną przez Richarda Corlisse’a dla magazynu „"Time"”. Angelina doskonale sprawdziła się także użyczając głosu postaci Tygrysicy w szeroko komentowanym filmie animowanym „"Kung Fu Panda"”. Największym osiągnięciem Jolie okazała się jednak rola Christine Collins w intrygującym dramacie „"Oszukana"”. Bohaterką filmu jest kobieta, której największym marzeniem jest szczęśliwy powrót do domu jej porwanego syna. Gdy jej żarliwe modlitwy zostają wysłuchane, okazuje się, że chłopak, który wrócił do domu nie jest jej prawdziwym synem, a policja dopuściła się oszustwa w tej sprawie. Kobieta wszczyna sprawę sądową i stawia czoła skorumpowanym policjantom z Los Angeles oraz włodarzom miasta doprowadzając do usunięcia ze stanowiska burmistrza, szefa policji oraz kilku funkcjonariuszy. Kreacja Jolie przypadła do gustu zarówno widzom, jak i krytykom. Nagrodzono ją Satelitą dla najlepszej aktorki w filmie dramatycznym, a także nominacjami do nagród BAFTA, Złotego Globu i prestiżowej Nagrody Amerykańskiej Akademii Filmowej – Oscara. +Działalność humanitarna. +W działalność humanitarną Angelina Jolie zaangażowała się po pobycie w Kambodży w 2001 roku, gdzie kręciła zdjęcia do filmu "". Ogrom biedy, jaki zobaczyła, skłonił ją do zwrócenia się do Wysokiego Komisarza Narodów Zjednoczonych do spraw Uchodźców o informacje dotyczące miejsc, w których występują podobne problemy. W ciągu następnych miesięcy aktorka odwiedziła szereg obozów uchodźców na całym świecie, aby poznać sytuację i warunki, jakie w nich panują. W lutym 2001 Jolie wyruszyła na swoją pierwszą, osiemnastodniową misję humanitarną do Sierra Leone i Tanzanii, gdzie doznała szoku po tym, co zobaczyła. Niedługo potem powróciła na dwa tygodnie do Kambodży, a także spotkała się w Pakistanie z uchodźcami z Afganistanu, na rzecz których przekazała milion dolarów. Nalegała, aby sama mogła pokryć koszty wyprawy oraz by pozwolono jej dzielić trudne warunki pracy i życia razem z innymi członkami misji. +Przez trzy pierwsze lata pracy jako Ambasador Dobrej Woli Jolie skoncentrowała się na pomocy uchodźcom i ludziom przesiedlonym wewnętrznie na obszarze całego świata. Zapytana o to, co chce osiągnąć, odpowiedziała: „Jestem świadoma okropieństw, jakie przeżyli ci ludzie. Uważam, że powinni być podziwiani za to, że je przetrwali, nie tracąc przy tym nadziei”. W 2002 aktorka odwiedziła obóz dla uchodźców Tham Hin w Tajlandii oraz kolumbijskich uchodźców w Ekwadorze. Następnie udała się do różnych ośrodków UNHCR w Kosowie oraz opłaciła koszt pomocy dla obozu Kakuma w Kenii, gdzie mieszkają uciekinierzy z Sudanu. W czasie kręcenia zdjęć do filmu "Bez granic" spotkała się z angolskimi uchodźcami w Namibii. +W roku 2003 Jolie wzięła udział w sześciodniowej misji w Tanzanii, podczas której odwiedziła obozy przy zachodniej granicy kraju, w których schronienie znaleźli emigranci z Demokratycznej Republiki Konga oraz udała się w krótką wizytę do Sri Lanki. Następnie pojechała na cztery dni do Rosji i na Kaukaz Północny. Wkrótce potem aktorka opublikowała zbiór relacji z podróży po świecie pt. "Notes from My Travels", a w grudniu 2003 w czasie prywatnego pobytu w Jordanii poprosiła o spotkanie z irackimi uchodźcami oraz udała się do Egiptu, gdzie odwiedziła wypędzonych mieszkańców sudańskiej prowincji Darfur. +W pierwszą podróż po Stanach Zjednoczonych Jolie wyruszyła w 2004 roku, kiedy udała się do trzech ośrodków dla osób oczekujących na azyl w Arizonie oraz do centrum Southwest Key Program w Phoenix, gdzie przebywają porzucone dzieci. W związku z pogarszającą się sytuacją humanitarną w Sudanie aktorka w czerwcu poleciała do Czadu, składając wizytę w przygranicznych obozach dla osób, które uciekły przed walkami mającymi miejsce w Darfurze, a cztery miesiące później udała się do samego Darfuru. W tym samym roku spotkała się z afgańskimi uchodźcami w Tajlandii, a w okresie świąt Bożego Narodzenia podczas prywatnej wizyty w Libanie odwiedziła biuro UNHCR w Bejrucie, jak również osoby chore na raka z pobliskiego szpitala. +W roku 2005 Jolie odwiedziła pakistańskie obozy, w których przebywają uchodźcy z Afganistanu, a także spotkała się z ówczesnym prezydentem tego kraju, Pervezem Musharrafem, oraz premierem Shaukatem Azizem. Do Pakistanu powróciła wraz z Bradem Pittem w Święto Dziękczynienia, by zobaczyć skutki trzęsienia ziemi w Kaszmirze w 2005. W następnym roku Jolie i Pitt udali się na Haiti, gdzie odwiedzili szkołę wspieraną finansowo przez fundację charytatywną Yéle Haïti, która powstała z inicjatywy pochodzącego z tego kraju muzyka Wyclef Jeana. Święta w 2006 aktorka spędziła w towarzystwie kolumbijskich uchodźców w Kostaryce. W roku 2007 ponownie przyleciała do Czadu, gdzie przeznaczyła milion dolarów na organizacje pomagające ofiarom konfliktu w Darfurze. +W 2005 roku Angelina Jolie wzięła udział w zorganizowanym przez National Press Club obiedzie, podczas którego ogłosiła projekt założenia "National Center for Refugee and Immigrant Children", organizacji, której zadaniem byłoby udzielanie pomocy prawnej osobom szukającym azylu. Oprócz zaangażowania w działalność humanitarną na poziomie politycznym, Jolie zaczęła także wykorzystywać w tym celu popularność w mediach. Nakręciła film dla telewizji MTV pt. "The Diary Of Angelina Jolie & Dr. Jeffrey Sachs in Africa", w którym ukazała swą podróż wraz ze znakomitym ekonomistą dr Jeffreyem Sachsem do osamotnionych wiosek w zachodniej Kenii. W 2006 aktorka ogłosiła powstanie fundacji Jolie-Pitt, której pierwszym zadaniem stało się wsparcie finansowe udzielone organizacjom Global Action for Children oraz Lekarze bez Granic. Angelina współprzewodniczy akcji "Education Partnership for Children of Conflic" zapoczątkowanej w roku 2006 przez William J. Clinton Foundation, której zadaniem jest wspomaganie programów edukacji dzieci dotkniętych przez konflikty. +Za zasługi Jolie na płaszczyźnie działalności humanitarnej Stowarzyszenie Korespondentów ONZ (UNCA) wręczyło aktorce w 2003 nagrodę Sergio Vieira de Mello Citizen of the World, zaś w roku 2005 została laureatką "Global Humanitarian Award" ufundowanej przez United Nations Association of the United States of America. Z kolei król Kambodży Norodom Sihamoni uhonorował aktorkę obywatelstwem swojego kraju za pomoc w ochronie rezerwatu dzikich zwierząt w prowincji Battambang. W 2007 Jolie została członkiem Rady Stosunków Międzynarodowych oraz otrzymała od International Rescue Committee nagrodę Freedom Award. +Życie prywatne. +Związki. +28 marca 1996 roku Angelina poślubiła brytyjskiego aktora Jonny’ego Lee Millera, którego poznała rok wcześniej na planie filmu "Hakerzy" (1995). Podczas ceremonii ślubnej ubrana była w czarne, skórzane spodnie i białą koszulkę, na której własną krwią wypisała imię pana młodego. W następnym roku Jolie i Miller przeszli w stan separacji, a 3 lutego 1999 wzięli rozwód. Choć ich małżeństwo rozpadło się, aktorzy pozostali ze sobą w dobrych stosunkach, co Jolie skomentowała słowami: „Wszystko sprowadza się do wyczucia czasu. Uważam, że jest on (Miller) najlepszym mężem, jakiego może sobie wymarzyć dziewczyna. Zawsze będę go kochała, ale (wtedy) byliśmy po prostu za młodzi”. +Niespełna rok później, 5 maja 2000 roku, Jolie wyszła za aktora Billy’ego Boba Thorntona, którego poznała podczas kręcenia zdjęć do filmu "Zmęczenie materiału" (1999). W wyniku częstych deklaracji namiętnej miłości i publicznego jej okazywania m.in. poprzez noszenie na szyi flakoników z krwią partnera, związek obojga aktorów stał się jednym z ulubionych tematów prasy brukowej. Jolie i Thornton rozwiedli się 27 maja 2003 roku. Zapytana o nagły rozpad małżeństwa aktorka odpowiedziała: „Mnie również to zaskoczyło, ponieważ w ciągu jednej nocy całkowicie się zmieniliśmy. Jednego dnia się kochaliśmy, a następnego już nic nas nie łączyło. Wiem, że to straszne, ale... wydaje mi się, że to się może zdarzyć, gdy jesteś zaangażowany, choć jeszcze do końca nie znasz samego siebie”. +Aktorka w wielu wywiadach podkreślała, że jest biseksualna i potwierdziła, że miała kontakty seksualne z koleżanką z planu filmu "Wtajemniczenie" (1996) Jenny Shimizu. „Gdybym nie miała męża, poślubiłabym Jenny. Zakochałam się w niej w pierwszej sekundzie, gdy tylko ją zobaczyłam”. W roku 2003 na pytanie, czy jest biseksualna, Angelina odpowiedziała: „Oczywiście. Jeśli jutro zakocham się w kobiecie, czy czułabym że to jest ok, że chce ją pocałować w usta, dotknąć jej? Gdybym się w niej zakochała? Tak!”. "Nota bene": w 2007 i 2008 r. Angelina Jolie znalazła się wśród setki najseksowniejszych kobiet świata opublikowanej w lesbijskim portalu internetowym „AfterEllen”. +Na początku roku 2005 aktorka stała się bohaterką szeroko opisywanego na łamach hollywoodzkiej prasy skandalu. Jolie została oskarżona o romans z Bradem Pittem, którego poznała na planie filmu "Mr. & Mrs. Smith" (2005), co miało być główną przyczyną rozwodu aktora z gwiazdą serialu "Przyjaciele" Jennifer Aniston. Sama aktorka wielokrotnie zaprzeczała tym plotkom, a w jednym z wywiadów wyjaśniła: „Bycie w intymnych stosunkach z żonatym mężczyzną, podczas gdy mój własny ojciec zdradzał moją matkę, jest czymś czego nie mogłabym wybaczyć. Gdybym coś takiego zrobiła, nie mogłabym rano spojrzeć w lustro. Nie chciałabym być pociągająca dla mężczyzny, który zdradza swoją żonę.” +Choć Jolie i Pitt nigdy publicznie nie wypowiadali się na temat natury ich wzajemnych relacji, media spekulowały na ten temat przez cały rok (2005). Pierwsze intymne zdjęcie pary, zrobione przez paparazzich, pojawiło się w prasie w kwietniu. W tym samym miesiącu Aniston złożyła pozew o rozwód. Zdjęcia przedstawiały oboje aktorów i adoptowanego syna Angeliny Maddoxa na plaży w Kenii. Przez cały okres lata Jolie i Pitt byli widziani razem ze wzrastającą częstotliwością, a większość brukowców ogłosiła ich parą, nadając im miano „Brangelina”. 11 stycznia 2006 roku Angelina na łamach magazynu "People" potwierdziła, że jest w ciąży, a ojcem jej nienarodzonego dziecka jest Pitt. Był to pierwszy raz, gdy aktorka oficjalnie przyznała się do tego związku. +W kwietniu 2012 r. menedżerka Pitta ogłosiła zaręczyny Angeliny i Brada. +Dzieci. +Dzieci Angeliny Jolie +Pierwszym dzieckiem Angeliny był adoptowany przez nią 10 marca 2002 roku, siedmiomiesięczny Maddox Chivan Jolie-Pitt (wtedy Maddox Chivan Thornton Jolie). Maddox urodził się 5 sierpnia 2001 roku w Kambodży, gdzie jeszcze jako Rath Vibol został oddany przez matkę do sierocińca w Battambang. Aktorka zdecydowała się złożyć wniosek o adopcję chłopca, po tym jak dwukrotnie odwiedziła ten kraj, podczas zdjęć do filmu "" i jako przedstawiciel UNHCR w roku 2001. Po rozwodzie z Billym Bobem Thorntonem, Jolie otrzymała wyłączne prawo do opieki nad Maddoxem, który szybko stał się popularny wśród prasy brukowej. +Kolejnej adopcji Jolie dokonała 6 lipca 2005 roku, kiedy to otrzymała prawa do wychowywania sześciomiesięcznej dziewczynki z Etiopii, Zahary Marley Jolie-Pitt (wtedy Zahary Marley Jolie). Zahara przyszła na świat 8 stycznia 2005 roku jako Yemsrach (po swojej biologicznej matce), choć w sierocińcu w Addis Abebie otrzymała nowe imię Tena Adam. Wkrótce po przybyciu do Stanów Zjednoczonych, dziewczynka została hospitalizowana z powodu odwodnienia i niedożywienia. W roku 2007 media doniosły, że biologiczna matka Zahary, Mentewabe Dawit, nadal żyje i żąda oddania jej córki, choć sama później zaprzeczyła tym pogłoskom, mówiąc, że jej zdaniem Zahara miała „ogromne szczęście” trafiając pod opiekę Jolie. +Podczas podpisywania przez Jolie dokumentów adopcyjnych Zahary obecny był Brad Pitt. Aktorka wyznała później, że decyzję o tym para podjęła wspólnie. Z kolei 19 stycznia 2006 roku sąd w Kalifornii zaakceptował wniosek Pitta o prawną adopcję dwójki dzieci Angeliny oraz formalną zmianę ich nazwiska na „Jolie-Pitt”. +Pierwszą biologiczną córkę, Shiloh Nouvel Jolie-Pitt, aktorka urodziła za pomocą cesarskiego cięcia 27 maja 2006 roku w leżącym na zachodzie Namibii mieście Swakopmund. Brad Pitt potwierdził wkrótce przypuszczenia prasy, że ich nowo narodzona córka będzie posiadała namibijski paszport, a Jolie zdecydowała się sprzedać prawa do pierwszych zdjęć Shiloh firmie Getty Images, a nie pozwolić, by zrobili je paparazzi. Magazyn "People" zapłacił ponad 4 miliony dolarów za prawa do publikacji na obszarze Ameryki Północnej, podczas gdy brytyjski magazyn "Hello!" 3,5 miliona za prawa do publikacji na całym świecie. Pieniądze zarobione w ten sposób Jolie i Pitt przekazali nieujawnionej z nazwy organizacji charytatywnej. Niedługo później Muzeum Figur Woskowych Madame Tussaud odsłoniło postać dwumiesięcznej Shiloh, która stała się pierwszym niemowlęciem posiadającym swoją woskową kopię w tym muzeum. +15 marca 2007 roku Angelina adoptowała trzyletniego chłopca z Wietnamu o imieniu Pax Thien Jolie-Pitt (wtedy Pax Thien Jolie), urodzonego 29 listopada 2003 roku i porzuconego po porodzie w lokalnym szpitalu, gdzie początkowo nazwano go Phạm Quang Sáng. Aktorka zabrała go z sierocińca Tam Binh w mieście Ho Chi Minh. Jolie ujawniła, że imię Pax zasugerowała jej przed śmiercią matka chłopca. +Przez następne miesiące prasa brukowa spekulowała, że aktorka jest w podwójnej ciąży, co sama Angelina potwierdziła na Festiwalu Filmowym w Cannes w 2008 roku. 12 lipca w szpitalu Lenval w Nicei z pomocą cesarskiego cięcia urodziła parę bliźniąt: chłopca Knoxa Leona Jolie-Pitta i dziewczynkę Vivienne Marcheline Jolie-Pitt. Prawa do pierwszych zdjęć Knoxa i Vivienne kupiły wspólnie magazyny "People" i "Hello!" za sumę 14 milionów dolarów, co uczyniło je najdroższymi fotografiami dzieci gwiazd w historii. Otrzymane w ten sposób pieniądze zasiliły konto Fundacji Jolie-Pitt. +Angelina Jolie w mediach. +Angelina Jolie pojawiała się w mediach od najmłodszych lat, co wynikało z faktu, że jest córką znanego hollywoodzkiego aktora Jona Voighta. Gdy była siedmioletnią dziewczynką, zagrała niewielką rolę u boku swego ojca w filmie "Lookin' to Get Out", a w latach 1986 i 1988 brała z nim udział w ceremoniach rozdania Oscarów. Jednakże, gdy rozpoczynała karierę aktorską, zdecydowała się nie używać nazwiska „Voight”, nie chcąc być posądzaną o to, że role w filmach zawdzięcza jedynie sławnemu ojcu. Angelina nigdy nie wstydziła się być osobą kontrowersyjną i w początkowym okresie kariery tworzyła wokół siebie image nastoletniej skandalistki, m.in. podczas przemowy na uroczystości wręczenia Oscarów w 2000 roku wyznała: „Jestem zakochana w swoim bracie.”. Fakt, iż pocałowała swego brata tej samej nocy w usta, wywołał spekulacje wśród tabloidów na temat ich rzekomego kazirodczego związku. Zarówno aktorka, jak i jej brat, jednoznacznie zaprzeczyli tym plotkom, wyjaśniając później w licznych wywiadach, że po rozwodzie rodziców jako rodzeństwo byli zdani tylko na siebie, a to wzmocniło ich wspólne więzi emocjonalne. +Jolie uważana jest za „jedną z największych gwiazd, która nie zatrudnia specjalistów od marketingu”, a jednocześnie zyskała zainteresowanie prasy brukowej, będąc bardzo „wylewną” w wywiadach, m.in. opisując swe życie intymne i fascynację BDSM oraz twierdząc, że chciałaby się przespać z jedną ze swych fanek. Najbardziej wyróżniająca cecha fizyczna aktorki, usta, stały się tematem wielu komentarzy prasy oraz „standardem piękna na Zachodzie” wśród kobiet poddających się operacjom plastycznym. Jolie pojawiła się na nagłówkach wielu gazet również z powodu szeroko komentowanego związku z Billym Bobem Thorntonem oraz późniejszej przemiany w aktywistkę na rzecz działalności humanitarnej. Gdy została Ambasadorem Dobrej Woli UNHCR, zaczęła wykorzystywać status gwiazdy w lobbowaniu w sprawach ważnych dla świata. Od 2004 aktorka brała lekcje pilotażu, zdała egzamin na licencję pilota i kupiła prywatny samolot Cirrus SR22. Media wielokrotnie spekulowały, że Jolie wyznaje buddyzm, ale aktorka przyznała, że uczy jedynie buddyzmu swego syna Maddoxa, ponieważ jest to część jego kultury. Jolie nie określiła jednoznacznie, czy wierzy w Boga. Zapytana w 2000 czy istnieje Bóg, powiedziała: „Wydaje mi się że istnieje dla ludzi, którzy w Niego wierzą. Ja natomiast Go nie potrzebuję”. +Mający początek w 2005 roku związek aktorki z Bradem Pittem stał się jednym z najczęściej opisywanych tematów w światowej prasie plotkarskiej. Po tym, jak na początku 2006 Jolie potwierdziła, że jest w ciąży, parę otoczył niespotykany dotąd na tę skalę szum medialny, który „osiągnął stopień szaleństwa”, jak to opisał Reuters w notatce „The Brangelina fever”. Chcąc uniknąć zainteresowania mediów, para postanowiła urodzić Shiloh („najbardziej oczekiwane dziecko po Jezusie”, jak opisały je media) w Namibii. Dwa lata później druga ciąża Angeliny „nakręciła” kolejny szał medialny. Przez dwa tygodnie, które aktorka spędziła w szpitalu w Nicei, reporterzy i fotografowie koczowali przed budynkiem, aby ogłosić światu narodziny bliźniąt. +Obecnie Jolie jest jedną z najlepiej rozpoznawalnych na świecie gwiazd Hollywood. Według badań Q score po otrzymaniu Oscara w 2000 Angelinę rozpoznawało około 31% Amerykanów, w 2006 natomiast było to już 81% respondentów. W 2006 badania marketingowe firmy ACNielsen, przeprowadzone w 42 państwach, wykazały, że Angelina Jolie i Brad Pitt są w opinii przedsiębiorstw z całego świata najbardziej pożądanymi promotorami ich marek i produktów. Jolie w latach 2006 i 2008 znalazła się na liście stu najbardziej wpływowych ludzi świata wg magazynu „Time”. W roku 2006 została wybrana najpiękniejszą kobietą świata w rankingu magazynu "People" oraz wygrała głosowanie wśród widzów brytyjskiej stacji Channel 4 na symbol seksu wszech czasów w 2007 roku. W latach 2006-2008 zajmowała czołowe miejsca w sporządzanej corocznie liście najbardziej wpływowych gwiazd mediów "Celebrity 100" wg czasopisma "Forbes". Jolie została również wpisana do mającej ukazać się w 2009 księgi rekordów Guinnessa jako najbardziej wpływowa aktorka. +Tatuaże. +Tatuaże na ciele Angeliny są przedmiotem częstych komentarzy i dociekań ze strony mediów. Sama aktorka stwierdziła, że nie przeszkadzają jej one w pracy, a przy obecnym poziomie techniki filmowej mogą zostać łatwo zamaskowane. W wielu produkcjach, w których występowała Jolie jej tatuaże ukrywano za pomocą makijażu. +Obecnie aktorka posiada 13 tatuaży, wśród nich cytat Tennessee Williamsa „Modlący się za dzikość serca, trzymany w klatce.”, który nosiła również jej matka, arabski zwrot „لعزيمة” (siła woli), łacińskie przysłowie „quod me nutrit me destruit” (co mnie żywi, niszczy mnie – zob. Christopher Marlowe) oraz zapisaną w starożytnym języku Khmerów modlitwę za swego syna Maddoxa. Na lewym ramieniu ma wytatuowane geograficzne koordynaty miejsc, w których urodziły się jej dzieci. +Jolie usunęła część swoich tatuaży m.in. imię byłego męża Billy Boba Thorntona, chiński symbol śmierci i okno, które nosiła na dolnej części pleców. Zakrycie tego ostatniego wyjaśniła później, mówiąc, że w dzieciństwie wiele czasu spędzała wyglądając przez okno, a teraz żyje na zewnątrz cały czas. +Siemoradz + +Siemoradz – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Siemo-" (psł. "*sěmьja" ma m.in. znaczenia "rodzina, ród; czeladź, służba, własność") i "-radz" ('"radzić" – dawniej "troszczyć się, dbać o coś"). Znaczenie imienia: "ten, który troszczy się o swoją rodzinę". +Jokohama + +Historia. +Miasto powstało w 1858 r. przez połączenie dwóch niewielkich wiosek - Jokohama i Kanagawa, których mieszkańcy trudnili się rolnictwem i rybołówstwem. Wtedy też zaczęto budowę portu, mogącego przyjąć przypływające z zagranicy statki handlowe. Już w następnym roku ogłoszono Jokohamę portem otwartym dla obcych jednostek. +W ciągu następnych dwóch dziesięcioleci stała się ona jednym z najważniejszych portów Wysp Japońskich i w 1889 r. osiągnęła 122 tys. mieszkańców. Znaczącymi krokami w rozwoju infrastruktury miejskiej była budowa sieci wodociągowej (1887) i elektryfikacja miasta (1890). Jednym z najdramatyczniejszych zdarzeń, jakie dotknęły miasto, było potężne trzęsienie ziemi w 1923 r., podczas którego śmierć poniosło około 20 tys. osób, a w gruzach legło bądź spłonęło 60 tys. budynków. Dzięki wielkiemu wysiłkowi władz i mieszkańców miasto odbudowano do końca 1929 r. +W 1931 r. prowadzone u ujścia rzeki Tsurumi prace doprowadziły do osuszenia znacznych terenów, na których zbudowano potem wiele obiektów przemysłowych. Kolejne dramatyczne chwile miasto przeżyło podczas amerykańskich bombardowań w 1945 r. Do najtragiczniejszego nalotu doszło 29 V, kiedy zginęło ponad 14 tys. osób, a zniszczeniu uległo prawie 80 tys. budynków. +Klimat. +Klimat jest łagodny, na co niewątpliwie wpływ ma nadmorskie położenie miasta. Średnia temperatura roku to 16-17 °C, przy średnich stycznia i sierpnia wynoszących odpowiednio 5,6 °C i 26,4 °C. Roczna suma opadów osiąga 1 630 mm, a ich maksimum przypada na czerwiec i wrzesień (odpowiednio 190 i 230 mm). +Dzielnice miasta. +Niemal całą nadmorską część centrum zajmują nabrzeża portowe, infrastruktura do przeładunku towarów i magazyny. +Przemysł. +W Jokohamie rozwija się przemysł: stalowy, stoczniowy, maszynowy, elektroniczny i elektrotechniczny, środków transportu, chemiczny, rafineryjny, włókienniczy, odzieżowy, spożywczy. +Leonard Skierski + +Leonard Skierski (ur. 26 kwietnia 1866 w Stopnicy, zamordowany w kwietniu 1940 w Charkowie) – generał-major Armii Imperium Rosyjskiego i generał dywizji Wojska Polskiego. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w starej rodzinie szlacheckiej (herbu Puchała) wyznania kalwińskiego (ewangelicko-reformowanego) jako syn Henryka Skierskiego i jego żony Heleny z Hassmanów. Jego młodszy brat Stefan Skierski (1873–1948) był pastorem i wieloletnim superintendentem (biskupem) Kościoła Ewangelicko-Reformowanego. +W związku z wyznaniem ewangelickim, nie dotyczyło go ograniczenie imperatorskie o ograniczeniu służby w armii carskiej Polaków wyznania katolickiego, wstąpił ochotniczo do wojska. Ukończył Woroneski Korpus Kadetów i Michajłowską Szkołę Artyleryjską w Petersburgu w 1887. Mianowany do stopnia oficerskiego w 1888 w 3 Brygadzie Artylerii Gwardii. W latach dziewięćdziesiątych XIX w. uczestniczył w ekspedycji w Pamir. W 1906 pułkownik artylerii armii carskiej. +W początkach I wojny światowej dowodził drugim dywizjonem 3 Brygady Artylerii Gwardii. W lutym 1915 został awansowany do stopnia generała majora, szef sztabu 21 Korpusu Armijnego. 28 kwietnia 1917 inspektor artylerii 5 Korpusu Armijnego. Po wybuchu rewolucji lutowej 1917 zorganizował w 5 Korpusie Stowarzyszenie Żołnierzy Polaków, z zamiarem tworzenia IV Korpusu Polskiego w Rosji. Był aresztowany przez bolszewików, ale udało mu się zbiec na Ukrainę, gdzie wstąpił do II Korpusu Polskiego w Rosji gen. Eugeniusza de Henning-Michaelisa. Po rozbrojeniu Korpusu przez wojska austro-węgierskie, Skierski uniknął aresztu i walczył w oddziałach "białych". +Od maja 1919 w Wojsku Polskim. Od 1 czerwcu 1919 zweryfikowany generałem dywizji. W dniach przewrotu majowego 1926 opowiedział się po stronie J. Piłsudskiego, aresztowany przez zwolenników rządu. Zwolniony, potem faworyzowany przez piłsudczyków. +W grudniu 1931 został przeniesiony w stan spoczynku. Osiadł w Warszawie. Działał w stowarzyszeniach Kościoła Ewangelicko-Reformowanego w Polsce. W 1936 został wybrany przewodniczącym Synodu Kościoła. 17 września 1939 przebywał gościnnie u gen. S. Sołłohuba-Dowoyno w majątku Ziołowo k. Kobrynia. Po agresji sowieckiej 17 września 1939 i aneksji wschodnich terenów II Rzeczypospolitej, pomimo pozostawania w stanie spoczynku został przez NKWD aresztowany i wywieziony do obozu w Starobielsku, a następnie w 1940 zamordowany w siedzibie NKWD w Charkowie. +Postanowieniem nr 112-48-07 Prezydenta RP, Lecha Kaczyńskiego z dnia 5 października 2007 został mianowany pośmiertnie do stopnia generała broni. Awans został ogłoszony 9 listopada 2007 w Warszawie, w trakcie uroczystości "Katyń Pamiętamy – Uczcijmy Pamięć Bohaterów". +Motogodzina + +Motogodzina (w skrócie "mth" lub "mtg") jednostka miary czasu pracy maszyny, obliczanej jako różnica między czasem jej zakończenia a rozpoczęcia, odpowiadająca godzinie – uwielokrotnionej podstawowej jednostce czasu układu SI. +Przykład: "Dla wykonania określonej pracy remontowej drogi użyto następujących maszyn:" +"9:00 (h) – 7:00 (h) = 2 h → 2 mth" +"12:15 (h) – 8:00 (h) = 4 h 15 min → 4,25 mth" +"16:30 (h) – 16:00 (h) = 30 min → 0,5 mth " +"2 mth + 4,25 mth + 0,5 mth = 6,75 mth" +"Ogólny czas pracy maszyn wykorzystanych w pracach drogowych wynosi 6,75 mth." +Jednostka wykorzystywana w działaniach ekonomicznych (bardzo często w rozliczeniach), a także w statystycznych, gospodarce materiałowej; często jako punkt odniesienia dla innych obliczeń (zwłaszcza kosztowych) bądź składowa ich algorytmów. +W maszynach o zmiennych obrotach. +Definicja motogodziny maszyn ze zmienną prędkością obrotową jest liczona uwzględniając maksymalne obroty maszyny w stosunku do tych na jakich w danym momencie pracuje. Tak naprawdę definicja motogodziny powinna być ściśle rozdzielona i zdefiniowana osobno dla pomiaru czasu rzeczywistego oraz osobno dla pomiaru przebiegu. +Jeżeli maszyny są wyposażone w liczniki, które mierzą różnicę czasu włączenia do czasu wyłączenia silnika, jest to tylko wskaźnik pozwalający rozliczyć się za czas pracy maszyny ze zleceniobiorcą. Nic bardziej wprowadzającego w błąd i prowadzącego do fatalnych skutków uszkodzeń maszyn wynikłych z niewłaściwej jej eksploatacji. Jedynie motogodzina określa faktyczny czas, którego nie można przekraczać w dokonywaniu okresowych przeglądów. +Obliczenie stosunku rzeczywistego czasu pracy maszyny do ilości przepracowanych motogodzin prowadzi do określenia faktycznego odzwierciedlenia jak maszyna pracowała. Jeżeli pracownik pił kawę a silnik pracował na obciążeniu jałowym, to stosunek czasu pracy maszyny do ilości motogodzin wyniesie 1:0,2. Jeśli maszyna pracowałaby w większości na pełnym obciążeniu tak stosunek wynosiłny w przybliżeniu 1:1. +Maszyny wyposażone w silniki spalinowe i inne np. ciągniki rolnicze, kombajny, agregaty prądotwórcze, mają wbudowane liczniki motogodzin pracy. Wskazania ich decydują o przeglądach i remontach, a także o sposobie naliczania opłat za wykonaną pracę (np. w kółkach rolniczych). +Liczniki motogodzin są odpowiednikami liczników kilometrów w samochodach. +Uwaga: W praktyce stosuje się zarówno dziesiętny, jak i godzinowo–minutowy zapis motogodzin. +Amitoza + +Amitoza (podział amitotyczny) − bezpośredni podział jądra komórkowego przez przewężenie i utworzenie dwóch części, zawierających niejednakową, przypadkowo rozdzieloną ilość chromatyny. W podziale tym nić DNA nie ulega replikacji, chromosomy są niewidoczne, wrzeciono podziałowe się nie wykształca, a cytoplazma nie ulega podziałowi, co prowadzi do powstania komórki dwujądrowej. +Terminem „amitoza” określany bywa też podział komórki prokariotycznej. +Podział ten przeważnie jest objawem starzenia się i degeneracji (komórki ulegają wtedy programowanemu samozniszczeniu), jest obserwowany w komórkach, które utraciły zdolność do podziałów mitotycznych. Niepatologicznie podział ten występuje w makronukleusie u orzęsków ("Cilliata"), bielmie roślin kwiatowych, a u zwierząt w komórkach wątroby, mięśnia sercowego, szyszynki i w niektórych komórkach nerwowych. +Ponieważ w podziale amitotycznym nie ma gwarancji, że nastąpi przekazanie każdego chromosomu komórce potomnej, makronukleus orzęsków ma zwielokrotnioną liczbę kopii garnituru chromosomowego (poliploidia), minimalizując tym samym prawdopodobieństwo zagubienia chromosomu podczas podziału. +Królestwo Danii + +Królestwo Danii (dun. "Kongeriget Danmark") – państwo położone w Europie i Ameryce Północnej, tworzone przez Danię, Grenlandię i Wyspy Owcze. Królestwo Danii jest monarchią konstytucyjną. +Grenlandia i Wyspy Owcze są terytoriami zależnymi Danii. Konstytucja Danii nie definiuje w sposób precyzyjny statusu poszczególnych części państwa względem siebie. Oba terytoria nie są koloniami, ale regionami administracyjnymi, jednak konstytucja nie definiuje państwa duńskiego jako unitarnego. Każda z trzech części państwa posiada osobną administrację kierowaną przez własne rządy. +Koń holsztyński + +Koń holsztyński - silny, duży, kalibrowy koń gorącokrwisty. Przeważa maść gniada z wszystkimi odcieniami, ale mogą też występować inne rodzaje umaszczenia. Znakowany piętnem. +Holsztyński region hodowlany znany jest od średniowiecza. Hodowlę popierały panujące tu dwory: duński i północnoniemiecki. W XVIII i XIX wieku bardzo ceniono raczej konie ciężkie, ale energiczne i o żywym temperamencie, do powozu i pod wierzch. Francuski mistrz jazdy konnej Guériniere chwalił także ich uzdolnienia do ujeżdżenia wedle klasycznej szkoły. Obecnie konie te hoduje się zgodnie z wzorcem niemieckiego konia wierzchowego: lekkie w typie, przeznaczone do użytkowania wierzchowego. Hodowla znajduje się przede wszystkim w rękach prywatnych. +Wysokość: 160 - 170 cm +Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie + +Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie – uczelnia publiczna powołana do życia w 1944 roku, jako piąty uniwersytet w Polsce. +Kolejność nazwisk patronki wymienianych w nazwie Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej jest warunkowana regułą obecną w języku francuskim. Uczelnia została powołana do życia pod obecną nazwą dnia 23 października 1944 roku. Obowiązujące w tym względzie przepisy prawne nie dają możliwości zmiany nazwy uczelni władzom uczelni. Decyzję taką mogłaby podjąć wyłącznie władza ustawodawcza. Sama patronka UMCS używała zamiennie obu form pisowni swego nazwiska, czego dowodem jest jej podpis złożony w księdze gości archikatedry lubelskiej w 1930. +Historia. +Uniwersytet został powołany do życia 23 października 1944 roku jako uczelnia państwowa, początkowo z czterema wydziałami: Lekarskim, Przyrodniczym, Rolnym i Weterynaryjnym. W ciągu niecałych trzech miesięcy zaistniał piąty Wydział Farmaceutyczny, a uroczysta inauguracja pierwszego roku akademickiego miała miejsce 14 stycznia 1945 roku. +Kadrę naukową stanowiło wówczas 42 profesorów, m.in. z uczelni Lwowa i Wilna. Studia podjęło wtedy 806 słuchaczy. Organizatorem i pierwszym rektorem Uniwersytetu był zoolog prof. Henryk Raabe. +Ten profil Uniwersytetu utrzymał się do lat 50. XX w. W 1949 roku uczelnia powiększyła się o Wydział Prawa. Rok później z Uniwersytetu wydzielono fakultety: Lekarski i Farmaceutyczny, które dały podstawę Akademii Medycznej obecnie Uniwersytetowi Medycznemu. W 1951 istniejący już Wydział Matematyczno-Przyrodniczy podzielił się na dwa Wydziały: Matematyki, Fizyki i Chemii oraz Biologii i Nauk o Ziemi. Rok później otwarto Wydział Humanistyczny, a w 1953 roku Zootechniczny. +Znaczącą reorganizację struktury Uniwersytet przeżył w 1955 roku, gdy wyodrębniono z niego Wydziały: Rolny, Weterynaryjny i Zootechniczny, które stały się podwalinami Akademii Rolniczej obecnie Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego. W drugą połowę lat 50. Uniwersytet wkraczał z czterema wydziałami: Biologii i Nauk o Ziemi, Matematyki, Fizyki i Chemii, Prawa oraz Humanistycznym. Pracowało wówczas na Uczelni 414 osób, w tym 55 profesorów i docentów oraz 145 pomocniczych pracowników naukowych, a studiowało 1389 słuchaczy. +Wydziały. +Studia międzykierunkowe. +Ogółem liczba studentów w roku akademickim 2012/2013 wynosi 26 661 (18 811 w trybie stacjonarnym, 4 829 w trybie niestacjonarnym, 2221 na studiach podyplomowych oraz 800 doktorantów) +Baza uczelni. +UMCS kształci studentów w 11 budynkach dydaktycznych. 3 z nich to zabytkowe pałace w centrum Lublina przy Placu Litewskim (Wydział Politologii) i ul. Narutowicza (Wydział Pedagogiki i Psychologii). Pozostałe znajdują się na terenie zbudowanego z inicjatywy profesora Grzegorza Leopolda Seidlera Miasteczka Akademickiego. +Miasteczko akademickie. +Kampus jest ograniczony ulicami: Uniwersytecką (od wschodu), Głęboką (od południa), al. Kraśnicką (od zachodu) i ul. Weteranów (od północy). Na terenie kampusu znajduje się 10 domów studenckich (Amor, Babilon, Cebion, Dodek, Eskulap, Femina, Grześ, Helios, Ikar, Jowisz) oraz nowe komercyjne akademiki (poza kampusem znajdują się jedynie dom studencki "Zana" oraz Dom Studenta Zaocznego), rektorat, siedziby większości wydziałów (poza Wydziałem Politologii oraz Wydziałem Pedagogiki i Psychologii), przychodnia studencka, biblioteki, Akademicki Ośrodek Sportowy (korty, boiska, kilkanaście sal sportowych, duża hala i basen) oraz Akademickie Centrum Kultury. Działa tu także Biuro Karier UMCS i Wydawnictwo Uniwersyteckie. W obrębie miasteczka akademickiego znajdują się także obiekty KUL oraz Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego. +Akademickie Centrum Kultury. +Powstałe w 1965 roku Akademickie Centrum Kultury UMCS "Chatka Żaka" to drugi co do wielkości ośrodek kulturalny w Lublinie. Centrum jest organizatorem wielu imprez kulturalnych, koncertów, spotkań z artystami, przeglądów filmowych i teatralnych, m.in. Festiwalu Kultury Alternatywnej ZDAERZENIA i Międzynarodowych Dni Filmu Dokumentalnego "Rozstaje Europy". Dzięki zespołowi Orkiestra św. Mikołaja i wydawanemu przez niego periodykowi Gadki z Chatki jest także silnym ośrodkiem muzyki folkowej w Polsce. +Sieć akademicka. +Sieć akademicka LubMAN na wiele lat opóźniła wejście komercyjnych operatorów do Lublina, oferując usługi mieszkańcom, z uwagi na rozległe położenie światłowodów w mieście. +Max Cavalera + +Max Cavalera, właściwie Massimiliano Antonio Cavalera (ur. 4 sierpnia 1969 w Belo Horizonte) - brazylijski wokalista i gitarzysta metalowy, założyciel i do 1996 frontman Sepultury, od 1997 lider zespołu Soulfly. +W 1983 roku wraz ze swoim bratem Igorem założył Sepulturę. W latach 1993 - 1995 udzielał się równolegle w utworzonym razem z Alexem Newportem projekcie Nailbomb. +16 grudnia 1996, po ostatnim koncercie trasy promującej album Sepultury "Roots" w Brixton Academy w Londynie, Cavalera odszedł z zespołu. Powodem odejścia był konflikt dotyczący menedżera Sepultury - żony Maksa, Glorii (pozostali członkowie grupy nie chcieli przedłużać z nią kontraktu). Wcześniej, w tym samym roku, w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach zginął pasierb muzyka, Dana Wells. To wydarzenie miało duży wpływ na dalszą twórczość Cavalery, który w 1997 założył grupę Soulfly, w której występuje do dziś. +W 2007 roku wrócił do współpracy z bratem, zakładając wraz z nim projekt Cavalera Conspiracy. +Od 1990 mieszka w Phoenix w stanie Arizona, posiada obywatelstwo amerykańskie. Z żoną Glorią ma dwóch synów: Zyona i Igora Amadeusa. Obaj udzielili się gościnnie na płycie "Omen" zespołu Soulfly z 2010. Są członkami grupy Mold Breaker (Igor - gitarzysta, Zyon - perkusista), która w 2011 występuje jako support przed grupą ich ojca i stryja Cavalera Conspiracy. +Powiat cieszyński + +Powiat cieszyński – powiat w Polsce (województwo śląskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Cieszyn. +Położony jest w południowej części województwa śląskiego, przy granicy z Czechami i Słowacją. Powierzchnia powiatu wynosi 730,20 km², zamieszkuje go 170 400 mieszkańców. Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 233 mieszkańców na 1 km² (2004). Wszystkie gminy powiatu należą do Euroregionu Śląsk Cieszyński, zarazem stanowiąc trzon tego euroregionu po polskiej stronie. +Podział administracyjny. +Gminy wiejskie:; +Położenie geograficzne. +Powiat zajmuje środkową i zachodnią część Pogórza Śląskiego oraz Beskid Śląski. Północna część powiatu to Kotlina Oświęcimska. +Historia powiatu. +Powiat cieszyński zajmuje znaczny obszar Śląska Cieszyńskiego, czyli dawnych ziem Księstwa Cieszyńskiego. Nawiązywanie powiatu do przeszłości tych ziem jest także podkreślone w herbie powiatu cieszyńskiego, które jest dawnym herbem Księstwa. +Według urzędowej statystyki z 1890 roku, w ówczesnym powiecie cieszyńskim ludności polskojęzycznej było 39.258, natomiast ludności czeskiej znacznie mniej - 4.912. +Kultura i turystyka. +Powiat cieszyński jest zamieszkiwany przez duży odsetek ludności autochtonicznej, określających się jako tzw. "Cieszyniocy". +Gospodarka. +Gospodarka powiatu oparta jest głównie o rolnictwo i usługi. +Spore oczekiwania niesie ze sobą także dynamicznie rozwijający się przemysł turystyczny. Na terenie powiatu znajdują się licznie odwiedzane miejscowości wypoczynkowe, jak Wisła, Brenna i Ustroń, gdzie znajdują się liczne pensjonaty i hotele. +Szymon Niemiec (działacz LGBT) + +Szymon Niemiec (ur. 5 października 1977 w Warszawie) – polski działacz organizacji LGBT, duchowny chrześcijańsko-progresywny. +Życiorys. +Absolwent studiów licencjackich na Wydziale Politologii i Nauk Społecznych Wyższej Szkoły Komunikowania i Mediów Społecznych w Warszawie. Posiada ponadto uprawnienia instruktora teatralnego, instruktora modelingu i fotomodelingu. Od lat 90. zajmuje się fotografią. W latach 1987–2000 był członkiem Kabaretu "Szczęśliwa Trzynastka". W swoim dorobku artystycznym ma role w charakterze drag queen pod pseudonimem Mata Sapi. +Od 2007 prowadzi własną firmę zajmującą się organizacją imprez, sesji fotograficznych i projektów wydawniczych. +Działacz społeczny. +Działacz społeczności LGBT, pomysłodawca i wieloletni współorganizator warszawskich Parad Równości. W latach 2001–2005 pełnił funkcję prezesa zarządu Międzynarodowego Stowarzyszenia Gejów i Lesbijek na Rzecz Kultury w Polsce (ILGCN). W latach 2002–2005 pełnił funkcję rzecznika prasowego Antyklerykalnej Partii Postępu „Racja”. Członek i sygnatariusz Unii Lewicy. Od 30 kwietnia 2005 członek Rady Wojewódzkiej Mazowieckiej Unii Lewicy III RP. Od 6 maja 2005 wiceprzewodniczący UL. +Od 2008 członek National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association i prezes zarządu fundacji "Przyjaciele Szymona". +Duchowny. +Od 2006 diakon Wolnego Kościoła Reformowanego w Polsce, działającej obecnie jako Zjednoczony Kościół Chrześcijański "niezarejestrowanej chrześcijańskiej grupy wyznaniowej", do której w Polsce należy mniej niż 100 osób. Od 9 listopada 2008 starszy pastor i członek Prezbiterium Generalnego Wolnego Kościoła Reformowanego. +18 kwietnia 2010 w Seattle podczas I Dorocznej Konferencji Zjednoczonego Kościoła Chrześcijańskiego w Stanach Zjednoczonych Ameryki został ordynowany przez biskupa Davida Stronga na pastora i wyznaczony na Dziekana Misji Zjednoczonego Kościoła Chrześcijańskiego w Europie. +21 kwietnia 2012 w Warszawie na Konferencji Generalnej Zjednoczonego Kościoła Chrześcijańskiego jednogłośnie w tajnym głosowaniu wybrany biskupem tego kościoła. +25 sierpnia 2012 w Portsmouth został konsekrowany na biskupa kościoła przez Arcybiskupa Metropolitę Zjednoczonego Ekumenicznego Kościoła Katolickiego Terrego Flynna. Jako swoje zawołanie przyjął łacińską sentencję "Plenitudo Legis Amor Est" co się tłumaczy jako "Miłość jest doskonałym wypełnieniem prawa". +Działalność pisarska. +W 2007 opublikował polskie wydanie swojej autobiografii pod tytułem "Tęczowy koliber na tyłku". W 2009 ukazały się dwie kolejne publikacje jego autorstwa: "Qchnia Queer" (książka kucharska) i "Soli Deo Gloria" (książka do nabożeństwa Wolnego Kościoła Reformowanego). +Anemochoria + +Anemochoria (wiatrosiewność) – jeden ze sposobów rozprzestrzeniania zarodników grzybów oraz zarodników, nasion i owoców u roślin, polegający na roznoszeniu ich przez ruchy powietrza. Wiatrosiewność jest bardzo rozpowszechnionym sposobem rozsiewania, szczególnie wśród roślin rosnących w górach, na stepach, pustyniach, na sawannie i na wyspach. Umożliwia rozprzestrzenianie się grzybów i roślin na duże odległości, nawet setek kilometrów. Odległość na jaką przenoszone są zarodniki i nasiona zależy m.in. od ich ciężaru i stopnia przystosowania do wiatrosiewności. +Linus (imię) + +Linus — imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, starorzymskie, mitologiczne, nosił je syn Apollina i Terpsychory. +Linus imieniny obchodzi 23 września. +Żeński odpowiednik: Lina +Język maszynowy + +Język maszynowy (kod maszynowy) – język programowania, w którym zapis programu wymaga instrukcji bezpośrednio jako liczb, które są rozkazami i danymi bezpośrednio pobieranymi przez procesor wykonujący ten program. +Był to jedyny język programowania komputerów zerowej generacji z wyjątkiem komputera Z4, a powszechnym w początkowym okresie rozwoju komputerów pierwszej generacji. +Kod maszynowy może być generowany w procesie kompilacji (w przypadku języków wysokiego poziomu) lub asemblacji (w przypadku asemblera). W trakcie procesu tworzenia kodu maszynowego tworzony jest często kod pośredni, który może być zapisywany w pliku o odpowiednim formacie. Kod pośredni poddawany jest linkowaniu, które wygeneruje ostateczny obraz programu w taki sposób, że system operacyjny będzie mógł go wczytać, z ewentualnym dostosowaniem argumentów będących adresami do adresów odpowiednich bloków programu w pamięci, i wykonać zawarte w nim instrukcje. +Ponieważ każdy typ procesora ma swój własny język maszynowy, jest to najmniej przenośny język programowania. +Kod maszynowy. +Kod maszynowy to postać programu komputerowego (zwana postacią "wykonywalną" lub "binarną") przeznaczona do bezpośredniego lub prawie bezpośredniego wykonania przez procesor. Jest ona dopasowana do konkretnego typu procesora i wyrażona w postaci rozumianych przez niego kodów rozkazów i ich argumentów. Jest to postać trudna do analizy przez człowieka. +W systemach z rodziny DOS/Windows w kodzie maszynowym zapisane są programy umieszczone w plikach typu "com". Pliki typu "exe" zawierają ponadto dodatkowe informacje, np. adresy skoków, które są ustawiane w momencie wczytywania programu do pamięci komputera (wersja 16-bitowa), a także informacje potrzebne do łączenia programu z bibliotekami dynamicznymi (DLL). +Kod maszynowy nie może być wykonywany przez procesory innego typu, niż ten, dla którego zostały napisane. Niesie to za sobą wiele problemów związanych z przenośnością programów. Aby ich uniknąć rozpowszechnia się programy w formie kodu źródłowego (np. oprogramowanie FLOSS) lub w formie kodu pośredniego (np. Java, .NET). +Postać i treść kodu maszynowego zależy nie tylko od kodu źródłowego programu, ale też od translatora, systemu operacyjnego, wersji bibliotek, typu procesora i jego języka maszynowego. Języki wysokiego poziomu wraz z odpowiednimi bibliotekami i kompilatorami umożliwiającą użycie tego samego programu źródłowego do budowy programu pracującego na różnych systemach operacyjnych, różnych procesorach, itd. Niepoprawnie napisany kod źródłowy może powodować problemy podczas procesu tłumaczenia go na niektóre postacie kodu maszynowego. +Kod źródłowy w asemblerze jest silnie związany z konkretną architekturą procesora i zazwyczaj nie można go uruchomić na innej bez wprowadzania zmian. +Kod maszynowy jest generowany za pomocą translatora, który przekształca czytelny dla programisty zapis w języku programowania w odpowiadające mu kody instrukcji maszynowych. +Wyżyna Armeńska + +Wyżyna Armeńska (orm. Հայկական լեռնաշխարհ – "Hajkakan Lernaszcahrh", tur. "Doğu Anadolu Yaylası") – wyżyna w zachodniej części Azji, we wschodniej części półwyspu Azja Mniejsza. Jest to obszar aktywny sejsmicznie, najbardziej narażony na trzęsienia ziemi na całym półwyspie Azja Mniejsza, z najwyższym szczytem Turcji, a jednocześnie wygasłym wulkanem – Araratem (5165 m n.p.m. według pomiaru satelitarnego NASA). +Geografia. +Wyżyna Armeńska zajmuje powierzchnię ok. 400 000 km²; a jej średnia wysokość wynosi 1700 m n.p.m. Na jej terenie leżą państwa takie jak Turcja, Armenia, Gruzja, Iran i Azerbejdżan. Od południa wyżynę ograniczają Góry Kurdystańskie, a od północy Góry Pontyjskie i Mały Kaukaz. Na zachód od niej leży Wyżyna Anatolijska. +Powstanie. +Wyżyna Armeńska powstała w wyniku trzeciorzędowych i czwartorzędowych ruchów wypiętrzających, którym towarzyszyła bardzo silna działalność wulkaniczna i tektoniczna. +Krajobraz. +Klimat podzwrotnikowy suchy kontynentalny. Region Wyżyny Armeńskiej charakteryzują częste opady w rejonach górskich (do 800 mm) zwłaszcza w półroczu chłodnym. Na pozostałym obszarze suma opadów nie przekracza 300 mm. Średnia temperatura powietrza w lipcu wynosi 19 °C, jednak dochodzi nawet do 40 °C, a w styczniu spada poniżej zera i wynosi od -15 °C do -3 °C. Teren wyżyny jest bardzo urozmaicony, przecinają go liczne pasma górskie oraz płaskowyże, urozmaicają go stożki wygasłych wulkanów. Charakterystyczną cechą krajobrazu są także wysokie masywy zrębowe i pokrywy law bazaltowych. Rozdzielają je kotliny tektoniczne, których dna wypełniają jeziora: Wan, Urmia i Sewan. Na obszarze Wyżyny Armeńskiej można dostrzec wyraźną piętrowość klimatyczną i roślinną: jego większą część stanowią stepy leżące do 1400 m n.p.m., mniej jest lasów (głównie dębowych i sosnowych), które leżą poniżej 2300 m n.p.m. oraz wysokogórskich łąk (leżących na wysokości nie przekraczającej 3000 m n.p.m.). Powyżej 4000 m n.p.m. znajdują się niewielkie lodowce. Większą cześć wyżyny tworzą gleby płowe oraz brunatne. Z Wyżyny Armeńskiej wypływa wiele rzek o zmiennych przepływach, m.in. Eufrat, Kura i Araks. +Gospodarka. +Region wyżyny jest słabo wykorzystany gospodarczo i bardzo rzadko zaludniony, aczkolwiek występują na obszarach sztucznie nawadnianych gęsto zaludnione oazy. Podstawę gospodarki na tym obszarze stanowi rolnictwo, głównie uprawa pszenicy, jęczmienia, bawełny, winorośli i drzew owocowych. Hoduje się owce i kozy. Wydobywa się rudy chromu, miedzi, żelaza oraz surowców skalnych. +Elajosom + +Elajosom (gr. "élaion" – oliwa, "sōma" – ciało), ciałko mrówcze, ciałko tłuszczowe – obfitujący w tłuszcze i węglowodany wyrostek nasion lub owoców niektórych roślin. Stanowi pokarm dla mrówek, które przyczyniają się w efekcie do rozprzestrzeniania takich diaspor. Wytwarzanie elajosomów nie jest dla roślin wielkim kosztem, daje im natomiast znaczne korzyści, ponieważ mrówki pożywiające się nimi nie tylko rozprzestrzeniają diaspory, ale także chronią je przed roślinożercami, przenoszą w pobliże gniazd stanowiące żyzne mikrosiedliska i często umieszczają w podłożu. Ponieważ mrówki przy okazji zyskują pożywienie, relacja między tymi owadami i roślinami tworzącymi elajosomy jest przykładem mutualizmu. +Budowa, skład i funkcja. +Elajosomy mogą mieć różne pochodzenie; jeśli znajdują się na nasionach przylegając do łupiny nasiennej, to stanowią formę osnówki i zwykle powstają z różnych części zalążka, np. z integumentu. Elajosomy powstawać mogą także z części owoców, a nawet kwiatów i szypułek. +Elajosomy, poza pożywnymi tłuszczami i węglowodanami, zawierają m.in. witaminy B i C oraz wabiący mrówki kwas rycynolowy. U poszczególnych gatunków roślin skład chemiczny elajosomów jest różny, bywa że nie zawierają wcale tłuszczów (np. u kosmatki polnej lub perłówki zwisłej) lub pozbawione są węglowodanów (np. u fiołków i krzyżownicy gorzkawej). +Sposób rozsiewania diaspor przez mrówki określany jest mianem myrmekochorii, czasem ze względu na przenoszenie przez zwierzęta w narządach gębowych zwany jest także stomatochorią. Zwykle jednak pierwszym etapem rozprzestrzeniania diaspor zaopatrzonych w elajosom jest ich rozsianie autochoryczne – po którym mrówki zbierają opadłe nasiona lub owoce z ziemi. U niektórych roślin (np. u jasnoty białej i purpurowej) mrówki wyciągają diaspory z elajosomami z owocostanów. Diaspory przenoszone są do mrowisk, przy czym bywają spożyte po drodze i porzucone. Po spożyciu w gnieździe wynoszone są przez mrówki poza jego obręb. +Występowanie elajosomów w świecie roślin. +Elajosomy występują u co najmniej 11 tysięcy gatunków roślin należących do 334 rodzajów z 77 rodzin roślin okrytonasiennych. Stwierdzone zostały u różnych i niespokrewnionych grup roślin i dlatego szacuje się, że wyewoluowały niezależnie co najmniej 101, a być może nawet 147 razy. Przystosowanie do rozsiewania diaspor przez mrówki pojawia się zwykle w stosunkowo młodych rodzinach okrytonasiennych, które wyodrębniły się przed najdalej 80 milionami lat. Najwięcej roślin wykształcających elajosomy występuje we florze Australii, południowej Afryki i w strefie umiarkowanej półkuli północnej. Znaczne korzyści jakie daje przystosowanie do myrmekochorii sprawia, że elajosomy stanowią jeden z bardziej rozpowszechnionych w świecie roślin przykładów konwergencji. +We florze Europy Środkowej elajosomy wykształcają rośliny z następujących rodzajów: ciemiernik ("Helleborus"), fiołek ("Viola"), glistnik ("Chelidonium"), jasnota ("Lamium"), kokorycz ("Corydalis"), kopytnik ("Asarum"), krzyżownica ("Polygala"), miodunka ("Pulmonaria"), perłówka ("Melica"), przylaszczka ("Hepatica"), pszeniec ("Melampyrum"), szczyr ("Mercurialis"), śniedek ("Ornithogalum"), śnieżyczka ("Galanthus"), wilczomlecz ("Euphorbia"), zimowit ("Colchicum"), niektóre turzyce ("Carex") (np. turzyca ptasie-łapki i palczasta), przetaczniki ("Veronica") (np. przetacznik bluszczykowaty i lśniący). +Mimetyzm. +Przykładem mimetyzmu polegającego na upodabnianiu się do nasion z elajosomami są jaja straszyka australijskiego ("Extatosoma tiaratum"). Jaja tego gatunku przypominają nasiona i zaopatrzone są w pożywny wyrostek zwany „capitulum” naśladujący właściwościami i funkcją elajosom. Jaja znoszone są przez mrówki do gniazd i zachowują żywotność po spożyciu „capitulum”. +Palomino + +Palomino – maść konia, postrzegana również jako rasa. Konie i kuce maści palomino mogą być zarejestrowane według linii rodziców w narodowych rejestrach, nie ma natomiast żadnej księgi stadnej rasy palomino prowadzonej przez związek hodowców. Wyjątek stanowią Stany Zjednoczone, gdzie istnieje legalne stowarzyszenie palomino, które rejestruje i obserwuje konie tej rasy. Procedura rejestracji obejmuje nie tylko maść, ma także określone wymagania co do budowy i typu. Celem jest doprowadzenie do ukształtowania pewnej rasy o stałych cechach. Wedle rejestrów amerykańskich, przynajmniej jeden z rodziców musi być palomino a drugi arabem, folblutem lub Quarter Horse’em. Niestety dziś wydaje się, że hodowla palomino zapewniająca tę charakterystyczną maść nie jest możliwa. Maść palomino zwana też izabelowatą, była bardzo ceniona już w czasach starożytnych. W okresie średniowiecza hodowlę takich koni bardzo popierała królowa Izabela Portugalska (od jej imienia wywodzi się pierwsza nazwa maści). W Hiszpanii takie konie noszą nazwę ysabellas. Królowa podarowała ich kilka Cortezowi, który wybierał się do Ameryki. Cortez w Ameryce podarował jednego z nich Juanowi de Palomino, stąd druga nazw maści. W połowie XIX wieku Kalifornia znalazła się w obrębie Stanów Zjednoczonych, wtedy przypomniano sobie o koniach palomino. Wkrótce zyskały sławę jako "złote konie zachodu", i ta sława trwa do dziś. Kolor sierści powinien przypominać świeżo wybitą złotą monetę, może być ciemniejszy lub jaśniejszy o nie więcej niż trzy tony. Grzywa natomiast musi mieć barwę białą, srebrzystą lub kremową. Taki też ma być ogon. Dopuszczalne są też odmiany na głowie i w dolnych partiach nóg. Konie palomino przeznaczone są do różnych zadań, jako że ta maść występuje u wielu ras, z wyjątkiem arabów i folblutów. +Typ idealny + +Typ idealny – według Maxa Webera to pewien abstrakcyjny model składający się z cech istotnych danego zjawiska społecznego, jednak w czystej postaci nie występujący w rzeczywistości. Koncepcja typu idealnego miała pozwalać na porównywanie ze sobą różnych zjawisk społecznych względem owych abstrakcyjnych form, np. konkretnej formy władzy do typu panowania. +Weber wprowadził pojęcie typu idealnego m.in. przy analizie biurokracji, czy rozpatrując typy przywództwa. Mniej znane są jego typy idealne postaw religijnych. +E (język programowania) + +E jest obiektowo zorientowanym językiem programowania (zob. programowanie obiektowe) przeznaczonym dla bezpiecznych obliczeń rozproszonych, stworzonym przez Marka S. Millera i innych w Electric Communities w roku 1997. +E wywodzi się głównie ze współbieżnego języka Joule i oryginalnego E, czyli rozszerzenia języka Java do bezpiecznych obliczeń rozproszonych. E łączy przetwarzanie oparte na komunikatach ze składnią języka Java. Model współbieżności stosowany w E zapewnia, że nigdy nie nastąpi zakleszczenie. +Daniel Radcliffe + +Daniel Jacob Radcliffe (ur. 23 lipca 1989 w Londynie) – brytyjski aktor, odtwórca tytułowej roli w serii filmów o Harrym Potterze. +Biografia. +Daniel Jacob Radcliffe urodził się 23 lipca 1989 w Londynie jako syn agenta literackiego Alana Radcliffe’a i agentki do spraw obsady Marcii Gresham Jacobson. Po matce ma żydowskie pochodzenie, ale jest ateistą. Pierwszy raz wziął udział w castingu w wieku ośmiu lat, starając się o rolę w filmie "Oliver Twist" (1997). Debiutował dwa lata później rolą małego Davida w filmowej adaptacji "Davida Copperfielda" Dickensa. +Rok później Chris Columbus, reżyser dwóch pierwszych filmów o Harrym Potterze, wybrał młodego aktora do roli tytułowej, stanowiącej jedną z najbardziej rozchwytywanych ról dziecięcych w historii. Radcliffe pokonał tym samym ponad dwa tysiące chłopców starających się o rolę Harry’ego (między innymi 13-letniego Toma Feltona, który ostatecznie trafił do obsady jako Draco Malfoy). Zdobył uznanie autorki książek, J. K. Rowling. Część krytyków negatywnie recenzowała jego aktorskie umiejętności. +Zimą 2006 roku w Australii rozpoczęły się zdjęcia do jego pierwszego, od czasu Krawca z Panamy (2001) filmu pt. „December Boys” (2006), opowiadającego o grupce osieroconych nastolatków. +Zdrowie. +Aktor ujawnił, że cierpi na łagodną odmianę neurologicznego schorzenia zwanego dyspraksją. +Angloarab Shagya + + + +Angloarab Shagya (nazwa w innych językach odpowiada często terminowi: "Arab Shagya") – szlachetny koń o gorącym temperamencie i urodzie typowej dla koni arabskich, lecz większy i silniejszy od nich. Najczęściej maści siwej. Pochodzi z Węgier, gdzie nadal jest hodowany. Inne ośrodki hodowlane rozmieszczone są w krajach dawnej monarchii austro-węgierskiej i w Niemczech. +Historia, pochodzenie. +Konie te zostały wyhodowane w czasach monarchii austro-węgierskiej w celu uzyskania koni kawaleryjskich i lekkich zwierząt powozowych, w węgierskiej stadninie państwowej Babolna. Zgromadzono tam ponad 100 klaczy matek pochodzenia głównie arabskiego, jak również węgiersko-mołdawskich, lipicańskich i kladrubskich. Klacze kojarzono z ogierami arabskimi i przeprowadzano selekcję hodowlaną. +Po rozpadzie monarchii austro-węgierskiej, pogłowie tych koni rodzielono między powstałe kraje. Babolna pozostała najważniejszym ośrodkiem hodowli angloarabów Shagya. Od lat 60 +XX. wieku popularność rasy zaczęła rosnąć, po wcześniejszym okresie zapomnienia w czasach powojennych. +Do najważniejszych założycieli rasy należą: +Pokrój, eksterier. +Głowa sucha, o profilu (lekko) szczupaczym. Szyja łabędzia, kłąb dobrze zaznaczony, łopatki krótkie i strome. Zad krótki, ścięty, dobrze umięśniony z charakterystyczym wysoko osadzonym ogonem. Mocne i suche kończyny, kopyta o twardym rogu. Umaszczenie zazwyczaj siwe, rzadziej gniade, kasztanowate i kare. Wysokość w kłębie: 150-160 cm. +Użytkowanie. +Dzięki wytrzymałości, lekkości i innym zaletom chodów, konie te dobrze sprawdzają się w sportach jeździeckich. Wykorzystywane są także w jeździe rekreacyjnej oraz do uszlachetniania innych typów koni. +Hydrochoria + +Hydrochoria (wodosiewność) – jeden ze sposobów rozprzestrzeniania się nasion roślin i zarodników. Występuje często u roślin wodnych i błotnych (glony, kosaciec, olsza, grążel żółty i inne). Rzadziej u roślin rosnących na mniej wilgotnych stanowiskach np. u mchów, rozchodnika, wiesiołka. Wtedy zarodniki lub nasiona rozsiewane są dzięki deszczowi (deszczosiewność). Wśród roślin wybitnie lądowych hydrochoria występuje np. u palm, umożliwiając rozsiewanie się nasion palmy kokosowej i palmy seszelskiej na nawet bardzo odległe stanowiska (np. wyspy). +Nasiona i owoce posiadają w swojej budowie specjalne przystosowania do hydrochorii. Przed nasiąkaniem wodą zabezpieczone są grubą łupiną nasienną lub woskowym nalotem. Unoszenie się na wodzie dużych nawet i ciężkich owoców umożliwia specjalna tkanka – miękisz powietrzny. Niektóre diaspory unoszone są dzięki pokryciu ich tłuszczem lżejszym od wody. Niektóre owoce posiadają na okrywie specjalne włoski lub łuski, (tzw. miotacze deszczowe), które umożliwiają otwarcie się owocu podczas deszczu i wyrzucenie nasion. +Zderzak (maszynoznawstwo) + +Zderzak jest to element chroniący część lub zespół maszyny przed przemieszczaniem. +Nierad + +Nierad, Niered — staropolskie imię męskie złożone z członów "Nie-" (przeczenie) i "-rad" ("być zadowolonym, chętnym, cieszyć się"). Być może oznaczało "ten, który się nie cieszy". +Żeński odpowiednik: Nieradka. +Wiropłat + +Wiropłat to aerodyna zdolna do lotu dzięki powstawaniu siły nośnej na wirujących powierzchniach nośnych. +Czedżu (miasto) + +Czedżu – miasto w Korei Południowej, stolica prowincji Czedżu, na wyspie Czedżu. Siedziba rzymskokatolickiej diecezji. +Gospodarka. +Przemysł włókienniczy i spożywczy. Ośrodek handlowy i usługowy regionu sadownictwa. Międzynarodowy port lotniczy Jeju International Airport. Ze względu na nagromadzenie licznych kasyn i domów gry miasto odwiedza corocznie 4 miliony turystów, głównie z Japonii i kontynentalnej części Korei Południowej. +Inne. +W mieście znajduje się przeznaczona do koszykówki hala sportowa zwana Halla Arena. +Naczęrad + +Naczęrad – staropolskie imię męskie złożone z członów "Naczę-" ("zacząć") i "-rad" ("być zadowolonym, chętnym, cieszyć się"). Być może oznaczało "ten, którego pojawienie się wywołuje radość". +Pius V + +Pius V "(łac. Pius V)", właściwie Michele Ghislieri, imię chrzestne Antonio. (Urodzony 17 stycznia 1504 w Bosco Marengo w prowincji Alessandria, zm. 1 maja 1572 w Rzymie) – święty Kościoła katolickiego, włoski duchowny katolicki, dominikanin, papież w okresie od 7 stycznia 1566 do 2 maja 1572. +Życie przed wyborem na papieża. +Pochodził z ubogiej rodziny, pracował w dzieciństwie jako pasterz. W wieku 14 lat wstąpił do zakonu dominikanów (O.P.) w konwencie św. Piotra Męczennika w Vigevano i przyjął imię Michał (wł. Michele). W 1528 w Genui przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. Począwszy od XVII wieku przypisuje mu się błędnie karierę akademicką - studia w Bolonii oraz profesurę teologii na uniwersytecie w Pawii. W rzeczywistości Ghisleri uczył się w studium konwentu w Vigevano, po przyjęciu święceń kapłańskich był jedynie lektorem teologii w dominikańskim konwencie św. Tomasza w Pawii. Tytuł magisterski został mu przyznany dopiero 20 sierpnia 1553 na mocy bulli papieża Juliusza III, nie w wyniku ukończenia odpowiednich studiów, lecz "na mocy autorytetu apostolskiego". W latach 30. XVI wieku Michele Ghisleri był przeorem kolejno konwentów w Vigevano, Soncino, Alba i ponownie w Vigevano. Przez pewien czas był spowiednikiem gubernatora Mediolanu markiza Alfonsa d'Avalos. W 1539 był przejściowo przypisany do konwentu S. Secondo w Wenecji. W październiku 1542 został mianowany wikariuszem trybunału inkwizycyjnego w Pawii. +W 1550 kapituła lombardzkiej prowincji dominikanów mianowała go inkwizytorem diecezji Como. Jego niezłomna postawa w sporze z miejscową kapitułą katedralną, którą podejrzewał o sprzyjanie reformacji, zwróciła uwagę kardynała Gian Pietro Carafy, Wielkiego Inkwizytora Rzymskiej Inkwizycji, który zaczął wykorzystywać Ghisleriego jako delegata Rzymskiej Inkwizycji do poszczególnych zadań. W listopadzie i grudniu 1550 i ponownie w kwietniu i maju 1551 Ghisleri działał z ramienia Inkwizycji Rzymskiej w Bergamo, gdzie zebrał dowody mocno obciążające miejscowego biskupa Vittore Soranzo i doprowadził do jego aresztowania. W marcu 1551 przebywał z kolei w Ferrarze, gdzie przesłuchiwał i ostatecznie skazał na śmierć Giorgio Rioli, zwanego "il Siculo", jednego z najbardziej znanych przedstawicieli włoskiej reformacji. 3 czerwca 1551 papież Juliusz III mianował go komisarzem generalnym Inkwizycji Rzymskiej (sprawował tę funkcję do 1557). Ghisleri prawdopodobnie zachował jednak urząd inkwizytora Como aż do 1555, gdyż dopiero z tego roku pochodzi wiadomość o nominacji jego następcy. +4 września 1556 Carafa, już jako papież Paweł IV, mianował Ghislieriego biskupem Nepi i Sutri (konsekracja 14 września 1556), a w marcu 1557 kardynałem, z tytułem S. Maria sopra Minerva. W grudniu 1558 Ghislieri otrzymał także godność najwyższego inkwizytora. Papież Pius IV przeniósł go w marcu 1560 na stolicę biskupią Mondovi. Stosunki Ghislieriego z Piusem IV nie układały się najlepiej, kardynał m.in. skutecznie zablokował nominację kardynalską 13-letniego Ferdynanda Medyceusza. Mimo to w 1564 uzyskał nominację na nowo utworzony urząd sekretarza Świętego Oficjum. +Pontyfikat. +Po śmierci Piusa IV konklawe wybrało kardynała Ghislieriego na papieża 7 stycznia 1566. Przyjął on imię Piusa V i został koronowany w dniu swoich urodzin, 17 stycznia 1566. Papież-asceta, wieloletni inkwizytor, poświęcił swój pontyfikat zadaniom reformy Kościoła w duchu soboru trydenckiego i walce z herezją. Zamierzał wprowadzić w Watykanie rygory klasztorne. W swojej pierwszej mowie papieskiej stwierdził, że Rzym wydaje mu się tak niemoralny, jak w czasach rozkwitu Renesansu. Zażądał usunięcia z Rzymu prostytutek. Nakazał, aby wszystkie rzymskie nierządnice wyszły za mąż albo poddały się chłoście. Wydał też bullę zabraniającą kapłańskim dzieciom z nieprawego łoża dziedziczenia własności Kościoła. Chciał także zniszczyć wszystkie starożytne budowle i pomniki w okolicach Rzymu, jako że były dziełem pogan. Zabronił też Rzymianom wchodzić do karczm. Zaprowadził porządek w Rzymie, wydając nakaz rezydującym przy Kurii biskupom powrotu do swoich diecezji. Wygnani zostali z Rzymu także mnisi pozostający przez lata poza macierzystymi klasztorami wbrew regułom zakonnym. W oczach jednego z posłów weneckich Pius uchodził za człowieka, który chciał zmienić Rzym w jeden wielki klasztor. W owym czasie problemem w Państwie Kościelnym był bandytyzm. Papież ścigał przestępców i zatwierdzał wszystkie wydane na nich surowe wyroki (np. galery). Pomimo zatwierdzania wyroków Inkwizycji, był uważany za władcę sprawiedliwego. Dwa razy w tygodniu osobiście przyjmował skargi ubogich, zaś raz w miesiącu (również osobiście) przyjmował zażalenia na urzędników papieskich oraz na wyroki sądów i rozstrzygał je na korzyść poszkodowanych. Dzięki niemu powstało wiele szkół, szpitali i przytułków. Jego sukcesem było również uzdrowienie administracji w Państwie Kościelnym. +Pius V zdecydowanie wspierał katolików we Francji. Był także inicjatorem Świętej Ligi przeciwko Turcji i krótko przed śmiercią świętował sukces – flota Ligi złożona z okrętów weneckich i hiszpańskich 7 października 1571 odniosła pod Lepanto zwycięstwo nad siłami sułtana Selima II. W 1570 papież ekskomunikował królową Anglii Elżbietę I. +W 1567 Pius V ogłosił św. Tomasza z Akwinu Doktorem Kościoła oraz nakazał w 1570 publikację dzieł wszystkich teologa (17 tomów). Staraniem tego papieża wydane zostały odnowione, główne księgi liturgiczne rytu rzymskiego: mszał ("Missale Romanum", 1570) i brewiarz ("Breviarium Romanum", 1568) oraz pierwszy katechizm katolicki ("Catechismus Romanus", 1566). W okresie pontyfikatu Piusa przeprowadzono trzy lokalne synody w państwach włoskich, m.in. w Neapolu i Mediolanie. +Papież zmarł w opinii świętości w maju 1572 po chorobie nerek. Papież Klemens X ogłosił go 1 maja 1672 (w 100-lecie śmierci) błogosławionym, a Klemens XI świętym (22 maja 1712). Dniem jego pamięci liturgicznej w Kościele katolickim jest od reformy kalendarza liturgicznego w 1969 roku 30 kwietnia (poprzednio 5 maja). +Pontyfikat Piusa V to początek białej sutanny wśród papieży. Zaczerpnięty z dominikańskiego habitu kolor sutanny do dziś używany jest przez biskupów Rzymu. +Pius V jest patronem Kongregacji Nauki Wiary. +Lois McMaster Bujold + +Lois McMaster Bujold (ur. 2 listopada 1949 w Columbus, Ohio) – amerykańska pisarka science fiction i fantasy. +Bujold zawdzięcza swoją popularność przede wszystkim cyklowi powieści "Saga Vorkosiganów", nazywanego również "cyklem barrayarskim". Głównym bohaterem większości książek należących do cyklu jest Miles Vorkosigan, niepełnosprawny admirał najemnej armii, szpieg i awanturnik wywodzący się z arystokratycznej kasty wojowników świata o nazwie Barrayar. Powieści są utrzymane w konwencji space opery, choć w późniejszych częściach cyklu występują również elementy kryminału i romansu. Książki Bujold są szczególnie cenione za skomplikowaną i wartką akcję, interesują fabułę, humor i złożonych psychologicznie bohaterów. +Bujold została kilkakrotnie wyróżniona za swoją twórczość. Czterokrotnie przyznano jej Nagrodę Hugo za najlepszą powieść (wyrównany rekord Roberta Heinleina). Otrzymała również nagrodę Nebuli za powieść "Stan niewolności" oraz obie te nagrody za opowiadanie "Lamentowe Góry". +Równie doceniana jest jej twórczość fantasy. "Klątwa nad Chalionem" zdobyła Mythopoeic Award i była nominowana m.in. do World Fantasy Award i Hugo dla najlepszej powieści. Kontynuacja tej książki, "Paladyn dusz", przyniosła Bujold jej czwartą Nagrodę Hugo i drugą Nebulę za powieść. +Twórczość Bujold została dotąd przetłumaczona na dziewiętnaście języków. W Polsce jej książki są publikowane przede wszystkim przez wydawnictwo Prószyński i S-ka (dotąd ukazało się 11 pozycji). Krótsze teksty były publikowane m.in. w czasopiśmie "Nowa Fantastyka". +Bujold mieszka obecnie w USA, w stanie Minnesota. Jest rozwiedziona, ma dwoje dzieci. +Delete + +delete (z ang. "skasuj") - w C++ operator niszczący obiekty utworzone za pomocą operatora new (bądź dowolny obiekt, którego adres można pobrać). +Wywołanie delete [] wskaznik spowoduje usunięcie tablicy obiektów pokazywanych wskaznikiem "wskaznik". Nie jest konieczne podawanie rozmiaru tablicy usuwanych obiektów, gdyż (zależnie od systemu operacyjnego, kompilatora itp) jest on pamiętany w specjalnej tablicy alokacji, która zawiera zakresy alokowanych przedziałów pamięci. +Przykład w języku C++. +int* wsk; +wsk = new int; +delete wsk; // zniszczenie obiektu poprzez wymazanie obszaru pamięci, +const int iloscElementow = 20; +int* tab; +tab = new int[ iloscElementow ]; +delete [] tab; // zniszczenie tablicy obiektów pokazywanych przez tab + +Należy zwrócić szczególną uwagę na poprawność użycia operatora delete. Wiele trudnych do wykrycia błędów w programach jest skutkiem użycia delete[] na wskaźniku do pojedynczego obiektu lub samego delete na wskaźniku do tablicy obiektów. +Innym, często spotykanym błędem, jest dwukrotne wywołanie delete na tym samym wskaźniku. Dlatego dobrym zwyczajem jest przypisanie wartości NULL zmiennej zaraz po zwolnieniu pamięci przez nią wskazywanej. Wykonanie delete na wartości NULL nie powoduje żadnego skutku i jest bezpieczne. +Sobór nicejski II + +Sobór Nicejski II (787) – sobór powszechny biskupów chrześcijańskich zainaugurowany w Konstantynopolu, przeniesiony do Nicei i tam obradujący od 24 września do 23 października 787 roku. Na soborze uchwalono 22 kanony dyscyplinarne. +W soborze brało udział 307 biskupów (tylko 14 z Zachodu) pod nominalnym przewodnictwem legatów papieskich, a faktycznie patriarchy Tarazjusza. Cesarzową Irenę i jej syna reprezentowali urzędnicy. Nieobecni byli patriarchowie Aleksandrii, Antiochii i Jerozolimy znajdujący się pod panowaniem islamskim. +Głównym celem soboru było zakończenie kontrowersji ikonoklastycznej. Po pewnych wahaniach dopuszczono biskupów opowiadających się za ikonoklazmem, ale większość postanowiła złożyć z katedr biskupów organizujących w przeszłości prześladowania zwolenników czci obrazów. Ikonoklazm został potępiony jako herezja. Cześć ikon (pokłony, palenie świec i kadzidła) uznano za naukę prawowierną. Podkreślono jednak, że kult obrazów odnosi się do osoby przedstawionej na obrazie, a nie do samego obrazu. Ustalono także zasady tworzenia ikon, wykluczające dowolność i zezwalające na pisanie obrazów tylko duchownym. Postacie na ikonach powinny mieć duże szerokie oczy, całe ciało osłonięte odzieniem - jedynie odsłonięte twarze i czasem dłonie, figury miał okalać czarny kontur, karnacja postaci winna być ciemna, święci mieli posiadać długie brody, schematycznie zarysowane szaty nie powinny uwidaczniać kośćca, powinien być stosowany umowny światłocień. +Rzędzisław + +Rzędzisław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Rzędzi-" ("rządzić") oraz członu "-sław" ("sława"). Może oznaczać "ten, którego sława płynie z dobrego rządzenia". +Barochoria + +Barochoria – jeden ze sposobów rozprzestrzeniania diaspor roślin, polegający na ich spadaniu na ziemię pod wpływem siły grawitacji. Diaspory trafiają w bezpośrednie sąsiedztwo rośliny macierzystej, ewentualnie zatrzymują się w pewnym oddaleniu po uderzeniach w przeszkody lub stoczeniu się z pochyłości terenu. Ponieważ ten sposób rozsiewania ma niewielki zasięg – osobniki potomne osiedlają się w sąsiedztwie roślin macierzystych – barochoria bywa nierzadko wstępem do innych sposobów rozsiewania – głównie przez wodę (hydrochoria) i zwierzęta (zoochoria). +Rośliny barochoryczne, które zrzucają całe owoce lub nasiona to np. dąb, buk i kasztanowiec, barochory zrzucające rozmnóżki wegetatywne to np. lilia bulwkowata i rdest żyworodny, zrzucające zarodniki to mszaki i porosty. +Góry Sokole + +Góry Sokole (niem. "Fischbacher Forst") - niewielki masyw składający się z Krzyżnej Góry (654 m n.p.m.), Sokolika (623 m n.p.m.), Browarówki (510 m n.p.m.), Rudzika (500 m n.p.m.) Łysej (490 m n.p.m.), Buczka (456 m n.p.m.) oraz kilku mniejszych, bezimiennych kopek, na północno-zachodniej krawędzi Rudaw Janowickich w Sudetach Zachodnich, w pobliżu Jeleniej Góry i Janowic Wielkich. Od głównego masywu Rudaw oddzielone Przełęczą Karpnicką (475 m n.p.m.). Od północy graniczą z Górami Kaczawskimi, od zachodu z Kotliną Jeleniogórską, od południa ze Wzgórzami Karpnickimi. +Zbudowane całkowicie z górnokarbońskiego granitu karkonoskiego, w którym spotyka się żyły aplitowe i kwarcowe. Znajduje się tu znaczne nagromadzenie skałek, blokowisk, pojedynczych bloków skalnych. Istnienie ciosu biegnącego w trzech kierunkach oraz sposób wietrzenia i denudacji granitu spowodoały powstanie charakterystycznego krajobrazu z odosobnionymi wieloma kopami i kopkami, nie tworzącymi wyraźnych grzbietów i często zwieńczonych skałkami, które czasami wyrastają też na zboczach. To podobieństwo budowy geologicznej i kraobrazu do Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej spowodowało, że niektórzy geografowie zaliczają Góry Sokole do Kotliny, jednakże pod względem orograficznym i ze względu na wysokość bezwzględną należą one do Rudaw Janowickich. +Pokryte są lasami świerkowymi, podrzędnie świerkowo-bukowymi z nielicznymi polanami. +Znajduje się tu schronisko Szwajcarka, obozowisko wspinaczy oraz niewielkie pozostałości zamku Sokolec pod Krzyżną Górą. +Jeden z częściej odwiedzanych rejonów wspinaczkowych. Często służy jako baza treningowa przed wspinaczką w Tatrach z racji podobieństwa budowy skał. +Dargorad + +Dargorad – staropolskie imię męskie złożone z członów "Dargo-" ("drogi") i "-rad" ("być zadowolonym, chętnym, cieszyć się"). +Dargorad imieniny obchodzi 24 listopada. +Koń oldenburski + +Koń oldenburski (oldenburg, oldenburger) - jedna z ras koni, wyhodowana w XVII wieku, głównie dzięki wysiłkom księcia Antona Günther von Oldenburg. +Cechy typowe, wygląd, budowa, pokrój, eksterier. +Najcięższa spośród niemieckich ras gorącokrwistych. Umaszczenie zwykle skarogniade, kare lub gniade, rzadziej kasztanowate czy siwe. +Wysokość: 165 - 175 cm. +Historia, pochodzenie. +Początek rasie dał ogier półkrwi Kranich i klacze fryzyjskie. Później sięgnięto po konie hiszpańskie, berberyjskie, neapolitańskie i półkrwi angielskiej. W XIX w. do krzyżowania zastosowano reproduktory pełnej krwi, hanowerskie, normandzkie i Cleveland Bay i uzyskano ciężkie konie kareciane (karosjery). +Hodowla, użytkowość. +W ciągu ostatnich dziesięcioleci ukierunkowano hodowlę na nowoczesny typ konia sportowego. Jest on obecnie szczególnie przydatny do skoków przez przeszkody. +Dyniowce + +Dyniowce ("Cucurbitales") – grupa roślin okrytonasiennych stanowiąca klad wyróżniany w randze rzędu w różnych systemach klasyfikacyjnych. W zależności od ujęcia systematycznego rząd traktowany jest wąsko (np. w systemie Reveala z 1999) jako takson monotypowy zawierający jedną rodzinę dyniowatych (ok. 700 gatunków pnączy) lub szerzej jako cały klad siostrzany dla bukowców (według systemu APG III i Angiosperm Phylogeny Website). +Systematyka. +Kladogram na podstawie APweb (aktualizowany system APG III z 2009). +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa "Dilleniidae" Takht. ex Reveal & Tahkt. pub. 1993, nadrząd "Cucurbitanae" Reveal, rząd "Cucurbitales" Dumort. +Hymn Brazylii + +Hino Nacional Brasileiro (j. port. "Hymn narodowy Brazylii") to pieśń, która jest hymnem państwowym Brazylii. +Muzykę w 1831 skomponował Francisco Manuel da Silva, ale utwór nie był używany do roku 1890. Wcześniejszym hymnem była śpiewana do dzisiaj pieśń Hino da Independência skomponowana przez pierwszego brazylijskiego cesarza Piotra I. Wraz z proklamowaniem republiki w 1889, Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada napisał słowa do muzyki da Silvy. Oryginalna melodia była wielokrotnie modyfikowana. +Mempleks + +Mempleks lub kompleks memów jest to pewna liczba memów współwystępujących ze sobą i replikujących się razem w trakcie transferu kulturowego. +Termin ten jest niejednoznaczny, gdyż trudno jest określić co jest pojedynczym memem, a co mempleksem. Ekspresją mempleksów są złożone socjotypy, np. stereotypy. +Wozogodzina + +Wozogodzina ("wzh") – stosowana zwyczajowo w transporcie kołowym jednostka miary czasu zaangażowania środków transportu (wozów) w wykonanie określonych czynności (np. pracy przewozowej), obliczana jako różnica między czasem ich zakończenia a rozpoczęcia, odpowiadająca godzinie – uwielokrotnionej podstawowej jednostce czasu układu SI. +Przykład: "3 pojazdy ciężarowe celem realizacji określonego zlecenia przewozowego wyjechały z bazy o godzinie 7:00 a powróciły do niej o godzinie 20:20." +"Ogólny czas zaangażowania pojazdów w realizację tego zlecenia wynosi 40 wozogodzin." +Jednostka wykorzystywana w działaniach statystycznych (w tym w zestawieniach danych eksploatacyjnych rozkładów jazdy w transporcie pasażerskim), rzadziej w ekonomicznych, a także dla potrzeb planowania (szczególnie podziału służb), niekiedy jako punkt odniesienia dla innych obliczeń dotyczących przewozu osób i towarów bądź składowa ich algorytmów. +Jednostka – jako kryterium nieobiektywne i niewspółmierne do kosztów – współcześnie nie znajduje praktycznego zastosowania w rozliczeniach przewoźników ze zleceniodawcami określonych zadań przewozowych, jedynie czasem stosowana jest w charakterze uzupełniającym, np. dla rozliczenia nieefektywnego czasu pracy pojazdu czy w przypadku gdy podstawową jednostką rozliczeniową jest motogodzina (dla maszyn obsługiwanych przez operatora). +Przewoźnicy dla własnych potrzeb kształtują dość swobodne podziały wozogodzin, definiując je zbliżenie do podziału wozokilometrów, jak również jako np. "pracy" (niekoniecznie oznaczającej równoczesne wykonywanie pracy przewozowej), "przerwy", "postoju" czy też zgodnie z obowiązującymi u danego przewoźnika postanowieniami płacowymi, np. "robocze", "świąteczne", "nocne" itp., czym jednak (błędnie) jednostka charakterystyczna dla środków transportu przekształca się w jednostkę opisującą czas pracy ich załóg. +Operator (programowanie) + +Operator – w programowaniu konstrukcja językowa jedno-, bądź wieloargumentowa zwracająca wartość. +__TOC__ +Do podstawowych operatorów, będących elementem większości języków programowania, należą operatory arytmetyczne: dodawania (codice_1), odejmowania (codice_2), mnożenia (codice_3), dzielenia (codice_4); operatory porównania: większe niż (codice_5), mniejsze niż (codice_6), większe równe (codice_7), mniejsze równe (codice_8), równe (codice_9 lub codice_10), różne (codice_11 lub codice_12), a także operatory operacji logicznych, operacji bitowych, przypisań itd. Główne cechy opisujące operator to liczba i typy argumentów, typ wartości zwracanej, wykonywane działanie, priorytet oraz łączność lub jej brak oraz umiejscowienie operatora względem operandów. Dany język posiada swoją listę operatorów wraz z określonymi cechami, mówiącymi o kolejności wykonywania operacji w przypadku, gdy nie zastosowano nawiasów. W niektórych językach można definiować nowe operatory oraz zmieniać priorytety i łączność. +Umiejscowienie względem operandów. +Operator umieszczany przed swoimi operandami nazywa się operatorem przedrostkowym (prefiksowym), po operandach — przyrostkowym (postfiksowym), pomiędzy operandami — wrostkowym (infiksowym). Dla operatorów składających się z kilku symboli leksykalnych powyższe rozróżnienie nie zachodzi. +Pierwszeństwo, priorytet. +Pierwszeństwo operatorów określa jak należy interpretować wyrażenie gdzie na jednym poziomie (struktury nawiasowej) występują dwa operatory. Przykładowo codice_13 może być interpretowane jako codice_14 lub codice_15. Gdy + ma wyższy priorytet niż * zachodzi sytuacja pierwsza, gdy jest na odwrót druga. Projektanci języków programowania starają się tak dobierać priorytety, żeby odpowiadały intuicji w typowych konstrukcjach. Na przykład operatory arytmetyczne mają priorytety zgodne z kolejnością wykonywania działań, niższy priorytet mają operatory porównania a jeszcze niższy operatory logiczne. Dlatego wyrażenie codice_16 nie musi być zapisane jako codice_17. +Łączność, wiązanie. +Łączność to cecha operatorów pozwalająca jednoznacznie interpretować wyrażenie w którym występują operatory o tym samym priorytecie (w szczególności kilka wystąpień tego samego operatora). Wyrażenie codice_18 będzie zinterpretowane jako codice_19 jeśli operatory + i - są lewostronnie łączne a codice_20 jeśli prawostronnie łączne. Operatory o tym samym priorytecie ale innej łączności nie mogą być mieszane ze sobą. Operatory mogą nie być łączne, wtedy również ich mieszanie z innymi jest niedozwolone. W większości języków podstawowe operatory arytmetyczne są łączne lewostronnie, natomiast operatory potęgowania czy przypisania prawostronnie. +Lista operatorów w najpopularniejszych językach. +"(do uzupełnienia o pozostałe języki)" +Przykładowy zapis w języku C. +liczba jest typu codice_21) +liczba *= ((liczba=10) + 7) % 3; +liczba *= liczba = 10 + 7 % 3; +jest również poprawne ze względu na składnię. Wynik będzie jednak inny – pierwsza wykonana zostanie operacja dzielenia modulo, następnie dodawania, a na końcu oba przypisania od prawej do lewej. +W języku C "kolejność" obliczania operandów operatora nie jest gwarantowana ze względu na zastrzeżenie możliwości optymalizacji kodu wynikowego przez kompilator (nie dotyczy to operatorów codice_22, codice_23, codice_24 oraz codice_25). Użycie operandów, których obliczenie wartości wpływa na wartość pozostałych nie gwarantuje takiego samego wyniku we wszystkich implementacjach języka. +int i = 1; +tablica = i++; + +nie gwarantuje, czy wartość 1 zostanie wstawiona pod indeks 1, czy może pod indeks 2 tablicy. +Bruno Apitz + +Bruno Apitz (ur. 28 kwietnia 1900 w Lipsku - zm. 7 kwietnia 1979 w Berlinie) - pisarz niemiecki tworzący w Niemieckiej Republice Demokratycznej. +W latach 1937-1945 był więźniem obozu koncentracyjnego Buchenwald. Jego najbardziej znanym dziełem jest, zawierająca wątki własnych przeżyć obozowych, powieść "Nadzy wśród wilków" (1958, niem. "Nackt unter Wölfen") opowiadająca o działalności ruchu oporu w Buchenwaldzie. Na kanwie tej powieści w 1963 roku nakręcono film "Nadzy wśród wilków" produkcji enerdowskiej. Z inspiracji powieścią powstał utwór "Naked Among Wolves" niemieckiej grupy muzycznej Heaven Shall Burn, opublikowany na albumie "Whatever It May Take" (2002). +Kacyk + +Kacyk – określenie dla przywódcy plemienia, szlachcica indiańskiego, na obszarze Ameryki Łacińskiej, sprawującego opiekę nad wsią bądź osadą, razem z kapłanami, szamanami i starszyzną wojowników, mającego do tego prawo z tytułu posiadania ziemi. Kacyk reprezentował także swoich poddanych w kontaktach z władzami hiszpańskimi. Sama nazwa wywodzi się od hiszpańskiego określenia "cacique." +Na początku określenie to było używane tylko w stosunku do przywódców indiańskich na Haiti, potem Hiszpanie stosowali je na obszarze całej Ameryki Środkowej i Południowej. W wyniku ewolucji stosunków Hiszpanów z lokalną społecznością zaczęto używać go od XIX wieku w stosunku do przywódców lokalnych władz bez względu na ich pochodzenie. Kacyk posiadał swoich stronników nad którymi sprawował opiekę i poparcie wobec wyższych władz lub innych kacyków. Kacyk nie był już właścicielem swoich podwładnych lecz uzależniał ich od siebie ekonomicznie np. udzielając pożyczek na wysoki procent itp. +W języku polskim określa się także potocznie mianem kacyka "urzędnika prowincjonalnego, sprawującego władzę w sposób samowolny i arbitralny". +Nathaniel Lord Britton + +Nathaniel Lord Britton (ur. 1859, zm. 1934) – amerykański botanik. +Twórca i pierwszy dyrektor Ogrodu Botanicznego w Nowym Jorku. Zajmował się systematyką grzybów, mszaków, paprotników i roślin naczyniowych. +Najważniejsze dzieła: "Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, and the British Possessions" (wspólnie z Addisonem Brownem, 1896–98); "The Bahama Flora" (wspólnie z C. F. Millspaugh'em, 1920), prace systematyczne o kaktusach. +Zacheusz + +Zacheusz − imię męskie pochodzenia hebrajskiego, od hebr. "כָּי (Zakkai)", co oznacza "czysty". Wśród patronów tego imienia - św. Zacheusz, biskup Jerozolimy. Znany jest także Zacheusz z Ewangelii św. Łukasza, który chcąc zobaczyć Jezusa Chrystusa wspiął się w Jerychu na sykomorę. +Zacheusz imieniny obchodzi 10 lipca, 23 sierpnia i 17 listopada. +Brzoza żółta + +Brzoza żółta ("Betula alleghaniensis" Britton) – gatunek drzewa należący do rodziny brzozowatych ("Betulaceae" Gray). Występuje w stanie dzikim w północno-wschodniej Ameryce Północnej, Krainie Wielkich Jezior; na zachód sięga po Dakotę i Arizonę. Jeden z podstawowych gatunków lasotwórczych w południowo-wschodniej Kanadzie. +Biologia i ekologia. +Roślina wieloletnia, fanerofit. Drzewo leśne, rośnie na glebach piaszczysto-gliniastych, wilgotnych i bagnistych. Występuje wspólnie m.in. z klonem cukrowym ("Acer saccharum"), bukiem wielkolistnym ("Fagus grandifolia"), dębem czerwonym ("Quercus rubra"), lipą amerykańską ("Tilia americana") i jesionem amerykańskim ("Fraxinus americana"). Drzewo dożywa do wieku 300 lat. W Polsce całkowicie wytrzymałe na mróz, jednak starsze okazy spotykane rzadko. Wymaga gleb żyznych, głębokich i świeżych. Sadzić należy pojedynczo lub w małych grupach. +Zastosowanie. +W południowo-wschodniej Kanadzie jest najważniejszym gospodarczo drzewem tego obszaru. W Europie jest sadzone jako drzewo ozdobne od drugiej połowy XVIII wieku. Jest oryginalnym drzewem ze względu na nietypowe dla brzozy liście, charakterystyczną korę oraz zapach młodych pędów. +Królestwo Niderlandów + +Królestwo Niderlandów (nid. "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden", zfrz. "Keninkryk fan de Nederlannen", pap. "Reino Hulandes") – państwo położone w Europie i Ameryce Północnej, tworzone przez Holandię, Arubę, Curaçao i Sint Maarten. Królestwo Niderlandów jest monarchią konstytucyjną. +Do 10 października 2010 r. Królestwo Niderlandów składało się z Holandii, Antyli Holenderskich i Aruby. Tego dnia nastąpiła likwidacja Antyli, Curaçao i Sint Maarten stały się krajami składowymi królestwa, a Bonaire, Saba i Sint Eustatius gminami zamorskimi kraju Holandia. +Piotr Skuratowicz + +Piotr Skuratowicz (ur. 1 sierpnia 1891 w Mińsku, zamordowany w kwietniu 1940 w Charkowie) – generał brygady Wojska Polskiego, kawalerzysta, ofiara zbrodni katyńskiej. Odznaczony Orderem Virtuti Militari. +Zarys służby wojskowej. +Służył przed 1917 jako oficer kawalerii w Armii Imperium Rosyjskiego, następnie do maja 1918 w I Korpusie Polskim w Rosji, a po przedostaniu się przez Murmańsk do Armii gen. Hallera we Francji powrócił z nią w czerwcu 1919 do kraju. W armii Hallera służył w latach 1919 – 1920 dowodząc dyonem strzeleckim, szwadronem instruktorskim szwoleżerów oraz szwadronem zapasowym szwoleżerów . Zweryfikowany w stopniu majora ze starszeństwem 1 czerwca 1919. Pełnił służbę w 6 Pułku Strzelców Konnych (1920-1922), 8 Pułku Ułanów (1922-1924) jako dowódca dywizjonu i Centrum Wyszkolenia Kawalerii (1924-1929). Awansowany na pułkownika 15 sierpnia 1924 . W kwietniu 1929 został dowódcą 10 Pułku Strzelców Konnych w Łańcucie, a w lutym 1934 dowódcą XII Brygady Kawalerii w Ostrołęce. W latach 1937-1939 był szefem Departamentu Kawalerii w Ministerstwie Spraw Wojskowych. 19 marca 1939 został mianowany generałem brygady. +Podczas kampanii wrześniowej dowodził grupą "Dubno". Po agresji radzieckiej na Polskę (17 września 1939) i aneksji wschodnich terenów II Rzeczypospolitej, został zatrzymany przez NKWD i wywieziony do obozu w Starobielsku. W 1940 zamordowany w siedzibie NKWD w Charkowie. +Postanowieniem nr 112-48-07 Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Lecha Aleksandra Kaczyńskiego z dn. 5 października 2007 został mianowany pośmiertnie do stopnia generała dywizji. Awans został ogłoszony 9 listopada 2007 w Warszawie w trakcie uroczystości "Katyń Pamiętamy – Uczcijmy Pamięć Bohaterów". +Dyrektywa Siedliskowa + +Dyrektywa Siedliskowa, Dyrektywa Habitatowa – potoczna nazwa Dyrektywy 92/43/EWG w sprawie ochrony siedlisk przyrodniczych oraz dzikiej fauny i flory, będącej elementem prawa Unii Europejskiej. Razem z Dyrektywą Ptasią stanowi podstawę europejskiego systemu ochrony przyrody Natura 2000. +Dyrektywa jest wiążąca dla wszystkich państw Unii Europejskiej, które muszą wprowadzić jej postanowienia do prawa krajowego. +Królestwo Holandii + +Królestwo Holandii – marionetkowe państwo na terenie dzisiejszej Holandii, istniejące w latach 1806–1810, powstałe z przekształcenia Republiki Batawskiej. +Jego królami byli: Ludwik Bonaparte, brat Cesarza Francuzów Napoleona I oraz jego syn - Napoleon Ludwik Bonaparte. +Krótko po abdykacji Ludwika Napoleona, Królestwo zostało zlikwidowane i przyłączone do cesarstwa napoleońskiego. +Biezrząd + +Biezrząd – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Biez-" ("bez") i "-rząd" ("rządzić"). Może oznaczać "ten, którym nikt nie rządzi". +Władcy Burgundii + +Hrabiowie Burgundii (867 – 1678). +Habsburgowie (również książęta Burgundii). +W 1678 r. hrabstwo Burgundii przypada Francji na podstawie traktatu z Nijmegen +Pretendenci do tytułu księcia-hrabiego Burgundii. +Dynastia habsbursko-lotaryńska. +1795 – utrata na rzecz Francji +Pearl Harbor + +Pearl Harbor - historyczna baza United States Navy na hawajskiej wyspie Oahu nazwana od zatoki, którą zajmuje. Współczesna baza nosi nazwę Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam i jest połączeniem bazy marynarki i należącej do lotnictwa amerykańskiego wcześniejszej Hickam Air Force Base. +Historia. +Do I wojny światowej. +W XIX wieku, niedługo po odkryciu Hawajów przez Europejczyków, stało się oczywiste, że zatoka Pearl Harbor doskonale nadaje się na bazę okrętów. Po aneksji archipelagu w 1898 roku, Stany Zjednoczone w 1901 roku rozpoczęły budowę bazy floty nad zatoką, stopniowo przenosząc tam poprzednią, prowizoryczną bazę z Honolulu. Rozpoczęto też niezbędny i żmudny proces pogłębiania wejścia do zatoki. W 1908 roku przyznano fundusze na pogłębienie wejścia do zatoki, tak by mogły do niej wchodzić największe okręty amerykańskiej floty. Pierwszy duży okręt, krążownik pancerny , wszedł do zatoki 15 grudnia 1911. +Po I wojnie światowej. +Podczas I wojny światowej Stany Zjednoczone ostatecznie podjęły decyzję o rozbudowie bazy, tak by stała się jedną z głównych baz amerykańskiej floty, porównywalną wielkością i infrastrukturą do baz na zachodnim wybrzeżu kontynentalnych Stanów Zjednoczonych. W 1917 rząd amerykański kupił wyspę Ford w środku zatoki Pearl Harbor w celu zbudowania na niej lotniska, z początku używanego przez lotnictwo armii USA, następnie od 1932 przez lotnictwo floty. W 1919 ukończono pierwszy suchy dok. Do 1934 roku wydano 47 mln dolarów na budowę bazy, która stała się zdolna do pomieszczenia całej Floty Pacyfiku z wyjątkiem największych lotniskowców typu Lexington), dla których wejście do zatoki było jeszcze za płytkie (wejście pogłębiono w następnych latach). Ciężkie okręty floty często odwiedzały Pearl Harbor podczas ćwiczeń, lecz były nadal bazowane na zachodnim wybrzeżu Stanów Zjednoczonych w San Diego. Wraz z pojawieniem się na horyzoncie wojny amerykańskie wydatki na budowę bazy gwałtownie wzrosły, sięgając 100 mln dolarów do 1940 roku. W maju 1940 roku Stany Zjednoczone podjęły decyzję o przebazowaniu głównych sił floty do Pearl Harbor, w celu wywarcia presji na Japonię i w dalszym czasie zorganizować jej daleką blokadę. +II wojna światowa. +Atak lotnictwa marynarki wojennej Japonii 7 grudnia 1941 na bazę w Pearl Harbor rozpoczął pierwsze w historii intensywne walki o Pacyfik. Z pokładu japońskich lotniskowców wystartowało 350 samolotów. Podczas nalotu trwającego kilka godzin zniszczony został trzon amerykańskiej Floty Pacyfiku. Japońskie lotnictwo zatopiło lub uszkodziło 21 okrętów oraz zniszczyło około 260 samolotów. Ocalały jedynie amerykańskie lotniskowce, których nie było tego dnia w porcie. +Po 1945. +Od zakończenia wojny do dnia dzisiejszego Pearl Harbor pozostaje jedną z najważniejszych baz amerykańskiej marynarki. +Od 1980 roku na wodach zatoki znajduje się również Arizona Memorial, który upamiętnia japoński atak z 1941 roku. Muzeum, które zostało zbudowane ponad zatopionym wrakiem okrętu jest udostępnione do zwiedzania. W muzeum można obejrzeć archiwalne filmy, a także wysłuchać licznych komentarzy dotyczących japońskiej agresji na Hawaje. W 2010 baza została połączona z bazą lotniczą i przemianowana na Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam. +Kukurydza + +Kukurydza ("Zea") – rodzaj roślin należący do rodziny wiechlinowatych. Przedstawiciele występują naturalnie w Meksyku, Gwatemali i Nikaragui. Liczy 5 gatunków, wśród których najważniejsza pod względem ekonomicznym jest kukurydza zwyczajna ("Zea mays"), która jest zarazem gatunkiem typowym rodzaju. +Systematyka. +"Mais" Adanson, "Mays" P. Miller, "Thalysia" O. Kuntze +Rodzaj należący do rodziny wiechlinowatych ("Poaceae"), rzędu wiechlinowców ("Poales"). W obrębie rodziny należy do podrodziny "Panicoideae", plemienia "Andropogoneae". +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa jednoliścienne ("Liliopsida" Brongn.), podklasa komelinowe ("Commelinidae" Takht.), nadrząd "Juncanae" Takht., rząd wiechlinowce ("Poales" Small), rodzina wiechlinowate ("Poaceae" (R. Br.) Barnh.), rodzaj kukurydza ("Zea" L.). +Zastosowanie. +Kukurydza zwyczajna jest zbożem uprawianym na wielką skalę w wielu rejonach świata. Większość jej zbiorów przeznacza się na produkcję paszy dla zwierząt. Kukurydza może też być spożywana przez człowieka - po ugotowaniu lub uprażeniu, albo w postaci mąki lub kaszy. +Tutenstein + +Tutenstein (2003-2007) – amerykański animowany serial telewizyjny, nadawany w Polsce przez telewizję Jetix od 20 grudnia 2004 r. +Opis fabuły. +Tytułowym bohaterem serialu jest ożywiona mumia dziewięcioletniego faraona. Tutenstein zostaje obudzony z wiecznego snu w niezwykły sposób. Będąc eksponatem w jednym ze współczesnych muzeów zostaje ożywiony poprzez uderzenie pioruna. I choć przez 4000 lat wiele się zmieniło, to dziewięciolatek pozostaje w przekonaniu, że wciąż jest wielkim faraonem. A ponieważ wyperswadowanie mu tego jest niełatwe, mamy do czynienia z serialem pełnym prześmiesznych gagów i osobliwych przygód. Tutowi towarzyszy dwunastoletnia Cleo i jej kot Luksor. +Wersja polska. +Opracowanie i udźwiękowienie wersji polskiej: na zlecenie Jetix – STUDIO EUROCOM +Reżyseria: Tomasz Grochoczyński +Kierownictwo produkcji: Marzena Omen-Wiśniewska +i inni +Jules Bordet + +Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent Bordet (ur. 13 czerwca 1870 w Soignies, zm. 6 kwietnia 1961 w Brukseli) – mikrobiolog i immunolog belgijski, laureat Nagrody Nobla w 1919 roku. +Studiował medycynę w Brukseli. Po uzyskaniu tytułu doktora medycyny (1892), w latach 1894-1901 pracował pod kierunkiem Ilji Miecznikowa w paryskim Instytucie Pasteura. Od 1901 roku kierował brukselską filią Instytutu Pasteura, a w latach 1907-1935 był profesorem uniwersytetu tamże. +Zajmował się odpornością. W 1895 roku w trakcie obserwacji rozpadu komórek bakteryjnych w surowicy odpornościowej zauważył, że proces ten jest uwarunkowany współdziałaniem dwóch substancji, później określonych mianem dwuchwytnika (amboceptora) i dopełniacza (komplementu). Opracował w 1901 roku metodę tzw. odchylania dopełniacza, mającą duże znaczenie w rozpoznawaniu niektórych chorób (m.in. kiły). W 1906 roku odkrył i opisał pałeczki krztuśca (wspólnie z Octave Gengou) – dla uczczenia tego odkrycia pałeczki krztuśca nazwano "Bordatella pertussis". +Za odkrycia w dziedzinie odporności został uhonorowany Nagrodą Nobla w 1919 roku. +Autor m.in. "Traite de l'immunite dans les maladies infectieuses" (1920). +Michaił Kalinin + +Michaił Iwanowicz Kalinin (ros. Михаил Иванович Калинин) (ur. 19 listopada 1875, Górna Trójca w Obwodzie twerskim - zm. 3 czerwca 1946, Moskwa) - pochodzący z rodziny chłopskiej polityk radziecki, członek partii bolszewików od 1898. +W roku 1919 po śmierci Jakowa Swierdłowa został przewodniczącym Ogólnorosyjskiego Centralnego Komitetu Wykonawczego Rad RFSRR, czyli formalną głową państwa. Od utworzenia ZSRR łączył tą funkcję ze stanowiskiem przewodniczącego Centralnego Komitetu Wykonawczego ZSRR (głowy państwa związkowego). Od roku 1938, od wejścia w życie nowej konstytucji ZSRR, pełnił funkcję Przewodniczącego Prezydium Rady Najwyższej ZSRR. W przeciwieństwie do poprzednika był działaczem niewielkiego kalibru i wysunięto go na tak ważny urząd, gdyż był jednym z nielicznych bolszewików pochodzenia chłopskiego. Nazywano go w propagandzie "wszechzwiązkowym starostą", ale jego rola była głównie reprezentacyjna. +W roku 1919 został kandydatem (zastępcą członka) Biura Politycznego KC WKP(b), a w 1925 pełnym członkiem Biura Politycznego. +Początkowo był przeciwny kolektywizacji, ale w końcu pod presją Stalina ją poparł. Stalin tolerował pewną niezależność w wypowiedziach Kalinina, gdyż uważał go za polityka prostolinijnego i chwiejnego, niezdolnego do intryg i w ostateczności zawsze podtrzymującego linię wodza. Niemniej jednak żona Kalinina była aresztowana i więziona w łagrach, skąd zwolniono ją dopiero w latach 40. +Kalinin został zwolniony kilka miesięcy przed śmiercią z funkcji głowy państwa z powodu choroby. +Kalinin był współodpowiedzialny za wiele masowych zbrodni. Jego podpis, jak i innych członków politbiura, widniał na decyzji o zamordowaniu polskich oficerów w Katyniu. +Na jego cześć przemianowano miasto Królewiec (Kaliningrad). Również wiele innych miast (Twer) i instytucji dawniej nosiło jego imię. +Robert Bárány + +Robert Bárány (ur. 22 kwietnia 1876 w Wiedniu, Austria, zm. 8 kwietnia 1936 w Uppsali, Szwecja) – austriacki lekarz węgiersko-żydowskiego pochodzenia, otiatra, laureat Nagrody Nobla 1914 roku. +W młodośći przebył gruźlicę kości, wskutek czego kulał; jednak choroba wyzwoliła zainteresowanie medycyną. W 1900 obronił doktorat i podjął pracę w szpitalu miejskim we Frankfurcie nad Menem; później pracował w klinice psychiatrycznej Kraepelina, klinice chirurgicznej Gussenbauera (Wiedeń), klinice laryngologicznej prof. Politzera. Od 1917 (do końca życia) był profesorem na Uniwersytecie w Uppsali. +Zajmował się chorobami ucha, zwłaszcza rolą błędnika i móżdżku w utrzymywaniu równowagi ciała. Wprowadził wiele podstawowych metod badawczych do oceny zmysłu równowagi. Za prace nad fizjologią i patologią aparatu przedsionkowego otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla za 1914, jednak z uwagi na toczącą się I wojnę światową zostało to ogłoszone dopiero rok później. Bárány jako ochotnik-lekarz zgłosił się na front wschodni; służył w Twierdzy Przemyśl. W 1915 po upadku twierdzy trafił do niewoli rosyjskiej, dlatego wiadomość o przyznaniu mu nagrody otrzymał przebywając jako jeniec wojenny w Turkiestanie. Z niewoli po interwencji księcia Gustawa Adolfa wykupili go Szwedzi za pośrednictwem Międzynarodowego Czerwonego Krzyża. W 1916 odebrał nagrodę i pozostał w Szwecji. +Pomimo ułomności fizycznej uprawiał czynnie tenis i wspinaczkę. +Jego dwaj synowie, farmakolog Ernst Barany (1910—1991), gastroenterolog Franz Barany (1910—1991) oraz córka, psychiatra Ingrid Barany Gifford (1918—2003) zostali także znanymi lekarzami. +Śródmieście (Sosnowiec) + +Śródmieście – centralna, wielka dzielnica Sosnowca, wyznaczająca obręb ścisłego centrum miasta. Znajduje się tu Urząd Miejski oraz wiele innych ważnych urzędów i instytucji oraz organizacji i podmiotów obsługujących codziennie dziesiątki tysięcy mieszkańców. Tutaj też koncentruje się życie kulturalne i towarzyskie oraz znajduje się, choć zupełnie niezorganizowany, największy w mieście węzeł transportu pasażerskiego. Ostatnimi laty wskutek ekspansji hipermarketów na dalszy plan schodzi rola handlowa "Śródmieścia", a jego wciąż nierozwiązanymi problemami pozostają brak bazy noclegowej, niezagospodarowane atrakcyjne fragmenty terenu oraz zjawiska patologiczne wśród mieszkańców, rzutujące na bezpieczeństwo tej wciąż pełnej kontrastów dzielnicy. +Od północy styka się z Pogonią, następnie graniczy od północnego wschodu z Sielcem (wzdłuż rzeki Czarna Przemsza), od południowego wschodu z Dębową Górą i Radochą (właściwie z historyczną Ostrą Górką), od południa fragmentami z Katowicami i Mysłowicami (z którymi granicę wyznacza rzeka Brynica), a od zachodu ze Starym Sosnowcem wzdłuż torowiska historycznej Kolei Warszawsko-Wiedeńskiej ze stacją Sosnowiec Główny, których otwarcie stało się bezpośrednią przyczyną ówczesnego, dynamicznego rozwoju miasta (będącego wówczas największą wsią w Europie). Południową częścią przebiega natomiast inny historyczny szlak Kolei Iwangorodzko-Dąbrowskiej ze stacją "Sosnowiec Południowy", obecnie w województwie śląskim o zanikającym znaczeniu przewozowym, a który również przyczynił się do rozwoju, zwłaszcza obecnych sosnowieckich dzielnic.Tą dzielnicę zamieszkuje blisko 90 000 ludzi. +Miriam Rothschild + +Dame Miriam Louisa Rothschild (5 sierpnia 1908 - 20 stycznia 2005), uczona brytyjska, zoolog i entomolog. +Pochodziła ze słynnej rodziny bankierów, była córką Charlesa Rothschilda, bankiera i działacza ekologicznego. W pracy naukowej była światowym autorytetem w dziedzinie pcheł. Jako pierwsza zbadała mechanizm skokowy pcheł oraz ich cykl reprodukcyjny. Autorka ponad 350 prac naukowych, a także książek poświęconych członkom rodziny - ojcu ("Rothschild's Reserves - time and fragile nature") i stryjowi Walterowi ("Dear Lord Rothschild"). Aktywnie działała na rzecz ochrony motyli w Wielkiej Brytanii. +Została odznaczona Orderem Imperium Brytyjskiego (D.B.E.). Była członkiem Royal Society. +Bolko II ziębicki + +Bolko (Bolesław) II (ur. zapewne 1300, zm. 11 czerwca 1341, Ziębice) – książę świdnicko-ziębicki w latach 1312-1322, książę ziębicki od 1322, dziedziczny lennik czeski od 1336. +Bolko II był czwartym pod względem starszeństwa (najmłodszym) synem księcia jaworskiego Bolka I Surowego i Beatrycze Brandenburskiej. +W chwili śmierci ojca w 1301 r. był zaledwie rocznym dzieckiem, w związku z czym znalazł się najpierw pod opieką matki i wuja margrabiego brandenburskiego Hermana, potem zaś pod opieką starszego brata Bernarda. Z obawy przed zbytnim rozdrobnieniem władztwa Bolko był początkowo kierowany do kariery duchownej. Świadczyć o tym może fakt posiadania przez Bolka kanonikatu z odpowiednią prebendą w kapitule wrocławskiej. Z planów tych jednak na skutek oporu Bolka II nic nie wyszło i wreszcie w 1322 r. Bernard zdecydował się wydzielić młodszemu bratu dzielnicę ze stolicą w Ziębicach. +W 1322 r. Bolko wraz ze starszym bratem Bernardem wziął udział w wyprawie krzyżowej skierowanej w interesie Krzyżaków przeciwko Litwie. +Na progu swojego panowania książę ziębicki popadł w zatarg z Kościołem. Powodem były ciągłe kłopoty finansowe księcia, uchylanie się od opłaty świętopietrza, oraz najazdy rabunkowe na dobra klasztorne w Henrykowie i Kamieńcu Ząbkowickim. Szala goryczy przepełniła się w 1329 r., kiedy ludzie księcia napadli i ograbili legata papieskiego Piotra z Alwerni. W związku z tym, że próby interwencji papieża u króla polskiego, czeskiego i książąt śląskich nie dały rezultatu, Bolko II został ostatecznie obłożony klątwą kościelną przez biskupa wrocławskiego Nankiera. Kara kościelna zdjęta została dopiero po zapłaceniu klasztorom i legatowi odpowiednio wysokiego odszkodowania. +W 1335 r. władztwo Bolka II zostało zaatakowane przez margrabiego morawskiego Karola Luksemburczyka. Stało się tak, dlatego że książę ziębicki sukcesywnie odmawiał złożenia hołdu lennego ze swojego księstwa, którego znaczenie wzrosło właśnie w 1335 r., gdyż tędy prowadziła najkrótsza droga z Pragi do najważniejszego na Śląsku miasta Wrocławia przejętego w tym czasie przez Czechów. Karol Luksemburski zignorował zdeterminowanie ziębickiego Piasta i wysłał przeciwko niemu zbyt małe siły, które udało się Bolkowi pokonać, biorąc przy okazji do niewoli 150 znacznych rycerzy. Bolko nie zdołał jednak powstrzymać władcy czeskiego przed zniszczeniem księstwa dokonanym przez jego wojska. Nie potrafił też wykorzystać faktu wzięcia do niewoli czeskich rycerzy, których zwolnił za bardzo nieduży okup. Ten brak konsekwencji w działaniu księcia ziębickiego spowodował uznanie go przez kronikarza Janka z Czarnkowa za "pomieszanego na umyśle". +Wojna w 1335 roku ostatecznie zakończyła się pełnym zwycięstwem Piastowicza. Niespodziewanie jednak w czerwcu 1336 r. Bolko II dobrowolnie uznał się lennikiem władcy czeskiego. Przyczyny tego stanu rzeczy upatruje się w fakcie rezygnacji z księstw śląskich przez króla Polski Kazimierza Wielkiego, co spowodowało, że książę ziębicki stracił nadzieję na skuteczne opieranie się potędze czeskiej. Inną ważną przyczyną było przekazanie Bolkowi II w dożywotnie władanie ziemi kłodzkiej. W akcie lennym potwierdzonym przez poddanych Bolko II zobowiązał się, że po wymarciu jego potomków księstwo ziębickie przejdzie pod bezpośrednie panowanie króla Czech. +Bolko II borykał się z ciągłymi kłopotami finansowymi z powodu swojej rozrzutności. W 1337 r. został zmuszony do zastawienia Karolowi Luksemburskiemu Ząbkowic Śląskich, a wkrótce potem za sumę 2300 grzywien Strzelina i Kątów. Ostatecznie wolna od zastawów pozostała tylko stolica księstwa Ziębice. Pomimo rozrzutności Bolko II dbał o rozwój gospodarczy swoich włości, dzięki czemu cieszył się dość dużą popularnością wśród mieszczaństwa. +Bolko II był od 1322 roku żonaty z nieznaną z pochodzenia Gutą (zmarłą w 1342 r.). Z małżeństwa tego pochodzili syn, późniejszy książę ziębicki Mikołaj i Małgorzata klaryska w Strzelinie. +Książę ziębicki zmarł w stolicy swojego księstwa 11 czerwca 1341 i został pochowany w klasztorze w Henrykowie, gdzie zachował się jego nagrobek. +Kabel sprężający + +Kabel sprężający – cięgno sprężające wykonane ze stali lub materiału kompozytowego, zamontowane w konstrukcji betonowej lub innej i napięte w kontrolowany sposób. Celem naciągu kabla sprężającego jest wywołanie określonej siły w sprężanej konstrukcji - Konstrukcja kablobetonowa. +Kabel składa się z równolegle prowadzonych drutów lub splotów, tym odróżnia się od liny, w której wiązka jest skręcona. +Kabel sprężający może być wewnętrzny lub zewnętrzny, zawsze jednak jest naciągany po uzyskaniu przez konstrukcję sprężaną wymaganej wytrzymałości, co odróżnia go od struny sprężającej. +Rudak + +Rudak – jedna z lewobrzeżnych części urzędowych Torunia. +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki źródłowe o Rudaku pochodzą z r. 1340, w r. 1603 osada zostaje zasiedlona przez Olendrów, w XIX i pocz. XX w. z uwagi na rozbudowę Twierdzy Toruń ulokowano tu kilka dział obronnych i kompleks koszar, od 2. poł. XIX w. działa tu także cegielnia firmy Wienerbeger, obecnie rozwija się budownictwo - głównie jednorodzinne, powiększane są także zakłady związane z kopalnią iłów plejstoceńskich. +Zabytki i atrakcje turystyczne. +Przez Rudak przebiega czerwony szlak turystyczny im. S. Noakowskiego. +Obecnie w budowie znajduje się trasa mostowa (przeznaczona na nowy most na ulicy Wschodniej). +Najważniejsze ulice na tej dzielnicy to: Okólna, Strzałowa, Stara Droga, Telimeny i Rudacka. +Awangarda (sztuka) + +Termin jest wykorzystywany również obecnie dla określenia dokonań artystycznych, które wykraczają poza schematy i nie poddają się prostej klasyfikacji, np. muzyka awangardowa. +Awangarda w literaturze. +Podstawą dla awangardzistów była twórczość opozycyjna wobec wzorców będących spadkiem po romantyzmie i Młodej Polsce. Jedną z podstawowych zasad działania ruchów awangardowych XX wieku było dążenie do zamknięcia nowej wizji poezji w wyraźnym programie. Poeci awangardowi szukali teoretycznego uzasadnienia swojego działania twórczego. Wychodzili z założenia, że tworzenie nie jest dziełem przypadkowym, ale wyrazem pewnych przekonań, które da się przedstawić w formie jasno sformułowanych zasad. Stąd na początku XX wieku pojawiło się wiele manifestów artystycznych, w których twórcy przedstawiali nową wizję poezji. Prawie każdy ruch awangardowy uważał niemal za swój obowiązek opublikowanie manifestu. Ta zasada nie była obca także polskim awangardystom. +Teoretyzowanie awangardy. +Wielu pisarzy podjęło wysiłek naszkicowania mapy podstawowych parametrów awangardowej aktywności. Jedną z najbardziej udanych i szanowanych próby analizy awangardy jako fenomenu kulturowego pozostaje praca włoskiego eseisty Renato Poggioli z 1962 roku "Teoria dell'arte d'avanguardia" ("Teoria Awangardy"). Opracowując historyczne, społeczne i filozoficzne aspekty fenomenu. Poggioli sięga poza specyfikę samej sztuki, poezji i muzyki, by pokazać, że awangardziści mogą podzielać pewne ideały i wartości, które manifestują się w ich nonkonformistycznym stylu życia. +Inni autorzy rozszerzają studia Poggioliego. W "Teorii awangardy" Peter Bürger zastanawia się, w jaki sposób ruchy awangardowego doprowadziły do konieczności zmiany myślenia o sztuce – przede wszystkim o dziele i artyście. W swojej pracy wykorzystuje w głównej mierze prace Georga Wilhelma Hegla, Karola Marxa oraz Waltera Benjamina. Niemiecki teoretyk sztuki stara się w swojej pracy obalić wiele obiegowych sądów oraz nietrafionych krytyk, jakie spotkały awangardowych artystów. +Jego dzieło ukształtowało z kolei myślenie takich historyków sztuki jak Benjamin H. D. Buchloh i Clement Greenberg. Obecnie refleksja na temat awangardy przeniosła się bardziej na grunt recepcji sztuki neo-awangardowej. Buchloh rozumie ją jako formę recyclingu dawnych form obowiązujących w latach 20-tych XX wieku, natomiast Clement Greenberg widzi w niej artykulację specyficznych warunków produkcji w okresie powojennym. +Z kolei Hal Foster przygląda się neo-awangardzie z punktu widzenia teorii psychoanalitycznych, zwłaszcza psychoanalizy Lacanowskiej. Pokazuje on, że ruchy neoawangardowe nie muszą być odczytywane tylko w kluczu postmodernistycznej filozofii symulakrów, zniknięcia autora, spisku sztuki itd. Wręcz przeciwnie – to, co właściwe dla artystów tego nurtu to wysokie waloryzowanie rzeczy jako takiej, w swojej materialności i traumatyzującym wymiarze. W "Powrocie Realnego" analizuje w ten sposób m.in. dzieła amerykańskich twórców minimal artu oraz dzieła Andy’ego Warhola. +Sinn Féin + +Sinn Féin (irl. „My sami”) – irlandzka organizacja i partia. Za datę utworzenia przyjmuje się 28 listopada 1905, w którym nazwą Sinn Féin określono grupę społecznych, politycznych i kulturalnych irlandzkich organizacji. Według Brytyjczyków, w roku 1916 zorganizowała ona powstanie, z którym nie miała jednak bezpośredniego związku. Partia o nazwie Sinn Féin została formalnie założona w roku 1917. Jest to irlandzka partia lewicowa, republikańska, separatystyczna, związana z IRA. Aktualnie jest aktywnym uczestnikiem życia politycznego w Irlandii, jak również w Irlandii Północnej, gdzie jest największą partią nacjonalistyczną, zdobywającą w wyborach ok. 25% głosów. W czasie referendum w 2008 roku zdecydowanie opowiedziała się przeciw przyjęciu traktatu lizbońskiego. +W chwili obecnej ma ona 28 przedstawicieli w parlamencie Irlandii Północnej, 5 w Dáil Éireann – niższej izbie parlamentu Irlandii, 5 w Izbie Gmin oraz 2 europarlamentarzystki. +Rozłamy. +W swojej historii Sinn Féin przeszła 4 rozłamy, w wyniku których powstały nowe partie. +Polscy żołnierze internowani w krajach bałtyckich + +Polscy żołnierze internowani w krajach bałtyckich – żołnierze Wojska Polskiego internowani na terytorium Litwy, Łotwy i Estonii w 1939 roku. +W wyniku rozwoju wydarzeń w kampanii wrześniowej 1939 roku, szczególnie w związku z uzgodnioną z hitlerowską III Rzeszą agresją radziecką 17 września 1939 roku pewna część jednostek Wojska Polskiego operujących na wschodnich obszarach kraju przekroczyła granice z neutralnymi sąsiednimi krajami bałtyckimi, a ich żołnierze zostali zgodnie z prawem międzynarodowym internowani. +Na Litwie internowano ok. 5000 osób i osadzono w czterech obozach: w Wiłkomierzu, w V Forcie Kowieńskim, w Kalwarii koło Wilna i Wyłkowyszkach. Na Łotwie internowanych było ok. 1500, część z nich było osadzonych w obozie w Ulbroce, natomiast dla większości osób reżim internowania w tym kraju miał charakter wyłącznie formalny i po zarejestrowaniu pozostały one na wolności. Pewna grupa polskich internowanych znajdowała się również w Estonii, ale była ona niewielka i jest obecnie trudna do ustalenia. Po aneksji przez ZSRR krajów nadbałtyckich latem 1940 roku ujęci internowani zostali wywiezieni do obozów w Rosji i stali się drugą grupą polskich jeńców w ZSRR. +Z internowaniem żołnierzy związane jest internowanie okrętów w szerzej rozumianych krajach bałtyckich (łącznie ze Szwecją – żaglowca szkolnego s/y "Dar Pomorza" oraz okrętów podwodnych OORP "Sęp", "Ryś" i "Żbik", a także krótkotrwałe zatrzymanie w Tallinnie okrętu podwodnego ORP "Orzeł" +Modrzejów + +Modrzejów – dawne miasto (1706-1870), obecnie (od 1915) południowa, nieduża dzielnica Sosnowca, czasem błędnie określana "Niwką-Modrzejów" od nazwy połączonej, a już nie istniejącej kopalni. +Położenie. +Graniczy od północy z Dębową Górą, od wschodu z Niwką, a od południa i zachodu Mysłowicami, którą to granicę wyznacza przepływająca tutaj rzeka Czarna Przemsza, łącząca się następnie w historycznym miejscu z Białą Przemszą, tworząc w ten sposób Przemszę. To połączenie rzek stało się wizualnym symbolem Sosnowca, odzwierciedlonym w elementach herbu i – jako jedyny motyw – na fladze. Na skraju dzielnicy znajduje się historyczne, posiadające europejski wymiar miejsce styku trzech zaborów zwane "Trójkątem Trzech Cesarzy". +Przez środek dzielnicy przebiega droga krajowa nr 79, spełniająca na tym odcinku charakter drogi lokalnej. +Historia. +Jedno z kilku wyjątkowych miasteczek w dziejach Polski. Określane jako tzw. miasteczko żydowskie, było ich tylko kilka. Wyróżniały się tym, że w swoim obrębie nie miały świątyni chrześcijańskiej tylko żydowską. W przypadku Modrzejowa najbliższy kościół znajdowała się w Mysłowicach i w Niwce. Znajdowały się tu także inne obiekty związane ze społecznością żydowską. Większość mieszkańców stanowili Żydzi, co zaczęło się zmieniać dopiero przed II wojną światową. Ponieważ było to miasto, które swoje powstanie zawdzięcza pograniczu małopolsko-śląskiemu, które przecięte zostało ważnym traktem handlowym, geografowie nazywają je miasto-wrota (gateway city). A także z uwagi na sąsiedztwo Mysłowic miasto bliźniacze (twin city). Określenia te odnoszą się jednak do czasów historycznych XVIII i XIX w. +Pierwsza wzmianka o nim pochodzi z 1650 roku i znajduje się w kronikach Bractwa Różańcowego w Mysłowicach. W 1706 roku, za przyzwoleniem króla Augusta II Mocnego, osada została przemianowana w miasto o nazwie Modrzewo (od nazwiska właściciela). Obecnej nazwy zaczęto używać od 1711 roku. Modrzejów był drugim po Będzinie, głównym skupiskiem ludności żydowskiej w Zagłębiu Dąbrowskim. Tutaj osiedlili się Żydzi z okolic Olkusza, Żarek, Częstochowy i Pilicy, uciekający przed zarazą. W roku 1713 posiadali już kahał, synagogę i własny cmentarz. Według danych z 1849 roku w Modrzejowie mieszkało 310 Żydów, co stanowiło prawie 84% ogółu mieszkańców miasta. +Modrzejów należał do dóbr sieleckich. Jego właścicielami byli: Jaroccy, Klajnerowie – Minorowie, Przybysławscy, Modrzewscy, Kabielscy, Tęgoborscy, Żulińscy, Grabińscy, Jordan hr. Stojewski, a od początku XIX wieku Niemcy: gen. Schimmelpfenig von de Oye, Ludwig Anhalt-Coeten von Pless, hrabina Szarlota von Wernigerode zu Stolberg i hr. Jan Renard (od 1856 roku). Miasto miało prawo do 9 jarmarków w roku (przywilej króla Augusta III Sasa) oraz do organizowania cotygodniowych targów na zboże, bydło i konie (przywilej króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego). Od 1725 roku istniał tutaj magazyn soli. Wskutek m.in. silnej konkurencji ze strony pobliskich Mysłowic, które leżały wprawdzie za granicą, lecz stanowiły centrum handlowe także dla dóbr sieleckich, Modrzejów zatrzymał się w rozwoju. W 1801 r. straciły prawa miejskie, ale ten edykt chyba nie wszedł w życie, bo dopiero car odebrał je definitywnie w roku 1870. Po powstaniu styczniowym (oddziały powstańcze operowały w tym rejonie i próbowały zdobyć miasto). Przemysł zaczął powstawać tutaj stosunkowo późno. W latach 1902 – 1912 zbudowano kopalnię „Modrzejów” jako część kopalni „Niwka”; samodzielność uzyskała w 1919 roku. Należała do Towarzystwa Kopalń i Zakładów Hutniczych Sosnowieckich. Po II wojnie światowej ponownie połączyła się z „Niwką”. Kopalnia obecnie już nie istnieje. W roku 1915 Modrzejów został przyłączony do Sosnowca. W okresie międzywojennym próbowano utworzyć osobne miasto Niwka-Modrzejów zob. Niwka. +Inne obiekty i miejsca. +Na północ od Rynku przy drodze do centrum Sosnowca obszar ochrony przyrody obejmujący tereny leśne i wodne. Użytek ekologiczny z chronionymi ekosystemami. +Miejsce po komorze celnej na dawnej granicy rosyjsko-pruskiej. W terenie najbliższe sąsiedztwo dużego, pojedynczego drzewa przy ul. Orląt Lwowskich. Tu też miał przyczółek most na Przemszy w kierunku Mysłowic. +Na Przemszy jeden z najnowocześniejszych mostów w okręgu katowickim. +Rimonabant + +Rimonabant – organiczny związek chemiczny, lek służący do walki z otyłością oraz uzależnieniami. Prawdopodobnie lek ten jest w stanie kontrolować lub nawet ograniczać czynniki ryzyka zespołu metabolicznego. +Rimonabant jest selektywnym antagonistą receptora kannabinoidowego CB1. +Receptor CB1 zlokalizowany jest w mózgu, tkance tłuszczowej, mięśniach szkieletowych, wątrobie i innych narządach. Lek blokuje obwodowe i centralne receptory CB1 i w ten sposób wpływa na zmniejszenie masy ciała oraz obwodu w talii, poprawia profil metaboliczny zwiększając stężenie cholesterolu frakcji HDL (tzw. "dobrego" cholesterolu). Zalecana kuracja dłuższa niż dwa tygodnie. +Rimonabant został po raz pierwszy opisany w 1994 roku. Badania kliniczne dowiodły, że wraz z modyfikacją stylu życia jest skuteczny w redukcji masy ciała u osób otyłych. Od czerwca 2006 rimonabant (Acomplia) został dopuszczony do obrotu na terytorium całej Unii Europejskiej, ale w październiku 2008 Europejska Agencja Leków odradziła jego przepisywanie pacjentom i preparat został wycofany ze sprzedaży. +Bilobalid + +Bilobalid - związek organiczny, terpen trilaktonowy, obecny w liściach miłorzębu dwuklapowego ("Ginkgo biloba"). +Bilobalid jest głównym składnikiem frakcji terpenoidowej w liściach miłorzębu, występuje także w mniejszych ilościach w korzeniach. Dokładny szlak biosyntezy tego związku z geranylo pirofosforanu (GGPP) i farnezylo pirofosforanu (FPP) nie został jeszcze poznany. +Terpeny trilaktonowe przykuwają uwagę nie tylko w związku z ich wykorzystywaniem w aromaterapii ale również dzięki ich unikalnej budowie chemicznej. Struktura bilobalidu została poznana w latach 60., lecz dopiero w latach 80. XX w. badania nabrały rozpędu w związku z odkryciem, że może on być antagonistą czynnika aktywującego płytki krwi (PAF). +Potencjalne zastosowania bilobalidu. +Bilobalid i neuroprotekcja. +Niedokrwienie mózgu. +Po przeprowadzeniu wstępnych badań nad wpływem bilobalidu na komórki nerwowe okazało się, że może on zapobiegać niedokrwieniu mózgu. Badania nad szczurzym modelem niedokrwienia pokazały, że traktowanie komórek +nerwowych ("in vitro") jak i samych szczurów ("in vivo") bilobalidem (>5 mg/kg m.c.) redukuje objawy związane z niedokrwieniem. +Bilobalid jest również inhibitorem uwalniania choliny w hipokampie, co zapobiega hydrolizie fosfolipidów wywołanej niedokrwieniem. Efekt ten jest specyficzny tylko i wyłącznie dla bilobalidu i nie zaobserwowano go podczas badań z użyciem innych pochodnych terpenoidowych z miłorzębu. +Bilobalid wpływa również na aktywację fosfolipazy A2 i również w ten sposób zapobiega rozpadowi fosfolipidów w strukturach hipokampu. +Wpływ antyapoptotyczny. +Apoptoza komórek nerwowych jest ściśle powiązana z niedokrwieniem mózgu i wydaje się więc, że jej inhibicja może być nową strategia terapeutyczną w chorobach neurodegeneracyjnych m.in. chorobie Alzheimera i chorobie Parkinsona. +Bilobalid wykazuje własności antyapoptotyczne w komórkach nerwowych. Badania "in vitro" na kulturach neuronów i komórkach glejowych, w których apoptoza była indukowana, pokazały, że efekt ochronny bilobalidu jest znaczący i statystycznie istotny. +Choroba Alzheimera. +Podczas badań nad mysim modelem choroby Alzheimera wykazano, że podawanie bilobalidu zmniejsza objawy choroby, takie jak zaburzenia pamięci czy opóźnienia reakcji odruchowej. Nie wykazano jednakże różnic w ilości płytek beta-amyloidu co sugeruje, że związek ten zmniejsza raczej utlenianie białek niż wpływa na ilość beta-amyloidu. +Oddychanie komórkowe. +Mitochondria są głównym źródłem energii wykorzystywanej w metabolizmie komórkowym. Spadek dopływu tlenu w trakcie niedokrwienia (ischemia) wpływa na produkcję energii przez te organella komórkowe. Funkcje komórek i tkanek zaburzone przez niedokrwienie mogą być w pełni odtworzone tylko i wyłącznie wtedy, gdy czas niedokrwienia jest relatywnie krótki. W dłuższych okresach ischemia powoduje nieodwracalne zniszczenia komórek. +Mitochondria izolowane z niedokrwionej tkanki sercowej mają zredukowana zdolność oddechową, spowodowaną uszkodzeniami w obrębie kompleksu I i kompleksu III w łańcuchu oddechowym. Podobne zjawisko zaobserwowano w mitochondriach izolowanych z niedokrwionych komórek mózgu. Wykazano również zmniejszenie aktywności translokazy nukleotydów adeninowych, spadek płynności błon, jak i zwiększenie stężenia jonów wapnia Ca2+. +Prace eksperymentalne wykazały, że bilobalid może wywierać wpływ na tkankę mózgową jak i na tkankę mięśnia sercowego. Mechanizm jego działania nie został jeszcze poznany, lecz wykazano jego +wpływ na wydolność oddechową ("RCR" – ang. "respiratory control ratio" – jest to stosunek pomiędzy konsumpcja tlenu w obecności ADP a konsumpcja po wytworzeniu ATP). Badania na komórkach izolowanych z wątroby pokazały, że bilobalid wpływa na wzrost współczynnika RCR w mitochondriach w sposób statystycznie istotny. Wpływ ten obserwowano zarówno wtedy gdy badano mitochondria pochodzące z komórek wątroby szczurów traktowanych bilobalidem, jak i podczas badań "in vitro" kultur komórek w pożywce zawierającej bilobalid. +Prawdopodobny mechanizm działania bilobalidu polega na zapobieganiu zmniejszania aktywności kompleksu I i kompleksu III. Bilobalid zwiększa również współczynnik "RCR" z komórek ischemicznych. +Bilobalid jako przeciwutleniacz i zmiatacz wolnych rodników. +Wolne rodniki, mocne utleniacze, są związkami zawierającymi niesparowane elektrony. Są one zdolne do niszczenia różnych komponentów komórek (lipidów, białek, DNA, cukrów) i są zaangażowane w procesie powstawania mutacji. Mutageneza powodowana przez wolne rodniki ma bardzo daleko idące inklinacje w rozwoju przewlekłych chorób takich jak nowotwory, nadciśnienie tętnicze, arterioskleroza, reumatyzm czy katarakta. +Bilobalid ma właściwości przeciwutleniające. Jest on zmiataczem wolnych rodników m.in. anionorodnika ponadtlenkowego (O2-) oraz rodnika hydroperyksolowego (HO2). Wykorzystując spektroskopię elektronowego rezonansu paramagnetycznego (EPR) wykazano, że bilobalid wydatnie zmniejsza sygnał pochodzący od rodnika O2- jak i od rodnika HO2. Analizy widm spektrofotometrycznych UV/VIS potwierdziły szybki zanik sygnału pochodzącego od rodnika O2- – po dodaniu bilobalidu. +Kolejne eksperymenty pokazały, że bilobalid wykazuje również właściwości przeciwutleniające zmiatając rodniki O2- generowane podczas ischemii. Przeciwutleniające właściwości bilobalidu mogą brać udział w ochronie przed peroksydacją lipidów, występującą w trakcie niedokrwienia oraz jak wykazały badania prowadzone na komórkach trzustki, przeciwdziałają reakcji zapalnej. +Inhibicja produkcji tlenku azotu (NO). +Produkcja tlenku azotu jest regulowana przez syntazę tlenku azotu (NOS). W obecności koenzymów NOS przekształca L-argininę w tlenek azotu i cytrulinę. Tlenek azotu pełni bardzo ważną rolę podczas powstawania płytek miażdżycowych. Nadprodukcja NO może prowadzić do uszkodzenia ściany naczyń krwionośnych. +Bilobalid selektywnie obniża aktywację NOS w makrofagach, lecz nie obniża aktywności NOS w komórkach endothelium. Bilobalid obniża ekspresję genu NOS w makrofagach zmniejszając tym samym produkcję tlenku azotu, a co za tym idzie może być przydatnym terapeutykiem w leczeniu chorób układu krwionośnego. +Wpływ bilobalidu na MAO. +Bilobalid jest stosowany w leczeniu chorób ośrodkowego układu nerwowego. Poziom +biogennych amin i jego regulacja jest ważnym czynnikiem dla sprawnego działania całego +mózgu Wykazano, że bilobalid jest inhibitorem monoaminooksydazy -A jak i –B. Badania ukazały również przeciwstresowe i przeciwlękowe działanie bilobalidu. +Interakcje z cytochromem P450. +Enzymy z nadrodziny cytochromów P450 zostały znalezione w +bakteriach, grzybach oraz w komórkach ssaczych. U ludzi pełnią one ważną rolę podczas metabolizmu leków i innych egzogennych substancji, jak i również podczas biosyntezy steroidów i prostaglandyn. +Przebadano bilobalid na różne polimorficzne formy cytochromu P450 pochodzące z trzustki. Okazało się, że frakcja terpenoidowa zawierająca bilobalid, zmniejsza aktywność tylko jednej formy enzymu ("CYP2C9") nie wpływając na jego pozostałe rodzaje. +Wpływ na inne enzymy detoksyfikacyjne. +Zarówno bilobalid jak i inne trilaktony terpenoidowe zwiększają aktywność enzymów detoksyfikacyjnych takich jak transferaza S-glutationu ("GST") oraz DT-diaforaza. Zwiększenie aktywności detoksyfikacyjnej odgrywa ważną rolę w metabolizmie ksenobiotyków włączając związki kancerogenne co zmniejsza ryzyko nowotworzenia. +Wpływ na rozluźnienie mięśniówki naczyń. +Kolejnym efektem wywieranym przez bilobalid na organizm jest zwiotczenie naczyń krwionośnych. Terpenoidy mają wpływ relaksacyjny zależny od stężenia. Bilobalid wywiera mniejszy wpływ od mieszaniny terpenoidów z liści miłorzębu co wskazuje na współdziałanie tych składników ekstraktu. +Podsumowanie. +Bilobalid jest związkiem o szerokim potencjalnym spektrum działania. Jego wykorzystanie w lecznictwie i fitoterapii przynosi korzystne efekty. Szczególnie ważne jest jego stosowanie w chorobach neurodegeneracyjnych i chorobach układu krążenia. Właściwości przeciwutleniające sprawiają, że bilobalid jest świetnym profilaktykiem, lecz niekoniecznie lekarstwem mogącym wyleczyć już postępującą chorobę. Wielką zaletą bilobalidu jest brak efektów ubocznych jego stosowania. +Sacramento + +Sacramento – stolica amerykańskiego stanu Kalifornia, siedziba hrabstwa Sacramento. Za sprawą populacji liczącej 470 956 mieszkańców (2012), stanowi szóste pod względem wielkości miasto w Kalifornii. Sacramento jest gospodarczym i kulturalnym centrum obszaru metropolitalnego o tej samej nazwie, zamieszkiwanego przez 2 527 123 osób (2009) – czwartego ze względu na wielkość w stanie Kalifornia (ustępując Greater Los Angeles Area, San Francisco Bay Area i San Diego) i dwudziestego drugiego w całych Stanach Zjednoczonych. W 2002 roku magazyn "Time" uznał Sacramento za najbardziej zintegrowane etnicznie i rasowo miasto amerykańskie. +Miasto leży u zbiegu rzek Sacramento i American River, w północnej części Doliny Kalifornijskiej. Sacramento zyskało status miasta w wyniku starań szwajcarskiego imigranta Johna Suttera, Sr., jego syna Johna Suttera, Jr. oraz przedsiębiorcy Jamesa W. Marshalla. Rozwój tych obszarów następował pierwotnie głównie za sprawą działalności Sutter's Fort, czyli handlowej i rolniczej kolonii, założonej w 1839 roku. Dzięki szybkiemu wzrostowi, w 1848 roku utworzona została osada, która w roku 1850 zyskała oficjalnie prawa miejskie. W okresie wielkiej gorączki złota w Kalifornii, Sacramento stanowiło strategiczny punkt dystrybucyjny, centrum komercyjne i gospodarcze, miejsce postoju karawan, dyliżansów oraz łodzi rzecznych, a także jeden z przystanków na drodze Pierwszej Kolei Transkontynentalnej; Sacramento dysponowało ponadto telegrafami oraz pocztą konną Pony Express. +Historia. +Początki: Indianie i hiszpańskie ekspedycje. +Obszary współczesnego Sacramento były zamieszkiwane przez ludy indiańskich plemion Nisenan (Southern Maidu) i Miwok na tysiące lat wcześniej, nim dotarli do nich Europejczycy. Pomimo to, Indianie nie pozostawili wielu śladów swojej obecności. +Wedle różnych danych, w roku 1799 lub 1808, hiszpański podróżnik Gabriel Moraga odkrył i nadał nazwy Dolinie Sacramento i rzece Sacramento. Uczestniczący w wyprawie pisarz scharakteryzował te tereny słowami: "Dęby i topole, towarzyszące im winorośla, zawieszone po obu stronach niebieskiego korytarza. Ćwierkające na drzewach ptaki i wielkie ryby widziane przez przezroczyste wody w głębinach. Powietrze było niczym szampan, "Spaniards" upajali się nim, upajali się otaczającym ich pięknem. "Es como el sagrado sacramento!" (To jak Najświętszy Sakrament!)" +Założenie miasta i gorączka złota. +W 1839 roku, wśród przybyłych na tereny Sacramento osadników, był Szwajcar John Sutter, który utworzył na miejscu kolonię handlową Sutter's Fort (pierwotnie znaną jako New Helvetia, czyli "Nowa Szwajcaria"). W 1847 roku Sutter zasadził ponad dwa tysiące drzew owocowych, co zapoczątkowało narodziny rolnictwa w Dolinie Sacramento. Rok później, gdy James W. Marshall odkrył złoża złota w kopalni Sutter's Mill w Colomie (położonej w odległości około 80 kilometrów od fortu), do osady zaczęła napływać duża liczba poszukiwaczy kruszca, zwiększając lokalną populację. John Sutter, Jr. dążył do realizacji planów ojca, by przekształcić osadę w miasto; postąpił jednakże wbrew jego zdaniu, bowiem zdecydował się nadać mu nazwę Sacramento, zaczerpniętą od pobliskiej rzeki. W tym celu zatrudnił topografa, Williama H. Warnera, do sporządzenia oficjalnego planu miasta, który objął wówczas 26 ulic z nazwami i 31 ulic numerowanych. Część Sacramento, która została oryginalnie wyznaczona przez Williama Warnera jest położona nieopodal miejsca, w którym stykają się rzeki Sacramento i Amerykańska. +Mieszkańcy Sacramento zdecydowali o przyjęciu charakteru miejskiego w 1849 roku, co zostało zatwierdzone przez władze stanowe w roku 1850. Sacramento jest najstarszym poddanym inkorporacji miastem Kalifornii (27 lutego 1850 roku). Na początku lat 50. XIX wieku Dolina Sacramento była nawiedzana przez silne powodzie, pożary, a także epidemie cholery. Jednak pomimo tych kataklizmów, nowo powstałe miasto przeżywało szybki wzrost, głównie ze względu na sąsiedztwo Sierra Nevada, w których wydobywano złoto i srebro. +Pozostałości po Chinatown. +W latach 40. i 50. XIX wieku Chiny pozostawały w stanie wojny z Wielką Brytanią i Francją; walki toczone były na frontach I oraz II wojny opiumowej. Obie wojny, a także fala biedy i głodu, jaka ogarnęła kraj, sprawiły, że do Stanów Zjednoczonych zaczęli napływać chińscy imigranci. Wielu z nich kierowało się w pierwszej kolejności do San Francisco (znanego jako "Dai Fow", czyli Wielkie Miasto), które wówczas dzierżyło miano największego miasta Kalifornii, a stamtąd często przenosiło się do Sacramento (określanego jako "Yee Fow", czyli Drugie Miasto). +Osiadający w Sacramento przybysze z Chin koncentrowali się w dzielnicy Chinatown, położonej na obszarze od 2. do 6. ulicy. Historia dzielnicy upływała pod znakiem tajemniczych pożarów, aktów dyskryminacji, a także obowiązywania przepisów pokroju Chinese Exclusion Act, które zakazywały nowo napływającym chińskim imigrantom zamieszkiwania miasta. Ich obecność w Sacramento budziła sprzeciwy przede wszystkim w klasie robotniczej; lokalni mieszkańcy uważali, że Chińczycy zabierają im miejsca pracy. Z tego powodu przyjmowano różnego rodzaju rozporządzenia, które miały utrudnić imigrantom budowę domów, zaś prasa przedstawiała ich w niekorzystnym świetle, wzmacniając etniczną dyskryminację. Pomimo tych działań, Chińczycy pozostali w Sacramento, zaś przez dzielnicę zaczęła przebiegać trasa kolejowa. Amerykanie chińskiego pochodzenia mieli duży wkład w rozwój sieci kolejowej regionu oraz budowę tam rzecznych w okolicy. +Podczas gdy większość historycznego Chinatown została wyburzona, pozostała część jest wciąż zamieszkiwana przez potomków pierwotnych chińskich imigrantów. W dzielnicy istnieje ponadto muzeum poświęcone historii obszaru, a także wkładowi, jaki w rozwój miasta mieli Amerykanie chińskiego pochodzenia. +Stolica. +Legislatura stanu Kalifornia, ze wsparciem gubernatora Johna Biglera, ustanowiła Sacramento stolicą w 1854 roku. Za rządów hiszpańskich (i, kolejno, meksykańskich) stolicą Kalifornii pozostawało Monterey, gdzie w 1849 roku odbył się pierwszy Konwent Konstytucyjny oraz wybory stanowe. Konwent podjął wówczas decyzję, że rolę stolicy pełnić będzie San José. Po roku 1850, kiedy to ratyfikowano państwowość Kalifornii, stanowe władze ustawodawcze obradowały w Vallejo (1852) i Benicii (1853), aż w końcu przeniosły się do Sacramento. W 1961 roku, ze względu na wielką powódź w Sacramento, sesje władz ustawodawczych Kalifornii odbywały się w San Francisco. W 1874 roku zakończono konstrukcję kapitolu stanowego z siedzibą w Sacramento, zaś w roku 1879 Konwent przyjął, że Sacramento pozostanie permanentną stolicą stanu Kalifornia. +W 1850, a następnie 1861 roku mieszkańcy Sacramento musieli stawić czoła ogromnym powodziom, które zatopiły całe miasto. Po kataklizmie z 1850 roku, w Sacramento zapanowały epidemie cholery oraz grypy, paraliżując jego funkcjonowanie na kilka kolejnych lat. Inauguracja gubernatora Lelanda Stanforda, który objął tę funkcję w 1861 roku, odbyła się na łodziach wiosłowych. Ilość wody w mieście była na tyle duża, że, wedle opowieści, Stanford po powrocie do domu dostał się do środka za pośrednictwem okna na drugim piętrze budynku. Powodzie zmusiły władze oraz społeczność do podjęcia różnych działań, aby zapobiec tak wielkim szkodom w przyszłości. W tym celu dotychczasowe pierwsze piętra budynków zostały przemienione w piwnice, wszystkie chodniki zostały "wyłożone", zaś ubytki w ścianach kompleksowo wypełnione. +Dzięki nowemu statusowi i strategicznemu położeniu, Sacramento przeżywało szybki rozwój, stając się zachodnim krańcem poczty konnej Pony Express. W kolejnych latach w mieście utworzono przystanek Pierwszej Kolei Transkontynentalnej – jego budowa rozpoczęła się w 1863 roku i finansowana była przez tzw. "The Big Four", czyli Marka Hopkinsa, Charlesa Crockera, Collisa Huntingtona oraz Lelanda Stanforda. +Te same rzeki, które do niedawna przynosiły zniszczenie i śmierć, zaczęły pełnić funkcje transportowe i komercyjne, stając się kluczowymi elementami sukcesu gospodarczego, jakie odnosiło miasto. W życie wprowadzano kolejne projekty robót publicznych, finansowane w dużym stopniu dzięki podatkom od dóbr wypakowywanych z łodzi cumujących w Sacramento, które następnie były ładowane do wagonów kolejowych w historycznych Sacramento Rail Yards. Z czasem rzeki zaczęto wykorzystywać również w celach rekreacyjnych. +Era współczesna. +Obecny statut Sacramento został przyjęty przez mieszkańców w 1920 roku, kiedy to ustanowiono obowiązującą do dziś formę rządów burmistrz-menedżer. Jako miasto posiadające własny statut, Sacramento jest zwolnione z wielu ustaw i przepisów uchwalanych przez legislaturę stanową. Wraz z biegiem czasu, granice miasta systematycznie się rozszerzały. W 1964 roku dotychczas niezależne North Sacramento zostało włączone do Sacramento, a niedługo później w jego ślady poszło Natomas. Dzięki temu, populacja miasta znacząco rosła na przestrzeni lat 60., 70., 80. i 90. +Dostawcą usług elektrycznych dla hrabstwa Sacramento (a także części podlegającego mu hrabstwa Placer) jest Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD), powołany do życia przez mieszkańców w 1923 roku. W kwietniu roku 1946, po 12 latach postępowania sądowego, firma Pacific Gas & Electric została pozbawiona praw do dystrybucji energii elektrycznej na rzecz SMUD. Współcześnie SMUD stanowi 6. pod względem wielkości publicznego dostawcę usług elektrycznych w Stanach Zjednoczonych, a także jednego z liderów w dziedzinie wprowadzania innowacyjnych programów, na czele z wykorzystaniem energii słonecznej. +W 1947 roku zaczął funkcjonować dystrykt portowy Sacramento-Yolo, zaś dwa lata później rozpoczęto budowę Port of Sacramento. 29 czerwca 1963 roku, na oczach 5 tysięcy przybyłych gości, w porcie zacumował pierwszy statek, chiński "Taipei Victory". Maszynę, świeżo pomalowaną z okazji wydarzenia, załadowano pięcioma tysiącami ton worków ryżu dla Mitsui Trading Co. z Okinawy. "Taipei Victory" był pierwszym statkiem pokonującym ocean w Sacramento od czasów parowca "Harpoon" z 1934 roku. W okresie wojny wietnamskiej Port of Sacramento stanowił główną pętlę na trasie dostaw wojskowych elementów, sprzętu komputerowego i innego rodzaju ładunków wypływających do Azji Południowo-Wschodniej. W ostatnich latach Port of Sacramento notował straty operacyjne i grozi mu widmo bankructwa, głównie ze względu na silną konkurencję ze strony większego Port of Stockton, dysponującego ponadto głębszym kanałem. W 2006 roku odpowiedzialność za działanie portu przejęło West Sacramento. +W 1967 roku Ronald Reagan był ostatnim gubernatorem Kalifornii, który na stałe zamieszkiwał Sacramento. Posiadłość, wybudowana na przedmieściach specjalnie z myślą o Reaganie, pozostawała pusta przez niemalże czterdzieści kolejnych lat, dlatego też władze stanowe zdecydowały o jej sprzedaży. +W latach 80. i 90. zamknięto kilka lokalnych baz wojskowych: McClellan Air Force Base, Mather Air Force Base oraz Sacramento Army Depot. Ponadto, w latach 80. miasto nawiedziła następna duża powódź. +Na początku lat 90. burmistrz Joe Serna rozpoczął starania o sprowadzenie do Sacramento drużyny futbolu amerykańskiego Los Angeles Raiders. Emitując obligacje, miasto uzyskało 50 milionów dolarów, które wykorzystano na zadatek do finalizacji negocjacji. Kiedy umowa została ostatecznie podpisana, pieniądze ze sprzedaży obligacji wykorzystano na realizację kilku projektów, a w tym rozbudowę Sacramento Convention Center Complex oraz remont Memorial Auditorium. Jednocześnie Serna nadał jednemu z parków miejskich imię Césara Cháveza – jednej z czołowych postaci w walce o prawa obywatelskie i sprawiedliwość społeczną w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Pomimo zamknięcia baz wojskowych oraz spadku znaczenia branży przetwórstwa produktów rolnych w regionie, w Sacramento notowano stałe wzrosty populacji. Wpływ na to miało osiadanie w mieście dotychczasowych mieszkańców pobliskiego obszaru metropolitalnego San Francisco Bay Area, a także napływ imigrantów z Azji i Ameryki Łacińskiej. W okresie od 1990 do 2000 roku populacja Sacramento zwiększyła się o 14,7%, zaś w okresie od 2000 do 2007 roku miasto miało 164 tysięcy nowych mieszkańców. +Na początku XXI wieku burmistrz Heather Fargo nieudolnie próbował doprowadzić do tego, by z pieniędzy podatników sfinansować budowę areny sportowej, która miała stanowić nową siedzibę drużyny NBA Sacramento Kings. W listopadzie 2006 roku mieszkańcy miasta odrzucili jednak w referendum propozycję podniesienia podatków, a plany te zostały porzucone. +W 2002 roku tygodnik "Time" uznał Sacramento za najbardziej zdywersyfikowane i jednocześnie najbardziej zintegrowane miasto Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Pomimo decentralizacji biurokracji państwowej, to właśnie władze stanowe pozostają największym pracodawcą w Sacramento. Z tego też powodu przedstawiciele miasta podejmują wszelkie wysiłki, by zapobiec przenoszeniu siedzib agencji stanowych poza granice Sacramento. +Geografia. +Topografia. +Zgodnie z danymi United States Census Bureau, miasto zajmuje łączną powierzchnię 259 km², z czego 97,81% to ląd, zaś 2,19% to wody. +Wody gruntowe położone są typowo na głębokości 9 metrów. Znaczna część ziem na zachód od miasta (w hrabstwie Yolo) jest na stałe zarezerwowane dla rozległego basenu przeciwpowodziowego (Yolo Bypass), ze względu na historyczną podatność tych terenów na powodzie. W rezultacie, obszar metropolitalny Sacrameneto rozciąga się zaledwie 6 kilometrów na zachód od centrum, ale za to zajmuje kolejnych 48 kilometrów na północ i wschód oraz 16 kilometrów na południe od śródmieścia. +Miasto zlokalizowane jest u zbiegu rzek Sacramento i American River, i dysponuje głębokowodnym portem, połączonym kanałem z Zatoką San Francisco. +Klimat. +Sacramento leży w strefie klimatu śródziemnomorskiego (klasyfikacja Köppena – "Csa"), charakteryzującego się wilgotnymi/mokrymi, łagodnymi zimami oraz gorącymi, suchymi okresami letnimi. Pora deszczowa trwa zazwyczaj od października do kwietnia, chociaż lekkie opady mogą wystąpić w czerwcu lub wrześniu. +Średnia roczna temperatura wynosi 16,2 °C (61,1 °F), ze średnimi miesięcznymi wahającymi się od 7,7 °C (45,8 °F) w grudniu, do 24,1 °C (75,4 °F) w lipcu. Letnie upały są często niwelowane przez bryzę morską, zwaną "bryzą z delty", napływającą znad delty rzek Sacramento-San Joaquin w Zatoce San Francisco. Średnio w ciągu 74 dni w roku temperatura przekracza 32 °C (90 °F), zaś w ciągu 15 dni w roku wynosi powyżej 38 °C (100 °F). Z drugiej strony, przeciętnie podczas 16 nocy w roku temperatura spada poniżej 0 °C. +Przeciętnie 96 dni w roku w pewnym stopniu doświadcza mgły, która występuje zwykle w godzinach porannych, przede wszystkim w grudniu oraz styczniu. Mgły w Sacramento mogą być bardzo gęste, obniżając widoczność do niespełna 30 metrów, co czyni warunki jazdy niebezpiecznymi. Mgły obserwuje się zazwyczaj nieprzerwanie przez kilka kolejnych dni lub nawet tygodni; temperatura w takich okresach nie przekracza zazwyczaj 10 °C. +Opady śniegu są niezwykle rzadkim zjawiskiem w Sacramento, które położone jest zaledwie 7,6 metra ponad poziomem morza; w miesiącach zimowych zdarzają się niekiedy opady, jednak na tyle niewielkie, że śnieg nie osiada na ziemi. Rekordowe opady śniegu w Sacramento odnotowano 4 stycznia 1888 roku, kiedy to jego warstwa wynosiła 9 centymetrów. Ostatnie duże jak na te tereny opady śniegu odnotowano w 2002 oraz 2009 roku. Znacząca ilość śniegu gromadzi się każdego roku u podnóży pasma górskiego zlokalizowanego w odległości około 64 kilometrów na wschód od miasta. Podczas szczególnie ostrych zim i burz wiosennych, intensywnym opadom deszczu towarzyszy okazjonalnie grad. +Roczna średnia opadów w Sacramento wynosi 455 mm, rozłożonych przeciętnie na 62 dni w roku, głównie w miesiącach zimowych. Średnie opady deszczu w styczniu wynoszą 98 mm, czyli stanowią niemalże 1/4 wszystkich rocznych opadów w mieście. W lutym 1992 roku w Sacramento odnotowano 16 nieprzerwanych deszczowych dni, które zaskutkowały łącznie 163 mm opadów. Rekordowa fala deszczu z 20 kwietnia 1880 roku przyniosła w sumie 184 mm wody. W rzadkich przypadkach monsunowa wilgoć płynąca z pustynnego południa podnosi latem wilgotność powietrza w regionie Sacramento, co prowadzi do zachmurzeń, a nawet lekkich opadów deszczu i burz. Takie zjawiska mają miejsce głównie w okresie od końca lipca do początków września. Sacramento jest drugim najbardziej podatnym na powodzie miastem w Stanach Zjednoczonych, tuż za Nowym Orleanem. +Sacramento uznane zostało za najbardziej nasłonecznione miejsce na Ziemi w okresie czterech miesięcy, od czerwca do września. Lipiec w Sacramento jest najbardziej słonecznym miesiącem na świecie, dzięki dokładnie 14 godzinom i 12 minutom słońca (98% możliwego nasłonecznienia). +Rekordowe temperatury, jakie odnotowano w Sacramento, to –8 °C (18 °F) z 22 grudnia 1990 roku oraz 46 °C (115 °F) z 15 czerwca 1961 roku. +Demografia. +Zgodnie z danymi spisu powszechnego z 2010 roku, populacja Sacramento wynosiła 466 488 mieszkańców, zaś gęstość zaludnienia 1 799,2/km². Kompozycja rasowa prezentowała się wówczas następująco: 45% ludności reprezentowało rasę białą, 16.6% stanowili Afroamerykanie, 17,8% Amerykanie pochodzenia azjatyckiego, 1,4% przybysze z wysp Pacyfiku, zaś 1,1% Indianie. Amerykanie pochodzenia latynoskiego lub hiszpańskiego stanowili 26,9% mieszkańców miasta; 22,6% całej ludności Sacramento ma korzenie meksykańskie. 12,3% populacji reprezentowało inne rasy, natomiast 7,1% co najmniej dwie rasy. +W mieście znajdowało się 174 624 gospodarstw domowych, z czego 57 870 (33,1%) zamieszkiwanych było przez dzieci poniżej 18 roku życia, 65 556 (37,5%) stanowiły żyjące wspólnie małżeństwa heteroseksualne, 27 640 (15,8%) prowadzonych było przez kobiety (bez obecnego męża), 10 534 (6%) prowadzonych było przez mężczyzn (bez obecnej żony). 53 342 (30,5%) spośród wszystkich gospodarstw domowych zamieszkiwanych było przez osoby indywidualne, z czego 14 926 (8,5%) przez ludzi samotnych powyżej 65 roku życia. W Sacramento było w sumie 103 730 rodzin (59,4% spośród ogółu gospodarstw domowych), a ich średnia liczebność wynosiła 3,37. +Z uwzględnieniem podziału wiekowego, 116 121 (24,9%) mieszkańców miasta nie ukończyło 18 lat, 52 438 (11,2%) stanowili ludzie w przedziale 18-24, 139 093 (29,8%) w wieku 25-44, ludność z przedziału 45-64 wynosiła 23,5% (109 416), natomiast 10,6% (49 420) populacji miało co najmniej 65 lat. Średnia wieku oscylowała wokół 33 lat. Na każde 100 kobiet przypadało 94,9 mężczyzn, a na każde 100 kobiet w wieku powyżej 18 lat przypadało 92,2 mężczyzn. +W Sacramento istniało wówczas 190 911 jednostek mieszkalnych, z czego 86 271 (49,4%) zamieszkiwali ich właściciele, natomiast 88 353 (50,6%) najemcy. +Władze miasta. +W Sacramento obowiązuje forma rządów menedżer-rada miejska. Burmistrz wybierany jest na swoje stanowisko w głosowaniu powszechnym, zaś ośmiu członków rady miejskiej reprezentuje oficjalne dystrykty, na jakie podzielono Sacramento. Zgodnie z systemem menedżer-rada miejska, rola burmistrza jest ograniczona i sprowadza się niemal w większości do funkcji ceremonialnych. Zamiast tego, istnieje funkcja profesjonalnego menedżera miasta (ang. "City Manager"), który odpowiada za administrację i zarządzanie, kontrolę działalności rady miejskiej oraz pomoc we wcielaniu w życie jej postanowień, a także monitorowanie funkcjonowania służb miejskich. Ponadto, menedżer utrzymuje międzyrządowe relacje z władzami federalnymi, stanowymi oraz z władzami hrabstwa i innych lokalnych jednostek. Teoretycznie osoba piastująca funkcję menedżera miasta powinna być apolityczna. +Obecnie funkcję burmistrza Sacramento pełni były gracz NBA Kevin Johnson – pierwszy Afroamerykanin w historii miasta, który został wybrany na to stanowisko. +Gospodarka. +Wśród korporacji wywodzących się z Sacramento są m.in.: Sutter Health, Blue Diamond Growers, Aerojet, Teichert oraz The McClatchy Company. +Edukacja. +Szkoły podstawowe i średnie. +Sacramento podzielone jest na kilka publicznych okręgów szkolnych, z których największe to Sacramento City Unified oraz Twin Rivers Unified. W 2009 roku należące do nich szkoły podstawowe zatrudniały 9600 nauczycieli, zaś szkoły średnie 7410 (nie licząc nauczycieli kształcenia specjalnego lub zawodowego). +W mieście działa kilka prywatnych szkół katolickich, jedna szkoła żydowska (Shalom School) oraz jedna szkoła islamska (Masjid Annur). +College i uniwersytety. +W mieście oraz jego okolicach znajduje się szeroki przekrój instytucji wyższej edukacji. Najważniejszą rolę pełnią dwa duże uniwersytety publiczne; ponadto, w Sacramento działa szereg uczelni prywatnych, community college'y oraz szkół zawodowych. +W Sacramento znajduje się California State University, Sacramento, założony jako Sacramento State College w 1947 roku, do którego uczęszcza obecnie około 28 tysięcy studentów. W pobliskim Davis działa jeden z zamiejscowych kampusów University of California, czyli UC Davis, oferujący naukę na takich wydziałach, jak m.in.: UC Davis Graduate School of Management i UC Davis Medical Center (oba z nich mają siedziby w Sacramento). +Dystrykt Los Rios Community College District zrzesza kilka dwuletnich college'y z regionu Sacramento, włączając w to American River College, Cosumnes River College, Sacramento City College i Folsom Lake College. +W mieście działa szereg uczelni prywatnych. Jest wśród nich między innymi The Art Institute of California - Sacramento, czyli założona w 2007 roku filia The Art Institute of California - Los Angeles, oferującej naukę na kierunkach artystycznych. Regionalny kampus National University w Sacramento specjalizuje się natomiast w kształceniu w dziedzinach między innymi biznesu, opieki zdrowotnej i edukacji. W mieście funkcjonują również zamiejscowe kampusy Alliant International University, Golden Gate University, Drexel University i University of Southern California, a także jedna z czterech filii University of San Francisco. W Sacramento znajduje się ponadto McGeorge School of Law, jedna ze stu najlepszych uczelni prawniczych w Stanach Zjednoczonych według "U.S. News & World Report" (2006, 2007, 2008) oraz uczelnie Professional School of Psychology i Universal Technical Institute (UTI). +Kultura i sztuka. +Old Sacramento. +Najstarszą częścią miasta, poza Sutter's Fort, pozostaje dzielnica Old Sacramento, z zabytkowymi brukowanymi ulicami oraz wieloma historycznymi budynkami, powstałymi w latach 50. i 60. XIX wieku. Obiekty te zostały odnowione lub zrekonstruowane, a sama dzielnica, mająca oficjalny status parku stanowego, jest jedną z ważniejszych atrakcji turystycznych regionu, na czele z oferowanymi tam przejażdżkami pociągami parowymi oraz napędzanymi kołowo statkami. +Wśród budynków w Old Sacramento jest Lady Adams Building, skonstruowany przez pasażerów oraz obsługę statku "Lady Adams". Przetrwawszy wielki pożar z listopada 1852 roku, Lady Adams Building jest najstarszą (poza Sutter's Fort) ostałą strukturą w mieście. +W Big Four Building, wybudowanym w 1852 roku, znajdowały się biura członków tzw. "The Big Four", czyli Collisa Huntingtona, Marka Hopkinsa, Lelanda Stanforda i Charlesa Crockera. To tutaj powołano do życia Central Pacific Railroad oraz Southern Pacific Railroad. Budynek został zniszczony w 1963 roku za rzecz konstrukcji drogi międzystanowej nr 5, jednak już dwa lata później został zrekonstruowany przy użyciu oryginalnych elementów. Obecnie Big Four Building dzierży miano Narodowego Pomnika Historycznego. +Kolejnym historycznym obiektem jest powstały w 1853 roku B.F. Hastings Building. Stanowił on jedną z pierwszych siedzib Sądu Najwyższego Kalifornii, mieścił biuro Theodore'a Judaha (pomysłodawcy Pierwszej Kolei Transkontynentalnej), a także był zachodnim przystankiem poczty konnej Pony Express. Ważnym elementem Old Sacramento pozostaje Eagle Theatre, czyli rekonstrukcja pierwszego stałego teatru w Kalifornii w jego pierwotnej lokalizacji. +Teatr. +W Sacramento działa kilka teatrów profesjonalnych, a także około dwudziestu teatrów społecznych. Dzięki temu, Sacramento plasuje się w czołówce miast Kalifornii pod względem liczby teatrów społecznych. W kompleksie rozrywkowym Sacramento Convention Center Complex znajduje się niewielki Community Center Theatre, dysponujący 272 miejscami siedzącymi. W tymże teatrze występuje The Sacramento Ballet, Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra oraz Sacramento Opera. +Jednym z nowszych obiektów teatralnych w mieście jest Wells Fargo Pavilion, oddany do użytku w 2003 roku, a wybudowany na fundamentach dawnego namiotu cyrku muzycznego. W okresie letnim w Sacramento swoje sztuki wystawia California Musical Theatre, natomiast już w całym roku odbywają się przedstawienia cyrku muzycznego. Począwszy od jesieni, aż do wiosny, Broadway Sacramento wystawia własne produkcje w Convention Center Theatre, zaś sztuki Sacramento Theatre Company można obejrzeć na głównej scenie Equity House Theatre. W B Street Theatre wystawiane są skierowane do mniejszej publiczności, poruszające ważniejsze tematy profesjonalne sztuki lub teatr dziecięcy. +Każdego lata w parku William Land Park odbywa się Festiwal Szekspirowski, a prezentowane w jego trakcie sztuki walczą o nagrody Elly Awards, wręczane przez Sacramento Area Regional Theatre Alliance (SARTA). +Sztuki wizualne. +W 1977 roku władze miasta powołały do życia organizację Sacramento Metropolitan Arts Commission, która wciela w życie różne programy dotyczące promocji sztuki wśród mieszkańców. Dotychczas zrealizowano takie przedsięwzięcia, jak edukacja artystyczna, sztuka w miejscach publicznych, granty i programy kulturalne lub program wspierający poetów. +Z kolei program Sacramento Second Saturday Art Walk zrzesza galerie sztuki, które w drugą niedzielę każdego miesiąca pozostają otwarte do późnej nocy, dzięki czemu lokalni mieszkańcy oraz turyści mogą zapoznać się z oryginalnymi dziełami sztuki i często osobiście porozmawiać z ich autorami. +Muzea. +W Sacramento działa kilka dużych muzeów. Jednym z najważniejszych jest Crocker Art Museum, czyli najstarsze publiczne muzeum sztuki na zachód od rzeki Mississippi. W 2010 roku zakończono trzyletni proces rozbudowy muzeum, który zwiększył jego powierzchnię trzykrotnie. +Innym ważnym obiektem jest Narodowy Pomnik Historyczny Governor's Mansion State Historic Park, wielka wiktoriańska posiadłość, która w przeszłości była domem dla 13 gubernatorów Kalifornii. W Leland Stanford Mansion State Historic Park, gruntownie odnowionym w 2006 roku, odbywają się dyplomatyczne i biznesowe przyjęcia o randze stanowej. W mieście znajduje się The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts, poświęcone bogatej historii stanu Kalifornia oraz wpływowi, jaki wywarł na świat innowacji, sztuki i kultury. W tymże obiekcie zlokalizowana jest ponadto California Hall of Fame. California State Railroad Museum w dzielnicy Old Sacramento oferuje historyczne ekshibicje, a także przejażdżki oryginalnymi pociągami parowymi. Natomiast Sacramento History Museum, położone w samym sercu Old Sacramento, skupia się na historii miasta, począwszy od czasów sprzed wielkiej gorączki złota, do okresu obecnego. California Automobile Museum poświęcone jest historii motoryzacji i autom produkowanym od 1880 roku; jest to jednocześnie najstarsze non-profitowe muzeum poświęcone motoryzacji w zachodnich Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Każdego roku, w pierwszą sobotę lutego, w Sacramento odbywa się Dzień Muzeów, w trakcie którego 28 muzeów w mieście oferuje darmowy wstęp. W 2009 roku w akcji uczestniczyło ponad 80 tysięcy osób. +Muzyka i film. +Sacramento słynie z rozbudowanej sceny muzyki klasycznej i jazzowej. Regularne serie koncertowe rozgrywają m.in.: Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra, Sacramento Baroque Soloists, Sacramento Choral Society & Orchestra, Sacramento Youth Symphony, Sacramento Master Singers, Sacramento Children's Chorus oraz Camellia Symphony. W każdy weekend święta Memorial Day w mieście odbywa się festiwal jazzowy Sacramento Jazz Jubilee. +Sacramento jest organizatorem corocznego Sacramento French Film Festival, podczas którego odbywają się amerykańskie premiery nowości oraz klasyków francuskiego kina. W lipcu ma miejsce ponadto Sacramento Japanese Film Festival, poświęcony japońskim produkcjom filmowym. Kolejne letnie festiwale, Trash Film Orgy, celebruje kino "śmieciowe", absurdu, filmy klasy B i horrory, zaś Sacramento Horror Film Festival skupia się na wszelkiego rodzaju produkcjach poświęconych gatunkom horroru i makabry, zarówno filmowym, jak i teatralnym. +Sport. +Sacramento reprezentowane jest w lidze National Basketball Association (NBA) przez Sacramento Kings. W przeszłości miasto miało swojego przedstawiciela w lidze Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), obecnie niefunkcjonującą już drużynę Sacramento Monarchs. Kings przeniosła się do Sacramento z Kansas City w roku 1985, zaś Monarchs była jedną z ośmiu założycielskich drużyn WNBA w 1997 roku. Monarchs zdobyła tytuł WNBA Championship w 2005 roku, stając się pierwszą profesjonalną drużyną sportową z Sacramento z mistrzostwem kraju. Pomimo sukcesów, Sacramento Monarchs została rozwiązana w listopadzie 2009 roku. +Sacramento Solons, drużyna Minor League Baseball (MLS) z dywizji Pacific Coast League, grała w Sacramento kilkukrotnie (1903, 1905, 1909–1914, 1918–1960, 1974–1976), a jej domowym obiektem był Edmonds Field. W 2000 roku miasto doczekało się kolejnego przedstawiciela w MLS za sprawą Sacramento River Cats, z domowym stadionem w postaci Raley Field. +W mieście na przestrzeni lat grało również wiele drużyn z mniejszych lig sportowych, takich jak trzy teamy futbolu amerykańskiego: Sacramento Surge z World League of American Football (WLAF) (zdobywcy World Bowl II w 1992 roku), Sacramento Gold Miners z Canadian Football League (CFL) i Sacramento Attack z Arena Football League (AFL); grająca halową piłkę nożną Sacramento Knights z Continental Indoor Soccer League (CISL); grająca hokej na rolkach Sacramento River Rats z Roller Hockey International (RHI). Obecnie w Sacramento grają natomiast Sacramento Heatwave z American Basketball Association (ABA) oraz Sacramento Mountain Lions z United Football League (UFL). +Transport. +Drogi i autostrady. +Region Sacramento obsługiwany jest przez kilka dróg stanowych i autostrad. Autostrada nr 80 (I-80) stanowi najważniejszy korytarz pomiędzy wschodem i zachodem, łącząc Sacramento z San Francisco na zachodzie oraz Reno na wschodzie. Autostrada nr 5 (I-5) biegnie przez Sacramento, kierując się na północ do Redding, gdzie odbija na południe, w pobliżu zachodniego krańca California Central Valley, w kierunku Los Angeles. Autostrada stanowa nr 99 przebiega przez Sacramento, łącząc je z Marysville i Yuba City na północy, i z Fresno oraz Bakersfield na południu. +Jako że rowery są popularnym środkiem transportu wśród mieszkańców miasta, władze zdecydowały o dostosowaniu wszystkich obiektów miejskich oraz chodników do ruchu rowerowego. Jednocześnie, w celu zwiększenia bezpieczeństwa drogowego w Sacramento, na wielu obszarach zastosowano tzw. uspokojenie ruchu. +Amtrak. +Amtrak obsługuje ruch kolejowy w Sacramento. Główna stacja, Sacramento Valley Rail Station (stanowiąca również przystanek szybkich tramwajów), przeszła gruntowną renowację w 2007 roku. +Poza połączeniami do wszystkich większych miast Kalifornii, Amtrak świadczy usługi na kursach międzystanowych. Trasa Coast Starlight biegnie między innymi przez Seattle, Portland, Los Angeles i Santa Barbara. Z kolei linia California Zephyr dociera do m.in.: Reno, Salt Lake, Denver, Omahy i Chicago. +Sacramento jest 2. najbardziej ruchliwą stacją Amtrak w Kalifornii i 7. w skali całego państwa. +Pozostałe opcje transportu. +Sacramento i jego przedmieścia są obsługiwane przez Sacramento Regional Transit District, czyli 9. pod względem liczby użytkowników system transportu miejskiego w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Sac RT operuje 274 autobusami miejskimi i szybkimi tramwajami, z usług których każdego dnia korzysta niespełna 60 tysięcy pasażerów. +Port lotniczy Sacramento obsługuje połączenia krajowe, loty do Meksyku i Kanady, a także przesiadkowe połączenia do Europy, Azji i Ameryki Południowej. +Rower jest coraz bardziej popularnym środkiem transportu w Sacramento, czemu sprzyja łagodny klimat i płaski teren. Ta metoda przemieszczania się jest szczególnie powszechna w starszych dzielnicach miasta, a także pośród osób, które codziennie docierają do pracy z przedmieść do centrum. Poruszają się oni wówczas ścieżkami rowerowymi, wyznaczonymi w sąsiedztwie American River. W 2006 roku League of American Bicyclists przyznała Sacramento tytuł społeczności przyjaznej rowerom srebrnego stopnia. W mieście prowadzone są liczne kampanie na rzecz promocji tego środka transportu, takie jak "Maj jest miesiącem roweru". +Do Sacramento kursują linie autobusów podmiejskich z pobliskich hrabstw Yuba oraz San Joaquin. +W 2011 roku Walk Score wyróżnił Sacramento na 24. miejscu listy najbardziej przyjaznych pieszym spośród największych miast amerykańskich. +Miasta partnerskie. +Sacramento posiada jedenaście miast partnerskich. +Krążowniki ciężkie typu Zara + +Krążowniki ciężkie typu Zara – włoskie ciężkie krążowniki budowane w latach w 1929 – 1931 przez włoskie stocznie koncernu Odero-Terni-Orlando. +Historia. +W 1927 roku Włochy rozpoczęły budowę nowych ciężkich krążowników typu "Trento" dla swojej marynarki wojennej, a w 1929 roku nowszych typu Zara. Planowano zbudować okręty posiadające wyporność 15 000 ton i pancerz burtowy 200 mm. Ograniczenia traktatu waszyngtońskiego spowodowały jednak zmiany w projekcie nieco zmniejszające grubość pancerza. Pierwszym krążownikiem typu Zara był krążownik „Fiume”, a następne to „Zara”, „Pola” i „Gorizia”. W 1940 roku krążowniki te zmodernizowano zmieniając im uzbrojenie, które zostało dostosowane do wymogów jakie ukształtowały się w toku II wojny światowej. W toku tej modernizacji zwiększono liczbę środków obrony przeciwlotniczej. +Losy krążowników typu Zara. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej brał udział w zwalczaniu konwojów brytyjskich na Morzu Śródziemnym. W dniu 28 marca 1941 roku wziął udział w bitwie morskiej koło przylądka Matapan, w trakcie której został zatopiony przez brytyjskie pancerniki „Warspite” i „Valiant”. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej brał udział w zwalczaniu konwojów brytyjskich na Morzu Śródziemnym. W dniu 28 marca 1941 roku wziął udział w bitwie morskiej koło przylądka Matapan, w trakcie której został zatopiony w walce z okrętami brytyjskimi: pancernikami „Barham”, „Valiant”, „Warspite” i niszczycielem „Jervis”. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej brał udział w zwalczaniu konwojów brytyjskich na Morzu Śródziemnym. W dniu 28 marca 1941 roku wziął udział w bitwie morskiej koło przylądka Matapan, w trakcie której został uszkodzony po ataku samolotów brytyjskich z lotniskowca „Formidable” i wycofał się z walki. W dniu 29 marca 1941 roku został wykryty przez brytyjskie niszczyciele „Jervis” i „Nubian”, załoga poddała się i zeszła ze okrętu a on sam został zatopiony przez brytyjskie niszczyciele. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej brał udział w zwalczaniu konwojów brytyjskich na Morzu Śródziemnym. W dniu 22 marca 1942 roku wziął udział w II bitwie morskiej pod Syrtą, w której został uszkodzony. Został skierowany na remont do portu La Spezia. Tam w dniu 8 września 1943 roku został ponownie uszkodzony, a następnie przejęty po kapitulacji Włoch przez Niemców. Wyremontowany, nie wziął już udziału w walkach a w dniu 26 czerwca 1944 roku został zatopiony przez brytyjskie żywe torpedy w porcie La Spezia. +Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej + +Dziennik wydawany jest co do zasady we wszystkich językach urzędowych Unii Europejskiej (z przejściowym wyjątkiem dla języka maltańskiego). Wraz z przystępowaniem do Unii nowych państw ukazują się również Wydania Specjalne Dziennika Urzędowego, w głównym języku urzędowym danego państwa. Zawierają one zbiór wszystkich przetłumaczonych aktów prawnych Unii obowiązujących w chwili przystąpienia. Polskie Wydanie Specjalne zostało ukończone w 2006 r. +Obecnie Dziennik Urzędowy UE w wersji papierowej - ukazuje się w miarę potrzeb (praktycznie codziennie), na płytach CD-ROM - wysyłany jest co miesiąc, a w Internecie - aktualizowany jest codziennie rano. Teksty prawne można wyszukiwać i przeglądać w portalu EUR-Lex natomiast od 2006 r. zamówienia publiczne ogłaszane są w osobnej bazie danych TED [http://ted.europa.eu/. +Wersji papierowej (drukowanej) Dziennika Urzędowego przysługuje tzw. domniemanie autentyczności. Dotyczy to także tekstów publikowanych w Dzienniku Urzędowym - Wydaniu Specjalnym. Domniemaniem nie są objęte teksty prawne opublikowane w portalu EUR-Lex. +Wersję papierową oraz CD-ROM można zakupić bądź nieodpłatnie przeglądać w Ośrodkach Badań i Dokumentacji Europejskiej, w urzędach wojewódzkich oraz w niektórych bibliotekach. Dostęp do wersji internetowej od 2004 r. jest całodobowy i całkowicie nieodpłatny. +Powoływanie się na źródło. +Przykładowy zapis europejskiego aktu prawnego wraz ze wskazaniem źródła: +Skrót "Dz. U." jest zarezerwowany w Polsce dla Dziennika Ustaw i nie należy określać nim Dziennika Urzędowego Unii Europejskiej. Aczkolwiek sam Dziennik UE w publikowanych w nim tekstach zamiast "Dz. Urz. UE" zawsze stosuje skrót "Dz. U." lub "Dz.U." (tj. bez spacji). +Posiadając sam numer aktu prawnego, datę jego wydania, datę jego publikacji albo sam numer Dziennika Urzędowego UE, zawsze można ustalić pozostałe elementy poprzez portal EUR-Lex. +Materiał kompozytowy + +Materiał kompozytowy, kompozyt − materiał o strukturze niejednorodnej, złożony z dwóch lub więcej komponentów (faz) o różnych właściwościach. Właściwości kompozytów nigdy nie są sumą, czy średnią właściwości jego składników. Najczęściej jeden z komponentów stanowi lepiszcze, które gwarantuje jego spójność, twardość, elastyczność i odporność na ściskanie, a drugi, tzw. komponent konstrukcyjny zapewnia większość pozostałych własności mechanicznych kompozytu. +Wiele kompozytów wykazuje anizotropię różnych właściwości fizycznych. Nie muszą to być wyłącznie własności mechaniczne. Np. polaroid to przykład kompozytu, który osiągnął sukces komercyjny dzięki jego szczególnym anizotropowym własnościom elektrooptycznym. +Jednymi z najczęściej stosowanych komponentów konstrukcyjnych są silne włókna takie jak włókno szklane, kwarc, azbest, kevlar czy włókna węglowe dając materiałowi dużą odporność na rozciąganie. Do najczęściej stosowanych lepiszczy zaliczają się żywice syntetyczne oparte na poliestrach, polieterach (epoksydach), poliuretanach i żywicach silikonowych. +Materiały kompozytowe znane są ludzkości od tysięcy lat. Np. tradycyjna, chińska laka, służąca do wyrobu naczyń i mebli otrzymywana przez przesycanie wielu cienkich warstw papieru i tkanin żywicznym „samoutwardzalnym” sokiem z sumaka rhus, była stosowana od co najmniej V w. p.n.e. Równie starym i powszechnie stosowanym od wieków kompozytem jest drewniana sklejka. +Kompozyty mają zastosowanie jako materiały konstrukcyjne w wielu dziedzinach techniki, m.in. w budownictwie (np. beton, żelbet), w technice lotniczej i astronautyce (np. elementy samolotów, rakiet, sztucznych satelitów), w przemyśle środków transportu kołowego i szynowego (np. resory i zderzaki samochodowe, okładziny hamulcowe), w produkcji części maszyn, urządzeń i wyrobów sprzętu sportowego (np. łodzie, narty, tyczki, oszczepy). +Współczesny rozwój materiałów kompozytowych zaczął się jednak dopiero po opanowaniu procesu produkcji żywic syntetycznych, stanowiącym podstawę produkcji laminatów. Jednym z pierwszych kompozytów opartych na tych żywicach był bakelit, pierwszy przedstawiciel fenoplastów. Gwałtowny rozwój materiałów kompozytowych w trakcie i po II wojnie światowej był też związany z rosnącym zapotrzebowaniem przemysłu lotniczego, kosmicznego i motoryzacyjnego na lekkie i wytrzymałe materiały, którymi dałoby się zastąpić stal i inne metale. Obecnie, kompozyty stosuje w wielu technologiach - począwszy od implantów stosowanych w medycynie po tanie materiały konstrukcyjne stosowane w budownictwie. +Sega Saturn + +Sega Saturn (po japońsku: セガサターン) – 32-bitowa konsola do gier firmy Sega wydana w Japonii 22 listopada 1994 a w północnej Ameryce w 11 maja 1995. W dniu premiery konsoli w Japonii sprzedano ok. 170 000 egzemplarzy. Przez pewien czas konkurent Sony PlayStation. Ponieważ konstrukcja została mocno zmodyfikowana tuż przed wprowadzeniem konsoli na rynek, Sega nie potrafiła tak usprawnić produkcji (czyli zmniejszyć kosztów), by nawiązać cenową walkę z firmą Sony. W momencie premiery cena konsoli w Japonii wynosiła 44 800 jenów (ok. 490 dolarów), w USA 399 dolarów, a produkt Sony był tańszy o ok. 100 dolarów. Początkowo konsola dobrze się sprzedawała i w ciągu 2 tygodni sprzedano 2,5 mln egzemplarzy. Wzrastająca popularność konsoli Sony PlayStation zmieniła jednak tę sytuację. +Konsola była wspierana do 1998 w USA i do 1999 w Japonii. +Dane techniczne. +Wymiary. +Wersja europejska i amerykańska +HU-210 + +HU-210 (Hebrew University 210) – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy syntetycznych kannabinoidów. Po raz pierwszy otrzymany na Hebrew University przez Raphaela Mechoulama w 1988 roku. Jest substancją psychoaktywną, 100 do 800 razy bardziej aktywną od THC, . +Anna Szydłowska + +Anna Szydłowska-Żurawska – urzędnik państwowy, prawniczka. +Ukończyła Wydział Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, pracowała w Biurze Prezydialnym PAN, Urzędzie Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy, Kancelarii Sejmu. Odbyła staż w Kongresie USA. +Od 1994 pracowała w administracji Krajowej Rady Radiofonii i Telewizji, pełniła m.in. funkcje dyrektora gabinetu przewodniczącego Krajowej Rady Radiofonii i Telewizji oraz dyrektora Departamentu Prezydialnego Krajowej Rady. +W styczniu 2005 została powołana przez prezydenta Kwaśniewskiego na członka Rady, zajęła miejsce Włodzimierza Czarzastego. Jej kadencja w Radzie upłynęła w maju 2005, a w sierpniu t.r. zastąpił ją Stanisław Jędrzejewski. +Dolina Hlińska + +Dolina Hlińska (słow. "Hlinská dolina", niem. "Hlinskatal", węg. "Hlinszka-völgy") – słowacka dolina położona na terenie Tatr Wysokich, boczne odgałęzienie Doliny Koprowej ("Kôprová dolina") odchodzące w jej górnej części w kierunku południowo-wschodnim. Dolina Hlińska ma długość ok. 3,0 km i jest jedną z trzech największych dolin należących do systemu Doliny Koprowej. +Opis doliny. +W okresie zlodowaceń pokrywał ją lodowiec grubości około 200 m i długości 2,5 km. Nadał on dolinie dziki wygląd, który potęgują podcięte niemal na pionowo i wysokie na 600 m ściany Grani Hrubego – jedne z największych tego typu ścian skalnych w Tatrach. Dolina Hlińska w dolnej części jest porośnięta lasem, a w górnej dzika i skalista. Pod ścianami Hrubego Wierchu i Szczyrbskiego Szczytu znajdują się dwa niewielkie kotły: Wielki Ogród ("Veľká Záhradka") oraz Mały Ogród ("Malá Záhradka"). Kotły oddzielone są od głównej części doliny wysokimi, skalnymi progami. Przez dolinę płynie Hliński Potok ("Hlinský potok") i przebiega trasa szlaku turystycznego przez Wyżnią Koprową Przełęcz do Doliny Mięguszowieckiej ("Mengusovská dolina"). Z przełęczy jest możliwość podejścia na Koprowy Wierch. +Dawniej Dolina Hlińska była ulubionym przez kłusowników miejscem polowań na kozice. W 1887 r. poeta Franciszek Henryk Nowicki w czasie wycieczki z przewodnikiem Klimkiem Bachledą naliczył ich 80. Obecnie również często tutaj przebywają. Pochodzenie nazwy doliny nie jest znane. Przez turystów odwiedzana jest rzadko, nawet w szczycie sezonu ruch turystyczny jest tutaj niewielki. Pierwszymi znanymi z nazwiskami osobami w dolinie byli Edward Homolacs, Stanisław Homolacs, Władysław Koziebrodzki, Ernst Schauer, Józef Stolarczyk, Stanisław Władzicki i przewodnicy Krzeptowscy, Samek, Maciej Sieczka i Jędrzej Wala (starszy) z pięcioma tragarzami. Zimą pierwsi byli w dolinie E. Baur i Alfred Martin 18 marca 1906 r. +Szlaki turystyczne. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +WM-21 Sólyom + +WM-21 "Sólyom" (pol. sokół) – węgierski dwupłatowy samolot rozpoznawczy, produkowany w latach 1938 – 1940. +Historia. +Samolot powstał jako rozwinięcie wcześniejszej konstrukcji zakładów Weiss Manfred, WM-16 Budapest. W porównaniu z pierwowzorem miał poprawioną konstrukcję kadłuba i skrzydeł, wzmocnione podwozie, posiadał też radiostację w kabinie obserwatora. Prototyp oblatano w 1938 roku. Już w czerwcu tegoż roku wytwórnia Weiss rozpoczęła produkcję seryjną wersji podstawowej, wyposażonej w 14-cylindrowy silnik gwiazdowy w układzie podwójnej gwiazdy WM K-14 o mocy 860 KM. Była to licencyjna wersja silnika K-14 firmy Gnôme-Rhône. Jednocześnie zakłady MÁVAG podjęły produkcję wersji WM-21B z mocniejszym silnikiem WM K-14B. Ogółem wyprodukowano 85 samolotów WM-21 i 43 WM-21B +Użycie w lotnictwie. +WM-21 służyły w węgierskim lotnictwie wojskowym jako samoloty rozpoznawcze od początku II wojny światowej. Wyposażone w nie dywizjony rozpoznawcze wzięły udział w inwazji na Jugosławię w 1941 roku. Po wypowiedzeniu przez Węgry wojny Związkowi Radzieckiemu 27 czerwca 1941 roku WM-21 zostały skierowane na front wschodni. Obok samolotów Heinkel He 45 i He 46 były podstawowym wyposażeniem jednostek współpracy z armią lądową w pierwszym okresie wojny. Od 1942 roku sukcesywnie zastępowane przez nowsze konstrukcje (głównie Focke-Wulf Fw 189), zakupione od Niemiec, zostały ostatecznie wycofane z pierwszej linii w początkach 1943 roku. +Opis konstrukcji. +Samolot WM-21 "Sólyom" był dwumiejscowym dwupłatem konstrukcji mieszanej, krytym sklejką i płótnem, o stałym podwoziu. Dla polepszenia widoczności z kabiny obserwatora stosowano okna w dolnej części kadłuba. Uzbrojenie stanowiły dwa stałe karabiny maszynowe kal. 7,92 mm strzelające przez krąg śmigła i jeden ruchomy karabin maszynowy w kabinie obserwatora. Na wyrzutnikach pod dolnym płatem można było podwieszać 12 bomb o wagomiarze 10 kg i zasobnik zawierający 120 bomb przeciwpiechotnich o wadze 1 kg każda. +Ultimatum + +Ultimatum – w prawie międzynarodowym żądanie jednego państwa wobec drugiego spełnienia określonych warunków w określonym czasie pod groźbą wojny. +Ultimatum stawia się zwykle w sytuacji, gdy zawodzą zwykłe metody nacisku dyplomatycznego. Strona, wobec której wysunięto ultimatum, często ustępuje pod jego naciskiem, choć nie zawsze. +Przykładem ultimatum, którego niespełnienie doprowadziło do wybuchu wojny były żądania wysunięte 23 lipca 1914 roku przez Austro-Węgry wobec Serbii po zabójstwie arcyksięcia Franciszka Ferdynanda. Mając za sobą oparcie Rosji Serbia spełniła jedynie część żądań austriackich co stało się pretekstem do wypowiedzenia jej wojny, która przerodziła się w I wojnę światową. +Niespełnienie przez Irak ultimatum Rady Bezpieczeństwa ONZ z 29 listopada 1990 roku w sprawie wycofania wojsk z Kuwejtu stało się oficjalną przyczyną I wojny nad Zatoką Perską. +Przykład pozytywnego działania ultimatum to wysunięte 17 marca 1938 roku przez Polskę wobec Litwy żądanie nawiązania normalnych stosunków dyplomatycznych - ultimatum przyjęto 19 marca (zobacz: Polskie ultimatum wobec Litwy). +Potocznie "ultimatum" oznacza wysunięcie żądań, których niespełnienie pociągnie za sobą dramatyczne następstwa. +Podgórz (Toruń) + +Podgórz – jedna z lewobrzeżnych częśći urzędowych miasta Torunia. +Historia. +Najwcześniejsze ślady bytności człowieka w tym miejscu sięgają końca paleolitu, natomiast pierwsza źródłowa wzmianka o Podgórzu pochodzi z roku 1555. Zamek zbudowano w 1422 na przeciwnym brzegu Wisły od miasta Torunia, po zniszczeniu przez Krzyżaków zamku w Nieszawie. Osada była częściowo kontynuacją narosłego w latach 20. XV wieku wokół Zamku Dybów osadnictwa, tzw. Dybowa-Nieszawy. Wskutek interwencji Torunia, zamek przenoszono dwukrotnie (w 1460 w górę rzeki i w 1555). 7 listopada 1611 roku król Zygmunt III Waza nadał Podgórzowi prawa miejskie. Podczas wojen napoleońskich, 21 stycznia 1813 roku na rozkaz marszałka Davout miasteczko zostało spalone – zniszczony został m.in. drewniany kościółek św. Anny. W 1771 roku do osiedla włączono część wsi Piaski. Po oddaniu do użytku fragmentu linii kolejowej Berlin-Warszawa (1862) i powstaniu licznych fortyfikacji, Podgórz przeżywał okres gwałtownego rozwoju. W roku 1876 Rada Miasta zrezygnowała z praw miejskich (błędnie licząc na niższe podatki). W tym samym roku do Podgórza przyłączono osadę Kluczyki. W efekcie osiedle uzyskało powierzchnię 822,35 ha (8,22 km²). 1 stycznia 1925 roku Podgórz odzyskał prawa miejskie, a w 1934 osada została połączona z Toruniem linią tramwajową biegnącą po nowo wybudowanym moście (linia przetrwała do roku 1984). Odpowiednio w maju i lipcu 1934 roku Podgórz powiększył się o część gminy Piaski oraz o wieś Stawki. 1 kwietnia 1938 roku Podgórz utracił prawa miejskie stając się dzielnicą Torunia. Do 1954 roku istniała wiejska gmina Podgórz. +Demografia. +"1. Na podstawie danych Drugiego Powszechnego Spisu Ludności2. Wartość szacunkowa." +Spośród 469 osób, które zamieszkiwały Podgórz w 1840 roku, było 60,6% Polaków oraz 39,4% Niemców. Z biegiem czasów relatywnie powiększała się ta druga grupa narodowościowa, co spowodowane było napływem urzędników, kolejarzy i żołnierzy. Ostatnich, w podgórskich koszarach, stacjonowało w 1895 roku 305. Po zakończeniu I wojny światowej znaczna część mieszkańców narodowości Niemieckiej opuściła Podgórz. W jej miejsce zaczęli napływać Polacy, którzy w 1927 roku stanowili już 97,9% a w 97,2% ludności miasta. Niemcy stanowili odpowidnio 2,5% oraz 2,7% mieszkańców. +Co tyczy się wyznawanej przez podgórzan religii, to do XIX wieku przewagę w osadzie mieli katolicy (390 osób w 1861 roku przy 327 ewangelikach i 61 żydach). Jednak odpowiednio do zmian struktury narodowościowej osady, zmieniała się także struktura wyznaniowa. +Współczesność. +Obecnie silnie rozwija się budownictwo jedno- i wielorodzinne. W ostatnim czasie poczyniono wiele inwestycji drogowych, które usprawniły komunikację na tym osiedlu. Najważniejsze to: modernizacja ul. Poznańskiej, budowa trasy średnicowej gen. Andersa, budowa południowej obwodnicy Torunia zwanej "trasą poligonową", która wyprowadziła ruch tranzytowy z osiedla. W roku 2009 ukończona została budowa Wyższej Szkoły Filologii Hebrajskiej (w okolicach klasztoru franciszkanów). Inwestycja pochłonęła 24 milionów złotych, z czego 19 milionów na budynek. Jest to pierwsza lewobrzeżna uczelnia toruńska. Od początku 2008 roku, kiedy to spłonęła hala produkcyjna zakładów drobiarskich, na Podgórzu nie istnieją wielkie zakłady przemysłowe. Od 2010 roku w dzielnicy znajduje się Centrum Sportowo-rekreacyjne składające się m.in. z boiska "ORLIK2012", 2 boisk piłkarskich, boiska piłkarskiego z trawą syntetyczną, kortów tenisowych, boiska do badmintona i piłki plażowej. +Kościoły. +Na Podgórzu znajduje się rzymskokatolicki Kościół św. św. Piotra i Pawła oraz zbór Kościoła Chrześcijan Baptystów. +3-Chinuklidynobenzylan + +3-Chinuklidynobenzylan (BZ) – organiczny związek chemiczny używany w charakterze bojowego środka trującego z grupy fenyloglikolanów. Stosowany przez USA w wojnie w Wietnamie. +Oznaczenia wojskowe: NATO – BZ, Irak – Agent 15 (prawdopodobnie). +Właściwości chemiczne. +Rozpuszcza się w rozpuszczalnikach organicznych (np. DMSO, glikol propylowy). Z kwasami tworzy sole o zbliżonej toksyczności, dobrze rozpuszczalne w wodzie. Hydrolizuje w roztworach alkalicznych. Jest odporny na podwyższoną temperaturę. Pozostaje przez długi czas w glebie i wodzie oraz na wielu powierzchniach. +Działanie toksyczne. +Objawy toksycznego działania występują po ok. 1 h i nasilając się trwają od kilku do kilkudziesięciu godzin, w zależności od wchłoniętej dawki. Są charakterystyczne dla wszystkich benzylanów i fenyloglikolanów. Początkowo są to: suchość w gardle, rozszerzenie źrenic, osłabienie mięśni i wzmożone tętno. Po ok. 1 h następuje rozstrój psychiczny. Intensywne halucynacje (wzrokowe, dotykowe i słuchowe) zupełnie wyłączają człowieka z otaczającej go rzeczywistości, powodując urojone złudzenia i wyobrażenia. Stan ten przypomina schizofrenię. Halucynacjom towarzyszą zaburzenia mowy, utrata zdolności koncentracji i orientacji w czasie i przestrzeni. Inhalacyjna dawka halucynogenna wynosi 2 mg dla człowieka. Inhalacyjna dawka obezwładniająca wynosi 110 mg/min·m³. Dawka śmiertelna jest bardzo wysoka (ok. 200 000 mg/min·m³) jednak BZ może być groźny dla dzieci, chorych (szczególnie na serce) i starszych osób w dużo mniejszych stężeniach. +Zastosowanie. +Odporność termiczna BZ pozwala stosować go w mieszankach termosublimacyjnych i amunicji chemicznej. Jego sole mogą być używane w charakterze dywersyjnych bojowych środków trujących. +Od 1961 był etatowym bojowym środkiem trującym armii amerykańskiej. Prawdopodobnie w okresie rządów Saddama Husajna był na wyposażeniu armii irackiej. Obecnie nie jest jednak stosowany na skalę masową, a wszystkie jego zapasy zostały ostatecznie zniszczone przez USA w roku 1990. Powodem tego była niepełna powtarzalność efektów działania, duża toksyczność i brak użyteczności taktycznej (rozpylanie w postaci aerozolu wykluczało element zaskoczenia). +Czernorizec Chrabyr + +Czernorizec Chrabyr (Mnich Chrobry, Mnich Chrabr) – średniowieczny bułgarski pisarz, działający w presławskiej szkole piśmienniczej na przełomie IX i X w. +Nie zachowały się żadne dane biograficzne, które wskazywałyby kim był Czernorizec, wiadomo tylko, iż był w jakiś sposób związany z kościołem, o czym świadczy jego imię ('czernorizec' = mnich). Przyjmuje się, iż miano "Czernorizec Chrabyr" było pseudonimem któregoś z bardziej znanych twórców szkoły presławskiej; na podstawie pewnych poszlak uważa się, iż mógł to być nawet sam władca Bułgarii, Symeon I Wielki (893–927). +Czernorizec Chrabyr jest autorem tylko jednego dzieła literackiego, traktatu zatytułowanego "O literach" ("О ПИСМЕНЕХЪ"), które było jednak jednym z najbardziej znanych i najczęściej kopiowanych w średniowiecznych skryptoriach tekstów literatury staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskiej. Przyjmuje się, iż traktat "O literach" powstał po roku 893. +Traktat "O literach" jest żarliwą apologią piśmiennictwa słowiańskiego oraz nowego alfabetu (jakkolwiek istnieją spory, czy chodzi tu o głagolicę, czy o cyrylicę), utworzonego przez św. Cyryla, a jednocześnie stanowi polemikę z krytycznymi głosami pisarzy greckich, argumentującymi za wyższością języka i alfabetu greckiego czy nawet wyłącznością używania greki w piśmiennictwie. Jest to także jednyny znany średniowieczny tekst podający dokładną datę roczną powstania alfabetu słowiańskiego (być może chodzi tu o głagolicę). +Do naszych czasów przetrwało ok. 80 odpisów traktatu, zapisanych w rozmaitych redakcjach języka staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskiego. Najstarszy z odpisów, sporządzony przez mnicha Ławrentija za czasów panowania cara Iwana Aleksandra, pochodzi z 1348 r. Dzieło było kilkakrotnie wydawane drukiem, m.in. w Wilnie (1575–1580), w Moskwie (1637), Petersburgu (1776) czy Supraślu (1781). +Polski przekład traktatu ukazał się w antologii "Pasterze wiernych słowian" w opracowaniu A. Naumowa, Kraków 1985. +Zobacz też. +Literatura bułgarska +Szawle + +Szawle (lit. "Šiauliai" , żmudz. "Šiaulē") - miasto na Litwie (Żmudź), na wschód od Kłajpedy, pow. 81 km², 113,1 tys. mieszkańców w 2011 roku (czwarte pod względem liczby mieszkańców w tym kraju), stolica okręgu szawelskiego. +Ośrodek przemysłowy, kulturalny i naukowy. W mieście renesansowy kościół – od 1997 katedra pod wezwaniem św. Piotra i Pawła – jedna z największych budowli sakralnych na Litwie. W latach 80. XX w. postawiono też z okazji 750-lecia zwycięskiej dla Żmudzinów bitwy z rycerzami zakonu kawalerów mieczowych (1236) 21–metrowy Pomnik Łucznika (Strzelca), który służy również jako zegar słoneczny. +Historia. +Nazwa "Šiauliai" wywodzona jest od litewskiego słowa "šaulys", oznaczającego strzał. Jak mówi legenda w zamierzchłych wiekach na brzegu pobliskiego jeziora Talšos znajdowała się osada myśliwych polujących w okolicznych lasach na dzikie zwierzęta i ptactwo. Nazwa Šiauliai pojawiła się ponownie przy okazji wspomnianej wyżej bitwy w 1286, wzmiankowana następnie w 1524. W latach 1413–1795 Szawle były stolicą jednego z traktów Księstwa Żmudzkiego. +Prawa miejskie Szawle uzyskały w 1569, a w 1589 ustanowiono tam tzw. "ekonomię królewską", tzn. cały dochód miasta przeznaczony był na utrzymanie króla. Aż do III rozbioru Polski w 1795 była ona największą ekonomią królewską w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim. +W Szawlach rozpoczęły się działania insurekcji kościuszkowskiej (1794) na ziemiach Rzeczypospolitej. W dniu 8 lipca 1831 roku miejsce nieudanego ataku wojsk polskich pod dowództwem gen. Antoniego Giełguda na garnizon rosyjski. W Powstaniu listopadowym w 1830 i Powstaniu styczniowym w 1863 brali również udział mieszkańcy ziemi szawelskiej. +W miejscowości w 1785 urodził się Tadeusz Wolański - polski archeolog i badacz napisów w języku etruskim, natomiast w 1911 Aleksander Gabszewicz - polski generał brygady, pilot Wojska Polskiego, as myśliwski Polskich Sił Powietrznych na Uchodźstwie. +Janusz Tomaszewski + +Janusz Teofil Tomaszewski (ur. 13 września 1956 w Pabianicach) – polski polityk, działacz związkowy, były wicepremier oraz minister spraw wewnętrznych i administracji. +Życiorys. +Z wykształcenia mechanik samochodowy. Do 1980 pracował w Zakładach Naprawczych w Pabianicach. Później działał w NSZZ „Solidarność”. W stanie wojennym został internowany na okres kilku tygodni. +W 1990 objął stanowisko wiceprzewodniczącego zarządu Regionu Łódzkiego NSZZ „Solidarność”, a w latach 1992-1997 pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego tego regionu związku. Od 1995 był wiceprzewodniczącym Komisji Krajowej NSZZ „Solidarność”. Należał do najbliższych współpracowników Mariana Krzaklewskiego, a w 1996 do inicjatorów utworzenia Akcji Wyborczej Solidarność, w ramach której został pełnomocnikiem Krajowego Komitetu Wyborczego AWS. +Po zwycięstwie tej formacji w wyborach parlamentarnych w 1997 opowiedział się za utworzeniem koalicji rządowej AWS z Unią Wolności. Od 31 października 1997 do 3 września 1999 był wicepremierem oraz ministrem spraw wewnętrznych i administracji w rządzie Jerzego Buzka. W styczniu 1999 powołano go na stanowisko sekretarza generalnego Ruchu Społecznego AWS. +W 1998 „Gazeta Wyborcza” ujawniła, że na posiedzeniu Rady Ministrów Janusz Tomaszewski zgłosił propozycję wprowadzenia całkowitego zakazu importu żelatyny do Polski, co sprzyjało interesom krajowego monopolisty na rynku żelatyny, Kazimierza Grabka. +Został odwołany z obu stanowisk w rządzie, gdy Rzecznik Interesu Publicznego złożył w jego sprawie wniosek do sądu lustracyjnego. 21 lutego 2001 sąd ten oczyścił go z zarzutu kłamstwa lustracyjnego. +W 2001 Janusz Tomaszewski odszedł z RS AWS, współtworzył nowy komitet wyborczy pod nazwą Forum Obywatelskie Chrześcijańska Demokracja. W wyborach parlamentarnych w tym samym roku z jego ramienia bez powodzenia kandydował do Senatu w okręgu sieradzkim. Został następnie doradcą rektora Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Łodzi. +W 2004 brał udział w tworzeniu nowej formacji politycznej Zbigniewa Religi, Partii Centrum. +Otto Kuusinen + +Otto Wilhelm (Ville) Kuusinen (ur. 4 października 1881, Laukaa - zm. 17 maja 1964, Moskwa) – fiński i radziecki polityk. +Kuusinen był jednym z czołowych działaczy fińskich komunistów, który po przegranej wojnie domowej przeniósł się do ZSRR. +W roku 1939, utworzył na żądanie Józefa Stalina, rząd marionetkowy tzw. Fińskiej Republiki Demokratycznej, który po radzieckiej inwazji miał sprawować władzę w podbitym kraju. Armia Czerwona nie zdołała jednak opanować Finlandii i Kuusinen nie objął rządów. +Fińską Republikę Demokratyczną wcielono do utworzonej Karelo - Fińskiej SRR, powstałej w 1940 roku z przekształcenia Karelskiej ASRR, a Kuusinen objął stanowisko Przewodniczącego Prezydium Rady Najwyższej Karelo-Fińskiej SRR. Po ponownym wcieleniu Karelo-Fińskiej SRR do RFSRR w 1956 roku pełnił urząd członka Rady Najwyższej ZSRR i członka Politbiura KC KPZR. +Konstrukcja kablobetonowa + +Konstrukcja kablobetonowa, kablobeton – betonowa konstrukcja sprężona charakteryzująca się wprowadzeniem siły sprężającej po częściowym lub całkowitym stwardnieniu mieszanki betonowej oraz przekazywaniem jej na konstrukcję głównie przez docisk za pomocą specjalnych systemów zakotwień. Cięgno sprężające prowadzi się w kanale umieszczonym w elemencie przed zabetonowaniem lub poza elementem. Trasa przebiegu cięgien sprężających jest projektowana w taki sposób, aby możliwie racjonalnie wykorzystać wytrzymałość elementu w każdym jego przekroju. Sprężać można konstrukcje betonowe wykonywane bezpośrednio na placu budowy jak również prefabrykaty. Obecnie często stosuje się zewnętrznie prowadzone cięgna do remontu lub zwiększania nośności istniejących konstrukcji żelbetowych (zbiorników, mostów). +Do naciągu cięgien stosuje się specjalne lewary (prasy naciągowe). +W przypadku użycia cięgna z przewidzianą przyczepnością po zakotwieniu naprężonego cięgna przestrzeń pomiędzy nim a ściankami tunelu wypełnia się materiałem iniekcyjnym (np. zaczynem cementowo-wodnym) o odpowiedniej wytrzymałości. Iniekt spełnia rolę ochronną dla wrażliwego na korozję cięgna, jak również uczestniczy w przekazywaniu sił sprężających na konstrukcję. +Konstrukcje kablobetonowe stosowane są do wykonywania przekryć o dużych (na ogół powyżej 18,0 m) rozpiętościach (np. w halach przemysłowych, widowiskowych itp. mostach, wiaduktach oraz niezgłębionych zbiornikach. +Zobacz też: Konstrukcja sprężona +Konstrukcja sprężona + +Konstrukcja sprężona - konstrukcja, w której w sposób celowy i kontrolowany wprowadza się siły wewnętrzne przeciwdziałające efektom obciążeń - siłom i odkształceniom. Do wprowadzenia sił służą cięgna sprężające, materiały ekspansywne lub siłowniki. +Najczęściej spotykane są konstrukcje sprężone z betonu zbrojonego cięgnami jako strunobeton lub kablobeton. Do wykonywania takich konstrukcji stosuje się betony o wysokiej wytrzymałości na ściskanie (betony wysokich klas). Spotykane są także konstrukcje stalowe sprężane kablami np. Hala Olivia w Gdańsku. +Podczas projektowania konstrukcji sprężonych należy obliczyć wartość sił sprężających. Jako podstawową zasadę przyjmuje się, że wielkość wprowadzonych ich działaniem naprężeń ściskających jest równoważona naprężeniami rozciągającymi spowodowanymi ciężarem własnym konstrukcji i innymi obciążeniami stałymi (tzn. po zamontowaniu konstrukcji stan naprężeń wewnętrznych w poszczególnych przekrojach elementów konstrukcyjnych poddanych działaniu sił sprężających i naprężeń wywołanych obciążeniami stałymi oraz odkształcenia nimi spowodowane powinny mieć wartości zbliżone). Zazwyczaj to równoważenie dotyczy strefy rozciąganej przekroju podczas zginania od obciążeń zewnętrznych. Projektant musi uwzględnić także stan naprężeń i odkształceń wywołanych siłami sprężającymi przed obciążeniem konstrukcji (siły sprężające nie mogą spowodować zniszczenia elementu konstrukcji). +W elementach betonowych, wstępne sprężanie zabezpiecza konstrukcję przed pojawieniem się rys. (Beton należy do materiałów o stosunkowo niskiej wytrzymałości na rozciąganie. Naprężenia rozciągające od sił podłużnych i momentów zginających powodują zarysowanie elementów w strefie rozciągania). Spotykane są także konstrukcje częściowo sprężone, czyli żelbetowe z dodatkowym zbrojeniem z postaci cięgien sprężających zabezpieczających konstrukcję przed pojawieniem się rys większych niż 0,1 mm. +Hugo II (książę Burgundii) + +Hugo II Borel de Bourgogne (ur. 1084 - zm. 1143) – książę Burgundii w latach 1103-1142. Najstarszy syn księcia Odona I i jego żony - Sybilli Burgundzkiej. Został pochowany w Cîteaux. +Wiesław Chrzanowski (polityk) + +Wiesław Marian Chrzanowski (ur. 20 grudnia 1923 w Warszawie, zm. 29 kwietnia 2012 tamże ) – polski adwokat, profesor nauk prawnych, żołnierz Armii Krajowej, powstaniec warszawski, polityk, założyciel i pierwszy prezes ZChN, poseł i marszałek Sejmu I kadencji, senator IV kadencji, minister sprawiedliwości i prokurator generalny w rządzie Jana Krzysztofa Bieleckiego. Kawaler Orderu Orła Białego. +Biografia. +Syn Wiesława, inżyniera i konstruktora silników cieplnych, profesora Politechniki Lwowskiej i Politechniki Warszawskiej, ministra w okresie II RP. +Wykształcenie i praca zawodowa. +W 1945 ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawa Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Uzyskał następnie stopień naukowy doktora (1975) i doktora habilitowanego nauk prawnych (1979) oraz tytuł profesorski. Pracował jako wykładowca prawa i profesor Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego. W latach 1987–1990 pełnił funkcję prodziekana Wydziału Prawa Kanonicznego i Świeckiego KUL. Prowadził później zajęcia z zakresu prawa cywilnego w Uczelni Łazarskiego. +Działalność polityczna. +W czasie II wojny światowej walczył w szeregach Narodowej Organizacji Wojskowej, która weszła w skład Armii Krajowej. Jako żołnierz AK uczestniczył w powstaniu warszawskim. Był wtedy żołnierzem batalionu „Harnaś”. Następnie należał do Narodowego Zjednoczenia Wojskowego. Działał w konspiracyjnych organizacjach o orientacji niepodległościowej, m.in. w Stronnictwie Narodowym i Młodzieży Wszechpolskiej. W lipcu 1945 wraz z m.in. Tadeuszem Łabędzkim reaktywował pismo "Wszechpolak". Był też redaktorem "Młodej Polski". Związał się politycznie ze Stronnictwem Pracy, z którym współpracował od 1945. +W kwietniu 1946 został prezesem Chrześcijańskiego Związku Młodzieży "Ostoja". W maju tego samego roku został aresztowany przez UB, a po kilku tygodniach zwolniony. Następnie przebywał w ukryciu do amnestii z 1947, kiedy się ujawnił. Podjął wówczas pracę w "Tygodniku Warszawskim". +W latach 1948–1955 był ponownie więziony przez władze komunistyczne. Od 1965 blisko współpracował z prymasem Stefanem Wyszyńskim. W latach 1956–1972 podejmował próby uzyskania uprawnień adwokata. Mimo kilku uchwał rady adwokackiej dopuszczających go do zawodu, minister sprawiedliwości odrzucał każdy jego wniosek. Wiesław Chrzanowski został radcą prawnym specjalizującym się w prawie spółdzielczym. Pełnił funkcję kierownika zespołu radców prawnych Centralnego Związku Spółdzielni Budownictwa Mieszkaniowego, a od 1972 był pracownikiem naukowym Spółdzielczego Instytutu Badawczego. +W 1980 został doradcą NSZZ „Solidarność”, był współautorem statutu związku. W 1981, po 21 latach odmowy wpisania na listę, został dopuszczony do wykonywania zawodu adwokata. Współpracował z Centrum Obywatelskich Inicjatyw Ustawodawczych Solidarności. +W 1989 był jednym z założycieli Zjednoczenia Chrześcijańsko-Narodowego, do 1994 pełnił funkcję prezesa zarządu głównego tej partii. Od 12 stycznia 1991 do 23 grudnia 1991 obejmował urząd ministra sprawiedliwości i prokuratora generalnego w rządzie Jana Krzysztofa Bieleckiego. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 1991 został wybrany na posła w okręgu Lublin z listy Wyborczej Akcji Katolickiej. W Sejmie I kadencji zajmował stanowisko marszałka Sejmu. W 1992 jego nazwisko znalazło się na tzw. liście Macierewicza, w 2000 Sąd Lustracyjny uznał, że Wiesław Chrzanowski nie był agentem SB. W latach 1997–2001 zasiadał w Senacie IV kadencji, wybrany z listy Akcji Wyborczej Solidarność w województwie lubelskim. W 2001 wycofał się z polityki i nie ubiegał się o reelekcję. +Od kwietnia do maja 2011 był cyklicznym gościem audycji "Świadkowie historii" na antenie Programu I Polskiego Radia. W 2011 udzielił oficjalnego poparcia partii Polska Jest Najważniejsza. +Zmarł 29 kwietnia 2012. Uroczystości pogrzebowe z udziałem m.in. prezydenta Bronisława Komorowskiego i marszałek Sejmu VII kadencji Ewy Kopacz odbyły się 7 maja tego samego roku. Wiesław Chrzanowski został pochowany w grobie rodzinnym na Cmentarzu Powązkowskim w Warszawie. +Ordery i wyróżnienia (chronologicznie). +Postanowieniem z 10 grudnia 1993 uhonorowany został przez prezydenta Lecha Wałęsę Krzyżem Wielkim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +3 maja 2005 został odznaczony przez prezydenta Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego Orderem Orła Białego. W maju 2007 prezydent Lech Kaczyński powołał go do kapituły tego orderu. +24 maja 2007 Rada Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy przyznała mu tytuł Honorowego Obywatela. +W listopadzie 2010 został odznaczony Orderem Świętego Grzegorza Wielkiego, przyznanym przez papieża Benedykta XVI. +Był również członkiem honorowym Klubu Konserwatywnego w Łodzi. +Ceylon + +Ceylon – rodzaj herbaty, produkowany na Sri Lance. Jest to herbata czarna, w pełni sfermentowana. Najlepsze jej zbiory datowane są na luty, marzec, sierpień i wrzesień, jednakże zbierana jest ona przez cały rok. +Herbata "ceylon" charakteryzuje się pełnym, wyrazistym smakiem i czerwono-brązowym kolorem. Jest to gatunek najbardziej zbliżony do tego, co w Europie i Ameryce zwykło się uważać ogólnie za herbatę. +Zaparza się ją poprzez zalanie gotującą się wodą i odczekanie 2–3 minut. +Wspólna polityka rolna Unii Europejskiej + +Wspólna polityka rolna – wszystkie przedsięwzięcia dotyczące sektora rolnego, podejmowane przez Unię Europejską w celu wypełnienia postanowień zapisanych w Traktacie o funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej (TFUE). Obejmuje: rolnictwo, leśnictwo, uprawę winorośli oraz ogrodnictwo. Powstała jako pierwsza wspólna polityka Wspólnoty Europejskiej. Cele WPR zostały określone w art. 39 TFUE (dawny art. 33 TWE). +Pierwotnym celem WPR było zapewnienie Europie samowystarczalności w zakresie zaopatrzenia w żywność. Osiągnąwszy ten cel, WPR przetrwała bez większych zmian do 1992, kiedy to w kontekście trudnych negocjacji Rundy Urugwajskiej GATT irlandzki komisarz MacSharry przeforsował pierwsze reformy. Od tej pory zaczęto odstępować od subwencjonowania produkcji rolnej na rzecz bezpośrednich opłat wyrównawczych do dochodów rolników. Priorytetem nie było już wyżywienie Europy, lecz zachowanie społecznej struktury wsi i ochrona środowiska. Dotychczasowy, kosztowny system interwencji hamował bowiem możliwość liberalizacji handlu międzynarodowego, stwarzał okazje do nadużyć, a ponadto kompromitował Wspólnotę Europejską w oczach podatników, utożsamiających WPR z górami masła, jeziorami wina i niszczeniem płodów rolnych w celu utrzymywania wysokich cen. +Aktualnie wspólny rynek oznacza, że zostają zniesione ograniczenia w handlu produktami gleby, lasu i morza wewnątrz UE. Obowiązuje zakaz stosowania barier taryfowych (ceł) i parataryfowych (np. subwencje) utrudniających swobodny przepływ towarów rolnych pomiędzy krajami członkowskimi, przy zachowaniu obowiązku spełnienia wybranych norm w zakresie bezpieczeństwa żywnościowego (bariery pozataryfowe). Funkcjonują wspólne ceny, stałe kursy walutowe w obrotach towarami rolnymi, nastąpiła harmonizacja przepisów administracyjnych, fitosanitarnych, weterynaryjnych i ochrony zdrowia. Częścią składową WPR jest Polityka Strukturalna. Równocześnie WPR realizuje silną politykę protekcjonistyczną w stosunku do towarów rolnych spoza Unii. +Reformy WPR. +Jego celem było poprawienie struktury agrarnej poprzez powiększenie wielkości gospodarstw, likwidację małych, słabo wydajnych gospodarstw oraz zmniejszenie nadwyżek produktów rolnych. +Nie został w pełni zrealizowany. +W tych latach dokonano także dość istotnych zmian w zakresie WPR. +Problemy związane z WPR. +Z powodu ograniczeń ("kwot") nałożonych na produkcję cukru Unia Europejska z eksportera stała się jego importerem — w 2012 roku wytwarzała cukier pokrywający jedynie 80% regionalnego zapotrzebowania. Równocześnie utrzymywane są wysokie cła importowe, co skutkowało wzrostem cen cukru w Polsce o ponad 60%. +25 października 2007 Parlament Europejski wydał rezolucję, w której zaapelował do władz Unii Europejskiej o częściowe ograniczenie regulacji WPR w związku z wzrostem cen żywności oraz ryzykiem niedoborów żywności. +26 marca 2009 Parlament Europejski zwrócił się do rządów, by monitorowały ceny rynkowe produktów spożywczych. Według PE konsumenci płacą pięciokrotnie więcej niż otrzymuje przy sprzedaży rolnik lub hodowca. +Europejski Fundusz Rolny na Rzecz Rozwoju Obszarów Wiejskich stanowi instrument wdrażania Wspólnej Polityki Rolnej. +Getto w Andrychowie + +Getto w Andrychowie – Getto utworzone 26 września 1941 r. przez Niemców w Andrychowie. Getto miało charakter rotacyjny – było miejscem gdzie zwożono Żydów przed wywiezieniem ich do Auschwitz. Przebywali tu Żydzi m.in. z Andrychowa, Białej, Czańca, Inwałdu, Kęt, Nidku i Żywca. +Getto przewidziane było na około 300 osób. Środkową część getta przy ulicy Brzegi otoczono dwumetrową siatką, a pozostałe ulice pozostawiono otwarte. Panował tu porządek, nie zdarzały się epidemie – Niemcy pokazywali je komisjom z Czerwonego Krzyża. Żydów zamkniętych w getcie zmuszano do ciężkich prac np.: do regulacji Wieprzówki i Soły. Osoby starsze, chore i dzieci do lat dziesięciu były natychmiast wywożone do Auschwitz. +Powierzchnia getta. +Getto zamknięte ogrodzone było 2-metrową siatką. +Tromsø + +Tromsø [ˈtrumsø] – stolica regionu Troms, największe miasto północnej Norwegii, siódme największe miasto kraju. +Miasto leży na wyspie Tromsøya, za kołem podbiegunowym. Jego dokładna lokalizacja to 69° 40' 33" N, 18° 55' 10" E. Znajduje się tutaj najdalej na północ wysunięty uniwersytet – "Universitetet i Tromsø". Mimo swojego położenia, 350 km za kołem polarnym, klimat nie jest wyjątkowo surowy, ze względu na silny wpływ Prądu Zatokowego. Noc polarna trwa w Tromsø od 27 listopada do 19 stycznia, dzień polarny od 19 maja do 27 lipca. +Historia. +Założone w XIII wieku było początkowo wioską liczącą około 80 mieszkańców. W 1252 roku powstał tu pierwszy kościół, Sancta Maria juxta paganos, który był równocześnie najdalej na północ wysuniętym kościołem na świecie. Prawa miejskie Tromsø uzyskało w 1794 roku. W XIX i XX wieku miasto stało się punktem startowym wielu ekspedycji polarnych, w tym najbardziej znanych Roalda Amundsena, Umberto Nobile i Fridtjofa Nansena, przez co zyskało sławę jako "Wrota do Arktyki". +Podczas II wojny światowej miasto nie ucierpiało. Po zajęciu przez Niemców terytorium Norwegii, norweski rząd miał tutaj swoją siedzibę. W zatoce Håkøybotn, w pobliżu Tromsø został zatopiony przez RAF, w 1944 roku, niemiecki pancernik Tirpitz. Zginęło wtedy ponad 1000 niemieckich marynarzy. +Obecnie. +W centrum miasta występuje duża liczba domów drewnianych, z których większa część pochodzi z XIX wieku. Pierwszy dom został zelektryfikowany w 1898 roku (dom Andreasa Aagaarda). W 1904 roku zabroniono budowy domów drewnianych w centrum. +W Tromsø znajduje się najstarsze norweskie kino, wybudowane w latach 1915-16. +Port lotniczy Langnes Lufthaven, położony na zachodnim brzegu wyspy, około 5 km od centrum miasta, obsługiwany jest przez linie lotnicze SAS Braathens, Norwegian oraz Widerøe. Bezpośrednie połączenia utrzymywane są do Oslo, Bergen, Bodø, Trondheim, Alta, Hammerfest, Honningsvåg, Kirkenes, Longyearbyen oraz do Londynu (Stansted). +Miasto szczyci się posiadaniem najdalej na północ położonego uniwersytetu, katedry protestanckiej, ogrodu botanicznego, a nawet najbardziej "polarnej" restauracji Burger King. Posiada również najdalej wysunięty na świecie browar (nie licząc małego browaru założonego niedawno w miejscowości Honningsvåg) – Browar Mack (Mack Ølbryggeri), założony w 1877 roku. Produkuje on szereg gatunków piwa w tym Mack Pilsner, Isbjørn, Haakon oraz kilka rodzajów piwa ciemnego. +W mieście znajduje się muzeum polarnictwa (Polarmuseet) przedstawiające historię wypraw polarnych. Większość ekspozycji dokumentuje osiągnięcia Roalda Amundsena oraz metody polowań na zwierzęta futerkowe Arktyki (głównie foki). +Tromsø Forsvarsmuseum powstało na bazie zbudowanej przez Niemców w 1940 roku baterii dział dużego kalibru, które broniły dostępu do miasta. Odrestaurowane po wojnie, poza sześcioma działami, prezentuje również doskonale zachowany bunkier dowodzenia oraz wystawę poświęconą niemieckiemu pancernikowi Tirpitz. W mieście tym istnieje polski klasztor Karmelitanek Bosych. +Wydarzenia. +Raz do roku, w pierwszą lub drugą sobotę lipca, odbywa się w mieście impreza sportowa pod nazwą Tromsø Midnight Sun Marathon (Maraton Słońca o Północy Tromsø). Uczestnicy mogą startować w pełnym maratonie, półmaratonie oraz minimaratonie. Odbywa się również wyścig dzieci na krótszym dystansie. +Niedawno przystąpiono również do organizowania w styczniu Polar Night Half Marathon (Półmaratonu Nocy polarnej). +W sierpniu organizowany jest festiwal piwa – Øl-Festival. +Tromsø ubiegało się o organizację zimowej olimpiady w 2018 roku, jednak Narodowy Komitet Olimpijski Norwegii zrezygnował z tych planów z uwagi na zbyt wysokie koszty przedsięwzięcia. +Warunki klimatyczne. +Pomimo że Tromsø leży za kołem podbiegunowym, klimat jest łagodny ze względu na wpływ prądu Północnoatlantyckiego. Dzięki temu wody oceaniczne nie zamarzają i port w Tromsø może funkcjonować cały rok. +Gudea + +Gudea (sum. gu3-de2-a, tłum. ""powołany"") – sumeryjski władca miasta-państwa Lagasz, panujący w 2 połowie XXII w. p.n.e., zięć i następca Ur-Baby, ojciec Ur-Ningirsu. Dokładne lata panowania Gudei nie są znane - niektórzy naukowcy umieszczają jego panowanie w okresie rządów ostatnich władców gutejskich (ok. 2130 r. p.n.e.), zdaniem innych panować miał on już po pokonaniu Gutejów przez Utuhengala (po 2116 roku p.n.e.). +Jego władza rozciągała się na południe do miasta Ur i Eridu oraz w kierunku północno-wschodnim i obejmowała najprawdopodobniej zachodni Elam. Za panowania Gudei państwo Lagasz doszło do znacznego rozkwitu m.in. dzięki licznym kontaktom handlowym np. z państwem Mari, a nawet z miastami syryjskimi. +Dużą wagę Gudea poświęcał rozwojowi rolnictwa, o czym informują liczne inskrypcje oraz teksty na tabliczkach odnoszące się do spraw gospodarczych (sprawozdania dotyczące rozbudowy kanałów nawadniających, zasiewów pól i zakładania sadów). Za jego panowania wprowadzono uprawę winorośli. Inne tabliczki informują nas o znacznym rozkwicie rzemiosła. +Wzrost gospodarczy państwa Gudei pozwolił władcy skoncentrować się na zakrojonych na dużą skalę pracach budowlanych. Wznosił on liczne świątynie, z których najbardziej jest znana E-ninnu ("Dom Pięćdziesiątki"), poświęcona bogu Ningirsu i jego świcie. O losach budowy tejże świątyni wiadomo z inskrypcji wyrytej na dwóch glinianych walcach o wysokości 1 m każdy. Jest to poetyckie sprawozdanie z budowy E-ninnu i jednocześnie utwór wielbiący boga Ningirsu. Są to jednocześnie najwcześniejsze znane tak obszerne teksty sumeryjskie. +Z inskrypcji z czasów panowania Gudei kształtuje się obraz władcy sprawiedliwego i dbającego o poddanych, potrafiącego zapewnić im dobrobyt i życie w pokoju oraz unikającego walk zbrojnych, czyli władcy określanego w jednej z inskrypcji mianem "dobrego pasterza". +Gudea to jedna postaci tego okresu, o których więcej wiadomo dzięki zachowanym zabytkom mezopotamskim z III tysiąclecia p.n.e. Do naszych czasów przetrwały liczne posągi Gudei, zdobiące zbiory muzeów europejskich (zwłaszcza Luwr), jak również dużo inskrypcji, często długich i poetyckich. +Posągi Gudei wykonane są z twardych gatunków kamienia (dioryt, doleryt). Przedstawiają władcę w różnych okresach życia. Można je podzielić na dwa rodzaje: pierwszy cechuje się zwartą kompozycją, o przysadzistych proporcjach, drugi charakteryzuje się proporcjami smuklejszymi. Starano się oddać indywidualne rysy twarzy. +sumeryjski zapis imienia i tytulatury Gudei w piśmie klinowym +Pospolite ruszenie + +Pospolite ruszenie (fr. "levée en masse") – poległo na powoływaniu pod broń całej męskiej ludności państwa lub tylko pewnej części uprawnionej i zobowiązanej do tego rodzaju służby. +Mobilizacja pospolitego ruszenia była powszechnym sposobem prowadzenia wojny w średniowiecznej Europie i innych rejonach świata przed wprowadzeniem armii zawodowych – zaciężnych lub z poboru. Członkowie pospolitego ruszenia zobowiązani byli sami dbać o swoje wyposażenie i uzbrojenie – regulowały to osobne przepisy. +Pospolite ruszenie w Turcji. +Pospolite ruszenie lenników tworzyli feudałowie, którzy w zamian za użytkowanie lenn nadanych przez sułtana zobowiązani byli do służby wojskowej. Konnica pospolitego ruszenia (topraki) zorganizowana była na zasadach terytorialnych. W jej skład wchodziły oddziały 21 prowincji zwanych wilajetami i 250 sandżaków. +Liczebność tureckiego pospolitego ruszenia była początkowo bardzo wysoka - w połowie XVI wieku dochodziła do 200 000 żołnierzy. Z czasem, gdy system lenny podlegał rozkładowi, siła liczebna pospolitego ruszenia malała. Pod koniec XVII wieku w całym Imperium Ottomańskim było 3192 zaimów i 50 160 timariotów obowiązanych do wystawiania 126 292 żołnierzy. Na wyprawy wojenne brano nie więcej jak połowę tych wojsk. Wartość bojowa tureckiego pospolitego ruszenia była mała. +Pospolite ruszenie w Polsce. +W Polsce od 1454 (przywilej cerekwicko-nieszawski) powołanie pospolitego ruszenia wymagało zgody sejmików ziemskich, a od 1493 sejmu walnego. +W Polsce siedemnastowiecznej pospolite ruszenie szlacheckie całego kraju było traktowane raczej jako ostateczny środek obrony Rzeczypospolitej, niż jako aktywna siła militarna; zwoływano je tylko kilkakrotnie, w roku 1621, 1649, 1651, w latach 1655–1657 (wzięło udział m.in. w Bitwie pod Warszawą (1656)), wreszcie – po raz ostatni – w roku 1672. +Częściej powoływano pospolite ruszenie z jakiegoś regionu – najczęściej z województw południowo-wschodnich dla ich obrony przed Tatarami. +Po odzyskaniu Smoleńska w wyniku wojny polsko-rosyjskiej 1609-1618 wprowadzono specjalny rodzaj pospolitego ruszenia dla Smoleńszczyzny, Siewierszczyzny i Czernihowszczyzny, gdzie szlachta oraz mieszczanie posiadający dobra ziemskie obowiązani byli stawiać się w twierdzach ujezdu (zachowana rosyjska jednostka administracyjna będąca częścią powiatu), w którym posiadali swe dobra. Szlachcic, który pełnił służbę w wojsku zaciężnym obowiązany był wystawić zastępcę. Ponieważ do obrony tych ziem przywiązywano ogromną wagę, tylko tam groziła konfiskata dóbr za niestawienie się na pospolite ruszenie (co po wojnie polsko-rosyjskiej 1632-1634 spotkało 13 obywateli). Również tylko na tych obszarach obowiązek pospolitego ruszenia obowiązywał całą szlachtę bez względu na posiadany majątek. +Pospolite ruszenie przedstawiało sobą bardzo różną wartość bojową i wyszkolenie, które zależały przede wszystkim od stopnia doświadczenia zdobytego w walkach. I tak pospolite ruszenie z obszarów gdzie często toczyły się wojny (np. pogranicze południowo-wschodnie) było wartościowe. Pospolite ruszenie z Wielkopolski, które stanęło naprzeciwko Szwedom pod Ujściem w 1655 roku, stanowiło początkowo mało wartościową masę. W toku wojny to samo pospolite ruszenie z Wielkopolski nabrało doświadczenia i potem praktycznie nie ustępowało regularnym chorągwiom komputowym. +W Polsce początkowo pospolite ruszenie wynikało z obowiązku lennego, zatem dotyczyło przede wszystkim szlachty. Byli nim również objęcie mieszczanie którzy posiadali dobra ziemskie, a z chłopstwa jedynie sami wójtowie i sołtysi. Dopiero w 1794, podczas insurekcji kościuszkowskiej, rozszerzono to pojęcie na wszystkich mężczyzn. +Zbigniew Kuźmiuk + +Zbigniew Krzysztof Kuźmiuk (ur. 19 września 1956 w Komorowie) – polski polityk, ekonomista, nauczyciel akademicki, przedsiębiorca i publicysta. Były marszałek województwa mazowieckiego, poseł na Sejm IV i VII kadencji, od 2004 do 2009 deputowany do Parlamentu Europejskiego VI kadencji. +Życiorys. +Wykształcenie i praca zawodowa. +W 1979 ukończył studia na Wydziale Ekonomicznym Politechniki Świętokrzyskiej, a w 1986 studia podyplomowe w Wyższej Szkole Inżynierskiej im. Kazimierza Pułaskiego w Radomiu. W 1990 uzyskał stopień doktora nauk ekonomicznych w Szkole Głównej Planowania i Statystyki w dziedzinie finansów i statystyki. +Od ukończenia studiów pracował jako nauczyciel akademicki w Wyższej Szkole Inżynierskiej w Radomiu (obecnie Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny im. Kazimierza Pułaskiego w Radomiu). W 1981 uczestniczył w trwającym 49 dni strajku na tejże uczelni. Jest zatrudniony na stanowisku adiunkta na Wydziale Ekonomicznym Uniwersytetu Technologiczno-Humanistycznego im. Kazimierza Pułaskiego w Radomiu. +W latach 1990–1992 był prezesem zarządu firmy PPHU Tex S.A. w Radomiu. W latach 1992–1994 zajmował stanowisko dyrektora PPHU Bakumar S.A. Autor kilkunastu artykułów naukowych. Promotor prac magisterskich i dyplomowych. Publikuje m.in. w "Warszawskiej Gazecie" i "Gazecie Finansowej". +Działalność polityczna. +W okresie 1994–1996 pełnił funkcję wojewody radomskiego. Od 1 stycznia 1997 do 31 października 1997 był prezesem Rządowego Centrum Studiów Strategicznych w rządzie Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza. +W latach 1998–2001 pełnił funkcje radnego sejmiku oraz marszałka województwa mazowieckiego. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2001 został wybrany do Sejmu IV kadencji w okręgu radomskim z listy PSL. Był wiceprzewodniczącym, a od lutego 2002 do marca 2003 przewodniczącym Klubu Parlamentarnego Polskiego Stronnictwa Ludowego oraz przewodniczącym Komisji Samorządu Terytorialnego i Polityki Regionalnej. +13 czerwca 2004 został wybrany do Parlamentu Europejskiego, uzyskawszy 17 554 głosy w okręgu mazowieckim. Należał do frakcji Unia na rzecz Europy Narodów, zasiadał w Komisji Budżetowej Parlamentu Europejskiego. +Od 1986 działał w Zjednoczonym Stronnictwie Ludowym, następnie w Polskim Stronnictwie Ludowym. Od marca 2004 był wiceprezesem Naczelnego Komitetu Wykonawczego PSL. W lutym 2006 za złamanie statutu (przejście do frakcji UEN bez zgody władz partii) został wykluczony z PSL, przystąpił do nowego ugrupowania pod nazwą Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Piast". W kwietniu 2009 opuścił tę partię i związał się z Prawem i Sprawiedliwością, został członkiem i kandydatem tej partii w wyborach do Parlamentu Europejskiego, nie uzyskując reelekcji (otrzymał 19 230 głosów). W 2010 został wybrany z listy PiS w skład sejmiku mazowieckiego. W styczniu 2011 wszedł w skład komitetu politycznego PiS. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w tym samym roku został wybrany do Sejmu z listy tej partii (otrzymał 29 233 głosów). +Odznaczenia. +W 1999, za "wybitne zasługi w kultywowaniu tradycji ruchu ludowego, za osiągnięcia w działalności publicznej i na rzecz społeczności lokalnych", został odznaczony przez prezydenta Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Życie prywatne. +Jest żonaty, ma troje dzieci (córkę Annę, synów Jakuba i Mateusza). +CP-55940 + +CP-55940 – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy syntetycznych psychoaktywnych kannabinoidów o działaniu zbliżonym do tetrahydrokannabinolu. Został otrzymany po raz pierwszy przez Pfizer w 1974 roku. Nie ma zastosowań medycznych ze względu na silne działanie psychoaktywne. CP-55,940 wiąże się prawdopodobnie do tego samego miejsca receptora CB1 co THC, przy czym CP-55940 wykazuje silniejsze powinowactwo do tego receptora (stosunek ich stężeń inhibicyjnych IC50 wynosi ok. 5). . +Presławska szkoła piśmiennicza + +Presławska szkoła piśmiennicza (czasem także po prostu: szkoła presławska) była pierwszą szkołą piśmienniczą w Bułgarii. Powstała na przełomie IX i X wieku i związana jest z działalnością uczniów: braci Cyryla i Metodego, początkowo w Plisce, później w Presławiu. +To m.in. z ich twórczością związany jest tzw. "złoty wiek" kultury i literatury Bułgarii (przypada to na okres panowania cara Borysa I i jego syna Symeona). +Szkoła utworzona została przez krąg pisarzy, tworzących w języku staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskim, począwszy od IX wieku aż do upadku Presławia, spalonego przez bizantyjskiego cesarza Jana Tzimiskesa w 972 roku. +Łączyła idee i tradycje zapoczątkowane przez braci sołuńskich z polityką propagującą szeroko pojętą kulturę. Za organizowaniem życia kulturalnego stali: car Symeon I – charakteryzujący się zamiłowaniem do literatury i czarnorizec Doks – brat Borysa I +Szkoła presławska była ważnym ośrodkiem literackim i kulturalnym pierwszego państwa bułgarskiego a także wszystkich Słowian południowych. Działali tu pisarze i twórcy tej klasy co Konstantyn Presławski, Jan Egzarcha, Czernorizec Chrabyr (Mnich Chrobry) czy Prezbiter Kozma. Imiona te są nierozdzielnie związane z początkami piśmiennictwa staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskiego, wpisuje się je również w dzieje literatury bułgarskiej. Obok oryginalny dzieł, takich jak np. traktat "O literach" Mnicha Chrobrego, czy "Mowa przeciwko bogomiłom" Prezbitera Kozmy. Słynne są również postaci: kopisty Tudora Doksowa oraz tłumacza prezbitera Grigorija. w Presławiu powstawały liczne przekłady, głównie autorów greckich. +W pałacowej bibliotece zbierane były najcenniejsze średniowieczne greckie i starobułgarskie księgi chrześcijańskie, dzieła teologiczno–przyrodnicze, opisy geograficzne, encyklopedie, dzieła antycznych i chrześcijańskich historyków, zborniki o cerkiewnym ustawodawstwem. +Pisano głównie: żywoty słowa pochwalne, objaśniające, słowa na różne święta. Rozwijała się literatura polemiczna (m.in. twórczość Czernorizca Chrabra), proza oratorska (m.in. "Учително евангелие" Konstantyna Presławskiego, "Празничните слова" Jana Ekzarchy), teologiczna, przyrodniczo–naukowa ("Небеса" Jana Ekzarchy oraz "Шестоднев" czyli "Hexameron") oraz encyklopedyczna, tworzono poezję – "Modlitwa Abecadłowa". Napisano służbę Metodemu, "Pochwałę cara Symeona", kanon ku czci archistratega Michała, tridion Konstantynowi Presławskiemu. +Do najbardziej znaczących tekstów literatury bułgarskiej tego okresu tekstów należy dokonany przez Jana Egzarchę przekład tzw. "Sześciodniewu". Jest to wersja bizantyjskich opowieści o sześciu dniach stworzenia świata ("Hexahemeron"), uzupełniona o informacje przyrodnicze, filozoficzne i geograficzne, zaczerpnięte z dzieł wielu pisarzy antycznych i wczesnośredniowiecznych (m.in. Bazylego Wielkiego, Kosmasa Indikopleustesa, Arystotelesa, Jana Chryzostoma, itp.). Tekst, poświęcony Symeonowi, zawiera także oryginalne informacje, autorstwa Jana Egzarchy, m.in. bardzo cenne dla dziejów kultury bułgarskiej świadectwa odnośnie Presławia (ówczesnej stolicy państwa bułgarskiego), carskich pałaców, jak również informacje dotyczące samego cara Symeona, jego ubioru, arystokracji bułgarskiej, warstw społecznych, itp. +Tworzono również literaturę historyczną, pisano kroniki (Konstantyn Presławski – Историкии), beletrystykę religijną przeznaczoną dla szerokiego kręgu czytelników. Tłumaczono apokryfy, powieści heroiczno–historyczne oraz obyczajowo–naukowe. Literatura szkoły presławskiej charakteryzowała się różnorodnością i bogactwem form. Tworzona była nie tylko ku czci bożej, ale również z czysto estetycznych pobudek. +Ogólnie dla niej charakterystyczne były innowacje morfologiczne i syntaktyczne oraz synonimia leksykalna (leksykalne dialektyzmy). +Ponieważ w odróżnieniu od szkoły ochrydzkiej, w Presławiu stosowano przede wszystkim cyrylicę, uważa się, iż szkoła presławska odegrała kluczową rolę w rozwoju tego alfabetu oraz w rozpropagowaniu go poza granice Bułgarii. W okolicach Presławia odnaleziono także najstarsze cyrylickie inskrypcje, datowane na rok 943. +Przeor + +Przeor (łac. "prior" - przedni, naczelny) – przełożony domu zakonnego lub wyższy duchowny, niebędący biskupem. Odpowiednikiem w zakonach i zgromadzeniach zakonnych żeńskich jest "przeorysza". +Odpowiednikiem przeora w zakonach franciszkańskich jest gwardian, a w zgromadzeniach zakonnych superior. Instytucja przeora przetrwała także w kościele anglikańskim i niektórych kościołach luterańskich. W kościele prawosławnym podobną funkcję spełnia ihumen. +Klasztor lub jednostkę administracyjną, kierowaną przez przeora nazywa się przeoratem. +Titanic (film 1997) + +Titanic – film fabularny produkcji amerykańskiej z 1997, oparty na historycznym wydarzeniu – zatonięciu Titanica w 1912 roku. Zdobył jedenaście Oscarów (Nagród Amerykańskiej Akademii Filmowej), w tym za najlepszy film. +"Titanic" jest drugi co do kolejności w najbardziej kasowych filmach w historii kina. Jako pierwszy przekroczył barierę 1 miliarda USD przychodów (w sumie ponad 1,8 mld USD). Został wyreżyserowany na podstawie własnego scenariusza przez Kanadyjczyka Jamesa Camerona. Produkcją zajęły się studia filmowe 20th Century Fox, Paramount Pictures i Lightstorm Entertainment. +Produkcja. +Film był kręcony od 16 września 1996 do 23 marca 1997. Produkcja filmu podzielona była na trzy etapy. Pierwszym z nich było nakręcenie zdjęć wraku. W tym celu filmowcy dwanaście razy schodzili na dno batyskafami MIR-1 i MIR-2, filmując autentyczne szczątki wraku Titanica. Etap drugi to sekwencje współczesne, w których Rose Calvert rozpoczyna swoją opowieść. Najtrudniejszy w realizacji był etap trzeci – wymagał on skonstruowania wiernej repliki statku, a następnie jej zatopieniu zgodnie ze znanymi faktami historycznymi. Podczas gdy w Halifaksie kręcono ujęcia sekwencji współczesnej, w Rosarito Beach (stan Baja California w Meksyku) powstała dekoracja. Sztab projektantów, artystów, budowniczych i konstruktorów zbudował replikę zewnętrznej części statku w skali 1:1 (nieznacznie zmniejszono tylko kominy i łodzie, wyeliminowano zbyteczne elementy, by statek zmieścił się w basenie). To przy użyciu tej repliki nakręcono m.in. sekwencję wypłynięcia "Titanica" z Southampton, w której to w cieniu wielkiej dekoracji znajdowało się ponad tysiąc statystów. Zbudowano również gigantyczny basen wypełniony 680 tysiącami hektolitrów wody, a następnie zatopiono w nim gigantyczną replikę "Titanica". +Aby stworzyć złudzenie, że filmowy "Titanic" rzeczywiście płynie po morzu, basen i zakotwiczoną w nim replikę usytuowano wzdłuż linii brzegowej z widokiem oceanu na dwieście siedemdziesiąt stopni, co umożliwiało uchwycenie kamerą naturalnego horyzontu. Dodatkowo, na podstawie zebranych danych meteorologicznych, wybrano taką stronę statku, by wiatr pochylił dym z kominów, powodując złudzenie płynięcia statku. +Premiera filmu opóźniła się względem pierwotnie planowanego terminu wydania, przypadającego w lipcu 1997. Studia filmowe 20th Century Fox (posiadające prawa do filmu i międzynarodowej dystrybucji) oraz Paramount Pictures (posiadające prawa na terenie Stanów Zjednoczonych) zaczęły się niepokoić. Już w połowie 1997 Titanic był najbardziej kosztownym filmem wszech czasów, a wydatki wciąż rosły. Szacowany koszt produkcji zamknął się w liczbie 200 milionów dolarów, co wynosi więcej, aniżeli rzeczywisty koszt produkcji i wykończenia prawdziwego Titanica. Cameron zdecydował się poświęcić swoją reżyserską gażę, byle tylko doprowadzić do zrealizowania swojego dzieła. Ostateczna wersja, którą reżyser dostarczył dystrybutorowi trwała ponad 3 godziny. O fakcie dość chłodnego przyjęcia świadczy to, iż zastanawiano się, czy dane będzie Cameronowi po raz kolejny pracować nad jakimkolwiek hollywoodzkim filmem. Trzymał się jednak twardo swoich racji, kwitując sugestie o skróceniu obrazu filmowego słowami: "Skrócicie mój film po moim trupie". +Data premiery przesunięta została na 19 grudnia 1997. Przez pierwszy weekend wyświetlania film zarobił zawrotną sumę 28 milionów dolarów. W ciągu tygodnia zysk ten się potroił. Przed końcem roku ta liczba wyniosła już 100 milionów dolarów, i nic nie wskazywało, by to tempo spadało. Wpływy ze sprzedaży biletów na całym świecie przekroczyły 1,8 mld dolarów co plasuje go na drugim miejscu najbardziej dochodowych filmów wszech czasów. +W Stanach Zjednoczonych film był wyświetlany w kinach przez dwieście osiemdziesiąt jeden dni (najdłużej w historii) – od 19 grudnia 1997 roku do 25 września 1998 roku. +Opis fabuły. +Akcja filmu rozpoczyna się w roku 1996. Grupa zawodowych poszukiwaczy skarbów w zatopionych statkach, na czele z Brockiem Lowettem, usiłowała odnaleźć i wydobyć z wraku Titanica legendarny diament o nazwie "Serce Oceanu", który podobno zatonął wraz z nim. W trakcie jednego z zanurzeń, poszukiwacze wydobyli sejf z kabiny Caledona Hockleya. Przypuszczali, że znajdował się tam poszukiwany diament. Zamiast niego znaleźli dobrze zachowany akt dziewczyny, która na szyi miała zawieszone "Serce Oceanu". Rysunek został pokazany w telewizji. Przypadkowo program oglądała Rose Calvert, 101-letnia wdowa która rozpoznała siebie na rysunku wydobytym ze statku. Poinformowała o tym poszukiwaczy, którzy zaprosili ją na statek poszukiwawczy. Tam rozpoczęła opowieść ze swoich wspomnień z tragicznego rejsu, historię powstania rysunku oraz losy diamentu. +Za sprawą retrospekcji Rose opowiedziała im trzy dni z dziewiczego rejsu, gdy jeszcze nosiła nazwisko DeWitt Bukater. W podróż statkiem wybrała się wraz z majętnym narzeczonym Caledonem Hockleyem i swoją matką Ruth. Rose nie kochała Cala, ale akceptowała go pod silnym wpływem matki. W tym samym czasie w pubie, niedaleko miejsca cumowania statku, Jack Dawson, biedny amerykański rysownik czasowo przebywający w Anglii, wygrał w pokera bilet na Titanica, co potraktował jako dar niebios. Podczas rejsu Rose, znużona konwenansami i zasadami panującymi wśród najbogatszych tego świata, po kolejnej awanturze z Calem, postanowiła popełnić samobójstwo. Chciała wyskoczyć za burtę statku prosto do lodowatej zimnej wody, która w Oceanie Atlantyckim miała zaledwie kilka stopni powyżej zera. Obserwujący całe zdarzenie Jack zdążył wciągnąć ją, stojącą już za barierką, na pokład. W zamieszaniu został posądzony o napastowanie pasażerki pierwszej klasy. Rose skłamała, że chciała tylko zobaczyć śruby a Jack ją złapał. W nagrodę otrzymał zaproszenie od Caledona na wspólną obiadokolację. Nazajutrz Jack i Rose udali się na spacer, gdzie chłopak pokazał swe prace. Wieczorem planował w żartach, że nauczy ją jazdy konno okrakiem, wspólną wyprawę na molo i jazdę kolejką górską aż do mdłości. Spotkanie przerwało pojawienie się matki i jej znajomych przez co Rose poszła się przebrać na posiłek. Molly pożyczyła Jackowi smoking swojego syna a bogacze przyjęli go jak swego. Kolejnego dziedzica kolejarskiej fortuny. Niezastąpiona matka Rose, Ruth, przypomniała jednak wszystkim, że Jack sypia w kajutach trzeciej klasy. On natomiast zaimponował towarzystwu swą pewnością siebie i chęcią poznawania wielu ludzi. Po wszystkim zaprosił Rose na dolne pokłady, na irlandzkie tańce i zabawę. Nazajutrz Cal wpadł w szał i zażądał szacunku należnego mężowi. Natomiast Ruth, pamiętająca długi zmarłego męża i tylko dobre nazwisko po nim, zakazała córce spotykania się z chłopakiem. Między Rose i Jackiem zrodziło się jednak uczucie. Za jej prośbą narysował on rysunek, do którego Rose pozowała nago. Jack zachował się jak artysta i nie poszedł z nią do łóżka. Jack włożył diament do sejfu a ona jego rysunek. Uciekli przed lokajem Cala do ładowni, gdzie uprawiali seks a po wyjściu stamtąd, Rose oznajmiła mu, że razem wyjdą na ląd po dobiciu do Ameryki. +Titanic zderzył się z górą lodową i zaczął nabierać wody. Cal Hockley domyślił się, że serce Rose nie należy już do niego. Zlecił swojemu ochroniarzowi intrygę w celu usunięcia rywala. Według polecenia, wsunął Jackowi do kieszeni "Serce Oceanu". Jack został oskarżony o kradzież błękitnego diamentu. Ochrona statku umieściła chłopaka w areszcie w niższych poziomach statku. Gdy Titanic zaczął na dobre nabierać wody, strażnicy pozostawili go na łaskę losu. Cal obładował swe kieszenie kosztownościami, w tym Sercem Oceanu. +Kiedy Ruth kazała córce wsiąść do szalupy, Rose rozkazała się zamknąć matce i zostawiła ją w niej wraz z Molly Brown. Sama pobiegła do Jacka ale Cal złapał ją. Ona opluła mu twarz i uciekła. Udało jej się dotrzeć do Jacka i uwolniła go z kajdanek za pomocą siekiery. Miała dużo szczęścia ponieważ ostrze uderzyło w rurę na której był rozciągnięty łańcuszek od kajdanek a nie w dłonie mężczyzny. Po dużych trudnościach dotarli na powierzchnię, pokład A. Spotykali Cala i razem z Jackiem zaczęli namawiać Rose aby wsiadła do szalupy. Przed wejściem do łodzi ratunkowej Caledon dał Rose swój płaszcz, aby nie było jej zimno, gdyż była cała mokra, bo ratowała Jacka z aresztu wypełniającego się wodą. Jack obiecał jej, że niedługo się zobaczą. Rose uwierzyła mu i wsiadła do szalupy. Kiedy powoli się obniżała, Jack i Rose patrzyli na siebie. Kiedy była w połowie Rose wyskoczyła z łodzi i została wciągnięta na statek. Jack pobiegł na spotkanie z ukochaną. Gdy na siebie wpadli przy zegarze, zaczęli się całować. Po chwili przybiegł Cal i zaczął do nich strzelać, próbując zabić. Zdążyli przed nim uciec a Cal zorientował się, że diament oddał byłej narzeczonej. Po wydostaniu się z zalewanego wodą labiryntu korytarzy, spotkali Thomasa Andrewsa, konstruktora statku. Stwierdził, że to jego wina, że statek tonie bo mógł zbudować mocniejszy. Pożegnał się z Rose dając jej kapok. Postanowił, że zatonie wraz ze statkiem. +Również Hockleyowi udało się uciec z tonącego statku ponieważ podszył się pod ojca porzuconego dziecka i wsiadł razem z dziewczynką do szalupy ratunkowej. +Zakochani wyszli na powierzchnię tonącego statku, który osiągał coraz większy przechył. Rose i Jack, dla których zabrakło szalup, musieli się ratować w inny sposób. Gdy Titanic przechylał się, zdążyli dojść do rufy, miejsca w którym się spotkali. Gdy konstrukcja osiągnęła przechył 45 stopni, pękła od pokładu aż do stępki, a rufa opadła z powrotem na wodę. W wyrwę pośrodku statku dostało się jeszcze więcej wody, przez co dziób zatonął bardzo szybko zatonął. Poprzez szczątki powiązań z rufą, pociągnął ją z sobą, przez co tylna cześć statku stanęła w pionie. W trakcie przechyłu, Jack i Rose przeszli na zewnętrzną stronę barierki. Titanic zatonął ale Rose i Jacka nie wciągnął wir. Odnaleźli się w wodzie. Młodzieniec umieścił Rose na pływającym fragmencie drzwi ze statku, ale nie znalazło się tam miejsce dla niego. Dał jej nadzieję, że szalupy przypłyną i wymusił na niej obietnicę by się nigdy nie poddawała. Powiedział, że nie umrze na środku oceanu, lecz jako staruszka w ciepłym łóżku. Zanim to nastąpi urodzi mnóstwo dzieci i będzie patrzyła jak dorastają. Niedługo potem Jack zmarł z wyziębienia. Zmarznięta Rose odłączyła go od drzwi na których leżała i pozwoliła mu opaść na dno oceanu. W ostatniej chwili zaalarmowała pływającą w okolicy łódź ratunkową dowodzoną przez piątego oficera Lowe'a, za pomocą gwizdka innego, zmarłego oficera. +Po kilku godzinach wszyscy ocaleni z katastrofy zostali podjęci przez statek pasażerski Carpathia. Cal Hockley udał się na poszukiwanie Rose. Niedoszła żona ukryła się przed nim, przykrywając twarz kocem. Gdy ten zawrócił, ona spojrzała na niego, gdy znikał pomiędzy ocalałymi. Widziała go po raz ostatni. Ożenił się i odziedziczył po ojcu miliony. Jego interesy podkopał wielki kryzys 1929 roku po czym się zastrzelił o czym przeczytała w gazecie. Przy spisywaniu danych ocalałych, już w Nowym Jorku, podała się jako Rose Dawson. Ku swojemu zdumieniu odkryła, że w kieszeni jej płaszcza leżało "Serce Oceanu", diament, który osiemdziesiąt lat później stał się pretekstem do podróży w miejsce spoczynku wraku Titanica. Stuletnia Rose wrzuciła diament od apodyktycznego byłego narzeczonego do morza, tam gdzie uważała, że jest jego miejsce. +Zakończenie filmu to wizja staruszki leżącej z zamkniętymi oczami w łóżku. Obok stoją jej zdjęcia jako aktorki, afrykańskiej podróżniczki, pilotki samolotu, laureatki dyplomu uniwersyteckiego i wędkarki nauczonej jeżdżenia okrakiem na koniu. Migawki z dobrze przeżytego i szczęśliwego życia. Zapewne takiego, jakiego chciała dzielić z Jackiem. Rose sunęła do zrujnowanego przez korozję statku w kierunku bakburty, do sali z wielkimi schodami i szklanym żyrandolem. W międzyczasie, z każdym kolejnym metrem, wnętrze zaczęło się odnawiać i kobieta weszła do sali jakby dopiero co oddanej do użytku, wypełnionej przychylnymi jej pasażerami. Jack stał przy zegarze, taki jak go spotkała po raz pierwszy. Młoda Rose podeszła do niego po schodach i oboje pocałowali się. Ten gest został nagrodzony brawami reszty pasażerów i załogi. +Scenę można interpretować na wiele sposobów. Dwa najważniejsze to sen kobiety lub śmierć samej Rose. W tej wizji, dusza kobiety połączyła się ze swym ukochanym. Przemawiają za tym trzy argumenty: oklaskujący tłum składający się z tych co zginęli w obrębie statku, biel sukni Rose jakby sama była duchem oraz spełnienie słów Jacka. +Obsada. +i inni +Ścieżka dźwiękowa. +Cameron początkowo zamierzał, by muzykę do jego dzieła skomponowała Enya. Po jej odmowie, zaproponował napisanie muzyki do swojego filmu Jamesowi Hornerowi. Relacje między nimi były raczej chłodne od czasu ich współpracy nad filmem "Obcy - decydujące starcie", ale muzyka jego autorstwa do filmu "Braveheart" ostatecznie przekonała Camerona. James Horner napisał muzykę, starając się zawrzeć w niej również niepowtarzalny styl Enyi. Stworzenie muzyki do filmu proponowano także Dolores O'Riordan, wokalistce zespołu The Cranberries, jednak artystka zrezygnowała z powodu ciąży. +Początkowo James Cameron nie przewidywał włączenia do filmu specjalnej muzyki pod napisy końcowe. James Horner – nie zgadzając się z nim – potajemnie wraz z Willem Jenningsem przygotował oraz nagrał utwór "My Heart Will Go On", którego wykonanie powierzył kanadyjskiej piosenkarce Céline Dion. Kiedy gotowy utwór został zaprezentowany Cameronowi, ten od razu zgodził się na jego włączenie do filmu. Był to strzał w dziesiątkę. Piosenka "My Heart Will Go On" została w 1997 roku nagrodzona Oscarem za najlepszą oryginalną piosenkę filmową. Utwór w krótkim czasie obiegł czołowe listy przebojów i lokaty notowań muzycznych na świecie, odnosząc wielki sukces komercyjny. +Wersja 3D. +W związku z 100. rocznicą zatonięcia statku, dnia 6 kwietnia 2012 roku (w Polsce 13 kwietnia) na ekrany kin weszła trójwymiarowa, skonwertowana wersja filmu. +Anastas Mikojan + +Anastas Iwanowicz Mikojan, orm. "Անաստաս Հովհաննեսի Միկոյան", "Anastas Howhannesi Mikojan"; ros. "Анастас Иванович Микоян" (ur. 27 listopada 1895 w Sanahin, Armenia, Imperium Rosyjskie, zm. 21 października 1978 w Moskwie, ZSRR) – radziecki polityk, brat Artioma Mikojana. Z pochodzenia Ormianin. +Pobierał nauki w Ormiańskim Seminarium Duchownym w Tyflisie (obecnie Tbilisi), które ukończył z wyróżnieniem. W tym czasie był już członkiem partii bolszewików (SDPRR(b)). Po rewolucji październikowej działał w Baku, aresztowany przez wojska angielskie, uniknął rozstrzelania. +Członkiem Komitetu Centralnego Rosyjskiej Partii Komunistycznej (bolszewików) został w 1923, czyli za czasów rządów Lenina. Po śmierci Lenina w styczniu 1924 poparł Józefa Stalina. W 1926 został komisarzem (ministrem) handlu, następnie zaopatrzenia; od 1934 przemysłu spożywczego. Początkowo zwolennik NEP-u, nie brał udziału w "prawicowej opozycji" pozostając wierny Stalinowi. W 1934 wszedł w skład Politbiura KC WKP(b); od 1937 wicepremier. Jeden z nielicznych członków rządu, który przeżył represje lat 30. Jako funkcjonariusz partyjny nie mógł uchylić się od udziału w terrorze, choć nie był w tym tak aktywny jak Wiaczesław Mołotow, Łazar Kaganowicz czy Georgij Malenkow. +Podczas wojny kierował sprawami zaopatrzenia armii oraz ewakuacjami przedsiębiorstw. Bezpośrednio odpowiedzialny za mord polskich oficerów w Katyniu, jako jedna z siedmiu osób składających podpis pod wiążącym rozkazem. +Po śmierci Stalina (1953) pozostał w ścisłym kierownictwie, wspierając Chruszczowa w destalinizacji. W 1957 roku poparł Nikitę Chruszczowa w walce z tzw. "antypartyjną grupą" (Mołotow, Kaganowicz, Malenkow i inni). Od 1956 Mikojan w poważnym stopniu określał kurs sowieckiej polityki zagranicznej. Podjął m.in. bezpośrednią decyzję o stłumieniu powstania węgierskiego 1956. W 1962 pośredniczył w rozmowach między Fidelem Castro, Johnem F. Kennedym i Chruszczowem podczas kryzysu kubańskiego. +W latach 1964-1965 sprawował urząd Przewodniczącego Prezydium Rady Najwyższej ZSRR, czyli formalnej głowy państwa; nie uczestniczył w spisku przeciwko Chruszczowowi, ale wiedział o nim i zaakceptował nowe władze. W 1965 odszedł na emeryturę (tj. został odsunięty przez nową ekipę Breżniewa). +Mikojan pozostawał w ścisłym kierownictwie państwa ponad 35 lat. Według sowieckiego żartu jego pamiętniki powinny nosić tytuł "Od Iljicza (Lenina) do Iljicza (Breżniewa) bez zawału i paraliżu". +Kannabinoidy + +Kannabinoidy roślinne są nierozpuszczalne w wodzie, rozpuszczają się za to w tłuszczach i alkoholach oraz innych niepolarnych rozpuszczalnikach organicznych. +Drogą syntezy chemicznej otrzymano wiele substancji posiadających wartościowe działanie, jak np. rimonabant, lek odchudzający i antyuzależnieniowy. +Receptory kannabinoidowe. +Kannabinoidy po przyłączeniu się do receptorów kannabinoidowych komórki, blokują wpływ jonów wapnia z płynu zewnątrzkomórkowego do cytoplazmy oraz hamują wytwarzanie cAMP. Wskutek tego zmienia się metabolizm komórek i dochodzi do zmian w uwalnianiu hormonów oraz neuroprzekaźników. +Jezioro Maltańskie + +Jezioro Maltańskie, nazywane też Zbiornikiem Maltańskim – sztuczny zbiornik wodny położony w Poznaniu na prawym brzegu Warty, powstały w 1952 roku w wyniku spiętrzenia Cybiny. Zbiornik zajmuje maksymalnie obszar 67,5 ha (zależy od stopnia spiętrzenia) zaś jego długość to około 2,2 km (obwód 5,6 km) co czyni go największym sztucznym zbiornikiem wodnym miasta, a drugim co do wielkości w ogóle (po Jeziorze Kierskim). Średnia głębokość to nieco ponad 3,13 m a maksymalna to około 5 m. +Swoją nazwę jezioro wzięło od Zakonu Kawalerów Maltańskich. Wprowadzono ją urzędowo w 1974. Jezioro zajmuje grunty należące niegdyś do kościoła św. Jana Jerozolimskiego za murami przy którym mieściła się komandoria tegoż zakonu. W latach 80. XX w. jezioro i otoczenie zostały gruntownie zmodernizowane według projektu Klemensa Mikuły. Obecnie jest intensywnie wykorzystywane do uprawiania sportów wodnych. +Historia budowy. +W roku 1917 ogłoszono konkurs na wybudowanie w tym miejscu ośrodka sportowego dla młodzieży. Już wtedy na Maltę tłumnie przychodzili młodzi poznaniacy aby się "sportować", jak mówiono, pod kierunkiem instruktorów z organizacji "Sokół". Koncepcję budowy w tym miejscu parku wraz z Kopcem Wolności opracował Adam Ballenstaedt. +Prace nad zbiornikiem rozpoczęto podczas II wojny światowej, gdy Niemcy rozpoczęli przy użyciu niewolniczej siły roboczej powiększać istniejące stawy rybne. +Po drugiej wojnie światowej kontynuowano prace budowlane z wykorzystaniem również pracy młodzieży z tak zwanych hufców Służby Polsce. Powstałe w ten sposób Jezioro Maltańskie oddano uroczyście do użytku w 1952 roku. +Czyszczenie niecki. +Co cztery lata, z jeziora jest spuszczana woda. Wykonuje się to aby dokonać odmulenia, i oczyszczenia dna oraz uporządkowania brzegów. Przy okazji demontowana jest fontanna i odławiane są ryby. W 2008 roku wyłowiono 30 ton ryb różnych gatunków. +Formuła 1 Sezon 1999 + +Artykuł dotyczy sezonu 1999 Mistrzostw Świata Formuły 1. Był to jubileuszowy, 50. sezon FIA Formula One World Championship. Rozpoczął się on 7 marca w Melbourne, a zakończył 31 października 1999 roku na torze Suzuka, po rozegraniu 16 wyścigów. Mistrzem świata kierowców został wówczas Fin Mika Häkkinen, zaś tytuł w klasyfikacji konstruktorów zdobyła włoska stajnia Ferrari. Był to pierwszy tytuł mistrzowski Ferrari od 1983. +Konstruktorzy i ich kierowcy. +Zmiany w zespołach. +Podczas trwania sezonu +Przed rozpoczęciem sezonu +Zmiany wśród kierowców. +Podczas trwania sezonu +Przed rozpoczęciem sezonu +Podsumowanie sezonu 1999. +Klasyfikacja kierowców. +W sezonie 1999 kierowcy punktowani byli zgodnie z kluczem: 10-6-4-3-2-1. +Ruch hippisowski + +Ruch hippisowski, hippisi, dzieci kwiaty (ang. "hippie,-s"; "to be hip" – żyć na bieżąco, dniem dzisiejszym) – kontrkultura kontestacyjna II połowy lat 60. i początku lat 70. XX wieku. +Była to rewolucja proklamująca bunt młodych przeciwko światu dorosłych ("nie wierzcie nikomu po trzydziestce") i jego instytucjom: rodzinie, Kościołowi, szkole, zakładowi pracy, szefom, rywalizacji, pieniądzowi, wojsku, wojnie, normom, przymusom, zakazom ("zakazuje się zakazywać"), domniemanej , konwencji ubioru, własności prywatnej (życie w komunach). Przejaw kontrkultury odrzucającej normy społeczne oparte na konsumpcji, rywalizacji i materializmie. Instytucje i struktury, którym się sprzeciwiali, hippisi określali jako . Mimo akcentu tego ruchu na zwalczanie obowiązujących konwencji ubioru, sam także wykreował specyficzny gatunek mody. +Dzięki rozpowszechnieniu przez nowo powstałe w tym okresie programy telewizyjne poświęcone wyłącznie specyficznej muzyce młodzieżowej, zjawisko to ogarnęło niemal cały świat zachodni. Oprócz grupy zdeklarowanych wyznawców ideologii hippisowskiej, ruch ten stał się swojego rodzaju modą wśród młodzieży, która przejmowała od hippisów tylko muzykę i atrybuty zewnętrzne. +Ruch hippisów był uważany za dowód na sukces gospodarki rynkowej i społeczeństwa dobrobytu. Wszystkie wcześniejsze jak idea falansterów same musiały zajmować się źródłami dochodów. Tutaj okazało się, że społeczeństwo jest w stanie utrzymywać ludzi, którzy nie chcą pracować bo wolą żyć po swojemu. +Konsekwencjami istnienia tego ruchu stało się rozszerzenie zasięgu ruchów pacyfistycznych i ideologii ekologicznych, zainteresowanie duchowością Wschodu, krytyka wyścigu szczurów, konformizmu i wszelkiego konsumpcjonizmu. Ruch ten przyczynił się do rozpowszechnienia substancji psychoaktywnych, w szczególności marihuany. Był jednym z ogniw przyczyniających się do tzw. rewolucji seksualnej. Stanowił też jedno z pośrednich źródeł ruchu New Age. +Historia. +Hippisi przełożyli idee pokolenia beatników, a zwłaszcza prac Allena Ginsberga i Michaela McClure'a, na ruch społeczny, skonsolidowany występowaniem przeciw wspólnemu wrogowi, jakim była wojna wietnamska. +Za początek ruchu hippisów przyjmuje się dzień 14 stycznia 1967, podczas The World's First Human Be-in (Pierwsze Światowe Połączenie Człowieka) w San Francisco, na którym wyrzucony z Harvardu wykładowca psychologii i piewca LSD Timothy Leary, przemawiając do młodzieży, ogłosił koniec amerykańskich bożków: pieniądza i pracy, a początek ery miłości i nowej religii, będącej zmodyfikowanym buddyzmem zen. Do tego dodał nowy sakrament, jak nazywano LSD; dopiero połączenie tych dwóch elementów pozwalało według niego osiągnąć pełne oświecenie umysłu. +Ogłoszono hasła, które stały się symbolem ruchu: "Make love not war", "All people are one" i "Drop out". Oprócz Timothy'ego Leary'ego przemawiali między innymi Richard Alpert, Alan Watts – badacz religii wschodu, zwłaszcza zen, Allen Ginsberg – wszyscy oni wystąpili w białych hinduskich szatach oraz mieli wymalowane oko Opatrzności na czole. Pośród tłumu słuchających ich krążył "święty Mikołaj", rozdający LSD i marihuanę. +W dzielnicy Haight-Ashbury zaczął się nieustający karnawał hippisów. Lato 1967 nazwano "latem miłości", pojawiły się wówczas dziesiątki nowych zespołów muzycznych, grających w duchu psychodelii. Szczególnie ważnym wydarzeniem był festiwal muzyczny Monterey Pop z tego roku. +Ideologia. +Nadbudową ideologiczną ruchu hippisowskiego był skrajny pacyfizm, co wyrażają hasła "Make love, not war" (czyń miłość, nie wojnę), "Non-violence" (bez przemocy) i "Peace and love" (pokój i miłość). "Wszyscy ludzie są braćmi, a świat jest na tyle duży, że starczy na nim miejsca dla każdego" (co wiązało się z odrzuceniem wartości własności prywatnej). Mężczyźni nosili długie włosy, co było wyrazem wolności oraz sprzeciwu wobec konieczności odbywania służby wojskowej. Hippis żyje dniem dzisiejszym, żyje każdą chwilą, nie martwi się o to, co będzie jutro, nie nosi zegarka, bo czas dla niego jako taki nie istnieje. Chodzi boso, gdyż jest "dzieckiem ziemi" i nie depcze matki natury, stara się żyć z nią w zgodzie i ją rozumieć. Unika kontaktów z wszelkimi instytucjami, zarówno świeckimi (jak szkoła, wojsko, praca), jak i kościelnymi, a zawsze "robi swoje". Hippis prowadzi "życie w drodze", tzn. nie ma stałego domu, ciągle się przemieszcza. Wolność dla niego to brak przymusu, rodziny, norm moralnych. Żyje w zgodzie z naturą i odrzuca normy, które obowiązywały w świecie dorosłych, a zastępuje je własnymi kryteriami moralnymi, które cechowała daleko posunięta swoboda obyczajów, przejawiająca się wolnym stosunkiem do seksu – "zamiast wojować, lepiej uprawiać seks". Rodziną dla hippisa jest cała społeczność hippisowska, składająca się z jego braci i sióstr. Miejscem spotkań hippisów są różne festiwale, zarówno muzyczne jak i manifestacje, protesty antywojenne. W Polsce też odbywają się zloty hippisowskie. +Hippis zwykle jest wegetarianinem – "zwierzęta to moi przyjaciele, a ja nie jadam przyjaciół". Często żyje w tzw. komunie hippisowskiej, gdzie wszystko jest wspólne, nawet dzieci. Stara się być samowystarczalny, uprawia ziemię, szyje ubrania, wykonuje drobne sprzęty codziennego użytku. Zazwyczaj nie posiada stałego zatrudnienia. +Hasła te były aktualne zwłaszcza w obliczu prowadzonej przez USA wojny w Wietnamie, na którą prowadzono przymusowy pobór do wojska. W USA i krajach Europy Zachodniej ruch był proklamowanym sprzeciwem wobec rosnącego dobrobytu, skutkującego brakiem wolności, miłości oraz "braterstwa". Hippisi swoje zasady życia zgodnego z sobą samym znajdują w "Dezyderacie". +Strój. +Zewnętrzną oznakę przynależności do ruchu stanowiły długie włosy, bose stopy i swoisty ubiór. Mężczyźni i kobiety nosili długie włosy opadające na plecy, w które często wplątywali kwiaty lub wianki. Mężczyźni zapuszczali brody. Jeżeli klimat na to pozwalał, chodzili boso (po trzech tygodniach chodzenia boso skóra na stopach grubieje i tworzy naturalną podeszwę). Strój miał wyrażać związek z naturą i musiał być funkcjonalny, najlepiej w jak największym stopniu własnoręcznie wykonany, z naszywkami. Większość hippisów sama szyła i łatała swoje spodnie i koszule co wynikało z kultu rękodzielnictwa i zasady samowystarczalności. Niezależnie od okoliczności, wszędzie nosiło się to samo ubranie. Przeważnie w jasnych kolorach, inspirowane wzorami Indian północno – i południowoamerykańskich oraz hinduskimi. Kolorowe, kwieciste, luźne bluzki z szerokimi rękawami, indiańskie poncza, wytarte jeansy z szerokimi nogawkami – tzw. dzwony, barwne cygańskie spódnice, do tego różne tanie ozdoby z drewna, podwieszane na rzemykach. Kolorowe koraliki, paciorki na szyi i przegubach dłoni, dzwonki, pacyfki, apaszki i bandany na włosach. +Substancje psychoaktywne. +Narkotyki były głównym argumentem przeciw hippisom, gdy ci protestowali przeciw wojnie w Wietnamie. Psychodeliczny guru hippisów z lat 60., były profesor Harvardu Timothy Leary, wprost zachęcał do używania psychodelików jako skutecznej metody rozszerzenia świadomości. Hippisi podchwycili jego hasło "Turn on, tune in, drop out" (włącz się, dostrój, odleć). Zaczęli przyjmować substancje psychoaktywne, takie jak marihuana, haszysz, LSD oraz grzyby psylocybinowe. Wspólne zażywanie narkotyków stało się popularne podczas spotkań hippisów, nie było jednak zasadą wszechobecną w ich społeczności. +Z czasem jednak coraz większą popularnością wśród hippisów zaczęły cieszyć się twarde narkotyki jak heroina i amfetamina. To, co miało rozszerzać świadomość, okazało się największą przyczyną klęski ruchu. Już w połowie lat 70. hippis stał się synonimem narkomana. Większość ludzi kojarzy hippisów właśnie z hedonizmem, narkotykami i wolnym seksem, zapominając przy tym o głównych założeniach ideologii. Gdy ideały ruchu stały się martwe, a hippisi - zamiast czytać Ginsberga i innych beatników - zajmowali się szukaniem narkotyków, ojcowie założyciele wycofali się, pozostawiając swoich byłych słuchaczy samym sobie. Jeszcze w latach 80. byli hippisi umierali samotnie na ulicach miast z przedawkowania lub wycieńczenia organizmu. +Muzyka. +Muzyka stanowiła jedną z podstaw ruchu hippisowskiego. Stanowiła ona silniejsze spoiwo od ideologii. To wtedy powstał swoisty metajęzyk, będący połączeniem muzyki i treści zawartej w tekstach oraz niezwykłe poczucie braterstwa pomiędzy muzykami na scenie a publicznością. Okres od połowy lat 60. zaznaczył się eksplozją muzyki młodzieżowej, przede wszystkim rockowej, nie akceptowanej przez ogół starszego pokolenia, wychowanego na muzyce poważnej i tanecznej. W tej sytuacji muzyka stała się kolejnym ogniwem integrującym buntującą się młodzież. Około 1967 roku w muzyce rockowej zaznaczył się wpływ psychodelii, szczególnie dobrze oddającej nastroje dzieci-kwiatów. Obok nowego nurtu rocka psychodelicznego, reprezentowanego przez szereg zespołów, większość wykonawców rockowych lub folkowych zbliżyła się stylistycznie do tego kierunku lub zaakcentowała swój związek z nowym nurtem przez choćby zapuszczenie włosów i styl ubierania. Szczególnie istotne dla epoki hippisowskiej stały się festiwale rockowe. +Z ruchem było związanych wielu wybitnych muzyków, m.in. Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison, Jaco Pastorius czy John Lennon. Jednymi z najbardziej reprezentatywnych zespołów epoki hippisów były Jefferson Airplane, Quicksilver Messenger Service i Grateful Dead, których członkowie żyli w komunach. W Wielkiej Brytanii był to zespół Traffic. Płyta Jefferson Airplane "Surrealistic Pillow" z lutego 1967 stała się sztandarem nowego ruchu (utwór "White Rabbit" o białym króliku podróżującym po krainie LSD – zapożyczenie z Alicji w krainie czarów, czy "Somebody to Love", preludium do wolnej miłości). Następnie The Beatles wydało w czerwcu płytę Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band z piosenką "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", która stała się nieoficjalnym hymnem hippisów (mającym być opisem podróży po LSD wśród mandarynkowych drzew pod marmoladowym nieboskłonem – według Johna Lennona, autora piosenki, tytuł, jak i tekst, inspirowane były słowami syna artysty, i jako takie nie miały żadnego związku z LSD). + W tym samym roku Scott McKenzie śpiewał, że kto przyjedzie do San Francisco, na pewno spotka ludzi z kwiatami we włosach i przeżyje lato miłości. Z kolei Albert Hammond głosił, iż nigdy nie pada deszcz w południowej Kalifornii ("Seems it Never Rains in Southern California"). Miasto to rozsławiało mnóstwo piosenek zespołów, związanych z ruchem – wart przypomnienia jest tu również przebój grupy America o wymownym tytule: "Everyone I Meet Is from California". Kalifornia, a szczególnie San Francisco, stały się mekką ruchu hippisów. +W piosence Country Joe McDonalda "Sometimes-I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag" słyszymy manifest antywojenny, z powtarzającymi się słowami: "What are we fightin' for?". Podobną tematykę podejmuje słynny przebój grupy Buffalo Springfield "For What's It Worth"; w wolnym tłumaczeniu na polski tytuł brzmi: "Czy warto?" – i to właśnie pytanie przyświeca treści słów piosenki, której tematem jest wojna, przemoc i chaos wielkomiejskiego życia. +Szczytowym osiągnięciem muzyki hippisów było zorganizowanie słynnego festiwalu w Woodstock w 1969. +Najważnieszymi wykonawcami z kręgu muzyki Hippisowskiej byli: The Doors, The Animals, The Beatles, Bob Dylan, Van Morrison i Joan Baez. Z kolei znaczny wpływ ruch hippisowski odcisnął na twórczości takich zespołów jak Led Zeppelin (swoiste epitafia hippisów: "Going to California", "Misty Mountain Hop") czy Uriah Heep. Kwintesencją muzyki Hippisowskiej była składanka "Woodstock 69", będąca zapisem najlepszych występów na legendarnym festiwalu. +Kulminacyjnym momentem ruchu hippisów był legendarny festiwal muzyczny w Woodstock w 1969 roku, "trzy dni pokoju i muzyki". +W Polsce. +Pierwsi hippisi w Polsce pojawili się już w 1967 roku, zaraz po przedrukach artykułów o nowym ruchu z zachodniej prasy w tygodniku "Forum". Początkowo władze komunistyczne widziały rewoltę młodzieży na Zachodzie jako przejaw upadku kapitalizmu. Podczas gdy na Zachodzie hippisi występowali przeciwko władzy konsumpcji i pieniądza, w Polsce sprzeciw skierowany był przeciwko tyranii ideologicznej. Po 1968 hippisami zaczęła interesować się Milicja Obywatelska, a w prasie zaczęły się ataki propagandowe. Ówczesne gazety ("Radar", "Sztandar Młodych") przedstawiały w artykułach hippisów jako wyrzutków społeczeństwa, leni wpatrzonych w amerykańską modę. +Polscy hippisi zakładali komuny, w których żyli wspólnie, mieli wspólne ubrania, dzielili zarobki na utrzymanie, organizowali letnie zloty. Przyjęło się, że każdy nosił przy sobie odpis wiersza "Skowyt" Allena Ginsberga i odczytywał go przynajmniej raz dziennie. Od hippisów z Zachodu nie przejęli wolnego seksu, chociaż związki wśród nich były znacznie luźniejsze. LSD i inne narkotyki długo pozostawały poza ich zasięgiem. Początkowo ich surogatem było "tri" – rozpuszczalnik do czyszczenia ubrań, a później "fermetrazyna" – środek na odchudzanie produkcji jugosłowiańskiej zawierający amfetaminę, który kupowano na fałszywe recepty. Równie popularne były tabletki przeciw chorobie Parkinsona - "parkopan" (zwany "parkanem" lub "sztachetą"), jak też dostępne wtedy bez recepty w aptekach krople Inoziemcowa zawierające opium. W aptekach kupowano też papierosy dla astmatyków "Astmosan", zawierające w składzie liście bielunia dziędzierzawy zawierającego m.in. atropinę. +Śmiercionośny "kompot" pojawił się w Gdańsku w 1976 - technologię jego otrzymywania opracowali studenci chemii miejscowego uniwersytetu. Później młodzi ludzie z Zachodu zaczęli przywozić haszysz, marihuanę, a nawet LSD. To ostatnie było jednak w osiemdziesiątych latach wciąż rzadkością – korzystano głównie z obróbki mleczka makowego. W materiałach zbieranych przez Służbę Bezpieczeństwa pojawiła się również następująca notka (dot. hippisów z Jarocina): "Dużo zmartwienia wywołuje fakt, że kończy się słoma makowa. W związku z powyższym część z ww. osób zaczyna odwiedzać lekarzy psychiatrów, by tą drogą (legalnie) otrzymać leki psychotropowe". +Od jesieni 1969 Partia poprzez Służbę Bezpieczeństwa zaczęła inwigilować środowiska hippisowskie. Zaczęły się aresztowania pod różnymi pretekstami czołowych działaczy ruchu i przetrzymywanie ich w areszcie po kilka tygodni lub miesięcy, nie licząc aresztowań za uchylanie się od służby wojskowej. Wykorzystywano zarzuty o szerzenie narkomanii. +Zespołem najbardziej identyfikującym się z ruchem był Osjan, z którego wyrósł zespół Maanam, a Olga Jackowska będąc w ruchu przyjęła imię Kora. Czerwone Gitary w 1968 śpiewały, że kwiaty we włosach potargał wiatr, a Maryla Rodowicz w 1969, że jadą wozy kolorowe taborami. Marek Jackowski w 1979 śpiewał jeszcze, że nic mu nie potrzeba oprócz błękitnego nieba. Nieoficjalnym hymnem polskich hippisów była śpiewana przy gitarze piosenka "Grosza nie mam", zaczynająca się od słów: "Ja o drogę się nie pytam, bo nieważny dla mnie czas". Poetą chętnie czytanym był Edward Stachura. Nie zapominajmy o naszym podziemiu muzycznym. Jedną z najbardziej znanych grup w latach 60. była "74 Grupa Biednych" z Ustki. Założycielem grupy był J. Izdebski. +Najbardziej znaną instytucją wyrosłą z tego nurtu jest Wielka Orkiestra Świątecznej Pomocy. +Jerzy Owsiak przyznaje, że należał do grupy mazowieckich hippisów, zapatrzonych na swoich '"amerykańskich braci", a jego Przystanek Woodstock wyrósł z legendy Woodstock 1969, która w nim wzrastała. +Dla przeciętnego obserwatora głównym objawem ruchu hipisowskiego w Polsce była specyficzna wakacyjna moda ubiorowa, jaką w szczególności można było obserwować latem na deptaku sopockim. Kolejną specyfikę stanowiło rozpowszechnienie konsumpcji tzw. kompotu, czyli wywaru z domowego polskiego maku zawierającego heroinę. Zjawisko to zanikło wraz z otwarciem granic polskich na przełomie lat 80. i 90. i związaną z tym zwiększoną dostępnością heroiny oraz nowych rodzajów narkotyków syntetycznych. +Konstrukcja strunobetonowa + + Konstrukcja strunobetonowa, strunobeton – rodzaj żelbetowej konstrukcji sprężonej charakteryzującej się naciągiem cięgna sprężającego przed zabiegiem betonowania oraz przekazaniem siły sprężającej z cięgna na beton przez przyczepność. Polska nazwa technologii pochodzi od zarzuconego już w praktyce stosowania jako cięgien stosunkowo cienkich (do 3 mm) drutów. Obecnie do sprężania konstrukcji strunobetonowych stosuje się sploty wielodrutowe oraz pręty sprężające. +Do wykonania strunobetonu używa się materiałów (betonu i stali) o wysokiej wytrzymałości mechanicznej. Są to zazwyczaj elementy prefabrykowane. +Podczas produkcji elementów strunobetonowych, w przygotowane wcześniej formie układa się cięgna. Po zakotwieniu ich w zewnętrznych elementach oporowych na torze naciągowym a następnie wprowadzeniu siły sprężającej wypełnia się formy betonem. Naciąg zewnętrzny cięgien usuwa się po uzyskaniu przez beton wymaganej wytrzymałości na ściskanie. +Uzyskana konstrukcja ma większą wytrzymałość, sztywność i rysoodporność przy zginaniu niż tradycyjny beton zbrojony (żelbet). +Moment osiągnięcia wytrzymałości przez beton można przyśpieszyć przez zastosowanie odpowiedniego składu mieszanki betonowej (np. z dodatkiem środków chemicznych przyśpieszających wiązanie) albo przez naparzanie elementów. Tor ułożenia cięgien w strunobetonie przebiega wzdłuż linii prostych (w kablobetonie jest możliwość wytrasowania toru po łuku), aczkolwiek obecnie często uzyskuje się trasy łamane poprzez odginanie cięgien przy użyciu traconych dewiatorów. +Do naciągu strun używa się naciągarek umieszczonych pomiędzy czołem formy a ramą, do której struny są przymocowane. +Produkcja może się odbywać na długich torach pozwalających na jednoczesne formowanie kilku podobnych elementów, np. belek lub w pojedynczych formach. +Konstrukcje strunobetonowe stosowane są do wykonywania przekryć o dużych rozpiętościach (ograniczonych w zasadzie warunkami transportowymi, czyli do ok. 25m) (np. w halach przemysłowych, widowiskowych itp. mostach, wiaduktach, do produkcji słupów energetycznych, podkładów kolejowych, stropów typu "Filigran", belek podsuwnicowych, dźwigarów itp. +Zobacz też: konstrukcja sprężona +Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim + +Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim - powstała na podstawie pozwolenia Ministra Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu z 21 maja 2003 i decyzją tegoż Ministra z 23 czerwca 2003 została wpisana do rejestru niepaństwowych uczelni zawodowych. +Na uczelni działa jeden wydział - Administracji i Stosunków Międzynarodowych, na którym prowadzone jest trzyletnie kształcenie na kierunkach "administracja" i "stosunki międzynarodowe". Rektorem uczelni do sierpnia 2005 r. był dr hab. Mariusz Plich, dziekanem Wydziału Administracji i Stosunków Międzynarodowych dr Zbigniew Konieczny, a teraz Rektorem Jest Doc. Dr Agata Kołodziejska +Charles Robert Richet + +Charles Robert Richet (ur. 26 sierpnia 1850 w Paryżu, zm. 4 grudnia 1935 tamże) – lekarz i fizjolog francuski, laureat Nagrody Nobla w 1913 roku. +Był profesorem fizjologii na uniwersytecie w Paryżu (od 1887), został przyjęty w poczet członków Francuskiej Akademii Nauk. +Wspólnie z P. J. Portierem odkrył w 1902 roku zjawisko anafilaksji. Zajmował się także neurofizjologią oraz seroterapią. Za prace nad anafilaksją otrzymał w 1913 roku Nagrodę Nobla. +Autor m.in. pracy "L'Anaphylaxie" (1911) i książki "Les guerres et la paix" (1899, polskie wydanie w 1904)[http://tizianoterzani.info/richet-1850-1935-les-guerres-et-la-paix-nobel.html]. +Browar Cornelius + +Browar Cornelius – browar w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim. Zakład należący do przedsiębiorstwa Sulimar Sp. z o.o., które jest członkiem Stowarzyszenia Regionalnych Browarów Polskich. +Historia. +Początki zakładu sięgają 1927 roku, kiedy to Henryk Urbański założył w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim przy ul. Hutniczej małą firmę handlową. Po jakimś czasie zaczęto w niej produkować napoje gazowane oraz ocet. W 1938 roku rozpoczęto również rozlewanie piwa. Dzięki temu że zakład był niewielki, po II wojnie światowej uchronił się przed nacjonalizacją i w 1947 roku uzyskał legalizację prawną jako "Reprezentacja Browaru Żywieckiego w Żywcu". +W 1981 roku rozlewnię rodziny Urbańskich zakupili Henryk Supady i Eugeniusz Lisowski. W tym czasie przedsiębiorstwo rozlewało już marki piwa z największych państwowych browarów. W 1987 roku była to największa rozlewnia w makroregionie środkowej Polski. W roku 1988 roku przedsiębiorstwo przyjęło nazwę "Sulimar" i wprowadziło na rynek własną markę piwa o nazwie "Kiper". +Na początku lat 90. XX wieku firma zaczęła się dynamicznie rozwijać. W 1993 roku przedsiębiorstwo "Sulimar" zakupiło 4,5 hektarową działkę w okolicy ul. Glinianej w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim, na której powstał nowoczesny zakład produkcyjny. W 1994 roku stworzono markę win owocowych "Winmar" i tym samym nową gałąź produkcyjną. Jednocześnie rozwijano i unowocześniano rozlewnie piwa. +W 1999 roku firma "Sulimar" zdecydowała się na rozpoczęcie samodzielnej produkcji piwa. W latach 1999-2000 na bazie istniejącej rozlewni wybudowano w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim nowoczesny browar, który nazwano "Browar Kiper". W 2007 roku zakład zwiększył znacznie swoje moce produkcyjne. W tym czasie zarząd nad firmą "Sulimar" przejęli synowie założycieli. Zmieniono również nazwę z "Browar Kiper" na "Browar Cornelius". Pierwszym piwem pod nowym szyldem browaru był uwarzony 18 czerwca 2007 r. "Cornelius Weizen Bier". Od 2009 roku browar systematycznie rozszerza swoje portfolio pod tą marką. +Od 2010 roku firma "Sulimar" koncentruje się na promocji marki "Cornelius" w dużych sieciach handlowych na terenie Polski. W związku z rozszerzeniem oferty i polityką ekspansji podjęto się rozbudowy zakładu. Inwestycja zrealizowana w latach 2010-2011 pozwoli docelowo produkować w browarze maksymalnie do 1 000 000 hl piwa rocznie. +Ikonografia browaru. +Browar Cornelius wykorzystuje w swojej ikonografii symbol koguta. Początkowo wizerunek koguta umiejscowiony był na beczce, a od 2010 r. na trwale połączony jest z logotypem browaru. Symbol koguta nawiązuje do średniowiecznych tradycji piwowarskich w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim. Piotrkowscy piwowarzy używali tego znaku wywieszając go u drzwi, co miało symbolizować obecności dobrego piwa w domu. +Struna sprężająca + +Struna sprężająca - cięgno wykonane ze stali wysokowęglowej (o wytrzymałości na zerwanie 1370 – 2160 MPa) lub materiału kompozytowego w postaci pojedynczego (rzadziej) drutu o małej (2 – 7 mm średnicy) lub ich splotu służące do sprężenia konstrukcji - konstrukcja sprężona, konstrukcja strunobetonowa. Struna sprężająca jest naciągana pomiędzy uchwytami na końcach formy, następnie forma jest wypełniana betonem, a po uzyskaniu przez beton wymaganej wytrzymałości następuje zwolnienie uchwytów i przekazanie siły naciągu na beton przez przyczepność. Naciąg struny przed ułożeniem mieszanki betonowej odróżnia ją od kabla sprężającego. +Sill (geologia) + +Sill (żyła pokładowa) – intruzja zgodna, powstająca na skutek wciskania się magmy między cienkie szczeliny równoległe do uławicenia zwykle w skałach osadowych. Powstają wtedy cienkie żyły magmowe o dużej rozciągłości, pomiędzy dwiema warstwami skalnymi. +Formuła 1 Sezon 1990 + +Artykuł dotyczący sezonu 1990 Mistrzostw Świata Formuły 1. +Przebieg. +Pierwszy wyścig sezonu 1990 odbył się w Phoenix w Stanach Zjednoczonych, 11 marca. Ostatni wyścig w sezonie odbył się 4 listopada podczas Grand Prix Australii. Łącznie odbyło się 16 eliminacji. Alain Prost po przejściu ze stajni McLaren-Honda do Ferrari nie zdołał obronić tytułu mistrzowskiego. Swój drugi tytuł zdobył brazylijski kierowca, Ayrton Senna, a McLaren ponownie zdobył tytuł Mistrza Świata Konstruktorów. +Wytrzymałość elektryczna + +Wytrzymałość elektryczna, wytrzymałość dielektryczna – największa wartość natężenia pola elektrycznego, jaka może istnieć w dielektryku (izolatorze) bez wywołania przebicia. Jednostką wytrzymałości elektrycznej jest V/m. +Wytrzymałość dielektryczna mocno zależy od wielu czynników, takich jak temperatura, czas działania pola elektrycznego, szybkość narastania pola elektrycznego, grubość warstwy dielektryka, częstotliwość przyłożonego pola elektrycznego. Pomiary wytrzymałości dielektrycznej muszą być prowadzone w ściśle znormalizowanych warunkach. +Nieprawidłowe dobranie izolacji do warunków pracy urządzenia może doprowadzić do przebicia izolacji, co spowoduje, że izolator zacznie przewodzić prąd a w konsekwencji doprowadzi do nieodwracalnych uszkodzeń urządzenia elektrycznego. +Wytrzymałość dielektryczna powietrza przy ciśnieniu 1 atmosfery, w temperaturze 0 °C, pomiędzy płaskimi elektrodami o odległości 1 cm wynosi 32 kV/cm. Zmienia się wraz z odległością. +III wojna angielsko-holenderska + +III wojna angielsko-holenderska (niderl. "Derde Engelse oorlog") 1672-1674, stanowiła część ogólnoeuropejskich zmagań w ramach wojny Francji z koalicją (1672-1679). +Wstęp. +Przyczyną wojny Francji z koalicją 1672-1679 była nieudana próba zdobycia przez Ludwika XIV hiszpańskich Niderlandów. Pomimo, że Anglia, Holandia i Szwecja podpisały w roku 1668 traktat o potrójnym przymierzu, zwrócony przeciwko Francji (który zmusił Francuzów do rezygnacji z sukcesów osiągniętych w wojnie dewolucyjnej), król Anglii Karol II zawarł w Dover tajny pakt z Francją. +W rzeczywistości Karol, czując się osobiście upokorzony rezultatami drugiej wojny angielsko-holenderskiej 1665-1667, zaangażował się w trójprzymierze tylko po to, by ostatecznie rozbić dawny sojusz francusko-holenderski. Oficjalnie łagodził napięcia w stosunkach między Francją a Zjednoczonymi Prowincjami, ale w sekrecie nakłaniał Ludwika XIV do uderzenia na Holandię. Otrzymał obietnicę, że po zwycięstwie Francji zostanie nagrodzony takimi miastami jak Rotterdam i Amsterdam, czyli najpotężniejszymi portami handlowymi ówczesnej Europy. +Gdy Francuzi obiecali główne miasta holenderskie Anglikom, ci nie śpieszyli się z zajmowaniem ich, lecz próbowali wymusić na Holendrach 16 milionów guldenów w zamian za separatystyczny pokój. +To wygórowane żądanie wzmocniło holenderski opór, a negocjacje dały Holandii czas na przeprowadzenie planowej akcji powodziowej, polegającej na zalewaniu zagrożonych przez Francuzów obszarów Holandii z wykorzystaniem tzw. "Holenderskiej Linii Wodnej" (w 1629 zaczął ją budować Fryderyk Henryk Orański, książę Nassau), czyli obejmującego cały kraj systemu śluz, pozwalającego w zależności od woli zalewać wybrane tereny. Akcja ta zahamowała zwycięski marsz wojsk francuskich. +Ponieważ Holendrzy nie wyrazili zgody na angielską propozycję, Anglia, wykonując warunki zawartego przymierza, przyłączyła się do Francji, gdy ta w 1672 roku dokonywała inwazji na Holandię. W inwazji wzięły także udział państewka niemieckie: Arcybiskupstwo Kolonii i Biskupstwo Münster. +Zanim zostali powstrzymani przez "Holenderską Linię Wodną" (linia umocnień obronnych oparta o szczególne warunki terenowe w Holandii, jak depresje, kanały, liczne śluzy, służąca do planowego zalewania określonych terytoriów), Francuzi zdążyli jednak opanować znaczną część Niderlandów, dlatego w holenderskiej historii rok 1672 nazwany został "Rokiem Katastrofy" (hol. "Rampjaar"). +Gdy Francuzi dokonywali inwazji na Holandię, w Holandii władzę przejęła partia oranżystów, fałszywie oskarżając poprzednich czołowych polityków Johana de Witta i jego osobistego przyjaciela admirała de Ruytera o próbę zdrady ojczyzny na rzecz Francji. +W rzeczywistości oranżyści sami byli finansowani przez Anglików. Johan de Witt został wkrótce zamordowany w starannie zainscenizowanym linczu. Nowym stadhouderem Holandii został Wilhelm Orański. +Karol, zawsze popierany przez partię oranżystów, miał nadzieję, że ci po objęciu władzy, chcąc uratować się przed Francją, zgodzą się na uczynienie z Holandii angielskiego protektoratu. Jednak wkrótce okazało się, że nowy stadhouder nie miał na to najmniejszej ochoty. +Zarówno Anglia, jak i Francja, chciały przetworzyć Holandię w państewko marionetkowe, używając ogromnych holenderskich kapitałów handlowych do zdobycia dominacji w handlu światowym. Jednak każde z tych mocarstw obawiało się, że nie będzie głównym beneficjentem korzyści ze zmienionej sytuacji. Dlatego podczas bitew wzajemne podejrzenia między Francuzami i Anglikami w znacznym stopniu utrudniały im wykorzystanie swej przewagi liczebnej. +Ta wojna zdecydowanie różniła się zarówno w swoich początkach, jak i w przebiegu od pierwszej i drugiej wojny angielsko-holenderskiej. Tamte wojny były w Anglii popularne, nawet druga, pomimo niepowodzeń, gdyż przynajmniej społeczeństwo angielskie rozumiało jej cele. Trzecia została podjęta przez króla w celu realizacji polityki uzgodnionej między nim a jego kuzynem królem Francji Ludwikiem XIV. Choć jako cel ogłoszono rozbiór Holandii, to w sekrecie król Karol II zamierzał zaprowadzić religię katolicką i z pomocą króla Francji uczynić się w Anglii władcą absolutnym. Podejrzewano ten ukryty cel, więc wojna ta od razu wywołała w Anglii opozycję, zarówno w parlamencie jak i w całym społeczeństwie. Parlament od początku nie był chętny do finansowania wojny, której cele nie były jasno sprecyzowane. +Działania wojenne. +Tak jak w poprzednich wojnach, także teraz akt wypowiedzenia wojny poprzedzony został przez atak angielskich okrętów na holenderską flotę handlową. Dnia 13 marca 1672 roku Holmes napadł na kanale La Manche na holenderski konwój dowodzony przez Van Nessa. Dzięki korupcji panującej we flocie brytyjskiej pod panowaniem Karola II okręty Holmesa nie były dostatecznie wyposażone, dzięki czemu akcja ta tylko częściowo zakończyła się sukcesem. +Działania na morzu nabrały znaczenia dopiero po zatrzymaniu francuskiej ofensywy na lądzie. Flota angielsko-francuska kilkakrotnie próbowała wysadzić desant w Holandii, jednak próby te zostały skutecznie powstrzymane przez holenderskiego admirała Michiela de Ruytera, który pomimo przewagi militarnej sprzymierzonych na początku czerwca 1672 przeprowadził niespodziewany atak, zakończony 7 czerwca bitwą pod Solebay. Bitwa, choć nierozstrzygnięta, powstrzymała flotę sprzymierzonych od zablokowania Holendrów w ich portach. Takie zablokowanie groziłoby likwidacją holenderskiego handlu morskiego, który był głównym źródłem dochodów Holandii. Osłabiona materialnie Holandia nie mogłaby już długo stawiać oporu. Sprzymierzeni musieli się także wyrzec planów wysadzenia desantu na wybrzeżach Holandii, który wspólnie z armiami francuskimi atakującymi od wschodu (po przejściu przez terytoria niemieckie) i od zachodu miał wziąć Holandię w kleszcze. +Wiosną 1673 roku naczelny wódz floty holenderskiej Michiel de Ruyter próbował zablokować główną flotę angielską na Tamizie, co się w końcu nie udało. Gdy Anglicy wreszcie wyszli w morze, de Ruyter wycofał się 15 maja do Shooneveld, na przybrzeżne wody przy ujściu rzeki Skaldy, by nie dopuścić do wysadzenia na wybrzeżach Holandii przygotowanych już do desantu 6000 żołnierzy czekających w Yarmouth. Flota francuska i angielska połączyły się 26 maja koło Beachy Head. W pierwszej połowie czerwca doszło do podwójnej bitwy pod Schooneveld, w której de Ruyter zmierzył się z silniejszymi od siebie flotami, zadając sprzymierzonym tak poważne straty, że byli zmuszeni zlikwidować blokadę holenderskich wybrzeży i wycofać się. +Kolejną próbę podjęli sprzymierzeni w sierpniu 1673. Flotą angielsko-francuską dowodził książę Rupert. Gdy dowodzący flotą holenderską Michiel de Ruyter zajął dogodną pozycję pod Schooneveld, otrzymał rozkaz od stadhoudera Wilhelma Orańskiego by wypłynął w morze i osłonił powracającą z Indii Holenderskich "Flotę Przyprawową". Doprowadziło to 21 sierpnia 1673 do bitwy pod Texel, w której Holendrzy ostatecznie zniechęcili Anglików do kontynuowania wojny. +Tak więc Anglikom nie tylko nie udało się zablokować holenderskiego wybrzeża, ale sami zostali zepchnięci do Tamizy oraz odcięci od handlu bałtyckiego, który zaopatrywał ich w drewno i smołę. +Szczególnie pechowym dla sprzymierzonych był sierpień, gdyż w tym samym miesiącu przegrali bitwę pod Texel, Michiel de Ruyter udaremnił francuskie ataki na konwój holenderski płynący z Indii Wschodnich, a do tego Anglicy utracili Nowy Amsterdam, New Jersey i Long Island. +Koniec wojny. +W następnych miesiącach Holendrzy sprzymierzyli się z Hiszpanią, z którą byli w stanie wojny do roku 1648, a Francja, zagrożona na innych frontach, wycofała się z terytorium Holandii w 1673. Anglików przeraził nieoczekiwany fakt, że holenderscy kaprzy zdołali zdobyć więcej angielskich statków (ponad 550) niż angielscy holenderskich. A zdobycie w 1673 przez Holendrów Nowego Amsterdamu ostatecznie przekonało Anglię o bezsensie prowadzenia kosztownej i bezproduktywnej wojny. W związku z narastającym niezadowoleniem społecznym, w wyniku którego parlament angielski nie chciał już dłużej łożyć pieniędzy na tę wojnę, Anglia zmuszona została do podpisania traktatu w Westminster 19 lutego 1674. Zawarty pokój zalegalizował zdobycze z roku 1667, czyli Nowa Holandia została zwrócona Anglii (w listopadzie 1674 Holendrzy opuścili Nowy Amsterdam), a Surinam, zdobyty przez Holendrów w roku 1667, ostatecznie pozostał własnością Holandii. Aż do 1781 roku była to ostatnia wojna pomiędzy Holandią i Anglią. +Los Millares + +Los Millares – chalkolitowe stanowisko archeologiczne, położone 17 km od Almerii hiszpańskiej prowincji Andaluzja. Odkryte w 1891 i potem badane przez Luisa Sireta. Odkopano 80 grobowców z narzędziami miedzianymi. Pokryte były ornamentem przedstawiającym oczy. Kultura ta nazywana jest "kulturą oczu", gdyż ten element dekoracyjny znajduje się w każdym z grobowców. +Czasoprzestrzeń Minkowskiego + +Czasoprzestrzeń Minkowskiego – przestrzeń liniowa w fizyce i matematyce, która łącząc czas z przestrzenią trówymiarową umożliwia formalny zapis równań szczególnej teorii względności Einsteina. Nazwę zawdzięcza niemieckiemu matematykowi Hermannowi Minkowskiemu, który opisał ją w 1907. +Ujęcie matematyczne. +Warunek 3. jest osłabieniem warunku dodatniej określoności (każdy funkcjonał dodatnio określony jest niezdegenerowany, ale nie na odwrót). Iloczyn zewnętrzny pozwala zdefiniować "długość" wektora wzorem +Wektory jednostkowe oznaczone są symbolem formula_10, przy czym z definicji formula_11. +Punkt "p" czasoprzestrzeni utożsamia się z wektorem formula_12 o czterech współrzędnych formula_13 +gdzie formula_15 są czterema liniowo niezależnymi wektorami jednostkowymi. Powtarzający się wskaźnik oznacza sumowanie po nim od 0 do 3 (tzw. umowa sumacyjna Einsteina). Długość dowolnego wektora podniesiona do kwadratu jest wyrażona wzorem +gdzie formula_17 jest tensorem metrycznym zdefiniowanym przez wszystkie formy dla wektorów jednostkowych +Odległość między dwoma punktami o współrzędnych formula_19 i formula_20 określa odległość (interwał czasoprzestrzenny) +Tensor metryczny określony jest przez macierz +W jawnej postaci długość wektora formula_23 to +W przestrzeni tej może istnieć więcej niż jeden wektor zerowy. Zbiór wektorów światłopodobnych nazywa się stożkiem świetlnym. Jest to zbiór punktów czasoprzestrzeni, które można połączyć promieniem świetlnym, formula_29, gdzie formula_30 jest prędkością światła w próżni, poprzez przyrównanie wartości interwału czasoprzestrzennego do +zera (w przestrzeni trójwymiarowej dzieli je pewna odległość). Wzajemna widoczność dwóch obiektów oznacza, że znajdują się one we wnętrzu stożka świetlnego obserwatora. +Odległość w czasoprzestrzeni niezmiennicza jest względem "transformacji Poincarégo" danej wzorem +Zbiór takich transformacji parametryzowanych za pomocą macierzy formula_32 i wektora translacji formula_33 tworzy grupę Poincarégo. Zachowanie odległości w czasoprzestrzeni narzuca warunki +Ponieważ "transformacja Poincarego" zawiera dodatkową translację, również to przekształcenie tworzy osobną +Wszystkie są ciągłymi grupami Liego. Grupa translacji parametryzowana jest przez cztery parametry rzeczywiste, a grupa Lorentza przez sześć. Symetrie te zgodnie z twierdzeniem Noether prowadzą do odpowiednich praw zachowania w fizyce. +Ruch w czasoprzestrzeni Minkowskiego opisuje trajektoria formula_37, gdzie formula_38 jest parametrem niezmienniczym (tzn. nie jest czasem). Np. można zdefiniować formula_39, gdzie formula_40 jest interwałem czasoprzestrzennym, formula_38 nazywa się czasem własnym. +Analogicznie do wektora prędkości w przestrzeni trójwymiarowej zdefiniować można czterowektor prędkości +i czterowektor pędu +Wektor pędu (formula_45) w fizyce relatywistycznej ma postać +identyczną jak fizyce nierelatywistycznej, jeżeli zamienimy masę spoczynkową formula_47 na masę relatywistyczną +Wielkości te nie są niezależne +i podobnie +Stąd otrzymujemy związek +Historia. +Minkowski wprowadził pojęcie czasoprzestrzeni, którego używał w swoim opisie Einstein. +Przyjął, że osie układu współrzędnych będą oznaczane przez x z indeksem xi, i= {1,2,3,4}. +gdzie formula_57 +Przestrzeń ta nie jest jednak przestrzenią rzeczywistą, bo współrzędna odpowiadająca czasowi jest wielkością urojoną. Zespolona współrzędna czasowa powoduje także, że metryka czasoprzestrzeni jest inna niż przestrzeni euklidesowej. +RC5 + +RC5 – szybki szyfr blokowy opracowany przez Ronalda Rivesta w 1994 roku, dla RSA Security. RC5 nie jest kolejną wersją algorytmu RC4, który jest szyfrem strumieniowym szyfrującym pojedyncze bajty, a nie całe bloki. Natomiast RC6 jest ulepszoną wersją RC5. Tak więc RC5 i RC4 niewiele mają wspólnego poza nazwą i ich autorem. "RC" jest skrótem od "Rivest Cipher" lub stosowanym zamiennie "Ron's Code". +RC5 stosuje zmienną długość bloków (32, 64 lub 128 bitów), kluczy (od 0 do 2040 bitów) oraz liczbę rund (od 1 do 255). +Linki zewnętrzne. +RSA Laboratories FAQ: What are RC5 and RC6? +The RC Encryption Algorithm – Ronald L. Rivest, 20 March 1997 +Przygody trzech Rosjan i trzech Anglików + +Przygody trzech Rosjan i trzech Anglików (fr. "Aventures de trois Russes et de trois Anglais", 1871-72) +Jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 23 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1873, a w postaci książkowej w 1879. +W Polsce była wydana pod kilkoma tytułami. +Roman Praszyński + +Roman Praszyński (ur. 1965) prozaik, dziennikarz (Gazeta Wrocławska, Elle, tygodnik "Gala", Twój Styl, VIVA!); pseudonim "Red Vonnegut". Wychował się we Wrocławiu, ukończył filologię polską na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim. Opublikował w piśmie studenckim akt dramatu podpisany "Witkacy", który był jakoby odnalezionym fragmentem utworu S. I. Witkiewicza. Pierwsza powieść "Na klęczkach" (1992) została wydana pod pseudonimem. Pozostałe "Miasto sennych kobiet" (1996), "Jajojada" (1998), "Córki Lota" (2002) i "Córka Wokulskiego" - kontynuacja "Lalki" B. Prusa (2012) pod własnym nazwiskiem; jest współtwórcą spektaklu teatralnego "W tym domu nie ma nikogo" (Europejskie Spotkanie Młodych Pisarzy 1996). Nominowany do nagrody "Paszport Polityki" (2004), otrzymał nagrodę Głównego Inspektora Pracy za publikacje o BHP. Prowadził grupę muzyczna konQubinat, Wiatraki, aktualnie R.P.A. Pisze i śpiewa piosenki. +International Meteor Organization + +International Meteor Organization (IMO) to organizacja astronomiczna założona w 1998 roku, zrzeszająca kilkuset członków. Celem IMO jest międzynarodowa koordynacja prac na polu amatorskiej astronomii meteorowej i tym samym propagacja wiedzy o meteorach, rojach meteorowych i materii międzyplanetarnej wśród obserwatorów-amatorów. +Irena Garztecka-Jarzębska + +Irena Garztecka-Jarzębska (ur. 31 maja 1913 w Kijowie, zm. 14 listopada 1963 w Skarżysku-Kamiennej) – polska kompozytorka, pianistka i pedagog. +Studia w zakresie gry fortepianowej odbyła w Państwowym Konserwatorium Muzycznym w Warszawie w klasie M. Klimontt-Jacynowej (dyplom 1941). Studia kompozytorskie rozpoczęła podczas okupacji w 1942 roku u Kazimierza Sikorskiego i kontynuowała je w latach 1947-51 w Państwowej Wyższej Szkole Muzycznej w Łodzi, również u K. Sikorskiego. Ponadto, w latach 1940-44, kształciła się w śpiewie u Ady Sari. +W latach 1945-47 pracowała, wraz z mężem – skrzypkiem Stanisławem Jarzębskim, w Instytucie Muzycznym w Częstochowie (obecnie Zespół Szkół Muzycznych im. M. J. Żebrowskiego), gdzie prowadziła klasę fortepianu i przedmioty teoretyczne. Od 1949 roku pracowała w Krakowie, początkowo w Polskim Wydawnictwie Muzycznym, później zaś jako redaktor muzyczny w Orkiestrze i Chórze Polskiego Radia. Zginęła w wypadku samochodowym w Skarżysku-Kamiennej. +Jest autorką szeregu dzieł o charakterze pedagogicznym. +„"Garztecka związana była silnie z nurtem twórczości dla dzieci i młodzieży. Jej kompozycje z lat 50. utrzymane są w prostym, przejrzystym stylu, z wyraźnymi rysami klasycyzującymi i częstym odwoływaniem się do folkloru; wśród kompozycji instrumentalnych przeważają utwory o charakterze pedagogicznym. Nowsze tendencje w twórczości Garzteckiej dochodzą do głosu na początku lat 60. (nie dokończony utwór na orkiestrę Grafika 1963")”. +Kompozycje +Wokalne i wokalno-instrumentalne. +Ponadto: pieśni masowe (niektóre wyd. PWM), piosenki dla dzieci, muzyka rozrywkowa. +Cekotrofia + +Cekotrofia – dwuetapowa metoda trawienia pokarmu występująca u królików, bobrów i części ochotkowatych. Polega na wytwarzaniu dwóch rodzajów kału z których jeden (cekotrof) jest zjadany (koprofagia). Cekotrof jest połykany bez żucia i defekowany w nocy (są to tzw. odchody nocne – miękkie i otoczone śluzem). Cekotrof formowany jest w jelicie ślepym; zawiera większe ilości wody, białka oraz bakterii (u królika cekotrof 140x1010komórek/g suchej masy, a zwykły kał 30x1010komórek/g suchej masy). Po powtórnym kontakcie z florą bakteryjną jelita ślepego odchody nocne ulegają wydaleniu następnego dnia w postaci suchej, całkowicie pozbawionej celulozy. +Czarne Indie + +Czarne Indie (fr. "Les Indes noires", 1877) – jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 22 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy polski skrócony przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1877, a w postaci książkowej w 1895. +Tekst kompletny wydało Polskie Towarzystwo Juliusza Verne'a w marcu 2012. +Chechło (województwo małopolskie) + +Chechło – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie olkuskim, w gminie Klucze. +W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa katowickiego. +Wieś powstała prawdopodobnie w XI wieku. Nazwa pochodzi od ""chechła"", dawnego określenia ziemi bagiennej. W XIV wieku istniał tu kościół, splądrowany w 1308 przez najemników Jana Muskaty. Parafia w Chechle w 1326 zaliczana do dekanatu sławkowskiego. W końcu XV wieku miała w Chechle swoje majątki szlachta pieczętująca się herbami Ostoja, Pilawa i Przeginia. +Największą atrakcją Chechła jest położona tuż obok Pustynia Błędowska. We wsi znajduje się także wart zobaczenia kościół pod wezwaniem NMP, z rokokowym ołtarzem z obrazem Matki Boskiej z dzieckiem. +Parafia Narodzenia Najświętszej Maryi Panny przynależy do dekanatu jaroszowieckiego w diecezji sosnowieckiej. +Cecil Rhodes + +Cecil John Rhodes (ur. 5 lipca 1853 w Bishop's Stortford, Herefordshire w Anglii, zm. 26 marca 1902 w Muizenberg, obecnie dzielnica Kapsztadu) - polityk brytyjski, przedsiębiorca. Twórca idei "od Kapsztadu do Kairu", czyli kolonizacji przez Wielką Brytanię pasa ziem afrykańskich ciągnących się od Kraju Przylądkowego do Egiptu. Główny motor kolonizacji brytyjskiej w Afryce południowej. Od jego nazwiska nazwano dwie kolonie, Rodezję Północną i Południową (dziś Zambia i Zimbabwe). +Syn pastora anglikańskiego. Jako dziecko przeszedł gruźlicę. Kłopoty ze zdrowiem przeszkodziły mu w kontynuowaniu nauki w szkole ponadpodstawowej. W roku 1870 wyjechał do Natalu, kolonii w w Afryce Południowej, gdzie jeden z jego braci miał plantację bawełny. W rok później został zarządcą jednej z działek diamentowych w pobliżu Kimberley, których właścicielem był jego brat Herbert. W 1873 r. wyjechał do Anglii, gdzie zarobione pieniądze zainwestował w budowę domków czynszowych oraz zakupił posiadłość ziemską. +Południowoafrykański klimat okazał się zbawienny dla zdrowia Cecila Rhodesa. Gruźlica została wyleczona, ale pozostawiła ślad w postaci przewlekłej choroby serca. Była to jedna z przyczyn powrotu do Anglii, gdzie wstąpił na uniwersytet w Oksfordzie (ukończył studia w 1881 r.); w latach 1874–1880 przejął kontrolę nad większością kopalń w Kimberley. +W roku 1881 został wybrany do lokalnego parlamentu Kolonii Przylądkowej. +Jako rzecznik idei imperializmu pozyskał w r. 1885 dla Wielkiej Brytanii Beczuanaland, w cztery lata później zmusił lud Ndebele (zwany także Matabele) do oddania Wielkiej Brytanii ogromnych obszarów ziemi, nazwanej później na jego cześć Rodezją (obecnie Zimbabwe i Zambia). Kontrolę nad nową kolonią przejęła zarządzana przez Rhodesa Kompania Południowoafrykańska. W roku 1888 Rhodes – skonsolidowawszy wszystkie kopalnie diamentów jako spółkę De Beers Mines – stał się ogromnie bogaty. Jako premier rządu Kolonii Przylądkowej (od r. 1890) planował budowę linii kolejowej z Kapsztadu do Kairu, choć nie udało mu się zrealizować tego ambitnego zamierzenia, doprowadził linię z do Bulawayo. Przeszkodą byli zasiedziali w Transwalu potomkowie osadników z Europy Zachodniej zwani Burami. Spowodował, że siły brytyjskie z Rodezji zaatakowały Transwal w Rajdzie Jamesona. Po nieudanej wyprawie (która stała się początkiem wojen burskich) zrezygnował z wszelkich dostojeństw w Kolonii Przylądkowej i wycofał się do Rodezji. +Zmarł na zawał serca tuż przed zakończeniem drugiej wojny burskiej (1899–1902). +Pełnił funkcję członka Tajnej Rady Królewskiej. Był jednym z najpotężniejszych polityków brytyjskich. +Życie prywatne. +Cecil Rhodes nigdy się nie ożenił. Według niektórych historyków, pozostawał w związku homoseksualnym z Nevillem Pickeringiem, jednak brak na to jednoznacznych dowodów (Rhodes nie prowadził pamiętników, nie pisywał też wielu listów). +W 1896 spotkał się z Katarzyną Radziwiłłową, z domu Rzewuską, dla której stał się obsesją. +Katarzyna Radziwiłłowa, która żyła w separacji z mężem wykorzystywała każdą okazję aby pokazać się w towarzystwie Cecila i niektórzy obserwatorzy przypuszczają, że łączył ich również, przez krótki czas, związek intymny. Po przybyciu do Południowej Afryki rzuciła się w wir życia towarzyskiego wśród miejscowej arystokracji wywołując skandal za skandalem i doprowadzając Cecila do rozpaczy. Korzystając z faktu, że nie miała pieniędzy na zapłacenie rachunków, Cecil Rhodes wymógł na niej powrót do Europy. +Do Południowej Afryki wróciła w 1901 roku i zaczęła publikować magazyn rzekomo propagujący idee Cecila o nazwie "Greater Britain". Ponieważ koszty wydawania magazynu były większe niż wpływy, skorzystała z faktu, że Cecil Rhodes wrócił na leczenie do Wielkiej Brytanii i zaczęła podrabiać podpisy Rhodesa nie tylko na listach i telegramach, ale również na czekach i zobowiązaniach bankowych. Mszcząc się na Cecilu Katarzyna oskarżyła go o oszustwo i fałszerstwo. W 1902 roku, już po śmierci Cecila trafiła do więzienia, z którego wyszła w sierpniu 1903 roku i wróciła do Europy. W 1918 roku opublikowała książkę "Cecil Rhodes, Człowiek i Twórca Imperium". +Bibliografia. +Zins Henryk, "Cecil Rhodes. Ekspansja brytyjska w Afryce pod koniec XIX wieku", Gdańsk 2000, ISBN 83-86181-58-3. +Kulmhof + +SS Sonderkommando Kulmhof, Vernichtungslager Kulmhof, Waldlager Kulmhof, Kulmhof an der Nehr – obóz zagłady założony przez Niemców we wsi Chełmno nad Nerem. Funkcjonował od jesieni 1941 roku do kwietnia 1943, oraz na krótko w 1944 roku. +Historia obozu. +Kulmhof był przede wszystkim ośrodkiem zagłady dla ludności żydowskiej z wcielonego do III Rzeszy "Kraju Warty". Tym niemniej kierowano tam również transporty romskie, rzadko inne. +Kulmhof został założony jeszcze przed konferencją z Wannsee, która formalnie podjęła decyzję o eksterminacji ludności żydowskiej. Jest zatem wybitnym dowodem na to, że zagłada była dużo wcześniej wpisana w wizję polityki nazistowskiej. Konferencja w Wannsee stanowiła tylko uruchomienie na szeroką skalę machiny, której próby były wykonywane zawczasu. Decyzja o eksterminacji Żydów z Kraju Warty zapadła prawdopodobnie już w połowie roku 1941. +Podobnie do obozów zagłady w Bełżcu lub w Treblince o lokalizacji zdecydowała sieć transportu i stosunkowe odludzie zalesionych terenów. Obóz został utworzony wyjątkowo szybko. Zagospodarowano istniejący pałac otoczony parkiem, wysiedlono okoliczną ludność i przejęto budynki mogące służyć celom obozowym (plebanię, remizę itp.). +Transporty przybywały już od grudnia 1941, ofiary mordowano przez zagazowanie spalinami w ciężarówkach. Ciała wpierw grzebano w masowych fosach, które rozkopano latem 1942 roku, aby ciała spalić. Wówczas utworzono krematoria dla dalszych transportów. 7 kwietnia 1943 zaniechano dalszych mordów w tym miejscu, wysadzono zabudowania (w tym adaptowany dawny pałac) i krematoria. W okresie od kwietnia 1943 do czerwca 1944 obóz był nieczynny. Po przerwie zaczęły się znów pojawiać transporty z Łodzi. +Obóz uruchomiono jeszcze w 1944 roku, w chwili przyspieszenia akcji zagłady przed przybyciem Armii Czerwonej. Obóz przestał istnieć w dniu 17 stycznia 1945 w przeddzień wkroczenia Armii Czerwonej. +Komendantami obozu byli: Herbert Lange (1940–marzec 1942) i Hans Johann Bothmann (marzec 1942–marzec 1943), zastępcą m.in. Walter Piller. W obozie pracowało stale około 120-130 SS-manów. W różnym okresie w procesie eksterminacji pomagali także Polacy . +Więźniowie i ofiary. +Ofiary gazu spalinowego. +Olbrzymią większość ludzi zwiezionych do Kulmhof mordowano natychmiast. Byli to przede wszystkim Żydzi (dzieci, dorośli, kobiety, starcy) z "Kraju Warty". Znane są jednak przypadki innych transportów m.in. romskich, które często dzieliły los Żydów, przynajmniej w tej części Europy. Liczbę ofiar obozu trudno ustalić. W 1945 roku pojawiała się zupełnie nieprawdopodobna liczba 1 300 000. Większość badaczy przyjmuje liczby w granicach 150-250 000 ofiar, prawie wyłącznie Żydów z Kraju Warty. Zamordowano też ok. 4300 Cyganów z Burgenlandu (osadzonych przejściowo w obozie na terenie getta w Łodzi), jak i nie-żydowskich Polaków, w tym księży i grupę dzieci z Zamojszczyzny oraz czeskiej wsi Lidice. +Waldkommando. +Niektórzy silni mężczyźni z transportów byli wyłączani z gazowania i kierowani do komanda grzebiącego zwłoki ofiar. Była to bardzo ciężka psychicznie praca, wielokroć ludzie ci grzebali własne rodziny, dzieci i najbliższych przyjaciół. Mało kto z tych więźniów pozostawał przy życiu więcej niż kilkanaście dni. Byli zabijani przy najmniejszych uchybieniach, niejednokrotnie sami decydowali się na zakończenie swego życia na trupach. +Hauskommando. +Komando pracujące w lżejszych warunkach od poprzedniego, zajmujące się sortowaniem ubrań oraz przedmiotów pozostałych po ofiarach gazowania. Pracowali w dużym pośpiechu, aby kolejny transport nie widział przedmiotów pochodzących z poprzedniego. Nocowali w pałacowej piwnicy. Co pewien czas byli mordowani gazem, a na ich miejsce typowano kolejnych mężczyzn z następnych transportów. W ten sposób zacierano ślady i usuwano świadków zbrodni. +Dzieci z Zamojszczyzny i z Czech. +Istnieją świadectwa okolicznej ludności o transportach dzieci z Zamojszczyzny, trafiających do Kulmhof z olbrzymiej akcji eksterminacyjno-wysiedleńczej przeprowadzanej na Zamojszczyźnie. Niestety świadectwa te są skąpe w informacje i nie zawsze pokrywają się w szczegółach. Także transporty z dziećmi wysiedlonymi z czeskich Lidic, uznanymi najprawdopodobniej za nieprzydatne do germanizacji, trafiły w okolice Chełmna. Najprawdopodobniej skończyły one swój bieg w Kulmhof. Istnieją także relacje o mordach księży i zakonnic katolickich. Potwierdzają to badania archeologiczne, w których pozyskano sporą liczbę krzyżyków i medalików. +Ucieczki. +Bardzo niewielu ludziom udało się uciec z Kulmhof, ale dzięki tym, którym się to udało dokładnie wiadomo jak przebiegał proces eksterminacji. Istnieją rozbieżności co do ilości osób, które uciekły z Kulmhof. Na pewno byli to: Szlomo Wiener, znany z przekazanej do Archiwum Ringelbluma relacji pod nazwiskiem Szlomo Grojnowski vel Grojanowski (zapewne nazwisko fałszywe, pod którym po ucieczce przedostał się do Warszawy), Mordechaj Podchlebnik, Szymon Srebrnik i Mordka Żurawski. Trzej ostatni niedługo po zakończeniu okupacji złożyli przed prokuratorami zeznania. Na podstawie osobistego spotkania z M. Podchlebnikiem powstał esej Zofii Nałkowskiej opublikowany w zbiorze pt. "Medaliony" ("Człowiek jest mocny"). +Komory gazowe. +Stosowano dwa typy ciężarówek – o długości 5,8 m i 4,5 m, obydwie o szerokości 2,5 m i wysokości 1,7 m. Większa mieściła 130-150 osób, mniejsza 80-100. Ciężarówki dostarczono na przełomie listopada i grudnia 1941, pierwsza egzekucja miała miejsce 8 grudnia. Początkowo przerobiono ciężarówki wyprodukowane przez firmy Dodge, Mercedes i Saurer, natomiast w 1942 firma Gaubschat Fahrzeugwerke GmbH (Willi Walter Strasse 32-38; obecnie Karl-Marx-Straße 259/263, Berlin-Neukölln) dostarczyła ok. 30 ciężarówek z komorami gazowymi. +Dzieje powojenne. +Odpowiedzialność karna oprawców. +Po wojnie udało się ustalić personalia 70 członków załogi SS z Kulmhof. Wśród nich 14 zostało osądzonych i w większości skazanych na niewielkie kary w zawieszeniu. +W lipcu 2001 sąd w Koninie skazał 78-letniego Henryka Manię na osiem lat pozbawienia wolności za to, że od 8 grudnia 1941 do 7 kwietnia 1943 w obozie zagłady Kulmhof pomagał hitlerowcom w eksterminacji ludności. Proces ten był pierwszym, skierowanym do sądu przez IPN i jednocześnie pierwszym od 1973 procesem w sprawie zbrodni ludobójstwa. +Tereny obozowe, pomnik i muzeum. +Na terenie obozu powstał pomnik oraz niewielkie muzeum, którego otwarcie odbyło się 17 czerwca 1990 roku. W muzeum udostępniane są nieliczne przedmioty świadczące o dziejach tego terenu oraz kopie relacji i sądowych dokumentów powojennych. Pomnik reprezentuje "ścianę pamięci" z napisem: "Pamięci Żydów pomordowanych w Chełmnie 1941–1945". Odtworzono również zarys fundamentów krematorium odsłonięty w czasie wykopalisk. +Na przełomie XX i XXI wieku były prowadzone badania archeologiczne, które zaowocowały odkryciem kilkunastu stanowisk z zakopanymi przedmiotami należącymi do ofiar (zegarki, nożyczki, biżuteria, małe przedmioty użytku codziennego). Pełna analiza tego materiału wzbogaci wiedzę o Kulmhof i jego ofiarach. +Bibliografia. +Pełny wykaz bibliografii dla serii artykułów o niemieckich obozach w latach 1933–1945 został umieszczony na osobnej stronie. +Jack Bruce + +Jack Bruce, właśc. John Simon Bruce (ur. 14 maja 1943 w Bishopsbriggs) – brytyjski kompozytor, wokalista i basista zespołu Cream. Uczestniczył także w nagraniach płyt m.in. Johna Mayalla, Lou Reeda, Franka Zappy, Charliego Wattsa z The Rolling Stones i Billa Warda z Black Sabbath. +Bitwa pod Aduą + +Bitwa pod Aduą – bitwa stoczona w pobliżu miasta Adua w północnej Etiopii. Miejsce jednej z najsłynniejszych bitew w dziejach wojen kolonialnych. To tutaj 1 marca 1896 r. włoski korpus inwazyjny pod dowództwem gen. Oreste Baratieri starł się z wojskami etiopskimi cesarza Menelika II. +Siły włoskie liczyły 10 596 Włochów i ponad 7000 Erytrejczyków z wojsk kolonialnych, wyposażonych w nowoczesne karabiny i 56 najnowocześniejszych dział. Siły etiopskie liczyły 60 000 żołnierzy, głównie pospolitego ruszenia, słabo uzbrojonych, wspieranych przez 42 przestarzałe działa, ale ogarniętych zapałem i wierzących we własne siły po pierwszych, zwycięskich dla siebie, walkach (m.in. bitwa pod Amba Alagi). +Generał Baratieri podzielił swoją armię na trzy kolumny pod dowództwem generałów: Albertone, Arimondi i Dabormidy oraz grupę rezerwową pod dowództwem gen. Elany. Podział na cztery oddalone od siebie oddziały stał się główną przyczyną klęski włoskich oddziałów, gdyż poszczególne kolumny musiały walczyć oddzielnie, dowodzenie oddalonymi oddziałami było bardzo utrudnione, a w dalszych etapach bitwy wręcz niemożliwe. +Etiopczycy pokonali najpierw kolumnę generała Albertone, których zaatakował jako pierwszy, a następnie po zaciętej walce sam dostał się do niewoli. Jego żołnierze poszli w rozsypkę, siejąc popłoch i zamieszanie w następnych kolumnach. Ścigając niedobitki pierwszej kolumny, wojska etiopskie uderzyły na kolumnę generała Arimondi, którą wkrótce otoczyły. Kontratak wojsk rezerwowych gen. Elany wobec przygniatającej przewagi Etiopczyków szybko się załamał. Najdłużej, bo przez 11 godzin, opierało się wojskom etiopskim ugrupowanie gen. Dabormidy. Włosi walczyli do wyczerpania się amunicji, a następnie zaczęli wycofywać się, zachowując początkowo dyscyplinę i szyk bojowy. Świadomość klęski pozostałych kolumn i utraty zabitych lub wziętych do niewoli dowódców oraz nieustanne ataki pościgowych oddziałów etiopskich spowodowały jednak przekształcenie się odwrotu w bezładną ucieczkę. +Straty włoskie były bardzo duże: 11 tys. zabitych i rannych żołnierzy, 4 tys. w niewoli, utracono całą artylerię, 11 tys. karabinów i wiele innego sprzętu. Straty Etiopczyków wyniosły 4 tysiące zabitych i 6 tys. rannych. +Bitwa ta miała olbrzymie znaczenie dla obu krajów. Pozwoliła Etiopii obronić swoją niepodległość, podniosła prestiż międzynarodowy kraju, powstrzymała kolonialne zakusy Włoch na 40 następnych lat. Jej wynik odbił się również głośnym echem w całej Europie i w koloniach. +LHA + +LHA - algorytm oraz program do bezstratnej kompresji danych stworzony przez Haruyasu Yoshizakiego. +Frank Bello + +Frank Bello (ur. 9 lipca 1965) – amerykański muzyk rockowy, gitarzysta basowy. Od 1986 do kwietnia 2004 członek zespołu Anthrax. Grał w Helmet. +Od kwietnia 2005 znów gra w zespole Anthrax. Bello gra na gitarach firmy Squier i Fender. +Korczak (herb szlachecki) + +Korczak ("Ciffus, Ciphus, Karpie, Trzy Wręby, Wrębowie, Wręby") – polski herb szlachecki. Herb ma pochodzenie węgierskie, trzy wręby oznaczają trzy rzeki Dunaj, Cisę (lub Drawę) i Sawę. +Legenda herbowa. +Długosz w Insigniach: +"Tłumaczenie:" +Opis herbu. +W polu czerwonym, trzy wręby srebrne w słup, zwężające się w dół, w klejnocie, pół szczenięcia wyżła srebrnego w naczyniu złotym. +W pierwotnej, XV wiecznej formie w klejnocie znajdowała się głowa szczenięcia srebrnego między kręgami srebrnymi ze środkiem czerwonym i okrągłymi uchwytami srebrnymi. +Najwcześniejsze wzmianki. +Pierwsza wzmianka z 1368 roku, najstarsza znana pieczęć z 1432 roku. Spotykany głównie u rodzin szlacheckich zamieszkujących województwo krakowskie, lubelskie i Ruś Czerwoną. Pierwszym rodem pieczętującym się tym herbem byli Gorayscy a najbardziej znaczącym rodem noszącym go byli Braniccy.Został przeniesiony również na Litwę po unii w Horodle w 1413 roku. +Pamięć skojarzeniowa + +Pamięć asocjacyjna ("pamięć skojarzeniowa") +Przykładem jest pamięć umieszczona wewnątrz procesora – „tablica” zawierająca pewną liczbę deskryptorów stron pamięci operacyjnej. Dzięki niej możliwe jest przyspieszenie procesu dostępu do określonej ramki pamięci operacyjnej. Odwołanie się do deskryptora strony, którego nie ma w pamięci asocjacyjnej, powoduje załadowanie go do pamięci po uprzednim usunięciu z niej innego. +Zadaniem pamięci asocjacyjnej jest przyspieszenie działania systemu. +Pamięć asocjacyjna stosowana jest również w innych układach. Na przykład w pamięci "cache" występuje w postaci TAG-RAM-u i zawiera informacje o danych z pamięci operacyjnej znajdujących się w pamięci "cache". +Pavel Ploc + +Pavel Ploc (ur. 15 czerwca 1964 w Jilemnicach) – czeski skoczek narciarski, reprezentant Czechosłowacji, dwukrotny medalista olimpijski, dwukrotny medalista mistrzostw świata oraz dwukrotny medalista mistrzostw świata w lotach. +Kariera. +Zainteresował się skokami za namową ojca i w dzieciństwie razem z bratem trenował na małej skoczni usypanej własnoręcznie koło domu, a następnie zapisał się do klubu Dukla Liberec. Wkrótce znalazł się w kadrze narodowej, gdzie jego trenerem był m.in. mistrz świata w lotach z 1975 roku – Karel Kodejška. Prawdopodobnie z tego powodu uwielbiał mamucie skocznie, a w szczególności tę w Harrachovie. +Nie trzeba było długo czekać, a Ploc stał się jednym z najbardziej utytułowanych reprezentantów Czechosłowacji w skokach narciarskich. Na mistrzostwach świata w lotach w Harrachovie w 1983 roku wywalczył srebrny medal, ustępując tylko Klausowi Ostwaldowi z NRD. W ostatnim skoku ustanowił rekord świata w długości skoku skacząc 181 m. Kolejne sukcesy odniósł w sezonie 1983/1984. Na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Sarajewie wywalczył brązowy medal na dużej skoczni, ulegając jedynie Mattiemu Nykänenowi z Finlandii oraz Jensowi Weißflogowi z NRD. Na tych samych igrzyskach zajął także 14 miejsce na normalnej skoczni. Ponadto wspólnie z Ladislavem Dluhošem, Vladimírem Podzimkiem i Jiřím Parmą zdobył brązowy medal w konkursie drużynowym na mistrzostwach świata w Engelbergu i Rovaniemi. Ploc zajął także trzecie miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej Pucharu Świata. +Na mistrzostwach świata w lotach w Planicy w 1985 roku zdobył brązowy medal, ponownie wyprzedził go tylko duet Nykänen-Weißflog. W sezonie 1987/1988 zajął drugie miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej Pucharu Świata plasując się bezpośrednio za Nykänenem. Wystartował także na igrzyskach w Calgary, gdzie wywalczył srebrny medal na skoczni normalnej, a na dużym obiekcie był piąty. Na tych samych igrzyskach reprezentacja Czechosłowacji z Plocem w składzie zajęła czwarte miejsce w konkursie drużynowym, przegrywając walkę o brązowy medal z reprezentacją Norwegii. Swój ostatni sukces na dużej imprezie międzynarodowej odniósł w 1989 roku, kiedy na mistrzostwach świata w Lahti drużyna Czechosłowacka w składzie: Jiří Parma, Martin Švagerko, Ladislav Dluhoš i Pavel Ploc zdobyła kolejny brązowy medal. W przeciągu swojej kariery łącznie 27 razy stawał na podium konkursów Pucharu Świata, w tym 10 razy zwyciężał. W nieoficjalnych klasyfikacjach generalnych sezonu 1982/1983 oraz sezonu 1983/1984 Pucharu Świata w lotach narciarskich zajmował drugie miejsca. +Irwingianizm + +Irwingianizm, ruch nowoapostolski – ruch religijny, który wyodrębnił się w XIX wieku z Kościoła Szkocji. +Ojcem duchownym irwingianizmu był szkocki pastor prezbiteriański, wizjoner i mistyk, Edward Irving uważany za prekursora ruchów charyzmatycznych i neocharyzmatycznych. +W 1831 r. Irwing, który prowadził ożywioną działalność kaznodziejską, wywołał w Londynie falę zbiorowych aktów: uzdrowień, glosolalii i prorokowania, które przyniosły mu rzesze wiernych i sympatyków w Wielkiej Brytanii. W 1832 r. za głoszone przez siebie nauki millenarystyczne został ekskomunikowany przez Kościół prezbiteriański. Jego zwolennicy zaczęli więc tworzyć razem z nim niezależną wspólnotę eklezjalną, która stopniowo przekształciła się w odrębny Kościół. +W 1835 r. irwingianie utworzyli Katolicki Kościół Apostolski, z którego na skutek schizmy w połowie XIX wieku powstał Kościół Nowoapostolski. W dalszych latach następowały kolejne podziały ruchu na mniejsze denominacje takie jak: Kościół Staroapostolski, Kościół Apostolski w Queensland, Reformowany Kościół Apostolski, Reformowany Kościół Staroapostolski. Jednocześnie z rozłamami postępowało rozpowszechnianie się irwingianizmu na różne kontynenty. +Aktualnie najwięcej wyznawców irwingianizmu mieszka w: Niemczech, Stanach Zjednoczonych Ameryki, Republice Południowej Afryki i w Indonezji. Polscy irwingianie zrzeszeni są w znacznej większości w Kościół Nowoapostolski w Polsce. Drugą ich polską grupą jest Stolica Apostolska w Jezusie Chrystusie. +Doktryna. +Irwingianizm łączy w sobie elementy katolicyzmu, prawosławia, liberalnego protestantyzmu i chiliazmu. +Ruch w początkowym okresie swojego istnienia przywiązywał ogromną wagę do działalności misyjnej, którą prowadzili tzw. apostołowie. Przepowiadał rychłe powtórne przyjście Chrystusa. Z czasem jednak na pierwsze miejsce wysunął kwestię liturgii, a zwłaszcza sakramentów, czerpiąc wzory z praktyk Kościoła katolickiego, Kościoła anglikańskiego i Kościoła prawosławnego. +Irwingianie opierają swoją wiarę na Biblii; wierzą w Trójcę Świętą i w posłannictwo apostołów. Praktykują trzy sakramenty: chrzest; święte pieczętowanie oraz świętą wieczerzę. +Marcelo Tosatti + +Marcelo Tosatti (ur. 1983), informatyk brazylijski; opiekun jądra Linux serii 2.4.x. +Wychował się w Kurytybie w Brazylii i przez sześć lat pracował w firmie Conectiva. W lipcu 2003 przeprowadził się do Porto Alegre, gdzie rozpoczął pracę dla Cyclades Corporation. +Opiekunem jądra stał się od wersji 2.4.16, 26 listopada 2001, w wieku 18 lat. Wzbudził sporo kontrowersji, początkowo swoim młodym wiekiem, a potem także bardzo rzadką publikacją kolejnych wersji, nawet tych zawierających ważne poprawki bezpieczeństwa. 27 lipca 2006 Tosatti ogłosił, że od wersji 2.4.34 włącznie rolę opiekuna serii przejmie Willy Tarreau. +Akademia Rolnicza w Dublanach + +Akademia Rolnicza w Dublanach (obecnie Państwowy Lwowski Uniwersytet Rolniczy) – dawna polska uczelnia wyższa założona w 1856 roku w Dublanach koło Lwowa, obecnie ukraiński uniwersytet o profilu rolniczym. +Historia. +Folwark Dublany (707 morgów=407 ha) oddalony o 8 km od rogatki żółkiewskiej Lwowa został zakupiony 1 listopada 1853 roku przez Galicyjskie Towarzystwo Gospodarskie. 9 stycznia 1856 roku powstała tam prywatna (średnia 3-letnia) Szkoła Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego, a w roku 1858 otwarto tam Wyższą Szkołę Rolniczą w Dublanach. Głównym założycielem szkoły był prezes GTG Leon Sapieha. +Od roku 1878 została przejęta i finansowana przez Wydział Krajowy. W 1901 roku decyzją ministra rolnictwa Austrii uczelni nadano status Akademii i nazwę Akademia Rolnicza w Dublanach. Nie udało się jej natomiast otrzymać prawa doktoryzowania i habilitowania – do końca jej istnienia szkołę kończono z tytułem agronoma. Doznała znacznych zniszczeń w czasie wojny polsko-ukraińskiej 1918/19. W wyniku zniszczenia zabudowy Akademii przyłączono ją do Politechniki Lwowskiej wraz z Wyższą Szkołą Lasową we Lwowie, z których postał w 1919 roku na Politechnice Lwowskiej osobny Wydział Rolniczo-Leśny. Wówczas studia leśne odbywały się we Lwowie, natomiast rolnicze w Dublanach. +Na początku XX wieku na Akademię w Dublanach zapisywało się blisko 1500 studentów rocznie, w większości z Królestwa Kongresowego. +Akademia mieściła się w jednopiętrowym budynku, zwanym "gmachem głównym", który został wzniesiony w roku 1888. +Mieściły się w nim sale wykładowe, gabinety profesorskie, parę sal ćwiczeniowych i kancelaria. W pozostałych, wybudowanych w 1900 roku mieściły się: laboratoria chemii rolnej, gleboznawstwa, technologii rolniczej, a także stacja chemiczno-rolnicza oraz "internat" ("dom mieszkalny słuchaczów" – pisownia oryginalna). Istniał także Ogród Botaniczny ze szklarnią i okazałym stawem. +W latach okupacji sowieckiej 1939-1941 ośrodek w Dublanach działał w ramach Lwowskiego Instytutu Politechnicznego. Po zajęciu Lwowa przez armię niemiecką uczelnia przestała działać, od kwietnia 1942 zaczęto tworzyć nową szkołę, a w sierpniu 1942 rozpoczęły się państwowe rolnicze kursy zawodowe, z niemieckim językiem wykładowym. +Po II wojnie światowej na bazie uczelni decyzją Rady Ministrów ZSRR 30 września 1946 utworzono Lwowski Instytut Rolno-Gospodarczy. Na jego bazie decyzją Rady Ministrów Ukrainy 5 września 1996 utworzono Państwowy Lwowski Uniwersytet Rolniczy. +Pozostała kadra dydaktyczna i naukowa. +Tutejszym duszpasterzem akademickim był m.in. Serafin Kaszuba – polski zakonnik kapucyn (franciszkanie), Sługa Boży. Natomiast lekarzem przy uczelni Władysław Jasiński. +Polscy absolwenci Akademii Rolniczej w Dublanach. +Z Akademią w Dublanach związany był także m.in. Władysław Leon Sapieha. +Pacanów + +Pacanów – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie świętokrzyskim, w powiecie buskim, w gminie Pacanów, na południowo-wschodnim skraju Garbu Pińczowskiego. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie kieleckim. +Miejscowość jest siedzibą gminy Pacanów, stanowi ośrodek usługowy dla rolnictwa. +Sławę zawdzięcza "Przygodom Koziołka Matołka" Kornela Makuszyńskiego. Od 2003 roku odbywa się tu ogólnopolski „Festiwal Kultury Dziecięcej”. +Historia. +Pacanów (prawa miejskie od 1265 do 1869) leży na skrzyżowaniu dróg łączących Kielce z Tarnowem oraz dawnego szlaku książęcego – królewskiego łączącego Kraków z Sandomierzem. Jan Długosz podaje, że założycielem Pacanowa był Seminarius. Na jego prośbę ówczesny biskup krakowski Maur w latach 1109-1118 poświęcił świątynię w Pacanowie i uposażył ją dziesięcinami. Erygował w Pacanowie – pierwszą „wiejską” parafię, nie związaną z podlegającą księciu kasztelanią. +Infrastruktura. +Kultura, sport, turystyka. +Funkcjonują: Europejskie Centrum Bajki im. Koziołka Matołka i biblioteka publiczna. Od ponad 20 lat istnieje zespół folklorystyczny „Pacanowianie”. Z inicjatywy samorządu ukazuje się miesięcznik „Z życia gminy”. GLKS „Zorza – Tempo” prowadzi sekcje piłki nożnej seniorów, juniorów i trampkarzy. Istnieje Szkoła Podstawowa/Gimnazjum im. Kornela Makuszyńskiego oraz Gimnazjum im. Michała Janasa. +Karel Kodejška + +Karel Kodejška (ur. 20 marca 1947 w Jiczynie) – czeski skoczek narciarski, reprezentant Czechosłowacji. +Jego największym sukcesem było wywalczenie złotego medalu na trzecich mistrzostwach świata w lotach narciarskich na skoczni Kulm w Tauplitz w 1975. W konkursie po pierwszej serii plasował się na dziesiątym miejscu i po drugim skoku awansował na miejsce pierwsze. Zakończył karierę w 1976 i pracował jako trener. +Franciszek Kamieński + +Franciszek Dionizy Kamieński (ur. 9 października 1851 w Lublinie, zm. 16 września 1912 w Warszawie), polski botanik. +Studiował nauki przyrodnicze w Warszawie, Wrocławiu i Strasburgu, był docentem lwowskim i profesorem botaniki w Odessie. +Członek czynny od 1904 (zatwierdzenie w 1905) Akademii Umiejętności; od 1879 współpracownik Komisji Fizjograficznej AU. +Napisał następujące prace naukowe: „Porównawcza anatomia Pierwiosnkowatych” (1876), „Badania nad rozwojem Ramienicowatych” (1876), „Historia rozwoju zarodka Pływacza pospolitego” (1877), „Skąd rośliny pobierają węgiel” (1881), „Spis paproci krajowych” (1885) i inne. +Autor wielu rozpraw z anatomii porównawczej, morfologii i systematyki roślin. Jego największym dokonaniem jest odkrycie zjawiska mikoryzy, tj. symbiozy grzybów z roślinami (1880). +Bestiariusz (gry fabularne) + +Bestiariusz — część podręcznika do gry fabularnej, gry komputerowej bądź też książki fantasy, w której zamieszczone są opisy zwierząt, stworzeń i potworów zamieszkujących świat gry (lub świat przedstawiony w książce), wraz z ich charakterystykami. Bestiariusze często podzielone są na części lub działy z potworami konkretnych rodzajów, np. zwierzęta, nieumarli, demony, itd. Bestiariusz może przybrać także formę osobnego dodatku do gry fabularnej, szczególnie gdy w podręczniku podstawowym dział ten jest znacznie skrócony lub nieobecny. +Drużyna (wojsko) + +Drużyna - najmniejszy pododdział występujący w większości rodzajów wojsk. Jest przeznaczona do prowadzenia walki albo zabezpieczenia działań bojowych. W artylerii jej odpowiednikiem jest działon, w wojskach zmechanizowanych i pancernych - załoga wozu bojowego, w niektórych jednostkach rakietowych, łączności i logistycznych - obsługa wozu, urządzenia lub agregatu, a w kawalerii - sekcja. W zależności od rodzaju wojsk, ich przeznaczenia i funkcji, stan liczebny drużyny wynosi 3-15 osób. +Drużyna - grupa doborowych wojowników tworzących oddział przyboczny wojskowego naczelnika plemienia lub księcia (zobacz: drużyna książęca). +Skład drużyny zmechanizowanej. +Dla BWP-1. +Wyposażenie drużyny +Dla KTO Rosomak. +Wyposażenie drużyny +"Podano jeden z możliwych wariantów. Struktury orgnizacyjne SZ RP często ulegają zmianom." +Wiechlinowce + +Wiechlinowce, trawowce, plewowce ("Poales") – rząd roślin jednoliściennych. Należy tu 16 lub 17 rodzin (pałkowate "Typhaceae" w niektórych ujęciach bywają rozbijane dodatkowo na jeżogłówkowate "Sparganiaceae") liczące w sumie około tysiąca rodzajów i 18,3 tysiące gatunków. W kilku grupach bazalnych kwiaty są owadopylne, jednak u większości przedstawicieli są one drobne, zredukowane i przystosowane do wiatropylności. Wiele roślin tu zaliczanych ma charakterystyczną, "trawiastą" budowę – z wąskimi, długimi liśćmi i z kwiatostanami złożonymi z drobnych kwiatów wyrastającymi zwykle na szczycie rośliny. +Systematyka. +Pozycja systematyczna i podział rzędu według APweb (aktualizowany System APG III z 2009). +Tutaj zaliczana była też jeszcze w systemie APG II (2003) rodzina hydatellowatych ("Hydatellaceae"), która jednak po odkryciu pokrewieństwa z przedstawicielami grzybieniowców ("Nymphaeales") została odpowiednio przeniesiona. +Systemy Reveala. +System Reveala (1999) wyróżnia wiechlinowce jako takson monotypowy zawierający wyłącznie rodzinę wiechlinowatych ("Poaceae" (R. Br.) Barnh.). Według systemu Reveala rząd wiechlinowce należy do gromady okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromady "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasy jednoliścienne ("Liliopsida" Brongn.), podklasy komelinowe ("Commelinidae" Takht.), nadrzędu "Juncanae" Takht. +W systemie z 2007 r. Reveal do rzędu wiechlinowców zaliczył obok wiechlinowatych także trzy najbliżej spokrewnione rodziny: "Flagellariaceae" Dumort., "Joinvilleaceae" Tolm. & A.C. Sm., "Ecdeiocoleaceae" D.F. Cutler & Airy Shaw. Rząd znalazł się w nadrzędzie "Commelinanae" Takht., podklasie "Commelinidae" Takht. w obrębie okrytonasiennych umieszczonych w randze klasy. +Warschau (KL) + +KL Warschau (niem. Konzentrationslager Warschau) – nazistowski niemiecki obóz koncentracyjny na terenie Warszawy, będący jednym z elementów realizacji planu zniszczenia 95% powierzchni zabudowanej stolicy, określanego jako tzw. "Plan Pabsta", który przewidywał ostateczne zniszczenie Warszawy jako stolicy Polski. +W miejscu miasta hitlerowcy zamierzali wybudować "Nowe niemieckie miasto Warszawa" (niem. ""Die neue deutsche Stadt Warschau"" ) przeznaczone dla elity niemieckiej. KL Warschau podlegał bezpośrednio Głównemu Urzędowi Gospodarki i Administracji SS a także Głównemu Urzędowi Bezpieczeństwa Rzeszy. +Obóz ten był ewenementem: był bowiem jedynym obozem koncentracyjnym zlokalizowanym w centrum miasta-stolicy państwa europejskiego pod okupacją niemiecką. +Historia. +Powstanie KL Warschau. +W związku z niemieckimi planami stopniowej redukcji, a właściwie likwidacji stolicy Polski, gdzie na obszarze lewobrzeżnej Warszawy planowano miejsce dla około 100 000 "Herrenvolk", a w prawobrzeżnej części mieli zamieszkiwać Polacy i Żydzi stanowiący siłę roboczą dla Niemców, zaszła konieczność założenia w centrum miasta obozu koncentracyjnego KL Warschau. Plan Pabsta z 1940 roku nie został od razu zrealizowany, w związku z większym oporem mieszkańców niż się spodziewano. +Zespół obozowy miał gromadzić więźniów, głównie Żydów pracujących w niemieckich zakładach przemysłowych, a ci mieli być rozsyłani stąd do obozów zagłady. Plan ten nie został do końca zrealizowany wobec różnic zdań i interesów wśród samych Niemców. +Z getta warszawskiego wywieziono do końca 1942 ok. 300 tysięcy ludzi, w dniu wydania przez Himmlera rozkazu w Warszawie przebywało ok. 1 mln ludzi, a liczba pozostałych przy życiu Żydów warszawskich w dniu wybuchu powstania w getcie warszawskim 19 kwietnia 1943 (w dwa miesiące po wydaniu rozkazu) wynosiła ok. 68 000 osób – zatem oprócz ludności żydowskiej, rozkaz dotyczący likwidacji 500 000 mieszkańców dotyczył w większości pozostających w stolicy Polaków. +Organizacja obozu. +Obóz ten miał zatem służyć nie tylko jako obóz pracy służący pozyskiwaniu wszelkiego mienia z terenu getta i wywożeniu go potem do Niemiec, ale także jako obóz koncentracyjny służący segregacji mieszkańców Warszawy (głównie Żydów) rozsyłanych do innych obozów oraz likwidacji więźniów, ich rozstrzeliwaniu i paleniu zwłok. +Według dokumentów niemieckich z tego okresu nazwa KL Warschau dotyczy przede wszystkim obozu umieszczonego pomiędzy dzisiejszymi ulicami Zamenhofa, Okopową, i ówczesnymi: Wołyńską, Ostrowską, Glinianą, wzdłuż ulicy Gęsiej (tzw. Gęsiówki); według Marii Trzcińskiej, także kilku obozów pracy, m.in. na Kole. W różnych okresach wojny, różne te obiekty wchodziły w obręb jednego obozu samodzielnego lub podobozu Majdanka. Rozkazem Heinricha Himmlera z 11 czerwca 1943 do KL Warschau włączono także warszawskie więzienie Pawiak przy ul. Dzielnej. Stąd zakres czasowo-przestrzenny udokumentowanej nazwy KL Warschau budzi kontrowersje. +Nie jest jasna liczba więźniów, która mogła przebywać w tych kompleksach obozowych, wedle najnowszych ustaleń mogło tam przebywać od 12 000 do 40 000 osób. Całkowita powierzchnia kompleksu obozowego wynosiła 120 hektarów, znajdowało się na nim 119 baraków mogących pomieścić do 40 000 więźniów oraz kilka krematoriów, w tym jedno elektryczne. + +Od połowy maja 1943 do połowy sierpnia 1944 w ruinach getta warszawskiego Niemcy masowo rozstrzeliwali mieszkańców Warszawy oraz miejscowości podwarszawskich (przede wszystkim więźniów Pawiaka, zakładników zatrzymywanych w czasie masowych łapanek oraz Żydów schwytanych po "aryjskiej stronie"). Niektóre egzekucje były przeprowadzane na terenie KL Warschau i uczestniczyli w nich członkowie załogi obozu. Zwłoki pomordowanych były palone przez tzw. "komanda śmierci" złożone głównie z żydowskich więźniów, których samych likwidowali potem Niemcy. Początkowo ciała palono na prymitywnych stosach drewna polanych benzyną, później w krematoriach o coraz doskonalszej technologii spalania. +Jak dowodzą świadectwa, istniały komory gazowe przy ul. Gęsiej 26, gdzie zamordowano ofiary łapanek oraz nieliczne transporty żydowskie (m.in. z Belgii). Faktu zagazowywania więźniów polskich i żydowskich w komorach gazowych przy ulicy Gęsiej dowodzą także meldunki kierowane przez wywiad podziemia do Delegatury Rządu na Kraj. Meldunek nr 219 z dnia 3 listopada 1943 stwierdzał, opierając się o sprawozdania dwóch więźniów obozu, że w nocy z 17 na 18 października 1943 zagazowano po raz pierwszy 150 Polaków, którzy zostali schwytani w łapankach w Warszawie oraz 20 więźniów narodowości żydowskiej pochodzących z Belgii. +Przypuszcza się, że pełna liczba śmiertelnych ofiar - zarówno więźniów obozu (zazwyczaj Żydów przywiezionych z różnych państw Europy), jak i mieszkańców Warszawy i okolic - mogła sięgać według ostatnich ustaleń 20 000, co stoi w sprzeczności z liczbą 200 000 ofiar – jak szacowała wcześniej Maria Trzcińska z Głównej Komisji Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce. +Przed wybuchem powstania warszawskiego w 1944 roku hitlerowcy zaczęli ewakuować obóz. Zorganizowali wymarsz ok. 4000 więźniów do Dachau – był to marsz śmierci, gdzie wielu zginęło po drodze z wyczerpania, głodu, chorób, a zbyt słabych, żeby iść, rozstrzeliwano. +W pierwszych dniach powstania po brawurowym ataku batalionu AK "Zośka" na "Gęsiówkę", będącą centralnym punktem KL Warschau, uwolniono pozostałych tam przy życiu 348 Żydów. +Kontrowersje wokół tuneli przy dworcu Warszawa Zachodnia. +Niemcy mieli przystosować do tego celu betonowe tunele pod linią kolejową. Wedle niepotwierdzonych i budzących kontrowersje tez (dotyczących m.in. możliwości technologicznych domniemanych obiektów) w tej komorze zginęłoby ok. 200 000 osób. Według zwolenników tej hipotezy, wskazują na to zeznania niemieckich oficerów mówiące o instrukcjach nakazujących uśmiercanie w Warszawie 400 osób dziennie, co ich zdaniem wymagałyby zastosowania metod lub urządzeń masowej zagłady. +Przeciwko tej hipotezie przemawia fakt, że w tym przypadku w ciągu roku 1943 i pierwszej połowy roku 1944 musiałaby w Warszawie zniknąć bez śladu ponad 1/5 ludności. +Także meldunki ruchu oporu donosiły o zabijaniu więźniów gazem, nie jest jednak pewne, czy dotyczyły one rejonu tuneli czy KL Warschau jako całości. Badania historyków Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej przeprowadzone do 2002 (przed wznowieniem śledztwa w tym samym roku) nie potwierdziły jednak tak dużego ubytku ludności warszawskiej w okresie działalności tego obozu, jak również nie stwierdziły jednoznacznie faktu istnienia komór gazowych w tunelu – wskazując iż funkcjonowanie wielkiej komory gazowej w tunelu w ciągu ul. Bema przy dworcu Warszawa Zachodnia nie zostało ustalone jednoznacznie w okresie okupacji przez wywiad organizacji podziemnych, jak również podczas śledztwa prowadzonego bezpośrednio po wojnie. +IPN stwierdził także w specjalnym raporcie z czerwca 2002, na podstawie decyzji o umorzeniu śledztwa z dnia 30 maja 1996, iż: "nie jest możliwe określenie liczby ofiar zamordowanych w tym obozie". +Część tunelu przy dworcu Warszawa Zachodnia przeznaczona dla ruchu pieszego i rowerowego jest od lat nieoficjalnym mauzoleum domniemanych ofiar. Ściany pełne są plakatów dotyczących tematyki KL Warschau. +Pod koniec września 2007 roku IPN opublikował szczegółowy raport zawierający analizę i dokumenty na temat funkcjonowania KL Warschau. Raport nie rozstrzygnął ostatecznie, iż w tunelach przy dworcu Warszawa Zachodnia miałyby znajdować się komory gazowe. Także liczba osób pomordowanych w całym kompleksie KL Warschau oszacowano na 20 000 ofiar. Ustalenia IPN skrytykowała Maria Trzcińska, dotyczyły one głównie zasięgu terytorialnego obozu KL Warschau oraz liczby pomordowanych w nim ludzi. +Obóz pracy Warszawa. +Pierwsze dochodzenie w sprawie KL Warschau prowadzono już w 1945, jednak niespodziewanie zostało ono przerwane z powodu utworzenia w budynkach poobozowych po wojnie obozu pracy wykorzystywanego przez NKWD do więzienia i eksterminacji Polaków, głównie ze środowisk AK, sprzeciwiających się uzależnieniu Polski od ZSRR. Na początku 1945, od stycznia do maja, przy ul. Gęsiej funkcjonował obóz NKWD. W straszliwych warunkach przetrzymywano tam żołnierzy Armii Krajowej, jeńców niemieckich i "innych przestępców". Zachowały się fragmentaryczne przekazy o egzekucjach w tym obozie, dokonywanych przez NKWD. W obozie tym poniosło śmierć ok. 1800 osób. +Niedługo potem w tym samym miejscu powołano "Centralny Obóz dla Odbudowy Warszawy" nadzorowany przez UB, który do roku 1949 był największym miejscem koncentracji jeńców niemieckich. Po ich zwolnieniu na mocy rozkazu ministra Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego Stanisława Radkiewicza powołano "Centralne Więzienie – Ośrodek Pracy", nazywane także "Centralne Więzienie Warszawa II Gęsiówka". Więzieni byli tu głównie więźniowie komunistyczni, wrogowie ustroju, skazywani przez "Komisję Specjalną do Walki z Nadużyciami i Szkodnictwem Gospodarczym" za takie przestępstwa jak prywatny handel czy dowcipy polityczne (tzw. "propaganda szeptana"). W obozie tym powstawały m.in. elementy budowlane do budowy Pałacu Kultury i Nauki im. Józefa Stalina. Obóz niemiecki działał ponad rok, więzienie ostatecznie zlikwidowano w 1956 roku. +W latach 60. XX wieku w miejscu obozu utworzono park pomiędzy nowymi blokami Muranowa, sam budynek Gęsiówki został rozebrany pomimo licznych protestów. W ten sposób ślady zbrodni hitlerowskich i komunistycznych zostały zatarte. +Śledztwo. +Dochodzenie z 1945 zostało bardzo szybko przerwane wobec faktu utworzenia obozu pracy na terenie KL Warschau. W 1946 podczas częściowej ekshumacji szczątków ludzkich z terenu obozu zebrano ponad 2 tony prochów, a we wszystkich miejscach egzekucji i kremacji w Warszawie wg danych PCK ogółem 22 tony. W sierpniu 1946 odbył się wielki i symboliczny pogrzeb tysięcy zamordowanych mieszkańców Warszawy – prochy przewieziono na Cmentarz Wolski w 117 trumnach 9 ton prochów ludzkich skremowanych na terenie całej Warszawy. Z prochów usypano kurhan, na którym w latach 70. stanął pomnik Polegli Niepokonani. +W 1973 Główna Komisja Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce wznowiła śledztwo, w reakcji na odezwę prokuratury niemieckiej o przekazanie wszystkich materiałów dowodowych do śledztwa w sprawie KL Warschau prowadzonego w Niemczech. W 1976 znowu przerwano prace śledcze. +Ponowne wznowienie dochodzenia nastąpiło w 1982 przez Główną Komisję Badania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu, prowadziła je z ramienia tej instytucji sędzia Maria Trzcińska, która badając ślady dotyczące egzekucji ulicznych w okupowanej Warszawie, natrafiła na dowody, świadczące, iż dokonywano ich w KL Warschau. +Do 1996 dwukrotnie przerywano śledztwo, mimo to udało się zebrać ok. 40 tomów akt dotyczących sprawy KL Warschau, nie wszystkie dokumenty jednak przeanalizowano, gdyż IPN nie mógł dostarczyć komisji dokumentów przekazywanych od 1973 do Niemiec. +Stanowisko Dyrekcji Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego. +Dyrektor Muzeum Powstania Warszawskiego, Jan Ołdakowski, kwestionuje podawaną przez Marię Trzcińską liczbę ofiar KL Warschau, argumentując, że niemożliwym było wymordowanie w ciągu trzech lat setek tysięcy warszawiaków i nie pozostawienie śladów. W wywiadzie dla "Dziennika" wspomniał, że odmówił promocji w muzeum książki Marii Trzcińskiej, co było przyczyną zorganizowania manifestacji przeciwko niemu. +Stan obecny. +27 lipca 2001 Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej wydał, w 57. rocznicę zakończenia zbrodniczej działalności obozu, uchwałę w sprawie upamiętnienia ofiar KL Warschau. Sejm zwrócił się z apelem, o wzniesienie pomnika oraz inkorporowanie do wybudowanego pomnika ku czci ofiar KL Warschau kamienia węgielnego, który został poświęcony przez Jana Pawła II. IPN w pełni popiera budowę pomnika pomordowanych w KL Warschau. +W sierpniu 2006 podjęto decyzję o odebraniu śledztwa warszawskiemu IPN i przekazaniu go do IPN w Łodzi, po czym od 2007 roku ponownie prowadzone jest ono w Warszawie. +24 maja 2009 roku abp. Kazimierz Nycz poświęcił tablicę upamiętniającą Polaków zamordowanych w obozie zagłady KL Warschau, a umieszczoną przy wejściu do kościoła pod wezwaniem św. Stanisława B. i M. przy ul. Bema. +Bibliografia. +Wykaz bibliografii dla serii artykułów o niemieckich obozach w latach 1933-1945 został umieszczony na osobnej stronie. +Joachim Murat + +Joachim Murat (ur. 25 marca 1767 w Labastide-Fortunière (ob. Labastide-Murat), Francja, zm. 13 października 1815 w Pizzo, Włochy) – marszałek Francji, książę Bergu, król Neapolu 1808-1815. +Syn Pierre'a Murata-Jordy'ego (zm. 27 lipca 1799), oberżysty. Do wojska wstąpił w 1787, służył w czasie rewolucji francuskiej. Zasłużył się Napoleonowi w Paryżu w 1795, gdzie pomógł mu stłumić bunt rojalistów. Był jego adiutantem od 1796 i służył pod nim we Włoszech i w Egipcie. W 1799 został generałem dywizji. Wróciwszy z Napoleonem do Francji, poparł go w zamachu 9 listopada 1799. +W 1800 roku poślubił najmłodszą siostrę Napoleona – Karolinę Bonaparte. Murat wsławił się jako dowódca kawalerii w 1800 pod Marengo, był w przeciągu swojej kariery jednym z najbardziej brawurowych dowódców napoleońskich. +W 1804 był gubernatorem Paryża i został marszałkiem Francji, a w 1805, będąc dowódcą kawalerii Wielkiej Armii, miał swój udział m.in. w zwycięstwie pod Austerlitz. W 1806 pod Jeną-Auerstedt pokonał armię pruską, potem ścigał Prusaków i pod koniec listopada wkroczył triumfalnie do Warszawy, gdzie negocjował z księciem Józefem Poniatowskim objęcie przez niego przywództwa armii polskiej. Pozostał z nim od tego czasu zaprzyjaźniony, książę Józef podarował mu szablę Stefana Batorego. +W 1807 pod Iławą Pruską jego decydująca szarża dała Francuzom zwycięstwo. W 1808 krwawo stłumił antyfrancuski opór w Hiszpanii, co umożliwiło objęcie tronu hiszpańskiego przez Józefa Bonapartego, a jemu samemu zostanie królem Neapolu jako Joachim Napoleon. W wyprawie na Moskwę 1812 dowódca kawalerii Wielkiej Armii, odznaczył się pod Borodino. Po odejściu Napoleona faktyczny dowódca armii, a gdy swym nieudolnym dowództwem doprowadził ją do klęski, zdał dowództwo Eugeniuszowi Beauharnais i powrócił do Neapolu próbując ratować swoje królestwo. W 1813 pobił Austriaków pod Dreznem i walczył pod Lipskiem. Mimo że wszystko zawdzięczał Napoleonowi, w swojej lojalności względem niego był niestały, mając za priorytet utrzymanie Królestwa Neapolitańskiego. +Po klęsce w 1814 opuścił Napoleona i uzyskał od jego przeciwników gwarancję utrzymania swojego tronu. +Kongres wiedeński jednak nie podtrzymał gwarancji, więc Murat podczas "stu dni" znowu przeszedł na stronę Napoleona. Pod hasłem zjednoczenia Włoch zaatakował w marcu 1815 Austrię, ale został pokonany w bitwie pod Tolentino 2-3 maja i zbiegł do Francji, a potem na Korsykę. Po ostatecznej klęsce Napoleona udał się z garstką zwolenników na wybrzeże Kalabrii, próbując odzyskać tron neapolitański (ogłosił się królem). Został tam jednak pojmany przez siły rywala Ferdynanda I, skazany na śmierć i rozstrzelany. +Potomstwo +Potomkowie jego i żony Karoliny Bonaparte, wielokrotnie spokrewnieni z Bonapartami, a także z prastarymi rodami francuskimi oraz polskim rodem hrabiów Gołuchowskich (hrabia Agenor Maria Gołuchowski ożenil się z Anną Murat, prawnuczką Joachima), zaliczają się dziś do najwyższej arystokracji francuskiej ("Prince de Murat, Prince français, Altesse Impériale"). +Niezwykłe przygody kapitana Antifera + +Niezwykłe przygody kapitana Antifera (inne wersje tytułu polskiego przekładu: Nadzwyczajne przygody pana Antifera lub Zadziwiające przygody kapitana Antifera) (fr. "Mirifiques Aventures de Maître Antifer") – dwutomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" wydana w 1894 roku. +Obie części zawierają po 16 rozdziałów. Polski przekład w odcinkach (pod tytułem "Nadzwyczajne przygody pana Antifera", przetłumaczyła Bronisława Kowalska) zaczął pojawiać się w 1894 w tygodniku "Przyjaciel Dzieci", natomiast na wydanie książkowe przyszło czekać polskiemu czytelnikowi do 2003. +Small office/home office + +"Small Office/Home Office" (akronim SOHO) – termin oznaczający małe przedsiębiorstwa prowadzące niewielkie, zwykle przydomowe biura księgowo/administracyjne. Jest to także skrót określający segment rynku sprzętu biurowego nastawiony na zaopatrywanie tego rodzaju małych, przydomowych biur. +Tego rodzaju małe biura rozpowszechniły się w USA i Europie wraz z pojawieniem się tanich komputerów osobistych, w latach '80 XX w. Zwykle tego rodzaju biura prowadzą przedstawiciele wolnych zawodów (webmasterzy, konsultanci, niezależni księgowi, doradcy podatkowi, tłumacze, architekci, lekarze z własną praktyką itd.), choć coraz częściej wiele dużych firm (np. redakcje czasopism) decyduje się na rozproszenie części swojej działalności biurowej, umożliwiając wykonywanie jej z przydomowych biur. +Rozwój oprogramowania dla segmentu "SOHO" miał miejsce w pierwszej połowie lat '90 XX w. Wiele firm produkujących oprogramowanie dla dużych biur zaczęło wypuszczać na rynek zubożone i tańsze jego wersje z przeznaczeniem dla tego segmentu rynku. Jednym z pierwszych tego rodzaju produktów był pakiet zintegrowany o nazwie WordPerfect Works wyprodukowany przez WordPerfect Corporation. Podobne produkty w tym samym czasie wypuścił też na rynek Microsoft (Microsoft Office – home edition, Microsoft Works) i wiele innych firm. +Współcześnie popularność tego rodzaju produktów spada, ze względu na dostępność bezpłatnych, nieokrojonych i w pełni funkcjonalnych pakietów biurowych takich jak OpenOffice, KOffice, GNOME Office. +Borynia (Ukraina) + +Borynia (ukr. "Бориня") - osiedle typu miejskiego w zachodniej Ukrainie, w obwodzie lwowskim, w rejonie turczańskim. Status osiedla typu miejskiego uzyskała w 1981 r. Liczy około 1627 mieszkańców. Pierwsze wzmianki o miejscowości pochodzą z 1552 r. +W 1921 r. liczyła około 1791 mieszkańców z czego 318 (17,7% ogółu mieszkańców) stanowili Żydzi, którzy mieli tu swoją synagogę. W latach 1919-1939 miejscowość należała do Polski i wchodziła w skład powiatu turczańskiego województwa lwowskiego. 28 września 1944 miejscowość została zajęta przez wojska radzieckie. +Asyryjczycy + +Asyryjczycy, Asyro-chaldejczycy, (arm. ܥܡܐ ܐܬܘܪܝܐ/ܣܘܪܝܝܐ) − naród semicki zamieszkujący północny Irak, Iran, południową Turcję i Syrię. Asyryjczycy są uważani za jeden z rdzennych narodów na Bliskim Wschodzie. Za ich ojczyznę uważa się tereny położone wokół Tygrysu i Eufratu. +Zamieszkanie. +Nawiązują do tradycji starożytnej Asyrii oraz Chaldei i uważają się za spadkobierców tych państw. Posługują się językiem aramejskim i jego dialektami, używanymi na terenie Międzyrzecza przed podbojem arabskim. Są też jednym z najstarszych narodów które przyjęły chrześcijaństwo, nastąpiło to w II wieku n.e. Obecnie zamieszkują przede wszystkim równinę Niniwy, położoną wzdłuż rzek Tygrys, Khabur a Wielki Zab i stanowią tam ponad 80% ludności. Istnieje nieskonkretyzowany plan aby utworzyć tam jednostkę administracyjną w postaci guberni lub autonomii. +Asyryjczycy zamieszkują także w rozproszeniu południowe obszary Turcji, część Syrii, Libanu, Iranu, pozostałej części Iraku i Jordanii. W Iranie są oficjalnie uznaną mniejszością narodową. Diaspora asyryjska istnieje na całym świecie, największa w Szwecji, Francji, Niemczech, USA, Kanadzie, Australii, Brazylii i Rosji. W Polsce istnieje mała diaspora. Światowa diaspora powstała w wyniku emigracji i ucieczek ludności od prześladowań większości islamskiej, głównie tureckiej i kurdyjskiej. Obecnie Kurdowie są bardziej przyjaźnie nastawieni do Asyryjczyków, choć zdarzają się sytuacje, gdy asyryjskie domy są zajmowane przez Kurdów, Arabów lub Turków, a ludność wypędzana. +Irak - 800.000 - 1.500.000, na początku XX wieku - ok. 2.500.000, +Syria - 877.000, +Liban - 100.000, +Iran - 80.000, +Turcja - 23.000, jeszcze na początku XX wieku przed ludobójstwem, stanowili 1.500.000. +Język. +Większość Asyryjczyków posługuje się dialektami nowoaramejskimi języka aramejskiego, współcześnie także zwanym językiem asyryjskim, zapisywanym pismem syriackim. Język aramejski jest dialektem wywodzącym się od języka akkadyjskiego, używanego na terenach Mezopotamii, już 3000 lat p.n.e. Część Asyryjczyków używa także języka arabskiego, tureckiego i perskiego. +Religia. +Asyryjczycy są chrześcijanami, należą przede wszystkim do wschodnich kościołów (Kościół chaldejski, Asyryjski Kościół Wschodu zwany również błędnie "nestoriańskim", Syryjski Kościół Ortodoksyjny zwany również błędnie "jakobickim", Kościół katolicki obrządku syryjskiego). Niewielka cześć wyznaje także rzymski katolicyzm i protestantyzm. +Kultura. +Asyryjska odzież jest różna. Odzież jest zazwyczaj niebieska, z elementami czerwonymi, zielonymi, żółtymi i fioletowymi, te kolory są również używane jako haft na białym ubraniu. Dekoracja jest rozrzutna w strojach asyryjskich, a czasem wymaga biżuterii. Powszechne w użyciu są stożkowe kapelusze, tradycyjny strój asyryjski zmienił się niewiele, od tych, które noszono w starożytnej Mezopotamii. +Asyryjska kuchnia jest podobna do innych kuchni Bliskiego Wschodu. Jest bogata w zboża, mięsa, ziemniaki i pomidory. Zazwyczaj ryż jest serwowany do każdego posiłku, z polewanym gulaszem. Herbata jest popularnym napojem, i istnieje kilka regionalnych potraw: desery, przekąski i napoje. Alkoholowe napoje takie jak wino i piwo pszeniczne są produkowane i używane w przeciwieństwie do muzułmańskiej ludności Iraku czy Iranu. +Festiwale są bardzo ciekawe. Asyryjskie festiwale wydają się być ściśle związane z ich wiarą chrześcijańską, z których Wielkanoc jest najważniejsza. Podczas Wielkiego Postu, Asyryjczycy przestrzegają 50-dniowego postu, polegajacym na powstrzymaniu się od jedzenia mięsa i innych pokarmów pochodzenia zwierzęcego. +Asyryjczycy również praktykują unikalne ceremonie weselne. Rytuały wykonywane w trakcie wesela pochodzą z wielu różnych elementów z przeszłości aż 3.000 lat. Ślub asyryjski tradycyjnie trwał tydzień. Dzisiaj, wesela w asyryjskiej ojczyźnie trwają zwykle 2-3 dni, w asyryjskiej diasporze, ok. 2 dni. +Historia współczesna. +Podobnie jak Ormianie, Asyryjczycy byli poddani ludobójstwu ze strony Turków w czasie I wojny światowej. Ruch młodoturecki wymordował setki tysięcy Asyryjczyków. W 1933 roku popierana przez rząd iracki masakra w Simele pozbawiła życia 3 tys. Asyryjczyków. +Za swoich rządów Saddam Husajn szukał współpracy z Asyryjczykami w celu poróżnienia ich z Kurdami, co miało udaremnić umacnianie się opozycji antyrządowej w Iraku, którą Asyryjczycy na przełomie lat 60. i 70. XX wieku wspierali, walcząc razem z kurdyjskimi peszmergami przeciwko partii Baas. Kiedy Saddamowi nie udało się pozyskać poparcia Asyryjczyków, próbował on poprzez wspieranie Chaldejskiego Kościoła Katolickiego pomniejszyć wagę identyfikacji etnicznej Asyryjczyków na rzecz ich tożsamości religijnej poprzez fundacje budynków sakralnych i wspieranie finansowe chaldejskiej diaspory. Chrześcijanie pod rządami Baas nie byli prześladowani z powodu swej wiary (Boże Narodzenie było świętem państwowym w Iraku), a gospodarczo zajmowali się głównie tym sektorem gospodarki, od którego stronili pobożni muzułmanie, a więc prowadzili sklepy monopolowe, sklepy z muzyką, salony fryzjerskie i piękności oraz organizowaniem publicznej rozrywki. +Od czasów II wojny w Zatoce Perskiej w 2003 roku, w okresie tzw. "stabilizacji", Asyryjczycy w Iraku są ofiarami prześladowań ze strony islamskiej większości. W parlamencie Kurdystanu posiadają 5 miejsc. Wszystkie frakcje asyryjskie opowiadają się za powstaniem asyryjskiej prowincji bądź autonomii. Za autonomią asyryjską opowiada się również obecny prezydent Iraku Dżalal Talabani, a także Jazydzi którzy w dzisiejszym Iraku też są ofiarami prześladowań. Wielu Asyryjczyków, w wyniku ataków - głównie arabskich muzułmanów, w takich miastach jak Bagdad, Nasirijja i Basra, przeniosło się na północ do swoich terenów ojczystych i obecnie w większości są tam skupieni. Powiązani etnicznie i językowo Mandaici postępują tak samo. +Media asyryjskie. +Internet. +Istnieje także wikipedia w języku aramejskim. +Piotr Kletowski + +Piotr Kletowski (ur. 1975) – polski filmoznawca. Znawca kina azjatyckiego, krytyk filmowy, historyk filmu. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia filmoznawcze na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w Krakowie (praca magisterska na temat Takeshiego Kitano, doktorat w 2004 na temat Stanleya Kubricka). Pracuje jako asystent na Wydziale Filologicznym UJ, w Instytucie Filologii Orientalnej, gdzie prowadzi wykłady z kultury Chin i Japonii; a także w Instytucie Studiów Regionalnych UJ (estetyka obrazu filmowego, historia kina światowego, kino Bliskiego Wschodu, kulturotwórcze znaczenie sztuki filmowej, trzecie kino w perspektywie antropologicznej), jest wykładowcą w Krakowskiej Akademii im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego. Jest współtwórcą i wykładowcą Krakowskiej Szkoły Scenariuszowej. +Od 1997 redaktor działu filmowego "Ha!artu". Publikuje recenzje i artykuły w pismach filmoznawczych takich jak "Kwartalnik Filmowy", "Kino", czy "Celuloid", a także w "Czasie Kultury", "Tygodniku Powszechnym" oraz (w latach 1999-2003) "Metro". Tworzy programy radiowe i telewizyjne o tematyce filmowej. Organizuje i prowadzi wykłady i pokazy filmowe w Krakowie (Klub "Pod Jaszczurami", Centrum Sztuki Japońskiej "Manggha", UJ). +Realizuje filmy offowe, m.in. "Jutro koniec świata" (Kielce 2000). +Pałac Sztuki w Krakowie + +Pałac Sztuki – gmach Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie przy Placu Szczepańskim 4. +Budowla została wzniesiona w latach 1898-1901. Secesyjny gmach zaprojektował architekt Franciszek Mączyński, wzorując się na słynnym pawilonie wystawowym Secesji w Wiedniu. W dekoracji Pałacu Sztuki brali udział najwybitniejsi artyści krakowscy. Efektowny fryz, ukazujący zmienność losów artysty, zaprojektował Jacek Malczewski. Antoni Madeyski, Konstanty Laszczka i Teodor Rygier wykonali popiersia mistrzów szczególnie zasłużonych dla sztuki polskiej. Fasadę pałacu zdobi portyk kolumnowy, zwieńczony figurą Apollina w słonecznej aureoli. Dach budynku jest blaszany, częściowo przeszklony. Od Placu Szczepańskiego znajduje się popiersie Jana Matejki dłuta Antoniego Madeyskiego, odpowiada mu od strony Plant popiersie Stanisława Wyspiańskiego dłuta Anny Reynoch. Ściany zdobią pilastry, spłaszczone łuki okien oraz przede wszystkim wejściowy portyk z dwoma kolumnami. +Gmach pełni funkcję galerii sztuki. Z inicjatywy członków Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych i reprezentantów Rotary Club, odbywają się tam prezentacje polskiej sztuki współczesnej, jak i wystawy artystów zagranicznych. +W gmachu organizowane są również aukcje dzieł sztuki. +Southampton + +Southampton – miasto portowe, położone na południu Anglii w hrabstwie ceremonialnym Hampshire. +W mieście znajduje się port, z którego wypływały takie statki jak: "Titanic", "Queen Mary" czy "Queen Elizabeth". Stamtąd wypłynął "Titanic", największy wówczas statek na świecie, w swój dziewiczy rejs. W Southampton znajdowała się także wytwórnia lotnicza Supermarine, która wytwarzała słynne samoloty myśliwskie Spitfire. +W mieście znajdują się dwa uniwersytety: University of Southampton i Southampton Solent University. W mieście gra klub piłkarski Southampton Football Club. Główną stacją kolejową miasta jest Southampton Central. +3 Pułk Strzelców Konnych im. Hetmana Stefana Czarnieckiego + +3 Pułk Strzelców Konnych im. Hetmana Polnego Koronnego Stefana Czarnieckiego (3 psk) - oddział kawalerii Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Pułk stacjonował w garnizonie Wołkowysk, eksterytorialnie na obszarze Okręgu Korpusu Nr III . +Święto pułku obchodzone było 27 kwietnia, w rocznicę połączenia się wszystkich szwadronów w 1922, w Białymstoku. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 walczył w składzie Suwalskiej Brygady Kawalerii wchodzącej w skład Samodzielnej Grupy Operacyjnej "Narew". 20 września wchodzi w skład improwizowanej Dywizji Kawalerii "Zaza", walcząc 21 i 22 września w Kalinkowiczach i 28 września nad Wieprzem. +29 września wszedł w skład Samodzielnej Grupy Operacyjnej "Polesie" i wziął udział w bitwie pod Kockiem. 6 października 1939 stoczył ostatni bój w Kalinowym Dole. Nie kapituluje. +Formowanie pułku. +27 kwietnia 1922 w Białymstoku nastąpiło połączenie wszystkich szwadronów. Dowódcą pułku został płk Władysław Tomaszewicz z byłej armii rosyjskiej (dowodzący w boju z powozu). +Historia wojenna dywizjonów. +Szwadrony dywizjonu 1 pułku strzelców konnych, którego tradycje przejął późniejszy 1 szwadron 3 psk sformowano niezależnie od siebie. 1 szwadron jako "Szwadron Jazdy Ziemi Kujawskiej" sformowano w okolicach Włocławka. Stosowano wówczas tradycyjny w wojsku polskim sposób rekrutacji terytorialnej. Organizatorami szwadronu byli: rtm. Henryk Bzowski i ppor. Józef Głębocki. Materialnie wspierał ich właściciel ziemski Mokrzycki. Początkowo szwadron nosił numer 7 i wchodził w skład 2 pułku ułanów. W marcu 1919 liczył ok. 140 szabel. +Szwadron wziął udział w wyprawie wileńskiej w grupie ppłk. Władysława Beliny-Prażmowskiego. W czerwcu 1919 wydzielono szwadron z 2 p.uł i jako l szw wszedł on w skład l pułku dragonów. Po przemianowaniu pułków dragonów na pułki strzelców konnych - został l szwadronem 1 pułku strzelców konnych. 27 kwietnia 1922 przybył do Białegostoku, gdzie wszedł w skład 3 psk jako jego l szwadron. +Formowanie 2 szwadronu l dywizjonu rozpoczęto w listopadzie 1918 w Lubomlu na Wołyniu. Początkowo przyjął on nazwę "Lubomiski Szwadron Marszowy 1 Pułku Ułanów". Jego organizatorem był pchor. Bolesław Niklewicz. W grudniu oddział liczył 50 szabel. Jego dowódcą został został por. Gustaw Grzybowski. 21 marca 1919 do szwadronu wcielono oddział jazdy zorganizowany w Zamościu przez pchor. Dezyderiusza Zawistowskiego, a w kwietniu - pluton pod dowództwem ochotnika Gorzkowskiego z Włodzimierza Wołyńskiego. W tym czasie ppor. Bolesław Wolicki zorganizował pluton karabinów maszynowych na taczankach. Dowództwo szwadronu objął por. Zbigniew Brochwicz-Lewiński. W sierpniu 1919 szwadron detaszowany do 1 pułku szwoleżerów odszedł do Warszawy, a w październiku przemianowany został na szwadron l pułku dragonów. W styczniu 1920 z 1 szwadronu wyodrębniono 2 szwadron l psk. +Odszedł wówczas na front łotewski nad Dźwiną, by ostatecznie utworzyć wraz z l szwadronem 1 dywizjon l psk. W maju 1921 weszła w życie pokojowa organizacja wojska. Dywizjon obejmujący 1 i 2 szwadron l psk został rozformowany, a jego żołnierze pod dowództwem rtm. Grzybowskiego weszli w skład 3 psk, stacjonując początkowo w Połoczanach,a później w Grodnie. +Dywizjon "Huzarów Śmierci" sformowano jako oddział jazdy ochotniczej w okresie bitwy warszawskiej latem 1920. Organizował go por. Józef Siła-Nowicki. W skład dywizjonu weszli żołnierze z oddziałów mjr. Jaworskiego, z pułku jazdy tatarskiej i ochotnicy. Zaprzysiężenie dywizjonu nastąpiło w Prostyni pod Małkinią. Liczył on wówczas 511 szabel i 20 karabinów maszynowych. Dywizjon walczył w dniach 14-16 sierpnia 1920 pod Radzyminem, a następnie kontynuował pościg za uchodzącymi oddziałami nieprzyjacielskimi, odznaczając się brawurowo wykonaną szarżą pod Myszyńcem. W wyniku pokojowej organizacji wojska wszedł w skład 3 psk. +Inne dywizjony. +"Dywizjony, które w latach 1918/1921 nosiły numer i nazwę 3 pułku strzelców konnych, ale ostatecznie nie weszły w skład omawianej jednostki." +3 dywizjon 3 psk nakazano sformować 31 października 1919. W jego skład weszły dwa szwadrony konnych zwiadowców, wyłączonych z trzech pułków piechoty Dywizji Litewsko-Białoruskiej. 1 szwadron pod dowództwem por. Stanisława Czuczełowicza, liczący ok. 110 szabel, od grudnia 1918 działał jako "Szwadron Grodzieńskich Ułanów" i pełnił funkcje konnych zwiadowców grodzieńskiego pułku strzelców. +2 szwadron stanowili konni zwiadowcy mińskiego i wileńskiego pułku piechoty pod dowództwem rtm. Jerzego Ursyn-Niemcewicza. Dywizjon ten nie wszedł w skład 3 psk, lecz stał się zalążkiem 23 pułku ułanów. +W latach 1918/19 istniał też na terenie Małopolski "1 szwadron 3 pułku strzelców konnych". Jego organizatorem był rtm. Józef Dunin-Borkowski. W skład szwadronu wchodzili ochotnicy z byłej armii austriackiej, korpusu gen. J. Dowbor-Muśnickiego, grupa studentów z SGGW z Warszawy oraz studenci z Krakowa. Szwadron ten stał się zalążkiem 9 pułku ułanów. +Pułk w okresie pokoju. +3 pułk strzelców konnych powołany został do życia 4 października 1921 rozkazem MSWojsk. - Oddz. 1 Sztabu L. 2339/org. Połączenie wszystkich szwadronów, nastąpiło 27 kwietnia 1922 i dzień ten uznano za święto pułkowe. Jesienią 1921 dowództwo pułku dysponowało tylko 5 szwadronem (dawnym 8) jako oddziałem sztabowym. W owym czasie liczył on 60 kawalerzystów i 50 koni. W dalszej kolejności dołączył do pułku 1 szwadron rtm. Gustawa Grzybowskiego i 3 szwadron rtm. Władysława Kamińskiego z dywizjonu "Huzarów Śmierci". Jako ostatni przybył 2 szwadron rtm. Wilhelma Wilczyńskiego. 8 grudnia 1922 pułk zajął koszary po rosyjskim oddziale artylerii w Wołkowysku. 17 maja 1924 sformowano 4 szwadron, szwadron karabinów maszynowych, szwadron zapasowy i pluton łączności. +7 listopada 1936 Minister Spraw Wojskowych nadał 3 psk nazwę "3 Pułk Strzelców Konnych imienia Hetmana Polnego Koronnego Stefana Czarnieckiego" oraz zarządził noszenie przez żołnierzy pułku na naramiennikach kurtek i płaszczy - w miejsce dotychczasowej numeracji - inicjałów "S.C." z buławą hetmańską. Dla oficerów i chorążych inicjały i buława były haftowane nićmi metalowymi, oksydowanymi na stare srebro, natomiast dla podoficerów i strzelców wykonane były z białego matowanego metalu. Podoficerowie zawodowi mogli nosić inicjały i buławę haftowaną w czasie występowania w ubiorze poza służbowym . +Od 1932 dobierano konie jednolitej maści w poszczególnych szwadronach - w 1 szwadronie były to ciemnogniade, w 2, 3 i 4 szwadronie - gniade, w szwadronie karabinów maszynowych - kare, w plutonie łączności i dla trębaczy - siwe. +Święto pułkowe. +Z okazji święta pułkowego trębacze pułku występowali w historycznych mundurach z okresu powstania listopadowego. Obok marsza pułkowego, trębacze grali także "zawołanie pułkowe". +W przeddzień uroczystości organizowano wieczorny capstrzykiem z pochodniami i apelem poległych. +27 kwietnia na placu apelowym odprawiano uroczystą mszę świętą. Msza kończyła się defiladą, po południu zaś odbywały się zawody konne połączone z woltyżerką, ścinaniem łozy i innymi popisami. +W uroczystościach brały również udział plutony Krakusów wchodzące organizacyjnie w skład 3 szwadronu rtm. Wiktora Gosiewskiego. +Pułk w wojnie obronnej 1939. +3 września 1939 transportem kolejowym przemieścił się w rejon Augustowa i Suwałk. Stanowił odwód Suwalskiej Brygady Kawalerii wchodzącej w skład Samodzielnej Grupy Operacyjnej "Narew".. W dniach 1-4 września na odcinku Suwalskiej BK nie doszło do nawiązania styczności bojowej z nieprzyjacielem. 5 września pułk wspólnie z innymi oddziałami brygady przesunięty został w rejon Łomży. 6 września rozlokował się w Czerwonym Borze i został podporządkowany dowódcy 18 Dywizji Piechoty. Jego zadaniem była osłona południowego skrzydła dywizji Tu też pułk zanotował pierwsze straty. W czasie bombardowania stacji kolejowej poległ pierwszy żołnierz. +Następnego dnia zwiadowcy pułku prowadzili działania rozpoznawcze na kierunku zajętego przez Niemców Różana. Siły główne obsadziły Grodzisk, Dzwonek i Czerwin nad rzeką Orz. +8 września pułk przeszedł chrzest bojowy. Rano walczył z powodzeniem z ubezpieczeniami niemieckiej 1 BK płk. Feldta, a po południu zatrzymał natarcie wspieranej czołgami zmotoryzowanej piechoty z Dywizji Pancernej Kempf. +W nocy z 8 na 9 września pułk wycofał się w rejon m. Tyszki gdzie miał stanowić osłonę południowego skrzydła 18 DP nad rzeką Ruż. +9 września po południu, zaatakowani przez jednostki DPanc Kempf żołnierze nie wytrzymali nagłego uderzenia i pułk wycofał się na Radogoszcz-Śniadowo - dalej na m. Duchny Młode. Zajął obronę na skraju lasu Czerwony Bór na zachód od miejscowości. +11 września rano pułk wrócił pod rozkazy dowódcy Suwalskiej BK. Stanowił wraz z 3 pułkiem szwoleżerów jej południową osłonę. Wraz z brygadą rozpoczął odwrót w kierunku na Osowiec. W ramach obrony okrężnej miasta zajął pozycje po jej zachodniej stronie. W nocy z 11 na 12 września wobec groźby okrążenia całej SGO "Narew", pułk wycofywał się początkowo w kierunku południowym na Mroczki-Ciemne, a następnie na wschód na Święck Wielki. +Pułk rozpoczął marsz 12 września o 3:00 i stanowił ariergardę brygady lub osłaniał zgrupowania kawalerii od południa. Wieczorem 13 września minął Gogle, a po krótkim odpoczynku maszerował dalej wzmocniony 2 baterią 4 dak. Rano 14 września 3 psk przekroczył szosę Wysokie Mazowieckie - Brańsk w pobliżu dworu Wyliny-Ruś i o 9:00 dotarł do Hodyszewa. Część pułku zatrzymała się w Kiewłokach. W czasie marszu walczył z oddziałami zwiadowczymi niemieckiej 206 DP. +Gen. Podhorski wyznaczył Białowieżę jako nowy rejon koncentracji zgrupowania. W siłach głównych brygady maszerował tylko 4 szwadron. Pozostałe pododdziały maszerowały południowym szlakiem na Olędy. Pułk unikał walki z siłami głównymi niemieckich 206 DP i 10 DPanc. Ominął od zachodu Bielsk Podlaski i wszedł w lasy na północny zachód od miasta. W nocy z 14 na 15 września pułk przeprawił się przez Narew w rejonie wsi Puchły. +Wobec obsadzenia tego rejonu przez niemiecką 21 DP zdecydowano jednak na marsz w rejon Hajnówki. Osiągnąwszy rejon pułk zajął stanowiska obronne na skraju puszczy. +Następnego dnia o świcie Niemcy zaatakowali miasto. Wobec miażdżącej przewagi, pułk wycofywał się w kierunku na Budy i dalej zamierzał maszerować do Wołkowyska. W czasie walk poniósł duże starty w ludziach i sprzęcie. Właśnie w Wołkowysku planowano uzupełnienie i wypoczynek. Niestety, wiadomość o przekroczeniu przez Armię Czerwoną wschodnich granic Rzeczypospolitej spowodowała, że dalszy marsz stawał się bezcelowy. Pułk zawrócił, aby tego samego dnia stanąć wraz z pozostałymi pułkami Suwalskiej BK w Białowieży. +Właśnie w Białowieży pułki Suwalskiej i Podlaskiej BK utworzyły Zgrupowanie Kawalerii "Zaza" złożone z dwóch brygad: "Plis" i "Edward". W składzie tej ostatniej, wraz z 3 pułkiem szwoleżerów, l pułkiem ułanów i 11 szwadronem pionierów, znalazł się 3 psk. +W składzie Dywizji Kawalerii Zaza. +21 września pułk wyruszył na południe w kierunku Lwowa, a dalej w myśl ogólnych rozkazów miał przebijać się do Rumunii lub na Węgry. +Po przeprawieniu się przez Nurzec w rejonie Kleszczeli oddziały maszerowały w kierunku linii demarkacyjnej między Niemcami i Związkiem Radzieckim. W czasie potyczek z Niemcami pod Kalenkowiczami zginęli kolejni żołnierze. +W nocy z 24 na 25 września sforsowano Bug, a 26 września osiągnięto rejon na południowy wschód od Białej Podlaskiej, gdzie zarządzono całodzienny postój. W nocy z 26 na 27 września pułk kontynuował marsz na Parczew i Ostrów Lubelski, osiągając 28 września prawy brzeg Wieprza. W czasie przeprawy przez rzekę w rejonie Zawieprzyce-Spiczyn-Kijany-Nowogród doszło do walk z niemiecką 4 DP gen. Hansena. 3 psk zabezpieczał miał przeprawy w rejonie Nowogrodu. 29 września gen. Podhorski zaniechał dalszego marszu. Dywizja otrzymała rozkaz gen. Franciszka Kleeberga - dowódcy utworzonej 27 września SGO "Polesie" przejścia do jego dyspozycji. +Zgodnie z nowymi rozkazami pułk rozpoczął marsz na północ do rejonu w okolicach m. Czemierniki. Jego zadaniem było: prowadzenie rozpoznania na kierunku Radzynia i ubezpieczenie sił głównych od strony Kocka. +1 października pułk przegrupował się w rejon Wojcieszków-Adamów, a 2 października przeszedł w rejon Talczyn-Leonardów-Wola Gułowska z zadaniem prowadzenia rozpoznania na kierunkach Ryki, Dęblin, Maciejowice. +3 października pułk stanowił odwód Brygady Kawalerii "Edward", która 1 pułkiem ułanów i 3 pułkiem szwoleżerów w pierwszym rzucie uderzyła na Niemców. Natarcie brygady, mimo rozbicia jednej baterii niemieckiej, załamało się pod Poznaniem. Nieprzyjaciel okazał się zbyt silny. Brakowało już amunicji. +4 października pod Wolą Okrzejską pułk rozbił, wycofujący po starciu z kawalerią dywizyjną DP "Kobryń" płk. A. Eplera, jeden z pancernych podjazdów niemieckich. 5 października pozostawał w rejonie Grabowa Szlacheckiego i osłaniał kierunek na Ryki, gdzie XIV Korpus niemiecki gen. von Wietersheima utworzył zgrupowanie obronne. Będąc w składzie Brygady "Edward" wziął udział w uderzeniu przez Wolę Gułowską na Serokomlę. Potem został przesunięty do osłony Grabowa Szlacheckiego. +5 października, wobec wyczerpania amunicji oraz przemęczenia żołnierzy i koni znajdujących się od wielu dni w walce, gen. Kleeberg podjął decyzję o przerwaniu walki. Jego ostatni rozkaz kończył się słowami: [...] "Dziękuję Wam za Wasze męstwo i Waszą karność - wiem, że staniecie, gdy będzie potrzeba. Jeszcze Polska nie zginęła i nie zginie!" +Niestety, rozkaz ten nie dotarł do pułku. Oficer łącznikowy ppor. Ludwik Szulc-Holnicki nie znalazł swego dowódcy. Łączność radiowa nie działała. Późną nocą pułk wszedł w opłotki położonej wśród lasów wioski Kalinowy Dół. Wpadł w zasadzkę zorganizowaną przez niemiecką 13 DZmot. Ocaleli z pogromu żołnierze wycofali się w pobliskie lasy. Por. Zbigniew Makowiecki tak napisał opisując kapitulację Dywizji "Zaza": ""No, mamy 3 psk, Panie Generale […] ale dlaczego oni tak spieszą do niewoli? […] Nagle ktoś krzyknął z szeregu: - To same konie! Nie ma ani jednego jeźdźca!"" +3 Pułk Strzelców Konnych był ostatnim pułkiem, który kończył kampanię 1939 w szyku konnym. +Strzelcy konni z Wołkowyska. +Obsada etatowa we wrześniu 1939 +Pododdziały +Odznaczeni srebrnym krzyżem Orderu „Virtuti Militari” V klasy za wojnę 1918-1920Spis utworzony na podstawie "Zarys historji wojennej 3-go pułku strzelców konnych " s. 35-36 +Symbole pułkowe. +SztandarMatka Boska Kodeńska uznana została za patronkę pułku po roku 1927, kiedy to jej obraz z Częstochowy przez Warszawę przywieziono na stare miejsce do kościoła w Kodniu.. +Prawdopodobnie w "starym" sztandarze wypruto w jednym rogu cyfrę 3 i wyhaftowano na tym miejscu wizerunek Matki Boskiej, albo nieoficjalnie - podmieniono cały sztandar nie organizując uroczystej ceremonii. +Odznaka pułkowa +Odznaka pułkowa zatwierdzona została pismem Gabinetu Ministra nr 31319/26 z 10 grudnia 1926 +Przedstawia tarczę herbową z literami S, K i cyfra 3 oraz trzy rozchodzące się promieniście proporczyki w barwach pułku. W środku orzełek z układem skrzydeł ku dołowi nawiązujący do orzełka Dywizji Litewsko-Białoruskiej, z której to wywodziły się dwa szwadrony pułku. +Daty: 1807 – 1921 nawiązują do wydarzeń związanych z historią pułku. Rok 1807 miał nawiązywać do tradycji Armii Księstwa Warszawskiego. Druga data - 1921 - nawiązuje do powołania pułku do życia już na stopie pokojowej Wojska Polskiego. W 1930 czyniono starania o zmianę roku 1921 na rok 1918. Chciano tym nawiazać do utworzenia we Włocławku "Szwadronu Ziemi Kujawskiej". MSWojsk. nie wyraziło jednak zgody na zmianą. +W pułku noszono również nieformalne odmiany odznak z datami 1815 - 1919. Rok 1815 nawiązywał do tradycji z lat Wojska Polskiego królestwa Kongresowego, natomiast data 1919 miała wykazać wojenną przeszłość szwadronów. Zarówno odznaki, jak i ich miniatury często różniły się układem barw proporczyków. Kolejność prawidłowa to: (od góry) szmaragdowa - żółta – amarantowa. +Odznaka nie posiada odmian oficerskiej i żołnierskiej. +BarwyDziennik Rozkazów MSWojsk. nr 6 z 24 lutego 1928 roku. + Spodnie długie ciemnogranatowe, lampasy amarantowe, wypustka amarantowa. +Żurawiejka +Wyszkolenie w pułku było na wysokim poziomie co komentowano stwierdzeniem "tyle zysku co w Wołkowysku". +Tradycje pułku. +Barwy i tradycję 3 Pułk Strzelców Konnych im. Hetmana Polnego Koronnego Stefana Czarnieckiego w latach 1995 -2000 kontynuował batalion dowodzenia 4 Suwalskiej Brygady Kawalerii Pancernej w Orzyszu. +Tradycję pułku po dzień dzisiejszy kontynuuje Szwadron Toporzysko w barwach Pułku 3 Strzelców Konnych im. Hetmana Polnego Koronnego Stefana Czarnieckiego działający na prawach sekcji w Stowarzyszeniu Klub Sportowy „Bór”. Powstał w 2005 jako kontynuacja drużyny harcerskiej noszącej barwy P3SK, działającej od 1991 roku - najpierw w Krakowie, a potem w Toporzysku. Barwy pułkowe zostały oficjalnie nadane drużynie przez Koło Pułkowe Pułku 3 Strzelców Konnych w dniu święta pułkowego 27 kwietnia 1992. Aktu nadania barw dokonał ówczesny dowódca Koła płk dr Bronisław Lubieniecki. Od tego momentu członkowie drużyny stali się automatycznie członkami Koła Pułkowego uczestnicząc w jego pracach i działaniach. Po raz drugi fakt otrzymania barw pułkowych potwierdził rtm. Ryszard Dembiński - Prezes Zrzeszenia Kół Pułkowych Kawalerii w Londynie, a aktu powtórnego przekazania barw dokonał oficer naszego pułku - mjr Zbigniew Makowiecki, w dniu Święta Pułkowego 27 kwietnia 2007. Szwadron zrzesza ok. 20 członków. Od 1992 roku czternastu strzelców szwadronu otrzymało prawo noszenia Odznaki Pułkowej. +Bestiariusz (literatura) + +Bestiariusz (średniow.-łac. "bestiarium") – średniowieczny gatunek literacki, należący do tzw. literatury dydaktycznej, pisany wierszem lub prozą. Egzemplarze tekstu bestiaruszy były prawie zawsze iluminowane. Pierwowzorem gatunku był pochodzący z V w. łaciński przekład greckiego dzieła z II w. "Physiologus". Zasadniczą częścią bestiariuszy był opis zwierząt – realnych i baśniowych – do których komentarz objaśniał podstawowe dogmaty wiary i zasady etyki chrześcijańskiej. +Twórcy bestiariuszy mieli ambicje naukowe, opisywali zarówno zwierzęta faktycznie istniejące, jak i takie, których realne istnienie przyjmowano za pewnik, np. na podstawie literatury antycznej. Jako egzotyczne lub rzadkie, ale jak najbardziej realne zwierzęta powszechnie uważano w średniowiecznej Europie wiwerny, smoki, gryfy , bazyliszki czy jednorożce. Wiele rzeczywistych zwierząt obdarzone było przez autorów bestiariuszy fantastycznymi cechami, lub niezwykłym wyglądem. Np. pantera przestawiana była z końską głową, rogami i ziejąca ogniem. +Wiele stworzeń z bestiariusza przyjmowane było jako godła heraldyczne lub inne elementy herbu. +Piotr Marecki + +Piotr Marecki (ur. 1976) – redaktor, wydawca, kulturoznawca. +Życiorys. +Absolwent polonistyki i filmoznawstwa Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, doktor nauk humanistycznych UJ, adiunkt w katedrze Kultury Współczesnej Instytutu Kultury UJ, współtwórca Krakowskiej Szkoły Scenariuszowej i jej dyrektor w latach 1998-2010, wykładowca w Państwowej Wyższej Szkole Filmowej, Teatralnej i Telewizyjnej w Łodzi. +Współtwórca i redaktor naczelny interdyscyplinarnego magazynu o nowej kulturze Ha!art (od 1999), wydawca (m.in. Mariana Pankowskiego, Sławomira Shutego, Michała Witkowskiego), organizator festiwali literackich i sesji naukowych, Prezes Zarządu Fundacji Korporacja Ha!art. Promuje nowe formy i gatunki literackie (powieści hipertekstowe, liberaturę, powieści graficzne). +Zajmuje się przede wszystkim współczesną literaturą oraz związkami literatury z nowymi mediami i kinem, a także kulturą niezależną, publikuje w książkach zbiorowych oraz czasopismach m.in. w Kinie, Lampie, Kwartalniku Filmowym, pisze felietony o tematyce kulturalnej Gazety Wyborczej w Krakowie i "Przekroju". Współautor głośnej antologii o młodej literaturze polskiej "Tekstylia" (2002), redaktor słownika młodej polskiej kultury "Tekstylia bis" (2006), redaktor książek o liternecie (2002, 2003), autor tomu "Pospolite ruszenie" (2005) o polskich czasopismach kulturalnych ukazujących się po 1989 roku oraz "historii mówionej" polskiego kina niezależnego (2009). +Ponadto Piotr Marecki przeprowadził wywiady-rzeki z Andrzejem Żuławskim (2008, wspólnie z Piotrem Kletowskim) i Andrzejem Barańskim (2009). +W 2004 roku Michał Zadara nakręcił film offowy pt. "Marecki", w którym portretuje krakowskie środowisko artystyczne (w filmie wystąpili literaci i aktorzy m.in. Sławomir Shuty, Jaś Kapela, Maciej Kaczka, Barbara Wysocka i Tomasz Kot). +Laureat stypendium "Polityki" (2007) oraz nagrody Krakowska Książka Miesiąca (2007), nominowany do Paszportu "Polityki" (2001). Członek think tanku Restart. +Mieszka w Krakowie. +Konrad Guderski + +Konrad Guderski ps. ""Konrad"" (ur. 19 lutego 1900 w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim, zm. 1 września 1939 w Gdańsku) – polski inżynier wodny, dowódca obrony Poczty Polskiej w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku, podporucznik rezerwy piechoty Wojska Polskiego. +Był synem Stanisława (robotnika kolejowego) i Anny, dzieciństwo spędził w Pruszkowie koło Warszawy. Brał udział w rozbrajaniu Niemców w Warszawie w 1918. Ukończył warszawskie gimnazjum im. Reytana, studiował następnie na Politechnice Warszawskiej i Lwowskiej, uzyskując w 1934 dyplom inżyniera. Pracował m.in. przy regulacji Wisły. +W 1934 r. był oficerem rezerwy 9 Pułku Piechoty Legionów w Zamościu, w stopniu podporucznika ze starszeństwem z 1 stycznia 1931 r. i 124. lokatą w korpusie oficerów rezerwowych piechoty oraz pozostawał na ewidencji Powiatowej Komendy Uzupełnień Lwów Miasto. +Jako rzeczoznawca Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych został wysłany w kwietniu 1939 do Gdyni w charakterze delegata do specjalnych zadań wojskowych. W atmosferze zbliżającej się wojny zajmował się konspiracyjnymi przygotowaniami do obrony Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku, sprowadzał broń i amunicję. 1 września 1939 objął dowództwo obrony Poczty (pod pseudonimem Konrad), poległ w początkowej fazie walk. +Pochowany na Cmentarzu Ofiar Hitleryzmu na gdańskiej Zaspie wraz z innymi obrońcami Poczty Polskiej, został zidentyfikowany dopiero w 1947 (ze względu na konspiracyjny charakter jego działań i śmierć większości świadków). +Nazwiskiem Konrada Guderskiego nazwano ulice na Osiedlu Świętokrzyskim w Gdańsku oraz na osiedlu Gocław w Warszawie. +Podróże i przygody kapitana Hatterasa + +Podróże i przygody kapitana Hatterasa (fr. "Voyages et aventures du capitaine Hatteras", 1864) - dwutomowa powieść napisana przez Juliusza Verne'a w latach 1863-64. +Należy do cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże". Tom pierwszy "Anglicy na Biegunie Północnym" (fr. "Les Anglais au póle Nord") jest złożony z 32 rozdziałów. Tom drugi "Pustynia lodowa" (fr. "Le desert de glace") jest złożony z 27 rozdziałów. +Poszczególne części powieści wydawane były po polsku pod rozmaitymi tytułami: +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1865-1866, a w postaci książkowej w 1876 +Tytuły szlacheckie + +Tytuł przyznawany przez władcę danego państwa, łączył się z nadaniem ziemi lub przywilejów dla obdarowanego na zasadzie dziedziczenia "(primogenituralnie, secundogenituralnie lub dla wszystkich potomków)," lub bez prawa dziedziczenia (szlachectwo osobiste), jako wyraz wdzięczności za działalność na rzecz państwa lub samego panującego. +Europa. +Podział ten jest znacznym uproszczeniem, zwłaszcza, że wartość różnych tytułów w różnych państwach jest różnie oceniana. Earl zasadniczo odpowiada kontynentalnemu hrabiemu, ale pod względem pozycji jest bliższy tytułowi księcia. Wiele tytułów ma dodatkowe gradacje - tytuł hrabiowski w Niemczech (niem. - "Graf") może być bliski randze panującego księcia - Landgraf, tzw. Mediatisierter Graf, zrównany z tytułem książęcym, np. hrabia Tyrolu (gefürstete Grafschaft) lub nawet przewyższać - Markgraf lub odpowiadać tytułowi hrabiowskiemu - Reichsgraf, Graf. W Niemczech margrabia Brandenburgii i hrabia Palatynatu od średniowiecza, a od 1803 także hrabia Hesji-Kassel i margrabia Badenii byli w pierwszym kolegium Parlamentu Rzeszy i nosili zwyczajowy tytuł "Kurfürst", czyli księcia-elektora z prawem wyboru cesarza. Zachowując tradycyjną, historyczną nazwę godności stali oficjalnie ponad wszystkimi książętami niemieckimi. +Bardzo rozbudowana jest tytulatura książęca. Począwszy od książąt krwi królewskiej, książąt krwi, wielkich książąt, książąt panujących, książąt elektorów, kniaziów itp. Z czasem nadania jednego kraju były zatwierdzane przez władców innych krajów jako wyrażenie wdzięczności za wykazane zasługi. +Wzajemne zależności między tytułami wywoływały aż do początku XIX w. liczne kontrowersje, prowadząc do sporów na arenie publicznej. Tak stało się z tytułem króla Prus po koronacji Fryderyka III w Królewcu w 1701 r. Polska uznała ten tytuł dopiero na sejmie konwokacyjnym w 1764, inne kraje także ze znacznym opóźnieniem. Koronacja odbyła się za zgodą cesarza, ale sejm Rzeszy pozostawił królom Prus tylko dotychczasowe przywileje margrabiów brandenburskich i elektorów Rzeszy. Podobnie rzecz miała się z królem Polski Augustem II, który w wewnętrznych sprawach Niemiec mógł występować tylko jako książę-elektor Saksonii. Gdy w 1567 cesarz Maksymilian II wykupił hrabstwo kłodzkie pojawiły się problemy z tytulaturą, gdyż każdorazowy hrabia był jednocześnie dziedzicznym arcyksięciem domu Habsburgów. Należy pamiętać, że niemal w całej Europie obowiązywała precedencja tytułów. Na marginesie można dodać, że pomagało to biedniejszym, ale bardziej utytułowanym rodom, poprzez małżeństwo lub adopcję utrzymać lub znacznie poprawić pozycję majątkową. +Gdy w Niemczech w 1919 r. zniesiono tytuły arystokratyczne (art. 109 konstytucji weimarskiej i ustawa z 23 czerwca 1920 o zniesieniu przywilejów stanowych szlachty) stały się one częścią nazwiska rodowego, natomiast w Austrii znikły zupełnie (ustawa z 3 kwietnia 1919 o uchyleniu szlachectwa) i tak zamiast "Freiherr Werner von Braun" stosuje się "Werner Freiherr von Braun" (Werner baron von Braun) czy też zamiast "Graf Anton von Magnis" pisze się "Anton Graf von Magnis" (Antoni hrabia Magnis). Również w Polsce konstytucja marcowa w 1921 zniosła tytuły arystokratyczne. W Polsce szyk "imię-tytuł-nazwisko" był zwyczajem jeszcze przedrozbiorowym, jednak ograniczonym do ceremonialnych uroczystości i podpisów itp. Wskutek snobizmu czy też mody konstrukcję tę zaczęto naśladować i stosować szerzej także w języku polskim; stąd czasem zamiast mówić "hrabia Wojciech Dzieduszycki" używa się dość pretensjonalnej w codziennych sytuacjach lub w zwykłym tekście formy "Wojciech hr. Dzieduszycki" czy też "Adam Karol książę Czartoryski". +Tabela porównawcza tytułów szlacheckich. +Tabelka przedstawia próbę porównania tytułów szlacheckich w kilku krajach. Pominięte kraje mają systematykę tytułów podobną bądź do francuskiej bądź niemieckiej. Tytuły brytyjskie zostały przedstawione jako swoją specyfikę, nie zawsze znajdującą odpowiedniki na kontynencie. +Ze względu na zakaz posiadania tytułów arystokratycznych w dawnej Polsce nie wykształcił się u nas dokładnie zhierarchizowany system tytułów. Nadania tytułów przez polskich królów były rzadkie i bezprawne, stąd nie powstały odrębne, polskie wzory koron rangowych. Tytuły nadawane przez obcych monarchów były ozdabiane odpowiednimi, obcymi koronami. Podane przykłady koron w kolumnie Polska ma więc charakter przybliżony, wiele z tytułów w ogóle w Polsce nie występowało, i podane są po prostu tylko tłumaczenia. Szczególnie mało zhierarchizowana była w Polsce godność księcia - którym to tytułem określano zarówno rodzinę panującego, magnatów mających obce tytuły książęce i często niezamożnych kniaziów litewsko-ruskich i tatarskich. Wśród samych kniaziów tatarskich, formalnie tego samego tytułu używali zarówno potomkowie chanów, murzów, jak i ułanów. +Niektóre tytuły zostały umieszczone jako równorzędne, ze względu na podobne usytuowanie w hierarchii godności szlacheckich, nie znaczy to, że są ściśle biorąc odpowiednikami. Np. szlachcic zagrodowy, valvasseur czy yeoman, tym tylko są do siebie podobne, iż zajmują najniższe szczeble w hierarchii i np. autorzy angielscy w ogóle nie uważają yeomanów za dziedziczną szlachtę, którą w istocie nie są. +Kolumnę z łacińskimi tłumaczeniami tytułów dano ze względu na powszechność tego języka w dawnej Europie, jak i dlatego, że część narodowych nazw tytułów z niego się wywodzi. +Utrata tytułu. +Pozbawienie tytułu szlacheckiego jest zdarzeniem rzadkim. Dotyka ono z reguły osób skazanych za przestępstwa kryminalne. +Przemysł Ottokar II + +Przemysł II Ottokar (czes. "Přemysl Otakar II."; ur. ok. 1233, zm. 26 sierpnia 1278) – król Czech w latach 1253-1278 z dynastii Przemyślidów. +Syn króla Czech Wacława I i Kunegundy, córki Filipa Szwabskiego, księcia Szwabii i króla Niemiec z dynastii Hohenstaufów. +W 1247 roku został margrabią Moraw. Zimą tego samego roku szlachta czeska podniosła bunt przeciwko królowi Wacławowi I. Przemysł Ottokar przyłączył się do buntowników i został wybrany na antykróla Czech w opozycji do swego ojca. Jednak w 1249 roku poddał się ojcu i zrzekł tytułu królewskiego. W 1246 roku po bezpotomnej śmierci księcia Fryderyka II Bitnego, ostatniego księcia Austrii z dynastii Babenbergów, rozgorzały walki o Księstwo Austriackie i w 1251 roku Wacław I doprowadził do wyboru Przemysła na władcę Austrii. Skutkiem tego były zaślubiny w 1252 roku Przemysła z Małgorzatą Babenberg, córką Leopolda VI Sławnego i Teodory Angeliny, siostrą Fryderyka II Bitnego, wdową po Henryku VII Hohenstaufie. Małżeństwo było bezdzietne. W 1261roku między małżonkami doszło do rozwodu. Małgorzata wróciła do Austrii, gdzie zmarła. +Po śmierci ojca w 1253 roku Przemysł został królem Czech. Rok później zawarł układ pokojowy z Węgrami, na mocy którego doszło do podziału posiadłości Babenbergów: król Węgier Bela IV zatrzymał Styrię, natomiast Przemysł zawładnął resztą dziedzictwa Babenbergów. Jako sojusznik zakonu krzyżackiego brał udział w latach 1254-1255 w krucjatach w Prusach. Wówczas to na jego cześć został założony zamek nazwany Królewcem. Gdy w Niemczech nastał czas tzw. wielkiego bezkrólewia, Przemysł początkowo poparł wybór na króla Niemiec króla Kastylii Alfonsa X, jednak później zmienił front i opowiedział się za Ryszardem, księciem Kornwalii, w zamian za co uzyskał potwierdzenie swych roszczeń do krajów austriackich. Wtedy rozpoczęły się kolejne walki z Węgrami, których Przemysł pokonał w bitwie pod Kressenbrunn w 1260 roku, dzięki czemu opanował Styrię. Zamierzając opanować resztę ziem austriackich, Przemysł musiał zmierzyć się z książętami Bawarii, którzy zgłosili pretensje do ziem arcybiskupstwa Salzburga. Dzięki układowi ze swoim krewnym Bernardem, księciem Karyntii w 1269 roku zajął Karyntię. W 1273 roku Przemysł chciał sięgnąć po koronę króla Niemiec, jednak elektorowie, którzy obawiali się potęgi króla Czech, powołali na tron niemiecki słabego wówczas Rudolfa I Habsburga. Początkowo Przemysł, wobec niezadowolenia z jego rządów szlachty czeskiej, pogodził się z porażką o tron Niemiec, zawarł w 1276 roku układ z Rudolfem, na mocy którego zrzekł się władztwa w krajach austriackich i złożył hołd lenny z Czech i Moraw. Mimo że elekcję Rudolfa I poparł papież Grzegorz X, Przemysł nie pogodził się z wyborem Habsburga na króla Niemiec i podjął z nim walkę, nawiązując wcześniej sojusze m.in. z książętami Bawarii, polskimi (Leszek Czarny, Bolesław V Wstydliwy, Henryk IV Prawy). W 1278 roku Przemysł wszczął wojnę z Habsburgiem, najechał Austrię, gdzie 25 sierpnia 1278 doszło do bitwy pod Suchymi Krutami. Wojska czeskie i ich sprzymierzeńcy ponieśli całkowitą klęskę, król Przemysł Ottokar, mimo że przeżył walkę, wkrótce (jeszcze na polu bitwy) został zabity. +Potomstwo. +Z pozamałżeńskiego związku Przemysła Ottokara II z Agnieszką z Kuenringu pochodzili: +Ponadto ze związku z inną kobietą pochodził naturalny syn +Gąsienica (larwa) + +Gąsienica (łac. "eruca") – typ larwy u motyli i błonkówek z podrzędu rośliniarek, jedno ze stadiów rozwoju. Charakteryzuje się miękkim ciałem o robakowatym kształcie i metamerii homonomicznej oraz obecnością nieczłonowanych przydatków odwłokowych nazywanych posuwkami. Jest przykładem larw polipodialnych. +Gąsienice w odróżnieniu od postaci dorosłych posiadają aparat gębowy gryzący, służący do pobierania pokarmu, który z kolei dostarcza budulca i energii do kolejnych przeobrażeń. Gąsienica posiada również oczka proste umieszczone po sześć z każdej strony głowy. Są to prymitywne narządy rejestrujące tylko światło i cień. +Wydłużone ciało gąsienicy składa się z segmentów (3 tułowia, 10 odwłoka) o dużym podobieństwie. Pokrywa je miękki, elastyczny oskórek, na którego powierzchni mogą występować szczecinki lub różnego typu wypustki. Trzy pary odnóży tułowiowych (stożkowate, krótkie, zakończone pazurkami) oraz od 2, poprzez 5 (u motyli) do 8 posuwek. W wardze dolnej zwykle znajdują się gruczoły przędne, z których wydzieliny tworzony jest oprzęd. +Zazwyczaj stadium larwalne trwa miesiąc lub dwa, a jeśli owad zimuje w formie larwy, to nawet dziesięć. +Rozwój trociniarek i przezierników może przedłużyć się do kilku lat. +Otton Roczniok + +Otton Roczniok (ur. 26 czerwca 1914 w Zabrzu, zm. 11 marca 1999 w Katowicach) – generał brygady Wojska Polskiego. +W 1933 roku ukończył Komunalne Gimnazjum Miejskie im. Stanisława Staszica w Rudzie Śląskiej i wstąpił do służby w WP. 1936 ukończył Szkołę Podchorążych Piechoty w Ostrowi-Komorowie. Dowódca plutonu w 1 batalionie 75. Pułku Piechoty w Rybniku. +Był adiutantem I batalionu 75 Pułku Piechoty w kampanii wrześniowej 1939 roku. Potem przebywał w Oflagu II C Woldenberg. Uwolniony 1 lutego 1945. +Po wojnie zgłosił się do WP. W stopniu majora brał udział w Akcji Wisła dowodząc oddziałem 7 DP. W 1950 roku zajmował stanowisko szefa sztabu 11 Zmotoryzowanej Dywizji Piechoty w Żarach, potem kolejno był słuchaczem Akademii Sztabu Generalnego im. gen. broni Karola Świerczewskiego w Rembertowie, dowódcą 3 Brygady Obrony Wybrzeża w Kołobrzegu (od 6 lipca 1957 roku do 13 listopada 1958 roku), dowódcą 23 Dywizji Piechoty, a następnie 23 Dywizji Desantowej. W lipcu 1960 roku został awansowany do stopnia generała brygady (nominację wręczył mu w Belwederze przewodniczący Rady Państwa Aleksander Zawadzki). Wieloletni szef Wojewódzkiego Sztabu Wojskowego w Katowicach. Od 1970 roku w stanie spoczynku. +Grupa obrotów + +Macierze obrotu w przestrzeni n-wymiarowej tworzą grupę O(n), jeżeli spełniają warunek zachowania długości wektora przy obrotach +(i=1..n). Daje to warunek formula_3 +gdzie macierz transponowana formula_4. +Zbiór macierzy ortogonalnych tworzy grupę. Dodatkowy warunek formula_13 definiuje podgrupę SO(n). W euklidesowej przestrzeni 3-wymiarowej realizują się grupa O(3) i jej podgrupa SO(3). +Element grupy SO(3), formula_8 można parametryzować w sposób ciągły przez trzy parametry wektor formula_15, oś obrotu formula_16 i kąt obrotu ψ (przy czym formula_17, formula_18, formula_19, formula_20). +Generatory te spełniają regułę komutacji +gdzie ε jest symbolem antysymetrycznym równym 1,-1 w zależności czy (a b c) jest parzystą czy nieparzystą permutacją (1 2 3) lub 0 gdy dwa lub trzy wskaźniki są takie same. +Generatory grupy SO(n) rozpinają algebrę liniową so(n) z mnożeniem zdefiniowanym jako komutator +formula_25 =B - B A (komutator). Jest to algebra Liego. +Bardzo podobne relacje w mechanice kwantowej spełnia operator momentu pędu formula_26 (z dokładnością do stałej Plancka formula_27). Operator ten jest reprezentacją algebry so(3) w przestrzeni funkcji całkowalnych z kwadratem formula_28. Z własności tej algebry (i grupy SO(3) ) wynika niemożność jednoczesnego pomiaru wszystkich składowych momentu pędu w mechanice kwantowej (odpowiednia zasada nieoznaczoności). Identyczne reguły komutacyjne spełnia operator spinu (jest to konsekwencją algebry Liego su(2) dla grupy nakrywającej SU(2)). +Zobacz też: Grupa SO(2), Grupa SU(2) +Gmina Kołobrzeg + +Gmina Kołobrzeg – gmina wiejska w północno-zachodniej Polsce, w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie kołobrzeskim, położona na Pobrzeżu Szczecińskim i Pobrzeżu Koszalińskim. +Siedzibą gminy jest miasto Kołobrzeg, które nie wchodzi w skład gminy (jest osobną gminą miejską). +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 roku gmina miała 9825 mieszkańców. +powierzchnia 74., ludność 43. +Powierzchnia. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia gminy wynosi 144,03 km². Gmina stanowi 19,9% powierzchni powiatu. +Gmina Kołobrzeg została utworzona w 1972 r. +Demografia. +Gminę zamieszkuje 11,6% ludności powiatu. +Przyroda i turystyka. +Gmina leży na Wybrzeżu Trzebiatowskim oraz na równinach: Gryfickiej i Białogardzkiej nad Morzem Bałtyckim. Obszar gminy urozmaicony jest niewielkimi wzniesieniami, porośnięty lasami, wśród których przepływa rzeka Parsęta dostępna dla kajaków. Przez zachodnią część przepływają rzeczki Błotnica i Dębosznica wpadające do największego w tym rejonie jeziora Resko Przymorskie. Tereny leśne zajmują 11% powierzchni gminy, a użytki rolne 69%. +Przez teren gminy wiedzie rowerowy szlak turystyczny o nazwie "Szlak Orlich Gniazd" oznaczony niebieskim rowerem na białym tle. Zaczyna się w Grzybowie, gdzie na tablicy informacyjnej podano informacje o długości trasy oraz jej charakterystykę. Szlak rowerowy biegnie dalej przez Dźwirzyno, Karcino, Sarbię, Nowogardek i kończy się we wsi Głowaczewo. Na całej długości ustawione są tablice poglądowe, miejsca do odpoczynku oraz zadaszenia przeciwdeszczowe. +Komunikacja. +Przez gminę prowadzą drogi wojewódzkie: nr 102 łączące siedzibę gminy, Kołobrzeg przez Zieleniewo (7 km) do Trzebiatowa (31 km) i nr 162 z Zieleniewa przez Gościno (11 km) do skrzyżowania z drogą krajową nr 6 (21 km) oraz nr 163 z Kołobrzegu przez Dygowo (11 km) do Karlina (29 km). +Kołobrzeg uzyskał połączenie kolejowe w 1859 r. po wybudowaniu odcinka linii do Białogardu, w 1878 r. wydłużoną do Szczecinka, a rok później do Poznania. W 1882 r. otwarto kolejną linię z Gryfic (wcześniej zbudowano część do Goleniowa), a w 1899 r. wydłużono ją do Koszalina. Pod koniec lat 80. XX wieku linie z Kołobrzegu do Poznania i Koszalina zostały zelektryfikowane. W 1895 r. do miasta doprowadzono także kolej wąskotorową o szerokości 1000 mm z Gościna. W latach 60. linia została zamknięta, a wkrótce później rozebrana. Obecnie w gminie czynnych jest 5 stacji: w kierunku Gryfic: Korzystno, Stary Borek, Głowaczewo i Karcino oraz w kierunku Białogardu: Stramnica. +W gminie czynne są 3 urzędy pocztowe: Dźwirzyno (nr 78-131), Grzybowo k. Kołobrzegu (nr 78-132) i Drzonowo k. Kołobrzegu (nr 78-133). Gminę obsługują także urzędy pocztowe w Kołobrzegu. +Podział administracyjny. +Gmina Kołobrzeg utworzyła 22 jednostek pomocniczych gminy, będących sołectwami. +Robert Cray + +Robert Cray (ur. 1 sierpnia 1953 r. w Columbus, USA) — wokalista i gitarzysta, w 1974 roku stworzył grupę The Robert Cray Band. Towarzyszył w nagraniach m.in. Albertowi Collinsowi, Ericowi Claptonowi, Tinie Turner, B.B. Kingowi, Chuckowi Berry'emu. +Kariera. +Cray zaczął grę na gitarze jako nastolatek. W Denbigh High School w Newport News, Wirginia, jego zamiłowanie do muzyki blues i soul rozwinęło się kiedy zaczął kolekcjonować płyty. Początkowo, chciał zostać architektem, ale około tego samego czasu gdy zaczął studiować architekturę, utworzył lokalną grupę muzyczną "Steakface", opisywaną jako "najlepsza grupa muzyczna z Lakewood, o której nigdy nie słyszałeś". Zdolności gitarowe i wokalne Craya przyczyniły się do listy utworów Steakface, znanych wykonawców jak Jimi Hendrix, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Fleetwood Mac, The Grease Band, Blodwyn Pig, Jethro Tull, Spirit oraz The Faces. +W wieku 20 lat, Cray postanowił założyć własną grupę, z którą zaczął grać w miasteczkach uniwersyteckich na zachodnim wybrzeżu. Po kilku latach regionalnego sukcesu, Cray podpisał kontrakt z Mercury Records w 1982. Jego trzeci album, Strong Persuader, wyprodukowany przez Dennisa Walkera, otrzymał nagrodę Grammy, a singel "Smokin' Gun" zapewnił mu szersze uznanie i rozpoznanie. +Robert Cray Band. +Obecny skład zespołu +Kościół Wolnych Chrześcijan w RP + +Kościół Wolnych Chrześcijan w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej – ewangelikalny Kościół protestancki w Polsce, należący do nurtu braci plymuckich. Kościół liczy 3 tys. wiernych. Przewodniczącym Rady Kościoła jest Jerzy Karzełek. +Historia. +Prekursorami idei wolnych zborów w Polsce byli trzej księża rzymskokatoliccy: Wacław Żebrowski, Antoni Przeorski i Stanisław Bortkiewicz, którzy przed I wojną światową odkryli nauki braci wolnych. +W 1909 r. w Trzanowicach odbywały się już regularne nabożeństwa, niedługo potem powstaje zbór w Boguminie. Po 1921 r. powstają dzięki szeroko zakrojonej akcji misyjnej nowe zbory w Krakowie, Tarnowie, Nowym Sączu, Lublinie, Piotrkowie Trybunalskim, Kozakowicach-Nierodzimiu, czy Chorzowie. W czasie II wojny światowej część zborów zaprzestała swej działalności, a część współpracowała z tymi kierunkami, które w Rzeszy Niemieckiej połączyły się w jeden związek pod nazwą Bund Evangelisch Freikirchlicher Gemeinden (Związek Wolno Kościelnych Zborów Ewangelicznych). 3 maja 1947 r. Kościół Wolnych Chrześcijan wszedł w skład "Zjednoczenia Wolnych Chrześcijan". 24 maja 1947 r. "Zjednoczenie Wolnych Chrześcijan" weszło w skład "Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego". W roku 1981 wolni chrześcijanie w Polsce ponownie tworzą związek wyznaniowy pod nazwą: Kościół Wolnych Chrześcijan. +Nauka. +Wolni chrześcijanie wierzą w trójjedynego Boga, a za podstawę swojej wiary uznają 39 kanonicznych ksiąg Starego Testamentu i 27 kanonicznych ksiąg Nowego Testamentu. Praktykowana jest wiara w zmartwychwstanie ciała, pochwycenie wierzących i powtórne przyjście Jezusa Chrystusa na ziemię oraz ustanowienie przez Niego Tysiącletniego Królestwa. Nie praktykuje się chrztu niemowląt, tylko człowiek w wieku świadomym może zostać ochrzczony przez zanurzenie w wodzie. Komunię bracia wolni przyjmują pod dwiema postaciami: Chleba i Wina. Członkowie Zborów zgodnie z nauką Nowego Testamentu są lojalnymi obywatelami i starają się o pomyślność swej ojczyzny. +Duchowni. +W Kościele Wolnych Chrześcijan nie ma podziału na duchownych i laików. Według doktryny wierzący powinni być "duchowi", czyli pełni Ducha Świętego, by reprezentować Boga w świecie i zwiastować Jego zbawienie. Nie ma też hierarchii władzy, bo wszyscy są równi przed Bogiem. Jest natomiast podział ze względu na pełnioną służbę i odpowiedzialność (starsi, diakoni). +Administracja Kościoła. +Balin, Białogard, Bielsko-Biała, Boża Wola, Bukowno, Bytom, Chełmek, Chorzów, Chrzanów, Cieszyn, Częstochowa, Dzięgielów, Gdańsk, Jastrzębie-Zdrój, Jaworzno, Katowice, Koło, Koszalin, Kraków, Lublin, Mikołów, Mława, Myszków, Oświęcim, Palowice, Piasek, Piła, Rybnik, Rydułtowy, Skoczów, Szczecinek, Świętochłowice. Tychy, Tychy-Żwaków, Ustroń, Warszawa, Warszawa Ursus, Wrocław, Żory i Żywiec +Logical Block Addressing + +LBA (ang. Logical Block Addressing) - metoda obsługi dysku twardego przez system operacyjny. +Dla pokonania granicy 504 MB standard EIDE wykorzystuje metodę LBA, która powoduje przenumerowanie wszystkich sektorów, tzn. dokonuje tzw. translacji adresów, czyli zamiany rzeczywistych numerów głowicy, cylindra i sektora na ich logiczny odpowiednik; odpada więc skomplikowana adresacja za pomocą cylindrów, głowic i sektorów (ang.Cylinder Head Sector) (CHS). +Mutacja M17 + +Mutacja M17 - jedna z najnowszych w ewolucji haplotypowych mutacji męskiego chromosomu Y. +Chromosom Y przekazywany jest linearnie w męskiej linii. Nie ulega splataniu (crossing-over). Inne chromosomy się mieszają i nie są przekazywane liniowo przez co nie można czysto wykazać pokrewieństwa. Czasem sporadycznia mutacja zmienia sekwencję DNA znacząc ślad ojcowskiego rodu. +Mutacja M17 powstała prawdopodobnie 6500 lat temu i pochodzi od mutacji M173 dominującej na zachodzie Europy. +Sekwencjonując DNA Y ustalono genealogie męskich linii sięgające kilkaset tysięcy lat wstecz. M17 z jej ojcowską M173 zajmują większość Europy. M17 sięga Ałtaju i Indii a tam 17% u Bramini. +Wiąże się to też z mtDNA który jest przekazywany liniowo w linii matczynej. Z dystrybucji mtDNA można wnioskować o genealogii linii matczynej. +Wiechlinowate + +Wiechlinowate, trawy ("Poaceae" (R. Br.) Barnh., "Gramineae" Juss.) – rodzina roślin należąca do rzędu wiechlinowców. Liczy ok. 11 tys. gatunków. Stanowi ona główny komponent roślinności stepowej, łąkowej i pastwiskowej. Należą do niej również ważne rośliny uprawne, w tym zboża. W Polsce występuje ponad 150 gatunków traw. +Biologia. +Są to rośliny zielne, (częściej byliny niż rośliny jednoroczne). Ich charakterystyczną cechą jest zdolność krzewienia się, czyli wypuszczania licznych źdźbeł z tzw. punktów krzewienia występujących w dolnych częściach pędu. Są przeważnie wiatropylne, czasami samopylne. U niektórych gatunków (np. u pszenicy zwyczajnej) występuje klejstogamia. +Systematyka. +Klad okrytonasienne, klad jednoliścienne ("monocots"), rząd wiechlinowce ("Poales"), rodzina wiechlinowate ("Poaceae"). Rodzina stanowi grupę siostrzaną dla rodzin "Ecdeiocoleaceae" i "Joinvilleaceae". +Zbiorowiska trawiaste. +W różnych miejscach kuli ziemskiej znajdują się rozległe tereny porośnięte głównie trawami, a pozbawione drzew i krzewów. +Obecność w kulturze i symbolice. +Dawna nazwa rodziny pojawia się w piosence „Opowieść o trawie” autorstwa Leszka Wójtowicza. Określana jest tam jako: ciekawa, dzielna, zwykła, bezczelna, uparta, mocna. +Bałuty + +Bałuty - niegdyś dzielnica Łodzi (do 31 grudnia 1992 r.), obecnie obszar podległy delegaturze Urzędu Miasta Łodzi Łódź-Bałuty. Bałuty były drugą co do wielkości dzielnicą: obejmują pow. 78,9 km², a jednocześnie zamieszkane są przez największą liczbę ludności (ok. 223 tys. mieszkańców na 775,2 tys. w całej Łodzi). +Historia. +W XIX wieku Łódź rozwijała się bardzo dynamicznie, rozwój demograficzny był niewspółmierny z rozwojem terytorium miasta. Napływająca ludność osiedlała się w okolicznych wsiach. Zabudowa tych nowych osiedli, odbywała się w sposób chaotyczny, bez podstawowych mediów. W 1915 roku wieś Bałuty włączono do Łodzi, liczba mieszkańców tej wsi osiągnęła wtedy liczbę 100 tysięcy i była to największa ówcześnie wieś w Europie. +Dzielnica administracyjna Bałuty została powołana z dniem 1 stycznia 1954 jako jedna z 7 ówcześnie ustanowionych dzielnic Łodzi. Gdyby uprościć zarys miasta Łodzi do okręgu, ówczesne Bałuty zajmowały „kąt” między ulicami Rąbieńską (w przybliżeniu) i Drewnowską na południu a ulicami Łagiewnicką i Krecią na wschodzie. +W ten sposób większa część dawnej wsi i Osady Fabrycznej Bałuty (na wschód od ul. Łagiewnickiej) znalazła się poza obszarem dzielnicy Bałuty, wchodząc w skład dzielnicy „Staromiejska”. Dla tak wyznaczonego obszaru dzielnicy bardziej adekwatna byłaby nazwa "Radogoszcz". +Od 1 stycznia 1960 wprowadzono korektę podziału administracyjnego. Dzielnicę „Bałuty” powiększono, przez włączenie do niej dzielnicy „Staromiejska”. W ten sposób wschodnia granica dzielnicy administracyjnej Bałuty oparła się o ulicę Strykowską oraz odcinek łącznicy kolejowej Widzew – Zgierz, zaś cały obszar historycznych Bałut znalazł się w granicach dzielnicy administracyjnej o tej nazwie. +Od 1 stycznia 1993 r. podział Łodzi na dzielnice został formalnie zniesiony, jednak w świadomości mieszkańców utrzymał się on do dnia dzisiejszego. +Yahoo! + +Yahoo! (NASDAQ: YHOO) – jeden z najpopularniejszych i największych portali internetowych na świecie, posiadający wersje w kilkunastu językach. +Główna siedziba znajduje się w Sunnyvale, w stanie Kalifornia, w USA. +Historia. +Twórcami serwisu byli David Filo i Jerry Yang – doktoranci fizyki na Wydziale Inżynierii Elektrycznej Uniwersytetu w Stanford. Zaczęli swoją działalność w 1994 roku od porządkowania swoich dokumentów znalezionych w Internecie dzięki wyszukiwarce AltaVista. +Wkrótce stwierdzili, że przygotowywany "domowym sposobem" katalog dokumentów internetowych jest na tyle interesującym przedsięwzięciem, aby poświęcić mu więcej czasu. +Początkowo strona nazywała się "Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web". Strona internetowa stawała się coraz bardziej popularna, dlatego nazwa została zmieniona na Yahoo!. +12 kwietnia 1996 roku Yahoo! zadebiutowało na giełdzie. +1 lutego 2008 firma Microsoft złożyła ofertę zakupu Yahoo! za 31 dolarów za udział, lub 44,6 miliardów do wszystkich akcji. Zarząd Yahoo! odrzucił ofertę 11 lutego, twierdząc że oferta jest zbyt niska. 3 maja 2008 Microsoft wycofał swoją ofertę. +13 czerwca 2008 spółka nawiązała współpracę z firmą Google. Współpraca dotyczy sprzedaży reklam na stronach Yahoo!. +Nazwa. +Nazwa Yahoo! oficjalnie pochodzi od frazy: "Yet Another Hierarchical Officius Oracle" (jeszcze jeden zhierarchizowany system zarządzania bazą danych). W rzeczywistości jednak rozwinięcie zostało dobrane do istniejącego już wcześniej słowa. +Strony i portale Yahoo! +Lista stron internetowych i portali, które należą do Yahoo! Inc.: Yahoo! 360°, Yahoo! Advertising, Yahoo! Answers, Yahoo! Autos, Yahoo! Assistant, Yahoo! Briefcase, Yahoo! Buzz Log, Yahoo! Developer Network, Yahoo! Directory, Yahoo! Finance, Yahoo! Gallery, Yahoo! Games, Yahoo! Geocities, Yahoo! Groups, Yahoo! HotJobs, Yahoo! Kickstart, Yahoo! Local, Yahoo! Mail, Yahoo! Maps, Yahoo! Mash, Yahoo! Messenger, Yahoo! Mobile, Yahoo! Movies, Yahoo! Music, Yahoo! News, Yahoo! OMG, Yahoo! Personals, Yahoo! Photos, Yahoo! Pipes, Yahoo! Podcasts, Yahoo! Publisher Network, Yahoo! Real Estate, Yahoo! Search, Yahoo! Search Marketing, Yahoo! Shopping, Yahoo! Small Business, Yahoo! Sports, Yahoo! Tech, Yahoo! Telemundo, Yahoo! Travel, Yahoo! TV, Yahoo! Video, Yahoo! Widgets, Yahoo! Kids, Bix, Kelkoo, del.icio.us, blo.gs, Dialpad, Flickr, upcoming.org. +Yahoo! Avatars. +Yahoo! Avatars to serwis internetowy, który umożliwia publikację osobistych obrazków, zwanych avatarami, dostępnych na stronach HTML, profilach Yahoo! 360° i Yahoo! Messenger. +Yahoo! w Polsce. +Do 24 stycznia 2011 jedynie usługa Yahoo! Mail była dostępna w języku polskim. 13 stycznia 2011 roku firma zamierzała wkroczyć na polski rynek uruchamiając polską wersję całego portalu. Stało się to jednak dopiero 24 stycznia 2011 po udostępnieniu strony pod domeną "yahoo.pl". +Yahoo!, a prawa człowieka. +Yahoo! jest krytykowany za współpracę z rządem Chin w cenzurowaniu dostępu do Internetu oraz prześladowaniu chińskich internautów. Yahoo! przyczyniło się do aresztowania chińskiego dziennikarza Shi Tao ujawniając jego dane personalne, czym złamało międzynarodową konwencję praw człowieka. Shi Tao został skazany na 10 lat więzienia za wysłanie do USA listu E-mail, który zawierał treść rozporządzenia Komunistycznej Partii Chin z instrukcją dotyczącą manipulowania mediami w czasie obchodów rocznicowych masakry na placu Tian'anmen. +Druga sprawa dotyczy Li Zhi, który w 2003 roku odważył się skrytykować w sieci korupcję w Chinach, za co został skazany na 8 lat. W tym przypadku, oskarżenie wysunęła organizacja Reporterzy bez Granic, której zdaniem portal internetowy doskonale wie, do czego rządowi chińskiemu służą udostępniane dane. +W reakcji na te oskarżenia, Yahoo, wraz z Microsoft i Google przedstawiły 28 października 2008 roku dokument zatytułowany "Global Network Initiative". +Ma on istotnie przyczynić się do zmiany wizerunku tych firm w kontekście ich związków z państwami, w których łamane są prawa człowieka. Dokument wyznacza granicę między informacjami, które mogą być udostępniane władzom, a tymi, które będą objęte klauzulą prywatności w celu lepszej ochrony prywatności i wolności słowa w sieci. +Przeobrażenie (ujednoznacznienie) + +Przeobrażenie, metamorfoza – w znaczeniu ogólnym – przekształcenie, zmiana formy, postaci lub struktury. +__NOTOC__ +Literatura. +Metamorfozy to starożytny gatunek literacki oraz tytuły dzieł. +Karekin I Sarkisjan + +Karekin I Sarkisjan (także Garegin I Sarkissian, ur. 1932, zm. 1999) - duchowny Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego, w latach 1994-1999 najwyższy patriarcha tego Kościoła - Jego Świątobliwość Katolikos Wszystkich Ormian, Patriarcha Świętej Stolicy Eczmiadzynu. +Urodził się w Kessab, w północnej Syrii 27 sierpnia 1932 jako Neszan Sarkisjan. W 1946 wstąpił do seminarium duchownego prowadzonego przez ormiański patriarchat cylicyjski. W 1949 przyjął święcenia diakońskie. Seminarium ukończył z wyróżnieniem w 1952, zaś 28 września tego roku został wyświęcony na księdza-zakonnika - przyjął wtedy imię Karekin na cześć ormiańskiego patriarchy cylicyjskiego Karekina I Howsepiana. W 1955 został uzyskał tytuł "wartabed" - doktora teologii Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego. W latach 1955-1956 zarządzał wydziałem seminarium duchownego w Antelias, w latach 1956-1957 był jego dziekanem. W latach 1957-1959 studiował teologię na Oxfordzie. +Po powrocie do Antelias ponownie objął stanowisko dziekana seminarium. Od 1963 stał się pomocnikiem ówczesnego patriarchy cylicyjskiego Chorena I - organizował jego podróże, brał udział w spotkaniach ekumenicznych organizowanych przez Światową Radę Kościołów, był w imieniu Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego obserwatorem takich historycznych wydarzeń, jak Sobór watykański II, konferencja Kościoła Anglikańskiego w Lambeth, spotkanie głów Kościołów orientalnych w Addis-Abebie w 1965. W tym okresie również wykładał gościnnie w szkołach w Bejrucie, w Moskwie i w Kottajam. 16 czerwca 1963 został mianowany starszym archimandrytą, a 19 stycznia 1964 został wyświęcony na biskupa. Od 1968 był członkiem różnych komitetów Światowej Rady Kościołów. +W 1971 Karekin Sarkisjan został prałatem diecezji Nowa Julfa z siedzibą w Isfahanie. W 1973 został legatem patriarszym we wschodniej prałaturze Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego (obediencji cylicyjskiej) w Ameryce z siedzibą w Nowym Jorku. 26 kwietnia 1973 został mianowany arcybiskupem, a w 1974 - prymasem Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego w Ameryce. Jako legat i prymas odznaczył się organizując działalność kościoła na rzecz wiernych, a także, w latach 1976-1977, organizując pomoc dla dotkniętego wojną domową Libanu. +22 maja 1977 arcybiskup Karekin Sarkisjan został wybrany na katolikosa i patriarchę cylicyjskiego (do śmierci poprzedniego patriarchy cylicyjskiego Chorena I w lutym 1983 był katolikosem-koadiutorem). Jako patriarcha cylicyjski Karekin Sarkisjan doprowadził do intelektualnego i edukacyjnego ożywienia patriarchatu. Złożył wiele wizyt oficjalnych - w Libanie, Syrii, Iranie, na Cyprze, w USA, Kuwejcie i w krajach Zatoki Perskiej - oraz odbył wiele spotkań ekumenicznych, między innymi z papieżem Janem Pawłem II, arcybiskupem Canterbury Robertem Runcle, patriarchą koptyjskim Szenudą III i z przedstawicielami wyznań protestanckich. Opublikował wiele prac w zakresie teologii, filozofii, etyki i literatury oraz na temat Armenii. +Jeszcze jako patriarcha cylicyjski Karekin Sarkisjan utrzymywał kontakty ze stolicą patriarszą w Eczmiadzynie. Po śmierci patriarchy eczmiadzyńskiego Waskena I Baldżiana w sierpniu 1994, na synodzie elekcyjnym Karekin Sarkisjan 4 kwietnia 1995 został wybrany katolikosem i Patriarchą Wszystkich Ormian, rezydującym w Eczmiadzynie. Jego intronizacja jako Karekina I nastąpiła w niedzielę palmową 9 kwietnia 1995. Karekin I był pierwszym od wielu setek lat patriarchą wybranym w niepodległej Armenii. Jako patriarcha eczmiadzyński przebudował strukturę organizacyjną Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego na świecie, odnowił seminarium duchowne w Eczmiadzynie i odbył wiele podróży apostolskich po Armenii, w tym po Górskim Karabachu. Przewodniczył również synodowi, który wybrał nowego patriarchę cylicyjskiego Arama I Kesziszjana. Podjął przygotowania do obchodów jubileuszu 1700-lecia przyjęcia chrześcijaństwa przez Armenię. +Patriarcha Karekin I Sarkisjan zmarł na raka 29 czerwca 1999 w Eczmiadzynie. Rok przed śmiercią mianował swoim wikariuszem generalnym arcybiskupa Karekina Nersisjana, który stał się jego następcą na tronie patriarszym. +Feliks Koneczny + +Feliks Karol Koneczny (ur. 1 listopada 1862 w Krakowie, zm. 10 lutego 1949 tamże) – polski historyk i historiozof, a także bibliotekarz i dziennikarz, twórca oryginalnej koncepcji cywilizacji. +Życiorys. +Jego ojciec był urzędnikiem kolejowym, a on sam ukończył z wyróżnieniem Gimnazjum św. Jacka w Krakowie. W latach 1883-1888 studiował historię na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, tytuł doktora uzyskał za pracę: „Najdawniejsze stosunki Inflant z Polską do r. 1393”. W latach 1889-1890 prowadził badania w archiwach watykańskich. Po powrocie pracował naukowo w Archiwum Akademii Umiejętności. Następnie pracował w bibliotekach Akademii Umiejętności i Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, jednocześnie działał m.in. w Klubie Słowiańskim, Towarzystwie Szkoły Ludowej i Uniwersytecie Ludowym. W tym czasie publikował liczne artykuły w czasopismach: „Czas”, „Przegląd Polski”, „Przegląd Powszechny”, „Głos Narodu” i miesięczniku „Świat Słowiański”, którego był redaktorem. Od 1919 r. pracował na Uniwersytecie Stefana Batorego w Wilnie jako zastępca profesora, gdzie habilitował się w 1920 r. pracą "Dzieje Rosji do r. 1449". W 1922 r. uzyskał tytuł profesora. W latach 1922-1929 kierował katedrą historii Europy Wschodniej. Został zmuszony do udania się na przedwczesną emeryturę z powodu nieprzychylnego nastawienia sanacji do jego dzieł. Filister honoris causa korporacji akademickiej Conradia Po wojnie zatrudniony na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, lecz odsunięty od działalności dydaktycznej, w latach 1946-1948 publikował liczne artykuły poświęcone głównie kwestiom samorządu i historii gospodarczej w „Niedzieli”. +Zmarł 10 lutego 1949 r. w Krakowie, pochowany w dwa dni później w grobowcu rodzinnym na Cmentarzu Salwatorskim. +Twórczość. +Historia. +W pracach historycznych Koneczny zajmował się historią Europy Środkowej i Wschodniej głównie w okresie średniowiecza i wczesnej nowożytności. Interesowały go zwłaszcza kwestie związane z: zakonem krzyżackim, oraz stosunki Polski i Litwy ze wschodnimi sąsiadami. Obok prac naukowych publikował także dzieła popularyzatorskie i podręcznikowe, jak: "Dzieje narodu polskiego dla młodzieży" (1889), "Dzieje Śląska" (1897) czy "Dzieje Polski za Piastów" (1902) i "Dzieje Polski za Jagiellonów" (1903). +W swoich pracach historycznych podkreślał pozytywny wpływ Kościoła katolickiego na rozwój społeczeństwa (ukazując m.in. jak w konfliktach władzy państwowej z Kościołem rodziły się samorządy i przekonanie o prawach społeczeństwa względem władcy), oraz dominującą rolę idei w historii, tak np. w „Teorii Grunwaldu” (1910) pokazuje, że zwycięstwo nad zakonem krzyżackim było wynikiem nie tyle przewagi militarnej, ile wyższości idei samostanowienia narodów, opracowanej przez Stanisława ze Skalbmierza i Pawła Włodkowica, nad, będącymi podstawą moralną i prawną dla roszczeń krzyżackich, uniwersalizmami cesarskim i papieskim. Często podkreślał też fałszywość teorii deterministycznych, ukazując wpływ wybitnych jednostek na dzieje. Uwypuklał narodowościowy charakter konfliktów polsko-niemieckich, a później polsko-krzyżackich i jego zdaniem negatywną rolę Żydów w dziejach Polski. Przykładał także dużą wagę do badań rozwoju administracji – „Dzieje administracji w Polsce” (1924), oraz rozwoju gospodarczego – „Rzut oka na polskie dzieje gospodarcze” (1918). Z biegiem czasu Koneczny publikował coraz mniej prac historycznych, a coraz więcej historiozoficznych. +Historiozofia. +Początkiem rozważań cywilizacyjnych Konecznego była refleksja nad stosunkiem Polski do Europy, naszej wartości cywilizacyjnej w ogóle, prowadzona w 1917 roku. Zaowocowała ona artykułem „Polska w kulturze powszechnej” w dwutomowym dziele pod redakcją Feliksa Konecznego (1917 lub 1918). Był to jednocześnie początek prac nad książką „O wielości cywilizacyj”. Pierwszą obszerniejszą pracą historiozoficzną Konecznego było opublikowane w 1921 r. „Polskie Logos a Ethos. Roztrząsanie o znaczeniu i celu Polski”. Są to rozważania o celu Polski jako państwa i Polaków jako narodu. Cel taki pojmował on nie jako coś danego z góry, ale jako wybraną w sposób wolny ideę przewodnią, wokół której koncentrują się wysiłki narodu w danym okresie historycznym. Idea taka miałaby wynikać z okazanych w toku rozwoju danego narodu predyspozycji i uwzględniać potrzeby całej ludzkości. Koneczny twierdził, że miano narodu przysługuje tylko tym wspólnotom, które posiadają właśnie taki cel, inny niż własne przetrwanie. Celem Polski, zdaniem Konecznego, było (czy też powinno być) głoszenie i dowodzenie nadrzędności prawa moralnego nad dążeniem za wszelką cenę do skuteczności w polityce, a także rozpowszechnianie idei dobrowolnej unii między narodami, której najdoskonalszy przykład widział w Uniach polsko-litewskich. W roku akademickim 1926/27 Koneczny prowadził na Uniwersytecie Stefana Batorego całoroczne wykłady, w wymiarze 3 godzin tygodniowo, z przedmiotu „Wstęp do nauki o cywilizacji”. W tym czasie publikuje szereg artykułów i broszur historiozoficznych, m.in.: „Różnolitość cywilizacyjna Słowiańszczyzny” (1925), „Bizantynizm niemiecki” (1927), „Kościół w Polsce wobec cywilizacji” (1928), „Zawisłość ekonomii od etyki” (1932), w których kształtował własne rozumienie podstawowych dla swojej historiozofii pojęć takich jak: cywilizacja, trójprawo, pięciomian bytu (Quincunx), personalizm, indywidualizm, gromadność. +Historiozofia Konecznego uzyskała swój ostateczny kształt w książce „O wielości cywilizacyj” (1935) – na Zachodzie wydanej w języku angielskim pod tytułem „On the Plurality of Civilisations”, do której przedmowę napisał Arnold Joseph Toynbee oraz traktowanej jako jej uzupełnienie książce „Rozwój moralności” (1938), a także w będących jej rozwinięciem nie wydanych za jego życia książkach: „Cywilizacja Bizantyjska”, „Cywilizacja Żydowska”, „Państwo i Prawo w Cywilizacji Łacińskiej”. Historiozofia była w jego ujęciu badaniem praw dziejowych. Prawa te rozumiał on jednak nie jako determinizm, ale jako stałe (wielokrotnie powtarzające się w dziejach) zależności między ideami, systemami społecznymi, politycznymi czy religijnymi. Zwalczał wszystkie historiozofie deterministyczne jak: marksizm, heglizm, teorie Towiańskiego, Hoene-Wrońskiego i Vico, a także rasizm i darwinizm społeczny. Uważał też, że nie można przy pomocy historiozofii przewidzieć przyszłego rozwoju ludzkości. +Teoria cywilizacji. +Dwa szeregi pojęć. +Rozstrzyga czy celem ustroju społecznego jest dobro osoby czy grupy. Podstawową metoda rozpoznawania, która z tych wartości preferuje dana cywilizacja, jest dla Konecznego, sposób modlitwy człowiek zwraca się do bóstwa jako jednostka (personalizm), czy jako przedstawiciel jakiejś grupy (gromadność), plemienia, kasty, państwa. Obok gromadności, jako przeciwieństwo personalizmu, bywa wymieniany przez niego indywidualizm. W personalizmie jednostka podlega (dla własnego dobra) ograniczeniom moralnym, natomiast indywidualizm oznacza brak wszelkich ograniczeń i w istocie kończy się tyranią najsilniejszej jednostki. +Zależy od tego czy ustrój społeczny zmienia się pod wpływem doświadczeń, czy też pod wpływem teorii nie wynikających z doświadczenia (opracowanych „metodą medytacyjną”). +Powiązane z poprzednią parą. Istnienie lub brak w danym społeczeństwie żywej (rozwijającej się) tradycji obok „negacji wszystkiego” jako przeciwieństwo historyzmu Koneczny wymienia czasem sakralizacje obyczaju, czyli jego uświęcenie i niezmienność. +Dwie wizje budowania jedności społeczeństwa. Jako dążące do jednolitości Koneczny uznawał wszystkie społeczeństwa, w których istniała biurokracja. +Powiązane z poprzednią parą. Rozumienie społeczeństwa jako mechanizmu, który w razie wadliwego funkcjonowania wymaga biurokratycznej reformy, lub jako organizmu, który posiada zdolność do samoleczenia – oddolnej naprawy. Mechanizmami są państwa centralistyczne zarządzane przez biurokrację. Organizmami państwa, lub społeczeństwa z rozbudowanym samorządem. +Istnienie prawa prywatnego (monizm, we wszystkich cywilizacjach) i publicznego (obok prywatnego, w niektórych cywilizacjach). +Większość cywilizacji posiada pojęcia obu ciągów. W pełni personalistyczna jest według Konecznego jedynie cywilizacja łacińska. +Charakterystyka poszczególnych cywilizacji. +Cywilizacja bizantyńska. +Ukształtowana w Cesarstwie rzymskim, a następnie w Cesarstwie Bizantyjskim, na przełomie starożytności i średniowiecza. Choć nazwę wzięła od państwa bizantyjskiego, to wiele jej cech było widocznych już w późnym cesarstwie rzymskim. Z dziedzictwa rzymskiego brała przede wszystkim prawo publiczne, które Koneczny uważał za efekt wpływów wschodnich, od początku obcy cywilizacyjnie Rzymowi i stanowiący jedną z przyczyn jego upadku. Jednocześnie wbrew rzymskiej tradycji, stawia prawo publiczne ponad prawem prywatnym. Religią tej cywilizacji jest chrześcijaństwo, ale głosi ona zwierzchność władzy politycznej nad duchową i niezależność polityki od moralności, władcy bizantyjscy nie tylko wyznaczali biskupów (w czym, w przeciwieństwie do świata zachodniego, nie spotkali się z żadnymi oporami kościoła), ale rozstrzygali też spory dogmatyczne. Takie stanowisko musiało zdaniem Konecznego doprowadzić do trwałej schizmy w kościele. Przedstawia on więc prawosławie jako produkt cywilizacji bizantyńskiej w kontraście do katolicyzmu, który stworzył własną cywilizację. Państwo w cywilizacji bizantyńskiej tworzyło potężną biurokrację i bardzo rozbudowane prawo, regulujące wszystkie dziedziny życia. Charakteryzowało się ono znacznym uciskiem fiskalnym powodującym niekiedy wyludnienie całych prowincji, czy masowe ucieczki na pustynie (jak było w Egipcie). Posiadało, w przeciwieństwie do większości państw średniowiecznych, stałą zaciężną armię. Historię Bizancjum Koneczny opisuje jako dzieje nieuniknionego upadku. Rozrośnięty do przesady aparat państwowy powoduje niedorozwój społeczeństwa, upadek nauki, sztuki i literatury. Długotrwałość tego upadku (zwłaszcza gdy porównamy ją z upadkiem cesarstwa zachodniego), tłumaczy on pozorną przewagą mechanizmu nad organizmem: mechanizm może działać nawet wtedy, gdy działanie to nie ma już żadnego celu. Rozwinięte społeczeństwo zachodnich prowincji cesarstwa zdaniem Konecznego po prostu nie chciało kontynuować jego ułomnych tradycji politycznych i wolało podporządkować się władcom barbarzyńskim (jako przykład takiego świadomego wyboru politycznego ukazuje on Kasjodora, którego uważa za jednego z twórców cywilizacji łacińskiej), podczas gdy na wschodzie mechanicznie podtrzymywano skazane na upadek państwo, wbrew interesom społeczeństwa (tej sprzeczności interesów dowodzi Koneczny licznymi przykładami obywateli cesarstwa cieszących się z podboju swoich prowincji przez barbarzyńców). Cywilizacja ta nie upadła jednak razem z państwem bizantyjskim, gdyż wcześniej na przełomie IX i X wieku opanowała znaczną część Niemiec, gdzie rozpropagowała ją cesarzowa Teofano. Stąd miały wynikać późniejsze walki cesarzy niemieckich (zwłaszcza Fryderyka II) z papiestwem. Późniejszymi wcieleniami cywilizacji bizantyńskiej w Niemczech były zakon krzyżacki i Prusy (kultura niemiecko-bizantyńska). Podobnie jak na wschodzie cywilizacja ta wykształciła prawosławie, tak na zachodzie wykształciła protestantyzm, który znów podobnie jak prawosławie faktycznie uznał dominację władzy politycznej nad kościelną ("cuius regio, illius religio"). Zdaniem Konecznego Cywilizacja bizantyńska ma dziś znaczny i negatywny wpływ na większość państw zachodnich, co wyraża się min. w: rozbudowie biurokracji i prawa ograniczającego coraz więcej dziedzin życia, eliminacji etyki z życia zbiorowego oraz militaryzacji. +Cywilizacja łacińska. +Kształtowała się w okresie średniowiecza, a najważniejszym czynnikiem ją tworzącym był Kościół katolicki. Obejmuje ona społeczeństwa Europy zachodniej i środkowej oraz Ameryki, dominuje wszędzie tam, gdzie religią dominującą jest katolicyzm, lub wywodzące się z niego wyznania protestanckie. Jej etyką jest etyka katolicka. Cywilizacja łacińska przejęła attyckie pojęcia prawdy (nauki) i piękna (literatura i sztuka) oraz znaczną część rzymskiego prawa, rozwijając je w duchu chrześcijaństwa. W polityce narzuca rządzącym te same prawa moralne, które obowiązują poddanych ich władzy. Dąży do rozwinięcia jak najsilniejszego samorządu i jak największego wpływu społeczeństwa na państwo. Uznaje dualizm prawa (prawo prywatne i publiczne) i wyższość etyki nad prawem (prawo ma wywodzić się z etyki i podlega ocenie moralnej). W ekonomii najwyżej ceni własność nieruchomą, zwłaszcza ziemską. Jej ideałem w tej dziedzinie jest zapewnienie jak największej liczbie ludzi samodzielności ekonomicznej, tj. posiadania własnego warsztatu pracy, będącego w stanie zapewnić utrzymanie rodzinie. W prawie rodzinnym i małżeńskim uznaje tylko małżeństwo monogamiczne, oraz emancypację rodziny spod władzy rodu. +Cywilizacja turańska. +Ukształtowana w starożytności na terenach Wielkiego Stepu. Nie rozwinęła trwałych więzi społecznych wyższych niż rodowe, ludność łączy się natomiast w celach wojennych w ordy, które w razie powodzenia mogą przybrać potężne rozmiary, nie są jednak trwałe i rozpadają się wraz ze śmiercią wodza lub jego porażką. Największe ordy utworzyli Hunowie, Turcy i Mongołowie (autor wyróżniał także kultury ojgurską, afgańską i turecką), do tej cywilizacji należą także Rosjanie i Kozacy (turańsko-słowiańskie kultury moskiewska i kozacka). Cała aktywność polityczna w ramach tej cywilizacji ma zdaniem Konecznego charakter wojskowy. Władców nie obowiązuje moralność (stąd Koneczny mówił o indywidualizmie tej cywilizacji). Nie rozwinęła żadnej z nauk, jednak szybko przyswajała sobie wszelkie wynalazki w dziedzinie wojskowości. Uznaje równoprawność monogamii, poligamii i konkubinatu. Pozornie panuje w niej indyferentyzm religijny, jednak często religia była w jej ramach wykorzystywana jako przyczyna wojen, nie miała natomiast nigdy wpływu na moralność publiczną czy stosunki społeczne. +Cywilizacja żydowska. +Jest cywilizacją sakralną, tj. taką, w której całe życie jednostki i społeczeństwa jest, lub przynajmniej powinno być, podporządkowane prawu religijnemu. Podstawą tego prawa jest u Żydów Tora, ale za charakterystyczną cechę tej cywilizacji, odróżniającą ją od innych cywilizacji sakralnych np. Bramińskiej, Koneczny uważał to, że prawa są w niej wypierane przez kolejne komentarze do nich i tak Tora została wyparta przez Talmud, ten zaś był wypierany przez kolejne komentarze i skróty (najważniejsze autorstwa Mojżesza Majmonidesa, czy Mojżesza Mendelssona) i wreszcie w niektórych środowiskach żydowskich przez Kabałę. To wyparcie nie oznaczało oczywiście dogmatycznego odrzucenia, Żydzi talmudyści dalej uznawali pierwotność Tory, ale było praktycznym zaprzestaniem badań nad wcześniejszymi tekstami i odwoływania się do nich. Tak więc faktyczne prawo żydowskie, mimo że z definicji jako sakralne powinno być niezmienne, w rzeczywistości zmieniało się pod wpływem komentarzy dostosowujących je do zmiennych okoliczności historycznych. Choć podstawa prawa żydowskiego wykształciła się w Palestynie (lub w drodze do niej), to najistotniejszym doświadczeniem dziejowym, które wpłynęło na rozwój cywilizacji żydowskiej była tzw. Niewola babilońska. Wprawdzie część Żydów wróciła później do Palestyny, a nawet ponownie stworzyła niezależne państwo żydowskie, jednak od jej czasu większość Żydów żyje w rozproszeniu, określanym przez Konecznego jako Golus (aszkenazyjska wymowa hebrajskiego słowa גָּלוּת ([gɔluθ], wygnanie). W niewoli babilońskiej Żydzi z konieczności porzucili, jako niewykonalną poza niepodległym państwem żydowskim (Koneczny nazywa to geograficzną względnością prawa), tę część swoich praw, która określała zasady ekonomiczne, przejęli zaś pojęcia ekonomiczne ówczesnej Babilonii, wtedy też po raz pierwszy zajęli się na dużą skalę handlem. Najistotniejszymi elementami ekonomii żydowskiej były od tego czasu: wyższość własności ruchomej nad nieruchomą i oparcie się na kredycie jako podstawie działalności. Za charakterystyczne uznać należy również to, że wedle Konecznego, kupcy żydowscy, w przeciwieństwie do handlowców innych cywilizacji, zaczynali swoją działalność od razu od wielkiego handlu międzynarodowego, a dopiero wiele wieków później zajęli się handlem detalicznym. Z racji chrześcijańskiego zakazu lichwy Żydzi w średniowiecznej europie zajęli się bankowością (w niektórych miejscach zmuszały ich do tego ograniczenia w handlu), osiągając w niej pierwotnie monopolistyczną pozycję. Istotną cechą wyrosłą z życia w rozproszeniu jest też brak przywiązania do ziemi i patriotyzmu. Zdaniem Konecznego istnieją co najmniej cztery główne religie żydowskie (mozaizm, judaizm, chasydyzm i pogaństwo żydowskie opisane w Biblii), które jednak różniąc się od siebie zasadniczo w kwestiach dogmatyki czy eklezjologii uznają to samo prawo i tę sama moralność (moralność w cywilizacji żydowskiej wywodzi się z prawa). Biorąc pod uwagę, że sami Żydzi uważają prawo za najistotniejszy element swojej religii (czy też swoich religii), są one często traktowane jako odmiany jednej religii. Religie te łączy też postrzeganie Żydów jako Narodu wybranego. Podstawowym wyróżnikiem moralności żydowskiej jest dla Konecznego jej dwoistość, tj. odmienne zasady jakie mają w niej obowiązywać w stosunkach między Żydami i w stosunkach Żydów z gojami. Żydzi uznawali konieczność przestrzegania praw narodów wśród których żyli, lecz uzasadniali to jedynie dążeniem do zachowania pokoju. W prawie małżeńskim, początkowo preferowana była poligamia, jednak w średniowieczu, głównie ze względów praktycznych (Żydzi byli odrzucani przez większość narodów wśród których zamieszkiwali, wiec brakowało kobiet), przeważać zaczęła monogamia, która od XIII w stała się jedyną dopuszczalną formą małżeństwa. Cywilizacja żydowska jest jedną z najdokładniej opisanych przez Konecznego (obok bizantyńskiej i łacińskiej). Jej opis budzi też jednak najwięcej kontrowersji (niektórzy twierdzą, że Koneczny podkreślał u Żydów te cechy które uważał za negatywne, ich pozytywne osiągnięcia dostrzegał jedynie w ekonomii) i jest tą częścią teorii Konecznego, która została najwyraźniej sfalsyfikowana, przez wydarzenia jakie nastąpiły po jego śmierci. Koneczny nie wierzył w możliwość powstania i utrzymania się niepodległego Izraela ze względu na brak patriotyzmu u Żydów, ich niechęć do wojska i ułomność (jednokierunkowość) żydowskiej ekonomii. Potwierdziło się jedynie jego przypuszczenie, że znaczna część Żydów będzie wolała pozostać w rozproszeniu. Koneczny w cywilizacji żydowskiej wyróżniał m.in. kulturę litwacką, tumską, tuniską, amerykańsko-żydowską oraz socjalizm. +Cywilizacja arabska. +Jest to cywilizacja półsakralna. Rozwinęła się w ustroju rodowym, z niewyemancypowaną rodziną (do jej emancypacji doszło jedynie w kulturze kordoweńskiej). W zakresie stosunku do czasu przedstawiciele tej cywilizacji posiadają świadomość er, lecz nie dochodzą do historyzmu. To cywilizacja dopuszczająca poligamię (do czterech żon w danym czasie), z prawem udzielania rozwodu przysługującym jedynie mężczyznom. Związki między mężczyzną a kobietą/kobietami opierają się na bazie umów w zakresie prawa prywatnego. W zakresie życia publicznego, wywodzi się prawo publiczne z prywatnego, np. podatki z obowiązku udzielania jałmużny biednym, służbę wojskową z obowiązku uczestniczenia w świętej wojnie. Z powodu niedostatków tak tworzonego prawa publicznego akceptuje się w tej cywilizacji despotyczną władzę, lecz poddającą swą władzę pod zwierzchnictwo Koranu. O zgodności decyzji władz z Koranem decydują sądy religijne. Do tej cywilizacji zaliczał Koneczny m.in. kulturę mauretańską i bagdadzką. +Cywilizacja bramińska. +Jest cywilizacją sakralną, politeistyczną. Rozwinęła się w ustroju rodowym, kastowym. W zakresie stosunku do czasu rozwinęła stosunek do czasu jedynie do kalendarza. W zakresie prawa małżeńskiego jest to cywilizacja poligamizująca. Autonomiczna w sprawach społecznych. W sprawach państwowych dopuszczająca władzę despotyczną (z powodu niewyodrębnienia prawa publicznego), a jednocześnie bezetyczną. +Cywilizacja chińska. +Rozwinęła się w ustroju rodowym, rozluźniajacym się w miastach. W zakresie stosunku do czasu jej przedstawiciele posiadają świadomość cykli. W zakresie prawa małżeńskiego jest to cywilizacja poligamizująca. Autonomiczna w sprawach społecznych. W sprawach państwowych antropolatryczna i bezetyczna. Do cywilizacji chińskiej zaliczał Koneczny kulturę koreańską i japońską. +Wpływ na innych autorów. +Mimo, iż po II wojnie światowej nauka porównawcza o cywilizacjach Feliksa Konecznego przez długi czas była usunięta w cień, inspirowała ona część autorów rozwijających lub modyfikujących osiągnięcia Konecznego. Jednym z najwybitniejszych kontynuatorów jest Józef Kossecki. Wykorzystał on metodę socjologiczno-psychologiczną Leona Petrażyckiego, zwłaszcza zaś teorię norm społecznych Leona Petrażyckiego i jego ucznia Henryka Piętki, do głębszego ujęcia mechanizmu funkcjonowania cywilizacji. Szczególnie wyjaśnił mechanizm asymilacji religii i ideologii przez społeczeństwa o różnych typach cywilizacji. Szerokie omówienie nauki porównawczej o cywilizacjach Feliksa Konecznego z uwzględnieniem jego późniejszych modyfikacji zawarł Kossecki w książce „Podstawy nowoczesnej nauki porównawczej o cywilizacjach. Socjologia porównawcza cywilizacji” (2003). +Od lat 90. XX wieku pojawiło się wiele publikacji charakteryzujących całość lub część poglądów historiozoficznych Konecznego. Niewielu autorów próbuje rozwijać sformułowaną przez niego teorię cywilizacji. +Rosyjska Armia Wyzwoleńcza + +Rosyjska Armia Wyzwoleńcza (niem. "Russische Befreiungsarmee", ros. "Русская освободительная армия", ROA) – kolaboracyjna formacja zbrojna złożona głównie z Rosjan w czasie II wojny światowej, jej żołnierzy nazywano potocznie własowcami. +Historia. +Utworzenie Rosyjskiej Armii Wyzwoleńczej wiąże się nierozerwalnie z osobą generała lejtnanta Armii Czerwonej Andrieja A. Własowa. Podczas wojny z Niemcami był dowódcą kolejno IV Korpusu Zmechanizowanego, 37 Armii, 20 Armii, a ostatecznie 2 Armii Uderzeniowej i jednocześnie zastępcą dowódcy Frontu Wołchowskiego. Po rozbiciu jego armii 11 lub 12 lipca 1942 r. dostał się do niewoli niemieckiej. Podjął kolaborację z Niemcami, wydając 27 grudnia tego roku tzw. Deklarację Smoleńską. Głosiła ona konieczność zbudowania nowej Rosji poprzez obalenie reżimu stalinowskiego. W tym celu miała powstać Rosyjska Armia Wyzwoleńcza podporządkowana komitetowi rosyjskiemu z gen. A. A. Własowem na czele. Początkowo niemieccy wojskowi popierali jego działania. Pozwolili mu na odbycie dwóch podróży na okupowane obszary ZSRR, gdzie wygłaszał przemówienia propagandowo-agitacyjne, cieszące się dużą popularnością miejscowej ludności. +W kwietniu i maju 1943 r. niemieckie Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) wydało rozkazy wprowadzające odznaki ROA na mundurach żołnierzy wszystkich rosyjskich formacji wojskowych walczących po stronie wojsk niemieckich. Mieli je nosić także Hiwi. Odznaka mogła być noszona na lewym lub prawym rękawie munduru powyżej łokcia. Miało to służyć wywołaniu wrażenia masowości ROA, gdyż na stronę Niemców przeszło kilkaset tysięcy obywateli ZSRR. Ocenia się, że naszywki ROA mogło nosić nawet 800 tys. Rosjan i przedstawicieli innych narodowości (głównie Kozaków, ale też Ukraińców, czy przedstawicieli narodów Azji Środkowej) w służbie armii niemieckiej. OKH wprowadziło również stopnie wojskowe ROA. W rzeczywistości jednostki wojskowe ROA nigdy nie powstały, zaś sama formacja miała charakter głównie propagandowy. Wynikało to ze zdecydowanego sprzeciwu Adolfa Hitlera, który nie wierzył w lojalność rosyjskich żołnierzy i samego gen. A. A. Własowa, zamkniętego na rozkaz führera w lipcu 1943 r. w areszcie domowym. Jedynym wyjątkiem był gwardyjski batalion ROA, sformowany od maja 1943 r. we Wrocławiu, a następnie przeniesiony pod Psków. +W ramach ROA funkcjonowała ponadto szkoła propagandystów ROA w Dabendorfie pod Berlinem. Szkoliła ona oficerów propagandowych, przydzielanych następnie do sztabów niemieckich jednostek wojskowych. Wiosną 1944 r. powstała filia szkoły w Rydze. W ramach ośrodka w Dabendorfie istniały też redakcje pism ROA "Заря" i "Доброволец", przeznaczonych dla jeńców wojennych z Armii Czerwonej, robotników i osób cywilnych pochodzących z ZSRR. W kwietniu 1943 r. w szkole odbyła się 1 Antybolszewicka Konferencja Jeńców Dowódców i Żołnierzy Armii Czerwonej, którzy wstąpili w Szeregi Rosyjskiego Ruchu Wyzwoleńczego. +Od połowy 1943 r. w Berlinie istniała kancelaria gen. A. A. Własowa, pełniąca jednocześnie funkcję Kwatery Głównej, której komendantem został mjr M. A. Kaługin, zaś od września tego roku – płk Konstantin G. Kromiadi. Wszystkie wschodnie formacje zbrojne, których żołnierze nosili naszywki ROA, faktycznie podlegały Generałowi Formacji Wschodnich gen. Ernstowi Köstringowi, zaś wpływ gen. A. A. Własowa był zerowy. Generałowi A. A. Własowowi udało się w końcu doprowadzić do utworzenia własnych sił zbrojnych dopiero pod koniec 1944 r. w formie Sił Zbrojnych Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodów Rosji. Pomimo tego nazwa Rosyjska Armia Wyzwoleńcza nadal funkcjonowała. Przykładowo w ramach Sił Zbrojnych KONR działała szkoła oficerska ROA, zaś żołnierze nosili stopnie wojskowe ROA (np. generał ROA). Do wysokich oficerów ROA, a następnie Sił Zbrojnych KONR należeli m.in. gen. Fiodor I. Truchin, gen. Iwan A. Błagowieszczeński, płk Grigorij A. Zwieriew, płk Siergiej K. Buniaczenko, płk Michaił A. Meandrow. +Własowcy a ROA. +We wspomnieniach, publikacjach prasowych i języku potocznym nazwa "własowcy" stosowana jest często błędnie, bowiem w odniesieniu do innych kolaboracyjnych formacji, głównie rosyjskich, ale także białoruskich. Błąd taki powtarza się szczególnie często w relacjach ofiar powstania warszawskiego. +Engelberg + +Engelberg (pol. "Anielska góra") (1020 m n.p.m.) – miejscowość położona w centralnej Szwajcarii (kanton Obwalden) u podnóża lodowca Titlis (3238 m n.p.m.) w Alpach Szwajcarskich. Miasto było, wraz z Rovaniemi, organizatorem nieoficjalnych Mistrzostw Świata w Narciarstwie Klasycznym 1984. +Popularny ośrodek sportów zimowych i turystyki alpejskiej. Znajduje się tu skocznia narciarska Gross-Titlis-Schanze, na której co roku odbywają się konkursy Pucharu Świata. +Girma Woldegiorgis + +Girma Woldegiorgis, amhar. ግርማ ወልደ ጊዮርጊስ (ur. w grudniu 1924 w Addis Abebie) – polityk, prezydent Etiopii od 2001. +Jednomyślnie wybrany przez parlament etiopski w 2001, sprawuje urząd, który w Etiopii w dużym stopniu jest jedynie urzędem reprezentacyjnym. Ma pięcioro dzieci. Oprócz amharskiego zna języki oromo, tigrinia, włoski, angielski, francuski. +Woldegiorgis służył w wojsku, m.in. jako oficer etiopskiej floty powietrznej. Był politykiem za panowania cesarza Hajle Syllasje, pełniąc funkcję przewodniczącego niższej izby parlamentu. Po upadku cesarstwa w 1974, pracował m.in. w Erytrei jako przedstawiciel Czerwonego Krzyża. Po ustąpieniu Mengystu Hajle Marjama w 1991 zajął się biznesem, powracając także do pracy w parlamencie. +Beata Tyszkiewicz + +Beata Maria Helena Tyszkiewiczówna-Kalenicka (ur. 14 sierpnia 1938 w Wilanowie) – polska aktorka filmowa i telewizyjna, w latach 1994–1998 prezes Fundacji Kultury Polskiej. Obecnie pełni funkcję przewodniczącej rady Fundacji Dzieciom "Zdążyć z Pomocą". +Życiorys. +Po szkole podstawowej miała problemy z przyjęciem do gimnazjum ze względu na pochodzenie arystokratyczne (pochodzi z rodziny hrabiowskiej, pieczętującej się herbem Leliwa). Przyjęto ją po interwencji matki w Ministerstwie Kultury i Sztuki. +Uczęszczała do szkoły Sióstr Niepokalanek w Szymanowie. W latach 1957-1958 studiowała w PWST w Warszawie, po czym podjęła pracę w TVP jako inspicjentka. W 1973 roku Ministerstwo Kultury i Sztuki przyznało jej – bez egzaminu – uprawnienia aktorskie. +W filmie zadebiutowała jeszcze jako uczennica, w następnych dekadach zagrała w niemal stu filmach. Debiutowała w 1957 w ekranizacji "Zemsty" w reżyserii Antoniego Bohdziewicza, wcielając się w postać Klary. Film, nakręcony w 1956 roku, miał premierę 30 września 1957 roku. +Od 1961 roku kontakt poufny SB (Służba Bezpieczeństwa) ps. "Ela". Pozyskana została do współpracy na zasadzie dobrowolności. +Jest członkinią Narodowej Rady Kultury 1 i 2 Kadencji oraz Fundacji Kultury Polskiej wspomagającej kulturę polską w kraju i za granicą, w której od 1994 roku pełni funkcję prezesa zarządu. +Jest autorką pomysłu i współautorką cyklu programów "Raport w sprawie dzieci niczyich". +Życie prywatne. +Córka hrabiego Krzysztofa Marii Tyszkiewicza i Barbary z Rechowiczów. Podczas wojny rodzina się rozpadła, a ojciec wyemigrował do Anglii. Z córką spotkał się dopiero, gdy była dorosła. Ma młodszego o 4 lata brata Krzysztofa i przyrodniego Janusza. +Była żoną Andrzeja Wajdy, z którym ma córkę, Karolinę Wajdę. Była także żoną Witolda Orzechowskiego i Jacka Padlewskiego, z którym ma córkę Wiktorię Padlewską. +Odznaczenia i nagrody. +Jej wkład do polskiej kinematografii został nagrodzony wieloma prestiżowymi odznaczeniami i nagrodami. +Telewizja. +Była jednym z jurorów w polskiej edycji programu "Taniec z gwiazdami" (edycje I-XII). +Publikacje. +Autorka książki "Nie wszystko na sprzedaż" (ISBN 83-912785-3-0). +Cyrkonia + +Cyrkonia (djewalit, fianit) – bezbarwny syntetyczny kamień ozdobny nieposiadający swojego wzorca w przyrodzie. Jest to stabilizowana, regularna modyfikacja ZrO2. +Właściwości. +Zazwyczaj bezbarwna, ale dodatek domieszek może zmienić jej barwę: cer – na pomarańczowoczerwoną, nikiel – na brązową, chrom – na zieloną, kobalt – na niebieską. +Po raz pierwszy pojawiła się w handlu w 1973 r. Na dobre opanowała rynek jubilerski w 1976 r., kiedy to otrzymano ją przy wykorzystaniu metody stapiania czaszowego. +Przez długi czas uchodziła za najlepszą imitację diamentu, dopóki na rynku nie pojawił się syntetyczny moissanit i diament GE POL. +Z tych odmian największe zastosowanie ma djevalit (odmiana szwajcarska) oraz fianit (odmiana rosyjska). +Produkcja. +Syntetyczna, stabilizowana cyrkonia jest produkowana na szeroką skalę w: Rosji, Szwajcarii, USA. +Telepraca + +Telepraca (praca zdalna), "biuro w domu", forma organizacji pracy polegająca na świadczeniu pracy poza siedzibą przedsiębiorstwa, jednak w kontakcie z przełożonymi i współpracownikami za pomocą urządzeń telekomunikacyjnych. += Technologia = +Najpopularniejsze technologie wykorzystywane w pracy zdalnej to telefon oraz narzędzia wykorzystujące Internet — poczta elektroniczna "(e-mail)", VPN, VoIP (np. Skype), narzędzia konferencyjne (telekonferencja, wideokonferencja), komunikatory internetowe oraz rozmaite narzędzia pracy grupowej (np. Microsoft SharePoint). Upowszechnienie pracy zdalnej jest także związane z dostępnością szerokopasmowego dostępu do Internetu, zwłaszcza szybkiego Internetu mobilnego (np. 3G, LTE). += Cele = +Celem pracy zdalnej jest ograniczenie kosztów powierzchni biurowej, oszczędność czasu i środowiska (ograniczenie dojazdów do pracy) oraz aktywizacja zawodowa (zwiększenie zatrudnienia) obszarów wykluczonych. W przypadku pracowników wykonujących wiekszość pracy poza biurem (np. przedstawiciele handlowi) wyżej wymienione narzędzia umożliwiają stałe utrzymanie kontaktu z zasobami i pozostałymi pracownikami organizacji. +Telepraca umożliwia pracownikom łatwiejsze pogodzenie obowiązków służbowych ze sprawami osobistymi i rodzinnymi. Jest to zaletą szczególnie dla rodziców oraz osób niepełnosprawnych. += Ograniczenia = +Telepraca wymaga sprawnie funkcjonującej sieci telekomunikacyjnej oraz dobrze zdefiniowanej metody rozliczania czasu pracy. Stwarza także nowe wyzwania z punktu widzenia bezpieczeństwa informacji. +W Polsce pracę zdalną m.in. z powodu niespójnej interpretacji przepisów BHP wykonuje jedynie 3% pracowników (dla porównania w Europie — 15%). Jednak zgodnie z kodeksem pracy w przypadku pracy zdalnej wyłączeniu podlegają niektóre wymagania BHP (art. 212 pkt. 4, rozdział III działu X, art. 233). +Zobacz też. +telematyka, telemarketing, telemedycyna, telekonferencja, wirtualny wolontariat +Kościół Zjednoczeniowy + +Ruch pod Wezwaniem Ducha Świętego dla Zjednoczenia Chrześcijaństwa Światowego - nowy ruch religijny założony w 1954 roku w Seulu przez Sun Myung Moona, (zwany w skrócie Kościołem Zjednoczeniowym). +Ruch prowadzi działalność ewangelizacyjną na całym świecie w tym w Korei Płd. oraz USA. Kościół liczy około 3 milionów sympatyków i ponad 200 tysięcy wyznawców (w Polsce 400-800 osób) i prowadzi także działalność pozareligijną (konferencje naukowe, wymiana kulturalna, różne inicjatywy społeczne). +Wierzenia. +Głównym celem Kościoła Zjednoczeniowego jest zbudowanie Królestwa Bożego na Ziemi. Wg wyznawców Moona Jezus Chrystus nie doprowadził do końca swojej misji, gdyż nie założył Prawdziwej Rodziny, tę misję musi dokończyć osoba która stanie w tej samej pozycji, co Jezus, po to aby wszyscy byli wolni od grzechu pierworodnego. Wierzą oni, że tę misję otrzymali Sun Myung Moon i jego druga żona, Hak Ja Han (pierwsza rozwiodła się z nim w 1953 roku pod naciskiem swojej rodziny). Nazywani są przez wyznawców "Prawdziwymi Rodzicami". Sun Myung Moon jest wg swoich wyznawców oczekiwanym Mesjaszem, który zjednoczy ludzkość i połączy Zachód ze Wschodem, religię z nauką i duchowość z materią. Pojednanie ludzi następuje poprzez małżeństwa stawiające sobie za cel urzeczywistnienie Ideału Prawdziwej Miłości realizowanego w rodzinie. Praktyka doboru małżonka na bazie autorytetu Sun Myung Moona doprowadziła do połączenia wielu rodzin oraz do udziału w ceremonii Błogosławieństwa Małżeńskiego dla wielu milionów par (już wcześniej poślubionych jak i dobranych), udzielanego najczęściej podczas zbiorowych (do tysięcy par) ceremonii zaślubin. Przy dobieraniu par nie ma znaczenia ani pochodzenie z innej części świata, ani języki jakimi posługują się przyszli małżonkowie. Kandydaci na małżonków mogą prosić o wybranie konkretnego partnera, a także odmówić poślubienia wskazanej osoby. +Tzw. Święta Księga - "Boskie Zasady" napisana przez Moona po dziewięciu latach od spotkania z Chrystusem, które miało miejsce, według relacji Moona, w Poniedziałek wielkanocny 1936 roku. +W ostatnim czasie wspólnota zatraca charakter jednoznacznie religijny i staje się swego rodzaju stowarzyszeniem z praktycznie wolnym wstępem dla wyznawców innych religii. +Krytyka kościoła. +Działacze "ruchów antysektowych" mówiąc o Ruchu pod Wezwaniem Ducha Świętego dla Zjednoczenia Chrześcijaństwa Światowego posługują się nazwami: "muniści" ("mooniści") lub, "Sekta Moona". +Sun Myung Moon uważany jest za postać kontrowersyjną - często podaje się za wybrańca Jezusa, mimo że wielokrotnie zarzucano mu cudzołóstwo, defraudacje i pornografię, a fakt sześciokrotnego skazania i uwięzienia oraz pozew cywilny w Japonii złożony w 1997 roku przez osoby poszkodowane przez wyznawców komentował słowami, iż Jezus również był prześladowany. Pierwsze procesy przeciwko "Wielebnemu" odbyły się w Korei Północnej, a Sun Myung Moon został kilkakrotnie skazany na więzienie i obozy pracy pod różnymi pretekstami, w tym za działalność ewangelizacyjną. Wielu polityków do tematyki Kościoła podchodzi protekcjonalnie, gdyż jak wiele innych nowych ruchów religijnych często jest posądzany o różne wykroczenia i spotyka się z krytyką z licznych stron. +Kliment Woroszyłow + +Kliment Jefriemowicz Woroszyłow, ros. "Климент Ефремович Ворошилов" (ur. 4 lutego 1881 we wsi Wierchnieje, zm. 2 grudnia 1969 w Moskwie) – radziecki dowódca wojskowy, Marszałek Związku Radzieckiego, polityk, przewodniczący Prezydium Rady Najwyższej ZSRR, dwukrotny Bohater Związku Radzieckiego (1956, 1968), Bohater Pracy Socjalistycznej (1960) i Bohater Mongolii (1957). +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Urodził się 4 lutego (23 stycznia wg kalendarza juliańskiego) 1881 we wsi Wierchnieje (ob. w obwodzie ługańskim na Ukrainie) w rodzinie robotnika kolejowego, z pochodzenia Ukrainiec. Mając zaledwie 7 lat rozpoczął pracę w kopalni pirytu, a następnie wraz z ojcem pasł bydło. Od 1896 pracował w fabryce. Od 1903 w Socjaldemokratycznej Partii Robotniczej Rosji (SDPRR), w 1904 został członkiem komitetu bolszewickiego w Ługańsku. W czasie rewolucji 1905 organizował drużyny bojowe. W latach 1908–1917 zajmował się pracą partyjną w Baku, Petersburgu i Carycynie, kilka razy aresztowany. +W 1917 został członkiem Piotrogrodzkiej Rady Delegatów Robotniczych i Żołnierskich. +Wojna domowa w Rosji. +Podczas wojny domowej w Rosji w 1918 współorganizował ukraińską 5. Armię i był jej pierwszym dowódcą, po czym dowodził Frontem Carycyńskim, pełnił funkcję zastępcy dowódcy i członka Rady Wojskowej Frontu Południowego, a następnie objął dowodzenie 10. Armią. W listopadzie 1919 współorganizował 1 Armię Konną wraz z Siemionem Budionnym i jako jej politruk, został członkiem jej Rady Wojskowo-Rewolucyjnej ("Rewwojensowieta"). W 1921 brał znaczący udział w likwidacji powstania marynarzy w Kronsztadzie. +Działalność polityczna i służba w RKKA. +W latach 1921–1960 członek Komitetu Centralnego Rosyjskiej Partii Komunistycznej (bolszewików) RKP(b). W latach 1921–1925 był dowódcą Północnokaukaskiego, a następnie Moskiewskiego Okręgu Wojskowego. Po śmierci Michaiła Frunzego w listopadzie 1925 został ludowym komisarzem (ministrem) spraw wojskowych i morskich oraz przewodniczącym Rady Wojskowo-Rewolucyjnej ZSRR (do 1934). W latach 1926–1952 był członkiem Biura Politycznego WKP(b), a w latach 1934–1940 pełnił funkcję ludowego komisarza obrony ZSRR. W 1935 mianowany Marszałkiem Związku Radzieckiego. Współodpowiedzialny za czystki w Armii Czerwonej. +Podejmował decyzje o rozstrzelaniu łącznie 25 700 osób spośród grupy polskich wojskowych i cywilów znajdujących się w obiektach NKWD. Decyzję podjęli członkowie Biura: Ławrientij Beria, Józef Stalin, Kliment Woroszyłow, Wiaczesław Mołotow, Anastas Mikojan, Michaił Kalinin, Łazar Kaganowicz. Zgodnie z nią wiosną 1940 zamordowano 21 857 osób. Patrz: zbrodnia katyńska. +Po niepowodzeniu w wojnie radziecko-fińskiej odwołany ze stanowiska ludowego komisarza obrony. W maju 1940 został powołany na stanowisko zastępcy przewodniczącego Rady Komisarzy Ludowych (rząd ZSRR) i jednocześnie przewodniczącego Komitetu Obrony przy Radzie Komisarzy Ludowych. +Wielka Wojna Ojczyźniana. +W czasie wojny niemiecko-radzieckiej, w latach 1941–1945 był członkiem Państwowego Komitetu Obrony. W 1941 został dowódcą Kierunku Północno-Zachodniego (do września 1941). Będąc pełnomocnikiem Kwatery Głównej Naczelnego Dowództwa, organizował obronę Leningradu oraz dowodził wojskami Frontu Leningradzkiego (wrzesień 1941) i Wołchowskiego oraz Samodzielnej Armii Nadmorskiej. We wrześniu 1942 został wyznaczony głównym dowódcą ruchu partyzanckiego (do maja 1943). Podczas wojny zajmował również inne stanowiska. Uczestniczył w konferencji teherańskiej. +Okres powojenny. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej w 1945 był przewodniczącym Sojuszniczej Komisji Kontrolnej na Węgrzech. W latach 1946–1953 pełnił funkcję zastępcy przewodniczącego Rady Ministrów ZSRR, a następnie w latach 1953–1960 przewodniczącego Prezydium Rady Najwyższej ZSRR. +W 1960 za wystąpienie przeciwko Nikicie Chruszczowowi i poparcie "grupy antypartyjnej" Wiaczesława Mołotowa został pozbawiony wszystkich funkcji partyjnych i państwowych. Po dojściu do władzy Leonida Breżniewa powrócił do łask, ponownie członek KC KPZR od 1966. +Zmarł 2 grudnia 1969, pochowany przy ścianie Kremla na Placu Czerwonym w Moskwie. W jego pogrzebie uczestniczyła delegacja PRL z przewodniczącym Rady Państwa PRL Marszałkiem Polski Marianem Spychalskim, szefem GZP WP gen. dyw. Józefem Urbanowiczem, szefem Sztabu Generalnego WP gen. dyw. Bolesławem Chochą, ambasadorem PRL w ZSRR Janem Ptasińskim i attache wojskowym Ambasady PRL w Moskwie gen. bryg. Wacławem Jagasem. +Autor wspomnień "Rasskazy o żizni", Moskwa 1968. +Opinie. +Józef Stalin następująco wyraził się o Woroszyłowie: "Dureń, ale nie pcha się pomiędzy przywódców". Bogusław Wołoszański w książce "Tamten okrutny wiek" stwierdził, że Woroszyłow był "człowiekiem prymitywnym i głupim". +Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie + +Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie – organizacja artystów i miłośników sztuki, która powstała z inicjatywy Walerego Wielogłowskiego w roku 1854. +Pod patronatem członków Towarzystwa i reprezentantów Rotary International, odbywają się prezentacje polskiej sztuki współczesnej jak wystawy prac ze zbiorów krakowskich Rotarian i ich rodzin. Pałac Sztuki gości wystawy artystów polskich i zagranicznych, organizuje aukcję dzieł sztuki. Powołano Instytut Badań i Dokumentacji dzieł sztuki będących własnością Towarzystwa. Wydaje katalogi dotyczące malarstwa, grafiki, rysunku i rzeźby. +Historia. +Członkowie TPSP wykupywali akcje, które upoważniały ich do udziału w corocznym losowaniu dzieł sztuki zakupionych przez Zarząd (jedną z takich nagród był np. „Stańczyk” Jana Matejki) oraz do otrzymania bezpłatnej premii w postaci doskonałej jakości grafiki (najczęściej reprodukcji jakiegoś znanego obrazu). To właśnie dzięki premiom TPSP dzieła Matejki i innych słynnych twórców docierały do licznych polskich domów we wszystkich zaborach. Czasami premie te były też konfiskowane na granicach przez władze rosyjskie albo pruskie. +Instytucja ta od zawsze opierała działalność na pracy społecznej swych członków, reprezentujących różne zawody i środowiska. W dwudziestoleciu międzywojennym zaczęły powstawać różne instytucje kulturalne, takie jak np. Związek Polskich Artystów Plastyków, które przejmowały część dawnych obowiązków TPSP. Zaczęły się też spory, które w latach 20. posunęły się tak daleko, iż pomówiony przez niektórych członków Zarządu, sekretarz Artur Schroeder, popełnił samobójstwo. TPSP jako symbol „artystycznej reakcji” była atakowana przez zwolenników nowych prądów w sztuce: formistów i kolorystów. Po wojnie instytucje próbował przejąć państwowy zarząd Biur Wystaw Artystycznych. Przez jakiś czas Pałac Sztuki mieścił zarówno TPSP, jak i BWA, co uległo zmianie dopiero po wybudowaniu naprzeciw tzw. „Bunkra Sztuki”. +Na wzór krakowskiego Towarzystwa powstały podobne w Poznaniu, Lwowie i Warszawie (Zachęta). Przez jakiś czas próbowano stworzyć nawet wspólną, międzyzaborową, dyrekcję. +Siedziba. +Towarzystwo miało kilka siedzib: Pałac Larischa, odbudowany po pożarze obecny Pałac Biskupi, część sal w Sukiennicach. Od roku 1901 mieści się we własnej siedzibie nazywanej Pałacem Sztuki przy Placu Szczepańskim 4. Po drugiej wonie światowej przybył jeszcze Salon w Nowej Hucie przy Al. Róż oraz Dworek Jana Matejki. W latach 80. w spadku po profesorze K. Estreicherze TPSP otrzymało willę na Woli Justowskiej z zabytkową chałupą, gdzie profesor chciał urządzić Muzeum Zwierzyńca. +Zbiory. +Towarzystwo posiada bogate zbiory pochodzące z zakupów, darów i depozytów. Najmniejszą ich grupę stanowią dzieła sprzed 1850 r. Wśród nich m.in.: dwie marmurowe główki antyczne, fragment posadzki bizantyjskiej z mozaiką, Chrystus (szkoła bolońska XV w.), „Wyjazd rodziny E.” Joosa Moompera, kopia obrazu Quentina Massysa „Zdjęcie z krzyża” autorstwa Triciusza oraz prace Dominika Östreichera. +Okres późniejszy reprezentują m.in.: Jan Matejko, Maurycy Gottlieb, Stanisław Wyspiański, Jacek Malczewski, Józef Mehoffer, Teodor Axentowicz, Xawery Dunikowski, Konstanty Laszczka, Leopold Gottlieb, Adam Markowicz. +Wśród dzieł po 1945 przeważają prace krakowskich kolorystów. +Towarzystwo posiada około 100 autoportretów artystów polskich. +Godło. +Godłem TPSP jest dawny herb cechu malarzy: trzy srebrne tarcze na zielonym tle. +Zarząd. +Pierwszą dyrekcję TPSP stanowili zamożni ziemianie jednak w ciągu czterech lat wielu z nich zrezygnowało z pełnienia funkcji. To też od 1858 zaczyna się nowy okres, który trwa do 1927 roku. Były to najlepsze lata TPSP i okres jej największego znaczenia, związany najpierw z promowaniem malarstwa historycznego (Matejko, Grottger, Rodakowski), a potem Młodej Polski (Wyspiański, Weiss, Mehoffer). W tym czasie przypadła prezesura Edwarda Raczyńskiego (1895–1926). Po jego śmierci nastąpił kryzys, związany też z ogólnym załamaniem światowej gospodarki po „czarnym czwartku”. Ze stanowiska musiał odejść Antoni Waśkowski, którego zastąpił Artur Schroeder. Po samobójstwie tego ostatniego w 1934 (co było wynikiem „nagonki” zorganizowanej przez Adolfa Szyszko-Bohusza, znów wymianie uległa część zarządu. Podobna sytuacja miała miejsce trzy lata później i była związana z głośnym bojkotem TPSP, które nie przyjmowało na wystawy dzieł młodych artystów (szczególnie z grupy „Kapistów” i ówczesnej awangardy abstrakcyjnej). +Działalność TPSP przerwał wybuch wojny, a Pałac Sztuki został zarekwirowany przez władze niemieckie. +Po wojnie restytuowano Towarzystwo. Jego prezesami zostali: prof. Franciszek Walter, prof. Tadeusz Dobrowolski a w końcu prof. Karol Estreicher, który przez 25 lat kierował instytucją. Po jego śmierci prezesem został Ignacy Trybowski (1984–1994), a następnie w latach 1994–1996 – prof. Kazimierz Nowacki. Od roku 1996 towarzystwem kieruje Zbigniew Witek, były członek Rotary International Kraków. +Rafael I BiDawid + +Mar Rafael I BiDawid, także Raphoul BeDaweed lub B'Dawid (ur. 1922, zm. 2003) – duchowny katolicki kościoła chaldejskiego, chaldejski patriarcha Babilonu w latach 1989-2003. +Urodził się 17 kwietnia 1922 w Mosulu jako Rafael Józef Warda. W latach 1933-1936 uczył się w patriarszym seminarium duchownym w Mosulu, po czym został wysłany do Rzymu, by studiować filozofię i teologię na uczelniach papieskich. W grudniu 1946 został wyświęcony na księdza. Ukończył studia w 1947 jako doktor obojga praw, teologii i filozofii. Po powrocie do Mosulu został wicerektorem seminarium duchownego, w którym uczył francuskiego i wykładał teologię moralną. W latach 1950-1956 był kapelanem dla załóg stacji wydobywczych ropy naftowej przedsiębiorstwa Iraq Petroleum Company w północnym Iraku. +W 1956 został mianowany wikariuszem patriarszym diecezji Kirkuk-Arbela-Sulejmanija, a w 1957 został wybrany biskupem Amadiji w północnym Iraku. Święceń biskupich udzielił mu 6 września 1957 patriarcha Mar Józef VII Ghanima. Mając 35 lat Rafael BiDawid stał się wtedy najmłodszym biskupem katolickim. W 1966 został przeniesiony do diecezji bejruckiej. Jako biskup Bejrutu Rafael BiDawid stał się współzałożycielem Rady Katolickich Patriarchów i Biskupów Libanu, reprezentował również kościół katolicki w Radzie Kościołów Bliskiego Wschodu. +Po śmierci patriarchy Mar Pawła II Szejcho synod elekcyjny w Bagdadzie 21 maja 1989 wybrał Rafaela BiDawida na patriarchę kościoła chaldejskiego. Intronizacja odbyła się 29 maja 1989, a 9 września tego roku nowy patriarcha otrzymał palium od papieża Jana Pawła II. Jako patriarcha Rafael BiDawid popierał ruch ekumeniczny, w szczególności dążył do rekoncyliacji kościoła chaldejskiego z jego siostrzanym kościołem asyryjskim (nestoriańskim). Doprowadził do spotkania patriarchy kościoła nestoriańskiego Mar Szymona Denkhy IV z papieżem w Rzymie i do podpisania przez nich 11 listopada 1994 wspólnej deklaracji chrystologicznej. Z jego inspiracji synody kościołów chaldejskiego i nestoriańskiego wydały 15 sierpnia 1997 roku wspólne oświadczenie o dążeniu do jedności. Jako patriarcha Rafael I BiDawid wyświęcił sześciu chaldejskich biskupów i dwóch arcybiskupów. Pod koniec swej posługi patriarcha walczył ze schizmą dwóch biskupów chaldejskich w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +W latach dziewięćdziesiątych patriarcha Rafael I BiDawid ostro występował przeciwko sankcjom nakładanym na Irak przez USA, wskazując, że rujnują one życie prostych mieszkańców tego kraju. Wzywał również Stany Zjednoczone do zaniechania wojny przeciwko Irakowi. Z tego powodu przez koła zachodnie był uważany za zwolennika Saddama Husajna. Nie była to prawda, ponieważ patriarcha nie popierał tego reżimu, lecz chciał oszczędzić cierpień wiernym swojego kościoła. +Mar Rafael BiDawid zmarł 7 lipca 2003 roku w Bejrucie po 9 miesiącach spędzonych w szpitalu. Jego następcą na tronie patriarszym został Emanuel Karim III Delly. +Larwa + +Larwa (łac. "larva" – maska, widmo, lm "larvae") – postać i stadium rozwoju postembrionalnego (młodocianego) zwierzęcia charakteryzujące się możliwością wzrostu, często różniące się anatomicznie, fizjologicznie i ekologicznie od postaci dojrzałej osobników tego samego gatunku. Występuje powszechnie w rozwoju bezkręgowców, ryb i płazów. +Charakterystyka ogólna. +Stadium larwalne występuje w rozwoju osobniczym zwierząt, które składają jaja o ilości żółtka niewystarczającej do pełnego rozwoju od zarodka do postaci dojrzałej płciowo. Osobnik młodociany w postaci larwy może samodzielnie pobierać pokarm ze środowiska. Często może też realizować ekspansję terytorialną gatunku. Larwy mają narządy cenogenetyczne, czyli specyficzne dla zarodka, nieprzydatne w życiu osobnika dorosłego, nazywane narządami larwalnymi, oraz dobrze wykształcone narządy gębowe. Zwykle nie rozmnażają się – wyjątkiem są występujące u niektórych gatunków zjawiska pedogenezy i neotenii. Niektóre larwy tylko nieznacznie różnią się od postaci dorosłych, a u innych różnice w budowie, trybie życia, a często także zajmowanego środowiska są na tyle duże, że w wielu przypadkach formy larwalne opisywano jako odrębne gatunki, np. leptocefale. +W dalszym etapie rozwoju osobniczego następuje przeobrażenie (metamorfoza), podczas którego zanikają narządy larwalne. +Typy larw. +Rozróżnia się wiele typów form larwalnych, charakterystycznych dla poszczególnych grup systematycznych. U niektórych gatunków może istnieć więcej niż jedno stadium larwalne. +Owady. +Larwy owadów o przeobrażeniu zupełnym nie są podobne do "imagines", podczas gdy większość larw owadów o przeobrażeniu niezupełnym przypomina postać dorosłą danego gatunku. +Płazy. +Larwa płazów nazywana jest kijanką. Wyróżnia się dwa jej typy: larwę limnofilną charakterystyczną dla wód stojących (np. u traszek) oraz larwę reofilną charakterystyczną dla wód płynących (np. u salamandry). +K-1 (organizacja) + +K-1 – założona w 1993 roku japońska organizacja promująca walki na zmodyfikowanych zasadach japońskiego kick-boxingu wzbogaconych o techniki z innych stylów. Uznawana często za najbardziej prestiżową organizację zawodowego kick-boxingu na świecie. Jednym z głównych założeń, które legło u podstaw jej powstania było umożliwienie rywalizacji przedstawicielom różnych sztuk i sportów walki. Dziś na ringach K-1 występują przede wszystkim zawodnicy kick-boxingu, boksu tajskiego, karate i boksu. +Tradycyjnym formatem w jakim walczą zawodnicy jest cykl K-1 World Grand Prix (bez limitów wagowych), na który składają się regionalne turnieje eliminacyjne oraz będący zwieńczeniem sezonu coroczny Finał K-1 World Grand Prix. W 2002 roku wprowadzono kategorię do 70 kg (K-1 MAX), a w 2010 do 63 kg. Od 2007 roku K-1 przyznaje również tytuły mistrza świata w kategoriach ciężkiej i superciężkiej. Oprócz tego, na całym świecie organizowane są przez lokalnych promotorów turnieje na licencji K-1 (np. z cyklu K-1 Fighting Network i K-1 Collizion). +Organizacja została założona przez Kazuyoshiego Ishiiego, a następnie kierowana przez spółkę Fighting and Entertainment Group (prezydent Sadaharu Tanikawa). W 2012 roku, po trwającym kilkanaście miesięcy poważnym kryzysie finansowym, została przejęta przez spółkę K-1 Global z siedzibą w Hongkongu. +Zasady walki. +Kwestie techniczne. +Zawodnicy rywalizują w kwadratowym ringu o wymiarach 6 × 6 m. Obowiązkowy sprzęt ochronny stanowią rękawice bokserskie, ochraniacz na krocze oraz ochraniacz na zęby. +Walka trwa 3 rundy po 3 minuty (gdy sędziowie nie są w stanie wyłonić zwycięzcy mogą zarządzić 1 lub 2 rundy dodatkowe) lub rzadziej 5 rund po 3 minuty (w tym wypadku, gdy sędziowie nie są w stanie wyłonić zwycięzcy ogłasza się remis). Możliwe rozstrzygnięcia to: nokaut (KO), nokaut techniczny (TKO), wygrana przez decyzję sędziów, remis lub uznanie walki za nieodbytą. Trzy nokdauny w jednej rundzie oznaczają nokaut. +Co do odmienności zasad w walkach turniejowych patrz: K-1 World Grand Prix. +Dozwolone techniki. +Walka toczy się wyłącznie w "stójce" (zakaz walki w parterze). Dozwolone są wszelkie ciosy bokserskie (plus uderzenie obrotowe grzbietem pięści, ang. "backfist") oraz kopnięcia (w tym kolanem). Pole rażenia to zarówno głowa, korpus, jak i nogi przeciwnika. +Klinczowanie jest dopuszczalne, pod warunkiem, że ma na celu zadanie ciosu (głównie kolanem). W przeciwnym wypadku sędzia ringowy jest obowiązany rozerwać klincz. +Dozwolone jest przechwytywanie nogi kopiącego rywala, a także przytrzymywanie jedną ręką jego głowy w celu zadania uderzenia. Jednak po dokonaniu tego można zadać tylko jeden cios, po czym należy uwolnić nogę lub głowę. +Faule. +W przypadku wykroczenia sędzia ringowy może zwrócić uwagę, wydać ostrzeżenie lub odjąć punkt faulującemu zawodnikowi. Dwukrotne zwrócenie uwagi równa się ostrzeżeniu, a dwukrotne ostrzeżenie odjęciu punktu (żółta kartka). Odjęcie trzech punktów w jednej rundzie oznacza dyskwalifikację (czerwona kartka). Jeśli sędzia uzna, że faul został popełniony umyślnie albo spowodował uszczerbek na zdrowiu zawodnika, odjęcie punktów nie musi być poprzedzone ostrzeżeniem. +K-1 World Grand Prix. +Etap I +Etap II +Wybrana w powyższy sposób "szesnastka" zapraszana jest na turniej eliminacyjny "Final 16". Zawodników dobiera się w pary i 8 zwycięzców z każdej z nich uzyskuje prawo udziału w Finale K-1 World GP. +Finał +Finał K-1 World GP odbywa się w systemie pucharowym (4 ćwierćfinały – 2 półfinały – finał). Zwycięzca musi wgrać tego samego wieczoru 3 walki, aby zdobyć mistrzostwo. +Zawodnicy sami dobierają się w pary ćwierćfinałowe. Wyboru dokonują w kolejności zależnej od wylosowanego numeru (od 1 do 8). Daje im to możliwość wskazania zawodnika, z którym chcą odbyć pierwszą walkę oraz miejsca w turniejowej "drabince" (decyduje ono o tym kiedy odbędzie się ich pierwsza walka – im wcześniej tym więcej czasu na odpoczynek przed półfinałem). +Do udziału w turnieju wybieranych jest również dwóch zawodników, którzy walczą w walce rezerwowej. Jej zwycięzca zastępuje któregoś z podstawowych finalistów w przypadku kontuzji. Stosuje się zasadę, że jeśli zwycięzca np. ćwierćfinału nie jest w stanie przystąpić do następnej walki, w pierwszej kolejności zastępuje go przegrany, a gdyby i on nie mógł walczyć (został znokautowany lub również jest kontuzjowany), w półfinale wystąpi zwycięzca walki rezerwowej. Sytuacja taka zdarzyła się np. w 2006 roku, gdy z kontuzji Bonjasky'ego i Leko skorzystał Peter Aerts. +Każda walka trwa standardowo trzy 3-minutowe rundy. Może się zakończyć przed czasem (np. przez nokaut), co ma szczególnie duże znaczenie dla zawodników mających przed sobą wizję trzech walk (ze względu na oszczędność sił). +W przypadku nieosiągnięcia wyraźnej przewagi przez żadnego z zawodników, sędziowie mają prawo zarządzić rundę dodatkową. Jednak po jej zakończeniu muszą już bezwzględnie wskazać zwycięzcę. Wyjątek od tej zasady dopuszczalny jest w walce finałowej, gdy możliwe jest przeprowadzenie drugiej rundy dogrywkowej. Zdarzyło się tak w finale K-1 World GP 2004, gdy Remy Bonjasky walczył z Musashim pełne 5 rund (3 standardowe i 2 dodatkowe), zanim sędziowie przyznali mu zwycięstwo. +Reguła 3 nokdaunów obowiązuje tylko w walce finałowej. W ćwierćfinale i półfinale wystarczą 2 nokdauny w tej samej rundzie, aby ogłosić nokaut. +Zwycięzca K-1 World Grand Prix zostaje uhonorowany złotym wieńcem, mistrzowskim pasem i czekiem opiewającym na 400 000 dolarów. Rekordzistami pod względem zwycięstw są Holendrzy Ernesto Hoost i Semmy Schilt, którzy święcili tryumf cztery razy. Po trzy zwycięstwa na swoim koncie mają ich rodacy, Remy Bonjasky i Peter Aerts. Ten ostatni jest jedynym zawodnikiem, który wystąpił podczas wszystkich siedemnastu Finałów K-1 WGP (w tym 16 razy walczył w turnieju głównym). +K-1 MAX. +K-1 World Grand Prix jest formatem "open" – tzn. nie ma w nim podziału na kategorie wagowe. Często zdarzają się walki, w których różnica wagi pomiędzy poszczególnymi zawodnikami przekracza 30 kg. W praktyce oznacza to, że kick-boxerzy ważący poniżej 90 kg mają niewielkie szanse na sukces (choć zdarzają się wyjątki – np. Kaoklai Kaennorsing). W związku z tym, aby umożliwić rywalizację zawodnikom z lżejszych kategorii wagowych, K-1 wprowadziło w 2002 roku cykl K-1 MAX ("Middleweight Artistic Xtreme"). Występują w nim zawodnicy do 70 kg. Zasady walki (tj. dozwolone techniki, faule, itd.) są takie same jak w K-1 WGP. +W latach 2002–2007 mistrz K-1 MAX był wyłaniany w analogicznym do Finału K-1 World GP 8-osobowym turnieju finałowym (wszystkie walki były toczone jednego dnia), który był poprzedzony eliminatorem Final 16. W 2008 i 2009 roku turniej ten podzielono na dwie, rozgrywane w różnych terminach fazy: "Final 8" (ćwierćfinały) oraz "Final" (półfinały i finał). W 2010 roku powrócono do dawnego formatu. +Kategoria ciężka i superciężka. +Od 2005 roku K-1 WGP zostało całkowicie zdominowane przez odznaczającego się nieprzeciętnymi warunkami fizycznymi Semmy'ego Schilta (ok. 120 kg wagi i 211 cm wzrostu). Skłoniło to władze organizacji do wprowadzenia od sezonu 2007 dwóch nowych kategorii wagowych: ciężkiej (do 100 kg) i superciężkiej (ponad 100 kg). +Odmiennie niż w K-1 WGP i K-1 MAX, rywalizacja w obu tych kategoriach nie toczy się w systemie turniejowym. Mistrza wyłania się w pojedynczych walkach o tytuł (podobnie jak w zawodowym boksie). Wyjątek stanowił przeprowadzony w marcu 2009 roku 4-osobowy turniej o wakujące mistrzostwo w wadze ciężkiej. +K-1 w Polsce. +W Polsce odbyły się trzy oficjalne imprezy K-1. W 2008 roku Warszawa gościła turniej K-1 Max Europe GP. W 2009 roku odbyły się się zawody z cyklu World Grand Prix w Łodzi, mające rangę prestiżowego GP Europy. 28 marca 2010 roku w Warszawie odbyła się druga gala WGP w Polsce, tym razem będąca eliminacją do GP Wschodniej Europy w Bukareszcie. +PowerPoint Viewer + +PowerPoint Viewer - samodzielna przeglądarka prezentacji autorstwa firmy Microsoft utworzonych w programie PowerPoint 97 i jego nowszych wersjach. Od wersji PowerPoint Viewer 2003 obsługiwane są także prezentacje programu Microsoft PowerPoint zabezpieczone hasłem. W programie można wyświetlać i drukować prezentacje, ale nie można ich w żaden sposób edytować. Zalecana do otwierania plików prezentacji nieznanego pochodzenia (ze względu na ograniczoną funkcjonalność nie ma ryzyka infekcji). +Program jest również standardowo dostępny w pakiecie zintegrowanym Microsoft Works 8 i nowszych. +Międzynarodowa Rada Oświęcimska + +Międzynarodowa Rada Oświęcimska – rada powołana przez premiera Jerzego Buzka w 2000 roku, która stała się ciałem opiniodawczo-doradczym Prezesa Rady Ministrów. Zastąpiła wcześniejszą Międzynarodową Radę Państwowego Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau działającą od roku 1990 na wniosek ministra kultury i sztuki. Rada zajmuje się przede wszystkim kwestiami związanymi z byłym hitlerowskim obozem Auschwitz-Birkenau, ale również w miarę potrzeby innymi b. obozami zagłady pozostawionymi przez nazistowskie Niemcy na terenie Polski. Rada pełni też funkcję wspomagającą prace Państwowego Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau. +Rada składa się z 25 osób z całego świata. Przewodniczącym jest Władysław Bartoszewski, wiceprzewodniczącymi Barbara Engelking i Avner Shalev, sekretarzem Marek Zając. +Skład Rady I Kadencji (2000-2006). +Przewodniczący: prof. Władysław Bartoszewski +Wiceprzewodniczący: prof. Israel Gutman i Stefan Wilkanowicz +Sekretarz: dr Piotr M.A. Cywiński +Członkowie: Kazimierz Albin, ks. prof. Michał Czajkowski, prof. Wacław Długoborski, Henryk Flug, prof. Józef Garliński, rabin Irving Greenberg, Kurt Hacker, David Harris, dr Stanisław Krajewski, Nathan Leipciger, Miles Lerman, Agnieszka Magdziak-Miszewska, prof. Bohdan Rymaszewski, Avner Shalev, Stanisław Stankiewicz, Kalman Sultanik, prof. Józef Szajna, Marian Turski, Siegfried Vergin, prof. Jonathan Webber i Emmanuel Weintraub +Skład Rady II Kadencji (2006-2012). +Przewodniczący: Prof. Władysław Bartoszewski +Wiceprzewodniczący: Prof. Israel Gutman i Stefan Wilkanowicz +Sekretarz: Marek Zając +Członkowie: Kazimierz Albin, rabin Andrew Baker, dr Hava Ben Sasson, Sara Bloomfield, dr Piotr M.A. Cywiński, ks. dr Manfred Deselaers, prof. Wacław Długoborski, Henryk Flug, Christoph Heubner, Ołeksandr Jewhenowycz Łysenko, Agnieszka Magdziak-Miszewska, dr Richard Prasquier, Romani Rose, Avner Shalev, Kalman Sultanik, prof. Józef Szajna, Leszek Szuster, Marian Turski, prof. Jonathan Webber, Jerzy Wróblewski +Skład Rady III Kadencji (2012-2018). +Przewodniczący: Prof. Władysław Bartoszewski +Wiceprzewodniczący: Prof. Barbara Engelking i Avner Shalev +Sekretarz: Marek Zając +Członkowie: Kazimierz Albin, Sara Bloomfield, dr Piotr M.A. Cywiński, ks. dr Manfred Deselaers, dr Hava Dreyfuss, rabin Irving Greenberg, prof. Israel Gutman, David Harris, Christoph Heubner, Roman Kent, Serge Klarsfeld, Ronald Lauder, prof. Paweł Machcewicz, Agnieszka Magdziak-Miszewska, dr Richard Prasquier, Arsenij Rogiński, Romani Rose, bp Grzegorz Ryś, Kalman Sultanik, Marian Turski, Henryk Wujec. +Borynia (sołectwo Jastrzębia-Zdroju) + +Borynia (niem. "Borin") – sołectwo miasta Jastrzębie-Zdrój, położone w województwie śląskim. +Nazwa. +W księdze łacińskiej "Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis" (pol. "Księga uposażeń biskupstwa wrocławskiego") spisanej za czasów biskupa Henryka z Wierzbna w latach 1295–1305 miejscowość wymieniona jest w zlatynizownej formie " Borina". +Demografia. +Wg danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. sołectwo miało 1905 mieszkańców. +Sołectwo obejmuje obszar o powierzchni 822,92 ha ha. +W Boryni znajduje się zabytkowy pałac klasycystyczny z XVIII w. +Od nazwy dzielnicy wzięła swoją nazwę Kopalnia Węgla Kamiennego Borynia, znajdująca się w sąsiednim sołectwie Szeroka. +W sołectwie znajdują się także: Zespół Szkół nr 8 im. Ziemi Śląskiej (Szkoła Podstawowa nr 14 oraz Gimnazjum nr 12) oraz rzymskokatolicka parafia pw. Matki Bożej Piekarskiej, obejmująca zasięgiem zarówno Borynię, jak i Skrzeczkowice. +WordPerfect Works + +WordPerfect Works - pakiet zintegrowany firmy WordPerfect Corporation, opracowany w pierwszej połowie lat 90., na fali gwałtownego wzrostu zainteresowania rynkiem konsumenckim. +WordPerfect Works zawierał elementarną funkcjonalność "dużych" aplikacji firmy, jak edytor WordPerfect czy arkusz kalkulacyjny Quattro Pro. Zawierał także kartotekową bazę danych i drobne moduły wspomagające. Program charakteryzował się silną, wzajemną integracją modułów, i pod każdym względem wyprzedzał funkcjonalnością konkurencyjny Microsoft Works. Ustępował jednak pakietowi ClarisWorks. +Po przejęciu WordPerfect Corp. przez firmę Novell, w 1994 roku, rozwijanie pakietu zostało ostatecznie wstrzymane. +Zobacz też: SOHO +Wyspa błądząca + +Wyspa błądząca (inna wersja tytułu wydań po polsku: W krainie białych niedźwiedzi; dosłowne tłumaczenie francuskiego tytułu: "Kraina futer") +(fr. "Le Pays des fourrures", 1873) - dwutomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże". Część pierwsza składa się z 22 rozdziałów, a część druga z 25 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy przekład w języku polskim został opublikowany w 1925 (tłumaczyła Karolina Bobrowska). +Socket 1 + +Socket 1 to typ gniazda zaprojektowany pierwotnie dla procesorów i486 firmy Intel. +Socket 1 został zastąpiony gniazdem Socket 2, które stało się również platformą do procesorów Pentium OverDrive. +65 Eskadra Bombowa + +65 (63) Eskadra Bombowa (Lotnicza, Liniowa) - pododdział lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +8 sierpnia 1929 63 Eskadra Lotnicza przemianowana została na 65 Eskadrę Liniową. Numer "63" otrzymała nowo powstała 63 Eskadra Towarzysząca. +W kampanii wrześniowej eskadra walczyła w składzie Brygady Bombowej, operując z lotniska Nosów, posiadając na uzbrojeniu 10 samolotów PZL.23B Karaś, 1 samolot Fokker F.VIIB/3m i 2 samoloty RWD-8. +Obsada personalna eskadry we wrześniu 1939 +Dowództwo +114 Eskadra Myśliwska + +114 Eskadra Myśliwska (114 em) – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego. +Eskadra wchodziła w skład IV/1 dywizjonu myśliwskiego i stacjonowała w garnizonie Warszawa na lotnisku Okęcie. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 roku eskadra walczyła w składzie Brygady Pościgowej. Do 3 września operowała z lotniska polowego Poniatów koło Jabłonny. Na jej uzbrojeniu znajdowały się 4 samoloty PZL P.11a i 6 samolotów PZL P.11c. +Działania bojowe. +1.9.39 +5.9.39 +6.9.39 +8.9.39 +9.9.39 +Zbigniew Wassermann + +Zbigniew Franciszek Wassermann (ur. 17 września 1949 w Krakowie, zm. 10 kwietnia 2010 w Smoleńsku) – polski polityk, prawnik, prokurator. W latach 2005–2007 minister-członek Rady Ministrów w rządach Kazimierza Marcinkiewicza i Jarosława Kaczyńskiego, poseł na Sejm IV, V i VI kadencji. +Życiorys. +Okres PRL. +W 1972 ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawa Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego w Krakowie. Razem z nim na roku studiowali m.in. Zbigniew Ćwiąkalski oraz brat Andrzeja Kremera. +Po ukończeniu studiów rozpoczął pracę w prokuraturze. W 1972 został prokuratorem Prokuratury Powiatowej w Chrzanowie, a w 1975 na krótko prokuratorem Prokuratury Powiatowej w Jaworznie. W latach 1975–1984 pracował w Prokuraturze Rejonowej w Brzesku. Od 1984 zatrudniony w Krakowie, do 1989 jako prokurator Prokuratury Rejonowej Kraków-Krowodrza. W latach 80. uczestniczył w krakowskim duszpasterstwie prawników. +Lata 90.. +W latach 1989–1991 był zastępcą szefa Prokuratury Wojewódzkiej w Krakowie. W tym samym czasie zasiadał w Komisji ds. Weryfikacji Pracowników Służby Bezpieczeństwa w Krakowie. W 1991 został odwołany. +Do pracy powrócił w 1993 po objęciu funkcji ministra sprawiedliwości przez Zbigniewa Dykę, który w latach 80. również uczestniczył w duszpasterstwie prawników. Otrzymał stanowisko prokuratora krakowskiej Prokuratury Apelacyjnej i jej rzecznika prasowego. +Od 1992 był członkiem krakowskich władz Stowarzyszenia Polskich Prawników Katolickich, w latach 1995–2000 wchodził w skład rady naczelnej tej organizacji. +W 2000 otrzymał od nowego ministra sprawiedliwości Lecha Kaczyńskiego propozycję objęcia funkcji szefa Prokuratury Krajowej. Jego nominacji miał sprzeciwiać się Urząd Ochrony Państwa. Zbigniew Wassermann zaprzeczał jednak, jakoby nie uzyskał od UOP certyfikatu dostępu do informacji niejawnych, co miało być przeszkodzą w nominacji. Mimo to, premier Jerzy Buzek nie mianował go na to stanowisko, w związku z czym był jedynie pełniącym obowiązki prokuratora krajowego. +Działalność publiczna w latach 2001–2010. +Po dymisji Lecha Kaczyńskiego ze stanowiska ministra sprawiedliwości zaangażował się w działalność Prawa i Sprawiedliwości. 23 września 2001 został wybrany posłem na Sejm IV kadencji z listy PiS w okręgu krakowskim. W Sejmie IV kadencji zasiadał w Komisji Sprawiedliwości i Praw Człowieka (jako zastępca przewodniczącego) oraz Komisji do spraw Służb Specjalnych (był jej przewodniczącym). Od 2 lipca 2004 był wiceprzewodniczącym Komisji Śledczej w sprawie PKN Orlen. +W 2003 wszedł w spór z firmą budującą jego willę w Krakowie w sprawie błędnego podłączenia wanny. Złożył zawiadomienie o nieprawidłowym zainstalowaniu przez wykonawcę wanny z jacuzzi, czym miał on narazić jej użytkowników na niebezpieczeństwo utraty życia. Śledztwo w tej sprawie zostało umorzone w 2007 wobec braku znamion przestępstwa. Powództwo wykonawcy o zapłatę wynagrodzenia zostało prawomocnie oddalone w 2009. Zbigniew Wassermann wytoczył też proces karny teściowej wykonawcy o zniesławienie go w listach do mediów. Sąd warunkowo umorzył postępowanie w tej sprawie, nakazując oskarżonej przeproszenie ministra, co ta uczyniła. +25 września 2005 w wyborach parlamentarnych został ponownie wybrany posłem na Sejm w okręgu krakowskim. 31 października tego roku powołano go na ministra-członka Rady Ministrów, koordynatora służb specjalnych w rządzie Kazimierza Marcinkiewicza. 14 lipca 2006 został ponownie powołany na to stanowisko w rządzie Jarosława Kaczyńskiego. Ze stanowiska został odwołany 7 września 2007 z jednoczesnym powołaniem na sekretarza stanu w KPRM ds. służb specjalnych, a 11 września powrócił na uprzednio zajmowany urząd. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007 po raz trzeci uzyskał mandat poselski, otrzymując 6478 głosów. W 2008 prokurator umorzył postępowanie w sprawie rzekomego ujawnienia informacji niejawnych z doniesienia Marka Dukaczewskiego, po tym jak Zbigniew Wassermann ujawnił informacje o szkoleniach, jakie w Moskwie przechodził Marek Dukaczewski. +Od listopada 2009 zasiadał w Komisji śledczej ds. tzw. afery hazardowej. W grudniu został wyłączony z prac tej komisji w związku z planowanym przesłuchaniem go w charakterze świadka. Po odebraniu zeznań w styczniu 2010 decyzją Sejmu został przywrócony do składu komisji. +10 kwietnia 2010 zginął w katastrofie polskiego samolotu Tu-154M w Smoleńsku. 16 kwietnia 2010 pośmiertnie odznaczono go Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +20 kwietnia 2010 został pochowany na cmentarzu na krakowskich Bielanach. +10 grudnia 2010 przy ul. Brackiej w Krakowie odsłonięto poświęconą mu tablicę pamiątkową. +29 sierpnia 2011 jego ciało zostało ekshumowane w ramach śledztwa prowadzonego w związku z katastrofą z powodu wątpliwości Wojskowej Prokuratury Okręgowej w Warszawie dotyczących stwierdzeń zawartych w dokumentacji sądowo-lekarskiej badania zwłok zmarłego otrzymanej z Federacji Rosyjskiej oraz na wniosek przedstawicieli rodziny złożony w 2010. Po przebadaniu ciała w Zakładzie Medycyny Sądowej we Wrocławiu, 1 września 2011 ponownie pochowano je na cmentarzu na krakowskich Bielanach. +Życie prywatne. +Miał żonę Halinę i troje dzieci. Dwie córki Agatę i Małgorzatę oraz syna Wojciecha. +Odniesienia w kulturze masowej. +Utwór pt. "Wanna Wassermanna" polskiej grupy muzycznej L-Dópa, zawarty na albumie "Gra?" (2007), stanowi odniesienie do osoby Zbigniewa Wassermanna – w szczególności sprawy z 2003, dotyczącej błędnego podłączenia wanny przez firmę budowlaną. Po śmierci Zbigniewa Wassermanna grupa przestała wykonywać ten utwór na koncertach. +Drut kolczasty + +Drut kolczasty – liniowy element konstrukcyjny zapór (zasieków przeciwpiechotnych) i ogrodzeń (płotów). Wykonywany jest w postaci dwóch (rzadziej trzech) skręconych spiralnie drutów stalowych (nośnych, właściwych). Na nich w odstępach nawinięte są w sposób uniemożliwiający przesuwanie wzdłuż i obracanie wokół drutu nośnego, krótkie odcinki drutu (zwoje) o wystających, ostro ściętych końcach długości kilkunastu milimetrów. Właściwości drutu kolczastego opisują: grubość drutów nośnych, odległość pomiędzy zwojami kolców i liczba wystających końców w zwoju (2 lub 4). +Pomysł pochodzi z roku 1865. Francuski wynalazca Louis Jannin użył też jako pierwszy określenia drut kolczasty (fr. "fil de fer barbelé"). Pierwszym natomiast, kto wynalazek opatentował był Amerykanin Joseph F. Glidden w 1874 roku. +Glidden otrzymał swój patent (nr 157 124) w listopadzie 1874 roku. Nieco wcześniej przedsiębiorca Isaac Ellwood odkupił od Gliddena 50% praw autorskich i wkrótce wspólnie uruchomili fabryczkę drutu kolczastego Barb Fence Company w DeKalb. Wkrótce odnieśli ogromny sukces produkując 5 ton w 1874 roku i blisko 150 ton w 1876 roku. +Pierwsze zastosowanie dla nowego wynalazku znaleźli hodowcy bydła na zachodzie Stanów Zjednoczonych, gdzie wypasano wielkie stada na ogromnych obszarach, których nie sposób było grodzić w sposób tradycyjny, tzn. drewnianymi płotami. John W. Gates zaprezentował drut kolczasty w San Antonio w Teksasie w roku 1876. Prezentacja, która wywołała zrozumiałe zainteresowanie hodowców, zakończyła się zaproszeniem do składania zamówień. Gates nawiązał kontakt z firmą "Washburn, Moen & Ellwood" i założył "Southern Wire Company", która to kompania stała się największym producentem drutu. W roku 1880 federalny sąd okręgowy wydał decyzję potwierdzającą ważność patentu Gliddena i uznając jego monopol. To potwierdził w roku 1892 Sąd Najwyższy Stanów Zjednoczonych. W tej sytuacji 1898 roku Gates odkupił prawo własności od Gliddena i Ellwooda, przejął kontrolę nad "Washburn and Moen" tworząc koncern "Steel and Wire", który po jakimś czasie został wchłonięty przez United States Steel Corporation, na czele której stał jeden z najbogatszych obywateli USA Andrew Carnegie. +Drut kolczasty instaluje się na szczycie ogrodzenia wykonanego z siatki, lub wykonuje się z niego całą płaszczyznę, umieszczając je równolegle do podłoża w odstępach 20–40 cm. Czasem, w celu utrudnienia sforsowania zasieków, używa się drutu kolczastego także w postaci dużych zwojów (średnicy kilkudziesięciu centymetrów). Często zwoje te są dodatkowo pospinane ze sobą. Niekiedy stosuje się zasieki i ogrodzenia złożone z dwóch rodzajów drutu ogrodzeniowych: kolczastego i ostrzowego. +W niektórych obozach koncentracyjnych część ogrodzeń z drutu kolczastego była dodatkowo podłączona do źródła prądu, o wysokim napięciu. +Robert Herrick + +Robert Herrick (ur. 1591, ochrzczony 24 sierpnia 1591 w Londynie, zm. w październiku 1674 w Dean Prior) – angielski poeta i duchowny, rojalista. Zaliczany do szkoły tzw. "Cavalier Poets", autor głównie liryków miłosnych i epigramatów, kontynuator tradycji elżbietańskiej w poezji. +Urodził się jako siódme dziecko Nicholasa Herricka, prosperującego złotnika. W listopadzie 1592 Herrick został osierocony przez ojca, który wypadł z okna swego domu (podejrzewano samobójstwo). Chociaż nie ma żadnego zapisu o uczęszczaniu Roberta Herricka do szkoły, jest prawdopodobne, że był uczniem szkoły w Westminster. W 1607 stał się czeladnikiem u swojego wuja, sir Williama Herricka, u którego szkolił się na złotnika. +W 1613 Herrick wstąpił w mury St. John's College w Cambridge, którą ukończył w 1617. 24 kwietnia 1623 (niektóre źródła mówią o 1627 roku) Herrick przyjął święcenia i został kapelanem George'a Villiersa, księcia Buckingham, któremu towarzyszył w nieudanej wyprawie na Île de Ré w 1627 roku. W 1629 został wyznaczony przez władze kościelne na proboszcza parafii Dean Prior w hrabstwie Devon, którą to posadę niechętnie przyjął. Żył w zaciszu na prowincji, gdzie napisał swe najlepsze prace, tęskniąc jednakże za przyjemnościami Londynu. +Sławę zapewnił mu zbiór ponad 1200 liryków zatytułowany "Hesperides" (1648). Większość postaci kobiet obecnych w jego poezji uważa się za fikcyjne. +Na język polski Herricka tłumaczył m.in. Stanisław Barańczak ("77 wierszy", Kraków 1992). +Socket 6 + +Socket 6 to gniazdo dla procesora klasy 486, lekko zmodyfikowana wersja popularnego Socket 3. +Intel zaprojektowal ten stardard pod koniec cyklu produkcyjnego chipów typu 486. Wyprodukowano stosunkowo niewiele płyt głównych z tym gniazdem - szczególnie dlatego, że jego możliwości nie były wiele większe od poprzednika - Socket 3. Poza tym pracowano już nad nowym procesorem - Pentium. +Sedd el Bahr + +Sedd el Bahr (we współczesnym tureckim Seddülbahir, "klucz do morza") to wioska na przylądku Helles znajdującym się na półwyspie Gallipoli w Turcji. Wioska leży we wschodniej części przylądka, na brzegu Dardaneli. W czasie kampanii o Gallipoli był to przyczółek desygnowany jako "plaża V" który został zdobyty przez dwa irlandzkie bataliony, jeden z nich atakujący z SS River Clyde, w czasie lądowania na Helles. +Na końcu przylądku znajduje się zamek "Sedd el Bahr Kale", znany także jako "Eski Kale" ("Stary zamek") zbudowany w 1659. W czasie kampanii o Gallipoli, w planach brytyjskich figurował jako "Fort No. 1”, uzbrojony był w 10 dział, w tym dwa o działa Krupp 28 cm L/22. Marynarka brytyjska ostrzelała ten zamek 3 listopada 1914 roku poważnie go uszkadzając i zabijając 86 tureckich żołnierzy. +Brytyjczycy ponownie zaatakowali fort 19 lutego 1915 roku w czasie operacji morskich poprzedzających lądowania wojsk alianckich. Sedd El Bahr był wielokrotnie bombardowany i atakowany przez zespoły saperów. Do końca operacji morskich 18 marca fort został wyeliminowany jako poważna groźba dla floty brytyjskiej. +Czerwone Brygady + +Czerwone Brygady (wł. "Brigate Rosse") – włoskie ugrupowanie terrorystyczne, utworzone 20 października 1970 przez Renato Curcio, Margherite Cagol, Franco Triano, Giorgio Semeria, Corado Simoni, w związku z brakiem (według nich) skuteczności działania mniej radykalnych organizacji lewicowych. +W 1978 Czerwone Brygady zamordowały byłego pięciokrotnego premiera Włoch – Aldo Moro. Organizacja dokonała porwania szefa dowództwa wojsk lądowych NATO na południową Europę gen. Jamesa Doziera z USA, który został uwolniony przez włoską policję, przez jej antyterrorystyczny wydział "Nucleo Operativo Centrale di Sicurezza". Od 1984 roku widoczny stał się rozłam grupy. Obecnie grupa terrorystyczna praktycznie nie istnieje. +W styczniu 2010 roku, pod zarzutem próby reaktywacji Czerwonych Brygad, aresztowano Manolo Morlacchi’ego (syn współzałożyciela organizacji terrorystycznej) oraz Costantino Virgilio. +Palmiarnia Łódzka + +Palmiarnia Łódzka - jedna z najnowocześniejszych w Europie palmiarni i jeden z najciekawszych budynków w Łodzi. Otaczający ją Park Źródliska (wpisany do rejestru zabytków) jest najstarszym parkiem miejskim w Łodzi, powstałym na początku XIX w. z części okolicznych lasów. +Udostępniona po raz pierwszy dla zwiedzających w 1956 roku. Spadkobierczyni kolekcji roślin - przede wszystkim palm - z oranżerii fabrykantów i carskich urzędników. Zawiera ok. 4,5 tys. okazów należących do ponad 1100 taksonów (czyli gatunków i odmian) z 65 rodzin botanicznych, a unikalna kolekcja ogromnych palm ściśle wiąże się z dziejami miasta. +Historia. +Wraz z gwałtownym rozwojem przemysłowym w drugiej połowie XIX wieku obok fabryk włókienniczych powstawały w Łodzi pałace fabrykantów i ogrody z rzadkimi, cieplarnianymi roślinami. Kryzys gospodarczy w latach 20. ubiegłego wieku doprowadził do likwidacji oranżerii, i oddawania roślin szklarniom miejskim. Trafiły tam także zbiory pozostawione w czasach I wojny światowej przez uciekających z Łodzi carskich urzędników. +Wraz z upływem czasu rośliny przestawały się mieścić w szklarniach. Zdecydowano więc w 1955 r. o adaptacji budynku dawnej stołówki w parku Źródliska. Podwyższono o kilka metrów dach, a donice z najwyższymi roślinami zagłębiono w grunt. Po remoncie 1 września 1956 roku palmiarnia została udostępniona publiczności. +Kolejna modernizacja i podwyższenie dachu miało miejsce w 1970 roku, ponieważ rosnące rośliny napierały na dach. Została też przeszklona górna kondygnacja. +Ostatni remont odbył się w latach 1999-2003. Został przeprowadzony na wniosek Wydziału Ochrony Środowiska, łódzkich przyrodników i dyrekcji Łódzkiego Ogrodu Botanicznego (który wraz z palmiarnią tworzy odrębną jednostkę), ze względu na katastrofalny stan budynku. Starą budowlę obudowano przeszkloną konstrukcją stalową, do której zamontowano po raz pierwszy w Polsce zewnętrzną, tzw. zintegrowaną ścianę grzewczą (połączenie ściany osłonowej z systemem grzewczym, gdzie w ramach okiennych płynie glikol). Autorami projektu byli Przemysław Cymerman i Jacek Dynarek z zespołem Galbeksu, a kurtynę dostarczyła niemiecka firma Gartner. Dopiero po wykonaniu tych prac rozebrano stare mury, ze względu na konieczność pozostawienia w modernizowanym obiekcie najstarszych roślin, zakorzenionych w podłożu. Całkowity koszt budowy wyniósł 31,6 mln zł. +Nowy obiekt nie tylko zapewnił optymalne warunki dla roślin, zmienił również całkowicie komfort pobytu zwiedzających. Wytyczono alejki wyłożone kostką (jedna z nich prowadzi przez mostek), są zatoczki z ławeczkami, na których oglądający mogą odpocząć, są ciekawie zaaranżowane oczka wodne, strumień i grota, którą zbudowano z oryginalnych tufów wulkanicznych. Jest sala dydaktyczna umożliwiająca prowadzenie zajęć edukacyjnych, jest przestronny hall oraz kawiarenka na piętrze z widokiem na kolekcję śródziemnomorską. Można popatrzeć na ryby w akwariach. Działa również kwiaciarnia, w której można kupić egzotyczne rośliny. +Rośliny. +Cała palmiarnia została podzielona na trzy niezależne części - pawilon śródziemnomorski, tropikalny oraz pomieszczenie z bogatą kolekcją kaktusów. Każda z tych części posiada odmienne warunki klimatyczne, za które odpowiada komputer (który automatyczne steruje nawet otwieraniem lub zamykaniem okien). Przed wejściem do każdego z pomieszczeń wisi elektroniczna tablica z temperaturą i wilgotnością powietrza, jaka jest w następnym pomieszczeniu. +W pawilonie dla roślinności twardolistnej, głównie śródziemnomorskiej, oglądać można m.in. ponad 130-letnie palmy, cytrusy, wawrzyny, rozmaryny, laury i laurowiśnie, gardenie, mirty, araukarie czy lawendy. W kolejnym z roślinnością tropikalną prezentowane są bromelie, liany, palmy kokosowe, pandanowce, figowce, filodendrony, duża kolekcja storczyków i paproci. Ostatnie pomieszczenie to zbiór roślinności pustynnej - kaktusy i inne sukulenty, kilkumetrowe opuncje, aloesy, cereusy, kliwie, kalle czy sansewierie. +W całych zbiorach palmiarni jest ok. 4,5 tys. okazów roślin należących do ponad 1100 taksonów (gatunków i odmian) z 65 rodzin botanicznych, m.in.: +Kolekcja ponad 130-letnich palm obejmuje 18 gatunków (niektóre z nich osiągnęły wysokość 18 m). Wiek największych sagowców szacowany jest na około 90 lat. +Ogródek dydaktyczny. +W połowie września 2006 roku oddano dla zwiedzających, tuż obok palmiarni, ogródek dydaktyczny, przypominający ogród angielski. Na terenie 3,5 tys. m² można oglądać w nim m.in. sekwoje, metasekwoje, drzewo chusteczkowe, japońską kryptomerię, rzadkie odmiany sosen i świerków, miłorzęby dwuklapowe, a także kolekcję wrzosów, wrzośców, rododendronów i azalii. +Ogródek dydaktyczny powstał w parku Źródliska już w latach 20. XX wieku. Początkowo był własnością wydziału oświaty łódzkiego magistratu, a następnie należał do Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. W 2005 roku został przekazany Łódzkiemu Ogrodowi Botanicznemu. W czasie renowacji zmieniono układ alejek, zbudowano fontannę, altankę i postawiono zabytkowe latarnie. Ogródek dydaktyczny jest dostępny tylko dla zwiedzających palmiarnię (wejście przez pawilon dla roślinności twardolistnej). +Godziny otwarcia. +Palmiarnia jest czynna codziennie oprócz poniedziałków oraz ostatniego tygodnia marca i lipca (intensywne zabiegi pielęgnacyjne). +Epoché + +Epoché (również redukcja fenomenologiczna) () – termin filozoficzny wywodzący się z filozofii starożytnych sceptyków (Pyrron z Elidy). Oznacza wstrzymanie lub moment wstrzymania sądu metafizycznego (por. krytyka metafizyki) co do sposobu istnienia świata, czasowe wzięcie w nawias pewności co do przekonań i założeń. +Jest to czerpiący z kartezjanizmu postulat Edmunda Husserla, który stanowi podstawę fenomenologii, oznacza tu moment wstrzymania, od którego konstruowana jest nowa filozofia, a porzucana stara. Husserl mówiąc o "epoché" używa znanej metafory "brania w nawias". Porównaj również kantowską teorię o niedocieralności do "rzeczy samych w sobie". +Od spostrzeżeń prowadzących do solipsyzmu odróżnia epoché m.in. chwilowość, oraz to, że niepewność co do dotychczas uznawanych praw natury może dotyczyć innych, niż niezależność i zewnętrzność względem podmiotu poznającego, cech istnienia świata. +Łuna 2 + +Łuna 2 - bezzałogowa sonda kosmiczna wystrzelona przez ZSRR. Celem jej było zderzenie się z powierzchnią Księżyca. Misja zakończyła się sukcesem. Łuna 2 była pierwszym statkiem, który zderzył się z Księżycem. +Opis misji. +Łuna 2 była drugim radzieckim statkiem mającym zderzyć się z Księżycem i pierwszym, któremu się to udało. Po starcie i uzyskaniu prędkości ucieczkowej, 12 września (13 września czasu moskiewskiego), Łuna 2 odrzuciła 3. stopień rakiety nośnej, który powędrował za nią aż w pobliże Księżyca. Tego samego dnia statek wypuścił pomarańczową chmurę sodu, która umożliwiła śledzenie statku oraz badanie rozprzestrzeniania się gazu w przestrzeni kosmicznej. 13 września, po 33,5 godzinie lotu, radiowy sygnał emitowany przez Łunę 2 urwał się nagle, oznajmiając tym samym uderzenie statku w Księżyc. Miejsce zderzenia miało współrzędne selenograficzne: 29,1° N, 0° (Mare Serenitatis, koło kraterów Aristides i Archimedes). Około 30 minut później, w Księżyc uderzył 3. stopień rakiety nośnej, która wyniosła Łunę 2. Przeprowadzone pomiary potwierdziły fakt braku księżycowego pola magnetycznego i księżycowych pasów radiacyjnych oraz istnienie wiatru słonecznego. +Statek miał pozostawić na Księżycu dwie tytanowe kule (o średnicach 7,5 i 12 cm). Były one wypełnione materiałem wybuchowym. Jego eksplozja miała rozerwać kule i rozrzucić na powierzchni pamiątkowe pięciokąty, z których zbudowane były obie kule. Każdy z pięciokątów nosił inskrypcję: "Wrzesień 1959, ZSRR, Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich", oraz godło ZSRR z sierpem i młotem. Ostatni człon rakiety, który uderzył w Księżyc 30 minut po sondzie, zawierał aluminiowe paski. Zawierały one takie same napisy jak pięciokąty na kulach. +Łuna 2 i kule prawdopodobnie wyparowały. Statek uderzył w powierzchnię Srebrnego Globu z prędkością około 3,3 km/s. Zakładając, że energia zderzenia przekształciła się w ciepło, temperatura w miejscu zderzenia mogła wynieść ponad 10 000 °C. +15 września 1959 premier ZSRR Nikita Chruszczow ofiarował prezydentowi USA Dwightowi D. Eisenhowerowi kopie ozdób wyniesionych przez Łunę 2. +Oznaczenia. +Udaną misję Łuny 2 poprzedziła jedna nieudana próba startu. Statek typu Łuna 2, który uległ zniszczeniu, oznacza się w chronologii lotów kosmicznych jako "E-1A 5". Zobacz też: rakieta nośna Łuna 8K72. +Budowa i działanie. +Statek miał kształt kuli. Z jednej z półkul wystawały cztery krótkie anteny oraz dłuższy od nich wysięgnik z magnetometrem. Statek nie posiadał własnego systemu napędowego. Zasilanie odbywało się z ogniwa chemicznego (srebro-cynk i rtęć). +Sonda obracała się z okresem 840 sekund, a okres precesji osi obrotu wynosił 86 sekund. +Sód był przechowywany w zbiorniku, pod ciśnieniem 1,3 atmosfery. Dzięki specjalnemu systemowi kontroli (ogrzewanie promieniami słonecznymi i wymuszona cyrkulacja gazu) jego temperatura nie przekroczyła 20 °C +Do komunikacji z Ziemią statek używał dwóch częstotliwości. Na 19,993 MHz, z transmisją telegraficzną (0,5 - 0,8 sekundy), transmitowano dane z przyrządów naukowych. System telemetrii pracował na częstotliwości 183,6 MHz. Statek posiadał też prawdopodobnie odbiornik radiokomend, pracujący na częstotliwości 115 MHz. +55 Samodzielna Eskadra Bombowa + +55 samodzielna eskadra bombowa - jednostka Brygady Bombowej we wrześniu 1939. +Obsada etatowa eskadry. +Piloci. +- Obserwatorzy +Dujiangyan (miasto) + +Dujiangyan () – miasto na prawach powiatu w środkowych Chinach, w prowincji Syczuan, w zespole miejskim Chengdu. W 2000 roku liczyło ok. 622 tys. mieszkańców. +Rozwinęło się w związku ze zbudowanym w III w. p.n.e. na rzece Min systemem irygacyjnym, który zapewnił mu zasobność przez ponad 2000 lat, a obecnie jest wielką atrakcją turystyczną. W 2000 roku został wpisany na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +W trakcie trzęsienia ziemi, które nawiedziło Chiny 12 maja 2008 roku, Dujiangyan znalazło się najbliżej epicentrum. W wyniku zawalenia się budynków szkół kilkuset uczniów zostało pogrzebanych pod gruzami, wielu z nich zginęło na miejscu. +123 Eskadra Myśliwska + +123 Eskadra Myśliwska – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +Eskadra sformowana została w październiku 1933 na lotnisku rakowickim w Krakowie, w składzie III Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego 2 Pułku Lotniczego. Jednostka uzbrojona została w samoloty Avia BH-33. Pod koniec 1935 rozpoczęto przezbrajanie eskadry w samoloty PZL P.7. +31 sierpnia 1939 eskadra przebazowana została do Balic, a następnie na Okęcie i tam podporządkowana dowódcy IV Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego 1 Pułku Lotniczego, który wchodził w skład Brygady Pościgowej. Na uzbrojeniu eskadry znajdowało się 10 samolotów PZL P.7a (samoloty nie posiadały radiostacji). +1 września jednostka przesunięta została na lotnisko polowe Poniatów koło Jabłonny, z którego operowała do 3 września. Już 1 września w walce z Bf 110 eskadra utraciła 4 PZL P.7a. 17 września jednostka otrzymała rozkaz przejścia na terytorium Rumunii. +Według danych Biura Historycznego PSP w Londynie piloci 123 Eskadry Myśliwskiej w czasie kampanii wrześniowej odnieśli 2 zwycięstwa powietrzne. Według ustaleń Jerzego Pawlaka piloci eskadry zestrzelili na pewno trzy samoloty Luftwaffe (jeden Bf 110, jeden He 111 i jeden nierozpoznany) oraz uszkodziła kolejne dwa samoloty (Bf 110 i Do 17). Na liście Bajana obok zwycięstw indywidualnych eskadrze zaliczono zwycięstwo zbiorowe - 2/3 samolotu zestrzelonego na pewno. +Bibliografia. +__NOTOC__ +XV dywizjon bombowy + +XV dywizjon bombowy - jednostka Brygady Bombowej we wrześniu 1939. +Szebeka + +Szebeka – statek żaglowo-wiosłowy o 2-3 masztach z ożaglowaniem łacińskim. Pierwsze szebeki posiadały 30 do 40 par wioseł, jednak później ich liczbę zmniejszono do około 9. Popularny okręt w basenie Morza Śródziemnego od XVII do XIX wieku. Duża zwrotność, szybkość i uzbrojenie w około 28 dział, a także niezależność od wiatru wpłynęła na dużą popularność tych okrętów wśród piratów i korsarzy. Ze względu na niewielką ładowność szebeki działały zwykle w niewielkiej odległości od lądu. +Cetyniec + +Cetyniec ("Tomicus") - rodzaj chrząszczy z podrodziny kornikowatych (Scolytidae). +Występuje ponad 10 gatunków zaliczanych do tego rodzaju, w Polsce żyją przedstawiciele dwóch gatunków: +Obydwa cetyńce to groźne szkodniki wtórne lasów sosnowych. Atakują uszkodzone drzewostany. Larwy żerują pod korą, która wskutek tego płatami odpada z drzew. +Timothy Dalton + +Timothy Peter Dalton (ur. 21 marca 1946 w Colwyn Bay w Walii) – brytyjski aktor teatralny i filmowy, znany przede wszystkim jako czwarty oficjalny odtwórca roli Jamesa Bonda. W postać superagenta 007 Dalton wcielił się w dwóch filmach: "W obliczu śmierci" (1987) i "Licencja na zabijanie" (1989). +Biografia. +Timothy, najstarszy z piątki rodzeństwa Daltonów, zaczął swoją karierę aktorską, będąc jeszcze nastolatkiem. Wraz z kilkoma innymi aktorami podróżował i studiował w Królewskiej Akademii Sztuk Dramatycznych (The Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts). Uwagę szerszej widowni zwrócił na siebie po tym, jak wcielił się w postać Króla Filipa w dramacie historycznym "Lew w Zimie" ("The Lion in Winter"). Przełomem była też rola Heathcliffa w "Wuthering Heights". +Pierwszym jego amerykańskim filmem była dopiero komedia "Sextette" z roku 1978. Rozgłos przyniosły mu też takie filmy jak: "Agatha", "Flash Gordon" i kilka seriali telewizyjnych. +Życie prywatne. +Jest kawalerem. Był związany z Vanessą Redgrave. +Ma syna Alexandra Petera Daltona (ur. 7 sierpnia 1997 r.), którego matką jest Oksana Grigorieva. +Rola Jamesa Bonda. +Kiedy Roger Moore rozstał się z rolą Bonda po "Zabójczym widoku", 007 miał zostać Pierce Brosnan, jednak nie pozwoliły mu na to umowy kontraktowe. Wtedy rolę zaproponowano Daltonowi. +Dalton znacznie zmienił postać Jamesa Bonda, upodobniając jego kinowy wizerunek do książkowego. Aktor publicznie oświadczył, że chce zbliżyć graną przez siebie postać do wizerunku, jaki nadał jej Ian Fleming w swych powieściach. Według części fanów kreacja Daltona uchodzi za najbardziej zbliżoną do pierwowzoru literackiego. +W roku 1987 film "W obliczu Śmierci" zawierał zarówno szybką akcję, jak i elementy romantycznej fabuły, nie widziane od czasów "W tajnej służbie Jej Królewskiej Mości". +Dwa lata później "Licencja na zabijanie" opowiadała o brutalnym ataku na starego przyjaciela Bonda, Felixa Leitera. Filmowi podniesiono kategorie wiekowe ze względu na sceny palenia żywcem, zjadania ludzi przez rekiny i inne. Przeciwnikiem agenta był baron narkotykowy. Bondowi odebrano licencję na zabijanie – w filmie 007, zabijając, popełnia przestępstwa. Ze względu na słabą kampanię reklamową film nie zarobił zbyt dużo. +W roku 1994 po ukończeniu zdjęć do miniserialu "Scarlett" Dalton ogłosił, że nie wcieli się więcej w rolę Jamesa Bonda. W następnym filmie zastąpił go Pierce Brosnan. +22 Eskadra Bombowa + +22 (2) Eskadra Bombowa - pododdział lotnictwa bombowego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W dniach 24-26 sierpnia 1939 przeprowadzona została mobilizacja alarmowa 22 Eskadry Liniowej. 26 sierpnia jej rzut kołowy wyruszył na lotnisko Sadków koło Radomia, a następnie skierowany został na lotnisko zapasowe Wsola. Tam też w dniu 31 sierpnia przybył rzut powietrzny. +31 sierpnia eskadra przemianowana została na 22 Eskadrę Bombową i podporządkowana dowódcy Brygady Bombowej, w składzie której walczyła kampanii wrześniowej. Wraz z 21 Eskadrą Liniową (przemianowaną na 21 Eskadrę Bombową) tworzyła II Dywizjon Bombowy Lekki. Jednostka posiadała 10 samolotów PZL.23B Karaś, 1 samolot Fokker F.VIIB/3m i 1 samolot RWD-8. +Działania bojowe we wrześniu 1939. +3 września +PZL P.23 pilotowany przez Gustawa Hławiczka (razem obserwatorem Tadeuszem Kalinowskim i strzelcem Andrzejem Ustupskim) po ataku na kolumny pancerne została zaatakowana przez Bf-109 z 2./JG 77 (Lt. Karl-Heinz Nordmann) i zestrzelony. A. Ustupski zginął przy lądowaniu, T. Kalinowski zmarł w szpitalu 18 września, G. Hławiczka doznał obrażeń. +Leo Lipski + +Leo Lipski, właśc. Lipschütz (ur. 10 lipca 1917 w Zurychu, zm. 7 lipca 1997 w Tel Awiwie) – polski pisarz emigracyjny, narodowości żydowskiej. +W Krakowie ukończył Gimnazjum św. Jacka, potem studiował psychologię i filozofię. Przed wojną ogłaszał utwory poetyckie i prozatorskie na łamach pism, m.in. "Kuźnia Młodych", "Nasz Wyraz", "Pion". Pierwsze miesiące wojny spędził we Lwowie, następnie był więziony w obozie radzieckim. Wydostał się z ZSRR razem z armią Andersa, po wojnie osiadł w Izraelu. Został wyróżniony nagrodą "Kultury" paryskiej w 1955, a także Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski w 1996. +Archiwum Leo Lipskiego znajduje się w Archiwum Emigracji w Bibliotece Uniwersyteckiej w Toruniu. +Jednym z najciekawszych utworów Lipskiego jest opowiadanie Dzień i noc, to opowiadanie ukazujące nieodwracalność duchowych zmian w psychice człowieka, spowodowane przejściem przez „sowiecką Golgotę”. Opowiada o Żydzie, który trafił do Wołgostroju. Z tego opowiadania nie można wiele się dowiedzieć o głównym bohaterze, nie wiemy skąd dokładnie pochodzi, jak się nazywa, za co trafił do obozu. Autor jedynie nieznacznie nakreślił tę postać. Informuje nas tylko o tym, iż bohater pracował wcześniej przy wyrębie drzewa w lesie, a następnie dostał prace w obozie jako pomocnik lekarza. Jego praca w ambulatorium, obserwacje więźniów, stają się tematem opowiadania. Poznajemy świat łagru oczami młodego człowieka, który został wrzucony w brutalną rzeczywistość. Czytelnik w opowiadaniu widzi dzień pomocnika lekarza od samego świtu, aż do nocnego dyżuru. Opowiadanie chronologicznie obejmuje dwadzieścia cztery godziny życia w obozie. Dzień w obozie zaczyna się pobudką, gdy jest jeszcze ciemno i niezwykle zimno. Bohater musi w ciągu paru minut przebadać kilkudziesięciu osadzonych. Jego zadaniem jest zwalnianie chorych więźniów od pracy. Autor opisuje tu determinację osadzonych, którzy chwytają się różnych sposobów, aby dostać takie zwolnienie z pracy. Najlepiej obrazuje to przykład mężczyzny, który przybija sobie członek do pryczy. Sanitariusz relacjonuje nam wymarsz więźniów do pracy w terenie. Dokładnie podaje nam czas wymarszu, który przypada na godzinę siódmą rano. O tej porze rozpoczyna się wymarsz trzystu tysięcy ludzi. Dramatyzmu całej sytuacji dodaje fakt, iż towarzyszy temu muzyka orkiestry. Wygląda to jak defilada. Bohater udaje się do kuchni, gdzie sprawdza jakość potraw dla więźniów, to również należy do jego obowiązków. Z opowiadania dowiadujemy się również o wizycie sanitariusza w obozie dla kobiet, gdzie zapoznaje się z ich ciężką sytuacją. W opowiadaniu znów pojawia się obraz szaleństwa w zachowaniu osadzonych. Jeden z nich rzuca się do ognia, a pozostali tańczą przy ognisku. Jest to dowód na to, że ciężka praca i głód spychają więźniów na skraj załamania psychicznego. Później dowiadujemy się o pracy przy chorych w ambulatorium. Z jego relacji wynika, iż każdego dnia, ambulatorium obsługuje przeszło setkę chorych. Bohater zmienia opatrunki, mierzy temperaturę, zachowuje się jak w amoku, jak maszyna produkcyjna, wykonuje swoją pracę będąc na skraju wytrzymałości. Opowiadanie kończy obraz „elektrowni”, która ukazana zostaje jako bóstwo, dające więźniom życie i śmierć. +Linki zewnętrzne. +http://www.wforma.eu/34,literatura-jako-lustro.-o-projekcji-i-odbiciach-fizjologicznych-w-tworczosci-leo-lipskiego.html +Jacek Jędrzejak + +Jacek "Dżej Dżej" Jędrzejak (ur. 22 sierpnia 1963 w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim) - basista, wokalista, autor tekstów i kompozytor; członek zespołów Big Cyc i Czarno-Czarni, wcześniej Rokosz. Absolwent filologii polskiej Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego (magisterium 1989). +Dyskografia. +Big Cyc (główny wokal, gitara basowa) +Czarno Czarni (gitara basowa) +Rokosz (gitara basowa) +IV/1 dywizjon myśliwski + +IV Dywizjon Myśliwski 1 Pułku Lotniczego (IV/1 dm) - pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +IV Dywizjon Myśliwski wchodził w skład 1 Pułku Lotniczego. Stacjonował w garnizonie Warszawa na lotnisku Okęcie. +31 sierpnia 1939 dowódcy dywizjonu podporządkowana została 123 Eskadra Myśliwska z 2 Pułku Lotniczego w Krakowie-Rakowicach. Tym samym liczba samolotów myśliwskich w dywizjonie wzrosła z 22 do 32. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 dywizjon walczył w składzie Brygady Pościgowej. Do 3 września operował z lotniska polowego Poniatów koło Jabłonny. +Organizacja i obsada personalna II/1 dm +113 Eskadra Myśliwska (5 samolotów PZL P.11a i 5 samolotów PZL P.11c) +Aligator chiński + +Aligator chiński ("Alligator sinensis") – gatunek gada z rodziny aligatorowatych. +Zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych + +Zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych (łac. "meningitis cerebrospinalis purulenta") – choroba wywoływana przez wirusy lub bakterie, rzadziej przez pierwotniaki, pasożyty i niektóre leki, obejmująca opony mózgowo-rdzeniowe. +Epidemiologia. +Mimo że zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych w wielu krajach podlega obowiązkowemu zgłoszeniu, dokładna wartość zapadalności nie jest znana. W krajach zachodnich rocznie na bakteryjne zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych zapadają 3 osoby na 100 000. Badania całej populacji wykazały, że wirusowe zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych jest najczęstszą postacią i występuje z częstością 10,9 na 100 000 osób, częściej w lecie. W Brazylii zapadalność na bakteryjne zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych jest wyższa, wynosi 45,8 na 100 000 osób rocznie. W Afryce Subsaharyjskiej duże epidemie meningokokowego zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych występują w okresie suszy i dlatego nazywa się je "pasem zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych". Roczna zapadalność na tym obszarze, który nie ma dostatecznej opieki medycznej, wynosi 500 na 100 000 osób. Przypadki te są głównie spowodowane przez meningokoki. Ostatnia epidemia, która rozpoczęła się w styczniu 2009 roku objęła Nigerię, Niger, Mali i Burkinę Faso. Zakażenie meningokokowe występuje w postaci epidemii w obszarach, gdzie wiele ludzi żyje razem po raz pierwszy, takich jak koszary wojskowe podczas mobilizacji, miasteczka studenckie i doroczna pielgrzymka Hadżdż. Istnieją znaczne różnice w lokalnym rozmieszczeniu drobnoustrojów wywołujących bakteryjne zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych. Na przykład, N. meningitides grupy B i C powodują większość zachorowań w Europie, podczas gdy grupa A meningokoków występuje częściej w Chinach i wśród pielgrzymów Hadżdż. W Afryce przyczyną większości wybuchów epidemii w "pasie zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych" są grupy A i C meningokoków. Grupa W135 meningokoków spowodowała kilka ostatnich epidemii w Afryce oraz w trakcie Hadżdż. Oczekuje się, że różnice te będą się zmieniać wraz z wprowadzeniem szczepionek przeciwko najczęstszym szczepom. +Patologia. +Zapalenie obejmuje tkanki opon, a często przylegające do nich części mózgowia i rdzenia. +Objawy. +Podstawowe objawy to bóle głowy, wymioty i objawy oponowe (sztywność karku, objaw Brudzińskiego). +Mogą też występować: gorączka, senność, śpiączka, podwójne widzenie, zaburzenia mowy, porażenie mięśni, padaczka. +Zapalenie bakteryjne, częściej dotyka dzieci niż dorosłych, szerzy się drogą kropelkową. Objawy: ból gardła, gorączka, ból głowy, sztywność karku i wymioty. Na ciele pojawia się krwistoczerwona wysypka. W ciągu jednego dnia od początku choroby może rozwinąć się ciężki stan, prowadzący do śpiączki i śmierci. +Diagnoza. +Zmiany w płynie mózgowo-rdzeniowym zależą od rodzaju zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych. +Immunoprofilaktyka. +U niemowląt szczepienia przeciwko wirusowej odmianie meningitis stosowane są jedynie w: Irlandii, Wielkiej Brytanii, Hiszpanii i na Kubie. W innych krajach (w tym Polsce) szczepionki takiej nie stosuje się. +Zapobieganie. +Niektórym przyczynom zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych można zapobiegać poprzez stosowanie profilaktyki długoterminowej w postaci szczepionki lub krótkoterminowej w postaci antybiotyków. +Od 1980 wiele krajów uwzględniło szczepienie przeciwko "Haemophilus influenzae" typu B w kalendarzach rutynowych szczepień dzieci. Dzięki temu w tych krajach praktycznie wyeliminowano tę bakterię jako przyczynę zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych wśród małych dzieci. Jednak w krajach, w których obciążenie chorobą jest najwyższe, szczepionka jest nadal zbyt droga. Podobnie, szczepienie przeciwko wirusowi świnki doprowadziło do gwałtownego spadku liczby przypadków zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych spowodowanych wirusem świnki, które występowało w 15% przypadków tej choroby. +Istnieją szczepionki przeciwko meningokokom grupy A, C, W135 i Y. W krajach, gdzie wprowadzono szczepionkę przeciwko meningokokom grupy C, znacząco spadła liczba przypadków spowodowanych przez ten patogen. Obecnie istnieje szczepionka poliwalentna łącząca wszystkie cztery szczepionki. Szczepienie szczepionką ACW135Y przeciwko czterem szczepom jest obecnie obowiązkowa dla biorących udział w Hadżdż. Opracowanie szczepionki przeciwko grupie B meningokoków okazało się znacznie trudniejsze, ponieważ ich białka powierzchowne (które zwykle są wykorzystywane do wytwarzania szczepionki) wywołują słabą odpowiedź ze strony układu odpornościowego lub reakcję krzyżową z białkami ludzkimi. Jednak, w niektórych krajach (np. Nowej Zelandii, Kubie, Norwegii i Chile) opracowano szczepionki przeciwko miejscowym szczepom grupy B meningokoków. Niektóre z nich wykazały się dobrą skutecznością i są stosowane w miejscowych kalendarzach szczepień. +Rutynowe szczepienia przeciwko "Streptococcus pneumoniae" skoniugowaną szczepionką przeciwko pneumokokom (PCV), która jest aktywna wobec siedmiu serotypów tego patogenu, znacząco zmniejsza częstość występowania pneumokokowego zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych. Szczepionka z otoczek polisacharydowych obejmująca 23 szczepy jest podawana tylko niektórym grupom (np. osobom, u których wykonanko splenektomię, czyli chirurgiczne usunięcie śledziony), nie wywołuje ona wystarczająco silnej odpowiedzi immunologicznej u wszystkich przyjmujących, np. małych dzieci. +Szczepienie w dzieciństwie szczepionką BCG spowodowało znaczne zmniejszenie zapadalności na gruźlicze zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych, ale jego zmniejszająca się skuteczność w dorosłym wieku skłoniła do poszukiwania lepszej szczepionki. +Krótkoterminowa profilaktyka antybiotykowa jest również metodą zapobiegania, szczególnie meningokokowego zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych. W przypadku bliskiego kontaktu z chorym na meningokokowe zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych, zapobieganie antybiotykami (np. ryfampicyną, cyprofloksacyną, ceftriaksonem) może zmniejszyć ryzyko zarażenia się chorobą, ale nie chroni przed zakażeniami w przyszłości. +Historia. +Niektórzy sugerują, że Hipokrates mógł mieć świadomość istnienia zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych i wydaje się, że zapalenie opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych znali też inni przedrenesansowi lekarze, tacy jak Awicenna. Opis gruźliczego zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych, zwanego ówcześnie "puchliną mózgu", jest często przypisywany lekarzowi z Edynburga, Robertowi Whyttowi, w pośmiertnym doniesieniu, które ukazało się w roku 1768, chociaż związek gruźlicy z jej patogenem nie był znany aż do następnego stulecia. Wydaje się, że epidemia zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych jest zjawiskiem stosunkowo niedawnym. Pierwsze odnotowane poważne ogniska pojawiły się w Genewie w roku 1805. Krótko po tym opisano kilka innych epidemii w Europie i Stanach Zjednoczonych, a pierwsze doniesienie o epidemii w Afryce pojawiło się w roku 1840. Epidemie w Afryce rozpowszechniły się w dwudziestym wieku, począwszy od poważnych epidemii ogarniających Nigerię i Ghanę w latach 1905–1908. +Pierwsze doniesienie o zakażeniach bakteryjnych stanowiących podłoże dla zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych zostało podane przez austriackiego bakteriologa Antona Weichselbauma, który w roku 1887 opisał meningokoki. We wczesnych doniesieniach śmiertelność z powodu zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych była bardzo wysoka (ponad 90%). W roku 1906 została wyprodukowana końska surowica odpornościowa. Następnie była udoskonalana przez amerykańskiego naukowca Simona Flexnera, co znacznie zmniejszyło śmiertelność z powodu chorób spowodowanych przez meningokoki. W roku 1944, po raz pierwszy odnotowano skuteczność penicyliny w leczeniu zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych. Wprowadzenie pod koniec dwudziestego wieku szczepionki przeciwko Haemophilus doprowadziła do wyraźnego spadku zapalenia opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych związanego z tym patogenem, a w roku 2002 pojawiły się dowody, że leczenie sterydami może poprawić rokowanie w bakteryjnym zapaleniu opon mózgowo-rdzeniowych. +Izoterma BDDT + +Izoterma BDDT (izoterma Brunauera-Deminga-Deminga-Tellera) - 4-parametrowe równanie izotermy adsorpcji wielowarstwowej na powierzchni homogenicznej, jest uogólnieniem izotermy Brunauera-Emmetta-Tellera (BET). +formula_1 +Równanie BDDT może być stosowane jako izoterma lokalna przy opisie adsorpcji na powierzchni heterogenicznej (energetycznie niejednorodnej) za pomocą ogólnego równania całkowego. +Abort + +Abort - zatrzymanie działania programu lub procesu. +Operacja abort najczęściej podejmowana jest przez system operacyjny w przypadku, gdy przez określony czas nie będzie mógł komunikować się z procesem (timeout). Nadzorowanie przebiegu działania programu przez człowieka może doprowadzić do przerwania tego działania, jeśli działanie to trwa za długo lub otrzymywane są błędne dane wyjściowe. +Boeing 777 + +Boeing 777 – dwusilnikowy szerokokadłubowy samolot pasażerski produkowany przez amerykańską wytwórnię Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Jest to największy na świecie samolot dwusilnikowy. Mieści na swoim pokładzie ponad 300 pasażerów, a jego zasięg wynosi w zależności od wersji od 9 695 do 17 370 km (5235 – 9380 mil morskich). Cechami charakterystycznymi maszyny są: największa średnica silnika zamontowanego kiedykolwiek w samolocie i sześciokołowe wózki główne. Maszyna, rozwijana przy udziale ośmiu linii lotniczych, została zaprojektowana, aby zastąpić starsze szerokokadłubowe odrzutowce i uzupełnić lukę w ofercie pomiędzy modelami 767 i 747. Jako pierwszy samolot firmy Boeing, "Worldliner" został wyposażony w elektroniczny system sterowania statkiem powietrznym (ang. Fly-by-wire), a jako pierwszy samolot komercyjny został w całości zaprojektowany przy użyciu komputera. +777 jest produkowany w dwóch wersjach różniących się długością kadłuba. Eksploatacja pierwotnej wersji, 777-200, rozpoczęła się w 1995 roku, dwa lata później zadebiutowała odmiana o zwiększonym zasięgu – 777-200ER, a w 1998 roku o przedłużonym kadłubie – 777-300, dłuższa o 10,1 m od pierwowzoru. Maszyny 777-300ER i 777-200LR o jeszcze bardziej wydłużonym zasięgu zostały dostarczone odbiorcom odpowiednio w 2004 i 2006, a wersja towarowa – 777F – zadebiutowała w 2008 roku. Samoloty są oferowane z silnikami General Electric GE90, Pratt & Whitney PW4000 lub Rolls-Royce Trent 800. Odmiana 777-200LR ustanowiła rekord świata jako samolot o najdłuższym zasięgu, a także ustanowiła i utrzymała rekord największego dystansu przebytego przez maszynę komercyjną bez tankowania w powietrzu, prezentując zdolność do pokonania większej odległości, niż połowa okrążenia Ziemi. +Pierwszym użytkownikiem 777 były linie United Airlines, gdzie samoloty rozpoczęły służbę w 1995 roku. Do końca grudnia 2012 roku, 65 odbiorców złożyło 1431 zamówień, z czego dostarczono 1066 maszyn. Najbardziej popularną odmianą jest wersja 777-300ER z 671 zamówieniami, a największym operatorem Emirates z flotą liczącą ponad 100 samolotów. Do grudnia 2012 roku, użytkownicy odnotowali dwa wypadki skutkujące utratą samolotu, bez ofiar śmiertelnych, jedną spowodowaną usterką silnika Trent 800, drugą spowodowaną awarią elektryczną skutkującą pożarem. +Na początku XXI wieku, 777 okazał się jednym z najlepiej sprzedających się samolotów Boeinga. Linie lotnicze, z uwagi na rosnące koszty ropy naftowej i stosunkowo nieduże zużycie paliwa w porównaniu do innych maszyn szerokokadłubowych, chętnie używały tego modelu na trasach transoceanicznych. Porównywalne konstrukcje i bezpośredni konkurenci 777 to Airbus A330-300, A340, będący w fazie projektowania A350 oraz Boeing 787-9. +Idi Amin + +Idi Amin Dada Oumee (ur. 17 maja 1925 w Koboko jako Idi Awo-Ongo Angoo, zm. 16 sierpnia 2003 w Dżuddzie) – polityk i feldmarszałek ugandyjski. Prezydent Ugandy w latach 1971-1979. +Młodość i kariera. +Pochodził z małego plemienia Kakwa. Ukończył cztery klasy szkoły podstawowej i jako młody chłopak został zwerbowany do brytyjskiej armii kolonialnej, gdzie brał udział m.in. w tłumieniu powstania Mau Mau w Kenii. Rozpoczął służbę jako pomocnik kucharza, jednak za swoją lojalność, posłuszeństwo i okrucieństwo w walce szybko awansował. W tym czasie odnosił również sukcesy sportowe, z których największym był tytuł mistrza Ugandy w boksie wagi półciężkiej. Z niemałymi sukcesami startował także w Igrzyskach Wspólnoty Brytyjskiej w boksie. Amin przyjął islam, miał 12 żon, uznał 49 dzieci. +W 1962 roku, po uzyskaniu przez Ugandę niepodległości, Idi Amin został awansowany do stopnia kapitana, a w 1966 został mianowany przez premiera Miltona Obote dowódcą sił zbrojnych. 25 stycznia 1971 Amin dokonał krwawego zamachu stanu i odsunął od władzy prezydenta Obote. Zamach stanu był popierany przez Izrael i pozytywnie przyjęty w Londynie. +Prezydent. +Idi Amin piastując urząd prezydenta, rządził w sposób dyktatorski, tworząc brutalny i represyjny reżim oskarżany o wiele zbrodni. Z początku Amin prowadził politykę prozachodnią w oparciu o dobre kontakty z Wielką Brytanią i Izraelem w przeciwieństwie do poprzedniego rządu Miltona Obote, coraz bardziej zorientowanego na kraje bloku komunistycznego i zacieśnianie więzów z lewicowymi rządami w Afryce. Pierwszą zagraniczną wizytę państwową Amin złożył w 1971 w Izraelu, drugą w tym samym roku w Anglii. W latach 1971-1972 reżimowi pomagali Izraelczycy, przekazując pomoc finansową, modernizując armię i szkoląc oficerów. Amin uzyskał patent spadochroniarza w armii izraelskiej jeszcze w latach 60., a inżynierowie wojskowi z Izraela rozbudowali lotnisko w Entebbe na początku lat 70. +W 1972 nastąpił gwałtowny zwrot w polityce zagranicznej Ugandy po wizycie Amina w Libii i ZSRR, które zgodziły się udzielić mu pomocy militarnej i finansowej. Również w 1972 Amin wydalił z kraju 70 tysięcy Hindusów, w których rękach znajdowała się większość ugandyjskiej gospodarki. Chociaż większość z nich mieszkała w kraju od wielu pokoleń, dyktator nie pozostawił im wyboru i zawłaszczył ich majątki. Uzasadniał to stwierdzeniem, że tak polecił mu zrobić "głos boży". +Reżim Amina znalazł się w centrum światowego zainteresowania w 1976, gdy udzielił wsparcia grupie terrorystów palestyńskich i zachodnioniemieckich, którzy porwali w Grecji samolot Air France. Na jego pokładzie znajdowali się w większości obywatele pochodzenia żydowskiego. Samolot został skierowany na lotnisko w Entebbe w Ugandzie. Spektakularna akcja (wojskowy kryptonim "Operation Thunderbolt") odbicia zakładników przez izraelskich komandosów przeszła do historii jako "Operacja Entebbe". +W 1978 Amin zaatakował sąsiednią Tanzanię i 11 kwietnia 1979, po kontrataku, został obalony przez wojska tanzańskie, które wspierały Ugandyjską Armię Wyzwoleńczą i byłego prezydenta Obote. +Na wygnaniu. +Amin zbiegł najpierw do Libii, a następnie pomiędzy grudniem 1979 a początkiem 1980 uzyskał azyl w Arabii Saudyjskiej, gdzie mógł przebywać i korzystać z ochrony władz pod warunkiem całkowitego wycofania się z polityki. Ciągle snuł plany powrotu do Ugandy. Zmarł w 2003 po kilku nieudanych próbach przeszczepu nerek. Pomimo próśb rodziny, aby sprowadzić jego ciało do Ugandy, został pochowany w Arabii Saudyjskiej. +Ocena. +Amin odpowiedzialny jest za zamordowanie od 300 tysięcy do 600 tysięcy ludzi. Podczas jego rządów ginęli jego przeciwnicy polityczni oraz osoby, które były o to podejrzewane. Rządy Amina doprowadziły Ugandę do ogromnego kryzysu gospodarczego. +Był postacią ekscentryczną, a przez niektórych był uważany za szaleńca. Chciał być mediatorem w konflikcie północnoirlandzkim i uważał, że to on, a nie królowa brytyjska powinien stać na czele Wspólnoty Narodów. Był tak zafascynowany Szkocją, że tytułował siebie "ostatnim królem Szkocji". Chciał stanąć na czele wojsk, które odłączą Szkocję od Wielkiej Brytanii, a na pogrzebie króla Arabii Saudyjskiej pojawił się ubrany w kilt. Coca-Colę uznawał za wielki rarytas i podawał swoim gościom, także zagranicznym. +Potężnie zbudowany Idi Amin znany był także z tego, że często wyzywał na pojedynki bokserskie znane osobistości ze świata polityki. Po tym jak królowa Elżbieta II nie przyjęła jego wyzwania ogłosił się "pogromcą Imperium Brytyjskiego". Na pojedynek bokserski wyzwał również znanego z drobnej postury prezydenta Tanzanii Juliusa Nyerere. Idi Amin uwielbiał go prowokować i naśmiewać się szczególnie z jego nikłego wzrostu. Zakrawa na ironię to, że to właśnie wojska Tanzanii doprowadziły w 1979 do obalenia Idi Amina. +Miał przydomek "Dada", sam chciał, żeby nazywano go "Big Daddy", ale nazywano go także "rzeźnikiem z Ugandy" lub "wioskowym tyranem". Za jego rządów Jezioro Edwarda zostało przez władze Ugandy oficjalnie przemianowane na "Jezioro Idi Amin Dada". +Operational Intelligence Centre + +Operational Intelligence Centre - (OIC) - "Ośrodek Wywiadu Operacyjnego" +Każda operacja sił morskich, niezależnie od tego, czy była równą skali operacji Neptun, czy polegała jedynie na lądowaniu agenta, zrzucie komandosów w Norwegii, czy ataku na niemiecki konwój w pobliżu Belgii bądź Holandii, była poprzedzona szczegółowymi konsultacjami pomiędzy planującymi akcję a personelem Ośrodka Wywiadu Operacyjnego. +Bibliografia. +=Zobacz też= +Wielka Brytania, +Al-Andalus + +Al-Andalus (الأندلس) - arabska nazwa Półwyspu Iberyjskiego, nadana przez jego muzułmańskich zdobywców. Odnosi się ona zarówno do emiratu (ok. 750-929) jak i do kalifatu Kordoby (929-1031), a w szczególności do królestw Taify; może być używana również do ogólnego określenia terytoriów pod rządami muzułmanów (711-1492). Podczas powolnego procesu Rekonkwisty, ziemie iberyjskie były stopniowo ponownie zdobywane przez chrześcijan zajmujących północne enklawy, a nazwa "al-Andalus" zaczęła odnosić się tylko do zdominowanych przez islam ziem na południu. +Historia. +W 711 r. muzułmańska armia Maurów z północnej Afryki najechała chrześcijańskich Wizygotów z Hiszpanii. Ich dowódca, Tariq ibn Ziyad, podbił większość Hiszpanii w trakcie swojej ośmioletniej kampanii wojskowej. Wojska próbowały również przekroczyć Pireneje, ale zostały pokonane przez Franków dowodzonych przez Karola Młota podczas bitwy pod Poitiers w 732. Półwysep Iberyjski, z wyjątkiem niewielkich terenów na północnym zachodzie oraz baskijskich rejonów pirenejskich, stał się częścią rozwijającego się Imperium Umajjadów nazywaną "al-Andalus". W Muzeum Archeologii w Madrycie znajduje się dinar wytworzony pięć lat po podboju (716), posiada dwa napisy - arabskie "Al-Andalus" na jednej stronie i łacińskie "Span(ica)" na drugiej. Jest to prawdopodobnie najwcześniejsze świadectwo podbojów Maurów. +Kiedy Imperium Umajjadów zostało zastąpione przez Imperium Abbasydów w 750 r., lenna muzułmańskie zjednoczyły się w niezależny emirat Kordowy rządzący Al-Andalus i częściami północno-zachodniej Afryki; dokonał tego Abd ar-Rahman I z rodu Umajjadów. W 929 r. emir Abd ar-Rahman III ogłosił się kalifem (występując jawnie przeciwko kalifowi Abbasydów z Damaszku), podnosząc emirat do znacznie bardziej prestiżowego statusu kalifatu (Kalifat Kordoby). +Okres emiratu i kalifatu jest znany (z pewnymi incydentalnymi, choć znaczącymi wyjątkami) z akceptowania i tolerowania się nawzajem chrześcijan, muzułmanów i żydów, żyjących na tych samych terenach. W kulturze muzułmańskiej Al-Andalus jest dzisiaj w dużym stopniu nostalgicznym symbolem złotej ery islamu. +Po rozpadzie kalifatu w 1031 r. kraj zmienił się na dziesiątki małych, niepodległych muzułmańskich państw, nazywanych "taifami" (ar. taifa - "ugrupowanie, odłam"). Kraje chrześcijańskie położone na północy i zachodzie powoli powiększały swe władztwa terytorialne na Półwyspie, były to: Asturia, León, Nawarra i Katalonia. (Asturia i León miały swój początek tuż po arabskim podboju większej części Półwyspu, zaś Katalonia była frankońskim, pokarolińskim lennem. Królestwa Aragonii i Kastylii uformowały się w przeciągu paru następnych stuleci). Rozpad kalifatu przyspieszył postępy rekonkwisty. +Kurczące się terytoria muzułmańskie zostały zjednoczone przez berberyjskie dynastie: Almorawidów - od 1086 do 1145 r. - a następnie, od 1146 r. - Almohadów. W 1212 r. koalicja chrześcijan pod przywództwem Alfonsa VIII z Kastylii zadała klęskę almohadzkiej armii pod Las Navas de Tolosa. Do połowy XIII w. muzułmanie zostali wyparci ze środkowej Hiszpanii; pod ich rządami pozostała jedynie taifa Granady, która przetrwała jeszcze trzy następne wieki. 2 stycznia 1492 r. Boabdil z Granady, wódz emiratu Granady, (ar. Gharnata) ostatniej twierdzy islamu na Półwyspie Iberyjskim, poddał się armiom katolickiej Hiszpanii, świeżo zjednoczonej po ślubie Izabeli I Kastylijskiej i Ferdynanda II Aragońskiego. Al-Andalus przestała istnieć jako byt polityczny, przetrwała jednakże w literaturze arabskiej, zaś jej legenda trwa do dnia dzisiejszego w kulturze arabsko-muzułmańskiej. +Następstwa. +W 1502 rozszerzenie aktu kapitulacyjnego gwarantujące muzułmanom nietykalność zostało uchylone i pozostali Maurowie zostali zmuszeni do opuszczenia Hiszpanii lub przyjęcia religii chrześcijańskiej jako moryskowie. Stanowili oni znaczną część społeczeństwa w niektórych stronach kraju, takich jak Aragonia, Walencja i Andaluzja, aż do czasu, kiedy zostali ostatecznie wypędzeni pomiędzy 1609 i 1614. Henryk Lapeyre ocenił, że dotyczyło to ponad trzystu tysięcy mieszkańców z ośmiu milionów mieszkających wówczas w Hiszpanii. +Dominacja Maurów na Półwyspie wpłynęła na wiele aspektów związanych z językiem, sztuką i kulturą, szczególnie w jego południowej części. Przykładami mogą być arabskie lub arabsko-podobne słowa w języku hiszpańskim oraz zabytki architektoniczne jak Alhambra w Granadzie czy też meczet w Kordobie. +Dzisiejsza nazwa Andaluzji (hiszp. "Andalucía") pochodzi od "Al-Andalus", jako że ta południowa prowincja była jedną z ostatnich krain Maurów w Hiszpanii. +Etymologia. +Zazwyczaj uznaje się, że słowo to pochodzi od Wandalów, germańskiego plemienia osiadłego w południowej Iberii i północnej Afryce, jednak uczeni nie mogą znaleźć porozumienia. Istnieją trzy teorie sugerujące etymologię "Al-Andalus". +Vandalícia - Reinhardt Dozy (1820-1883), holenderski autor znanej "Historii Muzułmańskiej Hiszpanii" (wydanej w czterech tomach w 1984 r.) przedstawił teorię, według której "Al-Andalus" jest arabskim tłumaczeniem "Vandalicia" lub "Vandalucia", twierdząc tym samym, że te tereny mogły otrzymać tę nazwę nie w Iberii, ale wśród Arabów z Maghrebu. +Atlantida - Hiszpański filolog Joaquin Vallve Bermejo w swojej książce "Terytorialny Podział Muzułmańskiej Hiszpanii" (CSIC, 1986) zasugerował, że "Al-Andalus" jest bezpośrednim tłumaczeniem "Atlantydy" ("Atlantis") lub "wyspy Atlantyku". +Landahlauts - H. Halm, niemiecki badacz i historyk, zarzucił wszelkie powiązania z Wandalami. Twierdzi natomiast, że "Al-Andalus" jest tłumaczeniem wizygockiej nazwy na rzymską prowincję "Baetica". Wizygoci, zgodnie ze zwyczajem swoich germańskich przodków, przydzielali podbite ziemie ciągnąc losy, a gockie słowo "Landahlauts" (losowana ziemia) dla arabskiego ucha brzmi jak "Al-Andalus". +Zakon Hermesa + +Zakon Hermesa to fikcyjne stowarzyszenie magów z gry fabularnej Ars Magica oraz z gry fabularnej . Magia tych czarowników od samego początku związana była z zaklinaniem słów, co dawało im władzę nad rzeczami materialnymi oraz światem idei. W Ars Magice istota tej magii opiera się na inkantacjach i gestach, które mają na celu zgromadzenie i nadanie odpowiedniej formy zgromadzonej energii magicznej. +Historia. +Starożytność. +Przed odkryciem pisma wierzono, że nazwa rzeczy jest równoważna tej rzeczy, co więcej - zawiera w sobie jej prawdziwą naturę. Pismo umożliwiło ludziom niejako "łapanie" nazw i manipulowanie nimi, czyli manipulowanie istotą rzeczy. Była to czynność magiczna, a umiejętność pisania - jako święta - zarezerwowana była dla kapłanów bogów mądrości, takich jak egipski Tot. +To właśnie wśród tych kapłanów Sumeru i starożytnego Egiptu byli pierwsi magowie tradycji nazwanej później hermetyzmem. Dość szybko rozwinęli oni magię zamawiania imion rzeczy widzialnych, w przyzywanie imion rzeczy niewidzialnych - aniołów wyobrażających abstrakcyjne koncepcje. +Również ze świątyń bogów mądrości magowie ci wynieśli wiedzę o mowie gwiazd - astrologii. Kapłani, którzy zaobserwowali fakt pojawiania się Syriusza w czasie wylewów Nilu wyciągnęli wniosek, że w gwiazdach na niebie zapisany jest los życia na ziemi. Tak narodziła się idea ""jako w Niebie tak i na Ziemi"" z której powstało przeświadczenie o powiązaniu mikrokosmosu człowieka z makrokosmosem otaczającego go świata. Przeświadczenie to stało się podstawą magii sympatycznej +Ewolucja pisma z obrazkowego w sylabiczne a później alfabetyczne przyniosła dalszy rozwój myśli magicznej. Litery okazały się nader użyteczną metaforą pojęć abstrakcyjnych - było to kilkadziesiąt znaków, które same z siebie nie znaczyły zgoła nic, a jednak można je było ułożyć w nazwę każdej rzeczy, a więc panować nad całą rzeczywistością nie znając hieroglifów dla każdej rzeczy z osobna. +Dzięki literom myśliciele mogli wznieść się do krainy abstrakcyjnych idei, których cieniem, rozmyciem, kombinacją były słowa-rzeczy. Pierwszy doszedł do tego Platon w swej teorii realizmu, która stworzyła świecki pozwalający kontrolować każdy aspekt rzeczywistości. Następnym krokiem było utożsamienie ideału z boskością - stąd na przełomie er narodziła się myśl gnostycka, wyrażona w II wieku n.e. w filozofii manichejskiej i neoplatońskiej. Do tych trendów gnostyckich hermetycy dodali alchemię, dodając do jej aspektu przemiany materii aspekt przemiany duszy alchemika. +Jednak ten ferment ideologiczny drugiego stulecia został wkrótce stłumiony. Rozwijające się chrześcijaństwo po początkowym flircie z gnostycyzmem zaczęło dążyć do ortodoksji w basenie Morza Śródziemnego. Niedługo potem upadło Imperium rzymskie, a zachodnia cywilizacja stoczyła się w ciemne wieki. Uczeni hermetycy rozpierzchli się, ustała wymiana idei, a poszczególni czarownicy pozamykali się w swych wieżach dla bezpieczeństwa i swobody studiowania z dala od wścibskiego Kościoła. +Od przyzywania demonów przez kapłanów Babilonii przez egipskich kapłanów odczytujących z gwiazd porę wylewów Nilu do dającej władzę nad światem pieczęci Salomona, był to złoty wiek dla Hermetyków. Położono wtedy podwaliny pod kanon hermetyzmu, napisano największe grimuary i stworzono najpotężniejsze talizmany. Nieznane są imiona wielkich magów, którzy odkryli całą tą wiedzę, dlatego zwykło się przypisywać ją jednemu oświeconemu mistrzowi, Hermesowi Trzykroć Wielkiemu. +Zakon Hermesa. +Ciemne wieki były czasem nie sprzyjającym rozwojowi myśli magicznej. Wraz z upadkiem "Pax Romana" upadły centra myśli filozoficznej, ustała komunikacja między magami, zniszczone zostały największe biblioteki antycznego świata. Magowie walczyli o przetrwanie oraz między sobą, interesowało ich głównie wykrojenie sobie własnej domeny, która zabezpieczyłaby ich potrzeby materialne. +Sytuację zmieniła dopiero dwójka magów: Bonisagus i Trianoma. W roku 767 przekonali oni jedenastu innych największych magów owych czasów, by utworzyli sojusz, który zapewni im bezpieczeństwo i da warunki do rozwijania wiedzy magicznej. Tak narodził się Zakon Hermesa, u powstania złożony z 12 Domów. +Domy Hermesa. +Każdy mag Zakonu Hermesa formalnie należy do jednego z Domów - stowarzyszeń podobnie myślących magów o podobnych paradygmatach i specjalizacji. Ilość, rozmiary i wpływ poszczególnych Domów zmieniał się znacząco w ciągu długiej historii Zakonu. +Domy założycielskie istniejące obecnie. +Domy te zostały założone przez założycieli Zakonu i istnieją do dziś. +Ex Miscellena. +Dom Ex Miscellanea nie jest Domem "sensu stricto", jest raczej zbieraniną mniejszych stowarzyszeń hermetyków, zbyt słabych lub nielicznych, by stworzyć Dom.Założony w 817. +3Com + +3Com – producent podzespołów i akcesoriów służących do tworzenia sieci komputerowych. Przedsiębiorstwo zostało założone w 1979 przez Roberta Metcalfe'a. Obecnie jego siedziba główna znajduje się w mieście Marlborough w stanie Massachusetts. +W 1997 nastąpiła fuzja z U.S. Robotics. +W 2005 przedsiębiorstwo rozpoczęło bliską współpracę (także zaangażowała się finansowo) z Huawei, jednym z poważniejszych konkurentów Cisco. +W 2009 3Com został przejęty przez firmę HP. Informacja o przejęciu została ogłoszona 11 listopada 2009 roku. +Hyde Park + +Hyde Park – jeden z kilku królewskich parków w Londynie, położony na obszarze 390 akrów (ok. 159 ha). Podzielony na dwie części przez jezioro Serpentine. +"Hyde Park" został założony w 1536 roku przez Henryka VIII, który pozyskał owe grunty od mnichów z Opactwa Westminsterskiego. +Większość obiektów architektonicznych w parku została zaprojektowana w latach 20. XIX wieku przez Decimusa Burtona. Od XIX wieku park stał się popularnym miejscem spotkań towarzyskich i wydarzeń kulturalnych. +To właśnie przed parkiem, na rogu północno-wschodnim, znajduje się "Marble Arch". Była to oryginalna brama Pałacu Buckingham zbudowana w 1827 roku. Okazała się jednak za wąska dla królewskiej karety i przeniesiono ją w obecne miejsce w roku 1851. +Miejscem, któremu nazwa "Hyde Park" zawdzięcza swoje potoczne znaczenie – jako forum dla swobodnego wypowiadania wszelkich poglądów w imię wolności słowa (pod warunkiem nieobrażania królowej) – jest "Speakers' Corner", położony w pobliżu "Marble Arch". Jest to tradycyjne miejsce przemówień i debat (przemawiali tam m.in. Karol Marks i Włodzimierz Lenin), odbywających się zwłaszcza w niedzielne poranki. +Hyde Park jest też miejscem wielu koncertów. Występowali tu m.in. The Rolling Stones (1969), King Crimson (1969), Pink Floyd (1970), Roy Harper (1971), The Who (1973), Queen (1976), Eric Clapton (1996), Bon Jovi (2003, 2011), Red Hot Chili Peppers (2004), Live 8 (2005), Depeche Mode (2006) i Madonna (2012). +30 lipca 1991 na bezpłatny koncert tenora Luciano Pavarottiego przyszło 100000 osób. +Lista gniazd procesorowych + +Lista socketów (gniazd procesorowych) i slotów. +W celu ułatwienia montażu/demontażu komputerów do ich budowy stosuje się konstrukcje modułowe. Elementy łączone są ze sobą poprzez różnego rodzaju złącza. Dotyczy to również procesorów (wczesne modele płyt PC x286, x386 często posiadały procesory wlutowywane na stałe). Począwszy od generacji x386 standardem stało się stosowanie różnego rodzaju gniazd (ang. socket) i listw połączeniowych (ang. slot). Początkowo producenci produkowali procesory pasujące do wspólnego typu gniazd, jednak szybko nastąpił podział i każdy z nich zaczął stosować własne rozwiązania. +Producent (biologia) + +Producent w biologii – organizm wytwarzający związki pokarmowe z prostych substancji nieorganicznych. Producenci to organizmy samożywne (rośliny zielone i niektóre prokarionty bądź protisty), które z prostych związków nieorganicznych wytwarzają złożone związki organiczne (cukry), dzięki energii promieniowania słonecznego w procesie fotosyntezy (fotoautotrofy) lub energii utleniania w procesie chemosyntezy (chemoautotrofy). +Suvla + +Suvla to zatoka znajdująca się na połwyspie Gallipoli w Turcji na brzegu morza Egejskiego. 6 sierpnia 1915 wylądował tam brytyjski IX Korpus w ramach ofensywy sierpniowej w czasie kampanii o Gallipoli. +Jędrzej Kitowicz + +Jędrzej Kitowicz (ur. jesienią 1727 - 26 października albo w listopadzie lub 1 grudnia 1728 prawdopodobnie w Wielkopolsce, zm. 3 kwietnia 1804 w Rzeczycy) – polski historyk, pamiętnikarz, ksiądz. +Życie. +Stan urodzenia nie jest pewny. Według historyka literatury Romana Pollaka pochodził z rodziny mieszczańskiej. Uczył się w Warszawie. Pracował w służbie dygnitarzy kościelnych i świeckich. +W 1768 zaciągnął do konfederatów barskich. Walczył pod Ignacym Skarbkiem-Malczewskim koło Radomia, pod Częstochową. W Wielkopolsce (w stopniu rotmistrza) był sekretarzem marszałka Józefa Zaremby. +Dosłużył się urzędu sekretarza u pisarza wielkiego, referendarza koronnego Michała Lipskiego opata benedyktynów lubińskich. Pozostawał w służbie biskupa kujawskiego Antoniego Ostrowskiego (późniejszego prymasa), "zajmował się rachunkami w dobrach biskupich". +Dzieła. +Jest autorem dwóch niedokończonych dzieł, które pisał w Rzeczycy prawdopodobnie na podstawie wcześniejszych notatek i obserwacji Trybunałów w Piotrkowie. "Opis obyczajów za panowania Augusta III" był pierwszą próbą syntetycznego ujęcia obyczajowości epoki saskiej w Polsce; "Pamiętniki, czyli Historia polska" (częściowo wydane być może w wersji zniekształconej przez wydawcę w 1840, w całości w 1971) stanowiły kronikę lat 1743-1798, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem konfederacji barskiej. Prace Kitowicza, szczególnie "Opis obyczajów", mają zarówno wartość literacką, jak i historyczną. Jego sądy o czasach mu współczesnych były bardzo krytyczne i bardzo bogate w szczegóły. Wypowiadał się przeciwko Stanisławowi Augustowi i jego obozowi. Do ostatnich jego prac należy obraz statystyczny Polski w 1790. "Jest on w rubrykach ułożony, wykazujący obszerność ziemi, ilość miast i wsi, dymów wiejskich i miejskich, oraz ludności, podatków czyli przychodu i wydatków". +W Bibliotece Kórnickiej zachowała się korespondencja, jaką prowadził w sztabie Józefa Zaremby, którego był sekretarzem. +PWS-5 + +PWS-5 (PWS-7) – polski samolot towarzyszący. Opracowany i zbudowany w 1928 roku w Podlaskiej Wytwórni Samolotów w Białej Podlaskiej. +Historia. +Na przełomie 1927/1928 roku inżynierowie Aleksander Grzędzielski i August Bobek-Zdaniewski z Podlaskiej Wytwórni Samolotów rozpoczęli projektowanie samolotu PWS-5 (początkowo oznaczono go jako PWS-7). Był to dwumiejscowy samolot w układzie dwupłata o konstrukcji drewnianej. Po zatwierdzeniu projektu w 1928 roku przystąpiono do budowy trzech prototypów, zbudowano tylko dwa. +Pierwszy prototyp został oblatany w dniu 28 grudnia 1928 roku na lotnisku fabrycznym przez pilota Franciszka Rutkowskiego. Prototyp w czasie prób samolot wykazywał dobre właściwości pilotażowe. W lutym 1929 roku oblatano drugi prototyp, w którym wprowadzono kilka zmian w stosunku do pierwszego, zmiany to polegały głównie na zmianie środka ciężkości, pozostawieniu lotek tylko na górnym płacie. Drugi prototyp oznaczono jako PWS-5a. Próby statyczne tego prototypu wykazały słabą wytrzymałość jego konstrukcji. Po jej wzmocnieniu i poddaniu go próbom w Instytucie Badań Technicznych Lotnictwa w Warszawie latem w 1929 roku, stwierdzono zmniejszenie się osiągów z powodu zwiększania masy własnej. Mimo podejmowanych w wytwórni dalszych prób jego poprawy, ostatecznie zakończonych w listopadzie 1929 roku, nie uzyskano radykalnej poprawy osiągów prototypu. +Pomimo tego Departament Aeronautyki Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych (dowództwo polskiego lotnictwa wojskowego) zamówił niewielką serię 5 samolotów tego typu. Samoloty te oznaczono jako PWS-5t2 ((litera „t” była skrótem od wyrazu towarzyszący, cyfra „2” oznaczała liczbę załogi). Samoloty ten miał możliwość składania skrzydeł i mieścił się w bramce o szerokości 2 m i wysokości 2,7 m. +W sumie do końca 1929 roku zbudowano wszystkie 5 egzemplarzy seryjnych, a łączna produkcja tych samolotów wyniosła 7. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +W 1930 roku samoloty PWS-5t2 zostały przekazane po jednym egzemplarzu do różnych jednostek, m.in. do 63 eskadry obserwacyjnej we Lwowie i Rzecznej Eskadry w Pińsku. W jednostkach liniowych były eksploatowane krótko, ponieważ ich własności lotne były nie najlepsze. Samoloty wycofano i skierowano do szkół lotniczych, gdzie służyły jeszcze przez kilka lat do holowania rękawów i szkolenia strzelców pokładowych. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot PWS-5 był dwumiejscowym samolotem towarzyszącym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji drewnianej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd – jeden silnik gwiazdowy, śmigło dwułopatowe początkowo drewniane. +Elektromiografia + +Elektromiografia (EMG) – diagnostyka czynności elektrycznej mięśni i nerwów obwodowych (elektroneurografia) za pomocą urządzenia wzmacniającego potencjały bioelektryczne mięśni i nerwów – elektromiografu. Elektromiografia jest podstawowym badaniem dodatkowym służącym do rozpoznawania chorób obwodowego układu nerwowego oraz mięśni (pozwala ocenić m.in. ich zdolność do pracy). +Aparat EMG czyli elektromiograf służy także często również do badania potencjałów wywołanych. +Przed badaniem można spożywać normalnie posiłki, leki powinno się przyjmować według wskazań. Należy poinformować lekarza o przyjmowaniu leków przeciwkrzepliwych takich jak: acenokumarol, warfaryna, heparyna, aspiryna lub jeśli łatwo tworzą się siniaki. +Po badaniu można wrócić do sali szpitalnej lub pójść do domu o ile lekarz nie zaleci inaczej. Może być odczuwalna niewielka tkliwość mięśnia, który był badany, ale powinna ustąpić po kilku godzinach. Mięśnie mogą być bolesne od 1 do 3 dni. +Można odczuwać osłabienie w nogach, ramionach, rękach lub w mięśniach twarzy (badanie pozwala stwierdzić czy osłabienie jest spowodowane chorobą mięśni, nerwów czy też połączeń nerwowo-mięśniowych). +III/1 Dywizjon Myśliwski + +III Dywizjon Myśliwski 1 Pułku Lotniczego (III/1 dm) - pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +III Dywizjon Myśliwski sformowany został w 1921, w składzie 1 Pułku Lotniczego. Stacjonował w garnizonie Warszawa. Początkowo na lotnisku mokotowskim, a później na lotnisku Okęcie. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 dywizjon walczył w składzie Brygady Pościgowej. Do 3 września operował z lotniska polowego Zielonka. 4 września przeniósł się na lotnisko polowe Zaborów. +Wyposażenie. +Dywizjon uzbrojony był w 18 samolotów myśliwskich PZL P.11c i 4 samoloty myśliwskie PZL P.11a z czego 12 samolotów PZL P.11c w 111 Eskadrze Myśliwskiej (w tym samolot dowódcy dywizjonu i oficera taktycznego) oraz 6 samolotów PZL P.11c i 4 samoloty PZL P.11a w 112 Eskadrze Myśliwskiej. +Program Mariner + +Program Mariner (pl. "Żeglarz") — program misji amerykańskich sond kosmicznych przeznaczonych do prowadzenia badań Merkurego, Wenus i Marsa. +Program Mariner został zapoczątkowany przez NASA w 1960 roku i realizowany był przez Jet Propulsion Laboratory. W latach 1962 - 1973 zostało wysłanych łącznie 10 sond Mariner, spośród których 3 uległy zniszczeniu lub awarii podczas startu. Sondy Mariner dokonały pierwszych udanych przelotów obok najbliższych Ziemi planet i wykonały pierwsze fotografie z bliska powierzchni Marsa i Merkurego. Mariner 9 stał się pierwszym sztucznym satelitą innej planety. Mariner 10 wykonał pierwszy manewr wspomagania grawitacyjnego. +Całkowity koszt misji sond programu Mariner wyniósł około 554 milionów dolarów amerykańskich. +Jedi + +Jedi () – w świecie "Gwiezdnych wojen" starożytny zakon, skupiający "wrażliwych na Moc" (ang. "Force Sensitive"), czyli istoty, w których organizmach występuje nadnaturalne stężenie midichlorianów. Midichloriany są nanoorganizmami występującymi w każdym żywym organizmie, pozwalającymi mu na odczuwanie Mocy. +W Zakonie Jedi wielką uwagę przywiązuje się do umiejętności panowania nad swymi emocjami, ponieważ niektóre z nich prowadzą na ciemną stronę Mocy – upadek dla Jedi. Głównymi wrogami Jedi na przestrzeni dziejów byli wywodzący się z łona Zakonu Lordowie Sithów, posługujący się i służący Ciemnej Stronie Mocy. +Rolą Rycerzy Jedi w galaktyce jest utrzymywanie pokoju w Republice Galaktycznej. +Ich zadaniem jest także zniszczenie Sithów. +Historia Zakonu. +Nie jest wiadome, kto pierwszy zdał sobie sprawę z istnienia Mocy, ani jaka organizacja dała początek Zakonowi. Niektórzy utrzymują, że Zakon Jedi wywodzi się z planety Tython (na której czczona była pozytywna energia wszechświata pod nazwą "Ashla"), inni – że od Zakonu Dai Bendu czy Akademii Chatos. Wszystkie te twierdzenia są jednak opartymi na historycznych przesłankach domysłami, a wspomniane grupy czy organizacje pamiętane są jedynie z nazwy i legend oraz podań ludowych. +Wiadomym jest, iż na historii Jedi w znaczący sposób zaważyło rozpowszechnienie wynalazku hipernapędu – dzięki niemu najwybitniejsi kapłani, filozofowie jak i wojownicy z dziesiątek światów mieli w końcu możliwość porównywać i wymieniać gromadzone przez siebie informacje o mistycznej sile, którą później nazwano Mocą. Działania te stopniowo kładły podwaliny pod to, co nazwano później Zakonem Jedi. +Nie jest również znane miejsce, z którego wziął swój początek Zakon – pośród kandydatów są owiane aurą tajemnicy, legendarne i zapomniane planety takie jak Had Abbadon czy Ondos. Są również miejsca znane galaktyce – Utapau, Coruscant, Corellia czy Ossus. Dawni mentorzy zakładali liczne akademie na różnych planetach, biblioteki, w których gromadzono w woluminach rosnącą wiedzę o Mocy. +Początkowo Zakon miał raczej naturę filozoficzno-medytacyjną – członkowie nabywali coraz to nowych umiejętności, zdając sobie sprawę z możliwości, jakie oferuje im Moc. Wsłuchując się w jej wolę, Jedi coraz intensywniej angażowali się w życie społeczne galaktyki, stając się z czasem Strażnikami Pokoju i Sprawiedliwości i pomagając w budowie galaktycznej cywilizacji. +Na kilka tysięcy lat przed "" miała w Zakonie miejsce Wielka Schizma. W jej wyniku część zaprzedanych ciemnej stronie Jedi odłączyła się od zakonu i przejęła władzę nad Imperium Sithów, dając początek stronnictwu Sithów. +Po dojściu do władzy Imperatora Palpatine'a w roku 19 BBY Jedi niemal wyginęli z powodu urządzonego przez niego programu systematycznej eksterminacji wszystkich członków Zakonu, stanowiących zagrożenie dla jego imperium terroru. Kluczowym elementem planu Palpatine'a był Darth Vader – upadły Rycerz Jedi, znany niegdyś jako Anakin Skywalker. +Jednymi z nielicznych, którzy przeżyli, byli Obi-Wan Kenobi, Quinlan Vos oraz Yoda. Za sprawą Luke'a Skywalkera, syna Anakina Skywalkera, zakon odrodził się, a następnie rozwinął w formie nieco odmiennej od znanej z czasów schyłku Starej Republiki. Jednak żaden Jedi nie zdołał już osiągnąć takich umiejętności manipulacji i posługiwania się Mocą, jak Jedi z okresu Starej Republiki, jak Darth Revan czy Bastila Shan. +Kodeks. +Jedi powinien żyć w pokoju ze swoimi emocjami i nie dawać się im kierować. Powinien dążyć do poszerzania swojej wiedzy. Powinien unikać przywiązań, które uniemożliwiają mu pełne oddanie się słuchaniu Mocy. Powinien również strzec życia innych istot, w szczególności tych rozumnych. +Kodeks w tej formie został zapisany przez legendarnego mistrza Jedi Odan-Urra i był przekazywany przez setki lat. W późniejszym okresie usunięto jednak z niego czwartą linię. +Symbole. +Główną bronią Rycerzy Jedi był miecz świetlny – broń wymagająca długich treningów do jej pełnego opanowania, mająca również charakter mistyczny. Miecz był równocześnie symbolem członków Zakonu. +Często stosowanym przez Jedi znakiem był starożytny symbol Bendu, przypominający ośmiopromienne słońce. Oznaczał on mistyczną jedność Galaktyki w Mocy i bywał używany do oznaczania miejsc, pojazdów i przedmiotów wykorzystywanych przez Jedi – widniał na przykład na ich myśliwcach. W okresie schyłku Republiki i podczas Wojen Klonów symbol ten zaadaptowany został przez Wielką Armię Republiki jako znak rozpoznawczy republikańskich jednostek wojskowych. Po stworzeniu Imperium, Palpatine zbezcześcił ten znak przez usunięcie z niego dwóch promieni i wykorzystał jako oficjalne godło swojego Imperium. +Rangi. +Uczeń. +Podczas pierwszego etapu szkolenia na Jedi kandydat nie posiadał określonej rangi – był określany jako uczeń, adept lub młodzik. Kiedy dorósł i został wyszkolony na tyle, by rozpocząć okres terminowania u konkretnego nauczyciela, mógł zostać przez niego wybrany i wtedy był mianowany Padawanem. Zazwyczaj musiał przejść parę prób, po których Rada Jedi decydowała, czy ma zostać w zakonie. +Mogło zdarzyć się jednak, że późno odnaleziony uczeń od razu stawał się Padawanem konkretnego Rycerza lub Mistrza, tak jak to było w przypadku Anakina Skywalkera. +Uczniowie byli zazwyczaj osobami w wieku od 5 do 18-19 lat. Byli szkoleni w Świątyni Jedi. Przykładowych uczniów można zobaczyć w trzeciej części filmowej adaptacji Gwiezdnych Wojen. +Padawan. +Tytuł Padawana otrzymywał uczeń, podejmujący u Rycerza lub Mistrza Jedi szkolenie, które miało doprowadzić go do rangi Rycerza. Padawani nosili krótko obcięte włosy i charakterystyczny pojedynczy warkoczyk. Do swojego mentora Padawan zwracał się tytułem mistrza, nawet jeśli nie posiadał on oficjalnie takiej rangi. Padawan niezwykle rzadko wysyłany był na samotne misje, chyba że sytuacja była naprawdę poważna. +Poza nauką umiejętności praktycznych, dyplomacji i tym podobnych, Padawan musiał podczas szkolenia przede wszystkim nauczyć się, jak realizować postanowienia Kodeksu Jedi oraz radzić sobie z ciemną stroną Mocy. Aby stać się Rycerzem Jedi, Padawan musiał ukończyć szkolenie u swojego mistrza i przejść odpowiednią ilość prób. Próby te nie były tylko formalne. Często rozumiano w ten sposób wydarzenia bezpośrednio dotyczące Padawana i jego życia, z którymi musiał sobie poradzić. Najczęściej ostateczna próba wiązała się ze stanięciem wobec wyjątkowo silnej pokusy lub ataku Ciemnej Strony (np. w przypadku Obi-Wana Kenobiego za taki moment uważa się pojedynek z Darthem Maulem). Kiedy opiekun i Rada Jedi uznali, że uczeń jest gotowy, mógł zostać pasowany na Jedi. Wtedy jeden Mistrz z Rady Jedi odcinał charakterystyczny dla Padawanów warkoczyk, a uczeń stawał się pełnoprawnym członkiem Zakonu. +Rycerz Jedi. +Przyznanie tytułu Rycerza oznaczało, że dany Padawan jest już gotowy, by samodzielnie wypełniać stające przed nim zadania. Pasowanie na Rycerza kończyło trenowanie ucznia u jego mistrza, chociaż nie kończyło jego nauki jako takiej. Rycerz Jedi mógł korzystać z dostępnych zasobów Zakonu oraz samodzielnie lub w zespołach wykonywać zadania stojące przed Zakonem Jedi. Mógł również szkolić padawanów – z reguły tylko jednego na raz, aby móc poświęcić mu potrzebną ilość czasu i uwagi. Jednakże Rycerz Jedi nie musi zostać mistrzem. Dlatego wielu Jedi kończy swoją "karierę" na tym stopniu. +Mistrz Jedi. +Ten najwyższy tytuł może zostać przyznany przez Radę Jedi wyjątkowo doświadczonemu i charakteryzującemu się wysokim stopniem rozumienia Mocy Rycerzowi. Mistrzowie obdarzani są dużym szacunkiem przez innych Jedi, dwunastu spośród nich tworzy Radę Jedi – organ zarządzający działaniami całego Zakonu. Znamy kilku Mistrzów. Jest to między innymi: Yoda, Luke Skywalker i Zym. +Znani Jedi. +Ki-Adi-Mundi, Plo Koon, Qui-Gon Jinn, Yoda, Mace Windu, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Anakin Skywalker, Luke Skywalker, Dooku, Revan, Kit Fisto, Saesee Tiin, Shaak Ti, Aayla Secura, Agen Kolar, Adi Galliia, +Eeth Koth +Akcent (czasopismo) + +Akcent - czasopismo literacko-artystyczne, wydawane od 1980 w Lublinie. +Początkowo "Akcent" ukazywał się jako almanach. Po Sierpniu 1980 został zalegalizowany jako czasopismo poświęcone literaturze, sztukom plastycznym i naukom humanistycznym. W latach osiemdziesiątych na skutek restrykcji politycznych był dwukrotnie zawieszany, ale środowisku artystycznemu udawało się odzyskać tytuł w niezmienionej postaci. +Pismo analizuje głównie procesy kulturowe, jakie zachodzą na pograniczu kultur i narodowości a zainteresowanie tym tematem zainicjowało jeszcze w czasach PRL-owskiej cenzury. +Akcent był nazywany "domem najwybitniejszych śpiewających poetów" - publikowano tu utwory W. Młynarskiego oraz wysokiej próby przekłady piosenek G. Brassensa, J. Brela, B. Okudżawy, W. Wysockiego. W Akcencie debiutowało wielu młodych autorów, których nazwiska stały się głośne (m.in. P. Szewc, E. Ostrowska, M. Świetlicki, A. Niewiadomski). +"Akcent" ma też znaczący udział w popularyzacji literatury polskiej tworzonej na obczyźnie - już w latach 80. prezentowano twórczość pisarzy emigracyjnych i jej kompetentne omówienia. +Pismo prezentowało pierwsze polskie przekłady "Spotkania w Telgte" G. Grassa, "Malowanego ptaka" J. Kosińskiego, "Cementowego ogrodu" I. McEwana, "Szatańskich wersetów" S. Rushdiego, opowiadań I. B. Singera. +Co pewien czas "Akcent" publikuje blok tekstów poświęconych jednemu tematowi, problemowi czy osobie, np.: "Dziecko i świat", "Samobójcy i inni", "Gra - temat i metoda", "Chłopi - twórcy kultury", "Powstanie warszawskie", "Węgry i o Węgrach", "Erotyka w literaturze", "Komizm, humor i groteska w kulturze Europy", "Polscy Amerykanie", "Karol Wojtyła - poeta, dramaturg, filozof", "Czytanie Ukrainy". +"Akcent" gości na swych łamach m.in. Urszulę M. Benkę, Tadeusza Chabrowskiego, Karla Dedeciusa, Michała Głowińskiego, Ryszarda Kapuścińskiego, Tadeusza Konwickiego, Istvana Kovacsa, Jacka Łukasiewicza, Danutę Mostwin, Wacława Oszajcę, Irenę Sławińską, Piotra Sommera, Andrzeja Sosnowskiego, Sergiusza Sternę-Wachowiaka, Jerzego Święcha, Bolesława Taborskiego. +Jest czasopismem niezależnym, utrzymuje się z dotacji budżetowych oraz dobrowolnych wpłat. Od początku istnienia czasopisma funkcję redaktora naczelnego sprawuje Bogusław Wróblewski. W zespole redakcyjnym znaleźć można także nazwiska prof. Moniki Adamczyk-Garbowskiej, Waldemara Michalskiego, Lechosława Lameńskiego, Bohdana Zadury. Stale współpracują m.in.: Bogusław Biela, Marek Danielkiewicz, Ewa Dunaj, Alina Kochańczyk, Łukasz Marcińczak, Eliza Leszczyńska-Pieniak, Wacław Oszajca, Jerzy Święch. +Wschodnia Fundacja Kultury "Akcent", +Biblioteka Narodowa na zlecenie Ministra Kultury. Od 1 kwietnia 2010 Instytut Książki +VI Dywizjon Bombowy Lekki + +VI Dywizjon Bombowy Lekki (II Dywizjon Liniowy) - pododdział lotnictwa Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +W kampanii wrześniowej dywizjon walczył w składzie Brygady Bombowej, operując z lotniska Nosów i posiadając na uzbrojeniu 20 samolotów PZL.23B Karaś, 2 samoloty Fokker F.VIIB/3m i 4 samoloty RWD-8. +Kiernów + +Kiernów, Kierniów ("lit. Kernavė") - miasteczko, nieduża miejscowość turystyczna na Wileńszczyźnie na Litwie nad Wilią. Znana z powodu odkryć archeologicznych i nazywana też "Litewską Troją". Dawna stolica Litwy. Położona obecnie w okręgu wileńskim, w rejonie szyrwinckim, siedziba starostwa, ok. 40 km od Wilna. +Historia. +Nazwę "Kiernów" wywodzi się z języka litewskiego. Według Balińskiego pochodzi od słów "kieras" - pień, "kiernonjej" - pień nowy. Według K. Tyszkiewicza powinno się tę nazwę tłumaczyć inaczej: "kieras" - krzew, "kieras nowas" - krzew nowy, "ikiereje" - rozgnieździł się lub wkorzenił. +Kiernów - siedziba wielkich książąt, uważany jest za najstarszą stolicę Litwy. Według legendy gród założył książę Kiernus w 1040 r. (wnuk Palemona). Tu znajdowało się też centrum religijne pogańskiej Litwy. Kiernów był stolicą do 1230 r., kiedy książę Ryngold przeniósł ją do Nowogródka. Pomimo tego gród nadal miał wielkie znaczenie, wynoszono tutaj na tron litewski wielkich książąt (w 1242 Mendoga, w 1295 jego syna Wojsiełka), tutaj odbywały się też główne narady państwa. Do czasów Giedymina był rezydencją książąt. +Gród bezskutecznie atakowali Krzyżacy w 1279 r .(w czasach Trojdena), później jeszcze w latach 1365 i 1390. W 1321 Giedymin przeniósł stolicę do Trok, a później do Wilna. W Kiernowie schronił się podobno arcykapłan pogańskiej Litwy Lizdejko. Za czasów Władysława Jagiełły Kiernów był jeszcze udzielnym księstwem we władaniu Aleksandra Wigunta, syna Olgierda. Po jego śmierci w 1392 został zaliczony do dóbr królewskich. Później utworzono tu starostwo. +Kościół w Kiernowie był jednym z siedmiu pierwszych na Litwie (ufundowanych w 1387 przez Władysława Jagiełłę na pamiątkę przyjęcia religii katolickiej). +Dzierżawcami Kiernowa byli potem Gasztołdowie, w 1522 r. Zygmunt I Stary oddał go za zasługi w dożywocie księciu Siemionowi Jamontowiczowi Podbereskiemu. Kolejni dzierżawcy Kiernowa: Ławryn Iwanowicz (1566), Hlebowicz (1584), Zenowicz, Skorulski, Brzozowski, starosta upitski Krzysztof Białozór, Karolina Białozór (1712), Michał Ważyński (1775), po śmierci Ważyńskiego carskim ukazem przejął Rosjanin Popow, po nim Bielińscy, wreszcie był Kiernów własnością rządową. +Zabytki. +W 2004 r. stanowisko archeologiczne w Kiernowie zostało wpisane na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +Roman Jagieliński + +Roman Jagieliński (ur. 2 stycznia 1947 w Wichradzu) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm I, II, III i IV kadencji, były wicepremier i minister rolnictwa. +Życiorys. +Ukończył w 1969 studia na Wydziale Ogrodnictwa Szkoły Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie. Prowadzi indywidualne gospodarstwo rolne w Świniokierzu Dworskim. +W latach 1970–1989 należał do Zjednoczonego Stronnictwa Ludowego, po którego rozwiązaniu w 1989 wstąpił do PSL "Odrodzenie", a następnie do jednoczącego się Polskiego Stronnictwa Ludowego, był członkiem krajowych władz tego ugrupowania. +W 1991, 1993 i 1997 uzyskiwał z listy PSL mandat posła na Sejm I, II i III kadencji. Pełnił funkcję wicepremiera i ministra rolnictwa i gospodarki żywnościowej w rządach Józefa Oleksego (od 7 marca 1995 do 7 lutego 1996) i Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza (od 7 lutego 1996 do 10 kwietnia 1997). +W 1998 odszedł z PSL, zakładając Partię Ludowo-Demokratyczną, w której objął funkcję przewodniczącego. W wyborach prezydenckich w 2000 poparł kandydaturę Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego, rok później podpisał akcesję do koalicji SLD-UP, z ramienia której w 2001 po raz czwarty został posłem z okręgu piotrkowskiego. W kwietniu 2002 wystąpił z klubu parlamentarnego SLD i współtworzył koło poselskie PLD, a w 2004 był przewodniczącym i założycielem Federacyjnego Klubu Parlamentarnego, formacji powstałej z posłów, którzy odeszli z innych ugrupowań (m.in. Samoobrony RP). W 2004 ze wspólnej listy KPEiR i PLD kandydował do Parlamentu Europejskiego. Później na bazie PLD organizował Stronnictwo Gospodarcze. +W 2005 kandydował ponownie do Sejmu z listy SLD i w 2007 do Senatu z listy koalicji Lewica i Demokraci, nie uzyskując mandatu w obu tych wyborach. W 2008 powrócił do Polskiego Stronnictwa Ludowego. +W latach 2008–2012 pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego rady głównej LZS, następnie został honorowym przewodniczącym zrzeszenia. +Francisco de Herrera (starszy) + +Francisco de Herrera, zw. El Viejo (ur. w 1576 w Sewilli, zm. w 1656 w Madrycie) – hiszpański malarz, grafik i medalier okresu baroku. +Od 1650 mieszkał w Madrycie. Był uczniem Francisca Pacheca i Luisa Fernándeza. +Malował obrazy religijne, sceny rodzajowe oraz portrety. Jego dzieła odznaczają się swobodnym malarskim stylem i efektowną inscenizacją scen. +Był nauczycielem m.in. Ignacia de Iriarte (1620–1685) oraz młodego Diega Velazqueza, który inspirował się jego portretami niewidomych grajków. +216 Eskadra Bombowa + +216 Eskadra Bombowa - pododdział lotnictwa bombowego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +Eskadra sformowana została w marcu 1939, w składzie 215 Dywizjonu Bombowego. Personel latający i techniczny eskadry stanowili lotnicy rozwiązanych: 11 i 12 Eskadry Liniowej. +W sierpniu 1939, w czasie mobilizacji alarmowej, eskadra włączona została w skład Brygady Bombowej i przemianowana na 16 Eskadrę Bombową. W składzie Brygady Bombowej walczyła w kampanii wrześniowej 1939. Stacjonowała na lotnisku Podlodów. Wyposażona była w 9 samolotów PZL.37B Łoś i 2 samoloty Fokker F.VIIB/3m +Obsada personalna we wrześniu 1939. +Dowództwo +II Dywizjon Bombowy + +II Dywizjon Bombowy Lekki - pododdział lotnictwa bombowego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +W dniach 24-26 sierpnia 1939 na lotnisku rakowickim w Krakowie przeprowadzona została mobilizacja alarmowa I Dywizjonu Liniowego 2 Pułku Lotniczego (21 i 22 Eskadra Liniowa). 26 sierpnia rzut kołowy dywizjonu wyruszył na lotnisko Sadków koło Radomia, a następnie skierowany został na lotnisko zapasowe Wsola. Tam też w dniu 31 sierpnia przybył rzut powietrzny. +31 sierpnia dywizjon przemianowany został na II Dywizjon Bombowy Lekki i podporządkowany dowódcy Brygady Bombowej, w składzie której walczył w kampanii wrześniowej. Jednostka posiadała 20 samolotów PZL.23B Karaś, dwa samoloty Fokker F.VIIB/3m i dwa samoloty RWD-8. +Michał Dziadosz + +Michał Dziadosz (ur. 19 kwietnia 1979 w Warszawie) – poeta, muzyk, autor tekstów, kompozytor, multiinstrumentalista. +Absolwent filologii polskiej na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Założyciel art-rockowego zespołu Iluzjon. W latach 1993-2001 brał udział w licznych projektach muzycznych niezależnej sceny warszawskiej, takich jak m.in.: Dym, Nediam, F.M.F. Od 1998 do 2000 współtworzył zespół Lifeline, który dał się poznać szerszej publiczności na przeglądach i festiwalach. +Obok grania w Iluzjonie, z którym wiosną 2005 wydał pierwszą oficjalną płytę pod tytułem "City Zen", wiosną 2007 "(no phantoms in)", zimą 2009 "Silent Andromeda" lideruje awangardowemu, rockowo-post-jazzowemu projektowi Unitra Brothers, ambientowemu projektowi Calma oraz nowej popowej formacji Sovy. Wiosną 2011 skomponował muzykę do serii płyt wydanych przez Polskie Radio "Bajki na dobranoc (vol 1-6)". +W twórczości Dziadosza można usłyszeć przede wszystkim rock progresywny, ambient oraz jazz. Inspirują go tacy wykonawcy jak David Sylvian, King Crimson, Brian Eno, Pink Floyd i wielu innych. +Michał Dziadosz jest także pomysłodawcą, współtwórcą i właścicielem platformy edukacyjnej Kawalery.pl. +Ernest Adam + +Ernest Adam (1868–1926) – polski polityk i finansista. +Zmarł we Lwowie, został pochowany na cmentarzu Łyczakowskim. +Wojciech Dzieduszycki (polityk) + +Wojciech Dzieduszycki (ur. 13 lipca 1848 w Jezupolu koło Stanisławowa, zm. 23 marca 1909 w Wiedniu) – polski hrabia, polityk, filozof, eseista, historyk sztuki i pisarz (dramaturg, powieściopisarz i nowelista). +Konserwatysta, jednocześnie przeciwny polityce stańczyków, właściciel dóbr Jezupol koło Stanisławowa. +Rodzina. +Był synem hrabiego Władysława herbu Sas i Antoniny z Mazarakich herbu Newlin ze Strutynia. Obydwie rodziny - ze strony ojca i matki należały do elity galicyjskiego ziemiaństwa (były już ze sobą wcześniej skoligacone - macochą hr. Władysława była Klaudia z Mazarakich, siostra jego żony Antoniny), posiadających swoje rozległe dobra w okolicach Stanisławowa, lecz mocno związanych ze Lwowem. +Wojciech Dzieduszycki ożenił się z kuzynką Seweryną hrabianką Dzieduszycką. Miał z nią m.in. syna Jakuba i córkę Antoninę (po mężu Konradową Łuszczewską). +Kariera polityczna. +Odegrał wybitną rolę w życiu politycznym zaboru austriackiego, jako jeden z przywódców partii konserwatywnej. +Wybrane publikacje. +Tłumaczył także dzieła Sofoklesa i Szekspira. +Poglądy filozoficzne. +Rozwijał wreszcie żywą działalność filozoficzną. Jako filozof pozostaje pod wpływem Kanta, ale stara się spod tego wpływu wyemancypować przy pomocy filozofii Descartesa. Używając metody psychologicznej, wychodząc od człowieka i przyjmując fakt samowiedzy jako pierwotny, dochodzi do pojęcia Boga, które później wciąga w zakres teorii poznania. Usiłuje wykazać, że istnieje ścisły związek między duchem ludzkim a Bogiem, jako niezbędnym dla człowieka warunkiem poznania siebie samego, jak i świata zewnętrznego. W poglądach poznawczych hrabiego Dzieduszyckiego wyróżnić można szereg różnych pierwiastków, jak racjonalny, empiryczny, intuicyjny i pragmatyczny. Był znakomitym mówcą i prelegentem. +Taktowanie + +Taktowanie – sposób sterowania pracą układów cyfrowych, polegający na dostarczeniu przez zegar sygnału elektrycznego (w założeniu zwykle prostokątnego) o określonej częstotliwości (częstotliwość taktowania). +Układy takie (np. mikroprocesory, kości pamięci) wykonują jedną podstawową, jednostkową operację za każdym razem kiedy dotrze do nich impuls taktujący. Tak więc np. procesor taktowany częstotliwością 1 GHz wykonuje 1 miliard podstawowych operacji w ciągu sekundy (taka pojedyncza operacja nie powinna być mylona z wykonaniem pojedynczego rozkazu, gdyż zwykle w celu wykonania jednego rozkazu procesor musi wykonać kilka operacji, w związku z czym wykonanie rozkazu zajmuje kilka taktów). +W ostatnich czasach wprowadzono technologie - takie jak DDR i QDR - które umożliwiają pracę dwukrotnie, a nawet czterokrotnie szybszą niż wynosi częstotliwość taktowania - dzięki temu, że operacje wykonywane są nie tylko w czasie narastania sygnału taktującego (na zboczu rosnącym), ale także w czasie jego opadania (na zboczu opadającym), a nawet "na wierzchu" i "na spodzie" sygnału taktującego. +Meru (wulkan) + +Meru – aktywny wulkan w Tanzanii, ok. 70 km na zachód od Kilimandżaro. Wysokość 4566 m n.p.m., wschodnia część stożka w znacznym stopniu zniszczona, najprawdopodobniej w wyniku odległego w czasie wybuchu podobnego do tego, który zniszczył St. Helens w stanie Waszyngton w 1980. Ostatnie przejawy aktywności wulkanu Meru zaobserwowano około roku 1900; wokół głównego wulkanu występują też ślady starszych erupcji w postaci mniejszych kraterów. +Meru znajduje się w środku tanzańskiego Narodowego Parku Arusha, żyzne wulkaniczne popioły otaczające wulkan wpłynęły na rozwój tutejszej sawanny i lasów, w których występuje około 400 gatunków różnych ptaków, a także małpy i drapieżne koty. +Pierwszego wejścia na szczyt dokonał Fritz Jäger w 1904 r. +Przeistoczenie (Świat Mroku) + +Przeistoczenie w systemie RPG Świat Mroku to zespół zjawisk jakie następują podczas stwarzania nowego wampira. +W termin używany przez wampiry określający mistyczne przejście ze świata żywych do świata nieumarłych. Przeistoczenie następuje w chwili śmierci człowieka, któremu po osuszeniu z własnej krwi wampir mający zostać Ojcem pozwala napić się kilku kropel swojej krwi. +21 Eskadra Bombowa Lekka + +21 (1) Eskadra Bombowa - pododdział lotnictwa bombowego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W dniach 24-26 sierpnia 1939 przeprowadzona została mobilizacja alarmowa 21 Eskadry Liniowej. 26 sierpnia jej rzut kołowy wyruszył na lotnisko Sadków koło Radomia, a następnie skierowany został na lotnisko zapasowe Wsola. Tam też w dniu 31 sierpnia przybył rzut powietrzny. +31 sierpnia eskadra przemianowana została na 21 Eskadrę Bombową i podporządkowana dowódcy Brygady Bombowej, w składzie której walczyła kampanii wrześniowej. Wraz z 22 Eskadrą Liniową (przemianowaną na 21 Eskadrę Bombową) tworzyła II Dywizjon Bombowy Lekki. Jednostka posiadała 10 samolotów PZL.23B Karaś, 1 samolot Fokker F.VIIB/3m i 1 samolot RWD-8. +Lotniskowce typu Essex + +Lotniskowce typu Essex były podstawowymi dużymi lotniskowcami floty amerykańskiej podczas II wojny światowej. Ogółem wprowadzono do służby 24 jednostki tego typu, z budowy 8 kolejnych jednostek zrezygnowano po zakończeniu wojny. W trakcie budowy okręty były nieustannie ulepszane, z reguły przez rozbudowę artylerii przeciwlotniczej. +Okręty typu dzieli się na 10 lotniskowców podstawowego typu "Essex" i 14 ulepszonego typu, traktowanego czasem jako osobny typ "Ticonderoga". Pierwsze lotniskowce typu "Essex" weszły do służby w roku 1943. 14 okrętów zdążyło wziąć udział w walkach II wojny światowej na Pacyfiku. W trakcie walk kilka z nich zostało ciężko uszkodzonych przez ataki japońskich kamikaze, ale żaden z nich nie zatonął. Wynikało to po części z ich konstrukcji, w której hangar nie stanowił integralnej części kadłuba a jedynie lekką nadbudówkę nad pokładem. Właściwe opancerzenie znajdowało się pod hangarami – takie rozwiązanie chroniło żywotne części okrętu przed uderzeniem bomb, jednak po każdorazowym trafieniu okręty były ciężko uszkodzone. +Po wojnie większość okrętów klasy pozostała w służbie czynnej. 14 z nich poważnie zmodyfikowano według programów SCB 27C i SCB 125, by umożliwić przenoszenie samolotów odrzutowych – poza wymianą wyposażenia zmiany polegały przede wszystkim na wzmocnieniu wytrzymałości pokładów i katapult oraz poszerzeniu pokładu do lądowania i odchyleniu go w kierunku lewej burty. Trzy okręty przebudowano w latach 60. na śmigłowcowce desantowe, przystosowane do przenoszenia 40 śmigłowców i zakwaterowania 1650 żołnierzy desantu (USS "Boxer", "Princeton" i "Valley Forge"). Większość jednostek wycofano ze służby na przełomie lat 60. i 70. Lotniskowiec "Lexington" służył jako okręt szkolny aż do 1991. +Cztery okręty tej klasy zachowano jako okręty muzealne: USS "Yorktown" w Charleston, USS "Lexington" w Corpus Christi, USS "Intrepid" w Nowym Jorku i USS "Hornet" w Alameda, niedaleko San Francisco w Kalifornii. USS "Oriskany" został zatopiony 17 maja 2006 u brzegów Florydy, aby stworzyć sztuczną rafę na głębokości 65 m dostępną dla płetwonurków. +211 Eskadra Bombowa + +211 Eskadra Bombowa - jednostka Brygady Bombowej we wrześniu 1939. +Historia. +W Wojnie Obronnej Polski w 1939 roku eskadra walczyła w składzie 210 Dywizjonu Brygady Bombowej. +Bogdan Bujak + +Bogdan Tadeusz Bujak (ur. 14 lipca 1954 w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm II, III i IV kadencji. +Życiorys. +W 1982 ukończył studia na Wydziale Mechaniczny Politechniki Łódzkiej. Pracował jako planista i mechanik, potem prowadził własną działalność gospodarczą. +Od 1976 do rozwiązania należał do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. Od 1978 do 1980 był instruktorem w Komitecie Wojewódzkim PZPR. W 1993 i 1997 uzyskiwał mandat poselski. Po raz trzeci został wybrany w 2001 z ramienia Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej w okręgu piotrkowskim liczbą 9164 głosów. W IV kadencji był członkiem Komisji śledczej w sprawie PKN Orlen. +Bezskutecznie ubiegał się o mandat parlamentarzysty w 2005, 2007 i 2011 oraz radnego powiatowego w 2006. Po odejściu z parlamentu podjął pracę w prywatnych spółkach. +64 Eskadra Bombowa + +64 Eskadra Bombowa - jednostka Brygady Bombowej we wrześniu 1939. +Wskaźnik saprobowości + +Wskaźnik saprobowości określa poziom zanieczyszczenia wód martwą materią organiczną lub produktami jej gnilnego rozkładu. +Termin saprobowość pochodzi od greckiego słowa „sapros”, czyli gnilny. Jego definicję po raz pierwszy podali Prag (1966) oraz Caspers i Karbe (1966); była ona oparta o przemiany mikrobiologiczne zachodzące w zanieczyszczonych wodach. +Saprobowość jest sumą wszystkich procesów rozkładu materii dostarczających wolnej energii. Można ją ocenić za pomocą dynamiki przemian dysymilacyjnych, intensywności poboru tlenu lub składu biocenozy i jest w tym ujęciu procesem przeciwstawnym produkcji pierwotnej. Saprobowość jest zatem tym wyższa, im większe jest zanieczyszczenie wody. +Sukcesywny wzrost saprobowosci, powoduje liczebną przewagę destruentów nad innymi ugrupowaniami w biocenozie. Odwrotnie, samooczyszczanie prowadzące do zmniejszania saprobowości, prowadzi do stałego zwiększania się udziału producentów. +Strefy saprobowe w zasadzie odpowiadały klasom czystości wód klasyfikacji trójstopniowej. +113 Eskadra Myśliwska + +113 Eskadra Myśliwska – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Eskadra sformowana została latem 1934 na lotnisku Okęcie, w składzie IV Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego 1 Pułku Lotniczego. Do eskadry wcielono część pilotów i personelu naziemnego 113 Eskadry Myśliwskiej Nocnej, która w tym samym czasie przekształcona została w jednostkę doświadczalną II linii. Godło 113 Eskadry Myśliwskiej – "puchacz" nawiązywało do 113 Eskadry Myśliwskiej Nocnej. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 eskadra walczyła w składzie Brygady Pościgowej, operując z lotniska polowego Poniatów. Eskadra posiadała 5 samolotów PZL P.11c i 5 samolotów PZL P.11a (z czego 5 wyposażonych było w radiostację). +Kadra eskadry. +Dowódcy eskadry +Personel 113 em w kampanii wrześniowej 1939 +Zwycięstwa pilotów 113 em. +"wg Biura Historycznego Lotnictwa w Londynie:" +1.9.1939 +6.9.1939 +17-18.9.1939 - ewakuacja do Rumunii +Eskadra w wyniku działań bojowych straciła 7 samolotów. +Zatoka Anzac + +Zatoka Anzac (ang. "Anzac Cove") – mała (ok. 600 m długości) zatoka znajdująca się na półwyspie Gallipoli w Turcji, miejsce sławego desantu żołnierzy ANZAC 25 kwietnia 1915 roku. W czasie kampanii o Gallipoli przez 8 miesięcy stanowiła główna bazę dla żołnierzy australijskich i nowozelandzkich. +Rząd turecki oficjalnie uznał nazwę "Anzac Cove" w rocznicę lądowania w 1985 roku. Do 1999 coroczne apele "Anzac Day" odbywały się na cmentarzu wojskowym w Ari Burnu. Od 2000, kiedy na tę rocznicę przyjeżdża coraz więcej osób, uroczystości odbywają się na "Północnej Plaży" przy pomniku "Anzac Commemorative Site". +Paul Louis Héroult + +Paul Louis Héroult (ur. 10 kwietnia 1863, zm. 9 maja 1914) – francuski metalurg, wynalazca i przemysłowiec. +Zbudował między innymi elektryczny piec łukowy (tzw. piec Héroulta), co umożliwiło mu opracowanie metody produkcji żelazochromu i żelazowolframu. +Państwo suskie + +Państwo suskie – historyczne latyfundium obejmujące znaczne obszary ziemskie w okolicach obecnej Suchej Beskidzkiej. +Historia. +Na przełomie XVI i XVII wieku Sucha wraz z okolicznymi osadami została wykupiona przez właścicieli Żywiecczyzny - rodzinę Komorowskich. Po śmierci Krzysztofa Komorowskiego, głowy rodu, stworzone przez niego wielkie latyfundium beskidzkie podzielono w 1608 r. na trzy odrębne dominia. Jedno z nich – dominium suskie z centrum w zamku w Suchej – objął syn Krzysztofa, Piotr Komorowski. +Obejmowało teren o powierzchni ok. 140 km² i liczyło wówczas łącznie 275 domów. +Po bezpotomnej śmierci Piotra Komorowskiego w 1640 r. państwo suskie odziedziczył jego bratanek Krzysztof, syn Mikołaja Komorowskiego. Niespodziewana śmierć Krzysztofa w 1647 r. pozostawiła majątek bez męskiego dziedzica. Małoletnia w chwili śmierci ojca córka Krzysztofa, Konstancja Krystyna, wniosła w 1665 r. państwo suskie w wianie małżeńskim Janowi Wielopolskiemu, kanclerzowi wielkiemu koronnemu, dziedzicowi m.in. Pieskowej Skały. Podział dóbr Jana Wielopolskiego w 1688 r. między jego spadkobierców uczynił właścicielem dóbr suskich (wraz z Pieskową Skałą i Bobrkiem pod Oświęcimiem) Jana II Wielopolskiego. +Ostatnim dziedzicem państwa suskiego z rodu Wielopolskich był Jan Kanty Wielopolski, syn Józefa. W I połowie XIX w. Galicja należała do najbardziej zacofanych terenów cesarstwa austriackiego. Ponieważ dobra suskie nie przynosiły spodziewanych, pewnych dochodów dla swych właścicieli, w 1839 r. zostały wydzierżawione na 12 lat Ludwikowi Filipowi de Saint-Genois, właścicielowi pobliskiego Makowa. +Jeszcze przed wygaśnięciem dzierżawy Wielopolski latach 1843-46 sprzedał swe suskie włości wraz z zamkiem w Suchej Aleksandrowi Branickiemu. Branicki przejął majątek ostatecznie w roku 1851, po ustąpieniu dzierżawcy tych terenów, Ludwika Filipa de Saint-Genois. +Ostatni z Branickich, hr. Władysław Branicki, zmarł w 1914 r., pozostawiając majątek w rękach żony, Julii z Potockich i córki Anny, zamężnej za Juliuszem Tarnowskim z Końskich. I wojna światowa, której fronty wprawdzie nie dotarły do Suchej, przyniosła jednak kilkuletni okres dość rabunkowej gospodarki i w rezultacie upadek gospodarczy majątku. Najcenniejsze zbiory i dokumenty rodzinne Branickich wywieziono do Wiednia, a w samym zamku (zgodnie z życzeniem właścicieli) urządzono wielki szpital wojskowy. W międzyczasie (1917) zmarł Juliusz Tarnowski. Po odzyskaniu niepodległości Anna z Branickich Tarnowska wróciła do Suchej z Końskich, gdzie spędzała wojnę w rodowym majątku Tarnowskich. Z czasem suskim majątkiem zaczął zarządzać syn Anny i Juliusza, Juliusz Tarnowski, który władał nimi fizycznie do września 1939 r., kiedy to wyemigrował do Francji. Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej nieruchomości wchodzące w skład suskiego majątku Tarnowskich (ziemie uprawne, lasy, obiekty gospodarcze, kompleks zamkowy w Suchej i in.) zostały upaństwowione. +Wskaźniki jakości wód + +Wskaźniki jakości wód – wskaźniki określające stan jakościowy wód, tj. ilość i rodzaje zawartych w wodzie zanieczyszczeń oraz kondycję biocenoz wodnych. +Wyróżnia się wskaźniki fizyczne, chemiczne i biologiczne. Zgodnie z Ramową Dyrektywą Wodną wskaźniki biologiczne stosowane są do szczegółowego określania stanu ekologicznego wód powierzchniowych, podczas gdy pozostałe wskaźniki (fizyczno-chemiczne, hydromorfologiczne) mają wartość pomocniczą. Przy ustalaniu stanu chemicznego lub sanitarnego brane pod uwagę są nieco inne grupy wskaźników. +Wskaźniki fizyczno-chemiczne. +Wskaźniki fizyczne to temperatura, zapach, smak, mętność, przezroczystość, barwa wody. +Wskaźniki chemiczne to m.in. odczyn wody, utlenialność, twardość wody, zasadowość, kwasowość, poziom substancji biogennych (zwłaszcza związków azotu i fosforu), chlorków, siarczanów, żelaza, rozpuszczonego tlenu, ChZT, dwutlenku węgla, metali ciężkich. +Wskaźniki biologiczne. +Wskaźniki biologiczne stosowane w monitoringu wód dawniej stosowane były przede wszystkim do określania warunków sanitarnych – np. miano Coli, wskaźnik saprobowości, indeks saprobów, BZT. Dla celów naukowych (np. paleoekologicznych) naukowcy opracowali liczne wskaźniki trofii, odczynu, zasolenia i in., np. współczynniki fitoplanktonowe, polski indeks biotyczny. +Wskaźniki pozostałych elementów biologicznych (makrobezkręgowców bentosowych, ichtiofauny i makrofitów morskich w momencie wydawania odpowiedniego rozporządzenia ministra były nieustalone. +Wskaźniki biologiczne stosowane w Polsce przy ocenie wód pitnych to miano mikroorganizmów różnego typu: bakterii z grupy coli, bakterii z grupy coli typu kałowego, paciorkowców kałowych i bakterii z rodzaju "Salmonella". +Dzień Edukacji Narodowej + +Dzień Edukacji Narodowej – polskie święto oświaty i szkolnictwa wyższego ustanowione 27 kwietnia 1972 r. określone ustawą – "Karta praw i obowiązków nauczyciela" jako Dzień Nauczyciela. Od 1982, na mocy ustawy – "Karta Nauczyciela" obchodzone jako Dzień Edukacji Narodowej. +Upamiętnia rocznicę powstania Komisji Edukacji Narodowej (KEN), która została utworzona z inicjatywy króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego i zalegalizowana przez Sejm Rozbiorowy w dniu 14 października 1773 r. Potocznie, dzień ten nadal zwany jest Dniem Nauczyciela i nie jest dniem wolnym od pracy. +Rys historyczny. +Historia Dnia Nauczyciela w Polsce ma swoje początki w 1957 r. Podczas Światowej Konferencji Nauczycielskiej w Warszawie ustalono, że 20 listopada będzie Międzynarodowym Dniem "Karty Nauczyciela" i świętem nauczycieli. Konferencja została zorganizowana przez Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego (ZNP). Ustawa z dnia 27 kwietnia 1972 r. zwana "Kartą praw i obowiązków nauczyciela", wprowadziła Dzień Nauczyciela, obchodzony w rocznicę powołania Komisji Edukacji Narodowej. W 1982 r. "Kartę praw i obowiązków nauczyciela" zastępuje "Karta Nauczyciela" zmieniając nazwę święta na Dzień Edukacji Narodowej oraz wprowadzając zapis o treści - "Dzień ten uznaje się za święto wszystkich pracowników oświaty" (...). +Obchody święta w Polsce. +Dzień Edukacji Narodowej jest uroczyście obchodzony w instytucjach związanych z oświatą. Jest okazją do nagradzania wyróżniających się dla niej nauczycieli i pracowników niepedagogicznych. Minister Edukacji Narodowej wręcza nauczycielom złote, srebrne, brązowe Krzyże Zasługi, medale Komisji Edukacji Narodowej oraz nagrody Ministra Edukacji Narodowej za osiągnięcia dydaktyczno-wychowawcze. Odznaczenia i wyróżnienia dla nauczycieli wręczane są przez kuratorów oświaty, władze samorządowe oraz dyrektorów szkół na uroczystych galach. +Dzień Nauczyciela na świecie. +W jednych państwach ma on charakter oficjalny, w innych zwyczajowy. Dzień ten, podobnie jak w Polsce, związany jest z lokalnymi wydarzeniami. +Światowy Dzień Nauczyciela. +Światowy Dzień Nauczyciela (ang. "World Teacher's Day") pod patronatem UNESCO obchodzony jest w dniu 5 października. Dzień ten proklamowany został w 1994 r., na pamiątkę podpisania w 1966 r. „Rekomendacji w sprawie statusu nauczyciela”, opracowanej przez UNESCO i Międzynarodową Organizację Pracy. Jest okazją do podkreślenia wiodącej roli nauczycieli, w zapewnieniu najwyższej jakości edukacji na wszystkich poziomach nauczania. +W Polsce, od 1997 roku, 5 października również jest obchodzony Światowy Dzień Nauczyciela, przez nauczycieli reprezentujących sektor nauki i szkolnictwa wyższego. +X Dywizjon Bombowy + +X Dywizjon Bombowy - jednostka Brygady Bombowej we wrześniu 1939. +Galindo (hrabia Aragonii) + +Galindo Garcés (zm. 844) – hrabia Aragonii od 833 r. do śmierci, syn oraz sukcesor Garcii I Galindeza z Pampeluny (hrabiego Aragonii w latach 820-833). Był wnukiem Galindo Belascotenesa i prawnukiem Belasco, hrabiego Pampeluny w latach 799-812. +Nie zostawił po sobie potomków, więc hrabstwo przeszło na jego kuzyna, Galinda I Aznáreza, który wcześniej był hrabią Urgell i Cerdanyi (830-833) oraz Pallars i Ribagorzy (833-834). +Niebiański Chór + +Niebiański Chór jest fikcyjną magów z gry fabularnej . +Magowie tej Tradycji wyznają gnostycki pogląd, że istnieje tylko jeden Bóg - Absolut. Chórzyści wierzą, że różne wyznania to tylko różne ścieżki wiodące do tego samego Najwyższego, a bogowie - czy to monoteistyczni czy politeistyczni - są tylko Jego maskami, które nałożyli Mu wierni, by pojąć dany aspekt Absolutu. Pojęcie bogów jako masek wywodzi się wprawdzie hinduskiej tradycji Wedanty, ale została również przejęta przez Gnostyków. +Choć Chórzyści wierzą, że ich Wielkim Zadaniem jest przybliżanie się do Boga, większość nie podziela jednak gnostyckiej odrazy do materii, nie ucieka w ascezę ani tym bardziej nie umartwia się by rozwijać ducha kosztem ciała. Zdecydowana większość wybiera raczej drogę religijnych kontemplacji, doświadczania przejawów Boga w codziennym życiu czy posługi dla kongregacji wiernych. Niektórzy Chórzyści próbują również zmieniać wyznania, by poznać Boga za wszystkimi jego maskami. +Historia tej Tradycji sięga roku 1200 p.n.e., kiedy to w starożytnym Egipcie kapłan Mentu-Hetep otrzymał wizję idealnej harmonii boskiej pieśni. Został poinstruowany, by zgromadzić chór głosów zdolnych śpiewać tę pieśń, a na jego wezwanie stawili się mistycy z całego świata. Jednak po pierwszych sukcesach, Chór szybko się rozpadł, pozostali w nim mistycy szybko nadali mu wymiar najpierw wyłącznie europejski, później - w pierwszych wiekach naszej ery - wyłącznie chrześcijański. Wyznawcy innych nurtów religijnych byli marginalizowani, a nawet wprost wykluczani (na przykład podczas krucjat). Wielka Konwokacja, na której powstały nowożytne Tradycje, stała się okazją do ponownego przyjęcia innych wyznań. Jednak dopiero fala New Age w drugiej połowie XX w. spowodowała, że wszystkie te wyznania są traktowane jak równe. +Agencja Własności Rolnej Skarbu Państwa + +Agencja Własności Rolnej Skarbu Państwa - utworzona w październiku 1991 roku na mocy ustawy o gospodarowaniu nieruchomościami rolnymi Skarbu Państwa. +Do jej zadań należało przejęcie, restrukturyzacja, prywatyzacja mienia po byłych Państwowych Gospodarstwach Rolnych oraz nieruchomości rolnych dawnego Państwowego Funduszu Ziemi, a także innego mienia rolnego będącego własnością Skarbu Państwa. Do mienia AWRSP wchodziły także nieruchomości rolne właścicieli zrzekających się swego majątku na rzecz emerytury lub renty świadczonej z ubezpieczenia społecznego rolników. +Istniała do przekształcenia w Agencję Nieruchomości Rolnych w 2003 roku. +Roger Moore + +Sir Roger George Moore (ur. 14 października 1927 w Londynie) – brytyjski aktor filmowy znany przede wszystkim z ról Simona Templara w serialu „Święty” (1962–1969) oraz Jamesa Bonda (w latach 1973–1985). Wcielił się tę postać siedmiokrotnie, najwięcej ze wszystkich aktorów-Bondów. Popularny był również serial „Partnerzy” („Detektywi z wyższych sfer”, 1971–1972), gdzie występował jako lord Brett Sinclair. +Otrzymał dwa wysokiej rangi odznaczenia brytyjskie: "Commander of the British Empire" (CBE) w 1999 i "Knight Commander of the British Empire" (KBE) w 2003. Jest ambasadorem dobrej woli UNICEF, a także autorem książek. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Moore urodził się 14 października 1927 w Stockwell (obecnie wchodzi w skład London Borough of Lambeth). Był jedynym dzieckiem policjanta George’a Alfreda Moore’a oraz Lillian, gospodyni domowej. Początkowo uczęszczał do Battersea Grammar School w południowym Londynie, ale podczas II wojny światowej rodzina ewakuowana została do Holsworthy, w hrabstwie Devon. Uczył się następnie w gimnazjum w Amersham, w hrabstwie Buckinghamshire, a później w College of the Venerable Bede w Durham University, którego jednak nie ukończył. +Na krótko przed wojną, studiował na Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Tam poznał Lois Maxwell, która miała później zagrać Pannę Moneypenny w serii o Bondzie. W wieku 17 lat zagrał rzymskiego żołnierza w filmie „Cesarz i Kleopatra” (1945). +W wieku 18 lat został powołany do służby wojskowej, otrzymał numer służbowy 372394. +Kariera filmowa. +Lista filmów z jego udziałem to ponad siedemdziesiąt pozycji, przy czym część z nich to wieloodcinkowe seriale. Zaczynał od grania epizodycznych ról jako statysta. Często występował i nadal bierze udział jako prowadzący w programach telewizyjnych. Zajmował się także reżyserią (kilka odcinków „Świętego” i „Partnerów”), produkcją filmową i pisaniem scenariuszy. +W 1953 roku przeniósł się do Hollywood, ale jego pierwsze występy nie przyniosły mu sławy. Próbował pracy w amerykańskiej telewizji – zagrał w „Ivanhoe” (1958–1959), „The Alaskans” (1959–1960) i popularnym w Ameryce „Mavericku” (1960–961). Po powrocie do Wielkiej Brytanii otrzymał propozycję zagrania Simona Templara w telewizyjnym serialu „Święty” (1962–1967). Dzięki tej roli zdobył status międzynarodowej gwiazdy, co umożliwiło mu później zastąpienie Seana Connery’ego w roli agenta 007. W autobiografii przyznał, że dla tej roli przyciął włosy oraz zrzucił nieco wagi. Warunkiem, który stawiał przed podpisaniem umów z producentami było dostarczenie w czasie realizacji produkcji nieograniczonej ilości kubańskich cygar „Monte Cristo” (w czasie kręcenia jednego z filmów o agencie 007 koszt realizacji tej części umowy wyniósł 3176,4 £). +Jako James Bond wystąpił w filmach: "Żyj i pozwól umrzeć" (1973), "Człowiek ze złotym pistoletem" (1974), "Szpieg, który mnie kochał" (1977), "Moonraker" (1979), "Tylko dla twoich oczu" (1981), "Ośmiorniczka" (1983) i "Zabójczy widok" (1985). +Był najstarszym aktorem grającym Bonda, rozpoczynając miał 45 lat, kończąc – 57. Na premierze swego ostatniego Bonda, która odbyła się 22 maja 1985 w San Francisco, powiedział: „Cieszę się, że mogłem zagrać w siedmiu Bondach, co zabrało mi czternaście lat życia. Dla mnie to był dobry czas, znalazłem wielu przyjaciół”. Po premierze jedna z brytyjskich gazet zamieściła rysunek, na którym „Q” przedstawia Bondowi nowy model wózka inwalidzkiego. Wystąpił też w największej liczbie filmów w roli Bonda – siedmiu – jakkolwiek do serii z Bondem można też zaliczyć "Nigdy nie mów nigdy" (1983) Seana Connery’ego i wtedy obaj mieliby po siedem filmów. +Podczas kręcenia serii filmów o Bondzie wystąpił także w 13 innych filmach. Trzy z nich były kręcone w RPA, a aktor był z tego powodu krytykowany przez przeciwników apartheidu. Zamierzał wystąpić w filmie "O jeden most za daleko" w 1977 roku, ale musiał zrezygnować ze względu na film "Szpieg, który mnie kochał". +W Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej zapisy cenzury uniemożliwiały dostęp do filmów z serii „James Bond” i sprawiły, że postać R. Moora nie miała notatek w publikowanych antologiach. +W 1987 roku był gospodarzem dokumentalnego filmu "Happy Anniversary 007: 25 Years of James Bond". Film został nakręcony dla uczczenia 25 rocznicy filmowej serii 007. +W 2004 Akademia Filmowa uznała Moore’a za najlepszego Bonda, +W telewizyjnym filmiku "Sport at Heart", reklamującym igrzyska olimpijskie 2012, zagrał Bonda wraz z Samanthą Bond (jako Moneypenny). +Jednym z jego najmniej lubianych filmów jest "The Quest", w reżyserii Van Damme’a. +W kwietniu 2009 w wywiadzie dla "Sunday Telegraph" oświadczył, że zakończył już karierę aktorską. +Działalność humanitarna. +Podczas kręcenia w Indiach „Ośmiorniczki”, jego szóstego filmu w roli Bonda, wstrząśnięty panującą wokół biedą, zaangażował się w akcje charytatywne pod patronatem UNICEFu. Był pod wrażeniem humanitarnej pracy swojej przyjaciółki Audrey Hepburn i w konsekwencji został ambasadorem dobrej woli UNICEF-u w 1991 roku. Użyczył głosu postaci Świętego Mikołaja w krótkim filmie animowanym "The Fly Who Loved Me", zrealizowanym w 2004 roku w celu wsparcia UNICEF-u. +Moore walczył o humanitarny chów zwierząt. Zaangażował się w walkę przeciwko produkcji i sprzedaży pasztetu strasburskiego (zdaniem obrońców praw zwierząt przymusowy tucz drobiu jest niehumanitarny). Wziął udział w nagraniu wideo dla PETA, w którym był narratorem. Pod jego wpływem domy towarowe Selfridges zgodziły się usunąć pasztet strasburski ze swoich półek. +Życie osobiste. +W roku 1946 Roger Moore ożenił się z Doorn van Steyn. W roku 1953 rozwiódł się z nią dla śpiewaczki Dorothy Squires, która była od niego 13 lat starsza i wówczas bardziej popularna. Przez krótki czas mieszkali w Dafen, w hrabstwie Llanelli, w południowej Walii. W 1961 roku podczas kręcenia filmu we Włoszech związał się z Luisą Mattioli. Żył z nią w konkubinacie do 1969 roku, kiedy Squires ostatecznie wyraziła zgodę na rozwód. Moore ma z Mattioli córkę (Deborah) i dwóch synów (Geoffreya i Christiana). Moore nieoczekiwanie zakończył związek z Mattioli w 1993 roku. W 2002 roku ożenił się z Kiki Tholstrup. +Córka Moore’a, Deborah Moore, zagrała inspektor Hannah Bernstein w dwóch filmach bazujących na powieściach Jacka Higginsa, a także pojawiła się w filmie "Die Another Day". Starszy syn Geoffrey Moore został aktorem. Wystąpił razem z ojcem w filmie "Sherlock Holmes w Nowym Jorku" (1976), grając syna Holmesa. Młodszy syn Christian Moore został producentem filmowym. +Po sukcesie serialu "Święty" Roger Moore mieszkał w Royal Tunbridge Wells, Kent, później przeniósł się do Surrey, a następnie do Hollywood. W latach 60. mieszkał przy Gordon Avenue, w Stanmore, w hrabstwie Middlesex, w pobliżu Elstree Studios, a w latach 70. w Denham, w hrabstwie Buckinghamshire, w pobliżu Pinewood Studios. Podczas kręcenia filmu "Szpieg, który mnie kochał", Curd Jürgens zaprosił Moore’a, by zamieszkał w jego domu, w Gstaad w Szwajcarii. +Moore przyjaźnił się z niektórymi członkami duńskiej rodziny królewskiej. 24 maja 2008 wraz z żoną był na ślubie księcia Joachima Glücksburg i francuskiej księżniczki Marie Cavallier. Przyjaźnił się też ze szwedzkim królem Karolem XVI Gustawem. 1 i 2 lipca 2011 wraz z żoną został zaproszony na ślub księcia Alberta II Grimaldi i Charlene Wittstock. +W 1993 u Moore’a zdiagnozowano raka prostaty, w związku z czym przeszedł poważną operację. W 2003 zasłabł na scenie w Nowym Jorku i zainstalowano mu elektrostymulator serca. +Moore wspierał Partię Konserwatywną. Zaangażował się publicznie podczas wyborów w 2001. W 2011 udzielił poparcia premierowi Davidowi Cameronowi ze względu na jego politykę wobec Unii Europejskiej, natomiast jego krytyków z partii konserwatywnej nazwał zdrajcami. +Odznaczenia, nagrody i wyróżnienia. +W 1999 otrzymał Order Imperium Brytyjskiego klasy CBE (komandor). 14 czerwca 2003, w uznaniu za działalność charytatywną, otrzymał klasę KBE (rycerz komandor) tego orderu. Moore powiedział, że ceni sobie to, iż otrzymał go za działalność dla UNICEFu, a nie grę aktorską. +11 października 2007, na trzy dni przed ukończeniem 80 roku życia, Moore otrzymał gwiazdę na Hollywood Walk of Fame za jego działalność w telewizji oraz w filmie. Na tę uroczystość przybył wraz z rodziną, przyjaciółmi oraz Richardem Kielem, z którym zagrał w filmach "The Spy Who Loved Me" oraz "Moonraker". Gwiazda Moore’a była 2350. gwiazdą, umiejscowiona została przy Hollywood Boulevard 7007. +W 2008 roku otrzymał od francuskiego rządu Order Sztuki i Literatury, klasy komandora. +Za działalność charytatywną +Za całokształt +Za grę aktorską +Publikacje. +Moore napisał książkę o kręceniu filmu "Live and Let Die", bazując na swoim dzienniku. Nosiła tytuł: "Roger Moore as James Bond: Roger Moore’s Own Account of Filming Live and Let Die", opublikowana została w Londynie w 1973, przez wydawnictwo Pan Books. Książka zawiera podziękowanie dla Seana Connery’ego, z którym Moore przyjaźnił się przez wiele lat. +W listopadzie 2008 opublikował własną autobiografię "My Word is My Bond". Wydana została przez wydawnictwo HarperCollins w Stanach Zjednoczonych. W Wielkiej Brytanii wydało ją Michael O’Mara Books Ltd 2 października 2008. +"Bond On Bond" został opublikowany w październiku 2012 w związku z pięćdziesiątą rocznicą filmów z postacią Jamesa Bonda. Książka bazuje na wspomnieniach Moore’a i zawiera jego przemyślenia na temat agenta 007. +Czarnogłów + +Czarnogłów – bóstwo słowiańskie czczone w grodzie Asund (Jasmund?) na Rugii jako bóg wojny, pojawiające się w Knýtlinga-sadze pod imieniem Tjarnaglofi. +Stanisław Urbańczyk proponował odczytanie imienia jako Czarnogłów lub uznanie go za zniekształconą formę imienia Trzygłów. Henryk Łowmiański uznał, że Czarnogłów jest przekształceniem imienia Czarnoboga. +SO-DIMM + +SO DIMM (ang. "Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module") – mniejszy rodzaj pamięci DIMM, stosowany głównie w notebookach, komputerach małogabarytowych oraz w niektórych drukarkach biurowych wysokiej klasy. +Paweł Piskorski + +Paweł Bartłomiej Piskorski (ur. 25 lutego 1968 w Warszawie) – polski polityk, samorządowiec, były prezydent Warszawy, poseł na Sejm I, III i IV kadencji, od 2004 do 2009 deputowany do Parlamentu Europejskiego VI kadencji, przewodniczący Stronnictwa Demokratycznego. +Życiorys. +Ukończył XLI LO im. Joachima Lelewela w Warszawie, a w 1993 studia na Wydziale Historycznym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Działał w podziemnym Niezależnym Zrzeszeniu Studentów, w którym współtworzył rodzaj "lotnych brygad", zajmujących się zdobywaniem personaliów osób aresztowanych w czasie manifestacji, które następnie przekazywano ich rodzinom. Od 1989 po legalizacji NZS, był najpierw członkiem Komisji Krajowej, a następnie jej przewodniczącym w latach 1990–1991. W 1990 zaangażował się wraz z grupą działaczy NZS w tworzenie struktur terytorialnych Kongresu Liberalno-Demokratycznego. Pełnił funkcje sekretarza generalnego i wiceprzewodniczącego KLD. +W latach 1991–1993 był pierwszym przewodniczącym Fundacji Współpracy Polsko-Niemieckiej, której celem była poprawa stosunków społecznych i gospodarczych z Niemcami. +W 1991 w wyniku wyborów parlamentarnych został po raz pierwszy wybrany na posła (do Sejmu I kadencji). Był członkiem Komisji Polityki Gospodarczej i Budżetu, Komisji Spraw Zagranicznych oraz Komisji Demografii i Migracji. Zajmował także stanowisko wiceprzewodniczącego Komisji Nadzwyczajnej ds. Ustawy Ordynacja Wyborcza do Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Wchodził w skład delegacji polskiego parlamentu do Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego Rady Europy. Nie uzyskał reelekcji w kolejnych wyborach. Od 1993 do 1997 kierował Fundacją im. Gabriela Narutowicza. +Po zjednoczeniu KLD z Unią Demokratyczną w 1994 działał w Unii Wolności. W 1997 ponownie uzyskał mandat poselski. W Sejmie III kadencji pełnił m.in. funkcję wiceprzewodniczącego Komisji Obrony Narodowej i przewodniczącego Podkomisji ds. Strategii Obronnej i Integracji z NATO. +W latach 1999–2001 sprawował urząd prezydenta m.st. Warszawy. Przez swoich przeciwników politycznych był oskarżany o liczne nadużycia w trakcie pełnienia tej funkcji. Rzekome nadużycia przez prasę zostały określone jako tzw. afera mostowa. Przez kilka lat prokuratorzy z Prokuratury Okręgowej w Warszawie prowadzili śledztwo w tej sprawie, które zostało umorzone w lipcu 2008. Ponadto, przeciwnicy polityczni, zwłaszcza pełniący od 2002 do 2005 funkcję prezydenta Warszawy Lech Kaczyński z PiS, zarzucali Pawłowi Piskorskiemu stworzenie tzw. układu warszawskiego skupiającego lokalnych działaczy UW (a później PO) oraz SLD. +W 2001 odszedł razem z całą grupą działaczy z Unii Wolności do nowo tworzonej Platformy Obywatelskiej. 23 września tego samego roku, startując jako lider warszawskiej listy Platformy Obywatelskiej, został po raz trzeci wybrany na posła Sejmu IV kadencji liczbą około 70 tys. głosów. Był członkiem Komisji Spraw Zagranicznych i wiceprzewodniczącym Klubu Parlamentarnego Platformy Obywatelskiej. Został także wiceprzewodniczącym polskiej delegacji do Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego NATO. +13 czerwca 2004 w wyborach europejskich uzyskał mandat deputowanego do Parlamentu Europejskiego z Warszawy. Początkowo zasiadał w grupie chadeckiej. Wkrótce zrezygnował z pełnienia funkcji sekretarza generalnego PO. +W kwietniu 2006 "Dziennik" poinformował o zakupie w 2005 przez Pawła Piskorskiego wraz żoną ponad 320 hektarów ziemi pod zalesienie. Łączny koszt zakupu wyniósł 1,25 mln zł. Zdaniem dziennikarza tej gazety kwota ta przewyższała wartość środków zadeklarowanych przez europosła w oświadczeniu majątkowym za ten rok. Paweł Piskorski tłumaczył że pieniądze te pochodziły ze sprzedaży mieszkań, kredytu, oszczędności oraz dochodów bieżących jego i żony. Oświadczenia majątkowego nie zakwestionował nigdy żaden organ państwowy. Dzień po tej publikacji zarząd krajowy PO postanowił o jego wykluczeniu z partii, a 17 maja tego roku usunięto także dziesięciu jego współpracowników, m.in. Piotra Foglera. Oficjalnym powodem było szkodzenie wizerunkowi PO, przy czym wobec wykluczonych nie było prowadzonego postępowanie w sprawie sugerowanych przez media przestępstw. +W styczniu 2009 Paweł Piskorski wstąpił do Stronnictwa Demokratycznego, stając się tym samym jedynym eurodeputowanym tej partii, a także deklarując zamiar ubiegania się o stanowisko przewodniczącego SD. Stanowisko to uzyskał na kongresie nadzwyczajnym SD, odbytym w dniu 21 lutego tego samego roku. W listopadzie 2009 został zawieszony w obowiązkach szefa partii przez Naczelny Sąd Partyjny SD, który sam wcześniej miał ulec zawieszeniu. Kilka dni później członkowie rady naczelnej SD, w tym zawieszeni przez wierne Pawłowi Piskorskiemu władze, uchwalili jego odwołanie ze stanowiska przewodniczącego, powierzając funkcję tymczasowego szefa partii Krzysztofowi Góralczykowi. +W styczniu 2010 prokurator przedstawił mu zarzut posłużenia się podrobionym dokumentem (umową z antykwariuszem) w postępowaniu podatkowym. Paweł Piskorski nie przyznał się do popełnienia tego czynu. +13 grudnia 2010 Sąd Okręgowy w Warszawie wykreślił Pawła Piskorskiego z ewidencji partii politycznych jako przewodniczącego Stronnictwa Demokratycznego i wpisał w to miejsce Krzysztofa Góralczyka. Po odwołaniu się przez Pawła Piskorskiego od tej decyzji, Sąd Apelacyjny zdecydował 7 marca 2011 o ponownym wpisaniu go do rejestru jako przewodniczącego partii. +Nagrody. +W 1999 uhonorowany Nagrodą Kisiela. +Łuna 3 + +Łuna 3 – bezzałogowa sonda kosmiczna wystrzelona w 4 października 1959 roku przez ZSRR. 18 października tego samego roku przesłała pierwsze zdjęcia niewidocznej strony Księżyca. Minęła Srebrny Glob w odległości 6200 km, 6 października 1959, o godz. 14:16 GMT. +Przebieg misji. +Misja próbnika Łuna 3 miała być kolejnym radzieckim krokiem na drodze eksploracji przestrzeni kosmicznej. Tym razem zadaniem sondy nie było uderzenie w księżycowy grunt, ale przeprowadzenie innej operacji o bezprecedensowym charakterze – sfotografowanie i przesłanie na Ziemię wywołanych na pokładzie aparatu zdjęć odwrotnej, niewidocznej z Ziemi półkuli Księżyca. Trasa Łuny 3 wyznaczona została w postaci pętli. Sonda miała okrążyć Srebrny Glob, po czym powrócić w pobliże Ziemi i przesłać drogą radiową wywołane na pokładzie zdjęcia. +Rakieta nośna Łuna 8K72 wyniosła sondę na orbitę i bezpośrednio nakierowała ją na trajektorię w kierunku Księżyca. Data wystrzelenia Łuny 3 była nieprzypadkowa z dwóch powodów. Po pierwsze, w czasie, gdy sonda miała znaleźć się nad niewidoczną stroną Księżyca, ten miał być w nowiu – w pełni oświetlony promieniami słonecznymi. Po drugie, była to druga rocznica wystrzelenia Sputnika 1. +Po wystrzeleniu sondy stwierdzono, że odbierany z niej sygnał radiowy jest o połowę słabszy od oczekiwanego, a temperatura wewnętrzna wzrastała. Problem rozwiązano poprzez wyłączenie części urządzeń. Dzięki temu temperatura spadła z 40° do 30°C. W odległości 70 000 km od Księżyca ponownie włączono wszystkie urządzenia, statek zaś przestał rotować. +Po udanym wystrzeleniu i przelocie nad biegunem północnym drogą radiową wyłączono stopień ucieczkowy Blok-E rakiety nośnej, który skierował Łunę na trajektorię translunarną. Po wejściu na nią, sonda ustabilizowała własne położenie dzięki zestawom fotokomórek reagujących na światło słoneczne. Kiedy sonda przelatywała nad okolicami południowego bieguna Księżyca, jej czujniki wykryły Słońce. Sonda odwróciła się spodem w kierunku Księżyca. Wtedy też Srebrny Glob znalazł się w polu widzenia innych sensorów, umieszczonych na szczycie statku. Reagując na ich sygnały statek odwrócił się obiektywem w kierunku powierzchni Księżyca i wyłączył czujniki słoneczne. 7 października, o godz. 03:30 GMT, rozpoczęło się fotografowanie trwające przez 40 minut lotu. Sesja rozpoczęła się z odległości 63 500 km (planowo miało to być 62 000 km), kiedy to wykonano pierwszą fotografię i zakończyła w odległości 66 700 km, kiedy to wykonano ostatnią. Po przelocie nad północnym biegunem Księżyca, aparat zaczął powracać na Ziemię po zaplanowanej orbicie, tak aby cały czas znajdował się w polu odbioru śledzących go stacji naziemnych. Nadajnik Łuny 3 nie miał wystarczającej mocy by przesyłać sygnały z takiej odległości. Musiano zaczekać aż znajdzie się wystarczająco blisko naszej planety. 8 października sonda podjęła próbę przesłania zdjęć, jednak sygnał był niewystarczająco silny. Udało się to dopiero dnia 18 października. +Naukowcy uzyskali 17 nadających się do użytku fotografii z 29 zrobionych. Obejmowały one około 70% powierzchni półkuli niewidocznej. Zdjęcia wykonane przez Łunę 3 były bardzo niewyraźne, jednakże pozwoliły na rozróżnienie kilku krain selenograficznych. Wtedy też po raz pierwszy przekonano się, że strona niewidoczna zdominowana jest przez wyżyny, z bardzo niewielką ilością "mórz", "jezior" i "zatok". Dzięki zdjęciom Łuny 3 odkryto niezwykłą wielopierścieniową formację, którą nazwano "Morzem Wschodnim", i ponadto dwa inne morza – Moskiewskie ("Mare Moscovrae") i Morze Snów ("Mare Desiderii"). Pierwsze fotografie pozwoliły także na wyodrębnienie kilku dużych formacji kraterowych i nadanie im nazw (m.in. Ciołkowskiego, Łomonosowa czy Mendelejewa). Kontakt z Łuną 3 został utracony 22 października. 29 kwietnia 1960 statek wszedł w górne warstwy atmosfery i spalił się. +Łuna 3 była pierwszą sondą, która sfotografowała i przesłała zdjęcia odwrotnej, niewidocznej z Ziemi półkuli księżycowej. Dzięki tej misji po raz pierwszy w historii ludzkości człowiek był w stanie ujrzeć powierzchnię jeszcze nie znaną. Mimo że zdjęcia były słabej jakości, pozwoliły na stworzenie pierwszej wersji atlasu niewidocznej strony Księżyca, porównanie obu półkul oraz na skonstruowanie pierwszych trójwymiarowych modeli naszego naturalnego satelity. +Budowa i działanie. +Sonda nosiła fabryczne oznaczenie E-3. Jej cylindryczny kadłub był hermetyczny. Ciśnienie w środku wynosiło 0,23 atmosfery. Kadłub Łuny 3 obłożony został po raz pierwszy w historii użytymi panelami fotoogniw słonecznych. Zasilały one chemiczne akumulatory. Sonda wyposażona została w gazowe silniczki korygujące jej położenie oraz zestawy fotokomórek, ukierunkowujących sondę na Słońce i Księżyc. Statek nie posiadał napędu umożliwiającego zmianę kursu. Temperatura obiektu była na bieżąco kontrolowana i stabilizowana przez układ regulujący. +Statek był stabilizowany obrotowo i kierowany radiowo bezpośrednio z Ziemi. Układ łączności i telemetrii wykorzystywał cztery anteny umieszczone na szczycie sondy i dwie na jej spodniej części. +Oznaczenia. +Misja Łuny 3 była jeszcze dwukrotnie ponawiana. Podobne do Łuny 3 statki, oznaczane zwykle jako E-3 1 i E-3 2, startowały jednak bez powodzenia 15 i 16 kwietnia 1960. W pierwszej misji zawinił silnik 3. stopnia rakiety. Osiągnął niepełny ciąg lub przedwcześnie się wyłączył – uzyskano trajektorię balistyczną. W drugiej misji, 2. człon dodatkowy osiągnął przy zapłonie tylko 3/4 ciągu. Cztery dziesiąte sekundy po starcie oderwał się od reszty rakiety i eksplodował. Po utracie ciągu, pozostałe człony dodatkowe również się oddzieliły i poleciały ponad stacjami śledzenia i terenami zamieszkanymi. Człony główne kontynuowały lot. +Ładunek. +System wizyjny wyposażony został w aparat z automatycznym wyzwalaczem filmu. Ponadto sonda miała na pokładzie dodatkowy zestaw naukowy, m.in. do badań promieniowania kosmicznego i zagęszczenia przestrzeni kosmicznej mikrometeoroidami. +Kasia Kowalska + +Katarzyna Kowalska (ur. 13 czerwca 1973 w Sulejówku) – polska wokalistka, kompozytorka, autorka tekstów piosenek i producentka. Członkini Akademii Fonograficznej ZPAV. +Kariera muzyczna. +Lata 90.. +Karierę rozpoczęła w zespole Roberta Amiriana Evergreen. Potem współpracowała z zespołami Human, Fatum, Piersi, Hetman czy Talking Pictures, z którym nagrała płytę. Podczas koncertu w warszawskim klubie Stodoła w 1993 zauważyła ją Katarzyna Kanclerz z Izabelin Studio. 12 września 1994 ukazała się debiutancka płyta Kasi Kowalskiej zatytułowana "Gemini" (łac. "bliźnięta"), po czym wokalistka wyruszyła w trasę koncertową z Edytą Bartosiewicz. Kolejne single z płyty – "Wyznanie", "Jak rzecz", "Oto ja", "Kto może to dać" – zostały przebojami i sprawiły, że "Gemini" osiągnęła status podwójnej platyny. W tym samym roku wystąpiła jako support przed Bobem Dylanem podczas jego dwóch koncertów w Polsce. W 1995 wystąpiła na festiwalu w Sopocie z premierową piosenką "A to co mam", która szybko stała się przebojem. Za występ, podczas którego wykonywała również starszą piosenkę "Jak rzecz", otrzymała zarówno Grand Prix jak i Nagrodę Publiczności. +20 listopada 1995 ukazała się koncertowa płyta "Koncert inaczej", będąca rejestracją kilku występów. W ciągu miesiąca album uzyskał status platynowej płyty. +W 1996 z utworem "Chcę znać swój grzech" ("Why should I") reprezentowała Polskę w konkursie Eurowizji w Oslo, zajmując 14. miejsce. W tym samym roku nagrała piosenkę do ścieżki dźwiękowej disneyowskiego filmu animowanego "Dzwonnik z Notre-Dame". +30 września 1996 ukazała się trzecia płyta Kowalskiej zatytułowana "Czekając na...", której producentem został Kostek Yoriadis. Album promowany był przez single "Coś optymistycznego" i "Tak mi ciebie brak" oraz trasę koncertową, sponsorowaną przez firmę Casio. Album "Czekając na..." uzyskał status platynowej płyty już przed oficjalną premierą. +W 1997 wystąpiła w filmie "Nocne graffiti" w roli narkomanki Moniki. Na ścieżce dźwiękowej do filmu znalazła się jej premierowa piosenka "Straciłam swój rozsądek". W tym samym roku Kasia wraz z Kostkiem Yoriadisem nagrała piosenkę w duecie zatytułowaną "Jeśli chcesz kochanym być". Był to ostatni ich wspólny projekt. +8 czerwca 1998 ukazała się płyta "Pełna obaw", która osiągnęła status platynowej płyty, promowana przez single "Co może przynieść nowy dzień" (nagrodzony statuetką Fryderyka), "Wyrzuć ten gniew", "Pełni obaw" oraz "Jesteś odrobiną szczęścia". 8 listopada 1999 ukazała się edycja specjalna tej płyty. +Od roku 2000. +13 listopada 2000 na rynek trafiła płyta "5" poprzedzona singlem "Nobody". Miesiąc po premierze album uzyskał status złotej płyty, następnie ukazały się kolejne single: "Być tak blisko" i "Będę jak". +W 2001 Kowalska wystąpiła na festiwalu w Opolu z premierową piosenką "Starczy słów", gdzie otrzymała Superjedynkę za najlepszą płytę rockową. Pod koniec roku wokalistka otrzymała nagrodę MTV Europe Music Awards w kategorii najlepszy polski artysta. +14 października 2002 ukazał się jej szósty album "Antidotum", promowany przez single "Antidotum" i "Pieprz i sól", który szybko stał się złotą, a następnie platynową płytą. +W 2003 Kasia Kowalska wzięła udział w kampanii radia RMF FM mającej na celu walkę z piractwem. Na specjalną płytę, której cena wynosiła 9,99 PLN, wokalistka nagrała dwa covery: "Widzę twoją twarz"' (oryg. "Listen to your heart" Roxette) i "Mniejsze zło" (oryg. "All by myself" Céline Dion). +26 lipca 2004 do stacji muzycznych trafił singel "To co dobre", a w sierpniu 2004 wyjechała do Tokio na sesję zdjęciową do swojej siódmej płyty, która ukazała się 13 września 2004 pt. "Samotna w wielkim mieście", i promowana była przez single "To co dobre", "Prowadź mnie" i "Domek z kart". 6 grudnia 2004 do sklepów trafiła specjalna edycja kolekcjonerska tej płyty, do której dołączono singel "Magia tych świąt" zawierający m.in. film z pobytu Kasi w Tokio. Za ten album w 2005 zdobyła Superjedynkę w kategorii najlepsza płyta rockowa. +16 grudnia 2006 do rozgłośni radiowych trafiła piosenka "Dlaczego nie!", promująca polski film o tym samym tytule. +Ósma płyta wokalistki "Antepenultimate" miała premierę 10 listopada 2008, a promowały ją utwory "A Ty, czego chcesz?", "Miłość, trzeźwość i pokora" (do tej piosenki nie nakręcono jednak teledysku) i "Spowiedź", do którego premiera teledysku odbyła się 7 maja 2009 na oficjalnej stronie internetowej Kasi Kowalskiej, a telewizyjną premierę miał on 24 maja. +6 listopada 2009 ukazała się reedycja jej ostatniej płyty, wzbogacona o drugą płytę z dodatkowymi piosenkami oraz materiałem wideo. +7 listopada 2010 r. Kasia wraz z zespołem towarzyszącym wystąpiła w studiu im. Agnieszki Osieckiej gdzie zaprezentowała swoje interpretacje utworów Grzegorza Ciechowskiego, nieżyjącego już lidera zespołu Republika. Koncert ukazał się na płycie "Kowalska-Ciechowski-Moja krew". +Grzegorz Ciechowski był producentem jej debiutanckiej płyty "Gemini" oraz muzycznym mentorem. +Pod koniec listopada 2012 miała miejsce premiera nowego singla zatytułowanego "Ikar". Piosenka promuje książkę Katarzyny Błeszyńskiej "Miłosne konstelacje". +Życie prywatne. +Ma córkę Aleksandrę (ur. 2 maja 1997) ze związku z muzykiem Kostkiem Joriadisem i syna Ignacego (ur. 24 czerwca 2008) ze związku z perkusistą Marcinem Ułanowskim. +Dyskografia. +Albumy. +Lista OLiS istnieje od 2000 roku, dlatego albumy wydane wcześniej nie są na niej odnotowane. +Bitwa o Gallipoli + +Bitwa o Gallipoli – bitwa toczona od 25 kwietnia 1915 do 9 stycznia 1916, która w założeniu ententy miała być początkiem większej operacji mającej za zadanie zdobycie Stambułu i wyeliminowanie z wojny Imperium Osmańskiego. Operacja ta zakończyła się fiaskiem państw ententy. Łącznie straty obu stron wyniosły 131.000 zabitych i 262.000 rannych. +W Turcji kampania ta znana jest jako bitwa o Çanakkale, w Anglii nazywa się ją kampanią dardanelską, a w Australii i Nowej Zelandii - po prostu Gallipoli. +Preludium do operacji. +Rosja, jeden z członków Ententy, miała poważne problemy z obroną morskich linii zaopatrzeniowych w czasie wojny. Morze Bałtyckie było kontrolowane przez marynarkę niemiecką, a wejście do Morza Czarnego przez Bosfor było kontrolowane przez Imperium Osmańskie. +Pod koniec 1914 roku walki na froncie zachodnim, biegnącym przez Francję i Belgię, ustabilizowały się bez znacznej szansy na zmianę tej sytuacji. Z punktu widzenia aliantów, potrzebny był nowy front, aby zdestabilizować ówczesną sytuację; atak na Imperium Osmańskie miał wciągnąć do wojny Bułgarię i Grecję po stronie Ententy. +Po raz pierwszy z pomysłem ataku na Turcję wystąpili Francuzi w październiku 1914, ale pomysł ten nie zdobył wtedy uznania. Miesiąc później Pierwszy Lord Admiralicji Winston Churchill przedstawił plan morskiego ataku na Dardanele. W styczniu 1915 plan inwazji na półwyspie Gallipoli został zaaprobowany przez brytyjski gabinet. Brytyjski Sekretarz Stanu ds. Wojny Lord Kitchener powierzył generałowi Ianowi Hamiltonowi dowództwo nad Śródziemnomorskimi Siłami Ekspedycyjnymi ("Mediterranean Expeditionary Force" – MEF) i całą operacją. +Operacje morskie. +19 lutego 1915 roku duża flota brytyjskich i francuskich okrętów rozpoczęła pierwszy atak na Dardanele, bombardując tureckie brzegi cieśniny. Atak okazał się sukcesem politycznym – Bułgaria przerwała negocjacje z Niemcami, Grecja zaoferowała swoją pomoc, również Włochy zaczęły przejawiać chęć przyłączenia się do Ententy, ale efekt militarny był niewielki. +Główny atak rozpoczął się 18 marca. Jego celem była eliminacja tureckich baterii, zwłaszcza w najwęższym punkcie Dardaneli, gdzie cieśnina ma niecałe dwa kilometry szerokości, i przedarcie się na Morze Marmara. Okręty aliantów miały wyeliminować znajdującą się tam niemiecką eskadrę złożoną z ciężkiego krążownika "Goeben" i lekkiego krążownika "Breslau", a następnie przeprowadzić demonstrację siły wobec Konstantynopola (Stambułu) zmierzającą do wyeliminowania Turcji z wojny. Potężna flota, w której znalazło się 16 pancerników, odniosła początkowo kilka sukcesów, eliminując wiele baterii tureckich. Nie wykryto jednak w porę pola minowego ustawionego przez turecki okręt "Nusret" i po wejściu na nie zatonęło tam wiele okrętów - między innymi 3 pancerniki - brytyjskie HMS "Ocean" i HMS "Irresistible" i francuski "Bouvet", a krążownik liniowy HMS "Inflexible" został ciężko uszkodzony, podobnie jak dwa francuskie pancerniki "Gaulois" i "Suffren". +Poważne straty, oraz zła pogoda spowodowały, że alianci nie ponowili ataku, a wkrótce wskutek zaangażowania się w całą operację sił lądowych, całkowicie zrezygnowali z przedarcia się przez cieśninę przy użyciu wyłącznie sił morskich. Z punktu widzenia Turków było to niezwykle fortunne posunięcie, jako że zapas amunicji do ich baterii brzegowych był już na wyczerpaniu. Gdyby alianci podjęli ponowną próbę, pomimo strat z 18 marca, wynik całej bitwy mógłby być zapewne inny. +Inwazja. +Po niepowodzeniu ataków okrętów wojennych oczywiste stało się, że potrzebna będzie obecność wojsk lądowych w celu wyeliminowania bardzo mobilnej tureckiej artylerii. Dopiero to umożliwiłoby alianckim trałowcom oczyszczenie wód zatoki z min, co ponownie pozwoliłoby na użycie większych okrętów. +Na początku 1915 roku w Egipcie przebywała spora grupa ochotników z Australii i Nowej Zelandii, odbywająca szkolenie przed wysłaniem do Francji. Grupa ta nazwana ANZAC składała się z australijskiej 1. dywizji i mieszanej dywizji australijsko-nowozelandzkiej. Generał Hamilton przejął dowództwo nad tymi jednostkami, do których dołączyły jeszcze brytyjska 29. dywizja, dywizja Marynarki Piechoty Królewskiej i francuska Corps expéditionnaire d’Orient. +Naprzeciw armii Hamiltona stanęła turecka 5. armia pod dowództwem niemieckiego doradcy wojskowego armii osmańskiej, generała von Sandersa. 5. armia, której zadaniem była obrona obu brzegów zatoki, liczyła 84 tys. żołnierzy i składało się na nią 6 dywizji. W okolicach Bulair stacjonowały dywizje 5. i 7. Koło przylądka Helles, na końcu półwyspu, znajdowała się 9. dywizja, a 19. dywizja stanowiła rezerwę. Brzeg azjatycki broniony był przez 3. i 11. dywizję. +Plan inwazji z 25 marca zakładał, że 29. dywizja wyląduje przy Helles, a następnie zacznie się posuwać w kierunku fortów Kilitbahir. ANZAC mieli wylądować na północ od Gaba Tepe na wybrzeżu Morza Egejskiego, skąd mogliby kontrolować cały półwysep, zapobiegając przybyciu posiłków lub wycofaniu się obrońców tureckich. Zadaniem Francuzów było przeprowadzenie mylącego Turków lądowania przy Kum Kale po stronie azjatyckiej. +Anzacs. +Pierwsza fala ANZAC (żołnierzy australijskich i nowozelandzkich), 3. brygada z australijskiej 1. dywizji rozpoczęła inwazję tuż przed świtem, o godzinie 4.28 25 kwietnia. Zamierzano lądować na szerokim froncie, około 1,5 km na północ od Gaba Tepe. Z niewyjaśnionych do dziś przyczyn lądowanie nie przebiegło według planu i łodzie z żołnierzami skoncentrowały się ponad 2 km na północ od planowanego miejsca lądowania, w małej, płytkiej, wtedy jeszcze bezimiennej zatoczce pomiędzy Ari Burnu na północy, a Hell Spit na południu. Zatoka ta nosi dziś nazwę "Anzac Cove" (zatoka Anzac). +Zamiast szerokiej równiny, gdzie miano wylądować, przed żołnierzami australijskimi stała teraz trudna do przebrnięcia plątanina jarów i ostróg ciągnących się od wzniesień Sari Bair w kierunku morza. W pierwszych godzinach po lądowaniu Australijczycy napotkali na bardzo lekki opór nieprzyjaciela w postaci rozproszonych jednostek tureckiej 19. dywizji, ale jej dowódca Mustafa Kemal szybko zorientował się w powstałym zagrożeniu i obie strony rozpoczęły dramatyczny wyścig o opanowanie okolicznych wzgórz. +Batalia skoncentrowała się na grzbiecie wzdłuż głównej linii ataku, gdzie ANZAC i Turcy walczyli o pagórek nazwany "Baby 700". Pozycja w czasie pierwszego ataku przechodziła z rąk do rąk kilkakrotnie, ale ostatecznie została w rękach tureckich, głównie dzięki temu, że od początku bitwy byli oni w lepszej sytuacji taktycznej, mając w swoich rękach inne okoliczne wzniesienia. Po zatrzymaniu ataku ANZAC Turcy natychmiast kontratakowali, starając się zepchnąć siły inwazyjne do morza, ale wojska australijsko-nowozelandzkie utrzymały zdobyty przyczółek. Sytuacja stała się patowa i zamiast szybkiej wojny manewrowej, jak przewidywał plan ataku, obie strony uwikłały się w pozycyjne walki prowadzone z okopów, które trwały aż do sierpnia. +Helles. +Desant na przylądku Helles miał zostać przeprowadzony przez 29. dywizję pod dowództwem generała Hunter-Westona na pięciu plażach położonych łukiem na końcu przylądka, oznaczonych od wschodu na zachód – S, V, W, X i Y. +Na końcach łuku, plażach S, X i Y, nie napotkano dużego oporu, ale nie wykorzystano nadarzającej się okazji. Wojskom, które wylądowały na plaży Y, udało się podejść na odległość 500 m do opustoszałej wioski Kruthia, ale ta sytuacja nie powtórzyła się już więcej. W następnym dniu, po przybyciu tureckich posiłków, plaże ewakuowano. +Główne lądowanie odbyło się na plaży V, pod murami starej fortecy Seddülbahir i na plaży W, w niewielkiej odległości na zachód. +Na plaży V brytyjski statek, przerobiony węglowiec "SS River Clyde", został umyślnie posadzony na mieliźnie przy samym brzegu, aby prowadzący atak żołnierze byli w stanie przejść po rampach bezpośrednio na brzeg. Następna fala żołnierzy miała wylądować na plaży w bardziej tradycyjny sposób, podpływając tam małymi, otwartymi łodziami. Przy plaży W brytyjscy fizylierzy także skorzystali z małych, otwartych łodzi, lądując na małej plaży, otoczonej wysokimi wydmami i pokrytej zasiekami. Na obu tych plażach lądująca piechota została zmasakrowana przez tureckich obrońców. Żołnierze, którzy pojedynczo wychodzili z luków "River Clyde", stanowili idealny cel dla karabinów maszynowych ustawionych w forcie Seddülbahir. +Tak jak w wypadku lądowania w Anzac Cove, tureckim obrońcom udało się zatrzymać siły inwazyjne przed wtargnięciem w głąb lądu, ale nie udało im się zepchnąć atakujących do morza. Przy plaży W królewskiemu regimentowi z Lancashire udało się pokonać siły obrońców, pomimo bardzo wysokich strat własnych (zginęło lub zostało rannych 600 z 1000 atakujących). Batalion, który lądował na plaży V, stracił około 70% stanu. +Pierwsze bitwy. +Po południu 27 kwietnia Kemal przeprowadził pierwszy dobrze przygotowany atak w celu zniszczenia sił australijskich. Żołnierzom Anzac udało się utrzymać ich pozycję tylko dzięki pomocy ogniowej z okrętów stojących przy plaży. Turcy kilkakrotnie ponawiali atak tej samej nocy. +28 kwietnia Brytyjczycy, na których prawym skrzydle znajdowali się teraz Francuzi, rozpoczęli atak, którego celem było zdobycie Krithia, tzw. pierwsza bitwa o Krithia. Plan ataku był nadmiernie skomplikowany i źle przedstawiony poszczególnym dowódcom, a żołnierze 29. dywizji byli nadal bardzo wyczerpani po ciężkich przeżyciach przy lądowaniu i zdobywaniu wioski Seddülbahir, która wpadła w ich ręce 26 kwietnia. Atak w końcu zatrzymał się o szóstej wieczorem, atakującym udało się nieco posunąć, ale cel ofensywy nie został osiągnięty. Turecki opór wzrastał z dnia na dzień i po zmarnowaniu szans, jakie stały przez atakującymi w pierwszym dniu, sposobność na szybkie zdobycie półwyspu zniknęła. Helles, podobnie jak Anzac, stała się sceną wyniszczających walk pozycyjnych. Silne tureckie kontrataki 1 i 3 maja zostały odparte przez obrońców, pomimo że atakującym udało się przełamać francuskie linie obrony. +Pierwsza próba działań ofensywnych w zatoce Anzac miała miejsce wieczorem 2 maja, kiedy australijska 4. brygada i nowozelandzka brygada piechoty zaatakowały "Baby 700". Atakującym udało się pokonać w nocy niewielki dystans, zdobywając nieco "ziemi niczyjej", po tym drobnym sukcesie zaczęli się okopywać w nowym terenie, starając się go utrzymać, ale zostali zmuszeni do wycofania się w nocy 3 maja, tracąc przy tym około 1000 żołnierzy. +Uważając, że sytuacja na froncie Anzac ustabilizowała się, Hamilton przesunął dwie brygady, 2. australijską piechoty i nowozelandzką piechoty, na front przy Helles jako rezerwę w czasie drugiej bitwy o Krithia, która rozpoczęła się 6 maja. Zyskał około ćwierć mili na szerokim froncie, przy dużych stratach własnych. Był to pierwszy atak na tak dużą skalę w tej części Gallipoli. +19 maja odbył się poważny atak Turków na Anzaców - 42 tys. Turków zaatakowało 10 tys. Australijczyków i Nowozelandczyków z tragicznymi dla atakujących skutkami. Turkom brakowało zarówno artylerii jak i amunicji, dlatego pokładali nadzieję na powodzenie ataku w dużej przewadze liczebnej. Ich przygotowania do ataku zostały wykryte i obrońcy byli na niego gotowi. Atak kosztował Turków 10 000 zabitych i rannych, w porównaniu, australijskie straty wyniosły 160 zabitych i 468 rannych. Tureckie straty były tak poważne, że obie strony zgodziły się na czasowe zawieszenie broni 24 maja, aby pozwolić Turkom na usunięcie i pochowanie tysięcy trupów zalegających ziemię niczyją. +Jeszcze w maju wojska brytyjskie mogły polegać na wsparciu artyleryjskim pancerników, ale po storpedowaniu HMS "Goliath" 13 maja, HMS "Triumph" 25 maja i HMS "Majestic" 27 maja większość pozostałych pancerników została wycofana, a te, które pozostały, strzelały już tylko będąc w ruchu, co znacznie zmniejszało celność ognia. +Trzecia bitwa o Krithia z 4 czerwca zakończyła już wszystkie marzenia wysokiego dowództwa o wojnie manewrowej i obie strony powróciły do okopowej, pozycyjnej wojny, w której ewentualne zyski czy straty terenu liczyło się najwyżej w setkach metrów, a były one opłacane wysokimi stratami w ludziach. Obie strony odniosły około 25% strat, Brytyjczycy stracili 4500 żołnierzy z armii liczącej 20.000. +W czerwcu pod Helles przybyła nowa dywizja, brytyjska 52. dywizja piechoty, mająca wziąć udział w ostatniej dużej bitwie na tym froncie – w bitwie o Gully Ravine, która rozpoczęła się 28 czerwca. W wyniku tej bitwy, która zakończyła się jednym z rzadkich zwycięstw aliantów, lewe skrzydło (znad Morza Egejskiego) Brytyjczyków posunęło się do przodu. W odpowiedzi na to zwycięstwo, Turcy rozpoczęli serię kontrataków trwających od 1 do 5 lipca, ale nie udało im się odzyskać utraconego terenu. Straty po obu stronach były niezmiernie wysokie, ocenia się je na ponad 14 tys. +Ostania próba zmiany sytuacji w Helles, zanim główny wysiłek aliantów został skierowany na front Anzac, odbyła się 12 lipca. Dwie brygady 52. dywizji zostały rzucone do ataku wzdłuż Achi Baba Nullah (znanej jako "Dolina Krwi") tracąc przy tym 30% stanu i praktycznie bez żadnych liczących się zysków terenowych. +Ofensywa sierpniowa. +"Zobacz główny artykuł:" Bitwa o Sari Bair +Kolejne niepowodzenia aliantów przy próbach zdobycia Krithia i brak jakiegokolwiek postępu na froncie Helles spowodowały, że Hamilton postanowił zmienić plan kampanii planując bitwę o Sari Bair. W nocy 6 sierpnia dwie dywizje miały wylądować z zatoce Suvla, 3 mile na północ od zatoki Anzac. W tym czasie obrońcy Anzac mieli zaatakować słabo obsadzone wzgórza Sari Bair, atakując w kierunku północnym. +Samo lądowanie w Suvla było udane i napotkano na bardzo lekki opór nieprzyjaciela, ale dowodzący lądowaniem generał Stopford nie spieszył się posunięciem w głąb lądu. Zanim się na to zdecydował, obrońcy tureccy obsadzili wzgórza Anafarta otaczające Suvla i zamiast decydującej bitwy powtórzyła się sytuacja z Anzac – atak ten stworzył następny front pozycyjnej, okopowej wojny. +Ofensywa ta była poprzedzona wieczorem 6 sierpnia dywersyjnymi atakami w Helles i Anzac. W Helles bitwa o winnicę Krithia stała się następną bitwą bez zwycięzcy, ale za to okupiona wysokimi stratami po obu stronach. W Anzac atak na tureckie okopy przy Lone Pine (Samotnej Sośnie) zakończył się jednym z niewielu australijskich zwycięstw, ale główny atak skierowany na Chunuk Bair i wzgórze 971 zakończył się już niepowodzeniem. +Chunuk Bair atakowany był przez żołnierzy z nowozelandzkiej brygady piechoty. Przed świtem 7 sierpnia udało im się dojść na odległość 500 m od celu ataku, ale nie udało im się zdobyć szczytu aż do następnego ranka. To opóźnienie miało tragiczne rezultaty dla ataku pomocniczego (bitwa o The Nek), przeprowadzonego przez australijską 3. brygadę "Light Horse". Nowozelandczycy utrzymali Chunuk Bar przez dwa dni, ale potężny turecki kontratak prowadzony osobiście przez Mustafę Kemala zmiótł Anzaców z właśnie zdobytych wzgórz. +Z kolei atak na wzgórze 971 nigdy nie doszedł do skutku. Siły przeznaczone do ataku stały pod dowództwem generała Monasha. Australijska 4. brygada piechoty i brygada indyjska zgubiły się w ciemnościach i nie odnalazły celu. Wszystkie następne ataki zostały łatwo odparte przez tureckich obrońców z dużymi stratami wśród atakujących. +Przyczółek Suvla został wzmocniony żołnierzami trzech brytyjskich dywizji – 53. piechoty, 54. piechoty i "spieszonej" 2. dywizji konnej. Także pechowa 29. dywizja została przeniesiona z Helles do Suvla przed jeszcze jedną próbą przełamania frontu. Ostateczna brytyjska ofensywa mająca na celu tchnięcie życia w coraz bardziej nieudaną operację odbyła się 21 sierpnia, kiedy zaatakowali oni wzgórza (Scimitar i "60"). Ewentualne przejęcie kontroli nad tymi wzgórzami pozwoliłoby aliantom na połączenie frontów Anzac i Suvla, ale żadna z tych bitew nie przyniosła zamierzonego skutku. Kiedy 29 sierpnia ustały ostatnie walki przy wzgórzu 60, bitwa o Sari Bair, kampania o cały półwysep była zakończona. +Ewakuacja. +Po fiasku cyklu ofensyw sierpniowych zaczęto się zastanawiać nad przyszłością całej operacji w Gallipoli. Opinia publiczna i parlament Wielkiej Brytanii dopiero teraz zaczęły poznawać prawdę o operacjach w Turcji na podstawie przekazów Keitha Murdocha, a nie zafałszowanych i koloryzowanych raportów generała Hamiltona. Także niezadowoleni wyżsi oficerowie sztabowi, tacy jak generał Stopford, bardzo pesymistycznie oceniali szanse całej operacji. 11 października po raz pierwszy zaproponowano ewakuację żołnierzy z Gallipoli, ale Hamilton odrzucił ten pomysł, uważając, że wycofanie się narazi na szwank brytyjski prestiż. Wkrótce został on jednak pozbawiony stanowiska głównodowodzącego operacją i zastąpiony przez generała Charlesa Monro’a. +Sytuacja została dodatkowo skomplikowana, gdy Bułgaria przystąpiła do wojny po stronie Państw Centralnych. 5 października Brytyjczycy otworzyli w okolicach Salonik drugi front śródziemnomorski, na który potrzebne były posiłki przeznaczone na Gallipoli. Dodatkowy problem stanowił fakt, iż Niemcy mieli teraz bezpośrednią drogę lądową do Turcji, umożliwiającą im dostarczenie Turkom ciężkiej artylerii oblężniczej, przybycie której bardzo szybko zniszczyłoby siły alianckie, szczególnie te na froncie w Anzac. +Po zapoznaniu się ze stanem faktycznym, Monro zarządził ewakuację. Z decyzją całkowitego porzucenia półwyspu nie zgadzał się Kitchener, ale po osobistej inspekcji wszystkich trzech frontów przyznał on rację generałowi Monro i zapadła ostateczna decyzja o zamknięciu frontów na Gallipoli. +Ewakuacja 14 dywizji znajdujących się w bezpośredniej bliskości nieprzyjaciela zawierała w sobie wiele niebezpieczeństw i spodziewano się dużych strat, niemniej ciężki sztorm, który rozpoczął się 27 listopada i trwał 3 dni, dodatkowo obnażył fakt, że pozycje aliantów były nie do utrzymania. Po sztormie, na początku grudnia, burza i zamieć śnieżna w Suvla zalały okopy, topiąc przy tym wielu żołnierzy, a także zmywając niepochowane ciała w kierunku linii brytyjskich. Jeszcze więcej żołnierzy zginęło z powodu niskich temperatur i opadów śniegu. +Jak na ironię, sprawnie i prawie bez strat przeprowadzona ewakuacja była największym sukcesem aliantów w całej kampanii. Przyczółki na Suvla i Anzac ewakuowano pod koniec grudnia, ostatni żołnierze opuścili te plaże tuż przed świtem 20 grudnia. Oddziały wycofywano falami już od 7 grudnia, chwytając się różnych sztuczek, aby ten fakt ukryć przed Turkami. Na przykład w Anzac rozmieszczono karabiny ze spustami połączonymi kawałkiem drutu z patelnią, na którą kapała woda. Taki karabin wypalał raz na pewien czas, utrzymując Turków w przekonaniu, że na danym odcinku frontu nadal przebywali obrońcy. +Przyczółek w Helles utrzymano nieco dłużej, w przypadku gdyby Brytyjczycy zmienili zdanie i zdecydowali się na ponowienie ofensywy. Ale i tu 27 grudnia zdecydowano się na ewakuację. Turcy, którzy zostali już ostrzeżeni, że może się to zdarzyć, zorganizowali silny atak 6 stycznia 1916 roku, ale zostali odparci. Ostatni brytyjscy żołnierze opuścili plażę na Gallipoli 9 stycznia. +Skutki i reperkusje. +Kampania w Gallipoli daje znakomitą możliwość na zastanawianie się, "co by było, gdyby"… Alianci popełnili tyle błędów w tej kampanii, że gdyby tylko udało się któregoś z nich uniknąć, ostateczny wynik byłby zapewne inny. +Co by było, gdyby... +W czasie kampanii o Gallipoli stanęły przed sobą dwie armie o mniej więcej równych siłach i żadna ze stron nie była w stanie dokonać żadnego decydującego przełomu. Kiedy na przykład aliantom udało się wykonać jakiś wyłom w obronie przeciwnika, jak w czasie bitwy o Lone Pine czy w czasie drugiej bitwy o Krithia, nie posiadali oni wystarczających rezerw operacyjnych, aby to wykorzystać. Z drugiej strony, pomimo zatrzymania aliantów na przyczółkach, Turkom brakowało wystarczających sił, aby ich zepchnąć do morza. +Imperium Osmańskie zostało nazwane przez cara Mikołaja I "chorym człowiekiem Europy", ale po zwycięstwie odniesionym na Gallipoli turecka wizja nowego imperium zaczęła ponownie wydawać się realistyczna. W Mezopotamii, w czasie oblężenia Kut, siły tureckie otoczyły brytyjskie siły ekspedycyjne i zmusiły je do poddania się. Posuwając się od południowej Palestyny w kierunku Synaju Turcy mieli nadzieję na zdobycie kanału Sueskiego i zmuszenie Brytyjczyków do opuszczenia Egiptu. Dopiero przegrana przez nich bitwa o Romani dała kres tym ambicjom i już do końca przekazała inicjatywę strategiczną w rejonie Środkowego Wschodu w ręce Brytyjczyków. +Po ewakuacji z Gallipoli siły alianckie zostały wysłane do Egiptu. ANZAC (wojska australijsko-nowozelandzkie) zostały poddane gruntownej reorganizacji, rozszerzono dywizje piechoty i wysłano je na front zachodnioeuropejski. Spieszona brygada "Light horse" odzyskała swoje konie i już jako dywizja konna wzięła udział w walkach w Synaju i Palestynie, świetnie się tam spisując. W czasie bitwy o Beersheba udało im się dokonać przełomowego zwycięstwa, które okazało się tak złudne w Gallipoli. +Przegrana kampania w Gallipoli zakończyła kariery generałów Hamiltona i Stopforda, ale Hunter-Weston dostał jeszcze jedną szansę na dowodzenie, prowadząc VIII korpus w pierwszym dniu krwawej bitwy nad Sommą. Australijscy generałowie Monach i Chauvel otrzymali promocję na dowódców dywizji, a później korpusów. Winston Churchill i Pierwszy Lord Admiralicji Jackie Fisher podali się do dymisji, wzajemnie przy tym oskarżając się o to, po czyjej stronie leżała wina za niepowodzenie operacji. Kitchener był postacią zbyt lubianą i popularną, aby zostać publicznie ukaranym, ale ucierpiała bardzo jego aura "nieprzegrywalności", był on jednak stopniowo odsuwany w cień przez swoich kolegów aż do śmierci rok później. Fiasko Gallipoli przyczyniło się także do upadku rządu Asquitha w 1916 roku. Po stronie tureckiej właśnie od tego zwycięstwa zaczęła rosnąć sława i popularność Mustafy Kemala. +Kampania na Gallipoli stanowi jeden z przełomowych momentów w dziejach Australii i Nowej Zelandii. Do tej pory oba te kraje uważały się za wiernych poddanych Brytanii i wierzyły w brytyjską wyższość. Wydarzenia na Gallipoli zachwiały tymi przekonaniami, a trzy lata na froncie zachodnim zniszczyły je całkowicie. Na Gallipoli narodziła się także legenda "Anzacs", braterstwa broni pomiędzy Australią i Nową Zelandią. Australijscy i nowozelandzcy żołnierze, popularnie zwani "diggers", przekonali się, że wcale nie są gorsi od swoich brytyjskich kolegów, a pod wieloma względami nawet ich przewyższają. Gallipoli to definiujący moment w historii Australii, moment, w którym obudziła się świadomość Australijczyków jako odrębnego narodu. +"Bohaterowie, którzy przelaliście własną krew i straciliście życie... Leżycie teraz w ziemi przyjaznego wam kraju. Spoczywajcie w pokoju. Nie ma różnicy pomiędzy "Johnymi", a "Mehmetami" teraz, kiedy leżą przy sobie w naszym kraju… Matki, które wysłałyście synów z dalekich krajów, obetrzyjcie łzy, wasi synowie leżą przytuleni do naszej piersi i spoczywają w pokoju. Po tym jak stracili życie na naszej ziemi stali się także naszymi synami". +Straty. +Oprócz podanych w tabeli strat - tych, którzy zginęli lub zostali ranni w czasie działań wojennych, wielu żołnierzy chorowało z powodu kiepskich warunków sanitarnych na półwyspie, głównie na gorączkę, biegunkę i dyzenterię. Ocenia się, że do powyższych strat należy dołączyć około 145 tys. zgonów z tych powodów wśród samych tylko żołnierzy brytyjskich. +Anzac Day. +W 1990 roku, w 75 rocznicę lądowania na Gallipoli, przedstawiciele rządów Australii i Nowej Zelandii wraz z ostatnimi weteranami, którzy walczyli na Gallipoli, a także wielu turystów z Australii i Nowej Zelandii, którzy przybyli tam specjalnie na tę okazję, wzięło udział w specjalnym apelu, który odbył się przed świtem na cmentarzu wojskowym Ari Burnu. Od 1999 roku apel odbywa się na „północnej plaży” przy wybudowanym tam pomniku żołnierzy Anzac. Z roku na rok coraz więcej osób przybywa do Gallipoli z okazji tej uroczystości. +Ostatni żołnierz, który walczył na Gallipoli, Alec Campbell, zmarł w maju 2002 roku. +Równanie Clapeyrona + +Zobacz też: równanie Clausiusa-Clapeyrona i para cieczy +Adam Kilian + +Adam Kilian (ur. 13 lutego 1923 we Lwowie) – artysta plastyk, jeden z czołowych polskich scenografów współpracujących z teatrami lalek. +Podczas deportacji sowieckiej w nocy z 13 na 14 kwietnia 1940 został wywieziony ze Lwowa wraz z rodziną do Kazachstanu. Jego matka, Janina Kilian Stanisławska (krytyk sztuki, ilustratorka, literatka) stworzyła tam domowy teatr lalek "Niebieskie migdały", który po powrocie do kraju prowadziła w Warszawie. +W latach 1945-1948 studiował na wydziale architektury w College of Arts and Crafts w Nottingham. +Pracował jako scenograf i kierownik plastyczny "Teatru Lalka" w Warszawie. +Współpracował jako grafik z redakcją tygodnika dla dzieci "Płomyczek", ilustrował wiele książek dla dzieci. +Jest kawalerem Orderu Uśmiechu (1980). +22 grudnia 2008 z rąk podsekretarza stanu w MKiDN Tomasza Merty odebrał Złoty Medal "Zasłużony Kulturze Gloria Artis". +212 Eskadra Bombowa + +212 Eskadra Bombowa (Niszczycielska Nocna) – pododdział lotnictwa bombowego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +212 Eskadra Niszczycielska Nocna sformowana została na podstawie rozkazu L.dz 238/29 z 17 maja 1929, w składzie II Dywizjonu Niszczycielskiego Nocnego 1 Pułku Lotniczego, na lotnisku Okęcie. W listopadzie 1929 jednostka rozpoczęła szkolenie na trzech samolotach Farman F-68 Goliath. +Do 1931 pododdział przezbrojony został w samoloty Fokker F.VIIB/3m. W 1932 jednostka przemianowana została na 212 Eskadrę Bombową Nocną. Wiosną 1938 eskadra otrzymała w celach szkoleniowych samoloty PZL.23 Karaś, w październiku tego roku pierwsze samoloty PZL.37 Łoś. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 walczyła w składzie Brygady Bombowej, operując z lotniska Ułęż i posiadając na uzbrojeniu dziewięć samolotów PZL.37 Łoś Abis i B oraz jeden samolot Fokker F.VIIB/3m. +Para cieczy + +Para cieczy – faza gazowa substancji występująca poniżej jej punktu krytycznego. Para może zostać skroplona poprzez podwyższenie ciśnienia (proces odwrotny nazywamy parowaniem). Gazy powyżej swego punktu krytycznego nie dają się skroplić poprzez zmianę ciśnienia a bez obniżenia temperatury. +Przy danej temperaturze w zależności od ciśnienia para może być +To proste równanie odpowiada równaniu równaniu Clausiusa-Clapeyrona, które z kolei jest przybliżeniem ścisłego równania Clapeyrona opisującego przemiany fazowe dla dowolnej czystej substancji (uwaga, to nie jest równanie Clapeyrona stanu gazu doskonałego!) +Wartość temperatury, przy której ciśnienie pary nasyconej zrówna się z ciśnieniem zewnętrznym (ps = pzewn) jest temperaturą wrzenia cieczy. +Fernando de Herrera + +Fernando de Herrera (ur. w 1534 w Sewilli, zm. w 1597 tamże) - hiszpański poeta i humanista. +Pisał poezje wzorowane na Petrarce, głównie ody. +Francisco de Herrera (młodszy) + +Francisco de Herrera, zw. El Mozo (ur. w 1622 w Sewilli, zm. 25 sierpnia 1685 w Madrycie) – hiszpański malarz i architekt okresu baroku, syn Francisca Herrery Starszgo. +Po poróżnieniu się z ojcem wyjechał ok. 1642 do Rzymu, gdzie malował martwe natury z rybami i kwiatami. Zyskał tam przydomek Spagnolo degli pesci. Po powrocie do Hiszpanii (po śmierci ojca w 1656) był nauczycielem rysunku Karola II, a od 1672 malarzem dworu Filipa IV. Po śmierci Murilla został dyrektorem Akademii Malarstwa w Sewilli. +Jako architekt zaprojektował w 1680 kościół pielgrzymkowy Nuestra Señora del Pilar w Saragossie, pierwszą znaczącą światynię barokową w Hiszpanii. Był też twórcą fresków m.in. w kościele "San Felipe el Real" w Madrycie. Malował wyłącznie obrazy o tematyce religijnej. +Rudolf Clausius + +Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius (ur. 2 stycznia 1822 w Koszalinie - zm. 24 sierpnia 1888 w Bonn) – fizyk niemiecki. Jeden z twórców zasad termodynamiki. +Profesor Uniwersytetu w Zurychu i Bonn. Prowadził prace z zakresu termodynamiki i kinetyki gazów. Wprowadził pojęcie entropii i precyzyjnie sformułował II zasadę termodynamiki (1865). Opracował teorię polaryzacji dielektryków. Współpracował z Maxwellem nad kinetyczną teorią gazów. +Clausius opublikował szesnaście dużych prac naukowych. Pierwsza, i jednocześnie najsłynniejsza jego praca, ukazała się w 1850. Nosiła tytuł "O motorycznej sile ciepła i o prawach, które można wywnioskować stąd na potrzeby teorii ciepła". Był to początek cyklu prac, które ostatecznie doprowadziły go do zdefiniowania pojęcia entropii i sformułowania drugiej zasady termodynamiki. Praca ta uważana jest za początek nowoczesnej termodynamiki. +W 1868 został wybrany członkiem londyńskiego Towarzystwa Królewskiego (The Royal Society), a w 1879 otrzymał prestiżową nagrodę tego towarzystwa, tzw. "Copley Medal". +Cytaty. +"Energia Wszechświata jest stała." +"Entropia Wszechświata dąży do maksimum." +Równanie Clausiusa-Clapeyrona + +Równanie jest poprawne dla wszystkich przemian fazowych (parowanie, topnienie, sublimacja). +Para wodna. +gdzie +Pozostałe związki dotyczące równowagi pary wodnej z wodą przedstawiono w artykule temperatura punktu rosy. +W meteorologii. +Równanie Clausiusa-Clapeyrona odgrywa ważną rolę w meteorologii na jego podstawie można określić warunki skraplania się pary wodnej jako związek ciśnienia parcjalnego z temperaturą. +Zależność ta odgrywa ważną rolę w kształtowaniu się klimatu oraz jego zmianach wywołanych wzrostem temperatury, ponieważ równanie to przewiduje eksponencjalny wzrost ilości pary wodnej przy wzroście temperatury. Para wodna jest ważnym gazem cieplarnianym, zwiększenie się jej ilości może prowadzić do wzrostu temperatury powietrza a tym samym i parującej wody oceanów, jezior, rzek i z powierzchni ziemi co prowadzi do dodatkowego wzrostu ilości pary wodnej – tzw. niekontrolowany efekt cieplarniany (ang. runaway greenhouse effect). +Wnioski. +Równanie umożliwia określenie zmiany temperatury przemiany fazowej przy zmianie ciśnienia lub zmianę ciśnienia przemiany przy zmianie temperatury. +Podczas parowania i sublimacji następuje wzrost objętości (gaz ma większą objętość niż ciecz), co przy dodatniej wartości temperatury "T" i ciepła przemiany fazowej "L" prowadzi do wniosku, że wraz ze wzrostem temperatury rośnie też ciśnienie pary nasyconej lub wzrost ciśnienia powoduje wzrost temperatury przemiany fazowej. +Podczas przemiany ciała stałego w ciecz dla większości substancji też następuje wzrost objętości, co skutkuje wzrostem temperatury przemiany, przy wzroście ciśnienia. Niektóre substancje (np woda) zmniejszają temperaturę podczas topnienia, co skutkuje tym, że wzrost ciśnienia powoduje zmniejszenie temperatury przemiany fazowej. +Mariner 9 + +Mariner 9 – (pl. "Żeglarz 9.") przedostatnia bezzałogowa sonda kosmiczna NASA z programu Mariner. Jej celem było osiągnięcie orbity Marsa i stanie się tym samym pierwszym sztucznym satelitą innej planety oraz wykonanie zdjęć i szeregu badań naukowych. Misja zakończyła się pełnym sukcesem. +Przebieg misji. +Mariner 9, wystrzelony przez rakietę Atlas Centaur 30 maja 1971, dotarł na miejsce 14 listopada tego samego roku, 13 dni przed radziecką sondą Mars 2 (która wystartowała 11 dni wcześniej od niego). Pierwsze zdjęcia Marsa wykonał pod koniec października 1971, lecz ze względu na olbrzymią burzę piaskową na powierzchni planety nie były one zbyt dokładne. Burza zakończyła się w styczniu 1972 i odtąd zdjęcia przekazywane przez sondę były bardzo dobrej jakości. Mariner w sumie przesłał na Ziemię 7329 zdjęć Marsa - więcej niż przewidywano łącznie w programie badawczym Marinera 8 i 9 (pokrywających 85% jego powierzchni) i jego dwóch księżyców, Deimosa i Phobosa. Zdjęcia zostały wykorzystane do wyboru miejsc lądowania próbników Viking w połowie lat 70. Na cześć sondy nazwano Valles Marineris - rozległy system kanionów na Marsie. +Po wyczerpaniu gazu służącego do sterowania położeniem satelity, Mariner 9 został wyłączony 27 października 1972. Według szacunków NASA sonda pozostanie na orbicie Marsa przez 50 lat zanim wejdzie w jego atmosferę. +Budowa i wyposażenie. +Całkowita masa sondy wynosiła 997,9 kg (w tym 439,1 kg paliwa). Miała kształt ośmioboczny z czterema panelami baterii słonecznych o wymiarach 215 x 90 cm każdy. Całkowita rozpiętość (odległość pomiędzy końcami przeciwległych paneli) wynosiła 6,89 m. Baterie dostarczały 800 W mocy w pobliżu Ziemi i 500 W na orbicie Marsa.Układ ogniw słonecznych nie dostarczał energii bezpośrednio do przyrządów, lecz zasilał baterię akumulatorów niklowo-kadmowych, która po naładowaniu miała napięcie 26-38V. +Mariner 9 wyposażony był w dwie kamery telewizyjne, radiometr podczerwieni (IRR), spektrometry ultrafioletu (UVS) i podczerwieni (IRIS) oraz aparaturę radiową z dwiema antenami - paraboliczną o średnicy 1 m i dookólną zamocowaną na maszcie o długości 1,44 m. +Krasnobrodzki Park Krajobrazowy + +Krasnobrodzki Park Krajobrazowy – park krajobrazowy w województwie lubelskim. +Położenie. +Krasnobrodzki Park Krajobrazowy położony jest na fragmencie najwyższych wzniesień Roztocza Środkowego przekraczających 350 m n.p.m., na szczytach których znajdują się często wychodnie ostańców podłoża kredowego i trzeciorzędowego. W granicach Parku znajduje się też fragment doliny górnego Wieprza. Północno-zachodnią granicę Parku stanowi granica otuliny Roztoczańskiego Parku Narodowego od strony południowej ma on wspólną otulinę z Parkiem Krajobrazowym Puszczy Solskiej. Takie położenie sprawia, że krajobraz Parku jest urozmaicony we wszystkich jego częściach. +Rzeki. +Największą rzeką ubogiego w wody Parku jest Wieprz. Atrakcją są występujące tu podzboczowe źródła. Najwydajniejsze znajdujące się w Hutkach, Husinach i przy kaplicy „Na wodzie” objęto ochroną pomnikową. W wodach Wieprza oprócz licznych gatunków ryb występują także raki. +Przyroda. +Ponad 60% powierzchni Parku zajmują lasy. Mimo prowadzonej gospodarki leśnej na przeważającym obszarze zachowały one naturalny charakter. Dominującym zespołem leśnym są bory sosnowe, +a najpospolitszym gatunkiem lasotwórczym sosna, która dominuje na około 75% powierzchni leśnych. Na drugim miejscu występują bory jodłowe – jodła dominuje na 16% powierzchni, a następnie buczyna karpacka. Spotkać tu można także olsy, grądy, a także cenne torfowiska i zbiorowiska roślinności kserotermicznej, tak charakterystyczne dla Roztocza. +Na terenie Parku znajdują się dwa rezerwaty leśne, chroniące najcenniejsze fragmenty borów jodłowych i mieszanych: Święty Roch (202,6 ha) oraz Zarośle (64,02 ha). W lasach Parku spotkać można wiele rzadkich i chronionych roślin np.: widłaki, storczykowate, rosiczkę okrągłolistną, kruszynę pospolitą, wawrzynka wilczełyko. Na stawach w Hutkach rosną grążel żółty i grzybienie białe. +Pod względem faunistycznym teren Parku jest słabo rozpoznany. Z leśnych ssaków kopytnych występują tu: jeleń, sarna, i dzik. Ssaki drapieżne reprezentują m.in.: borsuk, gronostaj, jenot, kuna leśna, kuna domowa, łasica i tchórz. Z rzadszych gatunków ptaków stwierdzono tu gniazdowanie orlika krzykliwego, bociana czarnego, kraski i pliszki górskiej. Stawy nad Wieprzem koło Krasnobrodu są ostoją ptaków wodnych i bobra europejskiego, który ma tu dobre warunki siedliskowe. +Zabytki na terenie Krasnobrodzkiego Parku Krajobrazowego spotykamy głównie w Krasnobrodzie. W części Krasnobrodu zwanej Podzamek wznosi się otoczony dużym parkiem pałac Leszczyńskich z XVII w., rozbudowany w XIX w. Po drugiej stronie miejscowości zwanej Podklasztorem znajduje się barokowy kościół (XVII w.) z cudownym obrazem Matki Boskiej i Kalwarią Krasnobrodzką oraz muzeum parafialne, a także zespół barokowych kapliczek. +Turystyka. +Ruch turystyczny na terenie Parku koncentruje się przede wszystkim w Krasnobrodzie – uzdrowisku i jednej z miejscowości wczasowych na Roztoczu. Znajduje się w nim sanatorium, kilkanaście ośrodków wypoczynkowych, ponad 20 pensjonatów i kwater prywatnych, kempingi, schroniska młodzieżowe, kąpielisko, a także ośrodek turystyki konnej oraz wyciąg narciarski z trasą zjazdową na Górze Chełmowej. +Wytyczono także przyrodniczo-historyczną ścieżkę dydaktyczną „Wokół Krasnobrodu”, dwie ścieżki spacerowe: „Przez rezerwat Św. Rocha” oraz „Okolice Krasnobrodu”, a także ścieżkę rowerową o długości 40 km po najciekawszych miejscach Krasnobrodzkiego Parku Krajobrazowego. +217 Eskadra Bombowa + +217 Eskadra Bombowa – pododdział lotnictwa bombowego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Historia. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 r. eskadra walczyła w składzie Brygady Bombowej, operując z lotnisk: Podlodów. +111 Eskadra Myśliwska + +111 Eskadra Myśliwska – pododdział lotnictwa myśliwskiego Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Formowanie. +7 listopada 1918 na lotnisku Rakowice przystąpiono do organizacji III Eskadry Lotniczej Bojowej. 21 grudnia tego roku pododdział przemianowany został na 7 Eskadrę Lotniczą. 31 grudnia 1919 roku Minister Spraw Wojskowych oficjalnie zatwierdził nazwę jednostki – 7 Eskadra Myśliwska im. Tadeusza Kościuszki. +Wiosną 1925 r. jednostka przemianowana została na 121 Eskadrę Myśliwską, a 2 sierpnia 1928 r. na 111 Eskadrę Myśliwską. Razem ze 112 Eskadrę Myśliwską tworzyła III Dywizjon Myśliwski 1 Pułku Lotniczego (III/1 dm). +W czerwcu pododdział przeniesiony został z lotniska Mokotowskiego na lotnisko Okęcie. +W połowie czerwca 1939 r. do eskadry przydzielono 4 podchorążych ze Szkoły Podchorążych Lotnictwa w Dęblinie i 4 elewów ze Szkoły Podoficerów Lotnictwa dla Małoletnich z Krosna. +Działania bojowe. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 r. walczyła w składzie Brygady Pościgowej, operując z lotniska Zielonka. Na uzbrojeniu eskadry znajdowało się 10 samolotów PZL P.11c. +W czasie II wojny światowej z 20 pilotów eskadry zginęło 11, w tym wszyscy podchorążowie XII promocji SPL (awansowani na podporuczników ze starszeństwem z 15 sierpnia 1939 r.). Pięciu pilotów zostało asami myśliwskimi. +Obsada etatowa brygady. +Obsada etatowa we wrześniu 1939 r. +1.9.1939 +3.9.1939 +4.9.1939 +6.9.1939 +8.9.1939 +9.9.39 +Eskadra w wyniku działań bojowych straciła 8 samolotów. +Tradycje i godło brygady. +Eskadra dziedziczyła tradycje i godło 7 Eskadry Myśliwskiej, w składzie której w latach 1919-1920 walczyli amerykańscy piloci, którzy przybyli do Polski, aby wziąć udział w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej. +Jeden z pilotów, Elliot Chess, zaprojektował godło malowane na wszystkich samolotach eskadry, przedstawiające czerwoną krakowską rogatywkę (jaką naczelnik Tadeusz Kościuszko nosił podczas insurekcji 1794) i dwie skrzyżowane kosy (symbolizujące chłopów walczących razem z Kościuszką) na tle pasów i gwiazd flagi amerykańskiej. +Tradycje eskadry kontynuował sformowany 2 sierpnia 1940 303 Dywizjon Myśliwski "Warszawski" im. Tadeusza Kościuszki. +Aznar I (hrabia Aragonii) + +Aznar I Galindez (?-839) – hrabia Aragonii w latach 809-820. Po stracie Aragonii w 820 r., aż do śmierci w 839 r. rządził Cerdanyą i Urgell. Niektóre źródła wspominają go jako hrabiego Jaki. +Był prawnukiem Galinda, prawdopodobnego założyciela dynastii, który poprowadził frakcję frankijską do władzy w regionie. W swoich rządach, Aznar I często ulegał wpływom frankijskim. Podejrzewa się, że w 820 r. zerwał sojusz z Frankami i zawiązał nowy z Pampeluną i Banem Qasi z Doliny Ebro, co doprowadziło do utraty hrabstwa Aragonii i zyskania Urgell z Cerdaną jako kompensaty. +Z małżeństwa z Enecą Garces (według dzisiejszych hipotez pochodził z Gaskonii) miał czwórkę dzieci: +SS River Clyde + +SS "River Clyde" był 4000 tonowym węglowcem zwodowanym w Glasgow w 1905, którego nazwa pochodziła od rzeki Clyde w Szkocji. 25 kwietnia 1915 "River Clyde" został użyty jako "koń trojański" w desancie na Helles w czasie kampanii o Gallipoli. +Statek, na którym znajdowało się 2000 żołnierzy, głównie z 1. batalionu królewskich fizylierów należącego do brytyjskiej 29. dywizji, został celowo umieszczony na mieliźnie poniżej fortecy Sedd el Bahr, na plaży "V" przy przylądku Helles leżącym na skraju półwyspu Gallipoli. Plan zakończył się fiaskiem, żołnierze wychodzący pojedynczo z wąskich luków byli łatwymi celami dla tureckich karabinów maszynowych. +W czasie lądowania "River Clyde" był dowodzony przez komandora Edwarda Unwina, byłego kapitana żeglugi wielkiej i oficera brytyjskiej marynarki wojennej, który powrócił z emerytury. Na początku wojny dowodził torpedowcem HMS "Hussar" na Morzu Śródziemnym. +"River Clyde" uzbrojony był w 11 karabinów maszynowych zamontowanych na rufie i zabezpieczonych blachą pancerną i workami z piaskiem. W kadłubie statku wycięto małe luki, przez które atakujący żołnierze mieli wyjść najpierw na trap, a z trapu przejść na mniejsze łodzie stanowiące „most pontonowy” prowadzący na plażę. Kadłub miał być pomalowany na piaszczysto-żółty kolor w celu kamuflażu, ale w momencie lądowania malowanie nie było jeszcze zakończone. +Żołnierze szturmujący plażę próbowali dostać się na brzeg aż trzykrotnie, ale wszystkie próby zakończyły się tylko bardzo dużymi stratami. Porzucono więcej prób wejścia na ląd i żołnierze, którzy przeżyli zdecydowali zaczekać na zapadnięcie ciemności przed następną próbą. Marynarze, którzy cały czas, pod ostrzałem wroga utrzymywali most pontonowy i znosili do statku rannych żołnierzy otrzymali sześć odznaczeń Victoria Cross. +Po uchwyceniu przyczółka na Hellas, plaża "V" została bazą francuskich oddziałów, a "River Clyde" pozostał na mieliźnie jako dok i falochron. Był on także źródłem słodkiej wody i używano go jako szpitala polowego. Był ciągłym celem dla tureckich żołnierzy znajdujących się po azjatyckiej stronie cieśniny. +W 1919 "River Clyde" został ściągnięty z mielizny i zaholowany na Maltę w celu napraw. Później, pod różnymi nazwami (ostatnią była "Maruja y Aurora") służył jako tramp hiszpańskim liniom handlowym na Morzu Śródziemnym przez następne 50 lat. W 1965 planowano go odkupić i przerobić na muzeum, ale rok później został złomowany. +Jeremy Clarkson + +Jeremy Charles Robert Clarkson (ur. 11 kwietnia 1960 w Doncaster) – angielski dziennikarz telewizyjny, zajmujący się motoryzacją oraz prezenter programu "Top Gear" (razem z Jamesem Mayem i Richardem Hammondem), a także publicysta i podróżnik. +Biografia. +Clarkson zdobywał wykształcenie w szkole średniej w Repton, z której – jak twierdzi – został usunięty za naganne zachowanie. Po opuszczeniu szkoły, pracował w firmie swoich rodziców, gdzie zajmował się sprzedażą zabawek - Misiów Paddingtonów. Następnie zatrudnił się w redakcji Rotherham Advertiser, gdzie doskonalił swoje umiejętności dziennikarskie. Wspólnie z Jonathanem Gillem założył następnie Motoring Press Agency, która prowadziła przeznaczone dla prasy lokalnej testy samochodów. Recenzje samochodów autorstwa Clarksona trafiały też do specjalistycznych magazynów samochodowych, takich jak Performance Car. +Prowadzi w BBC cykliczny program poświęcony samochodom oraz sportom motorowym "Top Gear". Był także prezenterem cyklu "Jeremy Clarkson's Extreme Machines", w którym zajmował się innymi pojazdami - samolotami, okrętami podwodnymi oraz amfibiami. Clarkson pisze także cotygodniowe felietony do "The Sunday Times" i do "The Sun". +Prezenter miał wypadek samochodowy podczas kręcenia zdjęć do dwunastej serii Top Gear, gdy celowo wjechał w ścianę z cegieł samochodem ciężarowym, jednak siła zderzenia była znacznie intensywniejsza niż przewidywano. Jest to pierwszy tak poważny wypadek Clarksona od 31 lat. +W trakcie kręcenia programu Top Gear, Clarkson odbył wiele podróży po całym świecie, m.in. przepłynął samochodem-amfibią własnej konstrukcji przez kanał La Manche wspólnie z Richardem Hammondem i Jamesem Mayem. +Clarkson i May są pierwszymi ludźmi, którzy dotarli samochodem na północny biegun geomagnetyczny (78°35'07"N, 104°11'09"W). Wyprawa była elementem zorganizowanego na potrzeby Top Gear wyścigu z psim zaprzęgiem Richarda Hammonda. +Filmy/DVD. +Clarkson jest także autorem wielu filmów motoryzacyjnych. Ukazują się one co roku od 1996, produkowane przez wytwórnię On the Box. Jak na Jeremy'ego przystało, w każdym filmie niszczony jest przynajmniej jeden okropny według niego samochód. Każdy film posiada główny motyw (np. ukazanie tego, że wszystkie Amerykańskie samochody są kiepskie), pojawia się w nich także tajemniczy, znany z programu "Top Gear", Stig. +Podnormalna + +Podnormalna krzywej K w punkcie P to odcinek pomiędzy punktem Q będącym rzutem punktu P na oś x a punktem T będącym punktem przecięcia normalnej do krzywej K w punkcie P z osią x. +Feliks III + +Feliks III, (II) (ur. w Rzymie, zm. 1 marca 492) – papież w okresie 13 marca 483 do 1 marca 492, święty Kościoła katolickiego. +Biografia. +Feliks III urodził się w Rzymie, Włochy, w senatorskiej rodzinie Ancjuszów jako syn kapłana po którym otrzymał imię. Diakonat uzyskał w 472 roku po śmierci małżonki, Petronii. Mieli dwoje dzieci: Gordiana oraz Paulę i prawdopodobnie przez córkę stał się pradziadkiem papieża Grzegorza Wielkiego. Jego pontyfikat przypadał w okresie od 13 marca 483 do 1 marca 492 roku. +Mimo iż władza spoczywała w tym okresie w rękach Odoakra nawiązał współpracę z cesarzem Zenonem. Wystąpił przeciwko szerzącemu się na wschodzie monofizytyzmowi, a spór wokół patriarchy Piotra Mongosa doprowadził do nałożenia na patriarchę Konstantynopola Akacjusza ekskomunikę i odwołania go ze stanowiska (w 484 roku). Sobór, który nie rozwiązał sporu, zwołany w Rzymie, dał początek trzydziestopięcioletniej schizmie akacjańskiej. Stanowczość papieża stanęła na przeszkodzie rozwiązania sporu nawet po śmierci patriarchy Konstantynopola i Zenona. Równie surowo odniósł się do chrześcijan powracających na łono Kościoła po prześladowaniach za Humeryka, którzy pod przymusem byli chrzczeni przez arian, odmawiając im rozgrzeszenia z wyjątkiem "in articulo mortis" (w obliczu śmierci). Przeciwstawił się też przywróceniu rzymskiego święta "Luperkarii" (15 lutego). +Jest jedynym papieżem pochowanym w rodzinnym grobowcu w bazylice św. Pawła za Murami obok swojej żony i dzieci. +Jego wspomnienie liturgiczne obchodzone jest 1 marca (od 1922 roku, wcześniej 25 lutego). +Aspirowanie + +Aspirowanie - zabieg stosowany przy iniekcjach domięśniowych mający na celu sprawdzenie czy koniec igły nie tkwi w naczyniu krwionośnym. Może on polegać na odłączeniu igły od strzykawki lub niewielkim podniesieniu tłoka strzykawki. Przy właściwym wkłuciu krew nie powinna pojawić się ani w igle, ani w strzykawce. +Manuel Guirao + +Manuel Guirao (ur. 4 czerwca 1919 w Rafael Obligado, prowincja Buenos Aires, zm. 2 stycznia 2005) – argentyński duchowny katolicki, biskup. +Studiował w seminarium Nuestra Senora de Lujan w La Plata, przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 5 grudnia 1943. W październiku 1970 został mianowany przez Pawła VI biskupem Oranu (Argentyna), przyjął sakrę biskupią 8 grudnia 1970 z rąk biskupa Eduardo Pironio (późniejszego kardynała). 20 marca 1981 został przeniesiony na biskupstwo Santiago del Estero. +Był współtwórcą seminarium międzydiecezjalnego w Santiago. W 1994 wchodził w skład komitetu wykonawczego IX Narodowego Kongresu Eucharystycznego. W listopadzie tego samego roku, po osiągnięciu wieku emerytalnego, złożył rezygnację z rządów diecezją Santiago del Estero. Od lutego 1999 do lipca 2000 był administratorem apostolskim diecezji Chascomus, wakującej po przejściu biskupa Juana Carlosa Maccarone do Santiago del Estero (bezpośredni następca biskupa Guirao w Santiago del Estero, Gerardo Sueldo, zmarł w 1998). +Bardija (król Persji) + +Bardija (VI wiek p.n.e.) – syn króla Persji Cyrusa z dynastii Achemenidów, młodszy brat Kambyzesa. Grecy nazywali go "Smerdisem". +Po śmierci Cyrusa w 529 p.n.e. królem Persji został jego starszy brat Kambyzes, Bardija otrzymał zaś panowanie nad wschodnimi prowincjami imperium. +Według Herodota oraz inskrypcji Dariusza I w Behistunie Kambyzes z nieznanych powodów zamordował swojego młodszego brata (najprawdopodobniej Bardija stał na czele spisku przeciw Kambyzesowi). Według różnych wersji stało się to przed wyprawą Kambyzesa na Egipt w 525 p.n.e., albo już w jej trakcie. Mord był trzymany w sekrecie. +Tajemnicze zamordowanie Bardiji wykorzystał medyjski mag Gaumata, który w 522 p.n.e. przejął władzę w Persji podając się za Bardiję. Gdy przebywający wciąż w Afryce Kambyzes dowiedział się o uzurpatorze, wyruszył do Persji. Zmarł jednak po drodze w niejasnych okolicznościach. +Rządy uzurpatora - Gaumaty-Bardiji - zakończyły się po sześciu miesiącach. Został on zamordowany w twierdzy Sikjawautisz w Medii przez przedstawiciela bocznej linii Achemenidów, Dariusza, który został nowym królem Persji. +Głównym źródłem do historii uzurpatora Gaumaty jest inskrypcja w Behistunie, co jest o tyle problematyczne, że została ona stworzona przez jego mordercę, Dariusza. Dariusz twierdzi w niej, że Gaumata-Bardija był okrutnym tyranem, który mordował wszystkich, którzy znali prawdziwego Bardiję i mogli rozpoznaċ jego oszustwo. Należy jednak zauważyċ, że po zamordowaniu Gaumaty Dariusz przez kilkanaście miesięcy musiał tłumiċ bunty w różnych częściach imperium, co wskazywałoby na to, że był on władcą popularnym. +W związku z powyższym niektórzy historycy wysuwają hipotezę, że żadnego Gaumaty-Bardiji nie było, i Dariusz wraz ze spiskowcami zabił po prostu Bardiję, prawowitego dziedzica tronu Achemenidów, a następnie stworzył historyjkę o Gaumacie żeby usprawiedliwiċ swój postępek. +Jyotindra Nath Dixit + +Jyotindra Nath Dixit (8 stycznia 1936 w Madrasie - 3 stycznia 2005 w New Delhi), dyplomata indyjski. +Syn pisarza w języku malajam z Kerali, studiował na uniwersytecie w Delhi i od 1958 pracował w dyplomacji. Przebywał na placówkach w Chile, Meksyku, Japonii i Australii, w 1971 został mianowany przez rząd Indiry Gandhi pierwszym ambasadorem Indii w niepodległym Bangladeszu (do 1974). W kolejnych latach był rzecznikiem rządu w Delhi, pracował w ambasadach w Tokio i Waszyngtonie. W latach 1980-1985 był ambasadorem w Afganistanie, 1985-1989 wysokim komisarzem Indii w Sri Lance, 1989-1991 ambasadorem w Pakistanie. W 1991 został sekretarzem stanu ds. zagranicznych. W pracy dyplomatycznej był zdecydowanym rzecznikiem roli lidera w regionie dla Indii, przyczynił się jednocześnie do uregulowania stosunków dwustronnych z Pakistanem. Prowadził wiele znaczących negocjacji regionalnych, m.in. w sprawie wątpliwości granicznych z Chinami. Reprezentował interesy Indii w wielu organizacjach międzynarodowych, ONZ, UNESCO, Ruchu Państw Niezaangażowanych, Międzynarodowej Organizacji Pracy oraz Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych ds. Rozwoju Przemysłowego (UNIDO). +Był sekretarzem ds. zagranicznych do 1994, następnie pozostawał czołowym ekspertem polityki zagranicznej w opozycyjnej Partii Kongresowej. Po powrocie Partii Kongresowej do władzy w 2004 został doradcą premiera ds. bezpieczeństwa narodowego. +Z małżeństwa z Vijayą Sundaram (od 1958) miał sześcioro dzieci. +Teognis z Megary + +Teognis z Megary ( "Theognis ho Megareus", VI wiek p.n.e.) – grecki poeta liryczny. +Liczący 1400 wersów zbiór elegii o treści politycznej, biesiadnej i erotycznej wydany pod imieniem Teognisa powstał w IV wieku p.n.e.. Ocenia się jednak, że około połowa tych wersów pochodzi od Solona, Tyrteusza i Mimnermosa. Na pewno od Teognisa pochodzi 254 pierwszych wierszy, poświęcone są Kyrnosowi, młodemu arystokracie i mają postać udzielanych mu rad. Teognis zdradza w nich swe arystokratyczne przekonania pouczając młodzieńca, by trzymał się z dala od "złych" czyli zwolenników demokracji, a przestawał z "dobrymi" czyli arystokratami. Przestrzeganie norm etycznych obowiązuje jedynie wobec "dobrych", wobec "złych" normy etyczne nie obowiązują. +Teognis żył w Megarze na przesmyku Korynckim w okresie, gdy następowało tam przejście od tyranii do demokracji. O jego życiu wiadomo jednak niewiele. Zachowane pism fragmenty pozwalają wnioskować, że Teognis nie wierzył w życie pozagrobowe i oburzał się na fakt, że niesprawiedliwość często odnosi zwycięstwo nad sprawiedliwością. Jego poezja nie jest wysublimowana, wyraża raczej twardy realizm ubrany w proste, wyważone strofy, pokrewne w duchu i formie przekazom siedmiu mędrców. Musiała jednak silnie oddziaływać na współczesnych o czym świadczy fakt, że niemal każda dyskusja dotycząca zagadnień greckiej arete (cnoty) toczona w Starożytnej Grecji odwoływała się do Teognisa – odwołują się do niego sofiści, Platon, Ksenofont i Arystoteles. +Miłostryj + +Miłostryj – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Miło-" ("miły") i "-stryj" ("stryj"). Może oznaczać "tego, który miłuje stryjów, krewniaków męskich od strony ojca". +Miłostryj imieniny obchodzi 16 marca. +Grampiany (Australia) + +Grampiany (ang. "The Grampians") - pasmo górskie w Australii, w południowo-zachodniej części stanu Wiktoria (ok. 250 km na zachód od Melbourne). Teren gór obejmuje park narodowy. Nazwa pasma górskiego została nadana w 1836 przez sir Thomasa Mitchella od najwyższych gór Szkocji. Najwyższy szczyt William osiąga wysokość 1166 m n.p.m. +Jedyne miasto na terenie gór to Halls Gap, będące centrum turystycznym regionu. +Grampiany są południowym krańcem pasma Wielkich Gór Wododziałowych ciągnącego się przez kilka tysięcy kilometrów wzdłuż wschodniego wybrzeża Australii. +Nerw podjęzykowy + +Nerw podjęzykowy (łac. "nervus hypoglossus") jest dwunastym nerwem czaszkowym, o charakterze ruchowym. +Anatomia. +Komórki korzeniowe nerwu XII tworzą jądro początkowe nerwu podjęzykowego ("nucleus nervi hypoglossi") w rdzeniu przedłużonym. Biegnąc między oliwką ("oliva") a piramidą wychodzi na powierzchnię rdzenia przedłużonego w jego bruździe bocznej przedniej ("sulcus lateralis anterior") kilkunastoma niciami korzeniowymi. Następnie pień nerwu opuszcza jamę czaszki przez kanał nerwu podjęzykowego ("canalis nervi hypoglossi") w bocznej części kości potylicznej, wewnątrz kanału oddaje wstecznie biegnącą gałąź oponową ("ramus meningeus nervi hypoglossi"). Wewnątrz swojego kanału nerw XII otoczony jest gęstym splotem żylnym ("rete nervi hypoglossi"). Nerw biegnie następnie w dół, do tyłu od nerwu błędnego z którym łączą go liczne anastomozy. Jego torem biegnie gałąź górna pętli szyjnej ("radix superior ansae cervicalis"). Następnie przechodzi na powierzchnię boczną nerwu X i przebiega po przyśrodkowej powierzchni mięśnia gnykowo-językowego ("musculus hyoglossus"). W dalszym przebiegu nerw XII zagina się do przodu tworząc łuk ("arcus nervi hypoglossi"), i dochodzi do języka po zewnętrznej powierzchni mięśnia gnykowo-językowego. Na końcu swojego przebiegu rozpada się na drobne gałęzie językowe ("rami linguales nervi hypoglossi"). +Obszar unerwienia. +Nerw XII prowadzi włókna ruchowe do wszystkich mięśni języka, poza mięśniem językowo-podniebiennym. Włókna czuciowe zawarte w gałęzi oponowej unerwiające opony twardej tylnego dołu czaszki pożycza od nerwu językowego. +Patologia. +Porażenie nerwu podjęzykowego jednostronne powoduje, że wysunięty język zbacza na stronę chorą (wiąże się to z przewagą mięśnia bródkowo-językowego). Obustronne porażenie nerwu XII powoduje całkowite porażenie języka ("glossoplegia"), utrudniające w bardzo dużym stopniu mowę, przełykanie i żucie. +Podnóżek + +Podnóżek – mebel mający na celu zmniejszenie obciążenia statycznego układu kostno-mięśniowego kończyn dolnych podczas siedzenia. Mogą przyjmować formę taboretu, pufy lub specjalnej, pochylonej podstawki pod nogi. Konstrukcję profesjonalnych podnóżków regulują normy z zakresu ergonomii. +Historycznie. +Podnóżek to mebel drewniany niewielkich rozmiarów, ale wyjątkowo ozdobny i gustownie wykonany. Pierwsze podnóżki pojawiły się w starożytności a ich celem było podkreślenie powagi władcy poprzez ukazanie jego majestatu - stopami ziemi nie dotyka w odróżnieniu od swych poddanych. Ich funkcja wymagała, by były wykonane z cennego rodzaju drewna, nierzadko inkrustowanego i tapicerowanego najpiękniejszymi tkaninami. +Z czasem ich zastosowanie uległo zmianom. Pozwalały trzymać wyżej, wygodniej obolałe, schorowane stopy. Podnóżki trafiły do dworów magnackich, szlacheckich a później i domów mieszczańskich ku wygodzie i zdrowiu swych użytkowników. Obecnie podczas wyjątkowych okazji na dworach królewskich (Elżbieta II) można je spotkać jako pamiątkę minionych epok. +Podobnie jak niestosowane już XIX w. powiedzenie ""...sługa uniżony i podnóżek Szanownego Pana..."". +Bezpośredni test antyglobulinowy + +Bezpośredni test antyglobulinowy (BTA) – służy do wykrywania przeciwciał niekompletnych (czyli takich, które wchodzą w reakcje z antygenami obecnymi na erytrocytach, ale nie powodują aglutynacji), które opłaszczają powierzchnię erytrocytu. +Test ten nazwano bezpośrednim, gdyż połączenie przeciwciał i antygenów zachodzi in-vivo, a jego zadaniem jest sprawdzenie, za pomocą surowicy antyglobulinowej, (która prowadzi do powstania aglutynatów widocznych gołym okiem) obecności przeciwciał niekompletnych. Wynik z surowicą anty-D powinien być z Rh(+) dodatni, a z Rh(-) ujemny. +Mukopolisacharydoza + +Mukopolisacharydoza (MPS) – jest bardzo rzadko występującą chorobą przemiany materii, dziedziczną i bardzo trudną do zdiagnozowania. Występuje raz na 100 tysięcy urodzeń. Jej przyczyną jest wada metabolizmu, polegająca na gromadzeniu się w organizmie mukopolisacharydów, które uszkadzają komórki i narządy ciała. W efekcie prowadzi to do wyniszczenia niemal całego organizmu dziecka. +Mechanizm działania. +Mukopolisacharydy będące częścią składową tkanki łącznej składają się z łańcuchów cząsteczek cukrów i podlegają rozkładowi w lizosomach dzięki działaniu zestawu właściwych enzymów. Brak lub wada jednego z takich enzymów powoduje zachwianie procesu rozpadu, odkładanie się jego produktów w lizosomach i uszkodzenie pozostałych części składowych komórki przez ich rozszerzanie się. +W wyniku badań ustalono iż przyczyną produkcji niewłaściwych enzymów jest defekt materiału genetycznego. Ustalono również, iż choroba może występować pod wieloma postaciami (w Polsce zdiagnozowano typy I, II, III, IV, VI i VII) wywołanymi poprzez różnorodne braki enzymów. +Objawy. +Wczesnym objawem choroby jest przepuklina pępkowa i pachwinowa, polipy błony śluzowej, problemy ze słuchem. W późniejszym życiu problemem jest nadmierna ruchliwość dzieci, usztywnienie stawów, biegunki, zmętnienie rogówki. Występują również przypadki drgawek z odpowiednimi zmianami w wykresie fal mózgowych (EEG). +Później występuje twarz groteskowa (maszkarowata). +Diagnozowanie. +Najprostszą metodą diagnostyczną jest ilościowe określenie mukopolisacharydów w moczu, które w przypadku mukopolisacharydoz są wydalone w zwiększonych ilościach. Niektóre enzymy dają się zmierzyć również w serum, względnie w preparatach leukocytowych. +Zdiagnozowanie choroby możliwe jest już w okresie prenatalnym. W sytuacji, gdy jedno dziecko urodziło się już chore, szansa na urodzenie się kolejnego dziecka zdrowego wynosi jedynie 75%. +Leczenie. +Nie jest możliwe leczenie przyczynowe, ponieważ nie są obecnie znane metody korekcji uszkodzonego materiału genetycznego (prowadzone są nieustanne prace w tym kierunku). +Złagodzenie objawów choroby, ale nie pełne wyleczenie, można ewentualnie osiągnąć poprzez przeszczep szpiku kostnego, który stanowi zabieg bardzo dużego ryzyka. W przypadku mukopolisacharydozy typ III i IV zabieg ten jest w każdym przypadku bezskuteczny. +Leczenie dzieci chorych na mukopolisacharydozy polega głównie na łagodzeniu, bądź zapobieganiu towarzyszącym im problemom zdrowotnym, będącym najbardziej widocznymi objawami choroby. +Pieszy + +Pieszy to osoba znajdująca się poza pojazdem na drodze i nie wykonująca na niej robót lub czynności przewidzianych odrębnymi przepisami. Za pieszego uważa się również osobę prowadzącą, ciągnącą lub pchającą rower, motorower, motocykl, wózek dziecięcy, podręczny lub inwalidzki, osobę poruszającą się w wózku inwalidzkim, a także osobę w wieku do 10 lat kierującą rowerem pod opieką osoby dorosłej. +Historia. +Ruch pieszy jest pierwotną metodą przemieszczania się. Nasi przodkowie wywędrowali z Afryki około 60 000 lat temu. +Przeszli wzdłuż wybrzeży Indii aż do Australii. Przemierzyli Azję i dotarli do Ameryki, a z Azji Środkowej przemaszerowali do Europy. +W osiemnastym i dziewiętnastym wieku piesza wędrówka stała się popularnym sportem widowiskowym, tak jak obecnie jazda konna w Wielkiej Brytanii czy w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Jednym z najsłynniejszych pieszych był kapitan Robert Barclay Allardice, znany jako "Sławny Pieszy" ("The Celebrated Pedestrian") ze Stonehaven. Jego najbardziej godnym podziwu wyczynem był trwający 1000 godzin spacer w tempie mili na godzinę, który wykonał między 1 czerwca i 12 lipca 1809 roku. Udało mu się w ten sposób przemówić do wyobraźni społeczeństwa i zmobilizować 10 000 widzów, by uczestniczyli w wydarzeniu. Do końca XIX wieku wiele osób usiłowało powtórzyć jego sukces. Wśród nich była słynna Ada Anderson, która poszła w ślady Sławnego Pieszego i maszerowała przez 1000 godzin w tempie ćwierć mili na kwadrans. +Jednak od XIX wieku zainteresowanie pieszą wędrówką znacznie zmalało. Mimo, że zalicza się do sportów olimpijskich, nie wzbudza już porównywalnych emocji. Niemniej jednak piesi nadal uczestniczą w takich popularnych wędrówkach z Land's End do John o' Groats w Wielkiej Brytanii, czy przemierzają Amerykę Północną od morza do morza. Pierwszą osobą, która obeszła kulę ziemską był Dave Kunst. 20 czerwca 1970 r. rozpoczął swą wędrówkę z miasteczka Waseca w stanie Minnesota na wschód. 5 października 1974 r. zakończył wyprawę, wchodząc do miasta od strony zachodniej. Tego typu pokazy wytrzymałości są często powiązane z akcjami charytatywnymi czy zbiórką pieniędzy. Biorą w nich udział zarówno takie sławy, jak Sir Jimmy Savile czy Ian Botham jak i zwyczajni obywatele, którzy inaczej nie znaleźliby się w centrum uwagi opinii publicznej. +Zdrowie i środowisko. +Regularne maszerowanie ma bardzo istotny wpływ na zdrowie człowieka i środowisko naturalne. Otyłości i związanym z nią problemom natury medycznej można skutecznie zapobiec dzięki pieszemu ruchowi każdego dnia. Rozpowszechniony zwyczaj pokonywania samochodem nawet najkrótszych odległości w znacznym stopniu przyczynia się zarówno do otyłości, jak i do zmian klimatycznych, wywoływanych częściowo poprzez emisję spalin. Silniki spalinowe wewnętrznego spalania charakteryzują się wyjątkowo słabą wydajnością i bardzo zanieczyszczają środowisko przez pierwsze kilka minut pracy (rozruch zimnego silnika) – w czasie pokonywania krótkich podróży w mieście. Korzystanie z publicznych środków transportu stanowi zachętę do chodzenia, ponieważ w większości przypadków dotarcie do celu podróży wymaga także ruchu pieszego. +Drogi. +W dzisiejszych czasach przy drogach wytycza się ścieżki przeznaczone specjalnie dla ruchu pieszych, czyli chodniki. Istnieją również ścieżki, z których korzystają wyłącznie piesi, zwłaszcza na szlakach turystycznych, ale są też takie drogi, przy których nie ma ścieżek dla pieszych. Ścieżki wytyczone na terenach górskich i leśnych noszą nazwę szlaków. Podczas, gdy na niektórych drogach dopuszcza się zarówno ruch pieszy, konny i samochodowy, to na innych piesi mają całkowity zakaz wstępu. Deptaki przeznaczone się wyłącznie dla ruchu pieszych. Na niektórych drogach są specjalne przejścia dla pieszych. Most tylko dla pieszych nazywamy kładką. +W wielu miejscach w Stanach Zjednoczonych przepisy bezwzględnie wymagają od kierowcy przepuszczenia pieszego na przejściu. +W Wielkiej Brytanii piesi mają prawo korzystać ze wszystkich dróg publicznych (bez względu na to, czy mają one chodniki), wyłączając autostrady i specjalne płatne tunele i mosty jak np. Blackwall Tunnel i Dartford Crossing. Zazwyczaj zaleca się, by piesi szli w przeciwnym kierunku do ruchu samochodów w przypadku, gdy przy drodze nie ma chodnika. +Inne znaczenia angielskiego terminu "pieszy". +W języku angielskim "pedestrian" oznacza nie tylko „pieszego”, ale funkcjonuje jako przymiotnik „przeciętny, niczym się niewyróżniający” w odniesieniu do osób, czy „bez polotu, zwykły, zwyczajny” w odniesieniu do rzeczy i zjawisk. Wynika to z tradycyjnego postrzegania jazdy konnej jako „ciekawszej” formy przemieszczania się niż piesza wędrówka. +Jan Chrzciciel + +Jan Chrzciciel, Jan Baptysta , cs. "Prorok, Priedtiecza i Krestitiel Gospodień Ioann", łac. "Ioannes Baptista", hebr. יוחנן המטביל "Jehohanan ben Zekarijahu" (ur. pomiędzy 6 p.n.e.-2 p.n.e. w Ain Karem, zm. ok. 32 n.e. w Macheront) – pustelnik, prorok żydowski, święty katolicki i prawosławny. Święty ten wymieniany jest w Modlitwie Eucharystycznej (Communicantes) Kanonu rzymskiego. +Wstęp. +Jan Chrzciciel prawdopodobnie znał sektę esseńczyków, jednak nie da się jednoznacznie stwierdzić, czy był jej członkiem. Jego nauczanie w niektórych aspektach jest sprzeczne z doktrynami tej denominacji. Przez wielu swoich słuchaczy uznawany był za Mesjasza. O jego działalności misyjnej i kaznodziejskiej wspominają Ewangelie i żydowski historyk Józef Flawiusz. Flawiusz pisze o Janie Chrzcicielu w "Dawnych dziejach Izraela" (znane też pod tytułem "Starożytności żydowskie"), że Jan nie chrzcił dla oczyszczenia z grzechu, lecz dla oczyszczenia ciała. +Przez chrześcijan jest uznawany za ostatniego biblijnego proroka przed nadejściem Chrystusa. Mandejczycy uznają go za największego z proroków. Muzułmanie uznają go za jednego z proroków, poprzednika Jezusa i Mahometa. +Życiorys. +Według Nowego Testamentu Jan Chrzciciel urodził się pół roku przed Jezusem z Nazaretu w wiosce Ain Karim. Był synem żydowskiego kapłana Zachariasza i Elżbiety, która była krewną Maryi z Nazaretu. Jego narodziny zapowiedziane były jako dowód prawdziwości zapowiedzi złożonych przez Archanioła Gabriela Maryi w czasie zwiastowania, a także przepowiedziane były jego ojcu przez anioła w Świątyni Jerozolimskiej. +W dość młodym wieku Jan, zapewne po śmierci podeszłych wiekiem rodziców, zrezygnował z możliwości zostania kapłanem i rozpoczął życie pustelnika na Pustyni Judzkiej, gdzie prawdopodobnie zetknął się z esseńczykami. Na pustyni został powołany na proroka, a jego głównym zadaniem stało się wzywanie ludzi do nawrócenia oraz przygotowanie drogi do publicznej służby Mesjasza. Głosił potrzebę nawrócenia wewnętrznego i odnowy duchowej ludzi. Symbolem tego przygotowania był chrzest udzielany przez proroka słuchaczom jego nauk w rzece Jordanie. +Niedługo po spotkaniu i ochrzczeniu Jezusa Jan został wtrącony do więzienia za jawne krytykowanie niemoralnego małżeństwa tetrarchy Galilei, Heroda Antypasa. Na skutek spisku żony Heroda, Herodiady, Jan został ścięty ok. 32 roku. +Dokładna data śmierci Jana Chrzciciela nie jest znana. Badacze datują moment śmierci proroka na koniec lat dwudziestych I wieku n.e. albo okres między 34 a 36 rokiem. +Kult. +Grób i relikwie. +Według tradycji chrześcijańskiej i muzułmańskiej grób Jana Chrzciciela znajduje się w Wielkim Meczecie Umajjadów w Damaszku. Poczerniałe relikwie prawej ręki, tzw. Prawica-która-ochrzciła-Pana, która była przez wieki główną relikwią zakonu joannitów znajduje się w Chramie Chrystusa Zbawiciela w Moskwie. Skrzynka do dziś ozdobiona jest krzyżami maltańskimi, a do Rosji trafiła po zajęciu Malty przez Napoleona Bonaparte. Relikwie palców Jana Chrzciciela przechowywane są w Sienie i Stambule. W 2010 fragmenty szczątków świętego znaleziono w ruinach prawosławnego klasztoru na wysepce Świętego Iwana niedaleko Sozopola, na południowym wybrzeżu Morza Czarnego w Bułgarii. Relikwie wraz z alabastrowym relikwiarzem były zamurowane w ołtarzu nieczynnego od stuleci klasztoru. . +Patronat. +Jest patronem wielu zakonów, m.in. joannitów ("Kawalerów Maltańskich"), mnichów, dziewic, pasterzy i stad, kowali, krawców, kuśnierzy, rymarzy; abstynentów, niezamężnych matek, skazanych na śmierć. Jest orędownikiem podczas gradobicia i w chorobach epilepsji. +Głotowo + +Głotowo (Glotowo, niem. "Glottau") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim, w powiecie olsztyńskim, w gminie Dobre Miasto w dolinie rzeki Kwieli. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa olsztyńskiego. +Typową zabudową jest zabudowa jedno lub wielorodzinna poniemiecka. Ciekawym obiektem jest szkoła założona przez Niemców w 1931 r. Szkoła polska powstała w 1946 r. +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki o Głotowie (1290 r.) związane są z pojawieniem się we wsi sołtysa z Ornety, Wilchela, a pierwszymi mieszkańcami byli Prusowie. W 1300 r. nastąpił najazd Litwinów. Mieszkańcy wynieśli wówczas z kościoła Najświętszy Sakrament by uchronić go przed profanacją, zakopując go w znacznej odległości od świątyni. Wieś została zniszczona, a kościół spalony. Po wielu latach pewien rolnik znalazł ukryty w ziemi kielich, a w nim nienaruszoną hostię. Jak głosi legenda woły ciągnące pług uklękły, podkreślając tym samym niezwykłość tego wydarzenia. Wiadomość o cudownym znalezieniu hostii rozeszła się wśród ludu, kielich przeniesiono w procesji do kościoła w Dobrym Mieście. Tymczasem hostia po raz kolejny wracała do Głotowa na miejsce, gdzie była zakopana. Wobec woli bożej wzniesiono kościół ku czci Bożego Ciała. Glotowo lokowane było w 1313 r. W połowie XIV w. zbudowano drugi kościół z kamienia i cegły i od tego czasu Głotowo stało się miejscem pielgrzymkowym. W połowie XIV w. zbudowany został kościół ku czci Bożego Ciała (wcześniejszy, pierwszy kościół powstał ok. 1290 r., zniszczony w czasie najazdu Litwinów. Kamień węgielny pod sanktuarium został wmurowany dn. 22 sierpnia 1722 r. przez biskupa Teodora Potockiego, a 24 lipca 1726 kościół był konsekrowany przez biskupa Krzysztofa Szembeka. Historia Kalwarii Warmińskiej wiąże się z mieszkańcem Głotowa, "Janem Mertenem", który po powrocie z Ziemi Świętej postanowił wybudować kalwarię wzorowaną na jerozolimskiej. Przywiózł nawet małe kamyczki z Jerozolimy traktując je jako relikwie, umieszczone w późniejszych kaplicach. Terenem wokół kalwarii oraz kapliczkami zajmują się poszczególne rodziny we wsi, osoby starsze, siostry zakonne. +Kalwaria. +Kalwaria została wybudowana w latach 1878-1894. Inicjatorem jej budowy był mieszkaniec Głotowa Johannes Merten, który w tym celu odbył pielgrzymkę do Jerozolimy. Przywiózł on ze sobą jako relikwie kamyczki z poszczególnych stacji jerozolimskiej drogi krzyżowej, które umieszczono pod kloszami w każdej kapliczce. Wąwóz pod Kalwarię wykopywano ręcznie staraniem całej diecezji warmińskiej (szacuje się, że w ciągu szesnastu lat w pracach uczestniczyło 70 tysięcy ludzi). Troszczono się, aby wiernie naśladować długość i nachylenie prawdziwej Drogi Krzyżowej Chrystusa w Jerozolimie. Pracami kierował ówczesny proboszcz Głotowa ks. Ferdynand Engelbrecht, a po jego śmierci w 1893 r. ks. Donald Steinsohn. W piątek 18 maja 1894 roku ówczesny biskup warmiński Andrzej Thiel dokonał poświęcenia Kalwarii. +Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego rok założenia 1918 + +Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego rok założenia 1918 (ZHP-1918) - organizacja harcerska powstała w 1989 roku z inicjatywy krakowskich instruktorów Ruchu Harcerstwa Rzeczypospolitej. +Podczas zebrania Komisji Organizacyjnej ZHR krakowscy działacze zaprezentowali pogląd, że z ZHP nie należy występować, lecz wskrzesić organizację rozwiązaną w 1949 roku. Nie udało się im jednak przeforsować tej idei wśród pozostałych założycieli ZHR, nie udało im się też przekonać do koncepcji podwójnej przynależności (do ZHR i ZHP naraz). W tej sytuacji krakowiacy postanowili do ZHR nie przystępować. +Na zbiórce Rady krakowskiego szczepu Ruchu Harcerskiego Rzeczypospolitej 14 marca 1989 postanowiono, że nie należy "„oddawać szyldu ZHP”" ówczesnemu ZHP, uznawanemu przez nich za organizację komunistyczną. Założenie obrony nazwy było według nich rozwinięciem KIHAMowskiej koncepcji odnowy ZHP od środka. +Ostatecznie przyjmuje się, że ZHP-1918 powstał 19 marca 1989 w Krakowie z założeniem odbudowy ZHP w oparciu o Statut z 1936 roku. +Wybrano tymczasowy Zarząd w składzie: Henryk Baniowski, Bogusław Molenda, Stanisław Porębski, Bogusław Rybski, Wiesława Stojek, Zbigniew Wilk oraz 8 delegatów do ogólnopolskiego Komitetu Odrodzenia ZHP. Komendantką Chorągwi Harcerek została hm. Małgorzata Rohleder, a komendantem Chorągwi Harcerzy hm. Ryszard Wcisło. +Jesienią 1989 środowiska ZHP-1918 oficjalnie wystąpiły ze Związku Harcerstwa Polskiego. +Działalność ZHP-1918 (m.in. liczne oświadczenia, uchwały i memoriały do rządu, Sejmu i Senatu oraz MEN i społeczeństwa o rozwiązanie ZHP) spowodowała protesty prawne ZHP. W konsekwencji działań ZHP-1918 i Komitetów Odrodzenia ZHP (KKO) inicjatywę reaktywowania ZHP poparli i wystąpili ze Związku Harcerstwa Rzeczypospolitej hm. Stanisław Broniewski "Orsza" i hm. Wojciech Wróblewski. +23 listopada 1990 Sąd Wojewódzki w Warszawie wpisał do rejestru stowarzyszeń "ZHP (rok założenia 1918)". Do rejestru osób uprawnionych do reprezentowania stowarzyszenia wpisani zostali Przewodniczący ZHP r.z. 1918 Kazimierz Wiatr, Naczelnik Harcerzy Wojciech Hausner, Naczelniczka Harcerek Małgorzata Rohleder, Sekretarz Generalny Zbigniew Wilk, Skarbnik Henryk Baniowski, Naczelny Kapelan o. Adam Studziński, członkowie Naczelnictwa Marcin Ślęzak i Piotr Szczypiński. 1 grudnia 1990 odbył się zgodnie z historycznym zapisem XVIII Walny Zjazd ZHP, zorganizowany przez ZHP-1918, na którym wybrano nowe władze. +Na zjeździe tym uchwalono m.in. gotowość rozmów zjednoczeniowych z ZHR, POH, SHK Zawisza i "tymi środowiskami ZHP, które zachowały wierność ideałom tradycyjnego harcerstwa". +Członkowie ZHP-1918 nosili nad prawą kieszenią munduru harcerskiego biało-czerwoną naszywkę z napisem ZHP-1918. Liczne środowiska ZHP-1918, powstały również w Łodzi, Warszawie i innych dużych miastach. +Instruktorzy ZHP-1918 wprowadzili też określenie na ZHP - ZHP-56. Było to powszechnie w tym czasie używane przez członków "alternatywnych" organizacji - określenie ZHP. Miało ono sugerować powstanie aktualnego ZHP w dniu 10 grudnia 1956 roku, w wyniku przekształcenia z OHPL, podczas Ogólnopolskiego Zjazdu Działaczy Harcerskich w Łodzi . Oraz że to przekształcenie było powołaniem organizacji jakościowo innej od przedwojennego (czy tużpowojennego) ZHP. +ZHP oczywiście uznawało to określenie za uwłaczające, wywodząc swe prawo do ciągłości historycznej i praw do całej spuścizny harcerstwa. Sądowy spór o nazwę „ZHP”, jaki władze ZHP wytoczyły ZHP (r.zał.1918) zakończył się anulowaniem zapisu do rejestru stowarzyszeń tej drugiej organizacji. +W tej sytuacji 3 października 1992 roku, na Nadzwyczajnym Zjeździe zdecydowano połączyć się ze Związkiem Harcerstwa Rzeczypospolitej. +Lansing + +__NOTOC__ +Lansing, miasto w USA, stolica stanu Michigan, nad rzeką Grand (uchodzącą do jeziora Michigan). Razem z East Lansing tworzy zespół miejski. +Miasto zostało założone w 1837 roku, a od 1847 roku jest stolicą stanu. Jest to duży ośrodek przemysłowy (przemysł samochodowy – General Motors), handlowy i naukowy (Michigan State University jest ulokowany w East Lansing). Najbardziej znanym zabytkiem miasta jest kapitol z 2 połowy XIX wieku. W Lansing urodzili się m.in. znani aktorzy Steven Seagal oraz Burt Reynolds, a także koszykarz Magic Johnson. +Demografia. +3.3% mieszkańców deklaruje pochodzenie polskie. +Diamagnetyzm + +Diamagnetyzm – zjawisko polegające na indukcji w ciele znajdującym się w zewnętrznym polu magnetycznym pola przeciwnego, osłabiającego działanie zewnętrznego pola. +Namagnesowanie diamagnetyka jest proporcjonalne do natężenia pola magnetycznego, w którym się znajduje i nie zależy od temperatury. Jest ono zawsze bardzo słabe. +Zjawisko odwrotne do diamagnetyzmu to paramagnetyzm. Należy jednak zaznaczyć, że paramagnetyzm jest zjawiskiem "odwrotnym" tylko w sensie makroskopowej obserwacji zachowania się substancji w polu magnetycznym (diamagnetyk jest wypychany z pola magn., a paramagnetyk – wciągany). Stoją za tymi zachowaniami jednak całkowicie inne zjawiska fizyczne: o diamagnetyku czytaj niżej, a w paramagnetyku porządkują się momenty magnetyczne elektronów. +Przyczyną diamagnetyzmu jest fakt, że zewnętrzne pole magnetyczne zmienia tor elektronów na orbitach (jakby indukuje w układzie prąd elektryczny), który powoduje powstanie pola magnetycznego skierowanego przeciwnie do pola zewnętrznego. +Diamagnetyzm występuje we wszystkich substancjach, ale zwykle jest maskowany przez silniejszy paramagnetyzm. Wyjątkiem są przeważnie związki chemiczne posiadające wiązania wielokrotne lub układ aromatyczny. +Diamagnetyki samorzutnie nie wykazują właściwości magnetycznych - nie są przyciągane przez magnes. Umieszczenie diamagnetyka w zewnętrznym polu magnetycznym powoduje powstanie w tym materiale pola magnetycznego skierowanego przeciwnie. Dla tych ciał względna przenikalność magnetyczna μ ośrodka jest nieco mniejsza od jedności (diamagnetyki nieznacznie osłabiają pole magnetyczne). Do diamagnetyków zalicza się: gazy szlachetne, prawie wszystkie metale i metaloidy nie wykazujące własności para- lub ferromagnetycznych (np: bizmut, krzem, cynk, magnez, złoto, miedź) a także fosfor, grafit, woda oraz wiele związków chemicznych. Diamagnetyczne są też DNA i wiele białek. +Zjawisko diamagnetyzmu zostało po raz pierwszy opisane przez holenderskiego lekarza i przyrodnika S.J. Burgmansa w 1778 roku. Nazwę "diamagnetyzm" stworzył jednak i rozpowszechnił Michael Faraday w 1846 r. +Podatność magnetyczna niektórych materiałów. +Nadprzewodniki można traktować jako doskonałe diamagnetyki (formula_1 = −1), ponieważ wypierają linie pola magnetycznego (efekt Meissnera). +Zespół Hurler + +Zespół Hurler, zwany również mukopolisacharydozą typu I, MPS I, chorobą maszkaronów (maszkaronizm) lub gargoilizmem ("Gargantua" – król, bohater powieści Rabelaisego ogromnych rozmiarów) – zaburzenie genetyczne objawiające się niedoborem alfa-L iduronidazy, która jest enzymem rozszczepiającym mukopolisacharydy. Brak tego enzymu powoduje wbudowywanie do organizmu siarczanu heparanu oraz siarczanu dermatanu co powoduje uszkodzenie narządów (m.in. serca, wątroby, mózgu). Zaburzenie metabolizmu mukopolisacharydów, powoduje upośledzenie umysłowe i fizyczne (duża głowa, groteskowe, grube rysy twarzy). Śmierć następuje najpóźniej około 10. roku życia. +Mukopolizacharydozę typu I dzieli się na 3 typy w zależności od objawów i ich nasilenia. Wszystkie typy wynikają z braku lub niedoboru enzymu alfa-L iduronidazy. MPS I H lub inaczej zespół Hurler jest najpoważniejszą postacią MPS I. Dwa pozostałe podtypy to MPS I S lub zespół Scheie oraz MPS I H-S lub zespół Hurler-Scheie. +Cechy zespołu. +Choroba cechuje się postępującym pogorszeniem stanu zdrowia, hepatosplenomegalią, karłowatością i zniekształceniem prawidłowych rysów twarzy (maszkaronizm). Występuje upośledzenie umysłowe, chorzy przeżywają 10 lat. +Opóźnienie rozwoju jest widoczne pod koniec pierwszego roku życia, całkowite zatrzymanie rozwoju jest widoczne między 2. a 4. rokiem życia. Jest to związane z postępującym niedorozwojem umysłowym oraz z utratą zdolności do wykonywania fizycznych czynności. Umiejętność mowy jest ograniczona poprzez utratę słuchu i nadmiernie powiększony język. Z czasem przejrzyste warstwy rogówki ulegają zmętnieniu a siatkówka ulega degeneracji. Występuje zespół cieśni nadgarstka (lub podobny ucisk na nerw w innej części ciała) i ograniczona ruchomość stawów. +Przy urodzeniu noworodki mogą być nieznacznie większe i wyglądać normalnie ale mogą mieć przepukliny pachwinowe lub pępkowe. Wzrastanie może być początkowo szybsze niż normalnie, ale przed ukończeniem pierwszego roku życia ulega zwolnieniu i najczęściej ulega zatrzymaniu około trzeciego roku życia. Wiele dzieci charakteryzuje się krótkim tułowiem. Charakterystyczne rysy twarzy (płaska twarz, obniżona przegroda nosowa i wydatne czoło) stają się bardziej widoczne w drugim roku życia. +Szczelina synaptyczna + +Szczelina synaptyczna to element budowy synapsy. Jest to szczelina między błoną presynaptyczną, a błoną postsynaptyczną. +Szczelina synaptyczna występuje głównie w synapsach chemicznych, gdyż w synapsach nerwowych szczelina ta jest mocno zredukowana w związku z przenoszeniem depolaryzacji błony presynaptycznej bezpośrednio na błonę postsynaptyczną. +Do szczeliny synaptycznej wydzielane są neuroprzekaźniki. Nadmiernej dyfuzji neuroprzekaźnika poza szczelinę synaptyczną zapobiegają charakterystyczne połączenia między błonami - presynaptyczną i postsynaptyczną - które umożliwiają bezpośrednie docieranie neuroprzekaźnika do receptorów umieszczonych na błonie postsynaptycznej. +Romansjera + +Romansjera – (inaczej: tête-à-tête) mebel drewniany, w powszechnym użyciu w XVIII i XIX wieku. Oglądany z góry przypominał kształtem literę S. Stanowiły go dwa wygodne fotele ustawione po skosie naprzeciw siebie, połączone ze sobą oparciami (podłokietnikami) prawej ręki. Mebel wsparty był na 8 nogach i słupku w miejscu połączenia podłokietników. Obszar pomiędzy prawą przednią nogą jednego fotela a słupkiem i dalej do prawej przedniej nogi drugiego fotela był zabudowywany i jak cała romansjera tapicerowany atłasem lub innymi ozdobnymi tkaninami obiciowymi. +Przeznaczeniem tego niezwykłego mebla było stworzenie sytuacji, w której zakochani romansując i siedząc prawie naprzeciw siebie mogą być blisko siebie, a ich prawe dłonie spoczywające na podłokietniku mogą się spotkać. +Wiskozymetr + +Wiskozymetr, lepkościomierz – przyrząd pomiarowy służący do pomiaru lepkości płynów (głównie cieczy). +Lepkościomierze kapilarne wyznaczają lepkość na podstawie czasu przepływu określonej ilości płynu przez odpowiednio skalibrowane rurki kapilarne pod działaniem znanej różnicy ciśnień. Na takiej zasadzie działają m.in. przyrządy służące do wyznaczania lepkości kinematycznej olejów: lepkościomierze Ubbelohdego, Ostwalda i Pinkiewicza. +W lepkościomierzach rotacyjnych (szeroko stosowanych w miernictwie przemysłowym) miarą lepkości jest wartość siły działającej między dwoma współosiowymi cylindrami: cylindrem zewnętrznym i obracającym się względem niego cylindrem wewnętrznym (badana ciecz wypełnia szczelinę między cylindrami). +W reowiskozymetrach (lepkościomierzach z opadającą kulką) miarą lepkości jest prędkość opadania kulki (o znanych wymiarach i gęstości) w badanym ośrodku pod wpływem stałej siły zewnętrznej (zwykle siły ciężkości), jak to ma miejsce np. w lepkościomierzu Höpplera. Lepkościomierze takie wykorzystują w sposób bezpośredni prawo Stokesa. +Stosowane są także lepkościomierze porównawcze służące do pomiarów lepkości względnej, tj. wyznaczania lepkości badanej substancji względem substancji wzorcowej o znanej lepkości, zwykle wody. Na takiej zasadzie działają m.in. lepkościomierze: Englera, Saybolta i Redwooda (środki smarne). +Do drugiej grupy przyrządów mierzących lepkość względną należy stosowany w poligrafii kubek wypływowy i lejek Marsha używany do pomiaru lepkości zawiesiny płuczkowej: wiertniczej i specjalnej. W obu przypadkach są to niewielkie naczynia o odpowiednim kształcie oraz znormalizowanym otworze umieszczonym w dnie. Po napełnieniu cieczą lepkość wyznacza się w ustalonej temperaturze przez zmierzenie czasu jaki jest potrzebny do tego, aby ciecz wylała się z naczynia. +Zębców + +Zębców (niem. "Sembsow", "Zembcow") - dzielnica Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego umiejscowiona w południowej jego części. Także osiedle administracyjne Ostrowa (Osiedle VII Zacisze-Zębców). +Historia. +W przeszłości nosił nazwy Ząbców, Zembcowo, Zembczewo, Zembców. Wzmiankowany w roku 1419. Kolejni właściciele byli również (z reguły) dziedzicami Ostrowa. Najznaczniejsi to Leszczyńscy, Przebendowscy, Bielińscy, Radziwiłłowie. Większą część wsi stanowił majątek dworski, którego pozostałości można znaleźć dziś w rejonie ulicy Brzozowej. Wieś włączono do Ostrowa w roku 1934. +Lata 90. XX wieku to okres szybkiej rozbudowy dzielnicy. Od 2005 Zębców uczestniczy w unijnym programie MO.DI (Mountains Digital). Projekt ten ma na celu integrację lokalnych społeczności z głównymi centrami ekonomicznymi i administracyjnymi poprzez szeroki dostęp do usług internetowych. Oprócz Zębcowa do udziału w projekcie wytypowano także kaliskie Dobrzec i Sulisławice oraz społeczności z Włoch, Słowenii i Hiszpanii. +Osiedla. +Większa część historycznego Zębcowa objęta jest obszarem osiedla Zacisze-Zębców. Obejmuje ono także mniejsze jednostki: osiedle Bajkowe, osiedle Zębcowska, oraz zamknięte osiedle Zacisze I. +Zabudowa jest głównie jednorodzinna. Dominują w niej domy nowe, starsza zabudowa tego typu skupiona jest głównie północnej części osiedla (rejon ulic Zacisze, Okopowa). W południowej jej części zlokalizowane są głównie tereny przemysłowo-składowe (na bazie dużego upadłego zakładu, Prefabet, powstało wiele firm z różnych branż, głównie budowlanych), także Miejskie Składowisko Odpadów. Zlokalizowana jest tu także Dyrekcja Dróg (Okręgowa, Powiatowa). +Osiedle Zacisze-Zębców nie obejmuje swoim zasięgiem tzw. Nowego Zębcowa - kolonii dawnych domków pracowniczych Fabryki Wagon położonych w rejonie skrzyżowania ulic Wrocławskiej i Osiedlowej. +Komunikacja. +Linie autobusowe: 14, 22, A +Niesuł + +Niesuł, Niesułka (masc.) — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-suł" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy"). Może oznaczać "mało znaczący", "taki sobie". Jest to jedno z najwcześniej notowanych w Polsce imion, po raz pierwszy zapisane w 1136 roku w formie "Nessul", w Bulli gnieźnieńskiej. +Adwokat + +Adwokat (łac. "advocatus" od "advocare", wzywać na pomoc) – prawnik świadczący pomoc prawną w szczególności polegającą na udzielaniu porad prawnych, sporządzaniu opinii prawnych, opracowywaniu projektów aktów prawnych oraz występowaniu przed sądami i urzędami. +Adwokaci w Polsce. +Wymagania zawodowe. +Adwokat może wykonywać swój zawód w zespołach adwokackich lub indywidualnie (także w formie handlowych spółek osobowych). Kandydat na adwokata musi ukończyć wyższe studia prawnicze, odbyć aplikację adwokacką, tj. praktykę w adwokaturze oraz zdać egzamin adwokacki. Osoby posiadające tytuł naukowy profesora lub stopień naukowy doktora habilitowanego w dziedzinie prawa są zwolnieni z konieczności odbycia aplikacji i zdawania egzaminu adwokackiego. +Zawód adwokata polega na świadczeniu pomocy prawnej, a w szczególności na udzielaniu porad prawnych, sporządzaniu opinii prawnych, opracowywaniu projektów aktów prawnych oraz występowaniu przed sądami i urzędami. Adwokaturę stanowi ogół adwokatów i aplikantów adwokackich. Prawo wykonywania zawodu ma tylko ten, kto został wpisany na listę adwokatów przez okręgową radę adwokacką. W Polsce wpisanych na listę jest ponad 7 tys. adwokatów. +Organy adwokatury. +Na szczeblu regionalnym istnieją izby adwokackie, które skupiają adwokatów i aplikantów adwokackich. Organami izby są: zgromadzenie izby, okręgowa rada adwokacka, sąd dyscyplinarny, komisja rewizyjna. +Naczelna Rada Adwokacka, izby adwokackie i zespoły adwokackie mają osobowość prawną. Najwyższym ciałem samorządu jest Naczelna Rada Adwokacka, natomiast w rejonie, okręgowa rada adwokacka. Do Naczelnej Rady Adwokackiej należy m.in.: uchwalanie regulaminów dotyczących zasad odbywania aplikacji adwokackiej i składania egzaminu adwokackiego, regulaminu dotyczącego zasad wykonywania zawodu indywidualnie lub w określonych spółkach, regulaminu dotyczącego zasad przeprowadzania konkursu na aplikantów adwokackich. Okręgowa rada adwokacka uprawniona jest m.in. do występowania z wnioskiem do organów rejestrowych lub ewidencyjnych o wszczęcie postępowania o wykreślenie z rejestru lub ewidencji podmiotu prowadzącego działalność w zakresie pomocy prawnej niezgodnie z przepisami ustawy "Prawo o adwokaturze" +Inne. +Zawodem pokrewnym do adwokata jest zawód radcy prawnego. Podstawową różnicą między radcami prawnymi a adwokatami jest możliwość świadczenia pomocy prawnej w stosunku pracy i pełnienia funkcji obrońcy w procesie karnym. Radcowie mogą pozostawać w stosunku pracy (czego nie wolno adwokatom), natomiast nie mogą być obrońcami w sprawach karnych i karnoskarbowych (do czego mają prawo adwokaci). W najbliższej przyszłości, w drodze nowelizacji ustaw, radcowie prawni mają otrzymać uprawnienia do pełnienia funkcji obrońcy w sprawie karnej i karnoskarbowej. +Istniejący podział na dwie korporacje uznawany jest za sztuczny. Z tego powodu wysuwane są koncepcje połączenia radców prawnych z adwokatami w jednej wspólnej korporacji. +Podział ten jednak ma następującą podstawę: pozostający w stosunku pracy radca prawny nie powinien być obrońcą w sprawie karnej, gdyż powstaje obawa o niezależność jego decyzji w odniesieniu do jego pracodawcy. Adwokat nie jest podmiotem podporządkowanym swoim przełożonym, a zatem nie są na niego wywierane naciski o charakterze służbowym. +Strogomir + +Strogomir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Strogo-" ("srogi") oraz członu "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). +Czwarty rząd Józefa Cyrankiewicza + +Czwarty rząd Józefa Cyrankiewicza – rząd pod kierownictwem premiera Józefa Cyrankiewicza. +24 czerwca 1965 roku prezes Rady Ministrów Józef Cyrankiewicz zgłosił dymisję swojego rządu, którą Sejm IV kadencji przyjął. +W tym samym dniu Sejm powołał na stanowisko prezesa Rady Ministrów Józefa Cyrankiewicza i powierzył mu zadanie skompletowania składu rządu. Sejm na wniosek Cyrankiewicza powołał Radę Ministrów w dniu 25 czerwca 1965 r. +Rząd istniał do 27 czerwca 1969 r., kiedy złożył dymisję. +Stronisław + +Stronisław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Stroni-" ("stronić, unikać") oraz członu "-sław" ("sława"). Oznacza prawdopodobnie "tego, który stroni od sławy". +Forma żeńska: Stronisława. +Stronisław imieniny obchodzi 28 sierpnia. +Kość gnykowa + +Kość gnykowa (łac. "os hyoideum") – nieparzysta kość trzewioczaszki nie mająca połączenia z innymi kośćmi. Leży topograficznie w obrębie szyi, pomimo tego jest jednak zaliczana do kości czaszki. Ma kształt podkowy, zawieszona jest poniżej żuchwy. Prawie całkowicie zbudowana jest z istoty zbitej. Bierze ona udział w ruchach krtani dzięki połączeniu z chrząstką tarczowatą za pomocą wzmocnionej więzadłowo błony tarczowo-gnykowej. +Kość gnykowa powstaje z II i III pary łuków skrzelowych. Z II pary powstają rogi mniejsze oraz górna część trzonu kości, a z III pary - rogi większe oraz dolna część trzonu. +Budowa. +W kości gnykowej można dopatrzyć się podobieństwa do żuchwy, wyróżnia się w niej bowiem trzon (łac. "corpus ossis hyoidei"), parę rogów większych (łac. "cornua maiora") i parę rogów mniejszych (łac. "cornua minora"). +Trzon (łac."corpus ossis hyoidei"), wypukły ku przodowi. Na jego przedniej powierzchni występuje szereg bruzd, do których przyczepiają się mięśnie nad- i podgnykowe. +Rogi większe (łac. "cornua majora") zakończone niewielkim zgrubieniem, odchodzą ku tyłowi i nieco na zewnątrz od końców trzonu. Połączone są z nim chrząstkozrostem, który z wiekiem kostnieje. Są one dłuższe od trzonu. Ich tylne końce znajdują się w bliskim sąsiedztwie tętnicy szyjnej zewnętrznej tuż poniżej odejścia tętnicy językowej. +Rogi mniejsze (łac. "cornua minora") odchodzą ku tyłowi i ku górze od trzonu w miejscu odejścia rogów większych. Są niewielkimi stożkowatymi wyniosłościami zbudowanymi z chrząstki, która z wiekiem kostnieje. Łączą się z trzonem za pomocą więzozrostu lub za pomoca niewielkiego stawu. +Region + +Zobacz też: regionalizm +Strzebor + +Strzebor, Trzebor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Strze(ży)-" ("strzec") oraz członu "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, który strzeże walcząc". +Pygame + +Pygame – to stworzona przez Pete Shinnersa biblioteka graficzna przeznaczona do tworzenia gier komputerowych oraz aplikacji multimedialnych w języku Python. Do działania wymaga biblioteki SDL, przy wykorzystaniu której dostarcza modułów pozwalających na wyświetlanie grafiki, odtwarzanie dźwięków, śledzenie czasu, obsługę myszy i joysticka, obsługę CD, czy renderowanie czcionek TTF. Pygame jako nakładka na SDL jest wieloplatformowa i umożliwia pracę na różnych systemach operacyjnych m.in. na Windows, Linux, MacOS. +Biblioteka Pygame stanowi wolne oprogramowanie i jest dystrybuowana na zasadach licencji LGPL. +Wyspa Wrangla + +Wyspa Wrangla (ros. "Остров Врангеля") – wyspa na północno-wschodnich krańcach Rosji na Oceanie Arktycznym, między Morzem Wschodniosyberyjskim a Morzem Czukockim, jest oddzielona od kontynentu Cieśniną De Longa. Wyspa wchodzi w skład Czukockiego Okręgu Autonomicznego. Powierzchnia ok. 7,6 tys. km², środkowa część górzysta, (najwyższy szczyt - Góra Sowiecka 1096 m), wzdłuż wybrzeży niziny. Wyspa znajduje się w strefie klimatu subpolarnego, liczne lodowce górskie, roślinność tundrowa. +Znana dzięki licznym znaleziskom szczątków karłowatych mamutów, należących do ostatnich przedstawicieli tego gatunku - "Mammuthus wranglensis". Wyginęły około 3800 lat temu. +Wyspa Wrangla wraz z pobliską Wyspą Heralda i wodami je otaczającymi jest rezerwatem znajdującym się na liście światowego dziedzictwa kulturowego i przyrodniczego UNESCO. Żyje tu wielka populacja morsów, niedźwiedzi polarnych i gniazduje wiele gatunków ptaków. +Nick Rhodes + +Nick Rhodes (właściwie "Nicholas James Bates", ur. 8 czerwca 1962 w Birmingham) – brytyjski klawiszowiec. +Biografia. +Po opuszczeniu szkoły w wieku 16 lat, pracował jako DJ w Birmingham, w klubie The Rum Runner. Razem ze szkolnym kolegą Johnem Taylorem założyli Duran Duran w 1978. Rhodes w początkowym okresie działalności zespołu wywarł największy wpływ na muzykę i wizerunek zespołu. Jeszcze przed nadejściem okresu MTV zwrócił uwagę na duży potencjał tkwiący w teledyskach. Jego wkład w twórczość zespołu był czasami niedoszacowany przez krytykę i otoczenie. W miarę jak Duran Duran zdobywali publiczne uznanie, jego inteligencja, determinacja, cięty humor stały się dobrze znane fanom. Był znany jako podtrzymujący blask Duran Duran, istotnie stał się posiadaczem prawa do nazwy Duran Duran. Rhodes uwielbiał eksperymenty z dźwiękiem jego analogowego syntezatora, ale unikał nowoczesnych ówcześnie dźwięków niektórych innych wczesnych syntezatorowych zespołów. "Save a prayer", "A view to a Kill" oraz "Come undone" to część z jego najbardziej rozpoznawalnego dorobku. Jego aranżacje były bogate, wielowarstwowe i jedyne w swoim rodzaju. +Na początku 1983 odkrył zespół Kajagoogoo i był producentem ich debiutanckiego albumu "White Feathers". Później żartując mówił, że nie powinien nigdy tego więcej robić, ponieważ ich przebój "Too shy" strącił "Hungry like the wolf" z 1. miejsca na liście przebojów w Wielkiej Brytanii. +Rhodes oczarował się artystycznym światem i przyjaźnił się Andy Warholem i The Factory, uczęszczał na światowe wystawy. Pewnego razu opisywał uwypuklając ten okres jego życia jako "kupowanie Picassa na kartę American Express". Pod koniec 1984 wydał swój własny album ze zdjęciami artystycznymi pod nazwą "Interference", wiele z nich było wystawianych w The Hamilton Gallery w Londynie. +Razem z członkami zespołu Duran Duran, Simonem Le Bonem i Rogerem Taylorem, utworzył oddzielną grupę Arcadia grającą melancholijną, syntezatorową muzykę, daleką od stylu Duran Duran czy hard rocka Power Station granej przez dugą część zespołu. Arcadia nagrała parę przebojów "Election day", "Say the word" i "Goodbye is forever" z jedynego albumu "So red the rose", który stał się multiplatynową płytą. +Na początku lat 90., razem z Warrenem Cuccurullo, stworzył oddzielny projekt TV Mania, ale nie udało się go doprowadzić do ostatecznego zrealizowania. Później wspólnie stworzyli parę nagrań dla reaktywowanej Blondie, ale te utwory nie były wykorzystane. +W 1999, razem z pierwszym wokalistą Duran Duran Stephenem Duffy'm, tworzył utwory bazujące na wczesnym stylu Duran Duran. Rezultatem była płyta Dark Circles wydana pod nazwą The Devils. +W 2002 był współproducentem i stworzył parę ścieżek dźwiękowych do albumu The Dandy Warhols. +Götz von Berlichingen + +Götz von Berlichingen, właściwie "Gottfried von Berlichingen" (ur. 1480 w Wirtembergii, zm. 1562 w Hornbergu w Niemczech) – rycerz niemiecki. +Mając 16 lat Götz von Berlichingen wstąpił na służbę u margrabiego Fryderyka II – władcy Brandenburgii-Ansbach. Rok później (w 1497) uczestniczył w wyprawie cesarza Maksymiliana I tocząc boje w Lotaryngii, Brabancji i Burgundii. W 1499 z trudem ocalił swe życie w przegranej kampanii szwajcarskiej. Podobnie jak Georg von Frundsberg był rozczarowany strategią wojskową przyjętą przez cesarza Maksymiliana I. +Od 1500 dzięki swej waleczności i umiejętnościom uczestniczył w licznych kampaniach rycerskich. Wraz ze swym oddziałem brał udział w walkach toczonych pomiędzy poszczególnymi książętami i miastami Niemiec. Celem tych walk było przywracanie naruszonego prawa. Pomimo skomplikowanej sytuacji politycznej von Berlichingen dał się poznać jako lojalny i waleczny rycerz. Służąc księciu Bawarii Albertowi IV Mądremu w czasie landshuckiej wojny sukcesyjnej pomiędzy Palatynatem a Bawarią w 1505 podczas oblężenia Landshut wskutek wystrzału z kolubryny stracił prawą rękę. Nie chcąc porzucić rycerskiego rzemiosła kazał wykuć sobie z żelaza protezę ręki i nadal ze swoim oddziałem był do dyspozycji lokalnych władców. +W 1519 walczył u boku Ulricha księcia Wirtembergii z wojskami Ligi Szwabskiej. Trafił do niewoli, ale za wstawiennictwem Georga von Frundsberga (generalnego dowódcy piechoty Ligi) uwolniono go w 1522 po zapłaceniu okupu (ok. 2 tys. guldenów w złocie) i złożeniu przysięgi, że nie wystąpi nigdy przeciw Lidze. +Von Berlichingen trzymał się z dala od polityki, ale w trakcie wojny chłopskiej w Niemczech w 1525 obwołano go przywódcą powstańców rejonu Odenwald, który należał do Ligi Szwabskiej. Ponieważ wystąpienie przeciwko Lidze było złamaniem przysięgi – po miesiącu Götz uciekł do swojego zamku. Pomimo to Liga oskarżyła go o niedotrzymanie przyrzeczenia. W 1526 zdecydował się pojechać do Augsburga aby oczyścić się z zarzutów. Podobnie jak Cesarz, Liga Szwabska udzieliła mu gwarancji nietykalności, ale gdy tylko przybył do miasta wtrącono go do lochu (listopad 1528). W 1530 potwierdził Lidze złożoną w 1522 przysięgę i został zwolniony. Nałożono na niego areszt domowy co oznaczało, iż nie mógł opuszczać swojego zamku Hornberg nad rzeką Neckar. W 1540 cesarz Karol V zwolnił go, jako kalekiego starca, z przysięgi i zakazów. Götz opuścił areszt w 1542 i brał udział w wojnie przeciwko Turkom na Węgrzech oraz wspomagał cesarza Karola V w 1544 w walkach we Francji. Podupadłszy na zdrowiu powrócił do Hornbergu, gdzie dożył 82 lat. +Götz był przykładem wierności książętom i wierności danemu słowu. Uchodził za człowieka honoru, dozgonnie oddanego swemu władcy. Wykorzystali to propagandziści III Rzeszy nadając 17 Dywizji Grenadierów Pancernych SS jego imię. Przydomek "Götz von Berlichingen" przyjął również Walther Karjus, jednoręki pilot myśliwski z okresu I wojny światowej. +Czesław Czyński + +Czesław Czyński, pseudonim Punar Bhawa (ur. 16 lipca 1858 w Turzynku, zm. 17 sierpnia 1932 w Warszawie) – polski okultysta, parapsycholog, pisarz, hipnotyzer, chiromanta. +Życiorys. +Urodził się 16 lipca 1858 roku w Turzynku w powiecie nieszawskim (w niektórych źródłach „w Turzenku w Galicji”). Jego rodzicami byli Józef i Matylda Czyńscy. Ojciec był dzierżawcą posiadłości ziemskich; pomagał uczestnikom powstania styczniowego, a po klęsce powstania razem z rodziną schronił się w Paryżu. Czesław i jego bracia uczęszczali do szkoły Batignolles. Gdy rząd austriacki ogłosił amnestię, Czyńscy przenieśli się do Krakowa, a Czesław kontynuował naukę w szkole realnej. Przez pewien czas uczęszczał na wykłady na wydziale medycznym Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +W 1894 roku został oskarżony o próbę uwiedzenia za pomocą hipnozy 38-letniej baronowej Hedwig Zedlitz. Baronowa szukała u Czyńskiego pomocy w jej problemach z żołądkiem i migrenami. Wkrótce potem baronowa zakochała się w Polaku, a jej ojciec pozwał go oskarżając o uwiedzenie córki i zaaranżowanie nielegalnej ceremonii ślubnej. Czyńskiego aresztowano 16 lutego 1894, 17 grudnia w Monachium rozpoczął się proces. Trzydniowy proces odbił się szerokim echem w Europie, wzniecając debatę na temat legalności hipnozy. Ostatecznie Czyński został skazany na trzy lata więzienia za nieprawne zawarcie małżeństwa. W 1899 roku Czyński opisał swój proces w krótkim eseju. +W 1910 w Paryżu od Wielkiego Mistrza Zakonu Martynistów Papusa otrzymał nominację (nr Charty 291) na Suwerennego Generalnego Delegata Zakonu Martynistów na Rosję i Polskę. Przyjął imię zakonne Punar Bhawa. 1 lutego 1912 ustanowił Wielką Narodową Lożę O.T.O. (Ordo Templi Orientis – Zakon Świątyń Wschodu) dla krajów słowiańskich. Przed I wojną światową przebywał w Petersburgu. Przedstawiał się niekiedy jako Lubicz-Czyński lub Rollin-Czyński. +Posiadał majątek Koczewo w guberni nowogródzkiej. Około 1918 założył Zakon Martynistów w Warszawie. W 1926 został oskarżony o postępowanie niezgodne z konstytucją Zakonu i został zmuszony do jego opuszczenia. Praktycznie natychmiast założył Zakon Białego Wschodu. Czyński zyskał światową sławę dzięki znajomości okultyzmu i zdolnościom hipnotyzerskim. Twierdził, że potrafił wysyłać swoje ciało astralne. +Czyński był też znawcą i działaczem propagującym język volapük. +Zmarł w 1932 roku. Został pochowany na cmentarzu kalwińskim na Woli. +Chrząstka tarczowata + +Chrząstka tarczowata (łac. "cartilago thyroidea") - największa chrząstka budująca krtań i stanowiąca przednie rusztowanie jej górnej części. Jest nieparzysta, składa się z dwóch płytek łączących się w płaszczyźnie pośrodkowej. Z przodu, pomiędzy płytkami, zaznacza się wcięcie tarczowe górne (łac. "incisura thyroidea superior"), które u mężczyzn tworzy łatwo zauważalne tzw. jabłko Adama. Tylny brzeg każdej z płytek przechodzi u góry w róg górny (łac. "cornu superius"), u dołu zaś w róg dolny (łac. "cornu inferius"), biorący udział w połączeniu stawowym z chrząstką pierścieniowatą. Kresa skośna (łac. "linea obliqua") dzieli zewnętrzną powierzchnię płytek. Stanowi ona miejsce przyczepu mięśni: mostkowo-tarczowego i tarczowo-gnykowego. +Chrząstkę tarczowatą łączy z kością gnykową wzmocniona więzadłowo błona tarczowo-gnykowa (łac. "membrana thyrohyoidea"). Z chrząstką pierścieniowatą łączy ją staw pierścienno-tarczowy oraz stożek sprężysty (łac. "conus elasticus") wzmocniony więzadłem pierścienno-tarczowym (łac. "ligamentum cricothyroideum"). +Zobacz też: konikotomia. +Kolokacja + +Kolokacja +Trzeci rząd Józefa Cyrankiewicza + +Trzeci rząd Józefa Cyrankiewicza – rząd pod kierownictwem premiera Józefa Cyrankiewicza. +15 maja 1961 roku prezes Rady Ministrów Józef Cyrankiewicz zgłosił dymisję swojego rządu, którą Sejm III kadencji przyjął. Tego samego dnia Sejm ponownie powołał na stanowisko prezesa Rady Ministrów Józefa Cyrankiewicza i powierzył mu sformowanie rządu. +18 maja 1961 r. Sejm powołał rząd w składzie zaproponowanym przez Cyrankiewicza. W jego skład weszły 33 osoby: premier, 5 wicepremierów, 23 ministrów oraz 4 przewodniczących komitetów i komisji. Jedno stanowisko nie zostało obsadzone. +Rząd istniał do 24 czerwca 1965 r., kiedy podał się do dymisji i Sejm IV kadencji ją przyjął. +Małostryj + +Małostryj, Małostryk – staropolskie imię męskie, notowane w średniowieczu, złożone z członów "Mało-" ("mało") i "-stryj", "-stryk" ("stryj"). Może oznaczać "ten, który ma niewielu stryjów, krewniaków męskich od strony ojca". +Niektóre możliwe staropolskie zdrobnienia: Mal, Malacz, Malan, Malanka, Malątko, Malątka, Malech, Maleczko, Malej, Malejec, Malek, Malenka, Maleszek, Maleszka, Maleszko, Maleszyna, Malice, Malich, Maliczka, Malina, Maliniec, Malinka, Maliszka, Maliszko, Malk, Malko, Malkusz, Malonek, Malonka, Malsza, Malucha, Maluk, Maluszka, Maluta(?), Malutek, Malutko, Mała, Małach, Małacz, Małak, Małek, Małk, Małka(?), Małko, Małkusz, Małoch, Małocho (= Małocha), Małoń, Małonek, Małostek, Małosz, Małoszaj (?), Małoszka, Małot, Małucha, Małuj, Małuja, Małuszka, Małyszko. +Małostryj imieniny obchodzi 26 stycznia. +Prezydium Sejmu + +Prezydium Sejmu - naczelny organ kierowniczy Sejmu. W skład Prezydium Sejmu wchodzi Marszałek Sejmu wraz z wicemarszałkami. W jego pracach z głosem doradczym uczestniczy Szef Kancelarii Sejmu. +Liczba wicemarszałków nie jest z góry określona. +III Rzeczpospolita. +Prezydium VII kadencji Sejmu od 8 listopada 2011 +Prezydium VI kadencji Sejmu od 5 listopada 2007 do 7 listopada 2011 +Prezydium V kadencji Sejmu od 26 października 2005 do 4 listopada 2007 +Prezydium IV kadencji Sejmu od 19 października 2001 do 18 października 2005 +Prezydium III kadencji Sejmu od 20 października 1997 do 18 października 2001 +Prezydium II kadencji Sejmu od 14 października 1993 do 19 października 1997 +Prezydium I kadencji Sejmu od 24 listopada 1991 do 14 października 1993 +Prezydium Sejmu X kadencji od 1 stycznia 1990 do 1991 +Polska powojenna i PRL. +Prezydium Sejmu X kadencji do 31 grudnia 1989 +Prezydium Sejmu IX kadencji od 1985 do 1989 +Prezydium Sejmu VIII kadencji do 1980 do 1985 +Prezydium Sejmu VII kadencji od 1976 do 1980 +Prezydium Sejmu VI kadencji od 1972 do 1976 +Prezydium Sejmu V kadencji od 1969 do 1972 +Prezydium Sejmu IV kadencji od 1965 do 1969 +Prezydium Sejmu III kadencji od 1961 do 1965 +Prezydium Sejmu II kadencji do 1957 do 1961 +Prezydium Sejmu I kadencji od 1952 do 1956 +Prezydium Sejmu Ustawodawczego od 1947 do 1952 +II Rzeczpospolita. +Prezydium Sejmu Ustawodawczego 1919-22 +Prezydium Sejmu I kadencji 1922-28 +Prezydium Sejmu II kadencji 1928-30 +Prezydium Sejmu III kadencji 1930-35 +Prezydium Sejmu IV kadencji 1935-38 +Prezydium Sejmu V kadencji 1938-39 +Powszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń + +Powszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń, PZU (Grupa Kapitałowa Powszechnego Zakładu Ubezpieczeń SA) – firma ubezpieczeniowa działająca w Polsce, spółka akcyjna. +Jej tradycje sięgają roku 1803, a jej historia rozpoczyna się w 1921 wraz z powołaniem Polskiej Dyrekcji Ubezpieczeń Wzajemnych (na tabliczce widocznej na górnej fotografii obok widnieją daty 1803 i 1921). Od 1927 do 1952 firma działała jako Powszechny Zakład Ubezpieczeń Wzajemnych, zaś w latach 1952-1990 jako Państwowy Zakład Ubezpieczeń. Ze względu na przyznany w 1952 roku monopol, największa firma ubezpieczeniowa w kraju. W roku 2011 PZU zostało przyznane godło „Jakość Obsługi 2011”, w ramach programu Jakość Obsługi, jako jednemu z trzech (obok Allianz i Ergo Hestia) ubezpieczycieli w Polsce. +Od 1998 rozpoczął się proces jej prywatyzowania. Ze względu na ujawnienie poważnych nieprawidłowości w tym procesie, w styczniu 2005 roku Sejm powołał komisję śledczą do zbadania prywatyzacji PZU. +Akcjonariat. +Głównym akcjonariuszem PZU jest Skarb Państwa (35,18% akcji). Reszta akcji jest rozproszona w rękach inwestorów instytucjonalnych i indywidualnych. +16 kwietnia 2010 r. Spółka opublikowała prospekt emisyjny. 12 maja 2010 roku spółka zadebiutowała na GPW. Wartość oferty publicznej PZU wyniosła ok. 8,07 mld zł i była najwyższa w historii polskiego rynku kapitałowego. Sprzedano blisko 30% proc. akcji z puli udostępnionej przez Skarb Państwa w tym wszystkie akcje dotąd należące do Eureko. +Prezesi Zarządu PZU (od 1990). +Udział w rynku ubezpieczeń majątkowych PZU SA wynosi ok. 51% (na koniec 2006 r.) +Prywatyzacja PZU. +Decyzję o prywatyzacji PZU podjęto w 1998 roku, wybierając jako doradcę strategicznego bank ABN Amro. +Umowa o prywatyzacji PZU została podpisana w 1999 roku z portugalsko-holenderskim konsorcjum Eureko. Rząd Jerzego Buzka sprzedał wówczas 20% akcji za kwotę 2 miliardów złotych. Równocześnie 10% akcji odsprzedano bankowi Millenium (wówczas BIG Bank Gdański). +W aneksie do umowy prywatyzacyjnej podpisanym w 2001 roku przez minister Aldonę Kamelę-Sowińską zawarta została klauzula sprzedaży Eureko dodatkowych 21% akcji przez Skarb Państwa. Klauzula ta do 2009 roku pozostała niezrealizowana, co stało się przyczyną konfliktu pomiędzy Eureko, posiadającym 33% akcji, a Skarbem Państwa, dysponującym 55% akcji (reszta jest w posiadaniu akcjonariuszy rozproszonych). +Strona polska odmawiając sprzedaży akcji zarzucała Eureko złamanie umowy, zabraniającej m.in. zakupu akcji za pieniądze z kredytu. Ostatecznie w 2002 roku Eureko złożyło wniosek do Międzynarodowego Trybunału Arbitrażowego w Londynie, zarzucając Polsce niedotrzymanie umowy prywatyzacyjnej. Pozew został złożony na podstawie bilateralnej umowy w sprawie popierania i wzajemnej ochrony inwestycji (BIT – "Bilateral Investment Treaty"). +Według strony polskiej stanowiło to naruszenie umowy. gdyż ustalono w niej że właściwe przy rozstrzyganiu sporów będą sądy polskie. +W 2004 roku Eureko nabyło kolejne 10% akcji odkupując je od banku Millenium (wówczas BIG Bank Gdański). Kolejne 3% pozyskało kupując akcje pracownicze. Dalsze 3% akcji Eureko pozyskało skupując akcje pracownicze. +W 2005 roku Międzynarodowy Trybunał Arbitrażowy w Londynie wydał werdykt, że Polska odpowiedzialna jest za opóźnienie prywatyzacji PZU na szkodę Eureko. Werdykt Trybunału jako część postępowania mediacyjnego nie ma mocy prawnej wyroku sądowego. +Komisja sejmowa powołana do zbadania tej sprawy w 2005 r. zasugerowała, że umowa prywatyzacyjna jest nieważna i skierowała szereg doniesień o popełnieniu przestępstwa przez osoby odpowiedzialne za prywatyzację ze strony kolejnych rządów. +W 2006 roku minister Skarbu Państwa zarzucił bankowi ABN Amro nierzetelne wykonanie usługi doradczej podczas prywatyzacji PZU ze względu na konflikt interesów – bank był w tym czasie powiązany kapitałowo z Eureko oraz zatrudniał jako doradcę Marka Belkę, który był równocześnie członkiem rady nadzorczej BIG Banku Gdańskiego. +Zastrzeżenia do orzeczenia Trybunału były zgłaszane także wcześniej ze strony członków Trybunału. +Pierwszego października 2009 roku rząd zawarł ugodę z spółką Eureko, na podstawie której holenderska spółka sprzedała większość akcji na Giełdzie Papierów Wartościowych w Warszawie. W ramach oferty publicznej PZU przeprowadzonej 10 maja 2010 roku, Kappa S.A. (spółka celowa należąca do Eureko oraz Skarbu Państwa, utworzona na potrzeby oferty) zaoferowała akcje stanowiące 14,9 proc. kapitału zakładowego PZU, a Eureko walory stanowiące 10 proc. kapitału zakładowego spółki. Dodatkowo Skarb Państwa zaoferował papiery reprezentujące 5 proc. kapitału zakładowego PZU. Łącznie w kwietniowej ofercie Skarb Państwa i Eureko sprzedały 25 819 337 akcji serii A i B, stanowiących 29,9 proc. kapitału PZU. Oferta zakończyła się dziewięciokrotną nadsubskrypcją w transzy inwestorów instytucjonalnych. W transzy detalicznej akcje otrzymało 250 tys. inwestorów w ramach programu Akcjonariatu Obywatelskiego. Wśród inwestorów 59 proc. stanowią krajowi, a 41 proc. - zagraniczni. Wartość oferty wyniosła ok. 8,07 mld zł i była najwyższa w historii polskiego rynku kapitałowego. +Dobrosułka + +Dobrosułka – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Dobro-" ("dobry") i "-sułka" ("obiecywać" albo "lepsza, możniejsza"). Może oznaczać "obiecująca dobro". +Dobrosułka imieniny obchodzi 21 kwietnia i 22 grudnia. +Strogobor + +Strogobor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Strogo-" ("srogo") oraz członu "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, który zaciekle walczy". +Neuropatia + +Neuropatia ("Choroba nerwów obwodowych, zapalenie nerwów obwodowych") – stan chorobowy dotyczący nerwów – struktur przekazujących impulsy do różnych części organizmu poza mózgiem i rdzeniem kręgowym – określany bywa mianem neuropatii obwodowej lub zapalenia nerwów obwodowych. Uszkodzenie lub stan zapalny zaburza przewodzenie informacji ruchowych i czuciowych wzdłuż włókien nerwowych i oprócz bólu wywołuje takie objawy, jak drętwienie, mrowienie, palenie kończyn, wrażenie osłabienia kończyn. +Niezbyt nasilone objawy uszkodzenia nerwów obwodowych mogą wystąpić u osób pracujących zbyt długo w tej samej pozycji, np. w kucki lub na kolanach w czasie robót ogrodniczych. Natomiast uraz nerwu w czasie wypadku, uszkodzenie podczas zabiegu chirurgicznego, choroby zakaźne, alkoholizm, zatrucie ołowiem lub innymi substancjami toksycznymi mogą prowadzić do ciężkiej, trudnej do leczenia neuropatii. Częstą przyczyną prowadzącą do rozwinięcia się neuropatii w obrębie dłoni i stóp bywa cukrzyca. +Objawy zajęcia nerwów obwodowych występują w miażdżycy tętnic, AIDS, szpiczaku mnogim, błonicy, nowotworach, reumatoidalnym zapaleniu stawów, twardzinie, boreliozie, toczniu. Półpasiec prowadzi do neuropatii trwającej nawet do 2 lat i utrzymującej się długo po ustąpieniu zmian skórnych. +Neuropatia może występować w przebiegu terapii niektórymi lekami, np. izoniazydem stosowanym w leczeniu gruźlicy, fenytoiną, będącą lekiem przeciwpadaczkowym, a często też przy leczeniu niektórymi preparatami przeciwnowotworowymi. Do innych przyczyn neuropatii należą niedobory żywieniowe, np. u alkoholików, oraz nadmierne stosowanie niektórych środków i leków, np. witamin z grupy B, najczęściej B6. +Ból neuropatyczny. +Ból neuropatyczny jest zapoczątkowany lub spowodowany przez pierwotne zmiany lub zaburzenia w układzie nerwowym. Dotyka 3% ludności. +Ból neuropatyczny może wynikać z zaburzeń obwodowego układu nerwowego lub ośrodkowego układu nerwowego (mózgu i rdzenia kręgowego). Dlatego też, bólu neuropatyczny można podzielić na obwodowy ból neuropatyczny, ośrodkowy ból neuropatyczny lub mieszany (obwodowy i ośrodkowy) ból neuropatyczny. +Ośrodkowy ból neuropatyczny występuje w urazach rdzenia kręgowego, stwardnieniu rozsianym i niektórych udarach. Fibromilagia będąca zaburzeniem z chronicznym bólem uogólnionym, może być bólem pochodzenia ośrodkowego i odpowiada na leczenie skuteczne w bólu neuropatycznym. +Poza cukrzycą (neuropatia cukrzycowa) i innymi stanami przebiegającymi z zaburzeniami metabolicznymi, częstą przyczyną bolesnych obwodowych neuropatii są: półpasiec, neuropatie związane z zakażeniem HIV, niedobory żywieniowe, toksyny, odległe manifestacje nowotworów złośliwych, chorób genetycznych i immunologicznych. +Bólu neuropatyczny często występuje przy nowotworach złośliwych jako bezpośredni skutek działania nowtworu na nerwy obwodowe (np. ucisk przez guz), jako efekt uboczny działania niektórych chemioterapeutyków, a także w wyniku uszkodzeń spowodowanych przez promieniowanie. +Badania diagnostyczne. +Najistotniejszą sprawą jest wykrycie czynnika prowadzącego do wystąpienia objawów neuropatii. Po bardzo dokładnym zbadaniu pacjenta zleca się wykonanie podstawowych badań biochemicznych krwi i moczu oraz badania radiologicznego części kostnych, które niekiedy wykazuje zmiany kostne powodując ucisk na nerw. Badanie neurologiczne uwzględnia ocenę odruchów, siły mięśni i ich ewentualnego zaniku, a także ocenę czucia. Do badań dodatkowych mających na celu ocenę funkcji nerwów zalicza się elektromiografię i badanie przewodzenia w nerwach obwodowych, co pozwala ustalić, które nerwy zostały uszkodzone. +Leczenie. +Objawy uszkodzenia nerwów obwodowych, które pojawiły się po zabiegu chirurgicznym, ustępują zazwyczaj w trakcie gojenia. Także bóle wywołane uszkodzeniem nerwów przez czynniki toksyczne lub infekcyjne znikają, gdy dany czynniki przestanie działać i rozpocznie się proces zdrowienia. +Badania dotyczące neuropatii cukrzycowej dowiodły, że objawy neuropatii ustępują, gdy doprowadzi się do prawidłowego stężenia glukozy we krwi. Jeżeli neuropatia wynika z zaburzeń ukrwienia kończyn dolnych, poprawienie krążenia krwi w tych kończynach może doprowadzić do ustąpienia objawów ze strony nerwów obwodowych. +W neuropatiach występujących w takich schorzeniach, jak reumatoidalne zapalenie stawów, toczeń czy twardzina, podawanie środków o działaniu przeciwzapalnym i obniżających odporność (tzw. immunosupresyjnych) może przynieść poprawę. +Poważne wyzwanie lecznicze stanowią neuropatie wywołane leczeniem cytostatycznym, zwłaszcza w przypadku leczenia inhibitorami mitozy (np. taxol) ponadto innymi np. winkrystyna, cisplatyna. +Istnieją doniesienia o korzystnym wpływie wybranych leków neurologicznych (np. karbamazepina, gabapentyna, lamotrygina) w objawowym zwalczaniu bólu w przebiegu neuropatii. W tym samym celu stosuje się też plastry zawierające lidokainę w przebiegu neuropatii międzyżebrowej po przebytym półpaścu. O tych formach leczenia decyduje lekarz neurolog lub anestezjolog. +Duże dawki antybiotyków podawane dożylnie stosuje się w boreliozie – leki te zmniejszają objawy choroby, ale nie zawsze prowadzą do całkowitego wyleczenia. Bóle kończyn towarzyszące boreliozie znikają jednak często samoistnie. +Przerwanie podawania dużych dawek witaminy B6 może zahamować narastanie objawów uszkodzenia nerwów, nie spowoduje jednak ustąpienia istniejących już wcześniej zmian. +Masaż. +Pomaga wyeliminować lub znacznie zmniejszyć dolegliwości wynikające z przykurczów lub nadmiernego napięcia mięśni. +Fizjoterapia. +Różnego typu ćwiczenia usprawniające: bierne, czynno-bierne, czynne oraz terapia zajęciowa pomagają zwalczyć objawy wynikające z postępującego uszkodzenia nerwów. Zabiegi fizykoterapeutyczne; elektroterapia, magnetoterapia, laseroterapia. Hydroterapia: kąpiele perełkowe, masaż wodno-wirowy. Fizjoterapeuta dobiera także sprzęt ułatwiający aktywność ruchową: laski, kule, balkoniki itp. +Medycyna niekonwencjonalna. +Postawienie właściwej diagnozy i wdrożenie odpowiedniej terapii jest rzeczą podstawową w chorobach nerwów obwodowych. Czasami jednak zastosowanie metod leczenia alternatywnego może złagodzić niektóre objawy choroby. +Akupunktura. +Stosowanie tej metody daje dobre wyniki przy bólach kończyn w przebiegu neuroterapii. Szczególnie skuteczne bywają zabiegi po przebytym półpaścu. +Technika Alexandra. +Pomaga skorygować nieprawidłową postawę mogącą prowadzić do ucisku i uszkodzenia nerwów. +Ziołolecznictwo. +W celu złagodzenia dolegliwości bólowych można stosować liczne zioła, olejki i wyciągi z roślin leczniczych. Używa się przede wszystkim preparatów z owoców pieprzowca, okładów z nasion gorczycy, olejków eterycznych: eukaliptusowego, sosnowego, rozmarynowego, lawendowego i innych. Również okłady ze świeżego (posiekanego lub startego) chrzanu rozgrzewające bolące miejsca, mogą przynieść przejściową ulgę. Niektórzy zielarze zalecają jeszcze inne rozgrzewające zioła, zwłaszcza przy bólach związanych z zwyrodnieniowymi w stawach lub ze stanami zapalnymi. +Wewnętrznie stosuje się pomocniczo: ziele dziurawca, liść babki lancetowatej, korzeń mniszka, liść melisy, korzeń lukrecji, szyszki chmielu i inne. Farmakologia tybetańska oferuje tu wiele złożonych preparatów m.in.: Samphel Norbu, Rinchen Jumar 25, Agar 20. +Samoleczenie. +W przypadku drobnych objawów ucisku nerwów, np. uczucia kłucia, drętwienia czy mrowienia kończyn, należy przede wszystkim skorygować nieprawidłową postawę ciała, która może powodować tego typu dolegliwości. Jeżeli wykonywana praca wiąże się z przeciążeniami pewnym mięśni czy nerwów, należy wprowadzić częste przerwy w pracy. Przydałaby się, być może, zmiana trybu życia, zrezygnowanie z przyjmowania bez kontroli lekarza dużych dawek witamin, ograniczenie picia alkoholu, a w przypadku palaczy rzucenie palenia. +Inne przyczyny neuropatii. +Nietypowym rodzajem neuropatii są tzw. bóle fantomowe, czyli umiejscowione jakby na przedłużeniu kikuta amputowanej kończyny. Różne choroby układu nerwowego mogą dawać bóle podobne do bólów neuropatycznych, np. stwardnienie rozsiane, choroby nerwowo-mięśniowe prowadzące do przykurczów oraz udary mózgu. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Artykuł na temat neuropatii w Portalu farmaceutyczno-medycznym +Strachomir + +Strachomir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Stracho-" (od prasł. "*strachъ", "*strašiti", por. "strach", "straszyć") oraz członu "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Imię to notowane jest w Polsce od 1386 roku. Jest to jedyne odnotowane staropolskie imię dwuczłonowe o takim pierwszym członie, z wyjątkiem ew. hipotetycznego imienia "Strachowit", które zdaniem A. Bańkowskiego można odtworzyć z zachowanej formy Strawit-owa (fem.). +Możliwe staropolskie zdrobnienia: Stracha (masc.), Strachot, Strachota, Strasz, Straszech, Straszek, Straszko. +Apeniny + +Apeniny (wł. "Appennini") – łańcuch górski we Włoszech, rozciągający się na długości 1350 km z północy na południe wzdłuż całego Półwyspu Apenińskiego i na szerokość od 40 do 200 km. Wyróżnia się Apeniny Północne (w tym Apenin Liguryjski i Toskański), Środkowe i Południowe. +Apeniny powstały w trakcie orogenezy alpejskiej, ale ruchy górotwórcze trwają do dziś, o czym świadczy podwyższona aktywność sejsmiczna na tym obszarze. +Apeniny w większości porośnięte są lasami liściastymi i mieszanymi. Najwyższe partie gór, m.in. najwyższy szczyt Corno Grande, 2912 m n.p.m., są skaliste i pokryte lodowczykami. +Góry te są ważnymi obszarami rolniczymi: w dolnych partiach uprawia się winorośl i drzewa owocowe, w wyższych prowadzi hodowlę. Od pewnego czasu wzrasta rola turystyki w tym obszarze. +Podczas drugiej wojny światowej Apeniny stanowiły dla Niemców linię obronną, znaną jako Linia Gotów, a w południowej części Linia Barbary. +Lelistryj + +Lelistryj — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Leli-" — "kołysać się, być opieszałym"; też "lele" — "niewieściuch, słabeusz", ale w staroruskim "chwalić" oraz "-stryj" — "stryj"). +Zośka (gra) + +Zośka – gra zręcznościowa polegająca na podbijaniu nogami lotki wykonanej z pęczka kolorowej włóczki obciążonego ołowianym krążkiem. +Lotka. +Lotka do gry w zośkę ma formę dość gęstego pęczka kolorowej włóczki, o nitkach równej długości , przymocowanego do ołowianego krążka o grubości kilku i średnicy kilkunastu mm z 2 otworkami. Włóczka przymocowana jest miękkim drutem lub mocną nicią i rozprowadzana koliście. +Dawniej do wykonywania zośki wykorzystywano materiał ołowianych krążków służących wraz z odcinkami miękkiego drutu, zwanych potocznie plombami, do plombowania (zabezpieczania przed niekontrolowanym otwarciem) różnego rodzaju pojemników i pomieszczeń. +Wersje gry. +W Polsce grę znano przed II wojną światową. Grupa ludzi ustawiała się w kółku, podbijając zośkę, póki nie upadła na ziemię. Była ona popularna w tej postaci jeszcze w latach pięćdziesiątych i na początku lat sześćdziesiątych XX w. +W innej wersji gry zośkę podbijało się nogą tak, aby upadła w zakreślonym na ziemi kole o średnicy ok. 2,5 metra, bronionym przez przeciwnika. W grze brało udział od 2 do 5 graczy, każdy miał do obrony własne koło. Jeżeli do koła gracza zośka upadła ustaloną liczbę razy - na ogół 6 - gracz ten odpadał z dalszej gry, co trwało aż do wyeliminowania wszystkich graczy. +Innym sposobem gry było podbijanie zośki nie pozwalając na jej upadek na ziemię tak długo jak to było możliwe. Wygrywał gracz, który podbił zośkę największą ilość razy. +Jeszcze inny sposób gry to gra dwóch graczy na bramki odległe o ok. 10-20 metrów. Gracze na zmianę podbijając zośkę (minimum 10 razy) starali się zbliżyć do bramki przeciwnika i z jak najbliższej odległości kopnięciem z powietrza umieścić ją w bramce. Podczas takiej rundy zośka nie mogła upaść na ziemię. Grano do ustalonej liczby goli. +Etymologia nazwy i pochodzenie gry. +(1) kałm. "zōs" - nazwa monety → (2) ros. "zos+ka" - nazwa gry → (3) pol. "zośka" - nazwa gry. Jak widać, na etapie (1) → (2) nastąpiła zmiana fonetyczna kałmuckiej samogłoski długiej "-ō-" przez rosyjskie "-o-" krótkie akcentowane, morfologiczna "-ka" i semantyczna → gra grana tą monetą, na etapie (2) → (3) tylko zmiana fonetyczna ["s" > "ś", przypuszczalnie pod wpływem błędnego etymologicznie skojarzenia z imieniem "Zośka"]. +Domastryj + +Domastryj – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Doma-" ("dom"; psł. "*domъ" oznacza "pomieszczenie, gdzie człowiek żyje ze swoją rodziną"; "wszystko, co jest w domu, rodzina, mienie, majątek", "ród, pokolenie", "strony rodzinne, kraj ojczysty") i "-stryj" ("stryj"). Może oznaczać "ten, którego stryjowie, krewniacy męscy od strony ojca, są w pobliżu, na miejscu". +Gieorgij Malenkow + +Gieorgij Maksimilianowicz Malenkow, ros. Георгий Максимилянович Маленков (ur. 8 stycznia 1902 w Orenburgu, zm. 14 stycznia 1988 w Moskwie) – radziecki działacz państwowy i partyjny. Jeden z najbliższych współpracowników Józefa Stalina, a po jego śmierci przez niespełna dwa lata (1953-1955) premier ZSRR i faktyczny przywódca tego państwa. +Biografia. +Urodził się 8 stycznia 1902 w Orenburgu (26 grudnia 1901 według kalendarza juliańskiego). W 1919 wstąpił do Armii Czerwonej, a rok później do partii. W czasie służby wojskowej był komisarzem. Następnie studiował w Moskwie. Później był pracownikiem technicznym aparatu partyjnego. W latach 1934-1939 był kierownikiem ważnego Wydziału Kierowniczych Organów Partyjnych KC WKP(b), aktywnie uczestnicząc w przeprowadzeniu Wielkiej Czystki – m.in. uczestniczył w przesłuchaniach działaczy partyjnych. +Na XVIII zjeździe WKP(b) w 1939 Malenkow został sekretarzem KC WKP(b). W czasie wojny wszedł w skład Państwowego Komitetu Obrony, był wysyłany często na krytyczne odcinki frontu; kierował też produkcją samolotów. Od 1944 wicepremier ZSRR, od 1946 członek Biura Politycznego KC WKP(b). Mimo przejściowej niełaski stał się drugą osobą w państwie. W 1949 organizował tzw. sprawę leningradzką, a następnie sprawę "Żydowskiego Komitetu Antyfaszystowskiego". W 1952 przewodniczył XIX Zjazdowi KPZR i wygłosił na nim referat sprawozdawczy (zgodnie z jego konwencją, Stalin wyłącznie przysłuchiwał się obradom, składającym się głównie z pochwał jego osoby i polityki). +Po śmierci Stalina w marcu 1953, Malenkow zastąpił go na stanowisku premiera ZSRR. Przez kolejne kilka dni po 5 marca, tj. do czasu wyboru nowego kierownictwa, jako drugi po Stalinie w hierarchii partyjnej, pełnił też obowiązki generalnego sekretarza partii komunistycznej. Nie ulegało wątpliwości, że w nowej sytuacji politycznej, pełniąc również funkcję sekretarza KC KPZR (jednego z pięciu równoprawnych - przewodniczący im Nikita Chruszczow początkowo miał uprawnienia wyłącznie w zakresie koordynacji ich pracy), jest faktycznym przywódcą państwa, ale jego wpływy polityczne systematycznie malały na rzecz Chruszczowa, zwłaszcza po aresztowaniu i straceniu Berii (do czego sam się przyczynił). +9 lutego 1955 został zmuszony do złożenia samokrytyki, a plenum KC zwolniło go z funkcji premiera i przesunęło na funkcję wicepremiera i ministra energetyki. Na stanowisku szefa rządu zastąpił go marszałek Nikołaj Bułganin, ale prawdziwym przywódcą państwa został Chruszczow, który objął stanowisko I sekretarza KC. +Stosunki między nowym przywódcą, a starymi współpracownikami Stalina nie układały się i wreszcie w 1957 "antypartyjna grupa", w skład której wchodzili Malenkow, Wiaczesław Mołotow, Łazar Kaganowicz, Dymitrij Szepiłow, Nikołaj Bułganin i Kliment Woroszyłow podjęła nieudaną próbę obalenia Chruszczowa. Kariera polityczna Malenkowa dobiegła końca, od 1957 pracował jako dyrektor elektrowni, a w 1961 został zwolniony na emeryturę i wydalony z partii. Nie cofnięto jednak jego przywilejów: bezpłatnej daczy i zaopatrzenia. +Gmina Lelów + +Gmina Lelów (do 1870 "gmina Sokolniki") – gmina wiejska w województwie śląskim, w powiecie częstochowskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie częstochowskim. +Siedziba gminy to Lelów. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 5265 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 7,95% powierzchni powiatu. +Miejscowości. +Biała Wielka, Celiny, Drochlin, Gródek, Konstantynów, Lelów, Lgota Błotna, Lgota Gawronna, Mełchów, Nakło, Paulinów, Podlesie, Posłoda, Skrajniwa, Staromieście, Ślęzany, Turzyn, Zbyczyce. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Irządze, Janów, Koniecpol, Niegowa, Przyrów, Szczekociny +Droga ekspresowa + +Droga ekspresowa (niem. "Schnellstraße", "autostrasse", ang. "expressway") - droga publiczna o ograniczonej dostępności, przeznaczona wyłącznie do ruchu pojazdów samochodowych, na ogół posiadająca wyłącznie wielopoziomowe skrzyżowania z przecinającymi ją innymi drogami transportu lądowego i wodnego. +Parametry techniczne. +Nie istnieje uniwersalny standard dróg klasy drogi ekspresowej. Przyjęte w poszczególnych państwach parametry techniczne dróg ekspresowych mogą znacznie się od siebie różnić (np. niektóre prawodawstwa przewidują istnienie dróg ekspresowych jednojezdniowych, inne natomiast dla dróg tej klasy stawiają wymóg istnienia dwóch jezdni). +Edykt mediolański + +Edykt mediolański – edykt ogłoszony wspólnie przez cesarza zachodniej części Imperium Rzymskiego Konstantyna Wielkiego oraz cesarza wschodniej części Licyniusza w 313 w Mediolanie. Zaprowadzał wolność wyznania w Cesarstwie Rzymskim. Od tej pory chrześcijanie bez przeszkód mogli wyznawać swoją religię. Na mocy edyktu nastąpił zwrot budynków i gruntów kościelnych gminom chrześcijańskim. +Treść edyktu. +"Gdy tak ja, cesarz Konstantyn Wielki, i jak również ja, cesarz Licyniusz August, zeszliśmy się szczęśliwie w Mediolanie i omawiali wszystko, co należy do pożytku oraz bezpieczeństwa publicznego, postanowiliśmy między innymi zarządzić to, cośmy dla wielu ludzi uważali za konieczne między innymi zarządzeniami, zdaniem naszym dla wielu ludzi korzystnymi, wydać przede wszystkim i to, które do czci bóstwa się odnosi, a mianowicie chrześcijanom i wszystkim dać zupełną wolność wyznawania religii, jaką kto zechce. W ten sposób bowiem bóstwo w swej niebieskiej siedzibie i dla nas, i dla wszystkich, którzy naszej poddani są władzy, zjednać będzie można i usposobić łaskawie. Ze zbawiennych więc i słusznych powodów postanowiliśmy powziąć uchwałę, że nikomu nie można zabronić swobody decyzji, czy myśl swą skłoni do wyznania chrześcijańskiego, czy do innej religii, którą sam za najodpowiedniejszą dla siebie uzna, a to dlatego, by najwyższe bóstwo, któremu cześć według swobodnego przekonania oddajemy, mogło nam we wszystkich okolicznościach okazać zwykłą swą względność i przychylność." +Antyseptyka + +Antyseptyka (gr. "anti" – przeciw "sepsis" – gniciu, dosłownie: "zapobieganie gniciu") – postępowanie odkażające, mające na celu niszczenie drobnoustrojów na skórze, błonach śluzowych, w zakażonych ranach. +W przeciwieństwie do dezynfekcji, antyseptyka nie dotyczy odkażania przedmiotów. +Chemiczne środki antyseptyczne. +Do tego celu stosowane były i są preparaty zawierające dichlorofenol, heksachlorofenol, heksylorezorcynol, chloraminy, jodofory, związki srebra (azotan srebra) oraz barwniki: barwniki trifenylometanowe z żelatyną lub albuminą, gencjana, barwniki akrydynowe (np. rivanol), nadmanganian potasu. +W Polsce antyseptyki zdefiniowane są przez Urząd Rejestracji Produktów Leczniczych, Wyrobów Medycznych i Produktów Biobójczych jako środki niszczące drobnoustroje stosowane miejscowo na skórę lub błony śluzowe. +Współczesne antyseptyki oparte mogą być na alkoholach (np. etanol, propanol, izopropanol) lub fenolach (np. bifenylol, fenylofenol). Mogą zawierać dodatkowe substancje czynne, np. diglukonian chloroheksydyny, nadtlenek wodoru, jod (np. jodyna, jodopowidon) lub octenidynę. Antyseptyki stosowane przy przerwanej ciągłości skóry powinny być wykonane na bazie wody, bezbarwne, bezbolesne, bezpieczne dla pacjenta i tkanek otaczających ranę. +Historia antyseptyki. +Pierwszym propagatorem antyseptyki był węgierski lekarz położnik Ignaz Semmelweis, który w 1847 roku skutecznie przeprowadził kampanię w sprawie dezynfekcji rąk roztworem chloru w klinikach położniczych. W krótkim czasie udało się o połowę zmniejszyć śmiertelność wśród rodzących kobiet. +Bardziej znanym od Semmelweisa i nazywanym ojcem antyseptyki był brytyjski chirurg Joseph Lister. Za skuteczny środek dezynfekcji uważał kwas karbolowy (fenol). Zalecał stosowanie tego środka w czasie zabiegów i operacji w formie rozpylonego aerozolu (1867). Dzięki temu śmiertelność operacji przepukliny spadła z 78% do 10%. Rok 1867 traktowany jest również jako początek nowej epoki w chirurgii. +Kolejnym starym antyseptykiem jest jodoform, stosowany od 1880 r. do połowy XX wieku i wprowadzony przez Jana Mikulicz-Radeckiego. Mimo dużej skuteczności wycofany ze względu na toksyczność oraz możliwość alergii. Mikulicz wprowadził do aseptyki także bawełniane rękawiczki operacyjne. Prawdopodobnie jako pierwszy stosował bawełniane maski zasłaniające usta i nos, noszące dawniej nazwę "maska Mikulicza". Wprowadził do lecznictwa maść zawierającą roztwór azotanu srebra i balsam peruwiański (tzw. maść Mikulicza – "Unguentum Argenti nitratis compositum"). . +Portland (Oregon) + +Portland – miasto w USA, największe w stanie Oregon, przy ujściu rzeki Willamette do rzeki Kolumbia. Podzielone jest na 5 części: Północną, Północno-Zachodnią, Północno-Wschodnią, Południowo-Zachodnią i Południowo-Wschodnią. +583 776 mieszkańców (2010). Zespół miejski – 2 mln mieszkańców. Powierzchnia 376,5 km². +Założony w 1844, prawa miejskie w 1851. +Posiada port dostępny dla statków morskich oraz lotnisko. Znajduje się w nim ok. 240 parków miejskich. +Jednymi z przydomków miasta są : "Miasto Róż" oraz "Miasto Mostów". +Kultura i edukacja. +W mieście ma siedzibę sieć księgarń Powell's Books. W Portland mieszkają m.in. znana pisarka fantastyczna Ursula K. Le Guin, pisarz Chuck Palahniuk, a także reżyser Gus Van Sant. +Transformacja Boxa-Mullera + +Transformacja Boxa-Mullera – metoda generowania liczb losowych o rozkładzie normalnym, na podstawie dwóch wartości zmiennej o rozkładzie jednostajnym na przedziale (0,1]. +Niech formula_1oraz formula_2 będą niezależnymi zmiennymi losowymi o rozkładzie jednostajnym na (0,1]. Niech zmienne formula_3 dane w odpowiednim układzie współrzędnych polarnych spełniają +oraz +(Wówczas formula_3 są niezależne.) Połóżmy +oraz +Wówczas zmienne losowe formula_9 są niezależne i o rozkładzie normalnym z odchyleniem standardowym 1. +Cezar Borgia + +Cezar Borgia, właśc. Cesare Borgia (ur. 13 września 1475, zm. 12 marca 1507) – syn kardynała Rodrigo Borgii (późniejszego papieża Aleksandra VI), kardynał, później włoski polityk i kondotier, książę Romanii. +Wczesne lata. +Jego matką była Vannozza Cattanei. Cezar miał dwóch braci (Juana i Joffrego) oraz siostrę (Lukrecję). Przeznaczony pierwotnie przez ojca do kariery duchownej, dzięki jego poparciu został w wieku 16 lat biskupem Pampeluny. Po obraniu Rodrgia Borgii na papieża, Cezar otrzymał godność arcybiskupa Walencji, a 20 września 1493 r. został kardynałem Walencji. +Papież Aleksander VI wiązał nadzieje na ugruntowanie potęgi rodu Borgiów ze swoim synem, Juanem, którego wcześniej mianował dowódcą armii papieskiej. Jednak w nocy z 14 na 15 czerwca 1497 r. Juan został zamordowany w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach. Pierwsze oskarżenia o zabójstwo padły pod adresem Cezara w liście od Giovanniego Alberto Della Pigna do księcia Ferrary z 22 lutego 1498 r. Alberto zapewniał księcia, że otrzymał tę wiadomość z "najpewniejszego źródła". +17 sierpnia 1498 roku, po płomiennej przemowie przed konsystorzem, papież Aleksander VI wyraził zgodę na zrzucenie przez Cezara kapelusza kardynalskiego. Tego samego dnia ambasador francuski Louis de Villeneuve, przekazał Cezarowi dekret króla Francji Ludwika XII, nadający mu tytuł księcia Valence. +Cezar objął stanowisko zmarłego brata Juana i został kondotierem. +Kariera wojskowa. +Mając poparcie ojca i króla Francji, Cezar snuł własne plany zjednoczenia Włoch. Dążył do rozszerzenia posiadłości Państwa Kościelnego i stworzenia enklawy rządzonej wyłącznie przez ród Borgiów. . Wysłany przez Aleksandra VI z misją podporządkowania miast Romanii w centralnej Italii, przeprowadził w okresie od listopada 1499 do maja 1501 dwie kampanie, w trakcie których podbił Imolę, Forli, Pesaro, Rimini i Faenzę. W ciągu kolejnych kampanii opanował Piombino. W lecie 1501 r. wojska Borgii opanowały Sienę. Planował zajęcie Florencji, jednak na przeszkodzie stanęła interwencja Ludwika XII, który obawiał się wzrostu potęgi Cezara w środkowej Italii i nakazał mu wycofanie wojsk. W związku z ingerencją króla Francji Cezar wszedł w sojusz z Ercole d’Este. Dzięki temu sojuszowi w roku 1502 Cezar zdobył księstwo Urbino i Camerino, a jego kondotier w tym samym czasie podbił Arezzo należące do księstwa Florencji +W latach 1501-1502 dla Cezara pracował Leonardo da Vinci, jako architekt i inżynier wojskowy, obmyślając nowe machiny wojenne. +Jako polityk Cezar Borgia nie cofał się przed łamaniem podpisanych traktatów, gwałtem i zbrodnią, jeśli miało to prowadzić do zamierzonego celu. Z jego inspiracji zginęło wielu członków rywalizującej z nim rodziny Orsini. Wzorował się tu na wielkich postaciach starożytności, którzy, postępując podobnie, osiągali swe cele. Kierował się dewizą: ""Aut Caesar, aut nihili"" (Albo Cezar, albo nikt). +Niepowodzenia po śmierci ojca. +Małżeństwo, potomstwo i siła Cezara w zbyt wielkiej mierze zależały od wpływów ojca. Gdy ten zmarł 18 sierpnia 1503, Cezar starał się doprowadzić do wyboru następcy, który byłby przynajmniej neutralny wobec jego starań o stworzenie własnego państwa w środkowych Włoszech. Jego wybór padł na kardynała Piccolominiego, który dzięki jego poparciu został wybrany papieżem, jednak zmarł 18 października (niecały miesiąc po wyborze dokonanym 22 września). Cezar zmuszony był poprzeć kardynała Giuliana della Rovere, który obiecał, że pozwoli mu zachować wszystkie jego tytuły i dobra. Della Rovere (już jako papież Jullisz II) zwiódł go jednak i okazał się jego najzacieklejszym wrogiem. +Na domiar złego, w momencie konklawe Cezar był chory i całkiem nie panował nad sytuacją. Miał powiedzieć Machiavellemu: ,"Przewidziałem i zaplanowałem wszystko, tylko nie to, że w momencie wyboru papieża sam będę umierający"". Nowy papież kazał aresztować Borgię, który w tym czasie przebywał poza Rzymem. 25 października 1503 roku Cezar został aresztowany i umieszczony w hiszpańskim więzieniu. Pod koniec 1506 r. Cezar uciekł z swojego więzienia w Medinie w Hiszpanii. Znalazł schronienie na dworze swojego szwagra Jana III, króla Nawarry. +Zginął 12 marca 1507 roku w bitwie pod Vianą, zapędziwszy się w pogoni za uchodzącymi wojskami hrabiego de Lerin. Podczas pogoni został ranny, następnie otoczony i zamordowany przez żołnierzy hrabiego. Po śmierci jego ciało zostało obdarte z zbroi oraz odzieży, a zwłoki porzucono na pobojowisku. Wiadomość o jego śmierci została rozpowszechniona 20 kwietnia. Tego dnia paź Valentina Garzia dotarłszy do pałacu Lukrecji Borgii poinformował wszystkich obecnych o bohaterskiej śmierci Cezara. Słuchacze pożegnali Cezara słowami „śmierć wojownika”. +Siły pokojowe ONZ + +Siły pokojowe ONZ – część sił zbrojnych państw oddanych do dyspozycji ONZ w celu przeprowadzenia konkretnych operacji pokojowych. Siły te powoływane są w trybie doraźnym przez Zgromadzenie Ogólne lub Radę Bezpieczeństwa ONZ, zgodnie z Kartą Narodów Zjednoczonych. W założeniach ONZ, siły pokojowe stanowią – dla państw w nich uczestniczących – nieprzymusowy instrument kontroli konfliktów zbrojnych. +W latach 1948-2006 przeprowadzono 60 operacji pokojowych z powołaniem tego typu sił przez ONZ, w których wzięło udział ponad 750 tysięcy osób pochodzących z ponad 110 krajów. Życie straciły 2272 osoby, w tym 1816 żołnierzy. Koszt w latach 1948-2005 wyniósł 52 mld $ w cenach z 2004 r. +30 VI 2006 na misjach pokojowych i politycznych ONZ służyły 72 953 osoby personelu mundurowego (62 495 żołnierzy, 2 717 obserwatorów wojskowych i 7 291 policjantów). Wspiera ich prawie 15 tys. osób personelu cywilnego. Uczestniczy aktualnie w misjach 108 państw (najwięcej, 72 państwa, uczestniczą w operacji UNMIS). Największymi kontrybutorami personelu mundurowego są: Bangladesz (aż 10 310), Pakistan, Indie, Nepal i Jordania. Kraje UE wystawiają 3 896 osób, z tego najwięcej Polska (695) i Francja (588). Polska jest na 20. miejscu w rankingu największych kontrybutorów personelu, najwyżej z państw rozwiniętych. +Budżet na rok fiskalny 2005/2006 wyniósł 5,03 mld dolarów. Najwięcej kosztowała misja w DR Kongo – 1,15 mld dolarów. +Misje trwające. +Europa +Bliski Wschód +Azja +Afryka +Ameryka Łacińska +Misje zakończone. +Europa +Bliski Wschód +Azja +Afryka +Ameryka +Salvatore Asta + +Salvatore Asta (ur. 17 stycznia 1915 w Alcamo, zm. 30 grudnia 2004), włoski duchowny katolicki, dyplomata watykański. +25 lipca 1938 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. Pracował w służbie dyplomatycznej Stolicy Apostolskiej, 13 października 1962 został mianowany przez papieża Jana XXIII delegatem apostolskim w Indochinach, jednocześnie arcybiskupem tytularnym Aureliopolis in Lydia. Sakrę biskupią przyjął 25 listopada 1962. Brał udział w trzeciej i czwartej sesji Soboru Watykańskiego II. +W 1964 objął funkcję internuncjusza w Iranie, w 1966 pronuncjusza na tej samej placówce. 7 czerwca 1969 został pronuncjuszem apostolskim w Turcji. 17 października 1984 zastąpił zmarłego arcybiskupa Sante Portalupi na stanowisku nuncjusza w Portugalii. Zajmował się m.in. wyjaśnieniem objawień fatimskich. +Przeszedł w stan spoczynku w 1989, zmarł 30 grudnia 2004. +Wybory pięcioprzymiotnikowe + +Konstytucja Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej stanowi, iż "wybory do Sejmu są powszechne, równe, bezpośrednie i proporcjonalne oraz odbywają się w głosowaniu tajnym", są więc pięcioprzymiotnikowe. +Wybory do Senatu natomiast "są powszechne, bezpośrednie i odbywają się w głosowaniu tajnym". Wyboru senatorów dokonuje się według zasady większościowej, nie ma więc formalnego zastosowania zasada proporcjonalności. Nie ma natomiast wymagania, by były one równe. +I rzeczywiście, w latach 1989-1997 wybierano po 2 senatorów z każdego województwa (po 3 w województwie katowickim i warszawskim); tę samą liczbę mandatów obsadzano w województwie chełmskim (250 tys. mieszkańców) i w województwie gdańskim (1,5 mln mieszkańców), wybory nie były przeto równe w sensie równości materialnej. +Wybory do Senatu były natomiast równe w sensie formalnym (każdy wyborca otrzymywał jedną kartę do głosowania i głosował tylko raz). +Preksaspes + +Preksaspes to najbardziej zaufany doradca króla Persji Kambyzesa. Z polecenia władcy zamordował jego brata Bardiję. +Kambyzes z kolei odwdzięczył się za lojalność i zabił strzałą z łuku syna Preksaspesowi, gdy ten doniósł królowi, że na dworze krąży plotka iż ten jest szalony. Kambyzes postanowił dowieść, że szaleńcem nie jest i potrafi posłać strzałę z łuku w serce... syna Preksaspesa co uczynił, a strzała faktycznie przeszyła serce młodzieńca. Po śmierci Kambyzesa, gdy na tronie Persji zasiadł Bardija – uzurpator, magowie medyjscy odnaleźli Preksaspesa i zawiedli przed tłumy zniechęcone już rządami uzurpatora, by potwierdził, że jest to prawdziwy Bardija. Preksaspes przemawiając z wieży do tłumów przyznał się, że sam zgładził Bardiję, zatem mają do czynienia z uzurpatorem i rzucił się z wieży ponosząc śmierć. Było to w 521 p.n.e.. +Femme fatale + +Femme fatale, kobieta fatalna – związek frazeologiczny oznaczający kobietę przynoszącą mężczyźnie porażkę i zgubę. Zwrot "femme fatale" jest zwyczajowo używany do opisania kobiet, za których przyczyną rozpadają się małżeństwa, a także kobiet wykorzystujących swoją pozycję społeczną lub cechy osobiste do wykorzystywania mężczyzn na różne sposoby ze szkodą dla nich. Kobieta świadomie zdobywająca, wykorzystująca i porzucająca mężczyznę. +Motyw femme fatale wywodzi się ze starożytnych wierzeń. Wczesnymi przykładami femme fatale są: sumeryjska bogini Isztar i biblijne Dalila i Salome oraz Lilith z tradycji judaistycznej. W mitologii greckiej funkcję femme fatale pełnią syreny, Sfinks, Scylla i Klitajmestra. +W XIX w. i na początku XX motyw femme fatale stał się modny i pojawiał się m.in. w twórczości Aleksandra Dumasa, Edvarda Muncha, Gustava Klimta, Gustave'a Moreau, Joris-Karla Huysmansa oraz +Alfonsa Muchy. +Postać "femme fatale" często występowała w kinie gangsterskim oraz kinie noir. Wizerunek "kobiety fatalnej" utrwaliły Lauren Bacall w "Wielkim śnie", Barbara Stanwyck w "Podwójnym ubezpieczeniu" i Rita Hayworth w "Gildzie", czy Rebecca Romijn w "Femme fatale". +Miano femme fatale uzyskała także Mata Hari, egzotyczna tancerka, uznana za winną podwójnego szpiegostwa w okresie I wojny światowej. +Nizina Amazonki + +Nizina Amazonki – nizina w Ameryce Południowej zajmującą obszar 3,5 mln km². Większość jej obszaru leży w dorzeczu Amazonki. +Nizina Amazonki leży w wilgotnym klimacie równikowym, gdzie występuje niska amplituda temperatur. Roczna suma opadów wynosi średnio 2000 mm. +Nizina graniczy z Andami na wschodzie, z Niziną Orinoko i Wyżyną Gujańską na północy oraz z Wyżyną Brazylijską na południu. +Charakterystycznymi roślinami dla lasów równikowych Niziny Amazonki są: palmy, kauczukowce, liany, klony oraz tulipanowce amerykańskie i orzesznice brazylijskie. +Charakterystycznymi zwierzętami dla Niziny Amazonki są: pumy, papugi, kapibary, tukany, kolibry, jaguary, oceloty, boa dusiciele, tapiry i małpy (kapucynki). +Duże obszary lasów równikowych w tym regionie pozostawały nietknięte i dopiero od niedawna są eksplorowane. Największe plemiona (dotychczas poznane) żyjące na Nizinie Amazonki to: Tikuna, Yanomami, Xavante oraz Guajajara. Drewno z Amazonii jest eksportowane do krajów Europy Zachodniej i Stanów Zjednoczonych. Gorsze gatunki sprzedawane są na lokalnym rynku. +Średnio wycina się tam w ciągu 3 miesięcy tyle drzew co w Polsce przez 1 rok. +Na obrzeżach lasów , gdzie jest klimat nieco korzystniejszy +coraz częściej zakłada się pola uprawne , wycinając i wypalając las . +Duże zniszczenia są również powodowane eksploatacją złóż mineralnych. +Jezdnia + +Jezdnia – część drogi kołowej przeznaczonej dla ruchu pojazdów. Może składać się z jednego lub kilku pasów ruchu. Częścią jezdni nie są wydzielone torowiska. +Aseptyka + +Aseptyka – postępowanie mające na celu dążenie do jałowości pomieszczeń, narzędzi, materiałów opatrunkowych i innych przedmiotów w celu niedopuszczenia drobnoustrojów do określonego środowiska, np. otwartej rany operacyjnej. +Zastosowanie. +Aseptyczność jest to stan, w którym pomieszczenia, środki opatrunkowe, leki, narzędzia chirurgiczne i ręce operatora są wolne od żywych drobnoustrojów chorobotwórczych. Jest to zapewnione poprzez dokładne mycie i dezynfekowanie dłoni oraz stosowanie przez zespół operacyjny wyjałowionych masek, fartuchów, rękawiczek, narzędzi oraz odpowiednie przygotowanie sali operacyjnej (mycie, sterylizowanie sal poprzez naświetlanie promieniami ultrafioletowymi, powietrze jest przepuszczane przez filtr zanim trafi do sali operacyjnej) i pola operacyjnego. Oznacza to także działania, zabezpieczające przed zakażeniem. +Aseptyka ma też zastosowanie poza salą operacyjną min. w badaniach laboratoryjnych i bakteriologicznych, w produkcji leków, żywności itp. +W przemyśle spożywczym oznacza proces produkcyjny, który dzięki zastosowaniu specjalnej technologii pozwala na wytwarzanie i pakowanie produktów bez użycia środków konserwujących. +Historia. +W 1885, Polak Jan Mikulicz-Radecki użył podczas operacji rękawiczek bawełnianych, w 1887 Ernst von Bergmann wprowadził sterylizację przy użyciu pary wodnej, a w 1894 roku William Halsted zastosował rękawiczki z gumy. +Za ojca aseptyki uważa się Gustava Adolfa Neubera, kilońskiego chirurga (1886). Reguły aseptyki wprowadzone przez niego, niewiele zmienione, są obowiązujące do dziś. +Podstyczna + +Podstyczna krzywej K w punkcie P to odcinek pomiędzy punktem Q będącym rzutem punktu P na oś x a punktem R będącym punktem przecięcia stycznej do krzywej K w punkcie P z osią x. +Kraj (podział administracyjny) + +Kraj - jednostka podziału administracyjnego niektórych obecnych oraz nieistniejących już państw europejskich. +Sąd + +Sąd – we współczesnych demokratycznych systemach prawnych - niezawisły organ państwowy, powołany do stosowania prawa w zakresie rozstrzygania sporów między podmiotami pozostającymi w sporze, a także decydowania o przysługujących uprawnieniach oraz dokonywania innych czynności określonych w ustawach lub umowach międzynarodowych. Wyposażony jest w atrybut niezawisłości (nie podlega władzy wykonawczej i ustawodawczej) i funkcjonuje w szczególnej, procesowej formie. +Historia. +Historia sądów i sądownictwa łączy się bezpośrednio z historią ludzkości, gdyż ludzie od niepamiętnych czasów popadali w konflikty ze sobą i próbowali je na różne sposoby rozwiązywać. Najprostszym sposobem rozwiązywania konfliktów były rozwiązania siłowe, jak wojny czy zabójstwa niewygodnych członków społeczności. Z czasem, w miarę rozwoju myśli ludzkiej tego typu rozwiązania zostały zepchnięte na bok, a w ich miejsce pojawiły się próby rozwiązywania konfliktów na drodze pokojowej. Początkowo takie spory rozwiązywały osoby posiadające szczególne cechy (przede wszystkim doświadczenie życiowe), jednak z biegiem czasu funkcje te przejęły wyspecjalizowane organy państwowe. +Wspólnoty plemienne. +W zależności od tradycji rodowych oraz rodzaju plemienia władzę sprawował wódz ("dux" / "rex") albo rada starszych. Osoby te posiadały pełnię władzy i jednym z atrybutów tej władzy była właśnie władza sądownicza. +Grecja. +Sparta. +W Sparcie władzę sądowniczą sprawował król. Z czasem, ograniczając królom spartańskim władzę (w czasach świetności Sparty było zawsze równocześnie dwóch królów, ale pełnili oni jedynie funkcje religijno-kapłańskie) ich funkcje sądownicze przejęła geruzja i eforowie. Sprawy cywilne (w dzisiejszym rozumieniu) rozpatrywali eforowie, a sprawy karne geruzja i eforowie łącznie. +Ateny. +W początkowym okresie Ateny, podobnie jak Sparta były monarchią. W okresie tym władzę sądowniczą sprawował król. Z czasem arystokracja przejęła władzę sądowniczą od króla na rzecz, znajdujących się w jej rękach najwyższych urzędników – archontów. Powstał Areopag, organ, który składał się z byłych archontów i orzekał w sprawach o najcięższe zbrodnie np. umyślne zabójstwo. Sąd Efetów w składzie 51 sędziów orzekał w sprawach zabójstw. Zgromadzenie Ludowe, było właściwe w sprawach o przestępstwa przeciwko państwu. Sąd jedenastu (hendeka), właściwy ds. rozbójników, nocnych złodziei, świętokradców itp. Sąd Czterdziestu (tetrakonta) właściwy w sprawach drobnych oraz Sąd Heliastów, wprowadzony przez Solona o powszechnym charakterze, złożony z 6000 członków losowanych spośród obywateli ateńskich o dobrej opinii, którzy ukończyli 30 lat. +Rzym. +W starożytnym Rzymie rozróżnić należy trzy okresy: monarchii, republiki i cesarstwa. +W okresie monarchii władzę sądowniczą sprawowali królowie. +W okresie republiki władzę sądowniczą ("iurisdictio") sprawował konsul. Z racji tego, że konsulowie w Rzymie kierowali całym państwem w roku 367 p.n.e., by odciążyć urząd konsularny powołano urząd pretora. Pretorzy czuwali nad prawidłowym przebiegiem procesu sądowego i udzielali ochrony pozaprocesowej (np. udzielali opiekunów osobom ułomnym). Same rozstrzygnięcia zapadały przed sędziami ("iudex" / "arbiter"), którymi były osoby wybierane przez strony. W drobnych sprawach podczas targowisk spory rozstrzygali edyle kurulni. +W okresie cesarstwa następowało systematyczne odbieranie władzy sądowniczej pretorom na rzecz innych urzędników podporządkowanych hierarchicznie cesarzowi. Magistratury reprezentowały bowiem autorytet cesarza i mogły egzekwować werdykt przymusem państwowym. Dodatkowo każda sprawa mogła trafić do urzędnika wyższego stopniem drogą apelacji, a nawet do cesarza. +Nie można przecenić roli procesu rzymskiego w kształtowaniu prawa w Europie. Sądy, jakie znamy, pochodzą w prostej linii od organizacji sądownictwa w starożytnym Rzymie. Podstawą naszego postępowania sądowego jest bowiem proces rzymski, a wygląd sal rozpraw polskich sądów przejęty jest wprost od rzymskich pretorów urzędujących na forum. +Średniowiecze. +Z racji tego, że najczęstszą formą rządów w średniowieczu była monarchia, władza sądownicza skupiała się właśnie w rękach monarchy. Władcy czasem przekazywali część swoich kompetencji sądowniczych urzędnikom (np. w Polsce takimi urzędnikami byli kasztelanowie). +Cechą charakterystyczną średniowiecza było to, iż odrębne stany miały odrębne sądownictwo. +W miarę wzrostu ilości spraw następowało dalsze przekazywanie kompetencji na rzecz "typowych" organów sądowniczych – sądów. W Polsce były to przede wszystkim: sądy ziemskie, grodzkie i podkomorskie. Nadal jednak najwyższym sędzią pozostał król. +Czasy nowożytne. +W czasach nowożytnych następowało stopniowe ograniczanie roli monarchów w sprawowaniu władzy sądowniczej na rzecz organów samodzielnych, niepodlegających władzy monarszej. W Polsce takim organem był Trybunał Koronny, a w Anglii np. Izba Lordów (dla określonych rodzajów spraw). +W zasadniczej części sądownictwo ukształtowane w czasach nowożytnych (przede wszystkim w XVIII w.) nie ulegało już zmianom. Zlikwidowano oczywiście sądy stanowe, ale pozostawiono w zasadzie rozdział władzy sądowniczej od innych rodzajów władz (trójpodział władzy). W miarę rozwoju świadomości obywatelskiej powstawały jednak sądy chroniące jednostki przed nadużyciami władzy (sądownictwo administracyjne) czy też sądy konstytucyjne (sądownictwo konstytucyjne). +Sala sądowa. +Sala sądowa w polskich sądach (a także w innych państwach na kontynencie) pochodzi wprost od forum rzymskiego. Na forum tym bowiem, przy specjalnym stole i na specjalnym krześle (krzesło kurulne) urzędował pretor ubrany w togę. +Nawiązując do tego wzoru stół sędziowski dużych rozmiarów znajduje się na podwyższeniu, a za nim znajdują się krzesła sędziowskie. Nad stołem sędziowskim wisi godło państwowe, które ma reprezentować majestat Rzeczypospolitej. Patrząc od godła, z lewej strony stołu sędziowskiego swoje miejsce ma protokolant. Natomiast patrząc w głąb sali, po prawej stronie sędziów znajduje się ława tego, który żąda ochrony prawnej lub o coś wnosi (oskarżyciel, którym nie zawsze musi być prokurator, a także powód czy wnioskodawca), po lewej zaś ława tych, przeciwko którym ma zostać ochrona przydzielona – "broniących się" (oskarżonych czy pozwanych). Ta ostatnia zwana jest potocznie ławą oskarżonych. Przed stołem sędziowskim, między ławami stron, znajduje się pulpit, przed którym zeznają świadkowie. W sali sądowej znajdują się także miejsca dla publiczności. +Przykłady organizacji sądów. +Kontynentalny system prawny (zwany również europejskim, systemem prawa stanowionego lub systemem prawa cywilnego) ukształtował się na bazie tradycji i kultury Cesarstwa Rzymskiego. Wyodrębnił się z niego system common-law, zwany także systemem anglosaskim lub precedensowym. Rozdział systemów nastąpił wskutek reform wprowadzonych przez Wilhelma Zdobywcę po dokonanym w XI w. najeździe na Anglię. Z czasem system anglosaski rozpowszechnił się wraz ze zdobywaniem przez Anglię kolejnych kolonii i jest spotykany w dzisiejszych państwach postkolonialnych (Australia, Nowa Zelandia, większość stanów USA). Charakterystyczne różnice między systemami wywodzą się z tradycji. Prawo w systemie prawa stanowionego opiera się na ustawach, a rolą sądownictwa jest wyłącznie ich stosowanie. Obecnie w systemie anglosaskim również wzrasta rola prawa pisanego, lecz wiele instytucji oraz gałęzi prawa opiera się nadal na uznanych orzeczeniach wyższych sądów – precedensach. Poniżej przedstawiono organizację sądów na kontynencie (Polska i Niemcy) oraz w systemie "common law" (Stany Zjednoczone). +Sądy "kontynentalne". +Polska. +Podział przedmiotowy. +Sądy powszechne w Polsce dzielą się na wydziały, którym zawsze przypisana jest pewna kategoria spraw. Nieraz, gdy jest duży wpływ spraw danego rodzaju tworzy się kilka wydziałów dla tej kategorii spraw – przykładowo dwa albo trzy wydziały karne. Może też tak się zdarzyć, że w sądach wyższego rzędu jest przykładowo jeden wydział cywilny I instancji i drugi wydział cywilny, ale odwoławczy. +Republika Federalna Niemiec. +Podział podmiotowy. +W Niemczech obok sądownictwa powszechnego istnieje kilka rodzajów sądownictwa szczególnego, ale, co jest podyktowane doświadczeniami historycznymi (okres III Rzeszy), brak sądownictwa wojskowego. +Podział instancyjny. +Sądownictwo powszechne ("Ordentliche Gerichtsbarkeit") +Sądownictwo pracy ("Arbeitsgerichtsbarkeit") +Sądownictwo administracyjne ("Verwaltungsgerichtsbarkeit") +Sądownictwo finansowe ("Finanzgerichtsbarkeit") +Sądownictwo ubezpieczeń społecznych ("Sozialgerichtsbarkeit") +Szczegóły patrz: sądownictwo w Niemczech +Sądy w państwach "common law". +Stany Zjednoczone. +W Stanach Zjednoczonych istnieje podział na dwie niezależne od siebie struktury sądów: sądy federalne i sądy stanowe. Sądownictwo stanowe rozstrzyga sprawy nie zastrzeżone dla sądów federalnych. Sądy federalne w Stanach Zjednoczonych orzekają w sprawach opartych o prawo federalne. Należą do nich: Sąd Najwyższy Stanów Zjednoczonych, 13 sądów apelacyjnych ("U.S. Court of Appeal"), oraz 94 sądy obwodowe ("District Court") +John Taylor (muzyk) + +Nigel John Taylor (ur. 20 czerwca 1960 w Birmingham) – brytyjski gitarzysta basowy, współzałożyciel grupy Duran Duran. +W młodości był nieśmiały, lubił oglądać filmy z Jamesem Bondem i grać żołnierzykami w wojnę. Jako kilkunastolatek odkrył muzykę, kolekcjonował płyty i uczył się grać na gitarze. Jego pierwszy zespół nazywał Shock Treatment. +W 1978 razem ze szkolnym kolegą Nickiem Rhodesem założyli Duran Duran. John przeszedł metamorfozę, zmienił okulary na szkła kontaktowe, zaczął ubierać się w modnym romantycznym stylu. +Na początku grał na gitarze, ale w zespole przeszedł na gitarę basową, później odkrywając styl funki Chic. Największy wpływ wywarli na niego Joe Strummer z The Clash, Paul McCartney, James Jamerson, Roxy Music i John Porter. W miarę jak Duran Duran zwiększali zainteresowanie swoją muzyką, John jeszcze szybciej osiągał wzrost indywidualnej popularności. Jego zdjęcia pojawiały się w młodzieżowych magazynach. +W 1985 razem z Andy Taylorem, Robertem Palmerem i perkusistą Chic Tony Tompsonem utworzył Power Station. +Po przerwie razem z Duran Duran wznowił działalność; przez kolejne lata, raz z mniejszym, raz z większym zainteresowaniem nagrywali kolejne płyty, aż do 1997, kiedy postanowił odejść z zespołu i prowadzić dalej solową karierę. +W 2001 przystąpił do ponownie grającego razem Duran Duran. +Kazimierz Dzierżanowski + +Kazimierz Antoni Dzierżanowski (ur. 24 października 1872 w Hałuszczyńcach, w powiecie skałackim, prawdopodobnie zamordowany w maju 1940 na Ukrainie) – podpułkownik artylerii Cesarskiej i Królewskiej Armii, generał dywizji Wojska Polskiego. +Życiorys. +Był synem Zygmunta, dzierżawcy dóbr, powstańca z 1863, i Marii z Fedorowiczów. W 1893 ukończył Wydział Artylerii Wojskowej Akademii Technicznej w Wiedniu i został oficerem zawodowym austriackiej artylerii. Służył w artylerii we Lwowie, w 1914 uzyskał awans na stopień kapitana. Walczył na frontach I wojny światowej. Wojnę zakończył w stopniu podpułkownika. +Po upadku Austrii, od 2 listopada 1918 dowodził polskimi oddziałami na Morawach, przyprowadził je w granice Polski. Przyjęty do Wojska Polskiego w stopniu podpułkownika i przydzielony do Generalnego Inspektoratu Artylerii Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych. W lutym 1919 został dowódcą 1., następnie 2. Brygady Artylerii Legionów, od 1 lipca 1919 dowódca artylerii 2. Dywizji Piechoty Legionów i jednocześnie inspektor artylerii Frontu Północno-Zachodniego. W okresie listopad 1919 – marzec 1922 zastępca Generalnego Inspektora Artylerii. +Uczestniczył w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej, odznaczając się zwłaszcza w walkach o Mińsk i Bobrujsk. W marcu 1920 został szefem sekcji personalnej wydziału artylerii w Departamencie Broni Głównych Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych. 29 maja 1920 zatwierdzony został z dniem 1 kwietnia tego roku w stopniu pułkownika. Za bohaterstwo w czasie wojny z Rosją Sowiecką został odznaczony Orderem Virtuti Militari V klasy. +28 marca 1922 Minister Spraw Wojskowych mianował go szefem Departamentu III Artylerii i Uzbrojenia M.S.Wojsk. 3 maja 1922 zweryfikowany został w stopniu generała brygady ze starszeństwem z 1 czerwca 1919. W marcu 1924 objął dowództwo 28 Dywizji Piechoty w Warszawie. 31 marca 1924 Prezydent RP Stanisław Wojciechowski na wniosek Ministra Spraw Wojskowych, gen. dyw. Władysława Sikorskiego awansował go na generała dywizji ze starszeństwem z 1 lipca 1923 i 9 lokatą w korpusie generałów . W międzyczasie, od 1 grudnia 1924 do 20 sierpnia 1925 był słuchaczem II Kursu Centrum Wyższych Studiów Wojskowych w Warszawie. 21 października 1925 Prezydent RP mianował go komendantem Wyższej Szkoły Wojennej w Warszawie . W dniach 11-13 maja 1926, w czasie zamachu stanu, pełnił obowiązki dowódcy Okręgu Korpusu Nr I w Warszawie. 3 sierpnia 1926 wyznaczony został na stanowisko dowódcy Okręgu Korpusu Nr III w Grodnie. 15 marca 1927 przeniesiony został na równorzędne stanowisko dowódcy Okręgu Korpusu Nr VII w Poznaniu. Z dniem 31 grudnia 1932 przeniesiony został w stan spoczynku. Osiadł we Lwowie. +We wrześniu 1939 z powodu wieku i choroby nie wziął czynnego udziału w obronie Lwowa. 3 października 1939 został zatrzymany przez NKWD i osadzony w więzieniu na Zamarstynowie. W drugiej połowie kwietnia 1940 przetransportowany został do więzienia w Kijowie. Według Zdzisława Nicmana generał zmarł na skutek skrajnego wyczerpania. Nazwisko generała figuruje na "Liście ukraińskiej". +W 1941 gen. Władysław Sikorski, nie mając informacji o tragicznych losach generała, brał pod uwagę jego kandydaturę na stanowisko dowódcy Polskich Sił Zbrojnych w ZSRR, ale władze sowieckie twierdziły, iż nic nie wiedzą o losie generała. +Podział administracyjny Chile + +Podział administracyjny Chile jest trzystopniowy. Najwyższy szczebel tego podziału stanowi 15 regionów, na których czele stoi intendent ("intendente"). Każdy region dzieli się dalej na prowincje, którymi rządzi gubernator ("gobernador"). Najniższczym szczeblem podziału są gminy ("comunas"), na czele których stoi burmistrz ("alcalde"). Intendenci i gubernatorzy są wskazywani przez prezydenta, natomiast burmistrzowie wybierani są w powszechnym głosowaniu. +Każdy region jest oznaczony cyfrą rzymską, a numeracja biegnie z północy na południe. Numeracja ta jest powszechnie używana, znacznie częściej niż pełne nazwy. Wyjątkiem od tej reguły jest region stołeczny Santiago, który oznaczany jest skrótem "RM" (od "Región Metropolitana" = region stołeczny) oraz dwa nowe regiony powołane do życia ustawą z 19 grudnia 2006: XIV Los Ríos i XV Arica y Parinacota. +Komsomoł + +Komsomoł (ros. "Комсомол") – komunistyczna organizacja młodzieży w Związku Radzieckim, powstała w 1918 roku. Nazwa jest akronimem od słów Kommunisticzeskij Sojuz Mołodioży (Коммунистический союз молодёжи) czyli "Komunistyczny Związek Młodzieży". Od 1922 roku pełna nazwa brzmiała Wsiesojuznyj Leninskij Kommunisticzeskij Sojuz Mołodioży (Всесоюзный Ленинский Коммунистический Союз Молодёжи), czyli "Wszechzwiązkowy Leninowski Komunistyczny Związek Młodzieży". +Komsomoł skupiał młodych ludzi w wieku od 14 do 28 lat, natomiast funkcjonariusze organizacji (tak zwani "działacze") byli często znacznie starsi. +Komsomoł był młodzieżowym zapleczem KPZR, a jego celem była indoktrynacja młodzieży w Związku Radzieckim ideałami komunistycznymi. Mówią o tym słowa Lenina wygłoszone na III Zjeździe Komsomołu (2-10 X 1920 r.) aby młodzież "uczyła się z komunizmu". Mieli to być budowniczowie społeczeństwa Socjalistycznego ("Młodzież – Budowniczym Socjalizmu" L. Breżniew). Utworzona została na I Ogólnozwiązkowym Zjeździe Związków Młodzieży Robotniczej i Chłopskiej w dniach 29 X-4 XI 1918. Pod nazwą Rosyjski Komunistyczny Związek Młodzieży. Organizacja miała wpływ na władze. Konstytucja ZSRR z 1977 r. dała jej nawet prawo występowania z inicjatywą ustawodawczą, wysuwania kandydatów na radnych i ta sama Konstytucja ZSRR stawiała tę organizację zaraz po Partii i Związkach Zawodowych. W 1977 r. 32,4% składu rad terenowych stanowiła młodzież do lat 30, z czego większość stawała się później członkami elity partyjnej w ZSRR. +Działalność. +W latach 20. XX wieku ruch komsomolski odegrał dużą rolę w budowie przemysłu ciężkiego w ZSRR. Zaciągi były odzewem na VII Zjazd Komsomołu w 1926. Dzięki pierwszemu zaciągowi wyjechało 200 tys. komsomolców na tzw. Wielkie Budowy Socjalizmu, oraz 66 tys. na Ural. Największym czynem pozostała budowa w 1937 r. Komsomolska nad Amurem (Komsomoł budował także inne miasta np.: Turksib, Magnitka itd.) oraz Bajkalsko-Amurskiej Magistrali Kolejowej. Za czasów kolektywizacji na wieś udało się 140 tys. komsomolców, przyczynił się do likwidacji analfabetyzmu (od 1930 r. objął patronat nad szkołami i od 1931 r. nad Marynarką Wojenną i siłami powietrznymi ZSRR). W latach 1971-1975 do budowy 670 obiektów wyjechało ok. 500 tys. komsomolców, były to budowle KamAZ-u (przedsiębiorstwo aut ciężarowych), BAM-u (Magistrala Kolejowa), elektrownie jądrowe "Atommasz", wspólne budowle krajów RWPG, kombinat apatytów, ropy naftowej i gazu ziemnego na Syberii, kombinat elektrometalurgiczny w Oskole, czy zagospodarowanie nieczarnoziemnej strefy niezamieszkanej w RFSRR, prace melioracyjne, wiejskie hufce pracy (liczyły 20. tys. osób) i inne. Należy także wymienić akcję z lat 70 "Komsomoł – wiejskiej szkole" kiedy wybudowano 10tys. szkół i wyposażono 98 tys. pracowni szkolnych i warsztatów. W różnych formach dokształcania poza szkolnego brało udział 19,1 mln osób. Ważną dziedziną wychowawczą było sprawowanie politycznego i organizacyjnego kierownictwa nad organizacjami pionierów i Oktiabriat, w których wychowywanych było ponad 25 mln dzieci. +Skład Komsomołu. +Lata 70. XX wieku były okresem największego rozkwitu organizacji, ocenia się, że przewinęło się przez nią około dwóch trzecich populacji Rosji. Między rokiem 1978 a 1979 skupiała ona ponad 60% młodego pokolenia w ZSRR i liczyła 38 mln osób. Ponad 58% było zatrudnionych w gospodarce ZSRR. Z dojściem Breżniewa do władzy organizacja stała się masowa a większość członków płaciła składki nie uczestnicząc czynnie w działaniach. Komsomoł w tym czasie stracił charakter robotniczo-chłopski. Nadal jednak 42% członków uczniowie i studenci, 34,9% to robotnicy, 6,4% rolnicy, ale 16,7% to pracownicy aparatu partyjno-państwowego w ZSRR. Co piąty nauczyciel, co czwarty pracownik naukowy i wykładowca na wyższej uczelni w końcu lat 70 był komsomolcem. W ciągu pierwszych 60 lat istnienia Komsomołu przez tę organizację przeszło 120 mln osób. Jednym z bardziej znanych członków jest Michaił Chodorkowski były prezes Jukosu. +Struktura organizacyjna. +Była złożona, można tu wyróżnić; Podstawową organizację – która istniała praktycznie w każdym zakładzie pracy i placówce naukowej czyli grupy i oddziały komsomolskie (których było 1,7 mln), terenową (428 tys.), miejską i rejonową (4308), obwodową i okręgowych (155), republikańską (14). +Władze. +Działalność opierała się na centralizmie demokratycznym. Organem kierowniczym dla organizacji podstawowych było: Zebranie Ogólne, terenowych – Konferencja, a dla reszty – Zjazd. Na nich w zależności od szczebla organizacyjnego były biura (oddziały i grupy komsomolskie) i komitety. Zjazd był najwyższym kierowniczym zwoływanym nie rzadziej niż raz na cztery lata. Zjazd oceniał działalność stowarzyszenia i wytyczała linię pracy. Na zjazdach wybierano Komitet Centralny oraz Centralną Komisję Rewizyjną. Posiedzenia KC odbywały się nie rzadziej niż co 6 miesięcy, i wybierał on Biuro Polityczne a do pracy organizacyjno-wykonawczej Sekretariat. +Centralnym organem prasowym Komsomołu była "Komsomolskaja Prawda" (nakładem 10 mln egzemplarzy). Komsomoł wydawał 159 młodzieżowych i dziecięcych gazet o nakładzie 40 mln egzemplarzy oraz 43 mln egzemplarzy książek. Komsomoł miał trzy wydawnictwa (największe "Mołodaja Gwardia"). Naczelną władzą dla nich była Naczelna Redakcja Programów Młodzieżowych. Korzystano z telewizji (Komsomoł miał 122 regionalne studia telewizyjne, oraz radiostacja "Junost" – 154 redakcje radiowe). +Uczestnictwo w organizacjach międzynarodowych i Komsomoł dziś. +Komsomoł uczestniczył w Światowej Federacji Młodzieży Demokratycznej i Międzynarodowym Związku Studentów. +Po reformach Gorbaczowa organizacja zupełnie straciła na znaczeniu i została rozwiązana w 1991. Do dnia dzisiejszego istnieje natomiast gazeta, która była organem prasowym Komsomołu: "Komsomolskaja Prawda". Dziś odrodzony Komsomoł jest młodzieżówką Komunistycznej Partii Federacji Rosyjskiej. +San Marino (miasto) + +San Marino – stolica Republiki San Marino, położona w środkowej części kraju, na zachodnich stokach Monte Titano. Trzecie co do wielkości miasto kraju. +W 2008 roku historyczne centrum San Marino zostało wraz z Monte Titano wpisane na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +Data założenia miasta: 3 września 301. +Miastem partnerskim San Marino jest San Leo we Włoszech. +W San Marino znajduje się uniwersytet i politechnika. +Arcadia (grupa muzyczna) + +Arcadia nazwa zespołu utworzonego w 1985 przez Simona Le Bona, Nicka Rhodesa i Rogera Taylora z grupy Duran Duran w czasie przerwy w pracy zespołu. +Arcadia nagrała jeden album "So Red The Rose", który stał się platynową płytą. W pracy zespołu uczestniczyli: David Gilmour, Grace Jones i Sting, którego słyszymy w "The Promise". +Nagrali też utwór "Say The Word" do filmu "Playing For Keeps". +COFF + +COFF (Common Object File Format) - format plików wykonywalnych użyty w systemie Unix System V Release 3, później zaadaptowany do systemu Microsoft Windows NT. +Skrzyżowanie + +Skrzyżowanie – przecięcie się w jednym poziomie dróg mających jezdnię, ich połączenie lub rozwidlenie, łącznie z powierzchniami utworzonymi przez takie przecięcia, połączenia lub rozwidlenia; określenie to nie dotyczy przecięcia, połączenia lub rozwidlenia drogi twardej z drogą gruntową lub stanowiącą dojazd do obiektu znajdującego się przy drodze. +Niebezpieczne skrzyżowania są w Polsce oznaczone odpowiednimi znakami drogowymi. Na każdym skrzyżowaniu kierujący ma obowiązek zachowania szczególnej ostrożności. Skrzyżowanie to przecięcie się tylko dróg publicznych. Obowiązek utrzymania skrzyżowania ma zarządca drogi wyższej kategorii. +Paramagnetyzm + +W niskich temperaturach lub dla bardzo silnych pól magnetycznych namagnesowanie traci liniową zależność od pola zewnętrznego i wykazuje nasycenie. +Podatność magnetyczna zależy od temperatury, zjawisko to ujmuje prawo Curie. Niektóre paramagnetyki w temperaturach niższych od pewnej charakterystycznej dla każdej substancji wartości, nazywanej punktem Curie, stają się ferromagnetykami. +Przyczyną paramagnetyzmu jest porządkowanie się spinów elektronów ciała zgodnie z liniami zewnętrznego pola magnetycznego, uporządkowaniu przeciwdziałają drgania cieplne cząsteczek. W niskich temperaturach lub w silnych polach magnetycznych dochodzi do uporządkowania niemal wszystkich dipoli magnetycznych elektronów w wyniku czego dochodzi do nasycenia. Właściwości paramagnetyczne posiadają substancje o niesparowanych elektronach. +Paramagnetyki mają przenikalność magnetyczną μ niewiele większą od jedności. Dla ferromagnetyków μ jest wielokrotnie większe od 1. +Droga gruntowa + +Droga gruntowa (droga o nawierzchni gruntowej) – droga o nawierzchni z gruntu rodzimego lub utrwalona w wyniku specjalnych zabiegów i preparacji gruntu rodzimego przy pomocy mieszanin wykonanych z gliny, żwiru, żużla, itp. +W polskim Prawie o ruchu drogowym, drogę gruntową określono jako każdą inną drogę niż droga twarda oraz posiadającą cechy drogi twardej, ale krótszą niż 20 m. +Drogi te w Europie i w innych miejscach świata, gdzie istnieje wysoki poziom rozwoju występują przeważnie na terenach leśnych, polnych. W krajach Trzeciego Świata jak np. w krajach afrykańskich drogi te są bardzo powszechne. Droga gruntowa cechuje się niską przydatnością komunikacyjną zwłaszcza jeśli chodzi o samochody osobowe z niskim podwoziem i oponami przystosowanymi do nawierzchni twardej. Długoletnie użytkowanie drogi gruntowej na nachylonym terenie skutkuje powstaniem rozcięcia drogowego. +Pobocze + +Pobocze – część drogi przyległa do jezdni, która może być przeznaczona do ruchu pieszych lub niektórych pojazdów, postoju pojazdów, jazdy wierzchem lub pędzenia zwierząt. +Pobocze może być asfaltowe lub gruntowe. +Jewgienij Pluszczenko + +Jewgienij Wiktorowicz Pluszczenko (ros. Евгений Викторович Плющенко, ur. 3 listopada 1982 w miejscowości Sołneczny w Kraju Chabarowskim) – rosyjski łyżwiarz figurowy. Jeden z najbardziej utytułowanych współczesnych łyżwiarzy figurowych: 3-krotny mistrz świata (2001, 2003 i 2004), 7-krotny mistrz Europy (2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2010, 2012) oraz 9-krotny mistrz Rosji. Złoty medalista olimpijski z Turynu. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo Jewgienij Wiktorowicz Pluszczenko spędził w ciężkich warunkach. Jego ojciec pracował przy budowie kolei Bajkał-Amur. Mieszkał z rodziną w drewnianym wagonie niedaleko Chabarowska. Trudne warunki bytowe odbiły się na zdrowiu Jewgienija. Z powodu choroby syna Wiktor i Tatiana Pluszczenko przenieśli się w 1986 roku do Wołgogradu. +Kariera. +Pluszczenko rozpoczął karierę w wieku czterech lat. W wieku jedenastu lat przeniósł się do St. Petersburga, gdzie trafił pod skrzydła trenera Aleksieja Miszyna, którego podopiecznym był wtedy inny przyszły mistrz olimpijski Aleksiej Jagudin. +Owocami tej współpracy były szybkie sukcesy. Jako czternastolatek Jewgienij triumfował w Mistrzostwach Świata Juniorów w Seulu w 1997 roku. Seniorskie sukcesy rozpoczął od zdobycia brązowego medalu na Mistrzostwach Świata w Minneapolis w 1998 roku. Wtedy Jagudin uznał, że trenowanie razem z Pluszczenką może zaszkodzić jego karierze i zerwał współpracę z Miszynem. W późniejszych latach obaj wielokrotnie rywalizowali o najwyższe laury na światowych imprezach. +Pluszczenko był również najmłodszym łyżwiarzem figurowym, który otrzymał notę 6,0 – miał wówczas 16 lat. +Igrzyska Olimpijskie 2002. +Po drodze do Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Salt Lake City został mistrzem świata w Vancouver w 2001 roku oraz trzykrotnie triumfował w Mistrzostwach Europy. Podczas Igrzysk stoczył kolejną walkę o złoto z Jagudinem. Po złym występie w programie krótkim zajmował 4. miejsce, jednak po znakomitym występie w programie dowolnym (przy "Carmen") awansował na drugą pozycję i zdobył srebrny medal. Mistrzem olimpijskim został Aleksiej Jagudin zdobywając najwyższą notę w historii olimpijskich zmagań. +Dominacja. +Po zakończeniu kariery przez Jagudina Jewgienij Pluszczenko zdominował rywalizację łyżwiarzy figurowych. Przegrał tylko dwukrotnie: w Finale Grand Prix w 2004 roku oraz na Mistrzostwach Europy w Budapeszcie w tym samym roku, gdzie przegrał z Brianem Joubertem. Na MŚ w 2005 roku w Moskwie odniósł kontuzję podczas programu krótkiego, co uniemożliwiło mu dalszą rywalizację w tamtym sezonie. +Pluszczenko był głównym faworytem do złota na Igrzyskach w Turynie. Pomimo niepewności związanej z nowym systemem sędziowania Pluszczenko dominował przez całą rywalizację, zdobywając złoty medal olimpijski. W programie dowolnym akompaniował mu węgierski skrzypek Edvin Marton.Po Igrzyskach zawiesił amatorską karierę. +Pluszczenko jako pierwszy wykonał poprawnie kombinację skoków poczwórny-potrójny-potrójny. Jest też jedynym solistą, który prezentuje w swoich programach piruet Biellmann. +Powrót. +W marcu 2009 roku powrócił do zawodowego treningu. Pierwszym występem po przerwie były zawody Grand Prix w Moskwie, w których zajął pierwsze miejsce z wynikiem 240.65 pkt. Jeszcze pod koniec roku 2009 został po raz ósmy Mistrzem Rosji. +W styczniu 2010 roku po czteroletniej przerwie wystąpił w Mistrzostwach Europy w Tallinnie. Już podczas programu krótkiego nie pozostawił złudzeń rywalom, ustanawiając wynikiem 91.30 pkt nowy rekord świata. 21 stycznia, po znakomitym programie dowolnym zdobył po raz szósty złoty medal ME. +Podczas Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Vancouver zdobył srebrny medal. Mimo prowadzenia po programie krótkim przegrał walkę o złoto z Evanem Lysackiem. Nie udało mu się tym samym stać się pierwszym od 58 lat zawodnikiem, który obronił olimpijski tytuł. Po zakończeniu zmagań w Vancouver Pluszczenko zapowiedział, że występ na olimpijskiej tafli był jego ostatnim. +Poza taflą. +Jesienią 2006, wraz z Iriną Słucką, zaczął prowadzić rosyjską wersję programu "Gwiazdy na lodzie". Pluszczenko wziął także udział w 53. Konkursie Piosenki Eurowizji. Wystąpił na umieszczonej na scenie tafli, towarzysząc reprezentującym Rosję piosenkarzowi Dimie Biłanowi i skrzypkowi Edvinowi Martonowi, zdobywając pierwsze miejsce. +Łojewo + +3 miejscowości w Polsce: +Grampiany (Szkocja) + +Grampiany (ang. "Grampian Mountains", "The Grampians", "Central Highlands", gael. "Am Monadh") - pasmo górskie w Szkocji, najwyższe w Wielkiej Brytanii. Jest to jedno z trzech głównych pasm Szkocji obok Gór Kaledońskich i Wyżyny Południowoszkockiej. Wiele rzek i strumieni bierze tu swój początek. Są to między innymi: Tay, Spey, Cowie Water, Burn of Muchalls, Burn of Pheppie, Burn of Elsick, Cairnie Burn, Don, Dee i Esk. Rejon ten jest słabo zaludniony. +Góry powstały w trakcie orogenezy kaledońskiej. Charakteryzują się rzeźbą górzysto-pagórkowatą, ubogą roślinnością i brakiem lasów. Rejon ten obfituje w wiele jezior, z których największe to Loch Lomond. Najwyższym szczytem jest Ben Nevis, który wznosi się na wysokość 1343 m n.p.m. Jest on najwyższym szczytem Szkocji oraz całej Wielkiej Brytanii. +Historia. +Nazwa "Grampians" po raz pierwszy została użyta do określenia całego pasma w 1520 r. przez szkockiego historyka Hectora Boece. Nazwa ta wywodzi się od nazwy "Mons Grapious" (M. Graupius), miana nadanego przez Tacyta miejscu sromotnej klęski wojsk Calgacusa z Kaledończkami ok. 83 r. n.e. Położenie "Mons Graupius", dosłownie "Góry Graupian", jest kwestią dyskusji wśród historyków. Przeważa pogląd, że nazwa ta odnosi się do któregoś ze wzniesień w Grampianach: Raedykes, Megray Hill lub Kempstone Hill. +W Średniowieczu pasmo znane było pod nazwą Mounth. Aż do XIX wieku Grampiany nie były uważane za jedno pasmo a kilka mniejszych. Pogląd ten znajduje swych zwolenników do dziś. W językach gaelicko-szkockim i scots pasmo to posiada więcej niż jedną nazwę. Nazwa regionu "Grampian" przetłumaczona została na szkocko-gaelicki jako "Roinn a' Mhonaidh". +Klimat. +W porównaniu z innymi europejskimi pasmami górskimi Grampiany zajmują niewielką powierzchnię. Mimo to między ich zachodnią a wschodnią częścią występują pewne różnice w klimacie. +Część Zachodnia. +Klimat części zachodniej jest łagodniejszy dzięki wiatrom wiejącym znad morza. Prądy morskie mają wpływ na temperaturę zachodnich obszarów. Roczna temperatura strefy przybrzeżnej mieści się w przedziale od 9,4 do 9,7 °C. Średnia roczna temperatura maleje na północy i południu jak i w głębi lądu gdzie temperatura waha się w rejonach od 8,0 do 9,3 °C. +W lutym średnia temperatura wynosi mniej więcej 1,6 °C na większości wysp, od 0,7 do 1,6 °C w dolinach i mniej niż -1.1 °C na wyżynach. Na Ben Nevis średnia roczna temperatura wynosi niewiele poniżej 0 °C. W głębi lądu, gdzie słabną wpływy morskie, styczeń jest najzimniejszym miesiącem w roku. Średnia temperatura wynosi wtedy między -3,4 a -0,9 °C. Lipiec i sierpień są najcieplejszymi miesiącami, z temperaturami w rejonach od 14,6 °C do 18,5 °C. Przypadki wyższych temperatur zawiązane są z ciepłymi masami powietrza przyniesionymi z kontynentalnej części Europy. Najbardziej ponurym miesiącem jest grudzień; najwięcej słońca przypada na maj i czerwiec. +Deszcze są szczególnie częste w zimie i jesieni, często zdarzają się ulewy, choć dotyczy to głownie rejonów nadmorskich. W głębi lądu ulewy mogą występować w lecie i na wiosnę. Przemożny wpływ wywiera tutaj morze. Innym czynnikiem wpływającym na opady jest wysokość. Wilgoć wznosząca się ponad szczyty ochładza się tworząc chmury i opady deszczu. Dlatego też mapa rocznych opadów jest bardzo zbliżona do mapy topograficznej. Najwięcej opadów w tym rejonie Szkocji przypada na jesień i zimę, szczególnie od października do stycznia. Najsuchszymi miesiącami są natomiast kwiecień, maj i czerwiec. Na wyżynach roczna średnia opadów wynosi ponad 4000 mm. +Opady śniegu połączone są ściśle z temperaturą. Śnieg utrzymuje się tylko jeśli temperatura nie przekracza 4 °C. Opady śniegu przypadają zwykle na okres między listopadem a kwietniem, ale na wyżej położonych terenach okres ten wydłuża się i obejmuje okres od października do maja. Śnieg rzadko zalega dłużej niż do marca. +Średnia dni z opadami śniegu wynosi dla strefy przybrzeżnej mniej niż 10 na południu i 40 na północy. Dla wyżej położonych terenów liczba ta wynosi 100 dni. Na nizinach śnieg zalega nie dłużej niż 5 dni, ale na wyżynach już około 35 dni. Na szczytach jak np. na Ben Nevis śnieg może się utrzymywać nawet do siedmiu miesięcy w roku. +Część Wschodnia. +Na wschodzie średnie roczna temperatura waha się od 9 °C w pobliżu Firth of Forth do mniej niż 6 °C na wyżynach. Zróżnicowanie temperatur jest wynikiem bliskości wybrzeża, topografii i, w mniejszym stopniu, urbanizacji. +Najzimniejszym miesiącem jest styczeń z temperaturami około 1,5 °C na północno-wschodnim wybrzeżu do mniej niż -2 °C na wyżynach. Bardzo niskie temperatury zazwyczaj występują w styczniu i lutym (np. najniższa zanotowana temperatura na Wyspach Brytyjskich: -27,2 °C w Braemar, 10 stycznia 1982 r.). Występuje tu także zjawisko zwane wiatrem Foehn. Najcieplejszym miesiącem jest lipiec, ze średnią dzienną temperaturą wynoszącą ok. 20 °C, najwyższą w Szkocji. Dla porównania w innych wschodnich rejonach Szkocji średnie temperatury w tym okresie wynoszą najwyżej 16 °C. +Najmniej słonecznym miesiącem, tak jak w zachodniej części pasma, jest grudzień. Najwięcej słońca przynoszą maj i czerwiec. Większość wschodniej Szkocji jest chroniona przez góry od wilgotnych wiatrów zachodnich. Szczególnie chronione są rejony wybrzeża East Lothian, Fife i Moray Firth, gdzie roczna suma opadów wynosi mniej niż 700 mm. Najwięcej deszczu otrzymują wyżynne rejony położone na południu (ok. 1500 mm). +Średnia ilość dni z opadami śniegu wynosi 20 na wybrzeżu i ponad 100 dni w górach. Śnieg zalega mniej niż 10 dni na wybrzeżu i ponad 60 dni na wyżej położonym terenie. W wyżej położonych rejonach powstały ośrodki narciarskie takie jak Cairngorm, Lecht i Glenshee. +Wschodnie Grampiany są jednym z najbardziej wietrznych zakątków Wielkiej Brytanii. Najsilniejsze wiatry powiązane są ze strefami niskiego ciśnienia przechodzącymi blisko lub przez Szkocję. Szczytowym sezonem silnych wiatrów jest zima, szczególnie od grudnia do lutego. Na szczycie Cairn Gorm zmierzono rekordową prędkość wiatru w Wielkiej Brytanii - 150 węzłów (20 marca 1986 r). +Podział. +Grampiany są bardzo zróżnicowane. Znajdują się tutaj zarówno szczyty o charakterystyce niemalże alpejskiej jak i łagodne trawiaste wzgórza. Pasmo to dzieli się na wiele mniejszych łańcuchów zebranych w trzy większe, główne grupy: Grampiany Zachodnie, Centralne i Wschodnie. Podział na mniejsze łańcuchy nie jest jasno ustalony, więc w różnych źródłach można spotkać różniące się wersje. Często bywa, że niektóre szczyty przez niektórych kwalifikowane jako część jednego pasma przez innych autorów opisywane są jako część innego. +Emma Goldman + +Emma Goldman (ur. 27 czerwca 1869 w Kownie - zm. 14 maja 1940 w Toronto) była anarchistką znaną ze swych radykalnych wolnościowo-socjalistycznych oraz feministycznych pism i wypowiedzi. +Urodziła się w rodzinie żydowskiej na Litwie (wtedy pod zaborem rosyjskim). W wieku 13 lat, w okresie represji politycznych po zabójstwie cara Aleksandra II, przeniosła się wraz z rodziną do Petersburga. Z powodu trudnej sytuacji ekonomicznej zmuszona była porzucić szkołę i rozpocząć pracę w fabryce. Tam po raz pierwszy zetknęła się z ideami rewolucyjnymi i anarchistycznymi. +Jako szesnastolatka wyjechała do USA. Powieszenie czterech anarchistów po zamieszkach w Chicago w maju 1886 roku pchnęło ją ostatecznie w kierunku ruchu anarchistycznego. W wieku 20 lat wyszła za mąż za rosyjskiego emigranta; małżeństwo nie było udane, ale nie rozwiodła się, co pozwoliło jej zachować amerykańskie obywatelstwo. +Po rozstaniu z mężem Emma Goldman przeniosła się do Nowego Jorku, gdzie poznała innego rosyjskiego anarchistę Aleksandra Berkmana. Stanowili razem parę głównych liderów ruchu anarchistycznego tego okresu w Stanach. Jej wykłady, które prowadziła w wielu miastach, przyciągały tłumy. Legenda głosi, że w celu zakupienia broni postanowiła zostać prostytutką, co rzekomo wyperswadował jej pierwszy klient (pisze o tym w autobiografii "Living my Life"). Znana z radykalizmu obyczajowego i światopoglądowego, często stawała się celem ataków jako inspiratorka zamachów i aktów terroryzmu. O swoim udziale w jej wykładzie wspomina między innymi Henry Miller. Przyjaźniła się z postępowymi wydawczyniami "The Little Review", wydającymi między innymi zakazanego w Europie Ulissesa Joyce'a (Zob "Women in Dada"). Brała też udział w feministycznych walkach o kontrolę urodzeń, za co również była aresztowana, wraz z Margaret Sanger, w 1886 roku. W 1893 roku została uwięziona za „publiczne nakłanianie do kradzieży”, w 1901 zatrzymana na dwa tygodnie za „publiczne zachęcanie do zabójstwa prezydenta USA” (w związku ze sprawą Leona Czołgosza – zabójcy prezydenta McKinleya); w 1917 dostała dwa lata więzienia za organizowanie manifestacji antywojennych, w 1919 deportowana z USA do Rosji za rzekome inspirowanie zamachu na właściciela fabryki. +Była wraz z Aleksandrem Berkmanem wieloletnią redaktorką czasopisma anarchistycznego "Mother Earth", pisała również na temat literatury i analizowała ją pod kątem społecznym. +Początkowo gorąco poparła idee rewolucji październikowej, szybko jednak przeżyła rozczarowanie spowodowane represjami, biurokracją, przymusem pracy, a także zniszczeniami spowodowanymi wojną domową. Użycie Armii Czerwonej do pacyfikacji strajków sprawiło, że Goldman zrewidowała swoje poglądy na użycie przemocy, teraz uważała że można jej użyć jedynie do samoobrony. Deportacje komunistów i anarchistów na Syberię, regularne czystki i pacyfikacje strajków metodą wojskową spowodowały, że ostatecznie opuściła Rosję w 1921 roku. Mieszkała w Rydze, Niemczech, Francji i ostatecznie w Londynie, skąd wyjechała w 1936 roku do Hiszpanii wspierać tamtejszych rewolucjonistów anarchistycznych w hiszpańskiej wojnie domowej. +Zmarła w Toronto i została pochowana na cmentarzu w Chicago, niedaleko grobów ofiar zamieszek z 1886 roku. +Zasłynęła sloganem „Jeśli nie mogę do tego tańczyć, to nie jest moja rewolucja”. +Wallace Hume Carothers + +Wallace Hume Carothers (ur. 27 kwietnia 1896 w Burlington w amerykańskim stanie Iowa, zm. 29 kwietnia 1937) – amerykański chemik, kierownik działu chemii organicznej w koncernie DuPont, uważany za wynalazcę nylonu. +Po ukończeniu szkoły średniej Wallace Carothers rozpoczął studia na wydziale zarządzania w college'u w Des Moines w stanie Iowa. Następnie Carothers zdecydował się na dalszą naukę i tym razem za cel studiów wybrał chemię, którą ukończył na uniwersytecie w Południowej Dakocie. Okazało się, że właśnie chemia stała się pasją życia Carothersa, zaś swoją edukację przypieczętował on obroną w roku 1924, doktoratu z chemii na uniwersytecie w Illinois. +Carothers podjął następnie pracę badawczą jako asystent na wydziale chemii Uniwersytetu Harvarda, zajmując się m.in. badaniem właściwości polimerów. +W tym czasie koncern DuPont intensywnie pracował nad wynalezieniem syntetycznego odpowiednika naturalnego jedwabiu. Projekt ten stał się wkrótce kluczowym przedsięwzięciem firmy, a Carothers zgodził się na pracę dla DuPont, przejmując wkrótce kierownictwo badań. Na bezpośredniego przełożonego Carothersa wyznaczono Elmera K. Boltona. Ten poprosił Carothersa o pokierowanie badaniami nad poliolefinami, które jak się wydawało mogły prowadzić do odkrycia tworzywa, z którego dałoby się prząść sztuczne włókna. +Pierwszy przełom w badaniach pojawił się w kwietniu 1930 roku, kiedy to asystent Carothersa, Arnold M. Collins zdołał otrzymać pierwsze tworzywo włóknotwórcze – neopren. Polimer ten okazał się bardzo drogi w produkcji, co ograniczało jego potencjalne zastosowania. Prawdziwy przełom przyniosło dopiero odkrycie Juliana Hilla. Julian Hill zajmował się badaniami poliamidów. To właśnie Hill dokonał przełomowego odkrycia, stwierdzając, że badana przez niego próbka tzw. poliamidu 6-6 rozciąga się, zachowując jednocześnie swój jedwabisty połysk. Początkowo jednak próby opracowania technologii produkcji tego poliamidu zakończyły się niepowodzeniem. +Carothers zdecydował w pewnym momencie o zaprzestaniu badań nad tym polimerem. Wiele wskazuje na to, że być może początkowo nie docenił znaczenia odkrycia, lub przeszacował trudności technologii produkcji. Na szczęście decyzję o kontynuowaniu badań podjął szef Carothersa Elmer Bolton. Kierowana przez Carothersa grupa badawcza w ciągu kilku lat zdołała przełamać wszystkie problemy chemiczne oraz technologiczne, co w roku 1937 umożliwiło komercyjne wykorzystanie włókna. Kluczowym punktem technologii był pomysł Carothersa użycia zamiast dwóch monomerów – ich mieszaniny w formie stałej soli (tzw. sól AH – nazwanej na cześć wynalazcy solą Carothersa. +Carothers jest też uważany za twórcę równania wiążącego stopień polimeryzacji ze stopniem przereagowania grup funkcyjnych w polimeryzacji stopniowej, +które na jego cześć jest nazywane równaniem Carothersa. +Nylon stał się sensacją wystawy światowej w Nowym Jorku. Carothers nie doczekał sukcesu swojego odkrycia. Chorował na cyklofrenię i w przebiegu fazy depresyjnej popełnił samobójstwo wypijając roztwór cyjanku potasu. +Strosław + +Strosław – staropolskie imię męskie, które albo było złożone z członu "Stro(go)-" ("srogo") oraz członu "-sław" ("sława"), albo pierwszym jego członem było "Stro(j)-" ("stroić, budować"), albo też pochodzi od imienia Stronisław. +Głowa + +Głowa (łac. "caput") – część ciała zwierząt, zajmująca u człowieka i u innych ssaków szczytowe umiejscowienie (ewentualnie przednie). Szyja ("collum") stanowi podporę dla głowy oraz drogę łączącą ją z tułowiem i kończyną górną. +Kostne rusztowanie głowy stanowi czaszka ("cranium"), zapewniająca ochronę zawartego w niej mózgu ("cerebrum"). W obrębie przedniej części czaszki, tzw. trzewioczaszki, osadzony jest narząd wzroku oraz początek dróg: pokarmowej i oddechowej. W części skroniowej czaszki znajduje się narząd słuchu. +Głowa dorosłego człowieka waży około 4–5 kg. +Od wyrazu "głowa" w wielu językach pochodzą pojęcia określające rzeczy uznane za najważniejsze dla czegoś, jak "głowa państwa" czy wywodzące się z łac. "caput" wyrazy "kapitan", "kapituła". +Topeka + +Topeka – miasto w USA, stolica stanu Kansas, nad rzeką Kansas w hrabstwie Shawnee. +Założone w 1854 roku, stało się stolicą stanu po wejściu Kansas do Unii w 1861 roku. +"Topeka" oznacza "dobre miejsce do uprawy ziemniaków" w języku Indian Kanza i Iowa. Nazwa "ziemniak" w tym przypadku odnosi się do "Psoralea esculenta" ziół, które od wielu lat były ważnym pokarmem dla wielu tubylczych Amerykanów. +Jest najbardziej zaludnionym miastem w hrabstwie. +Ośrodek naukowo-kulturowy oraz handlowy regionu rolniczego. Węzeł komunikacyjny. +Miasto jest kolebką Ruchu Zielonoświątkowego. +Demografia. +0.9% mieszkańców deklaruje pochodzenie polskie. +Optoelektronika + +Optoelektronika to dziedzina techniki, która wykorzystuje specyficzne właściwości światła w celu pozyskiwania, gromadzenia, przesyłania, obróbki i prezentacji informacji. Optoelektronika zajmuje sie także konstrukcją i zastosowaniem urządzeń i aparatów do emisji i detekcji światła. Zastosowania obejmują różne dziedziny techniki, a także medycyny. +Światło cechuje bardzo wysoka częstotliwość (kilkaset THz), zaś długości fal z obszaru widzialnego (VIS) znajdują się w zakresie od 380 nm do 780 nm. Ta akurat cecha przyczynia się do szybkości transferu (szerokość pasma). +Warto zaznaczyć, że optoelektronika skupia dziedziny nauk takie jak chemia, fizyka ciała stałego, oraz elektronikę. +Z optoelektroniką wiąże się też wykorzystanie promieniowana elektromagnetycznego w biomedycynie. Tą dziedziną zajmuje się optyka biomedyczna, stanowiąca dział inżynierii biomedycznej. +Sygnał drogowy + +Sygnał drogowy – sygnał obowiązujący w ruchu drogowym, którego znaczenie i zakres obowiązywania określone jest w "Rozporządzeniu Ministrów Infrastruktury oraz Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji w sprawie znaków i sygnałów drogowych z dnia 31 lipca 2002 r". Sygnały drogowe sytuowane są po stronie prawej, lewej, nad bądź na jezdni. Dzielą się na: +Biezstryj + +Biezstryj, Biestryj, Biezstryk, Brzezstryk, Brzestryk – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Biez-" ("bez") i "-stryj", "-stryk" ("stryj"). Może oznaczać "ten, który nie ma stryja (stryjów, krewniaków męskich od strony ojca)". +UNEF + +United Nations Emergency Force ("UNEF") - Doraźne Siły Narodów Zjednoczonych zostały powołane 7 listopada 1956 na podstawie Rezolucji nr 1001 przyjętej przez Zgromadzenie Ogólne ONZ. +W 1973 powołano Drugie Doraźne Siły Narodów Zjednoczonych, dlatego rozróżnia się: UNEF I - 1956 oraz UNEF II - 1973. UNEF powstały z inicjatywy kanadyjskiego ministra spraw zagranicznych Lestera Pearsona (z tego powodu w 1957 został laureatem Pokojowej Nagrody Nobla). +UNEF I. +Swoich żołnierzy w ramach sił UNEF do Egiptu wysłały następujące państwa: Brazylia, Dania, Finlandia, Indie, Polska, Indonezja, Jugosławia, Kanada, Kolumbia, Norwegia i Szwecja. Wsparcie i pomoc udzieliły: Stany Zjednoczone, Włochy i Szwajcaria. Pierwsze oddziały UNEF zaczęły lądować w Kairze 15 listopada 1956 i do stycznia 1957 osiągnęły swoją pełną zdolność bojową (6,000 ludzi). Siły UNEF zostały w pełni rozlokowane na Półwyspie Synaj do 8 marca 1957. +Siedzibą dowództwa misji była Gaza. Siły UNEF miały być gwarantem bezpieczeństwa, nadzorującym przestrzeganie zawieszenia broni pomiędzy Izraelem a Egiptem. Mogły zostać wycofane wyłącznie za zgodą Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych. +16 maja 1967 szef sztabu egipskiej armii generał Mohammed Fawzy zażądał wycofania międzynarodowych sił pokojowych UNEF z Półwyspu Synaj. Fawzy napisał w liście do dowódcy sił UNEF: "Do twojej wiadomości, wydałem rozkaz wszystkim siłom zbrojnym Egiptu być gotowym do działań przeciwko Izraelowi, który może przeprowadzić agresywne działania przeciwko jakiemukolwiek państwu arabskiemu. Z powodu tego rozkazu nasze wojsko już jest skoncentrowane na Synaju na naszej wschodniej granicy. Przez wzgląd na bezpieczeństwo wojsk ONZ, które stacjonują wzdłuż naszych granic, proszę abyś wydał rozkaz natychmiastowego ich wycofania." Dowódca sił UNEF, generał Indar Jit Rikhye odpowiedział, że musi poczekać na decyzję sekretarza generalnego ONZ. +Sekretarz Generalny Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych Sithu U Thant podjął próbę negocjacji z Egiptem, a następnie 18 maja zaproponował Izraelowi przegrupowanie międzynarodowych sił pokojowych UNEF na terytorium Izraela, by mogły one nadal wypełniać swoją misję rozjemczą na granicy izraelsko-egipskiej. Wobec odmowy Izraela, 18 maja 1967 Sithu U Thant wyraził zgodę na ewakuację sił UNEF z Półwyspu Synaj i ze Strefy Gazy. +19 maja 1967 Egipt rozpoczął re-militaryzację Synaju, przegrupowując oddziały wojskowe ku granicy z Izraelem. +UNEF II. +UNEF II - (Second United Nations Emergency Force) - Drugie Doraźne Siły Pokojowe Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych, działające w okresie, od października 1973 do czerwca 1979, które miały nadzorować zawieszenie ognia pomiędzy wojskami Egiptu i Izraela, oraz dyslokację wojsk zwaśnionych krajów, a także sprawowały kontrolę nad strefą buforową. Państwami uczestniczącymi były: Australia, Austria, Finlandia, Ghana, Indonezja, Irlandia, Kanada, Nepal, Panama, Peru, Polska, Senegal i Szwecja. Siedzibą misji była Ismailia. +W obu tych misjach uczestniczyło w sumie około 13 tysięcy żołnierzy plus personel cywilny i lokalny. Zginęło w sumie około 160 osób. +Lloyd C.II + +Lloyd CII – austro-węgierski samolot rozpoznawczy i lekki samolot bombowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1915 roku w wytwórni samolotów i silników Magyar Lloyd Flugzeug und Motoren Fabrik w Aszod. +Historia. +Samolot rozpoznawczy "Lloyd CII" został zbudowany w austro-węgierskiej wytwórni samolotów i silników "Magyar Lloyd Flugzeug und Motoren Farbrik" w węgierskim mieście Aszod w 1915 roku. +Pierwowzorem jego konstrukcji był dwumiejscowy samolot dwupłatowy "Lloyd CI" skonstruowany pod koniec 1913 roku przez Jakoba Löhnera i wyprodukowany na początku 1914 roku. Lot pokazowy tego samolotu odbył się latem 1914 roku w miejscowości Aspern pod Wiedniem. Osiągnął on wówczas niezwykły jak na owe czasy pułap 6174 m. Rozpoczęto wówczas jego produkcję i do czasu wybuchu I wojny światowej był to podstawowy samolot wojskowy w monarchii austro-węgierskiej. +Na początku 1915 rok oblatano ulepszoną wersję tego samolotu oznaczoną "Lloyd CII". Do jego napędu użyto silnika rzędowego "Hieronymus". Silnik ten zamontowano w przedniej części kadłuba, przy czym jego górna część była nieosłonięta, co miało dodatkowo polepszać chłodzenie silnika, przez opływ powietrza jego cylindrów. Silnik był chłodzony cieczą, studzoną w chłodnicy czołowej. W kadłubie o konstrukcji kratownicowej drewnianej za silnikiem znajdował się zbiornik paliwa, a za nim odkryta kabina załogi z dwoma fotelami, osłonięta od przodu owiewką, tworzącą mały wiatrochron. Pierwszy fotel był przeznaczony dla pilota, tylny fotel dla obserwatora lub pasażera. Do tylnej części kadłuba przymocowano usterzenie klasyczne podzielone na stateczniki i stery. Usterzenie pionowe miało duży kąt skosu oraz dość dużą powierzchnię. Za silnikiem do spodu kadłuba zamontowano dolny płat, podzielony konstrukcyjnie na dwa skrzydła – prawe i lewe. Do dolnego płatu na oprofilowanych słupkach zamocowano górny płat, z lotkami na końcach. Oba płaty usztywniono cięgnami z drutu stalowego. Samolot miał solidną konstrukcję, dobre właściwości pilotażowe i niezłe osiągi. Wyróżniał się stosunkowo dużą prędkością wznoszenia. W związku z tym uruchomiono produkcję seryjną tego samolotu. W sumie w latach 1915 – 1916 zbudowano 100 samolotów tego typu, z czego 50 zbudowano w fabryce karoserii Wiener Karosserie und Flugzeugfabrik (WKF) w Wiedniu. Samoloty te stosowano w lotnictwie austro – węgierskim podczas I wojnie światowej przede wszystkim do celów rozpoznawczych, początkowo bez uzbrojenia, potem od 1917 roku z 1 lub 2 karabinami maszynowymi kalibru 7,92 mm, ruchomymi, montowanymi na obrotnicy w tylnej części kabiny i obsługiwanymi przez obserwatora. Używano ich również jako lekkich bombowców, wyposażano je wówczas w 90 kg bomb. +W 1916 roku rozpoczęto produkcję kolejnej wersji samolotu "Lloyd CIII". Była to wersja samolotu "Lloyd CII" napędzana przez silnik rzędowy "Austro-Daimler" o mocy 160 KM (118 kW). Samoloty tej wersji stosowano w latach 1916 – 1917 we Włoszech i na froncie rumuńskim. W 1917 roku podjęto produkcję kolejnych wersji samolotu "Lloyd CIV" i "Lloyd CV". Ogółem do końca wojny wyprodukowano 400 samolotów "Lloyd" w wersjach "CIII", "CIV" i "CV". +Użycie w Wojsku Polskim. +W listopadzie 1918 roku polskie oddziały wojskowe w Małopolsce zdobyły 10 samolotów "Lloyd CII". Zostały one wcielone do polskiego lotnictwa i służyły one do rozpoznania i treningu załóg. Przetrwały na wyposażenia polskich eskadr do pierwszych miesięcy 1920 roku, kiedy z uwagi na zużycie zostały wycofane z eksploatacji. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot "Lloyd CII" był dwumiejscowym samolotem rozpoznawczym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej, w zasadzie drewnianej, podwozie klasyczne – stałe, silnik rzędowy marki "Hieronymus", śmigło drewniane - dwułopatowe +Monitor (czasopismo) + +Monitor (łac. "upominający") - to pierwsze czasopismo, regularnie wydawane w Polsce w latach 1765 - 1785. Zostało założone w marcu 1765 przez Ignacego Krasickiego i Franciszka Bohomolca, a także z inicjatywy i przy wsparciu króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. Pismo było wydawane w drukarni królewskiej i było organem obozu reform. +Redagowane na wzór angielskiego "The Spectator", w duchu racjonalizmu i tolerancji religijnej. "Monitor" przyczynił się do powstania negatywnego obrazu epoki saskiej. Poruszał wiele aktualnych i różnorodnych tematów. W nowych, krótkich formach publicystycznych (eseje, reportaże, listy do redakcji, artykuły, felietony itp.), autorzy krytykowali sarmackie zacofanie, postulowali nowy wzór osobowy oświeconego szlachcica. Zasadniczym celem czasopisma była poprawa obyczajów i moralności społeczeństwa. +W "Monitorze" drukowano teksty najwybitniejszych pisarzy polskich XVIII w., jednak najczęściej było to tłumaczenia i przeróbki autorów obcych. Np. cały rocznik 1772 był pióra Ignacego Krasickiego, który tłumaczył i adoptował do warunków polskich artykuły z angielskiego "The Spectator". +Pas ruchu + +Pas ruchu – każdy z podłużnych pasów jezdni wystarczający do ruchu jednego rzędu pojazdów wielośladowych, oznaczony lub nieoznaczony znakami drogowymi. +Zgodnie z rozporządzeniem w sprawie warunków technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać drogi publiczne i ich usytuowanie, minimalna szerokość pasa ruchu zależy od kategorii drogi i wynosi od 2,50 m (drogi dojazdowe) do 3,75 m (autostrady poza terenem zabudowanym). Maksymalna szerokość pasa ruchu na terenie zabudowanym wynosi od 3,5 metra (autostrada). przez 3,0 m (droga zbiorcza) do 2,5 m (dwupasowa droga dojazdowa) . +Tarcie toczne + +Tarcie toczne "(nazywane również oporem toczenia)" - opór ruchu występujący przy toczeniu jednego ciała po drugim. Występuje np. pomiędzy elementami łożyska tocznego, między oponą a nawierzchnią drogi. Zwykle tarcie toczne jest znacznie mniejsze od tarcia ślizgowego występującego między ciałami stałymi, dlatego toczenie jest częstym rodzajem ruchu w technice. +Tarcie toczne występuje na granicy dwóch ciał i dlatego jest sklasyfikowane jako tarcie zewnętrzne. +Dynamika zagadnienia. +Siła tarcia tocznego. +Gdy suma wektorowa tych sił jest równa zero, to środek walca porusza się ruchem jednostajnym (patrz rysunek nr 1). +Oznacza to że składowa pionowa siły reakcji równoważy siłę nacisku, a składowa pozioma formula_2 równoważy siłę ciągnącą, przeciwdziałając ruchowi walca, a przez analogię do tarcia ślizgowego nazywana jest siłą tarcia tocznego: formula_3. +Jednostajne toczenie oznacza także, że suma momentów sił względem dowolnego punktu jest równa zero. Z równowagi momentów sił zilustrowanych na rys.2 i rys.3 względem środka walca wynika +Wzór ten wynika także z doświadczeń. Proporcjonalność siły tarcia do nacisku oraz do odwrotności promienia ma powyższe uzasadnienie teoretyczne. +Dla niezbyt dużych prędkości toczenia, siła tarcia tocznego nie zależy od prędkości toczenia. Jest to zgodne z trzecim prawem tarcia, mówiącym, że siła tarcia nie zależy od prędkości. Gdy prędkość toczenia jest duża, tak że prędkość powstawania odkształceń jest porównywalna z prędkością rozchodzenia się odkształceń w materiale, opory tarcia tocznego zwiększają się gwałtownie i przewyższają tarcie ślizgowe. +Dla małych prędkości toczenia, niezbyt plastycznych materiałów oraz odkształceń w zakresie sprężystego odkształcenia materiałów wielkość f jest zależna głównie od materiałów podłoża i koła i jest nazywana współczynnikiem tarcia tocznego. Jeżeli są spełnione powyższe warunki, to tarcie toczne (suche) nie zależy od szerokości toczonego ciała. +Moment tarcia tocznego. +Z drugiej strony, moment tarcia jest równy momentowi siły nacisku (N) na ramieniu o długości równej współczynnikowi tarcia tocznego (f) - rys.3. +Gdzie +Współczynnik tarcia tocznego. +Graficzna interpretacja współczynnika tarcia tocznego f została przedstawiona na rys.3. i rys.4. +Orientacyjne wartości współczynnika tarcia dla różnych substancji. +Opór toczenia. +Współczynnik oporów toczenia określany jest między innymi dla kół pojazdów. +Mikroskopowe wyjaśnienie tarcia tocznego. +Opór toczenia nie jest spowodowany tak jak w tarciu ślizgowym zaczepianiem się nierówności, jego przyczyny wynikają z wielu zjawisk zachodzących w trakcie styku, ściskania oraz rozdzielania podłoża i koła. Toczące się ciało styka się z podłożem nie w jednym punkcie lecz na pewnym obszarze. Jeśli ciało ciągnięte jest "w prawo", reakcja podłoża (Rp) nie przypada w miejscu działania nacisku lecz jest przesunięta w kierunku toczenia, nie jest też skierowana prostopadle w górę, ale jest odchylona od pionu "trochę w lewo". Składowa pozioma formula_2 reakcji podłoża (Rp) ma kierunek przeciwny do siły ciągnącej i hamuje ruch. Takie działanie siły wynika z asymetrii zjawisk zachodzących podczas naciskania i zwalniania nacisku, głównie histerezą sprężystą będącej objawem tarcia wewnętrznego materiałów. +Czynniki wpływające na opór toczenia opony. +O oporze toczenia koła z oponą decyduje podłoże jak i rozpraszanie energii występujące podczas uginania ścian opony. +Znak drogowy + +Znak drogowy – znak obowiązujący w ruchu drogowym, którego znaczenie i zakres obowiązywania określone jest w przepisach prawa – na terytorium Polski znaki drogowe normowane są zapisami rozporządzenia "w sprawie znaków i sygnałów drogowych". +Znaki drogowe sytuowane są po prawej stronie jezdni, po jej lewej stronie, na niej bądź też nad nią. Dzielą się na: +Oprócz powyższych znaków, stosuje się znaki związane z oznaczeniem pasa drogowego, obiektów drogowych i oznaczenia w postaci urządzeń bezpieczeństwa ruchu, w szczególności w związku z zamknięciem drogi lub jej części dla ruchu, a w razie potrzeby - znaki z napisami wskazującymi sposób korzystania z drogi. +Rys historyczny. +Pierwsze znaki drogowe wprowadzono w Szwajcarii w 1790 roku. Większość krajów europejskich posługuje się jednolitym systemem powszechnie zrozumiałych znaków (symboli). Różnice między poszczególnymi krajami nie są znaczne i wynikają raczej z lokalnej specyfiki (np. znak ostrzegający przed reniferami w krajach skandynawskich albo różnice wynikające z ruchu lewostronnego w W. Brytanii i Irlandii). System stosowany w USA i wielu innych krajach jest odmienny, często polegający na informacjach tekstowych, a nie na symbolach jak w Europie. +W Polsce znaki drogowe pojawiły się w 1927, jednak prawidłowa jazda była wówczas egzekwowana jedynie w obrębie miast. +W krajach europejskich (ze względu na posługiwanie się różnymi językami) przyjęto, że niezrozumienie dodatkowej informacji tekstowej pod znakiem nie powinno prowadzić do sytuacji, gdy użytkownik drogi mógłby popełnić wykroczenie. Z tego wynika, że dodatkowe informacje pod znakami zakazu powinny łagodzić zakaz ("Nie dotyczy...", "Dotyczy tylko..."), a nigdy rozszerzać ("Dotyczy również..."). Opierając się na tej zasadzie usunięto oznakowanie np. miejsc parkingowych znakiem D-18 ("parking") z dopiskiem "tylko w dni świąteczne", a zastąpiono je znakami B-35 ("zakaz postoju") z dopiskiem "nie dotyczy dni świątecznych"; choć oba oznakowania są równoważne, to osoby nie znające polskiego nie rozumiejąc dopisku pod D-18 mogłyby popełnić wykroczenie, a nie rozumiejąc dopisku pod B-35 poszukają parkingu gdzie indziej. +Podział znaków drogowych. +Rozmiary i wysokość umieszczenia tablic ze znakami drogowymi nie są identyczne we wszystkich krajach, nie są też identyczne we wszystkich miejscach w granicach tego samego kraju. Kryterium branym pod uwagę przy ich umieszczaniu jest dostateczna ich widoczność z odległości pozwalającej zbliżającemu się do znaku kierowcy: dostrzec go, zarejestrować w pamięci, zrozumieć i podjąć adekwatną decyzję. +W Polsce wielkość znaków drogowych, szczegółowe warunki ich ustawiania, w tym także m.in. wzory tablic znaków pionowych opisuje Rozporządzenie Ministra Infrastruktury z 3 lipca 2003 ""w sprawie szczegółowych warunków technicznych dla znaków i sygnałów drogowych oraz urządzeń bezpieczeństwa ruchu drogowego i warunków ich umieszczania na drogach"". +Znaki drogowe pionowe. +Najczęściej spotykany w Polsce rozmiar znaków drogowych pionowych zdefiniowany w Rozporządzeniu jako "średni" to w przypadku tablic okrągłych (zakazy i nakazy) tablica o średnicy 80 cm; w przypadku trójkątnych (ostrzegawczych) - bok trójkąta długości 90 cm, kwadratowych lub prostokątnych (informacyjnych) - bok kwadratu lub krótszy bok prostokąta długości 60 cm. +Znaki drogowe poziome. +Znaki drogowe poziome malowane są tak, aby z perspektywy kierowcy patrzącego na jezdnię były łatwo czytelne i rozróżnialne, toteż napisy i symbole mają bardzo wydłużony kształt. Zasadniczo znaki malowane są w Polsce farbą białą, czasem – np. na czas remontów dróg – malowane są (lub doklejane) tymczasowe znaki i linie żółte. W takich przypadkach współistniejące z nimi linie białe przestają obowiązywać. +Principes + +Principes – kategoria piechoty w legionie manipularnym, starsi żołnierze od hastati ale młodsi niż triarii. Walczyli w drugiej linii manipułów wojsk rzymskich. Uzbrojeni w miecze gladius i dwa pila. Nosili na sobie pancerze kolcze (kolczuga) (łac. lorica hamata) oraz hełmy i nagolenniki. Po zdobyciu doświadczenia i skończeniu 27-28 lat principes zostawali przydzieleni do oddziałów triarii. Ujednolicona armia po reformie Mariusza przypominała wyglądem i uzbrojeniem principes. Podobnie jak hastati, stosowali taktykę pilum-gladius, która polegała na rzucaniu pilami, a potem walce mieczem. +Eileen Desmond + +Eileen Desmond (ur. 29 grudnia 1932 w Kinsale w hrabstwie Cork, zm. 7 stycznia 2005) – irlandzka działaczka polityczna. +Kształciła się w Konwencie Miłosierdzia w Kinsale. Pracowała jako urzędniczka w zarządzie poczt. W 1965 została wybrana do izby niższej parlamentu (Dáil Éireann) z ramienia Partii Pracy w wyborach uzupełniających, rozpisanych po śmierci jej męża, Dana Desmonda. Utrzymała także mandat deputowanej w przedterminowych wyborach w 1966, przegrała wybory w 1969. Zasiadała do 1973 w izbie wyższej parlamentu (Seanad Éireann), następnie ponownie w izbie niższej. +W latach 1979-1981 była deputowaną do Parlamentu Europejskiego. W 1981 została pierwszą kobietą-ministrem w rządzie irlandzkim, obejmując stanowisko szefa resortu zdrowia i opieki społecznej w koalicyjnym gabinecie Partii Pracy i Fine Gael. Była ministrem do 1982. Odeszła z życia politycznego w 1987. +Prawo Kopernika-Greshama + +Prawo Kopernika-Greshama to zasada mówiąca, że jeśli jednocześnie istnieją dwa rodzaje pieniądza, pod względem prawnym równowartościowe, ale jeden z nich jest postrzegany jako lepszy (np. o wyższej zawartości kruszcu), ten "lepszy" pieniądz będzie gromadzony (tezauryzowany), a w obiegu pozostanie głównie ten „gorszy”. Krótko mówiąc, "gorszy pieniądz wypiera lepszy". +W przypadku rozliczeń z zagranicą, kontrahenci zagraniczni brali pod uwagę jedynie wartość rynkową danego pieniądza (nie zaś cenę urzędową) i życzyli sobie zapłaty w pieniądzu o wyższej wartości. W rezultacie lepszy pieniądz odpływał za granicę. +Odkrycie tego prawa przypisuje się Mikołajowi Kopernikowi (traktat "Monetae cudendae ratio", pol. "Rozprawa o urządzeniu monety…" z 1526) oraz Thomasowi Greshamowi i kilku innym ekonomistom. +Już wcześniej prawidłowości te opisali grecki dramatopisarz z V wieku p.n.e. Arystofanes w komedii "Żaby" i XIV-wieczny filozof Mikołaj z Oresme w pracy "Tractatus de origine, natura, iure et mutationibus monetarum". +Okrąg dziewięciu punktów + +Okrąg dziewięciu punktów znany także jako okrąg Feuerbacha lub okrąg Eulera jest to okrąg, który przechodzi przez środki boków (na rysunku niebieskie) dowolnego trójkąta. Okrąg Feuerbacha przechodzi ponadto przez spodki trzech wysokości (czerwone) oraz przez punkty (zielone) dzielące na połowy trzy odcinki, które łączą wierzchołki tego trójkata z jego ortocentrum. +Środek okręgu Feuerbacha leży na prostej Eulera i jest środkiem odcinka łączącego ortocentrum ze środkiem okręgu opisanego na tym trójkącie, zaś jego promień jest równy połowie promienia okręgu opisanego. +Dowód. +Zauważmy, że odcinek formula_1 jest średnicą okręgu opisanego na formula_2, bo formula_3 jest prosty(kąt między bokiem a wysokością na niego opuszczoną), więc jest oparty na średnicy. +formula_4, +gdzie formula_5 jest ortocentrum. +Zatem formula_6||formula_7. +formula_8 +więc formula_9||formula_10. +Zatem formula_11 +więc punkty formula_12 leżą na jednym okręgu. +Podobnie formula_13||formula_14 oraz formula_15||formula_16, więc formula_17, czyli punkt formula_18 również leży na okręgu opisanym na formula_19. Zatem formula_20 leżą na okręgu opisanym na formula_21. +Analogicznie otrzymujemy, że na tym okręgu leżą formula_22 oraz formula_23 +Z czego wynika, że wszystkie dziewięć punktów leży na jednym okręgu. +Twierdzenie Feuerbacha. +Okazuje się, że okrąg dziewięciu punktów jest styczny do okręgu wpisanego i trzech okręgów dopisanych. Fakt ten udowodnił niemiecki matematyk Karl Wilhelm Feuerbach. +Dalestryj + +Dalestryj – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Dale-" ("daleko") i "-stryj" ("stryj"). Może oznaczać "ten, który ma stryjów, krewniaków męskich od strony ojca, daleko stąd". +Roxette + +Roxette – szwedzki duet reprezentujący nurt muzyki pop i rock. W jego skład wchodzą Per Gessle (gitara, wokal) oraz Marie Fredriksson (wokal). Jest to jeden z najpopularniejszych zespołów muzycznych lat 80., 90. XX w. oraz początku XXI w. Roxette ma na koncie ponad 50 milionów sprzedanych albumów i ok. 15 milionów singli; najpopularniejszy utwór – "It Must Have Been Love" – według szacunków w stacjach radiowych samych Stanów Zjednoczonych w latach 1990–2005 został odtworzony ok. 4 miliony razy. +Roxette potocznie nazywane jest "współczesną ABBĄ". +Historia. +Fredriksson i Gessle znali się od 1979 roku – współpracowała ona bowiem z bardzo popularnym od lat siedemdziesiątych głównie w Szwecji zespołem Gyllene Tider, w którym Gessle był wokalistą (w 1983 Gyllene Tider pod nazwą "Roxette" wydało singel Teaser Japanese). Pod wpływem sugestii EMI Marie i Per pod tą nazwą wydali pierwszy singel (początkowo mający być nagranym przez GT) Neverending Love. Nieoczekiwanie odniósł on bardzo duży sukces w Szwecji. +Po wydaniu tego singla Roxette koncertowało w Szwecji, zdobywając coraz większą popularność w tym kraju. Jednakże poza Szwecją zespół wciąż pozostawał nieznany. +Punktem zwrotnym w karierze duetu był rok 1988, kiedy to ukazał się drugi album zespołu – Look Sharp! zawierający przebój The Look. O jego ogromnym, światowym sukcesie zadecydował w dużej mierze przypadek – amerykański student Dean Crashman, przebywający w ramach wymiany w Szwecji jadąc w 1988 roku na święta do kraju zabrał ze sobą egzemplarz "Look Sharp!" i tam poprosił znajomego z miejscowej rozgłośni radiowej KDWB o jego odtworzenie na antenie. Dyrektor rozgłośni, przekonany, że oto w jego rękach znalazł się prawdziwy przebój, rozesłał kopie albumu (nagrane na kasetach magnetofonowych) do innych stacji radiowych. Dzięki temu w kwietniu 1989 roku "The Look" trafił na pierwsze miejsce listy Billboard Hot 100 i sprawił że Roxette stało się jednym z najbardziej znanych w USA zespołów, mimo że początkowo wcale nie był tam wydany oficjalnie. Od tej pory rozpoczął się szczytowy okres popularności Roxette. Był to wówczas jeden z najpopularniejszych zespołów muzycznych na świecie. +Pozycję zespołu ugruntowały kolejne przeboje: Dressed For Success, Listen to Your Heart oraz Dangerous. Na całym świecie album "Look Sharp!" został sprzedany w nakładzie ponad 8 milionów sztuk. W 1990 roku duet podbił świat balladą It Must Have Been Love, nagraną do filmu "Pretty Woman". Trzy lata wcześniej utwór ten był wydany bez powodzenia na singlu w niektórych krajach europejskich, pod zmienionym tytułem "Christmas for the Broken Hearted". +W 1991 ukazał się album Joyride, który został sprzedany w liczbie ponad 10 mln egzemplarzy, przynosząc kolejne wielkie hity: Joyride, Fading Like a Flower, Spending My Time oraz The Big L. Na przełomie 1991 i 1992 zespół wybrał się w trasę koncertową Join the Joyride! World Tour 1991/92, podczas której odbyło się 108 koncertów obejrzanych przez ok. 1,7 mln osób. +W 1992 r. został wydany studyjny album Tourism, na którym znalazło się kilka koncertowych nagrań, przez co mylnie uważany był za album koncertowy. Album promował wielki hit How Do You Do!. Płytę zakupiło już dwa razy mniej fanów i był to początek końca amerykańskiej kariery, gdzie zaczęła królować muzyka grunge. Mimo to w pozostałych krajach na świecie zespół wciąż należał do pierwszej ligi. +W 1993 r. Roxette nagrali koncert w popularnym cyklu MTV Unplugged. +W 1994 pojawił się album Crash! Boom! Bang! – najbardziej rockowa płyta duetu. Album ten rozszedł się w nakładzie blisko 5 milionów egzemplarzy, przynosząc przeboje Sleeping in My Car, Crash! Boom! Bang!, Fireworks i Run to You. +Na przełomie 1994 i 1995 duet wybrał się w trasę koncertową Crash! Boom! Bang! World Tour 1994/95, podczas której koncertował m.in. w RPA (koncerty tam obejrzało ok. 130 tys. osób), Japonii czy Chinach (był to pierwszy koncert zachodniego zespołu, jaki za pozwoleniem władz odbył się tam od 9 lat). +W 1996 działalność Roxette została zawieszona. Wcześniej, pod koniec 1995 roku, wydany został album podsumowujący działalność, "Don't Bore Us, Get to the Chorus!. Marie i Per zajęli się sprawami rodzinnymi; do tego został reaktywowany zespół Gyllene Tider, co wzbudziło euforię w Szwecji. Działalność duetu została wznowiona w 1999. Wydano wówczas album Have a Nice Day, jednakże odniósł on tylko umiarkowany sukces i to głównie w Europie, osiągając jedynie dwumilionowy nakład. Dosyć dużą popularność zyskały wówczas piosenki Wish I Could Fly oraz Stars". Nieco zmienił się charakter muzyki Roxette, gdyż poprzednie płyty zawierały utwory rockowe i popowe, a na "Have a Nice Day" znalazły się piosenki utrzymane w gatunku pop i dance. +W 2001 wydano album Room Service, który był promowany trasą koncertową Room Service Tour 2001 (ku zaskoczeniu opinii publicznej odbyły się wówczas koncerty m.in. w Rosji). Tak jak poprzedni album ten również odniósł umiarkowany sukces, głównie w Europie i rozchodząc się w nakładzie 1,5 miliona sztuk. Największą popularność zdobyły utwory The Centre Of The Heart i Milk and Toast and Honey. Muzyka z tego albumu częściowo była powrotem do pop rocka, ale znalazły się tutaj także utwory utrzymane w charakterze podobnym do piosenek z "Have a Nice Day". +W 2002 Marie trafiła do szpitala z powodu konieczności leczenia guza w tylnej części mózgu. Wokalistka doznała paraliżu prawej części ciała, straciła zdolność czytania, pisania i liczenia. Po przejściu miesięcy chemioterapii oraz operacji musiała poddać się rehabilitacji, co było powodem zaprzestania działalności Roxette. Jeszcze przed chorobą została wydana składanka The Ballad Hits, z największymi balladami, promowana utworem A Thing About You. Kilka miesięcy później ukazała się składanka The Pop Hits zawierająca najpopularniejsze szybkie utwory popowe z całej kariery, promowana utworem Opportunity Nox, do którego nakręcono animowany teledysk, co było spowodowane chorobą wokalistki. +W 2003 Roxette od króla Szwecji Karola XVI Gustawa otrzymało Królewski Medal z Niebieską Wstęgą. Była to pierwsza oficjalna uroczystość, na której pojawiła się Marie od czasu wykrycia choroby. +W 2006 Roxette obchodziło 20-lecie swojego istnienia. Dla uczczenia tego jubileuszu wydane zostały dwa albumy podsumowujące działalność duetu przez ten czas – A Collection of Roxette Hits - Their 20 Greatest Songs! i The Rox Box / Roxette 86-06, na których znalazły się dwie nowe piosenki One Wish i Reveal. Wówczas została również wznowiona działalność. W roku 2007 jednak się nie pojawiły żadne nowe nagrania oraz nie była prowadzona działalność koncertowa, gdyż Marie wciąż miała problemy ze zdrowiem, m.in. z orientacją przestrzenną. Dalsza działalność Roxette uzależniona była od stanu zdrowia wokalistki. +6 i 9 maja 2009 roku, pod koniec solowego tournee Pera Gessle, Fredriksson wystąpiła niespodziewanie na jego dwóch koncertach, w Amsterdamie i Sztokholmie, gdzie gościnnie zaśpiewała hity "It Must Have Been Love" oraz "The Look". 28 lipca duet wystąpił już oficjalnie z recitalem na łotewskim festiwalu New Wave. 23 października zespół wyruszył w pierwsze od ośmiu lat tournee. Tym razem nie samodzielne, a w ramach popularnego europejskiego cyklu koncertów "Night Of The Proms", na którym różni artyści popowi występują z towarzyszeniem orkiestry symfonicznej. Roxette wystąpili kolejno w Belgii, Holandii oraz Niemczech. Na 42 koncertach prezentowali recital złożony z pięciu przebojów, a oprócz nich na scenie występowały także pozostałe gwiazdy jubileuszowej 25. edycji „Night Of The Proms”, Sharon del Adel z formacji Within Temptation i zespół OMD (w Belgii i Holandii) oraz Alan Parsons i grupa Heaven 17 (w Niemczech). +12 października 2009 roku na rynek trafiły zremasterowane reedycje wszystkich studyjnych płyt Roxette, w wersjach wzbogaconych o liczne bonusy ze stron B dotychczasowych singli. +W sierpniu 2010 zespół rozpoczął pierwszą od 9 lat własną trasę koncertową. Pierwsze koncerty zorganizowano w Szwecji, Danii, Norwegii w sierpniu i Rosji we wrześniu. Organizację kolejnych uzależniono od samopoczucia Marie Fredriksson po pierwszych występach. +31 grudnia 2010 roku Roxette wystąpił w Warszawie na placu Konstytucji podczas imprezy "Sylwestrowa Moc Przebojów". +Na 11 lutego 2011 roku zespół Roxette zapowiedział pierwszy od 10 lat album studyjny Charm School, promowany singlem She’s Got Nothing On (But The Radio). Od 1 marca do 31 lipca 2011 roku odbędzie się promujące go światowe tournee. +19 czerwca 2011 roku w ramach światowego tournee promującego nowy album zespół wystąpił na Warszawskim Torwarze. +24 lipca 2012 roku w ramach światowego tournee zespół wystąpił w Ergo Arenie na granicy Gdańska i Sopotu. +Jeremy Bentham + +Jeremy Bentham (ur. 15 lutego 1748 w Londynie, zm. 6 czerwca 1832 tamże) – angielski prawnik, filozof i ekonomista, ponadto dżentelmen i ekscentryk. Reformator instytucji prawnych i społecznych, prekursor pozytywizmu prawniczego. Jeden z głównych przedstawicieli liberalizmu. Jeden z autorów filozoficznej koncepcji utylitaryzmu. W ekonomii zwolennik wolnego rynku. Jedną z najsłynniejszych jego myśli było przekonanie, że ludzie pragną w życiu przede wszystkim przyjemności cielesnych, które są dla nich ważniejsze niż dobro świata. +Doktryny. +Celem człowieka jest unikanie bólu i dążenie do przyjemności, człowiek zaspokaja swe przyjemności, więc społeczeństwo też powinno. Należy dążyć do szczęścia. Celem zaś państwa i prawa jest dawanie ogólnego szczęścia. +Człowiek w ujęciu Benthama jest istotą racjonalną, zdolną do dążenia do szczęścia w oparciu o rozumny namysł nad zyskami i stratami (przyjemnościami i przykrościami) płynącymi z określonego działania i jego skutków tzw. "rachunek szczęśliwości" czyli "felicific calculus". +Demokracja to dobry ustrój, a on sam był radykałem i chciał likwidacji monarchii i izby lordów. +Był twórcą utylitaryzmu (zwłaszcza ilościowego). Bentham tak jak Thomas Hobbes uznawał wolę suwerena za źródło prawa. Obywatele porównywali korzyści i niekorzyści z tytułu podporządkowania się władzy. Byli jej posłuszni, ponieważ oceniali przykrości z podporządkowania jako mniejsze niż przykrości skutków ich nieposłuszeństwa. W duchu pozytywizmu prawniczego twierdził, że zasady współżycia ludzi powinny zostać ujęte w ramy stałego i znanego wszystkim prawa, co umożliwiłoby dokonanie racjonalnej kalkulacji pozwalającej uniknąć przykrości wynikających z przekroczenia prawa. Jako prawnik stworzył kierunek analityczny w prawie. Jego kontynuatorami byli John Austin i James Mill. +Motorola 6809 + +Motorola 6809 to 8-bitowy mikroprocesor firmy Motorola wprowadzony na rynek w 1979. 6809 był technologicznie znaczniej bardziej zaawansowany niż jego poprzednik Motorola 6800 oraz późniejszy klon 6800 – MOS Technology 6502. +6809 jest uważany za jeden z najlepszych 8-bitowych procesorów, które były kiedykolwiek produkowane. +Opis. +Do najistotniejszych usprawnień zapoczątkowanych w 6809 zaliczyć należy wykorzystywanie dwóch 8-bitowych akumulatorów (A i B, które są łączone w jeden 16-bitowy rejestr D), dwa 16-bitowe rejestry indeksowe (X, Y) oraz dwa 16-bitowe wskaźniki stosu (U, S). Rejestry stosu i indeksowe umożliwiały zaawansowane tryby adresowania. +Procesor 6809 był kompatybilny z 6800 na poziomie kodu źródłowego, jednak ten ostatni miał 78 pozycyjną listę rozkazów procesora, natomiast 6809 miał 59 instrukcji. Niektóre instrukcje zostały zastąpione przez bardziej ogólne, natomiast asembler zamieniał je na odpowiedniki tych operacji. Inne instrukcje zostały zastąpione trybami adresowania. Zestaw instrukcji oraz rejestrów był wysoce ortogonalny, co sprawiało, że 6809 był łatwiejszy w programowaniu od pozostałych podobnych mikroprocesorów w tamtym czasie. +Innymi rozwiązaniami były: jedna z pierwszych sprzętowych implementacji instrukcji mnożenia w MPU, pełna arytmetyka 16-bitowa oraz zwłaszcza szybki system przerwań. Procesor 6809 był także niezwykle wydajny, ponad pięć razy szybszy od serii procesorów 6800, włączając w to nieudokumentowaną instrukcję testującą szynę adresową określaną jako HCF (Halt and Catch Fire). +Procesor 6809 wykazywał szczególną optymalizację wykonywania instrukcji porównywaną do architekury RISC. +Potrzebował znacznie mniej cykli zegarowych do przetworzenia kolejnych instrukcji. Dla przykładu operacja "ADDA 63" potrzebuje trzech cykli zegarowych – dwóch na pobranie (ang. fetch) instrukcji oraz jednego do wykonania operacji; Procesor Zilog Z80, jeden z głównych konkurentów 6809, rozkaz "ADD A,63" wykonywał w siedem cykli zegarowych. Dlatego Z80 potrzebował przynajmniej dwukrotnie większej częstotliwości zegara taktującego, jeśli chciał się równać z wydajnością 6809. Oprócz tego, podobnie jak ich krewniacy (np. MOS Technology 6502), 8-bitowe procesory Motoroli potrzebowały jeden cykl zegarowy na dostęp do pamięci, w przeciwieństwie do wewnętrznego cyklu, tak jak to miało miejsce w pozostałych mikrokomputerach w tamtym czasie. Pojedyncza operacja odczytu z pamięci na Z80 dla przykładu wymagała minimum trzech cykli zegarowych. +Izoterma FG + +Izoterma FG czyli izoterma Fowlera i Guggenheima (formalnie identyczna z izotermą Frumkina) dotyczy monowarstwowej zlokalizowanej adsorpcji fizycznej z uwzględnieniem tzw. oddziaływań bocznych, czyli oddziaływań pomiędzy zaadsorbowanymi cząsteczkami adsorbatu. +Oddziaływania boczne w modelu FG mają charakter dyspersyjny i niespecyficzny i są uśredniane poprzez tzw. model średniego pola (ang. "mean field approximation"). Izoterma Langmuira stanowi przypadek szczególny izotermy FG gdy zaniedbuje się oddziaływania boczne. +gdzie: +W przypadku oddziaływań o charakterze specyficznym jak tworzenie asocjatów, należy użyć izotermy Kisielewa. W przypadku konieczności uwzględnienia zjawiska adsorpcji wielowarstwowej należy wykorzystać równanie izotermy opisujące tworzenie wielowarstwy, jak np. izoterma BET. Jeżeli powierzchnia adsorbentu nie jest idealna, wówczas należy uwzględnić jej niejednorodność energetyczną. W przypadku adsorpcji w mikroporach izoterma FG nie powinna być stosowana. +Szampon + +Szampon - zazwyczaj płynny środek do mycia włosów, zawierający ciekłe mydło, substancje pieniące oraz substancje pomocnicze, takie jak związki zapachowe, odżywcze, nawilżające, antystatyczne, natłuszczająco-nabłyszczające, lecznicze i koloryzujące włosy. +Słowo "shampoo" pochodzi od nazwy tradycyjnego perskiego i hinduskiego masażu włosów z użyciem wyciągów z ziół. Na początku XX w. słowo to zostało użyte w celach marketingowych przy sprzedaży ciekłych, perfumowanych mikstur do mycia włosów, które stopniowo zastąpiły tradycyjne mydło. +Jan Ewangelista Nowicki + +Jan Ewangelista Nowicki (ur. 25 grudnia 1894 w Kołomyi, zm. 14 sierpnia 1973 w Lubaczowie), polski duchowny katolicki, biskup tytularny Pupiany, administrator apostolski polskiej części archidiecezji lwowskiej z siedzibą w Lubaczowie. +Biografia. +Był synem rzemieślnika Emila i Sabiny z Gąsiorowskich. Kształcił się w szkołach w Kocmaniu na Bukowinie, po złożeniu matury w 1914 wstąpił do seminarium duchownego we Lwowie. W latach 1915-1919 studiował na Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 29 maja 1919. +Pracował jako wikariusz w parafiach Św. Mikołaja we Lwowie, w Serecie (Bukowina), w Adancata (Hliboka koło Czerniowiec). W 1924 wyjechał na studia uzupełniające do Rzymu - zajmował się prawem kanonicznym na Uniwersytecie Gregoriańskim, praktykował także w Rocie Rzymskiej i w Kongregacji Soboru. W 1927 obronił doktorat prawa kanonicznego i powrócił do pracy duszpasterskiej; we Lwowie był wikariuszem parafii Św. Elżbiety oraz parafii katedralnej. Ponadto wykonywał obowiązki nauczyciela religii w szkołach lwowskich, a od 1931 wicerektora seminarium duchownego; w kurii archidiecezjalnej pracował jako obrońca węzła małżeńskiego, promotor sprawiedliwości i referendarz. Od lutego 1937 wykładał na Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego; w 1938 ogłosił drukiem swoją pracę doktorską "Rezygnacja proboszczów w prawie kanonicznym". Krótko przed wybuchem wojny habilitował się na Katolickim Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego; okres wojny spędził we Lwowie. +W 1945 w ramach repatriacji lwowskie seminarium przeniesiono do Kalwarii Zebrzydowskiej; ks. Nowicki objął w nim w 1946 funkcję rektora. W 1950 podjął współpracę z Katolickim Uniwersytetem Lubelskim jako profesor nadzwyczajny, wykładając historię źródeł prawa kanonicznego i prawa kościelnego publicznego na Wydziale Prawa Kanonicznego. Wyboru Nowickiego na rektora KUL na jesieni 1951 nie zatwierdziły władze państwowe; przeniósł się on wówczas do pracy w Sądzie Biskupim w Lublinie (audytor). Jednocześnie prowadził wykłady z prawa kanonicznego w Prymasowskim Studium Społeczno-Prawnym dla zakonnic w Lublinie (potem przeniesionym do Warszawy) oraz specjalistyczne kursy dla sióstr zakonnych i spowiedników. W latach 1955-1965 ponownie był profesorem KUL. Działał w Towarzystwie Naukowym KUL, przy którym pełnił obowiązki sekretarza generalnego. Był także kanonikiem gremialnym i papieskim prałatem domowym (10 kwietnia 1959). +15 czerwca 1964 został wybrany na wikariusza kapitulnego archidiecezji lwowskiej z siedzibą w Lubaczowie. 28 marca 1968 otrzymał nominację Pawła VI na biskupa tytularnego Pupiany, a wkrótce (18 grudnia 1968) na administratora apostolskiego. +Był autorem wielu publikacji z prawa kanonicznego, znaczną część z nich ogłosił na łamach "Gazety Kościelnej". W maszynopisie pozostały rozprawy "Spowiednicy zakonnic", "Suspensio ex informata conscientia", ponadto również w maszynopisie skrypty wykładów "Kościelne prawo publiczne", "O Sakramentach", "De cultu divino". W ramach prac w Towarzystwie Naukowym KUL przygotowywał materiały do późniejszej "Encyklopedii Katolickiej". Cieszył się opinią dobrego wykładowcy. +Zmarł na zawał serca i został pochowany w Lubaczowie. +Harald + +Harald – imię męskie pochodzenia staroangielskiego/nordyckiego. +Okno jednoczesności + +Okno jednoczesności – odstęp czasu, poniżej którego dwa obiektywne bodźce są odbierane jako jedno wydarzenie. +Przyczyną występowania okna jednoczesności jest proces przetwarzania odebranego bodźca do postaci bioelektrycznej (potencjału receptorowego). W związku z tym nie można go zmniejszyć poprzez trening. +Architektura wczesnopiastowska + +Sztuka wczesnopiastowska – nazwą tą określa się sztukę, rozwijającą się na ziemiach polskich w wieku X i do ok. połowy XI. Określenie zostało wprowadzone przez historyka sztuki, prof. Lecha Kalinowskiego i dotyczyło całości zjawisk obejmujących okres przedromański i romański. Najczęściej stosowane jest dla określenia elementów sztuki sprzed czeskiego najazdu Brzetysława w 1038 roku, czyli dla okresu przedromańskiego. Dla czasów od restytucji monarchii piastowskiej zazwyczaj używany używany jest termin "sztuka romańska". +Przyjęcie chrześcijaństwa związane jest z budową pierwszych kościołów wznoszonych na terenie słowiańskich grodów i początkiem nowego zjawiska na ziemiach polskich, jakim była sztuka przedromańska. Nadal uprawiano znane już wcześniej rzemiosła i zdobiono wyroby tradycyjnymi wzorami. Stopniowo jednak przyjmowano nowe formy, techniki i sposoby zdobienia. Elementy nowe, związane ze sztuką romańską, w pierwszym momencie związane były z potrzebami nowego kultu. W tym okresie wśród znalezisk przeważają wyroby sprowadzane z innych warsztatów. Z czasem elementy romańskie przeniknęły do wyrobów związanych z sztuką użytkową. Podobnie w architekturze, pierwsze przejawy sztuki romańskiej są widoczne w budowanych kamiennych świątyniach oraz ośrodkach władzy świeckiej, jakimi były rezydencje władców. Jednocześnie kontynuowane były starsze tradycje wznoszenia grodów otoczonych ziemno-drewnianymi wałami i zabudową mieszkalną znaną przed przyjęciem chrześcijaństwa. +Brak jednolitości stylistycznej spowodował przyjęcie określenia sztuka wczesnopiastowska dla wszystkich zjawisk zachodzących w tym okresie. Żadna z wczesnopiastowskich budowli nie przetrwała do naszych czasów. Prace wykopaliskowe przyniosły podstawową wiedzę o ich wyglądzie, a także pozwoliły na poznanie zachowanych zabytków sztuki wczesnopiastowskiej związanej z rodzimym rzemiosłem i dziełami pochodzącymi z importu. Nowy kierunek sztuki był wzorowany na osiągnięciach sztuki śródziemnomorskiej; czerpał z tradycji przynoszonych przez pierwszych misjonarzy. Stąd w najstarszych budowlach występuje wiele analogii do architektury północnych Włoch i państwa Wielkomorawskiego. Widoczne są także wpływy sztuki karolińskiej, a w okresie późniejszym coraz silniejsze wpływy sztuki ottońskiej. Zazwyczaj przyjmuje się, że ramy historyczne okresu przedromańskiego otwiera moment pojawienia się pierwszych budowli związanych z chrześcijaństwem, a zamyka najazd księcia Brzetysława w 1038. Okres odbudowy państwa rozpoczęty przez Kazimierza Odnowiciela należy już w znacznym stopniu do czasów romańskich. +Palatia w Gieczu, Poznaniu, Ostrowie Lednickim i Przemyślu. +Prowadzone badania archeologiczne ujawniły w części północnej grodu pozostałości kolejnej budowli – niewielkiego kościoła o jednej nawie z prostokątnym prezbiterium zakończonym półkolistą absydą. Ten niewielki kościół (lub kaplica) datowany jest na drugą połowę X wieku. W jego środkowej części nawy znaleziono pozostałości dwóch grobowców. +Wawel. +Z okresu panowania Kazimierza Odnowiciela pochodzą pozostałości tzw. Sali o 24 słupach. Budowla ta zaliczana jest do architektury przedromańskiej i uważa się, że odgrywała rolę palatium. Najprawdopodobniej była to dwupoziomowa rezydencja, w której aula reprezentacyjna mieściła się powyżej sali o wnętrzu podzielonym na pięć naw przez cztery rzędy po 6 filarów. Z czasów Kazimierza Odnowiciela pochodzi także kościół św. Gereona na Wawelu. Była to budowla trójnawowa z transeptem. Prezbiterium oraz nawy zakończone były absydami. Pod prezbiterium umieszczono kryptę. Odnaleziono także ślady po tzw. budowli czworokątnej o nieznanym przeznaczeniu i stołpie. +Kościoły w Poznaniu i Gnieźnie. +Kościoły bazylikowe – oprócz wymienionych już budowli na planie centralnym, wśród zabytków architektury wczesnopiastowskiej natrafiono na pozostałości kościołów budowanych na planie prostokąta. Wiadomo o istnieniu takich budowli na terenie Poznania i Gniezna, ale nieznany jest ich wygląd. Podczas prac wykopaliskowych odsłonięto fragmenty pierwszych kościołów katedralnych zbudowanych na podgrodziach. +Układ korbowy + +Układ korbowy umożliwia zamianę ruchu posuwisto-zwrotnego na ruch obrotowy (np. w silniku spalinowym) i na odwrót (np. w sprężarce tłokowej). +Zobacz też: korba +Robert Głębocki + +Robert Głębocki (ur. 2 stycznia 1940 w majątku Trepałów na Wileńszczyźnie (obecnie Białoruś), zm. 21 lutego 2005 w Gdańsku) – polski astrofizyk, rektor Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, działacz NSZZ "Solidarność", minister edukacji narodowej w rządzie Jana Krzysztofa Bieleckiego. +Życiorys. +Działalność naukowa. +Absolwent Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. Janusza Korczaka w Więcborku (1956). W 1961 ukończył astronomię na Uniwersytecie Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu. Tam też w 1966 obronił pracę doktorską. +Po studiach pracował w Zakładzie Astrofizyki PAN, od 1970 związany z Uniwersytetem Gdańskim. W 1972 uzyskał stopień doktora habilitowanego. W 1979 otrzymał tytuł naukowy profesora. Objął stanowisko profesora nadzwyczajnego, a w 1989 profesora zwyczajnego. W latach 1972–1978 pełnił funkcję prodziekana Wydziału Matematyki, Fizyki i Chemii Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. W 1981 został wybrany na rektora tej uczelni, już w kwietniu 1982 odwołano go jednak jako działacza "Solidarności". +W latach 1982–1985 był wiceprzewodniczącym Rady Głównej Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego. Po 1991 zasiadał w Senacie Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. +Był specjalistą astrofizyki i astronomii, autorem ponad 50 publikacji naukowych w pismach polskich i zagranicznych (w tym opublikowanie wraz ze współpracownikami obszernego katalogu prędkości rotacji gwiazd). Jego praca magisterska dotyczyła analizy efektu tzw. blanketingu w widmach gwiazd, rozprawa doktorska została poświęcona badaniom widma ciągłego gwiazd typów spektralnych A-M w aspekcie populacyjnym, a rozprawa habilitacyjna – procesom mikroturbulencji w atmosferach gwiazd w różnych obszarach diagramu Hertzsprunga-Russella. +W latach 1973–1979 i 1983–1989 zajmował stanowisko wiceprezesa, następnie do 1995 prezesa Polskiego Towarzystwa Astronomicznego. Dwukrotnie pełnił funkcję wiceprzewodniczącego Komitetu Astronomii PAN (1984–1989, 1993–1997). W latach 1993–1999 był dyrektorem Instytutu Fizyki Teoretycznej i Astrofizyki Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. Przewodniczył Radzie Fundacji Astronomii Polskiej im. Mikołaja Kopernika. Otrzymał trzy nagrody MEN oraz nagrodę imienia Włodzimierza Zonna. +Działalność polityczna. +12 stycznia 1991 został powołany na stanowisko ministra edukacji narodowej w rządzie Jana Krzysztofa Bieleckiego i pełnił tę funkcję do 23 grudnia tego samego roku. Od maja do grudnia 1991 był równocześnie wiceprzewodniczącym Komitetu Badań Naukowych. +Po okresie piastowania funkcji ministra pozostawał aktywny w życiu politycznym jako przewodniczący Krajowej Komisji Rewizyjnej Unii Wolności w latach 1994–1996. Od 1998 do 2002 zasiadał w sejmiku pomorskim I kadencji, gdzie pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego Komisji Nauki, Edukacji, Kultury i Sportu. W 2001 przeszedł z Unii Wolności do Platformy Obywatelskiej. +Życie prywatne. +Był żonaty z Anną Zielińską-Głębocką, posłanką na Sejm i ekonomistką. +Drawa (dopływ Noteci) + +Drawa (niem. "Drage") – rzeka w północno-zachodniej Polsce o długości 185,9 km i powierzchni zlewni 3296,4 km². +Rzeka przepływa przez następujące regiony fizycznogeograficzne: Pojezierze Drawskie, Równinę Drawską i częściowo Pojezierze Wałeckie i Kotlinę Gorzowską (u ujścia). +Przebieg. +Źródło Drawy znajduje się w okolicach wsi Zdroje w gminie Połczyn-Zdrój w Drawskim Parku Krajobrazowym. Dalej przepływa przez rezerwat przyrody Dolina Pięciu Jezior (Krzywe, Krąg, Długie Jezioro, Jezioro Głębokie i Jezioro Małe), Żerdno oraz najgłębsze jezioro woj. zachodniopomorskiego – Drawsko. Następnie przez Wilczkowo, miasta Złocieniec i Drawsko Pomorskie, jezioro Lubie, Wielkie Dębno, Poligon Drawski oraz wieś Prostynię w gminie Kalisz Pomorski. +Kolejne jest miasto Drawno, w którym znajduje się siedziba Drawieńskiego Parku Narodowego, przez który przepływa Drawa i jej dopływ, Płociczna. Następnie rzeka wyznacza granicę pomiędzy województwami: wielkopolskim i lubuskim, a w okolicach Krzyża Wielkopolskiego wpada do Noteci. +Dopływy. +Rzeki: Człopica, Kokna, Korytnica, Mierzęcka Struga, Płociczna, Pokrętna, Słopica, Wąsowa +Strugi: Bagnica, Drawisko, Drawka, Głęboka, Miedznik, Moczel, Pełknica, Radówka, Sitna, Studzienica, Sucha, Szczuczna, Wilżnica +Kanał: Prostynia +Jakość wód. +W 2006 roku przeprowadzono ocenę jakości wód w punktach pomiarowo-kontrolnych monitoringu rzeki Drawy. Na 104,5 km od ujścia Drawy, poniżej jeziora Lubie (w miejscowości Żołędowo) oceniono wody na III klasę jakości. W dalszym biegu powyżej ujścia Korytnicy na 50,4 km, w Bogdance (most Zatom-Niemieńsko) także oceniono wody na III klasę jakości. +Turystyka. +Na Drawie znajdują się dwie XIX-wieczne elektrownie wodne – elektrownia w Borowie i elektrownia Kamienna w Głusku. +Na odcinku między jeziorem Dąbie Wielkie, a elektrownią wodną Borowo rzeka przepływa przez zamkniętą część Poligonu Drawskiego. Spływ tym odcinkiem Drawy jest zabroniony, co wynika z faktu iż jest to centralny punkt upadku pocisków, a rzeka nie jest oczyszczana z niewybuchów i innych materiałów niebezpiecznych. +Szlak kajakowy Drawy im. Ks.Kard. Karola Wojtyły. +Początek w Czaplinku nad jeziorem Drawsko (173 km do ujścia), koniec w Krzyżu (2,4 km). Szlak przedzielony poligonem drawskim na dwie części - północną (Drawski Park Krajobrazowy i Pojezierze Drawskie) oraz południową (Drawieński Park Narodowy i Puszcza Drawska). Na większości odcinków szlak wygodny z miejscowymi trudnościami. W parku narodowym szlak momentami trudny o charakterze podgórskim. Na jeziorach Drawsko i Lubie boczny wiatr i fala. +Zagospodarowanie. +Na Drawie w 1917 roku zbudowano małą elektrownię wodną Borowo, która posiada 2 generatory o łącznej mocy 1 MW. Różnica poziomów wody rzeki przy elektrowni wynosi 9 m. +Hydronimia. +Pochodzenie nazwy rzeki nie jest do końca wyjaśnione. Nazwa została odnotowana w 1251 – "Drawa", 1363 – "Drawe", 1470–1480 "in Drawa". Nazwa rzeki jest uznawana przez wielu badaczy za przedsłowiańską, na co wskazuje podobieństwo nazewnicze z rzeką Drawą (dopływem Dunaju) oraz kilku innych rzek i jezior europejskich np. bałtyckie "Drawe" odnotowane w 1303 (jezioro koło Morąga). Nazwę Drawa językoznawcy wywodzą od indoeuropejskiego rdzenia "*dreu_-" lub "*drou_-" w znaczeniu 'bieg', 'płynięcie' z dodanym przyrostkiem -a. Istnieje także hipoteza pochodzenia od słowiańskiego przymiotnika "dravy", w języku polskim o znaczeniu 'szybki', 'gwałtowny' (także o wodzie), co zostało poświadczone w języku czeskim i słowackim. +Nazwę "Drawa" wprowadzono urzędowo w 1949 roku, zastępując poprzednią niemiecką nazwę rzeki – "Drage". +Joanna I z Nawarry + +Joanna z Nawarry (ur. 14 stycznia 1273 w Bar-sur-Seine, zm. 2 kwietnia 1305 w Vincennes) – królowa Nawarry i hrabina Szampanii 1274-1305, królowa Francji 1285-1305. +Była córką Henryka I Grubego i Blanki, córki Roberta I, hrabiego d'Artois. Po śmierci ojca w 1274 r. odziedziczyła Szampanię i Nawarrę. W okresie małoletności regencję w jej imieniu sprawowała matka. W wieku trzynastu lat, 16 sierpnia 1284 r., została wydana za następcę tronu francuskiego, przyszłego Filipa IV. W wyniku tego małżeństwa Filip został królem Nawarry, jako Filip I, a królestwa Francji i Nawarry aż do 1328 r. łączyli wspólni władcy z dynastii Kapetyngów. Po śmierci teścia, króla Filipa III Śmiałego, Joanna została królową Francji. +Sławno + +Sławno ( niem. "Schlawe") – miasto i gmina w północno-zachodniej Polsce, w woj. zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie sławieńskim, położone na Pobrzeżu Koszalińskim, nad rzeką Wieprzą i strugą Moszczenicą, ok. 20 km od wybrzeża Morza Bałtyckiego. +Według danych z 31 marca 2011 roku, miasto miało 13 163 mieszkańców. +Przez Sławno prowadzi także droga krajowa nr 6, która łączy je z Słupskiem (27 km) i Koszalinem (40 km). +Położenie. +Sławno jest położone na Równinie Słupskiej, będącej jednym z mezoregionów Pobrzeża Koszalińskiego. Miasto znajduje się w północno-wschodniej części województwa zachodniopomorskiego. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia miasta wynosi 15,83 km². Miasto stanowi 1,51% powierzchni powiatu. +Według danych z roku 2002 46% powierzchni miasta stanowią użytki rolne, a 3% – użytki leśne. +Przez Sławno prowadzi także droga krajowa nr 6: łącząca Szczecin z Koszalinem, Słupskiem i Gdańskiem. Odległość miasta od Słupska wynosi: 27 km, od Koszalina: 40 km, a od stolicy województwa - Szczecina: 200 km +Warunki naturalne. +Przez główną część miasta przepływa struga Moszczenica, biegnąca z zachodu na wschód. Przez południowo-wschodnią część miasta płynie Kanał Miejski, który obiega Stare Miasto i uchodzi do Moszczenicy. Przez wschodnie obrzeża miasta przepływa rzeka Wieprza. +Historia. +Sławno wraz z ziemią sławieńską należał do państwa pierwszych Piastów. Na przełomie XII i XIII wieku książętami sławieńskimi byli Bogusław i jego syn Racibor. Po śmierci tego drugiego ok. 1227 roku miasto przeszło pod panowanie książąt Pomorza Zachodniego, ok. 1236 roku zostaje opanowane przez księcia gdańskiego Świętopełka. Pod panowaniem książąt gdańskich znajdowało się do 1308 roku, kiedy opanowali je zbrojnie margrabiowie brandenburscy, którzy następnie w 1316 przekazali władzę zwierzchnią na rzecz zachodniopomorskich książąt na Wołogoszczy. W 1317 otrzymało prawa miejskie (prawo lubeckie). Po wygaśnięciu dynastii książąt wołogoskich w 1637 miasto stało się częścią ziem Hohenzollernów. W XVIII i XIX wieku miasto miało duże znaczenie w handlu płótnem. W XIX wieku notuje się szybkie uprzemysłowienie - powstała odlewnia żelaza, fabryka maszyn, browar, tartak i olejarnia. +W czasie II wojny światowej miasto zostało zniszczone w 45%. Po odbudowie zniszczeń wojennych nastąpił dalszy rozwój przemysłu. +Do 1975 roku Sławno leżało w województwie koszalińskim. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa słupskiego. +W 2013 r. z uwagi na fakt, że Sąd Rejonowy w Sławnie miał 5 sędziów, został przekształcony w 4 wydziały zamiejscowe Sądu Rejonowego w Koszalinie. +Architektura. +Cały obszar Starego Miasta Sławna został wpisany do rejestru zabytków. +Demografia. +Według danych z roku 2005 średni dochód na mieszkańca wynosił 1626,75 zł. +Według danych z 31 marca 2010 liczba bezrobotnych mieszkańców Sławna obejmowała 865 osób. +Oświata. +W Sławnie znajdują się dwie biblioteki: Biblioteka Pedagogiczna oraz Biblioteka Miejska. +Sport. +W miejscowości swoją siedzibę ma Miejski Klub Sportowy Sława Sławno, założony 13 maja 1946 roku. Rozgrywa swoje mecze na Stadionie Miejskim w Sławnie, który ma pojemność 2.500 miejsc (250 siedzących) oraz wymiary murawy 100 x 60 m. Sława Sławno ma barwy biało-czerwono-czarno-niebieskie. W latach 2001-2006 zespół piłkarski występował w klasie okręgowej (okręg koszaliński grupa północna). W latach 2006-2008 zespół grał w IV lidze w grupie zachodniopomorskiej. W sezonie 2008/2009 klub grał w III lidze pomorskiej i zakończył rozgrywki na 13 miejscu które dawało przez sezonem utrzymanie jednak po zmianie regulaminu IV ligi i wycofaniu się z rozgrywek II ligi Kotwicy Kołobrzeg Sława spadła do IV ligi W 2010 roku Sława spadła do V ligi. W sezonie 2010/2011 Klub z powrotem awansował do IV ligi , trenerem wówczas był, były 5-krotny Reprezentant Polski Grzegorz Lewandowski. Obecnie Sława ABWood Sławno gra w wojewódzkiej lidze okręgowej, a trenerem jest Tadeusz Żakieta. +Od 1996 roku odbywa się w Sławnie bieg na dystansie 10km, nazywany Biegiem Święców. Start jest w Grodzisku (między Sławskiem a Wrześnicą). +Komunikacja. +Sławno było dawniej stacją węzłową, wkrótce po zakończeniu II wojny światowej rozebrane zostały tory w kierunku Polanowa i Ustki, a w 1997 r. do Korzybia. W 1991 r. zamknięto połączenie kolejowe z Darłowem. Uruchomiono je ponownie w czerwcu 2005 roku. Dzisiaj czynne linie kolejowe ze Sławna prowadzą do Stargardu Szczecińskiego i Gdańska Głównego (linia kolejowa nr 202) oraz do Darłowa (linia kolejowa nr 418). +Administracja. +Sławno ma status gminy miejskiej. Mieszkańcy Sławna wybierają do swojej rady miasta 15 radnych. Organem wykonawczym władz jest burmistrz. Siedzibą władz miasta jest urząd miasta przy ul. Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie 9. Sławno należy do stowarzyszeń gmin: Nowa Hanza i Unia Miasteczek Polskich. +Miasto jest siedzibą starostwa sławieńskiego, które mieści się przy ul. S. Sempołowskiej. +W mieście znajduje się także siedziba wiejskiej gminy Sławno. +Mieszkańcy Sławna wybierają 4 z 17 radnych do Rady Powiatu w Sławnie. Mieszkańcy wybierają radnych do sejmiku województwa w okręgu IV. Posłów na Sejm wybierają z okręgu wyborczego nr 40, senatora z okręgu nr 100, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. +W Sławnie znajdują się 2 biura poselskie: Stanisława Gawłowskiego (PO), Mariana Golińskiego (PiS) oraz biuro senatorskie Piotra Zientarskiego (PO). +Tybald V + +Tybald V z Szampanii (ur. 1238, zm. 4 grudnia 1270 w Trapani), był hrabią Szampanii oraz, jako Tybald II, królem Nawarry. Był najstarszym synem Tybalda I Pogrobowca i jego trzeciej żony Małgorzaty de Burbon. Odziedziczył tytuły ojca po jego śmierci w 1253 r. Jego matka rządziła jako regentka między 1253 a 1256 r., dopóki Tybald nie osiągnął pełnoletności. +Od początku swojego panowania musiał zmagać się z feudałami, dążącymi do ograniczenia jego władzy, który wkrótce po osiągnięciu przez króla pełnoletności zmusili go uznania ograniczenia królewskich prerogatyw i poddania go kontroli baronów. Wobec konfliktu z feudałami Tybald oparł się na mieszczaństwie, znacznie rozszerzając jego przywileje. Usprawnił również administrację i aparat fiskalny. W polityce zagranicznej był stronnikiem króla Francji Ludwika IX. +Tybald ożenił się z Izabelą (2 marca 1241 - 28 stycznia 1271), córką Ludwika IX i Małgorzaty Prowansalskiej, córki Rajmunda Berengara IV, hrabiego Prowansji. Ślub odbył się 6 kwietnia 1255 r. Zbliżył się przez to do swojego teścia, stając się jednym z jego najbliższych doradców. Towarzyszył mu podczas wyprawy krzyżowej do Tunezji w 1270 r. Zmarł bezdzietnie w Trapani na Sycylii podczas drogi powrotnej. +Dziedziczył po nim jego młodszy brat Henryk. +Prawo bartne + +Prawo bartne – mianem tym określano prawa zwyczajowe regulujące funkcjonowanie społeczności bartniczych na Mazowszu. Jednymi z pierwszych regulacji tego typu były zapisy, które znalazły się w statucie Kazimierza Wielkiego w roku 1347. W 1401 roku podobne postanowienia zostały zamieszczone w statucie księcia Janusza I Mazowieckiego. Z czasem prawa te umacniały się, doszło do powstania urzędów bartnych. Pierwsze prawo bartne spisane przez Krzysztofa Niszczyckiego, jako oddzielny dokument pochodzi z 1559 roku; nosi ono tytuł: "Prawo bartne, bartnikom należące, którzy według niego sprawować się i sądzić mają [...]" i obejmuje starostwa przasnyskie i ciechanowskie. Jest to kodyfikacja istniejących praw zwyczajowych, którym podporządkowane było od dawna życie Kurpiów. Drugi podobny dokument spisał w 1616 roku Stanisław Skrodzki. Był to "Porządek prawa bartnego, wedle starodawnego zwyczaju i dawnych ustaw potocznych Spraw Bartnych z pośrodka bartników uchwalony i wydany [...]"; prawo to objęło swym zasięgiem starostwo ostrołęckie i łomżyńskie. "Porządek" zawiera zwyczaje bartne bartników z łomżyńskiego spisane w 117 artykułach, w dużej mierze naśladujących "Prawo bartne" z 1559 roku, ale zawierających też elementy oryginalne. +Obszar działania prawa bartnego. +Prawa bartne były typowe dla Polski piastowskiej, która była krajem zaopatrującym w miód i wosk kraje Europy Zachodniej. Zawierały wytyczne na temat organizacji bartnictwa, urzędów bartnych, obowiązków bartników; wyjaśniały też kwestie spadkowe i karne. Opisywały organizację bractwa bartnego; członek bractwa musiał się wykazać ślubnym pochodzeniem, dobrą sławą swoją i swoich rodziców, zobowiązać do składania rocznej daniny staroście królewskiemu i uczestnictwa w zgromadzeniach sądowych. Pośrednikiem między bartnikami i starostą królewskim był starosta bartny, szlachcic wybrany przez bractwo i zatwierdzony przez króla. Starosta bartny miał prawo i obowiązek mianowania niższych urzędników: podstarościego, sędziego i podsędka sądu bartnego i innych. +Przykłady prawa bartnego. +Barcie znaczono herbami borów bartnych, których nie znajdzie się w żadnym z herbarzy, a które należą do najstarszych polskich znaków identyfikacyjnych. +Z punktu widzenia prawa bartnego do najsurowiej karanych przestępstw należało wykradanie miodu, związane ze zniszczeniem rodziny pszczelej; groziła za to kara śmierci przez powieszenie. Wyrok wydawał sąd bartny, a przed wykonaniem wyroku wszyscy bartnicy, wezwani na proces, musieli dotknąć powroza, na którym miał zawisnąć winowajca. Stanisław Skrodzki opisywał także sytuację, kiedy zachodziło podejrzenie popełnienia powtórnie opisywanego przestępstwa. Wówczas prawo przewidywało sprowadzenie z miasta kata, który "takowemu ma pęp wyrżnąć i z niego kiszki wytoczyć, i tak z nim czekać aż zdechnie, a potym zdechłego obiesić" (s.33) +Pomidor + +Pomidor ("Lycopersicon" Mill.) – rodzaj roślin z rodziny psiankowatych. Pochodzi z Ameryki Południowej. +Systematyka. +Przedstawiciele tego rodzaju początkowo zaliczani byli wraz z innymi psiankami do rodzaju "Solanum". Odrębny rodzaj wyróżniony został przez szkockiego botanika Philipa Millera w 1754. Współcześnie wiadomo jednak, że takson ten ma charakter sztuczny (jest parafiletyczny) i botanicy ponownie zaliczają jego przedstawicieli do rodzaju "Solanum". +"Lycopersicon" P. Miller 1754 +Należy do rodziny psiankowatych ("Solanaceae") Juss., która wraz z siostrzaną rodziną "Convolvulaceae" Juss. jest jednym z dwóch kladów w obrębie rzędu psiankowców ("Solanales") Dumort. i klasy roślin okrytonasiennych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa jasnotowe ("Lamiidae " Takht. ex Reveal), nadrząd "Solananae" R. Dahlgren ex Reveal, rząd psiankowce ("Solanales" Dumort.), podrząd "Solanineae" Engl., rodzina psiankowate ("Solanaceae" Juss.), rodzaj pomidor ("Lycopersicon" Mill.). +Zastosowanie. +Owoce (w znaczeniu botanicznym) są warzywami wg klasyfikacji towarów spożywczych. Pomidory jadalne rosną w naturze w Ameryce Południowej i uprawiane tam są już od 8 tysięcy lat. Od XVI w. rozpowszechniły się na świecie, choć początkowo tylko jako rośliny ozdobne. Kilka gatunków ma duże znaczenie spożywcze i występują one w licznych odmianach o różnych kształtach, barwach i wielkości owoców. W Polsce najpopularniejszym gatunkiem uprawianym i spożywanym jest pomidor zwyczajny. +Przechowywanie. +Przechowywanie pomidorów w lodówce może spowodować ich przemrożenie, bowiem temperatury poniżej 7 °C im nie sprzyjają. Takie przemrożenie prowadzi do wielu negatywnych skutków, m.in. utraty smaku, koloru i konsystencji oraz zwiększa prawdopodobieństwo gnicia i występowania drobnoustrojów, które je powodują. +Halowe Mistrzostwa Europy w Lekkoatletyce 2005 + +Halowe Mistrzostwa Europy w Lekkoatletyce 2005 rozegrano w Madrycie w dniach 4-6 marca 2005. +Józef Popielas + +Józef Popielas (ur. 28 marca 1911 w Sobótce, zm. 12 lutego 2005) – polski działacz państwowy, ekonomista. +Syn Walentego i Katarzyny. Był członkiem PPR, potem PZPR. Działał w związku zawodowym kolejarzy, w latach 1950–1951 pełnił funkcję sekretarza generalnego . W okresie 1951–1957 podsekretarz stanu w Ministerstwie Kolei, 1957–1960 w Ministerstwie Komunikacji. Od lutego 1960 do listopada 1963 w rządzie Józefa Cyrankiewicza był ministrem komunikacji. Był także posłem na Sejm PRL I kadencji. +Sulmierzyce + +Sulmierzyce (niem. "Sulmierschütz") – miasto w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie krotoszyńskim, w Kaliskiem, na Wysoczyźnie Kaliskiej, nad Czarną Wodą. +W latach 1975–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa kaliskiego. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 2829 mieszkańców. +W Sulmierzycach urodził się Sebastian Fabian Klonowic. +Struktura powierzchni. +Miasto stanowi 4,06% powierzchni powiatu. +Położenie. +Miasto leży na skraju Wysoczyzny Kaliskiej, około 42 km na południowy-zachód od Kalisza, na wysokości 116–139,8 m n.p.m., nad strumieniem Czarna Woda. +Historia. +Gród istniał tu prawdopodobnie już przed XIII wiekiem. Nazwa współczesnego miasta pochodzi od staropolskiego imienia Sulimir. Sulmierzyce były wzmiankowane już w 1297 roku. Prawa miejskie otrzymały, staraniem starosty odolanowskiego Mikołaja Gruszczyńskiego, w roku 1457 z nadania Kazimierza Jagiellończyka. Lokowano je na prawie magdeburskim. Połączono w tym celu trzy wioski: Stare Sulmierzyce, Nowe Sulmierzyce i Granowice. Położenie na samej granicy wielkopolsko-śląskiej, od XIV w. stanowiącej granicę Królestwa Polskiego, i przy drodze handlowej ze Śląska do Kalisza zapewniło Sulmierzycom lata rozwoju (w 1524 roku otwarto tu komorę celną). Było najlepiej rozwiniętym spośród okolicznych mniejszych miast, wyprzedzało m.in. Odolanów, Ostrów, Raszków, Kwiatków, Sobótkę. Utrzymało tę pozycję do połowy XVIII wieku. W 1545 roku urodził się tu poeta Sebastian Klonowic. +Wraz z II rozbiorem Rzeczypospolitej w 1793 r. Sulmierzyce przeszły pod administrację pruską (z przerwą 1807-1815). Od 1819 roku miasto należało do rodu von Thurn-Taxis. Mieszkańcy brali aktywny udział w Wiośnie Ludów 1848 roku. Sulmierzycki batalion liczący 300 osób odznaczył się, 22 kwietnia w bitwie o Odolanów, a okoliczni chłopi rozbili pruski oddział spieszący na odsiecz z garnizonu w Ostrowie. W 1862 odbyła się tu manifestacja narodowa, w której wzięło udział 7000 osób. Odsłonięto podczas niej pomnik Sebastiana Klonowica, powstały z fundacji Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. Działały tu między innymi Towarzystwo Oświaty Ludowej i Towarzystwo Czytelni Ludowych. W 1895 r. miasto zostało połączone wąskotorową linią kolejową z odległym od 20 km Miliczem. +W 1902 roku odbył się w Sulmierzycach strajk dzieci szkolnych. Do powstania wielkopolskiego sulmierzyczanie wystawili jednostkę liczącą 200 żołnierzy. W nocy z 18 na 19 stycznia odparła ona dwa ataki wojsk niemieckich na Sulmierzyce. +Traktat Wersalski przywrócił w 1920 r. Sulmierzyce Polsce, ponownie wytyczając granicę wzdłuż zachodnich przedmieści. W konsekwencji jedyne połączenie kolejowe miasta uległo zawieszeniu aż do 1945 r. W 1932 miasto włączono, razem z całym powiatem odolanowskim do powiatu ostrowskiego, a w 1934 roku, wraz z wsią Chwaliszew, do powiatu krotoszyńskiego. Podczas II wojny światowej hitlerowcy zniszczyli pomnik Sebastiana Klonowica. Nowy odsłonięto w roku 1957. Przejęcie Śląska przez Polskę i utrata pozycji miasta granicznego po 1945 roku przyczyniła się do znacznego ograniczenia roli Sulmierzyc do tego stopnia, że 1 stycznia 1973 straciły prawa miejskie, przywrócone 9 grudnia 1973 (a więc już po jedenastu miesiącach) dzięki staraniom mieszkańców. W 1984 roku Sulmierzyce uzyskały w konkursie "Mistrz Gospodarności" drugie miejsce, a w latach 1985 i 1986 miejsce pierwsze. W 1988 roku miasto zostało odznaczone, "w uznaniu zasług położonych dla rozwoju gospodarczego i kulturalnego kraju", Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. W 1991 r. połączenie kolejowe z Miliczem zostało ponownie zawieszone; tory zostały ostatecznie rozebrane ok. 2000 r. +Gospodarka. +Niewielki ośrodek handlowy i usługowy. Występują podmioty działalności gospodarczej i rzemieślniczej oraz gospodarstwa rolne. Największym zakładem pracy jest Wytwórnia Opakowań Tekturowych EKO-PAK-IR, zatrudniająca ok. 60 osób. +South of Heaven + +South of Heaven – czwarty album thrashmetalowej grupy Slayer, który został wydany 5 lipca 1988 roku. +Jest to płyta zaliczana do trzech najlepszych wydawnictw Slayer, album ten w porównaniu do wcześniejszego Reign in Blood jest bardziej spokojny, melodyjny i wolniejszy, jednak nie brak tu szybkich, thrashmetalowych utworów, np. "Ghost of War". Znalazła się tu przeróbka utworu "Dissident Aggressor" zespołu Judas Priest, którego fanem jest gitarzysta zespołu Kerry King. Na "South of Heaven" po raz pierwszy w karierze muzyków obok tekstów o śmierci i zabijaniu pojawiły się teksty o pozytywnym przesłaniu, np. "Silent Scream", sprzeciwiający się aborcji, czy też "Mandatory Suicide", opowiadający o okrucieństwach wojny, które wspomina żołnierz. Głównym autorem tekstów na tej płycie (i na następnych) był Tom Araya łamiąc dotychczasowy monopol duetu Kerrego Kinga i Jeffa Hannemana. +David Petrie + +Sir David Petrie (ur. 1879, zm. 1961), Dyrektor Generalny brytyjskiej Służby Bezpieczeństwa (Secret Service - MI5) w latach 1940-1946. +Funkcjonariusz policji indyjskiej, doszedł do stanowiska zastępcy szefa jej wywiadu kryminalnego. Od 1924 do 1931 był dyrektorem Indyjskiego Biura Wywiadowczego (Indian Intelligence Bureau); w 1940 został mianowany przez Winstona Churchilla następcą założyciela i pierwszego Dyrektora Generalnego MI5, generała majora Vernona Kella. Motywem wyboru Petriego, którego doświadczenia zawodowe ograniczały się do Indii, było zapewne przekonanie premiera o istnieniu w Wielkiej Brytanii rozbudowanej piątej kolumny. Niekonwencjonalne metody działania Davida Petriego, zwłaszcza masowe zatrudnianie w MI5 wybitnych intelektualistów i uczonych najrozmaitszych specjalności i wszelkiego rodzaju ekscentryków, okazały się nad wyraz skuteczne i wydatnie przyczyniły się do wzrostu prestiżu kierowanej przez niego agencji. Dokonał także gruntownej reorganizacji służby i upowszechnił w niej nowoczesne metody ekspertyzy technicznej. W czasie II wojny światowej nawiązał ścisłą współpracę z Tajną Służbą Wywiadowczą - MI6. +Ze stanowiska szefa Służby Bezpieczenstwa odszedł na emeryturę w 1946, zmarł w Wielkiej Brytanii w 1961 w wieku 82 lat. +Tremere + +Tremere – w grze fabularnej klan wampirów związany z Camarillą. Jest to silnie zhierarchizowany klan wampirów-czarowników, fanatycznie wręcz lojalnych wobec swoich starszych. +Najbardziej charakterystyczną cechą członków klanu Termere oraz ich najlepiej strzeżonym sekretem jest dyscyplina Taumaturgii. Jest to rodzaj magii opartej na mocy wampirzej krwi, powstały w wyniku eksperymentów mających przywrócić pierwszym wampirom Tremere zdolność czynienia magii. Mimo iż jest mniej wszechstronna niż Prawdziwa Magya stosowana przez (magów), i tak pozostaje jedną z najpotężniejszych dyscyplin dostępnych wampirom. +Historia. +Tremere byli między 767 a 1022 rokiem jednym z domów Zakonu Hermesa, nosząc tę samą nazwę. W poszukiwaniu mocy i nieśmiertelności Tremere zaczęli eksperymentować z krwią pojmanych wampirów Tzimisce i w końcu opracowali – jak im się wydawało – metodę na osiągnięcie wiecznego życia. Niestety, była to tylko metoda na stanie się wampirem, co wiązało się z utratą Awatara, a więc i ludzkich zdolności magicznych. Jednak w owych czasach, kiedy zaczęły zawodzić magiczne eliksiry, była to mimo wszystko atrakcyjna opcja i "primus" domu, mag Tremere wraz z szóstką najbliższych i najbardziej zaufanych stronników zażyli wampirzy eliksir. +Niemal natychmiast po transformacji Tremerzy zostali zaatakowani przez wampiry z klanów Tzimisce, Gangrel i Nosferatu, które poprzysięgły zemstę za eksperymenty na ich klanowych braciach (Gangrele i Nosferatu posłużyli Tremerom do stworzenia Gargulców). Przed Zakonem Hermesa udało im się ukryć fakt przemiany w wampiry aż do 1199, ale wkrótce potem Zakon dołączył do grona ich wrogów, wszczynając tzw. "Wojnę Massasa". Prawdopodobnie najzacieklejszymi wrogami wśród magów byli nieprzeobrażeni członkowie Domu Tremere dążący do unicestwienia zdrajców. +Jednak Tremerzy przetrwali tę próbę – dzięki Gargulcom, ale także dzięki Taumaturgii – magii, której mocy dostarcza krew. Szybko też poznali sekret "Diabolizmu" - wysysania starych wampirów z krwi i duszy, by posiąść ich moc. Dzięki swej magii Tremere odkrył kryjówkę Przedpotopowca Saulota, założyciela klanu Salubri, wyssał go i przejął jego moc. W ten sposób członkowie Domu Tremere stworzyli prawdziwy Klan Tremere. +Tremerom sprzyjał czas. W połowie XV wieku powstał Sabat. Starszyzna wampirza musiała zaprzestać starych waśni i zjednoczyć się przeciw temu zagrożeniu. Tremerzy, zająwszy miejsce wśród Klanów, rzucili się w wir wampirzej polityki i byli jednym z filarów Camarilli, stanowiąc silne zaplecze dla Ventrów. +Główna siedziba klanu mieści się w Wiedniu. +Otoczak (geologia) + +Otoczak – fragment minerału lub skały o rozmiarach frakcji żwirowej, wygładzony i zaokrąglony podczas transportu przez wodę. Podczas takiego przemieszczania poszczególne fragmenty ocierają się o siebie i o dno zbiornika. Powoduje to obtoczenie większych ziaren i roztarcie drobniejszych. Skutkiem takiej naturalnej obróbki jest zmniejszenie oraz ujednolicenie ich wielkości oraz kształtu. W materiale o dłuższej drodze transportu przeważają skały bardziej odporne (np. kwarcyty, kwarce, piaskowce). +Zobacz też: okruch, żwir +Peleus + +Peleus (gr. " Pēleús", łac. "Peleus") – w mitologii greckiej król Ftyi w Tesalii, Argonauta, ojciec Achillesa. +Uchodził za syna Ajakosa i Endeis. Peleus razem z bratem Telamonem zabił pod wpływem gniewu (w trakcie gry w kości) swojego przyrodniego brata Fokosa syna Pasmanthei, wskutek czego zmuszony był do ucieczki z Eginy. We Ftyi, Peleus został oczyszczony ze zbrodni przez Eurytiona i poślubił Antygonę, córkę Eurytiona. Peleus przypadkowo zabił Eurytiona podczas polowania na dzika kalidońskiego. +Z zabójstwa Eurytiona został oczyszczony w Jolkos przez króla Akastosa. W Peleusie zakochała się żona Akastosa, Astydamia, on jednak odrzucił jej miłość. Urażona Astydamia wysłała posłańca do Antygony z wiadomością, że Peleus ma poślubić córkę Akastosa, Steropeję. Antygona na wieść o tym powiesiła się. +Odrzucona Astydamia oczerniła Peleusa przed mężem, że nastaje na jej cześć. Akastos zabrał Peleusa na polowanie na górę Pelion i pozostawił śpiącego w chwili ataku grupy centaurów. Wcześniej jednak ukrył cudowny miecz Peleusa, podarunek Hefajstosa. Centaur Chiron pomógł jednak Peleusowi odzyskać miecz i umożliwił mu ucieczkę. Mszcząc się Peleus spustoszył Jolkos, zabił Astydamię a następnie poćwiartował jej ciało. +Po śmierci Antygony poślubił nereidę morską Tetydę, z którą miał syna Achillesa. Na wesele Peleusa i Tetydy przybyli wszyscy bogowie. Posejdon ofiarował Peleusowi dwa nieśmiertelne konie: Baliosa i Ksantosa. Niezaproszona Eris, bogini niezgody, rzuciła jabłko z napisem „dla najpiękniejszej” co doprowadziło do sporu między boginiami rozstrzygniętego przez Parysa. +Tetyda chciała, żeby jej dzieci (miała ich siedmioro) stały się nieśmiertelne. Aby pozbyć się cząstek śmiertelnych odziedziczonych po Peleusie hartowała ciała niemowląt w ogniu. Sześcioro jej dzieci nie przeżyło tego. Achillesa nacierała ambrozją i zanurzała w rzece Styks. Gdy Peleus odkrył zabiegi żony zabrał ostatniego syna i porzucił Tetydę. +Joanna II z Nawarry + +Joanna II Mała (ur. 28 stycznia 1311, zm. 6 października 1349), królowa Nawarry 1328–1349, hrabina Angoulême, Mortain i Longueville, z dynastii Kapetyngów. +Jedyna córka króla Francji Ludwika X Kłótliwego i Małgorzaty Burgundzkiej - córki księcia Burgundii, Roberta II. +W 1316, po śmierci jej ojca i przyrodniego brata, Jana I, królów Francji i Nawarry, prawa do sukcesji zostały jej odmówione z powodu podejrzeń o nieprawe pochodzenie (skandal w wieży Nesle). Jej stryjowie Filip V i Karol IV odebrali również niepełnoletniej jeszcze dziewczynie prawa do korony Nawarry, którą jednak wcześniej nosiły również kobiety (Joanna I z Nawarry). Powoływali się na prawo salickie, które powstało za panowania pierwszych Merowingów, które mówiło, że kobieta nie może dziedziczyć tronu. +Powoływał się na nie wpierw Filip V, a potem w 1328 jeszcze raz Filip VI. +Mimo tego w 1328 Joanna została królową Nawarry po zawarciu ugody z nowym władcą Francji - Filipem VI, który nie był potomkiem królów Nawarry - w zamian za zrzeczenie się praw do tronu francuskiego. +Rządziła jako królowa w latach 1328-1349, do 1343 wraz ze swoim mężem - Filipem III, hrabią d'Évreux. Na mocy traktatu zrzekła się swoich praw do korony Francji oraz posiadłości jej prababki w Brie i Szampanii, które stały się królewską domeną. W ramach rekompensaty, otrzymała hrabstwa Angoulême, Mortain oraz kawałek Cotentin. Później, zamieniła Angoulême na trzy posiadłości w Vexin: Pontoise, Beaumont-sur-Oise i Asniere-sur-Oise. +Mąż Joanny - hrabia Évreux - Filip III, był potomkiem młodszej gałęzi Kapetyngów pochodzącej od hrabiego Ludwika Francuskiego, najmłodszego syna króla Francji Filipa III Śmiałego. To za jego sprawą, kolejni królowie Nawarry dziedziczyli lenna w Normandii. Wraz z normandzkimi zdobyczami Joanny i jej prawami w Szampanii, cała rodzina posiadała rozległe tereny w północnej Francji. +Przewodnik Katolicki + +Przewodnik Katolicki – najstarszy w Polsce tygodnik o tematyce społeczno-religijnej powstały z inicjatywy arcybiskupa poznańsko-gnieźnieńskiego Floriana Stablewskiego. Od momentu powstania tygodnik wydaje Drukarnia i Księgarnia św. Wojciecha. +Historia. +Ukazuje się od 17 stycznia 1895 roku z przerwą w latach 1939-1956. W momencie założenia "Przewodnik" miał łączyć swoją główną misję – utwierdzanie w wierze katolików i informowanie o życiu Kościoła z walką o utrzymanie polskości. Aby to osiągnąć miał jednoczyć wszystkie warstwy społeczne, kształtować ich świadomość społeczno-polityczną przez edukację i zabawę. Znalazły się w nim także miejsce na porady prawne, zdrowotne, na temat wychowania dzieci, a także relacje z podróży. O nowoczesnym charakterze pisma świadczy zamieszczanie już w XIX wieku reklam i ogłoszeń, aby obniżyć koszt wydawania gazety. +Obecnie "Przewodnik Katolicki" koncentruje się na sprawach dotyczących wiary a także życia Kościoła lokalnego i powszechnego. Zamieszczane są w nim również felietony pisane przez polskich i zagranicznych komentatorów oraz artykuły o tematyce społecznej, psychologicznej, młodzieżowej i kulturalnej. W każdym numerze znajduje się również dodatek diecezjalny (poznańsko-kaliski, gnieźnieński, włocławski, bydgoski, a od kwietnia 2010 także krakowski), redagowany odpowiednio przez oddziały w Poznaniu, Gnieźnie, Włocławku, Bydgoszczy i Krakowie. +W styczniu 2007 roku, kiedy to "Przewodnik Katolicki" zwiększył swoją objętość o 16 stron, został utworzony Przewodnik Młodych, czyli czterostronicowy dział redagowany dla młodzieży i przy jej udziale. +"Przewodnik Katolicki" ukazuje się w nakładzie ok. 40 000 egzemplarzy, zaś dystrybucja odbywa się poprzez parafie oraz podobnie jak inne gazety, dostępny jest w kioskach i salonach prasowych w całym kraju. Jest najpopularniejszym tygodnikiem opinii w Wielkopolsce i województwie kujawsko-pomorskim. +Od stycznia 2008 została nawiązana współpraca z największym tygodnikiem we Włoszech: "Famiglia Cristiana. +W numerze 51/2009 "Przewodnik Katolicki" całkowicie zmienił swój layout oraz winietę. Od grudnia 2009 roku opisywany jest jako "Ogólnopolski tygodnik dla rodzin". Wprowadzenie nowej szaty graficznej zainicjowało również powstanie nowych rubryk: przewodnik życia duchowego oraz przewodnik codziennego życia. +Ma swój dziecięcy odpowiednik, "Mały Przewodnik Katolicki", który jest miesięcznikiem. +Tuzinka + +Tuzinka - młoda słonica azjatycka, ulubienica warszawiaków, dwunasty słoń urodzony w warunkach ogrodu zoologicznego. Przyszła na świat w 1937 roku w Warszawie, zmarła w 1944 w Niemczech. Jej matką była urodzona dziko słonica Kasia, a ojcem, również dziki, Jaś. Te trzy słonie były chlubą zoo w Warszawie w okresie tuż przed wojną; dyrektorem ogrodu był wówczas Jan Żabiński. W pierwszych miesiącach wojny słonicę wywieziono z Polski, podobnie jak wiele innych zwierząt z warszawskiego zoo. Matka Tuzinki zginęła od bomby we wrześniu 1939 a ojciec został zastrzelony przez personel ogrodu wraz z innymi groźnymi zwierzętami w celu uniknięcia niebezpieczeństwa wydostania się ich na wolność podczas działań wojennych. +Percy Sillitoe + +Sir Percy Sillitoe (ur. 1888, zm. 1962), dyrektor generalny brytyjskiej Służby Bezpieczeństwa (MI5) od 1946 do 1953. +Służbę w administracji państwowej rozpoczął w 1908, wstępując do policji brytyjskiej w Afryce Południowej. Ze służbami specjalnymi zetknął się po raz pierwszy właśnie w Afryce Południowej, także podczas pracy w policji. W 1911 przeniósł się do Rodezji północnej, służył podczas I wojny światowej. +W 1923 powrócił do Wielkiej Brytanii, tam po pewnym czasie objął stanowisko szefa policji hrabstwa Glasgow. W 1929 Sillitoe zorganizował pierwsze naukowe laboratorium medycyny sądowej. W czasie II wojny światowej współpracował z wywiadem wojskowym jako naczelnik policji hrabstwa Kent. Po wojnie w 1946 Sillitoe zastąpił na stanowisku szefa MI5 sir Davida Petrie. Jego kadencja była okresem intensywnej infiltracji rządu i brytyjskich służb specjalnych przez radziecki wywiad i zarazem słabej skuteczności działań kontrwywiadu MI5, któremu udało się w tym czasie aresztować zaledwie jednego szpiega radzieckiego - radiooperatora w Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych, wcześniejszego szyfranta brytyjskiej ambasady w Moskwie, Williama Marshalla. +David Petrie odszedł z MI5 w 1953; podjął pracę w firmie DE Beers w Afryce Południowej jako specjalista ds. zwalczania kontrabandy diamentów. Na stanowisku DG MI5 zastąpił go Dick White, także przyszły DG MI6. Percy Sillitoe zmarł w 1961 w wieku 73 lat. +Divine Intervention + +Divine Intervention – szósty album thrashmetalowego zespołu Slayer. Nagrywany w 1994 roku, a wydany 27 września 1994 roku nakładem American Recordings. To pierwszy album nagrany z perkusistą Paulem Bostaphem. Zadebiutował na 8 miejscu listy Billboard 200, Divine Intervention stał się najwyżej uplasowanym albumem w historii zespołu do czasu Christ Illusion który zadebiutował na miejscu 5. Według danych z kwietnia 2002 album sprzedał się w nakładzie 405 092 egzemplarzy na terenie Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Jest to płyta zagrana po raz pierwszy w zmienionym składzie po odejściu perkusisty Dave'a Lombardo. Na jego miejsce wstąpił Paul Bostaph, który grał wcześniej w grupie Forbidden i krótki czas w zespole Testament. Album ten z wcześniejszych nagrań zespołu najbardziej przypomina "Reign in Blood", dlatego nosi miano "Reign In Blood 2" lub "Reign In Blood lat 90.", jednak są tu również utwory (np. "213", albo utwór tytułowy), które bardziej przypominają dokonania z chociażby "South of Heaven" czy też "Seasons in the Abyss". Oprawa graficzna płyty, na której widnieje zdjęcie z wyciętym żyletką logiem zespołu na rękach jednego z fanów, przyniosła wiele kontrowersji. Kolejnym skandalem był tekst do utworu "SS-3" tak jak w przypadku "Angel of Death" autorstwa Jeffa Hannemana, tym razem opowiadający o Reinhardzie Heydrichu szefie dyktatury SS. Natomiast "213" to utwór opowiadający o psychopacie Jeffreyu Dahmerze, który mieszkał w domu z numerem 213. Tekst napisał Tom Araya, którego hobby jest zbieranie informacji o seryjnych mordercach, i już na poprzednim albumie "Seasons In The Abyss" napisał utwór "Dead Skin Mask" opowiadający o Eddiem Geinie. "Divine Intervention" to ostatni album Slayer, o którym można powiedzieć, iż jest to rdzenny thrash metal. +Stanisław Mycielski (generał) + +Stanisław Mycielski herbu Dołęga (ur. 1743 prawdopodobnie w Szubinie, zm. 5 sierpnia 1818), pisarz polski, starosta lubiatowski, generał-major wojsk litewskich. +Był najmłodszym synem Macieja (1690-1747), kasztelana kaliskiego i poznańskiego, oraz Weroniki z Konarzewskich, młodszym bratem Józefa (późniejszego wojewody inowrocławskiego). Kształcił się w pijarskim Collegium Nobilium w Warszawie; jednym z jego wychowawców był Franciszek Bohomolec. Nie uczestniczył aktywnie w życiu politycznym, ale sprawował szereg funkcji - starosty lubiatowskiego, generała-majora wojsk litewskich, posła na sejm z powiatu kcyńskiego (1776). Nie brał udziału w konfederacji barskiej. Był dziedzicem kluczy szubińskiego, turzyńskigo i dłońskiego, przez kilkadziesiąt lat posiadał także pałac w Warszawie, który przez pewien czas dzierżawił posłowi szwedzkiemu. +Bardziej znany był jako pisarz. W wieku kilkunastu lat zadebiutował jako autor dramatu opartego na motywach biblijnych "Józef patriarcha", wystawionego 19 marca 1756 w Nieświeżu na dworze szwagra, wojewody wileńskiego i hetmana Michała Hieronima Radziwiłła; wśród wykonawców była siostra młodego twórcy, żona hetmana Anna. W kolejnych latach Mycielski pisał na łamach "Monitora" Bohomolca, oraz wystawił kilka komedii. "Junak" 5 kwietnia 1769 zainaugurował działalność teatru przy Szkole Rycerskiej, a rok później ukazał się w Warszawie drukiem (drugie wydanie w 1774). Ponadto znane są komedie Mycielskiego "Staropolski" i "Bałamut modny" (przypisywana niekiedy mylnie Franciszkowi Zabłockiemu). +Był żonaty z Konstancją z Jabłonowskich. Syn Dymitr zmarł w dzieciństwie. +Franciszek Jossé + +Franciszek Jossé (ur. 16 października 1861 w Krakowie, zm. 13 grudnia 1941 w Urdżarze koło Semipałatyńska) – polski działacz państwowy, współtwórca polskiego ustawodawstwa skarbowego w II RP. +Był synem urzędnika państwowego Ferdynanda i Marii z domu Władarz. W latach 1880-1884 studiował na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego; po studiach rozpoczął wieloletnią pracę w skarbowości państwowej. Był urzędnikiem w Powiatowej Dyrekcji Skarbu w Krakowie, od 1892 w Krajowej Dyrekcji Skarbu we Lwowie. Pracował także jako docent w Szkole Politechnicznej we Lwowie oraz wykładowca Wydziału Prawa Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego. Jako uznany specjalista prowadził zajęcia z ustawodawstwa akcyzowego, ekonomii społecznej, polityki ekonomicznej i nauki skarbowości. Otrzymywał tytuły państwowe - był radcą skarbu (1907) i radcą tworu cesarskiego (13 grudnia 1915). +W listopadzie 1916 przeniósł się do Warszawy, gdzie pracował przy tworzeniu polskiego ustawodawstwa skarbowego. 20 lutego 1918 został kierownikiem sekcji podatków pośrednich, ceł, monopoli i straży skarbowej w Ministerstwie Skarbu Królestwa Polskiego (przy rządzie Rady Regencyjnej). Opracowywał ustawy m.in. o opodatkowaniu cukru, zapałek, piwa, wód mineralnych, węgla kamiennego. Był najstarszym rangą nadradcą, kiedy 5 listopada 1918 dymisję złożył minister skarbu Józef Englich; w tej sytuacji Josse pełnił przez tydzień obowiązki kierownika resortu. Ten krótki czas miał wielkie znaczenie w historii Polski - 11 listopada nastąpiło odzyskanie niepodległości. Josse wypełniał swoje obowiązku dość biernie, nie podjął inicjatywy przejęcia kas i archiwów skarbowych z rąk niemieckich; czynności te wykonywali jego podwładni, ale bez formalnych poleceń - Josse akceptował jedynie fakty dokonane. +Odszedł ze służby państwowej 16 kwietnia 1919. Powrócił do Lwowa, gdzie był dyrektorem Towarzystwa Akcyjnego Zjednoczony Przemysł Spirytusowy. W latach 1912-1936 był także komisarzem rządowym pierwszej lwowskiej giełdy zbożowo-towarowej. Po najeździe sowieckim na Polskę aresztowany przez NKWD i deportowany do Kazachstanu gdzie zmarł. +Z małżeństwa ze Stefanią Grzymek miał synów Władysława i Witolda. +EIRP + +EIRP (ang. Effective Isotropical Radiated Power) to "równoważna (efektywna, ekwiwalentna) moc promieniowana izotropowo". EIRP oznacza moc, jaką musiałaby wypromieniować antena izotropowa (teoretyczna antena o zerowych wymiarach, która emituje fale elektromagnetyczne bez strat, jednakowo w każdym kierunku przestrzeni), aby otrzymać taki poziom sygnału w odbiorniku, jaki wystąpił przy użyciu do nadawania badanej anteny kierunkowej na kierunku jej maksymalnego promieniowania. +Podstawową jednostką mocy EIRP jest Wat . Często (dla wygody w obliczeniach) EIRP wyrażana jest w jednostkach logarytmicznych dBW lub dBm. +10 * log10(100mW/1mW) = 10 * log10(100) = 10 * 2 = 20 dBm +EIRP = P - Tk + Gi +gdzie EIRP i P (moc nadajnika) podane są w dBm, Tk (tłumienie kabla) w dB a Gi (zysk anteny w stosunku do anteny izotropowej) w dBi, +Dla nadajnika o mocy 1 mW podłączonego bez strat do anteny izotropowej EIRP wynosiła by 0 dBm. Dla rzeczywistych układów nadawczych aby obliczyć EIRP należy uwzględnić także straty wnoszone przez kabel doprowadzający sygnał do anteny i zysk anteny. +Wartość EIRP jest istotna między innymi przy obliczeniach parametrów sieci WLAN. Według obowiązujących przepisów dla pasma 2,4 GHz EIRP nie może przekroczyć 20 dBm. +EIRP jest użyteczna także w dziedzinie BHP i ochrony środowiska, gdyż umożliwia porównanie poziomu pola elektromagnetycznego dla różnych anten na kierunkach maksymalnego promieniowania a więc potencjalnej ich szkodliwości dla ludzi. Należy jednak zauważyć, że anteny o dużym zysku mają wąskie charakterystyki promieniowania i zawieszone na stosunkowo dużej wysokości nie wytwarzają wokół masztu w miejscu dostępnym dla ludności szkodliwego poziomu pola elektromagnetycznego. +Nie jest prawdą, że po zastosowaniu anteny o zysku 30 dBi z nadajnika o mocy 1 W wypromieniowana zostanie moc 1000 W, czyli o 30 dB większa. Zysk anteny jest bezpośrednio związany z jej właściwościami kierunkowymi. Im jest wyższy, tym antena jest bardziej kierunkowa, a więc moc promieniowana jest w węższej wiązce. +Kurozwęki + +Kurozwęki – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie świętokrzyskim, w powiecie staszowskim, w gminie Staszów. Do 1870 roku miasto. +Kurozwęki leżą w obrębie Pogórza Szydłowskiego nad rzeką Czarną Staszowską, 7 km na północny zachód od Staszowa. +Przez wieś przechodzi zielony szlak turystyczny z Chańczy do Pielaszowa. +W miejscowości działało Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne – "Państwowa Stadnina Koni Kurozwęki". W 1993 po przekształceniu jako "Stadnina Koni Kurozwęki", w 1994 jako "Stadnina Koni Skarbu Państwa Kurozwęki". Obecnie działa jako "Stadnina Koni Sp. z o.o." +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki o Kurozwękach pochodzą z XIII wieku. Około 2. połowy XIV wieku Dobiesław z Kurozwęk wybudował drewniano-murowany zamek, siedzibę rodu Kurozwęckich. Początkowo miał on charakter obronny, był jednym z pierwszych murowanych zamków rycerskich w Polsce. Zamek później wielokrotnie przebudowywano, aż osiągnął obecną formę. Według miejscowej tradycji założycielem Kurozwęk miał być czeski rycerz Poraj Sławnikowic, brat św. Wojciecha. +Od co najmniej XV wieku Kurozwęki posiadały prawa miejskie. Dokładna data nadania praw nie jest znana. Przyjmuje się, że nastąpiło to przed rokiem 1400. Miasto było własnością Kurozwęckich, a później Lanckorońskich, Sołtyków i Popielów. Na przełomie XVII i XVIII wieku było ośrodkiem kalwinizmu. W 1870 roku Kurozwęki utraciły prawa miejskie. W latach 90. XX wieku pałac w Kurozwękach wraz z otaczającymi go gruntami powrócił do swych prawowitych właścicieli – rodu Popielów herbu Sulima. Obecny właściciel pałacu, najmłodszy z rodu Popielów mieszka w dawnym budynku gospodarczym obok pałacu. +Do 1954 roku siedziba gminy Kurozwęki. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie tarnobrzeskim. +W 2011 roku w ogrodzie szkolnym Kurozwękach odsłonięto Dąb Pamięci ku czci posterunkowego Stefana Müllera, zamordowanego w 1940 roku przez NKWD w Kalininie (ob. Twer). +Kurozwęki w filmie. +Pałac i miejscowe plenery posłużyły za plan filmowy przy realizacji 65. odcinka serialu „Ojciec Mateusz”, zatytuowanego " Taka spokojna niedziela". Zdjęcia realizowano w grudniu 2010 r. +Kora (wokalistka) + +Kora, właściwie Olga Aleksandra "de domo" Ostrowska, "primo voto" Jackowska (ur. 8 czerwca 1951 w Krakowie) – polska wokalistka rockowa i autorka tekstów, w latach 1976–2008 liderka zespołu Maanam. +Życiorys. +Młodość. +Kora jest wnuczka Marcina Ostrowskiego (ur. 1897 w Buczaczu) i Emilii Ostrowskiej z domu Siarkiewicz (ur. 1908 w Stanisławowie), drugiej żony Marcina. Do 1939 Marcin Ostrowski był komendantem Policji Państwowej w Buczaczu; po agresji ZSRR na Polskę aresztowany przez NKWD, zdołał uciec z więzienia i przedostał się do Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. W tym samym czasie żona i córki Marcina Ostrowskiego zostały deportowane do ZSRR, a żona zmarła na zesłaniu. +Rodzice Kory poznali się po II wojnie światowej w Krakowie, gdzie oboje pracowali jako urzędnicy. Olga była ich piątym i najmłodszym dzieckiem. Ze względu na bardzo trudną sytuację materialną i zdrowotną rodziców w latach 1955-1960 Kora przebywała w domu dziecka prowadzonym przez siostry prezentki w Jordanowie - aż do ukończenia II klasy szkoły podstawowej. W latach 1961-1962 przebywała w Jabłonowie Pomorskim, gdzie zamieszkała u swojego wujostwa i uczęszczała do szkoły podstawowej w klasie IV. Jako nastolatka była silnie związana z krakowskim środowiskiem artystycznym i hippisowskim. Przyjaźniła się z Piotrem Skrzyneckim, Jerzym Beresiem, Wiesławem Dymnym, Krystyną Zachwatowicz czy Piotrem Markiem. To w czasach hippisowskich przyjęła swój pseudonim Kora. +Na scenie zadebiutowała w lutym 1976 w poznańskim klubie "Aspirynka", występując z Markiem Jackowskim i Milo Kurtisem w zespole Maanam, grającym wtedy alternatywną, inspirowaną Bliskim Wschodem muzykę. Grupa ta, już w nowym rozszerzonym składzie, pod koniec lat 70. zaczęła grać rocka. Od 1980 była jednym z najważniejszych i najpopularniejszych przedstawicieli tego gatunku. Maanam wydał 11 studyjnych albumów i po 32 latach działalności zawiesił ją w grudniu 2008. W tym czasie wylansował rekordową ilość kilkudziesięciu przebojów z takimi klasykami na czele, jak: "Boskie Buenos", "O! Nie rób tyle hałasu", "Kocham Cię, kochanie moje", "To tylko tango" czy "Lucciola" w latach 80. oraz "Wyjątkowo zimny maj", "Zapatrzenie" czy "Po to jesteś na świecie" w latach 90. +Projekty solowe. +W czasie trwania kariery Maanamu, Kora brała udział również w wielu solowych projektach. Najpierw w aktorskim. 7 lipca 1982, na włoskim festiwalu teatralnym Dei Due Mondi w Spoleto, miała miejsce premiera sztuki "Mątwa" Witkacego prezentowanej przez zespół Teatru Starego w Krakowie. Kora wystąpiła tam obok m.in. Jerzego Stuhra, Jerzego Bińczyckiego i Ewy Kolasińskiej. Spektakl wystawiano także w Mediolanie. +W 1987, wraz z krakowskim zespołem Püdelsi, Kora nagrała płytę "Bela Pupa" zawierającą piosenki Piotra Marka, nieżyjącego lidera grupy Düpą. Album ukazał się w 1988. +W 1987 artystka wystąpiła podczas Przeglądu Piosenki Aktorskiej we Wrocławiu. W ramach galowego koncertu, poświęconego twórczości Agnieszki Osieckiej, wykonała piosenki "Okularnicy" oraz "Kochankowie z ulicy Kamiennej". Wówczas narodził się pomysł na pierwszą solową płytę wokalistki, z piosenkami Jerzego Wasowskiego i Jeremiego Przybory z Kabaretu Starszych Panów. Rozpoczęte wówczas prace zostały jednak odłożone do 1990 i trwały trzy lata. Korze towarzyszyli bracia Marcin i Mateusz Pospieszalscy. Płyta "Ja pana w podróż zabiorę" ukazała się w 1993. +W 1989, w limitowanym nakładzie ukazał się tomik poezji Kory "Krakowski spleen". W 1992 opublikowała autobiografię "Podwójna linia życia". W 1998 ukazało się jej nowe, uzupełnione wydanie. +W 2000 Kora zaśpiewała temat przewodni serialu TVP "Sukces", zatytułowany "Magiczne słowo – sukces". W lipcu 2001 na rynek trafiła kompilacja najciekawszych solowych nagrań Kory "Złota Kolekcja. Magiczne słowo - sukces". +W 2002 artystka rozpoczęła prace nad nowym projektem, Kora Ola Ola! Wzięli w nim udział muzycy grający muzykę poważną, jazzową, flamenco i latynoską, pochodzący z Polski, Węgier, Kuby, Meksyku i Peru. W lutym 2003 ukazał się ich album "Kora Ola Ola!", na którym znalazły się bardzo różnorodne utwory od przedwojennych tang, piosenek Mieczysława Fogga, Jerzego Petersburskiego, Wandy Warskiej, Marii Koterbskiej czy Czesława Niemena do wybranych utworów Maanamu. Album promował przebój "Nim zakwitnie tysiąc róż". +W styczniu 2003 ukazał się ponadto singiel nagrany przez Korę z alternatywnym artystą elektronicznym, Bexa Lala. Nagrała z nim dwa utwory, "Kraina bólu" oraz "Kochany". +W 2008 na rynek trafiła taneczna płyta "Metamorfozy" firmowana przez Korę z debiutującym duetem DJ-ów 5th Element. W założeniu miała zawierać remiksy hitów Maanamu, jednak ostatecznie nagrano do nich w większości zupełnie nowe partie muzyczne i wokalne. Dodatkowo Kora nagrała na nią trzy premierowe piosenki. +Po rozpadzie Maanamu. +Od 2009, po zawieszeniu działalności Maanamu artystka występuje pod szyldem Kora. Początkowo koncertowała wraz z większością muzyków ostatniego składu tego zespołu. Obok premierowych nagrań solowych na jej koncertach prezentowane były głównie przeboje Maanamu. W lipcu 2010 Kora była jedną z gwiazd rockowego festiwalu w Jarocinie. +W czerwcu 2010 odbyła się premiera jej nowej solowej piosenki "Zabawa w chowanego", wzbudzającej kontrowersje ze względu na poruszaną w niej tematykę pedofilii wśród księży. Tekst do niej oparty był na osobistych przeżyciach wokalistki. Do utworu powstał jej pierwszy od sześciu lat teledysk. Zdobył on główną nagrodę festiwalu operatorów filmowych Camerimage, czyli Złotą Żabę. Był także nominowany do nagrody Grand Prix festiwalu Yach Film, nagradzającego najlepsze teledyski. +W listopadzie 2010 Kora zaprezentowała nowego singla, nagranego przy udziale Stanisława Soyki, "Nigdy nie zamknę drzwi przed Tobą". +W lutym 2011 Kora zasiadła w jury "Must Be the Music. Tylko muzyka", show telewizji Polsat szukającego talentów muzycznych. Telewizyjna premiera odbyła się w marcu. Do tej pory zostało zrealizowanych pięć edycji show. Tradycją programu jest występ Kory w odcinku półfinałowym lub finałowym każdej edycji programu. Za udział w show piosenkarka nominowana była do nagrody Telekamery 2012 i 2013 w kategorii Juror. +W marcu, z okazji 35. rocznicy powstania Maanamu, koncern EMI wydał zremasterowane reedycje wszystkich polskich studyjnych albumów zespołu oraz solowych Kory, a w październiku także tych zagranicznych i kilku kompilacji. W międzyczasie, w czerwcu Kora uczciła 35 lat swojej działalności artystycznej jubileuszowym recitalem podczas festiwalu TOPtrendy. Z tej okazji otrzymała tam nagrodę Bursztynowego Słowika. +31 sierpnia, w 31. rocznicę podpisania Porozumień Sierpniowych, Prezydent RP Bronisław Komorowski odznaczył Korę Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski jako zasłużonego twórcę kultury. +W październiku odbyła się premiera singla "Ping Pong", pierwszego pochodzącego bezpośrednio z nowego albumu Kory. Tekst tego utworu był inspirowany wierszem Józefa Kurylaka "Bicie mojego serca" i wzbudził kontrowersje ze względu na poruszaną tematykę walki Boga z szatanem. +5 listopada ukazała się nowa, rozszerzona edycja autobiografii Kory, pod nowym tytułem "Kora, Kora. A planety szaleją". +10 listopada odbyła się premiera pierwszego od rozpadu Maanamu albumu Kory, "Ping Pong". Kompozytorem większości materiału został gitarzysta Mateusz Waszkiewicz, pracujący z Korą od 2008 roku. Zespół Kory, którego ostateczny skład uformował się w 2010, uzupełnili gitarzysta Krzysztof Skarżyński oraz weterani "nowej fali" lat 80., basista Marcin Ciempiel oraz perkusista Artur Hajdasz. Album promowały single "Ping Pong", "Przepis na szczęście" oraz "Strefa ciszy". Płyta uzyskała status złotej. +W 2012 roku ukazała się piosenka Ani Wyszkoni "Zapytaj mnie o to, kochany", promująca jej drugi album studyjny zatytułowany "Życie jest w porządku", z muzyką Marka Jackowskiego i tekstem Kory. +20 listopada 2012 roku wydana została dwupłytowa reedycja albumu "Ping Pong" zatytułowana "Ping Pong − Małe wolności", która wzbogacona została o dodatkową płytę z jedenastoma remiksami utworów pochodzących z podstawowej wersji albumu. W ramach promocji płyty Kora wystąpiła m.in. podczas finału tanecznego programu "Got to Dance. Tylko Taniec", wykonując utwór "Jedno słowo wszystko zmienia" zremiksowany przez Toma Forestera. +W lutym 2013 piosenkarka otrzymała nominację do nagrody Wiktory 2012 w kategorii Osobowość telewizyjna. +Życie prywatne. +Kora była żoną Marka Jackowskiego, z którym zakładała później zespół Maanam. Ich małżeństwo trwało od 1971 do 1984. Ich jedyny syn Mateusz przyszedł na świat w 1972. Po trzech latach małżeństwa i przeprowadzce z rodzinnego Krakowa do Warszawy Kora poznała swojego kolejnego partnera, Kamila Sipowicza. Owocem tego związku był jej drugi syn Szymon, urodzony w 1976. Był on jednak wychowywany przez Jackowskiego, nieświadomego wówczas, że nie jest ojcem dziecka. Sipowicz pracował później przy organizacji koncertów Maanamu. U szczytu popularności zespołu w 1984 Kora rozwiodła się z Jackowskim, jednak oboje postanowili wciąż dzielić życie zawodowe. Wokalistka zamieszkała z Sipowiczem dopiero w 1989, po śmierci jego matki, która nie akceptowała tego związku. Wtedy para postanowiła założyć własną wytwórnię fonograficzną Kamiling Co, wydającą głównie płyty Maanamu. +20 sierpnia 2012 Kora została oskarżona o posiadanie suszu konopi indyjskich, ale sprawa została umorzona. +Okruch + +Okruch - w geologii oznacza ostrokrawędzisty (najczęściej) fragment minerału lub skały. +Zobacz też. +otoczak +Maanam + +Maanam – polski zespół rockowy. Jedna z najpopularniejszych grup w historii polskiego rocka. +Początki zespołu. +Zalążek grupy Maanam stanowił niszowy gitarowy duet M-a-M stworzony przez Marka Jackowskiego i Milo Kurtisa w 1975 roku, grający mistyczną, orientalną muzykę. W lutym 1976 do zespołu dołączyła żona Jackowskiego, Kora. Po odejściu w tym samym roku Kurtisa do zespołu Osjan zastąpił go John Porter. Grupa przyjęła wtedy nazwę Maanam Elektryczny Prysznic, symbolizującą przejście na rockowe brzmienie, skróconą później do wyrazu Maanam. Nazwa ta była rozwinięciem poprzedniej, czyli M-a-M (M and M), powstałej od pierwszych liter imion założycieli. +W roku 1979 z zespołu odszedł Porter, który założył własną grupę Porter Band. Jackowscy wraz z muzykami grupy Dżamble nagrali za własne pieniądze pierwszego singla z piosenkami "Hamlet" oraz śpiewaną przez Jackowskiego "Oprócz", która stała się pierwszym klasykiem w karierze Maanamu. Zespół oficjalnie zadebiutował na Muzycznym Campingu w Lubaniu, podobnie jak nowy zespół Portera, Porter Band. W elektrycznym składzie Maanamu obok Kory i Jackowskiego znaleźli się także gitarzysta Ryszard Olesiński, basista Krzysztof Olesiński oraz perkusista Ryszard Kupidura. +Przełom. +W czerwcu 1980 roku Maanam wystąpił na festiwalu polskiej piosenki w Opolu, wykonując utwory "Boskie Buenos" i "Żądza pieniądza" oraz wielokrotnie bisując. Występ ten sprawił, że zespół stał się powszechnie znany, zyskując sobie ogromne rzesze fanów. Oba nagrania stały się od razu wielkimi przebojami i zostały wydane na singlu. W sierpniu Maanam przystąpił do nagrywania pierwszej płyty, przyjmując na miejsce Kupidury nowego perkusistę, Pawła Markowskiego. Wkrótce sukces odniosły kolejne utwory grupy, "Szare miraże" oraz "Stoję, stoję, czuję się świetnie", które zostały wydane na kolejnym singlu. W efekcie Maanam został zaproszony w październiku tego samego roku na plan głośnego filmu Krzysztofa Rogulskiego "Wielka majówka". Film trafił do kin w 1981 roku, a z ekranu obok kilku piosenek z pierwszej płyty przedstawił nowe, w tym przede wszystkim balladę "Ta noc do innych jest niepodobna", która została wówczas wydana na kolejnym singlu grupy. +Parę miesięcy później na rynek trafił długo oczekiwany pierwszy album zespołu, zatytułowany po prostu "Maanam". Gościnnie zagrał na nim również jazzowy saksofonista Zbigniew Namysłowski. Niemal każdy utwór z tej płyty stał się przebojem, a sam album szybko trafił do klasyki polskiego rocka. W tym samym roku ukazał się ponadto singiel z kolejnym przebojem spoza płyty, "Cykady na Cykladach" oraz ostatni singiel promujący płytę, z przebojami "Oddech szczura" i "Karuzela marzeń". Przez cały 1981 roku Maanam dał rekordową ilość ponad 500 koncertów w największych halach. W warszawskiej Sali Kongresowej wystąpił nawet trzy razy jednego dnia. +W styczniu 1982 roku zespół nagrywał następny album, "O!". Na miejsce Krzysztofa Olesińskiego przyjął nowego basistę, Bogdana Kowalewskiego. W sesji nagraniowej gościnnie wziął udział kolejny jazzowy trębacz, Tomasz Stańko. Album ukazał się w listopadzie i powtórzył sukces debiutanckiej płyty. Zespół przeżywał wówczas apogeum sławy, o czym świadczyło choćby zamówienie ponad miliona sztuk tej płyty. Ostatecznie, z powodów technicznych, możliwe było jednak wytłoczenie zaledwie 30 tysięcy kopii. Także na tym albumie niemal każde nagranie uzyskało status przeboju, na czele z "O! Nie rób tyle hałasu", "Paranoja jest goła" oraz "Nie poganiaj mnie, bo tracę oddech". Przez cały 1982 rok grupa dała ponad 400 halowych koncertów. W 1983 roku Maanam wydał singla z utrzymaną w konwencji reggae balladą "Kocham Cię kochanie moje", która stała się jednym z największych przebojów roku i największym w całej karierze zespołu. +Zagraniczne podboje. +Także w 1983 roku Maanam związał się z prywatną wytwórnią fonograficzną Rogot, która postanowiła wypromować zespół na rynkach zachodnich. Swój trzeci album grupa nagrała więc w dwóch wersjach językowych. W listopadzie w Niemczech, krajach Beneluksu oraz w Skandynawii ukazała się jego anglojęzyczna wersja pt. "Night Patrol", a tego samego dnia w Polsce, choć początkowo tylko na kasecie, polska wersja, czyli "Nocny patrol". Zachodni album trafił do sprzedaży w Polsce w lutym 1984 roku na kasecie i w lipcu na winylu, a polski doczekał się wydania na winylu w kwietniu. +Album ten został uznany przez krytykę za kolejne wybitne dzieło Maanamu. Pochodziły z niego takie przeboje jak "Raz dwa, raz dwa", "To tylko tango", "Krakowski spleen" czy "Jestem kobietą". Klimat płyty oddawał niepokojącą atmosferę stanu wojennego w Polsce. Zdjęcie do okładki zrobił fotograf Tadeusz Rolke. Zespół grał wówczas z wielkim powodzeniem wiele koncertów zagranicznych, szczególnie w klubach i halach niemieckich oraz holenderskich. Doczekał się tam nawet swoich fan-clubów. W odpowiedzi na taki odzew w październiku tego samego roku ukazała się tam koncertowa płyta "Totalski No Problemski", zawierająca głównie anglojęzyczne wersje największych hitów ze wszystkich trzech płyt zespołu. Wysoka frekwencja na zagranicznych koncertach nie szła jednak w parze ze sprzedażą płyt. +Maanam przystąpił więc do nagrywania kolejnej płyty, ponownie w dwóch wersjach językowych. W grudniu 1984 roku polska wersja "Mental Cut" ukazała się na kasecie, podobnie jak w styczniu 1985 roku wersja anglojęzyczna, pod tym samym tytułem. W lutym polska wersja ukazała się na winylu. Album przyniósł przeboje "Simple Story", "Lucciola", "Lipstick On The Glass" i "Kreon". Materiał przeznaczony na rynek zachodni został jednak wyprodukowany na nowo, ponieważ postanowiono nadać muzyce Maanamu bardziej wygładzone, komercyjne brzmienie. Zespół przygotował też premierowe utwory. Tak powstała nowa anglojęzyczna wersja, "Wet Cat", która w Niemczech ukazała się w czerwcu. Mimo nieustających sukcesów koncertowych, zespół wciąż nie mógł jednak odnieść tam sukcesu komercyjnego. +W tym samym roku Maanam wydał pierwszy na polskim rynku album video, "Obiad z Maanamem". Znalazły się na nim filmy muzyczne, będące zbiorem teledysków do obu anglojęzycznych płyt grupy, nietypowo połączone z programem kulinarnym. Także w 1985 na rynek trafiła ponadto pierwsza książka na temat Maanamu, autorstwa dziennikarza Wiesława Królikowskiego, wydana w cyklu "Idole". +Rozpad zespołu. +Po kilku latach wyczerpujących i intensywnych tras koncertowych przemęczeni członkowie grupy postanowili zawiesić jej działalność u szczytu sławy w Polsce. Muzycy towarzyszący Korze mieli także problemy z alkoholizmem. Do tego w 1984 roku Kora rozwiodła się z Jackowskim. Wybrała związek ze współpracującym głównie przy organizacji koncertów jej zespołu Kamilem Sipowiczem, który rozpoczął się w trakcie trwania jej małżeństwa jeszcze przed powstaniem Maanamu. +W 1986 roku Maanam wydał na koniec singla z przebojami "Jesteśmy ze stali" oraz "Ty - nie ty". Współpraca z Rogotem także została zakończona. W listopadzie tego samego roku, wytwórnia ta wydała, bez zgody zespołu, koncertowy album "Live", o kiepskiej jakości dźwięku. W grudniu na rynek trafiła ponadto składanka największych przebojów Maanamu "The Best Of...", uwzględniająca hity ze wszystkich płyt grupy. +W 1987 roku Kora i Jackowski spełniając wcześniejsze zobowiązania rozpoczęli nagrywanie nowej płyty "Sie ściemnia", ale z wynajętymi muzykami sesyjnymi: basistą Marcinem Ciempielem, perkusistą Krzysztofem Dominikiem i klawiszowcem Kostkiem Yoriadisem. Na listy przebojów trafił wówczas utwór "Bądź taka, nie bądź taka" nagrany wspólnie ze Stanisławem Sojką. Jednak największym przebojem okazał się w 1988 roku następny promowany utwór, tytułowy "Sie ściemnia". Ilustrujący go animowany teledysk był pierwszym polskojęzycznym klipem nadanym w największej na świecie stacji muzycznej MTV, za sprawą jej europejskiego oddziału. Maanam koncertował wówczas w efemerycznym składzie w klubach Wielkiej Brytanii i Niemiec. Cały album na rynek trafił dopiero w 1989 roku, w czasie największych zawirowań ekonomicznych związanych z upadkiem w Polsce komunizmu. Mimo pochlebnych recenzji i silnego wsparcia radiowej "Trójki", album nie odniósł sukcesu. +W 1990 roku zespół wyruszył na tournée po Stanach Zjednoczonych po klubach polonijnych, a za zarobione tam pieniądze Kora otworzyła wraz z Sipowiczem własną wytwórnię płytową Kamiling Co. Ogromny sukces trasy oraz wyjście wcześniejszych członków grupy z nałogu alkoholowego doprowadziło do reaktywowania Maanamu w poprzednim składzie w 1991 roku. Na rynku pojawiły się najpierw liczne składanki największych przebojów zespołu z lat 80. W marcu i maju dwie części "The Best Of Kora & Maanam", w sierpniu zbiór niepublikowanych w większości na płytach singlowych hitów "The Singles Collection", a we wrześniu jeszcze kaseta "Nie bój się... '91". +Wielki powrót. +W listopadzie 1991 roku Maanam powrócił na rynek z płytą "Derwisz i anioł", promowaną nagraniem "Nie bój się, nie bój się". Największą furorę zrobiły jednak dopiero kolejne, "Anioł" oraz "Wyjątkowo zimny maj". Zdjęcie na okładce wykonał Andrzej Świetlik, odpowiedzialny za okładki płyt Maanamu do 1994 roku. Album osiągnął nakład ponad 120 tysięcy egzemplarzy. W styczniu 1992 poważnemu wypadkowi drogowemu uległ Kowalewski, który po 10 latach ustąpił miejsca swojemu poprzednikowi, Krzysztofowi Olesińskiemu. Maanam znowu intensywnie koncertował w Polsce, a potem dał kilka koncertów dla Polonii w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Australii, co upamiętnił koncertowy album "Maanamania", wydany w kwietniu 1993 roku. W czerwcu na rynek trafiła także składanka balladowych hitów Maanamu "Ballady", najpierw na kasecie, a w listopadzie również na kompakcie. W październiku 1995 roku doczekała się ona reedycji z nową listą utworów. Jej łączny nakład przekroczył 50 tysięcy kopii. +We wrześniu 1994 roku został wydany album "Róża". Płyta okazała się najłagodniejszym albumem zespołu, zaskakując swoim lirycznym charakterem. Towarzyszyła jej trzyczęściowa trasa koncertowa po największych halach Polski oraz występy dla Polonii w Australii. Album przyniósł takie przeboje jak: "Bez Ciebie umieram", "Zapatrzenie", "Róża" czy "Nic dwa razy". Dodatkowo animowany klip do "Wieje piaskiem od strony wojny" był drugim w karierze Maanamu teledyskiem wyemitowanym przez stację MTV Europe. Sam album został sprzedany w rekordowym nakładzie ponad 350 tysięcy sztuk, stając się najlepiej sprzedawanym albumem w całej karierze Maanamu. +Podobny sukces komercyjny odniósł kolejny album utrzymany w tej stylistyce, "Łóżko", wydany we wrześniu 1996 roku. Największym powodzeniem cieszyły się przeboje "Po prostu bądź" i "Po to jesteś na świecie". Płyta rozeszła się w nakładzie ponad 200 tysięcy egzemplarzy. Promowana była darmową plenerową trasą koncertową z Radiem Zet, pod szyldem "Wielka Majówka Radia Zet". Była to wówczas najdroższa trasa w historii polskiego showbiznesu. Jej budżet wyniósł kilka milionów dolarów, a koncerty obejrzało ponad pół miliona widzów. W roku 1997 zespół wyruszył w regularną biletowaną trasę koncertową, ponownie po największych halach, po czym powrócił na drugą część "Wielkiej Majówki". W październiku ukazała się składanka największych rockowych przebojów Maanamu "Rockandrolle", promowana hitem "Smycz", sprzedana w nakładzie ponad 50 tysięcy kopii. Zaraz potem wyruszył na koncerty dla Polonii w Stanach Zjednoczonych i Kanadzie. +Ostatnia dekada. +W 1998 roku Maanam powrócił do stylistyki rockowej i we wrześniu wydał album "Klucz", na którym nie zabrakło jednak piosenek lirycznych. Płytę promował utwór "Puerto Rico", ale największy sukces odniosła ballada "Miłość od pierwszego spojrzenia" (muzyka i słowa Olga Jackowska), wykorzystana również w filmie Jana Hryniaka "Przystań". W porównaniu z poprzednimi bestsellerami album osiągnął jednak słabe wyniki sprzedaży, przekraczając nakład 40 tysięcy sztuk. Od tamtej pory zespół koncertował już tylko na darmowych plenerowych imprezach. W marcu 2000 roku na rynek trafiła kompilacja największych przebojów Maanamu "Złota Kolekcja - Kocham Cię kochanie moje", także sprzedana w nakładzie ponad 40 tysięcy kopii. +W kwietniu 2000 roku Maanam zagrał dwa koncerty w Sali Kongresowej w Warszawie z okazji dwudziestopięciolecia istnienia zespołu. Na scenie pojawiło się wielu gości: Milo Kurtis, John Porter, Robert Brylewski, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Sławek Wierzcholski, Muniek Staszczyk, Justyna Steczkowska, Kasia Nosowska, Artur Rojek, Stanisław Soyka, Bogusław Łyszkiewicz. Koncert był bezpośrednio transmitowany przez TVP 2 i Radio ZET, po czym ukazał się na pierwszej płycie DVD zespołu. Obok koncertu na płytę trafił film "Epoka Maanamu" ukazujący historię zespołu. +Na kolejnej płycie "Hotel Nirwana" z marca 2001 roku grupa postanowiła poeksperymentować i przedstawić swoje zupełnie inne oblicze. Zespół po raz pierwszy zastosował komputery, loopy i sample. A w warstwie lirycznej Kora obok własnych tekstów sięgnęła również do poezji Mirona Białoszewskiego, Edwarda Estlina Cummingsa i jej partnera Kamila Sipowicza. Album promował utwór "Piekło i niebo", ale większym powodzeniem cieszyły się następne, "Chińskie morze" oraz "Wolno, wolno płyną łodzie". Płyta poniosła jednak komercyjną klęskę, przekraczając nakład 10 tysięcy egzemplarzy, ledwie zwracający koszty wydawcy. Między koncertami w Polsce w czerwcu Maanam wystąpił dla Polonii w Kanadzie, a w grudniu dał koncert w Bośni Hercegowinie, dla żołnierzy Nordycko-Polskiej Grupy Bojowej SFOR, zorganizowany z inicjatywy tamtejszej ambasady RP. +We wrześniu 2003 roku Maanam opuścili Olesińscy i Markowski. Obok Kory i Jackowskiego w nowym składzie pojawił się ceniony od lat gitarzysta Janusz "Yanina" Iwański oraz młodzi muzycy: basista Bogdan Wawrzynowicz, perkusista Jose Manuel Alban Juarez oraz współpracujący z zespołem już na ostatniej płycie klawiszowiec Cezary Kaźmierczak. W listopadzie ukazała się pierwsza z dwóch płyt DVD Maanamu, zawierających jego wszystkie teledyski i najciekawsze występy, "Złote DVD, vol. 2". Pierwszą część, "Złote DVD, vol. 1" wydano w maju następnego roku. W nowym składzie Maanam nagrał album "Znaki szczególne", który ukazał się w marcu 2004 roku. Był to powrót do korzeni zespołu. Największy sukces odniosły nagrania "Kraków - ocean wolnego czasu" oraz "To mi się śni". Zmiana składu i powrót do klasycznego brzmienia nie pomogła jednak w odzyskaniu komercyjnego sukcesu i płyta powtórzyła balansujący na granicy opłacalności wynik poprzedniej, osiągając nakład ponad 10 tysięcy sztuk. +W czerwcu 2005 roku Maanam otrzymał Grand Prix festiwalu piosenki w Opolu. Równolegle na rynek trafił box "Simple Story" z kompletną dyskografią zespołu i rarytasami. Na koncercie największych przebojów 80-lecia Polskiego Radia obok własnych hitów Maanam zaprezentował na tym festiwalu również własną wersję klasyka Ewy Demarczyk "Karuzela z madonnami", którą wydano na singlu. W tym samym roku przedstawił też nowe nagranie "Tu jest mój dom", które w lutym następnego roku trafiło na drugą część kompilacji największych przebojów grupy "Złota Kolekcja - Raz-dwa, raz-dwa". Ostatnią piosenkę "Głęboko w sercu" zespół zaprezentował na konkursie premier festiwalu w Opolu w 2006 roku. +W listopadzie 2007 roku Marek Jackowski uległ wypadkowi na scenie. Od 2008 roku, by wywiązać się z wcześniejszych zobowiązań, Maanam koncertował zatem bez jego udziału. 1 grudnia tego samego roku Kora i Jackowski wydali oświadczenie, że 31 grudnia 2008 roku zespół zawiesza działalność na czas nieokreślony. Odtąd Kora i Jackowski postanowili występować osobno. Jackowski założył wspólnie z Iwańskim nowy zespół The Goodboys, a Kora skompletowała własny, początkowo z udziałem pozostałych muzyków Maanamu i zaczęła działać pod szyldem Kora. +W marcu 2011 roku z okazji 35. rocznicy powstania Maanamu koncern EMI wydał zremasterowane reedycje wszystkich studyjnych albumów zespołu oraz solowych Kory. Kolekcję uzupełniła premierowa kompilacja ostatnich prac grupy przed zakończeniem działalności, "The Rest Of Maanam", stanowiąca suplement do boxu "Simple Story". W październiku EMI wypuścił na rynek reedycje obu zagranicznych studyjnych albumów grupy oraz jej trzech składanek: "The Singles Collection", "Ballady" uzupełnione o przeboje z ostatnich płyt i "Rockandrolle", a także nową kompilację, "The Best Of... 2011". +Filmografia. +Filmy z udziałem zespołu Maanam +Biegus morski + +Biegus morski ("Calidris maritima") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Gordon R. Dickson + +Gordon Rupert Dickson (ur. 1 listopada 1923 – zm. 31 stycznia 2001), amerykański pisarz science fiction i fantasy. +Urodził się w Edmonton (Alberta). W wieku 13 lat (w 1936 lub 1937) wyemigrował do Stanów Zjednoczonych, gdzie w latach 1943 do 1946 służył w armii. Ukończył Uniwersytet Stanowy Minnesoty. Większość swojego życia spędził w Minneapolis w Minnesocie. Pierwszą powieść "Alien From Arcturus" wydał w 1956. +Martin Buß + +Martin Buß, także Martin Buss (ur. 7 kwietnia 1976 w Berlinie) – lekkoatleta niemiecki, skoczek wzwyż. +Zdobył dwa medale mistrzostw świata. W Sewilli (1999) był trzeci, za Woroninem i Boswellem (z wynikiem 2,32 m). Rok później doznał ciężkiej kontuzji, ale udało mu się z powodzeniem powrócić do uprawiania sportu, co uwieńczył złotem kolejnych mistrzostw świata (Edmonton 2001); uzyskał 2,36 m i wyprzedził dwóch Rosjan – Rybakowa i Woronina. +Karierę Bußa przerywały niestety liczne kontuzje, z powodu których stracił sezony olimpijskie 2000 i 2004, zaś w 2006 ostatecznie zakończył karierę. +Rośliny włókniste + +Rośliny włókniste, rośliny włóknodajne – rośliny, które dostarczają naturalnych włókien do wyrobu tkanin, dywanów, mat, szczotek, papieru, pilśni, filcu. Większość włóknistych roślin dostarcza także innych cennych produktów, np. tłuszczów, saponin. Obejmują ok. 2 tysięcy gatunków, z których wykorzystuje się ok. 1 tysiąca. Najważniejsze to: agawa sizalska, bawełna, juta, len zwyczajny i konopie siewne. +Barszcz Sosnowskiego + +Barszcz Sosnowskiego ("Heracleum sosnowskyi" Manden.) – gatunek rośliny zielnej należący do rodziny selerowatych ("Apiaceae"). Pochodzi z rejonu Kaukazu, skąd został rozprzestrzeniony na rozległych obszarach Europy środkowej i wschodniej, gdzie stał się rośliną inwazyjną. Od lat 50. do 70. XX wieku wprowadzany był do uprawy w różnych krajach bloku wschodniego jako roślina pastewna. Po niedługim czasie, z powodu problemów z uprawą i zbiorem, głównie ze względu na zagrożenie dla zdrowia, uprawy były porzucane. Roślina w szybkim tempie zaczęła rozprzestrzeniać się spontanicznie. Gatunek okazał się bardzo kłopotliwym przybyszem, ponieważ sok ze świeżych roślin wywołuje zmiany skórne. Jest to w dodatku roślina niezwykle trudna do zwalczenia, powoduje degradację środowiska przyrodniczego i ogranicza dostępność terenu. Barszcz Sosnowskiego objęty jest prawnym zakazem hodowli, rozmnażania i sprzedaży na terenie Polski. +Rozmieszczenie geograficzne. +Zasięg naturalny. +Naturalny zasięg obejmuje centralną i wschodnią część gór Kaukazu, całe Zakaukazie oraz północno-wschodnie krańce Turcji. +Obszar inwazji. +Do północno-zachodniej Rosji barszcz Sosnowskiego trafił już w 1947, gdzie po kilkuletniej hodowli uznany został za wartościową roślinę pastewną i zaczął być rozpowszechniany w różnych krajach bloku wschodniego. Gatunek trafił także do kolekcji różnych ogrodów botanicznych. +Do Polski sprowadzony został w końcu lat 50. XX wieku i początkowo był przedmiotem badań nad właściwościami leczniczymi, prowadzonych w Ogrodzie Roślin Leczniczych Uniwersytetu Medycznego we Wrocławiu. W latach 60. XX wieku barszcz trafił w Polsce do uprawy, głównie w państwowych gospodarstwach rolnych. Po zaniechaniu upraw porzucano je. +W warunkach środkowoeuropejskich okazał się być bardzo żywotny, zaczął się skutecznie rozprzestrzeniać i na terenie Polski już niedługo po wprowadzeniu do uprawy uznany został już za trwałego antropofita. W latach 80. XX wieku barszcz Sosnowskiego zaczął być opisywany jako gatunek inwazyjny, początkowo zwłaszcza w krajach bałtyckich. W połowie lat 90. XX wieku rejestrowany był w Polsce w wielu rejonach dawnych upraw i w odległości kilku kilometrów od nich. Liczebność i rozprzestrzenienie tego gatunku od tego czasu stale wzrasta. Spotykany jest obecnie już na całym niżu Polski, szczególnie liczny jest na Podhalu w dolinach rzecznych. Zaliczany jest do najgroźniejszych gatunków inwazyjnych w Polsce. W krajach byłego Związku Radzieckiego roślina nazywana jest od końca lat 90. XX wieku "zemstą Stalina" (ros. "месть Сталина"), ponieważ sprowadzona została z Kaukazu niedługo przed jego śmiercią. Stanowi rosnący problem na Białorusi i w europejskiej części Rosji. +Problemem w precyzyjnym określeniu zasięgu tego gatunku jest to, że bywa nieodróżniany od podobnego barszczu Mantegazziego. Ponieważ nazwy tych gatunków uznawane były za synonimy, rzeczywisty stan rozprzestrzenienia obu tych gatunków pozostaje niejasny nie tylko w Polsce, ale także w skali całej Europy. Barszcz Sosnowskiego podawany jest głównie ze wschodniej Europy sięgając na zachód do Danii i wschodnich Niemiec, nie ma go na Półwyspie Skandynawskim, a w Rosji spotykany jest od Murmańska po Woroneż). W Europie zachodniej podawany jest głównie spokrewniony barszcz Mantegazziego, w Skandynawii – "Heracleum persicum". +Biologia. +Cechy fitochemiczne. +We wszystkich częściach rośliny, w tym we włoskach gruczołowych na łodygach i w liściach oraz w korzeniach, znajduje się olejek eteryczny zawierający m.in. związki kumarynowe (furanokumaryny), których zapach jest wyraźnie wyczuwalny po roztarciu liści. Związki te pełnią funkcję obronną – chronią roślinę przez owadami i patogenami. Zawartość furanokumaryn jest zmienna u różnych roślin. Zawartość i skład olejku eterycznego ulega także zmianom w trakcie sezonu wegetacyjnego. Poza wymienionymi związkami w jego skład wchodzą m.in. także: alfa-pinen, beta-pinen, kamfen, mircen, limonen, ocymen. +Rozwój. +Monokarpiczna bylina, w optymalnych warunkach rośnie jak roślina dwuletnia. Barszcz rozmnaża się wyłącznie z nasion – nie rozprzestrzenia się wegetatywnie, choć łatwo się regeneruje w przypadku uszkodzenia (np. wykoszenia) części nadziemnych. W glebowym banku nasion jesienią znajduje się w pobliżu roślin macierzystych do 12 tysięcy żywych nasion (średnio 6,7 tys.) na 1 m², z czego 98% znajduje się w górnej warstwie gleby o grubości 5 cm. Nasiona w momencie rozsiewania mają niedorozwinięty zarodek i wymagają okresu przelegiwania. Do aktywacji zarodka konieczna jest stratyfikacja nasion – spadek temperatur (do 2°–5 °C przez 60–90 dni) i odpowiednia wilgotność w otoczeniu nasiona. Do wiosny przeżywa ponad 2 tys. nasion na 1 m². Nie wszystkie z nich osiągają jednak zdolność do kiełkowania. Część nasion pozostaje w stanie spoczynku i kiełkuje w co najmniej kolejnym roku (zdolność do kiełkowania zachowują do 4 lat lub nawet dłużej). Wiosną siewki masowo kiełkują, ale średnio tylko 2% z nich przeżywa konkurencję ze strony rodzeństwa i roślin dorosłych. Liścienie są wydłużone, pierwsze liście dolne są okrągławe, następne trójkątne z wcinaną blaszką. Rozeta liści w pierwszym roku osiąga do 35 cm wysokości. Rośliny rozwijają rozety okazałych liści co roku, natomiast pęd kwiatostanowy wypuszczają zwykle w 3–5 roku życia, przy czym w warunkach niekorzystnych mogą w fazie wegetatywnej spędzić co najmniej 6 lat. Rozety liści pojawiają się co roku w kwietniu. Okazy kwitnące w danym roku wykształcają pęd kwiatostanowy, który w końcu maja osiąga już do 150–200 cm wysokości. W czerwcu pojawiają się maczugowate pąki kwiatowe. Baldachy rozpościerają się w drugiej dekadzie czerwca i kwitną przez 2–3 tygodnie. Kwiaty zapylane są przez rozmaite owady wabione nektarem, odnotowano także samopylność. W końcu lipca nasiona dojrzewają, a roślina macierzysta ginie. Wytwarzane w wielkich ilościach nasiona opadają zwykle w pobliżu rośliny macierzystej (60–90% w promieniu do 4 m). Na większe odległości nasiona przenoszone są wraz z wodami cieków, zwłaszcza podczas wezbrań. Za rozprzestrzenianie w skali lokalnej odpowiedzialny jest także wiatr, zwłaszcza w okresie zimowym przemieszczając nasiona po zmarzniętej lub zaśnieżonej powierzchni. Nasiona bywają także roznoszone przez ludzi (przyczepione do ubrań) i zwierzęta. +Genetyka. +Liczba chromosomów wynosi 2n=22. Materiał genetyczny tego gatunku był badany w celu ustalenia relacji filogenetycznych oraz zmienności gatunku i odkodowane fragmenty DNA plastydowego i RNA rybosomalnego publikowane są w bazie danych GenBanku. Badania zmienności genomu roślin występujących w Europie potwierdziły małą zmienność genetyczną gatunku w obszarze wtórnego zasięgu (rośliny pochodziły z niewielkiej populacji wyjściowej). Wykazano jednak także, że przynajmniej niektóre populacje (np. w Danii) pochodzą także z innego źródła, co oznacza co najmniej kilkukrotną introdukcję gatunku z różnych populacji źródłowych. +Ekologia. +Barszcz Sosnowskiego rośnie na Kaukazie w zaroślach wzdłuż potoków górskich. W obszarze zasięgu wtórnego występuje w rozmaitych zbiorowiskach roślinnych, głównie przekształconych przez człowieka takich jak: miedze, przydroża, odłogi, pola uprawne, pastwiska i łąki, w ogrodach i parkach. Wkracza także do lasów, w tym olsów i łęgów. Najczęściej rozprzestrzenia się w miejscach porzuconych i nieużytkowanych przez człowieka, często wzdłuż rowów i w dolinach rzecznych, które stanowią główny szlak migracji. W miejscach występowania rośnie zwykle masowo, często tworząc jednogatunkowe agregacje i zmieniając skład dotychczasowych fitocenoz. W miejscach masowego występowania zróżnicowanie gatunkowe spada o ok. 2/3 w porównaniu do analogicznych siedlisk wolnych od barszczu. Duża zawartość związków kumarynowych sprawia, że bardzo prawdopodobne jest oddziaływanie allelopatyczne na inne gatunki roślin. Masywne rośliny zatrzymują 80% światła, tak że występując na siedliskach otwartych powodują ustępowanie gatunków światłolubnych. Są one także problemem na uprawach leśnych. Barszcze, masowo rosnąc na brzegach wód, niekorzystnie oddziałują na faunę żyjącą w tym samym siedlisku, poza tym przyczyniają się do zwiększenia erozji brzegów, ponieważ wypierają wzmacniające brzegi rośliny kłączowe. Zarówno zagęszczenie osobników, jak i areał stanowisk są bardzo zmienne. Spotyka się stanowiska z pojedynczymi roślinami oraz takie, gdzie barszcze zajmują hektary powierzchni z zagęszczeniem osiągającym 10 dorosłych osobników na jeden metr kwadratowy. +Barszcz Sosnowskiego jest mrozoodporny. W pierwszym roku młode rośliny znoszą spadki temperatur do -7 °C, a starsze rośliny tolerują już mróz -25 °C (przykryte śniegiem nawet do -45 °C). Gatunek ten jest cienioznośny (różni się tym od barszczu Mantegazziego), co pozwala mu wnikać także do lasów. +Systematyka i nazewnictwo. +Gatunek odkryty został w 1772 przez ekspedycję Rosyjskiej Akademii Nauk prowadzoną przez Johanna Güldenstädta, podczas której zebrano okaz zielnikowy. Jednak na pierwszy opis naukowy gatunek czekał do 1944. Wówczas to jego diagnozę taksonomiczną opublikowała Ida P. Mandenowa. Gatunek nazwała na cześć Dmitrija Sosnowskiego – rosyjskiego badacza flory Kaukazu. Wcześniej okazy tego gatunku rozpowszechniane w kolekcjach i parkach nazywano "Sphondylium pubescens" Hoffm. (Hoffmann, 1814), "Heracleum giganteum" Spr., "Heracleum giganteum" (Spr.) Hornemann 1819, a później "Heracleum pubescens" (Hoffm.) M. Bieb. (Marschall von Bieberstein, 1819). Mandenowa w 1950 zaliczyła barszcz Sosnowskiego wraz z dziesięcioma innymi gatunkami do sekcji "Pubescentia" w obrębie rodzaju "Heracleum" (później powiększoną przez innych badaczy o dwa kolejne gatunki), która została w badaniach molekularnych potwierdzona jako grupa monofiletyczna (wszystkie taksony pochodzą od wspólnego przodka). +Z sekcji "Pubescentia" w Europie występują trzy gatunki inwazyjne: barszcz Sosnowskiego ("Heracleum sosnowskyi"), Mantegazziego ("H. mantegazzianum") i "Heracleum persicum", przy czym przez długi czas nazwa "Heracleum sosnowskyi" używana była za synonim dla "H. mantegazzianum", ewentualnie uznawano barszcz Sosnowskiego za podgatunek barszczu Mantegazziego lub "Heracleum pubescens". Obecnie potwierdzono odrębność genetyczną taksonów, ale jednocześnie stwierdzono bliskie ich pokrewieństwo, tak że wciąż trwają dyskusje nad ich rangą (mogą być traktowane jako odrębne gatunki lub podgatunki w obrębie jednego gatunku). +W obrębie rodzaju barszcz ("Heracleum") możliwa jest hybrydyzacja i naukowcy spodziewają się powstawania mieszańców na przykład z rodzimym w Europie Środkowej barszczem syberyjskim ("Heracleum sibiricum"). +Zasady bezpieczeństwa. +Należy unikać bezpośredniego kontaktu z tą rośliną. W razie konieczności należy chronić skórę, ubierając się szczelnie, najlepiej w strój z materiałów syntetycznych, wodoodpornych, w tym rękawice z długimi rękawami. Materiały z włókien naturalnych (bawełniane, lniane) wchłaniają sok i są penetrowane przez włoski roślin. Chronić należy także oczy zakładając gogle, ewentualnie okulary. Jeżeli doszło do kontaktu z rośliną, należy niezwłocznie i dokładnie obmyć skórę wodą z mydłem i unikać ekspozycji podrażnionych miejsc na światło słoneczne przynajmniej przez 48 godzin. W przypadku kontaktu soku roślin z oczami należy je przemyć dokładnie wodą i chronić przed światłem (nosić okulary z filtrem chroniącym przed ultrafioletem). Jeśli doszło do podrażnienia skóry, objawy zapalne zmniejsza zastosowanie miejscowo maści (kremów) kortykosteroidowych. +Lotność (ciecz) + +W potocznym rozumieniu jest to pojęcie względne służące głównie do porównywania łatwości parowania różnych cieczy; na przykład alkohol etylowy jest bardziej lotny niż woda, gdyż ma niższą temperaturę wrzenia (więc szybciej paruje). Rtęć, pomimo stosunkowo wysokiej temperatury wrzenia, jest potocznie uważana za substancję lotną ze względu na swoje właściwości toksyczne (a także dlatego, że jest jedynym metalem parującym w temperaturze otoczenia, gdyż w tych warunkach jest cieczą). Określenie to może być również stosowane do ciał stałych łatwo przechodzących do stanu gazowego bezpośrednio ze stanu stałego, czyli sublimujących, między innymi jodu, lodu (stałej wody), suchego lodu (stałego dwutlenku węgla). +Michelle Kwan Figure Skating + +Michelle Kwan Figure Skating – gra komputerowa, wyprodukowana w roku 1999, w której wystąpiła amerykańska zawodniczka Michelle Kwan. +Gracz wybiera łyżwiarza (łącznie z możliwością wstawienia własnej twarzy), strój dla niego. Następnie dobiera muzykę i układa program, z którym może wziąć udział w zawodach regionalnych, krajowych i międzynarodowych, na kilku różnych lodowiskach. +PZL.42 + +PZL.42 – polski samolot eksperymentalny (lekki samolot nurkujący) zbudowany na bazie samolotu PZL.23 Karaś. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1936 roku w Państwowych Zakładach Lotniczych w Warszawie. +Historia. +W latach 1936 – 1939 w Państwowych Zakładach Lotniczych w Warszawie zespół konstruktorów pod kierunkiem inż. Stanisława Praussa prowadził pracę nad doskonaleniem produkowanego seryjnego samolotu PZL.23 Karaś. +Pierwszą z konstrukcji zmieniającą koncepcję samolotu PZL.23 Karaś był zbudowany na wiosnę 1936 roku samolot eksperymentalny oznaczony jako PZL.42, powstał on z przebudowanego produkowanego seryjnie samolotu PZL.23 Karaś. W celach doświadczalnych wyposażono go w podwójne usterzenie pionowe oraz we wciąganą w kadłub gondolę. Przeróbki miały na celu poprawę skuteczności steru kierunku, szczególnie w locie na dużych kątach natarcia oraz zwiększenia pola ostrzału dla górnego tylnego karabinu maszynowego, a przy schowanej w kadłub gondoli zmniejszenie oporu aerodynamicznego samolotu i zwiększenia jego osiągów. Gondola opuszczała się na prowadnicach pod ciężarem obserwatora po jego wejściu do niej, a powracała samoczynnie do górnego położenia na sznurach gumowych, gdy obserwator ją opuścił. +Samolot PZL.42 został oblatany w kwietniu 1936 roku na lotnisku Okęcie w Warszawie. Po licznych próbach w locie i wypróbowaniu działania wszystkich urządzeń, w tym wypuszczanej z kadłuba i wciąganej do niego gondoli, stwierdzono celowość zastosowania w tego typu samolotach podwójnego usterzenia pionowego i tego rodzaju gondoli z zastrzeżeniem jednak udoskonalenia systemu jego wciągania i wypuszczania, gdyż system zastosowany w samolocie PZL.42 nie sprawdził się. Na podstawie doświadczeń uzyskanych w toku budowy i sprawdzania w locie tego samolotu w 1937 roku podjęto kolejną prace projektowe nad samolotem rozpoznawczo-bombowym oznaczonym jako PZL.46 Sum. +Wyprodukowano tylko jeden egzemplarz samolotu PZL.42, który służył do badań zastosowanych w nim rozwiązań. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +Po zakończeniu prób samolot PZL.42 został przekazany do 1 pułku lotniczego w Warszawie, a stamtąd przekazano go do Szkoły Podchorążych Lotnictwa w Dęblinie. W Dęblinie był wykorzystywany jako eksponat naukowy. We wrześniu 1939 roku uległ zniszczeniu podczas bombardowania szkoły przez lotnictwo niemieckie. W lotnictwie wojskowym nie był używany do lotów. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot PZL.42 był lekkim samolotem bombowo rozpoznawczym, wolnonośnym dolnopłatem o konstrukcji całkowicie metalowej, kadłub półskorupowy. Podwozie stałe, wolnonośne z amortyzacją olejowo-powietrzna. Napęd silnik gwiazdowy, śmigło drewniane – dwułopatowe. +Wolfgang + +Wolfgang – imię męskie pochodzenia germańskiego. +Wolfgang imieniny obchodzi 31 października. +Roszponka warzywna + +Roszpunka warzywna, roszponka warzywna ("Valerianella locusta" (L.) Latter. em. Betcke), roszpunka jadalna – gatunek rośliny należący do rodziny kozłkowatych. Jej ojczyzną jest Europa, Azja Mniejsza i Afryka Północna. W Polsce jest rośliną uprawną, ale zdziczałe formy występują również na siedliskach naturalnych (archeofit). +Biologia i ekologia. +Roślina jednoroczna lub dwuletnia. Siedlisko: przydroża, zbocza, rowy i pola uprawne (jako chwast lub roślina uprawna). Roślina ruderalna. Kwitnie od lipca do sierpnia. W klasyfikacji zbiorowisk roślinnych gatunek charakterystyczny dla O. "Centauretalia cyani" +Uprawa. +Nie ma żadnych specyficznych wymagań co do warunków klimatycznych i glebowych. Korzystna jest jednak dla niej łagodna zima, gdyż wówczas zbiór można przeprowadzić także o tej porze roku. Ma krótki okres wegetacji. Wysiewa się ją od początku sierpnia aż do końca września. Zbiera od listopada do kwietnia. +Zagrożenia. +Roślina umieszczona na Czerwonej liście roślin i grzybów Polski (2006) w grupie gatunków narażonych na wymarcie (kategoria zagrożenia: V). +Nazewnictwo. +Dawne ludowe nazwy tego warzywa to: kozłek sałatka, rapontyka, rapunkuł, rapunkuł jarzynny, raszpanka, roszponka warzywna, roszpunka, roszpunka jadalna, roszpunka jarzynna, roszpunka pospolita, sałatka. +Halt and Catch Fire + +Halt and Catch Fire (ang. wstrzymaj wykonanie programu i stań w ogniu – znana pod mnemotechniczną nazwą HCF) to ogólna nazwa nieudokumentowanych i pół-mitycznych instrukcji języka maszynowego z destrukcyjnymi efektami ubocznymi, według popularnych miejskich legend obecnych w wielu znanych systemach począwszy od IBM System/360. +Motorola 6800 był pierwszym procesorem, którego instrukcja maszynowa "HCF" stała się powszechnie znana. Instrukcja ta powoduje, że w procesorze włącza się tryb testowania fabrycznego – rozpoczyna on nieustannie czytać zawartość pamięci z kolejnych komórek bez wykonywania żadnych rozkazów. W takiej konfiguracji szyna adresowa zaczyna zachowywać się jak licznik co pozwala na szybkie zweryfikowanie czy wszystkie linie adresowe działają prawidłowo. Według niepotwierdzonych informacji, w niektórych sytuacjach wykonanie tej komendy w pewnych systemach komputerowych powoduje uszkodzenie układów scalonych obsługujących szynę adresową z powodu konfliktu. +Rośliny okopowe + +Rośliny okopowe – rośliny, które wymagają kilkakrotnego obsypywania lub okopywania w okresie wegetacji. +Mają duże znaczenie gospodarcze jako źródło pożywienia. Ich częścią użytkową są podziemne bulwy lub korzenie. Mają duże wymagania nawozowe (zwykle stosuje się w tym celu obornik). Są pracochłonne w uprawie. Są pielęgnowane międzyrzędowo. +Miofibryle + +Miofibryle są podstawowym elementem miocytów które tworzą tkankę mięśniową. +Obserwując miofibryle pod mikroskopem elektronowym można zauważyć w nich obecność powtarzalnych fragmentów zawierających naprzemiennie ułożone obszary o dużej koncentracji aktyny, zwane prążkami jasnymi lub I(izotropowymi), oraz fragmenty gdzie najwięcej jest miozyny, zwane prążkami ciemnymi albo A (anizotropowymi). Odcinek miofibryli ograniczony dwiema błonkami Z, to jest zawierający połowę prążka I, prążek A oraz połowę następnego prążka I, nazywa się sarkomerem. Jest on podstawową jednostką strukturalno-czynnościową włókienka kurczliwego. +Karczoch + +Karczoch ("Cynara") – rodzaj roślin należący do rodziny astrowatych. Gatunkiem typowym jest karczoch hiszpański. Niektóre gatunki są uprawiane jako warzywa i rośliny ozdobne. +Systematyka. +"Cinara" P. Miller, "Cynaropsis" Kuntze. +Angiosperm Phylogeny Website adoptuje podział na podrodziny astrowatych ("Asteraceae") opracowany przez Panero i Funka w 2002, z późniejszymi uzupełnieniami. Zgodnie z tym ujęciem rodzaj karczoch ("Cynara" ) należy do plemienia "Cardueae", podrodziny "Carduoideae" (Sweet) Cass. W systemie APG III astrowate są jedną z kilkunastu rodzin rzędu astrowców ("Asterales"), wchodzącego w skład kladu astrowych w obrębie dwuliściennych właściwych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa astrowe ("Asteridae" Takht.), nadrząd astropodobne ("Asteranae" Takht.), rząd astrowce ("Asterales" Lindl), rodzina astrowate ("Asteraceae" Dumort.), podrodzina "Cynaroideae" (Durande) Chevall., plemię "Cynareae" Lam. & DC., rodzaj karczoch ("Cynara" L.). +Płomyczek + +Płomyczek – popularne czasopismo dla starszych dzieci i (obecnie) młodzieży młodszej, ukazujące się od 1917 roku. Początkowo ukazywał się jako „młodszy brat” nieistniejącego już „Płomyka”, który zlikwidowany został w 75. roku swego istnienia, w 1991 roku. Od 1 września 1927 r. wydawany jako samodzielne czasopismo. W latach 1917-1952 ukazywał się jako tygodnik, dalej do 1989 jako dwutygodnik, od 1990 jest to miesięcznik. Nie był drukowany w czasie wojny. Z dniem 1 marca 2013 roku wydawca zawiesił wydawanie "Płomyczka". +Miesięcznik „Płomyczek” współredagowany jest przez młodych korespondentów z całego kraju, dlatego też wiele miejsca poświęca na swych łamach debiutom młodych rysowników, malarzy, poetów i pisarzy. Organizuje też przy szkołach i bibliotekach Kluby Przyjaciół „Płomyczka”, których członkowie otrzymują odznaki „Przyjaciel Płomyczka” oraz stosowną legitymację z wydrukowaną dewizą „Płomyczek to czasopismo młodych, którzy chcą wiedzieć więcej niż muszą i umieć więcej niż jest od nich wymagane”. +Za całokształt działalności na rzecz dzieci w dniu 20 listopada 2009 roku z okazji XX-lecia powstania Konwencji o Prawach Dziecka „Płomyczek” otrzymał Nagrodę Honorową Rzecznika Praw Dziecka RP. Medal i dyplom z rąk Marka Michalaka odebrał Janusz Sapa. +Ksawery Działyński + +Ksawery Szymon Tadeusz Działyński herbu Ogończyk (ur. 24 października 1756 w Konarzewie, zm. 13 marca 1819 w Konarzewie), senator-wojewoda Księstwa Warszawskiego i Królestwa Polskiego. +Był synem Augustyna (wojewody kaliskiego) i Anny z Radomickich. W 1782 otrzymał Order św. Stanisława i po raz pierwszy posłował na sejm. W 1786 król pruski Fryderyk Wilhelm II, na którego koronację udał się z deputacją hołdowniczą, nadał mu tytuł hrabiowski i szambelaństwo. Był posłem na sejm 1786, następnie na Sejm Czteroletni; brał udział w pracach nad Konstytucją 3 Maja, ale nie odgrywał znaczącej roli w stronnictwie patriotycznym. 29 kwietnia 1791 roku przyjął obywatelstwo miejskie na Ratuszu Miasta Warszawy. Został wyróżniony Orderem Orła Białego. +W okresie powstania kościuszkowskiego wchodził w skład Rady Zastępczej Tymczasowej, gdzie zajmował się problematyką regulacji monety. W czerwcu 1794 wyjechał do Poznania, był więziony przez władze pruskie w Spandau. Zwolniony w następnym roku, zajmował się głównie sprawami gospodarczymi swoich dóbr. Udało mu się wyprocesować Kórnik. Jako pierwszy zarządził w Konarzewie powszechne szczepienie przeciw ospie. +Powrócił do działalności politycznej w 1806. W tym roku udał się z deputacją do Berlina, gdzie przemawiał do odnoszącego sukcesy militarne Napoleona. Od 1807 zasiadał w Komisji Rządowej Księstwa Warszawskiego; zajmował się sprawami ekonomicznymi. Wkrótce został mianowany senatorem-wojewodą; reprezentował Księstwo Warszawskie na ślubie Napoleona z Marią Ludwiką (1811). +Po upadku Napoleona pozostał senatorem, już w Królestwie Polskim. Wycofał się z działalności politycznej; skoncentrował się na problematyce gospodarczej Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego. Szczególną uwagę poświęcał sprawom uwłaszczenia chłopów, propagował edukację rolniczą. +Z małżeństwa z Justyną z Dzieduszyckich miał syna Tytusa i trzy córki - Paulinę (zamężną Dzieduszycką), Klaudynę (zamężną Potocką) i Gabrielę. +W 1786 odznaczony holsztyńskim Orderem Świętej Anny, w 1807 francuską Legią Honorową, w 1816 pruskim Orderem Orła Czerwonego. +Radzionków + +Radzionków (niem. "Radzionkau") – miasto i gmina w południowej Polsce, położone na Górnym Śląsku, w województwie śląskim, w powiecie tarnogórskim, w północnej części Górnośląskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego (GOP). +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2011 roku, miasto miało 17 187 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Radzionków leży na Płaskowyżu Bytomsko-Katowickim będącym częścią Wyżyny Śląskiej, na terenie Górnego Śląska. Pod względem geologicznym miasto położone jest w Górnośląskim Zagłębiu Węglowym obejmującym cały Górnośląski Okręg Przemysłowy oraz Rybnicki Okręg Węglowy. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia miasta wynosi 13,20 km², co stanowi 2,05% powierzchni powiatu. +Według danych z roku 2002 Radzionków 65% powierzchni miasta obejmują użytki rolne, a użytki leśne 16%. +Sąsiaduje z gminami: Bytom, Piekary Śląskie, Świerklaniec, Tarnowskie Góry. +W latach 1975-1997 część Bytomia, od 1998 ponownie samodzielne miasto, a w latach 1975–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa katowickiego. W latach 1945-1951 siedziba wiejskiej gminy Radzionków. +Historia. +Najstarsze wzmianki dotyczące Radzionkowa pochodzą z lat 1326-1357. Są to przechowywane w Watykanie listy opłat podatku zwanego „świętopietrze”. Płynie stąd wniosek, że Radzionków jako osada powstał co najmniej kilkadziesiąt lat wcześniej. Około 1430 roku osada została ograbiona i spalona przez Husytów. Po owym najeździe prawdopodobnie zbudowano stary kościół istniejący do końca XIX wieku. W okresie reformacji Radzionków przeszedł w ręce protestanckiego dziedzica Hornig de Horna (1540) i w myśl zasady „czyja władza tego religia” ("cuius regio, eius religio") kościół został oddany pastorowi (do ok. połowy XVII wieku), a część mieszkańców przyjęła nowe wyznanie. W czasie wojny trzydziestoletniej przez okolice osady 5 razy przeciągnęły wojska czego efektem było jej spustoszenie: z 37 istniejących gospodarstw 10 utraciło właściciela i nie odnaleziono żadnych spadkobierców. Ziemie należące do tych gospodarstw przejął tutejszy dziedzic. +W początkach XVIII wieku w Radzionkowie stacjonowały wojska austriackie – kirasjerzy pułków Hamilton, Badenio, Schuben. Część żołnierzy zawarła związki małżeńskie osiedlając się tutaj na stałe. W wyniku wojen śląskich Radzionków znalazł się pod panowaniem pruskim. Wielu mieszkańców osady w pruskim mundurze walczyło w wojnach napoleońskich. +Z przełomem wieku XVIII i XIX związany jest rozwój osady spowodowany polityką pruską zmierzającą do zaludnienia Śląska i do rozwoju przemysłu w oparciu o kopaliny tu występujące. W 1815 roku na tym terenie funkcjonowały 24 niewielkie kopalnie galmanu, oraz kilka pieców hutniczych. W 1871 dziedzic radzionkowski Henckel von Donnersmarck założył, istniejącą do niedawna, kopalnię węgla kamiennego (zaczęła wydobywać węgiel od 1874). W 1884 Donnersmarck w pobliżu kopalni założył hutę cynku „Łazarz”, która produkowała także kwas siarkowy i solny. W tym samym mniej więcej czasie zaczęły powstawać kamieniołomy wydobywające surowiec do wapienników – największy z nich to kamieniołom „Maciej” na Księżej Górze, mający połączenie kolejką z wapiennikami w Szarleju. Z rozwojem przemysłu związane było powstanie kolei żelaznych (1870) i dwóch stacji kolejowych, poczty (1882), wodociągu (1904) oraz elektryfikacja osady (1908). +W okresie „Kulturkampfu” mieszkańcy silnie związali się z ruchem katolickim, reprezentowanym przez partię Centrum: np. w wyborach do sejmu Rzeszy w 1877 roku zdecydowanie wygrał kandydat Centrum Radziwiłł otrzymując 364 głosy, zaś liberał Richter zaledwie 99 głosów, a w wyborach do sejmu pruskiego w 1882 zdecydowanie wygrał mieszkaniec Radzionkowa Paweł Letocha. W tym samym czasie powstała tutaj pierwsza czytelnia polska, wzrastała także liczba abonentów gazet, w tym polskich: „Katolika” i „Gazety Górnośląskiej”. Od 1885 zaczął wystawiać przedstawienia teatr amatorski, w 1899 powstała spółka pod nazwą „Kasa oszczędności i pożyczek”, oraz straż pożarna, towarzystwa sportowe i gimnastyczne i chór „Harfa”. Istniejący do dziś kościół wybudowany został w 1875 roku z pieniędzy parafian oraz hrabiego Hugona Henckla Donnersmarcka. +W wyniku podziału Śląska po I wojnie światowej Radzionków w 1922 znalazł się w granicach państwa polskiego, wielu mieszkańców brało udział w powstaniach śląskich (1919, 1920, 1921), a w plebiscycie w marcu 1920 roku większość mieszkańców głosowała za Polską – 4778 głosów (za Niemcami 862 głosy). W czasie II wojny Radzionków znalazł się w granicach III Rzeszy. Uczestnicy powstań śląskich trafiali do obozów koncentracyjnych, gdzie zginęło 43 mieszkańców, a dwóch (Kużaj, Szymała) stracono publicznie za działalność konspiracyjną. Rosjanie z kolei pięciu mieszkańców zamordowali w Katyniu i Twerze w 1940 (policjanci i wojskowi). W 1945 radzieccy żołnierze bez skrupułów zamordowali na ulicach miejscowości trzy osoby. Po wojnie władze komunistyczne przeprowadziły repatriacje mieszkańców narodowości niemieckiej na zachód za Odrę (m.in. proboszcza ks. Józefa Knosałę). W 1951 roku Radzionków uzyskał prawa miejskie – nastąpiła wówczas szybka urbanizacja: wybudowano Dom Kultury (oficjalnie oddany do użytku w 1966 roku), basen wraz z obiektami rekreacyjnymi oraz powstało liceum ogólnokształcące będące do dziś najpoważniejszą placówką edukacyjną gminy. +W 1975 roku Radzionków został włączony do Bytomia. Z dniem 1 stycznia 1998 powstała samodzielna gmina miejska Radzionków w powiecie tarnogórskim. +Sport. +W roku 2008 w Miejskim Ośrodku Sportu i Rekreacji w Radzionkowie przy ul. Kużaja 17 oddano do użytku bulodrom z jednym pełnowymiarowym (4x15 m) torem do gry w pétanque. Po bulodromie w Katowicach (Park im. Tadeusza Kościuszki) i Piekarach Śląskich (MOSiR) jest to trzeci tego typu profesjonalny obiekt w aglomeracji górnośląskiej. +Stanisław Szenic + +Stanisław Szenic (ur. 13 stycznia 1904 w Pakości, zm. 28 listopada 1987 w Warszawie), polski prawnik, pisarz, varsavianista. +Ukończył Gimnazjum w Inowrocławiu oraz Wydział Prawno-Ekonomiczny Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego, pracował jako sędzia (m.in. przy Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych i Ministerstwie Sprawiedliwości). Od października 1944 wraz z Bolesławem Rumińskim i Alfredem Wiślickim przygotowywał grupy operacyjne i jako pełnomocnik Komitetu Ekonomicznego przy Radzie Ministrów kierował przejęciem zakładów przemysłowych w województwie poznańskim (1945). Został w Poznaniu prezesem Polskiego Związku Zachodniego. +W latach 1945-1948 członek Polskiej Misji Wojskowej w Berlinie (w stopniu podpułkownika). Później był m.in. kierownikiem Działu Niemcoznawczego w Polskim Instytucie Spraw Międzynarodowych i kierownikiem Redakcji Literatury Niemieckiej w Państwowym Instytucie Wydawniczym (1955-1962). +Pierwszą książkę opublikował w 1937; był to komentarz prawniczy "Nabycie obywatelstwa na mocy Konwencji Genewskiej dla Górnego Śląska". Po II wojnie światowej wydał kilkanaście książek, poświęconych historii Polski (w szczególności Warszawy) i tematyce niemcoznawczej. +Tybald IV + +Tybald IV z Szampanii (ur. 30 maja 1201 w Troyes, zm. 8 lipca 1253 w Pampelunie) zwany "Trubadurem" i "Pogrobowcem" – hrabia Szampanii od 1201 r. oraz król Nawarry od 1234 r. Syn Tybalda III, hrabiego Szampanii, oraz Blanki z Nawarry, córki króla Sancha VI. +Ojciec Tybalda zmarł przed jego narodzinami, a jego matka rządziła jako regentka do ukończenia przez Tybalda 21. roku życia w 1222 r. +W pierwszej połowie swojego życia Tybald napotykał wiele trudności i przeciwności. Jego stryj, hrabia Henryk II, zostawił po sobie ogromny dług, który nie był spłacony nawet po śmierci Tybalda III. Co więcej, prawa Tybalda IV do tytułu hrabiego Szampanii były kwestionowane przez córkę Henryka, Filippę oraz jej męża Erarda I z Brienne, hrabiego Rameruptu, będącego jednym z najpotężniejszych szlachciców Szampanii. +Konflikt z Brienne przeistoczył się w otwartą walkę w 1215 r. i został rozwiązany dopiero, kiedy Tybald stał się pełnoletni w 1222 r. i wykupił za pokaźną sumę prawa oponentów. Parę lat później, w 1234 r., musiał wydać jeszcze więcej, aby wykupić młodszą siostrę Filippy, Alicję. Umowa z 1222 r. nie zakończyła wszystkich problemów Tybalda, ponieważ w kolejnych latach zraził do siebie Ludwika VIII. +Kiedy Ludwik VIII umierał, sytuacja polityczna Tybalda była bardzo trudna – często opuszczał królestwo na czas swoich kampanii, plotkowano, że to on otruł króla Francji, a baronowie z Normandii knuli przeciwko niemu. Na początku rządów regencyjnych Blanki we Francji, hrabia Szampanii opuścił spisek przeciwko Kapetyngom, w który byli uwikłani Hugon X de Lusignan i Piotr I Mauclerc, i rozpoczął cementowanie dobrych relacji z regentką. Mówiło się o jego możliwej miłości do Blanki, a on sam napisał poemat oddający jej cześć. Stał się tak wpływowy na jej dworze, że inni baronowie poczuli się urażeni i rozpoczęli rebelię w 1229 r. +W następnych latach zraził do siebie młodego króla Ludwika IX, co prowadziło do inwazji grupy francuskich baronów na Szampanię. Zostali odparci kosztem ogromnych wydatków i ubóstwa w kraju Tybalda. Aby zawrzeć ugodę z Alicją, był zmuszony zdać zwierzchnictwo nad hrabstwami Blois, Sancerre i Chateadun Ludwikowi. +Jednak w 1234 r. Tybald odziedziczył po swoim dziadku tytuł króla Nawarry. To ogromnie zwiększyło jego środki oraz prestiż, a pozostałe lata jego rządów były znacznie bardziej spokojne i pomyślne. +W 1230 r. Tybald podjął krzyż i zobowiązał się wyruszyć na Wschód. Na wyprawę wyruszył jednak dopiero w 1239 r. Tybald sfinansował wyprawę z własnej kieszeni. Papież Grzegorz IX w liście z 29 listopada 1238 r. informował, że hrabia "przymuszony okolicznościami" wymusił poważne sumy od swych kościołów, miast, Żydów i lichwiarzy. Krucjata wyruszyła z Lyonu i we wrześniu 1239 r. dotarła do Akki. Zwołana tam rada wojenna powierzyła Tybaldowi naczelne dowództwo wyprawy. 2 listopada Frankowie wyruszyli w kierunku Askalonu. Dotarli do Jaffy, gdy od głównej armii odłączył się Piotr Mauclerc, który zdobył bogatą karawanę. +Pozostali baronowie, zazdrości o sukces Piotra, rozpoczęli napady na własną rękę. Niewielki oddziałek straży przedniej został pod Gazą zaatakowany i rozbity przez Egipcjan. Tybald nie podjął walki i wycofał się do Akki. Po kilku tygodniach bezczynności poprowadził armię na północ, po czym zawarł rozejm z sułtanem Damaszku as-Salihem Ismailem, który oddawał Frankom okolice Sydonu, Beaufortu, Tyberiady i Safadu. Frankowie zawarli z Damaszkiem przymierze antyegipskie. Wspólna wyprawa na południe nie doszła jednak do skutku, gdyż żołnierzy Ismaila odmawiali walki u boku Franków. Tybald rozpoczął więc negocjacje z sułtanem Egiptu na temat uwolnienia jeńców wziętych do niewoli pod Gazą. Następnie udał się na pielgrzymkę do Jerozolimy i 15 września 1240 r. odpłynął do Europy. +Ostatnie lata rządów upłynęły Tybaldowi na podróżach między Nawarrą a Szampanią. Pod koniec panowania popadł w konflikt z biskupem Pampeluny, który w 1250 r. ekskomunikował króla. Tybald uzyskał jednak w tym sporze poparcie papieża Innocentego IV. +Kot burmski + +Kot burmski (nazwa hodowlana; zwany także kotem burmańskim - nie należy go jednak mylić z kotem birmańskim) pochodzi z klasztorów i pałaców starożytnej Birmy. Koty tej rasy należą do tzw. grupy azjatyckiej. +Historia rasy. +Pierwsza wzmianka o kocie burmańskim pojawia się w księdze poezji o kotach, która ukazała się w okresie Ayudhya (1350-1767), a obecnie znajduje się w zbiorach Muzeum Departamentu Sztuki Uniwersytetu Bangkoku. Koty te hodowane były przez mnichów jako kot świątynny. Zwane były "świątynną strażą" ze względu na swoje szczególne brwi (prawie nieowłosione plamki nad oczami), które sprawiały wrażenie, jakby kot ten miał oczy zawsze otwarte. Wierzono, że dusza osoby, która zmarła, przed przejściem na najwyższy poziom doskonałości w następnym życiu, żyła jeszcze jakiś czas w ciele świętego kota. Kot taki po śmierci miał wstawiać się u Buddy za swoim właścicielem. +W roku 1889 Harrison Weir, organizator pierwszej nowożytnej wystawy kotów rasowych w Crystal Palace, opisał dwa warianty kota syjamskiego. Pierwszy opisany typ był jasno ubarwiony z ciemniejszymi znaczeniami, drugi zaś – jego zdaniem przypadkowa odmiana – kot o czekoladowej barwie. Jaśniejszy, znaczony typ niezmienne wygrywał na wystawach z odmianą czekoladową, tak że z czasem "czekoladowy Syjam" odpadł z konkursu. +W roku 1930 emerytowany lekarz marynarki wojennej USA, dr Joseph G. Thompson, mieszkający w San Francisco, sprowadził z Birmy brązową kotkę i nadał jej imię "Wong Mau". Kotkę początkowo uważano za nową odmianę kota malajskiego, Wong Mau okazała się być kotem tonkijskim, tj. syjamsko-burmańską hybrydą. W USA nie było kota podobnego do "Wong Mau", zatem dr Thomson (wraz z trójką wybitnych hodowców: Virginią Cobb, Billym Gerstem i dr Clydem E. Keelerem) sprowadził z Tajlandii kocura syjamskiego o imieniu "Tai Mau". Niektóre koty z tego miotu były podobne do matki, a niektóre były typowymi kotami syjamskimi . Dopiero skrzyżowanie "Wong Mau" z jej synem "Yen Yen" zaowocowało powstaniem trzeciego typu kolorystycznego, o ciemnobrązowej barwie. Od tej pory można mówić o powstaniu nowej hodowli kotów – kotów burmskich. +W roku 1934 kandydaturę kota burmańskiego zgłoszono do oficjalnego spisu kotów rasowych w Stanach prowadzonego przez Cat Fanciers' Association (pol.: "Towarzystwo Miłośników Kotów"; CFA), a w roku 1936 rasa ta została zaakceptowana do wpisu. Ze względu na rosnące zainteresowanie kotem burmańskim, a przez co i ogromne zapotrzebowanie na kocięta, do hodowli zaczęto ponownie używać kota syjamskiego, przez co powstały kolejne hybrydy: o barwie szampana, niebieskie i platynowe. To znowu doprowadziło do zawieszenia rejestracji, gdyż CFA nie była przekonana, czy kot burmański jest rzeczywiście oddzielną rasą. Rasę zarejestrowano ponownie w roku 1953, a w 1957 wróciła na wystawy. +Stworzono standard rasy podkreślający różnice między kotem burmańskim a syjamskim i w roku 1959 standard ten został przyjęty przez CFA. Od tego czasu w standardzie zmieniło się bardzo niewiele. +Hodowla w Polsce. +Kot burmański jest już hodowany w Polsce, choć rasy tej nie można zaliczyć do rozpowszechnionych. Pierwsza kotka rasy burmańskiej – niebieska "Anne Louise Falyu's" z hodowli holenderskiej pojawiła się w Polsce w 1992 roku. W 1994 i 1995 roku dołączyły do niej dwa kocury – rudy – "Harry Fox" z Czech i czekoladowy – "Solo Junior Off Indra" z Holandii. . +Herb. +Jako że kot burmański jest członkiem "kociej arystokracji", posiada swój herb. U szczytu herbu kota burmańskiego znajduje się paw z rozpostartym ogonem, symbol narodowy Birmy. Po obu stronach pawia stoją lwy zwane "Klinthe". Obramowanie herbu nawiązuje do wzornictwa stosowanego w zdobieniu świątyń. Główny element herbu stanowi podobizna sobolego kota burmańskiego. Poniżej znajdują się trzy symbole dziedzictwa narodowego Birmy. Pośrodku, poniżej podobizny kota, siedzi Budda z pagody Szwegadon. Po lewej jego stronie widać słonie niosące drogocenne drewno tekowe. Po prawej stronie kobieta birmańska tańczy na tle typowego domu miasta Rangun. Imię i zawołanie znajdują się u podnóża herbu: "Kot Burmański – Inteligencja – Godność – Uczuciowość" +Cechy ogólne. +Kot burmański akceptuje towarzystwo innych zwierząt w domu. Ciężko znosi samotność. Jest to typowo domowy kot, tzn. że nie należy go przyuczać do samotnych wędrówek po okolicy, gdyż zatracił on wiele zachowań umożliwiających przeżycie w warunkach naturalnych. Występuje w wielu odmianach barwnych, niezależnie. +Wygląd. +Postura +Koty burmańskie są kotami o średniej wielkości. Ważą od 3 do 4 kilogramów. Mają zwartą i muskularną budowę. Mają szeroką, wysklepioną klatkę i niezbyt długie, silne nogi o małych okrągłych łapach. +Głowa +Głowa kota burmańskiego jest okrągła, pełna, czoło zaokrąglone, pysk z profilu niemal płaski, broda wyraźnie okrągła, kości policzkowe wysokie, a u kocurów wyraźnie zaznaczone. +Oczy +Oczy powinny być duże, ale nie wystające, okrągłe. Barwa oscyluje między żółtą, a żółtozieloną (z wiekiem oczy kota zielenieją), a za szczególnie pożądane uważa się "złote" znaczenia. +Uszy +Uszy u kota burmańskiego są szeroko rozstawione, grubsze u nasady, ku górze zwężają się i są okrągło zakończone; postawione lekko ku przodowi. +Ogon +Ogon powinien być prosty, lub jedynie lekko zawijający ku górze, średniej długości i grubości. +Futro +Charakterystyczne dla rasy jest rozmieszczenie kolorów nieco jaśniejszych w dolnych partiach tułowia (podbrzusze i klatka piersiowa) i ciemniejszym na pysku (tzw. maska), uszach, nogach, i ogonie. Głębia barw ustala się ostatecznie do końca drugiego roku życia kota. +Kolor futra zmienia się wraz z temperaturą: w temperaturze wysokiej futro jaśnieje, w niskiej – ciemnieje. Dlatego właśnie kocięta rodzą się z jaśniejszym futrem, tzn. ich kolor wynika z wysokiej temperatury ciała matki. +Sierść kotów burmańskich jest krótka, dokładnie przylega do ciała i jest jedwabista w dotyku. Jedwabistość ta wynika z faktu, że koty burmańskie nie posiadają podszorstka, przez co, dla ogrzania, lubią przytulać się do człowieka i innych zwierząt. Ze względu na wyjątkowe walory futra koty burmańskie nazywane są "kocimi sobolami". +Pielęgnacja sierści polega na cotygodniowym wyczesywaniu włosianą szczotką; ewentualnie można też sierść polerować wełnianą szmatką. +Biegus arktyczny + +Biegus arktyczny ("Calidris melanotos") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +7. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów + +7. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów za rok 2004, miała miejsce 5 marca 2005 w Hotelu InterContinental w Warszawie. Ceremonię wręczenia nagród poprowadzili Zbigniew Zamachowski i Wojciech Malajkat. +Polskie Nagrody Filmowe zostały przyznane po ogłoszeniu nominacji w dniu 3 lutego w Hotelu InterContinental. Nagrody zostały wręczone w 16 kategoriach. O nominację do nagród tegorocznie ubiegała się najmniejsza liczba filmów w historii, jedynie 13. Był to jedyny przypadek, gdy liczba kategorii przewyższała liczbę ubiegających się o nagrodę filmów. +Najwięcej nominacji – po 10 – otrzymały trzy obrazy: "Mój Nikifor" Krzysztofa Krauzego, "Pręgi" Magdaleny Piekorz oraz "Wesele" Wojciecha Smarzowskiego. Wszystkie wyżej wymienione filmy nominowane zostały w kategorii najlepszy film. Cztery nominacje otrzymali twórcy filmu "Ubu Król" +Członkowie Polskiej Akademii Filmowej po raz pierwszy głosowali w nowej kategorii: najlepszy film europejski. Nominacje w tej kategorii otrzymały następujące filmy: "Dziewczyna z perłą", hiszpańskie "Złe wychowanie" oraz rosyjski "Powrót". +Zeszłoroczna laureatka Orła za najlepszą główną rolę kobiecą, Katarzyna Figura, również w tym roku otrzymała nominację, za rolę w filmie "Ubu Król". Jest to czwarta nominacja aktorki do Polskich Nagród Filmowych (trzecia przyznana z rzędu w tej kategorii). Pozostałe nominowane w kategorii najlepsza główna rola kobieca, to: Agnieszka Grochowska za film "Pręgi" (pierwsza nominacja do nagrody) oraz Krystyna Feldman za rolę w filmie "Mój Nikifor" (Feldman jest już laureatką nagrody za najlepszą drugoplanową rolę kobiecą w filmie "To ja, złodziej"). +W kategorii najlepsza drugoplanowa rola kobieca nominowana została po raz czwarty Kinga Preis (łącznie to piąta nominacja aktorki, wraz z kategorią głównej roli kobiecej; Preis otrzymała dwie nagrody), tegorocznie za rolę w filmie "Symetria". Kategorię zamykają Dorota Kamińska (nominacja za rolę w "Pręgach") oraz Iwona Bielska (za film "Wesele"). Dla obu aktorek to pierwsze nominacje do nagród. +O nagrodę za najlepszą główną rolę męską, trzeci raz ubiega się Michał Żebrowski, tegorocznie nominowany za rolę w filmie "Pręgi". Pozostali konkurenci w tej kategorii to: Marian Dziędziel (za film "Wesele") oraz Jan Peszek (za rolę w filmie "Ubu Król"). Dla obu aktorów to pierwsze nominacje. +Zeszłoroczny laureat Orła za najlepszą drugoplanową rolę męską, Jan Frycz, również tegorocznie nominowany został w tej kategorii, za rolę w filmie "Pręgi". Dla Frycza to łącznie piąta nominacja do Polskich Nagród Filmowych. Pozostali nominowani w tej kategorii, to: Borys Szyc, za rolę w "Symetrii"; Arkadiusz Jakubik, za film "Wesele" oraz Krzysztof Globisz, który wystąpił w obrazie "Zerwany". +Piątą nominację do Orłów otrzymał operator filmowy Krzysztof Ptak, dwukrotny laureat nagrody. Siódmą nominację otrzymał dźwiękowiec Marcin Wronko, natomiast jego kontrkandydat Nikodem Wołk-Łaniewski piątą. +Najwięcej nagród – po 6 – otrzymały dwa filmy: "Wesele" Wojciecha Smarzowskiego oraz "Mój Nikifor" Krzysztofa Krauzego. Pierwszy z wymienionych tytułów, odebrał nagrody w kategorii najlepszy film i reżyseria. "Mój Nikifor" otrzymał nagrody za najlepszy scenariusz oraz główną rolę kobiecą Krystyny Feldman. Film "Pręgi" pomimo dziesięciu nominacji, otrzymał jedną nagrodę – za drugoplanową rolę męską Jana Frycza, dla którego to druga nagroda otrzymana z rzędu w tej kategorii. +Nagrodę za najlepszą główną rolę męską otrzymał aktor Marian Dziędziel za rolę w filmie "Wesele". Najlepszą drugoplanową rolę kobiecą zagrała Iwona Bielska, która również wystąpiła w filmie Smarzowskiego. +Nagrodę za najlepszy film europejski przyznano brytyjskiemu filmowi "Dziewczyna z perłą" w reżyserii Petera Webbera. +Podobnie jak Jan Frycz, operator filmowy Krzysztof Ptak odebrał drugą nagrodę z rzędu dla najlepszych zdjęć, tym razem w filmie "Mój Nikifor". Dźwiękowiec Nikodem Wołk-Łaniewski za pracę nad tym samym obrazem, otrzymał trzecią statuetkę. Nagrodę za osiągnięcia życia przyznano Jerzemu Kawalerowiczowi. +Laureaci i nominowani. +Najlepszy film. +Reżyser / Producenci / Koproducenci – "Film" +Najlepszy film europejski. +Reżyser − "Film" • Kraj produkcji +Dobrutro + +Dobrutro – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Dobr-" ("dobry") i "-utro" ("świt, ranek, jutro"). Mogło oznaczać "ten, który zwiastuje dobrą przyszłosć". +The Misfits + +The Misfits (przedimek 'the' używany był tylko w początkowej fazie) – amerykański zespół punkrockowy (prekursor horror punku) założony w roku 1977 w Lodi w stanie New Jersey przez wokalistę Glenna Danziga i basistę Jerry'ego Only. +Za nazwę rozmiłowanym w punk rocku i horrorach młodzieńcom posłużyła nazwa ostatniego filmu z udziałem Marilyn Monroe "Skłóceni z życiem". Pierwszy koncert The Misfits odbył się 18 kwietnia 1977 w znanym klubie w Nowym Jorku – CBGB. Skład zespołu, co jakiś czas ulegał zmianie, głównie po tym jak Glenn robił "czystki" w zespole. Zespół rozpadł się w Halloween roku 1983, kiedy to odbył się jego ostatni koncert. Przez 9 lat Jerry walczył z Glenem o prawa do nazwy. W 1995 roku udało mu się z Danzigiem wygrać. Od tej pory Jerry mógł używać nazwy, a Glenn zachował prawa do starszych utworów zespołu. Do zespołu obok Jerry'ego i Doyle'a (gitara, brat Jerry'ego) znaleźli się Michale Graves (śpiew) oraz Dr. Chud (perkusja). Po odejściu z zespołu Gravesa i Dr.Chuda w 2000 roku oraz Doyle'a w roku 2002, Jerry zaprosił do współpracy Deza Cadenę z Black Flag (gitara) oraz Marky'ego Ramone'a z Ramones (perkusja), a wokal (oraz niezmiennie bas) powierzył samemu sobie. W 2005 roku funkcję perkusisty ponownie objął ROBO, który grał z The Misfits w latach 1982-83. +Styl gry Misfits stanowi groteskowe połączenie klasycznego punk rocka w stylu Ramones, psychodelicznych niekiedy zaśpiewek Iggy'ego Popa i chaosu właściwego grupie The Sex Pistols. Teksty nawiązują na ogół do motywów z horrorów czy surrealistycznych sytuacji. Na scenie towarzyszą temu ostre efekty świetlne i kłęby dymu. Wrażenie robi także oryginalny, nieco gotycki image zespołu – ciemne, skórzane stroje, rękawice, obroże i inne części stroju zaopatrzone w kolce. Członkowie zespołu nosili także charakterystyczne grzywki zwane "devilockami" i makijaż rodem z horrorów. +"Crimson Ghost Skull" – to symbol The Misfits, a zarazem symbol rock'n'rolla. Ta piracka czaszka, obok języka Rolling Stonesów i motocyklowych kurtek Ramones weszła na stałe do młodzieżowej kultury jako symbol, który stał się charakterystyczny już nie tylko dla tego zespołu, ale dla rocka. +Zespół miał i ma wielu oddanych fanów, którzy uwielbiają ich bezgranicznie. Wystarczy wspomnieć tylko Metallikę, która już za pośrednictwem Cliffa Burtona (nosił koszulki z "Crimson Ghost Skull" oraz miał na ramieniu taki tatuaż) wskazywała swoją fascynację (coverując także kilka piosenek Misfits). W 2006 roku, zespół Red Hot Chili Peppers na teledysku Dani California promującym swą nową płytę podczas drugiego refrenu ucharakteryzowany był właśnie na zespół Misfits. +Ciecierzyca + +Ciecierzyca ("Cicer") – rodzaj roślin z rodziny bobowatych. Do rodzaju należy co najmniej 44 gatunki, występujących głównie w rejonie Bliskiego Wschodu. Duże znaczenie jako roślina uprawna ma ciecierzyca pospolita, nieznana już zresztą ze stanowisk naturalnych. Gatunkiem typowym jest " Cicer arietinum" L.. +Systematyka. +Jeden z rodzajów podrodziny bobowatych właściwych "Faboideae" w rzędzie bobowatych "Fabaceae" "s.l.". W obrębie podrodziny należy do plemienia "Cicereae". +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa różowe ("Rosidae" Takht.), nadrząd "Fabanae" R. Dahlgren ex Reveal, rząd bobowce ("Fabales" Bromhead), rodzina bobowate ("Fabaceae" Lindl.), rodzaj ciecierzyca ("Cicer" L.). +Zastosowanie. +Ciecierzyca pospolita ma zastosowanie w kuchni, szczególnie krajów basenu Morza Śródziemnego. Stanowi m.in. podstawowy składnik hummusu. +Gułag + +Gułag, GUŁag (zapis dopuszczalny: GUŁAG) – system obozów pracy przymusowej w ZSRR, w którym więźniami byli zarówno przestępcy kryminalni, jak i osoby uznawane za społecznie niepożądane lub politycznie podejrzane. Słowo jest akronimem rosyjskiej nazwy instytucji zarządzającej tym systemem: Главное управление исправительно-трудовых лагерей и колоний ("Gławnoje uprawlenije isprawitielno-trudowych łagieriej i kolonij", Główny Zarząd Poprawczych Obozów Pracy). W rzeczywistości, w różnych okresach, instytucja ta nosiła różne nazwy. Jako synonim stosowane jest określenie łagry od rosyjskiego słowa "obóz" (лагерь, "łagier"). Niekiedy spotyka się nieprawidłowe użycie terminu "gułag" w znaczeniu "łagier" (pojedynczy). +Historia. +System obozów powstał wkrótce po rewolucji październikowej. Obok przedrewolucyjnego systemu penitencjarnego powstała sieć tzw. "miejsc zamknięcia" CzeKa; oprócz tego funkcjonował podporządkowany CzeKa (na jej czele stał w latach 1917-26 Feliks Dzierżyński) system obozów dla jeńców i uchodźców, a od 1919 roku - obozy pracy przymusowej (stosowano też nazwę "obozy koncentracyjne"). Obozy te miały charakter raczej doraźnych środków: CzeKa walczyła z przeciwnikami politycznymi raczej poprzez masowe rozstrzeliwania; chaos gospodarczy a, później bezrobocie okresu NEP-u powodowało, że trudno było o samowystarczalność obozów. +Zalążkiem Gułagu jako miejsca izolowania i niewolniczej pracy osób podejrzanych politycznie był założony w 1923 na Wyspach Sołowieckich "obóz szczególnego przeznaczenia" - owiane złą sławą Sołowki (Соловецкий лагерь особого назначения, СЛОН). Aż do roku 1929 w którym proklamowano masową kolektywizację - był to jedyny obóz dla więźniów politycznych, kierowany przez OGPU. Masowość procesów chłopów-kułaków i innych osób, określanych jako "pomocnicy kułaków", jak również szkodników w dziele industrializacji: duchownych, działaczy kulturalnych, otwarcie krytycznych wobec władz inteligentów oraz działaczy partyjnych związanych z wewnątrzpartyjną opozycją spowodował konieczność budowy potężnego systemu łagrów. Jednocześnie plany industrializacji wymagały taniej, zdyscyplinowanej siły roboczej do dyspozycji państwa. +W roku 1929 utworzono sześć nowych łagrów OGPU: Wiszerski, Północny, Kazachstański, Dalekowschodni, Syberyjski i Środkowo-Azjatycki. W 1930 roku zostały one razem z Sołowkami podporządkowane jednolitej centrali Zarządowi Obozów OGPU (Управление лагерями ОГПУ, УЛАГ), przemianowanym w następnym roku w Główny Zarząd Obozów - Gułag, którego nazwa stała się symbolem sowieckiego aparatu masowego terroru. Od lipca 1929 roku do stycznia 1930 liczba więźniów obozów OGPU wzrosła z 22 do 95 tysięcy i dalej szybko wzrastała (w styczniu 1934 wynosiła ponad 500 tysięcy). +Łagry powstawały często w oddalonych, słabo zaludnionych obszarach, w których budowano ważne obiekty przemysłowe lub transportowe. Model wykorzystywania pracy niewolniczej powstał przy budowie pierwszej "wielkiej budowy komunizmu" Kanału Białomorsko-Bałtyckiego (1931-1932). Budowa ta wykazała władzom, że więźniowie stanowią najlepszy rezerwuar siły roboczej w warunkach gospodarki planowej, a policja polityczna - OGPU najlepiej może organizować takie budowy i eksploatować pracę więźniów. OGPU mogło bowiem - dysponując prawem zsyłki, możliwością swobodnego fabrykowania zarzutów, aresztowania i skazywania na obóz potrzebnych specjalistów - regulować dopływ siły roboczej. Sukces budowy kanału Białomorsko-Bałtyckiego skłonił władze do planowania kolejnych kanałów (Moskwa-Wołga, Wołga-Don), magistrali kolejowych (Bajkalsko-Amurska, Workucka) +W 1934 Gułag został włączony w strukturę NKWD ZSRR przy jednoczesnym wcieleniu obozów, będących dotychczas pod zarządem ministerstw sprawiedliwości republik związkowych. W 1939 do GUŁagu włączono także tzw. kolonie pracy dla małoletnich oraz więzienia tranzytowe. Niektóre obozy były jednak podporządkowane innym instytucjom. W marcu 1953 GUŁag podporządkowano Ministerstwu Sprawiedliwości ZSRR, a następnie Ministerstwu Spraw Wewnętrznych ZSRR. W styczniu 1935 roku system obejmował milion więźniów, w 1938 przekroczył 2 miliony, a najwyższą liczebność osiągnął w 1950 roku: 2,6 miliona. Centrala Gułagu stała się także ważnym ośrodkiem administracji gospodarczej, przejmując nadzór nad przemysłem drzewnym, budownictwem kolejowym, drogowym, wodnym oraz przemysłowym. +Rozwiązany decyzją Ministerstwa Spraw Wewnętrznych ZSRR z 20 stycznia 1960, jednak ostatni więźniowie opuścili obozy dopiero w 1987 (zob. Perm-36). +Charakterystyka. +Sieć łagrów składała się w szczytowym okresie z kilku tysięcy obozów pracy przymusowej rozlokowanych na terenie całego ZSRR. W obozach panowały skrajnie złe warunki bytowe, zbliżone do panujących w niemieckich obozach koncentracyjnych, a umieszczeni w nich ludzie byli przymuszani do wycieńczającej, niewolniczej pracy. Ideologicznym celem obozów była "reedukacja przez pracę", a więźniowie nie byli przeznaczani do zagłady. W rzeczywistości niektóre obozy stanowiły miejsca faktycznej eksterminacji "wrogów ustroju". Więźniowie wykonywali najgorsze rodzaje pracy - takie jak praca w kamieniołomach, kopalniach, wyrąb lasu, roboty ziemno-budowlane, budowa linii kolejowych, rurociągów itd. Złe warunki i przeciążenie powodowały masową śmiertelność, dochodzącą w niektórych obozach i okresach do 1/3 rocznie; warunki były jednak bardzo różne. +W czasie drugiej wojny światowej obozy zostały "zasilone" najpierw ludnością krajów podbitych (Polakami, Litwinami, Estończykami, Łotyszami), a następnie niemieckimi jeńcami wojennymi oraz tzw. "zdrajcami", czyli byłymi żołnierzami Armii Czerwonej, którzy najpierw dostali się do niemieckiej niewoli, a następnie zostali odbici. Po drugiej wojnie światowej ponownie obozy były zasilane ofiarami czystek wewnętrznych w partii oraz przypadkowymi osobami z "donosu". Klęski Armii Czerwonej w początkowym okresie wojny zmusiły władze do sformowania ze znacznej liczby więźniów oddziałów wojskowych. Więźniowie obozów uczestniczyli w większości wielkich inwestycji rozwijającej się intensywnie gospodarki ZSRR. Budowali huty w Magnitogorsku, kanał Białomorski, transsyberyjską magistralę kolejową, oraz zbudowali kilka syberyjskich miast (Norylsk, Workuta, Magadan). +Niewielka część obozów, tzw. "szaraszki", posiadała wyższy standard życia od reszty obozów. Szaraszki były unikatowymi na skalę światową obozami pracy niewolniczej, w których prowadzono badania naukowe i opracowywano nowe rozwiązania techniczne. Naukowcy odsiadujący wyroki w szaraszkach pracowali anonimowo, przekazując wyniki swoich badań "oficjalnym" naukowcom, którzy potem prezentowali je światowej opinii jako swoje własne. Wykonywano też w nich badania ściśle tajne, których ze względów etycznych i prawnych nie można było wykonywać oficjalnie, np. prace nad bronią chemiczną, atomową, bakteriologiczną. +Aleksander Sołżenicyn w książce "Archipelag GUŁag" szacuje, że w obozach tego systemu uśmiercono od początku rewolucji do roku 1956 ok. 60 milionów ludzi. Dokładniejsze są szacunki historyka Roberta Conquesta, podającego w książce "Wielki Terror" liczbę 42 milionów ludzi, którzy zginęli bezpośrednio w obozach (ich zgony zostały oficjalnie „zaksięgowane” przez służby obozowe), oraz trudną do oszacowania (od 10 do nawet 30 milionów) liczbę ludzi, którzy nie zmarli w samych obozach, lecz w trakcie transportu oraz na skutek chorób i wycieńczenia już po wypuszczeniu z obozów. Robert Conquest (na podstawie danych archiwalnych) podaje też liczbę osób, które przewinęły się przez te obozy: w latach 1931-32 w obozach przebywało stale około 2 miliony ludzi, w latach 1933-35 - 5 milionów, w latach 1935-36 - 6 milionów. W czasie drugiej wojny światowej nastąpił gwałtowny rozwój obozów i w latach 1942-1953 przebywało w nich już stale ok. 10-12 milionów ludzi, czyli mniej więcej 5% całej populacji ZSRR. +Świńska łacina + +Świńska łacina (Igpay Atinlay) - gra językowa oparta na języku angielskim, jednak +możliwe jest dostosowanie jej także do innych języków. +Zasady. +Słowo, które zaczyna się na samogłoskę (w ang. A E I O U) dostaje końcówkę "WAY" (w niektórych dialektach "YAY"). +Słowo zaczynające się na spółgłoskę ma przemieszczone wszystkie spółgłoski na koniec wyrazu (do pierwszej samogłoski) i dostaje końcówkę "AY" +Parsifal (imię) + +Parsifal — imię męskie pochodzenia starowalijskiego. +Ekshalacje + +Ekshalacje, ekshalacje wulkaniczne - (łac. exhalatio - "wydychanie") wyziewy składników lotnych magmy (gazów i par), wydobywające się z głębi ziemi; przejaw aktywności wulkanicznej. Bardzo groźne, gdy spadnie deszcz. Uszkadzają drogi oddechowe. +Otoczenie termodynamiczne + +Otoczenie termodynamiczne , skrótowo otoczenie, inaczej środowisko to wszystko co nie należy do układu termodynamicznego, teoretycznie cały Wszechświat. +Np. w reakcji chemicznej związki i jony bezpośrednio uczestniczące w reakcji stanowią układ, natomiast wszystkie pozostałe (a także wszystko poza naczyniem reakcyjnym, jeżeli nie jest to układ izolowany) z punktu widzenia reakcji stanowią otoczenie odbierające albo oddające energię (ciepło) lub ustalajace warunki reakcji (np. ciśnienie gazu nad cieczą określa temperaturę wrzenia tej cieczy, oraz ciśnienie jej pary w tych warunkach). +Tymoloftaleina + +Tymoloftaleina – organiczny związek chemiczny stosowany głównie jako wskaźnik pH. Przy pH ok. 9,3-10,5 jest bezbarwny, zaś powyżej tej wartości staje się niebieski. Barwnik ten jest powszechnie stosowany w alkacymetrii. +Ze względu na to, że w środowisku obojętnym jest bezbarwny, można go stosować też jako atrament sympatyczny. Tymoloflateina rozpuszcza się dobrze w spirytusie, tworząc bezbarwny roztwór. Po dodaniu do tego roztworu odrobiny wodorotlenku potasu zmienia ona barwę na ciemnobłękitną. Po użyciu tego roztworu jako atramentu, napis "znika" w kontakcie z powietrzem, na skutek reakcji wodorotlenku potasu z dwutlenkiem węgla. Ponowne "wywołanie" napisu uzyskuje się przez zanurzenie papieru zawierającego ten napis w dowolnej cieczy, której pH jest większe niż 10,5. +Wężymord + +Systematyka. +"Avellara " Blanca & C. Díaz, "Podospermum" DC. +Angiosperm Phylogeny Website adoptuje podział na podrodziny astrowatych ("Asteraceae") opracowany przez Panero i Funka w 2002, z późniejszymi uzupełnieniami. Zgodnie z tym ujęciem rodzaj "Scorzonera" należy do plemienia "Cichorieae" Lam. & DC., podrodziny "Cichorioideae" (Juss.) Chev. W systemie APG III astrowate są jedną z kilkunastu rodzin rzędu astrowców ("Asterales"), wchodzącego w skład kladu astrowych w obrębie dwuliściennych właściwych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa astrowe ("Asteridae" Takht.), nadrząd "Asteranae" Takht., rząd astrowce ("Asterales" Lindl.), rodzina astrowate ("Asteraceae" Dumort.), podrodzina "Scorzoneroideae" Burmeist., plemię "Scorzonereae" D. Don, podplemię "Scorzonerinae" Cass. ex Dumort., rodzaj wężymord ("Scorzonera" L.). +Fenologia + +Fenologia – nauka badająca związki pomiędzy zmianami warunków klimatycznych i pór roku a terminami zachodzenia periodycznych zjawisk w rozwoju roślin (fitofenologia) i zwierząt (zoofenologia), zachodzących w danej porze roku, takich jak kiełkowanie, kwitnienie, owocowanie, zrzucanie liści u roślin, zapadanie w sen zimowy, odloty ptaków do cieplejszych regionów, wystąpienie dwóch pokoleń u niektórych owadów. +Sezonową rytmikę zmian fenologicznych, następującą w cyklach rocznych, ukazuje się na mapach za pomocą izofen, linii łączących miejscowości, w których jednocześnie występują dane zjawiska fenologiczne. +Historia. +Pierwsze zapiski fenologiczne pojawiły się w 1490 r. na Akademii Krakowskiej w Polsce. Karol Linneusz zapoczątkował nowoczesne obserwacje fenologiczne w połowie XVIII wieku i od tego czasu rozwija się w Europie sieć stacji fenologicznych. W połowie XIX wieku Adolphe Quételet ujednolicając metody fenologiczne opisał jednocześnie około 300 gatunków roślin i zwierząt będących obiektem obserwacji fenologicznych. +Znaczenie. +W gospodarce rolnej fenologia ułatwia dokonanie wyboru odpowiedniej odmiany rośliny uprawnej, ustalenie terminu siewu i zbioru, przewidywanie pojawienia się szkodników upraw. +Lista gatunków gier komputerowych + +Lista gatunków gier komputerowych +Wiele gier łączy kilka gatunków gier. Na przykład seria gier "Legend of Zelda" zawiera elementy gry akcji, przygodówki i cRPG. Takie gry nazywa się hybrydami. +Sposoby przedstawiania akcji. +Perspektywa pierwszej osoby. +Perspektywa pierwszej osoby (ang. "first-person perspective", FPP) – gracz widzi świat gry oczami bohatera. Perspektywa pierwszej osoby znana jest głównie w grach z gatunku first-person shooter a także w celowniczkach. Poza tym perspektywa pierwszej osoby może występować w grach RPG, takich jak seria "The Elder Scrolls" lub "Eye of the Beholder", grach labiryntowych, czy innych, specyficznych strzelaninach. +Perspektywa trzeciej osoby. +Perspektywa trzeciej osoby (ang. "third-person perspective", TPP) – gracz widzi świat gry zza pleców bohatera gry. Czasem jest ona umieszczona za bohaterem, a czasem jest umieszczona w widoku izometrycznym. Niektóre gry pozwalają na zmianę widoku pomiędzy perspektywami pierwszej lub trzeciej osoby. +W tym widoku prezentowane są takie serie gier jak np.: "Assassin's Creed", "Dragon Age", "God of War", "Gothic", "Grand Theft Auto", "Max Payne", "Neverwinter Nights", "Thief", "Tomb Raider" i "Uncharted". +Widok z góry. +Gracz widzi świat w perspektywie „z lotu ptaka”, lub też „z góry”. Kamera znajduje się nad prezentowanymi wydarzeniami i postaciami. Widok wykorzystywany w różnych typach gier – od strategii jak "Company of Heroes" do strzelanek, takich jak "Alien Swarm". +Widok z boku. +Gracz obserwuje akcję z boku, tak samo jak teren, na którym toczy się gra, a postacie/pojazdy/stworzenia zobrazowane w ten sposób poruszają się głównie na osiach prawo-lewo. Wykorzystywana w dwuwymiarowych platformówkach, bijatykach czy strzelankach, rzadziej w innych grach (np. w strategii "King Arthur's World" na SNES-a) +Izometria. +Plansza gry przedstawiona jest w rzucie izometrycznym, np. "Zaxxon", "Fairlight", "Diablo". +Akcja. +Bijatyki. +Bijatyki, potocznie mordobicia, wyróżnia się ich dwa rodzaje: z ang. gry "Fighting game" oraz "beat'em up" – pierwszy podgatunek kładzie nacisk na walkę z jednym przeciwnikiem pomiędzy dwoma graczami rzadziej większą ilością, ale i tak się zdarza – np 4 graczy mogło zmierzyć się w "Guilty Gear Isuka") lub graczem i sterowanym przez komputer oponentem, drugi zaś stawia przed graczem większe ilości wrogów, rozrzuconych po trasie, którą ten musi przejść. Niekiedy w jednej bijatyce występują oba typy gameplayu, np. "Tekken 3" lub "Guilty Gear Isuka". Gry z tego gatunku pozwalają toczyć walki bez oręża, inne zaś pozwalają na używanie broni białej (miecze, noże, itp.), lub sporadycznie skorzystać z broni palnej, a jeszcze inne, w klimacie fantasy pozwalają na wyzwolenie wewnętrznej energii "qi" i atakowanie nią przeciwnika. +Ten gatunek powstał w środku lat osiemdziesiątych i stał się fenomenem wraz z wydaniem gry "Street Fighter". +Niektóre popularne serie gier z podgatunku Fighting Game: "King of Fighters", "Mortal Kombat", "Street Fighter", "Soul Calibur", "Tekken" oraz "Virtua Fighter". +Niektóre popularne serie gier z podgatunku Beat'em up: "Renegade", "Golden Axe", "Double Dragon", "Streets of Rage", "Fighting Force". +First-person shooter. +First-person shootery (FPS) są strzelankami w perspektywie pierwszej osoby. Wszystkie FPSy umieszczają gracza za bronią palną, pokazując ramię sterowanej postaci. W wielu FPS-ach tempo gry jest szybkie i wymaga od gracza dużego refleksu oraz celności. +Popularne serie gier z tego gatunku: "Battlefield", "Call of Duty", "Counter-Strike", "Doom", "Half-Life", "", "Medal of Honor", "Quake" i "Unreal". +Snajper. +Celowniczki (sniper, snajper) to nietypowe strzelaniny, w których gracz nie kontroluje ruchów kierowanej postaci, jednak porusza celownikiem – stąd nazwa – decydując, w co ta strzela. Występują zarówno w perspektywie FPP, jak i TPP, w tej drugiej występuje szczątkowa kontrola nad ruchem postaci – np przesuwa się automatycznie w prawo, jednak można kierować nią po obszarze ekranu. Celowniczki często korzystały z pistoletów świetlnych, w wersjach na PC zazwyczaj za ruch celownikiem odpowiada myszka. +Do gatunku zalicza się seria gier "House of the Dead", "Virtua Cop" lub "Panzer Dragoon". +Shoot 'em up. +Gry shoot 'em up, znane też jako 'shootery' lub 'strzelanki', kładą nacisk na strzelanie i zwykle upraszczają inne aspekty rozgrywki. Rozmaite wczesne gry arcade (jak na przykład "Space Invaders") kwalifikuje się do tego gatunku. +Grami, które wchodzą w ten gatunek są "przewijane shootery". W grach tych gra się na długiej dwuwymiarowej przewijanej planszy. Gatunek ten dzieli się głównie na dwa rodzaje, klasyfikowane poprzez kierunek przewijania: najczęściej jest on poziomy (ang. "horizontal shooter" lub "side view") lub pionowy (ang. "vertical shooter" lub "top view"). Dwoma przykładami są "R-Type" i "Raiden". Istnieją także gry przewijane po ukosie, np "Zaxxon". +W tym gatunku jest jeszcze miejsce dla gier nazywanych w ang. "fixed shooter-ami", których akcja dzieje się na jednym ekranie; na przykład "". +Gatunek shoot 'em upów, w którym statek gracza porusza się jedynie po linii poziomej pojawił się na w roku 1978 ("Space Invaders"), natomiast od roku 1982 produkowane są gry umożliwiające poruszanie się po całym ekranie. +Platformowa. +Gry platformowe, nazywane też "platformówkami", są to gry, w których gracz prowadzi bohatera przez poziome powierzchnie, które nazywane są "platformami". Wyróżnia się trzy typy: "single screen", gdzie cała gra odbywa się na jednym ekranie, "multi screen" - po dojściu do końca ekranu ukazuje się kolejny oraz najpopularniejszy "scroller", gdzie tło gry jest płynnie przewijane w poziomie. +Jest to jeden z najwcześniejszych gatunków gier i był bardzo popularny do czasu wzrostu popularności grafiki trójwymiarowej. Zazwyczaj gry platformowe były grami dwuwymiarowymi, a środowisko widać było z boku bohatera. Można było je stworzyć w prosty sposób za pomocą sprite'ów. Grafika trójwymiarowa usunęła konieczność ograniczenia widoku otoczenia i pozwoliła na oglądanie światów gier w pełnym wymiarze. Jednakże spowodowało to utratę prostoty kierowania bohaterem i grywalności dwuwymiarowych gier. Niemniej jednak platformówki 3D są dość często tworzone. +Tradycyjnymi elementami platformówek są bieganie, skakanie (stąd też czasami spotykana nazwa "Run'n'jump" – biegaj i skacz) oraz chodzenie po drabinach. Walka i strzelanie również są częstymi elementami tych gier. +Znanymi grami platformowymi są: "Donkey Kong", "Manic Miner", "Superfrog", "Jet Set Willy", "Super Mario Bros.", "Lode Runner", "Sonic the Hedgehog", "Spyro the Dragon" lub "Crash Bandicoot". +Przykładem polskiej gry platformowej może być np. Zenek Zombie. +Breakout. +Ten gatunek gier, nazwany od pierwszej gry pod tym tytułem polega na odbijaniu ruchomą paletką piłki i rozbijaniu cegieł, gdy wszystkie cegły zostaną trafione, przechodzi się do następnego poziomu. Najbardziej znaną grą w tym gatunku jest "Arkanoid" (Taito, 1986). +Przygodowa gra akcji. +Przygodowa gra akcji to gatunek gier komputerowych łączący elementy gier przygodowych i gier akcji (część gier z tego gatunku zawiera zagadki logiczne). Wymagają one podobnych umiejętności zręcznościowych jak gry akcji, jednak oferują często dużo bardziej rozbudowaną fabułę z dużą ilością bohaterów oraz dialogów. Często dają także możliwość noszenia ze sobą wielu przedmiotów w ekwipunku, w przeciwieństwie do typowych gier akcji. Ponadto oferują często inne cechy gier przygodowych. +Pierwszą grą, która została skategoryzowana jako "przygodowa gra akcji" była gra Adventure na Atari 2600. Jedną z najbardziej znanych jest seria "Dizzy" rozpoczęta przez Codemasters w roku 1987. +Stealth. +Gatunek, nazywany "skradankami", tworzy kontrast dla gier opartych głównie na akcji. Gry z tego gatunku mają dużo wspólnego z grami z gatunków FPS i TPP, ale ich głównym motywem jest skradanie się i ukrywanie przed wzrokiem przeciwnika. Pierwszą grą tego typu jest "Metal Gear" wydana w 1987. Przykładami gier z tego gatunku są serie gier "Metal Gear Solid", "Thief", "Splinter Cell", "Hitman (seria gier komputerowych)". +Survival horror. +Gry survival horror próbują wystraszyć gracza poprzez tradycyjną fikcję horrorów, taką jak zakłócenia atmosferyczne, śmierć, nieumarli, krew czy przemoc. Wiele tych gier zawiera elementy gatunku first person shooter. +Gatunek ten został zapoczątkowany wraz z grą "Alone in the Dark" oraz "System Shock" ale został sławny dzięki serii gier "Resident Evil". Innymi znanymi grami z tego gatunku są serie gier "Silent Hill" i "Fatal Frame (Project Zero)". +Gra przygodowa. +Gry przygodowe były jednymi z pierwszych gier na rynku. Od gracza wymagane często jest rozwiązywanie różnych zagadek przy pomocy różnych narzędzi. Pierwsze gry przygodowe miały interfejs tekstowy. W tych grach gracz używał klawiatury, by wpisywać komendy, np. "weź linę" lub "idź na wschód", a komputer opisywał, co się dzieje. +Gdy grafika stała się bardziej złożona, tekstowe przygodówki uzupełniono obrazkami (na przykład obrazek pokazujący aktualną lokację), jednakże do wprowadzania komend nadal używano klawiatury. +Coraz większe rozpowszechnienie myszek komputerowych dało początek podgatunkowi "point-and-click", gdzie gracz nie musiał już więcej wpisywać komend. Zamiast tego mógł, na przykład, kliknąć na ikonce ręki, a następnie na linie, aby ją wziąć. +Gry przygodowe zaczęły się wraz z grą "Colossal Cave Adventure" w latach 70., później wydawane jako seria "Zork". Znane tytuły to m.in.: "Day of the Tentacle", seria "King's Quest" i "Monkey Island". +Obecnie swój renesans przeżywa gatunek czysto tekstowych przygodówek, zwanych współcześnie Interactive Fiction, dla odróżnienia ich od archaicznych tekstówek i współczesnych przygodówek graficznych. +Komputerowe gry fabularne. +Gry RPG często umieszczają gracza w świecie fantastycznym bądź science fiction i prowadzą go przez historię bohatera. Większość tych gier nakazuje graczowi na wcielenie się w rolę "poszukiwacza przygód", który specjalizuje się w pewnych umiejętnościach (zwykle dzielonych na walkę, magię i spryt). Profesje z odpowiednimi umiejętnościami (np. preferującymi walkę nad magię, czy trudzących się tylko magię) nazywane są "klasami". +Większość tych gier podobna jest do tradycyjnych gier RPG, w które gra się za pomocą ołówka i kartek papieru (np. "Dungeons & Dragons"), tylko że to komputer zajmuje się wszystkimi zapisami umiejętności oraz nieokreślonymi elementami, jak rzuty kośćmi. Ten gatunek powstał jako jeden z pierwszych i do dziś jest bardzo popularny. +Mimo że pierwsze gry z tego gatunku były grami turowymi, to większość dzisiejszych gier CRPG tworzona jest z funkcją imitującą czas rzeczywisty, głównie dzięki sukcesowi gry "Diablo" i podobnych. Gatunek cRPG podąża ścieżką wyznaczoną przez gry strategiczne i zamiast używać w walce tur, gra się w czasie rzeczywistym. +Znane serie gier z tego gatunku: "", "Final Fantasy", "Ultima", "Baldur's Gate", "Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic", Neverwinter Nights,"The Witcher (Wiedźmin)". +MMOG i MMORPG. +Massively-multiplayer online games (masowe wieloosobowe gry online) i massively-multiplayer online role-playing games (masowe internetowe wieloosobowe gry fabularne online) są wirtualnymi światami, w których tysiące graczy mogą sprawdzić swoje umiejętności oraz wejść w interakcje z innymi graczami poprzez Internet. MMORPG-i wyłoniły się w połowie lat 90. wraz z grą "Meridian 59" jako graficzny rodzaj tekstowych MUD-ów, które istniały od około 1979 roku. Pomysł wieloosobowej gry został szybko połączony z innymi gatunkami gier. +Fantastyczne MMORPG-i są najpopularniejszym typem gier MMOG. +Do gatunku zalicza się: "Ultima Online", "RuneScape", "Tibia", "Guild Wars", "Lineage II" lub "World of Warcraft". +Roguelike. +Odmiana komputerowych gier RPG wywodząca się od "Rogue". Charakteryzuje się prezentacją świata, postaci i przedmiotów w postaci rysunków ASCII w trybie tekstowym lub w bardzo prostej grafice kafelkowej. Komputerowy świat gry jest zwykle generowany losowo, przez co każda rozgrywka jest inna, a złożoność świata często przewyższa oferowaną przez inne gry RPG. Jest to odmiana niezbyt popularna, ale ma grupę fanów. Grami roguelike inspirowali się autorzy "Diablo". +Przykłady: "NetHack", "ADOM", "Angband". +jRPG. +Za podgatunek RPG uznaje się często jRPG – japońskie (azjatyckie) RPG. Wyróżniają się nie tylko krajem pochodzenia, ale pewnym specyficznym sposobem tworzenia takich gier. W jRPG każda postać z drużyny posiada swoją historię, zadanie, każda z postaci ma swoje pięć minut w grze. Japońskie RPG charakteryzują się dogłębną analizą psychologiczną każdej z głównych postaci. Przykładami jRPG są serie "Final Fantasy", "Chrono", "Breath of Fire" lub "Dragon Quest". Jednakże już w samej serii "Final Fantasy" możemy już znaleźć przykład odejścia od "typowego" jRPG – "Final Fantasy VIII" nie skupia się już zbytnio na historii każdej z postaci, ale na historii dwóch najważniejszych postaci – Squalla i Rinoy. Cechą często łączącą ten typ gier jest mangowy design postaci, ale nie jest to regułą. +Gry symulacyjne. +Gry symulacyjne próbują symulować rzeczywiste warunki i zdarzenia (np. latanie samolotem) tak dokładnie, jak to tylko możliwe, dokładając ograniczenia występujące w świecie rzeczywistym (takie jak fizyka obiektów). Niektóre wymagają dużej ilości przeczytanych podręczników przed rozpoczęciem gry, a inne zawierają samouczek w sobie w formie poziomu treningowego. W przeciwieństwie do innych gatunków, wiele symulatorów nie ma jasno ustawionych celów pozwalających graczowi na wygranie gry. +Niektóre z tych gier, jak symulatory lotów, mają określone ograniczenia czasu gry (przejść ileś poziomów, zniszczyć "x" samolotów), gdy inne, jak "The Sims", nie mają ich i pozwalają graczowi na zabawę do znudzenia. +Spotykane są symulatory takich pojazdów jak tabor kolejowy, w którym jedynym celem jest często samo prowadzenie pojazdu, dla czystej przyjemności (tu "Train Simulator", "Trainz Railroad Simulator", "TrainMaster", seria "EEP" lub polska darmowa gra – "MaSzyna") fanów tego środka transportu. +Symulatory lotu – podgatunek symulacji – są najczęściej grami wojennymi (patrz "Flight Simulator", +"Comanche 4" lub "FlightGear"), podczas gdy gry takie jak "The Sims", "SimCity", "SimAnt" lub "" są połączeniem symulacji z grą strategiczną +Gry sportowe. +Gry sportowe emulują grę w tradycyjne sporty, takie jak piłka nożna, boks, golf, koszykówka, hokej na lodzie. Niektóre kładą nacisk na grę w dany sport, a inne na strategię menedżera poza meczem (np. "Championship Manager", "Football Manager"). Jeszcze inne parodiują sporty dla osiągnięcia komizmu (np. "Arch Rivals"). +Ten gatunek powstał we wczesnej historii gier komputerowych i jest popularny do dzisiaj. +Gry wyścigowe. +Gry wyścigowe (nazywane "wyścigówkami" lub "wyścigami") są jednymi z najbardziej znanych gatunków gier. Zwykle umieszczają gracza na miejscu kierowcy bardzo wydajnego pojazdu i wymagają od gracza, aby wygrał wyścig z oponentami kierowanymi przez komputer (lub w przypadku gry przez internet – innych ludzi). Gatunek ten wyłonił się we wczesnych latach 80. i do dziś jest bardzo popularny. Pierwszą popularną grą tego typu była "Pole Position". +Popularnym podgatunkiem wyścigów są wyścigi gokartów. +Grami z tego gatunku są m.in.: "Colin McRae", "OutRun", "Need for Speed", "Gran Turismo" i "Mario Kart" oraz nietypowa gra wyścigowa "Carmageddon". +Inne symulatory. +Istnieją symulatory np. pinball'a. +Gry strategiczne. +Gry strategiczne skupiają się na dowodzeniu armią, rozbudową bazy, dalekowzrocznym planowaniu i wprawnym zarządzaniem surowcami w odpowiedniej kolejności, aby osiągnąć zwycięstwo – ekonomiczne bądź też militarne. Gatunek ten powstawał w połowie lat osiemdziesiątych. +Ten gatunek dzieli się ze względu na system czasu, w jakim toczy się rozgrywka, na strategiczne gry turowe (TBS) i strategie czasu rzeczywistego (RTS), ale są również wyjątki łączące obydwie z ww. grup (jak np. "X-COM"). +Ogromną większość gier strategicznych można nazwać "wojennymi grami strategicznymi", ponieważ jedynym sposobem konfrontacji z przeciwnikiem była walka militarna oraz jej taktyka (np. rozpoznanie, oflankowanie, itp.). Gry turowe są bardziej nastawione na strategię (np. widok na wojnę z perspektywy generała). +Osobnym gatunkiem są taktyczne/strategiczne gry fabularne (Tactical/Strategy Role playing Games) będące hybrydą strategii i RPG. W nich zazwyczaj wyróżniony jest główny bohater, a kontrolowane postaci posiadają imiona, historie, oraz awansują wraz z postępem gry. +Internetowe gry strategiczne są mniej popularnym podgatunkiem. Gracz nie potrzebuje żadnego oprogramowania na swoim komputerze, ponieważ gra używa interfejsu strony internetowej. Takie gry często kończą się po paru miesiącach, przed końcem rundy i restartem gry. Jednakże niektóre z tych gier są ogromnie popularne i mają setki tysięcy graczy. Przykładami takich gier są "Planetarion", "Dawn of Myth", "Terra Incognita", "OGame" lub "Laventhar". +Strategiczne gry turowe. +Gry turowe były pierwszymi grami strategicznymi. W tych czasach komputery nie miały odpowiedniej ilości mocy obliczeniowej, by pokazywać interakcje jednostek w czasie rzeczywistym. Pierwsze komputery osobiste szybko przyjęły gry turowe do tworzenia gier wojennych. Od tej pory gatunek zaczął się rozwijać. +Przykładowe gry rozgrywane w turach: "Civilization", seria "Fire Emblem", seria "Heroes of Might and Magic". +Strategiczna gra czasu rzeczywistego. +Przykładowe gry rozgrywane w czasie rzeczywistym: "Age of Empires", "Command and Conquer", "Company of Heroes", seria "Earth", "Empire Earth", "StarCraft", "Total Annihilation", "Rise of Nations", "Warcraft", "". +4X. +Gra 4X – podtyp strategii oparty na czterech cechach (x): eXplore (eksploracja), eXpand (ekspansja), eXploit (eksploatacja) i eXterminate (eksterminacja). W nich gracz zwykle zarządza całym państwem/rasą w przypadku kosmicznych 4X, stara się osiągnąć dominację, zarówno środkami militarnymi, jak i dyplomatycznymi. +Taktyczne gry czasu rzeczywistego. +Taktyczna gra czasu rzeczywistego (ang. real-time tactics) – gra, w której gracz dowodzi armią na polu bitwy. Od gier RTS odróżnia je brak zarządzania surowcami i budowania bazy lub struktur rekrutujących jednostki, a także większe znaczenie pojedynczych jednostek i koncentracja na złożonych taktykach bitewnych. Przykłady gier: "", seria "Total War", "World in Conflict". +Gry ekonomiczne. +Gatunek zbliżony do gier strategicznych, jednak główną rolę odgrywa w nich rozwój i czynnik ekonomiczny. Gracz w nich dostaje firmę, lub nawet miasto w przypadku city-Building, i stara się je jak najlepiej rozwijać. Zwykle w tego typu nie ma nawet opcji bitew. +Przykładami gier ekonomicznych mogą być "Aerobiz", "Pizza Connection" lub "Software Tycoon". +Tower defense. +Tower defense – gry, w których zadaniem gracza jest powstrzymywanie kolejnych fal przeciwników poprzez stawianie wież obronnych czy też utrudnień na ich drodze. Przykłady gier: "", "Orcs Must Die!", "Plants vs. Zombies". +Turn-based tactics. +Turn-based tactics (taktyczna gra turowa) – przykłady gier: "Silent Storm", "Steel Panthers". +Action real-time strategy. +Action real-time strategy (strategiczna gra akcji czasu rzeczywistego), inaczej Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) – najnowszy gatunek gier strategicznych, którego przedstawicielami są m.in. Defense of the Ancients (DotA), Heroes of Newerth (HoN) oraz League of Legends (LoL). +Artillery game. +Przykłady gier: "Scorched Earth", "Worms". +Wargame. +Przykłady gier: "Close Combat", "Combat Mission", "Panzer General", "Steel Panthers". +Inne gatunki. +Edukacyjne. +Gry edukacyjne uczą gracza. Większość tych gier jest adresowana do młodszych użytkowników w wieku szkolnym. Pierwsza gra edukacyjna to "Oregon Trail"Istnieje wiele podgatunków gier edukacyjnych, a każdy uczy innej treści (gry matematyczne, nauka pisania, itd.). +Poważne. +Niedawno można było zauważyć powstanie nowego gatunku, zwanego grami poważnymi. Gry te są adresowane do osób pełnoletnich, ucząc ich realiów świata poprzez gry. Z tego powodu są również nazywane "grami treningowymi". Tak jak gry tradycyjne, gry poważne wymagają od gracza ogromnego zaangażowania. Jednocześnie ich głównym zamierzeniem jest zabawa i konkurowanie, więc gracze są zachęcani przez własne ambicje do kontynuowania gry (więc także kontynuowanie nauki zawartej w grze). +Gry poważne są nowym gatunkiem, więc jeszcze nie widać znaczących efektów ich działalności w przemyśle gier. Większość z nich nie jest też sprzedawana/tworzona publicznie, a wyłącznie dla jednego klienta (armia, przedsiębiorstwo). Jednakże, rząd (militarny i nie tylko) i wiele dużych korporacji zaczęło zauważać korzyści (tak edukacyjne, jak i finansowe) płynące z dodawania gier poważnych do tradycyjnego treningu praktycznego. +Przykładami takich gier są "America's Army". +Muzyczne. +Gry muzyczne są typowymi grami arcade, które narzucają graczowi powtarzanie sekwencji danych ruchów. Powtarzanie ruchów najczęściej odbywa się poprzez naciskanie odpowiednich przycisków na kontrolerze lub klawiaturze. Innym sposobem powtarzania sekwencji jest po prostu taniec gracza synchronicznie do rytmów muzyki (przy użyciu maty tanecznej). Ten gatunek powstał w późnych latach 90. z powodu narastającej popularności muzyki rap i sukcesu gry "Dance Dance Revolution". +Party. +"Gry party" są grami wideo tworzonymi specjalnie dla potrzeb rozgrywek wieloosobowych. Zwykle gry party zawierają różne typy mini-gierek, w których wygraną zdobywa się poprzez uzbieranie większej ilości przedmiotów od innych uczestników gry bądź zdobywając najlepszy czas w jakiejś konkurencji. Wieloosobowe gry koncentrujące się na walce z przeciwnikiem nie powinny być zaliczane do tego gatunku. Niektóre popularne gry party: seria "Mario Party" i "Fusion Frenzy". +Logiczne. +Gry logiczne wymagają od gracza np. rozwiązywania przeróżnych łamigłówek lub przejścia przez skomplikowane labirynty. Ten gatunek często jest połączeniem gier przygodowych i edukacyjnych. +Znanymi grami logicznymi są m.in. "Ballance", "Lemmings", "Saper" i "Boulder Dash". +Tradycyjne. +Większość popularnych gier planszowych, karcianych, itp. doczekało się swoich wersji komputerowych. Pierwszą grą tego typu jest kółko i krzyżyk stworzoną przez A.S Douglasa na uniwersytecie Cambridge w 1952. Gry komputerowe mogą być godnymi przeciwnikami i pozwalają na ulepszanie swoich umiejętności w danej grze. +Przykłady gier to: Szachy, Warcaby, Othello (znane jako Reversi), Backgammon, Mah-jongg, Go. +Hazardowe. +Na komputerze można także zagrać w ruletkę, Black Jack'a czy pokera. Wczesne gry umożliwiały jedynie grę przeciw inteligencji maszyny lub z innymi graczami przy jednym komputerze, dzisiejsze oferują grę online z graczami w sieci, często na realne pieniądze. +Gatunki wymierające. +Interaktywne filmy. +Interaktywne filmy przyszły wraz z CD-ROMami. +Gry te to wstępnie nagrane sekwencje filmowe, w których gracz kontrolował tylko niektóre ruchy głównego bohatera. Na przykład, gdy bohater był w niebezpieczeństwie, gracz decydował, gdzie się poruszyć, zadziałać lub zaatakować. W tych grach, jedyną działalnością gracza był wybór lub zgadnięcie ruchu, który był odgórnie wybrany przez projektantów gry. +Wraz z rozwojem grafiki 3D, interaktywne filmy szybko zaczęły zanikać. +Znane gry z tej kategorii: "Dragon's Lair", "Space Ace". +Retro. +Gry retro to gry, które miały bardzo prosty interfejs, czterokierunkowe możliwości ruchu i jedną podstawową operację. "Retro" nie musi oznaczać rodzaju. Wiele gier arcade i gier na konsole poprzedzające Nintendo Entertainment System mogą być sklasyfikowane jako "retro". "Pong" i "Pac-Man" to prawdopodobnie dwa najbardziej znane przykłady z tego gatunku. Specyficznym nurtem w retro są Demake'i, które są tworzone na podstawie nowych gier, jednak na rozgrywce zbliżonym do gier 8-bitowych. +Henryk III Gruby + +Henryk III z Szampanii (ur. 1244, zm. 22 lipca 1274 w Pampelunie), nazywany "le Gros" ("Gruby"), był hrabią Szampanii i jako Henryk I królem Nawarry. +Był najmłodszym synem Tybalda I Pogrobowca i Małgorzaty de Burbon. W 1269 ożenił się z Blanką (1248 - 2 maja 1302), córką Roberta I, hrabiego d'Artois, oraz Matyldy, córki Henryka II, księcia Brabancji. Blanka była siostrzenicą Ludwika IX, króla Francji. +W grudniu 1270 r. Henryk odziedziczył po swoim najstarszym bracie, Tybaldzie II, królestwo Nawarry oraz hrabstwo Szampanii. +Jego proklamacja w Pampelunie miała miejsce dopiero w marcu następnego roku, a koronacja na króla Nawarry odbyła się w maju 1273 r. Po krótkim okresie rządów zmarł w lipcu 1274 r. Według legendy udusił się swoim własnym tłuszczem. +Nie miał męskich potomków i wygasła na nim linia królów Nawarry z Szampanii. Jego dziedziczką była córka Joanna (jedyne ślubne dziecko). Jej małżeństwo w 1283 r. z Filipem IV (który został królem Francji w 1284 r.) połączyło korony Nawarry i Francji, a Szampania stała się domeną królów Francji. +Andriej Rublow + +Andrzej Rublow, Andriej Rublow, ros. "Андрей Рублёв" (ur. ok. 1360, zm. prawdopodobnie 29 stycznia 1430) – rosyjski mnich, święty prawosławny, pisarz, twórca ikon. Jest uważany za najwybitniejszego przedstawiciela moskiewskiej szkoły pisania ikon. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w środkowej części Rosji w Ziemi Rostowsko-Suzdalskiej (obecnie tzw. Podmoskowie) między 1360 a 1370 (dokładna data jego urodzin nie jest znana, tak samo jak dokładnie nie jest znane miejsce jego urodzin oraz środowisko, z którego się wywodzi). +Prawdopodobnie śluby zakonne złożył w Ławrze Troicko-Siergijewskiej w młodym wieku. Tam też przyjął zakonne imię Andrzej. +Był uczniem św. Sergiusza z Radoneża. Brak źródeł pisanych powoduje, że chronologia jego prac ustalana jest przez ich analizę stylistyczną. Za pierwsze dzieło Rublowa uznaje się freski soboru Zaśnięcia Matki Bożej na Gorodku w Zwieniogorodzie (ok. 1400 rok) zachowane do dziś w niewielkich fragmentach. Wraz ze swoimi mistrzami, Teofanem Grekiem i Prochorem z Gorodca, dekorował sobór Zwiastowania Matki Bożej na Kremlu w 1405. W 1408 razem z Teofanem wykonał freski do soboru Zaśnięcia Matki Bożej we Włodzimierzu nad Klaźmą. Z tych prac zachowają się fragmenty z zachodniej części cerkwi oraz dwa rzędy ikon z ikonostasu. 1410-1420 to czas prac znów w Zwienigorodzie. Zachowały się trzy ikony z rzędu Deesis i freski soboru Narodzenia Matki Boskiej klasztoru Sawino-Starożewskiego, ocalałe we fragmentach. +W połowie lat dwudziestych XV wieku mnisi Daniel i Andriej Rublow z uczniami zostają zaproszeni do malowania fresków do nowo co odbudowanego kamiennego soboru Św. Trójcy w ławrze. Malowidła nie zachowały się, lecz przetrwał do naszych czasów ikonostas- najstarszy zachowany zabytek tego typu. Po zakończeniu prac wyjeżdża do klasztoru Spaso-Andronikowskiego w Moskwie, gdzie maluje swoje ostatnie dzieło, freski w soborze Obrazu Zbawiciela Nie Ludzką Ręką Uczynionego, z których pozostały tylko niewielkie fragmenty. Niektóre źródła podają, że był on również współtwórcą architektury świątyni. +Zmarł około 1430 i został pochowany w monasterze Spaso-Andronikowskim w Moskwie. Dane biograficzne o Rublowie są niezwykle skąpe. Nie zachował się żaden portret artysty ani jego opis. Brak również jego podpisu na dziełach. Jedynym tropem jest ilustracja z miniatury szesnastowieczna przedstawiająca "Żywot świętego Sergiusza z Radoneża", pokazująca Rublowa i Daniłę przy pracy nad ikonami. Widać na nich mnicha z rozłożystą brodą. Na rozwój jego legendy miały wpływ także jego przymioty charakteru. Rublow ponoć słynął z pobożności, pokory, łagodności i mądrości. +Święty Andriej Rublow. +Rosyjska Cerkiew Prawosławna kanonizowała go w 1988 z okazji obchodów Tysiąclecia Chrztu Rusi. Czczony i znany jest głównie w słowiańskim obszarze kulturowym. +Św. Andrzej Rublow jest jednym z największych orędowników przed Bogiem podczas nauki pisania ikon. +Święty przedstawiany jest w mniszym habicie, zazwyczaj bez nakrycia głowy. Ma niedługą jasną brodę i łysinę czołową. W rękach trzyma największe swoje dzieło - ikonę "Trójcy Świętej", która też pełni funkcję jego atrybutu. +Cechy malarstwa Rublowa. +Mistrzostwo jego sztuki polega przede wszystkim na harmonii, proporcji, rytmiczności linii i konturów, delikatnych czystych barwach. Jego twórczością rządzi światło, odzwierciedlające duchowe, niebiańskie piękno. Jego dzieła wyrażają idee hezychazmu. Cechą charakterystyczną jest malarskie opracowanie twarzy, wyrazisty rysunek. Stylizacja szczegółów twarzy takich jak linia brwi z podniesionymi, wewnętrznymi końcami, ściągnięte usta, małe uszy, wąskie nosy i oczy oznaczają zamknięcie na pokusy zmysłowe. Surowość i ascetyzm oblicza nadają medytacyjny nastrój wizerunku. Zastygłe nieruchomo ciało prezentuje pozę pełną pokory i powagi. Te cechy pozwalają na rozpoznanie prac Rublowa oraz artystów wywodzących się z jego kręgu czy szkoły. +Rublow w kulturze. +Reżyser Andriej Tarkowski zrealizował film "Andriej Rublow" inspirowany życiem artysty. Film otrzymał nagrodę na festiwalu w Cannes w roku 1969. Na podstawie tego filmu Jacek Kaczmarski napisał piosenkę pt. "Rublow". +Koblencja + +Koblencja (łac. "Confluentes", niem. "Koblenz"; fr. "Coblence") – miasto na prawach powiatu położone w zachodniej części Niemiec, w kraju związkowym Nadrenia-Palatynat, siedziba powiatu Mayen-Koblenz, port rzeczny u ujścia Mozeli do Renu. Według danych statystycznych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 106 445 mieszkańców +Historia. +Miasto zostało założone około 9 r. p.n.e. jako rzymskie "castellum" (reduta). Od 1018 miasto było w posiadaniu arcybiskupów Trewiru. Od XI do XII wieku było ośrodkiem handlu winem. Od 1254 wchodziło w skład Reńskiego Związku Miast, natomiast od 1789 r. stało się ośrodkiem francuskiej emigracji rojalistycznej. W 1794 zostało zdobyte przez rewolucyjne wojska francuskie. Od 1815 Koblencja znajdowała się w granicach Prus. W 1822 została stolicą prowincji Rhein. Po traktacie wersalskim była w latach 1919–1923 okupowana przez Amerykanów, a następnie w latach 1923–1929 – przez Francuzów. W latach 1923–1924 miał tu siedzibę separatystyczny rząd Republiki Reńskiej. +Zabytki. +Ciekawostką, a także atrakcją turystyczną jest to, że Koblencja jest jednym z ośmiu miast, w którym co roku odbywają się widowiskowe pokazy sztucznych ogni, zatytułowane Rhein in Flammen (pol. "Ren w płomieniach"). +Myślibórz + +Myślibórz (do 1945 niem. "Soldin") – miasto w południowo-zachodniej części woj. zachodniopomorskiego, w powiecie myśliborskim, położone na Pojezierzu Myśliborskim nad Jeziorem Myśliborskim. Siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Myślibórz. +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. gorzowskiego. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2008 r. miasto miało 11 700 mieszkańców. +Obecnie Myślibórz jest ośrodkiem przemysłowo-usługowym i turystycznym. Przemysł odzieżowy, materiałów budowlanych, spożywczy, maszynowy i drzewny. Turystyka i sporty wodne (kajakarstwo i żeglarstwo). +Osiedla mieszkaniowe w mieście: os. XX-lecia PRL, os. Piastów, os. Powstańców Wielkopolskich, os. Słowiańskie. +Zieleń miejska: Park Armii Krajowej, Park Wojska Polskiego, Skwer Dariusa i Girenasa. +Historia. +Pierwsza stała osada w pobliżu dzisiejszego Myśliborza powstała w VI w. p.n.e. - było to grodzisko kultury łużyckiej nad Jeziorem Myśliborskim, na wzniesieniu "Winnica Tumska" (nazwa miejscowa: "Łysa Góra"). Na tym samym miejscu, na przełomie VIII w. i IX w. powstało wczesnośredniowieczne grodzisko słowiańskie (zwane "Żołdyń, Sołdzin"). Grodzisko istniało do XII w. +Pierwsza wzmianka o Myśliborzu występuje w dokumencie z 1238 r., w którym mowa jest o nadaniu przez Władysława Odonica templariuszom 1000 łanów ziemi nad rzeką Myślą. Myślibórz prawa miejskie otrzymał w latach 1262-1270 (jako miasto brandenburskie). Pod koniec XIII i na początku XIV wieku nastąpił intensywny rozwój miasta, które w latach 1298–1537 było stolicą Nowej Marchii i wiodącym centrum gospodarczym regionu. Stołeczny charakter sprawił, że miasto wznosiło liczne reprezentacyjne budowle oraz zostało ufortyfikowane silnymi murami miejskimi. W 1433 r. miasto spalili husyci. W tym czasie Myślibórz znajdował się w rękach Krzyżaków 1402–1455. W 1473 r. zdobycia i zniszczenia miasta dokonał książę zachodniopomorski Bogusław X. W XVI wieku dwukrotnie Myślibórz padał pastwą ogromnego pożaru 1539 r. i 1590 r. Wojny toczone w XVII i XVIII wieku (zwłaszcza tzydziestoletnia i siedmioletnia) spowodowały ogromne zniszczenia miasta, przez co nastąpiło osłabienie w rozwoju gospodarczym Myśliborza i regionu. Nadzieję na poprawę przyniosło dopiero uruchomienie połączeń kolejowych z Kostrzynem nad Odrą i Stargardem Szczecińskim w 1882 r., Barlinkiem w 1883 r. i Gorzowem Wielkopolskim w 1912 r. W wyniku działań zbrojnych w końcowym okresie II wojny światowej miasto zostało zniszczone w ok. 40%. Zdobyte przez wojska radzieckie 2 lutego 1945 r., a następnie 23 maja 1945 r. przekazane zostało administracji polskiej. +Transport. +- w 1991 r.: Myślibórz-Gorzów, +- w 1991 r.: Głazów-Barlinek, +- w 1999 r.: Myślibórz-Kostrzyn, +- w 2000 r.: Myślibórz-Stargard Szczeciński. +N +a odcinku Stargard-Pyrzyce–Głazów oraz Barnówko-Kostrzyn kursują pociągi zdawcze. Odcinki Myślibórz-Barnówko, Myślibórz-Głazów są rozebrane (w latach 2009-2011). Zachowany jest jeszcze odcinek Myślibórz-Gorzów Wlkp. (od stacji Świątki w kierunku Gorzowa jest przejezdny). Dobrze rozwinięty regularny transport autobusowy. Większość linii obsługuje PKS Myślibórz oraz PKS Gorzów Wielkopolski. +Oświata. +W mieście funkcjonują również dwa przedszkola publiczne oraz Myśliborski Uniwersytet Trzeciego Wieku. +Kultura. +We wrześniu cyklicznie organizowany jest Festyn Sprawni Niepełnosprawnym. Na terenie miasta znajduje się Muzeum Pojezierza Myśliborskiego. W mieście wydawany jest dwutygodnik powiatowy "Myśliborskie Wieści". W przeszłości wydawany był dwutygodnik powiatowy "Kurier Myśliborski", miesięcznik "Pismo Myśliborskie" oraz kwartalnik "Z biegiem Myśli". Nieregularnie wydawany był "Pik:myśli bez cenzury". Działa tutaj również telewizja "TVB24 Myślibórz". +Administracja. +Miasto jest siedzibą władz gminy miejsko-wiejskiej. Urząd miejski mieści się na ul. Rynek im. Jana Pawła II 1. Miasto jest również siedzibą władz starostwa myśliborskiego. +Mieszkańcy Myśliborza wybierają parlamentarzystów z okręgu wyborczego Szczecin, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. +W Myśliborzu znajdują się dwa biura poselskie: Joachima Brudzińskiego (PiS) oraz Arkadiusza Litwińskiego (PO). +Tadeusz Piekarz + +Tadeusz Piekarz (ur. 27 października 1941 w Krakowie, zm. 1 marca 2005 tamże) – polski ekonomista, w latach 1990–1995 wojewoda krakowski. +Ukończył studia na Akademii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie. Przez wiele lat pracował w Wytwórni Sprzętu Komunikacyjnego – Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze w Krakowie, dochodząc w 1989 do stanowiska dyrektora naczelnego. Działał w "Solidarności", od września 1980 był członkiem Międzyzakładowego Komitetu Założycielskiego związku w Krakowie. Zasiadał w zarządzie Regionu Małopolskiego NSZZ "S". W stanie wojennym został internowany na okres od maja do listopada 1982, później współpracował ze strukturami podziemnymi związku. +W 1990 z ramienia Krakowskiego Komitetu Obywatelskiego został mianowany przez premiera Tadeusza Mazowieckiego wojewodą krakowskim. W okresie swojej pracy na tym stanowisku m.in. na rzecz odnowienia Teatru im. Juliusza Słowackiego, odbudowy po pożarze budynku Filharmonii Krakowskiej, dokończenia budowy Szpitala Rydygiera w Nowej Hucie oraz Centrum Rehabilitacyjnego na Woli Justowskiej. +W wyróżniony tytułem "Krakowianina Roku" (1995) i Medalem Św. Brata Alberta (1997). 17 sierpnia 2011 prezydent Bronisław Komorowski odznaczył go pośmiertnie Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. Był kawalerem Zakonu Rycerskiego Grobu Bożego w Jerozolimie. +Jarostryj + +Jarostryj – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Jaro-" ("świeży, gorący" ale też "gniewny, srogi, surowy") i "-stryj" ("stryj"). +Dáil Éireann + +Dáil Éireann [] (dosł. "Zgromadzenie Irlandii") – niższa izba parlamentu Irlandii. +Dáil jest wybierana według ordynacji preferencyjnej na pięcioletnią kadencję. Członek Dáil to Teachta Dála – poseł Dáil, w skrócie TD. Wyższą izbą parlamentu jest senat – Seanad Éireann. +Historia. +Dáil była w latach 1919–1922 jednoizbowym irlandzkim zgromadzeniem narodowym. Została powołana decyzją posłów partii Sinn Féin, wybranych w 1918 do brytyjskiej Izby Gmin, którzy 21 stycznia 1919 w Dublinie ogłosili się parlamentem niepodległej Republiki Irlandzkiej. Do 1921 Dáil kierowała walką polityczną Irlandii o uzyskanie niepodległości od Wielkiej Brytanii. Od 1922 jest izbą niższą 2-izbowego parlamentu państwa irlandzkiego. +152 mm haubica wz. 1943 (D-1) + +152 mm haubica HB-43 D-1 (Haubica wz. 43 kal. 152 mm) – radziecka haubica opracowana w 1943 przez biuro konstrukcyjne generała porucznika Fiodora F. Pietrowa. +Historia powstania. +Haubica została opracowana na podstawie wcześniejszej konstrukcji Pietrowa, haubicy M-10 z 1938, dzięki czemu można było przy jej budowie wykorzystać elementy produkowane już wcześniej. Jednak nowa konstrukcja była znacznie lżejsza, co zwiększyło jej manewrowość, natomiast zastosowanie elementów z poprzedniej konstrukcji umożliwiło prawie natychmiastowe rozpoczęcie produkcji seryjnej. +Użycie. +Haubica HB-43 D-1 została wprowadzona do uzbrojenia radzieckich jednostek artylerii korpuśnej i armijnej oraz do artylerii odwodu naczelnego dowództwa, gdzie zastąpiła używaną haubicoarmatę MŁ-20 wz. 1937 kal. 152 mm. Została ona użyta w działaniach bojowych już w 1944, gdzie potwierdziła swoją przydatność na polu walki. +W te haubice były wyposażone również jednostki artylerii Wojska Polskiego (1 maja 1945 w Wojsku Polskim znajdowały się 34 haubice) w którego uzbrojeniu znajdowała się przez około 45 lat, jak również wojska państw należących do Układu Warszawskiego. Jako ciągnik holowniczy służył samochód Star 266. +Isabel Perón + +María Estela (Isabelita) Martínez de Perón (ur. 6 lutego 1931 w La Rioja) – trzecia żona Juana Peróna, wiceprezydent u boku swego męża i prezydent Argentyny w latach 1974-1976. +Zarys biografii. +Isabel przyszła na świat jako Maria Estela Martinez. W młodości była tancerką w nocnym klubie. Swojego przyszłego męża spotkała podczas jego emigracji w Paragwaju. Perón był wcześniej wiceprezydentem, następnie prezydentem i dyktatorem Argentyny od 1946 do 1955, kiedy to został obalony w wojskowym zamachu stanu. Nie żyła już wtedy jego druga żona Evita Perón (zm. 1952). Juan i Isabel pobrali się w 1961 w Hiszpanii. +W 1973 powrócili do Argentyny, gdzie Juan wystawił swoją kandydaturę w wyborach prezydenckich i – co było bardzo kontrowersyjnym posunięciem – mianował Isabel kandydatem na wiceprezydenta. Wygrali wówczas wybory. +Juan zmarł dziesięć miesięcy po ponownym objęciu władzy i 1 lipca 1974 Isabel została prezydentem Argentyny. Była wówczas najmłodszą głową państwa w Ameryce Łacińskiej i pierwszą kobietą-prezydentem w dziejach świata. +24 marca 1976 Isabel – po niespełna dwóch latach sprawowania urzędu – została obalona przez wojskowy zamach stanu, na którego czele stał generał Jorge Videla i uwięziona w areszcie domowym na przeszło pięć lat. W 1981 pozwolono jej udać się na emigrację do Hiszpanii, gdzie mieszka do dziś. Nie wróciła już potem do Argentyny, nawet po obaleniu junty i przywróceniu demokratycznych rządów. +Ocenia się, że podczas rządów Perónów (lata 1973-1976) "zaginęło" około 600 osób, a blisko 500 zostało zabitych. Argentyńska Narodowa Komisja ds. Zaginięć twierdzi ponadto, że Isabel Perón podpisała akt, w którym domaga się "unicestwienia wszelkich wrogich elementów". W 2007 została zatrzymana w związku z dochodzeniem w sprawie "zaginięć" ludzi w czasie jej prezydentury. W kwietniu 2008 hiszpański sąd odmówił zgody na ekstradycję do Argentyny. +Jerzy Czepułkowski + +Jerzy Mieczysław Czepułkowski (ur. 5 lutego 1952 w Pyrzycach) – polski polityk, nauczyciel, samorządowiec, w latach 1997–2005 poseł na Sejm III i IV kadencji. +Życiorys. +Ukończył w 1976 studia na Wydziale Humanistycznym białostockiej filii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Od 1978 do 1990 należał do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. Działał następnie SdRP i od 1999 w SLD (kierował wojewódzkimi strukturami partii). +Pracował jako nauczyciel, wicedyrektor i dyrektor Zespołu Szkół Budowlanych w Ełku, pedagog i dyrektor Medycznego Studium Zawodowego w Ełku. Od 1994 do 1997 pełnił funkcję wiceprezydenta miasta. W wyborach w 1997 uzyskał mandat poselski z listy SLD. Po raz drugi został wybrany w wyborach w 2001 z ramienia tego samego ugrupowania w okręgu olsztyńskim liczbą 9580 głosów. W IV kadencji Sejmu był przewodniczącym Komisji Europejskiej i zastępcą przewodniczącego sejmowej komisji śledczej ds. prywatyzacji PZU. +W wyborach w 2005, 2007 i 2011 bez powodzenia ubiegał się o ponowny wybór do krajowego parlamentu. W wyborach w 2006 i 2010 uzyskiwał mandat radnego rady miasta Ełk. +Historia chemii + +Historia chemii – dział historii nauki wyróżniony na podstawie badanej dziedziny jaką jest chemia. Opisuje przebieg powstawanie teorii i odkryć chemicznych. +Historia chemii w skrócie. +Odrzucenie "magicznego" podejścia alchemicznego. +Często przyjmuje się, że historia chemii zaczęła się w dniu kiedy Robert Boyle w swojej książce "The Skeptical Chymist" (1661) wyraźnie rozgraniczył chemię jako naukę od przednaukowych badań alchemicznych. Trzeba jednak zaznaczyć, że od tego czasu bardzo długo jeszcze w chemii występowała niczym nieuzasadniona wiara w sztuczne byty "filozoficzne", takie jak flogiston czy siła życiowa. +Często za początki współczesnej chemii uważa się ostateczne odrzucenie teorii flogistionu przez Antoine Lavoisiera, w wyniku odkrycia przez niego tlenowej teorii kwasów oraz zaproponowania prawa zachowania masy w 1783 r. +Ostatni z "bytów filozoficznych", pokutujący jeszcze od czasów alchemicznych - "siła witalna", został odrzucony na skutek dość przypadkowego otrzymania mocznika z nieorganicznych substratów przez Friedricha Wöhlera w 1828 r. Pierwszą syntezę mocznika uważa się obecnie za początek współczesnej chemii organicznej. Wcześniej sądzono, że otrzymanie jakichkolwiek związków organicznych na drodze syntezy z nieorganicznych substratów jest niemożliwe, gdyż do ich otrzymania była rzekomo niezbędna tajemnicza "siła witalna", którą zawierać miały w sobie wszystkie żywe organizmy, i której miała być pozbawiona materia nieożywiona. +Teoria atomistyczna a teoria ciągłości materii. +Drugim krokiem milowym w powstaniu współczesnej chemii było przyjęcie teorii atomistycznej, zaproponowanej w znanej dzisiaj formie przez Johna Daltona na początku XIX w. Teoria ta jednak nie została przyjęta od razu. Niemal przez cały XIX w. środowisko chemików było podzielone na jej zwolenników i przeciwników. Do najbardziej znanych przeciwników teorii atomistycznej zaliczali się: Wilhelm Ostwald i Ernst Mach, którzy rozwijali teorię ciągłej struktury materii i bardzo energicznie zwalczali "nienaukową wiarę w istnienie atomów". Teoria ciągłości materii była paradygmatem chemii prawie do początków XX w., mimo że wiele badań (prowadzonych m.in. przez Amadeo Avogadro i Ludwiga Boltzmanna) dowodziło, że jednak atomy istnieją. Twierdza paradygmatu ciągłości struktury materii została ostatecznie obalona dopiero przez eksperymenty Jean Perrina, dowodzące bez żadnych wątpliwości atomowego wyjaśnienia natury ruchów Browna, dokonanego przez Alberta Einsteina. +Układ okresowy i pełen rozwój teorii atomistycznej. +Kolejnym, kluczowym punktem w rozwoju chemii była też koncepcja układu okresowego pierwiastków zaproponowana równolegle przez Dmitrija Mendelejewa i Lothara Meyera w roku 1870. Układ ten umożliwił Mendelejowi przewidywać własności jeszcze nie odkrytych dotąd pierwiastków chemicznych takich jak german (nazwany przez Mendelejewa ekakrzemem), gal i skand, które następnie jeszcze za jego życia odkrywano, potwierdzając słuszność jego wniosków. +W pierwszej połowie XX w. paradygmatem chemii "zatrzęsło" odkrycie subtelnej struktury budowy atomu - w szczególności odkrycie istnienia jądra atomu przez Ernesta Rutherforda w 1911 r. oraz odkrycie zależności między liczbą atomową a strukturą powłok elektronowych przez Henryego Moseleya w 1913 r., które to dokonania ostatecznie wyjaśniły dlaczego własności chemiczne pierwiastków zależą od miejsca zajmowanego w układzie okresowym. Częściowo na bazie tych dokonań, a także zastosowania teorii kwantów Maxa Plancka, w 1914 r. Niels Bohr zaproponował pierwszy model orbitalnej struktury atomu wodoru. +Kolejnym wstrząsem, który nastąpił niemal zaraz, bo w latach 30. XX w., było zaadaptowanie dokonań mechaniki kwantowej do zrozumienia natury własności chemicznych pierwiastków i ich zdolności do tworzenia wiązań chemicznych. Połączenie zasady nieoznaczoności Wernera Heisenberga (1927) z zakazem Pauliego (1924) oraz równaniem Schrödingera (1927) doprowadziło do powstania kompletnej teorii orbitali atomowych, a później cząsteczkowych, które w dużym stopniu wyjaśniły mechanizm powstawania i naturę wiązań chemicznych. +Rozwój współczesnych działów chemii. +Od końca II wojny światowej rozpoczął się trwający do dzisiaj proces powstawania nowych, interdyscyplinarnych gałęzi chemii, który jest charakterystyczny nie tylko dla samej chemii, ale ogólnie dla wszystkich nauk przyrodniczych. Oprócz takich tradycyjnych działów jak chemia organiczna, chemia nieorganiczna, chemia fizyczna i chemia analityczna, zaczęły powstawać kierunki badań łączące razem dokonania działów tradycyjnych, aby je wykorzystać w ściśle określonych celach. Kierunki te łączą też zwykle dokonania chemii z innymi naukami przyrodniczymi. +Biochemia. +Być może pierwszym tego rodzaju interdyscyplinarnym kierunkiem badań stała się biochemia. +W 1953 r. Francis Crick, James Watson i Rosalind Franklin odkryli strukturę i ogólną zasadę działania DNA, które to odkrycie otworzyło drogę do współczesnych dokonań biochemii, inżynierii genetycznej i biotechnologii. Obecnie wszystkie dziedziny badań z przedrostkiem "bio-" należą do najszybciej rozwijającego się obszaru badań chemicznych, gdyż stanowią podstawę przyszłego rozwoju rolnictwa i medycyny. +Polimery. +Innym tego rodzaju kierunkiem są badania nad otrzymaniem nowych materiałów, w ramach których współpracują chemicy i fizycy ciała stałego. Największą grupę materiałów o niespotykanych w naturze własnościach stanową syntetyczne polimery. Pierwszy tego rodzaju materiał, który znalazł praktyczne zastosowane na większą skalę, był bakelit, otrzymany przez Leo Baekelanda w 1907 r. Chemia polimerów rozwinęła się jednak na dobre dopiero po II wojnie światowej. Odkryciem, które otworzyło drogę do masowego zastosowania tworzyw sztucznych opartych na polimerach, było opracowanie przez Karla Zieglera i Giulio Nattę w 1951 r. (Nagroda Nobla w 1963 r.) katalizatorów Zieglera-Natty, które umożliwiły masową i tanią produkcję polietylenu i polipropylenu z pochodnych ropy naftowej. +Katalizatory metaloorganiczne. +Bardzo ważnym kierunkiem badań, często niedocenianym, ale bez którego istnienie współczesnego przemysłu chemicznego byłoby nie do pomyślenia, są związki metaloorganiczne i inne organiczne związki kompleksowe, które stanowią pomost między chemią organiczną i nieorganiczną. +Odgrywają one ogromną rolę jako katalizatory wielu reakcji chemicznych prowadzonych na wielką skalę, których produkty stanowią podstawę całego przemysłu chemicznego. Pierwszy katalizator tego typu został na masową skalę zastosowany przez Otto Roelena w 1938 r. w reakcji hydroformylowania, prowadzącej do otrzymania aldehydu octowego z gazu syntezowego i etylenu. Dopiero jednak badania Ernsta Fischera i Geoffreya Wilkinsona (Nagroda Nobla w roku 1973) doprowadziły do pełnego zrozumienia działania tych katalizatorów i otworzyły drogę do projektowania ich struktury do konkretnych celów. +Stereochemia i synteza asymetryczna. +Kolejnym bardzo ważnym kierunkiem badań jest stereochemia i powiązana z nią synteza asymetryczna. Mimo że początków stereochemii można dopatrywać się już w połowie XIX w. (odkrycie dwóch form enancjomerycznych kwasu winowego przez Pasteura w 1850), to jednak faktyczny rozwój tej dziedziny, umożliwiający przemysłową produkcję czystych enancjomerycznie leków i innych biologicznie aktywnych związków chemicznych, rozpoczął się w latach 60. XX w. Do największych dokonań można tu zaliczyć opracowanie teoretycznych podstaw asymetrycznej katalizy enzymatycznej, za co John Warcup Cornforth i Vladimir Prelog otrzymali Nagrodę Nobla w 1975 r. +Chemia supramolekularna i nanotechnologia. +Jednym z najnowszych kierunków badań jest chemia supramolekularna, której dokonania przenoszą chemię w nowy wymiar materiałów, nie opartych wyłącznie na własnościach pojedynczych związków chemicznych, lecz na złożonych, samoorganizujących się układach międzycząsteczkowych. Układy te stanowią podstawę nanotechnologii i znajdują zastosowania jako nowe materiały, o precyzyjnie kontrolowanych własnościach fizycznych - od mikromaszyn po sztuczne układy zdolne do samoreprodukowania się na wzór żywych organizmów. Za osoby, które stworzyły ten dział badań uważa się zwykle Donalda J. Crama, Jean-Marie Lehna i Charlesa J. Pedersena (Nagroda Nobla 1987). +Nowe techniki analityczne i kwantowa chemia teoretyczna. +Techniki analityczne. +Na koniec warto wspomnieć, że większość opisanych powyżej dokonań współczesnej chemii nie byłaby możliwa bez rozwijania nowych technik analitycznych. Badania nad rozwojem nowych technik mają prawie zawsze charakter interdyscyplinarny i angażują zwykle zespoły złożone z fizyków kwantowych, chemików i biologów molekularnych. Do technik, bez których współczesna chemia byłaby nie do pomyślenia, można zaliczyć m.in.: +Teoretyczna chemia kwantowa. +Bardzo obiecującym kierunkiem badań, mającym znaczące zastosowanie np. w przemyśle farmaceutycznym, jest teoretyczna chemia kwantowa. Zajmuje się ona samymi podstawami chemii i jej celem ostatecznym jest możliwość precyzyjnego przewidywania własności fizycznych, chemicznych i biologicznych związków chemicznych, głównie na podstawie ich struktury elektronowej. Badania na tym polu były bardzo długo traktowane podejrzliwie przez społeczność chemików i wiele z kluczowych osiągnięć nie zostało nigdy docenionych Nagrodą Nobla. Dopiero w 1998, za wieloletnie badania w tej dziedzinie Nagrodą Nobla zostali uhonorowani Walter Kohn i John A. Pople. Jednym z ważniejszych historycznie polskich wkładów w zbliżenie się chemii praktycznej oraz chemii teoretycznej były prace z 1968 roku Kołosa i Wolniewicza dotyczące energii dysocjacji (rozerwania wiązania) cząsteczki wodoru. Ich obliczenia były dokładniejsze niż praktyczne pomiary dokonane przez laureata nagrody Nobla Gerharda Herzberga. Dopiero dwa lata później, w 1970 roku, przyznał on, poprawiając pomiary, że uzyskał pierwotnie błędny wynik i wynik Polaków był właściwy... +Ministerstwo Sprawiedliwości + +Minister Sprawiedliwości – naczelny organ administracji rządowej, odpowiedzialny za dział administracji rządowej - sprawiedliwość. Aparatem pomocniczym Ministra Sprawiedliwości jest Ministerstwo Sprawiedliwości. Minister Sprawiedliwości z mocy Konstytucji jest członkiem Krajowej Rady Sądownictwa. +Minister sprawiedliwości był od 31 marca 1990 do 30 marca 2010 roku jednocześnie prokuratorem generalnym, a od 29 grudnia 1989 roku jest jednym z członków Krajowej Rady Sądownictwa. 31 marca 2010 roku powstał urząd Prokuratora Generalnego, który jest odrębny od Ministra Sprawiedliwości i administracji rządowej. Prokurator Generalny powoływany jest przez Prezydenta RP na 6-letnią kadencję spośród dwóch kandydatów przedstawionych przez Krajową Radę Sądownictwa i Krajową Radę Prokuratury. +Kompetencje Ministra Sprawiedliwości. +Rozporządzenie określa szczegółowy zakres działania Ministra Sprawiedliwości, +Minister właściwy do spraw sprawiedliwości zapewnia przygotowywanie projektów kodyfikacji prawa cywilnego, w tym rodzinnego, oraz prawa karnego. +Minister właściwy do spraw sprawiedliwości jest właściwy w sprawach sądownictwa w zakresie spraw nie zastrzeżonych odrębnymi przepisami do kompetencji innych organów państwowych i z uwzględnieniem zasady niezawisłości sędziowskiej. +Ministrowi właściwemu do spraw sprawiedliwości podlega Służba Więzienna. +Siedziba. +Al. Ujazdowskie 11 +00-950 Warszawa +Sona (rzeka) + +Sona - rzeka w Polsce. Lewobrzeżny dopływ Wkry o długości 73 km i zlewni 536,5 km². +Rzeka ma źródła w okolicach wsi Koziczyn w powiecie ciechanowskim, uchodzi do Wkry w okolicach wsi Popielżyn-Zawady na terenie powiatu płońskiego. Po drodze przepływa między innymi przez Sońsk i Nowe Miasto. Dopływami Sony są Kolnica, Sona Zachodnia i Tatarka (struga). +Hōshō + +Budowa. +Stępkę pod budowę "Hōshō" położono 16 grudnia 1919. Początkowo miał być zbiornikowcem. Po przekwalifikowaniu na lotniskowiec "Hōshō" zaprojektowany został przez zespół, którym kierował Okabe Umezu (współkonstruktor późniejszego lotniskowca "Shōkaku"). Zbudowany został w stoczni w Tsurumi, budowę współfinansował koncern Mitsui. Zwodowano go 13 listopada 1921. Okręt wszedł do służby 27 grudnia 1922 roku, będąc pierwszym okrętem na świecie zbudowanym od razu jako lotniskowiec, a nie przebudowanym z kadłuba istniejącego statku lub okrętu liniowego (jak np. "Kaga" lub "Akagi"). Brytyjski lotniskowiec "Hermes", będący pierwszym okrętem od początku zaprojektowanym jako lotniskowiec, został wprawdzie rozpoczęty przed "Hōshō", lecz ukończony później. Planowano też budowę drugiej jednostki tego typu o nazwie "Shōkaku", lecz zamówienie zostało anulowane (później nazwę tę otrzymał nowy lotniskowiec). +Po wejściu do służby "Hōshō" poddawano modernizacjom. W 1924 zlikwidowano wyspową nadbudówkę po prawej stronie pokładu, która przeszkadzała pilotom przy lądowaniu (powodowała tworzenie się wirów powietrznych). Podczas dużej modernizacji w 1944 wzmocniono oraz wydłużono pokład lotniczy, ze 158,2 m do 180,8 m oraz zwiększono wymiary wind dla samolotów. Okręt miał trzy kominy na prawej burcie, które początkowo można było odchylić o 90° do poziomu podczas operacji lotniczych. W 1936 zamontowano zamiast nich stałe odchylone kominy. +Okręt miał deskowany nieopancerzony pokład lotniczy, po modernizacji w 1944 wystający poza kadłub na dziobie i rufie. Pokład ten wsparty był na ścianach hangaru i kolumnach. Lotniskowiec posiadał jeden hangar o długości ok. 92 m, pozbawiony fragmentu ścian na śródokręciu. Transport samolotów z hangaru zapewniały dwie windy umieszczone w osi symetrii okrętu, w części dziobowej i za śródokręciem. Okręt teoretycznie mógł zabierać 21-26 samolotów, w praktyce liczba ta nie przekraczała 20 maszyn. +Służba. +28 lutego 1923 miał miejsce pierwszy start samolotu z "Hōshō". Od 1928 "Hōshō" wraz z większą "Kagą" tworzył 1. dywizjon lotniskowców. Po raz pierwszy okręt i jego lotnictwo zostały użyte podczas konfliktu zbrojnego z Chinami (tzw. incydent szanghajski) od 29 stycznia 1932 do marca 1932. Okręt brał następnie aktywny udział w początkowym etapie wojny z Chinami. Od lipca 1937 był w składzie 1. dywizjonu lotniskowców wraz z "Ryūjō". Jego samoloty wspierały japońskie wojska na lądzie i walczyły z chińskim lotnictwem. W październiku powrócił do Japonii. 1 grudnia 1937 razem z lotniskowcem lekkim "Zuihō" utworzył 3. dywizjon lotniskowców, przydzielony do 1. Floty. +Po wybuchu wojny ze Stanami Zjednoczonymi grupę lotniczą na okręcie zredukowano do 8 samolotów bombowych Nakajima B5N 'Kate', przeznaczonych do działań przeciw okrętom podwodnym. Lotniskowiec "Hōshō" wziął udział w operacji zakończonej bitwą o Midway 4 czerwca 1942 roku, jako osłona sił głównych pancerników, nie biorąc jednak bezpośredniego udziału w walce lotniskowców. Po zatopieniu czterech japońskich dużych lotniskowców, powstał plan uderzenia na amerykańskie okręty nielicznymi samolotami z ocalałych "Hōshō" i "Zuihō". Nie został jednak zrealizowany ze względu na słabość sił powietrznych. Po powrocie do Japonii, lotniskowiec – mający już niewielką wartość bojową – był używany jako okręt szkoleniowy. W 1945 zaliczono go do okrętów rezerwowych. +Podczas amerykańskich nalotów na bazę morską w Kure 24, 25 i 28 lipca 1945 "Hōshō" został uszkodzony. Po wojnie został wyremontowany, a następnie użyto go do repatriacji żołnierzy japońskich z Chin. Akcję tę zakończono 16 sierpnia 1946, po czym 30 kwietnia 1947 okręt oddano na złom. Żywot zakończył w 1947 roku w stoczni w Jokohamie, jako ostatni z istniejących japońskich lotniskowców. +Archibald Vivian Hill + +Archibald Vivian Hill (ur. 26 września 1886 w Bristolu, zm. 3 czerwca 1977 w Cambridge) – fizjolog angielski, laureat Nagrody Nobla w 1922 roku. +Studiował w Cambridge, był profesorem uniwersytetów w Londynie i Manchesterze. Od 1918 roku członek Royal Society. +W pracy naukowej badał przemiany energetyczne w mięśniach i nerwach. Wykazał, że znaczna część energii jest wytwarzana po skurczu i pozostaje w zależności od obecności tlenu. Za swoje prace otrzymał w 1922 roku Nagrodę Nobla, niezależnie od Niemca Otto Meyerhofa. +Język shelta + +Język shelta (znany także jako Gammen, Sheldru, Pavee, Caintíotar lub w skrócie "The Cant") – język celtycki z grupy języków goidelskich. Jest to język wędrownej grupy ludzi zwanej Podróżnicy Irlandzcy ("Irish Travellers") pochodzącej z Irlandii i zamieszkującej Irlandię, Wielką Brytanię i Stany Zjednoczone. Oparty w dużym stopniu na języku irlandzkim. Jego nazwa wywodzi się prawdopodobnie z języka irlandzkiego siúlta – wędrować i wskazywała na nomadyczny charakter jej użytkowników. +Obecnie jest używany przez ok. 86 tys. ludzi, w tym 6 tys. w Irlandii. +Juliusz Konstanty Ordon + +Juliusz Konstanty Ordon (ur. 16 października 1810 w Warszawie, zm. 4 maja 1887 we Florencji) – oficer wojska polskiego, powstaniec listopadowy, ewangelik. +Był jednym z czterech synów Karola Franciszka Ordona (1780-1848), rewizora komory celnej w Warszawie i Małgorzaty z Naimskich (zm. 1829), ewangelików. +W czasie powstania listopadowego, podczas obrony Warszawy, dowodził baterią artylerii w reducie nr 54, która została wysadzona w powietrze 6 września 1831. W wierszu "Reduta Ordona" jego rzekomą śmierć opisał Adam Mickiewicz, mimo że podczas wybuchu Ordon został jedynie mocno poparzony. Ordon walczył przedtem w bitwach pod Ostrołęką i Olszynką Grochowską i otrzymał Virtuti Militari. Także jego brat Emil Ordon, później rejent w Kaliszu, brał udział w powstaniu listopadowym. +Od 1833 przebywał w Dreźnie, następnie osiadł w Szkocji. Około 1840 wstąpił do wolnomularstwa angielskiego, a w październiku 1847 do polskiej loży narodowej w Londynie. Związał się z Towarzystwem Demokratycznym Polskim. W 1848 wyjechał do Mediolanu, chcąc wstąpić do legionu Mickiewicza. Źle przyjęty, ostatecznie znalazł się w Legii Lombardzkiej. +W październiku 1848 wstąpił do armii sardyńskiej, gdzie służył do 1855. Jesienią 1856 wyjechał do Francji i osiadł w Paryżu. W 1858 otrzymał posadę profesora języków nowożytnych w Kolegium Rządowym w Meaux. Od 1860 w oddziałach Giuseppe Garibaldiego, następnie w armii włoskiej do 1867. Po samobójczej śmierci we Florencji jego zwłoki sprowadzono do Lwowa (władze rosyjskie nie zezwoliły na pochówek w grobie rodzinnym na cmentarzu ewangelicko-augsburskim w Warszawie, al. 2 nr 45). Tam dokonano spalenia zwłok według ostatniej woli Ordona i uroczyście pochowano jego prochy na Cmentarzu Łyczakowskim, w Alei Zasłużonych. +Henk Badings + +Henk Badings (ur. 17 stycznia 1907, zm. 26 czerwca 1987) — holenderski awangardowy kompozytor - samouk. +Urodzony na Jawie. Komponował opery, muzykę elektroniczną, symfonie, koncerty fortepianowe. Nawiązywał w swej twórczości do ludowej muzyki jawajskiej. +Garizim + +Garizim (język samarytański hebrajski: "Ar-garízim"; arab.: جبل جرزيم "Dżabal Dżarizīm", język tyberiadzki hebrajski: הַר גְּרִזִּים "Har Gərizzîm"; hebr.: הַר גְּרִיזִּים "Har Gərizzim") – jedna z dwóch gór wznoszących się na południe od miasta Nablus w Samarii, w centralnej części Izraela. Góra wznosi się na wysokość 881 m n.p.m. +Leży na terytorium Autonomii Palestyńskiej. +Religia. +Jest to święta góra judaizmu oraz jedyne święte miejsce Samarytan. +Obok niej znajduje się bliźniacza Góra Ebal (obecnie arab. Dżabal Sitt Salaimijja), która jest jednak przez Boga przeklęta. Wspominana kilkakrotnie w Starym Testamencie jako pierwsze święte dla Izraelitów miejsce w Ziemi Obiecanej. W okolicy góry pierwszy ołtarz miał zbudować Abraham, tu miał stać jego namiot oraz namiot Jakuba. W tej okolicy Jakub zakopał posążki bożków rodzin swych żon i został również pochowany. Tu Jozue po zdobyciu miasta Aj odnowił Prawo Mojżeszowe. +Po okresie niewoli babilońskiej – utraciła znaczenie dla Żydów, awansowała zaś w religii Samarytan. Wybudowali oni tam własną świątynię ok. 330 p.n.e. za zgodą Aleksandra Macedońskiego, wyrażoną prawdopodobnie w 332 p.n.e.. Sanktuarium to było później kilkakrotnie burzone przez: Żydów (w 129 p.n.e.), Rzymian, Bizantyjczyków i Arabów. +W czasach chrześcijańskich zabroniono Samarytanom korzystania z góry w celach kultowych, a na jej szczycie wybudowano kościół. Było to jedną z przyczyn buntu Samarytan pod przywództwem Julianusa ben Sabara w roku 529. Po podboju muzułmańskim restrykcje wyraźnie zmniejszyły się. +W pobliżu szczytu góry (ok. 800 m od niego) znajduje się olbrzymi piec służący całopaleniu owiec (głównie) w trakcie samarytańskiej Paschy. Oprócz głównego ołtarza na górze znajdują się również inne, z których najważniejsze to: "Ołtarz Adama i Seta", "Ołtarz Noego" oraz "Ołtarz Izaaka". Z tej góry ma rządzić światem samarytański Mesjasz – Taheb, co ma się zdarzyć w ciągu najbliższych trzech wieków. +Współczesność. +Na górze znajduje się dużych rozmiarów antena satelitarna, o usunięcie której Samarytanie starają się od wielu lat. Mimo obietnic władz Autonomii Palestyńskiej i wielu demonstracji antena nie została jeszcze usunięta. W 2001 roku Izrael umieścił tu także baterię artylerii, przeciw czemu protestowali i protestują wciąż Samarytanie. Na Gerazim prowadzone są od wielu lat intensywne badania archeologiczne. Wspólnota poza Paschą pielgrzymuje na górę również w czasie świąt Szawuot i Sukkot, w trakcie których odbywają się samarytańskie festiwale religijne. +Kawasaki ZX + +ZX – kodowa nazwa sportowych motocykli japońskiej firmy Kawasaki Heavy Industries. Produkowane od 1988 o pojemnościach od 250 cm³ do 1400 cm³. Modele ostatniej generacji noszą przydomek "Ninja". +ZXR 250. +"dane według modelu z 1999 roku" +ZX 400. +"dane według modelu z 1989 roku" +ZXR 400. +"dane według modelu z 2003 roku" +ZX-6R 636. +"dane według modelu z 2004 roku" +ZX-6RR. +"dane według modelu z 2004 roku" +ZX-7R. +"dane według modelu z 2003 roku" +ZX-7RR. +"dane według modelu z 1997 roku" +ZXR 750. +"dane według modelu z 1995 roku" +ZX-9R. +"dane według modelu z 2003 roku" +ZX 10. +"dane według modelu z 1990 roku" +ZX-10R. +"dane według modelu z 2004 roku" +ZX-12R. +"dane według modelu z 2004 roku" +Mistrzostwa Świata w Snowboardzie 2005 + +Mistrzostwa Świata w Snowboardzie 2005 były to szóste mistrzostwa świata w snowboardzie. Odbyły się w kanadyjskim Whistler w dniach 16-22 stycznia 2005 r. Rozegrano 5 konkurencji męskich i 4 kobiece. +Reprezentanci Polski startowali bez sukcesów. Jagna Marczułajtis zajęła 13. miejsce Małgorzata Kukucz 25., Blanka Isielonis 27., a Dorota Żyła 44. miejsce w slalomie równoległym, Paulina Ligocka była 18. w halfpipe'ie. Mateusz Ligocki zajął 20. miejsce w snowcrossie, 47. miejsce w gigancie równoległym, 33. miejsce w halfpipe'ie i 23. miejsce w Big Air. Michał Ligocki był 39 halfpipe'ie i 25 w Big Air. Marek Sąsiadek był 34 w halfpipe'ie. +Albert Diemczenko + +Albert Diemczenko, ros. Альберт Демченко (ur. 27 listopada 1971 w Czusowoju) - saneczkarz rosyjski (specjalista torów lodowych), zdobywca Pucharu Świata w sezonie 2004/2005. +Z zawodu żołnierz, od 1989 startuje w zawodach międzynarodowych, początkowo w barwach ZSRR, potem WNP, wreszcie Rosji. Startował na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Lillehammer (1994, 9. miejsce), Salt Lake City (2002, 5. miejsce) i Turynie (2006, srebrny medal, za Włochem Zöggelerem), wielokrotnie brał udział w innych wielkich imprezach - mistrzostwach świata i Europy. Zajął m.in. 5. miejsce na mistrzostwach Europy w Oberhofie w 2004, zarówno w rywalizacji jedynek mężczyzn, jak i rywalizacji drużynowej. W styczniu 2006 wywalczył w Winterbergu tytuł mistrza Europy w jedynkach. Kolejne tytuły wywalczał w 2010 roku (w jedynkach) i w 2012 (w drużynie). +W 2012 roku wywalczył również pierwsze medale mistrzostw świata - srebrne - w jedynkach i drużynie. +Wielokrotnie zajmował miejsca w czołówce zawodów Pucharu Świata, w sezonie 2002/2003 zajął 4. miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej. W sezonie 2004/2005 jako pierwszy Rosjanin zdobył Puchar Świata. W sezonie 2007/2008 zajął 3. miejsce. +Przydawka + +Przydawka (czasami zwana również "atrybutem") – część zdania określająca rzeczownik, zaimek rzeczowny. Może być wyrażona przymiotnikiem (np. ładny kwiatek), zaimkiem przymiotnym (np. mój kwiatek), imiesłowem przymiotnikowym czynnym (np. rosnący kwiatek), imiesłowem przymiotnikowym biernym (np. podlany kwiatek), liczebnikiem (np. podlałem już trzeci kwiatek), wyrażeniem przyimkowym (np. sweter z wełny). +Przydawka odpowiada na pytania: jaki? jaka? jakie? który? która? które? czyj? czyja? czyje? ile? czego? z czego? +Przydawka charakteryzująca a klasyfikująca. +Jeśli przymiotnik stoi przed rzeczownikiem, przydawkę określa się jako charakteryzującą, tzn. mówiącą o tezie przygodnej. W przeciwnym przypadku - gdy przymiotnik następuje po rzeczowniku - z przydawką klasyfikującą (wyodrębniającą). +Dowód indukcyjny + +Dowód indukcyjny to rozumowanie matematyczne korzystające z zasady indukcji matematycznej. +Zwykle dowody indukcyjne stosowane są w dziedzinach blisko związanych z teorią liczb naturalnych, nie brak jednak dowodów indukcyjnych w innych dziedzinach matematyki. Poprawne rozumowanie indukcyjne wymaga nie tylko wykonania kroku indukcyjnego (porównaj: indukcja matematyczna), ale także podania co najmniej jednego szczególnego przypadku prawdziwości twierdzenia, które się dowodzi. +Przykład dowodu indukcyjnego. +Dowód +17 bateria motorowa artylerii przeciwlotniczej + +Bateria Motorowa Artylerii Przeciwlotniczej Typ A Nr 17 – pododdział artylerii przeciwlotniczej Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Bateria nie występowała w organizacji pokojowej wojska. Została zmobilizowana, zgodnie z planem mobilizacyjnym "W", 24 sierpnia 1939 roku przez 7 Dywizjon Artylerii Przeciwlotniczej w Poznaniu dla 17 Dywizji Piechoty, w składzie której walczyła w kampanii wrześniowej. +1 września 1939 roku bateria ostrzeliwała niemieckie samoloty nad Gnieznem. 4 września w rejonie Turku zestrzeliła 7 samolotów Luftwaffe. 9 września osłaniała stanowiska artylerii 17 DP. W nocy z 12 na 13 września przemaszerowała po osi Modlin-Skotniki-dwór Ktery. 16 września znajdowała się w rejonie Rybna. Następnego dnia, w rejonie Białej Góry została rozbita. Zestrzeliła w sumie 8 samolotów niemieckich, kilkakrotnie także pomagała w odparciu ataku czołgów. +Obsada personalna baterii +Bavaria + +Bavaria ("Bavaria Yachtbau") - stocznia jachtowa w Niemczech, producent jachtów żaglowych i motorowych. Designerem ich jachtów jest biuro projektowe braci Jakobin J&J Design. Wiele z jachtów stoczni Bavaria Yachtbau pływa w firmach czarterowych nad Morzem Śródziemnym. +Otto Meyerhof + +Otto Fritz Meyerhof (ur. 12 kwietnia 1884 w Hanowerze w Niemczech, zm. 6 października 1951 w Filadelfii w USA) – fizjolog i biochemik niemiecki, laureat Nagrody Nobla w 1922 roku. +Pochodził z zamożnej rodziny żydowskiej. Studiował medycynę w Berlinie, następnie biochemię w Strasburgu i Heidelbergu. Od 1912 roku pracował na uniwersytecie w Kilonii, od 1918 roku na stanowisku profesora. W obawie przed nazizmem wyjechał w roku 1938 do Paryża, a dwa lata później do USA, gdzie był gościnnym profesorem Uniwersytetu Pensylwanii w Filadelfii. +Zajmował się przemianami energetycznymi i chemicznymi w tkankach, zwłaszcza w mięśniach. Odkrył zależność między zużyciem tlenu a wytwarzaniem kwasu mlekowego w mięśniach, za co został uhonorowany Nagrodą Nobla w 1922 roku. Niezależnie od niego laureatem został Anglik Archibald Vivian Hill, także zajmujący się procesami energetycznymi w mięśniach. +Neologizm + +Neologizm (z gr. νεος + λογός – nowe słowo) – środek stylistyczny; nowy wyraz utworzony w danym języku, aby nazwać nieznany wcześniej przedmiot czy sytuację lub osiągnąć efekt artystyczny w utworze poetyckim. +W niektórych państwach "neologizmy" powstają w wysokich gremiach rad językowych, które w trosce o czystość własnego języka szukają nowych terminów, by uniknąć zapożyczeń z języków obcych. Z takiego postępowania szczególnie znana jest Francja. Bardziej naturalna jest jednak sytuacja, kiedy wchodzą one do użycia poprzez zapożyczenie z innego języka. Tak działo się od zawsze, stąd w polszczyźnie dawniejsze "makaronizmy" dzisiaj uważane są już za zwykłe słowa, bez których nie można się obejść na co dzień. +Inaczej rzecz ma się z "neologizmami" powstałymi na nazwanie rzeczy istniejących w fikcji literackiej. Wielu literatów tworzy takie słowa, aby uzupełnić brakujące im terminy potrzebne w danym kontekście. +W literaturze polskiej neologizmy zaczęto stosować w polskim modernizmie jednak stosował je również Cyprian Kamil Norwid. Dopiero w Młodej Polsce neologizacja poezji najpierw objęła futurystów – Bruno Jasieński, Stanisław Młodożeniec (m.in. "Przyśpiew", "XX wiek", "W drodze") – a następnie mistrzów neologizmu i postmodernizmu – Juliana Tuwima i Bolesława Leśmiana. Tuwim ("Bal w operze", "Słopiewnie") i Leśmian ("Dusiołek", "Śnigrobek"), a także Aleksander Wat marzyli o stworzeniu języka pozarozumowego, który swoją neologistyczną znaczeniowością nie budził racjonalnych skojarzeń, lecz przeciwnie- irracjonalne odczucia. Na epoce języka pozarozumowego wzorowali się później Miron Białoszewski i Stanisław Lem. +Uważa się, że mistrzami neologizmów na świecie byli Leśmian i James Joyce. Leśmian zreformował zupełnie wszystkie skojarzeniowo ważne człony językowe dochodząc do perfekcji budowania nastroju słowami. Joyce ukazał mistrzostwo w "Finnegans Wake" – dziele, które nie tylko nie może być zakwalifikowane do jakiejkolwiek kategorii i gatunku, ale zgodnie z hipotezami język jakim jest pisany utwór ten ma być zrozumiały dla całej ludzkości pozarozumowo. +Pisarze zagraniczni, którzy zajmują się i zajmowali neologizmami to Lewis Carroll, George Orwell, Samuel Beckett, Brian Aldiss, J.R.R. Tolkien, Terry Pratchett i wielu innych. +Trzęsienie ziemi w Tangshan (1976) + +Trzęsienie ziemi w Tangshan (唐山大地震) - trzęsienie ziemi, które nawiedziło 28 lipca 1976 o godz. 3:52 chińskie miasto Tangshan i jego okolice. Uznawane jest za najtragiczniejsze trzęsienie w czasach nowożytnych - oficjalne dane władz chińskich mówią o 242 419 ofiarach, choć niektóre źródła szacują ich liczbę na trzykrotnie większą. Trzęsienie miało siłę 8,2 w skali Richtera, podczas gdy oficjalne źródła rządowe mówią o sile 7,5 lub 7,8. +Podczas trzęsienia ziemi miasto Tangshan zostało niemal całkowicie zniszczone. Uległo zniszczeniom 78% budynków przemysłowych, 90% budynków mieszkalnych, a także znacząca część infrastruktuty technicznej. Dodatkowe zniszczenie przyniosły wstrząsy wtórne, zwłaszcza wstrząs o magnitudzie 7,1, który nawiedził miasto 15 godzin po pierwszym wstrząsie. Zginęło wówczas także wiele osób, które przeżyło pierwszy wstrząs, a które nadal znajdowały się pod gruzami budynków. Wstrząsy odczuwane były na znacznym obszarze Chin wschodnich, także w oddalonym o 140 km Pekinie. +Rząd Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej odmówił przyjęcia pomocy międzynarodowej, ale działania podjęte przez Chińczyków uznano później za niewystarczające. Co więcej, rząd krytykowano za zignorowanie ostrzeżeń naukowców przed grożącym trzęsieniem ziemi. Wiele osób donosiło, że w noc trzęsienia zaobserwowali dziwne światła, które, jak wiele wskazuje, mogą być zwiastunem wstrząsu sejsmicznego. +Trzęsienie ziemi w Tangshan uznane zostało przez wielu Chińczyków za część nieszczęśliwego ciągu wydarzeń, które nazywane jest niekiedy "przekleństwem roku 1976". Wcześniej tego roku zmarli bowiem działacze komunistyczni Zhou Enlai i Zhu De, a później po katastrofie władzę próbowała przejąć banda czworga. Uważa się także, że sama katastrofa i jej skutki przyczyniły się do zakończenia rewolucji kulturalnej. +Trzęsienie ziemi w Tangshan stanowi drugie pod względem liczby ofiar trzęsienie ziemi, jakie odnotowano w historii świata. Największe miało miejsce również w Chinach, trzęsienie ziemi w Shaanxi w 1556 przyniosło śmierć prawdopodobnie około 830 tys. osób (za USGS). +Dolina Ciemnosmreczyńska + +Dolina Ciemnosmreczyńska (słow. "Temnosmrečinská dolina", niem. "Smrečiner Tal", węg. "Szmrecsini-völgy") – słowacka dolina położona na terenie Tatr Wysokich, odgałęzienie Doliny Koprowej ("Kôprová dolina") podchodzące pod główną grań Tatr. +Opis. +Doliny Koprową i Ciemnosmreczyńską rozdziela wysoki (ok. 170 m) próg skalny, z którego spadające wody Ciemnosmreczyńskiego Potoku ("Temnosmrečinský potok") tworzą Ciemnosmreczyńską Siklawę ("Vajanského vodopád"). Za nim, w kotle polodowcowym, znajduje się Niżni Ciemnosmreczyński Staw ("Nižné Temnosmrečinské pleso"), położony na wysokości ok. 1674 m n.p.m., 13,0 ha i ok. 38,0 m głębokości. Jest to trzeci pod względem wielkości staw tatrzański na Słowacji i największy w Dolinie Koprowej. Kolejny próg oddziela położony nieco wyżej drugi kocioł polodowcowy wypełniony wodami Wyżniego Ciemnosmreczyńskiego Stawu ("Vyšné Temnosmrečinské pleso", 1716 m), 4,5 ha i ok. 20,0 m głębokości. Następny próg skalny oddziela Dolinę Piarżystą ("Piargová dolina") od dolnej części Doliny Ciemnosmreczyńskiej. Dolina Ciemnosmreczyńska ma 4 piętra. +W literaturze można spotkać się także z nazewnictwem, w którym Dolina Piarżysta obejmuje całą Dolinę Ciemnosmreczyńską i Piarżystą, oraz podziałem, w którym Dolinka Kobyla ("Kobylia dolinka") jest odgałęzieniem tak pojmowanej Doliny Ciemnosmreczyńskiej oddzielonej od Doliny Koprowej progiem skalnym znajdującym się jeszcze w strefie lasu. +Pierwszą znaną osobą w Dolinie Ciemnosmreczyńskiej był Georg Pongrátz, który około 1750 r. mierzył głębokość Niżniego Ciemnosmreczyńskiego Stawu. 26 sierpnia 1751 r. był nad tym stawem także Jakob Buchholtz z dwoma pomocnikami. Zimą jako pierwsi pojawili się w dolinie W. Skórczewski i Stanisław Gąsienica Byrcyn 7 lutego 1914 r. +Przed drugą wojną światową Dolina Ciemnosmreczyńska była często odwiedzana przez turystów, głównie polskich, po wojnie ruch turystyczny znacznie się tutaj zmniejszył w wyniku zamknięcia szlaku turystycznego z przełęczy Liliowe przez Zawory. +Topografia. +W Dolinie Ciemnosmreczyńskiej jest poprowadzony znakowany szlak turystyczny nad brzeg Niżniego Ciemnosmreczyńskiego Stawu. Dawniej prowadziła także droga na dostępne obecnie tylko od strony polskiej Wrota Chałubińskiego. Obecnie Dolina Ciemnosmreczyńska leży na obszarze ochrony ścisłej i wolno w niej poruszać się tylko po oznaczonych trasach. +Szlaki turystyczne. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +Region Waloński + +Region Waloński (fr.: "Région Wallonne") – francuskojęzyczny region w południowej części Belgii, stanowiący jeden z trzech regionów federalnych tego kraju. Jego stolicą jest Namur. +Nazwa Walonii, podobnie jak nazwa Walii, pochodzi od starogermańskiego słowa "Walh" (obcy). Obydwa regiony mają "obce" (niegermańskie) języki i kulturę. +Podział administracyjny. +Ważniejsze miasta, poza stolicą regionu, to Liège, Charleroi, Mons, Tournai, Arlon, Bastogne, Wavre, Verviers i Dinant. +Języki lokalne. +Właściwie mieszkańcy Walonii posługują się kilkoma różnymi językami i dialektami. Za języki regionalne zostały uznane: champenois, gaumais, pikardyjski oraz waloński. Ponadto na całym obszarze regionu występuje dialekt belgijski języka francuskiego. Natomiast w kilku gminach we wschodniej Walonii zamieszkuje mniejszość niemieckojęzyczna. +Historia. +W wyniku działalności autonomicznego ruchu flamandzkiego w 1962 ustalono granicę językową francusko-niderlandzką tworząc w ten sposób region francuskojęzyczny. W 1970 utworzono wspólnotę francuską, obejmującą instytucje i osoby w Walonii oraz instytucje francuskojęzyczne w Brukseli, a także Wspólnotę Niemieckojęzyczną dla wschodniej Walonii. W 1980 określono obszar regionu autonomicznego Walonii, który początkowo nie pokrywał się z podziałem administracyjnym Belgii na prowincje. Dlatego po utworzeniu w 1989 Regionu Stołecznego Brukseli, w 1995 wydzielono z Brabancji francuskojęzyczną Brabancję Walońską. Od 1993 Walonia jest regionem federalnym. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Oficjalna strona Regionu +Pierre Baillot + +Pierre Marie François de Sales Baillot (ur. 1 października 1771 w Passy, zm. 15 września 1842 w Paryżu) – to francuski skrzypek i kompozytor. +Komponował głównie utwory na skrzypce. +Nowe Miasto + +Białoruś. +biał. Новае Места +Czechy. +cz. Nové Město +Słowacja. +słow. Nové Mesto +Ukraina. +ukr. Нове Місто +Mitsui + +Linki zewnętrzne. +http://www.mes.co.jp/english/company/history.html +Arkadiusz Nowak + +Arkadiusz Nowak (ur. 28 listopada 1966 w Rybniku) – katolicki prezbiter, kamilianin, od 2007 roku prowincjał polskiej prowincji zgromadzenia, zaangażowany w działania dla dobra chorych w szczególności osób zakażonych wirusem HIV. Prezes fundacji Instytut Praw Pacjenta i Edukacji Zdrowotnej. +Życiorys. +Początkowo pracował na poczcie - był naczelnikiem Urzędu Pocztowego w Bełku. Funkcję naczelnika poczty pełnił jako najmłodszy w Polsce. Do zakonu Kamilianów wstąpił w 1985 roku. Święcenia kapłańskie przyjął 28 maja 1993 w Stanowicach, skąd pochodzi. Ukończył studia filozoficzno-teologiczne na Papieskim Wydziale Teologicznym w Warszawie oraz socjologię na Uniwersytecie Szczecińskim. W czasie studiów podjął decyzję, że w ramach realizacji charyzmatu zakonnego będzie pracował z osobami uzależnionymi od narkotyków i chorymi na AIDS. +Po raz pierwszy wystąpił w obronie chorych na AIDS w TVP w 1989. W 1990 w Konstancinie otworzył pierwszy dom opieki dla osób zakażonych wirusem HIV, a następnie podobny ośrodek w Piastowie oraz placówkę hospicyjną w Karczewie i kolejny ośrodek w Otwocku. +W latach 1995–2002 był doradcą ministra zdrowia ds. AIDS i narkomanii. W 1993 założył Polską Fundację Pomocy Humanitarnej "Res Humanae", a w 2002 był jednym ze współzałożycieli Fundacji Edukacji Społecznej. W listopadzie 2004 założył Instytut Praw Pacjenta i Edukacji Zdrowotnej - fundację, której celem jest promowanie praw pacjenta. Uczestniczy też w pracach Koalicji "Teraz Zdrowie". Działał na rzecz utworzenia Krajowego Programu Przeciwdziałania AIDS. Uczestniczy w pracach Krajowego Centrum ds. AIDS. +Ciekawostki. +Przyjaźni się z Michałem Wiśniewskim. W 2003 roku na kole podbiegunowym, w Kirunie na północy Szwecji odprawił Mszę, w czasie której lider Ich Troje i Marta Wiśniewska udzielili sobie ślubu. Ochrzcił także ich dwójkę dzieci, Fabienne i Xaviera. +Lana i Andy Wachowscy + +Lana Wachowski (ur. 21 czerwca 1965 jako Laurence „Larry” Wachowski) i Andrew „Andy” Wachowski (ur. 29 grudnia 1967) – rodzeństwo, duet reżyserski, producencki i pisarski. +Urodzili się w Chicago w polsko-amerykańskiej rodzinie. Zrezygnowali z college’u dla pracy w show-biznesie. Przed rozpoczęciem wielkiej kariery prowadzili zakład stolarski w Chicago, tworzyli komiksy. +Od czasu sukcesu "Matrix" studia filmowe interesują się ich pracą. "Trimark" wykupił napisany lata wcześniej, niezrealizowany scenariusz pod tytułem "Carnivore" – opowieść o pensjonacie, którego goście znikają. Rodzeństwo zostanie producentami wykonawczymi, a reżyserem prawdopodobnie George Romero – weteran horroru ("Dawn of the Dead", 1978). +Wachowscy są współproducentami i scenarzystami filmu "V jak Vendetta". +Życie osobiste. +Andy jest żonaty z Alisą Blasingame od 1991 roku. +W lipcu 2012 Lana Wachowski po raz pierwszy wystąpiła publicznie jako kobieta po zakończonej operacji zmiany płci. +Ingrid Aleksandra + +Ingrid Alexandra Glücksburg (ur. 21 stycznia 2004 w Oslo) - księżniczka norweska. +Córka następcy tronu Norwegii Haakona i księżnej Mette-Marit. Ma starszego przyrodniego brata Mariusa (ur. 1997) oraz młodszego brata Sverra Magnusa (ur. 2005) . +Jest pierwszą kobietą objętą reformą konstytucji z 1990 i nowymi zasadami następstwa tronu. Dzięki wprowadzeniu równouprawnienia płci jest druga w linii następstwa tronu Norwegii po swoim ojcu. Norwegia, w odróżnieniu od Szwecji, przyznała prawa do następstwa kobietom urodzonym dopiero po reformie konstytucji, wskutek czego książę Haakon i jego córka zachowali pierwszeństwo przed najstarszą córką króla Haralda V, księżniczką Marthą Louise. +27 kwietnia 2004 w kaplicy zamkowej Pałacu w Oslo odbył się jej chrzest. Rodzicami chrzestnymi zostali: król Norwegii i dziadek Ingrid Harald V Glücksburg, następca tronu Danii książę Fryderyk Glücksburg, następczyni tronu Szwecji Wiktoria Bernadotte, następca tronu Hiszpanii Filip Burbon, księżniczka Marta Glücksburg, babcia Ingrid Marit Tjessem. +Księżniczka jest daleką, ale bezpośrednią potomkinią królowej brytyjskiej Wiktorii, dzięki czemu znajduje się także na liście sukcesji tronu Wielkiej Brytanii. W lutym 2007 znajdowała się na 63. pozycji tej listy, bezpośrednio po dziadku Haraldzie V, ojcu księciu Haakonie i bracie. +Dyplomata + +Dyplomata lub przedstawiciel dyplomatyczny (ang. "diplomatic representative", fr. "représentant diplomatique", niem. "diplomatischer Vertreter") – oficjalny przedstawiciel państwa za granicą, czyli zatrudniony w dyplomacji. +Państwo, które dyplomata reprezentuje nazywamy "państwem wysyłającym", zaś państwo, w którym jest akredytowany – "państwem przyjmującym". Wszyscy przedstawiciele dyplomatyczni akredytowani w określonym państwie tworzą jego korpus dyplomatyczny. +Historia. +Początki działalności, którą dziś nazywamy służbą zagraniczną sięgają czasów starożytnych. Starożytna Grecja i Rzym posługiwały się wysłannikami w celu załatwienia konkretnych spraw, załagodzenia sporu, uzgodnienia umowy, itp. W Grecji nazywano ich "presbeis", zaś w Rzymie "oratores" lub "legati". Podstawowymi umiejętnościami, którymi musieli się oznaczać wysłannicy były umiejętności krasomówcze oraz znajomość retoryki i erystyki. Rzym starożytny posiadał także szczególny rodzaj służby zagranicznej – "feciales". Wysyłano ich wtedy, gdy domagano się wyjaśnień i odszkodowania od innego kraju. Ich misja często poprzedzała rozpoczęcie wojny. +Na przełomie średniowiecza i czasów nowożytnych stałą służbę dyplomatyczną zorganizowały niektóre republiki włoskie. Pierwszy regulamin dyplomatyczny dla swoich posłów ("oratores") wydała Wenecja. Z czasem szczególnie rozwinięte i wpływowe stały się służby dyplomatyczne Francji i Anglii. +Zadania dyplomaty. +Dyplomata może też niekiedy pełnić niektóre funkcje konsularne, ale nie wchodzą one w zakres typowych zadań przedstawiciela dyplomatycznego. Szerzej o zadaniach dyplomaty zobacz funkcje dyplomatyczne. Dla zabezpieczenia właściwego wykonywania swoich funkcji przedstawicielom dyplomatycznym przysługuje szereg przywilejów i immunitetów dyplomatycznych. Przysługują one także członkom ich najbliższych rodzin zamieszkałym we wspólnym gospodarstwie domowym (współmałżonek, dzieci). +Gajec + +Gajec (niem. "Neuendorf") – wieś sołecka w Polsce położona w województwie lubuskim, w powiecie słubickim, w gminie Rzepin. +Miejscowość położona jest na drodze powiatowej Nowe Biskupice-Rzepin. +Historia. +Wieś po raz pierwszy wzmiankowana w 1461 roku w rejestrze dóbr ziemi torzymskiej. W XVI wieku należała do hrabiny Katarzyny, żony Jana Hohenzollerna (inaczej Hansa von Küstrin lub Jan z Kostrzyna). Miała początkowo charakter folwarku, co znajduje odzwierciedlenie w jej niemieckiej nazwie (Neuendorf). We wsi stał dwór, zbudowany w XVIII wieku jako dworek myśliwski, jego ruiny stały jeszcze w latach 90. XX w. W roku 1939 wieś liczyła 267 mieszkańców, podobna liczba mieszkańców utrzymuje się do dzisiaj. We wsi znajduje się kamienny kościół (obecnie pw. Świętej Rodziny, parafia Rzepin), zbudowany około roku 1800, dawniej od strony zachodniej posiadał on drewnianą wieżę dzwonniczą. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa gorzowskiego. +W miejscowości działało Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne podległe pod "Zakład Rolny Kowalów" wschodzący w skład "Lubuskiego Kombinatu Rolnego Rzepin". +Przyroda. +Otoczenie wsi stanowią od strony północnej pola uprawne, a od strony południowej rozległe obszary leśne Puszczy Rzepińskiej - prawie wyłącznie monokultury sosnowe. +Kilka kilometrów na południe od wsi znajduje się grupa jezior polodowcowych: Oczko, Głębiniec, Papienko. Nad jez. Papienko utworzono rezerwat przyrody chroniący cenną roślinność torfowiskową, rośnie tam m.in. rzadki gatunek storczyka wątlik błotny "Hammarbya paludosa". Kilka kilometrów na północny zachód od wsi znajduje się kolejny rezerwat torfowiskowy "Torfowiska Sułowskie", w którym występuje m.in. roślina owadożerna aldrowanda pęcherzykowata "Aldrovanda vesiculosa". W okolicy wsi znajduje się też kilka użytków ekologicznych, chroniących tereny podmokłe. +Grand Theft Auto III + +Grand Theft Auto III (GTA 3) – komputerowa gra akcji wyprodukowana przez Rockstar North i wydana przez Rockstar Games w październiku 2001 na konsolę PlayStation 2, w maju 2002 na Microsoft Windows, w listopadzie 2003 na konsolę Xbox, a dla systemu OS X – 12 listopada 2010 w Europie i 22 listopada 2010 w Ameryce Północnej. Jest czwartą częścią serii "Grand Theft Auto". W Polsce została wydana przez firmę Play-It w roku 2002. Do dystrybucji gra trafiła w wersji oryginalnej, dopiero po jej premierze w Internecie pojawiła się oficjalna łata, spolszczająca grę do wersji kinowej (przetłumaczone napisy, dialogi pozostawione zostały w wersji oryginalnej). Aktualizacja zawierała także mapę metropolii, po której poruszał się gracz. +Gra była przełomem zarówno dla serii, jak i dla całego świata gier komputerowych. "Grand Theft Auto III" od razu zyskało sobie dobrą opinię zarówno u graczy, jak i recenzentów – większość portali internetowych i magazynów traktujących o grach komputerowych zachwycała się grą i stawiała jej bardzo wysokie noty (także w Polsce: "CD-Action" – 10/10; "Click!" – 6/6; "Play" – 9,3/10; Imperium Gier – 9,8/10; GRY-OnLine – 9,1). +Trzecia część jest pierwszą z serii, która została osadzona w całości w trójwymiarze. Nowością była szczegółowa grafika i pieczołowicie odwzorowane modele samochodów, różnorodność i poziom trudności misji. +Rozgrywka. +Gracz wciela się w Claude'a Speeda żyjącego w mieście Liberty City. W trakcie całej gry nie wiadomo, jak ma na imię główny bohater. Dopiero z gry "" wynika, że ma na imię Claude. Samo miasto podzielone jest na trzy części, do których dostęp odblokowuje się po przejściu konkretnej misji. Po mieście chodzą inni mieszkańcy sterowani przez sztuczną inteligencję. Gdy wrogi gang rozpozna gracza zacznie do niego strzelać. W przypadku śmierci głównego bohatera odradza się on w najbliższym szpitalu, a po złapaniu przez policję jest odwożony na komisariat. W obu przypadkach zabierane są wszystkie bronie. +Gracz ma pełną dowolność w tym, co robi. Może wykonywać podstawowe misje, które ukazują główny wątek fabularny przez przerywniki filmowe. Dostępne są także misje poboczne takie jak jazda taksówką, ambulansem czy radiowozem. Specjalnymi zadaniami są tzw. rozwałki podczas których postać dostaje broń i ma za zadanie zabić daną liczbę osób w podanym czasie. Za wykonywane misji postać jest nagradzana dodatkowymi pieniędzmi, które może wydać na nową broń lub pancerz. +Gracz może walczyć wręcz, rzucać granaty lub używać broni palnej takiej jak pistolety czy karabiny. Poza chodzeniem pieszo postać potrafi jeździć samochodami, metrem i sterować łodziami. Każdy z pojazdów może zostać uszkodzony i w konsekwencji zniszczony. Model zniszczeń pokazuje która część jest uszkodzona przykładowo przez zarysowanie maski lub wybicie szyby. +Gdy postać złamie prawo np. strzelając do innej osoby stopień zainteresowania przez policję wzrośnie. Im dłużej gracz popełnia wykroczenia tym większe posiłki są wysyłane, a oprócz policji ścigają go agenci federalni i wojsko. +W całym Liberty City rozlokowane są gangi: Mafia Rodziny Leone, Triada, Diablos, Yardies, Yakuza, Kartel Kolumbijski, Red Jacks, Purple Nines i Mafia rodziny Forelli. Każdy z nich rządzi konkretną dzielnicą, ma własne ubrania i pojazd. Niezależnie od gracza gdy grupy wrogich gangów znajdą się niedaleko to zaczną do siebie strzelać. +Kontrowersje. +"Grand Theft Auto III" zostało uznane za kontrowersyjne, ze względu na swoją treść. Gracz nagradzany jest za wykonywanie różnych nielegalnych i niemoralnych czynów jak na przykład (często wymieniana przez prasę) kradzież samochodu, zwabienie do niego prostytutki, odbycie z nią stosunku, a następnie zabicie jej i zabranie pieniędzy. +Z tego powodu gra nie została dopuszczona do dystrybucji w Australii – był to jedyny kraj, w którym tak się stało, więc w ostateczności zdecydowano, aby wydać „okrojoną” wersję gry. Różni krytycy wysuwali przypuszczenia, że dzieci, grające w tego rodzaju gry, mogą wykazywać socjopatyczne stosunki do otoczenia. Już nieraz w Stanach Zjednoczonych osoby aresztowane pod zarzutem kradzieży samochodów powoływały się na "Grand Theft Auto". +20 października 2003 roku szesnastoletni William Buckner oraz jego czternastoletni przyrodni brat Joshua zastrzelili 45-letniego Aarona Hamela, a poważnie ranili 19-letnią Kimberly Bede, których samochód został ostrzelany z broni kalibru .22 cala. Rodzeństwo przyznało się do winy. Zeznali, że broń znaleźli w domu, a zainspirowani "Grand Theft Auto III", zaczęli strzelać do przypadkowo wybranych ludzi. Jack Thompson i Richard Talley, przedstawiciele rodzin zamordowanych, zeznawali przed sądem, iż gra inspiruje do przemocy, a także ćwiczy w strzelaniu do ludzi i pojazdów. Douglas Lowenstein, prezes stowarzyszenia Entertainment Software Association, stwierdził, że całe zajście na pewno było ogromną tragedią, jednak nieuzasadnione jest zrzucanie winy na grę, mającej kilka milionów graczy na całym świecie. +Seria "Grand Theft Auto" od samego jej początku służyła jako argument potwierdzający szkodliwość gier komputerowych. Pojawienie się "Grand Theft Auto III" tylko spotęgowało te zarzuty. +Wersja BETA. +Wersja beta została wydana w 2008 roku jako modyfikacja do Grand Theft Auto III. Modyfikacja przywracała wszystko to co zostało wcześniej usunięte, głównie z powodu Ataku Terrorystycznego na WTC Beta została wycofana ze względu na i tak zbyt dużą brutalność. +Z okazji 10-lecia premiery Grand Theft Auto III przedstawiciele Rockstar udzielili wielu odpowiedzi na pytania graczy odnośnie GTA III. W części z nich zaprzeczyli jakoby w wersji beta znajdowały się misje terrorystyczne czy też autobusy pełne dzieci. Wśród zdań pojawiło się określenie "ery GTA III" która została zakończona przez Grand Theft Auto IV (które rozpoczęło "erę GTA IV"), a co za tym idzie – postacie z jednego uniwersum nigdy nie pojawią się w drugim. +Wittgenstein (film) + +Wittgenstein – brytyjski biograficzny film fabularny z 1993 r., w reżyserii Dereka Jarmana. +Treść. +Film opowiada o życiu austriackiego filozofa Ludwiga Wittgensteina. Stworzony jest w estetyce teatralnej, w której bardzo wiele miejsca poświęcono słowu, i to nie tylko dialogom, ale i monologom, wygłaszanym m.in. przez zielonego Marsjanina, którego filozof spotyka na swej drodze. +Film przedstawia dzieciństwo Ludwiga, czas jego studiów, ochotniczego uczestnictwa w pierwszej wojnie światowej, pobyt na wsi austriackiej, gdzie uczył dzieci w szkole podstawowej, wyjazd do Związku Radzieckiego, gdzie chciał pracować jako robotnik, okres nauczania w Cambridge, odcięcia się od świata w Norwegii. Opowiada również o spotkaniach z Bertrandem Russellem, z Johnem M. Keynesem, trudność, z jaką w purytańskiej Wielkiej Brytanii Wittgenstein przeżywał – i jednocześnie zwalczał – swoją orientację homoseksualną. Obok elementów biograficznych, film pełen jest cytatów z tekstów filozofa, które pozwalają nie tylko na poznanie choćby znikomej części jego dzieła, ale dają również pewne pojęcie o tym, w jaki sposób Wittgenstein postrzegał swoją pracę filozoficzną, i jak odpowiedzialny był za wszystko, co mówi. +Ważne miejsce w filmie Jarmana – jak i w życiu samego Wittgensteina – zajmuje sztuka filmowa jako taka. Ulubioną rozrywką Wittgensteina, obok czytania powieści kryminalnych, było chodzenie do kina, gdzie siadał w pierwszym rzędzie, by móc całkowicie wejść w klimat tego, co widział. Był on jednak przekonany, że Brytyjczycy nie potrafią zrobić przyzwoitego filmu, wolał wówczas produkcje amerykańskie (westerny i melodramaty). Jego ulubioną aktorką była Betty Grable (znana m.in. z "The Gay Divorcee" Marka Sandricha). +Bielany (Toruń) + +Bielany (niem. "Weißhof") – część miasta Torunia. Granice Bielan wyznaczają: Szosa Chełmińska, ulice Świętego Józefa, Gagarina, Reja i Fałata, teren lotniska, las za fortem VIII oraz las pomiędzy ulicami Polną i Jelenią. +Pochodzenie nazwy osiedla. +Nazwa osiedla pochodzi prawdopodobnie od charakteru okolicznych gleb – piasków, Bielany położone są pośród lasów sosnowych porastających wydmy. . +Historia. +Od ok. połowy XVII wieku na Bielanach znajdowało się miejsce straceń przestępców (tzw. Wiesiołki, Galgenberg, Szubieniczne Wzgórze). Obecnie dokładnie w tym miejscu stoi budynek basenu, a grunt pochodzący ze splantowanego wzgórza stanowi podbudowę ulicy św. Józefa, biegnącej częściowo na nasypie. Po 1688 Bielany należały do przybyłego z Gdańska D. K. Janitzena, wówczas do Bielan przyłączone zostało Podborowno – folwark należący do Pawła Stranskiego (jego płyta nagrobna, przeniesiona ze zlikwidowanej części cmentarza św. Jerzego znajduje się w kościele pw. Matki Boskiej Zwycięskiej w dzielnicy Mokre). +Już od końca średniowiecza Bielany były miejscem, z którego wodę pitną czerpał Toruń, w latach 1893-1894 powstała tu nowoczesna stacja wodociągów „Stare Bielany”. +W latach 20. XX wieku na Bielanach zostali osadzeni Redemptoryści, powstała kaplica, następnie zaś około 1960 Kościół Świętego Józefa, wchodzący w skład Sanktuarium Matki Bożej Nieustającej Pomocy. W latach 60. XX wieku został oddany do użytku Wojewódzki Szpital Zespolony im. Ludwika Rydygiera. +Charakter dzielnicy. +Zróżnicowany - są zarówno duże osiedla mieszkaniowe (jedno- i wielorodzinne), jak i lasy, parki. +Na Bielanach znajduje się miasteczko uniwersyteckie Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika: rektorat z aulą, Biblioteka Główna, Wydziały: Chemii, Biologii, Prawa i Administracji, Ekonomii i Zarządzania. Pierwsze budynki powstały w latach 70. XX wieku według projektów warszawskich architektów, pod kierunkiem arch. Ryszarda Karłowicza. Najnowszym obiektem dydaktycznym jest Collegium Humanisticum, mieszczące humanistyczne wydziały toruńskiego uniwersytetu. +Osiedla wchodzące w skład Bielan. +Dzielnica Bielany od wschodu graniczy z Chełmińskim Przedmieściem, od południa z Bydgoskim Przedmieściem, na północ od Bielan znajdują się Wrzosy oraz w dalszej części rozciągają się lasy, pośród których położona jest leśna osada Barbarka. +Historycznie dzielnica podzielona jest na dwie części: część północna (do ulicy Polnej włącznie) to Stare Bielany (Weißhof), część południowa (do ulicy Fałata) to Nowe Bielany (Neu Weißhof). Osiedla na Bielanach to: +Infrastruktura. +Na terenie Bielan znajduje się kilkanaście szkół i przedszkoli, liczne placówki handlowe, trzy uczelnie wyższe, kluby studenckie, kina Niebieski Kocyk i Kino Diecezjalne oraz Klub Studencki Od Nowa. Wokół jest sporo terenów rekreacyjnych, lasów i parków. +We wschodniej części Bielan znajduje się zespół budynków kościoła i klasztoru O.O. Redemptorystów, z budynkami Wyższej Szkoły Kultury Społecznej i Medialnej, Domem Pielgrzyma, studiem Telewizji Trwam (ponad 700 m kw.) oraz kilkoma obiektami sportowymi (otwartymi i halowymi). Naprzeciw kompleksu klasztornego ulokowano 4 szkoły średnie, zawodowe i ogólnokształcące oraz basen Zespołu Szkół Mechaniczno-Elektrycznych. Pomiędzy Osiedlem św. Klemensa a Osiedlem Uniwersyteckim powstaje Uniwersyteckie Centrum Sportu. +Budynki użyteczności publicznej. +Na Bielanach znajduje się Wojewódzki Szpital Zespolony im. Ludwika Rydgiera. Kościół znajduje się na ulicy Św. Józefa. Oprócz tego znajduje się tutaj początek ścieżki przyrodniczo-dydaktycznej. +Komunikacja miejska. +Na obszarze dzielnicy można poruszać się autobusami. Dostępnymi liniami dziennymi są 0, 11, 15, 17, 18, 26, 20, 34, 36, 40, natomiast ruch nocny obsługują linie 02 oraz 04. Oprócz tego możliwe jest poruszanie się tramwajami po południu miasta. W latach 2012-2013 sieć tramwajowa na Bielanach zostanie rozbudowana o odcinek Sienkiewicza - Gagarina - Szosa Okrężna. +Przewóz kabotażowy + +Żegluga kabotażowa to żegluga pomiędzy portami tego samego państwa. Jeśli odbywa się w obrębie jednego morza nazywana jest kabotażem małym (np. Gdynia-Świnoujście lub Sztokholm-Ystad). Jeśli porty te znajdują się na różnych morzach to mówimy o kabotażu wielkim (np. Archangielsk-Władywostok lub Nowy Jork-San Francisco). Często (chociaż błędnie) kabotażem nazywa się ogólnie żeglugę przybrzeżną. +Transport kabotażowy to z kolei przewozy wykonywane koleją, pojazdem samochodowym lub samolotem zarejestrowanym w innym państwie, bądź wykonywane przez przedsiębiorstwo zarejestrowane na terenie innego państwa, niż wykonywana usługa. Na przykład: pojazd zarejestrowany w Polsce, a wykorzystywany do przewozu towarów bądź osób w Belgii. +Termin pochodzi od nazwiska XV-wiecznego podróżnika i odkrywcy Giovanniego Cabota, który zwykł był poruszać się wzdłuż wybrzeży badanych lądów. +Gmina Woźniki + +Gmina Woźniki (do 1976 "gmina Psary") – gmina miejsko-wiejska leżąca na obszarze powiatu lublinieckiego. +Oprócz miasta Woźniki, w skład gminy wchodzą także sołectwa: Babienica, Czarny Las, Dyrdy, Kamienica, Kamieńskie Młyny, Ligota Woźnicka, Lubsza, Piasek oraz Psary. +Położenie geograficzne. + Woźniki położona jest na terenie Wyżyny Wieluńsko - Woźnickiej. Najwyższym wzniesieniem na jej obszarze jest Góra Grojec - 365 m n.p.m.. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Koszęcin, Boronów +Starcza, Konopiska +Kalety, Miasteczko Śląskie, Ożarowice +Koziegłowy +Polica + +Polica (1369 m) – szczyt w Paśmie Policy, położonym po północno-wschodniej stronie przełęczy Krowiarki. Według opracowanej przez Jerzego Kondrackiego regionalizacji fizycznogeograficznej Polski pasmo to wchodzi w skład Pasma Babiogórskiego w Beskidzie Żywieckim. Dawniej szczyt nosił nazwę "Police". Słowo "police" jest pochodzenia wołoskiego i oznaczało półkę, na której w bacówce trzymano sery. +Topografia. +Polica jest zwornikiem dla odbiegającego w południowo-wschodnim kierunku niewiele niższego grzbietu Czyrńca (1318 m). Grzbiet ten opada do Przełęczy Zubrzyckiej (877 m), przez którą Pasmo Policy łączy się z Beskidem Orawsko-Podhalańskim. Biegnie nim przez Policę, przełęcz Krowiarki i dalej Pasmem Babiogórskim Wielki Europejski Dział Wodny między zlewiskami Bałtyku i Morza Czarnego. Pónocno-zachodnie stoki Policy opadają do doliny Skawicy, wcina się w nie głęboka dolina potoku Skawica Górna. +Historia. +Grzbietem od Babiej Góry przez Krowiarki do Policy i dalej grzbietem Czyrńca do 1918 biegła granica galicyjsko-węgierska, a w latach 1918–1920 polsko-czechosłowacka. Prowadził tędy szlak przemytniczy zwany tabakowym chodnikiem. W okresie międzywojennym, po przyłączeniu Górnej Orawy do Polski cały szczyt Policy znalazł się w granicach Rzeczypospolitej. W czasie II wojny światowej Górna Orawa została włączona do Słowacji i grzbiet ten oddzielał Słowację od Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Ustawiono na nim liczne słupki graniczne z literami S i D. Po wojnie i zlikwidowaniu tej granicy słupki zostały powywracane. W czasie II wojny światowej masyw Policy dawał schronienie partyzantom AK. M.in. pod Policą w dolinie Głębokiego Potoku mieli drewniano-ziemny bunkier. Jesienią 1944 Niemcy przeprowadzili wielką obławę na partyzantów. Wobec ogromnej przewagi nieprzyjaciela partyzanci wycofali się, nie podejmując walki. Obława przyniosła Niemcom niewielkie skutki, w odwecie dokonali pacyfikacji miejscowości Sidzina. +2 kwietnia 1969 na stokach Policy rozbił się samolot PLL LOT. W katastrofie zginęli wszyscy członkowie ekipy i pasażerowie, w tym znany językoznawca Zenon Klemensiewicz. Fakt ten upamiętnia krzyż ze stosownym napisem. Na krzyżu umieszczono dodatkową tabliczkę wykonaną z resztek poszycia samolotu z informacją o oddziale partyzanckim działającym w tym rejonie. Ówczesne władze nie ujawniły przyczyn katastrofy, najprawdopodobniej były to błędy w nawigacji spowodowane przez brak odpowiedniego wyposażenia lotniska w Krakowie w sprzęt nawigacyjny. Zginęły 53 osoby. W 2009 r. na szczycie umieszczono także pomnik poświęcony ofiarom katastrofy. Uroczystość odsłonięcia odbyła się 20 sierpnia 2009 r. +We wrześniu 1978 w paśmie Policy ostatnią górską wycieczkę w Polsce odbył Karol Wojtyła. +Przyroda. +Masyw Policy jest w większości zalesiony. Z rzadkich w Polsce gatunków roślin na Policy rośnie zarzyczka górska. W 1972 na Policy utworzono Rezerwat przyrody im. prof. Zenona Klemensiewicza. Na Policy znajduje się też najdłuższa i zarazem najgłębsza jaskinia (stan na 2006 r.) w całym Beskidzie Żywieckim – Oblica o łącznej długości korytarzy 416 m i głębokości 21 m. +Guy Gavriel Kay + +Guy Gavriel Kay (urodzony 7 listopada, 1954) to kanadyjski pisarz fantasy. Wiele jego powieści dzieje się w fikcyjnych krainach przypominające prawdziwe, historyczne miejsca, takie jak Konstantynopol za rządów Justyniana I lub Hiszpania za czasów El Cida. +Biografia. +Urodził się w mieście Weyburn w prowincji Saskatchewan, zaś wychowywał się w Winnipeg w prowincji Manitoba. Kay poznał Christophera Tolkiena, gdy studiował na University of Manitoba. Gdy Tolkien potrzebował pomocy w redagowaniu nieopublikowanych dzieł swojego ojca, skontaktował się z Kayem, który przeniósł się w 1974 na University of Oxford, by współpracować z Tolkienem nad "Silmarillionem". +W 1976 wrócił do Kanady i ukończył prawo na University of Toronto. Wtedy też zaczął pisać własne teksty i został głównym scenarzystą i współproducentem serialu radiowego "The Scales of Justice". +W 1984 ukazała się pierwsza powieść fantasy Kaya, "Letnie drzewo", pierwszy tom trylogii "Fionavarski gobelin". +Nominowany parokrotnie do World Fantasy Award otrzymał ją w roku 2008 za powieść "Ysabel". +Wzgórza Golan + +Wzgórza Golan (hebr. רמת הגולן, "Ramat HaGolan"; arab. هضبة الجولان, "Hadbat al-Dżūlān") – górzysty region położony na granicy Izraela, Syrii i Libanu. Biblijny (starotestamentowy) Baszan. +Stolicą administracyjną jest Qatzrin. Poza tym na Wzgórzach Golan istnieje 19 moszawów i 10 kibuców. +Na uwagę zasługują ruiny Gamli. +Geografia. +Górzysty płaskowyż z kopulastymi wzgórzami o wysokości do 500 m n.p.m., licznymi suchymi stepami i dolinami. Ma powierzchnię 1,2 tys km². +Od zachodu wzgórza są ograniczone Jeziorem Tyberiadzkim i Rowem Jordanu, do którego spadają stromą skarpą o wysokości 500 metrów. Na południu wzgórza opadają do rzeki Jarmuk. Na wschodzie wzgórza przechodzą w wyżynny płaskowyż, nazwany Hauran. Przebiega tędy granica izraelsko-syryjska. Na północy Wzgórza Golan dochodzą do masywu góry Hermon i granicy z Libanem. +Geologicznie Wzgórza Golan są płaskowyżem holoceńskiego pola wulkanicznego, które poszerza się w kierunku północno-wschodnim prawie do Damaszku. Cały obszar jest pokryty nieczynnymi stożkami wulkanicznymi. Góra Hermon jest geologicznie oddzielona od pola wulkanicznego Wzgórz Golan. Blisko Hermonu znajduje się jezioro Birkat Baran, które zajmuje dawny krater wulkanu. +Wzgórza Golan są zbiorowiskiem roślinności półpustynnej. +Historia regionu. +Obszar był zajmowany przez wiele cywilizacji. Do XX wieku p.n.e. zamieszkiwali tutaj Amoryci i Aramejczycy. Później region nazwany "Baszan" znalazł się pod kontrolą Izraelitów - zamieszkiwało tu pokolenie Dana. Król Salomon mianował w regionie trzech ministrów. Po rozbiciu wewnętrznym królestwa, Golan znalazł się w północnej części, w Królestwie Izraela. +Zgodnie z żydowskim prawem Wzgórza Golan są uważane za część Kanaanu, który jest świętszy niż pozostałe części położone po wschodniej stronie rzeki Jordan. +W VIII wieku p.n.e. kontrolę nad tymi terenami przejęła Babilonia, a następnie Persja. W V wieku p.n.e. osiedlili się tutaj Żydzi powracający z niewoli babilońskiej. +W 332 p.n.e. Wzgórza Golan i cały region został zdobyty przez Aleksandra Macedońskiego. Po śmierci Aleksandra, Golan wszedł w skład państwa Seleucydów. To właśnie wówczas nadano mu nazwę: "Golan" (gr. "Gaulanitis"). +Podczas powstania Machabeuszów Golan pozostał w rękach Seleucydów. +W 34 Rzymianie włączyli Golan w skład prowincji Syrii. +Region ten odgrywał ważną rolę w wojnach izraelsko-arabskich. Panowanie nad wzgórzami umożliwia Izraelowi ostrzał Damaszku a Syrii - ostrzał północnego Izraela. Dlatego też zostały one silnie ufortyfikowane. Mimo tego, w 1967, podczas wojny sześciodniowej Wzgórza Golan zostały błyskawicznie zdobyte przez wojska Izraela; próba odzyskania ich przez wojska syryjskie podczas wojny Jom Kippur w 1973 zakończyła się niepowodzeniem. Od 1974 roku istnieje pas neutralny kontrolowany przez Siły pokojowe ONZ (UNDOF), oddzielający Syrię od ziem pod kontrolą izraelską. Na terenie pasa neutralnego znajduje się syryjskie miasto Al-Kunajtira (Quineitra), które przed oddaniem przez Izrael zostało całkowicie zniszczone przez ostrzał artyleryjski. W chwili obecnej, władze Syrii wydają przepustki pozwalające na wjazd do Al-Kunajtira, która stała się atrakcją turystyczną. Syryjczycy uważają ruiny miasta za pomnik przypominający o metodach stosowanych przez Izrael. +14 grudnia 1981 roku izraelski parlament Knesset przyjął uchwałę o objęciu Wzgórz Golan izraelskim systemem prawnym i administracyjnym. Wzgórza Golan zostały wcielone do państwa Izrael. Rada Bezpieczeństwa ONZ nie uznała tej decyzji. +Teren sporny, do którego roszczą sobie prawa Syria i Liban. Syria domaga się zwrotu całego terytorium Wzgórz Golan. Liban domaga się zwrotu małego obszaru Farm Shebaa, położonego w obszarze góry Hermon. Syria nigdy nie zajęła oficjalnego stanowiska w tej sprawie. +Władze Izraela są przeciwne wycofaniu się z terenów Wzgórz Golan, uważając je za niezbędne dla zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa państwu Izraela. +Audiofil + +Audiofil (z łac. "audio" "słyszę", z gr. "philos" "kochający") – osoba szczególnie zainteresowana wysoką jakością odtwarzanego dźwięku i posiadaniem sprzętu odtwarzającego najwyższej klasy (należy jednak zauważyć iż sprzęt audio nie ma żadnych naukowo wydzielonych "klas", oprócz cenowych). Według innych źródeł audiofile to grupa konsumencka kupująca najdroższy domowy sprzęt nagłaśniający. +Definicja. +Pojęcie audiofila nie jest ostro zdefiniowane, nie jest też ono jednorodne. Można przyjąć, że audiofilami są osoby zainteresowane "specjalnymi" domowymi urządzeniami nagłaśniającymi (audio). Podstawowymi kryteriami tej "specjalności" jest wysoka cena, oraz odrębność od urządzeń produkowanych masowo. Zestawy audiofilskie składają się nierzadko ze sprzętu nazywanego "Hi-end", którego koszty poszczególnych komponentów sięgają dziesiątek i setek tysięcy dolarów. +W środowiskach audiofilskich duże znaczenie mają kwestie mody, na przykład pewien powrót do wzmacniaczy lampowych, jak i do gramofonów. +Audiofile przywiązują dużą wagę do wszelkich innych aspektów mogących wpłynąć na odtworzenie zarejestrowanego dźwięku: pomieszczenia odsłuchowe, ich adaptacja (maty wytłumiające, przedmioty rozpraszające), wymiary oraz akustyka, właściwe ustawienie głośników oraz ulokowanie miejsca odsłuchowego. +Audiofilia ma swój własny system wartości oraz zasad słuchania i podkreśla ich odrębność od tych, które są używane przy podejściu naukowym. Audiofile budują swoją tożsamość wokół posiadanego sprzętu, a ich samoidentyfikacja zależy od jego wartości. +Podział. +Pomiędzy członkami obu grup odbywają się dyskusje, często o dużej temperaturze. Członkowie pierwszej grupy przeprowadzają testy "odsłuchowe" i "porównawcze" różnorakiego sprzętu bez uwzględnienia metodologii psychoakustyki. Druga grupa zarzuca im, że ich wrażenia są pochodzenia wyłącznie psychicznego, a w prawidłowo przeprowadzonych testach wręcz nie są w stanie rozróżnić porównywanych sprzętów. +Oddzielną gałęzią zainteresowania audiofilów są sprzęty typu DIY – zrób to sam oraz dokonywanie modyfikacji w sprzęcie audio – tak zwanych MOD-ów. Zakres tych działań jest szeroki – poczynając od rzeczywistej budowy elementów sprzętu audio, na smarowaniu brzegów płyt CD flamastrami i przetrzymywaniu ich w lodówce kończąc. +Geneza. +Początki audiofilizmu są bezpośrednio związane z rozwojem techniki wysokiej jakości odtwarzania dźwięku Hi-Fi. Pierwsze urządzenia pojawiły się w latach 30. (wtedy powstała nazwa "high-fidelity"), ale znaczący rozwój nastąpił po II wojnie światowej. Ze względu na bardzo wysokie ceny urządzenia Hi-Fi nie odniosły wtedy sukcesu komercyjnego, ale doprowadziły do wykształcenia się niewielkiej grupy stosunkowo zamożnych konsumentów uprawiającej ekskluzywne hobby. Sytuacja zmieniła się wraz z wynalezieniem tranzystora, co doprowadziło do drastycznej redukcji cen sprzętu Hi-Fi oraz dużej poprawy parametrów "sprzętu powszechnego użytku". Sprzęt niegdyś dostępny dla wąskiej elity stał się szybko powszechnie nabywanym dobrem. Doprowadziło to do "podniesienia poprzeczki" przez najbardziej zagorzałych członków grupy aż do poziomu, który można określić mianem swoistej religii. Audiofile posługują się specyficznym językiem. Jest on praktycznie nieznany poza środowiskiem audiofilskim, zawiera nazwy elementów sprzętu (np. kabel połączeniowy to "interkonekt") oraz liczne przymiotniki na określenie subiektywnych cech dźwięku. +Socjologia. +Audiofile stanowią wyrazistą grupę. Są praktycznie wyłącznie mężczyznami (w USA rasy białej), przeważnie dobrze sytuowanymi materialnie. Kobiety wśród audiofilów nie tylko zdarzają się bardzo rzadko, ale często mają wręcz niechętny stosunek do sprzętu audiofilskiego. +Postawom audiofilskim przypisuje się również podłoże seksualne. +Czasopisma. +Recenzje i "testy odsłuchowe" przeprowadzane w czasopismach mają bardzo duże znaczenie marketingowe dla sprzętu audiofilskiego. Niektóre z nich zamieszczają również recenzje nagrań muzycznych. +Krytyka audiofilskich poglądów. +The Audio Engineering Society, organizacja zrzeszająca profesjonalistów zajmujących się inżynierią dźwięku, opublikowała szereg artykułów, w których nie zgadza się z twierdzeniami audiofilów przypisujących swoje psychoakustyczne wrażenia właściwościom sprzętu. +Antti Autti + +Antti Autti (ur. 15 marca 1985 r.) - snowboardzista fiński, dwukrotny mistrz świata. Był jednym z największych bohaterów mistrzostw świata w Whistler, zdobywając złote medale w konkurencji halfpipe i big air. Dwa lata wcześniej, na mistrzostwach świata w Kreichsbergu, był 3. w big air i 4. w halfpipe. W Pucharze Świata, w sezonie 2003/2004 był drugi w klasyfikacji halfpipe'a, a w sezonie 2001/2002 był trzeci. +Czołowy zawodnik teamu Flow. +Markus Kleinheinz + +Markus Kleinheinz (ur. 27 sierpnia 1976 w Innsbrucku), saneczkarz austriacki, specjalista torów lodowych, zdobywca Pucharu Świata w sezonie 2002/2003. +Z zawodu celnik. Do jego największych sukcesów - obok triumfu w Pucharze Świata - zalicza się 4. miejsce w mistrzostwach świata w Nagano w drużynie (2004), 8. miejsce na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Salt Lake City w jedynkach mężczyzn (2002) oraz 5. miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej Pucharu (2003/2004). Wielokrotnie zajmował miejsca w czołówce zawodów Pucharu Świata w konkurencji jedynek męskich. +Piętnastoletni kapitan + +Piętnastoletni kapitan (fr. "Un capitaine de quinze ans", 1878) +Dwutomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 37 rozdziałów (tom 1 zawiera 18 rozdziałów, tom 2 zawiera 19 rozdziałów). +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1878, a w postaci książkowej w 1895. +Biografowie autora twierdzą, że powieść została napisana dla syna Verne'a - Michela +Fabuła książki to opis podróży z Nowej Zelandii do Afryki odbytej w roku 1873 na brygu ""Wędrowiec"". Śmierć kapitana i załogi przy próbie zapolowania na płetwala spowodowała, że dowódcą statku został piętnastoletni chłopiec - Dick Sand. Miał on do pomocy tylko pięciu Murzynów. Sam musiał zaopiekować się załogą i pasażerami oraz odwieźć ich bezpiecznie do Ameryki, w czym przeszkadza mu handlarz niewolników Negoro. Niszczy on log i jeden z dwóch kompasów, a drugi ustawia tak, że wskazuje zły kierunek. +Nieświadomi niczego pasażerowie statku zamiast do Ameryki Południowej, dopływają do Afryki. +Inne postaci: Emilia Weldon - żona właściciela statku, Janek - pięcioletni syn właściciela statku , kuzyn Benedykt - entomolog, Negoro - Portugalczyk, kucharz okrętowy, świetny, jak później się okazało, żeglarz, Harris - handlarz niewolników współpracujący z Negorem, Muani Lung - król Kazondy, Jose Antonio Alvez - najbardziej znany i najbardziej doświadczony wówczas, handlarz niewolnikami, Ibn Hamis - przyjaciel Alveza, handlarz niewolnikami. +Gaza (Palestyna) + +Gaza (arab. غزة, "Ghazza", hebr. עזה, "Aza") – miasto w Autonomii Palestyńskiej, będące stolicą Strefy Gazy. +Obszar miasta Gazy jest zamieszkany co najmniej od V tysiąclecia p.n.e.. Na przestrzeni swojej historii obszar ten był podbijany przez różne narody i imperia. Po Starożytnym Egipcie powstało tutaj jedno z pentapolis należące do Filistynów. W czasach Cesarstwa rzymskiego i Cesarstwa bizantyńskiego Gaza rozwijała się gospodarczo jako duże miasto portowe położone na wybrzeżu Morza Śródziemnego. W 635 była pierwszym miastem Palestyny zdobytym przez Arabów i włączonym do Kalifatu. Bardzo szybko przekształciło się w ważne centrum prawa muzułmańskiego. Pod koniec XI wieku zostało zdobyte i zniszczone przez krzyżowców. W późniejszych wiekach doświadczyło pustoszącego najazdu Mongołów, i w XVI wieku zmalało do wielkości wioski, którą przyłączono do Imperium osmańskiego. Pod tym panowaniem Gaza mogła ponownie rozwijać się jako ważny ośrodek handlowy. W wyniku I wojny światowej stała się częścią brytyjskiego Mandatu Palestyny. Po I wojnie izraelsko-arabskiej, na początku 1949 znalazła się na terytorium będącym pod kontrolą Egiptu. Egipcjanie przeprowadzili liczne ulepszenia w mieście, jednak po wojnie sześciodniowej w 1967 Gaza znalazła się pod okupacją izraelską. Po zawartych w 1993 Porozumieniach z Oslo, miasto weszło w skład utworzonej Autonomii Palestyńskiej. Po palestyńskich wyborach w 2006 doszło do wybuchu konfliktu o władzę pomiędzy ugrupowaniami Al-Fatah i Hamas. W jego wyniku Hamas przejął kontrolę nad całą Strefą Gazy. Po nasilających się przypadkach ostrzału rakietowego prowadzonego przez Hamas ze Strefy Gazy, Izrael i Egipt nałożyły w 2006 blokadę na całą strefę. W 2010 Izrael złagodził blokadę, zezwalając na dostawy dóbr konsumpcyjnych, a w 2011 Egipt otworzył przejście graniczne dla ruchu osobowego. +Miasto Gaza pozostaje głównym ośrodkiem działalności gospodarczej Strefy Gazy. Jednak gospodarka miasta jest w znacznym stopniu zniszczona przez powtarzające się starcia i przedłużającą blokadę. Większość mieszkańców jest muzułmanami, chociaż istnieje chrześcijańska mniejszość. +Położenie. +Miasto Gaza jest położone na wschodnim wybrzeżu Morza Śródziemnego, w północnej części Strefy Gazy. +Na północny wschód od miasta znajduje się obóz uchodźców Dżabalija i miasto Bajt Lahija, a na południowym zachodzie jest miasteczko al-Zahra oraz obozy uchodźców Nusajrat i al-Burajdż. Na wschód od miasta przebiega granica izraelska z przejściem granicznym Karni. Po stronie izraelskiej są kibuce Mefalsim, Kfar Aza i Nahal Oz. +Podział administracyjny. +Gaza jest położona w Gubernatorstwie Gazy, w Strefie Gazy. +Środowisko naturalne. +Większa część współczesnego miasta rozciąga się na nadmorskiej równinie, która rozciąga się na położone na północy i wschodzie przedmieścia. Plaża i port znajdują się w odległości 3 km na zachód od centrum miasta. Przestrzeń pomiędzy nimi, oraz samo centrum, znajdują się na niewielkich, płaskich wzgórzach, których wysokość dochodzi do 14 m n.p.m. Teren jest płaski i piaszczysty. +Dzisiejszy obszar miasta zajmuje powierzchnię około 45 km². W okresie brytyjskiego Mandatu Palestyny w skład obszaru miejskiego wchodziły zabudowane obszary wiejskie położone na przedmieściach. Ten obszar wiejski zajmował powierzchnię 143 km², z których nawadnianych były 24 km² upraw rolniczych. +Gleba. +Podobnie jak w całej Strefie Gazy, w obszarze miasta Gazy znajdują się gleby klasy IV. Plony roślin uprawianych na tych glebach są wyraźnie niższe niż na glebach klas wyższych, nawet gdy utrzymywane są one w dobrej kulturze rolnej. Gleby te są bardzo podatne na wahania poziomu wód gruntowych. Minerały ilaste znajdujące się w glebie, absorbują liczne organiczne i nieorganiczne związki chemiczne, które częściowo łagodzą poziom skażenia wód gruntowych. +Klimat. +Gaza ma klimat śródziemnomorski, który charakteryzuje się gorącymi i suchymi latami oraz łagodnymi zimami. Wiosna rozpoczyna się na przełomie marca i kwietnia, a najgorętszymi miesiącami są lipiec i sierpień. Średnia temperatura latem wynosi 33 °C, a zimą 7 °C. Deszcz jest rzadkością i występuje sporadycznie w okresie zimowym, między listopadem a marcem. Suma rocznych opadów atmosferycznych wynosi 116 mm. +Wody. +Ludność miasta jest całkowicie uzależniona od wód gruntowych, które są jedynym źródłem wody. Warstwa wodonośna rozciąga się wzdłuż wybrzeża i składa się głównie z plejstoceńskich piaskowców. Na południe od miasta znajduje się okresowy strumień Wadi Gaza, który jedynie w okresie zimy dostarcza niewielkich ilości wody. +Demografia. +Według spisu ludności przeprowadzonego w 1997 przez Palestyńskie Centralne Biuro Statystyczne, liczba mieszkańców Gazy wynosiła 353115 osób, z czego 50,9% stanowili mężczyźni, a 49,1% kobiety. Populacja miasta była młoda: w wieku od niemowlęcego do 19. było 60,8% mieszkańców, w wieku od 20. do 44. roku życia było 28,8%, w wieku od 45 do 64 było 7,7% i w wieku powyżej 64 roku było 3,9%. +ImageSize = width:500 height:270 +PlotArea = left:50 right:40 top:20 bottom:40 +TimeAxis = orientation:vertical +AlignBars = justify +Colors = +DateFormat = yyyy +Period = from:0 till:449221 +ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100000 start:0 gridcolor:gray1 +TextData = +PlotData = + +Historia. +Starożytność. +Początki i okres egipski (V - II tys. p.n.e.). +Badania archeologiczne dowodzą, że pierwsze ślady osadnictwa ludzkiego w obszarze dzisiejszej Gazy pochodzą z V tysiąclecia p.n.e. Pojawiły się wówczas tutaj pierwsze osady rolnicze. Znalezione liczne rękodzieła garncarstwa i kości słoniowej dowodzą, że ludzie ci posiadali wyraźnie wykształconą kulturę. Pod koniec IV tysiąclecia p.n.e. na ziemie Kanaanu zaczęły napływać pierwsze fale ludności egipskiej. Około 3400 p.n.e. Egipcjanie wznieśli twierdzę Taur Ikhbanah, która znajdowała się na południe od dzisiejszego miasta Gaza. Była to pierwsza starożytna twierdza egipska wzniesiona na zewnątrz Egiptu. Z tego okresu pochodzą znalezione przedmioty wykonane z miedzi wydobywanej w rejonie Petry. Dowodzi to utrzymywania więzi handlowych pomiędzy tymi ziemiami. Około 3300-3000 p.n.e. Gaza rozwinęła się w duży ośrodek miejski, który wraz ze wzrostem handlu odgrywał coraz większą rolę na lądowym szlaku handlowym „"Via Maris"”. Jednak z czasem interesy gospodarcze Egiptu przesunęły się na północ do dzisiejszego Libanu, skąd zaczęto sprowadzać drogą morską drzewo cedrowe. Rola Gazy została wówczas zredukowana do niewielkiego portu morskiego, do którego zawijały jedynie statki z podstawowymi towarami. Cały region zaczął wówczas cierpieć z powodu upadku gospodarki, a niepotrzebna już twierdza Tell es-Sakan została porzucona przez Egipcjan. +Około XXV wieku p.n.e. rejon Gazy przeżył znaczny wzrost populacji związany z osiedleniem się ludności kananejskiej, jednak już w XXIII wieku p.n.e. nastąpiła zapaść gospodarcza i upadek tutejszych miast. Na miejscu opuszczonych miejscowości pojawiły się obozy nomadów przemieszczających się z miejsca na miejsce w poszukiwaniu żywności, wody, opału albo pastwisk dla zwierząt hodowlanych. Ponowne ożywienie koniunkturalne i rozwój społeczny pojawiły się w XX wieku p.n.e. Pojawiły się ośrodki miejskie Tell es-Sakan, Tell el-Ajjul i Gaza. Przed 1650 p.n.e. część Egiptu została przejściowo zajęta przez Kananejczyków. Wydarzenia te przyczyniły się do rozwoju międzynarodowego handlu. W 1484 p.n.e. egipski faraon Totmesa III podbił obszar Gazy. Samo miasto Gaza zaczęło wówczas pełnić rolę egipskiej stolicy administracyjnej w Kanaanie. Pochodzące z około 1310 p.n.e. Listy z Amarna wymieniają nazwę miasta „Azzati” (współczesna Gaza), które zostało ufortyfikowane przez faraona Seti I. Przez obszar Gazy przebiegała wówczas strategiczna droga lądowa (tzw. "Droga Horusa"), przy której odkryto pozostałości kilku starożytnych egipskich fortec. +Okres filistyński (XII i XI w.p.n.e.). +Około 1200 p.n.e. zaczęli napływać tutaj Filistyni, którzy zajęli nadmorskie miasta kanaanejskie (Gaza, Ekron, Aszdod, Aszkelon i Gat). Filistyni zdołali także przejściowo osiedlić się w części Egiptu, jednak faraon Ramzes III wypędził ich. Nie był on jednak w stanie wyprzeć ich z pasa nadmorskiego Kanaanu. Według Biblii największym tutejszym miastem była Gaza, która była miastem kananejskim, w sensie politycznym zależnym od Egiptu. Miasto było wówczas dobrze prosperującym portem morskim i stolicą pięciu satrapii filistyńskich (Gaza, Ekron, Aszdod, Aszkelon i Gat). Stary Testament wspomina historię izraelskiego sędziego Samsona, który został wzięty do niewoli przez Filistynów i przyprowadzony do Gazy. Poniósł on śmierć burząc świątynię filistyńskiego boga Dagona. Przez długie lata pentapolis filistyńska cieszyło się względną niezależnością, płacąc jednak daniny potężniejszym sąsiadom. W 1000 p.n.e. kontrolę nad tymi ziemiami zdobył król izraelski Dawid. +VIII - IV w.p.n.e.. +W 734 p.n.e. Gaza została lennikiem neoasyryjskim. W 609 p.n.e. egipski faraon Necho II przejściowo odzyskał kontrolę nad Gazą, bo już w 605-601 p.n.e. Gaza została zdobyta przez Neobabilończyków. Za panowania króla Cyrusa Wielkiego Gaza ofiarowała 20-30 ton kadzidła aby utrzymać status sojusznika perskiego, za co została zwolniona z obowiązku płacenia corocznego hołdu lennego. W tym okresie nastąpił szybki rozwój obszaru Gazy. Grecki historyk Herodot przedstawił Gazę jako duże miasto portowe, otoczone murami obronnymi. Rozwojowi miasta sprzyjało korzystne położenie na skrzyżowaniu szlaków karawan handlowych. Około 520 p.n.e. na terenie Gazy powstały greckie faktorie. Głównymi towarami handlu były: kadzidło, lecznicza mira, grecka porcelana i bite monety (z 380 p.n.e. pochodzą odnalezione monety bite na wzór ateńskich). +Okresy hellenistyczny i machabejski (IV - I w.p.n.e.). +W 332 p.n.e. macedoński król Aleksander Wielki po zdobyciu Gazy dokonał masakry ludności, a ocalałe kobiety i dzieci uczynił niewolnikami. Miasto stało się kolonią grecką zamieszkaną w większości przez Beduinów. Po śmierci Aleksandra Wielkiego, w wyniku wojen diadochów rejon Gazy znalazł się pod panowaniem dynastii Ptolemeuszy, którzy kontrolowali Egipt i Judeę. Dążąc do podbicia terenów dzisiejszej Syrii i Libanu, Ptolemeusz stoczył w 321 p.n.e. bitwę pod Gazą, w której pokonał Seleucydów (w bitwie wzięły udział słonie bojowe). W wyniku serii kolejnych wojen, w 198 p.n.e. Gaza przeszła w ręce Seleucydów. W państwie Seleucydów znajdowały się ważniejsze kraje Bliskiego i Środkowego Wschodu: Syria, Mezopotamia, Persja oraz dolina Indusu. +Rządy Seleucydów doprowadziły do wybuchu w 167 p.n.e. żydowskiego powstania Machabeuszy, które doprowadziło do powstania państwa Machabeuszy. Dobrze rozwijający się obszar Gazy znalazł się strefie interesów Machabeuszy. Jonatan Machabeusz w swojej kampanii 145-143 p.n.e. zdobył i zniszczył miasta Gaza i Anthedone. Aleksander Jannaj przez rok oblegał Gazę w 102 p.n.e. Gdy w końcu mieszkańcy poddali się, Aleksander zniszczył Gazę, Anthedone i Raphia. W owym czasie Żydzi pogrążyli się w wojnie domowej pomiędzy stronnictwami Saduceuszów a Faryzeuszów, co w 63 p.n.e. wykorzystali Rzymianie i zajęli Judeę. +Okres rzymski i wschodniorzymski (I w.p.n.n.e. - VII w.n.e.). +Obszar Gazy wszedł w skład prowincji syryjskiej. W 57 p.n.e. rzymski prokonsul Gabiniusz odbudował Gazę, która stała się ważnym ośrodkiem kulturalnym i religijnym (świątynia Marneion). W 35 p.n.e. cesarz Oktawian August oddał miasto z okolicznymi ziemiami w ręce króla Judei Heroda Wielkiego. Pod jego rządami znacznie wzrosła liczebność Żydów w rejonie Gazy, jednak samo miasto pozostało pogańskie. Tutejsze świątynie były poświęcone wielu różnym bogom: Marnasowi (tzn. kreteńskiemu Zeusowi), Słońcu, Afrodycie, Apollowi, Hestii, Hekate i innym. Przy świątyniach odprawiano obrzędy religijne. Gdy w 66 roku n.e. wybuchła wojna żydowska (66-73) przeciwko Cesarstwu rzymskiemu, Żydzi mszcząc się za masakrę w Cezarei, zniszczyli Gazę, Anthedone, jak i ich okoliczne wioski. W 130 rzymski cesarz Hadrian odwiedził odbudowaną Gazę. Po stłumieniu kolejnego żydowskiego powstania Bar-Kochby, Rzymianie w 135 zmienili nazwę kraju z Judea na "Syria Palestina" (Syria palestyńska, czyli filistyńska – od nazwy tutejszych ziem „"Philistia"”). Gdy w 395 roku cesarz Teodozjusz umierając podzielił Imperium Rzymskie na Cesarstwo Zachodniorzymskie i Cesarstwo Wschodniorzymskie (czyli Bizancjum), Palestyna z rejonem Gazy znalazły się pod kontrolą Bizancjum. W 401 cesarz Arkadiusz zakazał w Gazie kultu pogańskiego. Doszło wówczas do prześladowania pogan i niszczenia ich mienia i kultury. Zamieszki w mieście – w którym istniało osiem świątyń pogańskich, a gmina chrześcijańska liczyła jedynie około 200 osób – trwały dziesięć dni. Na miejscu zburzonej świątyni rzymskiej arcybiskup Gazy św. Porfiriusz zbudował kościół na planie krzyża (bazylika Eudokii). W okolicach miasta żył na przełomie III i IV wieku św. Hilarion, którego życie opisał św. Hieronim. Mnich ten przeszczepił na ziemię palestyńską życie eremickie, będąc wcześniej uczniem św. Antoniego Wielkiego. +Gdy w 496 król Aksum podarował cesarzowi Anastazemu I żyrafę, trafiła ona najpierw do portu w Gazie. Wydarzenie to wywarło duży wpływ na artystów Gazy, m.in. twórców mozaik. W 536 biskup Marcjan zainaugurował kościół pod wezwaniem św. Sergiusza, a w 540 miało miejsce apogeum chrześcijańskiej obecności w Gazie. Z miasta wyruszyły wówczas pielgrzymki w kierunku Synaju. W 615 Gaza przeżyła inwazję wojsk perskich Chosroesa II Parwiza, z dynastii Sasanidów. +Średniowiecze. +Okres wczesnoislamski (VII - XI w.). +W 634 rejon Gazy zajęli muzułmanie, jednak samo miasto zostało zdobyte w 637 bez większego oporu. Ogromna większość mieszkańców tych okolic przeszła wówczas na islam. Ci, którzy pozostali chrześcijanami, mieli pozwolenie na wyznawanie swojej wiary. W 661 obszar Gazy wszedł w skład kalifatu Ummajjadów. W 750 nastąpił koniec dominacji Umajjadów i początek epoki Abbasydów. Gaza była wówczas ważnym ośrodkiem handlu i rzemiosła, a jednocześnie centrum kultury muzułmańsko-chrześcijańskiej z tolerancyjnym prawem islamskim. Dla muzułmanów miasto Gaza miało szczególne znaczenie, ponieważ było miejscem pochówku Haszima, dziadka Mahometa. Z tego powodu miasto zostało odbudowane, a architektura chrześcijańska wymieszała się z architekturą islamską. Wybudowano górujący nad miastem meczet Umar Ibn Al-Khattab. Urodził się tutaj islamski teolog Muhammad al-Shafi (767-820), który założył sunnicką szkołę prawa muzułmańskiego Szafi. Dominującym językiem stał się arabski, chociaż greka i aramejski nadal pozostawały w powszechnym użyciu. W latach 780-800 doszło do licznych napadów Beduinów od strony pustyni. W 978 Gaza weszła do kalifatu Fatymidów, a w latach 1079-1099 była pod panowaniem Wielkich Seldżuków. Fanatyczne postępowanie Seldżuków i ograniczanie chrześcijanom prawa dostępu do miejsc świętych w Ziemi Świętej, doprowadziły do zorganizowania w 1096 I wyprawy krzyżowej. +Wojny krzyżowe (1100 - 1250). +W 1100 krzyżowcy zajęli rejon Gazy, który włączyli w granice Królestwa Jerozolimskiego. W 1149 król Baldwin III ufortyfikował Gazę i oddał ją w ręce templariuszy. Nastąpił wówczas rozwój miasta dolnego, pełniącego rolę służebną wobec fortecy, która była wykorzystywana do atakowania pobliskiego arabskiego miasta Aszkelon. W 1178 wojska muzułmańskie Saladyna zdobyły miasto Gazę. W następnych latach sułtan Saladyn kontynuował swoje podboje i w 1187 zajął Jerozolimę, doprowadzając do upadku Królestwa Jerozolimskiego. Siły angielskie i francuskie (III wyprawa krzyżowa) odzyskały część ziem, w tym Gazę, którą zajął w 1191 król Ryszard I Lwie Serce. Odbudowano wówczas fortyfikacje Gazy, jednak już w 1193 musiano je rozebrać w wyniku zawartych porozumień "Traktatu Jaffy". Krzyżowcy przebudowali wielki meczet w Gazie na Katedrę św. Jana Chrzciciela (obecnie meczet Great Omari). W 1250 obszar Gazy znów powrócił pod panowanie muzułmanów. +Poł XIII - pocz. XVI w.. +W 1260 Gaza została całkowicie zniszczona przez najazd mongolski Hulagu-chana. W 1277 rozpoczął się okres bujnego rozwoju rejonu Gazy pod panowaniem mameluków z Damaszku. Był on przerwany w 1294 przez trzęsienie ziemi, które spustoszyło Gazę. W 1340 odbudowano "Wielki Meczet". Arabski podróżnik Ibn Batutta odwiedził Gazę w 1355 i opisał ją jako „"miasto duże i ludne, posiadające wiele meczetów. Nie było jednak żadnych murów wokół niego. Był tam stary wspaniały meczet"”. +Nowożytność - okres osmański (1516 - 1918). +W 1516 obszar Gazy został przyłączony do Imperium osmańskiego. Gaza była wówczas już małą miejscowością, z nieczynnym portem, zniszczonymi budynkami i podupadłą gospodarką. Wojska tureckie szybko zdławiły mały opór i Region Gazy (tur. "Sanjak Gazy") wszedł w skład prowincji Syrii. W 1660 Gaza została uznana stolicą Palestyny, co dało początek okresu świetności miasta. Odnowiono stary meczet i wybudowano kilkanaście nowych meczetów. Pojawiły się łaźnie i targowiska tureckie. W 1799 przez obszar Gazy przeszły wojska francuskie dowodzone przez Napoleona Bonaparte. Jednak obecność Francuzów była tak krótka, że nie wywarła większego śladu na tutejszą kulturę. Po kilku miesiącach Gaza wróciła pod panowanie tureckie. Na początku XIX wieku obszar Gazy został zdominowany kulturowo przez Egipt. W 1832 Muhammad Ali (Pasza) dążąc do stworzenia egipskiego imperium podbił Gazę z większą częścią Palestyny. Od tego czasu mieszkańcy tych ziem korzystali czerpiąc zyski z handlu karawan wędrujących między Syrią a Egiptem. W 1840 w pobliżu Gazy doszło do bitwy wojsk tureckich z egipskimi, która położyła kres egipskiemu panowaniu nad Palestyną. +XX wiek rozpoczął się od dwóch niszczycielskich trzęsień ziemi w 1903 i 1914. Podczas I wojny światowej w 1917 obszar Gazy stał się polem ciężkich walk pomiędzy wojskami tureckimi a brytyjskimi. 26 marca 1917 doszło do I bitwy o Gazę, podczas której brytyjski atak poniósł klęskę głównie z powodu braku komunikacji pomiędzy nacierającymi oddziałami. Do II bitwy o Gazę doszło 17 kwietnia 1917. Ten atak został poprzedzony artyleryjskim ostrzałem (z użyciem broni gazowej), a w walkach użyto kilku czołgów. Pomimo to, Brytyjczycy ponieśli ciężkie straty i nie zdołali przełamać tureckich pozycji w Gazie. Po wzmocnieniu oddziałów, wojska brytyjskie przeprowadziły trzecią ofensywę, podczas której doszło do III bitwy o Gazę (31 października-7 listopada 1917). Ostatecznie brytyjski generał Edmund Allenby wkroczył jako zwycięzca do Gazy, a następnie 9 grudnia 1917 do Jerozolimy. +Historia najnowsza (od 1918). +Po zakończeniu I wojny światowej, decyzją Ligi Narodów obszar Gazy wraz z Palestyną przypadł Wielkiej Brytanii, która utworzyła na tym obszarze Mandat Palestyny. Oficjalne nadanie pełnomocnictw mandatowych nastąpiło 1 lipca 1920. +Przyjęta 29 listopada 1947 Rezolucja Zgromadzenia Ogólnego ONZ nr 181 dzieliła Palestynę na dwa państwa: żydowskie i arabskie. W myśl tego planu obszar Gazy miał znajdować się w nowo utworzonym państwie arabskim. Po proklamacji niepodległości Izraela 14 maja 1948 rozpoczęła się I wojna izraelsko-arabska. W trakcie walk obszar Gazy został zajęty przez wojska egipskie. Podczas rozmów o warunkach ogłoszenia zawieszenia broni, które były prowadzone na wyspie Rodos, Izrael żądał całkowitego wycofania się Egipcjan z obszaru dawnej Palestyny. Po trudnych rozmowach porozumienie o rozejmie izraelsko-egipskim podpisano 24 lutego 1949. Na jego mocy wojska egipskie pozostały w obszarze Gazy, który od tej pory był nazywany Strefą Gazy. Pod koniec wojny, 22 września 1948 Liga Arabska ogłosiła powstanie w mieście Gaza rządu palestyńskiego (arab. حكومة عموم فلسطين, "hukumat 'umum Filastin"). Ogłosił on 1 października 1948 powstanie niepodległego państwa palestyńskiego. Na czele rządu stanął premier Ahmed Hilmi Abd al-Baqi, ministrem spraw zagranicznych został Jamal al-Husayni. Rząd uznał flagę palestyńską. Utworzenie tego rządu zostało zaplanowane przez Ligę Arabską jako próba ograniczenia wpływów Transjordanii na palestyńskich ziemiach. Okazało się jednak, że rząd nie został uznany przez Transjordanię i żadne nie-arabskie państwo. Uznały go jedynie: Egipt, Syria, Liban, Irak, Arabia Saudyjska i Jemen. W rzeczywistości palestyński rząd w Gazie znajdował się pod całkowitą kontrolą Egiptu i wywierał niewielki wpływ na sytuację Palestyńczyków w Strefie Gazy. Został on później przeniesiony z Gazy do Kairu. Rząd wydawał palestyńskie paszporty, które zostały unieważnione w 1959 przez prezydenta Gamal Abdel Nasera. Egipt nigdy formalnie nie anektował Strefy Gazy, ale traktował ją jak terytorium okupowane i zarządzał przez wojskowego gubernatora. Egipska okupacja miała czteromiesięczną przerwę podczas kryzysu sueskiego w 1956. Podczas tej operacji, izraelscy żołnierze okrążyli siły egipskie w rejonie miast Gaza i Rafah. Izraelskie siły wyłapywały "fedajnów", których prawdopodobnie rozstrzelano w dwóch masakrach. Liczbę zabitych ocenia się na 66 "fedajnów", chociaż dyplomacja Stanów Zjednoczonych wskazywała, że z 500 "fedajnów" wziętych do niewoli zabito „"około 30"”. Strefa Gazy znalazła się pod izraelską okupacją w wyniku wojny sześciodniowej w 1967. +W wyniku zawartego 13 września 1993 Porozumienia z Oslo nastąpiło utworzenie w Strefie Gazy Autonomii Palestyńskiej. Jaser Arafat wybrał Gazę jako swoją pierwszą stolicę. W marcu 1996 w Gazie odbyła się inauguracyjna sesja "Palestyńskiej Rady Narodowej". Palestyńska populacja w Strefie Gazy cierpiała z powodu złego zarządzania i wysokiej korupcji. Większość inwestycji budowlanych i przemysłowych w Strefie było uzależnionych od wysokich łapówek, których wymagała administracja oraz palestyńskie siły bezpieczeństwa. Powodowało to wzrost niezadowolenia społecznego. Gdy we wrześniu 2000 wybuchło palestyńskie powstanie Intifada Al-Aksa, zbrojne organizacje Hamas i Islamski Dżihad przeprowadziły ze Strefy Gazy wiele ataków terrorystycznych na Izrael. Był to także początek ostrzału rakietowego i moźdżieżowego żydowskich osiedli oraz terenów przygranicznych ze Strefą. 25 stycznia 2006 odbyły się palestyńskie wybory parlamentarne, które niespodziewanie wygrał "Hamas". Izrael i społeczność międzynarodowa (Stany Zjednoczone i Unia Europejska) odmówiły jednak uznania prawa "Hamasu" do sprawowania rządów w Autonomii Palestyńskiej. "Hamas" jest powszechnie spostrzegany jako organizacja terrorystyczna, która odmawia uznania prawa do istnienia państwa Izrael. Z tego powodu przerwano bezpośrednią pomoc dla palestyńskiego rządu i skierowano ją do niezależnych organizacji humanitarnych. Wywołało to zamieszanie polityczne i gospodarczą zapaść, zmuszając wielu Palestyńczyków do emigracji zarobkowej. +W styczniu 2007 w Strefie Gazy wybuchły gwałtowne walki pomiędzy zbrojnymi frakcjami "Hamasu" a al-Fatah. Skala walk przyjęła rozmiary palestyńskiej wojny domowej. Ostatecznie "Hamas" pokonał siły "Al-Fatah" i przejął kontrolę nad Strefą Gazy. Przywódcy polityczny "Hamasu" ogłosili się legalnym rządem Autonomii Palestyńskiej. Palestyński prezydent Mahmud Abbas zareagował ogłoszeniem stanu wyjątkowego, rozwiązał rząd jedności narodowej i sformował nowy rząd, bez udziału "Hamasu". Nowy rząd został uznany przez społeczność międzynarodową (w tym przez Egipt, Jordanię i Arabię Saudyjską). Egipt przeniósł swoją ambasadę z Gazy na Zachodni Brzeg. Od tamtej pory rząd "Hamasu" w Strefie Gazy pozostaje w całkowitej izolacji międzynarodowej, dyplomatycznej i gospodarczej. Nowy palestyński rząd premiera Salam Fajjada podjął próbę pojednania z "Hamasem", pod warunkiem zwrócenia Autonomii Palestyńskiej kontroli nad Strefą Gazy. +Nazwa. +Według izraelskiego geografa Zev Vilnaja, nazwa miasta pochodzi od arabskiego słowa „"gazza"” wywodzącego się z pierwotnego kananejskiego słowa „"ʿzz"” (pol. "mocne"). Drogę stopniowej ewolucji, słowo to przybrało swoje obecne znaczenie „"silny"” lub „"mocny"”. +Symbole. +Herb Gazy stanowi czerwono-zieloną tarczę, na którym widnieje wizerunek czarnego feniksa, ze wzniesionymi do góry skrzydłami. Reprezentuje on ciągłe odradzanie się miasta na przestrzeni pięciu tysięcy lat. +Polityka. +Pierwsza rada miejska Gazy powstała w 1893, pod przywództwem Ali Khalil Szawa. Jednak nowoczesne władze miejskie powstały dopiero w 1906, kiedy to władze tureckie mianowały Said al-Szawa burmistrzem Gazy. W dniu 24 lipca 2004 w Gazie powstała pierwsza samodzielna palestyńska rada miejska podległa władzom Autonomii Palestyńskiej. Obecnie burmistrzem miasta jest Rafik al-Makki. +Obecnie miasto Gaza jest siedzibą Rady Legislacyjnej Autonomii Palestyńskiej oraz większości urzędów palestyńskich. +Architektura. +Centrum miasta stanowi Stare Miasto, które można podzielić na Dzielnicę Daraj (nazywana także Dzielnicą Muzułmańską) i Dzielnicę Zajtoun (nazywaną także Dzielnicą Chrześcijańską). Na Starym Mieście znajduje się większość zabytkowych budynków miasta. Wiele z nich zostało wybudowanych w arabskim stylu architektury ablaq, który charakteryzuje się białymi i czerwonymi murami domów. +Układ urbanistyczny. +Gaza, poza Starym Miastem, posiada jedenaście dzielnic. Pierwsze poszerzenie miasta miało miejsce w XIII wieku, kiedy to na wzgórzu położonym na wschód od Starego Miasta wybudowano dzielnicę Szuja’ijja. W latach 1930-1940 na wydmach na zachód od centrum miasta powstała dzielnica Rimal, a wzdłuż południowych i południowo-zachodnich granic Starego Miasta powstała dzielnica Zeitoun. Równocześnie dzielnica Szuja’ijja rozszerzyła się na wschód, tworząc nowe dzielnice al-Judeide i al-Turukman. Obszar położony pomiędzy Rimal a Starym Miastem zajęły dzielnice al-Sabra i al-Daraj. Na początku 1950, na północy powstała dzielnica al-Nasser, nazwana na cześć egipskiego prezydenta Nassera. Na północnym wschodzie znajduje się dzielnica Tuffah, która dzieli się na dwie części: wschodnią i zachodnią. W odległości 3 km na północ od Starego Miasta jest dzielnica Szeik Radwan, której nazwa pochodzi od grobowca szejka Radwana. Miasto wchłonęło również nadmorską wioskę al-Szati. W granicach miasta znajduje się także obóz uchodźców al-Szati, jest on jednak poza jurysdykcją miejską. Po 1990 na południowym skraju dzielnicy Rimal powstała najbardziej zamożna Tel al-Hawa, a na południowej krawędzi miasta powstała dzielnica Szeik Ijlin. +Kultura. +W 1988 w dzielnicy Rimal ukończono budowę Centrum Kultury Raszad Szawa (ang. "The Rashad Shawa Cultural Center"), nazwanego na cześć byłego burmistrza miasta Raszad al-Szawa. Ten dwupiętrowy budynek mieści w sobie sale wystawowe, koncertowe i bibliotekę. Symbolem francuskiego partnerstwa z Gazą jest Francuskie Centrum Kultury, do którego są zapraszani w miarę możliwości francuscy artyści. Są tutaj organizowane liczne wystawy, koncerty, seanse filmowe i inne działania kulturalno-artystyczne. W 1998 utworzono centrum kultury dla dzieci Sztuka i Rękodzieło Wiejskie (ang. "The Arts and Crafts Village"), które promuje różnorodne rodzaje aktywności artystycznej. +W 2004 dzięki pomocy finansowej i sprzętowej Norwegii uruchomiono kino (ang. "The Gaza Theater"). W 2008 otworzono Muzeum Archeologiczne Gazy, ufundowane przez Jawdat N. Khoudary. Z powodu braku pomieszczeń ekspozycyjnych, tylko część zbiorów jest udostępniona zwiedzającym. +Edukacja i nauka. +W 2006 w Gazie istniało 210 szkół, z czego 151 było prowadzonych przez palestyńskie Ministerstwo Edukacji, 46 przez agencję UNRWA, a 13 było szkołami prywatnymi. Łącznie uczyło się w nich ponad 154 tys. uczniów. Liczba zatrudnionych nauczycieli wynosiła 5877. W mieście są cztery wyższe uczelnie: Uniwersytet Al-Azhar, Al-Quds Open University, Uniwersytet Al-Aqsa i Islamski Uniwersytet Gazy. Islamski Uniwersytet został założony w 1978 przez Ahmeda Jassina i grupę biznesmenów, stając się pierwszą wyższą uczelnią w mieście. W latach 2006-2007 na uniwersytecie uczyło się ponad 20 tys. studentów. Uniwersytet Al-Aqsa został założony w 1991. Uniwersytet Al-Azhar jest uczelnią świecką, która została założona w 1992. Natomiast utworzony w 1992 Al-Quds Open University prowadzi szeroko zakrojoną edukację. W mieście znajduje się także duża biblioteka publiczna. +Blokada Strefy Gazy miała bardzo poważny wpływ na gospodarkę i edukację w mieście. Przeprowadzone przez UNRWA we wrześniu 2007 badania wykazały, że prawie 80% uczniów ma trudności w nauce, w szczególności dotyczy to przedmiotu matematyki. W styczniu 2008 część szkół musiała zawiesić okresowo zajęcia z powodu braku energii elektrycznej i niezbędnych pomocy naukowych. +Turystyka. +Ze względów bezpieczeństwa i nałożonej na Strefę Gazy blokadę, atrakcyjność turystyczna miasta jest bardzo mocno ograniczona. Poza tutejszymi zabytkami, na uwagę zasługują plaże. Niestety są one mocno zaniedbane i bardzo często zanieczyszczone. W Gazie jest kilka restauracji, które oferują tradycyjną kuchnię arabską. Na całym Starym Mieście są liczne stragany uliczne. +W maju 2010 w mieście otworzono aquapark, jednak już we wrześniu został spalony przez zamaskowanych mężczyzn. Organizacja Hamas oświadczyła, że park wodny był miejscem demoralizacji, ponieważ mężczyźni i kobiety kąpali się tam razem. +Religia. +Ludność Gazy w przeważającej większości składa się z muzułmanów, z których większość jest zwolennikami sunnizmu. Obok nich istnieje niewielka społeczność chrześcijan, licząca około 3500 osób. Większość z nich należy do cerkwi prawosławnej, a pozostali do kościoła katolickiego i baptystów. Do 1948 w Gazie istniała społeczność żydowska. Pozostała po nich jedynie starożytna synagoga. +Sport i rekreacja. +W mieście znajduje się palestyński stadion narodowy Palestine Stadium, który może pomieścić 10 tys. osób. Służy on palestyńskiej reprezentacji w piłce nożnej. Poza tym w mieście działa kilka klubów i organizacji sportowych. +Gospodarka. +Gospodarka Gazy rozwija się głównie dzięki zagranicznej pomocy humanitarnej. Tutejszy przemysł jest bardzo słabo rozwinięty i obejmuje kilka niewielkich zakładów produkujących tworzywa sztuczne, materiały budowlane, tekstylia, meble, ceramikę, kafelki oraz dywany. Liczna warsztaty rzemieślnicze produkują wyroby z wikliny i odzież, następnie sprzedawane na bazarach ulicznych. W lokalnej gospodarce ważną rolę odgrywa rolnictwo. Na okolicznych polach uprawia się owoce cytrusowe, truskawki, daktyle, oliwki, kwiaty i warzywa. W obrębie miasta rozwija się przemysł przetwórstwa artykułów żywnościowych. Niestety, wysoki poziom zanieczyszczenia oraz niedostatek wody, zmniejszają zdolności produkcyjne tutejszego rolnictwa. +Dużą grupa mieszkańców znajduje zatrudnienie w urzędach administracji państwowej i w służbach bezpieczeństwa. Dodatkowe miejsca zatrudnienia tworzą międzynarodowe organizacje humanitarne, w tym agenda UNRWA. Większość mieszkańców miasta jest uzależniona od pomocy żywnościowej dostarczanej przez UNRWA. +Przed 2005 wielu mieszkańców Gazy znajdowało zatrudnienie w izraelskich strefach przemysłowych, jednak po wycofaniu się Izraelczyków ze Strefy Gazy to źródło zatrudnienia skończyło się. Według danych z 2009 bezrobocie w Gazie wynosiło prawie 50%. Większość prywatnych przedsiębiorstw zbankrutowała albo zawiesiła swoją działalność. Warunki ekonomiczne w Gazie od dłuższego czasu znajdują się w stanie całkowitej stagnacji, bez perspektyw rozwoju w najbliższym czasie. +Infrastruktura. +Zgodnie z danymi palestyńskiego Centralnego Biura Statystycznego pochodzącymi z 1997 roku, 98,1% mieszkańców Gazy było podłączonych do publicznej sieci wodociągowej, 87,6% było podłączonych do kanalizacji publicznej, a 11,8% korzystała z szamb. Blokada Strefy Gazy utrudniła dostęp do wody i kanalizacji. Działania wojenne spowodowały uszkodzenie i wyłączenie sześciu głównych studni wody pitnej, w wyniku czego około 50% mieszkańców miasta nie ma regularnego dostępu do wody. Aby uzupełnić braki wody, władze miejskie są zmuszone pompować wodę ze „słonych studni”, jednak działania te są utrudnione przez brak energii elektrycznej. Brak wystarczającej mocy oczyszczalni ścieków powoduje, że prawie 75% ścieków pozostaje nieoczyszczona. Do Morza Śródziemnego każdego dnia odprowadzanych jest 20 mln litrów nieoczyszczonych i 40 mln litrów częściowo oczyszczonych ścieków. Władze miejskie twierdzą, że gromadzące się na ulicach śmieci oraz przepełniona kanalizacja stwarza ryzyko wystąpienia chorób i epidemii. +Największym szpitalem w Gazie jest założony w 1940 szpital al-Szifa. Haidar Abdel Shafi założył w 1950 klinikę medyczną Bandar Gaza, która zapewnia ograniczoną opiekę zdrowotną. Chrześcijańskie towarzystwa misyjne prowadzą od 1907 szpital Southern Baptist Hospital. Międzynarodowy Ruch Czerwonego Krzyża i Czerwonego Półksiężyca zarządza drugim pod względem wielkości szpitalem w mieście, szpitalem Al-Quds. Wszystkie szpitale cierpią na niedobór energii elektrycznej. +Larry King + +Larry King (właśc. Lawrence Harvey Zeiger; ur. 19 listopada 1933) – amerykański dziennikarz. +Przeprowadził ponad 40 tys. wywiadów. W 1957 podjął pracę w radiu. Od 1978 regularnie prowadził nocny talk-show na falach Mutual Radio Network. W czerwcu 1985 zatrudniono go w telewizji CNN (Cable News Network). Był gospodarzem nadawanego z Los Angeles "Larry King Live". Ostatni program prowadził 16 grudnia 2010. +King ma bardzo specyficzny sposób prowadzenia wywiadów. Siedzi lekko nachylony w stronę rozmówcy, czasem z łokciami na stole i rękawami podciągniętymi na wysokość bicepsów. Nieodłącznym elementem jego stroju są szelki. Rozmawiał m.in. z Margaret Thatcher, Nancy Reagan, Madonną, Monicą Lewinsky, Michaelem Jordanem, Michaiłem Gorbaczowem, Barbarą Bush, Tonym Blairem, Céline Dion, Hunter Tylo. Jest laureatem licznych nagród. +Niezwykle wyrazisty wizerunek Kinga i jego charakterystyczny głos są często wykorzystywane przez Hollywood. Dziennikarz użyczył głosu m.in. postaci barmana-transwestyty z filmów Shrek 2 i Shrek Trzeci (w wersji polskiej jego miejsce zajął Wojciech Mann). +W 2008 roku wziął udział w kampanii społecznej wyrażającej sprzeciw wobec wprowadzenia w amerykańskim stanie Kalifornia poprawki legislacyjnej zamykającej drogę parom jednopłciowym do zawierania małżeńswt, tzw. Propozycji 8. +W rozmowie z Conanem O'Brienem 9 lipca 2009 powiedział, że chce, żeby po śmierci jego ciało zostało zamrożone w procesie krioniki. +16 grudnia 2010, po 25 latach pracy dla CNN, przeszedł na emeryturę. Kończąc ostatni odcinek Larry King Live powiedział: "Good night and thank you all for watching". 17 grudnia 2010 został wyemitowany ostatni odcinek popularnego programu. Decyzję o zakończeniu kariery argumentował tym, że chce teraz dużo czasu spędzać z rodziną. Zarówno Bill Clinton jak i Barack Obama pożegnali dziennikarza. +Norman Kwong + +Norman Lim Kwong, (ur. 24 października 1929 w Calgary) – kanadyjski sportowiec zawodowy pochodzenia chińskiego, działacz państwowy, gubernator porucznik prowincji Alberta. +Zarys biografii. +Uprawiał kanadyjską odmianę futbolu amerykańskiego i w barwach zespołu Edmonton Eskimos czterokrotnie sięgnął po Grey Cup, główne trofeum w Canadian Football League (CFL). Pierwszy Kanadyjczyk pochodzenia chińskiego w lidze CFL, nosił przydomek „China Clipper”. W 1955 został uznany kanadyjskim „Sportowcem roku”. W późniejszych latach w uznaniu udanej kariery został uhonorowany miejscem w Hall of Fame ligi CFL (1969), Hall of Fame Sportu Kanadyjskiego (1975) oraz Hall of Fame Sportu Prowincji Alberta. +Kierował klubem ligi CFL Calgary Stampeders. Był również współwłaścicielem zespołu hokejowego Calgary Flames, wraz z którym świętował pierwszy Puchar Stanleya (trofeum w lidze NHL) w 1989. +Przewodniczący Kanadyjskiej Rady Porozumienia Międzykulturowego, w 1988 został odznaczony Orderem Kanady. 20 stycznia 2005 został zaprzysiężony jako gubernator porucznik prowincji Alberta, zastąpił zmarłą Lois Hole. Funkcję pełnił do maja 2010. +Lazarus + +Lazarus – zintegrowane środowisko programistyczne oparte na kompilatorze Free Pascal. Jest to wzorowane na Delphi wizualne środowisko programistyczne oraz biblioteka Lazarus Component Library (LCL), która jest odpowiednikiem VCL. +Program napisany w środowisku Lazarus można bez żadnych zmian skompilować dla dowolnego obsługiwanego procesora, systemu operacyjnego i interfejsu okienek. Lazarus (w większości przypadków) jest zgodny z Delphi. Jest brakującą częścią układanki, która pozwala na rozwijanie programów, podobnie jak w Delphi, na wszystkich platformach obsługiwanych przez FPC. W odróżnieniu od Javy, która stara się, aby raz napisana aplikacja działała wszędzie ("write once run anywhere"), Lazarus i Free Pascal starają się, aby raz napisana aplikacja kompilowała się wszędzie ("write once compile anywhere"). Ponieważ dostępny jest dokładnie taki sam kompilator, w większości przypadków nie trzeba wprowadzać żadnych zmian, aby otrzymać taki sam produkt dla różnych platform. +Program jest udostępniany na licencji GNU GPL, natomiast biblioteki na zmodyfikowanej licencji LGPL (co oznacza możliwość wykorzystania Lazarusa w projektach o zamkniętym kodzie). +Interfaces – Widget. +W terminologii Lazarusa tę część bibliotek nazwano "the Interface". Umożliwiają one płynne przejście na inne platformy z zastosowaniem różnych interfejsów okienek. +PDA. +Lazarus jest jednym z niewielu IDE dla urządzeń PDA. Aktualnie są wspierane następujące +Derek Jarman + +Michael Derek Elworthy Jarman (ur. 31 stycznia 1942 w Northwood w Wielkiej Brytanii, zm. 19 lutego 1994 w Londynie) – brytyjski artysta awangardowy: reżyser filmowy, malarz, scenarzysta, scenograf, poeta i pisarz. +Zaliczany do nurtu filmowego postmodernizmu, jak również new queer cinema i kontrkultury punk. +Na początku lat siedemdziesiątych XX w. współtworzył wraz z Genesisem P-Orridge'm kolektyw artystyczny The Exploding Galaxy. Jawny homoseksualista, który jako pierwszy w Wielkiej Brytanii odważył się otwarcie zajmować się tematyką homoseksualną w reżyserowanych przez siebie filmach. +Życiorys. +Młodość i nauka. +Urodził się Northwood w Middlesex w Wielkiej Brytanii, w średniozamożnej rodzinie wojskowych – był synem pochodzącego z Nowej Zelandii pilota RAF-u. Wychowywał się w kolejnych brytyjskich bazach wojskowych w Anglii, Włoszech i Pakistanie. Jak sam twierdził "otrzymał najbardziej konwencjonalne brytyjskie wychowanie". W szkole podstawowej jego nauczyciel Robin Nascoe zaszczepił w nim zainteresowanie sztuką. Po ukończeniu Canford School w Canford Magna (hrabstwo Dorset), w latach 1960-1963 studiował z polecenia ojca literaturę, historię i historię sztuki w King’s College London University. Dzięki tym studiom ojciec zgodził się, aby kształcił się dalej w Slade School of Fine Art (1963-1967). +Początek działalności w Londynie. +Po ukończeniu studiów Derek opracował scenografię do kilku oper i baletów ("Don Giovvani", "Jazz Calendar"), w tym dla English National Opera i dla The Royal Ballet, co jednak nie dawało mu wystarczającej satysfakcji artystycznej. Chciał wrócić do malarstwa, które było jego prawdziwą pasją. Odnosił na tym polu pewne sukcesy, a jego prace, m.in. pejzaże, były kilkukrotnie wystawiane. W maju 1961 r. obraz Jarmana "We Are Waitnig and Waiting" ("Czekamy i czekamy") wygrał w kategorii najlepszego obrazu amatorskiego wystawę "Daily Express". +Jako źródło pierwszych fascynacji filmem Jarman podawał w biografii film "La Dolce Vita" Federico Felliniego, który obejrzał mając 18 lat. Podczas studiów w Slade poznał niezależne, undergroundowe kino, a duże wrażenie zrobiły na nim wtedy takie filmy jak "Scorpio Rising" Kennetha Angera i nieco później filmy Andy’ego Warhola. Z filmem na gruncie profesjonalnym po raz pierwszy spotkał się na planie "Diabłów" Kena Russella, gdzie zajmował się scenografią. W 1970 r. przypadek zetknął go z tym reżyserem: w pociągu z Paryża poznał przyjaciółkę Russela, która skojarzyła ze sobą obydwu artystów. Z tym samym reżyserem Jarman pracował jeszcze przy realizacji scenografii do "Dzikiego Mesjasza". Przyznawał później, że ta współpraca wiele go nauczyła, a Russell był najlepszym nauczycielem filmu, na jakiego mógł trafić. +Pierwsze filmy na taśmie 8 mm. +Już w trakcie rozpoczęcia prac nad scenografią dla Russela, Jarman zachwycił się możliwościami kamery "Super 8". Niewielka, mobilna i tania w eksploatacji, stała się dla niego synonimem niezależnej twórczości. Pierwszym obrazem jaki nakręcił na taśmie 8 mm był 6-minutowy obraz "Studio Bankside" nakręcony w 1971 r., później kolejno powstały "A Journey to Avebury" (składający się z zatrzymanych w kadrze plenerów z okolic Avebury), "Ogród Luksoru" (z wątkami typowymi dla New Age) i "Andrew Logan Kisses the Glitterati". Jarman notował na taśmie wspomnienia z podróży, rejestrował kameralne zdarzenia i sentymentalne miejsca. Powstawały z tego krótkometrażowe filmy poetyckie i manierystyczne impresje, często o bliskiej malarstwu estetyce. Eksperymentował z możliwościami kamery: nadawał obrazowi "chropowatości", zmieniał tempo filmowania, nakładał różne plany. Powstawały też filmy zupełnie pozbawione tradycyjnej filmowej narracji lub bez dialogów. +Filmy tego typu kręcił później przez całe życie, równolegle z produkcjami pełnometrażowymi. Z czasem do swojego warszatu dołączył również technikę wideo. +Coming out i "gay rights movement". +W Anglii kontakty homoseksualne do 1967 roku był przestępstwem. Jarman otwarcie przyznał się do swojej orientacji seksualnej w czasach, w których nie było to ani bezpieczne, ani modne. Był również aktywnym działaczem ruchu na rzecz równouprawnienia osób LGBT. Wpłynęło to na całą jego twórczość filmową – niemal wszystkie jego filmy poświęcone są bohaterom o odmiennej od heteroseksualnej orientacji. Jako jeden z pierwszych wprowadził do kina tą tematykę, ukazującą współzależność między homoseksualną orientacją bohatera, a jego osobowością. Mając doświadczenie bycia w nieakceptowanej mniejszości, cokolwiek robił było dla niego aktem politycznym. Drażnił swoim homoseksualizmem będąc przy tym "", estetą i erudytą oraz artystą na wskroś brytyjskim, który w swoich dziełach mówi o tęsknocie za mityczną Anglią ("The Angelic Conversation") z kwitnącymi ogrodami, harmonią i sonetami William Shakespeare’a oraz sięgającym do motywów stanowiących o brytyjskiej kulturze – do Shakespeare’a, Christophera Marlowe’a, Benjamina Brittena, przeciwstawiając ją tej współczesnej, opartej według niego na przemocy, pieniądzu i imperializmie. +W latach 80. wypowiadał się głośno przeciw brytyjskiemu imperializmowi i konserwatyzmowi rządu Margaret Thatcher. Miał odwagę nie tylko ujawnić swoją orientację homoseksualną, ale później również otwarcie mówić o swojej śmiertelnej chorobie, w czasie gdy opinia publiczna winiła gejów za epidemię HIV. +Filmy pełnometrażowe. +Pierwszym pełnometrażowym filmem Jarmana był "Sebastian" z 1975 r. Wciąż jednak był człowiekiem awangardowego undergroundu i postmodernistą "". Wśród brytyjskiej bohemy artystycznej zdobył status postaci kultowej już w latach 70. W kulturze masowej zaistniał jednak dopiero pod koniec lat 80., w czasach szerszej akceptacji kultury queer i estetyki postmodernistycznej. Momentem akceptacji Jarmana przez świat oficjalnego kina była premiera filmu "Caravaggio" w 1986 roku – najbardziej konwencjonalnego w formie filmu Jarmana. Mimo że zawarł w nim wszystkie główne wątki swej twórczości: motywy homoerotyczne, punkowy bunt, apoteozę bezkompromisowego artysty i outsidera, to jednak forma filmu była bardziej przystępna i efektowna od większości jego pozostałych produkcji. +Kolejnymi dziełami z cyklu filmowych biografii były "Edward II" (1991) i "Wittgenstein" (1993). Równolegle z nimi powstawały filmy zajmujące się sprawami społecznymi i zajmujące stanowisko w kwestiach politycznych: "Jubileusz" (1977) i "The Last of England" (1987). Ten ostatni określany jest jako pierwszy film kontrkultury punk. W 1987 r. Jarman wyreżyserował etiudę filmową pt. "Aria", który weszła do pełnometrażowego filmu o tym samym tytule, składającego się z dziesięciu krótkich form różnych reżyserów (m.in. Jean-Luc Godard, Ken Russel, Robert Altman). +Choroba i ostatnie lata życia. +W grudniu 1986 r. po ukończeniu filmu "Caravaggio" rozpoznano u niego zakażenie wirusem HIV. Mimo to wciąż pracował i tworzył, nawet gdy w ostatnich latach postępująca choroba odbierała mu wzrok. Filmy nabierały jednak stopniowo wymowy gorzkiego pesymizmu i radykalizmu w kwestiach społeczno-politycznych. Wielokrotnie wypowiadał się publicznie na temat swojej choroby. +Ostatnie lata życia Jarman spędził w Dungeness, w pomalowanej na czarno rybackiej chacie na wybrzeżu hrabstwa Kent. Wokół tego domu, nazwanego "Prospect Cottage", stojącego samotnie między morzem a atomową elektrownią, Jarman założył ogród. Ogrodnictwu poświęcał czas z równą pasją i artyzmem, co sztuce filmowej. +Zmarł z powodu AIDS w 52 roku życia. Swój testament życiowy i artystyczny zawarł w filmie pt. "Blue". +Okabe Umezu + +Okabe Umezu (1876-1943) – japoński konstruktor okrętów, twórca pierwszego lotniskowca japońskiej marynarki wojennej "Hōshō". +W latach 1898-1904 jak większość wykształconych Japończyków, studiował na technicznych uczelniach europejskich we Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii. +W 1919 stworzył plany pierwszego lotniskowca floty japońskiej noszącego nazwę "Taiho", ostatecznie nie zbudowanego. Rozwinął go konstruując wraz z swym zespołem w 1922 lotniskowiec "Hōshō". Był autorem modernizacji pancernika "Nagato". W latach 1932-38 pracował jako jeden z wykładowców w Akademii Marynarki Wojennej w Jokohamie. Ostatnim jego dziełem była praca w zespole kierowanym przez Teichi Hata nad lotniskowcem "Shōkaku", ukończonym w porcie Yokosuka w 1941. +Podróż do wnętrza Ziemi + +Podróż do wnętrza Ziemi (inne wersje tytułów polskich przekładów: Podróż do środka ziemi, Podróż podziemna: Przygody nieustraszonych podróżników +, Wyprawa do wnętrza Ziemi) (fr. "Voyage au centre de la Terre", 1864) – jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu literackiego "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 45 rozdziałów napisana w 1864. +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1865, a w postaci książkowej w 1874. +Do 2008 nakręcono dziewięć filmów opartych na tej powieści. +Opis fabuły. +Główny bohater - Niemiec z Hamburga, profesor mineralogii - Otto Lidenbrock (w niektórych wczesnych wydaniach po angielsku zmieniono nazwisko na Von Hardwigg), oraz jego bratanek, sierota Axel podróżują pod powierzchnią Ziemi i przebywają drogę od Islandii do wyspy Stromboli na Morzu Śródziemnym. +Jan Bury (syn Józefa) + +Jan Bury (ur. 1 października 1963 w Przeworsku) – polski polityk, prawnik, poseł Polskiego Stronnictwa Ludowego na Sejm I, II, IV, V, VI i VII kadencji, były sekretarz stanu w Ministerstwie Skarbu Państwa. +Życiorys. +W 1990 ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie (filia w Rzeszowie). +Od 1981 należał do Związku Młodzieży Wiejskiej. Od 1990 do 1996 był prezesem Zarządu Krajowego ZMW. Od 1997 do 2001 pełnił funkcję prezesa spółki z o.o. +W 1983 wstąpił do Zjednoczonego Stronnictwa Ludowego, a następnie do PSL. Funkcję posła sprawował przez dwie kadencje w latach 1991–1997. Od 1998 do 2001 zasiadał w sejmiku podkarpackim. Powrócił do Sejmu po czteroletniej przerwie w 2001. W IV kadencji zasiadał w sejmowej Komisji Kultury i Środków Przekazu, Komisji Skarbu Państwa, a także jako wiceprzewodniczący w Komisji śledczej ds. prywatyzacji PZU. W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2005 skutecznie ubiegał się o reelekcję. W wyborach w 2007 po raz piąty uzyskał mandat poselski, otrzymując w okręgu rzeszowskim 13 295 głosów. Po raz kolejny wybrany do Sejmu w wyborach w 2011 liczbą 15 649 głosów. +Został przedstawicielem Sejmu IV, V i VI kadencji w Krajowej Radzie Sądownictwa i prezesem wojewódzkich struktur PSL w Rzeszowie. 20 listopada 2007 powołany na sekretarza stanu w Ministerstwie Skarbu Państwa. +28 października 2011 został wybrany przewodniczącym Klubu Parlamentarnego PSL. Obowiązki te oficjalnie objął 8 listopada 2011. +12 lipca 2012 złożył rezygnację ze stanowiska sekretarza stanu w Ministerstwie Skarbu Państwa, premier Donald Tusk przyjął ją 20 lipca 2012. +Leon V Armeńczyk + +Leon V Armeńczyk (gr. Λέων Ε' ο Αρμένιος, ur. ok. 775, zm. 25 grudnia 820 r.), generał bizantyjski za panowania cesarzy Nicefora I i Michała I, od 813 r. cesarz bizantyjski. +Leon był z pochodzenia Ormianinem. Karierę rozpoczął za Nicefora dochowując mu wierności podczas powstania w 803 roku. Później został strategosem temu Anatolikon. Po tym jak w 812 r. wykazał się zdolnościami w walkach przeciwko Arabom, został powołany w następnym roku do walki przeciwko Bułgarom. Korzystając z tego, iż cesarz Michał I nie cieszył się popularnością wśród wojska, odstąpił od niego podczas bitwy pod Wersinikią (813) i sam sięgnął po władzę. W trakcie podjętych latem 813 r. rozmów pokojowych usiłował podstępem zabić chana Kruma. Nieudana pułapka stała się następnie dla Bułgarów pretekstem do podjęcia długotrwałego oblężenia Konstantynopola, zakończonego zawartym w 816 r. trzydziestoletnim traktatem pokojowym, na mocy którego m.in. ustalona została przebiegająca przez Trację granica między Bułgarią a cesarstwem. +Leon zawarł sojusz z cesarzem Zachodu Ludwikiem Pobożnym, synem Karola Wielkiego. Przymierze obydwu cesarzy było skierowane przeciw państwu Aglabidów na terenie dzisiejszej Algierii. Państwo to swoją flotą zagrażało posiadłościom bizantyjskim i frankijskim w Italii i na Sycylii. +Po uporządkowaniu spraw zewnętrznych Leon wziął w swoje ręce sprawy Kościoła Leon pochodził ze Wschodu i był ikonoklastą, chciał przywrócić ikonoklazm. Kazał aresztować słynnego ikonofila Teodora Studytę, skazując go na wygnanie razem z patriarchą Niceforem. Wiosną 815 roku cesarz zwołał synod do Konstantynopola na którym potępiono kult obrazów i postanowienia II Soboru Nicejskiego oraz cesarzową Irene za walkę przeciw ikonoklastom. Rozpoczęło się masowe niszczenie obrazów. Do opozycji przeciw cesarzowi przeszedł nawet jego przyjaciel Michał z Amorion, więc cesarz go uwięził. +Podjęte przez Leona energiczne kroki skierowane przeciwko paulicjanom oraz zwolennikom kultu ikon zaowocowały powstaniem silnej opozycji oraz zawiązaniem spisku, któremu przewodził niegdysiejszy towarzysz broni Leona, Michał z Amorion. Po wykryciu spisku, zagrożony uwięzieniem Michał dokonał zamachu stanu, w wyniku którego w dniu Bożego Narodzenia 820 r. Leon został obalony i zamordowany. +Sztormowanie + +Sztormowanie – ogół czynności zachowania się na akwenie podczas sztormu mające na celu zapewnienie bezpieczeństwa statku, załogi i ładunku. +Ochrydzka szkoła piśmiennicza + +Ochrydzka szkoła piśmiennicza (czasem też po prostu szkoła ochrydzka) - jedna z dwu głównych (obok szkoły presławskiej) szkół piśmiennictwa staro-cerkiewno-słowiańskiego i starobułgarskiego, z centrum w Ochrydzie w średniowiecznej Bułgarii (dziś na terenie Macedonii). +Szkoła założona została u schyłku IX w. przez jednego z towarzyszy św. Cyryla i Metodego, Klemensa, zwanego później Ochrydzkim. Gdy w 893 r. Klemens został mianowany biskupem Drembicy, opiekę nad uczniami objął przybyły z Presławia Naum. +Celem szkoły było kształcenie przyszłych nauczycieli i duchownych, a samą szkołę można nazwać średniowiecznym uniwersytetem. +Założony przez św. Klemensa klasztor św. Panteleimona stał się centrum tłumaczeniowym i kopistycznym. +W odróżnieniu od szkoły presławskiej, w Ochrydzie stosowano głównie głagolicę. W późniejszym okresie (druga połowa X w.), po wprowadzeniu cyrylicy używano równolegle obydwu alfabetów. Język twórców szkoły ochrydzkiej cechuje swoisty konserwatyzm i przywiązanie do tradycyjnych form, podczas gdy w szkole presławskiej chętnie wprowadzano do tekstów pożyczki z języka greckiego. +Sam Klemens Ochrydzki był twórcą kilkudziesięciu słów pouczających, 8 słów pochwalnych oraz utworów hymnograficznych. Styl literacki ochrydzkiej szkoły piśmienniczej odznaczał się prostotą oraz jasnością wypowiedzi. Z działalnością szkoły związane jest powstanie jednego z najstarszych głagolickich kodeksów. +Pisano głównie słowa pochwalne i pouczające, żywoty oraz hymnografię. Powstały służby św. Cyrylowi i Klemensowi, lecz nie przetrwały do dziś. +Stal Mielec (wielosekcyjny klub sportowy) + +Stal Mielec - wielosekcyjny klub sportowy założony 10 kwietnia 1939 w Mielcu jako "Klub Sportowy PZL Mielec". Barwy biało-niebieskie. +Sekcją wiodącą była piłka nożna, choć to piłkarze ręczni jako pierwsi spośród zawodników uprawiających sporty drużynowe zakwalifikowali się do rozgrywek najwyższego szczebla w kraju. Ponadto w klubie w różnych okresach funkcjonowały także sekcje bokserska, lekkoatletyczna, siatkówki kobiet i mężczyzn, tenisa stołowego, kolarska, gimnastyki, koszykarska, motocyklowa, szachowa, hokeja na lodzie, sportów wodnych i szermierki. +Klub posiadał wiele obiektów sportowych usytuowanych głównie na Osiedlu Kusocińskiego, z których najważniejsze to stadion Stali Mielec i hala sportowo-widowiskowa MOSiR. +12 czerwca 1997 podjęto decyzję o rozwiązaniu klubu. Na bazie dawnych sekcji powstały samodzielne kluby. +Sekcje. +Piłka nożna. +Dwukrotny mistrz Polski w sezonach 1972/73 i 1975/76, wicemistrz 1974/75, finalista Pucharu Polski 1975/76 oraz jeden z dwóch polskich ćwierćfinalistów Pucharu UEFA w historii (edycja 1975/76). W czasach świetności klubu, które przypadły na lata 70. XX wieku, grało w nim wielu reprezentantów Polski i innych czołowych piłkarzy. +Obecnie drużyna gra w III lidze. +Piłka ręczna mężczyzn. +Największymi osiągnięciami zespołu są tytuł Wicemistrza Polski w 1975 i Puchar Polski w 1971. +Od sezonu 2010/2011 zespół startuje w rozgrywkach PGNiG Superligi. +Siatkówka kobiet. +Sekcja powstała w 1952, jednak największe sukcesy drużyna odnosiła jako samodzielny klub. Największe z nich to Wicemistrzostwo Polski w sezonie 2002/03, 3. miejsca Mistrzostw Polski w sezonach 1991/92, 1993/94, 1998/99 i 2003/04, finał Pucharu Polski 1998/99, a także uczestnictwa w Pucharze Konfederacji CEV (w tym ćwierćfinał w 2002/03). +Siatkówka mężczyzn. +Drużyna zdobyła Puchar Polski w 1976, w 1971 zaś grała w finale. W drużynie w latach 60. jako zawodnik grał Andrzej Niemczyk, który w 1965 jako 21-latek był trenerem drużyny mieleckich juniorów. +Obecny klub powstał w 2005, 8 lat po rozpadzie Stali. Występuje w III lidze. +Lekkoatletyka. +Reprezentanci sekcji lekkoatletycznej oraz obecnego klubu są zdobywcami wielu medali Mistrzostw Polski. Wielu z nich występowało w reprezentacji Polski. +Obecnie najbardziej utytułowanym zawodnikiem jest kulomiot Jakub Giża. +Pływanie. +Klubem powstałym na bazie sekcji pływackiej jest Ikar Mielec. +Kolarstwo. +Do kolarskich tradycji Stali nawiązuje Stowarzyszenie Kolarskie Stal Mielec. +August Krogh + +Schack August Steenberg Krogh (ur. 15 listopada 1874 w Grenie, zm. 13 września 1949 w Kopenhadze) – fizjolog duński, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie medycyny z 1920 roku. +Od 1916 roku był profesorem fizjologii zwierzęcej na uniwersytecie kopenhaskim. Przy tej uczelni założył w 1910 roku pierwsze laboratorium badawcze fizjologii zwierząt. W badaniach naukowych współpracował z żoną, Marią Krogh (1874-1943). +Najważniejsze prace Krogha dotyczyły fizjologii oddychania i krążenia. Badał krążenie krwi w drobnych naczyniach oraz zaopatrzenie tkanek w krew, odkrył zależność produkcji energii od ilości pochłanianego przez organizm tlenu. Za odkrycie regulacyjnego mechanizmu naczyń włosowatych otrzymał w 1920 roku Nagrodę Nobla. +Wprowadził do fizjologii nowe metody badań (mikrometria) oraz przyrządy (spirometr). +Wspólnota francuska Belgii + +Wspólnota francuska Belgii (fr. "Communauté française de Belgique", niderl. "Franse Gemeenschap van België") – jedna z trzech oficjalnych wspólnot Belgii. Jest to instytucja, która zajmować się ma rozwojem języka francuskiego w kraju. Działa zatem na polu kultury, oświaty, nauki czy współpracy międzynarodowej. Swym zasięgiem obejmuje większą część Walonii (z wyjątkiem gmin zamieszkanych przez mniejszość niemiecką) oraz Region Stołeczny Brukseli. +W odniesieniu do Wspólnoty francuskiej używa się także nazw: Wspólnota Walonia-Bruksela ("Communauté Wallonie-Bruxelles") lub Wspólnota francuska Walonia-Bruksela ("Communauté française Wallonie-Bruxelles"), żadna z nich nie pojawia się w konstytucji belgijskiej. +Oficjalnym symbolem wspólnoty francuskiej jest żółta flaga z czerwonym kogutem, której autorem jest malarz Pierre Paulus. Święto Wspólnoty francuskiej obchodzone jest 27 września w rocznicę wyparcia wojsk holenderskich z Brukseli podczas rewolucji belgijskiej w 1830. +Andrzej Ameljańczyk + +Andrzej Jan Ameljańczyk (ur. 5 sierpnia 1949 w Sokółce) – generał dywizji Wojska Polskiego, profesor. +W latach 1968-1973 był słuchaczem Wydziału Cybernetyki Wojskowej Akademii Technicznej im. Jarosława Dąbrowskiego w Warszawie. Studia ukończył z wyróżnieniem broniąc pracę dyplomową nt. ""Ekonometryczny model sterowania gospodarką narodową w okresie zagrożenia wojennego"". W 1976 roku obronił doktorat nauk technicznych (rozprawa doktorska "Optymalizacja kierowania międzynarodową kooperacją produkcyjną"), w 1979 roku habilitował się (rozprawa habilitacyjna "Wektorowa optymalizacja w modelach decyzyjnych ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem modeli growych"), w 1987 roku otrzymał tytuł profesora nadzwyczajnego. +Do 2003 roku pełnił służbę w Wojskowej Akademii Technicznej, zajmując kolejno stanowiska: starszego asystenta, adiunkta, docentem, komendanta Wydziału Cybernetyki, zastępcy komendanta WAT ds. dydaktycznych (1989-1992), zastępcy komendanta WAT ds. naukowych, profesora. W okresie od grudnia 1994 roku do maja 1995 roku czasowo pełnił obowiązki komendanta-rektora akademii, a następnie został wyznaczony na to stanowisko i pełnił je do 17 kwietnia 2003 roku. Na tym stanowisku dwukrotnie był awansowany na wyższy stopień wojskowy. 8 maja 1995 roku Prezydent RP, Lech Wałęsa wręczył mu nominację na generała brygady, a 15 sierpnia 1997 roku Prezydent RP, Aleksander Kwaśniewski wręczył mu nominację na generała dywizji. W kwietniu 2003 roku został wyznaczony na stanowisko szefa Logistyki Wojsk Lądowych, które zachował po restrukturyzacji tego pionu. 2 maja 2005 roku został dyrektorem Departamentu Polityki Zbrojeniowej MON w Warszawie. W lutym 2008 roku został przeniesiony do rezerwy. +Inicjator koncepcji utworzenia Uniwersytetu Obrony Narodowej, która zakładała między innymi rozwiązanie kilku elitarnych szkół wojskowych. Ostatecznie koncepcja ta nie weszła w życie. +Od 2008 roku pracuje w Wojskowej Akademii Technicznej na stanowisku dyrektora Instytutu Systemów Informatycznych Wydziału Cybernetyki. Równocześnie prowadzi wykłady na Wydziale Matematyki i Informatyki UWM w Olsztynie. +Kiełbasa wyborcza + +Kiełbasa wyborcza – zbiorczy termin określający populistyczne formy zdobywania poparcia w wyborach. +Wyrażenie powstało w Galicji przełomu XIX i XX wieku, w okresie demokratyzacji praw wyborczych do Rady Państwa i Sejmu Krajowego. Wówczas to kandydaci na posłów w celu zdobycia poparcia mas społecznych organizowali pikniki z darmowym jedzeniem i piciem (głównie kiełbasą i wódką). +Zjawisko serwowania jedzenia na spotkaniach przedwyborczych, choć w mniejszym zakresie, występowało też w okresie II RP i w pierwszych latach III Rzeczypospolitej. +Obecnie wyrażenie używane w znaczeniu przenośnym, jako określenie atrakcyjnych, lecz zazwyczaj niemożliwych do spełnienia obietnic przedwyborczych. +"Kiełbasa wyborcza" skierowana jest przede wszystkim do wyborców nieposiadających ostrych poglądów politycznych lub niemających wiedzy o działaniu mechanizmów gospodarczych. Przykładem "kiełbasy wyborczej" kierowanej do takich osób jest obietnica zmniejszenia podatków przy równoczesnym zintensyfikowaniu polityki socjalnej państwa. +Marina (żeglarstwo) + +Marina, port jachtowy – mały lub średni port (też wydzielona część portu tj. "basen jachtowy") przystosowany do przybijania, cumowania i postoju jachtów i innych niewielkich jednostek pływających. Obszar portu osłonięty jest zazwyczaj od strony otwartego akwenu falochronem w sposób naturalny lub sztuczny. +Wyposażenie. +Mariny wyposażone są w pomosty stałe (betonowe, drewniane, metalowe) umożliwiające bezpieczne dobijanie jednostek. Najczęściej posiadają też stacje paliwowe, dźwig, slip oraz urządzenia sanitarne. W bliskim obszarze mariny znajdować mogą się również: kempingi, ośrodek wypoczynkowo-rekreacyjny, klub żeglarski itp. Prawnym gospodarzem mariny może być np.: osoba prywatna czy też miasto, gmina itd. +Wojna dewolucyjna + +Wojna dewolucyjna 1667-1668 +W latach 60. XVII w. spore posiadłości mocarstwa hiszpańskiego stały się przedmiotem zainteresowania mocarstw europejskich. Zainteresowanie to wzmogło się po koronacji schorowanego Karola II na króla Hiszpanii, co wróżyło przyszłe bezkrólewie w państwie iberyjskim. Przyrodnia siostra Karola II Maria Teresa Hiszpańska, małżonka Ludwika XIV była szczególnie zainteresowana tronem dla Ludwika. Według zwyczaju flandryjskiego głoszącego, że dzieci z pierwszego małżeństwa po śmierci ojca dziedziczą jego spadek (prawo dewolucyjne) Ludwik zażądał dla siebie terytoriów Niderlandów hiszpańskich, części Burgundii oraz Luksemburga. Mimo że testament Filipa IV wyraźnie odmawiał Marii Teresie prawa do tych ziem, król francuski rozpoczął w roku 1667 wojnę, starając się wykorzystać zaangażowanie głównych konkurentów w konflikty zbrojne (wojna hiszpańsko-portugalska 1661-1668 oraz druga wojna angielsko-holenderska). +Francuskie wojska zdobyły szereg twierdz w Niderlandach, m.in. Lille (zdobyte dnia 17 sierpnia 1667 r.), Courtrai, Tournai, Douai i Audenarde (Oudenaarde), a w lutym 1668 r. wkroczyły na terytorium Hrabstwa Burgundii (Franche-Comté). Uwikłane w konflikt Anglia i Holandia porozumiały się w końcu i zawiązały antyfrancuski układ do którego włączyła się także Szwecja. Bojąc się rozszerzenia konfliktu król francuski zaprzestał prowadzenia działań zbrojnych i poprosił o rozejm. Dnia 2 maja 1668 roku w Akwizgranie podpisano porozumienie pokojowe na mocy którego Maria Teresa zrzekła się praw do tronu hiszpańskiego, a niewielkie terytoria hiszpańskie pozostały po stronie Francji. Sprawa tronu hiszpańskiego pozostała jednak nierozwiązana i z nową siłą wybuchła w roku 1700 - wojna o sukcesję hiszpańską. +Język waloński + +Język waloński ("Walon") – język romański z grupy "langues d'oïl", niekiedy uznawany za dialekt języka francuskiego, posługują się nim Walonowie, zamieszkujący Walonię – południową część Belgii i niewielki skrawek Francji. Język waloński charakteryzuje się bardzo dużą liczbą słów pochodzenia germańskiego - ok. 40%, a także w dużej mierze gramatyką podobną do germańskiej np. zamiast łacińskiego szyku "rzeczownik + przymiotnik", mamy germański szyk "przymiotnik + rzeczownik". +Po walońsku mówili imigranci z Belgii (wal. "Walons del Wisconsene") w północno-wschodniej części Wisconsin w hrabstwach Brown, Door and Kewaunee. +Języka walońskiego nie należy mylić z belgijskim językiem francuskim (urzędowym w Belgii), który tylko nieznacznie różni się od urzędowego języka francuskiego używanego we Francji. Język waloński jest obecnie używany głównie przez starsze pokolenie Walonów, młodsi mówią głównie po francusku. Ostatnio pojawiły się inicjatywy mające na celu zwiększenie jego statusu, jednak w praktyce jest on wciąż językiem drugiej kategorii. Język waloński jest niezrozumiały dla przeciętnego użytkownika języka francuskiego. +Dyslokacja + +Dyslokacja +Monolog + +Monolog – wypowiedź jednego podmiotu, będąca całością znaczeniową i formalną, w przeciwieństwie do dialogu, składającego się z wypowiedzi niesamodzielnych. +Przykładowe monologi literackie to: "Wielka Improwizacja" Konrada w III części "Dziadów" A. Mickiewicza, monolog Kordiana na szczycie Mont Blanc z dramatu J. Słowackiego, monolog Hamleta z dramatu W. Szekspira, "Testament Mój" Juliusza Słowackiego. +Inicjacja + +Często inicjacja jest zrytualizowana i towarzyszy jej odpowiednia ceremonia. Jest tak zwłaszcza w przypadku, kiedy inicjowany wstępuje do jakiegoś zakonu lub tajnego stowarzyszenia, co oznacza wtajemniczenie w sekretne doktryny czy Misteria starożytne. +W przypadku inicjacji mistycznych jest to nie tylko uhonorowanie i uznanie członkostwa, ale często również nadnaturalny przekaz wiedzy, stanu uświęcenia lub nadzwyczajnych zdolności i mocy. Człowiekowi nieinicjowanemu (a często nawet inicjowanemu) trudno jest potwierdzić realność takiego nadnaturalnego przekazu, sceptycy zaś uznają go za oszustwo lub (auto)sugestię. +Obrzezanie jest jednym z przykładów obrządku inicjacyjnego o długiej historii. +Chrzescijaństwo. +W kościołach chrześcijańskich, w tym w Kościele Katolickim rytem inicjacyjnym jest sakrament chrztu, zaś okresem inicjacyjnym — katechumenat. Jest to inicjacja chrześcijańska – wprowadzanie ochrzczonych dzieci w życie wiary. +Masoneria. +W rytach masońskich wtajemniczenia są wielostopniowe. Podstawowa, uniwersalna masoneria (tzw. świętojańska lub błękitna) ma 3 stopnie (uczeń, czeladnik, mistrz). Wtajemniczenia na kolejne stopnie są zróżnicowane w zależności od rytu, np. Ryt Szkocki Dawny i Uznany liczy 33 stopnie wtajemniczenia, Ryt Francuski Nowoczesny – 7, Ryt York – 13, Ryt Szwedzki – 11, zaś Ryt Memphis-Misraim aż 99 stopni. Tak jak np. uroczysta inicjacja szkolna dzieli ludzi na uczniów i całą resztę, tak inicjacje masońskie dzielą ludzi na wtajemniczonych (braci) oraz profanów (światowych). +Polish Hill River + +Polish Hill River to miejsce niedaleko miejscowości Sevenhill położonej przy Polish Valley w Clare Valley w Australii Południowej w którym zamieszkali pierwsi przybyli do tego stanu polscy osadnicy w 1856 roku. +Polscy pionierzy pochodzący z Dąbrówki Wielkopolskiej i Zbąszynia przybyli do Adelaide 7 sierpnia 1856 roku, ich podróż zaczęła się w maju tego samego roku kiedy zaokrętowali się w statku płynącym do nowo powstałej kolonii w Hamburgu. Już rok później polscy koloniści zakupili pierwszą posesję w miejscu nazywanym Hill River (w późniejszym czasie przemianowanym właśnie na Polish Hill River). W tym samym roku założono Komitet Budowy Kościoła w Sevenhill, jeden z osadników Jan Nykiel przekazał ziemię na której ma on być wybudowany i oddał zarządzanie całym projektem w ręce swoich synów Jana i Jakuba oraz Lukasowi Małychowi i Paulowi Połomce. W 1870 roku do Sevenhill przyjechał ksiądz Leon Rogalski, pierwszy polski ksiądz w Australii Południowej, od razu zaczął prowadzić pracę duszpasterską wśród Polaków w Hill River i okolicach, a także w Barossa Vallley. Kościół pod wezwaniem św. Stanisława Kostki zostaje konsekrowany przez biskupa Shiela w 1871 roku, w tym samym roku prasa katolicka w Polsce publikuje artykuł księdza Rogalskiego opisujący sytuację osadników w Australii oraz, że "Polacy...w Sevenhill i Hill River... mają swoją własną szkołę prowadzącą zajęcia w polskim i angielskim języku". +W 1872 roku przykościelna szkoła zostaje opisana w "Directory of South Australia", w tym okresie Polacy stanowią bardzo aktywną część społeczeństwa, są często wybierani do różnego typu władz okręgowych. W 1874 do Hill River przybyły siostry św. Józefa i rozpoczęły pracę w szkole. Dwa lata później biskup Reynolds poświęcił główny ołtarz i zainstalował relikwie św. Stanisława Kostki. Pierwszy oficjalny spis parafian został przeprowadzony w 1890 roku przez księdza Rogalskiego, odnotował on 322 osoby składające się na 62 polskie rodziny zamieszkujące okolice Hill River, Sevenhill i Penwortham. +W 1893 Polacy przekazali tytuł do ziemi na której stał kościół i szkoła na ręce Arcybiskupa Adelajdy. 6 czerwca 1906 zmarł ksiądz Rogalski. Z powodu braku zainteresowania i postępującej integracji społeczeństwa polskiego z Australijczykami, szkoła zostaje zamknięta w 1925 roku, na początku 1950 roku kościół zostaje dekonsekrowany i następuje jego powolna dewastacja, sam budynek kościoła używany jest jako magazyn. +Na początku lat pięćdziesiątych emigranci którzy przybyli do Australii po wojnie dowiadują się o istniejących ruinach kościoła i szkoły, następuje decyzja o odbudowaniu obydwu budynków. +Renowacja rozpoczęła się w 1971 roku, Polonia zakupuje dodatkowych 9 akrów ziemi przylegającej do pierwotnej dwu akrowej własności. Kościół św. Stanisława został wciągnięty na listę zabytków w Australii Południowej w 1980 roku. W 1988 roku Monsinior Horgan oficjalnie otwiera muzeum Polish Hill River Church Museum. +Potomkowie polskich pionierów wmurowali wtedy kamień węgielny wraz z "kapsułą czasową" która ma zostać otwarta w 2036 r. +Obecnie kościołem i muzeum opiekuje się Polonia mieszkająca w Adelajdzie, a także grupa potomków pierwszych kolonistów którzy nadal mieszkają w Clare Valley. +Konformacja + +Konformacja - układ przestrzenny całej cząsteczki mogący ulegać zmianom, bez zrywania wiązań chemicznych. +Zdolność do przyjmowania różnych konformacji przez cząsteczki można sobie wyobrazić na przykładzie zmian kształtu zwykłego metalowego łańcucha. Łańcuch może być np. wyprostowany, zwinięty w kulkę, lub nawet zapętlony bez konieczności zrywania i ponownego łączenia poszczególnych jego ogniw. +Cząsteczki, które posiadają ten sam układ wiązań i atomów ale różniące się kształtem nazywamy izomerami konformacyjnymi. +Cząsteczki chemiczne zmieniają swój kształt na skutek rotacji wokół wiązań chemicznych tworzących je grup atomów względem innych grup atomów. Rotacja ta jest możliwa tylko wokół wiązań pojedynczych i jest zablokowana w przypadku wiązań wielokrotnych. Może ona być też zablokowana na skutek tzw. zawady sterycznej, czyli tak dużych rozmiarów grup atomów, że nie mogą się one względem siebie obracać, gdyż powodowałoby to nakładanie się na siebie poszczególnych atomów w przestrzeni. +Wiele cząsteczek chemicznych (np. dłuższe alkany) posiada liczne wiązania, wokół których następuje stale trwająca rotacja grup atomów. Cząsteczki takie ciągle zmieniają swój kształt, choć niektóre kształty mogą być bardziej a inne mniej energetycznie opłacalne. Cząsteczki takie nie tworzą trwałych izomerów konformacyjnych. Są one zdolne do tworzenia trwałych izomerów dopiero w bardzo niskich temperaturach, w których ustaje rotacja atomów wokół wiązań. +Niektóre cząsteczki tworzą jednak trwałe izomery konformacyjne, nawet w temperaturze pokojowej. Jest to zwykle spowodowane wcześniej już wspomnianą zawadą steryczną lub sztywnością wiązań w ugrupowaniach cyklicznych występujących w strukturze tych związków. Wybór ściśle określonej konformacji cząsteczek może następować też w trakcie procesu ich krystalizacji. W trakcie tego procesu cząsteczki są niejako "zmuszane" przez inne cząsteczki do przyjęcia określonej konformacji aby "dopasować" się do powstającej sieci krystalicznej. Konformacja ta jest jednak trwała tylko w fazie krystalicznej i po stopieniu kryształu tworzące go cząsteczki ponownie odzyskują możliwość przyjmowania różnych konformacji. +Konformacja ma bardzo duży wpływ na własności fizyczne i biologiczne związków chemicznych. W systemach biologicznych konformacja przyjmowana przez białka i DNA ma decydujący wpływ na ich aktywność biologiczną. Zadaniem wielu enzymów jest np. narzucanie ściśle określonej konformacji łańcuchów DNA w trakcie ich replikowania, a także wymuszanie ściśle określonej konformacji powstających łańcuchów polipeptydowych w trakcie formowania się białek na matrycy RNA. Niewielkie, przypadkowe błędy konformacji DNA i białek prowadzą często do wielu chorób (np. choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba). +Fotochemia + +Fotochemia – dział chemii fizycznej zajmujący się reakcjami, które zachodzą pod wpływem działania promieniowania elektromagnetycznego. +Podstawowe prawo fotochemii, znane jako prawo Grotthussa-Drapera, głosi, że promieniowanie elektromagnetyczne musi być absorbowane przez układ reakcyjny, aby mieć jakikolwiek efekt na przebieg reakcji – brak absorpcji to brak efektu. +Np. trawa jest zielona dlatego, że zawarty w jej liściach barwnik chlorofil absorbuje cały zakres promieniowania świetlnego oprócz światła zielonego, które jest przez liście odbijane. Powoduje to, że naświetlanie trawy światłem zielonym zatrzymuje proces fotosyntezy, która zachodzi na skutek absorpcji światła przez chlorofil. +Drugie, podstawowe prawo fotochemii, prawo Starka-Einsteina, głosi, że jeden foton promieniowania elektromagnetycznego może zostać zaabsorbowany tylko przez jedną cząsteczkę chemiczną. Prawo to, zaproponowane pierwotnie przez Alberta Einsteina, zwane jest też prawem ekwiwalentności wzbudzania. Na jeden zaabsorbowany foton może przypadać tylko jedna wzbudzona cząsteczka. +Fotochemia nie ogranicza się tylko do efektów powstających na skutek działania światłem, lecz obejmuje wszelkie interakcje promieniowania elektromagnetycznego z cząsteczkami chemicznymi w całym zakresie tego promieniowania. +Badania prowadzone w obrębie fotochemii znajdują szereg konkretnych zastosowań – od wyboru związków chemicznych stosowanych na błonach fotograficznych po poprawę efektywności upraw rolnych. +Dowód niekonstruktywny + +Dowód niekonstruktywny rodzaj dowodu matematycznego istnienia pewnych obiektów (zbiorów, liczb, figur geometrycznych o pewnych własnościach), zwykle nie wprost, w którym wykazuje się, że nieprawdziwość tezy twierdzenia prowadziłaby do sprzeczności, z czego wyciąga się wniosek o jej spełnieniu (a więc istnieniu rozpatrywanego rodzaju obiektów) bez podania jakiegokolwiek sposobu ich konstruowania. +Twierdzenie: Istnieją liczby niewymierne dodatnie formula_1 że formula_2 jest liczbą wymierną. +Dowód: Jeżeli formula_3 jest liczbą wymierną, to możemy wziąć formula_4. Jeżeli formula_3 jest liczbą niewymierną, to biorąc formula_6 mamy formula_7. +Rozumowania korzystające z zasady szufladkowej Dirichleta również można uznać za niekonstruktywne. +Dowód niekonstruktywny spotyka się czasami z krytyką, która stwierdza, że z samej sprzeczności w razie nieistnienia danego obiektu nie wynika jego istnienie. Odrzucenie tej zasady wymaga jednak modyfikacji niektórych praw logiki, jak prawo wyłączonego środka (zob. prawa rachunku zdań). Krytykę dowodów niekonstruktywnych głosili intuicjoniści, którzy zaproponowali budowę systemu podstaw matematyki bez użycia takich form dowodu. +Reforma walutowa + +Reforma walutowa – całkowita lub częściowa zmiana ustroju pieniężnego państwa. Może ona nastąpić z powodów politycznych lub ekonomicznych, w celu przywrócenia lub zabezpieczenia równowagi rynkowej. +Andrzej Urbańczyk (polityk) + +Andrzej Tadeusz Urbańczyk (ur. 27 października 1946 w Lublińcu, zm. 7 sierpnia 2001 w Grecji) – polski polityk, dziennikarz, publicysta, poseł na Sejm II i III kadencji. +Życiorys. +Ukończył w 1970 studia na Wydziale Filologicznym Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, następnie w 1977 studia podyplomowe na Akademii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie w zakresie organizacji i zarządzania. Kierował studenckim klubem "Nowy Żaczek", działał w radzie uczelnianej Zrzeszenia Studentów Polskich UJ, należał do grupy założycieli czasopisma "Student" (w latach 1968–1972 był kierownikiem działu krajowego). +W 1966 rozpoczął karierę dziennikarską jako współpracownik Polskiego Radia w Krakowie. W latach 1970–1975 był reporterem, publicystą i kierownikiem działu "Echa Krakowa". W 1975 został dziennikarzem krakowskiego ośrodka Telewizji Polskiej, był publicystą, kierownikiem redakcji publicystyki, autorem filmów dokumentalnych. Grał epizodyczne role w filmach, m.in. "Wodzireju" w reżyserii Feliksa Falka. +W 1980 został redaktorem naczelnym ośrodka Telewizji Polskiej w Krakowie, odwołano go z tej funkcji w 1983. Od 1984 pracował w miesięczniku "Zdanie", najpierw jako zastępca redaktora naczelnego, a w latach 1989–1990 jako redaktor naczelny. W 1990 przez kilka miesięcy pełnił funkcję redaktora naczelnego "Gazety Krakowskiej". W lutym 2000 został redaktorem naczelnym "Trybuny". Prowadził również zajęcia dydaktyczne ze studentami dziennikarstwa i filmoznawstwa na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim i w Wyższej Szkole Pedagogicznej w Krakowie. Na początku lat 90. prowadził firmę wydawniczą "BUS" s.c. +Od 1972 do rozwiązania był członkiem Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. Brał udział w organizacji Ruchu 8 Lipca. Był delegatem na IX i XI (ostatni) zjazd PZPR. W 1990 znalazł się wśród założycieli Socjaldemokracji Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, w 1999 wstąpił do Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej, zasiadał we władzach krajowych obu tych partii. +W latach 1993–2001 sprawował mandat poselski z listy SLD na Sejm II i III kadencji. Pracował w Komisji Spraw Zagranicznych oraz Komisji Kultury i Środków Przekazu, której był wiceprzewodniczącym. Od 1996 pełnił funkcję rzecznika prasowego Klubu Parlamentarnego SLD. Wchodził w skład delegacji polskiej do Zgromadzenia Parlamentarnego Rady Europy. +W latach 1972–1982 należał do Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy Polskich (m.in. od 1977 jako członek zarządu głównego i od 1980 członek rady głównej). Od 1983 był członkiem Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy RP. Był pomysłodawcą Krakowskiej Nocy Poetów w 1972. Związany z grupą inicjatorów odbudowy Pomnika Grunwaldzkiego. Współorganizator działalności Klubu Twórców i Działaczy Kultury "Kuźnica", po jego reaktywowaniu w 1989 był wiceprzewodniczącym, a od 1993 prezesem. W tym samym roku wszedł w skład Społecznego Komitetu Odnowy Zabytków Krakowa. +Publikował także m.in. w "Życiu Literackim", "Przekroju", "Zeszytach Prasoznawczych". Autor filmów dokumentalnych "Powrót króla" (1976), "Kuchnia godziny dwunastej" (1977), "Niedaleko od ziemi" (1977). Twórca reportaży i audycji publicystycznych w Telewizji Polskiej, w latach 1984–1988 współautor cykli "Było, nie minęło" oraz "Myślenie ma kolosalną przyszłość". Autor i współautor książek: "Pomnik Grunwaldzki w Krakowie", "Trzech na jednego", "Cyrk Edison", "Wyspiański w krainie filmu". +Zginął 7 sierpnia 2001 w trakcie urlopu w Grecji w wodach Morza Jońskiego w pobliżu wyspy Korfu. Został pochowany na Cmentarzu Rakowickim w Krakowie. +10 sierpnia 2001 został pośmiertnie odznaczony Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Lamont Bentley + +Lamont Bentley (ur. 25 października 1973 w Milwaukee, Wisconsin, zm. 18 stycznia 2005 w Kalifornii) - amerykański aktor telewizyjny i filmowy. +Występował głównie w filmach telewizyjnych, m.in. w "Too Legit: The MC Hammer Story" (2001) w roli Tupaca Shakura. Grał także w filmach "The Wash" (2001), "Tales From the Hood" (1995), serialach "The Parkers", "Nowojorscy gliniarze", "Clueless". Najpopularniejszą rolą Bettleya była postać Hakeema Campbella, przyjaciela tytułowej bohaterki w serialu komediowym "Moesha" (granej przez aktorką i piosenkarkę Brandy Norwood). +We wczesnych godzinach rannych 19 stycznia 2005 r., Bentley zginął w wypadku w południowej Kalifornii w hrabstwie Ventura. Jechał autostradą 118 w pobliżu Simi Valley (30 mil na północny zachód od Los Angeles), gdy jego pojazd przejechał przez nasyp. Bentley został wyrzucony z pojazdu na pas ruchu, gdzie uderzyło go pięć samochodów. Pozostawił po sobie dwie córki, Artesię i Brazylię Bentley. +Ingracjacja + +Ingracjacja ("wkradanie się w cudze łaski") – technika manipulacji, działanie mające na celu zdobycie sympatii (wytworzenie pozytywnej postawy). +Istota tego zachowania sprowadza się do stworzenia pozytywnego obrazu własnej osoby u drugiego człowieka oraz zastosowania różnego typu technik mających na celu uzyskanie sympatii do siebie oraz próby wymuszenia uznania wszystkich walorów. Zaprzyjaźnienie się ma charakter czysto instrumentalny, i jednocześnie jest narzędziem uzyskania wpływu. +Kompromis + +Kompromis – metoda rozwiązania konfliktu, oznaczająca wspólne stanowisko, możliwe do przyjęcia dla stron negocjujących. +Wbrew obiegowej opinii kompromis nie jest optymalnym rozwiązaniem konfliktu, ponieważ oznacza konieczność rezygnacji z części interesów każdej ze stron. Taki idealny sposób radzenia sobie z konfliktem stanowi "współpraca". +Kompromis może być także synonimem oportunizmu, jeżeli jest osiągany kosztem wartości lub celów nadrzędnych dla procesu osiągania porozumienia. +Wielka Wyspa Piaszczysta + +Wielka Wyspa Piaszczysta, Wyspa Fraser (ang. "Fraser Island") – największa na świecie wyspa piaskowa, położona jest na wschodnim wybrzeżu Australii, około 200 km na północ od Brisbane w stanie Queensland, ma 120 km długości i do 25 km szerokości. Zajmuje obszar o powierzchni 1600 km kwadratowych, piaszczyste pagórki osiągają wysokość do 240 m. Wyspa Fraser, tworząca część regionu pod nazwą Wielki Rejon Piaszczysty (ang. "Great Sandy Region"), w 1992 wyspa została wpisana na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +Na wyspę można się dostać korzystając z usług regularnie kursującego promu, aby poruszać się po samej wyspie wymagany jest samochód terenowy. Znajduje się tam wiele wyznaczonych miejsc do kampingu z pięknymi widokami na ocean - można często podziwiać migrujące wieloryby. Część wyspy jest zamknięta dla turystów. +Źródło słodkiej wody stanowi kilka jezior znajdujących się na wyspie, są to jedne z najczystszych jezior na świecie. Najbardziej popularnym jest Jezioro McKenzie znajdujące się niedaleko miasteczka Eurong – wielu turystów zatrzymuje się tutaj na krótką kąpiel. Piasek tam się znajdujący to bardzo czysta krzemionka, sama woda ma charakter nieco kwasowy, a charakterystyczną jej cechą jest, że zmienia kolor pod wpływem moczu. Innym popularnym miejsce na kąpiel jest strumyk Eli znajdujący się we wschodniej części wyspy. +Na wyspie mieszka spora ilość psów dingo, są to jedne z ostatnich genetycznie czystych dingo znajdujących się w Australii, obowiązuje całkowity zakaz przywożenia psów na wyspę. Turystów uprasza się o nie karmienie dingo; według ekspertów dingo nigdy nie atakują ludzi bez uprzedniej prowokacji, jednak w 2001 mały chłopczyk został w niejasnych okolicznościach zagryziony przez psa dingo. +Oryginalna nazwa wyspy nadana jest przez dawniej mieszkających tam aborygenów australijskich z plemienia Butchulla to "K’gari" (raj). Wszyscy mieszkający na wyspie aborygeni wyginęli po przybyciu tam białych osadników. +Nazwa Wyspa Fraser została nadana przez kapitana Jamesa Frasera na cześć jego żony, Elizy Fraser. Przebywali oni pewien czas na tej wyspie po rozbiciu się tam ich statku, Sterling Castle. Kapitan Fraser zmarł na wyspie, ale jego żona wraz z innymi członkami załogi zostali uratowani. +W październiku 2006r., Belgijski podróżnik Louis-Philippe Loncke przeprawił się samodzielnie przez wyspę. +Kazania gnieźnieńskie + +Kazania gnieźnieńskie – spisane na początku XV wieku utwory homiletyczne w języku polskim i łacińskim. +Spisał je prawdopodobnie Łukasz z Wielkiego Koźmina (Koźmin Wielkopolski), bakałarz uniwersytetu praskiego, magister, profesor i rektor Akademii Krakowskiej. Jemu też przypisuje się najczęściej autorstwo dziesięciu kazań polskich znajdujących się w zbiorze. Napisane są ówczesną potoczną polszczyzną używaną w Wielkopolsce. Po "Kazaniach świętokrzyskich" stanowią najstarszy zabytek polskiej prozy kaznodziejskiej i jeden z najważniejszych zabytków języka polskiego. +"Kazania gnieźnieńskie" zawierają 10 kazań w języku polskim, 95 kazań w języku łacińskim oraz kilka wyjątków ze "Złotej legendy" Jakuba de Voragine. Zbiór powstał na terenie diecezji krakowskiej. Polskie kazania zapisane zostały krótko po roku 1409, łacińskie nieco wcześniej. Spośród 95 kazań łacińskich 70 jest odpisem ze zbioru kazań de sanctis Peregryna z Opola, a jedno z jego cyklu de tempore. Autorstwo pozostałych nie zostało ustalone. +Kazanie drugie jest przekładem kazania Peregryna z Opola, kazanie dziesiąte za podstawę ma kazanie Peregryna, a podstawą siódmego był tekst ze zbioru kazań "Exemplar salutis" Hieronima z Pragi. Do opracowania pozostałych posłużyły różne zbiory kazań łacińskich, m.in. Jakuba de Voragine i Konrada Waldhausena. Mimo zależności od obcych źródeł kazania polskie wykazują dużą samodzielność ich autora. Przeznaczone były dla słuchaczy prostych. Polskie glosy przy kazaniach łacińskich świadczą, że również i one głoszone bywały po polsku. +Rękopis kazań zachował się w bibliotece kapituły katedralnej w Gnieźnie. +Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet + +Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet fr: ʒak beniɳ bosyɛ, (ur. 27 września 1627 w Dijon, zm. 12 kwietnia 1704 w Paryżu) – francuski duchowny katolicki, biskup, teolog, wychowawca i nadworny kaznodzieja Ludwika XIV a także wpływowy myśliciel polityczny, według którego najlepszym i najbardziej naturalnym ustrojem miała być monarchia absolutna; członek Akademii Francuskiej. +Bossuet był wpływową osobistością na dworze Ludwika XIV – nie tylko dzięki bliskim stosunkom z monarchą, ale również jego metresami: pierwszą Athénaïs, markizą Montespan, przeciw której intrygował kilka lat później i drugą Françoise, markizą Maintenon, przyszłą żoną króla. W latach siedemdziesiątych XVII wieku Bossuet prowadził ożywioną korespondencję z Leibnizem, który snuł plany pojednania chrześcijan. Jej efektem była jednak tylko pewna liczba nawróceń wśród hugenotów; różnice w świecie chrześcijańskim i bezkompromisowość zajmowanych stanowisk była zbyt wielka, by plany filozofa mogły się ziścić. +Bossuet był jednym z pierwszych teologów, którzy użyli argumentów religijnych dla uzasadnienia monarchii absolutnej – ponieważ władza pochodzi od Boga, król obdarzony jest boskością i każdy katolik powinien mu się podporządkować. Jest autorem pierwszej historii powszechnej w katolickim ujęciu pt. "Discours sur l'histoire universelle", którą po raz pierwszy wydano w Paryżu w 1681 r. Powstało ono z myślą o delfinie, synu Ludwika XIV, dla wyrobienia w nim myśli politycznej i historyczne. Na polski zostało przetłumaczone przez Z. Linowskiego w 1772 r. pt. "Uwagi nad historią powszechną". Uznawał opatrzność Bożą za zwornik zasadniczo odrębnych dziejów świeckich i historii świętej. Historia Święta, to uniżenie Chrystusa i cierpienie kościoła - jest ona najlepiej widoczna w perspektywie Krzyża. Bossuet próbuje również ukazać, że w wymiarze świeckim od czasów Karola Wielkiego Francja przejęła dziedzictwo Imperium Rzymskiego. +Bossuet był znany jako wybitny mówca. Mawiano, że nie ma we Francji wybitnej osobistości nad której grobem nie wygłosiłby Bossuet płomiennej mowy. +Biografia. +Bossuet urodził się w Dijon w rodzinie bogatych burgundzkich prawników o długiej tradycji w tej zawodzie zarówno w linii męskiej jak i w żeńskiej. Był piątym synem Beneigne Bossueta, sędzią "parlamentu" okręgowego w Dijon i Madeleine Mouchet. Rodzice zadecydowali o wyborze dlań kariery kościelnej. W wieku lat 8 przyjął tonsurę. +Rodzice wysłali go do szkoły "Collège des Godrans", którą w Dijon prowadzili jezuici. Gdy ojciec rozpoczął prace w parlamencie w Metzu, Bossuet pozostawał w Dijon pod opieką wuja Claude'a Bossueta d'Aiseray, cenionego uczonego. W "Collège des Godrans" szybko wyrobił sobie opinię pracowitego: "Bos suetus aratro" "wołu zaprzężonego do pługa", jak nazywali go koledzy. Ojciec załatwił mu posadę kanonika w katedrze w Metzu, gdy Bossuet miał 13 lat. +W roku 1642, Bossuet dostał się do "Collège de Navarre" w Paryżu by dokończyć edukację. Nauczycielem był tam Nicolas Cornet, teolog, który w 1649 doniósł na jansenistę Antoine Arnauld'a przed władzami Sorbony. +Gdy przybył Bossuet, obaj Cornet i Arnaud byli jeszcze w dobrych stosunkach. W roku 1643, Arnaud polecił Bossueta w Hôtel de Rambouillet, swego rodzaju klubie myśli arystokratycznej i domie molierowskich "les Précieuses" ("pociesznych wykwintnisiów"). Bossuet wygłosił tam (w wieku 16 lat) pierwszą mowę, o której Vincent Voiture powie; "nigdy nie słyszałem oracji tak bardzo zachowującej umiar; ani za szybkiej ani za wolnej". +1648-1650. +Bossuet zyskał tytuł magisterski w 1643. Swa teologiczną tezę magisterską "Tentativa" przedstawił 25 stycznia 1648 roku w obecności księcia Kondeusza. Jeszcze w 1648, został subdiakonem w Metzu, w 1649 diakonem. Jego kolejna praca "Sorbonica" ujrzała światło dzienne 9 listopada 1650. W oczekiwaniu na święcenia kapłańskie spędził dwa lata (1650-52) na naukach Św. Wincentego de Paul. +Ksiądz w Metzu, 1652-1657. +W styczniu 1652, Bossuet został archidiakonem Sarrebourg. 18 marca 1652 został wyświęcony na księdza. +Następne 7 lat spędził w Metzu, teraz już jako archidiakon. W połowie Metz był miastem protestanckim. Pierwszy druk pism Bossueta był potępieniem tez hugenockiego pastora Paula Ferry (1655). W czasie pobytu w Metzu wielokrotnie angażował się w dyskusje z hugenotami i czasem też z Żydami. Jego marzeniem stało się przekonanie protestantów do powrotu na łono Kościoła Rzymskiego. W roku 1657 w Metzu Bossuet wygłosił kazanie przed Anną Austriaczką. +1657-1669. +W 1657 Św, Wincenty de Paul przekonał Bossueta do przeprowadzki do Paryża i poświęceniu się wyłącznie kazaniom. W stolicy Bossuet szybko zyskał poważanie dworu. Od 1660 regularnie wygłaszał kazania w kaplicy królewskiej. W roku 1662 wygłosił kazanie "O obowiązkach Królów" w Luwrze. +Bosseut nie chciał być kolejnym płytkim a modnym i eleganckim mówcą. Nie malował satyrycznych rysunków, jak jego rywal Bourdaloue. Nigdy nie spisywał swych wystąpień w całości, ale też nie mówił całkowicie z pamięci. Dlatego markiza de Sévigné przewidziała rychły sukces Bossueta, gdy upadł Bourdaloue w 1669; chociaż François Fénelon i Jean de La Bruyère. Bossuet miał jednak niewątpliwy talent; miał bogate słownictwo, erudycję, silny głos i umiejętność ujęcia swego rozdrażnienia w spójne tezy. Co zwłaszcza widoczne było w jego "Oraisons funèbres" ('"Oracje pogrzebowe"). +137 z kazań Bossueta pochodzi z lat 1659 do 1669 are extant. Po roku 1669 występował na ambonie tylko przy ceremoniach państwowych. +Opiekun Delfina Francji 1670-1681. +W roku 1669 otrzymał tytuł biskupa w gaskońskiej diecezji, lecz nie musiał tam bywać. Konsekrowano go 21 listopada 1670, z godności biskupa zrezygnował, gdy w 1671 przyjęła go Akademia Francuska. +13 września 1670 Bossuet został wychowawcą Wielkiego Delfina, lecz nie mógł sobie poradzić z kapryśnym niesubordynowanym młodzieńcem. +Z tego okresu pochodzą następujące prace Bossueta: "Traité de la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-même" (1677), "Discours sur l'histoire universelle" (1679, opublikowany w 1682), "Politique tirée de l'Ecriture Sainte" (1679, publikacja w 1709). Wszystkie te trzy uzupełniają się wzajemnie. "Traité" to szkic natury Boga i człowieka. "Discours" historia wpływu Baga na historię człowieka. "Politique" to swego rodzaju kodeks praw i obowiązków wynikających z stosunków Boga z ludźmi. Bossuet wynajdywał podobieństwa między władzą Ludwika XIV a tą Salomona - króla Izraela. +Według Bossueta, filozofia wykazała, że Bóg istnieje i nieustannie wpływa na dzieje ludzkie. Wpływ ten jest jednak zwykle pośredni. Rewolty są grzechem. Tacy jak Oliver Cromwell katami moralności. Bossuet w swych "Discours sur l'histoire universelle" rozwijał teorię, że ponieważ Francja osiągnęła splendor porównywalny ze splendorem antycznego Rzymu, to mogłaby teraz starać się uczynić go wiecznie trwającym. +Biskup Meaux, 1681-1704. +W 1681 roku Bossuet został biskupem Meaux; lecz zanim tam pojechał, został wciągnięty w spór między Ludwikiem XIV a papieżem Innocentym XI. Bossuet nie chciał poprzeć papieża, bo wówczas poparłby Jezuitów, których kazuistyka nie przypadała mu do gustu. Nie chciał też zrywać z Watykanem poprzez poparcie króla, coraz bardziej przejawiającego chęci upokorzenia kościoła wobec potęgi państwa. Od 1682 roku Bossuet pracował nad kompromisem, w postaci swej pracy: "Defensio Cleri Gallicani". Większość czasu spędzał w tych latach w Meaux w swej diecezji. +Spór z protestantami. +W roku 1668 Bossuet konwertował Turenne'a. W 1670 opublikował "Exposition de la foi catholique", a w 1688 "Histoire des variations des Églises protestantes", w której przekonywał, że bez hierarchii i organizacji Kościół zaniknie. Od 1691 do 1701 Bossuet korespondował z Leibnitzem by przekonać go do ponownego zjednoczenia protestantów z Rzymem. Leibniz uznał, że doktryna katolicka może zostać przyjęta przez nich, lecz uważał, ze niemożliwe jest by religia w ogóle się nie zmieniała. +Protestanci paryscy i ksiądz Oratorium Paryskiego Richard Simon dowodzili, że Kościół Rzymski sam zmieniał doktrynę, czego dowodem miało być to, że Święty Augustyn zniszczył pierwotną koncepcję łaski. Bossuert bronił Augustyna w swej: "Defense de la tradition". +Spór z Fénelonem. +W latach 1697-99 Bossuet toczył spór z Fénelonem na temat miłości boskiej. Fénelon, 24 lata młodszy, był jego dawnym uczniem, i tak jak mistrz był wychowawcą Wielkiego Delfina. +Madame Guyon wygłaszała wówczas opinie bliskie kwietyzmowi, Miguel de Molinos'a potępionego przez papieża w 1687. Gdy markiza de Maintenon zaczęła sprawdzać czystość wiary Madame Guyon, zwołała komisję trzyosobową (zasiadał w niej Bossuet). Komisja spisała 34 artykuły znane jako Artykuły z Issy ("Articles d'Issy"), które zawierały potępienia poglądów religijnych. Fénelon sam był pod urokiem jej wizji religii. +Bossuet wyjaśnił treść artykułów dokładniej w swych: "Instructions sur les états d'oraison". Fénelon odmówił podpisania się pod tym i opublikował swoje rozumienie artykułów w "Explication des Maximes des Saints", w których m.in. twierdził, że chrześcijanin, nie powinien żyć w strachu przed karami Boga. Ludwik XIV wyrzucał Bossuetowi, iż nie ostrzegł go przed Fenelonem, gdy zostawał on nauczycielem Delfina. +Bossuet i Fénelon krytykowali się wzajem w latach 1697-1699 w niezliczonych pamfletach. Za czasów pontyfikatu papieża Innocentego XII inkwizycja potępiła "Maximes des Saints" Fenelona 12 marca 1699. +Śmierć. +Aż do wieku lat 70 Bossuet w ogóle nie chorował, lecz w 1702 zaatakowała go kamica. W 1704 był już inwalidą. 12 kwietnia 1704 wydał ostatnie tchnienie. Słynny Jezuita Charles de la Rue wygłosił kazanie na pogrzebie Bossueta. +Galla (demon) + +Galla (arkadyjskie gallu) - jeden z licznych rodzajów sumeryjskich demonów. Według jednego z magicznych tekstów było ich siedem. +W szczególności były one odpowiedzialne za doprowadzenie ludzi do świata podziemnego. Towarzyszyły bogini Inannie podczes jej powrotu ze świata podziemnego oraz sprowadziły Dumuziego do zaświatów. +Tak jak w przypadku większości sumeryjskich demonów, mogła również istnieć przyjazna forma galla. +Studnia artezyjska + +1. Warstwa wodonośna +2. Warstwa nieprzepuszczalna +3. Obszar zasilania +4. Studnia artezyjska +5. Poziom równowagi hydrostatycznej (linia ciśnień piezometrycznych – zwierciadło piezometryczne) +6. Studnia subartezyjska +7. Źródło artezyjskie]] +Studnia artezyjska – studnia, powstająca przez wywiercenie otworu do wód artezyjskich – głęboko położonych warstw wodonośnych, w których woda znajduje się pod ciśnieniem hydrostatycznym. Woda z takiego odwiertu wypływa samoczynnie, niekiedy jest pod dużym ciśnieniem (rzędu nawet kilkudziesięciu atmosfer). +Studnie artezyjskie buduje się w celu pozyskiwania wód podziemnych. +Góra Krzyży + +Góra Krzyży (lit. ) – wzgórze położone kilkanaście kilometrów na północ od Szawli, w pobliżu miasteczka Meszkucie (Litwa). +W miejscu tym postawiono w 1430 r. kapliczkę upamiętniającą przyjęcie przez Żmudzinów chrztu. Nad kapliczką górował wielki krzyż. Po upadku powstania listopadowego w 1831 r. zaczęto tam masowo przynosić i stawiać kolejne krzyże i od tego czasu przybywa ich stale. Stawiane są, bądź podwieszane na już stojących, różnej wielkości, od ogromnych kilkumetrowych aż po całkiem miniaturowe, w intencji nadziei, przyszłości, jako symbole zadumy, wiary bądź jako wota dziękczynne. +W okresie władzy sowieckiej 1941-90 wielokrotnie próbowano zmusić mieszkańców do zaprzestania pielgrzymowania w to miejsce, a w 1961 r. podjęto próbę całkowitej jego likwidacji przy pomocy pił, siekier i buldożerów. Mimo to krzyże wciąż stawiano. Liczba krzyży nie jest dokładnie oszacowana. Oceania się, że samych krzyży stojących jest ok. 50 tysięcy, natomiast licząc z położonymi i podwieszonymi ich liczba może wynosić ponad 150 tys. +Papież Jan Paweł II podczas swojej pielgrzymki na Litwę w 1993 r. celebrował na Górze Krzyży mszę świętą. +HSL + +HSL – to jeden z modeli opisowych dla kolorów postrzeganych przez ludzi. Ten sposób opisowy miał polegać na tym, że każdej barwie postrzeganej przez człowieka jest przyporządkowany jeden punkt w przestrzeni trójwymiarowej identyfikowany przez trzy składowe: "(h,s,l)". Model pojawił się w okresie startu telewizji – pierwsze demonstracje w latach 1926-1930. +H: Hue – (z ang. odcień, barwa), o wartościach z przedziału: od 0 do 360 stopni. +S: Saturation – nasycenie koloru. z przedziału 0...1 albo 0...100%. +L: Lightness – średnie światło białe, z przedziału 0...1 albo 0...100%. +Ten model zakładał, że barwy postrzegane przez człowieka dadzą się opisać właśnie za pomocą takich trzech współrzędnych oraz dodatkowo z warunkiem, że punkty znajdują się na powierzchni bryły obustronnego stożka. Przy czym bryła takiego stożka to forma dynamiczna, wyznaczona przez aktualny stan współrzędnych l oraz s, natomiast wysokość stożka ma związek ze światłem białym – tzw. światłem Brightness. Światło Brightness to najmniejsze światło białe z którego pochodzi rozpatrywana barwa "(h,s,l)". W ten sposób dana trójka "(h,s,l)" determinuje inną bryłę obustronnego stożka. Natomiast bryła stożka wprowadza wzajemne zależności dla współrzędnych. Współrzędne nie są w pełni ortogonalne. +Model "HSL" nie potrafi opisać wszelkich barw widzialnych przez człowieka. Zakłada on mianowicie, że każdą barwę da się określić za pomocą jednego reprezentanta – jednej fali światła, opisuje to współrzędna Hue. Oko człowieka potrafi odróżniać mieszanki zawierające wiele różnych fal światła. Są takie mieszanki, dla których rzeczywiście istnieją pojedyncze fale światła dające takie samo wrażenie jak dana mieszanka fal – zjawisko metameryzmu. Ale istnieją też takie mieszanki, dla których nie ma pojedynczej fali światła, która mogłaby być reprezentantem dającym takie samo wrażenie jak dana mieszanka. Na przykład taką mieszanką jest mieszanka niebieskiego i czerwonego nazywana purpurą. I nie ma pojedynczej fali światła, która by wywoływała wrażenie purpury. +Model HSL ma znaczenie historyczne i bywa nazywany modelem kolorów dla artystów. +DOHC + +DOHC (ang. Double OverHead Camshaft - "podwójny wałek rozrządu w głowicy") - inaczej zwane "twin cam" - powszechnie w świecie używane rozwiązanie konstrukcyjne silnika tłokowego, w głowicy którego znajdują się dwa wałki rozrządu, przypadające na jeden rząd cylindrów. Jeden z wałków steruje zaworami ssącymi, a drugi wydechowymi. Konstrukcja silnika DOHC, ułatwia zmiany fazy rozrządu, w zależności od prędkości obrotowej i obciążenia silnika. Zawory umieszczone są pod kątem naprzeciw siebie, dają tym samym większą swobodę w kształtowaniu komory spalania. Silnik DOHC umożliwia także zwiększenie liczby zaworów przypadających na cylinder, co wpływa na powiększenie sprawności napełniania i opróżniania cylindra i umożliwia uzyskanie wyższego stopnia sprężania i zmniejszenie oporów przepływu. Dzieje się tak poprzez zwiększenie powierzchni zaworów w stosunku do dostępnej powierzchni w głowicy wynikającej z średnicy cylindra i ew. pochylenia ścianek komory spalania w głowicy. Dzięki zwiększeniu powierzchni przylegania wielu zaworów do głowicy - w stosunku do zaworów pojedynczych o tej samej powierzchni przepływu - poprawia się odprowadzanie ciepła z zaworów. Kolejną zaletą tego rozwiązania jest zmniejszenie bezwładności elementów rozrządu - pojedyncze zawory są mniejsze, mogą mieć cieńsze trzonki i grzybki. +Wadą tego rozwiązania jest możliwość rozsynchronizowania wałków (np. wskutek pęknięcia łańcucha/paska rozrządu), czego konsekwencją może być zniszczenie głowicy silnika. Ale ta uwaga dotyczy każdego silnika, gdzie jest możliwość zetknięcia się tłoków z zaworami niezależnie od ich ilości. Faktem jest skomplikowanie napędu rozrządu i większe opory w wynikające z napędu dwóch wałków. Ponadto, rozdzielenie napędu na wałek wydechowy i ssący powoduje powstanie większych naprężeń na pasku/łańcuchu napędu - wtedy gdy jest to wspólny napęd obu wałków. Spowodowane jest to "odbijaniem" wałków w wyniku nacisku sprężyn zaworowych. Przy jednym wałku siły te są w znacznym stopni zniwelowane. Dlatego częstym rozwiązaniem jest napędzanie tylko jednego wałka, a drugi jest napędzany za pośrednictwem pierwszego. Przy takim rozwiązaniu siły na napędzie rozrządu pomiędzy wałem korbowym a wałkiem są porównywalne z rozwiązaniem SOHC. +Ponadto często obserwuje się zwiększone zużycie oleju silnikowego, zwłaszcza przy dużych przebiegach. +Jagna Marczułajtis-Walczak + +Jagna Kinga Marczułajtis-Walczak (ur. 15 grudnia 1978 w Zakopanem) – polska snowboardzistka. Posłanka na Sejm VII kadencji. +Życiorys. +Jest czternastokrotną złotą medalistką mistrzostw Polski w snowboardzie; podwójną mistrzynią świata juniorek, mistrzynią i wicemistrzynią Europy. Brała udział w zimowych igrzyskach olimpijskich w Nagano (1998), w Salt Lake City (2002) (zajęła tam 4. miejsce w slalomie równoległym) oraz w Turynie (2006). Dwukrotnie wygrywała zawody Pucharu Świata: w Bad Gastein (2004) i w Nendaz (2006). W 2004 zajęła siódme, najwyższe w swojej karierze, miejsce w klasyfikacji końcowej Pucharu Świata. Od 2006 prowadzi szkołę narciarstwa i snowboardu pod nazwą "Szkoła Jagny Marczułajtis" w Stacji Narciarskiej Witów-Ski w Witowie (gmina Kościelisko). +Ukończyła studia na Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie. W 2010 z listy Platformy Obywatelskiej uzyskała mandat radnej sejmiku małopolskiego. Rok później z ramienia tej samej partii została wybrana do Sejmu VII kadencji, otrzymując w okręgu krakowskim 7289 głosów. +Była żoną olimpijczyka, mistrza świata juniorów w tańcach na lodzie, Sebastiana Kolasińskiego. Ma dwie córki: Jagodę i Igę. Wystąpiła w dwóch odcinkach "Magda M." w epizodycznej roli Lucyny Stoch. W 2007 miała sesję zdjęciową dla magazynu "CKM". W 2011 brała udział w XIII edycji "Tańca z gwiazdami", zajęła 7. miejsce. +Powiat piotrkowski + +Powiat piotrkowski – powiat w Polsce (w południowo-wschodniej części województwa łódzkiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Siedzibą jego władz jest miasto Piotrków Trybunalski (powiat grodzki). +Geografia. +Położenie i obszar. +Powiat piotrkowski ma obszar 1428,77 km². +Powiat stanowi 7,84% powierzchni województwa łódzkiego. +Podział administracyjny. +Ludność i powierzchnia +Dolina Piarżysta + +Dolina Piarżysta (słow. "Piargová dolina") – górna część Doliny Ciemnosmreczyńskiej ("Temnosmrečinská dolina") w słowackich Tatrach Wysokich, zajmująca dwa najwyższe jej piętra oddzielone od siebie progiem skalnym: trzecie z Wyżnim Ciemnosmreczyńskim Stawem i czwarte z bezwodnym kotłem lodowcowym. Również od niższego, drugiego piętra Dolina Piarżysta oddzielona jest progiem skalnym. Z trzech stron otoczona jest ścianami Cubryny (2376 m), Koprowego Wierchu (2363 m) i bocznej grani od Cubryny do Koprowego Wierchu. Od leżącej po polskiej stronie Doliny Rybiego Potoku oddziela ją główna grań Tatr. +Dolina Piarżysta dla turystów obecnie jest niedostępna. Dawniej prowadziła przez nią droga na przełęcz Wrota Chałubińskiego ("Chałubińského brána"). W starszej literaturze można spotkać się także z nazewnictwem, w którym Dolina Piarżysta obejmuje całą Dolinę Ciemnosmreczyńską. Nazwa dolinki jest ludowa, pochodzi od słowa piarg. Dawniej była ulubionym miejscem polowań podhalańskich kłusowników na kozice, uważali on tę dolinkę za jedną z głównych w Tatrach ostoi kozic. Wierzyli też, że zakopane są w niej skarby. Pochodzący z Kościeliska zbójnik Tomek Gadeja powiadał: ""Ono ta duzo jest dobra w Piorzystej Dolinie"". +Justynian II Rhinotmetos + +Justynian II (gr. "Ιουστινιανός Β΄", łac. "Iustinianus II"). Przydomek "Rhinothmetos" oznacza "Obciętonosy". Żył w latach ok. 669–711. Starszy syn cesarza Konstantyna IV i jego żony Anastazji. Wiosną 685 roku został mianowany współcesarzem przez ojca, jednakże razem rządzili jedynie do września tego samego roku. Samodzielnie władał cesarstwem w latach 685–695 i 705–711. +Pierwszy okres panowania. +Za jego rządów dokonano formalnej unifikacji urzędu konsula i cesarza, czyniąc z tego ostatniego głowę państwa nie tylko de facto ale także de iure. Był niepopularny w Konstantynopolu, wprowadził rządy terroru. Pomyślnie walczył z Bułgarami i Słowianami. Początkowo utrzymywał pokojowe stosunki z Arabami, dzięki czemu udało mu się odzyskać Armenię, którą ponownie utracił. Prowadził zakrojoną na szeroką skalę działalność kolonizacyjną. W zamian za korzystny układ z Saracenami zgodził się przyjąć i osiedlić w cesarstwie chrześcijańskich Mardaitów, którzy wcześniej prowadzili partyzancką walkę z niewiernymi w okupowanej Syrii. Po zwycięskiej wojnie z Bułgarami i Słowianami przesiedlił kilkadziesiąt tysięcy tych ostatnich do Azji Mniejszej. Sprowadził z Cypru w okolice Kyzikosu wielu Cypryjczyków, co doprowadziło do zerwania pokoju z Arabami. Wojna, która wynikła z tego faktu, zakończyła się niepowodzeniem cesarstwa na skutek zdrady oddziału złożonego ze słowiańskich przesiedleńców. +Wygnanie. +W 692 cesarz zainicjował Sobór in Trullo, który wprowadził równorzędność między biskupem Rzymu a patriarchą Konstantynopola. Postanowienia te spowodowały opór patriarchy Rzymu Sergiusza. Próba siłowego rozwiązania tego problemu doprowadziła do buntu garnizonu Rzymu i Rawenny przeciwko cesarzowi. Został on obalony w 695, okaleczony przez obcięcie nosa i wygnany do Chersonezu na Krymie. Z obawy o swoje życie uciekł na dwór kagana Chazarów i ożenił się z jego siostrą, która przybrała greckie imię Teodora (ok. 702). Jednakże wpływy, drugiego z kolei, uzurpatora na tronie w Konstantynopolu – Tyberiusza Apsimarosa sięgały aż do państwa Chazarów. Władca chazarski był zaś gotów wydać cesarza za cenę dobrych stosunków z nowym władcą Rzymian. Ostrzeżony Justynian zdążył zbiec na dwór bułgarskiego władcy Terwela. Uzyskał od niego pomoc wojskową, z której pomocą wyprawił się na stolicę. Jesienią 705 roku stanął pod murami Konstantynopola, do którego dostał się wraz z garstką towarzyszy przez akwedukt. Jego niespodziewane pojawienie się w mieście wywołało powszechną panikę, co umożliwiło mu ponownie przejąć władzę. +Drugi okres panowania. +Cesarz sprowadził do Nowego Rzymu swoją żonę i małoletniego syna, który otrzymał imię Tyberiusz i został współrządcą ojca. Justynian okrutnie zemścił się na obu uzurpatorach (pierwszy z nich – Leoncjusz został wcześniej obalony przez Tyberiusza Apsimarosa, pozbawiony nosa i umieszczony w klasztorze). Obu sprowadzono w łańcuchach na hipodrom, gdzie cesarz używał ich jako podnóżka w czasie wyścigu rydwanów. Po tym akcie upokorzenia obaj zostali straceni. Cesarz zemścił się także na mieszkańcach Rawenny, którzy, w jego ocenie, nie dość gorliwie działali w sprawie uwięzienia papieża Sergiusza. Miasto zostało złupione, jego biskup oślepiony, a wielu mieszkańców sprowadzono do stolicy dla dokonania tam egzekucji. Cesarz planował również pomścić swoje krzywdy doznane od mieszkańców Chersonezu. Trzecia z kolei ekspedycja karna wysłana do miasta zbuntowała się jednak przeciw legalnemu władcy i przyłączyła się do buntu, któremu przewodził oficer ormiańskiego pochodzenia – Filipikos Bardanes. Kiedy flota z uzurpatorem na pokładzie przybyła do Konstantynopola, mieszkańcy miasta otworzyli przed nim bramy. Cesarz, wraz z całą rodziną, został zgładzony, a jego głowę wysłano do Rawenny i Rzymu, gdzie była wystawiona na widok publiczny (711). Wraz ze śmiercią Justyniana i jego syna Tyberiusza kończy się okres panowania dynastii herakliańskiej. +Jacques Freitag + +Jacques Freitag (ur. 11 czerwca 1982 w Warrenton) – południowoafrykański lekkoatleta, skoczek wzwyż. +Jego największym sukcesem jest mistrzostwo świata seniorów z 2003 (Paryż). Zdobywał także złote medale mistrzostw świata kadetów (1999, Bydgoszcz) i juniorów (2000, Santiago de Chile). Rekord życiowy: 2,38 (5 marca 2005, Oudtshoorn), wynik ten jest aktualnym rekordem Afryki. +Jego pierwszą trenerką była matka, Hendrina Pieters, mistrzyni RPA w skoku wzwyż z 1973. Karierę sportową przerywały mu kilkakrotnie kontuzje stopy. Na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Atenach zaliczył nieudany występ, odpadając w eliminacjach. +Dowód wprost + +Dowód wprost, dowód zwyczajny lub klasyczny, to inna od dowodu nie wprost forma dowodzenia w systemie założeniowym rachunku zdań, w której prawdziwość tezy dowodzi się bezpośrednio poprzez dedukcję - z założeń twierdzenia i aksjomatów teorii (ustalonych reguł). +Uniform Resource Locator + +URL (ang. "Uniform Resource Locator") – oznacza ujednolicony format adresowania zasobów (informacji, danych, usług) stosowany w Internecie i w sieciach lokalnych. +URL najczęściej kojarzony jest z adresami stron WWW, ale ten format adresowania służy do identyfikowania wszelkich zasobów dostępnych w Internecie. +Standard URL opisany jest w dokumencie RFC 1738. +Opis formatu. +Elementy adresu i przykład. +URL składa się z części określającej rodzaj zasobu/usługi (ang. "scheme"), dwukropka i części zależnej od rodzaju zasobu (ang. "scheme-specific part"). Pełniejszy opis formatu URL można znaleźć w dokumencie RFC 1738. +http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/URL +protokół +http://hans:geheim@www.example.org:80/demo/example.cgi?land=de&stadt=aa +protokół +Rzutnia (geometria) + +Rzutnia – powierzchnia, na której powstaje odwzorowanie przestrzeni trójwymiarowej w wyniku rzutu. +Najczęściej jest to płaszczyzna, jednak może nią być również powierzchnia sfery, walca, stożka lub inna. +Kadaweryna + +Ma postać oleistej cieczy bez wyraźnej barwy. Należy do tzw. trupich jadów, ma silny nieprzyjemny zapach rozkładających się zwłok i jest szkodliwa dla zdrowia (uszkadza układ krążenia). Działa też jednak stabilizująco na rybosomy. +Kadaweryna i putrescyna zostały odkryte w 1885 roku w mikroorganizmach przez Ludwiga Briegera. +Nazwa pochodzi od łacińskiego "cadaver" – trup, zwłoki. +Aleksander Wojtkiewicz + +Aleksander Wojtkiewicz, łot. Aleksandrs Voitkēvičs, ros. Александр Войткевич (ur. 15 stycznia 1963 w Rydze, zm. 14 lipca 2006 w Baltimore) – polski szachista, reprezentant Stanów Zjednoczonych od 2002 roku. +Kariera szachowa. +Wojtkiewicz był jednym z czołowych łotewskich szachistów, uczniem byłego mistrza świata Michaiła Tala. W 1988 roku przeprowadził się do Polski. Wkrótce otrzymał polskie obywatelstwo i od razu znalazł się na czele polskiej listy rankingowej. W 1989 roku w swoim pierwszym występie w finale indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski w przekonującym stylu wygrał turniej i zdobył tytuł mistrza kraju. W finałach mistrzostw Polski startował jeszcze trzykrotnie (w 1992, 1995 i 1996 roku), raz zajmując pierwsze miejsce (1995) i dwa razy drugie. Reprezentował Polskę na dwóch olimpiadach, w 1990 i 1992 roku, z ogólnym wynikiem 16 pkt w 28 partiach (57,1%) na pierwszej szachownicy. Dwukrotnie (w 1989 i 1992 roku) brał udział w drużynowych mistrzostwach Europy. W swoim pierwszym występie rezultatem 7 pkt w 9 partiach zdobył srebrny medal na drugiej szachownicy. W 1990 roku Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa przyznała mu tytuł arcymistrza. +Wojtkiewicz brał udział w ogromnej liczbie turniejów na całym świecie, często zdobywając nagrody w otwartych turniejach szwajcarskich. Do najbardziej spektakularnych jego sukcesów należy zwycięstwo w turnieju internetowym, zorganizowanym przez Internet Chess Club, którego stawką było zaproszenie na prestiżowy turniej z udziałem dwóch najsilniejszych szachistów świata. W rozegranym w kwietniu 2000 roku w Islandii turnieju Wojtkiewicz zajął trzecie miejsce za Garrim Kasparowem i Viswanathanem Anandem (w półfinale przegrał z Kasparowem ½ - 1½). Od końca lat dziewięćdziesiątych skoncentrował się na turniejach rozgrywanych w Stanach Zjednoczonych, zamieszkał w Baltimore i podjął studia na Uniwersytecie Marylandu, gdzie został członkiem najsilniejszej w historii uczelni drużyny szachowej. W 2004 roku jako reprezentant USA brał udział w mistrzostwach świata FIDE rozgrywanych systemem pucharowym. Awansował do drugiej rundy, gdzie został wyeliminowany przez Wadima Zwiagincewa. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął 1 lipca 1998 r., z wynikiem 2595 punktów dzielił wówczas 88-95. miejsce na światowej liście FIDE, jednocześnie zajmując 1. miejsce wśród polskich szachistów. Po raz ostatni na liście rankingowej notowany był 1 lipca 2006 r., posiadał wówczas 2562 punkty, co dawało mu 18. miejsce wśród szachistów Stanów Zjednoczonych +Aleksander Wojtkiewicz cierpiał na różnorodne dolegliwości zdrowotne. Dosyć szybko osiwiał, miewał też spore problemy z żołądkiem. Nabawił się choroby wrzodowej, która była bezpośrednią przyczyną jego śmierci. +Danuta Szaflarska + +Danuta Szaflarska (ur. 20 lutego 1915 w Kosarzyskach, w Piwnicznej-Zdroju, w powiecie nowosądeckim) − polska aktorka. +Biografia. +Danuta Szaflarska urodziła się w 1915 roku na Nowosądeczczyźnie. W 1939 roku ukończyła warszawski Państwowy Instytut Sztuki Teatralnej, a 14 września miał miejsce jej debiut. Następnie do 1941 roku występowała w Teatrze Polskim w Wilnie, a potem w teatrach konspiracyjnych (1942-45). Brała udział w powstaniu warszawskim jako łączniczka. Po wojnie występowała w Teatrze Starym w Krakowie (1945-1946), Teatrze Kameralnym w Łodzi (1946-1949), Teatrze Współczesnym w Warszawie (1949-1954), Teatrze Narodowym w Warszawie (1954-1966) i Teatrze Dramatycznym w Warszawie (od 1966). +W 2007 została nagrodzona wyróżnieniem dla najlepszej aktorki podczas 32. Festiwalu Polskich Filmów Fabularnych w Gdyni, za rolę w filmie "Pora umierać". Wcześniej dwukrotnie, w latach 1991 (za "Diabły, diabły") oraz w 1993 (za "Pożegnanie z Marią") zdobyła na tym festiwalu wyróżnienie dla najlepszej aktorki drugoplanowej. Nagrodzona Złotą Kaczką 2008 dla najlepszej aktorki stulecia kina polskiego. +8 marca 2008 odsłoniła swoją gwiazdę w Alei Gwiazd, na ulicy Piotrkowskiej w Łodzi. +Ma dwie córki - Marię i Agnieszkę. +Filmografia. +Polski dubbing. +oraz +Zamir + +Zamir – staropolskie imię męskie. Imię to składa się z dwóch członów: "Za" ("za") oraz "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). +Big Cyc + +Big Cyc – polski zespół rockowy, którego piosenki mają charakter publicystyczno-kabaretowy, kilkakrotnie stał się obiektem medialnych dyskusji. +Styl muzyczny. +Na pierwszych płytach zespołu dominowała muzyka utrzymana w stylu punk rock. Większość utworów to proste i energiczne kompozycje, z przesterowanymi gitarami, mocną perkusją i głośnym wokalem Dżej Dżeja. Najostrzejszy materiał pojawia się na "Wojnie Plemników". Z czasem, w grze Big Cyca coraz częściej można było także usłyszeć elementy muzyki ska. Od wydania płyty "Pierwsza Komunia, Drugie Śniadanie, Trzecia Rzeczpospolita", zespół zaczął oddalać się od swoich punkrockowych korzeni, skłaniając się ku brzmieniom bardziej przystępnym, a jego muzyka stawała się coraz łagodniejsza. W wielu utworach pojawiły się sample, a klawisze obsługiwane przez Gadaka stały się standardowym instrumentem wykorzystywanym w grze. Na płytach "Świat Według Kiepskich" oraz "Moherowe Berety" pojawiają się jednak silne nawiązania do punkowych początków zespołu. +Historia. +Lata 1988 - 1999. +Zespół oficjalnie powstał w marcu 1988 roku, kiedy to w klubie II DS Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego "Balbina" na osiedlu akademickim "Lumumbowo" odbył się pierwszy koncert zespołu. Koncert zorganizowano jako swoisty happening, pod nazwą "Uroczysta akademia z okazji 75-lecia wynalezienia damskiego biustonosza". Na imprezę zaproszono ogólnopolskie media (m.in. Teleexpress, radiową Trójkę), a teksty kabaretowe wygłaszał ówczesny student kulturoznawstwa UŁ Piotr Trzaskalski. +Właśnie w II DS od kilku lat mieszkali, studiujący na Wydziale Filologicznym UŁ Jacek Jędrzejak (filologia polska) i Krzysztof Skiba (kulturoznawstwo). Jacek Jędrzejak był doświadczonym muzykiem, grającym od kilku lat na gitarze basowej w zespole reggae'owym ""Rokosz"" (m.in. laureat Złotej Dziesiątki Festiwalu w Jarocinie); natomiast Skiba występował w "Studenckim Teatrze "Pstrąg"" oraz kabaretach studenckich, a także współtworzył uliczne happeningi Pomarańczowej Alternatywy. Po rozpadnięciu się ""Rokosza"" Jędrzejak próbował stworzyć nowy zespół, grający swobodniejszy repertuar. W tworzącej się grupie występowali także Jarosław Lis (perkusja), Roman Lechowicz (gitara) oraz Robert Rejewski (wokal). Po pewnym czasie Rejewskiego zastąpił Skiba, wnosząc do zespołu istotny potencjał twórczy. Szybko powstały pierwsze utwory ("Kapitan Żbik", "Wielka miłość do babci klozetowej") i odbył się wspomniany koncert. Członkowie przyjęli pseudonimy "Dżej Dżej" (Jędrzejak), "Dżery" (Lis) i "Piękny Roman" (Lechowicz). Skiba pozostał przy swoim nazwisku. +Big Cyc tworzył następne utwory, wszystkie w niepowtarzalnej poetyce wielkiej zgrywy i parodii atmosfery schyłkowego PRL-u. Pierwsza płyta, zatytułowana ""Z partyjnym pozdrowieniem. 12 hitów w stylu lambada hardcore"" ukazała się w 1990 roku, już w zmienionych warunkach ustrojowych, czego dowodem był zarówno tytuł, jak i okładka – portret Lenina z punkowym "irokezem" (autorstwa Piotra Łopatki). Płyta przyniosła następne przeboje grupy: "Piosenkę góralską", "Berlin Zachodni" (reminiscencje z pierwszych występów na Zachodzie) i "Balladę o smutnym skinie", a zespół zdobył sławę wykraczającą poza granice Polski. +Po nagraniu pierwszej płyty zespół wystąpił w filmie ""Broń chemiczna"" poświęconym życiu i twórczości zespołu. Film został zrealizowany przez niezależną grupę twórczą Garaż-film. +Następne płyty nie zdobywały już takiej popularności, jak debiut. Druga płyta ""Nie wierzcie elektrykom"" (1991), niosła proroczą wizję nieudanej prezydentury Lecha Wałęsy. Następna, ""Miłość, muzyka, mordobicie"" (1992), ironicznie traktowała branżę muzyczną – Festiwal w Jarocinie, czy twórczość zespołu Republika. Czwarty album, ""Wojna plemników"" (1993), został potępiony przez działaczy katolickiej partii ZChN za śmiałość obyczajową i prowokującą okładkę. Kolejna płyta, ""Golonka, flaki i inne przysmaki"" (1995) to m.in. drwina z fali pseudogrunge'u i kultury reklam telewizyjnych ("Dramat fryzjerski"). ""Nie zapomnisz nigdy"" z 1994 r., była mieszanką największych hitów grupy oraz nowych piosenek, z których "To dla ciebie miły bracie" można chyba uznać za hymn ideowy grupy. +W okresie tym muzycy prześmiewczo, ale i gorzko komentowali otaczający ich świat. Zauważali nowe zjawiska społeczne: rosnące dysproporcje majątkowe, klerykalizm, narkomanię, bezduszność elit; przeciwstawiali temu swobodę i naturalność młodzieży. +W 1996 roku zespół wydał płytę ""Z gitarą wśród zwierząt"", która przyniosła największy przebój w historii grupy – "Makumbę", ale także kolejne zaangażowane teksty, obnażające oblicza polskiej rzeczywistości – np. rodzące się gangsterstwo. Na tej płycie pojawił się wokalista Bielizny Jarosław Janiszewski, który wkrótce z większością muzyków Big Cyca założy równolegle działający zespół Czarno Czarni. +W 1998 roku zespół zaangażował się w działalność antyrasistowską a jego utwór znalazł się na pierwszej składance "Muzyka przeciwko rasizmowi", firmowanej przez Stowarzyszenie "Nigdy Więcej". +Po uroczystych obchodach niekonwencjonalnej rocznicy – dziewięciolecia istnienia – zespół w 1997 roku wydał następną płytę, której tytuł (dość szokujący) – ""Pierwsza komunia, drugie śniadanie, trzecia Rzeczpospolita"" – wybrała publiczność obecna na imprezie. Ciekawym eksperymentem był album ""Wszyscy święci"" (1998), w całości wypełniony tekstami nieżyjącego krakowskiego poety i aktora Wiesława Dymnego. +Lata 2000 -. +Dwie kolejne płyty: ""Świat według Kiepskich"" i ""Zmień z nami płeć"" dyskontują medialną popularność grupy. Mimo to teksty Big Cyca nie tracą tu na ostrości i aktualności, drwią z mody na pop-folk w muzyce czy noszenie dresów. Zespół także stale monitoruje polską scenę polityczną, celnie wyśmiewając pojawiające się na niej kurioza (np. hit "Złoty Warkocz" na temat byłej posłanki Samoobrony Renaty Beger). +Album "Moherowe Berety", kontestujący m.in. Sejm wybrany w roku 2005, środowisko słuchaczy "Radia Maryja" i krytykujący prezydenta Białorusi – Aleksandra Łukaszenkę, ze względu na niepoprawność polityczną treści, był prawie nieobecny w mediach. +W 2007 roku muzycy nagrali z Jerzym Połomskim nową wersję przeboju piosenkarza z lat 70. – ""Bo z dziewczynami"". +W styczniu 2008 r. zespół nagrał płytę "Szambo i perfumeria". Premiera albumu miała miejsce 1 kwietnia 2008. Wśród współpracujących wykonawców są Maciej Maleńczuk, Paweł Kukiz i K.A.S.A. +W 2009 r. ukazał się wywiad-rzeka z członkami zespołu "Na barykadzie rokędrola", autorstwa Jarosława Wardawego. Do bogato ilustrowanej książki załączona była płyta z największymi hitami grupy. +W trzydziestą rocznicę wprowadzenia stanu wojennego grupa wydała płytę "Zadzwońcie po milicję", na której znalazły się utwory podziemnych polskich grup punkowych i reggae'owych z lat 1982-1989, które, ze względu na silą wymowę antykomunistyczną nigdy nie ukazały się na oficjalnych rynku. Są to nowe wersje utworów zespołów: Miki Mousoleum, Brzytwa Ojca, Karcer, Cela nr 3 i Współczynnik Inteligencji. +Ciekawostki. +Zespół nie zapominał o happeningowym rodowodzie swego istnienia. Kilkakrotnie w niekonwencjonalny sposób starał się wskazać na absurdy i ułomności życia społecznego i politycznego. Muzycy przykuwali się do kaloryferów w wydawnictwie "Polskie Nagrania", protestując przeciwko niewypłacaniu tantiem autorskich; zjadali formularze PIT (wspólnie z Januszem Korwin-Mikke) walcząc ze zbyt wysokimi podatkami; pikietowali gmach Ministerstwa Kultury w czasie kadencji ministra Podkańskiego z PSL, demaskując stronniczą politykę finansową. +W październiku 2006 r. w słupskim teatrze "Tęcza" odbyła się premiera komedii "Telerodzina" autorstwa Małgorzaty Kamińskiej-Sobczyk. Autorami muzyki byli członkowie zespołu, współautorem scenografii zaś rysownik Zbigniew Jujka. Sztuka opowiada o życiu nowobogackiej rodziny z klasy średniej, zdominowanym przez wszechobecną telewizję i kolorowe tabloidy. W rolach głównych występują: Joanna Stoike-Stempkowska i Adam Jędrosz. +W sierpniu 2007 roku zespół wystąpił w filmie "Osiem w poziomie", którego reżyserem jest Grzegorz Lipiec. +Skład. +Z zespołem w trakcie jego działalności, oprócz wspomnianych, współpracowali jeszcze inni muzycy m.in. Jan Borysewicz, Paweł "Konjo" Konnak, Wiganna Papina, Maciej Maleńczuk, Jerzy Połomski, Paweł Kukiz i Jarosław Janiszewski oraz managerowie m.in. Andrzej Bączyński, Maciej Durczak, Monika Wielichowska, Katarzyna Wydra +Jordanowo (województwo lubuskie) + +Jordanowo (niem. "Jordan") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie lubuskim, w powiecie świebodzińskim, w gminie Świebodzin, na prawym brzegu rzeki Paklicy, w polodowcowej kotlinie, sąsiadująca z Gościkowiem i tamtejszym pocysterskim opactwem paradyskim. +W latach 1945-1954 siedziba gminy Jordanowo. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa zielonogórskiego. +Historia Jordanowa jest nierozłącznie związana z dziejami sąsiedniego klasztoru. W latach 1940-1942 na terenie wsi istniał obóz pracy przymusowej, w którym więziono łódzkich Żydów. +Zabytki. +Klub Sportowy "Meteor" Jordanowo występuje w B-klasie. +W pobliżu wsi planowane jest wybudowanie węzła autostrady A2 (Berlin – Brześć) i drogi ekspresowej S3 (Świnoujście – Praga). +Dolina Tomanowa Liptowska + +Dolina Tomanowa Liptowska (słow. "Tomanovská dolina", niem. "Tomanowatal", węg. "Tomanowa-völgy") – słowacka dolina położona na terenie Tatr Zachodnich, odgałęzienie Doliny Cichej ("Tichá dolina") odchodzące od górnej jej części w kierunku zachodnim. Dawniej nazywana była także Doliną Węgierską. +Topografia. +Ma 2 odgałęzienia, obydwa po orograficznie lewej stronie i są one kotłami lodowcowymi. W kolejności od góry na dół są to Świstówka Liptowska ("Svišťovka") i Dolinka Rozpadła ("Rozpadlá dolinka"), oddzielone od siebie Rozpadłą Granią ("Rozpadlý hrebeň"), odchodzącą w południowym kierunku od Krzesanicy. +Opis doliny. +Dolina ma długość 2,5 km i powierzchnię 3,25 km². Powstała na granicy kompleksu skał osadowych i krystalicznych. W tej niedostępnej dla turystów dolince znajduje się ok. 40 jaskiń, również nieudostępnionych do zwiedzania. W dolinie położone są jedyne w całej Dolinie Cichej stałe stawki, płytkie Tomanowe Stawki ("Tomanove plesá"), położone poniżej Tomanowej Przełęczy. Zasilają one Tomanowy Potok Liptowski ("Tomanov potok"), którego wody przed ujściem do Cichej Wody Liptowskiej ("Tichý potok") tworzą Tomanową Siklawę ("Tomanov vodopád"). +Historia. +Dokumenty wspominają tę dolinę od 1670 r. Miała tradycje pasterskie i górnicze. W jej dolnej części znajduje się duża Polana pod Jaworem, która dawniej była ośrodkiem gospodarczym Hali Tomanowej Liptowskiej. W znajdujących się na niej szałasach w czasie II wojny światowej odpoczywali kurierzy wędrujący na trasie Zakopane–Budapeszt. Powyżej tej polany w kwietniu 1940 r. w trakcie ucieczki na Węgry w czasie śnieżnej zawieruchy zmarł z wycieńczenia polski naukowiec i taternik Włodzimierz Gosławski wraz z towarzyszącą mu Adą Kopczyńską. Polscy naukowcy mieli udział w badaniu tej doliny. Antoni Rehman w 1893 r. opisał jej moreny, Jerzy Młodziejowski w latach 1932–1934 zbadał jej stawki. Ludwik Zejszner w latach 1839–1840 badał źródło pod Tomanową Przełęczą. +Doliną Tomanową Liptowską prowadził czerwony szlak turystyczny z Doliny Cichej, jednak został zamknięty w czerwcu 2008 r. +Mszczuja + +Mszczuja – staropolskie imię żeńskie. Odpowiednik męskiego imienia Mszczuj, które jest najprawdopodobniej wariantem imienia Mściwuj. +Mszczuja imieniny obchodzi 2 czerwca. +Misje petersberskie + +Misje petersberskie to zbiór zadań z zakresu polityki bezpieczeństwa, przyjęty do realizacji przez Unię Zachodnioeuropejską na konferencji w Hotelu w mieście Petersberg niedaleko Bonn w 1992 roku. +Są to zadania humanitarne, w tym ratownicze; misje pokojowe oraz misje zarządzania sytuacjami kryzysowymi. +Misje petersberskie zostały włączone do zadań Wspólnej Polityki Zagranicznej i Bezpieczeństwa Unii Europejskiej przez Traktat Amsterdamski. Po tym, jak sygnatariusze zmodyfikowanego traktatu brukselskiego zdecydowali w 2010 r. o rozwiązaniu Unii Zachodnioeuropejskiej, UE przejęła jej składniki materialne i kompetencje. Zadania petersberskie są nadal podstawą prawną decyzji o wysłaniu misji w ramach WPBiO. +Odpowiednikiem misji petersberskich w NATO jest planowanie obrony cywilnej w sytuacji zagrożeń (CEP). +Wcielenie + +Wcielenie (łac. "incarnatio"; od "incarnare", gdzie "caro" – ciało, mięso) – termin teologiczny, którym w chrześcijaństwie określa się przyjęcie przez Jezusa Chrystusa ludzkiej natury przez narodzenie z Najświętszej Maryi Panny. +Nauka o wcieleniu jest obecna w głównych wyznaniach chrześcijańskich (katolicyzm, prawosławie), uznających bóstwo Chrystusa i jako Syna Bożego – drugiej osoby Trójcy Świętej. Dokonało się ono podczas zwiastowania mocą Ducha Świętego. Jezus Chrystus stał się prawdziwym Bogiem i prawdziwym człowiekiem: występują w nim jednocześnie dwie natury (ludzka i boska) zjednoczone w unii osobowej, co określa się jako Tajemnicę Wcielenia. +Termin "incarnatio" (wcielenie) pochodzi z Ewangelii Jana 1,14 "et Verbum caro factum est" („a Słowo stało się ciałem”). +Socynianie XVII wieku interpretowali "incarnatio" jako wcielenie Logosa, idei racjonalnego, a nie wcielenie osoby. +Marcin Przybyłek + +Marcin Przybyłek (ur. 1968 w Pułtusku) - polski pisarz science fiction, z wykształcenia lekarz. Przez 6 lat pracował w koncernie farmaceutycznym, później założył firmę szkoleniową. +Debiutował w czerwcu 2000 roku w miesięczniku Świat Gier Komputerowych tworząc rubrykę "Grao Story". Publikował teksty publicystyczne w "Nowej Fantastyce" w cyklu "Co w duszy gra". W "Nowej Fantastyce" 11/2002 ukazało się jego pierwsze opowiadanie z cyklu o gamedecu ("gierczanym detektywie") Torkilu Aymorze - "Gamedec. Małpia pułapka". Jego debiutem książkowym był zbiór dwunastu opowiadań "Gamedec. Granica rzeczywistości", wydany przez wydawnictwo SuperNOWA w 2004. W kwietniu 2006 ukazał się tom drugi, tym razem powieść, pt. "Gamedec. Sprzedawcy lokomotyw". +Urzędy ziemskie + +Urzędy ziemskie w Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów wywodziły się z urzędów książęcych z czasów rozbicia dzielnicowego. +Najważniejszymi urzędnikami ziemskimi byli wojewoda i kasztelan, gdyż z urzędu wchodzili do Senatu. +Po nich w każdej ziemi następowali pozostali urzędnicy. W większości były to godności honorowe. +Urzędy ziemskie dzieliły się na dygnitarskie (łac. dignitates) i officia. Dygnitarzami byli: wojewoda, kasztelan, podkomorzy i sędzia ziemski. Officia to urzędy: stolnika, podstolego, cześnika, podczaszego, łowczego, miecznika, chorążego i wojskiego +Porządek starszeństwa sprecyzowała konstytucja (ustawa sejmowa) z 1611 roku, z pewnymi zmianami wprowadzonymi w 1613 roku . +Pojazd mechaniczny + +Pojazd mechaniczny – pojazd kołowy na stałe zaopatrzony w silnik, będący jego napędem. Pojazdy mechaniczne służą do transportu drogowego ludzi i przedmiotów oraz do ciągnięcia przyczep i naczep. Mogą one służyć również do napędu innych maszyn (np. maszyn rolniczych). Nie jest pojazdem mechanicznym rower z zamontowanym silnikiem, jeżeli jego konstrukcja pozwala na poruszanie się w konwencjonalny sposób (za pomocą mięśni nóg). Inne pojazdy są sprecyzowane w Dzienniku Ustaw z 2005 roku, numer 108, pozycja 908,lecz nie ma tam "pojazdu mechanicznego". Wyjaśnia to jedynie Dziennik Ustaw 03.124.1152, artykuł 2, punkt 10 A, powołując się na Prawo o ruchu drogowym, aby określić które pojazdy podlegają obowiązkowemu ubezpieczeniu OC. Wynika z tego, że motorower trzeba ubezpieczyć, natomiast rower nie trzeba, lecz nie wiadomo czy mogą wyjechać na drogi publiczne rowerem, czy motorowerem osoby, które zostały skazane wyrokiem sądowym często interpretowanym jako "zakaz prowadzenia pojazdów mechanicznych", gdyż nie ma nigdzie definicji "pojazd mechaniczny" w Prawie o Ruchu Drogowym. +Według ustawy o ubezpieczeniach. +Na podstawie tekstu dwóch poniższych ustaw można stwierdzić, że rower z zamontowanym silnikiem nie klasyfikuje się do pojazdów mechanicznych, jeżeli konstrukcja tego silnika nie pozwala na jazdę z prędkością przekraczającą 25 km/h. +Wrzosowisko + +Wrzosowisko – bezleśna formacja zimozielonych krzewinek. Wrzosowiska występują w klimacie umiarkowanym i wilgotnym, na glebach piaszczystych i kwaśnych. Zajmują wielkie przestrzenie, głównie na terenach, na które docierają wpływy atlantyckiego ciepłego i wilgotnego powietrza. +W Europie powstają przeważnie wtórnie na siedliskach borów sosnowych, po zniszczeniu roślinności pierwotnej. W Polsce rośnie głównie wrzos, w zachodniej Europie – także wrzosiec, janowiec, żarnowiec i inne. +Marcin Kamiński (szachista) + +Marcin Kamiński (ur. 10 marca 1977 we Wrocławiu) – polski szachista, arcymistrz. +Kariera szachowa. +Poznał szachy w wieku 4 lat. Od końca lat 80. był czołowym polskim juniorem. W 1989 roku w Portoryko zdobył tytuł mistrza świata juniorów w kategorii do 12 lat. Dwa lata później w Warszawie powtórzył ten sukces w kategorii do 14 lat. W 1993 roku zdobył srebrny medal na mistrzostwach Europy juniorów. W latach 1994 – 1998 czterokrotnie awansował do finałów indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski seniorów. W tym czasie trzykrotnie reprezentował kraj na olimpiadach szachowych w Moskwie (1994), Erywaniu (1996) i Eliście (1998). Ogółem rozegrał na olimpiadach 28 partii z bilansem +12 -4 =12 (64,3%), w 1998 roku jako pierwszy rezerwowy zdobył brązowy medal indywidualnie za wynik +4 -0 =4 (75%). Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa FIDE przyznała mu tytuł arcymistrza w 1996 roku. Pod koniec lat dziewięćdziesiątych, mimo przynależności do ścisłej czołówki polskich szachistów, zrezygnował z reprezentowania kraju i udziału w prestiżowych turniejach. Podjął studia informatyczne na Uniwersytecie Teksasu w Dallas. W 2002 roku drużyna uniwersytecka z jego udziałem zdobyła tytuł akademickiego mistrza Stanów Zjednoczonych. Wspólnie z Pawłem Blehmem założył firmę "Chessaid" zajmującą się treningiem szachowym przez Internet. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął 1 stycznia 1997 r., z wynikiem 2540 punktów zajmował wówczas trzecie miejsce (za Michałem Krasenkowem i Aleksandrem Wojtkiewiczem) wśród polskich szachistów. +Rzut (geometria) + +Rzut – w geometrii odwzorowanie przestrzeni euklidesowej trójwymiarowej na daną powierzchnię zwaną rzutnią, które każdemu punktowi formula_1 przestrzeni przypisuje punkt przecięcia się z rzutnią pewnej prostej z danej rodziny prostych rzutujących przechodzącej przez punkt formula_1. +Rzutnia jest najczęściej płaszczyzną, choć stosuje się również rzuty na powierzchnię kuli, walca, stożka i inne. +Rzut można także rozumieć jako funkcję odwzorującą płaszczyznę na pewną jej prostą (będącą rzutnią) i ogólniej jako funkcję odwzorującą n-wymiarową przestrzeń euklidesową na pewną jej hiperpłaszczyznę. +OpenDocument + +OpenDocument (znany również jako ODF oraz ISO/IEC 26300, pełna nazwa: Open Document Format for Office Applications) to otwarty standard ISO formatu plików pakietów biurowych. Obejmuje dokumenty tekstowe, arkusze kalkulacyjne, wykresy i prezentacje multimedialne. Pierwsza wersja formatu bazowała na XML-owym formacie pakietu OpenOffice.org. Obecnie OpenDocument jest rozwijany przez niezależną organizację OASIS ("Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards"). +OpenDocument jest alternatywą dla zamkniętych formatów dokumentów, kontrolowanych najczęściej przez firmy, które je opracowały – przede wszystkim dla formatów DOC, XLS i PPT, używanych w starszych wersjach pakietu biurowego Microsoft Office. Użytkownicy dokumentów zgodnych ze standardem OpenDocument mają do nich dostęp z programów różnych producentów, co łamie monopol dotychczasowych producentów oprogramowania i dysponentów formatów dokumentów. Możliwy staje się wybór bądź zmiana oprogramowania biurowego bez konieczności zmiany formatu używanych dokumentów (co zwiększałoby ryzyko utraty części informacji z dokumentów). Łatwiejsze jest przede wszystkim zabezpieczenie się przed wycofaniem z rynku określonego produktu lub producenta, zmianą warunków licencyjnych, itp. +OpenDocument jest ponadto alternatywą dla formatów uchodzących za otwarte (np. Office Open XML) lecz nie powstałych na drodze konsensusu pomiędzy dostawcami oprogramowania biurowego oraz użytkownikami (w tym rządami państw). Stanowienie alternatywy wynika w tym przypadku z faktu, że organizacja OASIS, trzymająca pieczę nad rozwojem formatu OpenDocument, zrzesza w swych szeregach przedstawicieli zarówno firm jak też osoby indywidualne i organizacje reprezentujące różne regiony świata i potrzeby w zakresie dokumentów elektronicznych. Organizacje i osoby te mają bezpośredni wpływ na rozwój formatu OpenDocument. +W pakiecie ServicePack 2 do Microsoft Office 2007 wprowadzono częściową obsługę standardu ODF. Do tej pory użytkownicy korzystali w tym celu z tzw. wtyczek innych producentów np. firmy Sun Microsystems. +Standaryzacja OpenDocument. +Rozwoju standardu OpenDocument podjął się Komitet Techniczny (ang. "Technical Committee, TC") organizacji OASIS. Pierwsza dyskusja komitetu w sprawie ODF odbyła się 16 grudnia 2002 r. Komitet techniczny do spraw ODF składa się z przedstawicieli IBM (4 osoby), Sun Microsystems (3 osoby) oraz 3 osób z innych firm. Sun zrzeka się roszczeń patentowych do ODF tak długo, jak bierze udział w pracach nad tym standardem. +W maju 2005 r. specyfikacja OpenDocument została formalnie zatwierdzona jako standard OASIS. 3 maja 2006 miało miejsce formalne zatwierdzenie wersji ODF 1.0 jako standardu ISO (ISO/IEC 26300), a 30 listopada 2006 r. standard został opublikowany. W 2007 roku OASIS opublikowała wersję ODF 1.1. +OpenDocument w Polsce. +W rozporządzeniu Rady Ministrów z dnia 11 października 2005 r. w sprawie minimalnych wymagań dla systemów teleinformatycznych znalazło się unormowanie uwzględniające format OpenDocument 1.0 jako jeden z podstawowych (razem z TXT i RTF) formatów dokumentu tekstowego lub tekstowo graficznego dla administracji publicznej (formaty DOC i PDF na mocy rozporządzenia zostały dopuszczone dla analogicznych dokumentów przeznaczonych tylko do odczytu). +Programy obsługujące OpenDocument. +Pierwsze programy implementujące OpenDocument pojawiły się w 2005 r. Formatem tym jako podstawowym (rodzimym) posługuje się pakiet OpenOffice.org począwszy od wersji 2.0 oraz KOffice. OpenDocument jest także podstawowym formatem dla wszystkich bazujących na OpenOffice.org programach, w tym StarOffice i NeoOffice. Odpowiedni filtr jest ponadto zawarty w aktualizacji 1.1.5 pakietu OpenOffice.org. +Inne programy obsługujące standard to m.in. LibreOffice, AbiWord, TextMaker, IBM Workplace, eZ publish, Knomos, Scribus, Visioo Writer, Writely, Lotus Notes R8 (Beta), Microsoft Office od wersji 2007 z dodatkiem Service Pack 2. +Rozszerzenia plików. +Uwaga! Format bazy danych (.odb) nie jest częścią specyfikacji OpenDocument. +OpenDocument a MS Office. +Możliwe jest otwieranie i edycja plików ODF w programie Microsoft Word 2007 z zestawem poprawek Service Pack 2. Od lutego 2007 r. jest możliwa konwersja plików pakietu biurowego MS Office do formatu OpenDocument za pomocą oprogramowania firmy Sun o nazwie "StarOffice 8 Conversion Technology". Oprogramowanie to jest dostępne na stronie Sun [http://www.sun.com/software/star/odf_plugin/]. +Krytyka. +Standard ODF stał się obiektem różnorakiej krytyki. +An-2 + +An-2 (ros. Ан-2) (oznaczenie NATO "Colt") – samolot wielozadaniowy zaprojektowany w biurze konstrukcyjnym Olega Antonowa. +An-2 (przez polskich pilotów nazywany często "Antek") jest największym produkowanym seryjnie jednosilnikowym dwupłatowcem na świecie. Przez długi czas dzierżył także tytuł najdłużej produkowanego samolotu świata (obecnie rekord ten należy do samolotu Lockheed C-130 Hercules). +Ze względu na niezawodność, prostą konstrukcję i obsługę, łatwość pilotażu i konstrukcję dwupłatowca nazywany był czasem "Kukuruźnik" – po słynnym samolocie Po-2 z okresu II wojny światowej. Należy jednak podkreślić, iż konstrukcyjnie An-2 jest zupełnie odmiennym samolotem niż Po-2, również w sensie wielkości samolotu, masy startowej i mocy zastosowanego silnika różnice są zasadnicze. Załogę An-2 stanowią dwie osoby. +Historia. +Pierwszy prototyp został oblatany 31 sierpnia 1947 roku. Produkcję seryjną rozpoczęto w 1949. Od 1957 produkowany na licencji w Chinach jako Y-5, a od 1960 również w Polsce w wytwórni w Mielcu, gdzie zbudowano większość maszyn tego typu. Samoloty An-2 znalazły zastosowanie w lotnictwie rolniczym, sportowym, wojskowym i pasażerskim w takich krajach jak ZSRR, Afganistan, Bułgaria, Czechosłowacja, Chiny, NRD, Egipt, Grecja, Indie, Jugosławia, Kuba, KRLD, Mongolia, Mali, Nepal, Polska, Rumunia, Sudan, Węgry, Wietnam, Tunezja, Turcja, a nawet USA. +Projekt „LALA-1”. +W 1970 w Instytucie Lotnictwa w Warszawie, dokonano przeróbki seryjnego samolotu An-2R (rolniczego), numer seryjny 1G12832, na latające laboratorium „LALA-I”. Oprócz silnika tłokowego ASz-62 w samolocie umieszczono silnik turboodrzutowy AI-25 o ciągu statycznym 14,7 kN z silnikiem rozruchowym AI-9. Samolot „LALA-1” służył do badania możliwości wykorzystania silnika turboodrzutowego do napędu samolotu rolniczego. Odcięto tylną część kadłuba, który zastąpiono konstrukcją kratownicową Zastosowano podwójne usterzenie pionowe i nowe tylne podwozie. Samolot oblatano z silnikiem tłokowym 10 lutego 1972 i 26 kwietnia 1972 z obydwoma pracującymi silnikami. Wyniki prób posłużyły następnie do projektowania i budowy samolotu PZL M –15. +An-3. +Zakłady PZL-Mielec przygotowywały się do uruchomienia produkcji An-3 (An-2 z silnikiem TWD-20). W marcu 1987 roku podpisano wstępną umowę na produkcję tego samolotu. Na podstawie dostarczonych dokumentów wykonano w Mielcu makietę An-3 w skali 1:1, poczyniono wstępne przygotowania, jednak do produkcji seryjnej nie doszło. +Zastosowanie. +An-2 dzięki swym niewątpliwym zaletom znalazł bardzo szerokie zastosowanie w różnych dziedzinach życia. +Wykorzystywano go do przewozu ludzi, na lokalnych liniach pasażerskich, poczty, różnych ładunków, jako sanitarny, do prac agrolotniczych, do badań meteorologicznych i geofizycznych, w poszukiwaniu ławic ryb, do gaszenia pożarów leśnych, szkolenia skoczków spadochronowych i wielu innych zadań. Jednym słowem samolot mógł przewozić wszystko, co można było załadować przez drzwi bagażowe i nie przekraczało masy 1500 kg. +Spora liczba samolotów An-2 została wykorzystana w Aerofłocie do komunikacji pasażerskiej na krótkich liniach lokalnych. Do roku 1982 przewiozły one 25 milionów pasażerów, a w kwietniu 1987 roku sprzedano 100-milionowy bilet na ten samolot. Docierał on do małych miast, pozbawionych stałych lotnisk. Można go było wykorzystywać z niewielkiej powierzchni równego terenu, w różnych warunkach klimatycznych, gdyż samolot może być wyposażony zarówno w podwozie kołowe, jak i narty. Zamiana podwozia z jednej wersji na drugą może być wykonana w krótkim czasie w warunkach polowych. +Nie tylko w byłym ZSRR używano go do lokalnej komunikacji pasażerskiej, ale w wielu innych krajach. W latach 1958-1962 na regularnych liniach wewnętrznych Deutsche Lufthansa w byłej NRD, latały samoloty An-2 odpowiednio przystosowane do tego celu. +Jednak największą liczbę samolotów wykorzystywano w rolnictwie do nawożenia, ochrony upraw i defoliacji. W szczytowym okresie samoloty An-2 wykonywały rocznie prace agrolotnicze na obszarze 110 milionów hektarów. Używany na kilku kontynentach, doskonale spisywał się w różnych warunkach klimatycznych. +Znaczna liczba An-2 TD w wersji transportowo-desantowej znalazła się na wyposażeniu jednostek wojsk lotniczych ZSRR. Wykorzystywano go do przewożenia ładunków i ludzi w niedostępne tereny, jako dyspozycyjny, a przede wszystkim do szkolenia wojsk powietrznodesantowych. Były one przystosowane do prowadzenia rozpoznania fotograficznego. W tym celu można było zamontować na nim dwa lotnicze aparaty fotograficzne AFA-33/50 lub jeden AFA –33/75 i jeden 18//21. +Produkcja w Polsce. +Wytwórnia w Mielcu produkowała główne elementy płatowca i wykonywała montaż ostateczny. Śmigła W-509A-D9 i AW-2, usterzenie poziome i pionowe, narty, pływaki i aparaturę agrolotniczą wytwarzała WSK Okęcie. Silniki produkowały dwa zakłady: WSK Kalisz i WSK Rzeszów. +Roczna produkcja w Mielcu w początkowym okresie wahała się w granicach 400 samolotów, w roku 1965 przekroczyła 500 a w 1973 – 600 sztuk. 19 sierpnia 1981 został odebrany przez Przedstawicielstwo Wojskowe 8-tysieczny samolot. Ogólna liczba wyprodukowanych w Mielcu samolotów An-2 oceniana jest na ponad 12 tys. +Eksport samolotów An-2 z PZL-Mielec. +Głównym odbiorcą produkowanych w Polsce An-2 był Związek Radziecki, ale eksportowano go również do innych krajów. Na liście odbiorców (łącznie z Polską) figuruje 20 państw. +Tylko do ZSRR przekazano do 1968 roku 3000 samolotów, do 1973 – 5000. 11 maja 1984 z WSK w Kaliszu przekazano 20-tysięczny silnik do samolotu An-2, a 25 września 1984 wysłano 10-tysięczny samolot odbiorcy radzieckiemu. +Konstrukcja. +Konstrukcja półskorupowa, wykonana z duraluminium. Konfiguracja dwupłatowca. Skrzydła i stery w początkowym okresie produkcji kryte płótnem, w egzemplarzach późniejszych płócienne poszycie posiadał jedynie płat dolny. Zbiorniki paliwa w skrzydłach, podwozie stałe, z kółkiem ogonowym z możliwością wymiany na narty lub w wersji wodnej z pływakami. +Galeria. +Modyfikacje An-2 +Plik:Antonov An-2T.png|An-2T +Plik:An-3T.jpg|An-3 +Plik:An-2E.jpg|An-2E + +Słuck + +Słuck (biał. "Слуцк" lub "Слу́цак", ros. "Слуцк") – miasto na Białorusi, w obwodzie mińskim, centrum administracyjne rejonu słuckiego. Leży 105 km na południe od Mińska, nad rzeką Słucz; dawna polska rezydencja magnacka. W 2010 liczył 61,4 tys. mieszkańców. +Nazwa. +Nazwa miasta pochodzi od rzeki Słucz. W latopisach występuje ono jako "Słucziesk", "Słuciek". +Historia. +Średniowiecze. +Po raz pierwszy wzmiankowany w 1116 w Powieści minionych lat jako jedno z miast Księstwa Turowskiego. W 1160 został stolicą odrębnego Księstwa Słuckiego, którego pierwszym znanym księciem był Włodzimierz Mścisławowicz, wnuk Włodzimierza II Monomacha. Od lat 1320-1330 aż do 1793 pozostawał częścią Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego (od 1507 do województwa nowogródzkiego). Od 1395 Słuck stanowił własność rodu Olelkowiczów. +W XV wieku Słuck był dużym miastem feudalnym. Po prawej stronie Słuczy u ujścia rzeczki Byczek zbudowano Górny Zamek na planie okręgu, a poniżej niego Dolny Zamek. W 1433 Słuck stanowił ośrodek wystąpień feudałów przeciwko wielkiemu księciu Zygmuntowi Kiejstutowiczowi. W 1441 otrzymał prawo magdeburskie. +XVI wiek. +W Słucku w XVI wieku książęta Olelkowiczowie założyli drukarnię cerkiewną, w której później wytłaczano drobne pisma polskie. W 1502 rozpoczęły się najazdy Tatarów na miasto. Na początku XVI wieku księżna Anastazja słucka, po śmierci męża Siemiona Michajłowicza, przejęła obronę Słucka. Otoczyła fortyfikacjami miasto na prawym brzegu Słuczy. Po drugiej stronie rzeki zbudowano także Nowy Zamek, który wzmiankowano w 1582. Otoczono też fortyfikacjami znajdujące się tam zabudowania miejskie. Twierdza Słucka była tak silna, że odparła w XVI wieku wszystkie ataki Tatarów i wojsk moskiewskich. W 1579 miasto podzielono pomiędzy trzech braci Olelkowiczów na Stare Miasto, Nowe Miasto i Ostrów. W 1592 zaś części te zostały połączone i przeszły pod władanie ostatniej księżniczki z rodu Olelkowiczów – Zofii Irówny. Zdobycie Słucka udało się dopiero Kozakom, pod dowództwem Semena Nalewajki w 1595. Było to jednak możliwe tylko dzięki niepokojom w mieście i chwilowemu brakowi silnej władzy. +XVII wiek. +W 1617 po śmierci księżnej słuckiej, miasto przeszło z rąk Olelkowiczów w ręce Janusza Radziwiłła. W 1617 działała już w Słucku szkoła kalwińska. W 1624 otwarto Gimnazjum w Słucku. W 1648 fortecę nieskutecznie próbowali dwoma szturmami zdobyć Kozacy. W 1650 po raz drugi miasto otrzymało prawo magdeburskie. W czasie wojny z Moskwą, w 1654 na rozkaz Bogusława Radziwiłła wzmocniono wały miasta. Pracami kierował Wilhelm Paterson. +Wtedy też powstała cytadela słucka zwana Nowym Zamkiem (w miejscu wcześniejszej fortyfikacji). Całe miasto otrzymało też nowe wały w systemie staroholenderskim (oprócz przedmieść Ostrowskiego i Trojczańskiego). Wały miały szerokość 266 m, wysokość 8 m i posiadały 12 bastionów. Całość wałów miała długość 3840 m. Znajdowały się w nich cztery bramy (trzy murowane). +W czasie wojny z Moskwą dzięki tym wzmocnieniom wojska moskiewskie pod dowództwem Aleksego Trubeckiego nie były w stanie zdobyć miasta podczas szturmów 2-6 i 27-30 września 1655. Miasto ustawą sejmową zostało zwolnione z podatków na okres sześciu lat. Gubernatorem Słucka był wówczas Szkot Wilhelm Paterson. Niedługo później twierdzę zaczęto znowu wzmacniać. W 1659 Sejm wziął na służbę Rzeczypospolitej cały garnizon w Słucku. W 1660 twierdzą dowodzili prawdopodobnie komendant Klosing oraz komisarze Kazimierz Kłokocki i Władysław Huryn. Aby powiększyć garnizon, utworzono ze zgromadzonej w twierdzy szlachty chorągwie szlacheckie, które podlegały komendantowi i mogły zostać wykorzystane do obrony twierdzy albo podjazdów, której rotmistrzem został stolnik orszański Hieronim Władysław Brzuchański, porucznikiem Jan Słąski, a chorążym Jan Wołk. Po zakończeniu wojny z Moskwą twierdzę rozbudowano także w latach 1667–1669. Do obrony miasta służył regiment piechoty w sile ok. 1000 ludzi, dragoni i piechota wybraniecka. +Od XVII do XIX wieku był jednym z głównych centrów kalwinizmu na Litwie, znajdowało się w nim słynne Gimnazjum Słuckie założone w 1617 przez Janusza Radziwiłła, przejęte przez władze rosyjskie w 1830 w ramach represji po wybuchu powstania listopadowego. +XVIII wiek. +Słuck stał się w tym czasie słynny za sprawą manufaktury tzw. pasów słuckich, noszonych chętnie przez polską szlachtę. 20 marca 1767 litewska szlachta prawosławna i kalwińska pod ochroną wojska rosyjskiego zawiązała innowierczą konfederację słucką. +Na skutek rozbiorów Polski, w latach 1793–1915 miasto należało do Rosji i było siedzibą powiatu, należącego do guberni mińskiej. +XX wiek. +W 1909 roku, w czasie wyborów samorządowych, do rady miejskiej zostało wybranych 10 Rosjan, 4 Polaków i 1 Żyd. +W lutym 1918, w trakcie I wojny światowej miasto zajęły wojka niemieckie. W tym samym roku w mieście działał Białoruski Komitet Narodowy oraz otwarte zostało Słuckie Białoruskie Gimnazjum. 1 stycznia 1919 Słuck wszedł w skład Białoruskiej SRR, zaś 27 lutego – w Litewsko-Białoruskiej SRR. W 1919 rozpoczęła działalność organizacja kulturalno-oświatowa "Kwiat paproci" ("Папараць-кветка"). 11 sierpnia 1919 w czasie wojny z bolszewikami do miasta wkroczył Pułk Strzelców Wileńskich. Wojsko Polskie zajmowało je do 15 lipca 1920. +Na mocy traktatu ryskiego stało się częścią Białoruskiej Republiki Rad. W listopadzie i grudniu 1920 w Słucku i okolicach odbyło się zbrojne antybolszewickie powstanie słuckie, którego celem była obrona niepodległości Białoruskiej Republiki Ludowej. Powstanie zostało krwawo stłumione przez bolszewików. +W latach 1922–1941 w Białoruskiej Socjalistycznej Republice Radzieckiej. W 1924 Słuck został centrum administracyjnym okręgu słuckiego i rejonu słuckiego. 27 września 1938 otrzymał status miasta obwodowego podporządkowania. W latach 1941–1944 Słuck znajdował się pod okupacją niemiecką. W dniach 27 i 28 października 1941 niemiecka policja wojskowa z Kowna wymordowała miejscowych Żydów. 30 czerwca 1944 ponownie zajęty przez wojska sowieckie. Od 1991 w składzie niepodległej Białorusi. +Gospodarka i transport. +W roku 2004 w mieście działało 21 przedsiębiorstw przemysłowych, zarejestrowanych było też 126 przedsiębiorstw prywatnych. 8 przedsiębiorstw zajmuje się przemysłem spożywczym i przetwórczym. Produkty przemysłu lekkiego wytwarzane są w przedsiębiorstwie przemysłowo-handlowym "Łandysz", fabryce tekstyliów i republikańskim unitarnym przedsiębiorstwie wyrobów artystycznych "Pasy Słuckie". Obróbką drewna i metalu zajmują się "Słuckmeblia", "Słuck-Modul", "Jampol". +Miasto stanowi węzeł kolejowy na Osipowicze, Baranowicze, Soligorsk. Drogi na Mińsk, Bobrujsk, Soligorsk. +Kochanowscy + +Kochanowscy herbu Korwin – znana i ceniona rodzina szlachecka powiatu radomskiego, z której wywodzi się poeta Jan Kochanowski. +Dziad ojczysty poety, także Jan sprawował urząd sędziego grodzkiego radomskiego. Znaczenie i majątek rodu pomnożył i utwierdził Piotr Kochanowski (1485–1547). Dzięki jego przedsiębiorczości, sprawowanym urzędom i koligacjom małżeńskim rodzinę Kochanowskich zaczęto zaliczać do zamożnego ziemiaństwa. Po śmierci pierwszej żony Zofii, zmarłej ok. roku 1524, Piotr Kochanowski ożenił się z Anną, córką Jakuba z Białaczowa herbu Odrowąż. Odrowążowie z Białaczowa należeli do starego możnowładczego rodu. W 1525 roku Piotr Kochanowski zakupił wieś Sycyna koło Zwolenia, w której pięć lat później przyszedł na świat poeta polski Jan Kochanowski. Matka Anna z Białaczowskich, była kobietą odznaczającą się nieprzeciętnymi walorami umysłu, dowcipna i rezolutna. Bardzo przychylnie pisał o niej Łukasz Górnicki w swym "Dworzaninie polskim". Dom Piotra i Anny Kochanowskich w znacznej mierze dzięki zaletom i przymiotom gospodyni wyróżniał się intelektualnie i towarzysko w życiu okolicznej szlachty. Zapewne do dworku Kochanowskich docierały prądy humanizmu renesansowego ogarniającego wówczas coraz szerzej Polskę. Piotr i Anna posiadali liczne potomstwo, synów: Kaspra, Jana, Piotra, Mikołaja, Andrzeja, Jakuba, Stanisława (drugiego), córki: Katarzynę, Elżbietę, Annę, Jadwigę. Ponadto z pierwszą żoną Zofią, córką Jana Zasady, Piotr Kochanowski miał syna Stanisława (pierwszego) i córkę Druzjannę. Trzech synów Piotra Kochanowskiego, Jan, Andrzej i Jakub studiowało w renomowanym uniwersytecie w Królewcu zwanym "Albertyną". +Piotr Kochanowski (1485-1547) + +Piotr Kochanowski herbu Korwin (1485-1547), szlachcic, właściciel Czarnolasu, komornik grodzki radomski (1533), sędzia grodzki radomski od 1531, sędzia ziemski sandomierski od 1542. +Syn Jana Kochanowskiego - sędziego grodzkiego radomskiego (1487) i Barbary Śliż z Piastowa (zm. 1518), która drugi raz wyszła za mąż za Feliksa Lekarskiego z Kowali Duszocinej, h. Abdank, (zm. 1513.). Ożenił się z Zofią Zasadówną Gutowską, a potem z Anną Białaczowską. +Był ojcem Jana Kochanowskiego i dziadkiem poety Piotra Kochanowskiego. Za jego sprawą rodzina Kochanowskich osiedliła się we wsi Sycyna koło Zwolenia, na zachód od Radomia (w 1525 Piotr Kochanowski zakupił tę wieś). +Klaudiusz Urban + +Klaudiusz Urban (ur. 2 listopada 1968 w Poznaniu) – polski szachista, mistrz międzynarodowy od 1991 roku. +Kariera szachowa. +W 1987 r. zdobył w we wsi Miętne brązowy medal mistrzostw Polski juniorów do 19 lat, natomiast w 1989 r. zdobył w Leszczynach tytuł młodzieżowego wicemistrza Polski. W latach 1991–2003 dwunastokrotnie awansował do finałów indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski. W bardzo udanym debiucie w 1991 roku zdobył tytuł wicemistrza, w 1996 roku - tytuł mistrza kraju. Uczestniczył w trzech olimpiadach szachowych (w 1992, 1996 i 1998 roku) na pozycji drugiego rezerwowego, będąc za każdym razem silnym punktem drużyny. Ogółem na olimpiadach rozegrał 26 partii (wynik procentowy 67,3%). Dwukrotnie reprezentował Polskę w drużynowych mistrzostwach Europy (w 1992 i 1997 roku). Jest również dwukrotnym medalistą mistrzostw Polski w szachach błyskawicznych: srebrnym (Żnin 2000) oraz brązowym (Łuków 1996). +W roku 2001 podzielił I miejsce w otwartym turnieju w Policach. W 2003 zajął II miejsce w Poznaniu oraz podzielił I miejsce w Kołobrzegu. Rok później ponownie podzielił I miejsca w Kołobrzegu oraz Policach. W 2004 po raz kolejny podzielił I miejsce w Kołobrzegu, natomiast w 2005 – w Policach. W 2009 r. podzielił I m. w memoriale Józefa Kochana w Koszalinie (wspólnie z Wadymem Szyszkinem, Mirosławem Grabarczykiem i Marcelem Kanarkiem), natomiast w 2011 r. zajął II m. (za Wojciechem Morandą) w Poznaniu. +Najwyższy ranking w dotychczasowej karierze osiągnął 1 października 2004 r., z wynikiem 2520 punktów dzielił wówczas 12. miejsce (wspólnie z Pawłem Blehmem) wśród polskich szachistów. +Reprezentuje klub "Pocztowiec" Poznań. W barwach tego klubu zdobył 3 medale drużynowych mistrzostw Polski (złoty – 1988, brązowe – 1998, 2001) oraz 6 medali drużynowych mistrzostw Polski w szachach błyskawicznych (złote – 1994, 1996, srebrne – 1997, 2000, brązowe – 1998, 2007). +Ludwik Mycielski (polityk) + +Ludwik Mycielski (ur. 13 kwietnia 1854 w Warszawie, zm. 6 stycznia 1926 w Gębicach pod Gostyniem), polski działacz społeczny, poseł do parlamentu Rzeszy. +Życiorys. +Był synem Michała, publicysty i wydawcy (po śmierci żony jezuity, prowincjała galicyjskiego zakonu) oraz Zofii z Górskich. Wychowywał się po wczesnej stracie matki i wstąpieniu ojca do zakonu w domu babki, Teodozji Górskiej (wdowy po generale Franciszku Górskim), następnie u stryja Stanisława. W 1873 zdał w Śremie maturę i rozpoczął studia we Wrocławiu, kontynuowane następnie w belgijskim Louvain i na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, gdzie w 1878 obronił doktorat filozofii (na podstawie rozprawy "Sprawa układów pomiędzy Zygmuntem III a dworem austriackim o ustąpieniu korony polskiej"). +Po studiach odbył - wraz z wujem Ludwikiem Górskim - podróż do Rzymu, gdzie został przedstawiony wpływowemu kardynałowi Włodzimierzowi Czackiemu. Towarzyszył kardynałowi, mianowanemu nuncjuszem w Paryżu, jako sekretarz w latach 1879-1882. W 1882 Mycielski powrócił do Polski i zajął się dobrami rodzinnymi; początkowo mieszkał w Dąbrowie pod Wieluniem, następnie w odziedziczonym po stryju Józefie Gałowie pod Szamotułami. +Uczynił z Gałowa znany ośrodek kulturalny. Pracował tam ekonomista, wuj Ludwik Górski oraz malarz Julian Fałat; Mycielski zgromadził także bogatą bibliotekę. Niezależnie od zainteresowań kulturalnych prowadził udaną działalność rolniczo-hodowlaną oraz udzielał się społecznie. Należał do Towarzystwa Pomocy Naukowej, Centralnego Towarzystwa Gospodarczego, spółek zakupu i sprzedaży "Rolnik". W latach 1887-1890 pełnił mandat poselski w parlamencie Rzeszy, gdzie w Kole Polskim należał do grupy konserwatystów. Nie odegrał większej roli parlamentarnej. +Zyskał popularność wieloletnim procesem z rządem pruskim o rewindykację dóbr filipinów gostyńskich, skonfiskowanych przez władze; wygraną w sprawie przyniósł dopiero upadek zwierzchnictwa pruskiego. W 1910 został członkiem rady konserwatywnego Związku Narodowego. W kwietniu 1913 wybrano go na prezesa Rady Narodowej, organizacji, mającej koordynować działalność polską na terenie zaboru pruskiego. W działaniach Rady, przedstawionych w mowie programowej z 10 października 1913, kładł nacisk na działania na tzw. kresach zaboru (Warmia i Mazury, Śląsk). Ostatecznie Rada Narodowa nie zdążyła w większy sposób zaznaczyć swojej działalności wobec wybuchu I wojny światowej. +W okresie wojny Mycielski był członkiem tajnego Komitetu Międzypartyjnego w Poznaniu, a także przewodniczącym organizacji filantropijnych - Komitetu Opieki nad bezdomnymi i Komitetu Pomocy dla Królestwa Polskiego. Jednocześnie za pośrednictwem tych organizacji utrzymywał kontakty z Komitetem Generalnym Pomocy Ofiarom Wojny w Polsce (działającym w Szwajcarii), Radą Główną Opiekuńczą (w Warszawie), Komitetem Biskupim (w Krakowie). Prowadził aktywną działalność społeczno-polityczną także w pierwszych latach niepodległej Polski; organizował transporty żywności w czasie walk o Lwów, wspierał akcję powstańczą i plebiscytową na Górnym Śląsku (przewodniczył Komitetowi Obrony Górnego Śląska), współtworzył Związek Obrony Kresów Zachodnich (członek Rady Naczelnej). Był także prezesem Związku Ubezpieczeń Rolnych byłej dzielnicy pruskiej przy Warszawskim Towarzystwie Ubezpieczeń oraz członkiem władz (pod koniec życia prezesem) Towarzystwa Pomocy Naukowej. +Bibliografia. + +Tony Hawk's (seria gier) + +"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater" jest serią gier wideo dostępnych na różne platformy, m.in. PlayStation, Dreamcast, Nintendo 64, czy Game Boy Color. Pierwsza część gry ukazała się w 1999 roku. W grach ukazani są znani skaterzy, włączając tytułowego Tony'ego Hawka. Producentem gry jest firma Neversoft, a wydawcą jest Activision. +Gry promowane nazwiskiem "Tony'ego Hawka" są w znacznym stopniu odpowiedzialne za wzrost popularności skateboardingu wśród dzieci i młodzieży. +Po sukcesie pierwszej części "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater", Activision wydało "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2" (2000, na PCty, PlayStation, Dreamcast, Nintendo 64, Game Boy Color i Game Boy Advance), "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3" (2001, na PC-ty, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, Nintendo 64, Game Boy Advance i Game Boy Color) oraz "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4" (2002, na PC-ty, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Game Boy Advance i Xbox). +Piąta gra z serii, "Tony Hawk's Underground" (THUG (czyli gangster), została wydana w 2003 na PS2, GameCube, Xbox i Game Boy Advance. Ta część różniła się od poprzednich nie tylko nazwą. Na pierwszy plan poszła fabuła w trybie "story mode", w którym gracz rozwija się wraz z postępami w grze, aby z podrzędnego lokalnego skatera stać się sławną gwiazdą sponsorowaną przez największe firmy. "Tony Hawk's Underground 2" został wydany w październiku 2004 roku i jest bezpośrednią kontynuacją poprzedniej części - opowiada dalszą historię bohatera THUG (występują tu również osoby znane z wcześniejszej części, włączając Erica Sparrowa - "przyjaciela" gracza z THUG). +Siódma gra z serii Tony Hawk's American Wasteland została wydana pod koniec 2005 roku na PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, Xbox 360 i Game Boy Advance w USA, gdy na początku 2006 roku pojawiła się również na PC-ty, zarówno w USA jak i w Europie. +Ósma odsłona gry została wydana dnia 17 listopada 2006 roku pod nazwą "Tony Hawk's Project 8". +Następna część cyklu została wydana w 2007 roku i nosiła nazwę "Tony Hawk's Proving Ground". +Dziesiąta część serii została wydana 17 listopada 2009 pod nazwą "" na platformy Wii, Xbox 360 oraz PlayStation 3. +Sterowanie odbywa się nie za pomocą gamepada, ale przy użyciu mechanicznej deskorolki wyposażonej w sensory ruchu. +Ludwik Kicki + +Ludwik Kicki (ur. w 1791, zm. 26 maja 1831) – polski generał, hrabia herbu Gozdawa. +W 1807 wstąpił do armii Księstwa Warszawskiego, odznaczył się w bitwie pod Raszynem w 1809, brał udział w walkach o Sandomierz oraz wyzwoleniu Lwowa. Mianowany pułkownikiem w sztabie generalnym, a w 1811 został adiutantem ks. Józefa Poniatowskiego. W 1812 roku przystąpił do Konfederacji Generalnej Królestwa Polskiego. W kampanii rosyjskiej 1812 roku odznaczył się w bitwach o Smoleńsk, pod Borodino, pod Winkowem, gdzie z Kamienieckim wybawili osaczonego przez kozaków Poniatowskigo i nad Berezyną, gdzie siły polskie zatrzymały atak rosyjski, ocalając Napoleona od ostatecznej klęski. W bitwie pod Lipskiem towarzyszył ks. Józefowi, aż ranny osunął się z konia. Służył w armii Królestwa Polskiego jako adiutant wielkiego księcia Konstantego, ale w 1820 podał się do dymisji. +Po wybuchu powstania listopadowego wstąpił ponownie do wojska jako dowódca pułku strzelców konnych, w lutym 1831 mianowany generałem dywizji. Został pełnomocnikiem Rządu Tymczasowego, zajął Modlin, dowodził obroną lewego brzegu Wisły. Wysoko ceniony za męstwo, poświęcenie, gotowość do przyjmowania na siebie zadań. Będąc dowódcą brygady jazdy odznaczył się w bitwach pod Białołęką, Grochowem, Wawrem, Dębem Wielkim, Iganiami, uczestniczył w wyprawie na Siedlce. Poległ w czasie szarży jazdy w bitwie pod Ostrołęką. Spoczywa w brzozowym gaju we wsi Kruki, nieopodal miasta. +Był członkiem loży wolnomularskiej Bracia Zjednoczeni w trzecim stopniu rytu (Mistrz). +Karabin FN FAL + +FN FAL (skrót od fr. "Fabrique Nationale fusil automatique légér") – belgijski karabin samoczynno-samopowtarzalny zaprojektowany i produkowany w belgijskiej firmie Fabrique Nationale d'Armes de Guerre w Herstal. +Historia. +W lutym 1948 roku w belgijskiej firmie uzbrojeniowej Fabrique Nationale d'Armes de Guerre rozpoczęto prace nad karabinem samoczynno-samopowtarzalnym przystosowanym do niemieckiego naboju pośredniego 7,92 mm, a następnie do angielskiego naboju pośredniego 0,280 cala (7,1 mm). Równocześnie pracowano nad dwiema odmianami tego karabinu: ze stałą kolbą drewnianą i metalową kolbą składaną. +Gdy na początku lat pięćdziesiątych wprowadzono w armiach państw należących do NATO znormalizowany nabój karabinowy 7,62 x 51 mm, konstruktorzy zmodyfikowali tę konstrukcję, której nadali nazwę FAL (fr. "fusil automatique légére" – lekki karabin samoczynny). +Karabin FN FAL użytkowany jest w armiach Belgii, Wielkiej Brytanii (jako L1A1), Republice Południowej Afryki (R1), Brazylii, Australii (L1A1), Kanady (C1A1), Izraela, Austrii (StG 58), Zimbabwe, a także w Argentyny i Indii (1A SLR), gdzie karabin produkowany jest na podstawie licencji. +George Stephenson + +George Stephenson (ur. 9 czerwca 1781 w Wylam (15 km na zachód od Newcastle upon Tyne) w Anglii, zm. 12 sierpnia 1848 w Chesterfield w Anglii) – brytyjski inżynier, który jako pierwszy zaprojektował lokomotywę parową nazwaną Rocket (Rakieta), uważany jest za "ojca brytyjskich kolei parowych". +W 1748 na odcinku kilku kilometrów z kopalni węgla Wylam do rzeki Tyne wybudowano kolejkę konną (podobną w układzie do kolei, ale z drewnianymi torami i wózkami ciągniętymi przez konie). Młody Stephenson dorastał w otoczeniu tych wydarzeń i w 1802 został zatrudniony w kopalni przy obsłudze silnika parowego. Przez następnych dziesięć lat zdobywał wiedzę o maszynach parowych, by w 1812 zacząć je budować. +George Stephenson zaprojektował swój pierwszy parowóz w 14 czerwca 1814, wykorzystywany do transportu węgla z kopalni. Nazwany Milord, był w stanie ciągnąć 30 ton ładunku z prędkością 6 km/h i jako pierwszy był wyposażony w koła obręczowe dające dobrą przyczepność do toru. Przez następnych pięć lat zbudował szesnaście takich maszyn. +Odniósł jeszcze większy sukces, kiedy został wynajęty, by zbudować 13 km kolei od Hetton do Sunderland. Pochylenia terenu wykorzystał budując odcinki, na których wagony mogły się staczać swobodnie a na innych były ciągnięte przez parowóz; to była pierwsza kolejka niewykorzystująca zwierząt pociągowych. Została otwarta w 1822. +W 1821 rozpoczęto realizację projektu kolei Stockton & Darlington. Pierwotnie w planie do transportu wózków po metalowych szynach zakładano użycie koni, lecz po spotkaniu ze Stephensonem dyrektor spółki Edwarda Pease zgodził się zmienić plany. Prace rozpoczęto w 1822, a we wrześniu 1825 George Stephenson skończył budowę pierwszego parowozu dla nowej kolei. Pierwotnie nazwał go Active, lecz wkrótce zmienił na Locomotion. Kolej Stockton & Darlington otwarto 27 września 1825. Prowadzony przez George'a Stephensona parowóz Locomotion ciągnął 80 ton ładunku węgla i mąki na odcinku 16 km przez ponad dwie godziny, osiągając na jednym z odcinków prędkość 39 km/h. Do parowozu podczepiono również specjalnie zbudowany wagon osobowy (nazwany Experiment), na którym przewożono dostojników uroczystości. Był to pierwszy w historii przewóz pasażerów koleją napędzaną parowozem. +Kiedy budowano kolej S&D George Stephenson zauważył, że nawet małe nachylenie terenu znacznie zmniejsza prędkość parowozu. Również nawet małe spadki terenu powodowały, że prymitywne hamulce stawały się bezużyteczne. Doszedł do wniosku, że tory kolejowe powinny być możliwie poziome. Wykorzystał tę wiedzę, kiedy pracował nad koleją Bolton & Leigh oraz Liverpool & Manchester, wykonując serię trudnych wykopów, nasypów i wiaduktów kamiennych, by wyrównać trasę, którą biegła kolej. +W 1829 budowa kolei Liverpool & Manchester dobiegała końca, więc dyrektorzy tego przedsięwzięcia ogłosili konkurs na dostawę parowozów. Konkurs pod nazwą Rainhill Trials przeprowadzono w październiku. Stephenson zaprezentował swoją maszynę – Rocket, a jego imponujące zwycięstwo w konkursie spowodowało, że jego maszyna prawdopodobnie stała się najsławniejszą w świecie. +Kiedy 15 września 1830 otwierano kolej L&MR, uroczystość ta była znaczącym wydarzeniem, przyciągając czołowych przedstawicieli rządu i przemysłu, łącznie z premierem Dukem Wellingtonem. Uroczystość tego dnia zepsuła śmierć Williama Huskissona (Przedstawiciela Parlamentu z Liverpoolu), który został śmiertelnie potrącony przez parowóz – Rocket. Mimo to kolej była dużym sukcesem. Stephenson stał się bardzo sławnym człowiekiem, zaoferowano mu pozycję głównego inżyniera ds. kolei. +Traktat ryski (1920) + +Traktat ryski (ros. Рижский мирный договор 1920 года, "Riżskij mirnyj dogowor"; łot. Latvijas – Krievijas miera līgums) – traktat pokojowy podpisany między Łotwą a Rosją Radziecką 11 sierpnia 1920, ustanawiający oficjalnie stosunki państwowe, kończący wojnę między dwoma krajami oraz regulujący kwestię graniczną. +Historia. +Umowę podpisano 11 sierpnia 1920. Rosja uznawała w niej niepodległość Łotwy oraz prawo do terytoriów byłych guberni: kurlandzkiej, południowej części inflanckiej oraz części witebskiej. Uznano również przynależność gminy Pytałowo, która przed 1914 wraz z przyległościami należała do guberni pskowskiej. +W traktacie RFSRR zobowiązała się do uznania integralności terytorialnej Łotwy, wyrzekła się agresji oraz tzw. eksportu rewolucji. Traktat złamany został przez ZSRR w czerwcu 1940, gdy rozpoczęła się okupacja sowiecka kraju, a Łotwa została anektowana przez ZSRR i przez 50 lat pozostawała w jego granicach. +Nazca (miasto) + +Nazca (na znakach drogowych stosuje się też pisownię Nasca) - miasto położone w południowo-zachodniej części Peru w regionie Ica, liczące 30 tys. mieszkańców. +Bzie + +Bzie – sołectwo miasta Jastrzębie-Zdrój. Stanowi wschodni obszar miasta, graniczący z gminą Pawłowice. 31 grudnia 2010 r. sołectwo miało 3547 mieszkańców, zajmuje obszar o powierzchni 1728,73 ha, co stanowi 19% powierzchni miasta. Bzie położone jest nad potokiem Bzianką. +Sołectwo obejmuje części miasta: Bzie Zameckie, Bzie Górne i Bzie Dolne. +Historia. +Miejscowość wzmiankowana po raz pierwszy w 1293 roku. +Zabudowa. +Z zabytków zachował się późnorenesansowy dwór obronny z początku XVII w., przebudowywany w późniejszych latach, częściowo spalony w 1945 r., po wojnie odbudowany. Obok dworu pozostałości po parku dworskim z pomnikowymi dębami. Ponadto zachowały się średniowieczne rzeźby z nieistniejącego drewnianego kościoła – eksponowane obecnie w Muzeum Archidiecezjalnym w Katowicach. +Przy głównej drodze z Jastrzębia do Pawłowic pomnik upamiętniający wkroczenie na te tereny wojsk polskich po udanym powstaniu śląskim 4 lipca 1922. Na cmentarzu znajduje się grób 22 więźniów oświęcimskich – ofiar jednego z marszów śmierci. +Turystyka. +Przez Bzie przebiegają szlaki rowerowe – międzynarodowy "R4" z Middelburga do Odessy oraz krajowe (m.in. w kierunku centrum miasta, Ruptawy, Zebrzydowic, Kończyc Małych, Marklowic Górnych, Pszczyny i Strumienia) i piesze – m.in. Szlak im. Ewakuacji Więźniów Oświęcimskich z Oświęcimia do Wodzisławia Śląskiego (niebieski) oraz Szlak Zebrzydowicki – do Zebrzydowic (czarny) prowadzący m.in. doliną rzeki Piotrówka. +W Bziu działa klub piłkarski LKS Zryw Bzie, który występuje w klasie C podokręgu Rybnik. +Skurcz betonu + +Skurcz betonu – zmiana objętości betonu, niezależna od naprężeń, zachodzi w suchym środowisku. +Rozróżniamy skurcz autogeniczny i skurcz spowodowany wysychaniem. Skurcz autogeniczny jest kilkakrotnie mniejszy od skurczu wywołanego wysychaniem. Najważniejszymi czynnikami wpływającymi na skurcz betonu są: klasa betonu, wilgotność środowiska RH, rodzaj cementu. +Niemironieg + +Niemironieg – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów: "Nie-" (negacja), "-miro-" (pokój, spokój, dobro) i "-nieg" (rozkosz). Niektórzy badacze odczytują to imię jednak jako zaprzeczone i zniekształcone "Mironek", to jest formę zdrobniałą od imienia Miron. +Zobacz też: Mironieg. +Płomyk + +Płomyk. Tygodnik ilustrowany dla dzieci i młodzieży – czasopismo wydawane od 1917 do 1991 roku. Pierwszym wydawcą był Związek Polskiego Nauczycielstwa Szkół Powszechnych, a od 1930 r. Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego. W ostatnich dziesięcioleciach działalności dwutygodnik; ukazywały się 24 numery w roku, lecz wydania wakacyjne było łączone jako numery 11/12 i 13/14. +II RP. +Założycielką pisma była Janina Porazińska. W okresie dwudziestolecia międzywojennego z czasopismem współpracowali m.in. Józef Czechowicz , Aleksander Kamiński, Franciszka Themerson czy Wanda Wasilewska. "Płomyk" już w 1915 roku zaczął się ukazywać jako dodatek do "Zorzy" Pauliny Krakowowej, potem w 1918 roku wydawany był już jako samodzielne czasopismo. Było to czasopismo bardzo nowoczesne, miało charakter różnotematyczny. Poszczególne numery nawiązywały do pór roku, jakichś szczególnych wydarzeń. Stopniowo, od lat 30. "Płomyk" nabrał charakteru monotematycznego i stał się tygodnikiem. Wprowadził bogaty dział korespondencji - były listy do redakcji pisane przez dzieci i listy od redakcji. Czasopismo to było bardzo cenne, gdyż podobnie jak "Szkółka dla dzieci" było skorelowane z programem szkolnym. Od 1929 roku wychodził jako dodatek do "Płomyka", "Płomyczek" (od 1930 r. jako samodzielne czasopismo). W 1936 ukazał się specjalny numer "Płomyka" idealizujący ZSRR, co spowodowało reakcję polskich władz i strajk nauczycielski w 1937. +PRL. +W latach 1952-1969 redaktorem naczelnym była Hanna Ożogowska. +Od roku 1965 czasopismo organizowało wśród swoich czytelników doroczny plebiscyt na najpopularniejszego autora literatury młodzieżowej. Zwycięzca otrzymywał nagrodę "Orlego Pióra". +Od jesieni 1969 roku organizowany był plebiscyt czytelników "Płomyka", którzy przyznawali "najwyższe odznaczenie - SZKARŁATNĄ RÓŻĘ - symbol wdzięczności i przywiązania", honorując w ten sposób tych swoich nauczycieli i wychowawców, których uznawali za swoich prawdziwych przyjaciół, godnych pełnego zaufania i szacunku. +Płomyk został "zgaszony" z numerem 12/1991. W 1990 roku ukazało się już tylko 14 numerów. Jak wyjaśniono w ostatnim, pożegnalnym numerze, likwidacja miała związek ze zbyt dużą utratą czytelników na rzecz "nowych i bardziej komercjalnych" czasopism dla młodzieży, które pojawiły się po 1989 roku, oraz ze sprywatyzowaniem wydawnictwa Nasza Księgarnia, które nie chciało ponosić strat. W ostatnim roku sponsorem czasopisma było PKO i temat oszczędzania pojawiał się często na łamach. +Jastrzębie Górne i Dolne + +Jastrzębie Górne i Dolne (wcześniej Pszczyńska) – osiedle samorządowe miasta Jastrzębie-Zdrój o charakterze willowo-rolniczym, obejmujące m.in. części miasta: Jastrzębie Górne i Jastrzębie Dolne. +31 grudnia 2010 r. osiedle miało 4544 mieszkańców. +Osiedle obejmuje obszar o powierzchni 860,20 ha. +Historia. +Obecną jednostkę pomocniczą utworzono w 2002 r. W 2010 r. zmieniono nazwę osiedla z "Pszczyńska" na "Jastrzębie Górne i Dolne". +Zabudowa. +Znajduje się tu kościół drewniany z XVII w. przeniesiony z Wodzisławia Śląskiego – Jedłownika w 1974 r., osiedle mieszkaniowe, dawny budynek pierwszego przedszkola w Jastrzębiu, Kopalnia Węgla Kamiennego Jas-Mos (dawniej KWK "Jastrzębie") oddana do użytku w 1962 r. oraz wzniesienie Boża Góra – prawdopodobne miejsce pierwszego osadnictwa w okolicy oraz punkt oporu podczas kampanii wrześniowej (bronione przez III Szwadron Pułku 3 Ułanów Śląskich), obecnie miejsce pochówku żołnierzy Armii Czerwonej z pomnikiem. +Jednym z obiektów zabytkowych w osiedlu jest barokowo-klasycystyczny kościół parafialny św. Katarzyny z 1825 roku, zbudowany w miejscu dawnego kościoła drewnianego, z którego po pożarze zachował się m.in. obraz Opatrzności Bożej z 1764 roku. Obok kościoła – klasycystyczna kaplica grobowa z początku XIX wieku. +Na cmentarzu przy kościele znajduje się mogiła i pomnik pięciu powstańców śląskich, a przed bramą mogiła i tablica upamiętniającą 34 więźniów oświęcimskich, ofiar ewakuacji obozu w 1945 roku. (marsz śmierci). +EasyOffice + +EasyOffice + PDF Filter - darmowy pakiet biurowy firmy e-press, zgodny z Microsoft Office, zawierający funkcje eksportu do PDF i wbudowany EasyAntiVirus. Według autorów, na początku 2005 używało go ok. 3 mln osób. Program jest dostępny dla MS Windows. +Wersja instalacyjna pakietu ma wielkość od 90 MB (download) do 1,3 GB (wersja dystrybucyjna na CD). +Brazylijskie jiu-jitsu + +Brazylijskie jiu-jitsu (BJJ, nazywane też Gracie Jiu-Jitsu lub po prostu jiu-jitsu, choć jest to określenie nieprecyzyjne i może być mylone z japońskim pierwowzorem) − brazylijska sztuka walki wywodząca się z ju-jitsu, zapasów i judo, która wyróżnia się naciskiem na walkę w parterze. +Charakterystyka dyscypliny. +Brazylijskie jiu-jitsu koncentruje się na walce z jednym przeciwnikiem. Celem walki jest przejęcie kontroli nad przeciwnikiem poprzez zadawanie mu kontrolowanego bólu (dźwignie) bądź pod groźbą utraty przytomności- z bólu lub od duszenia. Walka w brazylijskim jiu-jitsu odbywa się głównie w parterze. Taktyka polega na sprowadzeniu przeciwnika do parteru, unieruchomieniu go i wykonaniu techniki kończącej- dźwigni bądź duszenia, zmuszającej przeciwnika do poddania się bądź pozbawiającej go przytomności. Zawodnicy brazylijskiego jiu-jitsu walczą w zwarciu, co dodatkowo utrudnia ich przeciwnikom wykonywanie uderzeń. +Brazylijskie jiu-jitsu opiera się na chwytach. Dominują w tej dyscyplinie dźwignie, duszenia oraz inne techniki unieruchamiania przeciwnika. Uderzeń się nie stosuje. Ćwiczą je jednak zawodnicy przygotowujący się do turniejów mieszanych sztuk walki. Stosuje się też rzuty mające na celu sprowadzenie przeciwnika do parteru. Chwyty w parterze często wykonuje się nogami poprzez zahaczenie lub objęcie części ciała przeciwnika. Jednym z elementów charakterystycznych dla brazylijskiego jiu-jitsu jest tzw. garda. Garda polega na objęciu nogami przeciwnika stojącego lub klęczącego przez zawodnika leżącego. Stosuje się też tzw. dosiad, który polega na siedzeniu okrakiem na leżącym przeciwniku. +Ponieważ brazylijskie jiu-jitsu opiera się na chwytach, koncentruje się na walce z jednym nieuzbrojonym przeciwnikiem. Przydaje się, gdy zachodzi potrzeba unieruchomienia przeciwnika i pokonania go bez wyrządzenia mu poważnego uszczerbku na zdrowiu (duszenia, dźwignie). Brazylijskie jiu-jitsu cały czas się rozwija i dostosowuje do realiów dzisiejszych zagrożeń. System opracowany przez Graciech powstał również z myślą o samoobronie. Nie ogranicza się jedynie do chwytów i dźwigni w parterze, ale również przygotowuje do obrony przeciwko uderzeniom ostrym narzędziem (walory tego systemu doceniła policja i wojsko). Jednakże zawodnicy ćwiczący pod kątem rywalizacji sportowej nie ćwiczą pewnych technik, które, choć brutalne (np. kopnięcie w krocze, cios w oczy, ciosy kantem dłoni), znajdują zastosowanie w samoobronie. Nie trenują też walki z wieloma przeciwnikami. +W BJJ obowiązuje podział na biały, niebieski, purpurowy, brązowy i czarny pas. Niektóre szkoły umieszczają na pasach pomocniczy podział w postaci belek. +Brazylijskie jiu-jitsu wykształciło własną tradycję. Tradycję japońską się odrzuca, istnieją natomiast elementy charakterystyczne dla kultury Brazylii: naszywki z symbolami narodowymi Brazylii, używanie tatuaży będących wyrazem specyficznej religijności Brazylijczyków. Często nie ćwiczy się w tradycyjnym stroju do jiu-jitsu (tzw. gi), a w spodenkach i w koszulce. Nie ma znanej ze stylów tradycyjnych pracy nad doskonaleniem jednej techniki oraz rozwojem duchowym (ćwiczenia koncentracji etc.). +Brazylijskie jiu-jitsu zawdzięcza swą obecną popularność kilku czynnikom. Przede wszystkim, ważną rolę odegrała skuteczność zawodników tej dyscypliny w walkach MMA (stąd zaczęła ona stanowić jeden z podstawowych elementów treningu przekrojowego również zawodników MMA nie wywodzących się z BJJ). Ponadto brazylijskie jiu-jitsu nie kultywuje wschodniej tradycji ani ceremoniału, przyciągając tym samym osoby, które nie są nimi zainteresowane. Techniki brazylijskiego jiu-jitsu stwarzają złudzenie prostych. Także przeznaczenie na walkę dużej części treningu znajduje uznanie u młodzieży, która może się wykazać w bezpośredniej rywalizacji. +Historia. +Jednym z uczniów Jigoro Kano, sławnego mistrza judo był Maeda Mitsuyo, znany także jako "Count of Combat" (ang. "Hrabia Walki"). +W roku 1914 Maeda Mitsuyo, posiadacz stopnia 5 dan w judo, który wcześniej startował w profesjonalnych turniejach zapaśniczych w Stanach Zjednoczonych, Wielkiej Brytanii, Hiszpanii, na Kubie, w Panamie i Meksyku, osiedlił się w Brazylii. Około roku 1919 Maeda uczył 17-letniego Brazylijczyka Carlosa Gracie mieszanki judo Kōdōkan i amerykańskiej walki catch-as-catch-can. +Maeda określał sztukę, której nauczał, "jiu-jitsu" i to określenie zostało w nazwie nowo powstałego stylu. Mitsuyo został wykluczony z Kōdōkanu przez Jigoro Kano za, niezgodne z zasadami Judo, walki za pieniądze. +W roku 1924 Gracie otworzył komercyjną akademię sztuk walki, na początku w Belém a potem w Rio de Janeiro, a do jego uczniów należał młodszy brat Hélio, który od 1932 r. do połowy lat pięćdziesiątych był znanym brazylijskim zapaśnikiem zawodowym (inni bracia Carlosa to: Osvaldo, Gastao Jr., Jorge). Synowie Hélio: Royce, Rorion i Rickson, kontynuowali pracę ojca i w latach dziewięćdziesiątych opracowali znane na całym świecie Gracie Jiu-Jitsu. Natomiast w tym samym czasie siostrzeńcy Carlosa Gracie wprowadzili w Stanach Zjednoczonych pokrewny styl zwany Machado Jiu-Jitsu. +Techniki brazylijskiego jiu-jitsu są często wykorzystywane w bojowych systemach walki wręcz (combat) oraz w systemach samoobrony. Jednakże większość z tych systemów różni się koncepcją walki od brazylijskiego jiu-jitsu, przejmując od tego stylu jedynie walkę w parterze, dlatego nie uważa się ich za bojowe czy samoobronne wersje brazylijskiego jiu-jitsu. +Morzysława + +Morzysława – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Morzy-" ("zabijać, uśmiercać") i "-sława" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "tę, która sławi zabijanie". Męski odpowiednik to Morzysław. +Morzysława imieniny obchodzi 24 września i 6 grudnia. +Sycyna (województwo lubelskie) + +Sycyna – wieś położona w województwie lubelskim, w powiecie bialskim, w gminie Biała Podlaska. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa bialskopodlaskiego. +Wieś dawniej nazywana była Sycynka, później Syczyna. Istniała już w XV wieku jako mała wieś leżąca na trasie Warszawa-Moskwa. W 1537 r. była własnością Jana Rawicza Witanowskiego, dworzanina królewskiego. Około 1630 r. prawem zastawczym Sycynę dzierżył Piotr Krzysztof Witanowski. Wieś wraz z dworem i folwarkiem w Worońcu w 1789 r. należała do wojewody wileńskiego Radziwiłła, była w zastawie u W. Frankowskiego wicestarosty mielnickiego. Miała wówczas 34 domów, jeden dom należał do szlachcica Nowickiego. W 1836 r. Tomasz Mirski kapitan wojska Napoleona ożenił się z Konstancją Wołoszowską, kupił od Wittgensteinów dobra Woroniec i Sycynę. +Sycyna została nawiedzona przez zarazy: czarną ospę i cholerę w 1707 r. W wyniku pomoru większa część mieszkańców emigrowała w okolice Parczewa (dokładnie wsie Gęś i Rudno). Pozostali mieszkańcy przenieśli się na niższe tereny bliżej rzeki Krzny. +W Sycynie znajduje się cmentarz prawosławny, dawniej unicki, dzwonnica dębowa z XIX wieku, dawniej kryta gontem (teraz blachą) oraz fundamenty dawnej cerkwi unickiej spalonej w 1928 r. przez Ukraińców. Przed pożarem cerkwi nieznana osoba potajemnie wykradła dwie figury świętych apostołów św. Piotra i św. Pawła. Figury te znajdują się obecnie w kościele w Sworach. +W ołtarzu cerkwi znajdował się duży obraz, świętego Mikołaja. Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł ufundował w 1694 r. nową cerkiew unicką w Sycynie. W 1798 proboszczem był ks. Mikołaj Kościukiewicz Wizytacja cerkwi była w 1769 r., w 1813 r., 28 maja 1830 r. Katarzyna ze Skolimowskich Sroczkowska ofiarowała 600 zł na naprawę cerkwi. W aktach przed 1860 roku znajduje się świadectwo o cudownym uzdrowieniu za przyczyną Matki Boskiej znajdującej się w obrazie w cerkwi unickiej w Sycynie. +Cerkiew w Sycynie istniała w XV wieku, najpierw jako prawosławna. Następnie po Unii Brzeskiej parafia przeszła do kościoła greckokatolickiego. Unici w Sycynie uznali papieża za Głowę Kościoła Greckokatolickiego i przyjęli dogmaty wiary, jednak zastrzegli sobie obrządek liturgii wschodniej, kalendarz juliański i małżeństwo księży. W XIX w. parafia była zarządzana przez dwóch księży. Plebania drewniana stała obok cmentarza. Parafia Sycyna musiała płacić do skarbu publicznego (Księstwa Warszawskiego) 160 złp, 10 złp 15 gr. +Po 1863 r. do Sycyny przybył batiuszka Nikołajewicz, który zarządzał parafią już jako prawosławną. Batiuszka Nikołajewicz pisał później w 1885 r. w pamiętniku "Stara cerkiew wybudowana ołtarzem na wschód, pokryta słomą i cała wrośnięta w ziemię". +W 1915 r. ksiądz prawosławny i prawie cała wieś (zostały tylko cztery rodziny wyznania katolickiego), uciekając przed Niemcami, wyjechała na wschód do Rosji. +W miejscowości znajduje się kurhan w którym spoczywają Szwedzi z okresu potopu szwedzkiego +Na końcu Sycyny istniała smolarnia w której wytwarzano smołę drzewną z karpiny sosnowej przez spalanie smolnego drzewa z minimalnym dostępem powietrza w temp. 400 stopni. +W Sycynie istniał dwór, który został skonfiskowany po powstaniu styczniowym w 1864. Dwór stał na działce tuż za wsią. +W czasie powstania styczniowego dnia 24 lutego 1863 r. jeden z dowódców powstańczych Lewandowski dowiedział się że dwie roty wojska carskiego, pod dowództwem Aleksiejewa, przybyłe z Radzynia Podlaskiego mają udać się do Białej Podlaskiej. Lewandowski wraz z Aleksandrem Szaniawskim, naczelnikiem wojskowym powiatu bialskiego, urządził zasadzkę w lesie pod Sycyną, koło posterunku poczty. Zasadzka jednak się nie udała, ponieważ wartownicy posnęli i zasadzka została za wcześnie wykryta. Powstańcy licząc 100 żołnierzy nie mieli szans z oddziałem 500 osób. Dowódca poległ 24 lutego około godz. 13:00, miał 43 lata, ciało Szaniawskiego zabrała jego żona, na miejscu potyczki powstańców stoi kamienny pomnik z 1934 r. sponsorowany przez księżnę Izabelę Mirską. Kamienny pomnik został odnowiony w 2006 r. W Sycynie istniała karczma, zajazd, browar i cegielnia. Karczmę z zajazdem wybudowano w 1825 r. była własnością Leopopda Brzóski, znajdowała się przy szosie E-30. +Wieś Sycynę można podziwiać na obrazach Wiesława Kładzia. Akwarele z dawnej Sycyny +W pierwszej poł. XX w. we wsi znajdowały się tylko dwie studnie z kamienia. Jedna wykopana była na początku wsi a druga była koło kapliczki na końcu wioski. W sierpniu 1916 roku zatrzymał się w Sycynie w przemarszu z pierwszą Brygadą Legionów Józef Piłsudski. W okresie miedzy-wojennym planowano postawić pomnik Piłsudskiemu. Sycyna w tym czasie należała do gminy Swory. Obszar wsi i leżących wokół pól wynosił 302 ha, wieś zamieszkiwało w 1938 r. 128 osób. Prawie wszyscy byli wyznania prawosławnego i należeli do parafii Nosów gdyż cerkiew w Sycynie była zamknięta i nieczynna. Prawosławni z Sycyny w czasie okupacji hitlerowskiej należeli do parafii Dołha, po wojnie cerkiew była w starym sądzie w Białej Podlaskiej. W lesie blisko wsi znajduje się mogiła około 120 Żydów, którzy zostali tutaj rozstrzelani. Żydów Niemcy wieźli jesienią na wykopki furmankami z getta z Białej. Przy drodze do Sycyny furmanki skierowano na pole, gdzie następnie Żydom dano łopaty na wykopanie dołu. Po egzekucji zamordowanych ludzi zakopali chłopi z Sycyny. +Z Sycyny wywieziono 20 rodzin prawosławnych w czasie Akcji Wisła. Chłopi mieli pół dnia, żeby zabrać cały majątek i przyjechać do Chotyłowa na stacje PKP. Tam ludzie czekali 2-3 dni zanim ich załadowano w towarowe wagony. Mieszkańcy z Sycyny zostali podzieleni na dwie grupy, część pojechała do Szczecina, część do Olsztyna. Można było z powrotem wracać po 1956 roku. +Fijałkowscy + +Fiałkowscy vel Fijałkowscy herbu Ślepowron – rodzina szlachecka wywodząca się z Mazowsza. Kolejni przedstawiciele tej rodziny uzywali często roznej pisowni nazwisk. Dom starodawny: początki rodu sięgają wieku XV. Na przełomie XVII i XVIII stulecia Fiałkowscy rozgałęzieni już byli w ziemi lubelskiej, smoleńskiej i czerskiej (później także w Wielkopolsce, w Galicji i w Prusach). +Benedykt Fiałkowski był podczaszym smoleńskim, a Józef Kazimierz Fiałkowski kanclerzem kolegiaty lubelskiej. Syn Mikołaja i Katarzyny z Jukowskich, Józef Tadeusz Fijałkowski był generałem adiutantem królewskim (1784), chorążym horodelskim (1789) i komisarzem cywilno-wojskowym województwa brzesko-kujawskiego; żonaty z Zofią de Wilardzy pozostawił dwóch synów: Ludwika i Wojciecha. Synowie Ludwika i Jadwigi z Sypniewskich, Aleksander i Wiktor w 1839, a syn Wojciecha i Balbiny z Moraczewskich, Józef w 1849, udowodnili swoje szlacheckie pochodzenie w Królestwie Polskim. W Galicji uczynił to wcześniej Teodor Fiałkowski. Wydział Stanów już w 1808 potwierdził mu dawne polskie szlachectwo i nadał rodzinie indygenat austriacki. Urodzony w ziemi halickiej wnuk Teodora i Heleny z Soniewieckich, Alfred Fiałkowski był naczelnikiem Wydziału Buchalterji Towarzystwa Drogi Żelaznej Warszawsko-Wiedeńskiej, a równocześnie był radcą finansowym Banku Handlowego w Warszawie. +Fijałkowscy po raz pierwszy wpisali się na karty historii europejskiej w okresie Wiosny Ludów. W lecie 1849 pułkownik Aleksander Fijałkowski, stojąc na czele Legionu Mickiewicza (utworzył go we Włoszech w celu walki z Austriakami nasz wielki poeta), wziął udział w obronie Republiki Rzymskiej. Legion pod dowództwem Fijałkowskiego odznaczył się chlubnie, broniąc Rzym przed połączonymi siłami austriacko-francuskimi i za męstwo był wielokrotnie wymieniany w rozkazach dziennych dowódcy armii, generała Garibaldiego. +Chlubnie zapisali się też Ślepowron Fijałkowscy w historii kościoła rzymskokatolickiego. Antoni Melchior Fijałkowski (ur. 3 stycznia 1778, zm. 5 października 1861), teolog i działacz patriotyczny, w 1856 został arcybiskupem metropolitą warszawskim. Arcybiskup Fijałkowski, po krwawym stłumieniu patriotycznej demonstracji (pięciu zabitych i kilkunastu rannych) na Placu Zamkowym, 27 lutego 1861 w Warszawie przez wojsko rosyjskie, złożył namiestnikowi carskiemu protest i przewodniczył uroczystościom pogrzebowym, które stały się początkiem ogólnonarodowych manifestacji patriotycznych. Dzięki swej postawie Fijałkowski uznany został powszechnie przywódcą narodu. Po śmierci pochowany został w podziemiach katedry warszawskiej. Jego pogrzeb stał się manifestacją patriotyczną całego społeczeństwa. W odpowiedzi na nią namiestnik carski Lambert ogłosił stan wojenny. +Krewnym Fiałkowskich jest bohater walk o niepodległość Polski i Stanów Zjednoczonych, Tadeusz Kościuszko. Syn Antoniego i Antoniny z Wodzińskich, a prawnuk Kościuszki Bolesław Fiałkowski był oficerem Wojska Polskiego w okresie powstania styczniowego. W cieklińskim dworze gościem bywał inny krewny Fiałkowskich, dyktator powstania styczniowego, Romuald Traugutt. Bolesław Fiałkowski zmarł w 1894. Jego grobowiec w Cieklinie na Pogórzu zachował się do dzisiaj. Ślepowron Fiałkowscy w drodze kolejnych małżenstw weszli również w dalekie pokrewieństwo z pierwszymi domami Rzeczypospolitej. +Wiadomo że w XX wieku posadaczka ziemska, Eleonora Fijałkowska, miała posiadłość ziemską w Tewczycach znajdujących się w ówczesnym województwie tarnopolskim. +Traktat ryski (1921) + +Traktat ryski (lub inaczej pokój ryski), "Traktat pokoju między Polską a Rosją i Ukrainą, podpisany w Rydze dnia 18 marca 1921 r." (Dz.U. Nr 49, poz. 300) – traktat pokojowy zawarty przez Polskę i RFSRR oraz USRR, ratyfikowany przez Naczelnika Państwa 16 kwietnia 1921; obowiązywał od 30 kwietnia 1921, tj. wymiany dokumentów ratyfikacyjnych przez strony. +Podpisanie traktatu miało miejsce 18 marca 1921 o godz. 20.30 w pałacu Czarnogłowców w Rydze. +Traktat kończył wojnę polsko-bolszewicką z lat 1919-1920, ustalał przebieg granic między tymi państwami oraz regulował inne sporne dotąd kwestie. Poprzedzony był "Umową o preliminaryjnym pokoju i rozejmie między Rzecząpospolitą Polską a Rosyjską Federacyjną Socjalistyczną Republiką Rad i Ukraińską Socjalistyczną Republiką Rad", podpisaną w Rydze 12 października 1920. Ustawowa ratyfikacja preliminariów pokojowych i rozejmu przez Sejm RP nastąpiła 22 października 1920, samo zawieszenie broni weszło w życie już 18 października 1920. +Okoliczności rozpoczęcia rokowań. +Rokowania polsko-sowieckie rozpoczęły się w sierpniu 1920 w Mińsku, w sytuacji zagrożenia przez wojska sowieckie niepodległości Polski. Delegacji polskiej przewodniczył wiceminister spraw zagranicznych, Jan Dąbski, a delegacji sowieckiej Kārlis Daniševskis. Jesienią 1920 negocjacje zostały przeniesione na grunt neutralny do Rygi (Łotwa), a Daniszewskiego zastąpił Adolf Joffe. Po zwycięstwie w bitwie warszawskiej i kampanii niemeńskiej polska delegacja miała znacznie korzystniejsze karty w swych rękach. Jako przedstawicieli RP do Rygi wysłano Jana Dąbskiego, Henryka Strasburgera i Leona Wasilewskiego. +Większość składu grupy (poza Wasilewskim i Strasburgerem) należała do stronnictw prawicy, przeciwnej budowie federacji polsko-białorusko-litewskiej i niepodległości Ukrainy. Już na początku właściwych rozmów polska delegacja uznała USRR jako stronę rokowań (sowieckie państwo ukraińskie), wycofując jednocześnie w konsekwencji uznanie dla URL, z którą wiązała Polskę umowa sojusznicza z wiosny 1920. Wyczerpana wojną Polska nie mogła prowadzić dalszych walk o niepodległość Ukrainy, tym bardziej, że sami Ukraińcy nie poparli Petlury w 1920, a państwa zachodnie były niepodległości Ukrainy przeciwne. O sposobie reprezentacji Ukrainy przez delegację sowiecką świadczy najlepiej fakt, że treść traktatu w języku ukraińskim sporządzić musiał Leon Wasilewski. +W czasie prowadzenia polsko-sowieckich rokowań o zawieszenie broni i traktat pokojowy Rosję sowiecką uznawały "de iure" wyłącznie: Finlandia, Estonia, Łotwa, Litwa, Gruzja i Turcja. +Postawa polskiej delegacji. +Endecja, która zdominowała skład delegacji była przeciwna koncepcji federacyjnej Józefa Piłsudskiego, preferując bezpośrednie wcielenie (inkorporację) terenów etnicznie mieszanych dawnej Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów w skład odrodzonego państwa polskiego, zgodnie z zasadami sformułowanymi przez Romana Dmowskiego na paryskiej konferencji pokojowej (→ Linia Dmowskiego). Politycy Narodowej Demokracji byli przekonani o tymczasowości rządów bolszewików w Rosji i możliwości dwustronnej, skierowanej przeciwko Niemcom, współpracy z wkrótce przywróconym rządem postkomunistycznej Rosji, w oparciu o podział ziem Białorusi i Ukrainy pomiędzy Polskę a niekomunistyczną Rosję. Było to połączone z przekonaniem o możliwości asymilacji narodowej (polonizacji i rusyfikacji) przez Polskę i Rosję Białorusinów i Ukraińców (traktowanych przez Narodową Demokrację jako „narody niehistoryczne”) w obrębie tak wytyczonej granicy państwowej. Konsekwencją była np. jednostronna rezygnacja delegacji polskiej z włączenia w granice RP Mińska, przeforsowana przez Stanisława Grabskiego – dla uniemożliwienia stworzenia białoruskiego kantonu sfederowanego z Polską. Granicę wytyczono w odległości ok. 30 km na zachód i północny zachód od miasta, pozostawiając je bolszewikom. Ostatnią próbą realizacji przez Piłsudskiego programu federacyjnego drogą faktów dokonanych był przeprowadzony 8 października 1920 tzw. bunt Żeligowskiego i utworzenie Litwy Środkowej. +Endecja twierdziła, że powstanie niepodległej Ukrainy doprowadzi wcześniej czy później do jej sojuszu z Niemcami i, przy dążeniach rewizjonistycznych niepodległej Ukrainy do terenów Galicji Wschodniej ze Lwowem i zachodniego Wołynia, rewizji granic z Polską. Zwolennicy koncepcji inkorporacji uważali również, że włączenie całej, prawosławnej na wschodzie Białorusi zniweczy (uważane przez nich za realne) plany polonizacyjne ziem zachodniej Białorusi. Na budowę federacji z Litwą i Białorusią nie chcieli się z kolei godzić, bojąc się „odstąpienia” państwom – członom federacji Wilna i Grodna. Delegaci Naczelnika Państwa byli przegłosowywani przez większość delegacji wyznaczonej w przeważającej części przez Sejm. Najważniejsze decyzje podjął w październiku 1920, przekraczając mandat negocjacyjny Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych, przewodniczący delegacji Jan Dąbski w osobistej rozmowie z przewodniczącym delegacji sowieckiej Adolfem Joffe w kwestii uznania USRR za stronę rokowań, bez zapewnienia równoległego miejsca w rokowaniach dla URL, a także terminu i linii zawieszenia broni. Ustalenia rozmowy Dąbski-Joffe faktycznie rozstrzygnęły o przebiegu polsko-sowieckiej linii granicznej i sposobie organizacji politycznej terenów Międzymorza Bałtycko-Czarnomorskiego (Białorusi i Ukrainy). +Granica. +Polska uzyskała ziemie należące przed trzecim i częściowo II rozbiorem do Rzeczypospolitej, a w latach 1795–1916 stanowiące część zaboru rosyjskiego, zaś od wiosny 1919 zajmowane przez Wojsko Polskie: gubernie grodzieńską i wileńską oraz zachodnie części guberni wołyńskiej z Łuckiem, Równem i Krzemieńcem i mińskiej z Nieświeżem, Dokszycami i Stołpcami. Rosja i Ukraina zrzekły się roszczeń do Galicji Wschodniej, przed 1914 wchodzącej w skład monarchii habsburskiej. Granica polsko-sowiecka przebiegała w zasadzie wzdłuż linii II rozbioru z 1793 (z korekturą na rzecz Polski w postaci części Wołynia i Polesia, z miastem Pińskiem). +Generalnie w kwestii rozstrzygnięć terytorialnych Polska rezygnowała z ziem dawnej Rzeczypospolitej położonych na wschód od granicy ustalonej w Rydze, a Rosja i Ukraina z roszczeń do ziem na zachód od wytyczonej linii granicznej. Polska, poprzez uznanie marionetkowej USRR i równoległe wycofanie uznania dla URL (swego jedynego sojusznika w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej), rezygnowała faktycznie z realizacji programu federacyjnego. +Inne postanowienia. +Poza tym traktat przewidywał wypłatę Polsce tytułem rekompensaty za wkład ziem polskich w budowanie gospodarki rosyjskiej w okresie rozbiorów kwoty 30 mln rubli w złocie według cen z roku 1913 (ustalenia te nie zostały jednak nigdy wykonane pod różnymi pretekstami przez stronę sowiecką). Zobowiązywał też stronę radziecką do zwrotu zagrabionych w czasie zaborów dzieł sztuki i zabytków (zwrócono jednak niewiele – na zasadzie wzajemności), m.in. arrasy wawelskie, jedyne zachowane polskie insygnium koronacyjne (Szczerbiec) i pomnik księcia Józefa Poniatowskiego (dłuta Thorvaldsena), do 1924 ozdobę rezydencji Iwana Paskiewicza w Homlu. +Traktat określił również losy ludności polskiej znajdującej się na terytorium kontrolowanym przez bolszewików. O obywatelstwo polskie mogły się starać osoby, które ukończyły 18 rok życia i 1 sierpnia 1919 były zameldowane na terenie dawnego Królestwa Polskiego. Do Polski mogli wyjechać również potomkowie powstańców zesłanych w latach 1830-1865 oraz wszyscy, którzy mogli udowodnić, że są nie dalej niż w trzecim pokoleniu potomkami osób, które stale zamieszkiwały na terytorium dawnej Rzeczypospolitej. Zainteresowani mieli 1 rok na złożenie oświadczenia o wyborze obywatelstwa. +W miarę sprawnie przeprowadzono akcję wymiany jeńców; do maja 1921 wysłano ich z Polski ponad 24 tys., jednak sabotująca postanowienia traktatu strona rosyjska wydała jedynie 12,5 tys. osób. Dopiero zawieszenie przez Polskę zwalniania rosyjskich jeńców spowodowało, że Rosja przestała utrudniać ewakuację polskich żołnierzy. +Artykuł VI traktatu faktycznie ograniczał możliwości wyboru opcji obywatelstwa polskiego (np. w głębi Rosji) i umożliwił władzom sowieckim blokowanie wyjazdów do Polski. Nawet potomkowie uczestników walk o niepodległość w latach 1830-1865 musieli udowadniać urzędnikom sowieckim m.in. działalność, używanie języka polskiego jako mowy potocznej wskazujące na przywiązanie do polskości. Nie przewidziano żadnej procedury odwoławczej. Większość z nich poniosła tragiczne konsekwencje zapisów traktatowych. +Rosjanie utrudniali wyjazdy do Polski osób cywilnych i pod pretekstem braku zgłoszeń ogłosili w styczniu 1923 zakończenie akcji repatriacyjnej. Po kilku miesiącach negocjacji wznowiono akcję, kończąc ją ostatecznie w czerwcu 1924. Łącznie na terenie rosyjskim skorzystało z możliwości przesiedlenia ok. 1,1 mln osób, wpośród których 65% stanowili Ukraińcy i Białorusini, a jedynie 20% Polacy. +W rezultacie na terenach na wschód od granicy określonej w traktacie ryskim, mimo podejmowanych prób pomocy w umożliwieniu repatriacji np. przez Cinę Orlikowską w Kijowie, pozostało według różnych szacunków od 1,2do 2 mln Polaków; same władze polskie szacowały liczbę pozostałych Polaków na 1,5 mln. Natomiast zaniżony oficjalny radziecki spis ludności z 1926 wykazywał 771 760 Polaków, z tego tylko w Ukraińskiej SRR blisko 0,5 mln Polaków skupionych w większości na Żytomierszczyźnie. W 1930 granicę przekraczało ponad 10 uchodźców dziennie. +Polskie roszczenia finansowe obejmowały kwotę 85 mln rubli w złocie, podczas gdy Rosjanie byli skłonni oddać 30 mln rubli. Rosja miała przeprowadzić reewakuację do Polski państwowego majątku kolejowego, rzecznego i drogowego o wartości 29 mln rubli w złocie. Traktat nie przewidywał żadnych sankcji na wypadek niewykonania postanowień, ostatecznie Sowieci nie wywiązali się z kwestii finansowych. +Epilog. +Ze strony sowieckiej traktat ryski był traktowany od początku (podobnie jak traktat brzeski) jako wymuszone sytuacją militarną i polityczną efemeryczne zawieszenie broni w zagranicznej ekspansji państwa sowieckiego na Zachód. Prognozy Narodowej Demokracji co do przejściowego charakteru reżimu komunistycznego w Rosji okazały się iluzoryczne. ZSRR po podpisaniu w 1922 układu w Rapallo poprzez porozumienie polityczne z Niemcami (Republiką Weimarską) uchylił się od spłaty międzynarodowych zobowiązań Imperium Rosyjskiego i przełamał izolację dyplomatyczną. Konsekwencją było oficjalne uznanie państwa sowieckiego kolejno poprzez Wielką Brytanię (1922), Francję (1923) i wreszcie Stany Zjednoczone (1934). +Z postanowień traktatu ryskiego wykonane zostały regulacje dotyczące wytyczenia granicy i (w ograniczonym przez stronę sowiecką zakresie) repatriacji. Zobowiązania majątkowe strony sowieckiej nie zostały wykonane. Zobowiązania do zwrotu archiwów i zagrabionych dóbr kultury zostały wykonane w ograniczonym do minimum zakresie. ZSRR świadomie prowadził politykę sabotowania swych zobowiązań w tym zakresie. Do agresji ZSRR na Polskę 17.09.1939 traktat regulował stosunki pomiędzy II Rzecząpospolitą a RFSRR, a później ZSRR. +17 września 1939 o godz. 3.00 w nocy (w chwili rozpoczęcia agresji sowieckiej na Polskę) zastępca Ludowego Komisarza (ministra) Spraw Zagranicznych Władimir Potiomkin przekazał ambasadorowi RP Wacławowi Grzybowskiemu notę dyplomatyczną zawierającą niezgodne ze stanem faktycznym i prawem międzynarodowym oświadczenie rządu ZSRR o: rozpadzie państwa polskiego, ucieczce rządu polskiego, konieczności ochrony mienia i życia zamieszkujących „Zachodnią Białoruś” i „Zachodnią Ukrainę” Ukraińców i Białorusinów oraz uwalnianiu ludu polskiego od wojny. W konsekwencji ZSRR uznał wszystkie układy zawarte uprzednio z Polską (w tym traktat ryski, pakt o nieagresji Polska-ZSRR z 1932 przedłużony do 1945, tzw. Protokół Litwinowa z 9 lutego 1929, stanowiący część paktu Brianda-Kellogga z 27 sierpnia 1928 oraz Konwencję o określeniu napaści podpisaną w Londynie 3 lipca 1933) za nieobowiązujące – zawarte z nieistniejącym państwem. +BBCode + +BBCode – język formatowania wiadomości internetowych, pojawiający się często na forach dyskusyjnych. Głównym założeniem tego skryptu jest ułatwienie osobie nieznającej składni HTML odpowiedniego zmodyfikowania wypowiedzi na jej potrzeby. Z drugiej strony umożliwienie ingerencji jedynie w treść i wygląd, blokując możliwość wstawiania znaczników HTML, JavaScript czy PHP. +BBCode został rozpowszechniony w wielu skryptach forów, między innymi w phpBB, vBulletin, Invision Power Board. +Formatowanie i znaczniki. +Poniżej podane są znaczniki, które najczęściej dostępne są w systemach BBCode i ich efekt. +Używanie wielu znaczników. +BBCode umożliwia łączenie znaczników, ale muszą być one pisane w odpowiedniej kolejności, a znaczniki zamykające (np. "[/img]", "[/url]") muszą być podawane w odwrotnej kolejności do znaczników otwierających. +Obozy filtracyjne w Czeczenii + +Obozy filtracyjne w Czeczenii - oficjalnie stosowana nazwa na obozy w Czeczenii, do których trafiają schwytani przez żołnierzy rosyjskich potencjalni bojownicy. Obozy filtracyjne zostały powołane 12 grudnia 1994 roku, w czasie I wojny w Czeczenii, przez rosyjskie ministerstwo spraw wewnętrznych jako "polowe areszty". Lokowane są w pobliżu dużych miast. Siedziby ich są utajnione przez władze rosyjskie. Oficjalnie Rosja przyznaje się do utworzenia kilku takich obozów, jednak prawdopodobnie jest ich znacznie więcej. +Ludzie, którzy przeżyli pobyt w obozach filtracyjnych, twierdzą, że przypominają one bardziej obozy koncentracyjne niż areszty, ze względu na warunki oraz wielki odsetek ludzi tracących tam życie (brak jest dokładnych danych, mówi się, że traci w nich życie nawet 80% "aresztowanych"). W 2001 roku w obozach filtracyjnych przebywało 20 tysięcy Czeczenów. +Znane obozy filtracyjne +PKZIP + +PKZIP – program do kompresji danych napisany przez amerykańskiego programistę Phila Katza, wykorzystujący do kompresji danych algorytm ZIP. PKZIP jest akronimem od Phil Katz ZIP. +Pierwsza wersja programu PKZIP została wydana w 1989 roku. Była dostępna w wersji DOS jako program wykonywany z wiersza poleceń oraz dystrybuowana na zasadzie shareware. +Druga wersja programu PKZIP o nazwie PKZIP 2 została wydana przez firmę PKWARE (której właścicielem jest Phil Katz) i korzysta przy kompresji z algorytmu deflate. +Format ZIP jest obecnie bardzo popularny w systemach Microsoft Windows oraz w Internecie. Większość plików z rozszerzeniem .zip jest w formacie PKZIP2, a narzędzia do tworzenia oraz czytania takich plików są dostępne na większości platform. +Harmonika (matematyka) + +Harmonika – funkcja postaci +Inną, równoważną postacią harmoniki jest zapis +Zmiany wartości harmoniki nazywamy drganiami harmonicznymi. +Harmoniki to funkcje okresowe o okresie +Kombinacja liniowa kilku harmonik jest ciągle harmoniką o tej samej częstotliwości i odpowiedniej amplitudzie i fazie (które można wyznaczyć zarówno graficznie jak i liczbowo). +Murray Rothbard + +Murray Newton Rothbard (ur. 2 marca 1926, zm. 7 stycznia 1995) – ekonomista, historyk oraz teoretyk polityczny, który wniósł znaczący wkład w rozwój nauk ekonomicznych, filozofii politycznej (w szczególności w zakresie libertarianizmu), historii finansów oraz teorii prawa. Przyczynił się do rozwoju i poszerzenia znaczenia ekonomicznej szkoły austriackiej - bazującej na wcześniejszych, pionierskich pracach Ludwiga von Misesa. W drugiej połowie XX wieku Rothbard zdobył pozycję głównego teoretyka tego nurtu, podejmując tematykę historyczną taką jak Wielki Kryzys z roku 1929 czy dzieje amerykańskiej bankowości z pozycji szkoły austriackiej. +Rothbard łączył poglądy na ekonomię z punktu widzenia tego nurtu z zagorzałym oddaniem dla idei indywidualnej wolności. Rozwinął unikatową syntezę, która łączyła elementy wywodzące się z myśli XIX-wiecznych amerykańskich anarcho-indywidualistów: Lysander Spooner czy Benjamin Tucker z poglądami szkoły austriackiej. W rezultacie powstała nowa filozofia polityczna, a Rothbard przeszło 45 lat wykazywał się ogromną energią intelektualną, by rozwijać i promować własny styl libertarianizmu. Te wysiłki doprowadziły go do zdobycia pozycji jednego z głównych amerykańskich intelektualistów wypowiadających się w sferze publicznej. +Rothbard popierał przeciwstawianie się represyjnej kontroli rządu nad gospodarką poprzez budowę austriackiej koncepcji samoorganizacji, poparcia dla wolnego rynku w emisji pieniędzy oraz potępienia dla centralnego planowania. Uważał, że władza rządowego monopolu jest w dłuższej perspektywie największym zagrożeniem dla wolności i dobra całej populacji, nazywając państwo niczym innym jak „wypisanym dużymi literami bandyckim gangiem” – źródłem najbardziej niemoralnych, pazernych i pozbawionych skrupułów członków społeczeństwa. +Rothbard wnioskował, że wszystkie usługi zapewniane przez rządowe monopole mogą być o wiele efektywniej dostarczane przez sektor prywatny. Uważał, że wiele regulacji i praw, pozornie wprowadzanych „w interesie publicznym”, służyło wyrachowanemu przejęciu władzy przez rządowych biurokratów, którzy byli zaangażowani w niebezpiecznie wolną autokreację, nie będąc obiektem nacisku konkurencyjnych sił rynkowych. Konkurencja mogłaby powściągnąć chciwość i zapatrzenie we własne korzyści na rzecz potrzeby wytwarzania dóbr i usług, za które obywatele chcieli w danym momencie zapłacić. Rothbard utrzymywał, że usługi zapewniane przez sektor rządowy były nieefektywne i w starciu z usługami zapewnianymi przez sektor prywatny zostałyby wyeliminowane przez dyscyplinujące siły rynku. +Na równi z powyższym, Rothbard potępiał państwowy korporacjonizm. Krytykował wiele przypadków przejmowania rządowych monopoli przez biznesowe elity, które mogły dzięki temu oddziaływać na prawo i politykę dotyczącą regulacji w sposób zapewniający im korzyści kosztem ich konkurentów. +Uzasadniał, że opodatkowanie stanowiło przymusową kradzież na ogromną skalę, a „obowiązkowy monopol na stosowanie siły” uniemożliwia zaopatrywanie w usługi związane z obronnością i sądownictwem przez bardziej efektywnych, dobrowolnie rywalizujących dostawców. Rothbard uważał, że bankowość centralna oraz cząstkowe rezerwy bankowe w połączeniu z monopolem pieniądza fiducjarnego są formą sponsorowanego przez państwo, zalegalizowanego finansowego oszustwa, które według libertariańskich zasad i etyki jest niemoralne. Przeciwstawiał się militarnej, politycznej oraz ekonomicznej ingerencji w sprawy innych narodów. +Życie i kariera. +Murray Rothbard urodził się 2 marca 1926 roku w Bronxie (Nowy Jork) w pochodzącej z Polski żydowskiej rodzinie Davida i Rae Rothbardów. 16 stycznia 1953 ożenił się z Joan Schumacher, która nazywał swoją „nieodzowną podstawą”. Już jako dziecko był błyskotliwym uczniem, a wyniki osiągane na Uniwersytecie Columbia, gdzie specjalizował się w matematyce i ekonomii, były wybitne. Rothbard nie zdobył tam jednak żadnej wiedzy na temat austriackiej szkoły ekonomicznej, a nazwisko Mises nic mu nie mówiło. Jednakże biorąc udział w kursie z teorii gier prowadzonym przez George’a Stiglera, natknął się na argumenty przeciw popularnym wówczas działaniom, jakimi były odgórne regulacje cen. Te argumenty przemówiły do niego na tyle, że napisał nawet do wydawcy jednej z gazet pamflet na temat Stiglera i Miltona Friedmana i ich prac o kontroli wysokości rent. +Ekonomista. +Wydawcą, do którego zwrócił się Rothbard była Fundacja na rzecz Edukacji Ekonomicznej (Foundation for Economic Education). Wizyty w centrali tej umożliwiły mu spotkanie z Ludwigiem von Misesem. Leseferystyczna ekonomia Misesa natychmiast zainteresowała Rothbarda i kiedy w 1949 roku pojawiło się jego opus magnum – "Ludzkie działanie", wywarło na nim ogromne wrażenie. Od tego momentu stał się prakseologiem: w traktacie Misesa znajdowała się spójna i wnikliwa obrona wolnej gospodarki, której do tej pory poszukiwał. Wkrótce stał się aktywnym członkiem seminarium Misesa na Uniwersytecie Nowojorskim. W międzyczasie Rothbard kontynuował swoje studia magisterskie na uniwersytecie Columbia, przygotowując się do rozpoczęcia studiów doktoranckich. Jego promotorem był wybitny historyk ekonomii Joseph Dorfman. Rothbard otrzymał swój stopień naukowy w 1956 roku na podstawie pracy magisterskiej pod tytułem „Panika roku 1819”, która nadal pozostaje kanonem (praca „Panika roku 1819: Reakcje i polityka” jest na niej oparta). +Pogłębiając swoją wiedzę na temat leseferyzmu, Rothbard natrafił na dylemat. Argumenty za dobrami i usługami dostarczanymi przez rynek były kompleksowe. Jeśli tak, to nawet usługi związane z ochroną obywateli i obronnością państwa powinny być dostarczane przez rynek, a nie przymusowo przez monopol państwa. Rothbard zdawał sobie sprawę, że będzie musiał albo porzucić leseferyzm, albo opowiedzieć się za indywidualistyczną anarchią. Wybór, którego dokonał w zimie roku 1949, nie był łatwy. +Rothbard wkrótce przyciągnął uwagę Fundacji Williama Volkera (William Volker Fund), głównej grupy wspierającej klasycznych liberalnych badaczy w latach 50. i wczesnych 60. Rozpoczął projekt mający na celu napisanie podręcznika tłumaczącego "Ludzkie działanie" w sposób przystępny dla studentów; próbny rozdział na temat pieniądza i kredytu zdobył aprobatę Misesa. Kontynuując swoją pracę, Rothbard przekształcił projekt. W rezultacie powstała książka Man, Economy, and State (1962), która stała się centralną pozycją austriackiej szkoły ekonomicznej. +Rothbard był całkowicie zgodny co do wnioskowań Misesa dotyczących całej ekonomii począwszy od aksjomatu o działaniu połączonego z kilkoma subsydiarnymi postulatami. Przeprowadził jednak znacznie wnikliwszą niż Mises dedukcję i w rezultacie wniósł główny teoretyczny wkład w innowacje w prakseologii. Pokazał, że socjalistyczny argument kalkulacyjny odnosi się nie tylko do gospodarki kontrolowanej przez państwo, ale także do pojedynczej prywatnej firmy, która także należy do całej gospodarki. To też nie mogło się kalkulować. Połączył również teorię renty Franka Fettera z austriacką teorią kapitału. Uzasadniał, że cena ustalana przez monopol nie istnieje na wolnym rynku. Dodatkowo, błyskotliwie krytykował ekonomię w wydaniu Keynesa oraz przewidział wiele z rewolucji „racjonalnych oczekiwań”, za co Robert Lucas otrzymał później nagrodę Nobla. +Tak jak Rothbard pierwotnie zamierzał, książka "Man, Economy, and State" w ostatnim rozdziale prezentuje pełną klasyfikację i analizę typów rządowych interwencji w gospodarkę. Jeden z fragmentów wystawia na miażdżącą krytykę standardowe kanony sprawiedliwości podatkowej; zwięzły, ale błyskotliwy ustęp obalał antyrynkowe argumenty bazujące na „szczęściu”, które stały się bardzo wpływowe za sprawą publikacji Johna Rawlsa i jego następców. Niestety, ta część pojawiła się w oryginalnym wydaniu jedynie w okrojonej formie. Pełna publikacja pojawiła się wyłącznie w 1972 roku pod tytułem „Władza a rynek” ("Power and Market"; w Polsce całość wydana pod tytułem „Interwencjonizm, czyli władza a rynek”, wyd. Fijorr Publishing). Kompletne wydanie "Man, Economy, and State" w postaci, jakiej oczekiwał Rothbard, jest obecnie dostępne na stronach amerykańskiego Instytutu Misesa. +Ta mistrzowska książka była jedynie zapowiedzią możliwości Rothbarda. W swoim bardzo ważnym artykule: "Toward a Reconstruction of Utility and Welfare Economics" (1956) pokazał, że jeśli bierze się na poważnie fakt, że użyteczność jest porządkowa, a nie kardynalna, to antyrynkowe poglądy większości ekonomistów popierających ideę nowoczesnego państwa opiekuńczego powinny zostać odrzucone. Ścisłe zastosowanie preferencji zademonstrowanych pozwala stwierdzić, że uczestnicy dobrowolnej wymiany oczekują korzyści ex ante. Ekonomista, tak długo jak pozostaje obiektywny, więcej powiedzieć już nie może. Prace Rothbarda dotyczące teorii ekonomii są dostępne w wydanym pośmiertnie, dwutomowym zbiorze "The Logic of Action" (1997). +Rothbard poświęcił dużo uwagi teorii pieniądza. Kładł nacisk na zalety klasycznego standardu złota oraz popierał 100% pokrycie pieniądza w złocie. Utrzymywał, że zapobiegnie to ekspansji kredytowej, która, zgodnie z austriacką teorią cykli koniunkturalnych rozwijaną przez Misesa i Hayeka, mogłaby prowadzić do depresji. Swoje poglądy podsumował w dostępnym dla szerokiej publiczności pamflecie pod tytułem "What Has Government Done to Our Money?" (1964), a także napisał podręcznik "The Mystery of Banking" (1983). +Rothbard pokazał również, jak ożywcze spojrzenie teoria austriacka mogła przynieść historii ekonomii w dziele "America’s Great Depressio"n (polskie wydanie ─ „Wielki Kryzys w Ameryce” ─ został opublikowany przez Instytut Ludwiga von Misesa). Główną tezą tej książki było twierdzenie, że kryzys roku 1929 ilustruje raczej zagrożenia, jakie wiążą się z ingerowaniem rządu w gospodarkę, a nie jest dowodem na porażkę nieregulowanego kapitalizmu (jak głosił przyjęty wtedy pogląd). Jej upadek był konieczną korektą sztucznego ożywienia zainicjowanego przez Rezerwę Federalną w ramach ekspansji pieniądza w latach 20. Wysiłki rządu by „uzdrowić” gospodarkę od upadku tylko pogarszały sprawę. +Formułując ten argument, Rothbard stał się pionierem w „rewizjonizmie polityki Hoovera”. W opozycji do mitów promowanych przez samego Herberta Hoovera i jego popleczników, Hoover nie był przeciwnikiem wielkiego rządu. Całkiem na odwrót, polityka gospodarcza “inżyniera w polityce” tak naprawdę była przedsmakiem New Deal. Poglądy Rothbarda na temat działań Hoovera są obecnie szeroko akceptowane. +Dla Rothbarda polityka wobec banków była kluczem do historii amerykańskiej ekonomii. Podobnie jak Michelet, wierzył, że historia jest zmartwychwstaniem ciała; jego dyskusje nie są nudnymi jak flaki z olejem prezentacjami statystyk. Zawsze skupiał swoją uwagę na identyfikowaniu poszczególnych aktorów i interesów stojących za decyzjami o wymiarze historycznym. Walka pomiędzy współzawodniczącymi kołami bankowymi J.P. Morgana i Johna D. Rockefellera co rusz figuruje w jego artykułach, zebranych w książce "A History of Money and Banking in the United States" (1999). +Dzieła szkoły austriackiej. +Szkoła austriacka usiłuje odkryć aksjomaty rządzące ludzkimi działaniami (w tradycji austriackiej nazywa się to „prakseologią”). Popiera ona gospodarkę wolnorynkową i krytykuje sterowaną odgórnie. Wpływowymi przedstawicielami tego nurtu byli Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich Hayek oraz Ludwig von Mises. Rothbard uzasadniał, że cała austriacka teoria ekonomiczna rozwiązuje logiczną implikację, jaką jest fakt zaangażowania ludzi w celowe działania. +Zgodnie ze swoimi wolnorynkowymi poglądami Rothbard uzasadniał, że ochrona jednostki oraz obrona narodowa powinny być raczej zapewniane przez wolny rynek niż przez przymusowy rządowy monopol. Był zaciekłym krytykiem ekonomii w wydaniu Keynesa podobnie jak utylitarystycznej teorii filozofa Jeremy’ego Benthama. +W książce "Man, Economy, and State" Rothbard dokonuje podziału różnych typów interwencji państwa na trzy kategorie: „interwencję autystyczną”, która jest ingerencją w niezwiązane z wymianą aktywności prywatnych osób; „interwencję binarną” polegająca na wymuszaniu wymiany pomiędzy jednostkami i państwem; oraz „interwencja trójkątną”, która jest wymianą pomiędzy jednostkami sankcjonowaną przez państwo. Według Sanforda Ikedy, typologia Rothbarda „eliminuje luki i niespójności pojawiające się w pierwotnych opracowaniach Misesa”. +Rothbard posiadał także szeroką wiedzę z dziedziny historii i filozofii politycznej. Jego książki, takie jak "Man, Economy, and State", "Interwencjonizm, czyli władza a rynek", "The Ethics of Liberty" i "For a New Liberty" są uważane za klasyczne pozycje z zakresu prawa naturalnego i myśli liberalnej, łącząc w sobie filozofię libertariańskich praw naturalnych, antyrządowego anarchizmu oraz perspektywy wolnorynkowej w analizie szeregu współczesnych kwestii socjalnych i ekonomicznych. Rothbard posiadał też rozległą wiedzę na temat historii myśli ekonomicznej, studiując szkoły ekonomiczne funkcjonujące przed Adamem Smithem takie, jak scholastyka i fizjokratyzm i komentując w swojej nieukończonej, wielotomowej pracy pod tytułem "An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought". +Rothbard pisze w swojej książce "Interwencjonizm, czyli władza a rynek", że rola ekonomisty na wolnym rynku jest ograniczona, ale z kolei rola i władza ekonomisty pracującego dla rządu, który czynnie interweniuje na rozwijającym się rynku, generując przez to problemy wymagające dalszej diagnozy oraz politycznej rekomendacji jest znaczna. Rothbard argumentuje, że te proste uprzedzenia wynikające z obrony własnego interesu wpływają na poglądy wielu ekonomistów, którzy są zwolennikami rosnącego interwencjonizmu państwa. +Rothbard stworzył również „prawo Rothbarda” mówiące, że „ludzie mają tendencję do specjalizowania się w tym, w czym są najgorsi. Henry George na przykład jest wspaniały we wszystkim poza nieruchomościami, więc dlatego 90% jego twórczości dotyczy nieruchomości. Friedman znakomicie odnajduje się we wszystkim poza pieniądzem, zatem koncentruje się na pieniądzu”. +Własność. +W książce "The Ethics of Liberty" Rothbard twierdzi, że prawo do totalnej własności jest jedyną zasadą kompatybilną z kodeksem moralnym danym każdemu człowiekowi – „uniwersalna etyka” – oraz, że to prawo naturalne jest naturalnie najlepsze dla człowieka. Wierzył, że w rezultacie jednostki otrzymują owoce swojej ciężkiej pracy. W związku z tym każdy ma prawo do wymiany swojej własności z innymi. Ponadto jeśli jednostka łączy swoją pracę fizyczną z nienależącą do nikogo ziemią, wówczas jest właściwym właścicielem i z tego punktu widzenia wynika, że tylko prywatna nieruchomość może być przedmiotem wymiany handlowej lub darowizny. Rothbard argumentował, że taka ziemia nie będzie miała tendencji do pozostawania w stanie nieużywania, jeśli sens ekonomiczny nie wskaże, że nie ma potrzeby jej używać. +Egalitaryzm. +Tytułowy esej Murraya Rothbarda z książki wydanej w roku 1974 pod tytułem "Egalitarism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Esseys" stanowił, że „równość nie jest naturalnym porządkiem rzeczy, a krucjata by uczynić wszystkich równymi w każdej dziedzinie (z wyjątkiem równości wobec prawa) będzie miała katastrofalne skutki”. W eseju Rothbard pisał też: „w sercu egalitarnej lewicy znajduje się patologiczne przekonanie, że nie ma żadnej struktury rzeczywistości; że cały świat jest "tabula rasa", którą można zmienić w każdym momencie, w każdym pożądanym kierunku dzięki niewielkiemu wysiłkowi ludzkiej woli”. Rothbard uważał także, że etatyści hamują badania akademickie z powodów rasowych, by wspierać swoje cele, jakimi jest wykorzystanie państwa do forsowania egalitarnych celów. +W artykule z roku 1963 pod tytułem „Negro revolution” Rothbard napisał: „Rewolucja etniczna ma pewne elementy, które libertarianin musi popierać, inne, którym musi być przeciwny. W ten oto sposób libertarianin oponuje obowiązkowej segregacji i polityce brutalności, ale też przeciw przymusowej integracji i takim absurdom jak parytet etniczny w podziale pracy”. Według biografa Rothbarda, Justina Raimondo, Rothbard uważał Malcolma X za „wielkiego lidera”, a Martina Luthera Kinga za faworyzowanego przez białych, ponieważ „był główną siłą powstrzymującą rozwój rewolucji etnicznej”. Porównał również użycie żołnierzy przez prezydenta USA, Lyndona Bainesa Johnsona, do tłumienia zamieszek po zabójstwie Kinga do interwencji w Wietnamie. +Anarchokapitalizm. +Rothbard zaczął się uważać za anarchistę w dziedzinie prywatnej własności w latach 50., a następnie zaczął używać słowa „anarchokapitalista”. Napisał: „kapitalizm jest najpełniejszą ekspresją anarchizmu, a anarchizm jest najpełniejszą ekspresją kapitalizmu”. W swoim anarchokapitalistycznym modelu system agencji ochronnych współzawodniczy na wolnym rynku oraz jest ochotniczo wspierany przez konsumentów, którzy dokonują wyboru usług ochroniarskich oraz sądowniczych. Anarchokapitalizm mógłby oznaczać koniec monopolu państwa w sferze użycia siły. Rothbard potępiał na równi związki, które dostrzegał pomiędzy wielkim biznesem oraz wielkim rządem. Cytował wiele przykładów, w których elity gospodarcze przeciągały na swoją stronę władzę rządowych monopoli, aby wpływać na prawo oraz politykę regulacyjną, w celu uzyskania korzyści na koszt swoich rynkowych rywali. Krytykował „mgliste oddanie Wielkiemu Biznesowi” Ayn Rand, która „jest zbyt emocjonalnie związana uwielbieniem dla Bohatera ─ Wielkiego Biznesu, aby przyznać, że to właśnie konkretnie Wielki Biznes jest w dużej mierze odpowiedzialny za XX-wieczny marsz w kierunku agresywnego etatyzmu”. Według Rothbarda jednym z przykładów takiego kumoterstwa były dotacje na monopolistyczne przywileje w sektorze kolejowym. +Wolny rynek walutowy. +Zobacz także: wolna bankowość i system waluty złotej +Rothbard wierzył, że monopolistyczna władza rządu nad drukowaniem i dystrybucją pieniędzy była z natury niszcząca i nieetyczna. Przekonanie zaczerpnięte od Ludwiga von Misesa i Friedricha Hayeka dotyczące cykli koniunkturalnych mówiło o tym, że nadmierna ekspansja kredytowa w sposób nieunikniony prowadzi do katastrofalnie błędnej alokacji zasobów finansowych, pociągając za sobą niezrównoważoną bańkę kredytową i w ostateczności depresję gospodarczą. Z tego powodu silnie przeciwstawiał się bankowości centralnej oraz częściowej rezerwie bankowej funkcjonującej w ramach pieniądza fiducjanrnego, etykietując to jako „zalegalizowane fałszerstwo” albo forma zinstytucjonalizowanej defraudacji, co jest immanentnie nielegalne. Nazywał wręcz schematem Ponziego (piramidą finansową) przymusowy rządowy zakaz używania walut towarowych jako prawnego środka płatniczego, od którego obywatele nie mogą uciec. +Silnie popierał pełne pokrycie waluty w rezerwach bankowych (100% rezerwa bankowa) oraz dobrowolny, pozarządowy standard złota. Ewentualnie proponował jako drugie – prawie tak samo dobre rozwiązanie – wolną bankowość (którą Rothbard nazywał „wolnym rynkiem pieniądza”). +„W jaki sposób możemy powrócić do zdrowego, nieinflacyjnego rynku walutowego w przypadku, gdy mamy do czynienia z fatalną sytuacją monetarną, rezerwami banków na poziomie 2,5%, niekontrolowanym Fed oraz światem pieniądza fiducjarnego? Po dyskusji przedstawionej w tej pracy cele powinny być jasne: (a) powrót do standardu złota ─ standardu towarowego nieutrudnianego przez interwencję rządów; (b) zakazać funkcjonowanie systemu Rezerwy Federalnej oraz powrócić do wolnej i konkurencyjnej bankowości; (c) oddzielić rząd od pieniędzy oraz (d) albo zmusić banki komercjalne do systemu 100% rezerwy, albo co najmniej przejść do systemu, gdzie każdy bank przy najmniejszym sygnale niezdolności do płatności swoich należności jest zmuszany do błyskawicznego bankructwa i likwidacji. Preferowane byłoby zdelegalizowanie rezerwy cząstkowej w przypadku, gdyby było to jeszcze możliwe; zaś w przypadku problemów w tej materii, w szczególności w obliczu ciągle wprowadzanych innowacji finansowych, wolna bankowość byłaby atrakcyjną alternatywą”. +Inne zajęcia. +Rothbard wykraczał daleko poza ekonomię w swoich dziełach dotyczących historii. W czterotomowym wydaniu książki "Conceived in Liberty" (1975-1979) zaprezentował pełne szczegółów rozliczenie z amerykańską historią kolonialną, podkreślając libertariańskie korzenie przodków amerykańskiej rewolucji. Jak zwykle rzucił tym wyzwanie opiniom mieszczącym się w głównym nurcie. Nie doceniał specjalnie roli nowoangielskiego purytanizmu, a zalety i militarne przywództwo Jerzego Waszyngtona mu nie imponowały. Dla Rothbarda Artykuły Konfederacji nie były nazbyt słabym porozumieniem, które musiało zostać zastąpione przez bardziej centralistyczną Konstytucję. Wręcz przeciwnie, Artykuły same w sobie umożliwiały zbyt wielkie skupienie władzy. +W 1976 roku założył Center for Libertarian Studies, a w 1976 Journal of Libertarian Studies. Był wiceprezydentem założonego w 1982 roku Ludwig von Mises Institute. W 1987 roku założył Review of Austrian Economics, które obecnie ukazuje się jako Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics. +W latach 70. i 80. Rothbard aktywnie działał w amerykańskiej Partii Libertariańskiej (Libertarian Party). Często angażował się w wewnętrzną politykę partii, działając wraz z Justinem Raimondo, Billem Eversem i Ronem Paulem oraz spierając się z Edem Crane’em i zwolennikami Russela Meansa. W roku 1989 Rothbard opuścił Partię Libertariańską i rozpoczął odbudowę stosunków z prawicą okresu post-zimnowojennego. Był prezesem założycielem konserwatywno-libertariańskiego Klubu Johna Randolpha (John Randolph Club) i wspierał kampanię prezydencką Patricka Buchanana w 1992 roku. Jednak tuż przed śmiercią Rothbard rozczarował się co do ruchu Buchanana. +Chociaż Rothabrd zwykle pozostawał w zgodzie z poglądami Misesa, w jednym obszarze tak nie było. Mises utrzymywał bowiem, że sądy etyczne były subiektywne: ostateczne twierdzenia nie podlegają racjonalnej ocenie. Rothbard sprzeciwiał się temu, utrzymując, że w wymaganiach ludzkiej natury można doszukać się obiektywnej etyki. Jego podejście bazujące na studiach nad Arystotelesem i tomizmem zostało zaprezentowane w pracy z dziedziny filozofii politycznej pod tytułem "Ethics of Liberty" (1982). +W jego systemie etyki politycznej własność jest podstawową zasadą. Gdy mamy do czynienia z koncepcją własności, obowiązkowy monopol państwa w sferze obronności jest nieuprawniony; dodatkowo Rothbard usiłuje obalić argumenty zwolenników minimalnej roli państwa, wśród których wiodącą rolę odgrywa Robert Nozick. Spod jego pióra wychodzą ważne wyjaśnienia koncentrujące się wokół problemów libertariańskiej teorii prawa, takich jak istota umów oraz odpowiedni standard kar. Tłumaczy, dlaczego instrumentalny argument Misesa dotyczący rynku, nie trafia całkiem w sedno, choć bardzo go sobie ceni; krytykuje też dogłębnie Hayekowskie poglądy na rządy prawa. +Nieinterwencjonizm. +Rothbard, wierząc podobnie jak Randolph Bourne, że „wojna jest zdrowiem państwa” przeciwstawiał się agresywnej polityce zagranicznej. Krytykował imperializm i powstanie amerykańskiego mocarstwa, które potrzebowało wojny, aby uzasadniać swoje istnienie, a także by rozszerzać swoją globalną kontrolę. Jego niechęć do amerykańskiego imperializmu doprowadziła nawet do zarówno zachwycania się, jak i ubolewaniem nad przeprowadzonym przez CIA zamachem na marksistowskiego rewolucjonistę Che Guevarę w roku 1967, ogłaszając, że „jego wróg był naszym wrogiem”. Rothbard był przekonany, że zaprzestanie kolejnych wojen było niezbędne, a wiedza o tym, jak rząd nakłonił obywateli do wcześniejszych, była ważna. +„Nasze przystąpienie do II wojny światowej było znaczącym aktem narzucania stałej militaryzacji gospodarce i społeczeństwu, a to przyniosło państwu ciągły stan wyjątkowy, nadmiernie rozbudowany kompleks przemysłowo-militarny, stały pobór do wojska. To był znaczący akt stworzenia mieszanej gospodarki kierowanej przez Wielki Rząd, system zmonopolizowanego przez państwo kapitalizmu, sterowanego przez rząd we współpracy z Wielkim Biznesem i Wielkim Ruchem Związkowym”. +Rothbard wyjaśniał swoje poglądy na temat zasad libertariańskiej polityki zagranicznej w wywiadzie z roku 1973: „zminimalizować władzę Państwa tak bardzo, jak to możliwe, prawie do zera, zaś izolacjonizm jest pełnym wyrazem polityki zagranicznej zgodnym z celem polityki wewnętrznej redukującej władzę Państwa.” Następnie nawoływał do wstrzymania się przez Amerykę od jakiejkolwiek militarnej, politycznej oraz gospodarczej interwencji”. W artykule "For a New Liberty" pisze:”w czystym libertariańskim świecie nie byłoby „polityki zagranicznej”, ponieważ nie byłoby Państwa, rządów mających przymusowy monopol nad poszczególnymi obszarami”. +W dziele „War Guilt in the Middle East” Rothbard opisuje ze szczegółami izraelską „agresję przeciwko bliskowschodnim Arabom”, konfiskacyjną politykę oraz jego „odmowę powrotu uchodźców i zwrotu zagrabionych nieruchomości”. Rothbard krytykował też „zorganizowany anty-antysemityzm”, którego doświadczali krytycy Izraela oraz nazywał terroryzmem działania USA, Izraela i innych nacji, będące dla niego „działaniami odwetowymi” przeciw niewinnym ludziom, ponieważ nie mogli określić z maksymalną dokładnością faktycznych sprawców. Twierdził, że żaden odwet na rannych i niewinnych ludziach nie jest usprawiedliwiony, pisząc: „to nic innego jak apologia dla nieustannego i niekończącego się masowego mordu”. +Poglądy polityczne. +Rothbard zmodyfikował słynne powiedzenie Marksa: życzył sobie zarówno zrozumieć, jak i zmienić świat. Usiłował przełożyć idee, które rozwijał w pracach teoretycznych na potrzeby bieżącej polityki oraz wnieść libertariarne poglądy do głównej debaty publicznej. Jedna kwestia stała u niego na pierwszym miejscu. +Jego poparcie dla idei nieinterwencji w polityce zagranicznej zaprowadziło go do opowiedzenia się po stronie frakcji Old Right i jej liderów: Johna T. Flynna, Gareta Garretta i innych przedwojennych „izolacjonistów” dzielących poglądy Rothbarda na bliski związek pomiędzy siłą państwa i wojowniczą polityką zagraniczną. +Całkiem inna sytuacja dotyczyła powojennego konserwatyzmu. Choć Rothbard był początkowo współpracownikiem National Review należącego do Williama Buckleya, odrzucił agresywne dążenia do zimnej wojny wspierane przez Buckleya i takich członków jego ekipy wydawniczej jak James Burnham czy Frank S. Meyer. Zerwał z tymi samozwańczymi konserwatystami, by stać się jednym z ich największych oponentów. Z podobnych powodów potępił ich neokonserwatywnych następców. Kontynuował pragmatyczną politykę chwilowych aliansów z poszczególnymi grupami, pozostając w opozycji do militaryzmu i zagranicznych przygód. Wyłożył swoje polityczne stanowisko w kluczowym eseju pod tytułem “Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty”. Pojawił się on w znaczącym naukowym piśmie „Left and Right”, które założył Rothbard. Zawierało ono główne teksty traktujące o rewizjonistycznej historii i polityce zagranicznej, ale było wydawane tylko latach 1965-1968. +Aby poszerzyć wpływ myśli libertariańskiej na świat akademicki, Rothbard założył Journal of Libertarian Studies w roku 1977. Czasopismo wystartowało obiecująco od sympozjum na temat książki Roberta Nozicka pod tytułem "Anarchy, State, and Utopia". Do dziś pozostaje ono najważniejszym pismem otwartym na idee libertariańskie. +Rothbard założył w roku 1987 inne czasopismo, „Review of Austrian Economics”, aby dostarczyć przestrzeni dla ekonomistów i innych osób zainteresowanych teorią szkoły austriackiej. Ta równie ważna publikacja naukowa jest wydawane do dziś, ale od 1997 roku pod nową nazwą: „Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics”. +W swoich komentarzach dotyczących bieżących wydarzeń Rothbard przejawia zdolność do streszczania ogromnej ilości informacji w jakimkolwiek przedmiocie jego zainteresowania. Czy pytanie dotyczy rywalizacji partii politycznych w Afganistanie, czy źródeł inwestycji w ropę naftową na Bliskim Wschodzie, zawsze przytacza on najbardziej odpowiednie dane. Próbka jego twórczości zaczerpnięta z Rockwell Rothbard Report jest dostępna w „The Irrepressible Rothbard” (2000). Innym pismem, które założył, było “The Libertarian Forum” zawierające jego tematyczne komentarze z okresu 1969-1984. Prezentował także wszechstronne, popularne rozliczenie z libertarianizmem w “For A New Liberty (1973). +Jeden z ostatnich akademickich triumfów objawił się dopiero po śmierci Rothbarda. W dwóch obszernych tomach książki "Economic Thought Before Adam Smith and Classical Economics" (1995) zaprezentował wyjątkowo szczegółowe i pełne erudycji rozliczenie z historią teorii ekonomii. Adam Smith, wbrew generalnemu przekonaniu, nie był założycielem nowoczesnej ekonomii. Jego obrona teorii wartości pracy, zmodyfikowana i kontynuowana przez następców Ricardo skierowała całą ekonomię na niewłaściwy tor. Bohaterami pracy Rothbarda byli hiszpańscy scholastycy, którzy na długo przed Smithem rozwinęli subiektywną teorię wartości oraz takie postacie jak Cantillon, Turgot czy Say. Rozprawił się z heretycką myślą religijną, która zapowiadała marksizm, jak również stworzył cięty portret osobowości i myśli Johna Stuarta Milla. +Rothbard był blisko związany z Instytutem Ludwiga von Misesa od czasów jego założenia w roku 1982 przez Llewellyna H. Rockwella Jr. Organizacja ta stała się główną siłą napędową promującą jego idee, a on sam zajmował stanowisko wiceprzewodniczącego. +Wykładał na Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute od lat 60. do 80.; od roku 1986 do śmierci, 7 stycznia 1995 roku, był profesorem ekonomii na Uniwersytecie w Nevadzie, w Las Vegas. +„Niezastąpioną podstawą” życia i pracy tego kreatywnego geniusza i człowieka renesansu była jego ukochana żona, JoAnn Rothbard. Kombinacja jego naukowych osiągnięć i zaangażowania na rzecz wolności jest niezrównana. +Autorstwo oryginalnego tekstu należy do Davida Gordona, życzliwie użyczonego przez Instytut Misesa. +Życiorys. +Wybrane publikacje. +Oprócz teorii ekonomicznej i politycznej w swoich pracach Rothbard zajmował się także tematyką historii ekonomii. Jako jeden z niewielu autorów badał i opisywał szkoły ekonomiczne z epok poprzedzających Adama Smitha, między innymi scholastyków i fizjokratów. +Bon Scott + +Ronald Belford "Bon" Scott (ur. 9 lipca 1946, zm. 19 lutego 1980) – australijski wokalista rockowy, członek zespołu AC/DC. +Urodził się w Szkocji, ale w wieku 6 lat wyemigrował wraz z rodziną do Australii. W wieku 15 lat rzucił szkołę. Pierwszy zespół Scotta to The Spektors, do którego przyłączył się w 1964 r. Po występach z innymi zespołami (m.in. Fraternity) w 1974 nawiązał współpracę z AC/DC (zastąpił usuniętego z zespołu Dave'a Evansa). Wspólnie z zespołem nagrał 6 albumów studyjnych i jeden koncertowy. Przed wstąpieniem do AC/DC był wokalistą między innymi The Valentines, The Spektors oraz Fraternity. +Zmarł 19 lutego 1980 wskutek zadławienia się własnymi wymiocinami po wypiciu ogromnej ilości alkoholu. +Bon Scott spoczywa na cmentarzu w australijskim mieście Fremantle. +W 2006 roku piosenkarz został sklasyfikowany na 5. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych wokalistów wszech czasów według Hit Parader. +MS Horyzont II + +Horyzont II, statek szkolno-badawczy Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni. Zbudowany w Gdańskiej Stoczni Remontowej w latach 1999-2000. Jednostka została zmodyfikowana z zaprojektowanego w 1987 roku przez dr Dariusza Boguckiego żaglowca “Polarex”. Miał on pływać na podbiegunowe ekspedycje doświadczalne i wycieczki pasażerskie. Jest przystosowany do pływania wśród lodów. +Z powodu kłopotów właściciela, firmy “Polarex” budowy żaglowca nigdy nie ukończono, a niepełny kadłub znajdował się przy nabrzeżu Stoczni Wisła w Gdańsku. Kadłub ten przedłużono, dzięki czemu w “Horyzoncie II” o 8 zwiększono liczbę miejsc dla studentów. +Podniesienie bandery nastąpiło 27 kwietnia 2000 w Gdyni, matką chrzestną została Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz. Pierwszym kapitanem zaś kpt. ż. w. inż. Julian Witkowski. +Dane techniczne. +Statek służy do szkolenia studentów, zwłaszcza Wydziału Elektrycznego i Nawigacyjnego (praktyki radarowe, manewrowe, nawigacyjne), jest również jednostką przystosowaną do zaopatrywania polskich stacji polarnych oraz do prowadzenia różnorodnych badań. +Jest jednostką o bardzo dużej dzielności morskiej, doskonałych zdolnościach manewrowych, bardzo dobrych warunkach socjalnych dla załogi i studentów oraz naukowców. +Eksploatacja statku rozpoczęła się w maju 2000 roku, już w czerwcu 2000 statek wyruszył w pierwszą podróż na Spitsbergen z zaopatrzeniem dla Polskiej Stacji Polarnej Instytutu Geofizyki Polskiej Akademii Nauk w Hornsundzie i stacji Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Calypsobyen, Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika na Kaffiøyrze. +W roku 2000/2001 "Horyzont II" odbył podróż na Polską Stację Antarktyczną im. Henryka Arctowskiego (Szetlandy Południowe, Wyspa Króla Jerzego). Oprócz praktyk studenckich, prowadzonych w ciągu całego roku, statek w okresie letnim odbywa 3 podróże na Spitsbergen, obsługując potrzeby Polskiej Stacji Polarnej w Hornsundzie, stacji regionalnych i grup prowadzących badania na Spitsbergenie i otaczających go wodach. +"Horyzont II" jest następcą statku szkolnego PSM (Państwowej Szkoły Morskiej) i WSM (Wyższej Szkoły Morskiej) w Gdyni m/s "Horyzont". Ten ostatni był statkiem szkolnym (pływające laboratorium radarowo-nawigacyjne), służącym głównie do szkolenia radarowego i manewrowego. Służył PSM i WSM w Gdyni w latach 1964-1999. +Niezamysł + +Niezamysł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "nie-" (negacja),"-za-" i "-mysł" ("myśleć"). Mogło powstać przez negację imienia z członem "Myśli-" lub "-mysł" (np. Myślidar, Bolemysł, Uniemysł) albo zostać utworzone bezpośrednio z czasownika i stanowić raczej przezwisko. +Niezamysł imieniny obchodzi 8 sierpnia. +Województwo nowogródzkie (II Rzeczpospolita) + +Województwo nowogródzkie – jedno z 16 województw II Rzeczypospolitej w latach 1921-1939. Siedzibą władz województwa był Nowogródek. Zostało zlikwidowane przez okupacyjne władze radzieckie we wrześniu 1939 roku. +Podział administracyjny. +Powierzchnia powiatów według stanu na 1939 r., w przypadku wcześniejszego zniesienia lub zmiany przynależności wojewódzkiej powiatu na ostatni rok istnienia w ramach danego województwa. Liczba ludności na podstawie spisu powszechnego z 1931 r., w przypadku powiatów zniesionych lub przeniesionych przed tą datą, dane ze spisu powszechnego z 1921 r. +Ludność. +Ludność województwa w 1921 roku wynosiła 822 106 osób. +Główne miasta: Lida, Baranowicze, Słonim, Nieśwież, Nowogródek i Kleck. +Plik:Lida1.JPG|Lida +Plik:Baranavichy pl lenina .JPG|Baranowicze +Plik:Navahrudak 2006.jpg|Nowogródek + +Miasta i miasteczka. +Synteza. +W latach międzywojennych istniały trzy rodzaje jednostek osadniczych o charakterze topograficznie miejskim "miasto", "miasteczko" i "osada miejska". Na terenie woj. nowogródzkiego występowały dwie formy (miasta i miasteczka). +Określenie "miasto" miało w latach międzywojennych trojakie znaczenie. Mogło odnosić się wyłącznie do charakteru prawnego miejscowości (a więc typu jednostki administracyjnej), co nie znaczyło automatycznie że "miasto administracyjne" faktycznie posiadało prawa miejskie. Podstawą zaliczenia danej miejscowości do grupy miast było tzw. kryterium administracyjne, jako najwięcej odpowiadające rozwojowi stosunków i życia. Mimo że większość miast prawnych prawa miejskie posiadała, wiele z nich miało zaledwie prawa miasteczka a niektóre miasta (Nisko, Borysław, Tustanowice) były wręcz wsiami. +Odwrotnie wiele miasteczek, a nawet miast – a więc faktycznie posiadających prawa miasteczka bądź prawa miejskie – były wsiami w gminach wiejskich. Jednostki te w ogólnych publikacjach nie są zaliczane do miast (a więc nie wpływają na liczbę miast województwa), co jednak lekceważy fakt posiadania praw miasteczka/praw miejskich (poniższa tabela je uwzględnia z zachowaną dystynkcją). +Wreszcie, niektóre miejscowości posiadały w nazwie wyraz "Miasto" – pisany wielką literą – mimo braku praw miejskich (np. Pruchnik Miasto, Waręż Miasto, Tartaków Miasto). Wyraz ten stanowił integralną część nazwy miejscowości (choć nie przesądzał bynajmniej jej charakteru topograficznego) aby odróżnić ją od innej (topograficznie wiejskiej) miejscowości o identycznej nazwie w tej samej okolicy (np. Pruchnik-Wieś, Waręż-Wieś, Tartaków-Wieś). +W poniższej sortowalnej tabeli umieszczono wszytkie miasta i miasteczka województwa nowogródzkiego obu typów (stan na 1923 rok) z podziałem na charakter prawny (rodzaj jednostki administracyjnej) i przywileje (prawa miejskie/miasteczka). W późniejszych latach część najmniejszych miast status miejski utraciła; w wykazie oznaczono znakiem (►) miasta, które w 1937 roku były już wsiami. +Uwaga: Lista nie obejmuje miast i miasteczek powiatów brasławskiego, duniłowickiego, dziśnieńskiego i wilejskigo, które w latach 1921-22 wchodziły w skład województwa nowogródzkiego, po czym na mocy ustawy z 6 kwietnia 1922 zostały 13 kwietnia 1922 włączone do Ziemi Wileńskiej (przekształconej 20 stycznia 1926 w województwo wileńskie). +Wykaz. +Stan ludności: na 30 czerwca 1921 roku (niezależnie od statusu jednostki w 1921 roku) +Główne źródło: "Skorowidz miejscowości Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej - Tom VII, Część I - Województwo Nowogródzkie", Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, Warszawa 1923 +Źródła uzupełniające: Dzienniki Ustaw, przedstawione w przypisach + ► = status miejski utracony przed 1937 rokiem +Liczby pseudopierwsze + +Liczba pseudopierwsza to liczba naturalna która spełnia niektóre własności charakteryzujące liczby pierwsze, ale sama nie jest liczbą pierwszą. Liczby pseudopierwsze można kategoryzować ze względu na własności jakie spełniają. +Najbardziej istotną kategorią są liczby pseudopierwsze Fermata, które spełniają warunki małego twierdzenia Fermata: "a""p"-1 - 1 jest podzielne przez "p" dla pewnego "a". Jeśli "p" nie jest pierwsza, to jest nazywana wtedy "pseudopierwszą przy podstawie a". Liczba "x" która jest pseudopierwsza przy każdej podstawie względnie pierwszej z "x" jest nazywana liczbą Carmichaela. +Najmniejszą liczbą pseudopierwszą przy podstawie 2 jest 341. Nie jest to liczba pierwsza, bo 341 = 11 • 31, ale spełnia warunki twierdzenia: 2340=1 (mod 341). +Rzadkość występowania takich liczb ma znaczenie praktyczne. Przykładowo algorytmy kryptografii asymetrycznej takie jak RSA wymagają szybkiego znajdywania kilkusetcyfrowych liczb pierwszych. Standardowo generuje się w nich losową liczbę nieparzystą i testuje czy jest pierwsza. Ponieważ deterministyczne sprawdzanie tego trwałoby długo, korzysta się zwykle z probabilistycznych testów takich jak test pierwszości Fermata. +Innymi kategoriami liczb pseudopierwszych są liczby silnie pseudopierwsze i liczby pseudopierwsze Eulera-Jacobiego, dla których nie ma analogów liczb Carmichaela. Odpowiadają im algorytmy testowania Solovaya-Strassena i Millera-Rabina. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia najmniejsze liczby pseudopierwsze przy podstawach "a" ≤ 200. Kolorami zaznaczono ilość czynników pierwszych. +Replikator + +Replikator – w niektórych ujęciach teorii ewolucji to samopowielająca się struktura, dążąca do osiągnięcia jak największej liczby własnych kopii. Replikatorem może być np. ogień, który replikuje się poprzez przenoszenie się z obiektu na obiekt. Jednak istotnymi dla ewolucji replikatorami są te, które podlegają selekcji, a także mutacji i są dziedziczone przez kolejne pokolenia ich nośników. Struktury te muszą być też względnie trwałe, aby mogło występować duże prawdopodobieństwo ich dziedziczenia bez mutacji. W biologii replikatorami są geny. Natomiast w świecie kultury, analogicznie do genów, Richard Dawkins postuluje uznanie tzw. memów. +Stanisław Tołpa + +Stanisław Tołpa (ur. 3 listopada 1901 w Rudzie Łańcuckiej, zm. 11 października 1996 we Wrocławiu) – polski botanik, profesor Akademii Rolniczej we Wrocławiu, opracował m.in. preparat torfowy nazywany jego nazwiskiem. +Ukończył teologię, lecz następnie podjął studia na wydziale matematyczno-przyrodniczym Uniwersytetu im. Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie, które zakończył doktoratem nt. torfowisk Czarnohory. Do 1939 pracował jako nauczyciel biologii w Państwowym Gimnazjum im. Tadeusza Kościuszki w Kaliszu. Od 1929 był współpracownikiem Komisji Fizjograficznej Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności. +W 1939 brał udział w kampanii wrześniowej, m.in. w bitwie nad Bzurą. Następnie trafił do obozu jenieckiego. +Po wojnie, w 1945, trafił do Wrocławia. Tutaj też rozwinął działalność naukową i dydaktyczną. Początkowo był dziekanem Wydziału Rolniczego Uniwersytetu i Politechniki Wrocławskiej, później, po utworzeniu oddzielnej Wyższej Szkoły Rolniczej, został jej rektorem. Habilitował się w 1948 i otrzymał tytuł profesora. Od 1951 był organizatorem Wyższej Szkoły Rolniczej we Wrocławiu, a następnie rektorem tej uczelni w latach 1952–1954. Od 1967 był członkiem Polskiej Akademii Nauk. +Całą swoją karierę naukową prof. Tołpa poświęcił torfowi. Pod jego kierunkiem przebadano bagna i torfowiska w Dolinie Biebrzy, na Mazurach i na Lubelszczyźnie. Opracował klasyfikację torfów europejskich. Z czasem zainteresowania przesuwały się z historii i morfologii torfowisk na chemiczne i biologiczne właściwości ich składników. Wykrył związki chemiczne o szczególnej aktywności biologicznej. Na podstawie jego badań w latach 60. XX wieku powstał preparat torfowy Tołpy, mający w założeniu stać się lekiem przeciwnowotworowym. Był jednym z twórców wrocławskiego oddziału Polskiej Akademii Nauk. Jego badania przyczyniły się także do uchwalenia ustawy o ochronie złóż torfowych w Polsce. +Po przejściu na emeryturę, w 1971, nadal pracował nad swoim preparatem w specjalnie utworzonej dla niego Pracowni Biologii i Biochemii Torfu Akademii Rolniczej we Wrocławiu. Działanie przeciwnowotworowe preparatu nigdy nie zostało potwierdzone. Patent na wytwarzanie preparatu przekazał uczelni. Zmarł w wieku 94 lat. Grób profesora znajduje się na wrocławskim cmentarzu Św.Ducha przy ul. Bardzkiej. +Lutowanie bezołowiowe + +Lutowanie bezołowiowe – lutowanie przy użyciu stopu niezawierającego ołowiu. +W elektronice najczęściej jako stop lutowniczy używany jest stop cynowo-ołowiowy. Jednakże od 1 lipca 2006 w Unii Europejskiej wprowadzono ograniczenie używania substancji niebezpiecznych w sprzęcie elektronicznym (dyrektywa RoHS), w tym ołowiu w stopach lutowniczych. +Podczas lutowania bezołowiowego na powierzchni oporników i kondensatorów powstawać mogą kulki kapilarne, przy czym w zależności od przyczyny ich powstawania mają one różne rozmiary. Przyczynami takimi są: gorące ześlizgnięcie się ("hot slump"), niedostateczna rozpływność (smarowność), zwilżalność czy fluidyzacja topnika podczas topienia lutu. +Punkt rozpływu stopu używanego przy lutowaniu bezołowiowym wynosi 215–220 °C. Lut bezołowiowy jest matowy o nieco ziarnistej powierzchni, dlatego też wykrywanie niewłaściwych połączeń, np. tzw. zimnego lutu, jest utrudnione. +Dopuszcza się domieszkę poniżej 0,1% ołowiu. +Urszula Kochanowska + +Urszula Kochanowska z rodziny Kochanowskich (ur. 1575 lub 1576, zm. 1578) – córka poety Jana Kochanowskiego i Doroty Podlodowskiej, wnuczka Piotra Kochanowskiego. Według poety, już w wieku dwóch lat przejawiała zdolności poetycko-literackie, przez co rodzina i przyjaciele Kochanowskiego uznali ją za jego godną następczynię. Jej śmierć stanowiła dla Jana Kochanowskiego inspirację do napisania "Trenów". Zmarła w wieku 2 i pół lat na gorączkę. +Aleksiej Kosygin + +Aleksiej Nikołajewicz Kosygin, ros. Алексей Николаевич Косыгин (ur. 21 lutego 1904 w Sankt Petersburgu, zm. 18 grudnia 1980 w Moskwie) – radziecki polityk i działacz komunistyczny. +W latach 1940-1946 był wiceprzewodniczącym Rady Komisarzy Ludowych ZSRR a od roku 1943 jednocześnie przewodniczącym Rady Komisarzy Ludowych Rosyjskiej Federacyjnej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej. Od roku 1942, w oblężonym Leningradzie, pełnił funkcję pełnomocnika Komitetu Obrony Państwa. Od 1946 był członkiem Biura Politycznego KC KPZR, a w okresie 1952-1960 należał do jego prezydium. W latach 1946-1964 pełnił funkcje ministra kilku resortów, w tym ministra finansów; jednocześnie był przewodniczącym Państwowego Komitetu Planowania. W latach 1960-1964 był wicepremierem, a następnie po wewnątrzpartyjnym zamachu stanu i obaleniu N.S. Chruszczowa objął funkcje premiera ZSRR, którą pełnił prawie do końca życia (przeszedł na emeryturę w październiku 1980, dwa miesiące przed śmiercią). +Niedziela (czasopismo) + +Niedziela. Tygodnik katolicki – czasopismo wydawane z przerwami od 1926 roku w Częstochowie początkowo jako pismo diecezjalne, a po II wojnie światowej jako tygodnik ogólnopolski. +Pierwszy numer ukazał się 4 kwietnia 1926 r. z podtytułem "Tygodnik dla ludu katolickiego Diecezji Częstochowskiej. Ilustrowany tygodnik katolicki Diecezji Częstochowskiej". Redaktorem naczelnym był ks. Wojciech Mondry. W 1937 roku redaktorem został ks. Stanisław Gałązka. W latach 1928-1937 wydawany był jako "Kalendarz Jasnogórski". +W czasie II wojny światowej czasopismo nie ukazywało się, jednak jego nazwa została zawłaszczona przez Niemców na potrzeby katolickiego dodatku do gadzinowego "Kuriera Częstochowskiego". +Po wojnie pismo zostało wznowione w kwietniu 1945 roku. Redaktorem został ks. Antoni Marchewka, którego po aresztowaniu zastąpił w sierpniu 1947 roku ks. dr Marian Rzeszewski (sprawował funkcję do powrotu ks. Marchewki w czerwcu 1948 roku). W 1953 czasopismo zostało zawieszone. +Tygodnik został wznowiony dopiero w 1981 roku – pierwszy numer ukazał się 7 czerwca. Redaktorem naczelnym został ks. Ireneusz Skubiś. W związku z wprowadzeniem stanu wojennego czasopismo zostało ponownie zawieszone. Wznowienie wydawania pisma nastąpiło 21 marca 1982 roku. W czasie wyborów w 1989 roku redakcja wspierała kandydatów "Solidarności". W latach 90. XX wieku nastąpił rozwój czasopisma, które zaczęło wydawać dodatki diecezjalne, Moje Pismo Tęcza dla dzieci oraz dwie serie wydawnicze: "Biblioteka Niedzieli" (od 1993) oraz "Zeszyty Niedzieli" (od 1996). +Od 2011 roku każdy numer "Niedzieli" posiada wpięty, ośmiostronnicowy dodatek dla młodzieży, "Niedzielę Młodych". Jest to reaktywacja dawnego dodatku tygodnika, z początku jego istnienia ("Młodzież Katolicka"). Wkładka ta porusza tematy takie tak: sprawy, problemy i rozterki młodzieży, kwestię wiary, sprawy szkole. +Przy wydawcy działa studio radiowe i telewizyjne. +Na łamach "Niedzieli" publikowali m.in. Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, Józef Szaniawski, Feliks Koneczny, Stefan Kisielewski, Stanisław Stomma, Kazimierz Gołba, Stanisława Grabska, Andrzej Micewski, Józefa Hennelowa, Juliusz Braun, a także abp Józef Życiński, ks. Mieczysław Maliński, ks. Tadeusz Styczeń SDS, Elżbieta Łozińska. +Obecnie z tygodnikiem współpracują m.in. kard. Stanisław Nagy, abp Józef Michalik, ks. Waldemar Chrostowski, ks. Wojciech Góralski, ks. Józef Krukowski, Marek Jurek, Czesław Ryszka, Janusz Wojciechowski, Marian Miszalski, Paweł Milcarek, Piotr Semka, Bogusław Kowalski, Jerzy Robert Nowak, Jan Maria Jackowski, Krystyna Czuba, czy br. Tadeusz Ruciński, Krzysztof Czabański, Ewa Polak-Pałkiewicz, Marcin Masny. +Tomasz Markowski (szachista) + +Tomasz Markowski (ur. 30 lipca 1975 w Głogowie) – polski szachista, arcymistrz od 1998 roku. +Kariera szachowa. +W 1993 roku po raz pierwszy awansował do finału indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski oraz zdobył tytuł mistrza Polski w szachach szybkich i błyskawicznych. Od tego czasu należy do ścisłej czołówki polskich szachistów. W latach 1993 - 2007 czternaście razy brał udział w finałach mistrzostw Polski, zdobywając 8 medali: 5 złotych (1993, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2007), srebrny (2000) i 2 brązowe (1995, 2002). Brał udział w pięciu kolejnych olimpiadach szachowych od 1994 do 2002 roku. W 2002 roku na olimpiadzie w Bled z pozycji pierwszego rezerwowego uzyskał rezultat +7 -0 =3 (85%) - najlepszy wynik procentowy w powojennej historii występów polskich szachistów na olimpiadach. Trzykrotnie reprezentował Polskę na drużynowych mistrzostwach Europy. W 2000 roku zdobył brązowy medal na indywidualnych mistrzostwach Europy w Saint-Vincent. Dwukrotnie zajął pierwsze miejsce na międzynarodowych turniejach w Genewie (w 1995 i 2000 roku). W roku 2001 podzielił II miejsce w otwartym turnieju w Biel. W 2003 zajął III miejsce w silnie obsadzonym turnieju na Bermudach (za Giovannim Vescovim i Piotrem Swidlerem). W 2004 podzielił IV miejsce w otwartym turnieju "Aerofłot Open" w Moskwie, natomiast w 2007 zdobył w Warszawie tytuł wicemistrza Europy w szachach szybkich (w finale przegrywając z Aleksiejem Aleksandrowem). W 2008 r. zwyciężył w Neustadt an der Weinstrasse. W 2011 r. podzielił I m. (wspólnie z Dariuszem Świerczem) w rozegranym w Warszawie memoriale Mieczysława Najdorfa. +Reprezentując klub Polonia Plus GSM Warszawa trzykrotnie zdobył tytuł drużynowego mistrza Polski. +Najwyższy ranking w dotychczasowej karierze osiągnął 1 września 2009 r., z wynikiem 2632 punktów zajmował wówczas 4. miejsce wśród polskich szachistów. +Jacek Gdański + +Jacek Gdański (ur. 30 listopada 1970 w Szczecinku) – polski szachista, arcymistrz, urzędnik państwowy. +Biografia. +W drugiej połowie lat 80. XX wieku był czołowym polskim juniorem. W 1986 r. zdobył brązowy medal mistrzostw Europy i tytuł mistrza Polski w kategorii do 20 lat. W 1989 r. został wicemistrzem świata juniorów w tej samej kategorii. Jego trenerami byli m.in. Henryk Dobosz, Zbigniew Doda, Zbigniew Szymczak, Włodzimierz Schmidt. +W latach 1990–2010 wielokrotnie awansował do finałów indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski. W 1992 r. w Częstochowie zdobył tytuł mistrza kraju. Wygrał turniej finałowy w 1997 r. w Sopocie, wspólnie z Robertem Kempińskim i Michałem Krasenkowem, jednak w dogrywce zajął trzecie miejsce. Kolejny medal zdobył w 2010 r. w Warszawie, zajmując trzecie miejsce za Mateuszem Bartlem i Radosławem Wojtaszkiem. Dwukrotnie był mistrzem Polski w szachach szybkich (1995 i 2000) oraz błyskawicznych (1998 i 2000). Uczestniczył w trzech olimpiadach szachowych: w Nowym Sadzie (1990), Manili (1992) i Moskwie (1994). Łącznie w 20 partiach rozegranych na olimpiadach uzyskał rezultat +13 -5 =14 (62,5%). Dwukrotnie reprezentował Polskę w drużynowych mistrzostwach Europy. W 1997 r. Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa FIDE przyznała mu tytuł arcymistrza. +Zwyciężył lub podzielił I miejsca w turniejach międzynarodowych m.in. w Krakowie (1993/94, turniej "Cracovia"), w Koszalinie (1997) oraz Helsinkach i Rio de Janeiro (1999). W 2001 r. zakwalifikował się do mistrzostw świata FIDE rozgrywanych systemem pucharowym w Moskwie, gdzie przegrał w I rundzie z Wadimem Zwiagincewem. Reprezentując klub Polonia Plus GSM Warszawa, sześciokrotnie zdobył tytuł drużynowego mistrza Polski. Kolejne złote medale w tych rozgrywkach wywalczył w latach 2007, 2008 i 2010 w barwach klubu WASKO HetMaN Szopienice Katowice. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął 1 lipca 2000 r., z wynikiem 2557 punktów zajmował wówczas 4. miejsce (za Michałem Krasenkowem, Aleksandrem Wojtkiewiczem i Tomaszem Markowskim) wśród polskich szachistów. +Jacek Gdański z powodzeniem łączył grę w szachy na wysokim poziomie ze studiami na Uniwersytecie Gdańskim (skandynawistyka) oraz w Krajowej Szkole Administracji Publicznej (1999 - VII promocja). W latach 2004–2009 był członkiem Rady Narodowego Funduszu Zdrowia. W 2009 r. pełnił funkcję dyrektora generalnego Ministerstwa Finansów. +Był zwycięzcą teleturnieju "Najsłabsze ogniwo" (w dniu 21 października 2005 ). +Niedomysł + +Niedomysł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "nie-" (negacja),"-do-" i "-mysł" ("myśleć"). Mogło powstać przez negację imienia z członem "Myśli-" lub "-mysł" (np. Myślidar, Bolemysł, Uniemysł) albo zostać utworzone bezpośrednio z czasownika i stanowić raczej przezwisko. +Rędziny + +Typ gleby: rędzina +4 miejscowości w Polsce: +Zobacz też: Kalina-Rędziny, Rędziny Zbigalskie, Rędziny-Borek, Rędziny-Kolonia, Tempoczów-Rędziny, Uniejów-Rędziny oraz wrocławskie osiedle Rędzin +Robert Kuczyński + +Robert Kuczyński (ur. 17 kwietnia 1966 w Jeleniej Górze) – polski szachista, arcymistrz od 1993 roku. +Kariera szachowa. +Dwukrotnie zdobył tytuł mistrza Polski juniorów: w 1980 w Chełmnie (w kategorii do lat 17) oraz w 1985 we Wrocławiu (do lat 20). Oprócz tego w 1983 z Katowicach zajął II miejsce (za Leszkiem Węglarzem) w grupie do lat 17. W latach 1985 - 2001 szesnastokrotnie uczestniczył w finałach mistrzostw Polski. W 1987 roku zdobył tytuł indywidualnego mistrza kraju, poza tym dwukrotnie (1989 i 1993) - tytuł wicemistrza. W 1986 roku udanie zadebiutował na olimpiadzie szachowej w Dubaju, wynikiem 7½ pkt w 10 partiach zdobywając indywidualnie brązowy medal na V szachownicy. Brał udział w kolejnych pięciu olimpiadach, w tym raz (Moskwa, 1994) na I szachownicy. Reprezentował Polskę w dwóch finałach drużynowych mistrzostw Europy, w 1992 roku w Debreczynie zdobywając brązowy medal na II szachownicy. +W 1986 osiągnął duży sukces, zwyciężając w turnieju młodych mistrzów w Oakham (przed m.in. Viswanathanem Anandem). W 1988 był drugi w Genewie ("turniej B"), natomiast w 1991 podzielił II miejsce (wraz z Olegiem Romaniszynem, a za Joelem Lautierem) w memoriale Akiby Rubinsteina w Polanicy-Zdroju. W 1994 zwyciężył w kołowym turnieju w Legnicy, w 1996 zajął II miejsce (za Andriejem Maksimienko) w Schöneck/Vogtl. ("turniej B"), natomiast w 1999 podzielił I miejsce w otwartym turnieju w Görlitz, a w 2001 był drugi w Essen. +Trzykrotnie (styczeń 1987 – wraz z Włodzimierzem Schmidtem, styczeń 1988, styczeń 1992) był liderem polskich szachistów na listach rankingowych FIDE. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął 1 lipca 1992 r., z wynikiem 2525 punktów zajmował wówczas 2. miejsce (za Aleksandrem Wojtkiewiczem) wśród polskich szachistów. +Społeczeństwo tradycyjne + +Społeczeństwo tradycyjne (inaczej: społeczeństwo preindustrialne, społeczeństwo kopieniackie, społeczeństwo pasterskie) – każde społeczeństwo, które nie osiągnęło jeszcze etapu społeczeństwa przemysłowego, a więc zarówno społeczeństwo rolnicze jak i społeczeństwo pierwotne, charakteryzujące się dużym odsetkiem ludności zamieszkałej na wsiach; wysokim analfabetyzmem; dominacja grup pierwotnych nad wtórnymi; brakiem instytucji formalnej kontroli lub niewielką ilością tego typu instytucji; gospodarką opartą na rolnictwie i rzemiośle, gdzie podstawową jednostką gospodarczą jest gospodarstwo domowe; brakiem indywidualizmu jednostek; niewielka rolą pieniądza w handlu. +Ruralizacja + +Ruralizacja proces społeczny będący przeciwieństwem urbanizacji, polegający na odpływie ludności miejskiej na wieś. Spowodowany jest większą atrakcyjnością terenów pozamiejskich w niektórych regionach. Proces ten oznacza także upodabnianie się terenów miejskich, w szczególności obszarów podmiejskich do obszarów wiejskich i przyjmowanie wiejskiego stylu życia (np. chłopskie jadło w centrum Katowic). +Bjørn Einar Romøren + +Bjørn Einar Romøren (ur. 1 kwietnia 1981 w Oslo) – norweski skoczek narciarski, brązowy medalista olimpijski, trzykrotny medalista mistrzostw świata i czterokrotny medalista mistrzostw świata w lotach. +Tak jak i cała kadra norweska, Romøren swoje najlepsze występy odnotował w sezonie 2003/04, kiedy trenerem kadry został Mika Kojonkoski. Jest Mistrzem Norwegii z 2001 i 2005 (K-120). W swoim dorobku ma brązowy medal olimpijski (Turyn 2006), dwa brązowe medale Mistrzostw Świata oraz dwa złote medale Mistrzostw Świata w lotach narciarskich. Wszystkie te trofea zdobył w konkursach drużynowych. +Romøren mieszka w Oslo, skacze dla klubu Hosle IL. +. Jego brat (Jan-Erik) jest wokalistą blackmetalowej kapeli – Tsjuder. +Puchar Świata. +Miejsca w poszczególnych konkursach Pucharu Świata. +"stan po zakończeniu sezonu 2011/2012" +Letnie Grand Prix w skokach narciarskich. +Miejsca w poszczególnych konkursach LGP. +"stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012" +Dolina Hlina + +Dolina Hlina (słow. "dolina Hliná") – boczne odgałęzienie Doliny Cichej Liptowskiej ("Tichá dolina") w Tatrach Zachodnich na Słowacji. Odchodzi w jej środkowej części początkowo w kierunku północno-zachodnim. Głębiej dolina skręca na północ. +Topografia. +W górnej części grań odchodząca od Smreczyńskiego Wierchu dzieli dolinę na dwie części: Szeroki Żleb ("Široký žľab") i Zawrat Kokawski ("Závratský jarok"). Wypływające z nich potoczki łączą się w Wielki Hliński Potok ("Hlina"), który zasila Cichą Wodę Liptowską ("Tichý potok"). +Opis doliny. +Przy powierzchni ok. 7,8 km² należy do większych odnóg Doliny Cichej. Nieznane jest pochodzenie nazwy doliny. Prawdopodobnie jednak pochodzi po prostu od słowackiego słowa "hlina", czyli glina. Dawniej dolinę odwiedzali kłusownicy i była ona wypasana. Na Rówience pod Hlinikiem, na wysokości ok. 1350 m (w miejscu, gdzie dolina rozgałęzia się na Zawrat Kokawski i Szeroki Żleb) stał dawniej szałas należący do mieszkańców Wychodnej. Używany był przez nich do 1953 r. W czasie II wojny światowej bazowali w nim partyzanci z oddziału "Vysoké Tatry". +Przez dolinę nie prowadzi żaden szlak turystyczny i jest ona niedostępna. +Baranowicze + +Baranowicze (biał. Баранавічы) – miasto na Białorusi, w obwodzie brzeskim, siedziba rejonu baranowickiego, do 1945 w Polsce, w województwie nowogródzkim, siedziba powiatu baranowickiego. +Baranowicze są ośrodkiem przemysłu metalowego i włókiennictwa. +Geografia. +Baranowicze mają powierzchnię 50,22 km², w tym 3,18 km² stanowią lasy, 0,12 km² – bagna, a 0,40 km² – obiekty wodne. +Historia. +Do 1914 roku. +Wieś Baranowicze po raz pierwszy wzmiankowano w 1706 jako prywatną własność rodziny Rozwadowskich. W 1870 przez miejscowość przeprowadzono linie kolejowe Brześć nad Bugiem–Moskwa i Równe–Wilno, co doprowadziło do gospodarczego ożywienia wioski. W 1897 Baranowicze (jidysz באראנאוויטש, "Baranowicz") liczyły 4 tysiące mieszkańców (w tym 50% Żydów). +Między I i II wojną światową. +W czerwcu 1916 pod Baranowiczami stoczona została jedna z najkrwawszych bitew I wojny światowej, w której zginęło prawie 100 000 żołnierzy. +18 marca 1919 polski oddział kawalerii pod dowództwem mjr. Władysława Dąbrowskiego dokonał rajdu i przejściowo odbił Baranowicze z rąk bolszewików. Polacy zdobyli duże zapasy broni, amunicji i materiału wojennego oraz wzięli wielu bolszewickich jeńców, po czym wycofali się. 18 kwietnia 1919 siły polskie ponownie zaatakowały Baranowicze, tym razem z zamiarem trwałego opanowania miasta. Zgrupowanie płk. Aleksandra Boruszczaka przez całą noc prowadziło walki o miasto z bolszewikami, w tym przy użyciu bagnetów. Wreszcie wczesnym świtem 19 kwietnia dokonano szturmu i do godziny 7:00 całkowicie oczyszczono miasto z nieprzyjaciela. +W 1919 Baranowiczom nadano prawa miejskie. W okresie międzywojennym były ważnym ośrodkiem gospodarczym II Rzeczypospolitej, największym miastem województwa nowogródzkiego, siedzibą Garnizonu Baranowicze i oddziału Korpusu Ochrony Pogranicza. W 1924 roku w mieście zbudowany został drewniany kościół katolicki pw. Podwyższenia Krzyża. W okresie międzywojennym w Baranowiczach istniał też, drugi po warszawskim, Grób Nieznanego Żołnierza. W 1926 do lokalnej cerkwi przeniesiono elementy wyposażenia rozebranego soboru św. Aleksandra Newskiego w Warszawie. W 1938 roku otwarto tam lokalną rozgłośnię Polskiego Radia, Polskie Radio Baranowicze. +W Baranowiczach stacjonowała Nowogródzka Brygada Kawalerii, którą od 1937 roku dowodził gen. Władysław Anders. +15 września 1939 miasto i radiostacja zostały zbombardowane przez Luftwaffe. +Obrona Baranowicz 17 września 1939 roku. +17 września 1939 roku, w dniu napaści ZSRR na Polskę, na teren powiatu baranowickiego wkroczyła Armia Czerwona. W tym samym czasie na terenie powiatu rozpoczęły się mordy i grabieże. Ich ofiarami padali zamożniejsi mieszkańcy, urzędnicy, policjanci i żołnierze Wojska Polskiego (zazwyczaj Polacy), sprawcami natomiast były zbrojne grupy skomunizowanych chłopów i kryminalistów, działające z inspiracji ZSRR (zazwyczaj Białorusini i Żydzi). +Na wieść o sowieckiej napaści, 17 września 1939 roku we wczesnych godzinach rannych, kierownik baranowickiego magistratu Jan Węgrzyn podjął decyzję o utworzeniu "milicji" (tzn. Straży Obywatelskiej), w celu obrony miasta oraz zapobieżenia rozprzestrzeniania się anarchii i bezprawia z terenów wiejskich. Składała się ona ze 186 Polaków, których Jan Węgrzyn znał osobiście. Zostali oni wyposażeni w niebieskie opaski i karabiny. Tymczasem z terenu powiatu do Baranowicz zaczęły napływać tłumy białoruskich chłopów, a pod budynkiem magistratu zgromadził się tłum wznoszący antypaństwowe okrzyki. Około godziny 10. do budynku wtargnęła grupa robotników – członków Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej, której przewodził mężczyzna o nazwisku Machaj. Grupa zażądała likwidacji milicji z niebieskimi opaskami. W wyniku burzliwych negocjacji osiągnięto porozumienie, w myśl którego służba porządkowa miała zostać utrzymana, jednak niebieskie opaski miały został zastąpione czerwonymi. W tym momencie jednak do magistratu wtargnęła grupa ok. 30 miejscowych komunistów, krzyczących "Dość waszych rządów, precz". Również ich, pomimo dużego napięcia, udało się przekonać, że służby porządkowe są w mieście niezbędne do ochrony przed rabunkami i samosądami, przynajmniej do momentu wkroczenia wojsk sowieckich. W tej sytuacji jedynym żądaniem komunistów było aresztowanie przywódcy socjalistów, Machaja. O godzinie 14. miasto Baranowicze zostało zajęte przez Armię Czerwoną. Milicja Jana Węgrzyna, pomimo, iż nie podjęła walki z Sowietami, uratowała Baranowicze przed falą mordów i grabieży, które w tym czasie miały miejsce w powiecie i na całych ziemiach północno-wschodnich II Rzeczypospolitej. +Od 1939 roku. +W październiku 1939 roku Baranowicze weszły w skład Zachodniej Białorusi – marionetkowego bytu państwowego utworzonego przez sowieckie władze okupacyjne. 2 listopada zostały włączone do Białoruskiej SRR. 4 grudnia 1939 roku stały się centrum administracyjnym nowo utworzonego obwodu baranowickiego. W czasie okupacji niemieckiej 1941–1944 istniało tu getto, przez które przewinęło się ok. 13 tysięcy lokalnych Żydów (ocalało zaledwie ok. 250 z nich). +Miasto zostało ponownie zajęte przez Armię Czerwoną 6 lipca 1944 r. Po opanowaniu Nowogródczyzny, Sowieci wznowili wywózki do Kazachstanu i na Syberię. W wyniku polsko-sowieckiej umowy z 16 sierpnia 1945 r. całe województwo nowogródzkie przeszło pod władanie Białoruskiej SRR. +Od 1991 Baranowicze są częścią niepodległej Białorusi. +Transport. +Przez miasto przebiega też trasa międzynarodowa M1 Brześć nad Bugiem – Mińsk. +Galeria. +M 270-30 +Plik:Arthur levy005-Baranowitschi.jpg|Dawny cmentarz żydowski +Plik:Церковь Жен-мироносиц, г. Барановичи.jpg|Cerkiew + +OxiCap + +OxiCap – firmowa nazwa kondensatora niskonapięciowego wykonanego z tlenku niobu. +Bitwa pod Grochowem + +Bitwa pod Grochowem miała miejsce 26 kwietnia 1809 roku podczas wojny polsko-austriackiej stanowiącej część zmagań wchodzących w skład wojen napoleońskich (V koalicja antyfrancuska). +Bitwa stoczona została przez oddziały gen. Michała Sokolnickiego podczas prowadzonego rozpoznania, z oddziałami austriackich huzarów, piechoty i artylerii. +Wycofując się z Warszawy książę Józef Poniatowski zostawił w umocnionej Pradze 600 żołnierzy, a sam z resztą sił wycofał się do Modlina. Arcyksiążę Ferdynand d'Este po zajęciu Warszawy wysłał na prawy brzeg Wisły część sił pod wodzą generała Mohra (5 baonów i 6 szwadronów - łącznie 5000 żołnierzy). Grupa ta przeprawiła się przez rzekę koło Karczewa, a jej straż przednia zbliżyła się do Pragi 24 kwietnia. Następnego dnia Austriacy rozpoczęli oblężenie praskiego garnizonu. +Poniatowski rozkazał generałowi Sokolnickiemu (12 pułk piechoty, 2 pułk ułanów i 2 działa) ruszyć z Modlina przez Jabłonnę do Karczewa. Sokolnicki opuścił Modlin rankiem 26 kwietnia, docierając do lasów tarchomińskich. Tam rozpoznał oddziały austriackie uczestniczące w oblężeniu Pragi i postanowił zaatakować je z dwóch stron. W stronę Kawęczyna wysłał podpułkownika Fredrę (1 szwadron i 2 kompanie), a z resztą sił około godziny 17:00 natarł na znajdujących się w Bródnie i Targówku huzarów austriackich. +W czasie, gdy 2 pułk ułanów odrzucił 3 szwadrony huzarów, 12 pułk piechoty pobił jeden z austriackich batalionów. Następnie 12 pułk piechoty zdobył Grochów, którego bronił inny austriacki batalion wsparty przez artylerię. Sokolnicki ścigał uciekających Austriaków do Gocławia i Wawra, gdzie pojawiły się pozostałe oddziały z grupy Mohra. Ze względu na zbyt wielką przewagę nieprzyjaciela Sokolnicki 27 kwietnia wycofał się do Białołęki. +Polacy stracili w bitwie 15 zabitych i 80 ranych, natomiast Austriacy - około 100 zabitych, kilkuset rannych i 300 jeńców. +Ignacy Nowak (szachista) + +Ignacy Nowak (ur. 12 stycznia 1949 w Poznaniu) – polski szachista, mistrz FIDE. +Kariera szachowa. +W latach 1971–1990 dwunastokrotnie awansował do finałów indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski. W 1985 r. w Gdyni podzielił I-III miejsce, a następnie wygrał w Warszawie miniturniej dogrywkowy zdobywając tytuł mistrza kraju. Reprezentował klub Pocztowiec Poznań, w barwach którego dwukrotnie zdobył (w latach 1985 i 1988) złote medale drużynowych mistrzostw Polski. +Był sześciokrotnym medalistą mistrzostw Polski w szachach błyskawicznych: dwukrotnie złotym (Łódź 1973, Bydgoszcz 1987) oraz czterokrotnie brązowym (Bydgoszcz 1984, Kalisz 1986, Katowice 1988, Poznań 1991). W latach 1970–2000 ośmiokrotnie zdobył medale drużynowe mistrzostw Polski w szachach błyskawicznych, w tym dwa złote (Racibórz 1995, Łuków 1996). +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął w lipca 1985 r., z wynikiem 2435 punktów dzielił wówczas 4-5. miejsce wśród polskich szachistów. Od 1999 r. nie występuje w turniejach klasyfikowanych przez Międzynarodową Federację Szachową. +Dolina Walentkowa + +Dolina Walentkowa (słow. "Valentkova dolina", niem. "Walentkowatal", "Walentkowatälchen", węg. "Walentkowa-völgy", "Walentkowa-völgyecske") – tatrzańska dolina położona na terenie Słowacji, jedno z dwóch odgałęzień górnej części Doliny Cichej ("Tichá dolina") odchodzące od niej w kierunku wschodnim. +Dolina Walentkowa położona jest na wysokości ok. 1400-1900 m. Jej górną część (powyżej ścieżki na Zawory) nazywa się Walentkowym Kamiennym lub po prostu Kamiennym. Spod wierzchołka Świnicy opada do niej Żleb Blatona. Dolina ma powierzchnię 1,5 km², a jej dno tworzy płytką nieckę i zawalone jest piargami i wielkimi skałami. Pod jedną z tych skał, nazywaną Walentkową Kolebą, mieli niegdyś schronienie pasterze. Dolina Walentkowa mimo niewielkiej użyteczności pasterskiej była kiedyś wypasana. +W dolinie znajdują się dwa okresowe (wysychające latem), stawki: Wyżni Walentkowy Stawek ("Vyšné Valentkove pleso"), położony na wysokości ok. 1890 m oraz Walentkowy Stawek ("Valentkovo pliesko", "Dolné Valentkove pleso"), położony na wysokości ok. 1800 m n.p.m. Zasila on Walentkowy Potok ("Valentkový potok", "Kamenná Tichá"), dopływ Cichej Wody Liptowskiej w jej górnym odcinku. +Dolina Walentkowa jest obecnie niedostępna turystycznie. Dawniej przez jej środkową część prowadził popularny szlak turystyczny z przełęczy Liliowe na Zawory. +Jako pierwsi zimą dotarli do Doliny Walentkowej Jerzy Bistram, Adam Karpiński i Kazimierz Szczepański 28 marca 1923 r. oraz tego samego dnia krótko później Marian Maurizio z towarzyszami. +Galut + +Galut lub Golus (hebr. גלות) – wygnanie, wypędzenie Żydów z kraju (Palestyna, Izrael) i ich pobyt na obczyźnie. +Diaspora żydowska rozpoczęła się w VI wieku p.n.e. niewolą babilońską, a następnie w 135, kiedy upadło powstanie Szymona Bar Kochby, a cesarz Hadrian wydał Żydom zakaz wstępu do Jerozolimy, w rezultacie czego zostali rozproszeni po całym Imperium Rzymskim. +Doktryna obronna Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej + +Doktryna obronna Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, przyjęta przez Komitet Obrony Kraju 21 lutego 1990 r., jest dokumentem państwowym, którego celem było zarysowanie nowej polityki obronnej Polski w świetle przemian regionu Europy Środkowej w 1989 r. Była to pierwsza powojenna jawna próba określenia i deklaracji publicznej podstawowych elementów narodowej strategii obronności. Dokument stanowi kontynuację tajnego dokumentu "Węzłowe założenia obronne Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej", którego ostatnia edycja była przyjęta w 1987 r. +Już w momencie uchwalenia była ona nieaktualna. Podstawowym jej założeniem był udział Polski w Układzie Warszawskim, który już wówczas istniał tylko na papierze. "Doktryna..." jednak jasno wskazuje, że w wypadku konfliktu Polska nie czuje się zobowiązana do wsparcia Układu Warszawskiego. Doktryna wprowadziła zasadę uspołecznienia polityki obronnej państwa poprzez założenie, iż przy kształtowaniu polityki obronnej państwa musi być brana pod uwagę opinia publiczna. Pozostawało to w sprzeczności z samą "Doktryną...", której wprowadzenie nie było poprzedzone żadnymi konsultacjami. +Ponadto, dokument oceniał możliwe zagrożenia bezpieczeństwa Polski oraz określał zadania, które należałoby podjąć w celu ich zwalczenia. Największe zagrożenie postrzegano w konflikcie międzykoalicyjnym między Układem Warszawskim a NATO. Głównym obszarem takiego starcia miał być Europa Środkowa, w tym Polska. Dokument miał charakter wybitnie obronny, pozostając w zgodzie z koalicyjną doktryną obronną, przyjętą przez Doradczy Komitet Polityczny Układu Warszawskiego w Berlinie w 1987 r. +Wraz z przyjęciem "Doktryny...", rozpoczęły się prace nad nową koncepcją strategiczną, ujętą w dokumentach "Założenia polskiej polityki bezpieczeństwa" oraz "Polityka bezpieczeństwa i strategia obronna", przyjęte przez Komitet Obrony Kraju 2 listopada 1992. +Obecnie doktryna obronna Polski jak i założenia strategii obrony narodowej zostały zawarte w " Strategii Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej", która został przedstawiona 22 lipca 2003 roku. +Granica Europa-Azja + +Granica Europa – Azja – linia podziału Eurazji na Europę i Azję. Granica ta jest i zawsze była umowna, w dużym przybliżeniu łączy ona Morze Czarne i Morze Karskie. +Granica Europa-Azja według Międzynarodowej Unii Geograficznej. +Przyjmowana przez Międzynarodową Unię Geograficzną "granica geograficzna" przebiega następująco (granica czerwona (A) na mapie): od Cieśniny Kerczeńskiej na północ, wschodnim brzegiem Morza Azowskiego, do ujścia rzeki Don; dalej w górę tej rzeki do Jezior Sostyńskich i miejsca, w którym uchodzi do nich rzeką Manycz Zachodni; następnie Obniżeniem Kumsko-Manyckim do środkowego odcinka rzeki Kumy; potem dolnym jej biegiem w kierunku wschodnim aż do ujścia do Morza Kaspijskiego; dalej północno-zachodnim i północnym brzegiem tego zbiornika wodnego do (sezonowego) ujścia rzeki Emby; następnie w górę Emby w kierunku północno-wschodnim aż do jej źródeł w Mugodżarach; dalej prostopadle na północ do miejsca, w którym rzeka Ural ostro skręca ku zachodowi i górnym biegiem tej rzeki na północ aż do podnóża Uralu (jak na mapie; taki przebieg granicy najczęściej podawany jest przez polskich geografów); wreszcie wschodnim podnóżem gór w kierunku północnym aż do rzeki Bajdaraty, z której biegiem skręca na północny wschód do jej ujścia do Zatoki Bajdarackiej na Morzu Karskim (Ocean Arktyczny). +Inne warianty przebiegu granicy. +Granica południowo-wschodnia. +Granica południowo-wschodnia – linia podziału między Morzem Czarnym a Kaspijskim – budzi największe kontrowersje i jest źródłem rozbieżności. +Problem granicy na Morzu Egejskim. +Problematyczny jest także przebieg tej granicy na Morzu Egejskim – w Polsce najpowszechniej przyjmuje się, że przebiega środkiem Morza Egejskiego (zatem część wysp Grecji leży w Azji).Istnieją jednak koncepcje, że granica ta przebiega wzdłuż granicy politycznej między Grecją a Turcją, lub wschodnim wybrzeżem Morza Egejskiego (odcinając Anatolię od morza i wszelkich na nim wysp). +Leon Wasilewski + +Leon Wasilewski (ur. 24 sierpnia 1870 w Petersburgu, zm. 10 grudnia 1936 w Warszawie) – działacz PPS, bliski współpracownik Piłsudskiego, architekt polskiej polityki wschodniej u progu niepodległości, ojciec Wandy. +Rodzina Wasilewskich wywodziła się z guberni witebskiej, dzieciństwo i młodość spędził jednak w stolicy Rosji, z daleka od Polski. +W 1893 wyjechał do Galicji, gdzie wstąpił do PPS (wcześniej krótko sympatyzował z endecją) i poznał Józefa Piłsudskiego. Parę lat spędził w Londynie, wydając socjalistyczne pismo "Przedświt". Po powrocie do Galicji zajmował się redagowaniem "Robotnika". +Po rozłamie w PPS pozostał wierny ugrupowaniu Józefa Piłsudskiego – PPS Frakcji Rewolucyjnej. Został członkiem Komisji Tymczasowej Skonfederowanych Stronnictw Niepodległościowych i Polskiego Skarbu Wojskowego. W czasie I wojny światowej działał w Naczelnym Komitecie Narodowym, od 1917 należąc do Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej. W listopadzie 1918 Wasilewski został ministrem spraw zagranicznych w rządzie Jędrzeja Moraczewskiego. Po dymisji rządu wyjechał do Francji, by uczestniczyć w pracach Komitetu Narodowego Polskiego, dokooptowany jako delegat Naczelnika Państwa Józefa Piłsudskiego po przekształceniu KNP w delegację Polski na paryską konferencję pokojową. W latach 1920-21 poseł RP w Estonii. Brał udział w negocjacjach pokojowych z Rosją Sowiecką, kończących wojnę polsko-bolszewicką. Po podpisaniu i ratyfikacji traktatu ryskiego przewodniczył polskiej komisji do spraw delimitacji granicy wschodniej. +W II Rzeczypospolitej zajmował się pracą naukową – w 1924 mianowano go prezesem Instytutu Badania Najnowszej Historii Polski, pięć lat później założył pismo "Niepodległość", wydawał pisma i korespondencje marszałka Piłsudskiego, a na początku lat trzydziestych został szefem Instytutu Badań Spraw Narodowościowych. Do końca życia działał w PPS, w 1931 został wiceprezesem jej Rady Naczelnej. +Wasilewski był w okresie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej zdecydowanym zwolennikiem budowy federacji Polski, Litwy i Białorusi i sojuszu z niepodległą Ukrainą. Po traktacie ryskim sprzeciwiał się idei polonizacji Białorusinów i Ukraińców, domagając się prowadzenia wobec nich polityki asymilacji państwowej. Działacz ruchu prometejskiego. +Został odznaczony m.in. estońskim Krzyżem Wolności I klasy. +Wygoda + +Zobacz też: Byszewo-Wygoda, Kamienica-Wygoda, Wygoda Mikołajewska, Wygoda Sierakowska, Wygoda Smoszewska, Wygoda Tokarska +Bibliografia. +Nazewnictwo geograficzne Polski. Tom 1. Hydronimy. Część 2. Wody Stojące (pdf 1840 kb) +Pojazd gąsienicowy + +Pojazd gąsienicowy - urządzenie służące do transportu lądowego, poruszające się na gąsienicach. Pojazdy gąsienicowe są powszechnie stosowane w wojsku (np. czołgi) i jako maszyny do robót ziemnych. +Zazwyczaj gąsienice umożliwiają poruszanie się z nieznaczną szybkością rzędu 20-35 km/h, jednak we współczesnych pojazdach możliwe jest osiągnięcie szybkości powyżej 70 km/h. +Gąsienice pojazdów pływających umożliwiają także napęd w wodzie w tym celu gąsienica jest otoczona w górnej części osłoną hydrodynamiczną. +Utopiec + +Utopiec (lokalnie znany jako "utopnik", "utoplec", "utopek", "topek", "topielec", "waserman") – zły i podstępny demon wodny z wierzeń słowiańskich, często utożsamiany z wodnikiem. Utopce rodziły się z dusz topielców i poronionych płodów. Podobnie jak wodniki zamieszkiwały wszelkie zbiorniki wodne (łącznie ze studniami i rowami przydrożnymi) i topiły kąpiących się oraz przechodzące przez rzekę zwierzęta. Odpowiadały także za wylewy rzek oraz zatapianie pól i łąk. Utopce przybierały postać wysokich, bardzo chudych ludzi o oślizgłej, zielonej skórze, z dużą głową i ciemnymi włosami. W czasie nowiu utopce wychodziły na brzeg. Często zwabiały wówczas do siebie ludzi, bawiąc się z nimi w zagadki. Osobę próbującą oszukiwać w zagadkach natychmiast topiły. +Na Śląsku, gdzie wiara w utopce była szczególnie rozpowszechniona, zostały one całkowicie utożsamione z wodnikami. Według wierzeń śląskich utopiec nie tylko topił ludzi, ale w zależności od kaprysu mógł też im pomagać, doradzać, a nawet się zaprzyjaźnić. +Wiara w utopce była na tyle mocno zakorzeniona, iż swój oddźwięk znalazła w folklorze chrześcijańskim. Utopce wywodzono wówczas od strąconych z nieba aniołów, pokutującej ludzkiej duszy lub dusz samobójców. Chrześcijaństwo ostatecznie zaczęło wręcz upowszechniać własne sposoby ochronne przed nimi – głoszono np. iż tonącemu dobrze jest na szyję zarzucić różaniec, co odstraszy utopca. W kronikach z XIV w. zapisano: "Szczególną ostrożność przy wodzie zachowaj, by utopca w porę spostrzec. Pomylić się sposobu nie ma, bo brzydki on okrutnie i do ludzi nie podobien. Gdy więc mokrego stwora obaczysz, co głowę ma wielką zielonymi włosami zdobioną i odnóża jak patyki cienkie – uciekaj człeku, by śmierci w odmętach nie ponieść. Gdy zaś ostrożnym nie dość będziesz i wodnicy dasz się złapać, ciepnij jej różańcem w oczy, a bestię precz odgonisz". Najbardziej znanym utopkiem jest wodzisławski Zeflik, o którym powstało wiele przypowieści. +Dolina Wierchcicha + +Dolina Wierchcicha (słow. "Zadná Tichá dolina") – górna część Doliny Cichej ("Tichá dolina"). Położona jest na terenie słowackich Tatr, pod ich główną granią. W górnej części odchodzi od niej w kierunku wschodnim odgałęzienie – Dolina Walentkowa ("Valentkova dolina", "Kamenná Tichá dolina"). +Opis doliny. +Nazwa Wierchcicha oznacza górną część Doliny Cichej. Dawniej używano też nazwy „"Wiercicha"”. Dolina tworzy dwa piętra, przegradzający je próg jest słabo zaznaczony. Nieckowate dolne piętro jest podmokłe i przegrodzone wałem morenowym rozmytym przez wody. Górne piętro tworzy kilka wyrównanych tarasów nachylonych nieco ku dolinie. Przez dolinę przepływa górny odcinek Cichej Wody Liptowskiej – "Zadná Tichá", potok spływający spod Gładkiej Przełęczy. Zasila go biorąca początek w Zadnim Rycerowym "Temná Tichá". +Szlaki turystyczne. +Przez dolinę przebiega oznakowany kolorem czerwonym szlak turystyczny na przełęcz Zawory ("Závory"), z której jest możliwe zejście do leżącej w Dolinie Koprowej Dolinki Kobylej ("Kobylia dolinka") – zielony kolor szlaku. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +Rozprawka + +Rozprawka – pisemna forma wypowiedzi, rozważania na określony temat. Jej nazwa pochodzi od czasownika "rozprawiać". Składa się z wstępu (tezy/hipotezy), rozwinięcia (argumentów), zakończenia (potwierdzenia tezy lub potwierdzenia/obalenia hipotezy). +Rozróżnia się rozprawkę analityczną i syntetyzującą. W rozprawce analitycznej, analizuje się dany temat, np. zachowanie głównego bohatera utworu literackiego. Natomiast w rozprawce syntetyzującej opiera się na kilku wybranych utworach połączonych pewnym motywem, który stanowi główny przedmiot rozprawki. +Rozprawka jest uproszczoną formą rozprawy. +Głębokość peryskopowa + +Głębokość peryskopowa − maksymalna głębokość zanurzenia okrętu podwodnego, przy której możliwe jest obserwowanie powierzchni morza za pomocą peryskopu. +Zwykle jest to kilka metrów pod powierzchnią. Okręt idący na głębokości peryskopowej trudniej jest wykryć niż wynurzony i, w razie spotkania z nieprzyjacielem, okręt ma możliwość zejścia na bezpieczniejszą głębokość w krótszym czasie. +Jednocześnie, używając peryskopu, okręt podwodny może dość łatwo wykryć i obserwować inne jednostki. +Początkowo do obserwacji używano wyłącznie prostego peryskopu, z rozwojem lotnictwa wprowadzono peryskop do obserwacji nieba. Obecnie, wraz z peryskopem można wysunąć antenę radaru i anteny komunikacyjne. +Na głębokości peryskopowej można też używać chrap czyli urządzenia doprowadzającego powietrze do silników spalinowych. Użycie chrap pozwala okrętowi na pracę silników spalinowych, co z kolei daje zwiększenie prędkości oraz możliwość naładowania akumulatorów. +Gość Niedzielny + +Gość Niedzielny – ogólnopolski tygodnik katolicki wydawany w Katowicach. +Historia. +1923-1939. +Pismo powstało jako tygodnik Administracji Apostolskiej Śląska. Jego pierwszy numer ukazał się z datą 9 września 1923, z artykułem wstępnym Augusta Hlonda. Organizatorem pisma był ks. Teodor Kubina, który początkowo pisał większość tekstów. W 1924 nowym redaktorem naczelnym został ks. Józef Gawlina, który zdołał zwiększyć nakład z 13 do 38 tys. Od 1925 tygodnik związany był z nowo powstałą diecezją katowicką. W 1926 kolejnym redaktorem naczelnym mianowano ks. Alojzego Siemienika, który kierował pismem do września 1939. W grudniu 1926 Z "Gościa Niedzielnego" wydzielono "Małego Gościa Niedzielnego" przeznaczonego dla dzieci. Przeciętny nakład pisma wynosił w czasach ks. Siemienika od. 30 do 40 tys. We wrześniu 1939 kuria biskupia w Katowicach próbowała kontynuować wydawanie pisma z podtytułem "Sonntagstat" i pod kierownictwem ks. Pawła Kowalskiego, a następnie hs. Wilhelma Salberta, ale zostało ono ostatecznie zawieszone w październiku 1939. +1945-1974. +Pierwszy numer powojenny ukazał się z datą 11 lutego 1945. Początkowo redagowany przez kolegium, od 22 lipca 1945 jego redaktorem naczelnym był ks. Klemens Kosarczyk. Pismo kolportowano również na Dolnym Śląsku i Śląsku Opolskim. W skład redakcji wchodzili m.in. Irena Świda, Stanisław Czech, Kazimierz Gołba, ks. Ludwik Kosyrczyk, ks. Józef Gawor i ks. Jerzy Stroba. Na początku lat 50 jego nakład wynosił ok. 100000 egzemplarzy. W sierpniu 1950 kolejnym redaktorem naczelnym został ks. Józef Gawor. Po wygnaniu z diecezji biskupa Stanisława Adamskiego w listopadzie 1952 władze komunistyczne nakazały zawieszenie wydawania pisma. Od stycznia 1953 wydawanie pisma wznowił narzucony przez władze wikariusz generalny ks. Filip Bednorz. Pismo było bojkotowane przez znaczną część księży i diecezjan. Kierowało nim kilku księży, najdłużej ks. Franciszek Wilczek. W 1954 kuria biskupia przekazała wydawanie pisma Stowarzyszeniu "PAX". Wśród dziennikarzy "Paxu" pracujących w "Gościu" byli m.in. Rudolf Buchała, Tadeusz Jańczak, Jerzy Skwara, Jerzy Nowakowski. W listopadzie 1956 pismo zwrócono katowickiej kurii biskupiej, a na czele redakcji stanęło kolegium w składzie ks. Józef Gawor (redaktor naczelny), ks. Klemens Kosyrczyk, Irena Świda i ks. Franciszek Blachnicki. Ten ostatni od października 1957 zaczął wydawać dodatek do "Gościa" pod nazwą "Niepokalana zwycięża" poświęcony ruchowi abstynenckiemu, ale z redakcją związany był tylko do 1959. Wśród członków kolegium redakcyjnego byli także przez pewien czas ks. Stanisław Szymecki oraz ks. Czesław Domin. W praktyce pismo redagował samodzielnie (a także pisał większość tekstów) ks. Franciszek Gawor, które mu od 1966 do 1973 pomagał ks. Andrzej Sapiński. Przeciętny nakład pisma wynosił w latach 60. ok. 120000, w latach 79. ok. 80000 egzemplarzy, przy czym był on limitowany przez władze państwowe. Było skierowane przede wszystkim do mniej wykształconych czytelników, silnie obecne były w nim teksty o walorach wychowawczych. +1974-1989. +W 1974 nowym redaktorem naczelnym został ks. Stanisław Tkocz, który przekształcił tygodnik dla bardziej wymagających, wykształconych czytelników. Wprowadził na łamy pisma publicystykę społeczną, popularne artykuły teologiczne. W nowym zespole redakcyjnym znaleźli się Lidia Kałkusińska i Czesław Ryszka, ks. Henryk Piecha, Sabina Lewandowska, wśród autorów ks. Czesław Bartnik, Jan Maria Jackowski, Jan Łopuszański, Maria Braun-Gałkowska, Władysław Fijałkowski, Henryk Wuttke, ks. Józef Majka. W marcu 1981 nakład zwiększono do 200000 egzemplarzy i "Gość" stał się pismem ogólnopolskim. W stanie wojennym pismo było zawieszone do marca 1982. Po wznowieniu w zespole redakcyjnym zabrakło Czesława Ryszki, wśród dziennikarzy byli m.in. Zdzisław Zwoźniak, Andrzej Grajewski, Renata Zwoźniak, Bogdan Widera, Franciszek Szpor. W tygodniku ukształtowało się pięć działów - formacyjno-teologiczny, społeczny, kulturalny i informacyjny. Do 1984 utrzymano nakład z 1981, następnie zmniejszono go do 180000. +Po 1989. +W latach 90. tygodnik stworzył pierwszy nowoczesny dział reklamy w piśmie katolickim. W kolportażu w dalszym ciągu wykorzystywano dystrybucję parafialną. Nowym sekretarzem redakcji został Bogdan Widera, dział religijny stworzył ks. Jerzy Szymik, a od 1992 prowadził go ks. Artur Stopka, działem kulturalnym kierował Andrzej Babuchowski, działem "W naszym domu" - Ewa Babuchowska. Od 1998 zastępcą redaktora naczelnego był Andrzej Grajewski. Od grudnia 2001 ukazuje się w nowym mniejszym formacie, o objętości 56 stron. Po śmierci ks. Tkocza nowym redaktorem naczelnym został w listopadzie 2003 ks. Marek Gancarczyk. Od 2007 pismo współpracuje z kanałem telewizyjnym Religia.tv. +Tematyka. +Pismo początkowo związane było z Górnym Śląskiem, obecnie ma charakter ogólnopolski. Dodatkowo w każdym numerze ukazują się lokalne dodatki diecezjalne. "Gość Niedzielny" jest tygodnikiem opiniotwórczym (wg danych ZKDP pierwszy tygodnik opinii w Polsce - przed "Polityką", "Newsweekiem" i "Wprost"), nie kryjącym się z przywiązaniem do chrześcijaństwa, ale otwartym na dyskusję. Tygodnik porusza tematy religijne, jak też problematykę etyczną, społeczną, polityczną, ekonomiczną, naukową, historyczną, medyczną, itd. W "Gościu Niedzielnym" znajdują się też cykle reportaży (m.in. "Europa na kolanach", "W drogę ze św. Pawłem") i katechez (m.in. "Filary wiary", "Modlitwa jak chleb"). Tygodnik jest forum wymiany myśli i dyskusji o Kościele w Polsce, na świecie, o polityce, problemach społecznych i ekonomii. +Autorzy. +Ważną częścią każdego wydania "Gościa" są felietony. Wśród felietonistów stale współpracujących z "Gościem" są: Marek Jurek, Barbara Fedyszak-Radziejowska, Wojciech Wencel, Wojciech Roszkowski (w rubryce "Asy z rękawa"), Franciszek Kucharczak ("Tabliczka sumienia"), ks. Tomasz Horak, o. Augustyn Pelanowski, Maciej Sablik ("do tablicy"). Szefem działów naukowego i gospodarczego jest Tomasz Rożek, kulturalnego - Szymon Babuchowski. +Dystrybucja. +"Gość Niedzielny" jest dostępny w kioskach, w sieci "Empik" oraz w kościołach. Wydanie zasadniczo sprzedawane jest przy okazji niedzielnych mszy świętych, ale do sklepików parafialnych, zakrystii i kiosków numer przeznaczony na niedzielę trafia już w czwartek. Druk prowadzi kielecka drukarnia Donnelley. Nakład "Gościa Niedzielnego" wynosił 200 494 egzemplarzy (w październiku 2010, i był wówczas największy wśród tygodników opiniotwórczych w Polsce), a średnia sprzedaż każdego numeru wynosiła 143 359 (październik 2010). +Od maja 2011 "Gość..." i "Mały Gość Niedzielny" są dostępne również w formie elektronicznej dystrybuowanej przez eGazety. +Kontrowersje. +W latach 2007–2008 Gość Niedzielny opublikował kilka artykułów komentujących sprawę Alicji Tysiąc. W roku 2009 sąd nakazał tygodnikowi przeproszenie kobiety i wypłacenie jej 30 tysięcy złotych tytułem zadośćuczynienia za wprowadzanie w błąd czytelników i stosowanie obraźliwych i napastliwych sformułowań w tychże tekstach. Ostatecznie doszło między Alicją Tysiąc a gazetą do porozumienia. +Incompatibilitas + +Incompatibilitas (łac. "niepołączalność") – zasada niełączenia określonych funkcji publicznych. Zasada ta odnosi się zarówno do funkcji pełnionych w administracji rządowej, jak i samorządowej. +Incompatibilitas w Polsce. +Dawna Polska. +Przed zaborami zasada "incompatibilitatis" miała szczególnie na celu zapobiegać skupianiu w jednym ręku dwóch lub kilku intratnych urzędów, np. nie wolno było piastować urzędu kanclerza będąc starostą, wojewodą lub kasztelanem. W praktyce zakaz taki jednak był często omijany. Nieprzestrzeganie tej zasady było częstą przyczyną sporów i zadrażnień między szlachtą, królem oraz dygnitarzami kumulującymi owe urzędy. +Współczesność. +Pozostałe przypadki zasady "incompatibilitatis" wynikają wprost z ustaw ustrojowych. +Incompatibilitas w Unii Europejskiej. +Zasada "incompatibilitatis" znalazła również zastosowanie w przypadku posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego – eurodeputowany nie może być członkiem rządu państwa członkowskiego, ponadto członkiem, urzędnikiem lub funkcjonariuszem organów Wspólnot Europejskich. Zasada ta ma również zastosowanie do sędziów i rzeczników generalnych Trybunału Sprawiedliwości, sędziów Sądu Pierwszej Instancji i sędziów Sądu do spraw Służby Publicznej Unii Europejskiej. +Maria Pakulnis + +Maria Pakulnis (ur. 2 lipca 1956 w Giżycku) – polska aktorka filmowa, teatralna i radiowa. +W 1976 r. ukończyła Liceum Pielęgniarskie w Giżycku, a następnie warszawską PWST. Debiut w 1982 roku w czasie studiów w filmie Tadeusza Konwickiego "Dolina Issy". Była aktorką w Teatrze Dramatycznym w Słupsku następnie w warszawskich teatrach: Współczesnym (1981-1987), Dramatycznym (od 1987) a obecnie Ateneum. Jej mężem był aktor i reżyser Krzysztof Zaleski. Ma jednego syna. +Dolina Kamienista + +Dolina Kamienista (słow. "Kamenistá dolina") – dolina walna w słowackich Tatrach Zachodnich, czasami uznawana też za odgałęzienie Doliny Cichej Liptowskiej ("Tichá dolina"), odchodzące od niej w jej dolnej części w kierunku północno-zachodnim. +Geologia i rzeźba terenu. +Wyrzeźbiona została w łupkach krystalicznych. Ma prosty przebieg. Była zlodowacona, jej żłób polodowcowy jest jednym z bardziej typowych w Tatrach. Lodowce pokryły jej dno zwałami moren. To dlatego nazywa się Kamienista, gdyż jak twierdził zoolog Maksymilian Nowicki: "W Dolinie Kamienistej nie ujrzysz prawie ani piędzi równego murawnika; wszystko szczery kamieniec". Ludwik Zejszner badający ją w 1950 pisał: "W tych rozpadlinach granitu zastaje zwiedzający niejeden piękny, a dziki widok". Jest bardzo głęboka – stojąc na grani Bystrej możemy dostrzec ogromny kontrast w głębokości jej dna w porównaniu z leżącą po drugiej stronie grani Doliną Bystrą; jej dno znajduje się ok. 400-450 m niżej niż dno Doliny Bystrej. Dnem doliny spływa Kamienisty Potok. +Zarastające dolinę lasy są w dużym stopniu zniszczone przez lawiny i dość nisko się kończą, ustępując miejsca kosodrzewinie. W niektórych miejscach rosną na dzikich urwiskach kamiennych, jako tzw. las urwiskowy. Ze skalistych zboczy zsypują się piargi, często aż do doliny potoku. +Historia. +Dawniej dolina tętniła życiem pasterskim, wypasali tutaj mieszkańcy słowackiej wsi Wychodna. Dawniej trawiaste obszary po zaprzestaniu wypasu zarastają borówczyskami, zaroślami malin i lasem. Pozostałością pasterskiej przeszłości jest kilka zarastających polan, m.in. położona na wysokości 1300-1350 m Polana Kamienista. Dolina Kamienista była też jednym z ważniejszych szlaków z Polski na Liptów. Prowadził on z Doliny Kościeliskiej przez Pyszniańską Przełęcz i Dolinę Kamienistą. Był używany przez przemytników, kupców i zbójników. Tędy chodzili bohaterzy "Legendy Tatr" Kazimierza Przerwy-Tetmajera. Po utworzeniu Tatrzańskiego Parku Narodowego Dolina Pyszniańska jako obszar ochrony ścisłej została wyłączona z turystyki, a szlak przestał być używany. +Friedrich Hartjenstein + +Friedrich Hartjenstein (ur. 3 lipca 1905 w Peine, zm. 20 października 1954 w Paryżu) - zbrodniarz hitlerowski, komendant obozów koncentracyjnych Auschwitz II - Birkenau i Natzweiler-Struthof oraz SS-Sturmbannführer. +Służył w Wehrmachcie, skąd w 1938 przeszedł do formacji Waffen-SS. Dowodził kompanią wartowniczą w KL Sachsenhausen w 1938. W 1939 był komendantem obozu w Niederhagen-Wewelsburg. Od 1940 do 1942 służył w formacjach frontowych SS-Totenkopf. Był funkcjonariuszem Głównego Urzędu Administracji i Gospodarki SS (WVHA Wirtschaftsverwaltungshauptamt). Podlegały mu sprawy zatrudnienia więźniów. We wrześniu 1942 Hartjenstein został skierowany do służby w kompleksie obozowym Auschwitz-Birkenau, gdzie początkowo do listopada 1943 sprawował funkcję dowódcy batalionu wartowniczego. Następnie od listopada 1943 do 8 maja 1944 był komendantem obozu w Brzezince. Stąd przeniesiono go na stanowisko komendanta obozu Natzweiler-Struthof, które piastował do lutego 1945. +Po wojnie był sądzony trzykrotnie przez trybunały alianckie za zbrodnie wojenne. 1 czerwca 1946 został skazany na dożywocie przez brytyjski Trybunał w Wuppertalu za udział w egzekucji czterech członków francuskiego Ruchu Oporu. Następnie ten sam Trybunał skazał Hartjensteina na karę śmierci przez powieszenie w procesie załogi Natzweiler-Struthof 5 czerwca 1946. Wyroku nie wykonano, gdyż Hartjensteina ekstradowano do Francji. Francuski trybunał wojskowy w procesie załogi KL Natzweiler skazał go na karę śmierci przez rozstrzelanie. Hartjenstein zmarł w więzieniu w Paryżu w oczekiwaniu na egzekucję. +Układ białowieski + +Układ białowieski − nazwa nadawana porozumieniu o utworzeniu Wspólnoty Niepodległych Państw zawartemu przez prezydentów Rosji, Białorusi i Ukrainy 8 grudnia 1991 roku na spotkaniu w Wiskulach w Puszczy Białowieskiej oraz w pobliskim Brześciu nad Bugiem. +Traktat ten głosił, że Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich jako podmiot prawa międzynarodowego i byt geopolityczny przestał istnieć, a na jego miejsce suwerenne kraje powołują WNP. Układ podpisali ze strony Rosji Borys Jelcyn, Białorusi Stanisław Szuszkiewicz i Ukrainy Leonid Krawczuk. Do układu tego po dwóch tygodniach w Ałma-Acie przystąpiły republiki azjatyckie ZSRR oraz Armenia, Azerbejdżan i Mołdawia. Gruzja przystąpiła do WNP w 1993 roku. +Podpisanie układu białowieskiego i przekształcenie ZSRR w WNP uznawane jest za ostateczny upadek imperium radzieckiego na drodze "cywilizowanego rozwodu", choć nie wiązało się z likwidacją ani nawet redukcją potencjału gospodarczego i militarnego byłego ZSRR. +Słoweńcy + +Słoweńcy ("Slovenci") – naród południowosłowiański, zamieszkujący głównie Słowenię – stanowią ok. 88% ogółu ludności (1,8 mln). Jako nieliczna mniejszość mieszkają w południowej Austrii (Słoweńcy karynccy) oraz w północno-wschodnich Włoszech. Posługują się językiem słoweńskim. +Chrystianizacja rozpoczęła się w VIII wieku. W większości Słoweńcy są wyznania rzymskokatolickiego. Słowiańscy przodkowie Słoweńców osiedlali się w Słowenii w drugiej połowie VI wieku. W IX w. stworzyli zależne od państwa frankońskiego księstwo, po jego likwidacji zostali wcieleni do państwa frankońskiego, następnie do państwa niemieckiego. +W procesie kształtowania kultury słoweńskiej ścierały się dwie tendencje: z jednej strony wpływy kultury niemieckiej i włoskiej, z drugiej – opór wobec presji obcej kultury, polegający na podkreślaniu i kultywowaniu słowiańskiej tożsamości. +Proces wyodrębniania się nowoczesnego narodu słoweńskiego, datowany na I połowę XIX w., przebiegał w opozycji do unifikującego Serbów i Chorwatów ruchu iliryjskiego oraz stanowił reakcję na zagrożenia germanizacyjne i italianizacyjne. +Rozwój cywilizacyjny spowodował zanik kultury tradycyjnej, zarówno materialnej, jak i duchowej, wyodrębniając kulturę słoweńską z kręgu południowosłowiańskiego i lokując ją w strefie środkowoeuropejskiej. +Mastka + +Mastka, smegma – mazista biała lub żółta serowata wydzielina gromadząca się u mężczyzn (łac. "Smegma praeputii") pod napletkiem, głównie w rowku zażołędnym członka, a u kobiet (łac. "Smegma clitoridis") pod napletkiem żołędzi łechtaczki, będąca produktem stłuszczonych i złuszczonych komórek nabłonkowych napletka, flory bakteryjnej oraz łoju. Zawiera także resztki moczu, a u mężczyzn również spermy. Jej zadaniem jest utrzymanie żołędzi w nawilżeniu, co ułatwia przebieg stosunku płciowego. +Mastka podejrzewana jest o działanie rakotwórcze. Niektóre badania wykazały większą zachorowalność na raka żołędzi u mężczyzn nieobrzezanych, u których mastka zalega pod napletkiem niż u mężczyzn obrzezanych, u których wydzielina ta jest nieobecna. Inne badania wskazują również zmniejszoną ilość stanów zapalnych pochwy i nowotworów szyjki macicy u kobiet utrzymujących stosunki z obrzezanymi mężczyznami. +Mastka występuje także u samców niektórych ssaków (np. knur, cap, ogier). Jej intensywny, nieprzyjemny dla człowieka zapach, w połączeniu z zapachem wydzielin innych gruczołów, jest atraktantem płciowym. Zapach ten obniża wartość mięsa rzeźnego. +Casamance + +Casamance (wolof: "Kaasamaas") - region Senegalu, położony na południe od terytorium Gambii nad rzeką Casamance. Obejmuje trzy regiony administracyjne kraju: Ziguinchor, Sédhiou i Kolda. Głównym miastem regionu Casamance jest Ziguinchor. Powierzchnia regionu wynosi ok. 29 tys. km², zamieszkuje go ok. 800 tys. mieszk. +Gospodarka Casamance w dużej mierze opiera się na rolnictwie, głównie uprawie ryżu. Region posiada też dobre warunki do rozwoju turystyki (m.in. plaże w okolicach Cap Skirring i na wyspie Carabane), ale sytuacja polityczna utrudnia wykorzystanie tych zasobów. +Dominującą grupą etniczną tego regionu jest lud Diola. Stosunkowo trudna sytuacja ekonomiczna w tym regionie doprowadziła do powstania separatystycznego Ruchu Demokratycznych Sił Casamance ("Mouvement des forces démocratiques de Casamance", MFDC). W 1982 doszło do pierwszych konfrontacji między siłami zbrojnymi Senegalu a miejscowymi rebeliantami. Zawieszenie broni uzgodnione w 1991 i 2001 zostały później zerwane. Ostatnie porozumienie z 30 grudnia 2004 zakłada rezygnację z wszelkich działań zbrojnych przez obie strony, otwarcie negocjacji oraz wprowadzenie planu odbudowy regionu. +Josef Kramer + +Josef Kramer (ur. 10 listopada 1906, zm. 13 grudnia 1945 w Hameln) - zbrodniarz hitlerowski, komendant obozów koncentracyjnych Natzweiler-Struthof, Auschwitz II - Birkenau i Bergen-Belsen oraz SS-Hauptsturmführer. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Monachium. Członek NSDAP od 1931 (nr legitymacji partyjnej 733597) i SS od 1932 (nr identyfikacyjny 32217). W 1934 rozpoczął w Dachau służbę w obozach koncentracyjnych. Od listopada 1934 do czerwca 1936 Kramer należał do komendatury obozu w Esterwegen, następnie powrócił do Dachau. Od czerwca 1937 do sierpnia 1938 był adiutantem komendanta Sachsenhausen. W sierpniu 1939 Kramer został adiutantem komendanta Mauthausen Franza Ziereisa. Taką samą funkcję pełnił od maja do listopada 1940 w Auschwitz, gdzie sprawował funkcję adiutanta Rudolfa Hössa. +Następnie do kwietnia 1941 szkolił się w Dachau na stanowisko "Schutzhaftlagerführera" (kierownika obozu) i od kwietnia 1941 do maja 1942 sprawował je w obozie Natzweiler-Struthof, po czym awansował na stanowisko komendanta tego obozu. +W maju 1944 powrócił do kompleksu obozowego Auschwitz i sprawował do 1 grudnia 1944 funkcję komendanta w Birkenau. Kierował wówczas akcją zamordowania ok. 400 tysięcy Żydów węgierskich. Następnie Kramer został przeniesiony na stanowisko komendanta obozu w Bergen-Belsen. Ze względu na swoje okrucieństwo zdobył wówczas sobie przydomek ""bestii z Bergen-Belsen"". Był odpowiedzialny za śmierć tysięcy więźniów obozu. W kwietniu 1945 został aresztowany przez wojska brytyjskie podczas wyzwalania Bergen-Belsen. +Po zakończeniu wojny stanął przed brytyjskim Trybunałem Wojskowym w Lüneburgu w pierwszym procesie załogi Bergen-Belsen. 17 listopada 1945 został skazany na karę śmierci. Wyrok wykonano przez powieszenie 13 grudnia 1945 o godzinie 12:11 w więzieniu w Hameln. +Wykaz podobozów Auschwitz + +Podobozy KL Auschwitz miały mieć początkowo charakter zaopatrzeniowy dla macierzystego obozu koncentracyjnego. W związku z działalnością niemieckich przedsiębiorstw przemysłowych na terenie okupowanych ziem postanowiono, że te będą służyły też jako źródła siły roboczej dla kopalń, hut czy zakładów produkcyjnych. Z początku wszystkie podobozy podlegały Auschwitz I, lecz gdy rozdzielono administracyjnie w listopadzie 1943 roku trzy główne obozy, podobozy rolno-hodowlane przypadły Birkenau, a przemysłowe – Monowitz. Ogółem podobozów rolno-hodowlanych było 6, podobozów przemysłowych było 28, a 10 innych podobozów pełniło różne funkcje - od pracy w lesie po budowę koszar. +Myślibora + +Myślibora – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członów "Myśli-" ("myśleć") i "-bor-a" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Być może oznaczało "tę, która myśli o walce" albo "tę, która obmyśla walkę". +Myślibora imieniny obchodzi 28 września. +Męski odpowiednik: Myślibor. +Kolarstwo górskie + +Kolarstwo górskie (MTB — z ang. "mountain biking") — forma kolarstwa uprawianego za pomocą rowerów górskich, których konstrukcja umożliwia poruszanie się w trudnym terenie. +Wstęp. +Dyscyplina ta jest coraz bardziej popularnym i docenianym sposobem spędzania wolnego czasu. Niektórzy amatorzy uprawiający ten sport traktują go jako możliwość rozwoju fizycznego, stąd duża liczba imprez, w których kolarze górscy mogą sprawdzać swoje umiejętności. +Zalety roweru górskiego i jego uniwersalność powodują, że jest on bardzo często wybierany jako środek transportu podczas eskapad górskich oraz wycieczek w trudnym terenie. Dzięki temu pojawił się całkiem nowy odłam turystyki rowerowej, zarówno prywatnej, jak też zorganizowanej, polegającej na przemierzaniu szlaków niedostępnych dla samochodów, a z powodu dużych odległości zbyt długich dla turystów pieszych. +Krótka historia. +Kolarstwo górskie powstało w USA, gdzie pod koniec lat 70. XX w. pojawiła się moda na jazdę rowerami w trudnym terenie, poza normalnymi drogami. Za twórcę tego sportu uważa się najczęściej Gary'ego Fishera, który w 1979 r. jako pierwszy wpadł na pomysł produkcji rowerów opartych generalnie na konstrukcji roweru miejskiego, ale o wzmocnionej i skróconej ramie, pozbawionych osłon, błotników i innych tego rodzaju zbędnych „ozdób” oraz zaopatrzonych w koła o średnicy 26 cali na szerokich oponach z grubym bieżnikiem zamiast dotychczas stosowanych gładkich i cienkich kół 28-calowych. +Początkowo kolarstwo górskie było nieformalnym sportem ekstremalnym. Pierwsze zawody były uprawiane w stylu przypominającym współczesny "freeride" i polegały na zjazdach po wąskich i niebezpiecznych ścieżkach leśnych (tzw. "single track"), przy czym trasy mogły się miejscami wznosić, ale generalnie prowadziły z góry na dół. Później, mniej więcej pod koniec lat 80. XX w., sport ten stawał się coraz bardziej popularny i jednocześnie zaczęło się jego różnicowanie na poszczególne, lepiej zdefiniowane dyscypliny. +Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) zwróciła uwagę na ten sport jesienią 1990 roku i włączyła do katalogu swoich oficjalnych zawodów wcześniej rozgrywane nieformalnie od paru lat mistrzostwa świata, które miały miejsce w Purgatory w stanie Kolorado w USA. W następnym roku pod egidą UCI rozegrano pierwszy cykl zawodów pucharu świata. Składał się on z 8 zawodów rozgrywanych w Europie i USA i był oficjalnie sponsorowany przez firmę Grundig, jako "Grundig-UCI Cross-Country World Championships". W 1992 roku do pucharu świata doszły jeszcze zawody rozgrywane w Australii. Puchar ten był w 1991 i 1992 roku rozgrywany tylko w kategorii Cross-Country (XC). W 1993 roku po raz pierwszy zorganizowano serię sześciu zawodów w ramach pucharu świata w downhillu. W 1996 roku zawody w XC stały się oficjalnie konkurencją rozgrywaną na letniej olimpiadzie. +Dyscypliny. +Kolarstwo ekstremalne. +Kolarstwo ekstremalne zwane też "kolarstwem grawitacyjnym" — rodzaj kolarstwa górskiego uprawianego na silnie nachylonych stokach naturalnych lub specjalnie przygotowywanych trasach. Wspólną cechą jest pokonywanie silnie nachylonej trasy obfitującej w liczne naturalne lub sztuczne przeszkody (muldy, koleiny, ostre wiraże, skocznie). W niektórych dyscyplinach (freeride, slopestyle, dirt jumping) przejazdy obfitują w liczne skoki oraz wykonywanie przeróżnych sztuczek („tricków”) w powietrzu — podobnie jak w alpejskich konkurencjach narciarskich zjazdowiec musi skupić się na wyborze optymalnej drogi, nie tracąc przy tym trakcji. +Gmina Brenna + +Gmina Brenna – gmina wiejska w województwie śląskim, w powiecie cieszyńskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie bielskim. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwały 10 164 osoby. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 13,08% powierzchni powiatu. +Demografia. +W 1900 roku Brenna, Górki Wielkie i Małe miały łączną powierzchnię 9561 ha (95,61 km²) a liczbę ludności 4301 (gęstość zaludnienia 45 os./km²) zamieszkałych w 555 budynkach, z czego 4270 (99,3%) było polsko-, 15 czesko- a 14 niemieckojęzycznymi, 3614 (84%) było katolikami, 655 (15,2%) ewangelikami a 32 (0,7%) wyznawcami judaizmu. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Skoczów, Jasienica, Jaworze, Bielsko-Biała, Szczyrk, Wisła i Ustroń. +Powiat lipnowski + +Powiat lipnowski - powiat w Polsce (we wschodniej części województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Lipno. +Wiesław Chrzanowski (inżynier) + +Wiesław Chrzanowski (ur. 15 grudnia 1880 w Gruszczynie, zm. 5 grudnia 1940 w Warszawie) - polski inżynier i konstruktor silników cieplnych, profesor politechnik we Lwowie i Warszawie, działacz państwowy. Ojciec Wiesława Mariana Chrzanowskiego, marszałka Sejmu, adwokata i polityka. +Urodził się w Gruszczynie koło Swarzędza, studiował i obronił doktorat w Niemczech (Politechnika w Charlottenburgu). Od 1912 był wykładowcą Politechniki Lwowskiej a od 1919 Politechniki Warszawskiej. W Warszawie kierował Katedrą Turbin i Maszyn Parowych, a także był rektorem (1932-1933); 26 października 1919 wygłosił wykład inauguracyjny w Politechnice Warszawskiej ("Czynniki warunkujące rozwój naszego przemysłu"). Przyczynił się do założenia Fabryki Wagon w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim. W 1920 sprawował funkcję ministra przemysłu i handlu. Był członkiem Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego (od 1930), członkiem-założycielem (1920), przewodniczącym Wydziału Nauk Mechanicznych (1920-1928) i wiceprezesem (1933-1936) Akademii Nauk Technicznych. +Zajmował się konstrukcją silników parowych. Był autorem wielu prac naukowych, m.in. "Cylindry maszyn spalinowych" (1918), "Turbiny parowe" (1920), "Stawidła maszyn parowych" (1926-1937). +Był odznaczony m.in. Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. W listopadzie 1939 został aresztowany przez Niemców; po zwolnieniu zmarł wskutek choroby nowotworowej. +Əbülfəz Elçibəy + +Əbülfəz Elçibəy (polskie media często używają transkrypcji z pisowni rosyjskiej: Abulfaz Elczibej; ur. 24 czerwca 1938 w Nachiczewaniu, zm. 22 sierpnia 2000 w Ankarze) – polityk azerski, prezydent Azerbejdżanu w latach 1992-1993. +Jego prawdziwe imię to Əbülfəz Qədirqulu oğlu Əliyev, lecz zmienił je rozpoczynając działalność antykomunistyczną. Był pierwszym niekomunistycznym prezydentem Azerbejdżanu, od objęcia władzy w 1992 aż do upadku w czerwcu 1993 r. W swej polityce zorientowany był prozachodnio, próbując zacieśniać kontakty z Turcją oraz atakując w licznych wystąpieniach rządzony przez ajatollahów Iran. Nastawiony antyrosyjsko Elçibəy pragnąc uniezależnić kraj od wpływów Rosji dążył do zacieśniania kontaktów z Zachodem, dopuszczając m.in. zachodnie koncerny do poszukiwań i wydobycia azerskiej ropy. +Prezydentura Elçibəya przypadła na czas zaciętych walk Azerów z Ormianami o Górski Karabach. Strona azerska poniosła w czasie wojny ciężkie straty tracąc kontrolę nie tylko nad całym terytorium Karabachu, stanowiącym "de iure" republikę autonomiczną w ramach Azerbejdżanu, lecz także nad całymi południowo-zachodnimi regionami republiki. Wszystko to sprawiło, iż przestał być wygodny dla Rosji, nie cieszył się także zbyt wielkim poparciem w kraju. +W takiej sytuacji w czerwcu 1993 r. z inspiracji Rosji zorganizowano spisek, mający na celu odsunięcie Elçibəya od władzy. Przewrotem kierował wojskowy, pułkownik Surət Hüseynov. Elçibəy zwrócił się o pomoc do przewodniczącego parlamentu, Heydəra Əliyeva, jednak ten korzystając z sytuacji sam przejął władzę. Elçibəy został zmuszony do odejścia z polityki. Osiadł wówczas w swojej rodzinnej wiosce w Nachiczewanie. +W 1997 Elçibəy wrócił do Baku występując oficjalnie jako przeciwnik Əliyeva. W 1999 został oskarżony o wspieranie uważanej za organizację terrorystyczną Kurdyjskiej Partii Pracy, jednak niedługo potem oskarżenie cofnięto. Elçibəy wyjechał do Ankary, gdzie wkrótce zmarł. +Natężenie pola elektrycznego + +Natężenie pola elektrycznego – wektorowa wielkość fizyczna charakteryzująca pole elektryczne. +Natężenie pola elektrycznego jest równe sile działającej na jednostkowy dodatni ładunek próbny, co matematycznie wyraża się jako stosunek siły \scriptstyle\vec {F}, z jaką pole elektrostatyczne działa na ładunek elektryczny, do wartości "q" tego ładunku. +Ładunek próbny oznacza ładunek na tyle mały, że nie wpływa on znacząco na rozkład ładunków w badanym obszarze i tym samym nie zmienia pola elektrycznego w badanym punkcie. +Jednostką natężenia pola elektrycznego jest niuton na kulomb +co jest równoważne woltowi na metr +Natężenie pola elektrycznego obrazuje się stosując techniki używane do obrazowania pól wektorowych, rysując linie sił pola (linie styczne do wektora siły działającej na ładunek dodatni), których gęstość odzwierciedla lokalne natężenie pola. +Zobacz też. +natężenie pola grawitacyjnego +Medaliści igrzysk olimpijskich w skokach narciarskich + +Medaliści igrzysk olimpijskich w skokach narciarskich – zestawienie zawodników i drużyn, które przynajmniej raz stanęły na podium zawodów olimpijskich w skokach narciarskich. +Zawody w skokach narciarskich w ramach zimowych igrzysk olimpijskich są rozgrywane od 1924 roku. Do igrzysk w 1960 roku w Squaw Valley rozgrywano jeden konkurs indywidualny na skoczni dużej. W 1964 roku na zimowych igrzyskach olimpijskich w Innsbrucku po raz pierwszy rozegrano dwa konkursy indywidualne – na skoczni dużej i normalnej. Podczas Zimowych Igrzysk Olimpijskich 1988 w Calgary do kalendarza włączono także konkurs drużynowy na dużej skoczni. +W latach 1924–1952 złote medale olimpijskie w skokach narciarskich zdobywali tylko reprezentanci Norwegii. Pierwszym mistrzem olimpijskim został Jacob Tullin Thams. Podczas igrzysk w 1932 i 1936 roku pierwsze miejsce zajął Birger Ruud, tym samym stał się pierwszym skoczkiem, który zdobył tytuł mistrza olimpijskiego dwa razy z rzędu. Pierwszym mistrzem olimpijskim spoza Norwegii był Antti Hyvärinen, który zdobył złoty medal na igrzyskach w Cortina d'Ampezzo w 1956 roku. +Najwięcej złotych medali olimpijskich – 10, zdobyli Finowie, a najwięcej medali olimpijskich w sumie zdobyli skoczkowie norwescy – 29. +Trzykrotnie zdarzyło się, że całe podium danej konkurencji zajmowali reprezentanci tego samego kraju. Po raz pierwszy miało to miejsce w 1932 roku podczas igrzysk w Lake Placid, gdzie wszystkie medale w skokach narciarskich zdobyli reprezentanci Norwegii. Taka sama sytuacja miała miejsce 16 lat później w Sankt Moritz. Trzeci raz zdarzenie to miało miejsce w 1972 roku w Sapporo, jednak tym razem całe podium zostało zdominowane przez Japończyków. +Matti Nykänen jako pierwszy i dotąd jedyny skoczek w historii zdobył trzy złote medale olimpijskie w trakcie jednych igrzysk. Dokonał tego w 1988 roku w Calgary, gdzie zwyciężył zarówno w obu konkurencjach indywidualnych, jak i w zawodach drużynowych. Dwukrotne zwycięstwo w konkursach indywidualnych powtórzył Simon Ammann, który zdobył dwa złote medale w konkurencjach indywidualnych rozgrywanych w ramach zimowych igrzysk w Salt Lake City oraz w Vancouver i tym samym stał się pierwszym skoczkiem narciarskim w historii, który zdobył cztery złote medale olimpijskie w konkurencjach indywidualnych. +W drużynowych konkursach olimpijskich po dwa złote medale zdobyli reprezentanci Finlandii, Niemiec oraz Austrii, a jeden tytuł wywalczyli skoczkowie japońscy. Najwięcej medali w sumie w zawodach drużynowych zdobyli Austriacy, którzy łącznie zdobyli ich pięć. +Reprezentanci Polski zdobyli pięć medali w skokach narciarskich: medale zdobywali Wojciech Fortuna - złoto na dużej skoczni podczas igrzysk w Sapporo i Adam Małysz - srebrny medal na dużej skoczni i brązowy na skoczni normalnej podczas igrzysk w Salt Lake City oraz dwa srebrne medale na dużej i normalnej skoczni podczas igrzysk w Vancouver. +Medaliści olimpijscy. +Skocznia duża indywidualnie. +Konkursy igrzysk olimpijskich na obiektach dużych rozgrywane są od 1924 roku. Poniższa tabela prezentuje medalistów olimpijskich z lat 1924–2010 na skoczni dużej. Niektóre skocznie według aktualnej klasyfikacji Międzynarodowej Federacji Narciarskiej uznawane byłyby za skocznie normalne lub średnie, jednak w tabeli uwzględniono typ skoczni aktualny w chwili rozgrywania poszczególnych igrzysk olimpijskich. +Skocznia normalna indywidualnie. +Poniżej znajduje się lista medalistów olimpijskich z lat 1964–2010 na skoczni normalnej. Niektóre spośród skoczni według obecnej klasyfikacji Międzynarodowej Federacji Narciarskiej zaliczane byłyby jako skocznie średnie, jednak w tabeli uwzględniono typ skoczni aktualny w chwili rozgrywania poszczególnych igrzysk olimpijskich. +Skocznia duża drużynowo. +Olimpijskie konkursy drużynowe w skokach narciarskich rozgrywane są od 1988 roku. Poniższa tabela przedstawia ekipy, które zdobyły medale olimpijskie w latach 1988–2010 wraz z pełnymi składami zawodników. Wszystkie skocznie, na których rozegrano zawody drużynowe są obiektami dużymi. +Klasyfikacje medalowe. +Klasyfikacja zawodników. +Poniższa tabela zawiera zestawienie zawodników, którzy zdobyli przynajmniej jeden medal olimpijski w skokach narciarskich. Uwzględnione zostały zarówno starty indywidualne, jak i drużynowe. W przypadku, gdy któryś z zawodników reprezentował więcej niż jeden kraj, zostały wymienione wszystkie państwa, w barwach których startował. +Klasyfikacja medalistów w konkursach indywidualnych. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia zawodników, którzy zdobyli dwa lub więcej medali igrzysk olimpijskich w konkursach indywidualnych, w tym przynajmniej jeden złoty. Uwzględnione zostały tylko medale zdobyte w konkursach indywidualnych. W przypadku, gdy któryś z zawodników startował w barwach więcej niż jednego państwa, wymienione zostały wszystkie kraje, które reprezentował. +Klasyfikacja państw. +W poniższej tabeli przedstawione zostały państwa, które zdobyły przynajmniej jeden medal igrzysk olimpijskich w konkursach indywidualnych bądź drużynowych w skokach narciarskich. +Klasyfikacja reprezentacji w konkursach drużynowych. +W poniższej tabeli zostały zawarte reprezentacje w skokach narciarskich, które zdobyły przynajmniej jeden medal olimpijski w konkurencjach drużynowych. +CIMIC + +CIMIC (ang. Civil-Military Co-operation), oznacza współpracę cywilno-wojskową. +Jest to termin używany w ramach struktur NATO, służący określeniu strategii, zakładającej współpracę sił wojskowych z organami władzy cywilnej w ramach prowadzonych operacji. +Strategia CIMIC przejawia się m.in. w operacjach prowadzonych w ramach planowania obrony cywilnej w sytuacji zagrożeń (CEP) oraz wsparcia przez państwo-gospodarza (HNS). +Współpraca cywilno – wojskowa (CIMIC) jest to nawiązywanie i utrzymywanie kontaktów pomiędzy dowódcami sojuszniczymi i narodowymi a narodowymi organami władzy (wojskowymi i cywilnymi) oraz ludnością cywilną na obszarze prowadzenia operacji lub na obszarze gdzie jest planowane rozmieszczenie sił wojskowych w zakresie czynników społecznych, politycznych, kulturowych, ekonomicznych, środowiskowych oraz humanitarnych. Współpraca ta, obejmuje także dokonywanie uzgodnień z organizacjami międzynarodowymi i krajowymi, rządowymi i pozarządowymi działającymi na obszarze prowadzenia operacji, lub gdzie taka operacja jest planowana. +Celem CIMIC jest zmniejszenie negatywnego wpływu, jakie środowisko cywilne może wywierać na prowadzoną operację oraz ustanowienie i utrzymanie pełnego współdziałania sił wojskowych z lokalną ludnością i instytucjami pozamilitarnymi. +Podczas planowania, przygotowania i prowadzenia operacji dowódcy wszystkich szczebli powinni uwzględniać wszystkie aspekty środowiska cywilnego mogące mieć wpływ na prowadzenie działań. +Appellation d'origine contrôlée + +Appellation d'origine contrôlée, (AOC), także apelacja – ściśle określony rejon produkcji wina lub innych produktów spożywczych, np. serów, w którym obowiązują ściśle ustalone zasady uprawy winorośli lub hodowli bydła mlecznego oraz technologii produkcji wyrobów gotowych. Producenci wina lub sera którzy produkują je w danym rejonie zgodnie z tymi zasadami otrzymują zazwyczaj prawo do umieszczania o tym informacji na etykietach swoich wyrobów. +We Francji, gdzie system apelacji powstał, ustanawianiem i nadzorem tych rejonów zajmuje się specjalna komórka ministerstwa rolnictwa, która tworzy lokalne komitety kontroli produkcji i jakości, które na co dzień czuwają nad przestrzeganiem zasad ustanowionych dla danej apelacji. +Poza Francją, systemy apelacyjne istnieją też w wielu innych krajach, m.in. w Niemczech, Hiszpanii, Kalifornii i Włoszech. +Winiarstwo. +Wina które spełniają powyższe kryteria mogą być etykietowane napisem "Appellation Contrôlée XXX", gdzie "XXX" to nazwa danej apelacji. +Napis taki gwarantuje, że wino jest wyprodukowane zgodnie z zasadami danej apelacji, z winogron rzeczywiście pochodzących w całości z jej terenu, w określonym roku. Napis ten, wbrew rozpowszechnionym sądom, nie orzeka jednak o wysokich walorach smakowych wina, gdyż wina w ramach systemu apelacji nie są poddawane degustacji, lecz przechodzą jedynie kontrolę techniczną. +O walorach smakowych win francuskich orzeka dopiero system Cru, który jest tworzony zwykle przez samorządy winiarskie z danej apelacji. W ramach systemu Cru wino pochodzące z różnych winnic z terenu apelacji jest poddawane degustacji przez wybranych sędziów, którzy decydują o przyznaniu (lub nie) określonego Cru danej winnicy w danym roku. Wiele winnic nie decyduje się jednak na poddawanie swoich win degustacji w ramach systemu Cru i pozostaje poza nim. +Gniew (emocja) + +Gniew – reakcja emocjonalna na niepowodzenie lub wzburzenie emocjonalne, czasami z nastawieniem agresywnym (zob. złość), będący reakcją na działanie interpretowane jako skierowana negatywnie akcja zaczepna. Podobnie jak inne emocje, gniew specyficznie zabarwia obraz postrzeganej rzeczywistości. Dzięki zniekształceniu rzeczywistości przygotowuje do działania w sposób korzystny dla osoby doznającej tego odczucia. Umiejętność kontroli gniewu zależy od możliwości intelektualnych oraz socjalizacji danego człowieka. +Do określenia poziomu i natężenia gniewu służy m.in. skala ekspresji gniewu (SEG). +Gniew składa się z trzech elementów: myśli, reakcji fizjologicznej oraz zachowania. W przeciwieństwie do złości i wściekłości, gniew może być kontrolowany. +Komponent fizjologiczny gniewu. +Układ współczulny i mięśniowy ogólnie rzecz biorąc - mobilizują się, przygotowują do ataku. Spada przepływ krwi w naczyniach podskórnych, oraz kończynach, zwiększając jej dawkowanie do głównych narządów takich jak mózg, serce, oraz najważniejszych mięśni (m. in. ramion, ud). Wzrasta ciśnienie tętnicze i szybkość pracy serca. Przestaje pracować układ pokarmowy. Zostają pobudzone "odpowiednie" ośrodki w mózgu, odpowiedzialne za wydzielanie innych "hormonów stresu" oraz koncentrację. Rozszerzają się źrenice. Pocą się wnętrza dłoni, zwiększając tym swoją przyczepność, co umożliwia pewniejszy chwyt w walce. Wydziela się m.in. fenyloetyloamina, adrenalina. Częściowo zostaje zredukowane odczuwanie bólu. Zwiększa się refleks. Zależnie od poziomu stresu, zostają zredukowane ograniczenia siły mięśni (normalnie człowiek wykorzystuje ok. 25-30% rzeczywistej siły mięśni, a to dlatego, że jest ona redukowana przez mózg, który "wie”, że nie tylko nie jest ona potrzebna w 100% i powodowałaby niepotrzebne zużycie energii, ale także dlatego, że siła mięśni jest niewspółmierna do ich wytrzymałości, i blisko kresu swych możliwości mięśnie zrywałyby się ze ścięgien bardziej szkodząc, niż pomagając). +Behawioralny komponent gniewu. +Działanie, w przypadku niekotrolowanego gniewu (a czasem także w przypadku kontrolowanego), to z reguły atak, który ma na celu zaprzestanie działania innej osoby, które jest interpretowane jako skierowana negatywnie akcja zaczepna. Przy dobrej socjalizacji atak sprowadza się do zachowań werbalnych, przy słabszej - atak jest fizyczny. +Uwarunkowania społeczne i religijne. +W buddyzmie gniew uważany jest za jedno z najważniejszych splamień, przeszkadzających w osiągnięciu oświecenia. +W chrześcijaństwie nieuporządkowany bądź nieuzasadniony gniew jest wymieniany jako jeden z siedmiu grzechów głównych, gdyż świadomie podsycany i budzony, jest sprzeciwieniem się miłości bliźniego, która stanowi podstawową zasadę moralną Nowego Testamentu; +Osoby szczególnie podatne na gniew nazywane są impulsywnymi i są one z tego powodu często negatywnie oceniane przez otoczenie. +Ziguinchor + +Ziguinchor – miasto w południowym Senegalu, stolica historycznego regionu Casamance, ośrodek administracyjny regionu Ziguinchor. Ludność: 168,6 tys. (2012). +Ziguinchor stanowi główną siedzibę separatystycznego ruchu dążącego do zwiększenia autonomii lub nawet uzyskania niepodległości przez ten region. +Podpisane 30 grudnia 2004 porozumienie między władzami w Dakarze a rebeliantami z Casamance daje szansę na koniec konfliktu, odbudowę regionu i wykorzystanie potencjału turystycznego miasta i okolic. +Złość + +Złość to powodowana strachem reakcja emocjonalna, która pojawia się, gdy zablokowane jest jakieś dążenie i następuje utrata poczucia kontroli. Złość jest często związana z powtarzającym się oddziaływaniem czynników stresogennych. Osoba narażona na działanie bodźców stresogennych, bez poczucia możliwości reakcji na nie może zaczynać reagować złością. +Złość wyrażana jest spontanicznie: krzykiem, gestami, czasem rękoczynami. Reagowanie złością jest często ucieczką od odpowiedzialności, wówczas gdy człowiekowi wydaje się, że jest niezdolny do rozwiązania trudności. Ludzie wpadają w złość również, gdy nie mają pewności o słuszności własnych poglądów, ale dopuszczają, że nie mają racji. +W przeciwieństwie do gniewu, złość nie jest reakcją kontrolowaną. +Obrona terytorialna + +Obrona terytorialna - jest jednym z dwóch elementów często stosowanego podziału potencjału zbrojnego Sił Zbrojnych Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na siły obrony terytorialnej (OT), oraz siły operacyjne. Przy obecnie przyjętej nieagresywnej i defensywnej strategii, siły obrony terytorialnej przeważają nad siłami operacyjnymi. Podstawowym organem dowodzenia w obronie terytorialnej jest dowództwo okręgu wojskowego. +Zadania. +Siły obrony terytorialnej wykonują zadania z zakresu obrony powszechnej państwa oraz wsparcia i zabezpieczenia wojsk operacyjnych. Ponadto, mogą one prowadzić działania bojowe oraz ratownicze. Zawsze jednak działania OT ograniczone są do terenu kraju. Poszczególne oddziały obrony terytorialnej mogą być w określonych przypadkach podporządkowane operacyjnie dowódcom sojuszniczym. +Struktura. +Szefostwo Obrony Terytorialnej działa w strukturach Sztabu Generalnego WP. Jest to organ koncepcyjny oraz organizacyjno-planistyczny. W dowództwach poszczególnych rodzajów sił zbrojnych działają wydziały obrony terytorialnej. Skład i struktura wojsk OT podporządkowane są podziałowi terytorialnemu państwa, wg potrzeb poszczególnych rejonów. +Apelacja (prawo) + +Apelacja (łac. "appellatio" - odwołanie) – odwołanie się od wydanego wyroku. W prawie procesowym apelacja jest środkiem odwoławczym od wyroku sądu pierwszej instancji do sądu drugiej instancji. +Terminem apelacja określa się też "system kontroli odwoławczej odznaczającej się specyficznymi cechami". +Apelacja przysługuje wyłącznie od wyroku sądu pierwszej instancji. Od wyroków wydanych w pierwszej instancji przez sąd rejonowy apelacja przysługuje do sądu okręgowego, natomiast jeśli wyrok w pierwszej instancji zapadł przed sądem okręgowym, sądem drugiej instancji jest sąd apelacyjny. +Apelację należy wnosić na piśmie, do sądu odwoławczego za pośrednictwem sądu pierwszej instancji, w terminie 14 dni od daty doręczenia wyroku z uzasadnieniem. +Gdy jednak strona nie zażądała uzasadnienia wyroku w terminie tygodniowym od ogłoszenia sentencji wyroku, termin do wniesienia apelacji biegnie od dnia, w którym upłynął termin do żądania uzasadnienia. +Prawidłowo wniesiona i spełniająca wszelkie wymogi apelacja prowadzi do ponownego rozpatrzenia sprawy, przy uwzględnieniu dodatkowych, zawartych w niej, przesłanek. Niewniesienie apelacji skutkuje uprawomocnieniem się wyroku sądu pierwszej instancji. +W postępowaniu cywilnym, które toczy się w trybie postępowania nieprocesowego, apelacja przysługuje również od postanowień sądu pierwszej instancji orzekających co do istoty sprawy. +Postępowanie apelacyjne w postępowaniu karnym. +Zasadniczą funkcją postępowania apelacyjnego jest funkcja kontrolna. +W 1949 roku apelacja została usunięta z polskiego procesu karnego i zastąpiona przez rewizję. W 1995 roku w noweli kodeksu postępowania karnego zmieniono określenie "rewizja" na "apelacja", jednak była to zmiana mechaniczna, nie licząc ograniczenia orzekania na niekorzyść przez sąd odwoławczy. +W Polsce system apelacyjny jest systemem postępowania dwuinstancyjnego. Strona, która zaskarża wyrok, może żądać jego kontroli pod względem prawnym i faktycznym. Apelacja może zostać oparta na jednym albo kilku spośród czterech zarzutów: +Dodatkowo w apelacji podnosić można wszelkie zarzuty, które nie mogły być przedmiotem zażalenia. +Sąd odwoławczy orzeka w granicach środka odwoławczego, tzn. związany jest kierunkiem apelacji (na korzyść czy na niekorzyść oskarżonego) i jej zakresem (zaskarżenie wyroku w całości czy w części), a jeśli apelację na niekorzyść oskarżonego wniósł prokurator lub pełnomocnik jednej ze stron - także wymienionymi w niej zarzutami. Zasada związania granicami środka odwoławczego nie obowiązuje gdy stwierdzone zostanie istnienie jednej spośród tzw. bezwzględnych przesłanek odwoławczych. +Sąd odwoławczy, w rezultacie rozpoznania apelacji, może zaskarżony wyrok utrzymać w mocy, uchylić (wtedy kieruje sprawę do ponownego rozpoznania, bądź umarza postępowanie) a jeżeli pozwala na to zgromadzony materiał dowodowy, ma prawo zmienić zaskarżony wyrok, nie może jednak skazać oskarżonego, który został uniewinniony przez sąd pierwszej instancji. W razie przekazania sprawy do ponownego rozpoznania sądowi pierwszej instancji, sąd ten jest związany wskazówkami i zapatrywaniami prawnymi sądu odwoławczego. +Sąd odwoławczy nie przeprowadza postępowania dowodowego. Od tej zasady istnieje wyjątek przewidziany przez art. 452 § 2 k.p.k. +Na wniosek oskarżonego pozbawionego wolności sąd odwoławczy zarządza sprowadzenie go na rozprawę. Może się zdarzyć, że sąd za wystarczającą uzna obecność obrońcy. W takim wypadku, jeżeli oskarżony nie ma obrońcy, sąd wyznacza obrońcę z urzędu. +W postępowaniu karnym prawo wniesienia apelacji przysługuje stronom postępowania, czyli: oskarżonemu, prokuratorowi, oskarżycielowi posiłkowemu, oskarżycielowi prywatnemu i powodowi cywilnemu. +Historia. +Apelację w prawie polskim stosowano pod koniec średniowiecza przed sądami miejskimi i kościelnymi. Do prawa ziemskiego weszła w XVI w. już jako instrument prawny w pełni ukształtowany. Była środkiem służącym do zmiany wydanego wyroku lub jego uchylenia. Toczyła się pomiędzy tymi samymi uczestnikami co w niższej instancji. Złożenie apelacji np. od wyroku sądu grodzkiego oznaczało przekazanie sprawy do Trybunału Koronnego a na Litwie do Trybunału Litewskiego, z jednoczesnym wstrzymaniem wykonania wyroku do czasu ostatecznego rozstrzygnięcia sprawy. Zdarzało się, że część spraw nim trafiła do Trybunału była w drodze apelacji rozpatrywana przez sądy ziemskie, czemu protestowano, gdyż uważano, że sądy równe sobie nie powinny rozpatrywać swych spraw nawzajem. +Kanmił + +Kanmił – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Kan-" ("kaniti" – "gościć, zapraszać") i "-mił" ("miły"). Mogło ono oznaczać "ten, kto miło gości innych". +Kanmił imieniny obchodzi 16 lipca. +Zobacz też: Kanimir +Program do kompresji plików + +Program do kompresji plików – program do kodowania danych w taki sposób, aby zajmowały jak najmniej danych na dysku. +Współcześnie istnieje kilkadziesiąt formatów skompresowanych archiwów, z których najpopularniejszym jest ZIP, obsługiwany przez prawie wszystkie dostępne aplikacje. Programy dostępne na rynku (freeware i shareware) obsługują różne zestawy formatów kompresji. +Podstawowe cechy programów do kompresji. +Obsługa formatów. +Program powinien przede wszystkim dysponować możliwością otwierania archiwów w wielu formatach. Do najczęściej obecnie używanych można zaliczyć ZIP, ARJ, CAB, ACE, RAR, 7-zip. Zazwyczaj programy obsługują więcej formatów w procesie dekompresji niż kompresji, gdyż nie wiadomo, jakim formatem posłuży się twórca archiwum. +Technika tworzenia archiwum. +Niektóre programy udostępniają także specjalne kreatory, które przeprowadzają początkującego użytkownika przez kolejne etapy budowania archiwum, a są też takie, które oferują technikę kompresji z wiersza poleceń. +Z punktu widzenia wygody użytkowania kluczowe jest zintegrowanie programu z prawym klawiszem myszy (tzw. shell extension) w Eksploratorze Windows lub każdym innym menedżerze plików, który wykorzystuje tę cechę (m.in. Total Commander). +Technika ta udostępnia zarówno kompresowanie, jak i dekompresowanie (ekstrakcja) plików. W tym drugim przypadku dekompresja powinna mieć trzy opcje – ekstrakcja w miejscu położenia archiwum, ekstrakcja w podkatalogu o nazwie archiwum i ekstrakcja w dowolnie wybranym katalogu. +Bezpieczeństwo. +Opatrzenie archiwum hasłem rezerwuje dostęp do pliku jedynie dla posiadaczy hasła. Z kolei rzadziej spotykane szyfrowanie przetwarza zawartość archiwum w sposób uniemożliwiający w praktyce odtworzenie go w jakimkolwiek innym programie. Innym elementem bezpieczeństwa jest zintegrowanie programu kompresującego ze skanerem antywirusowym obecnym w systemie użytkownika. +Plik wykonywalny. +Dla wygody odbiorcy można utworzyć archiwum w postaci pliku wykonywalnego. Odbiorca nie musi wówczas posiadać programu do dekompresji – wystarczy, że uruchomi plik archiwum, co spowoduje automatyczne rozpakowanie jego zawartości do wskazanego w opcjach katalogu. +Podgląd zawartości. +Pobrane z witryny czy otrzymane pocztą archiwum trzeba niekiedy przejrzeć przed rozpakowaniem. Niektóre programy udostępniają własne, proste przeglądarki plików tekstowych i graficznych. +Zarządzanie archiwum. +Programy zawierają na ogół szereg narzędzi do zarządzania tworzonym czy otwieranym archiwum, które mogą być przydatne w rozmaitych sytuacjach. +Wysyłka pocztą i na serwer FTP. +Skompresowane pliki są często wysyłane przez Internet. Wiele programów udostępnia połączoną funkcję kompresji i uruchomienia poczty elektronicznej z gotowym, skompresowanym załącznikiem. Rzadziej spotyka się technikę jednoczesnej kompresji i wysyłki na serwer FTP, skąd archiwum może być pobrane przez inne osoby. +Karol Szajnocha + +Karol Szajnocha (ur. 20 listopada 1818 w Komarnie, zm. 10 stycznia 1868 we Lwowie) - polski pisarz, historyk, patriota i działacz niepodległościowy. +Był synem zniemczonego Czecha Wacława Scheinoha-Vtelenský'ego i Marii z Łozińskich (jego kuzynami byli pisarze Walery i Władysław Łozińscy). Ojciec Szajnochy, z wykształcenia lekarz, porzucił zawód medyczny i osiadł w Galicji jako tzw. mandatariusz. Nie wysługiwał się władzom austriackim, zżył się ze społeczeństwem polskim, nauczył się mówić po polsku, ożenił się z Polką i spolszczył tak dalece, że dzieci wychował na Polaków. Polakiem czuł się od lat najmłodszych Karol, który początki nauki pobierał w domu, a następnie uczęszczał do szkół średnich w Samborze i we Lwowie. W szkole średniej starał się zatrzeć ślady swego niepolskiego pochodzenia, zmieniając stopniowo pisownię nazwiska ("Scheynoha de Wtellensky", później "Szejnoha de Wtellensky", wreszcie "Szajnocha"). +W 1834, w gronie kolegów szkolnych założył konspiracyjne „Towarzystwo Starożytności" mające na celu gromadzenie i referowanie wiadomości o istniejących w kraju zabytkach przeszłości. członkami jego byli nie tylko uczniowie Polacy, ale również, i to w większości, Niemcy i Rusini. Sprawa się wydała, przeprowadzono śledztwo, w którym Szajnocha całą odpowiedzialność wziął na siebie. Kara nie była zbyt dotkliwa, jednak miała brzemienne skutki w przyszłości. +W 1835 zapisał się na Wydział Filozoficzny Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, ale po kilku miesiącach, 21 stycznia 1836 został aresztowany i odstawiony do więzienia śledczego. Oskarżony był o pisanie kartek i wierszy o antyrządowej treści. Kartki te znaleziono na uniwersytecie i w kościele bernardyńskim w ławkach, które podczas mszy szkolnej zajmowali uczniowie najwyższej klasy gimnazjalnej. Szajnocha i tym razem przyznał się do winy. +Został aresztowany i osadzony najpierw w zwyczajnym więzieniu, jednak po kilku tygodniach przeniesiono go do więzienia specjalnego i tam trzymano go w kajdanach założonych na nogi i ręce, w zupełnej ciemności. Nie dawano mu przy tym ani światła, ani książek. Stęchłe powietrze, ustawiczna wilgoć i mrok oddziaływały szkodliwie na jego młody organizm. Dla zapełnienia rozpaczliwej bezczynności, w czasie gdy było coś w celi widać, wyrabiał sobie igły z kości i drutu siatkowego, wydobywał nitki z prześcieradła lub szpilką pisał na ścianie utwory poetyckie, w wyniku czego osłabił sobie na stałe wzrok. W ciężkim więzieniu Szajnocha przebywał do połowy 1837. +Jako politycznemu skazańcowi nie dozwolono mu kontynuować przerwanych studiów na uniwersytecie. Wiedzę historyczną posiadł jako samouk. Zarabiał na życie jako nauczyciel w prywatnych domach, był także korektorem w redakcjach czasopism lwowskich: „Dziennik Mód", „Lwowianin", „Rozmaitości" — dodatku do „Gazety Lwowskiej". +Pomagał też owdowiałej matce w prowadzeniu dzierżawy w Żydaczowie. +W 1838 włączył się znowu do działalności spiskowej stając się członkiem nowej organizacji konspiracyjnej, "Młodej Sarmacji", ugrupowania przeciwstawiającego się idei zbrojnego powstania. +Od 1839 drukował swoje utwory literackie. W 1847, w którym zaczęły się poważne niedomagania wzroku, opublikował w „Bibliotece Zakładu Ossolińskich" pierwszą pracę naukową "Pogląd na ogół dziejów polskich". Mimo ostrzeżeń lekarzy i dolegliwości wzroku pracował dalej. Bez względu na porę roku wstawał o trzeciej nad ranem i zajęty bywał do późnej nocy. Pisał wiersze, powieści, utwory dramatyczne. Przekładał pieśni serbskie. +Od 1 lutego 1853 był zastępcą kustosza w Zakładzie Narodowym imienia Ossolińskich, od 1856 - redaktorem „Rozmaitości" i historykiem piszącym prace własne. Był inicjatorem i wydawcą pomnikowego dzieła "Monumenta Poloniae Historica" oraz redaktorem "Biblioteki Ossolińskich". +W 1855 ożenił się z Joanną Bilińską. W 1860, w czterdziestym drugim roku życia, utracił zupełnie wzrok. Mimo kalectwa wzrokowego i innych nękających go chorób Szajnocha pracował bez przerwy w miarę swych sił. Słuchał lektora, dyktował, ale pisał sam również, posługując się przy tym opracowanym przez siebie prostym przyrządem. W ostatnich latach przed śmiercią nie mógł już pisać, gdyż reumatyzm ubezwładnił mu nogi, a następnie ruchy ramion, tak iż z trudnością kreślił ołówkiem po papierze tylko nieczytelne znaki. Zmarł 10 stycznia 1868. Został pochowany na Cmentarzu Łyczakowskim. +Największe jego dzieło to "Jadwiga i Jagiełło" - którego pierwsze, trzytomowe wydanie ukazało się we Lwowie w latach 1855-1856; drugie, które autor uznał za jedynie poprawne, czterotomowe ze „Wstępem" - w 1861. Wrażenie, jakie to dzieło wywarło, i jego poczytność były niezwykłe. Czytali je z zainteresowaniem, a niekiedy wprost z zachwytem zarówno ludzie uczeni, jak i najszersze koła mniej wyrobionych odbiorców. Popularność Szajnochy na niwie historii przypominała popularność Henryka Sienkiewicza na niwie literackiej. +Z napisanych przez niego dzieł historycznych poświęconych m.in. Bolesławowi Chrobremu, Władysławowi Łokietkowi, Kazimierzowi Wielkiemu, królowej Jadwidze, Władysławowi Jagielle, Jerzemu Sebastianowi Lubomirskiemu itd. korzystał m.in. Henryk Sienkiewicz pisząc Trylogię. +W 1858, odświeżając dawną teorię Tadeusza hr. Czackiego o normańskich korzeniach Polski, opublikował dzieło "Lechicki początek Polski". Szajnocha uważał, że pierwsze państwo polskie, zostało zorganizowane - zgodnie z tzw. "teorią najazdu" - przez skandynawskie plemię Lechitów, protoplastów późniejszej szlachty polskiej. +W ciągu wielu lat wychodziły drukiem drobne prace Szajnochy w „Dzienniku Literackim", w „Rozmaitościach", dodatku tygodniowym do „Gazety Lwowskiej", w „Dzienniku Mód", w „Bibliotece Zakładu Narodowego im. Ossolińskich", w „Tygodniku Lwowskim". Te z nich, które nie należały do literatury pięknej czy publicystyki, ale mogły być zakwalifikowane jako historyczne, wydawane były tomami jako "Szkice historyczne". +Syn Karola, Władysław Szajnocha (1857-1928) był znanym geologiem, twórcą monumentalnego "Atlasu geologicznego Galicji", a w 1920 r. jednym z założycieli Polskiego Towarzystwa Geologicznego i jego pierwszym przewodniczącym. W latach 1911-1912 i 1916-1917 był rektorem Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +Białoruska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Białoruska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Białoruś (ros. "Белорусская Советская Социалистическая Республика", błr. "Беларуская Савецкая Сацыялістычная Рэспубліка") – jedna z czterech republik, które w grudniu 1922 roku utworzyły Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich. +Białoruska SRR była członkiem założycielem Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych i członkiem siedmiu organizacji wyspecjalizowanych ONZ; obok Rosyjskiej FSRR i Ukraińskiej SRR była jedną z trzech republik radzieckich będących podmiotem prawa międzynarodowego. +Historia. +Oficjalnie BSRR powołano do życia 1 stycznia 1919 roku w Smoleńsku - miała obejmować gubernie smoleńską, mińską, mohylewską, witebską, grodzieńską i część wileńskiej. +Na czele Rady Komisarzy Ludowych BSRR stanął białoruski twórca Zmicier Żyłunowicz, jednak wkrótce aresztowano go za próbę dialogu z władzami Białoruskiej Republiki Ludowej, a republikę 27 lutego 1919 rozwiązano, zastępując ją Lit-Biełem. Tereny guberni smoleńskiej, mohylewskiej i witebskiej włączono do RFSRR. Kres istnieniu Lit-Biełu położyło zdobycie prawie całego jego terytorium przez Polskę. +W lipcu 1920 roku, po zajęciu będącego przed tym pod kontrolą polską Mińska przez Armię Czerwoną, dokonano reaktywacji BSRR obejmującej już tylko wschodnią część Litewsko-Białoruskiej SRR (osiemnaście powiatów guberni mińskiej, grodzieńskiej i wileńskiej). Stolicę republiki usytuowano w Mińsku. +W maju 1923 roku CKW RFSRR zdecydował się na ponowne przekazanie Białoruskiej SRR guberni witebskiej (bez powiatów newelskiego, wieliskiego i siebieskiego), większej części mohylewskiej (bez powiatu homelskiego) i jednego powiatu smoleńskiej (mścisławskiego). Od tego czasu BSRR obejmowała terytorium wielkości 110 tys. km kw oraz liczyła ponad 4 mln mieszkańców. W roku 1926 dokonano dalszego powiększenia republiki włączając do BSRR należące wcześniej do Rosji i Ukraińskiej SRR powiaty homelski i rzeczycki, co zwiększyło obszar republiki do 126 tys. km kw, a liczbę ludności do 5 mln. +Po agresji radzieckiej na Polskę w 1939 roku dokonano powiększenia BSRR o obszar tzw. zachodniej Białorusi (dawne polskie województwa nowogródzkie, białostockie, poleskie bez części południowej, część wileńskiego i warszawskiego), na której utworzono obwody brzeski, piński, baranowicki, wilejski i białostocki. W składzie Białoruskiej SRR znalazły się ziemie etnicznie polskie, m.in. rejon Łomży i znaczna część Wileńszczyzny z ludnością mówiącą w języku polskim. W 1940 roku na mocy porozumienia z Litewską SRR Białoruska SRR utraciła na rzecz Litwy Druskieniki i Święciany. +Podczas wojny na terenie BSRR działały trzy partyzantki – polska, radziecka i żydowska. Niemcy kontynuowali rozpoczęta przez sowietów politykę ekonomicznego wyniszczania miejscowej ludności (polskiej, białoruskiej i żydowskiej), jednak w porównaniu z nazistowską okupacją Ukraińskiej SRR niemieckie rządy miały dla białoruskiej społeczności - m.in. za sprawą komisarza Kubego - charakter znacznie łagodniejszy. Zezwolono lokalnym działaczom białoruskim na zakładanie organizacji społeczno-narodowych oraz formacji paramilitarnych (m.in. Białoruska Obrona Krajowa). Na czele władz miejskich stawali białoruscy działacze narodowi, m.in. Wacław Iwanowski, Anatol Komar czy wspomniany wyżej Radosław Ostrowski. +W 1944 roku Armia Czerwona ponownie opanowała tereny dawnej BSRR. Najważniejszą kwestię po zakończeniu wojny była zarówno powojenna odbudowa, jak i ponowne ustalenie granic republiki. W 1945 roku została podpisana umowa między rządem PRL a ZSRR o polskiej granicy wschodniej, którą wyznaczono w przybliżeniu wzdłuż tzw. linii Curzona, w wyniku czego Polsce zwrócono jedynie Ziemię Białostocką. +Powierzchnia: 207 600 km² +Ludność: 10 151 806 w 1989 r. (1969: 8 897 000) +Po drugiej wojnie światowej BSRR przyznano status członka-założyciela Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych. W lipcu 1990 roku BSRR ogłosiła deklarację suwerenności. 8 grudnia 1991 roku dokonano w Wiskulach koło Brześcia nad Bugiem rozwiązania ZSRR na podstawie układu białowieskiego, tym samym swe istnienie zakończyła Białoruska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, która została przekształcona w niepodległą Białoruś. +Bartosz Opania + +Bartosz Opania (ur. 6 grudnia 1970 w Puławach) – polski aktor teatralny, filmowy i telewizyjny. +Życiorys. +Pierwsze role jako aktor filmowy zagrał w filmie politycznym Jacka Bromskiego "1968. Szczęśliwego Nowego Roku" (1992) u boku Krzysztofa Kolbergera i Piotra Machalicy oraz w filmie psychologicznym Magdaleny Łazarkiewicz "Białe małżeństwo" (1992) z Jolantą Fraszyńską, Teresą Budzisz-Krzyżanowską i Janem Englertem. W serialu telewizyjnym zadebiutował u Jacka Bromskiego w "Kuchni Polskiej" (1992). W 1993 ukończył studia na Wydziale Aktorskim Państwowej Wyższej Szkole Teatralnej w Warszawie, a dwa lata potem obronił dyplom. +W dramacie Piotra Łazarkiewicza "Pora na czarownice" (1993) zagrał postać homoseksualisty. W 1994 zadebiutował w roli Cypriana w sztuce Witolda Gombrowicza "Iwona księżniczka Burgunda" w reżyserii Waldemara Śmigasiewicza i Macieja Wojtyszki na scenie Teatru Ateneum im. Stefana Jaracza w Warszawie, z którym związał się na stałe. Występował potem również w teatrach warszawskich: na Woli im. Tadeusza Łomnickiego (1995), Narodowym (1998) i Sceny Prezentacje (1999, 2002, 2008). Okazjonalnie występował z ojcem także na estradzie, m.in. w widowisku muzycznym "Co nam zostało z naszej miłości" (1999), złożonym z piosenek Charles'a Treneta. Jest laureatem nagrody im. Tadeusza Łomnickiego. +Zagrał w ponad dwudziestu przedstawieniach Teatru Telewizji, między innymi w "Mamucie" (1993), "Cydzie" (1995), "Wyspie róż" (1998) Jana Jakuba Kolskiego, "Przetargu" (2000) czy "Szczęściu Frania" (2001). W 1997 na III Ogólnopolskim Konkursie na Wystawienie Polskiej Sztuki Współczesnej otrzymał wyróżnienie jury za rolę Elego w spektaklu Juliana Stryjkowskiego "Przybysz z Narbony" w Teatrze Telewizji. +Zagrał w filmie Krzysztofa Zanussiego "Cwał" (1995) z Mają Komorowską, komedii politycznej Kazimierza Kutza "Pułkownik Kwiatkowski" (1995) z tytułową rolą Marka Kondrata i melodramacie kryminalnym "Taekwondo" (1997). Za rolę Józefa Andryszka zwanego Pierwszym z kowalskiego rodu w historycznej baśni filmowej Jana Jakuba Kolskiego "Historia kina w Popielawach" (1998) zdobył nominację do nagrody Orła za najlepszą rolę męską. +W melodramacie Barbary Sass "Jak narkotyk" (1999) wystąpił w roli męża głównej 18-letniej bohaterki początkującej poetki granej przez Magdalenę Cielecką. W komedii familijnej "Świąteczna przygoda" (2000) pojawił się jako Mikołaj. W komedii romantycznej Piotra Wereśniaka "Zakochani" (2000) wcielił się w postać Mateusza zakochanego w posiadającej dar rozkochiwania w sobie absolutnie każdego mężczyzny Zosi (Magdalena Cielecka). W dramacie Jana Jakuba Kolskiego "Daleko od okna" (2000) był mężem bezpłodnej kobiety. W filmie psychologicznym Michała Rosy "Cisza" (2001) zagrał dręczonego poczuciem winy z przeszłości kolejarza. Znalazł się w obsadzie komedii "Statyści" (2006). Grał drugoplanową rolę wydawcy, Bartka Wróblewskiego w serialu "Teraz albo nigdy!" (2008). Obecnie występuje w serialu "Na dobre i na złe", w którym wciela się w postać dr. Witolda Latoszka. +Życie prywatne. +Syn aktora Mariana Opani. Żonaty z Agnieszką, ma trzech synów i córkę. +Transmitancja operatorowa + +formula_2. +Transmitancja jest częstotliwościowym modelem układu (w postaci zasadniczej określonym w dziedzinie s). Określa ogólne własności stacjonarnego układu liniowego o jednym wejściu i jednym wyjściu, niezależne od rodzaju wymuszenia. Dla układu wielowymiarowego o formula_3 wejściach i formula_4 wyjściach można określić formula_4 x formula_3 transmitancji wiążących każde wyjście z każdym wejściem. +Transmitancje układów ciągłych. +formula_8, +gdzie dla układów realizowalnych fizycznie formula_9. Transmitancja operatorowa, w której stopień licznika jest mniejszy lub równy stopniowi mianownika nazywamy transmitancją właściwą a jeśli stopień licznika jest mniejszy niż stopień mianownika - transmitancją ściśle właściwą. +Transmitancje układów dyskretnych. +formula_10 +formula_11. +Wyznaczanie eksperymentalne. +Załóżmy, że mamy dany stacjonarny liniowy układ dynamiczny. Na jego wejście podano sygnał wymuszający formula_13 i na wyjściu uzyskano odpowiedź formula_14. Jeżeli dokonamy transformaty Laplace'a funkcji opisujących sygnał wejściowy i wyjściowy +gdzie formula_1 jest transmitancją układu, a formula_21 transformatą Laplace'a sygnału wejściowego. +gdzie formula_14 oznacza przebieg sygnału wyjściowego w czasie, a formula_21 transformatę Laplace'a sygnału wejściowego. +Zastosowanie dla potrzeb przetwarzania sygnałów. +Stosując podstawienie formula_25 można przekształcić transmitancję formula_26 w zależność formula_27 pozwala wyznaczyć odpowiedź układu dynamicznego na dowolny sygnał wejściowy reprezentowany przez złożenie harmonicznych składowych sinusoidalnych. +Pojedyncza zespolona składowa harmoniczna o amplitudzie formula_28, pulsacji formula_29 i fazie formula_30 +Transmitancja formula_27 może zostać tez wyznaczona za pomocą transformat Fouriera. +Dla przypadku układów dyskretnych wyrażenie +definiuje dyskretną transmitancję widmową. +Opisy alternatywne. +Transmitancja operatorowa (obok odpowiedniego równania różniczkowego i całki splotowej) to jeden ze sposobów opisu typu wejście-wyjście stosowany dla układów (obiektów, członów, elementów) regulacji. Kolejną alternatywę stanowi opis z wykorzystaniem równań stanu. +Powiązanie transmitancji z równaniami stanu. +Różnym postaciom opisu w przestrzeni stanów może odpowiadać jeden opis transmitancyjny a z drugiej strony dla danej transmitancji istnieje nieskończenie wiele opisów w przestrzeni stanów (tym niemniej spośród różnych możliwych sposobów wyboru zmiennych stanu kilka jest szczególnie ciekawych). +Macierz transmitancji. +Rozszerzenie koncepcji transmitancji operatorowej na układy o wielu wejściach i wyjściach uzyskuje się przez wprowadzenie macierzy transmitancji. +Ograniczenia opisu transmitacyjnego. +Za klasyczny uchodzi opis z wykorzystaniem transmitancji operatorowej. Transmitancja w przeciwieństwie do równań stanu zakłada domyślnie zerowy stan początkowy. Określa ogólne własności stacjonarnego układu liniowego ale tylko o jednym wejściu i jednym wyjściu. Dla układu wielowymiarowego o formula_3 wejściach i formula_4 wyjściach można określić formula_4 x formula_3 transmitancji wiążących każde wyjście z każdym wejściem jednak w praktyce opis układów wielowymiarowych za pomocą transmitancji nie jest wygodny. Transmitacją nie można też opisać układów nieliniowych i układów niestacjonarnych. W porównaniu z opisem typu wejście-wyjście opis równaniami stanu daje dużo więcej informacji o modelowanym obiekcie, o jego sposobie funkcjonowania, o tym co się dzieje wewnątrz obiektu. Z powyższych względów w nowoczesnej teorii sterowania popularność zyskał opis z wykorzystaniem równań stanu, którym można opisać układy nieliniowe, układy niestacjonarne i który lepiej nadaje się do opisu układów wielowymiarowych. +Zastosowania. +Transmitancji używa się często dla uproszczenia obliczeń związanych z projektowaniem układu złożonego z wielu elementów, głównie w: +Rys historyczny. +Gwałtowne rozprzestrzenianie się telegrafii a następnie telefonii od połowy XIX wieku pobudzało do podejmowania rozlicznych badań nad zachowaniem się obwodów elektrycznych. Przez kilka lat począwszy od 1888 roku brytyjski inżynier Oliver Heaviside publikował swoje artykuły na temat rachunku operatorowego. Można w zasadzie powiedzieć, że w latach 1892–1898 Oliver Heaviside wynalazł rachunek operatorowy, przebadał zachowania systemu w stanie nieustalonym i wprowadził pojęcie odpowiadające późniejszej transmitancji. Chociaż jego metody dawały przekonywujące wyniki dla odpowiedzi układów elektrycznych w stanie nieustalonym, został on ostro skrytykowany przez współczesnych mu matematyków za brak należytego rygoru i ostatecznie wyklęty przez swoje ówczesne środowisko naukowe. +Rozwój rachunku operatorów jako metod umożliwiających rozwiązywanie pewnych typów równań różniczkowych na gruncie algebraicznym datuje się od początku XIX w. W takim ujęciu został on rozpowszechniony przez Olivera Heaviside'a (1892, 1899), który stosował rachunek operatorów w zagadnieniach elektrotechnicznych, sprowadzając równania różniczkowe do równań algebraicznych. Dopiero w latach 20 i 30. XX wieku ideę Heaviside’a (pojęcie odpowiadające późniejszej transmitancji) powiązano z przekształceniami całkowymi Fouriera i Laplace'a (Bromwich, Carson, van der Pol, Doetsch), co spowodowało, że pojawiły się szersze możliwości wykorzystania rachunku operatorów w wielu zagadnieniach fizyki i techniki, a także w zagadnieniach automatycznej regulacji układów mechanicznych. Doszukanie się tych powiązań dowiodło też ostatecznie słuszności metod Heaviside’a. +Pewne ograniczenia stosowalności przekształceń całkowych, a przede wszystkim rozwój analizy funkcjonalnej skłoniły matematyków do poszukiwania nowych koncepcji rachunku operatorowego. Całkowity nawrót do pierwotnego operatorowego punktu widzenia obserwujemy np. u Jana Mikusińskiego. Daje on ścisłe uzasadnienie rachunku operatorów Heaviside'a, bez odniesienia do przekształcenia Laplace'a. Dalsze prace nad nowymi ogólnymi podstawami rachunku operatorów, nawiązują również w pewnym sensie do koncepcji Heaviside'a. +Klasyczny rachunek operatorów, jako narzędzie matematyczne, jest w szerokim zakresie wykorzystywany w teorii liniowych układów dynamicznych. Jest jedną z dziedzin współczesnej matematyki, która swoje znaczenie zawdzięcza w zdecydowanej mierze właśnie zastosowaniom technicznym. Stosowanie metod operatorowych znacznie upraszcza obliczenia i prowadzi do rozwiązań w postaci bardzo dogodnej do dalszej analizy i syntezy układu. Dzięki swej prostocie i efektywności, a także wskutek wielu zalet w porównaniu z innymi metodami, rachunek operatorów stał się jedną z podstawowych metod badania układów dynamicznych, mimo wielu ograniczeń nakładanych na wielkości wejściowe i wyjściowe układu. +Robert Hoyzer + +Robert Hoyzer (ur. 28 sierpnia 1979 w Berlinie) – były niemiecki sędzia piłkarski. Został zarejestrowany w Niemieckim Związku Piłki Nożnej jako arbiter w 2001 roku, z ramienia Herthy Berlin. Prowadził mecze 2. Bundesligi oraz lig regionalnych. +W styczniu 2005 roku wybuchła afera Roberta Hoyzera, który podejrzewany był o obstawienie u bukmachera meczu pierwszej rundy Pucharu Niemiec między drużyną ligi regionalnej – SC Paderborn 07 i Hamburgerem SV, rozegranym w sierpniu 2004 roku, który sam prowadził. HSV prowadziło 2:0, gdy Hoyzer zaczął podejmować błędne decyzje. Najpierw pokazał czerwoną kartkę Emilowi Mpenzie, a następnie podyktował dwa wątpliwe rzuty karne dla Paderborn, które ostatecznie wygrało spotkanie 4:2. +Po spotkaniu, w mediach zaczęto spekulować na temat korupcji w niemieckim futbolu. Hoyzer zrezygnował z dalszego sędziowania, a niemiecka federacja piłkarska i prokuratura rozpoczęły swoje śledztwa w sprawie innych meczów prowadzonych przez arbitra. Dość szybko okazało się, że Hoyzer powiązany był z chorwacką mafią, która stawiała duże kwoty pieniędzy na prowadzone przez niego spotkania. W trakcie jednego z przesłuchań przyznał, że wiedział jak inni sędziowie otrzymywali łapówki, a także słyszał o przekupnych piłkarzach. +Niemiecka policja ustaliła, że Hoyzer ustawił więcej spotkań niż te, do których się przyznał. W listopadzie 2005 roku został skazany na 2 lata i 5 miesięcy więzienia. Wcześniej DFB zawiesiła go dożywotnio jako sędziego. Sąd skazał także trzech chorwackich braci, którzy zarządzali całym procederem. Na łapówkach Hoyzer zarobił łącznie 67 tysięcy euro, zaś straty jakie poniosło DFB w związku ze szkodliwą działalnością arbitra wyniosły około 750 tysięcy euro. +Almería + +Almería (wym. ) – miasto w południowo-wschodniej Hiszpanii, w regionie Andaluzja, stolica prowincji Almería, 411 km od Madrytu. Liczy 181 702 mieszkańców (2005) i posiada 296,32 km² powierzchni. Obecna nazwa pochodzi od arabskiego słowa "Al-Mariyya", oznaczającego wieżę obserwacyjną. +Położona nad Morzem Śródziemnym, u podnóża Gór Betyckich. Dzięki łagodnemu klimatowi (średnia temperatura roczna 18,7 °C) intensywna uprawa owoców (przeważnie cytrusowych) i warzyw. Przemysł chemiczny, obuwniczy oraz materiałów budowlanych. Ważny ośrodek akademicki (15.000 studentów). Port handlowy i rybacki. Od lat 60. XX w. znaczący ośrodek turystyczno-wypoczynkowy, liczne kąpieliska na Costa del Sol. W 2005 w Almeríi i jej okolicach rozgrywano XV Igrzyska Śródziemnomorskie. +Z Ziemi na Księżyc + +Z Ziemi na Księżyc (fr. "De la Terre à la Lune", 1865) – jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 28 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1866, a w postaci książkowej w 1924. +Pierwsza część tzw. małej trylogii vernowskiej ("Z Ziemi na księżyc", "Wokół Księżyca", "Świat do góry nogami") +Główni bohaterowie książki - Impey Barbicane, kapitan Nicholl, Michał Ardan - pasażerowie międzyplanetarnego pocisku lecą w kierunku Księżyca. Odbywają kosmiczną podróż po wystrzeleniu z gigantycznej armaty (Kolumbiady) zbudowanej przez Klub Puszkarzy z Baltimore w Ameryce. Książka tak spodobała się czytelnikom, że koniecznym stało się sprowadzenie astronautów na Ziemię. +Ich dalsze losy podczas dalekiej podróży opisuje kolejna powieść z Niezwykłych podróży - Wokół Księżyca. +Niektóre szczegóły tego wymyślonego lotu zbliżone są do opisu pionierskiego lotu na Księżyc Apollo 8, chociaż sposób umieszczenia żywych ludzi w przestrzeni kosmicznej jest niezgodny z prawami fizyki i biologii. +Powiat mogileński + +Powiat mogileński – powiat w Polsce (w południowo-zachodniej części województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Mogilno. +Richard Baer + +Richard Baer (ur. 9 września 1911 we Floß, zm. 17 czerwca 1963) - niemiecki zbrodniarz hitlerowski, komendant obozów koncentracyjnych Auschwitz-Birkenau i Mittelbau-Dora oraz SS-Sturmbannführer. +Urodził się we Floß w Górnym Palatynacie (Bawaria). Został wychowywany w katolickiej rodzinie. Z zawodu był cukiernikiem. Po utracie pracy w 1930 r. został bezrobotnym. W lutym 1931 wstąpił do NSDAP (nr legitymacji partyjnej 454991), a w lipcu 1932 do SS (nr identyfikacyjny 44225). W 1933 rozpoczął służbę jako wartownik w obozie Dachau, gdzie pozostał do 1939. W 1939 Baer został przydzielony do dywizji SS Trupie Główki ("SS-Totenkopf") i brał udział w walkach frontowych. W 1942 został ranny i, jako niezdolny do służby na froncie, skierowany do Neuengamme, gdzie sprawował stanowisko adiutanta komendanta obozu. Od listopada 1943 kierował Urzędem DI w ramach WVHA oraz pełnił funkcję adiutanta Oswalda Pohla. 11 maja 1944 Baer został komendantem Auschwitz i stanowisko to pełnił aż do ewakuacji obozu pod koniec stycznia 1945. Był odpowiedzialny za zbrodnie popełniane na więźniach podczas marszu śmierci z Auschwitz i jego podobozów. Następnie mianowano go komendantem obozu Mittelbau-Dora (Nordhausen), gdzie między innymi kierował masowymi egzekucjami jeńców radzieckich. Z powodu kontuzji nogi Baer wyjechał przed kapitulacją III Rzeszy do Styrii w Austrii. +Po wojnie do grudnia 1960 r. ukrywał się w okolicach Hamburga pod nazwiskiem Karl Neumann i pracował jako robotnik leśny. Zdemaskowany – został aresztowany i osadzony w więzieniu śledczym we Frankfurcie nad Menem. Baer miał być głównym oskarżonym w drugim procesie oświęcimskim, ale zmarł niespodziewanie w areszcie 17 czerwca 1963. +Kandyda + +Kandyda – imię żeńskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, żeński odpowiednik imienia Kandyd, oznaczające "jasna, błyszcząca, biała", czyli "dziecko o jasnych włosach" lub "dziecko o jasnej cerze"; jeden z najpopularniejszych przydomków rzymskich. W Polsce notowane od 1396 roku. +Konstantin Ciołkowski + +Konstantin Edwardowicz Ciołkowski (Konstanty Ciołkowski, ros. Константин Эдуардович Циолковский; ur. 17 września 1857 w Iżewskoje w obwodzie riazańskim, zm. 19 września 1935 w Kałudze) – rosyjski uczony polskiego pochodzenia, jeden z pionierów astronautyki, twórca modelu teorii ruchu i budowy rakiety kosmicznej. +Życiorys. +Był synem polskiego zesłańca Edwarda Ciołkowskiego wywodzącego się ze szlacheckiej rodziny herbu Jastrzębiec i wykształconej Rosjanki tatarskiego pochodzenia – Marii Jumaszewej. Z zawodu był nauczycielem matematyki i fizyki. +Dorobek naukowy. +Idee techniczne wysunięte przez Ciołkowskiego stanowią podstawę działania wszystkich, historycznych i współczesnych, silników rakietowych, rakiet i statków kosmicznych. +Zaprojektował wiele rakietowych mieszanek paliwowych. +Jedną z ważniejszych inspiracji dla Ciołkowskiego były idee filozofa Nikołaja Fiodorowa. Zainspirowany Fiodorowem, Ciołkowski wierzył, że kolonizacja kosmosu doprowadzi do perfekcji gatunku ludzkiego, nieśmiertelności i beztroskiej egzystencji. +Nazwiskiem Ciołkowskiego został nazwany jeden z większych kraterów księżycowych, Ciołkowski o średnicy 185 km oraz planetoida 1590 Tsiolkovskaja. +Od 1920 roku był na emeryturze; w znacznym stopniu stracił słuch. +Teratogenność + +Teratogenność (dosłownie "potworotwórczość" od "teratos" – potwór) – właściwość teratogenów powodująca wady (potworności) w rozwoju płodu (mają ją np. promieniowanie, wirusy, ksenobiotyki, niektóre lekarstwa). +Działanie teratogenne to działanie toksyczne substancji na zarodek lub płód (śmierć zarodka, zaburzenia czynnościowe, opóźnienie rozwoju, przedwczesne urodzenie). +OPML + +OPML (Outline Processor Markup Language) – format XML, opracowany pierwotnie przez Radio Userland, format pliku dla hierarchicznych drzew danych, wykorzystywany obecnie powszechnie w czytnikach kanałów informacyjnych RSS. OPML pozwala zapisać listę wielu kanałów informacyjnych i przenieść je z jednego czytnika do drugiego. W Internecie dostępne są także gotowe pliki OPML, które można wczytać do swojego czytnika. +Alternatywne specyfikacje. +Zaproponowano także alternatywne specyfikacje, jak OML (Outline Markup Language), która jest bardzo podobna do OPML, ale wymusza rozdział treści od prezentacji danych. +Powiat nakielski + +Powiat nakielski – powiat w Polsce (w zachodniej części województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Nakło nad Notecią. +Demografia. +Graniczy z powiatami: sępoleńskim, wągrowieckim, żnińskim, pilskim i bydgoskim. +Camorra + +Camorra (kamorra) - tajna włoska organizacja przestępcza zawiązana w 1820 w Królestwie Neapolu, dopuszczająca się oszustw, zabójstw i rabunków, wykorzystywana dla celów politycznych w okresie rządów absolutystycznych. Kolebką Camorry były neapolitańskie więzienia, a jej głównym celem była ochrona więźniów (członków) przed innymi wrogimi gangami. +Po opuszczeniu więziennych murów wielu jej członków, "camorristi", przenosiło swoje więzienne zwyczaje na ulice Neapolu i okolic. Tworzyli zorganizowane gangi, które napadały na uczciwych ludzi, po czym kazali sobie płacić za ochronę. +Nazwa. +Nazwa Camorra może pochodzić od słowa "chamarra" oznaczającego hiszpańską, prostą kurtkę noszoną przez hiszpańskich bandytów w XVIII wieku, choć niektórzy badacze wywodzą nazwę organizacji od gry hazardowej "morra". Pewnym jest, iż camorrą nazywano od wieków bandy i gangi złożone z pospólstwa. Przyjmuje się, iż najbardziej prawdopodobnym pochodzeniem nazwy organizacji jest połączenie słowa "capo" (wł. "szef") ze słowem "morra" stosowanym na oznaczenie włoskiej ulicznej gry hazardowej, polegającej na szybkim otwieraniu i zamykaniu dłoni oraz odgadywaniu przez partnera, ile palców było wyprostowanych. Ta forma rozrywki została z czasem zabroniona przez władze. Niektórzy ludzie zaczęli wówczas przekupywać lokalnych policjantów, aby przymykali oko na niedozwolone praktyki. Taka etymologia wydaje się najlepiej oddawać prawdziwe pochodzenie, jak również charakter słowa "camorra". +Camorra - w języku hiszpańskim - oznacza "walkę" lub "sprzeczkę". +Struktura. +Organizacja składa się z 30 klanów podzielonych na 30 grup, w skład których wchodzi ponad 100 rodzin oraz około 5 tysięcy członków honorowych. Szacuje się, iż odpowiada za zamordowanie około 4 000 osób na przestrzeni ostatnich trzydziestu lat. Nie posiada hierarchicznej struktury, kierującej wszystkim, co odróżnia ją od sycylijskiej cosa nostry, gdzie na samym szczycie organizacji znajduje się "Cupoli" ("kopuła") - rada bossów. +W ramach każdej rodziny (klanu, na czele stał boss) wyodrębniano podgrupy ("paranze"), którą dowodził "caporegime" (capo). +Do zadań capo należało przydzielanie członkom odpowiednich zadań (napady, ochrona, szantaż, wymuszenia, porwania, lichwa, morderstwa za zlecenie itp.). Wszystkie dochody wędrowały do bossa rodziny, który decydował o wysokości wypłacanych łapówek dla skorumpowanych policjantów, sędziów i prokuratorów oraz pensji dla wdów i sierot po poległych camorristi. Reszta pieniędzy była dzielona wśród jej członków według rangi i zajmowanego stanowiska. +Apogeum potęgi Camorry na ziemi amerykańskiej przypadło na przełom XIX i XX wieku (głównie rejon Nowego Orleanu - działalność Czarnej Ręki). Jeszcze przed wybuchem I wojny światowej Camorra kontrolowała większość Brooklynu. W Nowym Orleanie Camorra toczyła wojnę z sycylijczykami (ostatecznie przegraną). W Nowym Jorku Rodzina Morello prowadziła natomiast wojnę z Donem Pelligrino Morano i jego camorristi (w 1916 roku zginął w zasadzce Nicolas Morello). Ostatecznie Morano otrzymał dożywocie, niektórzy jego wspólnicy trafili na krzesło elektryczne. Po tym ciosie neapolitańczycy już się nie podnieśli. +Inny cios wymierzony w Camorrę nastąpił w 1911 roku, gdy trzydziestu pięciu jej czołowych członków, w tym Wielki Mistrz Enrico Alfano, skazano za liczne morderstwa i wtrącono do więzień. +Podobnie jak wielu Sycylijczyków członkowie Camorry wyemigrowali do Stanów Zjednoczonych (wiązało się to z planem unicestwienia mafii sycylijskiej i Camorry przez włoskiego dyktatora Benito Mussoliniego). Jeszcze przed rokiem 1920 nieliczni żyjący camorristi wstąpili w szeregi istniejących amerykańskich rodzin mafijnych. +Tobia Basile. +Tobia Basile (ur. 1809r. - zm. ??) - uchodzi za Wielkiego Nestora Camorry, wyszkolił wielu camorristi, którzy później stali się ważnymi bossami amerykańskiego świata przestępczego. +W więzieniu spędził ponad 30 lat. To tutaj zyskał opinię najważniejszego speca od zbrodni we Włoszech. Wielu współwięźniów wtajemniczył w zbrodnie popełniane przez Camorrę. +Po wyjściu z więzienia (był już osiemdziesięcioletnim starcem) zamieszkał w domku w Neapolu. Pewnego dnia spakował swój cały dobytek po czy zniknął na zawsze. +W 1900 roku zaginęła jego żona. Istniała hipoteza, że została porwana dla okupu. +W 1910 roku robotnicy zburzyli jego domu. W trakcie prac remontowych za tzw. fałszywą ścianą odkryli szkielet żony Basile (została żywcem zamurowana). Najprawdopodobniej zginęła z rozkazu męża, który nie mógł znieść jej narzekań. +Strefy wpływów. +Camorra stale rozszerza swoje strefy wpływów: oprócz Neapolu, objęła także sąsiednie prowincje Włoch. Po rozłamie w latach 70. i 80. powstała nova camorra oraz nowe rodziny. Organizacja ma liczne wpływy także poza Włochami; w Ameryce Południowej (tam na potrzeby organizacji produkowane są narkotyki) oraz USA (głównie jako rynek zbytu narkotyków). +Kryzys śmieciowy w Neapolu. +W latach 90. władze organizacji zorientowały się, że wywóz i utylizacja śmieci to żyła złota. Jak szacuje włoska prokuratura, od 2002 klany "camorry" w Neapolu zarobiły na śmieciach na czysto 700 milionów euro. W tej chwili w Kampanii organizacja kontroluje cały biznes utylizacji odpadów, łącznie ze spalarniami odpadów. Największe pieniądze gangsterzy zarabiają na wywożeniu trujących odpadów z północy i centrum na południe kraju, które stało się śmietnikiem Włoch. Firmy z Neapolu płacą kamorrystom za odbiór toksycznych odpadów, które wbrew wszelkim przepisom bezpieczeństwa nie są w Kampanii utylizowane, lecz nielegalnie upychane w jaskiniach i zapadliskach u podnóży Wezuwiusza. +Szacunkowe dochody. +Roczne dochody Camorry szacuje się na około miliard euro. +Protesty antymafijne i walka z organizacją. +21 marca 2009 około 150 tys. osób uczestniczyło w demonstracji w Neapolu, zorganizowanej przez stowarzyszenie Libera w ramach dnia pamięci o ofiarach mafii. Przybyły na nią delegacje z 30 krajów świata i wszystkich regionów Włoch. Przy całkowitej ciszy dwukrotnie odczytano przez megafony nazwiska ponad 900 ofiar gangów mafijnych: sędziów, prokuratorów, policjantów, księży, przedsiębiorców. Jedną z osób, które czytały tę listę był pisarz Roberto Saviano, autor głośnej książki "Gomorra – podróż po imperium kamorry" o neapolitańskiej mafii. W wiecu wzięły udział rodziny zabitych. Specjalne przesłanie wystosował prezydent Włoch Giorgio Napolitano. +Bibliografia. +Carl Sifakis, Mafia amerykańska encyklopedia, Tytuł oryginału: The Mafia Encyclopedia, Third Edition, ISBN 97883-242-0613-1 +Friedrich Dürrenmatt + +Friedrich Dürrenmatt (ur. 5 stycznia 1921 w Konolfingen koło Berna, zm. 14 grudnia 1990 w Neuchâtel) - szwajcarski dramaturg, prozaik, eseista i teoretyk teatru, piszący w języku niemieckim. Jego dramaty szczególnie charakteryzuje groteska, deformacja rzeczywistości i stawianie w swych utworach ważnych pytań moralno-filozoficznych. Twórca słuchowisk (znanych także w Polsce), powieści i nowel kryminalnych. +Życie. +Friedrich Dürrenmatt urodził się 5 stycznia 1921 roku w Konolfingen, wsi położonej w szwajcarskim kantonie Berno. Jego dziadkiem był polityk Ulrich Dürrenmatt, jego ojciec był protestanckim pastorem. Trzy lata później urodziła się siostra Verena. W 1935 rodzina przeprowadziła się do Berna, co uwarunkowane było czynnikami gospodarczymi. Światowy kryzys gospodarczy był w tym czasie odczuwalny także w Szwajcarii, a średnie mieszczaństwo zubożało. Friedrich Dürrenmatt uczęszczał do gimnazjum w Bernie ("Berner Freie Gymnasium"), później do "Humboldtianum", gdzie w roku 1941 zdał egzaminy maturalne. Nie był wyróżniającym się uczniem (Ocena końcowa - dostateczna), a czas szkolny określał jako najgorszy okres swojego życia. Późniejsza zmiana placówki była spowodowana słabymi ocenami, nieodpowiednim sposobem prowadzenia zajęć i złymi relacjami z nauczycielami. Dürrenmatt był w 1941 roku członkiem tzw. "Fröntler-Vereinigung", jak sam potem przyznawał z powodu chęci zdystansowania się od swego ojca. +Jeszcze w Konolfingen zaczął malować i rysować, z czego nie zrezygnował przez resztę życia. Ilustrował także swoje dzieła, sporządzał szkice, częściowo także całe scenografie. Jego obrazy były wystawiane w 1976 i w 1985 w Neuenburgu, a w roku 1978 w Zurychu. Mimo swoich zdolności malarskich, w roku 1941 podjął studia filozofii, nauk ścisłych i germanistyki, początkowo w Zurychu, by już po pierwszym semestrze przenieść się do Berna, gdzie mieszkał ze swoimi rodzicami w mansardzie przy Laubeggstrasse. Sam zdobił ją obrazami ściennymi, które zostały odkryte znacznie później i odrestaurowane w latach 90. W roku 1945 zakończył studia, rozpoczętej rozprawy doktorskiej o Sørenie Kierkegaardzie jednak nie zdał. +Jego pierwsze opublikowane dzieło z lat 1945/46 to "Anabaptyści". Premiera odbyła się w roku 1947. Również w 1947 ożenił się z aktorką Lotti Geissler i przeniósł się wraz z nią do Ligerz. Tam powstała powieść kryminalna "Sędzia i jego kat" zawierająca odniesienia do pobliskich miejscowości kantonu jak choćby Lamboing. Dzieło to należy do kanonu lektur w niemieckojęzycznych szkołach. +Dürrenmatt, jako wolny pisarz, zmagał się w początkowych latach twórczości z problemami finansowymi. Sytuacja rodziny poprawiła się w 1952, zwłaszcza dzięki niemieckim towarzystwom radiowym, które wyprodukowały kilka słuchowisk. Ponadto jego stałym wydawcą zostało w tym czasie "Verlag der Arche". Autor zaczął pisać powieści detektywistyczne, które pojawiały się w częściach na łamach "Der Schweizerische Beobachter". W roku 1952 małżeństwo nabyło rezydencje w Neuchâtel. +W 1952 Dürrenmatt napisał sztukę teatralną "Małżeństwo pana Mississippi", dzięki której odniósł swój pierwszy sukces na niemieckich scenach. Międzynarodową sławę przyniosła mu "Wizyta starszej pani", a komedią "Fizycy" pisarz świętował największy sukces w jego karierze. Za swoją twórczość, na którą składały się sztuki teatralne, powieści detektywistyczne, opowiadania, słuchowiska i eseje, otrzymywał wiele nagród. Wśród nich były "Preis der Welti-Stiftung für das Drama" za sztukę "Anabaptyści", "Nagroda im. Schillera miasta Mannheim", "Nagroda Szwajcarskiej Fundacji Schillera" i "Buber-Rosenzweig-Medaille". W 1969 otrzymał honorowy tytuł doktorski na Uniwersytecie Filadelfia, a później także tytuły honorowe w Jerozolimie i Nicei. Lata 60 to najbardziej udany okres kariery pisarza, co zawdzięczał przede wszystkim swoim sztukom teatralnym. +Autor poświęcał się także praktycznej pracy teatralnej, początkowo na scenach w Bazylei, następnie w Zurychu oraz w Düsseldorfie. Tam też odbyły się dwie premiery "Porträt eines Planeten" i "Titus Andronicus". Inscenizował liczne przedstawienia swoich sztuk, jak np. "Meteor" w 1978 w Wiedniu. +Szczególnie dużo odznaczeń otrzymał w latach 80, między innymi "Wielką Austriacką Nagrodę Państwową za Literaturę Europejską" i "Nagrodę im. Georga Büchnera". +Jako autor zajmujący w swoich esejach i rozprawach krytyczne stanowisko wobec społeczeństwa, podejmował się także oceny polityki międzynarodowej, czego przykładami są: "Ameryka", tekst prasowy "Wstawiam się za Izraelem" (1973) oraz rozprawa z okazji setnej rocznicy urodzin Albert Einsteina w Zurychu. W 1990 wygłosił dwie przemowy o Václavie Havlu i Michaile Gorbatschowie, które ukazały się pod tytułem "Nadzieja Kanta". +29-tomowe wydanie jego dzieł ukazało się w 1980 w wydawnictwach "Arche Verlag" oraz w "Diogenes Verlag". Wiele książek było przez Dürrenmatta opracowywanych ponownie. Swojej twórczości autorskiej nigdy nie uważał za zakończonej. W ramach przygotowań do obszernego wydania jego dzieł w roku 1980, Dürrenmatt rozmyślał intensywnie nad swoją pracą twórczą, stworzonymi literackimi figurami i miejscami. Wynikiem tego było 9 -częściowe dzieło "Geschichte meiner Schriftstellerei bzw. Stoffes", opublikowane w dwóch tomach. Kontynuacja została wydana posthum w 1992 pod tytułem "Gedankenfuge eine Fortsetzung der Stoffe". +W roku 1983 umarła jego żona Lotti. W roku 1984 Dürrenmatt poślubił aktorkę, producentkę filmową i dziennikarkę Charlotte Kerr. Wspólnie wydali film "Porträt eines Planeten" i sztukę teatralną "Rollenspiele". Dürrenmatt zmarł 14 grudnia 1990 roku w Neuenburgu w wieku 69 lat. Charlotte Kerr opublikowała wspomnienia z ich wspólnego okresu w książce pod tytułem "Kobieta w czerwonym płaszczu". Za zgodą wdowy Dürrenmatt został pośmiertnie przyjęty do "Loży Lorda Jima". +Teoria dramatu. +Podobnie jak Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956), którego teorie dotyczące epickiego teatru Dürrenmatt studiował, chciał on wytworzyć u widzów dystans do zdarzeń na scenie. Widz nie powinien pozostawać w roli pasywnego odbiorcy, lecz powinien być zachęcony do samodzielnych przemyśleń. +W tym celu Dürrenmatt preferował środek stylistyczny zwany wyobcowaniem. Wszystko co jest powszechnie uznawane, powinno być podawane w wątpliwość, na jaw wychodzi sprzeczność struktur społecznych. Tak samo charakterystyczne są elementy tragiczno - groteskowe, a więc połączenie rzeczy pozornie całkowicie odmiennych. W przeciwieństwie do Brechta nie prezentował on jednak czynników światopoglądowych. (w wypadku Brechta:marksizm). +Dürrenmat stworzył typ tragikomedii, formy mieszanej z tragedii i komedii, który według niego jest "jedyną dramatyczną formą, aby dziś wyrazić tragizm. +W tragedii, pisał dalej w swoim tekście "Problemy teatru" z 1955 roku, zakłada się: winę, konieczność, umiar, przejrzystość i odpowiedzialność, aby osiągnąć jej cel, jakim jest oczyszczenie jednostki. W nieprzejrzystości świata wina się zaciera i znika, nowoczesność zrównuje się z groteskowością. +Centrum Dürrenmatta. +W Neuchâtel w dawnym domu pisarza powstało Centrum Dürrenmatta, gdzie wystawiane są zarówno dzieła literackie, jak i niektóre jego obrazy. +Dom ten, położony nad miastem, Friedrich Dürrenmatt nabył w roku 1952 i mieszkał tam aż do swojej śmierci 14 grudnia 1990 roku. W niektórych dziełach wspominał on życie w zachodniej Szwajcarii, blisko granicy niemiecko-francuskiej, szczególnie jednak fakt, że od roku 1952 żył w części francuskojęzycznej, tworząc jednak w języku ojczystym - niemieckim. Po jego śmierci rezydencja została przystosowana i rozbudowana na potrzeby muzeum, które zostało oficjalnie otwarte we wrześniu 2000 roku. Samo centrum Dürrenmatta jest wzniesione wokół jego domu. Można tam obejrzeć między innymi jego bibliotekę. W muzeum jest prezentowana twórczość literacka i malarska autora. Oprócz licznych eksponatów (jak odręczne szkice dzieł czy liczne obrazy) oferuje ono zwiedzającym regularne wydarzenia kulturalne i wystawy sztuki. +Kuropaty + +Kuropaty (biał. "Курапа́ты", ros. "Куропаты") – uroczysko na skraju Mińska na Białorusi, w którym odkryte zostały masowe groby ludzi rozstrzelanych przez NKWD w latach 1937–1941. +Liczba ofiar nie jest dokładnie znana i może wynosić: według prokuratora generalnego Białorusi Aleha Bażełki – do 7 tysięcy osób, według prokuratora generalnego Białoruskiej SRR Hienadzia Tarnauskiego – co najmniej 30 tysięcy osób, według przewodnika "Biełaruś" – do 100 tysięcy osób, według artykułu Zianona Pazniaka w gazecie "Litaratura i mastactwa" – od 100 tysięcy do 250 tysięcy osób, według prof. Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego Zdzisława Winnickiego – 250 tysięcy osób, według brytyjskiego historyka Normana Daviesa – ponad ćwierć miliona osób. +Od 1993 uroczysko Kuropaty znajduje się w Państwowym Spisie Zabytków Historyczno-Kulturowych Republiki Białorusi jako miejsce pochówku ofiar represji politycznych lat 30. i 40. XX w. Kuropaty mają status zabytku historyczno-kulturowego pierwszej kategorii, co według ustawy Republiki Białorusi „O ochronie dziedzictwa historyczno-kulturowego” odpowiada kategorii "najbardziej unikatowych zabytków, których wartości duchowe, estetyczne i dokumentalne budzą zainteresowanie międzynarodowe". +Kuropaty są jednym spośród co najmniej ośmiu miejsc masowych egzekucji dokonywanych przez NKWD na terenie Mińska. Pozostałe to cmentarz Kalwaryjski, park Czeluskińców, Mały Trościeniec, Łoszczyca, Drozy, Masiukowszczyzna. +Położenie. +Uroczysko Kuropaty znajduje się bezpośrednio za obwodnicą Mińska, na północ od centrum miasta (52. kilometr obwodnicy). Administracyjnie Kuropaty należą do sielsowietu borowlańskiego w rejonie mińskim, w obwodzie mińskim. +Z Mińska do Kuropat można dotrzeć piechotą od pętli „Zielony Ług” (przystanek autobusów 13, 13d, 24, 87, 109a i trolejbusów 1, 46, 53), przechodząc przejściem podziemnym pod obwodnicą, położonym 500 m na północny zachód od od zajezdni, lub od centrum „Ekspabieł” położonego 700 m na południowy wschód od uroczyska, autobusami 109, 109a, 109w (przystanek „Kuropaty”) z pętli „Karbyszawa”. Można tam również dotrzeć piechotą z rejonu popularnego miejsca rekreacyjnego - Zbiornika Cniańskiego - położonego w odległości około 1,2 km na południowy zachód od Kuropat. +Nazwa. +Nie ma dokładnych informacji, skąd pochodzi nazwa „Kuropaty”. Do 1988 na mapach topograficznych nazwa taka nie występowała, zaś uroczysko nosiło nazwę „Brod”. Według jednej z wersji już w czasie rozstrzeliwań lokalni mieszkańcy nazywali Kuropatami niewielką część lasu wchodzącą na spadzistą górkę. Część owa otoczona była wysokim, co najmniej trzymetrowym, płotem, nad którym był drut kolczasty, zaś za samym płotem znajdowała się ochrona z psami. +3 czerwca 1988 w gazecie "Litaratura i Mastactwa" wydrukowany został artykuł Zianona Pazniaka i Jauhiena Szmyhalowa "Kuropaty — droga śmierci" ("Kurapaty – daroha śmierci"), w którym autorzy opowiedzieli, jak na początku lat 70. we wsi Zielony Ług mieli okazję słyszeć od mieszkańców o rozstrzeliwaniu ludzi w pobliskim lesie. Według informacji miejscowej ludności, od 1937 do 1941 każdego dnia i każdej nocy przywożono tu samochodami ludzi i rozstrzeliwano. Zianon Pazniak zaznaczył, iż nie przypuszczał, że w ten sposób wprowadza nowe słowo do języka białoruskiego i nowy termin do białoruskiej historii. Pazniak stwierdził, że usłyszał to słowo od chłopców, którzy tłumaczyli, że kuropatami nazywa się białe wiosenne kwiaty, które rosną w maju na grobach uroczyska. Zazwyczaj takie kwiaty nazywane są na Białorusi "biełymi praleskami" — białymi przylaszczkami. Przypuszczalnie kuropatami miejscowi chłopi nazywali także inne polne kwiaty. +Po publikacji artykułu przeprowadzono pierwsze powierzchowne wykopaliska i ujawniono istnienie tajemnych masowych mogił koło wsi Cno-Jodkowo. Wkrótce potem miejsce stało się znane na świecie pod nazwą „uroczysko Kuropaty”. +Śledztwo. +Na podstawie opublikowanego artykułu 14 czerwca 1988 prokuratura Białoruskiej SRR wszczęła śledztwo w sprawie kryminalnej. Na terenie o powierzchni ok. 30 ha odkryto 510 mogił o rozmiarach 2x3, 3x3, 4x4, 6x8 m i większe. Podczas selektywnej ekshumacji odkryto szczątki ludzkie (313 czaszek i kości, 340 protez zębowych z żółtego i białego metalu), rzeczy osobiste (grzebienie, szczoteczki do zębów, mydelniczki, torebki, obuwie, resztki odzieży), a także 177 łusek i 28 pocisków. 164 łuski rewolwerowe i 21 pocisków pochodziło z rewolweru typu Nagant, 1 łuska - z pistoletu TT, cywilnej broni pracowników NKWD. Znaleziono także kilka łusek z pistoletów typu Browning i Walther. Broń taka produkowana była również przed 1941; nierzadko nagradzano nią kadry kierownicze NKWD. 55 świadków ze wsi Cno-Jodkowo, Podbłocie i Drozdowo zeznało, że w latach 1937–1941 pracownicy NKWD przywozili do Kuropat ludzi w zamkniętych samochodach, a następnie ich rozstrzeliwali. Istnieją także zeznania współpracowników NKWD, którzy prowadzili na uroczysku egzekucje. +Pierwsze śledztwo zakończyło się w listopadzie 1988. Prokurator generalny BSRR Hienadź Tarnauski określił liczbę zabitych na co najmniej 30 tysięcy osób. Po zakończeniu czynności śledczych Prokuratura Generalna BSRR podjęła decyzję o umorzeniu śledztwa w sprawie kryminalnej: "...wykazano ponad wątpliwość, iż egzekucje skazanych wykonane zostały przez współpracowników komendantury NKWD BSRR. (...) Biorąc pod uwagę, że kierownictwo NKWD BSRR i inne osoby winne tych represji zostały skazane na karę śmierci lub zmarły, na podstawie powyższego, kierując się art. 208 pkt. 1 i art. 5 pkt. 8 KPK BSRR, kryminalna sprawa, wszczęta w związku z odkryciem grobów w kompleksie leśnym Kuropaty, zostaje umorzona. Znalezione podczas ekshumacji grobów elementy odzieży, obuwia, a także przedmioty nieposiadające wartości, zniszczyć". +Publikacja wyników śledztwa potwierdzających winę NKWD wywołała falę oburzenia niektórych środowisk, szczególnie kombatantów II wojny światowej. Napisali oni szereg listów do KC KPZR w Moskwie nt. możliwych fałszerstw w wynikach badań. W celu weryfikacji dwukrotnie przyjeżdżały na Białoruś komisje z Prokuratury Generalnej ZSRR i każdorazowo potwierdzały wyniki śledztwa. +W latach 90. śledztwo w sprawie Kuropat było kilkakrotnie wznawiane. Pojawiły się opinie, że egzekucje prowadzone były przez nazistów podczas II wojny światowej, wszystkie jednak zostały obalone. +Z myślą o potwierdzeniu „niemieckiego śladu” utworzyła się obywatelska komisja ds. zbadania zbrodni w Kuropatach pod kierownictwem Korzuna. Skierowała ona w czerwcu 1991 do prokuratury ZSRR zebrane przez nią materiały, rzekomo świadczące, że na uroczysku leżą szczątki ofiar zbrodni hitlerowskich. Tezy przedstawione we wniosku komisji nie znalazły jednak potwierdzenia. W lutym 1992 na wniosek komisji obywatelskiej śledztwo zostało wznowione po raz kolejny, z tym samym rezultatem. +W 1993 komisja obywatelska po raz kolejny zwróciła się do Sądu Najwyższego Białorusi z wnioskiem o ponowną weryfikację wyników śledztw, w wyniku czego przeprowadzono jeszcze jedno dochodzenie. Sprawdzona została m.in. wersja o mordzie dokonanym na Żydach przez nazistów. W tym celu zwrócono się z zapytaniem do Instytutu Yad Vashem w Jerozolimie, gdzie zgromadzona jest najpełniejsza wiedza na temat represji na Żydach. Mińsk, Drozdy, Masiukowszczyzna, Kuropaty, Cno-Jodkowo i Zielony Ług nie figurowały tam jako miejsca masowego rozstrzeliwania ludności żydowskiej. Nie było także informacji o egzekucjach w archiwach niemieckich. Zdaniem niemieckich ekspertów, sposób pochówku w Kuropatach nie przypomina hitlerowskiego. Naziści zwykle kopali wielkie mogiły o długości do 50–60 m, przy czym ofiarom zabierali odzież, rzeczy osobiste i zrywali złote koronki. +W połowie lat 90. prokurator generalny Białorusi Aleh Bażełka ogłosił wyniki nowego śledztwa: w Kuropatach zginęło nie więcej niż 7 tysięcy osób. +W 1998 podjęto decyzję o rozpoczęciu nowego, czwartego, śledztwa, którego celem była weryfikacja wniosków poprzednich komisji. Przydzielono je starszemu pomocnikowi prokuratora wojskowego Białorusi, Wiktorowi Somawowi. Badania zakończyły się w 1999 i potwierdziły, że masowe rozstrzeliwania dokonywane były przez organy NKWD od drugiej połowy lat 30. do początku wojny niemiecko-radzieckiej (1941). Wersja o winie nazistów po raz kolejny nie została potwierdzona. Podczas śledztwa odkryto największą do tej pory kuropacką mogiłę, w której znajdowały się szczątki ponad 300 osób. Po raz pierwszy znaleziono też dowody rzeczowe z konkretnymi datami i nazwiskami, świadczące o tym, że rozstrzeliwania odbyły się przed wybuchem wojny. W mogile N30 znaleziono więzienne pokwitowania odebrania wartościowych przedmiotów na czas aresztu, wydane 10 czerwca 1940 Mouszy Kramerowi i Mordechajowi Szuleskiesowi. +Kandydat nauk historycznych Andrej Miacielski twierdzi, że ostatnie badanie Kuropat w 1997, przeprowadzone przez historyków Akademii Nauk Białorusi, pracowników prokuratury, KDB i przedstawicieli społeczeństwa, spotkało się z blokadą informacyjną ze strony władz. Na podstawie wyników badań komisja jednogłośnie przyjęła wniosek o odpowiedzialności NKWD za mord w Kuropatach, jednak nie mógł on zostać upubliczniony. Macielski twierdzi, że widział list z Prokuratury Generalnej do kancelarii prezydenta Białorusi z propozycją: "materiałów śledztwa nie upubliczniać i do wiadomości publicznej nie podawać". +Ofiary. +Liczba ofiar. +Liczba ofiar w Kuropatach nie została dokładnie określona; archiwa KDB dotyczące sprawy są utajnione. Istnieją różne wersje i oceny. +W artykule "Szumią nad mogiłą sosny..." ("Шумяць над магілай сосны..."), wydrukowanym w gazecie "Litaratura i mastactwa" 16 września 1988, Zianon Pazniak na podstawie przeprowadzonych wykopalisk i badań formułuje wniosek, że liczba ofiar wynosić może 102 tysiące ludzi. Pazniak zaznacza jednak, że prawdziwa liczba pochowanych w Kuropatach może sięgać 220–250 tysięcy, ponieważ istnieją groby o rozmiarach większych od zbadanych, a także mnóstwo mogił, które uległy zniszczeniu podczas budowy mińskiej obwodnicy na przełomie lat 50. i 60., budowy gazociągu i wycinki lasu w kwietniu i maju 1988, a także prawdopodobnie podczas wycinki i nasadzania lasu w tym miejscu w latach 40. +Wykopaliska przeprowadzone w lipcu 1988, na podstawie których dokonano tej oceny liczby ofiar, były pierwszą znaną ekshumacją w Kuropatach. Jednocześnie badacze w swoim sprawozdaniu zwrócili uwagę, że wcześniej w tym miejscu ktoś już przeprowadzał ekshumację i część grobów została opróżniona, na co wskazuje znaczna rozbieżność w liczbie znalezionych czaszek i par kości udowych. Przy poprzedniej ekshumacji z jam wybrano znaczną objętość szczątków ludzkich, lecz ponownie zasypano niewystarczającą ilością gruntu, w wyniku czego wszystkie 510 odkrytych grobów zapadło się na głębokość od 0,18 do 0,65 m w stosunku do poziomu krawędzi mogiły. Zdaniem Pazniaka część ciał mogła zostać wywieziona z Kuropat na polecenie wyższego kierownictwa ZSRR w latach 40. i 50. w związku z wyjściem na jaw mordu na polskich oficerach w Katyniu. +Pierwsze śledztwo prowadzone przez Prokuraturę Generalną BSRR, zakończone w listopadzie 1988, określiło liczbę zabitych na co najmniej 30 tysięcy osób. Do takiej samej liczby można dojść, analizując wyniki kompleksowej ekspertyzy sądowo-medycznej i kryminalistycznej, która ujawniła, że w 6 zbadanych zbiorowych mogiłach odnaleziono szczątki co najmniej 356 osób. Biorąc pod uwagę to, że liczba mogił wynosi 510, można oszacować liczbę ludzi pochowanych w Kuropatach na co najmniej 30 tysięcy. +Według przewodnika "Biełaruś" wydanego w 1995 liczba ofiar wynosiła do 100 tysięcy. +Na podstawie nowego dochodzenia Prokuratury Generalnej Białorusi w latach 1997–1998, podczas którego przeprowadzono wykopaliska w 23 domniemanych miejscach pochówku i tylko w 9 z nich odkryto szczątki ludzkie, oceniło, że w Kuropatach pochowanych jest nie więcej niż 7 tysięcy osób. +Profesor Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego Zdzisław Julian Winnicki stwierdził, że liczba ofiar w Kuropatach wynosi 250 tysięcy ludzi. Brytyjski historyk Norman Davies ocenił, że ofiar może być nawet więcej. +Pochodzenie ofiar. +Społeczne i etniczne pochodzenie ofiar można określić na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań tylko do pewnego stopnia. +Wykopaliska przeprowadzone w 1988 sugerują, że wszyscy pochowani należeli do ludności cywilnej z różnych, głównie niższych, warstw społecznych (robotnicy, chłopi, drobni urzędnicy, wiejska inteligencja). Wśród pochowanych odnaleziono także przedstawicieli inteligencji i kobiety. +Ustalono, że pochowani pochodzili z różnych rejonów obecnej Białorusi. Znaczna część pochodziła z terytoriów II Rzeczypospolitej włączonych w 1939 do Białoruskiej SRR. W czasie badań odnaleziono resztki odzieży i obuwia produkcji zarówno polskiej, jak i radzieckiej. Znaleziono także obuwie wyprodukowane w krajach bałtyckich i znaczną ilość obuwia wykonanego samodzielnie. +Potwierdzono, że ofiarami mordu w Kuropatach byli zarówno Białorusini, jak i Polacy. Znaleziono m.in. męski grzebień, na którym znajdowały się napisy w języku polskim: "Ciężkie chwile więźnia. Mińsk 25 04.1940. Myśl o was doprowadza mnie do szaleństwa" z jednej strony, zaś z drugiej: "26 IV Rozpłakałem się — ciężki dzień", medaliki z wizerunkiem Matki Boskiej Częstochowskiej i Matki Boskiej Ostrobramskiej, buty i kalosze z polskimi znakami firmowymi, czy emaliowany kubek z napisem na denku "Warszawa". +Kuropaty często wymienia się obok Bykowni, oraz trzech znanych miejsc spoczynku ofiar zbrodni katyńskiej: Katynia, Miednoje i Charkowa. Według tzw. listy białoruskiej może tutaj spoczywać 3872 Polaków wymordowanych tylko podczas dwóch miesięcy (kwietnia i maja) 1940 roku. Poza tym spoczywają tutaj prawdopodobnie także ofiary tzw. operacji polskiej NKWD, oraz pomordowani po 1940 roku. +Stosunek władz. +18 stycznia 1989 na podstawie wyników prac komisji rządowej ds. przypadków masowego rozstrzeliwania ludzi na uroczysku pod Mińskiem Rada Ministrów Białoruskiej SRR przyjęła postanowienie nr 42, które przewidywało przeprowadzenie otwartego konkursu na pomnik ofiar masowych represji w Kuropatach, a także jego budowę. Wydawnictwu "Biełaruskaja sawieckaja encyklapedyja" zarekomendowano przygotowanie specjalnego wydania poświęconego ofiarom stalinizmu, zaś Prezydium Akademii Nauk Białoruskiej SRR zorganizowanie "wielostronnego zbadania przyczyn i skutków masowych represji". Według słów Ihara Kuzniacoua, członka Międzynarodowego Historyczno-Oświatowego, Dobroczynnego i "Prawoobrończego" Towarzystwa „Memoriał”, cieszącego się największym autorytetem na Białorusi badacza sowieckiego totalitaryzmu, żadne z postanowień Rady Ministrów od 1989 do 2010 nie zostało wykonane. +30 listopada 1993 Kuropaty zostały umieszczone na liście Państwowego Spisu Historyczno-Kulturowych Zabytków Republiki Białorusi pod nazwą „Miejsce stracenia ofiar politycznych represji lat 30. i 40. XX wieku na uroczysku Kuropaty” ("Месца зьнішчэньня ахвяраў палітычных рэпрэсіяў 30–40-х гадоў XX стагодьдзя ва ўрочышчы Курапаты") jako pomnik historii rangi międzynarodowej. +W 2005 organizacja społeczna „Dyjaryusz”, Białoruskie Stowarzyszenie Ofiar Represji Politycznych ("Беларуская асацыяцыя ахвяраў палітычных рэпрэсіяў"), międzynarodowa organizacja „Biełaruskaja perspektywa” i Międzynarodowe Historyczno-Oświatowe, Dobroczynne i "Prawoobrończe" Stowarzyszenie „Memoriał” ogłosiły otwarty konkurs społeczny na treść tekstu na pomniku ofiar represji politycznych XX w. na Białorusi. W ogłoszeniu o konkursie organizatorzy podkreślili, że państwo przejawia całkowitą obojętność wobec sytuacji w Kuropatach. +Pod koniec 2005 archeolog Mikoła Krywalcewicz mówił: "Kuropaty są poza uwagą oficjalnych organów. Już nikt nigdy z oficjalnych osobistości nie składa tu kwiatów, nawet w dni pamięci, jak było dawniej". +W 2008 na mińskiej obwodnicy przy zjeździe na Kuropaty ustawiono drogowskaz: „Miejsce stracenia ofiar represji politycznych na uroczysku Kuropaty lat 1930–1940” ("Месца гібелі ахвяраў палітычных рэпрэсіяў ва ўрочышчы Курапаты 1930–1940 гадоў"). +W 2009 memoriałowa sekcja Białoruskiego Ochotniczego Towarzystwa Ochrony Pomników Historii i Kultury zwróciła się do Rady Ministrów Białorusi z przypomnieniem o konieczności wykonania postanowienia Rady Ministrów BSRR. W odpowiedzi dyrektor Instytutu Historii Akademii Nauk Białorusi, doktor nauk historycznych, profesor Alaksandr Kawalenia napisał, że zachowanie pamięci o ofiarach stalinizmu i tragedii białoruskiego narodu jest sprawą ogólnonarodową, która wymaga szerokiej dyskusji i podjęcia decyzji na poziomie prawodawczym. +W 2009 wiceprzewodniczący mińskiego Miejskiego Komitetu Wykonawczego Michaił Ciciankou powiadomił, że władze miasta "uważają za możliwe rozważenie kwestii stworzenia pomnika ofiar politycznych represji i uporządkowania uroczyska Kuropaty", jednak dopiero po zakończeniu budowy pomnika „Trościeniec” i uporządkowaniu bratnich mogił wojskowych w Mińsku z okresu I wojny światowej. +Jesienią 2009 w organie prasowym prezydenta Białorusi "Sowietskaja Biełorussija" wydrukowano artykuł zatytułowany „Kuropaty: pokój pod sosnami”, w którym uroczysko zostało nazwane "cmentarzem o ogólnonarodowym znaczeniu". Pół roku później zorganizowano okrągły stół z dyskusją na temat Kuropat. Historyk Ihar Kuzniacou stwierdził, że to ważny dla społeczeństwa i dawno oczekiwany krok. W opinii archeologa Mikoły Krywalcewicza problem "uznania-nieuznania" Kuropat przez państwo jest wysoce polityczny, ale sam fakt uznania jest warty uwagi. +W podręcznikach szkolnych wydanych na Białorusi po roku 2000 temat Kuropat jest całkowicie przemilczany. +Reakcje społeczne. +W 1988 w Kuropatach odbyła się masowa demonstracja antysowiecka i pierwszy marsz na miejsce pochówku pod hasłami żądającymi osądzenia zbrodni stalinizmu. Marsz został rozpędzony przez wojska wewnętrzne z użyciem gazu łzawiącego, co wywołało oburzenie w społeczeństwie i zwiększyło zainteresowanie sprawą Kuropat. +Od tego czasu co roku organizowane są marsze na Kuropaty dla uczczenia pamięci ofiar stalinowskich represji. +Na Święto Dziadów w 1989 w Kuropatach ustawiono siedmiometrowy „Krzyż Pokuty”. Uroczysko stało się symbolem walki o niepodległość Białorusi i przeciwko ideologii komunistycznej. Upolitycznienie problemu stało się jedną z przyczyn utrudniających obiektywne dochodzenie i ocenę dowodów w tej sprawie. +W 1994 uroczysko Kuropaty odwiedził prezydent Stanów Zjednoczonych Bill Clinton. Przekazał wówczas w darze „od narodu amerykańskiego narodowi Białorusi na pamiątkę” granitową ławkę, którą później zaczęto nazywać potocznie „ławką Clintona”. Pomnik wielokrotnie był niszczony przez nieznanych sprawców i każdorazowo odnawiany. Kuropaty odwiedził także prezydent Polski Lech Wałęsa. +W latach 1999–2000 teren Kuropat popadł w zaniedbanie: las zmienił się w miejsce odpoczynku mieszkańców okolicznych mińskich osiedli, mogiły porosły krzewami. Dla uniknięcia niebezpieczeństwa, jakie zawisło nad Kuropatami, Zianon Pazniak wezwał do stworzenia "Narodowego Memoriału" i przedstawił pomysł Krzyżowego Marszu na Święto Dziadów. Koncepcję pomnika - jego konstrukcję, a także liczbę i rozmieszczenie krzyży - ustalano w lutym i marcu 2000. W tym samym roku odbył się pierwszy Krzyżowy Marsz, na który przygotowano 20 wielkich krzyży i wiele mniejszych. Był to początek nadawania Kuropatom statusu pomnika, ale jeszcze przez pewien czas krzyży tam nie ustawiano. W 2001 odbył się kolejny Krzyżowy Marsz połączony z ustawieniem znacznej ich liczby na uroczysku i pracami porządkowymi wokół mogił. Idea Krzyżowych Marszy stała się popularna i od tego czasu zaczęto organizować je corocznie. Ogółem do 2008 w Kuropatach ustawiono ponad pół tysiąca krzyży. +Na Dziady w 2002 artysta Alaksiej Maraczkin przygotował obraz zatytułowany „Matka Boska Kuropacka Wszystkich Niewinnie Rozstrzelanych”, który został poświęcony w Kuropatach 2 listopada 2002. Oryginał obrazu został podarowany kościołowi św. Szymona i św. Heleny w Mińsku, zaś w Święto Dziadów rok później w Kuropatach ustawiono kapliczkę z reprodukcją obrazu. Kapliczka została wykonana według szkicu Alakseja Maraczkina, autora obrazu. +29 października 2004 w Kuropatach odbyło się uroczyste odsłonięcie "znaku pamiątkowego" od białoruskich Żydów ku czci ofiar stalinizmu. Wykonano go z kamienia pochodzącego z dawnego pomnika Stalina w Mińsku. +Pod koniec 2008 działacze społeczni skierowali do Kancelarii Prezydenta i do Rady Ministrów Białorusi list z propozycją umieszczenia uroczyska na liście światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. List podpisali: przewodniczący Białoruskiego Ochotniczego Towarzystwa Ochrony Pomników Historii i Kultury, Anton Astapowicz, przewodnicząca Białoruskiego Związku Ofiar Represji Politycznych, Zinaida Tarasiewicz, i kierownik naukowy Historyczno-Kulturowego Zabytku „Kuropaty”, Maja Klasztornaja. W odpowiedzi Ministerstwo Kultury Białorusi odmówiło złożenia wniosku o wpisanie Kuropat na listę na podstawie Konwencji UNESCO w 2005. Anton Astapowicz stwierdził, że Konwencja dopuszcza na listę obiekty, które wywarły silny wpływ na bieg historii, a takim są według niego Kuropaty. +13 kwietnia 2010 roku w Kuropatach podczas wspólnej modlitwy uczczono pamięć ofiar represji stalinowskich oraz ofiar katastrofy polskiego Tu-154 w Smoleńsku. +Przebudowa obwodnicy Mińska. +Sytuacja wokół Kuropatów zaostrzyła się na początku nowego stulecia, kiedy władze podjęły decyzję o poszerzeniu obwodnicy Mińska z dwóch pasów ruchu do sześciu. Odrzuciły przy tym opracowany w 1993 projekt drogi zakładający ominięcie uroczyska. Zimą z 2001 na 2002 przedstawiciele organizacji demokratycznych organizowali w Kuropatach mityngi i dyżury, blokując roboty drogowe i zarzucając władzom zamiar poprowadzenia drogi bezpośrednio przez mogiły. Żądali także niedopuszczenia do uszkodzenia memoriału przez maszyny budowlane. Istniały świadectwa, że stara mińska obwodnica została już zbudowana na miejscu grobów. Z drugiej strony protestujący oskarżani byli o wykorzystywanie tematu Kuropatów do własnych korzyści politycznych, ponieważ na podstawie badań archeologicznych w latach 1987, 1992 i 1998, a także wniosków Instytutu Historii Białoruskiej Akademii Nauk wynikało, że groby znajdują się z boku od planowanego przebiegu drogi, w odległości 75-80 m od granicy placu budowy. Z tego powodu co jakiś czas dochodziło do potyczek pomiędzy protestującymi a białoruskimi służbami specjalnymi. +W sumie obrona Kuropatów trwała od września 2001 do lipca 2002. Na uroczysku ustawiano kolejne krzyże. Po pewnym czasie rozpoczęły się rozmowy i konsultacje. Problem Kuropatów przyciągnął zainteresowanie wspólnoty międzynarodowej i zaczął być szerzej omawiany w druku. W rezultacie mińska obwodnica została poszerzona w stronę Kuropatów na kilkadziesiąt metrów, ale przebiegła inaczej niż planowano na początku. +Osiedle „Słoneczne”. +Pod koniec 2002 Miński Rejonowy Komitet Wykonawczy oddał przyległe do Kuropatów pole pod budowę osiedla domków jednorodzinnych o nazwie „Słoneczne” ("„Сонечны”"), w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie masowych mogił. Firma budowlana zajmująca się robotami ziemnymi nie zamówiła projektu stref ochronnych wokół Kuropatów і samowolnie wyznaczyła granice strefy ochronnej w odległości 80 m od krawędzi lasu, po czym określiła granice placu budowy i przywiozła materiały. Budowa wywołała w społeczeństwie kolejną falę oburzenia, przedstawiciele Instytutu Projektowego samodzielnie opracowali projekt stref ochronnych, który po uwzględnieniu żądań społeczeństwa ostatecznie zatwierdziła Rada Naukowo-Metodyczna przy Komitecie Ochrony Dziedzictwa Historycznego i Zabytków Kultury w maju 2003. W kwietniu 2003 przewodniczący Mińskiego Obwodowego Komitetu Wykonawczego Mikałaj Damaszkiewicz polecił Mińskiemu Rejonowemu Komitetowi Wykonawczemu rozwiązać umowę na dzierżawę ziemi pod budownictwo na terenie przyległym do Kuropatów. W czerwcu 2003 umowa została rozwiązana, budowa przerwana, plac budowy zlikwidowany, a materiały wywiezione. Wszelkie działania na terenach wokół Kuropatów zostały zamrożone do czasu wyznaczenia i zatwierdzenia przez Radę Ministrów Białorusi strefy ochronnej memoriału. +Według projektu stref ochronnych, opracowanych w 2002, szerokość strefy ochronnej wynosiła od 200 do 500 m wokół Kuropatów. W 2004 Ministerstwo Kultury Białorusi przyjęło postanowienie „O strefie ochrony materialnego nieruchomego zabytku historyczno-kulturowego — Miejsca stracenia ofiar represji politycznych lat 1930–1940 na uroczysku Kuropaty” ("„Аб зонах аховы матэрыяльнай нерухомай гісторыка культурнай каштоўнасьці — Месца згубы ахвяраў палітычных рэпрэсіяў 1930–40 гадоў ва ўрочышчы Курапаты”"), które zmniejszyło szerokość strefy ochronnej do 110–250 m. Zmianę tłumaczono brakiem normatywnego dokumentu w sprawie memorializacji Kuropatów. +Wandalizmy. +Nadanie Kuropatom statusu historyczno-kulturowego zabytku pierwszej kategorii w 1993 wymuszone było koniecznością ochrony mogił od szabrowników. Już w listopadzie 1994 minister spraw wewnętrznych Juryj Zacharanka, po otrzymaniu kolejnego powiadomienia o rabunku grobów, wydał polecenie podjęcia koniecznych kroków zgodnie z wymaganiami białoruskiego prawa. Mimo to, wiosną 1995 szabrownicy rozkopali ponad 10 grobów, a szczątki ludzkie zostały rozrzucone naokoło. Jesienią 1998 z mogiły zostały wyciągnięte kości pochowane po ekshumacji przeprowadzonej przez przedstawicieli komisji śledczej. W kwietniu 1999 szabrownicy rozkopali 6 grobów, w październiku — kolejne cztery. Niektóre z nich zostały rozkopane na głębokość 1,8 m na powierzchni 4–5 m². Obok mogił leżały resztki i fragmenty rzeczy osobistych ofiar. Jak zaznaczył archeolog Mikoła Krywalcewicz, charakter rabunku świadczył o dobrze zorganizowanej i przygotowanej akcji. +Uszkodzenia znaków pamiątkowych i krzyży w Kuropatach dokonane przez nieznanych sprawców miały miejsca dziesiątki razy, przy czym w znacznym stopniu od drugiej połowy lat 90. Do tego czasu przypadki wandalizmu miały charakter jednostkowy. W sprawie niszczenia krzyży pamiątkowych trzykrotnie były wszczynane sprawy karne, jednak nikt nie został ukarany. +Pod koniec lat 90. została złamana metalowa tablica z napisem „Pokutnikom Białorusi” na Krzyżu Pokuty. W maju 2003 złamano 10 krzyży. W 2004 z kamienia węgielnego skradziono tablicę pamiątkową z treścią decyzji Rady Ministrów BSRR o konieczności budowy pomnika w Kuropatach. Nowa tablica, zamontowana jesienią 2005, zniknęła po tygodniu. Kolejny raz tablicę zamontowano w 2007 z inicjatywy społecznej. +W grudniu 2005 nieznani sprawcy dwukrotnie namalowali swastyki i satanistyczne napisy na krzyżach, na pomniku zabitych na uroczysku Żydów i na obrazie Matki Boskiej Kuropackiej. +W 2007 przewrócono krzyż „Pokutnikom Białorusi”. W kwietniu 2007 złamano sześć krzyży, a kilka kolejnych uszkodzono. W październiku tego samego roku połamany na kawałki został „Krzyż Pokuty”. Do Święta Dziadów 2007 odnowiono go. W marcu 2008 nieznani sprawcy złamali 36 krzyży. Wiosną 2009 rozkopane zostały dwie mogiły; z ziemi na powierzchnię wyrzucono ludzkie kości i stare przedmioty. W kwietniu tego roku złamano kolejnych sześć krzyży, a w grudniu - kilka następnych, w tym krzyż-kapliczkę z kopią obrazu Matki Boskiej Kuropackiej. +Według stanu na 2009 rok, „ławka Clintona” (znak pamiątkowy „Od narodu USA narodowi Białorusi na pamiątkę”, ustawiony w 1994) ucierpiała od aktów wandalizmu dwanaście razy. W sprawie tej interweniowała ambasada USA na Białorusi. +Mimo znacznej częstości i regularności aktów wandalizmu na uroczysku Kuropaty, organy ścigania zwykle nie podejmują poszukiwania sprawców. Tylko raz, w listopadzie 2008, aktywistom KChP BFL udało się schwytać dwóch niepełnoletnich wandali i przekazać milicji. Zostało wszczęte postępowanie karne, ale sprawcy nie zostali ukarani: kwalifikacja prawna czynu „zbezczeszczenie zabytków historyczno-kulturowych” została zmieniona na „złośliwe chuligaństwo”, w wyniku czego oskarżeni zostali ułaskawieni. Był to pierwszy przypadek, kiedy śledztwo przedstawiło oskarżenie konkretnym osobom w sprawie popełnienia aktów wandalizmu w Kuropatach. +Z myślą o odnawianiu i porządkowaniu memoriału, organizacje społeczne tradycyjnie organizują akcje wspólnej pracy, w czasie których ludzie systematycznie naprawiają dokonywane przez wandali zniszczenia. +Ustasze + +Ustasze – potoczne określenie członków chorwackiej skrajnie nacjonalistycznej, fanatycznie katolickiej i proniemieckiej organizacji terrorystycznej Ustaša (chorw. "Ustaše" – powstańcy, buntownicy). +Organizację założył 7 stycznia 1929 we Włoszech Ante Pavelić, zbiegły z Królestwa SHS po objęciu władzy przez króla Aleksandra I. Celem ustaszy była niepodległość Chorwacji, wyodrębnionej ze zdominowanej przez Serbów Jugosławii. Działając z terytoriów Włoch, Węgier i Austrii przeprowadzili wiele akcji terrorystycznych. +Białoruska Republika Ludowa + +Białoruska Republika Ludowa (biał. "Беларуская Народная Рэспубліка", "Biełaruskaja Narodnaja Respublika") – pierwsze w historii państwo białoruskie istniejące od marca do grudnia 1918 roku na terenach okupowanych przez Cesarstwo Niemieckie. +Geneza i początkowa działalność. +W październiku 1917 roku, w obliczu rosnących wpływów bolszewików, demokratyczne białoruskie partie polityczne powołały będącą ich reprezentacją Wielką Radę Białoruską. Ta zwołała w dniach 17-31 grudnia w Mińsku Pierwszy Kongres Wszechbiałoruski, na którym podjęto uchwałę o prawie narodu białoruskiego do niepodległości i samostanowienia. +Białoruska Republika Ludowa powołana została do życia 25 marca 1918 roku w Mińsku Litewskim po tym, gdy znaczna część Białorusi (w tym Mińsk) w lutym znalazła się pod okupacją Niemiec na mocy traktatu brzeskiego. BRL rościła sobie prawo do terytorium byłych rosyjskich guberni: mińskiej, mohylewskiej, witebskiej, smoleńskiej, grodzieńskiej, wileńskiej i części kowieńskiej, a także części guberni chełmskiej i wołyńskiej. +Rząd Białoruskiej Republiki Ludowej działał w warunkach okupacji niemieckiej. Nie został poparty ani przez bolszewików, ani przez Niemców, choć ubiegał się o uznanie i poparcie międzynarodowe. Zostały wysłane misje na Ukrainę, Litwę, Łotwę, do Polski, Niemiec, Szwecji, Estonii, Francji, Bułgarii. Niemcy z jednej strony przekazali część funkcji Rządowi BRL (handel, edukację, przemysł, opiekę społeczną i kulturę), natomiast z drugiej utrudniali rządowi ich wykonywanie. Podstawy konstytucji zostały określone w Drugim Akcie Ustawodawczym. . +Po upadku Cesarstwa Niemieckiego wojska niemieckie 10 grudnia 1918 roku opuściły Mińsk, a 1 stycznia grupa komunistów białoruskich na terenie kontrolowanym przez Armię Czerwoną ogłosiła w Smoleńsku, gdzie tymczasowo mieściły się władze radzieckie tzw. obwodu zachodniego, powstanie Białoruskiej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej. 5 stycznia 1919 roku, po zajęciu bez walki Mińska przez Armię Czerwoną, nastąpił kres istnienia Białoruskiej Republiki Ludowej. 7 stycznia 1919 przeniesiono do Mińska stolicę nowo powstałej BSRR. +27 lutego 1919 na części terytorium byłej BRL powołano Litewsko-Białoruską Republikę Rad. +Stosunki z RP. +1 lipca 1919 roku premierzy RP i od kilku miesięcy już faktycznie nieistniejącej BRL Ignacy Jan Paderewski i Anton Łuckiewicz ogłosili w Paryżu projekt budowy federacji dwóch państw – przewidziano dla nich wspólną politykę zagraniczną i obronną. Do polsko-białoruskiego sojuszu jednak nie doszło ze względu na opory znacznej części białoruskich polityków (13 grudnia 1919 roku Łuckiewicza w fotelu premiera rządu emigracyjnego zastąpił nastawiony z rezerwą wobec Polaków Wacłau Łastouski) żądających bezwarunkowej inkorporacji ziem wschodnich RP w granicach z 1772 roku. +Władze państwa. +Na czele Białoruskiej Republiki Ludowej stała Rada Białoruskiej Republiki Ludowej, której prezydent pełnił formalnie funkcję głowy BRL. Gabinetem kierował premier. +Kontynuacja działalności na emigracji. +Po podziale terytoriów, do których rościła sobie pretensje także Białoruska Republika Ludowa, przez Polskę i RFSRR Rada Białoruskiej Republiki Ludowej nie zaprzestała działalności, przenosząc się na terytorium Litwy, a od 1920 rezydując w czeskiej Pradze. Po zajęciu przez Niemców Czechosłowacji władze białoruskie przeniosły się do Paryża, zaś od 1950 kontynuują swą działalność w kanadyjskim Toronto. +Centralna Rada Białoruska. +Podczas II wojny światowej na terytorium Białoruskiej SRR powstał kolaborujący z III Rzeszą rząd Radosława Ostrowskiego, który używał symboli charakterystycznych dla niepodległościowego ruchu białoruskiego (Pogoń i biała flaga z czerwonym pasem), co w 1995 roku stało się dla komunistów i prezydenta Łukaszenki pretekstem do przywrócenia symboliki państwowej nawiązującej do czasów sowieckich. +Downhill + +Downhill (DH, po polsku "zjazd") – jedna z ekstremalnych odmian kolarstwa górskiego, polegająca na indywidualnym zjeździe rowerem na czas po stromych, naturalnych stokach. Ścieżki zjazdowe są często bardzo wąskie, kamieniste czy poprzecinane wystającymi korzeniami. Nierzadko są też urozmaicone uskokami o różnej wysokości (dropami), które są najbardziej widowiskowe, lecz są też powodem najbardziej niebezpiecznych wypadków w zjeździe. Startujący zazwyczaj wypuszczani są na trasę z przerwami 30 sekundowymi (od najwolniejszego do najszybszego), jeden przejazd zazwyczaj zabiera od 2 do 5 minut. Czas przejazdu jest mierzony za pomocą "bramek" przez które przejeżdża zawodnik (podobnie jak w zjeździe narciarskim). Miejsca w klasyfikacji są poukładane według najszybszych czasów, wyścigi często wygrywane są ułamkami sekund. +Historia. +Pierwszy wyścig zjazdowy miał miejsce w Fairfax w Kalifornii, 21 października 1976 roku, na drodze pożarowej dzisiaj znanej jako Repack Road z powodu potrzeby uzupełniania (z ang. "repack" - uzupełniać) piast po zjeździe (hamulce w piastach które były wtedy używane przegrzewały smar który był w środku i psuły się, więc trzeba go było uzupełniać). Dziesięciu startujących przejechało 1300 stóp w około 5 minut, zwycięzca Alan Bonds, był jedynym który dojechał do mety. Pierwsze rowery użyte do zjazdu były znane jako "trzaskacze" (z ang. "clunkers") albo "rowery gazeciarzy" (z ang. "coaster brake cruisers") wyposażone w opony dętkowe po raz pierwszy sprowadzone do Ameryki przez Ignatza Schwinna. W 1979 dwóch organizatorów i zarazem uczestników (Charlie Kelley i Gary Fisher) wyścigu Repack założyło firmę MountainBikers, od której nazwy nazwano sport. +Mimo tego że w latach 80. XX wieku kolarstwo zjazdowe ogromnie się rozwinęło nadal używano sztywnych rowerów, bądź amortyzowanych z bardzo ograniczonym skokiem zawieszenia (poniżej 2 cali). Typowo zjazdowe nie były produkowane aż do lat 90. Do wprowadzanych wtedy innowacji zalicza się dwupółkowe widelce amortyzowane, hamulce tarczowe, jak i bardzo kunsztowne projekty ram amortyzowanych. +Z biegiem czasu jeżdżący w innych dyscyplinach zaczęli skupiać się na zjeździe. Szczególnie wielu wśród nich było jeżdżących na BMX, włączając w to mistrzów takich jak John Tomac (Tomac Bikes Team), Micheal Crawley (Team Giant/Marzocchi Bikes), James Palmer (WHHL Bikes) Woosub Song (Team Yeti/Fox Bikes), Brian Lopes(Gt). Ich wpływ jest widoczny w wzroście trudności wielu tras, szczególnie w ilości nowych przeszkód jak hopki czy dropy. +Pierwsze mistrzostwa sygnowane przez UCI w downhillu odbyły się w 1990 roku, w Durango, w Kolorado. Wygrał je owiany już legendą Greg Herbold. +W Polsce pierwsze Mistrzostwa Polski sygnowane przez Polski Związek Kolarski odbyły się w 1999 roku w Szklarskiej Porębie. Wygrał je Szymon Syrzistie. +Rowery zjazdowe i wyposażenie. +Najczęściej rowery zjazdowe ważą w przedziale 16-20 kg, są w pełni amortyzowane i posiadają geometrię odmienną od reszty rowerów górskich. 203 mm (8 cali) skoku zawieszenia jest niejako normą, jakkolwiek są również modele mające nawet 300 mm. Dużej średnicy 203 mm tarczowe hamulce hydrauliczne (podobne budową do motocyklowych czy samochodowych) pozwalają szybko zatrzymać się, nawet przy sporej prędkości. Rowery zjazdowe i freeride'owe są bardzo podobne, choć są między nimi pewne nieznaczne różnice. Głównie zmiany sprowadzają się do niżej osadzonego środka ciężkości, dłuższego rozstawu osi i bardziej płaskiego kąta główki, co owocuje większą stabilnością i bardziej przewidywalnym prowadzeniem roweru podczas skrętów przy dużych prędkościach. +Zazwyczaj stosowane są dwu półkowe olejowo - sprężynowe widelce amortyzowane o skoku 170 - 203 mm, jednak w ostatnim czasie w ramach redukcji wagi zaczyna się stosować powietrze jako medium amortyzujące, jak również amortyzatory jedno półkowe. Bardzo często podczas zmniejszania masy roweru idzie się na kompromis między wagą a wytrzymałością, stosując lżejsze komponenty z innych dyscyplin rowerowych (np. siodełka szosowe). +Z powodu dużych prędkości uzyskiwanych przez zawodników w trudnym terenie jest to sport bardzo urazowy, mimo stosowania specjalnych osłon ("zbroi"), pełnych zestawów ochraniaczy na ręce i nogi oraz kasków ze szczęką. Są one zbliżone wizualnie do motocrossowych, lecz są lżejsze, mniej wytrzymałe oraz nie dopuszczone do używania na motocyklach. +Instytucje zarządzające. +Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI, Międzynarodowa Unia Kolarska), jest międzynarodową instytucją zarządzającą wyścigami zjazdowymi. Zajmuje się organizacją wyścigów i stanowieniem praw w nich obowiązujących. Startujący walczą o zakwalifikowanie się do startu w imprezach rangi światowej poprzez zbieranie punktów UCI, które są przyznawane przez zajęcie miejsca w pierwszej dziesiątce wyścigów rangi krajowej. +W Polsce organizacją imprez w ramach Pucharu Polski i Mistrzostw Polski zajmuje się Polski Związek Kolarski. Amatorskie mistrzostwa polski w downhillu organizuje Joy Ride, który wchodzi do serii Extreme Series. Głównym organizatorem imprez Joy Ride jest Szymon Syrzistie, wielokrotny mistrz Polski w dual slalomie. +W Stanach Zjednoczonych downhillem zajmuje się NORBA (jako część USA Cycling), w Wielkiej Brytanii zajmuje się tym British Cycling, a w Australii MTBA. +Kompas żyroskopowy + +Kompas żyroskopowy morski lub żyrokompas (także girokompas, żyrobusola) – elektromechaniczne urządzenie służące do wskazywania kursu, wykorzystujące właściwości żyroskopu. +Kompas żyroskopowy (morski) stanowi historycznie pierwszy, najprostszy, niepełny jeszcze system nawigacji bezwładnościowej. +Konstrukcja żyroskopu została opatentowana już w 1885 przez Martinusa van den Bosa, ale nie zdołał on nigdy wybudować prawidłowo działającego modelu. Natomiast pierwszy działający model żyroskopu (pokazujący północ) został skonstruowany przez Hermanna Kaempfego w 1903, jednak wcześniej bo w 1890 Arthur Krebs zbudował eksperymentalny żyroskop (który nie wskazywał geograficznej północy). +Zasada działania. +Środek ciężkości żyroskopu o trzech stopniach swobody przesunięty jest w dół w stosunku do środka zawieszenia, tworząc wahadło żyroskopowe z okresem Schulera (ok. 84 minut, co minimalizuje wpływ przyśpieszeń poziomych) oscylacji nietłumionych. Ruch tego wahadła tłumiony jest przez tłumik cieczowy lub inny. W efekcie oddziaływania krętu żyroskopu z ruchem obrotowym Ziemi i momentem od siły ciężkości oś wirowania żyroskopu ulega precesji a jej kierunek oscyluje wokół kierunku osi wirowania Ziemi. W wyniku tłumienia początkowe oscylacje kierunku osi wirowania żyroskopu po pewnym czasie (po kilku godzinach) zanikają i pokrywa się ona z osią obrotu Ziemi, bez względu na warunki początkowe. W ten sposób uzyskuje się element pomiarowy, wskazujący północ geograficzną. Element ten jest wbudowany w odpowiedni układ śledzący, poruszający wskaźniki i odbiorniki – takie jak powtarzacze żyrokompasu, człony wejściowe radaru czy autopilota. +Obecnie są także żyrokompasy laserowe, wykorzystujące te same fundamentalne prawa i wskazujące północ geograficzną. +Żyroskopy nie są stosowane w lotnictwie (ze względu na prędkość samolotu i wynikające stąd konieczne korekcje, dyskwalifikujące pomiar) a wyłącznie, jak dotąd, na statkach. +W lotnictwie stosowane są urządzenia zwane żyrokompasami, ale bez elementu szukającego "z zasady" północy geograficznej, lecz naprowadzane na kierunek północy magnetycznej, lub wcale nie korygowane, lecz pamiętające przez pewien ograniczony czas wprowadzony jako wielkość początkową kierunek. Nie są to jednak ściśle mówiąc kompasy, lecz żyroskopowe wskaźniki kursu. +Jan Szczepanik + +Jan Szczepanik (ur. 13 czerwca 1872 w Rudnikach k. Mościsk, zm. 18 kwietnia 1926 w Tarnowie) – polski nauczyciel, wynalazca zwany „polskim Edisonem” i „galicyjskim geniuszem”. Opisany w dwóch artykułach przez Marka Twaina. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Nieślubny syn Marianny, córki rolników ze Zręcina k. Krosna (ur. 1841). Wychowany przez Salomeę i Wawrzyńca Gradowiczów w Krośnie, gdzie uczęszczał do szkoły ludowej. Następnie uczył się w Gimnazjum w Jaśle i seminarium nauczycielskim w Krakowie. Do 1896 r. pracował jako nauczyciel w podkrośnieńskich wsiach – najpierw w Potoku, następnie w Korczynie i Lubatówce. +Działalność. +Jest autorem 50 wynalazków i kilkuset opatentowanych pomysłów technicznych z dziedziny fotografii barwnej, telewizji, barwnego tkactwa i innych. W 1897 opatentował telektroskop, urządzenie do przesyłania na odległość ruchomego obrazu kolorowego wraz z dźwiękiem, protoplastę dzisiejszej telewizji. W roku 1900 Szczepanik przedstawił na Wystawie światowej w Paryżu udoskonalone urządzenie do przenoszenia obrazu na odległość -"telefot". +W latach 1918-1925 opracował system filmu barwnego, wysoko ceniony za bliskie realizmowi oddawanie kolorów. Pracował także nad odtwarzaniem filmu dźwiękowego. Udało mu się stworzyć kamizelkę kuloodporną (opatentował ją niemal w tym samym czasie inny Polak - Kazimierz Żegleń) z jedwabnej tkaniny z cienkimi blachami stalowymi. Wynalazek ten przyniósł Szczepanikowi sławę, ponieważ obronił przed zamachem króla hiszpańskiego Alfonsa XIII, który w dowód wdzięczności udekorował Szczepanika wysokim odznaczeniem państwowym. Podobnie zamierzał uczynić Mikołaj II, jednakże Szczepanik z pobudek patriotycznych odmówił przyjęcia orderu; zatem zamiast orderu car obdarował go złotym zegarkiem wysadzanym brylantami. +Od 1902 r. Szczepanik był związany z Tarnowem. Posiadał swoje pracownie m.in. w Wiedniu, Berlinie i w Dreźnie. Zmarł 18 kwietnia 1926 r. w Tarnowie. Pochowany na Cmentarzu Starym. +Jest patronem szkół w Łodzi, Krośnie i Tarnowie. Od 2003 r. w Tarnowie działa Fundacja im. Jana Szczepanika, której głównym celem jest popularyzacja postaci patrona. +Zamach 20 lipca + +Zamach 20 lipca – nieudany zamach stanu, mający na celu m.in. zabicie Adolfa Hitlera, przeprowadzony 20 lipca 1944 przez oficerów Wehrmachtu pod przywództwem pułkownika Clausa von Stauffenberga. +Zamach na życie Hitlera był kulminacją starań niemieckiego ruchu oporu nakierowanych na obalenie reżimu nazistowskiego i przejęcie władzy w Niemczech. Śmierć "Führera" miała ułatwić przeprowadzenie puczu wojskowego i zainstalowanie nowego rządu pod zwierzchnictwem Carla Friedricha Goerdelera jako kanclerza oraz Ludwiga Becka jako głowy państwa. W przygotowaniach do zamachu uczestniczyli spiskowcy z kręgów wojskowych (Wehrmacht), pozostający w ścisłym kontakcie z kręgami cywilnymi, m.in. z opozycjonistami skupionymi w Kręgu z Krzyżowej. Pośród ponad 200 straconych za udział w zamachu byli: marszałek polny Erwin von Witzleben, 19 generałów (m.in. Ludwig Beck), 26 pułkowników, 2 ambasadorów, 7 dyplomatów, 1 minister, 3 sekretarzy stanu a także szef policji kryminalnej, wielu prezydentów i premierów rządów krajów związkowych, regionalnych prezydentów policji. Marszałkowie polni Erwin Rommel i Günther von Kluge mogli być uczestnikami spisku i z tego powodu prawdopodobnie zostali zmuszeni do popełnienia samobójstwa. +Zamach na życie Hitlera został przeprowadzony osobiście przez von Stauffenberga, który podłożył bombę w sali narad sytuacyjnych w kwaterze "Führera" Wilczy Szaniec koło Rastenburga (obecnego Kętrzyna) w Prusach Wschodnich. Po umieszczeniu ładunku von Stauffenberg natychmiast wrócił do Berlina, aby dowodzić puczem. Strategiczny plan przejęcia władzy po śmierci Hitlera znany był jako Operacja Walkiria. Ze względu na nieprzewidziane przez spiskowców okoliczności Hitler przeżył wybuch. Spiskowcom nie udało się wzniecić ogólnoniemieckiego powstania. Nie udało się przejąć kontroli nad radiostacjami, więc wieści o tym, że Hitler przeżył zamach dotarły do Berlina. Żołnierze, którzy pierwotnie wykonywali rozkazy von Stauffenberga, odmówili ich dalszego wykonywania. Oddziały wierne Hitlerowi rozpoczęły kontrakcję. Na rozkaz dowódcy Armii Rezerwowej gen. Ernsta Friedricha Fromma przywódcy spisku: Claus von Stauffenberg, Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim i adiutant Stauffenberga Werner von Haeften zostali aresztowani i rozstrzelani przez pluton egzekucyjny w nocy z 20 na 21 lipca. Hitler rozpoczął czystki, które zakończyły się egzekucją niemal pięciu tysięcy przeciwników nazizmu na mocy wyroków Trybunału Ludowego pod przewodnictwem Rolanda Freislera. +Tło historyczne. +Antyhitlerowski ruch oporu (niem. "Widerstand"). +W antyhitlerowską działalność opozycyjną byli zaangażowani pojedynczy ludzie (Georg Elser), grupy w kręgach wojskowych (w Wehrmachcie skupieni wokół Ludwiga Becka czy w Abwehrze wokół Hansa Ostera), grupy cywilne (Krąg z Krzyżowej, Biała Róża) a także grupy związane z kościołami (Kościół Wyznający), związkami zawodowymi czy partiami politycznymi (Czerwona Orkiestra (niem. "Rote Kapelle")). Większość z nich skupiona była wokół charyzmatycznych jednostek i nie utrzymywała ze sobą kontaktów formalnych. +Pierwsze grupy oporu w kręgach oficerskich Wehrmachtu powstawały już w 1938. Wielu oficerów oburzonych było okolicznościami usunięcia z armii generała Wernera von Blomberga w styczniu 1938 oraz dymisji generała Wernera von Fritscha w lutym 1938 (tzw. afera Blomberga-Fritscha). Von Blomberg został usunięty z Wehrmachtu, po tym jak Gestapo odkryło, że jego żona była notowana przez policję berlińską za pozowanie do zdjęć pornograficznych i karana za prostytucję. W kilka dni później usunięto również generała Wernera von Fritscha, którego oskarżono o skłonności homoseksualne i zmuszono do dymisji. Hitler wykorzystał sytuację zamieszania do zwolnienia 16 generałów i przeniesienie kolejnych 44, wprowadzając sobie lojalnych dowódców i osłabiając tym samym krytycznie nastawione kierownictwo Wehrmachtu. Hitler przejął funkcję Blomberga a stanowisko von Fritscha objął marszałek Walther von Brauchitsch. Wkrótce okazało się, że oskarżenia wobec von Fritscha były bezpodstawne, a honorowy sąd oficerów przebadał sprawę Blomberga-Fritscha, chociaż była ona prowadzona przez samego Göringa. Fritsch został oczyszczony z zarzutów 18 marca, jednak jego wizerunek pozostał nadszarpnięty. Prezydent berlińskiej policji Wolf-Heinrich von Helldorf (1935–1944), oburzony intrygami wobec Fritscha, udostępnił ważne dla sprawy dokumenty szefowi sztabu Abwehry Hansowi Osterowi, bliskiemu współpracownikowi Wilhelma Canarisa, spiskującym przeciwko Hitlerowi. Afera Blomberga-Fritscha najprawdopodobniej skłoniła generała Ludwiga Becka do aktywnego zaangażowania się w działalność opozycyjną. +Generał Ludwig Beck próbował zjednoczyć niemiecką generalicję w proteście przeciwko polityce nazistów, proponując zbiorową dymisję – von Brauchitsch odrzucił tę propozycję, argumentując, że trudno będzie przekonać wszystkich dowódców, a ponadto Hitler z łatwością może mianować nowe dowództwo spośród młodszych oficerów sympatyzujących z nazistami. W obliczu wojennych planów Hitlera, Beck wysunął szereg argumentów wojskowych, twierdząc, że Francja i Wielka Brytania nie pozwolą na niemiecką kampanię wojenną a Niemcy nie mają wystarczających środków, by prowadzić długotrwałą wojnę. W serii notatek sporządzonych dla von Brauchitscha, Beck przewidywał, że planowany atak Niemiec na Czechosłowację spowoduje zbrojną reakcję aliantów, której Niemcy nie będą w stanie się przeciwstawić. Podczas spotkania dowództwa Wehrmachtu 4 sierpnia 1938, większość generałów nie zgodziło się z prognozami Becka, jedynie generał Walter von Reichenau i Ernst Busch udzielili mu swojego poparcia. Wynik spotkania utwierdził von Brauchitscha w przekonaniu, że Beck nie ma racji. Sam Beck podał się do dymisji 18 sierpnia 1938, co umożliwiło Hitlerowi wprowadzenie do kierownictwa Wehrmachtu kolejnych lojalnych mu dowódców. Becka na stanowisku szefa Sztabu Generalnego wojsk lądowych zastąpił Franz Halder, również krytycznie nastawiony do polityki Hitlera. +Spisek wrześniowy. +We wrześniu 1938 grupa oficerów Wehrmachtu, m.in. Ludwig Beck, Erich Höpner, Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel i Erwin von Witzleben, oficerów Abwehry, m.in. Wilhelm Canaris, Hans Oster i Hans von Dohnanyi oraz urzędników Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych, m.in. Ernst von Weizsäcker i Erich Kordt rozpoczęła planowanie zamachu stanu. Spiskowcy zamierzali uniemożliwić w ten sposób atak na Czechosłowację, zaplanowany przez Hitlera na 27 września 1938. +Podczas spotkania w domu Ostera (ok. 20 września 1938), generał Erwin von Witzleben, wówczas dowódca III okręgu obronnego z kwaterą w Berlinie, wyjawił przed zebranymi (Hans Bernd Gisevius, Hans von Dohnanyi, prawdopodobnie Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, Friedrich Wilhelm Heinz, Franz-Maria Liedig) zamiar udania się z eskortą zaufanych oficerów do siedziby kanclerza, by namówić Adolfa Hitlera do dymisji. W tym samym czasie trzy korpusy armijne miały zająć Berlin i stanąć w pogotowiu do walk z wiernymi Hitlerowi oddziałami SS, Pułk SS Leibstandarte "Adolf Hitler". Przewidywano, że von Witzleben nie zostanie dopuszczony do Hitlera, i że wraz z eskortą będzie zmuszony utorować sobie drogę siłą. Liczono się ze strzelaniną. Von Witzleben, Goerdeler i Canaris zamierzali aresztować Hitlera. Zadanie stworzenia eskorty dla von Witzlebena powierzono majorowi Friedrichowi Wilhelmowi Heinzowi, który preferował drastyczne rozwiązanie i planował zastrzelenie Hitlera. Heinz dla swojego planu zdobył poparcie Ostera. Na polecenie Canarisa, Helmuth Groscurth miał zdobyć i trzymać w pogotowiu broń i materiały wybuchowe. Przeprowadzenie akcji zaplanowano na 28 września 1938. Do zamachu stanu nie doszło wskutek niezapowiedzianej wizyty premiera Wielkiej Brytanii Neville'a Chamberlaina, który rozpoczął negocjacje z Hitlerem. +Poszukiwania sojuszników za granicą. +W latach 1938–1939 opozycjoniści podejmowali wiele prób nawiązania kontaktu z rządem Wielkiej Brytanii. Do Londynu wysyłano licznych emisariuszy, m.in. we wrześniu 1938 Hansa Böhma Tettelbacha (z inicjatywy Ostera i Haldera) czy wiosną 1939 Fabiana von Schlabrendorffa (z inicjatywy Wilhelma Canarisa), których misje kończyły się każdorazowo niepowodzeniem. +W okresie przygotowań do zamachu wrześniowego w 1938, brat Ericha Kordta, Theo Kordt, pełniący funkcję chargé d'affaires w ambasadzie niemieckiej w Londynie, spotkał się 7 września 1938 z brytyjskim ministrem spraw zagranicznych Lordem Halifaxem. Kordt przekazał wiadomość od "politycznych i wojskowych kręgów Berlina, które pragnęły wszystkimi środkami zapobiec wojnie", które wzywały Wielka Brytanię do zajęcia jednoznacznego stanowiska sprzeciwu wobec planów Hitlera, wierząc, że stanowczy protest rządu brytyjskiego mógł zapobiec wojnie. Ponadto, zapewniono stronę brytyjską, że w przypadku objęcia przez Wielką Brytanię twardego kursu wobec agresywnej polityki Hitlera, niemieccy dowódcy wojskowi będą gotowi do zbrojnego wystąpienia przeciwko kanclerzowi. Misja ta zakończyła się kolejnym niepowodzeniem. Postanowienia konferencji monachijskiej sparaliżowały opozycjonistów niemieckich, szczególnie w kręgach wojskowych. +W 1939 jednak opozycjoniści podjęli kolejne próby zdobycia poparcia rządu Wielkiej Brytanii. W 1939 do Londynu jeździł trzykrotnie Adam von Trott zu Solz, który próbował przekonać lorda Lothiana oraz lorda Halifaksa do wywarcia nacisku na rząd brytyjski, by ten zaniechał prowadzenia polityki ustępstw (appeasement) wobec Hitlera. Jego misje pozostawały bezskuteczne. Przed atakiem na Polskę, latem 1939, Gerhard von Schwerin, kierownik w Wydziale Obce Armie Zachód w Oddziale Obce Armie (niem. "Abteilung Fremde Heere") wojskowej służby wywiadowczej, został wysłany do Londynu z wiadomością: Misja von Schwerina nie powiodła się, podobnie jak kolejna prowadzona przez Goerdelera. +W czerwcu 1942 Adam von Trott zu Solz przemycił do Londynu kolejną wiadomość od niemieckich opozycjonistów, jednak brytyjski minister spraw zagranicznych Anthony Eden odmówił odpowiedzi, argumentując ze nie będzie rozmawiać ze zdrajcami stanu. Współpracę z niemieckimi opozycjonistami uważał za niemożliwą: +Plany aresztowania Hitlera jesienią 1939. +Kolejny spisek przeciwko Hitlerowi zawiązano w związku z planowanym atakiem na Francję jesienią 1939. Wstępnie Hitler planował uderzyć na zachodnią Europę już w październiku 1939 roku, tuż po zakończeniu kampanii w Polsce. Jednak trzej dowódcy grup armii stacjonujących na zachodzie Rzeszy, generałowie Gerd von Rundstedt, Fedor von Bock i Wilhelm von Leeb, byli zdecydowanie przeciwni podjęciu tej ofensywy, argumentując, że przygotowania do nowej wyprawy wojennej przeciwko dwóm światowym mocarstwom wymagają czasu, przede wszystkim z uwagi na zużycie materiałowe w Polsce (czołgów, samolotów, samochodów pancernych, amunicji i paliwa) i konieczność uzupełnienia zapasów surowców strategicznych z ZSRR (zagwarantowanych III Rzeszy na mocy umowy z 1939 towarzyszącej ustaleniom paktu Ribbentrop-Mołotow). Ponadto plan rzucenia wojsk do boju późną jesienią wiązał się z możliwością ugrzęźnięcia wojsk pancernych w błocie, co mogło skutkować załamaniem ofensywy, a w najgorszym razie klęską nowej kampanii. Osobiście u Hitlera w tej sprawie interweniował także Naczelny Dowódca Wojsk Lądowych feldmarszałek Walther von Brauchitsch. Doprowadziło to jedynie do przesunięcia daty uderzenia na 12 listopada. Wobec takiego rozwoju sytuacji, przy cichym poparciu von Brauchitscha, Halder rozważał przeprowadzenie zamachu stanu jak tylko Hitler wyda rozkaz do ataku – jednak pomimo sprzyjających okoliczności nie ważył się na ten czyn. +Po niepowodzeniach 1938–1939 wielu oficerów Wehrmachtu wycofało się z aktywnej działalności opozycyjnej. W 1941 kręgi nowej opozycji zawiązały się wśród oficerów niższych rangą, którzy z początku utrzymywali jedynie formalny kontakt z Ludwigiem Beckiem i Hansem Osterem. Nowy ruch opozycyjny skupił się wokół Henninga von Tresckowa. +Próby zamachu 1942–1944. +W połowie 1942 grupa spiskowców z Henningem von Tresckowem i Clausem von Stauffenbergem rozpoczęła przygotowywania do zamachu na życie Adolfa Hitlera. Podjęto wiele prób, które zakończyły się niepowodzeniem. +W marcu 1943 podjęto próbę wysadzenia w powietrze samolotu, którym podróżował Hitler z inspekcji wojsk na froncie wschodnim do kwatery Wilczy Szaniec. Przygotowania do zamachu aktywnie wspierali Wilhelm Canaris i Erwin Lahousen. 7 marca 1943 Lahousen wraz z Hansem von Dohnanyi i Hansem Osterem towarzyszył Canarisowi podczas wyjazdu do kwatery głównej Grupy Armii Środka w Smoleńsku. Udało im się zabrać skrzynkę angielskich materiałów wybuchowych wraz z bezgłośnym zapalnikiem w celu przeprowadzenia zamachu na Hitlera. Pułkownik Henning von Tresckow i porucznik Fabian von Schlabrendorff spreparowali dostarczony materiał w taki sposób, że wyglądał jak pakiet z dwoma butelkami koniaku. 13 marca 1943 Schlabrendorff przekazał pakunek – jako przesyłkę dla podpułkownika Hellmutha Stieffa – niewtajemniczonemu pułkownikowi Brandtowi, który leciał w jednym samolocie z Hitlerem powracającym z inspekcji wojsk do kwatery Wilczy Szaniec. Eksplozja miała nastąpić nad Mińskiem. Zamach nie powiódł się jednak z przyczyn technicznych – pakunek znajdował się w ładowni, gdzie było najprawdopodobniej zbyt zimno, by doszło do wybuchu ładunku. +Osiem dni później Rudolf-Christoph von Gersdorff przeprowadził kolejną nieudaną próbę zamachu. W wyniku zamachu i przejęcia władzy przez opozycjonistów miało dojść do kapitulacji Niemiec na froncie zachodnim i powołania nowego demokratycznego rządu – działania wojenne na froncie wschodnim miały być nadal prowadzone. 21 marca 1943 Hitler otwierał w berlińskim Starym Arsenale przy ulicy Unter den Linden (obecnie Niemieckie Muzeum Historyczne) wystawę zdobytej broni sowieckiej, po której oprowadzać miał go von Gersdorff. Von Gersdorff zamierzał w samobójczym ataku wysadzić siebie wraz z Hitlerem oraz Hermanem Göringiem, Heinrichem Himmlerem, Wilhelmem Keitlem i Karlem Dönitzem. Von Gersdorff pojawił się na wystawie z uzbrojonymi ładunkami wybuchowymi w kieszeniach płaszcza. Po tym jak dokonał aktywacji pierwszego z 10-minutowych zapalników, Hitler niespodziewanie szybko opuścił gmach wystawy – oczekiwano, że Hitler spędzi w gmachu około pół godziny. Von Gersdorrf rozbroił ładunki w toalecie. +W obliczu wyjazdu von Tresckowa na frot wschodni, odsunięciu Ostera i zmaganiach Becka z chorobą nowotworową, we wrześniu 1943 inicjatywę przejął Claus von Stauffenberg. Von Stauffenberg miał skupić się na organizacji przewrotu wojskowego, po wyeliminowaniu Hitlera przez wyznaczonego zamachowca. +Jesienią 1943 z inicjatywy Staufenberga decyzję o przeprowadzeniu akcji zabójstwa Hitlera podjął Hellmuth Stieff, który miał zabić kanclerza podczas prezentacji mundurów w pałacu Klessheim koło Salzburga. Jednak Stieff przeszedł załamanie nerwowe i nie był w stanie przeprowadzić akcji. +Jesienią 1943 do samobójczego zamachu na Hitlera zgłosił się młody oficer Axel von dem Bussche. W październiku 1942 von dem Busche był świadkiem wymordowania przez Einsatzgruppen żydowskiej społeczności Dubna na Wołyniu. Pod wpływem tych wydarzeń stał się przeciwnikiem Hitlera. Zamach miał zostać przeprowadzony podczas prezentacji nowych mundurów zimowych w kwaterze Hitlera Wilczy Szaniec w listopadzie 1943. Hitler miał zostać zabity przy pomocy chałupniczo wykonanej bomby zdetonowanej poprzez wybuch granatu ręcznego. Jednak 16 listopada 1943 wagon z mundurami został zniszczony w ataku brytyjskiego lotnictwa na Berlin. Zaplanowany na luty 1944 kolejny zamach nie doszedł do skutku wskutek ciężkich ran odniesionych przez von dem Busschego w styczniu 1944 podczas walk na froncie wschodnim. W lutym 1944 von dem Busschego zastąpić miał Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist, który zaakceptował propozycję samobójczego zamachu po rozmowie z ojcem Ewaldem-Heinrichem von Kleist-Schmenzinem. Plan ten również zakończył się niepowodzeniem – akcję odwołano ponieważ podczas prezentacji miało nie być Himmlera, który będąc głównodowodzącym oddziałami SS stanowił poważne zagrożenie dla spiskowców. +W styczniu 1944 adiutant Stauffenberga porucznik Werner von Haeften rozważał zabójstwo Hitlera strzałem z pistoletu, jednak wycofał się z powodów religijnych. Kolejnej próby, z inicjatywy von Tresckowa, podjął się adiutant marszałka polowego Ernsta Buscha rotmistrz Eberhard von Breitenbuch, który miał zabić Hitlera strzałem z pistoletu podczas spotkania 11 marca 1944 w Obersalzberg. Jednak tego dnia Hitler zarządził, by w spotkaniu wyjątkowo nie uczystniczyli adiutanci. +Pod wpływem tych wydarzeń Stauffenberg zdecydował, że osobiście musi przeprowadzić zamach na Hitlera, Himmlera i Göringa, a później koordonywać przejęcie władzy. +Claus von Stauffenberg. +Z początku von Stauffenberg nie był przeciwnikiem polityki Hitlera – popierał m.in. wypowiedzenie traktatu wersalskiego i aneksję Austrii. Po wydarzeniach nocy kryształowej z 1938 zdystansował się wobec reżimu, lecz po sukcesie kampanii francuskiej w 1940 uległ ogólnonarodowej euforii. Do opozycji przeszedł rok później po ataku Niemiec na ZSRR. Zdawszy sobie sprawę z niekompetencji Hitlera w prowadzeniu wojny, wzywał do ratowania Niemiec. +Von Stauffenberg służył w 10 Dywizji Pancernej na froncie w Afryce Północnej, gdzie w kwietniu 1943 został ciężko ranny – stracił lewe oko, prawą dłoń i dwa palce u lewej dłoni. Po powrocie ze szpitala w sierpniu 1943 przyłączył się do opozycjonistów w Wehrmachcie i wraz z von Tresckowem rozpoczął planowanie kolejnego zamachu na Hitlera i przygotowania do puczu wojskowego. Bezpośrednim bodźcem do przeprowadzenia zamachu na Hitlera miała być informacja o rozkazie Ernsta Kaltenbrunnera, szefa Głównego Urzędu Bezpieczeństwa Rzeszy (niem. "Reichssicherheitshauptamt", RSHA), w sprawie zamordowania 40 tysięcy Żydów węgierskich w Auschwitz, wydanym wiosną 1944. W trakcie przygotowań do zamachu von Stauffenberg miał powiedzieć: +Pucz miał przebiegać przy wykorzystaniu istniejącego już planu operacyjnego o kryptonimie Walkiria, opracowanego przez Friedricha Olbrichta i zaaprobowanego przez Hitlera, który zakładał mobilizację wojsk rezerwy do obrony reżimu w przypadku zamieszek wewnętrznych w Niemczech. Konspiranci musieli zmierzyć się z dwoma problemami: uzyskać dostęp do Hitlera, by przeprowadzić zamach oraz zapewnić punktualne wydanie rozkazu do operacji Walkiria. Rozkaz ten musiał być wydany przez dowódcę Armii Rezerwowej, wówczas Friedricha Fromma. +Od 1 lipca 1944 von Stauffenberg pełnił funkcję szefa sztabu Armii Rezerwowej (niem. "Chef des Stabes beim Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres") u Friedricha Fromma, co zapewniło mu udział w naradach sytuacyjnych z Hitlerem. Z początku von Stauffenberg planował jednoczesne zabójstwo Hitlera, Göringa i Himmlera. Pierwsze próby podjęte 2 lipca w Berchtesgaden i 15 lipca w kwaterze Wilczy Szaniec musiał jednak przerwać, ponieważ w spotkaniach nie uczestniczyli albo Göring albo Himmler. W obliczu postępów aliantów, von Stauffenberg zdecydował się działać, nawet jeśli Göring i Himmler nie mogli być celem ataku. +Przebieg zamachu na Adolfa Hitlera 20 lipca 1944. +Rankiem 20 lipca 1944 von Stauffenberg wraz ze swoim adiutantem von Haeftenem udał się na lotnisko w Rangsdorfie koło Berlina, gdzie czekał Hellmuth Stieff, szef wydziału organizacyjnego Naczelnego Dowództwa Wojsk Lądowych, ze swoim adiutantem Rollem. Wszyscy razem wylecieli ok. 8.00 do Rastenburga w Prusach Wschodnich, by wziąć udział w naradzie sytuacyjnej z Hitlerem w kwaterze Wilczy Szaniec. Von Haeften dźwigał aktówkę z dwoma niemieckimi ładunkami wybuchowymi (975 gram każdy) z brytyjskimi trzydziestominutowymi bezgłośnymi zapalnikami chemicznymi dostarczonymi przez pułkownika Wessela von Freytag-Loringhovena. Samolot wylądował o 10:15 na lotnisku koło Wilhelmsdorfu, ok. 6 km od kwatery w Wilczym Szańcu. Pilot miał czekać, by koło południa zabrać von Stauffenberga z powrotem do Berlina. +Von Stauffenberg i von Haeften w dalszą podróż do wartowni zachodniej udali się samochodem. Tam von Staufenberg zameldował swoje przybycie pułkownikowi Gustavovi Streve, który udzielił mu pozwolenia na wjazd na teren kwatery. Zespół zabudowań kwatery Hitlera Wilczy Szaniec położony był na obszarze 625 arów, otoczonym drutem kolczystym, polami minowymi, płotem pod napięciem i zasiekami. Teren był systematycznie patrolowany przez strażników z psami. Bunkier Hitlera i barak, w którym odbywały się narady sytuacyjne (niem. "Lagebarack") znajdowały się w I. strefie zakazanej. W II. strefie zakazanej ulokowana była komendantura kwatery. Obydwie strefy były wygrodzone około dwumetrowej wysokości płotem z siatki zwieńczonej drutem kolczastym, ponieważ oprócz wjazdu do kwatery, kontroli podlegał również ruch pomiędzy jej strefami. Nigdzie jednak nie sprawdzano zawartości teczek. +Von Stauffenberg udał się do kasyna w II. strefie zakazanej, gdzie zasiadł do śniadania wraz z adjutantem Strevego, rotmistrzem Leonhardem von Möllendrofem, oraz innymi oficerami. Podczas posiłku, ok. godziny 11, von Möllendorf został wezwany przez generała Walthera Buhlego, szefa Wydziału Organizacyjnego Naczelnego Dowództwa Wojsk Lądowych, na naradę, która miała odbyć się w bunkrze w I. strefie zakazanej. Von Stauffenberg, który przed spotkaniem z Hitlerem musiał również odbyć rozmowę z Buhlem, przyłączył się do von Möllendorfa. W drodze na naradę von Stauffenberg spotkał się jeszcze z Erichem Fellgieblem, szefem służb wywiadowczych wojsk lądowych, by upewnić się, że po zamachu systemy łączności w kwaterze zostaną zablokowane. +Po rozmowie z Buhlem, von Stauffenberg przybył o 11:30 na spotkanie z Wilhelmem Keitlem trwające aż do rozpoczęcia narady z Hitlerem, która z powodu oczekiwanej po południu wizyty Benito Musolliniego została przesunięta o pół godziny wcześniej na 12:30. W tym czasie von Haeften przyniósł ładunki wybuchowe, zdeponowane wcześniej w kwaterze głównej Naczelnego Dowództwa Wojsk Lądowych w Mauerwaldzie i czekał w przydzielonej mu sali. Rozmowę von Stauffenberga z Keitlem zakończyło wejście Adolfa Heusingera, który przekazał informację o rozpoczynającej się zaraz naradzie z Hitlerem. +Kolejna próba zamachu mogła zostać przerwana, gdyż wydawało się, że nie było wystarczająco dużo czasu by trzydziestominutowe zapalniki kwasowe uaktywniły bombę. Przy panującym upale, von Stauffenberg poprosił o możliwość zmiany koszuli, przy czym z uwagi na jego niepełnosprawność, w czynności tej asystował mu von Haeften. Obydwaj wykorzystali czas na przygotowanie bomby, jednak nie udało im się aktywować drugiego ładunku, ponieważ przeszkodził im sierżant sztabowy Werner Vogel. Wobec czekającego w otwartych drzwiach Vogla, von Stauffenberg nie włożył do aktówki drugiego ładunku, który przekazał von Haeftenowi. Von Haeften nie miał jednak wstępu do sali obrad. Według szacunków ekspertów eksplozja uzbrojonego ładunku doprowadziłaby również do detonacji drugiej bomby, co zwiększyłoby siłę rażenia wybuchu. +O 12:30 w Berlinie w ośrodku spiskowców w gmachu Bendlerblocku zgromadzili się: kapitan Ulrich Wilhelm Schwerin von Schwanenfeld, Generaloberst Erich Höpner, wiceprezydent policji Fritz-Dietlof von der Schulenburg, Oberregierungsrat Peter Yorck von Wartenburg, Eugen Gerstenmaier i brat von Stauffenberga Berthold, dołączając do przebywającego tam od rana Friedricha Olbrichta. Spiskowcy byli w bezpośrednim kontakcie z głównym kwatermistrzem OKH, generałem Eduardem Wagnerem, który na umówiony sygnał miał wydać rozkaz do zajęcia kluczowych punktów Berlina. Olbricht miał zawiadomić Becka i von Witzlebena natychmiast po rozpoczęciu operacji Walkiria, którzy mieli niezwłocznie przybyć do kwatery w Bendlerblocku. Spiskowcy liczyli na to, że przełożony Olbrichta, generał Friedrich Fromm przyłączy się do spisku. Rozkazy dla Armii Rezerwowej miały być rozesłane w jego imieniu, nawet gdyby Fromm odmówił kooperacji i musiał zostać zaaresztowany. +Wniesienie bomby do sali narad nie przedstawiało trudności, ponieważ uczestnicy spotkań nie byli przeszukiwani. Przed wejściem do sali należało jedynie pozostawić w garderobie czapkę i kaburę. By ustawić bombę w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie Hitlera, von Stauffenberg poprosił Ernsta von Freyenda o przydzielenie mu miejsca przy stole jak najbliżej Führera, motywując swoją prośbę osłabionym słuchem. +Po wejściu na salę narad, Stauffenberg ustawił teczkę pod stołem w pobliżu Hitlera, po czym opuścił pomieszczenie pod pretekstem konieczności odbycia ważnej rozmowy telefonicznej z Berlinem. Zaraz potem ok. 12:40 spotkał się z oficerem wywiadu Ludolfen Gerhardem Sanderem, szefem wywiadu Erchem Fellgiblem i von Haeftenem. +Bomba wybuchła o 12:42, raniąc większość z obecnych. Cztery osoby wkrótce zmarły w wyniku poniesionych obrażeń. Hilter odniósł lekkie rany, które nie stanowiły zagrożenia życia. W naradzie brali udział (wg zajmowanych miejsc, w prawo od Hitlera): +Według relacji Adolfa Heusingera, który wówczas zdawał Hitlerowi relację z sytuacji na północy frontu wschodniego, obaj byli pochyleni nad mapą leżącą na stole o grubym, dębowym blacie, który po części złagodził wybuch. Ponadto teczka ustawiona przez Stauffenberga w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie Hitlera została przemieszczona za masywną podporę dębowego stołu, tak by uczestnicy mogli wygodniej zasiąść do narady. Poza tym spotkanie odbywało się w drewnianym baraku o ścianach wzmocnionych murem ceglanym i betonowym suficie, którego okna były otwarte z uwagi na panujący wówczas upał, a nie w schronie betonowym, przez co energia wybuchu znalazła łatwe ujście na zewnątrz. Gdyby do wybuchu jednokilogramowej bomby doszło w zamkniętym betonowym bunkrze, wszyscy obecni zginęliby. +Von Stauffenberg obserwował eksplozję z odległości 200 m. Według relacji Fellgiebela, miał widzieć jak z baraku wynoszono ciało okryte płaszczem Hitlera, co przekonało go o pełnym powodzeniu zamachu. Von Stauffenberg opuścił Wilczy Szaniec razem z von Haeftenem. Po ogłoszeniu alarmu, tuż przed 13:00, obydwaj zostali jednak zatrzymani na drugim posterunku. Po telefonicznej interwencji Stauffenberga u von Möllenberga, mogli jechać dalej. Podczas jazdy na lotnisko, gdzie oczekiwał ich już samolot do Berlina, von Haeften wyrzucił przez okno drugą, nieuzbrojoną bombę. +Von Stauffenberg przyjechał do berlińskiej centrali spiskowców Bendlerblock przy Bendlerstrasse ok. 16:30, stwierdzając, że poza postawieniem w stan gotowości oddziałów rezerwy Wehrmachtu, nic nie przedsięwzięto. Według planu, w Berlinie oddziały Wehrmachtu miały zająć centralę Gestapo przy Prinz-Albrecht-Straße, posterunki policji i SS, jednak wskutek informacji o fiasku zamachu, planu nie realizowano zgodnie z ustaleniami. Spiskowcy aresztowali generała Fromma, który odmówił wykonania rozkazów operacji Walkirii. Von Stauffenberg natychmiast wydał rozkazy do puczu, alarmując oddziały w kraju i za granicą. Wskutek blokady informacyjnej wprowadzonej przez von Stauffenberga, wiele oddziałów otrzymywało sprzeczne rozkazy – z Bendlerblocku i z Wilczego Szańca. +Postanowienia planu Walkirii zrealizowano niezależnie w Paryżu pod dowództwem generała von Stülpnagla i w Wiedniu pod dowództwem pułkownika Heinricha Kodrégo, gdzie w szeroko zakrojonych akcjach aresztowano członków SS. Dopiero gdy dotarły wiadomości o klęsce zamachu, oddziały wierne Hitlerowi odzyskały kontrolę nad sytuacją. +Do 17:30 udało się zaalarmować wiele oddziałów stacjonujących poza Berlinem. Oddział pod dowództwem majora Friedricha Jacoba zajął siedzibę radia przy Masureenallee w berlińskiej poddzielnicy Charlottenburg, jednak nie zdołał przerwać nadawanego programu, przez co społeczeństwo niemieckie zostało szybko poinformowane o niepowodzeniu zamachu na Hitlera. +Około 19:00 dowódca jednego z zaalarmowanych przez spiskowców batalionu Berliner Wachbatalion, major Otto Ernst Remer, który był odpowiedzialny za zamknięcie dzielnicy rządowej i aresztowanie Goebbelsa, zmienił stronę i skontaktował się z Goebbelsem, który umożliwił mu telefoniczną rozmowę z Hitlerem. Führer z miejsca awansował Remera na stopień pułkownika i rozkazał zgromić powstanie. +O 19:30 do kwatery Bendlerblock przybył feldmarszałek Erwin von Witzleben, przewidywany na głównodowodzącego Wehrmachtem w razie powodzenia puczu. Po odbyciu rozmowy w cztery oczy z Ludwikiem Beckiem opuścił gmach, przekonany o niepowodzeniu zamachu. +O 22:30 pod Bendlerblockiem zebrali się żołnierze nieuczestniczący w spisku w celu wyjaśnienia sytuacji. O 22:50 uwolniono generała Fromma, który nakazał aresztowanie spiskowców, ogłaszając wyrok kary śmierci za zdradę stanu wobec Friedricha Olbrichta, Clausa von Stauffenberga, Albrechta Mertza von Quirnheima i Wernera von Haeftena wydany przez pospiesznie zwołany trybunał wojenny złożony z Fromma i jego podwładnych: Aresztowanym odebrano broń, z wyjątkiem Ludwika Becka, któremu pozwolono zatrzymać pistolet „dla celów prywatnych”. Skazując spiskowców na śmierć Fromm próbował zatuszować swój własny udział w zamachu. Fromm został aresztowany dzień później z rozkazu Himmlera. Skazany na śmierć przez Trybunał Ludowy został rozstrzelany 19 marca 1945. +O 23:15 gmach Bendlerblocku zajęła czwarta kompania batalionu „Grossdeutschland”. +Pomiędzy 23:15 a 23:45 generał Ludwik Beck podjął nieudaną próbę samobójczą. Fromm wydał rozkaz coup de grâce, który został niezwłocznie wykonany. +Spiskowcy skazani przez Fromma na śmierć zostali rozstrzelani przez pluton egzekucyjny na dziedzińcu Bendlerblocku pomiędzy 00:15 a 00:30. Śmierć ponieśli: Friedrich Olbricht, Werner von Haeften, Albrecht Ritter Mertz von Quirnheim i Claus von Stauffenberg. Claus von Stauffenberg przed śmiercią miał powiedzieć: Podczas egzekucji von Haeften zasłonił sobą von Stauffenberga, którego zastrzelono chwilę później. +Reakcja władz na zamach. +Gestapo natychmiast rozpoczęło śledztwo w sprawie zamachu. 22 lipca 1944 powołano do życia specjalną komisję Sonderkommission 20. Juli pod przewodnictwem SS-Obersturmbahnführera Georga Kießla, w pracach której uczestniczyło czterystu urzędników. Obok spiskowców aresztowano wielu opozycjonistów, którzy już wcześniej wzbudzili podejrzenia organów ścigania, ale nie byli zaangażowani w przygotowania zamachu. Uprzedzając aresztowanie przez Gestapo, generał-major Hennig von Tresckow popełnił samobójstwo, które upozorował jako śmierć z rąk partyzantów – wysadził się w powietrze na skraju lasu przy pomocy granatu ręcznego. +4 sierpnia 1944 powołano do życia tzw. Sąd Honorowy Wehrmachtu (niem. "Ehrenhof"), którego zadaniem było wykluczenie z armii oficerów zaangażowanych w zamach. Zdegradowani do stopnia szeregowca i zwolnieni z armii oficerowie nie mogli stanąć przed sądem wojskowym – nie mogli być sądzeni przez trybunał wojenny i byli sądzeni przez Trybunał Ludowy (niem. "Volksgerichtshof") w procesach pokazowych pod przewodnictwem Rolanda Freislera. Podczas omawiania sytuacji zaistniałej po zamachu, Hitler wyraził swoje oczekiwania wobec procesu w następujący sposób: +Bezpośrednio do Freislera miał powiedzieć: +Proces spiskowców przed Trybunałem Ludowym. +Pierwszy proces w następstwie zamachu rozpoczął się 7 sierpnia 1944. Oskarżonymi byli: Erwin von Witzleben, Erich Höpner, Paul von Hase, Peter Yorck von Wartenburg, Helmuth Stieff, Robert Bernardis, Friedrich Klausing i Albrecht von Hagen. Posiedzenia odbywały się w Sali Wielkiej berlińskiego sądu najwyższego przy "Elseholzstrasse", który na tę okazję został przybrany swastyką. W procesie uczestniczyło około 300 widzów – w tym Ernst Kaltenbrunner, wybrani urzędnicy, funkcjonariusze partyjni, wojskowi i dziennikarze. Przebieg procesu był filmowany tak, aby Hitler był w stanie śledzić postępowanie, i by nagranie mogło być wykorzystane w filmie dokumentalnym pt. "Zdrajcy przed Trybunałem Ludowym". +Oskarżonych zmuszono podczas procesu do noszenia zniszczonych ubrań, nie pozwolono na krawaty, wprowadzano ich do sali pod eskortą, przykutych kajdankami do policjantów. Postępowanie zostało wszczęte zapowiedzią Freislera, że będzie orzekał w sprawie „najbardziej przerażających oskarżeń wniesionych kiedykolwiek w historii narodu niemieckiego”. 62 letni feldmarszałek von Witzleben jako pierwszy został wezwany przed Freislera i natychmiast został skrzyczany za użycie hitlerowskiego pozdrowienia. Stał upokorzony, trzymając kurczowo opadające spodnie, ponieważ pozbawiono go paska i szelek. +Oskarżeni nie mogli poradzić się obrońców, którzy nie siedzieli blisko nich. Żadnemu z nich nie wolno było zwracać się bezpośrednio do Trybunału i próby takie były przez Freislera przerywane. Kiedy generał Helmuth Stieff próbował poruszyć kwestię motywów swojego działania, został zakrzyczany. Witzleben miał zawołać: Wszyscy zostali skazani na śmierć przez powieszenie, a wyroki zostały wykonane w więzieniu Plötzensee wkrótce po ogłoszeniu. +Kolejny proces konspiratorów odbył się 10 sierpnia. Oskarżonymi byli Erich Fellgiebel, Alfred Kranzfelder, Fritz-Dietlof von der Schulenburg i Berthold Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. W dniu 15 sierpnia zapadł wyrok i Wolf-Heinrich von Helldorf, Egbert Hayessen, Hans Bernd von Haeften i Adam von Trott zu Solz zostali skazani przez Freislera na karę śmierci. +21 sierpnia oskarżono Fritza Thiele, Friedricha Gustava Jaegera i Ulricha Wilhelma Schwerina von Schwanenfelda, który jako motywację do swego działania wymienił „wiele morderstw popełnionych w kraju i za granicą” (wg innych źródeł „wiele morderstw popełnionych w Polsce”). +30 sierpnia na śmierć skazano gen. Carla-Heinricha von Stülpnagela, który stracił wzrok przy próbie samobójczej, Cezarego von Hofackera, Hansa Ottfrieda von Linstowa i Eberharda Fincka. +Odbiór zamachu przez aliantów. +Wielka Brytania. +Winston Churchill, który został wcześniej powiadomiony o planach spiskowców, wyjaśnił 2 sierpnia 1944 w brytyjskiej Izbie Gmin, że „pomiędzy dostojnikami Trzeciej Rzeszy doszło do wyniszczających walk” (niem. "Ausrottungskämpfe unter den Würdenträgern des Dritten Reiches"). 2 sierpnia 1944 zamach komentował następującymi słowami: Po 1945 postawa rządu Wielkiej Brytanii wobec niemieckich opozycjonistów i spiskowców 20 lipca była poddawana częstej krytyce zarówno przez obserwatorów niemieckich jak i brytyjskich. W 1946 Churchill powiedział: +Przybitka + +Przybitka +Arthur Liebehenschel + +Arthur Liebehenschel (ur. 25 listopada 1901 w Poznaniu, zm. 24 stycznia 1948 w Krakowie) − SS-Obersturmbannführer, zbrodniarz wojenny, komendant hitlerowskich obozów koncentracyjnych Auschwitz-Birkenau i Majdanek w latach 1943-1944. +Urodził się w Poznaniu, gdzie pracował jako kupiec i urzędnik skarbowy. Studiował ekonomię i zagadnienia administracyjne. Uczestniczył w I wojnie światowej, w trakcie której dosłużył się stopnia feldwebela. Po jej zakończeniu wstąpił do freikorpsu Grenzschutz-Ost, którego członkiem był od stycznia do sierpnia 1919. Między 4 października 1919 a 3 października 1931 służył zawodowo w Reichswehrze, po czym w stopniu oberfeldwebela został zdemobilizowany. +Członek NSDAP od 1 lutego 1932 o numerze partyjnym 932 760 i SS od listopada 1932 o numerze ewidencyjnym 39 254 z przydziałem do 27 pułku Allgemeine SS we Frankfurcie nad Odrą. +4 sierpnia 1934 został wcielony do zawodowej służby w Oddziałach Wartowniczych SS (SS-Wachtruppe) i przydzielony do obozu koncentracyjnego Columbia-Haus w Berlinie. Z końcem +1934 przeszedł do obozu Lichtenburg, gdzie do 1 sierpnia 1939 piastował stanowisko adiutanta komendanta. Następnie mianowano go kierownikiem wydziału politycznego (Leiter der Politische Abteilung) w Inspektoracie Obozów Koncentracyjnych. Funkcję tę pełnił do 1 maja 1940, a następnie został szefem sztabu w tej strukturze organizacyjnej SS. +15 marca 1942 został funkcjonariuszem SS-WVHA, w którym objął funkcję zastępcy szefa Urzędu "D I - Obozy Koncentracyjne" (Amt D I - Konzentrationslager). 11 listopada 1943 został przeniesiony – na skutek afery obyczajowej – do Auschwitz, gdzie objął stanowisko komendanta obozu macierzystego (tzw. KL Auschwitz I − Stammlager) i dowódcy miejscowego garnizonu SS - SS-Standortälteste. 19 maja 1944 został komendantem obozu w Majdanku, a po jego likwidacji przeniesiony został do Triestu, pod rozkazy Wyższego Dowódcy SS i Policji na Adriatyckim Wybrzeżu SS-Gruppenführera Odilo Globocnika. W czasie swojej służby w SS odznaczony m.in. Wojennym Krzyżem Zasługi II Klasy z Mieczami, Pierścieniem Honorowym SS oraz Szpadą Honorową SS. +Po wojnie został pojmany przez amerykańskie władze okupacyjne w Niemczech i wydany Polsce. W pierwszym procesie oświęcimskim wyrokiem Najwyższego Trybunału Narodowego w Krakowie został skazany 22 grudnia 1947 na karę śmierci i stracony 24 stycznia 1948 w krakowskim Więzieniu Montelupich. +Telemetria + +Telemetria – dziedzina telekomunikacji zajmująca się technikami przesyłu wartości pomiarowych na odległość. Polega ona zazwyczaj na umieszczaniu w terenie urządzeń, które dokonują pomiaru wybranej wielkości oraz automatycznego przesyłu danych drogą radiową lub telefoniczną do centrali. Do przesyłania wyników pomiarów używa się układów radiowych, modemów, Internetu oraz sieci telefonii komórkowej. +Zastosowanie telemetrii. +Zasadniczym zastosowaniem telemetrii jest monitoring urządzeń w energetyce, przedsiębiorstwach wodno-kanalizacyjnych, sondażach oglądalności telewizyjne, kontroli pojazdów i temu podobnych zastosowaniach. +Mierzone wielkości są zamieniane na inne w czujniku pomiarowym (zwykle na sygnał elektryczny). +Jako medium do przesyłania sygnałów są wykorzystywane przewody, światłowody, łącza radiowe, GPRS. +Telemetria dwustronna. +Telemetria dwustronna umożliwia pełną kontrolę nad ustawieniem pojazdów (przełożeń skrzyń biegów, obrotów silnika), która obywa się na zewnątrz pojazdów. Obecnie taka kontrola pojazdów jest zakazana w Formule 1. +Przykłady zastosowań telemetrii. +Dystrybucja towarów. +Jedna z firm dostarczających instalacje i sam gaz płynny dla odbiorców indywidualnych montuje urządzenie mierzące zużycie i poziom gazu w przydomowym zbiorniku. Odbiorca płaci za gaz zużyty w danym miesiącu, a nie za cały zbiornik gazu zaraz po dostawie. Firma może przewidywać konieczność dostawy gazu i optymalizować trasę cysterny rozwożącej gaz. +Elektroniczne badanie widowni telewizyjnej. +W wylosowanych gospodarstwach domowych zamontowane są telemetry, podłączone do sprzętu telewizyjnego, które rejestrują czas włączenia i wyłączenia telewizora oraz identyfikator odbieranej stacji. +Badanie dotyczy również telewidzów: przy pomocy specjalnego pilota telewidz przedstawia się i informuje system, że właśnie zaczął lub skończył oglądać program. Zgromadzone informacje transmitowane są zazwyczaj poprzez modem telefoniczny do centrum obliczeniowego. +Monitoring oddalonych obiektów sterowanych automatycznie. +Za pomocą modułów telemetrycznych pracujących w sieci GSM wysyłane są dane pomiędzy oddalonymi obiektami a stacją nadzorująco-kontrolną. Dane służyć mogą celom statystycznym lub być wykorzystywane w systemie automatyki przemysłowej do sterowania. Przykładem może być system monitoringu przepompowni ścieków komunikujące się z oczyszczalnią ścieków pracującą w tym samym systemie kanalizacyjnym. Operatorzy mogą otrzymać informacje o stanach nieprawidłowej pracy (np. awarii pomp) albo wymaganej kontroli (czas pracy urządzeń) bądź pracy urządzeń wykonawczych i diagnozować usterkę kanalizacji na podstawie ciągłych napływów ścieków bądź ich braku. +Dobromysław + +Dobromysław – imię męskie, które powstało poprzez "poprawienie" staropolskiego imienia Dobromysł, kiedy świadomość jego pochodzenia zatarła się i błędnie zostało ono uznane za imię kończące się członem "-sław" (zamiast "-mysł"). +Konflikt asymetryczny + +Konflikt asymetryczny – starcie dwóch odmiennych typów organizacji, sposobów myślenia i działania, a często także nawet sposobów życia. +Wbrew potocznemu rozumieniu konfliktu asymetrycznego nie można sprowadzać do starcia przy niewspółmiernej różnicy potencjałów – strony silniejszej ze słabszą pod względem liczebności, techniki czy wyszkolenia. Termin ten oznacza raczej sposób działania niż wielkość użytych sił. O asymetryczności wojny czy konfliktu stanowi istnienie fundamentalnych między stronami różnic, które determinują podejście do konfrontacji zbrojnej. Przeciwnik asymetryczny dąży zazwyczaj do takiego rozegrania konfliktu, aby druga strona nie zdecydowała się na wykorzystanie swojej przewagi, nawet gdy jest to możliwe ze względów taktycznych czy technicznych. +Modelowym przykładem konfliktu asymetrycznego były zajścia w trakcie amerykańskiej operacji Restore Hope w Somalii od grudnia 1992 roku do maja 1993, stanowiącej próbę pomyślnego zakończenia oenzetowskiej misji pokojowej UNOSOM I. Lokalni watażkowie zorientowali się, że w odróżnieniu od milicji klanowych, doskonale uzbrojony i wyszkolony, ale nieliczny przeciwnik niechętnie otwiera ogień, gdy istnieje ryzyko spowodowania strat wśród ludności cywilnej. Obserwacja ta stała się fundamentem nowej taktyki zastosowanej do wypierania wojsk amerykańskich z zajmowanych pozycji. Amerykańskie oddziały przestali atakować bojówkarze, którzy zazwyczaj nie byli w stanie odnieść sukcesu i ponosili duże straty. Zaczęły je za to „atakować” napierające tłumy setek, a czasem nawet tysięcy osób, głownie kobiet i dzieci. Żołnierze nie decydowali się na otwarcie ognia do nieuzbrojonych cywilów (co wykluczały rozkazy), skutkiem czego pod naporem tłumu utracono część pozycji. Kierujący tłumem i organizujący go watażkowie zbudowali w ten sposób „przewagę asymetryczną”. O sukcesie Somalijczyków w walce nie zdecydowała większa od przeciwnika siła ognia czy wyższy poziom umiejętności wojskowych, lecz posłużenie się działaniem o zupełnie innym charakterze. Żołnierze USA mogli albo strzelać do tłumu, albo wycofać się. Jako że z powodu samoograniczenia się – z różnych przyczyn: etycznych, politycznych, społecznych – wojsk amerykańskich pierwsze rozwiązanie nie wchodziło w grę, pozostało jedynie wycofanie się. Zastosowany w Mogadiszu i uznawany za modelowy sposób myślenia prowadzący do podejmowania działań o charakterze asymetrycznym zaczął być szybko kopiowany w rożnych wariantach na całym świecie, prowadząc do najróżniejszych form ataków – także o charakterze czysto terrorystycznym. +Traktat Północnoatlantycki + +Traktat Północnoatlantycki zwany też traktatem waszyngtońskim, jest porozumieniem zawartym w oparciu o Kartę Narodów Zjednoczonych, na podstawie którego powstało NATO. Został zawarty 4 kwietnia 1949 roku w Waszyngtonie, pomiędzy Belgią, Danią, Francją, Holandią, Islandią, Kanadą, Luksemburgiem, Norwegią, Portugalią, Stanami Zjednoczonymi, Wielką Brytanią i Włochami. Wszedł w życie 24 sierpnia 1949. +W stosunku do Polski pakt wszedł w życie z chwilą złożenia dokumentów ratyfikacyjnych w depozycie rządu Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki co nastąpiło 12 marca 1999. Dokumenty złożył minister spraw zagranicznych Bronisław Geremek. Uprzednio pakt został ratyfikowany przez Prezydenta RP Kwaśniewskiego 26 lutego 1999 na mocy upoważnienia Sejmu wyrażonego w ustawie z 17 lutego 1999. +Traktat Waszyngtoński składa się z czternastu artykułów. Jego kluczowym elementem jest artykuł piąty, który mówi o tym, iż każdy atak na któregoś z członków NATO powinien być interpretowany przez pozostałe państwa członkowskie jako atak na nie same. +Jego piąty artykuł brzmi następująco: "Strony zgadzają się, że zbrojna napaść na jedną lub więcej z nich w Europie lub Ameryce Północnej będzie uznana za napaść przeciwko nim wszystkim i dlatego zgadzają się, że jeżeli taka zbrojna napaść nastąpi, to każda z nich, w ramach wykonywania prawa do indywidualnej lub zbiorowej samoobrony, uznanego na mocy artykułu 51 Karty Narodów Zjednoczonych, udzieli pomocy Stronie lub Stronom napadniętym, podejmując niezwłocznie, samodzielnie jak i w porozumieniu z innymi Stronami, działania jakie uzna za konieczne, łącznie z użyciem siły zbrojnej, w celu przywrócenia i utrzymania bezpieczeństwa obszaru północnoatlantyckiego." +Pomimo faktu, że artykuł ten obowiązywał przez okres zimnej wojny, kiedy państwa NATO spodziewały się ataku ze strony Związku Radzieckiego, nie został wówczas zastosowany. Pierwszy raz artykuł został wprowadzony przez Stany Zjednoczone po zamachu z 11 września 2001. +Michelin + +Compagnie Générale des Établissements Michelin – największy w Europie i jeden z największych na świecie producent opon. Jego siedziba znajduje się w Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme) we Francji. Michelin znany jest również z wydawanych przez siebie map i przewodników dla turystów zmotoryzowanych. +Firma została założona przez braci Andrégo i Édouarda Michelinów w 1889. +Przedsiębiorstwo zasłynęło z produkcji opon na potrzeby Formuły 1, jednakże po sezonie 2006 wycofała się z produkcji w tym segmencie. Firma produkuje głównie opony do pojazdów osobowych, ciężarowych, motocykli, dętki i opony rowerowe oraz opony do samolotów i promów kosmicznych. +Michelin posiada 69 zakładów produkcyjnych w 19 krajach; centrum technologii zlokalizowane na 3 kontynentach: w Europie, Azji i Ameryce Północnej oraz 6 plantacji kauczuku w Brazylii i Nigerii. Michelin jest obecny w 170 krajach, zatrudniając ponad 129 tysięcy osób. Od 1995 w skład koncernu weszły zakłady "Olsztyńskie Zakłady Przemysłu Gumowego „Stomil-Olsztyn”" pod nazwą "Michelin Polska" +W 2006 r. Grupa Michelin wyprodukowała 190 mln opon oraz 15 mln map i przewodników. +Od sezonu 2011 roku firma została oficjalnym dostawcą opon w WRC +Portfolio Grupy Michelin składa się z opon marek: Michelin, Kleber, BFGoodrich, Riken, Taurus, Kormoran, Warrior, Siamtyre, Tigar, Euromaster, Recamic. +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 1908 + +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie w 1908 roku rozpoczęły się w Londynie 27 kwietnia. +Igrzyska zostały zachowane w pamięci ludzi jako wielkie wydarzenie. Olimpiadę zorganizowano w sposób profesjonalny, choć organizatorzy mieli bardzo mało czasu na jej przygotowanie. W Londynie zaprezentowały się 22 reprezentacje narodowe. W zawodach wzięło udział 1971 mężczyzn i 37 kobiet – łącznie 2008 sportowców. Rozegrano 110 konkurencji w 24 dyscyplinach. Igrzyska zostały otwarte przez króla Anglii Edwarda VII. Igrzyska przeniesiono z Rzymu, ponieważ Włochy zrezygnowały z roli gospodarza. +Rywalizację podzielono na część letnią i jesienną, gdy rozegrano łyżwiarstwo, boks i zawody w sportach zespołowych. Program sportowy został rozbudowany aż do 24 dyscyplin, m.in. tak egzotycznych jak jeu de paume, lacrosse, rackets czy sport motorowodny, które po tym debiucie już nigdy nie wróciły do programu olimpijskich zmagań. Po otwarciu igrzysk i defiladzie ekip zaczęły się protesty i skandale. Zabrakło flag Szwecji, USA, Irlandii i Finlandii. Amerykanie w proteście spalili publicznie kukłę brytyjskiego lwa. +Mimo że w 1908 roku Polska nie istniała, to w Londynie startowali Polacy. Skoczek na trampolinie Jerzy Gajdzik (George William Gaidzik) wystąpił w barwach USA, zdobywając brązowy medal w skokach do wody, tenisistka Franciszka Pietrzykowska jako Austriaczka. +Igrzyska londyńskie okazały się imprezą udaną, cieszącą się dużym zainteresowaniem publiczności. Cechą charakterystyczną tych igrzysk był stadion – White City. Mający 80 tysięcy miejsc obiekt był wyjątkowy: publiczność mogła jednocześnie oglądać zawody w lekkoatletyce, pływaniu czy piłce nożnej, dzięki temu, że trybuny otaczały wszystkie boiska oraz bieżnie. Jest to jedyny taki stadion w historii igrzysk. Zawody jednak miały kilka błędów, które w obecnych czasach nigdy nie zdarzyłyby się. Sędziami zawodów byli prawie wyłącznie Brytyjczycy, co powodowało liczne kwestionowanie ich wyroków. +Ciekawostki. +Dramatyczny przebieg miał maraton. Włoski maratończyk Dorando Pietri, który jako pierwszy wbiegł na stadion, zasłabł tuż przed metą, którą pokonał przy pomocy sędziów, za co został później zdyskwalifikowany. +Stefan Jędrychowski + +Stefan Jędrychowski (ur. 19 maja 1910 w Warszawie, zm. 26 maja 1996 w Warszawie) – polski publicysta i polityk. +Życiorys. +W okresie międzywojennym członek organizacji lewicowych intelektualistów w Wilnie, współwydawca czasopisma "Poprostu", współpracownik Żagarów, przyjaciel Czesława Miłosza, opisany w jego książce pt. "Zniewolony umysł". +Po 17 września 1939 za namową Józefa Stalina i Wandy Wasilewskiej posłował do Sejmu Republiki Litewskiej oraz Rady Najwyższej Litewskiej SRR i ZSRR. W 1943 współorganizator Związku Patriotów Polskich i armii polskiej w ZSRR. Od 1944 członek Polskiej Partii Robotniczej, następnie w Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej, w latach 1956–1971 zasiadał w Biurze Politycznym KC PZPR. +W 1944 skierowano go do wydziału informacji i propagandy w PKWN, przejściowo bywał również ambasadorem w Paryżu i Moskwie. W latach 1945–1947 zajmował się w rządzie żeglugą i handlem zagranicznym. W latach 1951–1956 pełnił funkcję wicepremiera, po dymisji Adama Rapackiego w wyniku nagonki marcowej przejął resort spraw zagranicznych, a w początkowym okresie ekipy Gierka (1971–1974) pełnił funkcję ministra finansów. W latach 1956–1968 przewodniczył Komisji Planowania przy Radzie Ministrów. W latach 1974–1978 ambasador PRL na Węgrzech. +Wyznaczony na posła do KRN (1944–1947), później regularnie pełnił mandat w Sejmie Ustawodawczym oraz PRL I, II, III, IV i V kadencji (1947–1972). 7 Grudnia 1970 roku wraz z Józefem Cyrankiewiczem podpisał Układ PRL-RFN o podstawach normalizacji wzajemnych stosunków. +Przez kilkadziesiąt lat (aż do 1990) członek Rady Naczelnej ZBoWiD. W latach 80. był często zapraszany do udziału w różnych komitetach honorowych i ciałach doradczych. W 1989 wybrany w skład Krajowej Rady TPPR. +W 1946 uchwałą Prezydium KRN odznaczony Orderem Krzyża Grunwaldu III klasy. W 1950 odznaczony Orderem Sztandaru Pracy I klasy. +Hetman wielki litewski + +Hetman wielki litewski – dowódca wojsk zaciężnych, potem komputowych Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego, czyli armii litewskiej. Z urzędu minister Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. Jeden z dwóch od czasów unii Polski z Litwą najwyższych zwierzchników wojskowych na ziemiach Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów – drugim był hetman wielki koronny, który był dowódcą wojsk zaciężnych, potem komputowych Korony Królestwa Polskiego, czyli armii polskiej. +Należy pamiętać, że Rzeczpospolita składała się z dwóch równoprawnych państw: Korony Polskiej i Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. Te dwa równoprawne państwa miały własne, oddzielne armie, utrzymywane z oddzielnych podatków, budżetów i Skarbów Publicznych (czyli Skarbów Państwa). +Nie można zatem podawać, jak to się niekiedy czyni, że hetman wielki litewski był jednym z dwóch najwyższych zwierzchników wojskowych "na ziemiach polskich". Bowiem na ziemiach polskich, tzn. w Koronie, uprawnienia dowódcze w czasie pokoju miał hetman wielki koronny, nie miał zaś żadnej jurysdykcji nad armią litewską, czyli w Wielkim Księstwie, bo to nie były już ziemie polskie, tzn. koronne, choć tworzyły wspólną Rzeczpospolitą. +Odpowiednio: na ziemiach Wielkiego Księstwa uprawnienia dowódcze w czasie pokoju miał hetman wielki litewski, któremu w żaden sposób nie podlegała armia koronna (polska), bo Korona Królestwa Polskiego to nie były już ziemie litewskie (Wielkiego Księstwa). +Natomiast w czasie wojen często na mocy decyzji króla jako Wodza Naczelnego Obojga Narodów (król polski i jednocześnie wielki książę litewski był jedyną osobą w Rzeczypospolitej mającą z urzędu jurysdykcję nad obydwiema armiami zarówno w czasie pokoju, jak i wojny) podległość armii (co było rzadkie) lub poszczególnych jednostek wojskowych (co następowało często) poszczególnym hetmanom była zmieniana w zależności od sytuacji wojennej. +Przykładowo: 1621- obrona Chocimia przed armią turecką - z powodu zgonu kanclerza i hetmana wielkiego koronnego Stanisława Żółkiewskiego po bitwie pod Cecorą (1620) dowództwo nad połączonymi oddziałami koronnymi i kozackimi (Kozacy rejestrowi) oraz posiłkującą armią litewską z rozkazu króla objął najwyższy urzędem wojskowym z obecnych w Chocimiu, dowódca armii litewskiej, hetman wielki litewski Jan Karol Chodkiewicz (który w czasie obrony zmarł). +Zastępcami hetmanów wielkich byli odpowiednio hetman polny litewski i hetman polny koronny. +Od 1579 tytuł hetmana stał się dożywotnim +Władza hetmanów została uszczuplona po powołaniu Departamentu Wojskowego Rady Nieustającej w 1776 r. +Konstanty Kalinowski + +Wincenty Konstanty "Kastuś" Kalinowski herbu Kalinowa (ur. 21 stycznia/2 lutego 1838 w Mostowlanach, zm. 22 marca 1864 w Wilnie) – rewolucjonista, uczestnik powstania styczniowego, bohater narodowy Polski, Białorusi i Litwy, z zawodu dziennikarz i prawnik. +Życiorys. +Pochodził z ubogiej rodziny ziemiańskiej, był synem Szymona Kalinowskiego. Matka jego wcześnie zmarła, wychowywała go macocha. Rodzina nie posiadała nieruchomości, zamieszkiwała w folwarku Jakuszówka koło Świsłoczy. Po ukończeniu szkoły średniej w Świsłoczy w 1855 r. przeprowadził się do Moskwy, gdzie studiował prawo na uniwersytecie. Po paru latach przeniósł się do Sankt Petersburga, gdzie kontynuował studia na Uniwersytecie Petersburskim oraz zaangażował się w mieszaną (polsko-rosyjską) konspirację wymierzoną w carat. +W 1860 r. osiadł na powrót w guberni grodzieńskiej, gdzie zajmował się pracą rewolucyjną. Zaczął wydawać pismo "Mużyckaja Prauda", jedno z pierwszych czasopism w języku białoruskim (pisany łacinką), oraz dwa inne czasopisma w języku polskim. +W swych pismach Kalinowski wypowiadał się za uniezależnieniem się Litwy od Rosji, powrotem do federacji polsko-litewskiej, ochroną języka białoruskiego oraz za zdecydowanymi reformami społecznymi (uwłaszczenie chłopów, parcelacja wielkich majątków ziemskich). Był zwolennikiem włączenia do zbrojnej walki o niepodległość szerokich mas chłopskich. +Po wybuchu powstania styczniowego zaangażował się w tworzenie Prowincjonalnego Komitetu Litewskiego w Wilnie, gdzie objął funkcję komisarza rządu polskiego na województwo grodzieńskie. Wkrótce awansował na Komisarza Pełnomocnego na Litwę, przez co zyskał kontrolę nad wszystkimi jednostkami walczącymi na obszarze byłego Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. +Zdradzony przez jednego ze swych żołnierzy, przekazany został w ręce Rosjan. Uwięziony w Wilnie, napisał "Zapiski spod szubienicy". Swojej roli w powstaniu nie umniejszał i nie ukrywał, ale zarazem odmawiał wskazywania współpracowników. Skazano go na karę śmierci przez rozstrzelanie, ale wyrok ten zamieniono na bardziej hańbiące powieszenie. Został stracony 22 marca 1864 r. na Rynku Łukiskim w Wilnie. +Upamiętnienie. +W białoruskiej literaturze historycznej używanej jest okresowo pojęcie "powstanie Kalinowskiego". W czasach radzieckich był przedstawiany jako bohater, samo powstanie styczniowe także było uważane za jeden z etapów walki o wyzwolenie robotniczo-chłopskie. Po uzyskaniu przez Białoruś niepodległości w wyniku rozpadu ZSRR Kalinowski dalej był kreowany na narodowego bohatera, w tym okresie podkreślano wątki związane z dążeniem do niezależności Białorusi. Władze Białorusi ustanowiły w tym okresie order Konstantego Kalinowskiego. Pod rządami Łukaszenki stosunek do Kalinowskiego był początkowo pozytywny, ale po protestach z 2006 roku kiedy opozycja uznała Kalinowskiego za symbol oporu wobec władz, rząd rozpoczął tępienie jego kultu. Zlikwidowany został order jego imienia, powstanie styczniowe uznano za podporządkowane wyłącznie interesom polskim, a przeciw białoruskim. Obecnie władze powróciły do polityki historycznej prowadzonej przez władze carskie – uznają za bohatera Michaiła Murawiowa, który tłumił powstanie styczniowe. +Imię Konstantego Kalinowskiego od 2006 r. nosi program stypendialny Rządu RP dla białoruskich studentów wyrzuconych ze studiów po dżinsowej rewolucji. +Wiskule + +Wiskule (biał. "Віскулі") - wieś na Białorusi, w białoruskiej części Puszczy Białowieskiej - kilka kilometrów od granicy z Polską, ok. 10 km na południowy wschód od Białowieży), w której w latach 50. wybudowano pałacyk rządowy dla prominentnych działaczy ZSRR i ich gości. +W pałacyku tym 7. i 8 grudnia 1991 spotkali się przywódcy radzieckich republik rosyjskiej, ukraińskiej i białoruskiej w celu zawarcia układu białowieskiego. Siedemnaście lat później, 12 września 2008, doszło tu do pierwszego - po kilku latach chłodniejszych relacji - spotkania ministrów spraw zagranicznych Polski i Białorusi Radosława Sikorskiego i Siarhieja Martynaua. +Moloko + +Moloko – brytyjska grupa muzyczna wykonująca muzykę elektroniczną z pogranicza takich gatunków jak house, dance, acid-jazz, downtempo. Zespół powstał 1994 roku, występuje z przerwami do dziś. +Muzycy. +Obecny skład zespołu. +Poza podstawowym składem dwuosobowym, Moloko regularnie współpracuje z muzykami sesyjnymi – klawiszowcami Eddiem Stevensem i Philem Pesketem, gitarzystą Dave'em Cookiem i perkusistą Dave'em Derose. +Historia. +Zespół powstał w 1994 roku w Sheffield w Wielkiej Brytanii. Nazwa zespołu nawiązuje bezpośrednio do rosyjskiego słowa молоко (mleko). Wówczas jeszcze nie śpiewająca Róisín Murphy zagadała na zabawie Marka Brydona pytaniem "Podoba ci się mój obcisły sweter? Zobacz, jak opina moje ciało." ("Do you like my tight sweater? See how it fits my body"). Brydon był już doświadczonym producentem muzycznym. Niedługo potem, już w 1995 roku, pojawiła się ich pierwsza wspólna płyta, "Do You Like My Tight Sweater?" wydana przez Roadrunner Records. Była ona dość trudno przystępna dla przeciętnego słuchacza, ze względu na mroczny klimat i koncentrację na dźwiękach elektronicznych. +Kolejną pozycją w ich karierze była płyta "I Am Not a Doctor" (1998), ale przełom stanowiła dopiero popowa "Things to Make and Do" (2001), rozsławiona remiksem piosenki "Sing It Back", stworzonym przez DJ-a Borisa Dlugoscha. Ostatnia płyta, "Statues" (2003), która spotkała się z pozytywnym przyjęciem krytyków i słuchaczy, to już dzieło o charakterze pop-rockowym. Po nagraniu albumu w 2003, działanie zespołu zostało zawieszone. Jak twierdzi sama Murphy, Moloko nie zostało rozwiązane, aczkolwiek nie zanosi się w najbliższym czasie na to, by powstać miała nowa płyta. W 2005 wokalistka zespołu nagrała solową płytę "Ruby Blue". W czerwcu 2006 roku ukazała się składanka pt. "Catalogue". Zawiera ona 13 największych hitów zespołu. Dodatkowo na bonusowym CD (limitowana edycja) umieszczono koncert z Brixton Academy w 2003 r. +Zarząd planowania żeglugi oceanicznej + +Zarząd planowania żeglugi oceanicznej ("Planning Board for Ocean Shipping", PBOS) – został stworzony przez Radę Północnoatlantycką (NAC) w 1950. Jest jednym z dziewięciu komitetów NATO, zajmujących się planowaniem międzynarodowej obrony cywilnej w sytuacji zagrożeń (CEP). +Zarząd zajmuje się planowaniem wsparcia żeglugi oceanicznej dla wojsk NATO w sytuacji zagrożeń. Jego działania planistyczne skupiają się na opracowaniu szacunków potrzeb Sojuszu w czasie kryzysu, oraz stworzenie międzynarodowych procedur, koniecznych by im sprostać. +Zarząd planowania żeglugi oceanicznej obraduje raz do roku, w czasie trwania jesiennej sesji plenarnej NATO. Współpracuje również z państwami uczestniczącymi w programie Partnerstwo dla Pokoju, których jednak nie bierze pod uwagę w procesie decyzyjnym. Podlega Wysokiem Komitetowi Planowania Centralnego na Sytuacje Nadzwyczajnych Zagrożeń (SCEPC). +Operat + +Operat – pisemne opracowanie danego zagadnienia technicznego. +Walentynianie + +Walentynianie – gnostycka grupa religijna istniejąca w II i III wieku stworzona około 135 roku przez Walentyna i jego uczniów: Herakleona, Ptolemeusza, Markosa i Teodora. +Nauczanie. +Głosili oni, iż Najwyższa Istota ("pleroma" - gr. pełnia) wyemanowała z siebie 15 par różnopłciowych eonów. Jeden z najniższych eonów męskich i eon żeński Sofia wskutek niewiedzy i połączenia o charakterze seksualnym, tzw. "syzygies" (po syryjsku "Małżeństwo") stworzyli Demiurga (miał nim być starotestamentowy Jahwe), który to następnie stworzył świat. Walentynianie łączyli w swoich poglądach chrześcijaństwo z grecką spekulacją i egipską gnozą. Początkowo istnieli tylko w Aleksandrii i w Rzymie, gdzie znajdował się ich główny ośrodek, lecz z czasem (choć na krótko) rozprzestrzenili się w całym Cesarstwie. +Wobec chrześcijaństwa. +Sekta ta zanikła na skutek krytyki ze strony chrześcijaństwa oraz działań władz w krótkim czasie po powstaniu. Zwalczał ich Tertulian w traktacie "Przeciw Walentynianom" ("Adversus Valentinianos"), Ireneusz z Lyonu wspomina o nich jako o herezji w "Przeciw herezjom" ("Adversus heareses"), III,4,3. W Credo zostały wprowadzone uzupełnienia, aby uniknąć na przyszłość błędów głoszonych przez walentynian. Twierdzili oni, że Stary Testament jest dziełem diabolicznym, a sami za objawione uznawali tylko dwa dokumenty: Ewangelię Prawdy i Kazanie Piotra. W sporach z ortodoksją posiłkowali się także Ewangelią Jana, która według nich poświadczała eoniczny charakter stworzenia. Jezusa uważali za idealnego człowieka i wzór dla gnostyków, którzy aby osiągnąć zbawienie powinni poznać, iż cała prawda znajduje się w ich wnętrzu. +Antropologia. +Świat według walentynian zakończy się powrotem wszystkiego do pierwotnej Jedności. +Oznakowanie więźniów niemieckich obozów koncentracyjnych + +Oznakowanie więźniów nazistowskich obozów – w niemieckich obozach koncentracyjnych stosowano system oznaczania zarejestrowanych więźniów. Otrzymywali oni numery, które w pewnych obozach były zindywidualizowane (niepowtarzalne), a w innych przypisywane po śmierci jednego więźnia następnemu. Ponadto stosowano rozmaite sposoby oznakowania na ubiorach (głównie obozowych pasiakach, najczęściej tzw. winklami - wprowadzonymi w KL Dachau). +Oznakowania w Auschwitz-Birkenau. +Dodatkowym oznaczeniem więźniów "specjalnych" była brązowa opaska na ramieniu. +Tatuowanie więźniów wprowadzono w obozie Auschwitz-Birkenau w 1942, po raz pierwszy stosując go wobec grupy 10 000 jeńców radzieckich, którym wytatuowano numery ewidencyjne na piersiach (zamiast wydania im jenieckiego "nieśmiertelnika"). Wkrótce system tatuowania numerów ewidencyjnych wprowadzono w odniesieniu do pozostałych więźniów. Tatuaże z numerami nanoszono u osób dorosłych na wewnętrznej stronie przedramienia, natomiast u dzieci, zarówno narodzonych w obozie jak i przybyłych z matkami - na udzie. +Powiat gorzowski + +Powiat gorzowski - powiat w Polsce (województwo lubuskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Siedziba władz powiatu, Gorzów Wielkopolski, nie wchodzi w jego skład, ma status miasta na prawach powiatu . Powiat położony jest w następujących regionach fizycznogeograficznych: Kotlina Gorzowska, i Kotlina Freienwaldzka. Graniczy z niemieckim krajem związkowym Brandenburgia. W granicach powiatu znajduje się Park Narodowy Ujście Warty. +Tajna Organizacja Wojskowa + +Tajna Organizacja Wojskowa (TOW) lub Dywersyjna Organizacja Wojskowa (DOW) - tak organizatorzy dywersji pozafrontowej nazywali organizację, która miała być powołana w chwili zajęcia terytorium II RP przez agresora. +TOW/DOW miały różny charakter - od organizacji lokalnych (miejskich, powiatowych), regionalnych (np. TOW "Gryf Pomorski" na Pomorzu) do ogólnokrajowych (TOW dowodzona przez mjr. Jana Mazurkiewicza ps. "Jan", "Sęk", "Radosław"). +Płk Jan Mazurkiewicz tuż przed wybuchem wojny obronnej 1939 r. przeniesiony został do Grupy Operacyjnej Dywersji - tzw. Grupy "Zygmunt", której zadaniem było przygotowanie akcji dywersyjnych na zapleczu wroga. W połowie września 1939 r. w Stanisławowie założył TOW. +Po zakończeniu działań wojennych, Komenda TOW znalazła się w Budapeszcie, skąd koordynowano tworzenie struktur w okupowanej Polsce oraz opiekowano się szlakami przerzutowymi kraj - Budapeszt - Paryż. Zadania TOW uzgadniane były bezpośrednio z Wodzem Naczelnym gen. Władysławem Sikorskim. Od czerwca 1940 r. Komenda TOW przeniosła się do kraju. W marcu 1943 r. nastąpiło scalenie TOW z Armią Krajową, w ramach której struktury TOW przeszły do Kedywu. +Transkluzja + +Transkluzja (dosł. przeniesienie i włączenie) - sposób włączenia w systemie hipertekstowym fragmentów innych dokumentów. +Przykładowo, artykuł o gospodarce jakiegoś kraju mógłby zawierać wykres czy akapit opisujący eksport produktów rolnych pochodzący z innego artykułu. Zamiast kopiować dane z dokumentu źródłowego do docelowego i utrzymywać w ten sposób dwie kopie, można dokonać transkluzji, czyli odwołania się w dokumencie docelowym do dokumentu źródłowego, które spowoduje wyświetlenie fragmentu dokumentu źródłowego w docelowym. Zaletą takiego rozwiązania jest również aktualność tego fragmentu, którego zawartość może się zmieniać, gdy jego autor dokona poprawek. Odwołanie to służy też jako wzajemny odsyłacz między oboma dokumentami. +W projekcie Xanadu Teda Nelsona oryginalna propozycja hipertekstu, naszkicowana w książce "Literary Machines" z 1982 r., mówi, że od czytelnika pobierane byłyby automatycznie mikropłatności honorujące wkład pochodzący z rozmaitych źródeł. +Idea transkluzji zakłada, że poszczególne sekcje są pisane w sposób "zatomizowany", jako "całostki", tak aby zawartość jednej sekcji dokumentu nie była sprzeczna z zawartością innych fragmentów. Przykładowo, nie byłoby możliwe używanie spotykanych w papierowych książkach sformułowań w rodzaju "patrz: sekcja wyżej" czy "jak wspomniano wcześniej", gdyż w razie użycia tej sekcji w dokumencie innego autora, drogą transkluzji, tego rodzaju sformułowanie stałoby się w innym kontekście niezrozumiałe i mylące, zwłaszcza w dokumentach o charakterze technicznym i informacyjnym. +Obecny HTML zawiera ograniczoną implementację transkluzji. Można się odwołać do obrazka znajdującego się w innym dokumencie, nawet na innym serwerze, można też stosować technikę ramek, czyli , która przywołuje dokument z zewnątrz. Przyszłe wersje HTML, będą prawdopodobnie zawierać głębsze techniki transkluzji z użyciem XML-owych technik, jak odwołania na bazie XPath z użyciem transformacji XSL. +Praktyka włączania danych z innych źródeł jest niekiedy krytykowana, gdyż oznacza zużywanie cudzej mocy komputerowej i cudzego pasma ("bandwidth theft" - kradzież pasma). Powszechnie stosowanym wyjątkiem jest jednak technika banerów reklamowych - ogłoszeniodawca woli sam udostępniać zawartość banera ze swojego serwera niż polegać na innym serwerze, dzięki czemu może łatwo weryfikować wywołany tym ruch w sieci i oglądalność. +Jeśli na stronie internetowej A wstawimy za pomocą transkluzji i znacznika "iframe" zawartość całej zawartości innej strony internetowej B, tak że nie nie wyświetlą się żadne elementy informujące użytkownika, że ogląda treść pochodzącą ze strony B, oglądający będzie przekonany, że ogląda treść strony A, ponieważ na pasku adresu przegladarki wyświetlany jest adres strony A a nie B. Czasami ma stronie A wyświetlana jest zawartość strony B wzbogacona jedynie o bannery reklamowe wygenerowane przez stronę A. Praktyka tego typu jest również krytykowana za możliwość oszustw i podszywanie się pod cudzą pracę. +Jest szereg technologii internetowych, które dysponują podobną możliwością włączania zewnętrznych komponentów, jak języki skryptowe typu server-side: ASP (Active Server Pages), JSP (JavaServer Pages), PHP (PHP Hypertext Preprocessor) oraz SSI (Server Side Includes). +Wierzba zielna + +Wierzba zielna, w. nibyzielna ("Salix herbacea") – gatunek rośliny należący do rodziny wierzbowatych. Występuje w Europie i Ameryce Północnej na obszarach wokółbiegunowych. W Polsce występuje w Sudetach, Tatrach i na Babiej Górze. +Zmienność. +Tworzy mieszańce z w. alpejską, w. dwubarwną, w. lapońską, w. oszczepowatą, w. uszatą, w. wykrojoną i w. żyłkowaną . +Deskryptor segmentu + +Deskryptor segmentu – struktura występująca w globalnej oraz lokalnej tablicy deskryptorów, opisująca położenie i właściwości segmentu pamięci. +Budowa ogólna. +Z każdym deskryptorem segmentu związane są selektory, które mają taki sam indeks deskryptora segmentu lecz różnią się prawami uprzywilejowania. +Deskryptory służą także do definiowania bramek przerwań i procedur ("interrupt gate" i "callgate") - wówczas deskryptor podaje adres takiej procedury i reguły dostępu. Bramki umożliwiają wywoływania kodu o wyższym uprawnieniach (np. procedur systemu operacyjnego lub sterownika) z poziomu programu o niższych uprawnieniach (np. programu użytkowego). +Amoeba (system operacyjny) + +Amoeba – rozproszony, oparty na mikrojądrze, system operacyjny ogólnego przeznaczenia. +Nazwa tego systemu oznacza amebę, co oddaje jego elastyczną naturę. +Historia. +Pierwsze badania, które przyczyniły się do jej powstania zapoczątkowano w 1980 r. na "Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam". Były one czynione przy współudziale "Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica" w Amsterdamie. Amoeba ujrzała światło dzienne w 1987 r. W jej rozwój zaangażowała się finansowo Wspólnota Europejska oraz, naukowo, partnerzy z Anglii i Norwegii. Rozwój Amoeby zatrzymał się w 1998 r. na wersji 5.3. W tym też czasie stała się ona wolnym oprogramowaniem. +Ostatnia wersja Amoeby posłużyła jako baza do stworzenia FSD Amoeby, znacząco odświeżonej i poprawionej jej odmiany. Najnowsza i prawdopodobnie ostateczna wersja FSD Amoeby nosi oznaczenie "2002B". Została ona wydana w 2002 r., po czym wstrzymano prace rozwojowe. FSD Amoeba jest uznawana za najszybszy, dostępny dla każdego, rozproszony system operacyjny z prawdziwego zdarzenia. Jej bezpośrednimi sukcesorami są nieukończone tandem VX-Amoeba oraz VAM - kluczowy składnik VAMNET-u. +Celem uniknięcia żmudnego pisania wielu użytecznych programów (szczególnie w początkowym okresie istnienia systemu), Amoebę wyposażono w częściową emulację systemu UNIX na poziomie kodu źródłowego. +Z myślą o Amoebie stworzono język programowania Python. Ważnym językiem programowania związanym z Amoebą jest także Orca. +Powiat międzyrzecki + +Powiat międzyrzecki - powiat w Polsce (województwo lubuskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Międzyrzecz. +Historia. +Ustawa nigdy nie weszła w życie, bowiem reformę administracyjną Polski przerwały zabory. +Położenie i warunki geograficzne. +Powiat międzyrzecki położony jest w następujących regionach fizycznogeograficznych: Kotlina Gorzowska, Bruzda Zbąszyńska, Pojezierze Łagowskie i Pojezierze Poznańskie, między dorzeczami Warty i Obry. +Lesistość - 53%. W powiecie znajdują się Pszczewski Park Krajobrazowy (gm. Pszczew) i Puszcza Notecka (gm. Skwierzyna). +Ważniejsze bogactwa mineralne: żwir, kreda, iły, ropa naftowa i gaz ziemny (przy granicy z powiatem międzychodzkim). +Główną atrakcją powiatu jest Międzyrzecki Rejon Umocniony pozostałość po II wojnie światowej. +Struktura powierzchni. +Powiat stanowi 9,92% powierzchni województwa lubuskiego. +Włosiennica + +Włosiennica (gr. "kilikon", łac. "cilicium") – szorstka tkanina z sierści kozy lub wielbłąda, służąca do wytwarzania żagli, namiotów i worków. W starożytności centrum jej wyrobu była Cylicja. +Tradycyjnie nazwa ta odnosi się również do koszuli noszonej w celach pokutnych, dla samoumartwienia ciała (Zob. Iz 50,3; Hi 16,15; Ps 30,12; Mt 11,21). Asceci używali również włosiennicy jako okrycia do spania. Łatwo zagnieżdżały się w niej wszy. Pod koniec XVI wieku kozią sierść zaczęto niekiedy zastępować pasami z cieniutkiego drutu, zwróconego kolcami w stronę ciała, by zwiększyć uczucie dyskomfortu i niewygody. +Cel. +W historii chrześcijaństwa noszona przez świętych, mnichów i ascetów po to, by oddalić pokusy cielesne lub pamiętać męczeńską śmierć Chrystusa, a także przez pokutujących, jako kara za grzechy. +Użytkownicy. +Nosił ją francuski król Ludwik IX i wielkopolski książę Przemysł I. Dzięki niej Tomasz Morus, gdy w młodości studiował prawo, przez kilka miesięcy obywał się bez snu po 19–20 godzin na dobę. Podobno rzadko kiedy się z nią rozstawał. A gdy został zamordowany Tomasz Becket, arcybiskup Canterbury, okazało się, że miał ją pod ubraniem. +Nosiło ją wielu świętych i błogosławionych kościoła katolickiego m.in. Franciszek z Asyżu, Karol Boromeusz, Teresa z Avila, Ignacy Loyola, Tomasz Morus, Franciszek Salezy, Jan Maria Vianney, Teresa z Lisieux, Faustyna Kowalska, Pio z Pietrelciny, Maksymilian Kolbe, Klara z Asyżu, Edyta Stein, Józef Sebastian Pelczar, Matka Teresa z Kalkuty. Używali jej również np. teolog Hans Urs von Balthasar i papież Paweł VI. +Jan Maria Vianney. +Św. Jan Maria Vianney słynął z surowego ducha pokuty. +""Ksiądz Balley nosił włosiennicę. Oczywiście i ks. Vianney zwrócił się do Klaudyny Bibost i do córki jej Kolumby z prośbą, by mu sporządziły włosienną kamizelkę, którą odtąd przywiązywał do ciała"". +Faustyna Kowalska. +Św. Faustyna Kowalska pokutowała, by wyprosić łaski dla dusz grzeszników. +""Dziś nosiłam siedem godzin pas łańcuszkowy, aby uprosić danej duszy łaskę skruchy, w siódmej godzinie doznałam odpocznienia, gdyż dusza ta już we własnym wnętrzu doznawała odpuszczenia, choć jeszcze się nie spowiadała."". +""Otrzymałam pozwolenie na żądane pozwolenia: na pół godziny w czasie Mszy Św. bransoletki codziennie, a w tych chwilach wyjątkowych, na dwie godziny paska noszenie. Powiedział Ojciec: niech Siostra zachowa tę jak największą wierność Panu Jezusowi"". +Współcześnie. +W czasach współczesnych nazwa odnosi się do kolczastej, metalowej opaski lub łańcucha noszonych na udzie. Jest ona noszona przez część zakonników. +Niektórzy postulują o przywrócenie włosiennicy w seminariach: ""Wychowanie do modlitwy, ascezy, wyrzeczenia pozostać zatem powinny, poza formacją intelektualną, podstawowym elementem życia seminaryjnego. Nie ma powodów, by sprawdzone przez wieki sposoby radzenia sobie z pokusami (nawet jeśli są one tak nienowoczesne jak biczowanie, włosiennica czy lodowate prysznice), nie były nadal propagowane w seminariach. To, co pomagało w osiągnięciu świętości św. Franciszkowi czy Benedyktowi, może pomagać także ludziom współczesnym"". +Arka Smaku + +Arka Smaku – program odbudowy bioróżnorodności prowadzony przez organizację Slow Food, mający na celu opisanie i ochronę zagrożonych zagładą roślin i zwierząt, a także gotowych produktów spożywczych. Nazwa programu jest parafrazą biblijnej Arki Noego. +Inspiracją do powstania programu był fakt, iż w XX wieku w Europie zanikło bądź wyginęło 75% produktów spożywczych (warzyw, owoców, zbóż, odmian żywca). W tym samym okresie w Ameryce spotkało to aż 93% obecnych na rynku produktów. "Arka Smaku" ma zapobiec dalszej unifikacji żywności i odtworzyć jej różnorodny charakter związany z poszczególnymi regionami świata. +We Włoszech prowadzeniem programu zajmuje się 196 lokalnych ośrodków, w pozostałych krajach świata około 65. +W innych krajach opieką objęte są m.in.: wanilia (Madagaskar), olej arganowy (Maroko), ziemniaki andyjskie (Peru), kury znoszące wyłącznie niebieskie jaja (Chile), kawa huehuetenango (Gwatemala), śliwki slatko (Bośnia i Hercegowina), ser z mleka jaków (Tybet), czarna świnia gaskońska (Francja), czarna fasola tolosa (Hiszpania), ser cheddar z hrabstwa Somerset w Anglii. +Apiterapia + +Apiterapia – leczenie chorób produktami pszczelimi stosowane w medycynie niekonwencjonalnej. +Kontrowersje. +Choć leczenie produktami pszczelimi stosowane było w medycynie ludowej od dawna, brak jest obecnie naukowych podstaw mówiących o mechanizmach działania tych produktów na organizm ludzki a także jednoznacznie wskazujących na ich skuteczność. +Ambigram + +Ambigram (łac. "ambo" oba + gr. "grámma" zapis) – grafika utworzona kaligraficznie lub obrazowo w taki sposób, że po obróceniu całości można odczytać ten sam lub inny tekst. W alfabecie łacińskim jedynymi "naturalnie ambigramowymi" (czyli środkowo symetrycznymi) literami są "H", "I", "N", "O", "S", "X" oraz "Z". +W kulturze masowej zostały spopularyzowane dzięki książce "Anioły i demony" Dana Browna, w której to odgrywają rolę kolejnych symboli umieszczanych (a ściślej mówiąc, wypalanych) na ciałach ofiar, poprzez członków bractwa Iluminatów. Zdaniem Browna domniemanym twórcą sześciu ambigramów miał być sam naczelny architekt Watykanu, barokowy artysta, Bernini, co jest jednak wątpliwą tezą. +Na potrzeby książki, ambigramy stworzył John Langdon, znany artysta, który użyczył swego nazwiska głównemu bohaterowi, Robertowi Langdonowi. +Jesse Reno + +Jesse Wilford Reno (ur. 1861, zm. 1947) – amerykański wynalazca, twórca ruchomych schodów. +Urodził się w 1861 w Fort Leavenworth, w stanie Kansas. Sformułował ideę ruchomych schodów już w wieku 16 lat. Studiował na Lehigh University w Pensylwanii, uczestniczył w budowie pierwszej kolei elektrycznej na południu Stanów. Reno zgłosił pierwszy patent na schody ruchome w 1891; nazywał je wtedy "new and useful endless conveyor or elevator". Patent zrealizował dopiero 15 miesięcy później. Urządzenie zostało zbudowane i zainstalowane na Coney Island na Brooklynie we wrześniu 1895, jako element rozrywki. Reno planował zastosowanie swoich urządzeń w dwupoziomowym nowojorskim metrze. Jego plany nie zostały zaakceptowane; w tej sytuacji po ślubie przeprowadził się do Londynu, gdzie w 1902 otworzył firmę "The Reno Electric Stairways and Conveyors, Ltd.". +Schody ruchome jego pomysłu instalowano w całych Stanach Zjednoczonych, Wielkiej Brytanii i Europie. Podjął nowe wyzwanie, pracował nad pierwszą konstrukcją schodów spiralnych. Wspólnie z Williamem Astonem, właścicielem patentu na elastyczne połączenia stopni, postanowił stworzyć pionierskie rozwiązanie, które zostało zaprezentowane cztery lata później i zainstalowane na jego koszt na stacji w Londynie; nigdy jednak nie upowszechniło się. W 1903, firma "Waygood and Otis Limited" kupiła udziały w The Reno Company. Reno sprzedał swoje patenty firmie Otis i powrócił do USA. +Piotr Pustelnik + +Piotr Pustelnik (ur. 12 lipca 1951 w Łodzi) – polski inżynier chemik, alpinista i himalaista, zdobywca Korony Himalajów i Karakorum. +Biografia. +Piotr Pustelnik jest doktorem inżynierii chemicznej, pracownikiem naukowym Wydziału Inżynierii Procesowej i Ochrony Środowiska Politechniki Łódzkiej. Jako trzeci z polskich himalaistów zdobył wszystkie 14 szczytów liczących powyżej 8000 m n.p.m. Koronę zamknęło wejście na Annapurnę (8091 m n.p.m.) w dniu 27 kwietnia 2010 r. o 13:45 czasu lokalnego. Dokonał tego jako trzeci Polak w historii po Jerzym Kukuczce i Krzysztofie Wielickim. Pustelnik jest twórcą projektu "Trzy Korony", czyli pomysłu na zdobycie Korony Ziemi, Koronki Ziemi (drugie co do wysokości szczyty kontynentów) i Korony Himalajów i Karakorum. +Wychowanek, wieloletni członek i kilkukrotny prezes Akademickiego Klubu Górskiego w Łodzi. Współorganizator marszobiegu Lawiny i imprezy Wielkiej Orkiestry Świątecznej Pomocy w schronisku "Samotnia" PTTK. +Do 2007 był redaktorem naczelnym miesięcznika górskiego "n.p.m." W 2007 został nagrodzony nagrodą Explorera, przyznawaną co roku, podczas Explorers Festival w Łodzi, światowym indywidualnościom w dziedzinie eksploracji. W 2006 r. wraz z Piotrem Morawskim został finalistą Nagrody Środowisk Wspinaczkowych „Jedynka” za "Tryptyk Himalajski - Cho Oyu (droga norm), Annapurna Wschodnia (wsch. grań), Broad Peak (droga normalna) - projekt zrealizowany bez zdobycia głównej Annapurny z powodu konieczności udzielenia pomocy Tybetańczykowi". W marcu 2011 dostał nagrodę "Super Kolosa 2010" "za zdobycie Korony Himalajów, jako trzeci Polak i dwudziesty himalaista na świecie". +Ma dwóch synów, którzy również się wspinają, znanego wspinacza skalnego Adama i Pawła. +Wejścia na wierzchołki ośmiotysięczników. +oraz +Interpedia + +Interpedia - jedna z pierwszych propozycji encyklopedii internetowych, która pozwoliłaby każdej zainteresowanej osobie wnosić wkład w postaci napisanych artykułów, przesyłanych do centralnej bazy dokumentów. +Interpedia została zaproponowana przez Ricka Gatesa, który 22 października 1993 r. opublikował w grupie dyskusyjnej alt.internet.services wiadomość, w której stwierdzał, że takie repozytorium wiedzy, zawierające ogólną, encyklopedyczną wiedzę dla zwykłego laika, byłoby ważnym narzędziem zarówno dla niektórych badań naukowych, jak i dla całej społeczności Internetu (Net.Citizenry), i że trzeba by nawiązać kontakt z najróżniejszymi grupami ludzi, którzy zajmą się pisaniem artykułów. Sam termin "Interpedia" został ukuty przez R. L. Samuella, uczestnika dyskusji w grupie. +W listopadzie 1993 r. utworzono specjalną grupę usenetową comp.infosystems.interpedia (zobacz +[http://www.landfield.com/usenet/news.announce.newgroups/comp/comp.infosystems.interpedia]). +Dyskutowano, czy artykuły powinny być dokumentami HTML czy czystym tekstem, czy też dopuszczalne są wszystkie formaty (jak w Gopherze). Inną kwestią było włączenie zasobów znajdujących się poza Internetem. Zakładano też powołanie niezależnych agencji oceniających poziom artykułów w Interpedii i "przystawiających pieczęć zatwierdzającą". +Projekt ostatecznie nigdy nie wyszedł poza etap planowania i ostatecznie został zaniechany wskutek gwałtownego rozwoju World Wide Web. +Minivan + +Minivan lub MPV (ang. "Multi-Purpose Vehicle") – typ nadwozia wielozadaniowego samochodu osobowego. Jest to zazwyczaj nadwozie jednobryłowe, choć bywają wyjątki jak dwubryłowy Chevrolet Uplander. Te samochody są produkowane w czterech klasach (rozmiarach). Większe prawie zawsze mają siedem lub osiem siedzeń w trzech rzędach. Mniejsze mają pięć, sześć siedzeń w dwóch, lub siedem w trzech rzędach. +Nazwa pochodzi od ang. słowa "van", oznaczającego samochód dostawczy typu furgon. Ponieważ pierwsze auta tego typu, czyli Renault Espace i Chrysler Voyager wyglądały jak wersje "mini" osobowych samochodów dostawczych, dlatego nazwano je minivanami. Dziś pojęcie Van coraz częściej odnosi się do typowo rodzinnych i drogich samochodów. +Koszty rachunkowe + +Układ funkcjonalny. +Układ funkcjonalny dzieli koszty według miejsc powstawania kosztów. +Niezwykłe podróże + +"Niezwykłe podróże" (fr. "Voyages Extraordinaires") − cykl fantastyczno-naukowych i podróżniczo-przygodowych powieści Juliusza Verne'a. +Według kontraktów (znane są informacje o sześciu) zawieranych od 1863 roku pomiędzy autorem a jego wydawcą, którym był Pierre-Jules Hetzel (po 1886 syn − Jules Hetzel), corocznie do druku miała trafiać pewna liczba tomów napisanych przez Verne'a. Stąd wziął się podział niektórych (dłuższych) powieści (np. "Tajemniczej wyspy") na tomy. +Lista powieści. +Poniżej wymienione są tytuły powieści, które wydano za życia pisarza. +Po jego śmierci pojawiło się jeszcze kilkanaście rozmaitych tytułów, z których ostatni wydano po raz pierwszy pod koniec XX wieku − 131 lat po napisaniu. W powieściach wydanych pośmiertnie zmiany wprowadził syn − Michel Verne. +Dywersja pozafrontowa + +Organizacją dywersji pozafrontowej w Wielkopolsce zajmowali się oficerowie Samodzielnego Referatu Bezpieczeństwa i Samodzielnego Referatu Informacyjnego Dowództwa Okręgu Korpusu Nr VII w Poznaniu: Wincenty Wierzejewski, mjr Stefan Łukowicz, kpt. Wawrzyniec Mazany i mjr Jan Szumski. +Działania dywersyjne w 1939 nie zostały podjęte na szeroką skalę ze względu na szybkość ofensywy niemieckiej jak i skomplikowaną sytuację na wschodnich obszarach II RP po uderzeniu Armii Czerwonej. Na bazie powiązań grup dywersji pozafrontowej powstawały zalążki organizacji konspiracyjnych. +Po zakończeniu działań wojennych oficerowie prowadzący grupy dywersji pozafrontowej uruchamiali sieć powiązań w ramach Tajnej Organizacji Wojskowej. +Virginia Mayo + +Virginia Mayo, właśc. Virginia Clara Jone, ur. 30 listopada 1920 w St. Louis - zm. 17 stycznia 2005 w Los Angeles, amerykańska aktorka i gwiazda filmowa. +Rozpoczęła karierę jako chórzystka. Jednak szybko zwróciła na siebie uwagę reżyserów i w 1944 wystąpiła w jednej z głównych ról, razem z Bobem Hope, w filmie "Księżniczka i pirat". Później nakręciła 5 filmów z Dannym Kayem. Początkiem wielkiej kariery było podpisanie kontraktu z wytwórnią Warner Bros., gdzie stała się jedną z jej największych gwiazd. Do jej najbardziej znanych filmów należą dzieła nakręcone przez reżysera Raoula Walsha: "Kapitan Horatio Hornblower", "Terytorium Colorado" i "Biała gorączka". Wystąpiła w licznych musicalach, westernach i filmach przygodowych. Zmarła w swoim domu na przedmieściach Los Angeles. Przyczyną jej zgonu było zapalenie płuc i zatrzymanie akcji serca. +W 1996 roku wprowadzona do St. Louis Walk of Fame. +Sandecja Nowy Sącz + +Miejski Klub Sportowy Sandecja Nowy Sącz – klub sportowy z Nowego Sącza, którego drużyna piłkarska występuje obecnie w I lidze. +Historia. +Klub rozpoczął działalność w 1910 roku z inicjatywy naczelnika Polskiego Towarzystwa Gimnastycznego „Sokół” Adama Biedy. Nazwa klubu pochodzi od łacińskiej nazwy miasta "Nova Civitas Sandecz". Pierwszym prezesem klubu był Józef Damse. +1 maja 1970 roku odbyło się oficjalne otwarcie obecnego stadionu. Z tej okazji rozegrano mecz młodzieżowych reprezentacji Polski i Węgier. Mecz zakończył się wynikiem 2:3 a jedną z bramek strzelił Kazimierz Kmiecik. Na stadionie było ok. 10 tysięcy widzów. Do 1998 roku stadion nosił nazwę XXV-lecia PRL, zaś 2 czerwca 2001 przyjął imię Ojca Władysława Augustynka (1915-1997). +Planem na 100-lecie ekipy, był awans do I ligi, który został zrealizowany w ostatnim meczu rundy wiosennej 2008/2009. W meczu wyjazdowym z Concordią Piotrków Trybunalski drużyna trenera Roberta Moskala wygrała 5:3 czym zapewniła sobie awans do bezpośredniego zaplecza Ekstraklasy. +Sekcje działające w historii. +W 2009 pozostała jedynie sekcja piłki nożnej. Drużyna siatkówki kobiet jest samodzielna, związana z klubem już jedynie nazwą. +Tryb (językoznawstwo) + +Tryb – kategoria gramatyczna czasownika, wyrażająca stosunek mówiącego do treści wypowiedzenia. +Prawo Gatesa + +Prawo Gatesa (ang. "Gates's Law") – szybkość oprogramowania maleje o połowę co 18 miesięcy. Jest to ironiczne nawiązanie do prawa Moore'a, podkreślające tendencję do obniżania się szybkości działania nowych wersji oprogramowania. Choć nazwa wskazuje Billa Gatesa jako autora powyższego "prawa", sam Gates nigdy tych słów nie wypowiedział. Pochodzenie terminu wiąże się z faktem, że Microsoft jest uważany za głównego sprawcę rosnących rozmiarów oprogramowania. +Obserwowane spowolnienie działania programów wraz z powstawaniem ich nowych wersji może mieć źródło w różnych czynnikach – lenistwie programistów, kodzie o złej jakości, dodawaniu nowych funkcji. +Simone Moro + +Simone Moro (ur. 27 października 1967 w Bergamo) – włoski zawodowy wspinacz, alpinista, himalaista. Z wykształcenia bibliotekarz, trener pływania, przewodnik górski i oficer wojska włoskiego. W latach 1992-96 pracował jako trener dla Narodowej Włoskiej Kadry Wspinaczki Sportowej (F.A.S.I.). Do jego partnerów wspinaczkowych należeli m.in. nieżyjący już Polak Piotr Morawski i Kazach Anatolij Bukriejew, obecnie stałym partnerem Moro jest rodak Bukriejewa, Denis Urubko. +W 2001 roku podczas próby zdobycia Lhotse na wysokości 8000 metrów przerwał wspinaczkę, aby odszukać i ratować brytyjskiego alpinistę Toma Mooresa. Za ten wyczyn Moro został nagrodzony przez UNESCO nagrodą Fair Play. +Airbus + +Airbus () – międzynarodowe konsorcjum europejskie zajmujące się produkcją samolotów. Spółka jest zależna od European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company. Siedziba koncernu znajduje się w Tuluzie we Francji. +Airbus zatrudnia około 50 tysięcy pracowników w różnych państwach Europy: Niemczech (Hamburg), Francji (Tuluza), Wielkiej Brytanii (Bristol) i Hiszpanii (Sewilla), a od 2009 roku także w Chinach (Tiencin). Spółki zależne od firmy znajdują się w Stanach Zjednoczonych, Japonii, Chinach i Indiach. +Spółka najbardziej znana jest z samolotu średniego zasięgu A320 i największego samolotu pasażerskiego na świecie A380. +Historia. +Historia Airbusa rozpoczęła się w 1967 roku, kiedy ministrowie Francji, Niemiec i Wielkiej Brytanii na lipcowym spotkaniu zdecydowali, że: + 29 maja 1969 roku na pokazach lotniczych w Le Bourget we Francji podpisano umowę inicjującą projekt "A300" - pierwszego dwusilnikowego szerokokadłubowego samolotu pasażerskiego na świecie. Konsorcjum "Airbus Industry" zostało oficjalnie założone w 1970 roku w celu konkurowania z amerykańskimi korporacjami takimi jak Boeing, Lockheed czy McDonnell Douglas. W skład konsorcjum weszło przedsiębiorstwo francuskie "France’s Aerospatiale" oraz cztery przedsiębiorstwa niemieckie skupione w grupie Deutsche Airbus: "Messerschmittwerke", "Hamburger Flugzeugbau", "VFW GmbH" oraz "Siebelwerke ATG". Kilka lat później do spółki dołączyło hiszpańskie przedsiębiorstwo "Construcciones Aeronauticas SA". +Lot pierwszego produkowanego przez Airbusa samolotu - A300 - odbył się 28 października 1972 roku w Tuluzie i zakończył się sukcesem. Dwa lata później, 23 maja 1974 roku, Airbus A300 wykonał swój pierwszy komercyjny lot na trasie Paryż - Londyn w liniach Air France. +Następnym samolotem wyprodukowanym przez firmę był Airbus A310, w którym zastosowano nowe elektroniczne systemy kontroli lotu. W 1984 roku oficjalnie ogłoszono rozpoczęcie projektu A320 - samolotu średniego zasięgu wyposażonego, jako pierwszy na świecie, w technologię fly-by-wire. Uroczyście samolot zaprezentowano w Tuluzie lutym 1987 roku. Na ceremonii obecnych było około 1400 gości, w tym książę i księżna Walii oraz ówczesny premier Francji Jacques Chirac. Samolot osiągnął spektakularny sukces na rynku, stając się najliczniej zamawianym modelem. +Cztery miesiące po pierwszym locie A320 firma rozpoczęła projektowanie dużych samolotów długodystansowych - dwusilnikowego A330 i czterosilnikowego A340. Samoloty ukończono odpowiednio w 1991 i 1992 roku. W międzyczasie trwały prace nad wydłużoną i skróconą wersją modelu A320 - samolotach A321 i A319. Pierwszy z nich odbył swój pierwszy lot w marcu 1993 roku, drugi trzy miesiące później. +1 maja 1996 roku firma oficjalnie ogłosiła rozpoczęcie prac nad dużym samolotem pod nazwą "Airbus A3XX". Nad projektem pracowało około 600 osób, wzięło w nim udział 1000 firm z całego świata, w tym 800 ze Stanów Zjednoczonych, Rosji i Azji. Efektem projektu był samolot Airbus A380 - największy samolot pasażerski na świecie - który został publicznie zaprezentowany 18 stycznia 2005 roku, a swój pierwszy lot odbył 27 lipca. +W grudniu 2004 roku firma rozpoczęła prace nad samolotem Airbus A350, mającym docelowo zastąpić samoloty A330. +W styczniu 2010 roku firma dostarczyła swój 6000 samolot - był to Airbus A380 przeznaczony dla linii Emirates. W grudniu tego samego roku firma udostępniła wersje samolotów A319, A320 i A321 wyposażone w silniki Pratt & Whitney PW1100G lub CFM International LEAP-1A ze mniejszym o 15% zużyciem paliwa. Rodzinę tak wyposażonych samolotów nazwano "A320neo" ("New Engine Option"). Do końca 2012 roku Airbus uzyskał zamówienie na ponad 1500 sztuk A320neo, pierwsze dostawy powinny rozpocząć się w 2016 roku. +Produkty. +Cywilne. +Linia produktów Airbus rozpoczęła się od modelu A300 - pierwszego na świecie dwusilnikowego szerokokadłubowego samolotu na świecie. Jego krótsza wersja jest znana jako model A310. Dzięki sukcesowi poprzednich modeli, Airbus rozpoczął pracę nad samolotem A320, wyposażonym w innowacyjny system sterowania fly-by-wire. Model odniósł ogromny sukces na rynku, stając się najczęściej produkowanym samolotem przez firmę. Jego krótsze wersje to modele A318 i A319, natomiast wersja wydłużona to model A321, która rywalizuje na rynku z konkurencyjnymi modelami Boeinga 737. +Szerokokadłubowe samoloty dalekiego zasięgu - dwusilnikowy A330 i czterosilnikowy A340 - posiadają skrzydła wyposażone w tzw. winglety. Airbus A340-500 ma zasięg działania 16 700 km (9000 mil morskich), drugi wśród samolotów komercyjnych (po Boeingu 777-200LR - zasięg 17 446 km lub 9420 mil morskich). Spółka jest szczególnie dumna z wykorzystania technologii fly-by-wire oraz wspólnych systemów kokpitu w całej swojej rodzinie samolotów, co znacznie ułatwia szkolenie załogi. +Airbus pracuje obecnie nad samolotem zdolnym zastąpić serię A320, roboczo nazwanym "NSR" od ""New Short-Range aircraft"" (""Nowy samolot krótkiego zasięgu""). W trakcie prac nad maszyną obliczono, że NSR będzie w stanie zaoszczędzić 9 do 10% paliwa w porównaniu do A320. Jednak Airbus zdecydował się poprawić już istniejące A320 wyposażając je w nowe winglety i poprawiając aerodynamikę. Tak ulepszone samoloty powinny mieć od 4 do 5% mniejsze zużycie paliwa; ich wejście jest planowane na lata 2017-2018. +24 września 2009 roku Fabrice Bregier oświadczył "Le Figaro", że spółka będzie potrzebowała od 800 milionów do 1 miliarda € w ciągu sześciu lat do opracowania nowej generacji samolotów i zachowania przewagi technologicznej firmy w stosunku do nowych konkurencyjnych samolotów, takich jak chiński Comac C919, który ma wejść do służby w latach 2015-2020. +W lipcu 2007 roku Airbus dostarczył do FedEx ostatnie egzemplarze samolotów A300, kończąc tym samym ich produkcję. Firma zamierza przenieść produkcję modelu A320 z Tuluzy do Hamburga, a w zamian przenieść do Tuluzy produkcję samolotów A350 i A380. Operacja odbywa się według planu organizacji Power8 rozpoczętego przez byłego CEO firmy Christiana Streiffa. +Airbus zapewniał części zapasowe i serwisowanie dla samolotów Concorde aż do zakończenia przez nie lotów w 2003 roku. +Od 1994 roku (za wyjątkiem 2001) Airbus zwiększał produkcję, równolegle ze wzrostem portfela zamówień. W latach 2003-2011 Airbus produkował więcej samolotów niż jego rywal w segmentach samolotów dla ponad 100 pasażerów, amerykański Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Między 2010 a 2012 Airbus dostarczył 1632 samoloty komercyjne, o jeden więcej niż w dekadzie 1990-1999. Po latach dominacji Boeinga w segmencie szerokokadłubowym obaj producenci stworzyli duopol z ofertą samolotów o podobnych parametrach. Od 2008 do 2012 dostawy samolotów szerokokadłubowych A330/A340 wynosiły kolejno 85, 86, 91, 87 i 103 egzemplarze i w latach 2008 i 2010 były większe niż konkurencyjnych Boeing 767/777. Model A330 od wypuszczenia na rynek przez koncern z Seattle w 2003 nowego "Dreamlinera" zdobył zamówienia na prawie 800 sztuk. A340 nie zdołał konkurować z dwusilnikowym Boeingiem 777, przez co 10 listopada 2011 europejski koncern ogłosił, 20 latach po oblocie, oficjalne zakończenie programu A340. W 2013 roku Airbus przeprojektuje skrzydła modelu A380 i wprowadzi je do produkcji w 2014. Producent ma nadzieję osiągnąć próg rentowności A380 na poziomie operacyjnym w 2015 roku (cały program wymaga 420 sztuk). +Wojskowe. +Pod koniec lat dziewięćdziesiątych Airbus stawał się coraz bardziej zainteresowany rozszerzeniem działalności na rynek lotnictwa wojskowego. Ekspansja na rynku samolotów wojskowych jest pożądana, ponieważ zmniejsza niebezpieczeństwo kryzysu Airbusa w wypadku problemów na rynku cywilnym. Pojawiły się dwie główne drogi rozwoju: powietrzne tankowce reprezentowane przez modele A310 MRTT i A330 MRTT oraz samoloty transportowe, których przedstawicielem jest A400M. +W styczniu 1999 roku Airbus ustanowił odrębną spółkę - Airbus Military SAS - w celu rozwoju i produkcji samolotów transportowych Airbus A400M. Samolot A400M jest rozwijany przez kilka państw członkowskich NATO takich jak: Belgia, Francja, Niemcy, Luksemburg, Hiszpania, Turcja i Wielka Brytania, jako alternatywę dla zagranicznych samolotów transportowych, takich jak ukraiński Antonow An-124 i amerykański Lockheed C-130 Hercules. Projekt A400M był kilkukrotnie opóźniany. Airbus zagroził, że anuluje cały projekt, jeżeli nie otrzyma dotacji państwowych. +25 lutego 2008 roku ogłoszono, że Airbus wygrał zamówienie ze Zjednoczonych Emiratów Arabskich na trzy powietrze tankowce zaadoptowane z samolotów pasażerskich A330. 1 marca 2008 roku ogłoszono, że konsorcjum Airbus i Northrop Grumman wygrało kontrakt o wartości 35 miliardów dolarów na budowę 179 nowych powietrznych tankowców KC-45A przeznaczonych dla Sił Powietrznych USA. Na decyzję formalną skargę złożył Boeing, przez co kontrakt został anulowany i przeznaczony do ponownego rozpatrzenia. Ostatecznie postępowanie przetargowe wygrał zmodyfikowany Boeing KC-767, który otrzyma oznaczenie wojskowe KC-46A. Airbus nie oprotestował tej decyzji. +W 2009 roku EADS połączyło "Airbus Military SAS/AMSL" i "EADS-CASA/MTAD" pod nazwą Airbus Military, który włączono do Airbusa jako dział odpowiedzialny za produkcję wojskową. Jego siedziba główna znajduje się w Barajas (Madryt), zakłady produkcyjne w Sewilli produkują modele CASY: C-212, CN-235 i C-295 oraz odpowiadają za finalny montaż A400M, zakłady w Getafe to główny ośrodek badawczy oraz centrum wyposażania samolotów A330 MRTT. Airbus Military North America w Mobile, Alabama obsługuje samoloty C-212 i CN-235/HC-144, EADS PZL Warszawa-Okęcie zajmują się obsługą C-295 oraz modernizacją PZL-130 Orlik. W 2011 roku Airbus Military dostarczył 3 C-212, 7 CN-235/HC-144, 10 C-295 i 6 A330 MRTT oraz zmodernizował 3 P-3 Orion. W 2012 roku dostawy ponownie wyniosły 29 samolotów: 3 C-212, 2 HC-144A, 15 CN-235/C-295, 5 MRTT i 4 konwersje P-3C. Na koniec 2012 zapas zamówień obejmował 174 A400M, 17 MRTT, pięć CN-235, 20 C-295 i cztery P-3. W styczniu 2013 dostarczono ostatni C-212 wyprodukowany w Hiszpanii, produkcja będzie kontynuowana przez "Indonesian Aerospace". +Dostawy i zamówienia. +Dane na 31 grudnia 2012 dla samolotów serii A3XX. Dane szczegółowe: +Zakłady produkcyjne. +Airbus ponadto posiada wiele innych zakładów położonych w różnych miejscach w Europie. Problem transportu poszczególnych elementów samolotów pomiędzy fabrykami rozwiązano wykorzystując do transportu części samoloty Beluga. Wyjątkiem są części do A380, które są zbyt duże, by mógł je transportować Beluga. Jego elementy są transportowane na pokładzie statku do Bordeaux, a następnie poprzez specjalną trasę Itinéraire à Grand Gabarit do zakładów w Tuluzie. Pomysł z transportem elementów samolotów wykorzystał konkurent Airbusa - Boeing - który przystosował do transportu części trzy własne samoloty Boeing 747. +Najnowszym zakładem jest fabryka w Tiencin w Chinach, gdzie od 2008 produkowane są maszyny A320. +Struktura zatrudnienia. +Liczba pracowników w poszczególnych oddziałach firmy. +"(Stan z 31 grudnia 2006)" +¹ Nazwa aglomeracji / metropolii jest podana jako pierwsza, w nawiasach umieszczone są dokładne lokalizacje zakładów +Numerowanie egzemplarzy samolotów Airbusa. +System numeracji samolotów jest to alfanumeryczny numer modelu, a następnie łącznik i trzycyfrowy numer. +Numer modelu często przyjmuje postać litery "A", po 3 ", cyfra, następnie następuje zwykle przez '0 ', na przykład A380. Istnieją pewne wyjątki, takie jak: A318, A319, A321 i A400M.Kolejnych trzech cyfr reprezentuje serię samolotów, producent silnika i numer wersji silnika odpowiednio. Aby móc korzystać z A320-200 z International Aero Engines (IAE) V2500-A1 silników przykład; kod jest 2 dla serii 200, 3 na IAE i wersji silnika 1, a tym samym numer samolotu wynosi A320-231. +Dodatkową literą jest czasem wykorzystywane. Należą do nich, 'C' dla wersji Combi (pasażer / frachtowiec), "F" dla modelu frachtowca, "R" na długi zasięg i modelu "X" dla zaawansowanego modelu. +Zejman & Garkumpel + +Zespół Zejman & Garkumpel powstał w 1985 roku jako duet. Jego sparafrazowana nazwa wzięła się od nazwy zespołu „Simon & Garfunkel”. +Od początku działalności podstawą repertuaru były autorskie kompozycje lidera Mirosława Kowalewskiego, żeglarza, autora tekstów i muzyki, z czasem uzupełnione o kompozycje Zbigniewa Murawskiego. Przez lata działalności zespołu powstało około stu utworów autorskich. Obecnie "Zejman & Garkumpel" liczy pięć osób. +Odbył wiele tras koncertowych po Polsce i Europie. Około 100 koncertów rocznie, występy m.in. w TVP (Domowe Przedszkole, Od Przedszkola do Opola, Bezludna Wyspa, Śpiewające Fortepiany) i Radio (Polskie Radio Program I, II, Radio WAWa, Radio ZET, Radio Bis), nagrane kasety i płyty, udział i nagrody zdobyte w prestiżowych festiwalach i przeglądach, oraz występy u boku uznanych artystów estradowych, stawia zespół „Zejman & Garkumpel” w czołówce polskich wykonawców piosenki żeglarskiej. +Specjalnością zespołu są programy estradowe, na które składają się piosenki autorskie i tradycyjne pieśni morskie. Celem tych programów jest angażowanie publiczności do zabawy, na którą składają się: wspólne śpiewanie, konkursy na estradzie, tańce, dialog z publicznością itd. +Ostatnia płyta zespołu nosi tytuł ""25 LIVE"" (wyd. 2010). +Hans Gross + +Hans Gustav Adolf Gross (Groß, Grosz) (ur. 26 grudnia 1847 w Grazu, zm. 9 grudnia 1915 w Grazu) – austriacki sędzia śledczy, kryminolog, założyciel Instytutu Kryminalistycznego w Grazu, uznawany za twórcę kryminalistyki. +Od daty wydania jego książki "Handbuch fur Untersuchungsrichter, Polizeibeamte, Gendarmen, u.s.w." ("Podręcznik dla sędziów śledczych, urzędników policyjnych, żandarmów itd.", 1893) przyjmuje się początek nauki kryminalistyki (w późniejszych wydaniach tytuł tego dzieła skrócono do "Handbuch der Kryminalistik"). Znaczenie podręcznika polegało przede wszystkim na tym, że łączyło ono w jeden system nie zintegrowane wówczas różne dyscypliny naukowe mogące z powodzeniem służyć zwalczaniu przestępczości. Niektóre z nich Gross zaadaptował dla potrzeb śledztwa, jak choćby fotografię kryminalistyczną. +Jego jedynym synem był Otto Gross. +Melodramat + +Melodramat (gr.) – gatunek literacki lub filmowy o sensacyjnej fabule, zwykle miłosnej, nasyconej patetyczno-sentymentalnymi efektami i kończącej się z reguły pomyślnie dla bohaterów szlachetnych, a źle dla tzw. "czarnych charakterów". Początki melodramatu sięgają XVIII wieku, kiedy był to utwór dramatyczny opatrzony muzyką. Schemat miłości w melodramacie: miłość + przeszkoda nie do pokonania = cierpienie. Melodramat zatem to film o miłości trudnej lub niemożliwej do zrealizowania. +Melodramat (z greckiego melos = "pieśń" + "dramat") powstał jako utwór dramatyczny z akompaniamentem muzycznym i melodeklamacją, popularny zwłaszcza w XVIII w. we Włoszech i Francji. Z czasem element muzyczny został ograniczony do roli nastrojowego komentarza, a w końcu uległ całkowitej eliminacji. Zaczęły dominować uproszczenia psychologiczne, sensacyjność i ckliwość fabuły. Grany głównie w teatrach bulwarowych. Elementy melodramatu przeniknęły do literatury oraz filmu. +Mianem "melodramatów" określił Arnold Schönberg pieśni wchodzące w skład cyklu „Pierrot lunaire”, wykonywane techniką „Sprechgesang” polegającą na recytowaniu – a nie śpiewaniu – podanych wysokości dźwięków. +Samoindukcja + +Samoindukcja (indukcja własna) jest zjawiskiem elektromagnetycznym, szczególnym przypadkiem zjawiska indukcji elektromagnetycznej. Samoindukcja występuje, gdy siła elektromotoryczna wytwarzana jest w tym samym obwodzie, w którym płynie prąd powodujący indukcję, powstająca siła elektromotoryczna przeciwstawia się zmianom natężenia prądu elektrycznego. Indukcyjność obwodu jest równa sile elektromotorycznej samoindukcji jaka powstaje w obwodzie przy zmianie natężenia o 1 A występująca w czasie 1 sekundy +Opór, który prąd napotyka na skutek działania samoindukcji określany jest potocznie mianem induktancji. Induktancja ta powoduje również przesunięcie fazowe płynącego prądu. +Samoindukcja występuje przede wszystkim w cewkach, ale także w mniejszym stopniu w każdym przewodniku elektrycznym. +Wartość siły elektromotorycznej samoindukcji zależy od szybkości zmian natężenia prądu w obwodzie. +Współczynnik samoindukcji ma wartość 1 H, kiedy zmiana natężenia prądu o 1 A spowoduje zmianę strumienia o 1 Wb lub kiedy ta sama zmiana w czasie 1 sekundy spowoduje powstanie SEM (siły elektromotorycznej) o wartości 1 wolta. +Ekwipotencjalność (teoria systemów) + +Ekwipotencjalność oznacza, że przyczyny wywodzące się z tego samego źródła mogą powodować różne skutki. +Pogląd głoszący, że w pewnych granicach jedna część kory mózgowej może przyjmować funkcję innej części. +Wykrzyknik (część mowy) + +Wykrzyknik – nieodmienna część mowy wyrażająca m.in. silne stany emocjonalne, uczucia oraz ujawniająca stan woli mówiącego (np. życzenia, rozkazy) bądź naśladująca dźwięki otaczającego świata. Inaczej mówiąc są to wyrazy służące do uwydatniania uczuć lub woli mówiącego oraz leksemy będące dźwiękową imitacją zjawisk otaczającego nas świata. Nazwy tej używa się w stosunku do różnych jednostek językowych, ponieważ ich zbiory są wyznaczane przez językoznawców na podstawie różnych kryteriów (np. zbiór wykrzykników wyznaczony na podstawie kryteriów składniowych będzie się różnił od zbioru wyznaczonego na podstawie kryteriów semantycznych czy pragmatycznych). Najczęściej przy wyznaczaniu wykrzykników spośród innych części mowy bierze się pod uwagę wszystkie trzy kryteria tj. semantyczne, składniowe i morfologiczne. +Wykrzyknik jest samodzielną częścią mowy, nie wchodzi zasadniczo w związki składniowe z innymi wyrazami w wypowiedzeniu (zdaniu) mogą natomiast stanowić samodzielną wypowiedź (występować w roli samodzielnych wypowiedzeń lub być poza zdaniem). Wyjątkowo mogą pełnić funkcję orzeczenia (niektóre dźwiękonaśladowcze oraz wyrażające wolę). +Wykrzykniki właściwe nie mają konkretnej budowy słowotwórczej natomiast pochodne mogą taką budowę wykazywać. +Wykrzykniki i wyrazy dźwiękonaśladowcze można też podzielić na podgrupy według różnych kryteriów np. pochodzenia, dźwięków, jakie naśladują (onomatopeje), wyrażanych emocji i uczuć, do kogo są skierowane itd. +Wykrzykniki (spośród innych części mowy) można wyodrębnić na podstawie dwóch kryteriów tj. składniowego (syntaktycznego) i znaczeniowego (semantycznego). Natomiast kryterium trzecie tj. morfologiczne (fleksyjne) pozwala wyodrębnić jedynie grupę leksemów nieodmiennych, do których zaliczamy wykrzykniki. +Charakterystyka wykrzykników. +Podział wykrzykników ze względu na pochodzenie. +Wykrzykniki ze względu na pochodzenie możemy podzielić na trzy kategorie formalne tj. właściwe, wtórne i pochodne. +Wykrzykniki wtórne i pochodne często nakładają się na siebie, dlatego też można je traktować jako jedną grupę. +Podział wyrazów według kryterium syntaktycznego (składniowego). +Najbardziej pomocne do odróżnienia tej klasy wyrazów od innych części mowy jest kryterium syntaktyczne (składniowe). Według tego kryterium wykrzykniki to klasa wyrazów, które są nieodmienne (kryterium morfologiczne) i mogą funkcjonować jako samodzielne wypowiedzenia niezależnie od kontekstu (w odróżnieniu od spójników, przyimków i partykuł) np. wyrazy "ach" i "ej" należą do zbioru wykrzykników, ponieważ mogą występować jako odrębne wypowiedzenia (można ich użyć w izolacji np. powiedzieć "Ach!" do samego siebie). Natomiast leksem nad oraz i mimo że też są nieodmienne nie należą do tego zbioru, bo nie mogą funkcjonować samodzielnie (co prawda można powiedzieć "I…?" albo "Nad", ale takie użycia wymagają szerszego kontekstu dialogowego). Wykrzykniki te jedynie uzupełniają informacje zawarte w zdaniu (np. "aj", "brr", "brzęk", "fuj", "hej", "ho", "och", "mee", "nie", "pst", "tak", "uwaga") i prymarnie pozostają poza wszelkimi związkami syntaktycznymi (funkcjonują jako samodzielne wypowiedzenia). Jednak nawet stosując kryterium syntaktyczne do wyznaczenia tej części mowy nie otrzymuje się jednorodnego zbioru. Niektóre wykrzykniki sekundarnie (dźwiękonaśladowcze) mogą występować w funkcji orzeczenia w zdaniach oznaczających czynność najczęściej momentalną (np. "bzz", "hop", "hyc", "brzdęk", "buch", "bęc", "cap", "ciach", "frr", "hola", "kap", "smyk", "trzask"). Wykrzykniki apelatywne mogą łączyć się z formami trybu rozkazującego (np. "halo") i wołacza (np. "uwaga", "precz"). +Podział wykrzykników według kryterium syntaktycznego (składniowego), morfologicznego i znaczeniowego. +Według tego podziału wyodrębnia się cztery grupy wykrzykników. Wykrzykniki, funkcjonujące wyłącznie jako samodzielne wypowiedzenia niezależnie od kontekstu (wykrzykniki prymarne, wykrzykniki wtórne) oraz sekundarne, które mogą funkcjonować zarówno samodzielnie, jak i być częścią szerszych wypowiedzeń (wykrzykniki onomatopeiczne i wykrzykniki apelatywne). +Ogólny podział wyrazów ze względu na odmianę (kryterium morfologiczne). +Kryterium to dzieli części mowy na odmienne i nieodmienne. Odmienne z kolei można podzielić na kilka innych grup według różnych kryteriów morfologicznych. Wykrzykniki zaliczamy do nieodmiennych części mowy. Jest jednak pewna grupa wykrzykników, która wykazuje charakterystyczne cechy części mowy odmiennej (budowa słowotwórcza). Są to wyrazy pochodzące od innych części mowy. Nie mogą być one jednak odmieniane, bo przestałyby pełnić swoją rolę (składniową, znaczeniową). Mimo to można podzielić je na grupy według wykazywanych przez nie cech fleksyjnych. +Podział wykrzykników według innych kryteriów. +Wykrzykniki można także podzielić według innych kryteriów niż te opisane wyżej, np. "kryterium języka pochodzenia", czyli czy dany leksem wywodzi się z języka obcego (jeśli tak, to z jakiego) czy też jest rodzimym wyrazem. I tak, np. "aloha", "adieu", "apage", "banzaj", "basta", to wykrzykniki zapożyczone z innych języków. +Budowa wykrzykników. +Wykrzykniki właściwe nie wykazują żadnych znamion formalnych, są wyrazami bez formy, rozpoznajemy je na podstawie właściwego im znaczenia, np. "aj", "be", "fe", "fuj", "oj", "och", "ło". +Wykrzykniki pochodne (wtórne), przez swój związek z innymi częściami mowy, zewnętrznie wykazują pewne składniki formalne, ale cząstki te pozbawione są właściwego sobie znaczenia i dlatego tworzą jednolite połączenia głoskowe, wewnętrznie, czyli znaczeniowo nie rozkładając się na cząstki pomniejsze i jest wskutek tego również pozbawiona wyrażanej budowy morfologicznej, bo budowa morfologiczna jest wyrazu jest układem właściwych mu cząstek znaczeniowych. Gdy cząstki te zatracą zawartą w nich niegdyś treść znaczeniową, nie mają już swojego pierwotnego charakteru składników morfologicznych, np. "dali" + "bóg", "darz" + "bór", "dla" + "boga", "kurde" + "balans", "kuku" + "ryku", "psia" + "krew", "psia" + "mać", "prze" + "bóg". +Podział wykrzykników. +Wykrzykniki pochodzenia obcego. +Adieu, aloha, alleluja, amen, apage, banzaj, basta, bravissimo, ciao, cito, ekstra, eureka, fora, hajda, halo, harap, heureka, hosanna, kaput, pardon, rety, serwus, spoko, super, szlus, wiwat, verte. +Wykaz wykrzykników i wyrazów dźwiękonaśladowczych. +Wykaz wykrzykników (onomatopei) i wyrażeń wykrzyknikowych: a (aa, aaa) ach, adieu, a fe, aha, ahoj, aj, ajajaj, a kuku, akurat, amen, a kysz, ale, ależ, aloha, alleluja, am, a nuż, a nuże, ap, apage, aport, a psik, a sio, at, au (auuu), aua, auć, ba, bac, bach, bam, banzaj, basta, be, bee, bęc, biada, bim (bim-bam) (bim-bom), bingo, biiip, bis, ble, bom, brawo, bravissimo, brr (brrr), brum, bryk, brzęk, brzdęk, buu, buch, bul, bum, bums, bzz (bzzz) cap, caps, cha, chap, chaps, che, chi, chlap, chlapu, chlast, chlip, chlup, chlupu, chlust, chodu, cholera, choroba, chrr, chrum, chrup, chu, ciach (ciach-mach), ciao, ciap, cii, cip, cito, ciur, cmok, cup, cyk, cyt, cześć, czołem, człap (człap-człap), człapu (człapu-człapu), czmych, czuwaj, ćwir, ćśś, dalibóg, darzbór, dlaboga, dobra, dobranoc, dzieńdoberek, dość, dosyć, dum (dum-dum), drr, dryń, dzyń, e (ee, eee) ech, eh, ehe, ej, ejże, ehm, ekhm, ekstra, eet, et, eureka, ęsi, fff, fajt, fe, fi, fik (fik-mik), fiku (fiku-miku), fiu, fju, fiut, fora, frr (frrr), fru, fu, fuj, furda, gę, gore, grr, gul, gwałtu, ha, haj, hajda, hajże, halo, harap, hau, he, hej (hej-ho), hejże, hetta, heureka, hę, hi, hip, hm (hmm, hmmm), ho, hoc, hola, holender, hop (hop-siup), hopla, hops, hopsa, hopsasa, hu (hu-ha), hura, hurra, huzia, hy, hyc, i (ii, iii), iha, ihaha, ijo, jazda, jeb, jej, jejku, juhu, jupi, kap, kapu, kaput, kic, kici, ko, klap, klik, kle, klops, kłap, kra, ksz, kuku, kukuryku, kum, kurde, kurdebalans, kurczę, kurna, kurwa, kwa, kwik, kysz, la, laboga, lu, luli, łap (łap-cap), łapu (łapu-capu), ła (łaa), łał, łe, ło (łoo), łoł, łaps, łubu (łubu-du), łup, łupu (łupu-cupu), łuu, mmm, mach, me (mee), mhm, miau, mmh, mniam, mu (muu), myk, mrr, na, nazad, nie, no, nuż, nuże, o (oo, ooo) och, oh, oho, oj, ojej, ojejej, ojejku, ojoj, ojojoj, ojra, olaboga, ole, opa, pa, pac, pach, paf, pardon, pas, paszoł, pfe, pff, pfiu, pfu, pfuj, ph, phy, phi, pi, pif (pif-paf), pik, pip, plask, ple, plum, plusk, prask, prast, precz, proszę, prr (prrr), przebóg, psiajucha, psiakość, psiakrew, psiamać, psik, pss (psss), pst, psst, pstryk, psyk, psyt, puf, puff, puk, pycha, pyk, rany, rety, rym, ryms, sss, serwus, siad, sic, siema, sio, siup, skrzyp, smyk, spoko, sru, stop, stuk (stuk-puk), stuku (stuku-puku), sz (szszsz), sza, szast (szast-prast), szlus, szu, szur, szuru (szuru-buru), szurum (szurum-burum), taa, tak, taś, te, tere (tere-fere), tfu, tfuj, tfy, tirli, tik (tik-tak), tja, trach, tralala, tratata, trr, truś, trzask (trzask-prask), trele (trele-morele), tss, tup, tupu, tyk (tyk-tak), u (uuu), uch, uf, uff, uha, uhm, uhu, ups, uwaga, wara, wciórności, wio, wiśta, wiwat, wolnego, won, wow, wyczha, wynocha, wrr (wrrr), verte, y (yy, yyy), yhy, zzz. +Ustrój polityczny Bułgarii + +W Europie Środkowej i Wschodniej, zmiany polityczne doprowadziły w roku 1989 do pokojowego ustąpienia, pod wpływem nacisków, wieloletniego komunistycznego przywódcy Bułgarii, Todora Żiwkowa. Tym samym Bułgaria wkroczyła na drogę rozwoju demokratycznego. Pierwsze wolne wybory parlamentarne odbyły się w czerwcu 1990 roku. Nie wygrała ich demokratyczna opozycja, ale wywodząca się z partii komunistycznej Bułgarska Partia Socjalistyczna. Bułgaria jako pierwsza wśród krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej uchwaliła i wprowadziła w życie nową, niekomunistyczną, opartą na liberalno-demokratycznych zasadach konstytucję. +Bułgaria jest republiką demokratyczną, której ustrój oparty jest na konstytucji przyjętej przez Wielkie Zgromadzenie Narodowe 12 lipca 1991 roku. +Ostatnie wybory prezydenckie odbyły się w październiku 2011 roku. Prezydentem został wybrany Rosen Plewnelijew. +Ostatnie wybory do parlamentu miały miejsce 5 lipca 2009 roku. +Władza wykonawcza. +Prezydent Republiki. +Prezydent Republiki „jest głową państwa(...)” i „reprezentuje Republikę Bułgarii w stosunkach międzynarodowych” (art. 92 ust. 1). W działalności wspomaga go wiceprezydent. +Prezydent jest wybierany w wyborach powszechnych i bezpośrednich przez obywateli na okres pięciu lat. Równocześnie i z jednej listy z prezydentem wybierany jest wiceprezydent. Nie mogą oni być przedstawicielami ludowymi, wykonywać innej działalności państwowej, społecznej i gospodarczej ani uczestniczyć w kierownictwie partii politycznych. +Prezydent powierza kandydatowi na premiera, wskazanemu przez najliczniejszą grupę parlamentarną, misję sformowania rządu. Jeśli jednak parlament nie dojdzie do porozumienia w sprawie wyłonienia rządu, prezydent dysponuje prawem powołania rządu tymczasowego. +Zgodnie z konstytucją prezydent stoi na czele Konsultatywnej Rady Bezpieczeństwa a także na czele Sił Zbrojnych, co oznacza, że mianuje i odwołuje naczelne dowództwo (na wniosek Rady Ministrów). W czasie, gdy nie obraduje Zgromadzenie Narodowe, prezydent ogłasza stan wojny, stan wojenny lub inny stan nadzwyczajny. Do jego kompetencji należy również wydawanie dekretów, które są współpodpisywane przez premiera (lub odpowiedniego ministra) a także orędzi i posłań. +Tak więc zakres władzy prezydenta nie jest zbyt duży. W jego gestii leży jedynie sprawowanie roli reprezentacyjnej w państwie jak i na arenie międzynarodowej. Urząd ten możemy nazwać „asymetrycznym”, gdyż z jednej strony prezydent wybierany jest w wyborach powszechnych i bezpośrednich, w oparciu o zasadę większości bezwzględnej, co świadczy o legitymacji do sprawowania urzędu, z drugiej zaś zakres przynależących do prezydenta kompetencji jest znacznie ograniczony. +Rada Ministrów. +Rada Ministrów „kieruje i realizuje wewnętrzną i zagraniczną politykę państwa” (art. 105 ust. 1), „zapewnia porządek publiczny i bezpieczeństwo narodowe oraz realizuje ogólne kierownictwo wobec administracji państwowej i Sił Zbrojnych” (art. 105 ust. 2). +W skład Rady Ministrów wchodzi premier, jego zastępcy oraz ministrowie. Premier koordynuje politykę rządu i ponosi za nią odpowiedzialność. Ministrowie natomiast kierują poszczególnymi ministerstwami. +Do zadań Rady Ministrów należy kierowanie wykonaniem budżetu oraz organizacja gospodarowania majątkiem państwa. Uchyla akty ministrów będące niezgodne z prawem lub niewłaściwe a także podejmuje uchwały, rozporządzenia i decyzje. W drodze uchwał Rada Ministrów przyjmuje również regulaminy i zarządzenia. +Rada Ministrów pełni swoje funkcje do czasu, gdy cieszy się zaufaniem większości parlamentarnej, czyli do wyboru nowej Rady Ministrów. +Konstytucja bułgarska nie przyjęła rozwiązania w postaci „konstruktywnego wotum nieufności”, co może wskazywać pewne osłabienie pozycji rządu wobec parlamentu. Jednak istnieje rozwiązanie wzmacniające status rządu względem Zgromadzenia Narodowego a mianowicie regulacja pozwalająca Radzie Ministrów wystąpić do parlamentu o wotum zaufania. +Władza ustawodawcza. +„Zgromadzenie Narodowe wykonuje władzę ustawodawczą i sprawuje kontrolę parlamentarną” (art. 62). Składa się z 240 przedstawicieli ludowych i jest wybierane na okres czterech lat. Przewiduje się przedłużenie kadencji w wypadku wojny, stanu wojennego lub innego stanu nadzwyczajnego, do czasu ustania tych okoliczności. +Przedstawiciele ludowi reprezentują nie tylko swoich wyborców, lecz również cały naród. Nie mogą oni pełnić innej służby państwowej. +„Organizacja i działalność Zgromadzenia Narodowego opiera się na Konstytucji i na uchwalonym przez nie regulaminie” (art. 73). Jest organem stale działającym, decyduje o odbywaniu się posiedzeń. Na pierwszym posiedzeniu nowo wybranego Zgromadzenia Narodowego wybiera się przewodniczącego i zastępców przewodniczącego. +Przewodniczący Zgromadzenia Narodowego jest jego reprezentantem. Do jego najważniejszych zadań należy przedstawianie projektu porządku dziennego posiedzeń, otwieranie, prowadzenie i zamykanie posiedzeń, ogłaszanie uchwał, deklaracji i apeli przyjętych przez Zgromadzenie Narodowe. +„Zgromadzenie Narodowe wybiera ze swego składu komisje stałe i tymczasowe” +(art. 79 ust. 1). Komisje stałe wspomagają działalność Zgromadzenia Narodowego oraz wykonują kontrolę parlamentarną, natomiast komisje tymczasowe wybiera się w celu zbadania określonej sprawy i prowadzenia dochodzeń. +- uchwalanie, zmiana, uzupełnianie i uchylanie ustaw; +- uchwalanie budżetu państwa; +- ustalanie podatków i określanie ich wysokości; +- ustalenie daty wyborów Prezydenta republiki; +- wybiera i odwołuje premiera, a na jego wniosek-Radę Ministrów; +- na wniosek premiera tworzy, przekształca i znosi ministerstwa oraz dokonuje zmian w składzie rządu; +- wybiera i odwołuje kierowników Bułgarskiego Banku Narodowego. +„Zgromadzenie Narodowe w drodze ustawy ratyfikuje i wypowiada umowy międzynarodowe(...)” (art. 85 ust. 1). +Uchwalane ustawy lub podjęte przez Zgromadzenie Narodowe uchwały są obowiązujące dla wszystkich organów państwowych, organizacji i obywateli. Proces ustawodawczy przebiega w trybie dwóch czytań odbywających się na oddzielnych posiedzeniach. +Ogromnym przywilejem jest, iż wniosek o uchwalenie wotum nieufności wobec Rady Ministrów może przedstawić jedna piąta przedstawicieli ludowych. Jeśli głosowało za nim więcej niż połowa wszystkich przedstawicieli ludowych, wniosek uważa się za przyjęty. +Ostatnim z zadań Zgromadzenia Narodowego jest wybór Izby Obrachunkowej, która przeprowadza kontrolę wykonania budżetu. +Zgromadzenie Narodowe wybiera Ombudsmana, którego zadaniem jest ochrona praw i woloności obywateli (art. 91a ust. 1). +Widać więc, że parlament odgrywa istotną rolę w państwie. Bierze udział w procedurze tworzenia rządu, wybiera Radę Ministrów, ponadto dysponuje środkami umożliwiającymi realizację funkcji kontrolnej (wotum zaufania, wotum nieufności). Członkowie Zgromadzenia Narodowego mają prawo do indywidualnej kontroli nad prowadzoną przez rząd polityką-do tego celu służy instytucja zapytań i interpelacji. +Władza sądowa. +„Władza sądowa ochrania prawa i uprawnione interesy obywateli, osób prawnych i państwa” (ust. 117 art. 1). Władza ta jest niezawisła a więc sędziowie, ławnicy sądowi, prokuratorzy i sędziowie śledczy podlegają tylko ustawie. Władza sądowa posiada samodzielny budżet. +Wymiar sprawiedliwości powierzony został Najwyższemu Sądowi Kasacyjnemu, Najwyższemu Sądowi Administracyjnemu oraz sądom apelacyjnym, okręgowym, rejonowym i wojskowym. +Sądy sprawują kontrolę zgodności aktów i działań organów administracji z prawem. Zapewniają równość i konkurencyjność stron w procesie sądowym. +„Najwyższy Sąd Kasacyjny sprawuje zwierzchni nadzór sądowy nad ścisłym i jednolitym stosowaniem ustaw przez wszystkie sądy” (ust. 124). +„Najwyższy Sąd Administracyjny sprawuje zwierzchni nadzór sądowy nad ścisłym i jednolitym stosowaniem ustaw w orzecznictwie administracyjnym” (art. 125 ust. 1). Ponadto wypowiada się w sporach dotyczących zgodności z ustawami aktów Rady Ministrów i ministrów. +Prokuratura czuwa nad przestrzeganiem praworządności, pociąga do odpowiedzialności osoby, które popełniły przestępstwo, wnosi oskarżenia w sprawach karnych, sprawuje nadzór nad wykonywaniem sankcji karnych, podejmuje działania zmierzające do uchylenia aktów niezgodnych z prawem. +Instytucjonalną gwarancję przestrzegania zasady niezawisłości władzy sądowniczej stanowi Najwyższa Rada Sądownicza. Składa się ona z 25 członków a przewodniczący Najwyższego Sądu Kasacyjnego, przewodniczący Najwyższego Sądu Administracyjnego oraz prokurator generalny, są jej członkami z mocy prawa. Jedenastu jej członków wybiera Zgromadzenie Narodowe a jedenastu organy władzy sądowej. Ich kadencja trwa 5 lat. Posiedzeniu Najwyższej Rady Sądowniczej przewodniczy minister sprawiedliwości, lecz nie uczestniczy on w głosowaniu. +Uchwały Najwyższej Rady Sądowniczej dotyczą powoływania, degradowania, przenoszenia i zwalniania ze stanowiska sędziów, prokuratorów sędziów śledczych. Przewodniczącego Najwyższego Sądu Kasacyjnego, przewodniczącego Najwyższego Sądu Administracyjnego oraz prokuratora generalnego powołuje i odwołuje Prezydent na wniosek Najwyższej Rady Sądowniczej na okres 7 lat. +Sąd Konstytucyjny. +Sąd Konstytucyjny znalazł się poza klasycznym układem wynikającym z zasady podziału władzy, tak więc nie stanowi on elementu wewnętrznej struktury sądowniczej lecz jest wyspecjalizowanym organem powołanym przede wszystkim do kontroli konstytucyjności prawa. +„Składa się on z 12 sędziów, z których jedną trzecia wybiera Zgromadzenie Narodowe, jedna trzecią Prezydent, a jedna trzecią wybiera zgromadzenie ogólne sędziów Najwyższego Sądu Kasacyjnego i Najwyższego Sądu Administracyjnego” (art. 147 ust. 1). Na sędziów wybiera się prawników o wysokich kwalifikacjach zawodowych i moralnych, z co najmniej piętnastoletnim stażem prawniczym. W tajnym głosowaniu wybierany jest przewodniczący Sądu na okres 3 lat. +Swoje rozstrzygnięcia podejmuje większością ponad połowy głosów wszystkich sędziów. Decyzje Sądu Konstytucyjnego ogłasza się w terminie 15 dni od ich podjęcia. W trzy dni po jej ogłoszeniu decyzja wchodzi w życie. Aktu uznanego za sprzeczny nie stosuje się od dnia wejścia decyzji w życie. Ustawa nieuznana za niekonstytucyjną zachowuje moc prawną. +Sąd Konstytucyjny działa z inicjatywy co najmniej jednej piątej przedstawicieli ludowych, prezydenta, Rady Ministrów, Najwyższego Sądu Kasacyjnego, Najwyższego Sądu Administracyjnego oraz prokuratora generalnego. +Samorząd lokalny i administracja lokalna. +„Terytorium Republiki Bułgarii dzieli się na gminy i obwody. Podział terytorialny i kompetencje gminy stołecznej oraz innych wielkich miast określa ustawa” (art. 135 ust. 1). +W drodze ustawy mogą być tworzone inne jednostki administracyjno-terytorialne. Gmina ma osobowość prawna, na jej terenie realizuje się samorząd lokalny. Obywatele uczestniczą w zarządzaniu gminą za pośrednictwem wybranych przez siebie organów oraz bezpośrednio poprzez referendum i ogólne zgromadzenie mieszkańców. +Organem samorządu lokalnego w gminie jest rada gminna, wybierana przez mieszkańców na okres 4 lat. Organem wykonawczym gminy jest wójt, również wybierany przez mieszkańców na okres 4 lat. W swej działalności kieruję się ustawą, aktami rady gminnej i uchwałami mieszkańców. +Gmina ma samodzielny budżet, którego stałe źródła finansowe określa ustawa. Normalną działalność gminy wspomaga państwo poprzez środki budżetowe. +„Kierownictwo administracyjne w obwodzie sprawuje naczelnik obwodu wspomagany przez administracje obwodową” (art. 143 ust 1). Naczelnik obwodu jest powoływany przez Radę Ministrów. Zapewnia on realizację polityki państwa, odpowiada za ochronę interesów ogólnokrajowych, praworządności i porządku publicznego oraz sprawuje kontrolę administracyjną. +Podział administracyjny. +Terytorium Bułgarii podzielone jest na 278 gmin obejmujących 28 prowincji. Władzę w gminach sprawują rady gminne, które są podstawowym elementem władzy samorządowej. W ich gestii znajduje się określanie kierunków rozwoju gminy. +Prowincje są jednostkami administracji terytorialnej zarządzanymi przez gubernatorów, którzy mają za zadanie wdrażanie polityki regionalnej rządu na podlegającym im terenie. Gubernatorzy, wraz z administracją regionalną zarządzają prowincjami korzystając ze środków pochodzących z budżetu centralnego. Gubernatorowie mianowani są przez Radę Ministrów. +Ponadto, dla celów planowania gospodarczego - w tym wykorzystania funduszy Unii +1. Region Północno-Zachodni, w skład którego wchodzą prowincje: Widin, Wraca, Montana; +2. Region Północno-Centralny, prowincje: Weliko Tyrnowo, Gabrowo, Łowecz, Plewen, Ruse; +3. Region Północno-Wschodni, prowincje: Dobricz, Szumen, Warna, Razgrad, Silistra, Tyrgowiszte; +4. Region Południowo-Zachodni, prowincje: miasto Sofia, Sofia-prowincja, Błagoewgrad, Kjustendił, Pernik; +5. Region Południowo-Centralny, prowincje: Pazardżik, Płowdiw, Smolan, Kyrdżali, Stara Zagora, Chaskowo; +6. Region Południowo-Wschodni, prowincje: Burgas, Sliwen, Jamboł. +Grenada (miasto w Hiszpanii) + +Grenada ("Granada") – miasto w płd. Hiszpanii, w dolinie rzeki Genil (dopływ rzeki Gwadalkiwir), w Górach Betyckich, 271 tys. mieszkańców (1994). Stolica prowincji Grenada, w regionie Andaluzja. Ośrodek handlowy, przemysłowy i kulturalny. Jedna z najważniejszych miejscowości turystycznych w Hiszpanii, słynna z pięknego położenia, licznych zabytków i niezapomnianych krajobrazów. Szczególny urok Grenady polega na tym, że w ciągu kilku godzin można jeździć na nartach w górach Sierra Nevada, a potem kąpać się w Morzu Śródziemnym na Costa del Sol, oddalonym o ok. 70 km. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Granada. +Zabytki. +"Kto nie widział Grenady, ten niczego nie widział" – przysłowie hiszpańskie. +Alhambra, warowny zespół pałacowy zbudowany w XIII w. przez Nasrydów i rozbudowany w XIV w., arcydzieło architektury arabskiej w Hiszpanii, którą cechuje niezwykłe bogactwo dekoracji wnętrz, m.in. arkadowe galerie kolumnowe, stalaktytowe sklepienia, ściany wykładane płytkami azulejos i barwnymi stiukami z ornamentem oraz malowidła ścienne. +Podtlenek węgla + +Podtlenek węgla (C3O2) – nieorganiczny związek chemiczny, z grupy tlenków węgla. +Otrzymywanie. +Podtlenek węgla został otrzymany po raz pierwszy w roku 1873 przez Benjamina Brodiego. Nazwę "podtlenek węgla" nadał mu Marcellin Berthelot. +Podtlenek węgla otrzymać można przez odwodnienie kwasu malonowego lub jego estrów za pomocą pięciotlenku fosforu. Przegląd metod otrzymywania i własności C3O2 ukazał się w roku 1930. +Budowa. +W cząsteczce podtlenku węgla wszystkie atomy są ułożone w linii prostej i połączone skumulowanymi podwójnymi wiązaniami chemicznym: O=C=C=C=O. . +Strukturę krystaliczną C3O2 ustalono w roku 2001 metodą rentgenograficzną w temperaturze −120 °C. Podtlenek węgla w takich warunkach tworzy kryształy w układzie rombowym, w których prawie idealnie liniowe cząsteczki O=C=C=C=O tworzą warstwy o układzie jodełki. +Polimeryzacja. +Podtlenek węgla ulega spontanicznej polimeryzacji, mogącej przebiegać wybuchowo, z uwolnieniem dużej ilości ciepła (136 kJ/mol). Produktem jest czerwono-czarne amorficzne ciało stałe, zachowujące wzór empiryczny C3O2. +W roku 1960 E. Ziegler na zjeździe Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker zaproponował policykliczną strukturę polimeru (C3O2)n zawierającą skondensowane pierścienie α-pironu (2"H"-piran-2-onu), co zostało wkrótce potwierdzone w innych laboratoriach, jednak w roku 1984 struktura ta została zakwestionowana. W roku 2004 opublikowane zostały badania rentgenograficzne (C3O2)n w roztworze dowodzące, że związek ten rzeczywiście zawiera jednostki α-pironu, a stopień polimeryzacji wynosi ok. n ≈ 40 (co jest niezgodne z wcześniejszymi wynikami n = 6–8 i wymaga potwierdzenia). +Kordoba + +Kordoba lub Kordowa (hiszp. "Córdoba") – miasto w południowej Hiszpanii, nad rzeką Gwadalkiwir, 321 164 mieszkańców (2005). Stolica prowincji Kordoba, w regionie Andaluzja. Ośrodek przemysłowy, naukowy oraz turystyczny o znaczeniu światowym. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Córdoba. +Powiat nowosolski + +Powiat nowosolski - powiat w Polsce (województwo lubuskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Nowa Sól. Powiat położony jest w następujących regionach fizycznogeograficznych: Obniżenie Nowosolskie, Pradolina Głogowska, Wzgórza Dalkowskie i Wał Zielonogórski nad Odrą. W 2002 r. ze wschodniej części powiatu utworzono powiat wschowski. +Bezrobocie w powiecie wynosi: 27,6%(styczeń 2010) +Centralne Biuro Śledcze + +Centralne Biuro Śledcze ("CBŚ") – komórka organizacyjna polskiej Komendy Głównej Policji, mająca za zadanie zwalczanie przestępczości zorganizowanej, transgranicznej, narkotykowej i ekonomicznej oraz rozpoznawanie i rozpracowywanie szczególnie groźnych grup przestępczych. Pracuje w niej 1800 osób. +Centralne Biuro Śledcze zostało powołane 15 kwietnia 2000 roku przez Komendanta Głównego Policji. Powstało ono z połączenia działającego od 1994 roku Biura do Walki z Przestępczością Zorganizowaną oraz działającego od 1997 roku Biura do Spraw Narkotyków. +Podstawowe zadania. +Działania podejmowane przez CBŚ mają na celu zwalczanie przestępczości zorganizowanej o charakterze transgranicznym, kryminalnym, narkotykowym i ekonomicznym oraz związanym z aktami terrorystycznymi. +Przestępczość kryminalna (obejmuje m.in.: zabójstwa, rozboje, wymuszenia rozbójnicze, porwania dla okupu, terroryzm) +Rozpoznawanie grup przestępczych prowadzących działania przestępcze o wysokim stopniu brutalizacji czynów – dokonujących zabójstw, przestępstw przy użyciu broni palnej, wymuszeń rozbójniczych, windykacji należności. +Zwalczanie przestępstw związanych z przemytem broni i amunicji, nielegalnym obrotem bronią palną i materiałami wybuchowymi. +Eliminacja zorganizowanych grup dokonujących przestępstw uprowadzeń dla okupu i wymuszeń haraczy. +Zwalczanie zorganizowanych grup przestępczych dokonujących przestępstw związanych z kradzieżą pojazdów, ich przemytem i legalizacją, kradzieżami z włamaniem. +Zwalczanie przestępczości związanej z prostytucją, zapobieganie handlowi ludźmi. +Realizacja zadań wynikających ze zwalczania zjawiska terroru kryminalnego, terroryzmu i ekstremizmu. +Rozpoznawanie i neutralizacja zorganizowanych struktur przestępczych zdominowanych przez przedstawicieli mniejszości etnicznych. +Przestępczość narkotykowa (produkcja, handel, przemyt narkotyków) +Zwalczanie zorganizowanych grup przestępczych w zakresie produkcji i obrotu środkami odurzającymi zarówno na terenie kraju, jak i w obrocie międzynarodowym. +Ujawnianie i likwidacja miejsc produkcji narkotyków syntetycznych (laboratoriów). Współpraca z instytucjami i służbami międzynarodowymi w zakresie zwalczania przestępczości narkotykowej. +Rozpoznawanie i neutralizacja zorganizowanych struktur przestępczych zdominowanych przez przedstawicieli mniejszości etnicznych. +Przestępczość ekonomiczna (pranie brudnych pieniędzy, afery bankowe, giełdowe, korupcja, itp.) +Przeciwdziałanie dokonywaniu przez grupy zorganizowane przestępstw polegających na oszustwach celno-podatkowych, związanych z obrotem towarami objętymi akcyzą i wyłudzeniami podatku VAT oraz podatku dochodowego. +Zwalczanie zorganizowanych grup przestępczych czerpiących zyski z nielegalnego obrotu paliwami. +Przeciwdziałanie niezgodnym z prawem działaniom związanym z niewłaściwym wykorzystywaniem i dystrybucją środków finansowych pochodzących bezpośrednio z Unii Europejskiej. +Rozpoznawanie i przeciwdziałanie zjawisku prania pieniędzy. +Zwalczanie oszustw w sferze obrotu finansowego na szkodę instytucji finansowych, banków, towarzystw ubezpieczeniowych, giełd, firm leasingowych, funduszy inwestycyjnych i gospodarczego na szkodę przedsiębiorców. +Zwalczanie korupcji m.in. w obszarze administracji państwowej, samorządowej i celnej, wymiaru sprawiedliwości i instytucji kontrolnych. +Rozpuszczalnik aromatyczny + +Rozpuszczalniki aromatyczne – rodzaj rozpuszczalników organicznych, w których wykorzystuje się ciekłe związki aromatyczne. +Typowe rozpuszczalniki aromatyczne są zasadniczo niepolarne, ale ustrukturalizowane, tzn. między cząsteczkami rozpuszczalnika występują oddziaływania słabe, które nadają mu cechy rozpuszczalnika bardzo słabo polarnego. Ta cecha powoduje, że niektóre związki chemiczne nierozpuszczalne w zwykłych rozpuszczalnikach apolarnych rozpuszczają się w rozpuszczalnikach aromatycznych. Obecność heteroatomu w cząsteczce silnie zwiększa polarność związku (np. względna przenikalność elektryczna benzenu wynosi 2,3, a pirydyny 13,3), zmieniając diametralnie jego właściwości +Istnieją także całkowicie polarne rozpuszczalniki aromatyczne, które są jednocześnie także ustrukturalizowane. +Stosowanie benzenu jako rozpuszczalnika jest obecnie ograniczone z powodu jego silnej rakotwórczości. +Połóg + +Połogowe zmiany ogólnoustrojowe. +Zmiany hormonalne. +Niedługo po porodzie obniża się stężenie hormonów ciążowych w organizmie kobiety. W ciągu kilku pierwszych dni połogu stężenie laktogenu łożyskowego (hPL) spada do wartości nieoznaczalnych, stężenie gonatropiny kosmówkowej (hCG) spada natomiast stopniowo w ciągu pierwszego tygodnia połogu. W tym samym okresie stężenie progesteronu, estronu i estradiolu wraca do wartości sprzed ciąży. +Laktacja. +Jest to proces wydzielania mleka przez gruczoły mleczne kobiet. Laktacja pojawia się tuż po porodzie i trwa przez okres potrzebny do wykarmienia dziecka. +Zmiany w narządach płciowych. +Macica. +W czasie ciąży macica zwiększa swoje rozmiary 10-krotnie w porównaniu ze stanem poza ciążą. Powrót do normy następuje bardzo szybko. Swoją normalną wielkość osiąga w 6 tygodniu połogu, średnio każdego dnia połogu wymiar podłużny zmniejsza się o 1cm, a masa zmniejsza się z 1kg po porodzie do około 100g. Zwijaniu się macicy w pierwszych dniach połogu towarzyszą silne, często bolesne skurcze, szczególnie odczuwalne podczas karmienia gdy następuje wyrzut oksytocyny. Szyjka macicy stopniowo przybiera formę walcowatą i zamyka się w końcu pierwszego tygodnia połogu. +Pochwa. +Pochwa wraca do stanu przedporodowego około trzeciego tygodnia połogu. Wejście do pochwy pozostaje zazwyczaj swobodniejsze niż przed ciążą. +Powikłania połogowe. +Zakażenie połogowe. +Zakażenia połogowe dotyczą najczęściej dróg rodnych, układu moczowego lub gruczołów piersiowych. Jeśli podczas czterech kolejnych pomiarów, trwających co najmniej dwa dni stwierdza się temperaturę powyżej 38°C, należy to uznać za objaw zakażenia połogowego. +Psychozy poporodowe. +Objawami psychozy są: bezsenność,zaburzenia orientacji, rozdrażnienie. Czasami również apatia i oznaki depresji. Pojawiają się również halucynacje. +Płonia (Szczecin) + +Płonia (do 1945 niem.: "Buchholz") – peryferyjna część miasta Szczecina na Prawobrzeżu na osiedlu Płonia-Śmierdnica-Jezierzyce, +Położenie i obszar. +Część miasta położona jest nad rzeką Płonią oraz przy skrzyżowaniu dróg krajowych nr 3 (kier. Pyrzyce) i nr 10 (kier. Stargard Szczeciński). Wraz z osiedlami Jezierzyce i Śmierdnica tworzy wspólną Radę Osiedla "Płonia – Śmierdnica – Jezierzyce". +Główną arterią komunikacyjną Płoni jest obecnie ul. Przyszłości (droga krajowa nr 3), historyczne centrum wsi znajduje się przy ul. Klonowej. +Do Płoni zaliczane są też mniejsze osiedla: Struga i Oleszna położone nad rzeką Płonią. Zachodnia część Płoni to część puszczy: Goleniowskiej i Bukowej. Po II wojnie światowej na terenie osiedla oddano do użytku duże zakłady przemysłowe: fabrykę kontenerów "Unikon", zakład produkcji betonów "Gryfbet" (obecnie giełda samochodowa), kopalnię "Keramzyt" Szczecińskich Kopalni Surowców Mineralnych. +Przy ul. Klonowej znajduje się pomnik przyrody lipa drobnolistna "Św. Ottona" o obwodzie do 9 m, a przy wjeździe do miasta lipa szerokolistna "Anastazja" (obwód 6 m) i 120 innych gatunków drzew. Z Płoni prowadzą także szlaki turystyczne po Szczecińskim Parku Krajobrazowym. Komunikację z innymi osiedlami zapewniają dwie linie autobusowe: 73Z, 73D i 79. Do lat 60. lub 70. XX wieku czynna była linia kolejowa z Dąbia przez Stare Czarnowo do wsi Sobieradz, w granicach osiedla istniały stacje "Oleszna" i "Struga Szczecińska". +Po wschodnim skraju osiedla biegnie niebieski Szlak im. Stanisława Grońskiego wiodący ze Szczecin-Zdroje do Zdunowa. +Historia. +Teren dzisiejszego osiedla był zamieszkany już w okresie pradziejowym. Świadczą o tym znaleziska archeologiczne pochodzące z okresu mezolitu (kultura maglemoska), neolitu (kultura ceramiki wstęgowej rytej), epoki brązu (cmentarzysko liczące ok. 10 grobów oraz ślady 4 osad), okresu wpływów rzymskich (pozostałości 4 osad). +Wieś Płonia została założona w 1274 przez cystersów z Kołbacza. Po wprowadzeniu na Pomorzu w 1534 reformacji należała do domeny książęcej w Kołbaczu. Później właścicielami Płoni byli m.in szwedzki generał-major Helm Wrangel (lata: 1630-53), elektor brandenburski (lata: 1653-1701), król Prus. Wieś podupadła po wojnie trzydziestoletniej. W drugiej połowie XVIII wieku osada liczyła 34 budynki mieszkalne, były tu także niewielkie cegielnie, młyn, kościół oraz szkoła. W 1836 wybudowana została brukowana droga łącząca Dąbie z Pyrzycami. Około 1870 r. wieś liczyła 61 chałup (zamieszkałych przez ok. 660 osób) oraz 76 budynków gospodarczych . Funkcjonowało tu też 10 cegielni oraz wiatrak. Do wsi należało 3193 mórg ziemi (w tym: 1939 mórg pól uprawnych, 253 mórg łąk, 63 mórg pastwisk, 750 mórg lasów pod wyrąb, 36 mórg ogrodów przydomowych). +Na przełomie XIX i XX w. rozpoczęto zabudowę dzisiejszych ulic: Uczniowskiej, Balińskiego, Deszczowej, Mokradłowej, Trzcinowej, Piasecznej. W 1925 w Płoni znajdowało się 167 budynków mieszkalnych i 374 gospodarczych. Wieś liczyła ok. 1400 mieszkańców +Osiedle Płonia od 1939 do 1945 r. wchodziło w skład tzw. Wielkiego Szczecina, po zakończeniu II wojny światowej włączone zostało w granice ówczesnego powiatu gryfińskiego, w 1972 r. ponownie przyłączone do Szczecina. +Szkolnictwo. +Pierwsza informacja o szkole w Płoni pochodzi z 1786. W drugiej połowie XIX w. w szkole uczyło się prawie 500 dzieci. Pod koniec lat dwudziestych XX w. przystąpiono do budowy nowej szkoły przy ul. Uczniowskiej 6. Szkoła ta była czynna do II wojny światowej. W 1959 szkołę uruchomiono ponownie. Szkoła posiadała 9 sal lekcyjnych, a zorganizowano w niej 17 oddziałów szkolnych. Placówka nie posiadała sali gimnastycznej, a biblioteka wraz z czytelnią została zlokalizowana w tymczasowych pomieszczeniach na strychu. Po włączeniu Płoni do Szczecina w 1972 szkoła otrzymała numer 28. Uczyło się w niej ok. 400 dzieci. Obecnie budynek szkoły wykorzystywany jest na schronisko dla kobiet Caritas. +W 1990 rozpoczęto budowę nowej szkoły przy ul. Piasecznej. Budynek oddano do użytku w 1993. Aktualnie (2010 r.) mieści się w nim zespół szkół nr 11 składający się ze szkoły podstawowej nr 28 (liczącej ok. 280 uczniów) i gimnazjum nr 39 (ok. 140 uczniów). W obu placówkach zatrudnionych jest łącznie 40 nauczycieli. +Kościoły. +Pierwsze wzmianki o kościele w Płoni pochodzą z początku XIV w. Według podań kościół zbudowano w miejscu chrztu mieszkańców tych terenów przez Ottona z Bambergu w 1124 i 1128. Na pamiątkę tego wydarzenia zasadzono lipy, z których jedna przetrwała do dnia dzisiejszego. Ma ona 885 cm obwodu i zwana jest lipą św. Ottona. +Pochodzący ze średniowiecza kościół przetrwał do drugiej połowy XIX w., kiedy to wybudowano obecną świątynie. Jest to budowla ryglowa z wypełnieniem ceglanym, wzniesiona na kamiennej podmurówce. Od strony zachodniej do nawy przylega odeskowana wieża z krytym gontem chełmem. +Z historycznego wyposażenia świątyni zachowała się tylko empora organowa z początku XX w., silnie zdekompletowane organy firmy Schiedmayer oraz dzwon żeliwny z końca XIX w. +W latach 1993-96 przy ul. Abrahama wybudowano nowy kościół. Jego projektantem był Władysław Sandurski z Lublina. Podczas poświęcenia w dniu 7 lipca 1996 świątynia otrzymała wezwanie św. Franciszka z Asyżu. +Cmentarze. +Pierwszy cmentarz w Płoni znajdował się na nawsiu przy kościele (obecna ul. Klonowa). Pełnił on swoją funkcję od średniowiecza do drugiej połowy XIX w., kiedy to utworzono nowy cmentarz przy ul. Ceramicznej. Na cmentarzu tym wybudowano ok. 1900 roku kaplicę pogrzebową (zachowały się z niej tylko fundamenty), a w 1924 odsłonięto pomnik poległych w I wojnie światowej mieszkańców wsi. Pomnik ma kształt niewysokiego obelisku ozdobionego krzyżem żelaznym. Na pomniku umieszczono imiona i nazwiska poległych oraz napis: "Unseren Gefallenen zum Gedächtnis" (pol. Pamięci naszych poległych). Pomnik zachował się do dnia dzisiejszego. +22 Pułk Piechoty (II RP) + +22 Pułk Piechoty (22 pp) – oddział piechoty Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W okresie międzywojennym stacjonował w garnizonie Siedlce. +W okresie 1918-1922 pułk używał nazwy 22 Siedlecki Pułk Piechoty. W 1922 r. dowódca pułku ppłk Henryk Krok-Paszkowski w myśl uchwały korpusu oficerskiego 22 pp zabiegał w MSWojsk. o nadanie tej nazwy jednostce, co jednak nie zostało uskutecznione. Latem 1922 r. ten sam dowódca zwrócił się także do przeprowadzającego inspekcję Szefa Sztabu Generalnego gen. Władysława Sikorskiego z prośbą o przyjęcie szefostwa pułku. Gen. Władysław Sikorski przyjął prośbę, uzależniając definitywną zgodę od zezwolenia MSWojsk., co również nie zostało uskutecznione. +Swoje święto obchodził 12 czerwca na pamiątkę bitwy pod Rzeczycą, a od lat 30. 16 sierpnia, w rocznicę bitwy pod Borkowem. +Formowanie pułku. +22 Pułk Piechoty powstał jako Siedlecki Okręgowy Pułk Piechoty 25 listopada 1918 roku w Siedlcach z Polaków z byłej armii rosyjskiej, nowozwerbowanych, batalionu Polskiej Siły Zbrojnej oraz członków Okręgu III Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej obejmującego obwody: Siedlce, Łuków, Garwolin, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Jadów, Węgrów, Sokołów, jak również pewien obszar za Bugiem. Obwód siedlecki wystawił trzy komp. (1 kp -pchor. Antoni Głuchowski, 2 kp -pchor. Henryk Picheta, 3 kp- pchor. Władysław Kamiński), obwód łukowski wystawił dwie kompanie (pchor. Stefan Zdanowski sformował dwie komp., z których jedna jako 4 kp weszła w skład I batalionu 22 pp zaś druga pod komendą pchor. Stanisława Zdanowskiego, późniejszego wiceprezydenta i burmistrza Siedlec została wcielona do utworzonego później batalionu zapasowego). Z obwodu garwolińskiego ppor. Bolesław Studziński pokierował do Siedlec 6 kp. Obwód węgrowski dał 7 kp z plut. z Sokołowa, a obwody Mińsk Mazowiecki i Jadów stworzyły 8 kp pchor. Wiktor Drymmer zza Bugu przyprowadził silną komp., stacjonującą dotychczas w Siemiatyczach pod dowództwem por. Lucjana Janiszewskiego, tocząc drobne potyczki z patrolami 12 Armii Niemieckiej. Kompania ta została ściągnięta do pułku dopiero w lutym 1919 roku do Brześcia n. Bugiem i została włączona do I batalionu. Na początku nosiła nr 8., lecz przemianowano ją na 1. Po przeprowadzonej mobilizacji mniejsze oddziały pozostały w miastach powiatowych, zaś reszta odeszła do Siedlec. Dowódca III Okręgu POW w Siedlcach – ppor. Władysław Horyd "Przerwic" rozpoczął formowanie batalionów z luźnych kompanii. Na terenie miasta rozpoczął również formowanie jednego batalionu piechoty. "Urząd Zaciągowy Polskiej Siły Zbrojnej", którego kadrę stanowił plut. ppor. Albina Nowotnego. Pluton ten stawił się w Siedlcach w przeddzień rozbrojenia. Oddziały POW i PSZ odczuwały ogromny brak oficerów. W tym celu Ministerstwo Spraw Wojskowych przydzieliło do Siedlec kilku oficerów oraz kilkunastu podchorążych, absolwentów ze szkoły podchorążych w Warszawie i Ostrowi Mazowieckiej. W dniu 25 listopada 1918 r. przybył do Siedlec płk Wacław Pażuś, mianowany dowódcą Siedleckiego Okr. Wojsk. Płk Wacław Pażuś brał czynny udział w pracach powstawania pułku. 6 grudnia nastąpiła likwidacja III Okręgu POW i jej oddziały zostały podporządkowane dowódcy Siedl. Okr. Wojsk. W ten sposób powstały dwa 4-komp. bataliony – I batalion pod dowództwem ppor. Włodzimierza Kwiatkowskiego i II batalion pod dowództwem por. Stanisława Kobylińskiego oraz dwie komp. stanowiące zalążek III batalionu. W połowie grudnia poszczególne komp. połączyły się tworząc bardzo silny 4/I bp. II batalion pod dowództwem kpt. Fryderyka Stanka stanowiły dwie komp. (5. i 6.) w Siedlcach oraz dwie komp. (7. – pozostała na obszarze pow. węgrowskiego i sokołowskiego i 8. – na odcinku siemiatyckim). III batalion pod dowództwem por. Stanisława Kobylińskiego posiadał dawną 1. komp., która została przemianowana na szkołę podoficerską oraz komp. pozostawioną w charakterze garnizonu Łukowa. Organizację 22 pp w zasadniczy sposób oparto na wzorach pułków PSZ. Pod koniec grudnia MSWojsk. oddzieliło funkcję dowódcy Okr. Siedl. od dowódcy Siedleckiego Okręgowego Pułku Piechoty i dowództwo nad pułkiem otrzymał płk Kazimierz Chromiński (faktyczny pierwszy dca 22 pp). 4 stycznia 1919 r. do pułku przybył z 5 pp Legionów mjr Henryk Krok-Paszkowski (były dowódca Okr. Siedl. POW, późniejszy gen. bryg.) i objął dowództwo nad I batalionem. W tym samym miesiącu w Białej Podlaskiej pułk uzupełniono częścią rozwiązanej "Grupy płk-a Eugeniusza Pogorzelskiego", której żołnierze utworzyli 3. komp. II batalionu. W tym czasie stan 22 pp wynosił już 11 oficerów, 18 podchorążych i ok. 700 szeregowych. Ekwipunek i uzbrojenie początkowo przedstawiało się fatalnie. Brakowało mundurów, płaszczy i chlebaków, więc z tego powodu wielu żołnierzy posiadało nadal cywilne ubrania, podarte buty oraz różnego rodzaju walizki i tobołki. Uzbrojenie stanowiły wysłużone poniemieckie karabiny Mauser (przeważnie wz. 88 i wz. 98, w większości bez bagnetów). Na stanach komp. brakowało kuchni polowych. +Walki o granice 1919-1920. +4 stycznia 1919 r. Pułk został wcielony do Grupy operacyjnej "Podlasie" gen. dyw. Antoniego Listowskiego (w skład Grupy Podlaskiej wchodziły: 22 pp, 34 pp, szwadron 2 p.uł oraz bateria 6 pal). W tym czasie Grupa Podlaska liczyła: 102 oficerów, 205 podoficerów, 2164 szeregowych, 4 działa, 19 cekaemów oraz pociąg pancerny "Kaniów" (później także "Generał Antoni Listowski"). Grupa ta obsadzała fragment odcinka linii demarkacyjnej z wojskiem niemieckim, okupującym teren tzw. "Ober-Ostu" (tereny za Bugiem). Pod dowództwem płk. Kazimierza Chromińskiego pułk w sile I batalionu oraz dwóch komp. II batalionu przyjechał z Siedlec do Białej Podlaskiej. W dniach 9-19 stycznia I batalion 22 pp obsadził linię demarkacyjną polsko-niemiecką na odcinku Janów Podlaski-Sławatycze, po czym powrócił na postój do Białej Podlaskiej. Ten okres pułk wykorzystał na szkolenie i dalszą organizację. Po zdobyciu ciężkich karabinów maszynowych (były, to poniemieckie cekaemy Maxim MG 08 7,92 mm oraz zdobyczne rosyjskie Maximy wz. 10 kal. 7,62 mm) zorganizowano i przeszkolono 1. i 2. komp. karabinów maszynowych. Miesiąc później oddziały 22 pułku brały udział w zajęciu Brześcia n. Bugiem (9 lutego żołnierze 22 pp zajęli forty Terespola i Brześcia tłumiąc pożary wzniecane przez uciekających Niemców; wcześniej w nocy z 5 na 6 lutego brali udział w nieudanym ataku (dowodził dca 34. pp mjr Aleksander Narbutt-Łuczyński) na forty Terespola, gdzie dostali się razem z 34. pp pod krzyżowy ogień niemieckich karabinów maszynowych – płk Kazimierz Chromiński miał pokierować odwrotem oddziałów polskich spod Kobylan). 17 lutego 1919 r. Komendantem garnizonu w Brześciu został płk Kazimierz Chromiński. W swoim pierwszym boju przeciw Rosjanom opanowali (3. komp. w składzie kolumny mjr.Władysława Dąbrowskiego) w dniu 24 lutego 1919 r. stację kolejową w Pińsku (zdobyto 1 parowóz i 200 wagonów). 9 marca 1919 r. II batalion (uzupełniony do stanu czterech komp. przez 1. komp. I batalionu) został przerzucony z rozkazu Naczelnego Dowództwa do walk w Małopolsce Wschodniej. 11 marca II batalion walczył jako odwód 12 pp z Ukraińcami pod Przemyślem (okolice fortów Jaksmanice i Mogiłki) – stracił 6 zabitych (w tym pchor. Teodora Wierzbickiego) i 3 wziętych do niewoli. Następnie batalion od 24 marca w grupie płk. Józefa Beckera bronił Dołhomościsk i walczył w Grupie płk. Władysława Sikorskiego pod Dębową Doliną i folwarkiem Karolówką. 22 kwietnia, na skutek zatargu pomiędzy płk. Kazimierzem Chromińskim, a gen. Antonim Listowskim (ten drugi wystawił kłamliwą i krzywdzącą opinię o dcy 22 pp w meldunku do Naczelnego Dowództwa; płk Kazimierz Chromiński wyrokiem Sądu Wojskowego z dn. 5 sierpnia 1919 r. z postawionych zarzutów został oczyszczony) dowództwo pułku objął młody i doskonale wykształcony ppłk hr. Władysław Grabowski (były oficer Gwardii Petersburskiej). II batalion w dniach 31 maja - 1 czerwca 1919 r. zwyciężył pod Horodyszczem i pod Poczapińcami (zagarnął, wtedy 4 działa i 18 karabinów maszynowych). Po walce z piechotą i kawalerią przeciwnika zajął Tarnopol, gdzie zdobył wielkie składy materiałów i sprzętu wojennego. Po uderzeniu Ukraińców II batalion wycofał się do Gołogór. Wziął udział w pierwszej fazie polskiej kontrofensywy czerwcowej. Po tym wydarzeniu II batalion został przetransportowany na Wołyń, gdzie 20 lipca opanował szturmem Strzelsk, odparł nieprzyjacielskie przeciwuderzenie i zajął Sarny. W tym okresie I batalion 22 pp wyruszył na front poleski. W maju 1919 r. batalion wyróżnił się w działaniach obronnych nad Jasiołdą oraz w walkach na południe od Prypeci. W dniach 2 - 11 lipca 1919 r. współdziałał z innymi oddziałami piechoty, kawalerii oraz z Flotyllą Pińską w ataku na Łuniniec. Batalion odniósł szczególne sukcesy pod Płotnicą, Łachwą i Turowem. W czasie obrony Łunińca I batalion bronił się nieustępliwie przed trzykrotną przewagą bolszewików. 2 sierpnia na linii Olszany – Remel – Moczule odparł aż 8 ataków przeciwnika. W drugiej połowie sierpnia na Polesiu doszło do połączenia dowództwa oraz wszystkich trzech btalionów 22 pp – pułk wszedł w skład XVIII Bryg. 9 DP. 22 pp stoczył szereg walecznych bojów jesienią i zimą 1919 r., zwłaszcza nad Ptyczą i Uborcią. Oddziały pułku okryły się chwałą i niepowszednim męstwem bijąc się w styczniu i lutym 1920 r. w śmiałych wypadach pod Pawłówką, Remiesami, Łuczenkami i Kazimierówką. W okresie 4-6 marca oddziały 22 pp brały udział w operacji na Mozyrz. Opór nieprzyjaciela został złamany, Mozyrz, Barbarów i Jelsk zostały opanowane – w ręce Polaków wpadły 22 statki rzeczne. W walkach o Kalenkowicze 22 pp uczestniczył poszczególnymi batalionami – I batalion bił się pod Jełaniem (razem z II batalionem) i Strakowiczami, a III batalion w rejonie Sławeczna. Wskutek wysiłków oddziałów polskich bolszewikom nie udała się próba odbicia Kalenkowicz. Pod koniec kwietnia 1920 r. Naczelny Wódz – Marszałek Józef Piłsudski zainicjował operacje zaczepne na Ukrainie. Głównym zadaniem 9 DP było osiągnięcie Dniepru pomiędzy Berezyną, a Prypecią. 22 pp działając w tej akcji w dwóch grupach złamał z łatwością opór wroga i doszedł w rejon Rzeczycy. Najwspanialszego czynu bojowego pułk dokonał 12 czerwca 1920 r. W tym dniu oddziały siedleckiego pułku broniły przedmieścia Rzeczycy na Dnieprze (pod Unożną i Ozierszczyzną) potężnymi i pełnymi poświęcenia przeciwuderzeniami. Nieprzyjaciel poniósł ciężkie straty w żołnierzach i sprzęcie – ogień Polaków zniszczył oddziały czterech pułków wroga. Dzień bitwy pod Rzeczycą był obchodzony uroczyście jako święto pułkowe. Podczas postoju w Rzeczycy nastąpiły zasadnicze zmiany w obsadzie oficerskiej stanowisk w 22 pp: ppłk hr. Władysław Grabowski odszedł do 4 Armii (objął dowództwo w detaszowanym 59 Pułku Piechoty Wielkopolskiej), a nowym dowódcą pułku został odważny w boju mjr Henryk Krok-Paszkowski. Dowódcą I batalionu został ppor. Mieczysław Janowski, dcą II batalionu por. Stanisław Małek, a dowódcą III batalionu kpt. Aleksander Gembal. W tym samym okresie pozostałe jednostki 22 pp gromiły nieprzyjaciela, który wdarł się do stanowisk polskich pod Karpiłówką i Kopaczami nad Uszą. W czasie odwrotu armii polskich pułk cofając się przez Polesie wykazał w toczonych ciągle walkach wysokie morale i tężyznę fizyczną. Pomimo krwawych strat 22 i 23 lipca pułk szturmem wyparł bolszewików poza Styr. Następnie Siedlczanie odznaczyli się w obronie linii Bugu. Pułk dotarł do Łukowa, skąd został przetransportowany do Modlina, gdzie wszedł w skład 5 Armii. Podczas Bitwy warszawskiej 1920 22. pp najchlubniej zapisał się udziałem w zdobyciu Nasielska, Pułtuska, Ciechanowa i Mławy. Swój ostatni wielki bój pułk stoczył 5 września 1920 r. w rejonie Hrubieszowa z konnicą Siemiona Budionnego. 4 szarże kawalerii rosyjskiej rozbiły się o nieustępliwą zaporę pułku pod Teratynem, Mojsławicami i Jankami. Następnie po tym wydarzeniu 22 pp walczył z bolszewikami na Wileńszczyźnie, a na końcu z Litwinami (w wojsku Litwy Środkowej). Po przerwaniu działań wojennych z Litwą pułk wchodzący w skład 9 DP został przerzucony w rejon Mołodeczna. Zakwaterowany po wsiach w fatalnych warunkach mieszkaniowych i zaopatrzeniowych pełnił straż na kresach Rzeczypospolitej w tzw. "korytarzu łotewskim". Pomimo tych ciężkich warunków pułk został zorganizowany na etat pokojowy, stworzono kadrę zawodową, przeszkoloną wg nowych polskich regulaminów, a także wyszkolono kilka roczników żołnierzy rezerwy i rekrutów. We wrześniu 1922 r. nastąpił powrót 22 pp do Siedlec, z których, to przed czterema laty pułk wyruszył na wojnę. +22 pp wziął ok. 5000 jeńców, zdobył: 3 sztandary pułkowe,18 dział i ok. 300 karabinów maszynowych, 300 koni z siodłami, 7 statków wodnych, 10 lokomotyw, kilkaset wagonów z materiałami wojennymi, wiele wozów i kuchni polowych, kilkadziesiąt aparatów telegraficznych i telefonicznych, kilka kompletnych kancelarii wyższych dowództw, dużo broni ręcznej i amunicji. +Stracił 24 oficerów i 235 szeregowych zabitych. +Na piersiach żołnierzy pułku (3 września 1920 r. pod Chełmem Naczelny Wódz osobiście udekorował dowódcę oraz kilku żołnierzy 22 pp) zabłysło 56 srebrnych krzyży Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari V klasy (tym samym odznaczeniem 4 grudnia 1920 r. w Łazdunach k. Lidy Marszałek Józef Piłsudski udekorował sztandar Pułku) i 484 Krzyże Walecznych (w tym 68 zdobyli oficerowie). +Batalion Zapasowy 22 pp oraz 222. Pułk Piechoty Ochotniczej. +W lutym 1919 r. rozkazem Dowództwa Siedleckiego Okręgu Wojskowego powstał w Siedlcach batalion zapasowy 22 pp. Pierwszym dowódcą batalionu został kpt. Wacław Kostek-Biernacki. Pełnił on tę funkcję w okresie 06.02.1919-08.10.1920. Zadaniem batalionu zapas. oprócz pełnienia służby garnizonowej było szkolenie rekrutów i uzupełnianie nimi stanu 22 pp na froncie. W okresie najtrudniejszych walk z bolszewikami (lipiec-sierpień 1920 r.) batalion zapas. 22 pp wraz z siedleckim Komitetem Obrony Narodowej zorganizował w Siedlcach ochotniczy 222 pp, którego dowództwo objął kpt. Wacław Kostek-Biernacki. 222 pp nie osiągnął stanu większego niż 3 komp. Pod koniec lipca 1. komp. 222 och. pp pod dowództwem ppor. Wacława Hankiewicza wysłano nad Bug do obrony odcinka koło Niemirowa i została ona wcielona do 18 pp. 4 sierpnia pozostałe 2 komp. pułku (d-cą 3. komp. był ppor. Otton Pawłowicz) wraz z całym siedleckim garnizonem zostały ewakuowane w kierunku na Dęblin, gdzie przekroczyły Wisłę. Po dotarciu do Radomia żołnierze zostali załadowani do wagonów towarowych i wyruszyli na Śląsk Cieszyński w celu zabezpieczenia granicy z Czechosłowacją. 222 och. pp zakwaterowany został w budynku szkolnym w Skoczowie, po czym po miesiącu powrócił do garnizonu w Siedlcach. Od września do grudnia 1920 r. pułk pełnił służbę kordonową oczyszczając teren Podlasia z bolszewickich niedobitków oraz pełnił służbę wartowniczą w siedleckiej Stacji Koncentracyjnej dla jeńców i dezerterów. W grudniu 222 och. pp został rozwiązany, a jego żołnierze zostali wysłani jako uzupełnienie dla 22 pp. Żołnierzem 222 pp był m. in. znany aktor Jacek Woszczerowicz i Zygmunt Michałowski. Pod komendą kpt. Biernackiego żołnierze batalionu zapas. 22 pp oraz 222. och pp z polecenia "lotnych wojskowych sądów doraźnych" wykonywali na terenie Siedlec wyroki śmierci na dezerterach z Wojska Polskiego oraz ludności sprzyjającej bolszewikom. Kolejnym dowódcą batalionu zapas. został kpt. Jerzy Józef „Oskierka” Kramarczyk i pełnił tę funkcję w okresie 23.10.1920 - 13.01.1922. W tym czasie batalion zapas. przygotowywał siedleckie koszary na powrót 22 pp ze wschodu oraz pełnił służbę garnizonową. Ostatnim dowódcą batalionu zapasowego był mjr Ludwik Stankiewicz, który objął dowództwo batalionu 21 stycznia 1922 aż do czasu rozwiązania i likwidacji batalionu do stanu kadry na jesieni 1922 r., kiedy to do Siedlec powrócił na stałe 22 pp. +Okres międzywojenny. +We wrześniu 1922 r. powstał Wojskowy Klub Sportowy 22 Pułku Piechoty. +Pod koniec 1922 pułk odszedł w głąb kraju. I i III bataliony liniowe oraz batalion sztabowy zostały rozlokowane w Siedlcach, a II batalion w Zambrowie. +22 pp brał czynny udział w utrzymywaniu porządku po zabójstwie pierwszego Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej - Gabriela Narutowicza w warszawskiej Galerii Zachęta. +Jesienią 1923 r. II batalion powrócił do Siedlec na stałe. +W trakcie pobytu marszałka Ferdynanda Focha w Polsce poczet sztandarowy pułku brał udział w defiladzie w Warszawie. Ten sam sztandar uczestniczył także w czasie ceremonii odsłonięcia Grobu Nieznanego Żołnierza. +12 stycznia 1926 r. pułk ustalił swą nową odznakę pułkową, którą w pułku przyjął marszałek Józef Piłsudski. +4 czerwca 1926 r. na Zamku Królewskim w Warszawie kompania honorowa 22 pp wraz ze szwadronem 1 Pułku Szwoleżerów wzięła udział w uroczystości zaprzysiężenia prof. Ignacego Mościckiego na urząd Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (22 pp "obstawiał" w tym dniu cały zamek). Prezydent oraz towarzyszący mu marszałek Józef Piłsudski odebrał raport od dcy 1 kp – kpt. Jerzego Albina de Tramecourt. Bataliony 22 pp przebywały w stolicy w charakterze wzmocnienia warszawskiego garnizonu do 1 lipca 1926 r. +Działania bojowe w wojnie obronnej 1939. +W 1939 Pułk wziął udział w kampanii wrześniowej w składzie 9 Dywizji Piechoty w Armii Pomorze. Wsparty przez batalion Obrony Narodowej "Koronowo" i II dywizjon 9 pal obsadzał odcinek obrony na linii Jezior Koronowskich. Oddział wydzielony 22 pp dowodzony przez mjr. Jana Poborowskiego w składzie I batalionu tego pułku wsparty przez batalion 9 pal obsadzał odcinek obrony w rejonie Więcborka. +1 września na odcinek obrony 22 pp uderzył niemiecki II Korpus Armijny (3 i 32 DP) z 4 Armii i po walkach w dniu 1 i 2 września 1939 r. 22 pp ponosząc ciężkie straty (rozbity III batalion i batalion ON "Koronowo") został odrzucony w rejon Bydgoszczy, gdzie został podporządkowany 15 Dywizji Piechoty i obsadził odcinek przedmościa Bydgoszczy. Następnie w dniach od 4 - 6 września prowadził walki obronne w rejonie Solca Kujawskiego, a następnie w dniu 7 września bronił rejonu Aleksandrowa Kujawskiego. +Od 8 września był podporządkowany 27 Dywizji Piechoty, w składzie której toczył walki obronne w rejonie Włocławka w okolicy miejscowości Wieniec z niemiecką brygadą "Netze". W walkach wyróżnił się II batalion 22 pp dowodzony przez mjr. Stanisława Allingera. W dniach 14 - 15 września 22 pp znajdujący się w rejonie Gąbina osłaniał tyły polskiego zgrupowania biorącego udział w walkach o likwidację niemieckiego przyczółka na południe od Płocka. W rejonie Gąbina planowano odtworzyć 9 DP złożoną z 22 i 35 pp, jej dowództwo. miał objąć płk Feliks Jędrychowski, dowódca 22 pp. W dniu 17 września 1939 r. znajdujące się w odwrocie za Bzurę bataliony 22 pp zostały zdziesiątkowane i rozproszone przez lotnictwo niemieckie w rejonie Iłowa; w tym dniu pułk przestał istnieć jako zwarta formacja. W walkach wrześniowych dwukrotnie ranny został dowódca 7. komp. (późniejszy gen. broni) ppor. Roman Paszkowski. +Zorganizowane grupy żołnierzy, w tym dowódca pułku wraz z adiutantem, kwatermistrzostwo pułku, dwa działka przeciwpancerne oraz 1. komp. 22 pp dowodzona przez por. Tadeusza Hazlera po walkach w Puszczy Kampinoskiej przedostały się do Warszawy. W walkach pod Babicami został rozbity III batalion pułku i poległ mjr Władysław Mizikowski, dca batalionu. W Wytwórni Papierów Wartościowych płk Feliks Jędrychowski przystąpił do odtwarzania komp. 22 pp. Wzmocniona 1. komp. por. Tadeusza Hazlera i nowo sformowana komp. dowodzona przez por. rez. Kazimierza Różyckiego zostały przydzielone do wsparcia 61 pp z 15 DP. Obie komp. 22. pp wzięły udział w walkach na Wawrzyszewie. Kasa pułkowa 22 pp (kwota ok. 20 tys. zł) zasiliła kasę dowództwa. obrony Warszawy. +Po kapitulacji Warszawy kilkunastu żołnierzy 22 pp dostało Krzyże Walecznych. Płk Feliks Jędrychowski po kapitulacji Warszawy wstąpił do powstającej Służby Zwycięstwa Polsce i był organizatorem struktur tej organizacji w rejonie Siedlec, inspektorem rejonowym na odcinek Częstochowy a także na krótko komendantem okręgu Kielce w AK. Ostatni dowódca 22 pp zmarł w czasie okupacji niemieckiej w wyniku choroby. +Żołnierze 22 Pułku Piechoty. +Dowódcy +Oficerowie +Odznaczeni Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari za wojnę 1918-1920Spis utworzony na podstawie "Zarys historji wojennej 22-go pułku piechoty" s. 66 +Odznaczeni Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari za wojnę obronną 1939 +"Oficerowie:" +" Podoficerowie:" +Sztandar. +Dzięki staraniom mieszkańców Siedlec pułk otrzymał pierwszy sztandar w marcu 1919. Nie odpowiadał on jednak przepisom Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych, na skutek czego społeczeństwo Podlasia (sejmiki powiatów: siedleckiego, łukowskiego i janowskiego) ufundowały drugi, wykonany artystycznie z pięknego materiału, który przyniósł zaszczyt zarówno ofiarodawcom jak i jego wykonawcom. Pierwszy sztandar przedstawiał wizerunek orła a na drugiej stronie obraz Matki Boskiej Częstochowskiej. Drugi sztandar, zgodny z regulaminem, pułk otrzymał w 1921 r. +Odznaka pułkowa. +Po wojnie przeciw bolszewikom, w końcu 1920 r., Korpus Oficerski postanowił stworzyć pułkową odznakę pamiątkową dla oficerów i szeregowych 22 pp. Odznaka ta została wykonana wg projektu prof. Ferdynanda Ruszczyca i przedstawiała podłużny srebrny krzyż nałożony na wieniec z liści laurowych. Na środku krzyża znajdował się orzeł jagielloński a pod nim dwa (obnażone) złote skrzyżowane (ostrzami do góry) miecze. Na górnym ramieniu krzyża była umieszczona cyfra "22", na prawym ramieniu pierwsza połowa roku w którym Pułk powstał – "19", na lewym ramieniu druga część roku – "18" a na dolnym ramieniu litery "P.P.". Surowy statut Pułku postanawiał iż odznaka pułkowa należy się tylko tym żołnierzom którzy spędzili co najmniej pół roku na froncie. +12 stycznia 1926 r. pułk przyjął nowy wzór odznaki pamiątkowej. Przedstawiała ona krzyż (w barwach orderu Virtuti Militari niebiesko-granatowej w wersji oficerskiej) na który nałożony był złoty wieniec z liści laurowych. Na górze wieńca znajdowała się cyfra „22” a na jego dole litery „P.P.”. W środku wieńca znajdował się wizerunek sztandaru 22 pp na tle bagnetów. Zmieniono również zasady przyznawania pułkowej odznaki pamiątkowej. +Oczyszczalnia ścieków + +Oczyszczalnia ścieków – jest to zespół urządzeń i obiektów technologicznych służących do oczyszczania ścieków przemysłowych i komunalnych czyli do usuwania ze ścieków substancji w nich rozpuszczonych, koloidów i zawiesin przed odprowadzeniem ich do rzeki, jeziora, morza, gruntu. +Metody oczyszczania ścieków. +Mechaniczne. +To tzw. I stopień oczyszczania. Procesy te mają na celu usunięcie ze ścieków ciał stałych pływających i grubych zawiesin mineralnych oraz organicznych. Polegają na rozdrabnianiu, cedzeniu, sedymentacji, flotacji, wypienianiu i odwirowaniu. Metody mechaniczne mogą zapewnić redukcję zawiesin w granicach 60-70%, BZT5 do 20%. +W większości oczyszczalni ścieków stopień mechanicznego oczyszczania ścieków nie może wystepować samodzielnie z uwagi na niewystarczający stopień oczyszczania ścieków. Wyjątek stanowią tutaj podczyszczalnie ścieków przemysłowych, oraz przydomowe oczyszczalnie ścieków współpracujące z drenażem rozsączającym. +Biologiczne. +Podstawowym celem biologicznego oczyszczania ścieków jest usunięcie ze ścieków biologicznie rozkładalnych zanieczyszczeń. Do prowadzenia procesów biologicznego rozkładu zanieczyszczeń organicznych wykorzystuje się populacje mikroorganizmów zawieszone w toni ścieków (metody osadu czynnego) lub mikroorganizmy tworzące utwierdzoną biomasę (złoża biologiczne). +Zanieczyszczenia organiczne podczas przemian biochemicznych są wykorzystywane przez mikroorganizmy jako pokarm przyczyniając się do przyrostu biomasy bakteryjnej. Pozostała część rozłożonych zanieczyszczeń uwalniania jest w warunkach tlenowych jako dwutlenek węgla i woda. W przypadku procesów beztlenowych produktami gazowymi rozkładu materii organicznej jest dwutlenek węgla oraz metan). +Nadmiar masy organicznej wytworzonej podczas rozkładu biologicznego zanieczyszczeń zawartych w ściekach oddzielana jest od strumienia ścieków w osadnikach wtórnych. +Chemiczne. +To wspomaganie mechanicznego oczyszczania ścieków poprzez działanie koagulantów. Ścieki mieszane są z roztworem koagulantu, w wyniku czego wytwarzają się kłaczki wodorotlenku glinu lub żelaza, adsorbujące zanieczyszczenia zawarte w ściekach i przyspieszające proces sedymentacji zawiesin w osadniku. Metody chemiczne stosuje się do usuwania ze ścieków (głównie przemysłowych) substancji nieulegających biologicznemu rozkładowi. Polegają one na koagulacji, sorpcji i chlorowaniu. Chlorowanie ma na celu unieszkodliwieniu bakterii chorobotwórczych i usunięcie przykrej woni ze ścieków. +Dyrektor generalny + +Dyrektor generalny (ang. "Chief Executive Officer", CEO) – osoba dysponująca ostateczną władzą wykonawczą w organizacji lub przedsiębiorstwie. Funkcjonalnie odpowiada polskiemu prezesowi zarządu. +W USA ten tytuł jest używany przez najwyższe władze w większości przedsiębiorstw, niezależnie od ich rzeczywistego rozmiaru. W innych krajach anglojęzycznych (szczególnie w krajach Wspólnoty Narodów) terminu tego używa się głównie w przedsiębiorstwach notowanych na giełdzie (spółkach akcyjnych). W innych przedsiębiorstwach częściej używa się określenia dyrektor zarządzający (ang. "Managing Director"). +Teoria systemów + +Teoria systemów bazuje na pojęciu "system", pierwotnie była teorią biologiczną, następnie została rozwinięta i poszerzona przez cybernetyków i inżynierów (inżynieria systemowa), są w niej też nurty nauk społecznych jak socjologia i ekonomia. Ostatnio staje się też punktem odniesienia w kognitywistyce i informatyce i dąży do coraz to szerszych uogólnień jako "systemika" (ang. systemics) lub "ogólna teoria systemów". +Obecnie teoria ta aspiruje do całościowego tłumaczenia funkcjonowania organizmów żywych, społeczeństw i urządzeń/systemów sztucznych, co z jednej strony czyni ją uniwersalną, z drugiej jest przedmiotem krytyki za jej zbytnią ogólność i abstrakcyjność. +Potrzeba jednolitego ujęcia systemowego zrodziła się w latach 30. XX wieku. Istotny wkład w powstanie i rozwój ujęcia systemowego mieli m.in. matematyk Norbert Wiener, twórca cybernetyki, informatycy Shannon i Warren Weaver oraz biolog Walter Cannon. Za twórcę teorii systemów uznaje się Ludwiga von Bertalanffy'ego. W 1954 roku Bertalanffy założył "Society for General Systems Theory". +Pod koniec lat 30. XX wieku w socjologii rozwijana była teoria systemów przez Pitrima Sorokina, a następnie przez Talcotta Parsonsa. W latach 60. i 70. XX wieku nastąpiło odejście od koncepcji systemowych ze względu na silne wpływy filozofii antypozytywistycznej, w szczególności postmodernizmu i koncepcji humanistycznych. Obecnie teoria systemów w socjologii rozwijana była m.in. przez Niklasa Luhmanna. +W psychologii w latach 60. rozwinął się nurt psychologii systemowej, służący głównie terapii systemowej rodzin. +Podsumowując, pomimo swoich uniwersalistycznych celów, jak do tej pory, nie istnieje jedna jednolita i ogólnie uznana teoria systemów ale wiele, mniej lub bardziej podobnych podejść do jej generalizacji od filozofii na inżynierii kończąc. +Najbliższe do takiej teorii lub meta-teorii są: teoria samo-organizujacych się systemów - Autopoiesis (Francisco Varela, Humberto Maturana, Niklas Luhmann) i meta-teoria uporządkowania wiedzy bazująca na pojęciu inteligencji, TOGA (ang) (Adam Maria Gadomski). +Stożek ścięty + +Stożek ścięty to bryła geometryczna znajdująca się pod płaszczyzną, przecinającą stożek, równoległą do jego podstawy. +Frank Ramsey + +Frank Plumpton Ramsey (ur. 22 lutego 1903 w Cambridge, zm. 19 stycznia 1930 w Londynie) – angielski matematyk, logik, ekonomista i filozof. +Urodził się w Cambridge, gdzie jego ojciec był głową Magdalene College. Po ukończeniu Winchester College powrócił do Cambridge studiować matematykę w Trinity College, studia ukończył z wynikiem celującym. Był bardzo oczytany i interesował się praktycznie każdym zagadnieniem. Jego poglądy polityczne skłaniały się ku lewicy, w sprawach religii był wojującym ateistą. +Wszechstronność talentów Ramseya budziła zdumienie wielu wykładowców w Cambridge. Gdy w rozmowie z Charlsem Ogdenem Ramsey wyraził chęć nauki języka niemieckiego, ten przyniósł mu podręcznik gramatyki, słownik i dość zawile napisane wykłady z psychologii po niemiecku, mówiąc: "Skorzystaj z tego i powiedz co o tym myślisz". Po tygodniu Ramsey opanował niemiecki i wysunął przemyślaną krytykę tez wysuwanych w książce. Później, wraz z Ogdenem, Ramsey dokonał pierwszego angielskiego przekładu Traktatu logiczno-filozoficznego Wittgensteina. Był też jednym z pierwszych filozofów, którzy znaczenie "Traktatu" zrozumieli i jednym z nielicznych, z których zdaniem Wittgenstein się liczył. Lektura "Traktatu" poruszyła Ramseya do tego stopnia, że w roku 1923 wyjechał do Austrii, by spotkać się z Wittgensteinem, który pracował wówczas jako nauczyciel w wiejskiej szkółce. +Po powrocie do Anglii w roku 1924 został członkiem King's College w wieku zaledwie 21 lat. Wniósł trwały wkład do logiki, matematyki i ekonomii oraz do filozofii tych dyscyplin nauki. +Jego trwałym wkładem w ekonomię były m.in. badania nad zachowaniem się podmiotów monopolistycznych w sytuacji, gdy celem do osiągnięcia jest maksymalne zadowolenie konsumentów przy jednoczesnym pokryciu swoich kosztów. Według Ramseya optimum osiągnięte będzie przy ustaleniu cen takim, że marża ponad kosztem krańcowym jest odwrotnie proporcjonalna do elastyczności cenowej popytu na to dobro. +Innymi nurtującymi go kwesiami w ekonomii był problem optymalnego systemu podatkowego (tzw. Problem Ramseya) oraz kwestia optymalnego wydawania i oszczędzania przez konsumentów (Model Ramseya). +Na początku roku 1930 Ramsey udowodnił twierdzenie z teorii grafów, nazywane dziś twierdzenie Ramseya i opracował teorię Ramseya dotyczącą podobnych zagadnień. Zdecydowanie sprzeciwiał się intuicjonizmowi Brouwera i formalizmowi Hilberta w matematyce, był też przekonany, że matematyka daje się sprowadzić do logiki (porównaj logicyzm). +Ramsey był dobrym znajomym ekonomisty Johna Keynesa, którego pionierskie prace z rachunku prawdopodobieństwa zainspirowały Ramseya do prac nad tak zwanym prawdopodobieństwem subiektywnym. Na odwrót, analizy Ramseya miały wpływ na poglądy Keynesa na temat prawdopodobieństwa. Ramsey twierdził, że aksjomaty rachunku prawdopodobieństwa powinny odzwierciedlać stopnie naszego subiektywnego przekonania. Jego prace z tej dziedziny stały się szerzej znane dopiero w latach 50. XX wieku. +Z biegiem czasu zainteresowania Ramseya coraz bardziej ciążyły ku filozofii. Był Ramsey stanowczym zwolennikiem tak zwanej redundancyjnej teorii prawdy, do filozofii nauki wprowadził pojęcie zdania Ramseya. Na styku logiki i filozofii analizował paradoks kłamcy dowodząc, że można go rozwiązać badając rozumienie słowa "kłamstwo". +Ramsey cierpiał na chroniczne problemy z wątrobą, a pod koniec roku 1929 nabawił się żółtaczki. Zmarł po operacji w wieku niecałych 27 lat. Jego przedwczesna śmierć jest uważana za jedną z największych strat dwudziestowiecznej filozofii. +Prace. +Ekonomia +Filozofia +Matematyka +Kołyma + +Kołyma (ros. Колыма́) – rzeka w azjatyckiej części Rosji, w obwodzie magadańskim i Jakucji; długość 2129 km, długość ciągu rzecznego Kułu-Kołyma 2600 km; powierzchnia dorzecza 644 000 km²; średni roczny przepływ przy ujściu 3800 m³/s. +Powstaje z połączenia rzek Kułu i Ajan-Juriach; w górnym biegu płynie przez Góry Czerskiego opływając od południa wyższe pasma, przepływa przez Kołymski Zbiornik Wodny i zaporę Kołymskiej Elektrowni Wodnej, dalej płynie w kierunku północnym pomiędzy górami Czerskiego i Omsukczańskimi; następnie wschodnim skrajem Niziny Kołymskiej, opływając łukiem od zachodu Płaskowyż Jukagirski; uchodzi do Morza Wschodniosyberyjskiego deltą o powierzchni 3000 km². +Zasilanie śniegowo-deszczowe; zamarza od października do maja - czerwca; zimą tworzą się często zatory lodowe; rocznie niesie około 5,5 mln. ton osadów. Żeglowna na długości około 2000 km od ujścia. +Główne dopływy: Jasaczna, Zyrianka, Ożogina, Sededema (lewe) Korkodon, Omołon, Aniuj (prawe). +Główne miasto nad Kołymą: Sriedniekołymsk. +Willis Tower + +Willis Tower (poprzednio Sears Tower) – wieżowiec w centrum Chicago, w stanie Illinois. Ma 108 pięter i 442,3 metry wysokości, co czyni go najwyższym budynkiem w Ameryce Północnej do linii dachu. +Rys ogólny. +Budynek został wybudowany w latach 1970 - 1973 kosztem 150 milionów dolarów dla korporacji handlowodetalicznej Sears. Od momentu budowy do 15 lipca 2009 nosił nazwę Sears Tower. W marcu 2009 brytyjska firma Willis Group Holdings, Ltd. wykupiła prawa do nazwy budynku. Formalnie nowa nazwa zaczęła obowiązywać 16 lipca 2009, jednak zmiana spotkała się z pospolitą dezaprobatą mieszkańców Chicago, którzy masowo zamierzają używać oryginalnej nazwy. Przy jego budowie pracowało ponad 2400 robotników. Jego projektantami byli Bruce Graham i Fazlur Khan z firmy Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. +Willis/Sears Tower to budynek o unikatowej konstrukcji. Jego szkielet składa się z dziewięciu rur o kwadratowym przekroju, które tworzą kwadratową podstawę budynku. Cała konstrukcja opiera się na betonowych fundamentach wpuszczonych głęboko w skały znajdujące się pod ziemią. +Dziewięć zespawanych razem rur wznosi się na wysokość 50 pięter, następnie budynek zaczyna się zwężać. Do 66 piętra dochodzi 7 rur, do 90 pietra - 5 rur. Ostatnie 20 pięter to już tylko 2 rury. Dwie anteny telewizyjne, ustawione na szczycie, sięgają 520 m. +W momencie ukończenia został najwyższym budynkiem świata (do linii dachu), odbierając ten tytuł World Trade Center. Stracił go w roku 1997, kiedy to ukończono główną budowę Petronas Twin Towers w Kuala Lumpur, w Malezji. Jednak nawet wtedy Sears Tower miał najwyższy dach, najwyżej położone używane piętro oraz najwyższą wysokość wliczając antenę (527 metrów). W momencie ukończenia Taipei 101 budynek utrzymał jedynie rekord najwyższej wysokości wraz z anteną. Taipei 101 przejął rekordy najwyżej położonego dachu (448 m) i najwyższego używanego piętra (438m). Sears Tower jest jednak w dalszym ciągu najwyższym budynkiem w USA i prawdopodobnie pozostanie nim do czasu ukończenia Wieży Wolności ("Freedom Tower") w roku 2013. +Na 103. piętrze znajduje się taras widokowy, z którego rozciąga się widok na miasto i jezioro Michigan. W 2009 zainstalowano szklane klatki poza obrębem tarasu, pozwalające na widok na panoramę miasta w zawieszeniu w przeźroczystym klocku. +W 1999 Francuz Alain Robert, "Człowiek-Pająk", wszedł bez żadnych zabezpieczeń i sprzętu na jego dach. +22 czerwca 2006 w Miami siedmiu mężczyzn, w wieku od 22 do 32 lat zostało aresztowanych, gdyż planowali zamach terrorystyczny jednocześnie na Sears Tower w Chicago oraz budynek FBI w Miami. Grupa była złożona z pięciu obywateli USA oraz dwóch imigrantów z Haiti. Jeden z nich posiadał zieloną kartę, a drugi przebywał na terenie USA nielegalnie. +Prawa firmy Sears do nazwy wygasły w 2009, jednak budynek powszechnie jest znany tylko pod tą nazwą. +19 Czerwca 2010 podczas silnej burzy wiatr wiejący z prędkością ponad 110 km/h wytłukł szyby w pomieszczeniach biurowych na 25 piętrze i w pomieszczeniu obsługi klimatyzacji na 29 piętrze. +Symbol narodowy + +Symbole narodowe – symbole, które wizualnie i werbalnie prezentują wartości i ciągłość historii narodów, państw, regionów. Pod tymi symbolami gromadzą się członkowie społeczności z okazji patriotycznych uroczystości. +Historia pokazuje, że symbole narodowe, nawet jeśli na co dzień traktowane jako rzeczy błahe, w chwilach dziejowych stają się tak ważne, że dla uchronienia przed profanacją członkowie społeczeństwa gotowi są poświęcić życie w ich obronie. +Wyspa Kangura + +Wyspa Kangura (ang. "Kangaroo Island") – trzecia co do wielkości wyspa Australii (po Tasmanii i Wyspie Melville'a). Położona jest 112 km na południowy wschód od Adelaide, przy wejściu do zatoki St. Vincent, 13 km od przylądka Jervis, przy samym końcu półwyspu Fleurie w Australii Południowej. +Podstawowe fakty o wyspie. +Geografia. +Wyspa ma 145 km długości. Szerokość waha się od 900 m do 57 km. Łączny obszar 4.405 km². Najwyższe wzniesienie na wyspie osiąga 307 m n.p.m. Długość linii brzegowej około 509 km, przeważają strome wybrzeża klifowe. +Klimat. +Zima w miesiącach od czerwca do września jest chłodna z częstymi opadami deszczu, lato jest zazwyczaj ciepłe i suche. Maksymalne temperatury w lecie bardzo rzadko przekraczają 35°C. Przeciętna temperatura w sierpniu waha się pomiędzy 13 °C a 16 °C, a w lutym, najgorętszym miesiącu roku, pomiędzy 20 °C a 25 °C. 2/3 opadów deszczu przypada na miesiące pomiędzy majem i wrześniem, roczne opady deszczu na wyspie wahają się od 450 mm przy Kingscote do 700 mm przy Cape du Couedic. Najwilgotniejszym miesiącem jest lipiec. +Ludność i ekonomia. +Na wyspie mieszka na stałe około 4 100 mieszkańców, z czego około 1 400 w Kingscote (1991). Ekonomia opiera się głównie na rolnictwie (wyrób win, miód, zboże, wełna i mięso), rybołówstwie i turystyce. Na Wyspie Kangura produkowany jest słynny na całą Australię miód. +Fauna i flora. +Ponieważ wyspa oddzielona jest od głównego kontynentu australijskiego, na wyspie nie ma wprowadzonych tam przez Europejczyków lisów i królików. Na wyspie występuje wiele rodzimych gatunków zwierząt, np. kangur szary, walabia dama, krótkonos brązowy, pałanka kuzu, dwa gatunki drobnych torbaczy z rodziny drzewnicowatych: "Cercartetus lepidus" i "Cercartetus concinnus", kolczatka australijska, kotik nowozelandzki, uchatka australijska, dwa gatunki szczurów, sześć gatunków nietoperzy, sześć gatunków żab. Jedynym endemicznym kręgowcem jest drobny torbacz "Sminthopsis aitkeni". Introdukowane gatunki to dziobak, koala i pałanka wędrowna. "Misie" koala zostały tu sprowadzone przez kolonistów, a ponieważ podlegają całkowitej ochronie, zaczęły zagrażać stabilności lokalnego ekosystemu i część z nich jest corocznie odsyłana w inne miejsca w Australii. +Do I połowy XIX wieku Wyspę Kangura zamieszkiwał endemiczny ptak z rodziny emu – emu mały – wymarły ok. 1827 roku. +Turystyka. +Wyspa Kangura jest bardzo popularnym miejscem wycieczek, nie tylko dla turystów z zagranicy i innych stanów, ale także dla mieszkańców Adelajdy. Główna Tourist Information informacja turystyczna znajduje się w Penneshaw i otwarta jest 7 dni w tygodniu. +Ograniczenia i zakazy. +Obowiązuje całkowity zakaz sprowadzania na wyspę nowych gatunków roślin i zwierząt obcych dla ekosystemu, których wprowadzenie mogłoby go naruszyć. Na wyspę nie wolno sprowadzać pszczół, miodu, ani żadnych produktów miodowych. +Transport. +Na wyspę można dostać się drogą powietrzną (lot z Adelajdy trwa około 30 minut) lub morską – promem z Cape Jervis do Penneshaw (około 50 minut) lub z Wirrina do Kingscote (około 90 minut). +Historia wyspy. +Wyspa Kangura została odłączona od Australii około 10.000 lat temu po podniesieniu się poziomu morza. Aborygeni zamieszkiwali wyspę od przynajmniej 11.000 tysięcy lat, ale z nieznanych powodów zniknęli około roku 200 p.n.e. Istnieje wiele teorii na ten temat, najbardziej popularne z nich to wybuch epidemii, wyniszczająca wojna lub zmiana klimatu. +W 1802 r. odkrywca Matthew Flinders nazwał nowo odkrytą ziemię "Kangaroo" Island. Flinders wylądował na wyspie na północnym wybrzeżu w okolicach przylądka Dudley. Największym miastem na wyspie jest Kingscote, oryginalnie założone 27 lipca 1836 r., była to pierwsza oficjalna kolonia w Australii Południowej. +Temperatura i pogoda. +Strona australijskiego biura meteorologii z informacjami o pogodzie na Kangaroo Island +Asceza kultyczna + +Asceza kultyczna - poprzez tę formę ascezy człowiek przygotowuje się do składania kultu bóstwu. Asceza ta ma doprowadzić do osiągnięcia takiej równowagi wewnętrznej by już bez żadnych przeszkód czy wątpliwości oddać się Bogu. +Nieuport Macchi M 9 + +Nieuport Macchi M-9 – włoska rozpoznawcza łódź latająca Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1918 roku we włoskiej wytwórni lotniczej Aeronautica Nieuport Macchi w Varese. +Historia. +Rozpoznawcza łódź latająca "Nieuport Macchi M-9" został zabudowana w drugiej połowie 1918 roku we włoskiej wytwórni lotniczej Areonautica Nieuport Macchi , opierając się na wcześniejszych doświadczeniach budowanych w tej wytwórni jednomiejscowych myśliwskich łodziach latających "Nieuport Macchi M 5" i "Nieuport Macchi M 7" produkowanych w latach 1916 – 1918, które w owym czasie uchodziły za najlepsze na świecie w swojej klasie. +Również samolot "Nieuport Macchi M-9" był wyróżniającą się konstrukcją. Rozpoznawcza łódź latająca "Nieuport Macchi M-9" od 1919 roku produkowana była dla włoskiej marynarki wojennej. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +W 1921 roku Polska Misja Wojskowa zakupiła we Włoszech 9 rozpoznawczych łodzi latających "Nieuport Macchi M-9" dla Bazy Lotnictwa Morskiego w Pucku. Łodzie te załadowane w skrzyniach dostarczono do Gdańska na statku włoskim „Rosa Alba” w drugiej połowie lipca 1921 roku i wyładowano na wybrzeżu Westerplatte. Stamtąd w dniu 7 sierpnia 1921 roku przewieziono je do Pucka. +W 1921 roku zmontowano jeden samolot, którego montaż nadzorował pilot włoski Ado Figieris, który później dokonał jego oblotu oraz przeprowadził z polskimi pilotami loty zapoznawcze tego samolotu. +Z powodu reorganizacji lotnictwa morskiego wstrzymano montaż dalszych samolotów. Po utworzeniu w marcu 1923 roku Morskiego Dywizjonu Lotniczego zlecono Centralnym Warsztatom Lotniczym (CWL) w Warszawie remont i montaż pozostałych łodzi "M-9". W połowie 1923 roku zmontowano 5 egzemplarzy i dopuszczono je do lotów. W dniu 6 października 1923 roku podczas lotu nad Zatoką Pucką kadłub jednego z samolotów przełamał się na pół i spadł on do morza. W wyniku tej katastrofy zginęła załoga samolotu kpt. obs. Wiktor Karczewski i por. pil. Ludwik Patalas. W związku z ta katastrofą, łodzie latające "Nieuport Macchi M-9" ponownie skierowano do CWL w Warszawie w celu sprawdzenia oraz wzmocnienia kadłubów. +Na wiosnę 1925 roku samoloty wróciły do służby, z zaleceniem unikania gwałtownych ewolucji i głębokich zakrętów. Otrzymały one numery od 21 do 28. W 1926 roku wycofano je z eksploatacji. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot Nieuport Macchi M-9 był dwumiejscową rozpoznawczą łodzią latającą, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Napęd: 1 silnik rzędowy FIAT A-12bis o mocy 300 KM (221 kW), śmigło pchające dwułopatowe drewniane. +Łódź latająca "Nieuport Macchi M-9"' była samolotem w układzie dwupłata napędzanego silnikiem rzędowym chłodzonym cieczą. Kadłub o konstrukcji kratownicowej drewnianej miał w całości pokrycie ze sklejki. Kształt spodu kadłuba był łodziowy płaskodenny, o ujemnym dwuskosie tworzącym wklęśnięcie, co zapobiegało tworzeniu się silnych rozbryzgów podczas startu i wodowania. W górnej części kadłuba z przodu tuż przed kabina, znajdowało się wyprofilowane miejsce dla obrotnicy ruchomego karabinu maszynowego zakryte okrągłą płytą. Odkryta kabina załogi, wyposażona była w dwa rozmieszczone obok siebie fotele – pilota i obserwatora. Kabina miała z przodu wiatrochrony oddzielnie dla pilota i obserwatora. Za kabina załogi do środkowej części kadłuba zamocowany był płat dolny. Nad nim znajdował się płat górny połączony z nim skośnymi słupkami metalowymi. Oba płaty o lekkim kącie skosu usztywniono między sobą cięgnami stalowymi. Płaty o konstrukcji dwudźwigarowy, drewnianej kryte były płótnem. Lotki umieszczono na górnym płacie. Pod skrzydłami dolnego płata zamontowano ustateczniające pływaki boczne. Wewnątrz komory płatów, w środkowej części pod płatem górnym umocowano silnik rzędowy ze śmigłem pchającym. Na końcu kadłuba znajdowało się usterzenie klasyczne, drewniane o pokryciu płóciennym. +Kalambur + +Kalambur (z języka francuskiego) – zabawna gra słów o zbliżonym (paronomazja) bądź identycznym brzmieniu (homonim), lecz o różnych znaczeniach. Efekt powstaje dzięki przeprowadzanym przekształceniom wyrazów, m.in. usamodzielnieniu lub przestawieniu członów. +Również: odmiana szarady, zagadka słowna, opisująca (często żartobliwie, czasem przewrotnie) fragmenty (wyrazy lub sylaby) rozwiązania, będącego kalamburem. +Kalambury to również teleturniej oraz gra towarzyska, nie ma ona jednak poza nazwą nic wspólnego z prawdziwymi kalamburami. +Dolina Ważecka + +Dolina Ważecka (słow. "Važecká dolina", "Handelská dolina", niem. "Handeltal", węg. "Handel-völgy") – słowacka dolina położona na terenie Tatr Wysokich, wcinająca się w południowo-wschodnie zbocza Krywania ("Kriváň", 2494 m n.p.m.). +Opis doliny. +Należy do krótszych dolin tatrzańskich. W dolnej części zalesiona, wyżej krajobraz zmienia się na wysokogórski. Dolną część doliny (Przedni Handel) przecina Magistrala Tatrzańska. W pobliżu leżącego na tarasie Jam Jamskiego Stawu ("Jamské pleso") przebiega znakowany szlak turystyczny na Krywań. W głąb doliny obecnie nie prowadzi żaden szlak i jako obszar ochrony ścisłej jest niedostępna. Jeszcze na początku lat 70. XX wieku od niebieskiego szlaku na Krywań odchodził żółty nad brzeg Zielonego Stawu Ważeckiego. Dawniej dolina była wypasana (wypasano tutaj woły), prowadzono też w niej prace górnicze. Właścicielami doliny był węgierski ród Szentiványi. Nazwa doliny pochodzi od słowackiej miejscowości Ważec, do której administracyjnie dolina ta należy. Obecną polską nazwę wprowadził Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski w 1888 r., przedtem dolinę nazywano u nas Zadnim Handlem, Doliną Zielonego Stawu, Doliną Przedniego Handlu. +Doliną płynie Wielki Złomiskowy Potok ("Veľký zlomiskový potok") łączący się z Siodełkowym Potokiem ("Sedielkový potok") i Małym Złomiskowym Potokiem ("Malý zlomiskový potok") i dający początek Białemu Wagowi ("Biely Váh"). +Szlaki turystyczne. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +Henryk z Walii + +Henryk Karol Albert Dawid Mountbatten-Windsor (ang. "Henry Charles Albert David Mountbatten-Windsor"), Książę Henryk z Walii ("Prince Henry of Wales") potocznie nazywany księciem Harrym (ur. 15 września 1984) – członek brytyjskiej rodziny królewskiej, syn Karola, księcia Walii i Diany Spencer, córki 8. hrabiego Spencer, wnuk królowej Elżbiety II. Brat księcia Wilhelma. Jest trzeci w linii sukcesji do brytyjskiego tronu po swoim ojcu i starszym bracie. +Narodziny i dzieciństwo. +Książę Henryk urodził się 15 września 1984 r. w St Mary's Hospital w Paddington w Londynie. Jego pełny tytuł brzmi Jego Królewska Wysokość Książę Henryk z Walii ("His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Wales"), choć popularnie nazywany jest "księciem Harrym". +Został ochrzczony 21 grudnia 1984 r. w St George's Chapel w Windsorze przez arcybiskupa Canterbury dr Roberta Runciego. Jego rodzicami chrzestnymi byli: Andrzej Mountbatten-Windsor, książę Yorku, lady Sarah Chatto, lady Vestey, lady Bartholomew, Bryan Organ i Gerald Ward. +Pojawiały się spekulacje, że biologicznym ojcem księcia Henryka jest major James Hewitt, instruktor jeździectwa i kochanek księżnej Walii. Major i księżna poznali się w 1981 r. Wprawdzie Diana twierdziła, że ich romans rozpoczął się w 1987 r., jednak niektórzy twierdzą, że zaczął się niedługo po spotkaniu. Hewitt pewnego razu powiedział, że "rude włosy księcia są podobne do moich, a ludzie twierdzą, że wyglądamy podobnie". +Śmierć matki. +Książę Henryk stracił matkę w wieku 13 lat – księżna Diana zginęła w wypadku samochodowym w Paryżu. W momencie śmierci matki Henryk ze starszym bratem przebywali w zamku Balmoral. +Podczas pogrzebu Henryk wraz z bratem i wujem kroczyli za trumną księżnej. Henryk postawił na trumnie laurkę z napisem "Dla mamusi". Młody książę, jak oświadczył, zamierza kontynuować jej charytatywną działalność na rzecz ludzi biednych i chorych. +Edukacja. +Podobnie jak książę Wilhelm, Henryk rozpoczął edukację w przedszkolu Jane Mynors. Później uczęszczał do Wetherby School i Ludgrove School. Od 1998 r. uczęszczał do Eton College. Edukację zakończył w czerwcu 2003 r. zdając dwa egzaminy na poziomie zaawansowanym. Z geografii uzyskał stopień D (dostateczny), zaś ze sztuki stopień B (bardzo dobry). W czasie nauki brał aktywny udział w zajęciach sportowych, głównie w polo i rugby. Okazywał też zainteresowanie żeglarstwem i narciarstwem. +Po ukończeniu Eton, książę Henryk miał roczną przerwę w nauce (tzw. "gap year" lub "year off"). Najpierw wybrał się do Australii, gdzie pracował na farmie bydła i oglądał Mistrzostwa Świata w rugby 2003 r. W Lesotho pracował w sierocińcu oraz pomagał budować ośrodek zdrowia i drogę. Później pojechał na wakacje do Argentyny. +8 maja 2005 r. książę Henryk wstąpił do Royal Military Academy w Sandhurst. Edukację odbywał pod nazwiskiem Henry Wales. +Obowiązki. +W kwietniu 2006 r. książę Henryk odwiedził ponownie Lesotho, gdzie razem z księciem Seeiso otworzył sierociniec dla dzieci zarażonych wirusem HIV. Założyli też organizację charytatywną zajmującą się ośrodkiem: Sentabale: Książęca Fundacja dla Lesotho. "Sentabale" w języku sesotho znaczy tyle co "nie zapomnij mnie". Książę odwiedził również Mants'ase Children's Home, gdzie pracował w 2004 r. +W 2006 r. książę Henryk został mianowany komandorem Royal Navy. +Henryk brał udział w organizowaniu pomocy dla ofiar tsunami w Azji Południowo-Wschodniej. +12 sierpnia 2012 roku reprezentował królową Elżbietę na ceremonii zamknięcia XXX Letnich Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Londynie. +Wojsko. +W styczniu 2006 r. ogłoszono, że książę Henryk zamierza wstąpić do regimentu królewskiej kawalerii Blues and Royals. Ma również być w maju 2007 r. wysłany z regimentem do Iraku. Blues and Royals mają zajmować się patrolowaniem okolic miasta Maysan, na granicy iracko-irańskiej. +Życie prywatne. +Częste spekulacje dotyczą życia prywatnego księcia. Prasa wymieniała wiele kobiet, jako potencjalne partnerki księcia. Jedną z nich była Kristina Schwarz, córka brytyjskiego miliardera. Najbardziej znaną "dziewczyną" księcia jest Chelsy Davy, urodzona w Zimbabwe dziedziczka posiadłości ziemskich. W wywiadzie udzielonym we wrześniu 2005 r., Henryk nazwał Chelsy "swoją dziewczyną". W 2006 r. opublikowano zdjęcie całującej się pary podczas Cartier Polo International Tournament. W styczniu 2009 rozstał się z swoją partnerką. W tym samym roku para została sfotografowana razem na meczu rugby, pozornie ukazując swój 'związek'. W 2010 roku po wyjeździe Chelsy z Londynu, para znów się rozstała. W 2011 roku Harry potwierdził plotki mówiąc, że jest '100%' singlem. +Kontrowersje. +Narkotyki. +W styczniu 2002 r. pojawiły się pogłoski, że książę Henryk palił marihuanę. Latem wdrożono przeciw niemu śledztwo, aczkolwiek nie przedstawiono zarzutów. Książę został skierowany przez ojca do kliniki leczenia uzależnień w Londynie. +Paparazzi. +21 października 2004 r. książę wdał się bójkę z fotoreporterem, kiedy opuszczał Piccadilly Club. Paparazzi miał rozciętą wargę, a książę wyszedł bez szwanku. Zajście zostało opisane w tabloidach, gdzie zachowanie Henryka określono jako "rozczarowujące". Książę Henryk musiał za ten incydent publicznie przeprosić ojca. +Bal przebierańców. +Największy skandal młody książę wywołał 8 stycznia 2005 r., kiedy to na balu kostiumowym, którego motywem przewodnim był kolonializm, pojawił się w mundurze żołnierza Afrika Korps, ze swastyką na ramieniu. Obrażeni poczuli się weterani II wojny, a większość Brytyjczyków uznała strój księcia za bardzo nietaktowny, zwłaszcza, że było to dwa tygodnie przed obchodami Dnia Pamięci Holocaustu i 60. rocznicą wyzwolenia obozu koncentracyjnego w Auschwitz. +Książę przeprosił za swój "nieszczęsny pomysł wszystkich, których mógł on obrazić". Prasa uznała jednak przeprosiny księcia za niewystarczające. +Kartaczownica Reffye + +Kartaczownica Reffye - skonstruowana przez belgijskiego wynalazcę Josepha Montigny i udoskonalona przez Francuza de Reffye kartaczownica salwowa. +Mitralieza (franc. "mitrailleuse", ze starofrancuskiego "mistraille" – drobniaki, grosiwo) została skonstruowana we Francji w drugiej połowie 60. XIX wieku, a jej idea przypomina organki. Kartaczownica Reffye posiadała kilkanaście (najczęściej 25, maksymalna spotykana liczba to 37) oddzielnych luf zamontowanych na podwoziu artyleryjskim, ładowanych odtylcowo za pomocą dysku wypełnionego nabojami w ten sposób, że ich rozmieszczenie pasowało do rozstawu luf. Po odsunięciu tylnej części zamka, do broni wsuwano magazynek, po czym ponownie zamykano blok zamka. Po naciśnięciu dźwigni spustowej następował wystrzał z wszystkich luf (stąd nazwa kartaczownica salwowa). Z broni tej można było wystrzelić maksymalnie 300 pocisków minutowo. Teoretycznie mitralieza powinna prowadzić celny ogień na odległość około 1800 metrów. +Przyjęcie do uzbrojenia armii francuskiej kartaczownicy Reffye było utrzymywane w ścisłej tajemnicy. Dzięki temu zastosowanie kartaczownic podczas wojny francusko-pruskiej w 1870 roku było dużym zaskoczeniem dla wojsk pruskich, ale jednocześnie nie opracowano taktyki użycia nowej broni. Mitraliezy były najczęściej traktowane jako działa polowe, co powodowało, że skuteczność prowadzonego ognia była niska, a obsługi odnosiły duże straty od ognia klasycznych dział. W nielicznych przypadkach, kiedy kartaczownice Reffye zostały ustawione w szykach piechoty i prowadziły ogień flankujący do atakujących kolumn wojsk pruskich, okazały się bronią bardzo skuteczną. Po wojnie francusko pruskiej o przypadkach skutecznego zastosowania kartaczownic zapomniano, a po roku 1885 zostały one zastąpione karabinami maszynowymi. +Z technicznego punktu widzenia mitralieza nie jest karabinem maszynowym, gdyż ogień z niej prowadzony jest ręcznie, a nie automatycznie. Mimo to w języku francuskim "mitrailleuse" jest synonimem karabinu maszynowego. +Karczoch zwyczajny + +Karczoch zwyczajny ("Cynara scolymus") – gatunek wieloletniej rośliny zielnej należący do rodziny astrowatych. Pochodzi z rejonu Morza Śródziemnego, obecnie uprawiany w całej Europie i Ameryce Północnej. Według niektórych ujęć taksonomicznych jest to synonim karczocha hiszpańskiego ("Cynara cardunculus"). +Ozonosfera + +Ozonosfera (warstwa ozonowa, powłoka ozonowa) – warstwa zwiększonej koncentracji ozonu w stratosferze. Znajduje się na wysokości ok. 15-50 km nad Ziemią. Główna warstwa ozonu znajduje się 25–30 km nad poziomem morza. +Ozonosfera jest warstwą ochronną bardzo ważną dla życia na Ziemi. Chroni przed promieniowaniem ultrafioletowym, które jest szkodliwe dla organizmów żywych. Dzięki niej jest możliwe życie na lądzie. +Ozonosfera przyczynia się do wzrostu temperatury w warstwie stratosfery, ponieważ ozon pochłania promieniowanie nadfioletowe. Mimo iż nazwa sugeruje jego duży udział, cały ozon z ozonosfery w warunkach normalnych utworzyłby na poziomie morza warstwę o grubości ok. 3 mm. +Śledzenie źródeł + +Śledzenie źródeł (ang. "source tracking") - zdolność systemu hipertekstowego do rygorystycznego śledzenia pochodzenia każdego dokumentu lub cząstkowego dokumentu włączonego do systemu; system zapamiętuje, kto wprowadził informację, kiedy została wprowadzona, kiedy i przez kogo została zaktualizowana itd. Pozwala to precyzyjnie odtworzyć historię każdego dokumentu, a nawet jego małych części. +Obecne HTML i HTTP nie oferują takich możliwości, jednak niektóre systemy w World Wide Web (jak np. Wiki czy Everything2) dysponują fragmentarycznie zaimplementowaną funkcją śledzenia źródeł. +Powiat słubicki + +Powiat słubicki – powiat w Polsce (województwo lubuskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Słubice. Powiat położony jest w następujących regionach fizycznogeograficznych: Pojezierze Łagowskie, Równina Torzymska, Lubuski Przełom Odry i Dolina Środkowej Odry nad rzeką Odrą. Na terenie powiatu znajdują się Park Krajobrazowy Ujście Warty i fragment Krzesińskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. Powiat graniczy z niemieckim krajem związkowym Brandenburgia. +Quena + +Quena (kena) – dęty, drewniany instrument muzyczny, pochodzący z Peru. Prawdopodobnie najstarszy istniejący na świecie rodzaj fletu, niegdyś sporządzany z kości lam. Używany przez Inków. +Pierwotnie o skali pentatonicznej, obecnie zgodny ze skalą międzynarodową, o zakresie trzech oktaw. +Nazwa instrumentu wywodzi się z języka Aymara, w którym "quena-quena" oznacza dosł. "coś bardzo podziurawionego". +Instrument zbudowany jest z grubego, dorosłego pędu bambusa o średnicy ok. 2 cm i długości od 25 cm do 1 m (bez kolanek łączących) z wydrążonymi otworami średnicy ok. 1 cm (zazwyczaj 7 otworów) i nacięciem w formie małego dzióbka na ustnik. Najstarsze instrumenty konstruowano też z kości ludzi lub zwierząt, z gliny, wydrążonych cukinii lub nawet złota lub srebra, a dziś popularnymi materiałami są też różne gatunki drewna, kości ptaków, metal, plastik, włókno szklane. +Instrumenty pochodne: Quenacho - basowa Quena, Quenilla - sopranowa Quena. +FC Nantes + +FC Nantes (właściwie Football Club Nantes Atlantique), francuski klub piłkarski, z miasta Nantes. +Historia. +Klub został założony w 1943 (z połączenia czterech innych klubów) i przez lata występów w ekstraklasie francuskiej ośmiokrotnie świętował mistrzostwo kraju (1965, 1966, 1973, 1977, 1980, 1983, 1995, 2001). W latach 1979, 1999 i 2000 zdobywał Puchar Francji. Wielokrotnie zespół kwalifikował się do europejskich rozgrywek, także do prestiżowej Ligi Mistrzów; w edycji 1995/1996 piłkarze Nantes dotarli do półfinału Ligi Mistrzów (wyeliminowali m.in. Spartaka Moskwa, ulegli Juventusowi), w edycji 2001/2002 – w znacznie rozbudowanych rozgrywkach Ligi Mistrzów – odpadli na etapie drugiej fazy grupowej. Byli także w półfinale Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów (1979/1980) oraz w ćwierćfinale Pucharu UEFA (1994/1995). +Piłkarze Nantes, ze względu na kolor strojów (zielono-żółte), noszą przydomek "kanarków" (les canaris). +W maju 1984 otwarto nowy stadion, który służył za jedną z aren Mistrzostw Europy 1984 i Mistrzostw Świata 1998, a także miejsce spotkań eliminacyjnych i towarzyskich reprezentacji Francji oraz spotkań reprezentacji rugbystów. Stadionowi, mogącemu pomieścić 39 tysięcy widzów (po modernizacji – 50 tysięcy), nadano imię wieloletniego prezesa klubu, Louisa Fonteneau (Stade de la Beaujoire – Louis Fonteneau). W sezonie 2006/07 Nantes po 44 latach nieprzerwanej gry w Ligue 1 spadło do 2 ligi. Po roku w tej klasie rozgrywkowej, Nantes wróciło do Ligue 1 po zajęciu 2 miejsca w tabeli drugiej ligi, by już w kolejnym sezonie zająć przedostatnie miejsce w tabeli league 1 i spaść ponownie do 2 ligi.. +Skład na sezon 2012/2013. +Stan na: 8 lutego 2013 r. +Mordechaj Kaplan + +Mordechaj Menahem Kaplan (ur. 11 czerwca 1881, Święciany - zm. 8 listopada 1983, Nowy Jork) – filozof, reformator judaizmu, główny twórca judaizmu rekonstrukcjonistycznego. +Urodzony w Święcianach na Litwie, w 1889 roku wyemigrował z rodzicami do USA. Początkowo związany był z ruchem ortodoksyjnym, z czasem jednak jego poglądy ewoluowały w kierunku heterodoksji. Ukończył w 1902 roku Żydowskie Seminarium Teologiczne (związane z judaizmem konserwatywnym) i został rabinem. Siedem lat później rozpoczął pracę w tymże seminarium jako dziekan. Wykładał tam homiletykę (sztukę głoszenia kazań), Midrasz oraz filozofię religii. W latach 1917-1922 współtworzył Centrum Judaistyczne, w którym pracował również jako rabin. Jego książka "Judaizm jako cywilizacja" (1934) stała się manifestem judaizmu rekonstrukcjonistycznego. +Opowiadał się za liberalizmem w kwestiach wiary, równością kobiet w życiu codziennym i liturgii, umownością idei Boga i uznaniem roli diaspory (był przeciwnikiem radykalnego syjonizmu). W latach 60. został ekskomunikowany przez konserwatystów i w 1968 opuścił judaizm konserwatywny tworząc rekonstrukcjonizm. +Ekwifinalność + +Ekwifinalność jest to zasada, która mówi, że wychodząc z różnych źródeł można dojść do tych samych rezultatów. +Ekwifinalność jako cecha organizacji społecznej rozumiana przez to, że nie istnieje najlepszy sposób organizowania w celu realizacji zadania, podobne efekty mogą być osiągane w różny sposób. +DjVu + +DjVu ([], por. déjà vu) – jeden z formatów plików graficznych. Pliki zapisywane w tym formacie posiadają rozszerzenie „djvu” lub „djv”. +Zamierzeniem twórców formatu DjVu było umożliwienie tworzenia cyfrowych bibliotek, w których książki byłyby przechowywane na nośnikach elektronicznych. Cel taki łączył się z koniecznością stworzenia formatu plików graficznych, który umożliwiałby przechowywanie zeskanowanego tekstu z jakością odpowiadającą papierowemu oryginałowi przy jednoczesnym względnie małym rozmiarze pliku. +Historia. +DjVu jest stosunkowo starą metodą wydajnej kompresji obrazu. Metoda ta była rozwijana przez naukowców amerykańskiego koncernu AT&T do kompresji kolorowych, skanowanych dokumentów. Oprogramowanie oparte na zakupionych od koncernu AT&T patentach formatu DjVu, stworzyła w późnych latach 90. XX w. amerykańska firma LizardTech Inc. (DocumentExpress w wersjach Enterprise lub Professional). +20 października 2009 r. na stronie Lizardtech ukazała się informacja, że firmą zajmującą się technologią DjVu jest Caminova, z forum Lizardtech skasowano posty dotyczące DocumentExpress. +Informacje techniczne. +Djvu oparte jest na zaawansowanej (wciąż rozwijanej) metodzie segmentacji obrazu. Tworzenie pliku DjVu polega na rozdzieleniu dowolnie skomplikowanego obrazu na odrębne warstwy, a następnie poddaniu warstw odrębnym optymalizacjom i kompresjom. +Najczęściej stosowane warstwy to: tło (np. 100 dpi), czarno-biała warstwa tekstu najwyższej jakości (np. 300 dpi), warstwa koloru służąca jedynie do nałożenia koloru na czarno-białą warstwę tekstu (np. 25 dpi). Ponadto istnieje możliwość wprowadzenia do dodatkowej warstwy informacyjnej tekstu – treści uzyskanej metodą OCR. Umieszczenie w pliku tekstu umożliwia m.in. wyszukiwanie treści. +Dane w pliku DjVu zapisane są progresywnie, co pozwala na wyświetlenie części zawartości pliku, zanim zostanie do końca odczytany, zwłaszcza przy pobieraniu przez Internet. W miarę pobierania pliku pojawiają się kolejne warstwy. +Porównanie z innymi formatami. +Grafika w formacie DjVu zajmuje przeciętnie od 5 do 10 razy mniej miejsca na dysku niż format JPEG (dla dokumentów kolorowych) i od 10 do 20 razy mniej miejsca (dla dokumentów czarno-białych). Również od podobnego (zeskanowanego) pliku w formacie PDF plik w formacie DjVu zajmuje około 3 do 8 razy mniej miejsca. W stosunku do plików BMP oraz TIFF pliki DjVu, odpowiadające jakością plikom „źródłowym”, są mniejsze w stosunku 1:1000. +Format DjVu pozwala na przechowywanie w nim plików w formacie JPG. Jest to przydatne, gdy pliki są słabej jakości i ich kolejna kompresja sprawiłaby, że stałyby się nieczytelne. +Autostrada A12 (Niemcy) + +Niemiecka autostrada A12 (niem. "Bundesautobahn 12, BAB 12, Autobahn 12") łączy Berlin z Frankfurtem nad Odrą, gdzie przekracza granicę i łaczy się z polską autostradą A2. Jest częścią szlaku europejskiego E30 (Berlin - Poznań - Warszawa - Mińsk - Moskwa). Odcinek Dreieck Spreeau - Frankfurt otwarty dla ruchu w 1937. Odcinek do granicy został otwarty w 1957, jednak tylko jeden pas ruchu. Drugi pas został dobudowany dopiero w 1992. +Psychologia zorientowana na proces + +Psychologia zorientowana na proces – inaczej praca z procesem, praca ze śniącym ciałem, psychologia procesu (Process Oriented Psychology, Process Work, Dreambody Work) – kierunek psychoterapeutyczny, zapoczątkowany w latach siedemdziesiątych XX wieku przez Arnolda Mindella i rozwijany przez grupę skupionych wokół niego osób. Psychologia procesu Arnolda Mindella to przede wszystkim dziedzina praktyczna oferująca użyteczne i sprawdzone, własne jak i wypracowane przez inne szkoły terapeutyczne sposoby pracy z szerokim spektrum problemów i objawów. Twórcy metody odwołują się do taoizmu filozoficznego, myśli C.G.Junga, teorii informacji oraz różnych koncepcji pochodzących z obszaru współczesnych nauk przyrodniczych. Psychologia zorientowana na proces jako metoda eklektyczna wykorzystuje metody wypracowane przez takie szkoły jak: terapia analityczna Junga, terapia Gestalt, podejście skoncentrowane na osobie Rogersa, podejście systemowe i komunikacyjne. Psychologia zorientowana na proces jest otwartym, interdyscyplinarnym podejściem wspierającym zmiany indywidualne i zbiorowe. W praktyce tego podejścia łączy się pracę ze snem, z ciałem, z symptomami, z relacjami i pracę z dużymi grupami. Metoda oferuje nowe sposoby radzenia sobie z obszarami doświadczenia, które są odbierane jako problematyczne lub bolesne. Objawy fizyczne, problemy relacyjne, konflikty grupowe i napięcia społeczne, po potraktowaniu ich z ciekawością i szacunkiem, mogą stać się impulsem istotnym dla rozwoju osobistego jak i czynnikami społecznej zmiany. Metodę Arnolda Mindella można zaliczyć do nurtu terapii humanistycznych. Jest to podejście fenomenologiczne, w którym dla terapeuty najważniejsze są subiektywne znaczenia nadawane własnemu doświadczeniu przez klienta. Koncentruje się ono na relacji zachodzącej pomiędzy sposobem doświadczania otaczającego świata i własnej osoby a możliwościami osobistego i kolektywnego rozwoju, możliwością zmiany zachowania i poszerzenia możliwości wyboru w konkretnych sytuacjach, możliwością odbudowy poczucia życiowej satysfakcji i spełnienia. +Konceptualizacje, teoretyczne propozycje Arnolda Mindella to raczej użyteczne w praktyce terapeutycznej 'drogowskazy' i pewna filozofia psychoterapii a nie udokumentowane twierdzenia wynikające z systematycznej działalności i refleksji o charakterze naukowym. Brak im jasności terminologicznej, część twierdzeń ma charakter arbitralnie przyjętych dogmatów, nie spełniają one wymogów stawianych przez nauki społeczne odwołujące się do przyrodniczego modelu naukowości, chociaż niektóre opisywane zjawiska i postulowane przez ten model zależności mogą być badane i weryfikowane metodami nauk przyrodniczych. +Porozumienia sierpniowe + +Porozumienia sierpniowe – cztery porozumienia zawarte przez rząd PRL z komitetami strajkowymi powstałymi w 1980. Porozumienia zakończyły wydarzenia sierpnia 1980. +W pierwszym punkcie porozumień gdańskich stwierdzano, że działalność związków zawodowych nie spełniła nadziei i oczekiwań pracowników, dlatego uznaje się za celowe powołanie nowych, samorządnych związków zawodowych, które byłyby autentycznym reprezentantem klasy pracującej. Na podstawie tego punktu dopuszczono do zarejestrowania NSZZ Solidarność. +W dalszej części rząd zobowiązał się m.in. do wniesienia do Sejmu ustawy o ograniczeniu cenzury. Władze zobowiązały się do ponownego zatrudnienia osób zwolnionych z pracy po wydarzeniach 1970 i 1976. W kwestii gospodarczej władze zobowiązały się do opublikowania podstawowych założeń reformy i umożliwienia nad nią publicznej dyskusji. Reforma miała opierać się na zwiększonej samodzielności przedsiębiorstw i udziale samorządu robotniczego w zarządzaniu. +Cowboy Bebop + +Cowboy Bebop (jap. カウボーイビバップ, "Kaubōi Bibappu") – serial anime z 1998 roku, wyreżyserowany przez Shin'ichirō Watanabe, składający się z dwudziestu sześciu odcinków (noszą nazwę "Sesje"), przedstawiający losy grupy łowców nagród, działających w latach 70. XXI wieku. +Serial zawiera wiele odniesień do kultury popularnej, czerpie z kultury kowbojskiej, elementów arabskiej tradycji. Tytuły wszystkich odcinków są tytułami rzeczywistych utworów muzycznych. Serial jest wypełniony odniesieniami do amerykańskiej popkultury: westernów, kryminałów, noir, filmów akcji oraz seriali telewizyjnych. Autorką ścieżki dźwiękowej jest japońska kompozytorka i pianistka Yōko Kanno. Większość wykonał jej zespół The Seatbelts. +Tło wydarzeń. +Akcja serialu rozgrywa się w latach 70. XXI wieku. Rozwój techniki umożliwił wybudowanie w 2021 roku wrót międzygwiezdnych ułatwiających podróżowanie po Układzie Słonecznym. Zignorowana przez twórców niestabilność oprogramowania wrót spowodowała katastrofę bramy nadprzestrzennej w pobliżu Ziemi. W jej wyniku uszkodzony został Księżyc, którego odłamki spadając na Ziemię zabiły 4,7 miliarda ludzi. Ci, którzy przeżyli, chroniąc się przed deszczami meteorytów zamieszkali pod powierzchnią ziemi lub wyemigrowali na inne planety Układu Słonecznego oraz naturalne i sztuczne satelity. Ludzie zasiedlili Wenus, kratery Marsa, największy księżyc Saturna Tytan, Galileuszowe księżyce Jowisza, stacje kosmiczne, niektóre nadające się do zamieszkania asteroidy oraz Pluton, na którym znajdują się kolonie karne. W 2071 roku cały Układ Słoneczny zamieszkuje ok. 1,5 miliarda ludzi. +Kolonizacja ogromnych terenów sprowokowała wzrost przestępczości, co z jednoczesną nieudolnością policji zmusiło władze do przywrócenia systemu nagród za schwytanie przestępców, podobnych do tego występującego na Dzikim Zachodzie. Doprowadziło to do powstania profesji łowcy nagród, który w slangu nazywany jest kowbojem. Często podobni do osób przez siebie poszukiwanych, łowcy nagród kierują się jedną zasadą – poszukiwana osoba musi przeżyć, jest to bowiem warunek konieczny do wypłacenia nagrody. Dane o przestępcach i nagrodach prezentowane są w ogólnodostępnym programie telewizyjnym "Big Shots". Walutą obowiązującą w całym systemie solarnym jest woolong. +Sieć WWW przeistoczyła się w globalną SSW (Solar System Web). Technika medyczna stoi na bardzo wysokim poziomie. Powszechnie stosowane są sztuczne implanty i zamrażanie kriogeniczne. Nie przyjęły się natomiast innowacje broni i bohaterowie stosują głównie starą broń palną, czyli pistolety, karabiny. +Bohaterowie. +Bohaterami anime jest grupa łowców nagród, podróżująca statkiem kosmicznym o nazwie "Bebop": Spike Spiegel, Faye Valentine, Jet Black, haker Ed oraz genetycznie zmodyfikowany pies Ein. +Każde z nich ma swoją odmienną historię oraz przeszłość. Fabuła przestawia historię ich spotkania oraz wspólnych poszukiwań przestępców, odkrywając stopniowo wcześniejsze losy każdego bohatera. Nietypowym dla bohaterów jest brak wyraźnych więzi między postaciami. To grupa przypadkowo znajdująca się na jednym statku. Mimo licznych wspólnych przygód wielokrotnie dają do zrozumienia, iż nie specjalnie zależy im wzajemnie na sobie i nie czują się odpowiedzialni za pozostałych załogantów Bebopa. Do współpracy zachęca ich jedynie wizja zdobycia pieniędzy. +Spike Spiegel. +Spike to pochodzący z Marsa 27-letni łowca nagród. Wysoki, szczupły, ciemnowłosy, ubrany zazwyczaj w za mały garnitur. Kilka lat wcześniej uległ wypadkowi, po którym wstawiono mu sztuczne oko. Mówi, że "od tego czasu, jednym widzi przeszłość, a drugim teraźniejszość". +Notoryczny palacz. Sprawny w walce wręcz, posługuje się stylem Jeet Kune Do, dobrze posługuje się bronią palną - używa pistoletu Jericho 941 (choć także i innej broni jak np. Beretta 92FS czy Ruger p89). Pilot osobistego statku Swordfish II, dawnego ścigacza przerobionego na myśliwiec. W przeszłości był członkiem gangu Red Dragon, gdzie jego najlepszym przyjacielem był Vicious. Spike nie lubi zwierząt, dzieci i ambitnych kobiet. +Spike podczas pierwszego spotkania z Jetem powiedział, że "jest człowiekiem, który już raz umarł". Było to po poważnym zranieniu podczas walki. Uratowała go Julia, dziewczyna Viciousa. Spike kochał ją, była "tą drugą połową, której zawsze pragnął", która "zbudziła go ze snu i sprawiła że po raz pierwszy poczuł się naprawdę żywy". Pod jej wpływem postanowił zrezygnować z działalności przestępczej, pozorując własną śmierć. Plany ich wspólnej ucieczki zniweczył Vicious, strasząc Julię zabiciem Spike’a. Julia nie spotkała się ze Spikiem w umówionym miejscu. Spike nie poznał motywów tej decyzji aż do czasu zdarzeń przedstawionych w końcowych odcinkach serialu. Sesja "Prawdziwy Folkowy Blues", część 1 i 2 (odcinki 25 i 26) ukazuje ponowne spotkanie pary. Na cmentarzu, w strugach deszczu Julia wyjaśnia Spike'owi, dlaczego wtedy nie przyszła i proponuje ucieczkę we dwoje, obiecując, że będzie z nim do końca. +Spike oraz Jet Black pracowali jako łowcy nagród trzy lata przed spotkaniem pozostałych członków załogi. +W wersji oryginalnej seiyū tej postaci to Koichi Yamadera, w wersji angielskiej głos podłożył Steven Blum. +Jet Black. +Jet – 36-letni były członek policji ISSP, pochodzący z Ganimedesa. Odszedł z ISSP przez sprawę z Udai Taximem oraz zniechęcony panującą tam korupcją. +W jednej z policyjnych akcji stracił lewą rękę, którą zastępuje mu cybernetyczna proteza. +Został postrzelony przez swojego partnera, Fada, ponieważ stanowił zagrożenie dla Organizacji, w której działał Udai, a Fad był na ich liście płac. Pilotuje statek Bebop, przerobiony kuter rybacki oraz swój osobisty, nazywany Hammerhead. Poza tym przygotowuje posiłki dla załogi, a w wolnym czasie pielęgnuje drzewka bonsai. +Podczas serii pokazany jest także miłosny epizod z jego przeszłości, gdy odeszła od niego kobieta o imieniu Alisa. +W wersji japońskiej głosu postaci użyczył Unsho Ishizuka, w wersji angielskiej Beau Billingslea oraz John Billingslea. +Faye Valentine. +Faye – jest 23-letnią kobietą. Ambitna, bardzo atrakcyjna, nosi charakterystyczny strój - krótka bluzka i spodenki w kolorze żółtym oraz zakolanówki i białe kozaczki. +Urodziła się w roku 1994. W wieku 20 lat uległa wypadkowi. Przez 54 lata była pogrążona w śpiączce, podczas gdy jej ciało pozostawało zamrożone. Po operacji przebywała w szpitalu i spała do czasu, gdy rozwój medycyny pozwolił całkowicie ją wyleczyć. Faye odmroził doktor Bachus, który nazwał ją "Valentine" od tytułu swojej ulubionej piosenki. Musiała uciekać z kliniki, gdyż nie była w stanie pokryć wszystkich opłat o łącznej wysokości 300 mln 28 tys. woolongów. Pomógł jej Whitney Hagas Matsumoto, jak się później okazało - siostrzeniec Bachusa. Prawnik, zatrudniony przez towarzystwo ubezpieczeniowe Totus. Nazywa Faye "Śpiącą królewną", jednak oszukuje ją, zapisując w testamencie swoje długi. Do ponownego ich spotkania dochodzi w sesji 15., kiedy Whitney Hagas Matsumoto zostaje złapany przez Jeta za oszustwa. +Po wybudzeniu ze śpiączki była drobną oszustką i przestępczynią. Przyłącza się do Jeta i Spike’a w 3. odcinku. Dzięki kasecie betamax, wysłanej przez samą siebie w młodości tak aby dotarła do niej po latach, odnajduje swój rodzinny dom i odkrywa częściowo swoją przeszłość – życie na Ziemi przed wypadkiem. Po tych wydarzeniach postanawia pozostać wraz z załogą Bebopa. +W wersji japońskiej postać miała podłożony głos Megumi Hayashibary, w wersji angielskiej – Wendee Lee. +Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV. +Ed – hakerka zamieszkująca Ziemię. W serialu ma około 13 lat. Przedstawia się jako Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV, jednak jest to wymyślone imię. Ojciec, Appledelhi Siniz Hesap Lutfen, którego spotyka w sesji 24, nazywa ją "Francoise"(z drugiej strony nie pamięta czy miał syna czy córkę). Appeldelhi przez 7 lat szukał po całym świecie swojej córki. Zakonnica z sierocińca, w którym przebywała Ed wyjaśniła, że zapomniał jej odebrać z przedszkola. +Gibka, nadpobudliwa, wyjątkowo inteligentna. Lubi grę w szachy i zabawę z psami. Na planecie Ziemia była to postać owiana różnymi legendami. Mówiono, że jest to zły haker, "drag queen", kosmita, koszykarz oraz guru Hindusów. +W przeszłości śledziła losy załogi Bebopa. W zamian za udzielenie informacji pomocnych w znalezieniu winnych jednego z przestępstw, Faye obiecała że będzie mogła się przyłączyć do grona załogi Bebopa - łowców nagród w 9. odcinku serii. +Głos postaci podkłada Aoi Tada w wersji japońskiej oraz Melissa Fahn w wersji angielskiej. +Emisje serialu i wyróżnienia. +Pierwsza emisja serialu miała miejsce na antenie TV Tokyo w roku 1998, jednak z powodu kontrowersji związanych z brutalnym charakterem anime, wyemitowano jedynie 12 odcinków i odcinek 27. Rok później wyemitowano całą serię w japońskiej satelitarnej telewizji WOWOW. Serial zyskał sobie liczne uznanie, do dziś nie schodząc z czołówek list przebojów wiodących serwisów poświęconych tematyce japońskiej animacji - jak np. Anime News Network czy Animenfo. W głosowaniu czytelników japońskiego magazynu "Newtype" na dwadzieścia najlepszych seriali anime wszech czasów, serial zajął ósmą lokatę. +Serial emitowano w Polsce w oryginalnej wersji językowej z polskimi napisami na kanale satelitarnym Hyper+, nadawanym w ramach platformy cyfrowej CYFRA+. Kilka lat wcześniej wydawnictwo Planet Manga wprowadziło na rynek dwie kasety VHS z pięcioma odcinkami serialu, a w roku 2005, 2006 i 2007 serial emitowany był na kanale TVP Kultura z polskim lektorem. W Polsce został wydany film kinowy w wersji DVD- przetłumaczony jako "Kowboj Bebop", a dystrybutorem była firma Imperial. +Wszystkie odcinki (prócz 27.) zostały wydane na płytach DVD, dostępnych w Japonii, Ameryce Północnej i Europie. +Informacje dodatkowe. +Po bardzo dobrym przyjęciu serialu przez fanów na całym świecie wydano pięć tomów mangi. Ukazały się także cztery gry konsolowe (dwie na konsole Game Boy, jedna na PlayStation oraz jedna na PlayStation 2), nie doczekały się jednak dystrybucji poza Japonią oraz innej niż japońska, wersji językowej. W 2001, w odezwie na prośby fanów, na ekranach kin pojawił się film pełnometrażowy "", którego akcja rozgrywa się między odcinkami 22 i 23. Film powtórzył sukces serialu, jednak realizatorzy, pomimo nacisku fanów, zarzekają się, że nie planują kontynuacji. Do dziś wydawane zostały artbooki oraz figurki. +Hindukusz + +Hindukusz (paszto: هندوکش; lub Hindu Kūh = هندوکوه i Kūh-e Hind = کوه هند) – system górski w środkowej części Azji mieszczący się w północno-zachodnim Pakistanie oraz centralnym i wschodnim Afganistanie. Hindukusz graniczy z górami Safed Koh na zachodzie, natomiast od wschodu – z wyżyną Pamiru, górami Karakorum oraz z Himalajami. +Nazwa Hindukusz pochodzi z języka paszto, gdzie "Hindu Kusz" znaczy "zabójca Hindusów". W języku hindi nazwa ta brzmi "Hindukuś", a po angielsku "Hindu Kush". +Geologia. +System ma długość 800 kilometrów, a najwyższy szczyt – Tiricz Mir ma wysokość 7706 m n.p.m. Hindukusz powstał podczas fałdowania alpejskiego w trzeciorzędzie i na początku czwartorzędu – jednak ruchy górotwórcze trwają nadal. Skały Hindukuszu to głównie granity, gnejsy, piaskowce i wapienie. +Stan psychiczny + +Stan psychiczny to element procesu psychicznego. Składają się na niego stan emocjonalny (afekt i nastrój), napęd, procesy poznawcze, tożsamość, percepcja siebie i zachowanie. +Gurami dwuplamy + +Gurami dwuplamy, gurami dwuplamisty, gurami niebieski, gurami plamisty ("Trichopodus trichopterus") – gatunek słodkowodnej ryba z rodziny guramiowatych. Często hodowana jako ryba akwariowa. +Występowanie: w wodach Indii i Indochin. +Opis. +Charakterystyczne dwie ciemne plamy na każdym boku ciała - jedna w połowie długości, druga na trzonie ogonowym. Istnieją także odmiany barwne, u których zamiast okrągłych plam na bokach ciała znajdują się większe, ciemne plamy o nieregularnym kształcie (gurami marmurkowy), odmiany o jednolitym, złocistym ubarwieniu (złoty gurami - u formy podstawowej barwa ciała jest jasnoszara z rysunkiem ciemniejszych, niewyraźnych pręg, czasem lekko błękitna) oraz formy pośrednie. Płetwy brzuszne długie i nitkowate, podobnie jak u wielu innych spokrewnionych gatunków. +Rozmiary: Długość w akwarium do 12 cm (w zależności od wielkości zbiornika, w którym przebywają). W środowisku naturalnym z reguły nieco większe. +Dymorfizm płciowy widoczny u ryb starszych. Samiec ma zaostrzoną płetwę grzbietową. Samica obła w okolicach partii brzusznej, płetwa grzbietowa o końcówce okrągłej. +Zachowanie: Samce bywają agresywne wobec siebie. W stosunku do innych ryb, poza okresem tarła są pokojowo usposobione. Kiedy jedzą pokarm lubią atakować małe skalary. +Rozmnażanie łatwe. Samce są skore do tarła. Ryby są jajorodne czyli składają ikrę. Przed tarłem samiec buduje pieniste gniazdo na powierzchni wody. Podczas wielokrotnego aktu tarła samica składa do kilkuset drobnych jaj, które są umieszczane pomiędzy pęcherzykami piany w gnieździe. Samiec opiekuje się gniazdem, poprawiając je nieustannie i odpędzając inne ryby. Po wylęgu drobnego narybku, co następuje po 24 - 48 godzinach, zależnie od temperatury wody, instynkt opiekuńczy samca dość szybko zanika. Podobny przebieg tarła i opieki nad potomstwem możemy zaobserwować u wielu innych, spokrewnionych gatunków. +Robert Gadocha + +Robert Gadocha, przydomek "Piłat" (ur. 10 stycznia 1946 w Krakowie) – polski piłkarz, lewoskrzydłowy napastnik. Grał w Garbarni Kraków (1957–1965), następnie w Wawelu Kraków (1965–1966). Od 1967 do 1975 zawodnik Legii Warszawa. +W latach 1975–1977 występował w FC Nantes we Francji (mistrzostwo Francji), gdzie jednak grał niewiele z uwagi na ciężką kontuzję. Karierę kończył w Stanach Zjednoczonych: Chicago Sting (1978), Hartford Hellios (1980–1982) i (amatorsko) Sarasota Venice (1992–1995). W barwach Legii Warszawa dwukrotny mistrz Polski (1969, 1970) i zdobywca Pucharu Polski (1973). W sezonie 1969/1970 wraz z Legią doszedł do półfinału Pucharu Europy, w sezonie 1970/1971 do ćwierćfinału tych rozgrywek. +Mistrz olimpijski z Monachium (1972) - wystąpił we wszystkich meczach reprezentacji Polski na igrzyskach. Na mistrzostwach świata w Niemczech (1974 r.) też zagrał w każdym spotkaniu i zajął wraz z drużyną 3. miejsce. Nie zdobył bramki, ale zaliczył siedem asyst. Znalazł się w "jedenastce gwiazd" mundialu na pozycji lewoskrzydłowego. Wziął udział w 62 meczach reprezentacji i zdobył 16 goli. +Mała Babia Góra + +Mała Babia Góra, Cyl (słow. "Malá Babia hora", 1517 m n.p.m.) – jeden z wierzchołków w masywie Babiej Góry (Beskid Żywiecki, na Słowacji Orawskie Beskidy) znajdujący się w jego zachodniej części, na granicy Polski ze Słowacją. Od wierzchołka Kościółków, leżącego przed najwyższym w masywie Diablakiem, oddziela go przełęcz Brona (1408 m). W górnych partiach stoków występuje kosodrzewina – z uwagi na brak lasu szczyt jest punktem widokowym. +Na północnym stoku Małej Babiej Góry znajduje się czynne osuwisko Zerwa Cylowa. +Jan Stanisław Bystroń + +Jan Stanisław Bystroń (ur. 20 października 1892 w Krakowie, zm. 18 listopada 1964 w Warszawie) – etnograf i socjolog, profesor uniwersytetów w Poznaniu, Krakowie i Warszawie, członek Polskiej Akademii Nauk. +Życiorys. +Był synem językoznawcy Jana i Marii z Cinciałów, wnukiem etnografa i śląskiego działacza społecznego Andrzeja Cinciały. W 1910 ukończył gimnazjum w Krakowie i podjął studia filologiczne na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim; wśród jego profesorów byli m.in. Ignacy Chrzanowski i Kazimierz Morawski. W 1914 obronił na UJ doktorat na podstawie pracy "Teoria rzeczywistości społecznej". W międzyczasie odbył także studia etnograficzne w Ecole des Hautes Etudes w Paryżu (1912–1913). W 1918 uzyskał stopień docenta etnologii na UJ (na podstawie pracy "Zwyczaje żniwiarskie w Polsce"). +W latach 1919–1925 był profesorem nadzwyczajnym i kierownikiem Katedry Etnologii i Etnografii Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego. W 1925 przeniósł się na UJ, został profesorem zwyczajnym i kierownikiem Katedry Etnologii i Socjologii. Od 1934 prowadził wykłady z socjologii i polskiej kultury ludowej na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, kierując jednocześnie Katedrą Socjologii (do 1948). W latach 1934–1936 pełnił funkcję kierownika Departamentu Szkolnictwa Wyższego Ministerstwa Wyznań Religijnych i Oświecenia Publicznego. W latach 1926-1932 pełnił funkcję sekretarza Komisji Etnograficznej PAU. W okresie międzywojennym został odznaczony m.in. Medalem Niepodległości. +W czasie okupacji był kilka miesięcy więziony na Pawiaku; brał udział w tajnym nauczaniu. W ostatnich latach życia ciężko chorował, cierpiał również na załamanie nerwowe po śmierci syna oraz z powodu wieloletniej choroby żony. Oficjalnie przeszedł na emeryturę rok przed śmiercią. Pochowany na Cmentarzu Ewangelicko-Reformowanym w Warszawie. +Zainteresowania naukowe. +W swych badaniach koncentrował się na kulturze polskiej, folklorze i twórczości ludowej. Uważał, że badania etnograficzne powinno się prowadzić w ograniczonym czasie i miejscu. W pracy "Wstęp do ludoznawstwa polskiego" (1926) określił zagadnienia etnografii, jej stosunek do innych nauk oraz podał systematykę dotyczącą grup zawodowych i etnicznych. Analizując dzieła literatury staropolskiej przedstawił panoramę życia towarzyskiego, rodzinnego, politycznego i wojskowego Polski XVI, XVII i XVIII wieku ("Dzieje obyczajów w dawnej Polsce. Wiek XVI-XVIII", 1933, 2 tomy). Zajmował się koncepcjami socjologii polskiej do początków XX wieku. Jako pierwszy w Polsce uznał komizm za zjawisko socjologiczne. Na przełomie lat 20. i 30. prowadził badania śladów polskich w Algierii i na Bliskim Wschodzie, czego efektem była praca "Polacy w Ziemi Świętej, Syrii i Egipcie, 1141-1914" (1930). +Odznaczenia. +5 listopada 1938 r. na wniosek Polskiej Akademii Literatury "za wybitną twórczość naukową związaną z literaturą piękną" został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim. +Eugeniusz Żytomirski + +Eugeniusz Żytomirski (ur. 29 października 1911 w Taganrogu, zm. 10 kwietnia 1975 w Toronto) - polski poeta, dramaturg, powieściopisarz i krytyk teatralny. Członek Polskiego PEN Clubu i UNESCO. +Znawca i tłumacz twórczości Michaiła Lermontowa. +Biografia. +Urodzony w Rosji, w 1921 przyjeżdża z rodzicami do kraju. W 1929 kończy szkołę średnią i studia muzyczne. Początkowo studiuje prawo, a potem polonistykę i rusycystykę na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Wraz z Tadeuszem Wittlinem i Ludwikiem Frydem należy do studenckiej grupy literackiej "Kadra". Pracuje jako dziennikarz (od 1935 w Kielcach). +Podczas okupacji hitlerowskiej członek Armii Krajowej w Warszawie, współpracuje z Departamentem Informacji Delegatury Rządu RP, redaguje wspólnie z Henrykiem Korotyńskim pismo konspiracyjne "Wieści z Tygodnia". Więziony przez Niemców w Krakowie i na Pawiaku. Po powstaniu wywieziony do obozu pracy w Reinowitz. +Od 1945 redaguje dzienniki w Poznaniu. W 1946 jest korespondentem pism "Czytelnika" w Stanach Zjednoczonych. W 1948 jest redaktorem naczelnym "Filmu" i "Gazety Filmowej". Od 1949 zajmuje się wyłącznie pracą literacką. Wydaje poezje, wystawia utwory dramatyczne, tłumaczy poetów i prozaików rosyjskich (przede wszystkim Lermontowa), ukraińskich, francuskich i in. Uprawia eseistykę oraz krytykę teatralną i literacką. +Za wydrukowanie w londyńskich "Wiadomościach" "(Wiadomości Literackie)" poematu "Odebrano mi Polskę" w 1966 poddany zostaje śledztwu, a w 1968 objęty zakazem druku. W lutym 1969 opuszcza Polskę, a jesienią udaje się do London, Ontario w Kanadzie jako profesor slawistyki na University of Western Ontario. +Po paroletniej chorobie serca umiera w Toronto. Prochy zostały pochowane na warszawskich Powązkach. +Hugo de Vermandois + +Hugo de Vermandois zwany Le Maisné (Młodszy) (ur. 1057 - zm. 18 października 1101 w Tarsie) - hrabia Vermandois i Valois, syn króla Francji, Henryka I i Anny Kijowskiej. +Na początku 1096 Hugo i jego brat Filip I zaczęli rozważać udział w krucjaty, po tym jak do Paryża dotarły wieści z Clermont. Filip sam nie mógł uczestniczyć w krucjacie, ponieważ został ekskomunikowany, Hugo natomiast postanowić wziąć w niej udział. W lecie 1096, opuścił Francję i udał się do Włoch, skąd statkiem dostał się do Bizancjum (inne armie krzyżowców wszystkie podróżowały lądem). Podczas drogi wielu rycerzy z armii dowodzonej przez Emicho i pokonanej przez Węgrów przyłączyło się do Hugona. Hugo wypłynął z Bari, przed portem bizantyjskim w Dyrrachium sztorm zniszczył wiele z jego statków. +Hugh i większość jego rycerzy została uratowana i wysłana pod eskortą do Konstantynopola, gdzie przybyli w listopadzie 1096. Przed przybyciem Hugo wysłał arogancki list do cesarza Aleksego I Komnena, domagając się aby cesarz uznał się za jego wasala. +W 1098 po sukcesie krzyżowców pod Antiochią, Hugona wysłano z powrotem do Konstantynopola, aby przyprowadził posiłki od cesarza. Aleksy nie był zainteresowany wspieraniem krzyżowców, a Hugo zamiast wrócić do Antiochii i pomóc w planowaniu oblężenia Jerozolimy, wrócił do Francji. W domu potępiono go za to, że nie dotrzymał przysięgi krzyżowca i nie zakończył swojej "pielgrzymki" w Jerozolimie. Papież Paschalis II chciał go nawet ekskomunikować. W 1101 Hugo dołączył do drugiej fali krzyżowców, we wrześniu w bitwie z Turkami został ranny i zmarł z powodu ran w październiku. +Hugo w literaturze. +Pojawia się w powieści Zofii Kossak pt. "Krzyżowcy". +Deklaracja z Johannesburga + +Deklaracja z Johannesburga - deklaracja podpisana w 2002 roku w Johannesburgu na "Szczycie Ziemi". Skupiono się w niej na niepodzielności godności człowieka, uwzględniając ten probiem poprzez podejmowanie decyzji ustanawiających poziomy docelowe, harmonogramy i partnerstwa mające na celu szybką poprawę dostępu do podstawowych potrzeb, takich jak czysta woda, urządzenia sanitarne, dostateczne schronienie, energia, ochrona zdrowia, bezpieczeństwo żywności i ochrona różnorodności biologicznej. +Formaty plików graficznych + +Formaty plików graficznych można podzielić na formaty przechowujące grafikę rastrową oraz formaty przechowujące grafikę wektorową. Z kolei formaty przechowujące grafikę rastrową można podzielić na stosujące kompresję bezstratną, stosujące kompresję stratną oraz nie stosujące kompresji. +Internet. +Spis formaty grafiki +Harfa laserowa + +Harfa laserowa – instrument muzyczny należący do grupy instrumentów elektrooptycznych. Skonstruowana przez Niemca – Bernarda Szajnera w kwietniu 1981 roku była początkowo dosyć niebezpieczna z powodu dużej mocy zastosowanego lasera. W celu uniknięcia obrażeń trzeba było założyć specjalne okulary i rękawiczki z azbestu. Obecnie do budowy harfy używa się bezpieczniejszych, słabszych laserów. Harfa laserowa jest klawiaturą sterującą i niepodłączona do syntezatora nie wyda dźwięku. W skład konstrukcji harfy wchodzą: wiązka lasera, pryzmat rozpraszający promienie, fotorezystor, sekcja midi i syntezator. +Jest wykorzystywana głównie na koncertach. Używają jej m.in. Bernard Szajner, Jean-Michel Jarre, Claude Lifante, Sebastien Pamart. +W 2008 roku Maurizio Carelli, włoski inżynier ds. programowania i elektroniki, wynalazł dla firmy Kromalaser przenośną harfę laserową, zwaną „KromaLASER KL-250”, która miała jedynie 80-100mW promienia laserowego. To był prototyp. Po tym doświadczeniu udoskonalił również ostateczną, mocniejszą wersję harfy laserowej zwanej „KromaLASER KL-450”. Urządzenie zawiera konfigurowalną pełną oktawę z zielonymi wiązkami dla dźwięków diatonicznych oraz z czerwonymi dla każdych chromatycznych dźwięków w skali diatonicznej oraz chromatycznej. W drugiej połowie 2010 roku wynalazł kolorową wersję tego urządzenia, w pełni „plug&play” oraz modele wolnostojące KromaLASER KL-PRO, z laserem o mocy 1W , pracujące niezależne od światła dziennego. Wynalazł również skanery laserowe, obsługujące stację dysków ILDA. Używając również koloru niebieskiego wynalazł pierwszy kontroler multikolorowej harfy laserowej KL-Kontrol (nazwa prototypu to KL-ILDA). Ta harfa zawiera czujnik (wynaleziony również przez M. Carellego), obojętny na światło dzienne i sztuczne. +Proces psychiczny + +Proces psychiczny to uporządkowany ciąg zachodzących po sobie stanów psychicznych. Jest to zjawisko przeciwstawne do stanu, który stanowi zatrzymanie procesu, jego chwilową charakterystykę, dominujące przejawy. +Nie każdy proces psychiczny musi być uświadomiony. Często świadomość procesu zanika i doświadcza się zdarzeń jako trwania w określonym stanie. Proces może wystąpić w dwóch formach pierwotnej i wtórnej, w zależności od stopnia identyfikacji "ja" z poszczególnymi aspektami procesu. +Procesy pierwotne. +Procesy pierwotne to te, z którymi zachodzi identyfikacja. Odnoszą się do tych zjawisk, przeżyć, zachowań i postaw, z którymi się utożsamiamy. Są podstawą zamierzonej aktywności i zgodne z intencjami. Procesy pierwotne są zazwyczaj świadome lub dość łatwo można je sobie uświadomić (odpowiedź na pytanie "jak tego doświadczasz?"). +Procesy wtórne. +Procesy wtórne są nieintencjonalne, dotyczą wszystkich zachowań, z którymi podmiot nie identyfikuje się. Procesy wtórne mogą stać się pierwotne i przeciwnie, zewnętrznie manifestuje się to jako zmiana postawy. Identyfikacja z pewnymi procesami może być chwilowa, z innymi długotrwała. +Zobacz też: psychologia zorientowana na proces +Tablet graficzny + +Tablet (rzad. "digitizer") – urządzenie wskazujące służące przede wszystkim do rysowania elementów graficznych na komputerze, choć z powodzeniem może działać w zastępstwie myszy komputerowej. +Konstrukcja. +Tablet składa się ze specjalnej podkładki oraz wskaźnika zwanego piórkiem (rysikiem), zwykle w kształcie długopisu. Ruch rysika po podkładce jest przenoszony do komputera jako informacja o bieżącym położeniu oraz o sile nacisku wskaźnika na tablet. Bardziej złożone konstrukcje rejestrują również nachylenie i obrót (wokół własnej osi i względem powierzchni tabletu) celem odwzorowania tego ruchu przy np. dokładnej imitacji smugi farby z pędzla. +Odwzorowanie powierzchni. +Poza kształtem wyróżniającym te urządzenia wskazujące od większości pozostałych jest pobieranie absolutnych współrzędnych ruchu, nie zaś względnych, znanych np. z myszy. Jednak niektóre firmy udostępniają w swoim oprogramowaniu przełączanie pomiędzy trybem absolutnym i relatywnym, tak aby urządzenie można było dostosować do własnych potrzeb. Powierzchnia tabletu stanowi dokładne odwzorowanie ekranu (czy np. okna programu graficznego) w mniejszej skali. Zatem dotknięcia rysikiem poszczególnych rogów podkładki przenoszą kursor natychmiast w narożniki ekranu, ruch myszy zaś przesuwa kursor względem jego bieżącego położenia. +Wymiary i zastosowania. +Tablety udostępniane są w bardzo wielu rozmiarach, zwykle z przeznaczeniem do konkretnych zastosowań – od A6 (retusz fotografii i hobbystyczny rysunek) aż po A0 (programy CAD, tworzenie map i innych projektów). Większość modeli posiada obszar roboczy pokryty ruchomą folią, pod którą można umieścić rysunek referencyjny. +Komunikacja. +Większość tabletów posiada doskonałe wsparcie pod systemami Microsoft Windows, Mac OS i Linux, choć inne systemy takie jak FreeBSD nie stoją w przegranej pozycji. W systemach operacyjnych, które nie wykrywają możliwości tabletów, konstrukcje oparte na porcie USB są rozpoznawane jako standardowe urządzenia HID i działają jak zwykłe myszy lub też, co jest regułą w przypadku starszych tabletów komunikujących się poprzez port RS232, nie działają w ogóle. Programy graficzne takie jak np.: Adobe Photoshop; GIMP; Corel Photo Paint; Krita; potrafią przenieść dodatkowe dane z tabletu takie jak siła nacisku, czy nachylenie. +Rysiki. +Do komunikacji między podkładką a rysikiem wykorzystywane jest pole elektromagnetyczne, w niektórych stanowi ono źródło zasilania rysika, w innych wykorzystywane są nadal baterie (zasadniczo zmniejsza to wygodę użytkowania ze względu na zwiększoną wagę). +Asceza moralna + +Asceza moralna – ćwiczenie się, pozwalające osiągnąć kontrolę na swoim ciałem, umysłem, mające na celu osiągnięcie wewnętrznej harmonii, spokoju, równowagi, a także odpowiedniej wewnętrznej postawy do świata zewnętrznego. +Zobacz też: medytacja. +Budzik + +Budzik jest zegarem zaprojektowanym tak, aby o określonej przez użytkownika porze wydawał dźwięk. +Pomysł zegara sygnalizującego (zazwyczaj akustycznie) żądaną godzinę pochodzi ze starożytności. Według legendy, twórcą pierwszego budzika – zegara wodnego wyposażonego w gwizdek (uchodziło przezeń wypierane o określonej porze z wewnętrznego zbiornika powietrze) – miał być Platon (ok. 400 p.n.e.). W średniowiecznych Chinach stosowano zegary ogniowe z budzikiem – przepalenie nici powodowało upadek ciężarków na metalową tacę. Nowoczesne mechaniczne budziki domowe rozpowszechniły się szeroko w XIX w. +Podstawowym zadaniem takich zegarów jest budzenie ludzi ze snu, ale budziki są również stosowane do przypominania. W celu zatrzymania dźwięku należy nacisnąć przycisk lub przesunąć dźwignię znajdującą się na obudowie; niektóre modele samoczynnie zatrzymują się po upływie kilku minut. Klasyczne budziki mają wskazówkę używaną do ustawiania czasu alarmu. +Tradycyjne budziki wydają dźwięk za pomocą dzwonka, lecz te nowocześniejsze mogą używać innego alarmu. Proste, zasilane bateryjnie urządzenia grają melodie. Inne modele mogą śpiewać, śmiać się, czy nawet mówić. Niektóre są wyposażone w radio, które włącza o ustawionej porze wybraną stację. +W ostatnich czasach nastąpił rozwój programów komputerowych zastępujących budziki. Podobne funkcje posiadają też różne urządzenia elektroniczne, na przykład: telefony komórkowe, telewizory, czy wieże stereofoniczne. +Euro Ice Hockey Challenge + +Euro Ice Hockey Challenge (EIHC) – cykl międzynarodowych turniejów w hokeju na lodzie rangi reprezentacynej rozgrywanych w tym samym terminie (w czasie zharmonizowanych przerw w rozgrywkach ligowych). +Historia. +EIHC został założony w 2001 przez IIHF. Wśród państw uczęstniczących i organizatorów tuniejów są: Ukraina, Austria, Holandia, Włochy, Łotwa, Słowenia, Polska, Białoruś, Norwegia, Wielka Brytania, Francja, Dania, Węgry, Chorwacja, Serbia. +Charakter. +Turnieje organizowane są w europejskich miastach i występują w nich cztery drużyny – kadry narodowe – rozgrywające turniej w systemie "każdy z każdym". Dobór drużyn do turniejów następuje z reguły wedle prezentowanego przez nich poziomu sportowego, tym samym w turniejach rywalizują zez sobą oddzielnie reprezentacje z Elity bądź niższych Dywizji. Turnieje EIHC służą cząsto w praktyce jako rodzaj przygotowania reprezentacji do występów w imprezach o randze mistrzowskiej, z tego względu podczas turniejów do kadr narodowych powoływani są zawodnicy zbierający doświadczenie reprezentacyjne i kandydaci do reprezentacji. Są organizowane w trzech terminach kalendarzowych: połowa listopada, grudnia i lutego. +Wobec turniejów cyklów Euro Hockey Tour i Deutschland Cup, turnieje EIHC stanowią drugą klasę turniejów międzykrajowych. +Polska w EIHC. +Reprezentacja Polski kilkakrotnie była triumfatorem tych turniejów – między innymi w grudniu 2004 w Krynicy-Zdroju. Turniej odbywał się ponadto w Polsce trzykrotnie w Sanoku (2008, 2010 i 2011). +Dolina Sucha Ważecka + +Dolina Sucha Ważecka (słow. "Suchá dolina", "dolina Suchej vody", "Suchá dolina važecká", "Suchovodská dolina", niem. "Suchawodatal", "Suchatal", węg. "Száraz-völgy", "Száraz-víz-völgy", "Szuhavoda-völgy") – niewielka słowacka dolina (ok. 2,0 km długości), położona na terenie Tatr Wysokich, boczne odgałęzienie Doliny Ważeckiej ("Važecká dolina"). Dolina Sucha Ważecka wznosi się w kierunku północno-wschodnim, jej wylot usytuowany jest w środkowej części zwanej Zadnim Handlem ("Zadný Handel"). +W dolnej części doliny znajdują się dwa niewielkie stawy: Zatracony Stawek ("Stratené pliesko") i Skryty Stawek ("Skryté pliesko"). Nazwa doliny pochodzi od tego, że jest sucha, jej dnem nie spływa żaden strumyk i oprócz tych dwu niewielkich stawków nie ma w niej wody. Dolina jest niedostępna dla turystów. Dawniej nazywano ją Handlową Doliną. +Pierwsi turyści, którzy byli w Dolinie Suchej Ważeckiej, to Karol Englisch i przewodnik Paul Spitzkopf senior (18 lipca 1903 r.). Zimą jako pierwszy do doliny dotarł Peter Havas w styczniu 1906 r. +Memex + +Memex - teoretyczny komputer analogowy, opisany w 1945 r. przez naukowca i inżyniera Vannevara Busha w zamieszczonym w "The Atlantic Monthly" artykule "As We May Think". Memex jest skrótem od angielskich wyrazów Memory Extender. +Bush opisał w nim urządzenie podłączone elektrycznie do biblioteki, potrafiące wyświetlać zawarte w niej książki i filmy i zdolne do automatycznego przechodzenia od zawartych w nich odniesień do innych prac. Idea ta, która bezpośrednio wpłynęła na prace Douglasa Engelbarta, doprowadziła także Teda Nelsona do koncepcji hipertekstu i hipermediów. +Memex potrafił więcej niż tylko dawać połączone ze sobą informacje. Było to narzędzie mające także tworzyć powiązania i śledzić je. Technika miała być kombinacją elektromechanicznych urządzeń sterujących, kamer i czytników, zintegrowanych na dużym pulpicie. Większość mikrofilmowej biblioteki byłaby zawarta na pulpicie, z możliwością dodawania lub usuwania taśm mikrofilmowych. Memex mógłby być także używany bez połączeń, do generowania informacji na mikrofilmach, przez przenoszenie fotografii z papieru lub wrażliwego na dotyk przezroczystego ekranu. +W pewnym sensie pulpit memeksu był czymś więcej niż tylko maszyną hipertekstową. Byłby to oparty na mikrofilmach prekursor komputera osobistego. Numer magazynu "Life" z listopada 1945 r. pokazywał pierwsze ilustracje, jak wyglądałby pulpit memeksu, a także kamerę, którą umieszczałby na głowie naukowiec wykonujący eksperymenty i maszynę do pisania zdolną do rozpoznawania głosu i odtwarzania go za pomocą syntezy. Maszyna memex była prawdopodobnie pierwszym praktycznym opisem tego, co dziś nazywamy biurem przyszłości. +System nie był zaopatrzony w żadną automatyczną funkcję wyszukiwania danych ani żaden schemat metadanych, jak standardowa klasyfikacja biblioteczna czy hipertekstowy zbiór elementów w rodzaju Dublin Core. Od użytkownika oczekiwano rozwinięcia specyficznego kodu, którego znaczenia byłyby zapisane w osobistej książce kodu. Użytkownik indeksowałby każdy wpis - ilustracje, adnotacje, rękopisy, maszynopisy itd. Sięgając do książki z kodem można by było odtworzyć komentowane czy generowane strony. +Memex był inspiracją dla MyLifeBits, projektu Gordona Bella z Microsoft Research, opartego na bazie danych cyfrowego zbioru fotografii, dokumentów, kontaktów z innymi, możliwych do adnotowania, zindeksowania i przeszukiwania. Ten rozwijany stale projekt próbuje uchwycić w jak najbardziej zautomatyzowany sposób życiowe doświadczenia, do łatwego późniejszego wykorzystania. +Aniela z Foligno + +Aniela z Foligno OFS (ur. ok. 1248 w Foligno, zm. 4 stycznia 1309 tamże) – włoska tercjarka franciszkańska, pokutnica, mistyczka, której nadano tytuł "Mistrzyni teologów", błogosławiona Kościoła katolickiego. +Życiorys. +Po wczesnej śmierci męża i dzieci resztę życia poświęciła pokucie. Pielgrzymowała do Asyżu, a następnie rozdała cały majątek. W 1291 roku wstąpiła do III Zakonu św. Franciszka, służyła ubogim i potrzebującym. Ostatnie lata spędziła jako pustelnica zupełnie odcięta od świata, przez dziesięć lat nie spożywając pokarmu. +4 stycznia 1309 roku zmarła po długiej i ciężkiej chorobie. Pochowano ją w rodzinnym Foligno w kościele św. Franciszka z Asyżu. W osobnym relikwiarzu spoczywa serce Anieli, na którym widać znak, jaki za życia otrzymała w czasie mistycznej wizji. +Beatyfikowana przez papieża Innocentego XII w 1693 r. Dniem wspomnienia liturgicznego błogosławionej jest 4 stycznia. +Aniela miała dar rozumienia tajemnic wiary, szczególnie Trójcy Świętej, głęboko czciła Chrystusa cierpiącego. Podczas jednej z wielu wizji mistycznych modliła się słowami: "O Miłości niepojęta! Zaiste nie masz większej miłości nad tę, mocą której Bóg stał się ciałem, aby mnie nią ogarnąć i przebóstwić. O Niepojęty, Ty dałeś się pojąć! O Niestworzony, Tyś stał się stworzeniem! O myślą Nieogarnięty, Ty dajesz się ogarnąć! Panie, uczyń mnie godną wejrzeć w głąb tej najwyższej miłości, którą obdarzyłeś nas i wciąż obdarzasz w Twoim Świętym Wcieleniu!" +Smartmontools + +smartmontools - zestaw programów do obsługi podsystemu S.M.A.R.T. dysków twardych. +Na pakiet smartmontools składają się dwa programy smartctl i smartd. Pierwszy z nich to uniwersalne narzędzie od konfiguracji, uruchamiania testów i odczytywania z dysku informacji o jego stanie. Daemon smartd odpowiada natomiast za stałe monitorowanie dysku. Programy te działają w środowisku systemów operacyjnych GNU/Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, Solaris oraz Microsoft Windows. Całość udostępniana jest na licencji GNU General Public License. +Trzcińsko + +Trzcińsko (niem. "Rohrlach") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie jeleniogórskim, w gminie Janowice Wielkie, na pograniczu Rudaw Janowickich i Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej w Sudetach Zachodnich. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa jeleniogórskiego. +Historia i współczesność. +Trzcińsko jest wyjątkowo malowniczo położoną nad Bobrem wioską u stóp Sokolich Gór. Po raz pierwszy wymieniana w dokumentach z XV w. Jak wiele okolicznych wsi, przez wieki przechodziła z rąk do rąk różnych rodów rycerskich, początkowo związanych z zamkiem Bolczów nad Janowicami Wielkimi. +Specyfiką Trzcińska było wydobywanie torfu w XIX w. z pobliskich Trzcińskich Mokradeł - dziś projektowanego rezerwatu przyrody. Specyfiką dzisiejszego Trzcińska są szkoły wspinaczki, bazujące na unikatowych walorach Sokolich Gór. +Podaje się, iż najsłynniejszym lokatorem Trzcińska był Karl Baedeker (1801-1859), który w pierwszej poł. XIX w. wybudował zespół pałacowy. Faktem jest, że w pałacu tym rzeczywiście mieszkał człowiek o tym samym imieniu i nazwisku. Był to jednak bratanek autora słynnych przewodników turystycznych. To od jego nazwiska do dziś określa się je bedekerami. Pierwszy prawdziwy "bedeker" opisywał Ren i wydany został w 1828 r. Wydawnictwo Baedekera działa do dziś w Hamburgu i Stuttgarcie. Po pałacu Baedekera pozostały dziś jedynie wspomnienia, kilka starych drzew i zabudowania gospodarcze w środkowej części wsi. +Wyróżniającym się zabytkiem Trzcińska jest wyremontowany poewangelicki kościół MB Częstochowskiej z 1799 r. Wyposażenie kościoła nie jest szczególnie bogate, ale po remoncie prezentuje się ciekawie. Interesujące jest także otoczenie pałacyku z XIX w., w którym mieści się dziś przedszkole. Pałacyk otacza kilkuhektarowy park ze starodrzewem i stawami. Warto zwrócić też uwagę na drewniany letniskowy dom z przełomu wieków ponad drogą do Janowic. +W 1867 r. przez Trzcińsko poprowadzono tory kolejowe do Jeleniej Góry. Uczyniło to z wioski popularną miejscowość turystyczną. Ok. 1 km w kierunku Jeleniej Góry za stacją w Trzcińsku tory kolejowe nikną w głębi góry Tunelowej (440 m). Prawie 300-metrowy tunel zbudowano w 1865 r.; był pierwszym tego typu obiektem na Śląsku. +Wielokrążek zwykły + +Wielokrążek zwykły to rodzaj wielokrążka, w którym krążki są połączone jeden za drugim. +gdzie, k - liczba odcinków cięgna przebiegających pomiędzy zbloczami (zespołami krążków). +gdzie n - liczba krążków przesuwnych (w zbloczu ruchomym). +Wielokrążek zwykły w układach rzeczywistych. +W układach rzeczywistych dochodzą zjawiska dynamiczne, związane z inercją układu oraz straty mechaniczne związane z oporami ruchu. Zazwyczaj przyjmuje się, że ruch jest ustalony i nie występuje tarcie. +gdzie, formula_7 - sprawność wielokrążka zwykłego. +Przy określonej sprawności krążka stałego formula_8 +Ił-38 + +Ił-38 (ros. Ил-38) (w systemie kodowym NATO oznaczony jako "May") – radziecki morski samolot patrolowy dalekiego rozpoznania, wykrywania i zwalczania okrętów podwodnych. Zaprojektowany w 1967 roku w biurze konstrukcyjnym Siergieja Władimirowicza Iljuszyna. +Historia. +Samolot Ił-38 jest rozwinięciem samolotu Ił-18D - morskiej wersji patrolowej samolotu pasażerskiego Ił-18. Od swojego poprzednika różni się przekonstruowanym kadłubem - skrócono jego przednią część, a wydłużono tylną, co sprawiło, że skrzydła przesunęły się ku przodowi. Prototyp został oblatany w 1968 roku. Samolot ten różni się od wersji pasażerskiej wydłużonym stożkiem ogonowym, przesunięciem płata do przodu oraz bogatym wyposażeniem elektronicznym. +W latach 1968 – 1972 wyprodukowano 58 samolotów tego typu, z tego 5 sprzedano dla marynarki wojennej Indii. +Użycie samolotu. +Samolot Ił-38 jest używany w lotnictwie marynarki ZSRR i Indii, jako samolot rozpoznania morskiego oraz wykrywania i zwalczania okrętów podwodnych. Zamówienia złożonego przez Egipt nie zrealizowano. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot Ił-38 jest dolnopłatem o konstrukcji metalowej, półskorupowej. Kadłub dzieli się na trzy części. W pierwszej części znajduje się hermetyczna kabina pilotów i mechaników oraz urządzenia radiolokacyjne z anteną umieszczone w opływowej kopule pod kadłubem, znajduje się tam również komora bombowa do przenoszeni broni przeciwko okrętom podwodnym. W środkowej części mieści się specjalistyczna aparatura elektroniczna wraz ze stanowiskami obsługującego ją personelu. W tej części znajdują się również zbiorniki paliwa. Tylna część kadłuba z usterzeniem ogonowym zawiera magnetometr wbudowany w wydłużony stożek ogonowy. Podwozie trójgoleniowe z kołami przednimi, chowane w locie. Napęd stanowią cztery silniki turbośmigłowe Iwczenko AI-20M, śmigła czterołopatowe AW-68I o średnicy 4,5 m. Zbiorniki paliwa znajdują się również w skrzydłach +Paramaribo + +Paramaribo to stolica Surinamu, położona nad rzeką Surinam, na wybrzeżu Oceanu Atlantyckiego. +W 2002 r. zespół zabytkowy Paramaribo został wpisany na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +W tym mieście urodzili się między innymi: Clarence Seedorf, Edgar Davids, Aron Winter, Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink, Lorenzo Davids, Edson Braafheid, Romeo Castelen i Dwight Tiendalli. +Bogini-słońce z Arinny + +Bogini-słońce z Arinny ("Wuruszemu", "Wuruntemu", "Ariniti") pani krainy Hatti, hetycka bogini nieba i ziemi, pani królów Hatti. Przedstawiana jako kobieta stojąca na grzbiecie jej poświęconych lwów. Małżonka boga Taru i matka boga burzy z Narik. Z biegiem czasu utożsamiona z boginią Hebat. +Bitwa pod Opis + +Bitwa pod Opis – starcie zbrojne, które miało miejsce ok. 26 września 539 roku p.n.e. w środkowej Mezopotamii (obecnie okolice Bagdadu) między wojskami nowobabilońskimi, dowodzonymi przez syna króla Nabonida, Baltazara (oraz prawdopodobnie samego Nabonida), a najeżdżającą Babilonię armią perską dowodzoną przez Cyrusa. Była to jedyna duża bitwa kampanii babilońskiej Cyrusa. +Baltazar, który miał słabszą armię, usiłował uniemożliwić wojskom perskim przejście na drugi brzeg Tygrysu. W tym celu na polecenie ojca obstawił wojskiem cały brzeg w pobliżu miasta Opis. Dzięki osobistej odwadze Cyrusa wojsko perskie przeszło przez rzekę prawie bez użycia łodzi. Siły babilońskie zostały całkowicie rozbite, Baltazar prawdopodobnie zginął, a Nabonid uciekł (został później- ok. 14 października aresztowany w Babilonie). +Po bitwie Cyrus zniszczył doszczętnie Opis (którego mieszkańcy prawdopodobnie wystąpili przeciw niemu zbrojnie) aby pokazać innym miastom, w tym stolicy Nabonida, Babilonowi, że opór nie ma sensu. Po bitwie Cyrus podzielił armię na dwie części - sam 12 października zajął bez walki Sippar, Babilon zaś poddał się dowodzonym przez Gobryasa wojskom perskim 13 października. Los Babilonii został przypieczętowany. +Teoria temperamentu PEN + +Biologiczna teoria temperamentu PEN Hansa Eysencka zalicza się do czynnikowych teorii osobowości. Zakłada biologiczne podłoże temperamentu i uniwersalność cech temperamentalnych. +Osobowość powstaje i rozwija się przez funkcjonalne współdziałanie czterech sfer: sfery poznawczej (inteligencja), woluntarnej (charakter), afektywnej (temperament) i somatycznej (konstytucja ciała). Przez osobowość Eysenck rozumie względnie trwałą organizację charakteru, temperamentu, inteligencji oraz konstytucji fizycznej, która determinuje specyficzny sposób przystosowania do otoczenia. Temperament to sposób wyrażania emocji, jest częścią składową charakteru, czyli systemu świadomych dążeń w zachowaniu. +Każdy z tych czynników jest krańcem kontinuum. Biegunem przeciwnym do ekstrawersji jest introwersja, przeciwieństwo neurotyczności to równowaga emocjonalna. Psychotyczność, która została najpóźniej wprowadzona do teorii, na jednym biegunie stanowi o patologii psychicznej, na drugim o uspołecznieniu. +Pojęcie ekstrawersji-introwersji Eysenck zapożyczył od Junga, który zupełnie inaczej rozumiał te wymiary osobowości. +Wymiary teorii PEN są możliwe do badania kwestionariuszem EPQ-R (Eysenck, Eysenck i Barrett), znormalizowanym dla uczniów szkół ponadpodstawowych, studentów i osób dorosłych. Autorami polskiej adaptacji są Piotr Brzozowski, Radosław Drwal. +Frank Kelly Freas + +Frank Kelly Freas (ur. 27 sierpnia 1922 w Hornell, Nowy Jork, zm. 2 stycznia 2005 w Los Angeles, Kalifornia) – rysownik amerykański, ilustrator książek i magazynów science fiction i fantasy. +Pracował dla NASA jako projektant wyglądu amerykańskiej stacji kosmicznej Skylab, ilustrował wiele książek, współpracował z największymi amerykańskimi pismami literatury science fiction i fantasy ("Astounding Science Fiction", "Analog Science Fiction and Fact", "Mad"). Zaprojektował także m.in. okładkę albumu "News of the World" zespołu Queen. Był laureatem wielu nagród, w tym jedenastokrotnie nagrody Hugo. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Oficjalna strona artysty +Neurotyczność + +Neurotyczność – w psychologii oznacza cechę osobowości polegającą na silnym niezrównoważeniu emocjonalnym o charakterze nerwicowym, niskiej odporności na stres, skłonności do popadania w stany lękowe. Przeciwieństwem neurotyczności jest równowaga emocjonalna. +Pojęcie to wprowadził Eysenck w teorii temperamentu PEN. Eysenck nie zdefiniował neurotyczności wprost, uznając ją raczej za korelacje między cechami. +W swoim wymiarze fizjologicznym "neurotyczność" jest opisywana jako reaktywność układu nerwowego współczulnego. U neurotyków reaktywność ta jest większa niż u osób zrównoważonych emocjonalnie. +Tragikomedia + +Tragikomedia – utwór łączący treści tragiczne i komediowe. Nazwa wprowadzona została przez rzymskiego komediopisarza Plauta. Do tego gatunku mieszanego nawiązywał także Eurypides; Arystoteles natomiast teoretyzował na jego temat. +Tragikomedia została rozpowszechniona w epoce renesansu we Włoszech, a rozwijała się w baroku (np. "Mizantrop" Moliera, napisany pod koniec XVII wieku) i romantyzmie (H. von Kleist, G. Büchner). Charakteryzowała się rozluźnieniem zasady trójjedności, skomplikowaną fabułą i intencją wywołania u odbiorcy innych emocji niż po lekturze utworu tragicznego. +Zobacz też: tragedia, komedia, dramat. +Sybillina Biscossi + +Sybillina Biscossi (ur. 1287 w Pawii; zm. 19 marca 1367) – błogosławiona Kościoła katolickiego. +Bardzo wcześnie została sierotą. Pracowała jako służąca. W wieku 12 lat straciła wzrok. Następnie została tercjarką dominikańską. Umartwiała się w sposób skrajny. Poprosiła o zamurowanie jej w celi przy kościele dominikanów. +Jej kult zatwierdził Pius IX 17 sierpnia 1854 r. +Titanic (ścieżka dźwiękowa) + +Titanic – album ze ścieżką dźwiękową do nagrodzonego jedenastoma Oscarami filmu "Titanic" Jamesa Camerona. Muzykę do filmu zawartą w albumie skomponował James Horner. +__TOC__ +Okoliczności powstania. +Cameron początkowo zamierzał, by muzykę do jego dzieła skomponowała Enya. W obliczu jej odmowy, Cameron zaproponował kompozycję tła muzycznego Jamesowi Hornerowi. Relacje między nimi były raczej chłodne od czasu ich współpracy nad filmem "Obcy - decydujące starcie", ale styl kompozycji ścieżki dźwiękowej do filmu "Braveheart. Waleczne serce" ostatecznie przekonał Camerona. James Horner napisał muzykę, mając na uwadze niepowtarzalny styl Enyi, starając się uchwycić jego specyficzne cechy. +Na początku Cameron nie zamierzał aranżować specjalnego tła muzycznego pod napisy końcowe. James Horner nie zgodził się z jego punktem widzenia, i potajemnie wraz z Willem Jenningsem przygotował oraz nagrał całą piosenkę. Wiodący utwór "My Heart Will Go On" zaśpiewała Céline Dion, a kiedy został on zaprezentowany reżyserowi, ten od razu zgodził się na jego włączenie do filmu. Był to „strzał w dziesiątkę” – "My Heart Will Go On" zostało nagrodzone Oscarem za najlepszą oryginalną piosenkę filmową w 1997 (kolejnego Oscara zdobyła ścieżka dźwiękowa jako całość). Ten utwór o miłości w krótkim czasie obiegł czołowe lokaty notowań muzycznych na świecie i odniósł wielki sukces komercyjny. +Po entuzjastycznym przyjęciu albumu muzycznego "Titanic", wytwórnia Sony Classical wydała jeszcze jeden, o nazwie Back to Titanic. Nie podzielił on jednak sukcesu poprzednika. +Adler + +Adler (niem. orzeł – dawniej popularny symbol św. Jana Ewangelisty) +Yacoub Denha Scher + +Yacoub Denha Scher (ur. 7 kwietnia 1934, zm. 8 stycznia 2005) – iracki duchowny katolicki obrządku chaldejskiego, arcybiskup Arbeli (Erbil). +Przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 10 czerwca 1960. 12 stycznia 2001 został mianowany chaldejskim arcybiskupem Arbeli, jako następca Jakuba Iszaka ("Ishaq"). Sakry biskupiej udzielił mu 16 lutego 2001 chaldejski arcybiskup Bagdadu i patriarcha Babilonu Rafael I BiDawid. +Zmarł na początku 2005 śmiercią naturalną. +Wielokrążek różnicowy + +Wielokrążek różnicowy - rodzaj wielokrążka, w którym występuje krążek przesuwny, a krążek stały składa się z dwóch kół o różnych promieniach. +Powyższa zależność określa jaka musi być wartość siły P, gdy wielokrążek jest obciążony siłą Q. +Wielokrążek różnicowy w układach rzeczywistych. +W układach rzeczywistych dochodzą zjawiska dynamiczne, związane z inercją układu oraz straty mechaniczne związane z oporami ruchu. W naszym przypadku przyjmujemy, że ruch w układzie jest ruchem ustalonym. +Psychotyczność + +Psychotyczność – w psychologii oznacza cechę osobowości o charakterze psychotycznym, psychopatycznym lub schizofrenicznym. Za wymiar przeciwny psychotyczności można uznać uspołecznienie, konwencjonalność, konformizm i altruizm. +Pojęcie to wprowadził Eysenck w teorii temperamentu PEN. Eysenck nie zdefiniował psychotyczności wprost, uznając ją za korelacje między cechami. +Zadatek + +Zadatek – dodatkowe zastrzeżenie umowne. Służy do zabezpieczenia interesów obu stron umowy. Strona, która nie wykona swojego zobowiązania traci zadatek, jeśli sama go dała, albo obowiązana jest go zwrócić w dwukrotnej wysokości. Od 2008 roku zadatek jest skuteczny jeżeli zostanie wręczony przed, w trakcie lub po zawarciu umowy. +Zadatkiem może być określona suma wyrażona w pieniądzu jak również rzecz ruchoma. +Wysokość zadatku nie powinna przekraczać wartości przyszłego zobowiązania. +Zadatek jest najczęściej stosowany w umowach przedwstępnych (sprzedaży nieruchomości, samochodu itp.). Dzięki niemu każda ze stron zabezpiecza się na wypadek zerwania umowy w ostatniej chwili przez drugą stronę. +Zadatek różni się od zaliczki tym, że w razie niewykonania umowy przez jedną ze stron, druga strona wzbogaca się o wysokość zadatku; natomiast zaliczka jest po prostu zwracana, bez dodatkowych konsekwencji. Zadatek staje się nim tylko wtedy, gdy zostanie to jasno określone w umowie – bez takiego określenia będzie to zaliczka. +Najczęstszy scenariusz: kupujący, zawierając umowę przedwstępną, płaci sprzedającemu zadatek (zwykle 10%). +Jest dopuszczalne ustalenie innych możliwości dotyczących wycofania się z umowy, w zależności od ustaleń między stronami. +Zadatek jest zdefiniowany w art. 394 k.c. +Zasiedzenie + +Zasiedzenie – sposób nabycia określonego prawa wskutek upływu czasu, jedna z instytucji dawności. Funkcją zasiedzenia jest uzgodnienie stanu prawnego i stanu posiadania, instytucją prawną, która może działać przeciwstawnie do zasiedzenia, jest tzw. rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych. Swoistym odstępstwem prawnym są obydwa te uregulowania. +Przedmiot zasiedzenia. +Przedmiotem zasiedzenia mogą być niektóre z praw rzeczowych. Podstawą zasiedzenia jest posiadanie samoistne czyli faktyczne władanie rzeczą jak właściciel, jednocześnie formalnie nim nie będąc. Odnosi się ono do tych praw, z którymi wiąże się władza nad rzeczą. Rzeczy, które ze swojej natury nie mogą być przedmiotem własności (np. części składowe, które, nie zostały zgodnie z prawem, „wyodrębnione”), nie mogą być przedmiotem zasiedzenia, np. pokój w hotelu (podczas gdy cały opuszczony hotel już tak), piwnica, strych – chyba że wyodrębniono ich własność – zgodnie z odpowiednimi przepisami. +Służebność gruntowa może być nabyta przez zasiedzenie tylko w wypadku, gdy polega na korzystaniu z trwałego i widocznego urządzenia (art. 292 k.c.). +W latach 1961-1990 nie można było nabyć w drodze zasiedzenia nieruchomości stanowiącej własność Skarbu Państwa. +Można przez zasiedzenie stać się właścicielem części nieruchomości gruntowej. Na skutek zasiedzenia nastąpi wydzielenie nowej nieruchomości z nowym właścicielem. +Możliwe jest zasiedzenie udziału w prawie własności rzeczy, jako konsekwencja możliwości współposiadania. +Nie można nabyć przez zasiedzenie lokalu mieszkalnego lub użytkowego, jeżeli nie był on wcześniej wyodrębniony zgodnie z właściwymi przepisami. To samo dotyczy zasiedzenia prawa użytkowania wieczystego. +Przesłanki. +Kodeks cywilny do zasiedzenia nieruchomości wymaga upływu, od momentu objęcia rzeczy w posiadanie, lat dwudziestu dla posiadacza samoistnego w dobrej wierze a lat trzydziestu przy złej wierze. Dobrą lub złą wiarę ocenia się na stan z momentu obejmowania w posiadanie. Późniejsza utrata dobrej wiary nie wyklucza zasiedzenia (łac. "mala fides superveniens non nocet"). +Rzecz ruchomą można natomiast zasiedzieć jedynie w dobrej wierze po upływie lat trzech. Nie można dokonać zasiedzenia ruchomości w złej wierze. Dobra wiara musi obejmować cały okres posiadania, nie tylko moment objęcia w posiadanie, jak w przypadku nieruchomości. Tak więc utrata dobrej wiary wyklucza zasiedzenie (łac. "mala fides superveniens nocet"). +Dobra wiara posiadacza polega na usprawiedliwionym w danych okolicznościach przekonaniu, że przysługuje mu takie prawo do władania rzeczą, jakie faktycznie wykonuje. W złej wierze znajduje się jednak nie tylko ten, który wie, że nie jest właścicielem, ale również ten, który nie dołożył należytej staranności w sprawdzeniu, czy skutecznie nabywa własność – na przykład umowa przeniesienia własności nieruchomości nie została zawarta w formie aktu notarialnego lub ruchomość została nabyta od osoby nie mającej zdolności do czynności prawnych +Posiadacz samoistny nie musi udowadniać swojej dobrej wiary, gdyż ustawodawca wprowadził domniemanie dobrej wiary (art. 7 k.c.). Domniemanie to musi obalić właściciel broniący swojej własności przed zasiedzeniem. +Do zasiedzenia prowadzi tylko posiadanie samoistne. Musi mieć charakter władania rzeczą z zamiarem posiadania jej dla siebie (łac. "cum animo rem sibi habendi"). Dlatego też nie może doprowadzić do zasiedzenia posiadanie zależne – wynikające z objęcia rzeczy w wyniku zawarcia umowy najmu, dzierżawy czy użyczenia – chociażby było długotrwałe, chyba że posiadacz sam zmieni sobie podstawę posiadania to znaczy zacznie zachowywać się jak właściciel rzeczy. +Jeżeli podczas biegu zasiedzenia nastąpi przeniesienie posiadania, obecny posiadacz może doliczyć do czasu, przez który sam posiada, czas posiadania swojego poprzednika. Jeżeli jednak poprzedni posiadacz uzyskał posiadanie nieruchomości w złej wierze, czas jego posiadania może być doliczony tylko wtedy, gdy łącznie z czasem posiadania obecnego właściciela wynosi przynajmniej lat trzydzieści. To samo dotyczy wypadku, gdy obecny posiadacz jest spadkobiercą poprzedniego posiadacza (art 176 k.c.). +Podsumowanie +Bieg zasiedzenia. +Bieg zasiedzenia rozpoczyna się z chwilą objęcia rzeczy w posiadanie samoistne. +Po ustaniu określonej wyżej przyczyny zasiedzenie rozpoczyna się lub jego bieg jest kontynuowany. +Wstrzymanie zakończenia biegu zasiedzenia dotyczy osób, które nie mają pełnej zdolności do czynności prawnych (z wyłączeniem zasiedzenia nieruchomości należącej do osoby małoletniej, o czy niżej). Bieg zasiedzenia w tych przypadkach nie może skończyć się wcześniej, niż z upływem dwóch lat od ustanowienia dla tych osób przedstawiciela ustawowego albo od ustania przyczyn jego ustanowienia. Odpowiednio należy stosować to unormowanie do osób, co do których istnieją podstawy do ich całkowitego ubezwłasnowolnienia. +Ustawodawca polski wprowadził specjalny przepis chroniący małoletniego właściciela nieruchomości – zasiedzenie przeciwko niemu może się skończyć dopiero z upływem dwóch lat od uzyskania przez niego pełnoletności (art. 173 Kodeksu cywilnego). Jest to przepis szczególny wobec ogólnych przepisów o przedawnieniu roszczeń, stosowanych odpowiednio na mocy art. 175 k.c. +Jeśli zachodzą powołane wyżej przesłanki mimo upływu terminu zasiedzenia nabycie własności jest odroczone. Dopiero jeśli przez czas trwania dodatkowo wyznaczonego terminu nie dojdzie do przerwania biegu przedawnienia dochodzi do nabycia własności. +Bieg terminu zasiedzenia przerywa każda czynność przed sądem lub innym organem powołanym do rozpoznawania spraw lub do egzekwowania roszczeń danego rodzaju albo przed sądem polubownym, przedsięwzięta w celu dochodzenia, ustalenia, zaspokojenia lub zabezpieczenia roszczeń. W szczególności chodzi tu o roszczenie windykacyjne. Według Edwarda Gniewka bieg zasiedzenia przerywa także powództwo o ustalenie prawa własności, pozew o uzgodnienie treści prawa własności, wniosek o wpis do księgi wieczystej ostrzeżenia o niezgodności dotychczasowego wpisu z rzeczywistym stanem prawnym, wniosek o wszczęcie egzekucji wydania rzeczy. Nie stanowi czynności przerywającej bieg zasiedzenia pozew, czy wniosek zwrócony, odrzucony lub oddalony przez wspomniany wyżej organ. +Doktryna prawnicza nie wypowiada się jednoznacznie co do skutków uznania przez posiadacza samoistnego, że nie jest właścicielem. Według jednych powoduje to jedynie utratę dobrej wiary (czyli uniemożliwia zasiedzenie ruchomości i wydłuża do 30 lat okres zasiedzenia nieruchomości), według innych oznacza, że posiadacz nie jest już posiadaczem samoistnym i nawet zasiedzenie nieruchomości w złej wierze nie jest już możliwe. +Jeżeli po przerwaniu biegu zasiedzenia nadal rzeczą włada posiadacz samoistny termin zasiedzenia biegnie od na nowo (art. 124 § 1, w zw. z art. 175 k.c.). Jeśli bieg został przerwany wszczęciem postępowania przed organem, to bieg zasiedzenia zaczyna się na nowo dopiero od zakończenia tego postępowania (art. 124 § 2, w zw. z art. 175 k.c.). +Skutki. +Skutkiem zasiedzenia jest pierwotne nabycie własności (czy innego wyżej wskazanego prawa rzeczowego) przez posiadacza, który może żądać, aby stwierdził to sąd w orzeczeniu. Nabycie następuje z mocy prawa i orzeczenie takie jest deklaratoryjne, a nie konstytutywne i stanowi podstawę wpisu nowego właściciela do księgi wieczystej. Z drugiej strony upływ terminu zasiedzenia powoduje utratę prawa przez dotychczasowego właściciela. +Utrata prawa dotyczy jednak jedynie właściciela, nie zaś osób trzecich. Oznacza to, że nie wygasają wraz z prawem własności poprzedniego właściciela dotychczasowe obciążenia rzeczy – w szczególności ograniczone prawa rzeczowe – służebności i hipoteka. Własność nieruchomości nabyta przez jednego ze współmałżonków w drodze zasiedzenia wchodzi w skład majątkowej wspólności ustawowej wówczas, gdy bieg terminu zasiedzenia zakończył się w czasie trwania wspólności ustawowej. +Postępowanie sądowe. +Stwierdzenie zasiedzenia następuje w postępowaniu nieprocesowym, uregulowanym w Kodeksie postępowania cywilnego w art. 609-610. Wpis sądowy od wniosku o stwierdzenie nabycia służebności gruntowej przez zasiedzenie wynosi 200 zł a w przypadku nieruchomości 2000 zł ("ustawa z dnia 28 lipca 2005 roku o kosztach sądowych w sprawach cywilnych" ()). +Zasiedzenie a niemieckie roszczenia. +Sąd Rejonowy w Nidzicy uznał zasiedzenie w dobrej wierze przez rodzinę Smolińskich nieruchomości położonej we wsi Kanigowo porzuconej w 1983 przez opuszczającą Polskę rodzinę Lukaschewskich. W ocenie niektórych środowisk (np. Lecha Obary z Ruchu Prawników przeciwko Niemieckim Roszczeniom Rewindykacyjnym i Doroty Arciszewskiej-Mielewczyk z Powiernictwa Polskiego) jeśli ten precedensowy wyrok uda się utrzymać w wyższej instancji będzie to miało zasadnicze znaczenie dla odrzucania kolejnych wniosków niemieckich obywateli dotyczących roszczeń majątkowych. +Komisja śledcza w sprawie afery Rywina + +Sejmowa komisja śledcza do zbadania ujawnionych w mediach zarzutów dotyczących przypadków korupcji podczas prac nad nowelizacją ustawy o radiofonii i telewizji powołana przez Sejm 10 stycznia 2003 roku na wniosek Prawa i Sprawiedliwości. Była pierwszą komisją śledczą powołaną w III Rzeczypospolitej. Miała wyjaśnić nieprawidłowości, które wynikały z pracy nad ustawą o radiofonii i telewizji. Komisja zakończyła pracę 5 kwietnia 2004 roku. +Początkowy skład komisji. +"Przewodniczący:" +"Wiceprzewodniczący:" +"Członkowie:" +Piechowice + +Piechowice (do 1945 r. niem. "Petersdorf") – miasto i gmina leżące na Śląsku (Dolnym Śląsku), w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie jeleniogórskim. +W latach 1945-54 siedziba wiejskiej gminy Piechowice. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa jeleniogórskiego. +Miejscowość leży nad Kamienną, niewielką rzeką dorzecza Odry, dopływem Bobru oraz uchodzącym doń w Piechowicach dopływem - Małą Kamienną. +Według danych z 31 marca 2011 miasto liczyło 6 565 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Do Piechowic należą części miejscowości (niektóre mają status osiedla): Górzyniec, Michałowice, Pakoszów, Piastów. W latach 1976-1997 dzielnicą Piechowic był także Jagniątków, przyłączone 1 stycznia 1998 r. do graniczącej z nim Jeleniej Góry. Miasto położone jest na wysokości 360–480 m n.p.m., a granica administracyjna sięga aż do wysokości 1509 m n.p.m., gdzie znajduje się drugi co do wielkości szczyt Karkonoszy - Wielki Szyszak. Gmina graniczy z gminami: Jelenia Góra, Stara Kamienica, Szklarska Poręba oraz z Czechami (przez szczyty Karkonoszy). +Historia. +Założone na przełomie XIII i XIV wieku, prawa miejskie uzyskało dopiero w 1967 r.(przy czym sąsiednie wsie jako osiedla znalazły się w obrębie nowopowstałego miasta). Geneza miasta wiąże się z Hansem Paterem, który zbudował młyn na terenie dzisiejszych Piechowic na początku XIV w. - stąd też nasiębierne koło młyńskie we współczesnym herbie miasta. Późniejsze wieki przyniosły rozwój tradycji szklarskich, podobnie jak w sąsiedniej Szklarskiej Porębie. Nowoczesny przemysł pojawił się w Piechowicach w XX w., co wynika z doprowadzenia kolei (w grudniu 1891 r., przedłużona do Szklarskiej Poręby i Korzenova w czerwcu 1902 r.) i budowy zakładów. Z uwagi na brak działań wojennych w czasie II wojny światowej przeniesiono do Piechowic produkcję z niektórych zakładów Berlina. Pozostały z tego okresu instalacje obronne (np. bunkry w Cichej Dolinie - obecnie znane w Polsce siedlisko nietoperzy). +Struktura powierzchni. +Miasto stanowi 6,89% powierzchni powiatu. +Komunikacja. +Piechowice leżą na trasie drogi krajowej nr 3, która przebiega na odcinku Świnoujście - Jakuszyce oraz stanowi polską część międzynarodowej trasy E65 z Malmö do Chania. Od drogi krajowej nr 3 odchodzi droga wojewódzka nr 366 z Piechowic do Kowar, stanowiąca zarazem główną ulicę miasta (ul. Żymierskiego). Miasto jest skomunikowane z Jelenią Górą (pociągi, autobusy PKS i MZK) i Szklarską Porębą. Na uwagę zasługuje droga do Michałowic, prowadząca przez serpentyny i malowniczy tunel wykuty w skale. +Oświata i sport. +W mieście działają 2 przedszkola, szkoła podstawowa, gimnazjum i zespół szkół ponadgimnazjalnych (zawodówka, technikum i liceum). Po ukończeniu gimnazjum absolwenci wybierają zwykle szkoły w Jeleniej Górze. +Piechowicki sport to przede wszystkim Klub Sportowy Lechia Piechowice. Klub dzieli się na sekcję rowerową i piłkarską, dysponuje stadionem. Prezesem zarządu jest Jacek Kamiński, a wiceprezesem Daniel Potkański. Do klubu należy Marek Galiński - wielokrotny mistrz Polski w kolarstwie górskim i czterokrotny olimpijczyk (w 2008 r. w polskiej reprezentacji na igrzyskach w Pekinie). Z uwagi na dużą ilość górskich tras rowerowych Piechowice są obecnie promowane jako "Kraina rowerów". +Kultura. +Artystyczną wizytówką miasta jest położone w Karkonoszach osiedle Michałowice, w którym funkcjonują: galeria sztuki Pawła Trybalskiego (malarstwo surrealistyczne i metaforyczne) oraz Teatr Nasz i Teatr Cinema. Oba teatry mają charakter niepubliczny, Teatr Nasz specjalizuje się w kabarecie i regularnie wystawia spektakle dla mieszkańców i turystów, a Teatr Cinema interesuje się eksperymentami artystycznymi, uczestnicząc zarazem w krajowych i zagranicznych festiwalach. Funkcje kulturalne pełni również Piechowicki Ośrodek Kultury. Coroczną imprezą kulturalną miasta jest "Kryształowy weekend", podczas którego prezentują się m.in. wytwórcy kryształów i grawerzy. +Turystyka. +Na terenie gminy przebiega wiele szlaków turystycznych PTTK i ścieżek rowerowych. W granicach miasta znajduje się Wodospad Szklarki oraz Śnieżne Kotły. W centralnej części miasta przy ul. Żymierskiego rośnie 700-letni cis objęty ochroną jako pomnik przyrody. Na pograniczu miasta znajduje się także Rezerwat przyrody Krokusy w Górzyńcu utworzony w 1962 roku w celu zachowania dla potrzeb nauki i dydaktyki, prawdopodobnie naturalnego stanowiska szafrana (Crocus L.) - znanego już w roku 1811. Rezerwat chroni izolowane, jedyne poza Tatrami i ich przedpolem, stanowisko tego gatunku w Polsce. Na terenie miasta zabytki: kościół w Piastowie z XIV w., założenie pałacowe w Pakoszowie z XVIII w. (obecnie w remoncie) oraz ośrodek wypoczynkowy Uroczysko w Michałowicach - dawne sanatorium Luftwaffe. +Anna Kalczyńska + +Anna Kalczyńska-Maciejowska (ur. 23 kwietnia 1976) – polska dziennikarka, prezenterka TVN24. +Absolwentka Kolegium Europejskiego (College of Europe) na warszawskim Natolinie i Lingwistyki Stosowanej UW, studiowała też dziennikarstwo na Uniwersytecie Bostońskim. Odbyła staż w dziale Prasy i Komunikacji Komisji Europejskiej w Brukseli. Pracowała w redakcji Pegaza w TVP1 i w TVP Polonia. W TVN24 od 2002. Była współautorką i wydawcą magazynu "Studio Europa", a od lutego 2006 również prezenterką programu. Od grudnia 2003 prowadzi "serwisy informacyjne". Wcześniej była reporterką TVN24 oraz od 2007 do 2010 prowadziła magazyn Polska i świat (razem z Łukaszem Grassem) +Prywatnie córka pary aktorskiej – Haliny Rowickiej i Krzysztofa Kalczyńskiego oraz siostra dziennikarza nSport, Filipa Kalczyńskiego. Ma też siostrę Marię (ur. 1990). +Od 2 czerwca 2007 jest żoną Macieja Maciejowskiego, szefa TVN Warszawa. +Mucha ropuszanka + +Mucha ropuszanka ("Lucilia bufonivora") – groźny pasożyt obligatoryjny atakujący ropuchy oraz żaby. Samice składają jaja do jamy nosowej ropuchy, później wylęgają się z nich larwy o postaci czerwia. Umiejscawiają się one w oczodołach tudzież otworach nosowych i stopniowo wyjadają ciało żywiciela, który ginie w męczarniach po kilku dniach. +Regulacyjna teoria temperamentu + +Regulacyjna teoria temperamentu, RTT to koncepcja temperamentu autorstwa polskiego psychologa Jana Strelaua, stanowiąca kontynuację badań nad temperamentem Pawłowa. +W koncepcji tej temperament jest pojęciem dwuwymiarowym – na poziomie energetycznym i czasowym. Na poziomie energetycznym temperament charakteryzują cztery cechy: aktywność, reaktywność, wrażliwość sensoryczna oraz wytrzymałość. +Pojęcia te wywodzą się z pojęcia siły procesu pobudzenia Pawłowa. +Christel Justen + +Christel Justen (10 października 1957 w Oosterhout, Holandia - 20 stycznia 2005 w Waldenburgu, Badenia-Wirtembergia), pływaczka niemiecka. +W 1974 na mistrzostwach Europy w Wiedniu zdobyła niespodziewanie złoty medal na 100 m stylem klasycznym, ustanawiając jednocześnie rekord świata (1:12,55). Pokonała koalicję swoich rodaczek z NRD, co w RFN przyniosło jej tytuł "Sportowca roku". Po latach ujawniła, że bezwiednie startowała w tym okresie na dopingu, za co odpowiedzialnym miał być jej trener. +Po zakończeniu kariery pracowała jako trenerka pływania i terapeutka sportowa. +Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds + +Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds – australijska grupa muzyczna wykonująca muzykę będącą pochodną rocka. +Historia. +Zespół powstał 1984 roku jako spadkobierca zespołu The Birthday Party który zakończył swoje istnienie na skutek nieporozumień Nicka Cave'a oraz Rowlanda S. Howarda. Dwóch innych członków postanowiło kontynuować ze sobą współpracę. Byli to mianowicie: Nick Cave, lider i wokalista poprzedniego zespołu oraz Mick Harvey, multinstrumentalista oraz wieloletni członek The Birthday Party. Do nich dołączyli kolejni muzycy, a byli to: gitarzysta Blixa Bargeld z zespołu Einstürzende Neubauten, drugi gitarzysta Hugo Race oraz znany z zespołu Magazine basista Barry Adamson. W pierwotnym składzie wymieniani także są Anita Lane ówczesna dziewczyna Nicka Cave'a i autorka kilku tekstów śpiewanych przez zespół. W trakcie pierwszego tournée po Australii do składu dołączył także były członek The Birthday Party Tracy Pew. +Nazwa zespołu, została przyjęta przez Cave'a w dokładnie taki sam sposób jak zrobił to kilka lat wcześniej. Po wydaniu przez The Boys Next Door (pierwszy zespół Cave'a założony w 1976 roku) płyty zatytułowanej The Birthday Party muzycy nagle postanowili zmienić nazwę zespołu właśnie na wcześniej wymienioną The Birthday Party. W omawianym przypadku ostatnia oficjalną płytą zespołu The Birthday Party była płyta The Bad Seed i stąd została zaczerpnięta nazwa obecnego zespołu artysty. +Po rozstaniu się z Anitą Lane na początku lat osiemdziesiątych, Cave przeprowadził się do Berlina, w tym czasie powstawały kolejne albumu the Bad Seeds "The Firstborn Is Dead", "Kicking Against the Pricks", "Your Funeral, My Trial" oraz "Tender Prey". Na płycie "Kicking Against the Pricks", w utworze "Muddy Water" partię skrzypiec wykonała matka Cave'a - Dawn. Warto też zaznaczyć, że "Kicking Against the Pricks" był pierwszym albumem, który został nagrany ze szwajcarskim perkusistą Thomasem Wydlerem grającym wcześniej w zespole Die Haut. Thomas Wydler jest drugim członkiem zespołu o najdłuższym stażu w aktualnym składzie. +W 1987, the Bad Seeds wystąpili w filmie Wima Wendersa, "Niebo nad Berlinem". Od roku 1990, wszyscy członkowie zespołu jednomyślnie postanowili zaprzestać zażywania tzw. twardych narkotyków. W tym samym roku dokonano przeprowadzki do Brazylii oraz wydano album "The Good Son". Ich kolejną płytą była wydana w 1992 roku "Henry's Dream" przy której udział wzięli nowi członkowie zespołu Martyn Casey oraz Conway Savage. Następnym albumem było "Let Love In" z 1994 roku. +W 1996, Cave and the Bad Seeds wydali "Murder Ballads". Zawarta jest na nim piosenka "Henry Lee", duet ze znaną brytyjską piosenkarką rockową PJ Harvey (z którą Cave miał przelotny romans w tym czasie) oraz "Where the Wild Roses Grow", duet z Australijską piosenkarką pop Kylie Minogue. Piosenka ta okazała się jak do tej pory największym przebojem zespołu zdobywają trzy nagrody australijskiego przemysłu muzycznego ARIA Awards w tym tytuł "Piosenka roku". +Kolejny album, "The Boatman's Call" (1997), jest naznaczony radykalną zmianą od swojego pierwotnego archetypu i narracji nacechowanej przemocą do biograficznych i pełnych wyznań piosenek dotyczących związków z brazylijką Carneiro oraz PJ Harvey. Ten album jest także bardziej ukierunkowany na grę na pianinie wykonywanej przez samego Cave'a. +Następnym krokiem Cave'a była krótka przerwa związana z rehabilitacją z ponad 20 letniego nadużywania heroiny oraz alkoholu, a także ślubu artysty. W 2001 roku zespół wydał album "No More Shall We Part". +Następnym albumem, wydanym w 2003, był "Nocturama", który nie wzbudził zachwytu wśród słuchaczy. W tym czasie Bargeld ogłosił chęć rozstania z zespołem po prawie 20 latach wspólnego grania. Wykonał ten krok aby móc skupić się bardziej na swoim pierwotnym zespole Einstürzende Neubauten. Po jego odejściu z pierwotnego składu zespołu pozostali tylko dwaj członkowie Mick Harvey oraz Nick Cave. W następnym roku Cave wydał swoją pierwszą w karierze podwójną płytę - dobrze przyjęty album "Abattoir Blues/The Lyre of Orpheus". +W 2005 roku pojawiła się na rynku składanka "B-Sides & Rarities", trzypłytowy album na którym zawarto kolekcję 56 utworów ze stron B singli, nie publikowane wcześniej nagrania oraz utwory zawarte tylko na ścieżkach dźwiękowych do filmów. +W marcu 2008, zespół wydał swoją czternastą studyjną płytę, zatytułowaną "Dig, Lazarus, Dig!!!", do której napisania zainspirowała artystów Biblijna przypowieść o wskrzeszeniu Łazarza przez Jezusa Chrystusa. +W ciągu wielu lat nieprzerwanego istnienia zespół przeszedł wiele zmian personalnych jednakże od samego początku niekwestionowanym liderem pozostaje Nick Cave. 22 stycznia 2009 z powodów osobistych i zawodowych z zespołu odszedł jeden z założycieli i głównych postaci The Bad Seeds Mick Harvey. Zastąpił go gitarzysta Ed Kuepper, który występował wcześniej w takich australijskich zespołach jak The Saints oraz Laughing Clowns. +Skład zespołu. +Poza występami z pełnym składem zespołu the Bad Seeds, Cave od lat 90., daje koncerty na wpół solowe w których występuje on sam grając na pianinie, Ellis na skrzypcach oraz zmienna sekcja rytmiczna w postaci gitary basowej i perkusji. Obecnie towarzyszące mu trio to Martyn P. Casey, Jim Sclavunos oraz Warren Ellis (czasem nazywani "Mini-Seeds"). +Andriej Własow + +Andriej Andriejewicz Własow, ros. Андрей Андреевич Власов (ur. 14 września 1901 r. we wsi Łomakinie w guberni niżnonowogrodzkiej w Rosji, zm. 2 sierpnia 1946 r. w Moskwie) – generał lejtnant Armii Czerwonej, dowódca Rosyjskiej Armii Wyzwoleńczej (ROA), a następnie Sił Zbrojnych Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodów Rosji podczas II wojny światowej. +Biografia. +W 1915 r. ukończył szkołę kościelną, zaś w 1917 r. – 2 lata seminarium duchownego w Niżnym Nowogrodzie. W 1919 r. zakończył naukę w XI niżnonowogrodzkiej szkole robotniczej 2 klasy, po czym rozpoczął studia na wydziale rolniczym uniwersytetu państwowego w Niżnym Nowogrodzie. Na pocz. maja 1920 r. został zmobilizowany do Armii Czerwonej. W październiku tego roku zakończył kurs piechoty dla kadry dowódczej, po czym został skierowany na front. Uczestniczył w walkach z wojskami gen. Piotra N. Wrangla. Następnie tłumił bunty chłopskie. Udział w wojnie domowej zakończył w lipcu 1922 r., jako dowódca kompanii. +W 1930 r. wstąpił do Wszechzwiązkowej Partii Radzieckiej (bolszewików). Od lutego 1933 r. służył w sztabie Leningradzkiego Okręgu Wojskowego jako zastępca naczelnika 1 sektora 2 oddziału. W 1935 r. objął funkcję zastępcy naczelnika oddziału przygotowania wojskowego, zaś w 1936 r. – naczelnika szkoleniowego oddziału kursów tłumaczy wojskowych. Od lipca 1937 r. dowodził 215 pułkiem strzeleckim, zaś od listopada tego roku – 133 pułkiem strzeleckim. W maju 1938 r. został odkomenderowany do sztabu Kijowskiego Samodzielnego Okręgu Wojskowego, w którym objął funkcję naczelnika 2 oddziału. We wrześniu tego roku został dowódcą 72 Dywizji Strzelców. Jednocześnie w latach 1937-1938 jako członek trybunału wojskowego najpierw Leningradzkiego Okręgu Wojskowego, a potem Kijowskiego Samodzielnego Okręgu Wojskowego wydał kilkaset wyroków śmierci w sfabrykowanych procesach stalinowskich kadry oficerskiej Armii Czerwonej. +Pod koniec 1938 r. został wysłany wraz z kilkoma innymi oficerami do Chin jako doradca wojskowy. W grudniu 1939 r. powrócił do ZSRR. W styczniu 1940 r. objął dowództwo 99 Dywizji Strzelców stacjonującej w Przemyślu. 4 czerwca tego roku awansował do stopnia generała majora. Pod koniec września dywizja była inspekcjonowana przez ludowego komisarza obrony marszałka Siemiona K. Timoszenkę, uzyskując dobre oceny. 3 października w gazecie "Krasnoje znamia" został opublikowany artykuł gen. A. A. Własowa pt. "Nowyje mietody uczeby". Od 17 stycznia 1941 r. dowodził on 4 Korpusem Zmechanizowanym. 6 lutego tego roku odznaczono go Orderem Lenina. +Od ataku wojsk niemieckich na ZSRR 22 czerwca 1941 r. 4 Korpus Zmechanizowany toczył ciężkie walki, broniąc Lwowa. 17 lipca gen. A. A. Własow został wezwany przez marszałka Siemiona M. Budionnego do Kijowa, gdzie stanął na czele 37 Armii, broniącej miasta. Po odwrocie wojsk spod Kijowa i jego zajęciu przez Niemców udał się do Woroneża. 10 listopada w Moskwie odbył spotkanie z Józefem Stalinem. W jego wyniku 20 listopada został dowódcą 20 Armii, która broniła przedpola stolicy ZSRR. 6 stycznia 1942 r. awansował na generała lejtnanta, zaś 22 lutego tego roku został drugi raz odznaczony Orderem Lenina. Dowodząc 20 Armią, wykazał wybitne zdolności dowódcze. 10 marca mianowano go zastępcą dowódcy Frontu Wołchowskiego. 15 kwietnia gen. A. A. Własow przejął dowództwo 2 Armii Uderzeniowej, aby wydostać ją z okrążenia, w jakim znajdowała się od 19 marca. 30 kwietnia Niemcy przystąpili do likwidacji armii. Próby wyrwania się z okrążenia, podejmowane przez gen. A. A. Własowa, nie dały jednak żadnych rezultatów, on sam zaś, po 2-tygodniowej samotnej tułaczce, 12 lipca dostał się do niewoli we wsi Tuchowieci. +U boku III Rzeszy. +Początkowo trafił do sztabu dowódcy niemieckiej 18 Armii, następnie do Twierdzy Boyen w Giżycku, zaś ostatecznie przewieziono go 20 lipca do Winnicy, gdzie został osadzony w obozie jenieckim dla generałów i oficerów sztabu generalnego Armii Czerwonej. 3 sierpnia wraz z płk. Władimirem I. Bojarskim opracował memorandum skierowane do władz III Rzeszy, w którym wystąpił o utworzenie rosyjskiej armii narodowej do walki ze Stalinem. 10 września napisał tzw. "List Otwarty" do oddziału propagandy Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW). W odpowiedzi 17 września został przewieziony do Berlina, gdzie trafił do rosyjskiego sztabu oddziału propagandy OKW. Zetknął się tam z Mieletijem A. Zykowem, który stał się jego jednym z najbliższych współpracowników, a także innymi wysokimi oficerami Armii Czerwonej, którzy znajdowali się w niewoli niemieckiej. 27 grudnia w Dabendorfie pod Berlin podpisał tzw. "Deklarację Smoleńską", głoszącą konieczność walki ze stalinizmem w celu zbudowania nowej Rosji. W tym celu miała powstać rosyjska armia wyzwoleńcza podporządkowana komitetowi rosyjskiemu z gen. A. A. Własowem na czele. Deklaracja została ogłoszona 13 stycznia 1943 r. w okupowanym Smoleńsku. Sygnatariusze deklaracji stworzyli Rosyjski Ruch Wyzwoleńczy. +Początkowo niemieccy wojskowi popierali działania gen. A. A. Własowa. Pozwolili mu na odbycie 2 podróży na okupowane obszary sowieckie. W tym celu w lutym 1943 r. gen. A. A. Własow został przewieziony na front do sztabu Grupy Armii "Mitte". Miał on przekonywać lokalną ludność do swoich idei i współpracy z Niemcami. 25 lutego wystąpił publicznie w Smoleńsku, 29 kwietnia w Rydze, zaś 1 maja w Pskowie. Jego przemówienia cieszyły się dużą popularnością. 3 marca w piśmie "Zaria" ukazał się jego artykuł pt. "Poczemu ja stał na put' bor'by s bolszewizmom". 8 czerwca w kwaterze Adolfa Hitlera miało miejsce spotkanie poświęcone osobie gen. A. A. Własowa i utworzeniu Rosyjskiej Armii Wyzwoleńczej (ROA). Jednakże latem A. Hitler wystąpił przeciwko działalności gen. A. A. Własowa, w wyniku czego znalazł się on w areszcie domowym. W Berlinie istniała jego kancelaria, pełniąca jednocześnie funkcję Kwatery Głównej. Wszystkie wschodnie formacje zbrojne, których żołnierze nosili naszywki ROA, faktycznie podlegały Generałowi Formacji Wschodnich, zaś wpływ gen. A. A. Własowa był zerowy. +Znajdował się on w stanie bezczynności do 16 września 1944 r., kiedy doszło do jego spotkania z Reichsführerem SS Heinrichem Himmlerem. W jego wyniku doszło do wyrażenia zgody na powołanie Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodów Rosji (KONR) jako organu politycznego, opublikowanie manifestu politycznego i utworzenie Sił Zbrojnych KONR jako formacji sojuszniczej w stosunku do armii niemieckiej. 14 listopada w okupowanej Pradze został przez gen. A. A. Własowa podpisany i przedstawiony Manifest KONR. Dopiero pod koniec stycznia 1945 r. został on przez Niemców mianowany głównodowodzącym Sił Zbrojnych KONR, w skład których ostatecznie weszły jedynie trzy dywizje piechoty, w tym do końca wojny tylko jedna osiągnęła gotowość bojową i wzięła udział w walkach oraz jednostki tyłowe i zapasowe, nie stanowiące na dodatek jednego związku operacyjnego. 16 lutego gen. A. A. Własow wraz z gen. Ernstem Köstringiem przyjął paradę 1 Dywizji Sił Zbrojnych KONR gen. Siergieja K. Buniaczenki. 26 marca uczestniczył w ostatnim zebraniu KONR w Karlovych Varach. W II poł. kwietnia, próbując ratować żołnierzy Sił Zbrojnych KONR, wysłał do Amerykanów jako parlamentariusza gen. Wasilija F. Małyszkina. Rozmowy ze stroną amerykańską prowadziło też kilku innych wysokich oficerów Sił Zbrojnych KONR. 6 maja 1 Dywizja gen. S. K. Buniaczenki wspomogła powstańców praskich. Być może nastąpiło to na rozkaz gen. A. A. Własowa. +Śmierć. +On sam 11 maja przedostał się do miejsca przebywania żołnierzy 1 Dywizji, gdzie oddał się w ręce Amerykanów. Jednakże już 12 maja został w niejasnych okolicznościach przejęty przez Sowietów, po czym natychmiast przewieziony do Moskwy. Został osadzony w więzieniu na Łubiance, gdzie przeszedł przesłuchania. 30 lipca 1946 r. rozpoczął się proces gen. A. A. Własowa i 11 innych wyższych oficerów ROA przed kolegium wojskowym Najwyższego Sądu ZSRR. 31 lipca został ogłoszony wyrok śmierci dla głównodowodzącego ROA, wykonany 2 sierpnia przez powieszenie na strunie fortepianowej (dokładnie w ten sam sposób Niemcy dokonywali egzekucji na przeciwnikach reżimu hitlerowskiego pod koniec wojny). Dodatkowo w podstawę czaszki kat wbił mu żelazny hak. +Janowice Wielkie + +Janowice Wielkie (niem. "Jannowitz") – wieś (powierzchnia: 19,96 km²) w Polsce położona w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie jeleniogórskim, w gminie Janowice Wielkie, nad Bobrem, na pograniczu Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej, Gór Kaczawskich i Rudaw Janowickich w Sudetach Zachodnich. +Miejscowość formalnie jest wsią, ma jednak charakter osiedla/miasta letniskowego. Janowice Wielkie wraz z Trzcińskiem dzięki stacji kolejowej na linii Wrocław – Jelenia Góra (zatrzymują się tu także pociągi pospieszne) są najpopularniejszym punktem wyjściowym w Rudawy Janowickie (Rudawski Park Krajobrazowy), w Góry Sokole, w tym na należący do Korony Gór Polski - Skalnik (945 m n.p.m.). Z Janowic też wiedzie trasa na kolejny szczyt należący do Korony Gór Polski - Skopiec (724 m n.p.m.). Janowice Wielkie są też doskonałym punktem wyjściowym wzdłuż Janowickiego Przełomu, poprzez starą drogę górniczą (obok XVII-XIX w. sztolni) na najwyższy szczyt Gór Ołowianych - Turzec (690 m n.p.m.). To też punkt wyjściowy do skalnego miasta - Starościńskich Skał (718 m n.p.m.) i do największej w rejonie karkonoskim jaskini (długości 36 m.) w głaziskach Fajki (600 m n.p.m.). +Miejscowość jest siedzibą władz gminy Janowice Wielkie. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie jeleniogórskim. +Geografia. +Położenie. +Janowice Wielkie leżą w południowo-zachodniej części województwa dolnośląskiego w powiecie jeleniogórskim w Kotlinie Jeleniogórskiej w Sudetach, u podnóża Rudaw Janowickich oraz Gór Kaczawskich nad Bobrem. Do Bobru na terenie Janowic, od jego lewej strony, wpływa ze stoków góry Piaskowej (586 m n.p.m.) Miedziany Potok, z Dziczej Góry (881 m n.p.m.) spływa Janówka, zaś prawym dopływem Bobru, płynącym od strony północnej ze szczytu Różanki (628 m n.p.m.) i wód Trzcińskich Mokradeł, jest Krupówka. W swej południowej części Janowice Wielkie leżą w obszarze Rudaw Janowickich, zaś w północnej w Górach Kaczawskich (Góry Ołowiane). +Komunikacja. +Transport drogowy. +Przeprawę przez rzekę Bóbr umożliwiają 3 mosty drogowe (w tym jeden dla pojazdów jednośladowych i pieszych). +Komunikacja miejska. +W Janowicach Wielkich funkcjonuje w postaci autobusów komunikacja miejska - linia nr 2. +Transport kolejowy. +Obecnie poprzez stację w Janowicach Wielkich odbywają się regularnie połączenia regionalne w granicach województwa dolnośląskiego oraz regularne bezpośrednie połączenia ze Świnoujściem, Gdynią, Warszawą, Przemyślem i stacjami pośrednimi. Trasa została zelektryfikowana już w 1928 r. Przez Bóbr na terenie Janowic przechodzą dwa kamienne wiadukty i żelazno-stalowo-kamienny most kolejowy. +Klimat. +Klimat jest typowy dla obszarów podgórskich. Średnia temperatura roczna waha się w granicach 7 stopni C, a średnia temperatura okresu wegetacyjnego wynosi ok. 12-13 stopni C. Lato termiczne zaczyna się ok. połowy czerwca i trwa średnio 66 do 68 dni. Dominują wiatry zachodnie i południowo-zachodnie. Klimat (jak w całej południowo-zachodniej Polsce) kształtują masy powietrza napływające znad Oceanu Atlantyckiego, Skandynawii i północno-wschodniej Europy, rzadziej znad Azorów, Północnej Afryki i południa Europy. Dzięki tym masom tworzą się określone typy pogody. Charakteryzując ogólnie cztery pory roku Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej możemy powiedzieć, iż: wiosna jest początkowo chłodna, po czym w kwietniu i maju zaznacza się szybki wzrost temperatur dobowych; lato jest umiarkowanie ciepłe, wrzesień jest na ogół cieplejszy niż czerwiec i bywa pogodny; jesień jest porą relatywnie długą i ciepłą, znacznie cieplejszą niż wiosna, we wrześniu i październiku występuje też najniższe zachmurzenie i jest mniej opadów niż na przykład w sierpniu; zima jest stosunkowo łagodna, a w styczniu, lutym i marcu średnia dobowa temperatura nie spada poniżej - 3 stopni C. +Klimat w Janowicach Wielkich charakteryzuje się wilgotnością, a to z racji sporego zalesionego areału, a też w szczególności położenia miejscowości w kotlinie górskiej i w meandrach rzeki Bóbr. Coroczna wegetacja roślin rozpoczyna się około dwóch tygodni później niż na Przedgórzu Sudeckim i 3 tyg. później niż w odległym o 100 km Wrocławiu. Temperatury w styczniu są średnio o 5-7 °C niższe od temperatur notowanych na Nizinie Śląskiej. Poza miesiącami zimowymi opady śniegu mogą występować już w listopadzie, spotykane są też jeszcze w maju. Miesiąc lipiec charakteryzuje się sporą ilością opadów deszczu. Mimo klimatu chłodnego w okresie letnim notowane są temperatury mogące dochodzić do 39 °C w cieniu. +Już w XVIII wieku górski, wilgotny klimat Janowic wykorzystywany był w lecznictwie: laryngologii, pulmonologii i kardiologii. +Demografia. +Największą populację Janowice Wielkie odnotowały w 1998 – wg danych GUS 2255 mieszkańców. +Janowice Wielkie, a w nich Stare i Nowe Janowice wraz z Mniszkowem i Trzcińskiem oraz byłym miastem Miedzianką stanowią obecnie jednolity zwarty zespół urbanistyczny zamieszkały przez około 4000 osób. +Geologia. +W granicach Janowic W., na północnym krańcu Rudaw Janowickich, znajdują się złoża rud polimetalicznych (przede wszystkim miedzi i arsenu). Zawdzięczają one swe powstanie przebiegającej tu strefie kontaktu między granitem karkonoskim a ich wschodnią osłoną – łupkami zieleńcowymi. Mają charakter hydrotermalnych złóż żyłowych, tzn. powstały przez wytrącenie minerałów rudnych z gorących roztworów pomagmowych, krążących w szczelinach skalnych. Złoża te nigdy nie były zbyt bogate, choć w ich przypowierzchniowych partiach analizy wykazywały duże koncentracje użytecznych minierałów – pirytu (FeS2), chalkopirytu (CuFeS2), chalkozynu (Cu2S), blendy cynkowej (ZnS), galeny (PbS). Głębiej występowały minerały arsenu, srebra, a także kobaltu, cyny, bizmutu i inne. Po II wojnie światowej na skalę masową wydobywano tu uran. Pod względem różnorodności występujących tu minerałów Janowice wraz z Miedzianką są chyba najbogatszym miejscem w Polsce. Stąd zapewne wynika fakt, że pomimo stosunkowo skromnych efektów ekonomicznych przez wieki wielokrotnie ponawiano próby eksploatacji tutejszych złóż. +Turystyka - Sport - Rekreacja. +Wspinaczka skalna. +Janowice Wielkie wraz z Trzcińskiem i pobliskimi Karpnikami stanowią doskonałą bazę wypadową dla amatorów wspinaczki skalnej. Znajdują się tu cieszące się uznaniem zarówno w Polsce jak i za granicą kraju szkoły wspinaczki górskiej i skałkowej. Liczne skały Rudaw Janowickich według znawców okazują się być najdoskonalszymi w Polsce, naturalnie przystosowanymi do szczegółowego, często wyczynowego treningu umiejętności alpinistów. Niemniej jednak początkujący amatorzy wspinaczki też odnajdą tu swoja ścianę. Rudawy Janowickie stanowią niezwykły park różnorodnych form skalnych, których największe skupisko znajduje się na Sokoliku i Krzyżnej Górze. Każda skała ma swoją nazwę, np. „Ptak”, „Sukiennice”, „Jastrzębia Turnia”, „Rogatka”, "Fajka". +To tu swe pierwsze kroki, jeszcze amatorskie, stawiali m.in. Wanda Rutkiewicz, Jerzy Kukuczka i Aleksander Lwow. +Spływy kajakowe. +Rzeka Bóbr w Janowicach Wielkich stanowi idealny trakt dla uprawiania kajakarstwa górskiego. Rokrocznie w sezonie wiosenno-letnim przyjeżdżają do Janowic zorganizowane, liczne grupy kajakarzy chcących uprawiać river running. Karkonoski Klub Kajakowy z Jeleniej Góry przeprowadza tu specjalistyczne kursy i szkolenia. Rokrocznie odbywają się tu międzynarodowe zawody. +We wrześniu 2011 odbędą się na Bobrze VI Otwarte Mistrzostwa Polski we Freestyle’u Kajakowym. +Drogi rowerowe. +Janowice Wielkie jak i całe Rudawy Janowickie są wyjątkowo atrakcyjne dla uprawiania sportów rowerowych. Wielu polskich, czeskich i niemieckich zawodowych kolarzy zdobywało tu swoje pierwsze szlify. Już kilkadziesiąt lat temu wytyczono tu szlaki rowerowe o różnym stopniu zaawansowania, jednakże każdy z nich jest tak samo ciekawy, chociażby pod względem walorów widokowych. Przez Janowice Wielkie przebiega m.in Międzynarodowa Trasa Rowerowa EuroRoute R-6, Euroregionalny Turystyczny Szlak Rowerowy "Dolina Bobru" oraz Rowerowa Obwodnica Jeleniej Góry. . +Jazda konna. +Od kilku lat na terenie Rudawskiego Parku Krajobrazowego oraz Karkonoszy rozbudowywana jest infrastruktura związana z turystyką konną. +Z każdym rokiem przybywa górskich szlaków konnych. Są one opracowywane w taki sposób, by turysta nimi podróżujący mógł docenić piękno tutejszych krajobrazów, a także walory architektoniczne okolic. +Obiekty sportowe. +W Janowicach Wielkich znajdują się korty tenisowe, stadion piłki nożnej wraz z bieżnią lekkoatletyczną, boiska piłki ręcznej i siatkówki, boiska koszykówki, hala sportowa. +Kluby sportowe. +W Janowicach działa Gminny Ludowy Klub Sportowy "Rudawy". +Dziedzictwo przyrody - pomniki przyrody. +Dojście: od niebieskiego szlaku naprzeciw Pieca, 50 m w górę; uwaga! Skalny Most nie jest udostępniony ani zabezpieczony, łatwo dostępna jest tylko szczelina pod mostem i ewentualnie tunel skalny; wejście na most skalny jest możliwe tylko dla wspinaczy z asekuracją; +Historia i zabytki. + +Historia Janowic Wielkich. +Okolice Janowic Wielkich po zakończeniu epoki plejstoceńskiej były z pewnością terenem penetracji najdawniejszych koczujących zbieraczy i myśliwych o czym świadczą ślady człowieka paleolitycznego z jaskiń góry Połom. Przez wiele następnych wieków porastała okoliczne góry i doliny prastara, sudecka puszcza. +W VI wieku dotarli tu Słowianie z plemienia Bobrzan. W kolejnych okresach ich ziemia znajdowała się w różnych organizmach państwowych przechodząc z rąk do rąk. Najpierw należała do państwa frankijskiego kupca Samona, później do Wielkich Moraw i Księstwa Czeskiego by pod koniec X wieku stać się częścią państwa Mieszka I, władcy Polan. Z tego okresu pochodzą ślady osad ludzkich (stanowiska archeologiczne ujęte w miejscowym planie zagospodarowania przestrzennego) znajdujące się w granicach Janowic, na północ od rzeki Bóbr. +Janowice jako mała śródleśna osady mogła istnieć już od tamtych czasów. Z całą pewnością zaś były zasiedlone już w czasach pierwszych władców śląskich, kiedy rozpoczęły się intensywne poszukiwania rud metali kolorowych – srebra i miedzi w rejonie dzisiejszej Miedzianki. Według niepotwierdzonych źródeł odkrył je w roku 1156 niejaki Laurentius Angelus – waloński poszukiwacz skarbów, któremu udało się wcześniej odkryć złoża żelaza w pobliskich Kowarach. +W okresie rozbicia dzielnicowego Polski nastąpił szczególny rozwój Janowic. Od początku książętom śląskim zależało na zasiedlaniu tak zwanych pustkowi, które nie przynosiły im żadnych dochodów bez mieszkańców nie płacących danin. Wzmożoną akcję kolonizacyjną podjęli książęta Henryk Brodaty i Bolesław II Rogatka, którzy sprowadzili na tutejsze ziemie największą ilość osadników, głównie z przeludnionych wtedy Niemiec. +Z roku 1217 (czasy panowania Henryka Brodatego) pochodzi najstarsza nazwa wsi – Janouici, niewątpliwie słowiańska, wsi która jak wiele jej podobnych rozwijała się dwu kulturowo. Obok nadal dużej ilości ludności słowiańskiej coraz większą liczbę mieszkańców stanowili osadnicy z Niemiec. Osadzanie ludności germańskiej zostało zastopowane w okresie panowania tu Henryka V Brzuchatego. W czasach panowania Henryka I Świdnicko–Jaworskiego w roku 1334 pojawiła się w kronikach mylna nazwa majątku Ywanewicz. Zmiany polityczne na mapie Śląska w XII, XIII i XIV wieku nie miały dla mieszkańców Janowic większego znaczenia. Janowice znajdowały się kolejno w Księstwie Śląskim, Wrocławskim, Legnickim, Jaworskim by ostatecznie stać się częścią Księstwa Świdnicko–Jaworskiego. +Nazwę miejscowości po raz pierwszy wymienia się w dokumentach pisanych w 1367 roku jako Janewicz. Jednym z pierwszych właścicieli znanych z imienia był Clericus Bolcze (1372 rok), prawdopodobny założyciel zamku Bolczów. +W kulturze następowała stopniowa asymilacja Słowian i przybywających tu (już niezależnie od decyzji panujących) coraz liczniej Niemców. Stopniowo, ale zdecydowanie zaczęła się tworzyć społeczność lokalna, zwana później „śląską”, w której kryterium narodowe nie odgrywało najważniejszej roli. W religii niezmiennie dominował katolicyzm. Janowice doczekały się murowanego kościoła w XV wieku. +Znajdując się już we władaniu czeskiej dynastii Luksemburgów, po raz pierwszy pojawia się nazwa wsi jako Groszin Janewicz (1400 rok), co można przetłumaczyć jako Janowice Wielkie (gross – z niemieckiego - duży, wielki). +Pożogą dla mieszkańców Janowic były wojny husyckie. Ich przyczyną było spalenie na stosie czeskiego reformatora religijnego Jana Husa przez króla Czech Zygmunta Luksemburskiego. Wojny trwały z przerwami w latach 1419 –1436. Mieszkańcy Janowic ukrywali się latami w lasach Rudaw Janowickich. W okolicach góry Wołek odkryto pozostałości z tamtych czasów. Husyci zdobyli m.in. zamek Bolczów i spalili Janowice wraz z większością okolicznych miast i wsi. Wyprawa mieszczan Wrocławia i Świdnicy pokonała Husytów, ale zniszczenia pozostały. Zamek Bolczów został odbudowany dopiero sto lat później. Janowice odradzały się wraz z nim. +Okres swego dużego rozwoju Janowice Wielkie przeżywały pod władzą panującej nad Królestwem Czech dynastii jagiellońskiej - Władysława Jagiellończyka i Ludwika Jagiellończyka. W tym czasie wieś wymieniana jest w dokumentach jako Janewitz (1512) i Janowitz (1519). +Po zniszczeniach wojennych zamek Bolczów został odbudowany dopiero w latach 1517-1518 prawdopodobnie przez Hansa Dippolda von Burghaus, (który wystarał się o prawa miejskie dla Miedzianki w roku 1519). Na zamku powstał dziedziniec, a w południowym narożniku wzniesiono wieżę obronną, zaś w murach umieszczono szereg strzelnic. +Od roku 1526 Janowice przez kolejnych ponad 200 lat należały do państwa austriackich Habsburgów. +Spośród wielu, zmieniających się często, posiadaczy tych ziem warto wymienić ród Burghausów (pocz. XVI w.), którzy w 1534 r. sprzedali je Hansowi Schaffgotschowi (panu na Chojniku) z rodu, w późniejszym okresie, zasłużonego dla całej ziemi jeleniogórskiej. +Zamek Bolczów kolejno zmieniał właścicieli – w latach 1537-1545 należał do Justusa Decjusza z Krakowa, dworzanina króla polskiego Zygmunta Starego. W latach 1520-1550 ponownie rozbudowano zamek, między innymi wzniesiono, wysunięty przed wieżę bramną, kamienny mur oraz zbudowano basteję, suchą fosę, przystosowano także mury do broni artyleryjskiej poprzez wykonanie strzelnic kluczowych. Prace kontynuowano do roku 1550. +W roku 1562 zamek wraz z Janowicami i Miedzianką przeszedł na własność braci Hansa i Franza Hellmannów. +Od wieku XVI w Janowicach Wielkich działały kruszarnie, huty i kuźnice przerabiające urobek rud miedzi i ołowiu ze sztolni Miedzianki, Mniszkowa i Starych Janowic. Bracia Hellmann uruchomili też produkcję witriolu, zdobywanego ze starych hałd górniczych w Dolinie Żużlowej (na północ od Janowic). Był to stężony roztwór kwasu siarkowego, przeźroczysta ciecz o żółtawym kolorze i oleistej konsystencji używana wtedy do produkcji różnych barwników.Na początku XVII w. ponownie rodzina Schaffgotsch została właścicielem tych dóbr. Dla Daniela Schaffgotscha wybudowano dwór nad Bobrem, który do dziś jest ozdobą wioski.W miejscowościach regionu, coraz więcej mieszkańców zaczęło się zajmować tkactwem, które od połowy XVIII wieku było jednym z ich głównych, choć mało zyskownych zajęć. Praktycznie w każdym większym domu stało krosno do tkania płótna lnianego. Dużo zarabiali tylko kupcy handlujący gotowym płótnem.Po górach nadal wędrowali poszukiwacze skarbów a także tak zwani laboranci, którzy ze zbieranych przez siebie ziół wykonywali lecznicze nalewki. We wsi powstał nowy młyn i tartak. +Przez cały wiek XVI przybywało w Janowicach coraz więcej wyznawców wyznania luterańskiego, które promieniowało z pobliskich Niemiec na cały Śląsk. Dochodziło do coraz to większych konfliktów miejscowych katolików i protestantów. I jedni, i drudzy bardzo ucierpieli podczas wojny trzydziestoletniej – w latach 1618 – 1648. Wojskowe rekwizycje dały się mieszkańcom mocno we znaki. W plądrowaniu wsi uczestniczyli także „Lisowczycy”, Polacy w służbie cesarza Austrii pod dowództwem Stanisława Rusinowskiego. Ich zła sława brała się stąd, iż nie otrzymując cesarskiego żołdu zaopatrywali się sami w terenie, na którym działali. Cechowała ich odwaga i umiejętności bojowe, ale zarazem okrucieństwo i zamiłowanie do rabunku. +Podczas wojny trzydziestoletniej Janowice, dwór nad Bobrem i zamek Bolczów zostały spalone przez żołnierzy szwedzkich w roku 1642. Mieszkańcy podobnie jak w okresie wojen husyckich miesiącami ukrywali się wraz z dobytkiem w okolicznych lasach. Odbudowa Janowic nastąpiła dopiero pod koniec XVII wieku. +Zamek Bolczów nigdy już nie został w pełni odbudowany. W roku 1800 Rodzina niemiecka Stolberg – Wernigerode (ówcześni właściciele janowickich dóbr) zleciła odbudowę zamku w formie schroniska w stylu szwajcarskim. Do końca 1946 roku funkcjonowało tu właśnie schronisko turystyczne. Po przymusowym przesiedleniu jego ówczesnych właścicieli na tereny Niemiec schronisko zostało rozebrane, zas zamek powrócił do stanu z końca XVII w., kiedy to właśnie popadł w ruinę. +Po wojnie trzydziestoletniej pozycja tutejszych protestantów osłabła. Odebrano im przejęty od katolików kościół, a najbliższy dla nich kościół, tak zwany Kościół Pokoju powstał w odległym od 40 kilometrów Jaworze. Sytuacja protestantw uległa poprawie po ugodzie w Altranstadt w roku 1707 w czasach trwającej III wojny północnej, na mocy której cesarz Józef I Habsburg wyraził zgodę na oddanie ewangelikom 121 kościołów w wielu miastach i wsiach Śląska, w tym w Janowicach Wielkich. Dwa lata później podpisano we Wrocławiu tzw. "Reces egzekucyjny" przyznający tutejszym ewangelikom szereg nowych uprawnień oraz pozwalający na zbudowanie dla nich sześciu nowych kościołów na Śląsku tzw. "Kościołów Łaski". Dwa z nich znajdują się niedaleko Janowic Wielkich - w Jeleniej Górze oraz Kamiennej Górze i współcześnie służą jako kościoły katolickie. +W latach 1608-1609 wzniesiono nad rzeką Bóbr rezydencję, dla Daniela Schaffgotscha (według tradycji – na miejscu starszego zamku, jednak ani zachowane detale architektoniczne, ani dokumenty tego nie potwierdzają). Został on spalony przez Szwedów w 1642 r. i w 2 poł. stulecia odbudowany przez wdowę po Danielu – Jadwigę. Gruntowna przebudowa miała miejsce w 1775 r., następne w latach 1830-1840 (wówczas dla Wilhelma Stolberga) założono piękny, dobrze zachowany do dziś park krajobrazowy z widokiem na Janowice, Rudawy Janowickie i pobliskie Góry Sokole. Do dziś w parku zachowało się blisko siedemset drzew. W 1910 r. powstały stylowe, drewniane, przysłupowo-ryglowe budynki gospodarcze. Z renesansowego detalu zachował się kominek w dawnej sali balowej. Dziś dwór funkcjonuje jako Dom Pomocy Społecznej i należy do jednych z najlepiej utrzymanych obiektów z tego okresu. Pałac wchodzi w skład Parku Kulturowego Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej. +Schaffgotschowie byli właścicielami wsi do 1669 r., kiedy drogą dziedziczenia przeszła w inne ręce. W 1748 r. stała się siedzibą rodową Promnitzów, a potem rodu Stolberg-Wernigerode (od 1800 r. jako ordynacja). Janowice były co najmniej od XVI w. (a przypuszczalnie już wcześniej) ośrodkiem przeróbki wydobywanych w najbliższej okolicy (Miedzianka, Mniszków, Ciechanowice) rud ołowiu i miedzi. Działały tu kruszarnie, huty i kuźnice. Ciekawostką techniczną jest fakt, że już w XVI w. Żużlowej Dolinie nad Janowicami działała ługownia, w której otrzymywano siarczan miedzi metodą hydrometalurgiczną z odpadów – hałd skały płonej i żużla z dawniejszych robót górniczych i hutniczych, co przynosiło właścicielom – braciom Hellman znaczny dochód. Jeszcze zanim wydobycie zamarło podczas wojny trzydziestoletniej (1618-1648), powstała tu już w 1610 r. pierwsza papiernia. Później mieszkańcy Janowic zajmowali się głównie chałupniczym tkactwem, zaś ok. poł. XIX w. powstały tartak i fabryka papieru, dziś już nie istniejące. +Struktura janowickiego drzewostanu wkrótce została nadszarpnięta. Przemysł wydobywczy (a zwłaszcza huty), papierniczy,tartak (działający na potrzeby tutejszego budownictwa) i tradycyjne ogrzewanie chłopskich chat drewnem dokonały dzieła zniszczenia. Okoliczne lasy zaczynały ginąć a na ich miejsce pojawiały się nie zalesiane łąki. +W okresie rewolucji przemysłowej dzięki staraniom Rodziny Stolberg-Wernigerode przeprowadzono przez Janowice linię kolejową, co ogromnie przyspieszyło rozwój wioski. Tutejsi właściciele ziemscy postawili również na rozwój turystyki hojnie wspierając działania Riesengebirgsverein (Towarzystwa Gór Olbrzymich). +Dostępność komunikacyjna i bliskość Jeleniej Góry (Hirschberg) ułatwiała znalezienie pracy w mieście, której nie brakowało i na miejscu. Rozwijała się janowicka papiernia. Powstawały nowe młyny, kontynuował pracę dobrze prosperujący tartak. W roku 1871 tutejsza ludność hucznie świętowała zjednoczenie całych Niemiec przez kanclerza Otto von Bismracka i wejście w skład Cesarstwa Niemiec pod władzę cesarza Wilhelma I i Wilhelma II. Niedaleko, bo w Karpnikach i Mysłakowicach powstały cesarskie pałace, a teren rozciągający się między Janowicami a Wzgórzami Staniszowskimi zamieniono na „Europa Park” – największy park romantyczny Europy. +W Janowicach zaczęły powstawać coraz liczniejsze pensjonaty i gościńce, zapraszając odwiedzających gości do powstającego, nowego spa (uzdrowiska). Po kilku latach zaczęło tu funkcjonować prawdziwe sanatorium.Przyjeżdżając tu z roku na rok coraz liczniej kuracjusze chwalili klimat i widoki. W rejonie dzisiejszej ulicy Parkowej powstał wtedy prawdziwy kurort o zabudowie sanatoryjnej. Dzisiaj zabudowania te pełnią głównie funkcje budynków mieszkalnych. Wkrótce zbudowano na stokach Gór Ołowianych duże sanatorium. +Okres pomyślnego rozwoju wsi przerwała pierwsza wojna światowa. Śladem po niej pozostał, pomnik niedaleko głównego mostu w Janowicach, na którym znalazła się tablica upamiętniająca mieszkańców wsi, ofiary wojny, które zginęły za cesarza. Klęska wojenna Niemiec i kryzys powojenny pogorszyły znacznie poziom życia. Nic dziwnego, na podatny grunt padały tu hasła militarystyczne i faszystowskie. Po dojściu Hitlera do władzy zmieniono nazwę wsi na "Jannowitz im Riesengebirge". Poziom życia Niemców znacznie się podniósł. Przestało istnieć bezrobocie, a w trakcie II wojny światowej tutejsze zakłady i rolnicy otrzymali od państwa bezpłatną siłę roboczą w postaci wywożonych na roboty ludzi, głównie z Europy Wschodniej. Działała tu filia obozu „Groß-Rosen”. +Krótki okres prosperity mieszkańców Janowic zakończyła klęska wojenna Niemiec oraz tragedia wypędzenia - wielka, powojenna wędrówka ludów wymuszona traktatami z Jałty z roku 1945. Autochtoniczna ludność musiała opuścić swe domy, które stopniowo zasiedlali Polacy wysiedlani z Kresów Wschodnich i przeludnionej jeszcze wówczas, mimo ogromnych strat ludnościowych wynikających ze zbrodni hitlerowskich, Małopolski. Rozpoczął się nowy, współczesny etap w rozwoju wsi. +Gospodarka. +Gmina obecnie ma charakter rolniczo-turystyczny. Posiada stosunkowo dobry stan infrastruktury komunalnej, między innymi ujęcie wody, oczyszczalnię ścieków, kanalizację wsi Janowice Wielkie, automatyczną centralę telefoniczną. Dysponuje ponad 120 miejscami noclegowymi oraz posiada kilka punktów tzw. małej gastronomii. Gospodarka opiera się głównie na działalności gospodarczej w zakresie handlu i usług oraz drobnej i średniej produkcji. Istnieje tu jedna z dwóch w Polsce łuszczarni szyszek, z których pozyskuje się nasiona świerka dla szkółek leśnych. Do dużych pracodawców w gminie zaliczyć należy byłe Prewentorium PKP dla dzieci, a obecnie Szpital Rehabilitacyjny SPZOZ, Dom Pomocy Społecznej mieszczący się w zabudowaniach pałacu Schaffgotschów oraz fabrykę Dr. Schneider Automotive Poland i Przedsiębiorstwo Rolno-Spożywcze "FROMAKO". +Nick Cave + +Nick Cave a właściwie Nicolas Edward Cave (ur. 22 września 1957 w Warracknabeal w Australii), muzyk, poeta, pisarz i aktor. +Kariera. +Założyciel i członek "The Boys Next Door" – zespołu, który w późnych latach siedemdziesiątych zmienił nazwę na "The Birthday Party". W 1984 "The Birthday Party" uległo rozwiązaniu, a dwóch jego członków – Nick Cave i Mick Harvey założyło grupę "Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds". Pozostałymi muzykami zakładającymi tę grupę byli Blixa Bargeld, gitarzysta w "Einstürzende Neubauten", Barry Adamson i Hugo Race. Inspiracją dla tekstów wykorzystanych na płycie była ówczesna dziewczyna Nicka Cave'a, Anita Lane, która została podana jako członkini zespołu (w istocie nie miała ona żadnego muzycznego wkładu w tę płytę). +Przez ponad 20 lat istnienia, zespół "Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds" osiągnął znaczący sukces komercyjny, a niektóre ich utwory – w szczególności "Where the Wild Roses Grow" z płyty "Murder Ballads", zaśpiewany przez Cave'a w duecie z Kylie Minogue – stały się światowymi przebojami. +W chwili obecnej, spośród założycieli zespołu ostał się jedynie on. Blixa Bargeld odszedł w 2003, aby skupić się na pracy w "Einstürzende Neubauten", a Mick Harvey opuścił zespół w 2009 roku z powodów osobistych oraz różnicy zdań w kwestiach muzycznych. +Nick Cave wraz z kilkoma osobami ze składu "The Bad Seeds" (Warren Ellis, Martyn P. Casey, Jim Sclavunos) założył poboczny projekt "Grinderman" i w 2007 roku wydał pod szyldem tego zespołu płytę ("Grinderman"). +W 1989 została wydana jego pierwsza powieść pod tytułem "Gdy oślica ujrzała anioła", zaś w 2009 druga - Śmierć Bunny'ego Munro. +Nick Cave jest współautorem wielu ścieżek dźwiękowych do filmów m.in. takich jak: "Ghosts... of the Civil Dead", "Propozycja" (do którego był autorem scenariusza), "Zabójstwo Jesse'ego Jamesa przez tchórzliwego Roberta Forda", "The Road", "The Girls of Phnom Penh", "The English Surgeon". +Cave jest członkiem tajnego stowarzyszenia znanego pod nazwą Sons of Lee Marvin. +Filmografia. +W 1991 wystąpił u boku Brada Pitta i Samuela L. Jacksona w filmie "Johnny Suede" (reż. Tom DiCillo). +W 2007 zagrał w epizodzie w "Zabójstwie Jessego Jamesa przez tchórzliwego Roberta Forda" w którym był też współkompozytorem muzyki. +Grumman F6F Hellcat + +Grumman F6F Hellcat (z ang. "jędza") – amerykański pokładowy samolot myśliwski z okresu II wojny światowej. Jednosilnikowy, jednomiejscowy dolnopłat. Jeden z najbardziej znanych samolotów biorących udział w walkach na Dalekim Wschodzie. Produkowany w latach 1942-1945 w liczbie blisko 14 000 sztuk (głównie wersje F6F-3 i F6F-5). Zasłynął rekordową liczbą 5216 zestrzeleń uzyskanych przez pilotów na jednym typie maszyny, z czego 5156 stanowią samoloty japońskie. +Historia. +Prototyp myśliwca opracowany został w zakładach Grumman przez zespół konstruktorów, którymi kierował Leroy R. Grumman. Prace trwały od początku 1938 do 1941 roku. Pomyślany jako rozwojowa wersja myśliwca F4F Wildcat miał być odpowiedzią na uwagi otrzymywane od pilotów latających na tych samolotach, jednak zakres zmian był tak znaczny, że doprowadził do powstania nowej konstrukcji. +Zmiany mające na celu poprawienie zasięgu, szybkości, uzbrojenia i opancerzenia obejmowały zainstalowanie silnika o większej mocy, zastosowanie większego śmigła, zastosowanie nowej konstrukcji podwozia, powiększenie zapasu paliwa i amunicji. Spowodowany tym znaczny wzrost masy skłonił konstruktorów do zastosowania płata o większej powierzchni dla uzyskania niskiej wartości jednostkowego obciążenia powierzchni nośnej. +Kontrakt na budowę prototypu podpisano 30 czerwca 1941 roku. W rok później, 26 czerwca 1942 dokonano pierwszego lotu na pierwszym prototypie z silnikiem Wright R-2600-16 Cyclone, który trwał 25 minut i wypadł pomyślnie. 30 lipca 1942 roku wykonano lot na drugim prototypie oznaczonym symbolem XF6F-3 z zamontowanym 18 cylindrowym silnikiem Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp. +Wersje seryjne. +F6F-3. Pierwsza podstawowa seryjna wersja samolotu. Posiadał silnik Pratt & Whitney R-2800-10 o mocy 1491 kW (2028 KM), w końcówce serii Pratt & Whitney R-2800-10W z wtryskiem wody o mocy maksymalnej 1641 kW (2231 KM), śmigło 3-łopatowe Hamilton Standard. Uzbrojenie składało się z sześciu karabinów maszynowych Colt-Browning kal. 12,7 mm zamontowanych w skrzydłach z zapasem amunicji 400 szt. każdy. Zbudowano 4402 sztuki tej wersji wliczając w to modyfikacje F6F-3N, F6F-3E i F6F-3P. +F6F-3N. Modyfikacja wersji F6F-3 do walki nocnej, którą wyposażono w radar z anteną zamontowaną w gondoli na prawym płacie. Wyprodukowano 205 sztuk tych samolotów. +F6F-3E. Modyfikacja wersji F6F-3 do walki nocnej, którą wyposażono w radar z anteną zamontowaną w aerodynamicznej osłonie pod prawym płatem. Wyprodukowano 18 sztuk tych samolotów. +F6F-3P. Modyfikacja wersji F6F-3 do rozpoznania fotograficznego z zamontowaną kamerą. Samolot posiadał standardowe uzbrojenie. +F6F-5. Wersja seryjna, produkowana od kwietnia 1944 roku, posiadająca wiele modyfikacji w stosunku do F6F3. Obejmowały one: silnik Pratt & Whitney R-2800-10W, poprawiona owiewkę kabiny, dodatkową płytę pancerną, wzmocnienie tylnej części kadłuba, zainstalowanie zaczepów dla bomb i pocisków rakietowych, wygładzeniu powierzchni samolotu oraz dostosowaniu do alternatywnego uzbrojenia w 2 działka Colt Browning kal. 20 mm z zapasem amunicji 250 szt. każde i 4 karabiny maszynowe Colt-Browning kal. 12,7 mm z zapasem 400 szt. amunicji każdy lub 6 karabinów maszynowych Colt-Browning kal. 12,7 mm z zapasem amunicji 400 szt. każdy montowanego w skrzydłach. Zbudowano 7868 szt. tej wersji włączając w to modyfikacje F6F-5N, F6F-5E i F6F-5P +F6F-5N. Modyfikacja wersji F6F-5 do walki nocnej, którą wyposażono w radar z anteną zamontowaną w gondoli na prawym płacie. Wyprodukowano 1529 sztuk samolotów F6F-5N i F6F-5E. +F6F-5E. Modyfikacja wersji F6F-5 do walki nocnej, wyposażona w radar z anteną zamontowaną w aerodynamicznej osłonie pod prawym płatem +F6F-5P. Modyfikacja wersji F6F-3 do rozpoznania fotograficznego z zamontowaną kamerą. +F6F-3K i F6F-5K Modyfikacje specjalne polegające na zamontowaniu urządzeń zdalnego sterowania w celu użycia samolotów jako latające cele lub sterowane latające bomby. +Zastosowanie samolotu. +Pierwsze kontrakt na dostawy serii 184 samolotów F6F-3 podpisano 23 maja 1942 roku. Pierwszy seryjny egzemplarz samolotu został oblatany w październiku 1942 roku. +W okresie od stycznia do marca 1943 roku dywizjon marynarki wojennej (US Navy) VF-9 z lotniskowca USS "Essex" był pierwszą jednostką wyposażoną w nowe samoloty. +Pierwsze użycie bojowe miało miejsce 31 sierpnia 1943 roku nad Wyspami Marcus. Dokonano wtedy zniszczenia samolotów na ziemi. Podczas inwazji na wyspy Howland i Baker 1 września 1943 roku piloci dywizjonu VF-6 uzyskali pierwsze zestrzelenie. W dniach 5 i 6 października 1943 roku w czasie uderzenia na wyspę Wake doszło do pierwszego spotkania z japońskimi samolotami Zero, które wykazało, że Hellcat pod wieloma względami góruje nad przeciwnikiem. +Do końca 1943 roku Hellcaty dostarczono do wszystkich jednostek myśliwskich bazujących na lotniskowcach na Pacyfiku. Łączna liczba zwycięstw wyniosła około 230 zestrzelonych samolotów przy stratach własnych 29 Hellcatów. W 1944 roku nasilał się wysiłek zbrojny US Navy na Pacyfiku. Kolejne operacje na Marianach i Filipinach przyniosły wiele walk, w których używano samolotów na masową skalę. Do oddziałów zaczęły trafiać wersje F6F-5. W 1945 roku dokonano inwazji na Okinawę oraz ataków na Wyspy Japońskie przy intensywnym wsparciu lotnictwa pokładowego. Ogółem w czasie walk w latach 1943 – 1945 na Dalekim Wschodzie piloci amerykańskich Hellcatów zestrzelili 5156 samolotów japońskich, brytyjskie oddziały latające na Hellcatach na Pacyfiku uzyskały 47 zestrzeleń, a Hellcaty nad Europą zestrzeliły 13 samolotów niemieckich, co daje łączną sumę 5216 zestrzeleń przy stratach własnych 270 maszyn. +Samolot był konkurencją dla innego myśliwca pokładowego – Vought F4U Corsair. Miał od niego nieco niższe osiągi, jednak wykazywał inne przewagę w stosunku do Corsaira - łatwość pilotażu, a zwłaszcza łatwiejszą procedurę lądowania na lotniskowcu. Ta cecha sprawiała, iż był samolotem lubianym przez pilotów. Masowa produkcja Hellcatów sprawiła, iż starsze maszyny myśliwskie Grumman F4F, były kierowane na mniej zagrożone odcinki frontu i do szkół pilotażu. +Hellcaty w liczbie około 1300 różnych wersji zakupiła także Wielka Brytania. W 1943 roku nadano im nazwę Gannet, ale w 1944 wrócono do oryginalnych nazw amerykańskich. Gannety / Hellcaty wykorzystywane były głównie do wspierania działań inwazyjnych na kontynencie. +Francja zakupiła po wojnie nowe Hellcaty i używała ich w trakcie działań w Indochinach aż do 1954 roku. +Opis konstrukcji. +Jednosilnikowy, jednomiejscowy dolnopłat z chowanym podwoziem operujący z lotniskowców przeznaczony do zadań myśliwskich i szturmowych. +Kadłub – konstrukcja półskorupowa, metalowa o przekroju owalnym. Pokrycie z blachy duralowej nitowane na gładko. Przedział silnika oddzielony od reszty kadłuba ścianą ogniową. Kabina pilota opancerzona. Pod kabiną zbiornik paliwa. +Skrzydła – całkowicie metalowe o obrysie trapezowym, 3-dźwigarowe, złożone z trzech części: centropłata mieszczącego składane do tyłu podwozie i zbiorniki paliwa oraz dwóch, składanych do hangarowania, skrzydeł zewnętrznych z zamontowanymi karabinami i zasobnikami amunicji. Powierzchnia płata 31,96 m². Lotki metalowe, kryte płótnem. Wychylane hydraulicznie, czteroczęściowe klapy krokodylowe z automatycznym wciąganiem. +Usterzenie – pojedyncze konstrukcji metalowej, stery kryte płótnem. Statecznik pionowy zintegrowany z kadłubem. Usterzenie poziome o profilu symetrycznym. +Napęd – chłodzony powietrzem 18-cylindrowy silnik Pratt & Whitney R-2800-10W z wtryskiem wody i sprężarką o mocy 1491 kW (2028 KM) przystosowany do wtrysku wody uzyskiwał 1641 kW (2231 KM) z ograniczeniem do 5 minut. Pojemność skokowa 45,9 l. Oś silnika odchylona w dół o 3°. Silnik napędzał trójłopatowe metalowe śmigło Hamilton Standard o średnicy 3,99 m. Trzy wewnętrzne zbiorniki mieściły 946 l paliwa. Pod kadłubem instalowano odrzucany zbiornik o pojemności 568 l. +Podwozie – o układzie klasycznym, główne chowane do tyłu w skrzydle, kółko ogonowe wciągane. Hak do lądowania na lotniskowcu. +Uzbrojenie – sześć karabinów maszynowych Colt-Browning M2 kal. 12,7 mm z zapasem amunicji 200 lub 400 szt. każdy zamontowanych po trzy w każdym skrzydle. Alternatywne uzbrojenie strzeleckie: 2 działka Colt Browning M2 kal. 20 mm z zapasem amunicji 250 szt. każde i 4 karabiny maszynowe Colt-Browning M2 kal. 12,7 mm z zapasem 200 (maksymalnie 400) szt. amunicji każdy. Pod centropłatem trzy zaczepy do bomb umożliwiające przenoszenie 2 bomb 500 funtowych lub jednej 1000 funtowej. Pod każdym skrzydłem trzy zaczepy do niekierowanych pocisków rakietowych HVAR kal. 127 mm. +Pozostałe wyposażenie: instalacja radiowa, instalacja tlenowa, instalacja olejowa z zbiornikiem o pojemności 80 l, instalacja elektryczna prądu stałego 28 V, akumulator. +Arystyp + +Arystyp z Cyreny (ok. 435 - 366 p.n.e.), filozof grecki. +Był uczniem Sokratesa; wcześniej poznał poglądy Protagorasa. W wielu punktach pozostał wierny sofistom; sofistą nazwał go również Arystoteles. Arystyp powrócił do obyczaju sofistów brania opłaty za naukę. W przeciwieństwie do Antystenesa, wiódł żywot dworaka i światowca. Uważany jest za założyciela szkoły cyrenaików, którzy rozważali zagadnienie przyjemności, dochodząc do sformułowania, że szczęściem było osiągnięcie jak najwięcej zmysłowej przyjemności. Arystyp stworzył doktrynę hedonizmu; był możliwie najbardziej zdecydowanym i bezkompromisowym hedonistą, jakiego zna historia etyki. Jego hasłem było: "Jedynym dobrem jest przyjemność, a jedynym złem - przykrość". Kolejne tezy: "Przyjemność to stan przelotny, trwa dopóty, dopóki działa bodziec, a szczęście jest sumą tych częściowych przyjemności", "Przyjemność jest stanem pozytywnym, więc nie polega tylko na braku cierpienia. (Przyjemność i przykrość to rodzaj ruchu, aktywności)", "Przyjemności różnią się intensywnością, ale nie jakością". Arystyp zaprzeczał, jakoby sam brak cierpienia i przykrości był już przyjemnością, bo, jak twierdził, przyjemność i przykrość są rodzajami ruchu dokonywującego się w nas, podczas gdy brak przyjemności jak i brak przykrości są właśnie brakiem takiego ruchu. Chciał rozwinąć sztukę życia polegającą na unikaniu wszelkiego bólu i przykrości. Jego poglądy wykorzystał Epikur, kiedy tworzył szkołę epikurejczyków. +Jego córką była Arate z Cyreny, również filozof; należała do jego szkoły, podobnie jak później wnuczka i wnuk - Arystyp Młodszy. +Adrian Smith (muzyk) + +Adrian Frederik Smith (ur. 27 lutego 1957) – muzyk rockowy, gitarzysta zespołu heavymetalowego Iron Maiden. +W 2004 roku muzyk wraz z Dave'em Murrayem został sklasyfikowany na 11. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych gitarzystów heavymetalowych wszech czasów według magazynu Guitar World. +Biografia. +Smith pochodzi z Hackney we wschodnim Londynie. Był najmłodszy z trójki rodzeństwa. +Pierwszą pasją młodego Adriana była piłka nożna, podobnie zresztą jak w przypadku jego kolegów z zespołu, Steve'a Harrisa czy Dave'a Murraya. Kibicował drużynie Manchester United. Jednak wkrótce miejsce piłki nożnej zajęła jego nowa wielka, i jak się później okaże, długotrwała fascynacja – muzyka. +Znaczny wpływ na zainteresowanie Adriana hard rockiem miał chłopak jego starszej siostry, który pożyczał jej swoje płyty. Były wśród nich takie zespoły jak: Free, Black Sabbath czy Deep Purple. W ten sposób muzyka rockowa docierała również do Adriana. Pierwszą płytą, jaka kupił, był album zespołu Deep Purple – "Machine Head". +W szkole poznał Dave'a Murraya, dzięki któremu postanowił rozpocząć naukę gry na gitarze. Smith porzucił szkołę w wieku 16 lat, pewien że rozpocznie karierę gwiazdy rocka. +Po rozpadzie własnego zespołu Urchin (który założył w 1972 wspólnie z Dave'em Murrayem), w 1981 roku dołączył do Iron Maiden, zajmując miejsce poprzedniego gitarzysty, Dennisa Strattona. Pierwszym albumem, jaki z nimi nagrał był "Killers". Smith miał okazję rozpocząć grę w Iron Maiden wcześniej, ale odrzucił tę możliwość pragnąc rozwinąć swój zespół. +W 1989 roku Adrian zajął się solową karierą, czego owocem został A.S.A.P. (skrót od: "Adrian Smith And Project"), który jednak nie odniósł sukcesu. Wkrótce, w 1990 roku opuścił Maiden, a jego miejsce zajął Janick Gers. W 1996 Adrian założył zespół Psycho Motel, z którym nagrał dwie płyty "State of Mind"(1996) i "Welcome To The World" (1997). Niedługo potem Smith rozpoczął współpracę z Bruce'em Dickinsonem (wówczas byłym wokalistą Iron Maiden). Nagrał z nim kilka płyt, które zebrały bardzo wysokie noty: "Accident of Birth", "The Chemical Wedding", "Scream for Me Brazil". +W 1999 Adrian Smith i Bruce Dickinson wrócili do Iron Maiden. +27 lutego 2012 ukazała się płyta projektu Primal Rock Rebellion pt. "Awoken Broken", której współtwórcą jest Adrian Smith. Drugim współzałożycielem jest Mikee Goodman - wokalista zespołu SikTh. +Prywatnie jest mężem Nathalie Dufresne, z którą ma trójkę dzieci. +Przemysław Gosiewski + +Przemysław Edgar Gosiewski (ur. 12 maja 1964 w Słupsku, zm. 10 kwietnia 2010 w Smoleńsku) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm IV, V i VI kadencji z listy Prawa i Sprawiedliwości, minister-członek Rady Ministrów oraz wiceprezes Rady Ministrów w rządzie Jarosława Kaczyńskiego, przewodniczący klubu parlamentarnego PiS. +Życiorys. +Absolwent Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. Stefana Żeromskiego w Darłowie. W latach 1983–1989 studiował na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. Tytuł magistra uzyskał w 1997. +W czasie studiów rozpoczął działalność opozycyjną, w 1984 związał się z Niezależnym Zrzeszeniem Studentów Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, brał udział w strajku studenckim w 1988. Był studentem m.in. Lecha Kaczyńskiego (prowadzącego na UG zajęcia z prawa pracy), zaś w 1989 rozpoczął współpracę z jego bratem Jarosławem. +W 1989 został zatrudniony przez Lecha Kaczyńskiego, pełniącego funkcję wiceprzewodniczącego NSZZ "Solidarność", na stanowisku kierownika biura ds. kontaktów z regionami Komisji Krajowej "Solidarności", które zajmował do 1991. +Wspólnie z braćmi Kaczyńskimi brał udział w zakładaniu Porozumienia Centrum. W latach 1991–1999 był sekretarzem zarządu głównego PC, zaś w latach 1992–1993 kierownikiem biura poselskiego posła PC Adama Glapińskiego. W latach 90. zaangażował się w działalność Spółdzielczych Kas Oszczędnościowo-Kredytowych. W latach 1993–1995 pracował jako specjalista w biurze pełnomocnika zarządu Fundacji na rzecz Polskich Związków Kredytowych. +W wyborach prezydenckich w 1995 był pełnomocnikiem sztabu wyborczego Lecha Kaczyńskiego (który ostatecznie wycofał się z wyborów). W tym samym roku rozpoczął pracę w spółce "Srebrna" (której kierownicze funkcje pełnił Jarosław Kaczyński, a współpracownikami byli inni działacze PC, Adam Lipiński i Wojciech Jasiński), wydającej czasopismo "Nowe Państwo" (pracował także w redakcji). W latach 1998–2001 zasiadał w sejmiku mazowieckim z ramienia AWS. W okresie 2000–2001 był doradcą Lecha Kaczyńskiego, zajmującego wówczas stanowisko ministra sprawiedliwości. +Od 2001 należał do Prawa i Sprawiedliwości. Organizował struktury tego ugrupowania w województwie świętokrzyskim. W Sejmie IV kadencji (2001–2005) po raz pierwszy sprawował mandat poselski. Zasiadał wówczas w Komisji Obrony Narodowej, Komisji Sprawiedliwości i Praw Człowieka oraz w komisji śledczej ds. prywatyzacji PZU. W wyborach w 2005 ponownie został posłem z okręgu kieleckiego. Od 3 listopada 2005 do 19 lipca 2006 był przewodniczącym Klubu Parlamentarnego PiS. Po publikacji w jednym z niemieckich czasopism tekstu ośmieszającego braci Kaczyńskich w lipcu 2006, wystąpił z oficjalnym wnioskiem do polskiego ministra sprawiedliwości, aby ten podjął kroki zmierzające do ewentualnego ukarania niemieckiego autora tekstu, przy użyciu międzynarodowego listu gończego, za znieważenie prezydenta. +W 2006 wspierał ideę przystosowania do obsługi pociągów pasażerskich stacji Włoszczowa Północ na Centralnej Magistrali Kolejowej na północ od Włoszczowy. Adaptacja polegała na wybudowaniu peronu oraz infrastruktury do obsługi podróżnych kosztem 909 tys. zł. Od 14 lipca 2006 do 16 listopada 2007 pełnił funkcję ministra-członka Rady Ministrów w rządzie Jarosława Kaczyńskiego, będąc jednocześnie przewodniczącym Komitetu Stałego Rady Ministrów. Od 8 maja 2007 do 7 września 2007 i od 11 września 2007 do 16 listopada 2007 zajmował stanowisko wicepremiera. Pomiędzy tymi okresami był sekretarzem stanu w Kancelarii Prezesa Rady Ministrów. +W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2007 uzyskał w okręgu kieleckim najlepszy indywidualny wynik w tymże okręgu (138 405 głosów). 13 listopada tego samego roku został ponownie przewodniczącym KP PiS. W styczniu 2010 zrezygnował z tej funkcji i został jednym z wiceprezesów PiS. +10 kwietnia 2010 zginął w katastrofie polskiego samolotu Tu-154M w Smoleńsku. 21 kwietnia tego samego roku został pochowany w Kwaterze Smoleńskiej na Cmentarzu Wojskowym na Powązkach w Warszawie. W związku z wątpliwościami w dokumentacji sądowo-medycznej na polecenie prokuratora prokuratury wojskowej prowadzącego śledztwo w sprawie katastrofy w Smoleńsku 19 marca 2012 przeprowadzono ekshumację jego ciała. +Odznaczenia i wyróżnienia. +16 kwietnia 2010 został pośmiertnie odznaczony Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. 29 kwietnia 2010 Rada Miasta w Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim nadała mu tytuł honorowego obywatela tego miasta. +Pół roku po śmierci polityka, w Kołakach Kościelnych otworzono poświęconą mu izbę pamięci. Zgromadzono w niej fotografie Przemysława Gosiewskiego, różne dokumenty związane z jego działalnością polityczną oraz księgi kondolencyjne. Izbę pamięci zorganizowali własnym kosztem, w należącym do siebie gospodarstwie, rodzice zmarłego. +Upamiętniające go tablice umieszczono na bazylice katedralnej w Kielcach i w kościele Świętego Maksymiliana Kolbego w Darłowie. +Życie prywatne. +Lata młodości spędził w Darłowie; mieszkał w Warszawie, aczkolwiek podawał Darłowo jako miejsce zamieszkania. +Ojciec Przemysława Gosiewskiego, Jan, był nauczycielem historii, należał do PZPR. Jego matka, Jadwiga z domu Czarnołęska, jest pediatrą, kandydowała w wyborach samorządowych w 2006 do rady powiatu w Sławnie. +Przemysław Gosiewski był mężem posłanki V kadencji Małgorzaty Gosiewskiej; miał z nią syna Eryka. Z drugą żoną, Beatą, miał dwoje dzieci. +Recceswint + +Recceswint (także "Recceswinth"; zm. 672) – król wizygocki. +Był synem Chindaswinta, panował wespół z ojcem od 649 r., samodzielnie od roku 653. Siłą wprowadził katolicyzm ortodoksyjny w miejsce rodzimego dla Wizygotów chrześcijaństwa ariańskiego, tępiąc to ostatnie skutecznie. Tym sposobem wprowadził zamęt w królestwie przygotowując skutecznie podwaliny pod podbój arabski w 711 roku oraz niszcząc dokonania Wulfili (tłumaczenie Biblii na język gocki). +W 654 ogłosił zbiór praw Liber ludicum, który znosił różnice prawne między Wizygotami a ludnością rzymską zamieszkującą tereny Hiszpanii. +Zmarł bezpotomnie, dlatego nie było możliwości powstania dziedzicznej dynastii. +Uniwersytet Miskatonic + +Uniwersytet Miskatonic – fikcyjny uniwersytet położony w równie fikcyjnym mieście Arkham. Wykreowany w dziełach H.P. Lovecrafta stał się jednym z najlepiej rozpoznawanych elementów jego świata. +Opis. +Uniwersytet powstał w 1762 roku na bazie wcześniejszej fundacji założonej przez Jeremiasza Orne'a, jako trzeci w Nowej Anglii i siódmy w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Nazwę zapożyczył od przepływające w pobliżu rzeki. +Ważną częścią uniwersytetu jest jego biblioteka, gdzie trzymanych jest wiele rzadkich dzieł okultystycznych – w tym przynajmniej jeden z oryginałów "Necronomiconu". +Z Uniwersytetem Miskatonic związanych jest wiele postaci mających istotny udział w utworach Lovecrafta. Wśród nich jest opiekun księgozbioru, doktor Henry Armitage. +Nawiązania filmowe. +W filmie "Dagon" (2001) Stuarta Gordona główny bohater ma na sobie bluzę z nadrukiem – Miskatonic University. +W jednym z odcinków serialu "Mistrzowie horroru" ("Masters of Horror", 2005) pt. "Koszmar w domu wiedźmy" bohater studiuje na Uniwersytecie Miskatonic. +W filmie "Tunel" ("Otoshimono", 2006) bohaterka trafia na ofertę studiów za granicą na Uniwersytecie Miskatonic. +Theun de Vries + +Theun de Vries (ur. 26 kwietnia 1907 w Veenwouden, Fryzja, zm. 21 stycznia 2005 w Amsterdamie) – holenderski pisarz, poeta i polityk, z pochodzenia Fryz. Autor licznych powieści społecznych i historycznych. +Życie. +Theun de Vries urodził w rodzinie Sjoerda de Vries i Elisabeth Dijkstra w Veenwouden we Fryzji. W 1920]roku przeniósł się z rodzicami do Apeldoorn, gdzie jego ojciec prowadził mleczarnię i był handlowcem. Tam poznał lokalną kulturę oraz twórczość pisarzy fryzyjskich. Pierwszy tekst dziennikarski opublikował w czasopiśmie „Młoda Holandia” (1920-1921). +De Vries krótki czas pracował jako asystent w bibliotece publicznej w Hilversum, gdzie mieszkał od 1928. W 1932 ożenił się z Aafje Vernes, z którą miał jedno dziecko. W latach 30. de Vries pracował w bibliotece publicznej w Sneek. W 1936 r. wstąpił do Holenderskiej Partii Komunistycznej (HPK), a rok później przeniósł się do Amsterdamu i wrócił do dziennikarstwa. Pracował w redakcji pism „De Tribune” (później przemianowanego na „De Waarheid”) i „De Vrije Katheder”'. Rozwiódł się 17 marca 1938. +Podczas II wojny światowej de Vries początkowo ukrywał się w pobliżu Nunspeet. Poznał tam Gerarda van het Reve starszego, który był ojcem Karola van het Reve (eseisty i tłumacza) i Gerarda Reve (pisarza). Ze względu na działalność w ruchu oporu de Vries był aresztowany przez Niemców i umieszczony w obozie Amersfoort, gdzie spędził 10 miesięcy. W 1945 de Vries ponownie ożenił się z Aafje Vernes. Vernes zmarła 8 stycznia 1975 w Amsterdamie. +De Vries jako członek HPK uczestniczył w obradach amsterdamskiej Rady Miasta. W 1946 r. był wystawionym przez HPK kandydatem do izby niższej parlamentu holenderskiego, lecz mandatu nie uzyskał. Pozostał członkiem partii komunistycznej w czasach zimnej wojny, co było przez kolegów pisarzy bardzo źle przyjmowane. Bronił zamachu stanu, w wyniku którego komuniści objęli w 1948 r. władzę w Czechosłowacji, w pozytywnym tonie pisał o rosyjskiej interwencję na Węgrzech (1956), a w 1953 roku napisał pean na cześć Stalina. Był członkiem PEN-Clubu. +Mimo komunistycznych poglądów w roku 1963 przetłumaczył z języka rosyjskiego opowiadanie Aleksandra Sołżenicyna "Jeden dzień Iwana Denisowicza", napisane w oparciu o przeżycia w syberyjskim gułagu. +De Vries zmarł w Amsterdamie na skutek zapalenie płuc mając 97 lat. +Twórczość. +De Vries zadebiutował w 1925 roku. Napisał ponad 100 książek, w tym monografie, scenariusze filmowe i słuchowiska. Pisał głównie w języku niderlandzkim, ale także w fryzyjskim ("Earst en lêst", 1977; "Paden fan it ferline", 1997; "Stins en krite", 1997). Niektóre z jego książek zostały przetłumaczone na język polski. Pisał pod wieloma pseudonimami, m.in. Sybrand Vos, A. Cz. M. Swaertdrager i Ibn-Askari. +De Vries ma w swoim dorobku wiele powieści społecznych i historycznych. Początkowo w jego tekstach dominowała romantyczna kreacja bohaterów, w późniejszych powieściach coraz większą rolę odgrywają nawiązania i motywy polityczne. +Znaczną część twórczości de Vriesa zajmują opowieści biograficzne: "Ziet een mens" (na temat Vincenta van Gogha, "Moergrobben" (o Hieronimie Boschu) czy "Rembrandt". +Temperament + +Temperament – podstawowe, względnie stałe czasowo cechy osobowości, które manifestują się w formalnej charakterystyce zachowania. Cechy te występują już we wczesnym dzieciństwie i są wspólne dla człowieka i zwierząt. Będąc pierwotnie zdeterminowanym przez wrodzone mechanizmy fizjologiczne, temperament podlega zmianom zachodzącym pod wpływem dojrzewania (i starzenia się) oraz niektórych czynników środowiskowych. (Regulacyjna teoria temperamentu Strelau) +Temperament – zespół dziedziczonych cech osobowości, zdeterminowanych genetycznie i ujawniających się już w pierwszym roku życia człowieka. Tak rozumiany temperament stanowi podstawę kształtowania się i rozwoju osobowości. (Buss i Plomin) +Arnold H. Buss i Robert Plomin definiują temperament jako zespół dziedziczonych cech osobowości, które ujawniają się we wczesnym okresie życia jednostki. Cechy te są zdeterminowane genetycznie i ujawniają się już w pierwszym roku życia człowieka. Tak rozumiany temperament stanowi podstawę kształtowania się i rozwoju osobowości. W dzieciństwie całą osobowość wypełnia temperament (nie biorąc pod uwagę sfery intelektualnej). +W oparciu o te dwa założenia oraz na podstawie wyników prowadzonych badań autorzy wyodrębnili trzy zasadnicze cechy określające strukturę temperamentu: emocjonalność (Emotionality), aktywność (Activity) i towarzyskość (Sociability), których pierwsze litery wyjaśniają skrót EAS. Początkowo za cechę temperamentalną uznana została również impulsywność (Impulsivity), jednak wyniki analizy czynnikowej wskazały na konieczność uznania jej za cechę niejednorodną, ponadto nie udało się jednoznacznie ustalić jej wskaźników odziedziczalności. +Badaniami temperamentu zajmowali się m.in. Hipokrates, Iwan Pawłow, Jan Strelau, Hans Eysenck (patrz: teoria temperamentu PEN), Arnold Buss, Robert Plomin, Ernst Kretschmer, William Sheldon. Ich badania należą do nurtu psychologii konstytucjonalnej. +Temperament w teorii Pawłowa. +Kombinacje właściwości układu nerwowego. +Pawłow swoje badania nad funkcjonalną wydolnością komórki nerwowej odniósł do typologii temperamentów Hipokratesa. Kombinacje typów temperamentalnych to odpowiedni: typ melancholiczny, typ choleryczny, typ sangwiniczny i typ flegmatyczny. +Tufur + +Tufury – pagórki darniowe o średnicy około 2 m (lub mniejszej) i wysokości do 50 cm. Występujące grupowo na stoku górskim o nachyleniu 5-20 stopni, pooddzielane gęstą siecią wąskich rynien. Powstają pod wpływem pęcznienia mrozowego. Zbudowane są z gliny i pokryte zwartą darnią. +Storczykowate + +Storczykowate ("Orchidaceae" Juss.) – rodzina roślin obejmująca ponad 20 tysięcy gatunków bylin (samożywnych i myko-heterotroficznych). Jest jedną z najbogatszych w gatunki rodzin roślin wyższych. W Polsce, w stanie dzikim, występuje około 50 gatunków z 24 rodzajów i wszystkie one podlegają ochronie gatunkowej. Rośliny z rodziny storczykowatych o efektownych i oryginalnych kwiatach są potocznie nazywane orchideami. +Ekologia. +Występują głównie w strefie międzyzwrotnikowej (epifity i liany), rzadziej w umiarkowanej (na łąkach i w lasach). Wiele gatunków żyje w symbiozie z grzybami (mikoryza). +Systematyka. +Klad bazalny (najstarsza linia rozwojowa) w rzędzie szparagowców "Asparagales" w obrębie jednoliściennych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa jednoliścienne ("Liliopsida" Brongn.), podklasa liliowe ("Liliidae" J.H. Schaffn.), nadrząd "Lilianae" Takht., rząd storczykowce ("Orchidales" Raf), podrząd "Orchidineae" Rchb., rodzina storczykowate ("Orchidaceae" Juss.). +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), klasa jednoliścienne ("Liliopsida" Scop. 1760), podklasa "Liliidae", rząd storczykowce. +Należą tu tylko dwa rodzaje – "Apostasia" i "Neuwiedia" obejmujące 16–17 gatunków występujących głównie w Azji południowo-wschodniej. +Obejmuje 180 gatunków skupionych w 15 rodzajach, występujących na wszystkich kontynentach w strefie tropikalnej oraz w strefie umiarkowanej we wschodniej części Ameryki Północnej oraz Azji. Najbardziej zróżnicowane rodzaje to wanilia ("Vanilla") – 100 gatunków oraz "Epistephium" – 12 gatunków. Najważniejszym gatunkiem użytkowym jest wanilia płaskolistna ("V. planifolia"), której owoce są używane jako przyprawa (tzw. laski wanilii). +Należy tu 130 gatunków skupionych w 5 rodzajach występujących w strefie umiarkowanej półkuli północnej oraz w tropikach Azji południowo-wschodniej i Ameryki Południowej. W Europie środkowej jedynym przedstawicielem jest obuwik pospolity ("Cypripedium calceolus"). +Grupa składająca się z ok. 650 rodzajów liczących ok. 18 tysięcy gatunków występujących na wszystkich kontynentach. Zaliczane tu rośliny są często epifityczne, nierzadko myko-heterotroficzne. Przedstawicielami w polskiej florze są: buławnik ("Cephalanthera"), kruszczyk ("Epipactis"), gnieźnik ("Neottia"), storzan ("Epipogium"), żłobik ("Corallorhiza"), lipiennik ("Liparis"), wyblin ("Malaxis"), listera ("Listera"), gołek ("Leucorchis"). Do tej podrodziny należy też szereg rodzajów storczyków często uprawianych, takich jak: falenopsis ("Phalaenopsis"), katleja ("Cattleya"), dendrobium ("Dendrobium"), cymbidium ("Cymbidium"), zygopetalum ("Zygopetalum"). +Grupa składająca się z 208 rodzajów liczących ok. 3755 gatunków, występujących na wszystkich kontynentach z wyjątkiem obszarów okołobiegunowych i pustyń. Zaliczane tu rośliny są sympodialne, bardzo rzadko myko-heterotroficzne, częste są bulwy na korzeniach lub łodydze. Przedstawicielami w polskiej florze są: tajęża ("Goodyera"), kręczynka ("Spiranthes"), koślaczek ("Anacamptis"), kukułka ("Dactylorhiza"), gółka ("Gymnadenia"), miodokwiat ("Herminium"), kukuczka ("Neottianthe"), dwulistnik ("Ophrys"), storczyk ("Orchis"), podkolan ("Platanthera"), storczyca ("Traunsteinera"), potrostek ("Chamorchis"), ozorka ("Coeloglossum"). +Frederick Banting + +Sir Frederick Grant Banting KBE, MC(ur. 14 listopada 1891 w Alliston, Ontario, zm. 21 lutego 1941) – kanadyjski fizjolog, odkrywca insuliny. Laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie fizjologii lub medycyny. +Studiował medycynę na Uniwersytecie w Toronto, w czasie I wojny światowej służył w kanadyjskim korpusie medycznym. Po wojnie dokończył studia i pracował jako lekarz, prowadził prywatną praktykę oraz współpracował ze szpitalem dziecięcym w Toronto. Był także wykładowcą Uniwersytetu w Toronto. Od 1921 prowadził badania w instytucie naukowym przy uniwersytecie; zajmował się działaniem hormonu wytwarzanego w trzustce zwierzęcej. W 1922 wspólnie z asystentem Charlesem Bestem odkrył insulinę, co wkrótce okazało się przełomem w leczeniu cukrzycy. +W 1923 za odkrycie insuliny otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla. Razem z nim wyróżniono nagrodą zwierzchnika z instytutu, Johna Macleoda, natomiast pominięto Besta. W tej sytuacji Banting dobrowolnie podzielił się premią pieniężną z Nagrody Nobla ze swoim asystentem. W 1934 król Anglii Jerzy V nadał Bantingowi tytuł szlachecki "Sir". +Zginął w wypadku lotniczym w trakcie lotu do Anglii. W 2004 w rankingu plebiscytowym "Wielkich Kanadyjczyków" zajął 4. miejsce. +Dave Murray + +David Michael Murray (ur. 23 grudnia 1956 w Londynie, Anglia) – gitarzysta heavymetalowego zespołu Iron Maiden. Pochodzi z Edmonton we wschodnim Londynie. +W 2004 roku muzyk wraz z Adrianem Smithem został sklasyfikowany na 11. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych gitarzystów heavymetalowych wszech czasów według magazynu Guitar World. +Biografia. +Razem ze Steve'em Harrisem są jedynymi członkami Iron Maiden, których nagrania znajdują się na każdym albumie zespołu od założenia w 1975 r. Iron Maiden. +Jednak nie jest zgodne z prawdą stwierdzenie, jakoby Dave był w Iron Maiden nieprzerwanie od owego 1975 roku. Nie znajdował się w pierwotnym składzie, zaś niedługo po przyłączeniu się do zespołu Murray został na pół roku wyrzucony. +Jego ojciec był z pochodzenia w połowie Szkotem i Irlandczykiem. +Podobnie jak, urodzony w tym samym roku, Steve Harris, jako chłopiec był fanatykiem piłki nożnej (kibicował Tottenham Hotspur, podczas gdy Harris jest prawdopodobnie najbardziej znanym na świecie fanem West Ham United) oraz zapalonym miłośnikiem krykieta. +Jego rodzina była biedna – niepełnosprawny ojciec, matka pracująca na pół etatu jako sprzątaczka. Dave nie był w stanie znaleźć sobie miejsca w żadnej ze szkolnych drużyn futbolowych. Według jego obliczeń, uczył się w szesnastu różnych szkołach do momentu w którym, w wieku 16 lat, wyprowadził się. +W wieku 15 lat poznał Adriana Smitha, z którym później spotkał się w Iron Maiden. Dave grał na gitarze, a Adrian śpiewał. Dopiero później, dzięki namowom Dave'a, Smith kupił od niego gitarę i nauczył się grać. +W czasie, gdy Dave grał z Maiden, Adrian założył własny zespół – Urchin, z którym początkowo przez jakiś czas grał również Murray. Z powodu nieporozumień z byłym wokalistą Iron Maiden, Dennisem Wilcockiem (skłócenie Dennisa i Daveya przez Boba Sawyera, owczesnego drugiego gitarzystę), Dave został na krótko wyrzucony z zespołu (na samym początku ich kariery) i przyłączył się do Urchin. Jednak wkrótce powrócił do Maiden, gdzie gra do dzisiaj. +Życie prywatne. +Jest mężem Tamar Murray, z którą ma jedno dziecko, córkę Tashę. +Hak + + +Hak – urządzenie w postaci zakrzywionego pręta metalowego służące do zaczepiania, trzymania lub zawieszania na nim najczęściej ładunków. Stanowi wyposażenie najczęściej urządzeń dźwignicowych jako element zblocza lub zawiesia. W przeszłości haki były wykonywane poprzez odlewanie, obecnie poprzez kucie przeważnie matrycowe, w wykonaniu monolitycznym lub płytowym (haki płytowe). +Elementy budowy haka to: ucho (1), zapadka (2), róg (3), gardziel (4), rygiel (5). +Klasyfikacja. +Klasyfikacja na podst. PN-74/M-84500, pozycje pisane "kursywą" nie są uwzględnione w tej normie. +Konkwista + +Konkwista (hiszp. "conquista" - podbój, zdobycie) - hiszpańskie wyprawy zbrojne, podejmowane od końca XV wieku w celu podboju nowo odkrytych terytoriów zamorskich w Amerykach, Afryce i Indiach. +Ówczesnym usprawiedliwieniem konkwisty była walka z niewiernymi (muzułmanie) oraz nawracanie nowych ludów na katolicyzm. "De facto" sprowadzało się to do rozszerzania władzy monarchii. Przyczyny konkwisty są dość szerokie. Po zakończeniu toczonej na Półwyspie Iberyjskim przeciwko Maurom rekonkwisty, zarówno Królestwo Portugalii jak i połączone unią Kastylia i Aragonia szukały dalszych dróg ekspansji. Dla bezrobotnej od pewnego czasu szlachty konkwista oznaczała nowe zajęcie, dawała jednocześnie szansę szybkiego awansu społecznego rzeszom niższych warstw społecznych, które w Nowym Świecie szukały lepszego życia - przykładem takiej kariery może być jeden z bardziej znanych konkwistadorów (hiszp. "zdobywców") Francisco Pizarro, pierwotnie pasterz świń z Estremadury. +Aleksiej Rykow + +Aleksiej Iwanowicz Rykow (Алексей Иванович Рыков) (ur. 25 lutego 1881, stracony 15 marca 1938) – polityk radziecki. +Rykow przyszedł na świat w Saratowie. Do SDPRR wstąpił w 1898 roku, popierał frakcję bolszewików, organizował strajki i demonstracje. Pracował jako działacz partyjny w Moskwie, St. Petersburgu. Odegrał aktywną rolę w Rewolucji 1905 roku. Wielokrotnie aresztowany i zsyłany. +W 1917 został członkiem KC i Rady Piotrogrodzkiej; od 1922 czł. Biura Politycznego. W 1917 był komisarzem spraw wewnętrznych w rządzie Lenina, następnie w latach 1918-1921 przewodniczącym Najwyższej Rady Gospodarki Narodowej i w latach 1921-1924 wiceprzewodniczącym Rady Komisarzy Ludowych. Po śmierci Lenina szef rządu (przewodniczący Rady Komisarzy Ludowych ZSRR). +Poparł wraz z Nikołajem Bucharinem Józefa Stalina, Grigorija Zinowjewa i Lwa Kamieniewa przeciwko Lwu Trockiemu, następnie Stalina przeciwko "lewicowej opozycji" (Zinowjew, Kamieniew). W 1929 wystąpił +razem z Bucharinem przeciwko kolektywizacji rolnictwa i forsownej industrializacji, co nazwano "odchyleniem prawicowym". W 1930 został odwołany z funkcji szefa rządu oraz z Biura Politycznego. Jego miejsce w rządzie zajął Wiaczesław Mołotow. W latach 1931-1936 ludowy komisarz łączności. Został aresztowany w lutym 1937 w czasie plenum KC WKP(b), a następnie osądzony w marcu 1938 w procesie pokazowym wraz z Bucharinem, Gienrichem Jagodą, Nikołajem Krestinskim i innymi, skazany na śmierć i rozstrzelany. +Został zrehabilitowany w 1988. +Wojciech Gabriel + +Wojciech Stanisław Gabriel (16 sierpnia 1919 w Olganowie - 12 stycznia 2005 w Warszawie), profesor nauk rolniczych. +W 1948 ukończył studia w Szkole Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego. W latach 1939-1952 (z przerwą wojenną) pracował jako asystent w Stacji Hodowli Roślin A. Janasz i S-ka w Dańkowie, następnie był kierownikiem firmy nasiennej w Kutnie i dyrektorem oddziału Hodowli Buraka Cukrowego firmy A. Janasz i S-ka. +Od 1953 pracował w Zakładzie Ziemniaka Instytutu Uprawy, Nawożenia i Gleboznawstwa w Warszawie. Współtworzył Instytut Ziemniaka w Boninie i w latach 1966-1972 był jego pierwszym dyrektorem, następnie (do 1989) kierownikiem Zakładu Chorób Wirusowych i Nasiennictwa. Jednocześnie uzyskiwał kolejne stopnie i tytuły naukowe - doktorat (1960), habilitacja (1965), profesura nadzwyczajna (1974), profesura zwyczajna (1979). W 1989 przeszedł na emeryturę. Należał do Polskiego Towarzystwa Biometrycznego, Polskiego Towarzystwa Fitopatologicznego, Europejskiego Stowarzyszenia Badań nad Ziemniakiem (1975-1978 przewodniczący), był również członkiem PTTK. Wchodził w skład komitetów redakcyjnych "Biuletynu Instytutu Ziemniaka" i czasopisma "Ziemniak", a także Rady Naukowej Instytutu Ziemniaka oraz komitetów naukowych PAN - Komitetu Ochrony Roślin i Komitetu Uprawy i Hodowli Roślin. +Laureat m.in. Nagrody Wydziału Nauk Rolniczych i Leśnych PAN (1960, 1983), odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski i Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi. +Powiat leski + +Powiat leski - powiat w Polsce (województwo podkarpackie), utworzony w 2002 z części powiatu bieszczadzkiego. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Lesko - będące najmniejszą stolicą powiatu w Polsce. Powiat od południa graniczy ze słowackim krajem preszowskim, od zachodu - z powiatem sanockim, a od wschodu - z powiatem bieszczadzkim. +Podstawowe gałęzie gospodarki to rolnictwo i turystyka. +Historia. +W roku 1782 cyrkuł (powiat) leski obejmował następujące jednostki administracyjne : Lesko, Baligród, Lutowiska, Jaćmierz, Sanok, Rymanów, Iwonicz, Dynów, Nozdrzec, Nienadowa, Bircza, Dubiecko, Brzozów, Iskrzynia, Zarszyn, Mrzygłód, Bukowsko, Ustrzyki Dolne, Nowotaniec, Chyrów, Felsztyn, Rogi, Lubatówka, Cergowa i Jaśliska. +Do roku 1918 powiat leski obejmował 1827 km², liczył 74118 mieszkańców oraz składał się ze 156 gmin katastralnych, w obrębie starostwa znajdowały się sądy powiatowe w Lesku, Ustrzykach Dolnych, Lutowiskach i Baligrodzie. Na prawach miasteczek były Ustrzyki Dolne, Lutowiska i Baligród. +Wielokrążek potęgowy + +Wielokrążek potęgowy - maszyna prosta, składająca się z szeregowego ciągu krążków przesuwnych. +gdzie: +Powyższa zależność określa wartość siły poruszającej układ wielokrążka by podnieść ciężar Q. +Wielokrążek potęgowy w układach rzeczywistych. +W układach rzeczywistych dochodzą zjawiska dynamiczne, związane z inercją układu oraz straty mechaniczne związane z oporami ruchu. W naszym przypadku przyjmujemy, że ruch w układzie jest ruchem ustalonym. +Wtedy spełnione jest równanie: formula_2 +Maksim Gorki + +Maksim Gorki ("Максим Горький", ur. 28 marca 1868, zm. 18 czerwca 1936) – pisarz rosyjski, właściwie Aleksiej Maksimowicz Pieszkow ("Алексей Максимович Пешков"). Autor wielu dramatów ("Na dnie"), powieści ("Matka") i opowiadań ("Foma Gordiejew'). Wybitna postać rosyjskiego modernizmu (tzw. srebrnego wieku). +Życiorys. +Wcześnie osierocony, wychowywany przez babkę. +W 1895 roku pracował w „Samarskiej Gaziecie”, gdzie poznał młodą korektorkę Jekatierinę Wołżinę, z którą ożenił się w 1896 roku. Mieli dwójkę dzieci – syna Maksima, urodzonego w 1897 roku, i córkę Katię. Gorki zawarł później drugie małżeństwo z aktorką Marią Andrejewną, nie rozwodząc się jednak z pierwszą żoną. +Mimo przedrewolucyjnej przyjaźni z Leninem rewolucję październikową przyjął z niechęcią, publikował antybolszewickie felietony, próbował ratować aresztowanych pisarzy. W 1920 roku jego druga żona, Maria Fiodorowna Andrejewa, aktorka, została komisarzem politycznym do spraw teatru i ministrem sztuki. Skonfliktowany z władzami i chory na gruźlicę na polecenie Lenina wyjechał 6 października 1921 r. na leczenie za granicę. W latach 1921-1924 mieszkał na emigracji w Niemczech, w Berlinie, Bad Saarow i Heringsdorfie (gdzie leczył gruźlicę), później do 1927 we Włoszech (Sorrento). +Tymczasem władze uznały pisarstwo Gorkiego za wzorzec do naśladowania ("realizm socjalistyczny") i zabiegały o jego powrót i poparcie. Skutecznie. Po powrocie, mianowany przewodniczącym Związku Pisarzy ZSRR, brał udział w licznych przedsięwzięciach kulturalnych i propagandowych (m.in. redagował osławiony zbiór esejów o budowie Kanału Białomorsko-Bałtyckiego). +Obsypywany przywilejami. Na jego cześć zmieniono nazwę miasta (Niżny Nowogród) oraz nazywano samoloty i fabryki. +Jego autorytet pomógł Stalinowi budować na Zachodzie propagandowy obraz ZSRR. +Umarł w tajemniczych okolicznościach. O jego otrucie oskarżano licznych podsądnych w procesach politycznych lat 30. Według najbardziej prawdopodobnej wersji otruty został przez agentów NKWD działających z polecenia Stalina. Śmierć Gorkiego wiązana jest często z wstępem do czystek stalinowskich. +Twórczość. +Debiutował jako prozaik w 1892. Rozgłos zyskał trzema tomami "Szkiców i opowiadań" (1898-1899), a także dramatami "Mieszczanie" (1901) i "Na dnie" (1902), ukazującymi sprzeciw przeciwko drobnomieszczaństwu. +Był jakoby zwiastunem rewolucji ludowej w "Pieśni o Sokole" (1895) i "Pieśni o Zwiastunie Burzy" (1901). Osądzał surowo burżuazję i inteligencję rosyjską z powodu jej konformizmu, np. w powieści "Foma Gordiejew" (1899), dramatach "Letnicy" i "Barbarzyńcy". Do najbardziej znanych jego powieści należy "Matka" (1906), poświęcona życiu robotników. Wydał też trylogię autobiograficzną "Dzieciństwo" (1912), "Wśród ludzi" (1914) i "Moje uniwersytety" (1922). Ukazała się także powieść o losach burżuazyjnej rodziny "Artamonow i synowie" (1925) i "Życie Klima Samgina"" (1925-1936). W języku polskim ukazała się większość jego prac, w tym również "Pisma" (tom 1-16, pol. wyd. 1951-1957), artykuły i pamflety. +Ła-5 + +Ła-5 (ros. Ла-5) – radziecki jednosilnikowy, jednomiejscowy samolot myśliwski z okresu II wojny światowej. +Opracowany w biurze konstrukcyjnym S. A. Ławoczkina jako następca samolotu ŁaGG-3. Był jednym z najlepszych samolotów myśliwskich rosyjskiego lotnictwa. Wprowadzony do produkcji wiosną 1942 roku, pozostał w służbie do końca wojny. +Wyprodukowano łącznie blisko 10 600 sztuk samolotu Ła-5 (głównie wersji Ła-5FN). +Historia. +Początki samolotu Ła-5 sięgają 1940 roku, kiedy w biurze konstrukcyjnym kierowanym przez Siemiona Aleksiejewicza Ławoczkina, przy współpracy W. P. Gorbunowa i M. I. Gudkowa powstał samolot ŁaGG-1. Po przejściu drobnych modyfikacji i zmianie silnika powstał nowy typ samolotu ŁaGG-3, który podobnie jak poprzednik został wyprodukowany w niewielkich ilościach. +Na samolocie Ła-5 latał radziecki as myśliwski II wojny światowej Iwan Kożedub. +Opis konstrukcji. +Jednomiejscowy, jednosilnikowy dolnopłat myśliwski z chowanym podwoziem. Konstrukcja drewniana (ŁaG-5) lub mieszana (Ła-5FN). +Kadłub: część przednia spawana z rur stalowych, kryta blachą. W części tylnej wręgi i podłużnice kryte sklejką. Za fotelem pilota pancerna płyta o grubości 8,5 mm oraz w górnej części płyta ze szkła pancernego grubości 60 mm. Przednia szyba wiatrochronu pancerna o grubości 55 mm. Kabina pilota wyposażona w instalację radiową. Osłona kabiny odsuwana do tyłu. +Skrzydło wolnonośne, dwudźwigarowe, o profilu NACA 23016 przy kadłubie i 23010 przy końcówce płata, kryte sklejką. Klapy krokodylowe, automatyczne, metalowe sloty na krawędzi natarcia. W części centralnej mieściły się zbiorniki paliwa. Powierzchnia nośna 17,51 m². Wznios płata 5°. +Usterzenie: statecznik pionowy i stateczniki poziome kryte sklejką. Stery konstrukcji metalowej kryte płótnem. Napęd steru kierunku cięgnami. Ster wysokości napędzany popychaczami. +Napęd: czternastocylindrowy silnik tłokowy w układzie podwójnej gwiazdy, chłodzony powietrzem M-82. Moc 1700 KM przy prędkości obrotowej 2400 obr/min. 1540 KM na wysokości 2000 m (M-82FN – 1850 KM). Okapotowanie silnika zawierało żaluzje regulujące przepływ powietrza chłodzącego. Śmigło metalowe WISz-1058, trójłopatowe o średnicy 3,1 m. Piasta śmigła osłonięta kołpakiem. Chłodnica oleju zamontowana pod silnikiem u nasady płata. +Podwozie w układzie klasycznym. Przednie jednogoleniowe, chowane hydraulicznie w skrzydła w kierunku kadłuba. Kółko ogonowe chowane hydraulicznie, swobodnie skrętne. +Uzbrojenie: dwa działka SP-20 (SzWAK) kalibru 20 mm z zapasem 340 naboi na każde. Możliwość podwieszenia dwóch bomb o masie do 100 kg. +Andrzej Urbański + +Andrzej Janusz Urbański (ur. 18 maja 1954 w Warszawie) – polski polityk, dziennikarz i publicysta, poseł na Sejm I kadencji, były prezes zarządu Telewizji Polskiej, w latach 2005–2006 szef Kancelarii Prezydenta RP i były doradca prezydenta RP Lecha Kaczyńskiego. +Życiorys. +Okres PRL. +Ukończył studia w zakresie socjologii kultury na Wydziale Filologii Polskiej Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (1977). Pracował w Bibliotece Narodowej. W latach 1980–1981 przewodniczył komisji zakładowej NSZZ "Solidarność" w tej placówce. Był delegatem na II i III Krajowy Zjazd Delegatów "Solidarności". Po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego został szefem podziemnego wydawnictwa "Wola". Zasiadał w prezydium Rady Duszpasterstwa Ludzi Pracy w Archidiecezji Warszawskiej w latach 1986–1992, należał też do Klubu Myśli Politycznej "Dziekania" w latach 1988–1989. +Z akt opublikowanych przez IPN 25 września 2007 wynika, że w 1982 Andrzej Urbański po rozmowie ostrzegawczej podpisał deklarację lojalności wobec organów bezpieczeństwa PRL. Sam zainteresowany zaprzeczył tym informacjom. IPN wydał w tej sprawie komunikat prasowy, w którym poinformował, że "zapisy w katalogu odzwierciedlają sformułowania w zachowanych źródłach, zaś tzw. deklaracja lojalności nie oznaczała współpracy z organami bezpieczeństwa państwa". +Działalność polityczna w III RP. +W latach 1990–1992 działał w Porozumieniu Centrum jako sekretarz zarządu głównego i członek naczelnej rady politycznej. W 1991 uzyskał mandat posła na Sejm I kadencji w okręgu Warszawa z listy Porozumienia Obywatelskiego Centrum. Zasiadał w Komisji Kultury i Środków Przekazu, Komisji Polityki Społecznej oraz Komisji Nadzwyczajnej do zbadania skutków stanu wojennego. W trakcie kadencji przeszedł do Polskiego Programu Liberalnego. Kilka lat później działał w Ruchu Stu. +W latach 2000–2001 pełnił funkcję doradcy premiera Jerzego Buzka ds. polityki informacyjnej (w randze podsekretarza stanu w KPRM), należał do Ruchu Społecznego AWS. +Od 2002 do 2005 był zastępcą prezydenta m.st. Warszawy Lecha Kaczyńskiego odpowiedzialnym za edukację, kulturę, politykę informacyjną i promocję miasta, budownictwo, drogownictwo oraz infrastrukturę. +23 grudnia 2005 po objęciu przez Lecha Kaczyńskiego urzędu Prezydenta RP został powołany na stanowisko szefa jego Kancelarii. +Od 13 stycznia 2006 do 24 sierpnia 2006 pełnił obowiązki szefa Biura Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. +2 czerwca 2006 w następstwie artykułu prasowego w "Rzeczpospolitej" złożył dymisję z funkcji szefa Kancelarii Prezydenta RP. Dziennik podał, że Andrzej Urbański, pełniąc funkcję szefa Kancelarii Prezydenta, według Krajowego Rejestru Sądowego wciąż pozostawał prezesem i udziałowcem założonej wspólnie z Ryszardem Nawratem (oskarżonym o korupcję działaczem SLD) firmy Kalejdoskop – Nowa Korporacja, co było niezgodne z ustawą antykorupcyjną. Od 9 października 2006 do 28 lutego 2007 pełnił funkcję doradcy prezydenta. +Od 4 września 2007 był członkiem Kolegium IPN, pełnił tę funkcję do czasu zlikwidowania tego organu w 2011 i utworzenia w jego miejsce Rady IPN. +Działalność zawodowa w III RP. +Był kierownikiem działu politycznego w "Tygodniku Solidarność". W latach 90. był redaktorem naczelnym programu "Pegaz" w Telewizji Polskiej oraz gazet "Express Wieczorny", "Życie Warszawy" i tygodnika "Czas Polski". Prowadził w Telewizji Polskiej audycje "Pytania o Polskę" oraz "Premierzy". +26 lutego 2007 został powołany do rady nadzorczej TVP, od 27 lutego 2007 pełnił obowiązki prezesa zarządu Telewizji Polskiej, a 3 kwietnia 2007 został wybrany na stanowisko prezesa zarządu Telewizji Polskiej. 19 grudnia 2008 rada nadzorcza TVP podjęła decyzję o jego zawieszeniu na stanowisku prezesa zarządu, a 19 września 2009 o jego odwołaniu z zarządu. +Od grudnia 2012 jest publicystą tygodnika "Uważam Rze". +Jest autorem książki "Wojna o której nie chcieliśmy wiedzieć" (Wydawnictwo ISKRY, Warszawa 2007). +Odznaczenia. +Odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (2011). +Cmentarz św. Jerzego w Toruniu + +Cmentarz św. Jerzego w Toruniu - cmentarz położony w centrum Torunia (między ulicami Gałczyńskiego, Morcinka i Sportową), w pobliżu zespołu staromiejskiego. +Historia. +Cmentarz jest najstarszą zachowaną nekropolią Torunia. Został założony w lutym 1811 (pierwsze pochówki od czerwca tegoż roku). Historia cmentarza sięga XIV w., kiedy to w pobliżu podmiejskiego kościoła św. Jerzego oraz leprozorium wyznaczono miejsce pochówków. +Stary cmentarz św. Jerzego zlikwidowano w 1813 tworząc nieopodal nowe miejsce grzebalne, kilkakrotnie powiększane (m.in.: w 1826, 1854, 1856, 1890), obecnie zajmuje ok. 8 ha, podzielony jest na 28 kwater. Obecnie poszczególne części są administrowane przez następujące parafie: ewangelicko-augsburską św. Szczepana, katedralną Świętych Janów i parafię Wniebowzięcia NMP. Korzystają z niego również prawosławni i osoby innych wyznań. +Mimo znacznego wieku cmentarza zachowało się tu raczej mało przykładów dawnej rzeźby nagrobnej, najstarszy - jednocześnie najciekawszy jest nagrobek o formach neoklasycystycznych wystawiony w 1826 zmarłemu 9 lat wcześniej Johannowi Ephraimowi Wesselowi. Również z pierwszej połowy XIX w. pochodzą jeszcze dwa nagrobki: Amalii Hirsch z 1844 i kapitana Żernickiego z 1839. Stosunkowo nieliczne są nagrobki z końca XIX w., zdecydowana większość pochodzi z XX stulecia. Nie brak wśród nich pomników o ciekawej formie. Niektóre z nich wymagają pilnej renowacji, jak np. modernistyczny nagrobek rodziny przemysłowców Raapke. +Urodę najdawniejszych części nekropolii podkreśla bujna stara zieleń oraz ozdobne metalowe ogrodzenia grobów. +Na wzór najcenniejszych polskich nekropolii, także na cmentarzu św. Jerzego - przy okazji uroczystości związanych ze świętem Wszystkich Świętych - prowadzona jest coroczna kwesta przeznaczona na renowację najcenniejszych pomników nagrobnych. +Drewniana kaplica cmentarna z 1885 obecnie służy jako kościół parafii polskokatolickiej. Dom grabarza został zbudowany w 1913. +Wzdłuż ul. Morcinka ustawiono w formie lapidarium szereg - przeważnie uszkodzonych - nagrobków ze zlikwidowanego w latach 90. cmentarza staroluterskiego położonego przy ul. Matejki (obecnie teren Osiedla Młodych). +Zmarli. +Znajdują się tu ponadto liczne groby duchowieństwa, w tym księży jezuitów i sióstr elżbietanek. +Postojna (jaskinia) + +Postojna "(słoweń. Postojnska jama)" - jaskinia słoweńska w pobliżu miasta Postojna mająca blisko 20 km podziemnych sal i korytarzy, udostępniona została turystom już na początku XIX wieku. +Trasa turystyczna o długości 5,5 km zajmuje tylko 1,5 godziny, gdyż 4-kilometrowy odcinek tzw. Starego Korytarza pokonuje się kolejką elektryczną. Do przejścia pozostaje 1700 m. Przewodnicy posługują się wszystkimi podstawowymi językami obcymi i swoim językiem słoweńskim. +Jaskinia wydrążona została w skałach przez rzekę Pivkę (dopływ Ljubljanicy). I starym korytem tej rzeki przebiega trasa turystyczna. Wokół mnożą się zadziwiające formy skalne. Wielometrowe żółto-beżowo-pomarańczowe nacieki, stalaktyty, stalagmity, kurtyny skalne. +Przy wejściu do jaskini ściany są wyraźnie osmalone. To świadectwo akcji słoweńskich partyzantów (z oddziału dowodzonego przez dowódcę-Polaka), którzy w 1944 wysadzili znajdujący się tu niemiecki skład paliw. Nie pozbawiło to jednak uroku całej jaskini. +W jaskini panuje stała temperatura +8 °C. +Jedną z atrakcji jaskini w Postojnie jest występowanie bezokiego płaza - odmieńca jaskiniowego zwanego przez Słoweńców "ludzką rybką". Żyje tylko w podziemnych wodach dynarskiego krasu. Płaza można zobaczyć w specjalnym podziemnym baseniku. +9 km od wejścia do jaskini znajduje się Predjamski Grad, czteropiętrowy zamek zamykający wejście do kolejnej jaskini pod 120-metrową pionową skałą. +Źródło mineralne + +Źródło mineralne - źródło wyprowadzające na powierzchnię terenu wodę mineralną, tj. zawierającą ponad 1000 mg/dm3 rozpuszczonych składników stałych pochodzenia geogenicznego. +Stela Naram-Sina + + +Stela Naram-Sina – kamienna płyta upamiętniająca zwycięstwo akadyjskiego króla Naram-Sina (ok. 2254-2218 p.n.e.) nad górskim ludem Lulubejów. Zabytek ten odnaleziony został w Suzie przez archeologów francuskich pod koniec XIX wieku. Obecnie przechowywany jest w zbiorach Luwru w Paryżu. +Odnalezienie. +Stela odkryta została w 1898 roku w Suzie w Iranie w trakcie francuskich prac wykopaliskowych kierowanych przez Jacques'a de Morgana. W czasie tychże wykopalisk odkryto tam też inne ważne mezopotamskie zabytki, jak np. stelę z kodeksem Hammurabiego i obelisk Manisztusu. Wszystkie one były łupem wojennym elamickiego króla Szutruk-Nahhunte I (1185-1155 p.n.e.), który przywiózł je tu z Babilonii. +Opis zabytku. +Stela wykonana jest z różowego wapienia, ma wysokość 2 metrów i szerokość 1,05 metra. Ukazane zostało na niej zwycięstwo akadyjskiego króla Naram-Sina nad Satunim, królem Lulubejów - ludu z gór Zagros. W przeciwieństwie do sumeryjskich stel (np. steli sępów czy steli Ur-Nammu), dla których charakterystyczny był podział kompozycji na poziome pasy z przedstawieniami, na tym zabytku po raz pierwszy pojawia się jedna, wielka scena zajmująca całą jego przednią stronę. +Scena na steli przedstawia akadyjską armię wspinającą się po stromych, zalesionych zboczach gór Zagros. Zwycięska armia pokonuje wszelki opór - pokonani wrogowie bądź proszą o litość, bądź leżą martwi pod stopami żołnierzy akadyjskich. Armię do ataku prowadzi sam król Naram-Sin, ku któremu skierowane są oczy wszystkich żołnierzy i pokonanych wrogów. Postać triumfującego władcy jest znacznie większa od innych. Jego głowę zdobi tiara z rogami - nakrycie głowy tradycyjnie zarezerwowane w ikonografii mezopotamskiej wyłącznie dla bogów. W rękach trzyma on łuk i strzałę. Dodatkowo uzbrojony jest w topór i sztylet. Tors króla jest odsłonięty. Ubrany jest jedynie w krótką spódniczkę sięgającą do kolan. Na nogach ma sandały. Pod nogami króla leżą zabici wrogowie. Inny przeciwnik, klęczący przed władcą, próbuje wyrwać strzałę, która przebiła jego gardło. Być może jest to sam Satuni, król Lulubejów. Pozostali, wciąż żyjący wrogowie, podnoszą ręce prosząc Naram-Sina o litość. Za zwycięskim królem akadyjskim kroczy reszta jego armii - najpierw żołnierze niosący sztandary z symbolami bóstw, a następnie żołnierze uzbrojeni w łuki i topory. Nad władcą umieszczone zostały trzy(?) gwiazdy, symbolizujące najprawdopodobniej bóstwa opiekuńcze Naram-Sina. Jest to jeden z pierwszych przykładów ukazania bóstw nie w postaci antropomorficznej, lecz w postaci reprezentujących je symboli astralnych. +Na steli znajdują się dwie inskrypcje zapisane pismem klinowym. Tekst oryginalny, w języku akadyjskim, mówi, że stelę tą wykonano by upamiętnić zwycięstwo Naran-Sina nad Satunim, królem górskiego ludu Lulubejów. W XII w. p.n.e., po zabraniu steli z Babilonii i przywiezieniu jej do Suzy, król elamicki Szutruk-Nahhunte I rozkazał obok tekstu pierwotnego umieścić własną inskrypcję głoszącą jego chwałę. Według tejże inskrypcji stela zabrana została przez niego ze splądrowanego przez armię elamicką miasta Sippar. +Inne znane stele Naram-Sina. +Stela Naram-Sina znaleziona w Suzie nie jest jedyną znaną stelą tego władcy. W Muzeum Archeologicznym w Stambule przechowywany jest niewielki fragment innej, diorytowej steli Naram-Sina, odkrytej w wiosce Pir-Hüseyin koło miasta Diyarbakir w Turcji. +Batrachologia + +Batrachologia - nauka zajmująca się badaniem płazów. Częściej spotykanym pojęciem jest herpetologia (nauka o płazach i gadach). +Fototaksja + +Zjawisko fototaksji u roślin następuje w chloroplastach. +21 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej + +21 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej (21 DPG) – wielka jednostka piechoty Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Okres międzywojenny. +Podczas wojny polsko-bolszewickiej 9 lutego 1920 na bazie Brygady Górskiej została sformowana Dywizja Górska. Jej dowódcą został płk Andrzej Galica, a szefem sztabu kpt. Rudolf Kawiński. W jej skład weszły: I Brygada Górska – dowódca płk Stanisław Wróblewski (1 i 2 Pułk Strzelców Podhalańskich), II Brygada Górska – dowódca płk Wacław Fara (3 i 4 Pułk Strzelców Podhalańskich), Brygada Artylerii – dowódca płk Józef Plisowski (21 Pułk Artylerii Polowej, 1 Pułk Artylerii Górskiej i 21 Dywizjon Artylerii Ciężkiej), II dywizjon 3 Pułku Strzelców Konnych, 1 i 2 kompania XXI Batalionu Saperów, Górska Kompania Telegraficzna i 12 Kolumna Taborowa. +10 sierpnia 1920 Dywizja Górska została przemianowana na 21 Dywizję Piechoty. Jej dowódcą pozostał gen. ppor. Andrzej Galica. Skład: XLI Brygada Piechoty – dowódca płk S. Wróblewski (1 i 2 Pułk Strzelców Podhalańskich), XLII Brygada Piechoty – dowódca płk W. Fara (3 i 4 Pułk Strzelców Podhalańskich), Artyleria Dywizji – dowódca płk J. Plisowski (1 Pułk Artylerii Górskiej i I dywizjon 21 Pułku Artylerii Polowej), II dywizjon 3 Pułku Strzelców Konnych, 3 kompania XXI Batalionu Saperów. +Z dniem 1 marca 1925 Minister Spraw Wojskowych przemianował 1 Dywizję Górską na 21 Dywizję Piechoty, 14 kwietnia 1925 zaś zmienił poprzedni rozkaz, ustalając nazwę dywizji na 21 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej +Dowództwo 21 DPG i jej pododdziały stacjonowały m.in. w Nowym Sączu, Bielsku, Białej, Cieszynie, Krakowie, a tuż przed wybuchem wojny – również w Boguminie. +Na początku października 1938 dywizja uczestniczyła w operacji zajęcia Zaolzia. +21 DPG w kampanii wrześniowej 1939. +21 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej pod dowództwem gen. bryg. Józefa Rudolfa Kustronia wchodziła w skład GO „Bielsko” (od 3 września pod nazwą GO „Boruta”) gen. Mieczysława Boruty-Spiechowicza w Armii „Kraków” z zadaniem obrony linii Cieszyn–Bogumin i osłony południowego skrzydła armii. +W dniach 1-2 września dywizja broniła się w rejonie Cieszyna przed atakami niemieckiego XVII Korpusu Armijnego gen. piech. Wernera Kienitza. Wieczorem 2 września planowano wykonać uderzenie na skrzydła niemieckiej 5 Dywizji Pancernej gen. por. Heinricha von Vietinghoffa, lecz nie doszło do tego i dywizja otrzymała rozkaz odwrotu w kierunku na Wadowice, podczas którego jej część uległa panice atakowana przez dywersantów. +4 września kontynuowała odwrót nad Dunajec w kierunku Tarnowa, staczając zwycięski bój pod Krzywaczką i Mogilanami. Cofając się osłaniała południowy kierunek Armii „Kraków”, mając słabą styczności z wrogiem maszerowała trasą przez Pogórze Wielickie. +6 września pod Wiśniczem i Bochnią toczyła zacięte walki z siłami niemieckich 2 Dywizji Pancernej gen. por. Rudolfa Veiela i 4 Dywizji Lekkiej gen. mjr. Alfreda von Hubickiego. +7 września otrzymała rozkaz natychmiastowego marszu do przeprawy przez Dunajec pod Radłowem i Bobrownikach. Oddziały wojska przemieszane z ogarniętymi paniką tłumami cywilnych uciekinierów rozpoczęły powolny marsz do miejsc przepraw przez Dunajec, gdzie przeprawiała się także 6 Dywizja Piechoty. Na przygotowujące się do przeprawy oddziały uderzyły po południu pod Radłowem niemieckie czołgi. Zdecydowany kontratak ze strony 3 Pułku Strzelców Podhalańskich i 4 Pułku Strzelców Podhalańskich pozwolił na czasowe utrzymanie Radłowa. 8 września w godzinach porannych rozpoczęły się także walki o utrzymanie przeprawy pod Biskupicami. Most w tym miejscu został wysadzony już w nocy z 7 na 8 września na wieść o zbliżających się niemieckich czołgach. Do bardzo krwawych walk doszło na drodze łączącej Radłów i Biskupice. Pozostające jeszcze na lewym brzegu przemieszane oddziały 21 DPG i 6 DP wycofały się na północ w kierunku Otfinowa, aby tam szukać nowych przepraw. 21 DPG udało się ostatecznie w sposób zorganizowany wycofać się za Dunajec. W trakcie dwudniowych, krwawych walk o przeprawę przez Dunajec poległo 243 polskich żołnierzy, a około 700 zostało rannych. +11-12 września przeprawiła się przez San pod Jarosławiem. Po poważnych zmaganiach z przeważającymi siłami nieprzyjaciela i próbach zorganizowania obrony nad Sanem oddziały GO „Boruta” wycofały się za Tanew. +14 września rano znalazły się w rejonie Lubaczowa. 21 DPG liczyła wówczas około 3,5–4 tys. żołnierzy. Wieczorem tego dnia ruszyła w kierunku Oleszyce – Lubaczów – Cieszanów, aby przeciąć komunikację sił niemieckich działających od Tomaszowa Lubelskiego na Zamość. Do wykonania tego planu w zamierzony sposób jednak nie doszło. W wyniku opóźnienia wymarszu, a także pobłądzenia w lesie oddziały nie zajęły swoich nowych stanowisk. +W dniach 14-16 września dywizja uczestniczyła w walkach w rejonie Oleszyc, Futorów, Starego Dzikowa, Cewkowa, Ułazowa i Zabiały. Przez trzy dni powstrzymywała o wiele silniejszą silniejszą niemiecką 45 Dywizję Piechoty gen. por. Friedricha Materny i część 28 Dywizji Piechoty gen. por. Hansa von Obstfeldera, znacznie odciążając 6 Dywizję Piechoty gen. bryg. Bernarda Monda. W trakcie tych walk zginął, prowadząc żołnierzy do ataku, gen. Józef Kustroń, a dywizja została rozbita i 16 września jej resztki skapitulowały. +Organizacja wojenna i obsada personalna w kampanii wrześniowej. +Planowane Ordre de Bataille i obsada personalna 21 DPG w kampanii wrześniowej. W nawiasach podano nazwy jednostek mobilizujących oraz stanowiska służbowe oficerów dywizji zajmowane przed mobilizacją. +Odtworzenie dywizji w ramach Armii Krajowej. +Pierwszą próbę odtworzenia struktur dywizji podjął płk Aleksander Stawarz, dowódca 2 Brygady Górskiej. Zorganizował Dywizję Podhalańską w Konspiracji, która w roku 1940, w południowej części Krakowskiego liczyła kilkuset żołnierzy. +W wyniku przeprowadzania akcji odtwarzania przedwojennych jednostek wojskowych w 1944 powstała 21 Dywizja Piechoty AK, w skład której wchodził 1 Pułk Strzelców Podhalańskich AK (Okręg Kraków). +Dwusiarczek węgla + +Dwusiarczek węgla – nieorganiczny związek chemiczny z grupy siarczków, siarkowy analog dwutlenku węgla. +Właściwości. +Czysty dwusiarczek węgla jest bezbarwną łatwo lotną cieczą o lekko słodkawym i przyjemnym zapachu. Przemysłowo stosowany dwusiarczek węgla ma jednak zwykle barwę żółtą i zapach zgniłych rzodkiewek. Opary dwusiarczku węgla mają dwukrotnie większą gęstość od powietrza i dlatego ścielą się po podłodze. Dwusiarczek węgla niezwykle łatwo ulega samozapłonowi. Temperatura samozapłonu jest niższa niż 100 °C, z możliwością wybuchu par. Trudno rozpuszcza się go w wodzie, łatwo w benzenie, etanolu oraz eterach. +Występowanie i otrzymywanie. +W naturze dwusiarczek węgla jest emitowany w pierwszym etapie erupcji wulkanów. W przemyśle produkuje się go przez bezpośrednią syntezę z pierwiastków – spalanie węgla w oparach siarki, w bardzo wysokiej temperaturze i przy dużym nadmiarze siarki w stosunku do węgla. +Zastosowanie. +CS2 jest też stosowany w syntezie organicznej i jako rozpuszczalnik do flotacji minerałów. +Toksykologia. +Dwusiarczek węgla jest związkiem trującym, działa szkodliwie na ośrodkowy układ nerwowy. W bardzo dużym stężeniu jego wdychanie może prowadzić do zatrzymania oddechu na skutek porażenia układu nerwowego. Długotrwałe wchłanianie dwusiarczku węgla w niższych stężeniach powoduje trwałe uszkodzenia mózgu, przejawiające się początkowo jako problemy ze snem, wrażeniem ciągłego zmęczenia i problemy z pamięcią. Dwusiarczek węgla wykazuje też działanie rakotwórcze i mutagenne. +20 Dywizja Piechoty (II RP) + +20 Dywizja Piechoty (20 DP) – wielka jednostka piechoty Wojska Polskiego II RP. +W związku z reorganizacją Wojska Polskiego, likwidowane Wojsko Litwy Środkowej wydzieliło z siebie dwie dywizje: 19 i 29 DP. Ponadto w kraju sformowano 20 Dywizję Piechoty. Oddziały dla niej wywodziły się również z obu dywizji litewsko-białoruskich. Były to: 78 (słucki) pp i 79 (białostocki) pp z 2 DLB oraz 80 (nowogródzki) pp z 1 DLB. +Dywizja w okresie pokoju. +Organizacja pokojowa dywizji w 1923 +W terminie do 1 lipca 1928 Dowództwo 20 DP przeniesione zostało ze Słonima do garnizonu Baranowicze. +Wiosną 1935 na bazie kompanii wydzielonej ze składu 6 Batalionu Saperów sformowana została 20 Kompania Saperów. W maju 1937 kompania przeformowana została w Ośrodek Sapersko-Pionierski 20 DP. +Organizacja pokojowa dywizji w marcu 1939 (przed mobilizacją) +Dywizja w wojnie obronnej 1939. +Walki dywizji. +20 Dywizja Piechoty pod dowództwem płk. dypl. Wilhelma Andrzeja Lawicza-Liszki wchodziła w skład Armii "Modlin". Tuż przed wybuchem wojny obsadziła linię umocnień biegnących przez północne stoki wzgórz na północ od Mławy. Na wschód od pozycji mławskiej biegła pozycja rzęgnowska oddzielona od mławskiej błotami "Niemyje". Podstawę umocnień stanowiły dwie linie betonowych schronów bojowych przeciw piechocie i czołgom. Do chwili wybuchu wojny budowa pozycji nie została ukończona; najsłabiej przygotowana była druga linia umocnień. +W dniach 1-3 września 1939 r. dywizja broniła pozycji pod Mławą przed przeważającymi siłami niemieckiego I Korpusu Armijnego z 3 Armii w składzie: 11 DP i 61 DP oraz Dywizji Pancernej "Kempf", nacierającymi z terenu Prus Wschodnich w kierunku na Warszawę (Patrz: bitwa pod Mławą). Pierwsze natarcia niemieckie 1 września zostały odparte mimo współdziałania piechoty z czołgami (strata ok. 25 czołgów). Nie mogąc zdobyć pozycji mławskiej od czoła, Niemcy wykonali w godzinach popołudniowych natarcie na pozycję pod Rzęgnowem; po dwugodzinnym przygotowaniu artyleryjskim przełamali ją i zaczęli wychodzić na tyły 20 DP. Próby ich zatrzymania kontratakiem 79 pp nie powiodły się, wobec czego dowództwo Armii "Modlin" nakazało zorganizowanie obrony wschodniego skrzydła 20 DP na odcinku Dębsk-stacja Nosarzewo oraz przygotowanie kontrataku odwodowej 8 DP w kierunku północno-wschodnim. Ponowne próby niemieckie ataków na Mławę od czoła, przy wsparciu czołgów i lotnictwa, przeprowadzone 2 września, Niemcy okupili dużymi stratami. Udało im się jedynie opanować Żaboklik i Górę Kamieńską bronione przez 79 pp. +Podobnymi rezultatami zakończyły się natarcia kolejnego dnia, mimo zbrodniczego pędzenia przed czołgami okolicznej ludności polskiej. Niemcy dokonali jedynie niewielkich włamań w rejonie Kołakowa i zdobyli kilka wysuniętych punktów oporu. Gdy główny, pancerny klin wojsk niemieckich, prący z północy w kierunku Warszawy, nie mogąc zgnieść oporu polskich oddziałów, utknął pod Mławą, ruszyło silne, oskrzydlające natarcie Niemców w kierunku Ostrołęki i Przasnysza. Między Baranowem i Opaleńcem, wspierane huraganowym ogniem artylerii, natarcie niemieckiej piechoty przełamało polskie linie obrony. Ukryte dotychczas w nadgranicznych lasach oddziały Wehrmachtu, przekroczyły rzekę Orzyc i ruszyły na południe. +Przewidywany kontratak 8 DP, na skutek częstego zmieniania rozkazów, nastąpił dopiero w godzinach popołudniowych 3 września w dwóch rozbieżnych kierunkach: na Przasnysz i na Grudusk; źle przygotowany i nieskoordynowany, wykonywany rozdrobnionymi siłami, przy zetknięciu z silniejszym nieprzyjacielem załamał się. Oddziały 8 DP zostały ogarnięte paniką, spotęgowaną działaniami niemieckich grup dywersyjnych i oddziałów pancernych na tyłach, rozpoczynając żywiołowy odwrót. +W takiej sytuacji wobec groźby całkowitego okrążenia i zniszczenia 20 DP na pozycji mławskiej, dowódca Armii "Modlin" wydał w nocy z 3 na 4 września spóźniony rozkaz opuszczenia linii obronnych i odwrotu na Warszawę. 4 września lotnictwo niemieckie rozbiło znaczną część sił 20 DP. Jednakże już po dniu względnego wypoczynku, za jaki można uznać intensywny marsz, zwarte oddziały dywizji odzyskały gotowość bojową i zupełnie dobre morale. Znacznie uszczuplone oddziały dywizji weszły w skład GO gen. Władysława Andersa, z którą wycofywały się na południe. 7 września dotarły dopiero do rejonu na zachód od Płocka. +Ostatecznie resztki dywizji walczyły w obronie Warszawy, zajmując pozycje na północnym odcinku obrony Pragi w celu zabezpieczenia kierunków od strony Tłuszcza, Radzymina, Nieporętu, Dębego i Modlina. W stolicy skapitulowały wraz z pozostałymi oddziałami polskimi 28 września. Za twardą obronę pozycji mławskiej 20 DP zyskała u Niemców zaszczytną nazwę "żelaznej dywizji". +Ośrodek Zapasowy 20 DP i pododdziały marszowe. +W Słonimiu, na terenie Okręgu Korpusu Nr IX sformowany został Ośrodek Zapasowy 20 DP pod dowództwem płk. art. Adama Eplera. Na początku drugiej dekady września 1939 na bazie ośrodka zorganizowane zostało Zgrupowanie "Kobryń". 28 września 1939 Zgrupowanie "Kobryń" przemianowane zostało na 60 Dywizję Piechoty. +W Tarnowie, na terenie Okręgu Korpusu Nr V, tamtejsza Kadra Zapasowa Piechoty sformowała pięć pododdziałów marszowych. Zadaniem tych pododdziałów było pokrycie strat osobowych poniesionych przez pułki 20 DP. Jednostki formowane były eksterytorialnie z uwagi na to, że na terenie OK IX nie było wystarczającej liczby rezerwistów, przede wszystkim narodowości polskiej. +Wymienione wyżej oddziały podlegały dowódcom OK V i IX, i nie wchodziły w skład 20 DP. +Magnetometr + +Magnetometr – przyrząd do pomiaru wielkości, kierunku oraz zmian pola magnetycznego. +Nicko McBrain + +Nicko McBrain, właściwie Michael Henry McBrain (ur. 5 czerwca 1952) – muzyk rockowy, perkusista brytyjskiej grupy Iron Maiden. +Biografia. +McBrain pochodzi z Hackney (tak jak Adrian Smith) w północno-wschodnim Londynie. +Jego przydomek – "Nicko" (pierwotnie "Nicky") – pochodzi z dzieciństwa. Rodzina zwracała się tak do przyszłego perkusisty od imienia jego ulubionego misia, Nicholasa. Jak się okazało, to dziecinne przezwisko przetrwało wiele lat i stało się jego nowym imieniem. +Nicko zawsze marzył o karierze perkusisty. Stało się to być może za sprawą ojca, zakochanego w jazzie tradycyjnym. W wieku 12 lat dostał pierwszą perkusję. To dzięki ojcu nauczył się na niej profesjonalnie grać. Jeśli chodzi o muzyczne zainteresowania młodego McBraina, to słuchał on głównie: The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Animals czy The Shadows. Ponadto był również świetnym tancerzem. W wieku 15 lat, gdy ukończył szkołę, był już niemal profesjonalistą, który zaliczył występy na weselach czy w pubach. Wkrótce zaczął pracować jako muzyk sesyjny. +Pierwszymi zespołami Nicko były: The Eighteenth Fairfield Walk oraz The Wells Street Blues Band. Jednak żadna z tych grup, grających głównie covery, nie wywarła znaczącego wpływu na karierę tego młodego, dobrze zapowiadającego się perkusisty. Wkrótce McBraina czekało kolejne muzyczne wyzwanie: współpraca z wokalistą i klawiszowcem Billym Dayem. +Jednak grupa wkrótce się rozpadła. Następne poważniejsze muzyczne doświadczenia Nicko to: dołączenie w 1975 roku do zespołu Streetwalkers i później (w 1980 roku), do francuskiej formacji rockowej Trust. +Grając w Trust, spotkał się z Iron Maiden w 1981 roku, na trasie promującej ich drugą płytę, "Killers". Wtedy właśnie poznał członków zespołu. Wkrótce, w 1983 roku sam do nich dołączył, zastępując Clive'a Burra. +Pierwszą płytą Nicka nagraną w Iron Maiden, było "Piece of Mind". Do tej pory nagrał z nimi 12 albumów. Jego żywiołowość i energia zjednały mu wielu fanów. +Ponadto, podobnie jak Bruce Dickinson, wokalista grupy Iron Maiden, Nicko jest wykwalifikowanym pilotem. +Życie prywatne. +Prywatnie jest żonaty z Rebeccą McBrain, z którą ma dwóch synów: Justina i Nicholasa. +Alois Vogl + +Alois Vogl (ur. 15 września 1972 w Neukirchen beim Heiligen Blut), niemiecki narciarz alpejczyk. +Zawodnik klubu SC Zwiesel, wieloletni reprezentant Niemiec w imprezach mistrzowskich i Pucharze Świata. Znalazł się w kadrze olimpijskiej na igrzyska w Nagano (1998), ale nie wystartował w zawodach. Specjalizuje się w konkurencjach technicznych (slalomowych). +Startował na mistrzostwach świata w 1996 (Sierra Nevada), 1997 (Sestriere) i 1999 (Vail). W Sestriere zajął 14. miejsce w slalomie specjalnym. +Po raz pierwszy zajął miejsce w czołowej dziesiątce zawodów Pucharu Świata w styczniu 1994 w Kitzbuehel (był 10. w slalomie specjalnym). W grudniu 2004 po raz pierwszy znalazł się na podium zawodów pucharowych (3. miejsce w slalomie specjalnym we Flachau), a w styczniu 2005 niespodziewanie wygrał slalom w Wengen. +Venus Williams + +Venus Ebone Starr Williams (ur. 17 czerwca 1980 w Lynwood) – amerykańska tenisistka, zwyciężczyni siedmiu turniejów wielkoszlemowych w grze pojedynczej, zdobywczyni niekalendarzowego Wielkiego Szlema w grze podwójnej (wraz z Sereną), podwójna mistrzyni olimpijska z Sydney (2000) (gra pojedyncza i podwójna) oraz mistrzyni olimpijska w grze podwójnej z Pekinu (2008) i Londynu (2012). +Starsza siostra tenisistki Sereny Williams. +Kariera. +1994-1997. +Debiutowała w cyklu zawodowym jesienią 1994, kilka tygodni po swojej rówieśniczce, Martinie Hingis. Już w swoim pierwszym turnieju – w Oakland – dotarła do II rundy, gdzie była bliska pokonania ówczesnej wiceliderki rankingu światowego Sánchez Vicario. +Od początku kariery zwracała uwagę atletycznym przygotowaniem (pod kierunkiem ojca Richarda) i agresywnym stylem gry. Sezonem przełomowym był 1997, kiedy po raz pierwszy dotarła do finału turnieju wielkoszlemowego, US Open 1997. Po dramatycznym półfinale z Iriną Spîrleą (w którym obroniła dwie piłki meczowe), przegrała następny, decydujący mecz turnieju z Hingis 0:6, 4:6. Była pierwszą nierozstawioną finalistką US Open od 1958, a także pierwszą finalistką od 1978 (od czasu Pam Shriver), która dotarła tak daleko w debiucie. +Nieco wcześniej debiutowała także na Wimbledonie 1997, ale tam poszło jej znacznie gorzej: przegrała w I rundzie z Magdaleną Grzybowską, dla której było to jedno z najbardziej spektakularnych osiągnięć w karierze. +1998-2005. +Pierwszy turniej wygrała w 1998 w Oklahoma City. Do lipca 2005 triumfowała w 32 turniejach w grze pojedynczej i w 10 w deblu. Wśród jej trofeów były m.in. Puchar Wielkiego Szlema (1998), Miami (1998, 1999, 2001), Rzym (Italian Open, 1999), Hamburg (1999, 2001). W 2000 wygrała dwa turnieje wielkoszlemowe – Wimbledon i US Open, powtórzyła osiągnięcia rok później. W latach 2002–2003 pięć razy zmierzyła się w finałach wielkoszlemowych z młodszą siostrą Sereną i wszystkie te mecze przegrała. Wspólnie z siostrą wygrywała natomiast turnieje wielkoszlemowe w deblu – French Open 1999 i US Open 1999, Wimbledon 2000, Australian Open 2001, Wimbledon 2002, Australian Open 2003. +W 1998 wygrywała także Australian Open 1998 i French Open 1998 w grze mieszanej, gdzie partnerował jej Justin Gimelstob. Piąty triumf wielkoszlemowy odnotowała w lipcu 2005, wygrywając po raz trzeci Wimbledon; w finale pokonała 4:6, 7:6(4), 9:7 Lindsay Davenport. +Od 1998 była klasyfikowana w czołowej dziesiątce rankingu WTA. W lutym 2002 awansowała na 1. miejsce tego rankingu; wkrótce musiała ustąpić miejsca siostrze. +Po serii kontuzji, na koniec sezonu 2003 wypadła z czołowej dziesiątki. Dwukrotnie wystąpiła w turnieju Masters, zarówno w 1999, jak i 2002 kończąc udział na półfinale. +Jednym z najbardziej udanych występów Venus Williams był start na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Sydney w 2000. Sięgnęła po złoto w grze pojedynczej, a w parze z siostrą także w grze podwójnej. Reprezentowała Stany Zjednoczone także w Pucharze Federacji (1995, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2005). +2006. +Cały 2006 rok była dręczona przez kontuzję lewego nadgarstka, co spowodowało liczne porażki i wycofania się z turniejów. Jedną z największych sensacji początku sezonu była przegrana w I rundzie Australian Open, gdzie pokonała ją Cwetana Pironkowa. Również o wygraną nad Williams postarała się Agnieszka Radwańska w FORTIS Championships Luxembourg w Luksemburgu. Jednym z najlepszych występów Venus Williams było dotarcie do 1/4 finału French Open 2006, gdzie przegrała z Nicole Vaidišovą, a także 1/4 finału w J&S Cup 2006 w Warszawie, gdzie pokonała między innymi Urszulę Radwańską i Martinę Hingis, by przegrać ze Swietłaną Kuzniecową. +2007. +W styczniu, z powodu kontuzji lewego nadgarstka, wycofała się z wielkoszlemowego turnieju Australian Open 2007. Po raz pierwszy w sezonie zagrała w turnieju Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup w Memphis, gdzie rozstawiona została z nr 7. W I rundzie pokonała Akiko Morigami w trzech setach. W II rundzie zwycięstwo odniosła nad Caroline Wozniacki w dwóch setach, a później pokonała Laurę Granville i Ioanę Ralucę Olaru, aby w finale zdeklasować sklasyfikowaną na 17. pozycji w rankingu WTA Shahar Peer 6:1, 6:1 . +W marcu tradycyjnie zrezygnowała z gry w turnieju Pacific Life Open w Indian Wells. Do Miami, na turniej Sony Ericsson Open przyjechała po raz dziewiąty. Jako że zajmowała w rankingu WTA 39. pozycję, z racji znakomitej obsady turnieju nie została rozstawiona, i grę musiała rozpocząć już w I rundzie. Pokonała w niej Julianę Fedak 5:7, 2:6. W kolejnym spotkaniu wygrała z rozstawioną z numerem 29 Marią Kirilenko. W 3. rundzie przegrała z Marią Szarapową w trzech setach. Wynik ten pozwolił Williams awansować na 32. pozycję w rankingu WTA. +Jej pierwszym kwietniowym występem był turniej drugiej kategorii Bausch & Lomb Championships na wyspie Amelia Island, rozgrywany na zielonej mączce. Nierozstawiona, grę rozpoczęła od zwycięstwa nad Aravane Rezaï 6:1, 6:2. W II rundzie wygrała z nr 4 Patty Schnyder 3:6, 6:3, 6:4. W 1/16 finału wygrała z Meilen Tu w dwu- setach, by w ćwierćfinale zmierzyć się z Tatianą Golovin. Ku zaskoczeniu zgromadzonych kibiców na kameralnym obiekcie otoczonym drzewami, Williams przegrała 2:6, 3:6. +Kolejnym turniejem w którym wystąpiła był Family Circle Cup w Charlestonie. Po raz kolejny jako 29. w rankingu WTA, nie zmieściła się wśród rozstawionych tenisistek, i już w I rundzie zmierzyła się z nr 14, Samanthą Stosur. Williams zwyciężyła 6:2, 6:2. W II rundzie pokonała Wasilisę Bardinę 6:2, 6:1. W meczu o ćwierćfinał wygrała z Chan Yung-jan 6:2, 6:1, by w 1/4 pokonać Anabel Medinę Garrigues 6:4, 7:5. W półfinale przegrała się z 5. zawodniczką w rankingu WTA, Jeleną Janković, 6:3, 3:6, 6:7. Mimo porażki, Williams awansowała na 22. miejsce w rankingu WTA. +Tydzień później wystąpiła w I rundzie Pucharze Federacji przeciwko Belgijkom, które osłabione nieobecnością Justine Henin i Kim Clijsters wystąpiły w rezerwowym składzie. W składzie USA obok Venus Williams znalazły się jej siostra Serena Williams, Vania King i Lisa Raymond. Venus Williams zagrała przeciwko Kirsten Flipkens. Pierwszą partię po długiej walce Amerykanka wygrała do pięciu. Drugiego seta wygrała do dwóch. Tego samego dnia Serena Williams podwyższyła wynik meczu na 2:0 pokonując Caroline Maes. W niedzielę Venus Williams zagrała przy wyniku 3:0, bowiem wcześniej Vania King wygrała z Kirsten Flipkens i tym samym zapewniła Amerykankom awans do półfinału. W ostatnim meczu singlowym Amerykanka 6:1, 6:2 pokonała Yaninę Wickmayer. Ostatecznie Amerykanki pokonały Belgijki 5:0. +W maju Williams zagościła na turnieju J&S Cup 2007 w Warszawie, gdzie obok nr 1 Justine Henin, nr 2 Kim Clijsters, i nr 3 Swietłany Kuzniecowej, stawiana była w gronie faworytek turnieju. Mimo 22. miejsca w rankingu WTA nie została rozstawiona. Z Michaëllą Krajicek +wygrała 6:4, 6:3. W meczu o 1/4 finału pokonała nr 7 Jelenę Diemientjewą 6:1, 7:6(4). W ćwierćfinale przegrała z Swietłaną Kuzniecową 6:3, 3:6, 4:6. +Ostatnim sprawdzianem formy przed French Open 2007 był turniej Istanbul Cup rozgrywany w Stambule. Wygrała mecz przeciwko Tatianie Puczek 6:1, 6:2 i do meczu II rundy przeciwko Aravane Rezaï przystępowała jako zdecydowana faworytka, którą niedawno pokonała w turnieju na wyspie Amelia Island, jednak przegrała ten mecz. +Na French Open 2007 po raz kolejny nie miała szczęścia w losowaniu, ponieważ została rozlosowana w mocnej ćwiartce z takimi zawodniczkami jak nr 4 Jelena Janković, nr 6 Nicole Vaidišová, nr 11 Nadia Pietrowa i nr 13 Jelena Diemientjewa. W pierwszym meczu wygrała z grająca z "dziką kartą" Alizé Cornet 6:4, 6:3. W II rundzie wygrała z Ashley Harkleroad 6:1, 7:6(6), gdzie w trakcie meczu poprawiła swój rekord w szybkości serwisu: 206 km/h (najszybszy serwis jaki odnotowano przez WTA to Brendy Schultz-McCarthy 209 km/h w Cincinnati, ale rekord jest uznawany za nieoficjalny, ponieważ miał miejsce podczas eliminacji). W III rundzie przegrała z Jeleną Janković 4:6, 6:4, 1:6, trzeci raz z rzędu. +W czerwcu zagrała na Wimbledonie 2007, w wieloszlemowym turnieju, gdzie triumfowała trzykrotnie w latach: 2000, 2001 i 2005. Podczas turnieju obie siostry Williams po raz pierwszy zagrały rakietami wysadzanymi złotem. Dla Venus Williams przygotowano białą rakietę limitowanej edycji Wilson Factor Experimental, natomiast dla Sereny czarną wersję tego modelu. Obie ramy przyozdobione były elementami wykonanymi z 22-karatowego złota. Po raz kolejny najstarszy turniej tenisowy okazał się bardzo szczęśliwy dla Venus Williams. Już w pierwszym meczu, rozgrywanym na korcie nr 2, tzw. "cmentarzu gwiazd", ponieważ przegrywali na nim m.in. Andre Agassi i Pete Sampras, była o krok od porażki z Ałłą Kudriawcewą. Po pierwszym secie przegranym przez Williams 2:6, nie popełniała tak wielu błędów w drugim, i wyrównała stan meczu, wygrywając 6:3. Decydujący set wygrała 7:5. W meczu II rundy przeciwko Hanie Šromovej, Williams dominowała, zwyciężając 6:2, 6:2. III runda okazała się najtrudniejszym spotkaniem dla Williams w całym turnieju: pokonała w niej Akiko Morigami 6:2, 3:6, 7:5. W meczu IV rundy rozgromiła nr 2 Marię Szarapową 6:1, 6:3, rewanżując się tym samym za porażkę w tegorocznym turnieju Sony Ericsson Open w Miami. W ćwierćfinale pokonała nr 5, Swietłanę Kuzniecową 6:3, 6:4, rewanżując się za porażkę w Warszawie. W półfinale pokonała finalistkę French Open 2007, Anę Ivanović 6:2, 6:4. Tym samym, po raz szósty w karierze awansowała do finału Wimbledonu. Finał z nieoczekiwaną rywalką, nr 18 Marion Bartoli, która w półfinale pokonała rozstawioną z nr 1 Justine Henin, był jednostronnym widowiskiem. Wygrała 6:4, 6:1, i tym samym po raz czwarty mistrzostwo Wimbledonu i awans z 31. miejsca na 17. pozycję w rankingu WTA. +W US Open 2007 dotarła do półfinału, gdzie przegrała z Justine Henin. Tym samym nie pomściła swojej siostry Sereny, która przegrała z Henin w ćwierćfinale. W poprzednich rundach Venus Williams pokonała m.in. Anę Ivanović i Jelenę Janković. +36 zwycięstwo turniejowe w singlu odniosła w Seulu, pokonując w finale Marię Kirilenko 6:3, 1:6, 6:4. W ćwierćfinale tej imprezy Venus pokonała Martę Domachowską 6:2, 6:3. +2008. +Sezon rozpoczęła od pokazowego turnieju, w którym pokonała Marię Szarapową. Następnie wystąpiła w Australian Open, gdzie w IV rundzie pokonała Martę Domachowską 6:4, 6:4. W ćwierćfinale przegrała z Aną Ivanović 6:7, 4:6 (mimo prowadzenia w drugim secie 3-0). W turnieju deblowym wspólnie ze swoją siostrą Sereną, dotarły do ćwierćfinału imprezy. +W Qatar Total Open dotarła do 3 rundy, gdzie przegrała ze Słowaczką Dominiką Cibulkovą 3:6, 3:6. Zagrała tam także w deblu z Dunką Caroline Wozniacki, jednakże odpadły w 2 rundzie. Występu w Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup Amerykanka nie zaliczy do udanych. Przegrała w pierwszej rundzie z Czeszką Petrą Kvitovą 6:2, 4:6, 3:6. W Canara Bank Bangalore Open bez straty seta dotarła do ćwierćfinału, w którym starła się z Rosjanką Wierą Zwonariową. Venus wygrała w dwóch setach. W półfinale zmierzyła się ze swoją młodszą siostrą Sereną. Pierwszego seta wygrała Serena 6:3, drugiego natomiast Venus w takim samym stylu. O zwycięstwie zadecydował trzeci set, w którym rozgrywano tie-breaka. Ostatecznie 6:7 (w tie-breaku 4:7) Venus uległa Serenie. W turnieju Sony Ericsson Open na Florydzie odpadła w ćwierćfinale po porażce z Rosjanką Swietłaną Kuzniecową 4:6, 4:6. W Rzymie po raz kolejny osiągnęła 1/4 finału, ulegając Serbce Jelenie Janković 7:5, 2:6, 3:6. We French Open odpadła w 3 rundzie po porażce z Włoszką Flavią Pennettą. +Pierwszym wygranym turniejem Venus w 2008 roku okazał się Wimbledon. Amerykanka nie straciła w nim żadnego seta. Zwyciężyła z: Naomi Cavaday, Anne Keothavong, Maríą José Martínez Sánchez, Alisą Klejbanową, Tamarine Tanasugarn oraz Jeleną Diemientjewą. W finale pokonała swoją młodszą siostrę, 7:5, 6:4. Tym samym odniosła piąte zwycięstwo na kortach Wimbledonu, drugi raz drugie z rzędu. Ponadto w pojedynku finałowym Venus zaserwowała piłkę, która osiągnęła prędkość 208 km/h. Jest to oficjalny rekord świata, jeśli chodzi o szybkość zaserwowanej piłki w londyńskim turnieju. +Na Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w 2008 roku wraz z Sereną Williams zdobyła złoty medal. +W kończącym sezon turnieju Sony Ericsson Championship w Ad-Dausze, Venus wygrała wszystkie mecze wygrywając tym samym cały turniej. +2009. +Będąc rozstawioną z numerem 6. dotarła do drugiej rundy Australian Open, przegrywając z nierozstawioną Carlą Suarez Navarro. W grze deblowej wywalczyła tytuł w parze z siostrą Sereną. W lutym wygrała turniej w Dubaju po czym awansowała na piątą pozycję w rankingu WTA, oraz turniej w Acapulco. +Dotarła do dwóch półfinałów w Miami, gdzie przegrała w trzech setach z Sereną i Rzymie, przegrywając z Safiną. W obydwóch po drodze eliminowała Agnieszkę Radwańską. +Odpadła w trzeciej rundzie French Open po porażce z Ágnes Szávay 0:6, 4:6. Jako obrończyni tytułu z Londynu, dotarła do ostatniej fazy. W finale Wimbledonu przegrała z Sereną 6:7, 2:6. Następnie doszła do finału w Stanford gdzie uległa Marion Bartoli 2:6, 7:5, 4:6. W Cincinnati doszła do III rundy, gdzie przegrała z Flavią Pennettą 6:7, 4:6. W turnieju Rogers Cup odpadła w II rundzie, ulegając Katerynie Bondarenko 6:1, 5:7, 4:6. Na US Open doszła do IV rundy, przegrywając późniejszej zwyciężczyni, Kim Clijsters 0:6, 6:0, 4:6. W Tokio, w II rundzie uległa Anastazji Pawluczenkowej, zaś tydzień później w Pekinie, podczas China Open, znów w II rundzie uległa Pawluczenkowej 6:3, 1:6, 4:6. W turnieju kończącym sezon 2009 doszła do finału, w którym przegrała z Sereną. Sezon 2009 zakończyła na 6. miejscu w rankingu WTA. +2010. +W Australian Open, jako rozstawiona z "piątką" doszła do ćwierćfinału, ulegając Li Na. Po Australian Open obroniła tytuł w Dubaju wygrywając w finale z Wiktorią Azarenką 6:3, 7:5. Następnie wygrała turniej w Acapulco. W Miami, jako że była zawodniczką rozstawioną w pierwszej rundzie otrzymała "wolny los". W II rundzie wygrała z Soraną Cirsteą 6:4, 6:3, zaś w trzeciej z Robertą Vinci 6:1, 6:4, w IV rundzie spotkała się z Danielą Hantuchovą i wygrała 1:6, 7:5, 6:4. W ćwierćfinale spotkała się z Agnieszką Radwańską, gdzie wygrała 6:3, 6:1. W półfinale wygrała z Marion Bartoli 6:3, 6:4. W finale została pokonana przez Kim Clijsters 2:6, 1:6. W ćwierćfinale turnieju w Rzymie przegrała 0:6, 1:6 z Jeleną Janković Podczas turnieju w Madrycie, w parze z siostrą Sereną Williams, wygrały turniej w deblu, zaś w grze pojedynczej przegrała w finale z Aravane Rezaï 2:6, 5:7. W turnieju French Open została rozstawiona z numerem 2 ale odpadła w IV rundzie z Nadią Pietrową 4:6, 3:6, z kolei w deblu wygrała ze swoją siostrą Sereną Williams swój 11 turniej wielkoszlemowy. Na Wimbledonie odpadła nieoczekiwanie w ćwierćfinale przegrywając z Cwetaną Pironkową 2:6, 3:6 (Bułgarka była wówczas sklasyfikowana na 82. miejscu w rankingu). Venus, wraz z siostrą Sereną, broniła tytułu w grze podwójnej, jednak odpadły one w ćwierćfinale, ulegając patrze rosyjskiej Jelena Wiesnina - Wiera Zwonariowa. Po Wimbledonie starsza z sióstr Williams spadła na 4. pozycję w rankingu. +Z powodu kontuzji kolana Williams opuściła wszystkie turnieje US Open Series. Pod znakiem zapytania stał także jej występ w US Open, lecz ostatecznie Williams wróciła do zdrowia. Amerykanka bez problemów doszła do czwartej rundy. W następnych dwóch spotkaniach bez straty seta pokonała Shahar Peer oraz Franscescę Schiavone. W półfinale Venus zmierzyła się z broniącą tytułu Kim Clijsters. Williams wygrała pierwszego seta, lecz ostatecznie przegrała cały mecz 6:4, 6:7(2), 4:6. Z powodu kontuzji stopy, w Nowym Jorku nie grała Serena, więc Venus nie broniła tytułu mistrzowskiego w deblu. +Po US Open Amerykance odnowiła się kontuzja kolana, przez którą nie zagrała już do końca sezonu żadnego meczu i zmuszona była do wycofania się z WTA Tour Championships oraz z finału Pucharu Federacji, w którym to Venus miała zagrać przeciwko Włoszkom. +Venus Williams, grając zaledwie 9 turniejów w sezonie, na koniec 2010 roku uplasowała się na 5. miejscu w rankingu singlowym, oraz na 11. w rankingu deblowym. +2011. +Z powodu przedłużającej się kontuzji, amerykanka nie wzięła również udziału w turnieju Roland Garros; był to pierwszy turniej Wielkiego Szlema od czasów US Open z 2003 roku, w którym żadna z sióstr Williams nie bierze udziału. +2012. +Na przełomie czerwca i lipca triumfowała w wielkoszlemowym Wimbledonie w grze podwójnej kobiet, gdzie występowała razem z siostrą, Sereną. W finałowym pojedynku pokonały Andreę Hlaváčkovą i Lucie Hradecką 7:5, 6:4. +W grze podwójnej podczas zawodów organizowanych z okazji XXX Letnich Igrzysk Olimpijskich uczestniczyła razem z siostrą. Razem zdobyły trzeci złoty medal igrzysk olimpijskich w rozgrywkach deblowych. W finale pokonały ponownie Andreę Hlaváčkovą i Lucie Hradecką wynikiem 6:4, 6:4. +W sierpniu podczas turnieju w Cincinnati Amerykanka odpadła w półfinale, przegrywając z Chinką Li Na 5:7, 6:3, 1:6. Był to jej pierwszy od dwóch lat mecz o wejście do finału turnieju w grze pojedynczej. W październiku zwyciężyła w zawodach singlowych w Luksemburgu, gdzie w finale pokonała Monicę Niculescu wynikiem 6:2, 6:3. +2013. +Sezon 2013 Venus Williams rozpoczęła od wielkoszlemowego turnieju Australian Open, gdzie została rozstawiona z numerem dwudziestym piątym. W pierwszym meczu wygrała z Galiną Woskobojewą 6:1, 6:0, w następnej rundzie zwyciężyła Alizé Cornet 6:3, 6:3. W trzecim meczu Amerykanka uległa Mariji Szarapowej 1:6, 3:6. W rywalizacji deblistek razem ze swoją siostrą osiągnęły ćwierćfinał zawodów. We Florianopolis najwyżej rozstawiona Amerykanka w pierwszej rundzie pokonała Mirjanę Lučić-Baroni, w drugiej Garbiñe Muguruzę, a w ćwierćfinale Magdalénę Rybárikovą. W półfinale uległa Oldze Puczkowej 6:4, 4:6, 5:7. +Logos (filozofia) + +Logos (gr. ) – według stoików "rozum świata". Tak jak Heraklit, tak i stoicy uważali, że wszyscy ludzie są częścią rozumu świata, czyli "logosu". Uważali, że człowiek to świat w miniaturze, czyli mikrokosmos, będący odbiciem makrokosmosu. Heraklit stwierdza, że "duszy jest logos sam siebie wspierający". +Logos jest słowem wieloznacznym. Może oznaczać "rozum", lecz także "słowo", "myśl" i "prawo" (a także "kolekcja"); pochodzi od czasownika ("lego"), znaczącego "liczyć" (także "zaliczać" oraz "rozumować"), a także "mówić" i "zbierać", "łączyć", "układać". Stąd u Heraklita ci, którzy słuchają logosu "mają jeden wspólny świat" - są połączeni we wspólnym zrozumieniu. Dochodzą tu do głosu trzy znaczenia terminu "logos" - 1. logosu się słucha, bo jest on słowem, 2. logos obdarza zrozumieniem, gdyż jest rozumem, 3. logos łączy ludzi, bo oznacza "połączenie". +Telephone over Internet Protocol + +ToIP (Telephone over Internet Protocol) to usługa bazująca na technologii VoIP, pozwalająca na prowadzenie rozmów telefonicznych za pomocą Internetu. +Gemma z Goriano Sicoli + +Gemma z Goriano Sicoli (ur. ok. 1375 w San Sebastiano, zm. 13 maja 1439 w Goriano Sicoli) – święta katolicka, rekluza z Italii. +Urodziła się w San Sebastiano (dziś w gminie Bisegna), ale potem wraz z rodziną przeniosła się do Goriano Sicoli. Jako młoda dziewczyna była pasterką owiec. Podobno przechodziła różne próby, między innymi chciano ją nakłonić do czynów nieczystych, ale swą postawą potrafiła przekonać napastujących ją. Jeden z nich hrabia Ruggiero, wybudował jej celkę obok kościoła świętego Jana Chrzciciela z oknem wychodzącym na ołtarz. Tak przeżyła 43 lata. Kult zaaprobował w 1890 roku papież Leon XIII. Wspomnienie liturgiczne obchodzone jest w "dies natalis". Jest otoczona szczególnym kultem w Abruzji. +Titanic (film 1953) + +Titanic – tytuł filmu z 1953 roku, inspirowanego historycznym zatonięciem Titanica. Fabuła skupia się na dziewiczym rejsie wielkiego, luksusowego transatlantyku, który zatonął 15 kwietnia 1912. Film, którego reżyserem był Jean Negulesco, zaskoczył widzów niezwykle sugestywną i dramatyczną wizją losów pasażerów w ostatnich godzinach tonącego liniowca. +Opis fabuły. +Zmęczona nieudanym małżeństwem Julia postanawia uciec z dwójką dzieci do Ameryki. Wciąż kocha swego męża, lecz zdaje sobie sprawę, że wspólne życie będzie dla nich męką. W tajemnicy rezerwuje bilet na szeroko reklamowany rejs gigantycznym liniowcem. Richard w ostatniej chwili dowiaduje się o jej decyzji. Oszalały z rozpaczy kupuje bilet od jednego z pasażerów najniższej klasy. Pierwsze spotkanie następuje podczas posiłku. Znowu są razem i być może zanim dopłyną do Ameryki, zbudują swój związek na nowo. Nadchodzi jednak straszna noc katastrofy. +Nagrody. +Film zdobył Oscara w kategorii "Adaptacja filmowa" (Charles Brackett i Walter Reisch, Richard Breen) w 1953. +Joanna z Signa + +Joanna z Signa OFS (ur. 1244, zm. 9 listopada 1307 w Signa) − włoska tercjarka franciszkańska, błogosławiona Kościoła katolickiego. +Była żoną ubogiego chłopa. Wcześnie owdowiała, po śmierci męża postanowiła spędzić resztę życia zamurowana w miejscowości Signa w Toskanii. Jej życzenie zostało spełnione – do końca życia przebywała w odosobnieniu. +Multi Theft Auto + +Multi Theft Auto – modyfikacja komputerowych wersji gier "", pozwalająca graczom z całego świata grać jednocześnie za pośrednictwem internetu. +Historia MTA. +Pierwotnie "Multi Theft Auto" nazywało się "GTA3: Alternative Multiplayer" (obecnie jest to "Multi Theft Auto"), wystartowało 8 lutego 2003. Pozwalało grać w "Grand Theft Auto III" dwóm graczom jednocześnie. Gracze poza samochodami nie byli dla siebie widoczni, co zaowocowało kontynuacją prac nad projektem. Oryginalna wersja modyfikacji została napisana przy pomocy Visual Basic. Wersja 0.3b serwera korzystała już z C++ oraz była dostępna pod systemy Windows oraz Linux. Obecnie grać można zarówno w "Grand Theft Auto III" jak i "Grand Theft Auto: Vice City" oraz "Grand Theft Auto: San andreas", przy zachowaniu wielu cech charakteryzujących gry w trybie singleplayer. +4 września autorzy zapowiedzieli powstanie silnika "Multi Theft Auto: Blue", który – według zapowiedzi – zrewolucjonizuje projekt. Celem autorów było przede wszystkim oczyszczenie kodu źródłowego. Równocześnie z MTA: Blue tworzony był "Multi Theft Auto: San Andreas" (w skrócie MTA:SA), przeznaczony do gry sieciowej w . Rok później została wydana pierwsza wersja beta, umożliwiająca wyłącznie prowadzenie samochodów (wyścigi). Jednocześnie autorzy zapowiedzieli prace nad trybem deathmatch opartym na silniku Blue. +2 stycznia 2008 roku zostaje wydana pierwsza wersja Multi Theft Auto: San Andreas (Deathmatch) oznaczona jako "Developer Preview". +21 listopada 2008 Multi Theft Auto staje się projektem Open Source. +14 lutego 2009 Multi Theft Auto: Deathmatch (MTA:DM) zmienia nazwę na Multi Theft Auto San Andreas (MTA:SA) – od wersji 1.0 +22 sierpnia 2009 roku zostaje wydana oficjalna wersja 1.0 +24 sierpnia 2011 roku zostaje wydana wersja 1.1. Jej najważniejsze zmiany to: funkcje umożliwiające zmiany handlingu pojazdów (ich ustawień, np. maksymalnej prędkości) przez serwer, wczytywania niestandardowych czcionek do gry, obsługa postaci pojawiających się w cutscenkach gry, nowa biblioteka BASS - możliwość słuchania radia w grze, obsługa shaderów, czat głosowy oraz zwiększony limit graczy (1024). +17 grudnia 2011 roku zostaje wydana wersja 1.2. Wprowadza ona m.in. liczne poprawki stabilności, nowe funkcje i poprawę synchronizacji dzięki zastosowaniu nowej metody "LightSync", poprzez którą zmniejszyło się zapotrzebowanie na łącze. +25 grudnia 2011 Multi Theft Auto wygrało konkurs na najlepszą modyfikację roku 2011. +24 stycznia 2012 roku zostaje wydana wersja 1.3. Oprócz poprawek dotyczących problemów z połączeniem i pobierania plików przez klienta zostaje wprowadzona efektowna funkcja umożliwiająca usuwanie obiektów znajdujących się domyślnie na mapie San Andreas. +2 września 2012 roku zostaje wydana wersja 1.3.1. Multi Theft Auto od tego czasu wspiera system Windows 8. Limit graczy został zwiększony do 4096, instalator zyskał podpis cyfrowy, wdrożone zostały rewolucyjne funkcje tworzenia całkowicie nowych broni oraz mniejsze poprawki. +Język skryptowy. +MTA do pisania własnych skryptów (modów, zasobów) wykorzystuje język Lua, który korzysta z funkcji natywnych i nie wymaga kompilacji. Istnieje również emulator języka PAWN, który służy jako plugin SDK. +Eustacjusz + +Eustacjusz – imię męskie z gr. "Eustáthios", przejęte do łaciny jako Eustathius i Eustatius, utworzone od przymiotnika eustathés 'silny, dobrze zbudowany, zdrowy'. Mylone z Eustachym. Imię to nosiło niewielu świętych. Jego ukraińskim odpowiednikiem jest Ostap. +Eustacjusz imieniny obchodzi 16 lipca i 29 marca. +Johnny Carson + +Johnny Carson, właśc. John William Carson (ur. 23 października 1925 w Corning, zm. 23 stycznia 2005 w Malibu) – amerykański aktor komediowy, prezenter telewizyjny, wieloletni gospodarz programu telewizyjnego "The Tonight Show". +Jako nastolatek występował z pokazami magii pod pseudonimem "Wielki Carsoni". W latach 1943–1946 służył w armii. Odbył trzyletnie studia na Uniwersytecie Stanowym Nebraski i w 1949 podjął pracę w rozgłośni radiowej. Niebawem przeszedł do pracy w telewizji – w stacji KNXT w Los Angeles, gdzie jako cieszący się już lokalną sławą komik (a także prezenter programu "Carson's Cellar") otrzymał propozycję pisania scenariuszy dla znanego prezentera Reda Skeltona do jego programu telewizyjnego. W 1954 zastąpił awaryjnie niedysponowanego Skeltona i wkrótce zyskał duże uznanie. Prowadził program "Johnny Carson Show" (do 1955), a w latach 1957–1962 teleturniej "Who Do You Trust?". +2 października 1962 Carson debiutował jako gospodarz programu stacji NBC "The Tonight Show". Zastąpił Jacka Paara, a pierwszym gościem, z którym prowadził wywiad był Groucho Marx ze słynnej rodziny aktorskiej. Z czasem Carson stał się jedną z popularniejszych osobistości amerykańskiej telewizji, symbolem przyszłych talk-show; program nazywano popularnie "Carson Show" lub "Carson". Obok rozmów z zaproszonymi gośćmi ważnym elementem programu były skecze Carsona. Dużą oglądalność uzyskał program z grudnia 1969, w którym na oczach telewidzów zawarł związek małżeński piosenkarz Tiny Tim. W 1973 w jednym z programów gościem był Uri Geller, którego sława wiązała się z posiadanymi podobno zdolnościami nadprzyrodzonymi. +W późniejszych latach Carsonowi towarzyszyli w "The Tonight Show" tzw. współgospodarze. Jednym z nich był Jay Leno i właśnie jego wyznaczyło kierownictwo NBC na następcę Carsona po jego odejściu na emeryturę w maju 1992. Carson nie był zadowolony z takiego obrotu sprawy, widział w roli swojego następcy Davida Lettermana, któremu w tej sytuacji doradził odejście z NBC. Po wielu latach wyszło na jaw, że Carson współpracował z Lettermanem także na emeryturze, przesyłając mu od czasu do czasu skecze do programu "The Late Show with David Letterman" w stacji CBS. +Johnny Carson został uhonorowany miejscem w Telewizyjnej Hall of Fame w 1987; w 1992 odznaczony Prezydenckim Medalem Wolności, był także laureatem sześciu telewizyjnych nagród "Emmy". +Wydawnictwo podziemne + + +Wydawnictwa podziemne (bibuła, drugi obieg) – wydawnictwa wydawane w krajach, w których obowiązywała cenzura (PRL, ZSRR itp.). Były to publikacje bezdebitowe, czyli bez dopuszczenia do rozpowszechniania przez stosowny urząd (w Polsce do 1989 był to Główny Urząd Kontroli Publikacji i Widowisk), niejednokrotnie ignorujące prawo autorskie. Bywały wydawane w nakładach od kilkunastu kopii do kilku a nawet kilkudziesięciu tysięcy egzemplarzy przez nielegalne ("podziemne") wydawnictwa lub przez osoby prywatne. Niektóre z takich nielegalnych instytucji po roku 1989 przekształciły się w normalnie prosperujące instytucje wydawnicze (np. "NOWA"). +Takie publikacje np. w ZSRR nosiły nazwę "samizdat" (sam wydał). Termin ten pochodzi z lat czterdziestych, kiedy to poeta Nikołaj Głazkow (Николай Глазков) użył go dla nazwania rozpowszechnianych w formie maszynopisów zbiorów swoich poezji. Nazwa "samizdat" została powszechnie przyjęta dla określenia wydawnictw podziemnych w publikacjach anglojęzycznych, gdy pod tym właśnie tytułem została w Nowym Jorku zorganizowana wystawa sztuki dysydenckiej. +Wydawnictwami podziemnymi nazywany jest także funkcjonujący w Polsce latach 80. trzeci obieg. +Historia drugiego obiegu. +We wczesnych stadiach rozwoju (ZSRR w latach 20, PRL lat 60. i początku 70. XX w.) wydawnictwa podziemne były tworzone spontanicznie, przez osoby prywatne lub niewielkie grupy osób. Również w latach 1944-1953, pod rządami komunistycznymi w Polsce, podziemie niepodległościowe wydawało niezależne publikacje. Najczęściej odbywało się to przy użyciu bardzo prymitywnej techniki (maszyna do pisania z kilkoma kopiami, ew. ręczne przepisywanie), a publikowane teksty były tworzone samorzutnie, bądź przedrukowywane np. z wydawnictw emigracyjnych. Jednym z takich przedsięwzięć było wydawany przez nielegalną organizację Ruch od września 1969 do czerwca 1970 czasopismo "Biuletyn". +Z powodu prześladowań policyjnych, infiltracji agenturalnej oraz obowiązującego w totalitarnych państwach systemu kontroli handlu papierem, farbą i maszynami drukarskimi wydawnictwa niezależne nie zdołały nigdy uzyskać dużego zasięgu, z wyjątkiem PRL w drugiej połowie lat 80. +W latach 60. i 70. władze sowieckie częściowo tolerowały rosyjski samizdat ze względu na bardzo niewielki zasięg przepisywanych tekstów, ograniczony praktycznie do elit intelektualnych Moskwy i ówczesnego Leningradu. +Polski drugi obieg od końca lat 70.. +W Polsce wydawnictwa drugiego obiegu zaczęły ukazywać się w połowie lat 70-tych XX wieku. Były one inspirowane powstającymi wówczas niezależnymi organizacjami i partiami politycznymi (Ruch Obrony Praw Człowieka i Obywatela, Konfederacja Polski Niepodległej, Komitet Obrony Robotników). Do istniejącyh wczesniej pism "Tu Polska", "Spotkania", "Robotnik" niezależne organizacje i partie dodawały swoje - "Opinia", "Droga", "Gospodarz", "Bratniak", "Komunikat KOR". W latach 1976 - 1980 wydano prawie 200 tytułów czasopism. W latach 1980 - 1981 w okresie działalności legalnej "Solidarności" na rynku funkcjonowało około 160 wydawnictw i drukarzy, którzy wydali ogółem około 2,5 tysiąca tytulów książek oraz ponad 3 tysiące tytułów czasopism.Po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego 13 grudnia 1981 roku ruch wydawniczy nie zamarł, a wprost przeciwnie - powiększył się. Od 1981 do 1988 roku ukazało się ponad 4,5 tysiąca tytułów książkowych oraz około 2 tysięcy tytulów czasopism. Najwięcej książek i broszur (636 pozycji)ukazało się w 1983 roku. +Najwiekszy nakład osiągnął wrocławski tygodnik "Z dnia na dzień" (43 tys. egzemplarzy). Pisma studenckie ukazywały się w nakładach od 0,5 do 10 tysiecy egzemplarzy, a uczniowskich do 2 tysięcy egzemplarzy. Największą grupę stanowiły czasopisma ukazujące się nieregularnie. +Przypuszcza się, ze stały kontakt z wydawnictwami drugiego obiegu w latach 80-tych miało do 100 tysięcy osób, natomiast do 250 tysięcy osób miało kontakt nieregularny i sporadyczny. +Przełomem było zorganizowanie się w Polsce podziemnego ruchu wydawniczego inspirowanego przez Ruch Obrony Praw Człowieka i Obywatela i KOR w PRL od 1977 roku. W efekcie spontanicznego rozwoju oraz pomocy spoza PRL doszło do częściowej "profesjonalizacji" samizdatu i utworzenia oficyn zawodowo trudniących się podziemnym drukiem opartym w znacznej mierze na materiałach i sprzęcie kradzionych instytucjom państwowym oraz przemycanych spoza PRL. +Dominował druk na powielaczach z matrycami białkowymi i woskowymi, sitodruk oraz druk offsetowy. Największe nakłady (przekraczające 100 tys. egzemplarzy) realizowano w drukarniach opierających się na "ręcznej" technice sitodruku. Nakłady prasy i książek np. wydawnictwa "Nowa" rzadko przekraczały 4-5 tys. egzemplarzy. Żelazną zasadą podziemnego drukarstwa było (częściowo przestrzegane nawet w czasach legalnego istnienia "Solidarności") utrzymywanie w największej tajemnicy lokalizacji i zasad pracy podziemnych drukarni; w opracowywaniu sposobów ich ukrywania pomagali m.in. żyjący jeszcze w latach 70. fachowcy z AK. Dzięki temu straty z powodu wpadek drukarni w latach 70. były minimalne. +Rozproszenie i zagubienie większej części opozycyjnych organizacji na początku stanu wojennego spowodowały konfiskatę ogromnej ilości sprzętu drukującego (choć ten moment był impulsem do rozpoczęcia działalności, m.in. Krakowskiego Towarzystwa Wydawczego). Sytuacja zaczęła się zmieniać w drugiej połowie lat 80., po ustabilizowaniu kanałów przerzutowych materiałów i sprzętu z Zachodu, a także wskutek powoli rosnącej tolerancji władz PRL wobec zorganizowanej opozycji. Bezpośrednio przed 1989 rokiem przeciętne duże wydawnictwo podziemne (takie jak np. "Tygodnik Mazowsze") dysponowało kilkoma lub kilkunastoma powielaczami bardzo wysokiej klasy, a także sprzętem tak na owe czasy nowoczesnym jak składopisy, a nawet komputery domowe. Dzięki temu natychmiast po praktycznym zniesieniu cenzury możliwa była organizacja już legalnych redakcji i wydawnictw opozycyjnych. +Charles Best + +Charles Herbert Best (ur. 27 lutego 1899 w West Pembroke, Maine, USA – zm. 31 marca 1978) – fizjolog kanadyjski, współodkrywca insuliny. +Studiował medycynę na Uniwersytecie w Toronto, gdzie został asystentem Fredericka Bantinga. Wraz z Bantingiem odkrył w 1922 insulinę, co było jednym z ważniejszych odkryć medycyny w tamtym czasie i stanowiło przełom w leczeniu cukrzycy. W 1923 Bantinga wyróżniono za to odkrycie Nagrodą Nobla, ale współlaureatem nie został jego asystent Best, tylko szef instytutu badawczego John Macleod. W akcie solidarności Banting podzielił się premią finansową z Bestem. +Po II wojnie światowej był naukowym ekspertem przy Międzynarodowej Organizacji Zdrowia. W 1967 został odznaczony Orderem Kanady. +Ludek Zemanek + +Ludek Zemanek, pseud. Rudolf A. Herrmann – oficer wywiadu radzieckiego (PGU/PZG – Pierwszego Zarządu Głównego KGB), w latach 60. działał w Stanach Zjednoczonych jako nielegał. +Czech przeszkolony w Niemieckiej Republice Demokratycznej i Moskwie, wysłany w 1961 roku do Kanady. Jego nazwisko brzmiało Ludek Zemanek, lecz występował pod nadanym przez KGB fałszywym nazwiskiem Rudolfa A. Herrmanna, niemieckiego żołnierza, w rzeczywistości poległego na froncie wschodnim podczas II wojny światowej. Po siedmiu latach działania w siatce kanadyjskiej otrzymał polecenie przeniesienia się wraz z żoną i małoletnimi synami do Stanów Zjednoczonych, zamieszkali w Harstdale w osiedlu satelitarnym Nowego Jorku. Nabył tam dom w odosobnieniu, co umożliwiło mu nadawanie meldunków radiowych. Jako rezydent miał przejmować agenturę prowadzoną przez oficerów wywiadu, pracujących pod przykrywką dyplomatyczną, na wypadek zerwania stosunków dyplomatycznych lub wojny. Miał też za zadanie wyszukiwanie dogodnych miejsc na tzw. martwe skrzynki kontaktowe, m.in. w pobliżu baz wojskowych. Działał formalnie jako fotograf i operator filmowy, co przy okazji tłumaczyło jego częste podróże po kraju. W tajniki szpiegowskiej profesji wprowadził swojego syna "Petera", który podczas studiów na uniwersytecie w Georgetown finansowanych przez KGB, został jednak przewerbowany przez kontrwywiad FBI. W konsekwencji rolę podwójnych agentów zaczęli grać jego rodzice. Zdaniem Johna Barrona, byłego oficera wywiadu Marynarki Wojennej Stanów Zjednoczonych i eksperta ds. KGB, zdemaskował m.in. Hugh Hambletona. Gdy po dwóch latach KGB nabrało podejrzeń, że Herrmannowie (Zemanekowie) pracują jako podwójni agenci, postanowili ich odwołać. FBI słusznie wyczuwając podstęp zdekonspirowało Herrmannów, nadało im nową tożsamość i wypuściło na wolność. Pozostali gdzieś w Stanach Zjednoczonych pod przybranym nazwiskiem. +Zendek + +Zendek (niem. "Schendek") – wieś sołecka w Polsce położona w województwie śląskim, w powiecie tarnogórskim, w gminie Ożarowice. Do 1.01.1970 wieś należała do gromady Mierzęcice w powiecie zawierciańskim). +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa katowickiego. +We wsi znajduje się kościół pw. św. Stanisława Biskupa i Męczennika. +Historia. +Tereny Zendka należą do historycznego obszaru księstwa siewierskiego. W sporządzonym w grudniu 1442 roku akcie sprzedaży Siewierza biskupom krakowskim Zendek został wymieniony wśród 10 miejscowości stanowiących własność biskupią. +Dalsze dzieje Zendka są ściśle związane z losami samego księstwa. W 1790 roku decyzją Sejmu Wielkiego ziemie księstwa zostały formalnie włączone do Rzeczypospolitej (do województwa krakowskiego). Po trzecim rozbiorze Polski w 1795 roku ziemie dawnego księstwa znalazły się w granicach Prus i zostały włączone do prowincji Nowy Śląsk. +W 1807 roku Napoleon Bonaparte utworzył z tych ziem księstwo olkusko-siewierskie. Po upadku Napoleona i po kongresie wiedeńskim w 1815 roku księstwo zostało włączone do Królestwa Polskiego (tzw. Królestwo Kongresowe), w efekcie czego znalazło się pod panowaniem rosyjskich carów. +W następnych latach rozpoczęła się stopniowa utrata formalnej niezależności Królestwa Polskiego od Rosji, w szczególności w efekcie represji po powstaniach - listopadowym (1830) i styczniowym (1863-1864). W 1837 roku zniesiono województwa, wprowadzając w ich miejsce gubernie - Zendek znalazł się w granicach guberni piotrkowskiej. W wyniku carskiej reformy administracyjnej wprowadzonej 1.01.1867 roku wieś znalazła się w gminie Sulików w powiecie będzińskim należącym do guberni piotrkowskiej. +W czasie I wojny światowej od 1914 roku tereny te były pod okupacją niemiecką. W 1915 gminę przemianowano na Mierzęcice (w związku z przeniesieniem jej siedziby). Po wyzwoleniu w 1919 roku Zendek znalazł się w granicach województwa kieleckiego, w powiecie będzińsko-dąbrowskim. W 1923 roku powiat przemianowano na będziński. 1.01.1927 z północnej części powiatu będzińskiego utworzono powiat zawierciański. +We wrześniu 1939 roku Zendek znalazł się pod okupacją niemiecką. 26.11.1939 roku utworzono rejencję katowicką (Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz), do której przynależał powiat zawierciański nazwany Landkreis Warthenau. Rejencja początkowo została włączona do pruskiej prowincji Śląsk (Provinz Schlesien). 18.01.1941 utworzono z rejencji katowickiej i opolskiej nową prowincję Górny Śląsk (Provinz Oberschlesien). W tym okresie każda wieś stanowiła osobną gminę. +W czasie II wojny światowej w południowej części Zendka powstało lotnisko zapasowe Luftwaffe (Schendek, od 1941 nazwane Udetfeld). Lotnisko stało się poligonem doświadczalnym dla jedynych samolotów o napędzie rakietowym użytych w czasie II wojny światowej - Messerschmitt Me-163 Komet. 18 stycznia 1945 Niemcy opuścili lotnisko częściowo niszcząc pasy startowe. Lotnisko zostało zniszczone po wojnie przez wojska sowieckie. Później przekazano je wojsku polskiemu. Stało się ono zalążkiem współczesnego portu lotniczego Katowice-Pyrzowice. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej Zendek wraz z reaktywowaną gminą Mierzęcice i całym powiatem zawierciańskim znalazł się w granicach województwa śląsko-dąbrowskiego (potem jego nazwę zmieniono na śląskie, w 1950 – katowickie, przejściowo w latach 1953-1956 – stalinogrodzkie). +W 1954 roku gminy zostały zlikwidowane. W ich miejsce powołano gromady. Zendek przynależał do gromady Mierzęcice. 1.01.1970 roku Zendek został przeniesiony do gromady Ożarowice w powiecie tarnogórskim. 1.01.1973 roku przywrócono gminy. Gromada Ożarowice wraz z gromadą Tąpkowice stały się jedną gminą Tąpkowice. +1.06.1975 roku w wyniku kolejnej reformy administracyjnej zniknęły powiaty, a Zendek wraz z całą gminą znalazł się w nowym (mniejszym) województwie katowickim. 1.01.1997 roku gmina Tąpkowice zmieniła nazwę na gminę Ożarowice. 1.01.1999 roku kolejna reforma administracyjna przywróciła powiaty. Gmina, a z nią Zendek, stała się częścią powiatu tarnogórskiego w województwie śląskim. +Edukacja, sport i kultura. +We wsi znajduje się Szkoła Podstawowa im. Jana Pawła II (wcześniej im. Janka Krasickiego) oraz filia biblioteczna nr 2. +Funkcjonuje tu LZS Tęcza Zendek - sekcja piłki nożnej (klasa B). +Komunikacja. +Zendek posiada połączenia autobusowe z Tarnowskimi Górami (linie 179 i 646), Katowicami (linia 119) i Będzinem (linie 225 i 625). Organizatorem komunikacji publicznej jest MZKP w Tarnowskich Górach. +Arsenal F.C. + +Arsenal Football Club (przydomek Kanonierzy; wymowa: /ˈɑ:sənl, ˈɑ:snəl/) – angielski klub piłkarski z siedzibą w północnym Londynie, w dzielnicy Holloway. Jest jedną z najbardziej utytułowanych angielskich drużyn, 13-krotnym mistrzem kraju, 10-krotnym zdobywcą Pucharu Anglii i najdłużej utrzymującym się w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej zespołem w Anglii – od 1919 roku. +Arsenal został założony w 1886 roku i był pierwszym klubem z południa Anglii, który dołączył do The Football League, w 1893 roku. W latach 30. klub pięć razy był mistrzem kraju i zdobył dwa Puchary Anglii. Po II wojnie światowej klub osiągał mniej sukcesów. W sezonie 1970/1971 Arsenal zdobył dublet. Od lat 90. pięciokrotnie wygrywał rozgrywki Pucharu Anglii, oraz czterokrotnie był mistrzem Anglii. W sezonie 2003/2004 Arsenal zdobył tytuł mistrza Anglii bez żadnej porażki i został drugą drużyną, która to uczyniła (a pierwszą, która nie przegrała w 38 meczach). Dwa lata później dotarł do finału Ligi Mistrzów, w którym przegrał z FC Barcelona. +Tradycyjnymi barwami klubu są czerwony i biały. Barwy te w historii klubu przyjmowały różne odcienie. Arsenal zmieniał także swój stadion; początkowo mieścił się on w Woolwich, w południowo-wschodnim Londynie, w 1913 roku drużyna przeniosła się na północ miasta, do Arsenal Stadium w Highbury. W 2006 roku klub przeprowadził się na Emirates Stadium położony w Holloway. +Klub posiada liczną i wierną grupę kibiców. Największym rywalem zespołu jest Tottenham Hotspur, a mecze Arsenalu z tym klubem określane są jako derby północnego Londynu. Arsenal jest jednym z najwartościowszych klubów w Anglii. Szacowana jego wartość w 2008 roku wynosiła ponad 600 milionów funtów. Dzięki swojej renomie regularnie pojawia się w brytyjskich mediach. Zespół kobiecy Arsenalu jest najbardziej utytułowaną żeńską drużyną piłkarską w kraju. +Historia. +Arsenal został założony jako Dial Square w 1886 roku przez pracowników zakładów zbrojeniowych Royal Arsenal. Później klub został przemianowany na Royal Arsenal. W 1891 roku ponownie zmienił nazwę, na Woolwich Arsenal i stał się profesjonalnym zespołem. Dwa lata później dołączył do the Football League i rozpoczął grę w Second Division. W 1904 roku awansował do First Division, ówczesnej najwyższej ligi piłkarskiej w Anglii. Z powodu swojego położenia geograficznego, na mecze Arsenalu chodziło mniej osób niż na inne spotkania. Spowodowało to kłopoty finansowe klubu. Arsenal został w tym samym czasie przejęty przez Henry'ego Norrisa. Chciał on przenieść siedzibę zespołu i w 1913 roku, krótko po spadku Arsenalu do Second Division, zespół przeprowadził się na nowy stadion – Arsenal Stadium w Highbury. Następnego roku z nazwy klubu usunięto "Woolwich" i od tego czasu klub nosi nazwę Arsenal. W 1919 roku zespół zajął piąte miejsce w lidze, mimo to w kontrowersyjnych okolicznościach awansował do First Division kosztem swojego lokalnego rywala, Tottenhamu Hotspur. +W 1925 roku Herbert Chapman został trenerem Arsenalu. Wcześniej dwukrotnie został mistrzem Anglii z Huddersfield Town (w sezonach 1923/1924 i 1924/1925). Poprowadził on klub do pierwszych znaczących sukcesów zmieniając taktykę Arsenalu. Sprowadził do klubu Alexa Jamesa i Cliffa Bastina. Arsenal w 1930 roku zdobył Puchar Anglii, zaś w sezonach 1930/1931 oraz 1932/1933 został mistrzem kraju. Poza tym dzięki inicjatywie Chapmana, lokalna stacja metra zmieniła swoją nazwę z "Gillespie Road" na "Arsenal". +Chapman zmarł nagle na zapalenie płuc w 1934 roku i jego miejsce zajęli Joe Shaw i George Allison. Pod ich wodzą Arsenal jeszcze trzykrotnie został mistrzem kraju (w sezonach 1933/1934, 1934/1935 i 1937/1938). Zdobył również Puchar Anglii w 1936 roku. Następnie wielu podstawowych graczy zaczynało kończyć swoje kariery i klub nie osiągał już sukcesów. Gdy wybuchła II wojna światowa w 1939 roku, rozgrywki piłkarskie w Anglii zostały zawieszone. +Po zakończeniu wojny, następcą Allisona został Tom Whittaker. Arsenal w sezonach 1947/1948 i 1952/1953 ponownie został mistrzem Anglii, a w 1950 roku wygrał rozgrywki o puchar kraju. Po tych sukcesach forma zespołu spadła i klub w latach 50. i 60. nie osiągał już sukcesów. W 1962 roku zatrudniono byłego kapitana reprezentacji Anglii, Billy'ego Wrighta, jednak nie poprawił on sytuacji klubu. +W 1966 roku trenerem Arsenalu został były fizjoterapeuta klubu, Bertie Mee. Po dwóch niewygranych finałach Pucharu Ligi, zespół w sezonie 1969/1970 zdobył Puchar Miast Targowych, swoje pierwsze europejskie trofeum. Rok później Arsenal zdobył dublet – został mistrzem Anglii oraz zdobył Puchar Anglii. Później klub nie osiągał już sukcesów, mimo że był ich bardzo blisko. W sezonie 1972/1972 został wicemistrzem Anglii, a w 1972, 1978 i 1980 roku doszedł do finału Pucharu Anglii, którego nie zdołał wygrać. W sezonie 1979/1980 grał również w finale Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów, który przegrał po serii rzutów karnych. Jedynym osiągnięciem w tym czasie było zdobycie pucharu kraju w 1979 roku po zwycięstwie w końcówce meczu z Manchesterem United. +W 1986 roku nowym trenerem klubu został George Graham, były piłkarz Arsenalu. W pierwszym sezonie pod jego wodzą zespół zdobył Puchar Ligi. W 1989 roku został także mistrzem Anglii po zwycięstwie w ostatniej kolejce nad Liverpoolem. W roku 1991 ponownie wygrał rozgrywki ligowe, zaś dwa lata później zdobył Puchar Anglii i Puchar Ligi w jednym sezonie. W 1994 roku wygrał także rozgrywki o Puchar Zdobywców Pucharów. Reputacja Grahama znacznie zmalała jak wyszło na jaw, że otrzymywał łapówki od Rune'a Hauge'a za podpisywanie kontraktów z niektórymi graczami. Z tego powodu w 1995 roku został zwolniony. Jego następca, Bruce Rioch, pracował w klubie jeden sezon i odszedł z powodu sporu z zarządem. +W 1996 roku szkoleniowcem zespołu został Francuz, Arsène Wenger. Wenger zmodernizował taktykę klubu oraz metody treningowe. Sprowadził do drużyny także kilku zagranicznych zawodników. W sezonie 1997/1998 Arsenal zdobył dublet – został mistrzem Anglii oraz zdobył puchar kraju. Osiągnięcie to powtórzył w roku 2002. Poza tym klub doszedł do finału Pucharu UEFA w sezonie 1999/2000. Przegrał w nim po serii rzutów karnych z Galatasaray SK. W 2003 i 2005 roku Arsenal zdobył Puchar Anglii, a w sezonie 2003/2004 wygrał rozgrywki Premier League bez ani jednej porażki. Dzięki temu osiągnięciu zespół uzyskał przydomek "The Invincibles". Łącznie był niepokonany przez 49 spotkań, co jest rekordem w całej historii piłki angielskiej. +Arsenal ośmiokrotnie kończył rozgrywki ligowe na pierwszym lub drugim miejscu pod wodzą Wengera, jednak nie zdołał ani razu obronić tytułu mistrza Anglii. Tylko pięć klubów wygrało Premier League od czasu jej założenia w 1992 roku. Poza Arsenalem, są to: Manchester United, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea i Manchester City. Do sezonu 2005/2006 Arsenal ani razu nie przeszedł ćwierćfinału Ligi Mistrzów; w tym sezonie stał się pierwszym londyńskim zespołem, który dotarł do finału tych rozgrywek. Arsenal został w nim pokonany przez FC Barcelona 2:1. W lipcu 2006 roku klub po 93 latach gry na Highbury przeniósł się na Emirates Stadium. +Herb. +Na pierwszym herbie klubu, używanym od 1888 do 1913 roku widniały trzy armaty (mylone także z kominami), skierowane ku górze. Nawiązywały do militarnego obszaru, w którym siedzibę miał klub. U podstawy armat widniały także wyrzeźbione herby lwów. Herb ten był podobny do używanego przez hrabstwo Woolwich. Następnie klub przez 9 lat nie miał herbu. Jednak w 1922 roku herb został przywrócony; widniała na nim już jedna armata skierowana na wschód oraz przydomek zespołu "The Gunners". W sezonie 1925/1926 została odwrócona na zachód, zmniejszono też jej lufę. Klub w 1949 roku zmienił ponownie swój herb; w górnej części dodano napis "Arsenal" w piśmie gotyckim oraz herb hrabstwa Islington, zaś na dole łacińskie motto klubu "Victoria Concordia Crescit" ("harmonia rodzi zwycięstwo"). Wersja ta została zaprojektowana przez redaktora programów meczowych Harry'ego Homera. Z biegiem czasu zmieniały się kolory herbu, widniała na nim barwa czerwona, złota oraz zielona. +Z powodu wielu poprawek Arsenal nie mógł ochronić swojego herbu prawami autorskimi. Mimo to zarejestrował go jako znak towarowy oraz wygrał proces sądowy z lokalnym sprzedawcą. Herb próbowano jeszcze bardziej zabezpieczyć. Z tego powodu w 2002 roku powstała jego nowa wersja, która jest chroniona prawami autorskimi. Jest ona używana do dziś. Na obecnym herbie Arsenalu znajduje się armata skierowana na wschód, na górze widnieje napis "Arsenal" w czcionce bezszeryfowej. Cały herb ma kształt czerwonej tarczy z niebieskimi paskami bo bokach i lekko zaokrąglonymi liniami. Początkowo spotkał się on z krytyczną opinią niektórych kibiców; Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association (Niezależne Stowarzyszenie Kibiców Arsenalu) sądziło, że klub zignorował dużą cześć historii i tradycji Arsenalu, oraz że nie konsultowano się z kibicami w sprawie nowej wersji. +Stroje. +Od początku istnienia klubu zawodnicy Arsenalu nosili czerwone koszulki oraz białe spodenki i getry. W północnym Londynie pojawiły się one wraz z dwoma byłymi zawodnikami Nottingham Forest – Fredem Beardsleyem i Morrisem Batesem. W czasie gdy powstawał pierwszy klub w Woolwich zawodnicy ci nie mogli znaleźć strojów, więc napisali do swojej byłej drużyny. W odpowiedzi otrzymali zestaw strojów i piłkę. Koszulka była ciemnoczerwona, spodenki i getry zaś niebieskie. +W 1933 roku Herbert Chapman dodał do strojów białe rękawy oraz zmienił odcień czerwieni na jaśniejszy. Pochodzenie białych rękawów nie jest do końca znane. Jedna z teorii mówi, że Chapman zauważył na trybunach w czasie meczu kibica noszącego czerwony sweter bez rękawów na białej koszulce, inna zaś, że inspiracją był widok Toma Webstara, który grał z Chapmanem w golfa. Arsenal taką koszulkę i spodenki nosił już zawsze, z wyjątkiem dwóch sezonów. Pierwszym był 1966/1967, w którym to klub nosił całą koszulkę czerwoną, białe rękawy powróciły już w następnym sezonie. Drugim wyjątkiem był sezon 2005/2006, ostatni na Highbury. Arsenal nosił wówczas taki strój jak w 1913 roku, kiedy to rozpoczynał grę na tym obiekcie. +Stroje Arsenalu były inspiracją przynajmniej dla trzech innych zespołów. W 1909 roku Sparta Praga grała w ciemnoczerwonych koszulkach, podobnych do ubieranych w tamtym czasie przez Arsenal. W 1938 roku także Hibernian wzorował się na londyńskim klubie (białe rękawy na zielono-białej koszulce). Z kolei w latach 40. prezydent SC Braga - José Antunes Guimarães, zmienił strój swojej drużyny na duplikat zestawu londyńskiego klubu: czerwona koszulka i białe rękawy oraz białe spodenki. Dzięki temu klub ten doczekał się przydomku "Os Arsenalistas". Takich strojów drużyny te używają obecnie. +Przez wiele lat wyjazdowe stroje Arsenalu były biało-czarne. Od sezonu 1969/1970 zawodnicy na meczach wyjazdowych nosili żółte koszulki i niebieskie spodenki. W sezonie 1982/1983 odstąpili od tego i ubierali zielono-granatowe stroje. Od początku lat 90. Arsenal regularnie co sezon zmienia stroje wyjazdowe. W tym czasie piłkarze nosili między innymi kilka odcieni niebieskiego i różne wersje tradycyjnych żółto-niebieskich strojów (między innymi w sezonie 2001/2002 koszulki Arsenalu były barwy złotej, a w latach 2005–2007 zespół nosił żółto-szare stroje). +Stroje Arsenalu produkowało wiele firm; od lat 30. do początku lat 70. robiła to Bukta, następnie Umbro (lata 70.–1986), Adidas (1986–1994) i od 1994 roku Nike. Od lat 80. na strojach Arsenalu pojawia się także logo sponsora. W latach 1982–1999 było to JVC, następnie Sega (1999–2002), O2 (2002–2006), a od 2006 roku jest to linia lotnicza Emirates. +Stadiony. +Przez długi okres pobytu Arsenalu w południowo-wschodnim Londynie, stadionem klubu był Manor Ground w Plumstead. W latach 1890–1893 zespół grał na Invicta Ground. Manor Ground początkowo był boiskiem, jednak później klub wybudował trybuny z okazji pierwszego meczu klubu w Football League we wrześniu 1893 roku. Swoje domowe spotkania Arsenal rozgrywał tam przez następne dwadzieścia lat (z wyjątkiem sezonu 1894/1895), zaś później przeniósł się do północnego Londynu. +Arsenal Stadium, często określany jako Highbury, był obiektem klubu od 1913 roku do maja 2006 roku. Został zaprojektowany przez Archibalda Leitcha. Miał wygląd podobny do wielu piłkarskich stadionów w Wielkiej Brytanii na początku XX wieku. Posiadał jedną zadaszoną trybunę oraz trzy trybuny z miejscami stojącymi. W latach 30. odbył się remont stadionu, wybudowano dwie nowe trybuny w stylu art déco, zachodnią oraz wschodnią. Otwarto je kolejno w 1932 i 1936 roku; poza tym dodano dach nad północną trybunę, który później został zbombardowany w czasie II wojny światowej i do 1954 roku nie odbudowano go. +Highbury mogło pomieścić maksymalnie 60 tysięcy widzów, zaś jego pojemność do początku lat 90. wynosiła 57 tysięcy. Raport Taylora oraz regulacje wprowadzone w Premier League zmusiły klub do porzucenia miejsc stojących i od sezonu 1993/1994 na obiekcie mogło zasiąść 38 419 kibiców. Pojemność ta musiała zostać zmniejszona na mecze Ligi Mistrzów aby wygospodarować dodatkowe powierzchnie reklamowe do tego stopnia, że przez dwa sezony (1998/1999 i 1999/2000) klub rozgrywał swoje spotkania w ramach tych rozgrywek na mogącym pomieścić 70 tysięcy fanów Wembley. +Rozwój Highbury został ograniczony, ponieważ wschodnia trybuna stała się zabytkiem, zaś trzy inne były blisko posiadłości mieszkalnych. Po rozważeniu wielu możliwości, w 2000 roku klub postanowił wybudować nowy stadion, Emirates Stadium, który miał mieścić się w Ashburton Grove, 500 metrów na północny wschód od Highbury. Pojemność nowego stadionu miała wynosić 60 355. Projekt budowy nowego obiektu został opóźniany przez biurokrację i rosnące z czasem koszty. W lipcu 2006 roku budowa została ostatecznie zakończona. Stadion został nazwany Emirates Stadium z powodu sponsora Arsenalu, linii lotniczych Emirates, z którymi umowę podpisano na rekordową w Premier League sumę 100 milionów funtów. Niektórzy kibice stadion określają jako Ashburton Grove lub Grove, ponieważ nie akceptują nazw obiektów, w których znajduje się nazwa sponsora. Obiekt będzie nosił nazwę Emirates Stadium do 2012 roku, zaś linie lotnicze będą sponsorem koszulek do końca sezonu 2013/2014. +Centrum treningowe Arsenalu znajduje się w Shenley w Hertfordshire i zostało otwarte w 2000 roku. Wcześniej klub trenował na obiekcie pobliskiego University College London, zaś do 1961 roku robił to na Highbury. Akademia swoje mecze rozgrywa w Shenley, zaś zespół rezerw gra na Underhill, stadionie klubu Barnet. +Kibice i rywalizacje. +Zagorzali kibice Arsenalu nazywają siebie "The Gooners". To z jednej strony nawiązanie do przydomku zespołu – +"The Gunners" (ang. Kanonierzy), z drugiej zaś do angielskiego słowa "goon" oznaczającego "wariata", "świra" itp. Arsenal ma wielu wiernych kibiców, którzy często przychodzą na mecze; w sezonie 2008/2009 klub zajął drugie miejsce w lidze pod względem średniej frekwencji na stadionie (wynosiła ona 60 109, ponad 99% pojemności stadionu). Siedziba klubu sąsiaduje z dwoma zamożnymi obszarami: Canonbury i Barnsbury oraz z Islington, Holloway, Highbury i London Borough of Camden. Poza tym w pobliżu znajdują się dzielnice robotnicze: Finsbury Park i Stoke Newington. Sprawia to, że kibice Arsenalu pochodzą z różnych grup społecznych. Według raportu z 2002 roku na mecze klubu przychodzi również największy odsetek ludzi rasy niebiałej w całej Anglii (7,7%). +Podobnie jak inne angielskie drużyny Arsenal posiada wiele fan clubów, między innymi Arsenal Football Supporters Club (blisko współpracujący z klubem) i Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association (bardziej niezależny). Istnieje także Arsenal Supporters' Trust, który promuje większe uczestnictwo kibiców we własności drużyny. Fan cluby publikują również fanziny, takie jak "The Gooner", "Highbury High", "Gunflash" i "Up The Arse!". Pieśni kibiców klubu "One-Nil to the Arsenal" (na melodię "Go West") oraz "Boring, Boring Arsenal" są używane przez kibiców przeciwnych zespołów, jednak śpiewane są także ironicznie przez fanów Arsenalu, kiedy zespół dobrze gra. +Wielu kibiców Arsenalu pochodzi spoza Londynu. W ostatnich czasach, wraz z pojawieniem się telewizji satelitarnej, przywiązanie kibiców do klubu stało się mniej zależne od miejsca zamieszkania. Z tego powodu Arsenal posiada wiele fan clubów na całym świecie; w 2007 roku oficjalnie istniały 24 w Wielkiej Brytanii, 37 irlandzkich oraz 49 z innych państw. +Najdłużej i najpoważniej Arsenal rywalizuje ze swoim lokalnym rywalem, Tottenhahem Hotspur, a mecze pomiędzy zespołami określane są jako derby północnego Londynu. Poza tym zespół konkuruje z innymi klubami z Londynu: Chelsea, Fulham i West Ham United. Od końca lat 80. Arsenal bardzo rywalizuje także z Manchesterem United. Rywalizacja naostrzyła się w ostatnich latach, kiedy to obydwa kluby walczyły o tytuł mistrza kraju. W przeprowadzonej w 2003 roku przez Football Fans Census ankiecie internauci za największego rywala Arsenalu uznali Manchester United, tuż przed Tottenhamem i Chelsea. +Klubowa maskotka. +Oficjalną maskotką Arsenalu jest stworzony w 1993 roku Gunnersaurus Rex. Gunnersaurs po raz pierwszy pojawił się 14 sierpnia 1993 roku na przegranym 0-3 ligowym pojedynku z Coventry City. +Własność i finanse klubu. +Właścicielem Arsenalu jest publiczna spółka akcyjna, "Arsenal Holdings plc" nienotowana na "London Stock Exchange", ale notowana na londyńskiej giełdzie alternatywnej "PLUS Markets"; obecnie największym udziałowcem klubu jest Stanley Kroenke, który posiada prawie 67% akcji. Zgodnie z raportem rocznym z maja 2009 liczba akcji spółki wynosiła 62 217. Według danych magazynu Forbes z kwietnia 2009 średnia, łączna, teoretyczna wartość akcji tej spółki wynosiła 605 milionów funtów. W roku budżetowym 2008/2009 spółka osiągnęła przychód w wysokości 313,3 miliona funtów, z czego 70,5 było przychodem operacyjnym, a pozostały pochodził z transferu zawodników. W tym samym okresie zysk netto (po opodatkowaniu) wyniósł 16,6 miliona funtów. +W kwietniu 2008 roku magazyn "Forbes" oszacował wartość klubu na 1,2 miliarda dolarów (605 milionów funtów) i umieścił Arsenal na trzecim miejscu w liście najbardziej wartościowych zespołów na świecie, zaraz po Manchesterze United i Realu Madryt. +Łącznie członkowie zarządu Arsenalu posiadają 45,2% akcji zespołu; najwięcej, bo 17 613 (28,3%; stan na maj 2009) ma amerykański potentant sportowy, Stanley Kroenke, który jest współwłaścicielem klubu od 2007 roku. Inni ze znaczącym udziałem w spółce to: Danny Fiszman (10 025 akcji; 16,1%) oraz prezes Arsenalu Peter Hill-Wood (500 akcji; 0,8%), zaś reszta dyrektorów posiada niewielkie pakiety akcji. Była dyrektorka Nina Bracewell-Smith (żona wnuczka byłego prezesa Bracewella Smitha) posiada 9893 akcji, co stanowi 15,9% ich ogólnej liczby. +Arsenal w popkulturze. +Jako jeden z najbardziej utytułowanych zespołów w kraju, Arsenal często pojawia się w brytyjskich mediach. 22 stycznia 1927 ich mecz z Sheffield United był pierwszym spotkaniem w lidze angielskiej transmitowanym na żywo w radiu. Dekadę później, 16 września 1937 roku pierwszy zespół Arsenalu rozegrał towarzyski mecz z drużyną rezerw – było to pierwsze spotkanie piłkarskie, które transmitowano na żywo w telewizji. W pierwszej edycji programu BBC "Match of the Day" (22 sierpnia 1964 roku) pokazano mecz Arsenalu z Liverpoolem. +Klub pojawił się w jednym najstarszych filmów związanych z piłką nożną, "The Arsenal Stadium Mystery" (1939). Intryga toczy się wokół zatrucia jednego z piłkarzy podczas meczu towarzyskiego pomiędzy Arsenalem a amatorskim zespołem. W filmie wystąpiło wielu zawodników drużyny. W 1992 roku Nick Hornby opublikował książkę "Futbolowa gorączka", autobiografię napisaną z pozycji fanatycznego kibica Arsenalu. Między innymi dzięki niej, piłka nożna stała się popularniejsza w Wielkiej Brytanii w latach 90. Na podstawie książki nakręcono później dwa filmy – brytyjski, opierający się głównie na sezonie 1988/1989, w którym Arsenal został mistrzem kraju oraz amerykański o kibicu baseballowego zespołu Boston Red Sox. +Ze względu na swoją taktykę Arsenal w latach 70. i 80. był nazywany zespołem "nudnym" oraz "defensywnym". Bywało to obiektem żartów niektórych komików, między innymi Erica Morecambe'a. Z kolei w jednej ze scen filmu "Goło i wesoło" aktorzy, chodząc po linii i podnosząc ręce, naśladują pułapkę offside'ową. Również film "Plunkett & Macleane" nawiązuje do defensywnego stylu gry zespołu. Pojawiły się tam dwie postacie o nazwiskach Dixon oraz Winterburn; takie same nosili byli obrońcy Arsenalu: Lee Dixon oraz Nigel Winterburn. +Drużyna kobiet. +Kobiecy zespół Arsenalu powstał w 1987 roku, zaś w 2002 roku stał się półprofesjonalnym zespołem. Funkcję szkoleniowca drużyny pełni Laura Harvey. Arsenal L.F.C. jest najbardziej utytułowanym żeńskim klubem w Anglii; obecnie jest mistrzem kraju oraz posiadaczem FA Women's Cup i FA Women's Premier League Cup; w sezonie 2006/2007 zawodniczki wygrały rozgrywki Ligi Mistrzów Kobiet i stały się pierwszym angielskim klubem, który tego dokonał. Zespół mężczyzn oraz kobiet są formalnie odrębnymi jednostkami, jednak są także ze sobą powiązani; przez jeden sezon żeński zespół grał swoje mecze na Emirates Stadium, mimo iż zazwyczaj rozgrywał spotkania na stadionie klubu Boreham Wood. +Statystyki i rekordy. +W latach 1975–1993 David O'Leary wystąpił 722 razy dla Arsenalu, co jest klubowym rekordem. Drugie miejsce w tej klasyfikacji zajmuje środkowy obrońca i były kapitan zespołu, Tony Adams, który wystąpił w 669 spotkaniach. Najwięcej występów dla Arsenalu na pozycji bramkarza ma David Seaman – 563. +Thierry Henry w latach 1999–2007 zdobył dla klubu 226 bramek we wszystkich rozgrywkach, w październiku 2005 roku wyprzedził on Iana Wrighta i stał się najlepszym strzelcem Arsenalu. Rekord Wrighta utrzymywał się od września 1997 roku, kiedy to wyprzedził w klasyfikacji Cliffa Bastina (178 goli). Francuz zdobył także dla klubu najwięcej bramek w lidze – 174 – do lutego 2006 roku rekord ten należał do Bastina. +25 listopada 1998 roku na spotkaniu Ligi Mistrzów z RC Lens, na stadionie Wembley zasiadło 73 707 widzów, co jest rekordem klubowym dla tych rozgrywek. Najwięcej kibiców na spotkaniu Arsenalu zasiadło 9 marca 1935 roku na spotkaniu z Sunderlandem. Na stadionie było wtedy obecnych 73 295 osób. Największa widownia na Emirates Stadium to natomiast 60 161 kibiców, którzy 3 listopada 2007 roku byli na meczu z Manchesterem United. +Arsenal ustanowił także inne rekordy. Spędził najwięcej sezonów w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej w Anglii (2009/2010 jest 83.) oraz najdłużej był niezwyciężony w lidze (od maja 2003 do października 2004 49 meczów bez przegranej). W wygranym przez siebie sezonie 2003/2004 nie przegrał w żadnym z 38 ligowych spotkań i stał się drugim klubem, który to uczynił (dokonał tego także Preston North End w sezonie 1888/1889, 22 mecze bez przegranej). +W sezonie 2005/2006 Arsenal przez dziesięć spotkań Ligi Mistrzów nie stracił bramki i pobił rekord należący wcześniej do AC Milan i wynoszący siedem meczów. Było to łącznie 995 minut, okres ten ostatecznie zakończył się bramką w 76. minucie finału z FC Barcelona Samuela Eto'o. +Trenerzy. +W historii klubu od 1897 w Arsenalu pracowało 18 stałych i 5 tymczasowych menadżerów. Pierwszy tymczasowy menadżer (Stewart Houston) pełnił tę funkcję dwukrotnie. Najdłużej pracującym w klubie menadżerem był George Allison (1934–1947), jednak w największej ilości spotkań zespół prowadził obecny szkoleniowiec Arsène Wenger (1996–). Wenger jest jedynym menadżerem w historii pochodzącym spoza Wielkiej Brytanii i Irlandii. Jest on także najbardziej skutecznym menadżerem i pod jego przywództwem zespół wygrał procentowo 57.36% spotkań, natomiast pod przewodnictwem Leslie Knightona zespół spisywał się najsłabiej (34.46% wygranych spotkań). Dwóch menadżerów zmarło w czasie swojej pracy dla klubu – Herbert Chapman i Tom Whittaker. +Akademia. +Akademia Arsenalu została założona 1998 roku i była jedną z pierwszych w Anglii. Jej dyrektorem jest Liam Brady. Brady'emu pomaga obecnie inny były gracz The Gunners David Court. W akademii zapisani są chłopcy od lat 9 do 21. Wielu wychowanków szkółki gra później w pierwszym zespole, już pod okiem Arsène'a Wengera. +Najstarsza rocznikiem drużyna, Arsenal U-18, powstała z inicjatywy The FA, która nakazała rozwiązać zespoły U-19 i U-17, aby utworzyć jeden poziom dla wszystkich istniejących akademii. Szkoleniowcem zespołu do lat 18 jest kolejny były Kanonier, Steve Bould. Zespół ćwiczy w centrum treningowym, z którego korzysta też pierwsza drużyna. Natomiast młodsze roczniki, od U-16 do U-9 trenują w innym centrum pod przewodnictwem Roya Masseya. +Młodzi zawodnicy regularnie ogrywają się w krajowych rozgrywkach pucharowych, takich jak Puchar Ligi. W obecnym składzie akademii znajduje się kilku graczy występujących również w rezerwach Arsenalu, m.in. Gilles Sunu i Luke Freeman. +Sukcesy. +Krajowe. +First Division (przed 1992) i Premier League (po 1992) +Second Division +Puchar Anglii +Puchar Ligi +Tarcza Dobroczynności (przed 2002) i Tarcza Wspólnoty +Europejskie. +Liga Mistrzów +Puchar Zdobywców Pucharów +Puchar Miast Targowych +Puchar UEFA +Superpuchar Europy +Arsenal zdobył 13 mistrzostw kraju i pod tym względem zajmuje trzecie miejsce – po Liverpoolu i Manchesterze United. Dziesięciokrotnie wygrywał także rozgrywki Pucharu Anglii, co lokuje go na drugim miejscu, tuż za Manchesterem United. Poza tym Arsenal trzykrotnie zdobył dublet (w 1971, 1998 i 2002 roku) i jest pod tym względem rekordzistą wraz z Manchesterem United. Jest także pierwszym angielskim klubem, który zdobył Puchar Anglii i Puchar Ligi w tym samym sezonie – dokonał tego w 1993 roku. Arsenal jest pierwszą drużyną z Londynu, która dotarła do finału Ligi Mistrzów. +Średnia pozycja zajmowana przez klub w lidze to 8,5 – pod tym względem Arsenal jest rekordzistą. Poza tym jest to jedna z sześciu drużyn, która zdobyła Puchar Anglii dwa razy z rzędu (w 2002 i 2003 roku). +Mentol + +Mentol – alkohol z grupy terpenów, o ostrym, przenikliwym zapachu miętowym, stosowany masowo w przemyśle kosmetycznym i pomocniczych środkach farmaceutycznych. Mentol jest wyodrębniany głównie z mięty pieprzowej i innych gatunków mięty. Jest on jednym ze składników wielu olejków eterycznych innych roślin. +Właściwości. +W temperaturze pokojowej tworzy białe, igłowe kryształki. Słabo rozpuszczalny w wodzie, dobrze rozpuszcza się w polarnych rozpuszczalnikach organicznych. Ze względu na to, że zawiera on 3 centra chiralności, posiada 8 izomerów optycznych, z których 4 występują w naturze, a 4 zostały otrzymane na drodze syntetycznej (tzw. "neomentole"). Najczęściej spotykany naturalnie jest (-)-mentol (o konfiguracji absolutnej 1R,2S,5R), występujący m.in. w mięcie pieprzowej. Wykazuje on najsilniejsze działanie biologiczne. +Zastosowanie. +Mentol posiada własności znieczulające i zmniejszające podrażnienie błon śluzowych. Jego wdychanie lub spożywanie daje szybko odczuwalne wrażenie chłodu i świeżości. Jest stosowany w specyfikach wspomagających leczenie przeziębień i kataru. Jest też dodawany do maści na ból mięśni, aromatyzuje się nim chusteczki higieniczne, papierosy, tabaki, proszki do prania, płyny do mycia naczyń itp. Jest też stosowany jako jeden ze składników wielu kompozycji zapachowych stosowanych w kosmetyce. Zaaplikowany na dolną powiekę wywołuje łzawienie oczu, przez co znajduje zastosowanie w aktorstwie i modelingu. +W syntezie chemicznej mentol i jego pochodne wykorzystywane są jako pomocniki i katalizatory chiralne. +Płyta (formacja skalna) + +Płyta to formacja skalna, zwykle słabo urzeźbiona, w formie otwartej, mniej lub bardziej gładkiej płaszczyzny o rozmaitym, często zmiennym kącie nachylenia. Pod względem nachylenia płyty mogą być połogie (nachylone do pionu pod kątem od 45° do 10°), pionowe (od ok 10° do 0°), oraz przewieszone (od 0° do ok. -20°), przy czym w ostatnim wypadku określenia "płyta" używa się raczej rzadko. Bardziej wywieszone formacje zwykle nie są już określane jako płyty. Rzeźba płyt zależy w istotny sposób od ich budowy geologicznej i obejmuje typowe dla danego rodzaju skały elementy, jak dziurki w wapieniu, charakterystyczne krawądki i półeczki w dolomitach, rysy czy okrzemki w granicie, wystające kamienie w zlepieńcach i niektórych rodzajach piaskowca, lejki, falki i zupełną gładkość w piaskowcach. +Wspinanie w płytach zależnie od ich nachylenia i rzeźby wymaga stosowania rozmaitych technik. +Płyty połogie mocno urzeźbione nie przedstawiają problemu wspinaczkowego. +Płyty połogie słabo urzeźbione pokonywane są zwykle techniką rajbungu (tarciową), oferując zwykle wspinaczkę wymagającą dużej wytrzymałości psychicznej i precyzyjnej techniki balansu ciałem. Z powodu słabej rzeźby asekuracja własna często jest kiepska lub niemożliwa, natomiast asekuracja stała w niektórych rejonach bywa osadzana rzadko, z uwagi na czynniki estetyczno-ekologiczne. Odpadnięcie na połogiej płycie jest bardziej niebezpieczne, niż na płytach pionowych lub przewieszonych, ponieważ podczas upadku +wspinacz narażony jest na kontakt ze skałą. +Płyty pionowe możliwe są do pokonania dzięki odpowiedniej rzeźbie. Przechodzenie płyt pionowych jest jednym z typowych i zwykle poszukiwanych rodzajów wspinaczki. Czasami możliwa jest asekuracja własna, w innych wypadkach na uczęszczanych drogach osadzane są stałe punkty asekuracyjne. W wypadku słabego urzeźbienia, płyty takie bywają pokonywane techniką hakową. +Płyty przewieszone (zob. przewieszenie) mogą być pokonywane klasycznie jedynie dzięki odpowiednio wykształconej rzeźbie - w przeciwnym wypadku pozostaje jedynie technika hakowa. Asekuracja w takich formacjach zwykle sprowadza się do asekuracji stałej. +Agata Sycylijska + +Agata Sycylijska, również: Święta Agata, Agata z Katanii (z Sycylii), "Muczenica Agafija, Sicilijskaja" (ur. 235, zm. 5 lutego 251) – dziewica, męczennica chrześcijańska, święta Kościoła katolickiego i prawosławnego. +Życie. +Według opisu męczeństwa z V wieku Agata pochodziła ze znamienitego rodu rzymskiego. Urodziła się na Sycylii w Katanii. Po przyjęciu wiary chrześcijańskiej postanowiła żyć w dziewictwie. Gdy odrzuciła rękę namiestnika Sycylii Kwincjana, oddano ją do domu rozpusty. Wbrew oczekiwaniom, Agata zachowała dziewictwo i nie wyparła się Chrystusa. +Kiedy cesarz Decjusz rozpoczął prześladowania chrześcijan, Kwincjan, przed sądem postawił Agatę, jako jedną z pierwszych osób. Sąd skazał ją na tortury, podczas których odcięto jej piersi. Z chwilą nastania niespodziewanego trzęsienia ziemi namiestnik nakazał przestać tortur, gdyż dostrzegł w tym karę Bożą. Ostatecznie Agata poniosła śmierć, rzucona na rozżarzone węgle. Jej ciało zostało złożone przez chrześcijan poza miastem. +Kult. +W rok po jej śmierci nastąpił wielki wybuch Etny. Gorąca lawa nie zalała jednak miasta, a zatrzymała się tuż przed nim. To cudowne ocalenie nawet poganie przypisywali wstawiennictwu Agaty. +Wspomnienie liturgiczne Agaty męczennicy w Kościele katolickim obchodzone jest 5 lutego natomiast Kościół prawosławny wspomina ją 5/18 lutego, tj. 18 lutego wg kalendarza gregoriańskiego. W tym dniu błogosławi się chleb, sól, wodę, które mają zapobiegać pożarom, szczególnie od pioruna. +Jej relikwie, znajdujące się w Katanii, zostały umieszczone w relikwiarzu. W dniu rocznicy jej śmierci relikwiarz obwożony jest po mieście w uroczystej procesji. +Wizerunek Św. Agaty znajduje się na Orderze Świętej Agaty, a dzień 5 lutego jest świętem państwowym w San Marino. +Jest świętą, do której chrześcijanie uciekają się przy zagrożeniach związanych z pożarami i wypadkami związanych z ogniem; ma również chronić Sycylię przed wybuchami Etny. +Patronuje zawodom związanym z ogniem: kominiarzom, ludwisarzom, odlewnikom, a także pielęgniarkom z racji męczeńskiej śmierci. Jest również orędowniczką w chorobach piersi. +W ikonografii chrześcijańskiej św. Agata przedstawiana jest w długiej sukni, z kleszczami, którymi ją szarpano. +Atrybutami Agaty są: dom w płomieniach, kość słoniowa – symbol czystości i niewinności oraz siły moralnej a także misa z obciętymi w czasie męczeństwa piersiami. +W Rzymie, ku czci Świętej Agaty, papież Symmachus (zm. 514) wystawił okazałą bazylikę, w 593 kolejną świątynię poświęcił jej pp. Grzegorz I, a pp. Grzegorz II (zm. 731), przy bazylice św. Chryzogona na Zatybrzu, wystawił ku jej czci trzeci rzymski kościół. +Jean Lugol + +Jean Guillaume Auguste Lugol (ur. 18 sierpnia 1788 w Montauban, zm. 16 września 1851 w Neuilly-sur-Seine) (według niektórych źródeł urodzony w 1786) – lekarz francuski, który m.in. w latach 1823-1829 opracował i udoskonalił metodę leczenia wola (powiększenia tarczycy) przy pomocy roztworu jodku potasu i samego jodu, zwanego od jego nazwiska płynem Lugola. W latach 1829-1834 napisał także cztery opracowania na temat gruźliczego zapalenia węzłów chłonnych (skrofułów). +Urodził się w Montauban, studiował medycynę chorób wewnętrznych w Paryżu 1807-1812. Od 1819 aż do emerytury w 1851 praktykował w szpitalu Św. Ludwika w Paryżu. +Zapamiętany jako doskonały praktyk, nie poddający się medycznym modom, skłonny do innowacji terapeutycznych. Był blisko swoich pacjentów, ciepło też wspominany przez swoich studentów. +Ożarowice + +Ożarowice – wieś w Polsce położona na terenie Zagłębia Dąbrowskiego, w województwie śląskim, w powiecie tarnogórskim, w gminie Ożarowice, siedziba Urzędu Gminy. +W latach 1973-1996 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Tąpkowice. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa katowickiego. +Nazwa. +Nazwę miejscowości w zlatynizowanej staropolskiej formie "Ozorowicze" wymienia w latach (1470-1480) Jan Długosz w księdze "Liber beneficiorum dioecesis Cracoviensis". We wzmiance o wsi Długosz notuje, że była ona własnością Mateusza Dzierzka Ozorowskiego. +Edukacja. +W Ożarowicach znajduje się przedszkole oraz gimnazjum, które posiada nowoczesną halę sportową oddaną do użytku w kwietniu 2005. Do 1999 roku w miejscu obecnego gimnazjum funkcjonowała Szkoła Podstawowa im. Mariana Buczka. +Transport. +Drogowy. +Komunikacja pasażerska oparta jest wyłącznie na połączeniach autobusowych organizowanych przez MZKP Tarnowskie Góry. +z wyjątkiem linii 179 i 246 są to jednak połączenia kursujące na potrzeby szkolne (85, 717) lub pojedyncze kursy (119, 646). Rozkłady jazdy: MZKP KZK GOP +Kolejowy. +Przez obszar Ożarowic przebiegała linia kolejowa relacji Tarnowskie Góry-Siewierz-Zawiercie realizująca przez wiele lat przewozy zarówno pasażerskie jak i towarowe. Istniała tu stacja kolejowa. Obecnie linia towarowa czynna jest jeszcze na odcinku Ożarowice-Zawiercie, odcinek Ożarowice-Tarnowskie Góry został w znacznej części rozkradziony, a pozostałości zostały rozebrane przez służby PKP. Budynki stacyjne zostały rozebrane. Obecnie w związku z coraz bardziej rozwijającym się Międzynarodowym Portem Lotniczym Katowice w Pyrzowicach planowana jest budowa nowej linii kolejowej w kierunku Bytomia, Katowic i Gliwic. +Sport. +LKS Piast Ożarowice - sekcja piłki nożnej (liga okręgowa), aikido oraz tenisa stołowego (liga okręgowa mężczyzn) +UKS Ożarowice - sekcja siatkówki żeńskiej - drużyna młodziczek (od 2008) +Religia. +Rzymskokatolicka Parafia Świętej Barbary w Ożarowicach przynależy do dekanatu siewierskiego w diecezji sosnowieckiej. +Hanna Krall + +Hanna Krall-Szperkowicz (ur. 20 maja 1935 w Warszawie) – polska pisarka i dziennikarka żydowskiego pochodzenia. +Życiorys. +Urodziła się w Warszawie w żydowskiej rodzinie urzędników, jako córka Salomona Kralla i Felicji Jadwigi z domu Reichold. Dzieciństwo spędziła w Lublinie. Podczas II wojny światowej zginęło wielu członków jej najbliższej rodziny, w tym ojciec. Wojnę przeżyła tylko dlatego, że była ukrywana. Cudem została ocalona w czasie transportu do getta. Holocaust i losy Żydów polskich z czasem stały się głównym tematem jej twórczości. +Po wojnie przebywała w domu dziecka w Otwocku. Ukończyła dziennikarstwo na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. +Od 1955 pracowała w redakcji "Życia Warszawy", od 1969 do 1981 w "Polityce", której korespondentem w ZSRR była w latach 1966-1969. Reportaże z ZSRR wydała w tomie "Na wschód od Arbatu". W latach 1982-1987 była zastępcą kierownika literackiego Zespołu Filmowego "Tor". Na początku lat 90. szkoliła reporterów w "Gazecie Wyborczej". +Światową sławę przyniósł jej oryginalny w formie wywiad z Markiem Edelmanem "Zdążyć przed Panem Bogiem" (1977). Wydała także zbiory reportaży, m.in. "Trudności ze wstawaniem" (1990), "Taniec na cudzym weselu" (1994), "Dowody na istnienie" (1996), "Tam już nie ma żadnej rzeki" (1998), "To ty jesteś Daniel" (2001). Cztery ostatnie w 2007 zebrała w książce "Żal". Jest także autorką powieści: "Okna" i "Sublokatorka". Ostatnio ukazały się reportaże książkowe: "Wyjątkowo długa linia", "Król Kier znów na wylocie", "Różowe strusie pióra". +Jej teksty były podstawą scenariuszy filmów "Krótki dzień pracy" Krzysztofa Kieślowskiego i "Daleko od okna" Jana Jakuba Kolskiego. +W 1999 otrzymała Nagrodę Wielką Fundacji Kultury. Jej twórczość przetłumaczono na wiele języków. Jest członkiem Stowarzyszenia Pisarzy Polskich. W 2001 "za demaskację prawd pozornych oraz za popularyzację uniwersalnych wartości moralnych" została odznaczona Orderem Ecce Homo. W 2005 została nominowana do Nagrody NIKE za książkę "Wyjątkowo długa linia". Jej książka "Król Kier znów na wylocie" w 2007 roku została nominowana do Literackiej Nagrody Środkowoeuropejskiej Angelus. W tym samym roku okazał się wywiad – rzeka pt. "Reporterka. Rozmowy z Hanną Krall" Jacka Antczaka. W 2008 "Król kier znów na wylocie" został uznany w plebiscycie księgarzy, czytelników i bibliotekarzy za Książkę Roku 2006. W listopadzie 2009 otrzymała nagrodę w studenckim plebiscycie MediaTory w kategorii AuTORytet. W grudniu 2009 otrzymała najwyższe wyróżnienie Stowarzyszenia Dziennikarzy Polskich – Dziennikarski Laur. +Żółw olbrzymi + +Żółw olbrzymi ("Aldabrachelys gigantea") – jeden z największych żółwi na świecie. Podobny rozmiarem do sławnych żółwi słoniowych z Galapagos. Jego karapaks przeciętnie ma 120 cm długości, a dochodzi nawet do ok. 150 cm. Waga przeciętna samca to około 250 kg, chociaż jeden samiec w ZOO Fort Worth w Teksasie ważył ponad 360 kg. +Opis. +Skorupa jest ciemnoszara albo czarna, silnie wysklepiona. Pancerz grzbietowy – karapaks pokrywają duże, gładkie tarcze i mimo że ma tylko około 1-1,5 cm grubości, jest niezmiernie wytrzymały na ucisk. Budowa krępa, nogi grube, słupowate, pokryte dużymi tarczkami. Szyja, otoczona miękką skórą, jest bardzo długa, dzięki niej zwierzę może sięgać gałęzi drzew do metra od ziemi. +Samice są na ogół mniejsze niż samce, przeciętnie mierzą około 90 cm długości i ważą około 150 kg. +Żółwie olbrzymie są jednymi z najbardziej długowiecznych zwierząt na ziemi. Dożywają ponad 100 lat, najstarszy potwierdzony wiek żółwia o imieniu Harriet wynosi 176 lat, natomiast najstarszy przedstawiciel tego gatunku, zmarły w 2006 żółw o imieniu Adwaita, żył prawdopodobnie 255 lat, ale dane te nie zostały potwierdzone. +Pożywienie. +Jest głównie roślinożerny, przeważnie zjada pędy traw, liście krzewów i drzew oraz zdrewniałe łodygi roślin. Od czasu do czasu zdarza mu się zjeść małe bezkręgowce i padlinę, nawet ciała innych martwych żółwi. W niewoli żółwie olbrzymie lubią soczyste owoce takie jak jabłka i banany, jak również warzywa. Są żarłoczne: dorosłe osobniki zjadają do 25 kg pożywienia na dobę. +Nie muszą dużo pić, bo większość wody wykorzystują z pożywienia. +Rozmnażanie. +Żółwie olbrzymie osiągają seksualną dojrzałość, kiedy osiągną około połowę swego docelowego rozmiaru. Interesujące jest to, że seksualna dojrzałość jest określona przez rozmiar, a nie przez wiek. +Po okresie godowym, który trwa od lutego do maja, samice składają od 9 do 25 gumowatych jaj w płytkim, suchym gnieździe (2 lub 3 kolejno wygrzebane przez siebie dołki o głębokości do 40 cm). Po złożeniu jaj samica przykrywa je ziemią, wielokrotnie obracając się wkoło, nogami i plastronem ubija i wygładza powierzchnię ziemi. Jeżeli nie ma możliwości zakopania jaj, znosi je w skalnej szczelinie. Złożone jaja są okrągłe, białe o średnicy około 5 cm i mają twardą, wapienną skorupę. Zwykle mniej niż połowa jaj jest zapłodnionych. Samice mogą składać jaja wiele razy w roku. Proces inkubacji trwa około 8 miesięcy (w zależności od warunków klimatycznych trwa 95-245 dni ) więc młode żółwie wychodzą na świat między październikiem a grudniem. Żółwiki zaraz po wylęgu ważą ok. 55-78 gramów, ich pancerz jest jeszcze miękki i dopiero z czasem stwardnieje. Są bardzo ruchliwe i płochliwe. Pancerz jest barwy szarobiałej i po roku osiągnie 15 cm długości. Osiągną dojrzałość w wieku 10-15 lat. +Występowanie. +Główna populacja żółwi olbrzymich zamieszkuje atol Aldabra, należący do Republiki Seszeli. Inna mniejsza grupa zwierząt zamieszkuje wyspę Zanzibar. Dawniej występowały na Maskarenach, ale zostały wytępione najpierw przez żeglarzy arabskich, a następnie głównie przez holenderskich, którzy traktowali je jak "żywe konserwy". +Środowisko życia. +Żółwie wykorzystują wiele rodzajów środowiska włączając łąki, niski zagajnik, mangrowe bagna i przybrzeżne wydmy. Są zwierzętami o aktywności dziennej, ale w najgorętszej porze dnia chowają się i leżą, ukryte w zagłębieniach terenu w okolicy porośniętej krzewami. +Szczególny rodzaj środowiska rozwinął się z powodu przystosowania do koegzystencji z żółwiami: "żółwia darń," około 21 gatunków traw i ziół. Wiele z tych roślin skarłowaciało i wytwarzają nasiona nie u szczytów roślin, ale bliżej gruntu, tak by uniknąć zjedzenia przez żółwie. +Jako największe zwierzę w swoim środowisku, żółwie odgrywają podobną rolę do słoni. Poszukując żywności tworzą ścieżki używane przez inne zwierzęta. +Zachowanie. +Żółwie olbrzymie są obserwowane pojedynczo i w stadach, które zbierają się przeważnie na otwartych łąkach. W XVII i XVIII w. obserwowano ich stada liczące po kilka tysięcy sztuk. Najbardziej aktywne są rankiem, kiedy spędzają czas na żerowaniu. Kopią pod ziemią jamy albo odpoczywają w bagnistych miejscach, by się ochłodzić i nie przegrzać organizmu podczas gorącego dnia. +Podczas gdy są charakterystycznie powolne i ostrożne, są zdolne do pokaźnej szybkości, przeważnie kiedy są podniecone. Potrafią stawać na tylnych nogach, by dosięgnąć niskich gałęzi, ale może to skończyć się ich śmiercią gdyby przewróciły się na plecy, gdyż nie są zdolne same się odwrócić. +Są też doskonałymi pływakami, co by mogło tłumaczyć ich rozpowszechnienie w przeszłości na wyspach Oceanu Indyjskiego. +Żółwie, mimo że są zwierzętami dzikimi, są zupełnie obojętne na obecność ludzi. Nie wydają się mieć jakiejkolwiek obawy przed nimi. Niektóre zdają się lubić by je poklepać po głowie, inne są zadowolone, kiedy są drapane po szyi w miejscu, gdzie styka się ona z plastronem. +Ochrona. +Żółwie olbrzymie mają niezwykle długą historię zorganizowanej ochrony. Sam Karol Darwin pracował z rządem z Mauritiusa, by założyć rezerwat w końcu XIX w. +Indian + +Indian - amerykańska marka motocykli. +The Indian Motorcycle Manufacturing Company, najstarsza amerykańska marka motocykla, założona jako Hendee Manufacturing Company. Założycielami byli: kolarz George M. Hendee i mechanik Carl Oscar Hedstrom. +Firma powstała w 1901 w Springfield w stanie Massachusetts dwa lata przed bardziej znaną wytwórnią Harley Davidson Motor Company. +"Nieoficjalny rekord prędkości Indiana to 331 km/h". +Kultura postfiguratywna + +Kultura postfiguratywna, kultura ""nieocenionych przodków"" – według antropolog Margaret Mead to typ kultury, w którym młodsze pokolenia przyswajają wzorce kulturowe od pokoleń starszych, dojrzewanie pociąga za sobą przejmowanie roli dorosłego. +Tego typu kultury są dominujące i charakterystyczne dla społeczeństw tradycyjnych, w których ze względu na wysoki odsetek analfabetyzmu oraz zamknięcie jednostek w małych społecznościach przekaz poziomy informacji, czyli w obrębie odrębnych kulturowo grup, jest znikomy. +W ujęciu memetyki w kulturach tego typu dominuje pionowy transfer memów. +Nagroda Pulitzera + +Nagroda Pulitzera – amerykańska nagroda literacka przyznawana corocznie w kwietniu. +Nagrodę tę przyznaje się w dziedzinie różnych gatunków dziennikarstwa, literatury, dramatu i muzyki. Zdobywcy nagrody są wybierani przez jury, działające przy Wyższej Szkole Dziennikarstwa Uniwersytetu Columbia. Kandydatów wybiera się głównie spośród twórców amerykańskich. +Nagrodę swojego imienia ufundował amerykański dziennikarz i wydawca węgierskiego pochodzenia, Joseph Pulitzer w roku 1917. Pierwsze nagrody rozdano 4 czerwca 1917 roku. +Nagrody corocznie przyznaje się w dwudziestu jeden kategoriach. W dwudziestu z nich zwycięzca uhonorowany jest świadectwem i czekiem na 10 tys. USD, a dwudziesta pierwsza kategoria: "służba publiczna" uhonorowana jest złotym medalem, który otrzymuje zwykle gazeta, mimo iż jest on przypisany do konkretnej osoby. +Nagrodzeni Polacy. +Dotychczas tylko jeden Polak został laureatem tej nagrody. Piotr Poraj Poleski za adaptację książki Iona Pacepy "Czerwone Horyzonty", opisującej okrucieństwo i demoralizację Eleny i Nicolae Ceauşescu otrzymał przyznawaną przez Fundację Pulitzera nagrodę MediaPrize dla mediów elektronicznych. Nagrodę otrzymało również NBC za cykl reportaży o Kubie, których autorem był Tony Halik. +Overnet + +Overnet - bezserwerowa wersja sieci P2P ed2k. Korzysta z algorytmu Kademlia. Stworzona przez Jeda McCaleba, twórcę eDonkey2000. +Reguła Markownikowa + +Reguła Markownikowa - zasada określająca kierunek reakcji addycji do podwójnego wiązania węgiel-węgiel (-C=C-). Nazwa tej reguły pochodzi od jej twórcy, rosyjskiego chemika Władimira Markownikowa, który zaproponował ją w 1869 r. +Zasada ta głosi, że na ogół w reakcjach addycji do wiązania -C=C-, występujących w wielu związkach organicznych (np. alkenach), atomy lub grupy o mniejszej elektroujemności przyłączają się do tego z dwóch atomów węgla, do którego już wcześniej było przyłączone więcej atomów lub grup o własnościach elektrododatnich. +Mnemotechnicznie najłatwiej jest zapamiętać tę regułę jako "ci, którzy już mają, dostaną jeszcze więcej" albo "każdy idzie do swojego". +Np. +Uproszczona wersja sformułowania tej reguły mówi, że bardziej elektroujemna grupa przyłącza się zawsze do tego atomu węgla, przy którym jest mniej atomów wodoru lub że bardziej elektrododatnia grupa przyłącza się do tego atomu węgla, przy którym jest więcej atomów wodoru. Warto jednak zwrócić uwagę, że uproszczona wersja działa poprawnie tylko pod warunkiem, że do żadnego z atomów węgla przy podwójnym wiązaniu nie są przyłączone atomy bardziej elektrododatnie niż sam wodór (czyli silnie elektrododatnie atomy metali, stojące w szeregu aktywności metali przed atomem wodoru). +Petrova bouda + +Petrova bouda ("Petrovka", niem. "Peterbaude") – obecnie nieistniejące, czeskie schronisko górskie w rejonie Hutniczego Grzbietu w Karkonoszach. +Schronisko wybudowano około roku 1790, a na obecne miejsce przeniesiono w 1811. Obecny kształt "bouda" uzyskała po gruntownej przebudowie z lat 1886-87. Nazwa "Petrovki" pochodzi od nazwiska założyciela – Jana Pittermanna. +Schronisko oferowało 150 miejsc noclegowych. +Od 2008 (lub od roku wcześniejszego) schronisko pozostawało zamknięte; poprzedni właściciel opuścił obiekt z powodu fatalnego stanu technicznego budynku, a remont, według niego, był nieopłacalny. Obecnie "Petrova bouda" ma nowego właściciela (prowadzi też nieodległą "chatę Špindler"), który przygotowywał się do rekonstrukcji. Nie było jednak wykluczone, że z powodu złego stanu obiektu zostanie on rozebrany i w jego miejscu powstanie nowy budynek. +W lipcu 2011 w kuchni schroniska wybuchł pożar, ale udało się go ugasić. 1 sierpnia po raz kolejny pojawił się ogień - spłonęły niemal całkowicie wszystkie trzy budynki, ocalało jedynie kilka zewnętrznych ścian. Na razie nie są znane przyczyny pożaru, ale podejrzewa się podpalenie. +Planowana jest odbudowa schroniska (do końca roku 2011 miał powstać jej projekt), ale nie wiadomo, czy dojdzie do skutku. +Feliks Wojtkun + +Feliks Wojtkun (ur. 1 marca 1940 w Miednikach w województwie wileńskim, zm. 27 stycznia 2005 w Warszawie) – uczony polski, specjalista materiałoznawstwa, obróbki cieplnej i odlewnictwa, działacz państwowy. +Życiorys. +Był wieloletnim profesorem Politechniki Radomskiej, dziekanem Wydziału Mechanicznego tej uczelni oraz dyrektorem Instytutu Budowy Maszyn. Wykładał także w Prywatnej Wyższej Szkole Ochrony Środowiska oraz wchodził w skład Komitetu Budowy Maszyn PAN. Był autorem wielu publikacji naukowych, także książkowych. +Należał do Stronnictwa Demokratycznego. W lipcu 1981 został powołany na stanowisko wojewody radomskiego na miejsce Romana Maćkowskiego. Zaledwie pół roku później, po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego, został w grudniu 1981 zastąpiony przez pułkownika Alojzego Wojciechowskiego. W grudniu 1989 objął funkcję przewodniczącego Wojewódzkiego Komitetu SD w Radomiu. Na przełomie 1989 i 1990 bezskutecznie ubiegał się o ponowną nominację na stanowisko wojewody. W wyborach 1991 bez powodzenia kandydował z radomskiej listy SD. +Zmarł w 2005, został pochowany na cmentarzu przy ul. Warszawskiej. Jego syn Jarosław został księdzem katolickim, pełni funkcję rektora Wyższego Seminarium Duchownego w Radomiu. +Przetwarzanie rozproszone + +Przetwarzanie rozproszone (ang. "distributed processing") to wykonywanie określonych zadań użytkownika z wykorzystaniem współdzielonych zasobów połączonych siecią komputerową. +Najczęściej wiąże się z heterogenicznością dotyczącą architektury sprzętowej, systemu operacyjnego, platformy programistycznej. +Przykładem przetwarzania rozproszonego są +obliczenia rozproszone. +Można wyróżnić następujące modele przetwarzania rozproszonego: architektura dwuwarstwowa, architektura trójwarstwowa (np. szyna obiektowa), agenty mobilne. +Spadź + +Spadź, rosa miodowa – słodka ciecz występującą głównie latem zazwyczaj w postaci kropel na igłach i gałęziach świerka, modrzewia i jodły oraz na liściach niektórych drzew liściastych, m.in. dębu i lipy. Składa się głównie z soków roślinnych z uszkodzonych przez mszyce, czerwce lub miodówki (i inne owady ssące żywiące się sokami roślinnymi) komórek oraz z płynnych odchodów tych owadów. +Spadź jest zbierana przez pszczoły, a wytworzone z niej miody, zwane spadziowymi, mają bardzo wiele walorów, także leczniczych. Miody te charakteryzują się także wyjątkowo ciemną barwą. Na roślinach (liściach, igłach) pokrytych spadzią rozmnażają się grzyby sadzakowe, które tworząc czarny nalot ograniczają dostęp światła do liści oraz utrudniają wymianę gazową roślin, przynosząc często więcej szkód roślinie niż żywiące się jej sokami owady. +Także wiele gatunków mrówek chętnie włącza do swej diety spadź. Niektóre z nich, jak hurtnica pospolita ("Lasius niger"), niejako hodują mszyce, żyjąc z nimi w symbiozie: mszyce zapewniają mrówkom spadź, mrówki bronią mszyce przed drapieżnikami. +Kierownik pociągu + +Kierownik pociągu − pracownik kolejowy odpowiedzialny za obsługiwany pociąg na danym odcinku drogi. Podlegają mu wszyscy pracownicy obsługujący pociąg z wyjątkiem pracowników kontroli wewnętrznej. +W pociągach pasażerskich kierownik pociągu zajmuje zazwyczaj pierwszy przedział, pierwszego wagonu drugiej klasy licząc od czoła pociągu lub od wagonów innej klasy. Jeśli pociąg posiada jednoosobową obsadę konduktorską, to kierownik pociągu wypełnia również obowiązki konduktora. +Kras (płaskowyż) + +Kras (słoweń. "Kras", wł. "Carso", niem. "Karst") − płaskowyż w Słowenii i we Włoszech (niewielki fragment). Położony między doliną Wipawy a Morzem Adriatyckim. Obszar zbudowany ze skał wapiennych, występują dobrze rozwinięte formy krasu powierzchniowego i podziemnego. Od nazwy regionu pochodzi pojęcie kras. +Na terenie Krasu znajduje się wiele jaskiń. Najsłynniejsze z nich to Postojna, Jaskinie Szkocjańskie, Vilenica i Grotta Gigante. +Zawody wspinaczkowe + +Zawody wspinaczkowe – rodzaj zawodów sportowych we wspinaczce sportowej rozgrywanych współcześnie głównie na sztucznych ścianach wspinaczkowych. Zawody organizowane są zarówno w zakresie wspinaczki klasycznej jak i wspinaczki lodowej (z użyciem raków i dziab) na sztucznie przygotowanej ścianie lodowej. +Historia. +Historycznie pierwsze zawody organizowano na drogach skalnych w rejonach wspinaczkowych, nierzadko preparowanych (otwieranych) specjalnie na potrzeby zawodów. Jednak problemy wynikające z niepowtarzalności warunków (pogoda, oświetlenie, często znajomość rejonu przez gospodarzy zawodów) sprawiły że ustalona współcześnie formuła zawodów związana jest głównie z drogami na sztucznych ścianach. Jednymi z tradycyjnych zawodów wspinaczkowych rozgrywanych w dalszym ciągu na naturalnej skale są zawody odbywające się na początku maja w chorwackim kanionie Paklenica. +Zasady. +Postępy zawodników na przygotowanych drogach są oceniane przez sędziów. W zależności od przyjętej formuły zawodnicy przed wspinaczką mogą przebywać w tzw. strefie izolacji co zapewnia, że każdy z nich ma taka samą ilość czasu na oglądanie drogi oraz nie widzi sposobu pokonywania jej trudności przez konkurentów. We wspinaczce na trudność liczy się wysokość (mierzona kolejno ponumerowanymi chwytami) do jakiej dociera bez odpadnięcia zawodnik w ramach przydzielonego limitu czasu. W ramach zawodów na czas, liczy się czas pokonania drogi bez odpadnięcia, przy czym zawodnicy startują parami na identycznie przygotowanych równoległych drogach. Konkurencje bulderowe rozgrywane są wg formuły na trudność. +Rozgrywane są osobno konkurencje kobiece i męskie, oraz wprowadzany jest podział na kategorie wiekowe. +Konkurencje. +Rozgrywane są konkurencje we wspinaniu na trudność, wspinaniu na czas oraz w boulderingu. Czasami aby uatrakcyjnić przebieg zawodów wprowadza się dodatkowe widowiskowe konkurencje poza konkursem jak np. skoki do chwytu (tzw. strzały). +Zarządca informacji osobistej + +Zarządca informacji osobistej (ang. "Personal Information Manager") - program do zarządzania rozmaitego rodzaju notatkami, jak zadania, kontakty czy terminy. +Nietypowym rozwiązaniem jest interfejs InfoCentrala, gdzie mamy do czynienia z drzewem rekordów, swobodnie przywoływanych na ekran i usuwanych z niego. +Tak ujęty szkielet ma charakter czysto praktyczny i nie obejmuje całego szeregu rozmaitych funkcji, które mogą być przydatne w rozmaitych okolicznościach, jak tworzenie własnych działów, definiowanie pól rekordów, drukowanie raportów w rozmaitych ujęciach, synchronizacja danych z urządzeniami przenośnymi czy import i eksport danych. +Gmina Ożarowice + +Gmina Ożarowice (dawn. "gmina Ożarowice w Sączowie"; 1950-1954 "gmina Sączów", 1955-1972 gromada Ożarowice, 1973-1996 "gmina Tąpkowice" z siedzibą w Ożarowicach) – gmina wiejska, w województwie śląskim, w powiecie tarnogórskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina należała terytorialnie do województwa katowickiego. Historycznie jest częścią Zagłębia Dąbrowskiego. +Siedziba urzędu gminy są Ożarowice. +Położenie. +Gmina jest położona we wschodniej części powiatu tarnogórskiego. Sąsiaduje z miastem Miasteczko Śląskie oraz gminami: Świerklaniec (powiat tarnogórski), Bobrowniki, Mierzęcice i Siewierz (powiat będziński), Woźniki (powiat lubliniecki) oraz Koziegłowy (powiat myszkowski). +Historia. +Gmina Ożarowice powstawała najprawdopodobniej 1.01.1866 w ramach carskiej reformy administracyjnej na ziemiach polskich. Była częścią powiatu będzińskiego wchodzącego w skład guberni piotrkowskiej. Według spisu z 1912 roku do gminy należało 11 wsi: Ożarowice, Tąpkowice, Ossy, Niezdara, Pyrzowice, Celiny, Myszkowice, Wymysłów, Twardowice, Dobieszowice i Rogoźnik. +Po I wojnie światowej gmina znalazła się w powiecie będzińskim należącym do województwa kieleckiego. W roku 1928 składała się z 11 wsi: Ożarowice, Tąpkowice, Niezdara, Ossy, Pyrzowice, Celiny, Sączów, Wymysłów, Myszkowice, Siemonia i Twardowice. +W okresie II wojny światowej teren gminy został włączony do III Rzeszy. 26.11.1939 wraz z całym powiatem będzińskim (Landkreis Bendzin) został włączony do rejencji katowickiej (Regierungsbezirk Kattowitz), która stała się częścią pruskiej prowincji Śląsk (Provinz Schlesien). W 1941 z rejencji katowickiej i opolskiej utworzona została prowincja Górny Śląsk (Provinz Uberschlesien). W okresie okupacji każda wieś stanowiła odrębną gminę. +W 1945 roku władze PRL przywróciły podział administracyjny sprzed okupacji, z tą różnicą, że gmina znalazła się w granicach województwa śląsko-dąbrowskiego (później śląskiego, od 1950 roku katowickiego, przejściowo w latach 1953-1956 nazwanego województwem stalinogrodzkim). W 1950 roku zlikwidowano gminę Ożarowice, powołując w jej miejsce gminę Sączów, odłączając jednocześnie od gminy wieś Wymysłów. +W 1954 roku gminy zostały zlikwidowane, a w ich miejsce wprowadzono gromady. Powstała gromada Ożarowice (w jej skład weszły Ożarowice i Pyrzowice), gromada Tąpkowice (Tąpkowice, Niezdara i Ossy), gromada Sączów (Sączów i Celiny) oraz gromada Siemonia (Siemonia, Myszkowice i Twardowice). +1.01.1957 roku gromady Ożarowice i Tąpkowice opuściły powiat będziński i zostały włączone do powiatu tarnogórskiego. +1.01.1970 roku do gromady Ożarowice przyłączono wieś Zendek. Zendek od 1866 roku należał do gminy Mierzęcice (do 1915 roku gmina Sulików), a następnie do gromady Mierzęcice w powiecie zawierciańskim (wydzielonym z powiatu będzińskiego w 1927 roku). +W 1973 roku przywrócono gminy – z gromad Ożarowice i Tąpkowice utworzono jedną gminę Tąpkowice, która znalazła się w granicach powiatu tarnogórskiego. W skład gminy wchodziło 6 wsi: Ożarowice, Pyrzowice, Zendek, Tąpkowice, Ossy i Niezdara. +9.12.1973 do gminy powróciła wieś Celiny (z gminy Bobrowniki w powiecie będzińskim). +W 1976 roku zlikwidowane zostały powiaty. +1.01.1997 roku gmina zmieniła nazwę na obowiązującą obecnie – gmina Ożarowice. +W wyniku reformy administracyjnej od 1.01.1999 gmina znalazła się w powiecie tarnogórskim i województwie śląskim. +Powierzchnia. +Gmina zajmuje 6,8% powierzchni powiatu. +Edukacja. +Gmina Ożarowice posiada sieć publicznych placówek oświatowych składającą się z dwóch przedszkoli, dwóch szkół podstawowych oraz gimnazjum. Szkołami administruje Gminny Zespół Oświaty i Wychowania. +Komunikacja. +Komunikacja publiczna zapewnia połączenia gminy z miastem powiatowym Tarnowskimi Górami i sąsiednimi gminami oraz innymi miastami takimi jak Katowice, Siemianowice, Będzin, Bytom, Siewierz, Radzionków i Wojkowice. Połączenia organizowane są przez MZKP Tarnowskie Góry (linie autobusowe: 17, 53, 85, 103, 105, 107, 119, 142, 179, 225, 246, 283, 625, 646, 717, 738). +Transport. +Drogowy. +Gmina Ożarowice ma dobrze rozwinięta sieć dróg powiatowych i gminnych. +W listopadzie 2006 oddano do użytku jeden pas drogi ekspresowej S1, łączący Port Lotniczy Katowice-Pyrzowice z drogą krajową 1 oraz drogą krajową 86 w węźle drogowym "Podwarpie". Droga ma być rozbudowywana w kolejnych latach. +Rozpoczęto również budowę autostrady A1 (odcinek Pyrzowice – Śośnica) wraz z węzłem Pyrzowice, w którym autosrada połączy się z drogą ekspresową S1, oraz z projektowaną drogą ekspresową S11 w kierunku Poznania. Rozpoczęcie budowy odcinka autostrady Pyrzowice – Stryków (na północ od węzła Pyrzowice) ma się rozpocząć w niedługim czasie. +Kolejowy. +Przez obszar gminy przebiegała linia kolejowa relacji Tarnowskie Góry – Siewierz – Zawiercie realizująca przez wiele lat przewozy zarówno pasażerskie jak i towarowe. Istniały tu stacje kolejowe Ożarowice oraz Mierzęcice (Mierzęcice Zawierciańskie). Obecnie linia czynna jest jeszcze na odcinku Pyrzowice – Zawiercie, odcinek Ożarowice – Tarnowskie Góry został w znacznej części rozkradziony, a pozostałości zostały rozebrane przez służby PKP. Budynki stacyjne zostały rozebrane. +Planowana jest budowa nowej linii kolejowej łączącej Katowice z Pyrzowicami. +Lotniczy. +W czasie II wojny światowej w okolicy Zendka powstało lotnisko Luftwaffe Schendeck, zniszczone podczas wycofywania się Niemców w 1945, odbudowane przez wojska sowieckie i przekazane wojsku polskiemu stało się zalążkiem współczesnego Międzynarodowego Portu Lotniczego Katowice-Pyrzowice. +Gospodarka. +Największym przedsiębiorstwem w gminie jest Górnośląskie Towarzystwo Lotnicze S.A. (GTL S.A.) zarządzające Międzynarodowym Portem Lotniczym Katowice-Pyrzowice. Oprócz tego w Ożarowicach siedzibę mają między innymi zakłady mięsne HAM, posiadające rozbudowaną sieć sprzedaży w województwie śląskim. W 2005 na terenach powojskowych w Pyrzowicach utworzono strefę aktywności gospodarczej. Na terenie gminy istnieje dobrze rozwinięta sieć handlu detalicznego oraz drobna przedsiębiorczość (głównie usługi transportowe). +Tąpkowice + +Tąpkowice – wieś sołecka w Polsce położona w województwie śląskim, w powiecie tarnogórskim, w gminie Ożarowice. W latach 1973–1996 gmina Tąpkowice z siedzibą w Ożarowicach. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa katowickiego. W 2008 roku zamieszkiwało ją 1006 osób. +Nazwa. +W średniowieczu miejscowość nazywała się "Tomkowice". Nazwę miejscowości w zlatynizowanej staropolskiej formie "Thomkowycze" wymienia w latach (1470-1480) Jan Długosz w księdze "Liber beneficiorum dioecesis Cracoviensis". Jako właściciela kronikarz podaje Stanisława Rudzkiego herbu Pilawa. +Edukacja. +W Tąpkowicach swoją siedzibę ma Gminny Zespół Oświaty i Wychowania - jednostka Urzędu Gminy Ożarowice, która administruje szkołami na terenie gminy Ożarowice. +Komunikacja. +Tąpkowice posiadają połączenia autobusowe między innymi z Tarnowskimi Górami (linie MZKP: 142, 179, 246, 283, 646, 738), Bytomiem (17), Radzionkowem (17), Siewierzem (738) i Wojkowicami (103, 283). Komunikacja publiczna organizowana jest przez Międzygminny Związek Komunikacji Pasażerskiej w Tarnowskich Górach. +Transport. +Przez wieś przebiega droga krajowa . +Adriano Banchieri + + Tommaso Adriano Banchieri (zw. Adriano da Bologna) (ur. 3 września 1568, zm. 1634 w Bolonii) to włoski kompozytor, organista, teoretyk muzyki i pedagog. +W 1587 wstąpił do zakonu benedyktynów w S. Michele in Bosco, przybierając imię zakonne Adriano. Komponował głównie utwory organowe o charakterze religijnym oraz komedie madrygałowe. Założył w Bolonii Accademia dei Floridi. +Dyshabituacja + +Dyshabituacja - powrót reakcji na bodziec bezwarunkowy, wygaszonej wcześniej wskutek wielokrotnego powtórzenia tego bodźca. Dyshabituacja może nastapić np. wskutek pojawienia się innego rodzaju bodźca w serii bodźców, dla którego wygaszenie nastąpiło. +Hrabstwo Clare + +Hrabstwo Clare (irl. "Contae an Chláir", ang. "County Clare") znajduje się w irlandzkiej prowincji Munster, na zachodnim wybrzeżu, w pobliżu rzeki Shannon i jeziora Lough Derg. Początkowo hrabstwo nazywane było "hrabstwem Thomond". Jego "pseudonim" to "Banner County" (hrabstwo sztandarów, flag), co odnosi się do tamtejszej tradycji noszenia sztandarów na spotkaniach politycznych i różnych świętach. +Percy French, XIX-wieczny twórca ballad, napisał swoją najbardziej znaną piosenkę – "Are Ye Right There Michael" nacierając uszu nieudolnej w tamtym czasie sieci kolejowej hrabstwa, a szczególnie West Clare Railway. French zrelacjonował swoją podróż koleją z Ennis i Kilkee. Większość sieci została zamknięta w latach czterdziestych. +Geografia. +W hrabstwie znajduje się płaskowyż Burren, unikatowy obszar pełen wapiennych wzgórz i pól, Bunratty – zamek. Na zachodnim krańcu płaskowyżu, gdzie spotyka się on z Oceanem Atlantyckim znajdują się klify Moher. Mieści się tam także port lotniczy Shannon, obsługujący m.in. połączenia ze Stanami Zjednoczonymi i Polską. +Powstanie leskie + +Powstanie leskie – masowe wystąpienia ludności chłopskiej bieszczadzkiej przeciwko władzy sanacyjnej w okresie między 21 czerwca a 9 lipca 1932 r. Rebelia wywołana była ciężkim losem chłopów i kryzysem gospodarczym początku lat 30. (wielki kryzys) w II RP. +Powstanie rozpoczęło się w wyniku aresztowania 39 chłopów z Berehów Dolnych, którzy protestowali przeciw nakazowi pracy bez wynagrodzenia przy budowie dróg w tej wsi. Aresztowania zmobilizowały chłopów do wspólnego oporu przeciw władzom powiatowym. +Geneza powstania. +Powstanie wzięło swój początek od pomysłu Jana hr. Potockiego z Rymanowa, który wymyślił ideę "świąt pracy", czyli zorganizowanych prac na rzecz poprawy stanu dróg, mostów, szkół i innych obiektów użyteczności publicznej. W okolicach Rymanowa idea ta się dość dobrze przyjęła, ponieważ Potoccy od XIX w. objęli opieką m.in. ludność łemkowską z tamtego terenu. +Inaczej było jednak na terenie Bieszczadów. Tu ideę tę chciał wprowadzać starosta leski. W tym celu zaprosił hr. Potockiego na spotkanie 19 czerwca 1932 r. w Ustrzykach Dolnych. Na spotkaniu tym powołano Komitet Organizacyjny, w skład którego weszli aktywiści – agitatorzy (w tym Polacy, Ukraińcy i Niemcy). +Następnym etapem miały być zebrania wiejskie – z których pierwsze miało się odbyć w Berehach Dolnych 21 czerwca 1932 r. +Na zebraniu do idei prac społecznych miał nakłonić chłopów agitator inż. Stefan Zięba. Zebrani przyjęli go bez entuzjazmu. Wówczas włączył się do dyskusji Mykoła Werbenec, syn unickiego proboszcza. Podważał on argumenty przedmówcy i on właśnie podniósł hasło, że nie chodzi tu o żadne "święta pracy", a o przywrócenie pańszczyzny. Zebranie zamieniło się w pyskówkę, w której element awanturniczy zdobył przewagę. W pewnym momencie rozbito lampę naftową, która poraniła prelegenta. W tej sytuacji większość przybyłych na to zebranie przedstawicieli lokalnych władz uciekła. Chłopi z okrzykami przeciwko pańszczyźnie otoczyli miejsce zebrania, uzbrojeni w drągi, pałki i motyki. Doszło do starcia między inicjatorami zebrania, a chłopami. Awantura w Berehach Dolnych zakończyła się zatrzymaniem przez policję 39 osób, w tym 4 kobiet. +Inna wersja podaje, iż przyczyną wybuchu powstania było to, że podczas poszerzania drogi w Bóbrce zaszła potrzeba przesunięcia kapliczki z 1848 r., upamiętniającej zniesienie pańszczyzny. Agitatorzy KPZU zdołali podburzyć chłopów plotką, iż panowie odkopują pańszczyznę i chcą ją ponownie przywrócić. Gdy tę wieść rozpowszechniono po okolicy chłopi z Bóbrki i kilku sąsiednich wsi uzbrojeni w kosy, widły i siekiery ruszyli bronić swoich praw. Rozpędzili oni robotników drogowych, porozbijali posterunki policji i napadli na urzędników państwowych. +Aresztowanie chłopów dało sygnał do wybuchu powstania. W Berehach Dolnych, Łodynie, Teleśnicy Oszwarowej, Teleśnicy Sannej, Łobozewie Górnym i Dolnym i innych wsiach dzwony ze wszystkich cerkwi i kościołów wezwały chłopów do walki. +Przebieg powstania. +Pierwszymi organizatorami zbrojnego oporu byli: Piotr Madej, Stanisław Lenkiewicz, Władysław Nowicki, Mikołaj Małecki, Stanisław Drozd, Antoni Pacławski oraz Iwan Bucio. Przeciw oddziałom uzbrojonym w widły, siekiery, motyki i kosy ze wsi Łobozew Górny, Łobozew Dolny, Teleśnica Sanna oraz Teleśnica Oszwarowa ściągnięto posiłki policji oraz wojsko z Przemyśla. Doszło do pierwszego starcia 23 czerwca, po którym nastąpiły kolejne aresztowania. +W następnych dniach po wydarzeniach w Brzegach Dolnych zaczęły się rozruchy w kolejnych wsiach bieszczadzkich – w Łobozwie około 2000 chłopów starło się z policją - zginęło 5 osób, lecz wieś znalazła się w rękach chłopów. Zajęto wkrótce Brzegi Dolne. Znów policja wezwała chłopów do rozejścia, lecz bezskutecznie. Chłopi oświadczyli, że rozejdą się, gdy odejdzie policja. Wówczas komendant policji z Leska zapewnił, że będzie ona wycofana i rzeczywiście o wyznaczonej godzinie policja opuściła wieś. Był to podstęp, gdyż zluzowały ją inne oddziały. Chłopi rozbroili je, a policjantów uwięzili, co spowodowało, że starosta zaalarmował wojewodę lwowskiego. +Oliwy do ognia dolał fakt, iż już w takcie walk wbrew zapewnieniom starosty zarządzono roboty publiczne na drogach w Łobozwi, Teleśnicy Sannej i Teleśnicy Oszwarowej. +W wyniku pierwszych starć do Ustianowej przybyły dwie kompanie II Pułku Strzelców Podhalańskich z Sanoka, oddziały policji konnej i pieszej z Przemyśla, Sambora, Sanoka i Lwowa, pododdziały szkoły policyjnej w Mostach Wielkich, oraz eskadra lotnicza. +Ze strony chłopskiej do walki włączyły się kolejne wsie z powiatu leskiego, dobromilskiego, sanockiego i turczańskiego. +Powstańcy stoczyli z wojskiem i policją cztery bitwy pod Łobozewem, Teleśnicą Oszwarową oraz Bóbrką. Słabo uzbrojeni powstańcy ulegli oddziałom wyposażonym w karabiny maszynowe i wycofali się na południe. W konsekwencji powstańcy zaczęli stosować taktykę partyzancką. Doszło ponownie do kilku większych starć na zalesionych pagórkach, jednak siły pacyfikacyjne konsekwentnie parły na południe. Powstańcy musieli ulec. +W wyniku starć śmierć poniosło kilkanaście osób, a kilkaset odniosło poważne rany. Łącznie aresztowano około od 260 do 800 osób z prawie wszystkich wsi powiatu leskiego. Powstanie objęło ok. 5 tys. osób z 19 wsi. W 1964 r. w Bóbrce postawiono pomnik upamiętniający te tragiczne wydarzenia. +W historiografii PRL ów zryw był określany mianem powstania ludowego. +Fran Walsh + +Fran Walsh, właśc. Frances Walsh (ur. 10 stycznia 1959 w Wellington) – żona nowozelandzkiego reżysera filmowego Petera Jacksona (od 1987). Ma duży wkład do jego filmów: pisze scenariusze, reżyseruje, występuje jako aktorka i jest ich producentem. +Była także nominowana do Oscarów za poprzednie części trylogii "Władca Pierścieni". +Radio Piotrków + +Radio Piotrków – lokalna stacja radiowa z siedzibą w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim, po 1 września 2006 przekształcona w Radio Strefa FM. Rozgłośnia obejmowała swoim zasięgiem mniej więcej dawne województwo piotrkowskie. +Historia. +Radio założył 1 czerwca 1992 roku Tomasz Stachaczyk przy współpracy Wojciecha Dąbrowskiego oraz Janusza Surmy. Początkowo nadawano na amatorskim sprzęcie, na częstotliwości 70,1 MHz. W 1993 roku zmieniono częstotliwość na 69,9 MHz. 31 marca 1994 r. Radio Piotrków znalazło się wśród wśród 16 stacji lokalnych, które jako pierwsze otrzymały koncesję na nadawanie.W drugą rocznicę swojego powstania, rozgłośnia zorganizowała trzydniowe święto (koncerty, pokazy pirotechniczne, imprezy sportowe). Uroczystości te dały początek oficjalnym Dniom Piotrkowa, które organizowane są odtąd co roku na początku czerwca. Od 1 stycznia 2000 r. stacja nadawała tylko w górnym paśmie UKF, na częstotliwości 98,2 MHz. Wiosną 2006 r. Radio Piotrków wystąpiło do KRRiTV o zmianę nazwy programu. +Oferta programowa. +Stacja nadawała przez 24 godziny na dobę. Radio w swoim dorobku miało wiele audycji, m.in. jedną z najstarszych w kraju list przebojów - "Listę Przebojów Radia Piotrków". Inne popularne pozycje to "Stan Wyjątkowy" - audycja szczególnie popularna wśród młodzieży, "Muzyczny wehikuł czasu" - przypominający dawne przeboje czy "Muzyka miasta" - program o hip-hopie kontynuujący tradycje "Lirycznej mafii" oraz program "Magiel", w którym słuchacze komentowali aktualne wydarzenia. Poza tym w radiu co godzinę nadawane były informacje z kraju i ze świata, informacje lokalne oraz sytuacja na drogach w regionie. Część z tych audycji ma swoją kontynuację w Radiu Strefa FM. +Aj (faraon) + +Aj (także Ay lub Eje) - faraon, władca starożytnego Egiptu. Prawdopodobnie panował w latach 1323-1319 p.n.e. Był synem Jujego i Czuju, a więc bratem królowej Teje. Niektórzy badacze uważają go również za ojca Nefertiti. Zaliczany jest do grona władców XVIII dynastii. +Za panowania poprzednich władców Egiptu Amenhotepa IV, Semenechkare i Tutanchamona, Aj sprawował różne urzędy w administracji państwowej, m.in. był jednym z wezyrów, "Komendantem wszystkich wierzchowców Jego Majestatu" oraz "Osobistym pisarzem króla". Po śmierci Tutanchamona dokonał ceremonii pogrzebowych i ogłosił się faraonem. Usiłując nie dopuścić do małżeństwa Anchesenamon z jednym z synów króla Hetytów - Suppiluliumy I, rozkazał go zamordować. Spowodowało to długoletnie wojny z państwem Hetytów. +Grobowiec Aja, znajdujący się w Dolinie Królów został odkryty w 1816 roku przez Giovanniego Battistę Belzoniego. +Aj wyznaczył na swojego następcę wodza egipskiego, Horemheba. +System polityczny + +System polityczny - ogół organów państwowych, partii politycznych oraz organizacji i grup społecznych (formalnych i nieformalnych), uczestniczących w działaniach politycznych w ramach danego państwa oraz ogół generalnych zasad i norm regulujących wzajemne stosunki między nimi. +Termin pojawił się w literaturze w roku 1953, w pracy Davida Eastona pod tym samym tytułem, zastępując używany do tej pory "system rządów". Wcześniej występuje w piśmiennictwie polskim XIX wieku. +Typologia ujęć teoretycznych. +Koncepcja systemowo-funkcjonalna. +W tym ujęciu żadna część układu politycznego nie może istnieć bez innej, łączą je funkcjonalne zależności. Życie polityczne to system powiązanych czynności. +Przedstawicielami tego nurtu są: David Easton, Gabriel Almond, Bingham G. Powell i Karl W. Deutsch. +Koncepcja strukturalno-instytucjonalna. +W tym rozumieniu system polityczny jest równorzędnym z ekonomicznym i kulturowym, podsystemem społecznym, wyodrębnionym z działalności grup społecznych. Oprócz podmiotów związanych "stricte" z działaniem politycznym, w ujęciu strukturalno-instytucjonalnym mieszczą się również organizacje pozarządowe. +Charakterystyka typowych systemów politycznych na świecie. +Islamski system polityczny +Reżim wojskowy; +Gmina Świdnica (powiat świdnicki) + +Gmina Świdnica - gmina wiejska w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie świdnickim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie wałbrzyskim. +Siedziba gminy to miasto Świdnica. +Sołectwa. +Bojanice, Boleścin, Burkatów, Bystrzyca Dolna, Bystrzyca Górna, Gogołów, Grodziszcze, Jagodnik, Jakubów, Komorów, Krzczonów, Krzyżowa, Lubachów, Lutomia Dolna, Lutomia Górna, Makowice, Miłochów, Modliszów, Mokrzeszów, Niegoszów, Opoczka, Panków, Pogorzała, Pszenno, Słotwina, Stachowice, Sulisławice, Wieruszów, Wilków, Wiśniowa, Witoszów Dolny, Witoszów Górny, Zawiszów. +Miejscowości bez statusu sołectwa: Lutomia Mała, Stachowiczki, Złoty Las. +Opis. +Licząca ponad 15 tys. mieszkańców gmina jest położona dookoła miasta Świdnica, głównie na południe od Świdnicy. Od wschodu graniczy z gminami Marcinowice i Dzierżoniów, od południa z miastem Pieszyce i gminą Walim, od zachodu z Wałbrzychem i Świebodzicami, od północy z gminami Jaworzyna Śląska i Żarów. +Powierzchnia gminy wynosi 20 828 ha, co określa ją jako gminę dużej wielkości w porównaniu z innymi gminami województwa dolnośląskiego oraz plasuje ją na 302. miejscu w Polsce. Na terenie gminy są 33 sołectwa. Duże obszary gminy są położone w parkach krajobrazowych. Większość obszaru geograficznie stanowi Równina Świdnicka, będąca częścią Przedgórza Sudeckiego. Rzeka Bystrzyca płynąca z południa na północ rozdziela Góry Sowie na wschodzie i Góry Wałbrzyskie na zachodzie. Strona wschodnia gminy leży i graniczy Parkiem Krajobrazowym Masywu Ślęży (wsie: Gogołów, Krzczonów) zaś zachodnia z Książańskim Parkiem Krajobrazowym (wsie: Mokrzeszów, Pogorzała, Modliszów, Witoszów Górny). +Większa część gminy to teren pagórkowaty, prawie nizinny, zaś część południowa to obszar zdecydowanie górzysty i zalesiony. Ta pierwsza to teren upraw rolnych, druga to tereny przede wszystkim rekreacyjne i turystyczne. W północnej części, otoczona za wszystkich stron gruntami gminy, usytuowana jest Świdnica - stolica powiatu. +Gminę Świdnica zalicza się do regionu Pogórza Sudeckiego. Średnia temperatura roczna waha się w granicach 0,8 - 8,7 °C. Najcieplejszym miesiącem jest lipiec (średnia temperatura 15,3 °C), a najzimniejszym jest styczeń (średnia temperatura - 2,3 °C). Zima trwa średnio 70-80 dni, wiosna 60-70 dni, jesień 50-60 dni a lato 100-110 dni. +Mistrzostwa świata w lotach narciarskich + +Mistrzostwa świata w lotach narciarskich organizowane są od roku 1972. Rywalizacja odbywa się co dwa lata, na jednej ze skoczni mamucich, wybieranej na gospodarza przez Międzynarodową Federację Narciarską (wcześniej mistrzostwa były rozgrywane cyklicznie na pięciu największych skoczniach: Planica - Tauplitz - Oberstdorf - Vikersund - Harrachov). Jedyny jak dotąd medal dla Polski (brązowy) zdobył Piotr Fijas w 1979 roku w na skoczni w Planicy. +Konkurs indywidualny o mistrzostwo świata w lotach obejmuje cztery (nie, jak zazwyczaj, dwie) serie skoków rozgrywane w ciągu dwóch dni. O zwycięstwie decyduje suma punktów za skoki zawodnika z wszystkich czterech serii. Począwszy od roku 2004 w ramach mistrzostw rozgrywany jest także konkurs drużynowy. +Mike Harari + +Mike Harari (ur. 1927) - funkcjonariusz służb specjalnych Izraela służby bezpieczeństwa Szin Bet i Mossadu. +Urodzony w Tel Awiwie w 1927 roku, wstąpił do służb specjalnych zaraz po ich utworzeniu, w 1948 roku do Szin Betu i w tym samym roku do Wydziału Politycznego MSZ (przyszły Mossad), który do 1951 roku zajmował się wywiadem zagranicznym. Harari dowodził tajnym oddziałem odwetowym, którego zadaniem była fizyczna eliminacja terrorystów z organizacji Czarny Wrzesień (Black September), bezpośrednio lub pośrednio odpowiedzialnych za masakrę lekkoatletów izraelskich podczas Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Monachium w 1972 roku. W ciągu niecałego roku operująca z Frankfurtu nad Menem grupa Harariego zlikwidowała dwunastu Palestyńczyków związanych według Mossadu z Czarnym Wrześniem. Skazą na przebiegu operacji stało się zamordowanie niewłaściwej osoby - niewinnego Marokańczyka, żonatego z obywatelką Norwegii i pracującego w tym kraju jako kelner. Harariemu udało się zbiec wraz z jego przyjaciółką, lecz resztę jego oddziału aresztowała policja norweska. Sześciu z nich skazano na krótkie wyroki więzienne. +Po fiasku operacji norweskiej Harari został skierowany do miasta Meksyk, do głównej placówki wywiadu izraelskiego na Amerykę Łacińską. Jednym z jego kontaktów był wówczas pułkownik Manuel Noriega, szef wywiadu wojskowego dyktatora Panamy, generała Omara Torrijosa, i jego późniejszy następca. Harari, który wówczas wycofał się z pracy wywiadowczej, został doradcą Noriegi. Zorganizował i wyszkolił oddziały jego ochrony osobistej, a przy okazji zbił fortunę pośrednicząc w zakupie broni izraelskiej przez Panamę. Po amerykańskiej interwencji w Panamie w grudniu 1989 roku pojawiły się plotki, że aresztowano go jako wspólnika Noriegi. W rzeczywistości jednak udało mu się umknąć, a jakiś czas później pojawił się z powrotem w Izraelu, i co nietypowe dla ludzi związanych ze światem Tajnych Służb, wystąpił przed kamerami telewizyjnymi. Nie zdradził jednak żadnych szczegółów współpracy z Noriegą. +CorelCENTRAL + +CorelCENTRAL - zarządca informacji osobistej (ang. "Personal Information Manager") firmy Corel, który zastąpił opracowany przez WordPerfect Corporation program InfoCentral i został zintegrowany z pakietem WordPerfect Office po przejęciu tego pakietu przez Corela, w 1996 roku. +CorelCENTRAL, mimo zamierzonej zbieżności nazwy, całkowicie odbiegał interfejsem, funkcjonalnością i filozofią działania od swojego poprzednika. Zawierał szereg wyświetlanych oddzielnie okien dla zadań, terminów i kontaktów, a także nie dysponował możliwością łączenia ze sobą elementów bazy, co było najbardziej charakterystyczną cechą InfoCentrala (technika "iConnect"). Powolność i uciążliwość obsługi były powszechnie krytykowane przez użytkowników i ostatecznie Corel zaprzestał jego rozwijania - ostatnia wersja CorelCENTRAL ukazała się razem z WordPerfect Office 10, natomiast w wersji 11 pakietu producent zdecydował się scedować obsługę narzędzi pocztowo-kalendarzowych na Outlook. +Skialpinizm + +Skialpinizm, ski-tour – rodzaj sportu narciarskiego; połączenie wspinaczki zimowej, wędrówki na nartach oraz zjazdu narciarskiego w terenie górskim, o znacznym stopniu nachylenia i dużych niebezpieczeństwach obiektywnych. +Istotą skialpinizmu jest połączenie wszystkich trzech elementów, to znaczy podchodzenia, wspinaczki i zjazdu, czym różni się on od dziedzin pokrewnych, jak skituring lub zjazdy ekstremalne w których pewne elementy są pominięte (np. zjazdowiec zostaje przetransportowany na grań za pomocą śmigłowca lub skutera śnieżnego, skiturowiec porusza się w terenie niewymagającym wspinaczki itp.). +Umiejętności. +Nie mniej ważnym aspektem tej działalności obok właściwego sprzętu i umiejętności jego wykorzystania jest posiadanie ogólnej wiedzy i doświadczenia górskiego, umiejętności orientacyjne, doskonała znajomość techniki zjazdu narciarskiego, odporność psychiczna i ogólna dojrzałość. +Technika. +Po osiągnięciu punktu, z którego możliwy jest zjazd (grań, szczyt, przełęcz), następuje przejście do zjazdu, zwykle bardzo stromym terenem, często połączonego z zeskokami z formacji takich jak progi, bule itp. Zjazd zwykle prowadzony jest terenem typu wąwóz, rynna czy żleb, co sprawia, że możliwości sterowania czy trawersowania stromizny są znacząco ograniczone. +Sport ten uprawia się zwykle, kiedy śnieg jest dobrze związany, z uwagi na niebezpieczeństwo lawin. Drogi zjazdowe posiadają swoja wycenę, w Tatrach często używa się skalę trudności opracowaną przez Karola Życzkowskiego i Józef Wala, stosowaną w przewodniku "Narciarstwo Wysokogórskie w Polskich Tatrach Wysokich". +Organizacje skialpinistyczne w Polsce. +W latach osiemdziesiątych XX wieku rozwój skialpinizmu w Polsce związany był z działalnością Sekcji Narciarskich powołanych przy Klubach Wysokogórskich w kilku miastach Polski. W tych latach członkowie Sekcji Narciarskich KW startowali w zawodach skialpinistycznych w Alpach. Przenosząc doświadczenia alpejskie na grunt tatrzański, członkowie Sekcji Narciarskich KW Kraków i KW Warszawa zorganizowali w lutym 1989 w Dolinie Chochołowskiej I Memoriał Jana Strzeleckiego. Od tego czasu Memoriał Strzeleckiego organizowany jest corocznie, najczęściej w Tatrach Polskich. Ostatnie kilkanaście edycji Memoriału organizował Marek Głogoczowski. +Pierwszym specjalistycznym klubem skialpinistycznym w Polsce jest Klub Skialpinistyczny "Kandahar" formalnie powstały jesienią 2001 roku z inicjatywy członków studenckich kół przewodnickich i klubów wysokogórskich ze Śląska. +Z roku na rok liczba jego członków rośnie, zrzeszając miłośników narciarstwa wysokogórskiego z całej Polski. W roku 2010 jest to najliczniejszy Klub w Polsce, jego członkami jest znaczna część reprezentacji Polski w skialpinizmie. Klub corocznie organizuje zawody "Puchar Pilska", których baza znajduje się w schronisku na Hali Miziowej, pod Pilskiem, a od roku 2008 dodatkowo drugie zawody "Puchar Czantorii", rozgrywane pod wieczór, ostatnie zjazdy odbywają się w świetle czołówek. +Nazwa klubu wywodzi się od nazwy jednych z najstarszych rodzajów wiązań typu "kandahary". +W roku 2003 powstał w Zakopanem klub skialpinistyczny, Tatrzański Klub Narciarski Tatra Team. W 2009 roku zarejestrowano Stowarzyszenie Miłośników Narciarstwa Wysokogórskiego z siedzibą w Zakopanem. Pierwszym prezesem SMNW wybrano Tomasza Krzyżanowskiego. Głównymi celami SMNW jest m.in. wspieranie młodych polskich zawodników w tej dyscyplinie sportu oraz wszechstronne propagowanie narciarstwa wysokogórskiego jako jednej z form aktywności społecznej. +Najpoważniejszymi zawodami organizowanymi na terenie Polski jest Memoriał im. Piotra Malinowskiego, którego piętnaście edycji rozegrano już w rejonie Hali Gąsienicowej (2012 r.) W 2011 r. zawody te uzyskały rangę finału Pucharu Świata, a wygrał je Włoch Damiano Lenzi. +Największe sukcesy międzynarodowe na zawodach mistrzowskich są udziałem polskiej zawodniczki Anny Figury z Zakopanego. Na ME rozgrywanych w 2012 r. w Pelvoux (Francja) zdobyła srebrny ( kategoria espoir) i brązowy medal w sprincie w kategorii seniorów. +Omatidium + +Omatidium (łac. "ommatidium"), fasetka – podstawowy element budowy oka złożonego. Ma kształt wydłużonego stożka. Zbudowane jest z przejrzystej rogówki pochodzenia oskórkowego, aparatu dioptrycznego, aparatu receptorycznego i izolacji pigmentowej. +W oku złożonym pojedyncze omatidia znajdują się blisko siebie, a ich aparaty dioptryczne składają się na główną jego powierzchnię. Liczba fasetek w oku jest zależna od gatunku – od jednej u mrówki z gatunku "Pomera punctatissima" do wielu tysięcy u ważek. +Mil (jednostka miary) + +Mil – Jednostka miary, równa 1/1000 cala, używana jako podstawa rastra przy projektowaniu obwodów drukowanych w elektronice. +Rozstaw 2,54 mm, czyli 100 mili, mają między innymi złącza kart ISA oraz wyprowadzenia układów scalonych w obudowach typu DIP (dual in-line package) przeznaczonych do montażu przewlekanego. +W nowszych rozwiązaniach dominują układy o wyższej gęstości druku. Podwójna gęstość oznacza rozstaw wyprowadzeń 50 mil (na przykład procesor Intel Pentium 4 oraz przeznaczone do automatycznego montażu powierzchniowego układy w obudowach SOIC (Small Outline Integrated Circuit). Poczwórna gęstość to rozstaw wyprowadzeń 25 mil (spotykany w układach SSOP (Shrunk Small Outline Package). Spotykane są również układy scalone i inne elementy elektroniczne (w szczególności złącza) o wyprowadzeniach opartych o inne rastry, np. milimetrowe. +Kasjer biletowy + +Kasjer biletowy – pracownik przewoźnika drogowego lub kolejowego odpowiedzialny za wystawianie biletów na przejazd i przyjmowanie za nie opłat, przyjmowanie dopłat za przejście do pociągów wyższej kategorii lub wyższej klasy, a także rezerwowanie miejsc w pojazdach objętych rezerwacją, w wagonach sypialnych oraz kuszetkach. +Na mniejszych stacjach do obowiązków kasjera należy nierzadko udzielanie informacji podróżnym. Na stacjach kolejowych zdarza się że obowiązki kasjera pełni dyżurny ruchu bądź dróżnik przejazdowy, w czasie nieprzeznaczonym na wykonywanie podstawowych obowiązków. +Maria Leszczyńska + +Maria Karolina Zofia Felicja Leszczyńska herbu Wieniawa (ur. 23 czerwca 1703 w Trzebnicy, zm. 24 czerwca 1768 w Wersalu) – królowa Francji w latach 1725-1768 jako żona Ludwika XV. Młodsza córka króla polskiego Stanisława Leszczyńskiego i Katarzyny Opalińskiej. +Królowa Francji. +Została królową Francji, gdyż Ludwik IV Henryk Burbon, książę de Condé, pierwszy minister króla Ludwika XV oraz jego następca na tym stanowisku - Kardynał Fleury, chcieli znaleźć panu żonę, która nie wciągnie Francji w skomplikowane polityczne sojusze. Popierała to mocno Markiza de Prie, kochanka księcia de Condé i to ona miała decydujący wpływ na wybór Marii. Od kiedy Stanisław Leszczyński utracił polityczne znaczenie, Maria stała się doskonałą kandydatką. +Ślub Marii i Ludwika XV miał miejsce 4 września 1725. Ich małżeństwo było początkowo szczęśliwe, królowa urodziła 10 dzieci. Ludwik XV miał jednak wiele oficjalnych metres (np. Madame Pompadour), które ostatecznie przyćmiły Marię na dworze królewskim. O większości romansów swojego męża Maria doskonale wiedziała. +W odróżnieniu od innych królowych miała możliwość spotykania się ze swoimi rodzicami. Ludwik XV po upływie czasu zrozumiał, że małżeństwo z niezamożną Leszczyńską było dla niego zawstydzającym mezaliansem. Maria przybyła na dwór bardzo skromnie, jednak dzięki temu mariażowi do Francji została przyłączona Lotaryngia. +Była gorliwą katoliczką, jej dzieci także zostały wychowane zgodnie z wiarą katolicką. +Jej kulturalnym wkładem w życie dworu wersalskiego, było urządzanie cotygodniowych koncertów polskich chórów. Ponadto miała okazję poznać młodego Mozarta i jego siostrę, Marię Annę. +Matka dzieci Francji. +Jej jedyny syn - Ludwik Ferdynand poślubił Marię Józefę Wettyn, córkę rywala ojca Marii o koronę polską - Augusta III Sasa. Początkowo fakt ten powodował spięcia między dwiema kobietami, ale wkrótce okazało się, że Maria Józefa podziwia byłego króla Stanisława Leszczyńskiego. Kilkoro wnuków Marii otrzymało nawet na jedno z imion, imię "Stanisław" np. późniejszy król Ludwik XVIII. +Maria zmarła w 1768, sześć lat przed swoim mężem. Została pochowana w bazylice Saint-Denis pod Paryżem. Jej serce spoczęło obok rodziców w kościele Notre-Dame de Bon Secours w Nancy. +Nową metresą jej męża została Madame du Barry, była prostytutka. Dzieci i wnuki Marii zgodnie i szczerze opłakiwały jej śmierć i znienawidziły du Barry. Dwa lata później, wnuk Marii - Ludwik August poślubił młodą arcyksiężniczkę austriacką - Marię Antoninę, która w przyszłości miała zostać ostatnią królową Francji. +Dwoje wnuków Marii zostało zgilotynowanych podczas rewolucji francuskiej: Ludwik August - Ludwik XVI i Madame Elżbieta. Dwoje innych wnuków po restauracji monarchii, w 1814, zostało kolejnymi królami Francji: Ludwik XVIII i Karol X. +Barlinek + +Barlinek (do 1945 niem. "Berlinchen") – miasto w zachodniej Polsce, w woj. zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie myśliborskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Barlinek, położone nad rzeką Młynówką i jeziorami: Barlineckim, Chmielowym i Uklejno. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2009 roku, miasto miało 14 162 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia miasta wynosi 17,55 km². +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. gorzowskiego. +Toponimia. +Dawniej nazwą miasta było "Nova Berlyn" i "Klein Berlin". Przed 1945 rokiem miało niemiecką nazwę "Berlinchen". +Nazwa "Barlinek" została urzędowo wprowadzona rozporządzeniem ministrów Administracji Publicznej i Ziem Odzyskanych z dnia 12 listopada 1946 roku. Wcześniej przez krótki okres powojenny funkcjonowała nazwa "Berlinek", mająca jeszcze przedwojenną tradycję. +Historia. +Miasto zostało założone przez Brandenburczyków w 1278 roku jako nadgraniczny gród obronny. W połowie XIV wieku Barlinek otrzymał mury obronne z dwoma bramami – Myśliborską ("Soldiner Tor") i Młyńską ("Mühlentor"). Miasto doznawało licznych klęsk żywiołowych, jak zarazy i pożary (te ostatnie aż siedmiokrotnie). Podstawowe zajęcia mieszkańców stanowiły rolnictwo i hodowla bydła. +W latach 1402-1454 należało do państwa krzyżackiego, by ostatecznie powrócić do Brandenburgii. Od tego czasu miasto nieprzerwanie pozostawało pod władzą dynastii Hohenzollernów aż do 1918 r., wchodząc od 1701 r. w skład Prus, a od r. 1871 – Niemiec. +Z rzemiosł poważniej rozwinęło się tkactwo, sukiennictwo, lniarstwo, podupadłe w połowie XIX wieku. Na przełomie XVIII i XIX wieku czynna była tu papiernia. Pomyślna dla rozwoju gospodarczego miasta była druga połowa XIX w. Miasto stało się wówczas znacznym ośrodkiem gospodarczym. Rozwinęły swoją produkcję: garbarnia, fabryka pługów. W 1898 r. Barlinek uzyskał połączenie kolejowe z Choszcznem i Myśliborzem. +31 stycznia 1945 r. miasto zdobyte zostało przez oddziały radzieckie (XII Korpus Pancerny Armii Czerwonej); w wyniku walk oraz umyślnych podpaleń zniszczeniu uległo wówczas ponad 50% zabudowy. W następstwie II wojny światowej miasto znalazło się w granicach Polski. Miejscową ludność która pozostała w mieście przesiedlono za Odrę, a do Barlinka sprowadzono polskich osadników. W rezultacie częściowej, powojennej odbudowy Barlinek stał się uprzemysłowionym miasteczkiem Pomorza Zachodniego. +Gospodarka. +Drobny przemysł: odzieżowy i materiałów budowlanych. +Duża fabryka sprzętu okrętowego ZUO Bomet-Caparo, notowane na giełdzie zakłady przemysłu drzewnego Barlinek S. A., GBS Bank (dawniej GBS w Barlinku), fabryka drzwi Klaus Borne, rozlewnia gazu firmy Gaspol, Nadleśnictwo Barlinek. +Na terenie Barlinka utworzono podstrefę Kostrzyńsko-Słubickiej Specjalnej Strefy Ekonomiczna, obejmującą wyznaczonych 5 kompleksów. +Wspólnoty religijne. +oraz dwa kościoły protestanckie: Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski w RP i Chrześcijańska Wspólnota Zielonoświątkowa, a także Polski Autokefaliczny Kościół Prawosławny (parafia Zaśnięcia Przenajświętszej Bogurodzicy). Oprócz tego istnieje Sala Królestwa Świadków Jehowy. +Sport. +Barlinek jest promowany jako "Europejska Stolica Nordic Walking". Wokół miasta zostało wytyczonych 7 tras o zróżnicowanym stopniu trudności, łącznie 54 km. +Dla wszystkich amatorów aktywnego wypoczynku Barlinek oferuje wiele atrakcji sportowo-rekreacyjnych: rejsy pod żaglami, pływanie łódkami, kajakami, przejażdżki konne, biegi leśne, kręgle, bogate łowiska ryb oraz leśne ostępy pełne łownej zwierzyny i owoców runa leśnego. Wydarzeniami sportowymi dużej rangi są Żeglarskie Mistrzostwa Polski w klasie Omega oraz Festiwal Szachowy im. Emanuela Laskera. +Liga piłki nożnej halowej w Barlinku – cykliczny turniej "dzikich" drużyn piłkarskich. +W roku 2011 Barlinek wzbogacił się o nowy stadion sportowy przeznaczony dla piłkarzy i lekkoatletów. Po wielu trudnościach został on oficjalnie otwarty 2 października (modernizacji uległ stadion MKS Pogoń Barlinek, która występuje w III lidze). Obiekt wzbogacił się o bieżnię tartanową długości 400 metrów wraz z 6 torami na prostej i 4 na łukach. Przy stadionie mieszczą się także trybuny, mogące pomieścić 960 osób. +Kultura. +Lata Teatralnego, Ogólnopolskiego Pleneru Plastycznego i polsko-niemieckich warsztatów ceramicznych, plastycznych i teatralnych. +W Barlinku znajduje się Muzeum Regionalne. +Lokalnym czasopismem jest Echo Barlinka, wydawane przez Towarzystwo Miłośników Barlinka. +Towarzystwo Miłośników Barlinka (TMB), działające w mieście od początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych, organizuje koncerty muzyki poważnej, bierze udział w festynach i interpeluje u władz samorządowych w sprawach mieszkańców dotyczących życia w Barlinku. +Oprócz Echa Barlinka, wydawane jest także czasopismo Puls Barlinka. +Transport. +Przez Barlinek przebiega też nieczynna linia kolejowa Myślibórz – Choszczno. +Administracja. +Miasto jest siedzibą gminy miejsko-wiejskiej. Mieszkańcy Barlinka wybierają do swojej rady miejskiej 11 radnych (11 z 15). Pozostałych 4 radnych wybierają mieszkańcy terenów wiejskich gminy Barlinek. Organem wykonawczym jest burmistrz. Siedzibą władz jest budynek przy ul. Niepodległości 12. +Barlinek jest siedzibą Nadleśnictwa Barlinek zlokalizowanego przy ul. Tunelowej, które wchodzi w skład Regionalnej Dyrekcji Lasów Państwowych w Szczecinie. +Mieszkańcy Barlinka wybierają posłów na Sejm z okręgu wyborczego nr 41, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. W Barlinku znajduje się biuro poselskie Longina Komołowskiego (wybrany jako bezpartyjny kandydat z listy PiS). +Towarzystwo Chrystusowe dla Polonii Zagranicznej + +Towarzystwo Chrystusowe dla Polonii Zagranicznej, chrystusowcy, TChr ("Societas Christi pro Emigrantibus Polonis, SChr") – rzymskokatolickie zgromadzenie zakonne założone przez Sługę Bożego kard. Augusta Hlonda 8 września 1932 roku, a zatwierdzone przez papieża Pawła VI w 1964 roku. +Organizatorem zgromadzenia zakonnego na zlecenie Sługi Bożego kard. Augusta Hlonda był Sługa Boży ks. Ignacy Posadzy, któremu I Kapituła Generalna nadała tytuł współzałożyciela. Pierwszą siedzibą zgromadzenia były Potulice. +Historia. +Przed II wojną światową oprócz Domu Macierzystego w Potulicach, zgromadzenie wybudowało Dom Główny na Ostrowie Tumskim w Poznaniu oraz przejęło domy w Puszczykowie i Dolsku. +W trakcie wojny Towarzystwo straciło cały majątek. Po wojnie odzyskało dom w Poznaniu gdzie do dziś znajduje się główna siedziba zgromadzenia wraz z Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym Towarzystwa Chrystusowego. +Przy Domu Głównym działa wydawnictwo Hlondianum, redakcja miesięcznika Msza Święta, redakcja dwumiesięcznika Miłujcie się!, a także księgarnia Zgromadzenia. +W 2010 roku członkami Towarzystwa Chrystusowego było 398 kapłanów, 21 braci zakonnych, 39 kleryków i 9 nowicjuszy. +Duchowość i duszpasterstwo. +Celem Towarzystwa Chrystusowego dla Polonii zagranicznej jest uwielbienie Boga i uświęcenie się poprzez naśladowanie Jezusa Chrystusa. W szczególny sposób Chrystusowcy włączają się w apostolstwo Kościoła powszechnego poprzez pracę na rzecz Polaków mieszkających poza granicami kraju. Poza posługą duszpasterską księża służą Polonii opieką kulturową i społeczną. +Strój zakonny. +Strojem chrystusowców jest sutanna duchowieństwa diecezjalnego. +Struktura Zakonu. +Ośrodki duszpasterskie w Polsce. +Kapłani Towarzystwa Chrystusowego pełnią również funkcje kapelanów, w 4 domach zakonnych, należących do innych zakonów, znajdujących się na terenie archidiecezji poznańskiej; +Zobacz też. +Chrystusowcy – Duszpasterstwo powołań +Ossy + +Ossy – wieś sołecka w Polsce położona w województwie śląskim, w powiecie tarnogórskim, w gminie Ożarowice. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa katowickiego. +Położenie. +Wieś znajduje się w południowo-zachodniej części gminy Ożarowice, w pobliżu zalewu Świerklaniec. +Do wsi dojechać można zjeżdzając z drogi krajowej nr 78. +Burren + +Burren ("The Burren", irl. "Boireann", "Boirinn") – płaskowyż w północno-zachodniej części hr. Clare (zachodnia Irlandia) zbudowany z ilastych łupków i wapienia, znany z unikatowego krajobrazu krasowego. Gaelicka nazwa "Boireann" oznacza po prostu „skalistą ziemię”. Płaskowyż ma powierzchnię ok. 260 km², obszar wyznaczają miejscowości Ballyvaughan, Kinvara, Tubber, Corofin, Kilfenora i Lisdoonvarna; zachodnią i północną granicę stanowią Ocean Atlantycki i Zatoka Galway. Jest to obszar niemalże bezludny, a większe miejscowości znajdują się głównie na krańcach krainy. Mimo tego płaskowyż usiany jest śladami osadnictwa ludzkiego nawet sprzed 3800 r. p.n.e. +Charakterystyka krainy. +"„Brakuje tutaj drzew, żeby człowieka powiesić, brakuje tutaj wody żeby człowieka utopić, brakuje tutaj ziemi żeby człowieka pochować”." +Na płaskowyżu znajdują się połacie płyt wapiennych poprzeplatane pastwiskami i płytkimi, często okresowymi jeziorami. Nie ma tam drzew, za to bardzo dobrze utrzymują się rośliny niskopienne. Flora regionu jest unikatowa: rosną tu gatunki zarówno arktyczne jak i charakterystyczne dla klimatu śródziemnomorskiego, m.in. liczne storczyki, paprocie, skalnice czy geranium. Różnorodna roślinność zielna tworzy dogodne środowisko dla specyficznych gatunków zwierząt: Burren jest największym w Irlandii siedliskiem motyli, jak również wielu okazów ptaków (m.in. świstun, siewka złota czy błotniak zbożowy). Obfite i całoroczne opady od tysięcy lat rzeźbią powierzchnię wapiennych bloków tworząc głębokie szczeliny, rumowiska głazów i liczne jaskinie. Znajduje się tu udostępniona turystom jaskinia Aillwee ze szczątkami zwierząt, m.in. niedźwiedzia brunatnego. Natomiast w jaskini Pol an Ionain znajduje się jeden z najdłuższych w Europie stalaktyt, który ma 7,3 m długości. Niedaleko znajdują się Klify Moher, które opadają do Atlantyku 200-metrową pionową ścianą. +Stanowiska archeologiczne i zabytki. +W Burren można znaleźć sporo grobowców klinowych, dolmenów, fortów kamiennych i innych obiektów historycznych. Najstarsze z nich pochodzą sprzed 2-3 tys. lat p.n.e. Najsłynniejszym z dolmenów jest Poulnabrone, w którym odnaleziono szczątki 33 osób sprzed prawie 6 tys. lat. Z innych ciekawych obiektów wymienić można XVI-wieczny zamek Newtown, port Doolin, fort Caherconnel czy kamienny kopiec grobowy Poulawack Cairn, w którym pochowano 4 osoby żyjące 3400 lat p.n.e. +Kolno + +Kolno – miasto i gmina w województwie podlaskim, w powiecie kolneńskim, położone na Wysoczyźnie Kolneńskiej. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa łomżyńskiego. +Od 1 lutego do 31 grudnia 1991 miasto Kolno i gmina Kolno tworzyły wspólną gminę (tzw. "miasto-gminę"). Zostały połączone w związku z restrukturyzacją podziału administracyjnego w 1991 roku, lecz po zaledwie 11 miesiącach (1 stycznia 1992) gminy ponownie rozdzielono. +Nazwa miasta pochodzi od wyrazu "koło" i pojawia się po raz pierwszy w źródłach historycznych jako Colno w 1426. +Demografia. +Lokalny ośrodek usługowy dla rolnictwa. +Środowisko naturalne. +Struktura powierzchni. +Miasto stanowi 2,67% powierzchni powiatu. +Położenie. +Miasto Kolno położone jest w północno-zachodniej części województwa podlaskiego, nad rzeką Łabną, na Wysoczyźnie Kolneńskiej +Klimat. +Klimat na wysoczyźnie jest umiarkowany. Średnia roczna temperatura powietrza wynosi 6,7 °C. Ujemna temperatura powietrza utrzymuje się średnio przez 4 miesiące w roku, tj. od grudnia do marca. Średnia roczna ilość opadów atmosferycznych wynosi 555 mm/m², przy czym najwyższe miesięczne sumy opadów obserwuje się w lipcu i sierpniu, a najniższe w styczniu i lutym. Na wysoczyźnie dominują wiatry południowo-zachodnie. Wieją one ze średnią prędkością 2,5-4,2 m/s. +Historia. +Kolno pierwotnie znajdowało się wśród bagien nad rzeką Pisą, gdzie zachowało się grodzisko Stare Kolno. Najstarsze znaleziska w tym miejscu pochodzą sprzed 3000 lat, natomiast osadnictwo wczesnośredniowieczne datuje się na VIII wiek. Gród powstał w tym samym lub następnym stuleciu. +Miasto pierwszy raz wzmiankowane było w 1422; początkowo należało do książąt mazowieckich, następnie funkcjonowało jako miasto królewskie. Prawa miejskie (Prawo chełmińskie) miasto otrzymało z rąk księcia Janusza I Mazowieckiego zwanego Starszym w 1425. +Na dzisiejsze miejsce nad rzeczkę Łabnę przeniósł miasto w latach 1434–1443 wnuk Janusza I, Bolesław IV warszawski. Przeniesienie to spowodowane było wzrostem zaludnienia na Wysoczyźnie Kolneńskiej, utratą znaczenia drogi wodnej Pisy na korzyść dróg lądowych oraz zbyt małą powierzchnią w miejscu dotychczasowej lokalizacji. W XVII i XVIII w. był to ośrodek starostwa niegrodowego, w XVI w. nastąpił rozkwit miasta (handel, rzemiosło). +Kolno zostało spalone w czasie insurekcji kościuszkowskiej (1794), w 1795 znalazło się w zaborze pruskim, od 1807 w Księstwie Warszawskim, a od 1815 w Królestwie Polskim. W XIX w. w mieście mieścił się ośrodek handlu płótnem kurpiowskim. W 1867 Kolno zostało siedzibą powiatu. Dużą rolę w życiu miasta w XIX i 1 połowie XX wieku odgrywali Żydzi. W 1827 stanowili oni 38% ogółu mieszkańców, podczas gdy w 1857 już 62%. W 1939 miasto zamieszkiwały 5163 osoby, z czego Żydzi stanowili 67%. +W wyniku działań I wojny światowej zabudowa miasta uległa częściowemu zniszczeniu. W 1915 wojska niemieckie zbudowały połączenie kolejowe między Kolnem a Piszem (normalnotorowe) oraz Myszyńcem (wąskotorowe). +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości w 1918 miasto wróciło w jej granice. W 1923 zlikwidowano połączenie kolejowe ze znajdującym się po niemieckiej stronie granicy Piszem. +8 września 1939 Kolno zostało zajęte przez wojska niemieckie, 29 września do miasta wkroczyli Sowieci. 22 czerwca 1941 miasto ponownie zostało zajęte przez wojska niemieckie. Administracja niemiecka natychmiast zaprowadziła politykę terroru wobec ludności polskiej oraz całkowitej eksterminacji ludności żydowskiej. 15 lipca 1941 rozstrzelano 16 Żydów, a ich zwłoki zakopano wraz ze zburzonym pomnikiem Lenina, wzniesionym na rynku w okresie władzy sowieckiej. W sierpniu Niemcy zgromadzili na rynku wszystkich pozostałych przy życiu Żydów. Mężczyzn zapędzono w okolice wsi Kolimagi, zaś kobiety do wsi Mściwuje. Obie grupy zostały tam wymordowane i pogrzebane w masowych grobach. Wojska radzieckie zajęły miasto w nocy z 23 na 24 stycznia 1945. +1 kwietnia 1973 r. zlikwidowano ostatnie połączenie kolejowe miasta (z Myszyńcem). Wraz z likwidacją powiatów w 1975 Kolno utraciło status miasta powiatowego, odzyskując go wskutek reformy administracyjnej w 1999 r. +Przemysł. +Tereny inwestycyjne w Kolnie. +22.06.2009 Miasto Kolno pozyskało dotację na stworzenie specjalnych gruntów pod inwestycje. Projekt „Przygotowanie terenów pod inwestycje z zakresu produkcji i nowoczesnych usług w Kolnie” został dofinansowany z programu „Rozwój Polski Wschodniej” kwotą ponad 8,7 mln zł. Specjalna strefa została utworzona w mieście Kolno na obszarze o powierzchni 12,4907 ha między ulicą Wojska Polskiego i ulicą Kolejową. Projekt objął uzbrojenie działek oraz budowę nowych dróg. +Zakłady produkcyjne. +W Kolnie znajduje się kilka zakładów odzieżowych, krawieckich i spożywczych +Komunikacja. +Kolno nie posiada połączenia kolejowego (W dniu 1.04.1973 r. zamknięto Ostrołęcka Kolej wąskotorową łączącą miasto z Myszyńcem). +W mieście znajduje się dworzec PKS. W komunikacji regionalnej, główną rolę odgrywa PKS Łomża P.T. Kolno. +Edukacja. +Przedszkola +Szkoły Podstawowe +Gimnazja +Szkoły Ponadgimnazjalne +Szkoły Policealne +Sport. +Obiekty sportowe. +"Obydwa te obiekty, jak też Kolneński Dom Kultury, wchodzą w skład powołanego z nowym rokiem – 2009, KOKiS (Kolneńskiego Ośrodka Kultury i Sportu)" +Religia. +Kolno jest siedzibą dekanatu w diecezji łomżyńskiej. Miasto posiada dwie parafie rzymskokatolickie (pw. Chrystusa Króla Wszechświata oraz pw. św. Anny), a także nieczynną bożnicę żydowską. W mieście ma swoją siedzibę również Sala Królestwa Świadków Jehowy. Na początku XX w. w Kolnie znajdowała się też cerkiew św. Mikołaja z 1904 roku; została zniszczona w roku 1929. +Na terenie miasta znajdują się 3 cmentarze: parafialny, komunalny oraz żydowski. +Rakowiak + +Rakowiak (ang. "carcinoid", łac. "argentaffinoma", "carcinoid") – nowotwór wywodzący się z jelitowych komórek neuroendokrynnych. +Rakowiak jest nowotworem hormonalnie czynnym, co oznacza, iż wydziela aktywnie hormony. +Wywodzi się z komórek wewnątrzwydzielniczych, znajdujących się w przewodzie pokarmowym oraz poza nim, w innych narządach wywodzących się z pierwotnej cewy jelitowej (prajelita): wyspach trzustki, płucach, rdzeniu nadnerczy, w tarczycy (komórki C), grasicy, podwzgórzu i przysadce. Obecnie coraz częstsze jest węższe ujęcie, według którego do rakowiaków zalicza się wyłącznie guzy wywodzące się ze środkowej części prajelita (midgut tumors) i wytwarzające serotoninę, a pozostałe guzy wywodzące się z części przedniej i tylnej należy nazywać guzami neuroendokrynnymi przewodu pokarmowego. +Epidemiologia. +Rakowiaki występują z częstością średnio 1-2/100 000. Częstsze są u kobiet i osób starszych. +Objawy i przebieg. +Rakowiaki często są bezobjawowe i rozpoznawane przypadkowo. +Zespół rakowiaka. +Komórki rakowiaka pobierają znaczną ilość tryptofanu i przekształcają go 5-hydroksytryptofan, a następnie w serotoninę – hormon odpowiedzialny za większość objawów zespołu. Serotonina przekształcana jest w organizmie do kwasu 5-hydroksyindolooctowego, który wydalany jest z moczem. Zwiększona ilość tego związku w moczu stanowi marker dla tego nowotworu. +Zespół rakowiaka objawia się: +Za zmiany we wsierdziu odpowiedzialna jest przede wszystkim serotonina. Guzy neuroendokrynne (nie będące rakowiakami w nowym ujęciu) rzadko dają takie objawy, ponieważ spływ żylny z gonad, odbytnicy i płuc omija wątrobę. Występowanie zmian w lewym sercu możliwe jest w przypadku guzów neuroendokrynnych płuc albo przeciekiem prawo-lewym w sercu, bądź niekompletną aktywacją serotoniny w łożysku naczyniowym płuc w przypadku rakowiaka przewodu pokarmowego. +Patofizjologia. +Makroskopowo mają postać litych guzków o średnicy około 1 cm i żółtawym zabarwieniu. Rosną podśluzówkowo. Histologicznie przypominają gruczolakoraki, jednak nie wykazują podobnej do nich złośliwości. Rakowiaki produkują następujące substancje czynne: serotoninę, ACTH, histaminę, bradykininę, kalikreinę. Mogą również wytwarzać gastrynę, somatostatynę, polipeptyd trzustkowy, substancję P, insulinę, glukagon, VIP, wazopresynę. Rakowiak może również nie wydzielać hormonów, lub też tylko część utkania nowotworowego może być czynna wewnątrzwydzielniczo. Zdarzają się przypadki, że jeden rakowiak wydziela kilka różnych hormonów. +Zmiany w sercu występujące u chorych z zespołem rakowiaka są dość charakterystyczne i ograniczone do wsierdzia. Zwykle obserwuje się je w prawym sercu, zwłaszcza w zastawkach, rzadziej w błonie wewnętrznej dużych naczyń. Mają postać ostro odgraniczonych, włóknistych zgrubień, histologicznie stwierdza się w nich komórki mięśni gładkich i włókna kolagenowe otoczone bogatą w kwaśne mukopolisacharydy substancją podstawową. +Klasyfikacja. +Tradycyjnie, w oparciu o badanie histopatologiczne, rakowiaki dzieli się w oparciu o ich pochodzenie embrionalne na wywodzące się z proksymalnego (foregut), środkowego (midgut) oraz dystalnego (hindgut) odcinka cewy jelitowej. +Nie ma jasno zdefiniowanego systemu TNM dla rakowiaka. Zazwyczaj określa się stopień rozwoju nowotworu w sposób opisowy, wyróżniając trzy podstawowe stadia: +Rozpoznanie. +Bardzo trudno odróżnić rakowiaka od gruczolaka w badaniu radiologicznym. +Leczenie. +Leczenie rakowiaka jest chirurgiczne. Przerzuty odległe (np. do wątroby) nie są przeciwwskazaniem do wykonania zabiegu. Uważa się, że każde zmniejszenie masy ogólnej nowotworu zmniejsza prawdopodobieństwo pojawienia się zespołu rakowiaka oraz wydłuża życie pacjenta. Chemio- i radioterapia nie znalazły zastosowania w leczeniu rakowiaków. +W leczeniu zespołu rakowiaka stosuje się analogi somatostatyny: oktreotyd lub lantreotyd, ile wcześniejsza scyntygrafia receptorowa wykazała obecność receptorów somatostatynowych. W przypadku biegunek przydatny jest loperamid. Badania wykazały skuteczność leczenia przy podawaniu interferonu alfa. +Rokowanie. +Przemianie złośliwej, objawiającej się naciekaniem okolicznych tkanek i dawaniem przerzutów zarówno bliskich jak i dalekich, charakteryzuje się 1,7% guzów o średnicy poniżej 1 cm, 10% o średnicy od 1 do 2 cm i ponad 83% większych nowotworów. +Rokowanie zależne jest od umiejscowienia guza. Najlepiej rokują nowotwory umieszczone w wyrostku robaczkowym, gdyż z tej lokalizacji stosunkowo rzadko widuje się przerzuty (ok. 0,2%). Umiejscowienie w jelicie cienkim, grubym, żołądku, rokuje gorzej. Nowotwór daje przerzuty do lokalnych węzłów chłonnych i odległe do wątroby, płuc i kości w 50-70% przypadków. Przerzuty do kości są zazwyczaj przerzutami osteoblastycznymi, rzadko spotyka się przerzuty o charakterze litycznym. +Historia. +Chorobę opisał w 1889 roku Otto Lubarsch. Nazwę "Karzinoide" wprowadził niemiecki patolog Siegfried Oberndorfer z Uniwersytetu Monachijskiego w 1907 roku. Termin miał odzwierciedlać charakter guza "podobnego do raka" mikroskopowo, ale łagodnego klinicznie. Endokrynną czynność guza jako pierwsi postulowali Gosset i Masson w 1914, a potwierdzenie tych obserwacji znalazło się w pracy Erspamera i Assero z z 1952 roku. Wykryli oni, że komórki Kulczyckiego uwalniają 5-hydroksytryptaminę; rok później Lembeck wyizolował z tkanki nowotworowej serotoninę i powiązał obraz kliniczny zespołu rakowiaka z nadmierną produkcją tej substancji przez komórki guza. +Kominek aromaterapeutyczny + +Kominek aromaterapeutyczny - przyrząd do prowadzenia inhalacji, zwykle wykonany w postaci ceramicznego kominka, ogrzewanego płomieniem świecy i mającego na wierzchu zbiorniczek na olejki eteryczne. Olejki te pod wpływem ciepła odparowują do otoczenia, wypełniając przestrzeń parami mającymi określone działanie terapeutyczne. +Konduktor + +Konduktor to pracownik kolejowy podległy bezpośrednio kierownikowi pociągu zajmujący się obsługą pociągu. +W PKP istniało dodatkowe stanowisko konduktora rozdawcy bagażu, zajmującego się przyjmowaniem i wydawaniem przesyłek bagażowych oraz dbaniem o bezpieczeństwo przewożonego bagażu. Konduktorzy rozdawcy pracowali w pociągach posiadających wagony bagażowe. PKP zakończyły przewóz przesyłek bagażowych w 2003 roku. +2005 w filmie + +Box Office. +Amerykański. +"Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego". +Światowy. +"Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego". +Przeboje kinowe w Polsce. +"Opracowano na podstawie materiału źródłowego". +Nagrody filmowe. +Złote Globy. +62. ceremonia wręczenia Złotych Globów odbyła się 16 stycznia 2005 roku. +Goya. +19. ceremonia wręczenia Hiszpańskich Nagród Filmowych odbyła się 30 stycznia 2005 roku. +Nagroda Gildii Aktorów Ekranowych. +11. ceremonia wręczenia nagród Gildii Aktorów Filmowych odbyła się 5 lutego 2005 roku. +Złoty Niedźwiedź. +55. Międzynarodowy Festiwal Filmowy w Berlinie odbył się w dniach 10-20 lutego 2005 roku. +BAFTA. +58. ceremonia wręczenia nagród Brytyjskiej Akademii Sztuk Filmowych i Telewizyjnych odbyła się 12 lutego 2005 roku. +Cezary. +30. ceremonia wręczenia Francuskich Nagród Filmowych odbyła się 26 lutego 2005 roku. +Złote Maliny. +25. rozdanie Złotych Malin odbyło się 26 lutego 2005 roku. +Oscary. +77. ceremonia wręczenia Oscarów odbyła się 27 lutego 2005 roku. +Złota Palma. +58. Międzynarodowy Festiwal Filmowy w Cannes odbył się w dniach 11-22 maja 2005 roku. +Złoty Lew. +62. Międzynarodowy Festiwal Filmowy w Wenecji odbył się w dniach 31 sierpnia-10 września 2005 roku. +Festiwal Polskich Filmów Fabularnych. +XXX. Festiwal Polskich Filmów Fabularnych odbył się 12-17 września 2005 roku. +Camerimage. +13. edycja Międzynarodowego Festiwalu Sztuki Autorów Zdjęć Filmowych Camerimage odbyła się w dniach 26 listopada-4 grudnia 2005 roku. +William King Harvey + +William King Harvey (ur. 1915 - zm. 1976), agent specjalny Federalnego Biura Śledczego FBI, następnie wyższy oficer Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej CIA. +Do FBI wstąpił w 1940, bezpośrednio po ukończeniu Indiana University; został przydzielony do działu kontrwywiadu. W 1947 wycofał się z Biura i ku wielkiemu niezadowoleniu ówczesnego długoletniego szefa FBI J. Edgara Hoovera przeniósł się do nowo utworzonej Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej. Był jednym z kontaktów ówczesnego oficera łącznikowego brytyjskiej Tajnej Służby Wywiadowczej MI6 z CIA i FBI Harolda (Kima) Philby'ego, jak się następnie okazało, jednego z członków siatki szpiegowskiej Cambridge. Poznał też innego szpiega radzieckiego, także członka owej siatki szpiegowskiej, Guya Burgessa. Przykry incydent towarzyski podczas przyjęcia u Philby'ego (m.in. Burgess obraził żonę Harveya Libby), sprawił że Harvey zaczął szperać w przeszłości zarówno Burgessa, do którego miał urazę osobistą, jak i Philby'ego, którego słusznie podejrzewał, że jest "kretem". Konkretnych dowodów pozwalających oskarżyć tak wysokiego funkcjonariusza brytyjskiego wywiadu, jak Philby, zebrać się Harveyowi jednak nie udało. +W 1952 Harvey, znany pod przydomkiem "Big Bill", kierował prowadzoną przez CIA, MI6 i BND budową tunelu berlińskiego (Operacja Gold), zwanego również "Dziurą Harveya". Harvey, który wówczas pił na potęgę, uczestniczył w zleconej w 1961 przez prezydenta Kennedy'ego operacji Mangoose (Operacja Mangusta). Robert Kennedy oskarżył go o hamowanie operacji; podczas wizytacji placówek CIA przez Roberta Kennedy'ego doszło między nimi do ostrej kłótni. Innym razem będący pod wpływem alkoholu Harvey krytyczne wyraził się zarówno o prezydencie, jak i prokuratorze generalnym w ich obecności. Ostatecznie odsunięty został od operacji. W 1963 Richard Helms, zastępca dyrektora Zarządu Planowania (przyszły Dyrektor Centrali Wywiadu, objął to stanowisko w 1966), pozbył się Harveya z Waszyngtonu, przenosząc go na placówkę agencji w Rzymie, gdzie coraz bardziej niezrównoważony i coraz częściej pijany Harvey utrzymał się do przejścia na emeryturę w 1969. Zmarł siedem lat później, w 1976. +Unia Leszno + +Unia Leszno S.S.A. – polski klub żużlowy z Leszna. 13-krotny mistrz Polski, ponadto jedno mistrzostwo odebrano. +Historia. +Klub założony został 8 maja 1938. Na dobre rozwinął swoją działalność w latach powojennych. Legendą leszczyńskiego sportu żużlowego jest Alfred Smoczyk, najlepszy polski zawodnik końca lat 40., który zginął śmiercią tragiczną w 1950. Od 1951 aż po dzisiaj rozgrywany jest na jego cześć Memoriał Alfreda Smoczyka, który rangą w przeszłości porównywany był z indywidualnymi mistrzostwami Polski i często nazywany "rewanżem" za finał IMP. +Unia Leszno czternastokrotnie wygrywała rozgrywki ligowe. Na swoim koncie posiada jednak trzynaście tytułów mistrzów Polski – decyzją PZM tytuł z 1984 klubowi odebrano. Pod względem dorobku medalowego w DMP Unia Leszno jest najbardziej utytułowanym klubem w Polsce. +Barwy leszczyńskiego klubu reprezentowało wielu znakomitych żużlowców, na czele z Romanem Jankowskim. Inni znani zawodnicy to: Kazimierz Adamczak, Zdzisław Dobrucki, Zenon Kasprzak, Mariusz Okoniewski, Józef Olejniczak, Stanisław Kowalski, Jerzy Kowalski, Włodzimierz Heliński, Czesław Piwosz, Grzegorz Sterna, Piotr Pawlicki, Zbigniew Krakowski, Jan Krzystyniak, Bernard Jąder, Zbigniew Jąder, Alojzy Norek, Marian Kuśnierek, Stanisław Glapiak, Marek Bzdęga i legendarny Alfred Smoczyk, którego nazwiskiem nazwany jest leszczyński stadion. Z zawodników zagranicznych klub z Leszna reprezentowali bądź reprezentują tacy zawodnicy jak: Greg Hancock, Scott Nicholls, Jason Lyons, Leigh Adams, Lukáš Dryml. +Kadra drużyny. +Fogo Unia Leszno +Fiat CR.20 + +Fiat CR.20 – włoski samolot myśliwski. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1926 roku we włoskiej wytwórni lotniczej FIAT Aviazione, będącej filią firmy samochodowej FIAT. +Historia. +Samolot myśliwski "Fiat CR.20" został skonstruowany przez inż. Celestino Rosatelli w 1926 roku i zbudowany w wytwórni FIAT Aviazione. Było to rozwinięcie konstrukcji samolotu myśliwskiego Fiat CR.1. Samolot myśliwski "Fiat CR.20" miał kształt klasycznego półtorapłata. Płaty dwudźwigarowe o konstrukcji metalowej, kryte płótnem – usztywnione między sobą słupkami stalowymi w układzie podwójnej V w widoku z przodu. Lotki umieszczono tylko na górnym płacie. Kadłub o konstrukcji kratownicowej mieścił w części przedniej silnik rzędowy osłonięty blachą aluminiową. Silnik nie wystawał poza obręb kadłuba. Za silnikiem znajdowała się odkryta kabina pilota. Z przodu kabinę osłaniał wiatrochron. W tylnej części kadłuba zamocowano klasyczne usterzenie także o konstrukcji metalowej, kryte płótnem. Kadłub za kabiną pilota był kryty płótnem. +Prototyp samolotu "Fiat CR.20" został oblatany we wrześniu 1926 roku. Podczas prób samolot potwierdził zaplanowane osiągi, wykazał także dosyć dobrą zwrotność. Pod koniec 1926 roku uruchomiono jego produkcję seryjną. +Łącznie w wyprodukowano 450 samolotów Fiat CR.20 wszystkich wersji i odmian. +Użycie. +Samolot "Fiat CR.20" od 1926 roku był wprowadzany do użycia w lotnictwie włoskim, a także został zakupiony dla lotnictwa kilku innych państw. +Użyty bojowo został przez lotnictwo włoskie w trakcie drugiej wojny abisyńskiej w latach 1935 - 1936 oraz przez lotnictwo paragwajskie w trakcie wojny o Chaco w latach 1932 - 1936. +Użycie samolotów w wojsku polskim. +W polskim lotnictwie wojskowym znajdowały się 4 samoloty myśliwskiej "Fiat CR.20", które zostały zakupione we Włoszech i sprowadzone do Polski w sierpniu 1929 roku dla polskiej ekipy biorącej udział w „III Locie Małej Entanty i Polski” organizowanej przez Aeroklub Rumunii we współpracy z Aeroklubem Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. W zawodach tych, które odbyły się we wrześniu 1929 roku, polscy piloci zajęli dalsze miejsca – najlepszy z nich kpt. pil. Leopold Pamuła zajął 9 miejsce. W związku z tym, że samoloty Fiat CR.20 ustępowały osiągami innym im współczesnym samolotom myśliwskim, co potwierdził udział w tych zawodach, zrezygnowano z dalszych zakupów. +Zakupione samoloty były eksploatowane w eskadrach szkolnych 1 i 2 pułku lotniczego do 1932 roku. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot myśliwski "Fiat CR.20" był jednomiejscowym samolotem myśliwskim, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej, przeważnie metalowej, podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Usterzenie klasyczne. Napęd silnik rzędowy 12 cylindrowy "Fiat A20". Śmigło dwułopatowe, drewniane. +Gmina Dragacz + +Gmina Dragacz (do 1954 "gmina Grupa") – gmina wiejska w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim, w powiecie świeckim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie bydgoskim. +Siedziba gminy to Dragacz. +Według danych z 2010 gminę zamieszkiwały 7093 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 7,55% powierzchni powiatu. +Ochrona przyrody. +Rezerwaty przyrody. +Ochroną rezerwatową został objęty obszar rynny jeziora Fletnowskiego, gdzie utworzono rezerwat przyrody Jezioro Fletnowskie o powierzchni 25 ha. +Cmentarze ewangelickie. +Na terenie gminy znajdowały się cmentarze ewangelickie w następujących miejscowościach: Bratwin, dwa w Dolnej Grupie, Dragacz, Górna Grupa, Fletnowo, Michale, Mniszek, Nowe Marzy, Polskie Stwolno, Wiąskie Piaski, Wielki Lubień, Wielkie Stwolno, Wielkie Zajączkowo. Ponadto w Dolnej Grupie znajdował się Mennonicki Dom Modlitwy, a w Górnej Grupie kościół ewangelicki (oba obiekty nie istnieją). +Miejscowości. +Bratwin, Dolna Grupa, Dragacz, Fletnowo, Górna Grupa, Grupa, Grupa-Osiedle, Michale, Mniszek, Wielki Lubień, Wielkie Stwolno, Wielkie Zajączkowo. +Pozostałe miejscowości: Bojanowo, Mniszek (leśniczówka), Nowe Marzy, Polskie Stwolno, Stare Marzy, Wiąskie Piaski. +Komunikacja. +Przez gminę przebiegają drogi krajowe oraz oraz autostrada (węzeł Nowe Marzy). Planowany jest przebieg drogi ekspresowej . +Sąsiednie gminy. +Chełmno, Grudziądz, Grudziądz, Jeżewo, Nowe, Świecie, Warlubie +Biblioteka w Szkole + +Biblioteka w Szkole. Czasopismo nauczycieli bibliotekarzy – miesięcznik instrukcyjno-metodyczny dla nauczycieli, wydawany od 1991 r. +Założyciel i redaktor naczelny – Juliusz Wasilewski. +Beilstein (baza danych) + +Beilstein (pełna nazwa: Beilstein CrossFire plus Reactions) – chemiczna baza danych gromadząca dane o wszelkich organicznych związkach chemicznych. Powstała ona na bazie tworzonego od 1779 r. "Beilstein Handbook of Organic Chemistry" i innych wydawnictw niemieckiego "Beilstein Institut zur Förderung der Chemischen Wissenschaften". +Baza ta jest dostępna w formie „wyciągów na żądanie” sporządzanych przez pracowników MDL (np. zbiór wszystkich terpenów o własnościach rakotwórczych) oraz bezpośrednio przez internet. +Korzystanie przez internet jest płatne (roczny abonament) i wymaga zainstalowania specjalnego oprogramowania o nazwie CrossFire Beilstein Commander, łączącego się z serwerami bazy danych poprzez specjalnie opracowany protokół XFire. Oprogramowanie to umożliwia szukanie związków chemicznych po wzorze strukturalnym, nazwie systematycznej, handlowej i zwyczajowej, a także wyszukiwanie związków o zadanych właściwościach. Istnieje też możliwość wyszukiwania całych grup związków spełniających określone kryteria (np: posiadających określony fragment strukturalny) oraz reakcji z udziałem wielu substratów i produktów. +Baza ta zawiera informację o znaczniej mniejszej liczbie związków chemicznych niż serwis Chemical Abstracts, prowadzony przez American Chemical Society, ale o każdym umieszczonym w bazie związku posiada niemal komplet dostępnych aktualnie informacji, które otrzymuje się w wygodnej do zastosowania formie. Baza gromadzi informacje tylko o tych związkach chemicznych, które zostały wyodrębnione w formie czystej, a ich struktura została dobrze potwierdzona badaniami spektroskopowymi. +W Polsce bazę tę prenumeruje kilkanaście wydziałów chemicznych politechnik i uniwersytetów oraz niektóre instytuty PAN, a jej dostarczaniem zajmuje się Interdyscyplinarne Centrum Modelowania Matematycznego i Komputerowego (ICM) Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. +W styczniu 2009 firma Elsevier uruchomiła nową bazę danych Reaxys, łączącą bazy Beilstein, Gmelin i Patent Chemistry Database. Dostęp do bazy Reaxys możliwy jest za pomocą standardowej przeglądarki internetowej po zakupieniu licencji. Od roku 2011 dostęp do baz danych poprzez CrossFire został zakończony. +Luty 2005 + +__NOTOC__ +Wunderwaffe + +Die Wunderwaffe (niem. "cudowna broń") – wyrażenie, które zostało sformułowane przez propagandę hitlerowską w Niemczech w okresie II wojny światowej. Oznaczało zaawansowaną technologicznie tajną broń o wielkiej sile, która będzie w stanie przechylić szalę zwycięstwa na stronę przegrywającej na wszystkich frontach III Rzeszy. +Pojęcie "Wunderwaffe" było w większym stopniu chwytem propagandowym, niż realnym projektem – nigdy nie doszło do jej wdrożenia w kształcie oficjalnie zapowiadanym, zrealizowano praktycznie tylko nieliczne projekty. +Projekty eksperymentalne. +W laboratoriach umieszczonych pod ziemią a także w piwnicach i labiryntach korytarzy m.in pod pijalnią wód mineralnych w Szczawnie Zdroju prowadzono także w komorach ciśnieniowych i basenach z zimną wodą eksperymenty na więźniach obozu koncentracyjnego Dachau w celu zbadania wpływu ekstremalnie niskiego ciśnienia i niskiej temperatury na ciało człowieka na wysokości 24000 metrów. += Wunderwaffe III Rzeszy = +Wehikuł czasu (powieść) + +Wehikuł czasu (ang. "The Time Machine") – powieść fantastyczna autorstwa Herberta George’a Wellsa. Prace nad utworem trwały mniej więcej od roku 1888. Koncept podróży w czasie początkowo pojawił się w "The Chronic Argonauts". Ostateczna wersja ukazała się w roku 1895. Książka po raz pierwszy została wydana w Polsce jako "Podróż w czasie. Opowieść fantastyczna" (Warszawa 1899) w tłumaczeniu Feliksa Wermińskiego, które zawierało liczne błędy. Zostały one poprawione w późniejszych wydaniach. +Okoliczności powstania utworu. +Wells rozważał pojęcie podróży w czasie już wcześniej, w poprzedniej pracy zatytuowanej "The Chronic Argonauts". To opowiadanie zostało opublikowane w licealnej gazecie pisarza i była podstawą do napisania "Wehikułu czasu". Wells często stwierdzał, że "The Chronic Argonauts" bardzo odzwierciedla to, co zostało napisane w "Wehikule czasu". Myślał także o użyciu niektórych materiałów z opowiadania jako seria artykułów w Pall Mall Gazette, aż do momentu gdy wydawca poprosił go czy mógłby w zamian napisać powieść o tym samym motywie; Wells chętnie się zgodził, dostając wynagrodzenie 100 funtów (około 9 tysięcy dzisiaj) podczas publikacji przez wydawnictwo Heinemann w 1895 roku. Opowiadanie zostało najpierw ukazane w formie odcinkowej w okresie styczeń – maj w New Review. Pierwsza wersja książkowa (być może przygotowana z innego rękopisu) została opublikowana w Nowym Jorku przez Henry Holt and Company 7 maja 1895 roku; wersja brytyjska została wydana przez wydawnictwo Heinemann 29 maja. Tekst obu edycji różni się od siebie, i są zwyczajowo nazywane kolejno "tekstem Holta" i "Heinemanna". Większość współczesnych wznowień książki jest oparta na wersji Heinemanna. +Historia odzwierciedla przekonania polityczne Wellsa, a także jego pogląd na życie, dostatek i współczesną obawę o stosunki przemysłowe. Na fabułę miały także wpływ teorie Raya Lankestera o degeneracji społeczeństwa. W tym okresie powstały również inne prace z gatunku science fiction o podobnych motywach takie jak, W roku 2000 Edwarda Bellamy’ego lub Wieści znikąd Williama Morrisa. +Fabuła. +Głównym bohaterem powieści jest anonimowy naukowiec mieszkający w Richmond, zwanym przez narratora "Podróżnikiem w Czasie". Podczas cotygodniowego obiadu ze znajomymi mówi im że czas jest czwartym wymiarem co pokazuje w praktyce na małym prototypie. Opowiada także, że stworzył wehikuł zdolny pomieścić człowieka. Tydzień później spóźnia się na obiad i zaczyna swoją opowieść stając się jednocześnie narratorem książki. +Podróżnik w czasie testuje wehikuł przenosząc się do roku 802 701 gdzie spotyka Elojów, rasę żyjącą w małych grupach i jedzącą tylko owoce. Mieszkają w dużych budynkach i nie pracują. Główny bohater próbuje się z nimi porozumieć, ale brak ciekawości ze strony Elojów to utrudnia. Podczas rozmyślań stwierdza, że ludzie z klasy wyższej w jego czasach stopniowo podporządkowywali sobie świat przez użycie technologii czego rezultatem jest ta pokojowa społeczność. W wyniku ewolucji przystosowali się do środowiska w którym siła i intelekt nie są potrzebne do przeżycia. +Wracając do miejsca w którym początkowo się pojawił, podróżnik jest załamany tym, że jego wehikuł zniknął. Po chwili odkrywa że został przez kogoś przeniesiony do pobliskiej budowli przypominającej z wyglądu sfinksa, która jest zamknięta od środka. Później gdy zapada zmierzch zostaje otoczony przez Morloków, postacie z wyglądu przypominające małpy mieszkające w podziemiach, a na powierzchnię wychodzące po zmroku. Schodząc do ich miejsca zamieszkania, podróżnik zmienia swoją teorię, spekulując nad ewolucją ludzi. Według niego rasa ludzka wyewoluowała w dwa odmienne gatunki. Osoby które żyły bez pośpiechu stały się mało efektywnymi Elojami, a poniewierana klasa robotnicza stała się brutalną rasą Morloków, która boi się światła. Chodząc po ich tunelach w poszukiwaniu wehikułu odkrywa, że Morlokowie żywią się Elojami. Główny bohater stwierdza, że inteligencja jest wynikiem odpowiedzi na niebezpieczeństwo. Gdy obie rasy nie były niczym zagrożone, ich zdeterminowanie i bystrość zostały stłumione. +W międzyczasie podróżnik ratuje Weenę, tonącą kobietę z rasy Elojów. Po paru dniach spędzonych razem, odbywają wspólną wyprawę podczas której odkrywają ruiny muzeum. Wewnątrz znajdują zapałki, które według podróżnika pomogą mu w odzyskaniu wehikułu. Z powodu zbliżającej się nocy i długiej drogi do osady Weeny postanawiają zostać w lesie. Nagle zostają otoczeni przez Morloków po czym Elojka traci przytomność. Główny bohater odwraca uwagę przeciwników podpalając las po czym ucieka w drugą stronę. Później odnajduje swój wehikuł na terenie Morloków i podróżuje w przyszłość o około 30 milionów lat. Obserwując Ziemię widzi istoty podobne do krabów. Chodzą one po czerwonej plaży w celu złapania motyli. Podróżnik przenosi się dalej w przyszłość jednocześnie przyglądając się zmieniającej się okolicy. Planeta powoli przestaje się obracać, słońce staje się bardziej czerwone, a świat zamiera. +Podróżnik wraca do swojego labolatorium, około trzy godziny od momentu swojej pierwszej podróży. Przerywając obiad, opowiada to co widział i jako dowód pokazuje dwa kwiaty które dostał od Weeny. Pierwotny narrator opisuje że wrócił do domu głównego bohatera na drugi dzień, gdy ten szykował się do kolejnej ekspedycji. Podróżnik obiecuje że wróci za pół godziny, ale trzy lata później narrator traci nadzieję że kiedykolwiek go zobaczy. +Autoryzowaną kontynuacją powieści jest książka Statki czasu autorstwa Stephena Baxtera, wydana w stulecie publikacji "Wehikułu Czasu". Jej akcja zaczyna się w tym samym momencie w którym kończy się oryginał i opowiada dalsze losy Podróżnika w Czasie. +Szabla husarska + +Szabla husarska, szabla czarna, pałasz krzywy ("pałasz pochyły") – ekskluzywna polska szabla bojowa o zamkniętej rękojeści, łącząca najlepsze cechy szabel zagranicznych (węgierskiej, zachodnioeuropejskiej i tureckiej). Skrystalizowaną formę osiągnęła w połowie XVII wieku na bazie szabli węgierskiej (tzw. typu II), którą sprowadził do Polski król Stefan I Batory. Zeszła z pola walki w XVIII wieku wraz z końcem polskiego wojska narodowego autoramentu. Przez wielu uważana także za najlepszą broń białą na świecie, przewyższającą nawet japońską katane. +Etymologia. +Nazwa "szabla husarska" wywodzi się od elitarnej husarii, najskuteczniejszej formacji bojowej Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów, wśród której żołnierzy była w powszechnym użyciu. "Szabla czarna" – określenie pochodzące od koloru skóry na rękojeści i pochwie. "Pałasz krzywy", rzadziej "pałasz pochyły" (lub niepoprawnie "pałasz husarski", będący innym typem broni) – nazwa powstała u schyłku XVII w. w wyniku stopniowego tracenia przez husarię jej bojowej funkcji, gdy już ani koncerz, ani pałasz nie były przez nią używane. +Budowa i zastosowanie. +Głownie posiadały krzywiznę kołową i jelec w formie zamkniętej (dochodzący do głowicy rękojeści) lub półzamkniętej. Specyficzny był paluch pasowany lub obrączkowy – pierścień zachodnioeuropejski dostosowany do oparcia kciuka, wzmacniający uchwyt i ułatwiający wykonanie cięć bezpośrednich, przy trafieniu działał jak dźwignia: umożliwiał szybkie odbicie broni, a przy minięciu celu pozwalał na szybkie wycofanie szabli do następnego ataku. Trzonek posiadała drewniany, zwężający się ku głowicy, prosty lub pochylony ku przodowi i przymocowany nitami oraz kapturek w formie wypukłego migdała, zwykle z fartuchem zakrywającym grzbiet trzonka. W II połowie XVIII wieku pojawił się poziomy obłąk lub tarczka jako dodatkowe zabezpieczenie dłoni. Jej średnie wymiary wynosiły: długość głowni 825-870 mm; szerokość 27-31 mm; środek ciężkości od osi obrotu 200-250 mm; krzywizna 70-80 mm. +Szablą można wykonywać cięcia bezpośrednie lub zamachowe z łokcia (w walce pieszej) i z ramienia (walcząc konno), a w obronie wszystkie zasłony statyczne. Można nią również wykonać wszystkie najważniejsze cięcia – zarówno te, do których nadają się najlepsze zachodnioeuropejskie szable, jak i te, które można wykonać tylko szablą wschodnią lub mieczem japońskim, słusznie więc uznawana jest za najlepszą kawaleryjską szablę świata. +Zdobienia. +Szable bojowe nie były bogato zdobione, lecz szable husarskie noszone były również jako szable paradne (nie tracąc swoich cech bojowych), bogato zdobione złotem lub srebrem, jelec z kabłąkiem oraz głowicę często zdobiono niellowaną, trawioną bądź rytą dekoracją a paluchy, kapturki i rozety nitów ozdobnie kształtowano. Tego typu zdobione szable zwane były pałaszami srebrnymi lub złotymi. Niezależnie od ornamentyki często na głowniach umieszczano różnego rodzaju sentencje, od religijnych począwszy ("Deus spes mea", "Jezus, Maria, Józef", "Gdy mnie jaka ściśnie trwoga ratuj mnie Matko Boga"), przez patriotyczne ("Konstetucia 3 maja Ruka 1791", "Vivat Hussaria", "Vivat Narodowa Kawaleria", "Stanislao Augusto Patri Patriae Salutis Publicae Restaurator") po „dowcipne” ("Strzesz sobie gęby boć wytnę w zęby", "a.d.1710 Noli me tangere"). Od charakterystycznych form zdobniczych wywodzą się z kolei typy szabel zwane: batorówka, zygmuntówka, janówka. Nazwy pochodzą od imion królów polskich: Stefana I Batorego, Zygmunta III Wazy i Jana III Sobieskiego i charakteryzowały się zdobieniami na klindze w postaci podobizny władcy, jego herbu i napisów ("Stephanus Batoreus Rex Poloniae", "Stephanus D.G. Rex Pol. D. Prus", "Sigmundus III Rex Polonia", "Ioan III Rex Pol.", "Dextra vicit ad Viennam 1683 Ann"). +1997 w filmie + +Nagrody filmowe. +Goya. +11. ceremonia wręczenia Hiszpańskich Nagród Filmowych odbyła się 25 stycznia 1997 roku. +Złoty Niedźwiedź. +47. Międzynarodowy Festiwal Filmowy w Berlinie odbył się w dniach 13-24 lutego 1997 roku. +Nagroda Gildii Aktorów Filmowych. +3. ceremonia wręczenia nagród Gildii Aktorów Filmowych odbyła się 22 lutego 1997 roku. +Złote Maliny. +17. rozdanie Złotych Malin odbyło się 23 marca 1997 roku. +Oscary. +69. ceremonia wręczenia Oscarów odbyła się 24 marca 1997 roku. +BAFTA. +50. ceremonia wręczenia nagród Brytyjskiej Akademii Sztuk Filmowych i Telewizyjnych odbyła się 29 kwietnia 1997 roku. +Złota Palma. +50. Festiwal Filmowy w Cannes odbył się w dniach 7-18 maja 1997 roku. +Złoty Lew. +54. Festiwal Filmowy w Wenecji odbył się w dniach 27 sierpnia-6 września 1997 roku. +Camerimage. +5. edycja Międzynarodowego Festiwalu Sztuki Autorów Zdjęć Filmowych Camerimage odbyła się w dniach 29 listopada-6 grudnia 1997 roku. +Złote Globy. +55. ceremonia wręczenia Złotych Globów odbyła się 18 grudnia 1997 roku. +Cezary. +22. ceremonia wręczenia Francuskich Nagród Filmowych odbyła się w 1997 roku. +Festiwal Polskich Filmów Fabularnych. +22. Festiwal Polskich Filmów Fabularnych odbył się w 1997 roku. +Płaszczowina + +Płaszczowina - nasunięcie o charakterze regionalnym, powstałe w wyniku przemieszczania i przeważnie sfałdowania warstw skalnych "odkłutych" od podłoża, na którym się osadziły. Przemieszczenie odbywa się w zakresie kilku do ponad 200 km od pierwotnego występowania skał. Zbudowane głównie ze skał osadowych, czasami też metamorficznych lub magmowych. Płaszczowiny charakteryzują się bardzo małą miąższością w stosunku do szerokości i długości oraz przemieszczenia. +Przykładem gór o budowie płaszczowinowej są w Europie Karpaty oraz Alpy. W Karpatach płaszczowiny skierowane są (idąc wzdłuż łańcucha z zachodu na wschód i południe) ku północnemu zachodowi (na pograniczu Czech i Słowacji), ku północy (w Polsce), ku północnemu wschodowi i wschodowi(na Ukrainie), ku wschodowi, południowemu wschodowi i południowi (w Rumunii), czyli prawie dookoła. +Nie jest znany mechanizm powstawania płaszczowin. Obecnie powstanie większości wielkich płaszczowin powszechnie interpretuje się jako efekt poziomego nacisku płyt tektonicznych, który w czasie nasuwania się płyt jedna na drugą powoduje piętrzenie się i przesuwanie osadów leżących na płycie, lub grawitacyjnego spełzywania (płaszczowina grawitacyjna, tektonika grawitacyjna). +Wagon bagażowy + +Wagon bagażowy – wagon kolejowy włączany do pociągów pasażerskich, którego konstrukcja umożliwia przewożenie w nim większych ładunków. Wagony bagażowe posiadają na ścianach bocznych dodatkowe szerokie drzwi i najczęściej dużych rozmiarów przedział służący do przewozu ładunków, a także pomieszczenie dla obsługi. Niektóre wagony pasażerskie posiadają zarówno przedziały dla podróżnych, jak i przedział bagażowy. +Na PKP po zakończeniu przewozu przesyłek bagażowych w 2003 część wagonów bagażowych przerobiono na wagony do przewozu rowerów. +Przepis kulinarny + +Przepis kulinarny – opis czynności prowadzących do przygotowania potrawy. Zbiory przepisów kulinarnych nazywane są książkami kucharskimi. +Hrabstwo Limerick + +Hrabstwo Limerick (irl. "Contae Luimnigh") – irlandzkie hrabstwo w prowincji Munster, leżące na środkowym zachodzie wyspy. Sąsiaduje z hrabstwami: Clare na północy, Cork na południu, Tipperary na wschodzie oraz Kerry na zachodzie. +Hrabstwo posiada dużą liczbę zamków. Nazwa "Luimneach" (oznaczająca "pokryty płaszczami, pelerynami") wzięła się od pływających w rzece Shannon płaszczy po bitwie. +Geografia. +Przez hrabstwo przepływa rzeka Shannon, która płynie przez miasto Limerick i wpada do Atlantyku. Ponieważ estuarium jest płytkie najbardziej znaczący port hrabstwa położony jest kilkanaście kilometrów na zachód od miasta Limerick - w Foynes. Znaczącym miastem poza Limerick jest Newcastlewest. +Sport. +Popularnym sportem w hrabstwie jest Rugby. Hrabstwo wygrało krajowe zawody hurlingowe siedem razy, ostatnio w roku 1973. +Sobibor + +SS-Sonderkommando Sobibor – nazwa niemieckiego obozu zagłady funkcjonującego w ramach "Einsatz Reinhard" w latach 1942-1943, w lasach 4 kilometry od wsi Sobibór, niedaleko od linii kolejowej łączącej Chełm z Włodawą. +Historia obozu. +Wcześniejsze okoliczne obozy pracy. +W rejonie Pojezierza Łęczyńsko-Włodawskiego od 1940 roku powstał szereg obozów pracy ("Arbeitslager"), z których większość stanowiła część niemieckiego programu modernizacji rolnictwa regionu. Najważniejsze okoliczne obozy pracy były w Krychowie, Lucie, Osowie, Rudzie Opalin, Sawinie, wsi Sobibór, Sajczycach, Tomaszówce, Ujazdowie i Włodawie. W obozach tych pracowali więźniowie - Polacy, Żydzi, również w mniejszym zakresie Romowie. Dla części Żydów, obozy te były przedsionkiem Sobiboru. Na rampie w obozie zagłady dokonywano czasem selekcji i przewożono wybranych więźniów do tych obozów pracy. +Obóz zagłady. +Budowa obozu rozpoczęła się w marcu 1942 w ramach "Aktion Reinhard", analogicznie do obozów Belzec i Treblinka. Obóz powstał przy małej stacji kolejowej Sobibór, 5 km od wschodniej granicy Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Pierwsze transporty więźniów zaczęły docierać w maju 1942. +Sam obóz zajmował z początku obszar ok. 12 ha, a po rozbudowie ok. 60 ha. Składał się z części garnizonowej i czterech ponumerowanych podobozów (Lager I, II, III i IV). +Cały obóz był ogrodzony potrójnym płotem z drutu kolczastego i rowem wypełnionym wodą, a przyległy teren zamieniono - po jednej z bardzo nielicznych ucieczek - w pole minowe o szerokości 15 metrów. +Załoga obozu. +Załoga składała się z 20-30 esesmanów (Niemców i Austriaków, głównie "weteranów" Akcji T4) i ok. 90–120 strażników ukraińskich zwerbowanych na służbę niemiecką. +Strażnicy ukraińscy byli przeszkoleni w obozie szkoleniowym SS w Trawnikach, gdzie przygotowywał ich Erich Lachmann. Zorganizowani byli w 4 plutony dowodzone przez Volksdeutschów, którzy już wcześniej służyli w policji niemieckiej i mieli odpowiednie stopnie. Najbardziej znanym z nich był jakoby Iwan Demianiuk zwany "Iwanem Groźnym", za zbrodnie wojenne sądzony w Izraelu (ostatecznie uniewinniony z braku dowodów) oraz od 2009 roku w Niemczech. +Więźniowie i ofiary. +Liczba ofiar nie jest łatwa do ustalenia ze względu na niewielkie pozostałe archiwalia, szacunki wskazują na min. 250 000 Żydów. Pochodzili oni głównie z Lubelszczyzny, ale również z Galicji. Trafiały tu także transporty z innych okupowanych przez Niemcy krajów Europy Zachodniej i terenów na wschód, wśród nich 39 000 Żydów holenderskich. W ostatnich miesiącach skierowano tu transporty jeńców wojskowych - Żydów z Armii Czerwonej. Brak jest jednoznacznych dowodów na istnienie nieżydowskich ofiar. +Z transportów wydzielano czasem ludzi przeznaczonych do pracy przy zagładzie. W ten sposób około 600-700 osób pracowało w komandach przy sortowaniu mienia żydowskiego, opróżnianiu komór gazowych, paleniu zwłok, oraz w warsztatach i innych pracach obozowych. +Bunt Leśnego Komanda. +20 lipca 1943 roku zbuntowało się Leśne Komando ("Waldkommando"), grupa więźniów (20 Żydów polskich i 20 holenderskich) ścinających gałęzie na opał oraz do kamuflażu ogrodzenia obozu. Dwaj z nich, wysłani po wodę, zabili pilnującego ich ukraińskiego strażnika i zniknęli z jego karabinem, po czym, korzystając z powstałego zamieszania, zbuntowali się inni polscy więźniowie. W czasie ucieczki zastrzelono dwóch z nich, 13 schwytano wkrótce, ale trzem udało się zbiec. W ramach represji pozostali polscy więźniowie komanda zostali skatowani i rozstrzelani, a w przyszłości werbowano do niego tylko Żydów holenderskich. +Ruch oporu i powstanie w Sobiborze. +Na przełomie lipca i sierpnia 1943 zawiązała się w obozie organizacja podziemna pod przywództwem Leona Feldhendlera, byłego przewodniczącego Judenratu w getcie w Żółkwi. W jednym z ostatnich transportów z Mińska do obozu trafił Aleksander "Sasza" Peczerski, który wkrótce został przywódcą ruchu oporu, a Feldhendler został jego zastępcą. Plan zakładał, aby przed ucieczką zgładzić jak najwięcej spośród kluczowej rangi członków załogi SS, zwabiając ich w tym celu do warsztatów pod różnymi pretekstami, aby ich tam wtedy po kolei skrytobójczo zabić i ukryć ich ciała (zamierzano w ten sposób nie tylko dokonać zemsty na Niemcach, ale także, może przede wszystkim sparaliżować działania pozbawionych dowództwa strażników w czasie masowej ucieczki, a także zdobyć broń przyboczną ofiar). Rozpoczęcie buntu planowano na 13 października, jednak wybuch opóźniono z powodu niespodziewanego przybycia do obozu oddziału SS z obozu pracy w Ossowie. Następnego dnia na urlopie byli zarówno komendant Reichleitner jak i jego zastępca Wagner, a także zastępca szefa "Waldkommando" Hubert Gomerski. Ich nieobecność ośmieliła spiskowców i 14 października rozpoczęto działania. +Powstanie rozpoczęło się około godz. 15:30, gdy pełniący obowiązki zastępcy komendanta, SS-Untersturmführer Johann Niemann, odwiedził obozowy warsztat krawiecki, aby przymierzyć nowy mundur i został tam zabity siekierą. Zdołano zlikwidować także kilku innych esesmanów, m.in.: dowódcę kompanii strażników ukraińskich, SS-Scharführera Siegfrieda Graetschusa, operatora kolejki wąskotorowej wiozącej osoby starsze i inwalidów do komór gazowych, SS-Scharführera Josefa Vallastera, część nadzorców, w tym SS-Unterscharführerów Friedricha Gaulsticha, Waltera Rybę (przypadkowo, w garażu) i Josefa Wolfa (był bratem komendanta podobozu Lager III, Franza Wolfa), oraz kierownika obozowych magazynów, stajni i sortowni w Lager II, SS-Scharführera Kurta "Rudiego" Beckmanna (zasztyletowanego w jego własnym biurze). Wykradziono też kilka sztuk broni długiej z kwatery Ukraińców. Jednakże wkrótce do obozu niespodziewanie powrócił operator komór gazowych Erich Bauer (wcześniej wyjechał do Chełma po zaopatrzenie i tylko dzięki temu uniknął śmierci, jako że był na szczycie listy do likwidacji zaraz po komendantach), który odkrył pobieżnie ukryte zwłoki Beckmanna i wywołał alarm. Rozpoczęła się wówczas chaotyczna strzelanina, zakończona udaną ucieczką około 300 więźniów do lasu. W czasie buntu zginęło w sumie do kilkunastu członków załogi obozu (rodzinom zabitych Niemców przysłano informacje, że ich bliscy zginęli jakoby w walce z "bandytami", czyli partyzantką), a nadzorca "Waldkommando", SS-Oberscharführer Werner Dubois, został poważnie ranny i zdołał przeżyć jedynie udając zabitego. +Dowódca SS i Policji (SSPF) Lublina Jakob Sporrenberg przesłał swojemu sąsiadowi w Łucku, SSPF Wilhelmowi Güntherowi, wiadomość radiową, iż kilkuset Żydów wydostało się z obozu Sobibor. Podjęto wspólny pościg i ok. 100 uciekinierów zostało zabitych na miejscu lub złapanych i rozstrzelanych. Około 200 osobom ucieczka się jednak powiodła, a kilkadziesiąt z nich szczęśliwie doczekało końca wojny. +Likwidacja obozu. +Po powstaniu, Niemcy podjęli decyzję o całkowitej (zrównanie z ziemią i zatarcie śladów) likwidacji obozu, do czego wykorzystali około 100 więźniów przysłanych z Treblinki. Więźniowie ci, podobnie jak około 20 pozostałych wciąż przy życiu więźniów Sobiboru, zostali następnie rozstrzelani (za wyjątkiem głównego kapo Karla Blau wraz z żoną, którym pozwolono popełnić samobójstwo). +Upamiętnienie. +W 1965 został postawiony na terenie byłego obozu Pomnik Pamięci Ofiar, przedstawiający matkę z dzieckiem, oraz kopiec usypany ze szczątków ludzkich. W okresie PRL-u fakt znacznej przewagi liczebnej ofiar żydowskich był przemilczany; oficjalnie mówiono nie o Żydach (polskich, holenderskich, itd.), lecz o "ofiarach wielu narodowości". +W 1993, w pięćdziesiątą rocznicę buntu, utworzono Muzeum Byłego Hitlerowskiego Obozu Zagłady w Sobiborze, które stanowi dziś filię Państwowego Muzeum na Majdanku. Od 1999 prowadzone są na tym terenie badania archeologiczne, które dostarczają nowych informacji o zagładzie więźniów Sobiboru. +Na założonym w latach 60. cmentarzu w Cholonie w Izraelu znajduje się pomnik upamiętniający Żydów z Włodawy i okolic, którzy zginęli w obozie zagłady w Sobiborze. +W roku 1987 nakręcono brytyjski telewizyjny film fabularny Ucieczka z Sobiboru. +Bibliografia. +Wykaz bibliografii dla serii artykułów o niemieckich obozach w latach 1933-1945 został umieszczony na . +Frame Relay + +Frame Relay (FR) to sieć z komutacją pakietów, używana do łączenia odległych sieci lokalnych (LAN), przesyłania danych, obrazu i głosu oraz dostępu do Internetu. W tej technice informacja jest dzielona na ramki o zmiennej długości, które przenoszą dane między sieciami LAN, co pozwala na przekazywanie informacji między urządzeniami końcowymi sieci rozległych (WAN). +Frame Relay, a X.25. +Frame Relay, do chwili zdominowania sieci przez ATM, była bardzo powszechnym standardem sieciowym. Jej poprzedniczką jest sieć X.25, która została zaprojektowana dla sieci o dużej zawodności z dużą liczbą błędów. Sieć FR jest szybsza niż X.25, ponieważ wykorzystuje dużo prostszy mechanizm wykrywania i korekcji błędów. Protokół FR funkcjonuje w dwóch pierwszych warstwach modelu OSI/ISO, zaś X.25 sięga do warstwy sieciowej. +Wykrywanie i korekcja błędów. +Sieć FR wykrywa błędy nagłówka, formatu, jak i cyklicznego kodu nadmiarowego (CRC). Ramki z błędem są kasowane, a urządzenia końcowe są wyposażone w odpowiednie procedury powtarzania części sesji. +Struktura. +Sieć FR składa się z wielu urządzeń sieciowych połączonych kanałami fizycznymi, na których tworzone są ścieżki wirtualne (logiczne). Mogą być ustanawiane dynamicznie za pomocą odpowiednich sygnałów sygnalizacyjnych lub na stałe przy wstępnej konfiguracji sieci. Każdej ścieżce jest przydzielany unikatowy numer DLCI (ang. Data Link Connection Identifier). Przez jedno połączenie fizyczne może przebiegać wiele łączy wirtualnych. Pasmo każdego kanału fizycznego jest dynamicznie przydzielane między związane z nim łącza logiczne i zostaje przypisane dla danej ścieżki wtedy, gdy są nią przesyłane dane. +FR zapewnia połączenie typu full-duplex każdej parze urządzeń DTE. +Do tworzenia i usuwania ścieżek wirtualnych w Frame Relay są wykorzystywane odpowiednie prymitywy. Nazwy i funkcje najważniejszych z nich oraz ich zastosowanie w kolejnych krokach zestawiania i likwidacji połączenia wirtualnego zostały przedstawione w poniższych tabelach i rysunkach. +Roger Hollis + +Sir Roger Hollis (1905 - 1973), funkcjonariusz brytyjskich służb specjalnych, dyrektor generalny brytyjskiej służby bezpieczeństwa i kontrwywiadu MI5, od 1956 do 1965 roku, podejrzewany jako piąty członek Siatki szpiegowskiej Cambridge. +Urodzony w 1905] roku, syn biskupa anglikańskiego, rozpoczął studia w Oksfordzie, jednak zrezygnował z nich przed uzyskaniem dyplomu. W 1927 roku wyjechał do Chin jako pracownik British Tobacco Co. W 1934 roku zapadł na gruźlicę, w związku z czym powrócił do Europy. W 1938 roku został przyjęty do MI5 i skierowany do sekcji rozpracowującej Komunistyczną Partię Wielkiej Brytanii. Przez pewien czas Hollis pracował także w "Sekcji F", zajmującej się Związkiem Radzieckim i krajami satelickimi. Delegowany do Australii pomagał w utworzeniu "Agencji Wywiadu i Bezpieczeństwa" (Australian Security Intelligence Organisation - ASIO), a następnie kierował "Wydziałem C", odpowiedzialnym za wewnętrzne bezpieczeństwo MI5. W 1953 roku został zastępcą Dicka White'a, ówczesnego Dyrektora Generalnego MI5, następnie trzy lata później, w 1956 roku, Hollis stanął na czele MI5. Sprawował to stanowisko aż do swej emerytury, czyli do 1965 roku, w międzyczasie rozwiodła się z nim żona po 31 latach małżeństwa. Ożenił się wówczas ze swą sekretarką, z którą od dawna miał romans, co hipotetycznie mogło stanowić dla wywiadu podstawę szantażu. +W grudniu 1961 roku, Anatolij Golicyn wyznał, iż zbiegli 10 lat wcześniej do Związku Radzieckiego: Guy Burgess i Donald Maclean, byli członkami Siatki Cambridge. Trzecim okazał się Harold "Kim" Philby, a czwartym, służący w MI5 podczas II wojny światowej Anthony Blunt. Przesłuchujący go przez sześć lat oficer kontrwywiadu MI5 Peter Wright, doszedł na podstawie różnorakich poszlak do wniosku, że uporczywie poszukiwanym piątym członkiem siatki jest sir Roger Hollis. Początki jego zdrady musiały sięgać jego pobytu w Chinach. Wright był przekonany, że zwerbował go Richard Sorge. Według innych danych dokonać tego miały Ursula Kuszynski (ps: "Sonia") i współpracująca z nią Agnes Smedly. Drobiazgowe śledztwo nie odkryło wszakże żadnych powiązań Hollisa z Sorgem. Nie ustalono również aby miał jakikolwiek związek z przeciekami z MI5. Co więcej, za jego kadencji udało się wpaść na trop szpiega George'a Blake'a i Gordona Londsdale'a. Wszystko to nie przekonało Wrighta. Przez pewien czas wahał się, czy (piątym) szpiegiem nie jest wicedyrektor MI5 Graham Mitchell, wsześniejszy szef kontrwywiadu agencji. +W swojej książce "Spy catcher" (1987) ("Łowca szpiegów", 1991) stwierdził - +Od początku 1964 roku nabraliśmy z Arthurem (Martinem - wyższym oficerem kontrwywiadu MI5) przekonania, że szpiegiem, który działa na wysokim szczeblu wewnątrz MI5, jest raczej Hollis niż Mitchell. +Często nie sposób dowieść własnej niewinności. Nie znaleziono jednak żadnego dowodu, który by go obciążał, a zatem wyniki przeprowadzonego śledztwa uprawniają do konkluzji, iż Hollis nie był agentem radzieckiego wywiadu. +Premier odniosła się następnie do pracy Pinchera, stwierdzając iż podane w niej fakty są znane władzom bezpieczeństwa, a ich interpretacja jest stronnicza lub fałszywa. +Mimo to Peter Wright opublikował w 1987 roku wspomienia, których znaczna część poświęcona jest udowadnianiu agenturalnej działalności Hollisa. Efektem sprawy był głęboki rozłam w brytyjskich tajnych służbach, który rozpoczął się w latach siedemdziesiątych. Podzielił on funkcjonariuszy MI5 na zwolenników tezy Petera Wrighta i na jego przeciwników, przekonanych iż Hollis padł ofiarą spisku i rozgrywek personalnych. +Roger Hollis zmarł w 1973 roku, kontrowersje czy był agentem KGB ciągną się do dziś. +Krajina + +Krajina − region na Półwyspie Bałkańskim, głównie na terytorium Chorwacji, przy granicy Bośni. Stanowi swoisty pomost między rolniczą północą, a wybrzeżem Chorwacji – jest większą częścią tzw. "Chorwacji Centralnej". +Kilkadziesiąt kilometrów na południe od Zagrzebia ukształtowanie terenu zmienia się wyraźnie - rozpoczynają się góry, ciągnące się stąd aż do samego Morza Adriatyckiego. Na południe od Karlovaca jest rzadko zaludniona. Nie jest to teren rolniczy ani typowo przemysłowy. Nie ma tutaj znaczących ośrodków miejskich. +Zamieszkiwana w większości przez Serbów, stanowiła jeden z obszarów zapalnych współczesnego konfliktu bałkańskiego. Wiele miejscowości jest nadal zniszczonych po działaniach wojennych na jej terenie w latach 1991 - 1995. +Po ogłoszeniu przez Chorwację niepodległości 25 czerwca 1991 Serbowie ogłosili powstanie własnego państwa - Republiki Serbskiej Krajiny, jednak w wyniku przeprowadzonej w 1995 roku akcji "Oluja" wypędzonych zostało 200 tysięcy Serbów, za co odpowiedzialny jest chorwacki generał Ante Gotovina. W roku 1995, Krajina została zajęta przez wojska chorwackie. Republika znalazła się pod administracją ONZ. 7 lutego 1997 Krajina oficjalnie została na nowo włączona do Chorwacji. Oddziały ONZ zakończyły swoją misję 18 stycznia 1998. +Chorwaci niechętnie wracają na te ziemie. Choć są to ciekawe tereny, turystycznie pozostają jednak w cieniu wybrzeża. +Wojna z terroryzmem + +Wojna z terroryzmem – termin wprowadzony do polityki zagranicznej Stanów Zjednoczonych przez rząd George'a W. Busha po zamachach na World Trade Center i Pentagon z 11 września 2001. +Termin ten używany jest na określenie prowadzonych przez USA oraz inne państwa działań mających na celu unieszkodliwienie międzynarodowych grup terrorystycznych (głównie grup radykalnie islamistycznych, z których najważniejszą jest Al-Kaida) oraz uniemożliwienie tzw. państwom zbójeckim wspierania ich. +Jak dotąd, najważniejsze akcje przeprowadzone w ramach wojny z terroryzmem to obalenie reżimu talibów w Afganistanie oraz inwazja na Irak. +Przebieg wojny. +Zamach z 11 września 2001 roku. +11 września 2001 roku doszło do serii ataków terrorystycznych na terytorium USA. 19 zamachowców przejęło kontrolę nad czterema samolotami pasażerskimi i skierowało je przeciwko znanym amerykańskim budynkom. Dwa spośród porwanych samolotów rozbiły się o bliźniacze wieże World Trade Center w Nowym Jorku. W wyniku kolizji oba wieżowce zawaliły się. Trzeci samolot zniszczył część Pentagonu. Spośród porwanych maszyn tylko United Airlines 93 nie dotarł do celu – rozbił się na polach Pensylwanii ok. 15 min. lotu od Waszyngtonu. Przypuszcza się, że miał uderzyć w Biały Dom lub Kapitol. Maszyna nie doleciała do celu, ponieważ pasażerowie, którzy dowiedzieli się o losie innych samolotów, zaatakowali porywaczy i doprowadzili do katastrofy na bezludnym terenie. W zamachach śmierć poniosły 2973 osoby oraz wszyscy porywacze. +Wojna w Afganistanie. +Rząd amerykański oskarżył o zamachy z 11 września Al-Kaidę – organizację terrorystyczną kierowaną przez Osamę bin Ladena. Według USA Al-Kaida miała swoją siedzibę i bazy szkoleniowe w Afganistanie. Prezydent Bush postawił Talibanowi ultimatum, w którym żądał m.in. wydania Stanom Zjednoczonym Osamy bin Ladena. Ultimatum zostało odrzucone, więc 7 października 2001 roku amerykańskie oraz brytyjskie siły powietrzne rozpoczęły bombardowanie wyznaczonych celów w Afganistanie. W operację zaangażowały się siły NATO, ponieważ zgodnie z art. 5 Traktatu o NATO uznano, że zamach z 11 września był atakiem na jednego z członków Paktu. W skład koalicji ISAF weszło ponad 40 państw oraz opozycyjny do talibów Sojusz Północny. +Inwazja doprowadziła do obalenia reżimu talibów, ale jednocześnie stała się początkiem długiej wojny partyzanckiej. Wielu złapanych bojowników Al-Kaidy zostało przetransportowanych do więzienia Guantanamo na Kubie, gdzie według organizacji humanitarnych byli poddawani torturom i poniżającemu traktowaniu. +Wojna w Iraku. +Po zamachach z 11 września administracja amerykańska zaczęła oskarżać Irak o posiadanie broni masowego rażenia i wspieranie terroryzmu. 29 stycznia 2002 roku prezydent Bush wygłosił orędzie, w którym zaliczył Irak do tzw. Osi zła. Od tego momentu rozpoczęły się przygotowania do wojny. Pomimo poważnych wątpliwości prawnych i sprzeciwu Chin, Rosji i Francji, inwazja rozpoczęła się 20 marca 2003 roku. Koalicja składała się głównie z wojsk USA i Wielkiej Brytanii, ale też jednostek australijskich, hiszpańskich i polskich. Po ok. trzech tygodniach walk siły międzynarodowe objęły kontrolę nad większością terytorium Iraku, obalając rząd tworzony przez partię Baas i Saddama Husajna. Formalny koniec inwazji nastąpił 1 maja 2003 roku. +Saddam Husjan został złapany i postawiony przed irackim trybunałem za zbrodnie przeciwko ludzkości. Sąd skazał byłego prezydenta Iraku na śmierć przez powieszenie. Wyrok wykonano 26 grudnia 2006 roku. +W latach 2003–2010 siły międzynarodowe prowadziły operacje zbrojne przeciwko partyzantom i terrorystom. 19 sierpnia 2010 roku amerykańskie wojska bojowe ostatecznie opuściły Irak. Wycofanie wszystkich sił zbrojnych nastąpiło w grudniu 2011 roku. W walkach i zamachach zginęło ponad 4800 żołnierzy koalicyjnych (w większości Amerykanów), kilkadziesiąt tysięcy cywilów i trudna do oszacowania liczba partyzantów. +Wojna w Pakistanie. +Granica afgańsko-pakistańska była od początku inwazji na Afganistan miejscem walk pomiędzy radykalnymi islamskimi ugrupowaniami często powiązanymi z Al-Kaida, a rządem Pakistanu. Po roku 2001 do walk przyłączyli się talibowie, mający w Pakistanie swoje kryjówki. Do zwalczania bojowników przystąpiły będące w sojuszu z Pakistanem wojska amerykańskie. Formalnie za moment rozpoczęcia wojny uznaje się marzec 2004 roku. Najcięższe walki toczone są o Waziristan. +2 maja 2011 roku amerykańscy komandosi zabili Osamę bin Ladena po 40-minutowej wymianie ognia w jego rezydencji w miejscowości Abbottabad (ok. 60 km na północny wschód od Islamabadu). +Zamachy terrorystyczne po roku 2001. +Do wielu ataków doszło też w trakcie wojen w Afganistanie, Iraku i Pakistanie. +Krytyka. +Krytycy polityki USA twierdzą, iż w rzeczywistości termin ten jest chwytem propagandowym stosowanym w celu usankcjonowania ograniczania swobód obywatelskich przez administrację Busha oraz mającym dać zielone światło do działań militarnych w dowolnych miejscach na świecie. Zwracają oni także uwagę na liczne ofiary cywilne spowodowane działaniami wojennymi. Stosowanie podwójnych standardów moralnych zarzuca amerykańskiej polityce wojny z terroryzmem Joseph Farah, redaktor konserwatywnej witryny WorldNetDaily, autor pomysłu T-shirta ze zdjęciem grupy Indian i napisami: "Homeland Security" i "Fighting terrorism since 1492". Twierdzi on, że zarówno w 1492 jak i obecnie doszło do tego samego zjawiska zderzenia kultur. +Pod rządami prezydenta Baracka Obamy w oficjalnej terminologii zwrot ten ma zostać zastąpiony określeniem "Zagraniczne Operacje Kryzysowe" (ang. "Overseas Contingency Operation"), co w swojej wypowiedzi potwierdziła sekretarz stanu, Hillary Clinton. +Orzech (element kuszy) + +W zależności od siły naciągu kuszy, stosowane były różne orzechy. +Orzech osadzony jest na stałej osi, przechodzącej przez łoże kuszy. +W jego dolnej części znajduje się wyżłobienie, w które wchodzi przedłużenie języka spustowego. +W górnej części znajdują się haki, trzymające cięciwę. +W momencie naciśnięcia języka spustowego, jego przedłużenie zostaje wysunięte z wyżłobienia orzecha, co umożliwia jego obrót pod wpływem cięciwy. Poprzez obrót, haki zsuwają się z cięciwy, powodując jej uwolnienie i wystrzelenie bełtu. +Przez środek orzecha biegnie wyżłobienie, mające na celu utrzymanie kontaktu bełtu z cięciwą przez cały czas. +Wyspy Heard i McDonalda + +Wyspy Heard i McDonalda to dwie niezamieszkane wyspy położone na Oceanie Południowym , mniej więcej w 2/3 drogi pomiędzy Madagaskarem i Antarktyką. Należą do Australii od 1947. Geologicznie, są wyspami wulkanicznymi i stanowią wynurzoną część Płaskowyżu Kergueleńskiego. +Wyspa Heard jest bardzo górzysta i niegościnna, najwyższy szczyt wyspy Mawson Peak (2745 m n.p.m.) to także najwyższa góra Australii. Wyspy McDonalda są małe i kamieniste. Łączna powierzchnia wysp wchodzących w skład terytorium wynosi około 412 km². Na żadnej z wysp nie ma przystani ani portu. +Wyspy jako terytoria należące do Australii administrowane są z Canberry przez urząd ds. Australijskiego Terytorium Antarktycznego i ministerstwo ds. Ochrony Środowiska. Wyspy są zamieszkane przez różne gatunki fok i ptaków. Jedynymi gośćmi na wyspach są zazwyczaj naukowcy, prowadzący tam różnego rodzaju badania. +Wyspy nie mają żadnej gospodarki, ale otrzymały własny kod kraju (HM) i mają własną domenę internetową .hm. +Historia. +Wyspa Hearda została odkryta 27 grudnia 1833 przez brytyjskiego myśliwego polującego na foki, Petera Kempa, w czasie wyprawy z Kergulen na Antarktykę, który naniósł ją na swoją mapę nawigacyjną. Powszechnie uważa się, że do tego czasu nie stanęła na niej ludzka stopa. Kapitan John Heard, dowódca statku "Oriental", odkrył ją niezależnie 27 listopada 1853 i nazwał swoim imieniem. Nieco później, 4 stycznia 1854, kapitan William McDonald odkrył niedaleko położone Wyspy McDonalda. +Pomimo ich odkrycia, nikt nie zdecydował się na przybicie do żadnej z tych wysp, aż do marca 1855, kiedy zrobili to myśliwi ze statku "Corinthian" pod dowództwem kapitana Erasmusa Darwina Rogersa. W latach 1855-1880 na wyspach przebywali amerykańscy marynarze polujący na foki. Do 1880 większość mieszkających tam fok została wybita i myśliwi opuścili te tereny. +Wyspy zostały wpisane na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO w 1997. +Niagara-on-the-Lake + +Niagara-on-the-Lake – miasto (ang. "town") w Kanadzie, w prowincji Ontario, w regionie Niagara. Miasto jest położone w rogu uformowanym przez jezioro Ontario i wpływającą do niego rzekę Niagara która tworzy granicę między Kanadą i USA. +Po drugiej, amerykańskiej stronie rzeki jest zabytkowy Fort Niagara. Wodospad Niagara leży około 20 km na południe od miasta. +Liczba mieszkańców Niagara-on-the-Lake wynosi 14 587. Język angielski jest językiem ojczystym dla 74,5%, francuski dla 1,6% mieszkańców (2006). +Niagara-on-the-Lake jest jednym z najstarszych miast w prowincji Ontario. Najpierw znane jako Butlersburg, otrzymało prawa miasteczka w 1781 pod nazwą Newark. Pierwszymi osadnikami byli Lojaliści, uchodzący ze Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Miasto zostało pierwszą stolicą Górnej Kanady, późniejszej prowincji Ontario. Pierwszy parlament prowincjalny spotkał się w mieście w 1792. Niedługo potem, w 1796, stolicę przeniesiono do Yorku, późniejszego Toronto. Wtedy miasto zmieniło nazwę z Newark na Niagara. Około roku 1900 oficjalnie zmieniono nazwę na obecną, by uniknąć pomyłek z nazwą pobliskiego miasta Niagara Falls. +W czasie wojny brytyjsko-amerykańskiej miejsce zaciętych walk, głównie o znajdujący się obok miasta Fort George. 27 maja 1813 Amerykanie zdobyli fort i miasto, utrzymując się w nim prawie do końca roku. W grudniu 1813 Amerykanie wycofując się z miasta spalili je. Po odzyskaniu miasta Brytyjczycy zbudowali niedaleko zrujnowanego starego fortu nowy, mniejszy Fort Mississauga. Zrekonstruowany w latach 30. i 40., Fort George jest obecnie otwarty dla turystów jako muzeum. Fort Mississauga jest dobrze zachowaną ruiną, również dostępną do zwiedzania. +Podczas I wojny światowej pod miasteczkiem funkcjonował Tadeusz Kosciuszko Camp - ośrodek szkoleniowy dla polskich ochotników do armii polskiej organizowanej przez państwa Ententy która później była znana jako Armia Błękitna pod dowództwem generała Hallera. W ośrodku przeszkolono ogółem 23 tys. żołnierzy. +W 1918 epidemia grypy zabrała życie 41 rekrutów, z których 25 za zgodą władz zostało pochowanych na ziemi w pobliżu centrum szkoleniowego. Tak powstał najprawdopodobniej jedyny polski cmentarz wojskowy na terenie Ameryki Północnej. Tradycyjnie w czerwcu każdego roku odbywają się na cmentarzu uroczystości pamiątkowe które przyciągają Polonię z całego Ontario i wschodnich Stanów Zjednoczonych. +27 listopada 1923 generał broni Józef Haller, w obecności doktora Michała Straszewskiego, konsula generalnego w Montrealu, odznaczył pomnik polskich żołnierzy Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Wojskowego Virtuti Militari. +Miasteczko jest dziś dużą atrakcją turystyczną. Jego położenie nieco na uboczu i stara architektura tworzą miły kontrast z raczej kiczowatą zabudową zatłoczonego Niagara Falls. W mieście co roku odbywa się festiwal teatralny Shaw Festival. +Guzki krwawnicze + +Żylaki odbytu (łac. "varices haemorrhoidales"; ang. "hemorrhoids"), hemoroidy, guzki krwawnicze – poszerzone, często nabrzmiałe żyły splotu odbytniczego. +Leczenie. +Żylaki we wczesnym stadium leczy się farmakologicznie, przy czym jest to wyłącznie leczenie objawowe. Pacjentom zaleca się również zmianę stylu życia, unikanie zaparć – przez zwiększenie podaży błonnika lub stosowanie łagodnych środków przeczyszczających, szczególnie zmiękczających i pęczniejących. Większe żylaki odbytu można usuwać operacyjnie. +W leczeniu i zapobieganiu hemoroidom istotną rolę odgrywa higiena. Zaleca się mycie okolic odbytu po każdym wypróżnieniu, używanie miękkiego papieru toaletowego oraz noszenie naturalnej, przewiewnej bielizny. +Operacyjne usunięcie żylaków. +Metod jest wiele, najpopularniejsza to zabieg Milligana-Morgana. Wszystkie klasyczne metody operacyjne są bardzo bolesne i mało skuteczne. Wśród metod operacyjnych na największą uwagę zasługuje zabieg Morinagi polegający na odszukaniu specjalną sondą ultrasonograficzną naczyń doprowadzających krew do guzków krwawniczych i ich podkłucie. W zasadzie jest to jedyna "bezbolesna" metoda w tej grupie i jednocześnie bardzo skuteczna, jednak droga i mało dostępna. +Chirurgiczne metody małoinwazyjne. +Metoda Barrona, tzw. "gumki" – bardzo popularna szczególnie w połączeniu z wymrażaniem lub fotokoagulacją. Sklerotyzacja naczyń tworzących guzki, wymrażanie, fotokoagulacja, fotokoagulacja laserowa, "Liga Sure", koagulacja bipolarna – to kolejne metody małoinwazyjne. Za najmniej inwazyjną uważa się koagulację jednobiegunową, znaną pod nazwą ULTROID w USA i HEMORON w Europie. Dwie ostatnie metody różnią się od siebie w nieistotnych szczegółach, obie są niezwykle skuteczne, tanie i coraz bardziej dostępne. +Hemoroidy w ciąży. +Główną przyczyną powstawania hemoroidów w czasie ciąży są częste problemy z regularnym wypróżnianiem się oraz ucisk macicy na jelita. Zwiększeniu zaparć sprzyjają stosowane w leczeniu niedokrwistości ciężarnych preparaty żelaza. W czasie porodu występuje również bardzo duże ciśnienie w miednicy mniejszej, które może doprowadzić do powstania oraz przemieszczania się hemoroidów. Niestety niewskazane jest stosowanie niektórych leków na hemoroidy w czasie ciąży, dlatego bardzo ważne jest aby zasięgnąć porady lekarza specjalisty. W zapobieganiu hemoroidom ważne jest regularne wypróżnianie się oraz aktywność fizyczna. Warto również stosować dietę bogatą w błonnik a także jak najmniej czasu spędzać w pozycji siedzącej. +Buzdygan + +Buzdygan (węg. "bozdogan" - pałka, tur. - maczuga) – broń obuchowa pochodzenia wschodniego, metalowa głowica osadzona na trzonku o długości ok. 60 cm. Trzonek był drewniany, okuty blachą lub całkowicie metalowy, czasami z ukrytym wewnątrz sztyletem (odmiana perska). Głowica zbudowana była z piór (najczęściej 6 do 8, choć były buzdygany o ponad 20 piórach) promieniście rozchodzących się od drzewca. Pióra w jej formie bojowej miały kształt trójkątny lub trapezowy, zwężający się ku dołowi. W wersji paradnej pióra bywały zaokrąglone, obite srebrną lub złotą blachą, wysadzane klejnotami. +Liczne odmiany można było spotkać na obszarze od Chin do Francji, a w Europie występowały od X do XV w., używane zarówno przez piechotę, jak i jazdę. Na Rusi znany był również jako "sześciopiór". W Polsce od XVI do XVIII wieku stanowił oznakę władzy oficerskiej w kawalerii narodowego autoramentu: rotmistrzów, pułkowników, poruczników i chorążych. +Wykorzystywana także w Ameryce Południowej między innymi w Państwie Inków. +Od roku 1992 czasopismo "Polska Zbrojna" przyznaje raz w roku nagrodę "Buzdygany" dla wyróżniających się osobowości, osobom związanym z obronnością - oficerom, politykom, dziennikarzom i przemysłowcom, wszystkim tym, którzy twórczo zmieniają otaczającą ich rzeczywistość, przyczyniając się do rozwoju Wojska Polskiego i wzrostu obronności. +Jądro monolityczne + +Jądro monolityczne – rodzaj jądra systemu operacyjnego, w którym większa część funkcji jądra zaimplementowana jest w pojedynczym obrazie pamięci, który ładowany jest na stałe do pamięci komputera przez bootloader. Zdarza się jednak, że do jądra monolitycznego (zwanego wtedy modularnym) dopisywana jest możliwość ładowania modułów, które jednak nie realizują najbardziej podstawowych funkcji jądra. +Jądro monolityczne cechuje się wyższą wydajnością niż mikrojądro, zwłaszcza w systemach jednoprocesorowych oraz przy obciążaniu systemu tylko jednym procesem. +Z drugiej strony awaria (np. błąd programisty) w dowolnym miejscu jądra monolitycznego może spowodować awarię całego systemu (np. błędne żądanie dostępu do pamięci w sterowniku każdego, nawet nieistotnego urządzenia, może zniszczyć dane na dysku, albo "zawiesić" cały system), przez co testowanie tych jąder (szczególnie sterowników urządzeń) jest czasochłonne i skomplikowane, a ewentualne luki mogą często być wykorzystane przez crackerów do łamania zabezpieczeń. +Tworzenie systemów czasu rzeczywistego przy pomocy jądra monolitycznego choć możliwe, jest zwykle trudniejsze niż w mikrojądrach, z powodu konieczności zagwarantowania ograniczeń czasowych przez wszystkie komponenty (zwykle przy wykorzystaniu wywłaszczania mało ważnych komponentów, oraz unikanie blokad w postaci semaforów). +Postęp w architekturze mikrojąder, wzrost wydajności komputerów, problemy bezpieczeństwa w jądrach monolitycznych oraz wzrost komplikacji i rozmiaru ich kodu (szczególnie w systemach współbieżnych i czasu rzeczywistego), spowodowały że mikrojądra są coraz częściej wybierane przy tworzeniu systemów operacyjnych (np. Singularity - mikrojądro w języku C#). +Alice Springs + +Alice Springs – miasto położone w Terytorium Północnym w Australii. Według spisu ludności z (2006), zamieszkuje je 21 622 osób – jest to drugie co do wielkości miasto Terytorium Północnego. W języku angielskim, szczególnie w Australii, nazywa się je często "the Alice". Tereny na których się znajduje są nazywane przez zamieszkujące je plemię aborygeńskie Ardente "Mparntwe". +Alice Springs jest najbardziej znane z powieści Nevila Shute’a "Miasteczko jak Alice", w odległości 400 kilometrów od niego znajduje się także słynne Uluru. +Pierwsza nazwa miasta to Stuart, zostało założone jako przystanek dla podróżujących z północy na południe na grzbietach wielbłądów osadników. Zbudowano wtedy stację telegraficzną niedaleko źródła Alice, nazwanego tak na cześć żony sir Charlesa Todda, poczmistrza generalnego Australii Południowej, na cześć którego z kolei nazwano (zazwyczaj suchą) rzekę Todd River. W 1929 do miasta dotarła linia kolejowa (zwana dziś The Ghan) z Adelaide (w 2004 przedłużona do Darwin). W 1933 po długotrwałej debacie zmieniono nazwę miasta na Alice Springs, niemniej droga prowadząca z Adelajdy do Darwin i przechodząca przez Alice nadal nosi nazwę "autostrada Stuart". +Położone niemal dokładnie w środku kontynentu australijskiego, Alice Springs znajduje się 700 km od najbliższego oceanu i 1500 km od innego, dużego miasta. W Alice Springs funkcjonuje także regionalny port lotniczy. +W leżącym w pobliżu Pine Gap znajduje się ważna stacja radarowa i wczesnego ostrzegania obsługiwana przez armię amerykańską i australijską, w której pracuje ponad 700 osób. +Stanisław Kozubski + +Stanisław Kozubski (ur. 21 kwietnia 1889 w Młodzikowie, zm. 24 marca 1935 w Chorzowie) – robotnik polski, działacz polityczny i związkowy, poseł na Sejm III kadencji w II RP. +Życiorys. +Pochodził z rodziny robotniczej. Po śmierci ojca jako 17-latek wyjechał do Westfalii w poszukiwaniu pracy; był robotnikiem górniczym i hutniczym w Dortmundzie. Od 1910 działał w emigracyjnym Zjednoczeniu Zawodowym Polskim. Podczas I wojny światowej walczył na froncie francuskim. +W 1920 powrócił do Polski. Nadal działał w Zjednoczeniu Zawodowym Polskim, wchodził w skład jego władz lokalnych. W 1930 z ramienia Katolickiego Bloku Ludowego (jako reprezentant Narodowej Partii Robotniczej, w której klubie zasiadał i do której programu od 1933 pozostawał w opozycji) został wybrany na posła na Sejm RP, w parlamencie występował wielokrotnie w sprawach robotniczych. +Życie prywatne. +Syn Kazimierza i Marii z domu Świerkowskiej. Z małżeństwa z Rozalią Szajek miał pięcioro dzieci (Cecylię, Romana, Jana, Antoninę i Mieczysławę). +Feliks Stamm + +Feliks "Papa" Stamm (ur. 14 grudnia 1901 w Kościanie, zm. 2 kwietnia 1976 w Warszawie) – polski trener bokserski. +Biografia. +W latach 1923-1926 zawodnik klubu Pentatlon Poznań. Stoczył 13 oficjalnych walk (11 zwycięstw, 1 remis, 1 porażka) oraz około 30 walk pokazowych. Od 1926 trener boksu w Warcie Poznań, od 1932 wykładowca w Centralnym Instytucie Wychowania Fizycznego (dzisiejsza AWF) w Warszawie, od 1936 samodzielny trener polskiej reprezentacji bokserskiej. Wcześniej pomagał zagranicznym trenerom kadry Polski w przygotowaniach m.in. do pierwszego w historii oficjalnego meczu międzypaństwowego z Austrią (1928). +Jako trener siedmiokrotnie uczestniczył w igrzyskach olimpijskich (od 1936 do 1968). 14 razy prowadził Polskę w turniejach o mistrzostwo Europy. Ponad 130 razy stał w narożniku w czasie oficjalnych meczów międzypaństwowych. +Wychowawca i trener kilkudziesięciu bokserów, mistrzów oraz medalistów olimpijskich, świata i Europy. Należą do nich: Zygmunt Chychła, Kazimierz Paździor, Jerzy Kulej, Jan Szczepański, Józef Grudzień, Marian Kasprzyk, Aleksy Antkiewicz, Zbigniew Pietrzykowski, Leszek Drogosz, Tadeusz Walasek, Jerzy Adamski, Artur Olech, Zdzisław Soczewiński. Bogdan Węgrzyniak +Corocznie w Warszawie odbywa się międzynarodowy Turniej im. Feliksa Stamma. +Przez 13 lat, od 1945 do 1958 roku mieszkał wraz z żoną i czwórką dzieci przy ul. Jasnej 23/6 w Bydgoszczy. Przez pierwsze dwa miesiące prowadził zawodników ZWM Zryw Bydgoszcz, a następnie drużynę KS Zjednoczeni Bydgoszcz. Z końcem 1946 roku podjął pracę na stanowisku szefa wyszkolenia w Polskim Związku Bokserskim w Poznaniu, dokąd dojeżdżał z grodu nad Brdą. Jego imieniem nazwano ulicę na bydgoskim Fordonie. +Miał syna Ryszarda, nauczyciela wychowania fizycznego w IV Liceum Ogólnokształcącym w Bydgoszczy. +Ułan + +Ułan (ang. Uhlan, niem. Ulan) – żołnierz jazdy lekkiej uzbrojonej w lance, szable oraz broń palną, charakterystycznej głównie dla kawalerii polskiej. +Pochodzenie nazwy. +Nazwa ułan wywodzi się z języka Tatarów polskich, którzy mieszkali w granicach I Rzeczypospolitej. Jazda z tradycjami ułańskimi wywodzi się od Mongołów i Tatarów, u których "oghłan" albo "ułan" oznaczał "młodzieńca", "junaka". Według Piotra Borawskiego słowo "ułan" było też tytułem przysługującego arystokracji. Arystokracja spokrewniona z rodem Czyngis-chana nosiła tytuł Sołtan. Od końca XIV w. przedstawiciele owych rodów arystokratycznych osiedlali się w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim, często zachowując tenże tytuł (zobacz "Tatarzy w Polsce"). Jedna z gałęzi rodu Assańczukowiczów przekształciła ten tytuł w nazwisko – Ułan. Pułk Aleksandra Ułana (8 chorągwi) stanął po stronie Augusta II w czasie wojny domowej 1715-1716, w nagrodę za wierność w 1717 monarcha przeniósł pułk ze służby koronnej na żołd w armii saskiej. Po śmierci Ułana dowódcą pułku został Czymbaj Murza Rudnicki a później Józef Bielak, ale pułk nazywano nadal "wojskiem ułanowy". Podczas wojny o austriacką sukcesję (1740-1748) i podczas wojny siedmioletniej (1756-1763) wszystkie pułki jazdy tatarskiej, złożone z tatarskich mieszkańców Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego uzbrojonych w lance, szable oraz krótką broń palną, zaczęto nazywać "ułanami". Po rozbiorach Polski nazwa formacji ułańskich, a także nazwy poszczególnych elementów ich uzbrojenia zostały później przejęte z języka polskiego i funkcjonują w innych językach na zachodzie europy po dzień dzisiejszy. +Według Piotra Jaźwińskiego nazwa ułan wzięła się od nazwiska pułkownika Mohammeda Ułana z czasów Stefana Batorego – dowódcy chorągwi lekkiej jazdy Rzeczypospolitej, podobnie jak nazwa lisowczyków wzięła się od nazwiska jej pierwszego dowódcy – Aleksandra Lisowskiego. +Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodów. +Chociaż neutralna Rzeczpospolita nie brała udziału w wojnie siedmioletniej, to jednak dwa pułki ułańskie (jazdy tatarskiej) generała Czymbaja Murzy Rudnickiego oraz pułkownika Samuela Mustafy Koryckiego brały udział w tejże wojnie, dzielnie walcząc na polach Niemiec oraz Czech. Tatarzy Litewscy nieodrodnie są związani z polską tradycją ułańską aż do jej końca, dając Ojczyźnie tak znakomitych ułanów jak Józef Bielak, Aleksander Mustafa Korycki, Samuel Ułan, Joachim Murza Korycki, oraz Aleksander Jeljaszewicz. +Król Stanisław August Poniatowski założył pułk ułanów królewskich jako część swojej gwardii przybocznej, noszących rogatywki, kurtki z wyłogami, spodnie z lampasami, uzbrojonych w lance, pistolety oraz szable. Te elementy umundurowania i uzbrojenia stały się tradycyjnie charakterystyczne dla tej formacji. Pod koniec XVIII w. w armiach państw zaborczych, Austrii, Prus i Rosji, zaczęły pojawiać się pułki ułańskie wzorowane na polskich ułanach. W okresie wojen napoleońskich polscy ułani na służbie francuskiej (ułani Legionów Polskich we Włoszech oraz później ułani Legii Nadwiślańskiej) rozpowszechnili strój ułański w Europie, gdzie powstały formacje lansjerów umundurowane oraz uzbrojone na polski wzór. Do krajów, w których pojawiły się tego rodzaju jednostki, zaliczyć można: Wielką Brytanię, Rzeszę (od 1870 Niemcy) Francję, Hiszpanię, Włochy i kilka państw południowoamerykańskich. Od 1795 Prusy posiadały słynny pułk Towarzyszy, którego zalążkiem był pułk Tatarów litewskich pod dowództwem Janusza Murzy Tuhan-Baranowskiego. +Rozbiory i zabory. +"Więc kto chce rozkoszy użyć niech w ułany idzie służyć." – Pieśń Szwadronu Wąsowicza +W czasach Rozbiorów Polski, pułki ułańskie dzielnie stawały w wojnie polsko-rosyjskiej 1792, oraz w powstaniu kościuszkowskim w 1794, którą notabene rozpoczął marsz I Wielkopolskiej Brygady Kawalerii Narodowej brygadiera Antoniego Madalińskiego. Po powstaniu Księstwa Warszawskiego i zakończeniu kampanii w 1807 większość oficerów oraz żołnierzy pułku Towarzyszy przeszła na służbę polską. W czasie Księstwa Warszawskiego stworzono 10 pułków ułańskich w ciągu 5 lat (1807-1812), a po zajęciu Litwy przez Napoleona stworzono kolejne pułki ułańskie na Litwie które dostały numerację według pułków kawalerii Księstwa Warszawskiego. W armii Królestwa Kongresowego powstały również 4 pułki ułańskie wchodzące w skład ułańskiej dywizji kawalerii ze sztabem w Lublinie. W czasie powstania listopadowego i styczniowego formacje ułanów były obecne w armiach oraz oddziałach powstańczych. I Brygada Legionów Polskich Komendanta Józefa Piłsudskiego jako pierwsza posiadała formację ułańską wzorowaną na Ułanach Nadwiślańskich pod dowództwem Władysława Beliny-Prażmowskiego tzw. ułani Beliny. Ułani Beliny jako pierwszy oddział Legionów Piłsudskiego – Wojska Polskiego wkroczyli z zaboru austriackiego do okupowanego przez Rosjan Królestwa Polskiego w 1914. Ułani Legionów brali udział w walkach I wojny światowej, wykonując słynną szarżę na okopane za drutami kolczastymi pułki rosyjskie pod Rokitną pod dowództwem rotmistrza Dunina-Wąsowicza 15 czerwca 1915. W polskich formacjach w armii rosyjskiej walczył pułk ułanów, znany później jako pierwszy, który pod dowództwem płk. Bolesława Mościckiego wsławił się obroną Stanisławowa przed maruderami rosyjskimi oraz słynną szarżą na bataliony niemieckie oraz austriackie pod Krechowcami 24 lipca 1918. Inny zalążek przyszłego pułku 6 wsławił się szarżą pod Kaniowem przeciwko oddziałom armii niemieckiej ale II Korpus Polski generała Hallera bitwę tę przegrał 11 maja 1918. +II Rzeczpospolita. +W 1918 r. w odrodzonym państwie polskim, w tworzonym właśnie Wojsku Polskim powołano pułki ułańskie, zachowując rogatywkę oraz lance. Podobne jednostki istniały też w armii Hallera oraz armii powstania wielkopolskiego. Oprócz pułków ułańskich, wywodzących się z jednostek polskich utworzonych w Rosji, kawalerii wielkopolskiej lub nowo formowanych już w Polsce, utworzono trzy pułki szwoleżerów, wywodzące się z jazdy Legionów Polskich oraz 10 pułków strzelców konnych, nazywanych początkowo też dragonami, utworzonych głównie z jednostek armii polskiej we Francji. Te trzy formacje kawalerii różniły się jedynie tradycjami i elementami umundurowania; najliczniejsze były pułki ułanów, którym to mianem mylnie i w uproszczeniu określa się czasami całą polską kawalerię przedwojenną. Wszystkie te formacje kawalerii używały karabinków, szabel i lanc. Pułki kawalerii polskiej walczyły o odradzające się państwo polskie w latach 1918-1921. Ułani 14 pułku kawalerii rozstrzygnęły trzydniową bitwę z armią ukraińską pod Jazłowcem 13 lipca 1919. Ułani oraz szwoleżerowie drugiej dywizji jazdy płk. Juliusza Rómmla byli głównymi aktorami ostatniej wielkiej bitwy kawalerii w historii wojskowości pod Komarowem, gdzie pokonali 2 dywizje słynnej z dzielności oraz okrucieństw „Konarmi” (1 Armia Konna) Siemiona Budionnego 31 sierpnia 1920. +Przed II wojną światową w Wojsku Polskim istniało 27 pułków ułanów, 10 pułków strzelców konnych i 3 pułki szwoleżerów. W kampanii wrześniowej, wbrew obiegowym opiniom oddziały te nie szarżowały samobójczo na niemieckie czołgi, lecz stanowiły całkiem skuteczne siły, które potrafiły się szybko przemieszczać, oskrzydlać przeciwnika i często lepiej sobie radzić w chaosie walk niż oddziały piesze. Regulamin działań kawalerii przewidywał jako podstawowy rodzaj walki walkę pieszo, podobnie jak piechota z wykorzystaniem karabinków i broni maszynowej, a jedynie przemieszczanie się konno, niemniej jednak dochodziło do kilku przypadków szarż konnych przeciw piechocie wroga, przynoszących na ogół dobre rezultaty. We wrześniu 1939 ułani szarżowali pod Krojantami, Kałuszynem, Maliszewem, Wólką Węglową, Krasnobrodem i Lubaczowem. +II wojna światowa. +Podczas dalszych walk II wojny światowej, w Wojsku Polskim na Zachodzie nadal funkcjonowały oddziały nazywane tradycyjnie ułanami, lecz na ogół będące już oddziałami pancernymi, używającymi czołgów lub samochodów pancernych i jedynie odwołującymi się do tradycji kawaleryjskich. Jedynie Pułk Ułanów Karpackich w początkowym okresie swojego istnienia w latach 1940-1941 używał koni, lecz nie brał na nich udziału w walkach. W okupowanym przez Niemcy oraz Sowietów kraju pierwszym oddziałem partyzanckim był oddział mjr. Henryka Dobrzańskiego – Hubala, działający do śmierci dowódcy wiosną 1940. Oddziały kawalerii używane były na małą skalę jedynie w partyzantce prowadzonej głównie przez Armię Krajową. Praktyczne znaczenie tego rodzaju oddziałów wraz z rozwojem techniki wojskowej stopniowo jednak malało. Mimo to, w 1943 w nowo formowanym Ludowym Wojsku Polskim utworzono trzy konne pułki ułanów, które walczyły na terenie Polski i Niemiec w składzie 1 Warszawskiej Samodzielnej Brygady Kawalerii. +PRL. +Po zakończeniu drugiej wojny światowej, rząd komunistyczny Bieruta nakazał rozwiązanie wszystkich pułków kawalerii Ludowego Wojska Polskiego w 1949 r., przerywając tym samym polską tradycję ułańską oraz kawaleryjską. +III Rzeczpospolita. +Sławni ułani: Józef Bielak, Jan Leon Kozietulski, Henryk Dobrzański, Władysław Belina-Prażmowski, Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski, Witold Piasecki, Władysław Anders. +Tlenki kwasowe + +Tlenki kwasowe – tlenki, które w reakcji z wodą generują kwasy. Dla tlenków nieorganicznych jest to pojęcie równoważne bezwodnikowi kwasowemu. W bardziej ogólnym sensie tlenek kwasowy to związek chemiczny, który w określonych warunkach wykazuje właściwości kwasowe. +Czasami rozróżnia się tlenki kwasowe w ścisłym sensie i tlenki o charakterze kwasowym. Istnieją też tlenki, które w zależności od warunków wykazują właściwości kwasowe lub zasadowe. Nazywa się je związkami amfoterycznymi. +Właściwości kwasowe wykazuje większość tlenków niemetali. Przy sprzyjających warunkach właściwości kwasowe posiada także część tlenków półmetali (np. krzemionka), a nawet niektórych metali (np. tlenki glinu). +Warto zauważyć, że reakcja ta jest możliwa, gdyż zachowuje się w niej jak typowy kwas Lewisa, a CaO jak zasada Lewisa. +Pistolet WIST-94 + +WIST-94 - pierwszy powojenny polski pistolet samopowtarzalny na nabój 9 x 19 mm Parabellum. Dodatkowo w wersji WIST-94L posiada laserowy znacznik celu o mocy 3-5 mW, który jest zasilany z dwóch baterii 1,5 V o wadze 30 g. Celownik umożliwia celowanie na odległość do 50 m. Jego nazwa miała nawiązywać do przedwojennego pistoletu Vis. +Historia. +Zlecenie na opracowanie pistoletu kalibru 9x19 mm ogłosił MON na początku 1992 roku. Zadaniem zajął się zespół składający się z Wiesława Starka, który był kierownikiem zespołu, oraz Stefana Tkaczyka. Dołączyli do nich Wiesław Stępniak oraz Aleksander Wójtowicz - wszyscy z WITU. Praca pod kryptonimem "Piryt" zaowocowały dwoma prototypami (patent nr 171870), niestety kłopoty finansowe spowodowały przerwanie badań. Dzięki pomocy łódzkiej firmy "Prexer" prace mogły być kontynuowane i wreszcie w 1994 r. opracowany został WIST. Konkurentem WISTa był MAG-95. W 1997 r. przeprowadzono badania eksploatacyjno-wojskowe. WIST okazał się konstrukcją na tyle udaną, że od 1998 r. jest wprowadzany do uzbrojenia Wojska Polskiego. Szef Sztabu Generalnego WP rozkazem nr 68 z dnia 23 marca 1999 r. wprowadził na wyposażenie Sił Zbrojnych RP pistolet WIST. +Konstrukcja. +Pistolet działa na zasadzie krótkiego odrzutu lufy - mechanizm ryglowy funkcjonuje na zasadzie przekoszenia w pionie. Połączenie lufy z zamkiem w położeniu zaryglowanym zapewniają dwa występy ryglowe wchodzące w wyżłobienia w zamku. Samonastawny bezpiecznik wewnętrzny zawiera sterowane spustem blokady iglicy oraz zaczepy szyny spustowej. Dodatkowym zabezpieczeniem jest mechanizm spustowy z samonapinaniem iglicy typu "Double Action Only", ze wstępnie napinaną - podczas odrzutu zamka - sprężyną igliczną. Pistolet wyposażono ponadto w mechanizm uderzeniowy typu iglicznego, chwyt z tworzywa itamidowego, zatrzask zamkowy. Zastosowano wskaźnik obecności naboju w komorze nabojowej, będący oddzielnym elementem broni. Po wystrzeleniu ostatniego naboju z magazynka zamek zatrzymuje się w tylnym położeniu na zaczepie zamka. Lufa ma przekrój poligonalny (sześciokąt foremny). WIST posiada stałe przyrządy celownicze z naniesionymi dwiema plamkami i obwódką na szczerbince oraz plamką na muszce, które pozwalają na prowadzenie celnego ognia do 50 m. Magazynek 16-nabojowy, dwurzędowy. +Od 2010 wszystkie pistolety są modernizowane i wyposażane w nowy szkielet z podlufową szyną montażową , w celu poprawienia niezawodności powiększono także okno do wyrzucania łusek oraz zmieniono system ryglowania zamka. +Undecylion + +Undecylion – Liczba 1066, czyli 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 (1 i 66 zer). +W krajach stosujących tzw. krótką skalę (głównie kraje anglojęzyczne) undecylion oznacza 1036 (1 i 36 zer). +W układzie SI mnożnikowi 1066 nie odpowiada żaden przedrostek jednostki miary. +Morze Liguryjskie + +Morze Liguryjskie (wł. "Mar Ligure") – część Morza Śródziemnego. Rozciąga się od Wybrzeża Liguryjskiego na północy (Włoska Riwiera, Liguria) i Wybrzeża Toskańskiego na wschodzie po francuską wyspę Korsyka i włoską Elbę. Zatoka Genueńska stanowi jego północną część. Na południowym wschodzie Wyspy Toskańskie łączą Morze Liguryjskie z Morzem Tyrreńskim. Morze jest zlewiskiem dla wielu rzek północno-zachodnich Włoch m.in. rzeki Arno. +Kenneth Grahame + +Kenneth Grahame (ur. 8 marca 1859 w Edynburgu, zm. 6 lipca 1932 w Pangbourne, Berkshire) - brytyjski ekonomista i pisarz, pochodzenia szkockiego. +W latach 1908-1918 pracownik Banku Anglii wysokiego szczebla. Zasłynął pełnymi humoru powieściami "The Golden Age" ("Złoty wiek") (1895) i "Dream Days" ("Dni marzeń", której częścią jest "Opieszały smok") (1898); współcześnie ceniony przede wszystkim za baśń "O czym szumią wierzby" ("The wind in the willows") (1908), opowiadającej o przygodach Ropucha i jego przyjaciół - Kreta, Pana Borsuka, Szczura, Wydry i Myszy. Na jej podstawie powstały filmy i seriale telewizyjne, w tym w latach 1984 - 1990 uważany za najwierniejszą adaptację serial animowany. +Klasyfikacja porów + +Klasyfikacja porów według rozmiaru. +Klasyfikacja porów według IUPAC. +Mikropory. +Mikropory to pory o średnicy mniejszej niż 2 nm. Pory te z reguły silniej oddziaływają z adsorbatami. Mikropory zapełniają się adsorbatem gazowym przy ciśnieniach znacznie poniżej ciśnienia pary nasyconej. Typowe izotermy adsorpcji w mikroporach to równania DR, DA oraz eksperymentalne równanie Freundlicha. +Mezopory. +Rozmiary mezoporów według IUPAC to od 2 do 50 nm. Wyróżnikiem adsorpcji w mezoporach jest możliwość wystąpienia histerezy kapilarnej, czyli innego przebiegu izotermy przy podnoszeniu ciśnienia (adsorpcji) i przy zmniejszaniu ciśnienia (desorpcji). Adsorpcja w mezoporach przebiega dwuetapowo - dla określonego typu i rozmiaru poru wraz ze wzrostem ciśnienia rośnie powoli grubość cienkiego filmu (warstwy) adsorpcyjnego - z reguły nieznacznie grubszego, niż na powierzchni płaskiej. Przy pewnym ciśnieniu (charakterystycznym dla typu i rozmiaru poru, a także temperatury oraz rodzaju adsorbatu) następuje gwałtowne skroplenie (kondensacja) adsorbatu. W trakcie desorpcji przy pewnej wartości ciśnienia następuje gwałtowne opróżnienie poru z adsorbatu z pozostawieniem jedynie cienkiej jego warstwy na ściankach. Obie charakterystyczne wartości ciśnienia mogą się różnić (histereza), a są jednocześnie mniejsze od ciśnienia pary nasyconej adsorbatu. +Makropory. +Według IUPAC to pory o średnicach większych od 50 nm. Dla takich porów ze względu na wielkość menisku adsorbatu zanika zjawisko histerezy kapilarnej i gałąź adsorpcyjna i desorpcyjna izotermy mają ten sam przebieg. +Klasyfikacja porów według kształtu. +Kształt ma największe znaczenie dla mezoporów, ze względu na wpływ kształtu poru na kondensację kapilarną. Promień porów możemy obliczyć za pomocą równania Kelvina z danych adsorpcji gazów, uwzględniając ich kształt oraz odpowiadający mu kształt i krzywiznę powierzchni menisku przy adsorpcji i desorpcji. Różnica krzywizny menisku przy adsorpcji i desorpcji prowadzi do zjawiska histerezy kapilarnej. +Pory cylindryczne. +Jednostronnie otwarte pory cylindryczne. +Jeżeli nie zawierają przewężeń, wówczas są podobne do porów konicznych. Kondensacja w porze następuje przy niższym ciśnieniu niż w porach obustronnie otwartych, gdyż na końcu poru mamy menisk sferyczny. +Obustronnie otwarte pory cylindryczne. +Typowa histereza kapilarna. Adsorpcja na cylindrycznym wnętrzu poru, o średnicy dp. Kondensacja kapilarna zależna od średnicy menisku cylindrycznego, dc = dp - 2 t(x), gdzie t(x) izoterma adsorpcji wyrażona przez statystyczną grubość warstwy adsorbatu, a x = p/ps. Desorpcja określona przez menisk sferyczny w wejściu do poru. +Pory koniczne. +Inaczej pory stożkowe o wejściu szerszym niż wnętrze poru (jeśli jest to por z przewężeniem u wejścia, przy desorpcji zachowuje się jak inne pory butelkowe). Charakteryzuje je brak histerezy kapilarnej. Kształt menisku przy adsorpcji i desorpcji taki sam i tak samo zależny od ciśnienia. +Pory sferyczne. +Pory sferyczne dostępne pomiarowi muszą mieć wejście do wnętrza. Jeżeli wejście do poru ma średnicę mniejszą niż średnica poru, wówczas pory te należą do typu porów butelkowych. +Pory beczkowe. +Pory beczkowe mają kształt pośredni pomiędzy cylindrycznymi i sferycznymi, ich zachowanie przy adsorpcji będzie podobne do porów cylindrycznych z przewężeniami - o ciśnieniu przy którym pory zostaną zapełnione decyduje krzywizna wewnętrzna poru, a ciśnienie desorpcji zależy od kształtu i średnicy wąskiego wejścia do poru a nie kształtu jego wnętrza. +Pory butelkowe. +W porach butelkowych średnica wejścia do porów jest mniejsza niż wewnętrzna ich średnica, tak więc do tej kategorii należy większość porów sferycznych i wszystkie pory beczkowe oraz cylindryczne z przewężeniami. +Pory szczelinowe. +formula_3 +Burak + +Burak ("Beta" L.) – rodzaj roślin, należący w różnych systemach klasyfikacyjnych do rodziny komosowatych lub szarłatowatych. Gatunkiem typowym jest " Beta vulgaris" L.. +Systematyka. +Należy do rodziny szarłatowatych ("Amaranthaceae") Juss., która wraz z siostrzanymi rodzinami "Achatocarpaceae" i goździkowate jest jednym z kladów w obrębie rzędu goździkowców ("Caryophyllales") i klasy roślin okrytonasiennych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa goździkowe ("Caryophyllidae" Takht.), nadrząd "Caryophyllanae" Takht., rząd goździkowce ("Caryophyllales" Perleb), rodzina komosowate ("Chenopodiaceae" Vent.), podplemię "Betinae" Kitt., rodzaj burak ("Beta" L.). +W Polsce występuje tylko uprawiany burak zwyczajny. Wyróżniany w Krytycznej liście roślin naczyniowych Polski "Beta maritima" L. (jako efemerofit) to synonim buraka zwyczajnego ("Beta vulgaris" L.) lub jego podgatunek "Beta vulgaris" L. subsp. "maritima" (L.) Arcang.. +Jan Popowski + +Jan Popowski (ur. 22 sierpnia 1880 w Goniądzu nad Biebrzą, zm. 20 grudnia 1934 w Guayaquil, Ekwador) – salezjanin polski, misjonarz w Ekwadorze. +Ok. 1895 rozpoczął naukę w zakładzie salezjańskim w Valsalice koło Turynu. 16 sierpnia 1898 wstąpił do nowicjatu w Foglizzo, 30 sierpnia 1900 złożył pierwsze śluby zakonne. 6 maja 1901 został skierowany do pracy w Ekwadorze. +Pierwsze trzy lata pracował jako wychowawca w kolegium salezjańskim w Quito. Od 1904 był wychowawcą w kolegium salezjańskim im. Kolumba w Guayaquil, jednocześnie kontynuował studia filozoficzne i teologiczne. 26 czerwca 1910 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. +Jako ksiądz pozostał w Guayaquil, gdzie był spowiednikiem, kapelanem miejscowego klasztoru żeńskiego oraz profesorem języków w kolegium im. Kolumba. W miesiącach wakacyjnych pomagał w pracach misyjnych wśród Hiwarosów w okolicach Riobamba. Po I wojnie światowej i odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości prowadził w Ekwadorze akcję propagandową na rzecz rodzinnego kraju. Opublikował w prasie szereg artykułów, poświęconych historii, gospodarce i kulturze Polski, prowadził zbiórki pieniędzy na inwalidów, sieroty wojenne i powodzian. Wobec braku polskiego przedstawicielstwa dyplomatycznego w Ekwadorze współpracował w rządowym departamentem emigracyjnym, pomagał polskim emigrantom w zdobyciu pracy i mieszkania. Był także duszpasterzem polskiej kolonii w Ankonie koło Guayaquil. Polski rząd uhonorował jego działalność Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi (1927). +Zmarł i został pochowany w Guayaquil. +Wielkie redukcje + +Wielkie redukcje Karola XI w Szwecji z roku 1680, konfiskata ziemi szlacheckiej przez szwedzkiego króla Karola XI (lata rządów 1660-1693). +Na posiedzeniu Riksdagu jesienią 1680 roku wyłoniła się kwestia redukcji ziem zaproponowana przez króla. Stwierdził on, że potęga Szwecji jest zagrożona, czego dowiodły wojny z Polską, Danią i Rosją. Szukał więc pieniędzy w celu zmodernizowania i unowocześnienia armii i floty, które miałby zapewnić obronę królestwa i jego prowincji. Riksdag uchwalił ustawę o redukcji nadań, których roczny dochodów przewyższał 600 srebrnych talarów. Ograniczyło to wpływy magnaterii szwedzkiej. Wielkie redukcje rozpoczęto w roku 1680. Były one konsekwentnie realizowane, w przeciwieństwie do poprzednich redukcji z 1655 roku za czasów Karola X Gustawa i Krystyny. Redukcje, poza donacjami objęły również dobra zastawione lub nabyte. +Wykonaniem redukcji zajęła się "Reduktionskomissionen" (Komisja Redukcyjna) pod kierownictwem Claesa Fleminga, a po jego śmierci Fabiana Wrede'a. Powołane zostało także w 1655 roku "Reduktionskollegium" (Kolegium Redukcyjne), które w 1685 zastąpione zostało przez czternastoosobową "Reduktionsdeputation" (Deputację Redukcyjną), którą kierował Jakob Gyllenborg. Redukcje miały sięgnąć średniowiecza, jednak okazało się to niemożliwe. +Dochody Szwecji wzrosły około 2 mln srebrnych talarów dzięki redukcjom. Pieniądze posłużyły na stworzenie nowego systemu finansowego oraz budowie armii. Król pozbył się opozycji w postaci możnowładctwa, a także redukcje stały się pierwszym krokiem ku rządom absolutnym w Szwecji. +Zjawiska kapilarne + +Zjawiska kapilarne to cały szereg zjawisk związanych z zachowaniem par i cieczy a pojawiających się dla wielu obiektów o małym wymiarze charakterystycznym (np. rurki kapilarne, porowate powierzchnie) i silnie zależne od tego wymiaru, przy kącie zwilżania powyżej 90 stopni. W zależności od kąta zwilżania zjawisko może się pojawiać lub zanikać, promień rurki kapilarnej ma wpływ na wysokość podsiąkania. +Opis fizyczny. +W stanie równowagi cieczy w rurce ciężar słupa cieczy jest równoważony przez siły napięcia powierzchniowego. +gdzie +Dla wody. +W rurce o promieniu 1m woda podniesie się o 0,014mm, a 1mm - 14mm, a 0,1mm o 140 mm. +Kapilarność w hydrogeologii. +Pory gruntu tworzą naczynia kapilarne, w których woda podnosi się ponad zwierciadło wody podziemnej. Wysokość podnoszenia zależy bezpośrednio od frakcji gruntu (mniejsze ziarna tworzą kanaliki o mniejszej średnicy). Rozróżniamy kapilarność czynną i bierną. +Lucky Luke + +Lucky Luke – seria komiksowa stworzona przez francuskiego scenarzystę i pisarza René Goscinny'ego i belgijskiego rysownika Morrisa. +Główny bohater. +Tytułowym głównym bohaterem serii jest Lucky Luke - kowboj, najszybszy rewolwerowiec na Dzikim Zachodzie i najgorszy koszmar braci Dalton. Zawsze, gdy planują oni skok na bank lub inne przestępstwo, dzielny stróż prawa staje im na drodze. W jego przygodach towarzyszą mu inteligentny koń Jolly Jumper i pies Bzik (we francuskojęzycznym oryginale: "Rantanplan"). +Komiks. +Pierwszy komiks o Luckym Luke’u ukazał się w 1946 r. w tygodniku "Spirou", zaś w Polsce w 1962 r. w harcerskiej gazecie "Na przełaj". Według stanu na połowę 2012 r. nakładem francuskich wydawnictw Dupuis i Dargaud ukazało się 78 albumów, zaś w Polsce - 31 albumów opublikowanych przez różnych wydawców (ostatnio przez Egmont Polska). W 1971 r., wskutek zainteresowania ze strony Amerykanów, powstał pierwszy film animowany. Współpraca z USA dała razem dwadzieścia sześć dwudziestopięciominutowych filmów animowanych, czerpiących pomysły z dwudziestu sześciu wybranych albumów. +Film. +Pierwszy film o Luckym Luke'u to wyreżyserowany przez Renégo Goscinnego animowany "Daisy Town" z 1971 roku. W 1978 powstał drugi, również animowany – "Lucky Luke - Ballada o Daltonach". W 1983 trzeci, "Lucky Luke - Les Dalton en cavale", w Polsce dystrybuowany jako "Dzielny szeryf Lucky Luke". +W 2004 (w Polsce w 2005) roku do kin wszedł francusko-hiszpańsko-niemiecki film fabularny pt. "Lucky Luke" (org. "Les Dalton"). Jego reżyserem był Philippe Haim, wystąpili m.in. Til Schweiger, Eric Judor, Ramzy Bedia. Jednakże film opowiadał tak naprawdę losy Daltonów, a Lucky Luke pojawił się w filmie dwukrotnie. Zmiana tytułu na Lucky Luke była celowym działaniem dystrybutora filmu, aby do kin przyciągnać więcej osób. +W 2007 (w Polsce w 2008) roku premierę miał kolejny film animowany Lucky Luke na Dzikim Zachodzie. +W 2009 roku do kin wszedł francusko-argentyńsko-brytyjski western komediowy wyreżyserowany przez Jamesa Hutha, pod tytułem "Lucky Luke", w roli głównej z Jeanem Dujardinem. +Nadwiślański Park Etnograficzny + +Nadwiślański Park Etnograficzny – nazwa powstałego w 1968 roku we wsi Wygiełzów w gminie Babice (powiat chrzanowski) skansenu, w którym zgromadzono i udostępniono do zwiedzania przykłady budownictwa drewnianego charakterystycznego dla Zachodniej Małopolski. +Nadwiślański Park Etnograficzny w Wygiełzowie położony jest u stóp wzgórza Lipowiec, na którym zachowały się ruiny zamku o tej samej nazwie. Do końca 2006 r. Skansen i ruiny zamku Lipowiec znajdowały się pod zarządem Muzeum w Chrzanowie, a od 1 stycznia 2007 r. weszły w skład nowo utworzonej instytucji pod nazwą Muzeum - Nadwiślański Park Etnograficzny w Wygiełzowie i Zamek Lipowiec. +Bibliografia. +informator muzeum, tablice przy obiektach +Bogusław Zych + +Bogusław Zych (ur. 10 grudnia 1951 w Warszawie, zm. 3 kwietnia 1995 w Naprawie koło Rabki) – polski szermierz, medalista olimpijski, specjalista floretu. +Drużynowy mistrz świata w 1978. Dwukrotny uczestnik igrzysk olimpijskich w 1980 i 1988. W Moskwie w konkursie drużynowym wraz z Lechem Koziejowskim, Adamem Robakiem i Marianem Sypniewskim wywalczył brązowy medal, wygrywając w meczu o 3 miejsce z ekipą NRD. Na olimpiadzie w Seulu wziął udział zarówno w turnieju drużynowym we florecie oraz szpadzie. Lepszy wynik osiągnął w swojej koronnej broni zajmując 5 miejsce. +Największy sukces w turniejach indywidualnych odniósł w 1991 zajmując 3 miejsce w mistrzostwach Europy w Wiedniu. +Po zakończeniu kariery zawodniczej został trenerem. +3 kwietnia 1995 zginął tragicznie w wypadku samochodowym. +Grzegorz Skrzecz + +Grzegorz Skrzecz (ur. 25 sierpnia 1957 w Warszawie) – polski pięściarz, medalista mistrzostw świata, aktor, brat bliźniak Pawła. +Pięściarz wagi ciężkiej Gwardii Warszawa. Brązowy medalista mistrzostw świata w Monachium w 1982 oraz brązowy medalista mistrzostw Europy w Warnie w 1983. +Uczestnik letnich igrzysk w 1980 w Moskwie, gdzie dotarł do w ćwierćfinału, w którym przegrał przez nokaut w 3 rundzie z Teófilo Stevensonem z Kuby. +5-krotny mistrz Polski (1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1984). Zwycięzca turnieju o "Złoty Pas Polusa" w 1976 oraz dwukrotny triumfator Turnieju im. Feliksa Stamma w latach 1979, 1981. +Stoczył 236 walk (204 zwycięstwa – 1 remis – 31 porażek). +Trenuje amatorów, m.in. Michała Żebrowskiego. +Jest stałym ekspertem w programie "nSport bez ciśnień" w kanale nSport na platformie N. +Występy w filmach. +i w serialu Miodowe lata w odcinku "Karol 'Bombowiec' Krawczyk" (jako on sam). +Henryk Abicht + +Henryk Abicht (ur. 1835 w Wilnie, zm. 1863 w Warszawie) – polski i emigracyjny działacz niepodległościowy, członek Towarzystwa Demokratycznego Polskiego. +W 1857 wyemigrował z Wilna do Londynu, gdzie współpracował m.in. z Zenonem Świętosławskim (pracował w drukarni). Od 1859 był współpracownikiem Aleksandra Hercena i wydawcą pisma "Kołokoł". W 1862 przybył do Warszawy jako emisariusz Gromady Rewolucyjnej Londyn. Współpracował z czerwonymi i próbował przekonywać chłopów dla idei powstania narodowego. Uczestnik Powstania Styczniowego, wpadł w zasadzkę podczas napadu na furgon z pieniędzmi. 20 listopada 1862 pojmany przez Rosjan został stracony w warszawskiej Cytadeli. +Adam Skałkowski + +Adam Mieczysław Skałkowski (ur. 30 września 1877 we Lwowie, zm. 17 kwietnia 1951 w Poznaniu), historyk polski, profesor Wydziału Humanistycznego Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Syn Tadeusza Skałkowskiego – prawnika i posła na Sejm Krajowy Galicji oraz Jadwigi z Kosińskich. Wnuk poety Marcelego Skałkowskiego. Adam był najstarszym spośród czterech synów państwa Skałkowskich, miał też cztery siostry. Naukę rozpoczął w prywatnej szkole Leopolda Wajgla. Po jej ukończeniu w 1888 roku, poszedł w 1889 roku do IV Gimnazjum im. Franciszka Józefa we Lwowie. Tam zdał maturę w roku 1896. +Studia. +Na Wydziale Prawa na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim rozpoczął tu studia historyczne na seminarium Oswalda Balzera i Ludwika Finkla. Skałkowski od samego początku był zaangażowany w życie studenckie. Ta działalność społeczna i zdolności organizacyjne przyczyniły się do stanowiska bibliotekarza, a w 1898 roku prezesa Czytelni Akademickiej. W tymże roku został też przyjęty do Związku Młodzieży Polskiej tzw. „Zetu”. Za zachętą kolegi z organizacji zapisał się w 1898 roku na seminarium profesora Szymona Askenazego. W 1900 roku z polecenia S. Askenazego wyjechał na semestr do Getyngi. Tam studiował u słynnego profesora M. Lehmanna, który był promotorem pracy doktorskiej S. Askenazego. Świadczy to jak bardzo sobie cenił sobie profesor Askenazy Skałkowskiego, skoro wysłał go do jednego ze swoich mistrzów. Mimo krótkiego pobytu w Niemczech, Skałkowski po powrocie przez pewien czas utrzymywał kontakt listowny z prof. M. Lehmanem. +Początki kariery naukowej – Uniwersytet Lwowski. +Następnie Skałkowski rozpoczął pracę do doktoratu o generale Janie Henryku Dąbrowskim. W związku z tymi badaniami przebywał w latach 1902 -1903 w Paryżu. Uczył się tam w polskiej szkole w Batignolles, otrzymywał też stypendium kasy im. Mianowskiego. Po powrocie do Lwowa był tylko formalnie w latach 1903-1910 zastępcą nauczyciela w swoim macierzystym gimnazjum. W tym czasie zaangażował się mocno w dalszą działalność polityczną. Był jednym z inicjatorów wydawania organu „Zetu” pisma „Teki”, którego redakcja pierwotnie mieściła się w domu Skałkowskiego. Wobec dużej aktywności politycznej został członkiem Ligi Narodowej w 1904 roku. W roku 1908 był jednym z redaktorów dwutygodnika „Rzeczpospolita”. +W 1906 roku Skałkowski doktoryzował się na podstawie pracy "Jan Henryk Dąbrowski (1755-1818). Cz1: Na schyłku dni Rzeczypospolitej 1755-1795" (Warszawa 1904). Właściwym promotorem pracy był S. Askenazy, przebywający wtedy na kwerendach archiwalnych w Petersburgu. W zastępstwie promotorem został prof. R.M. Werner. +W roku 1906 Skałkowski pracował w bibliotece Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego. W latach 1907-1911 przebywał w Paryżu, głównie dzięki przyznanemu mu stypendium W. Osławskiego. Był już wówczas znany jako specjalista od dziejów Polski porozbiorowej. Świadczą o tym kontakty H. Sienkiewicza ze Skałkowskim podczas pisania przez niego powieści „Legiony” oraz S. Żeromskiego w czasie pracy nad sztuką o Józefie Sułkowskim. W roku 1913 habilitował się na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim na podstawie pracy "O kokardę Legionów" (Lwów 1912). Recenzentem habilitacji byli T. Wojciechowski i B. Dębiński. W roku 1913 Skałkowski został zastępcą Askenazego na katedrze historii nowożytnej Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego. Skałkowski prowadził wykłady do 1919 roku w zastępstwie S. Askenazego przebywającego w Petersburgu na kwerendach. +W listopadzie 1918 roku brał udział w obronie Lwowa przeciwko Ukraińcom, ale w późniejszych wspomnieniach marginalizował swój udział, a także całą obronę jako awanturę powiększoną propagandowo do rangi wielkiego wydarzenia. Za obronę w mieście szkoły kadetów otrzymał „Odznakę I Odcinka Obrony Lwowa”. 1 września 1919 roku został zwolniony z wojska. +Życie prywatne. +W 1911 roku ożenił się Antoniną Marią z Przesmyckich – malarką, z którą poznali się w Paryżu. Miał z nią trójkę dzieci – córkę Elżbietę (1913-1984), syna Tadeusza (1915-1993) i syna Tomasza (1917-1918). Maria Antonina umarła w roku 1917 po urodzeniu trzeciego dziecka. W 1920 roku ożenił się po raz drugi – ze Stanisławą z Karpińskich (1885-1977) – nauczycielką. +Uniwersytet Poznański. +Jeszcze przed zwolnieniem z wojska, 4 lipca 1919, otrzymał propozycję objęcia stanowiska na nowo utworzonym Uniwersytecie Poznańskim. Skałkowski zgodził się i przeniósł się do Poznania. Tam został kolejno 19 listopada 1920 roku profesorem nadzwyczajnym, a 1 października 1921 roku profesorem zwyczajnym. Skałkowski w Poznaniu był kierownikiem katedry historii nowożytnej. Zerwał wtedy całkowicie z działalnością polityczną. +Był aktywny w wielu towarzystwach naukowych. Od 1913 roku był członkiem Komisji Historycznej Akademii Umiejętności, do 1930 członkiem Komisji Historii Wojskowości PAU, działał w Poznańskim Towarzystwie Przyjaciół Nauk, przewodniczył tam komisji Historycznej. Był również członkiem od 1939 roku Towarzystwa Naukowego w Toruniu. Oprócz tego był członkiem redakcji „Kwartalnika Historycznego” i od samego początku był w składzie Komitetu Redakcyjnego i Radzie Polskiego Słownika Biograficznego. Ten okres przyniósł wiele cennych publikacji. Seminarium prof. A. Skałkowskiego cieszyło się ogromną popularnością na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim. W 1937 uczęszczało na nie 101 studentów. +W roku 1937 wraz z profesorami F. Znanieckim i H. Ułaszynem opublikował oświadczenie potępiające „ghetto ławkowe” i „wszelkie dążenia do ograniczenia praw ze względów wyznaniowych, narodowościowych, czy rasowych” na uniwersytetach. Podpisał również jak wielu innych uczonych protest przeciwko ekscesom antysemickim („Dziennik Literacki” nr 24 XII 1937). +W 1939 roku po wybuchu wojny wyjeżdża z Poznania do Warszawy. Następnie w czerwcu 1940 przybywa na zaproszenie Wielopolskich do Chrobrza w kieleckiem, gdzie współpracuje ze swoim cenionym uczniem Gerardem Labudą, opiekuje się córką i wnuczką. Pozostaje tam do końca wojny prowadząc tam na zlecenie rodziny badania w archiwum rodzinnym Wielopolskich. Równocześnie Skałkowski brał udział w tajnym nauczaniu w Częstochowie na Uniwersytecie Ziem Zachodnich. Spisał w tym czasie wspomnienia. +Po wojnie z powrotem podjął pracę na Uniwersytecie w Poznaniu. Znowu dał się poznać jako świetny organizator pomagając ludziom poszkodowanym przez wojnę i odbudowując zbiory archiwalne i biblioteczne. W latach 1945-1947 był dziekanem Wydziału Historyczno-Filozoficznego. Nadal aktywnie działał jako naukowiec, dużo publikując, współpracując z Polskim Słownikiem Biograficznym. Działał w towarzystwach historycznych – był członkiem czynnym PAU i członkiem zarządu Polskiego Towarzystwa Historycznego. +Był przeciwnikiem komunizmu i odciągania studentów od zajęć na roboty „wykopkowe”. Publicznie, jako człowiek dużej odwagi, odcinał się do marksizmu. Bronił swego kolegi prof. L. Jaxy – Bykowskiego, oskarżonego o przynależność do Stronnictwa Narodowego. Bronił także swego ucznia S. Wasylewskiego oskarżonego o kolaborację z Niemcami. Te posunięcia Skałkowskiego były przyczyną jego usunięcia ze stanowiska dziekana. Na swoim ostatnim seminarium 10 grudnia 1948 roku odbyło się jego pożegnanie. W styczniu 1949 komunistyczne władze przeniosły go na emeryturę. Była tak niska, że Skałkowski jako już stary człowiek musiał podjąć pracę w bibliotece uniwersyteckiej. Zmarł 7 kwietnia 1951 roku w Poznaniu, pochowano go na cmentarzu Górczyńskim. +Uczniowie. +Oprócz wspomnianego Gerarda Labudy należy wymienić osoby które pisały pod jego kierunkiem prace doktorskie: A. Wojtkowski, W. Knapowska, J. Willaume, J. Sztaszewski, Z. Grot, E. Machalski, W. Dworzaczek, H. Łuczak – Kozerska, W. Jakóbczyk, R. Morcinek, T. Mencel, J. Baumgart, A. Artymiuk, T. Krotoska, A. Boettnerówna. +Habilitacje pod jego kierunkiem zostali: A. Wojtkowski, J. Willaume, W. Knapowska, Z. Grot, , W. Jakóbczyk i F. Paprocki. Najlepsi uczniowie profesora: J. Willaume, T. Mencel, S. Kieniewicz, J. Baumgart, W. Dworzaczek, Z. Grot, W. Jakóbczyk i F. Paprocki zostali profesorami. +Dorobek naukowy. +Adam Skałkowski pozostawił po sobie duży dorobek naukowy obejmujący ponad 260 publikacji naukowych. Zakres jego zainteresowań obejmował historię Polski od czasów Stanisława Augusta do połowy XIX wieku. Jego prace można podzielić na kilka grup tematycznych. Do lat dwudziestych 1919 główne zainteresowania Skałkowskiego skupiały się na epoce napoleońskiej. Oprócz wspomnianych już prac doktorskiej i habilitacyjnej należy tu wymienić takie prace jak "Bitwa pod Raszynem" (Lwów 1909), "Rok 1812" (Lwów 1912), "Książę Józef" (Bytom 1913), "Oficerowie polscy stu dni" (Lwów 1915), "Polacy na San Domingo 1802-1809" (1921). +Wydał wiele źródeł do epoki napoleońskiej: "Les Polonais en Egypte 1798-1801" (Paris 1910), "Korespondencja ks. Józefa Poniatowskiego z Francją", t.1-4 (Poznań 192`-1929). Ważną pracą Skałkowskiego jest studium "Aleksander Wielopolski w świetle archiwów rodzinnych 1803-1877", t.1-3 (Gdynia 1948-1978). Poza tym Skałkowski pisał dużą ilość recenzji i artykułów dla czasopism. +Od 1930 członek Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności. +Był jednym z najaktywniejszych współpracowników Polskiego Słownika Biograficznego w pierwszych latach jego wydawania. +Będąc wykładowcą Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego, przeszczepiał zamiłowanie do biografistyki swoim seminarzystom. Pod jego okiem Powstało wiele biografii Wielkopolan. +Kościuszko w świetle nowszych badań. +W 1924 roku Skałkowski ogłosił krótką pracę Kościuszko w świetle nowszych badań jako drugi tom redagowanej przez siebie serii: Życiorysy zasłużonych Polaków XIX i XX wieku. Praca wywołał duży skandal. Autora posądzono o brak patriotyzmu. Dostawał pogróżki. Jego książeczka miała być niedostępna w szkołach dla młodzieży. Recenzja tej pracy okazała się bezkrytyczna. Jej autorem był Henryk Barycz. Pisał: ""Co trwałego stworzył poza legenda stworzył Kościuszko. Wprowadził coś w ustroju społecznym ? Czy wygrał jakakolwiek decydującą bitwę ? Czy zorganizował armię ludową jak obiecał, która byłaby w stanie przeciwstawić się przeciwnikowi ? czy jego odwaga nie była zwykłą lekkomyślnością i ryzykanctwem niedopuszczalnym u człowieka odpowiedzialnego za losy całego narodu"". +Dyskusja nad Kościuszką miał swój epilog na IV Powszechnym Zjeździe Historyków Polskich w Poznaniu 6-8 grudnia 1925 roku. Jest to typowo praca polemiczna - ma zaledwie 48 stron. Składa się z 14 krótkich rozdziałów. Widać od razu nastawienie autora do Kościuszki. Rozdział I: "Typ" (s.3-5): ""Kościuszko nie wydaje się być typem polskim"". Autor powołuje się tu w przypisie 2 na badania antropologiczne określające typ Kościuszki: ""...podobny do Czuchowców odgałęzienia Karetów na Syberii albo pomieszanie ras: turańskie głównie fińskie, tatarsko-mongolskie ze Słowianami"". Ma to pokazać czytelnikowi, że Tadeusz Kościuszko – bohater narodowy nie wyglądał nawet jak Polak. W rozdziale II: "Ród" (s.5-7) Skałkowski pisze o "Kotiuszkach" mało znanej litewskiej szlachcie niczym się nie wyróżniającej, u której były tylko pogrzeby, chrzciny i wesela. Ma to świadczyć o nieznacznym pochodzeniu rodu późniejszego bohatera narodowego. W III rozdziale: "Dzieciństwo i Młodość" (s.7-9) i IV: "U Kadetów" (s.9-14) Skałkowski pisze o edukacji Kościuszki. Miał się on niczym nie wyróżniać, natomiast w szkole kadetów nie wyedukował się dobrze. Pierwsi kadeci byli ""pijakami, niesfornymi pojedynkowiczami"". Nie były to więc dobre przykłady dla młodego Kościuszki. Obala się tutaj mit o geniuszu Kościuszki absolwenta pierwszego roku Szkoły Kadetów. W rozdziale V: "We Francji" (s.14-17) Skałkowski odrzuca "fantazje" Korzona o pobycie Kościuszki we Francji. Według Skałkowskiego Kościuszko nic nie robił we Francji oprócz rysunków erotycznych, które nie są udostępnione w Muzeum w Rapperswilu. Ośmiesza więc tu Kościuszkę. W rozdziale VI: "Miłość" (s.17-21) i VII: "Legenda Amerykańska" (s.21-27) autor pisze jakie były przyczyny wyjazdu Kościuszki do Ameryki. Były to trudności życiowe i nieudana miłość i chęć przygód ("wykolejeniec ?"). Amerykanie nie zrazili się Polakiem bowiem ten naród nie miał żadnych interesów w tej części świata. Polak tam długo nie awansował Skałkowski uważa wyniki jego pracy w Ameryce za znikome. W rozdziale VIII: "Przeobrażenie" na obczyźnie (s.27-31) Skałkowski pisze że Kościuszko zdradził ideały demokracji bowiem podpisywał się jako count (hrabia). W rozdziałach IX: "Sielanka Polska" (s.31-35) i X: "Dubienka" (s.36-38) Skałkowski pisze jak Kościuszko sam tworzył swoją legendę, jakoby miał zafałszować liczebność wojsk polskich pod Dubienką na 4 tysiące zamiast 8 tysięcy. Rozdział XI: "Na Emigracji" (s.39-40) jest opisany jako ucieczka bohatera z kraju. XII: "Rok 1794" (s.40-44) Skałkowski kwituje słowami, które Kościuszko miał wykrzyknąć pod Maciejowicami: ""Finis Poloniae"". Pracę kończą rozdziały XIII: "W niewoli i na tułaczce" (s.44-47) i XIV: "Legenda" (s.47-48). Skałkowski rozprawia się w tej pracy z legendą Kościuszki jako bohatera narodowego. Głównym źródłem z którego skorzystał są Pamiętniki Trębickiego, które przedstawiają Kościuszkę w niekorzystnym świetle. Obala tu jego legendę, przeciwstawia się wielu argumentom i interpretacji wydarzeń przedstawionych w pracy Tadeusz Kościuszko Tadusza Korzona (Kraków 1904). Po śmierci Korzona (1918) krytyka Kościuszki poszła bardzo daleko. Władysław Tokarz obraźliwie skrytykował Skałkowskiego i całą szkołę Askenazego wierszykiem: "W pełnym świetle jego dochodzeń Jasną gwiazdą lśni despotyzm Wychodzi czysto na wierch Targowicy patriotyzm... Gdyż Kościuszko to był wariat Co buntował proletariat". +Praca Skałkowskiego uderzyła mocno w endeków. Jak pisze Jerzy Maternicki: "Historyczna ideologia endecji chciała zawłaszczyć dla siebie Kościuszkę i uczynić zeń apostoła polityki pesymistycznej". Skałkowski konsekwentnie zwalczał bowiem prace rocznicowe o zabarwieniu historiograficznym typu F. Konecznego. Zwalczał idealizację bohaterów narodowych i ich gloryfikację. Jego pracę cechuje duża bezkompromisowość i konsekwencja oraz profesjonalizm. Niezależnie od "prawdy dziejowej" o Kościuszce A. Skałkowskiemu należy się duży szacunek za krytycyzm i polemiczność jego pracy. Wacław Sobieski skrytykował Skałkowskiego za tworzenie nowych legend na miejsce starych. Krytycznie wobec pracy wypowiedział się A. Próchnik. Poparli tezy Skałkowskiego - Marceli Handelsman i Michał Bobrzyński. +Przemysław oświęcimski + +Przemysław (Przemysł) Oświęcimski (Młodszy) (ur. ok. 1365 - zm. 1 stycznia 1406), książę cieszyński, od 1404 udzielny książę na połowie Ścinawy i Głogowa, od 1405 dodatkowo w Toszku i Oświęcimiu. +Przemysław był starszym synem księcia cieszyńskiego Przemysława I Noszaka i księżniczki bytomskiej Elżbiety. Jan Długosz w swojej kronice błędnie nazwał Przemysława młodszym potomkiem książęcej pary. O tym, że był najstarszym dzieckiem, świadczą przekonująco pozostałe źródła, w których osoba Przemysława występuje zawsze na pierwszym miejscu. +Przemysław początkowo występował tylko w dokumentach wydawanych przez ojca. Samodzielnym władcą został 23 czerwca 1404, kiedy to na mocy postanowienia króla czeskiego Wacława IV, młody książę otrzymał w lenno połowę księstwa głogowskiego, ze Ścinawą i Górą (część historyków dyplom ten odnosi do ojca księcia - Przemysława Noszaka). +W 1405 po bezpotomnej śmierci księcia oświęcimskiego Jana III, jego władztwo na mocy przywileju z 1372 roku, przejął Przemysław Noszak. Nowy nabytek jeszcze w tym samym roku otrzymał od ojca jego syn - imiennik, który odtąd przyjął tytuł księcia oświęcimskiego. +Dobrze zapowiadające się rządy Przemysława Oświęcimskiego zostały przerwane w dniu 1 stycznia 1406. Okoliczności zgonu młodego władcy znamy dokładnie z przekazu Jana Długosza, który jednak wydarzenia te opisuje pod błędną datą 1 stycznia 1400. O tym że, po tej dacie Przemysław jeszcze żył świadczą m.in. dokument z 1402 i fakt przejęcia Oświęcimia, który mógł mieć miejsce najwcześniej w 1405. Śmierć najstarszego syna Przemysława Noszaka dosięgła podczas podróży księcia z Gliwic do Cieszyna z rąk nieznanego bliżej Marcina Chrzana. Morderstwo to zostało dokonane najprawdopodobniej na zlecenie księcia raciborskiego Jana II, który nie chciał dopuścić do utwierdzenia się władzy książąt cieszyńskich nad Oświęcimiem. +Przemysław został pochowany w kościele dominikańskim w Cieszynie. Z małżeństwa z nieznaną osobą pozostał po nim jedyny syn Kazimierz. +Zachował się barwny opis kary, jaka spotkała schwytanego mordercę Przemysława - Marcina Chrzana pióra naszego dziejopisa Jana Długosza, którą warto tutaj przytoczyć: "(morderca został) na spiżowym koniu (posadzony), który miał w środku rozżarzone węgle, wożono go po wszystkim ulicach i zaułkach i naokoło miasta Cieszyna, a trzech oprawców rozżarzonymi kleszczami szarpało jego ciało na kawałki, a w końcu wyrwało jego wnętrzości". +Pistolet maszynowy Uzi + +Uzi – izraelski pistolet maszynowy produkowany przez Israel Military Industries (IMI). +Historia konstrukcji. +Pistolet maszynowy Uzi. +W 1951 roku izraelski konstruktor Uziel Gal zaprojektował pistolet maszynowy, który nazwano "Uzi" (od jego imienia), a prace nad jego ostatecznym opracowaniem trwały do 1956 roku. Od 1956 roku pistolet ten był produkowany w zakładach "Israel Military Industries" ("IMI"), a później także na licencji w belgijskiej wytwórni "Farbrique Nationale d'Armes de Guerre" ("FN"). Jest przystosowany do strzelania nabojem pistoletowym 9 x 19 mm Parabellum. +"Uzi" jest bronią samoczynno-samopowtarzalną (na ogień pojedynczy i ciągły) działającą na zasadzie wykorzystania energii zamka swobodnego z nakłuciem spłonki, gdy zamek znajduje się w końcowej fazie ruchu do przodu. To rozwiązanie pozwala na wykorzystanie efektu tzw. wyrzutu zamka, polegającego na tym, że w końcowej fazie powrotu zamek nie uderza w tylne ścięcie lufy, lecz wyhamowywany jest przez wysuwającą się z komory nabojowej łuskę, a następnie pod wpływem dalszego wzrostu ciśnienia – odrzucony w tylne położenie. Zastosowanie takiego rozwiązania pozwoliło na wydłużenie lufy do 260 mm, przy zachowaniu warunków niezawodnego działania i bezpieczeństwa jej użytkowania. Natomiast wydłużenie lufy zwiększyło prędkość początkową pocisku do 400 m/s i jego energii do 640 J. Strzelanie odbywa się z zamka otwartego. Przez zastosowanie zamka nasuwającego się i obejmującego lufę, skrócono długość broni i zabezpieczono użytkownika przed skutkami rozerwania się łuski przy przedwczesnym lub opóźnionym zapłonie. Dźwignia do napinania zamka porusza się w wycięciu pokrywy komory zamkowej w jej górnej części. Zamek wyposażono w iglicę stałą, wystającą, podparty jest sprężyną powrotną, spełniającą rolę funkcji sprężyny uderzeniowej. Przełącznik rodzaju ognia jest równocześnie bezpiecznikiem przed przypadkowym wystrzałem, dodatkowo posiada on bezpiecznik samoczynny umieszczony w chwycie, który wyłącza się przy ujęciu chwytu ręką. Broń zasilana jest z magazynków pudełkowych o pojemności 25 i 32 nabojów umieszczonych w chwycie. Naboje w magazynku umieszczone są pod kątem w stosunku do osi lufy, dzięki czemu iglica może uderzyć w spłonkę dopiero po wprowadzeniu naboju do komory nabojowej. Uzi wyposażony jest w przeziernikowy celownik przerzutowy z nastawami na 100 i 200 m. Broń produkowana jest ze składaną kolbą metalową lub stałą kolbą drewnianą. Większość elementów wykonywanych jest metodą tłoczenia. +Pistolet maszynowy Mini Uzi. +Produkcję nowego modelu pistoletu maszynowego Uzi oznaczonego jako "Mini Uzi" rozpoczęto w październiku 1982 roku w firmie Israel Military Industries (IMI). Jest skróconą i lżejszą wersją pistoletu maszynowego Uzi. +Zasada działania i główne mechanizmy pozostały takie same, zmieniono natomiast kolbę, wprowadzono także trzeci rodzaj magazynka o pojemności 20 nabojów. Wprowadzono również do wyposażenia broni tłumik ognia, nasadkę do miotania granatów oraz lunetę ze wzmacniaczem obrazu. Nowa kolba składa się na prawą stronę. Nastawy celownika 50 i 100 m. +Pistolet maszynowy Micro Uzi. +W połowie lat osiemdziesiątych opracowano jeszcze mniejszą wersję pistoletu maszynowego i oznaczono ją jako Micro Uzi. Jest to skrócona i lżejsza wersja Mini Uzi. Działanie i główne mechanizmy pozostały takie same, zasilanie odbywa się tylko z magazynka pudełkowego 20 nabojowego. Micro Uzi produkowany jest również w wersji przystosowanej do strzelania 11,43 x 23 mm nabojem pistoletowym Colt (0,45 cala ACP) +Zastosowanie. +Pistolet maszynowy "Uzi" znajduje się na wyposażeniu m.in. wojsk lądowych Izraela (wycofany z uzbrojenia w 2004 roku, zastąpiony przez karabiny MTAR-21), Belgii, Niemiec, Holandii, Iranu, Tajlandii i Wenezueli. Zostały też w niewielkiej ilości zakupione przez polską policję. Można je oglądać m.in. w rękach policjantów strzegących ambasady USA w Warszawie. +Wersje pistoletu oznaczone jako "Mini Uzi" i "Micro Uzi" są stosowane przez siły policyjne, służby bezpieczeństwa i oddziały specjalne. +13 posterunek + +13. posterunek – polski sitcom w reżyserii Macieja Ślesickiego. Pierwsza seria serialu powstawała w latach 1997-1998, druga, emitowana jako "13. posterunek II", w roku 2000. Serial ten wyprodukowany i emitowany był w Canal+. Pierwsza seria powstała przy współpracy telewizji Polsat, drugą Canal+ wyprodukował we własnym zakresie. Pierwszą serię nadawał Polsat, druga zaś trafiła do TVN. W roku 2007 odcinki pierwszej serii zostały wydane przez firmę Mayfly jako pakiet 5 DVD. +Opis. +Pieczę nad całą załogą sprawuje komendant Władysław Słoik, mający obsesję na punkcie swojego psa, Pershinga (rasy buldog angielski). +Posterunek często odwiedzają: +Spis odcinków. +Poszczególne odcinki nie są numerowane i są zamkniętymi całościami. Kolejność wpisania odcinków według wydania na kasetach wideo. +Cezary Pazura (Czarek) występuje w każdym odcinku i nie jest brany pod uwagę w obsadzie aktorskiej. +Australia Zachodnia + +Australia Zachodnia – największy stan Australii, jego powierzchnia pokrywa prawie jedną trzecią powierzchni kontynentu australijskiego. Graniczy z Australia Południową i Terytorium Północnym. +Geografia. +Południowo-zachodnia część Australii Zachodniej ma stosunkowo łagodny klimat i jest w znacznym stopniu zalesiona, w pozostałej części stanu przeciętne temperatury są znacznie wyższe i stanowią go pustynne lub półpustynne regiony (wyjątek stanowi północna, tropikalna część stanu, szczególnie rejon Kimberley), które prawie nie są zamieszkane. +Australia Zachodnia ma również najdłuższą ze wszystkich stanów linię brzegową, której długość wynosi 10 194 km. +Ludność. +Pierwszymi mieszkańcami terenów, które później zostały nazwane Australią Zachodnią były plemiona Aborygenów. Pierwsi biali ludzie osiedlili się w Australii Zachodniej w 1826 w Albany. Przed II wojną światową większość osadników stanowiły osoby, które przyjechały z Wielkiej Brytanii, po zakończeniu wojny do Australii Zachodniej wyemigrowało dużo osób z Jugosławii i Grecji. W latach siedemdziesiątych, po zniesieniu polityki "białej Australii" do Perth przybyła nowa fala uchodźców, tym razem z Azji, głównie z Wietnamu. Obecnie ludność Perth to typowa dla Australii wielokulturowa mieszanka, około 12% mieszkańców urodziło się w Wielkiej Brytanii, a ponad 5% to osoby urodzone w Azji. W ostatnich latach Australia Zachodnia cieszy się największym przypływem nowych emigrantów ze wszystkich stanów Australii. +Ekonomia. +Ekonomia Australii Zachodniej opiera się głównie na eksporcie surowców naturalnych takich jak ruda żelaza, gaz, nikiel i złoto. Australia Zachodnia jest jednym z największych na świecie producentów aluminium (około 20% produkcji światowej). +Ważną częścią ekonomii jest także eksport produktów rolnych oraz owiec. W ostatnich latach zaczął się coraz bardziej rozwijać przemysł turystyczny, większość turystów pochodzi z Wielkiej Brytanii, Irlandii, Singapuru, Japonii i Malezji. +Ustrój polityczny. +Australia Zachodnia przyłączyła się do Federacji Australijskiej w 1901. W referendum w 1933 68% ludności głosowało za odłączeniem się od Australii i za powrotem do imperium brytyjskiego. Rząd stanowy wysłał nawet delegację w tej sprawie do parlamentu Wielkiej Brytanii, jednak rząd angielski odmówił jakiejkolwiek interwencji w wewnętrzne sprawy Australii i status quo nie zmieniło się. +Królowa Australii, Elżbieta II reprezentowana jest w Australii Zachodniej w osobie gubernatora stanowego, którego pozycja jest głównie ceremonialna. Rezydencja gubernatora znajduje się w samym centrum Perth i otoczona jest pięknymi ogrodami. +Media. +W Australii Zachodniej ukazuje się tylko jedna, niezależna miejscowa gazeta – dziennik "The West Australia" i jeden tygodnik, wychodząca w niedzielę "The Sunday Times". Na terenie Perth dostępne jest sześć kanałów telewizyjnych, a w bardziej oddalone, „wiejskie” regiony obsługiwane są przez cztery sieci telewizyjne. +Kapilara + +Kapilara – bardzo cienka rurka, tak cienka, że praktycznie cała ciecz przepływająca przez nią znajduje się w polu oddziaływania sił związanych jej ściankami i cieczy bezpośrednio przylegającej do ścianek, w wyniku czego prędkość poruszania się cząsteczek silnie zależy od odległości od ścianek (profil paraboliczny). W kapilarnych kolumnach do chromatografii gazowej praktycznie wszystkie cząsteczki przepływającego gazu znajdują się w polu oddziaływania fazy stacjonarnej, np. cieczy pokrywającej wewnętrzne ścianki rurki. +Zjawiska kapilarne zachodzą nie tylko w rurkach, ale także w bardzo małych porach oraz odpowiednio cienkich szczelinach. Dzięki zjawisku przepływu kapilarnego woda w roślinach może być transportowana na wysokość powyżej 10 m (wysokość słupa wody odpowiadająca ciśnieniu atmosferycznemu na poziomie morza), a krew poprzez naczynia włosowate (zwane też kapilarnymi) dociera do najodleglejszych tkanek bez konieczności stosowania bardzo wysokich ciśnień. W technice, zjawisko przepływu i kondensacji kapilarnej jest stosowane w membranach kapilarnych takich jak np. Goretex. +Konosament + +Konosament – (fr. "connaissement" - znak rozpoznawczy), ang. "bill of lading" (BOL lub B/L), morski list przewozowy, świadectwo ładunkowe potwierdzające odbiór określonego ładunku na statek i zobowiązujące przewoźnika do wydania ładunku w porcie przeznaczenia posiadaczowi konosamentu. Jest dokumentem wystawionym przez przewoźnika albo w jego imieniu przez kapitana statku lub inną osobę. +Przy spełnieniu pewnych kryteriów jest rodzajem towarowego papieru wartościowego, który może podlegać obrotowi. +Rok Benkovič + +Rok Benkovič (ur. 20 marca 1986 w Lublanie) – słoweński skoczek narciarski, były reprezentant słoweńskiej kadry A w skokach narciarskich, mistrz świata i brązowy medalista MŚ w 2005 roku, wicemistrz świata juniorów w 2003 roku. +W 2001 roku zajął piąte miejsce w konkursie o mistrzostwo świata juniorów w Karpaczu. Dwa lata później w konkursie tej samej rangi w Sollefteå zdobył srebrny medal. +W 2003 roku Benkovič uplasował się na czwartej pozycji w końcowej klasyfikacji Letniej Grand Prix w skokach narciarskich na igelicie. W sezonie 2003/2004 zajął 17. miejsce w Pucharze Świata. +W 2005 roku na normalnej skoczni w Oberstdorfie jako pierwszy w historii reprezentant Słowenii został mistrzem świata w skokach narciarskich. Na tej samej skoczni wraz z pozostałymi reprezentantami Słowenii zdobył brązowy medal w konkursie drużynowym. Na skoczni K-120 Benkovič został sklasyfikowany na piątej pozycji. +20 marca 2005 roku oddał najdłuższy w karierze skok, którym było 226 metrów uzyskane na Letalnicy. +W maju 2007 roku Rok Benkovič zakończył karierę zawodniczą. +Życie prywatne. +Rok Benkovič jest kawalerem i nie ma dzieci. Mieszka w Kamniku, mieście w Alpach Kamnickich. Karierę skoczka narciarska rozpoczął w 1997 roku, a do reprezentacji Słowenii dołączył w 2001 roku. +Przebieg kariery. +2001/2002. +Letni Puchar Kontynentalny – 3. miejsce. +5 lipca w Velenje, podczas konkursu zaliczanego do klasyfikacji Letniego Pucharu Kontynentalnego 2002 Rok Benkovič zajął piąte miejsce. Przegrał wówczas z czterema innymi reprezentantami Słowenii – Robertem Kranjcem, Primožem Peterką, Damjanem Frasem i Peterem Žontą. Następnego dnia na tej samej skoczni Benkovič uplasował się na jedenastym miejscu. 3 sierpnia na normalnej skoczni w Oberstdorfie Słoweniec zajął 26. pozycję. 24 sierpnia w norweskim Rælingen był siódmy, a dzień później sklasyfikowany został na dwunastej pozycji. W ostatni dzień sierpnia na normalnej skoczni w Falun reprezentant Słowenii zajął trzynastą lokatę. 21 września w Calgary zajął siódme miejsce. Dzień później był drugi tuż za reprezentantem Korei Południowej – Choi Heung-chulem. Tym samym Benkovič po raz pierwszy w sportowej karierze stanął na podium międzynarodowych zawodów w skokach narciarskich. Sześć dni później na Utah Olympic Park ponownie stanął na podium, tym razem na trzecim miejscu za Clintem Jonesem i Simonem Ammannem. W ostatnim konkursie Letniego Pucharu Kontynentalnego 2002, 29 września w Salt Lake City Rok Benkovič był ósmy. W końcowej klasyfikacji LPK Słoweniec zgromadził 362 punkty, dzięki czemu zajął trzecie miejsce, przegrywając tylko ze Stefanem Pieperem i Kaiem Brachtem. +Puchar Świata – 77. miejsce. +W sezonie 2001/2002 Rok Benovič po raz pierwszy w karierze wystartował w międzynarodowych zawodach w skokach narciarskich. 21 grudnia podczas konkursu Pucharu Świata w Predazzo zajął 48. miejsce, wyprzedzając Bjørna Einara Romørena i Yūki Yakusawę. Następnego dnia na tej samej skoczni Słoweniec zdobył pierwsze punkty Pucharu Świata, zajmując 26. pozycję. Były to jedyne występy Benkoviča w Pucharze Świata 2001/2002. W końcowej klasyfikacji rozgrywek zajął 77. miejsce. +Puchar Kontynentalny – 77. miejsce. +26 grudnia 2001 Benkovič pierwszy raz wziął udział w zawodach Pucharu Kontynentalnego. Na skoczni w Sankt Moritz uplasował się na 18. miejscu. Dwa dni później w Engelbergu był 27. 12 stycznia na skoczni w Bischofshofen zajął czternaste miejsce, a dzień później był 33. 9 lutego we włoskim Gallio Słoweniec zajął najwyższe w sezonie miejsce, był szósty tuż za Jörgiem Ritzerfeldem, Mortenem Solemem, Frankiem Löfflerem, Bjørnem Einarem Romørenem i Bernhardem Metzlerem. Dzień później Rok Benkovič został sklasyfikowany na 21. miejscu. 16 lutego na dużej skoczni w Planicy Benkovič był siódmy. W ostatnich dwóch występach w sezonie 2001/2002, 2 i 3 marca w Schönwaldzie reprezentant Słowenii zajął 27. i 33. miejsce. W klasyfikacji generalnej Pucharu Kontynentalnego 2001/2002 Benkovič został sklasyfikowany na 77. miejscu, zdobywając 130 punktów. +2002/2003. +Letni Puchar Kontynentalny – 26. miejsce. +W Letnim Pucharze Kontynentalnym 2003 Rok Benkovič wystartował tylko w jednym z dziesięciu konkursów. 4 lipca na skoczni w Velenje uplasował się na drugiej pozycji, przegrywając tylko z Jure Radeljem. Dzięki temu zdobył 80 punktów do klasyfikacji LPK i zajął 26. miejsce w końcowej tabeli. +Letnia Grand Prix – 4. miejsce. +W 2003 roku Rok Benkovič zadebiutował w Letnim Grand Prix w skokach narciarskich na igelicie. 9 sierpnia w drużynowym konkursie na skoczni w Hinterzarten, wraz z Damjanem Frasem, Robertem Kranjcem i Primožem Peterką zajął trzecie miejsce. Dzień później w konkursie indywidualnym Benkovič uplasował się na jedenastej pozycji, tym samym zdobywając pierwsze w karierze punkty do klasyfikacji Grand Prix. 14 sierpnia we francuskim kurorcie narciarskim, Courchevel zajął dziesiąte miejsce. 29 sierpnia na skoczni we włoskim Predazzo reprezentant Słowenii sklasyfikowany został na piątej pozycji. Dwa dni później na Bergisel w Innsbrucku Rok Benkovič zajął najwyższą w karierze pozycję w konkursie LGP. Był drugi, przegrywając jedynie z Maximilianem Mechlerem. Był to ostatni start Słoweńca w tej edycji Letniego Grand Prix. Łącznie zebrał 175 punktów, dzięki czemu uplasował się na czwartym miejscu, przegrywając z Thomasem Morgensternem, Akseli Kokkonenem i Martinem Höllwarthem. +Puchar Świata – 41. miejsce. +Zimowy sezon 2002/2003 Benkovič rozpoczął od szesnastego miejsca w konkursie Pucharu Świata na skoczni Ruka w Kuusamo 30 listopada. Tydzień później w konkursach w Trondheim (7 grudnia i 8 grudnia) Słoweniec uplasował się na 41. i 42. miejscu. 14 grudnia i 15 grudnia w Titisee-Neustadt był 43. i 46., a 21 grudnia i 22 grudnia w Engelbergu dwukrotnie zajął 47. pozycję. 6 stycznia w Bischofshofen podczas ostatniego konkursu Turnieju Czterech Skoczni Rok Benkovič zajął czterdzieste miejsce. 9 marca na Holmenkollbakken w Oslo zajął najwyższe w karierze miejsce w indywidualnym konkursie zaliczanym do klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata. Uplasował się na ósmej pozycji. Pięć dni później w Lahti był 38. W ostatnim z konkursów Turnieju Nordyckiego 2003, 15 marca w Lahti został sklasyfikowany na 20. miejscu. W dwóch konkursach kończących sezon, 22 marca i 23 marca na Letalnicy w Planicy Rok Benkovič uplasował się na szesnastym i 21. miejscu. W łącznej klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata 2002/2003 reprezentant Słowenii sklasyfikowany został na 41. miejscu, zdobywając 83 punkty. +2003/2004. +Letnia Grand Prix – 19. miejsce. +W pierwszych zawodach sezonu 2004 w Hinterzarten Rok Benkovič zajął dziesiąte miejsce. W następnym konkursie, w Courchevel ulokował się na trzeciej pozycji tuż za Adamem Małyszem i Martinem Höllwarthem. W kolejnych zawodach turnieju, 4 września w Zakopanem na Wielkiej Krokwi Słoweniec zajął 23. miejsce i zdobył osiem punktów do klasyfikacji. 8 września w Predazzo sklasyfikowany został na ostatnim, 50. miejscu. W następnym konkursie, 12 września na skoczni w Innsbrucku był 29. W zawodach na dużej skoczni w Hakubie był 25. i 38. W tabeli końcowej Letniego Grand Prix na igelicie 2004 zdobył 102 punktów, dzięki czemu zajął 19. miejsce. Do zwycięzcy tego cyklu imprezy, Adama Małysza stracił 418 punktów. +Puchar Świata – 17. miejsce. +W zawodach inaugurujących sezon 2003/2004 w Pucharze Świata w skokach narciarskich, 28 listopada na skoczni Rukatunturi w Kuusamo Rok Benkovič zajął szesnaste miejsce. Tym samym zdobył 15 punktów do klasyfikacji PŚ. Nie udało mu się to dzień później na tej samej skoczni, gdyż zajął 36. miejsce. 6 grudnia na Granåsen w Trondheim Słoweniec był 13. 10 stycznia w Libercu w pierwszym konkursie po Turnieju Czterech Skoczni Rok Benkovič sklasyfikowany został na dziesiątym miejscu. Nazajutrz uplasował się siedem pozycji niżej. 17 stycznia na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem Benko był piętnasty, a dzień później czternasty. W jedynych w sezonie zawodach rozegranych na skoczni mamuciej, zaliczanych do klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata, 7 lutego w Oberstdorfie Benkovič zajął 17. pozycję. Tydzień później na dużej skoczni w Willingen zajął 37. lokatę. 28 lutego na skoczni K-120 w Salt Lake City reprezentant słoweńskiej kadry A zajął piąte miejsce, przegrywając tylko z Noriaki Kasai, Simonem Ammannem, Tommy Ingebrigtsenem i Roarem Ljøkelsøyem. W kończących sezon konkursach Turnieju Skandynawskiego Benkovič zajmował miejsca w czołowej piętnastce. Łącznie Rok Benkovič zdobył 343 punkty Pucharu Świata, dzięki czemu został sklasyfikowany na siedemnastej pozycji w końcowej klasyfikacji. +Turniej Czterech Skoczni – 19. miejsce. +W pierwszym konkursie Turnieju Czterech Skoczni 2003/2004, 29 grudnia 2003 w Oberstdorfie Rok Benkovič zajął szóste miejsce, przegrywając z Sigurdem Pettersenem, Thomasem Morgensternem, Martinem Höllwarthem, Michaelem Uhrmannem i Noriaki Kasai. W noworocznym konkursie na skoczni w Garmisch-Partenkirchen Słoweniec został sklasyfikowany na 18. pozycji. 4 stycznia na Bergisel w Innsbrucku Benkovič był 17. W ostatnim konkursie Turnieju w Bischofshofen uplasował się na 31. miejscu. W końcowej klasyfikacji Turnieju Czterech Skoczni Rok Benkovič zajął 19. miejsce, uzyskując 814,6 punktu i tracąc 252 punkty do zwycięzcy, Sigurda Pettersena. +Mistrzostwa świata w lotach narciarskich – 21. miejsce. +W indywidualnym konkursie o mistrzostwo świata w lotach narciarskich 2004 na Letalnicy w Planicy, 21 lutego Rok Benkovič zajął 21. miejsce. Uzyskał odległości: 174,5 m, 193,5 m, 189,5 m i 127 m, dzięki czemu zdobył 609,9 punktu. 22 lutego w konkursie drużynowym, wraz z Robertem Kranjcem, Primožem Peterką i Bine Zupanem zajął szóste miejsce, wyprzedzając cztery reprezentacje narodowe: Rosję, Polskę, Czechy oraz Białoruś. Benkovič uzyskał odległości równe 206 oraz 215 metrów, dzięki czemu zajął dwunaste miejsce w nieoficjalnej klasyfikacji indywidualnej tego konkursu. +2004/2005. +Letnia Grand Prix – 24. miejsce. +W pierwszym indywidualnym konkursie LGP 2005, 7 sierpnia w Hinterzarten Rok Benkovič zajął ostatnie, 50. miejsce. Sześć dni później w Einsiedeln Słoweniec uplasował się na 14. pozycji. 14 sierpnia we francuskim kurorcie, Courchevel Benkovič był siódmy, tym samym zajmując najlepsze miejsce w tym cyklu Letniego Grand Prix. 27 sierpnia na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem reprezentant Słowenii był 31. Cztery dni później we włoskim Predazzo zajął 15. miejsce. 3 września w Bischofshofen Benkovič był 45. W dwóch ostatnich konkursach LGP 2005, 10 i 11 września na dużej skoczni w Hakubie sklasyfikowany został na 27. i 24. miejscu. Łącznie zdobył 81 punktów, dzięki czemu zajął 24. miejsce w końcowej klasyfikacji Letniego Grand Prix. +Puchar Świata – 19. miejsce. +Sezon 2004/2005 w Pucharze Świata Rok Benkovič zainaugurował 27 listopada 2004 na skoczni Ruka w Kuusamo. Zajął wówczas 16. pozycję, co dało mu piętnaście punktów do klasyfikacji generalnej. Dzień później w konkursie na tej samej skoczni uplasował się na 22. miejscu. 4 grudnia na Granasen w Trondheim Benkovič był 24., a 5 grudnia na tej samej skoczni 22. 11 grudnia na dużej skoczni w Harrachovie Rok Benkovič został sklasyfikowany na 35. miejscu, a dzień później był 43. 9 stycznia 2005 roku w Willingen Rok Benkovič zajął 29. miejsce. 22 stycznia w Titisee-Neustadt reprezentant Słowenii uplasował się na 47. pozycji, a nazajutrz na tej samej skoczni był dwunasty. 29 i 30 stycznia podczas konkursów Pucharu Świata na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem Benkovič był 23. i 45. 11 lutego na skoczni we włoskim Pragelato Słoweniec zajął pierwsze w sezonie miejsce w czołowej dziesiątce zawodów Pucharu Świata. Był ósmy, przegrywając z Mattim Hautamäkim, Michaelem Uhrmannem, Thomasem Morgensternem, Martinem Höllwarthem, Stephanem Hocke, Jakubem Jandą i Kamilem Stochem. W ostatnich konkursach sezonu 2004/2005, 19 i 20 marca na słoweńskiej Letalnicy Rok Benkovič dwukrotnie zajął miejsca w czołowej dziesiątce konkursów. W pierwszym z nich był siódmy, a w drugim piąty. Sezon zakończył na 19. miejscu w klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata z dorobkiem 335 punktów. +Turniej Czterech Skoczni – 34. miejsce. +W Turnieju Czterech Skoczni w sezonie 2004/2005 Rok Benkovič zajął 34. miejsce. W pierwszym z konkursów, 29 grudnia na Schattenbergschanze zajął ostatnie, 50. miejsce. Nie wystąpił dwa dni później w konkursie na skoczni w Garmisch-Partenkirchen, gdyż nie przeszedł kwalifikacji. 3 stycznia na Bergisel zajął 21. pozycję. Podczas ostatniego z konkursów, na skoczni w Bischofshofen był osiemnasty. Łącznie w Turnieju Czterech Skoczni Słoweniec zdobył 469,8 punktów. +Turniej Nordycki – 7. miejsce. +W sezonie 2004/2005 Benkovič zajął siódmą lokatę w Turnieju Nordyckim. W pierwszym konkursie, 6 marca w Lahti uplasował się na piętnastym miejscu. Trzy dni później w Kuopio był ósmy. 11 marca w Lillehammer zajął 9. pozycję. W ostatnim konkursie, na skoczni Holmenkollbakken w Oslo zajął najwyższe w sezonie miejsce w Pucharze Świata. Był czwarty, przegrywając z Mattim Hautamäkim, Bjørnem Einarem Romørenem i Michaelem Uhrmannem. Łącznie w Turnieju Skandynawskim reprezentant Słowenii zdobył 1002,1 punktu. +Mistrzostwa świata – 1. i 5. miejsce. +19 lutego w konkursie o mistrzostwo świata na normalnej skoczni w Oberstdorfie, Rok Benkovič jako pierwszy Słoweniec w historii zdobył złoty medal. Drugiego zawodnika, Jakuba Jandę wyprzedził o 7,5 punktu. Dzień później w konkursie drużynowym na tej samej skoczni, wraz z Jure Bogatajem, Primožem Peterką i Jernejem Damjanem zdobył brązowy medal, przegrywając tylko z reprezentacjami Austrii i Niemiec. 25 lutego w indywidualnym konkursie na skoczni HS 137 Benkovič został sklasyfikowany na piątej pozycji za Janne Ahonenem, Roarem Ljøkelsøyem, Jakubem Jandą i Larsem Bystølem. Nazajutrz w konkursie drużynowym uplasował się na czwartym miejscu, przegrywając z reprezentacjami: Austrii, Finlandii i Norwegii. +2005/2006. +Letnia Grand Prix – 45. miejsce. +W pierwszym konkursie LGP 2006 na skoczni w Hinterzarten Rok Benkovič uplasował się na 28. miejscu. W następnych zmaganiach, 8 sierpnia na skoczni Trampolino Dal Ben w Predazzo zajął jedenastą lokatę. W zawodach w Einsiedeln, 12 sierpnia zajął 25. miejsce, ex aequo z Georgiem Späthem. Na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem, 26 sierpnia zanotował 29. miejsce. 2 września na obiekcie w Kranju sklasyfikowany został na 19. pozycji. Był to ostatni występ Słoweńca w tym cyklu Letniego Grand Prix. Zdobył łącznie 47 punktów, dzięki czemu zajął 45. miejsce w końcowej klasyfikacji LGP 2006. +Puchar Świata – 27. miejsce. +Pierwszy konkurs Pucharu Świata w sezonie 2005/2006 miał odbyć się 24 listopada w Kuusamo, jednak z powodu silnego wiatru zawody były kilkakrotnie przekładane. W efekcie 26 listopada odbyły się dwa konkursy. W pierwszym z nich Rok Benkovič zajął 26. miejsce, a w drugim był 32. 3 grudnia na skoczni w Lillehammer Benkovič był dziewiętnasty. Dzień później na tej samej skoczni uplasował się na szesnastej pozycji. 10 grudnia i 11 grudnia na dużej skoczni w Harrachovie Słoweniec dwukrotnie zajął 21. lokatę. Tydzień później w zawodach na skoczni Gross-Titlis w Engelbergu Rok Benkovič uplasował się na najlepszym w sezonie, ósmym miejscu. 28 stycznia na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem skoczek zajął 46. miejsce. Na następny dzień w konkursie na tej samej skoczni był 45. Do końca sezonu startował tylko w trzech konkursach, które zaliczane były do Turnieju Nordyckiego. W końcowej klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata w sezonie 2005/2006 Rok Benkovič zajął 27. miejsce, zdobywając łącznie 245 punktów. +Turniej Czterech Skoczni – 12. miejsce. +W Turnieju Czterech Skoczni w sezonie 2005/2006 Rok Benkovič zajął dwunaste miejsce. W pierwszym z konkursów, 29 grudnia na Schattenbergschanze zajął siedemnaste miejsce. 1 stycznia 2005 na skoczni w Garmisch-Partenkirchen był trzynasty. Dwa dni później na Bergisel Wasiliew zajął dziesiątą pozycję. Podczas ostatniego z konkursów, 6 stycznia na skoczni w Bischofshofen był 13. W całym Turnieju zdobył łącznie 971 punktów, o 110,5 mniej od zwycięzców – Janne Ahonena i Jakuba Jandy. +Turniej Nordycki – 60. miejsce. +W sezonie 2005/2006 Rok Benkovič uplasował się na 60. pozycji w Turnieju Skandynawskim. 5 marca na skoczni Salpausselkä w Lahti był 48. Dwa dni później na Puijo w Kuopio zajął 41. miejsce. Ze startów w pozostałych konkursach zrezygnował. W całym Turnieju Skandynawskim Słoweniec zdobył 166 punktów. +Igrzyska olimpijskie – 49. i 29. miejsce. +12 lutego 2006 roku podczas konkursu o mistrzostwo olimpijskie na normalnej skoczni w Pragelato Benkovič zajął przedostatnie, 49. miejsce, wyprzedzając tylko reprezentanta Estonii – Jaana Jürisa. Słoweniec oddał skok na odległość 87,5 metra Sześć dni później, podczas konkursu o mistrzostwo olimpijskie na skoczni K-125 reprezentant Słowenii zajął 29. miejsce po skokach na 118 i 113 metrów. Po pierwszej serii skoków zajmował 22. miejsce, ex aequo z Denisem Korniłowem. 20 lutego wraz z Robertem Kranjcem, Primožem Peterką i Jernejem Damjanem zajął dziesiąte miejsce w drużynowym konkursie olimpijskim. +Mistrzostwa świata w lotach narciarskich – 27. miejsce. +14 stycznia 2006 roku Rok Benkovič po raz drugi w karierze wystartował w mistrzostwach świata w lotach narciarskich. Na skoczni Kulm w Tauplitz zajął 27. miejsce. Oddał skoki na odległości równe: 171, 163,5, 171,5 i 169,5 metra, co dało mu łącznie 605,1 punktu. +2006/2007. +Letnia Grand Prix – 45. miejsce. +W pierwszym konkursie LGP 2006, 6 sierpnia na skoczni w Hinterzarten uplasował się na 28. miejscu. W następnych zmaganiach, 8 sierpnia na skoczni Trampolino Dal Ben w Predazzo zajął jedenastą lokatę. 12 sierpnia w Einsiedeln był 25. Na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem, 26 sierpnia zanotował 29. miejsce. 2 września na dużej skoczni w Kranju był dziewiętnasty. W klasyfikacji generalnej Letniego Grand Prix zajął 45. miejsce, zdobywając 47 punktów. +Puchar Świata – 63. miejsce. +Sezon 2006/2007 Rok Benkovič rozpoczął od 56. pozycji na skoczni w Kuusamo 24 listopada. 2 grudnia w Lillehammer Benkovič uplasował się na 37. pozycji. Następnego dnia na tej samej skoczni był 43. 16 grudnia w Engelbergu Słoweniec zajął osiemnaste miejsce, tym samym zdobywając pierwsze punkty PŚ w sezonie. Dzień później na tej samej skoczni skoczek ze Słowenii został sklasyfikowany na 23. pozycji. 20 stycznia podczas konkursu na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem Rok Benkovič zajął 40. miejsce. W trakcie Turnieju Nordyckiego zajmował miejsca w czwartej i piątej dziesiątce zawodów. Łącznie w sezonie 2006/2007 Benkovič zdobył 21 punktów do klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata. Dało to 63. miejsce w końcowej klasyfikacji, ex aequo ze Szwedem – Andreasem Arénem. +Turniej Czterech Skoczni – 51. miejsce. +W sezonie 2006/2007 Rok Benkovič zajął 51. miejsce w Turnieju Czterech Skoczni. 30 grudnia 2006 podczas pierwszego z turniejowych konkursów na Schattenbergschanze w Oberstdorfie Słoweniec zajął 31. miejsce. 1 stycznia 2007 podczas konkursu na skoczni w Garmisch-Partenkirchen Benkovič był 41. Ze startów w pozostałych konkursach zaliczanych do Turnieju Czterech Skoczni zrezygnował. +Turniej Nordycki – 49. miejsce. +W sezonie 2006/2007 Rok Benkovič zajął 49. miejsce w Turnieju Nordyckim. 11 marca podczas konkursu w Lahti zajął 35. miejsce. Dwa dni później na Puijo w Kuopio był 47. 17 marca na Holmenkollbakken w Oslo został sklasyfikowany na 54. pozycji, a w ostatnim konkursie rozegranym na tej samej skoczni zajął 59. miejsce. W klasyfikacji generalnej Turnieju Nordyckiego Słoweniec zgromadził 263,2 punktu. +Mistrzostwa świata – 27. miejsce. +Podczas mistrzostw świata w skokach narciarskich w Sapporo Rok Benkovič wystartował tylko w jednym z konkursów. 3 marca na normalnej skoczni, po skokach na 89,5 i 87 metrów, co dało łączną notę równą 214 punktów, obrońca tytułu z Oberstdorfu z 2005 roku zajął 27. miejsce. +Sprzęt narciarski. +Rok Benkovič skakał na nartach marki Elan, używał wiązań firmy Win Air i butów Rass. +Świat według Bundych + +Świat według Bundych (ang. "Married... with Children") – amerykański serial komediowy, opowiadający o losach chicagowskiej rodziny nieudaczników o nazwisku Bundy. Serial powstawał dla amerykańskiej telewizji FOX w latach 1987 – 1997. Światowa premiera serialu - 5 kwietnia 1987, polska premiera - 2 września 1996. +Historia. +"Świat według Bundych" jest obecnie jednym z najdłuższych komediowych seriali telewizyjnych, liczącym łącznie dwieście sześćdziesiąt trzy odcinki i kilka odcinków specjalnych. Przez wiele lat w rodzimej Ameryce wzbudzał kontrowersje, znalazł w niej jednak rzesze fanów, podobnie zresztą jak i na całym świecie, także w Polsce. Jest drugim po Słonecznym patrolu, najdłużej emitowanym serialem, któremu nie udało się zdobyć nagrody Emmy. +Fabuła. +Serial w krzywym zwierciadle przedstawia życie typowej amerykańskiej rodziny. Jej głową i jedynym żywicielem jest wiecznie sfrustrowany sprzedawca butów, Al Bundy. Kocha swojego starego dodge'a, wolny czas spędza siedząc na kanapie, oglądając telewizję i pijąc piwo lub na posiedzeniach w toalecie. Jego małżonką jest Peggy, która całymi dniami przesiaduje przed telewizorem, oglądając "The Oprah Winfrey Show", i The Phil Donahue Show zajadając się popcornem i czekoladkami, paląc przy tym papierosa za papierosem. O jej podejściu do typowo domowych zajęć świadczą zadawane przez nią pytania, np. o odkurzacz – "Jak się nazywa to coś, co ciągniesz po dywanie, a ono buczy?" Tytułowymi dziećmi są nastoletni Bud oraz Kelly, którzy nie przepadają za sobą i nie przepuszczą żadnej okazji, aby sobie dokuczyć czy donieść na siebie. Kelly i Bud dojrzewają w trakcie trwania serialu, przez co trochę się zmieniają: Bud z wrednego kilkunastolatka przeistacza się w nastoletniego macho, którego nie chce żadna dziewczyna, a Kelly z każdą serią staje się coraz mniej inteligentna. Wiecznie niedocenianym członkiem rodziny jest pies Buck, który jednak żyje swoim życiem i sam troszczy się o siebie. W trakcie wszystkich dziesięciu lat trwania serialu Bundym towarzyszy dwójka sąsiadów: Marcy, najpierw ze swoim pierwszym mężem, Steve'em Rhoadesem, a następnie z Jeffersonem d'Arcym. Marcy lubi przebywać z Peggy, jest za to na bakier z Alem, natomiast Al utrzymuje dobre stosunki z mężami Marcy, szczególnie Jeffersonem – Steve raczej nie darzył Bundych tak bezwzględną sympatią. +Serial przedstawia typowe przykłady z życia zwykłej rodziny, jak np. wakacje, brak pieniędzy, problemy dzieci w szkole, jednak jako że Bundy do zwykłych rodzin nie należą, trafia im się wiele zwariowanych przeżyć, np. parokrotnie chciano ich zamordować. Dość nietypowe są też ich sposoby zdobywania jedzenia i pieniędzy czy stosunek, z jakim odnoszą się do siebie poszczególni członkowie rodziny – nie jest on wzorcem do naśladowania, pełen jest zgryźliwości, docinania sobie i obrażania nawzajem, jednak każdy Bundy wie, że mimo wszystko może liczyć na rodzinę. +Postacie. +Rodzina Bundych. +Twórcy utrzymują, że nazwisko Bundy pochodzi od ich ulubionego zapaśnika King Konga Bundy'ego. Niektórzy fani serialu błędnie uważają, że pochodzi ono od nazwiska seryjnego mordercy Teda Bundy'ego. King Kong dwukrotnie wystąpił w serialu – jako wieśniak i wujek Peggy Irwin oraz jako on sam. +Al Bundy. +Al Bundy (ur. 11 lipca 1948) – główna postać serialu, głowa rodziny Bundych. Nieudacznik i pechowiec, na którym skupiają się różne nieszczęścia. Od wielu lat pracuje jako sprzedawca butów. Jego zawód przedstawiany jest w serialu jako wyjątkowo niewdzięczny, słabo opłacany i poniżający. Bardzo często wspomina o swoich osiągnięciach sportowych z młodości, kiedy był jednym z najlepszych sportowców i jako jedyny w historii swojej szkoły zdobył cztery przyłożenia w jednym meczu, dzięki czemu jego drużyna wygrała ważny mecz. Ma wstręt do osób z nadwagą, za każdym razem gdy spotka "grubą babę", próbuje ją obrażać. W latach swej świetności grał w koszulce z numerem 33. Jego hobby jest gra w kręgle, w które zresztą jest bardzo dobry. Uwielbia chodzić do baru ze striptizem. Jest wyjątkowo przywiązany do swojego samochodu, Dodge'a. Jego ulubionym serialem jest "Tata Psychopata" (ang."Psycho Dad"). Zagorzały fan futbolu amerykańskiego, zaś o piłce nożnej mówi, że to "gra dla bab". Nienawidzi swojej sąsiadki Marcy D'Arcy, którą nazywa kurczakiem i porównuje ją do małego chłopca z sąsiedztwa. Zagrał go Ed O'Neill. +Peggy Bundy. +Margaret "Peggy" Bundy z domu Wanker (ur. 12 kwietnia 1948) – jest bardzo leniwą żoną Ala. Nigdy nie gotuje, nie sprząta, nie myśli nawet o żadnej pracy. Nie potrafi używać odkurzacza, mimo to określa się jako gospodyni domowa. Mimo wszystko, w kilku odcinkach pracowała - w sklepie z zegarami, czy w fast-foodzie. Całymi dniami przesiaduje przed telewizorem, jedząc przeróżne słodycze. Swoją kanapę stawia ponad dzieci oraz męża. W jednym z odcinków chłopak Kelly spalił kanapę Peggy, zostawiając na niej zapalone cygaro. Następnie Kelly wymienia łóżko Peggy i Al'a na taką samą kanapę. Jej ulubionymi programami są talk-show "The Oprah Winfrey Show" oraz "The Phil Donahue Show". Mimo to, czasem jest w stanie wskrzesać z siebie matczyne uczucia - choćby przy opiece nad Śiódmym. Pochodzi z wiejskiego hrabstwa Wanker, gdzie wszyscy są ze sobą spokrewnieni. Postać grana przez Katey Sagal. +Kelly Bundy. +Kelly Bundy – pierwsze dziecko Ala i Peggy, starsza siostra Buda. Urodziła się 27 listopada 1968 roku, bądź około 19 lutego. Kluseczka (ang. "Pumpkin", dosł. dynia), jak nazywa ją Al, jest stereotypową głupią blondynką, z każdą serią coraz mniej inteligentną. Ukończyła szkołę średnią w Chicago, prawdopodobnie dzięki romansom z nauczycielami. Niektóre zachowania mogła odziedziczyć po Peggy, w dzieciństwie była osobą uzdolnioną intelektualnie. Jej matka stwierdziła, że nie pasuje do rodziny. Wypadek jakiego doznała podczas jazdy samochodem Dodge, doprowadził jednak do utraty pokładów wiedzowych. Pracowała m.in. jako Robakator, kelnerka i modelka. W 10. sezonie grająca ją aktorka nosiła perukę, ponieważ miała wówczas krótkie rude włosy. Postać grana przez Christinę Applegate. +Bud Bundy. +Budrick "Bud" Franklin Bundy – (ur. 22 stycznia 1973) drugie dziecko Ala i Peggy, młodszy brat Kelly. Imię Bud otrzymał po piwie Budweiser, które często nazywane jest właśnie Bud. Od połowy 8-mej serii jest agentem Kelly. Ma obsesję na punkcie kobiet i seksu. Chcąc podrywać dziewczyny, używa wielu alter ego, zaś najbardziej znanym z nich jest Wielki Mistrz B (ang. Grandmaster B). Jest tym inteligentniejszym dzieckiem Bundych. W 1996 roku ukończył college. Zagrał go David Faustino. +Buck. +Buck (prawdziwe imię Michael; trener Steven Ritt) to pies rodziny Bundych, Briard. Głosu użycza mu Kevin Curran, a w odcinkach specjalnych Cheech Marin. Zdechł w wieku dwunastu lat (w 1996 roku Michael przeszedł na emeryturę, zdechł dziewięć miesięcy po tym, jak Bucka uśmiercono w serialu). +Lucky. +Lucky to drugi pies rodziny Bundych, spaniel, reinkarnacja Bucka. +Siódmy. +Siódmy (ang. Seven) – najprawdopodobniej siedmioletnie dziecko, adoptowane przez rodzinę Bundych po ucieczce jego rodziców, kuzynów Peggy – Zemusa i Idy-Mae. Postać usunięto po osiemnastu odcinkach, ponieważ nie podobała się widzom. Nigdy jednak nie wyjaśniono, co stało się z Siódmym. W ósmym sezonie na kartonie mleka zauważyć można było zdjęcie Siódmego podpisane "zaginiony". Nazywał się Siódmy, ponieważ był siódmym dzieckiem kuzynostwa Peggy, jak również dlatego, iż występował w siódmym sezonie. +Sąsiedzi. +Marcy Rhoades (później- D'Arcy). +Marcy D'Arcy (do 12. odcinka 5. sezonu Rhoades) – sąsiadka Bundych. Jest najlepszą przyjaciółką Peggy. Nienawidzi Ala, który nazywa ją kurczakiem. Od drugiej serii pracuje jako menedżer Kyoto National Bank, największego banku w Japonii. jednakże w wyniku działań Ala bądź też prowadzenia z nim interesów kilka razy została zdegradowana do pracy w okienku lub do roli tzw. "bipera". Jej ulubioną marką samochodu jest Mercedes. Jest feministką. Generalnie dużo zarabia, głównie w późniejszych sezonach. W ostatnim sezonie serialu dowiadujemy się iż ma kuzynkę o imieniu Mandy, tak bardzo do niej podobną, że brano je za siostry bliźniaczki. Mandy jest lesbijką, choć Marcy o tym nie wiedziała (prawdopodobnie jest to nawiązanie do aktorki, która zadeklarowała że jest lesbijką), zazdrościła jej natomiast popularności i talentu do nawiązywania kontaktów z innymi ludzmi. Mieszka na Jeopardy Lane 9766. Grana przez Amandę Bearse. +Steve Rhoades. +Steven "Steve" Bartholomew Rhoades – pierwszy mąż Marcy. Był bankierem, pracował jednak na niższym stanowisku niż jego żona (kiedy Marcy awansowała, on zajął jej wcześniejsze stanowisko). W szkole grywał na akordeonie i saksofonie oraz stepował. Uwielbia swój samochód - mercedesa, do którego nie dopuszcza żony. Jest maminsynkiem. Jego matka mieszka w Cincinnati. Opuścił Marcy, aby zostać strażnikiem w parku narodowym Yosemite. W późniejszych sezonach zagrał gościnnie w czterech odcinkach, będąc w szczególności szoferem oraz dziekanem. Postać została zagrana przez Davida Garrisona. +Jefferson D'Arcy. +Jefferson Milhouse D'Arcy – drugi mąż Marcy. Jego dokładny wiek nie jest znany, aczkolwiek wiadomo, że jest młodszy od Steve’a. Poślubił Marcy na imprezie bankowców, nie wiedząc z kim się żeni. Zaczęli się poznawać właściwie dopiero od następnego dnia po ślubie. W kolejnych odcinkach okazuje się, że jest z Marcy głównie dla pieniędzy. Jest bardzo leniwy, podobnie jak Peggy, brzydzi się pracą, jednak czasem zdobywa zatrudnienie - jako pracownik stacji z myjnią, szofer czy aktor. Jest przyjacielem Ala i należy do jego organizacji Antybaby. Kiedyś, w ramach prezentu rocznicowego, po pomyśle podsuniętym mu w klubie ze striptizem, chciał wytatuować sobie na pośladku "Kocham Marcy", jednak nie udało mu się to - osobnik, u którego wykonywał tatuaż naprzód zgubił "C", potem zaś dodał złą literę. W efekcie tatuaż musiał zostać usunięty w szpitalu, wraz z inną niedogodnością, o którą doprawiła go wściekła Marcy. Wcześniej siedział w więzieniu, był również agentem CIA. Jego pseudonim to "Bycze oko". Znał osobiście Fidela Castro, u którego załatwił Alowi pompę paliwową do dodge'a. W odcinku ""Kids! Wadaya Gonna Do ?", wychodzi na jaw, że marzy o zostaniu gwiazdą filmów porno. Jeffersona gra Ted McGinley, który wcześniej zagrał męża Peggy w odcinku, w którym anioł stróż, pokazywał Alowi, jak wyglądałby świat, gdyby się nie urodził. +Inni. + Klub NO MA'AM (skrót od "National Organization of Men Against Amazonian Masterhood"). Celem jest walka z kobietami panującymi w całym społeczeństwie. Zagorzałymi członkami klubu są Al, Jefferson, Bob Rooney, Griff, Ike i Officer Dan. +Bob Rooney jest rzeźnikem i mężem Louise. Aktor wcielający się w jego postać to E.E.Bell. Jeden z grubszych członków Antybab. Przeczytał dużo pism o elektronice, więc pomagał Alowi przy zagadce przełącznika - utknął jednak w ścianie. + Griff jest rozwiedziony, żona pozostawiła sobie jego nazwisko. Griff często wspomina o byłej żonie, która po rozwodzie nie dość, że pozbawiła go znacznej części majątku, ale jeszcze musi on teraz płacić na nią alimenty. Griff pracuje razem z Alem w sklepie z damskimi butami. W jednym z odcinków okazuje się, że jest tak biedny, że nie stać go na skarpetki i musi malować sobie stopy na czarno. Zakochał się również w głosie teściowej Ala, która pracowała wówczas w seks-linii. Dzięki Alowi wygrał możliwość niesienia pochodni olimpijskiej. Pewnego razu, gdy koledzy chcieli mu zrobić żart z okazji rocznicy jego członkostwa w Antybabach, wylądował na krześle elektrycznym oskarżony o ludożerstwo. Na krótką chwilę przed egzekucją został jednak odratowany. Griff'a gra Harold Sylvester. + Ike jest mężem Frannie. Ike'a gra Tom McCleister. Należy do NO MA'AM, należy również do najlepszych przyjaciół Ala - pomagał między innymi w montowaniu anteny satelitarnej, i pilnował grilla na dachu. + Oficer Dan gra go Dan Tullis Jr., który wcześniej wcielał się w serialu w rolę innych stróżów prawa. Należał do klubu NO MA'AM. Leniwy policjant, lubiący jeść pączki. Jednak nie waha sięgać po broń. Jest fanem psychotaty. + Luke Ventura jest współpracownikiem Ala w pierwszych odcinkach. Uwielbia podrywać kobiety. Jego sąsiadkami były stewardessy. Po latach pojawił się w czasopiśmie obuwniczym, czym wzbudził zazdrość Ala. + Gary jest szefową Ala. Przez krótki moment była partnerką Bud'a. To wielka businesswoman, zajęła 401 miejsce na liście 400 najbogatszych czasopisma Forbes. Gra ją Janet Carroll. Zatrudnia nielegalnie dzieci w fabryce butów. Spotykała się przez krótki okres z Budem. + Amber jest młodą, nieco zbuntowaną siostrzenicą Marcy. Przez kilka odcinków partnerka Buda. Nie wiadomo jak się skończył ich związek. W jej rolę wcieliła się Juliet Tablak. + Ephraim Wanker jest ojcem Peggy. Jego żona jest matką Peg. Gra go Tim Conway. Często popija z piersiówki. Pokłócił się ze swoją żoną, ale dzięki staraniom Peg oraz Ala wrócili do siebie. Obecny przy powtarzanych przysięgach ślubnych Ala i Peg - trzymał zięcia na muszcze śrutówki. + Matka Peg nie była nigdy pokazana, lecz słychać jej głos w kilku odcinkach. Jest bardzo gruba - do tego stopnia, że mąż musi ją wozić w specjalnej przyczepie, co jest również obiektem drwin Ala. Jako jedyna w całym serialu zwraca się do swej córki nie "Peggy" czy "Peg", ale "Margaret". W jednym z odcinków zarabiała odbierając seks telefony. Głos tej postaci podkładała Kathleen Freeman. + Miranda Veracruz de la Hoya Cardinal - reporterka lokalnej telewizji, często występująca przy wystąpieniach antybab. Niezadowolona ze swej pracy, co często okazuje na wizji. Grana przez Terese Parente. +Obsada i ekipa. +W role Ala i Peggy wcielają się Ed O'Neill i Katey Sagal, jednak pierwotnie zaproponowane zostały one Roseanne Barr i Samowi Kinisonowi, którzy odrzucili je, nie zdając sobie sprawy, że tracą rolę w części amerykańskiej i światowej kultury. Role Kelly i Buda powierzone zostały Davidowi Faustino i Christinie Applegate, dla których były one przepustką do większej kariery. W rolach Marcy i jej mężów obsadzono Amandę Bearse, Davida Garrisona (Steve) oraz Teda McGinley'ego (Jefferson). Buckowi, który czasami miał spore znaczenie dla akcji któregoś z odcinków, głosu użyczał Kevin Curran. +Kontrowersje w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Serial od samego początku wzbudzał sporo kontrowersji w rodzimych Stanach Zjednoczonych. Jedną z najbardziej znanych historii jest przypadek gospodyni domowej z Bloomfield Hills w stanie Michigan, Terry Rakolty. Oburzyła się ona, kiedy oglądając z dziećmi 6. odcinek 3. serii, ujrzała starszego mężczyznę ubranego w podwiązki, homoseksualistę oraz rozebraną dziewczynę trzymającą się za piersi. Rakolta rozpoczęła listowną krucjatę, nawołując do zbojkotowania serialu oraz zdjęcia go z anteny. Nieugięta kobieta wystąpiła w kilku talk-show, sprawa została nagłośniona w kilku gazetach i stacjach telewizyjnych; 2 marca 1989 roku sprawa trafiła nawet na pierwszą stronę "The New York Times". Rakolta założyła organizację Amerykanie dla Odpowiedzialnej Telewizji, "walczącą o tradycyjne wartości w amerykańskiej tv", co przyczyniło się do wzrostu oglądalności programu, zaś magazyn "Hustler" ogłosił Rakoltę "dupkiem miesiąca". Od tego czasu producenci serialu posyłali jej co roku na Gwiazdkę kosz owoców, a bohaterka została dwukrotnie wspomniana w serialu: w epizodzie 04x14 spiker telewizyjny wspomina o mieście Bloomfield Hills w Michigan, mówiąc o dziwce; a w epizodzie 09x09 Marcy wspomina o "kobiecie z Michigan". Mimo wszystko, epizod 03x10 ("I'll See You in Court!", tł. Zobaczymy się w sądzie), w którym nawiązuje się do Rakolty, nie został pierwotnie wyemitowany w Stanach. Oficjalnie obejrzeli go widzowie na całym świecie, gdzie sprawa nie budziła kontrowersji. Oficjalna premiera w Stanach miała miejsce 18 czerwca 2002 roku (trzynaście lat, pięć miesięcy i dwanaście dni od czasu ukończenia jego montażu), ale mimo wszystko telewizja Fox usunęła z niego kilka linijek tekstu i w takiej też postaci odcinek jest emitowany w Stanach do dnia dzisiejszego +Amy Tan + +Amy Ruth Tan (; ur. 19 lutego 1952 w Oakland w Kalifornii) – współczesna pisarka amerykańska. +Wychowała się w San Francisco w rodzinie chińskich emigrantów. Jej rodzice – John Yuehhan Tan, pastor Kościoła Baptystów oraz Daisy Tan, pielęgniarka – wyjechali z Chin do USA w 1949, gdy władzę przejęli komuniści. Kiedy Amy miała czternaście lat, ojciec i brat w tym samym roku umarli na guza mózgu. W 1968 Amy wyjechała z matką i bratem do Szwajcarii, gdzie ukończyła szkołę średnią. Rok później rodzina Tan powróciła do Kalifornii. Amy Tan studiowała na uniwersytecie stanowym San Jose, gdzie ukończyła językoznawstwo w 1974. W tym samym roku poślubiła Louisa DeMattei. Po ukończeniu studiów pracowała kolejno jako konsultant w ośrodku "Alameda County Association" dla umysłowo opóźnionych, reporter, edytor, wreszcie odkryła swoje prawdziwe powołanie – zaczęła pisać powieści. To, co początkowo było formą terapii, próbą walki z depresją, stało się sposobem na życie. +W 1989 Amy Tan zadebiutowała powieścią "Klub Radości i Szczęścia" ("The Joy Luck Club"), która bardzo szybko stała się światowym bestsellerem. W 1991 ukazała się jej druga książka "Żona kuchennego boga" ("The Kitchen God’s Wife"), a następnie w 1996 "Sto tajemnych zmysłów" ("The Hundred Secret Senses"). W marcu 2001 została wydana czwarta powieść Tan "Córka nastawiacza kości" ("The Bonesetter’s Daughter"). +Autorka buduje swoje opowieści czepiąc wiele z kontrastu pomiędzy amerykańskim światopoglądem, a tradycyjną kulturą chińską, często przeplatając je obrazami z życia Chin w czasach poprzedzających rewolucję komunistyczną. Główne motywy powieści Tan koncentrują się na relacjach matka-córka i poszukiwaniu własnej tożsamości kulturowej. Jednak kluczową wartością jej książek okazuje się ich ogólnoludzki wymiar. Niezależnie od czasów, w jakich przyszło nam żyć, kontekstu kulturowego, wszyscy usiłujemy ustalić nasze miejsce w zagmatwanej rzeczywistości. Być może dlatego w powieściach Tan każdy może odnaleźć coś na swój sposób intrygującego. +W Polsce wszystkie powieści Amy Tan ukazały się do tej pory nakładem wydawnictwa Prószyński i S-ka. +Terytorium Jervis Bay + +Terytorium Jervis Bay (Terytorium Zatoki Jervis) – część Australii. Obszar ten został odkupiony od rządu Nowej Południowej Walii przez rząd federalny w 1915, aby zapewnić Australijskiemu Terytorium Stołecznemu (ACT) dostęp do morza. Prawnie jest to osobne terytorium, ale praktycznie traktuje się je jako część ACT. Zatoka Jervis została nazwana na cześć brytyjskiego admirała Johna Jervisa. +Administracja. +Na terenie terytorium mieszka i pracuje około 760 osób, większość z nich pracuje w bazie marynarki wojennej HMAS Creswell. Ponad 90% obszaru Jervis Bay należy do plemion aborygeńskich, które zamieszkują Wreck Bay przy Parku Narodowym Booderee. +Na terenie Jervis Bay obowiązują prawa i przepisy ACT, jej mieszkańcy podlegają wymiarowi prawa ACT, ale nie są bezpośrednio reprezentowani w parlamencie australijskim. Jervis Bay ma własny samorząd. Najbliższym miastem jest Huskisson w Nowej Południowej Walii. +Geografia. +Zatoka Jervis jest naturalną zatoką Oceanu Spokojnego, rozciągającą się na szerokość 16 km i długość 10 km na południowym wybrzeżu Nowej Południowej Walii. +HMAS "Creswell". +W granicach Parku Narodowego Booderee znajduje się HMAS Creswell, szkoła wyższa Królewskiej Marynarki Australijskiej, nazwana imieniem kapitana Williama Creswella. Jest tam także lotnisko wojskowe Jervis Bay Airfield, również obsługiwane przez marynarkę wojenną. Używane jest głównie do operacji z bezpilotowym samolotem "Kalkara", używanym do ćwiczeń jako samolot ciągnący cel dla okrętów. +Imagine (wtyczka) + +Imagine - wtyczka do menedżera plików Total Commander, która uzupełnia funkcjonalność wewnętrznej przeglądarki "Lister", pozwalając oglądać pliki graficzne w ponad 20 formatach. +Program działa zarówno w oddzielnie uruchomionym Listerze, jak i na szybkim podglądzie w panelu Total Commandera (wywoływanym za pomocą skrótu klawiszowego Ctrl+q). Możliwe jest także zarejestrowanie w opcjach funkcji podglądu miniatury w menu kontekstowym myszy ("Shell Extension") w Eksploratorze Windows i Total Commanderze. +W Listerze wyświetlany jest pasek narzędziowy z funkcjami, ponadto pod prawym klawiszem myszy znajduje się rozwijane menu kontekstowe z szeregiem poleceń, m.in. prostymi narzędziami edycyjnymi, jak filtry, obracanie, zamiana do stopni szarości itd. Z poziomu Listera można też kolejno przeglądać wszystkie grafiki znajdujące się w aktywnym folderze. +Nikołaj Bucharin + +Nikołaj Iwanowicz Bucharin (Николай Иванович Бухарин) (ur. 9 października 1888 w Moskwie, zm. 15 marca 1938 tamże) – działacz partii bolszewickiej. +Bucharin wstąpił do partii w 1906 roku, w 1911 został relegowany z Uniwersytetu za działalność rewolucyjną i zesłany. Po ucieczce z zesłania na emigracji został najbliższym współpracownikiem Lenina, współpracował także z Lwem Trockim. W maju 1917 r. wrócił do Rosji. Na polecenie Lenina przygotowywał dekrety o nacjonalizacji przemysłu. W 1917-1918 roku był przywódcą frakcji "lewicowych komunistów". Sprzeciwiał się zawarciu pokoju brzeskiego, uważał, że Rosja - nawet kosztem kolejnych tysięcy ofiar - powinna kontynuować wojnę z krajami kapitalistycznymi. Do niego należy sławny cytat: "Przymus proletariacki we wszystkich swoich formach, poczynając od rozstrzeliwania, a kończąc na obowiązku pracy jest metodą tworzenia komunistycznego człowieka". Później jednak wsparł wprowadzenie rynkowej gospodarki NEPu, kierując do chłopów sławne wezwanie "Bogaćcie się!". W latach 1918-1929 był redaktorem naczelnym "Prawdy". +Po śmierci Lenina członek Biura Politycznego i główny ideolog partii. Był autorem licznych prac filozoficznych i ekonomicznych, wieszczących nieuchronny upadek kapitalizmu, a także tekstu Konstytucji, która weszła w życie w 1936 roku. Popierał Stalina przeciwko Trockiemu, a następnie Zinowjewowi i Kamieniewowi. W 1928 r. wystąpił przeciwko przymusowej kolektywizacji, proponując ewolucyjne, stopniowe uspółdzielczanie. W efekcie jego poglądy, podzielane przez premiera Rykowa i lidera związków zawodowych Tomskiego zostały nazwane "odchyleniem prawicowym". W listopadzie 1929 r. usunięty z Biura Politycznego. +Po rozpoczęciu terroru "wielkiej czystki" we wrześniu 1936 po pokazowym procesie Zinowjewa i Kamieniewa ogłoszono o śledztwie w sprawie jego spiskowej działalności. W lutym 1937 po śmierci Sergo Ordżonikidze po burzliwym plenum KC WKP(b) został aresztowany w czasie obrad. +Był głównym oskarżonym w procesie "antyradzieckiego prawicowo-trockistowskiego bloku"; w odróżnieniu od innych oskarżonych częściowo polemizował z oskarżycielem. 13 marca 1938 skazany na karę śmierci po czym rozstrzelany. Jego żona, Anna Łarina została aresztowana wkrótce po procesie Bucharina jako "żona wroga ludu". Spędziła pół roku w małej celi po kostki w wodzie, a następnie osiemnaście lat w GUŁagu i na zesłaniu. W ostatnich dniach przed aresztowaniem Bucharina nauczyła się na pamięć jego "Posłania dla przyszłych przywódców partii", w którym zapewniał o swojej niewinności i prosił o rehabilitację i ponowne przyjęcie do partii. +Odpowiedzialność zbiorowa członków rodziny była standardem postępowania wobec rodzin aresztowanych w czasie wielkiej czystki, zwłaszcza osób wysokiego szczebla (funkcjonariuszy partyjnych, państwowych i wojskowych). Był to w Rosji standard wprowadzony przez bolszewików w okresie zdobywania władzy 1918 - (por. zamordowanie rodziny carskiej) w skali masowej wobec przeciwników politycznych i dla sterroryzowania społeczeństwa (powstanie jarosławskie, powstanie tambowskie, powstanie w Kronsztadzie) i w niezliczonych innych przypadkach (terror CzK - GPU) jako technika sprawowania władzy. +Bucharina "zrehabilitowano" w ZSRR dopiero w 1988 roku. Wówczas również opublikowano w Moskwie ów "list do partii". Maleńki synek Bucharinów był wychowywany przez siostrę Anny i przez dwadzieścia lat nie wiedział nic o swoich prawdziwych rodzicach. Pierwszą żonę Bucharina Nadieżdę, która kilkakrotnie pisała w jego obronie do Stalina, aresztowano, okrutnie torturowano i w roku 1940 zamordowano wraz z braćmi, szwagrem i innymi krewnymi. +Henryk Południak + +Henryk Oskar Południak (ur. 30 stycznia 1925 w Katowicach, zm. 9 czerwca 1946 w Katowicach), działacz młodzieżowy PPS. +W styczniu 1945 był członkiem grupy działaczy PPS, wysłanych do Katowic przez Centralny Komitet Wykonawczy partii. Został wybrany w skład Wojewódzkiego Komitetu Robotniczego PPS (od marca 1945 śląsko-dąbrowski Wojewódzki Komitet Robotniczy z siedzibą w Katowicach). Od marca 1945 do kwietnia 1946 był przewodniczącym Zarządu Wojewódzkiego Organizacji Młodzieży Uniwersytetu Robotniczego (OMTUR) w Katowicach; w opinii historyków "stworzył ze Śląska najpotężniejszy ośrodek omturowy w Polsce". +Wszedł w skład Komitetu Centralnego OMTUR na I Krajowej Konferencji organizacji w Warszawie (kwiecień 1945). Na kongresie PPS (przełom czerwca i lipca 1945 w Warszawie) został także wybrany do Rady Naczelnej PPS. Był członkiem Wojewódzkiej Rady Narodowej w Katowicach i Zarządu Robotniczego Sportowego Komitetu Okręgowego na Śląsku. +Zginął w wypadku motocyklowym. +Lipowiec (zamek) + +Lipowiec – dawny zamek biskupów krakowskich, zachowany w formie zakonserwowanej ruiny, zlokalizowany na wapiennym wzgórzu (362 m n.p.m.) o tej samej nazwie, będącym częścią tzw. Grzbietu Tenczyńskiego, w sąsiedztwie wsi Wygiełzów i Babice. Jedna z atrakcji turystycznych powiatu chrzanowskiego (województwo małopolskie). +Dzieje zamku. +Strategiczne położenie wzgórza przy szlaku z Krakowa na Śląsk, na którym znajdują się obecne ruiny zamku, zostało zauważone już w okresie rozbicia dzielnicowego monarchii piastowskiej, a niestabilność polityczna tego okresu była kolejnym argumentem za ulokowaniem na wzgórzu niewielkiej fortecy, która by chroniła handlowy szlak. Przed rokiem 1243 tereny te należały do małopolskiego rodu Gryfitów, następnie na krótko do klasztoru benedyktynek w Staniątkach, którego ksienią była córka właściciela dóbr babickich (do których należał Lipowiec) Klemensa Gryfity z Ruszczy. Od sióstr benedyktynek tereny te nabył biskup krakowski Jan Prandota, włączając je do własności biskupstwa krakowskiego, do którego należały aż do 1789 roku. To Jan Prandota wybudował, albo przynajmniej rozbudował na wzgórzu twierdzę, wtedy jeszcze drewnianą, ale być może już z murowaną wieżą, której najstarsze partie pochodzą z drugiej połowy XIII wieku. Zamek murowany najprawdopodobniej stopniowo zaczął powstawać od drugiej połowy XIII aż do początków XIV wieku. +U schyłku XIII wieku biskupem krakowskim został (w 1294 roku) Jan Muskata – barwna postać polityczna w tym okresie. On to właśnie stał się nowym gospodarzem biskupstwa, a co za tym idzie i zamku w Lipowcu, który odegrał dość istotną rolę jako punkt oporu wobec Władysława Łokietka. +Muskata, od samego początku piastowania swego urzędu, dążył do wzmocnienia pozycji swego biskupstwa, zarówno pod względem gospodarczym, jak i militarnym. Jednym z przejawów tychże działań była budowa i rozbudowa miast i zamków na terenie jego diecezji. Jednym z nich był Lipowiec, który został przez Muskatę znacznie rozbudowany, chociaż trudno jest dokładnie określić skalę podjętych prac budowlanych. Po śmierci króla Czech i Polski, Wacława II oraz jego następcy, Wacława III, protektorów Muskaty, ten ostatni, po przejściowej zgodzie z Łokietkiem, popadł z nim w konflikt i został wygnany z diecezji (1306). Jednym z miejsc, gdzie się schronił, był właśnie zamek Lipowiec, w którym przebywał on okresowo aż do 1312 roku, stawiając opór wojskom Łokietka. +Po okresie walk między Piastami i ustabilizowaniu się władzy po objęciu tronu przez Kazimierza Wielkiego, zamek Lipowiec pełnił funkcję twierdzy granicznej, strzegącej także przebiegający tutaj szlak handlowy z Małopolski na Śląsk. Wygląd zamku, z okresu końca XIII i pierwszej połowy XIV w., nie jest nam znany. Wiadomo tylko, że już wtedy stała kamienna wieża, o czym świadczą badania przeprowadzone nad dolnymi partiami obecnie stojącej wieży, które właśnie pochodzą z tego okresu. Jednakże nie była ona wtedy integralną częścią bryły budowli, tylko stanowiła odrębny, wolno stojący obiekt, mający na celu wzmocnienie obrony głównej bramy wjazdowej znajdującej się w jej pobliżu. +W wiekach XIV i XV zamek był kilkakrotnie poddawany różnym rozbudowom, przebudowom i remontom, w zależności od celów, jakim miał on służyć. Zwłaszcza w XV wieku obiekt znacznie się powiększył, poprzez rozbudowę jego korpusu, zbliżając się w swym obrysie do obecnego wyglądu z dominującą nad całością wieżą, już połączoną z resztą zamku, będąc zabudowaną w południowo-wschodnim narożu, powiększoną i przebudowaną z myślą o zastosowaniu artylerii (działobitnie i tarasy ze strzelnicami). ły obiekt otoczony był dość głęboką fosą, nad którą przerzucony był drewniany most, prowadzący do bramy z furtą dla pieszych. Znacznie niżej, od strony południowo-wschodniej zamku, wybudowano liczne, drewniane budynki gospodarcze, w wyniku czego powstało tzw. przedzamcze, które później (najprawdopodobniej pod koniec XV w.) zostało otoczone odrębnym murem z bramą wjazdową. Wzmocnienie obronności i modernizacja militarna wiązała się m.in. z niespokojnym okresem wojen husyckich w pierwszej połowie XV wieku, których teatr działań znajdował się przecież niedaleko, zwłaszcza, że jedna z baz husytów była umiejscowiona w Gliwicach na Śląsku, skąd dokonywano wypadów zbrojnych na tereny Małopolski. +Do znanych nam biskupów krakowskich, którzy aktywnie inicjowali prace na zamku, należą Wojciech Jastrzębiec (1412-1423) i Zbigniew Oleśnicki (1423-1451). O wkładzie tych postaci w rozbudowę zamku świadczą m.in. widoczne do dziś ich tarcze herbowe w ścianach dziedzińca zamku górnego. W 1444 roku Zbigniew Oleśnicki, wystawił w Lipowcu przywilej dla Księstwa siewierskiego, będącego nowym nabytkiem biskupstwa krakowskiego. +W XV wieku, zamek w dalszym ciągu pełnił funkcję strażniczą oraz rezydencjonalną biskupów krakowskich, jednakże rozszerzono ją na więzienie dla duchownych. Nowa rola, jak przypadła budowli, wiązała się z adaptacją na cele więzienne wielu pomieszczeń zamkowych, którą zapewne rozpoczęto w tym okresie. Do bardziej znanych więźniów Lipowca w tym stuleciu należał opat Mikołaj z Buska, uwięziony tu w 1437 roku. +Rola zamku lipowieckiego jako więzienia kościelnego wzrosła jednak dopiero od XVI wieku, co niewątpliwie związane było z rozwijającą się reformacją. Nie więziono tutaj tylko innowierców, ale także duchownych, za przestępstwa pospolite, jak np. braci zakonnych - franciszkanów z Krakowa - za zabójstwo Alberta Fontiniego – komisarza franciszkańskiej prowincji czesko-polskiej. Do najznaczniejszych więźniów Lipowca należał jednak Franciszek Stankar, Włoch z pochodzenia, wykładowca Akademii Krakowskiej. Został osadzony na zamku w 1550 roku za szerzenie poglądów heretyckich. Zdołał jednak zbiec z zamku i już w dwa lata po uwięzieniu wydać dzieło o reformie Kościoła w Polsce, rozpoczęte jeszcze w więzieniu lipowieckim. +Rozpoczęte już w XV wieku prace adaptacyjne dla celów więziennych zamku nabrały rozmachu w wieku XVI, kiedy to zaczęto powiększać pomieszczenia przeznaczone na cele. Spłycono także fosę otaczającą zamek i postawiono w niej kamienne filary pod most, a w samym zamku przebudowano nieco ciągi komunikacyjne i schody. Były to chyba najbardziej zaawansowane prace budowlane na zamku w tym okresie. W dobie pokoju i stabilizacji tego regionu nie było konieczności, aby militarnie wzmacniać zamki. Większość tych prac prowadzonych była zapewne w pierwszej połowie XVI wieku z inicjatywy biskupa Jan Konarskiego (1503-1525) oraz w latach 50. - Andrzeja Zebrzydowskiego. Tak jak poprzednio o ich roli w rozbudowie zamku świadczą wmurowane tarcze herbowe na terenie zamku. +Wiek XVII nie był dla zamku zbyt łaskawy: zniszczenia w wyniku pożaru zamku w 1629 roku i później najazdu szwedzkiego z lat 50., rozpoczęły stopniowy proces upadku Lipowca. Innym czynnikiem powodującym powolny zmierzch budowli była jego przestarzałość jako obiektu mieszkalnego, nie spełniającego już wymogów barokowych rezydencji – tym samym Lipowiec przestał już być siedzibą biskupów krakowskich, którzy w pobliżu niego wznieśli nowy, drewniany dwór, który miał spełniać tę funkcję. +Pożar, który wybuchł w sierpniu 1629 roku, strawił znaczną część drewnianych zabudowań i dotknął głównie górną część zamku. Inwentarz z 1645 roku świadczy o znacznych rozmiarach zniszczeń, które starał się zniwelować biskup Jan Zadzik w latach 40. XVII wieku, będąc inicjatorem odbudowy i przebudowy przedzamcza, które miało głównie charakter gospodarczy. +Szwedzi zajęli Lipowiec 9 października 1655 roku, ustanawiając w nim kwaterę główną m.in. z uwagi na kontrolę szlaku wodnego niedalekiej Wisły. Opuścili go dopiero latem 1657 roku, paląc go na odchodnym. +Zdewastowany i zaniedbany obiekt popadający w ruinę trwał tak do lat 30. XVIII wieku, gdy decyzję o jego odbudowie podjął biskup krakowski Konstanty Felicjan Szaniawski. Zanim to jednak nastąpiło zamek gościł w swych murach, 17 sierpnia 1683 roku, króla Jana III Sobieskiego, który zatrzymał się tutaj na odpoczynek podczas wyprawy na Wiedeń. Wydarzenie to upamiętnione jest wmurowaniem tablicy kamiennej, w sieni przejazdowej na dziedziniec, z okazji trzechsetnej rocznicy tej wizyty. +Wspomniana odbudowa zamku przez biskupa Konstantego Felicjana Szaniawskiego miała na celu przystosowanie obiektu na dom poprawy dla duchownych. Prace w tym kierunku podjęto w latach 20. XVIII wieku i kontynuowano w latach 50., już za czasów kolejnego biskupa Andrzeja Załuskiego. Poza niezbędnymi konserwacjami na zewnątrz zamku, przebudowa dotyczyła głównie jego wnętrza, czyli pomieszczeń i ciągów komunikacyjnych – wybudowano m.in. nową klatkę schodową w południowo-zachodnim narożniku budowli. Efekty tej przebudowy są widoczne do dziś, gdyż później nie podejmowano już żadnych poważniejszych prac budowlanych na terenie zamku, ograniczając się co najwyżej do bieżących remontów. +W 1789 roku, po śmierci biskupa krakowskiego Kajetana Sołtyka, zamek Lipowiec przeszedł na rzecz skarbu państwa na mocy reformy cesarza Józefa II, a następnie dostał się w ręce prywatne. W roku 1800 na zamku wybuchł bardzo duży pożar, który obok zniszczeń wnętrz, strawił znaczną część dachu. +Po tych ciosach budowla w zasadzie już nigdy się nie podniosła. Była tylko częściowo zamieszkana niemal do końca lat 40. XIX wieku, potem zamek był już opuszczony, a to znacznie przyczyniło się do postępującej dewastacji obiektu, co jest uwidocznione na szeregu dziewiętnastowiecznych rycin, dla których zamek ten był wdzięcznym tematem. Wtedy też zaczęto naukowo opracowywać jego dzieje – powstała monografia autorstwa Władysława Łuszczkiewicza w latach 80. XIX wieku. Coraz bardziej popadający w ruinę zamek dotrwał do lat 50. XX wieku, kiedy to podjęto decyzję o jego ochronie i podjęciu niezbędnych prac archeologiczno-historycznych i budowlanych w celu zachowania obiektu w stanie trwałej ruiny oraz przystosowania do zwiedzania. Zamek figuruje jako obiekt zabytkowy w wydanym w 1953 roku Katalogu Zabytków Sztuki. +Prace konserwatorskie i badawcze trwały w latach 1961-1969 i jeszcze do roku 1975 w okolicach przedbramia. +Architektura. +Zasadnicza część obiektu, na planie pięcioboku – tzw. zamek górny – tworzy dość jednolitą czteroskrzydłową bryłę wokół wewnętrznego dziedzińca niewielkich rozmiarów. Z tej bryły wyraźnie wybija się wieża wtopiona w południowo-wschodni narożnik zamku. Obecnie cały zamek górny pozbawiony jest zupełnie dachu (kiedyś był on dwuspadowy), a układ przestrzenny wewnątrz, jak już zostało wspomniane, to efekt przebudowy z XVIII wieku. +Na parterze znajdowały się głównie pomieszczenia gospodarcze: jadalnia (refektarz), kuchnia, spiżarnia, magazyn, piekarnia i skarbiec. Również na tej kondygnacji znajduje się studnia, o głębokości ponad 24 m, pochodząca z najwcześniejszego okresu istnienia zamku – nad nią znajdował się drewniany kołowrót z wiadrami. +Na pierwszym piętrze znajdowały się pomieszczenia mieszkalne, kaplica oraz cele więzienne. W części mieszkalnej obecnie znajduje się muzeum związane z zamkiem. Na drugim piętrze, podobnie jak na pierwszym, znajdowały się pomieszczenia mieszkalne, z tym, że przeznaczone były one raczej dla gości, a od strony zachodniej były cele więzienne. +Najbardziej okazałą częścią całego zamku to czterokondygnacyjna wieża na planie koła, o wysokości ok. 30 m, będąca najstarszą częścią budowli, pochodząca z drugiej połowy XIII i początku XIV wieku. W pierwszym okresie dziejów Lipowca był to typowy donżon (stołp), czyli wolno stojący element obronny, umieszczony niedaleko bramy, mający wzmocnić jej obronę, a także będąc ostatnim punktem oporu podczas zdobycia twierdzy. Jest to typowe rozwiązanie obronne szeroko stosowane w średniowiecznych fortecach i zazwyczaj jako pierwszy etap budowy tychże. Wejście do wieży znajdowało się na znacznej wysokości – w przypadku Lipowca mniej więcej w połowie jej wysokości. W XV wieku wieża była rozbudowana i włączona do konstrukcji zamku górnego. Wtedy też przystosowano ją do bardziej nowoczesnych wymogów militarnych, tworząc na poszczególnych piętrach działobitnie, przeznaczone na taraśnice, a więc tym samym zamku można było bronić z wieży już na pewną odległość, poprzez ostrzał pobliskich terenów. Dolne partie wieży to więzienny loch, do którego spuszczano skazańców poprzez otwór w podłodze niedaleko do jej wejścia. +Wewnątrz wieży można się przemieszczać po wąskiej i krętej klatce schodowej z kamiennymi stopniami. +Najwyższa kondygnacja wieży nie zachowała się – na samym szczycie obecnej wieży widoczne są po niej ślady w postaci kamiennych wsporników, które podtrzymywały mur o znacznej grubości. Cała wieża była przykryta spadzistym stożkowym dachem. Obecnie na szczycie wieży jest taras widokowy, dostępny dla zwiedzających, zabezpieczony metalową poręczą. +Legendy. +Jak z każdym niemal zamkiem i z tym wiążą się legendy. Jedna dotyczy uwięzionego Franciszka Stankara w 1550 roku i jego ucieczki z Lipowca, w której miała mu pomóc, zakochana w nim, córka dozorcy więzienia, dostarczając mu sznurów, po których Stankar spuścił się z okna. +Inna legenda mówi o zajeżdżającej w nocy karecie z dostojnikiem kościelnym, który wysiada na dziedzińcu i udaje się do środka. Zaraz potem oprawcy ciągną na dziedziniec skutego łańcuchami mnicha, następnie kat podnosi miecz do ścięcia skazańca i w tym momencie wraz z uderzeniem pioruna wszystkie widziadła znikają. Legenda ta związana jest w oczywisty sposób z przeznaczeniem i rolą więzienną zamku dla duchowieństwa. +Gmina Kostrzyn + +Gmina Kostrzyn - gmina miejsko-wiejska położona we wschodniej części powiatu poznańskiego (województwo wielkopolskie). Siedzibą gminy jest miasto Kostrzyn. Powierzchnia gminy wynosi 154 km², a jej ludność 14.700 mieszkańców, w tym ok. 55% w Kostrzynie. Graniczy z gminami: od wschodu: Nekla (powiat wrzesiński), od południa: Dominowo i Środa Wlkp. (powiat średzki) oraz z gminami powiatu poznańskiego: Kleszczewo (od południowego zachodu), Swarzędz (od zachodu) i Pobiedziska (od północy). +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 gminę zamieszkiwało 16 378 osób. +Komunikacja. +Przez gminę przechodzi droga krajowa nr 92, droga ekspresowa S5 stanowiąca Wschodnią Obwodnicę Poznania oraz linia kolejowa nr 3, prowadząca od granicy polsko-niemieckiej w Frankfurtcie nad Odrą przez Poznań i Warszawę następnie już jako linia kolejowa nr 2 do granicy polsko-białoruskiej w Terespolu. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Nekla, Dominowo, Środa Wielkopolska, Kleszczewo, Swarzędz, Pobiedziska +Wirialne równanie stanu + +Wirialne równanie stanu gazu opisuje stan gazu rzeczywistego. Ma postać szeregu potęgowego (Kamerlingha - Onnesa), którego pierwszy człon stanowi równanie stanu gazu doskonałego. Z reguły równanie to jest podane dla 1 mola gazu, a więc zamiast objętości w równaniu pojawia się objętość molowa gazu . +gdzie: B, C... i B', C'... są zwane drugim, trzecim itd. współczynnikiem wirialnym i zależą tylko od temperatury. Pierwszy współczynnik wirialu równy jest 1 lub też RT, co oznacza gaz doskonały. Z reguły człon przy potędze (k+1) jest mniej ważny niż człon przy potędze (k). Dla gazu doskonałego te współczynniki są równe 0. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc drugi współczynnik wirialny B odpowiada ze oddziaływania w obrębie par cząsteczek, a trzeci współczynnik wirialny za oddziaływania w obrębie trójek cząsteczek etc. W praktyce inżynierskiej często ogranicza się tylko do dwóch (jeżeli ciśnienie nie przekracza 1500 kPa) lub trzech (do 5000 kPa) pierwszych członów, zachowując zadowalającą dokładność obliczeń. +Często też stosuje się postać równania wirialnego wprowadzając pojęcie gęstości molowej, ρ = M/Vm gdzie M jest masą molową gazu. +gdzie: formula_4 itd. +Z analizy równań wirialnych wynika, że chociaż dla bardzo małych ciśnień czy gęstości gazu rzeczywistego na pierwszy rzut oka jego zachowanie zbliża się do gazu doskonałego, to ze względu na to, że wiele spośród właściwości gazu zależy od pochodnych wielkości fizycznych, to właściwości gazów rzeczywistych pozostaną różne od właściwości gazu doskonałego. +Parametrem w ogólny sposób określającym zgodność zachowania gazu rzeczywistego z modelem gazu doskonałego jest tzw. współczynnik ściśliwości Z = pVm/RT, który łatwo się wyraża poprzez współczynniki równania wirialnego (wyrażenie potęgowe w nawiasie w równaniach powyżej). +PractiSearch + +PractiSearch – program firmy Practiline Software służący do wyszukiwania zasobów w Internecie. +PractiSearch zawiera wbudowaną listę około 500 witryn z zasobami, zgromadzoną w postaci hierarchicznej bazy danych. Zasoby te można edytować i uzupełniać, a także eksportować - można też dołączyć do nich folder Ulubionych z Internet Explorera, wybrać domyślną przeglądarkę i ustalić skróty klawiaturowe. Program dołącza też listę wyszukiwarek do menu kontekstowego myszy w IE. Pasek wyszukiwania programu zostaje umieszczony w pasku zadań, natomiast ikona programu w zasobniku systemowym, gdzie pod prawym klawiszem myszy widnieje lista poleceń, w tym konfiguracja programu. +Młode wilki + +Młode wilki – polski film sensacyjny w reżyserii Jarosława Żamojdy z 1995 roku. W 1997 roku został nakręcony prequel o tytule "Młode wilki 1/2". +Opis fabuły. +Film opowiada o tak zwanych "Młodych wilkach", 19-latkach szukających szczęścia i wielkich pieniędzy. Młodzi ludzie kończą liceum. Cichy, Biedrona, Kobra i Skorpion pracują dla Czarnego (szefa gangu). Pragną szybkich pieniędzy. Życie młodych ludzi kręci się wokół - samochodów, kobiet, narkotyków, przemytu i pieniędzy. Do ostatniej roboty dla Czarnego potrzebują kogoś nowego, wybór pada na Prymusa, Roberta Radackiego. Chłopak poznaje Cleo, córkę Chmielewskiego, byłego szefa Czarnego. Między Prymusem a Cleo niebawem znajomość przeradza się w miłość. Tymczasem Chmielewski, najbogatszy człowiek w Szczecinie rezygnuje z nielegalnych interesów i układów z Czarnym. Gang Czarnego decyduje się, że dalej będą sobie radzić sami. Niespodziewanie pojawiają się problemy. Radioaktywny towar trzeba przewieźć przez "zieloną granicę". Do akcji wkraczają ludzie prokuratora Wielewskiego, po kolei likwidują członków grupy Czarnego, a pieniądze przejmuje sam Wielewski. Ginie Czarny, Kobra i Cichy. Jedynie Prymusowi i Skorpionowi udaje się uciec. W kilka dni później Prymus spotyka się z Cleo, która została przypadkowo postrzelona przez ojca. Dziewczyna, przed powrotem do Ameryki, wręcza Robertowi kopertę z pieniędzmi, którą kazał przekazać mu Cichy. Jest w niej także wspólne zdjęcie ludzi Czarnego z ostatnich wakacji. +Plenery. +Film realizowany był w Szczecinie (plac Grunwaldzki, okolice jeziora Głębokie, Wieża Quistorpa, ul. św. Wojciecha, Wały Chrobrego, plac Żołnierza) oraz w Międzyzdrojach (hotel Amber Baltic), a także w Jawczycach pod Warszawą (Rezydencja Czarnego) i w Warszawie (hotel Jan III Sobieski). +Buntownik bez powodu + +Buntownik bez powodu (tytuł oryg. "Rebel Without a Cause") – amerykański dramat filmowy z 1955, opowiadający o dojrzewaniu, przyjaźni, rodzinie oraz ponadczasowym buncie. +W głównej roli wystąpił James Dean, który za swoją rolę został uhonorowany nominacją do nagrody BAFTA. +W 1990 film uwzględniono w National Film Registry. +Fabuła. +Bohaterem jest 17-letni James "Jim" Stark, który wkrótce po przeprowadce z rodzicami do Los Angeles trafia do liceum w Dawson. Na początku filmu Jim zostaje doprowadzony na posterunek policji z powodu nietrzeźwości w miejscu publicznym. Przychodzą po niego matka, ojciec i babka, i poznajemy sytuację rodzinną Jima. Jego rodzice często się kłócą. Często to ojciec staje po stronie Jima; jednak matka zawsze zwycięża podczas sporów. To zamieszanie powoduje u Jima poczucie niepokoju, zdrady, wyobcowania. Widać to później w filmie, kiedy kilkakrotnie pyta ojca: "Co robisz, kiedy musisz zachować się jak mężczyzna?" Raz kłóci się ostro z ojcem na oczach matki. +W szkole stara się wejść w nowe środowisko, ale popada w konflikt z tamtejszym "silnym człowiekiem", Buzzem Gundersonem (Corey Allen). Zaprzyjaźnia się natomiast z 15-letnim Johnem o przezwisku Plato (Sal Mineo), który był na policji razem z nim tamtego wieczoru za strzelanie do psów. Jim staje się idolem Plata, którego prawdziwy ojciec porzucił rodzinę. Obaj mają podobne problemy, na przykład poszukiwanie sensu życia, radzenie sobie z rodzicami, którzy "nie rozumieją". +Jim poznaje też Judy (Natalie Wood), kolejną osobę z posterunku policji; jej przewinienie polegało na przebywaniu na dworze po zapadnięciu zmroku. Początkowo nie robi wielkiego wrażenia na Judy, która mówi ironicznie: "Na pewno prawdziwy z ciebie Romeo". Należy ona do licealnego gangu Buzza. Twardziele wyzywają Jima na "Wyścig Cykorów" z Buzzem, polegający na pędzeniu ukradzionymi samochodami w kierunku przepaści. Ten, kto pierwszy wyskoczy z samochodu przegrywa i jest uważany za tchórza. "Gra" kończy się tragicznie dla Buzza, kiedy pasek na rękawie jego skórzanej kurtki zaczepia się o drzwiczki samochodu i nie może on wyskoczyć przed upadkiem z klifu. +Jim próbuje powiedzieć rodzicom, co się wydarzyło, ale w końcu zirytowany tym, że nie rozumieją jego słów wybiega z domu. Kiedy kumple Buzza widzą, że Jim zamierza iść na policję, postanawiają go odszukać i w tym celu nękają rodziny Plata i Jima. Judy i Plato dołączają do niego w ogrodzie opuszczonej willi, gdzie udają rodzinę, z Jimem jako ojcem, Judy jako matką i Platem jako dzieckiem. Prześladowcy wkrótce ich odnajdują, i Plato wymachuje pistoletem, potem strzela do jednego z chłopaków, Jima, i do policjanta, w wyraźnie niezrównoważonym stanie psychicznym. +Plato ukrywa się w Obserwatorium Griffitha, które wkrótce zostaje oblężone przez policję. Jim i Judy wchodzą za nim do środka i Jim przekonuje Plata, żeby pożyczył mu pistolet, potem po cichu wyjmuje magazynek (chociaż nie nabój, który jest już wprowadzony do komory). Kiedy Plato wychodzi z obserwatorium, znów zaczyna nerwowo się zachowywać widząc policję i biegnie przed siebie, wymachując bronią. Zostaje zastrzelony przez policjanta działającego w samoobronie i chroniącego gapiów, mimo krzyków Jima, że wyjął naboje. Plato miał akurat na sobie kurtkę Jima i z tego powodu rodzice Jima (sprowadzeni na miejsce przez policję) myślą na początku, że to ich syn został trafiony. Matka podbiega do Jima i pociesza go po śmierci przyjaciela. Pan Stark obiecuje, że będzie solidniejszym ojcem, na którym syn będzie mógł polegać. Pogodzony z rodzicami Jim przedstawia im Judy. +Arkadiusz Godel + +Arkadiusz Godel (ur. 4 lutego 1952 w Lublinie) - polski szermierz, złoty medalista olimpijski, specjalizujący się we florecie. +Mistrz świata juniorów w 1972. Na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Monachium członek drużyny, która zdobyła złoty medal (skład: Marek Dąbrowski, Jerzy Kaczmarek, Lech Koziejowski, Witold Woyda i Godel). Uczestnik igrzysk w 1976 w Montrealu, gdzie w konkursie drużynowym zajął 5-6 miejsce. +Mistrz świata seniorów z 1978 (partnerami w drużynie byli: Marian Sypniewski, Adam Robak, Leszek Martewicz, Bogusław Zych) +Dwukrotny indywidualny (lata 1973, 1978) oraz 6-krotny drużynowy (lata 1974-1976, 1982, 1984-1985) mistrz Polski. +Absolwent Wydziału Prawa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. +Babice (powiat chrzanowski) + +Babice – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie chrzanowskim, siedziba gminy Babice. Sołectwo Babice zajmuje obszar 1205,5 ha (w tym: wieś Babice - 1089,5 ha, wieś Włosień 116 ha). +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa katowickiego. +Na pobliskim wzgórzu Lipowiec znajdują się dobrze zachowane ruiny zamku Lipowiec, udostępnione zwiedzającym. +W Babicach ochrzczony został 2 kwietnia 1866 roku Franciszek Hodur, legendarny organizator i pierwszy biskup Polskiego Narodowego Kościoła Katolickiego, patriota, publicysta i poeta. +Na terenie wsi działalność duszpasterską prowadzi Kościół Rzymskokatolicki (parafia Wszystkich Świętych). +Babice (województwo śląskie) + +Babice (niem. "Babitz") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie śląskim, w powiecie raciborskim, w gminie Nędza. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa katowickiego. +Wieś o zwartej zabudowie położona na skraju Płaskowyżu Rybnickiego, na południe od Nędzy. Po raz pierwszy występuje w dokumentach w 1531 roku. Liczba mieszkańców - 864 "(2008)". Zajmuje powierzchnię 9,97 km². +We wsi zachowało się kilka budynków z końca XIX wieku z częścią gospodarczą i mieszkalną pod wspólnym dachem. Naprzeciw kościoła (zbudowanego w latach 1937–1939) znajduje się czworokątna, murowana kapliczka przydrożna z polichromowaną rzeźbą św. Jana Nepomucena z XVIII wieku. +Przez wieś przechodziła niegdyś linia kolei wąskotorowej Gliwice – Racibórz, na której znajdowała się stacja Babice. +Schronisko Sowa + +Schronisko Sowa (niem. "Eulenbaude") to schronisko turystyczne położone na wysokości 900 m n.p.m. w Górach Sowich pomiędzy szczytem Wielkiej Sowy a schroniskiem Orzeł i Przełęczą Sokolą. +Historia. +Uruchomione w 1897 przez Związek Towarzystw Górskich na Wielkiej Sowie +(niem. "Verband der Gebirgsvereine an der Eule") z inicjatywy fabrykanta Karla Wissena. Początkowo miało prosty kształt - drewniany budynek, kryty dwuspadowym dachem, ustawiony na kamiennej podmurówce. W jego wnętrzu były dwie sale gościnne (jedna związkowa), oraz jeden duży i cztery małe pokoje dla turystów z ośmioma miejscami noclegowymi. Początkowo czynne było tylko do jesieni, później zaczęło funkcjonować przez cały rok. W 1898 uruchomiono bufet. +Aby wybudować schronisko VGE musiało zaciągnąć pożyczkę oraz wyemitować papiery wartościowe - ogólny koszt konstrukcji wyniósł 12 tysięcy marek (dwukrotnie więcej niż zakładano). Cały czas trwały prace przy obiekcie: najpierw ocieplono ściany i zamontowano okiennice, w 1900 doprowadzono wodę oraz zainstalowano piorunochron. W 1910 schronisko rozbudowano poprzez dobudowanie oszklonego pomieszczenia. W 1914 "Eulenbaude" częściowo strawił pożar. +Obiektem administrowało Towarzystwo Sowiogórskie z Dzierżoniowa. Wśród dzierżawców swoją funkcję najdłużej sprawował Fritz Nikolaus, prowadzący schronisko od 1915 do 1940. W okresie międzywojennym konieczna była kolejna rozbudowa i modernizacja - oszklono werandę, zbudowano toalety, doprowadzono elektryczność, wybudowano kolejną werandę i murowaną altanę. "Eulenbaude" posiadało centralne ogrzewanie i bieżącą wodę. +Schronisko było bardzo popularne wśród turystów, ale właściciele byli nastawieni raczej na spacerowiczów, niż osoby chcące zatrzymać się na noc. W części gastronomicznej znajdowało się 300 miejsc, natomiast liczba łóżek wynosiła jedynie 11 do 16. +Po II wojnie światowej budynek przejął Fundusz Wczasów Pracowniczych i otworzył tutaj Dom Wczasowy "Marysieńka". Obiekt przetrwał w ten sposób do naszych czasów i po remoncie przez obecnych gospodarzy został ponownie otwarty dla turystów. Stojąca na szczycie Wielkiej Sowy wieża widokowa stanowi inny przykład działalności wspomnianej federacji. Obecnie na swojej stronie internetowej schronisko reklamuje się również jako agroturystyka. +Libiąż + +Libiąż – miasto w woj. małopolskim, w powiecie chrzanowskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Libiąż. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa katowickiego. +Położone jest w sąsiedztwie miast: Jaworzno, Chrzanów, Oświęcim i Chełmek. +Libiąż jest miastem przemysłowym. Na jego terenie znajdują się m.in. Kopalnia Węgla Kamiennego ZG "Janina", fabryka okien i profili PCW "Thermoplast", kopalnia dolomitu a także fabryka kostki brukowej "Libet". Należy do Jaworznicko-Chrzanowskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego. +Historia. +Pierwsza historyczna wzmianka na temat Libiąża pochodzi z "Kronik" Jana Długosza. Dotyczy ona przekazania w roku 1243 miejscowości Libiąż Wielki i Libiąż Mały w posiadanie Zakonowi Benedyktynek przez dotychczasowych właścicieli pochodzących z rodu Gryfitów. W trakcie swego rozwoju Libiąż przechodził kolejno w posiadanie różnych rodów. Po podziale Polski na dzielnice w 1138 przynależy do Księstwa Raciborskiego, zaś od XIV do XVI wieku do Księstwa Oświęcimskiego, tym samym do państwa czeskiego. W 1564 wchłonięty przez Królestwo Polskie. W 1795 trafia do zaboru austriackiego. W okresie międzywojennym w województwie krakowskim. Ścisłe związki z Ziemią Krakowską uwidoczniły się m.in. w tradycjach, obrzędach, gwarze, a także w sferze kultury materialnej (strój, zabudowa) tutejszych mieszkańców. +Ważnym faktem w dziejach Libiąża było ufundowanie przez hrabiego Wielopolskiego w 1735 roku w Libiążu Wielkim parafii rzymsko - katolickiej pod wezwaniem Przemienienia Pańskiego. Do XIX wieku Libiąż był typową osadą rolniczą. Budowa linii kolejowej Kraków - Wiedeń stała się powodem migracji zarobkowej i osiedlaniem się ludności na tych terenach. +Momentem przełomowym w historii Libiąża stał się fakt odkrycia tutaj u schyłku XIX wieku bogatych złóż węgla kamiennego. Na początku XX wieku rozpoczęto budowę kopalni węgla kamiennego "Janina", w której od 1907 roku eksploatuje się ten surowiec. Otworzyło to nowe perspektywy przed Libiążem. Tutejsi mieszkańcy otrzymali zatrudnienie, a miejscowość zaczęła być atrakcyjna także dla ludzi z zewnątrz. Od tej pory rozpoczął się szybki rozwój gospodarczy i kulturalny osady. Przybywali wykwalifikowani robotnicy oraz sporo inteligencji. W tym czasie zmienił się także kształt urbanistyczny Libiąża. Wokół kopalni zaczęły powstawać nowe osiedla mieszkaniowe i obiekty użyteczności publicznej (szkoła, poczta i telegraf). Do wybuchu I wojny światowej trwał szybki i potężny rozwój miejscowości. +Po odzyskaniu niepodległości nastąpił dalszy rozwój urbanistyczny i gospodarczy. Powstały nowe szlaki komunikacyjne, linia elektryczna i budynki użyteczności publicznej. Okres międzywojenny to czas silnego rozwoju działalności samorządowej, której kontynuacja nastąpiła dopiero w 1990 roku. +Okres II wojny światowej i pierwsze lata powojenne zahamowały aktywność społeczną i samorządową. Dopiero dalszy rozwój kopalni "Janina" spowodował ponowny napływ ludności na te tereny. Zaowocowało to uzyskaniem w 1969 roku praw miejskich przez Libiąż. +W okresie II wojny światowej (wrzesień 1943 - styczeń 1945) na terenie Libiąża działał podobóz KL Auschwitz "Janinagrube"; więźniowie wykonywali prace przy wydobyciu węgla w kopalni "Janina"; w podobozie przebywało ponad 800 osób. +Obecnie w skład miasta i gminy Libiąż wchodzą: miasto Libiąż oraz dwa sołectwa - Żarki i Gromiec. +Zabytki. +Kościół został wybudowany w latach 1904 - 1911 według projektu bardzo znanego polskiego architekta - Teodora Talowskiego, który był zwolennikiem stylów historycznych, rysownikiem i specjalistą w opracowywaniu skrajnie romantycznych fasad. Kościół w Libiążu należał do jednych z jego ostatnich projektów. Architekt zmarł w 1910 roku. W ołtarzu głównym znajduje się obraz Walerego Eliasza-Radzikowskiego +Komunikacja. +Przez Libiąż przebiegają drogi wojewódzkie nr 780 oraz 933. Miasto znajduje się w niewielkiej odległości od autostrady A4. Do Krakowa jest stąd 50 km, do Katowic zaś 30 km. +Znajduje się tu także stacja kolejowa, z której odjeżdżają pociągi do Oświęcimia i do Krakowa przez Trzebinię (także do Wieliczki przez Kraków). +Pocisk kumulacyjny + +Pocisk kumulacyjny – pocisk przeciwpancerny, w którym do przebicia pancerza wykorzystuje się strumień kumulacyjny powstający po eksplozji materiału wybuchowego, działającego na wkładkę kumulacyjną (cienkościenny stożek wykonany najczęściej z miedzi lub innego miękkiego metalu). +Ładunki kumulacyjne zaczęto stosować podczas II wojny światowej w minach przeciwumocnieniowych oraz pociskach granatników przeciwpancernych. +[[Plik:CumulativeHead.png|thumb| +1. czepiec balistyczny +2. dociskacz piezoelementów +3. wkładka kumulacyjna +4. zapalnik +5. materiał wybuchowy +6. czujnik piezoelektryczny.]] +Schemat i zasada działania. +Na zamieszczonym obok schemacie kolorem niebieskim zaznaczono obudowę głowicy pocisku kumulacyjnego, kolorem żółtym ładunek wybuchowy, kolorem czerwonym zapalnik, a pomarańczowym wkładkę kumulacyjną. Niszczony pancerz znajdowałby się na lewo od schematu. +Zasada działania: wybuch zapalnika powoduje rozpoczęcie procesu spalania materiału wybuchowego. Jest ważne, aby materiał ten nie detonował, ale spalał się w regularnej, sferycznej, fali wybuchu. Fala ta zbliża się do wierzchołka stożka wkładki kumulacyjnej. Kiedy fala wybuchu dosięgnie wierzchołka wkładki, zaczyna się ona deformować i jest stopniowo, poczynając od wierzchołka, uplastyczniana i wypychana w stronę pancerza. Tak zgniatana wkładka kumulacyjna formuje strumień kumulacyjny poruszający się z dużą szybkością w stronę pancerza (czoło strumienia porusza się z prędkością kilkunastu km/s) oraz znacznie szerszy i powolniejszy strumień wsteczny, wylatujący do tyłu głowicy. Sam strumień kumulacyjny ma niewielki przekrój i dzięki temu uzyskuje wielką koncentrację energii na powierzchni pancerza, powodując zazwyczaj jego odparowanie. Załoga trafionego pojazdu jest zazwyczaj zabijana przez falę uderzeniową, powstającą w jego wnętrzu, kiedy kanał przepalany przez strumień kumulacyjny dosięgnie wewnętrznej strony pancerza. Dochodzi wtedy do dekompresji gazu do wnętrza pojazdu. Jednocześnie ta sama fala uderzeniowa powoduje zazwyczaj wybuch amunicji przewożonej w trafionym pojeździe. +Sposoby przeciwdziałania. +Istnieją dwa główne systemy przeciwdziałania pociskowi kumulacyjnemu. +1. Pancerz warstwowy. Jest to pancerz złożony z wielu warstw materiału, z których każda jest powierzchniowo utwardzana. Taki pancerz jest znacznie skuteczniejszy od pancerza litego o tej samej wadze, bowiem strumień kumulacyjny rozprasza się uderzając w kolejne utwardzone powierzchnie warstw pancerza. +2. Pancerz reaktywny. Opancerzenie tego typu polega na umieszczeniu na pancerzu właściwym kostek materiału wybuchowego o silnych własnościach detonacyjnych – czyli zapalających się znacznie szybciej, niż rozprzestrzenia się w nich fala wybuchu. Kostka takiego materiału uderzona przez strumień kumulacyjny detonuje i rozprasza strumień kumulacyjny. +W praktyce zazwyczaj łączy się obydwa te systemy, kładąc pancerz reaktywny na opancerzenie właściwe wykonane jako pancerz warstwowy. +Stosuje się również ekrany przeciwkumulacyjne. Jest to osłona, wykonana zwykle z cienkiej blachy lub siatki stalowej. Umieszczona w odległości 10–50 cm od pancerza pojazdu, chroni go częściowo przed pociskami kumulacyjnymi. Powoduje zainicjowanie efektu kumulacyjnego pocisku przed jego dojściem do pancerza pojazdu. +Gaz rzeczywisty + +Gaz rzeczywisty – pojęcie termodynamiczne oznaczające gaz, który nie zachowuje się ściśle zgodnie z prawami ustalonymi dla gazu doskonałego. W praktyce są to wszystkie gazy istniejące w realnym świecie, aczkolwiek przybliżenie gazu doskonałego może w wielu warunkach być do nich z powodzeniem zastosowane. Przybliżenie to zawodzi jednak w skrajnych warunkach, oraz gdy istnieje potrzeba dokonania bardzo dokładnych obliczeń w warunkach zbliżonych do normalnych. +W pewnych warunkach gaz rzeczywisty można opisać za pomocą równania van der Waalsa uwzględniającego objętości własne cząsteczek gazu oraz niektóre oddziaływania międzycząsteczkowe, które teoria gazu doskonałego ignoruje. W skrajnych warunkach jednak zawodzi nawet równanie van der Waalsa. +Współczynnik ściśliwości. +Dla gazu doskonałego w każdych warunkach "Z" = 1 co wynika z równania stanu gazu doskonałego (równanie Clapeyrona). Dla gazów rzeczywistych Z może znacznie odbiegać od jedności, w pewnych warunkach i zawsze dla silnie rozrzedzonego gazu ("p" → 0 oraz "ρ" → 0) również dla gazów rzeczywistych "Z" → 0. Wartość "Z" = 1 nie oznacza jednak, że gaz będzie miał takie same właściwości jak gaz doskonały, gdyż wiele z nich zależy od pochodnych wielkości fizycznych. Współczynniki ściśliwości opisywane są ilościowo za pomocą wirialnych równań stanu gazu. +Powyżej zdefiniowany współczynnik ściśliwości Z jest wielkością bezwymiarową, niezależną od układu jednostek, która ma określić odchylenie danego układu gazowego od stanu gazu doskonałego – w odróżnieniu od ogólniej sformułowanego współczynnika ściśliwości. +Pyrzyce + +Pyrzyce (łac. "Piriseum" lub "Pirissa", niem. "Pyritz") – miasto powiatowe w województwie zachodniopomorskim, leżące ok. 45 km od centrum Szczecina. Siedziba miejsko-wiejskiej gminy Pyrzyce. Według danych z 31 grudnia 2012 roku liczba mieszkańców miasta wynosiła 12 826. +Pyrzyce położone są nad Kanałem Młyńskim, na rolniczych terenach Równiny Pyrzycko-Stargardzkiej. +W latach 1946−1998 Pyrzyce administracyjnie należały do województwa szczecińskiego. +Integralne części Pyrzyc stanowią: Górne, Karniewo, Obojno, Pogorzałki, Polnik, Sicina. +Nazwa miasta. +Nazwa "Pyrzyce" pochodzi najprawdopodobniej od staropolskiego słowa "pyro", oznaczającego pszenicę. Nazwa podkreśla historyczne związki miasta z gospodarką rolną. Po II wojnie światowej przejściowo miasto nosiło nazwę "Perzyce". Obecnie obowiązującą nazwę wprowadzono rozporządzeniem ministrów Administracji Publicznej i Ziem Odzyskanych z dnia 7 maja 1946 roku. +Do roku 1945, czyli do całkowitego zniszczenia podczas walk o miasto i znalezienia się Pyrzyc w granicach Polski, miejscowość ze względu na jej dobrze zachowaną starówkę nazywana była mianem Rothenburg ob der Tauber Pomorza. +Historia. +Średniowiecze. +Osadnictwo w rejonie Pyrzyc jest bardzo stare, wzmianki pisane pojawiają się w VIII-IX wieku (opis w "Geografie Bawarskim"). W drugiej połowie X wieku Pyrzyce zostały podporządkowane Piastom, ale od XI wieku gród znowu prowadził samodzielną politykę w ramach państwowości pomorskiej. +W 1124 r. mieszkańcy Pyrzyc przyjęli chrzest. Na czele misji chrystianizacyjnej, wysłanej na Pomorze Zachodnie przez polskiego księcia Bolesława Krzywoustego, stał biskup niemiecki Otton z Bambergu, późniejszy św. Otton, od 2006 r. patron miasta. +W XII wieku Pyrzyce były grodem kasztelańskim, a w kolejnym wieku ośrodkiem wójtostwa krajowego. W latach 1230−1240 przy wczesnośredniowiecznym grodzie powstało "nowe" miasto, wzorowane na miastach Europy Zachodniej. Miało owalny kształt, dwie główne ulice, w centrum znajdował się obszerny plac targowy, na którym później wzniesiono kościół farny oraz ratusz. Z czasem przejęło ono funkcje dawnego grodu, a podgrodzie przeszło w poczet dóbr klasztoru augustianek. +Prawa miejskie Pyrzyce otrzymały w 1263 r. z rąk księcia zachodniopomorskiego Barnima I. XIII wiek to czas intensywnego rozwoju. Miasto rozpoczęło budowę systemu fortyfikacji – murów obronnych, fosy i wałów. Mury były rozbudowywane w kolejnych wiekach. +Mimo licznych wojen Pyrzyce długo pozostawały niezdobyte. Najcięższe oblężenie miało miejsce w 1478 r., gdy książę Bogusław X bronił się przed natarciem 10-tysięcznego wojska elektora brandenburskiego Albrechta. +O rozwoju i znaczeniu Pyrzyc od wieków decydowało rolnictwo. Było to spowodowane warunkami naturalnymi – tutejsze gleby (tzw. czarne ziemie) są wyjątkowo żyzne. W średniowieczu Pyrzyce nazywano spichlerzem Pomorza Zachodniego. +W kolejnych wiekach. +Od 1493 r. miasto należało do Księstwa Zachodniopomorskiego. XVI wiek to okres gospodarczego ożywienia Pyrzyc, zahamowanego w wieku XVII. W czasie wojny trzydziestoletniej zniszczone, w 1637 r. dostały się we władanie Szwecji. Od 1653 r. znalazły się w granicach Brandenburgii, później Królestwa Pruskiego. +Rozwój w połowie XVIII w. również wiązał się z rolnictwem. Miasto zaczęło się wówczas rozwijać poza obramowaniem murów (część południowa). W XIX w. dodatkowy impuls dało Pyrzycom uruchomienie połączenia kolejowego ze Stargardu Szczecińskiego przez Myślibórz do Kostrzyna nad Odrą (1882), a pod koniec XIX w. odgałęzienia do Gryfina, Godkowa i Płońska. Dworzec kolejowy usytuowano na przedmieściu północnym, co spowodowało rozbudowę tej części miasta. W tym samym, 1882 roku, oddano do użytku seminarium nauczycielskie (obecnie szpital). +W XIX i XX wieku na ziemię pyrzycką przyjeżdżały tysiące Polaków. Pracowali w tutejszych gospodarstwach rolnych. W 1909 r. z ich składek powstała polska kaplica katolicka przy dzisiejszej ulicy Lipiańskiej, obecnie nieistniejąca. +W pierwszych dziesięcioleciach XX wieku oddawano do użytku sieci kanalizacyjną, wodociągową i gazową. Od 1921 r. powstawały osiedla przy obecnych ulicach Wojska Polskiego, Ogrodowej i Jana Pawła II (wcześniej Klonowa). Zbudowano też obiekty sportowe, m.in. odkryty basen o wymiarach olimpijskich. +Zimą 1945 r. zostały ustanowione przez Niemców twierdzą broniącą dostępu do Szczecina. Po trwających ponad miesiąc działaniach wojennych twierdza została zdobyta przez oddziały 47 Armii Radzieckiej gen. F. Pierchorowicza. 2 marca 1945 r. to data zajęcia Pyrzyc przez Sowietów i symboliczny początek administracji polskiej w mieście. W wyniku walk zostało ono zniszczone w 90%. Znaczna część zabytków jednak przetrwała. +Po II wojnie światowej. +Zniszczenia powojenne były powodem przeniesienia latem 1945 r. siedziby powiatu do Lipian. Po pięciu latach, naznaczonych odgruzowywaniem miasta i początkami jego odbudowy, Pyrzyce znów stały się siedzibą powiatu. +W 1958 r. zaczęto odbudowę gotyckiego kościoła pod wezwaniem Najświętszej Marii Panny. Wśród ocalałych budowli znalazła się też kaplica Świętego Ducha, która po renowacji została zaadaptowana w 1969 r. na bibliotekę miejską. Odrestaurowano ratusz miejski, który stał się jak dawniej siedzibą władz. Dokonano również konserwacji i odrestaurowania zniszczonych odcinków murów miejskich (głównie w części północnej). W 1991 r. zakończono remont kościoła poaugustiańskiego Najświętszej Marii Panny Bolesnej, który znajduje się w historycznie najstarszej części miasta (ul. Staromiejska). +Po wojnie intensywnie rozwijało się budownictwo mieszkaniowe. Rok 1960 był początkiem budowy bloków mieszkalnych, które powstawały na terenie zniszczonej starówki. We wschodniej części Pyrzyc, przy ulicy Słonecznej, stanęło osiedle mieszkaniowe Kombinatu Państwowych Gospodarstw Rolnych. W kolejnych latach zbudowano osiedla przy ul. Narutowicza i ul. Obrońców Stalingradu (późniejsza ul. Stargardzka), przy ul. Dworcowej i ul. Rejtana, osiedle Pod Lipami, a także usytuowane z dala od centrum miasta osiedle domów jednorodzinnych przy ul. Mickiewicza. +1 stycznia 1973 r. na podstawie uchwały Wojewódzkiej Rady Narodowej Pyrzyce stały się siedzibą gminy. W mieście znajdowała się Gminna Rada Narodowa licząca 68 radnych. W skład rady wchodziły cztery komisje: Planu, Budżetu i Finansów oraz Spraw Komunalnych i Zaopatrzenia; Rolnictwa; Oświaty, Kultury i Spraw Socjalnych; Ładu i Porządku Publicznego. Powołano wspólny dla miasta i gminy Urząd Stanu Cywilnego oraz Społeczną Komisję Pojednawczą. 9 grudnia 1973 r. w miejsce Urzędu Gminy oraz Prezydium Miejskiej Rady Narodowej powołano Urząd Miasta i Gminy. +W 1989 r. rozpoczęła działalność nowa oczyszczalnia ścieków, a od 1997 r. Pyrzyce, jako pierwsze miasto w Polsce, mogły się pochwalić posiadaniem ciepłowni geotermalnej. +W 1987 r. zlikwidowany został odcinek kolei do Płońska, a w następnych latach zamknięto kolejne połączenia pasażerskie. W 2004 r. wyłączono z ruchu ostatnie połączenie, z Pyrzyc do Stargardu Szczecińskiego. Obecnie trasa kolejowa jest wykorzystywana tylko do przewozów towarowych. W 2009 rozebrano linię kolejową do Gryfina i odcinek Głazów - Myślibórz, w 2012 rozmontowano linię do Godkowa. Obecnie przez Pyrzyce przechodzi jedynie linia kolejowa Stargard Szczeciński - Pyrzyce - Głazów +Od 1 stycznia 1999 r. (wejście w życie reformy administracyjnej) miasto jest siedzibą powiatu, wchodzącego w skład województwa zachodniopomorskiego. Powiat pyrzycki obejmuje gminy: Pyrzyce, Lipiany, Bielice, Przelewice, Kozielice oraz Warnice. +Oświata. +W Pyrzycach działają dwa przedszkola. +Szkoły podstawowe i gimnazja +Szkoły ponadgimnazjalne +Inne ośrodki edukacyjne +Komunikacja. +W mieście znajduje się dworzec kolejowy (obecnie nieczynny). +Dawniej przez Pyrzyce jeździły pociągi pasażerskie i towarowe ze Stargardu Szczecińskiego do Myśliborza (Kostrzyna) (linia rozebrana), Gryfina (linia rozebrana), Godkowa (linia rozebrana) i Płońska Pyrzyckiego (linia rozebrana). +Obecnie co jakiś czas jeździ pociąg towarowy głównie z materiałami do zakładu Maldrobud w Głazowie. +Przez miasto przebiegają dwie drogi wojewódzkie: nr 106 i nr 122. Ponadto w pobliżu miasta biegnie droga ekspresowa S3. +Komunikację autobusową prowadzi lokalny oddział PKS Stargard oraz przedsiębiorstwo Paan Bus ze Starego Czarnowa. Autobusy kursują do Szczecina, Gorzowa Wielkopolskiego, Stargardu Szczecińskiego, Barlinka oraz do innych miejscowości. +Sport. +Miejski Ludowy Klub Sportowy Sokół Pyrzyce – klub piłkarski założony w 1958 roku. W sezonie 2009/2010 zespół występuje w IV lidze, w grupie zachodniopomorskiej +Turystyka. +W mieście zaczyna się Szlak Ziemi Pyrzyckiej im. Stanisława Jansona, będący oznakowanym szlakiem turystycznym o długości 58 kilometrów. Biegnie on na trasie: Pyrzyce – Brzesko – Przelewice (ogród dendrologiczny) – Koszewo – Morzyczyn. +Środki przekazu. +Pierwsze próby stworzenia w Pyrzycach gazety pojawiły się w 1832 roku, kiedy drukarz Jantzen ze Schwedt/Oder zaproponował władzom wydawanie tygodnika wówczas burmistrzowi udało się pozyskać jedynie kilku prenumeratorów. W 1840 Jantzen znów zabiegał o wydawanie gazety w Pyrzycach i Stargardzie. 21 grudnia wydał jeden numer "Pyritzer Kreisblatt". Dalej zbierano oferty od drukarzy (m.in. z Halle (Saale), Berlina czy Myśliborza). W 1842 pozyskano w Pyrzycach 141 prenumeratorów i Jantzen wydawał od lipca co jakiś czas "Wochen u. Kreisblattes in Pyritz", a od 14 sierpnia 1845 tygodnik "Wochen und Kreisblattes f. Stadt u. Kreis Pyritz". Gdy w radzie miejskiej wzmocniły się walki frakcyjne swoje zabiegi o wydawanie czasopisma rozpoczął M. W Siebert z Myśliborza, jednak ze względu na przedłużające się rozmowy z prezydentem rejencji zrezygnował. Powrócił w 1848 roku gdy rozpoczęła się walka Pyrzyc o przeniesienie siedziby powiatu ze Stargardu. Swoją gazetę "Kreis - Wochenblattes" wydał już 24 marca, ale szybko przeniósł sie do Berlina i drukarnię prekazał pyrzyckiemu lekarzowi Dawidsonowi. Siebert wrócił od miasta w po przeniesienu wład powiatowych, gdy 2 lipca 1849 otrzymał zgodę na wydawanie tygodnika "Oeffentlichen Anzeiger". Drukarnię w 1850 sprzedał Janowi Spanierowi ze Stargardu. Wydawał on od 8 czerwca 1850 do stycznia 1852 "Pyritzer Kreis-Wochenblatt". Od 1 stycznia 1852 wydawał w każdą sobotę tygodnik dla Pyrzyc, Barlinka, Lipian i Bań "Wochenblatt f. Pyritz, Berlinchen, Lippehne und Bahn". 20 lipca 1853 pyrzycki Kreistag podjął uchwałę o wydawaniu od 1 października gazety powiatowej "Pyritzer Kreisblatt". Zadanie to zlecił painerowi, który natychmiast je przyjął. Od 2 października w drukarni Backe w Pyrzycach drukowano wychodzący dwa razy w tygodniu "Kreis-Blatt für den Pyritzer Kreis", później pod tytułem "Pyritzer Kreisblatt". Od 1862 wychodził 3 razy w tygodniu w formacie 24x19 cm. W 1859 wydawnictwo, drukarnię i gazetę przejął Hesse. Jego zainteresowanie ambitną publicystyką społeczno-polityczną sprawiło, że od 25 marca 1862 wydawał 3 razy w tygodniu konserwatywną gazetę "Allgemeine Pyritzer Zeitung". Samodzielnie działał tylko kwartał i od lipca był dodatkiem do Kreisblattu. Od stycznia 1862 3 razy w tygodniu wychodził "Der Bote aus dem Weizacker". +Od kwietnia 1864 "Pyritzer Kreisblatt" był czterostronicowym dziennikiem z dodatkiem polityczno-społecznym.Od 1865 do 1878 wydawane znów trzy razy w tygodniu. Później do 1945 dziennik. +Po wojnie, od 1952 do 1954 organem władz był "Głos Ziemi Pyrzyckiej". Od końca lat 80. do 1995 roku Podregion Pyrzycki NSZZ Solidarność wydawał gazetę "Baszta", której tytuł i winieta nawiązywały do Baszty Sowiej – jednej z najbardziej rozpoznawalnych budowli Pyrzyc. W 1991 r. opublikowano trzy numery "Wiadomości Pyrzyckich", które później przez krótki czas były pyrzyckim dodatkiem do "Gazety Wyborczej". W latach 90. ukazywała się "Agropanorama na Pomorzu" – miesięcznik o tematyce rolno-gospodarczej, a w latach 1999-2000 tygodnik "7 Dni Pyrzyc", który później został połączony z bliźniaczym "7 dni Stargardu" i tym sposobem nastąpiło zamknięcie gazety. W tym samym czasie docierał do Pyrzyc miesięcznik "Gazeta Nasza" wzbogacany później o dodatek "Kolumna pyrzycka". W lipcu i sierpniu w formacie dwutygodniowym wyszły cztery numery czasopisma "Głos Pyrzycki". +Od 1991 r. do dziś wydawany jest miesięcznik "Gazeta Ziemi Pyrzyckiej", od 2002 ukazuje się także dwutygodnik "Puls Powiatu". Początkowo w dwóch mutacjach - pyrzyckiej i myśliborskiej (podtytuły odpowiednio: dwutygodnik powiatu pyrzyckiego i myśliborskiego), od 2004 przez trzy lata numerowany od nowa jako gazeta dla obu powiatów, bez podtytułu, natomiast od września 2007 wydawany wyłącznie w powiecie pyrzyckim z podtytułem "Dwutygodnik powiatu pyrzyckiego" i zachowaną numeracją od 2004 roku. Redakcja mieści się w Lipianach. +Oprócz oficjalnych stron internetowych w mieście działają dwa niezależne portale: "Pyrzyce.info" i "Pyrzyce.biz". +Wiadomości lokalne z powiatów pyrzyckiego i myśliborskiego prezentuje radio VOX FM Lipiany. W mieście działalność prowadzi również Telewizja Aura, która od 2004 roku co drugi piątek emituje program informacyjny "Spichlerz", produkowany przez Pyrzycki Dom Kultury. Nieregularnie pojawia się też "Rozmowa Spichlerza", program Liceum Ogólnokształcącego "W rytmie młodzieży", a także retransmisje obrad Rady Miasta i Rady Powiatu. W pozostałym czasie prezentowany jest widok miasta z kamery umieszczonej na dachu budynku Pyrzyckiego Domu Kultury. +Bezpieczeństwo. +W Pyrzycach znajduje się Komenda Powiatowa Policji, Komenda Powiatowa Państwowej Straży Pożarnej oraz Straż Miejska. W 2009 r. władze miasta utworzyły Straż Międzygminną, działającą na terenie gmin Pyrzyce, Przelewice i Lipiany. +W mieście funkcjonuje stacja pogotowia ratunkowego, a od 2007 r. także centrum powiadamiania ratunkowego (w siedzibie Straży Pożarnej). +W 2006 r. uruchomiono monitoring miasta. +Wspólnoty religijne. +Miasto jest siedzibą dekanatu Pyrzyce w archidiecezji szczecińsko-kamieńskiej Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego. Pyrzyce mają dwie parafie: św. Ottona oraz Najświętszej Marii Panny Bolesnej. +W mieście swoją Salę Królestwa posiadają Świadkowie Jehowy. Działalność prowadzi zbór Kościoła Zielonoświątkowców (nabożeństwa odbywają się w budynku PZMot). +Przed II wojną światową w Pyrzycach znajdowały się trzy kościoły ewangelickie, jeden kościół katolicki (przy ob. ulicy Lipiańskiej), synagoga (przy ob. ul. Krótkiej), klasztor pofranciszkański (po reformacji muzeum) oraz klasztor poaugustiański (po reformacji kościół ewangelicki) oraz dom modlitwy Darbystów (w miejscu obecnego domu kultury). Przed reformacją w obrębie murów, jak i poza nimi, znajdowało się kilkanaście kaplic. +Wyznawcy judaizmu w mieście stanowili w 1862 roku 299 osób. 5 lat później było ich już 356. W miejsce synagogi z 1794 roku w 1870 wybudowano nową przy ulicy Małej Tkackiej (ob. Krótka). +Opodal placu Zwycięstwa (ob. Wolności) w miejscu budynku obecnego domu kultury w 1996 roku odkryto w metalowym pojemniku akt erekcyjny (były w nim również m.in. biblia i gazety) z 17 marca 1907 roku domu modlitwy Christliche Gemeinschaft. Kościoła ludowego, zwanego również sektą darbystów powstałej w Pyrzycach. Budynek miał w sobie salę modlitwy, mieszkanie duchownego, kuchnię i salę dla młodzieży. Utrzymywano go ze zbiórek. +Gdy w XVI wieku Pomorze stało się krajem protestanckim katolicyzm nie posiadał własnych świątyń, ani kapłanów. Katolicy zaczęli się pojawiać na początku XVIII wieku w garnizonach, w których obecnych było wielu Polaków. W 1783 roku komendant garnizonu szczecińskiego prosił władze kościelne o zezwolenie na odprawianie nabożeństw w kaplicy św. Ducha. W 1812 roku w liczących 2855 mieszkańców Pyrzycach katolicy stanowili 0,63% (18 osób), w roku 1831 było ro 0,7% (31 wyznawców), a w 1834 42 osoby natomiast w 1840 r. 37 osób. Od lat 60. XIX wieku Pyrzyce obsługiwała nowo powstała parafia katolicka pw. św. Jana w Stargardzie należąca do diecezji wrocławskiej. Msze Święte były odprawiane osiem razy w roku w sali ratuszowej. Na przełomie XIX i XX wieku zaczęli przyjeżdżać robotnicy sezonowi, których większość stanowili Polacy. Wówczas brakowało duchownych potrafiących mówić w języku polskim. Wiernych od kościoła odstraszały niemieckie kazania i modlitwy, a około roku 1906 zaczęli oni bojkotować kościoły. Wymuszali strajkami obsługę duszpasterską przez polskich duchownych. W 1910 r. katolików było już 103 i stanowili oni 1,2% ogółu mieszkańców Pyrzyc, natomiast w okolicach szacowano ich liczbę na 1800. Powstały wówczas warunki do organizacji parafii, która powinna mieś 100 katolików lokalnych i 200 sezonowych. Wobec naporu Polaków magistrat w 1909 roku wypowiedział używanie sali ratuszowej. Wobec tego robotnicy z uzbieranych składek zaadaptowali na kaplicę stodołę przy ulicy Myśliborskiej (ob. Lipiańskiej). +Administracja. +Miasto jest siedzibą gminy miejsko-wiejskiej. Mieszkańcy Pyrzyc wybierają 10 radnych z 15-osobowej Rady Miejskiej w Pyrzycach. Pozostałych 5 radnych wybierają mieszkańcy terenów wiejskich gminy Pyrzyce. Przewodniczącym rady miejskiej jest Mariusz Majak. Organem wykonawczym jest burmistrz w osobie Jerzego Marka Olecha, który piastuje ten urząd od 2010 roku. +Siedzibą władz jest budynek przy placu Ratuszowym. +Miasto jest też siedzibą władz powiatu pyrzyckiego: 5-osobowego zarządu powiatu i 17-osobowej rady powiatu. +Mieszkańcy Pyrzyc wybierają parlamentarzystów z okręgów z siedzibą komisji wyborczej w Szczecinie, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. +Kondensacja kapilarna + +Kondensacja kapilarna - kondensacja zachodząca na powierzchni zawierającej kapilar o niewielkiej średnicy. +Zjawisko kondensacji spontanicznej występuje przy ciśnieniu pary cieczy równemu ciśnieniu pary nasyconej, ps. Kondensacja kapilarna następuje przy ciśnieniu niższym niż ciśnienie pary nasyconej. Ciśnienie kondensacji kapilarnej można określić na podstawie równania Kelvina. Dla niektórych rodzajów porów (zob. mezopory a także adsorpcja) zapełnienie i opróżnienie (ewaporacja kapilarna) następuje przy różnych ciśnieniach - zjawisko to nazywamy histerezą kapilarną. Przeciwieństwem obniżenia ciśnienia kondensacji nad powierzchnią wklęsłą (wnętrze poru) jest jego podwyższenie nad powierzchnią wypukłą (powierzchnia ziarna ciała stałego pokryta warstewką adsorbatu, powierzchnia kropli cieczy). +Kondensacja pary cieczy jest zawsze poprzedzona adsorpcją cząsteczek danej substancji (adsorbatu), a obniżenie lub podwyższenie ciśnienia kondensacji wynika z kształtu istniejącego menisku zaadsorbowanych cząsteczek danej substancji. +Gmina Międzyzdroje + +Gmina Międzyzdroje – gmina miejsko-wiejska położona jest w woj. zachodniopomorskim, w zachodniej części powiatu kamieńskiego. Siedzibą gminy jest miasto Międzyzdroje. Została utworzona w 1984 roku. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2009 roku, gmina miała 6570 mieszkańców. +powierzchnia 87., ludność 58. +Położenie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia gminy wynosi 109,88 km². Gmina stanowi 11,6% powierzchni powiatu. +W latach 1946–1998 obszar gminy wchodził w skład województwa szczecińskiego. +Demografia. +Gminę zamieszkuje 13,6% ludności powiatu. +Historia. +W latach 1973–1984 obszar obecnej gminy stanowił część miasta Świnoujścia. +Przyroda i turystyka. +Gmina leży na Wyspie Wolin nad Morzem Bałtyckim, terytorium obejmuje także fragment Zalewu Szczecińskiego i część zatoki Zalewu - jezioro Wicko Wielkie. Całą zachodnią część gminy zajmuje Woliński Park Narodowy, na terenie którego znajduje się kilka rezerwatów, m.in. żubrów i klif morski, dochodzący do 116 m n.p.m. wzgórze Grzywacz. Przez gminę prowadzi kilka szlaków turystycznych: niebieski Międzyzdroje - Lubin - Wolin, zielony do Kołczewa i czerwony E9 Szlak Nadmorski wzdłuż polskiego wybrzeża. Tereny leśne zajmują 42% powierzchni gminy, a użytki rolne 3%. +Komunikacja. +Przez gminę prowadzi droga krajowa nr 3 łącząca Międzyzdroje ze Świnoujściem (12 km) i Wolinem (14 km) oraz droga wojewódzka nr 102 przez Wisełkę (10 km) i Dziwnów (25 km) do Kamienia Pomorskiego (38 km). +Międzyzdroje uzyskały połączenie kolejowe w 1899 r. po wybudowaniu odcinka z Wolina Pomorskiego, rok później linię przedłużono do Świnoujścia. W 1979 r. zelektryfikowano odcinek Szczecin Gł.- Goleniów, a rok później pozostałą część. Obecnie w gminie czynne są 2 stacje: Międzyzdroje i Lubiewo. +W gminie czynny jest 1 urząd pocztowy: Międzyzdroje (nr 72-500). +Administracja. +Gmina Międzyzdroje utworzyła 3 jednostki pomocnicze gminy – sołectwa: "Lubin", "Wapnica" i "Wicko". +Gmina Międzyzdroje jest obszarem właściwości Sądu Rejonowego w Świnoujściu i Sądu Okręgowego w Szczecinie. Ponadto jest obszarem właściwości miejscowej Samorządowego Kolegium Odwoławczego w Szczecinie. +Grupa Poincarégo + +W fizyce i matematyce grupa Poincarégo +jest to grupa izometrii czasoprzestrzeni Minkowskiego. Jest to 10-wymiarowa grupa Liego nazwana na cześć jednego z twórców matematycznych podstaw teorii względności. Abelowa grupa translacji w czasoprzestrzeni jest podgrupą normalną, podczas gdy grupa Lorentza jest podgrupą, czyli pełna grupa Poincaré jest iloczynem półprostym translacji i transformacji Lorentza. Innym sposobem wyprowadzenia grupy Poincaré jest rozszerzenie grupy Lorentza za pomocą jej reprezentacji wektorowej. Zgodnie z programem z Erlangen, geometria czasoprzestrzeni Minkowskiego jest zdefiniowana przez grupę Poincarégo. Wedle tego programu przestrzeń Minkowskiego jest przestrzenią jednorodną dla grupy Poincarégo. +gdzie formula_4 jest infinitezymalnym generatorem translacji, a formula_5 jest generatorem transformacji Lorentza. Konsekwencją symetrii Poincarégo jest istnienie dwóch niezmienników: masy i spinu. +Grupa Poincarégo jest grupą symetrii każdej relatywistycznej teorii pola. Z tego powodu wszystkie cząstki elementarne są opisane za pomocą reprezentacji tej grupy. +Symetria Poincaré. +Symetria grupy Poincaré zawiera +Obroty i pchnięcia tworzą razem grupę Lorentza +Australijskie Terytorium Antarktyczne + +Australijskie Terytorium Antarktyczne (ang. "Australian Antarctic Territory") - część Antarktyki, do której prawa rości sobie Australia. Należą do niego wyspy oraz ląd Antarktydy położony na południe od 60 równoleżnika szerokości południowej oraz między południkami 160°E i 142°02'W oraz 136°11'W i 44°38'E. Na terytorium brak jest stałych mieszkańców, personel baz polarnych wynosi około 450 osób. +Australia jest sygnatariuszem Traktatu Antarktycznego, na mocy którego na kontynencie Antarktydy zawieszona jest działalność wydobywcza i gospodarcza. +Pierwsza australijska stacja w Antarktyce, Mawson Station, została założona 11 lutego 1954. +Pocisk podkalibrowy + +Pocisk podkalibrowy – pocisk przeciwczołgowy zbudowany z osłony, która odpada po opuszczeniu lufy oraz z rakietokształtnego rdzenia ze zubożonego uranu lub wolframu. Pociski podkalibrowe najczęściej używane są przez czołgi do niszczenia pojazdów pancernych. Osiągają one prędkość nawet do 1800 m/s (6480 km/h), a zgromadzona w związku z tym ich energia kinetyczna pozwala na przebicie pancerza rdzeniem pocisku. Wewnątrz kadłuba pocisk rozpryskuje się rażąc załogę atakowanego pojazdu. +Z uwagi na wysoką prędkość i mały przekrój, pociski podkalibrowe mają tendencję do odbijania się od pancerzy, jeśli atakowany pancerz znajduje się pod odpowiednio ostrym kątem w stosunku do lecącego pocisku. Ma to związek z nachyleniem płyt pancerza. Podczas II wojny światowej zastosowano po raz pierwszy w radzieckim T-34 i niemieckim PzKpfw V Panther nachylone płyty pancerza co zwiększyło ich odporność na ostrzał. +Wyspy Ashmore i Cartiera + +Wyspy Ashmore i Cartiera – terytorium zależne Australii składające się z rafy koralowej Ashmore i wyspy Cartier. Terytorium położone jest na Oceanie Indyjskim na północny zachód od Australii i południe od Indonezji. +Ustrój polityczny. +Wyspy są terytorium zewnętrznym Australii administrowanym z Canberry poprzez "Department of the Environment and Heritage". +Geografia. +Terytorium położone jest na Oceanie Indyjskim przy granicy z Morzem Timor w odległości około +320 km od wybrzeży Australii i około 170 km od indonezyjskiej wyspy Roti. W skład terytorium wchodzi Ashmore Reef i położona około 70 km na wschód Cartier Island wraz z otaczającymi je na odległość 12 mil morskich wodami morza terytorialnego. Wyspy sa bezludne, tylko czasami odwiedzane są przez rybaków i naukowców. +Obszar wysp wynosi 131,5 ha, a powierzchnia całej rafy 199,5 km². W skład Ashmore Reef wchodzi rafa o powierzchni 155,4 km² oraz trzy wysepki: West Islet (58,7 ha powierzchni), Middle Islet (24,7 ha) i East Islet (28,6 ha). Cartier Island ma powierzchnię 19,5 ha, a otacza ją rafa o powirzchni 44,1 km². +Na West Islet znajduje się automatyczna stacja meteorologiczna. +Wyspy stanowią obecnie rezerwat przyrody. "Ashmore Reef Marine National Nature Reserve" obejmujący rafę i 583 km² otaczającego morza został utworzony w 1983, natomiast w 2000 utworzono "Cartier Island Marine Reserve" obejmujący 172 km². +Historia. +Wyspy były znane od stuleci indonezyjskim rybakom. Dla Europejczyków wyspa Cartier została odkryta w 1800 (kapitan Nash), a rafy Ashmore w 1811 (kapitan Samuela Ashmore). Przez długi czas wyspami nie interesowano się. Dopiero w 1878 Wielka Brytania zaanektowała rafy Ashmore, natomiast wyspa Cartier została zaanektowana, również przez Wielką Brytanię, dopiero w roku 1909. W 1931 wyspy zostały przekazane Australii i w 1938 włączono je w skład Terytorium Północnego. W 1978 roku zostały z niego wydzielone i od tego czasu stanowią terytorium zamorskie (zewnętrzne). Obrona terytorium należy do obowiązków australijskich sił zbrojnych, a ich aktywność sprowadza się często do wyławiania nielegalnych imigrantów z Indonezji. +Kadyks + +Kadyks (hiszp. "Cádiz" ['kaðiθ], fen. גדר = "Gadir", łac. "Gades", arab. قادس = "Qādis") – miasto w południowo-zachodniej Hiszpanii, w regionie Andaluzja, stolica prowincji Kadyks. Położone na półwyspie oddzielającym odnogę Zatoki Kadyksu od Oceanu Atlantyckiego. Zamieszkuje je 127,200 osób (2008). +Miasto portowe i handlowe, stocznia, przemysł metalowy i spożywczy. Szkoły wyższe, muzea, znany ośrodek turystyczny. +Najstarsze miasto w Hiszpanii. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Cádiz. +Zabytki. +Nie spotyka się prawie śladów starożytności i średniowiecza, po zniszczeniu miasta w 1596 przez oddziały angielskie hr. Essexa. +Islamizm + +Islamizm – ideologia polityczna wywiedziona z fundamentalizmu islamskiego. W islamizmie islam jest traktowany nie tylko jako religia, ale i jako całościowy system polityczny, który regulować powinien prawne, gospodarcze i społeczne aspekty funkcjonowania państwa w oparciu o literalną interpretację Koranu i hadisów. Celem islamizmu jest wprowadzenie państwa wyznaniowego, rządzonego zgodnie z zasadami prawa religijnego – szariatu. +Powszechna bieda i wiążące się z nią konflikty społeczne w krajach muzułmańskich w XX wieku spowodowały rozpowszechnienie w nich ruchów socjalistycznych. Jednak wraz z upadkiem Związku Radzieckiego wpływ lewicowych ideologii został znacznie ograniczony. Islamizm pozostał główną ideologią rewolucyjną w społeczeństwach muzułmańskich, a do jego umocnienia przyczynia się konflikt ze światem zachodnim, którego przejawem mają być między innymi okupacja Strefy Gazy i Zachodniego Brzegu Jordanu przez Izrael, a także wojna z terroryzmem. +Zróżnicowanie islamizmu. +Ruchy islamistyczne są ogromnie zróżnicowane zarówno pod względem celów jak środków. Część islamistów neguje wszelkie bariery narodowe chcąc zjednoczenia całej społeczności muzułmańskiej (umma) pod w obrębie jednego globalnego kalifatu, podczas gdy inni uznają istnienie państwa narodowego. Ideał ustrojowy islamistów może mieć zarówno charakter teokratyczny (Hizb ut-Tahrir) jak demokratyczny (Bracia Muzułmańscy); pod względem gospodarczym większość islamistów opowiada się za ustrojem opartym na własności prywatnej ale pojawiały się też koncepcje "islamskiego socjalizmu" (Ludowi Mudżahedini). Pod względem metod działania zaobserwować można trzy alternatywne strategie: udział w wyborach, oddolną islamizację społeczeństwa (dawa) i walkę zbrojną (dżihad). +Czołowym teoretykiem islamizmu ekstremistycznego był Sajjid Kutb podczas gdy islamizm modernistyczny reprezentuje Tariq Ramadan; najwyższym autorytetem szyickim był Ruhollah Chomeini. Do najważniejszych ugrupowań islamistycznych należą reprezentujące różne nurty: umiarkowana Partia Wolności i Sprawiedliwości i radykalna (salaficka) Partia Światła w Egipcie, Hamas w Palestynie, Hezbollah w Libanie, Front na rzecz Sprawiedliwości i Rozwoju w Algierii, Partia Odrodzenia w Tunezji, Partia Sprawiedliwości i Rozwoju w Turcji, sunnicka Islamska Partia Iraku i szyicka Najwyższa Rada Rewolucji Islamskiej w Iraku, Zgromadzenie Islamskie w Pakistanie. +Islam a islamizm. +. W głównym nurcie islamu, zarówno w wersji sunnickiej jak i szyickiej, religia, państwo i prawo są nierozerwalnie ze sobą związane. . . . +Według amerykańskiego politologa Daniela Pipesa islamizm stanowi jedną z trzech odpowiedzi świata islamskiego na wyzwania współczesności i dominację kultury zachodniej, obok sekularyzmu i reformizm. +W odczuciu islamistów muzułmanie zostali zdominowani przez Zachód, ponieważ nie są dobrymi muzułmanami. Stąd wniosek, że można odzyskać utraconą w przeszłości chwałę jedynie przez powrót na drogę tradycji, a można to osiągnąć tylko poprzez życie w pełni podporządkowane prawu Szariatu. Czyniąc starania w celu budowy drogi życia na czystym fundamencie praw Szariatu, islamiści usiłują odrzucić wszelkie aspekty wpływów Zachodu: obyczaje, filozofię, instytucje polityczne i wartości. "Lecz mimo tych wysiłków, dalej przyswajają sobie z Zachodu bardzo wiele, na nieskończenie liczne sposoby. Bo przecież potrzebują nowoczesnej technologii, szczególnie jej zastosowań militarnych i medycznych. Z drugiej strony, sami skłaniają się do nowoczesnego życia i przez to głębiej tkwią" - zauważa Pipes. +Wygiełzów (województwo małopolskie) + +Wygiełzów – wieś sołecka w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie chrzanowskim, w gminie Babice. +Na terenie Wygiełzowa znajduje się Nadwiślański Park Etnograficzny. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa katowickiego. +Herb Krakowa + +Herb Stołecznego Królewskiego Miasta Krakowa – jeden z symboli miejskich Krakowa. +Przedstawia w polu błękitnym czerwony mur ceglany z trzema basztami, z których środkowa jest wyższa i szersza, zwieńczonymi krenelażem o trzech blankach każda, z czarnymi strzelnicami i okienkami. W murze brama o złotych otwartych podwojach, z okuciami w kształcie lilii i z podniesioną złotą broną. W prześwicie bramy ukoronowany Orzeł Biały, ze złotym dziobem i szponami. Tarcza herbowa o tradycyjnym dla Krakowa renesansowym kształcie jest zwieńczona koroną o kwiatonach w kształcie lilii, zamkniętą kabłączkiem z kulką i krzyżykiem w zwieńczeniu. +Herb został ustanowiony przez Radę Miasta Krakowa 9 października 2002 r.. +Obecna wersja herbu to poprawiony wzór herbu przyjętego 1 czerwca 1937 r. autorstwa profesora Mariana Friedberga. Zmieniony został wzór Orła Białego; dotychczasowa wersja oparta była na wizerunku identycznym, jak w godle państwowym, które nie jest zgodne z zasadami heraldycznymi (np. posiada cieniowane pióra). Nowy Orzeł został opracowany wg kanonu heraldycznego z uwzględnieniem historycznych przedstawień herbowych. Dokonano również małych zmian w wyglądzie korony, murów oraz bramy. +Nowy herb opracowali heraldycy dr Wojciech Drelicharz i dr Zenon Piech oraz plastyczka Barbara Widłak. +Historia. +Najstarszy wizerunek herbu miasta, to pieczęć zawieszona przy dokumencie wystawionym w Krakowie 20 grudnia 1303 r. przez Sulisławę, czyniącą zapis na rzecz klasztoru Franciszkanów. Przytwierdzona do dokumentu pieczęć pieczęć wójta krakowskiego (napis: "s advocati"), +była jednocześnie pieczęcią miejską. Pochodzi z lat 1281-1288, a zatem bliska jest czasom lokacji Krakowa na prawie magdeburskim z 1257 r. Lepiej zachowane są identyczne pieczęcie z lat późniejszych, z napisem w otoku "sconsvlvm et comvnitatis civitatis cracovie" – "pieczęć rajców i pospólstwa [obywateli miasta Krakowa" z roku 1312 i lat następnych, które przedstawiały w polu elementy architektury miejskiej (znany do dzisiaj mur ceglany z trzema basztami; najwyższą środkową; i bramą), świętych Wacława (patron katedry krakowskiej), Stanisława i Orła Białego, pozbawionego korony, w bramie klęcząca postać – przyjmuje się, że jest to postać wójta krakowskiego, po bokach zaś herby ziemi kujawskiej (pół lwa i pół orła), z której wywodzili się panujący ówcześnie, ostatni Piastowie.Orzeł w bramie pojawił się z końcem XVII w., a następnie zadomowił się już na stałe w otwartej bramie herbowego muru, pod podniesioną "broną", czyli kratą. Oddaje to kształt pieczęci miejskiej, tzw. "większej", z 1661 r. - pierwszej znanej z Orłem w bramie muru. Napis na jej otoku: "sigillvm.civitatis. cracoviae. metropolis. regni. poloniae" – "Pieczęć Miasta Krakowa Stolicy Królestwa Polskiego". Orzeł z herbu Krakowa zniknie dopiero za okupacji hitlerowskiej. +Sztuka przetrwania + +Sztuka przetrwania (inaczej: "surwiwal", ang. "survival") – rodzaj aktywności człowieka skierowanej na gromadzenie wiedzy i umiejętności związanych z przetrwaniem w warunkach ekstremalnych. +Rodzaje surwiwalu. +Surwiwal występuje w wielu odmianach, które można ukształtować dla własnych potrzeb. Ze względu na kryterium charakteru aktywności surwiwalowej zazwyczaj wyróżnia się trzy główne odmiany: militarny, zielony i miejski +Sztuka przetrwania jako rekreacja. +Uważa się, że sztuka przetrwania przynależy do grupy zwanej sportami ekstremalnymi. Ze względu na zamknięty charakter, utrudniający śledzenie przebiegu, brak form rywalizacji, a także brak jakichkolwiek formalnych struktur spotyka się również pogląd, że jest to spontaniczna działalność rekreacyjna. +Jako forma rekreacji, sztuka przetrwania wiąże się ze szkoleniem polegającym na ćwiczeniu odporności fizycznej i psychicznej. Różne odmiany surwiwalu (militarny, zielony , miejski) łączy dążenie do ogólnej zaradności w sytuacjach trudnych i opresyjnych. Ma to być przeciwwaga dla sygnalizowanej przez psychologów dominacji postawy wyuczonej bezradności wśród społeczeństw wysoko rozwiniętych. +Sztuka przetrwania jako samodoskonalenie. +Jeden z czołowych surwiwalowców w Polsce, Krzysztof J. Kwiatkowski, przeciwstawia okazjonalnemu surwiwalowi rekreacyjnemu specyficzną formę samodoskonalenia ciągłego, wyzwalającego własną aktywność (rozumianą jako "nie bycie bezradnym"), kształcącego "orientację w rzeczywistości". Nazywa tę postawę ""surwiwal" jako "modus vivendi" – sposób życia". W jego opisie surwiwal jest multidyscyplinarny: łączy podstawową wiedzę z psychologii, fizjologii, medycyny i ratownictwa, botaniki, fizyki i chemii, geografii, meteorologii oraz traperki. Dotyczy w tym samym stopniu przetrwania na odludziu w górach lub w lesie, jak i trzęsienia ziemi, wichury, pożaru czy powodzi, a także uniknięcia skutków ludzkiej agresji czy autodestrukcji (depresji, nałogów itp.). Gromadzona wiedza, doskonalona w indywidualnych bądź grupowych ćwiczeniach, ma prowadzić do ogólnej sprawności psychofizycznej, której specyfikę Kwiatkowski nazywa "stałą gotowością do ratownictwa". +Jego zdaniem zajmowanie się surwiwalem (nie tożsame z "uprawianiem" – jak sportu) nie wiąże się ze szczególnymi predyspozycjami fizycznymi czy psychicznymi, lecz w konsekwencji w naturalny sposób prowadzi do rozwoju wielu funkcji psychofizycznych organizmu. Autor uważa, że surwiwal wymaga refleksyjności, stałego wzbogacania indywidualnego doświadczenia. Ponieważ obszarem zainteresowania surwiwalu jest "ekstremum" oraz bezpieczne przekraczanie indywidualnych barier i zahamowań – może się przyczynić do zwiększenia zrównoważenia psychicznego i odporności na stres. Celem sztuki przetrwania jest przede wszystkim wzrost zaradności i skuteczności w działaniach. +W lipcu 2008 odbyła się pierwsza w Polsce konferencja naukowa poświęcona surwiwalowi zorganizowana przez Wyższą Szkołę Zawodową w Białej Podlaskiej przy współudziale AWF z Warszawy i Krakowa. W wyniku prowadzonych rozważań została wydana praca zbiorowa - pierwsze polskie naukowe opracowanie na temat surwiwalu. +Jedną z istotnych postaci propagujących w praktyce surwiwal jest Ryszard Franciszek Makowski, który wprowadzał jego elementy do pracy z trudną młodzieżą, kiedy był dyrektorem zakładu poprawczego w Laskowcu. Surwiwal stosowany w resocjalizacji jest jedną z bardziej skutecznych metod oddziaływania na wychowanków. +Źródła i instytucjonalne formy sztuki przetrwania. +W formie znanej jako "sposób przetrwania" surwiwal istnieje od drugiej połowy XX wieku w związku z rozwojem szkoleń w okresie wojny w Korei. Duże straty wśród pilotów amerykańskich zestrzelonych nad terytorium wroga wymusiły przygotowywanie żołnierzy do przetrwania w nieprzyjaznych warunkach. +Mimo że powszechnie uważa się surwiwal za dziedzinę militarną, korzenie sztuki przetrwania znajdują się w prehistorii, u tzw. "dzikich ludów" oraz w życiu codziennym wsi. Surwiwal jest bliski skautingowi, woodcraftowi, harcerstwu. Surwiwal z zamysłu ma być metodą przeciwdziałającą i korygującą naruszoną równowagę między naturą a cywilizacją. +Szkoły przetrwania. +Szkoła przetrwania to zorganizowana forma surwiwalu, z podziałem na adeptów i instruktorów, w której celem dla grupy jest nabycie lub doskonalenie posiadanych umiejętności, w warunkach wcześniej zaplanowanych, z wykorzystaniem specyficznej "surwiwalowej metodologii". Pierwszą w Europie szkołę przetrwania założył Jacek Pałkiewicz w Bassano del Grappa. Ten rodzaj działalności jest naśladowany przez firmy turystyczne oraz zajmujące się "teamworkingiem" idące jednak zdecydowanie w stronę form rekreacyjno-integracyjnych, z pominięciem elementów kompetencyjnych. Tego rodzaju działania są dla uczestników zazwyczaj formą jednorazową i doraźną – w przeciwieństwie do zakładanego wieloletniego doskonalenia surwiwalowego. +W 2010 roku zawiązało się Stowarzyszenie Polska Szkoła Surwiwalu z siedzibą w Łodzi mające ogólnopolski charakter. Jego zadaniem jest m.in. popularyzacja survivalu i krzewienie wiedzy przetrwaniowej, organizowanie imprez i szkoleń, ale także działania na polu nauki. +Sztuka przetrwania w mediach. +W Europie do aktywnych organizatorów i propagatorów sztuki przetrwania należą m.in. Raymond Mears i Bear Grylls, których programy dotyczące przetrwania w trudnych warunkach regularnie pokazywane są w telewizji w Discovery Channel. Pierwszy z nich reprezentuje leśny styl surwiwalu, drugi nawiązuje do stylu militarnego i podróżniczego (w postaci show). Cenne dla miłośników sztuki przetrwania są też programy telewizyjne Survivorman (w polskiej wersji językowej - Człowiek, który przetrwa wszystko) realizowane przez Lesa Strouda. W każdym odcinku z bardzo skromnym, zwykle nietypowym wyposażeniem - przez siedem dni - samotnie radzi sobie w warunkach ekstremalnych. Unikalne w programach Strouda jest to, że obywa się bez ekipy filmowej. Ma w ekwipunku kilka małych kamer wideo, którymi sam dokumentuje swoje poczynania. Przebywanie w pojedynkę na trudnych klimatycznie i/lub terenowo, odludnych obszarach jest związane z realnym ryzykiem dla Strouda, ale przydaje to autentyzmu jego programom. Na doświadczeniach Johna "Lofty" Wisemana zdobytymi w jednostkach SAS bazują szkolenia wielu firm survivalowych. +W polskiej prasie informacje o surwiwalu pojawiały się w periodykach takich jak Komandos, czy nieistniejących Żołnierzu Polskim i Survivalu. +Obszary zainteresowania. +Surwiwal skupia się na zagadnieniach związanych z przetrwaniem osobniczym. +Nerw krtaniowy górny + +Nerw krtaniowy górny (łac. "nervus laryngeus superior") – ma swój początek w dolnej części zwoju dolnego nerwu błędnego. Biegnie w dół między boczną ścianą gardła a tętnicą szyjną wewnętrzną. Na wysokości kości gnykowej dzieli się na gałąź wewnętrzną i zewnętrzną. +Gałąź wewnętrzna biegnie poprzez otwór w błonie tarczowo-gnykowej unerwiając czuciowo górną część krtani do szpary głośni. +Gałąź zewnętrzna unerwia głównie mięsień pierścienno-tarczowy i mięsień zwieracz dolny gardła. +Michael Grant (historyk) + +Michael Grant (ur. 21 listopada 1914 w Londynie, zm. 4 października 2004) – angielski filolog klasyczny, popularyzator wiedzy o starożytności. +Studiował w Cambridge. W 1989 opublikował tłumaczenie "Roczników" Tacyta, był także autorem wielu publikacji, w których zajmował się starożytnymi Grekami i Rzymianami oraz autobiografii "My First Eighty Years" (1994). W 1946 został oficerem, a w 1958 komandorem Orderu Imperium Brytyjskiego. +Sobiemir + +Sobiemir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Sobie-" i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto zapewnia sobie pokój". +Sydonia + +Sydonia — imię żeńskie pochodzące z łaciny, oznaczające "kobieta z miasta "Sydon"". Imię to pojawiło się w Polsce w XIX w. Uważano niekiedy, że czeskie imię "Zdenka" jest odpowiednikiem Sydonii, niemniej rozpowszechnienie tego pierwszego imienia już w XII-XIII wieku i względna rzadkość Sydonii powodują, że należy zakładać, iż imion tych nie łączy ze sobą związek. +Sydonia imieniny obchodzi 6 czerwca i 23 sierpnia. +Męski odpowiednik: Sydoniusz. +Zobacz też: 579 Sidonia. +Klemens XI + +Klemens XI "(łac. Clemens XI)", właściwie Giovanni Francesco Albani (ur. 23 lipca 1649 w Pesaro - zm. 19 marca 1721 w Rzymie) – papież w okresie od 23 listopada 1700 do 19 marca 1721. +Był synem patrycjusza z Urbino. Pochodził z rodu Arboreszów, który w XV wieku wyemigrował do Włoch z północnej Albanii. Z rodu tego wywodziło się kilku włoskich kardynałów. W 1660 Albani rozpoczął naukę w Kolegium Rzymskim, następnie został zaproszony przez królową Szwecji Krystynę do studiów w ufundowanej przez nią akademii. Obronił doktorat obojga praw. Był kanonikiem kapituły rzymskiej bazyliki S. Lorenzo in Damaso, prałatem papieskim (1677), referendarzem Trybunału Sygnatury Apostolskiej. Pełnił także godności w administracji Państwa Papieskiego, był gubernatorem Rieti, Sabiny i Orvieto. Od 1687 sekretarz Listów Apostolskich, 1688 wikariusz patriarchalnej Bazyliki Watykańskiej. +13 lutego 1690 papież Aleksander VIII wyniósł go do godności kardynalskiej; otrzymał tytuł diakona S. Maria in Aquiro. W 1691 brał udział w konklawe po śmierci papieża Aleksandra. Pozostał bliskim współpracownikiem kolejnego papieża Innocentego XII, przyczynił się do ogłoszenia przez Innocentego bulli "Romanum decet pontificem" (1692), potępiającej i znoszącej praktyki nepotyzmu. Dopiero we wrześniu 1700 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. +23 listopada 1700 konklawe po śmierci Innocentego XII wybrało kardynała Albaniego na papieża, jako kandydata kompromisowego wobec starć frakcji francuskiej i austriackiej. Elekt przez trzy dni wzbraniał się przed przyjęciem wyboru, ostatecznie zgodził się i przyjął imię Klemensa XI. W Bazylice Watykańskiej został prywatnie konsekrowany na biskupa 30 listopada 1700, a 8 grudnia 1700 koronowany. 10 kwietnia 1701 odbył uroczysty ingres do Bazyliki Laterańskiej. +Papież cieszył się poparciem króla Francji Ludwika XIV. Zdecydowanie zwalczał jansenizm, 8 września 1713 wydał bullę "Unigenitus", w której potępił 101 tez jansenistycznego pisarza Quesnela. W 1718 obłożył jansenistów ekskomuniką. +Papież Klemens aktywnie zajmował się działalnością misyjną. Popierał misje, zakładał w Rzymie kolegia misyjne, jednak wydał także decyzję, która wywołała negatywne skutki. W listopadzie 1704 zatwierdził zakaz Świętego Oficjum, dotyczący używania przez jezuitów tzw. rytu chińskiego (nawiązującego w obrzędach do tradycji konfucjańskich). Skutkiem decyzji papieża były prześladowania katolików w Chinach i likwidacja wielu misji, mimo to zakaz utrzymał się aż do XX w. (zniósł go dopiero papież Pius XII w 1939). +Papież skłaniał się ku neutralności w polityce zagranicznej, został jednak wciągnięty w hiszpańską wojnę o sukcesję. Początkowo wspierał kandydata Burbonów Filipa Andegaweńskiego, ale musiał zmienić poglądy po najeździe Państwa Papieskiego przez wojska cesarskie. Klemens opowiedział się wówczas (styczeń 1709) za arcyksięciem habsburskim Karolem, a Hiszpania zerwała z Rzymem stosunki dyplomatyczne. Państwo Papieskie traciło na znaczeniu, bez udziału papieża wyłączono spod jego władzy Parmę, Piacenzę, Sardynię i Sycylię. Zignorowana została bulla papieska protestująca przeciwko ustanowieniu niezależnej monarchii na Sycylii. +W polityce wewnętrznej papież kontynuował politykę poprzednika i sprzeciwiał się nepotyzmowi, ale Kuria Rzymska w okresie jego pontyfikatu miała opinię mocno skorumpowanej. Papież ustanowił w 1708 święto Niepokalanego Poczęcia Maryi, obchodzone w całym Kościele katolickim 8 grudnia. Był mecenasem sztuki i nauki, interesował się archeologią, wzbogacił Bibliotekę Watykańską. +Pontyfikat Klemensa XI, zazwyczaj negatywnie oceniany przez historyków, był jednym z dłuższych w historii, trwał ponad 20 lat. Papież zmarł 19 marca 1721 i został pochowany w Bazylice Watykańskiej (serce złożono w podziemiach kościoła SS. Vincenzo e Anastassio w Rzymie). +Hipolit Oladowski + +Hipolit Oladowski (ur. 1798, zm. 16 sierpnia 1878 w Columbus, stan Georgia) – powstaniec listopadowy, weteran wojny amerykańsko-meksykańskiej, pułkownik wojsk Konfederacji. +Życiorys. +Oladowski urodził się w zaborze rosyjskim. Służył w armii rosyjskiej, w której osiągnął stopnia kapitana. Dołączywszy do powstańców listopadowych w 1830 roku został schwytany i skazany na dożywotnią katorgę na Syberii. Udało mu się jednak uciec przy pomocy polskiej szlachcianki, która użyczyła mu swojego ubrania. +Odzyskawszy wolność, wyemigrował do Stanów Zjednoczonych, gdzie prawie natychmiast uzyskał patent oficerski. Przez następne 30 lat był zatrudniony w Federalnym Departamencie Uzbrojenia. W latach 1846-1848 walczył w armii Stanów Zjednoczonych w wojnie z Meksykiem. Po zakończeniu działań wojennych został kwatermistrzem arsenału Baton Rouge w Luizjanie, w stopniu sierżanta służby uzbrojenia (ang. "ordnance seargent"). +Wojna secesyjna. +Sprawność zarządzania arsenałem oraz doświadczenie zadecydowały o tym, iż generał brygady Braxton Bragg, który objął dowództwo nad organizującymi się oddziałami konfederatów na Florydzie, przekonał Oladowskiego do przyjęcia służby Konfederacji. Kongres Konfederacji zaakceptował awans na kapitana 16 marca 1861 r. Oladowski wszedł do dziewięcioosobowego sztabu gen. Bragga, w którym pełnił funkcję szefa służby uzbrojenia. Jego postawa spotkała się z wielkim uznaniem i pochwałami Bragga, który pisał, że „rezultaty jego cennej służby były wszędzie widoczne”, a „godny podziwu sposób, w jaki zaopatrywał on baterie i kierował sprawami w swoim departamencie odzwierciedlają jego zdolności pracowitość”. +W marcu 1862 r. gen. Beauregard sformował armię Mississippi, złożoną z oddziałów z Tennessee oraz posiłków przesłanych przez rząd Konfederacji, wśród których znajdowały się oddziały Bragga. 30 marca Oladowski został mianowany szefem służby uzbrojenia całej Armii Mississippi +W raporcie z przegranej przez konfederatów bitwie pod Shiloh, Oladowski został wyróżniony przez Bragga. +7 maja Beauregard został zastąpiony na stanowisku głównodowodzącego armią Mississippi przez Bragga, a Oladowskiego mianowano podpułkownikiem. +Bragg, chcąc odmienić losy wojny na zachodzie, przedsięwziął szeroko zakrojone plany inwazyjne, z którymi łączyło się usprawnienie pracy arsenałów w Columbus. Dzięki pracy Oladowskiego, Konfederaci mieli komplet pocisków do 97 dział. +W lipcu 1862 Polak organizował magazyn zaopatrzenia w Dalton, celem wyposażenia 60 tys. żołnierzy. Z tego okresu pochodzi korespondencja z szefem służby uzbrojenia płk. Josiahem Gorgasem i dowódcą arsenału w Columbus, mjr. Huntem, dowodząca zaangażowania Oladowskiego w sprawę Konfederacji. +Wyprawa Bragga na Kentucky nie udała się, zakończona porażką Perryville – konfederaci pociągnęli do Vicksburga, a następnie pod Chattanoogę, gdzie ponieśli porażkę. Uchodząc z miasta, odnieśli zwycięstwo pod Chickamaugą. Mimo zmiennego szczęścia, służba zaopatrzeniowa dyrygowana przez trzeźwo myślącego Polaka zapewniała Południowcom ciągły napływ amunicji, produkowanej w atlanckiej zbrojowni. +Ostatecznie armia Mississippi poniosła porażkę pod Chattanoogą w obliczu wojsk generała Granta, co doprowadziło do odwołania Bragga ze stanowiska głównodowodzącego. Oladowskiemu jednakże udało się utrzymać stanowisko generalnego kwatermistrza, co spowodowane było jego doskonałymi umiejętnościami zarządzania – w marcu i kwietniu roku 1864 oddziały konfederatów posiadały nadwyżki broni i mundurów. +Pomimo starań, obrona konfederatów przed nacierającymi oddziałami Granta okazała się niewystarczająca. +Po wojnie. +Po zakończeniu wojny Bragg, który otrzymał stanowisko szefa inżynierów w stanie Alabama i kierował rozbudową portu w Mobile, nie zapomniał o Polaku i zatrudnił go w swoim dystrykcie. Oladowski przez kolejne kilkanaście lat całkowicie poświęcił się nowej pracy. Pod koniec życia, gdy zmogła go ciężka choroba, odmówił przyjęcia pensji ze względu na niemożność wykonywania swoich obowiązków. +Hipolit Oladowski zmarł 16 sierpnia 1878 r. w Columbus (Georgia). 18 sierpnia został pochowany na Magnolia Cemetery w Mobile, gdzie niespełna dwa lata wcześniej pogrzebano jego długoletniego przyjaciela Braxtona Bragga. +Oladowski utrzymywał kontakty z nowoorleańską Polonią. Jego przyjaciółmi byli: Kasper Tochman, Ignacy Szymański, Walerian Sułakowski. +Aleksander VIII + +Aleksander VIII "(łac. Alexander VIII)", właściwie Pietro Vito Ottoboni (ur. 22 kwietnia 1610 w Wenecji, zm. 1 lutego 1691 w Rzymie), włoski duchowny katolicki, od 1689 papież. +Jego ojciec Marco Ottoboni był kanclerzem Republiki Weneckiej. Studiował na Uniwersytecie w Padwie, gdzie obronił doktorat obojga praw. W okresie pontyfikatu Urbana VIII przybył do Rzymu i rozpoczął pracę w Kurii Rzymskiej. Pełnił szereg funkcji – był gubernatorem miast Terni, Rieti, Citta di Castello i Spoleto, referendarzem Trybunału Sygnatury Apostolskiej, audytorem trybunału Roty Rzymskiej. +19 lutego 1652 został mianowany kardynałem przez Innocentego X, otrzymał tytuł prezbitera S. Salvatore in Lauro. W grudniu 1652 mianowany został biskupem Brescii (w czerwcu 1664 zrezygnował z biskupstwa). Po powrocie do Rzymu współpracował z kolejnymi papieżami (Klemensem IX i Innocentym XI), był m.in. sekretarzem Św. Oficjum (dawnej inkwizycji). W 1681 został podniesiony do godności kardynała-biskupa Sabina, później był kardynałem-biskupem Frascati, wreszcie Porto e Santa Rufina (jednocześnie zastępca dziekana Kolegium Kardynalskiego). +6 października 1689 został wybrany na następcę papieża Innocentego XI. W konklawe uczestniczyli specjalni wysłannicy cesarza rzymsko-niemieckiego i króla Francji, ale wybrano kardynała Ottoboniego niezależnie od ich wpływów. Nowy papież, który przyjął imię Aleksandra VIII, liczył już 78 lat i uchodził za człowieka światowego, co odróżniało go od znanego z ascetycznego trybu życia poprzednika. 16 października 1689 Aleksander VIII został koronowany. +W czasie krótkiego pontyfikatu papież przywrócił praktykę nepotyzmu. Wśród mianowanych przez niego kardynałów znaleźli się bratanek i stryjeczny wnuk. Jednocześnie zdobył popularność wśród mieszkańców Państwa Papieskiego dzięki redukcji podatków i obniżce cen żywności. Opór wywołała natomiast decyzja Aleksandra o finansowaniu pomocy zbrojnej dla ojczyzny papieża – Wenecji. +W kwestiach religijnych papież występował przeciwko jansenizmowi. W sprawach zagranicznych szukał porozumienia z królem Francji Ludwikiem XIV, przyjmując m.in. odrzuconego wcześniej przez Innocentego XI ambasadora francuskiego. Papież zgodził się także na nominację kardynalską biskupa de Forbin-Jansona, który wcześniej brał udział w antypapieskim zgromadzeniu gallikańskim. Nie doszło jednak do pełnego porozumienia w kwestii nominacji biskupich; schorowany papież pół roku przed śmiercią podpisał bullę "Inter multiplices", w której potępił uchwały gallikańskie z 1682 oraz wszelkie przejawy aktywności królewskiej wymierzone w papiestwo. +Aleksander VIII zmarł na początku lutego 1691 i został pochowany w Bazylice Św. Piotra. +Ingvar Kamprad + +Ingvar Kamprad (ur. 30 marca 1926) - szwedzki przemysłowiec, założyciel międzynarodowej firmy IKEA, obecnie jeden z najbogatszych ludzi świata (majątek szacowany przez Forbesa na 37 mld USD). Urodził się w Smalandii, wychował się na rodzinnej farmie Elmtaryd, w parafii Agunnaryd. +Swój biznes rozpoczął już jako mały chłopiec sprzedając zapałki które, jak głosi anegdota, sam rozwoził okolicznym mieszkańcom na rowerze; z czasem rozszerzył asortyment m.in. o nasiona, ołówki i długopisy oraz ozdoby choinkowe. +Mając 17 lat, w 1943 założył IKEA (nazwa powstała jako akronim od wyrazów: Ingvar, Kamprad, Elmtaryd, Agunnaryd). +Od 1976 mieszka w Lozannie w Szwajcarii, jednak cały czas podkreśla swój patriotyzm i oddanie Szwecji. Przejawia sentyment do Polski, gdyż w latach 60., gdy szwedzka branża meblarska bojkotowała jego firmę, to dostawy z Polski pozwoliły jej przetrwać. Podczas pobytu w tym kraju popadł w alkoholizm. +W 1994 została ujawniona faszystowska przeszłość Kamprada. W latach 40. i 50. udokumentowano, iż związany był z faszystowskim Ruchem Młodoszwedzkim. Co więcej okazało się, iż jego rodzina dwa pokolenia wcześniej emigrowała z Niemiec, i jest powiązana genealogicznie z Paulem von Hindenburgiem. Kamprad przyznał wtedy publicznie, iż jest to jedna z tych rzeczy w życiu, z powodu których jest mu najbardziej wstyd, a jako gest pojednania z organizacjami żydowskimi wspomógł je finansowo. +Zielarstwo + +Zielarstwo – dział wiedzy zajmujący się zagadnieniami hodowli, uprawy, zbioru, suszenia, pakowania i przechowywania roślin leczniczych. +Uprawa roślin leczniczych może być prowadzona w ogrodzie lub specjalnym gospodarstwie rolnym jako uprawa polowa (plantacja). Zbiór roślin leczniczych dotyczy zbierania ich zarówno z takich upraw, jak i ze stanu naturalnego, gdyż wiele roślin leczniczych eksploatujemy z dziko występujących zasobów (np. lipę). +Zielarstwo stanowi jedną z gałęzi rolnictwa względnie ogrodnictwa. Dyscyplinę tę studiuje się w Polsce na akademiach rolniczych. +Zielarstwo dostarcza roślinnych surowców leczniczych dla ziołolecznictwa (z którym nie powinno być mylone). +Powiat świecki + +Powiat świecki - powiat w Polsce (w północnej części województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Świecie. +Transport drogowy. +Drogi przebiegające przez teren powiatu +Pistolet maszynowy Orița M41 + +Orița M41 – rumuński pistolet maszynowy na nabój kalibru 9 mm z okresu II wojny światowej. +Historia. +Rumunia rozpoczęła produkcję pistoletu maszynowego własnej konstrukcji w początkach 1941. Przedsięwzięcie to jest związane z grupą czeskich inżynierów zatrudnionych w Państwowej Wytwórni Uzbrojenia w Cugir. Konstruktorem broni był Leopold Jaska. Pistolet był produkowany do 1944. Skonstruowano też wersję ze składaną kolbą. +Służba. +Pistolet maszynowy Orița M41 był używany tylko przez armię w okresie wojny oraz przez armię i milicję rumuńską w okresie powojennym. +Scenariusz liniowy + +Scenariusz liniowy w grach fabularnych, także w komputerowych grach fabularnych to scenariusz, w którym rozwój fabuły w nikłym stopniu zależy od działania postaci graczy i o ile gra nie zostanie przerwana, fabuła zakończona zostaje w punkcie ustalonym wcześniej przez mistrza gry lub w przypadku komputerowych gier fabularnych kolejność wykonywanych misji jest zaprogramowana. Scenariusz liniowy często wykorzystywany jest w tradycyjnych grach fabularnych dla wzmożenia efektu grozy, postawienia graczy w sytuacji bez wyjścia, szczególnie w grach opartych na Świecie Mroku. +Azuchi-Momoyama + +Nobunaga, który pochodził z prowincji Owari, dysponował początkowo znacznie mniejszą siłą, jednak okazał się doskonałym dowódcą. W 1560, jako 26-latek, pokonał wojska klanu Imagawa. W 1568 wkroczył do Kioto, gdzie znajdowały się siedziby cesarza oraz sioguna. W tym samym roku, dzięki wyposażeniu swoich żołnierzy w muszkiety, pokonał armię Katsuyoriego Takedy w bitwie pod Nagashino. +W 1573 Nobunaga pozbawił władzy ostatniego z siogunów Ashikaga. Jego wojska posuwały się dalej na zachód i rozpoczęły podbój ziem najsilniejszego w tamtym rejonie rodu Mōri. W tym samym czasie wrogo nastawiony do religii Nobunaga walczył w centralnej części Honsiu ze stawiającymi opór mnichami buddyjskimi. Pokonanie bogatych i popieranych przez ludność klasztorów stanowiło ogromny problem, jednak ostatecznie zakończyło się zwycięstwem dyktatora – 3000 kompleksów klasztornych i świątyń zostało doszczętnie spalonych (czasem włącznie z mnichami), a Nobunaga wpisał się do historii jako bezwzględny władca. Nie zdołał jednak doprowadzić do zjednoczenia całego kraju. W 1582 został zmuszony do popełnienia samobójstwa, oblężony w Kioto przez wojska wcześniejszego sojusznika Mitsuhide Akechiego. Do tego momentu opanował 33 (wg PWN – 20) z 66 historycznych prowincji japońskich. +Po śmierci Nobunagi wybuchła walka o schedę po dyktatorze. Wygrał ją człowiek o jeszcze silniejszej osobowości – Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Jest to jeden z niewielu przykładów – w podzielonym na klasy społeczeństwie japońskim – awansu z nizin społecznych na sam szczyt władzy. Ojciec Hideyoshiego był chłopem, walczył też w wojsku rodu Oda. Toyotomi (nazwisko to przyjął dopiero pod koniec życia, wcześniej, jak inni ludzie epoki, zmieniał je kilkakrotnie) jako piętnastolatek opuścił dom rodzinny i rozpoczął karierę wojskową. Był pojętny i szybko awansował. W latach siedemdziesiątych został głównym sojusznikiem Nobunagi (drugim był Ieyasu Tokugawa). Hideyoshi kontynuował podboje Ody: zajął Sikoku i większą część Kiusiu. W końcu 1590 pokonał ostatnią przeszkodę na drodze do dominacji na wschodzie – ród Hōjō. +Hideyoshi zajmował się także reformowaniem kraju: nałożył na daimyō podatek liczony nie od powierzchni ziemi, a od wysokości zbiorów ryżu, tzw. kokudaka. Związane z tym było dokładne mierzenie gruntów w całym kraju przez jego urzędników. Stale prowadzono też akcję rozbrajania chłopów i mnichów – od tej pory broń mieli posiadać jedynie samurajowie. Wraz z upływem lat Hideyoshi stawał się coraz bardziej pewny siebie i żądny władzy. Podbicie całej Japonii (99% ziem w rękach jego wasali) nie wystarczało mu. W 1592 rozpoczęła się wyprawa Japończyków na Koreę. Mimo początkowych sukcesów okazała się ona klęską, także dzięki pomocy dla Korei ze strony Chin. Marzenia Hideyoshiego o imperium legły w gruzach. Ostatnie miesiące życia poświęcił desperackiej walce o zapewnienie dziedzictwa swemu synowi. Po śmierci dyktatora w 1598 po raz kolejny wybuchła wojna domowa. Triumfował kolejny z byłych generałów Nobunagi – Ieyasu Tokugawa. Dał on początek nowej dynastii siogunów, która rządziła przez 250 lat i kolejnej epoce w dziejach Japonii o nazwie Edo (1600-1868). +Celestyn II + +Celestyn II, (łac. "Coelestinus II" właśc. Guido di Castello; ur. w Città di Castello, zm. 8 marca 1144) – papież od 26 września 1143 do 8 marca 1144. +Biografia. +Urodzony w Città di Castello jako Gwidon z Città di Castello, studiował filozofię u Piotra Abelarda. Uzyskał tytuł magistra i uchodził za wybitnego znawcę prawa kanonicznego. Za pontyfikatu Kaliksta II, przeszedł do pracy w kurii papieskiej, a papież Honoriusz II mianował go kardynałem diakonem S. Maria in Via Lata. Data tej nominacji nie jest znana, prawdopodobnie jednak miała miejsce pod koniec pontyfikatu Honoriusza II, gdyż Guido nie występuje w żadnych wystawionych przez tego papieża dokumentach, a jeszcze w 1127 kardynałem-diakonem S. Maria in Via Lata był Piotr. +W okresie tzw. "schizmy Anakleta II" wspierał papieża Innocentego II i działał jako jego legat w Nadrenii (1131-1132). Między 3 kwietnia 1130 a 21 grudnia 1133 podpisywał bulle papieskie jako diakon S. Maria in Via Lata, jednak w grudniu 1133 został promowany do rangi prezbitera S. Marco i między 11 stycznia 1134 a 16 maja 1143 podpisywał bulle jako "S.R.E. indignus sacerdos". W 1137 był członkiem komisji kardynalskiej badającej legalność wyboru opata Rainaldo z Monte Cassino oraz uczestniczył w rozmowach z kardynałami z obediencji Anakleta II w Salerno (listopad 1137). W 1139 działał jako legat Innocentego II w Lombardii. Był już człowiekiem w podeszłym wieku, kiedy 26 września 1143 został wybrany jako następca Innocentego II, w czasie rozruchów w Rzymie. +Przyjął imię Celestyn II i w dniu 3 października 1143 otrzymał sakrę biskupią z rąk kardynała-biskupa Ostii Alberyka. W czasie krótkiego, półrocznego pontyfikatu nie zdołał opanować sytuacji w Rzymie, gdzie krótko przed śmiercią Innocentego II powstała komuna miejska przeciwna świeckiej władzy papieża, został również zmuszony do uznania króla Sycylii Rogera II. Papież cofnął nałożony interdykt na Francję i doszedł do porozumienia z królem Ludwikiem VII. +Angelo Badalamenti + +Angelo Badalamenti (ur. 22 marca 1937 w Brooklyn, Nowy Jork, USA) - amerykański kompozytor włoskiego pochodzenia na stałe współpracujący z reżyserem Davidem Lynchem. +Biografia. +Młodość. +Urodził się w Brooklynie w rodzinie włoskich emigrantów. Matka Sycylijka, ojciec właściciel sklepu rybnego. Znaczną część swojego dzieciństwa Badalamenti spędził słuchając oper i innej muzyki poważnej. Studiował w Eastman School of Music i Manhattan School of Music, gdzie otrzymał tytuł magistra muzyki. +Kariera. +Badalamenti napisał muzykę do takich filmów jak "Gordon's War" i "Law and Disorder", ale przełom nastąpił wtedy, gdy uczył śpiewu Isabelli Rossellini do piosenki "Blue Velvet" do filmu Davida Lyncha pod tym samym tytułem. Rossellini miała śpiewać "Song to the Siren" Tima Buckleya, ale Lynchowi nie udało się uzyskać praw. Wtedy razem z Badalamentim napisali utwór "Mysteries of Love". Wtedy Lynch poprosił muzyka, by pojawił się w filmie jako pianista w nocnym klubie, gdzie występuje postać grana przez Rossellini. Ten film stał się początkiem współpracy obu panów. +Po skomponowaniu muzyki do wielu filmów z mainstreamu takich jak ' i ' napisał muzykę do kultowego serialu Lyncha "Miasteczko Twin Peaks", z utworami śpiewanymi przez Julee Cruise. Wiele z tych piosenek Cruise umieściła na swoim albumie "Floating into the Night". Inne produkcje Lyncha z muzyką Włocha to filmy: "Dzikość serca", ', "Zagubiona autostrada" i "Mulholland Drive" (gdzie Badalamenti zagrał gangstera pijącego kawę z ekspresu) oraz seriale: "Na antenie" i "Hotel Room". Inne filmy z jego muzyką to telewizyjne "Diabelskie polowanie" oraz kinowe "Nagi w Nowym Jorku", "Miasto zaginionych dzieci", "Bardzo długie zaręczyny", "Kult", "Dark Water - Fatum" i "Sekretarka". Stworzył także muzykę do gry komputerowej "Fahrenheit", która została doceniona. Ostatnio stworzył muzykę do filmów Paula Schradera "Auto Focus", "Wszystko dla gości" i '. W 2005 skomponował motywy do filmu "Napola", które zostały adaptowane przez Normanda Corbeila. +Współpraca. +W 1966 Badalamanti współtworzy piosenkę "Visa to the Stars" do płyty "The In Sound From Way Out!" Perrey and Kingsley. Także aranżował i wyprodukował dwa solowe albumy Perry'ego dla Vanguard Records, podpisując się pseudonimem Andy Babble. W 1987 zaoferował swoje usługi dla brytyjskiego zespołu Pet Shop Boys, aranżując senny i melancholijny utwór "It Couldn't Happen Here". Utwór był podwaliną dla motywu Laury Palmer z "Miasteczka Twin Peaks" z 1990, kiedy aranżował smyczki do dwóch utworów z płyty Pet Shop Boys "Behavior". +W 1993 roku Badalamenti podjął współpracę z zespołem trash metalowym Antrax przy tworzeniu "Black Logde", utworu inspirowanego "Miasteczkiem Twin Peaks" z albumu "Sound of White Noise". W 1995 roku skomponował, napisał aranżacje i wyprodukował płytę Marianne Faithful "A Secret Life". W 1996 roku Badalamenti razem z Timem Boothem założyli zespół James. Jako Booth and the Bad Angel wydali album dla Mercury Records. W 2000 roku razem z zespołem Orbital napisał utwór "Beached" do filmu "Niebiańska plaża". W 2004 roku napisał muzykę do filmu "Morderca ze wschodu" z Dolores O'Riordan, która zaśpiewała tytułową piosenkę i z którą ciągle współpracuje. +Styl. +Posługuje się głównie fortepianem wzbogaconym o instrumenty smyczkowe. Często pojawiają się też instrumenty perkusyjne, przede wszystkim wibrafon. Chętnie balansuje między gatunkami - od ciężkiego rocka przez country po jazz. +Didaskalia + +Didaskalia, zwane też tekstem pobocznym wskazówki autora dotyczące sposobu wystawienia dramatu na scenie. Są one pisane obok głównego tekstu, zwykle innym krojem (czasami również kolorem) czcionki (pochyłym bądź podkreślonym). Didaskalia dotyczą zwykle wyglądu bohaterów, rekwizytów oraz oświetlenia. Ich celem jest pomoc reżyserowi w konstruowaniu scenariusza, scenopisu, a następnie realizacji sztuki teatralnej, słuchowiska lub innego spektaklu. +Kielecki Teatr Tańca + +Kielecki Teatr Tańca (KTT) – teatr założony w 1995 r. przez Elżbietę Szlufik-Pańtak, choreografa, reżysera i pedagoga. Debiut teatru miał miejsce na deskach Teatru Dramatycznego im. Stefana Jaracza w Olsztynie. Wystawiono wówczas spektakl "Uczucia". +W okresie swojej działalności Kielecki Teatr Tańca występował na wielu scenach w kraju, m.in w Operze Bałtyckiej w Gdańsku, Teatrze Wielkim w Łodzi, Teatrze Polskim w Warszawie. +Rośliny ozdobne + +Rośliny ozdobne - jednoroczne, dwuletnie lub wieloletnie rośliny, także drzewa i krzewy o dużych walorach dekoracyjnych np. o pięknych i ciekawych kwiatach, owocach, ulistnieniu, zabarwieniu pędów, pokroju, a także interesujących właściwościach. +Roślinami ozdobnymi zajmuje się dział ogrodnictwa zwany kwiaciarstwem. +Poniższe zestawienia tabelaryczne grupują rośliny ozdobne w typowe kategorie. +Business Software Alliance + +Business Software Alliance ("BSA") – organizacja zrzeszająca komercyjnych producentów zamkniętego oprogramowania komputerowego, założona w 1988 roku, działa w 60 krajach na świecie. +W Polsce nie posiada żadnej formy prawnej, przedsiębiorstwa zrzeszone w BSA są reprezentowane przez kancelarię prawną Sołtysiński, Kawecki & Szlęzak z siedzibą w Warszawie oraz przez lobbystę Bartłomieja Wituckiego. +Celem organizacji jest promocja i egzekwowanie zgodnego z prawem korzystania z oprogramowania jej członków. Prowadzi i wspiera akcje edukacyjne dotyczące legalności oprogramowania i praw autorskich swoich członków. Udostępnia punkty kontaktowe zbierające informacje o naruszaniu tych praw. Informacje są następnie przekazywane organom ścigania. Organizacja jest też członkiem Koalicji Antypirackiej. +Ikea + +IKEA – prywatna, międzynarodowa firma specjalizująca się głównie sprzedażą detaliczną oraz produkcją mebli, a także artykułów dekoracyjnych. Została założona przez Ingvara Kamprada w 1943 r. Jej nazwa powstała jako akronim od wyrazów: Ingvar Kamprad (imię i nazwisko założyciela) oraz Elmtaryd i Agunnaryd (farma i miejscowość (parafia), w której się wychował). +Wszystkie spółki tworzące grupę IKEA, należą do holenderskiego koncernu INGKA Holding, którego właścicielem jest fundacja Stichting INGKA. +Polska jest drugim po Chinach najważniejszym producentem mebli sprzedawanych w sklepach IKEA na całym świecie. Pierwszy kontrakt na produkcję mebli IKEA zawarła z przedsiębiorstwem państwowym Fameg w 1961, w 2010 współpracowała z 60 polskimi producentami mebli. +Sklepy. +Na koniec roku 2010 było 316 sklepów Ikea w 44 krajach. +IKEA Rail. +IKEA Rail to spółka-córka Ikea, powstała w 2001 roku, zajmująca się transportem kolejowym produktów i surowców dla sieci. Ma za zadanie obniżyć koszty transportu oraz chronić środowisko. Na początku IKEA Rail obsługiwała trasę Szwecja - Zagłębie Ruhry. +Tartak Swedwood/Ikea Industry Group. +IKEA jest właścicielem tartaku oraz grupy przemysłowej Swedwood (produkcja drewnianych mebli i komponentów). +Krytyka firmy. +Ingvar Kamprad, założyciel IKEA, jako nastolatek był związany z nazistowskim ugrupowaniem Nysvenska Rörelsen. W 1994 r. w liście do pracowników swojej sieci nazwał ten incydent "największą pomyłką swojego życia". +Z końcem 1997 roku szwedzka telewizja wyemitowała film o wykorzystywaniu pracy dzieci w zakładach produkujących dla firmy IKEA w Wietnamie i na Filipinach. IKEA nie zerwała jednak współpracy z tymi podmiotami argumentując, że w tych krajach prawo zezwala na takie praktyki. W katalogu produktów z 2001 r. firma napisała: "Praca dzieci w dzisiejszych czasach jest nie do zaakceptowania, choć w kilku krajach, gdzie odbywa się nasza produkcja jest rozpowszechniona". Dietrich Garlichs, przewodniczący UNICEF Niemcy, stwierdził: "Tak, IKEA finansuje projekty UNICEF. Ale to nie oznacza automatycznie, że przy produkcji dla IKEA nie pracują dzieci". +Johan Stenebo, były bliski współpracownik założyciela firmy, napisał książkę pt: "Sanningen om IKEA" (szw. "Prawda o IKEA"), w której zarzucił Ingvarowi Kampradowi m.in. pranie brudnych pieniędzy i rasizm. +Protesty polskich pracowników ochrony. +W listopadzie 2009 roku doszło do pikiety pod sklepem IKEA w podwarszawskich Markach. Pracownicy ochrony zatrudnieni przez firmę Solid i chroniący sklepy IKEA zarzucili koncernowi, że tylko pozoruje społeczną odpowiedzialność. Skarżyli się, że ich płace są niskie, brakuje funduszu socjalnego, a IKEA wspiera nieetyczne działania Solidu, utrudniając pracownikom zrzeszanie się w związek zawodowy i zastraszając ich. +Gromisław + +Gromisław – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Gromi-" ("gromić, uderzać jak grom") i "-sław" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "posiadający nieodpartą sławę". +Gromisław imieniny obchodzi 25 lutego i 11 października. +Klemens X + +Klemens X "(łac. Clemens X)", właściwie Emilio Bonaventura Altieri, (ur. 13 lipca 1590 w Rzymie - zm. 22 lipca 1676 w Rzymie) - papież w okresie od 29 kwietnia 1670 do 22 lipca 1676. +Pochodził ze starego szlacheckiego rodu, jego starszy brat Giambattista był kardynałem z nominacji Urbana VIII (1643). Emilio Altieri studiował nauki prawne, obronił doktorat obojga praw, a 6 kwietnia 1624 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. Podjął pracę w dyplomacji papieskiej, pracował m.in. w nuncjaturze w Polsce. 29 listopada 1627 został mianowany biskupem Camerino (zastąpił w diecezji brata). Pełnił kilka funkcji w administracji papieskiej, był m.in. gubernatorem Loreto i wizytatorem apostolskim całego Państwa Papieskiego. +W latach 1644-1652 był nuncjuszem w Neapolu. W 1655 Kolegium Kardynalskie udzieliło mu pełnomocnictw dla uspokojenia napiętej sytuacji w Lombardii (w okresie sediswakancji po śmierci Innocentego X). Kolejny papież Aleksander VII powierzył mu dalsze funkcje w Kurii Rzymskiej, został m.in. sekretarzem Kongregacji Biskupów oraz asesorem w Kongregacji Inkwizycji. Kilkakrotnie odmawiał przyjęcia nominacji kardynalskiej, ostatecznie został kardynałem z nominacji Klemensa IX 29 listopada 1669. Papież nie zdążył nadać mu tytularnego kościoła prezbiterskiego, gdyż zmarł już niespełna dwa tygodnie później, 9 grudnia. +Konklawe, rozpoczęte w grudniu 1669, stanęło przed trudnym zadaniem. Kilkakrotnie weto zgłaszali przedstawiciele Francji i Hiszpanii, wreszcie po pięciu miesiącach 29 kwietnia 1670 wybrano starszego wiekiem kardynała Altieriego, uchodzącego za kandydata kompromisowego. Przyjął on na cześć poprzednika imię Klemens X i został koronowany 11 maja 1670. +Najbardziej wpływową osobą na dworze nowego papieskim został bratanek Klemensa X, Paluzzo Paluzzi-Altieri, mianowany kardynałem i sekretarzem stanu. Wykorzystał on swoje stanowisko do wzbogacenia najbliższej rodziny, powszechne oburzenie budziła kosztowna budowa pałacu rodowego ("Palazzo Altieri"). W polityce międzynarodowej Klemens wsparł Jana Sobieskiego w walkach z Turkami. Nie układały się natomiast stosunki papiestwa z Francją, król Ludwik XIV kontynuował zapoczątkowane za pontyfikatu Klemensa IX konfiskaty majątków kościelnych oraz przypisał sobie prawo obsady biskupstw francuskich. Wielokrotnie papież spotykał się z żądaniami monarchów europejskich, domagających się miejsc w Kolegium Kardynalskim dla swoich przedstawicieli. +Wśród świętych, ogłoszonych przez Klemensa X, byli m.in. założyciel zakonu teatynów Kajetan (zm. 1547), hiszpański mistyk Jan od Krzyża (zm. 1591), pierwsza święta z Ameryki Południowej Róża z Limy (zm. 1617) oraz jeden z poprzedników na tronie papieskim, Pius V (zm. 1572). +Papież, zmarły w wieku 86 lat, został pochowany w Bazylice Watykańskiej. +Carlos Sainz + +Carlos Sainz Cenamor (ur. 12 kwietnia 1962 w Madrycie) – hiszpański kierowca rajdowy od 1980. Pierwszy duży sukces sportowy Carlos Sainz odniósł w wieku 16 lat – zdobył mistrzostwo Hiszpanii w squasha. +Sainz zadebiutował na rajdowych trasach w 1980 roku, startując w Rajdzie Shalymar za kierownicą Renault 5 TS. W 1985 roku, już jako oficjalny kierowca hiszpańskiego oddziału Renault, brał udział w cyklu mistrzostw Hiszpanii za kierownica B-grupowego Renault 5 i ukończył sezon na drugiej pozycji. Po kilku latach startów za kierownicą Renault 5, w 1987 roku El Matador został kierowcą zespołu Forda i przesiadł się do A-grupowego Forda Sierrę. W pierwszym sezonie startów tym autem zdołał zdobyć tytuł mistrza Hiszpanii, a oprócz tego wziął udział w trzech rundach rajdowych Mistrzostw Świata. W roku 1988 ponownie zdobył mistrzostwo Hiszpanii. +Od 1987 brał udział w rajdach WRC; w 2004 ustanowił rekord 26 zwycięstw w karierze – nie został pobity aż do 3 września 2006, gdy Sébastien Loeb zwyciężył po raz 27. Dwukrotnie zdobywał tytuł rajdowego mistrza świata (1990 i 1992) prowadząc samochód Toyota Celica GT-Four fabrycznego zespołu Toyota. +W sezonie 2004 Rajdem Australii zakończył karierę zawodniczą, lecz powrócił do rajdów w Rajdzie Turcji oraz Grecji, gdzie zastąpił wyrzuconego z zespołu Citroëna François Duvala (zajął 4. i 3. miejsce). W swojej karierze reprezentował zespoły fabryczne Forda, Toyoty, Lancii, Subaru i Citroëna. Jego pilotami byli Antonio Boto, Luís Moya i Marc Martí. +Startował w rajdach terenowych w zespole Volkswagena, jego pilotami byli kolejno: Andreas Schulz, Michel Périn oraz Lucas Cruz. W 2007 roku zdobył Puchar Świata w Rajdach Terenowych. Startował też w Rajdzie Dakar, w 2007 roku zajął w nim 9. miejsce, a w 2009 odpadł po wypadku na 12. etapie będąc w tym czasie liderem rajdu. Wygrał +Rajd Dakar 2010, a w kolejnym Dakarze zajął 3. pozycję. +Sobiesąd + +Sobiesąd – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Sobie-" i "-sąd" ("sądzić"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto samodzielnie rozsądza", "ten, kto polega na własnym osądzie". +Sobiesąd imieniny obchodzi 9 września. +Bazooka + +Bazooka – amerykańska ręczna wyrzutnia niekierowanych przeciwpancernych pocisków rakietowych z głowicą kumulacyjną, granatnik przeciwpancerny stosowany przez wojska alianckie w czasie II wojny światowej i pozostający na uzbrojeniu armii amerykańskiej do lat sześćdziesiątych XX wieku. +Słowo "bazooka" pochodzi od prymitywnego instrumentu ludowego o tej samej nazwie, prostej wersji puzonu. +Historia. +Wstępne prace badawcze w dziedzinie ręcznej broni rakietowej rozpoczęto w USA w 1933 roku. W 1942 roku rozpoczęto produkcję seryjną 60 mm (2,36-calowych) granatników M1 Bazooka i stabilizowanych brzechwowo 60 mm kumulacyjnych pocisków rakietowych M6A3. Wyrzutnia była cienkościenną, obustronnie otwartą rurą o długości 1550 mm i masie 5,71 kg, wyposażoną w (początkowo) dwa chwyty pistoletowe, proste mechaniczne przyrządy celownicze i elektryczny układ odpalający zasilany z suchej baterii. Dla zwiększenia manewrowości, rura była skręcana z dwóch części i rozkładana na czas marszu. Etatową obsługę wyrzutni stanowiło dwóch żołnierzy: celowniczy i amunicyjny. +Wyrzutni M1 użyto po raz pierwszy w listopadzie 1942 roku w walkach w Afryce Północnej, gdzie egzemplarze broni zostały przechwycone przez Niemców i posłużyły im za bazę do skonstruowania swojej własnej, znacznie lepszej broni - Raketenpanzerbüchse Panzerschreck. Wersję rozwojową broni oznaczono M1A1 (uproszczona konstrukcja i ulepszony układ elektryczny, usunięcie chwytu przedniego). W kolejnych wzorach wyrzutni, oznaczonych symbolami M9 i M9A1, udoskonalono przyrządy celownicze (celownik optyczny), baterię elektryczną zastąpiono generatorem magneto-indukcyjnym (umieszczonym w uchwycie), a w przypadku M9A1 obsługę stanowił tylko jeden żołnierz. +Pod koniec lat czterdziestych XX wieku wprowadzono do uzbrojenia wojsk amerykańskich 88,9 mm (3,5-calową) ręczną wyrzutnię rakietową M20 Super Bazooka, wykonaną ze stopu na bazie aluminium, oraz nowy pocisk rakietowy o przebijalności pancerza zwiększonej prawie czterokrotnie do 280 mm i prawie trzykrotnie większej donośności. Używano jej w czasie wojny koreańskiej w latach 1950–1953. Obok pocisków kumulacyjnych (M28A2 HEAT) używano także zapalających pocisków fosforowych (T127E3/M30 WP), a obsługę stanowiło znów dwóch żołnierzy. W okresie późniejszym produkowano lżejszy model M20B1 z wyrzutnią z aluminium, oraz jego dalszą wersję M20A1/A1B1. Powstała także eksperymentalna trójstrzałowa M25 Three Shot Bazooka, montowana na trójnogu. +W roku 1962 88,9 mm Bazooka została zastąpiona w USA 66 mm wyrzutnią jednorazowego użytku M72 LAW. +Walerian Sułakowski + +Walerian Sułakowski (ur. 1827, zm. 1873) - weteran Wiosny Ludów na Węgrzech, żołnierz Józefa Bema, pułkownik wojsk Konfederacji, inżynier. +Po upadku rewolucji na Węgrzech (1848-1849), gdzie służył w korpusie inżynieryjnym Józefa Bema, wyemigrował do Stanów Zjednoczonych i już w 1849 roku pojawił się w Nowym Orleanie. Działacze polonijni − Kasper Tochman, Ignacy Szymański i Hipolit Oladowski − powitali go jak bohatera i udzielili mu pomocy w pierwszym okresie pobytu w USA. Działał społecznie na rzecz polskich emigrantów w Nowym Orleanie. W chwili wybuchu wojny secesyjnej (1861-1865) otrzymał stopień pułkownika i dowództwo Polskiej Brygady 14 pułku piechoty. Wspólnie z Tochmanem organizował i wyekwipował ten pułk, który działał w składzie Brygady Tygrysów z Luizjany. Z dowódcy pułku awansował na stanowisko szefa inżynierów u boku generała-majora Johna Magrudera. Po klęsce Konfederacji pracował jako inżynier. +Zmarł w 1873 roku. +Gardomir + +Gardomir – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Gardo-" ("dumny, wyniosły", wtórnie: "budzący grozę, okropny") i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Mogło zatem oznaczać "ten, który budzi grozę i zapewnia pokój" lub in. +Gardomir imieniny obchodzi 11 października. +Zefiryna + +Zefiryna – imię żeńskie pochodzenia greckiego, żeńska forma imienia Zefiryn. Jest to imię teoforyczne, utworzone za pomocą sufiksu "-inus" od imienia greckiego boga wiatru zachodniego ("Zéphyros"). +Zefiryna imieniny obchodzi razem z Zefirynem: 6 kwietnia i 20 grudnia. +Sobiebor (imię) + +Sobiebor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Sobie-" i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto walczy o siebie". +Sobiebor imieniny obchodzi 9 września. +Sydoniusz + +Sydoniusz — imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, oznaczające "mężczyzna z miasta "Sydon"". Patronem tego imienia jest św. Sydoniusz Apolinary. Uważano niekiedy, że czeskie imię "Zdeněk" jest odpowiednikiem Sydoniusza, niemniej rozpowszechnienie tego pierwszego imienia już w XII-XIII wieku i względna rzadkość Sydoniusza powodują, że należy zakładać, iż imion tych nie łączy ze sobą związek. +Sydoniusz imieniny obchodzi 6 czerwca, 23 czerwca. +Żeński odpowiednik: Sydonia +Smysław + +Smysław – staropolskie imię męskie, będące prawdopodobnie skróceniem pierwotnego "Smysłysław", złożonego z dwóch członów: "Smysł-" ("zmysł", albo "s-mysł" – "z myśli, z myślenia") i "-sław" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "ten, który jest sławny dzięki swojemu intelektowi". +Żeński odpowiednik: Smysława. +Pętla szyjna + +Pętla szyjna ("ansa cervicalis") - jedna z gałęzi długich splotu szyjnego; składa się z dwu gałęzi: górnej i dolnej, przy czym gałąź dolna odchodzi od splotu bezpośrednio, a gałąź górna na znacznej długości biegnie w obrębie nerwu podjęzykowego. +Obie gałęzie łączą się na przedniej powierzchni naczyń szyjnych powyżej ścięgna pośredniego mięśnia łopatkowo-gnykowego. Pętla szyjna oddaje gałęzie mięśniowe do mięśni podgnykowych z wyjątkiem mięśnia tarczowo-gnykowego. +Ali al-Haidri + +Ali al-Haidri (zm. 4 stycznia 2005 w Bagdadzie), iracki działacz państwowy. +Był gubernatorem prowincji Bagdad i burmistrzem stolicy z nominacji władz irackich po obaleniu Saddama Husajna. Jako wysoki urzędnik administracji współpracującej z Amerykanami stał się celem zamachów terrorystów z grupy Abu Musaba al-Zarkawiego; we wrześniu 2004 przeżył zamach, ale padł ofiarą kolejnej próby zabójstwa w styczniu 2005. Był najwyższym rangą przedstawicielem władz zabitym w zamachu od śmierci przewodniczącego Tymczasowej Rady Zarządzającej Ezzedine Salima w maju 2004. +Jajożyworodność + +Jajożyworodność ("ovoviviparia") – odmiana żyworodności polegająca na tym, że po zapłodnieniu wewnętrznym zarodki pozostają w błonach jajowych wewnątrz organizmu matki, odżywiają się żółtkiem, ale zachowują całkowitą autonomię podczas rozwoju. Młode uwalniają się z błon jajowych bezpośrednio przed złożeniem jaj, w trakcie lub zaraz po ich złożeniu przez samicę. +Termin "jajożyworodność" wprowadzony przez Borysa Balińskiego w 1975 był w kolejnych latach różnie definiowany przez biologów. Ostatecznie został wycofany z użycia, a ten typ rozrodu – spotykany u niektórych owadów, płazów, ryb i gadów – określa się jako żyworodność lecytotroficzną. +Stanisław Marusarz + +Stanisław Marusarz (ur. 18 czerwca 1913 w Zakopanem, zm. 29 października 1993 tamże) – polski skoczek narciarski, dwuboista i alpejczyk (w biegu zjazdowym i kombinacji alpejskiej), czterokrotny olimpijczyk, podporucznik AK, trener. Wicemistrz świata w skokach 1938 z Lahti. Kawaler Krzyża Wielkiego, Krzyża Komandorskiego i Krzyża Kawalerskiego Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, oraz Krzyża Srebrnego Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari. Najlepszy Sportowiec Polski w roku 1938 w Plebiscycie Przeglądu Sportowego. Zasłużony Mistrz Sportu z 1951 r. +Był dwudziestojednokrotnym mistrzem Polski w skokach, zjeździe, kombinacji klasycznej i alpejskiej oraz w sztafetach biegowych 4 razy 10 km i 5 razy 10 km. +Autor książek "Na skoczniach Polski i świata. Kartki z pamiętnika" (opracował Zbigniew K. Rogowski, Warszawa 1955) i "Skok, który uratował mi życie" (spisał Zbigniew K. Rogowski, Warszawa 1974). Startował na nartach przez ponad 30 lat. +Rodzina. +Miał cztery siostry: Helenę, Bronisławę, Marię i Zofię oraz brata Jana. Helena została w czasie wojny rozstrzelana przez Niemców, a Zofia wywieziona do obozu koncentracyjnego w Ravensbrück. Od 1939 żonaty z Ireną z Jezierskich, miał syna Piotra i dwie córki, Barbarę i Magdalenę, oraz czwórkę wnuków: Jakuba (urodzony w 1972), Marię (ur. 1977), Krzysztofa (ur. 1979) i Magdalenę Sasanę (ur. 1984). Stryjem Stanisława Marusarza był Jędrzej Marusarz, którego synami byli Andrzej i Józef, biegacze i kombinatorzy klasyczni. +Życiorys. +Urodził i wychował się w rodzinie góralskiej, jako syn Heleny, z domu Tatar, i gajowego Jana. Skakać na nartach zaczął w wieku 10 lat. Wygrał dziecięce zawody (zjazd spod Regli na Lipki, miał numer startowy 28) i za zwycięstwo otrzymał od organizatorów, zakopiańskiego „Sokoła”, rękawice. Trzy lata później wziął udział w zawodach w Zakopanem, choć początkowo sędziowie nie chcieli dopuścić go do konkursu z powodu młodego wieku. Zajął w nich 3. miejsce, za Bronisławem Czechem (który skoczył 44 m) i Stanisławem Gąsienicą Sieczką. Po raz pierwszy rozdawał autografy, a w nagrodę otrzymał prawdziwe narty skokowe. Wkrótce potem działacze ST PTT Zakopane, Józef Oppenheim i Ignacy Bujak, uznali go za wielki talent i zapisali do swojego klubu. Po zawodach na zaprojektowanej przez Aleksandra Schielego skoczni w Jaworzynce, w których nie startował, postanowił oddać na niej swój pierwszy, nieoficjalny skok. Przy wychodzeniu z progu popełnił błąd, co skutkowało upadkiem na głowę i stoczeniem się z zeskoku. Odległość skoku wyniosła niewiele ponad 10 m. +Marusarz dołączył wkrótce do czołówki zakopiańskich skoczków, do której należeli Aleksander Rozmus, Czech, Gąsienica Sieczka i Henryk Mückenbrunn. Po raz pierwszy wystartował za granicą w Starym Smokowcu. Sezon 1929/1930 zakończył udziałem w konkursie skoków we Lwowie, gdzie uzyskał 44 metry i zajął 1. miejsce. +1931-1935. +W 1931 zdobył tytuł wicemistrza Polski w skokach. Był to jego pierwszy medal na tej imprezie. Zdobył także złote medale MP w zjeździe i w sztafecie 5 razy 10 km. W konkursie skoków narciarskich zorganizowanych we Włoszech w miejscowości Ponte di Legno zajął czwarte miejsce. Podjął tam potem również nieudaną próbę bicia rekordu świata. +W 1932 roku pojechał na igrzyska do Lake Placid. Konkurs skoków odbył się, mimo trudnych warunków. Zeskok rozmiękł, spływająca woda stworzyła na samym jego dole jeziorko o głębokości około 30 cm. Dodatkowym utrudnieniem była położona tam słoma. Marusarz zajął ostatecznie 17. miejsce, po skokach na 55 m i 53 m, z notą 192,5 pkt. W biegu na 18 km był 27. i tą samą lokatę zajął w klasyfikacji kombinacji. Po raz pierwszy w karierze zdobył złoty medal mistrzostw Polski w skokach, a także w kombinacji klasycznej i w sztafecie 5 razy 10 km. Zagrał wtedy również w filmie Adama Krzeptowskiego "Biały ślad". Ustanowił także swój pierwszy rekord Krokwi, skacząc 72 m. Potem bił go jeszcze trzykrotnie – w 1934 (74 m) i w 1948 (83,5 m i 85 m). +W 1933 pojechał na zawody FIS do Innsbrucku. Startował w kombinacji klasycznej, w której zajął 6. miejsce i w biegu na 18 km, w którym był 32. Został międzynarodowym mistrzem Jugosławii i Niemiec w skokach. Ponownie zajął 1. miejsce na MP w skokach i w sztafecie 5 razy 10 km. Zwyciężył także w zawodach w zjeździe i w kombinacji alpejskiej. Po raz pierwszy, głosami czytelników Przeglądu Sportowego, znalazł się w czołowej „10” Plebiscytu na Najlepszych Sportowców Polski. Otrzymał 6416 głosów i zajął 9. miejsce. +W 1934 został także mistrzem Czechosłowacji w skokach. Na mistrzostwach świata w Sollefteå był 7. w kombinacji norweskiej, 21. w skokach i 5. w biegu sztafetowym. W Plebiscycie PS był natomiast 6. (10 731 głosów). +17 marca 1935, podczas zawodów w jugosłowiańskiej Planicy, jako pierwszy Polak w historii został rekordzistą świata w długości skoku. Uzyskał odległość 95 m. Tego samego dnia, podczas pojedynku z zawodnikami norweskimi, skoczył jeszcze 97 m, ponownie zostając rekordzistą świata, lecz chwilę później Reidar Andersen wylądował na 99 m. Wcześniej Marusarz wygrał otwarty konkurs skoków z notą 326,1 pkt. Na MŚ w Wysokich Tatrach w konkursie skoków uplasował się na 4. lokacie, tracąc 4,1 pkt. do brązowego medalu. W kombinacji norweskiej był 11. Zdobył tytuł mistrza Polski w kombinacji klasycznej i w skokach. Został także międzynarodowym mistrzem Anglii w zjeździe. W corocznym Plebiscycie Przeglądu Sportowego uplasował się tuż za podium, na czwartej lokacie. Otrzymał 14 814 punktów. +1936-1939. +Na światowych mistrzostwach w narciarstwie alpejskim w Innsbrucku zajął 16. miejsce w zjeździe, 22. w slalomie i 21. w kombinacji alpejskiej. Zimowe Igrzyska Olimpijskie 1936 odbyły się w Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Startować mogli tylko amatorzy. Oprócz Marusarza Polskę reprezentowali na niej Bronisław Czech, Michał Górski, Stanisław Karpiel, Andrzej Marusarz, Karol Zając, Weischenk i Marian Woyna Orlewicz. Stanisław Marusarz na igrzyska pojechał przeziębiony, z silną gorączką. Lekarz z wioski olimpijskiej zaaplikował mu sporą dawkę zastrzyków, odradzając jednocześnie start w konkursie. Skoczek po tygodniu zaczął chodzić, a po kilku dniach oddał dwa skoki, oba nieustane. Podczas otwartego konkursu skoków po raz pierwszy w życiu wystąpił na oświetlonym w nocy obiekcie. Potem wziął udział w zawodach kombinacji norweskiej. +Stanisław Marusarz zajął w kombinacji siódme miejsce, ex aequo z fińskim zawodnikiem Timo Muramą, z notą 393,3 punktu. W konkursie skoków był 5., po skokach na 73 m i 75,5 m. Łączna nota wyniosła 221,6 pkt. Były to pierwsze punkty olimpijskie zdobyte przez Polaka na zimowych igrzyskach. Następne uzyskał Franciszek Gąsienica Groń w 1956 r. Marusarz w 1936 wywalczył jeszcze kolejny tytuł mistrza Polski w skokach, w kombinacji klasycznej i w sztafecie 4 razy 10 km, a w Plebiscycie Przeglądu Sportowego zajął 7. miejsce, otrzymując od czytelników 14 274 głosów. +W 1937 został mistrzem Anglii w biegu. Na mistrzostwach świata w Chamonix sklasyfikowany został na 12. lokacie w konkursie skoków. Wywalczył ponadto kolejny tytuł mistrza Polski w skokach. +Na Mistrzostwach Świata 1938 w Lahti zdobył srebrny medal. Do zawodów przygotowywał się we Lwowie, gdzie pracował w sklepie sportowym "Scott i Pawłowski". Potem, w Zakopanem, wygrał eliminacje do mistrzostw. Do Finlandii pojechało pięciu polskich narciarzy, a ich kapitanem sportowym był dr Henryk Szatkowski. Marusarz na treningach oddawał dalekie skoki. W skokach do kombinacji klasycznej, w pierwszym skoku, osiągnął wysoką lokatę, lecz w drugiej serii upadł. W biegu na 18 km do kombinacji uplasował się na dalekiej pozycji i po zsumowaniu punktacji za skok i bieg zajął w klasyfikacji 21. miejsce. W konkursie skoków lądował na 66 m i 67 m, dwukrotnie bijąc rekord obiektu. Sędziowie zaczęli toczyć spory o długość jego drugiego skoku. Fiński arbiter uważał, że Polak osiągnął 67,5 m, sędzia norweski, sprzyjający swemu rodakowi Asbjørnowi Ruudowi, nie chciał się z tym zgodzić i ostatecznie ogłoszono, że Marusarz skoczył 67 m. Mistrzem świata został Ruud, o 0,3 pkt. przez Marusarzem. +Ruud chciał oddać Marusarzowi puchar za mistrzostwo świata, ale ten go nie przyjął. Dostał za to trzeci puchar i dywanik z reniferami. Według wielu działaczy i zawodników z Finlandii i Norwegii to jemu, a nie Ruudowi należał się tytuł mistrzowski, dlatego nazwano go "moralnym mistrzem świata". Marusarz stał się symbolem młodego pokolenia – wysportowanego, mądrego i oddanego ojczyźnie, uosabiającego marzenia Józefa Piłsudskiego. Dzięki temu medalowi, w plebiscycie Przeglądu Sportowego, został przez kibiców wybrany najlepszym sportowcem Polski w roku 1938. Otrzymał 28 230 punktów. Został też laureatem Wielkiej Honorowej Nagrody Sportowej. Otrzymał również posadę dzierżawcy schroniska SN PTT na Hali Pysznej. +W styczniu 1939 podczas konkursu skoków Marusarz złamał obojczyk. O swojej kontuzji nikogo nie zawiadomił, ponieważ chciał wziąć udział w mistrzostwach świata w Zakopanem. Zajął w nich 5. lokatę w skokach i 7. w kombinacji norweskiej. Był na 1. miejscu podczas MP w skokach i w zjeździe. +1940-1945. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej schronisko na Pysznej stało się punktem przerzutowym dla kurierów tatrzańskich. Po wkroczeniu wojsk niemieckich Marusarz wstąpił do ZWZ-AK, pełniąc służbę kurierską na trasie Zakopane-Budapeszt. Przeprowadzał ludzi, przenosił materiały konspiracyjne i pieniądze na działalność podziemną. Dwukrotnie został schwytany przez słowacką służbę graniczną Jozefa Tisy. Za pierwszym razem, wiosną 1940, salwował się ucieczką z posterunku żandarmerii w Szczyrbskim Plesie, schronił się u znajomego Słowaka, a potem wrócił do Zakopanego. Za drugim razem (został złapany na granicznej rzece Hornád) oddano go, wraz z żoną, Niemcom i uwięziono w areszcie w Preszowie, a następnie w Muszynie (znajdowała się tam wówczas także jego siostra Helena), gdzie był bity i oblewany wodą i w Nowym Sączu. Po przesłuchaniu w siedzibie zakopiańskiego gestapo został przewieziony do więzienia przy ulicy Montelupich w Krakowie. Żona Irena, udając ciążę, po trzech miesiącach została zwolniona z nowosądeckiego więzienia. Marusarz odmówił współpracy z okupantami, którzy proponowali mu posadę trenera. Został skazany na śmierć. 2 lipca, razem z Aleksandrem Bugajskim, uciekł z więzienia, skacząc z okna na pierwszym piętrze. Podczas ucieczki został postrzelony. Ucieczka Marusarza z krakowskiego więzienia wzbudziła podziw w okupowanej Polsce. Dotarł pieszo do Zakopanego, a potem przedarł się na Węgry, gdzie przebywał do końca wojny z przerwą na jedną kurierską misję w Polsce. Pod zmienionym nazwiskiem, jako Stanisław Przystalski, trenował węgierskich skoczków i zjazdowców. W styczniu 1944 roku wziął udział w konkursie na skoczni w Borsafüred. Spotkał tam jednego z przedwojennych skoczków, Niemca Seppa Weilera, który rozpoznał od razu Polaka, ale nie złożył doniesienia do gestapo. Marusarz przebywając na Węgrzech brał udział w projektowaniu skoczni w Koszycach i Borsafüred. Do Zakopanego powrócił w 1945 roku. Prowadził schronisko turystyczne na Ornaku. +1946-1957. +W 1946 ponownie został międzynarodowym mistrzem Czechosłowacji w skokach. Zdobył złote medale na mistrzostwach Polski w skokach i w kombinacji. Zaczął mieć też problemy z Urzędem Bezpieczeństwa. Przez dwa lata ukrywał się w Karpaczu, pomagając w przekraczaniu granicy osobom prześladowanym, wytyczając trasę zjazdową i dwie skocznie. Jedna z nich, Orlinek, nosi dziś jego imię. +Na igrzyskach w St. Moritz w 1948 uplasował się na 27. pozycji w konkursie skoków. Osiągnął wtedy odległości 59 m i 59 m, z notą 192,8 pkt. W Karpaczu wywalczył kolejny złoty medal w MP w skokach. +W 1949 wygrał zawody o Puchar Tatr i zajął 1. lokatę w MP w skokach. +W 1951 po raz kolejny został mistrzem kraju w skokach. Otrzymał także tytuł Zasłużonego Mistrza Sportu, a w Plebiscycie Przeglądu Sportowego został sklasyfikowany na 5. pozycji z 17 143 głosami. +Na igrzyskach w Oslo znów był 27., po skokach na 59 m i 60,5 m. Nota wyniosła 189,0 pkt. Był chorążym polskiej ekipy, zarówno podczas igrzysk w St. Moritz, jak i w Oslo. W 1952 wygrał także Memoriał Bronisława Czecha i Heleny Marusarzówny i po raz jedenasty w historii zawody o skokowe mistrzostwo Polski. Skokiem na 78 metr został rekordzistą wiślackiej Malinki. Po raz ostatni znalazł się w najlepszej „10” Plebiscytu Przeglądu Sportowego – tym razem był 10. z 9 374 punktami. W 1988 grupa ekspertów związana z tą gazetą ogłosiła listę Najlepszych Sportowców Polski za rok 1953, na której umieszczono Marusarza na 15. miejscu (w 1953 Plebiscyt nie został przeprowadzony z powodów ideologicznych). +W 1955 wywalczył brązowy medal na MP w skokach – ostatni w karierze. +W 1956 był jednym z przedskoczków podczas igrzysk olimpijskich w Cortina d'Ampezzo na skoczni Italia (skoczył 71 m). Często zachęcał młodych polskich skoczków do podjęcia prób bicia rekordu Wielkiej Krokwi. +W latach 1952–1957 skakał w klubie WKS Zakopane. Potem postanowił zakończyć karierę. Był trenerem i wieloletnim kierownikiem zespołu zakopiańskich skoczni, za czasów jego działalności wybudowano Średnią Krokiew oraz całkowicie przebudowaną Wielką Krokiew, którą przygotowywano do MŚ 1962. Mistrzowski konkurs na Wielkiej Krokwi w 1962 został otworzony skokiem Marusarza. Wylądował on na 70 m. Prócz tego brał udział w zawodach motocrossowych. Jego dom odwiedzało wiele znanych osób, m.in. prezydent Finlandii Urho Kekkonen. +1966-1989. +W 1966 został zaproszony do otwarcia konkursu Turnieju Czterech Skoczni w Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Postanowił skoczyć na nartach. Miał wtedy 53 lata, a nie skakał od dziewięciu. Decyzja Marusarza wywołała wśród sędziów konsternację. Musiał pożyczyć narty i buty, skoczył jednak w garniturze i krawacie. Organizatorzy podali przez megafony wiek i życiorys polskiego skoczka. Niemieccy kibice zareagowali bardzo żywiołowo, dopingując Polaka. Marusarz osiągnął odległość 66 m. Po wybiegu nosili go na ramionach skoczkowie, m.in. Bjørn Wirkola. Następnego dnia Marusarz otwierał konkurs skoków na olimpijskiej skoczni Bergisel w Innsbrucku. Skoczył w granicach 70 m, przy aplauzie austriackiej widowni. +W 1969 został wybrany narciarzem 50-lecia PZN. +Swój ostatni skok w życiu oddał w Zakopanem w 1979 r., w wieku 66 lat, na potrzeby filmu "Dziadek" Janusza Zielonackiego. +Postanowieniem Prezydium Rady Narodowej Miasta Zakopanego nr 17/33/89 i Gminy Tatrzańskiej z 22 lutego 1989 nadano skoczni Wielka Krokiew imię Stanisława Marusarza (w uzasadnieniu napisano m.in. „za wzór postaw patriotycznych i sportowych”). +Śmierć. +Zmarł na zawał serca 29 października 1993, wygłaszając przemówienie na pogrzebie Wacława Felczaka – swojego dowódcy z czasów okupacji – na Cmentarzu Zasłużonych na Pęksowym Brzyzku w Zakopanem, około godziny 15. Na cmentarzu tym został później pochowany. W Zakopanem przy ulicy Andrzeja Struga 18, w dawnym domu Marusarza, mieści się obecnie galeria trofeów, na którą składają się puchary i trofea sportowe, emblematy i sportowe legitymacje. Wkrótce w pawilonie na Wielkiej Krokwi ma powstać izba pamięci Stanisława Marusarza, która potem ma stać się częścią Muzeum Sportów Zimowych. Marusarz jest też patronem kilku szkół, m.in. Szkoły Podstawowej w Wojciechowie. W 2010 prezydent Lech Kaczyński pośmiertnie odznaczył go Krzyżem Wielkim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. 13 sierpnia 2011, podczas X Festiwalu Gwiazd Sportu, w Alei Gwiazd Sportu przy ul. Reymonta w Dziwnowie odsłonięto dziewięć replik medali polskich sportowców, w tym Marusarza. +Spycigniew + +Spycigniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Spyci-" ("nadaremnie"), oraz członu "-gniew" ("gniew"). Może oznaczać "ten, którego gniew jest daremny". +Spycigniew imieniny obchodzi 31 stycznia. +Oset + +Oset ("Carduus" L.) – rodzaj roślin z rodziny astrowatych. W języku potocznym nazwa ta jest stosowana także dla podobnych morfologicznie roślin należących do innych rodzajów. Gatunkiem typowym jest " Carduus nutans" L.. +Morfologia. +Kwiaty zebrane w dość duże, przeważnie półkuliste koszyczki. Dno koszyczka ze szczeciniastymi plewinkami. Listki okrywy zakończone cierniami. Wszystkie kwiaty w koszyczku to kwiaty rurkowate o podobnej budowie. Kielich przekształcony w pappus o pojedynczych włoskach, co najwyżej tylko z zadziorkami. +Systematyka. +"Ascalea" J. Hill, "Onopyxus" P. Bubani +Angiosperm Phylogeny Website adoptuje podział na podrodziny astrowatych ("Asteraceae") opracowany przez Panero i Funka w 2002, z późniejszymi uzupełnieniami. Zgodnie z tym ujęciem rodzaj oset ("Carduus" L.) należy do plemienia "Cardueae", podrodziny "Carduoideae" (Sweet) Cass. W systemie APG III astrowate są jedną z kilkunastu rodzin rzędu astrowców ("Asterales"), wchodzącego w skład kladu astrowych w obrębie dwuliściennych właściwych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa astrowe ("Asteridae" Takht.), nadrząd astropodobne ("Asteranae" Takht.), rząd astrowce ("Asterales" Lindl), rodzina astrowate ("Asteraceae" Dumort.), podrodzina "Carduoideae" Cass. ex Sweet, plemię "Cardueae" Cass., podplemię "Carduinae" (Cass.) Dumort, rodzaj oset ("Carduus" L.) +Symbolika i nazewnictwo. +Oset jest powszechnie błędnie uważany jako symbol Szkocji i jej walki o niepodległość. Symbolikę tę zastosował Mel Gibson w swoim filmie: "Braveheart. Waleczne serce" (dziewczynka wręcza młodemu Williamowi kwiat podobny do ostu na pocieszenie na pogrzebie zamordowanego ojca). Rośliną, która jest faktycznie symbolem Szkocji jest popłoch pospolity ("Onopordum acanthium"), a pomyłka wynika z podobieństwa tych dwóch roślin. Często jednak stosuje się w języku polskim określenie "oset szkocki", po części ze względu na niezbyt bohaterską prawdziwą nazwę tej rośliny (trudno wyobrazić sobie choćby najwyższe szkockie oznaczenie jako "Order Popłochu"), po części przez potoczny zakres nazwy "oset" obejmujący liczne kolczaste rośliny zielne, zwłaszcza z rodziny astrowatych (oset, ostrożeń, popłoch, dziewięćsił – zwany ostem górskim, ostropest – zwany ostem mlecznym) i inne (np. akant kłujący). +Sybilla (imię) + +Sybilla – imię żeńskie pochodzenia greckiego; w mitologii greckiej wieszczka przepowiadająca przyszłość. +Pierwsze polskie zapisy tego imienia datowane są na około 1265 rok. +Sybilla imieniny obchodzi 9 października, na pamiątkę św. Sybilli z Gages (również Sybilla z Aywi-res). +Znane osoby noszące to imię: +Postacie fikcyjne: +Drużyna (gry fabularne) + +Drużyna – w grach fabularnych oznacza grupę osób uczestniczących w jednej sesji lub kampanii przygotowywanych przez mistrza gry, albo grupę postaci odgrywanych przez graczy, ewentualnie grupę postaci prowadzonych przez jednego gracza w grach cRPG. +Mistrz gry prowadząc dany system prowadzi drużynę składającą się z tych samych osób, odgrywających te same postaci, do momentu ewentualnego uśmiercenia ich w trakcie kolejnych sesji. Liczba osób (postaci) znajdujących się w drużynie waha się od dwóch do nawet kilkunastu, najczęściej są to jednak grupy od 4 do 6 osób. +W przypadku LARP-ów drużyna oznacza grupę osób realizujących wspólny cel, przeciwstawnych wobec innych drużyn biorących udział w LARP-ie. +Marcus Grönholm + +Marcus Grönholm (ur. 5 lutego 1968 w Kauniainen) – fiński kierowca rajdowy. Był fabrycznym kierowcą zespołów Toyoty, Peugeota i Forda. W swojej karierze jeździł z takimi pilotami jak: Voitto Silander czy Timo Rautiainen. Nosi przydomek "Bosse". Jest synem byłego rajdowca, Ulfa Grönholma, który zginął podczas testów w 1981 roku koło Kirkkonummi. +Swoją karierę rajdową Grönholm rozpoczął 1987 roku, a jego pierwszym samochodem był Ford Escort. W sierpniu 1989 roku zadebiutował w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata jadąc samochodem Lancia Delta HF Integrale. W debiutanckim Rajdzie Finlandii zajął dwudzieste trzecie miejsce. W 1991 roku został mistrzem Finlandii w grupie N, a w latach 1994, 1996, 1997 i 1998 wywalczył cztery tytuły mistrza Finlandii w grupie A. +W 1999 roku Grönholm został członkiem zespołu Peugeota. W lutym 2000 roku podczas Rajdu Szwecji 2000 po raz pierwszy w karierze stanął na podium w rajdzie mistrzostw świata i jednocześnie odniósł swoje pierwsze zwycięstwo. W sezonie 2000 wywalczył swój pierwszy tytuł mistrza świata jadąc Peugeotem 206 WRC, a w 2002 roku ponownie został mistrzem. W latach 2006–2007 był członkiem zespołu Forda. W 2006 i 2007 roku jadąc Ford Focus WRC został dwukrotnie z rzędu wicemistrzem świata. +W swojej karierze Grönholm wygrał łącznie 30 rajdów w mistrzostwach świata. 61 razy w swojej karierze stawał na podium w rajdach mistrzostw świata. Zdobył w nich 615 punktów. Wygrał 542 odcinki specjalne. +Kariera. +Początki. +Grönholm urodził się w mieście Kauniainen. Swoją karierę w sportach motorowych rozpoczął wzorując się na ojcu, Ulfie Grönholmie, dwukrotnym rajdowym mistrzu Finlandii. W 1981 roku Grönholm rozpoczął starty w motocrossie, jednak pięć lat później doznał kontuzji kolana i musiał zaprzestać jazdy motorem. W 1987 roku otrzymał licencję rajdową i zaczął startować w lokalnych fińskich rajdach, a jego pierwszym rajdowym samochodem był Ford Escort. W 1988 roku jadąc Oplem Asconą z siostrą Mią jako pilotem wywalczył rajdowe mistrzostwo Finlandii juniorów. W sierpniu 1989 roku zadebiutował w mistrzostwach świata. Jadąc z pilotem Ilkką Rippinenem Lancią Deltą HF Integrale zajął dwudzieste trzecie miejsce w Rajdzie Finlandii. W 1990 roku Grönholm startował już N-grupową Toyotą Celiką GT-Four. Wystartował nią m.in. w sierpniowym Rajdzie Finlandii, którego nie ukończył na skutek wypadku. W 1991 roku wywalczył tytuł mistrza Finlandii w grupie N, a w 1992 roku przesiadł się do A-grupowej Toyoty Celiki Turbo 4WD. W sierpniu 1992 wystartował w Rajdzie Finlandii 1992 i wygrał pierwszy odcinek specjalny, jednak na piątym uległ wypadkowi i wycofał się z rajdu. W 1993 roku zdobył swój pierwszy punkt w mistrzostwach świata, gdy zajął dziesiątą pozycję w Rajdzie Finlandii 1993. +W 1994 roku Grönholm wywalczył swoje pierwsze w karierze mistrzostwo Finlandii w grupie A za kierownicą Toyoty Celiki. Z kolei w odbywajacym się latem Rajdzie Finlandii był piąty w klasyfikacji generalnej i przyjechał na metę za takimi zawodnikami jak: Tommi Mäkinen, Didier Auriol, Carlos Sainz i François Delecour. W 1995 roku zaliczył trzy występy w mistrzostwach świata, w Rajdzie Szwecji, Rajdzie Portugalii i Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii, jednak żadnego z nich nie ukończył. Był za to drugi w Rajdzie Finlandii za Thomasem Rådströmem, jednak w zawodach tych brały udział jedynie samochody w klasie F2. W 1996 roku Grönholm po raz drugi został rajdowym mistrzem Finlandii. Wziął też udział w dwóch rajdach mistrzostw świata: Rajdzie Szwecji i Rajdzie Finlandii. W pierwszym z nich był siódmy, a w drugim dojechał na czwartej pozycji. W 1997 roku Grönholm ponownie wywalczył rajdowy tytuł mistrza swojego kraju. W pięciu startach w mistrzostwach świata Fin dwukrotnie zdobył punkty do klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw. W majowym Rajdzie Argentyny był czwarty, a listopadowy Rajd Wielkiej Brytanii ukończył na piątej pozycji. Startował w nim (podobnie jak w sierpniu w Rajdzie Finlandii) samochodem klasy WRC, Toyotą Corollą WRC w barwach zespołu Toyota Castrol Team. W 1998 roku Grönholm startował zarówno Toyotą Corollą WRC i Toyotą Celiką GT-Four. Wywalczył swój czwarty już tytuł mistrzowski w Finlandii. W sześciu startach w mistrzostwach świata 1998 tylko jeden raz zdobył punkty – w lutowym Rajdzie Szwecji, w którym był piąty. +1999–2003: Peugeot 206 WRC. +Jeszcze w sierpniu 1998 po Rajdzie Finlandii (w którym Grönholm był siódmy) kierownictwo fabrycznego zespołu Peugeota zaproponowało Grönholmowi dwuletni kontrakt na starty Peugeotem 206 WRC w sezonie 1999. W listopadzie 1998 odbył on w Paryżu pierwsze testy nowym samochodem. W sezonie 1999 jeździł w Peugeocie z Francuzami François Delecourem i Gilles'em Panizzim. Pierwsze dwa rajdy w sezonie 1999 Grönholm pojechał jednak innymi samochodami niż Peugeot. W Rajdzie Szwecji (którego nie ukończył) był to SEAT Córdoba WRC, a w Rajdzie Portugalii (wycofał się na skutek awarii skrzyni biegów) – Mitsubishi Carisma GT Evo 6. Swój debiut w Peugeocie Grönholm zaliczył w czerwcu 1999. Z Rajdu Grecji wycofał się jednak już na drugim odcinku specjalnym na skutek awarii sprzęgła. W sierpniu 1999 na rodzimych trasach w Rajdzie Finlandii Grönholm dojechał na czwartej pozycji. Do końca sezonu 1999 wystartował jeszcze w trzech rajdach. W Rajdzie Sanremo zajął ósmą pozycję, a w Rajdzie Australii – piątą. Z kolei w ostatnim rajdzie sezonu, listopadowym Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii Grönholm do dziewiętnastego odcinka specjalnego jechał na trzeciej pozycji, jednak uległ wypadkowi i był zmuszony wycofać się z zawodów. +Sezon 2000, w którym Grönholm miał startować we wszystkich rajdach, rozpoczął od wycofania się na piątym odcinku specjalnym ze styczniowego Rajdu Monte Carlo z powodu awarii samochodu. W lutym 2000 odniósł swoje pierwsze zwycięstwo w karierze w mistrzostwach świata. Po drugim odcinku specjalnym objął prowadzenie w klasyfikacji Rajdu Szwecji i nie oddał go do końca rajdu. Wygrał o 6,8 sekundy przed Tommim Mäkinenem i 13,7 sekundy przed Colinem McRae. Kolejnego rajdu, Rajdu Safari, Grönholm nie ukończył na skutek awarii sprzęgła w Peugeocie. W marcu 2000 Grönholm po raz drugi w sezonie stanął na podium. Był drugi w Rajdzie Portugalii i przegrał jedynie z Anglikiem Richardem Burnsem. Na podium dojechał także w majowym Rajdzie Argentyny. Ponownie był drugi i ponownie przegrał pierwsze miejsce z Burnsem. W czerwcu Fin wygrał po raz drugi w sezonie. Był pierwszy na mecie Rajdu Nowej Zelandii przed Colinem McRae i Carlosem Sainzem. Na skutek odpadnięcia z rajdu lidera mistrzostw świata Burnsa Grönholm zmniejszył do niego stratę w klasyfikacji generalnej do czterech punktów. W kolejnym rajdzie, sierpniowym Rajdzie Finlandii Burns ponownie nie dojechał do mety, a Grönholm odniósł drugie zwycięstwo z rzędu (wygrał z Colinem McRae i rodakiem Harrim Rovanperą). Fin tym samym awansował na pierwsze miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw świata. W kolejnych trzech rajdach Grönholm nie stanął na podium. Rajdu Cypru nie ukończył (awaria silnika), w Rajdzie Korsyki był piąty, a w Rajdzie San Remo – czwarty. W listopadowym Rajdzie Australii Grönholm przyjechał na drugiej pozycji Tommim Mäkinenem. 24 godziny po zawodach Mäkinen został zdyskwalifikowany za używanie nieprzepisowej turbosprężarki w jego Mitsubishi Lancerze Evo 6. Zwycięzcą rajdu został Grönholm, który przed ostatnim rajdem sezonu powiększył przewagę w klasyfikacji mistrzostw nad Burnsem do dziewięciu punktów. Rajd Wielkiej Brytanii wygrał Burns, ale Grönholm przyjechał na drugiej pozycji, dzięki czemu został po raz pierwszy w karierze mistrzem świata. W klasyfikacji generalnej zdobył 65 punktów, o 5 więcej niż Brytyjczyk. +Pierwsza połowa sezonu 2001 była dla Grönholma nieudana. Styczniowego Rajdu Monte Carlo nie ukończył na skutek awarii pompy, a w lutowym Rajdzie Szwecji awarii w jego Peugeocie uległ silnik. W trzecim rajdzie sezonu, Rajdzie Portugalii, Grönholm stanął na podium. Był trzeci za Tommim Mäkinenem i Carlosem Sainzem. Jednak w żadnym z pięciu następnych rajdów Grönholm nie dojechał do mety. W Rajdzie Hiszpanii stracił koło, w Rajdzie Argentyny awarii uległo sprzęgło, a z Rajdu Cypru wycofał się na skutek niskiego ciśnienia paliwa. Przyczyną wycofania się Grönholma z Rajdu Grecji było ciśnienie oleju, a z Rajdu Safari – uszkodzone zawieszenie. Dopiero w sierpniu 2001 Grönholm ukończył rajd. Odniósł wówczas zwycięstwo w Rajdzie Finlandii. Następnie Grönholm był siódmy w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii, piąty w Rajdzie Włoch i nie ukończył Rajdu Francji. Na początku listopada 2001 Grönholm zwyciężył w Rajdzie Australii kończąc rajd przed Richardem Burnsem i Didierem Auriolem. W ostatnim rajdzie sezonu 2001, Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii, Grönholm ponownie wygrał. Oba zwycięstwa pozwoliły mu zająć czwarte miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw świata. W sezonie 2001 zdobył łącznie 36 punktów. +Sezon 2002 Grönholm rozpoczął od zajęcia piątego miejsca w styczniowym Rajdzie Monte Carlo. Na początku lutego Grönholm odniósł swoje ósme zwycięstwo w karierze i drugie w Rajdzie Szwecji. Wygrał z Harrim Rovanperą oraz z Carlosem Sainzem i objął prowadzenie w klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw świata o dwa punkty przed Tommim Mäkinenem. W marcu 2002 w asfaltowym Rajdzie Korsyki był drugi i przegrał jedynie z partnerem z zespołu Peugeota, Gilles'em Panizzim. Punkty do klasyfikacji mistrzostw świata zdobył także w kolejnym rajdzie, Rajdzie Hiszpanii, w którym zajął czwartą pozycję. W kwietniu 2002 Grönholm umocnił się na pozycji lidera mistrzostw świata. Zwyciężył w Rajdzie Cypru wyprzedzając Richarda Burnsa i Tommiego Mäkinena. W maju 2002 Grönholm wygrał kolejny rajd, Rajd Argentyny. Niedługo po rajdzie został jednak zdyskwalifikowany za pomoc członków zespołu Peugeota w nieprzeznaczonym do tego punkcie. Zespół Peugeota zdecydował nie odwoływać się od tej decyzji. W czerwcu, w Rajdzie Grecji Grönholm ponownie stanął na podium. Był drugi za Colinem McRae. W sierpniu 2002 Grönholm odniósł trzecie kolejne zwycięstwo w Rajdzie Finlandii. Wyprzedził Richarda Burnsa i Pettera Solberga. W sierpniu Grönholm był trzeci w Rajdzie Niemiec za Sébastienem Loebem i Richardem Burnsem, a we wrześniu był drugi w Rajdzie Włoch (przegrał jedynie z Gilles'em Panizzim). W październiku 2002 Grönholm odniósł jedenaste zwycięstwo w karierze. Dzięki wygranej w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii i odpadnięciu Richarda Burnsa z rywalizacji w nim, Fin zapewnił sobie zdobycie drugiego w karierze tytuły mistrza świata. W kolejnym rajdzie, Rajdzie Australii, Grönholm ponownie przyjechał na metę pierwszy, przed Harrim Rovanperą i Petterem Solbergiem. Nie ukończył natomiast ostatniej imprezy sezonu, Rajdu Wielkiej Brytanii. +W styczniu 2003 Grönholm rozpoczął sezon od startu w Rajdzie Monte Carlo. Do 9. odcinka specjalnego Fin prowadził, jednak na 8 kilometrze tego odcinka uderzył w skałę i uszkodził samochód. Próbował naprawić samochód, w związku z czym stracił 30 minut. Ostatecznie ukończył rajd na trzynastej pozycji. W lutym 2003 Grönholm wygrał po raz pierwszy w sezonie. W Rajdzie Szwecji przyjechał na metę przed Tommim Mäkinenem i Richardem Burnsem. W kwietniu 2003 Fin po raz drugi z rzędu zwyciężył w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii. Awansował na drugie miejsce w klasyfikacji mistrzostw świata, 6 punktów za Richardem Burnsem. W maju 2003, w kolejnym starcie w mistrzostwach świata, pomimo uszkodzenia koła na jednym odcinków specjalnych, Grönholm znów zwyciężył. W Rajdzie Argentyny wygrał o 26,6 sekund z Carlosem Sainzem i 1.12,8 minuty z Richardem Burnsem. Jednak w pięciu następnych rajdach Grönholm tylko jeden raz dojechał do mety. W lipcu 2003 zajął drugie miejsce w Rajdzie Niemiec. W Rajdzie Grecji przyczyną nieukończenia rajdu była awaria pompy paliwa, a w Rajdzie Cypru awarii uległ wał. Z kolei Rajdu Finlandii, Australii i Włoch nie ukończył na skutek wypadków i uszkodzeń auta. Do końca sezonu 2003 Grönholm zdobył jeszcze punkty w dwóch rajdach: Francji i Hiszpanii. W klasyfikacji mistrzostw świata zajął ostatecznie szóste miejsce. Zdobył 46 punktów. +2004–2005: Peugeot 307 WRC. +Przed sezonem 2004 zespół Peugeota zaprezentował nowy samochód – Peugeota 307 WRC. Swój debiut w nim Grönholm zaliczył w styczniu 2004, w Rajdzie Monte Carlo. Zajął w nim czwarte miejsce, tracąc niespełna 7 sekund do trzeciego François Duvala. W lutowym Rajdzie Szwecji po raz pierwszy za kierownicą 307 WRC Grönholm stanął na podium. Był drugi i przegrał o 46,4 sekundy z Sébastienem Loebem. W marcu, w Rajdzie Meksyku, Grönholm był szósty, a w kwietniu 2004 zajął drugą pozycję w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii za Petterem Solbergiem. W maju 2004 Grönholm odniósł zwycięstwo w Rajdzie Cypru, jednak kilka dni po rajdzie został zdyskwalifikowany za niezgodną z przepisami pompę wody. Z tego samego powodu z rajdu został również wykluczony partner Grönholma z zespołu Peugeota, Harri Rovanperä. Kolejnego rajdu w mistrzostwach świata, Rajdu Grecji, Grönholm nie ukończył na skutek awarii zawieszenia na 11. odcinku specjalnym. W czerwcu 2004 Grönholm po raz trzeci w sezonie stanął na podium. Zajął drugie miejsce w Rajdzie Turcji za Sébastienem Loebem. Z kolei lipcowego Rajdu Argentyny Grönholm nie ukończył. Do drugiego dnia rajdu prowadził, jednak uległ wypadkowi i wycofał się z dalszego udziału w rajdzie. W sierpniu 2004 Grönholm wygrał swój pierwszy rajd w sezonie 2004. Po raz czwarty w karierze wygrał Rajd Finlandii zajmując miejsce na podium przed Estończykiem Markko Märtinem i Hiszpanem Carlosem Sainzem. W Rajdzie Niemiec Grönholm uległ wypadkowi na 1. odcinku specjalnym i nie ukończył tego rajdu. Następnie był czwarty w Rajdzie Japonii, ale w Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii znów miał wypadek. W czterech ostatnich rajdach sezonu Grönholm tylko raz stanął na podium – w październikowym Rajdzie Katalonii, w którym był drugi. W mistrzostwach świata zajął piątą pozycję z 62 zdobytymi punktami. +W pierwszym rajdzie sezonu 2005, Rajdzie Monte Carlo, Grönholm zajął piąte miejsce. Kolejnego rajdu, Rajdu Szwecji, jednak nie ukończył. Na 16. odcinku specjalnym uległ wypadkowi, na skutek którego stracił koło. Uszkodzenia Peugeota 307 WRC były na tyle poważne, że Grönholm musiał wycofać się z rajdu. W marcu 2005, w Rajdzie Meksyku Grönholm przyjechał do mety na drugiej pozycji i przegrał jedynie z Petterem Solbergiem. Z kolei w kwietniu ponownie był drugi, tym razem w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii. Przegrał o 49,8 sekundy z Sébastienem Loebem. W Rajdzie Sardynii znów stanął na podium. Tym razem zajął trzecie miejsce za Loebem i Solbergiem. Rajdu Cypru Grönholm nie ukończył na skutek awarii samochodu. W czerwcowym Rajdzie Turcji był trzeci, a w tym samym miesiącu, w Rajdzie Grecji, dojechał do mety na czwartej pozycji. W lipcu 2005 Grönholm znów stanął na podium. W Rajdzie Argentyny przegrał o 26,1 sekundy z Sébastienem Loebem i zajął drugie miejsce. Z kolei w sierpniu 2005 Fin odniósł swoje pierwsze zwycięstwo w sezonie. Wygrana w Rajdzie Finlandii była dla Grönholma piątą wygraną w tej imprezie w jego karierze. W klasyfikacji wyprzedził on Loeba i Märtina. W sierpniu 2005 Grönholm był trzeci w Rajdzie Niemiec, a we wrześniu nie ukończył Rajdu Wielkiej Brytanii. Na przełomie września i października Grönholm wygrał swój drugi rajd w sezonie. Po raz pierwszy w karierze wygrał Rajd Japonii, który ukończył przed Loebem, który wywalczył tytuł mistrza świata i Chrisem Atkinsonem. Trzech ostatnich rajdów w sezonie 2005 Grönholm jednak nie ukończył, wszystkich z powodu awarii technicznych samochodu. Ostatecznie zajął trzecie miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw świata za Loebem i Solbergiem. Zdobył 71 punktów, tyle co Solberg, jednak wicemistrzostwo świata przegrał mniejszą liczbą wygranych rajdów. +2006–2007: Ford. +Jeszcze w październiku 2005 roku Grönholm podpisał kontrakt z zespołem Forda na starty Fordem Focusem WRC 06 w sezonie 2006. Partnerem Grönholma w zespole Forda w sezonie 2006 był jego rodak Mikko Hirvonen. Debiut Grönholma w zespole Forda nastapił w styczniu 2006, w Rajdzie Monte Carlo. Grönholm wygrał ten rajd plasując się w klasyfikacji generalnej przed Sébastienem Loebem i Tonim Gardemeisterem. Było to dziewiętnaste w karierze zwycięstwo Grönholma w mistrzostwach świata, ale pierwsze w rajdzie asfaltowym. Partnerem Grönholma w zespole Forda w sezonie 2006 był jego rodak Mikko Hirvonen. W lutym 2006 Grönholm zwyciężył w Rajdzie Szwecji (wygrał z Loebem i Danielem Carlssonem). Było to zarazem pięćdziesiąte w historii zwycięstwo zespołu Forda w historii mistrzostw świata. W marcu 2006 Grönholm zajął ósme miejsce w Rajdzie Meksyku, a następnie był kolejno: trzeci w Rajdzie Hiszpanii, drugi w Rajdzie Francji i dziesiąty w Rajdzie Argentyny. Nie ukończył jednak majowego Rajdu Włoch na skutek wycieku oleju w jego Fordzie. Swoje trzecie zwycięstwo w sezonie 2006 Grönholm odniósł na początku czerwca, w Rajdzie Grecji. Wyprzedził w nim Sébastiena Loeba i Mikko Hirvonena. W kolejnym starcie, w Rajdzie Niemiec, Fin ponownie stanął na podium. Był trzeci. W sierpniu Grönholm wygrał swój szósty w karierze Rajd Finlandii. Wyprzedził w nim o ponad minutę Loeba i ponad półtorej minuty Hirvonena. Na początku września Grönholm przyjechał drugi w Rajdzie Japonii za Loebem. Drugi za Francuzem Grönholm był także w kolejnym rajdzie, Rajdzie Cypru. Loeb tym samym umocnił się na prowadzeniu w mistrzostwach świata i powiększył przewagę nad Finem do 35 punktów. Na cztery rajdy przed końcem sezonu 2006 Loeb złamał jednak rękę podczas jazdy na rowerze i nie wystąpił już w żadnych zawodach. Grönholm zwyciężył w październikowym Rajdzie Turcji, dojeżdżając do mety rajdu przed Hirvonenem i Henningiem Solbergiem. Odrobił tym samym 10 punktów do Loeba. W odbywającym się pod koniec października Rajdzie Australii Grönholm przyjechał jednak na piątej pozycji. Zdobył 4 punkty. Dorobek ten okazał się jednak zbyt mały i na dwa rajdy przed końcem Loeb został mistrzem świata. Grönholm wygrał dwa ostatnie rajdy sezonu 2006: Rajd Nowej Zelandii i Rajd Wielkiej Brytanii. Sezon 2006 zakończył z dorobkiem 111 punktów. Zdobył ich o jeden mniej niż Loeb. +W pierwszym rajdzie sezonu 2007 Grönholm przyjechał na trzeciej pozycji za Sébastienem Loebem i Danielem Sordo. W lutym Grönholm odniósł piąte w swojej karierze zwycięstwo w Rajdzie Szwecji. Wyprzedził o nieco ponad 53 sekundy Loeba i 1 minutę 43 sekundy Mikko Hirvonena. Dwa tygodnie po szwedzkim rajdzie Grönholm wystartował w Rajdzie Norwegii. Rajd ten wygrał jego rodak Hirvonen, a Grönholm ukończył go na drugiej pozycji przegrywając na mecie o 9,5 sekundy. Także w marcowym Rajdzie Meksyku Grönholm był drugi. Tym razem uległ jedynie Sébastienowi Loebowi. W kwietniowym Rajdzie Portugalii zajął czwartą pozycję, a w majowym Rajdzie Argentyny drugą za Loebem. Od maja do sierpnia Grönholm odniósł trzy kolejne zwycięstwa. Pierwszym zwycięstwem było zwycięstwo w Rajdzie Sardynii. Dzięki wycofaniu się Loeba z rajdu na skutek urwania koła, Grönholm objął prowadzenie w klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw świata. Na początku czerwca Grönholm wygrał Rajd Grecji, a w sierpniu zwyciężył w Rajdzie Finlandii. Było to jego czwarte z rzędu zwycięstwo w tym rajdzie i siódme w karierze. W sierpniowym Rajdzie Niemiec Grönholm był czwarty, głównie na skutek opuszczenia trasy na jednym z ostatnich odcinków specjalnych. W Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii jednak triumfował i przyjechał w nim o 0,3 sekundy przed Loebem. W dwóch kolejnych rajdach sezonu 2007 Grönholm przyjeżdżał na punktowanych pozycjach. W Rajdzie Hiszpanii był drugi, a w Rajdzie Francji – trzeci. Oba rajdy wygrał Loeb, który zmniejszył stratę do Grönholma w klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw do czterech punktów. W październikowym Rajdzie Japonii zarówno Loeb, jak i Grönholm nie dojechali do mety. Fin nie ukończył jednak także następnego rajdu, Rajdu Irlandii, w którym miał wypadek, a rajd wygrał Loeb, który tym samym został liderem mistrzostw świata. W ostatnim rajdzie sezonu, Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii, Grönholm był drugi, jednak trzecie miejsce Loeba zapewniło Francuzowi tytuł mistrza świata, a Grönholm został wicemistrzem przegrywając w łącznej klasyfikacji o cztery punkty. Jeszcze w trakcie sezonu 2007, we wrześniu, Grönholm oświadczył oficjalnie, iż kończy swoją karierę. Motywował to tym, że chciałby poświęcić więcej czasu swojej rodzinie. +Po odejściu z WRC. +Po zakończeniu kariery w rajdach Grönholm rozpoczął w 2008 roku starty w rallycrossie. W sezonie 2008 miał wziąć udział w pięciu zawodach rallycrossowych w ramach Mistrzostw Europy startując Fordem Fiestą ST w barwach zespołu Ford Team RS Europe wraz ze szwedzkim kierowcą Andréasem Erikssonem. W debiutanckim starcie w szwedzkim Holjes Grönholm odniósł zwycięstwo. Ostatecznie w sezonie 2008 Grönholm wystąpił łącznie w trzech zawodach rallycrossowych zamiast pięciu. Pojechał także w zawodach w Holandii w Valkenswaard (był na nich dziesiąty) i w Polsce w Słomczynie (był dwunasty). +W sierpniu 2008 Grönholm otrzymał ofertę startu w zespole Stobart M-Sport Ford w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii, w którym miałby zastąpić kontuzjowanego Gianluigiego Gallego. Fin jednak odrzucił ofertę. Pod koniec 2008 roku Grönholm był też bliski podpisania kontraktu z zespołem Subaru na sezon 2009. Ostatecznie jednak zespół Subaru wycofał się ze startu w mistrzostwach świata. +W kwietniu 2009 roku Grönholm wystartował w mistrzostwach świata, w Rajdzie Portugalii 2009. Pojechał w nim samochodem Subaru Impreza WRC przygotowanego przez zespół Prodrive. Do 8. odcinka specjalnego Grönholm jechał na czwartej pozycji, jednak na skutek awarii silnika w Subaru musiał wycofać się z zawodów. W lutym 2010 roku Grönholm ponownie wziął udział w rajdzie mistrzostw świata. W Rajdzie Szwecji pojechał samochodem Ford Focus WRC w barwach zespołu Stobart. Szwedzki rajd ukończył na dwudziestej pierwszej pozycji. +Życie prywatne. +Grönholm jest żonaty z Teresą. Ma z nią trójkę dzieci. Mieszka z rodziną w mieście Inkoo. Jest synem Ulfa Grönholma. Ojciec Marcusa również był kierowcą rajdowym i dwukrotnie wygrywał mistrzostwo Finlandii w rajdach. W 1981 roku zginął podczas testów koło Kirkkonummi. Grönholm ma siostrę Mię, która na początku kariery Marcusa była jego pilotem. Mia jest żoną Timo Rautiainena, który od 1995 roku był pilotem Grönholma w mistrzostwach świata. Z kolei kuzynem Grönholma jest inny fiński rajdowiec, Sebastian Lindholm. +Największymi idolami rajdowymi Grönholma z czasów młodości byli jego rodacy: Markku Alén, Hannu Mikkola i Ari Vatanen. Grönholm jest członkiem fińskiego oddziału Mensy. +Stanimir + +Stanimir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Stani-" ("stać, stać się, stanąć") oraz członu "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Mogło oznaczać "niech się stanie pokój" albo "ten, który ustanawia pokój". +Stanimir imieniny obchodzi 7 maja i 2 października. +Ulica Bracka w Krakowie + + Ulica Bracka – ulica w Krakowie, która prowadzi z Rynku Głównego na południe do kościoła oo. Franciszkanów, nazywanych także braćmi mniejszymi i stąd nazwa ulicy – Bracka. +W przeciwieństwie do innych ulic wychodzących z Rynku, nie jest ona idealnie prosta, lecz wygięta w lekki łuk. Ta krzywizna jest dowodem na to, że istniała tu jeszcze przed lokacją miasta w 1257 jakaś zabudowa, którą musieli uwzględnić ówcześni urbaniści, wytyczając nowy plan Krakowa. Uliczka jest krótka, ale posiada wiele zabytkowych domów. +Kamienica pod nr 4 już w XVI w. połączona była podworcami w jedną całość z przyrynkową kamienicą Hetmańską (nr 17). Należała m.in. do Ossolińskich i Branicckich. Po restauracji powstał tu ciąg handlowy w pasażu podobnie jak w Pasażu Bielaka między Rynkiem Głównym a ul. Stolarską. +Na początku XIV w. na terenie posesji według dzisiejszej numeracji 3–5 zbudował wójt Henryk (brat wójta Alberta) wieżę obronną. Stoi ona w rogu ulic Brackiej i Gołębiej, zachowała się częściowo, gdyż w połowie XIV w. wtopiono ją w mury gotyckie domu nazwanego od jego właściciela – Melsztyńskim. Dom ten został później przebudowany przez uniwersytet i od 1470 mieściła się w nim Bursa Węgierska, przekazana studentom węgierskim, którzy licznie przybywali wtedy do Krakowa po naukę. Seniorem bursy był m.in. sławny uczony Wojciech z Brudzewa. Gdy zainteresowanie Węgrów studiami w Krakowie zmalało – bursa została w 1558 zamknięta. Po reformie Kołłątajowskiej uniwersytetu kamienicę sprzedano prywatnym właścicielom. Obecny jej wygląd jest wynikiem przebudowy, polegającej na połączeniu jej z dwiema sąsiednimi kamieniczkami. Na domu znajduje się granitowa tablica w języku polskim i węgierskim z następującym napisem: "Budynek ten stał się domem dla węgierskich żaków studiujących w Krakowie w XV i XVI wieku, którzy na polskiej ziemi ku chwale węgierskiej kultury dla dobra ojczyzny powiększali swoje wiadomości na wielkiej sławy Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim". W 1904 Zygmunt Sarnecki otworzył w tej kamienicy pierwszy w Krakowie salon sprzedaży dzieł sztuki – ARS. +W domu nr 1 w 1876–1930 mieszkał, tworzył i umarł wielki poeta Podhala – Władysław Orkan. Przy ul. Brackiej znajdowała się kiedyś znakomita winiarnia o nazwie "Bodega", ściągająca wielu artystów i pisarzy, gdzie zamiast stołów były beczki. +W domu nr 6 zachował się piękny, pochodzący z XVII w. portal ozdobiony głową Meduzy, oplecioną dwoma wężami. Kiedyś dom ten zajmowała rodzina kupiecka i nazwano go "Pod Białą Głową". Po I wojnie światowej dom zburzono i zbudowano czynszową kamienicę, jednak zachowano portal. +Dom nr 7, narożny z ul. Gołębią, ma obok portalu wykuty w czarnym marmurze herb Abdank z koroną hrabiowską. Dom ten należał w pierwszej połowie XIX w. do hrabiowskiej rodziny Ankwiczów. To właśnie w pannie Henriecie Ewie Ankwiczównie, podczas jej pobytu w Rzymie, pod koniec 1829 zakochał się Adam Mickiewicz. Jednakże ojciec, hrabia Stanisław, wywiózł pannę z Rzymu do Krakowa, gdyż nie uważał poety za odpowiednią partię dla swej ukochanej jedynaczki. Henrietta Ewa Ankwiczówna stała się prototypem Ewy z III części "Dziadów", a także adresatką wierszy poety: "Do mego Cziczerona", "Do H... Wezwanie do Neapolu. (Naśladowanie z Goethego)". Henrietta Ewa (1810–1879 wyszła potem dwukrotnie za mąż (1 voto Sołtykowa, 2 voto Kuczkowska), była właścicielką pałacu Decjusza na Woli Justowskiej. Wsławiła się dużą rozrzutnością, na skutek czego wyrąbano sporą część lasu na Woli. +Przy ul. Brackiej znajdowało się dawniej wiele pracowni złotniczych i kowalskich, a pod nr 8 stał dom cechu złotników. +Kamienica nr 9 była ośrodkiem szerokiego życia towarzyskiego w czasach, gdy mieszkał tu współtwórca Plant – Florian Straszewski. +Dom nr 10 (odnowiony w 1977-1980 pamięta czasy gotyku. Kiedyś były tu dwie kamieniczki, jednak spaliły się podczas wielkiego pożaru w 1850; odbudowano je już jako jeden gmach. W tym domu mieszkał Ludwik Michałowski (1829–1899 – znany kolekcjoner sztuki, prowadzący salon artystyczny. Podczas drugiej wojny światowej bomba uszkodziła fasadę i wczesnobarokowy portal, który w 1957–1958 został odnowiony. Mimo wielu przekształceń ocalało wewnątrz kilka gotyckich portali i ładna izba "na zadzi" z interesującą kolumną międzyokienną i pięknym stropem. +Kamienica nr 12 – tzw. Pałac Larischa, budynek nabył w 1833 roku baron Karol Larisch, który gruntownie przebudował go po pożarze w 1854 r., dołączając m.in. front od strony Placu Wszystkich Świętych. Po remoncie przekazał budynek miastu, które urządziło w nim siedziby kilku instytucji kulturalno-oświatowych (m.in. Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych). Obecny kształt budynek uzyskał po remoncie w II poł. XIX w. Wtedy to też stał się on oficjalną siedzibą prezydentów Krakowa (był nią do II wojny światowej). Po wojnie znajdowała się tu biblioteka i USC. Obecnie Pałac Larischa jest własnością Wydziału Prawa i Administracji UJ. +Dom nr 15 wygląda skromnie, lecz miał kiedyś bardzo możnych właścicieli; w XVI w. należał do Ligęzów, a wiek później do Jordanów, którzy sprzedali go rodzinie mieszczańskiej. +Pod numerem 13 mieści się biuro Społecznego Komitetu Odnowy Zabytków Krakowa, zaś pod numerem 15 – znajduje się biuro Krakowskiej Izby Turystyki. +Zdobysław + +Zdobysław — imię męskie, prawdopodobnie późniejszy neologizm utworzony na zasadach podobnych do autentycznych imion słowiańskich. W tej postaci imię to nie jest notowane w słownikach staropolskich, nie występuje również żadne imię z członem "Zdoby-". Mimo to imię to zdobyło pewną, niewielką popularność. +Zdobysław imieniny obchodzi 30 lipca. +Biskup + +Biskup (łac. "episcopus" z gr. "episkopos": nadzorca, opiekun) – w Kościołach chrześcijańskich duchowny o najwyższych święceniach. Urząd kościelny w Kościele katolickim i w kościołach prawosławnych uznawany za najwyższy stopień sakramentu kapłaństwa. +Historia. +U samych początków chrześcijaństwa nowotestamentalnego, w Kościele apostolskim można dostrzec dwie koncepcje urzędu biskupiego: jerozolimski i Pawłowy. W Jerozolimie bardzo szybko ukształtowała się hierarchia typu monarchicznego (por. Dz 12,3; 15,3; 18,1;1 Kor 15,7; Ga 1,19; 2,9.12). Wśród prezbiterów szczególne miejsce zajmował tam Jakub Brat Pański (Młodszy). Pod koniec I wieku ustrój monarchiczny widoczny jest we wszystkich kościołach związanych z Apostołem Janem, tak należałoby interpretować symbol "anioła Kościoła" z Księgi Apokalipsy rozdz. 2 i 3. W Antiochii ustrój kościoła był inny, na czele stała grupa "proroków i nauczycieli" (Dz 13,1), związanych zależnością hierarchiczną z kościołem w Jerozolimie. Taki system przyjął Paweł w zakładanych przez siebie wspólnotach. Sam sprawował opiekę hierarchiczną nad tymi kościołami, codzienną pieczę pozostawiając w ręku miejscowych starszych-prezbiterów (por. Dz 14,23). Jego pomocnikami z podobną władzą, np. ustanawiania starszych, byli Tytus, Sylwan, Tymoteusz, Tychik i Sostenes. +Klemens Rzymski ok. 95 r. pisał w Liście do Koryntian o sukcesji apostolskiej, jako mającej sprzyjać pokojowi w Kościele. Jej pierwowzór odnajdywał w Starym Testamencie. Biskupa można porównać do arcykapłana, a prezbiterów do kapłanów-lewitów, mających szczególny udział w jego posłudze +Najwcześniejszym po-Pawłowym świadectwem o roli biskupa w Kościele antiocheńskim, ale późniejszym od Klemensa o ok. 15 lat, są Listy Ignacego Antiocheńskiego (ur. 30- zm. 107) napisane ok. 110 r. W jego okresie odnajdujemy już jasno wyznaczoną trzystopniową hierarchię: jednego biskupa, grupy prezbiterów (rada lub starsi lub "prezbyterium"), i grupy diakonów (por. List do Magnezjan 2-3). +Utrwalił się potrójny model święceń (diakoni, prezbiterzy, biskupi). Regułą stało się, że w każdym lokalnym Kościele powinien być tylko jeden biskup. W ten sposób utworzona została koncepcja terytorium kanonicznego. W II w. zrodziła się kolegialna odpowiedzialność biskupów za cały Kościół, która znajduje pełne urzeczywistnienie w synodach i soborach powszechnych. W czasach cesarza Konstantyna, w dobie chrystianizacji imperium, prezbiterów zaczęto nazywać kapłanami (łac. sacerdos), by pokazać światu pogańskiemu prawdziwość chrześcijaństwa. Poganie oskarżali bowiem chrześcijan o świętokradztwo, a nawet o ateizm z powodu odrzucenia składania ofiar bogom panteonu grecko-rzymskiego. Biskupi natomiast rozpoczęli pełnić funkcję coraz bardziej administracyjno-jurysdykcyjne. +Pierwszych biskupów powoływali apostołowie, następnie – przez wybór – duchowni i świeccy z danego Kościoła lokalnego, przy aprobacie Kościołów sąsiedzkich. Dopiero w dalszych wiekach wybór zatwierdzał metropolita. Od IV wieku świecka władza cesarska zaczęła wpływać na obsadę tych stanowisk duchownych. +Na Zachodzie dopiero w czasach walki o inwestyturę władza kościelna odzyskała pełny wpływ na nominacje biskupie. Jednak wybory przechodziły do przeszłości, w XII wieku sobory wykluczyły z grona wyborców osoby świeckie, a pod koniec XIII i w XIV wieku papieże zarezerwowali sobie prawo mianowania biskupów. W średniowieczu i czasach nowożytnych (zobacz Sobór trydencki) Kościół rzymskokatolicki podkreślał święcenia kapłańskie jako fundament duchowieństwa, a ze święceniami biskupimi wiązał przywileje natury jurysdykcyjnej. Dopiero w ostatnich stuleciach teologia podkreśla następstwo apostolskie biskupów i ich szczególną rolę w prowadzeniu Kościoła lokalnego oraz współuczestniczeniu w Kościele soborowym. +Na Wschodzie forma wyboru była mniej istotna, gdyż podkreślano, iż to sam Bóg go dokonuje. Kładziono natomiast nacisk na formę instalacji i sakrę. Teologia prawosławna również nie wysuwa biskupiej funkcji rządzenia na pierwszy plan, mówiąc raczej o nauczaniu, uzdrawianiu i jednoczeniu. Biskup w prawosławiu jest też w dużo mocniejszym stopniu szafarzem eucharystii i święceń, inni kapłani mogą wykonywać to jedynie w imieniu i za pozwoleniem biskupa. W Kościołach Wschodnich już w VI wieku została wprowadzona zasada równouprawnienia wszystkich biskupów, którzy wraz z diecezją reprezentują Kościoły lokalne. Do biskupów zwykło się zwracać się per "ekscelencjo". +Symbolem władzy pasterskiej biskupa jest pastorał i pierścień nakładany w czasie święceń biskupich przez głównego konsekratora, na prawą rękę nowo wyświęconego biskupa. U biskupów diecezjalnych jest symbolem zaślubin ze wskazaną diecezją. +Znaczenie teologiczne biskupa w Kościele. +Duchowa, teologiczna interpretacja tego, kim jest biskup w Kościele zawsze dokonywała się w ścisłym związku z nauką o samym Kościele i jego strukturze. +Pierwsza szersza refleksja teologiczna wokół roli i charakteru święceń biskupich została wszczęta przez wypowiedzi św. Hieronima, który głosił równość hierarchiczną biskupów i kapłanów, oraz równość ich uczestnictwa w sukcesji apostolskiej. Hieronim uznawał także, że zmiana jaka zaszła w pierwszych wspólnotach Kościelnych, kiedy kolegialna władza biskupów-prezbiterów została zastąpiona monarchiczną władzą pojedynczego biskupa, jako głowy Kościoła lokalnego – była decyzją czysto kościelną, mającą charakter prawa kościelnego a nie ustanowienia przez Chrystusa. Hieronim pisał o tym Listach 14,8; 52,7; oraz w Komentarzu do Mateusza 16,9. +W okresie średniowiecza prowadzono teologiczne dysputy nad sakrą biskupią jako sakramentem. M.in. następujący teolodzy: Aleksander z Hales i Albert Wielki, a także, przynajmniej w pewnym okresie, Tomasz z Akwinu nie uznawali święceń biskupich za oddzielny sakrament od kapłaństwa, nie uznawali więc w porządku sakramentalnym jakiejkolwiek wyższości biskupstwa nad prezbiteratem. Według Tomasza z Akwinu, biskup ma uprawnienia jurysdykcyjne nad wspólnotą Kościoła, która jest Ciałem mistycznym Chrystusa. Prezbiter zaś przez święcenia otrzymuje władzę nad Ciałem eucharystycznym. Tomasz pisał o tym w "Tractatus de sacramento altaris", c. 6, w "Sumie contra gentiles" IV 74,75, oraz w"Sumie Teologicznej" 82,1. Przeciwnego zdania byli G. Durand i franciszkanin Jan Duns Szkot. +W czasie Soboru trydenckiego (1545-1563) toczył się spór o pochodzenie jurysdykcji biskupiej, czy jest ona bezpośrednio od Boga, czy biskupi otrzymują ją za pośrednictwem papieża. Sobór nie rozstrzygnął ostatecznie tej kwestii, orzekł jedynie boskie pochodzenie samej hierarchii oraz porządek jurysdykcji, od papieża w dół hierarchii aż do diakonów. Kwestię te dyskutowano także w XIX wieku w czasie Soboru watykańskiego I w związku z pracami nad dogmatem o nieomylności papieża. Stwierdzono jednak wyraźnie, że biskup posiada z ustanowienia Bożego własną i zwyczajną władzę na terytorium powierzonego mu Kościoła lokalnego. Mimo tego orzeczenia, pojawiały się postawy inaczej interpretujące władze biskupią. W związku z tym episkopat niemiecki opublikował 15 marca 1875 r. oficjalny list, w którym polemizował z poglądem, że doktryna soboru o prymacie sprowadza biskupa do roli delegata papieskiego. Biskupi niemieccy bronili prawdy o autonomicznym zwierzchnictwie biskupa nad powierzonym jego pieczy Kościołem. Stanowisko biskupów niemieckich poparł papież Leon XIII w encyklice "Satis cognitum", podkreślając jednocześnie ścisły związek roli biskupa ze strukturą organizacyjną Kościoła. W XX w. temat podjął Pius XII w encyklice Mystici corporis Christi (1943). +Sobór watykański II (1962-1965) przypomniał i podkreślił związek teologii biskupstwa z teologią Kościoła. Podstawowym znaczeniem Kościoła, według Soboru, jest to, że jest on Ludem Bożym (KK 9,18) i wspólnotą ( KK 1, 8), która "aktualizuje się przez sakramenty i przez cnoty" (KK 11). Sobór odciął się od utożsamiania Kościoła z hierarchią i wyznaczaniem tejże hierarchii w strukturze Kościoła naczelnego miejsca. Stanowi ona bowiem wtórny element struktury Kościoła, którego celem jest służba "dobru całego Ciała" (KK 18) i "diakonia" (KK 24). Biskupstwo więc w swej najgłębszej treści jest służbą istniejącą wewnątrz Kościoła, streszczającą się w zadaniu udostępniania mu tajemnicy zbawczej Chrystusa, zamkniętej w ekonomii sakramentalnej i depozycie objawionej prawdy (KK 21). +Biskupi w tradycji sukcesji apostolskiej. +W głównych tradycjach chrześcijańskich biskupi są uważani za kontynuatorów misji apostołów. Na tym polega ich główna teologiczna funkcja. Aby biskup był następcą apostołów musi zostać wyświęcony w sposób ważny, czyli przez nałożenie rąk przynajmniej jednego biskupa wyświęconego w sposób ważny. Tradycja katolicka wymaga, by na ręce nakładało przynajmniej trzech biskupów, a prawosławna dwóch. Funkcjonowanie sukcesji apostolskiej polega na tym, że pomiędzy danym biskupem a apostołami jest nieprzerwany ciąg ważnych święceń. Sukcesję apostolską zachowały Kościoły katolicki, prawosławny, zdecydowana większość Kościołów wschodnich, Kościoły starokatolickie oraz kościół anglikański i w pewnym stopniu luterański (co bywa jednak podważane – acz Kościół Szwecji zachował pełną sukcesję apostolską). Wytyczne jakich udzielił Paweł Apostoł biskupom są następujące: "jeśli ktoś dąży do biskupstwa, pożąda dobrego zadania. Biskup więc powinien być nienaganny, mąż jednej żony, trzeźwy, rozsądny, przyzwoity, gościnny, sposobny do nauczania, nieprzebierający miary w piciu wina, nieskłonny do bicia, ale opanowany, niekłótliwy, niechciwy na grosz, dobrze rządzący własnym domem, trzymający dzieci w uległości, z całą godnością. Jeśli ktoś bowiem nie umie stanąć na czele własnego domu, jakżeż będzie się troszczył o Kościół Boży?" (1 List do Tymoteusza 3:1-5, Biblia Tysiąclecia). +Biskup w prawosławiu. +Teologia posługi biskupa w Prawosławiu jest analogiczna do katolickiej. Wschód chrześcijański nie doświadczył takiego podważenia roli biskupa, jakie dokonało się w Kościele zachodnim pod wpływem reformacji. Refleksja prawosławna zawsze miała charakter eklezjologiczny a nie prawno-kanoniczny. Posługa biskupa jest uważana za pochodzącą z boskiego, a nie jedynie kościelnego ustanowienia. Podobna jest posłudze Apostołów, z tą podstawową różnicą, że tych ostatnich powołał sam Chrystus, zanim jeszcze Kościół został założony. Byli oni świadkami zmartwychwstania Chrystusa. Ich nauczanie jest podstawą wiary Kościoła w każdym pokoleniu, są oni jak "opoka", "fundament" Kościoła (Mt 16,18, Dz 21,14) gdyż uczestniczyli w narodzinach Kościoła. Biskupi natomiast, jako powołani przez Boga w już istniejącym Kościele, dla Kościoła i za pośrednictwem Kościoła – spełniają jedynie posłannictwo strzeżenia depozytu Tradycji apostolskiej. Ich nauczanie wyrażające się w listach i definicjach soborów powszechnych, uznawanych za nieomylne, jest autorytatywnym wyjaśnieniem objawienia Chrystusa przekazanego przez Apostołów. Zachowanie nieskalanego depozytu wiary apostolskiej jest warunkiem koniecznym, by uznać ciągłość sukcesji apostolskiej biskupów w danym Kościele. Nie wystarczy formalne zachowanie rytu święceń. Dlatego Prawosławie nie uznaje sukcesji apostolskiej w Anglikanizmie. +Biskupi w protestantyzmie. +W rozumieniu protestantów nurtu ewangelicko-augsburskiego urząd biskupa przyjmowany jest lub nieprzyjmowany w różnych wspólnotach krajowych, zależnie od historycznego procesu formowania się hierarchii. Zasadniczy sprzeciw reformacji skierowany był jedynie przeciw biskupowi Rzymu. Sam Marcin Luter nie był przeciwny urzędowi biskupa. Zaakceptował np. reformę kościelną przeprowadzoną w 1539 r. przez elektora Brandenburgii Joachima II, który nadał wspólnotom protestanckim w swym kraju ustrój episkopalny. Sam wyświęcił biskupów Naumburga oraz Merseburga. Napisał też rozprawkę "Exempel einen rechten Bishof zu weihen" (1542). Również Filip Melanchton uznawał instytucję biskupów. Generalnie jednak uznawano posługę biskupów za zagadnienie obojętne (adiaforyczne) dla reformacji. Rozumiano tę posługę jako rodzaj urzędu duszpasterskiego z szerszym terytorium do działania. W krajach, gdzie przyjęła się reformacja, biskupom odmawiano dalszego sprawowania jurysdykcji, zawieszając ich czynności. Skutkiem było przejęcie części tej jurysdykcji przez lokalnych władców świeckich. Książę zaczął się uważać za "najwyższego biskupa" ("summus episcopus"), choć sam Luter nazywał władców zastępczymi biskupami ("Notbishöfe"). Było to rozwiązanie tymczasowe wobec perspektywy powrotu do jedności z Kościołem katolickim. Zazwyczaj książę wzorował się w swej władzy kościelnej sprawowanej nad wspólnotami protestanckimi na biskupach katolickich, skupiając w swym ręku jurysdykcję wynikającą z prawa kanonicznego, oraz władzę cywilną, wynikającą z prawa państw Rzeszy. Po pokoju augsburskim (1555) oraz westfalskim (1648), kiedy podział Kościoła został usankcjonowany, próbowano ograniczyć sprawowanie funkcji biskupich przez księcia. +W protestantyzmie i wielu innych Kościołach chrześcijańskich nie istnieje jednolita wykładnia teologicznej roli oraz natury biskupa. Kościoły tzw drugiej reformacji uważają, że na czele kościoła lokalnego (zboru) - zgodnie z Nowym Testamentem - powinno stać prezbiterium, tzn kolegium prezbiterów (rada starszych), zwanych także biskupami. W tym ujęciu prezbiter i biskup to ten sam urząd, który powinien być sprawowany zawsze kolegialnie. Przewodni starszy jest często tytułowany tradycyjnym protestanckim określeniem "pastor". Pozostali protestanci, zwłaszcza episkopalni, widzą w biskupstwie najwyższy stopień święceń, a część przyjmuje, że jest to jedna z równoważnych trzech posług tego samego urzędu duchownego. W tradycji protestanckiej biskup nie jest mianowany, lecz wybierany przez organ reprezentujący dany Kościół lokalny. +Biskupka. +Forma żeńska biskupa występuje jako urząd m.in. w Kościołach: metodystycznych, starokatolickich, niektórych anglikańskich, luterańskich, kalwińskich, a także w Kościele Adwentystów Dnia Siódmego w postaci urzędu starszego zboru obsadzonego przez kobietę. W Polsce tytuł biskupek (kustoszek) noszą dwie siostry z Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów: Hanna Maria Rafaela Woińska oraz Damiana Maria Beatrycze Szulgowicz. Pierwszą polską biskupką była Izabela Wiłucka z Kościoła mariawitów, która następnie przyjęła tytuł arcykapłanki. +Lamia (miasto) + +Lamia (gr. Λαμία, transliteracja "Lamía", tur. "Itzin") to miasto w centralnej Grecji, stolica prefektury Ftiotyda i regionu administracyjnego Grecja Środkowa, w skład której wchodzi 5 prefektur. Ludność: 58 601 mieszkańców. Miasto partnerskie Rzeszowa. +Według jednej wersji, nazwa miasta pochodzi od mitologicznej postaci imieniem Lamia. +Maracanã + +Stadion Maracanã (oficjalna nazwa port. Estádio Jornalista Mário Filho) w Brazylii w Rio de Janeiro – jeden z największych obecnie stadionów piłkarskich świata mogący pomieścić w różnych latach, według różnych źródeł od 95 do 200 tysięcy widzów. Zbudowany w latach 1948-1950 (1965). +Stadion jest położony na terenie zbudowanego w latach 1949–1951 (ok. 200 ha), reprezentacyjnego ośrodka sportowego noszącego również nazwę Maracanã. Na terenie tego ośrodka znajduje się także pływalnia z trybunami dla 25 tysięcy osób oraz tor kolarski i strzelnica. +Oddany został do użytku na otwarcie mistrzostw świata w piłce nożnej w 1950 r. Po 1950 r. wykorzystywany był głównie do rozgrywania meczów piłkarskich pomiędzy największymi klubami Rio de Janeiro: Flamengo, Botafogo, Fluminense i Vasco da Gama. Stadion bywał również gospodarzem innych wydarzeń sportowych oraz wielu koncertów. +Stadion Maracanã uważany jest w Brazylii za największy cud architektury sportowej, a także największą świątynię drugiej brazylijskiej religii – futbolu. Jest stadionem narodowym, według konwencji haskiej z 14 maja 1954 r. jest dobrem narodowym, a tym samym posiada status zabytku. +Historia. +Organizacja mistrzostw. +Na pierwszym posiedzeniu FIFA po wojnie, jakim był kongres w Luksemburgu 1 lipca 1946 r. przyznano organizację najbliższych MŚ jedynemu wówczas kandydatowi, Brazylii (w efekcie wojennych rozstrzygnięć wcześniejsza kandydatura Niemiec stała się nieaktualna) +Podczas Kongresu dokonano istotnej zmiany w nazwie imprezy. Postanowiono, że zamiast nazwy Puchar Świata (Coupe de Monde), rozgrywki przyjmą nazwę Piłkarskie mistrzostwa świata (Coupe du monde de football) z podtytułem Puchar Rimeta. Uhonorowano w ten sposób zasługi Jules'a Rimeta – w 1946 r. wypadało 25-lecie jego prezydentury. +28 września 1947 r. w Paryżu Komitet Organizacyjny zaakceptował rok 1950 na finały MŚ. Była to propozycja Brazylijczyka Sotero Gomesa z 29 czerwca tego roku. +30 kwietnia 1950 r. w Londynie Komitet Organizacyjny uchwalił kilka postanowień technicznych: słupki i poprzeczki bramki muszą mieć przekrój kwadratowy, boiska nie mogą przekraczać wymiarów: 108 m długości i 72 m szerokości, zakazano gry przy sztucznym świetle, wszyscy piłkarze muszą grać w butach. +Nazwa. +Etymolodzy wywodzą nazwę stadionu „Maracanã” od nazwy małej rzeki „"Maracanã"”, przepływającej w sąsiedztwie stadionu (obecnie płynie podziemnym kanałem). Ta z kolei pochodzi od nazwy popularnej w Brazylii papugi ary maracany (Primolius maracana). Wokół zbudowanego stadionu powstała z czasem dzielnica, którą także nazwano "Maracanã". +Oficjalną nazwę, "Estádio Jornalista Mário Filho" stadion przyjął w 1966 r., w którym to roku Mario Filho, brazylijski dziennikarz i felietonista sportowy zgodził się na to, aby stadion nosił jego imię i upoważnił administratora do przeprowadzenia odpowiednich procedur w tym kierunku. Mário Filho od samego początku popierał projekt budowy stadionu, a dzięki swemu dużemu zaangażowaniu w jego budowę, pozyskał nawet przydomek "Maracanã". +Pomimo nadania stadionowi nowej nazwy na całym świecie bardziej znana i powszechnie używana jest nazwa stara. +Budowa. +Decyzja o przyznaniu organizacji finałów stała się powodem do wielkiej radości w całej Brazylii. 11 listopada 1947 r. gubernator Rio de Janeiro, Angelo Mendes de Morais, podpisał dekret zezwalający na budowę reprezentacyjnego, największego na świecie stadionu. 22 maja 1948 r. rząd stanu Rio de Janeiro podjął ostateczną decyzję o jego budowie. +Idea konstrukcyjna oraz podstawowe wyliczenia były dziełem prof. Paola Pinheiry Guedesa (1906 – 1960), matematyka i konstruktora z Rio. Zakładał on budowę obiektu na 155 tysięcy miejsc, w tym 95 tysięcy pod dachem, obiektu zlokalizowanego na peryferiach Rio, nad rzeczką Maracanã. Projekt konstrukcyjny stadionu został nakreślony przez dwóch brazylijskich architektów Raphaëla Galvão i Pedro Paulo Bernardesa Bartosa. +Projekt zatwierdził Prezydent Republiki Eurico Gaspar Dutra. Stadion początkowo został nazwany "Obligacją pożyczki komunalnej".Kamień węgielny pod przyszłą budowlę położono 2 sierpnia 1948 r. +Pierwszy mecz zaplanowano na 24 czerwca 1950 r., więc czasu do zakończenia budowy było niewiele, niespełna dwa lata i chociaż prace posuwały się szybko, ich harmonogram zaczął się chwiać. Wówczas to FIFA nakłoniła Ottorino Barassiego, przewodniczącego Włoskiej Federacji Piłkarskiej, mającego doświadczenie nabyte podczas organizacji Mistrzostw Świata w Piłce Nożnej w 1934. we Włoszech, aby udzielił on pomocy Rio de Janeiro, co też się stało. +Stadion został poświęcony dopiero w 1964 r., w roku natomiast 1965, po wielu pracach modernizacyjnych, oficjalnie uznano, że jego budowa ostatecznie się zakończyła. +W 2000 roku postanowiono dokonać gruntownej renowacji stadionu. Po latach planowania i dziesięciu miesiącach zamknięcia między 2005 i 2006, stadion z 95 000 miejsc siedzących otwarto ponownie w styczniu 2007. +Konstrukcja. +Stadion zbudowany jest na planie koła z częściowo zadaszonymi trybunami. Ma dwa duże pierścienie położonych wokół całego boiska, rzędów miejsc do siedzenia. W najwyższym punkcie mierzy tylko 24 m (78 stóp) wysokości. +Elewacja jest ukształtowana przez solidnie wzmocnioną betonową konstrukcję, na którą składa się 60 dużych filarów w kształcie litery "Y". Te filary podtrzymując belki nośne, potęgują wzrokowo eliptyczny obwód stadionu. +W latach pięćdziesiątych XX w., Maracanã była nie tylko jednym z najbardziej luksusowych stadionów na świecie, ale również stadionem bardzo funkcjonalnym i bezpiecznym. Dwie szerokie zewnętrzne kondygnacje, które łączą górne rzędy stadionu z otaczającym parkiem gwarantują w razie potrzeby jego szybką ewakuację. +Otwarcie. +Inauguracyjny mecz na nowym stadionie rozegrany został 16 czerwca 1950 r. pomiędzy juniorami São Paulo i Rio de Janeiro (3:1). Napastnik gości Didi został piłkarzem, który jako pierwszy wpisał się na listę strzelców stadionu. +Rozegranie pierwszego meczu pozwoliło na dokonanie oceny stanu technicznego stadionu. Okazało się, że nie był on do końca wykończony. Część ławek nie była zamontowana, brakowało toalet oraz stanowisk dla sprawozdawców, a całość sprawiała wrażenie placu budowy. Ponieważ jednak główna część stadionu była gotowa, pomimo stwierdzonych usterek, FIFA – nie mając praktycznie wyjścia – zgodziła się na rozgrywanie na nim spotkań. Brak zgody spowodowałby wówczas odwołanie mistrzostw. +Mistrzostwa świata w 1950 r.. +Na starcie turnieju w Brazylii stanęło 13 zespołów zakwalifikowanych do finałów. Wycofały się, zdobywszy kwalifikację, Turcja i Szkocja. Nie chciały w ich miejsce zagrać Francja i Portugalia. Indie, które również zdobyły awans, anonsowały przyjazd, ale się nie pojawiły. +Uczestników podzielono na cztery grupy po cztery ekipy, a ponieważ trzy nie przyjechały, podział był następujący: Grupa pierwsza liczyła cztery zespoły Brazylię, Jugosławię, Szwajcarię, Meksyk), druga również cztery (Anglię, Hiszpanię, Stany Zjednoczone, Chile), trzecia trzy (Szwecję, Paragwaj, Włochy) i czwarta dwie (Boliwię, Urugwaj). Triumfatorzy grup mieli się spotkać w puli finałowej, walcząc każdy z każdym. +W czasie trwania mistrzostw entuzjazm w kraju był tak ogromny, że rząd ogłosił nawet dniami wolnymi od pracy dni, w które grała Brazylia. +W "meczu otwarcia" 24 czerwca 1950 r. o godz. 15, na którym honory pełnił prezydent kraju, gen. Enrico Gaspar Dutra, gospodarze pokonali Meksyk 4:0. Mecz poprzedziła uroczystość otwarcia. Brazylijski piłkarz Ademir zdobył w 31 min. pierwszą bramkę, zostając później królem strzelców tych mistrzostw z liczbą 7 strzelonych goli. Mecz oglądało ok. 85 tysięcy widzów. +Po pokonaniu 9 lipca Szwecji (ok. 150 tysięcy widzów) i 13 lipca Hiszpanii (ok. 165 tysięcy widzów), Brazylia awansowała do finału. Powstała końcowa grupa: Brazylia, Hiszpania, Szwecja i Urugwaj. Po meczach Brazylii ze Szwecją (7:1) i Hiszpanią (6:1) oraz Urugwaju z Hiszpanią (2:2) i Szwecją (3:2), 16 lipca 1950 r. doszło w ostatnim meczu turnieju, do spotkania Brazylii z Urugwajem. Ten ostatni pojedynek decydował jednocześnie o tytule mistrza. +Mającym przewagę punktu Brazylijczykom, by zostać najlepszą drużyną, wystarczał w tym meczu tylko remis. Wygrał jednak Urugwaj (2:1). Ostatni mecz oglądało 199 854 widzów. Jest to do dzisiaj nie pobity rekord liczby widzów na jednym meczu. +Po mistrzostwach. +Po mistrzostwach świata na stadionie swoje mecze rozgrywają cztery największe kluby Rio de Janeiro — Botafogo, Flamengo, Fluminense, Vasco da Gama. Na stadionie rozgrywane są również liczne mecze pucharu Brazylii oraz mecze ligowych mistrzostw stanu Rio de Janeiro, należące do najbardziej prestiżowych rozgrywek piłkarskich w Brazylii. +Przyszłość. +Mundial 2014. +Wiadomość o przyznaniu organizacji mundialu w 2014 r. wywołała olbrzymi entuzjazm w całej Brazylii. Pięćdziesięciu wspinaczy wniosło na "Głowę Cukru", nad Zatoką Guanabara gigantyczną koszulkę piłkarską – 50 m x 50 m – na której umieszczono napis "Puchar Świata 2014 jest nasz". Druga taką koszulkę zawieszono na stoku góry Corcovado. U stóp posągu zaprezentowało swoje umiejętności 100 tancerzy z flagami. +W dniu 30 października 2007 r. obradujący w Zurychu Komitet Wykonawczy Międzynarodowej Federacji Piłkarskiej (FIFA) ogłosił, że gospodarzem turnieju finałowego mistrzostw świata w roku 2014 będzie Brazylia. Była to jedyna kandydatura po wycofaniu 13 kwietnia 2007 r. oferty kolumbijskiej. Brazylia zorganizuje Mistrzostwa Świata po raz drugi. Dotychczas dwa turnieje zorganizowały Włochy (1934 i 1990), Francja (1938 i 1998), Meksyk (1970 oraz 1986), Niemcy (1974 i 2006). +W czasie Mistrzostw Maracana będzie areną 7 spotkań, w tym finału 13 lipca 2014 r. +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 2016. +Rio de Janeiro otrzymało prawo organizacji Letnich Igrzysk Olimpijskich w 2016 r. Odbędą się na niej ceremonia otwarcia i zamknięcia igrzysk oraz mecze piłki nożnej. Po raz pierwszy w historii igrzysk olimpijskich na głównym stadionie igrzysk nie będą rozgrywane zawody lekkoatletyczne. Areną zmagań lekkoatletycznych będzie stadion Estádio Olímpico João Havelange. +Miasto organizujące Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 2016 (Igrzyska XXXI Olimpiady) zostało wybrane na 121 sesji (MKOl), która odbyła się 2 października 2009 roku w Kopenhadze. +Ciekawostki. +Muzeum. +Stadion posiada swoje muzeum, umiejscowione naprzeciwko głównego wejścia. Gości wita podobizna Ronaldo, który jest obwiązany ogromną flagą Brazylii na kształt sari. Na ścianach korytarzy wiszą stare zdjęcia upamiętniające pięć MŚ wygranych przez reprezentację tego kraju. W gablotach można oglądać buty, zużyte piłki, koszulki (między innymi wielkiego Pelego, z numerem 10). Każdy niemalże przedmiot ozdobiony jest podpisem jednego z brazylijskich bogów piłki nożnej. +Aleja Gwiazd. +Na wzór Hollywood, Maracanã ma też swoją Aleję Gwiazd. Tu, na wieczną pamiątkę, swoje stopy odcisnęli najwięksi piłkarze w historii. Zaczęło się od Pelego i Zico, a potem w ich ślady poszli Garrincha, Edmundo, Ronaldo a także inne gwiazdy, które tworzyły historię potężnego spodka. +Ewaryst Estkowski + +Ewaryst Estkowski (ur. 26 października 1820 w Drzązgowie koło Kostrzyna, zm. 15 sierpnia 1856 w Soden, Niemcy) – pedagog, działacz oświatowy. +Był synem właścicieli gospodarstwa rolnego. Ukończył seminarium nauczycielskie w Poznaniu, po czym podjął pracę nauczyciela w Wojciechowie. Brał udział w wydarzeniach Wiosny Ludów w 1848. Założył pierwsze polskie Towarzystwo Pedagogiczne w Poznaniu. Redagował i wydawał pisma pedagogiczne, m.in. "Elementarzyk", "Szkoła Polska", "Szkółka dla dzieci", "Szkółka dla młodzieży". +Jego imię nosi oddana do użytku 16 stycznia 1933 Szkoła Podstawowa nr 6 w Bydgoszczy, szkoły podstawowe w Kostrzynie (wybudowana w 1962) i w Mikstacie (woj. wielkopolskie) oraz gimnazjum w Pakości (woj. kujawsko-pomorskie), jedna z ulic na poznańskim Starym Mieście, w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim, Tychach, Jarocinie, Lesznie oraz w Kępnie. W Drzązgowie przed budynkiem szkolnym postawiono mu pomnik. Jego imię nosiła również zlikwidowana w 2011 roku Szkoła Podstawowa w Kopytowie (pow. bialski, woj. lubelskie). +Pierwszą szkołą, w której Estkowski podjął pracę, była szkoła w Wojciechowie k. Jarocina. Były to lata 1839-1842. Stąd karnie przeniesiono go do Mikstatu. +Szczególną uwagę poświęca nauczaniu elementarnemu, porusza zagadnienie kształcenia nauczycieli, zagadnienie szkół niedzielnych, szkół realnych, zagadnienie oświaty pozaszkolnej. Nauczanie elementarne ma uszlachetniać uczucia, kształcić władze umysłowe, przyswajać uczniowi początki najważniejszych wiadomości. +Petter Solberg + +Petter Solberg (ur. 18 listopada 1974 w Askim) – norweski kierowca rajdowy. Od sezonu 2012 jest członkiem zespołu Ford World Rally Team i startuje w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata samochodem Ford Fiesta RS WRC. Jego pilotem od lipca 2010 roku jest pochodzący z Irlandii Północnej Brytyjczyk Chris Patterson. Petter Solberg jest młodszym bratem Henninga Solberga, również kierowcy rajdowego, startującego w swojej karierze w Mistrzostwach Świata. Nosi przydomek "Hollywood". +Swoją karierę sportową Solberg rozpoczął w 1992 roku, gdy startował w rallycrossie. Dwukrotnie został mistrzem kraju w tej konkurencji, podobnie jak w wyścigach górskich. W 1998 roku zadebiutował w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata, jadąc samochodem Toyota Celica GT-Four. W debiucie zajął 16. miejsce w Rajdzie Szwecji. W 1999 roku został członkiem fabrycznego zespołu Forda i zaliczył w nim starty w kolejnych dwóch sezonach. Jeszcze w 2000 roku podpisał kontrakt z zespołem Subaru World Rally Team i rozpoczął starty w Mistrzostwach Świata samochodem Subaru Impreza WRC. W 2001 roku podczas Rajdu Grecji po raz pierwszy w karierze stanął na podium w rajdzie Mistrzostw Świata (2. miejsce), a swoje pierwsze zwycięstwo odniósł rok później w Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii. W 2002 roku wywalczył rajdowe wicemistrzostwo świata, przegrywając w klasyfikacji generalnej z Finem Marcusem Grönholmem. W 2003 roku został mistrzem świata, a w latach 2004 i 2005 ponownie zdobywał wicemistrzostwo. Od 2009 do 2011 roku startował w barwach założonego przez siebie zespołu Petter Solberg World Rally Team. +Po zakończeniu sezonu 2011 podpisał kontrakt z fabrycznym zespołem Forda na sezon 2012, gdzie zastąpił Fina Mikko Hirvonena, który przeszedł do Citroëna. Po sezonie 2012 zawiesił karierę w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata. +Kariera. +Początki. +Solberg urodził się w mieście Askim. Swoją karierę rajdową rozpoczynał na polach farmy rodziców w Spydebergu, znajdującej się w okolicach Oslo. Już jako jedenastolatek pomagał startującym w rallycrossie rodzicom w budowie i utrzymywaniu ich samochodów. Był jednak zbyt młody, by samemu rywalizować w tej dyscyplinie, toteż początkowo brał udział w zawodach zdalnie sterowanych samochodów – w wieku 13 lat wywalczył mistrzostwo Norwegii w tej dyscyplinie. +Pod koniec 1992 roku Solberg zdał egzamin na prawo jazdy. Następnie rozpoczął starty w rallycrossowych mistrzostwach Norwegii. Już w swoim drugim występie odniósł zwycięstwo. W 1993 roku zaczął startować także w wyścigach górskich, samochodem Ford Escort MK2, podarowanym mu przez brata Henninga. +Swój pierwszy sukces w wyścigach górskich Solberg osiągnął w 1994 roku, gdy zajął 2. miejsce w mistrzostwach Norwegii. Był też drugi w mistrzostwach kraju w rallycrossie. Z kolei w 1995 roku zakupił od brata Volvo 240 i – jadąc nim – wywalczył tytuł mistrzowski zarówno w rallycrossie, jak i wyścigach górskich. W 1996 roku powtórzył oba osiągnięcia, wygrywając w 19 na 21 startów. We wrześniu 1996 roku Solberg po raz pierwszy wystartował w rajdach. W debiutanckim Hedmarksrally pojechał Toyotą Celiką ST205, uzyskaną od brata. Nie ukończył jednak rajdu z powodu wypadku i uszkodzeń samochodu. +W 1997 roku Solberg odkupił Toyotę Celikę ST185 od szwedzkiego rajdowca Thomasa Rådströma. Wystartował nią w mistrzostwach Norwegii w rallycrossie, które po raz trzeci z rzędu wygrał, oraz w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Norwegii. W tych zawodach był piąty, zwyciężając w jednym z rajdów. +1998–2001. +W 1998 roku Solberg startował Toyotą Celiką ST 205. Dzięki czterem zwycięstwom w rajdach Mistrzostw Norwegii wywalczył mistrzostwo kraju. Wygrał także w jednym rajdzie Mistrzostw Europy oraz w jednym Mistrzostw Szwecji. Jeszcze w lutym 1998 roku zaliczył swój debiut w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata. Startując Toyotą Celiką GT-Four i będąc pilotowanym przez swojego rodaka Egila Solstada, zajął wówczas 16. miejsce w Rajdzie Szwecji. W tym samym roku wystartował również w Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii z pilotem Catem Menkerudem, ale nie ukończył tych zawodów z powodu wypadku. +W 1999 roku Solberg doszedł do porozumienia z szefem fabrycznego zespołu Ford World Rally Team, Malcolmem Wilsonem, podpisując z nim pięcioletni kontrakt. Swój debiut w zespole Forda zaliczył podczas lutowego Rajdu Szwecji. Jadąc Fordem Escortem WRC z walijskim pilotem Philem Millsem, zajął wówczas 11. pozycję. W tym samym miesiącu partner z zespołu Forda, Szwed Thomas Rådström, doznał kontuzji na parę dni przed Rajdem Safari, wobec czego Solberg zajął jego miejsce w Fordzie Focusie WRC. Debiutując tym samochodem, Norweg zajął 5. miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej rajdu i zdobył tym samym swoje pierwsze w karierze punkty w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata. Focusem WRC wystartował także w innych rajdach Mistrzostw Świata 1999: Portugalii, Finlandii, San Remo i Wielkiej Brytanii, jednak nie zajął w nich punktowanych pozycji. +Przez pierwszą połowę sezonu 2000 Solberg startował Fordem Focusem WRC. Do ważniejszych sukcesów w tym okresie należą: zajęcie 5. miejsca w Rajdzie Safari 2000, 6. miejsca w Rajdzie Argentyny i 4. miejsca w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii, przegrywając miejsce na podium jedynie z Finem Marcusem Grönholmem w Peugeocie 206 WRC oraz partnerami z zespołu Forda Colinem McRae i Carlosem Sainzem. W sierpniu 2000 roku Solberg wraz ze swoim pilotem Millsem ogłosili, że opuszczają zespół Forda i przechodzą do zespołu Subaru World Rally Team. Swojego pierwszego rajdu, Rajdu Francji, w Subaru Imprezie WRC norwesko-walijska załoga nie ukończyła na skutek awarii skrzyni biegów. Startowała także w trzech innych: Rajdzie San Remo, Rajdzie Australii i Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii, ale ukończyła jedynie ten pierwszy. +W sezonie 2001 Solberg stał się drugim kierowcą zespołu Subaru (obok Anglika Richarda Burnsa). Wystartował we wszystkich czternastu rajdach sezonu. Nie ukończył sześciu z nich. Jeden raz stanął na podium (po raz pierwszy w swojej karierze), w Rajdzie Grecji, gdy przegrał jedynie z Colinem McRae w Fordzie Focusie WRC. +2002–2003. +Przed rozpoczęciem sezonu 2002 nowym partnerem Solberga w zespole Subaru został Fin Tommi Mäkinen, który zastąpił mistrza świata z zeszłego roku Richarda Burnsa. Solberg pozostał drugim kierowcą teamu Subaru. W pierwszej części sezonu zdobywał punkty, ale nie stawał na podium rajdów. W majowym Rajdzie Argentyny zajął 4. miejsce, jednak po zakończeniu rajdu zdyskwalifikowani zostali dwaj kierowcy Peugeota, Marcus Grönholm i Burns, dzięki czemu Norweg awansował na drugie miejsce za Carlosem Sainzem. W drugiej części sezonu Solberg spisywał się lepiej i częściej stawał na podium; był trzeci w Rajdzie Finlandii, Rajdzie Włoch i Rajdzie Australii. Z kolei w listopadowym Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii odniósł z pilotem Millsem swoje pierwsze zwycięstwo w Mistrzostwach Świata w karierze, po tym jak z powodu wypadku odpadł lider i mistrz świata z roku 2002, Grönholm. Było to piąte podium Solberga w sezonie (więcej miał tylko Grönholm). Dzięki zwycięstwu w Wielkiej Brytanii Solberg wywalczył wicemistrzostwo świata. +2004–2005. +Jeszcze pod koniec 2003 roku kontrakt z fabryczną ekipą Subaru podpisał Fin Mikko Hirvonen. W sezonie 2004 miał zastąpić kończącego karierę rodaka Tommiego Mäkinena i stać się nowym partnerem Solberga w zespole. Subaru wypuściło też nowy model Imprezy; w jej debiucie Solberg był 7. w Rajdzie Monte Carlo. Swoje pierwsze zwycięstwo za kierownicą nowego samochodu odniósł w kwietniu w Rajdzie Nowej Zelandii, odbierając wygraną Marcusowi Grönholmowi na przedostatnim odcinku specjalnym. Solberg zwyciężył również w czerwcowym Rajdzie Grecji, pomimo otrzymania 30-sekundowej kary z powodu braku chlapaczy. We wrześniu i październiku wygrał trzy rajdy z rzędu: Rajd Japonii, Rajd Wielkiej Brytanii i Rajd Sardynii. Nie wystarczyło to jednak do zwycięstwa w Mistrzostwach Świata, tytuł w klasyfikacji generalnej zdobył Sébastien Loeb. Solberg był drugi, a głównym powodem porażki z Francuzem było nieukończenie czterech imprez: Rajdu Argentyny, Finlandii, Niemiec i Australii. +W sezonie 2005 partnerem Solberga w zespole Subaru był Australijczyk Chris Atkinson. W pierwszych trzech rajdach sezonu Solberg odniósł dwa zwycięstwa, w Rajdzie Szwecji i Rajdzie Meksyku, dzięki czemu objął prowadzenie w Mistrzostwach Świata. Po Rajdzie Sardynii, piątej eliminacji Mistrzostw Świata, został wyprzedzony w klasyfikacji punktowej przez Sébastiena Loeba. Do końca sezonu Solberg wygrał jeden rajd (Wielkiej Brytanii), w którym odniósł swoje czwarte zwycięstwo z rzędu. Zwyciężył jednak dzięki temu, iż Loeb celowo zaliczył 2-minutową karę by nie świętować wygranej w zawodach. Powodem takiej decyzji Francuza był fakt, iż Estończyk Markko Märtin miał wypadek, w którym zginął jego pilot Michael Park. W ostatnim rajdzie sezonu, Rajdzie Australii, Solberg wycofał się z powodu zderzenia z kangurem. W jego samochodzie nastąpił defekt układu chłodzenia. Pomimo nie ukończenia rajdu Norweg został wicemistrzem świata. Zdobył 71 punktów, tyle co Marcus Grönholm, jednak odniósł więcej zwycięstw w sezonie niż Fin. +2006–2008. +W 2006 roku Solberg przedłużył kontrakt z zespołem Subaru do 2009 roku. Nie ukończył pierwszych dwóch rajdów sezonu 2006: Monte Carlo i Rajdu Szwecji. W kolejnym, Rajdzie Meksyku, zajął 2. pozycję. Do końca sezonu jeszcze tylko trzykrotnie stawał na podium, nie odnosząc żadnego zwycięstwa. Były to rajdy: Argentyny (2. miejsce), Australii (2. miejsce) i Wielkiej Brytanii (3. miejsce). Ostatecznie zajął 6. pozycję w mistrzostwach. +Sezon 2007 Solberg rozpoczął od zajęcia 6. miejsca w Rajdzie Monte Carlo. Następnie nie ukończył Rajdu Szwecji i przegrał miejsce na podium Rajdu Norwegii ze swoim bratem Henningiem w Fordzie Focusie WRC. W rajdach Argentyny, Meksyku i Sardynii nie osiągnął dobrego wyniku z powodu problemów technicznych z jego Subaru. W Rajdzie Portugalii był natomiast drugi, a w Rajdzie Grecji – trzeci. Mimo technicznych ulepszeń Subaru Solberga po tym rajdzie Norweg nie ukończył kolejnej eliminacji, Rajdu Finlandii, z powodu problemów z układem kierowniczym. Sukcesu nie odniósł także w kolejnych rajdach. W Rajdzie Niemiec miał problem z kierowaniem z powodu uderzenia w skałę, ale ukończył rajd na 6. miejscu. W Nowej Zelandii był siódmy, także głównie na skutek problemów z układem kierowniczym. Do końca sezonu ani razu nie stanął na podium, a jego jedynym udanym startem był Rajd Wielkiej Brytanii, w którym zajął 4. pozycję, pomimo uderzenia w skałę i problemów z jazdą. Ostatecznie zajął 5. miejsce w Mistrzostwach Świata. +W pierwszych dwóch rajdach sezonu 2008, Monte Carlo i Szwecji, Solberg był odpowiednio czwarty i piąty, a w kolejnych czterech nie zdobył punktów. W Rajdzie Grecji zajął drugie miejsce; był to zarazem debiut nowej specyfikacji Subaru Imprezy WRC. Od tego czasu do końca sezonu Solberg zdobywał punkty w Mistrzostwach Świata, jednak ani razu nie stanął na podium. Zajął ostatecznie 6. miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej mistrzostw. +Od 2009. +16 grudnia 2008 roku koncern Subaru zadecydował o wycofaniu się z uczestnictwa w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata. Decyzję ogłoszono dzień po tym, jak ze startów w WRC zrezygnowało Suzuki. Solberg z Philem Millsem zostali więc bez zespołu, w którym mogliby rozpocząć sezon 2009, toteż byli zmuszeni odwołać swój start w Rajdzie Irlandii. Po wielu namysłach i rozważaniach startów w prywatnych zespołach Forda lub Citroëna Solberg zdecydował się na tę drugą markę wybierając do rajdów model Citroëna Xsary WRC w specyfikacji 2006, którym już pierwszy start zaliczył w Rajdzie Norwegii. 1 lutego 2009 Solberg ogłosił listę sponsorów na sezon 2009, wśród których znaleźli się: Microsoft, Pareto i Hurtigruta Carglass. +6 lutego 2009 Solberg oficjalnie ogłosił na konferencji prasowej powstanie nowego zespołu rajdowego Petter Solberg World Rally Team, którego członkiem był on jako kierowca i Phil Mills jako pilot. Menedżerem zespołu został Ken Rees, a głównym inżynierem – François-Xavier "FX" Demaison. Obaj wcześniej pracowali w zespole Subaru. Solberg zatrudnił także innego byłego członka Subaru, Tore'go Dahla, jako mechanika. +Pierwszy start nowego zespołu, w Rajdzie Norwegii, zakończył się zajęciem 6. miejsca. W kolejnym, w Rajdzie Cypru, Solberg był trzeci. Stał się tym samym pierwszym kierowcą po Malcolmie Wilsonie od 1993 roku, który zajął miejsce na podium, startując w prywatnym zespole rajdowym. Następnie Norweg był czwarty w Rajdzie Portugalii i nie ukończył Rajdu Argentyny. Przed Rajdem Sardynii był bliski zmiany samochodu na Peugeota 307 WRC, jednak ostatecznie w jego Xsarze zamontowano nowe ulepszenia, związane z układem chłodzenia, silnikiem i dyferencjałami. W Rajdzie Sardynii zajął 3. pozycję. Następnie nie ukończył Rajdu Grecji, był czwarty w Rajdzie Polski i nie dojechał do mety Rajdu Finlandii. We wrześniu 2009 roku Solberg zdecydował, iż w ostatnich dwóch rundach sezonu 2009, Rajdzie Katalonii i Rajdzie Wielkiej Brytanii, pojedzie Citroënem C4 WRC w specyfikacji 2008. W obu tych rajdach Solberg był czwarty, a w klasyfikacji generalnej Mistrzostw Świata zajął 5. pozycję. +W sezonie 2010 Solberg ponownie zaplanował starty samochodem Citroën C4 WRC, po tym jak zakupił dwa egzemplarze w specyfikacji 2009 od Citroën Racing. W swoim pierwszym starcie w sezonie, w Rajdzie Szwecji, Solberg był dziewiąty. W Rajdzie Meksyku do ostatniego odcinka specjalnego walczył o zwycięstwo z Sébastienem Loebem, lecz ostatecznie przyjechał drugi. Także w kolejnych dwóch rajdach, Jordanii i Szwecji, Norweg stawał na podium (był odpowiednio trzeci i drugi). Z kolei nie ukończył Rajdu Nowej Zelandii z powodu wypadku. W następnej rundzie WRC w Portugalii punktował, dzięki zajęciu 5. miejsca. +W czerwcu 2010 roku Solberg zakończył jedenastoletnią współpracę z pilotem Philem Millsem, który zdecydował się poświęcić życiu prywatnemu i rodzinie. Nowym pilotem Norwega został pochodzący z Irlandii Północnej Chris Patterson. Z Pattersonem Solberg wystartował w Rajdzie Bułgarii i był tam trzeci. W kolejnych dwóch rajdach Solberg był czwarty i piąty, natomiast w czterech ostatnich rundach sezonu zajmował miejsca na podium: drugie w Japonii, Katalonii i Wielkiej Brytanii oraz trzecie we Francji. Ostatecznie znalazł się na 3. miejscu w klasyfikacji generalnej Mistrzostw Świata. +14 stycznia 2011 roku zespół Petter Solberg World Rally Team ogłosił, że w sezonie 2011 Mistrzostw Świata Petter Solberg z Chrisem Pattersonem wystartują samochodem Citroën DS3 WRC. +W styczniu 2011 roku Solberg wystartował Peugeotem 207 S2000 w Rajdzie Monte Carlo zaliczanym do cyklu IRC. Ukończył wszystkie odcinki specjalne, plasując się na 7. pozycji, jednak w wyniku awarii alternatora nie dojechał do mety i nie ukończył rajdu. +Życie prywatne. +Petter Solberg jest synem Terje'go i Tove. Zarówno ojciec, jak i matka, powiązani byli ze sportami motorowymi i startowali w krajowych mistrzostwach w rallycrossie. Rajdowcem jest też jego brat, Henning Solberg, starszy o rok i startujący w rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata jako kierowca teamów: Forda, Stobart M-Sport Ford Rally Team czy Munchi's Ford World Rally Team. +Solberg mieszka wraz z rodziną w Monako. Jest mężem Szwedki Pernilli Walfridsson. Ma z nią syna Olivera (ur. 2002). Pernilla Walfridsson jest córką Pera-Inge Walfridssona, byłego mistrza Europy w rallycrossie. Sama również startowała w rajdach, w tym w 14 rajdach zaliczanych do Mistrzostw Świata. +Solberg jest właścicielem małych linii lotniczych Petter Solberg Aviation AB, wynajmujących prywatnym użytkownikom czarterowe odrzutowe samoloty Cessna. +Zwycięstwa w Mistrzostwach Świata. +"Stan na 12 grudnia 2010." +Starty w rajdach WRC. +"Stan na 30 lipca 2011." +Kredka + +Kredka – przyrząd do pisania i rysowania, wykonany z kolorowej pasteli, węgla drzewnego, kredy lub innego materiału. +Kredki można podzielić na ołówkowe (w których kolorowany węgiel drzewny znajduje się wewnątrz drewnianej oprawki), pastelowe i świecowe. +Kredki są często używane do rysowania i kolorowania przez dzieci i architektów. Są proste w użyciu, nietoksyczne i dostępne w szerokiej gamie barw. Nie są natomiast popularne wśród artystów z uwagi na trudności w mieszaniu kolorów. +Grażyna Bukowska + +Grażyna Bukowska (ur. 1956) – polska dziennikarka telewizyjna, specjalistka "public relations". +Absolwentka Wydziału Biologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Laureatka konkursu na dziennikarzy telewizyjnych, zorganizowanego przez TVP w 1979; początkowo prezenterka programu "Dzień dobry w kręgu rodziny" oraz "Bliżej świata", potem w "Telewizyjnym Kurierze Warszawskim", następnie w "Wiadomościach", wreszcie w porannym programie "Pytanie na śniadanie". Wielokrotnie nagradzana osobowość telewizyjna. Po rezygnacji z pracy etatowej w TVP pracowała w "Superexpressie". Zajmowała się także działalnością z dziedziny public relations. Obecnie jest kierownikiem historyczno-dokumentalnego kanału telewizji TVN i Discovery – Discovery TVN Historia. +Ma jedno dziecko (córkę). +Biskup tytularny + +Biskup tytularny "(łac. episcopus titularis)" to biskup mający tytuł dawnej, już nieistniejącej diecezji. Tytuł nadawany jest przez papieża wszystkim biskupom nieposiadającym własnej diecezji, czyli biskupom pomocniczym ordynariuszy, a także wyższym urzędnikom Kurii Rzymskiej, nuncjuszom, delegatom apostolskim lub innym duchownym pełniącym specjalne zadania zlecane im przez papieża lub narodowe konferencje biskupów. +Powstanie instytucji biskupstwa tytularnego wiąże się z podbojami muzułmańskimi chrześcijańskich państw Wschodu, Afryki i Hiszpanii w VII i VIII wieku. Zmuszeni do opuszczenia swoich diecezji biskupi pomagali po przeniesieniu się do krajów chrześcijańskich miejscowym ordynariuszom. W nadziei na szybkie odzyskanie dla chrześcijaństwa utraconych terytoriów, papieże mianowali po ich śmierci następców wyznaczając im tymczasowo zadania pomocnicze w istniejących diecezjach lub używając do spełniania różnorodnych misji. Sytuacja tymczasowości przedłużała się, a po klęsce wypraw krzyżowych stało się jasne, że walka z islamem potrwa jeszcze długo. +Klemens V na początku XIV wieku usankcjonował istniejący stan rzeczy. Od tej pory biskup ordynariusz chcąc mieć pomocnika zwracał się o to do Stolicy Apostolskiej. Wytworzył się zwyczaj mianowania biskupów nierezydencjalnych z tytułami diecezji nieistniejących, którzy pomagają w pracy biskupom rezydencjonalnym. Biskupów takich nazywano "episcopus in partibus infidelium" (na terenach zajętych przez niewiernych). Dopiero w 1882 roku papież Leon XIII wprowadził nazwę "episcopus titularis". +Rusznica + +Rusznica (staropolskie "ruśnica" z cz. "rusnice") – dawna ręczna długa broń palna, strzelba początkowo bez zamka, później z zamkiem lontowym albo kołowym. Używana w Europie od połowy XIV do początku XVII wieku. Rusznice były wykorzystywane przez wojsko kwarciane (od połowy XVI wieku). +Produkcja luf rusznic polegała na okuwaniu rozżarzonej sztaby wokół okrągłego stalowego pręta. W rezultacie uzyskiwano lufy lekkie, a jednocześnie mocniejsze od odlewanych. +Strzelano z rusznic trzymając drewniane łoże pod pachą (dokładne celowanie nie było możliwe). Prowadzenie ognia miało przebieg następujący: rota stawała w dziesięciu szeregach, po czym pierwszych dziewięć przyklękało, a ostatni dawał ognia salwą nad głowami kolegów. Po oddaniu salwy przystępował do ponownego nabijania, a w tym czasie kolejne szeregi powstawały i strzelały. +Pierwsze rusznice pojawiły się w wojskach Rzeczypospolitej za czasów panowania Zygmunta Augusta i – ze względu na to, że odpalenie ładunku odbywało się poprzez przyłożenie lontu lub tlącej się hubki – nazywano je "ruśnicami hubczastymi" lub "brodatymi". +Mianem rusznicy przeciwpancernej określane są również karabiny przeciwpancerne powstałe w XX w. +Sobiemysł + +Sobiemysł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Sobie-" i "-mysł" ("myśleć"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto myśli o sobie, o zapewnieniu sobie bytu". +Sobiemysł imieniny obchodzi 2 września. +Dolina Złomisk + +Dolina Złomisk, Złomiska (słow. "Zlomisková dolina", "Zlomiská", "dolina Zlomísk", niem. "Trümmertal", "Mengsdorfer Trümmertal", węg. "Omladék-völgy", "Menguszfalvi Omladék-völgy") – dolina tatrzańska, odgałęzienie Doliny Mięguszowieckiej ("Mengusovská dolina") odchodzące w jej środkowej części, w pobliżu Popradzkiego Stawu ("Popradské pleso"), w kierunku południowo-wschodnim. +Topografia. +Jest to jedno z największych odgałęzień Doliny Mięguszowieckiej. W środkowej części odgałęzia się od niej Dolinka Smocza, w wyższych partiach dolina rozgałęzia się na 3 mniejsze dolinki boczne będące kotłami lodowcowymi: Zmarzłą Kotlinę ("Ľadová kotlina"), Żelazną Kotlinę ("Železná kotlina") i Dolinkę Rumanową ("Rumanova dolinka"). W środkowej części wyróżnia się jeszcze Złomiską Zatokę ("kotlina pod Dračím sedlom"). +Opis doliny. +Dolina ma długość ok. 3 km, a jej powierzchnia wynosi ok. 4,5 km². Znajduje się w niej Zmarzły Staw Mięguszowiecki ("Ľadové pleso v Zlomiskách"), a w bocznych dolinkach położone są jeszcze inne stawy: Rumanowe Stawy, Smoczy Staw, Mały Smoczy Staw i Smocze Oka. Przez dolinę płynie wypływający ze Zmarzłego Stawu Zmarzły Potok ("Ľadový potok"), który wpada do Popradzkiego Stawu. +Dolną partię doliny przecina Magistrala Tatrzańska przechodząca z Doliny Wielkiej Huczawy przez Przełęcz pod Osterwą ("Sedlo pod Ostrvou", 1959 m). Przez dolinę prowadzi ścieżka na przełęcz Wschodnie Żelazne Wrota, dawniej była ona znakowana. Pod koniec XIX wieku Christian Hohenlohe miał tutaj swoje terytorium łowieckie i w dolnej części doliny budował ścieżki myśliwskie. Obecnie wejście do doliny jest możliwe tylko przy sprzyjających warunkach atmosferycznych w towarzystwie przewodnika tatrzańskiego. +Nazwa doliny pochodzi od tego, że zawalona jest dużą ilością skalnych złomów. Polski poeta Franciszek Henryk Nowicki w 1888 r. pisał: „"Podziwiam trafność nazwy, jaką nadali tej dolinie górale"”. Jej górną część pod Żelaznymi Wrotami, posępną i często również w lecie zawaloną śniegami przewodnicy zakopiańscy dawniej nazywali Pustą Doliną. +Pierwszym potwierdzonym turystą w Dolinie Złomisk był B. Łoś z przewodnikiem Jędrzejem Walą starszym w 1860 r. Częściej turyści zaczęli się tu pojawiać po 1874 r., kiedy to odkryto przejście przez Żelazne Wrota. Zimą jako pierwsi dolinę odwiedzili Harry Berceli, Károly Jordán, Johann Franz senior i Paul Spitzkopf senior 11 kwietnia 1903 r. w drodze na Wysoką. +Jarosław Pietras + +Jarosław Pietras (ur. 14 maja 1955 w Legionowie) – polski urzędnik państwowy, dyplomata, były minister do spraw europejskich. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Nauk Ekonomicznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, uzyskał następnie stopień doktora nauk ekonomicznych. Był stypendystą w Centrum Studiów Polityki Europejskiej w Brukseli, na Uniwersytecie Glasgow w Wielkiej Brytanii oraz na Uniwersytecie DUKE w Północnej Karolinie w USA. Specjalizuje się w zakresie międzynarodowych stosunków gospodarczych. Prowadzi wykłady na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. +W latach 1990-1992 pełnił funkcję głównego specjalisty w Ministerstwie Współpracy Gospodarczej z Zagranicą. Od 1996 do 2006 pracował w Komitecie Integracji Europejskiej. W latach 1997-2004 był podsekretarzem stanu w UKIE, następnie w okresie od 1 kwietnia 2004 do 1 kwietnia 2006 sekretarzem stanu w tym urzędzie. W latach 2004-2006 pełnił też funkcję sekretarza Komitetu Integracji Europejskiej (tzw. ministra do spraw europejskich). 1 kwietnia 2006 został sekretarzem stanu w Ministerstwie Finansów, zrezygnował z tego stanowiska już 21 września 2006. +W 2008 wygrał konkurs na dyrektora generalnego w Sekretariacie Generalnym Rady Unii Europejskiej. +Uhonorowany nagrodą im. Andrzeja Bączkowskiego (2005). W 2006 został oficerem francuskiej Legii Honorowej. +Mario Filho + +Mario Filho (ur. 3 czerwca 1908, zm. 17 września 1966) – brazylijski dziennikarz sportowy, znawca piłki nożnej, działacz sportowy. +Był autorem wielu znanych książek poświęconych piłce nożnej, m.in. "Bonecas" (1927), "Copa Rio Branco" (1932), "Histórias do Flamengo" (1934), "O Negro no Futebol Brasileiro" (1947), "Romance do Football" (1949), "Senhorita" (1950), "Copa do Mundo de 62" (1962), "Viagem em Torno de Pelé" (1964), "O Rosto" (1965), "Infância de Portinari" (1966). Jego imię nadano słynnemu stadionowi w Rio de Janeiro – Maracanie. +Reforma centrum administracji w 1997 + +Reforma centrum administracyjno-gospodarczego z 1997 roku – przyjęta uchwałami rządu Józefa Oleksego i rządu Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza oraz ustawami przyjętymi przez Sejm w 1996 i 1997 roku, w tym zmianą ustawy konstytucyjnej. Przygotowana i wdrożona przez powołanego specjalnie w 1995 roku Pełnomocnika Rady Ministrów Marka Pola, wcześniej Ministra Przemysłu i Handlu w rządzie Waldemara Pawlaka. +Reforma uregulowała organizację i tryb pracy Rady Ministrów. Wzmocniono rolę i pozycję Prezesa Rady Ministrów, zastąpiono rozbudowany Urząd Rady Ministrów Kancelarią Prezesa Rady Ministrów. Dostosowała sposób funkcjonowania ministerstw odpowiedzialnych za gospodarkę do warunków gospodarki rynkowej, przez przekazanie nadzoru nad przedsiębiorstwami Ministerstwu Skarbu Państwa oraz powierzenie pozostałym ministerstwom gospodarczym głównie funkcji regulacyjnych. Dzięki przyjętej w jej ramach ustawie o działach administracji rządowej umożliwiono Prezesowi Rady Ministrów elastyczne kształtowanie liczby i kompetencji członków Rady Ministrów, stosownie do aktualnych potrzeb państwa. +Dokonano również nowego podziału na ministerstwa. Zlikwidowano tzw. ministerstwa branżowe, typowe dla gospodarki nakazowej (Centralny Urząd Planowania, Ministerstwo Przekształceń Własnościowych, Przemysłu i Handlu, Gospodarki Przestrzennej i Budownictwa, Współpracy Gospodarczej z Zagranicą i Spraw Wewnętrznych) oraz Urząd Pełnomocnika Rządu do Spraw Integracji Europejskiej oraz Pomocy Zagranicznej. +Utworzono natomiast, odpowiadające potrzebom gospodarki rynkowej Ministerstwo Gospodarki, Skarbu Państwa, Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji, Komitet Integracji Europejskiej, Urząd Mieszkalnictwa i Rozwoju Miast oraz Rządowe Centrum Studiów Strategicznych. Ugruntowano, występującą od 1990 r., tendencję przekazywania bardziej technicznych części zadań ministerstw centralnym organom administracji, podległym Prezesowi Rady Ministrów bądź odpowiednim ministrom. +Była to reforma o znaczących skutkach dla nowego państwa. Spowodowała zmiany powałęsowskich ministerstw. Od tej pory prezydenckich ministerstw już nie było. +Miłosław + +Miłosław to miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie wrzesińskim, położone na Równinie Wrzesińskiej, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Miłosław. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. poznańskiego. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 3560 mieszkańców. +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka o Miłosławiu pochodzi z 1314, kiedy to miejscowość była własnością Miłosławskich herbu Doliwa. W 1382 zjazd rycerstwa wielkopolskiego przeciwnego oddaniu korony polskiej Zygmuntowi Luksemburskiemu. Prawa miejskie sprzed 1397, powtórna lokacja 1539. Od 1487 własność Górskich. W okresie reformacji silny ośrodek protestantyzmu - aż do roku 1627, kiedy to Górscy nawracają się na katolicyzm. Później w posiadaniu Grabskich, a od 1777 - Mielżyńskich. W czasie Wiosny Ludów miejsce zwycięskiej bitwy powstańców z wojskami pruskimi (30 kwietnia 1848). W pierwszej dekadzie XX wieku ośrodek strajków szkolnych. W 1893 Miłosław kupuje Józef Kościelski herbu Ogończyk; w rękach Kościelskich Miłosław pozostaje aż do 1939. +Sport. +W miejscowości działa Ludowy Klub Sportowy Orlik-Klafs Miłosław, którego sekcja piłkarska występuje w konińskiej klasie okręgowej. +Od roku 2006 działa także Miłosławskie Towarzystwo Cyklistów. +Komunikacja. +Przez miasto przebiega droga krajowa nr 15: Wrocław-Trzebnica-Krotoszyn-Miłosław-Gniezno-Toruń-Ostróda-Olsztyn. Znajduje się tu również stacja Miłosław linii kolejowej nr 281: Oleśnica - Chojnice. +Przemysł. +W Miłosławu znajduje się Browar Fortuna , a także Zakład Przetwórstwa Mięsnego "Miłosław" . +Febe (księżyc) + +Febe (Phoebe, Saturn IX) – dziewiąty pod względem wielkości księżyc Saturna, odkryty w 1899 roku przez Williama Pickeringa. Był to pierwszy satelita odkryty metodą fotograficzną i ostatni nowo zaobserwowany księżyc Saturna przed 2000 rokiem. Jego nazwa pochodzi od Fojbe (Febe), która była tytanidą w mitologii greckiej. +Orbita. +Febe jest największym księżycem nieregularnym Saturna, krąży od niego czterokrotnie dalej niż najbliższy z większych satelitów – Japet. Należy do tzw. grupy nordyckiej nieregularnych satelitów Saturna, poruszających się ruchem wstecznym po wydłużonych orbitach. Nie jest ona związana pływowo, jak bardziej wewnętrzne satelity planety. Okrążenie Saturna zajmuje Febe 18 miesięcy, podczas gdy jeden obrót dookoła własnej osi trwa tylko 9 godzin. +Budowa. +Średni promień Febe to 110 kilometrów, co stanowi ok. 1/15 promienia ziemskiego Księżyca. Temperatura powierzchni (jednej z najciemniejszych w Układzie Słonecznym) wynosi -198°C. Pokrywają ją duże kratery, o średnicach ponad 80 km i zboczach wysokich na kilkanaście kilometrów. Febe zbudowana jest w ok. 50% ze skał, zawiera ich o wiele więcej niż typowe księżyce Saturna. +Powyższe cechy budowy i orbity wskazują, że Febe może być centaurem (są to planetoidy krążące wokół Słońca pomiędzy Saturnem a Neptunem), złapanym w pole grawitacyjne planety. +Obrazy przesłane przez sondę Cassini pokazały, że warstwa ciemnego materiału jest stosunkowo cienka i już 300-500 m pod powierzchnią znajdują się duże pokłady lodu wodnego. Pył, wybity z powierzchni księżyca przez uderzenia meteorytów, może osiadać na sąsiednich małych satelitach, a także na większych Hiperionie i Japecie (wyjaśniałoby to niezwykłą kontrastowość na jego powierzchni). +Pierścień. +W październiku 2009 roku poinformowaniu o odkryciu wielkiego, ale bardzo słabego pierścienia Febe, wewnątrz którego znajduje się orbita księżyca. +Antares + +Antares (alfa Scorpii, α Sco) – gwiazda podwójna, najjaśniejszą w gwiazdozbiorze Skorpiona. Jest położona w odległości ok. 550 lat świetlnych od Ziemi, a jej jasność wizualna przekracza ok. 10 000 razy jasność Słońca. Masa wynosi ok. 15 mas Słońca. Na niebie Antares osiąga wielkość gwiazdową od 0,9 do 1,8. Średnica tego czerwonego nadolbrzyma sięga 1 182 mln km. Zewnętrzna powłoka gazowa tej gwiazdy jest stosunkowo zimna - 3400K, przez co możemy oglądać Antaresa jako obiekt o czerwono-pomarańczowej barwie. +Antares należy do gwiazd zmiennych zwanych mirydami. W swoim obecnym stadium rozwoju traci on z wolna zewnętrzne warstwy gazowe, tworząc mgławicę planetarną. Towarzyszka Antaresa ma jasność 5,5, jasnoniebieską barwę (klasa widmowa B3V), okres obiegu wokół wspólnego środka masy wynosi 878 lat. +Gwiazda ta ma wystarczającą masę, by móc stać się w przyszłości supernową. +Nazwa „Antares” pochodzi z greki i oznacza, ze względu na czerwone zabarwienie, „Przeciwnik Marsa” (Mars to rzymski odpowiednik greckiego Aresa). +Antares znalazł miejsce na fladze Brazylii, symbolizując jeden z jej stanów - Piauí. +Owen Chamberlain + +Owen Chamberlain (ur. 10 lipca 1920 w San Francisco, zm. 28 lutego 2006 w Berkeley) – fizyk amerykański, laureat Nagrody Nobla z fizyki w 1959 roku. +Studiował na Uniwersytecie Kalifornijskim w Berkeley, gdzie także obronił doktorat (pod kierunkiem Enrico Fermiego) i był profesorem (od 1958). Brał udział w pracach nad amerykańską bombą atomową (Projekt Manhattan). W 1989 roku przeszedł na emeryturę po tym, jak cztery lata wcześniej zdiagnozowano u niego chorobę Parkinsona. +Zajmował się przede wszystkim rozszczepianiem i rozpadem jąder atomu, dyfrakcją neutronów w cieczach oraz rozpraszaniem nukleonów o dużych energiach. Wraz z Emilio Segre odkrył w 1955 roku antyproton, za co w 1959 roku uczonych uhonorowano Nagrodą Nobla. +Park im. Henryka Jordana w Krakowie + +Park Jordana – park w Krakowie, położony przy al. 3 Maja, w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie Błoń, Miasteczka Studenckiego AGH i Stadionu Miejskiego. +Historia. +W 1889 r. z inicjatywy dra Henryka Jordana stworzono park na terenie błoń czarnowiejskich w miejscu byłej wystawy rolniczo-przemysłowej zorganizowanej dwa lata wcześniej. Zagospodarowanie parku zlecono w połowie 1888 r. kierownikowi ogrodów miejskich – Bolesławowi Maleckiemu. Po uregulowaniu Rudawy, posadzeniu drzew i krzewów oraz ustawieniu drewnianych pawilonów otwarto nowy krakowski park wraz z boiskami, przyrządami gimnastycznymi i placami do zabaw sportowych. +Na teren parku pierwotnie wchodzono przez mostek na Ciepłej Wodzie. Znajdowała się tam drewniana brama z napisem: "Miejski Park Dra Jordana". Dalej stała mleczarnia Eweliny Dobrzyńskiej, gdzie odwiedzającym serwowano mleko, a za mleczarnią na podmurówce wznosił się długi pawilon gimnastyczny z obszerną halą i werandą. Ćwiczenia sportowe odbywano tam jedynie latem, natomiast zimą ćwiczono w cieplejszej sali przy klasztorze Franciszkanów. Wyróżniający się gimnastycy otrzymywali od Henryka Jordana książeczki oszczędnościowe z wkładem 5 guldenów. Naprzeciw pawilonu gimnastycznego, w altanowej rotundzie, koncertowała orkiestra. W małym drewnianym domku pomieszczono magazyn sprzętu sportowego i ogrodniczego. Na prawo od wejścia urządzono dla dzieci „labirynt” zwany „ślimakiem”, składający się z poplątanych ścieżek. Dalej stał zbudowany z grubych bierwion domek dozorcy – ogrodnika, który o zmroku przed zamknięciem bramy obchodził park z ręcznym dzwonem, nawołując spacerowiczów do wyjścia. +Chcąc wyrazić swoją wdzięczność za bezinteresowną pracę, rada miejska nadała kompleksowi imię profesora Jordana. +Do roku 1914 w parku Jordana udało się umieścić 46 popiersi sławnych polskich poetów, uczonych, pisarzy i samego twórcy parku (wykonaną przez Jana Szczepkowskiego). +Początkowo popiersia ustawiano wokół centralnego, zadrzewionego, kolistego placu w środku parku. Nieco dalej, w południowo-wschodniej części zieleńca, usytuowany był tylko pomnik Tadeusza Kościuszki, który stał na lewo od wejścia, na dnie osuszonego stawu. Popiersia kute były w marmurze tyrolskim z Lass, odpornym na krakowskie warunki atmosferyczne. Gotowe biusty umieszczano na wysokich czworobocznych cokołach. Pomniki zaczęto ustawiać na przełomie lat 80. i 90. XIX w., ale niektóre z nich wykonano już wcześniej. W roku 1900 było ich 31. Autorami popiersi byli m.in. rzeźbiarze: Alfred Daun (zachowane pomniki jego dłuta to popiersia: Jana Długosza, Stefana Czarnieckiego, Fryderyka Chopina, ks. Piotra Skargi, Jana Zamoyskiego i Tadeusza Kościuszki), Michał Stefan Korpal który wykonywał biusty wybitnych Polaków w l. 1897-1907 (jego autorstwa były pomniki: Zygmunta Krasińskiego, Artura Grottgera, Józefa L. Hauke-Bosaka, ks. Augustyna Kordeckiego, Jana Matejki, Tadeusza Rejtana, ks. Stanisława Staszica), Aleksander Korpal, syn Michała Stefana, który pomagał ojcu w pracy i inni, mniej znani artyści. Wykonane przez Szczepkowskiego duże popiersie Henryka Jordana zostało ustawione w parku w roku 1914. Pomnik umieszczono przy głównej alei, pośrodku klombu, na centralnym miejscu kolistego placu, w otoczeniu wcześniej powstałych popiersi sławnych Polaków. Monument składa się z masywnego cokołu o podstawie w formie półkoliście wygiętych ku przodowi stopni, na którym stoi czworoboczny postument z popiersiem. Całość obwiedziona jest szerokim, płaskim kamiennym krawężnikiem. Na frontowej ścianie postumentu widnieje napis: "Henrykowi Jordanowi wdzięczni rodacy" oraz daty urodzin i śmierci Doktora. Natomiast na tylnej ścianie postumentu umieszczono następujące słowa: "Żeś o siły i zdrowie młodzieży serdecznie się troszczył nie szczędząc mienia i trudu, błogosławić Ci będą przyszłe pokolenia narodu". Poniżej widnieje data MCMXIV i łacińska sentencja: "Fortes Creantur Fortibus et Bonis" (Z dzielnych rodzą się dzielni i zacni). +Niegdyś w parku mieściły się również korty tenisowe, pływalnia i ślizgawka. Planem zajęć prowadzonych w parku, dobieraniem przewodników i grup oraz pogadankami na temat polskiej historii zajmował się sam Henryk Jordan. Podobne ogrody, na wzór krakowskiego, zaczęto tworzyć także w innych miastach: Jarosławiu, Lwowie, Nowym Sączu, Tarnopolu, Warszawie. Nazywano je ogrodami jordanowskimi. +Popiersia. +W centralnej części okrągłego skweru znajduje się wcześniej opisany pomnik Henryka Jordana. +Popiersia w alejach I i II są pomnikami z czasów jordanowskich, natomiast popiersia z alej III-V są sukcesywnie tworzone od końca lat 90. XX w. w ramach projektu „słynni Polacy XX wieku”. Wyjątkiem jest popiersie IV.4 (Tadeusza Kościuszki), które mimo iż stoi pośród nowych pomników, należy do starego kompletu. +Park dzisiaj. +Obecnie park zajmuje powierzchnię około 21,5 ha i mieści się pomiędzy ul. Reymonta, ul. Reymana i al. 3 Maja. Na terenie parku znajdują się: boisko do siatkówki, piłki nożnej i koszykówki, skate park, dwa place zabaw, mały stawek, górka do jazdy na sankach w zimie, muszla koncertowa i obiekt gastronomiczny. Park jest jednym z głównych miejsc spacerowych Krakowa. Dyrektorem Parku jest Kazimierz Cholewa. +Wstęp do parku jest bezpłatny. Park jest otwarty od godziny 6 do 22. +Izasław + +Izasław - imię męskie pochodzenia słowiańskiego, nienotowane w źródłach staropolskich. +Izasław imieniny obchodzi 6 lipca +W polskiej literaturze historycznej używa się form "Izjasław" i "Izasław" +Preszpan + +Preszpan – rodzaj wielowarstwowej, mocno prasowanej tektury, w której surowcem jest papier o grubości od 0,1mm do 50mm. Powierzchnia preszpanu jest gładka, trudno nasiąkalna. Posiada dużą wytrzymałość mechaniczną na ścieranie i zginanie. +Do produkcji preszpanu używa się szlachetne surowce włókniste w postaci półmasy bawełnianej, twardej masy celulozowej, makulatury. Najcieńsze preszpany produkowano na maszynach płaskositowych, najbardziej popularne – do grubości 5 mm wykonywano na tekturówkach lub na maszynach okrągłositowych. Duże grubości wykonywano poprzez sklejenie kilku arkuszy. Aby uzyskać efekt gładkości materiał obrabiany był poprzez prasowanie i gładzenie w kalandrze frykcyjnym, następnie był polerowany kamieniami agatowymi. +Preszpan używany jako materiał izolujący w elektrotechnice. Używano go jako materiał na oprawę teczek, do wyrobu brulionów. We włókiennictwie stosowany był do wykańczania tkanin. Wykonywano uszczelki do wody, olejów itp. +Bibliografia. +Encyklopedia techniki – Materiałoznawstwo, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-techniczne, W-wa, 1969 +Phil Mills + +Phil Mills (ur. 30 sierpnia 1963) - walijski sportowiec, pilot rajdowy. +Jego debiut w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Świata miał miejsce w 1994 roku. Wraz z norweskim kierowcą Petterem Solbergiem występował w zespole Subaru, w 2003 roku zdobyli tytuł Rajdowego Mistrza Świata. +Iroszkoci + +Iroszkoci – wspólna nazwa wyznawców Kościoła iroszkockiego zamieszkujących Irlandię oraz Szkocję. Byli to żeglarze, podróżnicy, zakonnicy, którzy w mowie i piśmie utrwalali kulturę antyczną w średniowieczu. W V i VI w. założyli wiele klasztorów, które w VII i VIII w. stały się centrum akcji misyjnej sięgającej Saksonii, Bawarii, Austrii, Italii, Skandynawii. Iroszkoccy mnisi pozostawili po sobie bogaty dorobek kulturalny: zdobione krzyże, iluminowane księgi, dzieła literackie i naukowe. +Patronem Iroszkotów, żeglarzy jest Brendan Żeglarz. +Patronem Irlandii jest Święty Patryk. +Marwan Barghouti + +Marwan Barghouti (ur. 6 czerwca 1959 roku w Ramallah), jeden z liderów ruchu Fatah, głównej frakcji Organizacji Wyzwolenia Palestyny. +Został skazany 6 czerwca 2004 roku przez izraelski sąd na pięciokrotne dożywocie za podżeganie do zabójstw i zamachów. 1 grudnia 2004 roku, jego żona Fadwa Barghouti w jego imieniu podała kandydaturę Marwana na stanowisko przewodniczącego Autonomii Palestyńskiej. Wycofał się jednak z wyborów prezydenckich w Palestynie, w których miał być głównym rywalem premiera Mahmuda Abbasa. +Światopogląd + +Światopogląd – względnie stały zespół sądów (często wartościujących), przekonań i opinii na temat otaczającego świata czerpanych z rozmaitych dziedzin kultury, głównie z nauki, sztuki, religii i filozofii. +Dzieje pojęcia. +Pojęcie "Weltanschauung" pojawiło się po raz pierwszy w filozofii klasycznego idealizmu niemieckiego. Pochodzi od odgrywającego kluczową rolę w filozofii Fichtego i Schellinga i mającego w myśli obu filozofów zbliżone znaczenie pojęcia "intelekuelle Anschauung", tłumaczonego najczęściej jako "ogląd intelektualny", "intelektualna naoczność" lub "intelektualne oglądanie", a występującego w pierwotnej formie już w myśli Kanta. Intelektualna naoczność to świadomość rozumiana nie jako fakt, ale jako akt - to, że w poznającym siebie Ja nie ma różnicy między podmiotem poznania a przedmiotem poznania, dzięki czemu ma ono bezpośredni, intuicyjny wgląd w samego siebie. Akt ten jest dla Ja aktem samokonstytuującym. "Naoczność intelektualna" rozwinęła się w pojęcie "światopoglądu" w filozofii Friedricha Schleiermachera i Georga Wilhelma Hegla, które następnie w metodologii nauk humanistycznych rozpowszechnił Wilhelm Dilthey. +W swoich rozprawach "O istocie filozofii" (1907) oraz "Typy światopoglądów i ich rozwinięcie w systemach metafizycznych" (1911) Dilthey posłużył się terminem światopogląd dla oznaczenia poglądów formułowanych w ramach takich systemów znaczeniowych jak religia, sztuka (głównie poezja i literatura) oraz filozofia. +Światopoglądy wyrażane poprzez poezję, sztukę czy filozofię udzielały odpowiedzi na dwie zagadki nurtujące ludzkość od zarania jej dziejów: zagadkę świata i zagadkę życia. U podstaw tak pojmowanego światopoglądu pozostawało doświadczenie życiowe, ponieważ pojawienie się zagadek życia i świata jest właśnie efektem kształtowania się doświadczenia życiowego. Usytuowanie na jednej płaszczyźnie światopoglądu religijnego, poetyckiego oraz filozoficznego równoznaczne było z odmówieniem filozofii miana do poznania teoretycznego i umieszczenia jej w sferze działań praktycznych. +Znaczenie współczesne. +Termin "światopogląd", odbiegając nieco od znaczenia jakie nadał mu Dilthey, nie oznaczający nic innego jak pogląd na świat odnosi się nie do poglądu dotyczącego jakiegoś wycinka rzeczywistości, lecz do ujęcia całościowego orzekającego się o uniwersum możliwych oraz istniejących rzeczy i zjawisk, łącznie z człowiekiem pojmowanym zarówno jako gatunek jak również jako jednostka'. Stanowi on ogólne pojęcie o świecie, w którym przekonania, wartości i założenia metafizyczne są ze sobą splecione i nadają światu znaczenie, a także ułatwiają przejście od myślenia do działania. +Podstawową cechą światopoglądu jest jego uniwersalność. Odnosi się on zarówno do dziedzin jakie wymienił Dilthey jak również do wielu jeszcze innych, z których najważniejsze stanowią sfery doświadczeń związanych z materialną, polityczną, społeczną, techniczną, magiczną egzystencją człowieka, oraz z jego indywidualnymi doświadczeniami życiowymi realizowanymi w sferach erotycznej, emocjonalnej czy uczuciowej. Wszystkie one, oraz wiele jeszcze innych, z całą pewnością pozostają u podstaw całościowego obrazu świata. +Kolejną nie mniej istotną cechą światopoglądu jest jego usystematyzowanie. Dokonuje się w nim określona strukturalizacja doświadczeń na temat własnego życia oraz otaczającego świata. Strukturalizacja ta jest efektem albo określonego wychowania albo samodzielnej refleksji. Jej wynikiem jest określona hierarchia wartości i celów, ze względu na które człowiek podejmuje swoje działania. +Światopogląd stanowi mniej lub bardziej wyraźnie sformułowany opis konkretnej sytuacji człowieka na tle świata jak również pewne preferencje i postulaty odnoszące się do działań człowieka. W światopoglądzie znajdują wyraz te głównie znaczenia, które określają stosunek człowieka do własnego życia oraz do otaczającego go świata. Dotyczy on zatem konkretnej osoby, wyrażając jej zapatrywania na istotne dla niej kwestie. +Z faktu, że treści światopoglądowe czerpią z różnych doświadczeń życiowych i różnych dziedzin kultury, wynikają jeszcze dwie istotne cechy światopoglądu: to, że może on mniej lub bardziej świadomie łączyć wzajemnie ze sobą sprzeczne treści oraz to, że zasadność światopoglądu wyznaczana i oceniana jest nie poprzez obiektywne i ogólne standardy, lecz poprzez indywidualną jednostkę ludzką, orzekającą o jego przydatności/nieprzydatności dla realizacji konkretnych działań. +Tak rozumiany światopogląd jest z kolei źródłem postaw i uzasadnieniem dla postępowania danej osoby. Przyjmuje się, że do rozwoju światopoglądu dochodzi w trakcie rozwoju osobniczego człowieka, przy czym światopogląd powstaje wyłącznie na gruncie uwarunkowań kulturowych, nie zaś biologicznych. +Na gruncie interpersonalnych podobieństw indywidualnych światopoglądów poszczególnych osób dochodzi do powstawania grup społecznych takich jak wspólnoty wyznaniowe, partie, ruchy społeczne itp., które z kolei próbują artykułować wspólnotę wyznawanych światopoglądów jako ideologię. +Światopogląd a filozofia. +Powyższe uwagi pozwalają na jasne rozróżnienie pomiędzy filozofią pojmowaną kognitywnie a światopoglądem, formułującym mniej lub bardziej wyraźnie indywidualną hierarchię wartości i celów, ze względu na które konkretny człowiek podejmuje swoje działania. +Światopogląd determinuje indywidualną i osobową sferę życia człowieka, pozwalając mu na odnajdywanie sensu swojej egzystencji, czyli na uzasadnienie konkretnych ludzkich działań. Każdorazowo więc światopogląd związany jest z konkretną jednostką ludzką i z konkretną sensownością jej działań. Nie wyklucza to sytuacji bazowania przez konkretny światopogląd na wiedzy teoretycznej czy ideologii bądź religii, wyklucza zaś mówienie o światopoglądzie w kategoriach prawdy lub fałszu. +Ignacy Szymański + +Ignacy Szymański (ur. 1806 - zm. 1874) – powstaniec listopadowy, pułkownik Konfederacji, działacz polonijny w USA. +Podczas powstania listopadowego walczył w pułku ułanów księcia Adama Woronieckiego. Po upadku powstania wyemigrował do Stanów Zjednoczonych i w 1835 osiedlił się w Nowym Orleanie. Dzięki swej zapobiegliwości i żyłce do interesów dorobił się sporego majątku. Był właścicielem plantacji bawełny, stadniny koni wyścigowych, miał także jacht pełnomorski. +W jego plantacji pracowała rzadka wówczas mechaniczna belownica do bawełny. Do grona jego najbliższych polskich przyjaciół należeli Kasper Tochman, Walerian Sułakowski i Hipolit Oladowski, z którymi później przyszło mu ramię w ramię walczyć przeciwko wojskom Unii. Z chwilą wybuchu wojny secesyjnej (1861-1865) został mianowany pułkownikiem i dowódcą pułku w Chalmette. Jako człowiek nawykły do prowadzenia interesów i negocjacji wybrał spokojniejsze stanowisko i pracował jako agent ds. wymiany jeńców Departamentu Trans-Mississipi rządu Konfederacji. Po wojnie wiódł spokojny żywot plantatora i udzielał się wśród Polonii stanów Południa USA. Zmarł w swej posiadłości Summer Hill Farm w 1874 roku. +Jaczemir + +Jaczemir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów: "Jacze-" ("znakomitszy, mocniejszy") i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Mogło ono oznaczać: "ten, kto przynosi lepszy pokój". +Jaczemir imieniny obchodzi 2 czerwca. +Huta Komorowska + +Huta Komorowska – wieś w Polsce położona w Kotlinie Sandomierskiej, administracyjnie w województwie podkarpackim, w powiecie kolbuszowskim, w gminie Majdan Królewski. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa tarnobrzeskiego. +Nazwa miejscowości pochodzi od rzeczownika "huta" oraz pobliskiego Komorowa. W skład wsi wchodzą przysiółki: Bór, Dołek, Góra, Gubernia, Kamionka, Krzywica, Obary, Osiczyny, Raczyk oraz Wojnasy. W granicach wioski znajdują się lasy o nazwach: Buda Tuszowska, Pastwisko, Raczyk, Smarkata, Wisy, Za Hutą, Za Wojnasami oraz Zwierzyniec. +Huta szkła. +Huta Komorowska została założona końcem XVII wieku w królewszczyźnie ówczesnego starostwa sandomierskiego. Jako datę prawdopodobnego założenia Huty przyjmuje się rok 1674. Wtedy to Aleksander Michał Lubomirski, a następnie jego syn Józef Karol, ówcześni starostowie sandomierscy, założyli hutę szkła nad rzeką Korzeń oraz dwie oficyny najpierw szklaną „officina vitruaria” czyli Hutę (później nazywaną Komorowską), a z upływem czasu drugą „potażnię alias Maydan”. Największy rozkwit przemysłu szklanego w Hucie Komorowskiej miał miejsce końcem XVII w. i w I połowie XVIII wieku. W hucie zatrudniano Czechów oraz robotników z Krakowa i Ropczyc. Huta upadła po I rozbiorze Polski, wprowadzeniu w życie pantentu leśnego dla Galicji z 20 września 1782 r., ograniczającego m.in. wyrób potażu, niezbędnego surowca do produkcji szkła. +Czasy Kozłowieckich. +Po I rozbiorze Huta Komorowska przeszła na własność skarbu Austrii. Początkowo dobra kasztelanii sandomierskiej dzierżawił hrabia Józef Kajetan Ossoliński. Na początku XIX wieku Huta wraz z innymi miejscowościami stała się własnością Kulczyckich. W roku 1835 byłe królewszczyzny, czyli tzw. dobra kameralne, sprzedane zostały podczas licytacji. Hutę Komorowską wraz z Majdanem, Komorowem i Brzostową Górą zakupił Jan Dolański z Baranowa, a po nim dobra te przejął Stefan Dolański. Ostatecznie drogą rodzinnych koligacji Hutę Komorowską i Majdan z Porębami odziedziczył wnuk Szczepana Dolańskiego, Czesław Kozłowiecki, który żeniąc się z Marią z Kaczkowskich otrzymał Komorów. Wybudował we wsi Huta Komorowska okazały dwór wraz z zabudowaniami folwarcznymi, a wokół niego założył park - arboretum. Po nim właścicielem Huty został jego syn Adam z żoną Marią z domu Janocha. Mieli oni troje dzieci: Czesława rozstrzelanego w 1940 r. przez hitlerowców; Jerzego, który po działaniach wojennych w czasie II wojny światowej wyemigrował do Kanady oraz Adama - późniejszego arcybiskupa i kardynała. Adam Kozłowiecki senior przy dworze wybudował tartak, cegielnię, zakład wyrobu dachówek i kręgów betonowych, a nieopodal na rzece Korzeń młyn wodny. Wraz z żoną powołał Fundację Naukowo-Wychowawczą, której celem miało być wybudowanie w Hucie Komorowskiej obiektów szkolnych służących kształceniu młodzieży z zakresu leśnictwa, rolnictwa i prawa. Wybuch II wojny światowej przerwał ich plany. +26 marca 2008 r. powołano w Majdanie Królewskim Fundację im. Księdza Kardynała Adama Kozłowieckiego – "Serce bez granic", która ma na celu rekonstrukcję pałacu Kozłowieckich z przystosowaniem na centrum pamięci o kardynale oraz utworzenie Diecezjalnego Centrum Misyjnego o charakterze formacyjno-edukacyjnym. 25 września 2011 roku zostało otwarte muzeum ks. kardynała Adama Kozłowieckiego - Misjonarza Afryki +II wojna światowa i czasy powojenne. +W czasie wojny ludność wsi została wysiedlona w związku z tworzeniem przez Wehrmacht poligonu dla piechoty i artylerii. Ponadto zlokalizowano tam obóz pracy dla Żydów, w którym następnie przetrzymywano Polaków. Łącznie przez obóz przeszło ok. 3 tys. osób. Zginęło w nim około 1,5 tys. więźniów, głównie Żydów. +Krótko po wojnie rozebrano dwór Kozłowieckich. W 1954 otworzono odbudowaną szkołę. Na przełomie lat 80. i 90. XX wieku założono parafię pw. Świętej Rodziny należącą do dekanatu Raniżów w diecezji sandomierskiej. +Krążenie wrotne + +Krążenie wrotne (łac. "circulatio portalis") – w ujęciu ogólnym obieg krwi przez układ naczyń włosowatych wtórnie powstających z żyły. +U kręgowców wyróżnia się: +Polimeryzacja stopniowa + +Polimeryzacja stopniowa zwana też sekwencyjną lub polikondensacją, to rodzaj reakcji polimeryzacji, która charakteryzuje się stopniowym wzrostem stopnia polimeryzacji w trakcie jej postępu, w odróżnieniu od polimeryzacji łańcuchowej w której wzrost stopnia polimeryzacji nie jest bezpośrednio zależny od postępu reakcji. +Podstawowe zasady zachodzenia reakcji. +Polimeryzacja stopniowa zachodzi zawsze na skutek bezpośredniej reakcji grup funkcyjnych występujących w monomerach, których mechanizm nie różni się niczym szczególnym od analogicznych reakcji prowadzących do otrzymania związków niskocząsteczkowych. +"gdzie A-B oznacza produkt uboczny (jeśli reakcja przebiega z jego wydzieleniem)" +"gdzie A-B oznacza produkt uboczny (jeśli reakcja przebiega z jego wydzieleniem), natomiast fragment X może być różny, lub taki sam jak Y" +Dla uproszczenia zapisów poniżej pominięto fragmenty (rdzenie) X i Y cząsteczki i zostawiono tylko grupy A i B, chociaż w rzeczywistości grupy funkcyjne A i B po polimeryzacji muszą mieć inną strukturę chemiczną lub są odszczepiane w postaci produktu ubocznego. +Zarówno trimer jak i tetramer mogą z kolei przereagować z monomerem, dimerem jak i same z sobą, a produkty tych reakcji nadal posiadają swobodę reagowania z każdym z wcześniej powstałym związkiem pośrednim jak i z monomerem i samym sobą. +Można więc powiedzieć, że polimeryzacja stopniowa jest nieskończonym ciągiem reakcji następczych, w których wszystkie wcześniejsze produkty mogą ponownie z sobą reagować. +Stopień polimeryzacji a stopień przereagowania grup końcowych. +Reakcja polimeryzacji stopniowej ma charakter całkowicie statystyczny. Reaktywność grup końcowych jest zazwyczaj jednakowa niezależnie od tego czy występują one w monomerze, dimerze, trimerze czy bardzo długim polimerze. Obliczenia statystyczne pokazują jednak, że w układzie reakcji wraz z jej postępem najpierw znikają monomery i pojawiają się dimery. Następnie zanikają dimery i zaczynają pojawiać się tetramery i trimery. Ogólnie – im większy postęp reakcji, tym stopień polimeryzacji wzrasta. +Teoretycznie proces ten może trwać aż do momentu gdy wszystkie grupy funkcyjne przereagują z sobą i powstanie jedna wielka cząsteczka polimeru, w skład której wejdą wszystkie dostępne monomery. Praktycznie jednak jest to niewykonalne lub wymagałoby bardzo długiego czasu, ze względu na to, że wraz z postępem reakcji coraz bardziej maleje stężenie grup funkcyjnych w układzie i prawdopodobieństwo ich zderzenia się radykalnie maleje. +uzyskanie nawet dość niewielkiego stopnia polimeryzacji wymaga osiągnięcia bardzo wysokiego stopnia przereagowania. Na przykład przy 98% przereagowaniu stopień polimeryzacji wynosi zaledwie 50. Aby osiągnąć stopień polimeryzacji rzędu 1000 potrzeba osiągnąć stopień przereagowania 99.9%, przy 99.99% przereagowania stopień polimeryzacji wynosi dopiero 10000. +W przypadku polimerów syntetycznych duży stopień polimeryzacji ma kluczowe znaczenie dla własności użytkowych tworzyw sztucznych opartych na tych polimerach, zaś osiągnięcie bardzo wysokiego stopnia przereagowania jest bardzo trudne technicznie. Tego rodzaju problemy nie występują w przypadku polimeryzacji łańcuchowej i dlatego w przemyśle preferuje się stosowanie polimeryzacji łańcuchowej zamiast stopniowej o ile to tylko jest możliwe. +Nyndro + +Nyndro (tyb. "ngöndro", tłum. to, co przychodzi najpierw) – praktyki wstępne stosowane we wszystkich czterech szkołach buddyzmu tybetańskiego stanowiące podstawę ścieżki tantrycznej w wadżrajanie prowadzącej do Oświecenia według buddyzmu. Nyndro jest wykonywane również w religii bön, choć nie ma swego rodowodu w naukach buddy Siakjamuniego do Oświecenia. +Podział. +Medytację nyndro dzieli się zazwyczaj na następujące zwykłe i szczególne praktyki. +Szczególne praktyki wstępne. +Szczególne praktyki wstępne wykonuje się tradycyjnie w liczbie 100 000 wykonanych elementów charakterystycznych dla danych medytacji. Dodatkowo dokańcza się je do liczby 111 111 w zależności od wskazówek mistrza wadżrajany określonej tradycji. W tradycji gelug nyndro jest wykonywane zwykle równocześnie z właściwą praktyką tantr Jogi Najwyższych podczas gdy w sakja, ningma i kagju zwykle wykonuje się przed właściwą praktyką w celu przygotowania do niej. Jest to bardzo silny zestaw praktyk, prowadzący do oczyszczenia negatywnych działań i gromadzenia zasług (dobroczynnego potencjału do oświecenia). Właściwe ukończenie tych praktyk daje możliwość skutecznej praktyki tantr Jogi Najwyższych określonej tradycji spośród wszystkich czterech szkół buddyzmu tybetańskiego, w szczególności praktyk mahamudry oraz dzogczen prowadzących do oświecenia tj. trzech ciał buddy. Nyndro jest wykonywane również w religii bön, choć nie ma swego rodowodu w naukach buddy Siakjamuniego. +Smysława + +Smysława – staropolskie imię żeńskie, będące prawdopodobnie skróceniem pierwotnego "Smysłsława", złożonego z dwóch członów: "Smysł-" ("zmysł", albo "s-mysł" – "z myśli, z myślenia") i "-sława" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "ta, która jest sławna dzięki swojemu intelektowi". +Męski odpowiednik: Smysław. +Smysława imieniny obchodzi 31 stycznia. +Gmina Białe Błota + +Gmina Białe Błota (do 1954 "gmina Bydgoszcz") – gmina wiejska położona w południowo-zachodniej części powiatu bydgoskiego. Położenie w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie dużego miasta wpływa na jej dynamiczny rozwój. Siedzibą gminy jest wieś Białe Błota, położona zaledwie 3 km od granic Bydgoszczy. Bliskość dużego organizmu miejskiego od dawna wpływa na rozwój sąsiadujących miejscowości. +Życie kulturalne gminy skupia się wokół dwóch ośrodków: Białobłockiego i Wiejskiego Ośrodka Kultury w Łochowie, które umożliwiają realizowanie różnych zainteresowań mieszkańców, takich jak folklor, taniec, teatr, aerobic, tenis. Znaczącymi imprezami kalendarza kulturalnego są: Wojewódzki turniej Recytatorski "O Pióro Jana Brzechwy", Gminny Festiwal Piosenki Dziecięcej, Dzień Łochowa. +Gmina jest położona w całości w mezoregionie Kotlina Toruńska (315.34). 53,5% powierzchni gminy Białe Błota zajmują lasy. Są one miejscem masowego wypoczynku bydgoszczan. Zarząd nad lasami, położonymi w kierunku południowo-zachodnim i południowo-wschodnim od miasta Bydgoszczy pełni Nadleśnictwo Bydgoszcz, które obejmuje swym zasięgiem 15 300 ha lasów. W tym na terenie gminy Białe Błota - 6665 ha. W zdecydowanej większości są to lasy zaliczane do kategorii lasów chronionych, wynika to z ich położenia w pobliżu wielkiej aglomeracji miejskiej. +Położenie gminy, w pobliżu aglomeracji miasta Bydgoszcz, sprzyja rozwojowi budownictwa mieszkaniowego, jak również rozwojowi rzemiosła, usług, handlu oraz rolnictwa. Bliskość miasta i dostępność dróg przyczynia się do inwestycji przemysłowych i rzemieślniczych w Cielu, Kruszynie Krajeńskim, Przyłękach i Zielonce. Spowodowane jest to również uzbrojeniem terenu w sieć energetyczną i wodociągową oraz wybudowaną w 1997 roku gminną oczyszczalnię ścieków. +Według danych z 2009 gminę zamieszkiwało 15 703 osoby. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 8,74% powierzchni powiatu. +Transport. +Transport drogowy. +Drogi krajowe przebiegające przez teren gminy to droga nr 5 i droga nr 10. +Turystyka i zabytki. +W 1999 roku Nadleśnictwo Bydgoszcz z siedzibą w Białych Błotach wykonało i oddało do zwiedzania - "leśną ścieżkę dydaktyczną" zlokalizowaną na terenie leśnictwa Białe Błota. Prezentuje ona wybrane zagadnienia związane z lasami, pracą leśników, itd. Jej długość wynosi 5 km z 13 przystankami tematycznymi. Ma na celu upowszechnienie wiedzy przyrodniczej i ekologicznej. Można ją zwiedzać pieszo lub rowerem. +Ochrona przyrody. +Obszary NATURA 2000. +Dodatkowo w sieci European Ecological Network, Pradolina Toruńsko-Eberswaldzka stanowi korytarz ekologiczny o znaczeniu międzynarodowym. +Użytki ekologiczne. +W gminie Białe Błota jest zarejestrowanych 17 użytów ekologicznych. Znajdują się one w większości w okolicach wsi Białe Błota, a pozostałe w Murowaniec i Kruszyn Krajeński. +Obszary chronionego krajobrazu. +Obszar Chronionego Krajobrazu Wydm Kotliny Toruńsko-Bydgoskiej - chroniący rozległe pole wydm śródlądowych. +Cmentarze ewangelickie. +Na obszarze gminy funkcjonowało wiele cmentarzy ewangelickich m.in. w miejscowościach: Białe Błota (2), Ciele, Drzewce (2), Kruszyn Krajeński (2), Lisi Ogon (2), Łochowo (1), Łochowice, Murowaniec, Prądki, Przyłęki (3), Trzciniec, Zielonka. +Miejscowości. +Sołectwa: Białe Błota, Ciele, Kruszyn Krajeński, Lisi Ogon, Łochowice, Łochowo, Murowaniec, Prądki, Przyłęki, Trzciniec, Zielonka. +Miejscowości niesołeckie: Drzewce, Jasiniec, Lipniki, Lipniki (osada), Łochowo (osada). +Sąsiednie gminy. +Bydgoszcz, Łabiszyn, Nakło nad Notecią, Nowa Wieś Wielka, Sicienko, Szubin, +Andrzej Hiolski + +Andrzej Hiolski (ur. 1 stycznia 1922 we Lwowie, zm. 26 lutego 2000 w Krakowie) – polski śpiewak operowy, baryton. +Życiorys. +Absolwent VI Gimnazjum im. Stanisława Staszica we Lwowie. Studia wokalne rozpoczął w Konserwatorium Polskiego Towarzystwa Muzycznego we Lwowie pod kierunkiem Heleny Oleskiej i Adama Didura. W czasie wojny pracował fizycznie, m.in. jako stolarz. Wyjechał ze Lwowa w 1944, przed ponownym wkroczeniem wojsk sowieckich. +Wykonywał również pieśni: Franza Schuberta, Roberta Schumanna, Hugo Wolfa, Gustava Mahlera, Fryderyka Chopina, Stanisława Moniuszki, Mieczysława Karłowicza, Jana Karola Galla i Stanisława Niewiadomskiego. +Wystąpił również w Teatrze Telewizji, w spektaklu "Krakowiacy i Górale" wg Wojciecha Bogusławskiego w reż. Krzysztofa Kolbergera (1993). +Klasztor filipinów w Poznaniu + +Klasztor filipinów w Poznaniu – niewielki zespół klasztorny utrzymany w stylu późnobarokowym znajdujący się na poznańskiej Śródce przy ulicy Filipińskiej. +Pierwsza w Polsce kongregacja filipinów powstała na Śródce staraniem proboszcza kościoła św. Małgorzaty Stanisława Grudowicza. Będąc pod wrażeniem działalności Kongregacji Oratorium św. Filipa Neri w Rzymie, poznanej podczas pobytu w połowie XVII wieku we Włoszech, postanowił przenieść jej doświadczenia do swojej parafii. Kongregacja została erygowana w 1665 roku, a zatwierdzona rok później przez biskupa poznańskiego Stefana Wierzbowskiego. W 1671 roku Kongregacja przejęła kościół, a trzech pierwszych księży, którzy do niej wstąpili, zamieszkało w zaadaptowanej dla ich potrzeb plebanii. +W 1746 roku rozpoczęła się budowa nowego, murowanego domu zakonnego. Zakończono ją w latach 1771-1777. Ówczesny budynek stanowi zachodnie skrzydło dzisiejszej budowli. Rokokowy klasztor pozostał w ręku zgromadzenia aż do kasaty w 1805 roku (w klasztorze było wtedy dwóch księży-emerytów). Budynek przeszedł wówczas do dyspozycji biskupów poznańskich. W 1807 roku został tu urządzony szpital i dom dla księży emerytów. W latach 1836-1839 w budynku urzędowała pruska komisja fortyfikacyjna. +Od 1848 roku, z przerwą w latach 1877-1893 Siostry Miłosierdzia św. Wincentego á Paulo (szarytki) prowadziły w byłym klasztorze sierociniec. W latach 1899-1900 przeprowadziły rozbudowę budynku o skrzydło północne, które utrzymano w identycznym stylu co skrzydło zachodnie, oraz kaplicę. Po II wojnie światowej na parterze umieszczono przychodnię zdrowia. Szarytki prowadziły przedszkole na piętrze, na poddaszu zakwaterowano kilka rodzin. W 1990 roku na Śródkę wrócili filipini. Kongregacja ze Świętej Góry koło Gostynia postanowiła umieścić w pomieszczeniach opuszczonych wtedy przez szarytki dom formacyjny dla kleryków. +Stefan Filipkiewicz + +Stefan Filipkiewicz (ur. 28 lipca 1879 roku w Tarnowie, zm. 23 sierpnia 1944 roku w obozie koncentracyjnym Mauthausen-Gusen) - malarz i grafik, młodopolski pejzażysta. Zaliczany jest do najwybitniejszych przedstawicieli "szkoły pejzażowej" Jana Stanisławskiego. +Od 1900 do 1908 studiował w Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie pod kierunkiem Józefa Mehoffera, Floriana Cynka, Leona Wyczółkowskiego, Józefa Pankiewicza oraz Jana Stanisławskiego, który wywarł duży wpływ na jego twórczość. Debiutował w 1899 serią pejzaży tatrzańskich wystawionych w Towarzystwie Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych. Wystawiał tam oraz we Lwowie, a od 1903 w warszawskim Towarzystwie Zachęty Sztuk Pięknych którego był członkiem. Od 1905 był członkiem wiedeńskiej „Secesji”. Od 1908 roku był członkiem Towarzystwa Artystów Polskich "Sztuka". Uczestniczył w wystawach secesji w Berlinie (1904), Monachium (1903, 1907, 1909) i Wiedniu (1905, 1911, 1913), a także w wielu międzynarodowych ekspozycjach i wernisażach m.in. w Dreźnie (1912), Rzymie (1911) i Wenecji (1905, 1907, 1910, 1914, 1920, 1926). Brał udział w zbiorowych prezentacjach polskiej sztuki w Stanach Zjednoczonych (1906), Londynie (1906), Wiedniu (1908, 1915) i Paryżu (1921). +Od 1913 prowadził kurs malarstwa dekoracyjnego w Szkole Przemysłowej w Krakowie, ale po roku wstąpił do Legionów Polskich, zaprojektował wzór munduru legionistów i tarcze legionowe. Ze względu na zły stan zdrowia nie brał udziału w walce czynnej, był zatrudniony w Biurze Techniczno-Bojowym Departamentu Wojskowego Naczelnego Komitetu Narodowego. W 1916 skierowano go do Centralnego Biura Wydawnictw, a w 1917 przeniesiono do rezerwy. Powrócił do pracy pedagogicznej, a w wolnym czasie tworzył. W 1929 roku otrzymał złoty medal na Powszechnej Wystawie Krajowej w Poznaniu. Od 1930 roku wykładał na Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie, gdzie w 1936 roku został mianowany profesorem nadzwyczajnym. W 1933 roku został nagrodzony przez Polską Akademię Umiejętności za całokształt twórczości. W czasie II wojny światowej brał udział w ruchu oporu i działalności konspiracyjnej. Był Wiceprezesem Komitetu Obywatelskiego do Spraw Opieki nad Uchodźcami Polskimi w Budapeszcie - przedstawicielstwa Rządu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na uchodźstwie. +Aresztowany przez Gestapo w roku 1944 trafił do obozu w Mauthausen-Gusen, gdzie został zamordowany. Według Księgi zgonów KL Mauthausen - Auf Befehl des RF44 – erhangt 23.8.1944 16.00 justifiziert). +Olej z orzecha włoskiego + +Olej z orzecha włoskiego, olej orzechowy — olej roślinny pozyskiwany zazwyczaj w wyniku tłoczenia na zimno miąższu owoców orzechów, przede wszystkim z gatunku orzechów włoskich ("Juglans regia"). Jasnożółty, czasem zielonkawy, o gęstości 0,926–0,927 g/cm³ i temperaturach: wrzenia +386 °C i krzepnięcia −27 °C. W Polsce rzadko spotykany i w związku z tym stosunkowo drogi (ponad 100 zł/litr), łatwiej dostępny i kilkakrotnie tańszy (można go kupić za mniej niż 6 euro za litr) w krajach śródziemnomorskich, szczególnie we Francji, ale także w Australii i Nowej Zelandii. Z drugiej strony, nawet we Francji, w tłoczniach szczycących się produkcją tradycyjną i ekologiczną można napotkać ceny rzędu stu dolarów za litr. +W kuchni. +Olej ten charakteryzuje się specyficznym orzechowym smakiem i słodkim aromatem z nutą karmelu. Stosowany do sałatek z orzechami, sosów i dressingów, bywa używany szczególnie w daniach kuchni chińskiej, francuskiej i włoskiej. Do smażenia używany rzadziej i ostrożnie, bowiem przy silnym smażeniu w wysokich temperaturach traci swój cenny aromat i ma skłonność do gorzknienia. +Inne zastosowania. +Oprócz zastosowań spożywczych, olej orzechowy wykorzystywany bywał już w XV i XVI wieku przez malarzy. Zachowała się receptura otrzymywania tego oleju stosowana przez Leonardo da Vinci. Miazgę z dobrze wysuszonych orzechów włoskich mieszał z niewielką ilością wody, otrzymując gęstą papkę; papkę tę następnie rozrzedzał nieco wodą i wystawiał na słońce. Gromadzący się na powierzchni olej zbierał przy pomocy waty. Dla malarzy olej orzechowy jest nieco gorszy od oleju lnianego, ale lepszy od makowego, bo wysycha na całej swojej powierzchni. Nie ciemnieje i nie żółknie w kontakcie z powietrzem, ale dość szybko gorzknieje i ma po wyschnięciu skłonności do mięknięcia. +Olej orzechowy jest też cenionym materiałem utrwalającym wyroby z drewna, w szczególności takie, które będą miały kontakt z żywnością, np. deski do krojenia, łyżki, łopatki itp. albo drewniane misy i inne naczynia. Używany był też przez Stradivariusa do utrwalania jego skrzypiec, a dziś używany jest także przez producentów rękojeści noży, kolb broni palnej itp. +Stosowany bywa też w przemyśle kosmetycznym jako czysty olejek do ciała, polecany przy cerze tłustej i mieszanej (z tendencją do tłustej). Dobrze wchłanialny. +Właściwości lecznicze. +Olej z orzechów zawiera stosunkowo dużą ilość kwasu linolenowego (omega-3) i linolowego (omega-6); jedna jego łyżka pokrywa połowę dziennego zapotrzebowania na kwasy omega-3 i dodatkowo 1/10 zapotrzebowania na witaminę E. Olej orzechowy zawiera też sporo witamin A i B. Podobnie jak olej sezamowy (z ziarn sezamu) wydatnie obniża ciśnienie tętnicze i cholesterolu (LDL – „złego”) oraz działa przeciwzapalnie i przeciwstresowo. Olej ten polecany jest osobom z nadciśnieniem i z kłopotami z sercem. +Spożywanie tego oleju pobudza ponadto umysł, dlatego zalecany jest tak uczącym się dzieciom i młodzieży, jak i osobom dorosłym pracującym intelektualnie. Wysoka zawartość witaminy E korzystnie działa na skórę (ułatwia pozbycie się egzemy, opryszczki, łuszczycę oraz opóźnia starzenie). Kwas elagowy, występujący w tym oleju unieszkodliwia substancje rakotwórcze; działa też korzystnie w razie bólu żołądka i zatruć. +Hamakaze + + – niszczyciel japońskiej Cesarskiej Marynarki Wojennej typu "Kagerō" z okresu II wojny światowej. Brał udział w działaniach od początku wojny na Pacyfiku, zatopiony 7 kwietnia 1945 roku przez samoloty amerykańskie podczas rajdu z pancernikiem "Yamato" w kierunku Okinawy (operacja "Ten-gō"). +Historia. +"Hamakaze" był trzynastym okrętem z typu dużych japońskich niszczycieli typu "Kagerō" (numer budowy 29). Był drugim okrętem o tej nazwie, oznaczającej "wiatr na brzegu", po niszczycielu z 1917 (typu "Isokaze"). +Stępkę pod budowę okrętu położono 20 listopada 1939 w stoczni Uraga w Tokio, kadłub wodowano 25 listopada 1940, a wszedł do służby 30 czerwca 1941. +Służba. +Po wejściu do służby "Hamakaze" został przydzielony do 17 Dywizjonu ("Kuchikutai") 1 Eskadry Niszczycieli ("Suirai Sentai") 1 Floty – wraz z "Urakaze", "Isokaze" i "Tanikaze". Pierwszym dowódcą był kmdr por. Tsuneo Orita. +Skrót służby podczas II wojny światowej. +Osłona lotniskowców dokonujących atak na Pearl Harbor (7 grudnia 1941), ataki lotnicze w południowo-wschodniej Azji, atak na Darwin (19 lutego 1942), rajd japoński na Ocean Indyjski (kwiecień 1942). Osłona lotniskowców w bitwie o Midway (4-5 czerwca 1942). Działania w rejonie Wysp Salomona od sierpnia 1942 do lutego 1943: rejsy transportowe na Guadalcanal i inne wyspy, zadania eskortowe, osłona lotniskowców w bitwie koło wysp Santa Cruz (26 października 1942). 8 lutego uszkodzony przez lotnictwo, od marca do czerwca remontowany w Japonii. Działania w rejonie Nowej Georgii: rejsy transportowe, bitwa w zatoce Kula (5-6 lipca 1943), bitwa pod Kolombangarą (12 lipca) - udział w zatopieniu i uszkodzeniu amerykańskich okrętów, bitwa pod Horaniu (17-18 sierpnia). Uszkodzenie przez lotnictwo 26 sierpnia 1943 - remont i przezbrojenie w Japonii od września do października. Zadania eskortowe w rejonie Truk - Palau. Osłona lotniskowców w bitwie na Morzu Filipińskim (czerwiec 1944), osłona zespołu adm. Kurity w bitwy o Leyte (październik 1944), potem operacje w rejonie Filipin. Uszkodzenie w kolizji 8 stycznia 1945, remont. Udział w operacji "Ten-gō" - zatopiony 7 kwietnia 1945 przez amerykańskie lotnictwo na południe od Nagasaki. +Działania lotniczo-morskie pierwszej fazy wojny, 1941-1942. +W pierwszym okresie II wojny światowej na Pacyfiku, "Hamakaze" osłaniał lotniskowce japońskiego Zespołu Uderzeniowego adm. Chūichi Nagumo, począwszy od ataku na Pearl Harbor 7 grudnia 1941. Osłaniał następnie lotniskowce podczas ataków na Rabaul i Kavieng (20-23 stycznia 1942), ataku na Darwin (19 lutego), Zatokę Staring na Celebes (21 lutego), Cilacap (5 marca) i rajdu na Ocean Indyjski (27 marca-kwiecień 1942). W międzyczasie, 7 marca osłaniał pancerniki "Kongō" i "Haruna" bombardujące Wyspę Bożego Narodzenia. +10 kwietnia 1942 17. Dywizjon został przydzielony do 10. Eskadry Niszczycieli 1. Floty Powietrznej. Na przełomie kwietnia i maja "Hamakaze" był dokowany w Kure. W składzie 17. Dywizjonu brał udział w osłonie lotniskowców podczas bitwy o Midway 4-5 czerwca 1942. Wraz z "Isokaze" ratował rozbitków z tonącego lotniskowca "Soryu". +Działania w rejonie Wysp Salomona, 1942-1943. +14 lipca 1942 10. Eskadra Niszczycieli została podporządkowana 3. Flocie. 20 lipca nowym dowódcą okrętu został kmdr ppor. Hiroshi Uwai (kmdr por. Orita został dowódcą "Teruzuki"). W sierpniu okręt został skierowany na obszar walk toczonych wokół Guadalcanalu w archipelagu Wysp Salomona, rozpoczynając służbę tam rejsem zaopatrzeniowym z Truk na Guadalcanal 16-18 sierpnia. Następnie głównie bazował w Rabaulu. 25 sierpnia osłaniał siły inwazyjne dokonujące desantu w Zatoce Milne na wschodzie Nowej Gwinei, następnie osłaniał dowiezienie tam posiłków i ostatecznie ewakuację desantu 5-7 września. 16 i 18 września uczestniczył w nocnych misjach wsparcia ogniowego na Guadalcanal, a 21 września w rejsie zaopatrzeniowym na tę wyspę. Wypełniał też w tym okresie zadania eskortowe. Brał udział w składzie osłony lotniskowców w bitwie koło wysp Santa Cruz 26 października 1942. +Pomiędzy 2-7 listopada eskortował lotniskowiec "Zuihō" i krążownik "Kumano" z Truk do Japonii, po czym został tam dokowany w celu remontu. Prawdopodobnie wyposażono go wówczas w radar Typ 22, jako pierwszy japoński niszczyciel. Już 5 grudnia przybył z powrotem do bazy Truk (eskortując krążowniki "Haguro" i "Myōkō" dostarczające żołnierzy na Truk i do Rabaulu). Pełnił następnie zadania eskortowe, po czym 14 stycznia 1943 odbył kolejny rejs zaopatrzeniowy na Guadalcanal, w czasie którego został lekko uszkodzony bliskimi trafieniami podczas ataku lotniczego 15 stycznia. Uszkodzenia usunięto w Rabaulu, po czym 1 i 4 lutego 1943 brał udział w rejsach ewakuacyjnych z Guadalcanalu. +8 lutego, podczas rejsu ewakuacyjnego z Wysp Russella został uszkodzony przez lotnictwo - trafiona bombą została wieża dziobowa. W dniach 6-16 marca 1943 odholował uszkodzony niszczyciel "Michishio" z Truk do Japonii, po czym był dokowany i remontowany w Kure. W czerwcu eskortował zespół floty z Yokosuki do Truk, po czym wypełniał zadania eskortowe w tamtym rejonie. +5-6 lipca transportował żołnierzy na Kolombangarę, podczas której operacji doszło do bitwy w zatoce Kula. "Hamakaze" nie brał udziału w bitwie, wchodząc w skład zespołu transportowego. 9 lipca brał udział w kolejnej misji transportowej na Kolombangarę, tym razem w zespole osłony, podobnie 12 lipca, kiedy doszło do bitwy pod Kolombangarą. W jej toku "Hamakaze" z innymi niszczycielami wystrzelił salwę torpedową, która zatopiła amerykański niszczyciel USS "Gwin" i uszkodziła krążowniki USS "Honolulu" (CL-48) i USS "St. Louis" (CL- 49). 19 i 23 lipca ponownie brał udział w rejsach zaopatrzeniowych na Kolombangarę. Po przerwie spowodowanej innymi zadaniami eskortowymi, 17-18 sierpnia wziął udział w osłonie desantu w Horaniu na północy wyspy Vella Lavella, podczas którego doszło do starcia z amerykańskimi niszczycielami pod Horaniu (mimo niewielkich strat japońskich, akcja zakończyła się pomyślnie). +26 sierpnia 1943 uczestniczył w rejsie ewakuacyjnym z Rekaty i został uszkodzony w ataku lotniczym (36 ofiar, ograniczenie prędkości do 20 węzłów). 12-18 września eskortował stawiacz min "Tsugaru" i okręt zaopatrzeniowy "Irako" z Truk do Yokosuki w Japonii, po czym był remontowany w Kure (prawdopodobnie wówczas wieża nr 2 dział 127 mm została zamieniona przez 2 potrójne stanowiska działek plot 25 mm). Około połowy 1943 roku na niszczycielach tego typu zamieniano też dwa dotychczasowe podwójnie sprzężone działka 25 mm na śródokręciu na potrójnie sprzężone oraz dodawano jedno podwójne stanowisko przed mostkiem. +20 września dowódcą został kmdr por. Kazue Maekawa (kmdr por. Uwai przeszedł na dowódcę "Shimakaze"). W dniach 3-8 listopada powrócił do Truk, eskortując krążownik "Kumano". W dniach 24 listopada-5 grudnia 1943 działał w składzie floty w rejonie Wysp Marshalla w związku z amerykańskim desantem na Tarawę, po czym powrócił do Truk. 21 grudnia ratował rozbitków ze storpedowanego tankowca "Terukawa Maru". Zajmował się następnie zadaniami eskortowania sił floty i konwojów, głównie w rejonie Truk - Palau. +Działania lotniczo-morskie późnej fazy wojny, 1944-1945. +W dniach 19-20 czerwca 1944 brał udział w bitwie na Morzu Filipińskim, w eskorcie Zespołu B admirała Joshimy. Wraz z "Shigure" ratował rozbitków ze storpedowanego lekkiego lotniskowca "Hiyō". Od lipca do października głównie eskortował japońskie pancerniki pomiędzy Japonią, Kure i Lingga Roads. +W dniach 23-25 października 1944 wziął udział w bitwy o Leyte, eskortując 1 Uderzeniowy Zespół Dywersyjny adm. Kurity. 24 października odniósł niewielkie uszkodzenia przy atakach lotniczych. Pomagał następnie niszczycielowi "Kiyoshimo" ratować rozbitków z pancernika "Musashi". Operował następnie w rejonie Filipin i Brunei. 9-12 listopada eskortował z Brunei siły floty osłaniające operację transportową na Leyte. 15 listopada 17 Dywizjon został przydzielony do 2 Eskadry Niszczycieli 2 Floty. Eskortując następnie siły floty z Brunei do Kure, 21 listopada uratował 146 rozbitków z tonącego pancernika "Kongō". 28-29 listopada eskortował lotniskowiec "Shinano" z Yokosuki, po czym po jego storpedowaniu pomagał ratować rozbitków. Eskortując od 31 grudnia z Moji konwój HI-87 na Formozę został 8 stycznia 1945 lekko uszkodzony w kolizji ze statkiem "Kaiho Maru" w Shinchiku na Formozie. Naprawiany w Mako na Peskadorach, po czym powrócił do Kure. +Zatopiony 7 kwietnia 1945 roku przez samoloty z lotniskowców zespołu Task Force 58 podczas rajdu eskadry wiceadmirała Seiichi Itō z pancernikiem "Yamato" w kierunku Okinawy (Operacja Ten-gō). Trafiony jedną bombą i jedną torpedą, zatonął 150 mil na południe od Nagasaki, w rejonie pozycji . Straty wyniosły 100 zabitych i 45 rannych. 257 rozbitków wraz z dowódcą uratował niszczyciel "Hatsushimo". 10 czerwca 1945 został oficjalnie skreślony z listy floty. +Dane techniczne. +"Opis konstrukcji i szczegółowe dane - w artykule niszczyciele typu Kagerō. Poniżej dane ogólne dla niszczycieli tego typu." +Uzbrojenie i wyposażenie: +Adam Gruca + +Adam Gruca (ur. 3 grudnia 1893 w Majdanie Sieniawskim, zm.3 czerwca 1983 w Warszawie) – polski lekarz ortopeda, profesor medycyny +Obok polskich ortopedów: Ireneusza Wierzejewskiego, Franciszka Raszei i Wiktora Degi z Poznania oraz Donata Tylmana z Warszawy należał do czołówki najlepszych lekarzy w swojej specjalności. +Uczęszczał do gimnazjum w Jarosławiu (finansowo wspomagany przez Czartoryskich), należał jednocześnie w latach 1909-1913 do Polskich Drużyn Strzeleckich i organizacji skautowskiej w Jarosławiu. Od 1910 był także członkiem Organizacji Młodzieży Narodowej. Po ukończeniu w 1913 gimnazjum podjął studia medyczne na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim. Od 1 sierpnia 1914 służył jako lekarz w armii austriackiej. Walczył na froncie rosyjskim, rumuńskim, włoskim. Od 6 listopada 1918 służył w Wojsku Polskim – był uczestnikiem Obrony Lwowa w 1918 i wojny bolszewickiej 1920 oraz kampanii litewskiej. Po demobilizacji w 1921 (a także z przerwami wcześniej - od 1917) kontynuował we Lwowie studia medyczne, uzyskując w 1922 doktorat. W latach 1921-1928 był asystentem, a po habilitacji w 1928 docentem Katedry i Kliniki Chirurgicznej Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie. W 1931 odbył praktykę ortopedyczną w Bolonii i w Nowym Jorku, zaś od 1938 był profesorem tytularnym UJK. W latach 1931-1939 pracował jako ordynator Oddziału Chirurgicznego Szpitala Ubezpieczalni Społecznej we Lwowie. W kampanii wrześniowej brał udział w obronie Lwowa - był naczelnym chirurgiem szpitala wojskowego mieszczącego się w gmachu głównym Politechniki Lwowskiej. W okresie pierwszej okupacji sowieckiej (1939-1941) był kierownikiem Kliniki Chirurgii Ogólnej Lwowskiego Instytutu Medycznego, pełniąc jednocześnie funkcję szefa sanitarnego w Komendzie Obszaru ZWZ. W czasie okupacji niemieckiej (od lipca 1941) pracował jako wykładowca medycznych kursów zawodowych we Lwowie. Zagrożony aresztowaniem przez Niemców i śmiercią ze strony UPA we wrześniu 1943 opuścił Lwów i ukrywał się w Kalwarii Zebrzydowskiej. +Po wojnie był profesorem Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, kierownikiem Katedry i III Kliniki Ortopedycznej AM w Warszawie. +Był członkiem PAU, członkiem rzeczywistym PAN. Opublikował około 170 prac naukowych, był twórcą i najwybitniejszym przedstawicielem warszawskiej szkoły ortopedycznej i traumatologicznej, doktorem honoris causa Akademii Medycznej w Warszawie i Wrocławiu. Był też świetnym rzeźbiarzem i rysownikiem.". +Był odznaczony Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi (1948), Orderem Odrodzenia Polski (1954), Orderem Sztandaru Pracy (1959, 1977). Był żonaty z Heleną Wojciechowską, z którą miał jedną córkę, Bożennę. +Kompleksy alkilidynowe + +Kompleksy alkilidynowe - nazywane czasami niepoprawnie acetylenowymi, lub karbinowymi to związki metaloorganiczne, w których występuje choć jeden ligand, związany z centralnym atomem metalu przejściowego wiązaniem potrójnym: M≡C. +Własności i zastosowanie. +Własności tych związków są generalnie zbliżone do kompleksów alkilidenowych, choć są one jeszcze mniej od nich trwałe. Układy alkilidenowe są trwalsze z atomami metali na najwyższych stopniach utlenienia, natomiast jedyne znane układy alkilidynowe zawsze opierają się na metalach na najwyższych stopniach utlenienia, przy czym musi to być co najmniej V. +źródło: M.Bochmann, Organometallics 1, seria: Oxford Chemistry Primer, Oxford University Press, 1992. +Ekosystem autotroficzny + +Ekosystem autotroficzny – ekosystem, którego podstawą funkcjonowania jest obecność światła i autochtoniczna materia organiczna, wytwarzana w procesie fotosyntezy przez autotrofy (głównie przez rośliny zielone). Materia ta zapewnia samowystarczalność i niezależność ekosystemu. +Przykłady: las, łąka, torfowisko, staw. +Izoterma lokalna + +Izoterma lokalna to izoterma adsorpcji dla określonego typu miejsc adsorpcyjnych, np. dla jednorodnego płata miejsc charakteryzowanych tą samą energią adsorpcji. Pojęcie to stosuje się przy opisie adsorpcji na powierzchniach heterogenicznych (energetycznie niejednorodnych). +Najczęściej stosowane izotermy lokalne to izoterma Langmuira (adsorpcja bez oddziaływań bocznych adsorbat-adsorbat) oraz izoterma Fowlera-Guggenheima (adsorpcja z oddziaływaniami niespecyficznymi adsorbat-adsorbat) lub izotermy uwzględniające oddziaływania specyficzne (np. izoterma Kisielewa). Często wykorzystuje się też odpowiednie izotermy uwzględniające tworzenie wielu warstw adsorbatu, np. izotermę BET. +Z reguły milcząco zakłada się, że adsorpcja jest adsorpcją zlokalizowaną. W przypadku gdy energia ruchu termicznego (na płaszczyźnie = kT) cząsteczek jest duża w porównaniu do bariery potencjału pomiędzy miejscami adsorpcyjnymi i cząsteczki nie są zlokalizowane wówczas należy wykorzystywać izotermy lokalne opisujące adsorpcję mobilną lub częściowo mobilna, np. izotermy Volmera czy Hilla-deBoera. +Zob. adsorpcja, izoterma globalna, ogólne całkowe równanie +adsorpcji +Polski Związek Filatelistów + +Polski Związek Filatelistów (PZF) – założona w 1950 roku organizacja zrzeszająca polskich filatelistów i filumenistów. +Historia. +Od 1955 jest członkiem Międzynarodowej Federacji Filatelistyki - FIP. +Zarząd Główny PZF jest wydawcą miesięcznika "Filatelista", kwartalnika "Historyczno-Badawczy Biuletyn Filatelistyczny" (organ Polskiej Akademii Filatelistyki) oraz "Biuletynu Informacyjnego PZF". Wiele Okręgów PZF wydaje lokalnie biuletyny. Aktualnie prezesem ZG PZF jest Henryk Monkos. +Nucleus (grupa muzyczna) + +Nucleus, ("ang. jądro, rdzeń") – brytyjski zespół jazzowo-progresywny, założony w 1969 roku przez Iana Carra. Pierwszy skład tworzyli Ian Carr (trąbka, flugelhorn), Karl Jenkins (obój, fortepian), Brian Smith (saksofon, flet), Chris Spedding (gitara), Jeff Clyne (gitara basowa) i John Marshall (perkusja). +Inigo Arista + +Inigo Iniguez Aritza, Iñigo Iñiguez Arista, bask. "Eneko Aritza, Eneko Aiza, Eneko Arista" (ur. ok. 790, zm. 851) - król Nawarry 824-851 +Pochodził z rodu hrabiów Arista, spokrewnionych z wizygockim rodem Banu Qasi.Inigo Iniguez Aritza stanął na czele buntu wymierzonego przeciwko ekspansji Franków na terenie Pirenejów i ograniczaniu suwerenności lokalnych plemion. W 816 roku pokonał frankofilskiego wodza Velasco i rozpoczął jednoczenie pirenejskich górali. W latach 822-824 zorganizował organizm państwowy ze stolicą w Pampelunie, który stał się zalążkiem królestwa Nawarry. W czasie swoich rządów wielokrotnie zmuszony był walczyć o niezależność. Hołd lenny próbowali od niego wymusić władcy: Asturii, Akwitanii i Kordoby. Inigo zdołał jednak odeprzeć najazd Franków w 824 roku w Roncesvalles. Pokonany został dopiero w 842 roku przez Abd ar-Rahmana II. Najazd Maurów nie zachwiał jednak jego panowaniem. Nawarra przetrwała próbę czasu i stała się jednym z ważniejszych państw biorących udział w rekonkwiście. +Dynastia zapoczątkowana przez Inigo Inigueza rządziła Nawarrą do 1234 r., kiedy to przejął w niej władzę dom z Szampanii. +Kazimierz II zatorski + +Kazimierz (Kaźko) II zatorski (ur. około 1450, zm. 1490) – książę zatorski w latach 1468-1474 razem z braćmi, od 1474 książę na połowie Zatoru, z bratem Wacławem (do 1484/7), potem samodzielnie. +Kazimierz II był najstarszym synem księcia zatorskiego Wacława I i szlachcianki Małgorzaty Kopczowskiej. W chwili śmierci ojca był już osobą pełnoletnią, w związku z czym mógł bez przeszkód objąć rządy w malutkim księstwie ze stolicą w Zatorze. +W 1474 pod presją młodszych braci (byli to: Wacław, Jan i Władysław) Kazimierz wyraził zgodę na podział księstwa na dwie części. Podział miał odtąd przebiegać wzdłuż rzeki Skawy, przy czym na dwie części dzielono także miasto i zamek w Zatorze. W rękach Kazimierza i jego młodszego brata Wacława pozostała wschodnia część ojcowizny. +Około 1483 Kazimierz ożenił się z córką Mikołaja V Karniowskiego Małgorzatą (zm. 1508). Małżeństwo to prawdopodobnie pozostało bezdzietne. . +Książę utrzymywał dosyć bliskie stosunki z królem polskim Kazimierzem Jagiellończykiem, którego uznał zwierzchnictwo. Dobre stosunki z Polską wyrażały się też poprzez wspomaganie finansowe kościołów krakowskich. +Pomimo doskonałych stosunków z Polską, po śmierci brata Wacława, która nastąpiła pomiędzy 1484 a 1487 Kazimierz próbował zapewnić następstwo po sobie księciu raciborskiemu Janowi V. Tylko dzięki ostrej reprymendzie ze strony Kazimierza Jagiellończyka, groźba straty Zatora przez Polskę została zażegnana. +Kazimierz II Zatorski zmarł w 1490 i został pochowany w wspomaganym przez niego finansowo kościele Mariackim w Krakowie. Wschodnią część księstwa zatorskiego na mocy umowy o wzajemnej dziedziczenie rodzeństwa z 1477 przejął Jan V. +Wagotomia + +Wagotomia – zabieg operacyjny polegający na przecięciu włókien nerwu błędnego, odpowiedzialnego za tzw. fazę nerwową wydzielania soku żołądkowego. Stosowany zazwyczaj w leczeniu chirurgicznym choroby wrzodowej dwunastnicy. +Podział. +Wyróżniamy trzy podstawowe typy wagotomii: +Wagotomia całkowita. +Polega na przecięciu pni nerwów błędnych w okolicy przepony. Uzyskuje się przez to odnerwienie przywspółczulne żołądka wraz z wątrobą, trzustką, drogami żółciowymi i jelitami. +Wagotomia wybiórcza. +Zabieg polegający na przecięciu gałęzi żołądkowych nerwu Latarjeta (przedniego i tylnego). Uzyskane odnerwienie ograniczone zostaje do całego żołądka. +Wagotomia wysoce selektywna. +Przecięciu podlegają jedynie gałązki żołądkowe nerwu Latarjeta. Unerwienie tzw. "kurzej stopki" zostaje nienaruszone, co umożliwia zachowanie prawidłowej czynności motorycznej ścian żołądka. Zabieg ten, jako jedyny, nie wymaga przeprowadzenia dodatkowo pyloroplastyki, stosowanej w obydwu wcześniejszych, ze względów utrudnionego opróżniania się żołądka, na skutek upośledzonej funkcji perystaltycznej. +Izoterma globalna + +Izoterma globalna – izoterma adsorpcji otrzymana jako uśrednienie izotermy lokalnej po różnych typach miejsc adsorpcyjnych. Pojęcie to stosuje się przy opisie adsorpcji na powierzchniach heterogenicznych (energetycznie niejednorodnych), np. +na rzeczywistych powierzchniach heterogenicznych (niejednorodnych) adsorbentów. +Typowe teoretyczne isotermy globalne określone w prostej postaci analitycznej to np. izotermy: Langmuira-Freundlicha (LF), Tótha, uogólniona izoterma Freundlicha (GF) i uogólniona izoterma Langmuira (GL). +Michael Landon + +Michael Landon, właściwie Eugene Maurice Orowitz (ur. 31 października 1936 w Forest Hills, dzielnicy Queens, zm. 1 lipca 1991 w Malibu) - amerykański aktor, reżyser, scenarzysta oraz producent filmowy i telewizyjny. +Życie prywatne. +Przyszedł na świat jako drugie dziecko irlandzko-amerykańskiej rzymskokatolickiej tancerki i aktorki komediowej Kathleen Ignatius O’Neill oraz Eli Maurice'a Orowitza, żydowsko-amerykańskiego aktora i menedżera teatralnego. Wychowywał się ze starszą siostrą Evelyn (ur. 1933). +W 1941 wraz z rodziną przeniósł się do Collingswood, w stanie New Jersey, gdzie w 1954 ukończył szkołę średnią Collingswood High School. W okresie dzieciństwa stale martwił się o próby samobójcze swojej matki, w 1974 jednak popełniła samobójstwo. +Landon miał dużo zainteresowań: wędkarstwo, karate, malarstwo, budowanie mozaik stolikowych, gry, golf, pływanie, podnoszenie ciężarów, gotowanie, tenis, narty wodne i lotnictwo. Miał 175 cm wzrostu. +Zmarł w wieku 54 lat, 1 lipca 1991 w Malibu na raka trzustki. Na wieść o jego śmierci przerwano uroczystą premierę filmu "Terminator 2". +Kariera. +Po zmianie swojego nazwiska na Landon, które wybrał z książki telefonicznej, zadebiutował na kinowym ekranie w dramacie "Szalone lata" ("These Wilder Years", 1956) u boku Barbary Stanwyck. +Potem pojawił się gościnnie w serialach: westernie ABC "Przygody Jima Bowie" ("The Adventures of Jim Bowie", 1956), CBS "Krzyżowiec" ("Crusader", 1956), ABC "Wire Service" (1956), CBS "Poszukiwany żywy lub martwy" ("Wanted: Dead or Alive", 1958, 1959) ze Steve'em McQueenem oraz dramacie krótkometrażowym "Walka dla tytułu" ("Fight for the Title", 1957) jako bokser Kid Lombard, dramacie "Poletko Pana Boga" ("God's Little Acre", 1958). Szybko stał się jednym z bardziej popularnych młodych aktorów końca lat 50.. +Największą sławę przyniosła mu kreacja Josepha 'Małego Joe' Cartwrighta w serialu NBC "Bonanza" (1959-73), w którym z czasem oprócz gry zajął się również reżyserią, pisaniem scenariuszy i produkcją. Jego kolejna postać Charlesa Philipa Ingallsa w serialu NBC "Domek na prerii" ("Little House on the Prairie", 1974-82) zdobyła uznanie widzów i krytyków, była także nominowana do nagrody Złotego Globu. Sukcesem okazała się również telewizyjna rola Jonathana Smitha w serialu NBC "Autostrada do nieba" ("Highway to Heaven", 1984-89). +Tłumica (pożarnictwo) + +Tłumica – sprzęt pożarniczy do gaszenia iskier i żarwi przenoszonych przez wiatr na obejścia i dachy – płaskie wiklinowe miotły, obszyte nasiąkliwą tkaniną, osadzone na długich drążkach. Tłumice macza się w wiadrach z wodą i uderza nimi w miejsca, gdzie spadły iskry lub z których wydobywa się płomień. Obecnie są używane metalowe (z cienkiej blachy) stosowane przeważnie do tłumienia pożarów między innymi ściółki leśnej i traw. +Tu-4 + +Tu-4 (ros.Ту-4) – radziecki bombowiec strategiczny, opracowany w biurze konstrukcyjnym Tupolewa, kopia amerykańskiego bombowca Boeing B-29 Superfortress. Służył w sowieckich siłach powietrznych od późnych lat czterdziestych do lat sześćdziesiątych. +Konstrukcja. +Pod koniec drugiej wojny światowej Związek Radziecki posiadał niewielką liczbę ciężkich bombowców Pe-8 do prowadzenia bombardowań strategicznych. Widząc łatwość, z jaką amerykańskie samoloty operujące z odległych baz zrzucały bomby na terytorium Japonii, Józef Stalin nakazał rozpoczęcie prac nad nowym bombowcem strategicznym. +W 1945 roku trzy amerykańskie bombowce Boeing B-29 Superfortress awaryjnie wylądowały na terytorium radzieckim. Maszyny zostały internowane i przekazane do badań w Biurze Konstrukcyjnym Tupolewa. Maszyny skopiowano tak dokładnie, jak to było możliwe. W rezultacie powstał bombowiec Tu-4 (w kodzie NATO: "Bull"), oblatany 19 maja 1947 roku. Maszyna weszła do służby w roku 1948. Trapiło ją wiele problemów rozwojowych, co wynikało z braku znajomości technologii wykonania samolotu tej klasy, innymi normami, czy wreszcie innym systemem miar (zamiana cali na system metryczny). Przysporzyło to wielkich problemów w Biurze Tupolewa. Jego wejście do służby poważnie zaniepokoiło amerykańskich strategów – samolot mógł osiągnąć cele położone głęboko na terytorium USA i przenieść opracowaną przez Rosjan w 1949 roku bombę atomową. Potencjalne zagrożenie ze strony Tu-4 było bezpośrednim impulsem do opracowania przez Amerykanów rozbudowanego systemu obrony powietrznej własnego terytorium – w 1957 roku przemianowanego na NORAD. +Użycie samolotu. +Do zakończenia produkcji w roku 1953, w ZSRR zbudowano 847 samolotów bombowych Tu-4. Maszyny te trapiły liczne usterki, przez co nie były lubiane przez załogi. Osiągi były niższe niż w B-29, przyczyniły się do tego m.in. gorsze, ulegające częstym awariom silniki. Część z nich przekazano Chinom. Choć radzieckich maszyn nigdy nie wykorzystano w walce, przyczyniły się do gwałtownego rozwoju radzieckiego programu budowy bombowców strategicznych. W 1954 roku, właśnie z Tu-4 zrzucono bombę atomową na poligonie tockim koło Orenburga. +Samoloty Tu-4 wycofano ze służby w latach sześćdziesiątych i zastąpiono nowocześniejszymi Tu-16 i Tu-95. Według niektórych źródeł, kilkanaście Tu-4 pozostaje na stanie chińskich sił powietrznych. +Planowano kilka wersji rozwojowych - zarówno zaawansowane warianty bombowe (Tu-80 i Tu-85), jak i samolot pasażerski Tu-70 i transportowy Tu-75, lecz nie weszły do produkcji. +Al-Hilla + +Al-Hilla – miasto w środkowym Iraku, leżące 100 km na południowy zachód od Bagdadu nad rzeką Szatt al-Hilla (odnoga Eufratu). Liczba mieszkańców: 215 tys. (1985), 364 tys. (1998), 510 tys. (2002). Jest stolicą prowincji Babil, w pobliżu znajdują się ruiny starożytnych miast: Babilonu, Borsippa i Kusz. Leży w regionie rolniczym, intensywnie nawadnianym wodą z Eufratu. +Miasto zostało założone w 1101 roku. Dużym centrum administracyjnym stało się za czasów Turków osmańskich i za panowania brytyjskiego. W 1920 wybuchło tu powstanie przeciw Brytyjczykom, w którym 300 z nich poległo. +Około 1 lipca 2003 r., w czasie amerykańskiej inwazji na Irak, Al-Hilla było miejscem dużej bitwy. +Miasto znajdowało się w polskiej strefie stabilizacyjnej. +28 lutego 2005 roku, eksplozja samochodu-pułapki w tym mieście zabiła 125 osób. +Dornier Do 317 + +Dornier Do 317 – niemiecki samolot bombowy średniego zasięgu. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1943 roku w niemieckiej wytwórni Dornier Werke GmbH w Friedrichshafen. +Historia. +W 1939 roku Urząd Techniczny Luftwaffe opracował wstępne założenia taktyczno-techniczne dla nowej kategorii samolotów bombowych – średnich bombowców o dużym zasięgu i udźwigu. Nowy samolot miał być następcą używanych bombowców Luftwaffe Heinkel He 111 i Junkers Ju 88. Według tych założeń miał to być dwusilnikowy samolot bombowy o prędkości maksymalnej 600 km/h, udźwigu 2000 kg bomb i zasięgu 3600 km. Dodatkowo wymagano aby samolot miał pułap większy od zasięgu artylerii przeciwlotniczej. W samolocie przewidywano użycie silników rzędowych chłodzonych cieczą "Daimler-Benz DB 604" lub "Junkres Jumo 222". +Do opracowania nowego samolotu bombowego przystąpiły cztery niemieckie wytwórnie lotnicze: Arado, Focke-Wulf, Junkers i Dornier. Wytwórni Dornier opracowała model oznaczony jako Dornier Do 317. Samolot ten był kontynuacją samolotu bombowego Dornier Do 217, będącego jeszcze w fazie prototypu. Nowy samolot był dwusilnikowym wolnonośnym górnopłatem o konstrukcji całkowicie metalowej, z ciśnieniową kabiną załogi i chowanym w locie trójkołowym podwoziem z kółkiem ogonowym. W przedniej części kadłuba znajdowała się przeszklona ciśnieniowa kabina czteroosobowej załogi. W środkowej części płata oraz dodatkowo w kadłubie mieściły się zbiorniki paliwa o łącznej pojemności 5200 litrów, w komorze bombowej można było jeszcze dodatkowo umieścić odrzucany zbiornik paliwa o pojemności 1000 litrów. Podwozie główne było dwugoleniowe, jednokołowe, chowane w gondole silników, kółko ogonowe chowane było w specjalnej wnęce w tylnej części kadłuba. Do napędu samolotu "Dornier Do 317" przewidziano 12-cylindrowy silnik rzędowy "Daimler-Benz DB 603A" o mocy 1900 KM (1297 kW). +Po tych wstępnych pracach projektowych dalsze prace zostały znacznie spowolnione, gdyż z polecenia dowództwa Luftwaffe wytwórnia Dornier zajęła się pracami na bombowcem wysokościowym Do 217. Choć pracowano w dalszym ciągu nad samolotem "Do 317", lecz one bardzo powolne. W 1941 roku opracowano dwa nowe modele samolotu "Dornier Do 317" oznaczone "Do 317A" i "Do 317B", różniące się zastosowanymi silnikami i uzbrojeniem. Jednak te zmiany nie wpłynęły na decyzję o podjęciu produkcji tego samolotu. Wprawdzie Luftwaffe zamówiło 6 samolotów tego typu, a pierwszy z nich został oblatany w dniu 8 września 1943 roku. Prototyp ten nie spełnił jednak założonych warunków i ostatecznie w 1943 roku przerwano prace nad tym samolotem. +Natomiast wyprodukowane pozostałych pięć samolotów, po usunięciu kabiny ciśnieniowej, zamontowaniu uzbrojenia strzeleckiego i zamontowaniu pod skrzydłami uchwytów do bomb kierowanych Henschel Hs 293 zostały oznaczone jako "Dornier Do 217R-0". Więcej tych samolotów nie produkowano. +Użycie. +Samoloty bombowe "Dornier Do 217R-0" zostały w 1944 roku włączone na wyposażenie III dywizjonu 100 pułku bombowego (III/KG 100) Luftwaffe, który w tym czasie stacjonował we Francji. Nie jest wiadomo czy samoloty te brały udział w walkach, gdyż pułk ten został rozwiązany w 1944 roku. +Opis techniczny samolotu bombowego Dornier Do 317. +Samolot bombowy Dornier Do 317 to dwusilnikowy, czteromiejscowy, górnopłat wolnonośny z ciśnieniową kabiną załogi i chowanym trójkołowym podwoziem z kółkiem ogonowym. Konstrukcja całkowicie metalowa. Napęd – dwa silnik rzędowe chłodzone powietrzem. +Stanisław Kamocki + +Stanisław Józef Juliusz Kamocki "ps. Stefan Kozłowski" (ur. 18 listopada 1875 w Warszawie, zm. 10 lipca 1944 w Zakopanem) – malarz i grafik, młodopolski pejzażysta. +Studiował w latach 1891 – 1900 pod okiem Leona Wyczółkowskiego, Jacka Malczewskiego i Jana Stanisławskiego w Szkole Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie, a w 1901 i 1902 roku w Paryżu. W trakcie I wojny światowej służył w I Brygadzie Legionów Polskich. Mieszkał w Krakowie i Zakopanem, gdzie posiadał własną pracownię. Od roku 1919 kierował katedrą pejzażu w krakowskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, gdzie w 1937 roku został mianowany profesorem zwyczajnym. Od roku 1942 uczył malarstwa w zakopiańskiej Państwowej Szkole Góralskiej Sztuki Ludowej. Był członkiem Towarzystwa Artystów Polskich "Sztuka" (od 1906 roku), Wiedeńskiej Secesji (1911 – 1918), warszawskiego Towarzystwa Zachęty Sztuk Pięknych i Towarzystwa "Sztuka Podhalańska". Został pochowany na starym cmentarzu w Zakopanem. +Uchodził za jednego z najzdolniejszych uczniów Stanisławskiego, za jednego z najwierniejszych kontynuatorów malarstwa pejzażowego. Początkowo tworzył wielkoformatowe obrazy na płótnie, w latach dwudziestych XX wieku niemal wyłącznie na tekturze. Malował w plenerze, utrwalał widoki Wołynia, Podola, okolic Krakowa i Tatr, niekiedy przedstawiał dekoracyjne martwe natury. +Plebiscyt na Górnym Śląsku + +Plebiscyt na Górnym Śląsku (niem. "Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien") – jeden z dwóch1) na Górnym Śląsku2) na Warmii, Mazurach i Powiślu3) na Śląsku Cieszyńskim, Spiszu i Orawie.Od tego ostatniego, na skutek nacisków premiera Czechosłowacji Edwarda Benesza, Polska odstąpiła w lecie 1920 r., w związku z fatalną sytuacją w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej. plebiscytów dotyczących etnicznego pogranicza polsko-niemieckiego, które wyznaczono w 1919 w wersalskim traktacie pokojowym kończącym I wojnę światową. Plebiscyt był przeprowadzony 20 marca 1921 i poprzedzony dwoma powstaniami ludności Śląska domagającej się przyłączenia regionu do Polski (powstania śląskie). +Organy plebiscytowe. +Plebiscyt był nadzorowany przez Międzysojuszniczą Komisję Rządzącą i Plebiscytową na Górnym Śląsku z siedzibą w Opolu. Na czele tej angielsko-francusko-włoskiej Komisji stał Francuz generał Henri Le Rond. Zastępcą Le Ronda był Włoch gen. Alberto De Marinis Stendardo di Ricigliano, Wielką Brytanię reprezentował płk Harold Franz Passawer Percival. Do Komisji byli oddelegowani przedstawiciele Polski, Niemiec, Czechosłowacji i Watykanu (nuncjusz apostolski abp Achille Ratti, później monsignore Giovanni Battista Ogno-Serra). Polskę reprezentował konsul generalny Daniel hrabia Kęszycki. Oprócz przeprowadzenia plebiscytu Komisja miała później na podstawie jego wyników zaproponować podział spornego terytorium. Zadaniem Komisji i towarzyszących jej wojsk alianckich było dopilnowanie prawidłowego przebiegu kampanii plebiscytowej i samego głosowania oraz utrzymanie porządku i spokoju. Dowódcą wojsk pilnujących porządku był gen. Jules Gratier. +Polska i Niemcy zaczęły tworzyć organy plebiscytowe w lutym 1920. W Bytomiu powstał Polski Komisariat Plebiscytowy (PKPleb.) z Wojciechem Korfantym na czele. Jego siedziba znajdowała się w Hotelu Lomnitz. Zastępcami Korfantego byli: Konstanty Wolny (CHZL), Józef Rymer (NPR) i Józef Biniszkiewicz (PPS). Szefem Wydziału Administracyjnego został prawnik Paweł Kempka. Na czele Niemieckiego Komisariatu Plebiscytowego (Plebiszitskommissariat fur Deutschland) stanął burmistrz Rozbarku dr Kurt Urbanek. Siedziba niemieckiego Komisariatu znajdowała się w Katowicach w hotelu „Centralnym” przy ul. Dworcowej. Ponadto na terenie plebiscytowym działały powiatowe i gminne komitety plebiscytowe. Na czele powiatowych komitetów stali komisarze powiatowi, a na czele gminnych – mężowie zaufania. Jeden z Polskich Podkomisariatów Plebiscytowych działał w Katowicach na Heinzelstraße (dzisiejsza ulica Plebiscytowa). +Przygotowania zabezpieczały po stronie polskiej Polska Organizacja Wojskowa, a następnie Centrala Wychowania Fizycznego i Dowództwo Obrony Plebiscytu, a po stronie niemieckiej Kampforganisation Oberschlesien (Organizacja Bojowa Górnego Śląska). W związku z nasilającym się terrorem niemieckim w trakcie przygotowań do plebiscytu wybuchło II powstanie śląskie. Po jego zakończeniu Komisja Międzysojusznicza opracowała regulamin plebiscytowy, który został ogłoszony w częściach, w dniu 30 grudnia 1920 oraz 23 i 28 lutego 1921 (regulamin opublikowano w nr 12, 14 i 15 „Gazety Urzędowej Górnego Śląska”). Po drugim powstaniu utworzono także polsko-niemiecką policję plebiscytową – Abstimmungspolizei, tzw. Apo. +Przebieg kampanii plebiscytowej. +Przygotowania do plebiscytu odbywały się w atmosferze terroru. Wiosną 1919 roku została utworzona niemiecka policja bezpieczeństwa – Sicherheitspolizei, w skrócie Sipo, powszechnie zwana „zycherką”. W rzeczywistości była to jedna z organizacji stworzonych w obawie przed ewentualnymi postanowieniami konferencji pokojowej, które mogły zabronić Niemcom posiadania własnej armii. Jej zadaniem było zakamuflowanie kadry wojskowej. Policja ta przejęła niektóre zadania wojskowe, m.in. strzegła granicy z Polską. Sipo utrudniało kontakty na tejże granicy, a jednocześnie ułatwiało napływ niemieckich bojówkarzy i transport broni na Górny Śląsk poprzez linię demarkacyjną oddzielającą ten teren od Rzeszy. Po zawarciu traktatu wersalskiego aliancka Rada Najwyższa nakazała Niemcom rozwiązanie Sipo do kwietnia 1920 roku. Decyzję tę jednak zignorowano, zaś po przybyciu Komisji Międzysojuszniczej i opuszczeniu Śląska przez znienawidzone przez Polaków oddziały Grenzschutzu, Sicherheitspolizei stała się jedyną zorganizowaną siłą wojskową strony niemieckiej na obszarze plebiscytowym. Zgodnie z tajnymi dyrektywami płynącymi z Berlina jej funkcjonariusze dopuszczali się aktów przemocy wobec działaczy polskich, utrudniali ich legalne działanie, stosowali terror i zastraszanie. +Napięcie wzrastało od połowy kwietnia 1920 roku. W dniu 25 kwietnia 1920 roku odbyły się wiece protestacyjne ludności polskiej w Bytomiu, Gliwicach, Katowicach, Królewskiej Hucie (Chorzowie), Mysłowicach, Pszczynie, Radzionkowie, Rudzie, Rybniku, Wirku, Wodzisławiu, Zaborzu i Zabrzu. Domagano się m.in. likwidacji Sipo. W kilka dni później doszło do starć bojówek niemieckich z ludnością polską uczestniczącą w wiecach rocznicowych upamiętniających uchwalenie Konstytucji 3 maja. Równocześnie młodzież szkolna w kilku powiatach podjęła strajk domagając się równouprawnienia języka polskiego w szkołach. W nocy 27/28 maja niemieckie bojówki, przy braku reakcji Sipo, dokonały zbrojnej napaści na Hotel Lomnitz, siedzibę PKPleb. Atak został odparty przez grupę pracowników komisariatu, ale budynek uległ uszkodzeniu. Podobne ataki miały miejsce na siedzibę Polskiego Komisariatu Plebiscytowego, a następnie gmach konsulatu Rzeczypospolitej w Opolu. Zdemolowano lokale powiatowych Polskich Komitetów Plebiscytowych (m.in. w Głogówku i Koźlu), wskutek czego ich siedziby trzeba było przenieść odpowiednio do Strzeleczek i do Ciska. Niemcy reagowali też żywiołowo na restrykcje wprowadzane wobec nich przez gen. Le Ronda. Organizowali wiece antyfrancuskie, np. w Opolu, gdzie 14 kwietnia Komisja Międzysojusznicza ogłosiła stan wojenny. +W sierpniu 1920 r. niemieckie władze plebiscytowe zaostrzyły działalność antypolską, a Polacy antyniemiecką. 17 sierpnia 1920 rząd niemiecki zażądał od Międzysojuszniczej Komisji Plebiscytowej ogłoszenia neutralności Górnego Śląska w związku z toczącą się wojną polsko-bolszewicką, które to żądanie zostało spełnione. Wiadomości o zbliżaniu się wojsk bolszewickich pod Warszawę jeszcze bardziej ośmieliły Niemców. Bojówki niemieckie zaatakowały siedzibę powiatowego inspektora Międzysojuszniczej Komisji – pułkownika Blancharda, przy ul. Warszawskiej w Katowicach. Żołnierze francuscy użyli broni, zabijając 10 napastników. W odwecie Niemcy w bestialski sposób zamordowali działacza polskiego, doktora Andrzeja Mielęckiego, który niósł pomoc rannym. +18 sierpnia bojówki niemieckie zaatakowały i zniszczyły lokal Polskiego Komitetu Plebiscytowego w Katowicach, który mieścił się w hotelu „Deutsches Haus” (na rogu dzisiejszych ul. Wojewódzkiej i ul. Plebiscytowej). Jego przewodniczący doktor Henryk Jarczyk i inni pracownicy zostali bestialsko pobici. +Reakcją na te wydarzenia był wybuch w nocy z 18 na 19 sierpnia drugiego powstania śląskiego. Trwało ono do 25 sierpnia. W wyniku tego wystąpienia Polakom udało się wywalczyć pewne ustępstwa. Zlikwidowano Sipo, a na jej miejsce wprowadzono polsko-niemieckie oddziały policji Apo (Abstimmungpolizei). Wprowadzono dwujęzyczność w urzędach, a w szkołach – nauczanie w języku polskim. Ustanowiono przy każdym sojuszniczym kierowniku władz administracyjnych w powiecie doradcę polskiego, którego zadaniem była obrona interesów ludności polskiej. +W takiej atmosferze obie strony prowadziły akcję propagandową. W Polsce powstawały komitety, które starały się nieść pomoc rodakom zza kordonu. Zbierano pieniądze, opracowywano i przesyłano materiały propagandowe. Utworzono Centralny Komitet Plebiscytowy z marszałkiem sejmu Wojciechem Trąmpczyńskim na czele, który miał koordynować przygotowania. Akcję propagandową prowadzono również na terenie Niemiec, gdzie przebywali liczni emigranci z Górnego Śląska. Utworzono tam specjalne biura plebiscytowe, co spotkało się z przeciwdziałaniem Niemców. We Wrocławiu powstało Towarzystwo Opieki nad Górnoślązakami, które zajmowało się odszukiwaniem adresów zamieszkujących Dolny Śląsk Górnoślązaków i namawianiem ich do wzięcia udziału w plebiscycie. +Liczba głosujących i obszar plebiscytu. +W dniu 30 grudnia 1920 r. Międzysojusznicza Komisja Rządząca i Plebiscytowa na Górnym Śląsku postanowiła, że uprawnionym do głosowania zastaną osoby, które dnia 1 stycznia 1921 r. miały ukończony 20 rok życia i +Do udziału w głosowaniu uprawnionych było 1 220 524 osób. +Wśród głosujących 19,3% stanowili tzw. emigranci górnośląscy, czyli osoby które na Górnym Śląsku się urodziły, ale z niego wyemigrowały. +W 1919 strona polska zaproponowała, aby dopuścić do głosowania także tych Ślązaków, którzy mieszkali poza Górnym Śląskiem, licząc że pozwoli to zyskać głosy Polaków pracujących w Zagłębiu Ruhry. Międzysojusznicza Komisja zgodziła się na ten postulat, który w rezultacie obrócił się przeciw Polsce, gdyż zaledwie 10 120 osób przybyłych na plebiscyt zagłosowało za Polską, gdy tymczasem za Niemcami opowiedziało się 182 288 osób. +Plebiscyt objął 1573 gminy Górnego Śląska w powiatach: bytomskim, katowickim, gliwickim, tarnogórskim, rybnickim, pszczyńskim, strzeleckim, opolskim, lublinieckim, kozielskim, kluczborskim, głubczyckim i części powiatu prudnickiego. +W głosowaniu udział wzięło 1 190 846 uprawnionych. +Wyniki głosowania. +W wyniku podliczenia głosów w sposób globalny za Polską opowiedziało się 40,4%, a za Niemcami 59,5% uprawnionych do głosowania. +Podczas przeprowadzania plebiscytu został złamany zapis (korzystniejszy dla strony polskiej) wynikający z traktatu wersalskiego (widniejący w załączniku do art. 88 do tego dokumentu), według którego głosowanie miało być obliczane gminami. Niekorzystny dla Polski podział obszaru plebiscytowego, według większości w powiatach, był jedną z przyczyn wybuchu III powstania śląskiego. Według poszczególnych gmin w których przeprowadzono plebiscyt, oraz wyników jakie w nich uzyskano – 693 gminy (to jest 45,1%) głosowały za przynależnością do Polski (według innych danych 674, a za Niemcami 624). Ogólnie niemal wszystkie miasta głosowały za Niemcami, natomiast obwody głosowania na terenach wiejskich we wschodniej części obszaru plebiscytowego najczęściej głosowały za Polską. Im dalej w kierunku zachodnim tym wyniki głosowania na obszarach wiejskich były korzystniejsze dla Niemiec, ale zawsze liczba głosów za Polską była tam większa niż w miastach. +Sposób obliczania wyników głosowania gminami byłby korzystniejszy dla strony polskiej i doprowadziłby do przyłączenia tych gmin do Polski z pozostawieniem gmin głosujących w większości za Niemcami po stronie niemieckiej – od strony technicznej było to jednak utrudnione, gdyż gminy propolskie często tworzyły enklawy wśród gmin proniemieckich i na odwrót. +Dwie interpretacje wyników Plebiscytu w Komisji Międzysojuszniczej. +Na obszarze plebiscytowym za Polską opowiedziało się 560 obwodów gminnych oraz 112 obwodów dworskich natomiast za Niemcami 604 obwody gminne oraz 233 obwody dworskie. +Kompromisu nie zdołano osiągnąć i przewodniczący Komisji Międzysojuszniczej przesłał Radzie Najwyższej w dniu 30 kwietnia 1921 wykluczające się projekty: proniemiecki – projekt angielsko/włoski i propolski projekt francuski. +Plany te, za sprawą Wojciecha Korfantego, polskiego komisarza w Komisji Międzysojuszniczej, przedostały się do opinii publicznej. Wywołało to najpierw gigantyczną falę strajków, w których udział wzięło prawie 190 tys. Ślązaków oraz polską interwencję dyplomatyczną, w trakcie której, na podstawie wyników plebiscytu, zaproponowano podział Górnego Śląska wzdłuż Linii Korfantego w większości zgodnej z propozycją gen. Henri Le Ronda. +W związku z dalszymi niekorzystnymi postanowieniami dla Polaków Wojciech Korfanty wbrew zakazowi Warszawy wydał w dniu 3 maja 1921 rozkaz o rozpoczęciu III powstania śląskiego. +Podział terenu plebiscytowego. +Po zakończeniu powstania, przyznano Polsce, głównie z inicjatywy Francji, której zależało na maksymalnym osłabieniu Niemiec, Katowice, Królewską Hutę, Siemianowice Śląskie, Świętochłowice oraz powiaty: pszczyński, katowicki, większe części bytomskiego wiejskiego (65%), lublinieckiego (68%), rybnickiego (84%), tarnogórskiego (74%) i zabrskiego (60%) oraz skrawki powiatu bytomskiego miejskiego (28%), raciborskiego (25%), i gliwickiego, pozostawiając w posiadaniu niemieckim 2/3 obszaru Górnego Śląska, w tym 345 obwodów głosowania opowiadających się za przyłączeniem do Polski. Polsce zostały przyznane natomiast liczne miasta, których ludność opowiedziała się w znacznej większości za przyłączeniem do Niemiec, m.in. Katowice, Mysłowice, Królewska Huta, Mikołów, Pszczyna, Rybnik, Żory, Tarnowskie Góry i Lubliniec (poza miastami w tej części obszaru plebiscytowego najczęściej ludność opowiedziała się za przynależnością do Polski, co odzwierciedlało zasadę większości polskiej w okolicznych wsiach, a mniejszości w samych miastach). Pomimo że Polsce przyznano mniejszą część Górnego Śląska znalazła się tam jednak większość zakładów przemysłowych. Z 82 kopalń, 14 stalowni i 37 wielkich pieców w Polsce znalazły się: 63 kopalnie, 9 stalowni i 22 wielkie piece. +Hatsushimo + +Hatsushimo – japoński niszczyciel typu "Hatsuharu" z okresu II wojny światowej. +Sikwiaki + +Sikwiaki (Sipuncula) – niewielka grupa wyłącznie morskich, pierwoustych zwierząt bezkręgowych zaliczanych do lofotrochorowców (Lophotrochozoa), klasyfikowana najczęściej w randze typu, blisko spokrewniona z pierścienicami (Annelida). Obejmuje około 320 naukowo opisanych gatunków charakteryzujących się niesegmentowanym, walcowatym ciałem. W zapisie kopalnym występują rzadko. Trzy gatunki są znane z dolnego kambru. +Występowanie. +Występują w morzach różnych stref klimatycznych – od tropików po wody polarne, na różnych głębokościach, w większości w wodach płytkich. Kilka gatunków zaobserwowano na głębokości 7 km. Niektóre zagrzebują się w piasku lub mule dennym, inne w szczelinach skalnych lub w opuszczonych muszlach małży. +Morfologia. +Sikwiaki mają ciało o robakowatym kształcie – obłym, wydłużonym lub niekiedy przypominającym ziarno fasoli – wyraźnie podzielone na cylindryczny tułów i wysmukły ryjek. Długość ciała od 3 mm do 66 cm. Ciało sikwiaków nie jest segmentowane – w odróżnieniu od pierścienic, do których niekiedy są zaliczane. W przedniej części ciała znajduje się introwert zakończony otworem gębowym, zwykle otoczony pierścieniem drobnych czułków. Od otworu gębowego biegnie jelito, które tworząc pętlę w jamie ciała ("celoma") kończy się odbytem leżącym po stronie grzbietowej w przedniej części tułowia. Mięśnie przedniej części ciała zwane retraktorami umożliwiają wciąganie introwertu do tułowia. +Biologia. +U sikwiaków brak jest układu krążenia i oddechowego, wymiana gazowa odbywa się poprzez nabłonek czułków, a składniki odżywcze i tlen dyfundują poprzez płyn w jamie ciała do poszczególnych jego części. Organem wydalniczym są nefrydia (zwykle parzyste metanefrydia). +Większość jest rozdzielnopłciowa. U jednego z gatunków stwierdzono obojnactwo, a u innego fakultatywną partenogenezę. Dymorfizm płciowy nie jest widoczny. Zapłodnienie zewnętrzne po wydaleniu gamet do wody. Larwa nazywa się trochoforą i jest składnikiem planktonu. +Sikwiaki żywią się mikroskopijnymi organizmami filtrowanymi z wody za pomocą czułków – lub detrytusem pobieranym z dna. Niektóre gatunki prowadzą drapieżny tryb życia, a jeden gatunek żyje w symbiozie z koralowcami. +Systematyka. +Pozycja systematyczna tej grupy zwierząt ma długą historię, w trakcie której wielokrotnie ulegała zmianie. W 1814 roku Rafinesque zaproponował wydzielenie niesegmentowanych robaków z rodzaju "Syrinx" do nowej rodziny Sipuncula. Stefano Delle Chiaje w 1823 zaliczył je pod nazwą Sifunculacei jako poddział pierścienic. Kolejną nazwę dla tej grupy – Sipunculidia – wprowadził de Blainville w 1827. Została ona zastąpiona w 1847 przez Gephyrea, autorstwa Quatrefagesa i obejmowała szczetnice oraz niezmogowce. Kilka innych nazw pojawiło się w literaturze w drugiej połowie XIX wieku, włącznie z Sipunculoidea, którą Sedgwick wprowadził w randze typu. Ostatecznie L.H. Hyman ustaliła dla tego typu – nadaną przez Rafinesque'a nazwę – Sipuncula. +Morfologiczne podobieństwa do mięczaków i szczetnic przyczyniły się do powstania licznych hipotez filogenetycznych. Badacze dopatrywali się w sikwiakach grupy siostrzanej m.in. mięczaków lub szczetnic, albo też pierścienic. Badania genetyczne oparte na wąskiej grupie danych sugerowały, że sikwiaki należy zaliczyć do pierścienic. Szersze badania oparte na porównaniu genomów wskazują jednak, że Sipuncula są dla pierścienic taksonem siostrzanym. +Józef Englich + +Józef Englich (ur. 14 stycznia 1874 w Śremie, zm. 22 grudnia 1924 w Poznaniu) – polski działacz gospodarczy i społeczny, prawnik, minister skarbu. +Był synem nauczyciela gimnazjalnego Gustawa i Stanisławy z Michałowskich. Ukończył gimnazjum w Gdańsku, studiował następnie prawo w Berlinie, Monachium, Wrocławiu i Królewcu. Z tytułem doktora praw w 1901 rozpoczął w Bydgoszczy praktykę adwokacką. W ? przeniósł się do Poznania, gdzie aktywnie działał w instytucjach gospodarczych. Był m.in. członkiem zarządu (potem prezesem) Banku Związku Spółek Zarobkowych, współzakładał Związek Fabrykantów w Poznaniu oraz Spółkę dla Popierania Przemysłu, redagował poznańskie czasopismo "Fabrykant". +Od 1918 pełnił funkcję ministra skarbu w rządach Józefa Świeżyńskiego i Ignacego Paderewskiego. Na początku listopada 1918 złożył dymisję i w dniach odzyskania niepodległości przez Polskę zastępował go tymczasowy kierownik resortu – Franciszek Jossé. W składzie delegacji rządowej brał udział w pertraktacjach z Niemcami o przejęcie Górnego Śląska. +W 1920 powrócił do Poznania. Był członkiem rady miejskiej, kontynuował działalność gospodarczą - wchodził w skład rad nadzorczych wielu spółek, m.in. Towarzystwa Akcyjnego H. Cegielski, Towarzystwa Przemysłu Naftowego Bracia Nobel w Polsce Spółka Akcyjna, Towarzystwa Akcyjnego "Kabel Polski". +Radny miasta Poznania w kadencji 1922-1925. +Z małżeństwa z Melanią z domu Kantak miał pięcioro dzieci, córki Janinę (ur. 1902), Wiesławę (ur. 1904) i Danutę (ur. 1915) oraz synów Rocha (ur. 1908, zm. 1911) i Bogdana (ur. 1912). +24 września 1923 została podniesiona bandera na drobnicowcu „Józef Englich”, statku należącym do Polskiego Towarzystwa Żeglugi „Orzeł Biały”.. +Suzutsuki + +Suzutsuki (kanji: 涼月, katakana: スズツキ) – japoński wielki niszczyciel z okresu II wojny światowej, typu "Akizuki", w służbie od 1943 do końca wojny. +Historia. +"Suzutsuki" był trzecim okrętem z serii wielkich niszczycieli typu "Akizuki", zaprojektowanych specjalnie jako okręty obrony przeciwlotniczej, których główne uzbrojenie stanowiło 8 dział uniwersalnych kalibru 100 mm, o świetnych charakterystykach balistycznych. +Stępkę pod budowę okrętu położono 15 marca 1941 w stoczni Mitsubishi w Nagasaki, kadłub wodowano 4 marca 1942, a okręt wszedł do służby 29 grudnia 1942 (wraz z "Hatsuzuki"). Zbudowany był w ramach programu rozbudowy floty z 1939 roku, pod numerem budowy 106. Nazwa, podobnie jak pozostałych niszczycieli tej serii, związana była z Księżycem i oznaczała "Chłodny Księżyc".. +Służba. +"Suzutsuki" 15 stycznia 1943 wszedł w skład 61. Dywizjonu 10. Flotylli Niszczycieli 3. Floty i w marcu został przebazowany do Truk, eskortując tam lotniskowce eskortowe "Hiyo" i "Junyo". W tym okresie służył razem z "Hatsuzuki". W maju powrócił do Japonii w związku z inwazją amerykańską na Attu, lecz w lipcu ponownie skierowany do Truk. Wypełniał głównie zadania eskortowe i transportu zaopatrzenia w rejonie Truk-Rabaul i na Buce (rejs 22 lipca 1943). 12 grudnia 1943 powrócił do Kure w Japonii, skąd osłaniał statek "Akagi Maru" transportujący wojsko na wyspę Wake między 24 grudnia 1943 a 9 stycznia 1944 (wraz z "Hatsuzuki"). +Podczas powtórnego rejsu na Wake, został ciężko uszkodzony 16 stycznia 1944 w cieśninie Bungo dwoma torpedami przez amerykański okręt podwodny USS "Sturgeon" (zginęło aż 135 ludzi, wraz z dowódcą okrętu i dowódcą 61. dywizjonu, kmdr. Mitsuyoshi Tomari, w tym 89 przewożonych żołnierzy). Pomimo urwania dziobu i rufy, okręt nie zatonął, lecz został odholowany przez "Hatsuzuki" do Kure, gdzie był remontowany do 12 października 1944. +16 października 1944, eskortując konwój z Ōita na Tajwan, "Suzutsuki" został ponownie uszkodzony w dziób torpedą okrętu podwodnego USS "Besugo", po czym remontowany w Kure do 11 listopada 1944. Przydzielony następnie do 41. Dywizjonu 2. Flotylli Niszczycieli 2. Floty, pozostawał głównie na wodach japońskich. W dniach 23-30 listopada eskortował lotniskowiec eskortowy "Junyo" z misją transportową do Manilii, następnie do 9 grudnia z powrotem eskortował go do Sasebo. Jego lekkie ubrojenie przeciwlotnicze w 1945 roku składało się z 48 działek 25 mm - sześciu potrójnych (po obu stronach platformy za kominem, komina i nabudówki dziobowej) oraz 30 pojedynczych, rozstawionych na pokładzie. +Wziął udział w ostatniej operacji japońskiej floty Ten-gō - rejsie z pancernikiem "Yamato" na odsiecz Okinawie. Podczas ataków amerykańskiego lotnictwa pokładowego 7 kwietnia 1945 na południe od Kiusiu, został poważnie uszkodzony trafieniem bomby, która zniszczyła wieże dziobowe (57 zabitych, 34 rannych) oraz uszkodzony bliskim trafieniem koło rufy. Zdołał jednak powrócić do bazy (płynąc rufą naprzód). Jedynie częściowo wyremontowany, służył od czerwca jako pływająca bateria przeciwlotnicza w Sasebo. 5 lipca wycofany do rezerwy. W Sasebo zastała go kapitulacja Japonii. 20 listopada 1945 skreślono go z listy floty. Po wojnie używany w roli falochronu w Takamatsu, po czym wkrótce złomowany. +Dane techniczne. +"Opis konstrukcji i szczegółowe dane - w artykule niszczyciele typu Akizuki" +Teriodonty + +Teriodonty, gady ssakozębne (Theriodontia) – grupa gadów z rzędu terapsydów z podgromady Synapsida. +Pojawiły się w permie i wymarły pod koniec triasu a jedynie bardzo nieliczne żyły jeszcze w jurze. +Rozejm andruszowski + +Rozejm andruszowski – rozejm zawarty 30 stycznia 1667 w Andruszowie (wioska w województwie smoleńskim), kończący wojnę Rzeczypospolitej z Rosją toczoną od 1658 roku. W praktyce był to rozejm podsumowujący wyniki walk trwających od 1654 roku, rozpoczętych w wyniku ugody perejesławskiej, gdyż porozumienie zawarte w 1656 miało charakter przejściowy, związany z groźnymi dla obu państw sukcesami Szwecji w II wojnie północnej. +Rezultatem zmagań były poważne straty terytorialne Rzeczypospolitej i ostateczna rezygnacja z aktywnej polityki na wschodzie Europy. Rosja, pomimo trapiących ją wciąż kłopotów wewnętrznych, potrafiła, częściowo dzięki korzystnemu splotowi okoliczności zewnętrznych (powstanie Chmielnickiego, potop szwedzki), przezwyciężyć prawie stuletnią dominację Rzeczypospolitej w dwustronnych stosunkach i przejść do polityki ofensywnej, przygotowując tym grunt do późniejszej ekspansji dającej jej miano mocarstwa europejskiego. +Ostatnia ofensywna operacja Polski przeciwko Rosji miała miejsce jesienią roku 1663. Prawie stutysięczna armia pod dowództwem króla Jana Kazimierza, pomimo sukcesów w kilku potyczkach, utknęła pod Siewskiem, nie mogąc zdobyć warownego obozu Rosjan dowodzonych przez kniazia Grzegorza Romodanowskiego. Wyczerpane długoletnim wysiłkiem militarnym strony rozpoczęły latem 1664 roku rozmowy. +Rokowania ciągnęły się dwa i pół roku, ich zakończenie przyśpieszyło rosnące zagrożenie interesów obu państw na Ukrainie ze strony Imperium osmańskiego. 30 stycznia 1667 roku w Andruszowie delegacje posłów, pod przewodnictwem kanclerza wielkiego litewskiego Krzysztofa Zygmunta Paca ze strony Rzeczypospolitej i Atanazego Ordina ze strony rosyjskiej, podpisały rozejm (doczesny pokój) mający obowiązywać trzynaście i pół roku do czasu przewidywanego pokoju wieczystego. +Postanowienia rozejmu. +Zawierając rozejm, Polacy traktowali go jako koniunkturalny, konieczny ze względu na chwilowe osłabienie państwa. Okazał się trwały, a potwierdzony w 1686 r. traktatem Grzymułtowskiego, ustabilizował granice Rzeczypospolitej z Rosją na prawie sto lat, do I rozbioru w 1772 r. +Fuyuzuki + +Fuyuzuki (kanji 冬月, katakana フユヅキ) – japoński wielki niszczyciel z okresu II wojny światowej, typu "Akizuki", w służbie od 1944 do końca wojny (spotykana też romanizacja "Fuyutsuki"). +Historia. +"Fuyuzuki" należał do serii wielkich niszczycieli typu "Akizuki", zaprojektowanych specjalnie jako okręty obrony przeciwlotniczej, których główne uzbrojenie stanowiło 8 nowych dział uniwersalnych kalibru 100 mm, o świetnych charakterystykach balistycznych. Był drugim okrętem drugiej serii "Akizuki" (numer budowy 361) i pierwszym okrętem typu, na którym wprowadzono pewne uproszczenia, przede wszystkim brak rufowego dalmierza i systemu kierowania ogniem. +Stępkę pod budowę okrętu położono 8 maja 1943 w stoczni Marynarki w Maizuru, kadłub wodowano 20 stycznia 1944, a okręt wszedł do służby 25 maja 1944. Nazwa, podobnie jak pozostałych niszczycieli tej serii, związana była z Księżycem i oznaczała "Zimowy Księżyc". +Służba. +Początkowo po wejściu do służby jego załoga szkoliła się na wodach Japonii w składzie 11. Flotylli Niszczycieli (ang. "Desron 11"). 29-30 czerwca 1944 odbył rejs zaopatrzeniowy z Yokosuka na Chichi-jima, a 15-17 lipca z Kure na Okinawę. 15 lipca 1944 przydzielony do 41. Dywizjonu Niszczycieli 10. Flotylli Niszczycieli 3. Floty, wraz z innymi jednostkami typu. Podczas eskorty krążownika "Oyodo", został storpedowany i uszkodzony 12 października 1944 przez amerykański okręt podwodny USS "Trepang" (uszkodzony dziób i wieża dziobowa). Remontowany był w Kure do 20 listopada 1944. +23-30 listopada 1944 eskortował lotniskowiec eskortowy "Junyo" w misji transportowej z Kure do Manili, następnie 1-9 grudnia z Manili do Mako i Sasebo. 31 stycznia 1945 został lekko uszkodzony na mieliźnie koło Oita. Po naprawach w Kure, do marca pozostawał na wodach Japonii. +"Fuyuzuki" wziął udział w ostatniej operacji japońskiej floty Ten-gō 7 kwietnia 1945 – rajdzie z pancernikiem "Yamato". Ratował rozbitków z "Yamato" i zdjął załogę z uszkodzonego niszczyciela "Kasumi", którego dobił torpedami. Lekko uszkodzony ostrzałem amerykańskich samolotów (12 zabitych, 12 rannych). 1 czerwca 41. Dywizjon przemianowano na 31. Flotyllę Eskortową. 20 sierpnia 1945 "Fuyuzuki" został ciężko uszkodzony na Morzu Japońskim koło Moji (Kitakyūshū) na minie lotniczej, która urwała mu rufę, nie wyremontowany do końca wojny. Skreślony z listy floty 20 listopada 1945. W 1948 został złomowany. +Dane techniczne. +"Opis konstrukcji i szczegółowe dane – w artykule niszczyciele typu Akizuki" +Big Gemini + +Big Gemini – planowany amerykański załogowy pojazd kosmiczny, który miał stanowić rozwinięcie konstrukcji kapsuły Gemini. +Historia. +Pod koniec roku 1966, Program Gemini wszedł w swoją schyłkową fazę. Jednocześnie do ukończenia zbliżała się faza projektowa Załogowego Laboratorium Orbitalnego ("Manned Orbiting Laboratory" - MOL) należącego do amerykańskich Sił Powietrznych. Aby wykorzystać zespół, firma McDonnell przystąpiła do opracowywania pojazdu logistycznego dla planowanej stacji w oparciu o istniejącą technologię. +Big Gemini ("Big G") został zaprezentowany w 1967 roku Siłom Powietrznym przez firmę McDonnell Douglas jako ekonomiczny, załogowy pojazd logistyczny, transportujący zaopatrzenie dla wojskowych i cywilnych stacji kosmicznych. Miał przewyższać skromne możliwości transportowe istniejących pojazdów (Apollo i Gemini), a jego opracowanie - przy wykorzystaniu istniejących technologii Gemini i Apollo - nie wpływałoby na rozwój priorytetowego programu Apollo. Pierwsze loty planowano na rok 1971. +Całkowita masa i ładowność pojazdu zależałyby w znacznym stopniu od wykorzystanej rakiety nośnej. Wersja przewidziana dla rakiety Titan 3M miałaby masę 15 600 kg, i dostarczałaby na orbitę na wysokości 480 kilometrów 9 osób i 2,5 tony ładunku. Wersja NASA INT-20, przewidziana do wykorzystania z rakietą Saturn INT-20, miała ważyć 47 300 kg i dostarczać 9 osób i 27 300 kg ładunku na tę samą orbitę. Wersja dla rakiety Titan 3G miałaby całkowitą masę 59 000 kg i mogłaby zostać wyniesiona na orbitę o wysokości 150 x 220 km. +Projekt Big Gemini nie wszedł jednak nigdy w fazę realizacji. Po odwołaniu MOL i ograniczeniu ambitnych planów stacji kosmicznej NASA (ostatecznie przyjęły one formę laboratorium Skylab), projekt stracił rację bytu. +Komitet Praw Człowieka + +Komitet Praw Człowieka (ang. "Human Rights Committee") - organ kontrolny powołany na mocy artykułu 28. Międzynarodowego Paktu Praw Obywatelskich i Politycznych z 16 grudnia 1966 roku. Jego celem jest monitorowanie przestrzegania postanowień Paktu oraz jego dwóch Protokołów Fakultatywnych. +Skład. +Komitet składa się z 18 niezależnych ekspertów o wysokim poziomie moralnym i uznanej kompetencji w dziedzinie praw człowieka, przy czym wskazane jest (choć nie wymagane) by przynajmniej część z członków Komitetu miała doświadczenie prawnicze. Osoby te wybierane są w tajnym głosowaniu przez państwa, które ratyfikowały Międzynarodowy Pakt Praw Obywatelskich i Politycznych, spośród zgłoszonych przez siebie kandydatów. +Kadencja. +Kadencja członków Komitetu trwa 4 lata, przy czym połowa składu jest odnawiana co dwa lata. Możliwa jest reelekcja tej samej osoby. +Komitet zbiera się 3 razy w roku, na sesje trwające około 3 tygodni. W marcu odbywają się one w siedzibie głównej Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych w Nowym Jorku, w lipcu i listopadzie w siedzibie ONZ w Genewie. W razie potrzeby możliwe jest zwoływanie sesji nadzwyczajnych. +Kompetencje i zadania. +Obywatele państw-stron Paktu, które ratyfikowały dodatkowo Pierwszy Protokół Fakultatywny, mają możliwość składania skarg indywidualnych o naruszenie postanowień Paktu do Komitetu Praw Człowieka. Polska ratyfikowała Protokół Fakultatywny w 1991 roku. Skarga do Komitetu może być złożona jedynie po wyczerpaniu krajowych środków odwoławczych, chyba że prowadziłoby to do nadmiernego przedłużania postępowania. Wniosek zostanie odrzucony jeśli sprawa jest rozpatrywana w innej międzynarodowej procedurze skargowej (np. przed Europejskim Trybunałem Praw Człowieka). Generalnie skargę powinna składać ofiara naruszenia praw przewidzianych w Pakcie. Po precedensowej sprawie "Toonen p. Australii" z 1994 roku, można próbować też składać tzw. "actio popularis" (skargę w interesie ogółu), czyli na hipotetyczne naruszenie swoich praw np. poprzez odbiegające od standardów Paktów prawodawstwo krajowe. Warunkiem dopuszczenia takiej skargi jest wykazanie, że samo istnienie pewnych rozwiązań prawnych w porządku danego państwa może wywierać określone (także pośrednie) skutki na sytuację osoby skarżącej. +Choć Komitet przypomina w swoim działaniu Trybunał, to dyskusyjne jest, w jakim zakresie jego decyzje wiążą państwa-strony Paktu. Niektórzy traktują decyzje komitetu jako niewiążącą opinię, do której dostosowanie się zależy ostatecznie od woli danego państwa. +Komitet może rozpatrywać także skargi państw-stron zarzucające innym państwom-stronom łamanie Paktu (skarga międzypaństwowa), jednak w praktyce państwa nie korzystają z tej możliwości. +Kolejną kompetencją Komitetu jest przyjmowanie i rozpatrywanie sprawozdań przedkładanych przez państwa-strony Paktu na temat ochrony praw człowieka na ich terytorium. Komitet zgodnie z mechanizmem zawartym w Pakcie Praw Obywatelskich i Politycznych uprawniony jest do przyjmowania i rozpatrywania sprawozdań dotyczących postępów jakich państwa-strony Paktu dokonały w dziedzinie zawartych w pakcie regulacji prawno-człowieczych. Większość z państw zwleka ze składaniem sprawozdań, część z nich nie złożyła nawet pierwszego. Komitet poza ponaglaniem państw nie jest w stanie w tej kwestii nic zrobić. +Oprócz tego Komitet wydaje tzw. Uwagi Ogólne (ang. "General Comments") do poszczególnych artykułów Paktu, w których wskazuje jak artykuły te powinny być interpretowane przez państwa oraz w jaki sposób należy je realizować w ramach krajowych porządków prawnych. +Raz w roku Komitet składa sprawozdanie ze swojej działalności Zgromadzeniu Ogólnemu ONZ, za +pośrednictwem Rady Gospodarczej i Społecznej ONZ. +W przerwie sesji Komitetu organizowane są też umożliwiające szerszy dialog dotyczący praw człowieka tzw. sesje alternatywne, w których uczestniczą np. przedstawiciele OBWE, Rady Europy, czy organizacji pozarządowych. Podobnie możliwe jest przyjmowanie tzw. sprawozdań alternatywnych pochodzących najczęściej od NGO-sów, w wypadku niewywiązywania się państw ze składania sprawozdań. Takie "pozarządowe" sprawozdania, mimo że mogą być ogłaszane przez Komitet w corocznym sprawozdaniu, to nie mają statusu równego sprawozdaniom rządowym. +Uwaga. +Komitetu Praw Człowieka nie należy mylić z Komisją Praw Człowieka. Komisja była organem pomocniczym Rady Gospodarczej i Społecznej, czyli była podporządkowana ONZ i w 2006 została zastąpiona przez Radę Praw Człowieka. Komitet natomiast nie jest organem ONZ, choć jest z nią funkcjonalnie powiązany. Komitet jest organem traktatowym. +Geotropizm + +Geotropizm (grawitropizm) – to reakcja organów roślinnych na zmianę ich położenia względem wektora grawitacji. +Przykładem może być umieszczenie rośliny w położeniu horyzontalnym, jej pęd główny wzniesie się w górę, a korzeń skieruje się w dół. Reakcja pędu jest skierowana odwrotnie do kierunku działania siły grawitacji, mówimy tu o grawitropizmie ujemnym. Korzeń główny wygina się zgodnie z działaniem siły grawitacji jest to grawitropizm dodatni. +W odczytywaniu bodźca grawitacyjnego podstawową rolę spełniają ziarna skrobi zawarte w amyloplastach, które przemieszczają się w komórkach z siłą ciężkości i uciskają siateczki śródplazmatyczne znajdujące się w pobliżu plazmolemmy. +Reakcje wzrostowa organu, wywoływana redystrybucją auksyny, zachodzi, dla przykładu, po zmianie położenia łodygi z pionowego na poziome, co skutkuje zwiększeniem stężenia auksyny po stronie dolnej (zgodnie z hipotezą Cholodny-Went). Szybszy wzrost dolnej strony powoduje wygięcie łodygi w górę. +Obserwuje się także wzrost stężenia jonów po stronie górnej, co może być przyczyną większego usztywnienia ściany komórkowej i zahamowania wzrostu. +W przypadku korzenia ważną rolę odgrywa czapeczka, gdyż jest to cześć korzenia odpowiedzialna za percepcje bodźca grawitacyjnego. Usunięcie czapeczki nie powoduje zahamowania wzrostu korzenia, jednak staje się on niezdolny do reakcji na bodziec grawitacyjny. +W wyspecjalizowanych komórkach czapeczki korzeniowej (statocytach) znajdują się plastydy wypełnione skrobią (tzw. statolity), które wraz ze zmianą położenia korzenia przesuwają się zgodnie z wektorem siły grawitacji. Otrzymana w ten sposób informacja zostaje przekazana do rosnącej części korzenia. Pojawia się różnica w szybkości wzrostu dolnej i górnej strony i korzeń wygina się w dół. +Należy zwrócić szczególną uwagę na jego doskonałą widoczność podczas zachodzących grawitacyjnych ruchów masowych tj. podczas pełźnięcia gruntu. Wówczas pnie drzew wyginają się u podstawy aby utrzymać pionową postawę. +Lufa poligonalna + +Lufa poligonalna – lufa broni strzeleckiej, której przekrój poprzeczny ma kształt wielokąta foremnego i zmienia swoje położenie wzdłuż części prowadzącej przewodu według linii śrubowej. Wierzchołki wielokąta są zwykle zaokrąglone, a boki wykonuje się w kształcie łuków. +Taki kształt przekroju wpływa na zmniejszenie oporu występującego podczas przechodzenia pocisku przez lufę, ogranicza również wypływ gazów prochowych z lufy w czasie poprzedzającym wylot pocisku oraz ułatwia czyszczenie i konserwację przewodu lufy. Dzięki swoim właściwościom lufa poligonalna charakteryzuje się zwiększoną trwałością oraz zdolnością nadawania większych prędkości początkowych niż lufy bruzdowe. +Pierwsza lufa poligonalna została skonstruowana w Wielkiej Brytanii w Manchesterskich Zakładach Artyleryjskich, kierowanych wówczas przez sir Josepha Whitwortha. W 1854 roku w opracowanym przez niego karabinie zastosował lufę ciągnioną, której przekrój poprzeczny miał kształt sześcioboku foremnego z zaokrąglonymi krawędziami. +Obecnie lufy poligonalne są najczęściej stosowane w broni strzeleckiej, zwłaszcza w pistoletach, np. taką lufę posiadają pistolety "P9", "USP Expert" i karabin wyborowy PSG1 opracowane w niemieckiej firmie Heckler i Koch. Lufy poligonalne stosują także firmy Glock, Magnum Research czy też Česká Zbrojovka. +Joseph Berchtold + +Joseph Berchtold (ur. 6 marca 1897 w Ingolstadt, zm. 23 sierpnia 1962), dowódca SS (Reichsführer-SS) w latach 1926-1927. +Po zakończeniu edukacji w 1915 w gimnazjum w Monachium uczestnik I wojny światowej. Pełnił służbę na froncie zachodnim. Po wojnie studiował dziennikarstwo na Uniwersytecie w Monachium. Od 1920 członek Niemieckiej Partii Robotniczej (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, DAP), założonej przez ślusarza Antona Drexlera i dziennikarza Karla Harrera, a następnie przemianowanej na Narodowosocjalistyczną Niemiecką Partię Robotników (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, (NSDAP), w której posiadał numer partyjny 750. Pełnił kolejno funkcję II kasjera i I kasjera NSDAP, aż do wystąpienia z partii 29 lipca 1921. +W 1922 był założycielem i dowódcą liczącego 100 osób oddziału SA w Monachium. W marcu 1923 objął dowództwo nad tzw. Warty Sztabowej (Stabswache) – oddziałem stanowiącym obstawę Adolfa Hitlera, a następnie dowodził Stosstrupp Adolf Hitler – formacją, w którą została przekształcona Stabswache. +Jako dowódca Oddziału Uderzeniowego Adolfa Hitlera (Stosstrupp "Adolf Hitler"), Berchtold uczestniczył w Puczu monachijskim, w dn. 9 listopada 1923, w którym został ranny. Musiał się potem ukrywać i wyemigrował do Tyrolu. W latach 1924-1926 był dowódcą SA w okręgu Karyntii (Kärnten), a od 1925 – potwierdził swoje członkostwo w NSDAP (tym razem otrzymał numer partyjny 964). +W kwietniu 1926 wrócił z emigracji do Niemiec i został dowódcą SA w Monachium. Z dniem 1 listopada 1926 został drugim po Juliusie Schrecku dowódcą SS, i pierwszym, który nosił wprowadzony wówczas tytuł Reichsfuhrera SS. W trakcie pełnienia tej funkcji Berchtold nie potrafił skutecznie opierać się dążeniom kierownictwa SA do ograniczania i hamowania rozwoju liczebnego SS. +Z kierowania SS Berchtold zrezygnował 1 marca 1927, na rzecz swojego zastępcy – Erharda Heidena, w proteście przeciwko działaniom dowództwa SA zmierzającym do ograniczenia samodzielności SS. Nie przeszkodziło mu to jednak w zrobieniu dalszej kariery w szeregach SA, uwieńczonej rangą SA-Obergruppenfuhrera. +W latach 1927 - 1943 Berchtold udzielał się m.in. w prasie nazistowskiej, kierując działami literackimi w Völkischer Beobachter i w Der SA-Mann. W latach 1933 - 1935 Berchtold był radnym w Radzie Miejskiej w Monachium, zaś od 29 marca 1936 do 8 maja 1945 – posłem do Reichstagu. +Live CD + +Live CD – system operacyjny (zazwyczaj z dołączonym oprogramowaniem) zainstalowany na nośniku (CD, DVD, HD DVD, Blu-ray, pamięć USB – Live USB) z własnym programem rozruchowym, umożliwiający uruchomienie go w pamięci RAM, bez potrzeby instalowania na dysku twardym komputera. +Należy nadmienić, że po uruchomieniu systemu z nośnika CD, zmiany dokonane w systemie podczas jego pracy nie zostaną zapisane na nośnik. Tym samym ponowne uruchomienie systemu z tego samego nośnika w trybie "Live" spowoduje, że korzystać będziemy z systemu dokładanie takiego samego, jak przy poprzednim uruchomieniu. +Niektóre Live CD posiadają narzędzia instalacyjne pozwalające na zainstalowanie ich na dysku twardym komputera oraz innych pamięciach masowych, jak np. pendrive. +Większość Live CD posiada możliwość dostępu do wewnętrznych albo zewnętrznych dysków twardych, dyskietek i innych pamięci masowych. +Najczęściej spotyka się Live CD z systemami operacyjnymi bazującymi na jądrze Linux (tzw. dystrybucje). Live CD mogą także zawierać inne systemy, takie jak Mac OS, OS X, AROS, BeOS, FreeBSD oraz Microsoft Windows. Pierwszym systemem w postaci Live CD był Mac OS w wersji 7. +Program SYSLINUX służy do załadowania Live CD opartych na jądrze Linux, podobnie do dystrybucji uruchamianych z dyskietek. +Na komputerach PC startowy CD-ROM korzysta ze specyfikacji El Torito, zgodnie z którą na CD-ROM-ie znajduje się specjalny plik, traktowany przez komputer jak obraz dyskietki startowej. +Wiele Live CD, bazujących na jądrze Linuksa, używa skompresowanego obrazu systemu plików, często wraz z "cloop" skompresowanym urządzeniem blokowym loop, co generalnie podwaja efektywną pojemność. Dzięki czemu typowy Knoppix zawiera około 1200 pakietów oprogramowania. +We współczesnych systemach Windows istnieje specjalna wersja nazywana Windows PE. Możliwe jest uruchomienie jej z płyty CD lub DVD oraz z innych nośników. System ten pozwala na uruchamianie dowolnych programów z wyjątkiem powłoki Windows Explorer. Jest wykorzystywany m.in. przez zestaw programów instalujących system Microsoft Windows na dysku twardym, ale pozwala również na normalną interaktywną pracę użytkownika. +Pierwsze komputery PC nie posiadały dysków twardych, system DOS znajdował się na dyskietce. Dziś nazwalibyśmy to Live FDD. +Mini-LiveCD. +Mini-LiveCD, zwana także startową wizytówką, to Live CD umieszczony na CD-ROM-ie o kształtach wizytówki. Mini-LiveCD może zawierać 50 MB danych lub 100 MB skompresowanych danych. Jedną z najpopularniejszych dystrybucji Mini-LiveCD i często uznawana za najbardziej użyteczną jest Damn Small Linux. +Emulacja. +Istnieje wiele emulatorów, które pozwalają na wypróbowanie Live CD, bez potrzeby wypalania go na CD-ROM-ie i uruchomiania na komputerze. Najszerzej architekturę i386 wirtualizuje program VMware, Parallels Desktop (Mac OS X), Parallels Workstation (Windows) oraz bezpłatny (do użytku domowego) VirtualBox, który nie ustępuje możliwościom programów komercyjnym. Inne platformy emulują programy QEMU, PearPC i Bochs, który potrafi emulować architekturę x86 jak i PowerPC. +Niektóre dystrybucje systemu Linux (np. Damn Small Linux) można także uruchamiać na bezpłatnym Microsoft Virtual PC. +La strada (film) + +La strada (tytuł oryginalny) – włoski film fabularny z 1954 w reżyserii Federico Felliniego, przez krytykę określany zgodnie jako jedno z arcydzieł tego reżysera, doniosłe w historii sztuki filmowej. +Tytuł. +Wyrazy tytułowe (rodzajnik z rzeczownikiem) znaczą po włosku "droga, wędrówka". Tytuł w kontekście akcji filmu ma sens kolokwialnego wyrażenia przyimkowego lub imiesłowu: "Na drodze" lub "Wędrując" (co w pełni oddałby zwrot "la strada facendo"). W polskich kinach i telewizji film wyświetlany był pod oryginalnym tytułem, którego nie tłumaczono też w polskich pracach krytycznych. +Melodyjnie brzmiący tytuł włoski w wielu krajach nie był tłumaczony w toku dystrybucji kinowej, także w pracach filmoznawczych. We Francji (jak w Polsce) funkcjonuje wersja oryginalna tytułu, zamiast przekładu. W Niemczech stosuje się obocznie tytuł oryginalny i jego zdeformowany przekład: "Das Lied der Straße" (który ujednoznacznia tytuł w kierunku melodramatycznym). W krajach anglosaskich tytuł tłumaczono jako "The Road" ("Droga"). +Zarys fabuły. +Fabuła osnuta jest wokół motywu drogi, a większość zdjęć zrealizowano w plenerze. Film stanowi odrealnioną, poetycką historię o uczuciach i braku umiejętności ich wyrażania, o odpowiedzialności za drugiego człowieka oraz o cierpieniu, osadzoną w realiach powojennych Włoch – ma wymiar gatunkowy paraboli o potrzebie miłości. +Para głównych bohaterów to wrażliwa i lekko upośledzona umysłowo dziewczyna Gelsomina, podróżująca z prymitywnym i brutalnym cyrkowym siłaczem Zampano, dającym przedstawienia w różnych miasteczkach. Mimo doznawanych od niego upokorzeń, Gelsomina kocha go. Jest jednak mało pomocna w pracy, zamknięta we własnym świecie. Zampano porzuca ją. Po latach, usłyszawszy jej ulubioną melodię (którą nuci kobieta, kojarząca Gelsominę i mówiąca, że zmarła jakiś czas temu), Zampano uświadomi sobie, że także ją kochał. W finalnej scenie kamera, zwrócona w dół, ukazuje go płaczącego nocą nad brzegiem morza +W rolach głównych wystąpili Anthony Quinn i brawurowa aktorsko (w ocenach filmoznawców) Giulietta Masina (żona reżysera). +Wysmakowane plastycznie zdjęcia czarno-białe (zwłaszcza nieco odrealnione pejzaże), pełna emocji muzyka zaprzyjaźnionego z Fellinim Nino Roty (z przejmującym, lirycznie, ujętym "motywem Gelsominy") zbliżają styl filmu do realizmu magicznego, czyniąc tę historię przypowieścią, osnutą fabularnie wokół toposu wędrówki. +Nagrody i wyróżnienia. +Oprócz wyróżnień europejskich, film "La strada" został nagrodzony w 1956 Oscarem dla najlepszego filmu nieanglojęzycznego. +W roku 1995, z okazji stulecia narodzin kina, film znalazł się na watykańskiej liście 45 filmów fabularnych, które propagują szczególne wartości religijne, moralne lub artystyczne. +Luty 2005 w sporcie + +Zobacz też: Luty 2005 • Zmarli w lutym 2005 • +__NOTOC__ +Komisja Ustalania Nazw Miejscowości + +Komisja Ustalania Nazw Miejscowości przy Ministerstwie Administracji Publicznej (KUNM) – państwowy organ administracyjny powstały w 1945, działający głównie na terenach tzw. Ziem Odzyskanych. +Zadaniem KUNM było ponowne nazwanie miejscowości i obiektów fizjograficznych (rzek, jezior, pasm górskich itp.) tak, aby przywrócić – lecz często nadać nową – polską, nazwę. +Na jej czele stanął prof. Stanisław Srokowski z Warszawy (geograf). W jej składzie znaleźli się trzej językoznawcy: prof. dr Kazimierz Nitsch, prezes Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności, prof. Mikołaj Rudnicki z Poznania, prof. dr Witold Taszycki z Krakowa. +Na pierwszej konferencji ustalono nazwy dla miejscowości liczących powyżej 5000 mieszkańców, podczas drugiej ustalone zostały nazwy miejscowości do 5000 mieszkańców oraz niektórych stacji kolejowych, trzecia konferencja ustaliła nazwy reszty stacji kolejowych oraz miejscowości liczących 500 do 1000 mieszkańców, na czwartej konferencji ustalone zostały nazwy miejscowości liczących od 250 do 500 mieszkańców (dla byłych Prus Wschodnich również części osad liczących 500 do 1000 mieszkańców), piąta konferencja ustaliła nazwy dla wsi liczących poniżej 250 mieszkańców (w przypadku Prus 250 do 500). Resztę nazw ustaliła ostatnia, szósta konferencja. W latach 1946-1951 przywrócono lub ustalono nowe nazwy polskie dla ok. 32 tys. miejscowości oraz ok. 3 tys. obiektów fizjograficznych. Opracowany wówczas materiał nazewniczy Ziem Odzyskanych ujęty został w publikacji "Słownik Nazw Geograficznych Polski Zachodniej i Północnej" pod redakcją prof. Stanisława Rosponda (również przewodniczącego podkomisji śląskiej). +Funkcjonowały pokomisje regionalne: m.in. krakowska, poznańska, dla Śląska, dla nazewnictwa Sudetów, Pomorza Zachodniego i Ziemi Lubuskiej, dla Pomorza Gdańskiego i Prus Wschodnich (określanych wtedy mianem Pomorza Mazowieckiego). +Niejednokrotnie jednak z przyczyn politycznych, jak i braku źródeł, częściowo wskutek słabego przygotowania merytorycznego, tworzono potworki językowe np. niem. "Konradswalde" przezwano Koniecwałdem. Niekiedy tworzono zupełnie nowe nazwy dla uczczenia zasłużonych postaci m.in. +Komisja Ustalania Nazw Miejscowości ustalała nazwy na na Ziemiach Północnych i Zachodnich do 1960 roku. Obecnie W Polsce działają dwie komisje standaryzacyjne. Standaryzacją nazw geograficznych w Polsce zajmuje się Komisja Nazw Miejscowości i Obiektów Fizjograficznych, działająca przy Ministrze Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji. Drugim organem nazewniczym jest Komisja Standaryzacji Nazw Geograficznych poza Granicami Polski, umocowana przy Głównym Geodecie Kraju. W Komisji Ustalania Nazw Miejscowości i Obiektów Fizjograficznych z mocy ustawy przewodniczącym jest językoznawca. +Skierbieszowski Park Krajobrazowy + +Skierbieszowski Park Krajobrazowy – park krajobrazowy we wschodniej części Polski, na Wyżynie Lubelskiej (Działy Grabowieckie), w województwie lubelskim. +Park jest położony na terenie gmin: Izbica, Kraśniczyn, Krasnystaw, Grabowiec, Miączyn, Sitno, Stary Zamość i Skierbieszów. +Celem powołania parku jest zachowanie unikatowych walorów przyrodniczych, historycznych, kulturowych i krajobrazowych Działów Grabowieckich, najwyższej części Wyżyny Lubelskiej (190-313 m n.p.m.) oraz mozaiki siedlisk muraw kserotermicznych i lasów bukowych przy północno-wschodniej granicy ich gromadnego występowania z charakterystyczną florą i fauną. +Głównym walorem krajobrazu Skierbieszowskiego Parku Krajobrazowego jest falisto-pagórkowata rzeźba terenu z systemem głębokich wąwozów, wytworzonych w grubej – miejscami na kilkanaście metrów, warstwie lessu, pokrywających niemal cały Park. +Flora. +Lasy zajmują 11% powierzchni Parku. Dominują lasy grądowe z dużym udziałem buka. Inne gatunki tworzące drzewostan to: grab, lipa, wiąz, jawor i sosna. +Na zboczach wzgórz występują fragmenty dąbrów świetlistych, a w wąwozach – wilgotne grądy i łęgi z udziałem jesionu, olchy, klonu i jawora. Odsłonięte, nasłonecznione zbocza wzgórz i wąwozów oraz miedze i pobocza dróg porastają zespoły roślinności ciepłolubnej, dobrze rozwijające się na żyznym lessowym podłożu i bogate w rzadkie gatunki stepowe. +W runie lasów spotyka się liczne rzadkie gatunki górskie, takie jak: paprotnik górski, żywiec gruczołowaty, przetacznik górski, parzydło leśne i widłak wroniec. Najwięcej rzadkich gatunków stwierdzono jednak wśród roślin stepowych i ciepłolubnych. Należą do nich m.in. umieszczone w „Polskiej Czerwonej Księdze Roślin”: wiśnia karłowata, róża francuska i kosaciec bezlistny. Do roślin z tej grupy należą także: miłek wiosenny, wężymord stepowy, ostrożeń pannoński, driakiew żółtawa, zawilec wielkokwiatowy, oman wąskolistny, aster gawędka, traganek duński i traganek wielkokwiatowy. +Fauna. +Fauna Parku ze względu na stosunkowo niedużą ilość lasów i wód jest dość uboga. Wśród ptaków warto wymienić rzadsze gatunki leśne: orlik krzykliwy, dzięcioł średni oraz muchołówki: małą i białoszyją, gatunki terenów otwartych: dudka, ortolana i przepiórkę, sowy: puszczyka, sowę uszatą, pójdźkę, płomykówkę oraz gatunki związane z nielicznymi zbiornikami wodnymi: perkoza rdzawoszyjego i rybitwę czarną. +Rezerwaty. +Na terenie Parku znajdują się dwa rezerwaty przyrody: rezerwat stepowy Rezerwat przyrody Broczówka (6,17 ha), chroniący murawy i fragmenty lasów ze zbiorowiskami roślinności kserotermicznej, oraz rezerwat leśno-krajobrazowy Głęboka Dolina (289,12 ha), chroniący urozmaicony krajobraz z dolinami i wąwozami porośniętymi lasami jaworowo-dębowymi z bukiem. +Zabytki. +oraz ścieżka przyrodniczo-historyczna „Stryjowskie Wąwozy”. +Jedynymi obiektami bazy noclegowej na terenie Parku są gospodarstwa agroturystyczne w Skierbieszowie. Zapleczem noclegowym dla turystów mogą też być pobliskie miasta Zamość i Krasnystaw. +Park wchodzi w skład Zespołu Lubelskich Parków Krajobrazowych. +Minuskuła karolińska + +Minuskuła karolińska, zwana również karoliną — rodzaj bardzo wyraźnego średniowiecznego pisma wypracowany w IX wieku przez kancelarię cesarską Karola Wielkiego we współpracy ze słynną akwizgrańską szkołą pałacową. +Na karolinie wzorowali się XV-wieczni twórcy antykwy humanistycznej, która z kolei stała się prototypem kroju łacińskiej czcionki drukarskiej, a w konsekwencji także dzisiejszych krojów pism powszechnie używanych do tekstów ciągłych (czasopisma, książki, korespondencja biurowa itp.). +Historia. +Prace nad poprawieniem pisma były jednym z elementów reformy szkolnictwa, ta zaś fragmentem zakrojonych na szeroką skalę działań na rzecz podniesienia poziomu kultury, zwanych dziś renesansem karolińskim. Żywy udział w reformie szkolnictwa brały szkoły klasztorne z najsłynniejszą szkołą w opactwie św. Marcina w Tours. Opatem tego klasztoru w latach 796-804 był znany uczony Alkuin, przybyły z Anglii w końcu VIII wieku wraz z wieloma innymi mnichami anglosaskimi i irlandzkimi. +Reforma pisma podjęta przez klasztory zachęcane przez samego cesarza, wyrosła z potrzeby i chęci posiadania estetycznych i łatwych w czytaniu świętych tekstów. Servatus Lupus, opat Ferrieres, przekonał cesarskiego kanclerza Eginharda, że również pisarze królewscy powinni używać antycznej kapitały i iroszkockiej półuncjały. W klasztorze św. Marcina powstały najpiękniejsze kodeksy epoki: Ewangeliarz Lothara, Biblia Karola Łysego, żywot Świętego Marcina dla Quedlinburga. +Tak ze współpracy Tours ze szkołą pałacową, z kontaktu klasycznej półuncjały insularnej z minuskulnym kursywnym pismem merowińskim, powstała okrągła minuskuła karolińska łącząca najlepsze cechy różnych rodzajów pism. Oprócz uncjalnych d, e, f, h, m., p, długiego s, krótkiego t, są tu minuskulne a, e, o, u, obok majuskulnego N i wziętych z kursywy zgrubień długich trzonków liter wysokich. +Minuskuła karolińska była pismem uniwersalnym: doskonale wyglądała w kodeksach, nadawała się również do dokumentów, choć tu wprowadzano ją znacznie wolniej. Ostatecznie jednak do XI w. karolina przyjęła się w kancelariach całej Europy zyskując jednocześnie specyficzną, bardzo bogatą ornamentykę. Z upodobaniem zdobiono zwłaszcza pionowe trzonki mocno wyciągniętych w górę liter wysokich. Szczególnie rozciągnięty był pierwszy wiersz dokumentu. Ta odmiana karoliny nosi nazwę "scriptura longior". +Doskonałość pierwotnej formy minuskuły karolińskiej przejawiała się również w odporności na zmiany stylistyczne. Mijały dziesięciolecia a litery karoliny niemal się nie zmieniały, dlatego bardzo trudno określać chronologię dokumentów pisanych tym rodzajem pisma. Za sprawą minuskuły karolińskiej używanej w kancelariach wszystkich chrześcijańskich państw, możemy mówić o jednolitości graficznej Europy. Powtórnie podobną jednolitość uda się osiągnąć po następnych kilkuset latach, w czasach renesansu. +Andrew Fletcher + +Andrew "Fletch" Fletcher (ur. 8 lipca 1961 w Nottingham) – angielski muzyk, współtwórca grupy Depeche Mode. Gra na instrumentach klawiszowych i na gitarze basowej. +Przed założeniem Depeche Mode: +Ponadto założył grupę Client, którego album oraz single wydaje nakładem własnej wytwórni płytowej Toast Hawaii. +Życie prywatne. +Rodzice Andy'ego: Joy i John +Rodzeństwo: +Powiat wągrowiecki + +Powiat wągrowiecki - powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Wągrowiec. +Tyrystor + +Tyrystor - element półprzewodnikowy składający się z 4 warstw w układzie p-n-p-n. Jest on wyposażony w 3 elektrody, z których dwie są przyłączone do warstw skrajnych, a trzecia do jednej z warstw środkowych. Elektrody przyłączone do warstw skrajnych nazywa się katodą (K) i anodą (A), a elektroda przyłączona do warstwy środkowej – bramką (G, od ang. "gate" – bramka). +Działanie. +Tyrystor przewodzi w kierunku od anody do katody. Jeżeli anoda jest o dodatnim potencjale względem katody, to złącza skrajne typu p-n są spolaryzowane w kierunku przewodzenia, a złącze środkowe n-p w kierunku zaporowym. +Dopóki do bramki nie doprowadzi się napięcia, tyrystor nie przewodzi prądu. Doprowadzenie do bramki dodatniego napięcia względem katody spowoduje przepływ prądu bramkowego i właściwości zaporowe środkowego złącza zanikają w ciągu kilku mikrosekund; następuje wyzwolenie tyrystora. Moment ten nazywany bywa "zapłonem" tyrystora (określenie to pochodzi z czasów, kiedy funkcję tyrystorów pełniły lampy elektronowe – tyratrony, w których przewodzenie objawiało się świeceniem zjonizowanego gazu). +Wyzwolony tyrystor nadal przewodzi prąd po ustaniu sygnału sterującego bramką (brak przyłożonego napięcia do bramki), co jest jego niewątpliwą zaletą (brak dodatkowych strat sterowania). Traci on te właściwości dopiero po zaniku prądu obciążenia (poniżej wartości prądu przewodzenia, minimalny prąd podtrzymania) lub przy odwrotnej polaryzacji elektrod. Wówczas konieczny jest ponowny zapłon tyrystora. +Zastosowanie. +Tyrystory znalazły zastosowania w wielu dziedzinach. Jako sterowniki prądu stałego są stosowane w stabilizatorach napięcia stałego i w automatyce silników prądu stałego. Jako sterowniki prądu przemiennego – w automatyce silników indukcyjnych i w technice oświetleniowej. Jako łączniki i przerywacze prądu stałego i przemiennego – w automatyce napędu elektrycznego, końcowe tory falowników, układach stabilizacji napięcia i w technice zabezpieczeń. Jako przemienniki częstotliwości – w automatyce silników indukcyjnych, technice ultradźwięków, w urządzeniach zapłonowych silników spalinowych, gdzie ma duże znaczenie szybkość narastania prądu w cewce zapłonowej, a więc płynącego przez tyrystor - od tego zależy wysokość indukowanego przez nią napięcia. +Są stosowane w energetycznych układach przekształtnikowych najwyższych napięć i mocy. Przykładem tego jest stacja przekształtnikowa w Ustce zasilająca stałoprądowy kabel podmorski łączący polski system energetyczny ze szwedzkim na napięcie znamionowe 400 kV. +Były stosowane w stopniach mocy układów odchylenia poziomego strumienia elektronowego w kineskopach telewizorów np. pierwszy kolorowy Neptun 501A, skąd zostały jednak szybko i całkowicie wyparte przez tranzystory impulsowe z powodu niekorzystnych właściwości układów tyrystorowych. +Terapsydy + +Terapsydy, gady ssakokształtne (Therapsida) – rząd synapsydów, który pojawił się we wczesnym permie i stał się dominującą grupą kręgowców lądowych w połowie tego okresu. Zgodnie z zasadami kladystyki do terapsydów, aby były taksonem monofiletycznym należy również zaliczyć wywodzącą się z cynodontów gromadę ssaków. +Do rzędu należą zarówno formy roślinożerne (Anomodontia) jak i drapieżne (Theriodontia) w wielkiej różnorodności form i przystosowań. W ich czaszce nastąpiła zmiana układu kości szczęki gdzie rozrastająca się kość żuchwy przesunęła trzy kości szczęki w górę, które tam zmalały i przekształciły się w kostki słuchowe w uchu wewnętrznym co zdecydowanie wyostrzyło słuch. Kończyny były w różnym stopniu wyprostowane i ustawione pod ciałem zwierzęcia. Podejrzewa się, że niektóre z nich osiągnęły stałocieplność i pokryte były sierścią. Drapieżne teriodonty (dokładnie: ich podrząd cynodonty), u których nastąpiło zróżnicowanie uzębienia dały początek prymitywnym ssakom. +Większość niessaczych terapsydów wymarła w triasie, chociaż niektóre przetrwały co najmniej do późnej jury. +Systematyka według BioLib +Szmergiel + +Szmergiel - skała metamorficzna, składająca się głównie z drobnoziarnistego korundu, hematytu (lub magnetytu) i kwarcu; zazwyczaj jest produktem przeobrażenia boksytów; w przemyśle stosowany jako materiał ścierny. +Yukikaze + +Yukikaze (jap. 雪風, pol. "Śnieżny wiatr") – japoński niszczyciel z okresu II wojny światowej. Najsłynniejszy niszczyciel typu "Kagerō" i jedyny z tego typu, który przetrwał II wojnę światową. +Stępkę pod niszczyciel "Yukikaze" położono 2 sierpnia 1938 roku w stoczni w Sasebo. Wodowany w dniu 24 marca 1939, wcielony do służby 20 stycznia 1940 roku. +30 lipca 1945 został uszkodzony na minie. +6 lipca 1947 roku przekazany Chinom w ramach reparacji i wcielony do służby w flocie chińskiej otrzymał nazwę Tan Yang. W aktywnej służbie do 1956 roku. W maju 1970 uszkodzony przez tajfun i złomowany. +Kasumi + +Okręt zbudowano w stoczni Uraga Dock. Położenie stępki 1 grudnia 1936, wodowanie 18 listopada 1937, wejście do służby 24 czerwca 1939. Nazwę "Kasumi" nosił także wcześniejszy niszczyciel typu "Akatsuki" zbudowany w 1902. +Służba. +W chwili rozpoczęcia II wojny światowej na Pacyfiku służył wraz z bliźniaczym "Arare" w składzie 18. dywizjonu niszczycieli w 1. Zespole Uderzeniowym dokonującym ataku na Pearl Harbor (grudzień 1940). Podczas ataku, wraz z "Arare" osłaniał tankowce floty. Następnie w dniach 20-23 stycznia 1942 osłaniał lotniskowce podczas ataków lotnictwa pokładowego na Rabaul, Kavieng, Lae, Salamaua, 19 lutego podczas ataku na Port Darwin, a 5 marca 1942 na Tjilatjap. Pod koniec marca i w kwietniu 1942 eskortował lotniskowce podczas rajdu na Ocean Indyjski. Brał udział w bitwie o Midway 3-6 czerwca 1942 w składzie zespołu inwazyjnego, bez starć z przeciwnikiem. Ciężko uszkodzony 5 lipca 1942 koło Kiski (Aleuty) przez amerykański okręt podwodny USS Growler, który zatopił wtedy "Arare". "Kasumi" utracił wtedy dziób i 10 zabitych. Naprawy w Japonii trwały do czerwca 1943. Następnie okręt pełnił zadania eskortowe. Na przełomie grudnia 1943 i stycznia 1944 wzmocniono mu lekkie uzbrojenie przeciwlotnicze kosztem jednej zdjętej wieży z dwoma działami 127 mm. Brał udział w bitwie o Leyte - starciu w cieśninie Surigao 25 października 1944 i ocalał jako jedyny niszczyciel typu "Asashio". Pełnił następnie zadania eskortowe, a w grudniu bombardował wyspę Mindoro. Zatopiony 7 kwietnia 1945 na zachód od Nagasaki przez amerykańskie lotnictwo pokładowe, podczas rajdu eskadry wiceadmirała Seiichi Ito w kierunku wyspy Okinawa (operacja Ten-gō). +Olej z orzechów arachidowych + +Olej z orzechów arachidowych (ziemnych) – olej roślinny otrzymywany z orzechów arachidowych ("Arachis hypogaea"). W postaci tłoczonej na zimno jest przejrzystym, żółtym olejem o intensywnym, orzechowym smaku i zapachu. Rafinowany olej nie ma prawie w ogóle zapachu. +Polonia Technica + +Polonia Technica, Inc., lub Stowarzyszenie Inżynierów i Techników Polskich w Stanach Zjednoczonych jest organizacją niedochodową, utworzoną w 1941 roku w Nowym Jorku, przez grupę polskich inżynierów, którzy, po wybuchu drugiej wojny światowej, znaleźli się w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Organizacja służy jako profesjonalne i towarzyskie forum dla polskich inżynierów i techników zamieszkałych w USA. +Zrodla. +Archiwa Polonia Technica: http://www.polonia-technica.org +Otwarte Forum Polonia Technica: www.polonia-technica.org/forum3 +Mikroblog Polonia Technica na Facebook: www.facebook.com/pages/Polonia-Technica-Inc/168339419860896 +Steve Reich + +Steve Reich (Stephen Michael Reich, ur. 3 października 1936 w Nowym Jorku) – amerykański kompozytor, jeden z pionierów minimalizmu w muzyce. +Dwukrotny zdobywca nagrody Grammy. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i edukacja. +Steve Reich urodził się w Nowym Jorku w rodzinie żydowskich emigrantów. Jego ojciec był prawnikiem, zaś matka okazjonalnie zajmowała się pisaniem oraz wykonywaniem piosenek. Rodzice Reicha rozwiedli się niedługo po jego urodzeniu, został wychowywany przez ojca w Nowym Jorku, matka zaś przeprowadziła się do Los Angeles. +Edukację muzyczną rozpoczął od nauki gry na fortepianie w wieku 7 lat. Przerwał ją w wieku 10 lat osiągając poziom dla średniozaawansowanych. W wieku 14 lat rozpoczął naukę gry na perkusji pod wpływem bebopu oraz wykonawców takich jak Miles Davis, Charlie Parker czy też John Coltrane. Słuchał muzyki poważnej z okresu baroku oraz późniejszej i zaczynał marzyć o karierze kompozytora. Interesował się jazzem, uczył się gry w tym stylu na perkusji pod okiem Rolanda Kahloffa, muzyka Filharmonii Nowojorskiej. W wieku 15 lat założył swój pierwszy zespół grający bebop. +W roku 1953 rozpoczął studia w Cornell University. Za ich kierunek obrał filozofię, a nie kompozycję, jak planował od 14 roku życia. Uznał, porównując się z Mozartem i Bartokiem, iż jest już zbyt stary na rozpoczynanie kariery kompozytora. W roku 1957 obronił z wyróżnieniem pracę licencjacką na temat myśli austriackiego filozofa Ludwika Wittgensteina i ukończył studia filozoficzne. W ich trakcie pozostawał pod wpływem profesora historii Wiliama Austina, który wzbudzał w Reichu zainteresowanie współczesną muzyką poważną, muzyką ludową oraz historią muzyki. Na ten okres życia kompozytora przypada odrzucenie rodzinnej tradycji judaistycznej na rzecz fascynacji jogą. +Po ukończeniu studiów wrócił do Nowego Jorku, gdzie przez dwa lata uczęszczał na prywatne lekcje kompozycji u Halla Overtona. W latach 1958-1961 studiował kompozycję w Julliard School of Music. Tam poznał Philipa Glassa, z którym współpracował zarówno na polu muzyki jak i interesów. Wśród jego nauczycieli byli między innymi William Bergsma i Vincent Perchetti. +W roku 1961 przeprowadził się do San Francisco. Kontynuował naukę u Dariusa Milhauda i Luciano Berio w Mills College w Oakland, gdzie otrzymał tytuł magistra w 1963. +Lata sześćdziesiąte. +W roku 1963 Steve Reich rozpoczął współpracę z San Francisco Tape Music Center. Prowadził eksperymenty z muzyką konkretną i elektroniczną. Efektem tych prób był pierwszy utwór kompozytora "Pitch Charts" napisany na dwa dowolne instrumenty. +W tym samym roku napisał również ścieżkę dźwiękową do filmu "The Plastic Haircut". W 1964 roku współpracując z Terrym Rileyem, wziął udział w premierze jego utworu pt. "In C", który stał się symbolem minimalizmu w muzyce. Prostota tego utworu wpłynęła na późniejszą twórczość Reicha. Przenosił on własne teorie dotyczące muzyki na rzeczywistość tworząc utwory z udziałem taśmy magnetofonowej. Są to "Music for Three or More Pianos" wykonywane przez fortepian i magnetofon oraz napisany wyłącznie na taśmę "Livelihood", oba utwory powstały w 1964. +W roku 1965 powstał pierwszy utwór kompozytora zaprezentowany publiczności. "It's Gonna Rain", to trwająca przeszło siedemnaście minut kompozycja składająca się z dwóch części, oparta na technice zapętlonych fraz, krótszych w pierwszej i dłuższych w drugiej części utworu. Taśma, na której Reich tworzył pętle, zawiera nagranie wypowiadanej przez ulicznego kaznodzieję apokaliptycznej wizji zarejestrowane na przedmieściach San Francisco. Nagranie zapowiadające deszcz bomb zostało zapętlone i przesunięte przy pomocy dwóch nieskomplikowanych magnetofonów. Dźwięk początkowo chaotyczny, w końcu zanika, warstwa rytmiczna zaś, początkowo uporządkowana zostaje wielokrotnie podzielona, te zabiegi dają wrażenie chaosu, jednakże twórca w pełni go kontroluje. Podobny zabieg zastosował rok później w utworze "Come out" z 1966. Tym razem kompozytor użył nagrania głosu Daniela Hamma, uczestnika zamieszek w Harlemie z roku 1964 opowiadającego o zatrzymaniu i pobiciu go przez policję. +W 1966 założył zespół "Steve Reich & Musicans", mający wykonywać utwory autorstwa założyciela. Od roku 1967 do 1969 Reich eksperymentował z efektem sprzężenia zwrotnego wywoływanego przy pomocy mikrofonów, wzmacniaczy i głośników. Efektem tych działań są "Pulse Music" i "Pandulum Music". Jednocześnie zgłębiał zagadnienie repetytacji i frazowania w muzyce akustycznej. Tworzył utwory polegające na odtwarzaniu z taśmy uprzednio zarejestrowanej frazy z jednoczesnym odgrywaniem jej na żywo, w szybszym tempie przez muzyka. Na podobnej zasadzie frazowania opracował utwory na muzyka oraz grupę muzyków ("Piano Phase" z 1967, "Four Organs" z 1970) czy też grupę i taśmę ("Violin Phase" z 1970). +Reich wyłożył również ideę kompozycji repetycyjnej w eseju z roku 1968 pt. "Music as a Gradual Process", opublikowanym w "Zapiskach o muzyce" z 1974. +Lata siedemdziesiąte. +Podczas studiów Steve Reich interesował się instrumentami perkusyjnymi. Zainteresowanie to wróciło pod koniec lat 60. i zaowocowało długoletnimi badaniami rytmu. W 1970 kompozytor przez 3 miesiące przebywał w Afryce studiując miejscową muzykę perkusyjną pod okiem uznanego perkusisty plemienia Ewe, Gideona Alorwoye oraz w Instytucie studiów afrykańskich na Uniwersytecie w Akrze. Podróż ta była przejawem fascynacji inną niż zachodnią tradycją muzyczną, która znalazła odbicie w dalszej twórczości kompozytora. +W 1971 roku Reich, pod wpływem podróży do Ghany, stworzył ostatnią, a jednocześnie najsłynniejszą kompozycje opartą na frazach zatytułowaną "Drumming". Składający się z czterech części utwór przyniósł autorowi popularność, jego premiera odbyła się w Nowym Jorku jednocześnie w Muzeum Sztuki Nowoczesnej, Ratuszu i Brooklyńskiej Akademii Muzycznej. Ten półtoragodzinny utwór jest najczęściej wykonywaną kompozycją Reicha. W założeniu miał udowodnić bogactwo brzmienia akustycznego. Składa się z czterech części, w których poza ludzkimi głosami używanymi na podobieństwo instrumentów występują również cztery pary bongosów, trzy marimby, trzy zestawy dzwonków oraz flet piccolo. +W roku 1971 poślubił artystkę wideo Beryl Korot, z którą pojechał do Izraela. W tym czasie powstała kompozycja "Clapping Music" wykonywana wyłącznie przez dwie klaszczące osoby. +Zainteresowanie muzyką wschodu skłoniła Reicha do wspólnych z I Nyomanem Sumandhi studiów nad instrumentami perkusyjnymi Azji Południowo-Wschodniej, prowadzonych w latach 1973-1974. Szczególną uwagę poświęcił orkiestrom gamelan z Jawy i Bali, których muzykę zgłębiał na Uniwersytecie Waszyngtona w Seattle oraz na uniwersytecie w Berkeley. +W 1974 wydał "Zapiski o muzyce", zawierające jego eseje, teorie i poglądy na muzykę. Na lata 1976-1977 przypadły studia Reicha nad tradycyjnymi sposobami recytacji hebrajskich psalmów religijnych prowadzone zarówno w Nowym Jorku jak i Jerozolimie. +W 1976 roku stworzył pierwszy utwór zwiastujący zmiany w stylu kompozytora. W "Music for 18 musicans", napisanym dla największej jak dotąd w karierze Reicha grupy muzyków, porzucił ograniczenia muzyki minimalistycznej ma rzecz charakterystycznej dla siebie struktury. Utwór, za który kompozytor otrzymał Nagrodę Gramy, inspirowany jest indonezyjskimi gamelanami. Kompozytor łączy w nim bogactwo melodii zaczerpniętych z indonezyjskiej tradycji orkiestr ze sztywną repetycyjną strukturą rytmiczną. W tym duchu tworzył kolejno w 1978 "Music for a large ensamble", w 1979 "Octet" i "Variations for winds, strings and keyboards". +Lata osiemdziesiąte. +W roku 1981 Reich skomponował "Tehillim", efekt wcześniejszych studiów nad hebrajską recytacją. Pierwszy poważny utwór wokalny w karierze kompozytora stanowi zbiór religijnych psalmów wykonywanych w języku hebrajskim. Eksperyment, daleki od tradycyjnej muzyki sakralnej, wykonywany jest na na podwójny sopran, podwójny mezzosopran i orkiestrę kameralną. Po raz pierwszy wykonali go w 1982 Nowojorscy Filharmonicy. +Wątek wokalny kompozytor kontynuował w monumentalnej symfonii "The Desert Music" skomponowanej w 1984. W wykonywanej przez "Steve Reich & Musicians" oraz orkiestrę i chór Filharmoników Brooklyńskich kompozycji kluczową rolę odgrywa poezja Williama Carlosa Williamsa. Jest to pierwszy utwór Reicha, w którym nie znalazły się żadne elementy minimalizmu. +Kolejne kompozycje są utrzymane w bardziej kameralnym charakterze, wykonywane są zazwyczaj przez jeden instrument i taśmę z wielokrotnie zapisanym utworem, jednocześnie wykonywanym przez "żywego" instrumentalistę. Kolejno powstały utrzymane w tej konwencji "Vermont Counterpoint" w 1982 na flet i taśmę. W 1985 "New York Counterpoint" na klarnet i taśmę oraz "Electric Counterpoint" na gitarę elektryczną i taśmę z 1987. Największy z nich rozgłos przyniósł kompozytorowi "Electric Counterpoint", wykonywany przez Pata Metheny'ego. +Rok 1984 przyniósł premierę jedynego utworu Reicha napisanego z myślą o balecie. Jest to "Sextet" napisany na zamówienie Laura Dean Dance Company i rządu francuskiego. W 1985 odbyła się premiera baletu "Impact" napisanego do muzyki Reicha, który to spektakl przyniósł mu rok później nagrodę Bassie Award. +W 1988 napisał "Different Trains", zainspirowany przeżyciami z dzieciństwa związanymi z podróżami koleją z Nowego Jorku do Kalifornii odbywanych w latach 1939-1942. Odwołuje się również do pociągów transportujących w Europie, dokładnie w tym samym czasie, Żydów do obozów koncentracyjnych. Utwór kompozycyjnie odwołujący się do początków twórczości Reicha opiera się na zapisanych na taśmie dźwiękach i słowach tworzących tło dla kwartetu smyczkowego. Składa się on z trzech części, na taśmach zaś utrwalono pocięte na krótkie odcinki wspomnienia guwernantki towarzyszącej Reichowi w podróżach koleją, wspomnienia emerytowanego kolejarza, wypowiedzi ocalałych z Holocaustu i dźwięki parowozów z tamtego okresu. Skomplikowana struktura utworu wymagała licznej grupy inżynierów dźwięku przy nagraniu jak i wykonaniu utworu. Sygnalizowała kierunek monumentalnych utworów, w którym kompozytor podążył w swych późniejszych utworach. Krytyka okrzyknęła "Different Trains" dziełem przełomowym, kolejnym dowodem uznania była Nagroda Grammy w 1990 dla Reicha za ten utwór w wykonaniu Kronos Quartet. +Po roku 1990. +W roku 1993 powstała kolejna kompozycja będąca efektem badań nad tradycją judaistyczną. Jest to opracowane wspólnie z Beryl Korot multimedialne dzieło "The Cave" oparte na biblijnej historii Abrahama. Spektakl składał się z obrazów wideo wyświetlanych na pięciu ekranach oraz z występu orkiestry symfonicznej. Na taśmie wideo znajdowały się zdjęcia zarejestrowane przez parę artystów podczas podróży na Bliski Wschód, do Nowego Jorku i Teksasu. Przedstawiały one komentarze napotkanych osób na temat biblijnej postaci i jego rodziny. Dzieło wystawiane w dwóch aktach, okrzyknięte zostało "Operą XXI wieku", jednakże miejsce śpiewu zajmowały dialogi odtwarzane z taśmy. Kompozycja osiągnęła spektakularny sukces, była wystawiana w Wiedniu, Amsterdamie, Paryżu, Berlinie Londynie oraz Nowym Jorku. Podobnym w swym założeniem tworem miało być "City Life" oparte na taśmach zarejestrowanych w Nowym Jorku, jednak charakteryzuje się ono mniejszym rozmachem. +W roku 1994 Reich został uhonorowany przyjęciem do Amerykańskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych. +Rok 1995 przyniósł "Proverb" napisane na zamówienie BBC. Utwór skomponowany na otwarcie Royal Albert Hall inspirowany był filozofią Ludwika Wittgensteina. Utwór opracowany na sześć głosów, dwa instrumenty klawiszowe i dwie perkusje to kolejny spektakularny sukces Reicha. W latach 1996-1997 prezentowany był przez muzyków Reicha wraz z Theatre of Voices w Londynie, Kopenhadze Hamburgu, Monachium i miastach amerykańskich. +W 1997 nakładem wytwórni Nonesuch ukazała się z okazji 60. urodzin Reicha 10-płytowa retrospektywa kompozytora pt. "Steve Reich Works: 1965-1995". +W roku 1999 skomponował "Tripple Quartet" opracowany specjalnie dla muzyków Kronos Quartet. Koniec lat 90. to również czas pracy wraz z Beryl Korot nad monumentalnym dziełem "Three Tales". Premiera jego pierwszej części odbyła się w maju 1998, całość zaś ma stanowić całodniową wideooperę opowiadającą historię XX wieku. Została opracowywana na 15 muzyków tworzących tło dla obrazów wyświetlanych na ekranie kinowym. Kompozycja została wydana przez Nonesuch na DVD i CD w 2003. +Z okazji 70. urodzin kompozytora ten sam wydawca przedstawił "Phases", pięciopłytowy album będący przekrojem twórczości artysty. +W roku 1997 Reich gościł w Polsce na festiwalu Warszawska Jesień. +W 2007 otrzymał nagrodę Polar Music Prize (równocześnie laureatem został jazzman Sonny Rollins). +Wpływ twórczości Reicha na innych artystów. +Dzieła Reicha stały się inspiracją dla muzyków różnych pokoleń. Pionier wykorzystywania w muzyce taśm z nagraniami otoczenia zainspirował takich twórców jak Brian Eno, Peter Gabriel, David Bowie oraz licznego grona kompozytorów między innymi grupy Bang On A Can. Znalazł naśladowców dla sporej grupy twórców zafascynowanych minimalizmem, oraz zainspirował całe pokolenie DJ-ów i twórców muzyki elektronicznej. +Hołdem dla tego twórcy, uważanego przez wielu za "ojca kultury DJ-skiej", jest wydana w roku 1999 w Nonesuch płyta "Reich Remixed" z nowymi wersjami utworów kompozytora, wykonywanych przez współczesnych twórców m.in. takich jak Coldcut, Dj Spooky, Howie B, D Note, Ken Ishii czy The Orb. +Wyraźne inspiracje muzyką Reicha słychać także na albumie Pat Metheny Group "The Way Up" (2005) czy "Divertimento" Borysa Dejnarowicza (2008). +Władcy Nawarry + +Burbonowie. +W 1610 r. korony Francji i Nawarry zostały połączone, od tego momentu król Francji był jednocześnie królem Nawarry. +Ostap Ortwin + +Ostap Ortwin, właśc. Oskar Katzenellenbogen (ur. 23 listopada 1876 w Tłumaczu, zamordowany wiosną 1942 we Lwowie) – polski dziennikarz i krytyk literacki. +Droga życiowa. +Urodził się w Tłumaczu pod Stanisławowem. W 1899 ukończył prawo na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim. W młodości należał do lwowskiej młodopolskiej poetycko-literackiej grupy Płanetników, spotykającej się w willi poetki Maryli Wolskiej „Zaświecie”. +Był jedną z najciekawszych postaci Lwowa początku XX wieku. Imponował kolegom nie tylko znajomością prawa, ale potężną sylwetką: jego charakterystyczna potężna postura wyróżniała go z tłumu. +Jako krytyk wypowiadał się o utworach literackich w sposób niezwykle oryginalny, a przy tym błyskotliwy. Stały bywalec Kasyna Literackiego przy Akademickiej, zarówno na wieczorach dyskusyjnych, jak i wspaniałych balach. Od czasów jego słynnej obrony Stanisława Brzozowskiego najgłośniejszy krytyk literacki Lwowa, polski pisarz pochodzenia żydowskiego, wyniesiony do godności prezesa Związku Literatów w 1934 roku. W 1935 został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim Polskiej Akademii Literatury. +Zdaniem Ortwina o „prawdziwości” i „prawdopodobieństwie” powieści nie świadczy naśladownictwo życia i ilustrowanie rzeczywistości, ale stworzenie fikcji literackiej, która zachowując logikę wewnętrzną świadczyłaby o prawdopodobieństwie. Liryka zaś powinna działać intersubiektywnie; samoistnie, bez zależności ze stanem emocjonalnym podmiotu sprawczego, czyli autora. Nie powinno się danego utworu lirycznego rozpatrywać pod względem stanu psychicznego autora. Utwór ten powinien stanowić wartość artystyczną w samym sobie. +Należał do szkoły lwowsko-warszawskiej. +Po wejściu Sowietów do Lwowa we wrześniu 1939 nie brał udziału w tworzeniu nowego związku literatów, a nawet kontynuował działalność dawnej organizacji, przyjmując twórców niechętnych państwu sowieckiemu. Zginął w 1942 zastrzelony na ulicy przez hitlerowców – mimo pomocy przyjaciół nie chciał (jako Żyd) żyć w ukryciu. +Wacław II zatorski + +Wacław II (ur. około 1450, zm. pomiędzy 1484 a 1487) – w latach 1468-1474 książę zatorski wspólnie z braćmi, od 1474 na połowie Zatoru, z bratem Kazimierzem. +Wacław II był drugim pod względem starszeństwa synem księcia zatorskiego Wacława I i szlachcianki Małgorzaty Kopczowskiej. Niewiele wiadomo o jego życiu. Na dokumentach pojawia się po raz pierwszy w 1469, jako współwystawca dokumentów brata Kazimierza. W podziale księstwa w 1474 otrzymał razem z Kazimierzem terytoria na wschód od rzeki Skawy. Nie wiadomo czy kiedykolwiek się ożenił. Zmarł bezpotomnie pomiędzy 1484 a 1487. Nie wiadomo gdzie został pochowany. +Historia Chorwacji do 1945 roku + +Historia Chorwacji do 1945 roku +Zobacz też. +Historia współczesna Chorwacji +Erik Axel Karlfeldt + +Erik Axel Karlfeldt (ur. 20 lipca 1864, zm. 8 kwietnia 1931) – szwedzki poeta. Jego silnie związana z wiejskimi korzeniami i tradycją poezja była bardzo popularna w jego czasach, co sprawiło, że uzyskał pośmiertnie w 1931 Nagrodę Nobla w dziedzinie literatury (w 1918 odmówił jej przyjęcia). +Związany z prądem neoromantyzmu Karlfeldt pisał utwory o unikalnym charakterze na zainspirowane jego ojczystymi stronami tematy. W swoich wierszach ujmował tak wątki historyczne, jak i zapożyczone z historycznych sag oraz Biblii i wierzeń ludowych. Jego liryka jest niezwykle muzyczna, lecz czasami wyrażona staroświeckim językiem. +Biografia. +Karlfeldt urodził się w rodzinie rolników w Karlbo, w prowincji Dalarna. Początkowo nosił nazwisko "Erik Axel Eriksson", które zmienił w roku 1889, ponieważ nie chciał, aby go wiązano z jego skazanym za przestępstwo kryminalne ojcem. Studiował na Uniwersytecie w Uppsali, jednocześnie dla zarobku ucząc w wielu szkołach, w tym w szkole na przedmieściach Djursholm w Sztokholmie oraz w szkole dla dorosłych. Po skończeniu studiów dostał posadę w Szwedzkiej Bibliotece Królewskiej w Sztokholmie, gdzie pracował przez pięć lat. +W 1904 Karlfeldt został członkiem Akademii Szwedzkiej, zajął tam fotel nr 11. W 1905 został wybrany na członka Instytutu Noblowskiego Akademii, zaś w 1907 Komitetu Noblowskiego. W 1912 został stałym sekretarzem Akademii, którą to posadę zachował do śmierci. +Uniwersytet w Uppsali – alma mater Karlfeldta – przyznała mu w 1917 doktorat "honoris causa". +Isokaze + + – niszczyciel japońskiej Cesarskiej Marynarki Wojennej typu "Kagerō" z okresu II wojny światowej. Brał udział w działaniach od początku wojny na Pacyfiku, samozatopiony 7 kwietnia 1945 po uszkodzeniu przez samoloty amerykańskie podczas rajdu z pancernikiem "Yamato" w kierunku Okinawy (operacja "Ten-Go"). +Historia. +"Isokaze" był dwunastym okrętem z typu dużych japońskich niszczycieli typu "Kagerō" (numer budowy 28). Był drugim okrętem o tej nazwie, oznaczającej "wiatr na plaży", po niszczycielu z 1917 (czołowym okręcie typu "Isokaze"). +Stępkę pod budowę okrętu położono 25 listopada 1938 w Stoczni Marynarki w Sasebo, kadłub wodowano 19 czerwca 1939, a okręt wszedł do służby 30 listopada 1940. +Służba. +Po wejściu do służby "Isokaze" został przydzielony do 17 Dywizjonu ("Kuchikutai") 1 Eskadry Niszczycieli ("Suirai Sentai") 1 Floty – wraz z "Urakaze", "Hamakaze" i "Tanikaze". Pierwszym dowódcą był kmdr por. Shunichi Toyoshima. +Skrót służby podczas II wojny światowej. +Osłona lotniskowców dokonujących atak na Pearl Harbor (7 grudnia 1941), ataki lotnicze w południowo-wschodniej Azji, atak na Darwin (19 lutego 1942), rajd japoński na Ocean Indyjski (kwiecień 1942). Osłona lotniskowców w bitwie o Midway (4-5 czerwca 1942). Działania w rejonie Wysp Salomona od sierpnia 1942 do lutego 1943: rejsy transportowe na Guadalcanal i inne wyspy, zadania eskortowe, osłona okrętów w bitwie koło wysp Santa Cruz (26 października 1942). Od grudnia działania w rejonie Nowej Georgii. 10 stycznia 1943 udział w zatopieniu amerykańskiego okrętu podwodnego USS "Argonaut". Ewakuacja Guadalcanalu (luty 1943). Uszkodzenie przez lotnictwo 8 lutego 1943 - remont w Japonii od marca. Zadania eskortowe w rejonie zachodnich Wysp Salomona od lipca 1943. Bitwa pod Horaniu 17-18 sierpnia. Rejsy transportowe w tamtym obszarze. Bitwa pod Vella Lavella (6-7 października 1943). Uszkodzenie na minie koło Kaviengu 4 listopada, remont i przezbrojenie w Japonii od listopada do stycznia 1944. Zadania eskortowe, po czym osłona lotniskowców w bitwie na Morzu Filipińskim (czerwiec 1944), osłona zespołu adm. Kurity w bitwy o Leyte (październik 1944), potem operacje w rejonie Filipin. Udział w operacji "Ten-gō" - samozatopiony 7 kwietnia 1945 po ciężkim uszkodzeniu przez amerykańskie lotnictwo na południe od Nagasaki. +Działania lotniczo-morskie pierwszego etapu wojny, 1941-1942. +W pierwszym okresie II wojny światowej na Pacyfiku, "Isokaze" osłaniał lotniskowce japońskiego Zespołu Uderzeniowego adm. Chūichi Nagumo, począwszy od ataku na Pearl Harbor 7 grudnia 1941. W styczniu 1942 eskortował lotniskowce z Japonii do wysuniętej bazy Truk, po czym osłaniał je podczas ataków na Rabaul i Kavieng (20-23 stycznia 1942), ataku na Darwin w Australii (19 lutego), Zatokę Staring na Celebes (21 lutego), Cilacap (5 marca) i podczas rajdu na Ocean Indyjski (27 marca-kwiecień 1942). W międzyczasie, 7 marca osłaniał pancerniki "Kongō" i "Haruna" bombardujące Wyspę Bożego Narodzenia. +10 kwietnia 1942 17. Dywizjon został przydzielony do 10. Eskadry Niszczycieli 1. Floty Powietrznej. Od 27 kwietnia "Isokaze" był dokowany w Kure. Następnie, 4-5 czerwca 1942 brał udział w osłonie lotniskowców podczas bitwy o Midway. Wraz z "Hamakaze" ratował rozbitków z tonącego lotniskowca "Sōryū". +Rejon Wysp Salomona, 1942-1943. +14 lipca 10. Eskadra Niszczycieli została podporządkowana 3. Flocie. W sierpniu okręt został skierowany na obszar walk toczonych wokół Guadalcanalu w archipelagu Wysp Salomona, bazując głównie w Rabaulu. 24 sierpnia w nocy wziął udział w bombardowaniu lotniska Henderson Field na Guadalcanalu. 25 sierpnia, podczas lotniczo-morskiej bitwy koło wschodnich Salomonów eskortował transport wojska na Guadalcanal, który nie doszedł jednak do celu. 27 i 28 sierpnia uczestniczył w odwołanych rejsach zaopatrzeniowych na Guadalcanal. Podczas rejsu w celu ewakuacji załogi wyspy Goodenough (wyspy d'Entrecasteaux) 10-11 września 1942, przerwanego na skutek ataków lotnictwa, został powierzchownie uszkodzony bliskimi trafieniami bomb. W tym okresie też pełnił zadania eskortowe w rejonie Rabaul-Shortland. 25-27 września wraz z "Mochizuki" ewakuował rozbitków z niszczyciela "Yayoi" z wyspy Normanby (wyspy d'Entrecasteaux). Brał udział w powietrzno-morskiej bitwie koło wysp Santa Cruz 26 października 1942, eskortując okręty zespołu awangardy admirała Abe. +Pomiędzy 2-7 listopada "Isokaze" eskortował lotniskowiec "Zuihō" i krążownik "Kumano" z Truk do Japonii (wraz z "Hamakaze"), po czym został tam dokowany w celu remontu. 22 listopada nowym dowódcą został kmdr ppor. Sumiya Kamiura (poprzednio dowódca "Hatsuyuki"). 5 grudnia okręt przybył z powrotem do bazy Truk (eskortując krążowniki "Haguro" i "Myōkō" dostarczające żołnierzy na Truk, następnie do Rabaulu). Pełnił następnie zadania eskortowe, w tym 16-20 grudnia eskortował lotniskowiec "Jun'yō" z Truk w osłonie transportów żołnierzy na Wewak i Madang. Eskortując konwój z Rabaulu do Lae na północy Nowej Gwinei, 10 stycznia 1943 wraz z "Maikaze" zatopił amerykański okręt podwodny USS "Argonaut". Biorąc udział w rejsie zaopatrzeniowym na Guadalcanal, został 15 stycznia lekko uszkodzony bliskimi trafieniami bomb podczas ataku lotniczego. Po rejsach zaopatrzeniowych do zatoki Rekata (wyspa Santa Isabel) i na Kolombangarę, brał udział w ewakuacji garnizonu Guadalcanalu 1 i 4 lutego 1943. +8 lutego, podczas rejsu ewakuacyjnego z Wysp Russella został uszkodzony przez lotnictwo - trafiony bombą w rufę (10 zabitych). Po naprawach w Rabaulu i Truk, w dniach 22-29 marca eskortował transportowiec samolotów "Keiyo Maru" z Truk do Japonii, po czym był dokowany i remontowany w Kure. W lipcu eskortował zespół floty z Japonii do Truk, po czym wypełniał zadania eskortowe w tamtym rejonie, eskortując głównie krążowniki między Truk i Rabaulem. 21-22 lipca eskortował transportowiec wodnosamolotów "Nisshin" w rejsie transportowym na Shortland, po czym brał udział w ratowaniu rozbitków po zatopieniu "Nisshin" przez lotnictwo.. +17-18 sierpnia wziął udział w osłonie desantu w Horaniu na północy wyspy Vella Lavella, podczas którego doszło do starcia z amerykańskimi niszczycielami pod Horaniu (mimo niewielkich strat japońskich, akcja zakończyła się pomyślnie). W ciągu dalszych miesięcy uczestniczył w dalszych nocnych rejsach transportowych w tamtym obszarze (Tuluvu, Buka). 26 sierpnia osłaniał ewakuację bazy w zatoce Rekata, a 28 września i 2 października - Kolombangary. W nocy 6-7 października uczestniczył w starciu z amerykańskimi niszczycielami koło Vella Lavella, w składzie zespołu osłony. +1 listopada 1943 nowym dowódcą został kmdr ppor. Saneho Maeda (poprzedni dowódca "Ikazuchi"). Okręt następnie eskortował konwój z Truk do Kaviengu, gdzie 4 listopada odniósł umiarkowane uszkodzenia na minie (ograniczenie prędkości do 16 węzłów), lecz zdołał powrócić do Truk. Pomiędzy 12-18 listopada wraz z uszkodzonym niszczycielem "Shiratsuyu" powrócił do Japonii, po czym był remontowany w Kure (prawdopodobnie wówczas wieża nr 2 dział 127 mm została zamieniona przez 2 potrójne stanowiska działek plot 25 mm). Około połowy 1943 roku na niszczycielach tego typu zamieniano też dwa dotychczasowe podwójnie sprzężone działka 25 mm na śródokręciu na potrójnie sprzężone oraz dodawano jedno podwójne stanowisko przed mostkiem. +Działania lotniczo-morskie końcowego etapu wojny, 1944-1945. +Po remoncie, w dniach 6-26 stycznia 1944 eskortował transportowiec "Asaka Maru" z Yokosuki przez atole Eniwetok i Kwajalein do Truk. Zajmował się następnie zadaniami eskortowania sił floty i konwojów, głównie w rejonie Truk - Palau - Lingga. +W dniach 19-20 czerwca 1944 brał udział w lotniczo-morskiej bitwie na Morzu Filipińskim, w eskorcie Zespołu A admirała Ozawy. Ratował podczas niej rozbitków ze storpedowanego lotniskowca "Taihō". Od lipca do października pełnił zadania eskortowe, głównie osłaniał japońskie pancerniki pomiędzy Japonią, Kure i Lingga. +W dniach 23-25 października 1944 wziął udział w bitwie o Leyte, eskortując 1 Uderzeniowy Zespół Dywersyjny adm. Kurity. 25 października w starciu tej bitwy koło Samar brał udział w ataku torpedowym na amerykańskie lotniskowce eskortowe i w zatopieniu niszczyciela USS "Johnston". Po bitwie powrócił do Brunei, w którym rejonie następnie operował. 9-12 listopada eskortował z Brunei siły floty osłaniające operację transportową na Leyte na Filipinach. 15 listopada 17. Dywizjon został przydzielony do 2. Eskadry Niszczycieli II Floty. Eskortując następnie siły floty z Brunei do Kure (16-24 listopada), 21 listopada uratował 91 rozbitków ze storpedowanego pancernika "Kongō". 28-29 listopada eskortował lotniskowiec "Shinano" z Yokosuki, po czym po jego storpedowaniu pomagał ratować rozbitków. Od 31 grudnia eskortował z Moji konwój HI-87 z lotniskowcem "Ryūhō" na Formozę, po czym 8 stycznia 1945 eskortował uszkodzony w kolizji niszczyciel "Hamakaze" do Mako na Peskadorach. Pomiędzy 12-18 stycznia powrócił z lotniskowcem "Ryuho" do Kure. Do marca przebywał następnie na Morzu Wewnętrznym. +Ciężko uszkodzony 7 kwietnia 1945 roku przez samoloty z lotniskowców amerykańskiego zespołu Task Force 58 podczas rajdu eskadry wiceadmirała Seiichi Itō z pancernikiem "Yamato" w kierunku Okinawy (operacja "Ten-gō"). Uszkodzony bliskim wybuchem bomby, stracił sterowność (20 zabitych, 54 rannych). 285 rozbitków wraz z dowódcami okrętu i 17. Dywizjonu (kmdr Kiichi Shintani) przejął niszczyciel "Yukikaze", po czym dobił "Isokaze" ogniem artylerii. Zatonął 150 mil na południowy wschód od Nagasaki, w rejonie pozycji . 25 maja 1945 został oficjalnie skreślony z listy floty. +Dane techniczne. +"Opis konstrukcji i szczegółowe dane - w artykule niszczyciele typu Kagerō. Poniżej dane ogólne dla niszczycieli tego typu." +Uzbrojenie i wyposażenie: +Flotylla Wiślana + +Flotylla Wiślana – polska flotylla rzeczna, część Polskiej Marynarki Wojennej działająca w dorzeczu Wisły od listopada 1918 (pierwsze okręty) do rozwiązania 1 października 1925 r. +Prawdopodobnie 12 listopada 1918 z przejętych od Austro-Węgier od 1 listopada jednostek powstała Polska Flotylla Wiślana w Krakowie pod dowództwem kpt. Władysława Nawrockiego. Z jednostek przejętych od Niemców w Warszawie i Modlinie powstała Flotylla Wiślana w Modlinie dowodzona przez płk mar. Bogumiła Nowotnego. +23 grudnia 1918 zostały połączone w Flotyllę Wiślaną. +Oficerem, a potem komendantem niewymienionego wyżej "statku wojennego" (nomenklatura ówczesna) Flotylli Wiślanej "Wisła" był od kwietnia 1919 r. do do końca 1920 r. Heliodor Laskowski. +Po rozwiązaniu flotylli, ponownie polskie okręty pojawiły się na Wiśle w 1939 roku jako Oddział Wydzielony Rzeki Wisły, użyty w kampanii wrześniowej. +Filumenistyka + +Filumenistyka (gr. "philéō" = "lubię" + łac. "lumen" = "światło", "ozdoba") to dziedzina nauki i pasji hobbystycznej, która zajmuje się zbiorami etykiet zapałczanych oraz historią niecenia i użytkowania ognia. +Pierwsi filumeniści pojawili się w połowie XIX wieku. Większą popularność filumenistyka zyskała w latach 30. XX wieku, najpierw w Wielkiej Brytanii, potem także w innych krajach. Polscy filumeniści są zrzeszeni razem z filatelistami w Polskim Związku Filatelistów. W Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej znajduje się jedno z niewielu na świecie muzeum filumenistyczne. +Obecnie filumenistyka w Polsce jest w zaniku z powodu braku nowych etykiet zapałczanych, gdyż produkowane obecnie pudełka zapałek posiadają nadruki. Natomiast jeszcze w latach 70. XX w. w sieci kiosków RUCH-u sprzedawane były zestawy etykiet zapałczanych specjalnie dla kolekcjonerów (podobnie jak zestawy znaczków pocztowych czystych lub stemplowanych). +Śluby lwowskie + +Śluby lwowskie – śluby, które złożył 1 kwietnia 1656, w czasie potopu szwedzkiego, król Jan II Kazimierz Waza w katedrze Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Maryi Panny we Lwowie podczas mszy świętej odprawianej przez nuncjusza Pietro Vidoniego przed obrazem Matki Bożej Łaskawej. Autorem tekstu ślubów lwowskich króla Jana Kazimierza był św. Andrzej Bobola. +Kraj był prawie w całości opanowany przez Szwedów i Rosjan. Przyrzeczenia królewskie miały poderwać do walki z najeźdźcami nie tylko szlachtę, ale i cały lud. Monarcha oddał Rzeczpospolitą pod opiekę Matki Boskiej, którą nazwał Królową Polski i obiecał, że poprawi sytuację chłopów i mieszczan, kiedy tylko kraj zostanie uwolniony spod okupacji. Po ślubowaniu króla, w imieniu senatorów i szlachty, podobną rotę odczytał podkanclerzy koronny biskup krakowski Andrzej Trzebicki, zaś wszyscy obecni powtarzali słowa jego ślubowania. +Obietnice wobec niższych stanów nie zostały zrealizowane z powodu stanowczego sprzeciwu szlachty. +Powiat wolsztyński + +Powiat wolsztyński - powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Wolsztyn. +Demografia. +Statystyka powiatu wolsztyńskiego za rok 2010 +Ulica Floriańska w Krakowie + + Ulica Floriańska – ulica na Starym Mieście w Krakowie. Biegnie od północno-wschodniego narożnika Rynku Głównego do Bramy Floriańskiej i ma 335 m długości. Nazwa pochodzi od Bramy Floriańskiej która zamyka od północy perspektywę ulicy i prowadzi w kierunku kościoła św. Floriana. +Ulica została wytyczona już na planie lokacyjnym w 1257 i jej nazwa nie zmieniła się przez ponad 700 lat, zmieniały się natomiast domy przy niej stojące. Początkowo były gotyckie, później przebudowano je w stylu innych epok: renesansu, baroku itd. Ponad 20 kamienic przy ul. Floriańskiej wyróżnia się bogactwem architektury i wystroju wnętrz. Podczas prac remontowych robotnicy budowlani, odnawiając wnętrza kamienic, natrafiają na zamurowane portale, polichromowane stropy, zasypane gruzem gotyckie piwnice. Zabiegi konserwatorskie przywracają dawny wygląd starym kamienicom. +W 1330 r. było już przy ul. Floriańskiej co najmniej 10 domów, zaś pod koniec XV w. większość jej zabudowy była już murowana. Początkowo zabudowa ulicy miała charakter w przeważającej części mieszkalny. Tutejsze domy należały zazwyczaj do zamożnych warstw mieszczaństwa, a także szlachty. Od końca XVIII wieku powstawały przy ul. Floriańskiej liczne domy zajezdne i hotele, restauracje i muzea, stopniowo wypierające tradycyjną funkcję mieszkalną. W 1882 r. uruchomiono na ul. Floriańskiej linię tramwaju konnego przekształconą następnie (w 1901 r.) w linię elektryczną (dziś już nieistniejącą). +Niektóre kamienice. +Nr 1. Kamienica "Pod Murzynami" – niegdyś zwana także "Pod Etiopy", gdyż taką właśnie nazwę nosiła mieszcząca się tu na początku XVI w. apteka. Pierwsze, narożne piętro wspiera pochodząca z XVI w. płaskorzeźba przedstawiająca dwóch Murzynów. To tą kamienicą zachwycał się Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński w wierszu "Zaczarowana dorożka" ..."Przystanęliśmy pod domem "Pod Murzynami" (ach, dużo bym dał za ten dom)...". Po pożarze w 1821 kamienica została odbudowana i wtedy dodano trzecie piętro połączone z całością. +Nr 2. Kamienica Margrabska – jest to narożna kamienica. +Nr 3. Kamienica "Ciechanowska" – ma polichromie Michała Stachowicza z drugiej połowy XVIII w. Kamienica powstała już w XIV w. co potwierdzają badania archeologiczne. W 1544 r. jej właścicielem był Marcin Siennik, botanik, tłumacz, rajca i lekarz Zygmunta Augusta. W 1821 r. dom podwyższono o III piętro, a elewacji nadano kształt klasycystyczny. Manierystyczny portal przypisuje się Janowi Michałowiczowi z Urzędowa. +Nr 5. Kamienica "Dobrodziejskich" – miała wielu właścicieli: Włochów, Niemców, Polaków. Wśród nich byli także Gutterowie, którzy po otrzymaniu szlachectwa zmienili nazwisko na Dobrodziejscy i od nich kamienica wzięła swoją nazwę. Mimo że kamienica była wielokrotnie przebudowywana przy wejściu zachował się późnogotycki, kamienny portal. +Nr 6. Kamienica "Pod Okiem Opatrzności" – nazwa pochodzi od jej godła, została zbudowana w 1835 r. na miejscu zawalonej w XVIII w. +Nr 7. Kamienica "Pod Matką Boską" – ma wczesnorenesansowe godło, sień i wiele obramień renesansowych, podobnych do wawelskich. Na fasadzie, we wnęce, na wysokości I piętra, znajduje się renesansowa Madonna, stąd nazwa kamienicy. +Nr 8. Kamienica "Dawidowska" – w XVI w. jej właścicielem był kupiec Dawid Rottermell. Została zbudowana w XV w. później była wielokrotnie przebudowywana, a swój obecny wygląd uzyskała w 1908 roku. +Nr 9. Kamienica "Nagatowska" – w XVI w. należała do Adama Nagothy'ego, autora spisu broni cechowej, przechowywanej w poszczególnych basztach miejskich i od jego nazwiska pochodzi jej nazwa. Do dziś zachowało się jej wnętrze, pełne renesansowych, malowanych stropów, polichromii i portali. +Nr 10. Kamienica "Barszczowska" – swymi początkami sięga aż do XIV w. Od 1636 r. należała do Wawrzyńca Barszcza i stąd jej nazwa. Na wysokości I piętra elewacji znajduje się figurka św. Józefa. +Nr 11. Kamienica "Pod Aniołkiem" – na jej fasadzie znajduje się płaskorzeźba anioła, zdobi ją też attyka. Wewnątrz znajdują się gotyckie i renesansowe kasetonowe stropy, portale, szafy w ścianach, polichromie i wielkie piwnice. W kamienicy tej w 1837 r. urodził się komediopisarz Michał Bałucki. +Nr 12. Kamienica "Cyrusowska" – pochodzi z XVII wieku. W 2009 roku została odrestaurowana. +Nr 13. Kamienica "Amendzińska" – należała kiedyś do dzierżawcy olkuskich kopalń srebra – Amandiego. Kamienica ma attykę neoklasyczną, ale stropy wewnątrz są renesansowe. Wewnątrz również znajduje się kolumna renesansowa z roku 1508 oraz XVI-wieczny gotycko-renesansowy kominek. +Nr 14. Hotel "Pod Różą" – obecna nazwa pochodzi z końca XIX w. Ze znanych osobistości mieszkali tu m.in.: Franciszek Liszt, car Aleksander I, wielki książę Konstanty Pawłowicz. Wejście do hotelu zdobi wykonany z piaskowca portal kolumnowy z ok. 1550 r. z łacińską sentencją ""STET DOMUS HAEC, DONES FLUCTUS FORMICA MARINOS EBIBET ET TOTUM TESTUDO PERAMBULET ORBEM"", która po polsku brzmi: ""Niech dom ten przetrwa w tak odległe lata, dopóki mrówka morza nie wypije, a żółw całego nie obieży świata"". W gotyckich piwnicach hotelowych odkryto mur z XIII w. W końcu XVI w. kamienica należała do Prospera Provano – założyciela pierwszej polskiej poczty w Krakowie. +Nr 15. Kamienica "Pod Wiewiórką" – mieściła się tu drukarnia Piotrkowczyków, która rozpoczęła działalność w roku 1578 i przetrwała do 1674 r., kiedy została darowana Akademii Krakowskiej z przeznaczeniem na drukarnię akademicką. W kamienicy tej mieszkał również Rafał Józef Czerwiakowski – lekarz, profesor uniwersytetu. W 1989 r. na fasadzie budynku umieszczono tablicę z napisem: ""Tu żył i zmarł Rafał Józef Czerwiakowski 1743–1816, ojciec chirurgii polskiej"". +Nr 17. Kamienica "Molendowska" – pierwszym znanym z nazwiska właścicielem był Krzysztof Trecjusz, sekretarz królewski (na dworze Stefana Batorego) i przewodniczący gminy kalwińskiej. W XVI wieku pani Kotlicka prowadziła w pięknych gotyckich piwnicach znaną winiarnię (i pewno zajazd). Od połowy XVII w. przez sto lat kamienica należała do rodziny Molendów, pasamoników. Z końcem XIX wieku właścicielem stał się Anastazy Froncz, znany kupiec krakowski i automobilista. Jemu kamienica zawdzięcza współczesny wygląd (elewacje i tympanon od Floriańskiej) oraz wiele istotnych zmian wewnątrz. Po jego śmierci w 1940 roku, kamienica przechodzi w ręce licznych spadkobierców i podupada. Od 1997 roku ponownie w rękach jednego właściciela, który prowadzi pensjonat TRECIUS. +Nr 18. Kamienica "Pod Koniem" – w XVI w. mieszkał w niej kowal Stanisław Gostkowicz i dlatego miała ona takie godło. W XIX w. znajdowała się w tej kamienicy redakcja i drukarnia "Gazety Krakowskiej". Obecnie mieści się tu galeria sztuki współczesnej (Galeria Pauza). +Nr 22. Kamienica "Pod Barankiem" – zbudowana została dopiero w XVII w., swój obecny wygląd zawdzięcza przebudowie w 1880 roku. +Nr 24. Kamienica "Podedzwony" – nad wejściem do niej znajduje się godło – trzy dzwony. W 1510 r. kamienica ta była własnością odlewnika Marcina Kannegisera, później przez wiele lat mieszkali tu konwisarze, odlewnicy, ślusarze, kotlarze. Na początku XIX w. kamienica zmieniła właściciela przez licytację. Kupił ją Józef Weiss, który w 1830 r. odnowił ją, a na znak, że teraz mieszka tu kupiec win – otoczył dzwony w godle obramieniem z winogron, liści i kotwic, a na samych dzwonach dał datę 1830 i monogram. +Nr 25. W kamienicy (odrestaurowanej w latach 1984 – 1989) znajduje się Muzeum Farmacji Collegium Medicum Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +Nr 26. Kamienica posiada (między dwiema potężnymi szkarpami) portal z unikatowym w Krakowie trójkątnym przyczółkiem w górnej części. +Nr 34. W tej kamienicy urodził się Wojciech Stattler – profesor Krakowskiej Szkoły Malarskiej, nauczyciel Jana Matejki, przyjaciel Adama Mickiewicza i Juliusza Słowackiego. Znajduje się w niej Galeria Sztuki Współczesnej. +Nr 37. W tej kamienicy Henryk Frist założył w 1895 r. Salon Sztuki. Sprzedawano tu obrazy, a także ich reprodukcje ścienne i na kartkach pocztowych. Salon później przejął i prowadził jego syn dr Józef Frist. +Nr 41. Kamienica ta to "Dom Jana Matejki" – została zbudowana w XVI w. i po niewielkich zmianach i nadbudowach II i III piętra na przełomie XVII i XVIII w. oraz w XIX w. dotrwała do naszych czasów. W 1794 r. stała się własnością krakowskiej rodziny Rossbergów, z której pochodziła matka Jana Matejki – Katarzyna. Tu urodził się, żył, tworzył i umarł polski malarz historyczny Jan Matejko. Gdy został właścicielem tej kamienicy, zaprojektował wspólnie z architektem Tomaszem Prylińskim w 1872 r. nową fasadę domu. 2 września 1880 r. cesarz Franciszek Józef odwiedził Jana Matejkę w jego tutejszej pracowni. Cesarzowi towarzyszyli namiestnik Andrzej Potocki i prezydent Krakowa Mikołaj Zyblikiewicz. Wizytę tę sportretował na akwareli Juliusz Kossak. Po śmierci Matejki, przyjaciele mistrza wykupili kamienicę i urządzili w niej muzeum pamiątek po artyście. W roku 1904 stało się oddziałem Muzeum Narodowego. +Nr 42. Kamienica "Pod Białym Orłem" – obecnie mieści się tu "Hotel Polski". Kamienica ta należała na początku do Macieja Kossowicza, który wydzierżawił ją w 1825 r. Franciszkowi Staniszewskiemu z przeznaczeniem na oberżę. Staniszewski wkrótce kamienicę zakupił i urządził w niej wzorowy zajazd. W XIX w. zajazd został rozbudowany wzdłuż murów w stronę ulicy św. Jana i zmienił nazwę na "Hotel Polski". W kamienicy tej 5 lutego 1879 został aresztowany Ludwik Waryński, twórca pierwszej polskiej partii rewolucyjnej "Proletariat". +Nr 45. Kamienica Bełzowska, w której znajduje się cukiernia "Jama Michalika". Założona przez lwowskiego cukiernika Jana Michalika, stała się w pierwszych latach XX w. siedzibą artystycznego kabaretu "Zielony Balonik". +Ekosystem heterotroficzny + +Ekosystem heterotroficzny – ekosystem ekologicznie niepełny, niesamowystarczalny, pozbawiony producentów, w którym znajduje się materia pochodząca z zewnątrz. +Przykładowo w jaskini brak światła uniemożliwia występowanie roślin. Życie heterotrofów opiera się na detrytusie materii organicznej pochodzącej z kału nietoperzy, szczątków obumarłych zwierząt. +Innym przykładem jest życie na dnie oceanów które (bentos) które uzależnione jest od dopływu materii z wyższych warstw. Wyjątkowy pod tym względem jest ekosystem tworzący się wokół kominów hydrotermalnych który jako oparty na chemoautotrofach jest ekosystemem autotroficznym +Śmigło + +Śmigło – urządzenie napędowe, przetwarzające energię w postaci momentu obrotowego na pracę ciągu. Zamiana ta jest efektem oddziaływania śmigła na ośrodek go opływający (w zastosowaniach lotniczych – powietrze). Po raz pierwszy zostało użyte jako śruba okrętowa do napędzania statków, a począwszy od 1903 roku służy do napędu statków powietrznych (do napędu sterowców szkieletowych od 1900 roku). +Oprócz łopat śmigło posiada również piastę. Niektóre śmigła mają urządzenia do zmiany kąta natarcia (może być zmieniany ręcznie lub automatycznie tzw. skok śmigła), do ustawienia w tzw. chorągiewkę (po awarii silnika), do odladzania krawędzi natarcia. +Śmigła stosuje się do napędu samolotów, motoszybowców, poduszkowców, motolotni, itp. +Sprawność śmigła zmienia się wraz z prędkością samolotu. Przy dużych prędkościach samolotu (ok. Ma=0,8) sprawność śmigła gwałtownie spada. +Śmigła mogą być wykonane z drewna (najczęściej klejone), metalu lub kompozytów. +W małych samolotach najczęściej są stosowane śmigła dwułopatowe, o stałym skoku, w większych (dla poprawienia sprawności) stosuje się śmigła o zmiennym skoku (pełna regulacja skoku śmigła i ustawienie w chorągiewkę) oraz spotyka się śmigła o większej liczbie łopat (od trzech do sześciu) i z reguły są to śmigła w pełni nastawne. Śmigła o liczniejszych łopatach określane są jako wentylatory. +W przypadku silnika tłokowego śmigło, posiadając duży moment bezwładności, pełni też rolę koła zamachowego. +Odpowiednikiem śmigła działającego w wodzie jest śruba okrętowa. +Vidocq (film) + +Vidocq - francuski kostiumowy film z gatunku thriller z domieszką fantastyki. Na ekranach kin zadebiutował w 2001 roku. Film trwa 100 minut. +Opis fabuły. +Akcja filmu rozgrywa się w Paryżu we Francji w 1830 roku. Trwają ostatnie chwile monarchii Burbonów, lecz rewolucja lipcowa zacznie się dopiero za kilka dni. Miasto nękane jest przez tajemniczego mordercę, o pseudonimie "Alchemik". Plotki głoszą, że kto zobaczy swe odbicie w złotej masce zabójcy, traci duszę. François Eugène Vidocq (postać historyczna, 1775-1857), były galernik, następnie szef Brygady Bezpieczeństwa w policji, wreszcie słynny paryski prywatny detektyw, nazywany ojcem kryminalistyki, prowadzi śledztwo w sprawie dziwnych morderstw. Podczas prowadzenia dochodzenia ginie. Młody biograf, Etienne Boisset, postanawia pomścić jego śmierć oraz dokończyć śledztwo. Wyniki jego dochodzeń i nieoczekiwane zwroty akcji zaskakują wszystkich. +Film jest ciekawy nie tylko z powodu sprawności warsztatowej, ale także ze względu na różne poziomy znaczeń i możliwego odbioru. Jest w tym filmie, oprócz fabuły, bogato, ale dyskretnie pokazane życie paryżan, tzw. koloryt lokalny, pieczołowicie, wiernie ale i lekko przedstawiona epoka. Dodatkowym, a może nawet podstawowym walorem jest wymiar metafizyczny: walki dobra ze złem, pokazanej niekonwencjonalnie: bohater nie jest czysty jak łza, antybohater nie jest jednoznacznie zły. +Jest to oficjalnie pierwszy pełnometrażowy film kinowy nakręcony techniką HD przy użyciu nowej kamery Sony 1080p 24fps. +Ogólne równanie całkowe (adsorpcja) + +Ogólne równanie całkowe opisuje w ogólny sposób adsorpcję na energetycznie niejednorodnych (heterogenicznych) powierzchniach ciał stałych. Po raz pierwszy zostało podane (w postaci dyskretnej a nie ciągłej) przez Langmuira w 1918 r. +lub +θt(p) oraz a(p) - izoterma globalna, oraz θl(p,E) - izoterma lokalna są silnie zależne od temperatury. Funkcja rozkładu energii adsorpcji χ(E) może również słabo zależeć od temperatury. +Ogólne całkowe równanie izotermy adsorpcji umożliwia uwzględnienie prawie dowolnych efektów związanych z adsorpcją poprzez wykorzystanie modeli stworzonych dla prostych układów homogenicznych (płaska powierzchnia, identyczne miejsca adsorpcyjne) i rozszerzenie ich na powierzchnie energetycznie niejednorodne poprzez uśrednienie po miejscach adsorpcyjnych. +Jako izotermy lokalne wykorzystuje się równania izoterm adsorpcji na powierzchni homogenicznej (energetycznie jednorodnej), jak izoterma Langmuira, izoterma Fowlera-Guggenheima czy izoterma Kisielewa. Możliwe jest również łatwe uwzględnienie tworzenia poliwarstwy adsorbatu poprzez wykorzystanie jako izotermy lokalnej izotermy BET lub podobnej. +W przypadku uwzględniania oddziaływań bocznych pomiędzy zaadsorbowanym cząsteczkami adsorbatu ważna staje się topografia powierzchni adsorbentu. +Analogiem tego równania dla mikroporowatych ciał stałych jest całkowe równanie Stoeckliego +Rozwiązywanie równania ... +Marian Raciborski + +Marian Raciborski (ur. 16 września 1863 we wsi Brzóstowa pod Ćmielowem - zm. 17 marca 1917 w Zakopanem) - polski botanik, jeden z pierwszych w Polsce paleobotaników, pionier ruchu ochrony przyrody w Polsce. +Botaniką interesował się od dziecka. Mając 14 lat odnalazł w Dębnikach stanowisko pochodzącej z Ameryki moczarki kanadyjskiej. Po ukończeniu szkoły realnej trafił do pracowni Józefa Rostafińskiego. +W latach 1881-1891 studiował nauki przyrodnicze i medycynę na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, później w Bonn i Monachium, gdzie w 1893 roku pełnił funkcję asystenta w Instytucie Fizjologii Roślin. Swoją wiedzę poszerzał też w Strasburgu, Bonn, Wrocławiu i Tybindze. Zaczął również wtedy publikować liczne artykuły naukowe. Po zakończeniu studiów został adiunktem w Ogrodzie Botanicznym w Krakowie. +W latach 1896-1900 prowadził badania flory wyspy Jawy. Prowadził tam badania nad paprociami jawajskimi i pasożytami trzciny cukrowej, które przyniosły mu międzynarodowe uznanie. Jego pobyt na Jawie doczekał się literackiego opisu w powieści biograficznej Bolesława Mrówczyńskiego pt. "Dutur z Rajskiego Ogrodu" (wyd. 1958 r.). Po powrocie do kraju w latach 1900-1909 był kierownikiem katedry Akademii Rolniczej w Dublanach. Od 1909 r. profesor botaniki Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, organizator Instytutu Biologiczno-Botaniczego uniwersytetu. Od 1912 r. profesor botaniki na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Od 1900 r. członek korespondent, od 1913 (zatwierdzony w 1914 r.) członek czynny Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności; od 1886 r. współpracownik (od 1900 członek) – Komisji Fizjograficznej AU, a wlatach 1915-1917 – jej przewodniczący. W 1912 został dyrektorem Ogrodu Botanicznego w Krakowie, szybko podnosząc tę instytucję z upadku. W 1913 utworzył Instytut Botaniczny. W 1914 zaangażował się w działalność polityczną, popierając czyn zbrojny Józefa Piłsudskiego. +Przekazał bogate zbiory muzealne zgromadzone na Jawie krakowskiemu Muzeum Etnograficznemu. Część jego krajowych zbiorów zakupił dla Muzeum Przyrodniczego im. Dzieduszyckich we Lwowie Włodzimierz Dzieduszycki. +Po jego śmierci rodzina przekazała bibliotekę i materiały naukowe Instytutowi Botaniki UJ. Od 1983 r. jego imię nosi Górski Ogród Botaniczny koło Muzeum Tatrzańskiego w Zakopanem. +Prace popularnonaukowe i podręczniki: +Dimetylortęć + +Dimetylortęć – związek chemiczny, kompleks alkilowy rtęci. Jest bardzo niebezpieczną trucizną. Jej cząsteczka ma strukturę liniową. Był stosowany jako pestycyd oraz środek przeciwgrzybiczny. +Dimetylortęć ma dużą gęstość i w warunkach standardowych jest cieczą, dlatego stężenie atomów rtęci w czystej substancji (13 M) jest znacznie większe, niż stężenia uzyskiwane w roztworach wszelkich innych związków rtęci. Jest to szczególnie istotne w rtęciowym NMR (199Hg NMR i 201Hg NMR), gdyż jądra atomów rtęci są mało czułe. Dimetylortęć uważana jest za najlepszy związek odniesienia w tej technice. +W laboratoriach związek ten otrzymuje się przez reakcję chlorku rtęci(II) (HgCl2) z dimetylomagnezem (Mg(CH3)2). Związek ten powstaje też samorzutnie przez powolną reakcję siarczku rtęci(II) (HgS). Powstaje także in vivo (w organizmach żywych) w przypadku zatrucia rtęcią. +Działanie toksyczne. +Związek ten przenika przez typowe zabezpieczenia stosowane w laboratoriach (rękawice gumowe, fartuchy) i jest wchłaniany przez skórę do układu krwionośnego. Nie jest znana dokładna dawka LD50 dla tego związku. Wiadomo jednak, że dawka rzędu 0,05 ml wchłonięta przez skórę jest śmiertelna dla ludzi. +Dane te pochodzą z opisu przypadku śmierci jednej z ofiar tego związku Karen Wetterhahn, profesor toksykologii z "Dartmouth College" w stanie New Hampshire, w USA. Karen Wetterhahn jako doświadczony toksykolog miała świadomość, że pracuje z trucizną, ale nie wiedziano jeszcze wtedy, że związek ten potrafi przeniknąć przez typowe rękawice laboratoryjne. Jak wynika z jej zeszytu laboratoryjnego 14 sierpnia 1996 wykonywała ona eksperymenty z dimetylortęcią, w trakcie których pękła jej fiolka z tym związkiem o pojemności 0,5 ml. Jako doświadczony toksykolog pracowała z tym związkiem pod wyciągiem, w odpowiednim stroju i rękawicach gumowych. Po wykonaniu eksperymentu zdjęła ona prawidłowo rękawice i umieściła je w specjalnym koszu na toksyczne odpady. Na początku stycznia 1997 pojawiły się u niej pierwsze symptomy zatrucia dimetylortęcią. 28 stycznia 1997 r. zbadano stężenie dimetylortęci w jej krwi i stwierdzono, że przekracza 4 mg/l – co 80-krotnie przekracza graniczne stężenie śmiertelne tego związku i było już w tym momencie wiadomo, że nic nie jest w stanie uratować już jej życia. Zmarła 8 lipca 1997, w wieku 48 lat. +Toksyczne działanie dimetylortęci wynika z jego działania na układ nerwowy człowieka. Związek tworzy kompleks z cysteiną, który bez trudu pokonuje barierę immunologiczną mózgu i silnie wpływa na jego funkcjonowanie, przez zaburzanie procesów przekazywania sygnałów przez synapsy. Związek ten powoduje ataksję (utratę koordynacji ruchów), efekty halucynacyjne oraz utratę pamięci. Proces tworzenia kompleksu z cysteiną jest bardzo powolny i jednocześnie związek ten nie wchodzi w żadne inne reakcje w organizmie człowieka, nie jest więc z niego wydalany. Stąd efekt zatrucia jest bardzo odsunięty w czasie od momentu wniknięcia trucizny do organizmu i zaczyna się powoli ujawniać dopiero w kilka miesięcy po wchłonięciu dawki śmiertelnej. Nie jest znane żadne antidotum na tę truciznę. +Tropar + +Tropar (troparion) - jedna z form muzycznych w obrządku bizantyjskim, będącym w użyciu w Kościołach prawosławnych oraz w Katolickich Kościołach Wschodnich tradycji bizantyjskiej. +To termin określający liturgiczny śpiew poetycki o prostej strukturze i rytmicznej kadencji - który przybliża nam historię i znaczenie soteriologiczne danego święta, wydarzenia lub świętego. +Jednym z najbardziej znanych troparionów jest troparion paschalny. +Polski Teatr Ludowy we Lwowie + +Polski Teatr Ludowy we Lwowie – teatr założony na przełomie 1957-1958 we Lwowie z inicjatywy emerytowanego nauczyciela – polonisty, skrzypka, wielkiego miłośnika polskiej literatury i teatru – Piotra Hausvatera (1894-1966). Pierwsze przedstawienie odbyło się 19 kwietnia 1958 roku w Polskiej Szkole Nr 10 we Lwowie. +Piotr Hausvater skupił wokół siebie młodzież, przede wszystkim absolwentów polskich szkół. Pierwsze próby Teatru odbywały się w domu Piotra Hausvatera. Spotykali się wieczorami, ponieważ każdy gdzieś pracował lub się uczył. Po śmierci Piotra Hausvatera zespołem kieruje Zbigniew Chrzanowski, zawodowy reżyser, który w 1966 roku ukończył wydział reżyserii w Moskiewskiej Szkole Teatralnej przy Teatrze im. Wachtangowa. +Obecnie Teatr skupia grono amatorów i profesjonalistów: głównie Polaków, ale także Ukraińców i Rosjan zamieszkałych we Lwowie, oraz zawodowych twórców kultury – kompozytorów, plastyków i choreografów. Teatr ma w swoim dorobku ok. 60 premier i ponad 800 występów, także w Polsce, Anglii, Szwecji. Zasłużony dla krzewienia polskiej kultury na dawnych polskich terenach odłączonych po II wojnie światowej. Teatr ma swoją siedzibę w dawnym pałacu hrabiów Bielskich (ul. Kopernika 42). +W 2008, z okazji jubileuszu 50-lecia działalności artystycznej, Polski Teatr Ludowy został odznaczony Srebrnym Medalem „Zasłużony Kulturze Gloria Artis”. Takie samo odznaczenie otrzymał dyrektor artystyczny Zbigniew Chrzanowski. Aktorzy teatru: Irena Asmołowa, Andrzej Bowszyk, Krystyna Grzegocka, Bogusław Kleban, +Kazimierz Kosydor, Wiktor Lafarowicz, Anatol Lewak, Kazimierz Miciński, Roksolana Sadowska, Natalia Stupko, Krzysztof Szymański i Wadim Wasiutyński otrzymali honorowe odznaki „Zasłużony dla Kultury Polskiej”. +Michelangelo (wirus) + +Michelangelo - wirus komputerowy zarażający maszyny IBM PC z systemem operacyjnym MS-DOS (również PC-DOS, DR-DOS, etc.) w wersji 2.x lub wyższej, a także maszyny z innymi systemami operacyjnymi, jeśli są bootowane z dyskietki z DOS. +Michelangelo, który pojawił się w 1992 r., aktywizuje się 6 marca (w rocznicę urodzin włoskiego artysty doby Renesansu, Michała Anioła), zarażając sektory startowe dysku i nadpisując krytyczne dane systemowe, w tym FAT, co niszczy dysk. Odtworzenie danych z dysku uszkodzonego przez wirusa jest technicznie trudnym zadaniem. +Wskutek podjętej natychmiast akcji prewencyjnej, w 1992 r., skutki działania wirusa zostały zminimalizowane - ocenia się, że zdołał zarazić jedynie kilka tysięcy maszyn, choć spodziewano się wtedy znacznie gorszych skutków. Na fali powszechnego zainteresowania i wskutek powstałej paniki na rynku wypromowało się kilka firm produkujących oprogramowanie antywirusowe. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Witryna CERT +Olej z orzechów laskowych + +Olej z orzechów laskowych - przejrzysty olej roślinny o zabarwieniu złoto-żółtym i orzechowym zapachu otrzymywany z tłoczonych na zimno orzechów laskowych ("Corylus avellana"). W niskich temperaturach ścina się/mętnieje. +Puchar Zdobywców Pucharów w piłce nożnej + +W rozgrywkach Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów brały udział drużyny które w swoich krajach zdobyły puchar kraju. PZP rozgrywany pod patronatem UEFA organizowany był w latach 1961-1999. Gdy rozwiązano Puchar Zdobywców Pucharów zwycięzcy pucharu danego kraju zaczęli startować w rozgrywkach Puchar UEFA. +W meczach finałowych brało udział 55 drużyn klubowych z 17 państw. +Najwięcej triumfów w PZP (1961-1999) +Klub który zdobyłby trofeum PZP trzykrotnie z rzędu lub pięciokrotnie w ogóle miał otrzymać statuetkę PZP na własność. Najbliżej otrzymania statuetki była FC Barcelona, która triumfowała w rozgrywkach czterokrotnie. +Mecze finałowe 1961-1969. +17 maja 1961 (Stadio Comunale, Florencja) +Fiorentina - Glasgow Rangers 2:0 (1:0) +RANGERS: Ritchie - Shearer, Peterson, Caldow (k), R.Davis, Baxter, D. Wilson, Mcmillan, R. Scott, Brand, Hulme. +FIORENTINA: Albertosi - Robotti, Orzan (k), Castelletti, Gonfiantni, Rimbaldo, Hamrin, Micheli, da Costa, Milan, Petris. +27 maja 1961 (Ibrox Park, Glasgow) +Fiorentina - Glasgow Rangers 2:1 (1:0) +FIORENTINA: Albertosi - Robotti, Orzan (k), Castelleti, Gonfiantini, Rimbaldo, Hamrin, Micheli, de Costa, Milan, Petris. +RANGERS: Ritchie - Shearer, Peterson, Caldow (k), R.Davis, Baxter, D. Wilson, McMillan, R. Scott, Milar, Brand. +10 maja 1962 (Hampden Park, Glasgow) +Atlético Madryt - Fiorentina 1:1 (1:1, 1:1, 1:1), po dogrywce +ATLETICO: Madinabeytia - Rivilla, Chuzo, Calleja, Ramiro, Glaria, Miguel Jones, Adelardo, Mendoca, Peiro, Collar (k). +FIORENTINA: G. Sarti - Gonfiantini, Orzan (k), Castelletti, Ferretti, Rimbaldo, Hamrin, Bartu, Milani, Dell'Angelo, Petris. +5 września 1962 "(powtórka finału)" +Atlético Madryt - Fiorentina 3:0 (2:0) +ATLETICO: Madinabeytia - Rivilla, Chuzo, Calleja, Ramiro, Glaria, Miguel Jones, Adelardo, Mendoca, Peiro, Collar (k). +FIORENTINA: Albertosi, - Robotti, Orzan (k), Castelletti, Malatrasi, Marchesi, Ferretti, Hamrin, Milani, Dell'Angelo, Petris. +15 maja 1963 (Feijenoord Stadion, Rotterdam) +Tottenham Hotspur - Atlético Madryt 5:1 (2:0) +TOTTENHAM: W. Brown - Baker, Norman, Henry, R. D. Blanchflower (k), Marchi, C. W. Jones, White, R. Smith, Greaves, Dyson. +ATLETICO: Madinabeytia - Rivilla, Griffa, J. A. Rodriguez, Ramiro, Chuzo, Glaria, M. Jones, Adelardo, Mendoca, Collar (k). +13 maja 1964 (Stadion Heysel, Bruksela) +Sporting CP - MTK SK Budapeszt 3:3 (2:1, 3:3, 3:3), po dogrywce +SPORTING: Carvalho - Gomes, A. Baptista, J. Carlos, J. P. Morais, Mendes (k), G. Carvalho, Osvaldo, Mascarenhas, Figueiredo, Be Bocaleri. +MTK: Kowalik - Keszei, Danszky, Jeszensky (vel Jenei), I. Nagy, F. Kovacs III, K. Sandor (k), Vasas, Bodor, Kuti, Halapi. +15 maja 1964 "(powtórka finału)" +Sporting CP - MTK SK Budapeszt 1:0 (1:0) +SPORTING: Carvalho - Gomes, A. Baptista, J. Carlos, J. P. Morais, Mendes (k), G. Carvalho, Osvaldo, Mascarenhas, Figueiredo, Perides. +MTK: Kowalik - Keszei, Danszky, Jeszensky (vel Jenei), I. Nagy, F. Kovacs III, K. Sandor (k), Vasas, Bodor, Kuti, Halapi. +19 maja 1965 (Wembley Stadium, Londyn) +West Ham United - TSV 1860 Monachium 2:0 (0:0) +WEST HAM: Standen - Kirkup , K. Brown, Brukett, M. Peters, Moore (k), Sealey, Boyce, Hurst, Dear, J. L. Sissons, +TSV: Radenkovic - M. Wagner, Reich, Luttrop, Kohlars, Bena, Grosser, Heiss, Kuppers, Brunnenmeier (k), Rebele. +5 maja 1966 (Hampden Park, Glasgow) +Borussia Dortmund - FC Liverpool 2:1 (0:0, 1:1, 1:1), po dogrywce +BORUSSIA: Tilikowski - Cyliax, Paul (k), Assauer, Redder, Kurrat, A. Schmidt, Sturm, Libuda, Held, Emmerich. +LIVERPOOL: Lawrence - Lawier, Yeats (k), Stevenson, Byrne, Milne, T. Smith, Callaghan, Hunt, St. John, P. Thompson. +31 maja 1967 (Frankenstadion, Norymberga) +Bayern Monachium - Glasgow Rangers 1:0 (0:0, 0:0, 0:0), po dogrywce +BAYERN: Maier - Nowak, Olk (k), Beckenbauer, Kupferschmidt, Roth, Koulmann, Nafziger, Ohlhauser, G. Muller, Brenninger. +RANGERS: A. Martin - Johansen, Jardine, McKinnon, Provan, A. Smith, J. Greig (k), Henderson, Hynd, D. Smith. +23 maja 1968 (Feijenoord Stadion, Rotterdam) +AC Milan - Hamburger SV 2:0 (2:0) +MILAN: Cudicini - Anguilletti, Rosato, Trapattoni, Schnellinger, Lodetti, Rivera (k), Scala, Hamrin, Sormani, Prati. +HSV: O. Arkoc - Sandmann, W. Schultz, Dieckemann, Kurbjuhn, Kramer, Horst, B. Dorfel, U. Seeler (k), Honig, G. Dorfel. +21 maja 1969 (St. Jakob-Park, Bazylea) +Slovan Bratysława - FC Barcelona 3:2 (3:1) +SLOVAN: Vencel - Fillo, Hrivak, A. Horvath (k), J. Zlocha, Cvetler, Jozef Capkovic, Hrdlicka, Joki, Moder, (67- Hatar), Jan Capkovic. +BARCELONA: Sadurni - Franch (11 - Pereda), J. Rife, Olivella (k), Eladio, Zabalza, Zaldua, Pellicer, Castro (46- Mendoca), Fuste, Rexach. +Mecze finałowe 1970-1979. +29 kwietnia 1970 (Praterstadion, Wiedeń) +Manchester City - Górnik Zabrze 2:1 (2:0) +MANCHESTER: Corrigan - Book (k), Booth, Heslop, Pardoe, Doyle (23 - Bowyer), Oakes, Towers, C. Bell, F. Lee, N. Young. +GÓRNIK: Kostka - Gorgoń, Oślizło (k), Floreński (65 - Deja), Latocha, Olek, Szołtysik, Wilczek (75 - Skowronek), Banaś, Lubański, Szaryński. +19 maja 1971 (Stadion Karaiskákis, Pireus) +Chelsea F.C. - Real Madryt 1:1 (0:0, 1:1, 1:1), po dogrywce +CHELSEA: P. Bonetti - Boyle, Dempsey, Hollins (91 - Mulligan), R. Harris (k), K. Weller, C. Cooke, Webb, Hudson, Osgood. +REAL: Borja - J. Luis, Benito, Zoco, Zunzunegui, Pirri, Velazguez, M. Perez (65 - Fleitas), Amancio, Grosso, Gento (70 - Grande). +21 maja 1971 "(powtórka finału)" +Chelsea F.C. - Real Madryt 2:1 (0:0) +CHELSEA: P. Bonetti - Boyle, Dempsey, R. Harris (k), K. Weller, C. Cooke, Weller, Baldwin, Webb, Hudson, Osgood (73 - Smethurst), Houseman. +REAL: Borja - J. Luis, Benito, Zoco, Zunzunegui, Pirri (k), Velazguez (75 - Gento), Fleitas, Amancio, Grosso, Bueno (60 - Grande). +24 maja 1972 (Camp Nou, Barcelona) +Glasgow Rangers - Dynamo Moskwa 3:2 (2:0) +RANGERS: McCloy - Jardine, J. Greig (k), D. Johnstone, Mathieson, D. Smith, Conn, MacDonald, Th. Mc Lean, C. Stein, W. Johnston. +DYNAMO: Pilguj - Basałajew, Szabo (k), Żukow, Dolbonosow (69 - Gerszkowicz), Zykow, Dolmatow, Machowikow, Bajdacznyj, Jakubik (56 - Esztrekow), Jewruźychin. +16 maja 1973 (Stadion Kaftantzoglio, Saloniki) + AC Milan - Leeds United 1:0 (1:0) +MILAN: Vacchi - Anguilletti, Sabadini, Rosato (59 - Dolci), Zignoli, Turone, Sogliano, Rivera (k), Benetti, Bigon, Chiarugi. +Leeds: D. Harvey - Reaney (k), Madeley, Cherry, F. Gry (54 - McQueen), Bates, Hunter, M. Jones, Yorath, Lorimer, Jordan. +8 maja 1974 (Feijenoord Stadion, Rotterdam) +1. FC Magdeburg - AC Milan 2:0 (1:0) +MAGDEBURG: Schulze - Zapf (k), Tyll, Abraham, Enge, Gaube, Seguni, Pommerenke, Raugust, Sparwasser, M. Hoffmann, +MILAN : Pizzaballa - Anguiletti, Lanzi, Schellinger, Aldo Maldera, Sabadini, Tresoldi, Rivera (k), Benetti, Bigon, Bergamaschi (60 min. Turini). +14 maja 1975 (St. Jakob-Park, Bazylea) +Dynamo Kijów - Ferencvaros Budapeszt 3:0 (2:0) +DINAMO: Rudakow - Końkow, Reszko, Fomienko, Matwijenko, Toszkin, Muntjan, Kołotow (k), Oniszczenko, Burjak, Błochin. +FERENVAROSI: Geczi (k) - Martos, Pataki, Rab, Megyasi, Juhasz, F. Szabo, Nyilasi (60 min. Ohnhaus), Mucha, Mate, Magyar. +5 maja 1976 (Stadion Heysel, Bruksela) +RSC Anderlecht - West Ham United 4:2 (1:1) +ANDERLECHT: Ruiter - Lomme, van Binst (k), Broos, Thissen, Francois van der Elst, Haan, Coeck (32 min. Vercauteren), Dockx, Ressel, Rensenbrink. +WHU: Day - Coleman, Thomas F. Tylor, Bonds (k), Lampard (47 min. Alan D. Tylor), Holland, McDowell, Paddon, Brooking, William, Jennings, Keith Robson. +11 maja 1977 (Stadion Olimpijski, Amsterdam) +Hamburger SV - RSC Anderlecht 2:0 (0:0) +HSV: Kargus - Kaltz, Nogly (k), Hidien, Memering, Ripp, Keller, Magath, Steffenhagen, Reimann, Volkert. +ANDERLECHT: Ruiter - van Binst (k), vanden Daele, Broos, Thissen, Francois van der Elst, Haan, Coeck, Dockx (81 min. Van Poucke), Ressel, Rensenbrink. +3 maja 1978 (Parc des Princes, Paryż) +RSC Anderlecht - Austria Wiedeń 4:0 (3:0) +ANDERLECHT: de Bree - van Binst, Dusbaba, Broos, Thissen, Francois van der Els, Haan, Coeck, Vercauteren, (87 min. Dockx), B. Nielsen, Rensenbrink (k). +AUSTRIA: Baumgartner - Robert Sara (k), Obermayer, Baumeister, Daxbacher (60 min. A. Martinez), Prohaska, Gasselich, Morales (74 min. Frita Drazan), Parits, Pirkner. +16 maja 1979 (St. Jakob-Park, Bazylea) +FC Barcelona - Fortuna Düsseldorf 4:3 (2:2, 2:2, 3:2), po dogrywce +BARCELONA: Artola, Zuviria, Costas (66 min. F. Martinez), Albaladejo (57 min. De la Cruz), Migueli, Jose Sanchez, Neeskens, Asensi (k), Rexach, Krankl, Carrasco. +FORTUNA: Daniel - Brei (24 min. Weikl), Zewe (k), G. Zimmermann (84 min. Lund), Baltes, Kohnen, Schmitz, Thomas Allofs, Bommer, Klaus Allofs, Seel. +Mecze finałowe 1980-1989. +14 maja 1980 (Stadion Heysel, Bruksela) +Valencia CF - Arsenal F.C. 0:0, po dogrywce, karne: 5:4 +VALENCIA: Pereira - Carrete, Botubot, Arias, Tendillo (k), Solsona, Bonhof, Saura, Subirats (112 min. Castellanos), Pablo Rodriguez, Kempes. +ARSENAL: P. Jennings, Rice (k), Nelson, Talbot, O'Leary, W. Young, Brady, Sunderland, Stapleton, D. Price, (105 min. Hollins), Rix. +13 maja 1981 (Rheinstadion, Düsseldorf) +Dinamo Tbilisi - FC Carl Zeiss Jena 2:1 (0:0) +DYNAMO: Gabelija - Kostawa, Chizaniszwili, Cziwadze, Sułakwelidze, Tawadze, Daraselija, Kipiani (k), Swanadze, (67 min. - Kakiłaszwili), Gucajew, Szengelija. +CARL ZEISS: Grapenthin - Brauer, Schmuphase, Kurbjuweit (k), Schilling, Hopp (88 min. Overmann), Krause, Lindemann, Bielau (76 Topfer), Raab, Vogel. +12 maja 1982 (Camp Nou, Barcelona) +FC Barcelona - Standard Liège 2:1 (1:1) +BARCELONA: Urruticoechea - Manolo, Alexsanko, Migueli (k), Gerardo, Jose Sanchez, Moratalla, Esteban, Simonsen, Quini, Carrasco. +STANDARD: Preud'homme - Gerets (k), Meeuws, Poel, Plessers, Daerden, Vandersmissen, Haan, Botteron, Wendt, Tahamata. +11 maja 1983 (Ullevi, Göteborg) +Aberdeen FC - Real Madryt 2:1 (1:1, 1:1, 1:1), po dogrywce +ABERDEEN: Leighton - Rougvie, McLeish, W. Miller (k), McMaster, N. Cooper, Strachan, McGhee, Simpson, Black (87 min. Hewitt), Weir. +REAL: Agustin - Juan Jose, Metgod, Bonet, Camacho (91 min. San Jose), Stielike, Gallego, Angel, Juanito, Santillana, Isidro (103 min. Salguero). +16 maja 1984 (St. Jakob-Park, Bazylea) +Juventus F.C. - FC Porto 2:1 (2:1) +JUVENTUS: Tacconi - Gentile, Brio, Scirea (k), Cabrini, Bonini, Tardelli, Platini, Vignola (89 min. Caricola), Rossi, Boniek. +PORTO: Ze Beto - Joao Pinto (k), Eurico, Eduardo Luis (82 min. Joao Costa), Lima Pereira, Frasco, Sousa, Jaime Magalhaes (65 min. Michael Walsh), Jaime Pacheco, Gomes, Vermelinho. +15 maja 1985 (Feijenoord Stadion, Rotterdam) +Everton F.C. - Rapid Wiedeń 3:1 (0:0) +EVERTON: Southall (k) - Stevens, Ratcliffe, Mountfeld, van den Hauwe, Steven, Reid, Bracewell, Sheedy, A. Gray, Sharp. +RAPID: Konsel - Lainer, H. Weber, Garger, Brauneder, Hrstic, Kienast, Kranjćar, Weinhofer (67 min. Panenka), Pacult (60 min. Gross), Krankl (k). +2 maja 1986 (Stade Gerland, Lyon) +Dynamo Kijów - Atlético Madryt 3:0 (1:0) +DYNAMO: Czanow - Biessonow, Bałtacza (38 min. Bal), Kuzniecow, Demianienko (k), Jaremczuk, Jakowienko, Zawarow (70 min. Jewtuszenko), Rac, Biełanow, Błochin. +ATLETICO: Fillol, Tomas (k), Arteche, Ruiz Garcia, Clemente, Julio Prieto, Landaburu (61 Quigue Setien), Marina, E. R. Quigue, da Silva, Cabrera. +13 maja 1987 (Spiros Louis, Ateny) +Ajax Amsterdam - Lokomotive Lipsk 1:0 (1:0) +AJAX: Menzo - Silooy, Verlaat, Rijkaard, Boeve, Winter, Wouters, Arnold Muhren (k) (83 Scholten), Robert Witschge (86 Bergkamp), van't Schip, van Basten. +LOKOMOTIVE: R. Muller - Kreer, Baum (k), M. Lindner, Zotzsche, Bredow, Scholz, Liebers (76 Kuhn), Edmond (66 min. Leitzke), Richter, Marschall. +11 maja 1988 (Stade de la Meinau, Strasburg) +KV Mechelen - Ajax Amsterdam 1:0 (0:0) +MECHELEN: Preud'homme - Hofkens (73 min. Theunis), Clijsters (k), Rutjes, Deferm, Sanders, de Wilde (60 min. Demesmaeker), Erwin Koeman, Emmers, den Boer, Ohana. +AJAX: Menzo - Blind, P Larsson, Wouters, Verlaat (73 min. Meijer), Winter, Scholten, Arnold Muhren (k), van't Schip, (57 min. Bergkamp), Bosman, Robert Witschge. +10 maja 1989 (Stade du Wankdorf, Berno) +FC Barcelona - Sampdoria Genua 2:0 (1:0) +FC BARCELONA: Zubizarreta - Milla (61 min. Soler), Aloisio, Alexanko (k), Urbano, Amor, Eusebio, Roberto, Lineker, Julio Salinas, A. Beguiristain (74 min. Lopez Rekarte). +SAMPDORIA: Pagliuca - Mannini (27 min. S. Pellegrini), Pari, L. Pellargini (k) (54 min. Bonomi), Salsano, Lanna, Victor, Cerezo, Dossena, Vialli, Mancini. +Mecze Finałowe 1990-1999. +9 maja 1990 (Ullevi, Goeteborg) +Sampdoria Genua - RSC Anderlecht 2:0 (0:0, 0:0, 1:0), po dogrywce +SAMPDORIA: Pagliuca - Mannini, Luca Pellegrini (k), Vierchowod, Carboni, Pari, Katanec (92 min. Salsano), Dossena, Invernizzi II (55 min. Lombardo), Vialli, Mancini. +ANDERLECHT: de Wilde - Grun (k), Keshi, Marchoul, Kooiman, Musonda, Gudjohnsen, Janković, (16 min. Oliveira), Vervoort, Degryse (104 min. Nilis), Mancini. +15 maja 1991 (Feijenoord Stadion, Rotterdam) +Manchester United - FC Barcelona 2:1 (0:0) +MANCHESTER: Sealey - D. Irwin, Bruce, Palister, Blackmore, Phelan, B. Robson (k), Ince, McClair, Mark Hughes, Sharpe. +BARCELONA: Busguets - Nando, Alexanko (72 min. Pinilla), R. Koeman, Ferrer, Eusebio, Bakero, M. Laudrup, J. A. Goikoetxea, Julio Salinas, A. Beguiristain. +6 maja 1992 (Estádio da Luz, Lizbona) +Werder Brema - AS Monaco 2:0 (1:0) +WERDER: Rollmann - Bbockenfeld, Borowka, Bratseth, Wolter (34 min. Schaaf), Eilts, Votava (k), Bode, Neubarth (75 min. Kohn), Rufer, K. Allofs. +MONACO: Ettori (k) - Valery (62 min. Djorkaeff), Mendy, Sonor, Gnako, R. Barros, Dib, Petit, Passi, Fofana (59 min. Clement), Weah. +12 maja 1993 (Wembley Stadium, Londyn) +AC Parma - Royal Antwerpia 3:1 (2:1) +PARMA: Ballotta - Benarrivo, Di Chiara, Minotti (k), Apolloni, Grun, Zoratto (25 min. Pin), Osio, (65 min. F. Pizzi), Cuoghi, Melli, Brolin. +ANTWERP: S. Stojanović - Kiekens, Broeckaert, Taeymans, Smidts (k), Jakovijević (57 min. Van Veirdeghem), van Rethy, Severeyns, Segers (86 min. Moukrim), Lehnhoff, Czerniatyński. +4 maja 1994 (Parken, Kopenhaga) +Arsenal F.C. - AC Parma 1:0 (1:0) +ARSENAL:Seaman - Dixson, Bould, A. Adams (k), Winterburn, P. Davis, Morrow, Selley, Merson (McGoldrick), Campbell, A. Smith. +PARMA: Bucci - Benarrivo, Sensini, Minotti (k), Apolloni, Di Chiara, Broli, Pin (71 min. Melli), Crippa, Zola, Asprilla. +10 maja 1995 (Parc des Princes, Paryż) +Real Saragossa - Arsenal F.C. 2:1 (0:0, 1:1, 1:1), po dogrywce +REAL: Cedrun - Belsue, Aguado, Caceres, Solana, Aragon, Pardeza (k), Higuera (66 min. Garcia Sanjuan, 114 min. Geli), Nayim, Poyet, Esnaider. +ARSENAL:Seaman - Dixon, A. Adams (k), Linighan, Winterburn (48 min. Morrow), Parlour, Keown, (46 min. Hillier), Schwarz, Merson, Hartson, Wright. +8 maja 1996 (Stadion Króla Baudouina I, Bruksela) +Paris Saint-Germain - Rapid Wiedeń 1:0 (1:0) +PARIS SG: Lama (k) - Roche, Le Guen, N'Gotty, Fournier (77 min. Liacer), Bravo, Rai (11 min. Dely Valdes), Guerin, Colester, Loko, Djorkaeff. +'"RAPID:" Konsel (k) - Schottel, T. Iwanow, Hatz, Heraf, Kuhbauer, Stoger, Guggi, Marasek, Stumpf ( 6 min. Barsic), Jancke. +14 maja 1997 (Feijenoord Stadion, Rotterdam) +FC Barcelona - Paris Saint-Germain 1:0 (1:0) +BARCELONA: Vitor Baia - Ferrer, Fernando Couto, Abelardo, Sergi, Guardiola, Popescu (k) (46 min. Amor), Figo, de la Peńa (84 min. Stoiczkow), Ronaldo, Luis Enrigue (88 min. Pizzi). +PARIS SG: Lama - Fournier (58 min. Algerino), N'Gotty, Le Guen, Domi, Leroy, Guerin (68 min. Dely Valdes), Rai (k), Gauet, Loko (78 Pouget), Leonardo. +13 maja 1998 (Råsundastadion, Sztokholm) +Chelsea F.C. - VfB Stuttgart 1:0 (0:0) +CHELSEA: de Goey - S. Clarke, Leboeuf, Duberry, Granville, Petrescu, Wise (k), Di Matteo, Poyet (81 min. Newton), Vialli, T. A. Flo (71 min. Zola). +STUTTGART: Wohlfahrt - T. Schneider (55 min. Endress), Ykin, Berthold, Haber (75 min. K. Djordjević), Soldo, Balakow, Poschner, Hagner (79 min. Ristić), Akpoborie, Bobic (k). +19 maja 1999 (Villa Park, Birmingham) +Lazio Rzym - Real Mallorca 2:1 (1:1) +LAZIO: Marchegiani - Pancaro, Nesta (k), S. Mihajlović, Favalli, D. Stanković (56 min. Sergio Conceicao), Almeyda, Mancini (90 min. Fernando Couto), Nedved (84 min. Lombardo), Salas, Vieri. +MALLORCA: Roa - Olaizola (k), Marcelino Elena, Sivero, Soler, Etame, Mayer, Engonga, J. Stanković, Ibagaza, Dani, Biagini (73 min. Paunović). +Powiat wrzesiński + +Powiat wrzesiński – powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Września. +Historia. +1818-1918. +Powiat wrzesiński został powołany w 1818 roku przez zaborcze władze pruskie, po czym istniał bez przerwy przez przez 157 lat, do 1975. W okresie tym obszar powiatu wrzesińskiego wielokrotnie i znacznie się zmieniał. W latach 1818–1918 powiat wrzesiński był okręgiem przygranicznym (granica prusko-rosyjska), przez co we Wrześni działał okręgowy urząd celny. Od 1902 roku we Wrześni znajdował się także garnizon 3 batalionu 46 pułku piechoty pruskiej. +1918-1939. +Po odzyskaniu niepodległości powiat wrzesiński graniczył od północy z powiatami gnieźnieńskim i witkowskim (powołanym w miejsce powidzkiego), od wschodu z powiatem słupeckim (a po jego likwidacji w 1932 roku, z konińskim), od południa z powiatem jarocińskim i od zachodu z powiatem średzkim. Pierwszym polskim starostą wrzesińskim w II Rzeczypospolitej został Franciszek Czapski. Organem powiatowego samorządu był wstępnie sejmik powiatowy, a od 1934 roku rada powiatowa. +W 1927 roku zlikwidowano powiat witkowski a z jego terytorium 46 km² powierzchni włączono do powiatu wrzesińskiego, przez co obszar powiatu wzrósł do 608 km². W 1934 roku do powiatu wrzesińskiego przyłączono rejon Zberek z powiatu średzkiego. +W 1939 roku przeprowadzono wymianę terytoriów z powiatem gnieźnieńskim w rejonie Barczyzny, co spowodowało utratę niecałych 5 km² powierzchni przez powiat wrzesiński. +1939-1954. +W okresie czasie okupacji hitlerowskiej (1939–1945) powiat wrzesiński wszedł w struktury administracyjne III Rzeszy. Zachowano wówczas przedwojenne granice oraz podział administracyjny powiatu, jednak obowiązywały zgermanizowane toponimy. +Po wkroczeniu wojsk radzieckich w styczniu 1945 roku, w powiecie wrzesińskim zawiązała się tzw. "Tymczasowa Rada Narodowa", która stanowiła terenowe przedłużenie Krajowej Rady Narodowej. W latach 1945–1950 struktura władz powiatowych była oparta na zmodyfikowanym ustawodawstwie przedwojennym oraz na dekrecie KRN z 1944 roku. +Na skutek reformy administracyjnej PRL w 1950 roku, dotychczasowe Starostwo Powiatowe zostało zastąpione przez Powiatową Radę Narodową z Prezydium PPRN (z przewodniczącym na czele) jako organem wykonawczym. Do 1954 roku rady narodowe nie były owocem wyborów; ich skład stanowiły osoby delegowane przez partie polityczne i organizacje społeczne. +1954-1972. +W 1961 roku zniesiono gromadę Targowa Górka a jej obszar włączono do gromady Nekla. 1 stycznia 1962 roku zniesiono gromady Rataje i Wrąbczynkowskie Holendry a z ich obszarów utworzono nową gromadę Pyzdry; równocześnie zniesioną gromadę Chwalibogowo włączono do gromady Września Południe. +1975-1998. +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku główną część terytorium zniesionego powiatu wrzesińskiego włączono do nowego (mniejszego) województwa poznańskiego; jedynie miasto i gmina Pyzdry znalazły się w nowym województwie konińskim. +1 sierpnia 1977 roku z gminy Września wyłączono części obszaru sołectw Przyborki, Psary Polskie, Bierzglinek i Obłaczkowo i włączone je do Wrześni, natomiast z Wrześni wyłączono obszar o powierzchni 74,37 ha, który włączono do gminy Września. 1 stycznia 1988 roku z gminy Września wyłączono wieś Pakszynek i włączono ją do gminy Czerniejewo. 1 lutego 1991 roku miasto i gminę wiejską Września połączono we wspólną gminę miejsko-wiejską Września. 1 stycznia 1992 roku identycznej fuzji uległy jednoimienne miasta oraz gminy wiejskie Miłosław i Pyzdry. 1 lipca 1994 roku do gminy Miłosław przyłączono część wsi Winna Góra z gminy Środa Wielkopolska. +od 1999. +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku przywrócono w nowym województwie wielkopolskim powiat wrzesiński o identycznych granicach co z początku 1975 roku. +1 stycznia 2000 roku prawa miejskie (utracone w 1793 roku) odzyskała Nekla, co sprawiło że gminę wiejską Nekla przekształcono w gminę miejsko-wiejską. +Rose Wilder Lane + +Rose Wilder Lane (5 grudnia 1886 w De Smet, zm. 30 października 1968 w Danbury) – amerykańska pisarka i dziennikarka. Córka Laury Ingalls Wilder i Almanza Wildera. To ona namówiła matkę, by spisała wspomnienia z dzieciństwa i wydała w formie książki – rozsławionej przez serial "Domek na prerii" – której była edytorką. Sama również prowadziła pamiętnik oraz spisała własne wspomnienia. Była jedną z inicjatorek amerykańskiego ruchu libertiańskiego. +Biografia. +Przodkowie. +Rose Wilder była pierwszym z dwojga dzieci Laury i Almanza Wilderów, tudzież wnuczką Caroline i Charlesa Ingallsów oraz Angeliny i Jamesa Wilderów. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Wczesne lata Rose Wilder były niezwykle trudnym okresem dla jej rodziców. Klęski nieurodzaju, choroby oraz niepowodzenia osobiste i finansowe skutkowały licznymi przeprowadzkami. W ciągu pierwszych ośmiu lat życia Rose mieszkała w De Smet w Południowej Dakocie (1886-1889), Spring Valley w Minnesocie (1889-1891), Westville na Florydzie (1891-1892), ponownie w De Smet (1892-1894) oraz w Mansfield w Missouri (od 1894), gdzie jej rodzice ostatecznie osiedli i założyli farmę. +Rose uczęszczała do szkół w Mansfield oraz Crowley w Luizjanie, gdzie mieszkała u siostry ojca – Elizy Jane Wilder Thayer. Szkołę ostatecznie ukończyła w 1904 jako jedna z najlepszych absolwentek. Problemy finansowe rodziców zmusiły ją jednak do poprzestania na szkole średniej. +Po ukończeniu szkoły, niespełna osiemnastoletnia Rose powróciła na gospodarstwo rodziców. Rozpoczęła pracę telegrafistki na stacji kolejowej w Mansfield. Taką samą pracę wykonywała zatrudniwszy się w Western Union w Kansas City oraz w ciągu kolejnych pięciu lat w różnych miejscowościach na terenie stanów Missouri, Indiana i Kalifornia. +Małżeństwo. +W 1908 Rose Wilder przeniosła się do San Francisco, a rok później poślubiła dziennikarza Claire'a Gillette'a Lane'a. W 1910 przyszedł na świat ich syn (urodził się martwy lub zmarł krótko po urodzeniu). Więcej dzieci nie mieli. +W kolejnych latach, młodzi Lane'owie dużo podróżowali, pracując w rozmaitych miejscach. Świadoma braków w wykształceniu, Lane uczyła się w tym czasie kilku języków. Ok. 1910 zaczęła zarabiać pisaniem, początkowo do gazet. Imała się także innych zajęć. W latach 1912-1914 była jedną z niewielu kobiet-agentów nieruchomości w Kalifornii. Z mężem sprzedali wtedy farmę, zlokalizowaną na terenie dzisiejszych: San José i Silicon Valley (północna Kalifornia). Małżeństwo ich przeżywało wtedy trudności, aż ostatecznie się rozpadło w 1918. +Kariera. +Wraz z perspektywą zaangażowania się Stanów Zjednoczonych w I wojnę światową na rynku nieruchomości zapanował zastój. W konsekwencji, Lane w 1915 podjęła pracę asystentki redakcyjnej w "San Francisco Bulletin". Szybko zwróciła na siebie uwagę kierownictwa pisma jako zdolna autorka i redaktorka tekstów. Jej biografie – oparte na zdobytym przez siebie materiale – Henry'ego Forda, Charliego Chaplina, Jacka Londona i Herberta Hoovera zostały opublikowane w formie książek. +W tym samym czasie Rose odwiedziła matka. Wspólnie zwiedzały miasto i odwiedziły wystawę "Panama-Pacific International Exposition". Zapiski z tej wizyty (listy Laury Ingalls Wilder do męża) zostały wydane w 1974 w formie książkowej: "West from Home". +W latach 20. podróżowała po Europie. Odwiedziła m.in. Warszawę i Kraków. +W 1965 wyjechała do Wietnamu jako korespondentka wojenna. +Ekranizacje. +Książka Rose Wilder Lane "Let the Hurricane Roar" (obecnie, bardziej znana jako "Young Pioneers") została zekranizowana w 1976 w dwóch filmach fabularnych: "Na preriach Dakoty" ("Young Pioneers") oraz "Gwiazdka na prerii" ("Young Pioneers' Christmas") oraz serialu telewizyjnym "The Young Pioneers". +Leopold Unger + +Leopold Unger, pseud. "Pol Mathil", "Brukselczyk" (ur. 12 sierpnia 1922 we Lwowie, zm. 20 grudnia 2011 w Brukseli) – polski dziennikarz żydowskiego pochodzenia, publicysta, eseista, komentator ds. międzynarodowych. +Biografia. +W czasie II wojny światowej przebywał w Rumunii. Po wojnie pracował jako dziennikarz w „Życiu Warszawy”, później w belgijskim dzienniku „Le Soir”. Od 1969 na emigracji w Belgii. Był stałym współpracownikiem paryskiej „Kultury”, Radia Wolna Europa, sekcji polskiej BBC, a także „International Herald Tribune”. Był również publicystą „Gazety Wyborczej”. +W kwietniu 2008, na 85-lecie urodzin i 60-lecie pracy zawodowej Ungera, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie wydało księgę pamiątkową pt. "Udało mi się mieć ciekawe życie" (wśród autorów: Władysław Bartoszewski, Bronisław Geremek, Henryk Giedroyc, Ryszard Kapuściński, Leszek Kołakowski, Bohdan Osadczuk, Jerzy Pomianowski, Adam Daniel Rotfeld, Andrzej Wajda, Lech Wałęsa i Józef Życiński). +8 czerwca 2009 odebrał w Warszawie nagrodę Polskiego PEN Clubu im. Ksawerego i Mieczysława Pruszyńskich. 30 czerwca 2009 otrzymał doktorat honoris causa Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie. +Mieszkał w Brukseli. +OpenBIOS + +OpenBIOS – wolna, przenośna wersja BIOS, zgodna z IEEE 1275-1994 (Open Firmware), czyli zawierająca zestaw instrukcji niezależnych od urządzenia (co pozwoli uruchamiać system z kart rozszerzeń), mająca pracować na wszystkich popularnych platformach, jak x86, Alpha, AMD64, IPF, a także w systemach zagnieżdżonych, gdzie zunifikowany firmware znacznie ułatwi przenośność. +Open Firmware można znaleźć w wielu serwerach, istnieją też komercyjne implementacje SUN, Firmworks, CodeGen, Apple, IBM. +Całkowe równanie Stoeckliego + +Całkowe równanie Stoeckliego, czyli całkowa izoterma Stoeckliego, jest najbardziej ogólnym równaniem izotermy adsorpcji w mikroporach. Pozwala ono w sposób ogólny opisać adsorpcję na ciele stałym o dowolnym rozkładzie mikroporów (tzn. strukturalnie niejednorodnym), uwzględniając różnice w modelu adsorpcji wynikające z różnic w ich kształcie mikroporów poprzez odpowiedni dobór tzw. izotermy lokalnej. Równanie to można uważać za analog wcześniej podanego ogólnego całkowego równania adsorpcji na powierzchniach energetycznie niejednorodnych. +formula_1 +Izoterma globalna – θt(p), oraz θl(p, B) – izoterma lokalna są silnie zależne od temperatury. Funkcja rozkładu parametru strukturalnego F(B) może również słabo zależeć od temperatury. +Równanie to może być stosowane również do opisu adsorpcji z roztworów rozcieńczonych po formalnej zamianie ciśnień (p) na stężenia (c). +Zobacz też: izoterma DR, teoria objętościowego zapełniania mikroporów +Henryk II (król Nawarry) + +Henryk II (ur. 18 kwietnia 1503, w Sanquesa - zm. 25 maja 1555, w Pau) – tytularny król Nawarry, był najstarszym synem Jana III d'Albret (zmarłego w roku 1516) i Katarzyny de Foix (siostry i spadkobierczyni Franciszka Febusa, króla Nawarry i hrabiego Foix). +Kiedy Katarzyna zmarła na wygnaniu w roku 1517, Henryk przejął po niej prawa do tronu Nawarry, co kwestionował Ferdynand II, król Hiszpanii. Jednak za wstawiennictwem króla Francji Franciszka I, Henryk otrzymał tytuł króla tego państwa oraz hrabiego Foix. +Po bezskutecznych negocjacjach w Noyonie w roku 1516 i w Montpellier dwa lata później, Henryk wraz se swoimi sojusznikami rozpoczął działania mające mu zapewnić faktyczne zwierzchnictwo nad królestwem. Francuskie wojska oblegające kraj zostały jednak ostatecznie wygnane przez Hiszpanów. W roku 1525 Henryk został uwięziony po bitwie pod Pawią, ale uciekł. +Małżeństwo. +Henryk, który sympatyzował z hugenotami, zmarł w Pau, dnia 25 maja 1555. +Fryderyk Pautsch + +Fryderyk Pautsch (ur. 22 września 1877 w Delatynie koło Stanisławowa, zm. 1 lipca 1950 w Krakowie) – polski malarz reprezentujący nurt folklorystyczno-ekspresjonistyczny w sztuce Młodej Polski. +Od 1898 roku uczył się na wydziale prawa Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie, rok później kontynuował ten kierunek na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Pod kątem artystycznym kształcił się w latach 1900-1906 w krakowskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych pod kierunkiem Leona Wyczółkowskiego. Od 1902 do 1905 roku pracował jako karykaturzysta w czasopismach "Chochoł" i "Liberum Veto". W latach 1905-'06, dzięki otrzymanemu stypendium, edukował się w Académie Julian w Paryżu. Osiadł we Lwowie, skąd często urządzał wielomiesięczne wyprawy na polskie Pokucie. Od 1908 roku był członkiem Towarzystwa Artystów Polskich „Sztuka”, a od 1912 roku wiedeńskiej grupy Hagenbund. W tym samym roku podjął pracę jako nauczyciel malarstwa dekoracyjnego w Królewskiej Akademii Sztuki i Rzemiosła Artystycznego we Wrocławiu. W okresie I wojny światowej był żołnierzem armii austriackiej. +W 1919 został dyrektorem Szkoły Sztuk Zdobniczych w Poznaniu. Był współzałożycielem i pierwszym prezesem (od 1921) grupy artystów wielkopolskich „Świt”. W 1925 roku przeniósł się do Krakowa, gdzie został profesorem Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, a także dwukrotnie w latach 1931 i 1936 również jej rektorem. W 1938 został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim Polskiej Akademii Literatury "za wybitne zasługi dla polskiej sztuki w ogóle". +W czasie okupacji wykładał w Państwowej Szkole Rzemiosła Artystycznego w Krakowie. W 1945 powrócił do pracy w Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Krakowie. +Martin Gore + +Martin Lee Gore (ur. 23 lipca 1961 w Dagenham) – współtwórca grupy Depeche Mode. Autor tekstów, muzyk i wokalista, a także DJ. +Laureat nagrody Brytyjskiej Akademii Kompozytorów i Autorów Tekstu z 1999 roku za "wybitne osiągnięcia". +Życie prywatne. +Rodzice Martina: Pamela i David +Jego biologicznym ojcem jest Afroamerykanin, żołnierz GI stacjonujący w Wielkiej Brytanii. +Rodzeństwo: siostry Jackie i Karen +Związki małżeńskie: Suzanne Boisvert (od 27 sierpnia 1994 do roku 2006) +Utwory Depeche Mode z wiodącym wokalem Gore'a. +Duety z Dave'em Gahanem. +W części utworów występują refreny śpiewane przez Gore'a, a w części dwugłos z Gahanem. +Koncerty. +Utwory w wersjach albumowych śpiewane przez Dave'a Gahana. Kolejność chronologiczna zawiera koncerty solo w 2003 roku. W nawiasach podane nazwy tras. Wartym odnotowania jest fakt śpiewania przez Gahana utworu "Route 66" na koncertach, który w wersji singlowej był śpiewany przez Gore'a. +Jan Białostocki + +Jan Białostocki (ur. 14 sierpnia 1921 w Saratowie, zm. 25 grudnia 1988 w Warszawie) – polski historyk sztuki. +Uczeń Władysława Tatarkiewicza, Tadeusza Kotarbińskiego i Michała Walickiego. Absolwent i wieloletni pracownik naukowo-dydaktyczny (od 1962 profesor) Instytutu Historii Sztuki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, od 1976 członek korespondent PAN. Wieloletni pracownik (od 1956 kurator) Galerii Sztuki Obcej Muzeum Narodowego w Warszawie. Nauczyciel wielu roczników studentów historii sztuki. +Zainteresowania naukowe Białostockiego były wyjątkowo szerokie i obejmowały m.in.: historię malarstwa (zwłaszcza holenderskiego XVII wieku, m.in.twórczości Rembrandta), sztukę renesansu, baroku, romantyzmu, historię doktryn artystycznych, metodologię historii sztuki. +Wykładał w licznych instytucjach uniwersyteckich i muzealnych wielu krajów europejskich, USA i Meksyku, m.in. w Yale University w New Haven (1965-1966), New York University (1972), University of Wisconsin (1972), Pennsylvania State University (1973), Collège de France (1978). +Autor licznych prac (jego bibliografia liczy ok. 500 pozycji), opublikowanych w kraju i za granicą. Był redaktorem "Bulletin du Musée National de Varsovie" oraz serii wydawniczej "Sztuka i idee" w PWN. +Spopularyzował w Polsce metodę ikonologiczną w badaniach nad dziełami sztuki. W latach 1963-1979 był prezesem Stowarzyszenia Historyków Sztuki. Był członkiem zagranicznych akademii naukowych: holenderskiej, belgijskiej i mogunckiej, a także Akademii Sztuk Pięknych San Fernando w Madrycie. Doktor "honoris causa" Uniwersytetu w Groningen. +Laureat "Nagrody Państwowej I stopnia" (1978). Pierwszy laureat międzynarodowej nagrody "Aby-M.-Warburg Preis" (1981), przyznawanej najwybitniejszym historykom sztuki przez władze miasta Hamburg. +Był również twórcą drzeworytu, którego uczył się na początku lat czterdziestych w Warszawie, od Tadeusza Cieślewskiego. W latach 1943-1947 wykonał ekslibrisy Ihora Szewczenki, Andrzeja Vincenza, Michała Walickiego. Jego dziełem jest również logo Stowarzyszenia Historyków Sztuki. +De Profundis (gra) + +De Profundis – system, a właściwie gra wywodząca się z gier fabularnych, należący do nurtu Nowej Fali. Stworzony został przez Michała Oracza, w oparciu o koncepcję psychodramy. +W De Profundis gracze uczestniczą bez udziału Mistrza Gry, a sama gra polega na rzeczywistej korespondencji między uczestnikami gry, w której wymieniają się oni informacjami dotyczącymi życia ich postaci. Klimat gry oparty jest na prozie Howarda Phillipsa Lovecrafta. +Podręcznik liczy zaledwie kilkanaście stron, a mechanika gry dotyczy ogranicza się określenia sposobu budowania grozy i nastroju niesamowitości. +Giovanni Schiaparelli + +Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli (ur. 14 marca 1835 w Savigliano, zm. 4 lipca 1910 w Mediolanie) – włoski astronom. +Studiował inżynierię i architekturę na Uniwersytecie Turyńskim, astronomii uczył się w obserwatoriach w Berlinie i rosyjskim Pułkowie. W latach 1862-1900 był dyrektorem Obserwatorium Brera w Mediolanie. +Prowadził obserwacje obiektów Układu Słonecznego, uznał cechy albedo powierzchni Marsa za morza i kontynenty, i nadał im nazwy. Począwszy od 1877 obserwował na tej planecie, jak mu się wydawało, długie proste struktury, które nazwał po włosku "canali". Miał na myśli kanały pochodzenia naturalnego, jednak nieświadomie dał początek setkom historii o "ufoludkach" z Czerwonej Planety. Dopiero kilkadziesiąt lat później twory widziane przez Schiaparellego okazały się być złudzeniem optycznym. Fotografie dokonane przez sondę Mariner 4 w 1965 roku wykazały jednoznacznie, że na Marsie nie występują opisywane przez niego kanały. +Giovanni Schiaparelli jako pierwszy wykazał, że roje Perseidów i Leonidów związane są z kometami. W 1889 roku podał, że Merkury, a w 1890 roku, że Wenus, są zwrócone do Słońca stale tą samą stroną. Obserwacje radarowe w 1965 roku dowiodły, że się mylił. Badał również gwiazdy podwójne, interesował się astronomią średniowieczną i starożytną. 26 kwietnia 1861 r. odkrył planetoidę 69 Hesperia. +W 1872 roku otrzymał Złoty Medal Królewskiego Towarzystwa Astronomicznego. Na jego cześć nazwano planetoidę 4062 Schiaparelli oraz jeden z kraterów na Marsie i Księżycu. W 1889 roku został senatorem Królestwa Italii. W 1902 roku otrzymał amerykański Medal Bruce'a. +Siostrzenica astronoma, Elsa Schiaparelli, była znaną projektantką mody. +Kwokacz + +Kwokacz, brodziec kwokacz ("Tringa nebularia") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrowny z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Katanga (prowincja) + +Katanga (w latach 1971-1997 "Shaba") – w latach 1966-2005 prowincja w południowej części Demokratycznej Republiki Konga (w latach 1971-1997 znanej jako "Zair") o powierzchni 496,877 km², zamieszkana w 2012 roku przez 5,9 miliona osób. Stolicą i największym miastem było Lubumbashi (dawniej zwane "Elizabethville"). Na mocy konstytucji z 2006 roku Katanga została z trzyletnim okresem "vacatio legis" podzielona na cztery mniejsze prowincje: Górna Katanga, Górne Lomami, Lualaba i Tanganika. +Geografia. +Katanga obejmuje pagórkowate i górzyste tereny Wyżyny Katanga i gór Mitumba. Klimat podrównikowy wilgotny, w południowej części suchy. Gęsta sieć hydrograficzna. Główne rzeki: Lualaba (Kongo), Luapula/Luvua, Lukuga, Kasai i Lufira. Liczne jeziora: Tanganika, Mweru, Upemba, Kisale. Szatę roślinną tworzą trawiaste sawanny i lasy podrównikowe, wzdłuż rzek lasy galeriowe. Dużą powierzchnię zajmują obszary chronione (m.in. parki narodowe Upemba i Kundelungu). +Historia. +W XVI-XIX wieku na terytorium Katangi istniały państwa Luba i Lunda, w 1884 włączone zostały do belgijskich posiadłości kolonialnych, oficjalnie jako prowincja Katanga w Wolnym Państwie Kongo. Po wycofaniu się Belgów z Konga, proklamowała niepodległość 11 lipca 1960 roku. Secesję inspirował kontrolujący kopalnie prowincji belgijsko-brytyjski koncern "Union Minière du Haute-Katanga". Prezydentem niepodległej Katangi (Shaby) został Moise Czombe, dowódcą armii pułkownik Mukégo, a dowódcą sił powietrznych Jan Zumbach. 15 stycznia 1963 roku w wyniku interwencji wojsk ONZ prowincja została ponownie włączona w skład Konga, które pod rządami Mobutu Sese Seko w 1971 zmieniło nazwę na Zair. Część sił secesjonistów schroniła się w Angoli, skąd w 1977 i 1978 podejmowano próby inwazji na Katangę, tłumione przez siły francuskie. Na mocy nowej konstytucji z 2005 roku Katangę podzielono między prowincje: Górna Katanga, Górne Lomami, Lualaba i Tanganika. Ze względu na 36-miesięczny okres "vacatio legis" nowy podział zaczął obowiązywać w 2009 roku. +Przemysł. +Obszar prowincji Katanga jest ważnym ośrodkiem przemysłowym kraju. Wydobywa się tu miedź, złoto, srebro, uran, węgiel, cynk, ołów i kobalt. +Przemysł przetwórczy: chemiczny, hutniczy, spożywczy. +W obszarze Katangi działają dwa lotniska. +Pentti Saarikoski + +Pentti Saarikoski (ur. 2 września 1937, zm. 24 sierpnia 1983), fiński poeta, prozaik i tłumacz. +Urodzony w Impilahti w Karelii, mieszkał w Helsinkach, a ostatnie lata życia spędził w Szwecji. Studiował filologię klasyczną; w młodości uprawiał także publicystykę na łamach pism lewicowych. W jego wczesnej poezji motywy antyczne przeplatają się stale z krytyką społeczną i aktualnościami światowej polityki. Wtedy też z upodobaniem stosował technikę kolażu. W późniejszej twórczości raczej dystansował się od swych polityczno-społecznych zaangażowań. +Debiutował tomem "Runoja" (Wiersze, 1958); inne jego zbiory to "Toisia runoja" (Inne wiersze, 1958), "Runot ja Hipponaksin runot" (Wiersze i wiersze Hipponaksa), "Maailmasta" (Ze świata, 1961), "Mitä tapahtuu todella" (Co się tak naprawdę dzieje, 1962), "Laulu laululta pois" (Pieśń z dala od pieśni, 1966), "En soisi sen päättyvän" (Nie chciałbym, żeby to się skończyło, 1968), "Katselen Stalinin pään yli ulos" (Wyglądam sponad głowy Stalina, 1969), "Onnen aika" (Szczęśliwy czas, 1971), "Alue" (Okolica, 1973), "Tanssilattia vuorella" (Parkiet na szczycie góry, 1977), " Tanssiinkutsu" (Zaproszenie do tańca, 1980), "Hämärän tanssit" (Tańce Mrocznego, 1983). Proza Saarikoskiego ma zazwyczaj charakter wspomnieniowy, np. "Ovat muistojemme lehdet kuolleet" (Umarły liście moich wspomnień, 1964) czy "Aika Prahassa" (Czas spędzony w Pradze, 1967). +Saarikoski tłumaczył na fiński dzieła licznych pisarzy antycznych (m.in. Homera, Safony, Ksenofonta, Eurypidesa), jak również współczesnych (Joyce'a, Salingera, Henry'ego Millera); te ostatnie przekłady wywarły silny wpływ na fiński język literacki ze względu na nowatorskie zastosowanie w nich fińszczyzny potocznej, a zwłaszcza helsińskiego slangu. W Polsce ukazał się wybór jego wierszy "Koń szalonego człowieka i inne wiersze" (Kraków 1986) w tłumaczeniu B. Drozdowskiego i B. Maciejewskiej. +Robert Bunsen + +Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (ur. 30 lub 31 marca 1811 w Getyndze, zm. 16 sierpnia 1899 w Heidelbergu) – niemiecki fizyk i chemik, profesor we Wrocławiu i Heidelbergu. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Getyndze, gdzie jego ojciec, profesor języków obcych, kierował biblioteką. Stopień doktora uzyskał w 1830 r. po dwóch latach studiów. Najpierw pracował w Kassel, następnie od 1839 w Marburgu na tamtejszym uniwersytecie. W Marburgu odkrył kakodyl oraz jego pochodne, między innymi cyjanek kakodylu, którego planowano użyć jako gazu bojowego. W Marburgu, w wypadku w laboratorium, Bunsen stracił wzrok w prawym oku. W 1852 objął katedrę chemii w Heidelbergu, którą zarządzał przez kolejnych 37 lat. W opuszczonym budynku klasztornym urządził bardzo dobrze wyposażone laboratorium. Mając 78 lat przeszedł na emeryturę i zajął się swoim hobby – geologią. +Nigdy nie był żonaty. Zwykł mawiać, że nie ma czasu na takie sprawy. Prawie cały czas spędzał w laboratorium oraz wykładając (co bardzo lubił). Swoje wykłady często ilustrował ciekawymi doświadczeniami. Od pracy ze żrącymi związkami miał tak zrogowaciałe palce, że mógł je wkładać w płomień palnika własnej konstrukcji. W ten sposób pokazywał studentom w którym miejscu płomienia temperatura sięga 300 °C. Był znany z dużego poczucia humoru, ale i dużego roztargnienia. +Osiągnięcia naukowe. +Wraz z Kirchhoffem, badając zachowanie się par soli w płomieniu, stworzyli podstawy analizy widmowej. Dzięki tej metodzie odkryli wspólnie cez i rubid. Osiągnęli to analizując osad pozostały po odparowaniu 44 ton wody mineralnej. Jako jeden z pierwszych zsyntetyzował związki arsenoorganiczne (kakodyl i jego pochodne). Zajmował się również elektrolitycznym otrzymywaniem czystych metali takich jak chrom, magnez, glin, mangan, sód, bar, wapń i lit. Był autorem pierwszej monografii o analizie gazowej 1857 +Jednak największą popularność zapewnił mu skonstruowany przez niego w 1850 laboratoryjny palnik gazowy (znany obecnie jako "palnik Bunsena"). Palnik ten jest do dziś stosowany w laboratoriach, szczególnie do analiz w chemii jakościowej-nieorganicznej oraz w preparatyce laboratoryjnej. Używa się go również w budownictwie do lutowania miedzianych rur. +Rzut poziomy + +Rzut poziomy – ruch w jednorodnym polu grawitacyjnym z prędkością początkową prostopadłą do kierunku pola. Torem ruchu jest parabola o wierzchołku w punkcie rzutu. +Odpowiada on ruchowi ciała rzuconego poziomo w polu grawitacyjnym Ziemi, z pewnej wysokości, przy założeniu braku oporu ruchu i prędkości znacznie mniejszej od I prędkości kosmicznej. Wówczas pole grawitacyjne Ziemi można uznać w przybliżeniu za jednorodne. +Na ciało działa stała siła F o jednakowym kierunku na całym torze ruchu, który przyjmuje się za oś Y układu współrzędnych, jest to kierunek pionowy. Aby uniknąć znaków minus wygodnie jest przyjąć zwrot tej osi w dół. Oś prostopadłą do pola, a zgodną z kierunkiem rzutu oznacza się X, jest to kierunek poziomy. +Równania te są równaniami parametrycznymi, gdzie parametrem jest czas "t". +jest równocześnie równaniem toru ruchu. Jest to równanie paraboli. +Ninja + +Broń. +Ninja posługiwali się bardzo wieloma rodzajami broni. Historia przedstawia nam solidny arsenał ich broni, poczynając od mieczy "ninja-tō", a kończąc na sztucznych pazurach używanych przez kunoichi. Ninja posługiwali się także sztuką rzucania nożami kunai lub gwiazdami shuriken, zaś na pięść nakładali tzw. "tagaki". +Wygląd. +Tradycyjnie przedstawia się ich ubranych na czarno, z kolczugą pod okryciem wierzchnim, mieczem na plecach i twarzą pokrytą czarnym barwnikiem. Barwy takie byłyby pomocne podczas działań nocnych. Istnieje teoria, iż ich stroje mogły być jednak ciemnobrązowe, gdyż barwnik taki był tańszy do uzyskania. Przypuszcza się, iż krój stroju początkowo przypominał ówczesne ubrania rolników z regionu Kōka (甲賀地方, dzisiejsza południowo-wschodnia część prefektury Shiga – 滋賀県) i z regionu Igano (伊賀地方, dzisiejsza zachodnia część prefektury Mie – 三重県). Następnie zaczęli dobierać strój odnośnie miejsca, w jakim przyszło im działać. Jednak brak jakichkolwiek historycznych informacji potwierdzających używanie przez ninja stereotypowo wiązanego z nimi czarnego kostiumu. Takie przedstawienie ninja wywodzi się z teatru kabuki – charakterystyczny czarny ubiór noszony był tam przez pomocników zajmujących się rekwizytami i scenografią podczas przedstawienia. Widownia przyjmowała, że są oni "niewidzialni", dlatego postacie ninja noszących takie kostiumy również miały symbolicznie być "niewidzialne". Ponadto, widowni trudno było odróżnić ich od pomocników, co potęgowało efekt zaskoczenia po dokonaniu "zamachu". Ninja preferowali ucieczkę od walki w starciu, przez co musieli być zdolni do możliwie najszybszego odwrotu. Podczas bitew przywdziewali zbroje. +Techniki. +Techniki, którymi posługują się "ninja", zwane "ninjutsu" (忍術) dzielą się na "innin" (陰忍) – "techniki do działań w ukryciu" oraz "yōnin" (陽忍) – "techniki do działań jawnych". "Innin" przeznaczone są do zadań dywersyjnych na terytorium wroga. "Yōnin" zaś stosuje się podczas przygotowanych wcześniej pod względem strategicznym ataków. +Badania z ostatnich lat wykazały, że "ninja" byli nie tylko wspólnotą wojowników przestrzegajacych własnych, bardzo rygorystycznych praw, ale i ugrupowaniem charakteryzującym się zarówno obszerną znajomością fauny i flory, jak i ogromną wiedzą z dziedziny chemii. +Pochodzenie nazwy. +Poprawne japońskie określenie to "shinobi-no-mono" (忍の者), słowa "ninja" (忍者) rozpowszechniło się jednak szerzej ze względu na to, iż jest łatwiejsze w wymowie. Pierwsze udokumentowane użycie terminu "shinobi", pierwotnie zapisywanego przy pomocy chińskich znaków jako 志能備, pochodzi z VIII wieku. Pojawia się w wierszu Heguri Uji no Iratsume dedykowanym Ōtomo no Yakamochi. Pierwotne znaczenie terminu "shinobi" to "ukraść", zaś "mono" (wymawiane też jako "sha" lub "ja") oznacza "osobę". +Słowo "ninja" zdobyło popularność w kulturze po II wojnie światowej. Główny znak składa się z dwóch mniejszych znaków. Górny oznacza "ostrze" natomiast dolny oznacza "serce" lub "duch". Razem oznaczają "tajemnicę", "skrytość" i "wytrzymałość". oznacza "prawdę" i "umiejętność". "Ninja" oznacza więc "człowieka wyszkolonego w sztuce bycia niewidocznym", zaś "ninjutsu" oznacza "umiejętność bycia niewidocznym". +Inne znane terminy to "o-niwaban" (お庭番 "człowiek w ogrodzie"), "suppa", "rappa", mitsumono, "kusa" (草 "trawa") i "Iga-mono" ("człowiek z Iga"). +Izoterma Langmuira + +Izoterma Langmuira to podstawowa izoterma adsorpcji wprowadzona w 1916 r. przez Irvinga Langmuira, laureata nagrody Nobla w 1932 r. +Ta teoria kinetyczna zakłada, że adsorbat może tworzyć na powierzchni adsorbentu tzw. monowarstwę cząsteczek oddziaływających z miejscami adsorpcyjnymi (oddziaływanie "pionowe") a nie oddziaływajacymi (albo słabo oddziaływającymi) ze sobą (oddziaływania "poziome"). Cząsteczki adsorbatu obecne w fazie gazowej uderzają w powierzchnię - prawdopodobieństwo zaadsorbowania rośnie wraz z dostępną wolną powierzchnią. Zaadsorbowane cząsteczki charakteryzuje pewne prawdopodobieństwo desorpcji (proces przeciwny do adsorpcji). Oba prawdopodobieństwa zależą od temperatury i wielkości energii adsorpcji. Wraz z ciśnieniem rośnie częstość uderzeń cząsteczek w powierzchnię, a wraz z ilością zaadsorbowanych cząsteczek maleje dostępna powierzchnia. +W założeniach równania jest: brak możliwości tworzenia wielowarstwy, stałość energii adsorpcji (powierzchnia energetycznie jednorodna, czyli homogeniczna), zaniedbywalność oddziaływań bocznych. +Ta sama definicja pokrycia powierzchni stosowana jest jednak również w innych przypadkach niż adsorpcja monowarstwowa i nazywa się wówczas adsorpcją względną. +Dla niskich ciśnień równanie Langmuira redukuje się do izotermy Henry'ego dla niskich ciśnień: +Równanie izotermy Langmuira stanowi podstawę wyprowadzenia wielu innych równań izoterm, w tym izotermy BET oraz równań opisujących adsorpcję na powierzchniach energetycznie niejednorodnych (heterogenicznych). +Inne postacie izotermy Langmuira. +Jeżeli znamy wielkość pojemności monowarstwy (np. z innych badań), możemy używać inną postać izotermy Langmuira: +Barwienie bakterii + +Barwienia bakterii – techniki stosowane w mikrobiologii, których celem jest umożliwienie obserwacji bakterii w mikroskopie świetlnym celem oceny ich wielkości, kształtu i niektórych cech morfologicznych. Barwienie jest konieczne ze względu na słaby stopień załamywania promieni świetlnych przez komórki bakterii. +Ze względu na ilość barwników zastosowanych przy barwieniu, wyróżnia się barwienie proste (z użyciem jednego barwnika) oraz barwienie złożone (stosuje się kolejno kilka barwników). Barwienie złożone ma większe znaczenie, gdyż umożliwia określenie nie tylko kształtu bakterii, ale także pozwala ocenić jej niektóre cechy morfologiczne. Przykładem barwienia złożonego jest barwienie według metody Grama, metody Ziehl-Neelsena, metody Schaeffera-Fultona. +Technika każdego barwienia polega na pokrywaniu szkiełka podstawowego (z naniesionym i utrwalonym preparatem) barwnikiem na określony czas, a następnie spłukiwaniu poszczególnych barwników wodą przed nalaniem następnych. Czasami w zależności od przepisu stosuje się także takie substancje jak alkohol, czy płyn Lugola, a także podgrzewanie preparatu nad palnikiem. Preparat po wysuszeniu obserwuje się pod imersją. +Wyróżnić można także barwienie bakterii przyżyciowe (rzadkie) i pośmiertne (częściej stosowane). +Trisomia + +Trisomia - jest to obecność dodatkowego (trzeciego) chromosomu w danej parze homologicznej (aberracja chromosomowa genomowa). +Hamulec bezpieczeństwa + +Hamulec bezpieczeństwa - urządzenie lub zespół urządzeń zainstalowany w pojeździe szynowym, przeznaczony do zatrzymania pojazdu (np. pociągu, tramwaju) przez osobę inną niż maszynista bądź motorniczy, w sytuacji niebezpiecznej dla pasażerów. Nieuzasadnione użycie hamulca bezpieczeństwa jest karalne. +Tętniak aorty + +Tętniak aorty - poszerzenie aorty o ponad 50% w stosunku do jej prawidłowej średnicy. +Patogeneza. +Tętniaki występują najczęściej jako skutek procesów miażdżycowych, urazów, nadciśnienia tętniczego, gwałtownego i dużego wysiłku, jako powikłanie procesu zapalnego. Powstanie tętniaków w zespole Marfana następuje w wyniku uszkodzenia tkanki łącznej (zespalającej) ściany aorty. Ze względu na kruche ściany aorty tętniaki aorty w Zespole Marfana mają większe skłonności do pękania. Pękanie tętniaka jest stanem zagrożenia życia chorego. Dawniej tętniaki aorty były charakterystyczne dla przebiegu kiły. +Objawy. +Tętniak bezobjawowy nie daje dolegliwości; rozpoznawany jest w trakcie rutynowych badań diagnostycznych (np. USG) lub w trakcie diagnostyki innych chorób. +Tętniak objawowy aorty brzusznej charakteryzuje się występowaniem bólu w okolicy lędźwiowo-krzyżowej promieniującego często do krocza. W przypadku dużych tętniaków może dołączyć się pojawienie charakterystycznego, wyczuwalnego przez powłoki, tętniącego guza w jamie brzusznej. W przypadku tętniaka aorty piersiowej jedynym objawem może być narastający ból w klatce piersiowej, krwioplucie i chrypka. +Powikłania. +Najgroźniejszym powikłaniem tętniaka, jest jego pęknięcie, które może doprowadzić do dużej utraty krwi i zgonu. W przypadku tętniaków aorty, pęknięcie może wystąpić do jamy otrzewnowej (zgon na skutek masywnego krwotoku następuje błyskawicznie) lub do przestrzeni zaotrzewnowej. W drugim przypadku, krwotok ulega często samoograniczeniu, na skutek wzrostu ciśnienia w przestrzeni zaotrzewnowej i tamponady. Umożliwia to interwencję chirurgiczną. Pęknięciu towarzyszy silny ból brzucha lub klatki piersiowej. +W przypadku tętniaka rozwarstwiającego, ból wywołany rozdzielaniem się ściany aorty jest wyjątkowo silny i gwałtowny. Najczęściej towarzyszy gwałtownemu wysiłkowi lub wzrostowi ciśnienia krwi. +Rozpoznanie. +W rozpoznaniu wykonuje się badania obrazowe. USG, tomografia komputerowa, rezonans magnetyczny są badaniami z wyboru. Stosowana jest również angiografia. +Leczenie. +Leczenie tętniaków aorty w przypadkach grożących pęknięciem (poszerzanie się tętniaka, bardzo duży tętniak) jest chirurgiczne i polega na jego wycięciu i wszczepieniu protezy z tworzywa sztucznego. Proteza może być wszczepiona przez tradycyjny dostęp chirurgiczny (z otwarciem klatki piersiowej lub brzucha), bądź wprowadzona wewnątrznaczyniowo, czyli przez światło tętnicy. Protezę taką mocuje się wówczas przy pomocy metalowego stentu (stentgraft). Zasadniczo nie operuje się tętniaków aorty o średnicy mniejszej niż 4 cm, choć w przypadku pewnych wariantów morfologicznych (np. tętniak workowaty lub mały tętniak połączony z pęknięciem blaszki miażdżycowej ściany aorty) wskazane jest wczesne leczenie zabiegowe ze względu na zwiększone ryzyko pęknięcia takiego tętniaka. Występowanie większego, również nie jest bezwzględnym wskazaniem do zabiegu, gdyż statystycznie pęknięcie występuje rzadziej niż wynosi śmiertelność operacyjna (dla większości pacjentów ze średnicą tętniaka do 5,5 cm). W dużym badaniu randomizowanym dowiedziono również, że chorzy z tętniakiem aorty brzusznej o średnicy poniżej 5,5 cm nie odnoszą korzyści z wewnątrznaczyniowego leczenia zabiegowego. 1W przypadku tętniaków rozwarstwiających stosuje się również zszycie ścian tętnicy lub rozcięcie przegrody oddzielającej dwa kanały rozwarstwienia. Może to poprawić ukrwienie narządów, zaopatrywanych przez tętnice odchodzące od aorty. +System hippodamejski + +System hippodamejski to jeden ze sposobów racjonalnego rozplanowania miasta. Jego autorstwo przypisuje się Hippodamosowi z Miletu – greckiemu urbaniście działającemu w V wieku p.n.e. Jednak system ten był stosowany w Jonii już w VII wieku p.n.e., a Hippodamos jedynie rozpowszechnił go w Grecji właściwej. +System uwzględnia warunki naturalne, perspektywiczny rozwój i funkcjonalność miasta. Obszar przyszłego miasta o wyraźnie zakreślonych granicach dzielono głównymi arteriami wytyczonymi wzdłuż osi północ-południe i wschód-zachód na kwartały. W centralnie usytuowanej części miasta lokowano ośrodek administracyjno-handlowy (agora) i kultowy (akropol), pozostałe kwartały zapełniała zabudowa mieszkalna. Miasto uzupełniały np. gimnazjon i teatr. Główne i boczne ulice krzyżowały się pod kątem prostym, tworząc geometryczną regularną siatkę. +Według tych zasad zbudowano m.in. Milet, Priene, Pireus (ok. 475 roku p.n.e.), Rodos i grecką kolonię Turioj w Italii. +W okresie hellenistycznym hippodamejski plan miasta znalazł pełne zastosowanie przy zakładaniu licznych Aleksandrii, Seleucji i Antiochii oraz przy przebudowie starych ośrodków miejskich, z których dotychczas najlepiej zostało zbadane Priene. +Teodor Goździkiewicz + +Teodor Goździkiewicz (ur. 16 kwietnia 1903 w Dąbrowie Wielkiej na Sieradczyźnie, zm. 13 listopada 1984 w Warszawie) - pisarz, autor książek głównie o tematyce przyrodniczej, zwany "piewcą Sieradczyzny". +Biografia. +Ukończył seminarium nauczycielskie w Łowiczu, w latach 1924-1944 pracował jako wiejski nauczyciel w powiecie łowickim (w Kompinie i Bocheniu). Działał w wielu organizacjach zajmujących się szerzeniem kultury i aktywizacją polityczną młodzieży wiejskiej. W okresie okupacji działał w konspiracji; był członkiem AK ps. "Głóg"; ukończył podziemną podchorążówkę; prowadził tajne komplety gimnazjalne. Po wojnie przez krótki czas mieszkał w Łodzi (gdzie był członkiem redakcji tygodnika "Wieś"), następnie w Warszawie (członek redakcji "Tygodnika Kulturalnego"). Debiutował w 1923 na łamach czasopisma "Łowiczanin". +Twórczość. +Problematyka wiejska pojawia się w utworach autobiograficznych Goździkiewicza - powieściach "Głosy z daleka" (1938 - wyróżnienie w konkursie "Ilustrowanego Kuriera Codziennego" w Krakowie), "Lipnicki świat" (1949), nawiązujących do okresu dwudziestolecia międzywojennego. Wsi powojennej poświęcił m.in. powieść "Tarcza samotnika" (1960) oraz opowiadania "Loty nad porębą" (1976), "Barwni ludzie szarej okolicy" (1979). Książka "Sprawy Łuki Bakowicza" (1960), opisująca powstanie styczniowe na ziemi sieradzkiej, stała się inspiracją rajdu "Śladami Łuki Bakowicza" (od 1975). Rolę wsi w kształtowaniu wybitnych artystów Goździkiewicz przedstawił w beletryzowanych biografiach Chopina "Fryckowe lato" (1960, pierwsze wydanie z 1949 pod tytułem "Fryckowe czasy" otrzymało wyróżnienie na międzynarodowym konkursie na scenariusz z życia Fryderyka Chopina) i Chełmońskiego "Kolory" (1965). +Jako autor dla młodzieży zajmował się przede wszystkim problematyką przyrodniczą (zbiory opowiadań "Okruchy przyrody", 1956; "Wiatr gałązkę niesie", 1970; "Pokłon zieleni", 1982; powieści "Kniejówka", 1956; "Drapieżcy", 1957). Nawiązywał także do wydarzeń II wojny światowej (opowiadania "Znaki czasu", 1948; "Cienie lasu", 1958), ponadto był autorem zbioru reportaży z radzieckich republik Azji Środkowej "Step i róże" (1967). +W 1975 pisarza wyróżniono nagrodą prezesa Rady Ministrów za twórczość dla młodzieży. +Józef Wysocki (generał) + +Józef Wysocki (ur. 1809 w Tulczynie Podole koło Winnicy, zm. 31 grudnia 1873 w Paryżu) – generał Wojska Polskiego, uczestnik polskich powstań narodowych i powstania węgierskiego 1848-1849. +Biografia. +Uczestnik powstania listopadowego. Na emigracji członek Centralizacji Towarzystwa Demokratycznego Polskiego. Z Ludwikiem Mierosławskim przygotował plan ogólnonarodowego powstania w 1846. W czasie Wiosny Ludów był w krakowskim Komitecie Narodowym, był organizatorem Gwardii Narodowej. W latach 1848-1849 dowodził utworzonym przez siebie legionem polskim na Węgrzech. Oddział liczył blisko 3 tys. żołnierzy, walczył do końca powstania i wyróżnił się w wielu trudnych bojach, m.in. pod Szolnokiem, Hatvan, Tapiobicske, Vac, Isaszeg, Nagy-Szarlo. Jako demokrata, Wysocki często był w konflikcie z Bemem i Dembińskim. +W czasie wojny krymskiej, w styczniu 1854 roku, udał się do Konstantynopola. Tam, z ramienia demokratów skupionych w paryskim Kole Polskim, próbował formować polską organizację wojskową. Z powodu niepowodzenia zakończył swoją misję w czerwcu 1854, ale pozostał w Turcji aż do stycznia 1855. +Od 1862 kierował Polską Szkołą Wojskową w Cuneo. W czasie powstania styczniowego przewidziany na naczelnika powstania na Naddnieprzańskiej Ukrainie. Po rozbiciu jego oddziału w 1863 przedostał się do Galicji, walczył na Wołyniu, aresztowany i internowany (do 1865). Wyemigrował do Francji, był członkiem Komitetu Zjednoczenia Emigracji. Pochowany na cmentarzu Père-Lachaise w Paryżu. +Obróbka plastyczna + +Obróbka plastyczna – metoda obróbki metali i ich stopów polegająca na wywieraniu narzędziem na obrabiany materiał nacisku przekraczającego granicę jego plastyczności, mającego na celu trwałą zmianę kształtu i wymiarów obrabianego przedmiotu, a także zmianę struktury powodująca zmianę właściwości. Proces kształtowania może przebiegać w warunkach: na gorąco, na półgorąco lub na zimno. Klasyfikacja ta zależy od temperatury rekrystalizacji (odkuwki) odkształcanego metalu, a także – precyzyjniej – od prędkości odkształcenia w odniesieniu do prędkości rekrystalizacji. . +Temperatura w obróbce plastycznej. +Obróbka plastyczna na zimno polega na odkształcaniu plastycznym materiału, które wywołuje wzrost gęstości defektów w sieci krystalograficznej, głównie punktowych i liniowych, a tym samym nagromadzenie energii odkształcenia, która jest tym większa, im niższa jest temperatura tego procesu. Temperatura, w której przeprowadza się obróbkę plastyczną na zimno jest niższa od temperatury rekrystalizacji czyli 0,4 bezwzględnej temperatury topnienia. +Nagromadzenie się dużej liczby dyslokacji powoduje wzajemne blokowanie się ich - skutkiem tego jest zmiana właściwości fizycznych i mechanicznych. Zmianę tychże właściwości przyjęto nazywać "zgniotem". +Efektem odkształcenia plastycznego jest stopniowe wydłużenie się ziaren w kierunku obróbki plastycznej. Wyciągnięciu ulegają również wtrącenia niemetaliczne, które mają tendencję gromadzenia się na granicach dendrytów. Wynikiem tego jest powstanie charakterystycznej włóknistej struktury. Innymi efektami obróbki plastycznej jest zmiana właściwości magnetycznych oraz przewodności elektrycznej ( wzrost oporności) oraz wzrost twardości i zmniejszenie plastyczności. +Samotnik (ptak) + +Samotnik, brodziec samotny, stalugwa ("Tringa ochropus") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Angiografia + +Angiografia - w medycynie badanie diagnostyczne służące zobrazowaniu naczyń krwionośnych. Polega na podaniu do naczynia radiologicznego środka kontrastującego, a następnie obserwacji tego naczynia w czasie fluoroskopii (prześwietlenia) i uwidocznieniu na zdjęciu rentgenowskim. Stopień zaczernienia naczynia na zdjęciu pozwala ocenić jego przebieg, a także światło (przekrój wnętrza naczynia). +Angiografia jest metodą używaną do: +Angiografię wykorzystuje się też w diagnostyce guzów nowotworowych w celu uwidocznienia unaczynienia patologicznego. Dawniej, w niektórych przypadkach stosowano ją do potwierdzenia śmierci mózgu. +Obecnie coraz rzadziej stosowana jako badanie diagnostyczne - wypierana jest przez ultrasonografię dopplerowską, angiografię rezonansu magnetycznego (angio-MR) oraz tomografię komputerową (angio-CT). +Angiografia jest podstawą obrazowania w angioplastyce i radiologii zabiegowej. +Obecnie w medycynie stosuje się cyfrową angiografię subtrakcyjną (ang. digital subtraction angiography, DSA), która pozwala uzyskać dokładniejszy obraz naczyń przy użyciu znacznie mniejszej ilości środków kontrastowych i dawek promieniowania. +Gmina Skoczów + +Gmina Skoczów – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie śląskim, w powiecie cieszyńskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie bielskim. +Siedziba gminy to Skoczów. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 25 518 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 8,66% powierzchni powiatu. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Brenna, Chybie, Dębowiec, Goleszów, Jasienica, Strumień, Ustroń. +Autotomia + +Autotomia (z greckiego – "samooddzielanie się") – fizjologiczna reakcja obronna występująca głównie wśród bezkręgowców, polegająca na odruchowym odrzuceniu przez zwierzę części ciała, kiedy jest ono w niebezpieczeństwie, najczęściej podczas ucieczki przed drapieżnikiem lub w reakcji na niekorzystne warunki środowiskowe. Odrzucona przez zwierzę część ciała jest zazwyczaj w większym lub mniejszym stopniu regenerowana. +Przykładem autotomii jest odrzucenie ogona przez większość jaszczurek lub odnóży przez raki i pajęczaki. Strzykwy odrzucają część swoich wnętrzności (ewisceracja), rozgwiazdy i wężowidła – ramiona. Napastnik zadowala się wtedy odrzuconą częścią ciała lub zostaje sparaliżowany toksynami zawartymi w odrzucanych organach (strzykwy), a atakowane zwierzę uchodzi z życiem. +Patrice Lumumba + +Patrice Emery Lumumba (ur. 2 lipca 1925 w Onalua, zm. 17 stycznia 1961 w Elisabethville) – pierwszy premier Demokratycznej Republiki Konga. +Życiorys. +Lumumba urodził się w Onalua prowincji Kasai na terenie Konga Belgijskiego. Ukończył szkołę prowadzoną przez misjonarzy, a następnie podjął pracę jako urzędnik i dziennikarz w Leopoldville (obecnie Kinszasa) oraz Stanleyville (obecnie Kisangani). W 1955 wstąpił do Belgijskiej Partii Liberalnej. Został aresztowany w 1957 i spędził rok w więzieniu. W 1960 Belgia zgodziła się na niepodległość Konga. Po wyborach Lumumba został premierem i utworzył rząd 23 czerwca 1960, prezydentem został Joseph Kasavubu. +Podczas zaprzysiężenia Lumumba ostro skrytykował politykę kolonialną byłej metropolii, co delegacja belgijska odebrała jako zniewagę majestatu króla Belgów. Ponieważ pierwszy premier Konga wyrażał chęć prowadzenia neutralnej i niezależnej od zachodnich mocarstw polityki zagranicznej i ekonomicznej został odebrany z nieufnością nie tylko w Brukseli ale i w Waszyngtonie, gdzie jego wizytę zignorowano. Rząd Belgii podjął decyzję o szukaniu sposobu na usunięcie Lumumby ze stanowiska szefa rządu. W tym celu próbowano wykorzystać sprowokowany przez białych dowódców bunt w armii kongijskiej, który doprowadził do interwencji zbrojnej Belgii. Lumumba ostro sprzeciwił się temu i zwrócił się z prośbą o rozwiązanie kryzysu do ONZ. +W następstwie tego w wyniku belgijskich intryg najbogatsza prowincja kraju Katanga ogłosiła niepodległość. Lumumba zwrócił się o pomoc do USA w transporcie wojska do stłumienia secesji, a następnie do ONZ. Kiedy otrzymał odmowę od obydwu stron, skierował prośbę do ZSRR, który odpowiedział pozytywnie i przysłał samoloty transportowe. To zaniepokoiło rząd USA obawiający się wpływów sowieckich w tej części Afryki. Prezydent Eisenhower polecił CIA wyeliminowanie kongijskiego premiera wszelkimi sposobami włącznie z zabójstwem. Agent CIA Larry Devlin udał się do stolicy Leopoldville przewożąc ze sobą m.in. truciznę ukrytą w tubce pasty do zębów. Na miejscu rozpoznał sytuację i nawiązał bliski kontakt z Josephem Mobutu. +We wrześniu 1960 Lumumba został usunięty z rządu przez prezydenta Kasavubu. 14 września, wspierany przez Kasavubu, pułkownik Joseph Mobutu przejął władzę i aresztował swojego poprzednika. Przy pomocy przyjaciół udało się Lumumbie uciec z aresztu domowego jednak został schwytany przez żołnierzy Mobutu na początku grudnia 1960 w okolicach Port Francqui. Następnie był przetrzymywany w więzieniu wojskowym w Thysville. W styczniu 1961 Lumumba i jego dwaj współpracownicy, Maurice Mpolo i Joseph Okitowas, zostali przewiezieni do Jadotville na terenie Katangi. Tam został stracony przez katangijskich żandarmów na rozkaz belgijskich oficerów służących w armii Katangi. Ciało zostało poćwiartowane, a resztki spalone i rozpuszczone w kwasie. W roku 1966 Mobutu ogłosił go bohaterem narodowym. +Mimikra + +Mimikra – przystosowanie ochronne występujące u zwierząt (zwłaszcza owadów), polegające na upodabnianiu się zwierząt bezbronnych do zwierząt zdolnych do obrony (batesowska) lub upodobnianiu się do siebie różnych gatunków zwierząt zdolnych do obrony (müllerowska) poprzez przybranie ich kształtu, barwy, zachowania lub innych właściwości. Mimikra jest jedną z form mimetyzmu. +, a także upodabniania się kwiatów do samic owadów zapylających – mimikra seksualna. +Mimikra batesowska. +Mimikra batesowska (Batesa, batezjańska) to upodobnienie się gatunków bezbronnych do form posiadających mechanizmy obronne (np. jad, kolce, żądła itp.). +Nazwa pochodzi od nazwiska Henriego Waltera Batesa, angielskiego przyrodnika, który wraz z Alfredem Russelem Wallacem badał motyle w Amazonii od 1848 do 1859 roku. +Mimikra müllerowska. +Jest to upodobnienie się wzajemnie do siebie zwierząt zdolnych do obrony. Gdy dwa gatunki są mylone ze sobą przez drapieżników, mniejszy procent osobników obu gatunków ginie zanim drapieżniki nauczą się je omijać. Ponieważ oba gatunki korzystają na tym podobieństwie, nie ma tutaj jasnego podziału na 'oryginał' i 'naśladowcę', choć jest on wyraźniejszy, gdy jeden z gatunków występuje rzadziej od drugiego, niż gdy mają zbliżoną liczebność. +Nazwa pochodzi od nazwiska niemieckiego naturalisty Fritza Müllera. To jemu pierwszemu udało się wytłumaczyć ten mechanizm (dowiódł tego matematycznie). +Tętniak rzekomy + +Tętniak rzekomy (łac. "aneurysma spurium"; "ang. false aneurysm, pseudoaneurysm") – powstaje na skutek przerwania ciągłości ściany tętnicy otoczonej ściśle przez mięśnie, powięzie, tkankę łączną jako następstwo tzw. krwiaka tętniącego lub przerwania ciągłości ściany serca. Wynaczyniona z naczynia krew dostaje się do otaczających tkanek, które poprzez ucisk ograniczają dalsze krwawienie. Po kilku tygodniach krwiak ulega przeobrażeniu a jego granice zostają otoczone torebką łącznotkankową, która odtwarza ciągłość naczynia. Ściana tętniaka rzekomego nie jest ścianą tętnicy, lecz stanowi ją łącznotkankowa torebka. Tętniaki tego rodzaju występują często po zabiegach kardiologicznych (np. koronarografia), na skutek nakłucia tętnicy przy wprowadzaniu cewnika. +Jednym ze sposobów leczenia jest chirurgiczne wypreparowanie i usunięcie torebki oraz zaszycie naczynia. W niektórych przypadkach istnieje możliwość wszczepienia stentu w światło naczynia, co jest metodą o wiele mniej inwazyjną i obciążającą dla pacjenta. +Koronarografia + +Koronarografia – angiografia tętnic wieńcowych. Badanie polegające na podaniu do tętnic wieńcowych kontrastu, umożliwiającego uwidocznienie ich za pomocą promieniowania rentgenowskiego, stosowane szeroko w diagnostyce choroby niedokrwiennej serca. Jest podstawowym badaniem służącym do kwalifikacji pacjentów do wszczepiania pomostów omijających oraz do zabiegów PCI. +Przebieg zabiegu koronarografii. +Koronarografię można wykonać od tętnicy promieniowej ("z ręki") lub udowej, co ma istotne znaczenie dla pacjentów - więcej informacji znajdziesz tutaj . +Szczegółowe informacje na temat techniki zabiegu i samego przebiegu zabiegu znajdują się na poniżej podanej stronie +Demetriusz II Antygonida + +Demetriusz II Antygonida (ur. ok. 275 - zm. 229 p.n.e.; panował w latach 239-229 p.n.e.) - król macedoński z dynastii Antygonidów, syn Antygona Gonatasa i Fili, córki Seleukosa I. +W 266 p.n.e., w wieku trzynastu lat, dowodził (przynajmniej nominalnie) wojskami, które obroniły Macedonię przed najazdem z Epiru - w tym czasie jego ojciec prowadził walki w Grecji. W 247 p.n.e. Antygon Gonatas wykorzystał syna do odzyskaniu utraconej twierdzy Akrokoryntu, w której władzę tymczasowo sprawowała Nikaja, wdowa po Kraterosie, bracie Antygona. Król macedoński, zaproponował Nikai małżeństwo z Demetriuszem, wdowa się zgodziła i otworzyła bramy Koryntu przed Antygonem. W czasie uroczystości przedślubnych król podstępem dostał się do twierdzy i przejął nad nią kontrolę. Małżeństwo Demetriusza i Nikai odwołano. +Przejmując władzę w Macedonii w 239 p.n.e., po śmierci Antygona, musiał od razu stawić czoło koalicji dwóch związków: Etolskiego i Achajskiego. W 229 p.n.e. zginął w walce z iliryjskim plemieniem Dardanów, pozostawiając 9-letniego syna Filipa V, przyszłego króla Macedonii. +Stoczniowiec Gdańsk + +Gdański Klub Sportowy Stoczniowiec Gdańsk – polski klub hokejowy z Gdańska, do 2011 roku występujący w rozgrywkach hokejowej ekstraligi PLH. Nowy klub w Gdańsku działa od 2012 roku pod nazwą KH Gdańsk. +Szkoleniowcy. +Trenerami Stoczniowca byli: Józef Godlewski, Roman Mamok, Tadeusz Nowacki, Jerzy Mależ, Stefan Csorich, Zenon Peter, Saszek, Ryszard Borzęcki, Wiesław Walicki, Siergiej Griszencow, Antoni Wróbel, Henryk Zabrocki, Siergiej Wojkin, Mieczysław Nahunko, Marian Pysz, Miroslav Doležalík, Andrzej Słowakiewicz, Tadeusz Obłój. +Intel 8086 + +8086 jest 16-bitowym mikroprocesorem wprowadzonym na rynek w 1978 roku. Mikroprocesor został zaprojektowany przez firmę Intel jako następca 8-bitowego 8080/8085. Jego zastosowanie (w szczególności jego odmiany z 8-bitowym interfejsem - 8088) w pierwszych ogólnodostępnych komputerach osobistych (IBM PC), doprowadziło do jego wielkiej popularyzacji i dalszego rozwoju (architektura x86). +__TOC__ +Topologia, opis i przeznaczenie końcówek. +Znaczenie końcówek dla trybu minimalnego +Znaczenie końcówek dla trybu maksymalnego +Architektura. +Jednostka wykonawcza. +W jej skład wchodzi 16-bitowa jednostka arytmetyczno-logiczna ALU wraz z rejestrem znaczników oraz blok rejestrów ogólnego przeznaczenia. ALU dołączona jest do magistrali wewnętrznej mikroprocesora. Z magistrali tej pobierane są argumenty operacji, a także wysyłany jest na nią wynik operacji. +Rejestr znaczników. +Bezpośrednio do jednostki arytmetyczno-logicznej dołączony jest 16-bitowy rejestr znaczników (rejestr flag). Znajdujące się w nim flagi zostały podzielone na dwie grupy, tj. kontrolną i arytmetyczną. Flagi arytmetyczne dostarczają dodatkowych informacji na temat wyniku ostatniej operacji wykonanej przez jednostkę arytmetyczno-logiczną. Flagi kontrolne wpływają na sposób pracy mikroprocesora. +Mniej znaczący bajt rejestru znaczników odpowiada rejestrowi znaczników mikroprocesora 8080/8085. +Cztery najbardziej znaczące bity pozostają nieużywane. +Rejestry ogólnego przeznaczenia. +W skład bloku rejestrów ogólnego przeznaczenia wchodzą rejestry: arytmetyczne, wskaźnikowe oraz indeksowe. +Rejestry arytmetyczne +Są to cztery 16-bitowe rejestry ogólnego przeznaczenia: AX, BX, CX, DX. +Rejestr ten bezpośrednio współpracuje z jednostką arytmetyczno-logiczną. +Niektóre operacje, których argumenty znajdują się w akumulatorze, wykonywane są szybciej niż ich odpowiedniki wykorzystujące inne rejestry. Takie rozkazy jak: mnożenie, dzielenie i operacje wejścia/wyjścia wymagają użycia akumulatora do przechowywania argumentu bądź też zapisu wyniku. +Rejestr ten może być używany do adresowania argumentu, znajdującego się w pamięci, stanowiąc bazę do obliczania adresu. +Rejestr ten jest używany jako licznik w operacjach łańcuchowych oraz pętlach. Po każdej iteracji jego zawartość jest automatycznie dekrementowana. W rozkazach przesunięć, rejestr CL (mniej znaczący bajt rejestru CX), wykorzystywany jest jako licznik bitów. +Rejestr ten jest wykorzystywany w niektórych operacjach arytmetycznych do przechowywania części argumentu lub wyniku operacji (mnożenie i dzielenie 16- bitowe). Zawiera on także adres urządzenia w operacjach wejścia/wyjścia. +Rejestry wskaźnikowe i indeksowe +Wskazuje adres ostatnio zapisanego słowa na stosie. Jego zawartość jest automatycznie inkrementowana lub dekrementowana w zależności od wykonywanej operacji (POP, PUSH). +Pełni on funkcję wskaźnika ogólnego przeznaczenia. Wykorzystywany jest do adresowania bazowego danych w segmencie stosu. +Uniwersalny rejestr indeksowy. Jest wykorzystywany w czasie dwuargumentowych operacji łańcuchowych do przetrzymywania adresu źródła danych. Po każdej kolejnej iteracji jego zawartość jest inkrementowana lub dekrementowana, zależnie od ustawienia flagi kierunku. +Uniwersalny rejestr indeksowy. Jest wykorzystywany w czasie dwuargumentowych operacji łańcuchowych do przetrzymywania adresu przeznaczenia danych. Po każdej kolejnej iteracji jego zawartość jest inkrementowana lub dekrementowana, zależnie od ustawienia flagi kierunku. +Jednostka arytmetyczno-logiczna (ALU). +Zajmuje się wykonaniem podstawowych operacji arytmetycznych (dodawanie i odejmowanie) oraz logicznych (np. suma, iloczyn lub negacja logiczna). +Mikroprocesor 8086 posiada 16-bitową jednostkę arytmetyczno-logiczną, co umożliwia mu szybkie wykonywanie zarówno operacji 8- jak i 16-bitowych. +Jednostka interfejsowa. +Odpowiada ona za współpracę z magistralą systemową. Do jej zadań należy odczyt i zapis danych do pamięci oraz urządzeń peryferyjnych. Ponadto jest odpowiedzialna za pobieranie kolejnych rozkazów w pamięci mikroprocesora i umieszczanie ich w kolejce rozkazów. +Rejestry segmentowe. +Są to 16-bitowe rejestry, dostępne dla programisty, których zawartość służy do obliczania adresu fizycznego komórki pamięci. +Rejestry te zawierają adres początkowy danego segmentu pamięci. +Mikroprocesor w zależności od rodzaju segmentu pamięci, do którego chce się odwołać, wykorzystuje odpowiedni z rejestrów. +Programista ma możliwość zmiany automatycznie wykorzystywanego rejestru poprzez umieszczenie odpowiedniego prefiksu przed rozkazem, dla którego zmiana ma zostać zastosowana. +Zawartość tego rejestru wyznacza początek aktualnie używanego segmentu programu. +Wartość ta wykorzystywana jest do obliczania adresu fizycznego kolejnego rozkazu do pobrania z pamięci. +Zawartość tego rejestru wyznacza początek aktualnie używanego segmentu danych. +Wartość ta wykorzystywana jest do obliczania adresu fizycznego argumentu lub wyniku aktualnie wykonywanego rozkazu. Wyjątek stanowią rozkazy łańcuchowe, w których zawartość tego rejestru służy jedynie do obliczania adresu źródła danych. +Zawartość tego rejestru wyznacza początek aktualnie używanego segmentu stosu. Wartość ta wykorzystywana jest do obliczania adresu fizycznego komórki pamięci, na którą wskazuje wskaźnik stosu (rejestr SP). +Zawartość tego rejestru wyznacza początek aktualnie używanego dodatkowego segmentu danych. Wartość ta wykorzystywana jest do obliczania adresu fizycznego przeznaczenia dla operacji łańcuchowych (np. rozkazu przenoszenia bloku danych). +Licznik rozkazów (Instruction Pointer – IP). +Jest to 16-bitowy rejestr, którego zawartość służy do obliczania adresu fizycznego następnego słowa rozkazu do pobrania z pamięci. Stanowi on rejestr indeksowy dla rejestru CS wyznaczającego segment z kodem programu. Jego zawartość jest automatycznie inkrementowana po pobraniu każdego bajtu rozkazu (w przypadku pobrania słowa jego wartość wzrasta o 2). Programista ma możliwość zmiany zawartości licznika rozkazów poprzez zastosowanie rozkazu skoku. +Generator adresu fizycznego. +Jest to 20-bitowy sumator służący do obliczania adresu fizycznego komórki pamięci. +Kolejka rozkazów. +Jest to 6 bajtowa pamięć zorganizowana w słowa (trzy 2-bajtowe komórki) wykorzystywane przez mikroprocesor do przechowywania pobranych wcześniej rozkazów. +Organizacja pamięci i generacja adresu fizycznego. +Mikroprocesor 8086 posiada 20-bitową magistralę adresową. Pozwala ona na zaadresowanie do 1MB pamięci operacyjnej. Przestrzeń adresowa została podzielona na segmenty o długości 64kB, rozpoczynające się co 16 bajtów (kolejne segmenty pamięci mogą nakładać się na siebie). Adres fizyczny komórek pamięci obliczany jest na podstawie dwóch 16-bitowych składników tj. adresu segmentu oraz adresu efektywnego (przesunięcia). Taki sposób adresowania nazywa się adresowaniem segmentowym. Na rysunku z prawej pokazano przykładową organizacje pamięci operacyjnej dla mikroprocesora 8086. +Do otrzymania adresu fizycznego stosuje się tzw. generator adresu fizycznego, znajdujący się w jednostce interfejsowej. Adres segmentu mnożony jest przez 16, co powoduje że zostaje on przesunięty o 4 bity w lewo (zwolnione z prawej strony bity przyjmują wartość 0), a następnie dodaje się do niego adres efektywny obliczony z zastosowaniem wszystkich modyfikatorów (w przypadku danych) lub zawartość licznika rozkazów (w przypadku rozkazów). +Przykład generacji adresu fizycznego +Adres logiczny: 0010h:000Fh (adres początku segmentu:wartość przesunięcia (tzw. adres efektywny)) +0010h * 0010h (16 dziesiętne) = 00100h (dwudziestobitowy adres początku segmentu) +00100h + 000Fh = 0010Fh (adres fizyczny komórki pamięci) +Niejednoznaczność adresowania segmentowego +Adresowanie segmentowe jest niejednoznaczne (jest to spowodowane nachodzeniem na siebie segmentów), jedna komórka pamięci może mieć kilka adresów logicznych. Zależnie od wyboru segmentu, względem początku którego komórka pamięci będzie adresowana, jej adres logiczny będzie inny. W celu rozwiązania tego problemu stosuje się normalizację adresu logicznego. +Tryby adresowania. +Trybem adresowania nazywamy sposób wyznaczania adresu operandu, którego to mianem określamy argumenty i wyniki operacji. W mikroprocesorze 8086 każdy z rejestrów ogólnego przeznaczenia może służyć do przechowywania adresu lub jego składnika. Adres operandu obliczany jest zgodnie z równaniem +EA = BR + IR + p +Adres efektywny "EA" jest adresem logicznym "widzianym" przez program. Na podstawie "EA" układy segmentacji obliczają adres rzeczywisty w pamięci operacyjnej. Rejestrem bazowym może być rejestr "BP" lub "BX", a rejestrem indeksowym może być rejestr "SI" lub "DI". Przemieszczenie jest zawarte w rozkazie i może mieć długość ośmiu lub szesnastu bitów. +Adresowanie natychmiastowe. +W adresowaniu natychmiastowym argument pobierany jest bezpośrednio z rozkazu. W tym trybie wskazywany jest wyłącznie operand źródłowy. Np. MOV AX, 20 – w rejestrze AX zostanie zapisana liczba 20. +Adresowanie rejestrowe. +W adresowaniu rejestrowym operandy znajdują się w rejestrach wewnętrznych mikroprocesora. Jeżeli operand znajduje się w pamięci, to zespół wykonawczy EY oblicza jego 16-bitowy adres (przesunięcie) wewnątrz segmentu. Zespół "BIU" oblicza adres rzeczywisty na podstawie otrzymanego przesunięcia (adresu efektywnego "EA") i zawartości wybranego rejestru segmentowego. Np. MOV AX, BX – w rejestrze AX zostanie zapisana zawartość rejestru BX. +Adresowanie bezpośrednie. +W adresowaniu bezpośrednim adres operandu znajduje się bezpośrednio w rozkazie. +Np. MOV AX, – w rejestrze AX zostanie zapisana zawartość komórki pamięci (segment danych) o adresie 40. +Standardowy adres operandu jest przesunięciem w segmencie danych (ds), można to nadpisać poprzez wskazanie innego segmentu. +Np. MOV AX, CS: - rejestrze AX zostanie zapisana zawartość z komórki pamięci (segment PROGRAMU(kodu)) o offsecie 40. +Adresowanie pośrednie. +W trybie adresowania pośredniego odwołujemy się do jednego z rejestrów roboczych procesora (np. BX) lub do komórki pamięci (np.19). W rejestrze (BX) zapisany jest numer komórki pamięci, do której trzeba sięgnąć aby odczytać tam zawarty adres i przenieść do drugiego rejestru (AX). Dla adresowania pośredniego z pamięci odczytujemy numer komórki pamięci z dwóch komórek (komórki 19 i komórki 20) w taki sposób, że zawartość tej pierwszej (19) stanowi ważniejszą część tego numeru , zaś zawartość drugiej komórki (20) mniej ważną część tego numeru. Dalej postępujemy podobnie jak przy adresowaniu pośrednim z rejestru – przenosimy zawartość do rejestru AX. +Np. MOV AX, – w rejestrze AX zostanie zapisana zawartość komórki pamięci o adresie, który znajduje się w rejestrze CX. +Wszystkie rejestry wskazują offset w segmencie danych (ds), poza rejestrem bp, który jest przesunięciem w segmencie stosu (ss). +Można to nadpisać określając segment w rozkazie. +Np. MOV AX, ss: - w rejestrze AX zostanie zapisana zawartość komórki pamięci z segmentu stosu o adresie, który znajduje się w rejestrze CX. +Adresowanie bazowe. +Adresowanie bazowe jest to rodzaj adresowania pośredniego, gdzie rozkaz wskazuje na jeden z rejestrów bazowych "BX" lub "BP" i może zawierać 8-; lub 16-bitową wartość stanowiącą lokalne przemieszczenie. Adresem efektywnym jest suma zawartości rejestru bazowego i przemieszczenia. Np. MOV AX, . +Adresowanie indeksowe. +Adresowanie indeksowe jest rodzajem adresowania pośredniego, gdzie adres efektywny jest sumą zawartości rejestru indeksowego "SI" lub "DI" i lokalnego przemieszczenia. Np. MOV AX, . +Adresowanie bazowo-indeksowe. +W adresowaniu bazowo-indeksowym, adres efektywny jest sumą zawartości jednego z rejestrów bazowych, jednego z rejestrów indeksowych i lokalnego przemieszczenia. Np. MOV AX, [SI+BP]. +Rozkazy operujące na ciągach słów. +Rozkazy operujące na ciągach słów posługują się rejestrami indeksowymi. Rejestry SI i DI zawierają adresy efektywne pierwszego słowa odpowiednio w ciągu źródłowym i wynikowym. Po każdej transmisji wartości rejestrów indeksowych są automatycznie inkrementowane lub dekrementowane w zależności od ustawienia bitu "DF" w rejestrze znaczników. +Rozkazy operujące na rejestrach WE/WY. +Rozkazy operujące na rejestrach WE/WY zawierają adres WE/WY (adres natychmiastowy) lub posługują się zawartością rejestru DX (adresowanie pośrednie). +Budowa rozkazu. +Rozkazy mikroprocesora 8086 są wielobajtowe. Ich liczba (bajtów) zależy od rodzaju rozkazu i może wynosić od jednego do sześciu. +Pierwszy bajt zawiera sześciobitowy kod operacji oraz dwa bity. Bit "D" określa kierunek transmisji ("0" - wynik operacji jest przesyłany z rejestru do pamięci, "1" - z pamięci do rejestru). W zależności od wartości tego bitu w rozkazie rozróżniane są operandy źródłowe i operandy przeznaczenia. Bit W określa długość operandu danego rozkazu (0 - operacje bajtowe, 1 - operacje na słowie 16-bitowym). +Jeżeli rozkaz jest wielobajtowy, to drugi bajt rozkazu określa sposób adresowania argumentów. Zawiera on trzy grupy bitów +Jeżeli operandy znajdują się w rejestrach mikroprocesora ("MOD" = 11), to pola "REG" i "R/M" stanowią ich numery +Jeżeli jeden z operandów znajduje się w pamięci, to pola "MOD" i "R/M" określają jego adres +Znaczenie bitów "R/M" zależy od wartości bitów w polu MOD. Jeżeli "MOD" != 11, to grupa "R/M" określa rejestry adresujące. Jeżeli natomiast "MOD" == 11, to "R/M" określa rejestr (jak "REG") drugiego operandu. Jeżeli rozkaz tego wymaga, to po drugim bajcie rozkazu może występować jeden, lub dwa bajty przemieszczenia. Jeden bajt przemieszczenia występuje w sytuacji, gdy "MOD" == 01, natomiast przemieszczenie dwubajtowe występuje, gdy "MOD" == 10. +Rysunek przedstawia format rozkazu sześciobajtowego, gdzie dwa ostatnie bajty to argument natychmiastowy dla tego rozkazu. +Obok omówionego formatu występują także rozkazy jednobajtowe, czego przykładem może być rozkaz wymiany zawartości akumulatora z zawartością wybranego rejestru. W kodzie tego rozkazu pięć bitów stanowi kod operacji, a pozostałe trzy bity wskazują numer rejestru którego ten rozkaz dotyczy. +Współpraca mikroprocesora z pamięcią. +Rysunek przedstawia zasadę współpracy mikroprocesora z dwoma blokami pamięci o pojemności 512kB każdy, przy czym jeden z nich zawiera bajty parzyste i dołączony jest do szyny "D0" - "D7", a drugi zawiera bajty nieparzyste ("D8" - "D15"). Bity "A0" i "~BHE" określają sposób wykorzystania pamięci. Jeżeli "A0" == 1 i "~BHE" == 0, to korzysta się z bloku A pamięci, który współpracuje z bardziej znaczącym bajtem szyny danych. Jeżeli "A0" == 0 i "~BHE" == 1, to korzysta się z bloku B pamięci, który współpracuje z mniej znaczącym bajtem szyny danych. Jeżeli natomiast "A0" == 0 i "~BHE" == 0, to mikroprocesor współpracuje z obydwoma blokami pamięci, przesyłając po szynie słowo szesnastobitowe. +Psychologia psychoanalityczno-rozwojowa + +Psychologia psychoanalityczno-rozwojowa – szkoła psychologii bazująca na dorobku współczesnej psychoanalizy i psychologii dynamicznej, a także koncepcjach biodynamicznych. +RR (metoda) + +RR - metoda kucia ciężkich wałów korbowych. Francuz R.M. Rodederer jako pierwszy wykorzystał spęczanie z jednoczesnym wyginaniem do kucia ciężkich wałów korbowych. Opracowana przez niego metoda została nazwana Metodą RR. +Emil Karewicz + +Emil Karewicz (ur. 13 marca 1923 w Wilnie) – polski aktor teatralny, filmowy i radiowy. +Życiorys. +Swoją karierę aktorską rozpoczął w Wilnie, w tamtejszym Teatrze Małym, gdzie zagrał rolę Małpy w "Kwartecie" I. Kryłowa. W czasie II wojny światowej przeszedł szlak z 2 Armią WP do Berlina. Po wojnie ukończył Studio Aktorskie Iwo Galla (wraz z m.in. Ryszardem Baryczem, Bronisławem Pawlikiem, Barbarą Krafftówną). Grał na scenach łódzkich: im. S. Jaracza i Teatrze Nowym. Od 1962 związany z Warszawą, występował w teatrach: Ateneum, Dramatycznym i od 1967 Ludowym (w 1975 przemianowanym na Nowy). Na emeryturę przeszedł w 1983. +Wśród wielu ról teatralnych należy wymienić: Oktawiusza w "Juliuszu Cezarze" W. Shakespeare'a, Capignaca w "Buonapartem i Sułkowskim" R. Brandstaettera, Franciszka Moora w "Zbójcach" F. Schillera, Gospodarza w "Weselu" S. Wyspiańskiego (Łódź), Liapkin-Tiapkina w "Rewizorze" N. Gogola, Spodka w "Śnie nocy letniej" W. Shakespeare'a, Hetmana Kossakowskiego w "Horsztyńskim" J. Słowackiego, Pagatowicza w "Grubych rybach" M. Bałuckiego, Łomowa w "Oświadczynach" A. Czechowa, Janusza w "Panu Jowialskim" A. Fredry, Jenialkiewicza w "Wielkim człowieku do małych interesów" A. Fredry, Stomila w "Tangu" S. Mrożka, Geronta w "Szelmostwach Skapena" Moliera (Warszawa). W 2005 powrócił na scenę Teatru Nowego w Łodzi, by zagrać rolę Kalmity w "Chłopcach" S. Grochowiaka. +Jest znany z wielu ról filmowych, popularność przyniosły mu role: SS-Obersturmführera w filmie Jak rozpętałem drugą wojnę światową, króla Władysława Jagiełły ("Krzyżacy" i "Wawelski conventus dowódców") oraz serialach "Idea i miecz", "Przyłbice i kaptury", a zwłaszcza Hermanna Brunnera w "Stawce większej niż życie". +Uznanie natomiast zyskał rolą Warszawiaka w "Bazie ludzi umarłych" oraz dziadka w "W kogo ja się wrodziłem". Ponadto wystąpił m.in. w "Kanale", "Cieniu", "Bajlandzie", serialach "Czarne chmury", "Lalka", "Polskie drogi", "Szaleństwo Majki Skowron", "Alternatywy 4", "Sztos", "M jak miłość", "Barwy szczęścia", "Sukces", "Tak czy nie?", "Na dobre i na złe". Występował w Teatrze TV i Teatrze PR ("Kilka dni w Reno", "Kollokacja", "Potop", "Gehenna"). +W 2004 odcisnął swoją dłoń w Alei Gwiazd w Międzyzdrojach. +Reduktor (chemia) + +Reduktor – pierwiastek lub związek chemiczny będący w analizowanej reakcji redoks donorem (dostarczycielem) elektronów. Reduktory w reakcjach zwiększają swój stopień utlenienia i jednocześnie powodują jego zmniejszenie w pozostałych produktach reakcji. +Niemal każdy związek chemiczny, zależnie od warunków może być utleniaczem lub reduktorem, choć istnieje liczna grupa związków które tradycyjnie zalicza się do silnych reduktorów, gdyż zachowują się jak reduktory w większości przypadków. +Silnymi reduktorami są metale alkaliczne (sód, magnez, cynk i inne), wodór i wodorki metali alkalicznych (wodorek sodu, wodorek litowo-glinowy). +Węgiel i jego tlenek, tak jak wiele soli na pośrednich stopniach utlenienia są przykładami substancji, które w zależności od warunków mogą pełnić rolę reduktorów lub utleniaczy (amfotery redoks). +Stronnictwo Narodowe (1928-1947) + +Stronnictwo Narodowe – polska partia polityczna, utworzona w październiku 1928 w wyniku przekształcenia Związku Ludowo-Narodowego, której zadaniem było prowadzenie bieżącej działalności politycznej obozu narodowego (Narodowa Demokracja). +II Rzeczpospolita. +Głównym celem programowym stronnictwa była budowa katolickiego państwa narodu polskiego. Ponadto partia opowiadała się za hierarchiczną organizacją społeczeństwa oraz przekształceniem ustroju politycznego, zwiększając rolę elity narodowej w państwie. SN organizował liczne wiece i manifestacje protestacyjne przeciwko dyktatorskiej polityce obozu piłsudczyków (sanacji). +Na początku lat 30. doszło wewnątrz SN do sporów, między grupą "starych" (Stanisław Stroński, Marian Seyda, Roman Rybarski), postulującą zachowanie ustroju parlamentarnego z ograniczeniem zakresu demokracji, a grupą "młodych" (Tadeusz Bielecki, Jędrzej Giertych, Stefan Sacha), którzy związani z Obozem Wielkiej Polski, głosili poglądy o kryzysie liberalnej demokracji oraz dążyli do zespolenia zasad katolicyzmu z nacjonalizmem. Konflikty doprowadziły do rozłamów; w 1933 wyodrębnił się Związek Młodych Narodowców, a w 1934 Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny. W 1935 władzę w SN przejęli "młodzi" z nową linią polityczną będącą kontynuacją OWP. Wkrótce doszło do podziału "młodych" na ekstremistyczną frakcję Jędrzeja Giertycha i grupę Tadeusza Bieleckiego, bardziej skłonną do kompromisu z sanacją. W tym okresie SN reprezentowało zdecydowaną postawę antysemicką. +Największe wpływy stronnictwo posiadało w Zachodniej i Centralnej Polsce oraz w Wilnie i Lwowie. Było największą partią polityczną w Polsce. W 1938 liczyło ponad 200 tys. członków. Organami prasowymi stronnictwa były: "Gazeta Warszawska" (od 1935 "Warszawski Dziennik Narodowy"), "Myśl Narodowa", "Kurier Poznański", "Dziennik Wileński" i wiele innych. Prezesami SN byli kolejno: Joachim Bartoszewicz, Kazimierz Kowalski oraz Tadeusz Bielecki. Pod wpływem SN pozostawały liczne organizacje zawodowe (Zjednoczenie Zawodowe "Praca Polska"), młodzieżowe (Młodzież Wszechpolska), sportowe (Towarzystwo Gimnastyczne "Sokół"), oświatowe i inne. +II wojna światowa. +W okresie II wojny światowej SN było jednym z 4 głównych konspiracyjnych stronnictw politycznych które działało pod kryptonimem "Kwadrat". Było reprezentowane, do czerwca 1941 w rządzie RP na uchodźstwie przez – Władysława Folkierskiego i Zygmunta Berezowskiego oraz w Delegaturze Rządu RP na Kraj i w Politycznym Komitecie Porozumiewawczym. +Kwadrat postulował model Polski narodowej i bezklasowej. Opowiadał się za walką z Niemcami, wyparciem z Polski obcego kapitału, uspołecznieniem własności przez udział robotników w przedsiębiorstwach, przebudową ustroju rolnego oraz za znacznym przesunięciem zachodniej granicy. Zwalczał wpływy komunistyczne w Polsce. W październiku 1939 na konspiracyjnym posiedzeniu, zarząd główny SN powołał Narodową Organizację Wojskową. W 1942 część kierownictwa politycznego Kwadratu wystąpiła z inicjatywą podporządkowania NOW dowództwu AK, co spowodowało rozłam w SN i NOW. Działacze opozycyjni wraz z Organizacją Wojskową Związek Jaszczurczy utworzyli we wrześniu 1942 Narodowe Siły Zbrojne. W listopadzie 1942 doszło do scalenia NOW z AK. +Od lipca 1944 władze Stronnictwa prowadziły rozmowy polityczne z Niemcami, w celu zapobieżenia przewidywanej masakrze młodzieży polskiej w Warszawie w związku planowanym powstaniem. Hrabia Ronikier przedstawił w toczących się rozmowach ideę, by Armia Krajowa przejęła Warszawę bez morderczego boju z Niemcami, na co skłonni byli przystać niektórzy politycy i wojskowi niemieccy (vide casus Paryża w sierpniu 1944). Ideę tę popierał m.in. Józef Mackiewicz. +Lata powojenne i działalność emigracyjna. +Wojna nie przerwała ciągłości życia politycznego i istnienia organizacji politycznych, ale po jej zakończeniu Stronnictwo Narodowe przetrwało w szczątkowej postaci.Największe straty Stronnictwo Narodowe poniosło w Wielkopolsce, w Okręgu Lwowskim SN oraz w Warszawie. +W listopadzie 1944 kierownictwo SN utworzyło Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe, przeznaczone do walki o wyzwolenie kraju spod sowieckiej okupacji. +W 1945 po nieudanej próbie przejścia do działalności legalnej, Stronnictwo Narodowe jako całość pozostawało w podziemiu. Władze komunistyczne wzmagały nieustanne akcje przeciw narodowemu podziemiu. W jego zwalczaniu brały udział formacje MO, KBW, UB, jednostki wojskowe, w tym również NKWD i Armia Czerwona. Wymordowano tysiące narodowców. W głośnym Procesie 16 w Moskwie, który rozpoczął się 18 czerwca 1945 sądzeni byli, obok innych, również działacze Stronnictwa Narodowego: Stanisław Jasiukowicz, Aleksander Zwierzyński, Kazimierz Kobylański i Zbigniew Stypułkowski. +Przybyły z emigracji w grudniu 1945 przedstawiciel prezesa Zarządu Głównego SN – Tadeusza Bieleckiego, Edward Sojka powołał nowe Prezydium SN. Przewodniczącym został Leon Dziubecki a członkami: ks. Władysław Matus, Lech Hajdukiewicz, Marian Podymiak. Wydział Terenowy objął Tadeusz Maciński a Propagandy – Bronisław Ekiert. +W grudniu 1946 UB aresztowało całe Prezydium. Pozostałe struktury próbował aktywizować następny przybyły z Londynu w grudniu 1946 emisariusz, Adam Doboszyński, jednak w lipcu 1947 on także został aresztowany. UB rozbiło wtedy także szereg pozostałych oddziałów NSZ w całej Polsce. +7–22 maja 1948 Wojskowy Sąd Rejonowy w Warszawie w składzie ppłk dr. Romuald Klimowiecki, por Henryk Szczepański, mjr Mieczysław Iwanicki skazał na dożywotnie więzienia szereg przywódców SN. +24 czerwca 1948 zmarł w Więzieniu Mokotowskim w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach skazany wcześniej na dożywocie Leon Dziubecki. +Rok 1950 to apogeum stalinizmu. W więzieniach siedzieli wybitni narodowcy tacy jak: Leon Mirecki, Kazimierz Kobylański, ks. Piotr Stępień, i wielu innych. +Stronnictwo Narodowe doszczętnie rozbite kontynuowało działalność na emigracji. Do najbardziej znanych działaczy z tego okresu należeli: Tadeusz Bielecki, Jędrzej Giertych oraz Władysław Folkierski. Organem prasowym emigracyjnego SN była "Myśl Polska", wydawana w Londynie. Po 1989 powstało kilka ugrupowań i partii politycznych nawiązujących do SN. +Hala Olivia + +Hala widowiskowo-sportowa Olivia – pierwsza na Pomorzu hala z lodowiskiem. Usytuowana jest w Gdańsku-Oliwie przy skrzyżowaniu al. Grunwaldzkiej i ul. Bażyńskiego, w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. +Historia. +Obiekt zaprojektowany przez inżyniera prof. Stanisława Kusia, Macieja Krasińskiego i architekta prof. Macieja Gintowta został przekazany do użytkowania 16 grudnia 1972 gdańskiemu klubowi hokeja na lodzie Stoczniowiec. Konstrukcja ma kubaturę 80 000 m³ i jest wysoka na 12 m. Składa się z dwóch krytych lodowisk na 3867 i 800 widzów. W dużej hali można organizować imprezy do 5500 osób (z możliwością zwiększenia do 6500). Budynek został zaprojektowany tak, aby przypominać łódź mierzącą się z falami morskimi. +Hala posiada zaplecze sportowo-rekreacyjne, hotelowe i gastronomiczne. Odbywają się w niej targi (Baltexpo – w lata nieparzyste), wystawy, koncerty, widowiska. Do większych imprez sportowych zaliczyć należy: Mistrzostwa Świata Dywizji I w hokeju na lodzie, walkę Dariusza Michalczewskiego. +Halę zamknięto od 11 do 28 grudnia 2007 z powodu groźby zawalenia się dachu. +Akcja AB + +Akcja AB – potoczna nazwa tzw. Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej (niem. "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" – AB), którą okupanci niemieccy przeprowadzili na terytorium Generalnego Gubernatorstwa między majem a lipcem 1940. +"Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" miała charakter ludobójstwa i stanowiła kontynuację tzw. akcji „Inteligencja” ("Intelligenzaktion") prowadzonej na okupowanych ziemiach polskich od września 1939. W ramach Akcji AB funkcjonariusze SS i policji niemieckiej zamordowali co najmniej 6500 Polaków – w tym ok. 3500 przedstawicieli polskich elit politycznych i intelektualnych oraz ok. 3000 przestępców kryminalnych. Najbardziej znaną zbrodnią popełnioną przez Niemców w ramach „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej” były masowe egzekucje w Palmirach. +Geneza. +Od pierwszych dni okupacji niemiecki terror wymierzony był przede wszystkim w przedstawicieli polskich elit politycznych, społecznych i intelektualnych. Zgodnie z rasistowskim stereotypem Polaka panującym w III Rzeszy nazistowscy przywódcy wierzyli, że świadomość narodową posiada tylko polska inteligencja, natomiast lud zajmuje się wyłącznie troską o codzienny byt i jest mu obojętny los państwa. Z tego powodu zakładano, że eksterminacja polskich elit pozwoli zniszczyć polską tożsamość narodową i przekształcić polskie społeczeństwo w bierną amorficzną masę, służącą w najlepszym razie jako niewykwalifikowana siła robocza dla III Rzeszy. Do grona inteligencji Niemcy nie zaliczali jednak wyłącznie osób należących z powodu wykształcenia do określonej warstwy społecznej, lecz wszystkich tych, wokół których z racji ich aktywności i postawy mógł się rozwijać ruch oporu – a więc ludzi, których cechowała aktywność i umiejętności kierownicze. Planowano także likwidację osób cieszących się autorytetem w polskim społeczeństwie. Nazistowscy decydenci używali w stosunku do tej szerokiej grupy określenia „polska warstwa przywódcza” (niem. "Führungsschicht"). Zaliczano do niej przede wszystkim: duchownych katolickich, nauczycieli, lekarzy, dentystów, weterynarzy, oficerów w stanie spoczynku, urzędników, kupców, posiadaczy ziemskich, prawników, pisarzy, dziennikarzy, pracowników służb mundurowych, jak również członków organizacji i stowarzyszeń krzewiących polskość – przede wszystkim Polskiego Związku Zachodniego, Ligi Morskiej i Kolonialnej, Kurkowego Bractwa Strzeleckiego, Towarzystwa Powstańców i Wojaków, Związku Strzeleckiego „Strzelec” oraz Polskiego Towarzystwa Gimnastycznego „Sokół”. +W ramach tzw. akcji „Inteligencja” ("Intelligenzaktion"), prowadzonej na okupowanych ziemiach polskich między wrześniem 1939 a wiosną 1940, Niemcy zamordowali co najmniej 100 000 obywateli polskich. Z tego grona blisko 50 000 osób poddano bezpośredniej eksterminacji, podczas gdy resztę deportowano do obozów koncentracyjnych, gdzie przeżył tylko znikomy procent. Największe rozmiary akcja eksterminacyjna przybrała na ziemiach wcielonych do Rzeszy. Na szeroką skalę mordowano tam wszystkich przedstawicieli „polskiej warstwy przywódczej”, z wyjątkiem osób, które z racji swoich umiejętności były – chociażby przejściowo – niezbędne dla prawidłowego funkcjonowania miejscowych struktur administracyjnych i gospodarczych (np. lekarze, inżynierowie, weterynarze, pracownicy komunalni itp.). Nieco mniej krwawy przebieg miały natomiast działania antyinteligenckie prowadzone na terenie Generalnego Gubernatorstwa – jednostki administracyjno-terytorialnej utworzonej przez Niemców na okupowanych terenach centralnej Polski. Niemiecki terror w mniejszym stopniu dotknął m.in. tamtejsze duchowieństwo katolickie i ziemiaństwo, choć nadal brutalnie prześladowano polskich przywódców politycznych i społecznych, prawników, nauczycieli oraz inteligencję twórczą. Ponadto w pierwszych miesiącach okupacji to właśnie na terytorium Generalnego Gubernatorstwa miała miejsce jedna z najgłośniejszych akcji terrorystycznych wymierzonych w polską inteligencję – tj. aresztowanie profesorów uczelni krakowskich (listopad 1939). +Wiosną 1940 roku Niemcy zorientowali się jednak, że społeczeństwo polskie otrząsnęło się z szoku po klęsce wrześniowej, a ruch oporu intensyfikuje swoją działalność. Rozpoczęcie niemieckiej ofensywy na Zachodzie odwróciło uwagę światowej opinii publicznej od wydarzeń w Polsce, stąd władze Generalnego Gubernatorstwa postanowiły wykorzystać tę okoliczność do przeprowadzenia zakrojonej na szeroką skalę akcji terrorystycznej – ponownie wymierzonej w polską inteligencję i elity społeczne. +Niemieckie plany i przygotowania. +2 marca 1940 miało miejsce w Warszawie zebranie tzw. Rady Obrony Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. W spotkaniu udział wzięli m.in.: Hans Frank – generalny gubernator okupowanych ziem polskich, SS-Obergruppenführer Friedrich Wilhelm Krüger – wyższy dowódca SS i policji w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie ("HSSPF „Ost”"), SS-Brigadeführer Bruno Streckenbach – dowódca SD i policji bezpieczeństwa (BdS) w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie, gubernatorzy wszystkich czterech dystryktów GG, jak również dowódcy SS i policji z Krakowa, Warszawy, Radomia i Lublina. Obecni byli także generałowie Jaenecke, Bührmann i Borckhausen reprezentujący Naczelne Dowództwo na Wschodzie (niem. "Oberkommando Ost"). Podczas zebrania rozważano sytuację polityczną i bezpieczeństwa w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie w kontekście przewidywanej ofensywy na Zachodzie. Frank stwierdził wówczas, że obrona Rzeszy wymaga twardego trzymania w ryzach podbitego narodu, a zwłaszcza rodzących się organizacji podziemnych. Oświadczył jednocześnie: „żyjemy w czasie wojny, żyjemy również w stanie niesłychanie ciężkiego konfliktu z fanatycznym narodem, który poprzysiągł nam śmierć”. W dalszej części swojego wystąpienia generalny gubernator wskazał, że zasadniczym warunkiem zachowania kontroli nad okupowaną Polską będzie kontrolowanie lub eliminacja trzech sfer: inteligencji, Kościoła i tzw. aktywnej polskości. SS-Standartenführer Josef Meisinger – komendant policji bezpieczeństwa i służby bezpieczeństwa (KdS) w Warszawie – stwierdził z kolei, że naród polski po klęsce wrześniowej szybko przeszedł po wstrząsie do równowagi, a niemieckie służby bezpieczeństwa odnotowują „gwałtowny rozwój ruchu podziemnego, powstawanie licznych organizacji konspiracyjnych, buntownicze postawy, świetną organizację społeczeństwa”. Wyraził również obawę, że „pewnego pięknego dnia organizacje te faktycznie zaleją nas, jeśli w ciągu najbliższych dni nie przejdziemy do ataku na wielką skalę, który umożliwiłby nam przynajmniej zlikwidowanie przywódców, względnie pojedynczych organizacji”. Występujący w imieniu Wehrmachtu generał Jaenecke podkreślał natomiast, że w kontekście planowanej ofensywy na Zachodzie trzeba się liczyć z możliwością wybuchu polskiego powstania, w którym kluczową rolę odegrałby zorganizowany ruch oporu. Wyraził przy tym opinię, iż należy unikać zbędnego pośpiechu, tak aby bezmyślnymi aresztowaniami nie utrudnić infiltracji organizacji podziemnych. W odpowiedzi SS-Brigadeführer Streckenbach wskazał, że ograniczona akcja, wymierzona w przywódców ruchu oporu, może znacząco osłabić podziemne organizacje. Jak się później okazało, zebranie w dniu 2 marca 1940 nadało bezpośredni impuls do przeprowadzenia Akcji AB. +„Nadzwyczajna Akcja Pacyfikacyjna” nie była wyłącznie oddolną inicjatywą władz Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Podczas posiedzenia „rządu” GG 8 marca 1940 Frank ujawnił bowiem, iż Hitler osobiście polecił mu: „niech pan dołoży starań, żeby było tam Generalnym Gubernatorstwie zupełnie cicho. Wszelkie pociągnięcia zakłócające spokój na Wschodzie są mi nie na rękę”. Jednocześnie Frank przestrzegł zgromadzonych: „trzeba wziąć pod uwagę, że coraz częściej będziemy się spotykali z przejawami oporu ze strony inteligencji, kleru i byłych oficerów. Uformowały się już organizacje skierowane przeciwko naszemu panowaniu w tym kraju. Nie musimy z tego powodu wpadać w panikę, możemy z całym spokojem oczekiwać rozwoju wypadków. Najmniejsza podjęta przez Polaków próba jakiegokolwiek wystąpienia pociągnie za sobą potężną akcję likwidacyjną przeciwko nim. Nie zawahałbym się wówczas przed żadną metodą terroru i nie cofnąłbym się przed żadnymi następstwami”. +Zaraz po tym posiedzeniu SS-Brigadeführer Streckenbach polecił podległym sobie służbom izolować kilkuset członków tajnych organizacji. Jednocześnie nakazał wstrzymać zwalnianie z więzień Polaków, których zatrzymano podczas akcji represyjnych jesienią 1939. W efekcie 30 marca 1940 przez Generalne Gubernatorstwo przeszła fala masowych aresztowań. Podczas roboczej konferencji nt. stanu bezpieczeństwa w GG, która odbyła się w Krakowie 25 kwietnia 1940, Streckenbach poinformował, że policji bezpieczeństwa udało się wówczas aresztować 1000 osób z grona 2200-2400 poszukiwanych „członków ruchu oporu”. Jednocześnie zwrócił uwagę, że na skutek działań wojennych prowadzonych we wrześniu 1939 tysiące polskich przestępców kryminalnych znalazło się na wolności, z czego ok. 15 000 – 20 000 przebywa na terytorium Generalnego Gubernatorstwa, stwarzając poważne zagrożenie dla porządku i bezpieczeństwa. +Kluczową rolę w dziejach Akcji AB odegrała konferencja w sprawie „nadzwyczajnych posunięć koniecznych dla zabezpieczenia spokoju i porządku w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie”, która odbyła się w Krakowie 16 maja 1940. Udział w tym spotkaniu wzięli m.in.: Frank, Krüger, Streckenbach, dr Arthur Seyss-Inquart (szef „rządu” GG), dr Josef Bühler (sekretarz stanu w „rządzie” GG) oraz pułkownik Rudolf Friedrich Müller (dowódca policji porządkowej w GG). Frank ponownie oświadczył, że Generalne Gubernatorstwo stoi w obliczu groźby polskiego powstania, gdyż tysiące uzbrojonych Polaków zorganizowało się w tajnych związkach, które są gotowe popełniać wszelkiego rodzaju akty terroru i dywersji. Świadczyć o tym miały jego zdaniem działania oddziału majora „Hubala”, zamordowanie rodziny niemieckich kolonistów w Józefowie k. Łukowa oraz kilka innych antyniemieckich wystąpień, do których doszło w ostatnich miesiącach. W trakcie konferencji podjęto decyzję o rozpoczęciu szeregu działań, w wyniku których „polski ruch oporu pozbawiony zostanie swych przywódców, autorytet Führera i Rzeszy w Generalnej Guberni niesłychanie wzrośnie, spokój zaś w kraju będzie bezwzględnie utrzymany”. Wskazano jednocześnie, że samowolne działania będą absolutnie niedopuszczalne, a przy organizowaniu represji należy przede wszystkim pamiętać o utrzymaniu autorytetu Führera i Rzeszy. Jeszcze tego samego dnia generalny gubernator wydał zarządzenie, w którym z natychmiastową mocą zlecił Streckenbachowi „bezpośrednią realizację nadzwyczajnego programu pacyfikacyjnego” – wyposażając go jednocześnie w specjalne pełnomocnictwa. Termin zakończenia akcji przewidziano wstępnie na 15 czerwca 1940. Wkrótce później doprecyzowano jeszcze, że sprawy związane z „Nadzwyczajną Akcją Pacyfikacyjną” będą rozpatrywane w uproszczonym trybie przez policyjne sądy doraźne. +30 maja, a więc już po rozpoczęciu Akcji AB, odbyła się w Krakowie kolejna konferencja, w trakcie której doprecyzowano założenia operacji pacyfikacyjnej oraz dokonano pierwszych podsumowań. Frank oświadczył zgromadzonym przedstawicielom aparatu okupacyjnego, że „gdy na Zachodzie leje się krew niemiecka, narodowi socjaliści mają obowiązek baczyć, aby naród polski nie podniósł się kosztem tych ofiar niemieckich. Nadeszła zatem chwila odpowiednia do przeprowadzenia nadzwyczajnego programu pacyfikacyjnego”. Wskazał następnie, że celem "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" będzie „przyspieszona likwidacja znajdującej się w naszym ręku większości buntowniczych polityków, głoszących opór i innych osobników politycznie podejrzanych, jak również równoczesne położenie kresu tradycyjnej polskiej przestępczości”. Generalny gubernator przyznał otwarcie, że w wyniku tej akcji „będzie się musiało rozstać z życiem kilka tysięcy Polaków, głównie z warstwy ideowych przywódców polskich”. Stwierdził również, że: „dla nas wszystkich narodowych socjalistów nakazem chwili jest podjęcie zobowiązania, że dołożymy wszelkich starań, by w narodzie polskim nie wykrystalizował się już żaden opór. Nie ulega wątpliwości, że jesteśmy w stanie wykonać to zadanie, że jest naszym to nawet obowiązkiem ze względu na konieczność osłaniania Rzeszy od Wschodu”. Następnie głos zabrał Streckenbach, który poinformował zebranych, że w momencie rozpoczęcia Akcji AB w niemieckich rękach znajdowało się 2000 mężczyzn i kilkaset kobiet stanowiących „kwiat polskiej inteligencji i ruchu oporu”, podczas gdy kolejne 2000 osób jest cały czas poszukiwanych przez policję bezpieczeństwa. Streckenbach liczył, że "Sicherheitspolizei" zdoła zatrzymać 75% poszukiwanych. Wyraźnie zaznaczył przy tym, że Akcja AB stanowić będzie kolejną fazę "Intelligenzaktion", gdyż samo istnienie „polskiej warstwy przywódczej” stanowi zagrożenie dla III Rzeszy. W trakcie konferencji postanowiono, że aresztowani Polacy nie będą deportowani do obozów koncentracyjnych, lecz „likwidowani na miejscu w najprostszy sposób”. Polecono także, aby więźniów politycznych z Generalnego Gubernatorstwa, którzy przebywali w obozach koncentracyjnych na terenie Rzeszy, sprowadzić do GG celem objęcia Akcją AB lub zamordować na miejscu, gdyż jak to uzasadniał Frank: „nie możemy obciążać naszymi sprawami obozów koncentracyjnych Rzeszy”. Generalny gubernator zauważył przy tym: „było za dużo zawracania głowy z krakowskimi profesorami. Gdybyśmy sprawę tę załatwili na miejscu, miałaby ona całkiem inny przebieg”. +"Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" miała w założeniu stanowić zaledwie pierwszy etap całej serii operacji specjalnych, których celem było spacyfikowanie polskiego społeczeństwa i zabezpieczenie „porządku okupacyjnego”. Władze okupacyjne bynajmniej nie zakładały, że zdołają w jej wyniku rozbić polski ruch oporu. Niemcy liczyli raczej, że dzięki nagłej i zmasowanej akcji represyjnej zdołają zadać podziemiu silny cios uniemożliwiający przeprowadzenie operacji dywersyjnych w momencie wybuchu walk na froncie zachodnim, a także zlikwidować przywódców organizacji niepodległościowych. „Nadzwyczajna Akcja Pacyfikacyjna” miała także zastraszyć polskie społeczeństwo oraz pozbawić ruch oporu bazy społecznej, którą zdaniem Niemców była w pierwszym rzędzie polska inteligencja. Ponadto Akcją AB objęto również „elementy aspołeczne”, tj. blisko 3000 kryminalistów. Powiązanie likwidacji elementów przestępczych z uderzeniem w „warstwę przywódczą” miało w założeniu organizatorów akcji zdyskredytować polską inteligencję, jako „wichrzycieli ustanowionego porządku” oraz poprawić stan bezpieczeństwa w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie. Zwraca uwagę fakt, iż podczas narady 30 maja 1940 gubernator dystryktu lubelskiego Ernst Zörner postulował, aby ze względów ekonomicznych Akcją AB nie obejmować robotników i chłopów. Zdaniem profesora Zygmunta Mańkowskiego mogło to sugerować, że pierwotnie rozważano nadanie "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" znacznie szerszego zasięgu. +Przebieg „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej”. +„Nadzwyczajna Akcja Pacyfikacyjna” została zainicjowana falą masowych aresztowań, które policja bezpieczeństwa przeprowadziła we wszystkich dystryktach Generalnego Gubernatorstwa już pod koniec marca 1940 roku. Obławy i zatrzymania były kontynuowane w następnych miesiącach – w szczególności w maju i czerwcu 1940. Jednym z elementów Akcji AB stały się masowe deportacje polskich więźniów politycznych do obozów koncentracyjnych w Rzeszy, czego nie przewidywano w jej pierwotnych założeniach. Najprawdopodobniej impulsem do przeprowadzenia wywózek stała się wizyta Reichsführera-SS Heinricha Himmlera w Warszawie (29 kwietnia 1940), w trakcie której polecił on skierować do kacetów „kontyngent 20 000 Polaków”. Do obozów koncentracyjnych przybyło wówczas wiele transportów z Generalnego Gubernatorstwa, liczących często ponad tysiąc osób. Najsłynniejszy z owych transportów odszedł 13 czerwca 1940 z więzienia w Tarnowie. 728 wywiezionych wówczas Polaków stało się pierwszymi więźniami nowoutworzonego obozu koncentracyjnego KL Auschwitz. +Zgodnie z ustaleniami z krakowskiej konferencji w dniu 30 maja 1940 w obozach koncentracyjnych na terenie Rzeszy rozpoczęto masowe rozstrzeliwania polskich więźniów politycznych z Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Z wspomnień Stanisława Grzesiuka wynika, że jesienią 1940 roku tego typu egzekucje miały miejsce m.in. na terenie KL Mauthausen, a ich ofiarą padali więźniowie polityczni z Warszawy. Wśród więźniów krążyły plotki, że ofiary były wybierane przez oddelegowanych do obozu oficerów warszawskiego Gestapo. +Deportacje do obozów koncentracyjnych objęły jednak tylko część osób aresztowanych w ramach „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej”. W ślad za wytycznymi Franka tysiące polskich działaczy społecznych i politycznych, nauczycieli, duchownych i twórców zostało poddanych bezpośredniej eksterminacji. Zazwyczaj po krótszych lub dłuższych przesłuchaniach byli oni potajemnie rozstrzeliwani w specjalnie wybranych w tym celu ustronnych i lesistych okolicach. Masowe egzekucje w ramach Akcji AB miały miejsce we wszystkich dystryktach Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Chcąc nadać zbrodniom pozory praworządności Niemcy uruchomili w dystryktach policyjne sady doraźne (niem. "Standgericht") pod przewodnictwem miejscowych komendantów SD i policji bezpieczeństwa. Postępowania prowadzone przed sądami doraźnymi stanowiły jednak parodię przewodu sądowego. Odpowiedzialni za akcję zadbali także o emocjonalną równowagę katów. Kierownik głównego wydziału administracji wewnętrznej w „rządzie” GG wydał rozporządzenie obligujące organa policyjne do: „uwzględniania psychicznej sytuacji osób, którym powierzono dokonywanie egzekucji”. Z kolei 14 sierpnia 1940 SS-Obergruppenführer Krüger wydał „polecenie ws. przeprowadzenia egzekucji”, w którym m.in. zalecał, aby po zakończeniu rozstrzeliwań „zapewniać oddziałom rozrywkę o duchowo wartościowej treści”. +Dystrykt warszawski. +Warszawa stanowiła centrum polskiego życia politycznego, społecznego i kulturalnego stąd duża liczba ofiar Akcji AB pochodziła właśnie z tego miasta. Już pod koniec marca 1940 roku Warszawę i okoliczne miejscowości dotknęła fala masowych aresztowań, których ofiarą padli przede wszystkim działacze polityczni i społeczni, urzędnicy, nauczyciele, duchowni, lekarze oraz prawnicy. Wśród zatrzymanych znaleźli się m.in. Maciej Rataj (wybitny działacz ruchu ludowego, marszałek sejmu w latach 1922–1928), Jan Pohoski (przedwojenny wiceprezydent Warszawy) oraz ksiądz Jan Golędzinowski (proboszcz parafii pw. Chrystusa Króla na warszawskim Targówku). Aresztowania były kontynuowane w następnych tygodniach. 20 kwietnia w lokalu warszawskiej Izby Adwokackiej zatrzymano 42 adwokatów. Z kolei 10 maja aresztowano kilkunastu kierowników warszawskich szkół powszechnych, którzy wbrew zarządzeniom władz niemieckich zwolnili dzieci ze szkół z okazji polskiego święta narodowego w dniu 3 maja. Aresztowania i obławy organizował w pierwszym rzędzie warszawski komendant SD i policji bezpieczeństwa (KdS), SS-Standartenführer Josef Meisinger. Już w czasie konferencji w dniu 2 marca 1940 zwracał on uwagę, że w Warszawie znaczną rolę w środowiskach konspiracyjnych odgrywa inteligencja i nauczycielstwo, a w szczególności studenci, byli kadeci i podoficerowie. Zagrożenia nie stwarzali natomiast jego zdaniem profesorowie uniwersyteccy. +Przedstawiciele „polskiej warstwy przywódczej”, zatrzymani na terenie dystryktu warszawskiego podczas Akcji AB, byli mordowani przede wszystkim w pobliżu wsi Palmiry na obrzeżach Puszczy Kampinoskiej. Na tamtejszej „polanie śmierci” już od grudnia 1939 Niemcy rozstrzeliwali Polaków i Żydów przywożonych z warszawskich więzień. Wraz z rozpoczęciem „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej” zwiększyła się częstotliwość przeprowadzanych w Palmirach egzekucji, a także liczba ich ofiar. Pierwsza masakra przeprowadzona w ramach "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" miała tam miejsce 14 czerwca 1940. Prawdopodobnie rozstrzelano wówczas około 20 osób. Największa i najgłośniejsza ze wszystkich egzekucji przeprowadzonych w Palmirach miała jednak miejsce w dniach 20-21 czerwca 1940. Trzema transportami wywieziono wówczas na śmierć 358 więźniów warszawskiego Pawiaka – w tym wielu przedstawicieli polskiej elity politycznej, intelektualnej i kulturalnej. Śmierć ponieśli m.in. Maciej Rataj, Mieczysław Niedziałkowski (działacz socjalistyczny), Jan Pohoski, Halina Jaroszewiczowa (posłanka na Sejm RP i senator), Ludomir Skórewicz (starosta grodzki warszawski), Jan Wajzer (doktor praw, sekretarz generalny Związku Polaków w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku), Adam Guzikowski (dyrektor Izby Skarbowej w Warszawie), Jan Bełcikowski (założyciel „Biblioteki Złotej Cywilizacji”), Henryk Brun (przemysłowiec, poseł na Sejm RP, prezes Stowarzyszenia Kupców Polskich oraz Naczelnej Rady Zrzeszeń Kupiectwa Polskiego) i Stefan Kwiatkowski (wiceprezes Towarzystwa Nauczycieli Szkół Średnich i Wyższych). Zamordowani zostali także liczni prawnicy (m.in. adwokaci: Władysław Dziewałtowski-Gintowt i Tadeusz Fabiani), urzędnicy, artyści oraz sportowcy (m.in. biegacz Janusz Kusociński). W gronie ofiar znalazły się 82 kobiety. +Mimo iż "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" została oficjalnie zakończona w lipcu 1940, akcja eksterminacyjna w Palmirach była nadal kontynuowana. 30 sierpnia rozstrzelano tam 87 osób, w tym pięć kobiet. Kolejna wielka egzekucja miała miejsce 17 września 1940. Funkcjonariusze "Sicherheitspolizei" zamordowali wówczas w Palmirach około 200 więźniów Pawiaka (w tym 20 kobiet). Śmierć ponieśli m.in. adwokaci Tadeusz Panek i Zbigniew Wróblewski, ksiądz Zygmunt Sajna (proboszcz parafii w Górze Kalwarii), Jadwiga Bogdziewicz i Jan Borski (dziennikarze), Eugeniusz Bańkowski i Henryk Rudowski (pracownicy ZUS) oraz Sebastian Chorzewski i Antoni Motz (lekarze). Najmłodsza ofiara egzekucji miała 16 lat, a najstarsza – ponad 70. Najprawdopodobniej również w listopadzie i grudniu 1940 miały miejsce egzekucje w Palmirach. W gronie zamordowanych wówczas Polaków znaleźli się m.in.: Jan Laszkiewicz (działacz harcerstwa), Czesław Sadkowski i Roman Żochowski (działacze Obozu Narodowo-Radykalnego) oraz major rezerwy Maksymilian Lewin. Ofiary „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej” rozstrzeliwano także pod Sitnem i Żelechowem. +Ponadto w czasie trwania "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" odeszły z Warszawy liczne transporty do obozów koncentracyjnych. Już 2 maja 1940 z więzienia na Pawiaku deportowano do KL Sachsenhausen około 1500 więźniów (w tym wielu adwokatów, działaczy politycznych, duchownych i naukowców). Z kolei 14 sierpnia odszedł z Warszawy wielki transport do KL Auschwitz, w którym znalazło się 513 więźniów Pawiaka (nauczycieli, adwokatów, działaczy społecznych) oraz 1153 warszawiaków złapanych dwa dni wcześniej podczas serii ulicznych łapanek. Kolejne transporty z Warszawy dotarły do Auschwitz 22 września (1705 osób) i 23 listopada 1940 (300 osób). +Dystrykt krakowski. +Obławy i zatrzymania w większości miast dystryktu krakowskiego rozpoczęły się wkrótce po konferencji w dniu 30 maja 1940 i były kontynuowane aż do września. Po krótkim pobycie w miejscowych więzieniach i aresztach (zwykle przepełnionych po wcześniejszych aresztowaniach) zatrzymanych Polaków przewożono do większych więzień pełniących funkcję punktów etapowych (m.in. Tarnów, Sanok), po czym deportowano ich stamtąd do obozów koncentracyjnych bądź wywożono na egzekucje. +W Krakowie masowe aresztowania rozpoczęły się już 30 marca. Policja bezpieczeństwa zatrzymała wówczas blisko 1000 osób. Z kolei 3 maja Niemcy aresztowali setki krakowian opuszczających kościoły po zakończeniu niedzielnych nabożeństw. Doszło także do szeregu indywidualnych zatrzymań. Zazwyczaj aresztantów osadzano w więzieniu przy ul. Montelupich. W tych dniach na parterze gmachu obradował policyjny sąd doraźny, któremu przewodniczył komendant SD i policji bezpieczeństwa w Krakowie (KdS) – SS-Sturmbannführer Ludwig Hahn. Tylko w maju 1940 krakowski "Standgericht" skazał za „zdradę stanu” 290 Polaków (bez rozprawy). „Osądzonych” w ten sposób więźniów politycznych rozstrzeliwano licznie w podkrakowskich lasach. 11 więźniów z zakładu przy ul. Montelupich rozstrzelano w czerwcu 1940 w lesie Glinnik pod Przegorzałami. Z kolei w nocy z 5 na 6 czerwca rozstrzelano w Nowym Wiśniczu 10 Polaków. Głównym miejscem straceń stał się jednak Fort 49 „Krzesławice”, gdzie już od października 1939 Niemcy rozstrzeliwali więźniów politycznych z Krakowa. Do masowych egzekucji w forcie krzesławickim doszło w dniach: 29 czerwca oraz 2 i 4 lipca 1940. Miały tam także miejsce liczne przypadki rozstrzeliwania pojedynczych skazańców. Łącznie na terenie fortu krzesławickiego zamordowano ponad 150 Polaków aresztowanych w czasie Akcji AB. W gronie ofiar znaleźli się liczni nauczyciele, prawnicy oraz wojskowi. W forcie krzesławickim zamordowani zostali m.in. major Walery Krokay z synem Karolem, podpułkownik Piotr Sosialuk (dowódca katowickiego 73. pułku piechoty), Marian Lubaczowski i Józef Wawrzeczko (nauczyciele Gimnazjum nr V w Krakowie), Józef Janta (sekretarz Centralnego Okręgu Związku Górników w Katowicach), Henryk Schabenbeck (burmistrz Zakopanego) oraz Bolesław Karwaciński (aplikant sądowy). +Egzekucje polskich więźniów politycznych przetrzymywanych w więzieniu na zamku w Rzeszowie odbywały się w lesie koło wsi Lubzina pod Ropczycami. 27 czerwca 1940 rozstrzelano tam dużą grupę więźniów przywiezionych z zamku rzeszowskiego (źródła podają liczbę 83 lub 104 ofiar). W gronie zamordowanych znalazło się m.in. 42 członków podziemnych organizacji młodzieżowych. Z kolei 28 czerwca w lesie pod wsią Trzetrzewina Niemcy rozstrzelali 93 osoby przywiezione z więzienia w Nowym Sączu. Większe egzekucje miały też miejsce pod Baligrodem, Bukowiną Tatrzańską, Krzemienną, Porębą Radlną, Rdziostowem, Rychwałem, Wałem Rudą, Wolą Gręboszowską, Wolą Komborską, Zabłociem i Zakopanem. Charakterystyczną cechą Akcji AB w dystrykcie krakowskim były zwłaszcza liczne egzekucje osób schwytanych podczas próby nielegalnego przekroczenia granicy ze Słowacją lub Węgrami. W kwietniu 1940 w samym tylko więzieniu w Sanoku przebywało 619 zatrzymanych ten sposób osób. Po rozpoczęciu "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" Niemcy przystąpili do „opróżniania” sanockiego więzienia. 5 lipca 1940 na wzgórzu Gruszka pod Tarnawą Dolną rozstrzelano 112 więźniów. W ich aktach jako przyczynę śmierci wpisano „samobójstwo”. Z kolei 6 lipca w lesie pod wsią Sieklówka koło Jasła zamordowano 93 Polaków. Większość ofiar egzekucji stanowili oficerowie i żołnierze Wojska Polskiego, którzy po przekroczeniu granicy planowali dołączyć do polskich oddziałów we Francji. +W tym okresie w dystrykcie krakowskim miały również miejsce liczne wywózki do obozów koncentracyjnych. Z więzienia w Tarnowie oprócz wspomnianego transportu do Auschwitz wywieziono ok. 500 więźniów do KL Sachsenhausen (początek sierpnia 1940). 20 czerwca do Auschwitz przybył transport z więzienia w Nowym Wiśniczu (313 osób). Z kolei z krakowskiego zakładu karnego przy ul. Montelupich wywieziono do Auschwitz 65 więźniów (18 lipca 1940), jak również deportowano 126 więźniarek do KL Ravensbruck. +Dystrykt lubelski. +Akcję AB w dystrykcie lubelskim zainicjowały masowe aresztowania miejscowych działaczy społecznych i politycznych, nauczycieli, duchownych, prawników i urzędników, które w czerwcu 1940 przeprowadzono niemal we wszystkich miejscowościach dystryktu. 24 czerwca Niemcy przeprowadzili wielką obławę w Lublinie, w trakcie której zatrzymano 814 Polaków w wieku od 18 do 60 lat. Zostali oni osadzeni w wiezieniu na zamku lubelskim. Tego samego dnia w Białej Podlaskiej 40 polskich nauczycieli wezwano pod pretekstem narady do siedziby miejscowego starostwa, gdzie zostali oni aresztowani. W Zamościu między 20 a 22 czerwca aresztowano ponad 200 przedstawicieli tamtejszej inteligencji, których osadzono w więzieniu śledczym policji bezpieczeństwa w rotundzie zamojskiej. Z kolei 26 czerwca zatrzymano w Lubartowie blisko 500 Polaków. Masowe aresztowania miały także miejsce w Chełmie (10-11 czerwca oraz 3-4 lipca), Puławach, Janowie Lubelskim, Radzyniu Podlaskim oraz mniejszych miejscowościach dystryktu. +Po krótkim pobycie w lokalnych więzieniach i aresztach zatrzymanych przewożono zazwyczaj do więzienia na zamku lubelskim. W czerwcu i lipcu 1940 wywieziono stamtąd do KL Sachsenhausen blisko 1000 więźniów. W październiku kolejnych 65 aresztantów deportowano do KL Auschwitz. Ponadto część więźniów została skazana na śmierć przez policyjny sąd doraźny. Głównym miejscem egzekucji stały się tzw. Doły koło wsi Rury Jezuickie (3,5 km na południe od Lublina). Między 29 czerwca a 15 sierpnia 1940 w pięciu egzekucjach zamordowano tam od 450 do 500 osób. Podczas ekshumacji przeprowadzonej w październiku 1945 udało się zidentyfikować zaledwie 100 zamordowanych. W Rurach Jezuickich zginęli m.in.: Stefan Lelek-Sowa (sędzia sądu apelacyjnego w Lublinie, współorganizator lubelskiego okręgu SZP i ZWZ) wraz z córką Haliną, Józef Dederko (sędzia sądu okręgowego w Lublinie), Tadeusz Eysmont (lekarz, współzałożyciel komendy okręgu lubelskiego „Związku Orła Białego”), Bolesław Wnuk (poseł na Sejm RP), Zbigniew Klaudel (adwokat i dziennikarz z Zamościa), Błażej Dzikowski (poseł na Sejm RP), ks. Władysław Bocian (proboszcz z Suchowoli), Kazimierz Sierakowski (komendant policji w Janowie Lubelskim), Bolesław Rachoń (sekretarz gminy Dzierzkowice), Bolesław Salamacha (nauczyciel z Dzierzkowic). +Miejscem masowych egzekucji stała się również Kumowa Dolina koło Chełma. W dniach 3 i 4 czerwca 1940 funkcjonariusze niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa rozstrzelali tam co najmniej 115 osób aresztowanych w powiatach chełmskim i zamojskim. W gronie ofiar znaleźli się m.in.: Tadeusz Tomaszewski (prezydent Chełma), Michał Nowacki (wiceburmistrz Zamościa), Józef i Kazimierz Janisławscy (ziemianie), Jan Sztaba (dyrektor cukrowni w Rejowcu), Jerzy Stępniewski (nauczyciel gimnazjalny), Stefania Szwed (działaczka harcerska) oraz kilku oficerów Wojska Polskiego. +Polaków aresztowanych w ramach Akcji AB rozstrzeliwano także w wąwozach obok strzelnicy na Czechowie Górnym pod Lublinem oraz w okolicach miejscowości Niemce i Konopnica. +Dystrykt radomski. +W dystrykcie radomskim masowe aresztowania nastąpiły już pod koniec marca 1940. Zatrzymano wówczas 42 przedstawicieli „polskiej warstwy przywódczej” z Częstochowy oraz ponad 100 osób z Radomska i Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego. Akcję AB zainicjowała jednak w tym regionie fala aresztowań z połowy czerwca 1940. Dotknęła ona większość miast dystryktu. 63 osoby zostały zatrzymane przez Niemców w Częstochowie podczas obław przeprowadzonych w nocy z 3 na 4 czerwca oraz 12 czerwca. Z kolei 11 czerwca zatrzymano w Radomsku 53 nauczycieli tamtejszych szkół. Następnego dnia w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim aresztowano około 120 osób. W trakcie dwudniowej akcji w Tomaszowie Mazowieckim (12-13 czerwca) niemiecka policja wsparta przez miejscowych volksdeutschów zatrzymała 280 Polaków. Ponad 100 osób (nauczycieli, wojskowych, sędziów, uczniów, członków Związku Powstańców Śląskich i lekarzy) aresztowano w Sulejowie, a kolejne 20 – w Rawie Mazowieckiej. Masowe obławy policja bezpieczeństwa przeprowadziła także w Skarżysku-Kamiennej i okolicznych miejscowościach, gdzie zatrzymano sto kilkadziesiąt osób. Kolejna fala aresztowań miała miejsce w połowie sierpnia 1940 i objęła przede wszystkim miasta zachodniej części dystryktu. W Piotrkowie Trybunalskim aresztowano wówczas 130 osób (8-10 sierpnia), a w Radomsku i Częstochowie – ponad 150. +Większość Polaków zatrzymanych w dystrykcie radomskim podczas Akcji AB deportowano do obozów koncentracyjnych. Blisko 1000 osób aresztowanych wiosną 1940 w Skarżysku-Kamiennej, Piotrkowie Trybunalskim, Tomaszowie Mazowieckim i Częstochowie zostało wywiezionych do KL Sachsenhausen. 16 czerwca z więzienia w Piotrkowie Trybunalskim zesłano do Auschwitz, Groß-Rosen i Dachau 121 więźniów. Kolejne deportacje z piotrkowskiego więzienia miały miejsce 29 czerwca (40 osób) i 2 lipca (38 osób). Ponadto w dniach 10 i 15 lipca oraz 20 sierpnia i 9 listopada skierowano do KL Auschwitz transporty z zakładu karnego Radomiu. Polaków zatrzymanych podczas obław w sierpniu 1940 kierowano natomiast do KL Buchenwald lub KL Ravensbrück (kobiety). +Wielu więźniów zostało zamordowanych na miejscu – zazwyczaj na podstawie wyroków policyjnego sądu doraźnego, któremu przewodniczył radomski KdS, SS-Hauptsturmführer Fritz Liphardt. Polaków przetrzymywanych w więzieniach w Częstochowie i Radomsku rozstrzeliwano zazwyczaj w lasach koło Olsztyna pod Częstochową. Egzekucje polskich więźniów politycznych miały tam miejsce w dniach 11, 12, 28 i 29 czerwca, jak również w lipcu i październiku 1940. Według niektórych źródeł zamordowano tam łącznie około 400 osób – urzędników, kierowników szkół i nauczycieli, adwokatów, policjantów, kupców, rzemieślników, farmaceutów, inżynierów, studentów i uczniów. Ponadto w lasach Apolonka niedaleko Janowa funkcjonariusze policji bezpieczeństwa mieli zamordować blisko 60 Polaków przywiezionych z Częstochowy – w tym około 20 harcerek. Z obliczeń Jana Pietrzykowskiego wynika natomiast, że między 28 czerwca a 25 września 1940 na Ziemi Częstochowskiej i Radomszczańskiej zamordowano 92 osoby – z czego 44 rozstrzelano pod Olsztynem, a 43 w egzekucjach pod Apolonką. +Więźniów z Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego rozstrzeliwano na terenie dawnej prochowni w Lesie Wolborskim na północ od Piotrkowa. 29 czerwca 1940 Niemcy zamordowali tam 42 Polaków – oficerów rezerwy, uczniów i studentów, nauczycieli oraz farmaceutów. Z kolei Polaków przetrzymywanych w więzieniu w Skarżysku-Kamiennej wywożono na egzekucję do lasu Brzask. Kilkaset osób zatrzymanych w ramach Akcji AB rozstrzelano tam podczas całodziennej egzekucji 29 czerwca. Ponadto nieustalonego dnia w czerwcu 1940 w lesie tym zamordowano 19 mieszkańców wsi Królewiec (w odwecie za działalność oddziału majora „Hubala”). Po wojnie w lesie Brzask odnaleziono ciała 760 osób rozstrzelanych w lutym i czerwcu 1940. Ofiary pochodziły ze Skarżyska-Kamiennej, Kielc, Sandomierza i Buska. +Egzekucje miały również miejsce w innych rejonach dystryktu. 12 czerwca 1940 na stadionie leśnym w Kielcach rozstrzelano 63 Polaków przywiezionych z kieleckiego więzienia. W lasku koło wsi Góry Wysokie rozstrzelano 117 więźniów przywiezionych z Sandomierza (17 czerwca). Od pierwszych dni maja do 10 lipca 1940 przeprowadzane były natomiast egzekucje więźniów z Radomia. W siedmiu zbiorowych oraz kilku indywidualnych egzekucjach rozstrzelano wówczas 248 więźniów radomskiego zakładu karnego (ustalono tożsamość 210 Polaków i 18 Żydów), z czego część w związku z działalnością oddziału „Hubala”. +Zakończenie Akcji AB. +Niemcy wstępnie planowali zakończyć „Nadzwyczajną Akcję Pacyfikacyjną” do 15 czerwca 1940 i ten dzień jest czasami uznawany za jej graniczną datę. Dopiero 10 lipca SS-Brigadeführer Streckenbach zameldował jednak o zakończeniu Akcji AB. Generalny gubernator Frank obwieścił z kolei jej zakończenie w trakcie narady w dniu 23 lipca. +W rzeczywistości aresztowania, wywózki i egzekucje zapoczątkowane podczas "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" były kontynuowane w lipcu i sierpniu, a także jesienią 1940 roku. Między sierpniem 1940 a lutym 1941 z samej tylko Warszawy deportowano do obozów koncentracyjnych około 4770 osób. Krzysztof Dunin-Wąsowicz za symboliczny koniec Akcji AB był więc skłonny uważać 17 stycznia 1941, tj. datę odwołania Streckenbacha z Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. +Ofiary. +Akcja AB była jedną z najkrwawszych akcji terrorystycznych przeprowadzonych przez Niemców w okupowanej Polsce. Oficjalnie uzasadniano ją koniecznością zahamowania rozwoju polskiego ruchu oporu. Rzeczywistym celem "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" była jednak likwidacja osób zaliczanych do „polskiej warstwy przywódczej”, a w dalszej perspektywie – osłabienie „narodowej materii Polaków”. Stanowiła także bezpośrednią kontynuację akcji „Inteligencja”, prowadzonej na okupowanych ziemiach polskich od września 1939. Z tego względu należy przyjąć, że „Nadzwyczajna Akcja Pacyfikacyjna” miała charakter ludobójstwa. +Mimo upływu ponad 70 lat nie powstała żadna całościowa monografia naukowa poświęcona Akcji AB, a polscy historycy nadal nie zdołali wyjaśnić szeregu podstawowych faktów dotyczących jej przebiegu. Dotyczy to w szczególności dokładnej liczby ofiar. Zazwyczaj w ślad za raportem Streckenbacha historycy podają, że w trakcie „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej” zamordowano około 3500 polskich intelektualistów oraz działaczy społecznych i politycznych, jak również około 3000 przestępców kryminalnych. Nie jest to jednak pewna informacja, gdyż liczby przedstawione w raporcie Streckenbacha nigdy nie zostały zweryfikowane. W szczególności brakuje informacji na temat represji wymierzonych w środowiska przestępcze. Nie sposób na przykład stwierdzić, ilu rzeczywistych kryminalistów znalazło się w gronie 3000 ofiar zaliczonych do tej kategorii. Mówiąc o ofiarach Akcji AB należy także pamiętać, że tysiące przedstawicieli polskiej inteligencji deportowano wówczas do obozów koncentracyjnych, gdzie końca wojny doczekał tylko znikomy procent. +W wyniku Akcji AB śmierć poniosło wielu wybitnych przedstawicieli polskiego życia politycznego, społecznego, intelektualnego, kulturalnego i sportowego. Na dłuższą metę "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" nie zdołała jednak zahamować rozwoju polskiego ruchu oporu. Podczas posiedzenia „rządu” GG w dniu 20 maja 1941 Streckenbach był zmuszony przyznać, że: „błędny i wysoce niebezpieczny w swych skutkach jest pogląd, że aktywistami ruchu oporu są wyłącznie oficerowie, wyżsi urzędnicy, czy ludzie z pewnym wykształceniem. Jest oczywiście prawdą, że stanowią oni trzon ruchu oporu, lecz elementy dokonujące zamachów rekrutują się wyłącznie z chłopów i robotników”. +Odpowiedzialność sprawców. +Krąg osób odpowiedzialnych za zbrodnie popełnione podczas Akcji AB jest stosunkowo szeroki i dotychczas nie został precyzyjnie określony. W pierwszym rzędzie należy do niego zaliczyć generalnego gubernatora Hansa Franka, SS-Obergruppenführera Friedricha Wilhelma Krügera oraz SS-Brigadeführera Bruno Streckenbacha. Uwzględnić należy także gubernatorów dystryktów GG – Ludwiga Fischera (Warszawa), Otto von Wächtera (Kraków), Ernsta Zörnera (Lublin) i Karla Lascha (Radom) – oraz dowódców SS i policji w dystryktach: SS-Gruppenführera Paula Modera (Warszawa), SS-Gruppenführera Karla Zecha (Kraków), SS-Brigadeführera Odilo Globocnika (Lublin) i SS-Oberführera Fritza Katzmanna (Radom). W praktyce za realizację „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej” na terenie poszczególnych dystryktów odpowiadali przede wszystkim miejscowi komendanci SD i policji bezpieczeństwa. Byli to odpowiednio: SS-Standartenführer Josef Meisinger (Warszawa), SS-Sturmbannführer Ludwig Hahn (Kraków), SS-Sturmbannführer Walter Huppenkothen (Lublin) i SS-Hauptsturmführer Fritz Liphardt (Radom). Do tego należy doliczyć liczną grupę dowódców najniższego szczebla oraz bezpośrednich wykonawców egzekucji. Ponadto szczególna odpowiedzialność spada na członków policyjnych sądów doraźnych, które wydawały wyroki śmierci na Polaków aresztowanych w ramach Akcji AB. +Tylko nieliczni sprawcy zbrodni popełnionych podczas „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej” ponieśli po wojnie odpowiedzialność karną. Hans Frank i Arthur Seyss-Inquart zostali skazani przez Międzynarodowy Trybunał Wojskowy w Norymberdze na karę śmierci przez powieszenie (1946). Wyrokiem Najwyższego Trybunału Narodowego na karę śmierci skazani zostali również Ludwig Fischer i Josef Meisinger (1947) oraz Josef Bühler (1948). Ludwig Hahn przez wiele lat mieszkał w Hamburgu pod swoim prawdziwym nazwiskiem. Przed sądem stanął dopiero w 1972 i po trwającym rok procesie skazany został na karę 12 lat pozbawienia wolności. W procesie rewizyjnym hamburski sąd przysięgłych podwyższył karę na dożywocie (1975), wyrok dotyczył jednak wyłącznie zbrodni popełnionych przez Hahna w czasie likwidacji getta warszawskiego. Hahn wyszedł na wolność w 1983 i zmarł trzy lata później. +Część osób odpowiedzialnych za realizację Akcji AB poniosła śmierć w czasie wojny lub wkrótce po jej zakończeniu. W tym gronie znaleźli się m.in.: Friedrich Wilhelm Krüger (popełnił samobójstwo w 1945), Paul Moder (zginął w 1942 na froncie wschodnim), Karl Lasch (zmarł w niejasnych okolicznościach w 1942), Karl Zech (popełnił samobójstwo w 1944), Odilo Globocnik (popełnił samobójstwo w 1945), Fritz Liphardt (popełnił samobójstwo w 1947, wkrótce po swojej ekstradycji do Polski) i Ernst Zörner (zaginął, prawdopodobnie popełnił samobójstwo w 1945). +Wielu organizatorów i uczestników "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" nie poniosło jednak żadnej odpowiedzialności za popełnione w Polsce zbrodnie. Bruno Streckenbach dostał się do niewoli sowieckiej, z której wyszedł w 1955. Zamieszkał następnie w Hamburgu, gdzie pracował jako urzędnik. Prowadzone przeciwko niemu dochodzenie zostało umorzone „z powodu stanu zdrowia oskarżonego”. Fritz Katzmann do swojej śmierci w 1957 ukrywał się w Darmstadt pod przybranym nazwiskiem. Otto von Wächter zmarł w 1949 w Rzymie, gdzie ukrywał się w katolickim kolegium. Walter Huppenkothen zamieszkał po wojnie w Niemczech Zachodnich, gdzie skazano go na karę sześciu lat pozbawienia wolności za udział w prześladowaniach członków niemieckiego ruchu antynazistowskiego. Po wyjściu na wolność (1959) był cenionym specjalistą w dziedzinie prawa gospodarczego. Zmarł w 1979 w Lubece. +Domniemane współdziałanie niemiecko-sowieckie. +Od pierwszych dni okupacji zarówno niemiecki, jak i sowiecki terror był wymierzony przede wszystkim w polską inteligencję oraz szeroko rozumiane warstwy wyższe. Niewyjaśniona pozostaje kwestia, czy obaj okupanci koordynowali prowadzone przez siebie działania eksterminacyjne. Pomimo tego uwagę zwraca zbieżność czasowa "Ausserordentliche Befriedungsaktion" oraz zbrodni katyńskiej – dwóch najbardziej znanych akcji eksterminacyjnych wymierzonych w polską inteligencję. Zebranie „Rady Obrony Generalnego Gubernatorstwa”, które nadało bezpośredni impuls do przeprowadzenia „Nadzwyczajnej Akcji Pacyfikacyjnej” odbyło się 2 marca 1940 – trzy dni przed posiedzeniem Biura Politycznego KC WKP(b), podczas którego podjęto decyzję o wymordowaniu polskich oficerów przetrzymywanych w obozach specjalnych w Kozielsku, Starobielsku i Ostaszkowie. Obu zbrodni również dokonano w stosunkowo niewielkim odstępie czasu. Ponadto według niektórych źródeł w okresie poprzedzającym Akcję AB oraz mord katyński (przełom pierwszego i drugiego kwartału 1940) nastąpiło wyraźne zacieśnienie współpracy na linii Gestapo-NKWD. Odbyły się bowiem wówczas dwustronne konferencje w Zakopanem i Krakowie, w trakcie których funkcjonariusze niemieckich i sowieckich służb specjalnych mieli rzekomo dokonać wymiany informacji i doświadczeń na temat zwalczania polskiego ruchu oporu. Brakuje jednak jednoznacznych dowodów, które świadczyłyby, iż podczas tych spotkań rzeczywiście prowadzono rozmowy nt. koordynacji działań represyjnych przeciw polskiemu społeczeństwu. Z tego względu nie można przesądzać, iż obie akcje eksterminacyjne zostały uzgodnione i bezpośrednio skoordynowane przez Berlin i Moskwę. +LWS-2 + +LWS-2 – polski samolot sanitarny. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1937 roku w Lubelskiej Wytwórni Samolotów w Lublinie. +Historia. +W 1936 roku Dowództwo Lotnictwa Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych i Polski Czerwony Krzyż (PCK) zamówiły w Lubelskiej Wytwórni Samolotów (LWS) nowoczesny i funkcjonalny samolot sanitarny. Samolot ten powinien być przystosowany do lądowania i startu z prowizorycznych lądowiskach trawiastych o niewielkich rozmiarach. +Wstępny projekt samolotu opracował inż. Zbysław Ciołkosz na początku 1936 roku. Samolot otrzymał oznaczenie LWS-2. Miało on układ gónopłata zastrzałowego, silnik gwiazdowy i kabinę zakrytą dla czterech osób. Po zatwierdzeniu tego projektu konstrukcję samolotu LWS-2 wykonali w 1937 roku inż. Jerzy Teisseyre i inż. Janusz Lang. +Zarząd Główny Polskiego Czerwonego Krzyża zamówił w LWS budowę dwóch prototypów – jednego do prób statycznych, drugiego do prób w locie. Już jesienią 1937 roku prototypy były gotowe, jeden z nich opatrzony znakami rejestracyjnymi SP-ATP został oblatany na lotnisku fabrycznym przez pilota – oblatywacza Władysława Szulczewskiego. Podczas prób w locie prototyp samolotu LWS-2 okazał się udaną konstrukcją, miał dobre właściwości pilotażowe i osiągi oraz co było bardzo ważne w tym samolocie – krótki start i lądowanie uzyskane dzięki dużej mechanizacji skrzydeł wzorowanej na konstrukcji płata samolotu RWD-9. Następnie samolot przeszedł następne próby w Instytucie Technicznym Lotnictwa w Warszawie, gdzie potwierdziły się jego zalety i został on dopuszczony do eksploatacji jako samolot sanitarny. +Konstrukcja samolotu LWS-2 była funkcjonalna – przystosowana do zadań jakie miał wykonywać. Kadłub był kratownicowy spawany z rur stalowych z przodu na łożu mieścił silnik gwiazdowy, za silnikiem umieszczony był zbiornik na paliwo o pojemności 130 litrów. Dalej usytuowana była kabina zakryta, w której z przodu z lewej strony był fotel pilota, za pilotem apteczka i miejsce dla lekarza z rozkładanym stolikiem, a dalej miejsce dla 2 chorych na noszach. Drzwi na nosze znajdowały się w dolnej lewej części kadłuba. Na końcu kadłuba umocowane było usterzenie klasyczne o konstrukcji drewnianej, przy czym pokrycie stateczników stanowiła sklejka, sterów – płótno. Kadłub był pokryty płótnem, tylko z przodu przy silniku kryty był blachą duralową. Samolot posiadał przytwierdzone do kadłuba podwozie stałe z amortyzatorami olejowo-powietrznymi. Płat był prostokątny, zaokrąglony na końcach i zwężający się przy kadłubie, konstrukcję dwudźwigarową, dwudzielną, drewnianą. Kryty był do pierwszego dźwigara sklejką, a dalej płótnem. Płaty wyposażone były w skrzela wysuwane na całej krawędzi natarcia oraz w tzw. klapo-lotki, działające jako lotki w czasie lotu, natomiast przy lądowaniu zaś wychylone do dołu tworzące klapy szczelinowe. +Pomimo dobrych osiągów, a także sukcesów międzynarodowych – samolot w dniach 1 – 4 lipca 1938 roku wziął udział w Międzynarodowym Konkursie Lotnictwa Sanitarnego w Esch-sur-Alzette w Luksemburgu, gdzie zajął pierwsze miejsce za najlepsze urządzenie kabiny dla rannych – nie uruchomiono jednak jego produkcji seryjnej, pomimo tego że PCK zamówił 6 egzemplarzy tego samolotu. Zbudowano tylko zamówione przez PCK dwa prototypy, z tym że tylko jeden był przystosowany do lotu. +Użycie samolotu w lotnictwie polskim. +W dniu 19 maja 1938 roku jedyny latający samolot LWS-2 został przekazany polskiemu lotnictwu wojskowemu, gdzie służył do przewozu rannych i chory jeszcze na początku wojny we wrześniu 1939 roku. Uszkodzony samolot został zdobyty przez Niemców na lotnisku w Krośnie, jego dalsze losy nie są znane. +Opis techniczny samolotu LWS-2. +Samolot LWS-2 był czteromiejscowym samolotem sanitarnym, górnopłatem zastrzałowym o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd silnik gwiazdowy, śmigło dwułopatowe, metalowe, nastawne. +Ciśnienie osmotyczne + +Ciśnienie osmotyczne – różnica ciśnień wywieranych na półprzepuszczalną membranę przez dwie ciecze, które ta membrana rozdziela. Przyczyną pojawienia się ciśnienia osmotycznego jest różnica stężeń związków chemicznych lub jonów w roztworach po obu stronach membrany i dążenie układu do ich wyrównania. +Pomiar ciśnienia osmotycznego możliwy jest np. poprzez pomiar ciśnienia wymaganego do zatrzymania przepływu rozpuszczalnika przez membranę. Dalsze zwiększanie przyłożonego ciśnienia prowadzi do zaistnienia procesu odwróconej osmozy, czyli przepływu cząsteczek rozpuszczalnika od roztworu o wysokim stężeniu do roztworu o niższym stężeniu. +Równanie van 't Hoffa. +Przykład: dla roztworu soli o stężeniu = 10-2 mol/dm3 w temperaturze 300 K otrzymamy ciśnienie osmotyczne rzędu 250hPa (0,25 atm) co odpowiada ciśnieniu słupa wody o wysokości 2,5 m. +Na podstawie ciśnienia osmotycznego, a właściwie zależności ciśnienia osmotycznego π od stężenia c[g/dm3] możliwe jest obliczenie masy cząsteczkowej związków chemicznych. +Zgodnie z prawem Raoulta dla roztworu doskonałego: (pr/po) = xrozp - ułamek molowy rozpuszczalnika w roztworze X. Dla roztworu rzeczywistego, zamiast ułamka molowego należy użyć aktywności rozpuszczalnika arozp w tym roztworze, skąd: +skąd można wyprowadzić równanie van 't Hoffa. +Gekonowate + +Gekonowate, gekony (Gekkonidae) – najbogatsza w gatunki rodzina małych i średniej wielkości jaszczurek. Obejmuje ponad 100 rodzajów i blisko 1200 gatunków opisanych naukowo. Gekony są gadami o najbardziej prymitywnej wśród jaszczurek budowie. Są też popularnymi wśród terrarystów zwierzętami domowymi. +Występowanie i biotop. +Najliczniej występują w strefie zwrotnikowej i podzwrotnikowej. Ameryka Północna i Środkowa, Ameryka Południowa, Afryka, Madagaskar, Półwysep Arabski, południowa Azja, Australia, Archipelag Malajski, Nowa Zelandia i Europa (7 gatunków). Dotarły do wielu wysp. Zajmują wyłącznie środowiska suche. Żyją w lasach, stepach, na sawannach, terenach pustynnych i skalistych, a niektóre w pobliżu siedzib ludzkich (tzw. gekony domowe). +Opis. +Skóra cienka i delikatna, pokryta małymi, ziarnistymi łuskami. Na skórze występują rogowe twory o różnym kształcie lub rogowe płytki. Głowa duża, wyraźnie wyodrębniona, oczy wystające, duże, często jasno ubarwione. Gatunki dzienne mają źrenice okrągłe, a nocne pionowe. Powieki u większości gatunków zrośnięte, przez co muszą czyścić oczy długim językiem. Źrenice mogą się zwężać lub rozszerzać. Ogon długi, zwykle stanowi połowę całkowitej długości ciała, w przekroju okrągły, często walcowaty. Większość gekonów zjada wylinkę. U gatunków nadrzewnych występują pod palcami włoskowate przylgi, które umożliwiają im sprawne chodzenie po pionowych ścianach, sufitach, a nawet po szybach. Są jedynymi jaszczurkami mającymi zdolność wydawania donośnych głosów. Od jednego z tych dźwięków ("gek-ko") pochodzi naukowa nazwa rodziny. Głosy samców różnią się od głosów samic. Gekony mają dobrze rozwinięty zmysł słuchu. Największy gekon olbrzymi ("Rhacodactylus leachianus") z Nowej Kaledonii osiąga do 40 cm długości całkowitej i 800 g masy ciała. Najmniejszy to "Sphaerodactylus ariasae" osiągający długość 1,4-1,8 cm i masę ciała 2 g. +Zachowanie. +Gekony dzielą się na nocne (pionowe źrenice) i dzienne (okrągłe źrenice). Dzienne gekony, jak nazwa tłumaczy, prowadzą dzienny tryb życia i zazwyczaj są bardziej barwne od nocnych. Rzadziej występujące rodzaje gekonów dziennych to: "Pristurus", "Phelsuma", "Quedenfeldtia", "Naultinus" i "Lygodactylus". +Rozmnażanie. +Dojrzałość płciowa zwykle w 2 roku życia. Większość jest jajorodna, nieliczne (z Nowej Zelandii) jajożyworodne (rodzaje "Hoplodactylus" i "Naultinus" oraz "Rhacodactylus trachyrhynchus"). Trzy gatunki gekonów są partenogenetyczne. Samica składa od 1 do 2 jaj kulistego kształtu, w pergaminowych osłonkach pokrytych lepkim śluzem, które przykleja w różnych szczelinach, pod kamieniami lub na ziemi. +Funkcje ogona. +U gekonów ogon spełnia wiele funkcji. Przede wszystkim jest pomocniczym narządem ruchu istotnym przy balansowaniu ciałem podczas wykonywania skoków. U wielu gekonów stał się on rezerwuarem tłuszczu. Gekon fałdoskóry posiada na ogonie specjalne fałdy. Fałdy te pomagają w lepszym przyleganiu do podłoża, w wykonywaniu lotu ślizgowego podczas skoku, a także do lepszego maskowania. +Autotomia. +Gekony mają zdolność odrzucania ogona, co ratuje im często życie. Oderwany, wijący się ogon przypomina wijącą się gąsienicę, dzięki czemu odwraca uwagę napastnika, a gekon w tym czasie zdoła umknąć i ukryć się. Odrzucona przez zwierzę część ciała jest regenerowana, jednak nigdy już nie jest podobna do pierwowzoru. Nie wszystkie gekony posiadają zdolność do autotomii. +Przyleganie do powierzchni. +Charakterystyczną cechą gatunków nadrzewnych jest zdolność przylegania do powierzchni. Gekony o naziemnym trybie życia są tej cechy pozbawione. Na spodniej części spłaszczonych palców istnieją specjalne twory ("lamellae"). Są to nachodzące na siebie blaszki pokryte milionami mikroskopijnych wyrostków skórnych. Jeden wyrostek jest wielkości około 10 do 100 mikrometrów. Specjalny mechanizm układu krwionośnego w kończynach gekona umożliwia mu sterowanie przyczepnością. Wystarczy, że unosi lub opuszcza palce. Dorosły gekon potrafi utrzymać całą wagę ciała jednym palcem. Zaczepiony wszystkimi palcami jest w stanie unieść ciężar wagi ludzkiego noworodka. +Zmiana ubarwienia. +Gekony potrafią zmieniać ubarwienie. Nie jest to zmiana jak u kameleonów, a jedynie zmiana z jasnej na ciemniejszą. Kiedy gekon jest zaciekawiony lub oddaje się zwiedzaniu obcego terenu – jaśnieje. Kiedy jest zaniepokojony lub ma zły stan zdrowia – przybiera ciemniejsza barwę. Dzieje się tak, ponieważ gekony posiadają specjalne komórki w skórze, które rozszerzają lub kurczą się na polecenie układu nerwowego gekona. Takie same komórki występują w skórze mątwy, pozwalając jej całkowicie zlewać się z otoczeniem, dużo szybciej i efektywniej niż robią to gekony. +Dymorfizm płciowy. +Zazwyczaj u gekonów różnice między samcem a samicą są mało wyraźne. Kiedy gekony są bardzo młode rozróżnienie płci może być niemożliwe. Dlatego stwierdzenie różnic wymaga dokonania pewnych obserwacji. Dobrym sposobem na odróżnienie płci jest umieszczenie małych osobników w tym samym terrarium. Samce zazwyczaj agresywniejsze będą próbować dominować nad innymi osobnikami. Podczas podejmowanych prób zdominowania będą wydawać charakterystyczne odgłosy. +Samice na ogół są mniejsze od samców. U samców nasada ogona w większości jest grubsza. Wszystkie gekony w okolicach kloaki, zaraz obok ogona, mają widoczne pory. Każdy gatunek gekona ma charakterystyczny dla siebie układ porów. Pory te są różne u samców i samic. +Systematyka. +Przedstawiciele Gekkoninae, Teratoscincinae i Diplodactylinae mają nieruchome powieki. U Aleuroscalabotinae i Eublepharinae powieki są ruchome. +Itanium 2 + +Itanium 2 to procesor klasy IA-64 produkowany przez firmę Intel będący następcą jednostki serwerowej Itanium. Podobnie jak poprzednik oparty został na architekturze IA-64. Zastosowana w nim technologia EPIC przekazuje kontrolę nad równoległym przetwarzaniem instrukcji oraz zarządzanie jednostkami wykonawczymi kompilatorowi programu. Dzięki temu zaawansowany programista jest w stanie napisać aplikację wykorzystującą w pełni zasoby sprzętowe mikroprocesora. +Procesor został wyposażony w 6 potoków wykonawczych, od 1,5 do 9 MB pamięci cache trzeciego poziomu (L3) oraz zegar z zakresu 1,0 - 1,6 GHz. +W stosunku do poprzednika poszerzona została również magistrala danych (z 64 do 128 bitów) dzięki czemu zwiększyła się przepustowość między pamięcią a procesorem. +Na komputerach Itanium pracują systemy operacyjne Microsoft Windows Server 2008 oraz uniksopodobne (HP-UX, Linux, FreeBSD). +Flebografia + +Flebografia (synonim wenografia) – badanie polegające na podaniu do żyły środka cieniującego (tzw. kontrastu), umożliwiającego uwidocznienie jej światła i zobrazowanie na zdjęciu rentgenowskim; może być również składową angiografii tomografii komputerowej (angio-TK) i jądrowego rezonansu magnetycznego (angio-MR). +Obecnie, w dobie rozwoju nowocześniejszych technik diagnostycznych, takich jak ultrasonografia, angiografia tomografii komputerowej czy angiografia rezonansu magnetycznego, wskazania do wykonania flebografii są bardzo ograniczone i wykonuje się ją jedynie przed zabiegami operacyjnymi wewnątrznaczyniowymi układu żylnego. +Maria Klementyna Sobieska + +Maria Klementyna Sobieska herbu Janina (ur. 17 lipca 1701 w Macerata we Włoszech, zm. 17 stycznia 1735 w Rzymie) – córka Jakuba Sobieskiego i Jadwigi Elżbiety Neuburskiej, wnuczka Jana III Sobieskiego. +Była jedną z najbogatszych dziedziczek w Europie. Została zaręczona z księciem Jakubem Stuartem, synem obalonego króla Jakuba II Stuarta i jego drugiej żony - Marii z Modeny, córki Alfonsa IV d'Este. Zaręczynom tym przeciwny był ówczesny król Anglii - Jerzy I, który obawiał się, że Jakub Stuart doczeka się z Marią Klementyną potomstwa. Cesarz Karol VI Habsburg, aby zapobiec zawarciu małżeństwa zaaresztował Marię Klementynę podczas jej podróży przez Włochy. Umieszczono ją w zamku w Innsbrucku, ale udało jej się oszukać strażników i uciec do Bolonii. Tam, już bezpieczna, poślubiła "per procura" swojego narzeczonego, który wtedy znajdował się w Hiszpanii. +Ceremonię ślubną powtórzono 3 września 1719, we włoskim Montefiascone, w Katedrze Świętej Małgorzaty. Maria Klementyna i jej małżonek zostali zaproszeni do Rzymu przez samego papieża Klemensa XI, który tytułował ich (katolickimi) władcami Anglii, Szkocji i Irlandii. Małżeństwo Marii Klementyny okazało się nieszczęśliwe. Po urodzeniu drugiego dziecka, pogrążona w depresji, opuściła męża i synów. Zamieszkała w klasztorze św. Cecylii w Rzymie, gdzie poświęciła się modlitwie i ascezie. Wkrótce zmarła (zagłodziła się na śmierć) i została pochowana w podziemiach Bazyliki św. Piotra na Watykanie. W samej Bazylice znajduje sie monument poświęcony Marii Klementynie, który papież zamówił u Canovy, a inskrypcja brzmi: "Maria Klementyna, królowa Wielkiej Brytanii, Francji i Irlandii". +Wszyscy trzej (mąż i synowie) byli jakobickimi pretendentami do tronu Anglii i Szkocji. +Abd Allah I ibn Husajn + +Abd Allah ibn Husajn, Abdullah I bin al-Hussein (ur. w lutym 1882 w Mekce, zm. 20 lipca 1951 w Jerozolimie) – emir Emiratu Transjordanii (1921-1946), a następnie król Królestwa Transjordanii (od 1949 Jordańskie Królestwo Haszymidzkie). Pochodził z dynastii Haszymidów. +Młodość. +Urodził się w Mekce wówczas w Imperium osmańskim (obecnie Arabia Saudyjska). Był drugim z trzech synów emira Mekki Said Husajn ibn Ali i jego pierwszej żony Abdiya bint Abdullah (zm. 1886). +Studiował w Konstantynopolu. +Początek kariery politycznej. +Abdullah od samego początku swojej działalności politycznej poszukiwał sposobów wyzwolenia Arabów spod panowania Turków. Przebywając w Konstantynopolu, uważnie przyglądał się rozwojowi nacjonalistycznego i modernistycznego ruchu tureckiego Młodoturków. W 1910 przekonał ojca, aby uczynił go deputowanym Mekki w parlamencie Ottomańskim. W następnym roku zasiadł w tureckim parlamencie, działając jako pośrednik między ojcem a rządem osmańskim. +W I wojnie światowej Turcja wystąpiła po stronie państw centralnych. Widząc w tym szansę dla sprawy arabskiej, Abdullah w 1915 Abdullah nawiązał pierwsze kontakty z Brytyjczykami i zachęcał ojca do nawiązania korespondencji z wysokim komisarzem brytyjskim w Egipcie sir Henry McMahonem. Korespondencja dotyczyła możliwości wyzwolenia Arabów spod panowania osmańskiego. W latach 1916-1918 Abdullah i jego brat Fajsal I współpracowali z agentem brytyjskiego wywiadu Thomasem Lawrencem, odgrywając kluczową rolę w arabskiej rewolcie przeciwko Turkom. W trakcie jej trwania Arabowie przeprowadzili liczne rajdy na obszarze Arabii, zdobywając między innymi Akabę (6 lipca 1917). W efekcie arabskich działań została zahamowana ofensywa wojsk tureckich na strefę Kanału Sueskiego. Rewolta zakończyła się 1 października 1918 zajęciem Damaszku. Arabowie mieli nadzieję, że ich plany utworzenia wielkiego państwa arabskiego urzeczywistnią się. Jednak państwa ententy prowadziły własną niezależną tajną politykę i realizowały odrębne plany co do Bliskiego Wschodu. +W 1916 doszło do zawarcia tajnego układu francusko-brytyjskiego (M. Sykes-S. Picot) o podziale Bliskiego Wschodu na sfery wpływów. Porozumienie zakładało uznanie niezależnego państwa arabskiego lub konfederacji państw arabskich w Palestynie, ale z rządem międzynarodowym. Jednak w lutym 1917 nowy rząd brytyjski spotkał się z przedstawicielami Światowej Organizacji Syjonistycznej: Rothschildem, Weizmannem i Sokołowem. Postulowali oni, aby Wielka Brytania objęła protektorat nad Palestyną oraz udzieliła państwowego czarteru dla żydowskiej imigracji i kolonizacji. Chaim Weizmann uzyskał poparcie brytyjskie dla projektów żydowskich w postaci słynnej deklaracji Balfoura (2 listopada 1917). +Po zakończeniu wojny pojawiły się spory w kwestii przyszłości Palestyny. Francja opierała się na realizacji postanowień tajnej umowy Sykes-Picot (z 1916 r.), na mocy której miało powstać wielkie państwo arabsko-muzułmańskie pod nazwą Wielka Syria. Emir Mekki Said Husajn również opowiadał się za utworzeniem jednego państwa arabskiego. Natomiast stosunek brytyjski do Palestyny i syjonizmu był co najmniej dwuznaczny. Wobec tego powstały dwa protektoraty: (1) Protektorat Francuski (obejmujący obszar dzisiejszej Syrii i Libanu) oraz (2) Protektorat Brytyjski (obejmujący obszar Palestyny, Jordanii i Iraku). +Arabowie sprzeciwili się tym planom i 7 marca 1920 Fajsal I został ogłoszony królem Wielkiej Syrii. Dokonał tego rząd Haszima al-Atasi, wyłoniony przez Syryjski Kongres Narodowy. Tymczasem 19 kwietnia zebrała się w Sanremo "Naczelna Rada Koalicji". Wielką Brytanię reprezentował George Curzon, a Francję – Milleard. Obydwa państwa zgodziły się na realizację deklaracji Balfoura, przy czym miały być zagwarantowane wszystkie prawa religijne i obywatelskie Arabów. Umowa ta została włączona do traktatu pokojowego z Turcją. Francji oficjalnie powierzono terytorium mandatowe Syrii, co doprowadziło do wojny francusko-syryjskiej. W bitwie pod Majsalun 24 lipca 1920 Francuzi zwyciężyli, a Fajsal musiał uciec z Syrii do Wielkiej Brytanii. Na wieść o tym, Abdullah przegrupował swoje siły z zamiarem wyzwolenia Damaszku. Winston Churchill zaprosił go wówczas na spotkanie i przekonał, aby Abdullah nie atakował brytyjskiego sojusznika – Francji. Churchill przekonał Abdullaha, że siły francuskie są silniejsze od arabskich, a Brytyjczycy nie chcą żadnego konfliktu z Francuzami. Abdullah zgodził się ustąpić. W marcu 1921 na konferencji w Kairze Brytyjczycy podjęli decyzję, że Fajsal będzie rządził w brytyjskim terytorium mandatowym w Iraku, mimo że miejscowa ludność nic bliższego na jego temat nie wiedziała. Utworzenie monarchii w Iraku i wycofanie się z rządów bezpośrednich zdaniem Brytyjczyków miało pomóc w zaprowadzeniu pokoju w tym kraju. W plebiscycie 96% głosów padło za uczynieniem Fajsala królem Iraku. Fajsal został królem Iraku sierpniu 1921. +Emirat Transjordanii. +Brytyjczycy nagrodzili Abdullaha za jego ustępstwo utworzeniem odrębnego protektoratu dla niego, który później stał się osobnym państwem. Z terytorium Mandatu Palestyny wydzielono wówczas 78% obszaru, który był położony na wschód od rzeki Jordan. W listopadzie 1920 przybył tutaj Abdullah, jednak faktyczną władzę sprawował brytyjski kapitan Alex Kirkbride. 1 kwietnia 1921 Abdullah rozpoczął panowanie jako emir Transjordanii. 11 kwietnia utworzył własny rząd. Datę tę uznaje się za powstanie Emiratu Transjordanii. +W sierpniu 1922 brytyjski rząd przedstawił memorandum w Lidze Narodów, stwierdzając, że Emirat Transjordanii zostaje wyłączony spod wszystkich uzgodnień dotyczących osadnictwa żydowskiego. 12 sierpnia Liga Narodów zaakceptowała powstanie Emiratu. Od tego momentu nastąpił formalny podział Mandatu Palestyny na część wschodnią (Transjordania) i zachodnią (Palestynę). Praktycznie przez cały czas zwierzchnictwo nad całością sprawowali Brytyjczycy. W maju 1923 do Transjordanii przyjechał nowy brytyjski przedstawiciel Harry John Philby. Abdullah rozpoczął z nim rozmowy na temat uzyskania niepodległości. Równocześnie sprowadził on z Palestyny brytyjskiego ppłk. Fredericka Peake, który rozpoczął tworzenie jordańskich sił zbrojnych. Później funkcję tę pełnił sir John Bagot Glubb, który wyszkolił Legion Arabski. +Negocjacje Abdullaha doprowadziły do zawarcia w 1928 traktatu, na mocy którego Transjordania była nominalnie niezależna, jednak Brytyjczycy nadal utrzymywali w niej swoją obecność wojskową, kontrolowali politykę zagraniczną i zachowywali pewną kontrolę finansową. Ostateczne granice państwowe miały być określone w przyszłości. Wiadomo było jednak, że wschodnia granica będzie tak ustalona, aby zapewniała bezpieczeństwo brytyjskiego ropociągu biegnącego z Iraku do portów w Palestynie. Zawarty traktat nie odpowiadał w pełni ambicjom Abdullaha, który powołał Radę Legislacyjną i powierzył jej rolę doradcy królewskiego w poszukiwaniu najlepszej drogi do uzyskania pełnej niepodległości. +Abdullah był spostrzegany przez zachodnich polityków jako umiarkowany arabski polityk. Jest możliwe, że mógł być skłonnym do podpisania porozumienia z państwem żydowskim i w ten sposób stanąć w opozycji do większości przywódców arabskich. Dowodem na to jest fakt, że w 1937 Abdullah poparł Komisję Peela, która zaproponowała utworzenie w brytyjskim Mandacie Palestyny niewielkiego państwa żydowskiego, natomiast pozostałe tereny miały być przyłączone do Transjordanii. Abdullah widział siebie zasiadającego na tronie w Damaszku, rządzącego Wielką Syrią obejmującą granice ówczesnej Transjordanii, Syrii, Libanu i Mandatu Palestyny. Z tego powodu wielu arabskich przywódców nie ufało Abdullahowi i podejrzewało go o zmowę z wrogami. +Podczas II wojny światowej Abdullah dochował całkowitej wierności Wielkiej Brytanii, utrzymując porządek w Transjordanii i udzielając pomocy do stłumienia antybrytyjskiego zamachu stanu w Iraku. Po wojnie negocjacje z Brytyjczykami były nadal prowadzone. +Królestwo Transjordanii. +25 maja 1946 Emirat Transjordanii formalnie uzyskał od Wielkiej Brytanii pełną niezależność i ogłosił niepodległość jako Królestwo Transjordanii. Abdullah został królem Transjordanii. +Po ogłoszeniu 22 listopada 1947 rezolucji Zgromadzenia Ogólnego ONZ nr 181 w sprawie podziału Palestyny na dwa państwa, król Abdullah I był najsilniejszym arabskim przywódcą na Bliskim Wschodzie. W latach 1946-1947 Abdullah mówił, że nie zamierza „poprzeć ani utrudniać podziału Palestyny, oraz utworzenia państwa żydowskiego”. Oficjalnie popierał on ideę utworzenia państwa arabskiego, jednak podczas wojny domowej w Mandacie Palestyny stał się zwolennikiem przyłączenia zachodnich terenów Palestyny do Królestwa Transjordanii. W lutym 1948 jego premier uzyskał poparcie brytyjskiego rządu dla planu przyłączenia arabskiej części Palestyny do Transjordanii. Brytyjscy oficerowie służący w Legionie Arabskim otrzymali zezwolenie na dalszą służbę, pod warunkiem nieuczestniczenia w walkach na terenie państwa żydowskiego. Wielka Brytania nie chciała arabskiej inwazji na państwo żydowskie i utworzenia państwa palestyńskiego z wielkim muftim Jerozolimy na czele. Król Abdullah posunął się do tajnych spotkań z przedstawicielami Agencji Żydowskiej (na jednym z tych spotkań była obecna Golda Meir), na których omawiano koncepcje podziału Palestyny niezależnie od rezolucji ONZ. Według historyka Avi Shlaima ten plan był popierany przez brytyjskiego ministra spraw zagranicznych Ernesta Bevina. +Na początku maja 1948 Abdullah ponownie spotkał się Goldą Meir i zaproponował jej utworzenie „niezależnego żydowskiego kantonu w Królestwie Jordańskim”, na co usłyszał w odpowiedzi, że powstanie niezależne państwo żydowskie. Podobno Abdullah był przygnębiony tą odpowiedzią, ponieważ rozumiał nieuchronność arabskiej interwencji zbrojnej w Palestynie i wybuch wojny. Współcześni historycy coraz częściej mówią, że prawdopodobnie istniał tajny układ jordańsko-żydowski, na mocy którego Transjordania wyrażała zgodę na powstanie państwa żydowskiego. Prawdopodobnie to właśnie dlatego wojska jordańskie nie rozwinęły natarcia podczas wojny i nie wkroczyły na teren Izraela. Jednak w oficjalnych wypowiedziach król Abdullah I przez cały czas popierał arabską interwencję wojskową w Palestynie. Abdullah spostrzegał siebie jako naczelnego dowódcę wojsk arabskich i przekonał Ligę Arabską do mianowania go na to stanowisko. Palestyńscy Arabowie walczący w wojnie realizowali jego cele polityczne. +15 maja 1948 Transjordania przystąpiła do I wojny izraelsko-arabskiej i jej Legion Arabski wkroczył do Mandatu Palestyny. Abdullah początkowo nie planował zajmować Jerozolimy, jednak 17 maja zmienił swoje zdanie i za namową arabskich notabli z Jerozolimy, nakazał atak na żydowską część miasta. Po zajęciu Zachodniego Brzegu i Wschodniej Jerozolimy Abdullah usiłował zdusić wszelkie ślady tożsamości narodowej palestyńskich Arabów. W odpowiedzi na to 8 września 1948 Liga Arabska prowadzona przez Egipt ogłosiła utworzenie w Strefie Gazy rządu Całej Palestyny. Historyk Avi Shlaim napisał: „Decyzja o utworzeniu rządu Całej-Palestyny w Strefie Gazy, i starania o utworzenie sił zbrojnych pozostających pod jego kontrolę, były próbą członków Ligi Arabskiej zbycia z siebie bezpośredniej odpowiedzialności za rozpoczęcie wojny i wycofanie swoich wojsk z Palestyny pomimo protestów. Bez względu na długoterminową przyszłość arabskiego rządu w Palestynie, jego bezpośrednim celem, zgodnie z zamysłem jego egipskich sponsorów, było stanowienie centralnego punktu sprzeciwu wobec Abdullaha i służyło jako instrument udaremniania ambicji federacji arabskich państw sprzymierzonych z Jordanią”. Król Abdullah I uznał próbę przywrócenia wpływów Amina al-Husajniego w Armii Świętej Wojny za wyzwanie rzucone jego władzy i 3 października jego minister obrony nakazał na obszarach kontrolowanych przez Legion Arabski rozwiązanie wszystkich oddziałów tej armii. Rozkaz ten został bezwzględnie wykonany. +Po zakończeniu wojny Abdullah włączył okupowane tereny Zachodniego Brzegu do Królestwa Transjordanii, a arabskich mieszkańcom przyznał obywatelstwo jordańskie. Równocześnie Abdullah prowadził tajne rozmowy z przedstawicielami państwa żydowskiego (uczestniczył w nich Mosze Dajan) na temat zawarcia pokoju. 17 lipca 1951 w Ammanie został zamordowany były premier Libanu, Rijad as-Sulh. W Transjordanii krążyły pogłoski, że prowadził on tajne rozmowy z Abdullahem na temat zawarcia wspólnego pokoju z Izraelem. +Zabójstwo. +20 lipca 1951 król Abdullah został zastrzelony podczas piątkowych modłów w meczecie Al-Aksa w Jerozolimie. Zabójcą był palestyński Arab z klanu Husajniego – 21. letni Mustafa Ashu. W zamachu ranny został syn króla, Talal I. Zabójstwo ojca mogło wpłynąć na jego późniejszą politykę i brak zgody na rozmowy pokojowe z Izraelem, aby uniknąć podobnego losu jaki spotkał Abdullaha I. +Percepcja + +Percepcja - organizacja i interpretacja wrażeń zmysłowych, w celu zrozumienia otoczenia. +Percepcja to postrzeganie; uświadomiona reakcja narządu zmysłowego na bodziec zewnętrzny; sposób reagowania, odbierania wrażeń. (W. Kopaliński) +Systemy percepcyjne człowieka umożliwiają mu widzieć, słyszeć, czuć smak, zapach, dotyk i zmiany temperatury. +Jest to także poczucie świadomości (otoczenia). +Percepcja w szerokim sensie oznacza rejestrację (uchwycenie) przedmiotów i zdarzeń środowiska zewnętrznego: ich odbiór sensoryczny, zrozumienie, identyfikację i określenie werbalne oraz przygotowanie do reakcji na bodziec. +Tętniak + +Tętniak ("łac. aneurysma", "ang. aneurysm" lub "aneurism" z gr. "ana-" w górę, więcej, "eurys" szeroki, "aneurynein" rozszerzać) - wypełnione krwią, ograniczone poszerzenie światła naczynia krwionośnego (tętnicy, wyjątkowo rzadko żyły). +Podział patogenetyczny. +Tętniaki mogą powstawać we wszystkich tętnicach oraz w sercu. Stosunkowo często pojawiają się w aorcie (zapalne, pourazowe, powikłanie nadciśnienia), tętnicy udowej (na skutek zabiegów związanych z nakłuwaniem światła naczynia), tętnicy podkolanowej (urazy). Mogą być konsekwencją zmian miażdżycowych, urazów, nadciśnienia oraz zespołu Marfana. Tętniaki serca są najczęściej powikłaniem zawału mięśnia sercowego. +Objawami tętniaka, w przypadku tętnic biegnących powierzchownie, jest widoczne tętniące wybrzuszenie. +Webmail + +Webmail – aplikacja internetowa pozwalająca użytkownikom korzystać z usług poczty elektronicznej, przy wykorzystaniu przeglądarki internetowej w roli klienta poczty elektronicznej. +Gmina Strumień + +Gmina Strumień – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie śląskim, w powiecie cieszyńskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie bielskim. +Siedziba gminy to Strumień. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 11 841 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 8% powierzchni powiatu. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Chybie, Dębowiec, Goczałkowice-Zdrój, Hażlach, Pawłowice, Pszczyna, Skoczów, Zebrzydowice. +Tętniak prawdziwy + +Tętniak prawdziwy - ("łac. aneurysma verum"; "ang. true aneurysm") - workowate poszerzenie światła naczynia, przy zachowaniu ciągłości ścian o pierwotnej budowie. Związany z wrodzonym defektem budowy ściany tętnicy (np. zespół Marfana) lub powstały na skutek jej osłabienia przez proces zapalny. Może być skutkiem urazu. Występuje w większości tętnic. Leczenie polega zazwyczaj na wycięciu i wstawieniu protezy naczyniowej. W przypadku naczyń mózgowych leczenie polega, jeżeli to możliwe, na zaklipsowaniu tętniaka. W innych mniejszych naczyniach pozostawia się je bez leczenia. Tętniaki prawdziwe aorty o średnicy poniżej 4 cm nie podlegają leczeniu. Tętniaki większe leczone są tylko w przypadkach zagrażających pęknięciem (np. szybko poszerzający się tętniak). +Partenokarpia + +Partenokarpia – wytwarzanie owoców bez nasion, nie poprzedzone zapłodnieniem kwiatów. Następuje, gdy kwiat jest pobudzony do stworzenia owocu przez niewłaściwy pyłek lub inny czynnik i nie wytwarza nasion. Czynnikiem wywołującym partenokarpię może być nadmierna ilość auksyn. Nieznajomość tego zjawiska doprowadziła Grzegorza Mendla do zaniechania dalszych badań nad dziedziczeniem cech. Niektóre gatunki łatwo tworzą owoce beznasienne co jest wykorzystywane w uprawie. +Antygon III Doson + +Antygon Doson (ur. 263, zm. 221 p.n.e.; panował w latach 229-221 p.n.e.) – król macedoński z dynastii Antygonidów, syn Demetriusza Pięknego, wnuk Demetriusza Poliorketesa. Zawarł sojusz z Aratosem z Sykionu, wielokrotnym strategiem Związku Achajskiego w celu pokonania Kleomenesa III, króla Sparty. W 222 p.n.e. pokonał go pod Sellazją. Adoptował 9-letniego Filipa V syna Demetriusza II. Za jego rządów Macedonia stała się "związkiem" Macedończyków. Wzmocnił wpływy Macedonii w Grecji. Zginął w 221 p.n.e. po wspaniałym zwycięstwie odniesionym nad Dardanami w wyniku krwotoku spowodowanym nadmiernym wysiłkiem na polu bitwy. +Autor słów "Niech mnie bogowie strzegą od przyjaciół. Z nieprzyjaciółmi sam sobie dam radę". +Olej z ogórecznika lekarskiego + +Olej z ogórecznika lekarskiego "(Oleum Boraginis)" - olej roślinny o lekko żółtawym zabarwieniu z nasion ogórecznika lekarskiego ("Borago officinalis"). +Dolina Lejowa + +Dolina Lejowa – dolina reglowa w polskich Tatrach Zachodnich, położona pomiędzy Doliną Kościeliską a Doliną Chochołowską. +Topografia. +Mająca kręty przebieg dolina o długości ok. 4,5 km opada spod Kominiarskiego Wierchu (1829 m) w północnym kierunku do polany Biały Potok (ok. 930 m n.p.m.). Dolinę otwiera charakterystyczna, wapienna skała zwana Między Ściany (udostępniona do wspinania za opłatą). Od wschodniej strony dolina ograniczona jest reglowymi wzniesieniami Kościeliskich Kopek oraz Suchego Wierchu (1428 m), od strony zachodniej również reglowymi wzniesieniami Cisowej Turni (1112 m), Skrajnej Rosochy (1262 m), Zadniej Rosochy (1271 m), Wierchu Kuca (1305 m), Wierchu Spalenisko (1324 m), Małego Opalonego Wierchu (1428 m), Wielkiego Opalonego Wierchu (1485 m) oraz należącego do masywu Kominiarskiego Wierchu grzbietu Kufa. W zachodnie jej zbocza od Wierchu Spalenisko wcina się oddzielony przełęczą Kominiarskie Siodło krótki boczny grzbiet z wierzchołkiem Diablińca (1241 m). +Dolina nie ma bocznych odgałęzień, jedynie spod Kominiarskiego Wierchu opadają do jej górnej części dwa żleby: Zabijak i Tylkowy Żleb. +Opis doliny. +Nazwa doliny pochodzi od nazwiska góralskiego Leja. W rejestrach z 1811 r. występuje jako właściciel tej hali Jędrzej Leja z Podczerwonego. Utworzona jest w skałach osadowych. +W dolinie znajdują się polany: Lejówki, Jaworzyna Lejowa, Polana Kuca, polana Huty Lejowe, Niżnia Polana Kominiarska i Przysłop Kominiarski. Przywrócono znowu na nich wypas (tzw. wypas kulturowy), dzięki czemu ograniczone zostało ich zarastanie lasem (niektóre polany nie są wypasane, lecz koszone). Dolne partie doliny należą do Hali Lejowej, górne zaś do Hali Kominy Tylkowe. Pod wierzchołkiem Skrajnej Rosochy w XIX wieku funkcjonowały kopalnie rud (Lejowe Banie). Dnem doliny płynie Lejowy Potok, wpadający do Kirowej Wody. +Obecnie Dolina Lejowa wchodzi w skład Wspólnoty Leśnej Uprawnionych Ośmiu Wsi z siedzibą w Witowie. Tym faktem oraz tym, że jurysdykcja Tatrzańskiego Parku Narodowego w obrębie Doliny Lejowej jest mocno ograniczona (choć dolina ta leży na obszarze TPN), można tłumaczyć zjawisko intensywnego wyrębu jej lasów. +Dolina Lejowa jest jednym z najrzadziej uczęszczanych przez turystów miejsc w polskich Tatrach. +Szlaki turystyczne. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski + +Aleksander Korwin Gosiewski herbu Ślepowron (ur. ? - zm. 1639), pisarz polny litewski od 1630, wojewoda smoleński od 1625, pisarz wielki litewski od 1615, referendarz wielki litewski od 1610, starosta wieliski, puński kupiski, bielski, i markowski, polski dowódca wojskowy oraz dyplomata. +Pochodził ze szlacheckiej rodziny Gosiewskich z powiatu zambrowskiego w ziemi łomżyńskiej, z linii pieczętującej się herbem Ślepowron. Syn żyjącego w drugiej połowie XVI wieku Jana Gosiewskiego. Żonaty z Ewą z Paców, podkomorzanką brzeską. +Już w młodości, jako dworzanin Lwa Sapiehy, zaangażowany był w istotne dla państwa sprawy. W 1600 roku, będąc członkiem poselstwa Lwa Sapiehy, odegrał niemałą rolę w rokowaniach z Rosją, redagując akty planowanego przymierza Rzeczypospolitej z państwem moskiewskim. W 1602 roku, już jako starosta wieliski, brał udział wytyczaniu granicy między Polską a Rosją - zasłynął wtedy odparciem ataku wojsk rosyjskich na jego starostwo. Następnie, podczas wojny Zygmunta III Wazy ze Szwecją, służył w wojsku litewskim. W roku 1605 walczył w bitwie pod Kircholmem. W 1606 roku, jako drugi wielki poseł obok Mikołaja Oleśnickiego, odprowadził Marynę Mniszchównę do Moskwy, gdzie prowadził pertraktacje dotyczące przymierza z Dymitrem Samozwańcem. +Był gorącym zwolennikiem polskiej interwencji zbrojnej w Moskwie w okresie wielkiej smuty. W lipcu 1609 roku przeprowadził na własną rękę wyprawę na Wielkie Łuki. Następnie wsławił się podłożeniem petardy pod mury twierdzy w trakcie oblężenia Smoleńska. W 1610 roku na czele sporego oddziału przeprowadził samodzielnie operację wojskową w północnej części Smoleńszczyzny, której zwieńczeniem było zdobycie twierdzy Biała. Następnie dotarł do Moskwy, którą po bitwie pod Kłuszynem zajął Hetman Żółkiewski. W 1610 został wyznaczony przez Żółkiewskiego na dowódcę wojsk polskich na Kremlu moskiewskim. W 1611 po zdradzie rosyjskich protektorów, stojąc na czele pięciotysięcznego oddziału doprowadził do wielkiego pożaru Moskwy. W roku 1612 przekazał dowództwo nad polskim garnizonem Mikołajowi Strusiowi i wrócił na Litwę. Mieszkańcy miasta pod przywództwem kupca Kuźmy Minina i księcia Dymitra Pożarskiego rozpoczęli blokadę Kremla. +Dowódca polskiej załogi na Kremlu, Mikołaj Struś, pozbawiony odsieczy ze strony króla Polskiego, Zygmunta III Wazy, skapitulował 7 listopada 1612 roku. Na pamiątkę tego wydarzenia ustanowiono w Rosji w 2004 roku święto państwowe Dzień Jedności Narodowej, które po raz pierwszy obchodzono w 2005. +W latach 1612-1618 dowodził polskim garnizonem w Smoleńsku odpierając przez wszystkie te lata liczne ataki oddziałów rosyjskich. W 1615 roku, już jako pisarz polny litewski, na czele niewielkiej armii szachował blokującą Smoleńsk armię rosyjską. W latach 1617-1618 brał udział w nieudanej wyprawie królewicza Władysława na Moskwę. W 1618 dowodził załogą podczas oblężenia Smoleńska. Po przybyciu wojsk Chodkiewicza wspólnie rozbili oblegające miasto oddziały. +Był marszałkiem Sejmu nadzwyczajnego odbywającego się w Warszawie w dniach 3-24 grudnia 1613. +Podczas wojny ze Szwedami (wojna 1621-26 oraz wojna 1626-29) walczył w Inflantach (1621-1628) zwyciężając wojska szwedzkie pod Kropimojzą, Lixną, Krzyżborgiem i Dyneburgiem. Właśnie z powodu walk ze Szwedami dopiero w 1629 roku objął województwo smoleńskie, choć nominację otrzymał już w 1625 roku. Widząc zagrożenie ze strony Rosji Gosiewski zaraz po objęciu obowiązków wojewody smoleńskiego przystąpił do renowacji murów obronnych Smoleńska. Osobiście doglądał budowy Fortalicji Zygmuntowskiej, która wzmacniała wschodnią część twierdzy. Intensywnie gromadził zapasy żywności i amunicję oraz rozwinął działalność wywiadowczą, zbierając wiele cennych informacji o moskiewskich przygotowaniach wojennych. Wiosną 1632 roku dokonał przeglądu umocnień Dorohobuża i innych twierdz pogranicznych. +Podczas wojny z Rosją w latach 1632-1634 wsławił się po szczególnie przy obronie Smoleńska – przez dziesięć miesięcy bronił miasta przed oblegającymi je wojskami Michała Borysowicza Szeina, odpierając wszystkie szturmy, aż do nadejścia odsieczy Władysława IV. Walczył pod Witebskiem, Olszą i Mścisławiem. Uczestniczył jako komisarz w rokowaniach pokojowych, zwieńczonych zawarciem w dniu 14 czerwca 1634 pokoju w Polanowie. +Za swoje zasługi otrzymał liczne dobra w województwie smoleńskim. Ufundował Kolegium Jezuickie w Witebsku oraz założył żeński klasztor pod wezwaniem Św. Brygidy w Brześciu Litewskim. +Śmierć wojewody upamiętnił jego wieloletni klient - Jan Kunowski, który w 1640 r. napisał szereg utworów poetyckich poświęconych zmarłemu patronowi. +Terapena karolińska + +Terapena karolińska ("Terrapene carolina") – gatunek gada z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych z rodziny żółwi błotnych. Wyróżniono kilka podgatunków, które mogą się między sobą krzyżować. Terapena karolińska jest gatunkiem długowiecznym – badacze uważają, że niektóre osobniki mogą żyć ponad 100 lat. +Marcin Bielski + +Marcin Bielski, Marcin Wolski herbu Prawdzic (ur. ok. 1495 we wsi Biała pod Pajęcznem w ziemi Sieradzkiej, zm. 18 grudnia 1575) – żołnierz, historyk, renesansowy poeta satyryczny, pisarz i tłumacz. +Życiorys. +Był prawdopodobnie samoukiem. Wiedzę zdobywał początkowo na dworze Janusza, księcia mazowieckiego. Później, jako dworzanin Piotra Kmity, mógł korzystać z bogatego księgozbioru swego chlebodawcy. Uczestniczył w walkach z Tatarami w 1524 i 1534. Pełniąc służbę w obronie potocznej wziął udział w bitwie z Wołochami pod Obertynem (1531). Przez dłuższy okres mieszkał w Krakowie. Tu uległ wpływom reformacji i żywił doń sympatię do końca życia, choć nigdy nie zerwał z kościołem katolickim. W 1540 opuścił Kraków, osiadł we wsi rodzinnej, gdzie wkrótce poślubił dziedziczkę dóbr (p. Siemikowska-Okszycówna) w Białej Szlacheckiej (dzisiejszy powiat pajęczański). Od nazwy wsi przyjął nazwisko Bielski. Więcej czasu poświęcał zajęciom literackim niźli gospodarskim. W wieku 80 lat pracował jeszcze nad IV wydaniem swej kroniki, którą syn Joachim uzupełniał i kontynuował. Zmarł 18 grudnia 1575, pochowany został w pobliskim Pajęcznie. +OGame + +OGame – internetowa gra strategiczna z rodzaju tzw. "massively multiplayer online strategic game" ("MMOSG"). Twórcą gry, istniejącej od 2003 roku (w Niemczech od 2002), jest niemiecka firma Gameforge GmbH. Gra została przetłumaczona i uruchomiona w wielu krajach. Polska edycja ruszyła 20 stycznia 2005 r., kiedy to powstało pierwsze "universum". Od roku 2007 do 2010 gra funkcjonowała pod patronatem portalu Onet. Sama rejestracja jest darmowa, płatna natomiast jest "antymateria", która pozwala na zakup dodatkowych, opcjonalnych funkcji, ułatwiających grę, takich jak "komandor" czy "oficerowie". Co jakiś czas tworzone są nowe universa. +Wymagania. +Gra nie wymaga w systemie operacyjnym żadnego dodatkowego oprogramowania. Do gry wystarczy przeglądarka internetowa oraz dostęp do internetu. +Świat gry. +Gra podzielona jest na osobne serwery, zwane universami. Universum jest osobnym wszechświatem mieszczącym maksymalnie ponad 15 tysięcy graczy. +Każde universum dzieli się na galaktyki, układy słoneczne i planety. Oprócz tych jednostek organizacji istnieją także niekiedy księżyce, które również można rozbudowywać. Powstają w wyniku nagromadzenia odpadków pozostałych po konfrontacji dużych flot. Za każde 100 000 latających surowców (30% metalu i kryształu zużytego na budowę zniszczonych w walce statków (na universum 39 i 40 także obrony)), szansa na powstanie księżyca wzrasta o 1%, jednak maksymalnie może być to 20%. Kolejne ataki są liczone oddzielnie. Procent szansy na powstanie księżyca można obliczyć ze wzoru : formula_1 – Gdzie A, B, C to kolejno zapisane procentowe szanse na księżyc. Każdy wszechświat dzieli się na 9 galaktyk, te na 499 układów słonecznych, w których może występować maksymalnie po 15 planet. Każda z planet w układzie różni się zarówno rozmiarem jak i temperaturą. Wielkość i temperatura każdej z nich jest ustalane na nowo, częściowo na podstawie losowych współczynników i położenia planety w układzie. Wartości te są losowane przy każdej próbie kolonizacji nowej planety. Gracze mogą posiadać jedną planetę matkę i maksymalnie osiem kolonii (razem dziewięć planet) w Universach 1-66. Na nowych uniwersach maksymalna ilość planet zależy od poziomu "Astrofizyki" +W wersji 0.78 twórcy gry dodali szesnastą lokację w każdym z układów nazwaną "Przestrzeń kosmiczna". Można tam wysłać ekspedycje. +Jubileuszowe 50 universum (uruchomione 4 stycznia 2007 r.) różni się od pozostałych dwukrotnie przyspieszoną rozgrywką, oraz większą ilością galaktyk (50), zrównoważoną mniejszą ilością układów słonecznych w każdej galaktyce (100). +Wyjątkowe jest również universum oznaczone numerem 60 (otwarte 15 maja 2008 r.). Podobnie jak 50 universum, ma dwukrotnie zwiększoną szybkość, ale układ galaktyk i układów słonecznych nie różni się od pozostałych universów (9 galaktyk, a w każdej z nich 499 układów słonecznych). Dodatkową zmianą na tym universum jest zwiększenie powstającego pola zniszczeń po bitwach flot, z 30% do 60% (metalu i kryształu zużytych na budowę zniszczonych w walce statków) +18 sierpnia 2009 na uniwersum "Andromeda" wystartowała wersja 1.0 Redesign z nowym wyglądem i zmodyfikowanymi zasadami. Wygląd gry został całkowicie przeprojektowany. Zamiast badania "Technologia Ekspedycji" pojawiła się "Astrofizyka", która oprócz wykonywania ekspedycji pozwala na zwiększoną liczbę planet. Zmieniono także pojemność magazynu i właściwości planet. Oprócz tego dodany wiele drobnych ulepszeń (Przeglądanie wiadomości bez konieczności kasowania, czas przylotu floty itp.) +Zasady. +Głównym zadaniem jest kontrola nad jak największą częścią wszechświata, zbieranie i handel surowcami, rozbudowywanie swojego imperium, postęp technologiczny, walka i układy z innymi graczami, oraz osiągnięcie jak najwyższego miejsca w rankingu najlepszych graczy danego universum. +Na każdej z planet można wydobywać trzy surowce – metal, kryształ i deuter. Te wykorzystujemy budując budynki na coraz wyższych poziomach, tworząc statki, systemy obronne, bądź rozwijając technologie. +Czwartą jednostką, która jest potrzebna do rozwoju, jest energia – od jej ilości zależy współczynnik produkcji, który w przypadku niedoboru zmniejsza wydobycie surowców. Każdy budynek wydobywający surowce zużywa określoną ilość energii – do wytwarzania energii służą elektrownie (słoneczna oraz fuzyjna) i satelity słoneczne. +Od wersji 0.77b pojawił się czwarty surowiec: antymateria. Można go uzyskać dokonując płatności realnymi pieniędzmi lub znaleźć w przestrzeni kosmicznej. Jednakże szanse na znalezienie antymaterii są bardzo małe. Służy do aktywacji "konta komandor" oraz "oficerów". +Najważniejszą cechą Ogame jest to że gra toczy się 24 godziny na dobę, także wtedy gdy gracz nie jest zalogowany. Tak więc atak może nastąpić w każdej chwili, nawet gdy gracz śpi, jest w szkole lub w pracy. +Ilość czasu potrzebnego na ukończenie danego zadania (takiego jak ukończenie badania czy wybudowanie statku) zależy od stanu gospodarki gracza (istnieją budynki zwiększające szybkość pracy, np. fabryka robotów, czy fabryka nanitów). Czas potrzebny na wykonanie czynności jest zawsze wyświetlona przy danej czynności. +Przebieg gry. +Gra, w głównej mierze, odbywa się w trzech sferach – (roz)budowy budynków, odkrywania technologii cywilnej oraz militarnej i budowy statków. Każda z tych sfer (w większości wypadków) jest oddzielona od reszty, czyli działanie w jednej nie „zajmuje” drugiej. +Budynki. +W zakładce budynków wybiera się konstrukcje, które można wybudować lub rozbudowywać, co daje możliwość rozwoju kolejnych technologii (i zwiększenia tempa ich odkrywania), budowy nowych statków (i skrócenie czasu ich produkcji) i zwiększenia wydobycia surowców. Wszystkie budynki mają tzw. poziomy – budynek wyższego poziomu jest bardziej efektywny od budynku niższego poziomu, ale koszt i czas budowy następnego poziomu jest zawsze większy (poza kilkoma wyjątkami) dwukrotnie. Ponieważ planety mają ograniczoną liczbę tzw. „pól” (każdy poziom każdego budynku zajmuje jedno „pole”, budynki obronne nie zajmują miejsca na planecie – oprócz magazynów rakiet), istnieje możliwość burzenia budynków (po jednym poziomie), ale na to, podobnie jak na budowę, potrzeba czasu i surowców. W przypadku rozpoczęcia budowy (lub burzenia) reszta operacji w tej zakładce jest zablokowana do czasu jej ukończenia. Inny gracz nie może zniszczyć już wybudowanych budynków. Są też budynki, które przyśpieszają powstawanie innych, np. fabryka robotów i fabryka nanitów. +Badania. +W zakładce badań można odkrywać lub rozwijać poznane już technologie – te umożliwią lepsze wykorzystanie energii, możliwość produkcji silniejszych statków oraz dostęp do większej ilości struktur budowlanych np. elektrownia fuzyjna ma następujące wymagania: ekstraktor deuteru na poziomie 5 i technologia energetyczna na poziomie 3. Zasady rozwoju technologii są analogiczne jak w przypadku budynków, z tym że badania nie zajmują „pól”, działają na wszystkich planetach (czyli nie trzeba odkrywać tych samych technologii na każdej planecie osobno) Do rozwijania nowych technologii potrzebne jest laboratorium badawcze. Do coraz nowszych technologii potrzebny jest wyższy poziom laboratorium badawczego. Wyższy poziom laboratorium nie tylko pozwala odkrywać nowe technologie, ale także zwiększa prędkość badania wszystkich technologii. +Militaria. +Trzecią częścią jest sfera militarna – dzieli się ona zarówno na obronę, gdzie można produkować działa lub systemy defensywne, jak i systemy ofensywne takie jak statki bojowe, kolonizacyjne, sondy szpiegowskie oraz transportowe itp. Tutaj, w przeciwieństwie do poprzednich sfer, zadania są kolejkowane, czyli można dodać zadanie produkcji statku lub działa nawet jeżeli produkcja już trwa – wtedy zadanie to zostanie wykonane zaraz po tym, jak zostanie ukończone poprzednie. Systemy defensywne i statki mają wspólną kolejkę i nie można ich budować jednocześnie. +Gdy gracz dysponuje flotą, może zaatakować planetę innego gracza. Czas lotu jest zależny od odległości między planetą, z której wysyła flotę a planetą atakowaną oraz od poziomu badań nad odpowiednimi rodzajami napędów. Jeśli gracz atakujący zdoła przełamać obronę przeciwnika, na jego statki (zależnie od ich łącznej ładowności) zabierana jest maksymalnie połowa surowców znajdujących się na planecie przeciwnika. Walki odbywają się natychmiastowo (kończą się w momencie, gdy flota dociera do docelowej planety). W początkowym etapie gry większość zysków pochodzi z rabunku; w późniejszej fazie gry z niszczenia floty innych graczy (tzw. złomowanie). Tak jak do badań potrzebne jest laboratorium badawcze tak do budowania statków i systemów obronnych potrzebna jest stocznia. Do wyprodukowania nowego, lepszego statku potrzebny jest wyższy poziom stoczni. Wyższy poziom stoczni skraca czas budowy systemów obronnych oraz statków kosmicznych. Czas budowy statków i systemów obronnych (oraz budynków) skraca również fabryka nanitów. +Każdy poziom fabryki nanitów skraca o połowę czas budowy systemów obronnych i statków oraz budynków. +Systemy obronne. +Poza statkami istnieje możliwość wybudowania jednostek obronnych na planetach. Posiadają większą siłę ognia niż statki które można wybudować za podobną ilość surowców, nie można jednak nimi napadać innych graczy, oraz uciec w przypadku ataku na planetę. W przypadku zniszczenia, (w przeciwieństwie do Floty) szansa na odbudowanie każdej pojedynczej struktury obronnej wynosi 70%. +Odstępstwa. +Mimo iż każda ze sfer (w większości przypadków) nie oddziałuje na drugą (czyli możliwe jest budowanie budynku i niezależnie od tego np. odkrywanie technologii), to zasada ta nie stosuje się do sytuacji, gdy budowana jednostka jest bezpośrednio związana z procesem jaki chcemy wykonać. Najprostszym przykładem jest laboratorium badawcze – w przypadku rozwoju tego budynku, nie można przeprowadzać żadnych prac badawczych do czasu ukończenia budowy (i vice versa). Drugim przykładem jest stocznia lub fabryka nanitów – podczas ich rozbudowy nie można budować żadnych statków ani systemów obronnych (i vice versa). +Sojusze. +Gra umożliwia i w znacznej mierze polega na zawieraniu sojuszy z innymi uczestnikami gry. Zasady gry pozwalają posiadać maksymalnie jedno konto w jednym universum i współpracować na poziomie ekonomicznym oraz militarnym ze swoimi sojusznikami, rosnąc razem z nimi w siłę i mając ich wsparcie. Sojusze to rodzaje klanów z gier innego typu. Największe sojusze liczą sobie od stu kilkudziesięciu do ponad 400 członków. Jednak dobre sojusze mają z reguły nie więcej niż 30 członków. Większość nie stawia na ilość lecz na jakość (znajomość zasad, doświadczenie, aktywność, stały rozwój, ilość punktów, wielkość floty, kulturę osobistą itp.) +Universum 669. +Specjalne universum dla osób będących członkami OGameTeamu. Było to tzw. "speeduni", na którym akcja działa się 4 razy szybciej. Rejestrację można było także wygrać w konkursach, a w pewnym okresie było ono ogólnodostępne. Universum służyło do wyszukiwania bugów w grze. +prOGame. +Istnieje również międzynarodowe "speed-uni" nazwane prOGame (od pro, jak profesjonalny). Grają tam (a przynajmniej według założeń powinni grać) najlepsi gracze z całego świata. Akcja toczy się 5 razy szybciej. Oznacza to, że atak na planetę znajdującą się w tym samym układzie słonecznym może zajmować 10 minut (przy około 50 minutach na uniwersach o prędkości 1) . Maksymalna ilość graczy na prOGame wynosi 7500. Oficjalnym językiem na forum prOGame jest język angielski. +Aktualnie prOGame istnieje jako Universum 35 OGame.org. Do rozgrywki nie jest konieczne posiadanie konta premium, zaś rozpoczęta tura w zamierzeniach twórców nie ma być resetowana. Pomimo włączenia prOGame w struktury OGame.org universum to zachowało zwiększoną prędkość, odrębne zasady, forum oraz Team nadzorujący rozgrywkę. +OGame Team. +OGame Team to grupa ludzi zajmujących się administracją OGame w poszczególnych krajach. Za swoją pracę nie dostają wynagrodzenia. Otrzymują za to kupony, wymieniane na wirtualną walutę dowolnej (dysponującej wirtualną walutą) gry GameForge (w OGame - Antymaterii, w Ikariam - Ambrozji, w BattleKnight - Rubinów, itd. ) +GA (Game Administrator) → MG (Mistrz Gry) → GO/tGO (Game Operator / Testowy Game Operator) +FA (Forum Administrator) → SMOD (Super Moderator) → MOD (Moderator)→ tMOD (Testowy Moderator) +IRC Support Admin → IRC Support Manager → IRC Supporter +Zwierzchnikiem wszystkich administratorów jest CoMa (Community Manager) nadzorujący funkcjonowanie gry w danym kraju. +Kontrowersje związane z grą. +Nieuczciwość graczy. +Większość z tych zachowań jest sankcjonowana w regulaminie gry. Ich naruszenie grozi m.in. zablokowaniem konta (banem) na czas jednej doby lub dłuższym; blokada na dłużej niż 35 dni oznacza de facto usunięcie konta. Na tle zasadności kar i obiektywizmu operatorów gry egzekwujących kary powstaje wiele nieporozumień, choć oni sami mają często ograniczone możliwości zachowania – za określone przewinienie obowiązuje dana kara i GO nie może tego zmienić (graczowi zawsze przysługuje możliwość odwołania od decyzji członka Teamu). +Nie jest zabronione korzystanie z narzędzi analitycznych, takich jak kalkulatory, czy programy symulujące wynik walki. +Materiały pomocne w prowadzeniu rozgrywki na OGame. +Symulatory walk. +W wyniku dużej popularności, gra doczekała się programów symulujących walki, które mają pomagać graczom w przewidywaniu skutku walk jakie prowadzą. Owe symulatory pojawiły się jako natywny klient oraz jako witryny internetowe. Przykładami takich narzędzi są m.in. speedsim oraz DragoSim. +Wtyczki dla przeglądarek. +Istnieją również wtyczki dla przeglądarek internetowych, które ułatwiają rozrywkę. Wtyczka preferowana przez większość graczy to FoxGame, dla przeglądarki Firefox. Ułatwia ona wysyłanie floty, oblicza pojemność floty wysyłanej, logowanie do samej gry jest ułatwione ponieważ wtyczka zapamiętuje na którym świecie gracz gra i dopisuje jego login i hasło. +Skrzyżowanie bezkolizyjne + +Skrzyżowanie bezkolizyjne — +jest to skrzyżowanie (połączenie, rozwidlenie jezdni dróg w jednym poziomie), na którym zmiana kierunku jazdy odbywa się w sposób bezkolizyjny w stosunku do innych uczestników ruchu drogowego (pojazdów na innych kierunkach, rowerzystów, pieszych). +Skrzyżowanie bezkolizyjne realizuje się poprzez stosowanie sygnalizacji kierunkowej (S-3). +Ruch bezkolizyjny można również osiągnąć stosując sygnalizację fazową (dozwolony wjazd tylko z jednego kierunku skrzyżowania) przy braku ruchu pieszego i rowerowego. +Skrzyżowanie bezkolizyjne — potoczna nazwa węzła drogowego typu WA. +Jest to wielopoziomowe skrzyżowanie lub połączenie dróg, pozbawione połączeń przecinających przeciwbieżny pas ruchu (lewoskrętów dla ruchu prawostronnego i prawoskrętów dla lewostronnego). Najczęściej z wydzielonymi pasami służacymi do włączania się do ruchu na danej drodze. Najbardziej znanym typem skrzyżowania wielopoziomowego jest „koniczynka” – dwupoziomowa, z czterema łukami (1/4 okręgu) prawoskrętu i czterema łukami (3/4 okręgu) lewoskrętu. +Connie Willis + +Constance Elaine Trimmer Willis (ur. 31 grudnia 1945 w Denver, Kolorado) - amerykańska pisarka science-fiction. +Debiutowała opowiadaniem "The Secret of Santa Titicaca" w magazynie "Worlds of Fantasy" na przełomie 1970 i 1971 roku. Jej pierwsza powieść "Water Witch" ukazała się w 1982 roku. Napisała ją wspólnie z Cynthią Felice. +W swoim dorobku ma 11 nagród Hugo, oraz 6 nagród Nebula (najwięcej ze wszystkich pisarzy fantastyki naukowej). +W 1967 wyszła za mąż za fizyka Courtneya Willisa. Mieszkają razem w Greeley w Kolorado. +Aramidy + +Aramidy – grupa polimerów, rodzaj poliamidów włóknotwórczych. Ich cechą charakterystyczną jest występowanie w ich łańcuchach głównych ugrupowań aromatycznych. Niektóre aramidy zawierają między wiązaniami amidowymi tylko grupy aromatyczne, inne zaś zawierają też ugrupowania alifatyczne. Czym więcej w jego strukturze ugrupowań aromatycznych, tym większa odporność mechaniczna, termiczna i pożarowa, ale spada też rozpuszczalność, co powoduje wzrost trudności przy przetwarzaniu. +Aramidy jako włókna posiadają znacznie wyższą odporność na rozciąganie niż pozostałe poliamidy. Wynika to z dwóch faktów: +Z włókien aramidowych produkuje się kamizelki kuloodporne, warstwy zabezpieczające w ubraniach dla strażaków, lotników, kierowców rajdowych i astronautów. Oprócz tego z aramidów produkuje się pręty, z których konstruuje się maszty jachtów, kije narciarskie i inne elementy wymagające dużej odporności mechanicznej. Wreszcie stosuje się te polimery w formie cienkich folii – które następnie wprasowywuje się między inne materiały, tworząc laminaty o wysokiej odporności mechanicznej. +Aramid został wynaleziony w 1965 roku przez Stephanie Kwolek w firmie DuPont. +Jaén (Hiszpania) + +Jaén – miasto w płd. Hiszpanii, (ok. 90 km od Kordowy i Grenady), w regionie Andaluzja, stolica prowincji Jaén, 116,5 tys. mieszkańców (2008). +Miasto położone na przedgórzu Gór Betyckich, w rejonie źródeł rzeki Gwadalkiwir, w pobliżu największego parku narodowego Hiszpanii: Sierra de Segura i Sierra de Cazorla. +Ośrodek handlowy, przemysłowy i rolniczy (gaje oliwne); w pobliżu Jaén +wydobycie rud ołowiu, cynku i żelaza. +Transport. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Jaén oraz budowana jest linia tramwajowa. +Olej z miodli indyjskiej + +Olej z miodli indyjskiej (olej neem) - ciemnożółty do brązowy, ciągliwy olej roślinny, o charakterystycznym, mocnym zapachu, otrzymywany z tłoczonych na zimno nasion miodli indyjskiej ("Melia azadirachta" - "Azadirachta indica"). W temperaturze poniżej 23°C zastyga. +Kameleonowate + +Kameleonowate, kameleony (Chamaeleonidae) – rodzina gadów z grupy jaszczurek, słynąca ze zdolności do zmiany ubarwienia, długiego języka i oryginalnych kształtów ciała. Mają chwytny ogon i palce zrośnięte w rodzaj szczypiec, którymi przytrzymują się gałęzi. Nazwa "kameleon" wywodzi się z gr. "chamailéōn" - lew na ziemi. +Występowanie i biotop. +Większość gatunków występuje w Afryce i na Madagaskarze. Nieliczne spotykane są w innych regionach: południowa Europa (1 gatunek), Bliski Wschód (1 gatunek), Indie (1 gatunek), Hawaje (1 podgatunek kameleona Jacksona "Chamaeleo jacksonii xantholophus") - wprowadzony sztucznie, zaaklimatyzowany i Cejlon (1 gatunek). +Biotopem kameleonów są tropikalne, wilgotne lasy oraz tereny pustynne i skaliste. Większość gatunków wiedzie nadrzewny tryb życia. +Opis. +Ciało mocno bocznie spłaszczone, zwłaszcza część grzbietowa, na której skóra tworzy wysoką, płaską listwę o ostrej krawędzi. Nogi cienkie, tej samej długości, wszystkie palce przeciwstawne, zrośnięte po 2 lub 3 w rodzaj szczypiec, ogon długi i chwytny (poza "Brookesia" sp.). Głowa kanciasta, sklepiona, często pokryta rogowymi naroślami. Oczy poruszają się niezależnie od siebie, tak że każde może patrzeć w inną stronę. Powieki zrośnięte na tyle, że zostaje tylko niewielki otwór na źrenice. Dzięki takiej budowie oczu i bardzo dobremu wzrokowi mogą bez obracania głowy widzieć wszystko wokół siebie. Ich oczy oprócz podstawowego zestawu barw (niebieski, zielony, czerwony) odbierają jeszcze światło ultrafioletowe. Język bardzo długi, na końcu szeroki, pokryty lepkim śluzem. Długość języka pozwala jaszczurce pochwycić pokarm na odległość zbliżoną do długości jej ciała. +Systematyka. +W rodzinie Chamaeleonidae wyróżniane są dwie podrodziny. Gatunki zaliczane do Brookesiinae określane nazwą fałszywych kameleonów (ang. "false chameleons") wiodą naziemny tryb życia, właściwe kameleony (ang. "true chameleons") z podrodziny Chamaeleoninae są głównie nadrzewne. +Ochrona. +Większość gatunków z tej rodziny została objęte konwencją waszyngtońską CITES (załącznik I i II). Kilka gatunków znajduje się w Czerwonej Księdze Gatunków Zagrożonych Międzynarodowej Unii Ochrony Przyrody i Jej Zasobów, w tym południowoafrykański "Bradypodion taeniabronchum" jako krytycznie zagrożony wyginięciem. +Olej morelowy + +Olej morelowy - rzadki, jasny olej roślinny, pachnący marcepanem, otrzymywany z wyciskania lub „wyciągania” pestek moreli ("Prunus armeniaca"). +Olej z pestek moreli bardzo rzadko oferowany jest w sprzedaży jako olej tłoczony na zimno, najczęściej spotykaną wersją jest wersja rafinowana. +Metoda wirtualna + +Metoda wirtualna (funkcja wirtualna) to metoda, której wywołanie jest polimorficzne. +Czysta wirtualność. +Określa to, że metoda z klasy bazowej deklarująca metodę wirtualną nigdy nie powinna się wykonać. W efekcie klasa taka staje się klasą abstrakcyjną. Oznacza to tyle, iż nie jest możliwe stworzenie obiektu tej klasy. Klasa taka służy jedynie temu, by zdefiniować pewnego rodzaju interfejs i jest przeznaczona jedynie po to, by od niej dziedziczyć. + +Taka deklaracja metody wirtualnej zmusza jednocześnie do określenia metody codice_3 na jednym z poziomów dziedziczenia. Nie jest możliwe pominięcie takiej implementacji. +Jednocześnie taka deklaracja uniemożliwia stworzenie jakiegokolwiek obiektu klasy codice_1 np.: codice_5. +Przykład w C++. + +W przykładzie znajdują się deklaracje 3 klas: codice_1, codice_7 i codice_8. W klasie codice_1 została zadeklarowana metoda wirtualna (słowo kluczowe "virtual") codice_10. Każda z klas pochodnych od klasy codice_1 ma zaimplementowane swoje metody codice_3. Następnie (w funkcji main) znajdują się deklaracje obiektów każdej z klas i wskaźnika mogącego pokazywać na obiekty klasy bazowej codice_1. +Wywołanie metod składowych dla każdego z obiektów powoduje wykonanie metody odpowiedniej dla klasy danego obiektu. Następnie wskaźnikowi codice_14 zostaje przypisany adres obiektu codice_15 i zostaje wywołana metoda codice_3. Wynikiem jest ""-1"" zgodnie z treścią metody codice_3 w klasie codice_1. Następnie przypisujemy wskaźnikowi adres obiektu klasy Kwadrat - możemy tak zrobić ponieważ klasa codice_7 jest klasą pochodną od klasy codice_1 - jest to tzw. rzutowanie w górę. Wywołanie teraz metody codice_3 dla wskaznika nie spowoduje wykonania metody zgodnej z typem wskaźnika - który jest typu codice_22 lecz zgodnie z aktualnie wskazywanym obiektem, a więc wykonana zostanie metoda codice_3 z klasy codice_7 (gdyż ostatnie przypisanie wskaźnikowi wartości przypisywało mu adres obiektu klasy codice_7). Analogiczna sytuacja dzieje się gdy przypiszemy wskaźnikowi adres obiektu klasy codice_8. Następnie zostaje wykonana funkcja codice_27 która przyjmuje jako parametr obiekt klasy codice_1 przez referencję. Tutaj również zostały wykonane odpowiednie metody dla obiektów klas pochodnych a nie metoda zgodna z obiektem jaki jest zadeklarowany jako parametr funkcji czyli codice_29. Takie działanie jest spowodowane przez przyjmowanie obiektu klasy codice_1 przez referencję. Gdyby obiekty były przyjmowane przez wartość (parametr bez "&") zostałaby wykonana 3 krotnie metoda codice_29 i 3 krotnie wyświetlona wartość "-1". +Wyżej opisane działanie zostało spowodowane przez określenie metody w klasie bazowej jako wirtualnej. Gdyby zostało usunięte słowo kluczowe "virtual" w deklaracji metody w klasie bazowej, zostałyby wykonane metody zgodne z typem wskaźnika lub referencji, a więc za każdym razem zostałaby wykonana metoda codice_3 z klasy codice_1. +Komensalizm oportunistyczny + +Komensalizm oportunistyczny - to sposób współżycia pomiędzy symbiontami, polegający na tym, iż jeden organizm odnosi korzyści, a drugiemu jest to obojętne, z możliwością okresowej straty (np. gdy odporność drugiego organizmu spadnie). +Układ wydalniczy + +Układ wydalniczy – układ narządów służący do wydalania. Zbudowany z narządów wydalniczych. +Klasa abstrakcyjna + +Klasa abstrakcyjna w programowaniu obiektowym jest to klasa, która nie może mieć swoich reprezentantów pod postacią obiektów. Zależnie od użytego języka programowania klasy abstrakcyjne tworzy się na różne sposoby. +Idea klasy abstrakcyjnej. +Klasa abstrakcyjna jest pewnym uogólnieniem innych klas (na przykład dla występujących w rzeczywistości obiektów), lecz sama jako taka nie istnieje. Ustalmy, że przez "figurę" będziemy rozumieć "koło", "kwadrat" lub "trójkąt". Te obiekty matematyczne mogą być reprezentowane przez pewne klasy. Obiekty te posiadają już konkretne właściwości takie jak promień (dla konkretnego koła) czy długość boku (dla konkretnego kwadratu). Klasy tych obiektów wywodzą się z pewnej uogólnionej klasy określanej jako po prostu "figura". Jednak nie jesteśmy w stanie określić jaką konstrukcję miałby obiekt klasy "figura", ponieważ figura geometryczna jako taka nie istnieje. Istnieją natomiast wywodzące się od niej klasy koło czy kwadrat. Dodatkowo oczywistym jest, że "figura" nie posiada konkretnej wartości pola czy obwodu, jednak już na tym etapie wiemy, że "każda" figura tak zdefiniowana (koło, kwadrat czy trójkąt) posiada pole i obwód, które będzie różnie obliczane dla różnych figur. Dzięki temu "figura" definiuje pewien interfejs dla klas wywodzących się od niej. +Klasy abstrakcyjne w różnych językach. +C++. +W C++ klasą abstrakcyjną jest klasa, która posiada zadeklarowaną co najmniej jedną metodę czysto wirtualną. Każda klasa, która dziedziczy po klasie abstrakcyjnej i sama nie chce być abstrakcyjną, musi implementować wszystkie odziedziczone metody czysto wirtualne. +Java. +W Javie klasę abstrakcyjną możemy stworzyć na dwa sposoby: za pomocą słowa kluczowego abstract, które tworzy klasyczną klasę abstrakcyjną lub za pomocą słowa kluczowego interface tworzącego abstrakcyjny interfejs +C#. +W C# klasą abstrakcyjną jest klasa, która została zadeklarowana jako abstrakcyjna za pomocą słowa kluczowego "abstract". +System rozproszony + +System rozproszony (ang. "distributed system") to zbiór niezależnych urządzeń technicznych połączonych w jedną, spójną logicznie całość. Zwykle łączonymi urządzeniami są komputery, rzadziej – systemy automatyki. Połączenie najczęściej realizowane jest przez sieć komputerową, jednak można wykorzystać również inne – prostsze – magistrale komunikacyjne. Urządzenia są wyposażone w oprogramowanie umożliwiające współdzielenie zasobów systemowych. +Jedną z podstawowych cech systemu rozproszonego jest jego przezroczystość ( ang. "transparency"), tj. tworzenie na użytkownikach systemu rozproszonego wrażenie pojedynczego i zintegrowanego systemu. +Definicja systemu rozproszonego ewoluowała wraz z rozwojem komputerów i sieci komputerowych. +Historia. +Współczesne systemy rozproszone składają się z różnych komputerów połączonych siecią komputerową. +Tetralogia Fallota + +Zespół Fallota, tetralogia Fallota (ang. tetralogy of Fallot, ToF) – złożona, sinicza, wrodzona wada serca. Tetralogia Fallota stanowi około 3-5% wszystkich wrodzonych wad serca i jest najczęstszą siniczą wadą serca w okresie poniemowlęcym. +Patofizjologia. +W wyniku zwężenia drogi odpływu z prawej komory następuje zmniejszenie przepływu krwi przez płuca i związane z tym zmniejszenie natlenowania krwi ujawniające się sinicą. Zwiększa się ciśnienie w prawej komorze i dochodzi do powstania przecieku krwi z krążenia płucnego (małego) do krążenia systemowego (dużego) (tzw. przeciek prawo-lewy). Oznacza to, że nienatlenowana krew z obwodu zamiast wpływać do krążenia płucnego przedostaje się przez ubytek w przegrodzie międzykomorowej do lewej komory serca i dalej do krążenia systemowego (dużego). Prawa komora w wyniku przeciążenia przerasta. +Leczenie. +Leczenie zespołu Fallota polega na wykonaniu korekcyjnej operacji kardiochirurgicznej. W niektórych przypadkach stosuje się operację Blalocka-Taussig, która zmniejsza objawy, ale nie jest operacją definitywną. +Operacje na niemowlętach wykonywane są ze względu na zagrożenie ich życia. Zabiegi chirurgiczne mogą przebiegać etapami, najpierw jeden zabieg, następnie po roku drugi aż do całkowitego wyeliminowania tej wady. Postęp w kardiochirurgii pozwala na całkowite usunięcie skutków tej wady. Polega ona na operacji na otwartym sercu i podłączeniu chorego do krążenia pozaustrojowego. +Historia. +Ta wada serca została opisana już w 1671 roku przez duńskiego lekarza, przyrodnika, biskupa uznanego później za świętego, Nielsa Stensena. Do czasu opisu autorstwa Etienne-Louisa Arthura Fallota w 1888 roku przedstawiono co najmniej czterdzieści opisów choroby w piśmiennictwie światowym. Na prace Fallota zwrócił uwagę Paul Dudley White, i przetłumaczył je na angielski w 1931 roku. Pierwsze próby korekcji wady wykonał Lillehei w 1954 roku, w tym samym roku Alfred Blalock i Helen B. Taussig przeprowadzili udaną paliatywną operację tetralogii Fallota. Do sukcesu zabiegu Blalocka i Taussig w znacznej mierze przyczynił się Thomas Vivien, poprzez przygotowanie modeli operacyjnych na zwierzętach laboratoryjnych, samouk, technik chirurgiczny i długoletni asystent dr Blalocka. Nie mógł samodzielnie operować ponieważ w tym czasie nie miał stopnia doktora nauk medycznych. +Stephen M. Johnson + +Stephen M. Johnson – amerykański doktor filozofii, psychoterapeuta i konsultant terapeutyczny. W swoich książkach prezentuje koncepcję stylów charakteru opartą na dorobku psychologii psychoanalityczno-rozwojowej oraz własnych doświadczeniach terapeutycznych tworząc przy tym spoisty system terapeutyczny. +Pałac w Wilanowie + +Pałac w Wilanowie – pałac królewski w Warszawie, na Wilanowie Królewskim, barokowy, wzniesiony w latach 1681–1696 dla króla Jana III Sobieskiego i Marii Kazimiery według projektu Augustyna Locciego, skrzydła boczne dobudowano w latach 1723–1729; mieści Muzeum Pałac w Wilanowie. +W 1994 zespół pałacowy w Wilanowie Królewskim wraz z Morysinem został uznany za pomnik historii. +Pałac wraz z otaczającym parkiem oraz zabudowaniami zachował niezmienioną formę architektoniczną, walory historyczne i artystyczne mimo zaborów, wojen i okupacji. +Zespół pałacowo-parkowy w Wilanowie jest również miejscem wydarzeń kulturalnych, koncertów i spotkań. Do najbardziej znanych imprez należą: Letnie Koncerty Królewskie w Ogrodzie Różanym oraz Międzynarodowa Letnia Akademia Muzyki Dawnej. +Architektura i wystrój pałacu. +Architektura pałacu jest oryginalna – jest to efekt połączenia sztuki europejskiej ze staropolską tradycją budowy. Zachowany wystrój malarsko-rzeźbiarski elewacji i wnętrz pałacowych, który w nawiązaniu do symboliki antycznej głosi apoteozę rodu Sobieskich i gloryfikację sukcesów militarnych króla. +Wystrój sztukatorski i malarski pałacu jest dziełem takich twórców jak Józef Szymon Bellotti, Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleuter, Michelangelo Palloni, Claude Callot, Jan Samuel Mock (obrazy Augusta II Mocnego w Gabinecie Holenderskim). Dekoracje w tarczach elewacji wykonał Francesco Fumo. Ornamentyka regencyjna (lata 20. i 30. XVIII w.) jest dziełem Pietro Innocente Comperetiego. Autorem rzeźby gabinetowej jest pochodzący z płd.-wsch. Polski (Puławy) z rodziny rzeźbiarzy działających dla Lubomirskich – Eliasz Hofmann. +Historia. +Początkowo była to typowa podmiejska rezydencja magnacka, w kształcie dworu polskiego z alkierzami. W kształcie z 1696 reprezentuje charakterystyczny typ barokowej rezydencji podmiejskiej "entre cour et jardin". W latach 1720–1728 dobudowano skrzydła boczne (autor projektu: Giovanni Spazzio – główny architekt Elżbiety z Lubomirskich Sieniawskiej). +Po śmierci Sobieskiego w 1696 pałac był własnością jego synów, a następnie – od 1720 – siedzibą znanych rodów magnackich: Sieniawskich, Czartoryskich, Lubomirskich, Potockich i Branickich. W latach 1730–1733 był rezydencją króla Augusta II Mocnego. Każda z rodzin dokonywała zmian we wnętrzach pałacu, w ogrodzie i najbliższym otoczeniu zgodnie z aktualną modą i potrzebami. +W 1805 z inicjatywy ówczesnego właściciela, Stanisława Kostki Potockiego, w części pałacu powstało jedno z pierwszych publicznych muzeów w Polsce. Obok prezentacji bogatych zbiorów sztuki europejskiej i dalekowschodniej, część centralną pałacu poświęcono pamięci Jana III i wspaniałej przeszłości narodowej. Przejęty po ostatniej wojnie na własność państwa, po gruntownych pracach konserwatorskich i rewaloryzacyjnych oraz rewindykacji znacznej części zbiorów wywiezionych przez Niemców, został udostępniony publiczności w 1962 roku. +Od 1995 pałacem i zespołem pałacowo-parkowym zarządza Muzeum Pałac w Wilanowie. W 2004 przeprowadzono renowację dzięki pomocy norweskiego wkładu finansowego w stowarzyszenie "EEAGrants" wraz z innymi polskimi zabytkami (zamkiem w Malborku oraz krakowskimi sukiennicami). +Maciej Miechowita + +Maciej Miechowita, także Maciej z Miechowa i Matthias de Miechow, właściwie Maciej Karpiga (ur. 1457, zm. 8 września 1523) – polski lekarz, pisarz medyczny, historyk, geograf, profesor Akademii Krakowskiej, ksiądz kanonik krakowski, alchemik i astrolog, w 1523 radny miasta Krakowa. +Życiorys. +Urodzony w rodzinie chłopskiej, skończył szkołę parafialną w Miechowie, następnie studiował na Akademii Krakowskiej, w 1479 uzyskał tytuł magistra. Rektor szkoły katedralnej, od śmierci Jana Długosza do 1483. W latach 1483–1485 pogłębiał studia medyczne za granicą, prawdopodobnie we Włoszech (Bolonia, Padwa i Florencja), gdzie uzyskał tytuł doktora "in medicina filosofia". +Po powrocie do kraju rozpoczął praktykę medyczną a także ok. 1500 został wykładowcą i profesorem Akademii Krakowskiej, gdzie ufundował m.in. drugą katedrę medycyny. Na Akademii Krakowskiej 8-krotnie sprawował funkcję rektora (1501–1519), dwukrotnie wybierany był podkanclerzem Akademii, przynajmniej raz był dziekanem wydziału medycyny. W Krakowie był lekarzem nadwornym Zygmunta I Starego. Był jednym z najsławniejszych astrologów krakowskich. Miechowita był także fundatorem szkół parafialnych, szpitali, kaplic, kościołów. +Twórczość. +"Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis Asiana et Europiana et de contentis in eis" ("Traktat o dwóch Sarmacjach, azjatyckiej i europejskiej, i o tym, co się w nich znajduje") jest uznawany za pierwszą renesansową pozycję opisującą w duchu naukowym geografię i etnografię wschodniej Europy. Zostało napisane (1517, 6 wydań do r. 1582, pierwsze polskie dzieło etnograficzne, przekład polski Andrzeja Glabera z Kobylina 1535, 3. wyd. 1545, przekład niem. 1518 i 1534, włoski 1561, 3. wyd. 1584). W dziele tym Miechowita m.in. polemizuje z Ptolemeuszem, kwestionując istnienie w tym rejonie mitycznych gór Hiperborejskich i Ryfejskich. Zaprzecza także, wbrew przyjętym opiniom średniowiecznych i współczesnych mu pisarzy, istnieniu źródeł głównych rzek w pasmach górskich, upatrując ich początki w równinach. Pozycja ta była najczęściej tłumaczoną i drukowaną za granicą z dzieł Miechowity, i przyczyniła się także do popularyzacji tam mitu o polskiej szlachcie jako potomkach Sarmatów (Sarmatyzm). +Wśród jego innych dzieł poczytne miejsce zajmuje też "Chronica Polonorum" ("Kronika Polska"), pierwsze drukowane dzieje Polski, obejmujące czasy najwcześniejsze do r. 1506, będące podsumowaniem wieloletnich badań Miechowity nad historią i geografią ziem polskich. Dzieło: „Chronica Polonorum” (1519, II. wyd. zmienione 1521 po konfiskacie pierwszego, pierwsza drukiem ogłoszona historia Polski, doprowadzona do r. 1506, częściowy przekład polski Stanisława Chwalczewskiego, pisany 1549, wydany pod nazwiskiem tłumacza 1829, przekład włoski 1562). Kronika zawiera także dużo informacji z zakresu historii kultury, medycyny, etnografii, historii obyczaju i szybko zyskała sobie rozgłos zarówno w Koronie, jak i na Litwie. Po raz pierwszy kronika została wydana w 1519 roku pierwszy nakład skonfiskowano, ponownie wydana w 1521 roku po ocenzurowaniu. Usunięto min. negatywne oceny rządów Aleksandra Jagiellończyka, złagodzono opis klęski wyprawy mołdawskiej Olbrachta i zminimalizowano rolę, jaką w tej wyprawie pełnił Zygmunt Stary, oraz przypisano kniaziowi Glińskiemu próbę otrucia króla Aleksandra. Podniesiono także przy wielu okazjach rolę prymasa Jana Łaskiego, co sugeruje, że to właśnie on zaaranżował cenzurę kroniki. +Maciej z Miechowa jest także autorem pierwszej polskiej drukowanej książki medycznej nt. epidemii, napisanej w związku z szerzącą się zarazą dżumy ("Contra saevam pestem regimen"). W 1522 wydał pierwszy polski poradnik medyczny, w którym zawarł m.in. wskazania dotyczące leczenia chorób zębów i jamy ustnej. ("Conservatio sanitatis"). +Nie wszystkie jego teksty zostały wydane drukiem, m.in.: Consilium dla Spytka z Melsztyna – porada lekarska, dwie biografie biskupów krakowskich, życiorys Św. Jana Kantego, Traktat o zasadach śpiewu kościelnego z r. 1483, recepty alchemiczne, horoskop szkoły św. Anny i wreszcie Testament (1514), który jest bogatym źródłem informacji na temat życia Miechowity, jego legatów i fundacji, a także jego prywatnej biblioteki. +Zamek w Blarney + +Zamek Blarney – średniowieczny zamek w mieście Blarney (hrabstwo Cork, Irlandia), wzniesiony w 1446 roku. Popularna atrakcja turystyczna, głównie ze względu na tzw. Kamień z Blarney. Na terenie zamku interesujący XIX-wieczny ogród skalny. +Data narodzin Jezusa Chrystusa + +Data narodzin Jezusa Chrystusa – wielowiekowa tradycja chrześcijańska wiąże narodziny Jezusa Chrystusa z dniem 25 grudnia roku 1 p.n.e., natomiast wyniki badań historycznych (prowadzonych od XIX wieku) przeczą tej tradycji. Najprawdopodobniej Jezus Chrystus urodził się pomiędzy 8 r. p.n.e., a 4 lub 2 r. p.n.e. +Źródła. +Jedyne źródła, jakie pozwalają w przybliżeniu datować narodziny Jezusa, to dwie spośród ewangelii Nowego Testamentu: Ewangelia Mateusza i Łukasza, które podają nieliczne informacje na temat narodzin Jezusa. Pozostałe ewangelie nowotestamentowe nie wspominają nic na ten temat, zaś pozakanoniczne ewangelie apokryficzne, zwłaszcza Ewangelie dzieciństwa, uważane są przez historyków za niewiarygodne jako źródła dla rekonstrukcji historycznej. Problemem, na jaki napotykają historycy badający oba źródła, są rozbieżności w poszczególnych wersjach. Wedle Ewangelii Mateusza 2,1 Jezus urodził się jeszcze za życia króla Heroda, podczas gdy wedle Ewangelii Łukasza 2,1 Jezus urodził się w czasie trwania spisu ludności, kiedy władcą Syrii był Kwiryniusz. Z pozostałych źródeł epoki wiemy, że Herod zmarł w 4 roku p.n.e., zaś Kwiryniusz przeprowadził spis ludności na przełomie roku 6 i 7 n.e. +Data narodzin zgodnie z Ewangelią Mateusza. +Wedle Ewangelii Mateusza 2,1 Jezus urodził się "w Betlejem w Judei za panowania króla Heroda". Zgodnie z danymi historyka Józefa Flawiusza (por. "Dawne dzieje Izraela" XVII, 6,4 i 9,3) Herod Wielki zmarł przed świętem Paschy poprzedzonym zaćmieniem Księżyca (między 12 marca i 11 kwietnia 4 p.n.e. wedle wyliczeń Keplera). Dalej Ewangelista pisze, że Herod zmarł, kiedy Jezus jako dziecię wraz z rodziną przebywał w Egipcie. Tak więc na podstawie tego świadectwa można przyjąć, iż narodziny Jezusa miały miejsce tuż przed bądź w roku 4 p.n.e. +Datowanie zgodnie z Ewangelią Łukasza. +Ustalenie roku. +Autor Ewangelii Łukasza utrzymuje, że Jezus urodził się w Betlejem w czasie trwania spisu powszechnego zarządzonego przez Oktawiana Augusta, kiedy zarządcą Syrii był Kwiryniusz. Za Augusta odbyły się 3 spisy ludności: w 28 p.n.e., 8 p.n.e. i 14 n.e.; żaden z nich jednak nie był, jak utrzymuje autor Ewangelii Łukasza, spisem obejmującym całe Imperium, podczas którego każdy miałby wrócić do miejsca pochodzenia swoich przodków. +O Kwiryniuszu wiadomo, że był konsulem w 12 r. p.n.e., a jako były konsul mógł po 5 latach zostać namiestnikiem prowincji (por. Kasjusz Dio "Historia rzymska" ks. 53). Józef Flawiusz podaje, że Kwiryniusz był legatem Syrii w latach 6–10 n.e., (por. "Dawne dzieje Izraela" XVII, 3,5 i XIX, 1). Tak więc wedle autora Ewangelii Łukasza Jezus miałby się urodzić w roku 6 n.e. bądź 7 n.e., czyli 10-11 lat po dacie proponowanej przez Ewangelię Mateusza. +W 1764 r. odnaleziono w Tivoli inskrypcję, przechowywaną dziś w Muzeum Laterańskim, z której zdaje się wynikać, że Kwiryniusz dwa razy był legatem Syrii. Autor Encyklopedii (loc.cit. str.570) uważa, że po raz pierwszy w latach oznaczonych na liście cyfrą cztery, zaś sir William Ramsay (podręczna Encyklopedia Biblijna Poznań 1960 t. I str.232) na podstawie inskrypcji na dwóch kamieniach pochodzących z Antiochii Pizydyjskiej (odkrytych w 1912 i 1913 r.) że w 10–8 p.n.e. +Chrześcijański autor Tertulian (160–230 n.e.) utrzymywał, że spisu dokonał Sencjusz Saturninus (8–6 p.n.e.). Ponieważ kolejny namiestnik Warus zastąpił go w 25 roku ery Augusta, liczonej od bitwy pod Akcjum, daje to jesień 6 p.n.e jako najpóźniejszy termin końca spisu. Możliwe jest również, że w zdaniu Łk 2,2; (grec. "Aute he apographe prote egeneto hegemoneuontos tes Syrias Kyreniu") – greckie "prote" nie odnosi się do "apographe" ("pierwszy spis") lecz oznacza "proton" (odpowiednik łac. prius): "wpierw". Zdanie znaczyło by: "Spis ten odbył się zanim namiestnikiem Syrii był Kwiryniusz." +Kwiryniusz znany był z lokalnego spisu w 6 n.e., kiedy w Palestynie wybuchł na tym tle bunt; ewangelista Łukasz być może zaznaczał, że nie o ten spis chodzi. Taka interpretacja czyni zbędnymi poszukiwania okresu namiestnictwa Kwiryniusza za życia Heroda. +Za powyższą teorią przemawia również to, co św. Łukasz napisał w 3-cim rozdziale swojej Ewangelii, gdy opisuje początek działalności Jezusa Chrystusa: "Było to w piętnastym roku rządów Tyberiusza Cezara (zatem ok. 28 r.n.e.)...sam zaś Jezus rozpoczynając swoją działalność miał lat około trzydziestu" (Łk 3,1a.23a). Gdyby Jezus narodził się podczas spisu Kwiryniusza, miałby około 21/22 lat, zatem można sądzić, iż Łukaszowi chodziło o spis dokonany 10-12 lat wcześniej. +Ustalenie dnia. +Autor Ewangelii Łukasza wspomina postać Jezusa Chrystusa w związku z narodzinami Jana Chrzciciela. Jan Chrzciciel był synem Zachariasza, kapłana żydowskiego. Podczas pełnienia służby w świątyni w Jerozolimie Zachariasz dowiedział się, że zostanie ojcem. Od momentu zwiastowania Zachariaszowi do narodzin Jana minęło około 9 miesięcy, następnie 6 miesięcy do narodzin Jezusa. +Zachariasz pełnił służbę w oddziale Abijasza, ósmym z kolei. Oddziały pełniły służbę od sabatu do sabatu, 1 tydzień, 2 razy w roku2 Królów 11,5-7; on-line: 2 Kronik 23,8; on-line: [http://biblia.deon.pl/rozdzial.php?id=1320&werset=8#W8 rozpoczynając od jesieni (miesiąc Tiszri). Pierwsza służba oddziału Abijasza przypadała na 8 tydzień po Sukkot, tj. pod koniec 9 miesiąca żydowskiego, druga służba - na 24 tygodnie służb oddziałów + ok. 2 tygodnie świąt + 7 tygodni służb oddziałów (II kolejka), co daje 4 miesiąc żydowski. Nie ma informacji, podczas której służby ukazał mu się anioł, wobec tego możliwe są dwie daty. Różnica 15 miesięcy (ciąża Elżbiety i różnica wieku między Jezusem a Janem) przypada na 7 miesiąc żydowski lub 1 miesiąc żydowski, tj. marzec/kwiecień lub wrzesień/październik. +Tradycja chrześcijańska. +Najstarsza identyfikacja dnia 25 grudnia z dniem Bożego Narodzenia zawarta jest we fragmencie dzieła przypisywanego Teofilowi z Antiochii (około 180 n.e.), być może interpolowanym (nieautentycznym), zachowanym w "Centuriach Magdeburskich" (XVI w.). Istnieją świadectwa, że w Rzymie po raz pierwszy obchodzono święto Bożego Narodzenia dopiero w roku 354 n.e., zaś na wschodzie Cesarstwa Rzymskiego za dzień narodzin Jezusa uznawano 6 stycznia. Do tej pory chrześcijanie ormiańscy uznają tę drugą datę. +Hipolit z Rzymu około 202 n.e. pisał w komentarzu do Ks. Daniela 4,23: "Chrystus narodził się w środę 25 grudnia, w 42 roku panowania Augusta". Nie wiadomo czy "panowanie" to liczyć należało od przyznania Oktawianowi tytułu Augusta (łac. "czcigodnego") co nastąpiło 16 stycznia 27 p.n.e., czy od zwycięskiej bitwy pod Akcjum (2 września 31 p.n.e.). W pierwszym wypadku byłoby to ok. roku 14 n.e., w drugim jeszcze wcześniej. 25 grudnia przypada w środę w latach: 9 p.n.e., 3 p.n.e. i 9 n.e. Trudno jednak ocenić, skąd Hipolit czerpał swoje informacje. Inny chrześcijański pisarz, Klemens z Aleksandrii, około 200 n.e. wskazywał, w ślad za wcześniejszymi autorami, datę 25 egipskiego miesiąca Pachons 28 roku panowania Augusta lub 24 czy 25 egipskiego miesiąca Pharmuti (19 lub 20 kwietnia tegoż roku). Sam opowiadał się za datą (według późniejszych przeliczeń) 17 listopada 3 p.n.e., środa. +Erę "od narodzenia Chrystusa" ("Anno Domini"), a co za tym idzie, rok 1, jako pierwszy rok po narodzinach Jezusa z Nazaretu, wprowadził w 525 r. ormiański, urodzony w Scytii Mniejszej zakonnik Dionysius Exiguus (Dionizjusz Mniejszy), pracujący na polecenie papieża Jana I, przyjmując 25 grudnia 753 roku aUc ("Ab Urbe condita" – od założenia Rzymu) za datę narodzin, a rok 754 aUc za rok 1 n.e. Ponieważ nie wprowadził roku zerowego, rok narodzin stał się rokiem 1 p.n.e. +Antyproton + +Antyproton – cząstka elementarna będąca antycząstką protonu — różniąca się od niego głównie odwrotnym ładunkiem elektrycznym, momentem magnetycznym, i liczbą barionową — lecz mająca tę samą masę i czas życia. +Antyproton według Modelu Standardowego jest cząstką złożoną, zaliczaną do hadronów, a ściślej barionów, i jest zbudowana z trzech antykwarków: dwóch antykwarków górnych "formula_1" i jednego antykwarka dolnego "formula_2" (układ '"formula_3") związanych silnym oddziaływaniem przenoszonym przez gluony. +Oddziaływanie protona z antyprotonem powoduje ich anihilację. +Antyproton został odkryty w 1955 r. przez O. Chamberlaina, E. Segrègo, C. Wieganda i Th. Ypsilantisa. +Występowanie w naturze. +Antyprotony występują również w naturze. Odnajdywane są w promieniowaniu kosmicznym docierającym do Ziemi, oraz w pasach Van Allena. Przypuszcza się, że większość z tych antyprotonów ma pochodzenie wtórne – powstają w wyniku oddziaływania promieniowania kosmicznego z materią międzygwiezdną. +Antypierwiastki. +Ponieważ antymateria jest w zasadzie identyczna do "normalnej" materii, teorie o stworzeniu antypierwiastków zaistniały od momentu kiedy Paul Dirac ogłosił przewidzianą cząstkę negatywną, czyli antyproton (wówczas przemowy swojej przyjmując Nagrodę Nobla w 1933 r). Realizacja pierwszego antypierwiastka zajeła kolejne 62 lata — w 1995 roku, stworzono poraz pierwszy antywodór. Te pierwsze wyniki ledwo trwały dość długo by być potwierdzone (ułamki sekundy), ze względu na brak sprzętu zdolnego na przechowywanie nowych antyatomów w otoczeniu gdzie mogłyby być ochronione od styku z normalnymi pierwiastkami. Nowe sposoby używania m.in. laserów pulsowych umożliwiły bezpieczne zawieszenie świeżych antyatomów — w czerwcu 2011 r., drużyna ALPHA ogłosiła sukces w utrzymywaniu antywodoru przez ponad 1000s (ponad kwadrans). +Burrito + + +Burrito lub taco de harina - potrawa pochodząca z Meksyku i kuchni Tex-Mex. Składa się ona z pszenicznej tortilli (w odróżnieniu od tacos, do których tortilla zrobiona jest z mąki kukurydzianej), która jest zawinięta wokół farszu. Tortilla jest zwykle lekko zgrillowana lub podgrzana na parze w celu zmiękczenia i uczynienia bardziej elastyczną. W Meksyku, fasola, meksykański ryż lub mięso są zazwyczaj jedynym wypełnieniem i tortilla jest mniejsza. W Stanach Zjednoczonych, nadzienie zawiera bogatszą kombinację składników, takich jak meksykański ryż, fasola, sałata, salsa, mięso, guacamole, ser i śmietana, a rozmiary tortilli są różne, niektóre burritos są znacznie większe niż ich odpowiedniki meksykańskie. +Słowo "burrito" w języku hiszpańskim dosłownie oznacza "osiołek", pochodzi od słowa "burro", co oznacza "osioł". +Historia. +Meksykańska tradycja opowiada historię człowieka imieniem Juan Mendez, który sprzedawał tacos stojąc na ulicy, używając osła jako transportu dla siebie i dla jedzenia, w okresie rewolucji meksykańskiej (1910-1921) w Bella Vista w okolicy Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. Aby zachować żywność ciepłą, Juan wpadł na pomysł owijania żywności w duże, domowej roboty, tortille. Odniósł spory sukces, a konsumenci przychodzili z innych miejsc na całej meksykańskiej granicy poszukując "żywności z Burrito", co zostało ostatecznie przyjęte jako nazwa dla tych dużych tacos. +Burrito są tradycyjną potrawą Ciudad Juárez, mieście na północy meksykańskiego stanu Chihuahua, gdzie można je kupić w każdej restauracji i budce. Miasta na północy Meksyku takie jak Villa Ahumada mają ugruntowaną reputację w serwowaniu burritos, ale różnią się one od amerykańskiej odmiany. Autentyczne meksykańskie burritos są zazwyczaj małe i cienkie, z tortilli zawierającej tylko jeden lub dwa składniki: niektóre postaci mięsa, ziemniaków, fasoli, sera asadero, chile rajas lub chile relleno. Inne rodzaje składników mogą obejmować barbacoa, smażoną fasolę i ser deshebrada. Deshebrada burrito ma również wariację w postaci Chile Colorado (łagodne do umiarkowanie ostrego) i salsa verde (bardzo ostry). Meksykańskie burrito może być północną odmianą tradycyjnego "Taco de Canasta". Są one spożywane na śniadanie, lunch i kolację. +Burritos choć to jeden z najpopularniejszych przykładów meksykańskiej kuchni poza Meksykiem, w Meksyku jako takim burritos nie są bardzo popularne poza północną częścią kraju, choć zaczynają się pojawiać w niektórych nietradycyjnych miejscach. +Burritos są powszechnie nazywane tacos de harina (tacos z mąki pszennej) w Centralnym i Południowym Meksyku oraz burritas (żeńska odmiana z końcówką "a"). A długie i cienkie smażone burrito podobny do chimichanga jest przygotowywane w stanie Sonora i w okolicy nazywany jest chivichanga. +Odmiany. +Najczęściej serwowane burrito w Stanach Zjednoczonych nie są tak popularne w Meksyku. Zazwyczaj amerykańskie burritos są większe niż ich odpowiedniki meksykańskie i nadziewane wieloma składnikami, oprócz mięsa lub warzywnego farszu, jak na przykład łaciatą lub czarną fasolą, ryżem (często z przyprawiony "cilantro" i limonką), guacamole, salsą, serem i śmietaną. +Innym rodzajem burrito (również nazywany burrito w stylu enchilada) jest burrito zanurzane w czerwonym sosie chili podobnym do sosu enchilada. Uprzednio rozdrobnionym serem posypuje się górę tak, że ser się topi. Ten rodzaj burrito jest zazwyczaj podawany na talerzu i jedzony nożem i widelcem, w przeciwieństwie do burrito spożywanych trzymając je w ręku, tak jak odmiana burrito z San Francisco. Gdy podawany jest ze stopionym serem w meksykańskiej restauracji w USA, nazywany jest burrito suizo ("suizo" w rozumieniu "szwajcarski", słowo to stosowane w formie przymiotnikowej wskazuje na podanie tej potrawy z serem lub śmietaną). +Niektóre miasta mają swoje własne odmiany jeden z najbardziej znanych jest San Francisco burrito. +Tralee + +Tralee (irl. "Trá Lí") – miasto w Irlandii, 20 814 mieszkańców (2011). Stolica hrabstwa Kerry. Znane przede wszystkim z festiwalu "Róża z Tralee" – wiele imprez m.in. wybory najpiękniejszej Irlandki z całego świata. +Atrakcje: +Kamień z Blarney + +Kamień z Blarney, Kamień Elokwencji, (ang. Blarney Stone, Stone of Eloquence) – wapienny blok o wymiarach ok. 30 x 120 cm, wmurowany w mury obronne zamku w Blarney (hr. Cork, Irlandia). Legenda głosi, że ten kto go pocałuje, uzyska dar elokwencji i przekonywania. Nie jest to zbyt proste, gdyż jest on wbudowany poniżej linii blanków. Osoba która chce tego dokonać musi być zwieszona głową w dół i przytrzymywana za nogi. +Przekonanie o takich właściwościach kamienia pochodzi z opowieści o właścicielu zamku, który był odpowiedzialny za kolonizację okolicznych terenów. Mimo niewywiązywania się ze swoich obowiązków i wynikłego stąd gniewu Elżbiety I, angielskiej królowej, dzięki swoim zdolnościom krasomówczym zawsze zdołał uniknąć odpowiedzialności. Od tego czasu słowo "blarney" w języku angielskim oznacza sprytną, pochlebczą mowę. +Galway + +Galway (wym. ; irl. "Gaillimh" ) – miasto w zachodniej Irlandii, stolica hrabstwa Galway. Liczy 75 529 mieszkańców (2011) i jest to najszybciej rozwijające się miasto Irlandii. Jest to jedyne miasto regionu Connacht mające status city. +Galway wzięło swą nazwę od rzeki Gaillimh (Corrib) będącej zachodnią granicą pierwszych zabudowań zwanych "Dún Bhun na Gaillimhe" (fort u ujścia Gaillimh). Samo słowo "Gaillimh" znaczy ‛kamienny'. Potocznie miasto nazywane było również "Cathair na dTreabh" czyli ‛miasto klanów', gdyż w czasach normańskich rządzone było przez 14 klanów kupieckich. +Historia. +Początki miasta sięgają 1124 r., gdy król prowincji Connacht, Tairrdelbach mac Ruaidri Ua Conchobair, założył tam fort Dún Bun na Gaillimhe. Z czasem wokół fortu zaczęło pojawiać się osadnictwo. Około roku 1230, podczas inwazji Normanów, miasto przejął ich przywódca – Richard Mor de Burgh. +W grudniu 1484 Galway otrzymało oficjalny status miasta korony angielskiej. Stosunki między miastem, a irlandzkimi sąsiadami były trudne, głównie ze względu na brytyjskość miasta, w którym zabroniony był nawet język irlandzki. +W średniowieczu miastem rządziło 14 klanów kupieckich (12 normandzkich i 2 irlandzkie). Wówczas gród przeżywał swoje lata rozkwitu i dostatku. Był to wówczas główny irlandzki port handlowy dla handlu z Hiszpanią i Francją. +W swej drodze do Islandii bądź na Wyspy Owcze, Galway odwiedził Krzysztof Kolumb. Będąc w mieście lub jego okolicy, zapisał na marginesie jednej ze swoich książek, że znalazł dowody na istnienie lądu po drugiej stronie Oceanu Atlantyckiego. +Podczas odrodzenia gaelickiego gród pozostał wierny koronie angielskiej. W czasie najazdu wojsk Cromwella na Irlandię miasto było oblężone przez 9 miesięcy. Pod koniec XVII w. Galway poparło króla angielskiego Jakuba II i jego zwolenników (jakobitów) przeciwko Wilhelmowi Orańskiemu w wojnie irlandzkiej (1689-1691). W wyniku tego zostało przejęte i okupowane przez wiliamitów po bitwie pod Aughrim w 1691. Miasto wówczas bardzo podupadło i swoją świetność odzyskało dopiero podczas bumu ekonomicznego pod koniec XX w. +Zabytki i kultura. +Miasto słynne jest ze swoich mocnych tradycji celtyckich: muzyki, pieśni i tańca. Charakterystyczne jest także używanie języka irlandzkiego w oznaczeniach budynków, ulic i innych miejsc w mieście. Miasto posiada irlandzkojęzyczny teatr, "Taibhdhearc na Gaillimhe". Galway jest swego rodzaju bramą do otaczającej go Gaeltacht – obszaru, w którym czynnie używa się języka irlandzkiego. +Na początku każdego roku w styczniu zaczyna się w Galway celtyckie święto wiosny Fleadh Imboilg. W kwietniu odbywa się międzynarodowy festiwal literatury, a w maju festiwal muzyczny. Czerwiec i lipiec przeznaczone są na festiwale filmowe i teatralne. Natomiast w sierpniu swoje święto mają miłośnicy koni z całej Irlandii, którzy przybywają na wyścigi (Galway Races). We wrześniu można wziąć udział w Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Ostryg. W październiku odbywa się Międzynarodowy Festiwal Sztuki dla dzieci, a w listopadzie "Tulca Visual Arts Festival" +W Galway znajduje się jeden z najwspanialszych średniowiecznych ratuszy – zamek Lynchów, w którym obecnie znajduje się oddział Allied Irish Banks. +Kościół kolegialny św. Mikołaja jest największym średniowiecznym kościołem w Irlandii. Należy on do Church of Ireland. Został on ufundowany w 1320 roku, a przez kolejne dwa wieki był rozbudowywany. +Rzymskokatolicka Katedra Naszej Pani Wziętej do Nieba i Św. Mikołaja została konsekrowana w 1965 roku. Jest to ogromna wapienna budowla wzorowana na kościele z hiszpańskiego miasta Salamanka. +Budynek National University of Ireland, Galway został wzniesiony w 1849 roku, podczas wielkiego głodu jako jeden z trzech oddziałów Queen's University of Ireland (poza Cork i Belfastem). +Język i kultura irlandzka. +Miasto Galway znane jest z kultywowania języka, muzyki, pieśni oraz tańców irlandzkich. Ze względu na dość powszechną znajomość języka irlandzkiego (w przeciwieństwie do innych miast) zwane jest czasami Dwujęzyczną Stolicą, choć i tutaj w życiu codziennym używany jest język angielski. Galway często nazywane jest z bramą Gaeltacht i jest jedynym dużym miastem w tym rejonie. +Infrastruktura. +Przez Galway przebiegają cztery ważne drogi Irlandii: N17 (łącząca miasto z północnymi hrabstwami), N18 (biegnąca na południe) i N6 (biegnąca na wschód oraz autostrada łącząca Galway z Dublinem, otwarta w 2010 roku. +W 1851 r. miasto włączone zostało w irlandzką sieć kolejową. Obecnie jest to ważna stacja kolejowa, obsługująca połączenia m.in. z, Dublinem, Clifden i Limerickiem. Pokonanie 208-kilometrowego dystansu między Galway i stolicą Irlandii zajmuje ok. 3 godzin. +Miasto ma wiele połączeń zarówno z głównymi, jak i mniejszymi miejscowościami w Irlandii. Połączenia realizuje przede wszystkim narodowy przewoźnik "Bus Éireann". +Miasto posiada port lotniczy Galway, które obsługuje m.in. połączenia z Dublinem, Londynem, Birmingham, Edynburgiem, Manchesterem, Liverpoolem, Leeds, Cardiffem i francuskim Lorientem. +W odległości około 80 km na południe od miasta (około 60 minut jazdy samochodem) znajduje się port lotniczy Shannon, z którego latają samoloty do wielu miast w Europie (w tym Polski) oraz do Stanów Zjednoczonych. +W podobnej odległości na północ znajduje się port lotniczy Ireland West Airport Knock obsługujące połączenia z Wielką Brytanią oraz południem Europy. +Ponadto na zachodzie miasta znajduje się też mniejsze lotnisko, Conamara Regional Airport, obsługujące połączenia z Wyspami Aran. +Przystań portowa w Galway jest położona na zachodnim krańcu Zatoki Galway. +Z przystani w Rossaveal i Doolin kursują promy na Wyspy Aran. +Sport. +Sport jest bardzo popularny w Galway. Miasto posiada wiele różnych drużyn. Najpopularniejszymi dyscyplinami są: hurling i futbol gaelicki. Główne mecze odbywają się na "Pearse Stadium". +Miasto posiada także drużyny rugby grające w Lidze Celtyckiej. +Bardzo popularne jest też żeglarstwo (zarówno na morzu jak i na jeziorze Corrib). +Istnieją też drużyny piłki ręcznej, koszykówki i kick-boxingu. +Miasto posiada też stadiony przeznaczone do wyścigów konnych oraz wyścigów chartów. +Bezrobocie frykcyjne + +Bezrobocie frykcyjne – bezrobocie związane z przerwami w zatrudnieniu z powodu poszukiwania innej pracy lub zmianą miejsca zamieszkania. Stan bezrobocia na poziomie frykcyjnym oznacza w praktyce występowanie pełnej równowagi na rynku pracy. Bezrobocie frykcyjne może pełnić pozytywną rolę jako czynnik elastyczności rynku pracy, hamowania nadmiernego wzrostu płac i umacniania dyscypliny pracy. +Opricznina + +Opricznina (ros. "Опричнина") – określenie okresu w historii Rosji (1565-1572) i jednocześnie polityki zastosowanej w tym czasie przez cara Iwana IV Groźnego. Słowo pochodzi od słowa rosyjskiego opricz - oprócz, osobno. Głównym celem opriczniny było zdławienie wszelkiej opozycji wewnętrznej i umocnienie władzy carskiej. Polegała ona na wydzieleniu znacznej części państwa moskiewskiego spod władzy bojarów (pozostała im reszta zwana ziemszczyną) i poddaniu jej bezpośredniej władzy cara i terrorowi jego gwardzistów zwanych opricznikami. +Powstanie. +W okresie wyniszczającej Rosję wojny inflanckiej wojska polsko-litewskie pod komendą starosty różańskiego Stanisława Leśniowolskiego pobiły 19 sierpnia 1562 roku, w bitwie pod Newlem, księcia Andrzeja Kurbskiego. W 1564 roku, po kolejnej klęsce wojsk rosyjskich pod komendą Kurbskiego w bitwie pod Czaśnikami, car rozkazał wygnać księcia do Dorpatu. Kurbski przeciwstawił się jednak woli cara i zmienił front. 30 kwietnia 1564 roku przeszedł na stronę Polski i Litwy. Jego wojska razem z oddziałami polsko-litewskimi spustoszyły m.in. rosyjskie Wielkie Łuki. W konsekwencji tych wydarzeń car, podejrzewając również innych bojarów i wyższą szlachtę o zdradę, stworzył opriczninę. +Działalność. +Głównym celem opriczniny, oprócz zastraszenia ogółu ludności, była pacyfikacja wyższych warstw społecznych nielojalnych wobec cara. Opricznicy zaangażowani byli m.in. w zabójstwa metropolity Filipa, arcybiskupów Pimena i Leonida. Jednym z zadań opriczników było również przeprowadzanie masowych deportacji ludności. Najsławniejszym ekscesem opriczniny jest zniszczenie buntującego się Nowogrodu Wielkiego, który jako stolica dawnej Republiki Nowogrodzkiej i reprezentant tradycji plutokratycznych i republikańskich stanowił poważne zagrożenie dla autorytarnej władzy cara (zarówno politycznie, jak i ideologiczne). +Oprycznicy pochodzili głównie z niższych warstw społecznych (szczególnie z drobnej szlachty) lub byli obcymi najemnikami. Do ich zadań należało między innymi sianie terroru i zarządzanie ziemiami odebranymi bojarom. Do znanych opryczników należeli m.in. Aleksej i Fiodor Basmanow oraz Skuratow zw. Maluta (teść późniejszego cara Borysa Godunowa). Późniejsze czystki nielojalnych opriczników dotknęły również ich samych. Z rozkazu cara zamordowani zostali m.in. książę Afanasij Wiaziemskij oraz Basmanowowie. +Kylemore Abbey + +Kylemore Abbey (irl. "Mainistir na Coille Móire") – opactwo w zachodniej części hrabstwa Galway w Irlandii, nad brzegiem Kylemore Lough, zbudowane w stylu neogotyckim przez Mitchella Henry'ego w 1868 r. (pałac, przekształcony później w klasztor) i w latach 1877-1881 (kościół). Architekt w romantycznej manierze połączył w budynkach opactwa motywy i detale zaczerpnięte ze słynnych obiektów sakralnych Wysp Brytyjskich, m.in. katedry w Norwich. Wnętrze kościoła klasztornego jest bogato zdobione inkrustacjami i witrażami. W pobliżu kościoła znajduje się duży ogród w stylu wiktoriańskim, z pawilonami ogrodowymi i zabytkowymi szklarniami. +W 1920 r. do budynków sprowadzono benedyktynki, które z powodu I wojny światowej musiały opuścić klasztor w Ypres. Uszkodzone w pożarze w 1959 r. zabudowania zostały odbudowane, lecz kilka dziesięcioleci zaniedbań spowodowało silną ich erozję. Budynki z szarego wapienia są restaurowane począwszy od lat 90. XX w. i mieszczą obecnie ekskluzywną międzynarodową szkołę żeńską prowadzoną przez siostry zakonne. +6to4 + +Mechanizm automatycznych tuneli 6to4 pozwala podłączyć się do sieci IPv6 każdemu, kto dysponuje choćby jednym publicznym adresem IPv4. Przy uruchamianiu tunelu nie są konieczne żadne formalności. Ważne jest jednak by poprzez sieć usługodawcy osiągalny był adres 192.88.99.1 oraz możliwa była transmisja pakietów IPv4 oznaczonych protokołem 41 (dziesiętnie). Dokładny opis zawarty jest w RFC 3056. +Zasada działania. +Mechanizm 6to4 polega na pakowaniu (tunelowaniu) pakietów IPv6 w pakiety IPv4. Pole protokołu w nagłówku otrzymuje wartość 41. Tak utworzone pakiety wysyłane są do komputera stanowiącego bramę pomiędzy siecią opartą na IPv4 a „prawdziwą” siecią IPv6. Komputerów takich może być w całym internecie dowolna ilość, lecz w celu uproszczenia konfiguracji po stronie użytkownika wszystkim im powinien zgodnie z RFC 3068 być przypisany adres 192.88.99.1. Następnie od konfiguracji trasowania IPv4 zależy, który konkretnie komputer stanowi domyślną bramę dla wybranego użytkownika internetu. Przy poprawnej konfiguracji zawsze jest to komputer najbliższy, a zatem zapewniający najszybsze połączenie. Pakiety powracać mogą całkiem inną drogą i nosić praktycznie dowolny adres IPv4 nadawcy. Trzeba to wziąć pod uwagę przy konfiguracji zapór sieciowych. +W odrobinę inny sposób traktowane są pakiety przeznaczone do innych komputerów podłączonych z użyciem 6to4. Z ich adresu skonstruowanego tak, jak to opisano poniżej, odczytywany jest adres IPv4, pod który dane są wysyłane bezpośrednio z pominięciem bramy. Wygląda to tak, jakby wszyscy użytkownicy 6to4 podłączeni byli do jednej sieci o przedrostku 2002:/16. +Adresy IPv6. + +V4ADDR to adres, który pozwoli na dostarczenie tunelowanych pakietów do komputera stanowiącego bramę pomiędzy tunelem a siecią użytkownika korzystającą z "naturalnego" IPv6. W większości przypadków będzie to router tej sieci. Np. adres 207.142.131.205 (www08.wikipedia.org) da w efekcie przedrostek 2002:cf8e:83cd:. Posiadając zatem jeden adres IPv4 użytkownik zyskuje możliwość podłączenia praktycznie nieograniczonej liczby komputerów do sieci IPv6. W przypadku adresów przydzielanych dynamicznie konieczna jest oczywiście rekonfiguracja za każdą zmianą adresu IPv4. +Socjologia miasta + +Socjologia miasta to jedna z podstawowych dyscyplin socjologii, zajmująca się społecznymi aspektami rozwoju miast, zagadnieniami przestrzeni społecznej, procesami urbanizacji, problematyką społeczności lokalnych. +Pierwsze analizy socjologiczne miasta pojawiły się już na początku historii socjologii, a nawet w starożytnej myśli społecznej, biorąc pod uwagę platońskie pisma na temat polis, które rozumiane może być jako miasto-państwo. Dzięki pismom Herberta Spencera zainspirowanego ewolucjonizmem oraz pracom późniejszych ewolucjonistów do socjologii wprowadzona została częściowo terminologia zastrzeżona wpierw dla biologów, dzięki czemu używa się w socjologii takich pojęć jak arterie, tkanka miejska, serce miasta itd. +W znacznej mierze ta subdyscyplina socjologii rozwinęła się dzięki szkole chicagowskiej, która traktowała miasto jako naturalne laboratorium, prowadząc w nim szereg terenowych badań socjologicznych, w szczególności dotyczących problemów dewiacji i procesów ekologicznych miasta. W drugim przypadku socjolodzy ci inspirowali się przede wszystkim osiągnięciami botaników. +W późniejszym okresie wiele innych dyscyplin i nauk wpływało na rozwój socjologii miasta. Przede wszystkim były to wpływy geografów, urbanistów, architektów, a także antropologów, psychologów i interdyscyplinarnych badań z zakresu semiotyki. +Obecnie konkurencyjną dyscypliną wobec socjologii miasta są ze względu na zacieranie się granic między ośrodkami miejskimi i innego typu jednostkami osiedleńczymi socjologia osadnictwa i socjologia przestrzeni. +Ćmy + +Ćmy, motyle nocne (Heterocera) – grupa motyli z reguły prowadząca nocny tryb życia. +Trudno jednoznacznie wskazać różnice pomiędzy motylami dziennymi i ćmami. Podział taki, choć stosowany również przez specjalistów, nie jest podziałem ściśle naukowym – jest sztuczny i nie odzwierciedla historii ewolucyjnej rzędu motyle (Lepidoptera). +Ogólne różnice pomiędzy motylami dziennymi a ćmami. +Powyższe różnice nie są kategoryczne – trafiają się wyjątki od nich, np. żywo ubarwione gatunki ciem latające w dzień. Istnieją również gatunki motyli dziennych (np. środkowoafrykański "Pseudopontia paradoxa"), których czułki pozbawione są buławki typowej dla innych przedstawicieli tej grupy. +Dlaczego ćmy lecą do światła? +Do dziś naukowcy nie są zgodni co do przyczyn tego zjawiska. Jedna z teorii mówi, że ćmy posiadają ewolucyjnie rozwinięty mechanizm nawigacji w oparciu o światło. Ćmy nie rozróżniają światła księżyca lub gwiazdy od światła emitowanego np. przez żarówkę i usiłują lecieć pod odpowiednim kątem do świecącego obiektu. Obiekt emitujący światło służy ćmom w podobny sposób, jak latarnia morska statkom. +Jan Mulak + +Jan Mulak (ur. 28 marca 1914 w Warszawie, zm. 31 stycznia 2005 tamże) – polski polityk, dziennikarz, sportowiec, teoretyk sportu, trener kadry państwowej, twórca polskiego "Wunderteamu" lekkoatletycznego lat 50. i 60., senator III kadencji. +Życiorys. +Był uczniem V Gimnazjum Miejskiego w Warszawie. W młodości należał do czołówki polskich średniodystansowców (w 1936 zdobył brązowy medal mistrzostw Polski w biegu na 1500 metrów), uprawiał też pływanie. Trenował w Robotniczym Klubie Sportowym "Skra" (później był tam instruktorem sportu). Jako szesnastoletni uczeń organizował robotnicze kluby sportowe, gdzie pełnił funkcje kierownicze. Związany był z Polską Partią Socjalistyczną, działał też w "Akcji Socjalistycznej". Założył na Żoliborzu klub RKS Siła, z sekcjami lekkoatletyki i gier zespołowych. +Podczas II wojny światowej działał w lewicowym podziemiu: był kierownikiem Wydziału Wojskowego grupy konspiracyjnej "Barykada Wolności", później zastępcą komendanta formacji bojowo-milicyjnych Polskich Socjalistów, kierownikiem Wydziału Wojskowego Robotniczej Partii Polskich Socjalistów oraz sekretarzem KC RPPS. Brał udział w powstaniu warszawskim (jako członek Sztabu Powstańczego na terenie Mokotowa). +Po wojnie został szefem Wydziału Prasy i Propagandy CKW PPS. Usunięto go z funkcji partyjnych jeszcze przed zjednoczeniem partii PPS z PPR w 1948. +W 1950 wyszedł z ukrycia i zaczął pracować na rzecz lekkiej atletyki, pobierając naukę od takich osób jak Maurice Bacquet. Od 1951 był trenerem biegów długich. W 1954 został przewodniczącym Wojewódzkiego Komitetu Sportowego. Zastosował szkolenie specjalistyczne w lekkiej atletyce i dzięki współpracy w procesie szkoleniowym z pracownikami naukowymi uczelni wychowania fizycznego stworzył słynny "Wunderteam". Trenował polskich długodystansowców, m.in. Zdzisława Krzyszkowiaka i Jerzego Chromika. +W latach 1970–1973 pełnił funkcję doradcy ministra sportu młodzieży w Algierii. Od 1978 był doradcą przewodniczącego Głównego Komitetu Kultury Fizycznej i Sportu, a od 1981 przewodniczącym Związku Trenerów, honorowym członkiem Międzynarodowego Stowarzyszenia Trenerów Lekkiej Atletyki. Był propagatorem upowszechniania sportu wśród młodzieży polskiej i twórcą masowego ruchu spartakiadowego obejmującego prawie 3,5 mln uczniów. +Po 1989 działał w PPS. Sprawował mandat senatora w latach 1993–1997. Był Marszałkiem Seniorem Senatu RP III kadencji. Do śmierci był honorowym przewodniczącym rady naczelnej PPS. +Był też redaktorem naczelnym miesięcznika "Lekkoatletyka" (w latach 1957–1970) i członkiem prezydium Polskiego Komitetu Olimpijskiego. Napisał m.in. "Wojsko Podziemne", "Polska Lewica Socjalistyczna 1939–1944" (pozycję wyróżnioną "Paszportem Polityki"), "W Krakowie i na Śląsku". +Odznaczenia. +W 1997 prezydent Aleksander Kwaśniewski odznaczył go Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. W 1999 w uznaniu zasług dla Warszawy uhonorowany został Nagrodą Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy. +Gore + +Gore (ang. "rozlana krew", "zakrzepła krew") – rodzaj dreszczowca, horroru filmowego, charakteryzujący się dużą ilością brutalności, scen z krwią i wnętrznościami oraz (często, choć nie zawsze) ponurym klimatem. Częstym elementem filmów gore mogą być dewiacje seksualne, tortury i eksperymenty. Pierwsze filmy z tego podgatunku zaczęły powstawać w pierwszej połowie lat 60. XX wieku, jednak już wcześniej pojawiały się obrazy z pojedynczymi, bardziej krwawymi scenami. Przez wielu za pierwszy film gore uważany jest "Blood Feast" z 1963. +Spora część filmów tego rodzaju zakazana jest w wielu krajach. Ważnym dla gore krajem są Włochy, w których to zaczął się boom na kino kanibalistyczne. Film "Cannibal Holocaust" został dobrze przyjęty przez fanów horroru, co sprawiło, iż w ciągu kolejnych lat powstało kilkanaście – lepszych lub gorszych – filmów poświęconych kanibalom, np. nieoficjalna druga część "Cannibal Holocaust 2" (1986), oraz "Cannibal Ferox", "Curse of Screaming Dead" czy "Emmanuelle and the Last Cannibals". +Filmy gore ukazują realistyczne sceny okrucieństwa i śmierci. Licznie ukazane dekapitacje, wnętrzności, sceny morderstw stanowią esencję tego gatunku - takim filmem jest chociażby "Violent Shit". Niektórzy reżyserzy w swoich wizjach idą dalej: "Nekromantik" poruszał kwestię m.in. nekrofilii i nie stronił przed ukazaniem takich właśnie scen. Z kolei trylogia "August Underground" w zamierzeniach twórcy miała pokazać prawdziwych morderców. Utrzymany w konwencji paradokumentu film ukazywał okrutne dzieło zabójców, a w samym obrazie pojawiały się sceny upokarzania ofiar, brutalnych kastracji, tortur i nekrofilii. +Niezwykle popularne są azjatyckie filmy gore, które uznawane są za jedne z najbardziej brutalnych w historii kinematografii (np. seria "Guinea Pig", "Red Room" lub "Man Behind The Sun"). Poziom okrucieństwa w nich zawarty, wielu uznaje za przekraczające granice moralne i dobrego smaku. Niektóre przedstawiają jednak realne przesłanie. Dla przykładu "Men Behind the Sun" opowiada historię japońskiego oddziału 731. +Popularnością cieszą się także produkcje wytwórni Troma, która wydaje kiczowate filmy o dziwnych tytułach, pełne brutalności i specyficznego humoru, (np. "Toxic Avenger", "Surf Nazis Must Die" czy "A Nymphoid Barbarian in Dinosaur Hell"). Niektórzy reżyserzy są wciąż wierni konwencji stworzonej przez Tromę, np. "Punk Rock Holocaust" Douga Skarmana. Do dziś popularne są filmy Petera Jacksona, komedie gore – "Martwica mózgu" i "Zły smak", w których krew leje się hektolitrami, wnętrzności występują kilogramami, a wszystkiemu temu towarzyszy mnóstwo czarnego humoru. +Większość krytyków jest przeciwnikami gore, uważając je za przejaw braku inwencji reżysera, który zamiast straszyć, w prosty sposób usiłuje zszokować oglądających. Inni zwracają uwagę na przesłanie, jakie niektóre filmy ze sobą niosą, a które pokazać można jedynie przez okrucieństwo. +Z filmami gore łączą się lżejsze produkcje zaliczane do gatunku slasher, a także filmy snuff. Gore ściśle powiązany jest z mondo movies, lecz te drugie przedstawiają prawdziwe sceny śmierci. +Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów w RP + +Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej – kościół chrześcijański nurtu katolickiego prawnie działający na terenie Polski i Francji. Obecnie liczy około 30 tysięcy wyznawców, głównie na Mazowszu. Siedzibą władz Kościoła jest miasto Płock, gdzie rezyduje biskup naczelny ojciec Michał Maria Ludwik Jabłoński. Organem prasowym wspólnoty jest kwartalnik "Mariawita". +Mariawityzm wyodrębnił się z polskiego Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego w 1906. Powodem secesji było niezaakceptowanie przez hierarchię polską i papieża w Rzymie działalności Zgromadzenia Kapłanów Mariawitów, które powstało na skutek objawienia Dzieła Wielkiego Miłosierdzia, jakie otrzymała siostra zakonna Maria Franciszka Kozłowska 2 sierpnia 1893 w Płocku. +Nazwa. +Nazwa mariawityzm pochodzi od łacińskich słów "Mariae vitam (imitantes)", co w języku polskim oznacza "Maryi życie (naśladujący)". Nazwa ta wyraża naśladowanie życia Matki Bożej, jej pokory, miłości, czystości i modlitwy. Pochodzenie nazwy jest, według św. Marii Franciszki, nadprzyrodzone. Pochodzi ona z pierwszego objawienia w Dziele Wielkiego Miłosierdzia: "…Chcę, aby powstała Wspólnota Kapłanów o nazwie Mariawitów…" +Po rozłamie z Kościołem rzymskokatolickim, społeczność mariawitów stała się Kościołem, przyjmując nazwę Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów, zmienioną w późniejszych latach na Staro-Katolicki Kościół Mariawitów, co było wyrazem przynależności do Kościołów starokatolickich zrzeszonych w Unii Utrechckiej. W wydanym 31 października 1967 statucie dokonano zmiany nazwy na Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów. +W języku potocznym dla rozróżnienia dwóch polskich nurtów w mariawityzmie, stosuje się określenie: denominacja płocka lub mariawityzm tradycyjny. +Historia. +Mariawityzm, wśród wyznań chrześcijańskich w Polsce, jako jedyny ma genezę czysto polską. Powstał on na podstawie objawienia Bożego jakie otrzymała Feliksa Kozłowska, imiona zakonne Maria Franciszka, pod koniec XIX w. na ziemiach polskich pod zaborem rosyjskim. +Geneza. +W dniu 2 sierpnia 1893 w kościele rzymskokatolickiego seminarium duchownego w Płocku przed ołtarzem Matki Boskiej Anielskiej, założycielka i matka przełożona ukrytego Zgromadzenia Sióstr Ubogich Świętej Klary – Maria Franciszka, otrzymała objawienie nazwane Dziełem Wielkiego Miłosierdzia, uznawane za początek mariawityzmu. Jego istota polega na wskazywaniu pogrążonemu w grzechach światu ratunku i odnowy moralnej przez cześć dla Przenajświętszego Sakramentu, co się wyraża w częstym przyjmowaniu Komunii Świętej i adoracji Przenajświętszego Sakramentu oraz wzywaniu pomocy Matki Bożej. Na podstawie tego objawienia powołane zostało Zgromadzenie Kapłanów Mariawitów. +Pierwsi księża mariawici wywodzili się z elity duchowieństwa rzymskokatolickiego, byli to głównie profesorowie seminarium. Nie pobierali oni opłat za posługi religijne, prowadzili ożywioną pracę duszpasterską, toteż mariawityzm dość szybko zdobywał popularność i poparcie wśród ludności, zwłaszcza w parafiach wiejskich na obszarze zaboru rosyjskiego. Niekonwencjonalną pracą duszpasterską spowodowali radykalną odnowę duchową i moralną wiernych. W 1903 kapłani mariawici wręczyli teksty objawień i krótką historię Zgromadzenia Kapłanów Mariawitów biskupom: lubelskiemu, płockiemu i warszawskiemu. Dnia 13 sierpnia 1903 delegacja kapłanów wraz z założycielką wręczyła papieżowi Piusowi X rękopis z objawieniami i historią zgromadzenia oraz prośbę o jego zatwierdzenie. Wcześniej, podczas pobytu w Rzymie, dnia 6 sierpnia szesnastu kapłanów mariawitów dokonało wyboru przełożonego Zgromadzenia, którym został ks. Jan Maria Michał Kowalski. +Po powrocie z Rzymu, siostra Maria Franciszka Kozłowska utworzyła Związek Mariawitów Nieustającej Adoracji Ubłagania, który skupiał wszystkich mariawitów w zgromadzeniach: kapłanów, sióstr, tercjarzy i bractwa. Głównym zadaniem związku miało być przywrócenie na całym świecie najwyższej chwały Bogu, odrodzenie duchowe i powrót do gorliwości pierwszych chrześcijan. Kapłani i siostry przyjmując zakonne, franciszkańskie reguły i formy chcieli działać w łonie Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego jako grupa misyjna, bez zamiaru tworzenia samodzielnej konfesji. +Powstanie niezależnej wspólnoty. +W 1904 Kongregacja św. Oficjum wydała dekret, na mocy którego Zgromadzenie Kapłanów Mariawitów miało być skasowane, a utrzymywanie kontaktów z Feliksą Marią Franciszką Kozłowską zostało surowo zakazane. W ten sposób rozpoczęły się próby likwidacji mariawityzmu. Dnia 5 kwietnia 1906 papież Pius X podpisał encyklikę "Tribus circiter" potępiającą mariawitów, która została odczytana w kościołach katedralnych w Warszawie, Płocku i Lublinie w Wielki Czwartek 12 kwietnia 1906. Następnie 30 grudnia tegoż roku został ogłoszony w diecezji warszawskiej, płockiej i lubelskiej dekret Kongregacji św. Oficjum z dnia 5 grudnia 1906 o ekskomunice większej, zwanej popularnie klątwą, na ks. Jana Marię Michała Kowalskiego i Marię Franciszkę Kozłowską. Feliksa Kozłowska została jako pierwsza kobieta w historii chrześcijaństwa imiennie ekskomunikowana. Kapłanom mariawickim, również pod groźbą ekskomuniki, wyznaczono 20 dni na zerwanie z ruchem. Dzień 30 grudnia 1906 uważa się za datę wyłączenia mariawitów z Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego. W tej sytuacji mariawici – 33 duchownych, s. Maria Franciszka Kozłowska z siostrami zakonnymi i rzeszą wiernych – utworzyli niezależny Kościół. +Ówcześnie panujące władze carskie wydały 28 listopada 1906 dekret uznający Związek Mariawitów za prawnie istniejący w cesarstwie rosyjskim. Nakazywały jednak mariawitom opuszczenie kościołów parafialnych. Wobec tego urzędowego nakazu mariawici w okresie czterech lat zbudowali 38 kościołów i 34 kaplice, organizując odrębne parafie w archidiecezji warszawskiej oraz diecezjach płockiej, lubelskiej, kieleckiej, sandomierskiej i sejneńskiej. W chwili odłączenia się od Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego mariawici mieli 45 tysięcy wiernych, a w latach późniejszych liczba ta znacznie wzrosła. W parafiach obok pracy duszpasterskiej zmierzającej do ożywienie życia religijnego, prowadzono szeroko zakrojoną działalność kulturalno-oświatową i charytatywną. Podczas pasterki 24 grudnia 1906 kapłani mariawiccy odprawili pierwszą Mszę świętą w języku polskim w kaplicy sióstr w Płocku. W roku 1918 Kościół posiadał m.in. 42 ochronki, 47 szkół, 11 przytułków oraz 11 tanich kuchni. +Rozwój Kościoła Mariawitów. +We wrześniu 1909, na zaproszenie od biskupa starokatolickiego Austrii, udała się delegacja księży mariawitów – ks. Jan Maria Michał Kowalski, ks. Roman Maria Jakub Próchniewski, ks. Leon Maria Andrzej Gołębiowski – na kongres starokatolików do Wiednia. Tam podczas obrad, dnia 7 września 1909, uczestnicy kongresu, po zapoznaniu się z zasadami ruchu mariawickiego, przyjęli Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów do Unii Utrechckiej Kościołów Starokatolickich, a 5 października tego roku w starokatolickiej katedrze w Utrechcie ks. Jan Kowalski otrzymał święcenia biskupie. Po powrocie z Holandii biskup Jan Kowalski rozpoczął pierwszą wizytację biskupią parafii mariawickich. W 1910 w Łowiczu sakrę biskupia przyjęli dwaj księża: Roman Maria Jakub Próchniewski i Leon Maria Andrzej Gołębiowski. W późniejszym okresie (rok 1919) Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów dając wyraz swej przynależności do starokatolicyzmu zmienił swoją nazwę na Staro-Katolicki Kościół Mariawitów. +W 1912, na podstawie aktu prawnego "Prawo o wyznaniu Mariawitów", Kościół Mariawitów został zalegalizowany jako związek religijny na równi z innymi prawnie uznanymi przez władze cesarstwa rosyjskiego Kościołami chrześcijańskimi. W latach 1911–1914 wybudowano Świątynię i Klasztor w Płocku, będący siedzibą władz Kościoła. Już w pierwszych latach istnienia Kościół Mariawitów wprowadził język polski do liturgii, częstą Komunię św. i adorację Przenajświętszego Sakramentu oraz inne zmiany, które w Kościele rzymskokatolickim wprowadzono dopiero w następstwie Soboru Watykańskiego II. +Na początku 1920 Feliksa Kozłowska, wyniszczona postami, odprawiająca od wybuchu I wojny światowej coroczne, ścisłe, czterdziestodniowe rekolekcje, zachorowała na wodną puchlinę. Zmarła 23 sierpnia 1921 na nowotwór wątroby. W dniu Jej śmierci Kościół Mariawitów liczył 3 biskupów, 30 kapłanów i 57 braci zakonnych, 244 sióstr zakonnych i około 43 tysiące wiernych. Posiadał 67 parafii, 38 filii, 77 kościołów, 58 kaplic, 72 domy parafialne, 25 szkół, 1 progimnazjum, 45 przedszkoli, 14 czytelni, 28 sal zajęć, 32 zakłady rękodzielnicze, 4 internaty dla sierot, 13 domów starców, 7 piekarni, 2 straże ogniowe, 22 gospodarstwa rolne oraz 3 towarzystwa pożyczkowo-oszczędnościowe i 43 związki wspomagania ubogich. Poza granicami Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, na Litwie i Rusi było 6 parafii, 3 filie, 3 kościoły, 7 kaplic i 3 domy parafialne. +Rządy arcybiskupa Kowalskiego. +Po odejściu św. Marii Franciszki cała władza zwierzchnia przeszła w ręce arcybiskupa Jana Marii Michała Kowalskiego. W świetle przepisów legalizujących mariawityzm, arcybiskup Kowalski był reprezentantem Kościoła mariawitów i jego jednoosobowym organem, ponadto był Ministrem Generalnym Zgromadzenia Kapłanów Mariawitów, którego urząd był dożywotni. W jego osobie mariawici upatrywali spadkobiercę duchowego Założycielki. Pod jego kierunkiem Kościół rozwijał intensywnie swoje życie duchowe i społeczne. Zyskawszy tak wielki autorytet arcybiskup Kowalski wszedł na drogę własnych wizji, które nazywał "zrozumieniami". +Pierwszym doniosłym wydarzeniem było wprowadzenie, w pierwszą rocznicę śmierci Mateczki, 23 sierpnia 1922, udzielania wiernym Komunii św. pod dwiema postaciami (chleba i wina). Ten sposób udzielania Komunii św. był praktykowany w Kościele Zachodnim do XIII wieku. W tym samym roku w Płocku otworzono drukarnię przyklasztorną. Jako pierwsze ukazało się "Dzieło Wielkiego Miłosierdzia" o objętości 618 stron, zawierające Objawienia św. Marii Franciszki, jej życiorys, ustawy zakonne oraz traktaty religijne o życiu duchowym napisany przez Mateczkę. Nową przełożoną generalną Zgromadzenia Sióstr Mariawitek została, późniejsza arcykapłanka Izabela Wiłucka-Kowalska. W 1923, zgodnie z zaleceniami Matki Założycielki postanowiono udzielić święceń biskupich trzem kapłanom: Wawrzyńcowi Marii Franciszkowi Rostworowskiemu, Klemensowi Marii Filipowi Feldmanowi i Wacławowi Marii Bartłomiejowi Przysieckiemu. +Arcybiskup Kowalski ogłosił listem pasterskim z dnia 18 kwietnia 1924 zniesienie przymusowego celibatu i wprowadzenie dla kapłanów związków małżeńskich z siostrami zakonnymi. Wśród duchowieństwa mariawickiego wywołało to szeroką reakcję. Część kapłanów kierująca się posłuszeństwem zakonnym, przyjęła to za zrządzenie "Opatrzności Bożej". Inni zaś uznawali, iż związki małżeńskie kapłanów pozostają w sprzeczności ze złożonymi ślubami zakonnymi oraz ustawami kapłanów mariawitów. Na skutek tego wydarzenia 6 kapłanów wypowiedziało posłuszeństwo arcybiskupowi i odeszli z Kościoła Mariawitów. Część z kapłanów którzy odeszli od mariawityzmu przeszła do Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego i zapisała na niego nieruchomości parafialne. W związku z wprowadzeniem małżeństw między kapłanami i siostrami zakonnymi, również Unia Utrechcka zawiesiła stosunki ze Starokatolickim Kościołem Mariawitów. W tym też roku arcybiskup ogłosił że Ofiara Mszy Świętej odprawiana w grzechu nieczystym lub za pieniądze jest nieważna. +Jesienią 1926 dwunastoosobowa delegacja mariawicka udała się w podróż do patriarchatów prawosławnych i do Ziemi Świętej. Pierwszym etapem podróży były patriarchaty słowiańskie: Belgrad i Sofia. Następnie delegacja mariawicka udała się do patriarchatów w Konstantynopolu, Jerozolimie i Aleksandrii, odwiedzili także siedzibę Greckiego Kościoła Prawosławnego. Chodziło o nawiązanie stosunków ekumenicznych z tymi Kościołami i zapoznanie ich z ideą mariawityzmu, jak też o zwiedzenie Ziemi Świętej. Próba nawiązania stosunków nie przyniosła rezultatu. +W ciągu całego omawianego okresu, trwały prześladowania, które kierowane były tak przeciwko całemu Kościołowi mariawickiemu, jak i pojedynczym członkom. Samemu arcybiskupowi Michałowi wytyczono ponad 20 procesów karnych. W 1926 za rzekome bluźnierstwa skazano go na rok twierdzy, w 1929 za wydanie Starego Testamentu opatrzonego komentarzami – na rok więzienia. Mimo tych trudności mariawici rozumieli, że cierpienia są częścią składową powołania chrześcijańskiego. W 1928 mariawici nawiązali oficjalne kontakty z Polskim Narodowym Kościołem Katolickim. Od tego czasu duchowni polskokatoliccy mogli odprawiać nabożeństwa w kościołach mariawickich, korzystać z mszałów, szat liturgicznych i akt stanu cywilnego. Dla Kościoła narodowego miało to ważne znaczenie, gdyż wówczas Kościół ten nie był zalegalizowany. +W 1929 arcybiskup ogłosił postanowienie o mających nastąpić święceniach kapłańskich sióstr. Pierwsze święcenia nastąpiły 28 marca tego roku, kiedy to otrzymało je dwanaście sióstr zakonnych, ponadto przełożona zgromadzenia Izabela Wiłucka otrzymała święcenia biskupie. Wiadomości o święceniach kobiet opisywane były nie tylko w prasie polskiej ale także i światowej. Wśród przeciwników mariawityzmu wywołało to nowy odzew gniewu i oburzenia, ponowili żądania likwidacji Kościoła mariawitów. W rok po tym wydarzeniu arcybiskup zniósł obowiązkową spowiedź uszną, a na jej wprowadził spowiedź ogólną z rozgrzeszeniem kapłana. Dalsze listy Kowalskiego z lat 1930–1934 znosiły tytuły duchownych, wprowadzały Komunię św. dla dzieci, nakazywały zniszczenie nałogu palenia tytoniu i picia wódki, znosiły stan duchowny wprowadzając kapłaństwo powszechne, znosiły obrzęd święcenia wody oraz obowiązkowe posty. +Mariawici osiągali wówczas poważne rezultaty w pracy duchowej, a także w rozwoju swych ośrodków, byli znani z ubóstwa i oparcia się jedynie na własnej pracy oraz ofiarności wiernych. Rozrastało się też w tym czasie centrum w Płocku. Podobne tendencje widziano w Felicjanowie, Cegłowie, Wiśniewie. Cały ośrodek w Płocku liczył w latach 1931–1935 około 500 osób. +Rozłam w mariawityzmie. +Generalna ocena działalności arcybiskupa Kowalskiego w sposób otwarty i jawny przez zdecydowaną większość duchowieństwa nastąpiła na przełomie 1934 i 1935 roku. Na odbytej w dniach 4-5 października 1934 kapitule biskupi i kapłani domagali się zmiany kierunku w nauczaniu i administrowaniu w Kościele. Arcybiskup Kowalski temu żądaniu stanowczo odmówił. 29 stycznia 1935 doszło więc do kolejnej kapituły kapłanów z udziałem delegatów z parafii i sióstr zakonnych, która podjęła uchwałę o usunięciu arcybiskupa Kowalskiego od władzy w Kościele. Kapituła generalna wybrała przełożonego Kościoła biskupa Klemensa Marię Filipa Feldmana przyznając mu tytuł biskupa naczelnego. Postanowiono wówczas, że Kościołem rządzić będzie synod jako organ kolegialny złożony z biskupów i wybranych kapłanów. Kapituła wezwała arcybiskupa Kowalskiego do podporządkowania się jej postanowieniom, uznania wybranego zwierzchnika za swojego przełożonego, zrzeczenia się tytułu własności do wszystkich nieruchomości zapisanych w testamencie św. Marii Franciszki na jego nazwisko i usunięcia się wraz ze swoją małżonką do Felicjanowa koło Płocka, gdzie miał mieć wyznaczone mieszkanie, opiekę i całkowite utrzymanie do śmierci. +Arcybiskup Kowalski wraz ze swymi zwolennikami w ogólnej liczbie 112 osób został 12 marca 1935 przeniesiony do Felicjanowa. Po jego stronie opowiedziało się 3 kapłanów i około 80 sióstr zakonnych. Przeniesienie było potwierdzone interwencją płockiego oddziału urzędu wojewódzkiego w Warszawie, a w jej wyniku zrzeczeniem się przez Kowalskiego urzędów kościelnych i praw własności do Świątyni i klasztoru w Płocku. Zwolennicy arcybiskupa uznali akt zwołania kapituły za nielegalny. Powołali się na wewnętrzne przepisy, w świetle których wybór ministra generalnego dopuszczalny był tylko w wypadku niezdolności do sprawowania urzędu przez jego poprzednika. Wybór powinien być poprzedzony dobrowolnym zrzeczeniem się urzędu przez ustępującego. Był to bowiem urząd dożywotni. +Mariawityzm rozpadł się na dwie denominacje. Początkowo obydwie strony walczyły o zatrzymanie ówczesnej nazwy wspólnoty: "Starokatolicki Kościół Mariawitów", po czym strona felicjanowska powróciła do pierwotnej nazwy, która brzmiała: "Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów". Podział liczbowy wiernych w parafiach ukształtował się w stosunku 4:1 na korzyść denominacji płockiej z tym, że około 30% wyznawców odeszło w ogóle od mariawityzmu. +Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów po rozłamie. +Po rozłamie Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów stopniowo odchodził od reform arcybiskupa Kowalskiego. Posiedzenie synodu, które odbyło się w dniach 30 kwietnia-6 maja 1935, oprócz postanowień określających stosunek Starokatolickiego Kościoła Mariawitów do państwa i podjęciu uchwały o zawiadomieniu Unii Utrechckiej o zaszłych zmianach, dokonało zasadnicze zmiany w Kościele. Synod przywrócił naruszone siedem sakramentów, uznał spowiedź ogólną i śluby cywilne. Małżeństwa kapłanów postanowiono pozostawić, ale uznać przy tym wolność celibatu dla tych, którzy by chcieli żyć w bezżeństwie. Kapłaństwo sióstr zakonnych uznano za instytucję prywatną w ich zgromadzeniu. Ustalono że proboszczem parafii może być tylko kapłan. Kapłanki miały pomagać kapłanom w ich pracy duszpasterskiej i kierować zakładami dobroczynnymi (kapłaństwo niewiast skasowano całkowicie 6 marca 1938). Nadto postanowiono przywrócić posty jako zalecenie Kościoła zgodne z nauką Chrystusa, ceremonie nabożeństw wielkotygodniowych, takich jak święcenie wody, oleju i inne sakramentalia. Od 1935 organem prasowym Kościoła był "Głos Prawdy" (w styczniu 1938 zmieniono tytuł na "Głos Staro-Katolicki"). +W 1939 kapłan Tomasz Czernohorski-Fehérváry założył misję mariawicką na Węgrzech. 11 listopada 1945 otrzymał sakrę biskupią z rąk biskupa Romana Jakuba Marii Próchniewskiego. W tym czasie Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów na Węgrzech posiadał 15 parafii i około 2 tysięcy wiernych. Wspólnota na Węgrzech została 27 grudnia 1948 zdelegalizowana przez władze komunistyczne. Duchowi pod groźbą więzienia otrzymali zakaz sprawowania posługi duszpasterskiej. Pomimo tego, kapłan Janos Maria Gracjan Simon zorganizował w swoim mieszkaniu prywatną kaplicę, w której odprawiał nabożeństwa. W 1964 biskup Tomasz Fehérváry zdołał opuścił potajemnie Węgry i udał się na emigrację. W czasie odwilży politycznej kapłan Gracjan zaczął przyjeżdżać do klasztoru przy Świątyni Miłosierdzia i Miłości w Płocku. Na stałe do Płocka przybył w 1969. +Okres II wojny światowej tragicznie zaznaczył się w życiu Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów. Mariawityzm jako wyznanie czysto polskie, ze względy na swój narodowy charakter, było szczególnie podejrzane przez Niemców. Nie uzyskało prawnego uznania do działania i przeznaczone było do likwidacji. Klasztor płocki został w 1941 zajęty przez nazistowskie władze okupacyjne. Hitlerowcy wysiedlili około dwustu jego mieszkańców, część poprzez obóz w Działdowie do Generalnego Gubernatorstwa, część natomiast do miasta bez przydziału mieszkań. W klasztorze pozostało 2 biskupów, 3 księży, 2 kleryków i kilkanaście sióstr zakonnych oraz świeckich osób pracujących w przyklasztornej piekarni. Zniszczono bogatą bibliotekę kościelną, wywieziono do Niemiec cenne i rzadkiej roboty aparaty kościelne oraz maszyny i urządzenia z przyklasztornych zakładów usługowych (drukarni, introligatorni). +W czasie działań wojennych zniszczeniu uległo wiele świątyń. Największe straty poniosły kościoły w Warszawie na ulicy Szarej, Wolskiej oraz w Wiśniewie koło Mińska Mazowieckiego. W Lipińskich koło Gąbina Niemcy rozebrali kościół do fundamentów. Obok strat w mieniu Kościół mariawitów poniósł niemałe straty w ludziach. Wiele osób, w tym duchownych, zginęło w obozach, część hitlerowcy wywieźli na przymusowe roboty do Niemiec. +W związku z oskarżeniem o pochodzenie żydowskie przez Gestapo, z kraju wyjechał biskup naczelny Kościoła Maria Filip Feldman, który objął placówkę Kościoła Starokatolickiego w Niemczech w Blumbergu. Biskup Feldman wrócił z Republiki Federalnej Niemiec w 1957, zamieszkał w klasztorze płockim i przez wiele lat redagował miesięcznik "Mariawita". O ile przed 1939 Kościół liczył 46 tysięcy wiernych, 67 parafii i ponad 30 filii parafialnych, 70 kościołów i około 60 kaplic to w 1970 miał 24 tysiące wiernych, 41 parafii i 33 kapłanów. Ze względu na nieobecność biskupa naczelnego w kraju, zaszła konieczność wyboru nowego zwierzchnika. Dokonała tego w dniach 3-5 lipca 1945 pierwsza po wojnie Kapituła Generalna Kapłanów Mariawitów. Na wakujące stanowisko Biskupa Naczelnego wybrano biskupa Romana Marię Jakuba Próchniewskiego. W latach 1945–1948 wydano akty normatywne regulujące położenie prawne i stosunek państwa do Starokatolickiego Kościoła Mariawitów. Po soborze watykańskim II nastąpiło ocieplenie relacji pomiędzy Kościołem rzymskokatolickim a mariawitami. +W latach 1957–1965 stanowisko naczelnego biskupa piastował Jan Maria Michał Sitek. Ten duchowny był entuzjastą języka esperanto. Przetłumaczył liturgię mszalną na ten międzynarodowy język. Podczas Światowego Kongresu Esperantystów w 1959 odprawił ekumeniczną Mszę św. w tym języku. Kolejnym zwierzchnikiem Kościoła (1965-1972) był biskup Wacław Maria Innocenty Gołębiowski. 6 sierpnia 1972 Stanisław Maria Tymoteusz Kowalski został konsekrowany na biskupa z udziałem starokatolickiego arcybiskupa Utrechtu Marinusa Koka i biskupa Haarlemu Gerarda van Kleefa oraz biskupów polskokatolickich Juliana Pękalę i Tadeusza Majewskiego. W tym samym miesiącu biskup Maria Tymoteusz stanął na czele Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów; urząd ten piastował niemal do śmierci (1997). W latach 1997-2007 zwierzchnikiem Kościoła był biskup Zdzisław Maria Włodzimierz Jaworski, a od 2007 (do chwili obecnej) - biskup Michał Maria Ludwik Jabłoński. +W okresie Polski Ludowej Kościół był zmuszony ograniczyć swoją działalność charytatywną, kulturalną a przed wszystkim gospodarczą. Duże gospodarstwa parafialne, które służyły do wyżywienia klasztorów były uznawane za kułackie i przeznaczone zgodnie z duchem ustawy wywłaszczeniowej do parcelacji. Władze państwowe przejmowały liczne zabudowania parafialne i obiekty użyteczności publicznej prowadzone przez mariawitów. Wysokie podatki prowadzenia gospodarstw powodowały powolny ekonomiczny upadek niektórych parafii. W niektórych przypadkach, z powodu nieopłaconych świadczeń względem państwa władze zajmowały płody rolne i hodowlane zwierzęta. Liczne parafialne zakłady usługowe zostały zlikwidowane, piekarnie często były przejmowane przez Gminne Spółdzielnie „Samopomocy Chłopskiej”. Dawne szkoły i ochronki mariawickie stały się obiektami państwowymi, a siostry zakonne, które w nich uczyły były zmuszone do zdejmowania habitów, jeśli chciały prowadzić dalszą działalność oświatową. Stan ten spowodował upadek powołań zakonnych do Zgromadzenia Sióstr Mariawitek oraz misji a także szerokiej pomocy charytatywnej Kościoła mariawitów. +W latach 70. XX w. "Apostolski Kościół Katolicki Paryża i Tours", posiadający sukcesję apostolską linii arcybiskupa Thomasa Feherwarego, podjął oficjalny dialog z Kościołem Starokatolickim Mariawitów. W 1988 dwaj francuscy biskupi mariawiccy: André Le Bec i Gerard Grateau zawarli interkomunię z Kościołem Starokatolickim Mariawitów w Polsce. W 1992 biskup Grateau został suspendowany przez biskupa naczelnego Stanisława Marię Tymoteusza Kowalskiego, z powodu udzielenia sakry, bez zgody biskupów mariawickich, kapłanowi A. Fraysse. Biskup Le Bec natomiast kontynuował współpracę, która zaowocowała utworzeniem 18 lutego 1992 prowincji francuskiej Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów. +Ekumenizm. +Od czasu wyłonienia się Kościoła mariawitów z Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego, mariawici stali się zwolennikami ekumenizmu i dialogu międzyreligijnego. Działalność mariawitów w dążeniu do przywrócenia chrześcijaństwu jedności znajduje oparcie również we skazaniach ich założycielki, św. Marii Franciszki Kozłowskiej, która odnosząc się do istniejących podziałów warunkowała zjednoczenie miłością jednych ku drugim. Myśl tę zawarła w słowach: "Każdy Kościół niech zachowuje zwyczaje, modły i nabożeństwa i niech drugiemu swoich praktyk religijnych nie narzuca. We wszystkim niech będzie miłość, w rzeczach niekoniecznych do zbawienia – wolność, a w koniecznych – jedność". +Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów był współzałożycielem Polskiej Rady Ekumenicznej i nadal jest jej aktywnym członkiem. Należy również do Światowej Rady Kościołów i Konferencji Kościołów Europejskich. Kościół uczestniczy w pracach nad tłumaczeniem ekumenicznego Pisma Świętego w Towarzystwie Biblijnym w Polsce, angażuje się również w działalność Ekumenicznego Forum Chrześcijanek Europy oraz utrzymuje przyjazne stosunki z Kościołami Unii Utrechckiej. Mariawici nawiązali interkomunię z Polskim Narodowym Kościołem Katolickim, Kościołem Polskokatolickim w RP, Kościołem Starokatolickim w Holandii, Kościołem Starokatolickim Austrii i Kościołem Starokatolickim w Czechach. +W następstwie obrad soboru watykańskiego II zmienił się stosunek Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego do Kościoła i społeczności mariawitów. W 1971 Komisja Episkopatu do spraw Ekumenizmu przesłała list "Do Braci Mariawitów" z prośbą o przebaczenie win, jakie rzymskokatolicy popełnili wobec mariawitów. W 1986 po raz pierwszy od 80 lat, przybył do kościoła mariawickiego w Warszawie i homilię wygłosił biskup rzymskokatolicki, Władysław Miziołek, który uczestniczył we wspólnym nabożeństwie ekumenicznym razem z biskupem mariawickim Antonim Marią Romanem Nowakiem. Wcześniej nieoficjalną wizytę w mariawickiej Świątyni Miłosierdzia i Miłości w Płocku złożył kardynał Karol Wojtyła. +W lipcu 1983 kapłan mariawicki, Konrad Maria Paweł Rudnicki, za specjalnym zezwoleniem, przed 6 dni odprawiał Msze Święte według rytuału mariawickiego w jednej z kaplic rezydencji papieskiej w Castel Gandolfo. W związku z przypadającą w 1993 setną rocznicą powstania mariawityzmu, Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów zorganizował w latach 1991–1994 ekumeniczne sympozja teologiczne na temat ujęcia Miłosierdzia Bożego w poszczególnych wyznaniach chrześcijańskich. +Od 1997 pracuje Komisja Mieszana do spraw Dialogu Teologicznego między Kościołem Rzymskokatolickim i Kościołem Starokatolickim Mariawitów, której współprzewodniczą biskupi obu Kościołów: mariawicki biskup Michał Maria Ludwik Jabłoński i rzymskokatolicki biskup włocławski Bronisław Dembowski. 23 stycznia 2000 roku nastąpiło podpisanie wspólnej deklaracji o wzajemnym uznawaniu sakramentu Chrztu Świętego przez sześć Kościołów należących do Polskiej Rady Ekumenicznej i Kościół Rzymskokatolicki. Wcześniej dwustronne dokumenty w sprawie sakramentów pomiędzy Kościołem rzymskokatolickim a Kościołem Starokatolickim Mariawitów zostały podpisane w 1974, a potwierdzone w 1978. +Doktryna. +Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów opiera się na starodawnych katolickich zasadach wiary i moralności. Zasady te zawarte są w księgach kanonicznych Pisma Świętego Starego i Nowego Testamentu oraz dogmatach i tradycji niepodzielonego Kościoła określone na pierwszych siedmiu soborach powszechnych. Opiera się również na Objawieniu o Bożym Miłosierdziu, otrzymanym przez Założycielkę mariawityzmu świętą Marię Franciszkę Kozłowską, wskazującym, że ratunek dla pogrążonego w grzechach świata jest w Chrystusie obecnym w Przenajświętszym Sakramencie oraz we wzywaniu nieustającej pomocy Matki Boskiej. Niepokalane Poczęcie i Wniebowzięcie Najświętszej Maryi Panny mimo szczególnego szacunku, jakim się je otacza, traktowane są jako prawda wiary, a nie jako dogmat, co znaczy, że wiara w nie nie jest uważana za konieczną do zbawienia. +Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów nie ustanawia dogmatów i nie uznaje tych dogmatów, które zostały ogłoszone po rozdziale Kościoła powszechnego w 1054 roku. Uważa bowiem, że tylko sobór ekumeniczny jako reprezentujący całe chrześcijaństwo, może ustanawiać dogmaty obowiązujące wszystkich chrześcijan. Nie uznaje też prymatu żadnego biskupa oraz nieomylności człowieka w sprawach wiary i moralności. Wszystkie posługi w Kościele są bezpłatne, zgodnie z zaleceniem Chrystusa: "Darmoście wzięli, darmo dawajcie" (Mt 10,8). Duchowieństwu wolno jest przyjmować dobrowolne ofiary za posługi religijne, ale nie może ich żądać. +Kościół uznaje siedem katolickich Sakramentów Świętych: chrzest, bierzmowanie, Eucharystia, pokuta, kapłaństwo, małżeństwo i namaszczenie chorych. Komunia Święta udzielana jest wiernym pod postaciami chleba i wina. Spowiedź uszna przed kapłanem obowiązuje dzieci i młodzież, mogą z niej korzystać dorośli na własne życzenie, ale wszystkich obowiązuje spowiedź ogólna przed Chrystusem z rozgrzeszeniem kapłana. W Kościele Starokatolickim Mariawitów nie istnieje obowiązkowy celibat duchownych. +Wiernym Kościoła jest ten, kto przyjmuje naukę wiary głoszonej przez Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów, należy do określonej parafii i uznaje ustanowione zasady organizacji i działalności Kościoła. Mariawici uważają dogmaty jako drogowskazy, przez co nie uznają ekskomunik, a więc nie wykluczają ze swego grona myślących inaczej. +Kult. +Najwyższą cześć mariawici oddają Bogu w Trójcy Przenajświętszej jedynemu, Ojcu, Synowi i Duchowi Świętemu. Centralnym elementem kultu oddawanego Bogu jest Msza Święta, która jest uobecnieniem zbawczej Ofiary Chrystusa. Głównym zadaniem mariawitów jest szerzenie czci dla Przenajświętszego Sakramentu, która w życiu wiernych ma się wyrażać w częstym i godnym przyjmowaniu Komunii Świętej oraz odprawianiu adoracji ubłagania. Każdy z wyznawców powinien odprawiać godzinną adorację Przenajświętszego Sakramentu raz w tygodniu oraz wspólną uroczystą raz w miesiącu a także uczestniczyć w niedziele i święta we Mszy Świętej. Duchowieństwo i siostry zakonne mają obowiązek odprawiać adorację codziennie. +Kult maryjny w życiu religijnym Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów zajmuje poczesne miejsce zgodne z tradycją Kościoła katolickiego i tradycją polską. Podstawą tego kultu jest szczególne miejsce i rola Maryi w dziele zbawienia, Jej wybranie, dziewictwo i boskie macierzyństwo. Szczególną czcią darzona jest Matka Boska Nieustającej Pomocy, jej obrazy znajdują się w każdej świątyni mariawickiej. Kościół Starokatolicki Mariawitów oddaje także cześć świętym, aniołom i męczennikom. Szczególnym szacunkiem darzeni są: św. Maria Franciszka Kozłowska, św. Franciszek z Asyżu, św. Klara, św. Józef, św. Anna, św. Alfons, św. Ludwik, św. Jan Chrzciciel, św. Michał Archanioł a także apostołowie i ewangeliści. W kulcie świętych jednak zachowuje się właściwy umiar i powagę, przytacza ich jako wzory do naśladowania, a opierając się na wierze w świętych obcowanie, Kościół uznaje ich za osoby mogące się wstawiać za ludem do Boga przez Chrystusa – jedynego pośrednika i zbawiciela. Kościół wierzy, że Bóg sprawuje cuda w duszy człowieka, ale nie uznaje cudownych relikwii, kultu obrazów i figur. Nie odrzuca jednak wielkiego poszanowania, jakim powinno się otaczać obrazy treści religijnej oraz relikwie i pamiątki po świętych. +W Kościele mariawitów wszystkie czynności liturgiczne oraz Msze Święte są odprawiane są w języku narodowym od 1907. Większości nabożeństw towarzyszy wystawienie Przenajświętszego Sakramentu. W Polsce Msza Święta sprawowana jest przodem do tabernakulum, w zmodyfikowanym rycie trydenckim. +Duchowni. +Duchownym Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów może być mężczyzna, który ukończył Chrześcijańską Akademię Teologiczną w Warszawie – wydział Teologia starokatolicka lub Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów w Płocku oraz uzyskał akceptację władz kościelnych. Duchowieństwo tworzą biskupi, kapłani i diakon. Biskupem w Kościele Starokatolickim Mariawitów jest kapłan wybrany przez kapitułę generalną lub synod, konsekrowany przez trzech biskupów Kościoła – głównym konsekratorem jest z urzędu biskup naczelny. W Kościele Starokatolickim Mariawitów kapłani mają obecnie wolność wyboru odnośnie stanu cywilnego: mogą zawrzeć związek małżeński lub złożyć śluby zakonne, albo też żyć w samotności. Siostry zakonne natomiast muszą złożyć śluby czystości. Wszystkich duchownych obowiązuje zachowanie ducha franciszkańskiego. Duchownym w ich pracy ma przyświecać hasło: "Wszystko na większą chwałę Bożą i cześć Najświętszej Maryi Panny". +Mariawicki habit zaprojektowany przez św. Marię Franciszkę to szara tunika z wyłożonym na nią białym kołnierzykiem – koloratką. Sutanna przepasana jest paskiem. Na habit kapłani zakładają dodatkowo popielaty szkaplerz z wyhaftowaną małą monstrancją na wysokości piersi. Nakrycie głowy stanowi biret w kolorze habitu. Biskupi dodatkowo noszą, zawieszony na szyi, pektorał. Patronem Zgromadzenia Kapłanów Mariawitów jest św. Alfons Liguori. +Aktualnie episkopat Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów tworzą: bp André Le Bec – ordynariusz prowincji francuskiej, bp Michał Maria Ludwik Jabłoński – biskup naczelny Kościoła, ordynariusz diecezji warszawsko-płockiej i czasowo lubelsko-podlaskiej, bp Zdzisław Maria Włodzimierz Jaworski – ordynariusz diecezji śląsko-łódzkiej, bp Piotr Maria Bernard Kubicki – biskup pomocniczy (sufragan) diecezji śląsko-łódzkiej, bp Antoni Maria Roman Nowak – biskup senior diecezji lubelsko-podlaskiej. +Organizacja. +Według prawnie obowiązującego statutu Kościoła jego władzami są: synod, kapituła generalna, rada Kościoła, biskup naczelny, biskup diecezjalny, zebranie parafialne, rada parafialna i proboszcz. +Synod jest zwierzchnią władzą oraz instancją ostateczną od uchwał i decyzji innych władz Kościoła. Stanowią go biskupi, kapłani, przedstawicielki sióstr zakonnych i delegaci z każdej parafii. Kapituła generalna jest ogólnym zgromadzeniem wszystkich biskupów i prezbiterów, do niej należą najważniejsze sprawy duchowieństwa, takie jak: wybór kandydatów do święceń kapłańskich i biskupich. Rada Kościoła jest władzą zarządzającą i wykonawczą w Kościele wybieraną na okres siedmiu lat przez kapitułę generalną, w ilości siedmiu członków (w tym wszyscy biskupi). Biskup naczelny wybierany przez synod lub kapitułę generalną pełni jednocześnie funkcję przewodniczącego rady Kościoła i reprezentuje Kościół na zewnątrz. Kościół jako całość i każda poszczególna parafia posiadają osobowość prawną. +Administracyjnie Kościół złożony jest z trzech diecezji w Polsce: lubelsko-podlaskiej z siedzibą w Wiśniewie, śląsko-łódzkiej z siedzibą w Łodzi i warszawsko-płockiej z siedzibą w Płocku; oraz z zagranicznej prowincji francuskiej z siedzibą w Paryżu. +Kościół zrzesza około 30 tysięcy wiernych w 36 parafiach i ich filiach oraz żyjących w diasporze czyli poza wspólnotami parafialnymi. Najwięcej wiernych mieszka w okolicach Łodzi, Zgierza, Mińska Mazowieckiego, Warszawy, Płocka, Paryża oraz Koziegłów. Posiada 48 kościołów i kaplic. Siedzibą władz zwierzchnich Kościoła jest Świątynia Miłosierdzia i Miłości w Płocku. +Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów w RP + +Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej – chrześcijański kościół starokatolicki nurtu i tradycji mariawickiej, prawnie działający na terenie Polski. Siedzibą władz Kościoła jest miejscowość Felicjanów w powiecie płockim. Zwierzchnikiem Kościoła jest siostra biskupka Damiana Maria Beatrycze Szulgowicz. Kościół liczy obecnie około 2 tysięcy wyznawców, 19 placówek i 11 duchownych. Posiada 1 czynny kościół i 17 kaplic. +Mariawityzm wyodrębnił się z polskiego Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego w 1906. Powodem secesji było niezaakceptowanie przez hierarchię polską i papieża w Rzymie działalności Zgromadzenia Kapłanów Mariawitów, które powstało na skutek objawienia Dzieła Wielkiego Miłosierdzia, jakie otrzymała siostra zakonna Maria Franciszka Kozłowska 2 sierpnia 1893 w Płocku. +Nazwa. +W latach 1906-1909 wspólnota mariawitów funkcjonowała jako samodzielne wyznanie, lecz nie jako Kościół w rozumieniu katolickim. Dopiero po konsekracji biskupa Kowalskiego, 5 października 1909, stała się ona Kościołem, przyjmując nazwę Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów. W 1919 Kościół, dając wyraz swej przynależności do Unii Utrechckiej, zrzeszającej Kościoły starokatolickie, przyjął nazwę Staro-Katolicki Kościół Mariawitów. +Podczas rozłamu w mariawityzmie obydwie strony starały się zachować dotychczasową nazwę Kościoła: "Starokatolicki Kościół Mariawitów", w rezultacie zwolennicy arcybiskupa Kowalskiego powrócili do pierwotnej nazwy z czasów życia Mateczki, która brzmiała: "Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów". +W języku potocznym dla rozróżnienia dwóch polskich nurtów w mariawityzmie, stosuje się określenie: denominacja felicjanowska, nurt abp. Kowalskiego lub mariawityzm reformowany. +Historia. +W wyniku rozłamu w Kościele Mariawickim, zapoczątkowanego jesienią 1934, a zakończonego formalnie uchwałą kapituły generalnej z dnia 29 stycznia 1935, nastąpił podział wśród duchowieństwa, sióstr zakonnych i wiernych na dwie grupy. Po stronie dotychczasowego zwierzchnika Jana Marii Michała Kowalskiego opowiedziało się 9 biskupek, 10 kapłanów (w tym 5 za granicą), 50 kapłanek, 80 sióstr zakonnych oraz około 7000 wiernych. Podział liczbowy wiernych w parafiach ukształtował się w stosunku 4:1 na korzyść grupy płockiej, z tym, że około 30% wyznawców odeszło w ogóle od mariawityzmu. Po rozłamie w łonie mariawityzmu za arcybiskupem Kowalskim opowiedzieli się wszyscy duchowni przebywający poza granicami Polski, w wyniku czego Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów posiadał placówki we Francji, na Litwie i w Wielkiej Brytanii. Arcybiskup Kowalski, pod wpływem również płockich administracyjnych organów państwowych, zrzekł się urzędu, Świątyni i klasztoru w Płocku. Został przewieziony z grupą stu dwunastu zwolenników z Płocka do odległego o 18 km Felicjanowa. W okresie sporu o utrzymanie dotychczasowej nazwy "Starokatolicki Kościół Mariawitów", grupa felicjanowska powróciła do nazwy z okresu życia Założycielki, to jest "Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów". +Arcybiskup Kowalski, osiadły w Felicjanowie, kontynuował wydawanie listów pasterskich. Listem pasterskim z dnia 12 maja 1935 udzielił władzy kapłańskiej całemu ludowi mariawickiemu. Była to oficjalna realizacja ogłoszonego wcześniej tak zwanego kapłaństwa ludowego. Tuż po tym z rąk trzech sióstr biskupek: Honoraty Próchniewskiej, Melanii Kubickiej i Dezyderii Spodarówny, sakrę biskupią otrzymał największy zwolennik arcybiskupa Kowalskiego – kapłan Stanisław Maria Tytus Siedlecki, proboszcz z Łowicza. Ten pośpiech w święceniach oraz wprowadzenie powszechnego kapłaństwa ludu był realizacją zamierzeń arcybiskupa Kowalskiego, z drugiej zaś strony tłumaczyć można to brakiem kadr do obsady placówek parafialnych. Zwierzchnik Kościoła wprowadził publiczny kult św. Marii Franciszki; zmienił liturgię mszy świętej, a listem pasterskim z dnia 25 lipca 1935 ogłosił świętość Założycielki Feliksy Marii Franciszki Kozłowskiej i stanął w jej obronie. +9 lipca 1936 arcybiskup Michał został osadzony w więzieniu na podstawie niewykonywanego wyroku z 22 października 1931, a następnie, na żądanie biskupa Klemensa Marii Filipa Feldmana, Urząd Wojewódzki w Warszawie zabezpieczył majątek Felicjanów przed, jak mówi pismo: "rozgrabieniem go przez pozostałe siostry mariawitki". Po powrocie z więzienia arcybiskup Kowalski ogłosił jeszcze nową naukę o Trójcy Świętej. 4 września 1938 arcybiskup Kowalski konsekrował kapłana Paula Marię Marca Fatôme na biskupa Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów we Francji. Po śmierci biskupa Fatôme placówka w Nantes ulega likwidacji. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej w 1939 arcybiskup Jan Maria Michał Kowalski wystosował list do Kanclerza III Rzeszy Adolfa Hitlera, w którym między innymi sprzeciwiał się aneksji Gdańska oraz wzywał go do uznania w mariawityzmie Dzieła Miłosierdzia Bożego i zaprzestania przelewu krwi. Spowodowało to zainteresowanie się okupanta niemieckiego tą niewielką wspólnotą religijną i zakwalifikowania jej jako niebezpiecznej dla planów politycznych III Rzeszy na ziemiach polskich. 25 stycznia 1940 arcybiskup Jan Maria Michał Kowalski został aresztowany przez Gestapo i uwięziony w Płocku, a następnie 25 kwietnia 1941 wywieziony do obozu w Dachau "za nienawiść do narodu niemieckiego". Chodziło o napisane przed wybuchem wojny artykuły polityczne "Gdańsk i Prusy Wschodnie powinny wrócić do Polski" oraz "Lucyfer". +Jako więzień obozu koncentracyjnego przebywał wśród księży rzymskokatolickich. Wśród nich był biskup pomocniczy z Włocławka Michał Kozal. Biskup Franciszek Korszyński w książce "Jasne promienie w Dachau" wspomina o postawie Kowalskiego z wielkim uznaniem. Liczący siedemdziesiąt lat starzec, wyróżniał się swoją otyłością i przeżył w obozie prawdziwe męczeństwo. Namawiany przez księży-współwięźniów, by wyrzekł się swoich wierzeń i wrócił do Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego – zdecydowanie odmawiał. Zachowywał się godnie, dużo się modlił, znosił po bohatersku swoje cierpienia. Zginął w wieku 70 lat dnia 18 maja 1942, jako obozowy numer 24542, wywieziony z Dachau w transporcie inwalidzkim i zagazowany w Hartheim pod Linzem. +Wkrótce po aresztowaniu arcybiskupa zostali wywiezieni do obozów w Działdowie, a potem Dachau trzej duchowni: Aleksander Maria Stefan Szulgowicz, Piotr Maria Dominik Dąbrowski i Wacław Maria Augustyn Gapiński, którzy tam zginęli. W marcu 1941 nastąpiło wysiedlenie wszystkich mieszkańców Felicjanowa. Do obozów w Działdowie i Pomiechówku wywieziono 158 osób, z których większość następnie deportowano do Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. +Po wyzwoleniu, do zdewastowanego przez Niemców Felicjanowa wrócili pozostali przy życiu jego mieszkańcy, doprowadzając obiekty do stanu użytkowego. Po śmierci arcybiskupa Kowalskiego na czele Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów stanęła przełożona Zgromadzenia Sióstr Mariawitek, siostra arcykapłanka Antonina Maria Izabela Wiłucka-Kowalska. Arcykapłanka kierowała Kościołem aż do śmierci 28 listopada 1946, pozostawiając o sobie wśród mariawitów bardzo pozytywną opinię, a po śmierci uznana została przez wiernych za świętą męczennicę. +W chwili jej śmierci mariawityzm felicjanowski miał jeszcze osiem sióstr biskupek: Marię Celestynę Kraszewską (1899-1977), Marię Dilektę Rasztawicką (1905-1995), Marię Honoratę Klichowską-Próchniewską (1878-1962), Marię Melanię Kubicką (1895-1956), Marię Eufemię Nyk (1898-1981), Marię Dezyderię Spodar (1902-1993), Marię Emmę Piotrowską (1901-1994), Marię Michaelę Wnuk (1907-1982), dwóch biskupów: Marię Tytusa Siedleckiego (1869-1955) i Paula Marię Marka Fatôme we Francji (1873-1951) oraz dwóch biskupów elektów: Józefa Marię Rafaela Wojciechowskiego (1917-2005) i Marię Natanaela Golacika (1918-1984). Wcześniej zmarli biskupi Litwy: Antoni Maria Feliks Tułaba (1873-1944) i Józef Maria Antoni Hrynkiewicz (1866-1938). +W 1946 na czele Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów stanął biskup Józef Maria Rafael Wojciechowski, natomiast przełożoną Zgromadzenia Sióstr Mariawitek została biskupka Maria Dilekta Rasztawicka. Na początku 1950 utworzona została Rada Przełożonych z nowo wybranym ministrem generalnym, arcybiskupem Wojciechowskim, jako przewodniczącym. W 1960 Urząd do Spraw Wyznań zatwierdził statut Zgromadzenia Sióstr Mariawitek w Felicjanowie, a w 1968 statut Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów, uchwalony przez Kapitułę Generalną w dniu 14 maja 1967. +9 października 1984 odbyło się spotkanie pomiędzy przedstawicielami Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego oraz Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów na temat wzajemnego uznania sakramentu chrztu. +30 maja 1993 w święto Zesłania Ducha Świętego siostry Damiana Maria Beatrycze Szulgowicz i Hanna Maria Rafaela Woińska zostały konsekrowane na nowe biskupki Kościoła. Po śmierci arcybiskupa Józefa Marii Rafaela Wojciechowskiego (17 marca 2005), siostra Beatrycze została nowym zwierzchnikiem Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów, nie przyjęła jednak przysługującego jej tytułu arcykapłanki. Siostra Beatrycze jest również przełożoną Zgromadzenia Sióstr Mariawitek (od 1995). +Po transformacji ustrojowej w Polsce nastąpiło ostateczne uregulowaniu położenia prawnego Kościoła ustawą z dnia 20 lutego 1997 o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów w RP. +Ekumenizm. +Po II wojnie światowej Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów podjął starania o przyjęcie do Chrześcijańskiej Rady Ekumenicznej w Polsce. Wkrótce starania te zostały przerwane z powodu niejasnego stanowiska kierownictwa tej organizacji. Wspólnota prowadziła rozmowy na temat zjednoczenia z Kościołem Starokatolickim Mariawitów. Mimo podjętych prób w latach 1947, 1953, 1962 i 1968, nie doszło do zjednoczenia obydwu denominacji mariawickich. +9 października 1984 doszło do spotkania pomiędzy przedstawicielami Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego oraz Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów na temat sakramentu chrztu. W wyniku spotkania oświadczono, że strona Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego nie ma żadnych wątpliwości co do ważności chrztu udzielanego w Kościele Katolickim Mariawitów, to samo oświadczenie złożył przełożony Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów arcybiskup Maria Rafael Wojciechowski. Po podpisaniu porozumienia strona rzymskokatolicka zwróciła się do Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów o dodatkowe wyjaśnienia w sprawie rozumienia Trójcy Świętej w tym wyznaniu. Wyjaśnień tych nie udzielono do dziś. +Aktualnie przedstawiciele Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów biorą udział w nabożeństwach ekumenicznych i innych uroczystościach niektórych mniejszościowych Kościołów chrześcijańskich w Polsce. Kościół felicjanowski nie utrzymuje oficjalnych kontaktów z mariawitami żyjącymi poza granicami Rzeczypospolitej. +Doktryna. +Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów opiera swoją naukę na Piśmie Świętym jako głównym fundamencie. Uznaje naukę Kościoła powszechnego wyrażoną w symbolach wiary, w kanonach siedmiu pierwszych soborów ekumenicznych oraz w Tradycji zinterpretowanej przez Ojców Kościoła. Kościół opiera swoją naukę i życie także na Objawieniach Dzieła Wielkiego Miłosierdzia św. Marii Franciszki Kozłowskiej i na Tradycji mariawickiej, do której zalicza głównie pisma arcybiskupa Michała Kowalskiego, komentujące życie i Objawienia Mateczki, i rozwijające naukę mariawicką. Kościół Mariawitów odrzuca dogmat o prymacie jurysdykcyjnym i nieomylności papieża oraz naukę o odpustach. +Mariawici felicjanowscy nauczają, że św. Maria Franciszka jest Oblubienicą Chrystusa, która dopełniła Dzieła Odkupienia i zapoczątkowała erę Ducha Świętego. Uważają ją za niewiastę z Apokalipsy "obleczoną w słońce" i "przybraną w pas arcykapłański". Święta Maria Franciszka Kozłowska została zrównana w kulcie z Matką Bożą. Ku jej czci wprowadzono kilka świąt kościelnych, modlitw oraz litanii. Według teologii Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów, kult Mateczki – Małżonki Chrystusowej oraz Matki Bożej obejmie w przyszłości cały świat. +Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów rozwinął chrześcijańską naukę o Trójcy Świętej, to znaczy naukę o udziale wszystkich Trzech Osób Boskich w Dziełach Odkupienia i Odnowienia człowieka przez cześć Przenajświętszego Sakramentu, a także o obecności Trójcy Świętej w Eucharystii, przez Którą Bóg ma dokonać ostatecznego zbawienia świata. Koncepcja ta zakłada, że tak, jak Druga Osoba Trójcy Świętej – Syn Boży wcielił się w Jezusa Chrystusa, tak Bóg Ojciec wcielił się w Maryję, a Duch Święty w Marię Franciszkę Kozłowską. Mariawici felicjanowscy uznają Jezusa, Maryję oraz Marię Franciszkę Kozłowską za członków Trójcy Świętej wcielonej (tj. uznanie ich jako Osób Boskich). +Arcybiskup Jan Maria Michał Kowalski jest obdarzany szczególną czcią oraz tytułem "świętego męczennika". Mariawici uważają, że to o nim prorokowali polscy wieszcze narodowi, jak Adam Mickiewicz i Juliusz Słowacki. Juliusz Słowacki wieszczył o nim w wierszu o papieżu słowiańskim. W podobnym duchu uważają, że o Polsce i o mariawityzmie wieszczyli Zygmunt Krasiński, Maria Konopnicka, Stanisław Wyspiański oraz Kornel Ujejski. Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów naucza, iż Msza Święta sprawowana w grzechu ciężkim lub za pieniądze jest nieważna. +Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów przyjmuje siedem katolickich sakramentów świętych, przy czym podczas chrztu świętego udzielany jest także sakrament bierzmowania oraz pierwszej Komunii Świętej. Mariawici felicjanowscy odrzucają spowiedź uszną, uznają jedynie spowiedź powszechną przed Chrystusem. Przy sprawowaniu sakramentu namaszczenia chorych nie używa się oleju; poprzestaje się jedynie na udzieleniu Komunii Świętej. Władzę sprawowania sakramentów świętych mają wszyscy wierni. +Kult. +Najwyższą cześć mariawici oddają Bogu w Trójcy Przenajświętszej jedynemu, Ojcu, Synowi i Duchowi Świętemu. Centralnym elementem kultu oddawanego Bogu jest Msza Święta, która jest uobecnieniem zbawczej Ofiary Chrystusa. Głównym zadaniem mariawitów jest szerzenie czci dla Przenajświętszego Sakramentu, która w życiu wiernych ma się wyrażać w częstym i godnym przyjmowaniu Komunii Świętej oraz odprawianiu adoracji ubłagania. Każdy z wyznawców powinien odprawiać godzinną adorację Przenajświętszego Sakramentu raz w tygodniu oraz wspólną uroczystą raz w miesiącu, a także uczestniczyć w niedziele i święta we Mszy Świętej. Duchowieństwo i siostry zakonne mają obowiązek odprawiać adorację codziennie. +W Kościele mariawitów wszystkie czynności liturgiczne oraz Msze Święte odprawiane są w języku narodowym od 1907. Większości nabożeństw towarzyszy wystawienie Przenajświętszego Sakramentu. Komunia Święta udzielana jest wiernym pod postaciami chleba i wina. Msza Święta sprawowana jest przodem do tabernakulum, w obrządku zbliżonym do rytu trydenckiego. Cała liturgia mariawicka koncentruje się na Eucharystii, która jest na pierwszym planie. Na zakończenie Mszy Świętej odmawiane są modlitwy do Ducha Świętego. +Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów oddaje także cześć świętym, aniołom i męczennikom. Szczególnym szacunkiem darzeni są: św. Maria Franciszka Kozłowska, św. Franciszek z Asyżu, św. Michał Kowalski, św. Izabela Wiłucka, św. Klara, św. Józef, św. Anna, św. Alfons, św. Ludwik, św. Maria Magdalena, św. Hildegarda, a także apostołowie i ewangeliści. W kulcie świętych jednak zachowuje się właściwy umiar i powagę, przytacza ich jako wzory do naśladowania, a opierając się na wierze w świętych obcowanie, Kościół uznaje ich za specjalnych pośredników między ludem a Chrystusem. +Kościół wierzy, że Bóg sprawuje cuda w duszy człowieka, nie uznaje więc cudownych relikwii, kultu obrazów i figur. Nie odrzuca jednak wielkiego poszanowania, jakim powinno się otaczać obrazy treści religijnej oraz relikwie i pamiątki po świętych. Mariawici felicjanowscy odrzucają wszelkie sakramentalia, a także wszelkie praktyki pokutne i obowiązkowe posty. Zniesione zostały wszystkie dodatkowe ceremonie, jakie dotychczas miały miejsce w czasie nabożeństw Wielkiego Tygodnia, łącznie ze święceniem olejów, ognia, wody, cierni, kredy czy ubieraniem grobów. W nabożeństwach tych centralne miejsce zajmuje uroczysta Msza Święta oraz adoracja Przenajświętszego Sakramentu, połączona z rozważaniem Męki Pańskiej. +Do ksiąg liturgicznych Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów należą: Mszał, rytuał, Brewiarz Eucharystyczny i Psałterz do Ducha Przenajświętszego. Szaty liturgiczne używane są w dwóch kolorach: białym i fioletowym. Siostry biskupki zamiast mitry na welony zakładają haftowane diademy. Kapłaństwo ludowe nie używa ornatów ani kap, ewentualnie komżę i stułę. Jeśli kapłan ludowy czy kapłanka przewodniczą wspólnym zgromadzeniom modlitewnym, wówczas sprawują je w szatach liturgicznych. Dla wiernych świeckich przeznaczona jest do odprawiania na co dzień Msza Święta Ludowa. +Duchowni. +Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów pod względem struktury duchowej składa się z kapłaństwa służebnego oraz kapłaństwa ludowego. +Kapłaństwo służebne, zwane także kapłaństwem hierarchicznym, składa się obecnie tylko z kobiet, które ukończyły wydział teologii starokatolickiej na Chrześcijańskiej Akademii Teologicznej w Warszawie lub Seminarium Duchowne Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów w Felicjanowie oraz uzyskały akceptację władz kościelnych. Kapłaństwo służebne tworzą biskupki i kapłanki. Ich zadaniem jest opieka duszpasterska nad wiernymi oraz duchowe wsparcie i kierownictwo nad kapłaństwem ludowym i całym Kościołem. +Biskupki i kapłanki należą do Zgromadzenia Sióstr Mariawitek. W Kościele Katolickim Mariawitów kapłani służebni mieli wolność wyboru odnośnie stanu cywilnego: mogli zawrzeć związek małżeński z kapłanką albo też żyć w samotności. Kościół zalecał, aby kapłani zawierali związki małżeńskie z siostrami zakonnymi, co miało służyć ich wewnętrznemu rozwojowi, jak i pełnionej misji. Wszystkich duchownych obowiązuje zachowanie ducha franciszkańskiego, a w ich pracy ma przyświecać hasło: "Wszystko na większą chwałę Bożą, cześć Najświętszej Maryi Panny i naszej Najdroższej Mateczki". +Biskupem Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów może być kapłan bądź kapłanka wybrana przez kapitułę generalną, konsekrowana przez przynajmniej jednego biskupa Kościoła. Aktualnie episkopat w Kościele tworzą: biskupka Damiana Maria Beatrycze Szulgowicz, zwierzchnik Kościoła, biskupka Hanna Maria Rafaela Woińska, kustoszka warszawska, oraz biskupka elekta Kazimiera Maria Alma Białkowska. Zwierzchnikowi Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów przysługuje tytuł arcybiskupa w przypadku mężczyzny lub arcykapłanki w przypadku kobiety. Obecna zwierzchnik Kościoła, biskupka Damiana Maria Beatrycze Szulgowicz, nie przyjęła tytułu arcykapłanki. +Kapłaństwo ludowe, zwane także powszechnym, składa się z wiernych mężczyzn i kobiet. Każdy z członków Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów może sprawować sakramenty święte i nie potrzebuje do tego żadnego dodatkowego wykształcenia. W wielu parafiach kapłani ludowi przewodniczą wspólnym zgromadzeniom liturgicznym, nazywani są wtedy liderami wspólnoty. Kapłaństwo ludowe ma obowiązek sprawować swoje kapłaństwo w łączności z przełożonymi i w zależności od nich. +Wszystkie posługi w Kościele są bezpłatne, zgodnie z zaleceniem Chrystusa: "Darmoście wzięli, darmo dawajcie" (Mt 10,8). Duchowieństwu wolno jest przyjmować dobrowolne ofiary za posługi religijne, ale nie może ich żądać. +Organizacja. +W myśl statutu Kościoła kieruje nim Rada Przełożonych złożona z trzech osób: arcybiskupa jako przewodniczącego, przełożonej Zgromadzenia Kapłanek oraz sekretarza wybranego przez kapitułę generalną. Zwierzchnią władzą jest kapituła generalna, w skład której wchodzą wszyscy duchowni, po trzech przedstawicieli ze zgromadzeń zakonnych oraz po jednym delegacie świeckim z każdej parafii i filii. +Ponadto w Krakowie znajduje się ekumeniczna placówka unijna płocko-felicjanowska. +Wspólnota posiada 19 placówek, z czego 14 parafii. Tylko jedna parafia posiada kościół (w Długiej Kościelnej), zaś większość placówek użytkuje kaplice domowe (17). Placówka w Krakowie nie posiada własnej świątyni (korzysta z kościoła ewangelicko-augsburskiego). Siedzibą władz zwierzchnich Kościoła jest Felicjanów w gminie Bodzanów. Znajduje się tam klasztor z kaplicą Nieustającej Adoracji Ubłagania. +W Kościele Katolickim Mariawitów w Polsce pracuje 11 duchownych: 3 biskupki i 8 kapłanek. Reszta to kapłani ludowi. W Polsce żyje około 2,5 tysiąca mariawitów felicjanowskich, z czego 1980 przypisanych jest do konkretnych parafii. Największe skupiska mariawitów znajdują się w okolicy Łodzi, Strykowa, Łowicza, Płocka, Warszawy i Sulejówka. W powiecie brzezińskim, jako jedynym w Polsce, działają 4 parafie Kościoła (na ogólną liczbę 14). Diaspora Kościoła zamieszkuje m.in. Kraków, Gdańsk, Szczecin i Będzin. +Hrabstwo Galway + +Hrabstwo Galway (irl. "Contae na Gaillimhe") – hrabstwo na zachodnim wybrzeżu Irlandii, w prowincji Connacht. Hrabstwo wzięło nazwę od miasta Gaillimh (Galway), które jest jego stolicą. Hrabstwo pod względem wielkości ustępuje jedynie hrabstwu Cork. +Hrabstwo obejmuje kilka odrębnych terytoriów, Iar Chonnachta – część na zachód od Lough Corrib, oraz Connemara na dalekim zachodzie i Joyce Country na północnym zachodzie. Zamieszkane wyspy należące administracyjnie do hrabstwa to Oileáin Árann (Wyspy Aran) i Inis Bó Fine (Inishbofin). +Najciekawsze miejsca: Connemara, Kylemore Abbey, Wyspy Aran, Kilmacduagh (klasztorna osada na granicy hrabstw Galway i Clare), miasteczko Clifden, Galway (miasto). +Włodzimierz Puchalski + +Włodzimierz Puchalski (ur. 6 marca 1909 w Mostach Wielkich koło Lwowa, zm. 19 stycznia 1979 na Wyspie Króla Jerzego) – polski przyrodnik, myśliwy, fotograf, reżyser filmów przyrodniczych. +Autor określenia "bezkrwawe łowy", odnoszącego się do fotografowania przyrody. +Droga życiowa Puchalskiego. +Pasją fotografowania "zaraził się" w domu rodzinnym. Jego ojciec uprawiał fotografię zwierząt i krajobrazu. Chociaż najbardziej znany jest z "bezkrwawych łowów", od 13 roku życia był myśliwym. W wieku 14 lat (1923) otrzymał od swojego dziadka, Hieronima Sykory, swój pierwszy aparat fotograficzny (miechowy). Po ukończeniu szkoły średniej odbywał służbę wojskową w Korpusie Kadetów nr 1 we Włodzimierzu Wołyńskim. W 1931 roku rozpoczął studia na Akademii Rolniczej w Dublanach na Wydziale Rolniczo-Leśnym, zakończone uzyskaniem dyplomu inżyniera agronoma. +Od 1933 do 1936 był asystentem prof. Witolda Romera przy Katedrze Fotochemii Politechniki Lwowskiej, z którym wspólnie realizował filmy oraz opracował metodę robienia filmów przyrodniczych. Swój pierwszy film przyrodniczy zatytułował "Bezkrwawe łowy". W 1936 roku był autorem pierwszej w Polsce wystawy o tematyce przyrodniczej i myśliwskiej. W 1937 roku zdobył Złoty Medal na Wielkiej Olimpiadzie Łowiectwa w Berlinie za zdjęcie przedstawiające dzika w lesie. W latach 1937-39 był asystentem prof. Wodzickiego przy Zakładzie Anatomii Zwierząt i Histologii Szkoły Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie, gdzie opracował metodę posługiwania się filmami i przezroczami w czasie wykładów uniwersyteckich. W tym czasie wyjeżdżał dwukrotnie jako polski delegat do największej europejskiej stacji ornitologicznej w Rosji. Stał się powszechnie znany. Wielokrotnie przyjmowany był przez prezydenta Mościckiego (m.in. w 1938 fotografował polowanie organizowane przez prezydenta, w którym uczestniczył Göring). Otrzymał również wiele zamówień na fotografię przyrodniczą od czasopism krajowych i zagranicznych. Do 1939 roku sześciokrotnie zdobywał pierwsze miejsce w konkursie fotograficznym "Łowca Polskiego". +W 1939 czynnie uczestniczył w wojnie obronnej. W czasie II wojny światowej pracował jako leśniczy w Puszczy Sandomierskiej. Po wyzwoleniu rozpoczął pracę w Katedrze Genetyki. W 1946 organizował krakowski Instytut Filmowy. +W semestrze wiosennym 1946, jako pracownik Państwowego Instytutu Robót Ręcznych (PIRR), prowadził w Bielsku kurs nauki posługiwania się filmem, obsługi aparatów filmowych i sposobów filmowania rzeczy i zjawisk potrzebnych w naukach przyrodniczych. Każdy z uczestników miał możliwość samodzielnego nakręcenia filmu przez pięć minut. Kurs kończył się w lipcu 1946 roku. +W 1949 rozpoczął pracę w Instytucie Zootechniki Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, gdzie stworzył dział dokumentacji fotofilmowej zwierząt. Od 1956 pracował w Wytwórni Filmów Oświatowych w Łodzi jako operator i reżyser. W 1957 i 1958 wziął udział w dwóch arktycznych wyprawach na Spitsbergen. W 1976 roku przeszedł na emeryturę. +W 1978 wyjechał do Antarktyki z wyprawą organizowaną przez Polską Akademię Nauk. Zmarł w czasie wykonywania zdjęć na Wyspie Króla Jerzego i tam też został pochowany. Grób Włodzimierza Puchalskiego został wpisany na listę obiektów historycznych Antarktyki pod numerem 51 (HSH No.51). +Był daltonistą i niemal wszystkie jego filmy oraz fotografie są czarno-białe. Wyjątek to kolorowe zdjęcia z ostatniej wyprawy na Antarktydę. Bogate zbiory zdjęć Puchalskiego można podziwiać na zamku w Niepołomicach. +Taktyka motti + +Taktyka motti – taktyka fińskich wojsk stosowana w czasie II wojny światowej w walce przeciwko radzieckiej Armii Czerwonej. Polegała na rozdzielaniu dużych sił nieprzyjaciela na mniejsze grupy, a następnie okrążaniu ich i niszczeniu głodem oraz ogniem strzelców wyborowych, przy jednoczesnym manewrowym odpieraniu prób odsieczy. +Określenie "motti" pochodzi od sterty drewna. Fińscy drwale byli opłacani za ilość "motti", jakie udało się im naskładać. Zazwyczaj tworzyli oni jedno "motti", znaczyli je i posuwali się dalej, podobny sposób postępowania z wrogiem można było zaobserwować w taktyce wojsk fińskich. Bardzo duża liczba żołnierzy była w "cywilu" drwalami, stąd pochodzenie nazwy. "Motti" w polskiej terminologii wojskowej odpowiada znaczeniem słowu "kocioł". +Taktyka ta była wykorzystywana na dużą skalę podczas wojny zimowej, kiedy nieliczne, ale dobrze wyszkolone i dowodzone fińskie oddziały okrążały i rozbijały znacznie silniejsze siły wroga. Wyposażona w narty mobilna fińska piechota przenikała na flanki i tyły radzieckich kolumn zmotoryzowanych, gdy te posuwały się leśnymi traktami. Niespodziewanie atakując jednocześnie w kilku miejscach, Finowie zmuszali przeciwnika do rozczłonkowania swych sił, a następnie izolowali jego poszczególne grupy w tzw. "motti". Mniejsze "motti" były szybko likwidowane, natomiast większe oblegane i nękane do czasu aż się poddadzą. +Najbardziej spektakularnym przykładem zastosowania tej taktyki była bitwa pod Suomussalmi (7 grudnia 1939 – 8 stycznia 1940), gdy trzy fińskie pułki piechoty otoczyły i zniszczyły na leśnej szosie dwie radzieckie dywizje piechoty i brygadę pancerną. +Skoki narciarskie na mistrzostwach świata w narciarstwie klasycznym + +Skoki narciarskie na mistrzostwach świata w narciarstwie klasycznym (znane też jako mistrzostwa świata w skokach narciarskich) są częścią mistrzostw świata w narciarstwie klasycznym odbywających się co 2 lata. Pierwszy konkurs odbył się w 1925 roku w Jańskich Łaźniach (Czechosłowacja). Przed II wojną światową impreza rozgrywana była praktycznie corocznie, a od 1950 roku wprowadzono czteroletni cykl, na przemian z sezonem olimpijskim. Dopiero w 1985 roku zdecydowano o 2 letniej przerwie między mistrzostwami. +Od samego początku do roku 1962, skoczkowie rozgrywali tylko jeden konkurs indywidualny i to na dużo mniejszych niż obecnie obiektach (najwyższa skocznia o punkcie konstrukcyjnym K-70). Od 1962 do 1989 r. skoczkowie skakali na dwóch rodzajach skoczni: K-70 i K-90, gdzie wyłaniano dwóch mistrzów świata. W roku 1991 po raz pierwszy skakano na skoczniach K-120. Od 1982 roku w skład mistrzostw świata weszły konkursy drużynowe – do roku 2001 tylko jeden konkurs, a dopiero w 2001 – pod naciskiem gospodarzy – zorganizowano w Lahti aż dwa konkursy drużynowe: na skoczni K-90 i K-120. Od 2009 roku rozgrywany jest również konkurs pań na skoczni normalnej. +Trzykrotnie mistrzostwa świata odbyły się w Polsce, w Zakopanem (1929, 1939 i 1962). W całej historii mistrzostw świata w narciarstwie klasycznym reprezentanci Polski zdołali wywalczyć w skokach narciarskich 10 medali, a to za sprawą Stanisława Marusarza (1938) – srebro, Antoniego Łaciaka (1962) – srebro, Stanisława Gąsienicy Daniela (1970) – brąz, Adama Małysza – (2001) – złoto i srebro, (2003) – dwa złota, (2007) – złoto, (2011) – brąz oraz Kamila Stocha (2013) – złoto. +Kwestia podwójnego mistrzostwa. +Do roku 1980 każdy medalista igrzysk olimpijskich zostawał automatycznie medalistą mistrzostw świata. Tym samym pierwszym Polakiem, który został mistrzem świata w skokach narciarskich jest Wojciech Fortuna, który wygrał złoto na olimpiadzie w Sapporo w 1972 roku. W poniższej statystyce nie uwzględniono jednak tego faktu, traktując te dwie imprezy niezależnie. +Oratorium Gallarus + +Séipéilín Ghallarais, Oratorium Gallarus - niewielka świątynia z VI/IX wieku znajduje się w hrabstwie Kerry w Irlandii. Jest najlepiej zachowanym wczesnośredniowiecznym kościołem w tym rejonie. Zbudowana została podobnie jak neolityczne grobowce. +Aldabra + +Aldabra – największy atol w archipelagu Aldabra na Oceanie Indyjskim i jeden z największych na świecie, po m.in. Kiritimati, złożony z 4 wysp koralowych otaczających płytką lagunę należy do Republiki Seszeli. Powierzchnia 154 km². +W roku 1982 atol został wpisany na lista światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. Jest to ścisły rezerwat przyrody z ograniczonym dostępem dla ruchu turystycznego. +Obserwabla + +Obserwabla – w mechanice kwantowej wielkości fizyczne są reprezentowane przez operatory hermitowskie zwane obserwablami. Aby dany operator był obserwablą, jego wektory własne muszą tworzyć bazę przestrzeni Hilberta. Wartości własne operatora hermitowskiego są rzeczywiste. Podczas pomiaru danej wielkości fizycznej otrzymuje się jako wynik jedną z wartości własnych obserwabli przyporządkowanej danej wielkości fizycznej. +gdzie formula_7 jest wartością własną operatora formula_1. W szczególności dla obserwabli jest to liczba rzeczywista. +Wartości własne mogą być zdegenerowane, tzn. jednej wartości własnej odpowiada kilka liniowo niezależnych wektorów własnych. +Kapo + +Kapo – oznaczenie funkcji pełnionej przez więźniów w nazistowskich obozach koncentracyjnych. +Funkcja. +Kapo był szefem komanda roboczego. Na kierownicze funkcje wybierano często pospolitych kryminalistów i sadystów. Kapo mimo że był więźniem, cieszył się wieloma przywilejami. W zamian za pełnioną funkcję dostawał m.in. dodatkowe porcje wyżywienia. Miał bardzo dużą władzę nad podległymi więźniami – za pobicie, odebranie jedzenia, czy nawet zabicie więźnia nie groziły mu żadne kary. Niektórzy słynęli z dużego sadyzmu, zdarzali się jednak wśród nich członkowie obozowego ruchu oporu. +Moc obliczeniowa + +Moc obliczeniowa komputera – liczba działań arytmetycznych, jakie może wykonać komputer w danym czasie. +Pierwsze komputery wykonywały działania na liczbach całkowitych. Od lat 60. XX wieku większy nacisk kładzie się na działania na liczbach zmiennoprzecinkowych, wygodniejszych w większości zastosowań. Współcześnie moc obliczeniową wyraża się zwykle w liczbie takich operacji na sekundę (FLOPS – ang. "FLoating point Operations Per Second"). +Pomiar mocy obliczeniowej. +Ponieważ komputery mają różne architektury, sama moc obliczeniowa nie zawsze wystarcza do porównania dwóch systemów komputerowych. Istnieje wiele innych czynników wpływających na efektywność danego systemu, takich jak wydajność pamięci operacyjnej, komunikacji między podzespołami i pamięci podręcznej czy zbiór rozkazów procesora. +Dodatkowo same liczby zmiennoprzecinkowe mogą być reprezentowane w różny sposób, np. jako 32-bitowe lub 64-bitowe (podwójnej precyzji), co sprawia że obliczenia na nich trudno porównywać. Dlatego niezależnie od podawanej przez producentów mocy obliczeniowej, mierzy się ją często za pomocą testów wzorcowych. +Henryk Mosing + +Henryk Mosing – "Ojciec Paweł" (ur. 27 stycznia 1910 we Lwowie, zm. 27 listopada 1999 we Lwowie) – polski lekarz, epidemiolog, bliski współpracownik prof. Rudolfa Weigla w badaniach nad szczepionką przeciwtyfusową, po wygnaniu Polaków ze Lwowa nie opuścił miasta aż do śmierci, potajemnie wyświęcony na kapłana przez kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego, człowiek o silnym charakterze, wielkiej charyzmie i wielkim sercu, Sługa Boży. +Biografia. +Urodził się we Lwowie w rodzinie, w której zawód lekarza dziedziczyło się z pokolenia na pokolenie. Lekarzami byli jego pradziad, dziad i ojciec. Od 1920 uczęszczał do III, później IV gimnazjum we Lwowie, zaś od 1921 (po przeprowadzce rodziny do Przemyśla) do II Państwowego Gimnazjum im. Kazimierza Morawskiego w Przemyślu. Maturę zdał w Przemyślu w 1928, po czym rozpoczął studia medyczne na Wydziale Lekarskim Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie. Ukończył je w 1934. W 1937 uzyskał tytuł doktora medycyny. +W czasie studiów zaangażował się w działania na polu religijno-społecznym. Był członkiem i jednym z najaktywniejszych działaczy Stowarzyszenia Katolickiej Młodzieży Akademickiej "Odrodzenie". W roku akademickim 1930/1931 wszedł, m.in. wraz z Jerzym Turowiczem do jego lwowskiego zarządu. Tam też poznał wielu późniejszych przyjaciół, wśród których był m.in. Stefan Swieżawski, jeden z czołowych działaczy "Odrodzenia", znawca filozofii średniowiecznej, późniejsi księża: Aleksander Fedorowicz i Henryk Hlebowicz oraz działacz lewicowy Henryk Dembiński. Duży wpływ na kształtowanie się jego dojrzałej wiary miały też kontakty z duszpasterzem akademickim młodzieży lwowskiej ks. Gerardem Szmydem oraz dominikaninem o. Jackiem Woronieckim. Jego działalność charytatywna skoncentrowana w Towarzystwie św. Wincentego a Paulo polegała m.in. na odwiedzaniu chorych i ubogich oraz niesieniu im pomocy materialnej i moralnej, otaczaniu opieką osób opuszczających więzienie itp. +Równocześnie ze studiami i działalnością religijno-społeczną od 1930 kolejno jako woluntariusz, asystent a następnie starszy asystent, pracował w laboratorium duru plamistego przy Zakładzie Biologii Ogólnej Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza, utworzonym w 1921 i kierowanym przez prof. dr Rudolfa Weigla, znanego lwowskiego zoologa i bakteriologa, wynalazcę szczepionki przeciw tyfusowi plamistemu. +Od 1935 do 1939 pracował w Centralnym Laboratorium Biologicznym Państwowego Zakładu Higieny w Warszawie zachowując cały czas kontakt z prof. Weiglem. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej wrócił do Lwowa i podjął pracę w Instytucie Badań nad Tyfusem Plamistym prof. Rudolfa Weigla. Instytut ten funkcjonował nieprzerwanie przez okres okupacji sowieckiej (22 września 1939 – 29 czerwca 1941) i niemieckiej (29 czerwca 1941 – 27 lipca 1944). Dr Mosing kierował oddziałem Instytutu na ul. Potockiego, w budynku dawnego Gimnazjum im. Królowej Jadwigi. Organizował i uczestniczył w ekspedycjach medyczno-naukowych na zagrożonych tyfusem terenach Huculszczyzny. +W okresie okupacji niemieckiej Lwowa dzięki niezwykłej odwadze prof. Rudolfa Weigla, przy współpracy dra Mosinga oraz całego zespołu naukowego, szczepionka przeciw tyfusowi plamistemu produkowana w instytucie trafiała nie tylko do rąk okupanta, ale także do oddziałów polskiego ruchu oporu, do obozu pracy przymusowej dla Żydów przy ul. Janowskiej, do warszawskiego getta i do innych miejsc. +Praca karmicieli i preparatorów wszy w Instytucie dawała skuteczną ochronę przed represjami okupantów – dlatego – dzięki bezprzykładnej odwadze prof. Rudolfa Weigla, dr Anny Herzig, dr Henryka Mosinga i innych pracowników naukowych tej placówki zatrudniano tam osoby szczególnie zagrożone i pozbawione środków do życia: profesorów wyższych uczelni, studentów, przedstawicieli inteligencji, ruchu oporu. +W marcu 1944, po ewakuacji prof. Weigla ze Lwowa do Krościenka, dr Mosing kierował lwowskim Laboratorium Przeciwtyfusowym. Zaraz po wkroczeniu wojsk sowieckich dr Mosing objął kierownictwo naukowe instytutu, któremu nadano nazwę Instytutu Epidemiologii. +Po wygnaniu Polaków ze Lwowa dr Henryk Mosing pozostał w rodzinnym mieście. Stosownie do przepisów sowieckich, w czerwcu 1948 uzyskał stopień kandydata nauk medycznych, a w grudniu 1956 stopień doktora nauk medycznych. +W latach powojennych dr Henryk Mosing otaczał szczególną opieką ludność polską pozostałą na ziemiach jej przodków, jak i tych Polaków, których system sowiecki rozrzucił po całym terytorium ZSRR, starając się ich pozbawić poczucia tożsamości narodowej i doprowadzić do pełnej ateizacji. Ofiarnie podejmował opiekę nad bezdomnymi dziećmi, pomagając im w zdobyciu wykształcenia i obraniu drogi życiowej. Poza Polakami byli to także Rosjanie, Żydzi, Ukraińcy. +W sierpniu 1957, gdy przyjechał w nowe granice Polski, zastała go wiadomość o śmierci prof. Rudolfa Weigla. Podczas uroczystości pogrzebowych na cmentarzu Rakowickim w Krakowie wygłosił wówczas pożegnalne przemówienie. W 1961, podczas jednej z kolejnych podróży do Polski, kardynał Stefan Wyszyński, prymas Polski wraz z arcybiskupem metropolitą krakowskim Karolem Wojtyłą, udzielił Henrykowi Mosingowi święceń kapłańskich w Laskach pod Warszawą. Należy pamiętać że były to w ZSRR lata ustawicznej walki z religią i prześladowań Kościoła, szczególnie Kościoła katolickiego, dlatego ta sfera działalności dr Mosinga musiała pozostać w głębokiej tajemnicy. +Ksiądz doktor Henryk Mosing potajemnie, nielegalnie wychowywał młodzież, wielu przygotował do święceń kapłańskich, prowadząc w Instytucie i swoim mieszkaniu tajne seminarium duchowne. Jednym z jego wychowanków jest obecny biskup pomocniczy Archidiecezji Lwowskiej, ks. Leon Mały. +Ostatnie pięć lat życia ks. dr Henryka Mosinga naznaczone było ciężką obłożną chorobą. Zmarł we Lwowie 27 listopada 1999. Został pochowany w grobowcu rodzinnym na Cmentarzu Łyczakowskim. +Pierścień Kerry + +Pierścień Kerry (Ring of Kerry, Kerry Ring) – szlak turystyczny w hrabstwie Kerry w południowo-zachodniej Irlandii biegnący dookoła półwyspu Iveragh na zachodnim brzegu Irlandii, długość ok. 180 km. +Bardzo malownicza trasa biegnie przez wioski rybackie, niewielkie góry, wybrzeże Oceanu Atlantyckiego. Zwykle turyści zaczynają podróż w Killarney. Dalej przez Killorglin, Caherciveen, Waterville, Sneem i Kenmare. Po drodze można zwiedzać: Muckross House (w pobliżu Killarney), Staigue Fort, Derrynane House, dom Daniela O'Connella, grodzisko Staigue Fort, przełęcz Moll, wszystkie zlokalizowane w Parku Narodowym Killarney. +Novell Linux Desktop + +Novell Linux Desktop – zestaw oprogramowania systemowego i użytkowego, stanowiący kompletną platformę biurową do zastosowań ogólnych i specjalistycznych, np. w kioskach informacyjnych, urzędach i innych publicznych miejscach, gdzie nie ma użytkowników posiadających stałe konta. +Windows Update + +Windows Update – darmowa usługa aktualizacji systemów z rodziny Windows opracowana przez firmę Microsoft. Umożliwia wyszukiwanie, pobieranie i instalację różnych aktualizacji do systemu Windows. +Sposoby korzystania z usługi. +Z usługi można korzystać na dwa sposoby: ręcznie wywołując aktualizację (w zależności od wersji systemu poprzez witrynę sieci Web lub panel sterowania) oraz poprzez "aktualizacje automatyczne". +Dla systemu Windows 98 dostępne jest narzędzie "powiadamianie o krytycznej aktualizacji systemu Windows", które w odróżnieniu do "aktualizacji automatycznych" jedynie informuje użytkownika o istnieniu niezainstalowanych aktualizacji i zaleca odwiedzenie Windows Update. +Witryna Windows Update (a także Microsoft Update) dostępna w starszych systemach wykorzystuje technologię ActiveX, która jest obsługiwana jedynie przez silnik przeglądarki Internet Explorer. Witryna nie działa na przeglądarkach używających innego silnika. +Gmina Miastko + +Gmina Miastko – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie pomorskim, w powiecie bytowskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie słupskim. +W skład gminy wchodzi 28 sołectw: Biała, Bobięcino, Chlebowo, Czarnica, Dolsko, Dretyń, Dretynek-Trzcinno, Głodowo, Kamnica, Kawcze, Kwisno-Szydlice, Lubkowo, Miłocice, Okunino-Kowalewice, Pasieka, Piaszczyna, Popowice, Przęsin, Role-Żabno, Słosinko, Świeszyno, Świerzenko, Świerzno, Turowo, Wałdowo, Wołcza Mała, Węgorzynko, Wołcza Wielka +Siedziba gminy to Miastko. Na terenie gminy znajduje się 1 miasto i 33 wsie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2008 gminę zamieszkiwały 19 609 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 21,29% powierzchni powiatu. +Oświata. +PRZEDSZKOLA +SZKOŁY PODSTAWOWE +GIMNAZJUM +SZKOŁY PONADGIMNAZJALNE +SZKOŁA MUZYCZNA +SZKOŁY DLA DOROSŁYCH +Sąsiednie gminy. +Biały Bór, Kępice, Koczała, Kołczygłowy, Lipnica, Polanów, Trzebielino, Tuchomie +Warunki naturalne. +Rzeźba terenu silnie zróżnicowana, silnie zalesiona (49,6% powierzchni gminy). Dominują drzewostany iglaste, stanowiące ponad 75%. Ponad połowa wszystkich gleb gminy Miastko należy do V i VI klasy bonitacyjnej. +Najbardziej charakterystyczną cechą krajobrazu gminy Miastko jest wielka liczba jezior, wśród których 28 ma powierzchnię ponad 10 ha, 48 liczy ponad 1 ha, a mniejszych jest ponad 100. Wśród nich znajdują się głównie polodowcowe jeziora rynnowe, morenowe i lobeliowe. Na terenie gminy znajduje się największe w Polsce jezioro lobeliowe - Bobięcińskie Wielkie +Jedne z większych wzniesień to Skibska Góra i Rozwaliny na zachodnich krańcach gminy. +12 małp + +12 małp – film produkcji amerykańskiej z gatunku science fiction z 1995 roku w reżyserii Terry'ego Gilliama inspirowany francuskim filmem krótkometrażowym z 1962 roku pt. "Filar". +Opis fabuły. +Jest rok 2035, Ziemię opanował śmiertelny wirus, który doprowadził do zagłady ludzkości. Ci, którym udało się przeżyć, kryją się pod ziemią, nie przestając marzyć o powrocie do normalnego świata. Więzień James Cole w zamian za obietnicę skrócenia kary podejmuje ryzyko przemieszczenia się w czasie. Wysłany w przeszłość do roku 1996 ma zebrać informacje o pochodzeniu wirusa, by zapobiec tragedii. Przez pomyłkę trafia do roku 1990, do szpitala psychiatrycznego. Uznany za psychopatę zostaje pacjentem instytutu dla umysłowo chorych. Powraca do swojego świata i podejmuje kolejne próby trafienia w odpowiedni czas. +"Dwanaście małp" jest kasandryczną wizją końca ludzkości, zlikwidowanej przez wirus stworzony w laboratorium dr. Lelanda Goinesa. Główny bohater filmu, James Cole, jest człowiekiem, który trafia do lat 90. XX wieku z przyszłości, by dowiedzieć się czegoś więcej na temat epidemii i przekazać informacje agentom, którzy za nim przybyli w przeszłość. Po kilku nieudanych próbach przenoszenia się w czasie Cole w końcu trafia na ślad początku epidemii. Towarzyszy mu uprowadzona przez niego dr psychiatrii Kathryn Railly, dająca się przekonać, iż jego wspomnienia z przyszłości nie są wynikiem schizofrenii, lecz odnoszą się do realnej rzeczywistości. +Miastko + +Miastko (kaszb. "Miastkò", niem. "Rummelsburg", ros. i ukr. "Мястко") – miasto w woj. pomorskim, w południowo-zachodniej części powiatu bytowskiego, położone na Pomorzu Zachodnim, nad rzeką Studnicą, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Miastko. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2009 r. Miastko miało 10 841 mieszkańców. +W miejscowości działał "Zakład Rybacki Miastko" wchodzący w skład "Państwowego Gospodarstwa Rybackiego Słupsk". +Położenie. +Miastko leży na Pojezierzu Bytowskim, nad rzeką Studnicą (będącą lewym dopływem Wieprzy). Mimo że miasto znajduje się w woj. pomorskim, historycznie należy do Pomorza Zachodniego. +W latach 1945-1946 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. gdańskiego, w latach 1946-1950 do woj. szczecińskiego, w latach 1950-1975 do woj. koszalińskiego, a w latach 1975-1998 do woj. słupskiego. +Miastko położone jest 220 km na północny wschód od Szczecina, 63 km na południe od Koszalina, 45 km na zachód od Bytowa, 130 km na zachód od Gdańska. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 r. powierzchnia miasta wynosi 5,68 km². +Warunki naturalne. +W okolicach Miastka, przy źródłach rzeki Studnicy, znajduje się źródło wody głębinowej – Hammer. +Historia. +Miastko było starym osiedlem słowiańskim. Pierwsze wzmianki o miejscowości, określanej wówczas zarówno jako "miasteczko", jak i "wieś", pochodzą z dokumentów z lat 1335, 1368, 1478, 1496 i 1506. Miastko było wówczas własnością lenną niemieckiej rodziny von Massow. W latach 1616-1617 mieszkańcy wszczęli bunt przeciw Massowom. Zamieszki w Miastku trwały właściwie do wybuchu wojny trzydziestoletniej. Wymiernym efektem buntu było otrzymanie w 1617 r. po raz pierwszy przez Miastko praw miejskich. W latach 1628 (podczas wycofywania się stacjonującej przez rok w mieście armii cesarskiej) i 1657 (podczas najazdu wojsk polskich w ramach wojny polsko-szwedzkiej) dwa pożary zniszczyły ponad 1/3 budynków w mieście, zaś 26 czerwca 1719 r. trzecia pożoga zniszczyła miasto właściwie w całości (pozostają jedynie dwa ocalałe budynki). Od 1637 roku Miastko należało do Szwecji, a od 1657 r. do Brandenburgii. Mimo nadania praw miejskich rodzina von Massow w dalszym ciągu traktowała Miastko jako swoją własność, dalsze spory spowodowały nawet interwencję króla Fryderyka Wilhelma I w 1721 r. Spór został jednak ostatecznie zakończony wyrokiem sądu nadwornego w Koszalinie (1781). Po raz pierwszy w historii siedzibą powiatu zostało Miastko w 1843 r. +Od połowy XVIII w. datuje się w Miastku gwałtowny rozwój przemysłu – głównie włókienniczego (będącego kontynuacją miasteckich tradycji sukienniczych) i drzewnego. W 1840 r. otworzono pierwszy w mieście młyn parowy. W 1878 r. przez miasto przebiegła pierwsza linia kolejowa, a w 1909 r. – druga. Do wybuchu II wojny światowej w Miastku funkcjonowały cztery zakłady włókiennicze i jeden zakład drzewny. +26 sierpnia 1939 r. ogłoszono w Miastku stan wojenny. Miastko przetrwało wojnę bez większych zniszczeń, ale zdobyte 3 marca 1945 r. przez żołnierzy radzieckich doznało z ich ręki zniszczeń sięgających 70% istniejących w mieście budowli. Już 14 marca 1945 r. utworzono powiat miastecki. Reforma z 1946 r. umieściła Miastko w województwie szczecińskim, z kolei w 1950 r. powiat miastecki znalazł się województwie koszalińskim. Następna reforma administracyjna w 1975 r. zniosła podział na powiaty i umieściła Miastko w województwie słupskim. Rok 1998 przyniósł w Miastku powstanie Społecznego Komitetu Obrony Powiatu Miasteckiego i wielkie protesty, mimo których po kolejnej reformie w 1999 r. Miastko pozostało jedynie gminą i znalazło się w powiecie bytowskim. +W 2009 r. rozpoczęto w Miastku emisję dukatów lokalnych, które nazwano rummelami. W 2012 roku ukazała się książka Miejsko-Gminnego Ośrodka Kultury pt.: „ Historia i Kultura Ziemi Miasteckiej i okolic”. +Toponimia. +Niemiecka nazwa Miastka – Rummelsburg, jak głosi legenda, pochodzi od imienia pomorskiego rozbójnika Rummela, grasującego w dawnych czasach w okolicach dzisiejszego Miastka. Rodzina von Massow miała zaoferować Rummelowi na własność taki obszar ziemi, jaki zdoła od wschodu do zachodu słońca przejechać konno, o ile rozbójnik zaprzestanie swej działalności. Na ziemiach przekazanych Rummelowi miał powstać "Rummelsburg", czyli Miastko. +Polska nazwa miasta nawiązuje do użytego 25 listopada 1506 przez Bogusława X określenia "Stedken" czyli miasteczko. Polska nazwa "Miastko" używana była przez polskich kartografów i źródła encyklopedyczne. Zarządzenie Ministrów: Administracji Publicznej i Ziem Odzyskanych z 7 maja 1946 ustaliło dla pomorskiego miasta o dotychczasowej nazwie (niemieckiej) "Rummelsburg", nazwę Miastko z "przypadkiem II - 'Miastka' i przymiotnikiem 'miastecki' ". +Herb. +Herb Miastka wywodzi się z herbu jego dawnych właścicieli – rodziny von Massow. W herbie Miastka widnieje czerwona falista wstęga na srebrnym tle, zaś w herbie rodziny von Massow widoczne są dwie czerwone poprzeczne belki na srebrnej tarczy. Na przestrzeni wieków falista belka została przemieszczona w dół, by stworzyć miejsce dla dodatkowego motywu – pomorskiego Gryfa, ukazanego tylko częściowo (górna część), który trzyma kosę, aby podkreślić typowo rolniczy charakter regionu Miastka. +Na przestrzeni wieków herb ulegał częstym zmianom. W XVII w. miasto wprowadziło w pieczęci pruskiego orła. W końcu XIX w. nowe pieczęcie miejskie mają raz tarczę z poprzecznym strumieniem, raz z rosnącym gryfem. Zarząd miasta Rummelsburg posiadał do wybuchu II wojny światowej owalną pieczęć z rosnącym gryfem nad tarczą. Herb powiatu Rummelsburg został zaprojektowany przez prof. Otto Huppa z Monachium i zatwierdzony dekretem pruskiego ministra państwowego w dniu 5 marca 1932 r. W obrazie tym na srebrnym tle czerwony gryf trzyma w szponach niebieską kosę osadzoną w żółtej rękojeści. +Miastczanie. +Od 2007 przyznawane są statuetki Miasteckiej Victorii dla osób zaangażowanych w życie miasta i gminy. +Podział administracyjny. +Osiedla. +Miastko dzieli się na 6 osiedli jako jednostki pomocnicze ponumerowane w kolejności od 1 do 6. +Osiedle podmiejskie +Komunikacja. +Przez miasto przebiega także linia kolejowa +Kiedyś Miastko stanowiło węzeł kolejowy, lecz linia Bytów – Miastko została rozmontowana i w tej chwili przez Miastko przebiega tylko jedna linia kolejowa. +Według planów z 1941 r. w okolicach Miastka miała przebiegać autostrada (tzw. berlinka) – miała mijać Miastko od południowego zachodu (w okolicach Miłocic do dziś są widoczne pozostałości prac ziemnych przy przecięciu planowanego szlaku autostrady z rzeką Czernicą) w kierunku północnego wschodu, gdzie w okolicach Brzeźna Szlacheckiego miała przecinać ówczesną granicę niemiecko-polską. +Instytucje. +Wspólnoty religijne. +Większość mieszkańców Miastka stanowią wierni Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego (parafie NMP Wspomożenia Wiernych i Miłosierdzia Bożego). Na terenie miasta działalność duszpasterską prowadzi także Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP i Kościół greckokatolicki. Działalność religijną prowadzi też miejscowy Chrześcijański Zbór Świadków Jehowy. +Samorząd lokalny. +Administracja niemiecka +Administracja polska +Miastem partnerskim Miastka jest niemieckie Bad Fallingbostel; umowę o partnerstwie miast podpisano 7 października 2000 r. +Górnopłat + +Górnopłat to samolot lub szybowiec, którego skrzydła umieszczone w górnej części kadłuba pośrednio (parasol) lub bezpośrednio. Stosowany często w naddźwiękowych myśliwcach ze względu na mały opór, dużą nośność oraz wzrost stateczności. Często używany w samolotach myśliwsko-bombowych, bombowych i transportowych, ze względu na łatwość załadunku (komora załadunkowa może znaleźć się nisko nad ziemią) np. Lockheed C-130 Hercules. +Odmianą górnopłata jest płat Puławskiego zwany też płatem polskim. +Zegar ciemniowy + +Zegar ciemniowy – element wyposażenia ciemni fotograficznej służący do precyzyjnej regulacji czasu działania lampy w powiększalniku. +Urządzenie ustawia się zazwyczaj szeregowo pomiędzy źródłem prądu i powiększalnikiem, w miejscu dogodnym do operowania nim, czyli gdzieś na stole obok powiększalnika. Służy nie tylko do wykonywania naświetleń ale również do włączania światła stałego w powiększalniku na czas kadrowania. Niegdyś były to urządzenia elektromechaniczne z mechanizmem zegarowym, obecnie wyłącznie elektroniczne. Z dodatkowych opcji zegar może posiadać pamięć ustawień. +Zegar ciemniowy powinien posiadać konstrukcję odporną na agresywne środowisko chemiczne panujące w ciemni, obudowę ciemną a ewentualny wyświetlacz barwy czerwonej lub bursztynowej dla ochrony materiałów światłoczułych. Wiele zegarów ciemniowych, także współczesnych, nie posiada zresztą w ogóle wyświetlaczy, natomiast cechą charakterystyczną tych urządzeń są pokrętła z klikiem umożliwiające ustawianie zegara na słuch. Zamiast jednego, może do tego celu służyć nawet więcej pokręteł, np. dla ustawiania sekund, ich dziesiątek oraz setek. +Niemiecki Obóz Zagłady w Bełżcu + +Niemiecki Obóz Zagłady w Bełżcu - Sonderkommando Belzec der Waffen-SS, Belzec – pod taką nazwą funkcjonował od marca do grudnia 1942 roku niemiecki obóz zagłady. Obóz ten położony był na południe od wsi Bełżec, nieopodal linii kolejowej Lublin-Lwów. +Historia obozu. +Wcześniejsze okoliczne obozy pracy. +W okolicy Bełżca już od 1940 roku istniały stworzone przez Niemców obozy pracy ("Arbeitslager"). Więźniowie osadzeni w tych obozach pracowali przy budowie obronnych konstrukcji granicznych (linia Ottona) oraz przy rozbudowie sieci kolejowej. Więźniami byli najczęściej Polacy podejrzewani o udział w ruchu oporu, inteligencja, Cyganie i Żydzi z Zamojszczyzny. Obozy pracy nie były bezpośrednio powiązane z założonym później obozem zagłady w Bełżcu. +Na terenie Generalnego Gubernatorstwa istniały ponadto liczne obozy przejściowe m.in. w Zamościu i Izbicy. Prawdopodobnie do jednego z takich obozów przedostał się w 1942 roku w niemieckim mundurze Jan Karski, aby zebrać informacje do swojego tajnego raportu dla aliantów. +Obóz zagłady. +Obóz w Bełżcu jest słabo poznany, gdyż nie zachowały się archiwalia i dokumentacja obozowa. Znanych jest wiele relacji świadków, jednak tylko nieliczne są cytowane w literaturze. Zeznania świadków istnieją w aktach dochodzenia, które było prowadzone przez Główną Komisję Badania Zbrodni Niemieckich w Polsce. Komisja ta wydała w 1947 roku Biuletyn (tom 3), w którym odtajniła m.in. fragmenty zeznań świadków Rudolfa Redera, Stanisława Kozaka i Mieczysława Garfinkla. Wśród przesłuchiwanych świadków byli m.in.: były więzień obozu, budowniczy obozu, przewodniczący Gminy Żydowskiej w Zamościu, zawiadowca stacji w Bełżcu. Wyniki dochodzenia przeprowadzonego przez Główną Komisję pozwoliły na szczegółowe odtworzenie obrazu obozu w Bełżcu, jego urządzenia, czasu trwania, zespołu załogi, przebiegu likwidowania ofiar. Wyniki tego dochodzenia pozwoliły przede wszystkim na ustalenie z dużym prawdopodobieństwem systemu uśmiercania i liczby uśmierconych osób. Dochodzenie prowadzone przez Główną Komisję oparło się na zeznaniach świadków i wynikach przeprowadzonych badań terenu, na którym znajdował się obóz. +Założenie obozu. +W sierpniu 1941 roku, pięć tygodni po niemieckim ataku na ZSRR, byłe polskie terytorium wschodniej Galicji, z populacją żydowską liczącą około 0,5 mln osób, zostało włączone do Generalnego Gubernatorstwa (GG). W rezultacie Bełżec, będący dotąd miejscowością graniczną, znalazł się w centrum GG, w skład której wchodziły dystrykty: lubelski, krakowski i lwowski. W Bełżcu miał powstać obóz dla likwidacji Żydów skupionych w gettach Polski południowo-wschodniej. +Na miejsce obozu zagłady wybrano teren około pół kilometra na południowy wschód od stacji kolejowej w Bełżcu, przylegający do bocznicy kolejowej. Dogodna sieć komunikacyjna oraz konfiguracja terenu (piaszczyste wydmy porośnięte borem sosnowym), zapewne przesądziły o wyborze Bełżca na obóz zagłady Żydów. +Na polecenie "SS Zentralbauverwaltung" (Główny Urząd Budowlany SS) pod koniec października 1941 roku przybył do Bełżca nieduży oddział, złożony w większości z Ukraińców na służbie niemieckiej i kilku SS-manów. W pierwszych dniach listopada 20 robotników polskich, wyznaczonych przez miejscowy zarząd gminny na żądanie Niemców, rozpoczęło budowę baraków wzdłuż bocznicy kolejowej. Praca polskich robotników pod kierownictwem majstra, Niemca z Katowic, nieustalonego nazwiska, trwała do świąt Bożego Narodzenia. Po postawieniu pierwszych baraków robotnicy polscy zostali zwolnieni z pracy, a przy dalszej budowie zatrudniono Żydów, sprowadzonych w tym celu z Lubyczy Królewskiej. Po zakończeniu prac, Żydzi ci zostali jako pierwsi uśmierceni w komorze gazowej. Zasadniczo obóz był gotowy w końcu lutego 1942 roku, jednak zaczął on funkcjonować w połowie marca 1942 roku. Przez czas istnienia obozu zmieniło się trzech komendantów. Pierwszym, odpowiedzialnym za budowę obozu był Josef Oberhauser (od listopada 1941 do grudnia 1941), drugim kapitan Christian Wirth (od stycznia 1942 do sierpnia 1942) i trzecim kapitan Gottlieb Hering (od września 1942 do marca 1943). +Ponadto, w obozie pracowało około 100 strażników, podzielonych na dwa plutony. Byli to żołnierze walczący przedtem w szeregach Armii Czerwonej, którzy po dostaniu się do niemieckiej niewoli skorzystali z okazji, by uniknąć morderczych warunków panujących w obozach jenieckich. Strażnicy ci obyli uprzednio szkolenie w obozie obozie w Trawnikach. Znaleźli się wśród nich m.in: Peter Aleksejev, Ivan Bender, Wasil Bialakow, Wasyl Bulji, Heinrich Dalke, Wasyl Gruzin, Michal Huber, Vasyl Huleyt, Wasyl Hutyt, Iwan Huzij, Stefan Jadziol, Diner Jakovevits, Boris Kolisyn, Adolf Kolenko, Kyril Kostenko, Boris Kotychin, Mikolay Kozende, Ivan Kozlowski, Iwan Kuczercha, Wasyl Kulychin, Peto Litus, Nikolay Petrovich Malagon, Nikolay Matwijenko, Ivan Nikoforov, Vasilij Orlovski, Franz Pamin, Nikolai Pavli, Gygori Peczenyt, Alexey Pietka, Genrikh Pitnowij, Michal Pocholenko, Wasyl Podienko, Wasyl Podionak, Michal Polenko, Wasyl Prochenko, Dimitri Prochin, Alexander Prus, Boris Rogoza, Rosenholz, Arnold Rosenko, Viktor Sabat, Wasyl Szacholij, Dimitri Szpak, Porfiry Szpak, Iwan Tichonowski, Wilhelm Trautwein, Wasyl Tribenko, Alexander Twerdochlib, Fiodor Wedryhan, Ivan Werdenik, Edward Wlasiuk, Michal Wonk, Jakub Wysota, Iwan Zajczew, Ivan Zuk. +Wygląd obozu. +Cały obóz zbudowany został na planie prostokąta o wymiarach około 275 m x 263 m. Obóz otoczony był kilkoma rzędami drutów kolczastych, które od strony torów kolejowych zamaskowane były gęsto posadzonymi (ściętymi) drzewami. Północną stronę obozu stanowił wał z piasku, usypany przez Niemców jeszcze w 1939 roku, jako granica między Generalnym Gubernatorstwem a ZSRR. Granicą zachodnią była bocznica kolejowa, południową i wschodnią stanowił bór sosnowy. Położenie obozu uniemożliwiało jego obserwację z zewnątrz. Na niewielkiej przestrzeni mieściło się około dziesięciu baraków drewnianych i budynek murowany. Nad obozem górowały trzy wieże wartownicze, wystawione w rogach i jedna pośrodku obozu. Wieże zaopatrzone zostały w reflektory, a na środkowej umieszczono ciężki karabin maszynowy. W pierwszym okresie istnienia obóz wyglądał nieco inaczej niż w drugim okresie. Różnice te polegały na zmianie miejsca grzebania zwłok oraz zmianie usytuowania baraku, przeznaczonego dla załogi obozu. Cały obóz dzielił się w drugim okresie istnienia na obóz I i obóz II. Obóz I obejmował północną i zachodnią część obozu. Przeznaczony był dla administracji, odbywało się w nim także przyjmowanie ofiar; Obóz II, we wschodniej i środkowej części był obszarem zagłady. +Obóz I. +W obszarze przyjęć znajdowała się rampa kolejowa, która mogła pomieścić 20 wagonów, plac dla deportowanych oraz dwa baraki: rozbieralnię i magazyn mienia ofiar. Część administracyjna składała się z dwóch baraków mieszkalnych dla żydowskich więźniów, pralni, kuchni, magazynów i placu apelowego. Obok bramy obozowej była wartownia, w której stale przebywali esesmani i ukraińscy strażnicy. Po lewej stronie od bramy wejściowej była część dla Ukraińców oddzielona od reszty ogrodzeniem z drutu kolczastego. Znajdowały się tam kwatery, kuchnia i barak, w którym mieścił się szpital, dentysta i fryzjer. +Obóz II. +Obszar zagłady, składał się z komory gazowej i masowych grobów, które były we wschodniej i południowej części obozu. Komora gazowa była otoczona drzewami, a nad dachem, aby zapobiec obserwacji z powietrza, założono siatkę maskującą. W późniejszym okresie wybudowano tu dwa baraki – kwatery i kuchnię dla żydowskich więźniów, którzy pracowali w tej części obozu. Obóz II był bardzo dokładnie oddzielony od innych części obozu. Jego brama była strzeżona. Było tam przejście, szerokie na dwa metry i długie na kilkadziesiąt, nazywane „Śluzą” ("der Schlauch"), ogrodzone z obu stron drutem kolczastym i gałęziami. Łączyło one barak rozbieralnię w Obozie I z komorą gazową w Obozie II. +Zagłada w Bełżcu. +Christian Wirth zdecydował się na połączenie w Bełżcu stałej komory gazowej z silnikiem spalinowym jako źródłem trującego gazu. Wirth nie chciał używać tlenku węgla w butlach, tak jak robiono to w centrach eutanazji. Butle musiałyby być dostarczane do Bełżca w dużych ilościach - wzbudzałoby to podejrzenia oraz powodowało duży problem logistyczny. Wirth stworzył zatem samowystarczalny system eksterminacji, bazując na zwykłym silniku i łatwo dostępnej benzynie. W ten sposób obóz zagłady był niezależny od czynników zewnętrznych. +Wirth wypracował także metody postępowania z transportem, tak aby zagłada odbywała się jak najszybciej. Stworzył on od podstaw ramy dla procesu eksterminacji w innych obozach. Wygląd obozu i wszystkie czynności, które ofiary musiały wykonać natychmiast po opuszczeniu wagonów, miały służyć jednemu celowi - okłamywaniu deportowanych i utrzymaniu ich w przeświadczeniu, że są w obozie pracy lub obozie tranzytowym. Deportowani mieli w to wierzyć, dopóki nie zostali zamknięci w komorach gazowych. Drugim podstawowym założeniem procesu zagłady była szybkość. Wszystko odbywało się biegiem. Ofiary nie miały czasu na rozejrzenie się wokół. Tempo połączone było z szokowaniem ofiar. System zakładał, że powinny być one zszokowane, tak aby sparaliżowani nie uciekali i nie stawiali oporu. +Pierwsze komory gazowe mieściły się w drewnianym baraku o trzech pomieszczeniach o wymiarach 4x8 m, z sufitem na wysokości 2 m (niski sufit pozwalał na oszczędzenie ilości używanego gazu). Ściany do wysokości 110 cm i podłogi były obite blachą cynkową. Pomieszczenia miały osobne drzwi do usuwania zwłok, wzdłuż których prowadziły tory wąskotorowe, doprowadzone aż do dołów grzebalnych. +W połowie czerwca 1942 r. na pewien czas przerwano przyjmowanie transportów. Stało się to ze względu na oczekiwane duże transporty z Krakowa, które wymagały przygotowania nowych, większych komóry gazowych. Pierwszy etap działania Bełżca zakończył się. Podczas tego etapu – od połowy marca do połowy czerwca zabito w Bełżcu około 93 tysiące Żydów. Stary drewniany budynek z trzema komorami gazowymi został rozebrany, a na tym samym miejscu postawiono większy, solidniejszy budynek, 24 metry długi i 10 metrów szeroki. Miał on sześć komór gazowych, każda z nich 4x8 m (niektóre źródła podają 4x5). Nowe komory gazowe uruchomiono pod koniec lipca. Z maszynowni dochodził gaz spalinowy, którego używano do mordowania. Nie jest wykluczone, że może i inne zabudowania mogły być przysposobione do gazowania ludzi. Infrastruktura obozowa była w stanie mordować i kremować do 4-5 tysięcy osób dziennie. Jednorazowe gazowanie trwało 15-20 minut. +Poza obozem, na północ, wschód i południe znajdowały się masowe groby, w których najpierw chowano ofiary zagazowania. W drugim etapie, chcąc zatrzeć ślady, zdecydowano się jednak na spopielenie ciał. +W obrębie obozu znajdowały się również magazyny, w których segregowano mienie ofiar, składano włosy kobiet i wyrwane sztuczne zęby. +Więźniowie. +Ofiary były przywożone z gett najczęściej całymi rodzinami. Byli to poza nielicznymi wyjątkami z założenia sami Żydzi, gdyż obóz ten, podobnie jak później Treblinka i Sobibor, został założony dla realizacji celów zagłady Żydów, w ramach "Operacji Reinhardt". +Najwięcej transportów było z ziemi lubelskiej, z Krakowa i Galicji wschodniej (w tym ziemi lwowskiej). Jednak zdarzały się również transporty z południa i zachodu Europy. +Niektórzy próbowali uciekać z transportu bądź przynajmniej wyrzucić z pociągu swoje małe dzieci. Bardzo nielicznym udawało się w ten sposób przeżyć wywózkę do Bełżca. Z ich relacji wiemy, że wielu zdawało sobie sprawę z tego, że ta podróż kończy się śmiercią. Od przyjazdu na rampę do śmierci mijało najwyżej kilkadziesiąt minut, podczas których ofiary musiały się rozebrać i udać do komór. Czasem silni mężczyźni byli oddzielani od reszty, aby uzupełnić skład więźniów przeznaczonych do prac obozowych. +Ci więźniowie usuwali ciała z komór (nierzadko członków swoich rodzin lub znajomych), grzebali, a potem palili zwłoki, czyścili komory, segregowali zagrabione mienie, golili ofiary lub wyrywali zęby. Po pewnym czasie sami byli kierowani do komór. Pięciu osobom udało się zbiec z samego obozu. Dwie kobiety schowały się bezpośrednio po przyjeździe i udało im się uciec, podobnie jak jednemu dentyście z Krakowa. Te trzy osoby nie dożyły końca wojny. Dwie natomiast osoby były więźniami z obsługi: Chaim Hirszman (zginął po wojnie w Polsce w połowie marca 1946 roku, w dniu rozpoczęcia zeznań na temat obozu zagłady; został zgładzony prawdopodobnie jako funkcjonariusz WUB w Lublinie przez Tajną Organizację Wojskową założoną przez uczniów Liceum im. St. Staszica w Lublinie) oraz Rudolf Reder, którego relacja jest jedynym bezpośrednim opisem dramatu obozu. +Liczba ofiar. +W połowie grudnia 1942 transporty do Bełżca wstrzymano. Zarzucono pomysł deportacji 200 tysięcy Żydów rumuńskich. Liczba Żydów deportowanych i zamordowanych w Bełżcu, którą można ustalić, wynosi około 414 tysięcy. Jednakże są setki maleńkich miejscowości, skąd deportowano tysiące ludzi, ale nie pozostały po nich żadne ślady. Tysiące Żydów z Niemiec, Austrii, Czechosłowacji i innych krajów deportowano najpierw do gett w dystrykcie lubelskim, a potem wysłano ich do Bełżca. Ich liczbę można szacować na 100 tysięcy. Jeżeli dodamy 93 tysiące Żydów zabitych w Bełżcu pomiędzy marcem i czerwcem 1942 r., otrzymamy liczbę ok. 600 tysięcy. Taką liczbę oszacował polski Komitet ds. Niemieckich Zbrodni Wojennych w Okupowanej Polsce. W procesie załogi Bełżca SS-Scharfuehrer Heinrich Gley i Robert Juhrs szacowali, że pomiędzy listopadem 1942, a marcem 1943 spalono w Bełżcu około pół miliona ciał (pomimo zakończenia działalności obozu akcja spalania zwłok i zacierania śladów trwała do wiosny 1943 roku). Liczba 600 tysięcy została zaakceptowana przez Landgericht Munchen w RFN, gdzie odbył się proces Bełżec-Oberhauser. Państwowe Muzeum na Majdanku określa ostateczną liczbę zamordowanych na 500 tysięcy. +Dzieje powojenne. +W pierwszych latach powojennych miejscowa ludność regularnie rozkopywała masowe mogiły, szukając złota i kosztowności. Teren obozu ogrodzono i upamiętniono kilkoma niewielkimi pomnikami dopiero w latach 60-tych. Jednak teren ogrodzony nie odpowiadał rzeczywistości historycznej. Na miejscu rampy zbudowano leśniczówkę, tereny pomagazynowe zostały zajęte przez nowo zbudowany tartak. Miejsce to rzadko było odwiedzane ze względu na kresowe położenie oraz zupełny brak jakiejkolwiek infrastruktury dla zwiedzających, pawilonu ekspozycyjnego czy tablicy informacyjnej. +Sytuacja zmieniła się po 1989 roku, gdy we współpracy między United States Holocaust Memorial Council, American Jewish Committee i Radą Ochrony Pamięci Walk i Męczeństwa przeprowadzono kompleksowe badania terenowe i archeologiczne, ustalono zakres występowania jam grobowych i innych elementów obozu, usunięto leśniczówkę, oraz odsłonięto w 2004 roku nowy pomnik autorstwa Andrzeja Sołygi, Zdzisława Pidyka i Marcina Roszczyka. Otworzono też muzeum, będące filią Państwowego Muzeum na Majdanku. +Bibliografia. +Wykaz bibliografii dla serii artykułów o niemieckich obozach w latach 1933-1945 został umieszczony na . +Wet za dwa wety + +Strategia ta posiada podobne cechy jak strategia wet za wet, lecz w przeciwieństwie do niej pozwala nie wdać się w konflikt po jednorazowym (np. przypadkowym) zastosowaniu strategii nieprzyjaznej przez drugiego uczestnika gry. Skłonność do wybaczania jest więc większa, lecz strategia traci na swojej przejrzystości. +Europejskie pakty regionalne + +Europejskie pakty regionalne - bloki państw Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej zawiązane w okresie międzywojennym. +Jan Ślęk + +Jan Ślęk (ur. w 1929 r.) – wrocławski dyrygent i pedagog. +Od 1956 współpracuje z Wrocławską Operą i Operetką. Jest założycielem i dyrygentem „Sinfoniety Wrocławskiej” przy Filharmonii Wrocławskiej oraz Kameralnej Orkiestry Akademickiej przy Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim. +Swoje zainteresowania twórcze skupia na formie walca, zwłaszcza wiedeńskiego. Jest założycielem i kierownikiem artystycznym odbywającego się od 1993 r. "Międzynarodowego Festiwalu Muzyki Wiedeńskiej od Josepha Lannera do Roberta Stolza" we Wrocławiu, popularyzującego muzykę wiedeńską. Jego program wypełnia muzyka taneczna, operetkowa oraz symfoniczna. Jako propagator kultury austriackiej w Polsce w roku 2009 otrzymał Austriacki Krzyż Honorowy Nauki i Sztuki I klasy za wybitne osiągnięcia w dziedzinie sztuki i nauki przyznawany przez prezydenta Republiki Austrii. W 2008 r. otrzymał także Nagrodę Wrocławia. +Od 1974 mieszka we Wrocławiu na Grabiszynku. +Soho + +Soho – centralna część dzielnicy West End w Londynie, w City of Westminster, zamykająca się między Oxford Street od północy, Charing Cross Road od wschodu, Shaftesbury Avenue od południa i Regent Street od zachodu. +Specyfika. +Dzielnica znana jest z licznych klubów, dyskotek, restauracji, barów i pubów. Oprócz rozrywkowych lokali otwartych do nocy, są tu również kompleksy kin, teatry (przy Shaftesbury Avenue), księgarnie (na Charing Cross Road), modne sklepy (Trocadero Centre) oraz salony gier. Wszystko to przyciąga rzesze turystów. +Soho uchodzi za miejsce w którym najwyraźniej widoczna jest wielokulturowość Londynu. Jest synonimem przemysłu, handlu, kultury i rozrywki, stanowi bowiem część artystycznego West Endu. Jest strefą zamieszkania zarówno bogaczy, jak i biedaków. Dzielnica przez wieki przygarniała imigrantów z różnych stron świata. Dziś Soho również nawiązuje do otwartości obyczajów, choćby dużą ilością barów dla gejów i transwestytów. Jest w tym samym stopniu dzielnicą chińską, historyczną, "czerwonolatarnianą", jak i snobistyczną, a adres zamieszkania w tym rejonie jest marzeniem wielu londyńskich nowobogackich. Sąsiedztwo przybytków płatnego seksu bynajmniej nie obniża cen zakupu nieruchomości w Soho. +Od poniedziałku do soboty w dzielnicy odbywa się targowisko, głównie przy Berwick Street. Można na nim dostać wszelkie towary: ryby, mięsa, sery, owoce, pamiątki, kubki z podobiznami idoli, T-shirty. Powszechnie uważa się, że to najlepszy i najtańszy targ West Endu. +Historia. +W średniowieczu na terenie obecnego Soho znajdowały się ogrody królewskie, a nazwa wygenerowała z dawnego okrzyku angielskich myśliwych: "so ho!" ("hajda! hajże!"). Do XVII w. teren został w całości rozprzedany. Przez dwa kolejne stulecia chętnie osiedlali się na nim imigranci (stąd m.in. ulica Grecka), którzy tworzyli mieszankę kulturową – dobrą pożywkę dla bohemy i ekscentryków. W XVIII w. działały tu liczne manufaktury jedwabiu i filcu prowadzone przez francuskich hugenotów, których 60 tysięcy osiedliło się w Anglii po cofnięciu edyktu nantejskiego przez Ludwika XIV. Kościół na Soho Square był ich centralnym miejscem spotkań. +Pod koniec XIX w. Soho stało się centrum londyńskiego życia nocnego. W wieku XX usadowiło się tam centrum medialne z redakcjami, biurami telewizji i wytwórni filmowych. Seksbiznes zaczął się tu rozwijać intensywnie od lat 60. XX wieku. +Chińska dzielnica. +Chińczycy przenieśli się do Soho w połowie XIX stulecia. W centrum dzielnicy leży Chinatown, której główną arterią jest Gerrard Street – kulturalne i finansowe centrum chińskiej społeczności w Londynie. Ta część dzielnicy znana jest również z orientalnych restauracji. Pod koniec stycznia na ulicach odbywa się barwny festiwal witania chińskiego Nowego Roku. +Soho i przemysł erotyczny. +Reputacja Soho jako "czerwonej dzielnicy" powstała 200 lat temu, jednak wyraźnie wzrosła w połowie XX stulecia. Już od lat 50. istniały tam domy publiczne, zaś od 1970 zaczęto notować prawdziwą falę powstawania nowych "przybytków rozkoszy" – doliczono się wtedy 250 sex-shopów, odnotowano porno-kina, kafejki i liczne uliczne prostytutki. Na przestrzeni lat władze z różnym skutkiem walczyły z płatną miłością. Po głośnej policyjnej pacyfikacji w 1991, sexbiznes w dzielnicy nieco zmalał, wzmocniły się za to sex shopy. Dziś dodatkowo problemem są niewątpliwie narkotyki, wszechobecne w ciemnych uliczkach Soho. +Dzielnica gejowska. +W Soho, już w latach 20. XIX w. William Thomas Beckford, wówczas najbogatszy Anglik i pierwszy jawny gej (zmuszony ostatecznie do ucieczki z Wielkiej Brytanii). Soho nie jest dzielnicą gejowską taką, jak amerykańskie gay villages, ale raczej popularnym gejowskim miejscem rozrywki i spotkań towarzyskich, które koncentrują się głównie przy Old Compton Street. Działa tu wiele gejowskich lokali i sklepów, spośród których wymienia się m.in. bar "Manto's Soho" (nr 30), "Old Compton Café" (nr 34), pub "Compton's of Soho" (nr 53), "Admiral Duncan Pub" (nr 54), galerię z księgarnią i kawiarnią "Kairos" (nr 56), restauracje "The Dome" (nr 57-59) i "Balans" (nr 60). Interesów gejowskich biznesów w dzielnicy i poza nią broni Gay Business Association, organizacja istniejąca od 1984. W Soho wychodzą cenione periodyki gejowskie "Gay Times" i "Attitude". Jest też miejscem inicjatyw takich jak Gay and Lesbian Walking Tours of Soho – w każdą niedzielę po południu za drobną odpłatnością można zwiedzać dzielnicę z fachowym gejowskim przewodnikiem. Na Soho nie ma miejsca na duże gejowskie kluby dyskotekowe – te koncentrują się w innych punktach Londynu: King's Cross-Central, Station-Wharfdale, Road-Vauxhall. +Dzielnica była również miejscem ekscesów o podłożu homofobicznym. 30 kwietnia 1999 w "Admiral Duncan Pub", wybuchła bomba wypełniona gwoździami, podłożona przez neonazistę Davida Copelanda. W wyniku tego zdarzenia zginęły 3 osoby (2 z nich były heteroseksualne), a rannych zostało kolejnych 20 osób. Sprawcę skazano na sześciokrotne dożywocie. Po siedmiu latach od procesu, 2 marca 2007 High Court of Justice zdecydował, iż David Copeland może ubiegać się o przedterminowe zwolnienie po 50 latach odsiadki, będzie miał wtedy 79 lat. +William Hyde Wollaston + +William Hyde Wollaston (ur. 6 sierpnia 1766 w Norfolku, zm. 22 grudnia 1828 w Londynie) – chemik brytyjski. +W latach 1782-1787 studiował na Oxfordzie, gdzie uzyskał tytuł doktora medycyny. W 1802 skonstruował refraktometr, a w 1809 goniometr. W 1807 skonstruował urządzenie pozwalające na odwzorowanie modelu w doskonałej perspektywie, które sam nazwał "camera lucida". W 1812 zaprojektował prosty obiektyw znany jako obiektyw pejzażowy Wollastona używany początkowo w "camera obscura", a w późniejszy czasie także w pierwszych dagerotypach. W 1813 lub 1815 stworzył własne ogniwo galwaniczne zbudowane z płyty ołowianej, zwiniętej w kształt litery U z umieszczoną wewnątrz płytką cynkową. W 1803 odkrył pallad, a w 1804 rod. +Od 1793 był członkiem Royal Society, a w latach 1804-1816 pełnił funkcję sekretarza towarzystwa. Na cześć uczonego nazwano minerał wollastonit. +Wojciech Tochman + +Wojciech Tochman (ur. w 1969 w Krakowie) – polski reporter. +Życiorys. +Debiutował jeszcze jako licealista (1987 rok) na łamach młodzieżowego tygodnika Na przełaj reportażem o szkolnej szatni. W 1990 roku do pracy w dziale reportażu Gazety Wyborczej przyjęła go Hanna Krall. Pierwszym tekstem Tochmana była "Bajka o dobrym księgowym". W Gazecie pracował do 2004 roku. +Od 1996 do 2002 roku prowadził w TVP1 program poświęcony osobom zaginionym "Ktokolwiek widział, ktokolwiek wie". W 1999 roku założył Fundację ITAKA poszukującą zaginionych i pomagającą ich rodzinom. Aktualnie, jako fundator, jest członkiem Rady Fundacji. +Wykładowca w Instytucie Dziennikarstwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego w roku akademickim 2006-2007. +Jest pomysłodawcą Klubu HEBAN i koordynatorem jego działań. Fundacja udziela pomocy dzieciom we wsi Nyakinama w Rwandzie. +W 2009 roku założył w Warszawie wraz z Pawłem Goźlińskim i Mariuszem Szczygłem Instytut Reportażu, przy którym powstała również Polska Szkoła Reportażu. +Od lutego 2010 roku prowadzi z Pawłem Goźlińskim i Mariuszem Szczygłem w radio TOK FM audycję "Wrzenie świata" poświęconą literaturze faktu. We wrześniu 2010 założył z nimi kawiarnię o tej samej nazwie przy ulicy Gałczyńskiego 7. +Publikacje. +Jest tłumaczony na język angielski, francuski, niemiecki, włoski, szwedzki, fiński, ukraiński, rosyjski, niderlandzki oraz bośniacki. +Kalikant + +Kalikant, Kalikancista (łac. "calcare" - deptać) – osoba wprawiająca w ruch miechy w organach piszczałkowych. Kalikowanie polegało na wprawianiu nogami w ruch pedałów dźwigniowych (rzadziej ręcznej korby lub dźwigni), które poprzez urządzenia pośrednie, najczęściej mniejsze miechy, dostarczało ciśnienia do głównego miecha. +Do komunikacji pomiędzy organistą a kalikantem (który przeważnie stał z innej strony instrumentu, a czasami miał oddzielne pomieszczenie w środku organów) służył dzwonek uruchamiany pneumatycznie bądź mechanicznie, przy pomocy którego organista informował kalikanta o konieczności rozpoczęcia lub przerwania kalikowania. Dawniej funkcja kalikanta była zawodem. W dzisiejszych czasach jego funkcję przejęły napędy elektryczne, a urządzenia poruszane ręcznie są albo usuwane z organów, albo służą tylko w sytuacjach awaryjnych, albo pozostały jedynie jako tzw. materia zabytkowa. +Letnie Grand Prix w skokach narciarskich + +Letnie Grand Prix odbywa się od 1994 roku, w miesiącach letnich, na takich samych zasadach jak Puchar Świata w zimie. Obecnie na cały cykl LGP składa się ok. 10 konkursów, indywidualnych i drużynowych. Zawodnicy rozpędzają się na rozbiegu po porcelanowych torach a lądują na specjalnym tworzywie - igelicie - pokrywającym zeskok. W dwóch pierwszych sezonach LGP (1994 i 1995) sumowano punkty za pojedyncze skoki, tak jak w Turnieju Czterech Skoczni, w kolejnych zaś tak jak w Pucharze Świata. +Jedynym Polakiem, który wygrał Letnie Grand Prix (trzykrotnie) jest Adam Małysz. Kolejnym skoczkiem, który wyrównał osiągnięcie Adama Małysza jest Thomas Morgenstern (2011). +Tylko raz w historii LGP rozegrano dwa konkursy indywidualne w jednym dniu - na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem (30 sierpnia 2008). +Na 16 dotychczas rozegranych edycji, aż siedmiokrotnie zdarzało się, że zwycięzca Letniego Grand Prix sięgał w następnym sezonie zimowym po Puchar Świata. Taka sytuacja miała miejsce regularnie od roku 2005, kiedy to dominację latem na sukcesy zimą przełożył Jakub Janda. Po nim tej sztuki dokonywali, kolejno: Adam Małysz, Thomas Morgenstern, Gregor Schlierenzauer oraz Simon Ammann. Wcześniej taka sytuacja miała miejsce w sezonie 1995/96, w przypadku Andreasa Goldbergera oraz w sezonie 2001/02 w przypadku Adama Małysza. +Konkursy indywidualne. +Najwięcej zwycięstw w konkursach LGP. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Najwięcej razy na podium w konkursach LGP. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Najwięcej miejsc wśród 5/10/30 najlepszych w konkursach Letniego Grand Prix. +Opracowano na podstawie oraz biografii poszczególnych zawodników. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Najwięcej występów w konkursach Letniego Grand Prix. +Opracowano na podstawie oraz biografii poszczególnych zawodników. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Podział według krajów. +Najwięcej zwycięstw w konkursach Letniego Grand Prix. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Najwięcej razy na podium w konkursach Letniego Grand Prix. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Konkursy drużynowe. +Najwięcej zwycięstw w konkursach drużynowych Letniego Grand Prix. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Najwięcej razy na podium w konkursach drużynowych Letniego Grand Prix. +Stan po zakończeniu LGP 2012 +Muckross House + +Muckross House (irl. "Theach Mhucrois") – pałac w stylu wiktoriańskim z 1843 roku, w Killarney, hrabstwo Kerry (Irlandia). +W pobliżu jest także muzeum poświęcone hrabstwu, farma działająca "tradycyjnie", ogrody i ośrodek rzemiosł. +Benzydamina + +Benzydamina – niesteroidowy lek przeciwzapalny, przeciwobrzękowy, dostępny bez recepty w formie tabletek do ssania, proszku do sporządzania roztworu do irygacji, kremu, żelu oraz płynów do płukania gardła i jamy ustnej. +Działanie fizjologiczne. +Benzydamina jest pochodną indazolu o działaniu przeciwzapalnym, przeciwobrzękowym, przeciwbólowym, miejscowo znieczulającym i antyseptycznym. Blokuje cyklooksygenazy oraz fosfolipazę A2. Przenika przez barierę krew-mózg. +Wykazuje także działanie odkażające, oddziałując na różne gatunki grzybów i bakterii. +Do działań niepożądanych w przypadku leczenia jamy ustnej i gardła zalicza się odrętwienia w miejscu podania. Długotrwałe stosowanie może wywoływać uczulenie. +Benzydamina bywa nadużywana pozamedycznie, jako substancja o działaniu psychoaktywnym. Działanie benzydaminy, związane z uwolnieniem dużych ilości dopaminy, obejmuje euforię i poczucie błogostanu, a w większych dawkach efekty antycholinergiczne jak halucynacje, urojenia, suchość w ustach i drgawki. Działanie utrzymuje się do 8 godzin, po czym osoba zażywająca staje się zmęczona i wyciszona, niemniej jednak zaśnięcie jest niemal niemożliwe. +Kartotekowa baza danych + +Kartotekowa baza danych (lub prosta baza danych) - baza danych złożona z jednej lub kilku tablic zawierających rekordy, z których każdy zawiera identyczną strukturę pól. Każda tablica danych jest samodzielnym dokumentem i nie może współpracować z innymi tablicami, w przeciwieństwie do relacyjnej bazy danych. +Przykładami kartotekowej bazy danych są spisy danych osobowych czy spisy książek lub płyt. Poniższa baza składa się z jednej tabeli zawierajacej 3 rekordy, z których każdy ma 4 pola. +Dane w kartotekowych bazach danych można sortować, przeszukiwać, stosować w nich filtry ograniczające zakres wyświetlanych informacji. +Kartotekowe bazy danych można tworzyć w dowolnym programie zarządzającym bazami danych czy w arkuszach kalkulacyjnych, a nawet w prostych edytorach tekstów (pliki z wartościami oddzielanymi przecinkami - CSV, lub tabulatorami - TSV). Specjalne programy do tworzenia tego rodzaju baz są też dołączane do pakietów zintegrowanych, jak Microsoft Works. Użytkownik może w nich utworzyć nie tylko samą bazę, czyli tabele z danymi, ale i graficzny interfejs użytkownika, definiując położenie pól i dołączając rozmaite elementy uboczne powtarzające się przy przeglądaniu rekordów, jak np. grafikę. +Charlie Benante + +Charlie Benante (ur. 27 listopada 1962 w Nowym Jorku w dzielnicy Bronx) – amerykański muzyk rockowy, perkusista. Od 1983 roku członek zespołu Anthrax. +W 1993 w ramach swojej terapii związanej z kryzysem grania, grał i występował w grupie (cover band) Dü Hüsker grającej covery punkowej grupy Hüsker Dü. +Benante używa do gry sprzętu firm: Tama, Paiste, Vic Firth, DDRUM, Evans Drum Heads. +Zespół roboczy ds. ochrony osób fizycznych w zakresie przetwarzania danych osobowych + +Zespół roboczy ds. ochrony osób fizycznych w zakresie przetwarzania danych osobowych (ang. Working Party on the Protection of Indyviduals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data) - niezależny podmiot o charakterze doradczym, powołany na mocy art. 29 Dyrektywy 95/46/WE Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 24 października 1995 r. w sprawie ochrony osób fizycznych w zakresie przetwarzania danych osobowych i swobodnego przepływu tych danych. +"Zespół roboczy" tworzą przedstawiciele organów nadzorczych w zakresie ochrony danych osobowych powołanych przez państwa Unii oraz ustanowionych dla instytucji i organów wspólnoty i z przedstawiciela Wspólnoty. "Zespół roboczy" działa w oparciu o regulamin, a jego pracą kieruje przewodniczący, którego kadencja wynosi 2 lata. Decyzje podejmowane są zwykłą większością głosów przedstawicieli krajowych organów nadzorczych. +Celem "Zespołu roboczego" jest przyczynianie się do jednolitego stosowania dyrektywy we wszystkich krajach członkowskich, opiniowanie projektów wspólnotowych aktów normatywnych z zakresu ochrony prywatności, wydawanie opinii w sprawie istniejącego poziomu ochrony danych osobowych w krajach wspólnoty jak i poza Unią. +Przedstawicielem Polski w "Zespole roboczym" jest Generalny Inspektor Ochrony Danych Osobowych. +Powszechnie używane są również nazwy: Grupa robocza ds. ochrony osób fizycznych w zakresie przetwarzania danych osobowych lub Grupa robocza art. 29. +Herb Chorwacji + + +Pochodzenie herbu i związane z nim legendy. +Po raz pierwszy zestaw białych i czerwonych kwadratów (4×4) pojawia się w 1508 r. na portrecie Fryderyka III Habsburga, namalowanym przez Hansa Burgkmaira. W wydanym 1 stycznia 1527 r. przez Sabor dokumencie potwierdzającym wybór Ferdynanda Habsburga na króla Chorwacji znajduje się szachownica o polach 8×8. +Później pojawiła się legenda, która objaśnia powstanie herbu w sposób następujący: król chorwacki Držislav (w innej wersji jest to król Suronj) został wzięty do niewoli przez Wenecjan. Rozegrał on mecz szachowy z samym dożą weneckim – Pietro II Orseolo. Stawką meczu była wolność króla. Wygrał wszystkie trzy partie i w ten sposób odzyskał wolność (wg innych wersji również władzę nad miastami dalmatyńskimi). W tej sytuacji zrozumiałe było, że za swój herb uznał szachownicę. (Na podstawie chorwackiej Wikipedii [http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrvatski_grb]). +Michael Wittmann + +Michael Wittmann (ur. 22 kwietnia 1914 w Vogelthal, zginął 8 sierpnia 1944 w Cintheaux, rejon Caen) – niemiecki dowódca wojskowy, jeden z najskuteczniejszych czołgistów II wojny światowej. +Na samym froncie wschodnim Wittmann zniszczył 119 radzieckich czołgów. Ogółem zalicza mu się zniszczenie 138 czołgów i 132 dział przeciwpancernych. +Śmierć. +W chwili śmierci Wittmann dowodził czołgiem typu Tiger I o numerze "007", jego jednostką był (uważany za elitarny) 101 Batalion Czołgów Ciężkich SS (niem. "Schwere SS-Panzer-Abteilung 101"). Najprawdopodobniej czołg, biorący udział w kontrataku na Saint-Aignan-de-Cramesnil, został zniszczony z ruin zamku w Gaumensil, leżącego na zachód od Saint Aignan, przez pocisk wystrzelony z Shermana , należącego do 4 Kanadyjskiej Dywizji Pancernej ). +Kultura masowa. +Historia Wittmana z elementami fikcyjnymi została opowiedziana w grze strategicznej '. Czołgista jest głównym bohaterem kampanii niemieckiej w grze '. Występuje również w konsolowym shooterze "Call of Duty 3", gdzie jednak jest wrogiem gracza. Zadanie zlikwidowania go przypada polskiemu czołgiście z dywizji generała Maczka. +Hrabstwo Kerry + +Hrabstwo Kerry (irl. "Contae Chiarraí") jest hrabstwem na południowym zachodzie Irlandii, w prowincji Munster. Stolicą hrabstwa jest Tralee, graniczy z hrabstwami Limerick na wschodzie, Clare na północy i Cork na południowym wschodzie. +Większym miastem hrabstwa jest Killarney, gdzie znajdują się dwa parki narodowe: Killarney National Park i Półwysep Dingle, którego zakończenie jest najbardziej wysuniętym na zachód miejscem w Irlandii. W hrabstwie leżą też najwyższe na wyspie góry Macgillycuddy's Reeks. Na zachodzie hrabstwo oblewa Ocean Atlantycki, a na północy rzeka Shannon. Wybrzeże hrabstwa to seria półwyspów i zatok. Znajduje się tam Pierścień Kerry, popularny szlak wśród turystów i rowerzystów. Pieszą wersją jest Kerry Way, która ciągnie się starożytnymi drogami, zazwyczaj wyższymi niż te z Pierścienia. +Na wybrzeżu znajdują się też wyspy: Wyspy Skellig i Blasket. Wyspy Skellig są miejscem światowego dziedzictwa kulturowego. +Miasta hrabstwa Kerry. +Miasta Tralee, Killarney i Listowel są administrowane przez rady miejskie. Każde z miast wybiera reprezentantów do rady hrabstwa. +Operator pędu + +W mechanice kwantowej pęd jest opisywany przez obserwablę - operator pędu. Przejście od pędu do operatora pędu jest nazywane pierwszym kwantowaniem. +Notacja Diraca. +W notacji Diraca wektor własny operatora pędu formula_1 z wartością własną formula_2 oznacza się formula_3, czyli +Stąd działanie operatora położenia na dowolny stan możemy zapisać jako +gdzie formula_6 jest funkcją falową stanu formula_7 w reprezentacji pędowej. +Reprezentacja położeniowa i pędowa. +Z powyższego wzoru otrzymujemy, że działanie operatora składowej formula_8 pędu formula_9 w reprezentacji pędowej odpowiada po prostu mnożeniu funkcji falowej przez formula_10. Natomiast w reprezentacji położeniowej operator składowej formula_8 pędu ma postać +gdzie formula_14 nazywany jest operatorem nabla (gradientu). +Relacja komutacyjna operatorów położenia i pędu. +Ważną cechą kwantowego operatora pędu jest to, że nie komutuje on z operatorem położenia. Operatory te spełniają relację komutacyjną +Powyższa zależność jest matematycznym zapisem zasady nieoznaczoności. +Killarney + +Killarney (irl. "Cill Áirne") – miasto w południowo-zachodniej Irlandii (prowincja Munster), drugi co do wielkości ośrodek miejski hrabstwa Kerry. Według danych z roku 2006 miasto liczy około 13,5 tys. mieszkańców. Samo Killarney założone zostało dopiero w roku 1754, choć znajdują się w jego obrębie budowle znacznie starsze, jak choćby pochodzący z końca XV wieku zamek Ross, czy XIII-wieczne ruiny kościoła na Aghadoe. Jest znanym ośrodkiem turystycznym – ze względu na dużą atrakcyjność krajobrazową i liczne zabytki w okolicy jezior Killarney: zamek Ross, opactwo Muckross, posiadłość Muckross wraz z wodospadem Torc. Znajduje się tutaj również Narodowe Muzeum Transportu. Killarney posiada dobrze rozbudowaną bazę hotelową i usługową, co czyni je turystycznym centrum całego regionu Munster oraz dogodną bazą wypadową w pobliskie góry Macgillycuddy's Reeks, czy na półwysep Dingle, wyspy Skelligs czy Pętlę Kerry. +W pobliżu miasta znajduje się port lotniczy Kerry. +Symbol Leviego-Civity + +Symbol ten został nazwany na cześć matematyka włoskiego Tullio Levi-Civita, choć powszechnie stosowaną nazwą symbolu Leviego-Civity jest „epsilon z trzema indeksami”. Wartym wspomnienia jest fakt, iż w rachunku tensorowym stosuje się również „epsilony” z większą liczbą indeksów. +Symbol ten jest pomocny przy wyprowadzaniu skomplikowanych wzorów z operatorem nabla i umożliwia uniknięcie rozpisywania wszystkiego na pochodne cząstkowe, przykładowo w układzie kartezjańskim symbol Leviego-Civity jest wielkością stałą, którego wartość jest zależna od trzech indeksów według przedstawienia . +Zastosowanie symbolu Leviego-Civity w przykładach. +Dowód twierdzenia opiera się na własnościach operatora ∇, czyli korzystamy w tym przypadku z twierdzenia o pochodnej iloczynu. +(fa_k)= +\epsilon_{ijk}\vec e_{i}\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_{j}}a_k+f\epsilon_{ijk}\vec e_{i}\frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j}}a_k= +Dowód twierdzenia też opiera się na własnościach operatora ∇, czyli korzystamy w tym przypadku z twierdzenia o pochodnej iloczynu, a także rozwinięcia iloczynu skalarnego poprzez wzór . +Joey Vera + +Joey Vera (ur. 24 kwietnia 1963) – amerykański muzyk, kompozytor, wokalista i multiinstrumentalista, a także producent muzyczny i inżynier dźwięku. Joey Vera znany jest przede wszystkim z wieloletnich występów w grupie muzycznej Fates Warning w której pełni funkcję basisty. Z przerwami od 1982 roku gra w zespole Armored Saint. Od 1994 roku prowadzi także solową działalność artystyczną. W latach 2004-2005 współpracował z formacją Anthrax. Był także członkiem grupy Office of Strategic Influence. +AMD64 + +AMD64 (x86-64 lub x64) to 64-bitowa architektura procesorów firmy AMD, przeznaczona dla komputerów osobistych (procesory AMD Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX, Athlon 64 X2, Phenom, oraz ostatnie wersje procesorów Sempron), komputerów przenośnych (Sempron, Turion 64, Turion 64 X2) oraz serwerów i wydajnych stacji obliczeniowych (AMD Opteron). Jest ona rozszerzeniem architektury x86 głównie o 64-bitowe rozkazy oraz rejestry. Umożliwia także bezpośrednie wykonywanie 16- i 32-bitowego kodu x86. +Analiza rynku. +Wprowadzenie architektury AMD64 oznacza zerwanie przez AMD ze strategią podążania za standardami ustanawianymi przez firmę Intel. Jest jednak przykładem podobnej do intelowskiej strategii rozszerzania istniejącej architektury bez pozbywania się kompatybilności wstecz (Intel rozszerzył architekturę x86 do 32-bitów wraz z wprowadzeniem zgodnego wstecz procesora 80386). Architektura AMD64 rozszerza 32-bitową architekturę x86 (nazywaną później przez Intela IA-32) o 64-bitowe rejestry ogólnego przeznaczenia, zachowując 16- i 32-bitowe tryby działania procesora. Tryb 64-bitowy również posiada mechanizmy zapewniające w dużej mierze zgodność wstecz z istniejącym oprogramowaniem, ułatwiając przejście twórcom oprogramowania z tradycyjnej architektury x86 do AMD64. +Odpowiednikiem architektury AMD64 jest opracowana przez firmę Intel architektura EM64T. Mimo że są one ze sobą w dużej mierze kompatybilne, to przyrost wydajności w trybie 64-bitowym w przypadku procesorów firmy AMD jest znacznie większy w stosunku do procesorów produkowanych przez Intela. Wynika to głównie z bardzo krótkiego okresu, w jakim Intel musiał zaimplementować rozszerzenia architektury w procesorach z linii Pentium 4. Powszechnie sądzi się również, że było to przyczyną trudności technicznych z uzyskaniem przez Intela wysokich częstotliwości pracy tych procesorów (synteza układu została ze względu na pośpiech powierzona algorytmom automatycznej optymalizacji). +Niechęć Intela do projektowania rozszerzeń 64-bitowych dla architektury x86 spowodowana była bardzo dużymi inwestycjami w linię procesorów wykorzystujących koncepcję EPIC (patrz IA-64). Ze względu na obwarowanie architektury EPIC wieloma kluczowymi patentami, niezwykle trudne byłoby stworzenie konkurencyjnego, ale kompatybilnego procesora przez konkurentów Intela. Stąd też Intel starał się maksymalnie spowolnić rozwój procesorów x86, aby zapewnić dobre warunki nowo wprowadzanej architekturze. Strategia ta poniosła porażkę w latach 2000-2002, w których AMD często posiadało produkty bardziej wydajne niż Intel. Obawy Intela przed konkurencją powiększyło zaprezentowanie w roku 2003 procesorów SledgeHammer i ClawHammer (AMD K8). Architektura IA-64 mimo ogromnych nakładów na promocję i rozwój, wbrew przewidywaniom Intela, nie zaoferowała znacznie większej wydajności niż istniejące produkty RISC (np. seria IBM Power) czy szybko rozwijające się popularne implementacje architektury x86. Decydujące okazało się jednak wsparcie dla architektury AMD64 ze strony twórców oprogramowania (w tym ze strony Sun, Microsoft czy twórców Linuksa). Intel został więc zmuszony przez rynek do zaoferowania konkurencyjnych produktów zgodnych z AMD64. +Według wielu obserwatorów rynku, przed architekturą EPIC rysuje się niepewna przyszłość: jej współtwórca, firma HP wycofała z oferty stacje robocze oparte na IA-64, IBM wycofuje się w całości ze wspierania tej architektury - koncentrując się na rodzinie Power i procesorach zgodnych z AMD64. Wydaje się, że prawdopodobieństwo wprowadzenia IA-64 na rynek inny niż dużych komputerów korporacyjnych (mainframe), czy rynek klastrów obliczeniowych i komputerów równoległych (HPC - High Performance Computing) maleje z każdym dniem. Wprowadzanie dwurdzeniowych (w przyszłości wielordzeniowych) procesorów zgodnych z AMD64 przez AMD i Intela już w tej chwili prowadzi bowiem do zastępowania małych i średnich serwerów RISC przez maszyny zbudowane na bazie AMD64 (Sun Microsystems, HP, Tyan). +Izolator ciepła + +Izolator termiczny, termoizolator – substancja, materiał albo produkt o małej przewodności cieplnej. Dla materiałów budowlanych pracujących w temperaturach mniejszych od 100 °C za izolatory uznaje się materiały o przewodności cieplnej mniejszej od 0,1 W/(m·K). W technice wysokich temperatur nawet do 10 W/(mK). +Dobrymi izolatorami ciepła są wełna celulozowa, styropian, wełna mineralna, cienka warstwa suchego powietrza. +Z materiałów litych za izolatory ciepła uznaje się także drewno. +Bezrobocie strukturalne + +Bezrobocie strukturalne – bezrobocie, które powstaje na tle strukturalnych rozbieżności między podażą pracy i popytem na pracę. W Polsce bezrobocie strukturalne pojawiło się wraz z restrukturyzacją podstawowych branż przemysłu takich jak górnictwo, hutnictwo, a także na skutek likwidacji PGR-ów. +Jest ono konsekwencją zmian technologicznych i ewolucji struktury produkcji, zachodzących w danej gospodarce. W przeciwieństwie jednak do bezrobocia frykcyjnego ma ono charakter trwały. Na przykład w przeszłości książki składane były przez zecerów z pojedynczych czcionek. Zmiana techniki druku i składu sprawiła, że zecerzy stali się ofiarami bezrobocia strukturalnego, aż do momentu znalezienia całkiem innej pracy. Rozwój nowych technologii nie jest jednak jedyną przyczyną bezrobocia strukturalnego. Wahania w gustach konsumentów lub zmiana lokalizacji pewnych przedsiębiorstw mogą spowodować bezrobocie strukturalne, i to nawet wśród pracowników dobrze wykwalifikowanych. Bezrobocie tego typu stanowi szczególny problem w regionach, gdzie dominuje jedna gałąź przemysłu, np. górnictwo, hutnictwo, czy przemysł stoczniowy. +Delikatesy (film) + +Delikatesy (org. "Delicatessen") – film francuski Marca Caro i Jean-Pierre'a Jeuneta z 1991. Jest to czarna komedia opisująca życie francuskiego miasteczka po globalnym kataklizmie. +Treść. +Fabuła skupia się na losach mieszkańców pewnej kamienicy, mieszczącej w sobie sklep rzeźnicki. Jego właściciel, zarazem właściciel kamienicy, zaopatruje mieszkańców w mięso. Jak się okazuje, pochodzi ono z ciał nowych lokatorów, zwabianych przemyślnie do wynajęcia mieszkania w budynku. Bohaterem jest jeden z takich właśnie ludzi, bezrobotny akrobata, który zakochuje się w córce rzeźnika. Stara się wciąż uniknąć śmierci w obliczu kolejnych zamachów na swe życie. +Operator jednostkowy + +Operator jednostkowy – operator, który działając na dany wektor stanu daje ten sam wektor. Działanie operatora jednostkowego jest równoważne pomnożeniu przez 1. +Analogiczne równania obowiązują dla wektorów bra. +Szachownica Polibiusza + +Szachownica Polibiusza - rodzaj szyfru monoalfabetycznego wymyślony w starożytności przez greckiego historyka Polibiusza. +Przesuwarka taśmociągów + +Przesuwarka taśmociągów - urządzenie ciągnikowe w konstrukcji bardzo podobne do układarki rur, wyposażone w wysięgnik i osprzęt hakowy z odpowiednią głowicą; wykorzystywane najczęściej w kopalniach odkrywkowych do przemieszczania taśmociągów. +W Polsce tego typu urządzenia są dostarczane jedynie przez firmę Polremaco Sp. z.o.o poprzez zamontowanie specjalistycznego osprzętu własnej konstrukcji. +Osprzęt montowany jest na maszynach dostarczanych przez Zakład Huta Stalowa Wola. +Używanie tego sprzętu nie wymaga dodatkowej osoby oprócz kierowcy. +Ekran + +__NOTOC__ +Ekran – zasłona (fr. "écran") +Friedrich Strohmeyer + +Friedrich Strohmeyer (lub Stromeyer) (ur. 2 sierpnia 1776 w Getyndze, zm. 18 sierpnia 1835 r.) – chemik niemiecki. +W latach 1793-1799 studiował medycynę, w 1800 obronił doktorat nauk medycznych; uczeń L. N. Vauquelina. Od 1806 był dyrektorem laboratorium chemicznego i wykładowcą na Uniwersytecie w Getyndze, od 1817 profesorem chemii i farmacji w Hanowerze. Pełnił także funkcję inspektora generalnego aptek hanowerskich. W 1817 odkrył pierwiastek kadm w popiołach pozostałych po wytapianiu cynku z jego węglanu. +Betyl + +Betyle - duże, pionowo ustawione kamienie, za pośrednictwem których oddawano cześć bóstwom w kulturze m.in. Sumerów, Babilończyków, Nabatejczyków i Fenicjan. Wyraz "betyl" ma pochodzenie semickie i oznacza "dom boga". +Reprezentacja macierzowa operatora + +formula_1 +Warto zauważyć, że wartość średnia operatora formula_2 w stanie bazowym formula_3 wynosi formula_4. Co więcej, wartość średnia operatora w dowolnym stanie +formula_5 +formula_6. +Trafalgar Square + +Trafalgar Square – plac w centralnym Londynie położony w dawnym miejscu stajni królewskich, upamiętniający zwycięstwo brytyjskiej Royal Navy w bitwie morskiej pod Trafalgarem w 1805 roku. +Jego budowę zaczęto w 1829 roku a w 1843 ustawiono na środku 55–metrową Kolumnę Nelsona. Plac zdobią także pomniki króla Jerzego IV, gen. Haveloka i gen. Napiera oraz fontanny sir Lutyensa. Na czwartym cokole miał również stanąć pomnik konny, ale zabrakło na niego pieniędzy. Od 1999 do 2001 na cokole co roku umieszczano nowe dzieło. Po kilku latach przerwy w 2005 powrócono do tego pomysłu. W 2007 roku ustawiono tam rzeźbę Marca Quinna zatytułowaną "Ciężarna Alison Lapper". Ostatnia to model hotelu, wykonany z kolorowego szkła przez niemieckiego artystę Thomasa Schutte. Kolumny i fontann strzegą cztery ogromne lwy odlane z brązu. +Do placu dochodzą ulice: od zachodu Pall Mall, od wschodu Duncannon St. +Północną ścianę placu zajmuje budynek National Gallery. Od północnego wschodu do placu przylega kościół St. Martin-in-the-Fields. Od strony południowej znajduje się rondo komunikacyjne, na którym zbiegają się ulice Cockspur St., Strand, Northumberland Avenue i Whitehall. +Trafalgar Square to tradycyjne miejsce spotkań i zgromadzeń zarówno politycznych jak i sylwestrowych. +7 lipca 2011 roku odbyła się tu światowa premiera filmu "" ("Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part II") +Krzyżmo + +Krzyżmo (z łac. "chrisma", gr. "μύρον", "myron") - mieszanina oliwy z oliwek i balsamu, używana do namaszczania przy udzielaniu sakramentów chrztu, bierzmowania, święceń kapłańskich, konsekracji biskupów oraz przy konsekracji kościołów i ołtarzy. +Namaszczenie krzyżmem nawiązuje do naturalnych cech namaszczenia balsamem oliwnym: oznacza uzdrowienie, jest znakiem obfitości i radości. +Krzyżmo święte jest poświęcane przez biskupa razem z olejem chorych i olejem katechumenów podczas mszy Krzyżma Świętego w Wielki Czwartek. Mszał Rzymski przewiduje dwie modlitwy konsekracji krzyżma świętego, a każda z nich składa się z dwóch części. Pierwsza część ma charakter anaforyczny, czyli wychwalający dzieła Pana Boga w historii zbawienia, prowadzącej do Osoby i wydarzenia Jezusa Chrystusa. Druga część stanowi prośbę o charakterze epikletycznym, czyli przywołuje zstąpienie mocy Bożej dla uświęcenia oleju. +Na Zachodzie nazwa bierzmowanie (confirmatio) sugeruje, że ten sakrament utwierdza chrzest i równocześnie umacnia łaskę chrzcielną”. +Benny Andersson + +Benny Andersson właśc. Göran Bror Benny Andersson (ur. 16 grudnia 1946 w Sztokholmie) – współtwórca muzycznej grupy ABBA. +Szwedzki kompozytor i aranżer oraz współautor tekstów wszystkich utworów tej grupy. Multiinstrumentalista. W drugiej połowie lat sześćdziesiątych członek popularnej w Szwecji grupy The Hep Stars. Po rozpadzie grupy ABBA, wraz z Björnem Ulvaeusem, autorem tekstów, rozpoczął twórczość musicalową (1984 "Chess", pol. "Szachy", współtwórca Tim Rice; 1995 "Kristina från Duvemåla", pol. "Krystyna z Duvemåli" ) . Okazjonalnie pisze muzykę do filmów. +Od 2001 prowadzi zespół Benny Anderssons Orkester (BAO). +Układarka rur + +Układarka rur to urządzenie ciągnikowe gąsienicowe, zaliczane do grupy maszyn do robót ziemnych, z osprzętem roboczym wysięgnikowym mocowanym z boku ramy (żuraw boczny, dźwig boczny), wykorzystywane przy budowie rurociągów naftowych, gazowych. +Przy zastosowaniu osprzętu dźwigowego urządzenie kwalifikuje się jako żuraw. +Mozilla Calendar + +Mozilla Calendar - opensource'owy kalendarz i zarządca informacji osobistej (ang. "Personal Information Manager") oparty na otwartym standardzie iCalendar, który może być uruchamiany jako rozszerzenie do programu pocztowego Thunderbird. +Istnieje też samodzielna wersja, o nazwie kodowej Sunbird. Sunbird nie jest już rozwijany. Inny projekt, o nazwie kodowej Lightning, jest wersją rozszerzenia do Thunderbirda, która będzie znacznie ściślej zintegrowana z tym programem - projekt ten powstał 22 grudnia 2004 r. 16 marca 2006 r. wydano jego bardzo wstępną wersję 0.1, a 23 września 2008 - wersję 0.9. +Mozilla Calendar posługuje się językiem interfejsu XUL. Jest dostępny dla systemów Windows, Linux i MacOS. +Balans bieli + +Balans bieli (WB, od ang. "white balance") – termin dotyczący aparatów cyfrowych oraz kamer cyfrowych. Jest to proces kompensacji barw obrazu zarejestrowanego przez matrycę dla temperatury barwowej oświetlenia, jakie towarzyszyło wykonaniu fotografii. +Automatyczny balans bieli oznacza, iż aparat sam ustawi barwy. Znajduje on najjaśniejszy punkt na zdjęciu, i zakłada, iż powinien mieć on kolor biały. Do niego porównuje wszystkie elementy kadru, ponieważ nie wie on jak wygląda kolor biały, ale wie jak wygląda kolor czerwony i niebieski, względem koloru białego. +Gdy najjaśniejszy punkt zdjęcia nie jest biały, automatyka nie pomoże. W takim układzie musimy ręcznie pokazać jak wygląda kolor biały i aparat względem tego koloru będzie reprodukował resztę barw. Im lepszy biały kolor pokażemy, tym wierniejsze barwy na zdjęciu. +W praktyce wykorzystuje się np. kartkę białego papieru jako wzorzec bieli, co daje pozytywny efekt bez względu na światło zastane. W efekcie urządzenie przyjmując za źródło biel kartki dostosuje pozostałą paletę barw do zastanego wzorca; korygując inne barwy. +Jeżeli oświetlimy plan wyłącznie żółtym światłem, to zlikwidujemy niebieski kolor na zdjęciu i żadna korekta balansu bieli nie pomoże, ale możemy podać urządzeniu kolor żółty jako biały i wtedy nie będziemy mieli żółtego koloru na zdjęciu ("patrz: kadr 1"). +W tradycyjnej fotografii rozpoznawanie barw jest "zaszyte" w różnych rodzajach materiału światłoczułego, stąd mamy inne rodzaje filmów służące odpowiednio do światła dziennego lub sztucznego. +Optyka balansu bieli. +Na światło białe składają się składowe od czerwieni po fiolet (w przypadku tradycyjnej fotografii nie bierzemy pod uwagę promieniowania w pasmach nie widocznych dla ludzkiego oka tj. poniżej podczerwieni i powyżej ultrafioletu). +Światło białe jest mieszaniną wszystkich możliwych kolorów światła pasma widzialnego, co można zobaczyć po przepuszczeniu światła białego przez pryzmat, i rozszczepieniu go. +Za idealny poziom balansu bieli założono światło słoneczne zmierzone w południe blisko równika (chodziło o ograniczenie wpływu kąta przejścia przez atmosferę promieni na osłabienie lub wzmocnienie części pasma). Zbadano procentowy udział każdej składowej i przyjęto je za punkt wyjścia dla określenia totalnej bieli i doskonałej szarości (tzw. koloru szarego po odbiciu światła białego od szarej karty Kodaka). Każda rozbieżność w proporcjach udziału składowych w paśmie światła odbitego i padającego (tzw. przesuniecie pasma w kierunku czerwieni lub fioletu) powoduje ocieplenie (przesunięcie w stronę czerwieni) lub oziębienie (przesunięcie w stronę fioletu ) obrazu porównywanego z tym wykonanym we wzorcowych warunkach. +Oko ludzkie ma niezwykłą zdolność do korygowania tego błędu, ale do pewnego stopnia. W ciągu dnia, gdy oglądamy szary przedmiot rano, w południe i wieczorem będzie on dla nas tego samego koloru. Granica adaptacji do różnych warunków oświetleniowych pojawia się gdy w grę będą wchodzić skrajne wartości tj. gdy ten sam, szary przedmiot będziemy oglądać nocą przy świetle świecy stanie się zaczerwieniony a przy świetle księżyca - stanie się niebieski. +Zjawisko to, lecz w nasilonym stopniu tyczy się materiału i elektronicznych systemów światłoczułych (matryce CMOS/CCD), ponieważ percepcja koloru przez człowieka zależy nie tylko od możliwości anatomicznych ale od tzw. wrażenia, a systemy elektroniczne wbudowane do przechwytywania obrazu rozróżniają jedynie natężenie światła w trzech składowych. +Automatyka a ustawienia manualne. +Aparat a ściślej procesory zajmujące się przetwarzaniem obrazu przez nie zapisywanym ma ograniczone możliwości analizy obrazu, przez co często nie jest w stanie samodzielnie dokonać właściwego wyboru odpowiednich parametrów. Problem pojawia się szczególnie w nietypowych warunkach. Przykładowo podczas fotografowania w pomieszczeniu o różowych ścianach. Procesor obrazu stara się odszukać jasne i szare punkty w rejestrowanym obrazie (obecnie amatorskie aparaty z pełną automatyką posiadają systemu rozpoznawania twarzy, które podczas analizy obrazu biorą pod uwagę kolor skóry człowieka), na tej podstawie dokonuje korekcji. Jednak czasami jest to niezwykle ciężkie zadanie a wciąż niedoskonałe systemy nie mogą sobie w pełni z tym poradzić. Możemy znacznie pomóc aparatowi wskazując odpowiedni zakres korekcji podając parametr pod postacią odpowiednich warunków wykonywania ekspozycji. +Rodzaj światła i jego temperatura. +W prostych aparatach fotograficznych można wybrać rodzaj światła lub porę dnia podczas których będzie wykonane zdjęcie, a bardziej zaawansowane systemy pozwalają jeszcze dokładniej określić warunki ekspozycji poprzez podanie temperatury barwowej światła. +Błona fotograficzna. +Na rynku występują błony barwne uczulone na światło słoneczne - należy je stosować w ciągu dnia. Dzięki nim, na zdjęciach wykonanych podczas prawie całego dnia przy czasie ekspozycji do około 15 sekund zachowa prawidłowe odwzorowanie kolorów. +Einsatzgruppen + +Einsatzgruppen ("Grupy Operacyjne") – grupy operacyjne hitlerowskiej policji bezpieczeństwa (Sipo) i służby bezpieczeństwa (SD) działające w czasie II wojny światowej, a organizowane przez Główny Urząd Bezpieczeństwa Rzeszy RSHA. +Zadania Einsatzgruppen. +W lecie 1939 przed wybuchem wojny odbyły się rozmowy pomiędzy naczelnym dowództwem wojsk lądowych (Oberkommando des Heeres, OKH) a szefem policji bezpieczeństwa i służby bezpieczeństwa Rzeszy Reinhardem Heydrichem. Zakończone porozumieniem stały się następnie podstawą rozkazu nr 6 wydanego dnia 31 lipca 1939 w którym określono ogólnie: "Zadaniem Specjalnych Oddziałów Operacyjnych Policji Bezpieczeństwa jest zwalczanie wszelkich elementów wrogich Rzeszy i antyniemieckich w kraju nieprzyjacielskim na tyłach walczących wojsk." Ogólny charakter rozkazu, pozwalał na daleko idącą swobodę działania. Niezależnie od podporządkowania Einsatzgruppen poszczególnym dowódcom armii, podlegały one w całości szefowi policji bezpieczeństwa i SD Heydrichowi i wyznaczanych przez niego kierowników poszczególnych operacji. +Do zadań tych grup, które miały działać na zapleczu wojsk niemieckich, należało więc mordowanie lub izolacja politycznych i ideologicznych przeciwników III Rzeszy na operacyjnym zapleczu frontu. Zadanie to realizowano poprzez stosowanie bezwzględnego terroru i masowej eksterminacji aktywnych działaczy antyniemieckich i antyfaszystowskich. W Polsce działania te były nad wyraz radykalne, na zewnątrz działania Policji i SS wyglądać mogły na brutalną samowolę. Działaniami tymi objęto np. uczestników powstania wielkopolskiego i śląskich oraz czołowych przedstawicieli inteligencji, Żydów i komunistów. Jednym z głównych zadań Einsatzgruppen była eksterminacja Żydów. Starano się przy tym, aby do zabijania Żydów przyłączała się miejscowa ludność ukraińska, litewska, polska lub białoruska. Niejednokrotnie miejscowa ludność często atakowała Żydów jeszcze zanim niemieckie oddziały zajęły dany region. We Lwowie ulotki OUN wręczane przechodniom wzywały jawnie do mordów "Lachów, Żydów i komunistów niszcz bez litości, nie miej zmiłowania dla wrogów Ukraińskiej Rewolucji Narodowej". Na początku sierpnia 1941 dwie kompanie konnego regimentu SS Franza Magilli zostały oddelegowane do Pińska, gdzie pomagały Einsatzgruppen przygotować akcję wymordowania całej populacji Żydów – ponad 30 tys. osób. Od 3 lipca 1941 takie działania przeprowadziła we Lwowie prawdopodobnie Einsatzkommando policji bezpieczeństwa. +Do zadań tych grup należało także zabezpieczanie zakładów przemysłowych, ważniejszych urządzeń komunalnych i strategicznych oraz zapasów surowców. Grupy te rekwirowały także archiwa państwowe i organizacji politycznych, zbiory dzieł sztuki. +Na czele grup operacyjnych stali z reguły wyżsi funkcjonariusze służby bezpieczeństwa (SD) a w ich kierownictwo składało się z oficerów Gestapo i Kripo. Grupy te dysponowały oddziałami SS i Ordnungspolizei. +Bezpośrednio po rozwiązaniu Einsatzgruppen na danym terenie istniały stałe samodzielne placówki policji bezpieczeństwa. +Einsatzgruppen w Austrii. +Pierwszą taką grupą była zorganizowana w 1938 roku grupa "Einsatzkommando Österreich" dowodzona przez SS-Standartenführera prof. dr Franza Sixa, która działała w trakcie zajmowania Austrii. +Einsatzgruppen w Czechach. +W październiku 1938 powstały kolejne grupy: "Einsatzgruppe Dresden" (dowódca – SS-Standartenführer Heinz Jost) i "Einsatzgruppe Wien" (dowódca – SS-Standartenführer dr Franz Stahlecker). Grupy te wzięły udział w zajmowaniu części Czechosłowacji przyznanych III Rzeszy na mocy układu monachijskiego. +Einsatzgruppen w Polsce. +W czasie przygotowania agresji na Polskę w połowie 1939 roku zorganizowano w ramach operacji "Tannenberg" 8 grup operacyjnych, które miały działać przy poszczególnych armiach biorących udział w ataku na Polskę. +Grupy te działały do 1940 roku, część uczestniczyła w organizacji niemieckich struktur sił bezpieczeństwa na obszarach Polski. +Kolejne grupy organizowano przed atakiem na kolejne państwa Norwegię, Francję, Belgię, Holandię, Jugosławię. +Einsatzgruppen w ZSRR. +Na początku 1941 roku w związku z planowanym atakiem na ZSRR przystąpiono do organizacji kolejnych grup operacyjnych. Miały być to z założenia duże jednostki, które podporządkowane były poszczególnym grupom armii. Każda taka grupa składała się z podgrup ("Einsatzkommando" i "Sonderkommando"), które działały przy poszczególnych armiach lub na określonym obszarze. +Do tworzenia oddziałów przystąpiono przed inwazją niemiecką na Związek Radziecki w maju 1941 r. w szkole policyjnej w Pretzsch (Elbe) w Saksonii. Sformowano cztery "Einsatzgruppen", oznaczone literami A, B, C i D, które podzielone zostały na "Einsatzkommanda" i "Sonderkommanda". "Einsatzgruppen" liczyła od 600 do 1000 SS-manów, SD-manów, członków Gestapo, Kripo, policjantów z 9 rezerwowego batalionu policyjnego i elitarnej jednostki tajnej policji Leitende Dienst. W literaturze przedmiotu podaje się informację, że dwie trzecie członków "Einsatzgruppen" miało wyższe wykształcenie prawnicze lub ekonomiczne, a jedna trzecia doktoraty. Jeden z dowódców "Einsatzkommando 6" z "Einsatzgruppen C", Ernst Biberstein, był pastorem i teologiem, inny z kolei z Sonderkomamando 7a, Einsatzgruppe B, Eugen Steimle, nauczycielem, a osądzony w Norymberdze Otto Ohlendorf był doktorem prawa, który skończył trzy fakultety uniwersyteckie. Oprócz wspomnianego Ohlendorfa tytuł doktora posiadali między innymi Franz Six (filozofia), Otto Rasch (prawo i ekonomia polityczna), Walter Blume (prawo), Martin Sandberger (prawo), Werner Braune (prawo), Eduard Strauch (prawo). +Dowódcy tych jednostek otrzymali m.in. polecenie likwidacji na terenach ZSRR wszystkich Żydów, Cyganów, funkcjonariuszy komunistycznych i azjatyckich "mniej-wartościowych". +Zgodnie z zarządzeniem szefa Główny Urząd Bezpieczeństwa Rzeszy RSHA Reinharda Heydricha głównym zdaniem tych grup było wymordowanie: "zawodowych pracowników aparatu politycznego WKP(b), działaczy partyjnych i związków zawodowych, oficerów politycznych Armii Radzieckiej, kierowniczych przedstawicieli administracji państwowej, kierownicze osobistości życia gospodarczego, radzieckich intelektualistów, Żydów oraz wszystkie osoby będące agitatorami i fanatycznymi komunistami". Ta operacja miała odbyć się przy jak najszerszym współudziale miejscowej ludności. Reinhard Heydrich wydał znamienną dyrektywę w tej sprawie: "...dla obserwatora z zewnątrz powinno to wyglądać, że sama miejscowa ludność zareagowała w sposób naturalny przeciwko dziesiątkom lat opresji dokonywanej przez Żydów oraz przeciwko terrorowi stworzonemu ostatnio przez komunistów". Do tej pożądanej przez Niemców współpracy doszło na Litwie i Łotwie. "Einsatzgruppe "D"" znalazła gorliwych pomocników w żołnierzach rumuńskiej armii, którzy są odpowiedzialni za pogromy Żydów w Jassach, miejscowościach Besarabii i Bukowiny oraz w Odessie. +"Einsatzgruppen" wymordowały ponad 900 tys. Żydów. Największe masakry miały miejsce w Babim Jarze koło Kijowa, gdzie w ciągu dwóch dni rozstrzelano 34 tys. Żydów, lesie Rumbula pod Rygą (ok. 25 tys.), we Lwowie (7 tys.), Równem (15 tys.), Charkowie (14 tys.), Odessie (35 tys.), Kownie. +Łącznie w wyniku działalności grup operacyjnych zginęło około 2 milionów osób cywilnych. +W trakcie kampanii przeciwko ZSRR, "Einsatzgruppen" operowały również na terenie obozów jenieckich Wehrmachtu, "selekcjonując" przy ścisłej współpracy z ich personelem sowieckich jeńców wojennych, których uznawano za "elementy niepożądane" (m.in. komunistów, Żydów, urzędników państwowych, inteligentów, żołnierzy pochodzących z Azji Środkowej i Kaukazu). "Wyselekcjonowanych" jeńców mordowano następnie w odludnych miejscach na Wschodzie - w tajemnicy przed pozostałymi jeńcami, mieszkańcami okupowanych obszarów oraz zwykłymi żołnierzami Wehrmachtu. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej działalnością "Einsatzgruppen" zajmował się Amerykański Trybunał Wojskowy w Norymberdze. W 1948 roku w procesie nr 9 za zbrodniczą działalność "Einsatzgruppen" skazano 22 dowódców grup i podgrup. +Źreb + +Źreb (zgrzeb, hak, dziedzina) – we wczesnym średniowieczu zabudowania i grunty wchodzące w skład jednego gospodarstwa rolnego chłopa wolnego, niewolnego lub rycerza. +Do gruntów zaliczano: pola uprawne, łąki, pastwiska oraz lasy. Źreby w Polsce i na Rusi nie posiadały ustalonej miary powierzchni. Ich wielkość mogła obejmować 1, bądź kilka łanów ziemi. Zazwyczaj obejmowały 20–35 ha powierzchni. Według prawa polskiego stanowiły przedmiot dziedziczenia i mogły być dzielone na mniejsze jednostki. Termin "źreb" zaczął zanikać w późnym średniowieczu, spotykany czasem w XVII w. +Według niektórych badaczy – pojęcie źrebu wywodzi się od słowa (łac.) "sors", które oznacza "los". Prawdopodobnie wiązało się to z losowaniem gospodarstw rolnych na terenie określonej wspólnoty rodowej, bądź terytorialnej. +Tim Rice + +Sir Tim Rice (ur. 10 listopada 1944) – poeta angielski, twórca tekstów piosenek i musicali m.in. "Jesus Christ Superstar, Evita, Chess, Aida" .Współpracował m.in. z Andrew Lloyd Webberem, Freddiem Mercurym, Eltonem Johnem, Bennym Anderssonem oraz Björnem Ulvaeusem. Jest autorem słów piosenek do filmu "Walta Disneya" – "Król Lew". +Swobodny jeździec + +Swobodny jeździec (ang. "Easy Rider") – film drogi z 1969. Wyreżyserowany przez Dennisa Hoppera, ukazujący między innymi styl życia obyczajowych rebeliantów końca lat 60 XX wieku: Beat Generation, hippisów oraz rockersów. Tematem filmu jest poszukiwanie wolności i indywidualizmu dwóch wyalienowanych młodych idealistów. Scenariusz do filmu napisali Dennis Hopper, Peter Fonda i Terry Southern, a zdjęcia wykonał László Kovács. +Fabuła. +Dwaj motocykliści, Wyatt (Fonda) zwany - od motywu flagi amerykańskiej, który widniał na jego kasku, kurtce oraz baku jego motocykla - "Kapitan Ameryka" i Billy (Hopper), podróżują przez południowe stany USA na motocyklach. Przed wyruszeniem w trasę udało im się przemycić sporą ilość kokainy z Meksyku do L.A., która zapewniła im wystarczającą ilość gotówki, aby wyruszyć na Florydę. Jednak im dalej jadą na wschód tym mniej przychylne reakcje spotykają ich od miejscowych ludzi. Na początku drogi trafiają na farmę, gdzie zostają bardzo gościnnie przyjęci przez gospodarzy, którzy pozwalają im naprawić koło, a następnie częstują obiadem. Na bezdrożach Nowego Meksyku zabierają autostopowicza (Luke Askew), który okazuje się być członkiem komuny hipisowskiej, do której zaprosił motocyklistów. W mikro-społeczności dzieci kwiatów znajdującej się w okolicach Taos w Nowym Meksyku oglądają oni próby organizacji życia w stylu pierwotnym przez młodych uciekinierów z miast. Na odjeździe autostopowicz daje Wyattowi kartonik LSD, mówiąc aby podzielił się tym we właściwym miejscu z właściwymi ludźmi. W małym miasteczku na trasie zostają aresztowani za "paradowanie bez pozwolenia", ponieważ jechali dla żartu za lokalną paradą. W areszcie poznają prawnika i alkoholika George'a Hansona (Jack Nicholson), który pomaga im wyjść na wolność, a następnie rusza z nimi w trasę. W Luizjanie w barze, w którym chcieli coś zjeść, zostają niezbyt przychylnie przyjęci przez siedzących tam mężczyzn i oficera policji, za to bardzo entuzjastycznie przez nastolatki, które koniecznie chcą z nimi ruszyć w drogę. W nocy na ich biwak napadają miejscowi - dotkliwie ich biją i zabijają George'a. Billy i Wyatt jednak kontynuują podróż i docierają do Nowego Orleanu, gdzie trwa parada Mardi Gras. Znajdują dom publiczny, który polecił im George i wraz z dwiema prostytutkami - Karen (Karen Black) i Mary (Toni Basil) - oglądają paradę, na koniec trafiają na cmentarz, gdzie wszyscy biorą LSD. Obrazy ich narkotykowego "odlotu" na nowoorleańskim cmentarzu należą do najbardziej znanych scen tego filmu. Kolejnego ranka ruszają dalej w stronę Florydy. W drodze zostają wypatrzeni przez dwóch jadących pick-upem rednecków. Jeden z nich strzelając zabija najpierw Billa, a potem Wyatta, który ruszył po pomoc dla przyjaciela. Kamera filmująca płonący motor Kapitana Ameryki powoli unosi się w stronę nieba, pokazując z lotu ptaka sielski krajobraz. +Filmy takie jak "Easy Rider" czy "Znikający punkt" (1971) są postrzegane jako swoisty manifest poszukiwania wolności przez młodych ludzi. Ukazują one także brak tolerancji i poszanowania ich odmienności (wyglądu, stylu życia) u znacznej części społeczeństwa amerykańskiego na początku lat siedemdziesiątych. +Motocykle. +Występujące w filmie maszyny to Harleye Hydraglide z 1949, 1950 i 1952 - zbudowano po dwa, na wypadek awarii - przebudowane przez Cliffa Vaughsa i Bena Hardy'ego według pomysłu Fondy. To właśnie ten film spopularyzował, dziś już uznany za klasyczny, wygląd "custom choppera" z charakterystycznym długim widelcem. +Repliki motocykli którymi w filmie podróżowali główni bohaterowie +Zobacz też. +We wrześniu 2004, wytwórnia Columbia wydała na dwóch płytach DVD luksusową edycję filmu z rozszerzoną ścieżką dźwiękową: "Easy Rider (35th Anniversary Deluxe Edition)". +Benedykt XIII (papież) + +Benedykt XIII (łac. "Benedictus XIII)", właściwie Vincenzo Maria Orsini de Gravina, imiona chrzestne Pietro, Francesco (ur. 2 lutego 1649 w Gravina in Puglia, archidiecezja Bari, zm. 21 lutego 1730 w Rzymie), włoski duchowny katolicki, od 1724 papież. +Pochodził z arystokratycznego rodu, który dał Kościołowi kilku papieży. Zrezygnował z praw dziedzicznych i w 1667 wstąpił do zakonu dominikanów. W 1668 złożył śluby zakonne, w lutym 1671 przyjął święcenia najpierw diakonatu, następnie kapłaństwa. Chciał prowadzić pobożne, skromne życie w klasztorze, jednak zabiegi rodziny dały mu w młodym wieku miejsce w Kolegium kardynałów (1672, prezbiter S. Sisto) oraz arcybiskupstwo Manfredonia (konsekrowany 3 lutego 1675 przez kardynała Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri). W 1680 został biskupem Ceseny (z tytułem personalnym arcybiskupa), w marcu 1686 – ze względu na niesprzyjający jego zdrowiu klimat w Cesenie – przeniesiony na arcybiskupa Benewentu. W styczniu 1701 został kardynałem-biskupem Frascati, a w 1715 kardynałem-biskupem Porto e Santa Rufina. Przez cały czas utrzymywał jednocześnie stolicę Benewentu. +Brał udział we wszystkich kolejnych konklawe – w 1676, 1689, 1691, 1700, 1721 i 1724. Konklawe po śmierci Innocentego XIII nie mogło przez dziewięć tygodni wyłonić nowego papieża wskutek starć frakcji hiszpańskiej, francuskiej i prohabsburskiej; kardynał Orsini, kandydat kompromisowy, został wybrany 29 maja 1724 i wzbraniał się przed przyjęciem decyzji konklawe, ostatecznie przekonał go przełożony zakonu dominikanów. Orsini przyjął początkowo imię Benedykta XIV, zmienił je jednak na Benedykt XIII (inny Benedykt XIII, Pedro da Luna, był antypapieżem na przełomie XIV i XV wieku). Wybór imienia był poświęcony innemu dominikaninowi na tronie papieskim, błogosławionemu Benedyktowi XI (zmarłemu w 1304). Nowy papież został koronowany 4 czerwca 1724. +Po wyborze Benedykt podjął decyzję o utrzymaniu przy sobie godności arcybiskupa Benevento, powierzył zarazem administrację Benevento swojemu wieloletniemu sekretarzowi, Niccolo Coscii, którego dodatkowo mianował kardynałem i uczynił swoim najbliższym współpracownikiem. Nie był to trafny wybór, Coscia szybko zaczął wykorzystywać swoją silną pozycję w Państwie Papieskim do serii nadużyć, ostatecznie nie zawahał się nawet przed przywłaszczeniem znacznej sumy ze skarbca watykańskiego. Osoba kardynała Coscii rzuca cień na pontyfikat Benedykta XIII, który niezależnie od tego podjął wiele dobrze ocenianych działań. +Działalność duszpasterską sprawował osobiście, mimo podeszłego wieku w chwili wyboru. Konsekrował nowe kościoły, udzielał sakramentów, przewodniczył synodowi plenarnemu na Lateranie. Przeciwstawił się obyczajom duchowieństwa, ograniczył praktyki nepotyzmu. Zakazał także organizacji loterii państwowej, która stała się źródłem nadużyć, oraz potwierdził bullę Klemensa XI "Unigenitus", potępiającą jansenizm. Wśród osób wyniesionych przez papieża Benedykta XIII na ołtarze był Polak Stanisław Kostka. +Rozszerzając kult Grzegorza VII na cały Kościół, wywołał kryzys międzynarodowy, ponieważ stanowiło to potwierdzenie stanowiska o wyższości Kościoła nad państwem świeckim (pochwalono ekskomunikę cesarza Henryka IV przez papieża Grzegorza). Działania Niccolo Coscii odebrały także popularność papieżowi w samym Rzymie. +Benedykt XIII został pochowany w kościele S. Maria sopra Minerva w Rzymie, tradycyjnie związanym z zakonem dominikanów. W 1998 papieża ogłoszono Sługą Bożym. +Splot szyjny + +Splot szyjny (łac."plexus cervicalis") - tworzą go gałęzie brzuszne nerwów rdzeniowych od C1 do C4. Łączą się ze sobą łukowatymi pętlami, które przebiegają bocznie od wyrostków poprzecznych trzech pierwszych kręgów szyjnych. Sam splot leży bocznie i do przodu od wyrostków poprzecznych górnych kręgów szyjnych, przed głębokimi mięśniami szyi. Od strony przedniej przykryty jest blaszką przedkręgową powięzi szyjnej, którą przebijają gałęzie biegnące do przodu. +Złoty prostokąt + +Złoty prostokąt – prostokąt, którego boki pozostają w złotym stosunku. Charakteryzuje się +tym, że po dorysowaniu doń kwadratu o boku równym dłuższemu bokowi prostokąta otrzymuje się nowy, większy złoty prostokąt. +Odpowiednio w drugą stronę, odcinając od złotego prostokąta kwadrat o boku równym krótszemu bokowi prostokąta otrzymuje się prostokąt, którego boki nadal pozostają w złotym stosunku. +Powtarzając te czynności otrzymuje się kolejne coraz większe lub coraz mniejsze złote prostokąty. +Błona bębenkowa + +- część napięta (łac. "pars tensa") - większa część błony bębenkowej. Przymocowana jest ona do części bębenkowej kości skroniowej pierścieniem włóknisto-chrząstkowym (łac. "anulus fibrocartilagineus"); +- część wiotka: błona Schrapnela, (łac. "pars flaccida") - pozbawiona jest ona warstwy włóknistej, mniejsza, górna część błony bębenkowej. Przyczepia się ona do okostnej łuski kości skroniowej w jej wcięciu bębenkowym (Riviniego) (łac. "incisura tympanica Rivini"). +Budowa ściany błony bębenkowej. +Bezpośrednio za częścią napiętą położona jest rękojeść młoteczka (łac. "manubrium mallei") i wyrostek boczny młoteczka. Zrastają się one z błoną bębenkową wytwarzając na niej wyniosłość młoteczka (łac. "prominentia mallearis") i biegnący ku dołowi i tyłowi prążek młoteczka (łac. "stria mallearis"). Zakończony jest on centralnie położonym zagłębieniem w błonie zwanym pępkiem błony bębenkowej (łac. "umbo membranae tympani"). Na wysokości wyniosłości młoteczkowej poziomo ku przodowi i tyłowi przebiegają dwa prążki błony bębenkowej: przedni i tylny, które ograniczają od dołu błonę Schrapnela. +Podział błony bębenkowej. +Na potrzeby otologii błonę bębenkową dzieli się na cztery kwadranty. Tworzy się je prowadząc dwie linie przechodzące przez pępek błony przecinające się kątem 90° (pierwsza z nich poprowadzona jest prostopadle do rękojeści błony a druga w osi rękojeści). +Wytrzymałość błony bębenkowej jest duża (nie ulega uszkodzeniu do 13,33 kPa), natomiast jej sprężystość jest mała. +Fale dźwiękowe dochodzące do błony częściowo się odbijają a pozostała część wprowadza błonę bębenkową w drgania, które są następnie przenoszone na łańcuszek kosteczek słuchowych (młoteczek, kowadełko i strzemiączko) trafiając ostatecznie na okienko owalne a dalej do ślimaka. +Oprócz przewodnictwa (drogą kosteczek słuchowych), fale dźwiękowe docierają też przez błonę bębenkową za pośrednictwem przewodnictwa powietrznego - przez jamę bębenkową bezpośrednio na okienko owalne. +Portland (Maine) + +Portland – miasto w Stanach Zjednoczonych, port nad Atlantykiem, największe miasto stanu Maine. Zgodnie ze spisem z roku 2010 jego populacja wynosi 66 194 osób. +Historia. +Początkowo miasto funkcjonowało jako osada zwana "Casco" (rdzenni mieszkańcy nazywali ją "Machigonne"), zasiedlona przez Anglików w 1632 r. W roku 1658 nazwa została znowu zmieniona, tym razem na "Falmouth". +Miasto było odbudowywane wiele razy, najpierw wskutek totalnego zniszczenia spowodowanego przez najazdy plemion Wampanoagów, w 1675 oraz kilka lat później. Następnie 18 października 1775 roku, w trakcie Wojny o niepodległość Stanów Zjednoczonych, tym razem w wyniku bombardowań ze strony marynarki wojennej Wielkiej Brytanii. +Po wojnie Falmouth otworzyło się na handel, a zwłaszcza jego nadmorska część zwana "The Neck", gdzie szybko rozwinął się doskonale prosperujący port handlowy. W 1786 z inicjatywy mieszkańców Falmouth, "The Neck" stało się odrębnym miastem nazwanym Portland. Miasto przeżywało ekonomiczny rozkwit aż do roku 1807, czyli do czasu wprowadzenia embarga na handel z Brytyjczykami, które w połączeniu z Wojną brytyjsko-amerykańską spowodowało recesję całej gospodarki miasta. Po wojnie zaczęto stopniowo odbudowywać struktury gospodarcze miasta. W roku 1820 Portland zostało wybrane na stolicę stanu Maine, ale utrzymało tę pozycję jedynie na 12 lat - w 1832 stolica została przeniesiona do Augusty, która piastuje tę funkcję do dziś. +4 lipca 1866 w Dzień Niepodległości w mieście wybuchł Wielki Pożar, który pozbawił dachu nad głową ponad 10 000 osób oraz zniszczył dużą część infraktustury miasta. Podczas odbudowy większość budynków została wzniesiona w stylu wiktoriańskim. +Duży wpływ na rozwój Portland ma Maine College of Art, do którego zjeżdżają studenci z całego kraju. Obecnie miasto po raz kolejny przeżywa boom budowlany (poprzedni nastąpił w latach 80.), choć już nie aż tak ogromny jak poprzednio. +Geografia. +Portland leży na 43°66'71.3" N, 70°20'71.7" W. +Według danych amerykańskiego Biura Spisów Ludności, miasto zajmuje powierzchnię 136,2 km², z czego 54,9 km² stanowią lądy, a 81,2 km² (59,65%) stanowią wody. +Demografia. +Według spisu z roku 2000, miasto zamieszkuje 64 250 osób, które tworzą 29 714 gospodarstw domowych oraz 13 549 rodzin. Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 1 169,6 osób/km². Na terenie miasta znajduje się 31 862 budynków mieszkalnych o średniej częstości występowania na poziomie 580,0 budynków/km². 91,27% ludności miasta to ludzie biali, 2,59% to czarni, 0,47% to rdzenni Amerykanie, 3,08% to Azjaci, 0.06% to mieszkańcy z wysp Pacyfiku, 0,67% to ludność innych ras, 1.86% to ludność wywodząca się z dwóch lub większej ilości ras, 1.52% to Hiszpanie lub Latynosi. +W mieście znajdują się 29 714 gospodarstw domowych, z czego w 21.4% z nich znajdują się dzieci poniżej 18 roku życia. 32,1% gospodarstw domowych tworzą małżeństwa. 10,5% stanowią kobiety bez męża, a 54,4% to nie rodziny. 40,1% wszystkich gospodarstw składa się z jednej osoby. W 11,5% znajdują się samotne osoby powyżej 65 roku życia. Średnia wielkość gospodarstwa domowego wynosi 2,08 osoby, a średnia wielkość rodziny to 2.89 osoby. +Populacja miasta rozkłada się na 18,8% osób poniżej 18 lat, 10,7% osób z przedziału wiekowego 18-24 lat, 36,1% osób w wieku od 25 do 44 lat, 20,6% w wieku 45-64 lat i 13,9% osób które mają 65 lub więcej lat. Średni wiek mieszkańców to 36 lat. Na każde 100 kobiet przypada 91,8 mężczyzn. Na każde 100 kobiet w wieku 18 lub więcej lat przypada 89 mężczyzn. +Średni roczny dochód w mieście na gospodarstwo domowe wynosi $35 650 a średni roczny dochód na rodzinę to $48 763. Średni roczny dochód mężczyzny to $31 828, kobiety $27 173. Średni roczny dochód na osobę wynosi $12 698. 21,7% rodzin i 34,1% populacji miasta żyje poniżej minimum socjalnego, z czego 40% to osoby poniżej 18 lat a 21,9% to osoby powyżej 65 roku życia. +Polacy w Portland. +W Portland znajduję się jedyny polski kosciół w stanie Maine, Kościół św. Ludwika. Ok. 40-50 polskich imigrantów przychodzi co tydzień na mszę świętą. W mieście też jest polska restauracja, Bogusha’s Polish Restaurant. Istnieje również mały Klub Polski. +Sławomir Szwedowski + +Sławomir Jan Szwedowski h.Korwin (ur. 1928, zm. 21 marca 2000) — prof. zw. dr hab. - polski ekonomista, profesor Instytutu Nauk Ekonomicznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk. +Ukończył w 1954 Szkołę Główną Planowania i Statystyki. Tytuł profesora nauk ekonomicznych uzyskał w 1988. Do 1990 roku dyrektor do spraw finansowych Instytutu Nauk Ekonomicznych PAN (dyrektorem naczelnym był (1981-1990) prof. zw. dr hab Józef Pajestka, i prof. dr hab. Cezary Józefiak). W latach 1994-1997 był dyrektorem do spraw naukowych (dyrektorem był wówczas prof. dr hab. Marek Belka). +Ponadto był członkiem Rady Naukowej Instytut Nauk Ekonomicznych PAN. +Tytuły niektórych prac naukowych. +Publikował m.in. w czasopismach "Gospodarka Polski"; "Studia Ekonomiczne", "Gospodarka Planowa", "Ekonomista" +Gospodarka planowa : miesięcznik poświęcony problemom planowania i rozwoju gospodarki narodowej / Instytut Gospodarki Narodowej. - Warszawa : Państwowe Wydawnictwa Ekonomiczne, ISSN 0017-2421, 1975, 2, S. 76-82 +Gospodarka planowa, ISSN 0017-2421, (1960), +Książki Sławomira Szwedowskiego można znaleźć między innymi w Bibliotece Kongresu USA, w Szwedzkim Katalogu Narodowym, Katalogu uniwersytetu w Karlsruhe. +Mięsień mostkowo-obojczykowo-sutkowy + +Mięsień mostkowo-obojczykowo-sutkowy (łac. "musculus sternocleidomastoideus") - jeden z powierzchownych mięśni szyi. Jest to silny mięsień, dobrze widoczny u żywego człowieka - zarysowuje się on bardzo wyraźnie na szyi przy obrocie głowy w prawo lub w lewo. W praktyce klinicznej często określany skrótem MOS (akronim od Mostkowo-Obojczykowo-Sutkowych). +Przyczepy. +Jego nazwa wywodzi się od przyczepów - początek mięśnia tworzą dwie głowy przyczepiające się do mostka, obojczyka. Z kolei koniec mięśnia leży na powierzchni wyrostka sutkowatego kości skroniowej. Do tyłu od mięśnia przebiega ścięgno pośrednie mięśnia łopatkowo gnykowego. +Czynność. +Mięsień działając samodzielnie obraca głowę w stronę przeciwległą i unosi twarz ku górze, oba mięśnie działając wspólnie unoszą ku górze twarz (jak przy spojrzeniu na obiekt nad głową). Może też pełnić rolę pomocniczego mięśnia wdechowego (unosząc mostek). +Unaczynienie i unerwienie. +Unaczynienie pochodzi od tętnicy podobojczykowej (drogą tętnicy tarczowej dolnej) i tętnicy szyjnej zewnętrznej (przez tętnicę potyliczną). Mięsień jest unerwiony przez gałąź zewnętrzną nerwu dodatkowego, a także gałązki od splotu szyjnego. +Uszkodzenie jednego z mięśni mostkowo-obojczykowo-sutkowych, szczególnie w okresie okołoporodowym, prowadzi do kręczu szyi. +Operacja Paukenschlag + +Paukenschlag – kryptonim niemieckiej ofensywy U-Bootów, która rozpoczęła się 13 stycznia 1942 roku. +Miała ona sparaliżować aliancką żeglugę handlową na przybrzeżnych akwenach USA. Głównym zamysłem było utrudnienie wysyłania sprzętu wojennego do Wielkiej Brytanii. W pierwszym miesiącu operacji w działaniach bojowych wzięło udział 11 U-Bootów (m.in. U-66, U-85, U-109, U-123, U-125, U-130), zatapiając okręty o łącznej pojemności ponad 150 tys. BRT. Amerykanie okazali się początkowo niefrasobliwi. Ich statki pływały w nocy oświetlone, nie stosowano ciszy radiowej. +Niestoj + +Niestoj – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Nie-" (przeczenie) "-stoj" ("stać"). Może zatem oznaczać "słabowity" albo "ten, który nie zagrzewa nigdzie miejsca". +KISS (reguła) + +Reguła KISS (ang. "Keep It Simple, Stupid", czyli "nie komplikuj, głupku") jest często wspominana przy dyskusji architektury lub szczegółów budowy projektów. Jej istotą jest dążenie do utrzymania eleganckiej i przejrzystej struktury, bez dodawania niepotrzebnych elementów. +Reguła KISS jest często używana przez twórców programów komputerowych. W środowisku tym doczekała się polskiego odpowiednika: BUZI ("Bez Udziwnień Zapisu, Idioto"), atrakcyjnego przez to, że nie tylko oddaje sens akronimu, ale i sam kojarzy się z angielskim pierwowzorem ("kiss" – całować; pocałunek, buziak). +Nie jest to jednak zwrot o typowo informatycznym charakterze, spotyka się go bowiem także w kręgach biznesowych. Również popularne w grupach 12 Kroków. +Wersje. +Z powodu zawarcia w nazwie reguły określenia o lekceważącym charakterze (lub celowo obraźliwego - zależnie od punktu widzenia), pełne rozwinięcie skrótu jest czasem pomijane lub zastępowane innymi. Spotyka się więc ""Keep it Simple and Stupid"" (to ma być proste i głupie), ""Keep It Small and Simple"" (to ma być małe i proste), ""Keep It Simple and Sloppy"" (zrób to prosto i zwyczajnie) lub ""Keep It Short and Simple"" (to ma być krótkie i proste). To ostatnie rozwinięcie jest często maksymą dla prezentacji marketingowych. KISS bywa też rozwijane jako "Keep It Sophisticatedly Simple", czyli w wolnym tłumaczeniu "Upraszczaj, ale nie posuwaj się do prostactwa". Do reguły KISS odnosi sie także sentencja ""Prostota jest szczytem wyrafinowania"". +Historia. +Pochodzenie reguły KISS nie jest do końca znane. Historycznie rzecz ujmując, jej użycie poprzedza lata 80. Prawdopodobnie wywodzi się ze środowiska hackerów z MIT, wiąże się z prostotą architektury systemów Unix, BSD oraz podobnych rozwiązań w tym duchu. Inną popularną hipotezą jest to że akronim ten powstał podczas trwania programu Apollo. +Jastrych + +Jastrych (słowo pochodzenia greckiego (όστρακον ostrakon), zapożyczone z j. niemieckiego "Estrich", oznacza "wylewkę") to posadzka bezspoinowa lub podkład pod podłogę. Zadaniem warstwy jest wyrównanie powierzchni np. stropu przed położeniem materiału wykończeniowego, jakim może być terakota lub inne płytki podłogowe, parkiet, wykładzina dywanowa lub z tworzyw sztucznych itp. Podkład może występować w postaci mokrej mieszanki zaprawy budowlanej układanej na budowie lub prefabrykowanych płyt w postaci tzw. "suchego jastrychu". W przypadku zastosowania jastrychu jako warstwy wierzchniej stosuje się najczęściej gotowe (przygotowane fabrycznie) mieszanki o niskim skurczu, które w miejscu wbudowania wymagają wymieszania z wodą. Materiały tego typu otrzymywane są na ogół przez dodanie odpowiednich środków chemicznych. +Określenie "jastrych suchy" czyli "wylewka sucha" jest błędne. +Jastrychy magnezjowe - dawniej były często stosowane z domieszką trocin jako tzw. skałodrzew do wykonywania posadzek bezspoinowych. +Współcześnie stosowane materiały do wykonywania warstw wyrównujących na mokro (czyli wylewanych w miejscu wbudowania) często charakteryzują się zdolnością do samopoziomowania. +Maskat + +Maskat (arab. مسقط) - stolica i największe miasto Omanu, leżąca w północnej części kraju. Liczba ludności - około 850 tys. mieszkańców. Powierzchnia - 3500 km². Przez miasto przechodzi główna droga kraju Maskat - Salala. Na wschód znajduje się Zatoka Omańska (Morze Arabskie). W Maskacie znajdują się wszystkie najważniejsze instytucje kraju oraz pałac sułtana Omanu. Najważniejszą osobą w państwie jest sułtan Kabus ibn-Said. +Original video animation + +, w skrócie – anime wydane bezpośrednio na rynek video, z pominięciem dystrybucji kinowej i telewizyjnej. Obecnie pojawiają się głównie na DVD, kiedyś pojawiały się na LD i VHS. +Typowa seria OVA składa się z 6 odcinków po ok. 30 min. każdy, jednak dość często można się spotkać z inną ilością odcinków. Podobnie ich długość może być różna. Poszczególne odcinki zazwyczaj nie pojawiają się wszystkie na raz, a co pewien czas pojawia się nowy nośnik z kolejnym odcinkiem. +Produkcje OVA , tym ostatnim zazwyczaj ustępują tylko jakością samej animacji. Dzieje się tak z kilku powodów. Nie trzeba sztucznie przedłużać scenariusza, aby rozciągnąć serię do 13 albo 26 odcinków. Nie trzeba też za wszelką cenę dotrzymywać terminów i można dopracować wiele aspektów. Specyfika rynku video pozwala też na większą swobodę, przez co serie OVA mają możliwość używania dowolnej ilości brutalności i treści erotycznych. +Domastoj + +Domastoj – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Doma-" ("dom"; psł. "*domъ" oznacza "pomieszczenie, gdzie człowiek żyje ze swoją rodziną"; "wszystko, co jest w domu, rodzina, mienie, majątek", "ród, pokolenie", "strony rodzinne, kraj ojczysty") i "-stoj" ("stać"). Mogło mieć charakter życzący i wyrażać pragnienie, aby osoba tak nazwana była obecna we wspólnocie. +Ława + +Ława - prosty mebel drewniany, znany od starożytności, służący do siedzenia kilku osobom (czasem do spania), którego początkiem była leżąca kłoda drewna, z biegiem czasu o ociosanej płasko górnej części, wsparta na kamieniach. Gdy upowszechniło się pilarstwo, ławę wykonywano z jednej lub kilku desek (zależnie od szerokości), a podstawę w zależności od długości ławy stanowiły 2 płaskie podpory lub 4 i więcej nóg. +W średniowieczu ławy stawiano wzdłuż ścian w domach wiecowych. W karczmach aż do XX w. ławami otaczano stoły. Podróżni i goście siedzieli na nich i spali. +Ława była w średniowieczu podczas jarmarków warsztatem pracy wekslarza, który stawiał na niej wagę i odważniki oraz dokonywał na niej wymiany pieniędzy. Często jego oszukańcze praktyki oburzały klientów, którzy rzucali się z gniewem na niego i zapamiętale niszczyli jego sprzęty i warsztat pracy, czyli ławę. Takie zdarzenia dały początek słowu "bankructwo": "Banca" - "ława", "rotta" - "złamana", włoskie "bancarotta" = bankructwo (franc. "banqueroutte" - "bankructwo"). +Z biegiem czasu samo słowo ława, ze względu na rozległe zastosowanie tego mebla, zyskało wiele znaczeń. Powstały: ława kar (spocząć na ławie kar), ława w sądownictwie, jako odnosząca się do ogółu uczestniczących w procesie ławników, ośla ława w szkolnictwie itp. +Sama ława jako mebel podlegała ciągłej ewolucji, otrzymała oparcie, a powierzchnia siedziska i oparcia uległy z kolei wygięciu, otrzymując bardzo ergonomiczny charakter. Po bokach pojawiły się podłokietniki, a cała konstrukcja wsparta była na żeliwnych nogach i wzmocnieniach. Tak w XIX wieku powstała gustowna ławka parkowa. +Katedra św. Mikołaja w Elblągu + +Katedra św. Mikołaja w Elblągu (niem. "St.-Nikolai-Kirche") - pierwotnie kościół farny, siedziba najstarszej w mieście parafii katedralnej św. Mikołaja, a od 25 marca 1992 katedra diecezji elbląskiej. +Jeden z najwyższych obiektów sakralnych w Polsce (wysokość wieży 97 m). +Historia. +Początki kościoła sięgają poł. XIII w., kiedy powstało prostokątne prezbiterium i 5 przęseł korpusu. Przez dwa stulecia kościół był stopniowo rozbudowywany z dwukrotną zmianą programu przestrzennego (pierwotnie bezwieżowa hala po dobudowaniu wieży i podwyższeniu nawy głównej stała się bazyliką, a po podwyższeniu naw bocznych ponownie halą). +Pożar kościoła w roku 1777 i dzieje późniejsze. +26 kwietnia 1777 nad miastem rozszalała się burza. Jedyne wyładowanie atmosferyczne uderzyło wieżę, która stanęła w płomieniach, a za nią cały kościół. Zdołano wynieść część wyposażenia, lecz nie udało się ugasić ognia, który strawił wieże i dach kościoła. Wkrótce po pożarze zawaliły się sklepienia, niszcząc przy tym ołtarz główny i wiele innych części wyposażenia które pozostało w kościele. +W trudnej sytuacji finansowej miasto nie mogło odbudować świątyni do jej pierwotnego wyglądu. Rozebrano wszystkie trzy wieże, kościół obniżono o ponad 6,5 metra i założono barokowe sklepienia żaglaste. Dach trójkalenicowy zastąpiono dwuspadowym. Próbowano nadać wtedy kościołowi wygląd barokowy, poprzez otynkowanie ścian i filarów oraz przemalowanie białą farbą wszystkich polichromowanych w poprzednim okresie rzeźb. W 1790 został zrekonstruowany ołtarz główny. W kościele stopniowo pojawiało się nowe wyposażenie. W 1850 położono w kościele nową marmurową posadzkę. Materiał był sprowadzony z Belgii, z kopalni w Namur i w Dinant. +Największa inwestycją tamtego okresu było dobudowanie w latach 1906-1907(w miejscu zniszczonego przez pożar w 1777 trójwieżowego masywu) nowej wieży. Uroczyste położenie kamienia węgielnego odbyło się 24 października 1906. Z wysokością 95 metrów dołączyła ona do najwyższych wież w całych wschodnich Niemczech, a dziś jest najwyższa kościelną wieżą po prawej stronie Wisły. W jej wnętrzu na pierwszym piętrze urządzono bibliotekę parafialną, mieszczącą około 1500 woluminów w tym wiele z okresu średniowiecza. Wyższe piętra zajmował system napędzający zegar oraz 6 brązowych dzwonów. +I wojna światowa i dwudziestolecie międzywojenne. +W czasie I wojna światowej zarekwirowano wszystkie 6 dzwonów i przeznaczono je na przetop na cele wojenne. Nowe zostały wykonane i zawieszone na wieży w 1928. +W 1923 nowym proboszczem kościoła św. Mikołaja został ks. Arthur Kather, który doprowadził do porządkowania i konserwacji wnętrza kościoła. Jego zasługą było umieszczenie w przedsionku kościoła tablicy upamiętniającej poległych parafian w czasie trzech wojen w XIX i XX w.: 1813, 1870-1871 i 1914-1918. W 1915 ks. Kather dokonał remontu i konserwacji obecnej zakrystii pochodzącej z 1402. W tym samym roku rozpoczął przestawianie i konserwację ołtarzy. W czasie tych czynności odkryto cenne gotyckie malowidła z końca XIV w., które również zakonserwowano. +W czasie rządów Adolfa Hitlera w Niemczech ks. Arthur Kather był zagorzałym przeciwnikiem ideologii hitlerowskiej (m.in. odprawiał zakazane nabożeństwa dla mieszkających w Elblągu i okolicach robotników przymusowych), przez co w 1940 został wydalony z Prus Zachodnich na polecenie gauleitera Alberta Forstera. +II wojna światowa i okres powojenny. +Podczas zdobywania Elbląga przez Armię Czerwoną (26.01–10.02.1945) katedra została w dniu święta Matki Boskiej Gromnicznej, 2 lutego 1945, doszczętnie wypalona. Pierwszym polskim księdzem, który przyjechał do Elbląga, był ks. Jan Ostrowski, były powstaniec warszawski. W lipcu 1945 r. Ministerstwo Administracji Publicznej skierowało do Elbląga ks. Hilarego Pracz-Praczyńskiego, franciszkanina, który starał się doprowadzić do porządku byłą kaplicę baptystów, gdyż wypalona świątynia nie rokowała nadziei na rychłą odbudowę. 2 kwietnia 1946 r. administrator apostolski diecezji warmińskiej Teodor Bensch skierował do parafii św. Mikołaja ks. Ludwika Białka, ten rozpoczął prace nad szybką odbudową kaplicy. +31 grudnia 1947 przybył nowy proboszcz parafii św. Mikołaja i dziekan w Elblągu, ks. Wacław Hipsz, którego celem była m.in. odbudowa kościoła. 7 maja 1948 ks. Hipsz zorganizował Komitet Odbudowy Zabytkowego Kościoła św. Mikołaja w Elblągu, z zadaniem odbudowy katedry. 25 lipca 1948 rozpoczęto odgruzowywanie świątyni. W kościele ułożono szyny, po których wagonikami wywieziono około 7000 metrów sześciennych gruzu. Codziennie społecznie pracowało po około 25 osób, pomagali uczniowie szkół podstawowych nr 4 i 6, gimnazjum i Liceum Handlowego. Pracowała również młodzież ze Służby Polsce. Z funduszów państwowych wykonano prace przygotowawcze do szalowania pod płytę betonową, która miała w przyszłości stanowić strop katedry. W 1950 zabetonowano strop i uszczelniono go papą bitumiczną. Ważnym wydarzeniem tego roku było zamontowanie trzech dzwonów z uszkodzonego kościoła św. Anny w Elblągu w wyremontowanej konstrukcji stalowej wieży kościoła św. Mikołaja. Otynkowano również w tym roku 1/3 wnętrza tego kościoła. Prześladowanie duchowieństwa nie pozwoliło na kontynuowanie tych prac. 10 lutego 1952 ks. Hipsz otrzymał nakaz opuszczenia Elbląga w ciągu trzech dni i został przeniesiony do Ostródy. Nowego proboszcza długo nie zatwierdzano. +Następcą księdza Hipsza został ksiądz Gracjan Rudnicki, który nie czuł się w Elblągu dobrze; w maju 1954 parafię objął ks. Gedymin Pilecki. Od razu po jej objęciu rozpoczął gromadzenie funduszy na dalszy etap odbudowy kościoła. Z pisma wystosowanego w dniu 8 listopada 1954 do Ministerstwa Kultury i Sztuki wynika, że pragnie odbudować dach na świątyni, "przywrócić dawną sylwetkę szacownego zabytku", co wpłynie dodatkowo na wygląd miasta, a ponadto sprawi, że dotychczasowy wkład finansowy państwa w dzieło odbudowy tego kościoła nie ulegnie zaprzepaszczeniu. W związku z tym ks. Pilecki prosi o przydział materiałów budowlanych na sumę 198 620 ówczesnych złotych. Dzień 17 stycznia 1955 przyniósł niespodziewaną klęskę budowlaną kościoła św. Mikołaja. Szalejąca w tym dniu wichura spowodowała wyrwanie trzech okien kościoła, wytłuczenie wielu szyb w innych oknach i zerwanie dachu nad zakrystiami wyposażonymi w oryginalne gotyckie sklepienia. +Ks. Pilecki w roku 1955 zajmując się odbudową dachu nie zaniedbał żadnej okazji, by przejmować z opuszczonych kościołów ich ruchome wyposażenie. W dniu 23 marca 1954 otrzymał decyzją Wydziału do Spraw Wyznań PWRN w Gdańsku z kościoła w Rozgarcie następujące elementy wyposażenia: wrak organowy, 6 ławek, 1 ambonę i 1 nastawę ołtarzową. W tym samym dniu z kościoła poewangelickiego w Nowem otrzymał zniszczony w 80% wrak organowy, ambonę, nadstawę ołtarza, szafę dębową do szat kościelnych oraz wszystkie ławki z tego kościoła. Dalszym terenem działalności ks. Pileckiego były kościoły poewangelickie w Jasnej, Stalewie i Fiszewie. Z Jasnej otrzymał 45 ławek i nadstawę ołtarza, ze Stalewa ambonę i również nadstawę ołtarza i z Fiszewa ołtarz i ambonę. +W dniu 28 maja 1955 udało się uzyskać dawny główny ołtarz z Kościoła Trzech Króli z Nowego Miasta w Elblągu. W zamian franciszkanie otrzymali ołtarz drewniany św. Józefa. +Uzyskano wiele innych elementów wyposażenia. +W kręgu konserwatorów zabytków pojawiły się opinie głoszące, że wieża kościoła jest zbyt agresywna i należy rozebrać jej stalową konstrukcję. W związku z tym ks. Pilecki doprowadził do powołania komisji fachowców, która orzekła w dniu 29 czerwca 1956, że konstrukcja ta jest unikalna i podlega ochronie, że jest dobrze zachowana i w tym stanie może trwać jeszcze nawet 20 lat. Zdaniem komisji "ze wszech stron jest konieczne utrzymanie konstrukcji stalowej hełmu wieżowego w jej obecnym stanie i odtworzenie hełmu zgodnie z wymaganiami konserwatorów zabytków". +Przygotowania do pokrycia kościoła dachem wymagały wymurowania wieńca wokół murów zewnętrznych, co zmusiło ks. Pileckiego do zakupienia 100 000 cegieł w dniu 19 maja 1957. W dniu 8 października tegoż roku wymienił 60 000 cegieł niedawno zakupionych na taką samą ilość cegły z rozbieranego właśnie kościoła w Kadynach. Cegła ta posłużyła do łatania uszkodzonej wieży kościoła. Za zakończenie odbudowy kościoła można uznać rok 1965. +W latach 1969-1989 zamontowano witraże w kościele. +Wyposażenie. +Do najcenniejszych elementów wyposażenia wnętrza należą: gotycka chrzcielnica z brązu z 1387 wykonana przez mistrza Bernhausera, drewniane figury apostołów, wielka gotycka rzeźba św. Mikołaja oraz późnogotyckie ołtarze przeniesione z innych kościołów Elbląga (ołtarze Trzech Króli, słodowników, NMP, flisaków). +Organy. +Pierwsze organy kościół otrzymał w 1397. W 1404 były już dwa instrumenty organowe w staromiejskiej świątyni. Następna wzmianka o nich pochodzi z roku 1453. Organista otrzymał wynagrodzenie za grę na dwu instrumentach - "dużym i małym". Przez kilkaset lat organy były przebudowane i zapewne były chlubą głównego kościoła staromiejskiego. +Wiadomo, że w 1777 spłonęły w pożarze kościoła. Po katastrofie zbudowano mały prowizoryczny instrument. W 1803 ówczesny proboszcz kościoła św. Mikołaja - Valentinus Ganswindt pragnąc zbudować nowe organy, sprzedał wiele cennych części wyposażenia kościoła ukrytych w skarbcu. Prawdopodobnie do budowy nowych organów nie doszło. Dopiero następny proboszcz Andreas Rehaag począł starania o nowsze i lepsze organy. Pierwotnie próbowano nabyć organy z rozbieranego właśnie kościoła pojezuickiego w Braniewie, lecz odstąpiono od tej koncepcji zamawiając w Gdańsku u Arendta nowe 35 - głosowy instrument. Prace nad budową trwały od 1818 do 1821. Finansowała je kasa kościelna, lecz i społeczność całego miasta Elbląga, która w formie zbiórki uzbierała 993 talary. Protestancki kupiec Gottfried Schiplick ofiarował na ten cel ogromną sumę 2000 talarów. Dzięki temu proboszcz Rehaag mógł w dniu 21 października 1821 uroczyście poświęcić nowe organy. +W 1926 firma organmistrzowska Bruno Göbel z Królewca zbudowała nowy instrument na miejscu starszego. Organy wyposażono w 53 głosy, trzy manuały i pedał. +Organy te zostały zniszczone podczas pożaru katedry 2 lutego 1945. W 1955 ks. Gedymin Pilecki zlecił firmie Zygmunta Pietrzaka z Włocławka rekonstrukcję organów, których szczątki otrzymał z kościoła w Nowem. W listopadzie 1955 komisja rzeczoznawców uznała, że organy zostały wykonane zgodnie z zaleceniami. Instrument posiada trakturę pneumatyczną, jeden miech, dwa manuały + pedał i 26 głosów. Skala manuałów: C-f3. Skala pedału: C-d1. W 2011 planuje się jego kapitalny remont. +W latach 1979-1987 organistą katedry św. Mikołaja był Henryk Gwardak. +Kasper Tochman + +Kasper Tochman, także Kacper (Gaspar) Tochman (ur. 1797 w Łętowni, powiat Leżajsk, zm. 20 grudnia 1880 w Spotsylvanii, Wirginia) – polski prawnik, uczestnik powstania listopadowego (1830-1831), działacz polonijny w USA. +Życiorys. +Ukończył Wydział Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, praktykował w Warszawie jako adwokat. Jako wiceprezes Towarzystwa Patriotycznego pozostawał w bliskich stosunkach z wodzem naczelnym powstania listopadowego, gen. Janem Skrzyneckim oraz Joachimem Lelewelem, Tadeuszem Krępowieckim i Maurycym Mochnackim. Ceniony mówca i publicysta, był również aktywny w Towarzystwie Wychowania Dzieci po Poległych Rycerzach Polskich. Służył jako oficer (porucznik, część źródeł mówi o awansie na majora) w 8 pułku piechoty liniowej. W trakcie walk odznaczył się bohaterstwem i po bitwie pod Białołęką został odznaczony Krzyżem Złotym Orderu Virtuti Militari. +Po klęsce powstania opuścił kraj wraz z korpusem generała Rybińskiego i wyemigrował do Francji. Osiadł w Awinionie, gdzie pełnił funkcję sekretarza Rady Polaków. W sierpniu 1832 złożył podpis pod aktem założenia Komitetu Narodu Polskiego Ziem Zabranych i odbył szereg podróży po Francji dla zwerbowania kolejnych członków. Należał do loży masońskiej "Orzeł i Pogoń". Bez większego powodzenia pośredniczył między środowiskami polskimi we Francji - Komitetem Narodowym Stałym bliskim Lelewelowi z jednej strony a Hotelem Lambert, Adamem Czartoryskim i Józefem Bemem z drugiej. Wobec braku sukcesów w tej działalności, a także niechęci rządu francuskiego do jego osoby, w 1837 Tochman zdecydował się na wyjazd do USA. +Początkowo pracował w Nowym Jorku jako nauczyciel języka francuskiego. W 1840 przyjął obywatelstwo amerykańskie i podjął naukę prawa amerykańskiego, co pozwoliło mu w 1845 uzyskać prawa adwokackie i otworzyć w Waszyngtonie kancelarię, wspólnie z Levim Woodburym. Pozostawał nieprzerwanie zaangażowany w działalność polonijną; w latach 1840-1844 prowadził aktywnie akcję propagandową, głosząc około 100 wielkich odczytów na temat sytuacji w Polsce, z czego część przed delegatami kongresów stanowych. Efektem tej akcji było wydanie kilkunastu korzystnych dla polskich emigrantów uchwał przez stanowe legislatury. Wybór przemówień z tego okresu Tochman ogłosił drukiem w 1844 w pracy "Na temat społecznych, politycznych i literackich stosunków w Polsce i perspektyw na przyszłość w powiązaniu z polityką Rosji wobec Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki". +Tochman podejmował też inicjatywy integracyjne środowiska polskiego. W 1842 zakładał Stowarzyszenie Polaków, a cztery lata później Polsko-Słowiańskie Towarzystwo Literackie, w składzie którego znalazło się także wielu Amerykanów. Utrzymywał stałe kontakty z innymi aktywistami polonijnymi w Ameryce, m.in. Ignacym Szymańskim, Walerianem Sułakowskim i Hipolitem Oladowskim. Poślubił polską emigrantkę z domu Jagiełło i przyjmował w swoim domu (od 1852 mieszkając w stanie Wirginia) polityków amerykańskich różnych opcji, m.in. przyszłego sekretarza stanu w administracji Lincolna Williama Sewarda czy kandydata na prezydenta Samuela Tildena. Bliski Partii Demokratycznej, został wybrany do 10-osobowego grona elektorów stanowych Wirginii. +Duże zainteresowanie i kontrowersje budził proces o prawa spadkowe po Tadeuszu Kościuszce. Tochman występował w nim jako pełnomocnik rodziny Kościuszki, pozostałej na ziemiach polskich pod zaborem rosyjskim. Przeciwko działaniom Tochmana występował wielokrotnie przedstawiciel dyplomatyczny Rosji w USA Aleksandr Bodisko, który ostatecznie doprowadził do odebrania przez sąd amerykański uprawnień procesowych polskiemu emigrantowi. +Gdy Stanami Zjednoczonymi wstrząsnęła wojna secesyjna (1861-1865), Tochman, obrońca niewolnictwa i posiadacz farmy pod Waszyngtonem, opowiedział się po stronie Konfederatów. Współtworzył z Sułakowskim i Oladowskim spośród polskich emigrantów w południowych stanach tzw. "Polską Brygadę" sformowaną w Nowym Orleanie w stanie Luizjana. Początkowo obejmowała ona 14 pułk piechoty Luizjany w ramach osławionej brygady "Tygrysów z Luizjany". Apogeum rozwoju polskich jednostek służących w armii Konfederacji było utworzenie jeszcze 15 pułku piechoty, także przy udziale Tochmana. "Polska Brygada" brała udział w walkach m.in. w bitwie pod Gettysburgiem (w składzie II Korpusu piechoty Dywizji Johnsona), gdzie 2 lipca 1863 biorąc udział w atakach na wzgórza Culps Hill, poniosła duże straty. Mimo bohaterstwa i zasług Tochman otrzymał jedynie stopień pułkownika, chociaż przez pewien czas sam tytułował się generałem. +Udział w wojnie po stronie Południa naraził Tochmana na krytykę ze strony Lelewela i bliskich mu kręgów polonijnych; Tochman pozostał jednak zaangażowany w los polskiej emigracji, pomagając m.in. w osiedleniu się w USA byłemu dyktatorowi powstania krakowskiego Janowi Tyssowskiemu. +Po upadku Konfederacji był Komisarzem ds. Imigracyjnych stanu Wirginia, werbując osadników do osiedlenia się w tym stanie. Powstała tam wówczas m.in. kolonia "Nowa Polska". Pod koniec życia Tochman wycofał się z aktywności publicznej i mieszkał na farmie pod Waszyngtonem. Zmarł w Spotsylvanii w stanie Wirginia w 1880. Pozostawił liczne artykuły i broszury, dotyczące głównie prowadzonych przez siebie procesów oraz akcji odczytowej z lat 40. XIX wieku. +Siebel Si 204 + +Siebel Si 204 – niemiecki samolot wielozadaniowy z okresu II wojny światowej. Podczas II wojny światowej pełnił rolę samolotu transportowego, szkolnego i kurierskiego. +Historia. +Prace w wytwórni lotniczej Siebel Flugzeugwerke Halle A.G.. nad samolotem oznaczonym jako "Siebel Si 204" rozpoczęto w 1938 roku. Samolot opracowywany był dla Lufthansy, jako mały samolot pasażerski dla 8 osób, a inspiracją w pracach był wcześniejszy samolot kurierski Siebel Fh 104. Prace nad wersją pasażerską przerwała wojna i w takiej konfiguracji ukończono jedynie dwa prototypy. +"Siebel Si 204" został przeprojektowany jako samolot treningowy do szkolenia w lotach według wskazań instrumentów pokładowych (tzw. ślepak). +Produkcję seryjną samolotu "Siebel Si 204" rozpoczęto w 1942 roku we francuskich zakładach SNCAN, a w późniejszym okresie także w wytwórniach na terenie Protektoratu Czech i Moraw. +Produkcja samolotu "Siebel Si 204" w poszczególnych wytwórniach. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej produkcję samolotu "Siebel Si 204" kontynuowano we Francji, gdzie nosiły oznaczenie "NC.700"/"NC.701" i "NC.702" oraz w Czechosłowacji, gdzie miały oznaczenie "Aero C-3/C-103". +Całkowitą liczbę wyprodukowanych samolotów Si 204 wszystkich wersji ocenia się na 1250 do 1300 egzemplarzy. +Użycie w lotnictwie. +Samoloty "Si 204A" trafiły głównie do jednostek łącznikowych i kurierskich Luftwaffe, gdzie służyły do przewozu oficerów wyższego szczebla. Część z maszyn trafiła do szkół lotniczych. +Samoloty "Si 204D" używane były głównie w szkołach pilotażu zaawansowanego (FFS - Flugzeugführerschule) typu B i C, oznaczanych odpowiednio FFS B i FFS C. Rzadko stosowano samolot zgodnie z przeznaczeniem, czyli do szkolenia pilotażu według przyrządów. +Część samolotów używana była przywożenia z frontu pilotów fabrycznych, dostarczających samoloty bojowe z zakładów do jednostek bojowych. +Po wojnie samoloty "Siebel Si 204" były nadal użytkowane. Używano ich we Francji i Czechosłowacji, gdzie również je nadal produkowano. Samoloty zdobyczne posiadał ZSRR, gdzie większość używana była przez Aerofłot na trasach krajowych przynajmniej do 1947 roku. +Samoloty tego typu posiadały również Polskie Linie Lotnicze LOT, które zakupiły we Francji w 1946 roku 6 samolotów wersji "NC.701" zbudowanych już po wojnie, gdzie użytkowano je do 1948 roku. Następnie przekazano je do lotnictwa wojskowego, gdzie były wykorzystywane do zadań kartograficznych. +Benevolent Dictator for Life + +Benevolent Dictator for Life (BDFL) (dobrotliwy, dożywotni dyktator) - nieformalny tytuł nadawany osobom zaangażowanym w ruch Open Source, które cieszą się powszechnym poważaniem środowiska i mają istotny wkład w rozwój określonych dziedzin. Dyktator nadaje, mocą swojego niekwestionowanego autorytetu, ogólne kierunki działania i podejmuje kluczowe decyzje, gdy osiągnięcie konsensusu jest trudne lub niemożliwe. +Pierwotnie tym mianem określano Guido van Rossuma, twórcę języka programowania Python. +Płynność aktywów + +Płynność aktywów - zdolność do szybkiej i łatwej zamiany jednych aktywów na inne bez utraty wartości. +Płynność zależy od głębokości rynku oraz rodzaju aktywów. Co do zasady najmniej płynne są aktywa niefinansowe (np. nieruchomości, maszyny), a najbardziej finansowe: weksle i czeki. Pełną płynność posiada jedynie pieniądz gotówkowy. Jednak na rynkach międzynarodowych możemy wyróżniać waluty o różnym stopniu płynności czego miarą jest wielkość różnicy pomiędzy ceną kupna i sprzedaży waluty (tzw. "spread"). +Według teoretycznego stopnia płynności uporządkowane są aktywa w bilansie księgowym. +Płynność aktywów wpływa na ich giełdową cenę (lub cenę wyznaczoną przez rynek aktywów). +Dla dwóch aktywów o takich samych charakterystykach ale różnej płynności, różnica w cenie rynkowej może być traktowana jako "cena płynności" (ang. liquidity premium). +Za jednostkę miary poziomu płynności przyjmuje się wyrażoną w jednostkach pieniężnych ilość płynnych aktywów. "Poziomu płynności" (ang. liquidity level, level of liquidity) nie wolno mylić z "wartością płynności" (ang. value of liquidity, liquidity value) czyli ceną jaką rynek/firma wyznacza za jednostkę środków pieniężnych (1 złoty, 1 dolar, 1 euro) ponieważ te najbardziej płynne aktywa są doskonałym „nośnikiem” płynności. +Mamy wtedy na myśli rynkową wartość płynności. +Z punktu widzenia przedsiębiorstwa, wartość płynności może różnić się od rynkowej, gdyż zależy ona od działalności zarządu i obecnej płynności finansowej. +Mamy wtedy na myśli wewnętrzną wartość płynności. +Kość łzowa + +Kość łzowa ("os lacrimale") – najmniejsza kość trzewioczaszki, buduje ona przyśrodkową ścianę oczodołu. Ma dwie powierzchnie i cztery brzegi. Łączy się od przodu z wyrostkiem czołowym szczęki, od góry z częścią oczodołową kości czołowej, od tyłu z kością sitową, a od dołu ze szczęką. Na powierzchni bocznej kości znajdziemy: grzebień łzowy tylny ("crista lacrimalis posterior") przechodzący ku dołowi w haczyk łzowy ("hamulus lacrimalis") oraz, położoną przed grzebieniem łzowym tylnym, bruzdę łzową ("sulcus lacrimalis") – miejsce lokalizacji woreczka łzowego. +Józefina Charlotta Koburg + +Joséphine-Charlotte Ingeborg Elisabeth Marie-José Marguerite Astrid (ur. 11 października 1927 w Brukseli, zm. 10 stycznia 2005) – księżniczka Belgów i Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha, żona wielkiego księcia Luksemburga - Jana, matka wielkiego księcia Luksemburga - Henryka. +Była córką księcia Leopolda i księżniczki Astrid; jej rodzice wstąpili w 1934 na tron Belgii. Jej matka zginęła w 1935 w wypadku samochodowym, a jej ojciec ożenił się z Mary Lilian Baels. Braćmi Józefiny Charlotty byli późniejsi królowie Belgów - Baldwin I i Albert II. +Kształciła się w pałacu królewskim u prywatnych nauczycieli. W 1944 wraz z braćmi i drugą żoną ojca została wywieziona do Niemiec, gdzie pozostawała w areszcie domowym do maja 1945. Po wojnie studiowała w Genewie, m.in. psychologię dziecięcą u Jeana Piageta. Po powrocie do Belgii wykonywała liczne obowiązki członka rodziny królewskiej, zajmując się głównie sprawami społecznymi i sztuką. +9 kwietnia 1953 poślubiła księcia Jana, następcę tronu luksemburskiego. Była matką pięciorga dzieci: +12 listopada 1964 jej mąż (po abdykacji matki) wstąpił na tron Luksemburga. Panował do 2000, kiedy sam również abdykował na rzecz syna Henryka. W ramach obowiązków panującej Józefina Charlotta kierowała Młodzieżowym Czerwonym Krzyżem Luksemburga w latach 1959-1970, a także Luksemburskim Komitetem dorosłego Czerwonego Krzyża (od 1964). Opiekowała się wieloma organizacjami ds. opieki zdrowia, pomocy dzieciom i rodzinie. +Candy (film) + +Candy - film z 1968 roku w reżyserii Christiana Marquanda na podstawie powieści Masona Hoffenberga i Terry'ego Southerna. +Muzyka. +Autorem pozostałych 8 kompozycji (instrumentalnych) jest Dave Grusin. +Nagrody i nominacje. +Złote Globy 1968 +Emmanuelle + +Emmanuelle – główna bohaterka serii francuskich filmów erotycznych opartych na postaci wykreowanej przez Emmanuelle Arsan w powieści "The Joys of a Woman". W pierwszej wersji filmu z 1974 roku w rolę Emmanuelle wcieliła się Sylvia Kristel. +Emmanuelle. +Klasyczny przebój filmowy, który dał początek wysmakowanemu i artystycznemu kinu erotycznemu. Po raz pierwszy tak śmiałe, ale ciągle utrzymane w granicach dobrego smaku, sceny erotyczne trafiły do widzów jako produkt dostępny w ramach kultury masowej. Bohaterka stała się symbolem seksu i wolnej miłości dla wielu pokoleń. +Innocenty XIII + +Innocenty XIII "(łac. Innocentius XIII)", właściwie Michelangelo Conti, (ur. 13 maja 1655 w Poli koło Rzymu - zm. 7 marca 1724 w Rzymie) – papież w okresie od 8 maja 1721 do 7 marca 1724. +Był synem księcia Poli Carlo II Conti di Segni, potomkiem rodu, z którego pochodził m.in. papież Innocenty III (1198-1216). Kształcił się w Anconie i w Rzymie – początkowo w kolegium jezuickim, następnie na Uniwersytecie "La Sapienza", gdzie obronił doktorat obojga praw. Papież Aleksander VIII nadał mu tytuł tajnego szambelana i domowego prałata, a także wysłał z misją internuncjusza do Wenecji, gdzie Conti przekazał doży weneckiemu specjalnie przez papieża pobłogosławione hełm i sztylet. W Kurii Rzymskiej był także referendarzem Trybunału Sygnatury Apostolskiej, a w sierpniu 1691 został mianowany gubernatorem Acoli; był również gubernatorem Frosinone, Campania e Maritima i Viterbo, pełnił także funkcję komisarza "contra bannitos" w Państwie Papieskim. +W czerwcu 1695 został mianowany arcybiskupem tytularnym Tarso (sakrę biskupią otrzymał w Rzymie 16 czerwca 1695 z rąk kardynała Galeazzo Marescottiego) oraz asystentem Tronu Papieskiego i wysłany z misją nuncjusza do Szwajcarii. Od marca 1698 był nuncjuszem w Portugalii, gdzie prawdopodobnie nabrał niechęci do działalności zakonu jezuitów. 7 czerwca 1706 otrzymał godność kardynalską, z tytułem prezbitera SS. Quirico e Giulitta. Po zakończeniu misji dyplomatycznej w Portugalii otrzymał w styczniu 1709 biskupstwo Osimo, a w sierpniu 1712 Viterbo e Toscanella. W styczniu 1713 został kamerlingiem Kolegium Kardynalskiego. Od roku 1714 pełnił funkcję kardynała-protektora Królestwa Portugalii przy Stolicy Apostolskiej. +Choroba zmusiła go do rezygnacji z biskupstwa Viterbo w marcu 1719. Niewykluczone, że stała się także ważnym argumentem dla elektorów na konklawe 1721, którzy po długich i trudnych wyborach (w których nie zabrakło weta cesarza austriackiego) zdecydowali się na kompromisowego, a zarazem "przejściowego" papieża. Kardynał Conti został wybrany 8 maja 1721 i przyjął na cześć Innocentego III imię Innocentego XIII. 18 maja 1721 odbyła się koronacja nowego papieża, a 16 listopada 1721 uroczysty ingres do Bazyliki Laterańskiej. +Zgodnie z oczekiwaniami nie był to długi pontyfikat. Stał pod znakiem niechęci papieża do jezuitów, który potwierdził wydany przez poprzednika zakaz używania tzw. rytu chińskiego przez jezuickich misjonarzy, a także zabronił przyjmowania nowych kandydatów do zakonu przez trzy lata. Innocenty XIII przekazał w lenno cesarzowi Karolowi VI królestwo Neapolu i Sycylii, zyskał także przychylność regenta Francji dzięki pożądanym nominacjom kardynalskim. Mimo uległości wobec cesarza jednocześnie papież utracił faktyczne wpływy w księstwach Parmy i Piacenzy. +Niccolo Coscia + +Niccolo Paolo Andrea Coscia (ur. 1681 w Pietra de'Fusi, archidiecezja Benevento, zm. 8 lutego 1755 w Neapolu) – kardynał włoski, bliski współpracownik papieża Benedykta XIII. Według herbarza Bonieckiego syn Jana Stefana Kościa - Zbirohowskiego h. Leliwa, urodzonego na Polesiu, który wyemigrował do Włoch i uzyskał tytuł książęcy. +Przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 28 marca 1705. Był sekretarzem arcybiskupa Benevento, kardynała Vincenzo Marii Orsiniego (późniejszego papieża Benedykta XIII), został obdarzony godnościami kanonika, skarbnika, wizytatora apostolskiego, archiprezbitera oraz opata S. Lorenzo d'Aprice w archidiecezji. Po wyborze na papieża Orsini zabrał swojego sekretarza do Rzymu i obdarzył dalszymi godnościami. Coscia został sekretarzem papieskim ds. memoriałów (czerwiec 1724), a wkrótce arcybiskupem tytularnym Traianopoli (23 lipca 1724 konsekrował go sam papież), asystentem Tronu Papieskiego (29 stycznia 1725). +Posiadając pełne zaufanie Benedykta XIII, Niccolo Coscia miał jednocześnie fatalną opinię u współczesnych. Prowadził wiele nielegalnych interesów, handlował godnościami w Kurii Rzymskiej, przywłaszczył sobie znaczny majątek ze skarbca papieskiego. Udało mu się jednak odseparować papieża od pozostałych kardynałów, dzięki czemu pozostawał nietykalny za życia Benedykta. Uzyskiwał kolejne nominacje, łącznie z godnością kardynalską (na konsystorzu 11 czerwca 1725, 20 kardynałów, z łącznej liczby 26, protestowała przeciwko tej nominacji). Papież powierzył mu także godność koadiutora i administratora archidiecezji Benevento (której zwierzchnikiem pozostał do końca życia sam Benedykt). Niccolo Coscia był jednocześnie prefektem Kongregacji Awinionu oraz komandorem Wielkiego Krzyża zakonu joannitów. +Papież Benedykt XIII zmarł 21 lutego 1730. Świadomy swojej niepopularności Niccolo Coscia ukrywał się w Rzymie, następnie wyjechał do Cisterny, gdzie otoczył go opieką diuk Caserty Michelangelo Gaetani. Stamtąd Coscia zasugerował kardynałom, że jego nieobecność na konklawe może skutkować nieważnością wyboru papieża; w związku z tym Kolegium Kardynalskie udzieliło mu gwarancji bezpieczeństwa i mógł on przybyć na konklawe. W Rzymie złożył rezygnację z godności arcybiskupa Benevento (które formalnie mu przypadło jako koadiutorowi po śmierci Benedykta XIII) 8 stycznia 1731. Po konklawe został jednak aresztowany, oskarżony o liczne nadużycia i skazany na wysoką grzywnę oraz 10 lat więzienia w Zamku Św. Anioła. Papież Klemens XII dodatkowo nałożył karę ekskomuniki. +Po śmierci Klemensa XII, Niccolo Coscia został zwolniony z więzienia i mógł wziąć udział w kolejnym konklawe, a nowy papież Benedykt XIV przywrócił mu pełne prawa kardynalskie oraz uwolnił od ciążących zarzutów. Resztę życia Niccolo Coscia spędził w Neapolu, tam też zmarł i został pochowany. +Stomir + +Stomir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Sto(j)-" ("stać, stoję") oraz członu "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Może oznaczać "niech nastanie pokój". +Stomir imieniny obchodzi: 12 stycznia i 2 listopada. +Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson + +Bjørnstjerne Martinus Bjørnson (ur. 8 grudnia 1832 w Kvikne, Norwegia, zm. 26 kwietnia 1910 w Paryżu) – norweski pisarz, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie literatury (1903). W laudacji doceniono jego „wzniosłą i różnorodną poezję, która zawsze odznaczała się świeżością natchnienia i niezwykłą czystością ducha” oraz „talent epicki i dramatyczny”. Przez wydawnictwo Gyldendal, a później także przez światowych krytyków, uznany za jednego z czterech najwybitniejszych pisarzy norweskich (wraz z Henrikiem Ibsenem, Jonasem Lie i Alexandrem Lange Kiellandem). +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson urodził się na farmie Bjørgan w miasteczku Kvikne, około 100 km na południe od Trondheim. Był najstarszym z 6 synów luterańskiego pastora, którego w 1837 przeniesiono do parafii w Nesset (prowincja Romsdal). Od najmłodszych lat pasjonowały go sagi, powieści historyczne Bernharda Ingemanna, opowiadania marynistyczne kapitana Fredericka Marryata i baśnie spisywane przez Petera Christena Asbjørnsena. Już w wieku 11 lat układał wiersze i wydawał własną, ręcznie pisaną gazetkę. Po kilku latach nauki w pobliskim Molde, 17-letni Bjørnstjerne wyjechał do Christianii (od 1925 Oslo), żeby w prywatnej, renomowanej szkole Henrika Heltberga przygotować się do studiów. Kiedy wybuchła Wiosna Ludów (1848), żarliwie opowiedział się po stronie republikanów. W tym samym roku zadebiutował jako publicysta na łamach "Romsdals Budstikke", biorąc w obronę narodowe święto. W tamtym okresie poznał Jonasa Lie, Aasmunda Olavssona Vinje, a przede wszystkim Henrika Ibsena, przyjaciela i rywala, z którym przez całe życie był porównywany. +Ze studiów zrezygnował po osiągnięciu pełnoletności i od razu rzucił się w wir wydarzeń polityczno-kulturalnych, wybierając pracę dziennikarza i krytyka teatralnego. Jako recenzent "Morgenbladet" zdecydowanie protestował przeciwko wpływom duńskim na scenach norweskich, a w wydawanym od 1856 "Illustreret Folkebladet" publikował rodzime podania ludowe. W 1857 przejął po Ibsenie funkcję dyrektora artystycznego teatru w Bergen, którym kierował przez 2 lata. W tym krótkim okresie zdołał doprowadzić drugorzędną scenę do rozkwitu, wystawiając ponad 60 sztuk. Do otwartego konfliktu między pisarzami doszło w 1869, kiedy Bjørnson uznał, że sztuka Ibsena "Związek młodzieży" ("De unges Forbund") krytykując partię liberalną, ośmiesza jego poglądy. Pogodzili się dopiero po 14 latach. Björnson ożenił się z aktorką, Karoline Reimers. Mieli sześcioro dzieci. Ich syn, Bjørn, został cenionym reżyserem, który przyczynił się do wybudowania Teatru Narodowego i został jego pierwszym dyrektorem. Starsza córka, Bergliot, wyszła za syna Ibsena, Sigurda; młodsza, Dagny Bjørnson Sautreau, zadbała o literacką spuściznę po ojcu. +Pokłosie romantyzmu. +Swoje najwcześniejsze nowele Bjørnson publikował anonimowo na łamach prasy. Sławę przyniosło mu opowiadanie o tematyce wiejskiej "Dziewczę ze Słonecznego Wzgórza" (1857), szybko przetłumaczone na wiele języków europejskich. Ta optymistyczna historia miłości porywczego chłopaka i wrażliwej dziewczyny została wzbogacona pogłębioną analizą psychologiczną zarówno samych bohaterów, jak i postaci drugoplanowych. Autor wplótł w narrację typowe dla skandynawskich sag wspomnienia rodzinne oraz romantyczne w nastroju opisy snów i przywidzeń. Cały utwór jest mocno osadzoną w świecie norweskiej przyrody opowieścią o ludziach ciężko pracujących na farmie, których system wartości wyznacza Biblia. W podobnym tonie były utrzymane opowiadania "Arne" (1859), "Dziarski chłopak" (1860) i "Marsz weselny" (1872). Najoryginalniejsza okazała się "Rybaczka" (1868) z zaskakującą postacią tytułowej bohaterki – żywiołowej, prostej dziewczyny, która zapragnęła zostać aktorką. W przesiąkniętych idealizmem opowiadaniach Bjørnsona krytyka dostrzega wyraźne wpływy kazań pastora Nikolaia Grundtviga, duńskiego teologa i filozofa, głoszącego bliską ludowości, emocjonalną religijność i wierzącego w przyrodzoną dobroć ludzkiej natury. +Twórczość teatralna Bjørnsona początkowo była związana ze światem skandynawskich sag i średniowiecznych kronik historycznych. W jednym z artykułów deklarował, że w swoich sztukach stworzy „galerię przodków”, dzięki której Norwedzy będą mogli poznać własne dzieje i odzyskać poczucie dumy narodowej. Rozpoczął jednoaktowym dramatem "Mellem Slagene" (1857), którego akcja rozgrywa się w czasach wikingów i w którym można doszukać się wpływów twórczości Jensa Immanuela Baggesena oraz Adama Oehlenschlägera, duńskich poetów romantycznych. Później przyszły "Halte-Hulda" (1858), "Kong Sverre" (1861), a zwłaszcza trzyczęściowy "Sigurd Slembe" (1862), w którym problematyka walki o władzę przywodzi na myśl tragedie szekspirowskie. Właśnie opowieść o Sigurdzie, królewskim synu z nieprawego łoża, dowodzi, że pisarz w romantycznym sztafażu ukazywał współczesne zagadnienia społeczne, co szło w parze z podkreślaniem istotnej roli chłopstwa. Zerwał przy tym z tradycją wiersza jambicznego i pisał dialogi swobodnym, potocznym językiem. Nawiązaniem do twórczości Schillera była z kolei "Maria Stuart i Skotland" (1864) wystawiona, gdy Bjørnson sprawował funkcję dyrektora teatru w Christianii (1865-1867). Natomiast kiedy jego syn kierował Teatrem Narodowym (1899-1907), wziął udział w cyklu premier inaugurujących działalność tej sceny. Pokazano wtedy kolejno, zgodnie z zasadą starszeństwa, sztuki Ludviga Holberga, Henrika Ibsena oraz owacyjnie przyjęty dramat Bjørnsona "Sigurd Jorsalfar", ostatni, w którym nawiązuje do dawnych dziejów Norwegii. +Bjørnson napisał stosunkowo niewiele wierszy, chociaż fragmenty poetyckie wplatał zarówno do swoich sztuk, jak i opowiadań. Dużym powodzeniem cieszyła się jego ballada historyczna "Olav Trygvason" oraz oda "Bergliot", będąca fragmentem poematu epickiego w piętnastu pieśniach "Arnljot Gelline" (1870). Sam poemat jest historią rozbójnika z Jämtlandu, który sieje zniszczenie, żeby pomścić śmierć ojca, aż wreszcie, nieszczęśliwie zakochany, ginie w historycznej bitwie pod Stiklestad. W zbiorze "Digte og Sange" (1870) Bjørnson zamieścił swój wczesny tekst "Ja, vi elsker dette Landet" ("Tak, kochamy ten kraj"), do którego Rikard Nordraak, kuzyn pisarza, skomponował muzykę (1864). Utwór ten po raz pierwszy został wykonany w Eidsvoll, gdzie ustanowiono konstytucję Norwegii. Dzisiaj jest norweskim hymnem narodowym. +Publicystyka. +Gwałtowny temperament i zamiłowanie do polemik dawały o sobie znać już we wczesnych artykułach Bjørnsona. Wypowiadał się przede wszystkim w postępowych pismach "Aftenbladet" (1859-1860), z którego odszedł po konflikcie ze współpracownikami, i "Norsk Folkebladet" (1866-1871). Jego działalność dziennikarska w dużej mierze przyczyniła się do klęski Partii Konserwatywnej (1859) i powstania Partii Liberalnej. Odbył liczne podróże, podczas których zapoznawał się z warunkami życia w innych krajach. W latach 1860-63 mieszkał we Włoszech, zgłębiając historię teatru. W roku 1863 przebywał w Paryżu, w 1873-76 ponownie we Włoszech, w latach 1880-81 w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Lata 1882-87 to znowu Paryż, później kolejno Włochy, Francja i wreszcie Niemcy (1895-1900). Dzięki wyjazdom uświadomił sobie wyraźnie różnice dzielące poszczególne państwa, nawiązał kontakty z zagranicznymi literatami i zyskał przekonujące argumenty na rzecz przeprowadzenia daleko idących reform. W roku 1875 przeniósł się wraz z rodziną do majątku Aulestad w gminie Gausdal, który szybko stał się miejscem spotkań i dyskusji kulturalno-politycznych. Dziś znajduje się tam muzeum z pamiątkami po pisarzu. +Bjørnson uchodził za gorliwego działacza norweskiego ruchu narodowego, zmierzającego do zerwania unii personalnej ze Szwecją. Zarazem opowiadał się po stronie skandynawizmu, czyli ścisłej współpracy państw północnych we wszystkich możliwych dziedzinach, przy poszanowaniu suwerenności terytorialnej i uwzględnieniu wszelkich odrębności. W swoich publikacjach przestrzegał natomiast przed jakimkolwiek pochopnym zjednoczeniem, dopóki Norwegia nie wyswobodzi się spod kulturowej przewagi Danii i politycznej przewagi Szwecji. Krótko, na początku 1872 roku, bezkrytycznie popierał koncepcję pangermanizmu oraz politykę Kulturkampfu prowadzoną przez Bismarcka, co w praktyce oznaczało między innymi wspieranie roszczeń państwa pruskiego do duńskich księstw Szlezwiku i Holsztyna. Taka postawa spotkała się z ostrą krytyką większości norweskiego społeczeństwa. +W niektórych okresach życia Bjørnson więcej uwagi poświęcał działalności społecznej niż literaturze. Pod wpływem nauk Grundtviga propagował powszechny dostęp do oświaty, także dla młodzieży chłopskiej, i brał udział w zakładaniu uniwersytetów ludowych (pierwszy powstał w Norwegii w roku 1864). Wspierał także zdecydowanie walkę proletariatu o polepszenie warunków życia i pracy. Od najmłodszych lat był wielbicielem Henrika Wergelanda, norweskiego pisarza z okresu romantyzmu. Uważał się za jego duchowego spadkobiercę i pod względem światopoglądowym podążał wytyczonym przez niego szlakiem. +Bjørnson upamiętnił się jako rzecznik małych narodów (Finów, Rumunów), dążących do większej swobody lub pełnego samostanowienia. W latach 1907-1908 szczególnie ostro wypowiadał się przeciwko zakusom madziaryzacyjnym, których ofiarą padli Słowacy. Był również zwolennikiem powołania międzynarodowych sądów rozjemczych, które miałyby rozstrzygać konflikty dotyczące wielu państw. Kwestia wolności narodowej nigdy nie przestała go zaprzątać, choć zdarzało się, że jego rozważania przedrukowywane w prasie europejskiej uznawano za niesprawiedliwe i powierzchowne. Tak było w roku 1906, kiedy napisał do paryskiego "Courrier Européen" artykuł o galicyjskich Ukraińcach prześladowanych przez Polaków. Z ostrą ripostą wystąpili wtedy Ignacy Paderewski, a zwłaszcza Henryk Sienkiewicz, który odpowiadając na zarzuty (nieskrępowany indywidualizm Polaków, skłonności do tyranii, okrucieństwo w stosunku do ludów przyłączonych i podbitych, przesadne uwielbienie niezależności i monstrualny egoizm) wypomniał Norwegowi brak rozeznania w faktach, naiwne zawierzenie niepewnym źródłom i nieznajomość historii. Mimo to podobno jeszcze na łożu śmierci Bjørnson pisał wiersz poświęcony polskim robotnicom, które, żyjąc w nędzy, próbują pomagać innym. Z tego utworu zachował się jedynie incipit "De gode gjerninger redder verden!" ("Dobre uczynki zbawią świat!"). Kiedy wybuchła afera związana z rzekomą działalnością szpiegowską Alfreda Dreyfusa, Bjørnson stanął po stronie oskarżonego i wielokrotnie podkreślał, że wierzy w jego niewinność. Bronił również Lindy Murri oskarżonej o zamordowanie męża w głośnej naonczas sprawie kryminalnej. +Z równą żarliwością Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson dyskutował o kwestiach językowych, kiedy porównywano wady i zalety obu odmian norweskiego. Od pierwszej połowy XVIII wieku posługiwano się w Norwegii językiem riksmål (od 1929 zwanym bokmål), wywodzącym się bezpośrednio z pisanej duńszczyzny. W roku 1850 powstał drugi język narodowy – landsmål, skodyfikowany przez Ivara Aasena i oparty na dialektach norweskich (od 1929 nazywany nynorsk). Bjørnson opowiedział się dość niespodziewanie za riksmålem, mimo że z samym Aasenem wielokrotnie jednoczył siły w politycznych zmaganiach. Swoje próby pisarskie w landsmålu ograniczył do stylizacji w niektórych wierszach i żałował, że nigdy nie udało mu się dogłębnie poznać tego języka. +W kwestiach obyczajowych jego poglądy odznaczały się podobną wyrazistością. Popierał wszelkie ruchy emancypacyjne i utrzymywał, że obie płcie mają być równe pod względem społecznym. Zakładał przy tym, że to kobiety reprezentują wyższą formę moralności, do której mężczyźni powinni dopiero dorosnąć. Stanowczo sprzeciwiał się wszelkim przejawom swobody obyczajowej, a zwłaszcza poligamii, która musi jego zdaniem zaowocować osłabieniem sił każdego narodu, epidemią chorób wenerycznych i bezpowrotną demoralizacją młodzieży: „W miarę tego jak głębiej wnikamy w istotę życia płciowego, staje się jasnem, że najmniejsze zboczenie pod tym względem otwiera zaraz niebezpieczną drogę do ustępstw dalszych i podejrzanych układów z poczuciem moralnem”. +Realizm krytyczny. +Na początku lat 70. światopogląd Bjørnsona uległ gwałtownej przemianie. Pisarza zafascynował wtedy ewolucjonizm Charlesa Darwina, naturalistyczna interpretacja kultury autorstwa Hippolyte'a Taine'a i krytyka nierówności między płciami przeprowadzona przez Johna Stuarta Milla. Te koncepcje znalazły odzwierciedlenie w powieściach i dramatach, z których zniknęły prostoduszna idealizacja życia na wsi i staroskandynawski patos. Wielkie wrażenie wywarły na Bjørnsonie przemyślenia Georga Brandesa, który postulował odrzucenie narodowych schematów i romantycznej sztampy na rzecz realizmu i wartości ogólnoludzkich, podkreślając przy tym, że literatura powinna podawać pod dyskusję ważkie kwestie społeczne. Sztuki Bjørnsona z tego okresu wzbudziły w Norwegii burzliwą polemikę i szybko zdobyły sławę europejską. +Zapowiedzią odmiany była komedia "Nowożeńcy" (1865), opisująca kryzys małżeński dwa dni po ślubie, spowodowany niedojrzałością dziewczyny zbyt silnie związanej z rodzicami. W "Bankructwie" (1875) Bjørnson ukazuje przemianę duchową spekulanta, który po finansowym krachu dzięki wsparciu rodziny wraca na drogę uczciwości. W "Redaktøren" (1875) z kolei atakuje demoralizację środowiska prawicowych dziennikarzy. Kolejne sztuki Bjørnsona wywołują skandal i stają się celem ostrych ataków konserwatywnej publiczności. Powodem jest coraz odważniejsze poruszanie kwestii obyczajowych i otwarta krytyka Kościoła, któremu zarzucał odrzucenie teorii ewolucji i zbytnią represyjność. Uznał, że Victor Hugo - jego ulubiony pisarz, którego teksty tłumaczył - jest uczciwszym chrześcijaninem niż większość teologów. Wypowiadał się też przeciwko boskiej naturze Jezusa, przez co zyskał w Norwegii miano heretyka. Z tego względu lata 1880-1881 spędził w Stanach Zjednoczonych, gdzie zresztą wystawiano jego sztuki, a lata 1882-1887 w Paryżu. Przykładem nowych zapatrywań Bjørnsona jest przede wszystkim niezwykle ceniony przez Tołstoja dramat "Kongen" (1877), w którym podważa autorytet kościelny i ustrój monarchiczny. Utwór ten na wiele lat zniknął ze scen i znano go wyłącznie w wersji drukowanej, poprzedzanej od trzeciego wydania esejem dotyczącym wolności duchowej. "Leonarda" (1879) to niebanalny portret niezależnej kobiety zakochanej ze wzajemnością w narzeczonym swojej wychowanicy i zarazem kpina z podwójnej moralności mieszczan skupionych wokół rodziny biskupa. W "Rękawiczce" (1883), wystawionej dopiero po złagodzeniu kilku scen, Bjørnson ukazał dramat dziewczyny, która tuż przed zaręczynami dowiaduje się o bujnej przeszłości erotycznej swojego wybranka, a przy okazji odkrywa fałsz w małżeństwie własnych rodziców. Kwestia równouprawnienia została tu przedstawiona bardzo dobitnie, co musiało oburzać wielu widzów. Protestowali również przedstawiciele norweskiej bohemy, odrzucający rygorystyczne wymagania moralne, które Bjørnson postawił zarówno przed kobietami, jak i mężczyznami. Gwałtowną polemikę wzbudziła także sztuka "Ponad siły" (1883). Jej dwuznacznym bohaterem jest charyzmatyczny pastor nieświadomy faktu, że niosąc nadzieję wiernym, przysparza cierpień własnej rodzinie. Zdaniem Bjørnsona mistycyzm, wiara w cuda i dosłowne traktowanie zasad chrześcijaństwa okazują się niemożliwe do pogodzenia z realiami i wymogami współczesności. W drugiej części sztuki (1895) autor odszedł od problematyki religijnej i dowodził, że sprzeczność interesów między robotnikami a pracodawcami w połączeniu z naiwnym idealizmem musi nieuchronnie doprowadzić do tragedii. +Gwałtowna zmiana zainteresowań i światopoglądu jest widoczna także w prozatorskich dokonaniach Bjørnsona. W powieści "Magnhild" (1877) chłopi są prymitywni i okrutni, przyroda bezlitosna, rodzina zakłamana, a ludzie wiary bezwzględni. Bezkompromisowością ocen odznaczały się także utwory "Tomasz Rendalen" (1884) i "Na bożej drodze" (1896) traktujące o wychowaniu, konflikcie między wiedzą a religią i problemach małżeńskich. +Ostatnie lata. +W ostatnich latach XIX wieku Bjørnson nadal aktywnie uczestniczył w życiu literackim, ale większość jego dramatów i powieści okazała się zbyt uwikłana w doraźność, żeby przetrwać próbę czasu. Z tego okresu wyróżnia się komedia "Geografi og Kærlighed" (1885) ukazująca skrajny egoizm domowego tyrana oraz dramat psychologiczny "Paul Lange og Tora Parsberg" (1898) napisany pod wrażeniem samobójczej śmierci przyjaciela i demaskujący intryganctwo kręgów ministerialnych. +Choć pod koniec życia Bjørnson uchodził za klasyka, którego uczczono (wraz z Ibsenem) pomnikiem przed Teatrem Narodowym, to nadal nie przestawał budzić kontrowersji. Kolejnej wolty dokonał w roku 1903, w chwili zakończenia unii ze Szwecją. Poparł wtedy konserwatystów, postulując umiarkowanie i ugodowość, co sprawiło, że przez liberałów został natychmiast uznany za sprzedajnego renegata. Przyznaną mu w tym samym roku Nagrodę Nobla interpretowano w kategoriach ściśle politycznych, zwłaszcza że w ubiegłych latach Bjørnson był członkiem Komitetu Noblowskiego, a zdaniem wielu krytyków na wyróżnienie zasługiwał raczej Henrik Ibsen. Sam pisarz dodatkowo podgrzał atmosferę opatrując swój kolejny dramat, "Daglannet" (1904), dedykacją „dla Akademii Szwedzkiej, z wyrazami wdzięczności”. Kiedy w 1905 roku dyskutowano w niezależnej Norwegii o ustroju państwa, Bjørnson, dawniej zagorzały republikanin, opowiedział się za monarchią, aby jego kraj był równy Danii i Szwecji. Zmarł w roku 1910 w Paryżu, gdzie od wielu lat spędzał wszystkie zimy. Ostatnią podróż odbył już poważnie chory, mając nadzieję, że francuscy medycy będą umieli leczyć jego dusznicę bolesną i zaradzą kłopotom z krążeniem. Ciało pisarza przewieziono do ojczyzny na pokładzie pancernika "Norge". Uroczysty pogrzeb odbył się w Christianii na cmentarzu Vår Frelsers. +Inspiracje muzyczne. +Rikard Nordraak skomponował muzykę do sztuk "Maria Stuart i Skotland" oraz "Sigurd Slembe". W pieśniach na głos z fortepianem "6 Romancer og Sange" (opus 1, 1860–61) Nordraak, poza utworami innych poetów, wykorzystał wiersze Bjørnsona: "Romance", "Holder du av mig", "Over de høie fjelde", "Nu tak for alt", natomiast w "5 Norske Digte" (opus 2, 1864 ) wiersze: "Tonen", "Træet", "En underlig vise", "Killebukken". Poza hymnem narodowym skomponował także dwie pieśni na chór męski a cappella: "Nordmandssang. Der ligger et land" (1863) i "Olav Trygvason" (1865). Po śmierci Nordraaka wydano jeszcze dwie jego pieśni do słów Bjørnsona: "Aftenstemning" oraz "Har du hørt, hvad svensken siger?". +Twórczość Bjørnsona zainspirowała również Edvarda Griega. Stworzył on muzykę do dramatu "Sigurd Jorsalfar" (op. 22). Uroczysta uwertura z tego utworu grana jest co roku podczas ceremonii otwarcia roku akademickiego. Skomponował również utwory wokalne na chór męski a cappella: "Sjømandssang", kantatę "Landkjenning" (op. 31), "Opsang til frihedsfolket", "Valgsang"; pieśni na głos solo i fortepian: "Den blonde pige", "Prinsessen", "Suk", "Fra Monte Pincio" (op. 39 nr 1), "Dulgt Kjærlighed" (op. 39 nr 2), "Lok" (op. 61 nr 3), "Jeg elsket"; pieśń na baryton i chór męski: "Serenade til Welhaven" (op. 18 nr 9); utwory na głosy, chór i orkiestrę: "Foran Sydens kloster" (op. 20) na podstawie poematu "Arnljot Gelline" i melodeklamację "Bergliot" (op. 42). W "Fire Dikte fra Fiskerjenten" (op. 21) wykorzystał wiersze nawiązujące do powieści "Rybaczka": "Det første møde", "God morgen!", "Jeg giver mit digt til våren", "Tak for dit råd". Zachowało się również parę scen z planowanej opery "Olav Trygvason" (op. 50), do której Bjørnson napisał libretto. +Halfdan Kjerulf skomponował do wierszy Bjørnsona kilka pieśni, które umieścił w cyklach "Otte norske viser" (op. 6, z najpopularniejszą "Synnøves Sang"), "Sex Sange" (op. 15) i "Fem sange" (op. 23). Cykl "Fem sange" (op. 14, z najpopularniejszą "Aftenstemning") zawiera utwory skomponowane wyłącznie do wierszy Bjørnsona. +Thot + +Thot (lub Thoth) – egipski bóg Księżyca, patron mądrości, mąż bogini Maat. Uważano go za wynalazcę egipskiego pisma - hieroglifów, kalendarza, a także arytmetyki, geometrii, muzyki, liczby i rysunków. Znany jest także jako lekarz i mag zarówno bogów, jak i ludzi (żywych i umarłych). Przedstawiany był jako ibis, pawian lub człowiek z głową tych zwierząt. W okresie predynastycznym czczony na terenie Delty, w okresie Starego Państwa centrum jego kultu znajdowało się w Hermopolis - stolica XV nomu Górnego Egiptu, w którego herbie znajdował się pawian. W mitologii greckiej identyfikowany z Hermesem. +Nazwa Thoth (czy Thot), wymawiana jako "tot", jest greckim imieniem nadanym egipskiemu bóstwu, którego prawidłową nazwą jest Djehuty (także występującego pod nazwami Tahuti, Tehuti, Zehuti, Techu, Tetu). +W zaświatach Thot skazywał tych, którzy krzywdzili zwierzęta, był także sekretarzem Ozyrysa podczas sądzenia zmarłych (ważenia serc). +Uczestniczył w zmartwychwstaniu Ozyrysa korzystając z magicznych zaklęć, nauczył Izydę jak wpływać na niekorzystne wydarzenia. Leczył też Seta i Horusa z ran, które sobie wzajemnie zadali, a następnie mediował w ich konflikcie. +Legenda przypisuje mu autorstwo Księgi Umarłych. Jego żoną była Maat. +Thot w czasach współczesnych. +Jedna z najbardziej popularnych talii tarota (Tarot Thota, ang. "Thoth Tarot") oraz omawiająca go książka ("Księga Thotha") nawiązują do tego bóstwa. Obydwie zostały stworzone przez Aleistera Crowleya, przy czym rysunki zostały wykonane przez Lady Friedę Harris. "Księga Thotha" to filozoficzna praca omawiająca wykorzystanie kart tarota, zwłaszcza tych stworzonych przez Crowleya, której nazwa została zaczerpnięta z nieistniejącej księgi z egipskiej mitologii. Księga ta miała ponoć zawierać starożytną wiedzę daną człowiekowi przez to bóstwo. +Równanie Carothersa + +Równanie Carothersa – zależność wiążąca stopień przereagowania grup funkcyjnych pochodzących od monomerów z stopniem polimeryzacji w reakcjach polimeryzacji stopniowej. +gdzie N0 to liczba grup funkcyjnych na początku reakcji, a N to liczba grup funkcyjnych na koniec reakcji +która jest właśnie nazywana równaniem Carothersa. +To proste równanie opisuje zasadniczą cechę procesów polimeryzacji stopniowej, która powoduje trudności w otrzymywaniu polimerów o dużym stopniu polimeryzacji. Na przykład przy 98% przereagowaniu stopień polimeryzacji wynosi raptem 50. Aby osiągnąć stopień polimeryzacji rzędu 1000 potrzeba osiągnąć stopień przereagowania 99,9%, przy 99,99% przereagowania stopień polimeryzacji wynosi dopiero 10000. W przypadku polimerów syntetycznych duży stopień polimeryzacji ma kluczowe znaczenie dla własności użytkowych tworzyw sztucznych opartych na tych polimerach. +Z równania tego wynika też, że aby osiągnąć wysoki stopień polimeryzacji w reakcjach polimeryzacji stopniowej, w których stosuje się dwa monomery, istnieje konieczność bardzo dokładnego, równomolowego dozowania obu monomerów. +Tego rodzaju problemy nie występują w przypadku polimeryzacji łańcuchowej i dlatego w przemyśle preferuje się stosowanie polimeryzacji łańcuchowej zamiast stopniowej o ile to tylko jest możliwe. +Inwestytura + +Inwestytura (łac. "przyobleczenie, ubranie") – nadawanie dóbr seniora wasalowi, przy zachowaniu ceremoniału i zasad prawa lennego. +Wyróżnia się inwestyturę świecką, duchowną oraz terytorialną. Od niedawna spotyka się także wyodrębnienie "inwestytury szkolnej". +Przed odbyciem inwestytury wasal składał przysięgę na wierność seniorowi, symbolem przyjęcia przysięgi było wręczenie wasalowi przez seniora przedmiotu symbolizującego przekazanie władzy podległej. +Inwestytura świecka. +Była to ceremonia nadania lenna, odbywająca się po złożeniu przez wasala hołdu lennego i przysięgi na wierność. W czasie inwestytury wasal klękał i otrzymywał od seniora przedmiot symbolizujący przekazywane lenna: najczęściej w formie sztandaru, lancy, włóczni, dokumentu zawartej umowy oraz bryłki ziemi. +Inwestytura duchowna. +Było to nadawanie władzy hierarchom kościelnym poprzez wręczenie pierścienia biskupiego i pastorału, które po ich śmierci musiały być zwracane panującym. Nadanie to było połączone z powierzeniem znaczącego beneficjum. +W XI wieku doszło na tym tle do sporu o inwestyturę pomiędzy papieżem Grzegorzem VII a cesarzem rzymskim Henrykiem IV, gdyż obie strony rościły sobie wyłączne prawo do inwestytury biskupów. Ugodę osiągnięto w konkordacie wormackim w 1122 roku. +Inne znaczenia. +Inwestyturą nazywa się także kanoniczne przyjęcie członka do zakonu rycerskiego, połączone ze składaniem ślubów oraz otrzymaniem insygniów od zakonników. +Siedem (film) + +Siedem (ang. "Seven", "Se7en") – film produkcji USA. +Opis fabuły. +Thriller o ambicjach moralitetu - wyjątkowo mroczna, wstrząsająca opowieść o mordercy, który powodowany specyficznym poczuciem moralności zabija tych, którzy popełnili jeden z siedmiu grzechów głównych. Giną tak, jak grzeszyli - zabijani w trakcie barbarzyńskiego rytuału. Wszystko dzieje się w przytłaczająco ponurej scenografii - w środku nieprzyjaznego miasta, gdzie przemoc wydaje się wszechpotężna. +Śledztwo w tej sprawie podejmuje doświadczony porucznik William Somerset (Morgan Freeman) z miejscowego wydziału zabójstw, ale bez rezultatów. Dlatego też wkrótce ma zostać zastąpiony kimś młodszym. Wtedy pojawia się szalenie ambitny idealista, David Mills (Brad Pitt). Zobowiązany przez szefów Somerset musi w ciągu tygodnia wprowadzić swojego następcę w śledztwo. Stosunki między nimi układają się fatalnie. Różnią się pod względem wieku, koloru skóry i temperamentu. Somerset wybiera się za kilka dni na emeryturę i marzy o przeniesieniu się na wieś. Nie ma złudzeń - jest dojrzały, wręcz zmęczony życiem i przekonany, że współczesny świat stoi na przepaścią, a on jest ostatnim reliktem przeszłości. W przeciwieństwie do niego Mills jest porywczy i zdeterminowany chęcią zrobienia kariery. Jedyną normalną rzeczą w jego życiu, niosącą nadzieję na przyszłość, jest miłość do żony, Tracy (Gwyneth Paltrow). W pracy głównie kieruje się intuicją, podczas gdy jego starszy partner wierzy w intelekt. +Ale to właśnie Somerset pierwszy zauważa pewną metodę w tym szaleństwie, a mianowicie, że seryjny morderca w bestialski sposób skazuje na pokutę za siedem grzechów głównych i słusznie przewiduje, że wkrótce pojawią się kolejne ofiary z napisami: pycha, chciwość, cudzołóstwo, zazdrość, nieumiarkowanie w jedzeniu i piciu, gniew i lenistwo. Obaj detektywi krok po kroku starają się zrozumieć chorą psychikę mordercy. Somersetowi pozostaje upewnić się co do szczegółów i w tym celu wybiera się do biblioteki, aby studiować dzieła Dantego i Chaucera. Mills próbuje powstrzymać mordercę siłą... +Janowiec (województwo lubelskie) + +Janowiec – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie lubelskim, w powiecie puławskim, w gminie Janowiec, na skraju Małopolskiego Przełomu Wisły oraz trójkąta turystycznego: Puławy - Kazimierz Dolny - Nałęczów, przy ujściu Plewki do Wisły, połączona przeprawą promową z Kazimierzem Dolnym. +Historycznie położony jest w Małopolsce, w ziemi sandomierskiej. Do 1954 roku siedziba gminy Oblasy. +Miejscowość jest siedzibą gminy Janowiec i znajduje się w granicach Kazimierskiego Parku Krajobrazowego. W Janowcu działa klub piłkarski Serokomla Janowiec. +Historia. +Miejscowość w 1325 wymieniana w kronikach pod nazwą "Serokomla". Zmiana nazwy na Janowiec (na pamiątkę poprzednich właścicieli) i otrzymanie praw miejskich nastąpiło w 1537 r., na podstawie przywileju otrzymanego od króla Zygmunta Starego. Miasto miało w założeniach (wykorzystując dogodne położenie leżącej naprzeciw przeprawy wiślanej z Mięćmierza wsi Serokomli) obsługiwać i czerpać spodziewane zyski z ważnego w XVI w. szlaku handlu wołami prowadzącego z Rusi przez Małopolskę na Śląsk. Ostatecznie, zamierzenia Piotra Firleja – starosty radomskiego i założyciela miasta – nigdy nie miały się spełnić. Po Firlejach Janowiec przeszedł w ręce Tarłów a następnie Lubomirskich. W 1655 r. Jerzy Lubomirski potwierdził stare i nadał nowe przywileje miastu. Z czasów potopu szwedzkiego datuje się ograbienie miasteczka i zniszczenie zamku (wkrótce odbudowanego). W 1732 r. król August II rozszeżył dotychczasowe przywileje dla Janowca. Wiek dziewiętnasty to stopniowy upadek gospodarczy miasteczka, które najpierw przegrało spory z właścicielami zamku o prawo do pastwisk i lasów (1812-1813), w 1820 r. właściciele zamku rozebrali ratusz, a w 1869 r. władze carskie po rewizji miast pozbawiły Janowiec praw miejskich. W okresie międzywojennym Janowiec należał do Gminy Oblasy. W latach 1929-1931 proboszczem janowieckim był poseł na sejm konstytucyjny (1919-1921, pierwszy po odzyskaniu niepodległości) ks. dr Władysław Chrzanowski (1886-1933), działacz społeczny, oświatowy i polonijny. +Latem 1940 roku grupa należąca organizacyjnie do Komendy Obrońców Polski pod dowództwem dr Koperskiego "Szymka" zaatakowała pod Janowcem oddział niemieckiej żandarmerii. Akcja miała zapobiec wykryciu przez Niemców tajnego magazynu broni. W 1941 r. miejscowość została spacyfikowana przez hitlerowców, zginęło wtedy 210 mieszkańców. Po wojnie została odbudowana. +29 lipca 1944 został utworzony przyczółek przez Rosjan. Rejon ciężkich walk do stycznia 1945. +Z przyczółka dnia 14 stycznia 1945 atakowały oddziały 33 Armii, 68 Armii i 7 Korpus Kawalerii Gwardii wsparte czołgami (9 i 11 korpus pancerny). +Podczas powodzi w czerwcu 2010 wezbrane wody Wisły przerwały wał przeciwpowodziowy. W wyniku tego zdarzenia zalana została niżej położona część Janowca. +Hejnał Janowca został skomponowany przez Mateusza Pospieszalskiego jako fragment utworu "Moje miejsce na ziemi". +Ciekawostki. +Wg książki "Super Polska" na zamku w Janowcu znajduje się najmniejszy hotel w Polsce. Ma zaledwie jeden pokój. Zaś pod jednym z stiuków znajduje się wyryty autograf Henryka Sienkiewicza datowany na rok 1892. +Port Gdańsk + +Port Gdańsk – port morski nad Zatoką Gdańską na Martwej Wiśle, położony w Gdańsku, w woj. pomorskim. Jest jednym z największych bałtyckich portów. +Powierzchnia portu obejmuje 1065,56 ha lądu i akwenów, a łączna długość nabrzeży wynosi 21 214 m. W północnej części portu mogą być przyjmowane największe statki, jakie pływają po Morzu Bałtyckim. +W 2006 roku port Gdańsk zajmował 1. miejsce wśród portów morskich w Polsce w obrotach ładunkowych na poziomie 24,207 mln ton. Obroty ładunkowe portu w 2008 roku wynosiły 17,78 mln ton. Jest portem handlowym, którego główną część obrotów ładunkowych stanowią paliwa płynne. +W porcie Gdańsk istnieją bazy: paliw płynnych, przeładunku fosforytów, przeładunku siarki płynnej oraz granulowanej, przeładunku owoców cytrusowych. Port posiada terminale: promowy, kontenerowy, węglowy, przeładunku gazu płynnego. W porcie został utworzony wolny obszar celny. +Położenie. +Port Gdańsk jest położony na południowym wybrzeżu Morza Bałtyckiego, we wschodniej części woj. pomorskiego, stanowiąc północną część miasta Gdańska. +Znajduje się w zachodniej części Mierzei Wiślanej, a jego południowa cześć leży już na Żuławach Wiślanych. +Port leży na odcinku ujściowym Martwej Wisły do Zatoki Gdańskiej obejmując wschodni i zachodni brzeg, a także wyspę Ostrów znajdującą się pomiędzy brzegami oraz twierdzę Wisłoujście. Port obejmuje zachodnią część Wyspy Portowej bez półwyspu Westerplatte, a także jej wschodni pas przy ujściu Wisły Śmiałej. W swej zachodniej części port obejmuje obszar na wschód od ul. Jana z Kolna, Twardej, Marynarki Polskiej, Władysława IV, Oliwskiej, a na zachód od ulicy Nowotnej i osiedla Stogi. W północno-wschodniej części Gdańska obszar portu ogranicza się do Martwej Wisły by przed Wisłą Śmiałą objąć tereny na północ od ulicy Płońskiej, tereny przy zachodnim brzegu Wisły Śmiałej i wąski pas przy wschodnim brzegu ujścia rzeki do Morza Bałtyckiego. +Port obejmuje powierzchnię 653 ha lądu oraz 412,56 ha akwenów. +Granice portu morskiego w Gdańsku są określone rozporządzeniem z 2012 roku. +W graniach portu Gdańsk znajdują się takie dzielnice jak: Nowy Port, część Krakowiec-Górki Zachodnie ... +Działalność. +Według ustawy port Gdańsk jest jednym z czterech portów morskich o podstawowym znaczeniu dla gospodarki narodowej Polski. +W 2006 roku całkowite obroty ładunkowe w porcie Gdańsk wyniosły 24,207 mln ton, co stanowiło 40,13% obrotów przeładunkowych portów morskich w Polsce. Z tego 23,759 mln ton obrotów dotyczyło międzynarodowego obrotu morskiego, a 448,4 tys. ton (1,85%) związane było z obrotem wewnętrzkrajowym. W 2008 roku całkowite obroty ładunkowe portu Gdańsk wynosiły 17 781 tys. ton, z czego najwięcej (58,23%) stanowiły paliwa płynne o obrotach ładunkowych 10 353 tys. ton. Przeładunki kontenerów wyniosły łącznie 185 661 TEU. +W porcie działa jedna z największych w Polsce Stocznia Gdańska, a także Remontowa Shipbuilding, Gdańska Stocznia Remontowa, Stocznia Wisła. +Port Gdańsk oferuje regularne połączenia żeglugowe do 17 krajów. W 2008 roku zostało obsłużonych 188 392 pasażerów. +Swoją bazę promową w porcie posiada Polska Żegluga Bałtycka, która utworzyła 4 linie promowe z Gdańska. +Znajduje się tutaj także Baza Paliw Płynnych. Port gdański posiada terminal promowy, terminal węglowy, terminal przeładunku gazu płynnego oraz terminal kontenerowy. W porcie został utworzony Wolny Obszar Celny o powierzchni 33,5 ha. +Nawigacja. +Według rozporządzenia kapitan portu Gdańsk może w uzasadnionych przypadkach pozwolić na wprowadzanie bądź wyprowadzenie statków o gabarytach większych niż wymienione powyżej, jednak maksymalna długość jednostki obsługiwanej w Gdańsku Nowym Porcie nie może przekraczać 280 m. +W zimie port nie jest zagrożony zalodzeniem. +Ruchem statków w porcie kieruje Kapitanat Portu Gdańsk, którego główna siedziba mieści się przy ulicy Przemysłowej. Przy ul. Kpt. Żeglugi Wielkiej Witolda Poinca znajduje się wieża Służby Dyżurnej Kapitanatu Portu Gdańsk (zwana popularnie Kapitanatem Portu Północnego), która kieruje ruchem statków w północnej części portu Gdańsk. Wieża ta spełnia także funkcję latarni morskiej. +Pod kapitana portu Gdańsk podlega także bosman przystani morskiej w Górkach Zachodnich. +Infrastruktura. +Infrastrukturą portową gospodaruje spółka prawa handlowego Zarząd Morskiego Portu Gdańsk SA, która także świadczy usługi związane z jej korzystaniem. +Według danych GUSu z 2006 roku łączna długość nabrzeży w porcie wynosi 21 214 m. Powierzchnia składowa w porcie Gdańsk wynosi 548 000 m², a powierzchnia magazynowa portu wynosi 106 300 m². Zarząd portu deklaruje zdolność przeładunkową portu wewnętrznego na 11,5 mln ton, a Portu Północnego na 48,5 mln ton. +Port wewnętrzny. +Nowy Port jest częścią portu Gdańsk obejmujące obszar wzdłuż Martwej Wisły i Kanału Portowego, może przyjąć statki o maksymalnej długości 225 m. +Ta część portu posiada nabrzeża o charakterze uniwersalnym do przeładunku drobnicy i ładunków masowych – zboża, nawozów sztucznych, tarcicy, rudy, stali, ro-ro. +Port północny. +Port północny jest to stosunkowo nowoczesną, głębokowodną (do 15 m zanurzenia) częścią portu Gdańsk zbudowaną w 1975 razem z Rafinerią Gdańską, z którą jest połączony rurociągiem. +Port północny zlokalizowany bezpośrednio na akwenie Zatoki Gdańskiej. Może przyjmować największe statki wpływające na Morze Bałtyckie – do 300 tys. DWT. Posiada pirsy przeładunkowe o długości 222 – 765 m i głębokości do 15 m. +W porcie przeładowuje się głównie ładunki masowe, węgiel i ropę naftową. +Historia. +Pierwsza infrastruktura portowa powstała we wczesnym średniowieczu. Z X wieku pochodzi port grodowy znajdujacy się w ramieniu Motławy pomiędzy obecnie ul. Tartaczną a Sukienniczą. W XII i XIII wieku powstawał port Starego Miasta po drugiej stronie ramienia Motławy oraz na fosie Podwala Staromiejskiego. W XIII wieku powstała również przystań Dominikanów przy dawnym ujściu Potoki Siedleckiego w pobliżu obecnie ul. Tobiasza. W tym samym wieku zaczął kształtować się port Głównego Miasta pomiędzy ul. Chlebnicką a Mariacką. Na tyłach portu budowano pierwsze magazyny, warsztaty remontowe oraz gospody. W okresie krzyżackim magazyny portowe zostały przeniesione na Wyspę Spichrzów, gdzie wybudowano nowe nabrzeża oraz powstał największy dźwig średniowieczny Żuraw. +Pod koniec XV wieku do portu gdańskiego zawijało 400-700 statków rocznie, a w XVII wieku 1000-1600. Głównymi towarami przeładunkowymi były zboże (300 tys. ton w 1618 roku) oraz wosk, miód i drewno. W 1643 roku istniało już 315 spichlerzy, głównie z przeznaczeniem na zboże. Długość nabrzeży wynosiła 3 km. +W XVIII wieku powstawały nabrzeża portu zewnętrznego (Nowy Port). W okresie zaborów port gdański i jego znaczenie podupadło. +1 kwietnia 1843 na wschodnim molo została umieszczona latarnia, tzw. "główka wejściowa", która wskazywała wejście do portu. +Dopiero lata po I wojnie światowej ponownie spowodowały rozwój portu. W 1938 stosunek towarów przeładunkowych wzrósł trzykrotnie do okresu z 1914. II wojna światowa spowodowała poważne zniszczenia portu. Zniszczeniu uległo 15% nabrzeży, 40% urządzeń przeładunkowych i 88% magazynów. +W 1950 roku Minister Żeglugi ustalił granice terytorialne morskiego portu handlowego w Gdańsku. +W latach 1970–1975 zbudowano nową część portu Gdańsk zwaną Portem Północnym. Jednocześnie zbudowano Rafinerię Gdańską. W 1973 roku powstał terminal promowy Polskiej Żeglugi Bałtyckiej. W 1974 w Porcie Północnym został zbudowany terminal węglowy, a rok później terminal paliw płynnych. +W lipcu 1974 zostały formalnie rozszerzone granice portu morskiego. +W 1984 roku w Porcie Północnym została zbudowana obecnie najmłodsza w Polsce latarnia morska. . +W 1996 roku został utworzony Wolny Obszar Celny. +W 1997 roku, w 1000- lecie miasta, została wybudowana przystań jachtowa Marina Gdańsk. +W 1998 roku powstał Gdański Terminal Kontenerowy, a w Porcie Północnym powstał terminal LPG. W 1998 r. zostały zmienione granice portu morskiego. +W 2002 roku zbudowano terminal promowy na Westerplatte. +W 2007 powstał terminal kontenerowy DCT Gdańsk. +26 lipca 2007 roku na 3 dni przy nabrzeżu Oliwskim zacumował statek MS "The World" – ekskluzywny pływający apartamentowiec z USA. +11 sierpnia 2009 do portu wpływa najdłuższy, jak dotąd, wycieczkowiec MS Arcadia – 289,90 m. +Autor + +Autor - osoba, która stworzyła dzieło (utwór w rozumieniu prawa autorskiego). W znaczeniu potocznym twórca dzieła pisanego. Oprócz autora wyróżnia się również współautorów w sensie osób, jakie przyczyniły się do stworzenia utworu (współtworzyły utwór), a także twórców wykonawców, jakim przysługują prawa pokrewne. +Autorowi (współautorom) przysługują osobiste i majątkowe prawa autorskie do utworu. Pierwsze są niezbywalne, a drugie podlegają obrotowi cywilnoprawnemu na zasadach określonych w ustawie o prawie autorskim i prawach pokrewnych. +W języku polskim istnieje tendencja do określania twórców form kultury i nauki bardziej specyficznymi dla ich profesji nazwami (malarz, rzeźbiarz w sztuce; kompozytor, piosenkarz w muzyce; reżyser, scenarzysta w teatrze i filmie, wynalazca, konstruktor w naukach technicznych, pisarz, itd.). +Pierwszym polskim tekstem literackim, który został podpisany imieniem i nazwiskiem, jest wiersz "O chlebowym stole" Przecława Słoty. +Różne koncepcje autorstwa. +Pojęcie autorstwa nie jest jednoznaczne i podlegało znacznej ewolucji. W średniowiecznej Europie nie przykładano wagi do autorstwa i teksty były rozpowszechniane jako anonimowe, a w klasycznej literaturze Wschodu uznaniem cieszyły się utwory składające się z cytatów zaczerpniętych z innych dzieł. +Współcześnie prawo autorskie jest jednym z najważniejszych zagadnień w udostępnianiu twórczości, w tym również w tych dziedzinach życia, w których dzieło jest zwykle wynikiem pracy wielu osób (np. kod źródłowy programu w informatyce lub formy współpracy przez Internet takie jak Wikipedia; przykładem wspólnym dla obu zjawisk jest chociażby Linux). +Jan (wielki książę Luksemburga) + +Jan, właśc. Jean Benoit Guillaume Robert Antoine Louis Marie Adolphe Marc d'Aviano (ur. 5 stycznia 1921 w Zamku Berg) – wielki książę Luksemburga. +Zarys biografii. +Urodził się jako najstarszy syn wielkiej księżnej Luksemburga Szarlotty Luksemburskiej i księcia Feliksa Burbon-Parmeńskiego, brata ostatniej cesarzowej Austrii i królowej Węgier Zyty. Kształcił się w Luksemburgu i Wielkiej Brytanii. Z okazji osiągnięcia pełnoletności otrzymał tytuł następcy tronu. +W 1940, w przeddzień inwazji nazistowskich Niemców, razem z rodziną wyemigrował z Luksemburga, i osiadł w Paryżu, a następnie w Quebecu. Studiował prawo i nauki polityczne na Uniwersytecie Laval w Quebecu. W listopadzie 1942 jako ochotnik zaciągnął się do armii brytyjskiej i służył w Gwardii Irlandzkiej. Po szkoleniu w Aldershot, w marcu 1943 został porucznikiem, a rok później – kapitanem. 11 czerwca 1944 brał udział w lądowaniu w Normandii, uczestniczył w bitwie pod Caen oraz wyzwalaniu Brukseli, a 10 września 1944 w wyzwalaniu Luksemburga. Walczył także w Niemczech. +Po abdykacji matki w 1964 wstąpił na tron luksemburski. Panował przez 36 lat, sam także abdykował 7 października 2000. Jego następcą został syn Henryk. +Zgniatanie obrotowe + +Zgniatanie obrotowe jest rodzajem obróbki plastycznej pokrewnym wyoblaniu. Nazywane bywa wyciskaniem obrotowym lub czasami wyoblaniem ze zmniejszeniem grubości materiału. Cechą charakterystyczną zgniatania obrotowego jest zmiana grubości materiału wyjściowego. Jest ona przewidziana technologicznie i dokładnie wyliczona. Zgniot realizowany jest pomiędzy powierzchnią wzornika i rolką kształtującą. Przedmioty wykonane tą technologią wyróżniają się grubym dnem oraz cienkimi ściankami. +Moritz Schlick + +Moritz Schlick (ur. 14 kwietnia 1882 w Berlinie, zm. 22 czerwca 1936 w Wiedniu) – niemiecki filozof, jeden z twórców pozytywizmu logicznego. +Profesor Uniwersytetu Wiedeńskiego, jeden z założycieli Koła Wiedeńskiego – grupy filozofów, logików, psychologów, socjologów, kulturoznawców zajmujacej się interdyscyplinarnymi badaniami nad wiedzą, kulturą itp. o charakterze neopozytywistycznym. Do Koła tego należeli m.in. Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, Hans Hahn i Kurt Gödel. +Pogląd na naturę filozofii. +Moritz Schlick uważał, że spory w ramach filozofii dobiegły końca. Miało się to stać za sprawą odkryć w dziedzinie logiki matematycznej. O ile nauki szczegółowe zajmują się badaniem świata, o tyle filozofia miała się zajmować nauką: przede wszystkim definiowaniem pojęć tak, by były sensowne (tj. empiryczne, odnoszące się do doświadczenia). +Znaczenie słowa nie mogło odwoływać się do innych słów, gdyż dochodziłoby do błędnego koła — pojęcia tłumaczonoby przez inne pojęcia, byłby to więc regressus ad infinitum. Znaczenie pojęć można znaleźć poprzez wskazanie desygnatu pojęcia w doświadczeniu, np. treść pojęcia „czerwony” można poznać tylko poprzez wskazanie na coś, co jest czerwone. Jeśli chodzi o znaczenie zdania, Schlick twierdził, że „znaczeniem zdania jest metoda jego weryfikacji”. Dał tym samym początek doktrynie weryfikacjonizmu w filozofii nauki. +Zginął zastrzelony 22 czerwca 1936 przez Johanna Nelböcka, studenta sympatyzującego z nazistami, leczonego psychiatrycznie, lecz poczytalnego w chwili zabójstwa. +Swobnica + +Swobnica (do 1945 niem. "Wildenbruch") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie gryfińskim, w gminie Banie. +W 2003 r. wieś miała 587 mieszkańców. +W latach 1973-1976 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Swobnica. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa szczecińskiego. +Miejscowość położona na terenie Pojezierza Myśliborskiego, na południowym krańcu Jeziora Długiego. Mieści się w niej kilka sklepów, szkoła podstawowa, kościół, Nowicjat Tow. Salezjańskiego i przystanek PKS. W 1986 roku zawieszono przewozy pasażerskie na linii kolejowej z Chwarstnicy, w 2001 roku wykreśliło linię ze swojej ewidencji, a w 2006 roku torowisko zostało rozebrane. +Miejscowość wzmiankowana dopiero w roku 1345, wchodziła w skład ziemi bańskiej, od 1235 r. nadanej przez książąt pomorskich zakonowi templariuszy, a od 1312 r. zakonowi joannitów. Swobnica zyskuje na znaczeniu, gdy w 1377 r. staje się siedzibą komandorii zakonu. +Największą atrakcją turystyczną są ruiny zamku joannitów z XIII wieku położone za wsią nad Jeziorem Grodziskim. Zamek został wzniesiony w II połowie XIV wieku i pełnił funkcję siedziby komandorii. Składał się z prostokątnego domu mieszkalnego oraz potężnej wieży wbudowanej w mury obronne. W połowie XVII w. po wojnie trzydziestoletniej zamek przejęła królowa szwedzka. W 1680 r. zakupiony został przez żonę elektora brandenburskiego Dorotę. Na jej zlecenie zamek zostaje poddany gruntownej przebudowie i zamienia się w trójskrzydłową barokową rezydencję. Prace prowadzone były najpierw pod nadzorem Ryckwaerta (prowadził budowę m.in. zamku w Schwedt, Oranienbaum i Zerbst), a po roku 1682 Michaela Smidsa i Johanna Neringa (autor pałacu Charlottenburg w Berlinie). To z tego właśnie okresu pochodzi całkowicie zachowane, jedyne w swoim rodzaju na terenie Pomorza Zachodniego, wspaniałe barokowe wyposażenie wnętrz, na które składają się stiukowe sufity, kominki, posadzki, klatki schodowe oraz malowidła ścienne na drugim piętrze. Pod koniec XIX dokonano niewielkich przeróbek zamku (zlikwidowano tympanon w głównej osi pałacu), ale poza tym obiekt przetrwał w niezmienionej postaci do chwili obecnej. Od 1872 r. Swobnica stała się rezydencją domu królewskiego. Opuszczony na początku XX wieku, po 1945 roku przeszedł w posiadanie PGR, które urządziło tu najpierw swoje biura, a potem spichlerz. +W roku 1992 zamek został zakupiony przez Pana van Leendert, który obiecał utworzyć tu hotel, pole golfowe itp. Obietnice te nie zostały nigdy zrealizowane. W międzyczasie właściciel rozpoczął w Polsce działalność polegająca na skupie i przetwórstwie dziczyzny. Zamek wielokrotnie przechodził w posiadanie spόłek-cόrek pana van Leendert, który w ten sposób unikał płacenia kar nakładanych przez zachodniopomorskiego konserwatora zabytków i odpowiedzialności za stan budowli. Wielokrotnie podejmowano próby porozumienia się z właścicielem obiektu i uratowania go przez zagładą, ale niestety wszystkie te próby zostały przez van Leenderta i jego pracowników zablokowane. W lutym 2008 po silnych zimowych wichurach zawaliło się najstarsze skrzydło zamku. Skrzydło południowe jest w stanie krytycznym. Dach nad skrzydłem głównym przecieka i przepiękne barokowe stropy oraz malowidła ścienne ulegają w zastraszającym tempie destrukcji. +W sierpniu 2009 roku powstało z inicjatywy lokalnych miłośników historii Stowarzyszenie Zamek Swobnica, którego celem jest uratowanie tego jednego z najcenniejszych obiektów zabytkowych Pomorza Zachodniego przed całkowitym zniszczeniem. +W lipcu 2009 prokuratura rejonowa w Gryfinie wszczęła dochodzenie przeciwko obecnemu właścicielowi z powodu doprowadzenia do zawalenia się skrzydła zamku. +Kościół wybudowano z granitowej kostki w XIII w., przebudowywano go pod koniec XIX w. i na początku XX w. +Do kościoła przylega cmentarz otoczony kamiennym murem z bramkami. W pobliżu kościoła stoi mała neogotycka kaplica. +W Swobnicy warto zwrócić uwagę na zespół budynków nadleśnictwa z XIX i XX w., murowane budynki mieszkalne i gospodarcze z XIX i z początku XX w., stodoły ryglowe i murowane z XIX w., budynek szkoły z lat 20. XX w., park zamkowy z XIX w., grodzisko kultury łużyckiej z wczesnej epoki żelaza oraz wczesnego średniowiecza; wyżynne o kształcie trójkąta. +W Swobnicy znajduje się również nowicjat Towarzystwa Salezjańskiego Inspektorii Pilskiej. +Fiat Cinquecento + +Fiat Cinquecento ("cinquecento" po włosku: "pięćset") – miejski samochód osobowy produkowany w polskiej fabryce Fiata w Tychach od czerwca 1991 do września 1998. Był to pierwszy samochód osobowy Fiata, którego produkcja odbywała się wyłącznie w polskiej fabryce w Tychach. Został wprowadzony na rynek jako następca modelu 126. Nadwozie zaprojektowane zostało w Centro Stile Fiat, kierownikiem projektu był Ermanno Cressoni. Produkcja montażowa Fiata Cinquecento została zakończona w 1998 roku, a jego następcą został model Seicento. Nazwą nawiązywał do modelu 500 z lat 50. XX wieku. +Cinquecento dostępny był wyłącznie jako 3-drzwiowy hatchback o kanciastym dwubryłowym nadwoziu. Współczynnik oporu aerodynamicznego nadwozia wynosił 0,33. W porównaniu z wcześniejszymi modelami Fiata z tego segmentu, pojazd wyposażono w kilka nowszych rozwiązań: niezależne przednie z kolumnami McPhersona i tylne zawieszenie z wahaczami ze sprężynami śrubowymi podobne do zastosowanego w Fiacie Tipo, hamulce tarczowe na osi przedniej, wzmocnione słupki boczne nadwozia oraz strefy zgniotu jak i ocynkowane nadwozie. Kierowanie pojazdem odbywało się poprzez zębatkowy układ kierowniczy, mimo to niedostępne było nawet w wyposażeniu dodatkowym wspomaganie kierownicy. Samochód mógł zostać opcjonalnie doposażony w m.in: centralny zamek, immobiliser, autoalarm, elektrycznie sterowane szyby, szyberdach (lub nawet zdejmowany brezentowy dach w wersji "Soleil") czy też układ klimatyzacji. +Geneza. +W latach 80. XX wieku najmniejszym samochodem w ofercie koncernu FIAT był model 126, którego produkcja rozpoczęła się w 1972 roku, a koncepcja pojazdu sięgała lat 50. i wywodziła się z modelu 500. Konstrukcja Fiata 126 odbiegała pod względem zastosowanych rozwiązań od ówczesnych standardów, z tego powodu rozpoczęto prace nad jego następcą o oznaczeniu X1/79. Nowe auto zasadniczo różniło się od poprzednika. Miało nowoczesne 3-drzwiowe nadwozie typu hatchback oraz umieszczony z przodu silnik chłodzony cieczą. W 1985 roku opracowano prototypy nazwane "Topolino", które zbliżone były do modelu seryjnego. W Polsce już w drugiej połowie lat 70. rozpoczęto negocjacje z Fiatem, które dotyczyły zakupu licencji nowego modelu, mającego stopniowo zastępować starzejącego się "Malucha". Umowa została podpisana 18 czerwca 1979 roku i przewidywała rozpoczęcie montażu, a później produkcji Fiata Panda w FSM. Z powodu niestabilnej sytuacji politycznej i ekonomicznej w Polsce na początku lat 80. umowa ta została zawieszona na 3 lata. Po tym okresie powrócono do rozmów z Fiatem i rozpoczęto prace nad Beskidem 106, który zostałby wprowadzony do produkcji w przypadku niepowodzenia rozmów z włoskim koncernem. Ostatecznie umowę przewidującą rozpoczęcie produkcji nowego modelu X1/79 w FSM zawarto 9 września 1987 roku. Według planów strony polskiej oprócz Cinquecento produkowany miał być również polski samochód o konstrukcji pochodnej od włoskiego auta. W 1988 roku wykonano makietę Beskida 1760 o długości 3,48 m. W grudniu 1988 roku za sprawą ministra przemysłu Mieczysława Wilczka, pojawił się pomysł połączenia FSM i FSO oraz produkcji tego modelu w obydwu zakładach. Zbudowano wówczas kolejne makiety pochodnych aut zunifikowanych z konstrukcją Cinquecento – 3-drzwiowego hatchbacka o oznaczeniu Beskid 1702 i 5-drzwiowego Beskida 1703, który miał być produkowany w FSO. W późniejszym czasie zbudowano jeżdżący prototyp modelu 1703 jednak z nadwoziem 4-drzwiowym. +Historia. +Fiat Cinquecento początkowo produkowany był przez Fabrykę Samochodów Małolitrażowych w Tychach na licencji włoskiego Fiata. Po raz pierwszy został zaprezentowany 9 grudnia 1991 roku w Rzymie, natomiast premiera w Polsce odbyła się tydzień później w Warszawie w hotelu Victoria. Produkcję rozpoczęto jednak już w czerwcu 1991 roku. Cinquecento było w założeniach następcą Fiata 126p. Jego wejście na rynek spowodowało jednak jedynie zaprzestanie produkcji Fiata 126 Bis, zaprzestanie produkcji Fiata 126p w Tychach i pozostawienie jej wyłącznie w Bielsku-Białej. Musiało to spowodować ograniczenie poziomu produkcji tego ostatniego modelu do 60-70 tys. sztuk rocznie, gdyż taka była maksymalna zdolność produkcyjna zakładu w Bielsku-Białej. +28 maja 1992 roku nastąpiło zawarcie umowy pomiędzy Skarbem Państwa RP, Fabryką Samochodów Małolitrażowych S.A. (FSM) i Fiatem Auto S.p.A o zawiązaniu trzech włosko-polskich spółek akcyjnych, w tym Fiat Auto Poland. Od tego momentu, nazwa została modelu została zmieniona z FSM Cinquecento na Fiat Cinquecento. Model ten (w Polsce początkowo pod marką FSM), swoją nazwę zawdzięczał modelowi Fiat 500 z roku 1957. +Od kwietnia 1993 samochód mógł zostać doposażony w układ klimatyzacji (tylko silnik 900), do listy wyposażenia dodatkowego wprowadzono także dzieloną kanapę tylną, elektrycznie sterowane szyby oraz centralny zamek. W maju tego samego roku nieznacznie zmniejszono objętość skokową silnika 900 (z 903 do 899 cm³). W grudniu 1993 roku przeprowadzono drobny facelifting, zmiany objęły głównie wnętrze samochodu, najbardziej widoczna było odświeżenie wyglądu zestawu wskaźników. W 1993 roku model Cinquecento zajął drugie miejsce w konkursie European Car of the Year 1993. Do końca 1993 roku Cinquecento było sprzedawane w Polsce pod marką FSM. W październiku 1994 roku wprowadzono do oferty wersję Sporting 1100. +W lutym 1995 roku fabrykę opuścił Cinquecento z numerem 500 000. 1 lipca 1995 roku ze względu na niespełnianie już normy emisji spalin zaprzestano produkcji odmian bez katalizatora spalin. Latem tego samego roku przeprowadzono delikatny facelifting. Od tamtej pory dostępnych było pięć wersji wyposażenia: ED, S, Suite, SX – bogatszego wariantu wyposażonego m.in. w zderzaki lakierowane pod kolor nadwozia oraz konsolę środkową oraz Sporting. +Dla rocznika 1996 wprowadzono jako wyposażenie opcjonalne pirotechniczne napinacze pasów bezpieczeństwa oraz poduszkę powietrzną dla kierowcy. W maju tego samego roku wprowadzono zubożoną wersję Young oraz wariant Soleil z elektrycznie odsuwanym brezentowym dachem. We wrześniu wprowadzono w miejsce Cinquecento 899 S model 899 Happy. W styczniu 1997 wycofano z produkcji wersję 700 ED. W połowie lipca 1997 roku fabrykę opuścił milionowy egzemplarz Cinquecento. W maju 1997 podczas targów motoryzacyjnych Barcelona Show zaprezentowano wersję Cinquecento Van przeznaczoną na rynek polski i hiszpański. W marcu 1998 roku zaprzestano produkcji wersji 900 i 1100, do września tego samego roku produkowano jedynie odmianę 700 na rynek krajowy, wtedy też zakończono produkcję modelu Cinquecento. Do tego czasu powstało 1 102 684 egzemplarzy modelu Cinquecento. +Trzykrotnie przeprowadzono akcje serwisowe: jesienią 1997 – dotyczyła możliwej awarii układu wspomagania hamulców, początkiem 1998 – wada kolumny kierowniczej oraz już po zakończeniu produkcji, jesienią 1999 roku – korodujący zbiornik paliwa. +Wersje silnikowe. +Fiat Cinquecento w przeciwieństwie do modelu 126 był pojazdem przednionapędowym. Silnik montowany był nad osią przednią wzdłużnie (704) lub poprzecznie (większe jednostki). Sprawiało to, że Cinquecento był jednym z niewielu pojazdów dostępnych jednocześnie w dwóch różnych konfiguracjach montażu silnika względem osi pojazdu. Do napędu używano wyłącznie silników benzynowych. +704. +Najmniejsza jednostka napędowa, montowana z przeznaczeniem na rynek polski, to silnik R2 "170A.000" OHV o pojemności 704 cm³ przejęty z samochodu Fiat 126 BIS. Charakteryzował się on kadłubem i głowicą wykonaną ze stopów aluminium i żeliwnym wałem korbowym z przeciwciężarami podpartym na dwóch łożyskach głównych. Rozrząd obsługiwany był poprzez łańcuch. Generował on moc maksymalną 31 KM lub 30 KM (wersja z katalizatorem). By motor mógł napędzać przednionapędowe Cinquecento, poddano go kilku modyfikacjom, najistotniejszą było odwrócenie kierunku obrotu wału korbowego wokół własnej osi. Został on umieszczony poziomo w pozycji leżącej. Jednostkę tę łączono wyłącznie z 4-biegową skrzynią biegów. Prędkość maksymalna wynosiła około 127 km/h, średnie zużycie paliwa na 100 km zaś około 6 l. Za zasilanie silnika w paliwo odpowiadał mechaniczny gaźnik FOS lub Weber (wersja 31 KM) lub elektroniczny gaźnik Aisan (30 KM). Słabsza wersja wyposażona była także w katalizator spalin, oferowana zaś była od października 1992 roku. Oznaczenie ED stosowane przy tym silniku było skrótem od "Economy Drive". Silnik jak i skrzynia biegów produkowane były w fabryce w Bielsko-Białej. +903/899. +Mocniejszą alternatywą była jednostka R4 "170A1.000" OHV o pojemności 903 cm³ i mocy maksymalnej 39-41 KM. Silnik zasilany mógł być poprzez gaźnik Weber (tylko rynek krajowy, od października 1991) bądź jednopunktowy wtrysk paliwa, było to bazowe źródło napędu dla samochodu na większości rynków zbytu. Wersja z wtryskiem wyposażona była także w katalizator spalin. +W celu lepszego dopasowania do taryf ubezpieczeniowych i podatkowych w maju 1993 roku zaczęto montować silnik o pojemności 899 cm³. Zmniejszenie objętości skokowej uzyskano poprzez nieznaczne skrócenie skoku tłoka (z 67 do 66,7 mm). Oprócz tego zastosowano wał korbowy o nieznacznie mniejszym promieniu wykorbienia, reszta podzespołów pozostała ta sama. Początkowo silniki te pochodziły z włoskich i jugosłowiańskich fabryk, od 1995 produkowane były w Polsce. +Silniki 900 były jednostkami typu R4 o rozrządzie OHV napędzanym poprzez łańcuch. Umieszczane były w pozycji pionowej nad przednią osią, poprzecznie do głównej osi pojazdu. Motor charakteryzował się żeliwnym kadłubem oraz głowicą wykonaną ze stopów aluminium. Układ rozrządu wyposażony był w popychacze hydrauliczne samoczynnie kasujące luzy zaworów, regulacja odbywała się automatycznie podczas pracy silnika. Silnik był starszą konstrukcją, charakteryzował się żeliwnym wałem korbowym podpartym na trzech łożyskach głównych, cechowała go duża niezawodność i zwarta budowa. +1.1 "FIRE" (Sporting). +W październiku 1994 roku wprowadzono wersję Cinquecento Sporting wyposażoną w silnik R4 1108 cm³ SOHC "FIRE" o mocy maksymalnej 54 KM (40 kW) pochodzący z Fiata Punto zblokowany ze skrzynią biegów o krótkich przełożeniach. Oprócz tego pojazd wyróżniał się obniżonym o 20 mm i utwardzonym zawieszeniem, stabilizatorem poprzecznym w zawieszeniu przednim, 13-calowymi felgami ze stopów lekkich z szerszym ogumieniem oraz lakierowanymi pod kolor nadwozia zderzakami i lusterkami bocznymi. Wewnątrz zastosowano sportowe fotele, czerwone pasy bezpieczeństwa i skórzane koło kierownicy oraz mieszek lewarka skrzyni biegów. Oprócz tego do tablicy zegarów dodano obrotomierz. +Silnik montowany był poprzecznie do osi głównej pojazdu nad osią przednią. Zastosowano w nim żeliwny kadłub oraz głowicę odlewaną ze stopów aluminium. Rozrząd napędzany był za pośrednictwem paska zębatego i jednego wałka znajdującego się w głowicy (OHC). Żeliwny wał korbowy podparty został w pięciu łożyskach głównych. +Wersja Sporting stała się bazą do konstrukcji wersji rajdowych oraz A-grupowych Kit-Carów. +Elettra. +W latach 1992-1996 FIAT produkował odmianę modelu Cinquecento z silnikiem elektrycznym o nazwie "Elettra". Samochód wyposażony był w silnik elektryczny prądu stałego o mocy do 9,2 kW/12,5 KM przy 2500 obr/min, moment obrotowy wynosił 35 Nm. Pojazd dostępny był w dwóch wariantach, z bateriami ołowianymi lub niklowo-kadmowymi. Wersja z bateriami ołowiano-żelowymi miała masę własną 1110 kg i zasięg w mieście do 70 km, poza miastem do 100 km przy prędkości średniej 50 km/h, żywotność baterii wynosiła 600 cykli ładowania. Drugi wariant zapewniał 3-krotnie większą trwałość, masa własna pojazdu wynosiła 1020 kg, a zasięg wzrastał do 100 km w mieście i 150 km poza nim. Cinquecento Elettra wykorzystywał dwa zestawy akumulatorów, jeden pod maską silnika, drugi pod tylną kanapą - w miejscu zbiornika paliwa. Powstało ponad 100 egzemplarzy elektrycznej wersji Cinquecento. +Abarth. +Wersja Abarth bazowała na modelu Cinquecento Sporting. Do napędu użyto tego samego silnika, zmiany objęły wyłącznie wygląd pojazdu. Zastosowano zderzaki przednie i tylne z dokładkami, boczne progi, tylny spoiler z wbudowanym trzecim światłem stop oraz przednie światła przeciwmgłowe. W standardowym wyposażeniu znajdowały się: zestaw audio, immobiliser, centralny zamek, elektrycznie sterowane szyby, 5-ramienne felgi Speedline o średnicy 13 cali ze stopów lekkich oraz wnętrze o sportowym wystroju. Za dopłatą samochód można było doposażyć w poduszkę powietrzną kierowcy, napinacze pasów bezpieczeństwa oraz szklany dach. Prędkość maksymalna wynosiła 150 km/h, tak jak w przypadku wersji Sporting. Cena na rynku brytyjskim na początku roku 1997 wynosiła około 7000 funtów szterlingów. +Dane techniczne. +Silniki. +"Źródło:" +Układ przeniesienia napędu. +"Źródło:" +Układ zawieszenia i hamulcowy. +"Źródło:" +Pozostałe. +"Źródło:" +Kolory nadwozia. +Pojazd dostępny był w dziesięciu wersjach kolorystycznych nadwozia, cztery z nich to lakiery metalizowane. +Prototypy. +Z myślą o wystawie w London Design Museum w 1993 roku Fiat przedstawił ośmiu włoskim firmom zajmującym się projektowaniem nadwozi propozycję przedstawienia własnej interpretacji modelu Cinquecento. Firma Zagato stworzyła transporter rowerowy, prawa strona pojazdu została przystosowana do przewożenia roweru. Koncept autorstwa I.DE.A cechował się ergonomicznym wnętrzem z miejscem dla trzech pasażerów. Bertone przedstawił prototyp RUSH z otwartym nadwoziem, Boneschi małą taksówkę, Pininfarina pick-upa, Coggiola małe coupé (Fionda), ITCA mały kabriolet. Ostatecznie na wystawę trafiły trzy pojazdy, Bertone, I.DE.A i Zagato. +Cinquecento Fionda. +W 1992 roku, tuż po uruchomieniu seryjnej produkcji Cinquecento, na targach samochodowych w Turynie przedstawiono kilka prototypów opartych na nowym pojeździe Fiata. Cinquecento Fionda mechanicznie oparty był w całości na Cinquecento, dzielił z nim także całą płytę podłogową. Nowością było futurystyczne nadwozie zaprojektowane przez Sergio Coggiolę. Projekt nigdy nie został wdrożony. +Cinquecento RUSH. +Kolejnym konceptem zaprezentowanym podczas salonu samochodowego w Turynie był oparty na płycie podłogowej i mechanizmach znanych z seryjnego Cinquecento pojazd Cinquecento RUSH. Samochód cechował się otwartym nadwoziem wzorowanym na pojazdach typu buggy zaprojektowanym przez stylistów Bertone. Wewnątrz podróżować mogły dwie osoby. Pojazd nie trafił do produkcji seryjnej. +Italdesign Lucciola. +W 1993 roku przedstawiono pojazd oparty na płycie podłogowej i mechanizmach z Fiata Cinquecento z nadwoziem zaprojektowanym przez studio Italdesign, nosił on nazwę Lucciola. Charakteryzował się mocno zaokrąglonym nadwoziem typu hatchback z rozsuwanym dachem. Lucciola była pojazdem hybrydowym, wysokoprężny silnik R2 konstrukcji Lombardini o pojemności skokowej 0,5 l i mocy maksymalnej 7,5 KM (5,5 kW) wspomagany był przez dwa silniki elektryczne umieszczone przy tylnych kołach o mocy 9,5 KM (7 kW każdy). Samochód był w stanie rozpędzić się do około 100 km/h, zasięg przy użyciu wyłącznie napędu elektrycznego wynosił 50 km. Fiat nie podjął się produkcji seryjnej modelu, kilka lat po zaprezentowaniu został on jednak zakupiony przez firmę Daewoo i posłużył przy projektowaniu Matiza. +Testy drogowe i odbiór. +Samochód chwalono za niskie koszty zakupu i eksploatacji, pozytywnie oceniono także trwałość konstrukcji. Do minusów zaliczono słabe osiągi w przypadku silnika 704 i ubogie wyposażenie w przypadku podstawowych wersji. Dużą awaryjnością w porównaniu z mechanicznym odpowiednikiem cechował się elektroniczny gaźnik Aisan. +Zmierzona niezależnie prędkość maksymalna dla wersji 700 wynosiła 126 km/h, dla 900 – 138 km/h, 900 i.e. zaś 143 km/h. Prędkościomierz nieznacznie zawyżał faktyczną prędkość pojazdu. W teście przeprowadzonym przez redakcję czasopisma „auto motor i sport” na dystansie 50 000 km osiągnięto średnie zużycie paliwa na poziomie 6,52 l / 100 km; próbie poddano wersję 899. Wersja Sporting Abarth osiągnęła w teście drogowym przeprowadzonym przez redakcję czasopisma AutoItalia Magazine prędkość prawie 170 km/h. +W raporcie TÜV z 2006 roku na temat bezawaryjności Cinquecento zajęło 70. miejsce na 78 możliwych w klasie pojazdów 8-9 letnich oraz 42. pozycję na 59 możliwych w segmencie samochodów 10-11 letnich. +Fiat Cinquecento w sporcie. +W roku 1993 Abarth rozpoczął coroczną serię wyścigów dedykowanych modelowi Fiat Cinquecento, nosiła ona nazwę "Fiat Cinquecento Trophy". W 1993 roku na Rajdzie Monte Carlo Fiat przedstawił wersję Cinquecento Trofeo. Konstrukcyjnie pojazd opierał się na standardowym Cinquecento 900, zmiany objęły m.in: układ zawieszenia, wewnątrz zamontowano klatkę bezpieczeństwa, a z przodu zamontowano dodatkowe światła. Pierwsze wersje pojazdu przygotowane przez Fiat Auto Corse osiągały moc maksymalną około 66 KM (49 kW). W następnych latach zespół opracowywał wzmocnioną wersję Cinquecento Sporting, którą wystartował w Rajdowych Mistrzostwach Europy 1996. Samochód osiągał moc około 90 KM (66 kW), zastosowano w nim hamulce z Fiata Uno Turbo. W styczniu 1997 roku 14 pojazdów Grupy A wzięło udział w Rajdzie Monte Carlo. Z silnika 1100 możliwe było uzyskanie ponad 160 KM (118 kW) przy 9500 obr./min. +Zakończenie produkcji i dalsze losy. +Produkcję Cinquecento zakończono w 1998 roku (wersja Sporting i 900 w marcu, 700 we wrześniu), łącznie wyprodukowano 1 102 684 egzemplarze (wg innych źródeł 1 107 405 sztuk). W tym samym roku wprowadzono do produkcji następcę, model Seicento. +Po ponad 10 latach od zakończenia produkcji Fiat Cinquecento był jednym z najchętniej kupowanych samochodów używanych na polskim rynku. +Muhammad Ali Jinnah + +Muhammad Ali Jinnah (urdu: محمد على جناح, urodzony 25 grudnia 1876 r. w Karaczi w Indiach Brytyjskich, zmarł 11 września 1948 również w Karaczi, ale w Pakistanie) - polityk indyjski i pakistański, z zawodu adwokat. Znany jest także jako Wielki Prowadzący (urdu: قائد اعظم - Kuaid-e-Azam) lub Ojciec Narodu (Baba-e-Kaum). +Historia. +Ukończył "Christian Society High School" w Karaczi. W 1893 wyjechał do Londynu do pracy. W 1894 zaczął tam studia prawnicze. Miał 2 siostry: Fatimę Jinnah i Szirin Bai. Od 1897 odbywał praktykę adwokata w Bombaju. Od 1910 należał do Zgromadzenia Prawodawczego przy wicekrólu. Od 1913 do 1928 prowadził działania na rzecz współpracy między Indyjskim Kongresem Narodowym (INC, był również jego członkiem) a Ligą Muzułmańską (wstąpił do niej w 1913). +Pakistański bohater narodowy. Przywódca muzułmanów w Indyjskim Kongresie Narodowym oraz długoletni przewodniczący Ligi Muzułmańskiej. W 1930 roku zerwał współpracę z Gandhim i stworzył koncepcję utworzenia z północnych prowincji indyjskich oddzielnego państwa dla muzułmanów - Pakistanu. Został jego założycielem i od 1947 pierwszym gubernatorem (aż do swojej śmierci). +Jinnah był jednym z głównych orędowników podziału Indii na dwa niezależne państwa - Indie i Pakistan. Reprezentował muzułmanów pomimo, że sam nie był szczególnie wierzącym i praktykującym wyznawcą Allaha. +Pisma Jinnaha znajdują się w Archiwum Narodowym w Islamabadzie i wpisane są na listę najważniejszych dokumentów świata przez UNESCO. +Chaber bławatek + +Chaber bławatek ("Centaurea cyanus" L. 1753) – gatunek rośliny zielnej z rodziny astrowatych. Nazwy ludowe: białasy, głowacz, jasieniec, kardy, kwiatek wołoszek, macoszka, modrak, modrzeńczyk, samosiejka, wasilek, wawer. Występuje w Europie oraz na Syberii Zachodniej. W Polsce pospolity chwast polny, archeofit. +Szyja + +Szyja – część ciała oddzielająca głowę od tułowia. W linii pośrodkowej, poniżej brody da się wyczuć kość gnykową, poniżej której znajduje się wyniosłość chrząstki tarczowatej zwana jabłkiem Adama, zaznaczająca się lepiej u mężczyzn niż u kobiet. Jeszcze niżej wyczuwalna jest chrząstka pierścieniowata, a pomiędzy nią a wcięciem nadmostkowym może się uwypuklać tchawica i przesmyk gruczołu tarczowego. Na bocznej stronie szyi najbardziej charakterystyczny jest zarys mięśnia mostkowo-obojczykowo-sutkowego, który oddziela przedni trójkąt szyi od bocznego. W górnej części tego pierwszego leży ślinianka podżuchwowa, znajdująca się poniżej tylnej połowy trzonu żuchwy. Przebieg tętnicy szyjnej wewnętrznej i zewnętrznej można wyznaczyć przedłużając wypukłość mięśnia mostkowo-obojczykowo-sutkowego do kąta żuchwy. +Przebieg nerwu dodatkowego odpowiada linii wyznaczonej między punktem znajdującym się w połowie odległości między kątem żuchwy i wyrostkiem sutkowatym a środkiem tylnego brzegu mięśnia mostkowo-obojczykowo-sutkowego. Przez skórę zazwyczaj można zauważyć żyłę szyjną zewnętrzną; przebiega ona w linii przeprowadzonej od kąta żuchwy do środka obojczyka, mijając. Towarzyszą jej po obu stronach liczne węzły chłonne. Dolne ograniczenie szyi stanowi obojczyk, boczna pochyłość szyi spowodowana jest przebiegiem mięśnia czworobocznego. +Odparzenie + +Odparzenie - skutek niewłaściwego pielęgnowania chorego polegający na podrażnieniu skóry w miejscu długotrwałego stykania się powierzchni skórnych. +Bronisław Półturzycki + +Bronisław Półturzycki (ur. 20 grudnia 1894 w Nieświeżu, zm. 14 kwietnia 1969 w Moskwie) – generał major Armii Czerwonej i generał dywizji Ludowego Wojska Polskiego, poseł na Sejm PRL I kadencji z okręgu wyborczego Bydgoszcz (mimo posiadania obywatelstwa ZSRR). +Życiorys. +Pochodził z rodziny polskich Tatarów, jego ojciec Józef był urzędnikiem. Ukończył gimnazjum w Słucku. W 1914 ukończył Szkołę Oficerską w Czugujewie. Od 1916 walczył na frontach I wojny światowej na stanowiskach dowódcy kompanii i dowódcy batalionu w 12. Fińskim Pułku Strzelców Imperium Rosyjskiego na froncie niemieckim; był ranny w walkach. Podczas rewolucji październikowej został dowódcą kompanii i członkiem pułkowego komitetu partyjnego. +W maju 1918 ochotniczo wstąpił do Armii Czerwonej. Od 21 sierpnia 1918 w Armii Czerwonej na stanowiskach administracyjnych: komendant rejonowy Krymskiej Komendantury Wojennej od sierpnia do listopada 1918, komisarz wojskowy komendantury wojennej miasta Mozyrz – od listopada 1918 do czerwca 1920 uczestnik wojny domowej w Rosji. Od czerwca do września 1920 szef sztabu 17. Dywizji Piechoty, od września 1920 do czerwca 1921 – dowódca 48. Odesskiego Pułku Piechoty w Mińsku. Przez 4 miesiące przebywał w areszcie. Od października 1921 do maja 1922 – dowódca 33. Jeleckiego Pułku Piechoty, od maja 1922 do lutego 1923 – pomocnik dowódcy 11. Pułku Piechoty, od marca 1923 do stycznia 1924 – komendant dywizyjnej szkoły młodszych dowódców, Od stycznia 1924 do grudnia 1932 – dowódca 6., następnie 33. Pułku Piechoty. W 1929 ukończył Wyższą Szkołę Oficerską w Moskwie. Następnie od grudnia 1932 do lipca 1937 szef sztabu – kolejno: 18. Dywizji Piechoty, 52. Dywizji Piechoty oraz 17. Dywizji Piechoty. Od lipca do grudnia 1937 pozostawał w rezerwie. W grudniu 1937 aresztowany w ramach wielkiej czystki. Po uwolnieniu w marcu 1940 z nieznanych zarzutów dalej w służbie, wykładowca taktyki na kursach "Wystrieł" w Sołniecznogorsku. +Od 19 sierpnia 1943 do 22 stycznia 1944 dowódca 166. Dywizji Piechoty na froncie radziecko-niemieckim, m.in. na Froncie Woroneskim. Jesienią 1943 został ciężko ranny pod Achtyrką. Generał major od 16 sierpnia 1943. Dwukrotnie wstępował do partii komunistycznej – RKP(b) – w 1918 (wykluczony w 1921 w związku z aresztowaniem) oraz WKP(b) w 1940 po oczyszczeniu z zarzutów. +W styczniu 1944 skierowany w stopniu generała brygady do 1 Korpusu Polskich Sił Zbrojnych w ZSRR na stanowisko zastępcy dowódcy korpusu do spraw liniowych – od stycznia do 4 marca 1944. Później – od 4 marca do 6 lipca 1944 – zastępca dowódcy 1 Armii WP w ZSRR, szef Departamentu Mobilizacji i Uzupełnień WP – od 6 lipca do 26 września 1944, komendant Centrum Wyszkolenia Oficerów w Riazaniu – od 26 września 1944 do 23 kwietnia 1945, szef Departamentu Piechoty i Kawalerii WP w I Wiceministerstwie Obrony Narodowej – od 23 kwietnia do 18 lipca 1945. Od 18 lipca 1945 do 19 kwietnia 1946 szef Departamentu Mobilizacji i Uzupełnień w MON. Generał dywizji od 14 grudnia 1945. Od 19 kwietnia 1946 do 19 listopada 1947 – szef Oddziału Organizacyjno-Mobilizacyjnego Sztabu Generalnego WP. +Od 19 listopada 1947 do 21 stycznia 1953 dowódca Pomorskiego Okręgu Wojskowego, potem zastępca przewodniczącego Państwowej Komisji Planowania Gospodarczego (planowanie spraw obronnych) – od 21 stycznia 1953 do 21 grudnia 1956. Jednocześnie od 1954 członek Centralnej Komisji Kontroli PZPR. +W grudniu 1956 powrócił do ZSRR, gdzie został przeniesiony w stan spoczynku. Osiadł w Moskwie, gdzie zmarł. Pochowany na Cmentarzu Nowodziewiczym. +Z małżeństwa z Tatarką Zinaidą Bikućko miał syna Józefa (ur. 1923), który także służył w LWP, m.in. w 1956 był majorem w jednostce artylerii w Grudziądzu, oraz dwie córki. Przed podwładnych zapamiętany jako niewyobrażalny pedant, zajmujący się nawet najdrobniejszymi szczegółami (osobiście podpisywał np. zamówienia na żarówki w podległym mu okregu wojskowym). Posługiwał się piekną, choć archaiczną wschodnią polszczyzną. +Rumpler C.I + +Rumpler C.I – niemiecki samolot rozpoznawczy i lekki samolot bombowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1915 roku w wytwórni lotniczej Edmund Rumpler Flugzeugwerke. +Historia. +W 1915 roku Edmund Rumpler zbudował w swojej wytwórni dwumiejscowy samolot w układzie dwupłata. Po kilku lotach próbnych samolot ten wykonał w ciągu 18 godzin lot bez lądowania z Berlina do Konstantynopola. Po tym osiągnięciu rozpoczęto produkcję dla potrzeb wojska dwóch wersji samolotów samolotów rozpoznawczo-bombowych "Rumpler B.I" i "Rumpler B.II", które różniły się między sobą tylko rodzajem zastosowanego silnika. Samoloty te wykorzystywano na froncie zachodnim I wojny światowej, gdzie zdały egzamin jako samoloty rozpoznawcze dla współdziałania z artylerią i piechotą. +W związku z tym w 1915 roku powstała nowa wersja oznaczona jako "Rumpler C.I" o lepszych +osiągach niż wcześniejsze wersje. Nowy samolot miał szczególnie duża długotrwałość lotu, co było wykorzystywane przy prowadzeniu obserwacji pola walki. Rumpler C.I mógł być również stosowany do szkolenia pilotów. +Samoloty Rumpler C.I sukcesywnie od 1916 roku kierowane były najpierw na front zachodni w Europie, potem na front wschodni. Używano ich także w Macedonii i Palestynie. Na Bliskim Wschodzie używano również tych samolotów do bombardowania, wówczas wyposażano je w 100 kg bomb. +Opis konstrukcji. +Kadłub samolotu Rumpler C.I miał konstrukcję drewnianą, kratownicową i skrzyniową, mieścił w przedniej części mieścił silnik rzędowy, w górnej części odkryty, chłodzony cieczą. Nad silnikiem wystawała wyprowadzona do góry rura wydechowa odprowadzająca spaliny ze wszystkich cylindrów. Za silnikiem w kadłubie znajdowały się jedna za drugą dwie kabiny odkryte – pierwsza pilota, druga obserwator. Z tyłu kadłuba przymocowane było skośne usterzenie klasyczne dzielące się na stateczniki i stery. Pokrycie kadłuba przy silniku stanowiła blacha aluminiowa, w pozostałej części sklejka i płótno. Płaty drewniane o kształcie prostokątnym, pokryte płótnem, połączone ze sobą słupkami i usztywnione cięgnami stalowymi. Na środku górnego płata zamontowano chłodnicę cieczy, połączoną rurkami z silnikiem. Lotki umieszczono jedynie na górnym płacie. +Użycie w Wojsku Polskim. +Po zakończeniu I wojny światowej oddziały polskie na terenie byłej Kongresówki i w Małopolsce przejęły od Niemców w listopadzie 1918 roku 21 samolotów "Rumpler C.I", a ponadto w warsztatach Stacji Lotniczej w Poznaniu na lotnisku Ławica ze zdobytych podzespołów i części zmontowano jeszcze w 1920 roku 6 samolotów tego typu. +W samoloty "Rumpler C.I" wyposażono eskadry wywiadowcze nr 2., 5., 6., 8., 12. i 14. Stosowano je w czasie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej w 1920 roku do rozpoznania, po jej zakończeniu niektóre ocalałe egzemplarze stosowano do szkolenia i treningu załóg. +W 1922 roku samoloty "Rumpler C.I" wycofano z eksploatacji i skasowano. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot "Rumpler C.I" był dwumiejscowym samolotem wielozdaniowym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd silnik rzędowy 6-cylindrowy "Mercedes D.III", śmigło dwułopatowe drewniane. +Falun + +Falun – miasto w środkowej Szwecji w regionie Dalarna, siedziba gminy Falun. Liczy 36 447 mieszkańców. +Strefa górnicza Wielkiej Góry Rudy Miedzianej w Falun znajduje się na liście światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. W centrum miasta znajduje się stacja kolejowa. +Sport. +W mieście znajduje się skocznia narciarska o nazwie Lugnet, na której kiedyś rozgrywane były zawody Pucharu Świata w skokach narciarskich. Miasto czterokrotnie było organizatorem mistrzostw świata w narciarstwie klasycznym: w latach 1954, 1974, 1980 (nieoficjalne) oraz 1993. Kolejny raz będzie gościć imprezę tej rangi w 2015 roku. Miasto było kandydatem do organizacji zimowych igrzysk olimpijskich w 1988 oraz 1992 roku. +Jack Kilby + +Jack St. Clair Kilby (ur. 8 listopada 1923 w Jefferson City, zm. 20 czerwca 2005 w Dallas) – inżynier amerykański, wynalazca układu scalonego (1958). +Urodził się w Jefferson City w stanie Missouri. W 1947 uzyskał stopień bakałarza z inżynierii elektrycznej na Uniwersytecie Stanowym Illinois w Urbana-Champaign. Magisterium zrobił na Uniwersytecie Wisconsin, pracując jednocześnie dla Centralab w Milwaukee. +W 1958 podjął pracę dla korporacji Texas Instruments i resztę swojej kariery związał z tą firmą. W lecie 1958 stworzył z germanu konstrukcję pierwszego układu scalonego, którą zaprezentował zarządowi 12 września. 6 lutego 1959 jego wynalazek został opatentowany. Mniej więcej w tym samym czasie układ scalony skonstruował także Robert Noyce z Fairchild Semiconductor. +Przez 6 lat (1978-1984) pracował jako profesor inżynierii elektrycznej na Uniwersytecie Teksańskim w Dallas. Opatentował ponad 60 wynalazków. Jest m.in. odkrywcą podstaw krzemowych baterii słonecznych, wynalazcą kalkulatora oraz druku termicznego. +Był członkiem IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) oraz amerykańskiej National Academy of Engineering (NAE). +Jack Kilby zmarł na raka w wieku 81 lat w Dallas, w mieście, w którym pracował i żył począwszy od 1958. +Shaukat Aziz + +Shaukat Aziz (ur. 6 marca 1949 w Karaczi) – polityk pakistański, premier Pakistanu od 28 sierpnia 2004 do 16 listopada 2007. +Shaukat Aziz zajmuje także stanowisko ministra finansów, nieprzerwanie od 12 października 1999. +Skończył szkołę św. Patryka w Karaczi i szkołę publiczną w Abbottabad. +Peryfiton + +Peryfiton - zespoły drobnych organizmów (bezkręgowce, glony, grzyby) zamieszkujących różnorakie podłoża znajdujące się w wodzie, ale niebędące dnem. Peryfiton bywa zaliczany do szeroko rozumianego bentosu. +Do podłoży tych zalicza się: elementy hydrotechniczne (zanurzone części mostów, zapór, itp); różne śmieci (plastikowe worki, butelki, opony); suche konary drzew znajdujące się w wodzie, muszle itp., przede wszystkim zaś pędy makrofitów. Zespoły poroślowe (=peryfiton) mogą porastać zarówno części biotyczne (żywe) jak i abiotyczne (martwe) środowiska. Niektóre jednak organizmy preferują ściśle określone podłoże, np. złotowiciowiec "Chrysopyxis" przystosowany jest do zasiedlania glonów nitkowatych. +W zbiorowisku organizmów zwanym peryfiton swoje miejsce do bytowania znajduje wiele organizmów z różnych grup systematycznych np. mięczaków (błotniarki, żyworódki, zatoczki, rozdętki), małży, skorupiaków (kiełże), nicieni, obleńców oraz zielenic, złotowiciowców, okrzemek. Często w tych skupiskach organizmów występują różne gatunki ryb - znajdują tu dogodne warunki do rozrodu i odżywiania, jednakże nie należą one do zbiorowiska peryfitonowego. Zbiorowiska poroślowe odznaczają się dużą produkcją materii organicznej kumulowanej w ciałach zwierząt, co przyspiesza funkcje samooczyszczania się zbiorników wodnych. +Do pobierania próbek peryfitonu używa się drapaczy palowych lub skrobaków. Próbki umieszcza się w szklanych pojemnikach z doszlifowanym korkiem i zalewa wodą pobraną z badanego zbiornika. +Zespół peryfitonowych glonów określany jest jako mikrofitobentos. +Dziewięćsił + +Dziewięćsił ("Carlina" L.) – rodzaj roślin z rodziny astrowatych. Należą do niego około 34 gatunki pochodzące z okolic Morza Śródziemnego, wysp Kanaryjskich i Azji Zachodniej. Gatunkiem typowym jest "Carlina vulgaris" L. +Morfologia. +Rośliny jednoroczne i byliny o liściach wyposażonych w ostre kolce. Kwiaty zebrane w jeden lub kilka dużych koszyczków wyrastających na pędach kwiatowych. Koszyczki te otoczona są jasnymi i dość błyszczącymi podsadkami. +Systematyka. +Angiosperm Phylogeny Website adoptuje podział na podrodziny astrowatych ("Asteraceae") opracowany przez Panero i Funka w 2002, z późniejszymi uzupełnieniami. Zgodnie z tym ujęciem rodzaj dziewięćsił ("Carlina" L.) należy do plemienia "Cardueae", podrodziny "Carduoideae" (Sweet) Cass. W systemie APG III astrowate są jedną z kilkunastu rodzin astrowców ("Asterales"), wchodzącego w skład kladu astrowych w obrębie dwuliściennych właściwych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa astrowe ("Asteridae" Takht.), nadrząd astropodobne ("Asteranae" Takht.), rząd astrowce ("Asterales" Lindl), rodzina astrowate ("Asteraceae" Dumort.), podrodzina "Carlinoideae" (Cass.) Lindl. in Loud., plemię "Carlineae" Cass., podplemię" Carlininae" (Cass.) Dumort., rodzaj dziewięćsił ("Carlina" L.). +Zastosowanie. +Niektóre gatunki są uprawiane jako rośliny ozdobne. +Wekslarz + +Wekslarz – w średniowiecznej Polsce osoba zajmująca się wymianą pieniędzy podczas ówczesnych wielkich wydarzeń handlowych, jakimi były jarmarki. +W związku z dużą różnorodnością monet będących w obiegu, utrapieniem kupujących jak i sprzedajacych był obrót pieniężny podczas dokonywania transakcji. +Wszystkie kwestie przeliczenia wartości monet i wymiany ich, oraz ustalenia, które z nich są pełnowartościowym środkiem płatniczym, a które nie (nagminne było obcinanie brzegów monet, co zaniżało ich wagę) spoczywało na wekslarzu. Jego warsztatem pracy była ława, na której ustawiał swoje sprzęty: wagę, odważniki, szkło powiększające, kamień jubilerski i chemiczne probierze (celem ustalenia próby kruszcu w monecie) oraz kładł monety poukładane wartością w woreczkach. Wekslarz czerpał zyski z wymiany i często pomawiano go niebezpodstawnie o oszustwo. To z kolei było sygnałem do zniszczenia jego warsztatu pracy, połamania znienawidzonej ławy ("bancarotta" - bankructwo) i rozkradzenia monet, co często czyniono, mimo że wekslarz korzystał z ochrony władcy lub rajców miejskich. +Taka była podstawowa rola wekslarza w Polsce średniowiecznej. W księstwach i republikach Italii wymieniał na gotówkę i przyjmował weksle do czasu powstania kantorów i banków. +Pińczów + +Pińczów – miasto w województwie świętokrzyskim, siedziba powiatu pińczowskiego, jak również miejsko-wiejskiej gminy Pińczów. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. kieleckiego. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. miasto miało 11 303 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Pińczów leży na Ponidziu, nad rzeką Nidą, 39 km na południe od Kielc. Miasto położone jest częściowo w Dolinie Nidy, od północy opierając się na zboczach wzgórz wchodzących w skład Garbu Pińczowskiego. +Przez miasto przebiega droga wojewódzka nr 766 z Morawicy do Węchadłowa. Swój początek ma tu droga wojewódzka nr 767 prowadząca do Buska-Zdroju. +Pińczów jest punktem początkowym niebieskiego szlaku turystycznego prowadzącego do Wiślicy. +Na terenie miejscowego kamieniołomu wapienia pińczowskiego znaleziono szkielet wieloryba sprzed 15 mln lat. +Znajduje się tu stacja kolejowa Pińczów Wąski – część Świętokrzyskiej Kolei Dojazdowej. +Historia. +Początki Pińczowa. +Rozwój Pińczowa rozpoczął się od kamieniołomu, który istniał tutaj w XII w. Bezpieczeństwa górników strzegł niewielki gród obronny, zniszczony prawdopodobnie przez Tatarów w 1241 r. +W I poł. XIV w. na jego miejsce wzniesiono gotycki zamek, u stóp którego rozwinęła się osada. Nosiła ona początkowo nazwę "Piędziców" (1405 – "Pandziczow", około 1470 "Pyandzyczow"). Od XVI w. używana jest współczesna nazwa. Nie zachowały się informacje o pierwszych właścicielach Pińczowa. Wiadomo, że w 1424 r. osada stała się własnością rodu Oleśnickich. Wybudowali oni na Górze Zamkowej nową rezydencję, a w osadzie ufundowali klasztor Paulinów. 21 września 1428 r. król Władysław Jagiełło na zamku w Lublinie nadał Pińczowowi prawa miejskie. +Miejscowa ludność zajmowała się wówczas głównie rolnictwem, sadownictwem, uprawą winnej latorośli oraz hodowlą bydła. W I poł. XVI w. dzierżawcą miasta był burgrabia krakowski Jan Tęczyński. W 1546 r. Pińczów powrócił w ręce rodu Oleśnickich. +Ośrodek reformacji. +Za sprawą Mikołaja Oleśnickiego miasto stało się ośrodkiem reformacji. Oleśnicki udzielił tu schronienia m.in. Franciszkowi Stankarowi – profesorowi Akademii Krakowskiej, uwięzionemu przez biskupa krakowskiego na zamku w Lipowcu i wyzwolonemu przez grupę szlachty. W latach 1550-1551 z miasta wypędzono paulinów, a kościół zmieniono w zbór kalwiński. W budynkach poklasztornych powstało słynne na całą Europę gimnazjum pińczowskie nazywane później sarmackimi Atenami. W szkole nauczał m.in. Francuz Piotr Statorius-Stojeński, wychowanek kolegium w Lozannie. Do Polski skierowany został dzięki pomocy samego Jana Kalwina. Statorius był autorem szczegółowego programu szkoły wydanego pod tytułem "Urządzenie gimnazjum pińczowskiego". Był to pierwszy tego rodzaju dokument w historii polskiego szkolnictwa. +W 1559 r. w gronie pedagogicznym akademii doszło do konfliktu na tle sporów dogmatycznych dotyczących charakteru Trójcy Świętej. Akademię opuścił wówczas jej rektor Grzegorz Orszak. Nowym rektorem uczelni wybrano Statoriusa. Środowisko związane z pińczowską uczelnią zajmowało się drugim w historii tłumaczeniem Biblii na język polski. Tzw. Biblia Brzeska ukazała się w 1563 r. Od miejsca w którym wykonano tłumaczenie, bywa ona także nazywana Biblią Pińczowską. W latach 1558-1562 w mieście funkcjonowała drukarnia publikująca dzieła reformatorskie. Jej założycielem był Daniel z Łęczycy. W Pińczowie swoje prace drukował m.in. Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski. +Do miasta zjeżdżali przedstawiciele ruchu reformatorskiego. W Pińczowie odbyły się 22 synody. W mieście przebywał m.in. Jan Łaski, po śmierci pochowany w prezbiterium miejscowego zboru. +XVI-XIX wiek. +Kres ośrodkowi reformacyjnemu w Pińczowie położył biskup krakowski Piotr Myszkowski, który w 1586 wykupił miasto. Nastąpiła gwałtowna rekatolicyzacja Pińczowa. Do miasta powrócili Paulini, a pińczowskie gimnazjum przyjęło program szkoły parafialnej. +Ród Myszkowskich, w krótkim czasie stał się jednym ze znaczniejszych rodów Rzeczypospolitej. Spadkobiercy biskupa – Zygmunt i Aleksander Myszkowscy około 1597 uzyskali adopcję do rodu książęcego Gonzagów z Mantui. Myszkowscy przyjęli herb i nazwisko Gonzagów. Papież Klemens VII nadał im tytuł margrabiów na Mirowie. Tytuł ten związany był z zamkiem Mirów w Książu Wielkim. W 1601 ród Myszkowskich uzyskał od sejmu Rzeczypospolitej zgodę na utworzenie ordynacji rodowej. +Na przełomie XVI i XVII w. Myszkowscy przebudowali w manierystyczną rezydencję stary zamek Oleśnickich. W Pińczowie działał w tym czasie słynny warsztat rzeźbiarski Santi Gucciego. Gucci nadzorował przebudowę pińczowskiego zamku, zaprojektował także wówczas kaplicę św. Anny. +W 1592 Zygmunt Myszkowski założył na wschód od Pińczowa nowe miasto Mirów. Jednakże już w 1612 r. zostało ono przyłączone do sąsiedniego Pińczowa. Sam Pińczów otoczony został drewniano-ziemnymi obwarowaniami. Do miasta można było dostać się przez jedną z czterech bram: Chęcińską, Kielecką, Nowokorczyńską lub Krakowską. +W 1637 ordynat Ferdynand Myszkowski gościł w swojej rezydencji Cecylię Renatę Habsburżankę, która zdążała właśnie do Warszawy, na ślub z królem Władysławem IV Wazą. +W XVII wieku w mieście osiedlało się wielu obcokrajowców. Najwięcej było przybyszów z Włoch, którzy otwierali tutaj zakłady kamieniarskie, korzystając z wydobywanego w okolicy kamienia pińczowskiego. Przybywali tu również Szkoci, Francuzi, Niemcy i Żydzi. +W 1657 wojska szwedzkie zajęły miasto i zamek. W 1701 na 100-lecie istnienia ordynacji pińczowskiej, ordynat Józef Władysław Gonzaga-Myszkowski ufundował w Pińczowie kolonię akademicką pod zarządem Akademii Krakowskiej. W latach 1757-1761 uczył się w niej Hugo Kołłątaj. Po bitwie pod Kliszowem w 1702 miasto zostało ponownie zajęte przez Szwedów. Król szwedzki Karol XII urządził w Pińczowie na pewien czas swoją kwaterę. +Józef Władysław był ostatnim ordynatem z rodu Myszkowskich. Po jego śmierci miasto przeszło na własność rodu Wielopolskich. Działanie wojenne w czasie powstania kościuszkowskiego spowodowały upadek miasta. Po III rozbiorze Polski Pińczów znalazł się w zaborze austriackim. Po kongresie wiedeńskim w 1815 w zaborze rosyjskim. +W 1813 podzielono ordynację pińczowską. Pińczów stał się wówczas własnością warszawskiego adwokata Jana Olrycha Szanieckiego. W 1839 r. Wielopolscy odkupili miasto. W latach 20. XIX w. Pińczów miał przeszło 4 tys. mieszkańców. W mieście rozwijał się przemysł spożywczy – produkowano tu sery. W 1867 r. powstał powiat pińczowski. W mieście w II poł. XIX w. stacjonował rosyjski 14 Jamburgski Pułk Dragonów. +Historia Żydów w Pińczowie. +Pierwsi Żydzi zamieszkiwali Pińczów już w I połowie XVI wieku, od 1576 płacili podatki. Tutejszy Kahał powstał pod koniec XVI wieku. W 1594 Żydzi otrzymali przywileje od właściciela miasta, Zygmunta Myszkowskiego, w tym zezwolenie na budowę bożnicy. Powstały tu szkoły żydowskie, drukarnie i biblioteki. +W XVIII wieku Pińczów stał się jednym z ważniejszych ośrodków żydowskich w Małopolsce. W 1765 roku zamieszkiwało tu 2862 Żydów, w 1856 – 2877 (co stanowiło 70% ludności). Kapitał żydowski przyczynił się do rozwoju gospodarczego miasta w XIX wieku. Powstała fabryka sukna Rosenberga, fabryka wyrobów bawełnianych i farbiarnia Berensteina. W radzie miejskiej w latach 1927-1930 zasiadało 15 Polaków i 15 Żydów, a przewodniczył jej miejscowy proboszcz (żeby uniknąć pata). +W 1939 w Pińczowie mieszkało 3500 Żydów. W październiku 1942 Niemcy deportowali 3000 Żydów do obozu zagłady w Treblince. +Pińczów w XX wieku. +W Pińczowie, na mocy rozkazu dowództwa WP nr 77 z dnia 19 lutego 1919 r został utworzony 11 Pułk Ułanów. +Zadanie sformowania i dowodzenia nim powierzono Mariuszowi Zaruskiemu. W skład 11 Pułku wszedł m.in. dywizjon kawalerii dowodzony przez rotmistrza Antoniego Jabłońskiego "Zdzisława", który pierwszym rozkazem nowo utworzonego 11 Pułku z dnia 16 marca 1919 r. objął funkcję zastępcy dowódcy pułku. +W okresie II Rzeczypospolitej Pińczów był niewielkim miastem powiatowym. Liczba mieszkańców nie przekraczała 10 tysięcy. Negatywny wpływ na rozwój miasta miało przeniesienie do Sandomierza, 2 Pułku Legionów, który początkowo stacjonował tutaj. +W 1939 r. miasto zostało zniszczone przez oddziały niemieckie. Podczas II wojny światowej rejon Pińczowa był miejscem aktywnej działalności partyzanckiej. Od lipca do sierpnia 1944 r. miasto było przejściowo wyzwolone przez partyzantów z AK, AL i Batalionów Chłopskich. Obszar o powierzchni 1000 km², wyzwolony spod okupacji hitlerowskiej, który obejmował tereny od Pińczowa po Działoszyce i od Nowego Korczyna po Nowe Brzesko, nosił nazwę Republiki Pińczowskiej. +W czasie II wojny światowej dokonano dwóch ataków partyzanckich na więzienie w Pińczowie. +Pierwszego ataku 14 czerwca 1944 roku dokonał oddział BCh liczący około 200 ludzi, dowodzony przez Piotra Pawlinę. W czasie akcji zdobyto więzienie, rozbrojono załogę i uwolniono 281 więzionych tam Polaków. +Drugiego ataku na więzienie, niecały miesiąc później to jest 13 lipca, dokonało wspólnie kilka mniej licznych oddziałów BCh, a znaczący wpływ na plan i przebieg akcji mieli: Henryk Grabala, Franciszek Barylak, Szczepan Koruba i Stanisław Stępień. Więzienie zdobyto, więźniów rozpuszczono. Po tej akcji więzienie w Pińczowie do końca wojny przestało funkcjonować. +Zabytki. +Przed kościołem stoi dzwonnica zbudowana w latach 1685-1691 przez architekta Wojciecha Trybulskiego. Składa się ona z dwóch kondygnacji oddzielonych gzymsem. Całość nakrywa łamany dach namiotowy, zwieńczony iglicą z krzyżem. Od strony zachodniej, pod dachem, widoczna jest tarcza zegara. W dzwonnicy zawieszone są trzy gotyckie dzwony, które noszą imiona: Jan, Fabian i Jutrzniak. W dolnej kondygnacji była kiedyś czynna brama cmentarna o dwóch kamiennych portalach, bowiem do końca XVIII w. tereny przy kościele i klasztorze były cmentarzem. +W północnej ścianie dzwonnicy wmurowane są dwie tablice pamiątkowe. Starsza, wmurowana w 1933 r. w 250. rocznicę zwycięstwa Jana III Sobieskiego pod Wiedniem, młodsza, z r. 1998, upamiętnia osobę Józefa Piłsudskiego i jego pobyt w Pińczowie w 1914 r. +Media. +W Pińczowie działa lokalna rozgłośnia radiowa "Twoje Radio Pińczów" nadająca na częstotliwości 1332 kHz AM, ponadto dla Pińczowa nadaje także rozgłośnia internetowa "Radio Ponidzie". – "Serwis Internetowy Miasta Pińczów". W każdy wtorek wśród prasy dostępny jest lokalny "Tygodnik Ponidzia", a co miesiąc nakładem Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Ponidzia wydawany jest "Głos Pińczowski" (kiedyś wydawany przed wojną jako gazeta informacyjna). +Rekreacja. +Na terenie Pińczowa funkcjonuje pływalnia miejska "Delfinek" mająca bezpośrednie połączenie ze Szkołą Podstawową nr 2. +Od października 2010 jest również dostępne boisko wielofunkcyjne "Orlik", zaraz przy pływalni "Delfinek" +Transport. +Znajduje się także dworzec autobusowy oraz lądowisko użytkowane przez Aeroklub Regionalny w Pińczowie. +Suwmiarka + +Suwmiarka jest jednym z podstawowych warsztatowych przyrządów pomiarowych służącym do szybkiego pomiaru wytwarzanych elementów. Zakresy pomiarowe suwmiarek obejmują przedział od 150 mm (standardowo) do nawet 3000 mm. +Budowa i charakterystyka. +Suwmiarki w zależności od kształtu powierzchni pomiarowych używane są do pomiaru wymiarów zewnętrznych, wewnętrznych i mieszanych (wysokość , głębokość, rozstaw itp.) Produkuje się także suwmiarki: specjalne, np. do kanałków wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych oraz do pomiaru grubości zębów kół zębatych tzw. suwmiarki modułowe. +Suwmiarką z noniuszem można dokonywać pomiarów z rozdzielczością do 0,1 mm (noniusz 9 lub 19 mm), 0,05 mm (noniusz 19 lub 39 mm), 0,02 mm (noniusz 49 mm). W sprzedaży można także spotkać suwmiarki z czytnikiem elektronicznym lub zegarowym o dokładności odczytu nawet 0,01 mm. Jednakże podawana przez producentów niepewność pomiaru suwmiarkami jest większa niż rozdzielczość i silnie zależy od rodzaju pomiaru, urządzenia odczytowego, a także długości mierzonego wymiaru. +Metodyka pomiaru. +[[Plik:Suwmiarka2.svg|thumb|450px|Budowa suwmiarki +1 - Stała szczęka do pomiaru wymiarów zewnętrznych; 2 - Ruchoma szczęka do pomiaru wymiarów zewnętrznych; 3 - Stała szczęka do pomiaru wymiarów wewnętrznych; 4 - Ruchoma szczęka do pomiaru wymiarów wewnętrznych; 5 - Noniusz zwiększający dokładność pomiarową do 0,16 - Noniusz zwiększający dokładność pomiarową do 1/128 cala; 7 - Podziałka calowa; 8 - Dźwignia zacisku ustalającego położenie przesuwnej szczęki; 9 - Podziałka milimetrowa; 10 - Głębokościomierz, do pomiarów głębokości i wymiarów mieszanych] +Pomiar suwmiarką polega na ujęciu mierzonego detalu w szczęki suwmiarki (lub wysunięciu wysuwki głębokościomierza na odpowiednią długość) oraz odczytaniu wyniku pomiaru na noniuszu lub wyświetlaczu. +PN-M-53130:1980/Az1:1996 +Niemiecka norma dotycząca przyrządów suwmiarkowych: DIN 862 +Lugnet + +Lugnet - kompleks sportowy w szwedzkim mieście Falun. Znajdują się tu między innymi skocznie narciarskie wybudowane specjalnie na Mistrzostwa Świata w Narciarstwie Klasycznym 1974: skocznia duża - Lugnet HS124 (K115, HS124) oraz skocznia normalna - Lugnet HS98 (K90, HS98). Ostatnia większa modernizacja obiektów miała miejsce w 1993 roku, przed Mistrzostwami Świata w Narciarstwie Klasycznym 1993. Skocznie posiadają sztuczne oświetlenie (na średniej można rozgrywać zawody także latem, gdyż jest wyłożona igelitem). +W okolicy stadionu Lugnet znajdują się liczne narciarskie trasy biegowe. Od 1947 roku organizowane są tu zawody Svenska Skidspelen (wzorowane na zawodach w norweskim Holmenkollen), a od 2009 roku regularnie odbywa się tu Finał Pucharu Świata w biegach narciarskich. W pobliżu znajduje się także hala unihokeja i lodowisko do gry w bandy. +W lecie 2012 roku rozpoczęto przebudowę całego stadionu w związku z organizacją przez Falun Mistrzostw Świata w Narciarstwie Klasycznym 2015. Planowane jest powiększenie skoczni dużej z HS-124 do HS-134, normalnej z HS-98 do HS-105 oraz wybudowanie kilku mniejszych obiektów: K60, K35, K15 i K10. +5-MeO-DALT + +5-MeO-DALT – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy tryptamin, psychodeliczna substancja psychoaktywna. . +Vermeer Technologies + +Vermeer Technologies Inc. – firma produkująca oprogramowanie z siedzibą w Cambridge w Massachusetts, USA, która w 1995 r. była twórcą pierwszej wersji graficznego edytora stron internetowych, FrontPage. +16 stycznia 1996 r. firma został zakupiona przez Microsoft, a FrontPage stał się kluczowym komponentem nowej strategii Microsoftu polegającej na budowie pełnego systemu narzędzi do publikowania dokumentów HTML w Internecie i w firmowych intranetach. +Karol Szwedowski + +Karol Szwedowski, herbu Ślepowron (ur. w 1889 w Chrząstowie, zm. 30 sierpnia 1941 w Legionowie) – dyplomowany mistrz budowlany, obrońca Westerplatte. +Życiorys. +Był synem Jacentego i Józefy. Pracując na budowach, uczył się murarstwa, ciesielstwa i zduństwa. 13 grudnia 1927, mając 38 lat, uzyskał dyplom mistrza budowlanego i został przyjęty do Cechu Rzemiosł miasta Pułtuska. +4 kwietnia 1934 przyjechał z Legionowa do Gdańska i został zatrudniony jako pracownik kontraktowy w Wojskowej Składnicy Tranzytowej na Westerplatte. Do 1939 prowadził w niej prace sezonowe, wykonując m.in. krycie dachu magazynu mundurowego oraz nad kaplicą w domu kuracyjnym, przebudowę piwnicy w kasynie podoficerskim i piec grzewczy w pralni. +W czasie obrony Westerplatte przyjął na siebie obowiązki sanitariusza i udzielał pomocy rannym w walce żołnierzom. Po kapitulacji WST został aresztowany przez Niemców i osadzony w obozie koncentracyjnym Stutthof. Następnie wywieziono go w głąb Niemiec do obozu KL Buchenwald, skąd został wyprowadzony przez polskie ugrupowanie konspiracyjne (w uratowaniu pomogła mu także znajomość języka niemieckiego). +W trzy dni po powrocie Karola Szwedowskiego do Legionowa jego syn, Karol, został został aresztowany w łapance i następnie wywieziony do KL Auschwitz, gdzie zginął. +Coda. +Wg świadectwa śmierci wydanego na zasadzie ksiąg metrykalnych z 30 sierpnia 1941 w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie w Legionowie (nr akt 105, rok 1941): "Karol Szwedowski mając 52 lata, s. Jacentego i Józefy umarł w Legionowie na Bukowcu z wycieńczenia po przebytych obozach, dnia 30 sierpnia 1941 r." +Rodzina. +Karol Szwedowski był żonaty i miał pięcioro dzieci. Córki – Irena i Maria oraz syn – Józef przeżyli wojnę. Ryszard został rozstrzelany przez hitlerowców 26 lutego 1940 w Palmirach, a Karol (junior) został zamordowany w Auschwitz. +Książka i film. +Wiele wzmianek o pomocy Karola Szwedowskiego walczącym żołnierzom zawiera książka pt. "Westerplatte" (opublikowana przez Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej w 1978). Jego dzielna postawa została także ukazana w filmie fabularnym zatytułowanym tak samo jak książka. W owym obrazie, wyreżyserowanym przez Stanisława Różewicza, rolę Karola Szwedowskiego zagrał Bolesław Płotnicki. +Rzepka + +Rzepka (łac. "patella") - płaska, trójkątna kość współtworząca staw kolanowy. Wierzchołek (apex patellae) tej kości skierowany jest ku dołowi, a podstawa (basis patellae) ku górze. Na powierzchni tylnej mieści się dwudzielna powierzchnia stawowa. Powierzchnia przednia rzepki zrasta się ze ścięgnem mięśnia czworogłowego. Rzepka jest największą trzeszczką ciała. +Goliath (mina) + +Goliat (niem. "Leichter Ladungsträger Sd.Kfz.302, 303, Goliath") – niemiecki lekki nosiciel ładunków wybuchowych, zdalnie sterowana mina samobieżna zdolna do przenoszenia od 75 do 100 kg materiału wybuchowego, stosowana do precyzyjnego niszczenia wrogich umocnień podczas II wojny światowej. +Historia. +W czerwcu 1940 roku, po zajęciu Francji, w ręce Niemców dostał się zatopiony w Sekwanie prototyp miniaturowego pojazdu gąsienicowego dzieła Adolphe'a Kegresse'a. Na jego podstawie w zakładach Borgwarda w Bremie powstała podobna konstrukcja przeznaczona dla Wehrmachtu. W kwietniu 1942 roku wyprodukowano pierwszych 15 egzemplarzy, a później wykonywano od 100 do 200 pojazdów miesięcznie. +Opis. +Był to lekko opancerzony (przed ogniem karabinowym) pojazd gąsienicowy napędzany silnikiem elektrycznym (SdKfz.302). Późniejsze wersje zostały wyposażone w tańsze i mniej zawodne silniki spalinowe (SdKfz.303). W przedniej części pojazdu znajdował się ładunek wybuchowy, w środkowej napęd, a z tyłu bęben z trójżyłowym kablem telefonicznym, za pomocą którego sterowano pojazdem oraz detonowano go. Były też wersje sterowane radiowo. Na linię walk mina mogła być dostarczona na specjalnym wózku ciągniętym przez żołnierzy. +Zastosowanie. +Goliaty były wykorzystywane przez armię niemiecką dosyć rzadko, m.in. w trakcie oblężenia Sewastopola, w walkach pod Anzio oraz podczas powstania warszawskiego. W dość efektywny sposób użyto ich podczas obrony Wrocławia w 1945 roku. Mała popularność tej broni wynikała z faktu, iż była ona bardzo kosztowna w produkcji, zważywszy na jednorazowe zastosowanie, oraz dość łatwa do unieszkodliwienia poprzez przecięcie kabla ogniem karabinowym, granatem lub bezpośrednio siekierą lub saperką. Stąd wiele tych pojazdów wpadało w ręce wroga lub, z powodu ich unieruchomienia, zostało zniszczonych przez samych Niemców. +W 1945 roku w magazynach niemieckich było wciąż ponad 2,5 tys. sztuk tej broni. W sumie do końca wojny wyprodukowano 2650 Goliathów o napędzie elektrycznym i 5079 o napędzie spalinowym. +Piotr Fijas + +Piotr Władysław Fijas (ur. 27 czerwca 1958 w Bielsku-Białej) – polski skoczek narciarski, reprezentant Polski, trzykrotny zwycięzca zawodów Pucharu Świata, trzykrotny olimpijczyk, trener, starszy brat Tadeusza Fijasa. +W Pucharze Świata zadebiutował 30 grudnia 1979 w Oberstdorfie, gdzie zajął 27. miejsce. Pierwsze punkty zdobył 1 stycznia 1980 w Garmisch-Partenkirchen za zajęcie 14. miejsca. Po raz pierwszy na podium PŚ stanął 6 stycznia 1980 w Bischofshofen, pierwszy raz zwyciężył 27 stycznia tego samego roku w Zakopanem. +Dziesięciokrotnie stawał na podium zawodów Pucharu Świata, w tym trzy razy na najwyższym stopniu (wśród polskich skoczków ustępuje w tej klasyfikacji tylko Adamowi Małyszowi i Kamilowi Stochowi), punktował zaś 47 razy – wedle stosowanej obecnie skali zdobyłby 1920 punktów. Jest byłym nieoficjalnym rekordzistą świata w długości skoku. Od rekordu Mattiego Nykänena z 1985 kolejne "rekordy" mają, nadawany przez FIS, status nieoficjalnych jako "najlepsze wyniki na świecie". +W czasie trwania swojej kariery był najwyższym skoczkiem na świecie. +Fijas jest zdobywcą siedemnastu medali na zimowych mistrzostwach Polski, w tym trzynastu złotych. Jest mężem Heleny, z d. Marek, którą poślubił 25 lipca 1981. Ma z nią dwoje dzieci. Mieszkają w Szczyrku. Z zawodu jest elektromonterem. +Został odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (2002). +Przebieg kariery zawodniczej. +Piotr Fijas wychował się w Buczkowicach. Jest synem Adama i Genowefy z d. Waluś i absolwentem zasadniczej szkoły zawodowej. Uprawiać sport, wraz z bratem Tadeuszem, rozpoczął w latach 60.. Jego ojciec, Adam, znał byłych polskich skoczków, a już wtedy szkoleniowców: Jakuba Węgrzynkiewicza i Józefa Przybyłę. Zapisał synów do klubu BBTS Bielsko-Biała, gdzie uczyli się jeździć, a potem skakać na nartach. +W 1976 przed zimowymi igrzyskami olimpijskimi w Innsbrucku, jako 18-letni junior, został dołączony do kadry narodowej. Nie udało mu się jednak pojechać na igrzyska ze względu na silną konkurencję w zespole, do którego należeli Wojciech Fortuna, Stanisław Bobak, Stanisław Gąsienica-Daniel, Adam Krzysztofiak i Tadeusz Pawlusiak. W tym samym roku Fijas zachorował na żółtaczkę i musiał przerwać treningi. W 1977 rozpoczął służbę wojskową, którą odbywał w Modlinie i w Zakopanem. Wznowił treningi w 1978, kiedy trafił do klubu WKS Legia Zakopane. Jego trenerem był Jan Furman, który prowadził wówczas także Bobaka. +1977/1978. +Pierwszą ważną dla Fijasa imprezą międzynarodową były mistrzostwa świata w fińskim Lahti w 1978, gdzie na dużej skoczni był 14., a na średniej 47. Trenerem kadry był wtedy Tadeusz Kołder. Po zawodach w Lahti wygrał konkurs na małej skoczni w szwedzkim Falun, a na dużej był 5. +1978/1979. +W 1978 debiutował w Turnieju Czterech Skoczni, w którym zajął 10. miejsce. W Oberstdorfie był 38., w Garmisch-Partenkirchen 17., w Innsbrucku 12., a w Bischofshofen stanął na najniższym stopniu podium, po dwóch skokach na 104,0 m. +W marcu 1979 pojechał na zawody przyjaźni "Oberhofspiele" do Oberhofu (NRD) w zamian za mistrzostwa świata w lotach w Planicy, które nie zyskały aprobaty finansowej PZN. Kołder podjął samodzielną decyzję o wyjeździe do Jugosławii na koszt Centralnego Ośrodka Sportu. Na mistrzostwach w seriach sobotnich Fijas uzyskał 149,0 m i 166,0 m. Ta druga odległość była nowym rekordem Polski. Następnego dnia skoczył 152,0 m i 162,0 m i zdobył brązowy medal, jak dotąd jedyny wywalczony przez polskich skoczków w historii tej imprezy. +W 1979 Fijas zdobył pierwszy w swej karierze złoty medal MP, a także wygrał zawody o Puchar Tatr. +1979/1980. +Od tego sezonu FIS zaczął organizować zawody o Puchar Świata. Fijas w cyklu TCS zajmował kolejno 27., 14., 15. i 3. lokatę. Podium w Bischofshofen, było pierwszym w PŚ, na którym stanął skoczek z Polski. Fijas uzyskał wtedy odległości 98,5 m i 101,5 m. W klasyfikacji generalnej turnieju był 8. +27 stycznia 1980 wygrał konkurs PŚ na Wielkiej Krokwi w Zakopanem. Warunki atmosferyczne były bardzo dobre, co przyciągnęło wielu kibiców. Dzień wcześniej był 11. na Średniej Krokwi. Za zwycięstwo w nagrodę dostał kożuch. Uzyskał odległości 113 m i 113,5 m. Na drugim miejscu uplasował się Stanisław Bobak. 9 lutego w Saint-Nizier Fijas wygrał po raz drugi w karierze, wyprzedzając Hansa Wallnera i Bobaka, po skokach na 99 m i 101 m. +Na olimpiadzie rozgrywanej w amerykańskim Lake Placid na skoczni normalnej był 47. Skoczył wtedy 79,5 m i 59,5 m. Na skoczni dużej upadł po wylądowaniu i zajął 14. pozycję, po skokach na 107,0 m i 101,0 m. +Podczas konkursu PŚ w lotach w Vikersund zerwał więzadła przyśrodkowe. Treningi wznowił dopiero jesienią. W końcowej klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata sezonu 1979/1980 zajął 16. pozycję, z 73 punktami. +Na MP wywalczył złoty i srebrny medal. +1980/1981. +Kolejny sezon rozpoczął od udziału w TCS, w którym zajął 35. miejsce. W Oberstdorfie był 40., w Ga-Pa 57. W części austriackiej turnieju uplasował się na 19. pozycji w Innsbrucku i 48. w Bischofshofen. +Pierwsze pucharowe punkty uzyskał w Engelbergu, gdzie był 14. Na MŚ w lotach w Oberstdorfie nie obronił pozycji medalowej sprzed dwóch lat i zajął 17. miejsce z łączną notą 877,5 pkt. W pierwszej piętnastce zawodów o PŚ znalazł się jeszcze w Lahti (był 14. i 11.), Bærum (9. miejsce) i w Planicy (8. pozycja). Poza czołową piętnastką znalazł się w Falun, gdzie był 20. i w Oslo, gdzie znalazł się na 18. pozycji. W klasyfikacji końcowej był 44., z 16. punktami w swoim dorobku. +Zdobył także srebrny medal mistrzostw Polski. +1981/1982. +W tym sezonie nie wziął udziału w Turnieju Czterech Skoczni, ze względu na stan wojenny w Polsce. +Do skakania powrócił w lutym. Pojechał na mistrzostwach świata w Oslo, gdzie był 19. i 29, a z drużyną 14. (oprócz niego skakali Stanisław Pawlusiak i Bogdan Zwijacz). +W PŚ punktował dwukrotnie – w Štrbskim Plesie, gdzie zajął 2. i 5. miejsce. W tym pierwszym konkursie lądował na 109 m i 106 m. W klasyfikacji końcowej uplasował się na 26. pozycji z 31 punktami. +Po raz trzeci w karierze został mistrzem Polski. +1982/1983. +W Turnieju Czterech Skoczni punktował dwa razy – w Oberstdorfie (9. lokata) i w Innsbrucku (14. miejsce). W Ga-Pa był 17., w Bischofshofen 32. Wyniki te dały mu 13. miejsce w turnieju z łączną notą 911,4 pkt. +Zawody z cyklu Pucharu Świata na skoczniach czechosłowackich – w Harrachovie i Libercu ukończył na 15. i 14. miejscu. +W tym pierwszym mieście, podczas mistrzostw świata w lotach, był 12. +Sezon 1982/1983 w PŚ ukończył na 43. pozycji. Łącznie zdobył 12 punktów. +Z mistrzostw kraju wrócił z dwoma medalami – złotym i srebrnym. +1983/1984. +Ten sezon PŚ był dla Fijasa lepszy niż poprzedni. Pierwsze punkty zdobył w konkursie w Thunder Bay, gdzie był 13. Potem, w Lake Placid, zamknął pierwszą dziesiątkę. +W zawodach inagurujących Turniej Czterech Skoczni zajął 9. miejsce w Oberstdorfie po skokach na 103,0 m i 107,0 m. W następnych zawodach było już gorzej – uplasował się na 54. pozycji w Garmisch, 33. w Innsbrucku i 17. w Bischofshofen. Ostatecznie uplasował się na 29. lokacie w klasyfikacji. +W ostatnim konkursie PŚ przed olimpiadą, w którym punktował, w Libercu, był 4. +Na dziesięć dni przed startem w Sarajewie odnowiła mu się kontuzja nogi. Był zmuszony trzymać kończynę w w gipsie. Zdecydował się jednak wziąć udział w igrzyskach. Zajął tam 7. miejsce na normalnej skoczni (skoczył 87,0 m i 88,0 m) i 17. na dużej (osiągnął odległości 103,0 i 95,0 m). +W kończących sezon konkursach w jugosłowiańskiej Planicy zajął 11. i 3. miejsce skacząc 113 m i 107 m. Dzięki 57 punktom został sklasyfikowany na 17. miejscu w końcowym rankingu PŚ. +Dwukrotnie zdobył złoty medal mistrzostw Polski. +1984/1985. +33. Turniej Czterech Skoczni ukończył na 7. pozycji. W Oberstdorfie dzięki skokom na 114,0 m i 102,0 m był 9.. W Ga-Pa skoczył 99,0 m i 96,5 m zajął 7. miejsce. W Innsbrucku był 14., a w Bischofshofen stanął na najniższym stopniu podium. Uzyskał wtedy odległości 111,0 m i 106,0 m. +Na mistrzostwach świata w Seefeld zajął 22. i 19. miejsce. +W pierwszej piętnastce konkursu PŚ sklasyfikowany został jeszcze w Engelbergu, gdzie był 6., Harrachovie (12.), Lahti (4. i 11.) oraz w Štrbskim Plesie (ponownie 11.). W końcowej klasyfikacji generalnej PŚ był 14., z 69 zdobytymi punktami. +14. miejsce zajął również w Planicy podczas MŚ w lotach. +Zdobył ponadto dwa złote medale MP. +1985/1986. +W PŚ w Thunder Bay zajął 7. i 9. pozycję, w Lake Placid 11. i 8. +TCS rozpoczął od 3. lokaty w Oberstdorfie, po skokach na odległość 110,0 m i 114,0 m. Później uzyskał 9. pozycję w Ga-Pa, 28. w Innsbrucku i 9. w Bischofshofen. W klasyfikacji turnieju był znów 7. +Pierwszy konkurs tamtej edycji PŚ w Czechosłowacji, na obiekcie w Harrachovie ukończył na 12. miejscu. Drugi, rozgrywany 12 stycznia w Libercu na miejscu 1., co było jego trzecim zwycięstwem z zawodach pucharowych. Triumf dał mu skok na 114 m. Punktował jeszcze w Sapporo – 4. lokata i w Vikersund – 3. pozycja (w II serii na Vikersundbakken ustanowił rekord skoczni – 163,0 m, poza tym uzyskał 140 m i 144 m). W tym sezonie PŚ zdobył najwięcej punktów w karierze – 84., co dało mu 15. miejsce w końcowej klasyfikacji. +Na MŚ w lotach w Tauplitz był 10. W seriach niedzielnych tej imprezy osiągnął odległości 171,0 m i 172,0 m, a jego końcowa nota wyniosła 657,5 pkt. +Po raz kolejny dwukrotnie został złotym medalistą mistrzostw Polski. +1986/1987. +Wziął udział tylko w niemieckiej części TCS. W Oberstdorfie był 74., a w Garmisch-Partenkirchen 108. W rankingu generalnym zajął 115. miejsce. +Na mistrzostwach świata w Oberstdorfie uplasował się na 12. pozycji na skoczni dużej (skoczył 103,5 m i 113,5 m) z notą 196,8 m i 34. na skoczni normalnej (łączna punktacja wyniosła 194,0 m). W konkursie drużynowym reprezentację Polski sklasyfikowano na 13. miejscu. +Po powrocie z mistrzostw wystartował jeszcze w zawodach PŚ w Planicy. W pierwszym konkursie był 7. Następnego dnia, 15 marca 1987, na Velikance ustanowił rekord świata w długości skoku – skoczył 194 m. Rezultat ten nie został pobity przez następne siedem lat. Jest to zarazem do dziś najdłuższy skok w historii tej dyscypliny oddany w stylu klasycznym. Skok nie został zaliczony do konkursowej noty Fijasa, ponieważ jury postanowiło anulować drugą serię. Rywalizację w tamtym konkursie ukończył na najniższym stopniu podium – ostatnim podium w konkursie PŚ w karierze. W klasyfikacji generalnej cyklu był 31. z 24 zdobytymi punktami. +Wywalczył także dwa kolejne złote medale MP. +1987/1988. +W tym sezonie pucharowe punkty uzyskał tylko w zawodach w Innsbrucku, gdzie był 8., skacząc 95,0 m i 99,0 m. Wcześniej, w Oberstdorfie zajął 54. miejsce, w Ga-Pa 28., a w ostatnim konkursie, w Bischofshofen, także 28. W klasyfikacji turnieju był ostatecznie 29., a w klasyfikacji PŚ – 55. (8 punktów). +Na igrzyskach w Calgary uplasował się na 10. pozycji na skoczni normalnej – skoczył wówczas 84,5 m i 80,0 m. Na dużym obiekcie był na 13. miejscu, po skokach na 107,5 m i 102,0 m. +Mistrzostwa świata w lotach w Oberstdorfie ukończył na 7. miejscu, z notą 334,0 m, ex eaquo z Jon Inge Kjørumem i Wernerem Schusterem. Rozegrano tylko dwie serie, w których Fijas lądował na 169,0 m i 163,0 m. +Na mistrzostwach Polski zdobył złoty i srebrny medal. +Po zakończeniu kariery zawodniczej. +Po odniesieniu poważnej kontuzji zerwania ścięgna, w sezonie 1988/89, zakończył karierę sportową. Został rencistą, a Polski Związek Narciarski przedłużył mu stypendium o rok. Pracował w klubie w brygadzie remontowo-budowlanej. Ukończył kurs instruktora skoków narciarskich i kurs obsługi maszyn do ubijania śniegu. Pracował też na wyciągu. Przez pewien czas prowadził prywatną firmę budowlaną. Podczas ceremonii otwarcia IX Zimowego Europejskiego Festiwalu Młodzieży "Śląsk-Beskidy 2009" zapalił znicz olimpijski. +Przebieg kariery trenerskiej. +1995-1999. +W 1995 rozpoczął współpracę z czeskim trenerem reprezentacji polskich skoczków, Pavlem Mikeską, w ramach tzw. "grupy olimpijskiej", która miała na celu zwiększenie poziomu prezentowanego przez polską kadrę. Należeli do niej wówczas Robert Mateja, Wojciech Skupień, Adam Małysz i Łukasz Kruczek. Po odejściu Mikeski od 10 stycznia do 30 kwietnia 1999 pełnił obowiązki pierwszego trenera. +1999-2004. +Od 1 czerwca 1999 do 30 kwietnia 2004 współpracował z Apoloniuszem Tajnerem jako drugi trener reprezentacji narodowej. Ponadto wykonywał obowiązki operatora filmowego, rejestrując na taśmie dla potrzeb szkoleniowych skoki Polaków i ich rywali. +Na ten okres przypadł czas największych sukcesów Adama Małysza takich jak zdobycie trzech Kryształowych Kul, a także medali mistrzostw świata i igrzysk olimpijskich. +2004-2006. +Przed sezonem 2004/2005 został trenerem kadry C, szkoląc wtedy między innymi Piotra Żyłę i Rafała Śliża. W kolejnym sezonie kadra nosiła miano "młodzieżowej". Fijas był także trenerem polskiej reprezentacji na Mistrzostwach Świata Juniorów 2006 w Kranju. Najlepiej z jego podopiecznych skakał Łukasz Rutkowski, który na skoczni Bauhenk zajął 4. miejsce. W konkursie drużynowym Polska uplasowała się na 7. pozycji. +2006-2012. +W sezonie 2006/2007 był pierwszym trenerem kadry B (od sezonu 2008/09 młodzieżowej), a od 2007 asystentem Adama Celeja. +Od sezonu 2009/2010 do 2011/2012 był asystentem Łukasza Kruczka, pierwszego trenera polskiej reprezentacji A. +2012/2013. +Fijas został szkoleniowcem trzeciej podgrupy kadry A Reprezentacja Polski w sezonie 2012/2013. Do tejże podgrupy, mającej trenować w kraju przydzielono Jana Ziobrę, Andrzeja Zapotocznego, Jakuba Kota i Łukasza Rutowskiego. +Wybory prezydenckie w Autonomii Palestyńskiej w 2005 roku + +Wybory prezydenckie w Autonomii Palestyńskiej 2005, pierwsze wybory prezydenckie odbyły się 9 stycznia 2005 roku na terenie Zachodniego Brzegu Jordanu i Strefy Gazy. Rozpisano je po śmierci prezydenta Palestyny Jasera Arafata. +Dziesięciu kandydatów zarejestrowało się w Palestyńskim Centralnym Komitecie Wyborczym. Wszyscy pochodzą z Zachodniego Brzegu Jordanu. Wybory zostały zbojkotowane przez palestyńskie organizacje Hamas oraz Islamski Dżihad. +Przewodniczący Komisji Europejskiej + +Przewodniczący Komisji Europejskiej - najważniejsze stanowisko Unii Europejskiej. Nominuje on komisarzy spośród członków Komisji, może też w razie potrzeby ich przenosić bądź zwalniać. Determinuje porządek obrad KE, tylko on jest również upoważniony do zgłoszenia nowego prawa wspólnotowego. +Stanowisko to powstało w roku 1957 na mocy traktatów rzymskich. Obecne prawo przewiduje pięcioletnią kadencję z możliwością jednorazowego powtórzenia. Aktualnym (jedenastym) przewodniczącym jest José Manuel Barroso, członek Europejskiej Partii Ludowej i były premier Portugalii. Przejął władzę w październiku 2004, prawdopodobnie będzie kandydował w kolejnych wyborach szefa KE. +Jak dotąd przewodniczącymi byli: Niemiec, Belg, dwóch Włochów, Holender, dwóch Francuzów, Brytyjczyk, dwóch Luksemburczyków, Hiszpan i Portugalczyk. Nigdy funkcji tej nie pełniła kobieta. +Historia. +Początki. +Odpowiednikiem Komisji Europejskiej w Europejskiej Wspólnocie Węgla i Stali była tak zwana Wysoka Władza, którą powołano za sprawą traktatów paryskich w 1951. W 1957, gdy podpisano traktaty rzymskie, ustanowiono KE (choć nazwa ta przyjęła się dopiero po powstaniu Unii Europejskiej). Przejęła ona część uprawnień Wysokiej Władzy i Komisji Euratomu (które to ostatecznie zlikwidowano w 1967). Pierwszym przewodniczącym nowego ciała ustawodawczego został Niemiec Walter Hallstein, który od początku skupił swoje wysiłki na podporządkowaniu się kodeksów prawa państw członkowskich prawodawstwu EWG. Z początku nie odnosił zbyt wielu sukcesów, dopiero z czasem, dzięki pomocy Trybunału Sprawiedliwości, lokalne rządy zaczęły traktować Komisję poważniej. +Lista przewodniczących. +     ] tendencje lewicowe (np. PES) - [     ] tendencje liberalne (np. ELDR) - [     ] tendencje prawicowe (np. CD/EPP) +Pielęgnowanie + +Pielęgnowanie - zespół czynności wchodzących w proces pielęgnowania chorych lub postępowania w zakresie ochrony zdrowia ludności. Specjalną rolą osoby pielęgnującej jest pomagać człowiekowi choremu lub zdrowemu w czynnościach mających na celu zapewnienie pełnego zdrowia lub powrotu do niego. +"Pielęgnowanie to pomaganie człowiekowi, aby mógł żyć lepiej i zachować zdrowie, a w chorobie przyczyniać się do tego żeby proces zdrowienia przebiegał jak najkorzystniej. Pielęgnowanie winno służyć także ludziom umierającym." (Florence Nightingale) +"Pielęgnowanie to aktywność, którą ludzie inicjują i realizują osobiście w stosunku do siebie samych, aby otrzymać zdrowie i życie, oraz zapewnić sobie dobre samopoczucie." (Dorothea Orem) +"Pielęgnowanie to asystowanie człowiekowi, które zmierzać będzie do osiągnięcia przez niego optimum funkcjonowania w różnych stanach zdrowia." (WHO) +"Pielęgnować: poznawać, chronić, wydobywać siły, nieść bezinteresowną pomoc w bezradności i cierpieniu." (Helena Radlińska) +Zobacz też: pielęgniarz, Florence Nightingale, model pielęgnowania, teoria pielęgniarstwa +Korzkiew + +Korzkiew – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie krakowskim, w gminie Zielonki, 12 km na północ od Krakowa. Przez wieś przepływa Potok Korzkiewski zwany też Korzkiewką. We wsi znajduje się kościół parafialny pw. Narodzenia św. Jana Chrzciciela oraz parafialny cmentarz grzebalny. +Historia. +Historia wsi związana jest bezpośrednio z historią zamku w Korzkwi. Prawdopodobnie powstała jako tzw. osada służebna. W XIX wieku Korzkiew zamieszkiwali głównie fornale dworscy, kilku włościan i komorników, była również czynna karczma (z browarem). +W 1352 r. Jan herbu Syrokomla kupił wzgórze Korzkiew, gdzie wybudował zamek, który pełnił funkcję obronną i mieszkalną rodu Zaklików do II połowy XV w. Kolejnymi właścicielami byli: Szczepan Świętopełk z Irządz, kupiec Piotr Krupka, rodzina Zborowskich i Ługowskich. Pod koniec XV w. oraz 1720 r. (właścicielami byli wówczas Jordanowie), budowla została przebudowana. Zamek znajdował się następnie w rękach Wesslów i Wodzickich, a pod koniec XIX wieku popadł w ruinę. Od 1997 roku zamek jest stale zamieszkany przez jego właścicieli – rodzinę Donimirskich (architekt Jerzy Donimirski z żoną i dziećmi), który podjęli się odnowienia i odbudowania zamku. Obecnie ciągle trwają prace budowlane polegające na konserwacji i rekonstrukcji. Zagospodarowywane jest również całe wzgórze zamkowe, a również podnóże warowni. Planowana jest także odbudowa mieszczącego się dawniej w pobliżu zamku dworu, odtworzenie stawów oraz stworzenie małego muzeum i skansenu. +W 1623 r. Aleksander Ługowski ufundował budowę barokowego kościoła pod wezwaniem św. Jana Chrzciciela, który stoi do dziś. +Powstał on na miesjcu starego drewnianego kościoła, wzniesionego w 2. połowie XIV w. +W Królestwie Polskim istniała gmina Korzkiew. +Obecnie w granicach Korzkwi znajduje się Nowa Wieś, niegdyś będąca odrębną wsią, obecnie jako przysiółek utrwalony w topografii i w pamięci starszych mieszkańców. +31 października 2011 na miejscowym cmentarzu został pochowany Tadeusz Broś – polski dziennikarz telewizyjny, aktor, reżyser i prezenter. +Sól AH + +Sól AH (inna nazwa heksasól) – organiczna sól, w której funkcję kationu pełni heksa-1,6-diamina a anionu – kwas adypinowy (1,6-heksadikarboksylowy). Sól ta ma kluczowe znaczenie przy przemysłowym otrzymywaniu jednego z rodzajów nylonu – poliamidu 6-6. +Sól AH została wynaleziona przez W. Carothersa, w ramach badań nad produkcją nylonu. +Jej znaczenie wynika z faktu, że w reakcjach polimeryzacji stopniowej kluczowe znaczenie ma stosowanie dokładnie równomolowej mieszaniny monomerów, gdyż zgodnie z równaniem Carothersa wysokie masy cząsteczkowe polimerów można uzyskać przy bardzo wysokim stopniu przereagowania grup funkcyjnych, wchodzących do reakcji monomerów. +Ruse + +Ruse (bułg. "Русе") – miasto leżące w północno-wschodniej Bułgarii, nad rzeką Dunaj, piąte pod względem liczby mieszkańców w kraju, liczące 177,5 tys. mieszkańców (2005 r.). Stolica obwodu Ruse i gminy Ruse. +Największy bułgarski port rzeczny na Dunaju, przez który przechodzi znaczna część bułgarskiego eksportu. Jest to także ważny węzeł komunikacyjny, ponieważ poprzez Most Przyjaźni możliwe są połączenia kołowe i kolejowe z Rumunią. Rozwinięty przemysł środków transportu (budowa statków, taboru kolejowego), maszynowy (m.in. obrabiarki, maszyny rolnicze), metalowy, spożywczy (m.in. przetwórstwo owoców i warzyw, winiarstwo, przemysł cukrowniczy, tytoniowy, młynarski), włókienniczy (bawełniany i jedwabniczy), chemiczny, rafinacja ropy naftowej; poza tym przemysł skórzano-obuwniczy, drzewny, gumowy. Ruch lotniczy obsługuje port lotniczy Ruse. +Miasto jest znane ze swojej XIX i XX-wiecznej architektury. +Historia. +Początki miasta sięgają czasów rzymskich. Prawdopodobnie już za czasów imperatora Wespazjana (69-79 r. n.e.) powstały umocnienia i port Seksaginta Prista (co może oznaczać miasto 60 statków). W końcu VI w. Słowianie i Awarowie zniszczyli twierdzę. Od IX w. w tym miejscu najpierw powstała średniowieczna osada bułgarska Ruse, a potem twierdza. Po chrystianizacji Bułgarii miasto dostało nazwę Giurgevgrad i rozwijało się dobrze ze względu na obecność portu. +Od XVI w. (od czasów niewoli tureckiej) miasto zmieniło nazwę na Rusczuk – miało tu miejsce dowództwo tureckiej floty dunajskiej. Od XIX w., ze względu na swoje położenie nad Dunajem i bliskość Bukaresztu, do miasta szybko przenikała nowoczesna cywilizacja. Tu powstała pierwsza w Bułgarii linia i stacja kolejowa, a także nowoczesna drukarnia. Jako jedno z głównych miast Imperium osmańskiego Ruse przyciągało wiele postaci bułgarskiego odrodzenia. +Powstał ruseński komitet rewolucyjny, który w 1874 r. stał się centralnym komitetem krajowym. Działalność miała na celu wyzwolenie Bułgarii spod zaboru tureckiego – stało się to w lutym 1878 r., kiedy rosyjskie wojska pod dowództwem gen. Totlebena wkroczyły do miasta. Przed i po wyzwoleniu powstało wiele fabryk (stocznia, garbarnia, browar i inne). W 1890 r. było już 14 fabryk, a w 1907 r. powstała największa w Bułgarii fabryka produkująca maszyny. W okresie międzywojennym miasto dotknął ogólnoświatowy kryzys gospodarczy – wiele firm i banków upadło lub wycofało się. +Po II wojnie światowej Bułgarii został narzucony sowiecki model ekonomiczny – rozpoczęła się nacjonalizacja i industrializacja. W ciągu kilku dziesięcioleci miasto stało się jednym z większych ośrodków przemysłowych w kraju. W 1954 r. został wybudowany most na Dunaju łączący Bułgarię i Rumunię (miasto Giurgiu) (most "Przyjaźni"), a potem 2 stacje kolejowe, lotnisko. W 1949 powstała opera, w 1959 filharmonia. Miasto gości na stałe wiele międzynarodowych festiwali muzycznych. Od 1946 istnieje wyższa uczelnia – obecnie Ruseński Uniwersytet. W 1976 wybudowano najwyższą na Bałkanach wieżę telewizyjną (201 m). +W Ruse urodził się laureat literackiej nagrody Nobla Elias Canetti. +1 stycznia 2007 w Ruse uroczyście zniesiono granicę między Bułgarią i Rumunią, będącymi od północy członkami UE. +Barometr hydrostatyczny + +Barometr hydrostatyczny – przyrząd do pomiaru ciśnienia atmosferycznego przy wykorzystaniu zjawiska próżni Torricellego. Określany jest także mianem barometru rtęciowego. Ma postać zamkniętej z jednej strony szklanej rurki o długości około 900 mm i średnicy około 10 mm wypełnionej cieczą roboczą, którą z racji dużej gęstości jest rtęć. W zamkniętej przestrzeni rurki ponad rtęcią jest próżnia. Ciśnienie atmosferyczne działające na rtęć poprzez otwarty koniec rurki powoduje jej przemieszczanie w górę lub w dół - zmianę wysokości słupa rtęci. Przykład: gdy ciśnienie atmosferyczne wzrasta powoduje podnoszenie się poziomu rtęci, co jest odczytywane jako zmiana dodatnia ciśnienia na skali w mm słupa rtęci (mm Hg) lub hektopaskalach (hPa). +Występują barometry hydrostatyczne naczyniowe (a) i lewarowe (b). +Pierwszy barometr rtęciowy zbudował Evangelista Torricelli. +Miąższość + +Miąższość – grubość warstwy (np. skalnej), kompleksu warstw lub innych struktur geologicznych, mierzona pomiędzy stropem a spągiem. +Rozróżnia się miąższość rzeczywistą i miąższość pozorną. +Miąższość rzeczywista to, mierzona w kierunku prostopadłym, najkrótsza odległość między stropem i spągiem warstwy. Miąższość pozorna to każda odległość między stropem i spągiem warstwy nie mierzona w kierunku prostopadłym. Miąższość pozorna jest zawsze większa od miąższości rzeczywistej. +Irina Słucka + +Irina Słucka (ros. "Ирина Слуцкая", ur. 9 lutego 1979 w Moskwie) – rosyjska łyżwiarka figurowa, dwukrotna medalistka olimpijska, dwukrotna mistrzyni świata, siedmiokrotna mistrzyni Europy. +Osiągnięcia. +Słucka wprowadziła do zawodów łyżwiarskich podwójny piruet Biellmann ze zmianą nogi. Podczas zawodów w 2000 jako pierwsza zawodniczka w historii wykonała kombinację potrójnego lutza z potrójnym rittbergerem, a rok później – kombinację potrójnego lutza z potrójnym toeloopem. +Wraz z Jewgenijem Pluszczenką prowadziła pierwszą edycję rosyjskiego programu "Gwiazdy na lodzie". +15 listopada 2007 w Moskwie urodziła syna Artyoma. +Rustamidzi + +Rustamidzi – imamowie i władcy środkowego Maghrebu w VIII – X wieku będący ibadytami. Ostatecznie ich państwo zostało zniszczone przez Fatymidów w 909 roku. +Niedan + +Niedan – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-dan" ("dany"). Być może powstało przez negację imion z członem "-dan" (takich, jak "Bogodan"). +Chlorek nitrozylu + +Obecność chlorku nitrozylu w wodzie królewskiej po raz pierwszy opisał Edmund Davy w roku 1830. +Promotor genu + +Promotor – odcinek DNA, położony zazwyczaj powyżej sekwencji kodującej genu, który zawiera sekwencje rozpoznawane przez polimerazę RNA zależną od DNA. Po połączeniu się polimerazy RNA z promotorem rozpoczyna się transkrypcja (proces przepisywania informacji genetycznej z DNA na RNA). Promotory eukariotyczne zawierają także sekwencje rozpoznawane przez czynniki transkrypcyjne, które wiążąc się z DNA umożliwiają związanie się polimerazy RNA z nicią DNA i rozpoczęcie transkrypcji. Promotor może mieć długość od kilkudziesięciu do kilkuset nukleotydów. +Promotor prokariotyczny. +U organizmów prokariotycznych promotor składa się z dwóch sekwencji położonych 10 (pozycja -10) i 35 (pozycja -35) nukleotydów przed miejscem inicjacji transkrypcji (pozycja +1). Sekwencja położona w pozycji -10 to sekwencja TATA, zwana też ramką Pribnowa, która jest niezbędna do rozpoczęcia transkrypcji u prokariotów. +Promotor eukariotyczny. +Promotory organizmów eukariotycznych są znacznie bardziej zróżnicowane. Należące do nich elementy regulacyjne mogą się znajdować nawet kilka tysięcy par zasad od miejsca startu transkrypcji. Zwykle w promotorach eukariotycznych można wyróżnić promotor minimalny (położony kilkadziesiąt par zasad od miejsca startu transkrypcji), promotor bliższy oraz promotor dalszy. +Ponadto na transkrypcję mogą wpływać elementy położone poza promotorem, w dużej odległości od genu (enhancery i silencery). Ich wpływ jest niezależny od tego, czy położone są poniżej, czy powyżej sekwencji kodującej. +Minimalny promotor (ang. "core promoter") organizmów eukariotycznych zawiera miejsce startu transkrypcji i miejsce wiązania kompleksu preinicjacyjnego, w którego skład wchodzą ogólne czynniki transkrypcyjne i polimeraza RNA. Zaczyna sie od ok. -35 par zasad od miejsca startu transkrypcji. +Bliższy promotor ("proximal promoter"), obejmujący obszar od -250 par zasad od miejsca startu transkrypcji, zawiera sekwencje rozpoznawane przez indukowalne czynniki transkrypcyjne. +Dalszy promotor ("distal promoter") obejmuje bardziej oddalone od genu sekwencje zawierające dodatkowe elementy regulatorowe (miejsca wiązania specyficznych czynników transkrypcyjnych). +Language negotiation + +Language negotiation - cecha protokołu HTTP umożliwiająca serwerowi określenie w jakim języku użytkownik preferuje czytać stronę. +W tym celu używany jest nagłówek HTTP Accept-Language, po którym wypisane są akceptowane języki oddzielone przecinkiem, wraz z ich ewentualnym "stopniem pożądania". +informuje serwer, że najbardziej pożądana jest wersja polska, następnie angielska (USA), a na końcu angielska. +Pliska + +Pliska (bułg. "Плиска") – niewielkie (ok. 1 062 mieszkańców) miasteczko w północno-wschodniej Bułgarii, w okolicach Szumenu. +Stanowisko archeologiczne. +Niedaleko współczesnych zabudowań wsi Adoba istnieją pozostałości średniowiecznej stolicy chanów protobułgarskich, z zachowanymi fundamentami monumentalnych budynków z VII-IX w.. Miasto razem z przyległym podgrodziem zajmowało obszar o powierzchni 23 km² i kształcie wydłużonego, nieregularnego prostokąta. Do najważniejszych ruin budynków należą tzw. Wielki Pałac, mieszczący niegdyś salę tronową chanów protobułgarskich, Mały Pałac, stanowiący niegdyś prywatną rezydencję chanów, oraz tzw. Wielka Bazylika, ogromna trzynawowa świątynia o wymiarach 100 na 30 m, zbudowana przez księcia Borysa I po przyjęciu przez niego chrześcijaństwa w drugiej połowie IX w. +Ambiwalencja + +Ambiwalencja (intencjonalność dwuwartościowa) (łac. "ambo" - obaj + "valens, valentis" - mocny, skuteczny) – postawa, charakteryzująca się jednoczesnym występowaniem pozytywnego jak i negatywnego nastawienia do obiektu (np. ciekawość i strach dziecka wobec pojawiającej się w otoczeniu nowej osoby; jednoczesne uczucie miłości do rodzica oraz nienawiści za np. fizyczne znęcanie się), głoszeniem całkowicie sprzecznych stwierdzeń (ambisentencja) lub wykonywaniem sprzecznych ze sobą czynności (ambitendencja) bez świadomości ich sprzecznego charakteru. Stanowi jeden z głównych objawów dezintegracji psychicznej w schizofrenii. Termin wprowadził do psychiatrii Eugen Bleuler w 1911 roku. +Ofelia (księżyc) + +Ofelia (Uran VII) – jeden z księżyców Urana, odkryty w 1986 roku przez R. Terille’a, na podstawie zdjęć wykonanych przez sondę Voyager 2. Jego nazwa pochodzi od córki Poloniusza i narzeczonej tytułowego bohatera "Hamleta" Williama Shakespeare'a. +Ofelia jest zewnętrznym księżycem pasterskim utrzymującym w równowadze pierścień epsilon Urana. Krąży ruchem prostym wokół planety, po nieco eliptycznej orbicie. Okres obiegu Ofelii wokół Urana jest krótszy od okresu obrotu planety, dlatego siły pływowe powodują, że promień orbity satelity powoli się zmniejsza. +Niewsza + +Niewsza – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-wsza" ("wszędzie", "wszystek"). Mogło powstać przez negację imion z pierwszym członem "Wsze-". +Walentyn Egipcjanin + +Walentyn Egipcjanin (łac. "Valentinus") (ur. ok. 100 r. n.e. w Phrebonis w Górnym Egipcie – zm. po 160 w Rzymie albo na Cyprze) – chrześcijański gnostyk, eponimiczny twórca walentynianizmu. +Życiorys. +Urodzony w Górnym Egipcie Walentyn greckie wychowanie odebrał w Aleksandrii, gdzie też przyjął chrześcijaństwo, prawdopodobnie o zabarwieniu gnostyckim. Przez pewien czas uczył w tym mieście jako niezależny nauczyciel chrześcijański, zanim około roku 140 nie udał się do Rzymu. W mieście tym osiągnął spore sukcesy wśród miejscowej gminy chrześcijańskiej, według Tertuliana miał być nawet kandydatem na biskupa, ale ostatecznie musiał ustąpić na rzecz Piusa I. W późniejszym okresie Walentyn zerwał jednak z gminą rzymską, która uznała go za heretyka. Prawdopodobnie miał już on wtedy własną szkołę i kontynuował swoją działalność w Rzymie przez następnych około 20 lat. Według Epifaniusza za biskupa Aniceta (155-166) Walentyn miał opuścić Rzym i udać się na Cypr, co jednak wydaje się mało wiarygodne. Według P. Lampe Walentyn spokojnie nauczał w Rzymie, doniesienia Tertuliana nie mają historycznego charakteru, a ekskomunika jest nieprawdopodobna. +Nawet przeciwnicy przyznawali Walentynowi wielkie talenty duchowe i dar poetycki, co potwierdzają zachowane fragmenty jego pism, przede wszystkim kazania, homilie, psalmy oraz listy. Przypisuje mu się tylko jeden tytuł teologiczny, "O trzech naturach", w którym miał rozważać stosunek do siebie trzech hipostaz i osób Trójcy Świętej. Nie zachował on się. Walentyn miał twierdzić że jest uczniem niejakiego Teodora, ucznia Pawła, oraz powoływać się na boskie objawienie. Ze względu na zachowanie się jedynie szczątków jego spuścizny piśmienniczej oraz nietrzymanie się przez jego szkołę ścisłej litery nauk mistrza (co było charakterystyczne dla gnostyków) trudno jest zrekonstruować jego myśl. Jednakże do wspólnych twierdzeń wszystkich walentynian należą następujące wyobrażenia, zapewne charakterystyczne także dla samego Walentyna. Pleroma składa się z (co najmniej) 30 eonów, noszących różne nazwy i uporządkowanych w 15 par. Pierwszym z nich jest „otchłań” ("bythos") bądź „praojciec”, wierzchołek całego systemu, tworzący parę z „siłą myślową” ("ennoia"), nazywaną także „łaską” ("charis") i „milczeniem”. Ostatni eon to eon „mądrości” ("sofia"), który poprzez swoje „wścibstwo” i nieokiełznane dążenie do nieznanego ojca pleromy doprowadził do powstania świata, wywołana bowiem przez to „niewiedza” (czy „błąd”) spowodowała powstanie materialnej substancji. Celem przywrócenia zakłóconego spokoju w pleromie została stworzona nowa para eonów – „Chrystus” i „Duch Święty”. Ten pierwszy doprowadza do powrotu Sofii do pleromy, jednak jej „pragnienie” ("enthymesis") zostaje poza pleromą i staje się dolną Sofią, czy też „Achamaoth” (hebr. „mądrość”). Nie jest pewne czy ta duplikacja Sofii występowała już u samego Walentyna. Dla usunięcia cierpień tej niższej „mądrości” zostaje zrodzony Jezus, który dzięki „poznaniu” porządkuje jej namiętności, stające się z początku niematerialnymi elementami przyszłego stworzenia świata. Z przeżyć Sofii wyłaniają się następujące potencje bytowe: z namiętności materia, z „nawrócenia” czy „skruchy” dusza ("psyche"), z elementu wyłonionego po oczyszczeniu Sofii przez Jezusa duch ("pneuma"). Stąd charakterystyczny dla gnostyków podział ludzi na „materialnych” (tj. pogan), „psychicznych” (to jest nieświadomych chrześcijan) i posiadających właściwą prawdę „duchowych” (to jest gnostyków). Z substancji psychicznej Achamaoth tworzy stwórcę świata, który nie zdając sobie sprawy z istnienia pleromy uważa się za jedynego Boga (jest to odpowiednik Boga judaizmu i chrześcijaństwa). Przebywa on pomiędzy Achamaoth a stworzonym przez siebie, złożonym z rzeczy psychicznych i cielesnych światem. Człowiek u Walentyna jest tworem niższych istot anielskich, jednak dzięki zachowanemu przez siebie elementowi pleromy (powstał bowiem na wzór eonu „człowiek”) przewyższa swych stwórców i jest zdolny do wybawiającego z ziemskich więzów poznania. Zachowane źródła niewiele jednak pozwalają powiedzieć o tych kwestiach. +Jak pisze Kurt Rudolph „szkoła Walentyna należy do największych i najbardziej wpływowych szkół gnostyckich, jakie istniały przed powstaniem manicheizmu. O żadnej nie podaje się tak wiele informacji”. Uczniami Walentyna byli m.in. Ptolemeusz, Herakleon i Marek. Rozmaite szkoły walentyniańskie utrzymały się do końca IV wieku. +Niepełka + +Niepełka — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-pełka" ("pułk"). Być może oznaczało "tego, kto walczy samotnie" albo powstało przez negację imion z członem "-pełk" (takich, jak "Przedpełk" albo "Świętopełk"). +Niepełka imieniny obchodzi 4 czerwca. +Indukcjonizm + +Indukcjonizm – w nauce, prąd myślowy podkreślający znaczenie indukcji logicznej, czyli wywodzenia ogólnych praw natury z jednostkowych spostrzeżeń, obserwacji i eksperymentów. Przeciwieństwem indukcjonizmu jest dedukcjonizm. +Indukcjonizm – w metodologii stanowisko, zgodnie z którym rzeczywistą wartość poznawczą mają tylko twierdzenia ogólne sformułowane drogą indukcji, na podstawie obserwacji jednostkowych faktów, opisywanych przez tzw. zdania spostrzeżeniowe. +Bazylides (gnostyk) + +Bazylides (Bασιλίδης) (ur. ok. 85, zm. 145) — gnostyk, z pochodzenia Syryjczyk. +Życie. +Bazylides był prawdopodobnie uczniem Menandra, głównego przedstawiciela gnozy egipskiej (aleksandryjskiej); chrześcijanie określali go przydomkiem herezjarchy, arcykacerza. Nauczał w Aleksandrii w latach 130-140. Według "Acta archelai", zanim przybył do Aleksandrii, nauczał w Persji. Był płodnym pisarzem; do jego dzieł zalicza się "Psałterz", dwudziestoczterotomowy komentarz do Biblii zwany "Exegetica" oraz „pismo doktrynalne” znane jako "Evangelium". Prawie żaden z tych utworów nie zachował się w większych fragmentach. Jego następcą był jego syn i uczeń, Izydor. +Nauka. +Naukę Bazylidesa znamy dzięki ułomkom przechowanym w "Kobiercach" Klemensa Aleksandryjskiego oraz w streszczeniach Ireneusza z Lyonu, Hipolita i Tertuliana, a zatem z komentarzy jego wrogów. Bazylides stworzył swój system, łącząc różne przekazy judeochrześcijańskie, perskie i neoplatońskie – w ten sposób udało mu się nakreślić jednolity i zamknięty obraz świata. +Tertulian tak o nim pisze: "Później wystąpił Bazylides. Ten nauczał, że istnieje najwyższy Bóg, imieniem Abraksas. Z niego pochodzi stworzony Umysł, nazywany przez Greków "nous", od tego zaś pochodzi Słowo, z niego zaś Opatrzność, z Opatrzności Moc i Mądrość. Z tych zaś następnie pochodzą wladze i aniołowie, a następnie nieskończone ilości aniołów i emanacji. Za przyczyną aniołów, ustanowionych w 365 niebiosach, powstał świat ku czci Abraksasa" . +Jako zwolennik doketyzmu Bazylides twierdził, że Jezus Chrystus nie umarł na krzyżu, a ukrzyżowano zamiast niego Szymona z Cyreny, który pomagał nieść krzyż Chrystusowi. Twierdził również, że czyny człowieka nie wpływają na jego zbawienie. Założyciel sekty bazylidianów. +"Septem Sermones ad mortuos". +Bazylides pojawia się jako narrator utworu Carla Gustava Junga "Septem Sermones ad mortuos" - "Siedem mów do zmarłych" . +Piętnaście lat po powstaniu tego utworu, Jung usłyszał o możliwości pobierania nauk od nieżyjącego przewodnika duchowego. Od indyjskiego mędrca usłyszał, że ten za osobistego guru ma Adi Śankarę - wedantystę niezyjącego ponad tysiąc lat. Potwierdzenie to było dla Junga bardzo pokrzepiające . +Niemst + +Niemst, Niemsta, Niemszczon – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-mst" ("mścić"). Być może oznaczało "tego, kto poniechał zemsty" albo powstało przez negację imion z członem "-Mści-" (takich, jak "Mścigniew" albo "Mścibor"). +Świadomy sen + +Świadomy sen (ang. "Lucid Dream", w skrócie "LD") – sen, w którym śniący zdaje sobie sprawę, że śni. Dlatego klarowność myślenia, dostęp do wspomnień z jawy oraz świadomy wpływ na treść snu mogą być kontrolowane (aczkolwiek na różne sposoby – zależy to od poziomu zaawansowania osoby śniącej). Inne nazwy na świadomy sen to: sen jasny, sen przejrzysty, sen wiedzy. +Świadome sny mogą być wykorzystane w zwalczaniu koszmarów, jako narzędzie poznania swojej jaźni albo też dla rozrywki. W snach, gdzie śniący posiada odpowiednio wysoki poziom kontroli nad treścią marzenia sennego, można zrealizować każde swoje pragnienie. +Spontaniczne i chwilowe uzyskanie stanu świadomego snu może nastąpić bez żadnych wstępnych warunków. Szacuje się, że 20% populacji doświadczyło przynajmniej raz w życiu snu świadomego. Czasem samo czytanie czy rozmowa o tym zjawisku indukuje świadomy sen. Wiele technik medytacyjnych, kładących nacisk na rozwój wewnętrzny wspomina o możliwości utrzymania świadomości także we śnie. +Świadomego śnienia można się nauczyć. Dzięki specjalnym technikom śniąca osoba może zorientować się, iż otaczająca ją rzeczywistość jest wyimaginowana. Towarzyszy temu zazwyczaj niezwykły szok (niegroźny), który przeważnie prowadzi do ocknienia się lub tzw. fałszywego przebudzenia. +Niektóre substancje, także występujące naturalnie w rozmaitych ziołach, mogą ułatwiać osiągnięcie LD. Z kolei inne wręcz przeciwnie – leki typu SSRI, choć często wywołują nienormalne sny, według niektórych zaznajomionych z tematem utrudniały osiągnięcie świadomego snu. +Zagadnienie świadomego snu poruszone było także w literaturze ("Ptasiek" Williama Whartona, "Kontroler snów" Marka Nocnego czy "Rycerz Kielichów" Jacka Piekary) i w kinematografii ("Otwórz oczy" i amerykański remake "Vanilla Sky", animowany film "Waking Life" oraz "Incepcja"), jednakże w filmach tych ma on nieco inne znaczenie niż tradycyjnie rozumiany, świadomy sen. Tematykę zaś zwykłego snu z elementami zachowania świadomości można zobaczyć między innymi w filmie młodzieżowym "Donnie Darko" oraz w filmach w reżyserii Davida Lyncha (np. "Zagubiona autostrada"). +Historia a współczesność. +LD praktykowali i praktykują niektóre autochtoniczne narody Ameryki (plemię Yaqui na północy Meksyku), Azji (senońska kultura w Malezji, mieszkańcy Tybetu, Indii – Joga świadomego śnienia). Dynamika wzrostu zainteresowania teorią i praktyką świadomego snu jest największa w USA, krajach skandynawskich, Wyspach Brytyjskich, Australii (oraz w krajach sąsiednich) i w Polsce. +Sny, w których śniący zdaje sobie sprawę ze swojego stanu, pojawiają się w listach św. Augustyna oraz u Arystotelesa. Termin "rêve lucide" został użyty po raz pierwszy przez Harveya Saint-Denys w 1867. Za twórcę terminu "lucid dream" przyjmuje się holenderskiego psychiatrę Frederika van Eedena. Van Eeden określa świadomy sen jako sen, w którym miał pełną pamięć swojego życia na jawie oraz wolną wolę. +Świadome śnienie zostało odkryte przez nowoczesną naukę równolegle w Wielkiej Brytanii i Stanach Zjednoczonych. W połowie lat siedemdziesiątych Keith Hearne wraz z Alanem Worsleyem dokonali potwierdzenia faktu świadomego snu przy użyciu ruchów gałek ocznych. Niezależnie od nich identyczny eksperyment został przeprowadzony przez Stephena LaBerge'a. +Zjawiska związane ze świadomym śnieniem. +Paraliż senny. +Zwykle nie zdajemy sobie sprawy z jego istnienia. Jest to pewnego rodzaju klatka, nakładana przez mózg na ciało podczas snu. Powoduje on, że gdy w śnie np. biegniemy, nie wykonujemy ruchów w rzeczywistości. Gdy zasypiamy, nie zdajemy sobie sprawy z jego obecności – rozpoczyna się on, gdy mózg jest pewien, że straciliśmy świadomość. Jeżeli natomiast zachowamy świadomość podczas zasypiania, i dotrwamy wystarczająco długo, aby w niego wejść, możliwe są halucynacje. Od kolorów i prostych kształtów do osób i miejsc. Osoby mające długotrwałe problemy z zasypianiem, mogą niechcący wejść w ten stan. +Paraliż senny jest najczęściej bardzo nieprzyjemny. Występuje uczucie duszenia się i czasami czyjejś obecności. Paraliż senny był źródłem wielu przesądów, nazywano go dusiołkiem, zmorą senną itp. Występuje on jednak bardzo rzadko, średnio u 0,041% ludzi doświadczających świadomych snów. +Paraliż senny nie obejmuje nerwów kontrolujących ruchy gałek ocznych, dlatego w czasie marzeń sennych takie ruchy występują. Jest to sposób na stwierdzenie, czy dana osoba śni. Fazę snu, w której występują ruchy gałek ocznych, nazwano REM ("Rapid Eye Movement"). +Fałszywe przebudzenie. +Zjawisko związane blisko ze świadomym snem. Często występuje ono podczas niepełnego wybudzenia się. Śpiący otwiera oczy, rozgląda po pokoju, czasem zaczyna swoje poranne czynności. Po chwili orientuje się, że to wszystko wciąż jest snem – bardzo rzeczywistym snem. Prawdziwe przebudzenie następuje na ogół kilka chwil później. +Niektórzy wykorzystują celowo fałszywe przebudzenia, jako technikę stabilizacji świadomego snu. +Świadome śnienie a eksterioryzacja. +Nie wykluczając zatem możliwości zdalnego widzenia lub innego typu parapsychologicznych fenomenów występujących podczas snów i snów świadomych, hipoteza tożsamości LD i OOBE podaje w wątpliwość fakt opuszczenia ciała. Należy jednak zwrócić uwagę, że osoby opuszczające ciało opisują dokładnie odwiedzane miejsca, nawet jeśli nigdy nie oglądali ich za pomocą cielesnych zmysłów. +Istnieją też inne halucynacyjne przeżycia, np. wrażenie wyjścia z ciała podczas doświadczenia bliskiego śmierci tzn. śmierci klinicznej (ang. Near Death Experience, w skrócie NDE), które można zaliczyć do tej samej grupy zjawisk co LD i OOBE. Są między owymi zjawiskami podobieństwa oraz różnice i nie została stworzona akceptowana przez ogół klasyfikacja. Przykładowo, za LD można uważać jedynie sny typu DILD, zaś WILD byłyby de facto eksterioryzacją. +Typy świadomych snów. +Sny można podzielić ze względu na metodę indukcji. Jeśli element snu, nasze w nim zachowanie lub odruchowa reakcja "wewnątrz snu", już po jego rozpoczęciu, uświadamiają nam fakt śnienia, mamy do czynienia ze Świadomym, Indukowanym Snem (ang. "Dream Inducted Lucid Dream" lub jako akronim "DILD"). Jeśli natomiast wchodzi się w sen bez utraty świadomości, lub tylko z bardzo krótkim okresem jej braku, mówi się wówczas o Śnie Indukowanym Jawą (ang. "Wake Inducted Lucid Dream", w skrócie "WILD"). W zależności od metody indukcji, rezultatem może być WILD lub DILD. +Świadome sny mogą różnić się intensywnością doznań, stopniem kontroli, długością trwania i wieloma innymi parametrami. +Techniki. +Część ludzi w naturalny sposób uzyskuje świadomość śnienia bez stosowania specjalnych ćwiczeń. Pozostali, aby wywołać i utrzymać stan świadomości we śnie mogą posługiwać się różnymi technikami wspomagającymi. Techniki można podzielić na trzy kategorie: metody psychologiczne, metody fizjologiczno-farmakologiczne oraz inne. W pierwszym przypadku stosuje się np. pamięć intencji, autosugestię. Do tych metod należy np. technika pamięciowa doktora LaBerge'a. Techniki fizjologiczno-farmakologiczne opierają się o znajomości cyklów snu-czuwania oraz wpływie substancji psychoaktywnych na marzenia senne. Możemy tutaj wymienić metodę przerywania snu. Do innych metod można zaliczyć używanie bodźców zewnętrznych do indukcji marzenia sennego np. urządzenie Dream Light lub REM-Dreamer. Warto zaznaczyć, że najlepsze rezultaty przynosi podejście kompleksowe tj. odpowiednie nastawienie psychologiczne oraz odpowiednia higiena snu. +Zapamiętywanie snów. +Każdy człowiek ma co noc sny, nie każdy je zapamiętuje. Pamięć snów i zdawanie sobie sprawy z ich istnienia jest kluczowe do uzyskania świadomości we śnie. +Jedną z metod poprawiania sennej pamięci jest prowadzenie dziennika snów. Przed snem obok łóżka połóż czysty zeszyt i długopis. Codziennie po przebudzeniu pozostań chwilę w łóżku z zamkniętymi oczami, próbując przypomnieć sobie jak najwięcej szczegółów ze snu. Później w zeszycie zapisz hasła-klucze ze wspomnień, bądź ułóż krótkie opowiadanie. Możesz zwrócić też uwagę na tzw. znaki snów – charakterystyczne, odrealnione momenty snu, dzięki którym można zorientować się, że się właśnie jest w fazie marzeń sennych (np. umiejętność latania, bądź rozmawianie ze zmarłymi). Co jakiś czas staraj się przed snem poprzeglądać dziennik, szukając powtarzających się elementów Twoich snów. +Na początku przypominanie sobie snów wymaga wysiłku i chwili zastanowienia, jednak z czasem pamięć snów staje się na tyle dobra, że możemy prowadzić regularną kronikę, pamiętając nawet po kilkanaście snów z jednej nocy. +Autosugestia. +Najprostsza metoda, często używana w grupie kontrolnej w celu porównania skuteczności innych metod. Polega na pójściu do łóżka z intencją przeżycia świadomego snu. +Przerywanie cyklu snu. +Potocznie nazywana techniką "WBTB" (ang. "Wake Back To Bed"). Technika ta opiera się na znajomości cyklu faz snu. Po kilku godzinach nieprzerwanego snu, budzimy się na okres do dwóch godzin – optimum to sześćdziesiąt minut. Następnie wracamy do łóżka z intencją przeżycia świadomego snu. W porównaniu do samej autosugestii, przerywanie cyklu snu skutkuje ośmiokrotnym wzrostem częstotliwości wystąpienia świadomego snu. +Drzemki. +Metoda bardzo zbliżona do przerywania snu. Tutaj z kolei wykorzystujemy fakt naturalnej, wzmożonej senności w pewnych godzinach. Podczas popołudniowej drzemki istnieje większe niż podczas nocnego snu prawdopodobieństwo wystąpienia świadomego snu. +Technika "Chaining". +To bardzo prosta technika, lecz wymagająca pojedynczego świadomego snu. Po przebudzeniu nie ruszaj się, nie otwieraj oczu, udawaj "martwego" (chodzi o to aby nie został użyty ani jeden mięsień). Wtedy może nastąpić powrót do świadomego snu w tej samej lub bardzo podobnej scenerii, ze świadomością. +Technika rąk ("Technika Don Juana"). +Metoda polegająca na ustanowieniu kotwicy, czyli warunkowej reakcji organizmu. Wskutek tej metody za każdym razem gdy ją zastosujemy i spojrzymy na swoje ręce – będziemy odruchowo uzyskiwać świadomość. Pewnego razu spojrzysz na swoje ręce we śnie i technika zadziała. +"Usiądź na krześle, odpręż się, uspokój i zrelaksuj umysł. Staraj się nie myśleć o niczym. Wyciągnij ręce przed siebie, popatrz na nie, skupiając uwagę na wrażeniach wizualnych. Powiedz do siebie poważnym głosem: Widzę swoje ręce we śnie – wiem, że teraz śnię. +Powtórz to zdanie kilka razy, przenieś wzrok na dalszy plan, zwolnij napięcie oczu, zapatrz się w przestrzeń. Po kilku chwilach ponownie spójrz na ręce i wyobraź sobie, że śnisz. Całe ćwiczenie powtórz 5-6 razy. Zakończ spokojnym siedzeniem przez parę minut. Powtarzaj je codziennie 4-6 razy w ciągu dnia oraz przed zaśnięciem w łóżku. Patrzenie na dłonie możesz po jakimś czasie przepleść wywoływaniem ich obrazu w wyobraźni." +Technika pamięciowa. +Technika, której autorem jest dr Stephen LaBerge. "Mnemonic Induction of Lucid Dreams" (ang.), czyli "Pamięciowe wywoływanie świadomych snów" opiera się na dostrzeganiu onirycznych elementów podczas jawy i "pamiętaniu", by je rozpoznać we śnie. Ponieważ sny charakteryzują się wysokim podobieństwem do jawy, ważnym punktem są testy rzeczywistości wykonywane w momencie, kiedy coś przykuje naszą uwagę. Ma to na celu zapobieżenie sytuacji, w której spostrzegamy nietypowy element, lecz na skutek racjonalizacji nie stajemy się wcale świadomi. Aby wzmocnić pamięć intencji, dodatkowym elementem są wizualizacje przeżytych wcześniej snów. Należy wyobrażać sobie, iż widząc jakiś obiekt lub doświadczając emocji, rozpoznało się je jako elementy snu. +Przykładowy opis wizualizacji i autosugestii przed snem połączonej z techniką pamięciową. +Wcześnie rano obudź się spontanicznie ze snu. +Po zanotowaniu snu, zaangażuj się przez 10-15 minut w czytanie albo jakąś inną aktywność wymagającą pełnej przytomności. +Po ponownym położeniu się do łóżka skup uwagę na myśli: Następnym razem gdy będę śnił, będę pamiętać, aby rozpoznać że śnię. +W czasie gdy powtarzasz swoje postanowienie rozpoznania stanu snu, wizualizuj jak stajesz się świadomy we śnie, z którego się przebudziłeś. Umieść tam jakiś znak snu i wyobraź sobie, że powoduje to u ciebie rozpoznanie, że śnisz. Poczuj podniecenie, które w tobie się pojawia, gdy uświadamiasz sobie sen i wyobraź sobie to, co będziesz robić w świadomym śnie. Znakiem snu może być dowolne wydarzenie, sytuacja, przedmiot lub osoba, która pozwoli nam zdać sobie sprawę z tego, że śnimy (np. umiejętność latania albo oddychania pod wodą). +Powtarzaj punkt 3 i 4 dopóki nie poczujesz, że twoje postanowienie jest wyraźnie utrwalone lub nie zaśniesz. Jeżeli potrwa to dłużej niż 20 minut i zaczniesz się nudzić, rozluźnij się i przestań wizualizować. Uważaj jednak by twoją ostatnią myślą przed zaśnięciem była intencja pamiętania by uświadomić sobie sen. +Należy pamiętać, że ani testy rzeczywistości, ani wizualizacja przedsenna nie stanowią metod samych w sobie, to jest nie zostały przeprowadzone badania nad skutecznością przeprowadzania "tylko" testów rzeczywistości. Wszystkie elementy mają na celu ćwiczenie pamięci, pogłębienie intencji i podtrzymywanie motywacji i są częściami jednego kompleksowego treningu. +Techniki relaksacyjne. +Mają na celu uzyskanie snu typu WILD. Istnieje wiele sposobów na zachowanie świadomości podczas zasypiania np. liczenie, powtarzanie sobie pewnej frazy, techniki medytacyjne. Poniżej przedstawiono jedną z możliwych technik. +Połóż się w ciszy i spokoju, zamknij oczy. Nie ruszaj się, zachowaj pełną świadomość. To jest najważniejsze. W tym może pomóc np. liczenie 1 – śnię, 2 – śnię ..., liczenie oddechów, wyobrażanie siebie schodzącego w dół po schodach. Po jakimś czasie (3 – 30 min.) wejdziesz w stan paraliżu sennego. Możliwe są także halucynacje – od kolorów, przez kształty do postaci i miejsc. Jeżeli je zobaczysz – ignoruj je. Ciągle utrzymuj świadomość. Potem zaczniesz wchodzić w stan snu. Pojawi się na początku bez żadnych szczegółów, po czym nagle zacznie ich przybywać. Jeżeli nie utraciłeś świadomości, będziesz w tym miejscu z świadomością snu. Być może nie zobaczysz snu, wtedy warto spróbować "wstać" ciałem snu z prawdziwego. Wtedy sen zacznie się w miejscu, w którym rozpoczęty został sen. +Technika "szamańska". +Dość mało znaną, aczkolwiek dość kontrowersyjną metodą osiągania świadomych snów jest technika stosowana przez pochodzących m.in. z Meksyku i Kostaryki szamanów. Polega ona na spożywaniu, czy to w postaci naparów, czy palonego suszu (niekiedy łącznie), "ziela snów" (Calea zacatechichi) przez minimum 7 dni przed zaśnięciem bądź "afrykańskiego korzenia snów" (Silene capensis). Najlepsze rezultaty daje ta metoda u osób trenujących wcześniej LD, np. poprzez medytacje. +Współcześni szamani nie mający dostępu do ziół wpływających na fazy snów nie śpią przez kilka dni (od 3 do 7), co osłabia organizm i przybliża go do drugiej strony (śmierci) – szaman widzi na jawie duchy i odbiera przekazy z innych światów. Po kilku dniach zasypia prawie natychmiast z ciągłą świadomością i odnajduje się silnie zakotwiczony w świecie snu na długie godziny. +Bardzo silny pozytywny wpływ na rozpoznawanie snów ma m.in. spożywanie czekolady. Nieco mniejszy ser, mleko, sok pomarańczowy. Negatywny wpływ ma tzw. "junk food". +Prowadzone są kursy świadomego snu. +Świat snu. +Realność świata. +Osoby doświadczające świadomych snów opowiadają o niezwykłej realności doznań, czasem wręcz stwierdzają, że rzeczywistość senna wygląda na bardziej rzeczywistą niż ta prawdziwa. Niektórzy mówią, że byli w innych pełnoprawnych światach. Część ludzi w świadomym śnieniu mogą rozwijać twórcze zdolności, albo, mając dostęp do nieświadomego, otrzymują nieprawdopodobną wiedzę o własnym umyśle. +Zdecydowanie należy odróżnić świadome sny, następujące w fazie REM, po około 1,5 h godziny snu, od wizualizacji i lekkiego snu początkowego. W prawdziwym śnie rzeczywistym nie czuje się swego rzeczywistego ciała – można kontrolować senne ciało, ale nie fizyczne. +Cechy wspólne. +Istnieją pewne szczególne cechy, które występują w snach wszystkich ludzi. +Te wspólne dla wszystkich snów cechy są wykorzystywane przy testach rzeczywistości. Oczywiście przy odpowiednim stopniu kontroli snu możemy kontrolować te cechy, a nawet sprawić, że nie będą się więcej pojawiać. W wielu przypadkach osoba pogrążona we śnie nie może zapalić światła. Jednakże ktoś, kto dostatecznie opanował kontrolowanie swojego świadomego snu w mniejszym lub większym stopniu potrafi to zrobić. Czasem zdarza się, że taka osoba potrafi bez problemu zmieniać nawet porę dnia (przechodzić z dnia do nocy) lub kontrolować pogodę. +Wygląd snów. +Często sny są o ulubionej rzeczy wykonywanej na jawie, o ulubionym temacie itp. +Na przykład, jeśli ktoś pasjonuje się działaniami militarnymi i jednocześnie lubi gry komputerowe, będzie mu się śnić na przykład walka żołnierzy w jego domu, walka czołgów na jego podwórku lub też będzie się to odbywać na obszarze fikcyjnym, znanym z książek, gier, filmów, obrazów itd. Z tych powodów świat snów kontrolowanych przez daną osobę może stać się źródłem przyjemności. +Związek z religią. +Techniki świadomego snu stosowane są przez niektóre grupy religijne i ruch New Age. Niektórzy uważają, że w świecie świadomego snu znajdują się poza ciałem lub mają dostęp do nieograniczonej wiedzy, z możliwością kontaktów ze zmarłymi osobami czy przewidywania przyszłych wydarzeń. Istnieją głosy krytycyzmu wobec wywoływania świadomego snu ze strony osób związanych z Kościołem katolickim. W buddyzmie tybetańskim techniki świadomego snu odgrywają bardzo ważną i praktyczną rolę oraz są znaczącymi elementami w takich praktykach jak tantry Jogi Najwyższej czy Dzogczen, gdzie doświadczenie stanów zasypiania i późniejszego śnienia wykazują pewne analogie z doświadczeniami stanu pośmiertnego Bardo. +Wpływ na zdrowie. +Nie stwierdzono bezpośredniego wpływu świadomego snu na zdrowie człowieka. Celowo uzyskany świadomy sen nie różni się znacznie od naturalnie występującego spontanicznego uzyskania świadomości we śnie. Nie odnotowano przypadków chorób psychicznych, czy problemów zdrowotnych wywołanych świadomym snem. Osoby ze słabym sercem powinny jednak uważać na wywoływanie we śnie sytuacji, które mogą spowodować atak serca – wzmożonego wysiłku, czy niebezpiecznych sytuacji. +Jednak świadome sny mogą służyć do poprawy naszego (psychofizycznego) zdrowia, choćby na zasadzie autosugestii. +Przy wyborze techniki nauki świadomego śnienia warto pamiętać o tym, że częste pobudki nocne mogą powodować niewyspanie. Bezpieczne metody, czyli dziennik snów i testy rzeczywistości nie powodują takich efektów. +Próby świadomego śnienia mogą być niebezpieczeństwem dla osób chorujących na schizofrenię. Chory na schizofrenię może pomylić sen z rzeczywistością – stwierdzić, że śni mimo tego że tak naprawdę wcale nie śni. To może doprowadzić do nieprzyjemnych i tragicznych w skutkach sytuacji. Warto dodać, że większość chorych na schizofrenię wcale nie wie o swojej chorobie. Odradza się świadome śnienie osobom, w których rodzinie wystąpiła schizofrenia. +Jedyne problemy, jakie mogą wywoływać świadome sny oraz eksperymenty senne, mogą być związane z zaburzeniami faz snu oraz faz przebudzenia. Może to powodować nocne widma, czyli stan pół snu, w którym budzimy się i doznajemy efektu halucynacji sennych, czyli warstwa snu nakłada się na warstwę rzeczywistości. Jest to bardzo rzadki, jednak występujący problem, który na ogół powinien zostać nieleczony (jedyna forma terapii to zaprzestanie prób kontroli snu oraz stosowania technik np. dziennika snów). Tego typu objawy jako pierwszy opublikował Michał Jurkowski. +Fatymidzi + +Fatymidzi – isma'ilicka dynastia panująca w Północnej Afryce w latach 909 - 1171, po pokonaniu Aghlabidów. Uznawali się za potomków Fatimy i od jej imienia pochodzi ich nazwa. Stworzyli niezależny od Bagdadu kalifat. W sunnickiej literaturze arabskiej nazwę Fatymidów zastępuje się często terminem "Ubajdyci" (od Ubajd Allaha al-Mahdiego, jej założyciela), aby podkreślić, że przekonanie o pochodzeniu tej dynastii od Fatimy, córki Mahometa, nie ma podstaw. +Kwas podchlorawy + +Kwas podchlorawy – nieorganiczny związek chemiczny, jeden z tlenowych kwasów chloru, stabilny tylko w roztworze wodnym. +Kwas podchlorawy jest bardzo słabym kwasem, jednak ma właściwości utleniające i dlatego jest szeroko stosowany jako środek wybielający i odkażający. . +Powiat węgorzewski + +Powiat węgorzewski – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 2002 z części powiatu giżyckiego. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Węgorzewo. +Sainte-Chapelle + +Sainte-Chapelle (Święta Kaplica) – dwukondygnacyjna kaplica zamkowa położona w centrum dawnej siedziby królewskiej na wyspie Cité w Paryżu. +Ufundowana przez króla Francji Ludwika IX jako miejsce pochówku cennych relikwii Chrystusa z koroną cierniową na czele oraz świętych patronów Francji. Należy do cennych przykładów architektury gotyckiej ściśle zintegrowanej z gotyckim wystrojem z dziełami malarstwa ściennego i witrażowego oraz rzeźbami zawierającymi bogate treści ideowe podkreślające Chrystusa jako Najwyższego Króla, a co za tym idzie potęgę władzy monarszej we Francji. Swoim wyglądem nawiązuje do relikwiarzy skrzynkowych, powszechnych już w złotnictwie doby romanizmu. Jest przykładem sztuki dworskiej o wysokim znaczeniu dla rozwoju architektury sakralnej, stanowi wzór dla licznych gotyckich kaplic zamkowych w Europie Łacińskiej. +Jej architektem był prawdopodobnie Pierre de Montreuil. +Dzieje. +Inicjatorem budowy i fundatorem był król Francji Ludwik IX Święty, który chciał wznieść pomieszczenie dla jednej z najcenniejszych relikwii świata chrześcijańskiego – korony cierniowej, którą cesarz Konstantynopola Baldwin II zastawił w Wenecji, a Ludwik Święty wykupił w 1239 r. Tam też znalazły się inne relikwie związane bezpośrednio z ukrzyżowaniem Chrystusa, w tym gwóźdź oraz fragment Krzyża Świętego. Cena nabycia relikwii była niemalże trzykrotnie wyższa od kosztów budowy Sainte-Chapelle. +Kaplica stanowiła część dawnego zamku-rezydencji królewskiej Kapetyngów. Została zbudowana w latach 1241-1248 prawdopodobnie przez Pierre'a Montreuila. Znany jest z licznych przekazów ikonograficznych, w tym z miniatury z "Bardzo bogatych godzinek księcia de Berry" autorstwa Braci Limbourg. +W średniowieczu pełniła funkcję wielkiego repozytorium relikwii; oprócz relikwii Chrystusowych, dla których zastrzeżono górną kondygnację, w dolnej kaplicy znalazły się relikwiarze na relikwie świętych patronów Francji, m.in. świętych: Marcina, Ludwika z Tuluzy, Seweryna. Dwukondygnacyjny podział ten odzwierciedla się również w wyglądzie głównej, zachodniej fasady. W 1630 r. część wnętrza zniszczył pożar. W czasie rewolucji francuskiej kaplicę zamieniono na magazyn mąki. Został zniszczony przede wszystkim zespół relikwiarzy, w tym główny, złoty relikwiarz mieszczący pamiątki po męce i śmierci Chrystusa. Tenże został przetopiony. +Relikwie i zbiory ze skarbca trafiły m.in. do skarbca katedry Notre-Dame. Część rozproszonych dzieł przekazano do Luwru, Musée de Cluny i Biblioteki Narodowej. Po zniszczeniach rewolucyjnych rekonstrukcję wykonano w latach 1838-67, pod kierunkiem m.in. Feliksa Dubana i Eugène'a Viollet-le-Duca. W latach 1853-57 pod kierunkiem Jean-Baptiste Lassusa wybudowano obecną 33-metrową wieżyczkę na sygnaturkę wieńczącą dach kaplicy. Zabiegi konserwacyjne przywróciły kaplicy pierwotny gotycki wygląd usuwając m.in. elementy wyposażenia z okresu baroku. +Wygląd. +Umieszczona w obrębie dziedzińca Pałacu Sprawiedliwości kaplica jest dwukondygnacyjna – dolna dla członków dworu, górna (połączoną pierwotnie z pokojami monarchy) dla rodziny królewskiej. Strzelistość budowli podkreślają również uskokowe przypory zwieńczone pinaklami. Fasadę zachodnią flankują dwie niskie wieże ozdobione koronami cierniowymi, co nawiązuje do relikwii, dla której kaplicę zbudowano. Okna górnej części kaplicy przedłużone są zwieńczeniem w postaci trójkątnych wimpergów, prawdopodobnie pierwszy raz zastosowanych w budowli gotyckiej. +Jest to kaplica podwójna, dwukondygnacyjna na planie prostokąta z przedsionkiem i poligonalną apsydą, zwieńczona smukłą iglicą. Dolną kaplicę, przeznaczoną pierwotnie dla zwykłych uczestników nabożeństw, (trójnawową) zdobi bogata polichromia pochodząca z XIX wieku, pierwotny wystrój wnętrz został zniszczony przez powódź w 1690 roku. +O wiele efektowniejsza jest część górna, jednoprzestrzenna, początkowo połączona z apartamentami królewskimi i przeznaczona do wyłącznego użytku dworu. Znajduje się w niej 15 okien z XIII wieku o łącznej powierzchni 618 m2. Zdobią je wspaniałe witraże, każdy o wysokości 15 m, przedstawiające sceny ze Starego i Nowego Testamentu. Ich łączna liczba to 1134. Na zachodniej fasadzie kościoła znajduje się wielka rozeta ufundowana przez Karola VIII w 1485 r. Przedstawia ona sceny z Apokalipsy św. Jana. Na kolumnach rozdzielających witraże umieszczono 12 drewnianych posągów apostołów. +Cmentarz Passy + +Cmentarz Passy (fr. "Cimetière de Passy"), znajduje się w XVI dzielnicy Passy w zachodniej części Paryża. Do ciekawostek należy mauretańskie mauzoleum Marii Baszkircew. +Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé + +VAB, Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé (pl. "Opancerzony pojazd awangardy") – francuski pływający kołowy transporter opancerzony wprowadzony do produkcji w 1974 roku. +Historia. +Kołowy transporter opancerzony VAB został wprowadzony do produkcji w 1974 roku stając się podstawowym transporterem opancerzonym armii francuskiej. Produkowany był w dwóch wersjach, które różniły się układem jezdnym: wersja czterokołowa (4 x 4) i sześciokołowa (6 x 6). Przystosowany był do przewozu 10 żołnierzy. Produkowany był w zakładach GIAT Industriers w Saint-Chamond. +Znajduje się na wyposażeniu armii francuskiej oraz wojsk Brunei, Cypru, Indonezji, Kuwejtu, Libanu, Mauritiusu, Maroka, Omanu, Kataru, Zjednoczonych Emiaratów Arabskich, Wybrzeża Kości Słoniowej, Republiki Środkowoafrykańskiej +Użyty w działaniach wojennych w Kuwejcie, Jugosławii i Afryce. +Opis konstrukcji. +Transporter VAB ma korpus spawany z blach pancernych, odpornych na pociski broni strzeleckiej. Po obu stronach kadłuba umieszczone są otwory strzelnicze. W wersji czterokołowej silnik umieszczony jest między kabiną kierowcy i dowódcy a przedziałem desantowym dla 10 żołnierzy. W wersji sześciokołowej umieszczony jest on w tylnej części pojazdu. +Kvitskriuprestene + +Kvitskriuprestene – formacja 6 metrowych kolumn, pochodzenia naturalnego, powstałych przez erozję materiału moreny lodowca, położona w gminie Sel w Norwegii. Kolumny są naturalnie chronione przed rozmyciem przez kamienie pokrywowe. Nazwa "Kvitskriuprestene" oznacza Biali Księża. +Hjalmar Schacht + +Hjalmar Schacht (ur. 22 stycznia 1877 w Tinglev, Północny Szlezwik, zm. 3 czerwca 1970 w Monachium) – ekonomista niemiecki, od 1923 komisarz walutowy Niemiec i prezes Banku Rzeszy ("Reichsbank"). +Na przełomie 1923/1924 powstrzymał hiperinflację w Republice Weimarskiej, wprowadzając w listopadzie 1923 tzw. Rentenmarki i emitując banknoty, które jako zabezpieczenie wartości miały ziemię należącą do państwa niemieckiego. W 1924 przywrócił Reichsmarki jako walutę Republiki Weimarskiej. System walutowy prowadzony przez Schachta utrzymał się praktycznie do reform Erharda w 1948. Polityka pieniężna Schachta zagwarantowała Niemcom stabilizację płatniczą, zwłaszcza po korzystnym dla Niemiec renegocjowaniu spłaty odszkodowań wojennych z czasów I wojny światowej ustalonych (bez określenia kwoty) w traktacie wersalskim, sprecyzowanych w Planie Dawesa (1924) i skorygowanych na korzyść Niemiec w Planie Younga (1929). +Odsunięty w 1930 od prezesury Reichsbanku Schacht uczestniczył w dojściu do władzy Adolfa Hitlera pośrednicząc w jego kontaktach z kręgami przemysłowymi i finansowymi Niemiec, niechętnymi do początku lat 30. wobec NSDAP. Po dojściu Hitlera do władzy został w 1934 ministrem gospodarki Rzeszy i ponownie prezesem Reichsbanku. Organizował rozbudowę przemysłu zbrojeniowego poprzez system tzw. weksli MeFo (niem. Metallurgische Forschungsgesellschaft mbH) umożliwiających bezgotówkowe rozliczanie wierzytelności w przemyśle ciężkim Niemiec. W 1938 został usunięty ze stanowiska (zastąpiony przez Waltera Funka) po naradzie u Hitlera (opisanej w protokole Hossbacha), gdy uświadomił sobie, że polityka Hitlera prowadzi bezpośrednio do wojny światowej i wyraził swoje obiekcje wobec takiej polityki. Po zamachu na Hitlera w lipcu 1944 internowany w obozie koncentracyjnym Sachsenhausen (w tzw. "Zellenbau") jako tzw. "Ehrehäftling". +Był sądzony podczas procesu norymberskiego. Psycholog więzienny Gustave M. Gilbert podczas swoich badań na osadzonych ustalił ich iloraz inteligencji (IQ) - Schacht miał wynik 143 (najwyższy ze wszystkich). Po zapoznaniu się z treścią oskarżenia zanotował na marginesie tekstu: "Zupełnie nie mogę pojąć, dlaczego jestem oskarżony", zaś po odczytaniu aktu oskarżenia powiedział: "W żadnym wypadku nie jestem winny". Z drugiej zaś strony przyznał w czasie procesu: "Poszedłbym nawet z diabłem, by zapewnić Niemcom siłę i potęgę". Wyrokiem Trybunału został jednak uniewinniony, gdyż bezpośrednio nie uczestniczył w organizowaniu aktów ludobójstwa i innych zbrodniach wojennych. Napisał pamiętnik "76 Jahre meines Lebens" ("76 lat mojego życia", 1953). +Akt normatywny + +Akt normatywny – tekst zawierający sformułowane w języku prawnym i zapisane w postaci przepisów normy prawne. Normy te mają najczęściej charakter generalny i abstrakcyjny. Niekiedy pod tym pojęciem rozumie się także wszelkie teksty formułujące normy postępowania. +Tworzenie aktów normatywnych. +Do tworzenia aktów normatywnych uprawnione są ściśle określone podmioty. W społeczeństwach demokratycznych są to najczęściej organy wymienione w konstytucji. Konstytucja określa też w jakim trybie odbywa się tworzenie aktów normatywnych oraz jakie formy one przyjmują (np. ustawa, rozporządzenie, czy dekret). +Oprócz aktów normatywnych prawa wewnętrznego, wyróżnia się również akty normatywne prawa międzynarodowego oraz prawa europejskiego. +Budowa i zawartość aktu normatywnego. +Typowy akt normatywny zawiera tytuł, przepisy merytoryczne, przepisy nowelizujące, przepisy przejściowe i dostosowujące oraz przepisy końcowe. +Oprócz przepisów prawnych, akty prawne zawierają również części nie posiadające charakteru normatywnego. Są to najczęściej tytuł, numeracja przepisów, oznaczenia struktury wewnętrznej aktu normatywnego (tytuły, rozdziały), wskazanie normy kompetencyjnej na podstawie której akt wydano czy załączniki graficzne. +Generalny i abstrakcyjny charakter aktów normatywnych. +Generalny i abstrakcyjny charakter jest uznawany za cechę konstytutywną aktów prawnych. +Charakter generalny oznacza, iż akty normatywne kierowane są do grupy adresatów określanych przez ich cechy (czyli adresaci nie są określani indywidualnie, imiennie). Adresatami mogą być wszystkie osoby podlegające jurysdykcji państwa, a więc zarówno obywatele jak i cudzoziemcy, grupa osób określona cechami, np. przedsiębiorcy, podatnicy, itp. lub zamieszkująca określony obszar, np. mieszkańcy konkretnej gminy. +Z kolei charakter abstrakcyjny aktów normatywnych oznacza, iż zawierają one ogólne sposoby postępowania, a konkretniej reguły wielokrotnego (powtarzalnego) powinnego zachowania. +Wątpliwości budzą akty, przypominające formą akty normatywne, jednak nie formułujące norm generalnych i abstrakcyjnych, a wywołujące skutki doniosłe dla systemu prawa, np. ustawa budżetowa czy dyrektywy prawa europejskiego. +Promulgacja aktów normatywnych. +Z zasad państwa prawa wynika, że dla ważności aktu normatywnego powszechnie obowiązującego wymagane jest, obok wydania go przez umocowany do tego organ w przepisanym trybie, także ogłoszenia (promulgacji) w dzienniku urzędowym. W polskim prawie regulowane jest to ustawą z dnia 20 lipca 2000 r. o ogłaszaniu aktów normatywnych i niektórych innych aktów prawnych. Ogłoszenie aktu normatywnego w dzienniku urzędowym jest obowiązkowe. Natomiast odrębne przepisy mogą wyłączyć obowiązek ogłoszenia aktu normatywnego niezawierającego przepisów powszechnie obowiązujących. Co do zasady akty normatywne ogłasza się niezwłocznie. +Wejście w życie. Okres "Vacatio legis". +Wejście w życie aktu normatywnego poprzedza zazwyczaj tzw. "vacatio legis". Przepisy powołanej ustawy nie wyłączają możliwości nadania aktowi normatywnemu wstecznej mocy obowiązującej, może to nastąpić tylko wówczas, gdy zasada demokratycznego państwa prawnego nie stoi temu na przeszkodzie. Sytuacja taka jest wyjątkiem od ogólnej zasady nieretroaktywności prawa ("lex retro non agit"). +Nieluba + +Nieluba – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-luba" ("miła, przyjemna, kochana"). Mogło oznaczać po prostu "niemiła" albo powstać przez negację imion z pierwszym członem "Lubo-", takich, jak "Lubomira". +Męski odpowiednik: Nielubiec. +Rozmnażanie płciowe + +Rozmnażanie płciowe, generatywne - rozmnażanie za pomocą haploidalnych komórek rozrodczych (gamet) - męskiej i żeńskiej, powstających zazwyczaj w wyspecjalizowanych narządach płciowych (u zwierząt) lub organach generatywnych (u roślin). Po połączeniu się dwóch komórek rozrodczych powstaje diploidalna zygota, z której rozwija się diploidalny zarodek, a następnie nowy organizm. +Występują trzy sposoby rozmnażania płciowego: izogamia, anizogamia, oogamia, przy czym u roślin wyższych występuje tylko oogamia. Nietypowym sposobem rozmnażania jest tzw. koniugacja, która u roślin polega na kopulowaniu dwóch komórek stykających się ze sobą a pochodzących od dwóch organizmów poprzez przepłynięcie protoplastu męskiego do żeńskiego i zlanie się w zygotę. +Koniugację, obserwuje się również u bakterii, ale polega ona jedynie na przekazywaniu sobie przez bakterie fragmentów materiału genetycznego. Nie towarzyszy temu podział komórki, nie jest to więc forma rozmnażania. O zachowaniu bakterii w koniugacji decyduje obecność w nich tzw. czynnika płci (czynnika F). +Przewaga rozmnażania płciowego nad bezpłciowym. +Segregacja chromosomów - tworzące się gamety otrzymują po jednym chromosomie z każdej pary chromosomów homologicznych (a więc podobnych, lecz nie identycznych). Jeśli komórka macierzysta gamet ma tylko jedną parę chromosomów (sytuacja wielce nietypowa, liczba chromosomów zależy od gatunku organizmu), to podczas tworzenia się gamety następuje losowy wybór jednej z dwóch możliwości - gameta odziedziczy chromosom, który jej rodzic u swego zarania otrzymał w gamecie męskiej albo ten który rodzic otrzymał w gamecie żeńskiej. Jeśli par chromosomów jest więcej, to dla każdej pary dobór jednego z chromosomów zachodzi niezależnie i z tym samym prawdopodobieństwem. Dla 23 par chromosomów istnieje 8 388 608 możliwości. +Wymiana genów pomiędzy chromosomami homologicznymi znana jest lepiej jako zjawisko crossing-over. Dzięki temu mechanizmowi wymiany chromosomy nie są sztywnymi pakietami genów, ale geny które u rodzica należą do różnych chromosomów tej samej pary, mogą u potomka znaleźć się w tym samym chromosomie. Gameta otrzymuje tylko jeden chromosom każdej pary na skutek czego geny położone na różnych chromosomach ulegną rozdzieleniu, natomiast należące do tego samego chromosomu mają szansę odziedziczyć się razem. +Losowy dobór gamet - czynniki o których wspomniano w powyższych punktach prowadzą do dużej różnorodności gamet. Na ogół gamety tworzone są w dużym, a nawet gigantycznym nadmiarze i tylko nieliczne z nich uczestniczą w tworzeniu zygoty i rozwijającego się z niej organizmu potomnego. Gamety, którym dane będzie uczestniczyć w zapłodnieniu są wybierane losowo. Gamety nie wybrane giną bez śladu. Na skutek losowości procesu i gigantycznej liczby równoważnych możliwości, wybór praktycznie za każdym razem jest inny. Każdy organizm powstający na drodze rozmnażania płciowego jest zatem niepowtarzalny. Wyjątek stanowi tylko przypadek gdy dawcy obu rodzajów gamet - oboje rodzice - mają ten sam genotyp, a każdą parę ich chromosomów homologicznych tworzą chromosomy nie podobne, lecz identyczne. Takie organizmy tworzą tzw. czyste linie. +Z drugiej strony konieczność uczestniczenia dwóch osobników w rozmnażaniu jest w niektórych przypadkach niekorzystna, toteż istnieją dość powszechnie gatunki, u których występują obie metody rozmnażania. +Susanna Pöykiö + +Susanna Pöykiö (ur. 22 lutego 1982 w Oulu) – fińska łyżwiarka figurowa, dwukrotna medalistka mistrzostw Europy, wielokrotna mistrzyni tego kraju w jeździe indywidualnej. +Pöykiö była pierwszą Finką, która zdobyła medal na zawodach organizowanych przez ISU – w 2001 zdobyła brązowy medal podczas mistrzostw świata juniorów. Największy sukces w gronie seniorów odniosła w 2005, gdy podczas mistrzostw Europy zdobyła srebrny medal. Cztery lata później podczas ME 2009 w Helsinkach zdobyła brązowy medal. +Hipotetyzm + +Hipotetyzm - sposób uzasadniania twierdzeń w naukach empirycznych +Nazwy "hipotetyzm" używa się również dla oznaczenia hipotetycznego falsyfikacjonizmu i wyrafinowanego falsyfikacjonizmu. +Zobacz też: logika, tautologia, hipoteza, krytyczny racjonalizm. +Sedeprywacjonizm + +Sedeprywacjonizm (teoria Cassiciacum lub sedewakantyzm formalno-materialny) – teoria zakładająca utracenie w okresie soboru watykańskiego II przez biskupów i papieża władzy jurysdykcyjnej. +Zwolennicy tej hipotezy twierdzą, że papież, jak i biskupi popadli w herezję wyrażającą się w popieraniu i propagowaniu modernizmu i utracili poprzez notorycznie popełnianie aktów heretyckich władzę jurysdykcyjną. W rezultacie "„modernistyczna hierarchia”" nie posiada formalnego aspektu władzy, lecz jedynie materialną sukcesję stanowisk biskupich i papieskich i władzę administracyjną. +W odniesieniu do papieża Benedykta XVI twierdzą, że "nie jest papieżem, jednakże został on ważnie wybrany, co stawia go w sytuacji zdolności do przyjęcia tego urzędu, gdy tylko usunie przeszkody stojące na drodze do jego objęcia". +Twórca tej hipotezy – zakonnik dominikański o. Guerard des Lauriers, późniejszy biskup (najpierw sedewakantystyczny, następnie sedeprywacjonistyczny) – używał w odniesieniu do takiej osoby łacińskiego terminu „"papa materialiter tantum, sed non formaliter"”. (Papież tylko materialnie, lecz nie formalnie). Argumentował to niemożnością sprawowania urzędu papieskiego przez osobę, która jest heretykiem lub apostatą i doprowadza do zaaprobowania "„fałszywej doktryny i szkodliwego powszechnego prawa dyscyplinarnego”." +Określenie "sedeprivationism" (od łac. "sedes" – tron, stolica; "privatio" – pozbawienie) oznacza odmówienie pewnych praw wynikających ze sprawowania urzędu papieskiego. +Lobbing + +Lobbing (z jęz. frankońskiego "laubja" i łac. "lobium, lobia" - krużganek, pasaż). Słowo "lobby" oznacza w jęz. ang. salę recepcyjną w hotelu lub parlamencie, stąd "lobbying" to dosłownie: "działalność wykonywana w lobby". Z czasem określenie to przylgnęło do praktyki kontaktowania się z decydentami politycznymi, szczególnie w lobby angielskiej Izby Gmin lub amerykańskiego Kongresu. +Powszechnie lobbingiem nazywa się wywieranie wpływu przez zawodowych rzeczników interesów (lobbistów, lobbystów) na władze publiczne. +Określeniem analogicznym do "lobbingu" i popularnym w Polsce w I poł. XX w. było "antyszambrowanie" (od "antichambre": przedpokój). +Każda dziedzina nauki inaczej postrzega zjawisko lobbingu, stąd wiele często odmiennych definicji. +Lobbing w prawie i naukach prawnych. +Lobbing to zespół zgodnych z prawem czynności podejmowanych przez zarejestrowanego lobbystę działającego za wynagrodzeniem +i w interesie osoby trzeciej (zleceniodawcy lobbyingu), w celu wywarcia korzystnego dla zleceniodawcy wpływu na prawotwórstwo lub decyzje organów państwowych, względnie samorządowych i innych. +Przyjmuje się, że lobbing może być wyłącznie legalny. Takie ujęcie wyklucza pojęcia "lobbing nielegalny", "czarny lobbing" itp. jako sprzeczne z istotną cechą lobbingu, jaką jest zgodność z prawem. Działania takie, jak: korupcja polityczna, łapownictwo, płatna protekcja są niezgodne z prawem i jedynie pozornie podobne do lobbingu. +Wpływanie na decyzje polityczne we własnym interesie, często mylone z lobbingiem to w rzeczywistości wykonywanie obywatelskiego prawa petycji do władz. +Podstawą regulacji prawnej lobbingu są: obowiązkowa rejestracja lobbistów oraz obowiązkowe, regularne sprawozdania lobbistów z prowadzonej działalności. +Siedlęcin + +Siedlęcin (niem. "Boberröhsdorf") – wieś w Polsce, położona w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie jeleniogórskim, w gminie Jeżów Sudecki, między Jeziorem Modrym na południowym wschodzie, a Jeziorem Wrzeszczyńskim na zachodzie. Miejscowość ma charakter łańcuchówki, rozciągającej się na długości ok. 5 km. +Nazwa. +12 listopada 1946 r. nadano miejscowości polską nazwę Siedlęcin. +Administracja. +W latach 1945–1954 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Siedlęcin. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa jeleniogórskiego. +Historia. +Miejscowość została założona na przełomie XIII i XIV wieku. +Ibadytyzm + +Ibadytyzm (arab. إباضية "") – najbardziej umiarkowany i jedyny obecnie istniejący ruch w łonie charydżyzmu. +Jego założycielem był Abdullah ibn Ibad at Tamimi (stąd nazwa ruchu), chociaż wyznawcy uważają, że był nim pochodzący z Omanu Dżabir ibn Zaid al Azdi, najlepszy uczeń Aiszy, żony Mahometa, oraz Abdullaha ibn Abbasa, kuzyna Mahometa. Nie są tak surowi w traktowaniu innowierców i pozostałych muzułmanów jak pozostali charydżyci. Średniowieczna algierska dynastia Rustamidów wyznawała ibadytyzm. Obecnie wyznawcy tego nurtu rządzą w Omanie (75% populacji kraju). Występują też w Tanzanii (gł. Zanzibar), Algierii (gł. w Mzab), Libii (gł. Dżabal Nafusa) oraz Tunezji (gł. wyspa Dżerba). Obecnie jest ich około 4–5 mln. Znaczna część dowództwa antyfrancuskiej partyzantki w Algierii w połowie XX wieku była ibadytami z Kabylii. +Niegrod + +Niegrod – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-grod" ("grodzić, otaczać płotem"). Być może powstało przez negację imion z członem "grod" (takich, jak "Grodzisław" albo "Zdziegrod"). +Faits divers + +Fait divers (fr. fakty różne) – gatunek dziennikarski, częsty zwłaszcza w gazetach popołudniowych, np. kronika wypadków czy inne sensacyjne wydarzenia, w którym obowiązuje podawanie wyłącznie faktów, bez żadnych komentarzy i domysłów. Efekt dziennikarski jest uzyskiwany dzięki niewspółmierności przyczyn i skutków czy niecodziennym okolicznościom zdarzenia. +22 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej + +22 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej (22 DPG) – wielka jednostka piechoty Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Okres międzywojenny. +Z dniem 1 marca 1925 Minister Spraw Wojskowych przemianował 2 Dywizję Górską na 22 Dywizję Piechoty, 14 kwietnia 1925 zaś zmienił poprzedni rozkaz, ustalając nazwę dywizji na 22 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej +Organizacja pokojowa 22 DPG +Kampania 1939. +22 Dywizja Piechoty Górskiej wchodziła początkowo w skład Armii "Karpaty". Według planów Naczelnego Wodza marszałka Edwarda Rydza-Śmigłego dywizja miała zostać przydzielona jako odwód do Armii "Łódź" gen. dyw. Juliusza Rómmla, lecz opóźnione wskutek zbyt późnego zmobilizowania oraz ciągłych bombardowań linii kolejowych transporty jej oddziałów nigdy nie dotarły do celu. W pierwszych dniach września koncentrowała się więc w rejonie Krzeszowic i Trzebini. Już 2 września dywizja została przeniesiona do Armii "Kraków" gen. Antoniego Szyllinga w celu zastąpienia zniszczonej 7 DP. Początkowo przewidziana była do odwodu południowego Armii wraz 38 DP do osłony jej skrzydła od północy na styku z Armią "Łódź". 2 września wyładowała się w rejonie Olkusza. Wcześniej wydzielono z niej w celu wzmocnienia południowego odcinka frontu po batalionie z 5 i 6 Pułku Strzelców Podhalańskich i skierowano do 156 pp ppłk Ignacego Młyńca. Dywizja rozwinęła się obronnie wokół Olkusza w oczekiwaniu na oddziały GO "Śląsk" gen. bryg. Jana Jagmina-Sadowskiego. Stanowiła najbardziej wysuniętą na północ wielką jednostkę z Armii "Kraków". 4 września otrzymała rozkaz odwrotu nad Nidę w kierunku Pińczowa i Miechowa. 8 września skierowała się na Stopnicę. Po drodze dowódca skierował dywizję na Busko opanowane przez niemieckie oddziały pancerne. Zamierzał poprzez chrzest bojowy wzmóc morale swoich żołnierzy. Przed wykonaniem ataku, myśląc, że dywizja została okrążona, rozdzielił swoje oddziały, pozbawiając się w ten sposób wpływania na całość jednostki. Pod wieczór stan dywizji był bliski paniki. W Busku Niemców jednak nie było, podjęto więc marsz na Stopnicę. 9 września nastąpiło spotkanie z Niemcami pod Broniną, gdzie drogę zastąpił niemiecki dywizjon rozpoznawczy z VII Korpusu Armijnego wzmocniony batalionem saperów zmotoryzowanych i czołgami z 5 DPanc. Płk Endel-Ragis – chcąc rozbić Niemców bezustannie zagrażających jego skrzydłu – uzyskał w końcu możliwość realizacji swych planów i po wielokrotnych prośbach wymógł pozwolenie na uderzenie od dowódcy Armii "Kraków", lecz gen A. Szylling zezwolił jedynie na natarcie części 22 DPG. Płk Endel-Ragis defetystycznie nastawiony do zaistniałej sytuacji, podzielił poszczególne pododdziały dywizji i przydzielił je do poszczególnych kolumn (sam znalazł się przy 5 Pułku Strzelców Podhalańskich) oraz wydał nie rokujące powodzenia rozkazy do przebijania się. Dywizja w bardzo ciężkim nocnym boju rozbiła niemiecki oddział zaporowy, niszcząc bardzo dużo sprzętu nieprzyjacielskiego i biorąc wielu jeńców, jednak poniosła zarazem bardzo ciężkie straty i – nie mając w praktyce dowódcy (płk Endel-Ragis chciał popełnić samobójstwo, widząc lokalną klęskę oddziałów 5 psph) – uległa rozsypce. Wkrótce z odsieczą Niemcom przyszła ich 27 DP i polska dywizja znalazła się w trudnej sytuacji. Płk L. Endel-Ragis opuścił swoje oddziały i zameldował w dowództwie Armii o rozbiciu jednostki. W rzeczywistości większość oddziałów walczyła dalej i cofała się w kierunku na Stopnicę. W nocy z 9 na 10 września dywizja miała wykonać natarcie pozorujące na Staszów. Jej oddziały w dotychczasowych ciężkich walkach poniosły duże straty i po odłączeniu się 6 Pułku Strzelców Podhalańskich i 2 Pułku Strzelców Podhalańskich, liczyły zaledwie ok. 3 tys. ludzi i 31 dział. 10 września dywizja została rozbita pod Rytwianami przez niemiecką 5 DPanc. Natomiast 6 psph – bardzo ciężko wykrwawiony – zdołał przedrzeć się przez linię okrążenia i po dalszym odwrocie przyłączył się do oddziałów Frontu Północnego za Wisłą, 2 psph przedarł się do własnych wojsk z GO "Śląsk", zbierając po drodze wielu rozbitków z 5 i 6 psph. +Organizacja wojenna i obsada personalna 22 DPG we wrześniu 1939. +Obsada personalna Dowództwa 22 DPG +Planowana organizacja wojenna 22 DPG +Dowództwo 22 Dywizji Piechoty Górskiej +Kwatera Główna 22 Dywizji Piechoty Górskiej +Piechota dywizyjna +Artyleria dywizyjna +Jednostki broni +Jednostki i zakłady służb +Odtworzenie dywizji w ramach AK. +W wyniku przeprowadzania akcji odtwarzania przedwojennych jednostek wojskowych w 1944 utworzono 22 Dywizję Piechoty AK "Jarosławską" w składzie 38 pp i 39 pp (Okręg Kraków, Podokręg Rzeszów). +Tradycje. +Tradycje przedwojennych oddziałów podhalańskich kontynuuje utworzona w 1994 21 Brygada Strzelców Podhalańskich im. gen. bryg. Mieczysława Boruty-Spiechowicza, której dowództwo stacjonuje w Rzeszowie. +Rejon manewrowy + +Dla sprawnego i bezpiecznego prowadzenia pracy manewrowej stacja podzielona jest na rejony i okręgi manewrowe. Rejonem manewrowym (rejonem pracy manewrowej) nazywa się część stacji stanowiąca samodzielny zespół torów i urządzeń do wykonywania pracy manewrowej przez jednego kierownika manewrów przy użyciu jednego pojazdu trakcyjnego (lokomotywy manewrowej). Dwa lub więcej rejonów manewrowych stanowią okręg manewrowy. Rejon manewrowy z górką rozrządową nazywa się rejonem rozrządzania, a jeżeli na górce rozrządowej pracuje więcej niż jeden pojazd trakcyjny (lokomotywa manewrowa) - okręgiem rozrządzania. Rejon manewrowy, do którego zasadniczych zadań należy zestawianie pociągów nazywa się rejonem zestawiania. +Niestek + +Niestek – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-stek" ("stać"). Mogło powstać przez negację imion z pierwszym członem "Stani-" albo stanowić formę skróconą imienia "Nestor" (w staropolszczyźnie Nieścior). +Żeński odpowiednik: Niestanka. +Wodospad Iguazú + +Wodospad Iguazú (hiszp. "Cataratas del Iguazú", port. "Cataratas do Iguaçu", "Yguasu" - pochodzi z języka guaraní - z połączenia słów "y" - "woda" i "ûasú" ["guasu"] - "wielka") – wodospad leżący na granicy Brazylii 20% i Argentyny 80% na rzece Iguaçu. +Rzeka. +Rzeka Iguaçu wypływa z Serra do Mar, niedaleko brazylijskiego wybrzeża, na południe od Sao Paulo, źródła znajdują się w pobliżu Kurytyby i płynie w głąb lądu (na zachód) ok. 1320 km. Przez Wyżynę Brazylijską wije się zakolami, aż wzbogacona wodami dopływów, opada po blisko 275 progach skalnych, rozbijających jej nurt. Największy z wodospadów, wodospad Garganta del Diablo ("Gardło Diabła") ma wysokość 72 m, wyższą niż wodospad Niagara. +Wodospad. +W miejscu, gdzie rzeka dociera do skraju płaskowyżu, tuż przed połączeniem się z Paraną, spada w przepaść wodospadu Iguaçu. Rzeka ma tutaj 4 km szerokości, jej wody spadają w dół słońca, malujące wokół wodospadu lśniące, kapryśne tęcze. Znajdujące się między progami wychodnie skalne pokrywają gęste kępy drzew i innych roślin: palm, bambusa oraz koronkowych paproci drzewiastych, stanowiących forpocztę otaczającej rzekę dżungli. Pod drzewami kwitną dzikie tropikalne kwiaty: begonie, ananasowate i storczykowate haftują podszycie olśniewającymi barwami. W tej orgii kolorów uczestniczą też ptaki, np. papugi, w tym ary, i inne jaskrawo ubarwione, fruwające w koronach drzew. Zarówno w Argentynie, jak i w Brazylii wodospad otaczają parki narodowe, przez które zazwyczaj wiedzie droga do rzeki. +Najbardziej jednak ekscytującym sposobem poznania wodospadu, jest przejście wąskim podestem niedaleko niego nad rzeką, sięgającym aż po jego odległy kraniec. Podest, od czasu do czasu, zmywa woda, gwałtownie przybierająca w rzece. Z bliska zaś niemal na własnej skórze można odczuć potęgę wód grzmiących w przepaści poniżej. Wodospad wygląda, co prawda, najefektowniej w porze deszczowej, od listopada do marca, ale zazwyczaj jest malowniczy przez cały rok, choć zdarza się, że zamiera. W maju i czerwcu 1978 r. w okresie szczególnie uporczywej suszy, nurt osłabł tak bardzo, że przez 28 dni przez krawędź urwiska nie przepłynęła ani kropla wody. Był to pierwszy przypadek wyschnięcia wodospadu od 1934 r. Wodospad Iguaçu leży na granicy argentyńsko-brazylijskiej, ok. 320 km na wschód od Asunción w Paragwaju. Z lotniska w Asunción, główna autostrada prowadzi przez Paragwaj do brazylijskiej strony wodospadu, zjazd z autostrady zaś prowadzi przez most na jego argentyńską stronę. +W pobliżu Iguazú znajdowały się w przeszłości wodospady Guairá o największym na świecie przepływie, ale obecnie zostały one zalane przez zbiornik elektrowni wodnej Itaipu. +Haubicoarmata + +Haubicoarmata – działo łączące cechy haubicy i armaty. Kąt ostrzału pionowego nie przekracza na ogół 65°. Długość lufy jest przeważnie mniejsza niż w armacie o tym samym kalibrze i wynosi 25-40 kalibrów. +Tzigane + +Tzigane to dzieło Maurycego Ravela na skrzypce i orkiestrę skomponowane w 1924 roku. +W pierwotnej wersji utwór został napisany na skrzypce i fortepian dla węgierskiej skrzypaczki, Jelly d'Aranyi. Utrzymany w charakterze węgierskiej rapsodii, nie jest oparty na autentycznych motywach ludowej muzyki węgierskiej. Kompozytor nawiązuje bardziej do modnej na początku dwudziestego wieku stylizowanej muzyki cygańskiej. +Działanie algebraiczne + +Działanie lub operacja – w matematyce i logice przyporządkowanie jednemu lub większej liczbie elementów nazywanych "argumentami" lub "operandami" elementu nazywanego "wynikiem". Badaniem działań w ogólności zajmuje się dział nazywany algebrą uniwersalną, zbiory z choć jednym określonym na nim działaniem algebraicznym nazywa się algebrami ogólnymi (często krótko: algebrami), samą rodzinę działań określa się nazwą „sygnatura”. +Najczęściej mówi się o "działaniach jedno-" i "dwuargumentowych", choć mogą one mieć ich więcej lub mniej (zero, mówi się wtedy o "działaniach zeroargumentowych" wskazujących "elementy wyróżnione"). Działania jednoargumentowe (unarne) dają wynik na podstawie tylko jednej wartości, czego przykładem są np. negacja, czy funkcje trygonometryczne. Często argumentami i wynikami działań są wartości liczbowe. Działania dwuargumentowe (binarne) na liczbach przyjmują dwie wartości dając trzecią, wśród przykładów można wymienić dodawanie, odejmowanie, mnożenie, dzielenie, czy potęgowanie. +Działania nie muszą dotyczyć tylko liczb, a dowolnych obiektów matematycznych, np. wektor może być pomnożony przez skalar, aby dać inny wektor; działanie iloczynu skalarnego dwóch wektorów daje skalar. Działania logiczne takie jak "koniunkcja" („i”), "alternatywa" („lub”), czy "negacja" („nie”) łączą ze sobą wartości logiczne "prawdy" i "fałszu". Dodaje się i odejmuje wektory. Za pomocą działania składania funkcji łączy się ze sobą obroty, jeden po drugim. Działania na zbiorach obejmują działania dwuargumentowe "sumy" i "iloczynu zbiorów" oraz jednoargumentowe "dopełnienie". Wśród działań na funkcjach można wymienić złożenie, czy splot. +Ponadto działania mogą przejawiać, lub nie, określone własności, np. łączność, alternatywność, przemienność, antyprzemienność, idempotentność itp. +Działanie jest podobne do operatora; różni je punkt widzenia: często mówi się o „działaniu dodawania”, gdy chce się położyć nacisk na argumenty i wynik, lecz mówiąc „operator dodawania” bardziej skupia się na samym procesie lub, z bardziej abstrakcyjnego punktu widzenia, na funkcji formula_1 +Definicja. +Działanie formula_2 to funkcja postaci +Zbiory formula_4 nazywa się "dziedzinami" działania, zbiór formula_5 nosi nazwę "przeciwdziedziny" działania, z kolei ustaloną liczbę formula_6 (liczba argumentów) nazywa się "typem", "arnością" lub "argumentowością" działania. W ten sposób działanie jednoargumentowe (unarne) ma argumentowość/arność równą formula_7 a działanie dwuargumentowe (binarne) ma argumentowość/arność formula_8 Działanie zeroargumentowe jest po prostu elementem przeciwdziedziny formula_9 Działanie o arności formula_6 nazywa się działaniem formula_6-arnym lub formula_6-argumentowym. W ten sposób działanie formula_6-argumentowe jest formula_14-argumentową relacją, która jest funkcyjna na swoich pierwszych formula_6 dziedzinach. +Powyższa definicja obejmuje tzw. działania "skończone", co odnosi się do skończonej liczby argumentów. Istnieją rozszerzenia, w których argumentowość jest nieskończoną liczbą porządkową lub kardynalną, a nawet dowolnym zbiorem indeksującym argumenty. +Stosując termin „działanie” zwykle zakłada się, że dziedzina funkcji jest potęgą przeciwdziedziny (tzn. iloczynem kartezjańskim jednej lub więcej egzemplarzy przeciwdziedziny), tego rodzaju funkcje nazywa się działaniami wewnętrznymi; mówi się też wtedy, że dany zbiór jest "zamknięty" ze względu na to działanie. Dla podkreślenia tego faktu działania niebędące wewnętrznymi nazywa się zewnętrznymi (zob. "Przykłady"). +W najogólniejszym podanym tu sensie „działanie” jest więc synonimem funkcji, przekształcenia, czy odwzorowania, tj. relacji, która z każdym elementem dziedziny wiąże dokładnie jeden element przeciwdziedziny. +Przykłady. +W dowolnej strukturze algebraicznej element neutralny działania (o ile istnieje) jest działaniem zeroargumentowym, np. zero względem dodawania dla liczb naturalnych ("monoid"), całkowitych ("pierścień"), wymiernych, rzeczywistych, zespolonych ("ciała"), czy też jedynka dla dodatnich liczb naturalnych ("półgrupa"), liczb całkowitych ("pierścień z jedynką"), wymiernych, rzeczywistych, zespolonych (ciała), w kwaternionach ("pierścień z dzieleniem"); podobnie wektor zerowy w przypadku "przestrzeni liniowych", czy "algebr liniowych" itp. +Na podobnej zasadzie element odwrotny względem działania dwuargumentowego w dowolnej strukturze algebraicznej (o ile istnieje) jest działaniem jednoargumentowym, np. w dowolnej grupie (w tym dodawania w pierścieniach, ciałach, przestrzeniach liniowych czy mnożenia w ciałach; zob. grupa addytywna, grupa multyplikatywna). Za działania jednoargumentowe można uważać funkcje ustalonego zbioru w siebie, np. silnię, funkcje trygonometryczne, funkcję wykładniczą (o ustalonej podstawie), potęgowanie (przy ustalonym wykładniku) i pierwiastkowanie (ustalonego stopnia). +Działania dwuargumentowe są zasadniczym przedmiotem badań algebry uniwersalnej; strukturę złożoną ze zbioru i działania dwuargumentowego na nim określonego nazywa się grupoidem. Nałożenie dodatkowych warunków na działanie daje inne struktury, np. półgrupa to grupoid z działaniem łącznym; półgrupa z działaniem zeroargumentowym (element neutralny) to monoid, z kolei monoid z działaniem jednoargumentowym odwracania elementu nazywa się grupą. Podsumowując grupa to zbiór z trzema działaniami: dwu-, jedno- i zeroargumentowym (grupowe, odwracanie i element neutralny); można ją także określić jako zbiór z jednym działaniem dwuargumentowym (odwrotność powyższego działania grupowego, w notacji multiplikatywnej nazywane jest „dzieleniem”, a w addytywnej – „odejmowaniem”); grupę można również scharakteryzować jako zbiór z rodziną działań jednoargumentowych: mnożeń lewostronnych każdego elementu przez dowolny inny. +Bada się również zbiory z dwoma działaniami, zwykle związanymi ze sobą warunkiem rozdzielności, np. pierścień to zbiór z dwoma działaniami dwuargumentowymi (łączne i przemienne dodawanie oraz łączne mnożenie – rozdzielne względem siebie), jednym jednoargumentowym (branie elementu przeciwnego) oraz jednym zeroargumentowym (zero – element neutralny dodawania). Dodając działanie zeroargumentowe w postaci elementu neutralnego mnożenia (jedynka) otrzymuje się pierścień z jedynką, z kolei żądając od mnożenia by było przemienne uzyskuje się pierścień przemienny. Pierścień z jedynką, w którym określono działanie jednoargumentowe odwracania elementu nazywa się pierścieniem z dzieleniem, jeżeli mnożenie jest dodatkowo przemienne, to taki pierścień nazywa się ciałem. Innymi słowy zbiór ze strukturą grupy przemiennej i ten sam zbiór bez wyróżnionego elementu (mianowicie zera) ze strukturą półgrupy, których działania są względem siebie rozdzielne tworzy pierścień; zastąpienie półgrupy monoidem, grupą albo grupą przemienną daje odpowiednio pierścień z jedynką, pierścień z dzieleniem oraz ciało. +Przykładem działania trójargumentowego jest iloczyn mieszany określony na trójwymiarowej przestrzeni euklidesowej (unitarnej) w tę przestrzeń, w której określone są również dwa inne działania dwuargumentowe służące zdefiniowaniu iloczynu mieszanego: iloczyn skalarny (przemienny, w dowolnym wymiarze) oraz iloczyn wektorowy (antyprzemienny, tylko w trzecim wymiarze). Wszystkie powyższe działania były działaniami wewnętrznymi. Przykładami działań zewnętrznych są w ogólności funkcje zbioru w inny (działania jednoargumentowe), mnożenie przez skalar w algebrach liniowych, przestrzeniach liniowych, czy modułach (grupy przemienne ze wspomnianym działaniem, rozdzielnym względem działania grupowego), czy ogólniej: działanie grupy na zbiorze. +Shenyang + +Shenyang (chin. trad.: 瀋陽; chin. upr.. 沈阳; pinyin: "Shěnyáng"; mandż.: "Mukden" ) – miasto w północno-wschodnich Chinach, ośrodek administracyjny prowincji Liaoning, stolica Mandżurii. W 2010 roku liczba mieszkańców strefy zurbanizowanej wynosiła 3 559 349. Zespół miejski w 1999 roku liczył 8 726 655 mieszkańców. +Ośrodek szkolnictwa wyższego oraz przemysłu maszynowego, środków transportu, elektrotechnicznego, elektronicznego, mineralnego, skórzanego, włókienniczego, odzieżowego i metalurgicznego. Stolica rzymskokatolickiej archidiecezji. +Gospodarka. +Shenyang jest głównym ośrodkiem gospodarczym i naukowo-kulturalnym północno-wschodnich Chin. Rozwinięty jest przemysł środków transportu, rafineryjny, petrochemiczny, cementowy, włókienniczy, skórzany, papierniczy i spożywczy. Miasto jest także ważnym węzłem komunikacyjnym i ośrodkiem naukowym (wiele szkół wyższych, filia Chińskiej Akademii Nauk). Liczne muzea (m.in. Muzeum Prowincji Liaoning). +Transport. +Miasto z Pekinem, oddalonym o 658 km, łączy ekspres Jingshen. W pobliżu wybudowano Port lotniczy Shenyang-Taoxian. +W latach 1907−1973 w mieście działa sieć tramwajowa. +Cholina + +Cholina (kation 2-hydroksyetylotrimetyloamoniowy) – organiczny związek chemiczny, posiadający czwartorzędową grupę aminową, występujący najczęściej w postaci chlorku. +Znaczenie biologiczne. +Cholina wchodzi w skład niektórych fosfolipidów, a w szczególności lecytyny i sfingomieliny. Fakt, iż lecytyna jest niezbędna dla normalnego rozwoju organizmu zwierzęcego, sprawił, że początkowo cholinę zaliczano do witamin z grupy B. Pogląd ten uległ zmianie, ponieważ cholina jest syntetyzowana w bardzo ograniczonym zakresie przez organizm ludzki. Dodatkowo ilości choliny potrzebne do sprawnego funkcjonowania są duże: 0,5 - 4 g dziennie. +Produktem pośrednim jest więc N,N-dimetyloetanoloamina, a dawcą grup metylowych [-CH3] np. metionina. +Wybrane funkcje choliny. +Biosynteza acetylocholiny. +Cholina jest prekursorem acetylocholiny. Synteza acetylocholiny z choliny katalizowana jest przez enzym - acetylotransferazę cholinową. Reakcja zachodzi w cytoplazmie zakończenia nerwowego. +Rola choliny jako prekursora acetylocholiny jest szeroko badana, bowiem egzogenna cholina może być stosowana w leczeniu zaburzeń w układzie nerwowym. Terapię cholinową stosuje się m.in w: +Donor grup metylowych. +Ważna funkcja biologiczna choliny to m.in bycie donorem labilnych grup metylowych. Cholina służy jako dawca tych grup w biosyntezie różnych metylowanych związków. Utlenianie choliny do betainy zachodzi głównie w wątrobie i nerkach, a wytworzona betaina jest ważnym źródłem grup metylowych w procesach transmetylacji. +Wytwarzanie fosfatydylocholiny (lecytyny). +cholina + ATP → fosfocholina + ADP +fosfocholina + CTP → difosforan cytydylocholiny + PPi +difosforan cytydylocholiny + 1,2-diacyloglicerol → lecytyna + CMP +Użycie w lecznictwie. +Cholina pod postacią salicylanu, w pastylkach do ssania, jest stosowana do doraźnego łagodzenia bólu gardła - działanie przeciwzapalne ma jednak tylko komponent salicylanowy. +Hienadź Nawicki + +Hienadź Wasilewicz Nawicki (biał. Гена́дзь Васі́левіч Наві́цкі, ros. Генна́дий Васи́льевич Нови́цкий, "Giennadij Wasiljewicz Nowicki"; ur. 2 stycznia 1949 w Mohylewie) – białoruski polityk, premier Białorusi w latach 2001–2003 i przewodniczący Rady Republiki III kadencji. +W 1971 roku skończył Białoruski Państwowy Instytut Politechniczny ze specjalnością inżynier budownictwa. Następnie pracował jako majster, szef administracji budowy 56. zakładu budowlanego Mohylewa. +Żonaty, ma dwóch synów. +Andegawenia + +Andegawenia (fr. "Anjou") – kraina historyczna w zachodniej Francji, w dorzeczu dolnej Loary. W okresie rzymskim była zamieszkiwana przez galijskie plemiona Andekawów. +W X wieku hrabstwo francuskie. Od 1154 jest posiadłością Plantagenetów. W 1205 roku odzyskana dla Francji przez Filipa II Augusta. Od 1360 znajdowała się jako księstwo w rękach dynastii Andegawenów neapolitańskich. W 1487 została ostatecznie włączona do Francji. +Zobacz też. +Władcy Andegawenii +Objaw Courvoisiera + +Objaw Courvoisiera (syn. prawo Courvoisiera, ang. "Courvoisier sign", "Courvoisier's law") – objaw kliniczny charakterystyczny dla zaawansowanego nowotworu okolicy trzustkowo-dwunastniczej (zazwyczaj rak głowy trzustki lub przewodów żółciowych, a także dwunastnicy i brodawki Vatera), związany z zamknięciem dróg żółciowych przez naciekający lub uciskający guz. Charakteryzuje się występowaniem znacznie powiększonego, wyczuwalnego przez powłoki brzuszne i niebolesnego pęcherzyka żółciowego. +Współistnienie dostępnego palpacyjnie pęcherzyka oraz żółtaczki nie występuje w kamicy pęcherzyka żółciowego, co pozwala wstępnie zróżnicować te dwie przypadłości. Tworzące się w pęcherzyku kamienie mogą co prawda spowodować jego powiększenie, jednak żółtaczka pojawia się dopiero wtedy, gdy dostaną się one do przewodu żółciowego wspólnego, a to następuje w późniejszym etapie choroby, w którym to pęcherzyk posiada pogrubiałe ściany, ze względu na przebyte zapalenia, jest obkurczony i nie rozciąga się pod wpływem zwiększonego ciśnienia żółci. +Nazwa objawu honoruje jego odkrywcę, szwajcarskiego chirurga Ludwiga Georga Courvoisiera. +Chloroamina + +Chloroamina (NH2Cl) – toksyczny gaz tworzący się w reakcji amoniaku i podchlorynu sodu. +Chloramina jest popularnym środkiem odkażającym, stosowanym w roztworach wodnych, o lepszym działaniu od roztworów samego chloru, gdyż jest od niego trwalsza w roztworach, a ze związkami organicznymi nie tworzy szkodliwych dla zdrowia halometanów (jak np. czterochlorek węgla). +Stosowana jest podczas klęsk żywiołowych (np. powodzie) i innych niebezpiecznych zdarzeń (skażenie biologiczne terenu) jako doraźny środek do odkażania wody pitnej, sprzętów, domostw i ich otoczenia, jako środek odkażający w akwarystyce, w postaci pastylek uwalniających chloroaminę używana do uzdatniana zastanej wody do celów pitnych itp. +Układ sieciowy + +Układ sieciowy, w rozumieniu konfiguracji sieci elektroenergetycznej, określa sposób połączenia punktu neutralnego transformatora z ziemią oraz z siecią przesyłową. +Typy sieci. +Układy IT prądu przemiennego do 1000 V w Polsce bywają zwykle uziemiane przez bezpiecznik iskiernikowy, który w czasie normalnej pracy sieci zapewnia przerwę izolacyjną, pomiędzy punktem neutralnym N, a ziemią. Z uwagi na polepszenie się jakości izolacji stosowanej między uzwojeniem pierwotnym transformatora, co raz częściej jednak spotyka się układy IT uziemione poprzez impedancję. +Plebiscyt Przeglądu Sportowego + +Plebiscyt Przeglądu Sportowego na najlepszego polskiego sportowca roku – plebiscyt mający na celu wyłonienie najlepszego sportowca danego roku kalendarzowego w Polsce, wymyślony i organizowany przez redakcję Przeglądu Sportowego. Później do organizatorów plebiscytu dołączyła także Telewizja Polska, która transmituje Galę Mistrzów Sportu. Nazwa TVP jest także w oficjalnym tutule plebiscytu. Faktycznie jest to wybór 10 najlepszych polskich zawodników (pod uwagę brane są zarówno kobiety, jaki i mężczyźni we wszystkich dyscyplinach), z których jeden zostaje uznany za sportowca roku. Pierwsza edycja konkursu została przeprowadzona w 1926, a wygrał ją Wacław Kuchar. Od tego czasu plebiscytu nie organizowano jednak regularnie, bowiem w latach 1939–1947 (z uwagi na wybuch II wojny światowej) oraz w roku 1953 (względy organizacyjne) wyboru nie dokonywano. Dziesiątka Plebiscytu w 1953 wytypowana została dopiero w 1989 przez grono ekspertów. +Najwięcej razy tytuł sportowca roku otrzymali: Stanisława Walasiewicz (1930 i 1932-1934), Irena Szewińska-Kirszenstein (1965-1966, 1974 i 1976), Adam Małysz (2001-2003 i 2007) i Justyna Kowalczyk (2009-2012) – po 4 razy. +Uroczyste gale laureatów odbywały się w Warszawie (Sala Kongresowa Pałacu Kultury i Nauki, Hotel Victoria) w oraz Łodzi (Pałac Sportu). 75 gala sportowca roku odbyła się w Teatrze Polskim w Warszawie. +Plebiscyt Przeglądu Sportowego jest drugim najstarszym tego typu konkursem na świecie, po – organizowanym od 1925 – Svenska Dagbladets guldmedalj (plebiscycie na najlepszego sportowca roku w Szwecji). +Nienach + +Nienach – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Nie-" (przeczenie) i "-nach" (z "Naczęsław"), albo też podstawa "Nien-" powstała ze skrócenia imion z pierwszym członem "Nino-", takich jak "Ninomysł" i "Ninogniew". +Nagroda im. Profesora Hugona Steinhausa + +Nagroda im. Profesora Hugona Steinhausa - nagroda naukowa przyznawana corocznie od 1995 przez Polską Fundację Upowszechniania Nauki i Towarzystwo Popierania i Krzewienia Nauk za upowszechnianie i popularyzację nauki. Celem nagrody jest nagradzanie najlepszych popularyzatorów nauki a także przekonanie społeczeństwa, że nauka jest ważna i potrzebna a jej zagadnienia mogą być w sposób przystępny i fascynujący przedstawiane osobom niemającym profesjonalnego przygotowania. +Laureaci, obok nagrody pieniężnej, otrzymują charakterystyczną statuetkę w kształcie czworościanu foremnego z wpisaną weń szyszką. +Grzebiuszka ziemna + +Grzebiuszka ziemna, huczek ("Pelobates fuscus") – gatunek płaza z rodziny grzebiuszkowatych, zwanego również huczkiem. +Opis. +Długość ciała 5–8 cm, masa ciała 20–30 g. Ciało krępe, tylne kończyny krótkie i silnie umięśnione. Wyglądem nieco przypomina ropuchę, zwłaszcza po nadęciu płuc. Głowa duża, oczy silnie wystające. Pionowa źrenica. Brak w uchu błony bębenkowej. Czaszka pomiędzy oczami silnie uwypuklona. Skóra jest gładka z równomiernie rozmieszczonymi gruczołami, które po potarciu wydzielają substancję o zapachu czosnku. Na palcach tylnych kończyn dobrze rozwinięte błony pływne. Na ich spodniej stronie występują duże, silnie zrogowaciałe modzele podeszwowe, które służą jej do zagrzebywania się w ziemi. Ubarwienie ciała dość zróżnicowane u różnych osobników. Grzbiet ciała koloru jasnopopielatego, żółtawopopielatego lub oliwkowego. Pokryty plamami. Brzuszna powierzchnia ciała jasnokremowa i prawie bezplamista. Słabo zaznaczony dymorfizm płciowy. Główną cechą umożliwiającą rozpoznanie płci jest występowanie na grzbiecie samca dużych, owalnych skupisk gruczołów naramiennych. +Występowanie. +Występuje w Europie Środkowej, Południowej i Wschodniej. W Polsce na całym niżu, jednak nigdy masowo. W górach nie występuje. +Biotop. +Żyje wyłącznie na nizinnych terenach, głównie na glebach piaszczystych, piaszczysto-gliniastych, czarnoziemach, lessach, na torfowiskach. Lubi przebywać w ogródkach warzywnych i na polach uprawnych. Wybiera te podłoża, w których łatwo może się zagrzebać w ziemi. Jej pionowy zasięg wynosi tylko 300 m n.p.m. Na okres godowy wybiera różnego rodzaju zbiorniki wody stojącej: stawy, głębsze rowy melioracyjne, okresowo zalewane łąki, doły po wydobyciu piasku i żwiru itp. +Tryb życia. +Poza okresem godowym żyje wyłącznie na lądzie. Prowadzi nocny tryb życia ( z wyjątkiem okresu godowego, kiedy jest aktywna również w dzień). Jest płazem powolnym. Zaskoczona nie próbuje uciekać, lecz zagrzebuje się w ziemi ( w ciągu 2 – 5 min). Jeżeli podrapie się jej skórę, wydziela z gruczołów skórnych ostrą woń czosnku, unosi się na tylnych nogach i wydaje głośny skrzek. Dzień spędza ukryta w ziemi. Nie szuka w tym celu kryjówek, lecz sama wygrzebuje, za pomocą silnych tylnych nóg norę w ziemi, do której zwykle później nie wraca. Odżywia się głównie owadami. Na zimę zapada w sen zimowy. W tym celu zagrzebuje się w wykopanej przez siebie głębokiej norze w ziemi. +Gody. +Przeważnie już w marcu, lub na początku kwietnia, grzebiuszki rozpoczynają wiosenne wędrówki do zbiorników wodnych, gdzie odbywają gody. Powtórne gody mogą nastąpić między czerwcem a połową sierpnia. Wędrują głównie nocą. W czasie godów łączą się w pary (tzw. ampleksus). W tym czasie nie odżywiają się. Godujące samce i samice podczas pobytu w wodzie w ogóle nie pokazują się na jej powierzchni. Nie skupiają się też w jednym miejscu, jak np. żaby, a ich przybywanie do zbiornika (jak i same gody) jest rozciągnięte w czasie. Samce grzebiuszek nie posiadają rezonatorów, więc podczas godów nie uprawiają głośnych „żabich koncertów”. Zapłodnienie jest zewnętrzne. +Rozród. +Samica składa jaja, w postaci pojedynczego, grubego sznura, długości 40 do 100 cm i szerokości 2 cm, bezpośrednio do wody lub na roślinach wodnych. Z jaj wylęgają się larwy – kijanki, które oddychają skrzelami wewnętrznymi. Kijanki grzebiuszki osiągają długość kilkunastu centymetrów (w rzadkich przypadkach nawet do 18), są więc znacznie dłuższe od osobnika dorosłego. Przeobrażenie w dorosłą postać następuje zazwyczaj od połowy lipca do późnej jesieni. Czasami kijanki nie zdążą się przeobrazić przed zimą, wówczas zimują w wodzie w postaci larwalnej i przechodzą metamorfozę w następnym roku. +Ochrona. +Gatunek podlegający w Polsce ścisłej ochronie. +Niegodoma + +Niegodoma – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Niego-" ("rozkosz") i "-doma" ("dom"; psł. "*domъ" oznacza "pomieszczenie, gdzie człowiek żyje ze swoją rodziną"; "wszystko, co jest w domu, rodzina, mienie, majątek", "ród, pokolenie", "strony rodzinne, kraj ojczysty"). Mogło oznaczać "ten, w którego domu zawsze jest szczęśliwie". +Kwas chlorowy + +Kwas chlorowy, HClO3 – nieorganiczny związek chemiczny z grupy kwasów tlenowych. +Właściwości. +100% kwas chlorowy jest w temperaturze pokojowej bezbarwną, nietrwałą cieczą o gęstości 1,28 g/cm³. +Jest to kwas o dużej mocy, posiadający silne własności utleniające. W kontakcie ze śladowymi ilościami substancji organicznych wybucha. +Sole kwasu chlorowego. +Sole kwasu chlorowego to chlorany. Są one silnymi utleniaczami. Najbardziej znany jest chloran potasu (tzw. sól Bertholleta). +Eicca Toppinen + +Eino Matti "Eicca" Toppinen (ur. 5 sierpnia 1975 w Vantaa) - fiński muzyk, kompozytor i multiinstrumentalista, znany głównie jako wiolonczelista. Lider i współzałożyciel zespołu Apocalyptica. +Na wiolonczeli zaczął grać w wieku 9 lat, jednocześnie ucząc się grać na perkusji. Absolwent Sibelius-Akatemia. Początkowo wykonywał w zespole partie gitary basowej, obecnie gra solówki. W 2008 roku Toppinen otrzymał nagrodę Jussi za ścieżkę dźwiękową do filmu "Czarny Lód". +W 1997 roku ożenił się z fińską aktorką Kirsi Ylijoki, z którą ma dwóch synów: Eelis (ur. 1999) i Ilmari (ur. 2002). +Dyżurny ruchu pomocniczy + +Dyżurny ruchu pomocniczy – to wykwalifikowany pracownik kolei samodzielnie wykonujący część zadań dyżurnego ruchu dysponującego, np. prowadzi ruch na określonym szlaku, prowadzi dziennik ruchu i książkę przebiegów, obsługuje niektóre urządzenia albo powiadamia dróżników na przejazdach o odjeździe pociągu. +Fushun + +Fushun (chin.: 抚顺; pinyin: "Fǔshùn") – miasto o statusie prefektury miejskiej w północno-wschodnich Chinach, w prowincji Liaoning, w pobliżu miasta Shenyang. W 2010 roku liczba mieszkańców miasta wynosiła 1 417 054. Prefektura miejska w 1999 roku liczyła 2 269 093 mieszkańców. Największy w kraju ośrodek odkrywkowej eksploatacji węgla kamiennego, łupków bitumicznych i glin ogniotrwałych. Huty żelaza, aluminium, zakłady ekstrakcji łupków bitumicznych, rafineria ropy naftowej. Rozwinięty przemysł chemiczny, maszynowy, elektroniczny i materiałów budowlanych. W zachodniej części miasta wydzielono specjalną strefę ekonomiczną o powierzchni 3,6 km², ze specjalnymi udogodnieniami prawnymi w zakresie rozwoju ekonomicznego i technologicznego. +W mieście Fushun do 1950 roku więziony był przez chińskie władze ostatni cesarz Puyi. +Henryk II ziębicki + +Henryk (II) (urodzony pomiędzy 1371 a 1396 - zm. 11 marca 1420), książę ziębicki (razem z bratem Janem) w latach 1410-1420. +Henryk był najmłodszym synem księcia ziębickiego Bolka III i Eufemii Bytomskiej. Z powodu nie zachowania się wielu źródeł o życiu Henryku mamy znikome wiadomości. Osoba księcia jest obecna wyłącznie jako współwystawca dokumentów starszego brata Jana. Nie zdążył się ożenić - zmarł 11 marca 1420 roku i został zapewne pochowany w klasztorze w Henrykowie. +Tajemnica + +Tajemnica – dane lub informacje, których ujawnienie osobom nieuprawnionym jest zakazane ze względu na normy społeczne lub prawne. +Tajemnice chronione prawem w Polsce. +trzy powyższe określenia są obecnie nieaktualne +Niemoj + +Niemoj – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-moj" ("mój"). Być może powstało przez negację imion z członem "Moj-" (takich, jak "Mojmir"). +Aga chanowie + +Aga chanowie (aga khanowie) - główne ugrupowanie nizarytów, uznające dynastię Aga Chanów za imamów. +Są uważani za najbardziej postępową grupę w islamie. Zamieszkują głównie Indie, Tadżykistan, Afganistan i USA. Obecnie jest ich ponad 15 mln. Odgrywali i odgrywają poważną rolę w polityce współczesnych Indii oraz Tadżykistanu. Prowadzą szeroko zakrojoną działalność misjonarską na Zachodzie i w Azji Środkowej. +Niedomira + +Niedomira, Niedamirz – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z trzech członów: "nie-" (negacja), "-da-" i "-do-" ("dać") i "-mir", "-mirz" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Być może oznaczało "tę, która nie daje spokoju". +Niedomira imieniny obchodzi 14 lutego. +Męski odpowiednik: Niedamir. +Bohrowie + +Bohrowie ("Bohra", "Vohra", "Musta'ilici") - jedna z dwu głównych obok chodżów gałęzi ismailityzmu. Nazwa ich pochodzi od słowa "vohorvu" ("vyavahar"), co w gudźarati znaczy "handlować". Twierdzą iż ich przywódcy da'iowie są zastępcami imamów. Żyją głównie w Indiach (w Gujaracie) i w Bombaju, gdzie znani są z prowadzenia dużych ośrodków naukowych. Początkowo większość z nich pochodziła z warny braminów, później zaś stali się kupcami. Znacznie silniej zasymilowali się w hinduskim społeczeństwie niż chodżowie. Jest ich obecnie 2,3-2,8 mln. +Jan Tomkowski + +Jan Tomkowski (ur. 22 sierpnia 1954 w Łodzi), doktor habilitowany nauk humanistycznych, profesor historii literatury polskiej w Instytucie Badań Literackich Polskiej Akademii Nauk. +Historyk literatury, prozaik, eseista, autor podręczników do literatury polskiej i powszechnej, miłośnik literatury Juliusza Verne'a. Wykładał gościnnie w Studium Literacko-Artystycznym na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w Krakowie. +Honorowy Laureat "Złotej Maliny" przyznanej przez studentów Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. +Benelux + +Benelux – region w Europie Zachodniej składający się z trzech sąsiadujących ze sobą monarchii: Belgii, Holandii i Luksemburga. Nazwę tworzą pierwsze litery nazw tych krajów: "Belgique/België (Belgia), Nederland (Holandia), Luxembourg/Luxemburg (Luksemburg)." Pierwotnie ta nazwa oznaczała jedynie unię celną wspomnianych państw. +Historia. +Państwa Beneluksu są jednymi z najbardziej zaludnionych, najbardziej zurbanizowanych i najlepiej rozwiniętych gospodarczo państw świata. Średnia gęstość zaludnienia wynosi tu 375 osób na km², natomiast stopień urbanizacji - 85%. +Traktat powołujący Unię Celną Krajów Beneluksu został podpisany już 14 maja 1944 r. przez rządy na uchodźstwie przebywające w tym czasie w Londynie. Umowa nabrała mocy prawnej w 1947. Przestała obowiązywać w 1960, kiedy unia celna została zastąpiona Unią Ekonomiczną Krajów Beneluksu. Unia gospodarcza i monetarna łącząca Belgię i Luksemburg została pierwotnie powołana w 1921 roku i wciąż istnieje. +Powołanie tej organizacji przyczyniło się do powstania w późniejszym czasie Unii Europejskiej, której założycielami były właśnie kraje Beneluksu, a także RFN, Francja i Włochy. +Parlament Beneluksu (pierwotnie Międzyparlamentarna Rada Konsultacyjna) został stworzony w 1955. Zgromadzenie składa się z 21 członków holenderskiego parlamentu, 21 członków parlamentów narodowego i regionalnego Belgii i 7 członków parlamentu luksemburskiego. +Traktat powołujący Unię Ekonomiczną Krajów Beneluksu (Benelux Economische Unie/Union Économique Benelux) został podpisany w 1958, a wszedł w życie w 1960. Jego celem było umożliwienie wolnego przepływu pracowników, kapitału, usług i dóbr w regionie. +Główna siedziba (sekretariat) organizacji znajduje się w Brukseli. Wspólne prawo nadzoruje i tworzy Rada Ministrów Beneluksu. Co ważne, wspólne prawo nie dotyczy wszystkich dziedzin życia (w tym gospodarczego) w zrzeszonych państwach. +Nieprosz + +Nieprosz, Nieprasz, Nieproch – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-prosz" w różnych wersjach (od "prosić"). Być może oznaczało "ten, który nie prosi" albo powstało przez negację imienia "Prosimir". +Ból fantomowy + +Ból fantomowy - ból odczuwany w miejscu nieistniejącej, amputowanej kończyny lub w miejscu, w którym nie nastąpiły zmiany fizjologiczne, lub które nie zostało uszkodzone mechanicznie tak by mogło powodować ból rzeczywisty, np. w przypadku bolących, lecz zdrowych zębów. +Zend Engine + +Zend Engine – silnik języka PHP. Po raz pierwszy pojawił się w PHP 4, PHP 5 używa jego późniejszej wersji, tj. Zend Engine 2. +Zend Engine składa się z kompilatora kodu źródłowego do kodu bajtowego i maszyny wirtualnej wykonującej ten kod. Podział ten umożliwił powstanie wielu darmowych i komercyjnych aplikacji działających pomiędzy tymi dwoma etapami, m.in. Zend Accelerator, eaccelerator i wielu innych. Sam engine zawiera bardzo niewiele wbudowanych funkcji, większość z nich jest dodawana za pomocą rozszerzeń. Zajmuje się za to alokacją i ochroną pamięci, zliczaniem referencji, odśmiecaniem, etc. +Kod źródłowy jest dostępny za darmo i jest udostępniany razem z kodem źródłowym PHP. +Luty 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Chodżowie + +Chodżowie - aga chanowie pochodzenia indyjskiego, a także potomkowie indyjskich aga chanów, którzy przyjęli inne formy islamu. +Pochodzą głównie z warstw ludności zajmujących się handlem, przede wszystkim spośród kupców. Żyją głównie w Indiach, a w szczególności w stanie Gujarat. Ich dużym skupiskiem jest także Afryka Wschodnia, do której emigrowali w XIX wieku. W Indiach istnieje silny antagonizm między sunnitami, a chodżami. Jest ich około 15-16 mln. +Siarhiej Sidorski + +Siarhiej Siarhiejewicz Sidorski (biał. Сярге́й Сярге́евіч Сідо́рскі, ros. Серге́й Серге́евич Сидо́рский, "Siergiej Siergiejewicz Sidorski"; ur. 13 marca 1954 w Homlu) – białoruski polityk, w latach 2003–2010 premier Republiki Białorusi. +W 1976 ukończył Wydział Elektrotechniki Białoruskiego Instytutu Inżynierów Transportu Kolejowego. Doktor nauk technicznych. Specjalista w dziedzinie technologii próżniowo-plazmowych. Zasłużony pracownik przemysłu Republiki Białorusi. Autor ponad 40 naukowych prac i monografii. Akademik Międzynarodowej Akademii Inżynieryjnej. Karierę zawodową rozpoczął jako elektryk, elektromonter. +Siarhiej Sidorski potrafi posługiwać się językiem niemieckim. Żonaty, ma dwie córki. +Joachim Halupczok + +Joachim Halupczok (ur. 3 czerwca 1968 w Niwkach, pow. opolski, zm. 5 lutego 1994 w Opolu) – polski kolarz szosowy, wicemistrz olimpijski, mistrz świata. +Początkowo trenował w klubie LKS Ziemia Opolska. +W 1988 został powołany do kadry Polski i wraz z drużyną wziął udział w Letnich Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w Seulu. Zdobył tam srebrny medal w drużynowym wyścigu szosowym na 100 km. Startował także w drużynie w konkurencjach torowych. +26 sierpnia 1989 Joachim Halupczok zdobył złoty medal w gronie amatorów na Mistrzostwach Świata w kolarstwie szosowym w Chambéry (Francja). Wygrał mistrzowski wyścig z dużą przewagą nad rywalami. Ten sukces przyniósł mu wygraną w plebiscycie "Przeglądu Sportowego" na najlepszego sportowca Polski. +W 1990 podpisał kontrakt zawodowy i wziął udział w Mistrzostwach Świata w Japonii. Jesienią tego roku wynikły problemy zdrowotne (arytmia serca), które spowodowały, że musiał zrezygnować ze sportu. Podejrzewano, że przyczyną problemów było nadużywanie środków dopingujących (EPO). Odmiennego zdania jest prof. Romuald Lewicki z Zakładu Medycyny Sportowej WAM w Łodzi, który uważa, że doniesienia na temat EPO są nieprawdziwe. Zawodnik nie miał wrodzonej ani nabytej choroby serca, a arytmia mogła być następstwem nieleczonych infekcji dróg oddechowych. +5 lutego 1994 odbywały się zawody piłki nożnej halowej w Opolu. Joachim Halupczok miał tam wystąpić rekreacyjnie jako bramkarz. W czasie rozgrzewki zasłabł i stracił przytomność. Zmarł w drodze do szpitala. +Został pochowany na cmentarzu w Osowcu Śląskim. +Powiat szczycieński + +Powiat szczycieński – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Szczytno. +Niesiebądka + +Niesiebądka, Niesiebudka – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z trzech członów: "Nie-" (przeczenie), "sie" (przypadek zależny od "siego", "sich" – "w najbliższym czasie") i "-bąd-ka", "-bud-ka" ("bądź"). Istnieje też hipoteza, że "Sie-" w tym wypadku jest formą "Wsze-"; imię oznaczałoby wtedy "tę, która nie jest wszędzie", tzn. "tę, która lubi przebywać w jednym miejscu". +Męskie odpowiedniki: Niesiebąd, Niesiebud. +Conciergerie + +Conciergerie, Palais de la Cité (z fr. "concierge" - strażnik). - budowla o charakterze obronnym, która znajduje się na wyspie Cité - w centrum starego Paryża. Współcześnie jest jednym ze skrzydeł Pałacu Sprawiedliwości. +Średniowiecze. +Pałac królewski na wyspie Cité znajdował się już za czasów Merowingów. Między X a XIV stuleciem obiekt był systematycznie rozbudowywany i fortyfikowany, w szczególności w czasie rządów Ludwika Świętego i Filipa IV. +Ludwik Święty dobudował w obrębie słynną Sainte-Chapelle oraz Wielką Salę. Była to jadalnia przeznaczona dla osobistej służby króla oraz jego gwardii (łącznie 2 tysiące osób), służąca także do organizacji bankietów królewskich. Jest to dziś największa średniowieczna sala w Europie. Filip IV zbudował słynną dwuwieżową elewację od strony Mostu Wymiany. +Pierwsi Walezjusze kontynuowali rozbudowę pałacu w pierwszej połowie XIV w., jednak w 1358 r. rodzina królewska porzuciła zbyt ponury Conciergerie i przeniosła się do Luwru, oddając obiekt kanclerzowi i Zgromadzeniu Notabli w czasie obrad. Ostatecznie zamieszkał tam "concierge", czyli strażnik dworu królewskiego, a pałac stał się więzieniem, podlegającym jego jurysdykcji. +Swoją najbardziej znaną funkcję obiekt otrzymał w 1391 r. Stanowił więzienie ogólne, bez podziału na osadzonych politycznych i kryminalnych. Traktowanie więźniów było ściśle uzależnione od ich możliwości finansowych. Bogatsi opłacali lepsze cele (pojedyncze lub podwójne z łóżkiem, biurkiem oraz przyborami do pisania), średnio sytuowanych umieszczano w celach o nazwie "pistoles" z łóżkiem i skromnym stołem, natomiast biedni trzymani byli w salach zbiorowych lub w celach określanych jako "oubliette" ("miejsce zapomnienia"), w skrajnie niehigienicznych warunkach. +Liczne przebudowy obiektu sprawiły, że jest on dziś poważnie zmieniony w porównaniu z epoką średniowiecza. Zachowały się trzy wieże: Srebrna (dawniej miejsce przechowywania skarbu), Wieża Cezara oraz Wieża Tortur. +Rewolucja francuska. +Conciergerie zdobyło złą sławę w czasie Wielkiej Rewolucji Francuskiej, kiedy zyskało potoczną nazwę "przedpokoju gilotyny". Od 2 kwietnia 1793 r. do 31 maja 1795 r. Wielka Sala mieściła Trybunał Rewolucyjny, natomiast piętra budynku przeznaczono dla więźniów. Większość osadzonych przebywała w salach zbiorowych, lepsze warunki miały jedynie nieliczne osoby, które mogły kupić sobie pojedynczą celę oraz szczególnie ważni więźniowie, jak Maria Antonina, Danton czy Robespierre. Łącznie przez więzienie przewinęło się około 1200 osób. +XIX i XX wiek. +Conciergerie pozostało więzieniem jeszcze przez cały XIX i nadal w pierwszej kolejności przeznaczone było dla skazanych na karę śmierci lub długoletniego odosobnienia. Wśród znanych osadzonych z tego okresu są marszałek Michel Ney i późniejszy cesarz Napoleon III. W celi Marii Antoniny znajdowała się kaplica. Dopiero w 1914 r. obiekt zamieniono na muzeum; obecnie jego część jest dostępna dla zwiedzających. Reszta obiektu mieści Pałac Sprawiedliwości. +Liczba przewodnia + +Liczba przewodnia (LP) określa moc lamp błyskowych. Oznacza ona odległość w metrach lampy od obiektu, z jakiej do obiektu dotrze odpowiednia ilość światła do poprawnego naświetlenia filmu ISO 100/21° przy przysłonie f/1. +Jednostka arytmetyczno-logiczna + +Jednostka arytmetyczno-logiczna (z ang. "Arithmetic and Logical Unit" lub "Arithmetic Logic Unit", ALU) to jedna z głównych części procesora, prowadząca proste operacje na liczbach całkowitych. +ALU jest układem cyfrowym, służącym do wykonywania operacji arytmetycznych (takich jak dodawanie, odejmowanie itp.), operacji logicznych (np. Ex-Or) pomiędzy dwiema liczbami oraz operacje jednoargumentowe takie jak przesunięcie bitów, negacja. ALU jest podstawowym blokiem centralnej jednostki obliczeniowej komputera. +Typowe ALU ma dwa wejścia odpowiadające parze argumentów i jedno wyjście na wynik. +Przyczyną dla której operacje te grupuje się w ALU jest to, że bramek logicznych potrzebnych do zaimplementowania wszystkich operacji z zestawu: dodawanie (z przeniesieniem i bez), odejmowanie (z przeniesieniem i bez), negacja liczby, zwiększanie i zmniejszanie o 1, AND, OR, NOT, XOR jest niewiele więcej od zaimplementowania samego dodawania. Szybkie mnożenie wymaga znacznie więcej, a dzielenie jeszcze więcej bramek w porównaniu do tych operacji. +Klasyczne procesory zawierały jedno ALU. Procesory o architekturze superskalarnej zawierają kilka ALU, i mogą ich używać jednocześnie. +Często ALU te są nieidentyczne ─ np. z trzech ALU wszystkie potrafią wykonywać podstawowe operacje (dodawanie, odejmowanie i logiczne), a jedynie jedno potrafi mnożyć i dzielić. Taki procesor w jednym cyklu może wykonać np. 1 mnożenie i 2 dodawania, nie może natomiast wykonać 2 mnożeń. Jest to uzasadnione, ponieważ typowy program wykonuje o wiele więcej dodawań niż mnożeń, przy czym operacje dodawania są często niejawne dla programisty, bo są np. wykonywane przy wyliczaniu adresu pola obiektu na podstawie adresu obiektu czy zmiennej, której położenie jest określone względem rejestru adresowania. +Funkcje ALU. +Dotychczas najbardziej złożonymi obwodami elektronicznymi są obwody wbudowane wewnątrz układów współczesnych mikroprocesorów. Dlatego też takie procesory zawierają w sobie potężne i bardzo złożone ALU. W rzeczywistości nowoczesny mikroprocesor (bądź komputer główny) może posiadać wielokrotne rdzenie, każdy rdzeń z wielokrotnymi jednostkami wykonawczymi, każda jednostka wykonawcza z wielokrotnymi ALU. +Wiele innych układów może mieścić w sobie ALU: GPU (jednostka przetwarzania graficznego) jak ta w kartach graficznych nVidia czy ATI, FPU (jednostka obliczeń zmiennoprzecinkowych) w znanym koprocesorze 80387 oraz procesor przetwarzania sygnałów cyfrowych w karcie dźwiękowej Sound Blaster, odtwarzacze CD i odbiorniki telewizyjne HD. Wszystkie z nich posiadają kilka potężnych i złożonych jednostek arytmetyczno-logicznych. +Historia: Architektura von Neumanna. +Matematyk John von Neumann zaproponował model ALU w 1945 roku, kiedy to sporządził spis założeń dla nowego komputera EDVAC (z ang. "Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer", czyli elektroniczny komputer maszynowy o zmiennych nieciągłych). Później w 1946 r. pracował ze swoimi kolegami nad stworzeniem komputera dla Princeton Institute of Advanced Studies (IAS). Komputer IAS stał się prototypem dla wielu późniejszych komputerów. W swoim projekcie von Neumann nakreślił, co według niego będzie niezbędne w komputerze uwzględniając ALU. +Von Neumann oświadczył, iż ALU jest niezbędna dla komputera, ponieważ pewnym jest, że komputer będzie musiał wykonywać podstawowe operacje matematyczne obejmujące dodawanie, odejmowanie, mnożenie oraz dzielenie. Dlatego też twierdził, że „rozsądnym jest, aby komputer mieścił w sobie wyspecjalizowane organy dla tych operacji”. +Systemy numeryczne. +ALU musi wykonywać działania na liczbach używając tego samego formatu co reszta układu cyfrowego. Dla współczesnych procesorów liczby są prezentowane w kodzie binarnym jako liczby nieujemne, a liczby całkowite (ujemne) są przedstawiane w kodzie uzupełnień do dwóch. Wcześniejsze komputery używały szerokiej gamy systemów numerycznych, włącznie z dopełnieniem jedynki, BCD, formatem ze znaczeniem znaku, a nawet rzeczywistymi systemami dziesiętnymi, z dziesięcioma miejscami po przecinku. +Jednostki ALU dla każdego z tych systemów numerycznych były różnie projektowane i to przyczyniło się do wprowadzenia systemu dopełnienia do dwóch, jako że ten sposób ułatwia ALU wykonywanie operacji dodawania i odejmowania na liczbach ujemnych. +Przegląd praktyczny. +Większość operacji komputera jest wykonywana przez ALU. Jednostka ALU pobiera dane z rejestrów procesora. Dane te są przetwarzane a wyniki operacji są przechowywane w rejestrach wyjściowych ALU. Inne układy przesyłają dane pomiędzy tymi rejestrami a pamięcią. +Jednostka kontrolna zarządza jednostką ALU poprzez ustawianie układów, które informują ALU jaką operację należy wykonać. +Operacje złożone. +Inżynier potrafi zaprojektować ALU do wykonywania każdej operacji niezależnie jak jest skomplikowana, jednak problemem jest to, że im bardziej operacja jest skomplikowana, tym jednostka ALU jest droższa, zajmuje więcej miejsca w procesorze oraz zużywa więcej energii. +Sposoby podane powyżej uporządkowane są od najszybszego i najbardziej kosztownego do najwolniejszego i najtańszego. Dlatego też, nawet najprostszy komputer potrafi wykonać najbardziej złożony algorytm, jednak będzie potrzebował do tego dużo czasu, ponieważ poszczególne kroki do wykonania obliczenia zawierać będą opcje 3, 4 i 5 opisane powyżej. +Procesory o dużej mocy obliczeniowej jak np. Pentium IV czy AMD64 wykorzystują opcję 1 dla większości złożonych operacji oraz opcję 2 dla bardzo złożonych operacji. Jest to możliwe dzięki możliwości budowania bardzo złożonych jednostek ALU w tych procesorach. +Wejścia i wyjścia. +Wejściami ALU są dane na których się operuje (operandy) oraz algorytm z jednostki sterującej, który wskazuje którą operację należy wykonać. Wyjściem jest wynik obliczenia. +W wielu modelach, ALU generuje jako wejścia lub wyjścia zbiór kodów warunkowych z lub do rejestru statusowego. Kody te używane są do wskazywania takich procesów jak przeniesienie, przepełnienie, dzielenie przez 0 itp. +ALU vs. FPU. +Jednostka zmiennoprzecinkowa (z ang. "Floating Point Unit") również wykonuje operacje arytmetyczne na dwóch wartościach, jednak są to liczby w reprezentacji zmiennoprzecinkowej, co jest znacznie bardziej skomplikowane niż wykonywanie operacji na liczbach w kodzie uzupełnienia do dwóch ZU2 używanej w typowej ALU. W celu wykonania takich kalkulacji, FPU posiada kilka wbudowanych, złożonych układów, takich jak wewnętrzne ALU. +Zazwyczaj projektanci nazywają jednostkę ALU układem, który wykonuje operacje arytmetyczne w różnych formatach liczb całkowitych (np. ZU2 i BCD), podczas gdy układy dokonujące obliczeń na bardziej złożonych formatach np. zmiennoprzecinkowych, liczbach zespolonych itp. zwykle otrzymują bardziej szczegółowe nazwy. +Bibliografia. +Powyższe informacje zostały przetłumaczone na język polski z http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit przez Leszka Olejnika +Niestanka + +Niestanka – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-stanka" ("stać"). Mogło powstać przez negację imion z pierwszym członem "Stani-" albo pochodzić od imienia "Nestor" (w staropolszczyźnie Nieścior). Imię to zostało odnotowane w dawnych dokumentach w 1265 roku. +Męski odpowiednik: Niestek. +Niestanka imieniny obchodzi 7 kwietnia. +ClamAV + +Clam AntiVirus (ClamAV) – zestaw narzędzi antywirusowych, dostępnych na licencji GPL działający pod systemami uniksowymi. ClamAV jest przeznaczony głównie do integracji z serwerami pocztowymi (skanowanie załączników). +ClamAV jest dystrybuowany z wieloma systemami operacyjnymi, w tym komercyjnymi, np. Mac OS X Server firmy Apple. Istnieje też jego odpowiednik ClamWin działający w systemach Windows oraz KlamAV integrujący się ze środowiskiem graficznym KDE. +Historia projektu. +Pomysłodawcą programu jest Tomasz Kojm. 17 sierpnia 2007 Sourcefire zakupił projekt ClamAV, wraz z prawami do znaku towarowego i prawami autorskimi od pięciu kluczowych programistów. +Narzędzia w zestawie i towarzyszące. +ClamAV to nie tylko program antywirusowy, to także cała gama programów mu towarzyszących. Stanowią one połączenie między ClamAV a usługami takimi jak: MTA, MUA, serwer POP3, serwer pośredniczący, tworzą interfejs graficzny dla ClamAV, czy wreszcie wzbogacają system o taką funkcjonalność jak skanowanie przy dostępie do pliku. +Nielubiec + +Nielubiec – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-lubi-ec" ("miły, przyjemny, kochany"). Mogło oznaczać po prostu "niemiły" albo powstać przez negację imion z pierwszym członem "Lubo-", takich, jak "Lubomir" czy "Lubgost". +Żeński odpowiednik: Nieluba. +Naczęmir + +Naczęmir, Naczęmiar, Naczęmier – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Naczę-" ("zacząc") i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Być może oznaczało "tego, który zapoczątkowuje pokój". +Naczęmir imieniny obchodzi 9 grudnia. +Wybory parlamentarne w Iraku w styczniu 2005 roku + +Wybory parlamentarne w Iraku, 2005, odbyły się 30 stycznia 2005 roku na terenie Iraku. Były to pierwsze wybory parlamentarne w Iraku od obalenia reżimu Saddama Husajna w 2003 roku. Wybieranych było 275 przedstawicieli narodu irackiego do Zgromadzenia Narodowego. Już 29 stycznia 2005 roku rozpoczęło się głosowanie Irakjiczyków mieszkających poza granicami kraju. Lokale wyborcze utworzono w 15 państwach świata (łącznie 35 lokali). +Według danych państwowej komisji wyborczej, frekwencja wyniosła 59%. Oficjalnie było to 14 milionów Irakijczyków, ale listy wyborców powstawały głównie na podstawie wcześniejszych list, służących do przyznawania kartek zapomogowych. Lokale wyborcze funkcjonowały najlepiej na terenach zamieszkanych przez ludność kurdyjską i szyitów. Na tych terenach mówiło się o prawdziwym przewrocie w świadomości Irakijczyków i entuzjazmie związanym z wyborami. Inaczej było na terenach sunnickich. W Bagdadzie w dzielnicach sunnickich wiele lokali było zamkniętych, a w otwartych ruch był niewielki. W dwustutysięcznym sunnickim mieście Samarra oddano zaledwie 1400 głosów, wliczając w to głosy szyickich policjantów pilnujących urn wyborczych. +Głosowano na poszczególne ugrupowania systemem proporcjonalnym, bez progów wyborczych. Listy kandydatów były niejawne ze względu na niebezpieczeństwo zamachów terrorystycznych. Niezależna Komisja Wyborcza miała 10 dni na ogłoszenie wyników. +Mimo ochrony wyborów przez 170 tysięcy amerykańskich żołnierzy i ich sojuszników oraz tysięcy Irakijczyków służących w irackiej służbie bezpieczeństwa (w sumie około 200 tysiecy ludzi), w wielu miejscach dochodziło do zamachów. Zginęło w nich ponad 30 osób, z czego większość to cywile, a około setka została ranna. Odpowiedzialność za te akty przemocy, mające przeszkodzić w demokratycznych przemianach w Iraku, brał na siebie Abu Musab al-Zarkawi, jeden z ówcześnie najbardziej poszukiwanych przez USA terrorystów. +Wyniki wyborów. +W wyborach wygrał Zjednoczony Sojusz Iracki – ugrupowanie, któremu patronuje szyicki duchowny Ali al-Sistani uzyskując 48,19% głosów (140 mandatów w 275-miejscowym Irackim Zgromadzeniu Narodowym). Za nim uplasował się Demokratyczny Patriotyczny Sojusz Kurdystanu, który zdobył 25,73%% głosów (75 mandatów). Partia premiera Ijada Alawiego – Lista Iracka zdobyła 13,82% głosów (40 mandatów). +Frekwencja wyniosła 59%. +Prochownica + +Prochownica - pojemnik wykonany z drewna, metalu, rogu lub kości, używany przez piechotę w XVI - XIX wieku do noszenia prochu. Znane użycie w polszczyźnie ok. 1650. +W górnej części pojemnika znajdowała się metalowa rurka z urządzeniem umożliwiającym dokładne odmierzenie porcji prochu stanowiącej jeden ładunek. +Bissau + +Bissau – stolica Gwinei Bissau. Jest największym miastem i głównym portem kraju z 427 400 mieszkańcami (2007). Położone na wyspie u ujścia rzeki Gêba do Oceanu Atlantyckiego. +Miasto założone zostało w 1687 przez Portugalczyków jako ufortyfikowany port, będąc w tamtych czasach ośrodkiem handlu niewolnikami. W XIX wieku nabrało rangi największego centrum handlowego na terenie Gwinei Portugalskiej. W 1942 roku miasto stało się stolicą regionu. W 1974 roku zostało stolicą niepodległej Gwinei Bissau. +Przemysł spożywczy, drzewny, rzemiosło; międzynarodowy port lotniczy Bissau. Główne produkty z tych terenów to olej palmowy, orzeszki ziemne i guma. +Głównymi atrakcjami miasta jest coroczny karnawał oraz liczne plaże. W Bissau znajduje się także Narodowy Instytut Sztuk oraz stadion. Podczas wojny domowej (1998-1999) centrum zostało bardzo zniszczone, w ruinę popadł między innymi Pałac Prezydencki i Francuskie Centrum Kultury (obecnie odbudowane). Reszta miasta nie zdążyła się jeszcze dobrze rozwinąć. +Incoterms + +Incoterms (International Commercial Terms) lub Międzynarodowe Reguły Handlu – zbiór międzynarodowych reguł, określających warunki sprzedaży, których stosowanie jest szeroko przyjęte na całym świecie. Reguły te dzielą koszty i odpowiedzialność pomiędzy nabywcę i sprzedawcę oraz odzwierciedlają rodzaj uzgodnionego transportu. Incoterms odnoszą się do Konwencji ONZ dotyczącej Kontraktów dla Międzynarodowej Sprzedaży Dóbr. Zostały opublikowane w 1936 roku i wielokrotnie je nowelizowano. Obecnie obowiązującą wersją (od 1 stycznia 2011) jest Incoterms 2010, która zastąpiła Incoterms 2000. +Incoterms zajmują się kwestiami związanymi z transportem produktów od sprzedawcy do nabywcy. Obejmuje to m.in. przewóz produktów, rozliczenie odpowiedzialności eksportowych i importowych, pokrycie kosztów, w tym transportu i ubezpieczenia, przeniesienie ryzyka za stan produktów w różnych punktach procesu transportowego. Incoterms są używane zawsze w połączeniu z lokalizacją geograficzną i nie zajmują się transferem praw własności. +Incoterms 2000. +Reguły są zalecane i publikowane przez Międzynarodową Izbę Handlową (ICC). Oficjalną wersją Incoterms 2000 jest oryginalny tekst angielski, który został zaaprobowany przez Komisję Prawa Handlu Międzynarodowego (UNCITRAL) Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych. Autoryzowane tłumaczenia w 31 językach są dostępne w lokalnych komitetach ICC. +Reguły ujęte w Incoterms 2000 podzielone zostały na grupy, zróżnicowane ze względu na wspólne dla poszczególnych grup warunki, m.in. opłaty za transport i ubezpieczenie, moment przeniesienia ryzyka (a tym samym zrealizowania dostawy, co jest bezpośrednio związane z zagadnieniami dotyczącymi płatności za zrealizowany kontrakt), odpowiedzialności za formalności oraz koszty związane z odprawami celnymi eksportowymi i importowymi. +Bibliografia. +Tłumaczenie z Wikipedii angielskojęzycznej: "Incoterm" +Tekst źródłowy: Incoterms 2000, ICC publication 560 +Kinsale + +Kinsale (irl. "Cionn tSáile") - miasteczko w Irlandii w hrabstwie Cork u ujścia rzeki Bandon. +W okolicach miasta w 1601 roku rozegrała się Bitwa pod Kinsale pomiędzy wojskami irlandzko-hiszpańskimi oraz brytyjskimi. +W mieście znajdowała się baza morska, która z czasem została przekształcona na port jachtowy. Miasto słynie z ciekawej kuchni, co roku odbywa się tutaj Festiwal Smakoszy. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Strona internetowa Kinsale +Polarymetr + +Polarymetr jest to przyrząd optyczny służący do określania skręcalności substancji aktywnych optycznie, czyli takich substancji, których cząsteczki skręcają płaszczyznę polaryzacji światła. Po odpowiednim wyskalowaniu może służyć bezpośrednio do pomiaru stężenia roztworów tych substancji. Polarymetr służy też do określania składu mieszanin enancjomerów. +Budowa. +Polarymetr jest zbudowany z dwóch polaryzatorów np. pryzmatów Nicola (nikoli). Pierwszy z nikoli nosi nazwę polaryzatora a drugi analizatora. Pomiędzy polaryzatorami znajduje się standaryzowana kuweta, w której umieszcza się badaną substancję. +Karsibór (wyspa) + +Karsibór (do 1945 niem. "Kaseburg" t. "Caseburg") – wyspa na Zalewie Szczecińskim, w Polsce w województwie zachodniopomorskim w powiecie grodzkim Świnoujście. +Leży w północnej części Zalewu, na południe od wyspy Wolin, od której oddzielona jest Starą Świną. Wyspa powstała w latach 1874-1880 przez przekopanie południowo-wschodniego fragmentu wyspy Uznam Kanałem Piastowskim, który skrócił drogę wodną ze Świnoujścia do Szczecina. +Wyspa ma około 14 km² powierzchni. Są to głównie równiny zajęte przez uprawy rolne. W zachodniej części pokrywają ją Lasy Karsiborskie (pow. ok. 4 km²). Od południa otoczona jest wodami Zalewu Szczecińskiego. Na północy granicę Karsiboru stanowią ramiona Starej Świny – Rzecki Nurt i Młyńska Toń. Na wschód rozciąga się kraina ponad 40 wysp wstecznej delty Świny, z których większe to Warne Kępy, Wielki Krzek i Karsiborska Kępa. +Nazwa wyspy pochodzi od nazwy wsi (obecnie dzielnicy Świnoujścia) – Karsiboru. Jest to bardzo stara pomorska nazwa. W pomorskim języku „"karś"”, „"karśniawy"” znaczy „"lewy"”, co obecnie możemy tłumaczyć jako „"bór po lewej stronie"”. +Diafragma (strzelectwo) + +Diafragma - przyrząd służący do pokazania prawidłowego ustawienia muszki w stosunku do szczerbiny celownika bezpośrednio na przyrządach celowniczych broni strzeleckiej oraz prawidłowego zgrania równej muszki z punktem celowania. +Niedoma + +Niedoma – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-doma" ("dom"; psł. "*domъ" oznacza "pomieszczenie, gdzie człowiek żyje ze swoją rodziną"; "wszystko, co jest w domu, rodzina, mienie, majątek", "ród, pokolenie", "strony rodzinne, kraj ojczysty"). Być może oznaczało "tego, kto nie przebywa w domu" albo powstało przez negację imion z członem "Doma-" (takich, jak "Domamir" albo "Domarad"). +Guiot z Dijon + +Guiot z Dijon właśc. Guiot de Dijon – trubadur francuski (burgundzki) z Dijonu, żyjący w pierwszej połowie XIII wieku. +Autor sześciu zachowanych do dzisiaj utworów, m.in. znanej pieśni pielgrzymiej "Memu sercu dla wytrwania" ("Chanterai por mon corage"). +Wiaczasłau Kiebicz + +Wiaczasłau Francawicz Kiebicz (biał. Вячаслаў Францавiч Кебіч; ur. 10 czerwca 1936 w powiecie Wołożyn w woj. nowogródzkim) - białoruski polityk, były premier Białorusi. +Życiorys. +Z zawodu inżynier mechanik, od 1978 pełnił funkcję dyrektora fabryki budowy maszyn im. Kirowa w Mińsku. Podczas pierestrojki zaangażował się w politykę i 7 kwietnia 1990 objął stanowisko szefa rządu Białoruskiej SRR. Jako premier opowiadał się przeciwko likwidacji ZSRR, a później był zwolennikiem integracji gospodarczej i politycznej Białorusi z Rosją. +Startował w pierwszych wyborach prezydenckich na Białorusi, które miały miejsce 17 lipca 1994, dostając się do drugiej tury i przegrywając ostatecznie z Alaksandrem Łukaszenką. Po wyborach podał się do dymisji, zastąpił go Michaił Czyhir. +W latach 1996-2004 zasiadał w ławach Izby Reprezentantów Zgromadzenia Narodowego Republiki Białorusi. +Przegląd Sportowy + +Przegląd Sportowy – najstarszy polski dziennik sportowy, założony – jako tygodnik – w maju 1921 w Krakowie. Jego pierwszy numer ukazał się w sobotę 21 maja 1921. +Historia. +Pomysłodawcami pisma była grupa sportowych działaczy krakowskich: Ignacy Rosenstock, J. Billig, Aleksander Dembiński, Józef Szkolnikowski, Leon Gleissner i Tadeusz Synowiec. Pierwszym redaktorem naczelnym został Ignacy Rosenstock (pełnił tę funkcję do listopada 1921). W winiecie pierwszego numeru widniała informacja, iż „PS” jest organem krakowskiego Okręgowego Związku Piłki Nożnej. Od 23 lipca 1921 był także oficjalnym organem Polskiego Związku Piłki Nożnej i równocześnie czterech piłkarskich związków okręgowych – krakowskiego, warszawskiego, łódzkiego i lwowskiego. Od numeru 1 z 6 stycznia 1922 ukazywał się w piątek, później także w inne dni tygodnia. W kolejnych latach pojawiała się także informacja, iż jest oficjalnym organem Polskiego Związku Narciarskiego, Polskiego Związku Tenisowego (1922), Polskiego Związku Lekkiej Atletyki (1923). Od 1925 ukazywał się w Warszawie, od 1929 dwa razy w tygodniu. +Pierwszy numer powojenny ukazał się w Łodzi 12 lipca 1945. Od czerwca 1946 redakcja ponownie znalazła się w Warszawie. Od 1957 na łamach „PS” ukazuje się piłkarski Skarb Kibica. W stanie wojennym pismo zostało zawieszone (podobnie jak większość prasy) do 1 marca 1982. +24 lipca 1992 na inaugurację Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Barcelonie ukazało się pierwsze kolorowe wydanie. 6 października 2000 ukazał się pierwszy numer piątkowego dodatku – "Magazynu Sportowego". Obecnie wydawany w Warszawie – do 2 listopada 2007 przez "Marquard Media Polska Sp. z o.o.", a od 3 listopada 2007 przez Axel Springer Polska. Do końca marca 2000 ukazywał się pięć razy w tygodniu (od poniedziałku do piątku), zaś od Od 1 kwietnia 2000 – sześć razy (dodatkowo w soboty w tzw. wydaniu weekendowym sobotnio-niedzielnym). Po połączeniu się z krakowskim dziennikiem „Tempo” (a następnie całkowitej likwidacji krakowskiej redakcji), co piątek ukazuje się wraz z "Magazynem Sportowym" z dopiskiem "Tempo", jako jego dodatek ze zmienioną formułą (od 12 września 2008). +Niemal od samego początku dziennikarze tej gazety byli inicjatorami wielu doniosłych wydarzeń w historii polskiego sportu, m.in. utworzenia ogólnokrajowej rodzimej ligi piłkarskiej, wyścigu Tour de Pologne, a od 1926 regularnie organizują plebiscyt na najlepszego polskiego sportowca roku. +Redaktorzy naczelni. +Wśród redaktorów naczelnych pisma byli Kazimierz Wierzyński, jeden z głównych członków grupy poetyckiej Skamander oraz Ferdynand Goetel, pisarz, prezes Polskiego PEN Clubu. +Dziennikarze. +Poza kolejnymi redaktorami naczelnymi z „PS” związani byli m.in. Grzegorz Aleksandrowicz (1953-1970), Krzysztof Blauth (1976-1992), Zbigniew Cendrowski (1946-1974), Lech Cergowski (1949-1986), Adam Choynowski (1960-1989), Emanuela Cunge (1945-1961), Krzysztof Dąbrowski (1979-1991), Witold Domański (1956-1975), Jan Erdman (1928-1939), Zygmunt Głuszek (1952-1970), Jerzy Grabowski (1925-1935), Kazimierz Gryżewski (1936-1953), Jerzy Jabrzemski (1937-1939 i 1970-1978), Jerzy Jankiewicz (1970-1993,), Halina Jankowska-Niepokojczycka (1952-1971), Aleksandra Korolkiewicz (1962-1981), Jerzy Lechowski (1953-1970), Marian Matzenauer (1959-1982), Janusz Nowożeniuk (1952-1955 i 1958-2003) Stanisław Rothert (1926-1939), Mirosław Skurzewski (1971-?), Witold Szeremeta (1949-1970), Janusz Szewiński (1973-1992), Mieczysław Szymkowski (1956-1976?), Mieczysław Świderski (1958-1995), Zygmunt Weiss (1947-1970), Jan Wojdyga (1952-1992), Jerzy Zmarzlik (1951-1980) +Zespół redakcyjny. +Redaktorem naczelnym jest Marcin Kalita, a dyrektorem wydawniczym Marcin Biegluk. Zastępcą redaktora naczelnego jest Krzysztof Świercz. Funkcję sekretarza redakcji pełni Roman Brzozowski, a szefa wydawców Stanisław Żółkiewski. Szefem fotoedytorów jest Paweł Wroniewicz. +W przeszłości z gazetą byli związani takżeTomasz Jaroński, Tomasz Wolfke, Krzysztof Zorski, Karol Stopa, Edward Strzelecki, Roman Kołtoń, Tomasz Wołek, Sebastian Parfjanowicz, Rafał Nahorny, Janusz Basałaj i Grzegorz Krzemiński. +Ołena Laszenko + +Ołena Laszenko (ukr. "Олена Ляшенко", ur. 9 sierpnia 1976 w Kijowie) - ukraińska łyżwiarka figurowa, wielokrotna mistrzyni swojego kraju. +Od ponad 10 lat utrzymuje się w światowej czołówce, ale rzadko udaje jej się zająć miejsca na podium podczas ważnych imprez. Jej największe sukcesy to srebrny medal na mistrzostwach Europy w 2004 oraz brązowe medale mistrzostw Europy w 1995 i 2005. +Cobh + +Cobh (dawna nazwa Queenstown; irl. "An Cóbh") – niewielkie miasto (ok. 6500 mieszkańców) i port morski w hrabstwie Cork (Irlandia) leżące na południowy wschód od miasta Cork. Miasto jest miejscowością letniskową i uzdrowiskową. +Historia. +W 1720 powstał tu pierwszy w Irlandii klub żeglarski. W mieście znajduje się neogotycka katedra św. Kolmana (wzniesiona w latach 1868-1918). W latach 1848-1950 z miasta wypływały statki z emigrantami, głównie do Ameryki. Migracje te miały miejsce szczególnie w czasie wielkiego głodu, gdzie wypłynęło stąd ok. 2,5 miliona Irlandczyków. +W latach 1849-1922 miasto nosiło nazwę Queenstown (nadaną na cześć królowej Wiktorii). +Zakłady Radiowe im. Marcina Kasprzaka w Warszawie + + +ZRK (Zakłady Radiowe im. Marcina Kasprzaka w Warszawie) – nieistniejące obecnie zakłady przemysłowe produkcji elektrotechnicznej w Warszawie w dzielnicy Wola. +Historia firmy. +Zakład powstał w 1951, praktycznie w miejscu przedwojennej fabryki radioodbiorników Philipsa przy ul. Karolkowej. +Początkowo produkowały odbiorniki radiowe Syrena i (równocześnie z Diorą) odbiornik Aga. W latach 50., gdy w Polsce wszystko oznaczano tajemniczymi skrótami, produkty ZRK sygnowane były oznaczeniem T-3. Do najbardziej znanych produktów w latach 50. XX wieku należał odbiornik Stolica. W 1957 ZRK jako pierwszy zakład w Polsce uruchomił produkcję odbiorników turystycznych (lampowa Szarotka). W 1958 ruszyła produkcja magnetofonów (Melodia), a w 1959 odbiorników samochodowych (Żerań). +W końcu lat 60. XX wieku cała produkcja odbiorników radiowych została przekazana do Diory a ZRK specjalizowały się w produkcji magnetofonów szpulowych, kasetowych i radiomagnetofonów przenośnych. Na początku lat 70. asortyment wzbogaciły magnetowidy, a w latach 80. zestawy muzyczne typu "wieża". Pod koniec lat 80. wszedł też do produkcji pierwszy polski walkman PS 101 Kajtek. +Zakłady Radiowe Kasprzaka utworzyły w latach 70. XX w. oddział w Lubartowie, później przekształcony w samodzielne przedsiębiorstwo Unitra-Lubartów, w którym zajmowano się głównie produkcją magnetofonów i radiomagnetofonów. +W latach 70. i 80. przedsiębiorstwo państwowe należało do Zjednoczenia Przemysłu Elektronicznego UNITRA. +ZRK były również pionierem w produkcji krajowych materiałów ferrytowych. Początkowo (połowa lat 50.) była to pracownia badawcza. Z końcem lat 50., gdy wzrosło zapotrzebowanie na te materiały, z inicjatywy dr A. Bragińskiego przekształcona w Zakłady Materiałów Magnetycznych Polfer. +Upadłość. +25 lipca 1994 roku sąd gospodarczy w Warszawie ogłosił upadłość Zakładów Kasprzaka, na wniosek jednego z wierzycieli ZRK . Z wnioskiem o upadłość wystąpił Tadeusz Koherewicz syndyk masy upadłości Naukowo-Produkcyjnego Centrum Półprzewodników CEMI, któremu Zakłady Kasprzaka były winne 4 mld starych złotych (czyli 400 tys PLN). Syndyk CEMI tłumaczył że kierownictwo Kasprzaka zaczęło negocjować z Bankiem Handlowym (jednym z jej głównych wierzycieli) spłatę długów poza porozumieniem z pozostałymi wierzycielami, przez co syndyk CEMI uznał to za działanie na szkodę wszystkich wierzycieli i wystąpił do sądu o ogłoszenie upadłości "Kasprzaka". Sędzią komisarzem w postępowaniu CEMI był Dariusz Czajka, prowadzący jednocześnie rozprawę upadłości Kasprzaka. Na syndyka upadłych Zakładów Kasprzaka wyznaczono Tomasza Palaszka, który kilka miesięcy później najatrakcyjniejszą część nieruchomości po ZRK sprzedał Kredyt Bankowi za 175 mld starych złotych (17,5 mln zł). Były szef ZRK ostatni dyrektor naczelny Marek Łotocki zaskarżył postanowienie sądu o ogłoszeniu upadłości przedsiębiorstwa. Postanowieniem z dnia 2 lutego 1995 r. Sąd Wojewódzki w Warszawie oddalił rewizję dłużnika, natomiast postanowieniem z dnia 7 października 1999 r. sąd ukończył postępowanie upadłościowe Przedsiębiorstwa Państwowego Zakłady Radiowe im. Marcina Kasprzaka w Warszawie. +Zakład został zlikwidowany pod koniec lat 90. XX w., obecnie przebudowane budynki ZRK pełnią funkcje biurowe. +Ważniejsze produkty. +Poza tym ważną gałęzią produkcji były systemy łączności dla Wojska Polskiego. +Kwas chlorawy + +Kwas chlorawy, HClO2 – nieorganiczny związek chemiczny z grupy kwasów tlenowych. +Kwas chlorawy jest słabym, nietrwałym kwasem o silnych własnościach utleniających. Nie ma swojego bezwodnika kwasowego z powodu jego nietrwałości. +Jego sole, chloryny, są trwalsze od kwasu. Także są silnymi utleniaczami. Przykładem jest chloryn sodu (NaClO2), dostępny handlowo jako środek do bielenia tkanin i dezynfekcji. +Hattusa + +Hattusa (w literaturze przedmiotu również "Hattusas", "Hattuşaş" i "Hattusza") — stolica imperium hetyckiego. Obecnie stanowisko archeologiczne położone w pobliżu miasta Boğazkale w Anatolii, około 145 km od Ankary, w 1986 roku wpisane na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +Miasto zostało założone przed 2000 rokiem p.n.e. przez lud Hatti. W XIX i XVIII w. p.n.e. znajdowała się tu faktoria handlowa związana z kupiecką kolonią asyryjską w Kanesz, położonej w pobliżu dzisiejszego Kültepe. Około 1700 r. p.n.e. miasto zostało zdobyte przez króla Anitta, wywodzącego się z miasta Kussary, który zrównał miasto z ziemią, przestrzegając następców, by, pod groźbą boskiej kary, nie ważyli się go odbudować. W połowie XVII w. p.n.e. król Labarna z Kussary, który przybrał imię Hattusilis I, otoczył kamiennym murem obszar zrujnowanego miasta i w ich obwodzie wzniósł nowe budynki. Hattusa stała się stołecznym miastem hetyckiego państwa. Miasto założono na ściętym wierzchołku, obronnego z natury, wzgórza o powierzchni ok. 1,8 km². Składało się z dwóch jednostek: wewnętrznej cytadeli z budynkami administracyjnymi i świątyniami, i właściwego miasta opasanego murami z trzema potężnymi bramami, do których prowadziły platformy flankowane zewnętrznymi murami. Zachodnia brama była ozdobiona reliefem lwa, wschodnia reliefem wojownika, południowa reliefem sfinksa. Na terenie miasta wzniesiono cztery zespoły świątynne. W trakcie badań odnaleziono w Hattusie jedną z najstarszych królewskich bibliotek z terenów Bliskiego Wschodu, liczącą 1300 tabliczek. +Hattusa została zdobyta ok. 1200 r. p.n.e. prawdopodobnie przez tak zwane Ludy Morza, i to wydarzenie stanowi końcową cezurę istnienia państwa hetyckiego. +Inna teoria mówi, że Hetyci sami opuścili miasto. Przeprowadzili oni stopniową ewakuację, zabrali wszystko co mogłoby być przydatne ich wrogom po czym podłożyli ogień pod budynki związane z organami władzy. +W 1906 roku niemiecki archeolog Hugo Winckler rozpoczął tu badania archeologiczne. +Niemiła + +Niemiła – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "nie-" (negacja) i "-miła". Mogło oznaczać po prostu "niemiła" albo powstać przez negację imion z pierwszym członem "Miło-", takich, jak "Miłosława". +Mmap + +mmap to wywołanie systemowe nakazujące systemowi operacyjnemu odwzorowanie danej części wybranego pliku w przestrzeni adresowej procesu. Operacja ta powoduje, że do obszaru pliku można odnosić się jak do zwykłej tablicy bajtów w pamięci, eliminując potrzebę korzystania z dodatkowych wywołań systemowych typu read lub write. Z tego powodu często używa się tej operacji do przyspieszenia działania na dużych plikach. +void *mmap(void *start, size_t length, int prot, int flags, int fd, off_t offset); +W celu zlikwidowania odwzorowania należy użyć wywołania munmap. +Place de la Concorde + +Place de la Concorde (pl. "Plac Zgody") – obszerny plac w centrum Paryża między Polami Elizejskimi a Ogrodami Tuilerie. +Place zbudowano w latach 1755-1775 według projektu Jacques'a Ange Gabriel'a. Na jego środku ustawiono pomnik Ludwika XV, a sam plac otrzymał jego imię. W czasach rewolucji francuskiej usunięto pomnik króla, a na placu ustawiono gillotynę. Swoje stałe miejsce gilotyna znalazła przy wejściu do Ogrodów Tuilerie. Tu pozbawiła życia ponad 1300 osób. Między innymi w 1793 roku ścięto na placu króla Ludwika XVI oraz królową Marię Antoninę. +Współczesną nazwę nadano placowi po Rewolucji mając nadzieję, że czasy krwawego terroru nigdy nie wrócą. W centralnej części placu znajduje się egipski obelisk podarowany w 1831 roku przez kedywa (wicekróla) Egiptu, Muhammada Alego. Obelisk ma ponad 3300 lat (w 2006 r.) i pochodzi ze świątyni w Luksorze. Waży 230 ton i mierzy 23 metry wysokości. W ostatnich latach Egipt żąda jego zwrotu. +Na placu znajdują się również dwie duże ozdobione rzeźbami z brązu fontanny: Fontanna Rzek i Fontanna Mórz pochodzące z okresu przebudowy placu w latach 30. XIX wieku. +W narożnikach placu znajduje się osiem kobiecych posągów będących symbolami głównych miast francuskich. Ludwika XVI ścięto koło posągu Brestu. Przy placu znajduje się Ministerstwo Marynarki ("Hotel de la Marine"), ekskluzywne hotele, m.in "Hôtel De Crillon", ulubione miejsce pobytu cesarzowej Eugenii w czasie jej odwiedzin w Paryżu po roku 1880, a także siedziba Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Place de la Concorde z satelity w Google.maps +Bijagós + +Bijagós – archipelag, w skład którego wchodzi 88 wysp na Oceanie Atlantyckim, o łącznej powierzchni 2624 km², należąca do Gwinei Bissau. W czasach przedkolonialnych wyspy te były ważną przystanią w szlakach handlowych wzdłuż Afryki Zachodniej. Kontrolę nad wyspami Portugalia uzyskała dopiero w 1936. +Ludność archipelagu (jego 23 zamieszkanych wysp) wynosi 33,93 tys. osób (2008), którzy w dużej mierze zachowali pierwotny, oparty na rolnictwie i łowiectwie, tryb życia. Południowe wyspy archipelagu są rezerwatem przyrody. Niektóre z wysp (Bubaque, Bolama, Caravela) posiadają znaczenie turystyczne, którego nie utraciły nawet w czasach krwawych rozruchów w kontynentalnej części Gwinei Bissau. +Taoiseach + +Taoiseach, An Taoiseach (IPA: lub , liczba mnoga: "Taoisigh" lub ; dosłownie z irl. - wódz, przywódca) – szef rządu Irlandii. +Podstawy prawne. +Stanowisko taoiseacha zostało wprowadzone przez konstytucję Irlandii z 1937 i zastąpiło stanowisko prezesa rady wykonawczej, które istniało w Wolnym Państwie Irlandzkim. +Zgodnie z obowiązującą konstytucją taoiseach jest mianowany przez prezydenta, na wniosek izby niższej parlamentu (Dáil Éireann), której musi być członkiem. Przez cały okres piastowania swojego stanowiska, taoiseach musi cieszyć się wotum zaufania Dáil Éireann. +Taoiseach nominuje innych członków rządu (ogółem nie mniej niż siedmiu i nie więcej niż piętnastu), których musi zaakceptować Dáil Eireann. Nominuje także jednego członka rządu, zwanego Tánaiste, który pełni funkcję wicepremiera. Wszyscy członkowie rządu są mianowani przez prezydenta. +Organizacja Współpracy Gospodarczej Państw Morza Czarnego + +Organizacja Współpracy Gospodarczej Państw Morza Czarnego (ang. Organization of Black Sea Economic Cooperation, BSEC) – organizacja międzynarodowa powstała w 1992 roku z inicjatywy Turcji, skupiająca kraje położone w regionie Morza Czarnego +Geneza. +Budowanie partnerskich stosunków między krajami regionu Morza Czarnego stało się możliwe po rozpadzie Związku Radzieckiego i wyzwoleniu się krajów Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej spod politycznego wpływu Moskwy w 1991 roku. 25 czerwca 1992 odbył się szczyt jedenastu przywódców krajów regionu. Oficjalnie współpraca czarnomorska przekształcona została w organizację międzynarodową podczas spotkania przywódców państw 5 czerwca 1998 roku. +Kraje członkowskie. +Obecnie zrzesza 12 członków: +Wędzidełko napletkowe + +Wędzidełko napletkowe (łac. "frenulum preputii") – niewielki cienki fałd skórny łączący napletek z żołędzią prącia. Znajduje się na dolnej (cewkowej) powierzchni penisa i jest szczególnie czułe na dotyk. Wędzidełko jest najczęściej usuwane podczas zabiegu obrzezania, które zalecane jest przez urologów w sytuacjach, gdy jest zbyt krótkie lub ciasne, co powoduje dyskomfort w życiu seksualnym. +W niektórych przypadkach, występuje wada anatomiczna – zbyt krótkie włókna wędzidełka; może wtedy dojść do naderwania wędzidełka lub jego zerwania. Zerwanie podczas aktywności seksualnej jest nierzadką przypadłością. Jest to naturalny proces wydłużenia się wędzidełka. W przypadku naderwania zaleca się natychmiast udać się na pogotowie celem wykonania plastyki wędzidełka (podcięcie krótkich włókien i uwolnienie napletka). Chirurg po podaniu znieczulenia rozcina wędzidełko wzdłuż prącia, po czym obie jego części przyszywa. W przypadku zerwania wędzidełka nie ma potrzeby interwencji chirurgicznej, jeżeli krwawienie samoistnie ustaje. Całkowity czas gojenia się wynosi około 2,5 - 4 tygodni i w tym czasie należy unikać współżycia, gdyż dochodzi do miejscowego podrażnienia. Zerwanie wędzidełka poprawi jakość doznań podczas współżycia, nie ma powodu do niepokoju. Natomiast gdy z rany nie leci już krew (jest za późno na podszycie), zaleca się wizytę u urologa. Raz zerwane wędzidełko bez interwencji chirurgicznej może zrywać się stale. +Barwy interferencyjne + +Barwy interferencyjne są to barwy widoczne w kryształach i ciekłych kryształach anizotropowych optycznie przy badaniu pod mikroskopem w świetle spolaryzowanym przy skrzyżowanym polaryzatorze i analizatorze. +Barwy interferencyjne powstają w krysztale, ponieważ kąt polaryzacji światła przechodzącego przez kryształy ulega zmianie i zmiana ta jest funkcją jego kąta padania na powierzchnię kryształu. Prędkość przechodzenia światła przez sam kryształ zależy natomiast od kąta jego polaryzacji. Światło opuszcza więc kryształ, będąc w różnych fazach, co powoduje powstanie barw interferencyjnych. +Dopełnienie algebraiczne + +Dopełnienie algebraiczne - w algebrze liniowej dopełnienie algebraiczne elementu formula_1 danej macierzy kwadratowej formula_2 stopnia formula_3 jest to iloczyn formula_4 oraz minora formula_5 czyli wyznacznika podmacierzy stopnia formula_6 powstałego z usunięcia formula_7-tego wiersza oraz formula_8-ej kolumny macierzy formula_2. +Dopełnienie algebraiczne elementu formula_10 macierzy formula_2 oznacza się często symbolem formula_12, a macierz +złożoną z dopełnień algebraicznych (oznaczaną formula_14), nazywa się "macierzą dopełnień algebraicznych" macierzy formula_2. +Kartki (reglamentacja towarów) + +Kartki – w gospodarkach, w których obowiązuje reglamentacja towarów, nazwa bonów bądź kuponów uprawniających do nabycia określonych towarów. +W zależności od wariantu kupony te umożliwiają bezpłatne nabywanie tych towarów, nabywanie po preferencyjnych cenach, lub po zwykłych cenach urzędowych. +System kartkowy funkcjonuje zwykle w okresie silnych niedoborów żywności spowodowanych wojną, klęskami żywiołowymi lub perturbacjami politycznymi i ma na celu zapewnienie wszystkim przynajmniej minimalnych racji żywnościowych. +Kartki stosowane były praktycznie we wszystkich krajach Europy w czasie trwania i tuż po II wojnie światowej (najczęściej na zakup żywności i paliwa), ale w większości krajów wkrótce zostały wycofane. +System kartkowy obecnie obowiązuje jeszcze na Kubie i w Korei Północnej. +System Reglamentacji w PRL. +W Polsce kartki wprowadzono ponownie w lipcu 1976 – na zakup cukru. +Od roku 1981, wobec coraz wyraźniejszych niedoborów na rynku, wprowadzano coraz więcej ograniczeń i poszerzano zakres reglamentacji. Najpierw, oprócz funkcjonujących już pięć lat kartek na zakup cukru wprowadzono kartki uprawniające do zakupu mięsa, potem reglamentacją objęto jeszcze masło, kaszę, ryż, mąkę, następnie olej, mydło, proszki do prania, słodycze, papierosy, alkohol, benzynę itd. +Grafika:Kartka_cukier_1kg_07-76.jpg|Pierwsza "gierkowska" kartka na cukier z 1976 +Grafika:Kartka_P3_11-83.jpeg|Kartka wieloasortymentowa – oprócz mięsa – z XI 1982 +Grafika:Ksiazeczka Zdrowia Dziecka-wpis masla.jpg|Dzieci otrzymywały dodatkowe masło na podstawie wpisów do książeczek zdrowia +Grafika:Ksiazeczka Zdrowia Dziecka-wpis lugolu.jpg|Tu wpisano prócz masła i sera – płyn Lugola po katastrofie w Czarnobylu + +Kartki na artykuły codziennego użytku w Polsce ostatecznie wycofał rząd Mieczysława Rakowskiego. Ostatnim towarem reglamentowanym było mięso – kartki obowiązywały do końca lipca 1989 r., jednakże w ostatnich miesiącach legalnie dostępne było tzw. mięso z uboju gospodarczego, w praktyce nieznacznie tylko droższe od mięsa reglamentowanego. +Ciekawostki. +Reprodukcje pierwszych polskich kartek na cukier trafiły jeszcze w 1976 roku na plakaty prawicowych konkurentów szwedzkich socjaldemokratów jako argument przeciw rządom lewicy. Na plakacie tym pod wizerunkiem polskiej kartki było pytanie: "Czy chcesz tego w Szwecji?" +Powiat piski + +Powiat piski – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Pisz. +Niedamir + +Niedamir – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "nie-" (negacja), "-da-" ("dać") i "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Być może oznaczało "tego, kto nie daje spokoju". +Niedamir imieniny obchodzi 14 lutego i 16 listopada. +Żeńskie odpowiedniki: Niedomira, Niedamirz. +W sadze o wiedźminie Niedamir to imię Króla Ligi z Hengfors. +Skala hypodorycka + +Skala hypodorycka (nazywana również "eolską") to siedmiostopniowa skala muzyczna wypracowana przez antyczną kulturę eolską. +Jest skalą pochodną, która złożona jest z dźwięków skali doryckiej. Przedrostek "hypo" w nazwie znaczy "pod"; skala rozpoczyna się o kwintę w dół niż skala podstawowa, czyli od dźwięku a. Dzieli się na tetrachordy. Zbudowana jest w kierunku opadającym. +Skala współcześnie nie jest używana. +Karsibór (Świnoujście) + +Karsibór (dawniej "Karsibórz", do 1945 niem. "Kaseburg") – część miasta Świnoujścia, dawna wieś ; pełni funkcję rybacką i wypoczynkową na wyspie Karsibór, nad Mulnikiem i Kanałem Piastowskim. Całą wyspę Karsibór zamieszkują 733 osoby (stan na 31.12.2008); zachowany zabytkowy gotycki kościół. W Karsiborze ma pętle linia autobusowa nr 5. +Historia. +W 1242 roku bogaty klasztor meklemburgski w Dargun nabył za zgodą księcia Barnima I znaczne obszary ziemi na wyspie Uznam poprzez zakup kilku wsi, m.in. Karsiboru, i to ze wszystkimi przynależnościami, czyli z polami uprawnymi, łąkami, pastwiskami, lasami i akwenami wraz z rybactwem. Jako właścicieli Gardis i Karsiboru wymienia się dwóch łużyckich szlachciców - Sabika i Rozwara, którzy sprzedali swoje włości za 80 marek klasztorowi w Dargun. Tenże klasztor musiał jeszcze dopłacić 32 marki gdy dwóch synów Sabika, którzy byli nieobecni przy sprzedaży, zgłosili także swe prawo do tych włości. W roku 1265 posiadali już darguńscy cystersi w Karsiborze swój folwark. +Podczas swojego marszu z Peenemünde na Wolin w dniach 14–19 lipca 1630 w "Kaseburgu" nocował wraz z oddziałem kawalerii król szwedzki Gustaw II Adolf. +Nazwę "Karsibór" wprowadzono urzędowo rozporządzeniem w 1946 roku, zastępując poprzednią niemiecką nazwę "Kaseburg". +Karsibór w przeszłości nie był ani mało znaczącą, ani położoną na uboczu osadą czy wsią. Dopiero w wieku XIX, gdy wybudowano w 1880 roku Kanał Piastowski radykalnie zmienił jego sytuację. Powstała wyspa Karsibór, na którą uruchomiono przeprawę promem linowym, a później łańcuchowym. Most, który dziś łączy wyspy Karsibór i Wolin zbudowano dopiero w roku 1967. +Gromada Karsibór została włączona do Świnoujścia 31 grudnia 1959 roku. +W latach 1991–2004 Karsibór współtworzył jednostkę pomocniczą – Sołectwo Karsibór-Ognica. +Samorząd mieszkańców. +Świnoujście utworzyło jednostkę pomocniczą miasta – "Sołectwo Karsibór", którego granice stanowi jednostka obszarowa miasta Karsibór – wszystkie wyspy delty wstecznej Świny. Organem uchwałodawczym jest zebranie wiejskie, a organem wykonawczym jest sołtys. Organem doradczym, wspomagającym działalność sołtysa jest 5-osobowa rada sołecka. Zebranie wiejskie wybiera sołtysa i radę sołecką. +Rue de Rivoli + +Rue de Rivoli to ulica w centrum Paryża biegnąca równolegle do Sekwany obok Luwru o długości około 3 kilometrów. Wybudowana została w latach 1802-1835 na życzenie Napoleona. Jej nazwę nadano na cześć zwycięstwa Napoleona nad Austriakami w bitwie pod Rivoli w 1797. +Przy Rue de Rivoli stoją Louvre de Antiquaires, kiedyś domy towarowe, dzisiaj centrum antyków mieszczące ok. 250 antykwariatów oraz kościół Saint Germain l'Auxerrois. Jest tu wiele drogich sklepów i ekskluzywnych hoteli. +Na placu "Place des Pyramides" w północnej pierzei ulicy w pobliżu Luwru znajduje się pomnik Joanny d'Arc z 1874 roku autorstwa "Emmanuela Frémiet". +Mieczysłau Hryb + +Mieczysłau Iwanawicz Hryb (biał. Мечыслаў Іванавіч Грыб, ros. Мечислав Иванович Гриб, "Mieczisław Iwanowicz Grib", ur. 29 września 1938 w Sawiczach k. Zdzięcioła) – białoruski milicjant i polityk, w latach 1994–1996 przewodniczący Rady Najwyższej Republiki Białorusi XII kadencji. Od momentu objęcia stanowiska przewodniczącego parlamentu do zaprzysiężenia Alaksandra Łukaszenki był głową Republiki Białorusi. +Życiorys. +W 1959 ukończył Wyższą Szkołę Pożarniczą MSW ZSRR we Lwowie, a w 1967 studia prawnicze w Białoruskim Uniwersytecie Państwowym. +Od 1959 służył w milicji. Początkowo był inspektorem ochrony przeciwpożarowej w Wydziale Spraw Wewnętrznych rejonu pliskiego w obwodzie witebskim. Od początku lat 60. pracował w organach milicji Witebska i obwodu witebskiego. W latach 1981–1985 pełnił funkcję naczelnika wydziału ochrony porządku publicznego Ministerstwa Spraw Wewnętrznych Białoruskiej SRR. Od 1985 do 1990 kierował Wydziałem Spraw Wewnętrznych obwodu witebskiego. W 1993 otrzymał nominację na generała-porucznika milicji. +W 1985 stał na czele grupy operacyjno-śledczej, która doprowadziła do zatrzymania sprawcy zabójstw 43 kobiet, popełnionych na terenie obwodu witebskiego w latach 1971–1985. Jednocześnie ustalono, że w toku wcześniejszych postępowań 13 osób zostało bezpodstawnie skazanych, w tym na jednej wykonano wyrok śmierci. Śledztwo wykazało szereg nieprawidłowości w działaniu wymiaru sprawiedliwości. +Od 1973 do 1981 zasiadał w rejonowych i miejskich radach deputowanych. Od 1985 był deputowanym rady obwodowej. W 1990 został wybrany do Rady Najwyższej Białoruskiej SRR, która w 1991 przekształciła się w Radę Najwyższą Republiki Białoruś. Zasiadał w Prezydium Rady, przewodniczył komisji bezpieczeństwa narodowego, obrony i walki z przestępczością oraz komisji praw człowieka przy Prezydium Rady Najwyższej. 28 stycznia 1994 został wybrany na stanowisko przewodniczącego Rady Najwyższej. Pełnił obowiązki głowy państwa do momentu zaprzysiężenia pierwszego prezydenta. Pod jego przewodnictwem 15 marca 1994 Rada Najwyższa przyjęła Konstytucję Republiki Białoruś. W 1995 uzyskał reelekcję do Rady Najwyższej kolejnej kadencji. +W kolejnych latach związał się ze środowiskami opozycyjnymi wobec prezydenta Alaksandra Łukaszenki. Od 1996 członkiem Białoruskiej Socjaldemokratycznej Partii "Ludowa Hromada" (od 1999 do 2001 pełnił funkcję pierwszego wiceprzewodniczącego). W wyborach prezydenckich w 2006 był członkiem sztabu wyborczego Alaksandra Kazulina. +Przewodniczy Białoruskiemu Stowarzyszeniu Euroatlantyckiemu. Zasiada w Radzie Nadzorczej Białoruskiego Komitetu Helsińskiego. W latach 2000–2004 kierował systemem koordynacji społecznej obserwacji wyborów na Białorusi. +W 1994 otrzymał tytuł Zasłużonego Prawnika Białorusi. +Jest katolikiem, ma żonę i dwoje dzieci. +Grafomania + +Grafomania (z greckiego: "gráphein" – "rysować", "pisać" i "mania" – "szaleństwo"), patologiczny przymus pisania utworów literackich. Określenie o wydźwięku pejoratywnym. +W większości wypadków pojęcie to dotyczy natręctwa pisarskiego występującego u osób, o których sądzi się, że nie mają odpowiedniego talentu. Jednak grafomania nie musi wiązać się z brakiem predyspozycji pisarskich, może wynikać z rozmijania się z percepcją sztuki i literatury właściwej dla danej epoki. Grafomania jest bardziej zauważalna u autorów, którzy łączą przymus pisania z dążeniem do upowszechniania swoich utworów, mimo negatywnej oceny ich poziomu artystycznego. +Stefan Lindemann + +Stefan Lindemann (ur. 30 września 1980 w Erfurcie) – niemiecki łyżwiarz figurowy, wielokrotny mistrz kraju w jeździe indywidualnej. +Lindemann występuje w zawodach rangi seniorskiej od 1999. Jego największym sukcesem było zdobycie brązowego medalu na mistrzostwach świata w 2004. Rok później zdobył brązowy medal na mistrzostwach Europy. Uczestnik warszawskich Mistrzostw Europy w Łyżwiarstwie Figurowym w 2007. +Stanisław Bobak + +Stanisław Bobak (ur. 12 marca 1956 w Zębie, zm. 12 listopada 2010 w Zakopanem) – polski skoczek narciarski, reprezentant Polski i klubu WKS Legia Zakopane, dwukrotny olimpijczyk, zdobywca trzeciego miejsca w klasyfikacji generalnej Pucharu Świata sezonu 1979/1980. +Stanisław Bobak należał do światowej czołówki w narciarskich skokach przełomu lat 70. i 80. W wielu konkursach walczył z Aschenbachem, czy Koglerem o czołowe lokaty. Stawał na podium zawodów z cyklu Turnieju Czterech Skoczni i zawodów Pucharu Świata. Wziął także udział w dwóch igrzyskach olimpijskich. Osiem razy zdobył mistrzostwo Polski. W swojej karierze oddał ponad 10 tysięcy skoków. +Styl skoku i sprzęt. +Stanisław Bobak odbijał się szybko, wychodził z progu z podniesioną klatką piersiową, jednocześnie blokując staw skokowy i biodrowy. W czasie skoku usztywniał sylwetkę, nie lubił wiatru z tyłu. Pierwsze narty Bobaka, dwurowkowe, pochodziły z wytwórni w Szaflarach. Następnie skakał na niemieckich skokówkach Poppa, a w Pucharze Świata startował na sprzęcie marki Kneissel i Elana. Buty robione były w Krośnie. +Przebieg kariery. +Pierwsze występy Bobak zanotował w kategorii juniorów młodszych, podobnie jak jego starszy brat, Tadeusz. +Pierwszym trenerem skoczka był Jan Furman. Następnie szkolili go kolejno Janusz Fortecki, Lech Nadarkiewicz i Tadeusz Kołder. +W wieku 16 lat zdobył mistrzostwo Polski juniorów, wziął też udział w mistrzostwach Europy. 20 lutego 1972 zadebiutował w seniorskich mistrzostwach Polski, rozgrywanych w Zakopanem. Po pierwszej serii był trzeci, lecz drugi skok, oddany na odległość 108,0 m, zakończył podpórką. +31 grudnia 1972 w 21. Turnieju Czterech Skoczni znalazł się na 36. pozycji w Oberstdorfie, dzień później zajął 29. miejsce, ex aequo z Berndem Zapfem, w Garmisch-Partenkirchen. W Innsbrucku i Bischofshofen uplasował się na 31. miejscu, tym samym co w końcowej klasyfikacji generalnej swojego debiutanckiego turnieju. +Rok później zajął 82. miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej, plasując się na 27. miejscu w Ga-Pa, 64. w Innsbrucku i 68. w Bischofshofen. +W 1974 zdobył swój pierwszy medal mistrzostw Polski seniorów, zwyciężając w zawodach na dużej skoczni. Wziął też udział w mistrzostwach świata 1974 w Falun. +1974/1975. +9 lutego 1975 podczas konkursu MP na Wielkiej Krokwi skoczył w pierwszej serii 108,5, a w drugiej pobił rekord obiektu, lądując na 115,5 m, dzięki czemu został mistrzem Polski. Na skoczni normalnej zdobył srebrny medal. +Podczas 23. Turnieju Czterech Skoczni polski skoczek zajął drugie miejsce w Oberstdorfie, po oddaniu skoków na 96 m i 95 m. W Ga-Pa uplasował się na 18. pozycji. W Innsbrucku dwukrotnie skoczył na odległość 96 m i zajął 6. miejsce. W Bischofshofen Bobak wylądował na 108 metrze skoczni, o 5 metrów przeskakując poprzedni rekord tego obiektu – skok był jednak za długi, w związku z tym lądował poza strefą bezpieczeństwa i go podparł. Ostatecznie sklasyfikowano go na 22. miejscu. W klasyfikacji generalnej znalazł się na 5. pozycji. +Bobak zwyciężył w zawodach Pucharu Beskidów. Podczas Zimowej Spartakiady Armii Zaprzyjaźnionych 1975 w Kawgołewie skoczek zdobył brązowy medal, po skoku na 70 m. Miał możliwość zaprezentowania się na niej, ponieważ był żołnierzem kraju socjalistycznego (ze stopniem podoficera sł. st.) +1975/1976. +Na mistrzostwach Polski Bobak zdobył złoty medal na normalnej i srebrny na dużej skoczni. +Polak zajął 6. miejsce w klasyfikacji 24. Turnieju Czterech Skoczni. Ulokował się na 5. lokacie w Oberstdorfie, 22. w Garmisch-Partenkirchen, 15. w Innsbrucku i 2. w Bischofshofen. +7 lutego 1976 uplasował się na 28. pozycji w konkursie na skoczni normalnej podczas Zimowych Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Innsbrucku, po skokach na 74 m i 75 m. Na skoczni dużej znalazł się na 37. lokacie ze skokami na odległość 81 m oraz 81,5 m. Bobak na olimpiadzie nie posiadał nowych kombinezonów, zmieniających opór powietrza, z których korzystali wówczas Austriacy. +1977-1979. +W 1977 Bobak doznał kontuzji łękotki, startował jednak nadal. +25. Turniej Czterech Skoczni ukończył na 20. pozycji w klasyfikacji generalnej. W Oberstdorfie zajął 11. miejsce, w Ga-Pa 28.. W Innsbrucku skoczył 85 m w pierwszej serii i 92,5 m w drugiej, zajmując 13. pozycję. W Bischofshofen był 29. +Mistrzostwa Świata 1978 w Lahti skończyły się dla Bobaka 22. miejscem na normalnej i 23. na dużej skoczni. Na MŚ w Lotach 1979 w jugosłowiańskiej Planicy zajął 22. miejsce. +Na Zimowej Spartakiadzie Armii Zaprzyjaźnionych 1979 w Zakopanem zdobył srebrny medal na normalnej skoczni i brązowy na dużej. +W latach 1977–1979 zdobył łącznie pięć medali mistrzostw Polski. +1979/1980. +Podczas mistrzostw Polski Bobak zdobył brązowy medal na dużej skoczni i srebrny na normalnej. +W sezonie 1979/1980 odbyła się pierwsza edycja Pucharu Świata. +Bobak rozpoczął ją od udziału w TCS – w Oberstdorfie znalazł się poza pierwszą setką. W Ga-Pa był szósty po oddaniu skoków na 95 m i 96 m, w Innsbrucku skoczył 99 m i 93,5 m, za co sklasyfikowano go na 20. pozycji, a w Bischofshofen uplasował się na 13. miejscu, dzięki skokom na 93,5 m i 94 m. +26 stycznia 1980 w Zakopanem wygrał swój pierwszy i jedyny konkurs Pucharu Świata. Skoczył wówczas 81,5 m i 82 m. Konkurs odbywał się w bardzo trudnych warunkach atmosferycznych. Padał mocny śnieg, a serie kilkakrotnie przerywano i powtarzano. Dzień później także stanął na podium, zajmując 2. miejsce (za swoim zespołowym kolegą Piotrem Fijasem). We francuskim Saint-Nizier uplasował się na trzeciej i dziesiątej pozycji. Za swoje sukcesy nie otrzymał nagrody finansowej, mimo przesłania jej przez FIS do Polskiego Związku Narciarskiego. +W konkursie na normalnej skoczni na igrzyskach w Lake Placid w pierwszej serii Bobak skoczył 86 m i zajmował 4. miejsce. W drugiej miał szansę na medal, jednak wylądował na 82 m i zajął ostatecznie 10. miejsce. Do srebrnego medalu zabrakło mu 7 punktów. Na dużej skoczni znalazł się na 22. pozycji, skacząc 104 m i 97 m. +Po powrocie z Igrzysk po raz kolejny stanął na podium Pucharu Świata, tym razem na średnim stopniu, po zawodach lotów w norweskim Vikersund. W fińskim Lahti zajął 6. miejsce na normalnej skoczni i 8. na dużej. W szwedzkim Falun był czternasty, a w Oslo siódmy. Bobak wziął też udział w Turnieju Bohemii, rozgrywanym w Libercu i Harrachovie, gdzie zdobył złoty medal. +1980/1981. +W tym sezonie Bobak zajął 52. miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej Pucharu Świata. Udział w nim rozpoczął od 15. miejsca w Oberstdorfie. W pozostałych konkursach 29. Turnieju Czterech Skoczni nie punktował – w Ga-Pa uplasował się na 16. miejscu, w Innsbrucku na 37., a w Bischofshofen na 43. W klasyfikacji generalnej zawodów zajął 21. miejsce. W kolejnym konkursie z cyklu PŚ, w Libercu, znalazł się na 14. miejscu. W Engelbergu natomiast jedyny raz w tamtym sezonie dostał się do pierwszej dziesiątki zawodów (był ósmy). Po dłuższej przerwie w punktowaniu, powrócił do dobrych wyników na koniec sezonu, kiedy to został sklasyfikowany na piętnastej pozycji w Oslo i na trzynastej w Planicy. +Na mistrzostwach świata w lotach zajął 18. miejsce, uzyskując na Heini-Klopfer-Skiflugschanze odległość 153 metrów, co było jego rekordem osobistym. Na Zimowej Spartakiadzie Armii Zaprzyjaźnionych w 1981 w Borowiczach zdobył brązowy medal, po raz ostatni też został mistrzem Polski (zarówno na dużej jak i normalnej skoczni). +Po zakończeniu kariery. +Po sezonie 1980/81 zakończył karierę sportową. Na skutek intensywnych treningów wybił sobie czwarty i piąty krąg, dodatkowo cierpiał na ucisk lędźwiowego odcinka kręgosłupa, co powodowało promieniujący ból na odcinku całej nogi. Leczono go w Piekarach Śląskich, ale nie wykonano na nim operacji, gdyż była zbyt ryzykowna. Skoczkiem zainteresowała się fundacja "Gloria Victis"; w 1983 zorganizowano w Nowym Targu mecz, z którego dochody przekazano Bobakowi. Później zamieszkał w Zębie razem z żoną Stanisławą i dziećmi: Haliną, Małgorzatą i Andrzejem (również skoczkiem narciarskim). Renta Bobaka wynosiła 500 zł, więc w 2005 wyjechał w celach zarobkowych do Francji, gdzie zachorował ciężko. 11 czerwca przeszedł operację, następnie przez kilka dni był nieprzytomny, po czym został przewieziony do Polski, gdzie trafił do szpitala w Zakopanem, a następnie na Oddział Kliniczny Żywienia i Chirurgii w Warszawie. Nie mógł jeść, leżał podłączony do kroplówki, prawdopodobnie cierpiał na wielopoziomową niedrożność jelit lub niedokrwienie jelit. Po długiej chorobie zmarł 12 listopada 2010 w szpitalu w Zakopanem. Pochowano go na cmentarzu w jego rodzinnym Zębie. Na pogrzeb przyszło kilkaset osób. +Cedron + +Cedron (Kidron; heb. "נחל קדרון", "Nahal Qidron", arab. "Wadi an-Nar") – niewielki strumień płynący doliną o tej samej nazwie położoną między Wzgórzem Świątynnym a Górą Oliwną w Jerozolimie, wielokrotnie wymieniany w Biblii. Z "Doliną Cedronu" (hebr. "Emek Kidron", arab. "Wadi an-Nar") identyfikowana jest "Dolina Jozafata", w Biblii symbolicznego określenia miejsca przyszłego Sądu Ostatecznego. +Munmap + +munmap to wywołanie systemowe nakazujące systemowi operacyjnemu zlikwidowanie odwzorowania pliku w pamięci utworzonego za pomocą wywołania mmap. +int munmap(void *start, size_t length); +Droga Trolli + +Droga Trolli (także: "Drabina Trolli", norw. "Trollstigen") – droga położona na południe od Åndalsnes w gminie Rauma w Norwegii. Jest ona częścią drogi krajowej nr 63 z Åndalsnes do Valldal i dalej do popularnej wśród turystów miejscowości Geiranger. Trasa została otwarta 31 lipca 1936 roku przez króla Haakona VII po 8 latach budowy. +Średnie nachylenie drogi wynosi 9%. Składa się z 11 serpentyn, w większości zakręcających pod kątem 180°, dlatego nie mogą się po niej poruszać pojazdy dłuższe niż 12,4m. Stanowi jedną z największych atrakcji turystycznych Norwegii. Otwarta zazwyczaj od połowy maja do października. Przy Trollstigen znajduje się jedyny w Norwegii (prawdopodobnie jedyny na świecie) znak drogowy "Uwaga Trolle". W połowie drogi znajduje się kamienny most przerzucony nad wodospadem Stigfossen. Z parkingu na szczycie można dojść piechotą na taras widokowy, z którego widać drogę i wodospad. Najwyższy punkt Trollstigen znajduje się 852m n.p.m. +W 2005 roku przeprowadzono remont drogi, poprawiając jej ochronę przed spadającymi odłamkami skalnymi. Prace kosztowały około 16 milionów NOK. +Miologia + +Miologia, inaczej myologia (gr. "mys"- mięsień + "logos" - nauka) to dział anatomii. Nauka o mięśniach, będących jednostką strukturalną (morfologiczną) czynnego narządu ruchu. +Ekshibicjonizm + +Ekshibicjonizm – rodzaj parafilii seksualnej; stan, w którym jedynym lub preferowanym sposobem osiągania satysfakcji seksualnej jest demonstrowanie swoich narządów płciowych lub aktywności seksualnej (np. masturbacji) obcym osobom - zazwyczaj płci przeciwnej - które się tego nie spodziewają. Osoby obnażające się nie zdradzają zamiaru współżycia seksualnego z mimowolnym uczestnikiem tej sytuacji. Reakcja lęku/szoku u świadka tego zdarzenia zwiększa podniecenie ekshibicjonisty. +Katakumby Paryża + +Katakumby paryskie (fr. "Les catacombes de Paris") - to sieć korytarzy w dawnych kamieniołomach Denfert-Rochereau z czasów cesarstwa rzymskiego. W 1786 roku z powodów sanitarnych, chcąc uniknąć szalejących epidemii w przeludnionym mieście zaczęto znosić tu zwłoki z paryskiego cmentarza z dzielnicy Les Halles, później z innych cmentarzy paryskich. W XIX wieku utworzono pomieszczenia, które przeznaczone są dzisiaj do zwiedzania, np. Krypta Męki Pańskiej (Rotunda Piszczeli), "Grobowiec Gilberta". Wejście znajduje się w siedzibie Urzędu Inspektora Kamieniołomów. +Tunele pokryte są licznymi graffiti z XIX wieku, świadczącymi, że miejsce to było często odwiedzane przez Paryżan. Victor Hugo, bywalec tych podziemi umieścił tu akcję swojej powieści" Nędznicy." W czasie Komuny Paryskiej w 1871 komunardzi zamordowali grupę monarchistów w jednej z komór. W czasie II wojny światowej katakumby były miejscem konspiracyjnych spotkań członków francuskiego ruchu oporu. +Plac Bastylii + +Plac Bastylii (fr. "Place de la Bastille") – plac we wschodniej części Paryża na północnym brzegu Sekwany. W latach 1370-1789 stał tu zamek obronny, przebudowany w XVII wieku na więzienie - Bastylia. Jej zdobycie 14 lipca 1789 r., oraz późniejsze zburzenie stało się początkiem rewolucji francuskiej. Obecnie na placu stoi Kolumna Lipcowa, zbudowana z przetopionych armat Napoleona Bonaparte, ustawiona na pamiątkę ofiar rewolucji lipcowej 1830 roku. Obok znajduje się Opéra Bastille otwarta w dwusetną rocznicę rewolucji 1789 roku. +Le Marais + +Le Marais (z fr. "marais" = "bagna") – część Paryża na północnym brzegu Sekwany na terenie Trzeciej i Czwartej Dzielnicy określana tą wspólną historyczną nazwą. Znajduje się w trójkącie między Centrum Pompidou, Placem Bastylii i Placem Republiki. Najważniejszą arterią dzielnicy jest Rue de Rivoli. Uchodzi za jeden z najbardziej malowniczych fragmentów metropolii, chętnie odwiedzany przez turystów. +Historia. +Pierwotnie było to zielone przedmieście Paryża. Swoje posiadłości rolne mieli tu templariusze (np. Twierdzę Temple). Dzielnica rozkwitła na przełomie XVI/XVII wieku, gdy Henryk IV miał tu swoją główną siedzibę. Przyciągnęła ona w te rejony arystokrację, która zaczęła tu budować swoje posiadłości. Okolica ta opustoszała jednak ponownie już pod koniec XVII w., gdy siedziba królów Francji została przeniesiona do Luwru. Dawne pałace i siedziby arystokracji przejęli drobni kupcy i miejska biedota. W XIX wieku obszar stał się dzielnicą przemysłową, co uchroniło budynki Le Marais przed unowocześnieniem. +Po wyprowadzeniu się z tych terenów przemysłu, dzielnica podupadła i stała się ponownie miejscem zamieszkania paryskiej biedoty – ośrodkiem życia bezrobotnych, imigrantów, drobnych rzemieślników i sklepikarzy. Jedna z ulic, Rue des Rosiers ("ulica Róż") stała się, centrum życia Żydów, którzy w latach międzywojennych przywędrowali tu z krajów Europy Centralnej. Subdzielnica żydowska z koszernymi sklepikami i synagogami istnieje do dzisiaj. +W czasie II wojny światowej przeniósł się do tej dzielnicy Pablo Picasso, co po zakończeniu wojny przyciągnęło do niej wielu artystów, którzy uciekali z Montmartre przed tłumami turystów. W latach 60. XX w. prezydent Francji Georges Pompidou i jego minister kultury Andre Malraux rozpoczęli rewitalizację dzielnicy, co zamieniło ją w zamożną i elegancką dzielnicę mieszkaniową, z ograniczonym do minimum ruchem samochodowym, o charakterze historycznej starówki, z licznymi wąskimi, urokliwymi uliczkami i placykami, przy których znajdują się galerie sztuki, butiki i sklepy jubilerskie. +Atrakcje turystyczne. +Mieszczą się tu też historyczne rezydencje: Hotel de Soubise, Hotel de Rohan, Hotel Sale. +Dzielnica gejowska. +Wieczorem Le Marais, szczególnie ulica Vieille du Temple, staje się miejscem spotkań wspólnoty homoseksualnej. +Paryż od dawna cieszy się dużą swobodą obyczajową i otwartością, co dotyczy również LGBT. W czerwcowych gay pride w stolicy Francji uczestniczy co roku blisko milion ludzi, cywilne związki cywilno-prawne par homoseksualnych (PACS) istnieją od 2000 r., a w marcu 2001 r. merem Paryża został Bertrand Delanoë otwarcie przyznający się do tego, że jest homoseksualistą. Geje korzystali i korzystają bez problemów z lokali w całym Paryżu i nigdy nie istniała potrzeba budowania przez nich wspólnoty na zasadzie oblężonej twierdzy. Z tego powodu nigdy nie powstała tu dzielnica gejowska taka, jak typowe gay village w Ameryce. +Wyłonienie się centrum towarzyskiego LGBT w Le Marais odbyło się dość nietypowo. Początek gejowskiej sławy dzielnicy zanotowano pod koniec lat 80. XX w. wraz z nadejściem mody na kluby fitness i siłownie. Powstało ich w tej okolicy wyjątkowo sporo i zyskały popularność wśród dobrze usytuowanych finansowo gejów mieszkających w Le Marais. Wcześniej, w latach 60. i 70. gejowskie życie nocne toczyło się głównie wokół rue St. Anne w Pierwszej Dzielnicy i na Rive Gauche – lewym (tym "gorszym") brzegu Sekwany. +W 2007 roku odnotowano w Le Marais około 40 siłowni i saun w których spotykają się geje. Ogólną liczbę lokali i sklepów gejowskich oszacowano na ok. 300. Ulice z największą liczbą gejowskich lokali i sklepów to rue Ste-Croix-de-la-Bretonnerie, rue des Archives (z najbardziej znanym "Open Café") i rue Vieille du Temple – wszystkie w Czwartej Dzielnicy. Dalsze rejony przebiegają w kierunku zachodnim w kierunku Les Halles. Tam małe kluby dla gejów otwarto jeszcze w latach 80. przy rue de la Verrerie i rue des Lombard. Na obrzeżu dzielnicy, w pobliżu Montorgueil działają ponadto kluby "Le Dépôt" oraz "Impact". +Komitet Narodowy Polski + +Zobacz też: Centralny Komitet Narodowy, Naczelny Komitet Narodowy, Komitet Narodowy Polski i Ziem Zabranych, Polski Komitet Narodowy we Lwowie, Polski Komitet Narodowy UNICEF. +Ruud van Nistelrooy + +Rutgerus Johannes Martinius van Nistelrooij znany jako Ruud van Nistelrooy (wym. ; ur. 1 lipca 1976 w Oss) – były holenderski piłkarz grający na pozycji napastnika. +Biografia. +Urodził się w mieście Oss. Młody Ruud grał w tenisa i uprawiał gimnastykę. Jednak pewnego dnia z ust działaczy szkółki piłkarskiej klubu z rodzinnej miejscowości holenderskiego zawodnika padła propozycja, aby van Nistelrooy spróbował swoich sił w piłce nożnej. Co ciekawe, początkowo Ruud grał na pozycji obrońcy (po latach okazał się być niezwykle bramkostrzelnym napastnikiem). +Profesjonalna kariera Holendra rozpoczęła się w 1993 roku. Wtedy to zgłosili się po młodego adepta działacze drugoligowego FC Den Bosch. Tam Ruud odnalazł swój żywioł – strzelanie bramek. W klubie z Den Bosch zdobył ich 13. +Następnym przystankiem w karierze Ruuda był o wiele wyżej ceniony w Holandii zespół SC Heerenveen. +Po krótkim epizodzie w Heerenveen, van Nistelrooy zwrócił na siebie uwagę skautów PSV, którzy, nie czekając zbyt długo, sięgnęli po dobrze zapowiadającego się napastnika w 1998 roku. Dwa miesiące po zakupie, van Nistelrooy zdobył pierwszego hat-tricka w barwach teamu z Eindhoven. Miało to miejsce w meczu ze Spartą Rotterdam. +W pierwszym sezonie gry w PSV Eindhoven, van Nistelrooy zdobył aż 31 goli, co dało mu tytuł króla strzelców Eredivisie i tytuł "Piłkarza sezonu". Po dwóch latach miał już na koncie 60 bramek w lidze holenderskiej. Sześć z nich zdobył w meczach z Ajaxem Amsterdam, co również odbiło się wielkim echem w Holandii. +Nadszedł rok 2000. Ruud van Nistelrooy był już znany w całej Europie. Nie chciał jednak spędzić całego piłkarskiego życia w silnym w Holandii, ale przeciętnym wtedy na arenie europejskiej PSV. Jak się okazało, o przyszłość nie musiał się długo zamartwiać. Od kilku miesięcy bacznie obserwował go sir Alex Ferguson, trener Manchesteru United. Kiedy już wszystko było ustalone, van Nistelrooyowi przydarzyła się poważna kontuzja, która opóźniła jego transfer do ""Czerwonych Diabłów"". Uraz wykluczył go też z udziału w EURO 2000 w jego ojczyźnie. +Po wyleczeniu kontuzji, w 2001 roku van Nistelrooy zawitał na Old Trafford. Manchester United zapłacił za niego 19 mln funtów, ale pieniądze szybko się zwróciły. W pierwszych trzech sezonach gry w Manchesterze, Holender strzelił 70 goli. W sezonie 2004/2005, w zdobyciu kolejnych 25 goli w barwach MU przeszkodziła Ruudowi kontuzja, a sezon zakończył z dorobkiem zaledwie 6 trafień w Premiership, ale w Lidze Mistrzów zdobył ich 8 w 8 meczach, jakie United grało w sezonie i został królem strzelców tych prestiżowych rozgrywek. +W 2006 roku van Nistelrooy pożegnał się z Manchesterem United, by za kwotę 15 milionów euro przejść do Realu Madryt w sezonie "2006/07". +Początek gry w Primera División okazał się nadspodziewanie dobry, gdyż Ruud już w drugim spotkaniu ligowym przeciwko Levante UD popisał się hat-trickiem. +W swoim pierwszym sezonie w Primera División strzelił 25 goli i został królem strzelców. Zdobył także "Mistrzostwo Hiszpanii". +W sezonie "2007/08", van Nistelrooy mimo kontuzji strzelił 16 bramek w Primera Division i został drugim strzelcem ""Królewskich"" po Raulu. Dorzucił do tego swoje drugie Mistrzostwo Hiszpanii. +32-letni zawodnik 13.11.2008 r. przeszedł w USA operację kontuzjowanego kolana, zabieg przeprowadził doktor Richard Steadman, który operował już prawe kolano Van Nistelrooya w 2000 roku, gdy był on jeszcze piłkarzem PSV Eindhoven. Wówczas usunięto mu część uszkodzonej łąkotki. Król strzelców ligi hiszpańskiej w 2007 roku kontuzji doznał podczas meczu Ligi Mistrzów z Juventusem Turyn rozegranego listopada w którym triumfowali 2:0 (1:0) piłkarze z Turynu. Jak donosi oficjalna strona Realu Madryt van Nistelrooy będzie musiał pauzować od sześciu do dziewięciu miesięcy. +W dniu 20 września 2009, Ruud van Nistelrooy po niemalże rocznej rekonwalescencji w końcówce meczu z Xerez wszedł na boisko zmieniając strzelca dwóch bramek w tym spotkaniu, Cristiano Ronaldo, i już po zaledwie 9 minutach przebywania na boisku strzelił gola, ustalając wynik meczu na 5:0, jednak przy okazji Ruud nabawił się urazu uda. W poniedziałek 21 września Holender przeszedł badania lekarskie, po których okazało się, że jego przerwa w grze potrwa około 6 tygodni. +Dnia 23 stycznia 2010 przeniósł się do Hamburger SV. W styczniu 2011 roku w związku z kontuzją Gonzalo Higuaina, Real Madryt postanowił sprowadzić Holendra z powrotem w swoje szeregi. Hamburger SV nie wyraził jednak zgody na transfer holenderskiego napastnika, mimo że ten zaoferował sfinansowanie części kosztów z własnej kieszeni. W związku z tym van Nistelrooy zapowiedział, że w Niemczech będzie grał tylko do końca sezonu 2010/2011. +Od sezonu 2011/2012 Van Nistelrooy reprezentował barwy hiszpańskiej Malagi. Do klubu przeszedł na zasadzie wolnego transferu. Swoją pierwszą bramkę zdobył 1 października 2011 roku, w wygranym 3:2 meczu z Getafe. Sezon 2011/2012 zakończył z 28 meczami i 4 bramkami w lidze, natomiast jego drużyna zajęła czwarte miejsce i zapewniła sobie udział w grze w eliminacjach Ligi Mistrzów. +Dnia 14 maja 2012, Ruud van Nistelrooy ogłosił zakończenie piłkarskiej kariery. +Reprezentacja Holandii. +Ruud van Nistelrooy w reprezentacji Holandii zadebiutował 18 listopada 1998 r., w meczu przeciwko Reprezentacji Niemiec. Kontuzja Holendra praktycznie przekreśliła mu udział na Euro 2000 w swej ojczyźnie. Van Nistelrooy odbudował się jednak i na Euro 2004 był już gotowy. Reprezentacja Holandii zajęła na portugalskim turnieju 3.-4. miejsce, a Ruud (wraz z Wayne’em Rooneyem) zdobył 4 bramki, zostając wicekrólem strzelców. +W Mistrzostwach Świata 2006 Holandia odpadła w 1/8 finału, przegrywając z reprezentacją Portugalii 0:1. Van Nistelrooy strzelił jedną bramkę na tym mundialu. Holender doczekał Euro 2008. W fazie grupowej zaliczył dwa trafienia, Holendrzy odpadli po przegranej z Rosją w 1/4 turnieju, w spotkaniu tym Van Nistelrooy strzelił jedynego gola dla Holandii. +3 września 2010 Ruud van Nistelrooy w meczu eliminacji do Euro 2012 w meczu z San Marino zdobył bramkę w doliczonym czasie gry na 0:5 +Piastów (Piechowice) + +Piastów (niem. "Kaiserswaldau") – część miasta Piechowice, w województwie dolnośląskim, do 1999 osobna wieś. +Łączy się od południa z zabudowaniami Pakoszowa. Ok. 0,5 km na północny zachód od zabudowy Piastowa znajduje się Kopanina, będąca częścią Kromnowa. +Nieradka + +Nieradka – staropolskie imię żeńskie złożone z członów "Nie-" (przeczenie) i "-rad-ka" ("być zadowoloną, chętną, cieszyć się"). Być może oznaczało "ta, która się nie cieszy". +Męskie odpowiedniki: Nierad, Niered. +Analiza SWOT + +SWOT – jedna z najpopularniejszych heurystycznych technik analitycznych, służąca do porządkowania informacji. Bywa stosowana we wszystkich obszarach planowania strategicznego jako uniwersalne narzędzie pierwszego etapu analizy strategicznej. Np. w naukach ekonomicznych jest stosowana do analizy wewnętrznego i zewnętrznego środowiska danej organizacji, (np. przedsiębiorstwa), analizy danego projektu, rozwiązania biznesowego itp. +Objaśnienie zasad analizy SWOT. +Wreszcie - informacja, która nie może być poprawnie zakwalifikowana do żadnej z wymienionych grup, jest w dalszej analizie pomijana jako "nieistotna strategicznie". +Informacja strategiczna, posegregowana według opisanych kryteriów na cztery grupy, jest następnie zapisywana w czterodzielnej macierzy strategicznej, w której lewa połowa zawiera dwie kategorie czynników pozytywnych a prawa - dwie kategorie czynników negatywnych. Natomiast w piśmiennictwie istnieją co najmniej trzy ujęcia, wyjaśniające czym różni się górna połowa macierzy od dolnej (a więc "mocne strony" od "szans", a "słabe strony" od "zagrożeń"). +Analiza SWOT daje wartościowy rezultat analityczny przy zastosowaniu każdego z trzech wymienionych ujęć, pod warunkiem, że jest ono stosowane konsekwentnie i świadomie. Jednak najczęstszym błędem w praktyce stosowania techniki SWOT jest mieszanie trzech ujęć (np. zapisanie jakiejś przewagi w obszarze "szans" na podstawie tego, że jest ona czynnikiem "zewnętrzny"m, a potem odczytywanie jej z macierzy SWOT, jako czynnika przyszłego (który dopiero pojawi się), lub - jako czynnika na który nie mamy wpływu sprawczego. Stąd postulat otwartego i jednoznacznego deklarowania kryteriów rozróżnienia wertykalnego na wstępie przeprowadzanej analizy. +W popularnych ujęciach mikroekonomicznych dwa pierwsze obszary odnoszą się najczęściej do środowiska wewnętrznego i zawierają najistotniejsze w danym przedsiębiorstwie elementy, np. silna marka (S), czy słabe zaplecze kapitałowe (W). Natomiast dwa ostatnie odnoszą się analogicznie do środowiska zewnętrznego, np. otwarcie wspólnego rynku międzynarodowego (O) lub pojawienie się konkurencyjnych produktów nowej generacji (T). +Jest to bardzo rozpowszechniony obecnie schemat analizy. Najczęściej stosowany jest w bardzo uproszczonej formie, tzn. przybiera postać czterech list czynników (zwykle przedstawianych w formie tabelarycznej). +Zwykle oba podejścia stosuje się uzupełniająco, stąd często w literaturze mowa o analizie SWOT/TOWS. +Odpowiedzi na powyższe pytania pozwalają zidentyfikować tzw. silne powiązania, obszary problemowe w obrębie których można rozpocząć tworzenie rozwiązań, strategii cząstkowych – co czyni ze SWOT nie tylko narzędzie analityczne ale również planistyczne. +Analizę SWOT można traktować jako specyficzny schemat/algorytm wnioskowania w ramach którego korzysta się z wielu innych technik. Przykładowo do identyfikacji czynników wewnętrznych (szczególnie w przypadku przedsiębiorstw) często wykorzystuje się analizę pięciu sił Portera, a czynników zewnętrznych PEST (STEEP, PESTER). +Arystarch z Samos + +Arystarch z Samos (gr. "Aristarchos ho Samios"; ok. 310–230 p.n.e.) – grecki astronom pochodzący z wyspy Samos, który jako pierwszy zaproponował heliocentryczny model Układu Słonecznego. +Autor zachowanego traktatu "O rozmiarach i odległościach Słońca i Księżyca", w którym posługując się metodą geometryczną, wylicza względne rozmiary i wzajemne odległości Słońca, Ziemi i Księżyca. Podawane przez niego wielkości są niedokładne z powodu błędnych obserwacji, ale model, na którym oparł wyliczenia, jest prawidłowy. +Jak podaje Archimedes, Arystarch napisał również inne, niezachowane dzieło, w którym jako pierwszy twierdził, że Ziemia krąży wokół Słońca po obwodzie koła oraz wokół własnej osi. Arystarch twierdził w nim również, że wokół Słońca krążą także wszystkie planety, a ruch gwiazd stałych jest tylko ruchem pozornym. Hipotezę Arystarcha poparł dowodami w połowie II wieku Seleukos z Seleucji. +Astronomowie starożytni odrzucili jednak tę hipotezę, gdyż nie zgadzała się z ich obserwacjami (przyczyną niezgodności było m.in. błędne przyjęcie przez Arystarcha kształtu orbity ziemskiej jako okręgu). Przede wszystkim wystąpił przeciw niej Arystoteles broniąc naturalnego, zmysłowego obrazu świata i wrócił do geocentrycznego systemu sfer pitagorejczyka Eudoksosa. +Stoik Kleantes, następca Zenona z Kition, oskarżył Arystracha o bezbożność. +Jeden z kraterów księżycowych został nazwany na jego cześć Aristarchus (szczyt w centrum tego krateru jest najjaśniejszą formacją na Księżycu). +Wielisław + +Wielisław, Wielesław, Wielsław – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członów: "Wiele-" ("chcieć, kazać, radzić") i "-sław" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, kto pragnie sławy". Skróconą formą tego imienia jest Wiesław. +Wielisław imieniny obchodzi 4 lipca. +Jakub Kossakowski + +Jakub Korwin-Kossakowski herbu Ślepowron (12 maja lub 7 sierpnia 1752 – początek 1784), poeta, urzędnik ziemski, komisarz skarbowy. +Był synem strażnika kowieńskiego Mateusza (1700 - zm. przed 1762) i Zofii Gołaszewskiej. 14 sierpnia 1765 wstąpił do zakonu jezuitów, dwuletni nowicjat odbył w Nieświeżu. Na przełomie lat 60. i 70. XVIII wieku studiował retorykę i filozofię w szkołach zakonnych w Słucku i Nieświeżu, następnie sam był nauczycielem w szkołach jezuickich. Po kasacie zakonu jezuitów współpracował z pismem "Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne", w którym publikował wiersze o tematyce historycznej i biblijnej. +Dzięki opiece krewnego Józefa Kazimierza Kossakowskiego (biskupa inflanckiego) otrzymał kilka urzędów - został podstolim kowieńskim (1781), deputatem do Trybunału Litewskiego (1782), członkiem Komisji Skarbowej i Emfiteutycznej Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. Odwdzięczał się biskupowi reprezentując w sądzie w Upicie jego interesy w konfliktach z kapitułą wileńską. Zmarł nagle w młodym wieku na początku 1784. +Menstruacja + +Menstruacja ("miesiączka", ang. "period", łac. "menses"); krwawienie miesięczne – fizjologiczne zjawisko polegające na cyklicznym złuszczaniu się nabłonka macicy (endometrium) pod wpływem charakterystycznych zmian stężenia hormonów płciowych (estrogenów i progesteronu), wynikających z układów wzajemnych sprzężeń zwrotnych między gonadami, przednim płatem przysadki mózgowej i podwzgórzem. +Pełen przebieg zmian hormonalnych, wraz z wynikającą z tego przebudową endometrium, przeobrażeniami środowiska pochwy, zmianą stanu gruczołów piersiowych, temperatury ciała, wpływu wegetatywnego układu nerwowego, układu krążenia, nastroju psychicznego i innych funkcji organizmu nazywamy cyklem miesięcznym. +Cykl miesięczny. +Poza okresami ciąży, karmienia piersią i zażywania hormonalnych środków antykoncepcyjnych u zdrowej kobiety w wieku rozrodczym fizjologicznie menstruacja powtarza się regularnie co ok. 28 dni (u różnych kobiet różnie długo dojrzewa pęcherzyk jajnikowy) i trwa ok. 4 dni, ale 3-dniowe oraz do 8 dni także mogą występować. Pierwsza miesiączka (menarche) wyznacza początek okresu dojrzałości (występuje ok. 12–13 roku życia), a ostatnia wyznacza menopauzę, która stanowi linię graniczną między dojrzałością płciową a starością kobiety. Menopauza jest to ostatnia miesiączka w życiu kobiety; następuje ono najczęściej między 45. a 55. rokiem życia, z reguły w wieku 51 lat. +Mianem eumenorrhoea określa się fizjologiczne krwawienie, którego objętość zawiera się w granicach 10-80 ml. Prawidłowo krew menstruacyjna nie krzepnie, ze względu na lokalny wzrost aktywności plazminy, która działa fibrynolitycznie. +W drugiej fazie cyklu miesięcznego, pod wpływem działania progesteronu, w głąb endometrium wrastają tzw. tętnice spiralne. W momencie zaprzestania wytwarzania progesteronu przez ciałko żółte dochodzi do ich skurczu, co powoduje niedokrwienie i złuszczenie się nabłonka. Spadek stężenia progesteronu jest sygnałem oznaczającym brak zagnieżdżenia się zarodka w jamie macicy. W ciąży, pod wpływem gonadotropiny kosmówkowej, dochodzi do przekształcenia się ciałka żółtego w ciałko żółte ciążowe, które jest warunkiem utrzymania i rozwoju płodu w pierwszych 4 miesiącach. +Aksjomat nieskończoności + +itd. +Zbiór taki jest zbiorem nieskończonym – stąd nazwa aksjomatu. +Zbiór, który składa się z elementów formula_12 (i żadnych innych) można utożsamić ze zbiorem liczb naturalnych, zbiory formula_12 zaś utożsamić z liczbami formula_14 +Zbiór spełniający warunki aksjomatu nazywamy zbiorem induktywnym. +Jerzy Waldorff + +Jerzy Waldorff-Preyss h. Nabram (ur. 4 maja 1910 w Warszawie, zm. 29 grudnia 1999 tamże) – polski pisarz, publicysta, krytyk muzyczny i działacz społeczny, w XX-leciu międzywojennym luźno związany z obozem "młodokonserwatystów". +Życiorys. +Matka Jerzego Waldorffa, Joanna (ur. 26 listopada 1892 w Warszawie, zm. 8 listopada 1987 tamże), pochodziła z bogatej rodziny Szustrów, zaś ojciec, Witold Preyss (zm. 1932), był ziemianinem. Niedługo po urodzeniu się Jerzego, Preyssowie wyjechali do rodzinnej miejscowości Kościelna Wieś na Kujawach. Po sprzedaży majątku zamieszkali w małym dworku, w Rękawczynie w Wielkopolsce. +Edukację rozpoczął w Trzemesznie. Po zdaniu matury w Gimnazjum im. Karola Marcinkowskiego w Poznaniu (wcześniej uczył się także w Gimnazjum w Trzemesznie i Gimnazjum św. Marii Magdaleny w Poznaniu) studiował na Wydziale Prawa Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego i w Konserwatorium Muzycznym w Poznaniu. +W latach 1936–1939 był recenzentem muzycznym „Kuriera Porannego” oraz "Prosto z Mostu". W owym czasie był działaczem ruchu narodowo-demokratycznego. W 1939 opublikował książkę zatytułowaną "Sztuka pod dyktaturą", opisującą zasługi Benito Mussoliniego dla rozwoju Włoch. +Po 1945 związany z tygodnikiem "Przekrój". Komentator muzyczny Polskiego Radia i felietonista tygodników "Świat" i "Polityka". Autor 20 książek, głównie poświęconych muzyce poważnej. Inicjator powstania Muzeum Karola Szymanowskiego w Zakopanem i Muzeum Teatralnego w Warszawie. Jego staraniem odrestaurowano pałac książąt Radziwiłłów w Antoninie, k. Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego. Współorganizował też odbywający się w Antoninie i Ostrowie Międzynarodowy Festiwal "Chopin w barwach jesieni". +W 1974 Waldorff założył Społeczny Komitet Opieki na rzecz Ochrony Starych Powązek. Z jego inicjatywy corocznie odbywa się tam 1 listopada kwesta na ten cel prowadzona przez znane osobistości kultury i mediów. Honorowy obywatel Słupska od 1986 i Warszawy od 1992. Był członkiem Stowarzyszenia Pisarzy Polskich. W latach 1988-1990, a także po 1990 członek Rady Ochrony Pamięci Walk i Męczeństwa. +Popularyzator kultury muzycznej na łamach prasy, w radiu i telewizji. Barwna postać PRL-u, wybijająca się zachowaniem i językiem. Przyjaciel Stefana Kisielewskiego, po śmierci którego napisał książkę "Słowo o Kisielu", laureat nagrody jego imienia w 1990. +W swojej autobiografii "Taniec życia ze śmiercią" wspominał, iż jego orientacja (homoseksualna) była powodem wydziedziczenia przez ojca. Jego partnerem życiowym był tancerz Mieczysław Jankowski, z którym spędził 60 lat, od 1939. Partner opiekował się Waldorffem i prowadził dom. Para starała się ukrywać swój związek unikając publicznego pokazywania się razem, a Waldorff przedstawiał w wywiadach Jankowskiego jako brata ciotecznego. +Jerzy Waldorff został pochowany na Cmentarzu Powązkowskim w Warszawie, tuż przy katakumbach. W tym samym grobie spoczęły również prochy Mieczysława Jankowskiego. +Jerzy Waldorff za wybitne zasługi dla kultury polskiej w 1995 roku odznaczony został Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Walentin Korabielnikow + +Walentin Władimirowicz Korabielnikow (ros. "Валенти́н Влади́мирович Корабе́льников", ur. 1946) – rosyjski generał armii, Zastępca Szefa Sztabu Generalnego Wojsk Federacji Rosyjskiej, Szef GRU. +Absolwent Akademii Wojskowo-Dyplomatycznej przy Ministerstwie Obrony ZSRR. Ponad 20 lat pracował w organach GRU. Od 1992 do 1997 pierwszy zastępca Szefa GRU. Osobiście nadzorował operacje GRU na terenie Czeczenii podczas działań wojsk Rosji w tej republice. +W maju 1997 zastępował generała-pułkownika Fiodora Ładygina, pełniąc obowiązki Szefa GRU. W tym samym miesiącu został mianowany na to stanowisko. +Od 20 sierpnia 1997 członek Koordynacyjnej Rady do spraw Międzynarodowej Współpracy Wojskowo-Technicznej. Od 31 grudnia 1997 członek Rad Nadzorczych "Roswoorużenije" i "Promeksport". +W lipcu 1999 otrzymał podziękowanie od prezydenta Borysa Jelcyna za znaczący wkład w proces stabilizacji sytuacji w Kosowie. +Od 6 września 1999 członek Komisji przy Prezydencie Rosji do spraw Międzynarodowej Współpracy Wojskowo-Technicznej. +Od 12 czerwca 2003 roku generał armii. +Żonaty. +Sieć Petriego + +Sieć Petriego – matematyczna reprezentacja dyskretnych systemów rozproszonych. Sieci Petriego zostały zdefiniowane w latach 60. XX w. przez Carla Adama Petriego. Przez swoją zdolność do wyrażania współbieżnych zdarzeń uogólniają one teorię automatów. +Sieć Petriego w najprostszej wersji składa się z "miejsc", "tranzycji" oraz krawędzi skierowanych. Taką siecią można jedynie opisać układ jako statyczne połączenie możliwych do osiągnięcia stanów. Aby opisać konkretny stan układu, potrzebne są "żetony", które można przemieszczać pomiędzy miejscami poprzez przejścia, po krawędziach grafu. Tradycyjnie miejsce oznacza się okręgiem, w którym można umieścić żeton prezentowany przez koło. W jednym miejscu może znajdować się dowolna nieujemna liczba żetonów. Tranzycje oznacza się prostokątami lub kreskami a krawędzie to strzałki. Krawędzie mogą mieć wagi większe lub równe 1. Wagi równej 1 nie oznacza się, tak jak pokazano na rysunku. Waga określa ile dokładnie żetonów przechodzi po krawędzi. +W najprostszej postaci, żetony w sieci Petriego są nierozróżnialne między sobą. Bardziej złożone postacie sieci Petriego korzystają z pojęć kolorowania żetonów, czasu aktywacji przejść oraz hierarchii. Poza nimi istnieje wiele innych różnych rozszerzeń Sieci Petriego, takich jak sieci obiektowe (z żetonami, które mogą być Sieciami Petriego), z ograniczonymi pojemnościami miejsc, łukami wzbraniającymi i inne. +Aktywacja i odpalenie przejścia. +Przejście może być aktywne lub nie. Przejście aktywne to takie, którego wszystkie krawędzie wejściowe połączone są z miejscami mającymi żetony w takiej ilości, że jest ona większa lub równa wadze odpowiednich krawędzi. Tylko przejście aktywne może być odpalone. +Odpalenie przejścia to zabranie z wszystkich miejsc wejściowych tylu żetonów, ile wynika z wag krawędzi łączących miejsca z przejściem. Następnie na miejscach wyjściowych połączonych z przejściem pojawiają się żetony. Ilość żetonów "wchodzących" i "wychodzących" z przejścia nie musi być taka sama. W jednym ruchu można odpalić tylko jedno przejście. +Praktyka stosowania i alternatywy. +W praktyce można przyjąć, że miejsca z leżącymi w nich żetonami to chwilowe stany układu. Przejścia to przetwarzanie danych lub fizycznych materiałów a żetony to dane lub materiały. +Większość problemów przeznaczonych dla sieci Petriego można rozwiązać również konstruując drzewo Karpa-Millera (jak np. problem zakrywania). +Elektrofony elektroniczne + +Elektroniczne instrumenty muzyczne – grupa instrumentów muzycznych należąca do elektrofonów, w których dźwięk powstaje w drodze syntezy i dociera do słuchacza przez przetwornik elektroakustyczny. Sposób kontroli instrumentu jest bez znaczenia dla tej klasyfikacji. +Wybrane konstrukcje. +Wybrane instrumenty elektroniczne w porządku chronologicznym według daty wynalezienia/konstrukcji: sphaerophon (1924), Dynaphone (1927), Theremin (1928), Trautonium (1930) oraz jego odmiany: Mixture Trautonium, Radio Trautanium i Trautanium koncertowe, fale Martenota (1928), Novachord (1939), Solovox (1940), Melochord (1947), szumofon (1952), ARP Odyssey (1972), Polymoog (1975). +Sposoby generowania dźwięków. +Choć matematyczne modele syntezy dźwięku przez łączenie składowych harmonicznych znane były od dawna, ich techniczna realizacja nastręczała problemów. Do początku lat 60. jedynym znanym sposobem syntezy przebiegów akustycznych, z wykorzystaniem elektroniki, były lampowe oscylatory RLC. Ich rozmiary, zużycie energii, emisja ciepła i pola elektromagnetycznego utrudniały techniczną realizację elektronicznej syntezy dźwięków na większą skalę. Dopiero odkrycie półprzewodników i proces miniaturyzacji elementów wykonanych na ich bazie, z układami scalonymi włącznie, dało takie możliwości. Od początku lat 60. na rynku zaczęły pojawiać się coraz mniejsze, sprawniejsze i tańsze instrumenty dające olbrzymie możliwości kształtowania dźwięków. Pod koniec lat 70. wraz z rozwojem techniki cyfrowej, analogowa synteza dźwięku została prawie całkiem wyparta przez cyfrową. Od tego czasu instrumenty elektroniczne stały się jeszcze łatwiej dostępne. +Wśród współczesnych instrumentów elektronicznych do niedawna potocznie stosowano podział na syntezatory i samplery, lecz obecnie, wskutek łączenia różnych rodzajów syntezy, nie jest on jednoznaczny. +Instrumenty elektroniczne często sterowane są przez sekwencer zamiast muzyka. +W dobie powszechnego wykorzystywania komputerów do produkcji muzyki powstał nowy rodzaj instrumentów elektronicznych – instrumenty wirtualne, czyli programy działające pod kontrolą sekwencerów pełniące rolę instrumentów muzycznych. +Aceh + +Aceh (wym. ) – specjalne terytorium ("daerah istimewa") Indonezji, położone na północnym krańcu wyspy Sumatra. Pełna nazwa terytorium brzmi Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam. Dawniej używano także zapisu w postaci: "Acheh", "Atjeh" lub "Achin". +Ludność terytorium wynosi około 4,2 mln mieszk. (2000). Stanowi to około 3% ludności Indonezji oraz jedną czwartą ludności Sumatry. Stolicą terytorium jest miasto Banda Aceh. +W latach 1976-2004 toczył się konflikt między armią indonezyjską a lokalnymi rebeliantami. Od wieków mieszkańcy Acehu stawiali silny opór, dawniej wobec holenderskich kolonistów, a następnie rządowi w Dżakarcie. +26 grudnia 2004 zachodnie wybrzeże Acehu, w tym także stolica terytorium, została zniszczone przez fale tsunami, które wywołane zostało przez silne trzęsienie ziemi na Oceanie Indyjskim. Niektóre miasta, m.in. Calang i Teunom liczące oba po około 12 tys. mieszk., zostały zmiecione z powierzchni ziemi. +W czasie operacji wojskowej wprowadzone zostały ograniczenia w poruszaniu się po terytorium. Rząd indonezyjski zdecydował się jednak otworzyć region, by umożliwić dostęp organizacjom humanitarnym. Ruchy separatystyczne zgodziły się na tymczasowe zawieszenie broni na czas akcji. +15 sierpnia 2005 podpisano w Helsinkach porozumienie pokojowe. Separatyści zgodzili się na rezygnację z żądania niepodległości, a rząd Indonezji obiecał zmienić prawo, tak aby lokalne partie polityczne mogły brać udział w wyborach, co było dotychczas niemożliwe. 11 grudnia 2005 odbyły się pierwsze w historii Indonezji wolne wybory na szczeblu regionalnym. W ich wyniku gubernatorem Acehu został Irwandi Yusuf – były rzecznik separatystów, a jego zastępcą Muhammad Nazar. +Pelagiusz II + +Pelagiusz II (ur. w Rzymie, zm. 7 lutego 590 tamże) – papież w okresie od 26 listopada 579 do 7 lutego 590. +Biografia. +Przyjmuje się, że pochodził z Rzymu, choć jego ojciec nosił imię Unigild, co wskazywałoby na pochodzenie gockie. Został wybrany na papieża natychmiast, nie czekając na zgodę cesarza. +Najważniejsze dokumenty z czasu jego pontyfikatu dotyczą Longobardów i Schizmy Trzech Rozdziałów. Z powodu zagrożenia ze strony Lombardów Pelagiusz zwrócił się z prośbą o pomoc do cesarza bizantyjskiego Maurycjusza. Ponieważ nie uzyskał od niego oczekiwanej pomocy papież zwrócił się do Franków, którzy po pierwszej inwazji zostali przekupieni przez Lombardów i wycofali się. +Pelagiusz próbował popularyzować celibat wśród księży. Akty na temat celibatu wydane przez Pelagiusza zostały anulowane przez jego następcę Grzegorza I Wielkiego. W 589 roku odbył się synod w Toledo, na którym papież ogłosił nawrócenie się Wizygotów. +Papież był też budowniczym – podniósł prezbiterium Bazyliki św. Piotra, by ołtarz znajdował się nad grobem Piotra Apostoła. Pelagiusz zmarł w czasie epidemii dżumy, która wybuchła pod koniec 589, po wylaniu Tybru. +Maszyna drukarska + +Maszyna drukarska - podstawowe urządzenie przemysłu poligraficznego, służące do wykonywania druku na skalę przemysłową. Urządzenia mające ten sam cel w zależności od budowy, sposobów składania czcionek i drukowania ich lub wydruku na danym podłożu, mogą się całkowicie różnić od siebie - stąd też znanych jest obecnie wiele ich rodzajów. +Pierwszą maszyną drukarską była prasa drukarska, wynaleziona ok. roku 600 n.e. w Chinach. W Europie druk pojawił się dopiero w XV wieku n,e, za sprawą Laurensa Janszoona Costera. W latach 40. XV wieku Johannes Gutenberg udoskonalił i rozpowszechnił proces drukowania. +Wielebor + +Wielebor - staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członów: "Wiele-" ("chcieć, kazać, radzić") i "-bor" ("walka"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, kto zachęca do walki". +Wielebor imieniny obchodzi 27 października. +Marcin Kuźba + +Marcin Kuźba (ur. 15 kwietnia 1977 w Tomaszowie Mazowieckim), były polski piłkarz, występujący na pozycji napastnika. Obecnie skaut pracujący dla Wisły Kraków. +Kariera klubowa. +Wychowanek LKS Lubochnia, w kolejnych latach występował w Gwarku Zabrze (1993-1995), Górniku Zabrze (1995-1998), AJ Auxerre (liga francuska, 1998-1999), Lausanne-Sports (Szwajcaria, 1999-2001), AS Saint-Étienne (liga francuska, 2001-2002). W sezonie 2002/2003 zawodnik Wisły Kraków, zdobył z klubem mistrzostwo i Puchar Polski, a 21 zdobytych bramek zapewniło mu 3. miejsce wóród najskuteczniejszych strzelców polskiej ligi. W 2003 odszedł na rok do greckiego Olympiakosu Pireus, w 2004 powrócił do zespołu krakowskiej Wisły. +Od początku lutego 2007 ponownie był piłkarzem Górnika Zabrze, jednak w 6 występach nie zdobył bramki. 17 maja 2007 Górnik Zabrze, za porozumieniem stron, rozwiązał kontrakt z piłkarzem. W maju 2008 roku ogłosił zakończenie kariery piłkarskiej. Jako przyczynę tej decyzji podał kłopoty z kontuzjami, które odnosił kilkakrotnie. +Kariera reprezentacyjna. +W kadrze narodowej zagrał w sześciu spotkaniach (dwukrotnie w pełnym wymiarze czesowym), strzelając dwa gole. +Berberowie + +Berberowie ("Berberzy") – rdzenna ludność północnej Afryki i Sahary pochodzenia chamito-semickiego. +Berberowie są uważani za rdzenną ludność Północnej Afryki. Obecnie spotykamy plemiona i związki berberyjskie na obszarach od Oazy Siwa w Egipcie aż po wybrzeża Oceanu Atlantyckiego i od brzegów Morza Śródziemnego po południowe granice Sahary. Oblicza się, że językami berberyjskimi mówi dzisiaj jeszcze od 6 do 7 mln ludzi; najwięcej w Maroku i Algierii. Najdalej stwierdzony zasięg Berberów dotyczy Wysp Kanaryjskich, gdzie byli znani pod nazwą Guanczów. +Nazwa "Berber" pochodzi od łacińskiego "barbarus" – barbarzyńca. Do języków europejskich weszło za pośrednictwem arabskiego "barbar" (بربر), choć Arabowie nie zdawali sobie sprawy z jego pogardliwego znaczenia – Ibn Chaldun uważał słowo "barbar" za imię praojca tego ludu. Sami siebie Berberowie nazywają "Amazigh" (l.mn. "Imazighen") – "ludzie wolni". +Historia. +Prawdopodobnie Berberowie na wspomnianych wyżej terytoriach byli obecni od starożytności. Spotykali ich już starożytni Grecy i Kartagińczycy, kolonizując południowe wybrzeża Morza Śródziemnego. Powszechnie uznaje się, że przodkami Berberów są twórcy cywilizacji kapskiej. Starożytni pisarze i geografowie nazywali Berberów różnie, w zależności od miejsc zamieszkiwania. Mieszkańców Cyrenajki nazywali Nasamonami i Psyllami, z Fezzanu – Garamantami, z Tunezji – Makalami, Getulami z Sahary, Maurami z obecnych terenów Algierii i Maroka, Numidami ze wsch. części płn. Afryki. W starożytnym Egipcie określano ich mianem Libijczyków, którzy najeżdżali ten kraj od zachodu. Ich wizerunki utrwalone na starożytnych obrazach i stelach egipskich prezentują ich jako jasnowłosych bądź rudowłosych ludzi. Wielu służyło w armii faraonów jako najemnicy. Zajmowali się wówczas pasterstwem, łowiectwem oraz rolnictwem. Terytoria, które zamieszkiwali określały charakter mieszkańców. Byli twardzi, nieustępliwi, wojowniczy. Berberowie przez stulecia ulegali wpływom punickim (starożytna Kartagina), a później wpływom rzymskim. W okresie wojen punickich powstały pierwsze państwa berberyjskie Massylów i Masalesylów (pierwsze znane państwo berberyjskie – Numidia istniało już w III wieku p.n.e.) które wsparły Rzymian w walce z Kartagińczykami. Później zostały one włączone przez Rzymian do północno-afrykańskich prowincji Cesarstwa rzymskiego. Zostało ono zwasalizowane przez antyczny Rzym a jego mieszkańcy poddani zostali romanizacji, wzmacniając Imperium. W V–VI wieku n.e. tereny zamieszkiwane przez Berberów stały się obiektem wędrówki ludów. Na terytorium dzisiejszej Tunezji osiedlili się Wandalowie, których resztki niewyniszczone przez bizantyjskiego wodza Belizariusza w VI wieku n.e. schroniły się w górach Auresu wzmacniając istniejące tam skupiska ludności o silnym procencie jasnych oczu i włosów, określanych dzisiaj mianem Kabylów. Do VII wieku większość Berberów wyznawała chrześcijaństwo lub politeizm. W VII wieku po ekspansji arabskiej zaczęło się to stopniowo zmieniać, gdyż większość ludności przyjęła islam, mimo prób oporu (utworzenie państwa Berghuata i założenie własnej religii przez Saliha ibn Tarifa). Pozostały jednakże wyraźne różnice w obyczajowości. Między innymi charakterystyczny szacunek do kobiet wyrażający się monogamią oraz prawem współdecydowania o ważniejszych sprawach rodziny wspólnie z mężem. +Część Berberów, mieszkańców Wysp Kanaryjskich pozostała poganami do XIV wieku, do czasu kiedy przybyli tam Hiszpanie i Portugalczycy. Hiszpanie dokonali aneksji wysp, połączonej z podbojem miejscowej ludności, która w większej części zginęła w walce a częściowo się zasymilowała. Pozostały po niej tylko stare miejsca grzebalne, gdzie odkrywa się rudowłose mumie o szkieletach przypominających typy śródziemnomorskie Corded lub kromaniońskie, charakteryzujące się jasną pigmentacją. Plemiona berberyjskie miały w przypadku terenów dzisiejszej Algierii i Maroka sporą autonomię i poczucie własnej odrębności, której nie mogli wykorzenić Arabowie. +W latach 1921–26 na terenie obecnego Maroka istniała berberyjska Republika Rif. Po procesie dekolonizacji wielu Berberów migrowało do Francji. W nowych krajach po dekolonizacji z trudem odnajdywali się w nowej rzeczywistości stając się obywatelami drugiej kategorii po Arabach. Na emigracji wnieśli szczególnie ważny wkład w kulturę francuską. Przykładem jest tu cała plejada aktorów, piosenkarzy, na przykład Isabelle Adjani, piłkarz Zinedine Zidane. +Współcześnie w krajach istniejących na ojczystych ziemiach Berberów, szczególnie w Algierii (8–15% Berberów) czy Maroku (30%), arabskie władze prowadzą politykę ich wynaradawiania i asymilacji. +Plik:Berber tunisie 1910.jpg|Berberyjka z Tunezji (1910) +Plik:Berber_warriors_show.JPG|Berberowie podczas święta +Plik:Village berber.jpg|Wioska berberyjska w Maroku +Plik:Touareg1.jpg|Tuaregowie + +Densytometr + +Densytometr – urządzenie fotoelektryczne służące do pomiaru gęstości optycznej materiałów przezroczystych i nieprzezroczystych. +W związku z ww. rodzajami pomiarów rozróżnia się densytometry transmisyjne, służące do pomiaru przepuszczalności światła przez badany materiał (np. stopień zaczernienia błon filmowych) oraz densytometry refleksyjne, służące do pomiaru procentowej ilości światła odbitego w stosunku do światła oświetlającego materiał odbijający światło (np. pomiar gęstości optycznej druku). +Sunna + +Sunna (arab. "as-sunnah", droga, ścieżka) – zbiór opowieści (hadisów) o czynach i wypowiedziach proroka Mahometa stanowiący muzułmańską tradycję religijną; jest on źródłem wiary i jedną z podstaw prawa muzułmańskiego. +Sunna jest zbiorem wydarzeń i wypowiedzi proroka dotyczących problemów z życia codziennego muzułmanów. Jest też zbiorem wskazań na temat dogmatyki islamu, opinii na temat stosunków społecznych i obyczajów, jak również dobrego wychowania i zachowania. +Sunna, mówiąc wprost, to zbiór obyczaju i praktyk islamu, opartych na słowach i czynach Mahometa, oraz uzupełnienia i egzegeza Koranu. +Etym. – arab. sunna 'zwyczaj, tradycja'. +Sunnici to większy z dwóch głównych odłamów islamu, wierny ortodoksyjnej tradycji Sunny, uznający pierwszych czterech kalifów za prawowitych następców Mahometa; por. szyizm. +Anna Kańtoch + +Anna Kańtoch (ur. 28 grudnia 1976 w Katowicach) – polska pisarka fantasy, znana również pod pseudonimem Anneke. +Ukończyła orientalistykę (specjalność: arabistyka) na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Po studiach wróciła do Katowic, gdzie obecnie pracuje w biurze podróży. Należy do Śląskiego Klubu Fantastyki. +Debiutowała w kwietniu 2004 opowiadaniem "Diabeł na wieży" opublikowanym w czasopiśmie „Science Fiction”. Pisała recenzje filmów i książek do internetowego magazynu „Avatarae” (gdzie ukazało się opowiadanie będące kontynuacją "Diabła na wieży" – "Czarna Saissa"), dziś pisze do magazynu „Esensja”. W lipcu 2005 ukazał się zbiór opowiadań "Diabeł na wieży" o ich bohaterze, Domenicu Jordanie, wydany przez wydawnictwo Fabryka Słów. Jej debiutem książkowym była powieść "Miasto w zieleni i błękicie", dziejąca się w tym samym świecie co opowiadania o Domenicu Jordanie. +Na Euroconie 2007 otrzymała nagrodę Europejskiego Stowarzyszenia Science Fiction (ESFS) dla najbardziej obiecującego młodego twórcy – Encouragement Award. +W 2009 roku otrzymała Nagrodę im. Janusza A. Zajdla za opublikowane w 2008 r. opowiadanie "Światy Dantego". W 2010 r. została uhonorowana tą nagrodą za powieść "Przedksiężycowi", a w 2011 r. za opowiadanie "Duchy w maszynach". +Mercyful Fate + +Mercyful Fate – duński zespół heavymetalowy. Powstały w 1981 roku w Kopenhadze. Muzyka Mercyful Fate to urozmaicony heavy metal, oparty na melodyjnych partiach gitary prowadzącej i głosie wokalisty Kinga Diamonda sięgającego falsetu. W tekstach nawiązywał do takich zagadnień jak satanizm, zło czy okultyzm. Do 1999 roku ukazało się siedem albumów studyjnych zespołu, pozytywnie ocenianych zarówno przez fanów, jak i krytyków muzycznych. +We wczesnych latach 80. XX wieku zespół był inspiracją dla szeregu zespołów heavymetalowych, a także wywarł wpływ na rozwój gatunku black metal. Od wydania ostatniego albumu pt. "9" brak jest doniesień o działalności zespołu, jednakże nie został on oficjalnie rozwiązany. +Historia. +Zespół powstał w 1981 roku w Kopenhadze z inicjatywy gitarzysty Hanka Shermanna, który występował poprzednio w Brats i wokalisty Kinga Diamonda, który występował z Black Rose. Tego samego roku zespół wydał cztery dema. Wkrótce potem Diamond i Shermann do współpracy zaprosili gitarzystę Mike'a Dennera, basistę Timiego Hansena i perkusistę Kima Ruzza. Natomiast rok później został wydany minialbum pt. "Mercyful Fate". W 1983 roku ukazał się pierwszy album grupy zatytułoway "Melissa". W 1984 roku ukazała się płyta "Don't Break the Oath". Po nagraniach zespół wyruszył w trasę koncertową po Stanach Zjednoczonych wraz z brytyjskim zespołem Motörhead. Po zakończonej trasie w 1985 roku zespół został rozwiązany w wyniku nieporozumień. Tego samego roku King Diamond założył zespół sygnowany własnym pseudonimem. +W 1992 roku zespół Mercyful Fate wznowił działalność bez Kima Ruzza w składzie, którego zastąpił Snowy Shaw. W nowym składzie został zarejestrowany album zatytułowany "In the Shadows". W ramach promocji wydawnictwa został zrealizowany teledysk do utworu "Egypt". Rok później ukazał się album koncertowy "The Bell Witch". Tego samego roku do zespołu dołączył basista Sharlee D'Angelo, który zastąpił Hansena. W nowym składzie również w 1994 roku ukazał się album "Time". Do pochodzących z albumu utworów "Nightmare Be Thy Name" i "The Witches Dance" zostały zrealizowane teledyski. Wkrótce z zespołu odszedł Snowy Shaw, którego zastąpił Bjarne Thomas Holm. W 1996 roku ukazał się album "Into the Unknown". W ramach promocji zrealizowano również teledysk do utworu "The Uninvited Guest". W 1998 roku został wydany szósty album Mercyful Fate zatytułowany "Dead Again" oraz promujący go teledysk do utworu "The Night". +Rok później ukazał się siódmy album grupy pt. "9". Płyta została nagrana w studiu Nomad Recordings we współpracy z producentem muzycznym Sterlingiem Winfieldem. Wkrótce potem działalność zespołu została zawieszona. King Diamond skupił się na działalności w swym zespole. Basista Sharlee D'Angelo czynnie występuje w melodic deathmetalowej grupie Arch Enemy. Gitarzysta Mike Wead od 2007 roku występuje w death metalowym zespole Kryptillusion. Natomiast Hank Shermann założył grupę Force of Evil. +Muzycy. +Źródło:. + Obecny skład zespołu +Byli członkowie zespołu +Dyskografia. +Źródło:. +Wielisława + +Wielisława – staropolskie imię żeńskie. Składa się z członów: "Wiele-" ("chcieć, kazać, radzić") i "-sława" ("sława"). Mogło oznaczać "tę, która pragnie sławy". Skróconą formą tego imienia jest Wiesława. W źródłach poświadczone od 1405 roku. +Wielisława imieniny obchodzi 29 stycznia i 9 grudnia. +Trapiści + +Trapiści, właściwie Zakon Cystersów Ściślejszej Obserwancji (OCSO, "Ordo Cisterciensis Strictioris Observantiae") – zakon katolicki istniejący pod tą nazwą od 1903 roku, wywodzący swoje początki z opactwa cysterskiego La Trappe położonego w północnej części Regionu Centralnego we Francji. +Historia powstania zakonu. +Klasztor La Trappe już od swego powstania był znany i bogaty gdyż posiadał relikwie przywiezione z Palestyny. Przyciągały one wiernych i przysparzały dochodów. Opactwo jednak, wielokrotnie złupione, stało się biedne i popadło w ruinę. Jeszcze w średniowieczu za niezapłacenie podatku klasztor został obłożny klątwą przez papieża Bonifacego IX. +Na początku XVII w. większość zakonników opuściła ruiny opactwa. Pozostało kilku najbardziej wytrwałych indywidualistów oraz opat Marsollier. Ten jednak przestał zajmować się klasztorem, żył w samotności i z nikim nie rozmawiał gdyż w ten sposób doznawał objawień. Pozostali mnisi postępowali podobnie. W 1662 r. do opactwa trafił samotny opat Armand Jean le Bouthillier de Rancé (według niektórych źródeł był opatem już od 1637 r.). Udało mu się częściowo skończyć z indywidualizmem w sprawach jedzenia i spania – mnisi jedli wspólnie w określonych porach i o określonej porze chodzili spać. Podjęli też prace na rzecz klasztoru dzięki czemu stopniowo uporządkowano i odremontowano klasztor. Pozostałe obyczaje mnichów w dużym stopniu pokrywały się z wymogami pierwotnej reguły cysterskiej. Egzekwowano nakaz pracy i milczenia. W 1664 r. w klasztorze pojawił się Augustin de Lestrange, zwolennik kontemplacji i studiowania literatury kościelnej. W ten sposób w klasztorze La Trappe pojawiły się dwie główne zasady reguły trapistów (praca i kontemplacja). Ten rok uważa się za rok powstania zakonu trapistów. +Ponieważ Armand de Rancé nie zgadzał się na kontemplację i czytanie zamiast pracy, w 1785 r. doszło do rozłamu. Augustin de Lestrange opuścił klasztor zabierając ze sobą do Szwajcarii 21 mnichów podobnie myślących. W okresie rewolucji Francuskiej trapiści musieli opuścić Francję a przy okazji powstało kilka ich ośrodków w Europie. Po upadku Napoleona część mnichów wróciła do La Trappe. Ok. 1830 r. do trapistów należało 10 klasztorów męskich i 4 żeńskie. Formalnie jednak wszyscy należeli wciąż do cystersów. W 1847 r. papież Pius IX oficjalnie uznał dwie osobne kongregacje zakonne: jedną stosującą się do reguł ustalonych przez Armand de Rancé i drugą stosującą się do zasad Augustina Lestranga. W 1892 r. za papieża Leona XIII połączono obie kongregacje w zakon zreformowanych cystersów. W 1894 r., po połączeniu trzech kongregacji (dołączono kobiecą), oficjalnie powstał odrębny zakon kontemplacyjny. +21 listopada papież Benedykt XVI nadał przywilej dla klasztoru trapistów w Mariawald (Diecezja Akwizgran) na pełny powrót do liturgii i obserwacji stosowanej przez ten zakon w latach 1963/64. Stosowny wniosek przedłożył Stolicy Apostolskiej opat tego klasztoru o. Josef Vollberg. +Zwyczaje zakonne. +Reguła zakonna opiera się na bardzo ścisłym przestrzeganiu reguły św. Benedykta. Uznaje się, że jest to najbardziej surowa reguła w Kościele katolickim. Zakłada pełną izolację od świata, milczenie, posty, oddanie się modlitwie i pracy fizycznej. Mnichów obowiązuje tzw. wielkie milczenie pomiędzy zakończeniem Komplety a śniadaniem. W ciągu dnia mnisi mogą porozumiewać się ze sobą, jakkolwiek jest to ograniczone do minimum. Siedem razy dziennie zbierają się w kościele na oficjum brewiarzowym. W Wielki Piątek chodzą boso a w okresie wielkiego postu, w każdą środę zachowują pełny post. Reguła też wymaga dbałości o higienę oraz bezwzględnego stosowania się do zaleceń leczniczych właściwego zakonnika. +Niektóre klasztory Trapistów słyną z wyrabiania mocnego piwa (średnio 6-7% zawartości alkoholu), o charakterystycznym smaku, szczególnie popularnego w Belgii. Znakiem rozpoznawczym tego piwa jest charakterystyczne logo oraz informacja, iż część dochodu uzyskanego z jego sprzedaży będzie przeznaczona na wspieranie biednych. +Do zakonu tego należał m.in. Thomas Merton i św. Rafał Arnáiz Barón (kanonizowany 11 października 2009 przez Benedykta XVI). Trapistą pochodzącym z Polski jest Michał Zioło, poeta i eseista. +Yosuke Matsuoka + +, dyplomata japoński, działacz gospodarczy, wpływowy minister spraw zagranicznych w okresie II wojny światowej. +Biografia. +Od 13. roku życia mieszkał u rodziny w USA, w 1900 ukończył wydział prawa na uniwersytecie stanowym Oregonu. Po studiach powrócił do Japonii i rozpoczął pracę w dyplomacji. W 1904 został konsulem w Szanghaju, w okresie wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej pracował we władzach guberni Dairen. W 1907 został sekretarzem w Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych. Po krótkim czasie ponownie na placówkach zagranicznych - był III sekretarzem ambasady w Belgii, II sekretarzem ambasad w Chinach i Rosji (1912-1913), I sekretarzem ambasady w USA (1916-1917). W 1917 powrócił na stanowisko sekretarza w MSZ, a w 1918 został sekretarzem premiera. Był członkiem ważnego komitetu rządowego ds. finansowania przedsięwzięć gospodarczych na Syberii. W lutym 1919 jako członek delegacji japońskiej brał udział w konferencji pokojowej w Wersalu. +W 1921 odszedł z pracy dyplomatycznej i przeszedł do sektora gospodarczego. Wszedł do kierownictwa spółki akcyjnej kolei południowomandżurskiej, kolejno na stanowiska dyrektora, zastępcy prezesa i prezesa. Jednocześnie był deputowanym do parlamentu i członkiem komitetów rządowych zajmujących się towarzystwami naftowymi i pozyskaniem gospodarczym terenów północnych i centralnych Chin. +Powrócił do dyplomacji na początku lat 30. W latach 1932-1933 kierował delegacją japońską na nadzwyczajnej sesji Ligi Narodów w Genewie. Na sesji tej zajmowano się aneksją Mandżurii przez wojska japońskie i utworzeniem marionetkowego cesarstwa Mandżukuo. Matsuoka nie zdołał przekonać państw członkowskich Ligi do polityki japońskiej, w związku z czym przeprowadził akt wystąpienia Japonii z Ligi Narodów. +W lipcu 1940 Matsuoka objął stanowisko ministra spraw zagranicznych w rządzie księcia Fumimaro Konoe. Był jednym z inicjatorów japońskiej polityki ekspansji w Azji, którą określił mianem "nowego ładu w wielkiej Azji Wschodniej". Był autorem, podpisanego we wrześniu 1940 roku w Berlinie, Paktu Trzech między faszystowskimi Niemcami i Włochami a Japonią. Dążył do wprowadzenia do grona państw Osi także ZSRR i podziału świata na cztery strefy wpływów - Europę, Związek Radziecki, Azję Wschodnią i kontynent amerykański. Po niepowodzeniu tych starań zawarł 13 kwietnia 1941 w Moskwie pakt japońsko-radziecki o neutralności. +Utracił stanowisko szefa dyplomacji japońskiej 26 lipca 1941 w związku z atakiem Niemiec na ZSRR. W gabinecie Konoe zastąpił go admirał Soemu Toyoda. +Posiadał liczne odznaczenia państwowe japońskie i zagraniczne, był także oficerem z nominacji cesarskiej. W 1946 został aresztowany i oskarżony przed Międzynarodowym Trybunałem Karnym ds. Dalekiego Wschodu w Tokio. Nie przyznał się do stawianych zarzutów, zmarł w więzieniu przed zakończeniem procesu. +Katarzyna Kossakowska + +Katarzyna Kossakowska, z domu Potocka (ur. 1716 lub 30 kwietnia 1722, zm. 21 marca 1803 w Krystynopolu), działaczka polityczna II połowy XVIII wieku, kasztelanowa kamieńska. +Była córką starosty grabowieckiego Jerzego Potockiego i Konstancji z Podbereskich (I voto Zamoyskiej). 24 maja 1744 wyszła za mąż za kuzyna, Stanisława Kossakowskiego (1721-1761), kasztelanica podlaskiego, od 1748 kasztelana kamieńskiego. Mąż był podobno ułomny i karłowaty, opinia publiczna zareagowała na ślub wystosowaniem wierszowanej "Kondolencji" dla młodej małżonki. +W latach 50. wraz z mężem była jedną z czołowych protektorek Jakuba Franka i frankistów. Zaliczała się do najenergiczniejszych postaci polskiej sceny politycznej. Początkowo wspierała politykę hetmana Jana Klemensa Branickiego, później była jego przeciwniczką. Przede wszystkim jednak przeszła do historii jako zdeklarowana przeciwniczka króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego, liderka konfederacji radomskiej, zwolenniczka Konstytucji Trzeciego Maja. +Opiekowała się siostrzeńcem Ignacym Potockim i aktywnie wspierała interesy rodu Potockich. W 1777 uzyskała od cesarzowej Austrii Marii Teresy tytuł hrabiowski i Order Krzyża Gwiaździstego. W ostatnich latach I Rzeczypospolitej działała w środowiskach antyrosyjskich i antytargowickich. 28 kwietnia 1792 publicznie pojednała się z królem Stanisławem Augustem Poniatowskim. +Była znana z poczucia humoru, niezależności sądu; autorka bogatej, dowcipnej korespondencji. Nazywano ją "Herod-Babą" lub "Wielką Mądrochą". +Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, autor wielu powieści z czasów stanisławowskich, wprowadził osobę Katarzyny Kossakowskiej do powieści "Macocha" (1872). Opisywał ją następująco: "słusznego wzrostu kobieta, sucha i chuda, rysów twarzy grubych i męskich, ubrana mniej starannie, acz strój był kosztowny; twarz jej, mimo że ją brzydką nazwać było można, jaśniała chłodnym rozumem, a oczy tryskały dowcipem". O roli Kossakowskiej Kraszewski napisał "Z imienia przynajmniej mało kto nie zna pani Kossakowskiej, najdowcipniejszej kobiety owych czasów, gdy na dowcipie nie zbywało nikomu. (...) Pani Kossakowska miała dowcip Potocczyzny (jak ją zwała), dumny, ostry, nielitościwy, poważny, ironiczny, wcale nie figlarny i nie giętki. Cięła nim jak bułatem, a komu się nim dostało po głowie, długo bliznę nosił. Samemu królowi jegomości nieraz się dostawało." +Giovanni da Verrazzano + +Giovanni da Verrazzano lub Verrazano (ur. ok. 1485 w Val di Greve w Toskanii, zm. 1528 na Gwadelupie) - włoski żeglarz, podróżnik i odkrywca. Sławę przyniosła mu podróż do Ameryki w celu znalezienia przejścia północno-zachodniego na zlecenie króla Francji Franciszka I. +Verrazzano opuścił Maderę 17 stycznia 1524 roku i dotarł do odkrytego rok wcześniej przez Lucasa de Allona Przylądka Strachu. Stamtąd skierował się na północ i płynąc wzdłuż wybrzeża dotarł aż do Nowej Fundlandii. W czasie swej podróży dokonał kilku przystanków, między innymi w miejscu, gdzie dziś znajduje się miasto Nowy Jork. Cieśnina, w której zarzucił kotwicę została nazwana jego imieniem. Także współcześnie jeden z mostów w Nowym Jorku, Verrazzano Narrows Bridge, nosi jego imię. +Ze swej wyprawy powrócił 8 lipca tego samego roku z przekonaniem, że kontynent północnoamerykański jest wąskim pasmem lądu oddzielającym oceany. Jednym z towarzyszy Giovanniego de Verrazzano był jego brat Giralamo, który będąc zdolnym kartografem, wykonał bardzo cenione przez współczesnych mapy odwiedzanych wybrzeży. +W drugą podróz na zachód podjął w roku 1526 lub 1527. Pożeglował do Brazylii, skąd wrócił z ładunkiem cennego drewna. +Verrazzano w czasie swej kolejnej wyprawy wiosną 1528 roku na Karaiby został pojmany na Gwadelupie przez miejscowych Indian Arawaków, zabity i zjedzony. Pozostali członkowie ekspedycji kontynuowali podróż docierając do wybrzeży Brazylii, by następnie powrócić do Francji. +Jego imieniem został nazwany jeden z włoskich niszczycieli typu Navigatori. +Inspektor ochrony danych + +Inspektor ochrony danych (czasami określany również jako Urzędnik ds. ochrony danych) jest osobą powoływaną przez każdą instytucję lub organ Unii Europejskiej w celu zapewnienia stosowania przepisów Rozporządzenia Nr 45/2001 Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z 18 grudnia 2000 r. o ochronie osób fizycznych w związku z przetwarzaniem danych osobowych przez instytucje i organy wspólnotowe i o swobodnym przepływie takich danych. Ponadto doradza administratorom danych w kwestii wypełniania przez nich obowiązków w zakresie ochrony danych osobowych. W zakresie wykonywania swoich obowiązków jest niezależny. +"Inspektor ochrony danych" może zostać powołany na okres od 2 do 5 lat. Możliwy jest ponowny wybór tej samej osoby na stanowisko inspektora z zastrzeżeniem, że nie można sprawować funkcji dłużej niż przez 10 lat. Każda instytucja lub organ, który powoła inspektora (lub inspektorów) zobowiązana jest go zgłosić do rejestru prowadzonego przez Europejskiego Inspektora Ochrony Danych. +Avalon (mitologia) + +Avalon – celtycki raj lub kraina zmarłych (wyspa na mitycznym Oceanie Zachodnim), zwana inaczej Ziemią Kobiet, Wyspą Jabłek lub Wyspą Jabłoni. Trwa tam nieustanna wiosna, panuje nienaruszalny pokój, choroby nie mają dostępu do jej brzegów, a ziemia jest tak urodzajna, że szczęśliwcy, którzy dotarli do Avalonu, nie muszą troszczyć się o jej uprawianie, gdyż sama dostarcza wszystkich potrzebnych warzyw i owoców. Ci, którzy zasłużyli na pośmiertny żywot wieczny, przebywają tam, zażywając rozkoszy stołu i łoża. +Legenda mówi, że właścicielkami wyspy są piękne kobiety, czarodziejki, które oczekują na przybycie wielkich bohaterów. Dlatego Avalon często zwany jest także wyspą kobiet. Władczynią jest wieszczka, potrafiąca przepowiadać przyszłość, natomiast jej mąż jest strażnikiem, poruszającym się po morzu rydwanem, zaprzęgniętym w potwory morskie. Jednym z niewielu śmiertelników, którym udało się odnaleźć mityczną wyspę, jest według mitologii celtyckiej żeglarz Bran, któremu ukazała się wiedźma z gałązką jabłoni w ręku. Dała Branowi wskazówki, jak dostać się na wyspę. +Według legend, król Artur został pochowany (lub nadal żyje) właśnie w Avalonie. Jest to ponoć również miejsce ukrycia Świętego Graala. Z tych powodów, od setek lat trwają poszukiwania Wyspy Jabłek. Utożsamiano ją między innymi z Gotlandią, Mont Saint-Michel i Glastonbury. Obecnie nazwą tą określa się wyspę Man u zachodnich wybrzeży Walii. Jej celtycka nazwa to "Ellan Vannin". +III wyprawa krzyżowa + +III wyprawa krzyżowa – wyprawa wojenna, która odbyła się w latach 1189-1192. Była to próba odzyskania Ziemi Świętej z rąk sułtana ajjubidzkiego Saladyna, której podjęło się rycerstwo europejskie dowodzone przez cesarza Fryderyka I Barbarossę, króla francuskiego Filipa II Augusta i króla angielskiego Ryszarda Lwie Serce. +Geneza konfliktu. +Po klęsce II wyprawy krzyżowej jednemu z muzułmańskich władców, Nur ad-Dinowi, udało się zjednoczyć pod swym panowaniem Syrię i opanować Damaszek. Nur ad-Din, chcąc kontynuować swą ekspansywna politykę, zwrócił teraz uwagę na państwo Fatymidów w Egipcie. W roku 1163 wysłał on nad Nil ekspedycję wojskową pod wodzą swojego zaufanego generała Szirkuha, któremu towarzyszył jego młodszy bratanek Saladyn. +W tej sytuacji znajdujący się w wielkim zagrożeniu sułtan egipski Szawar wezwał na pomoc króla jerozolimskiego Amalryka I, który wkrótce przybył na czele swoich wojsk i obległ Szirkuha w ufortyfikowanym mieście Bilbeis (1164). +Tymczasem Nur ad-Din, korzystając z zaangażowania się krzyżowców w Egipcie, najechał Antiochię i zmasakrował broniące jej chrześcijańskie wojska. Udało mu się przy tym pojmać wielu spośród przywódców poprzednich krucjat, w tym również księcia Antiochii Renalda z Châtillon. Teraz, aby przyspieszyć rozstrzygnięcie działań w Egipcie, Nur ad-Din wysłał Szirkuhowi skalpy chrześcijańskich obrońców Antiochii, co zaowocowało wycofaniem się obu armii z Egiptu. +Ambitny władca Syrii nie zamierzał jednak rezygnować z planów podporządkowania sobie Egiptu i w roku 1167 ponownie wysłał tam Szirkuha. Fatymidzi znów wezwali na pomoc Amalryka i wspólnie zmusili Szirkuha do wycofania się pod Aleksandrię. Tym razem jednak król jerozolimski nie zamierzał się wycofywać z niczym. Zwrócił się więc przeciwko Szawarowi i obległ miasto Bilbeis. Zdrada ta okazała się jednak zgubna dla Królestwa Jerozolimskiego, bowiem w takiej sytuacji siły Szawara i Szirkuha połączyły się i wspólnie wystąpiły przeciwko Amalrykowi wypierając go wkrótce z Egiptu. Jednocześnie wydarzenia te doprowadziły do przejęcia kontroli nad Egiptem przez Nur ad-Dina (Szawar został zamordowany) i osaczenia chrześcijan z niemal wszystkich stron. +W Egipcie władzę w imieniu Nur ad-Dina miał sprawować Szirkuh. Jednakże w 1169 zmarł on niespodziewanie po zaledwie kilku tygodniach rządów. Władzę po nim odziedziczył Saladyn, który wkrótce zdobył także władzę w Syrii (po śmierci Nur ad-Dina w 1174) i założył dynastię Ajjubidów. +W roku 1174 zmarł również Amalryk I, zostawiając Królestwo Jerozolimskie swemu trzynastoletniemu synowi Baldwinowi IV, który zawarł z Saladynem umowę zapewniającą wolną wymianę handlową pomiędzy terytoriami muzułmanów i chrześcijan. +Baldwin IV zmarł w 1185, a jego następcą został siedmioletni Baldwin V. Regencję w jego imieniu sprawował Rajmund III z Trypolisu. Panowanie to nie trwało jednak długo, bowiem już w następnym roku Baldwin V zmarł, a władzę przejęła jego matka Sybilla Jerozolimska oraz jej drugi mąż Gwidon de Lusignan. +W czasie tych zmian na tronie jerozolimskim rozbójniczą i piracką działalność prowadził Renald de Châtillon, wypuszczony z niewoli jeszcze w 1176. Jeden z jego napadów okazał się zgubny dla całego Królestwa Jerozolimskiego. Gdy Renald odmówił wypuszczenia pojmanych członków muzułmańskiej karawany wraz z ich towarami, Saladyn przyjął to jako zniewagę i wypowiedział Królestwu Jerozolimskiemu wojnę, do której przygotowywał się już od dłuższego czasu. +W 1187 Saladyn obległ miasto Tyberiada w Galilei. Rajmund z Trypolisu doradzał cierpliwość, lecz król działając według wskazówek Renalda i templariuszy pomaszerował ze swymi wojskami do wąwozu Hittin, prowadzącego w kierunku Tyberiady. Armia krzyżowców, spragniona i zdemoralizowana, została rozgromiona w bitwie która się tam rozegrała. +Do końca roku Saladyn zajął niemal całe terytorium Królestwa Jerozolimskiego z Akką i Jerozolimą. +Przygotowania do krucjaty. +Nowy papież Grzegorz VIII obwieścił, że zdobycie Jerozolimy było karą za grzechy popełnione przez chrześcijan i dlatego konieczne jest zorganizowanie kolejnej krucjaty, aby odkupić grzechy i odzyskać Jerozolimę. Na to wezwanie król Anglii Henryk II i król Francji Filip II August zakończyli wojnę między sobą i obaj narzucili swoim poddanym nowy, 10% podatek, aby sfinansować wyprawę do Ziemi Świętej. +Wyprawa Fryderyka I Barbarossy. +Cesarz rzymski Fryderyk I Barbarossa natychmiast odpowiedział na wezwanie papieża i w maju 1189 jako pierwszy wyruszył do Ziemi Świętej na czele rycerstwa niemieckiego. Fryderyk powiększył swą armię do takich rozmiarów, iż nie mogła ona zostać przetransportowana statkami przez Morze Śródziemne i podążyła drogą lądową przez Węgry, Bułgarię i Azję Mniejszą. +18 maja 1190 niemiecka armia pokonała wojska seldżuckie w bitwie pod Ikonium. Jednak wkrótce zdarzył się tragiczny wypadek. Podczas kąpieli w rzece Salef (Kalykadnos) Fryderyk I Barbarossa utopił się (podczas kąpieli miał na sobie zbroję i to było przyczyną jego utonięcia). Komendę przejął jego syn Fryderyk Szwabski, jednak nie był on w stanie utrzymać dyscypliny i jedności armii. Doprowadził wojska do Antiochii, gdzie pochował ojca w kościele Św. Piotra, ale i tu pech prześladował niemiecką wyprawę i wielu rycerzy dosięgła zaraza. +Wyprawa Ryszarda I Lwie Serce. +Po wypłynięciu z Sycylii flota Ryszarda trafiła na silny sztorm. Kilka statków zatonęło, a jeden – wiozący narzeczoną Ryszarda oraz pokaźną ilość złota – rozbił się na Cyprze. Skarb został przejęty przez władcę Cypru Izaaka Komnena. Ryszard wpłynął do portu w Limassol 6 maja 1191 i spotkał się z Izaakiem, który zgodził się zwrócić skarb i dodatkowo wysłać 500 swoich żołnierzy do Ziemi Świętej. Jednakże po powrocie do Famagusty Izaak zmienił zdanie i nakazał Ryszardowi opuścić natychmiast wyspę. Rozwścieczony Ryszard podbił wyspę w ciągu kilku dni. +Ryszard wraz z wojskami zdobył Akkę i kontynuował swoje podboje. Nie posiadał dużej armii (ok. 8000 zbrojnych). W pewnym momencie Saladyn zaatakował Akkę. Ryszard, który szedł wtedy na Jerozolimę, zmuszony został do powrotu. Razem ze swoją armią przedostał się do garnizonu, znajdującego się w centrum miasta i obleganego przez wroga. Ryszard odepchnął armię Saladyna. Wyruszył znowu na Jerozolimę, ale Saladyn znowu ruszył na Akkę. Ryszard tym razem dotarł pierwszy do tej warowni. Żołnierzom brakowało jedzenia i picia, ich morale było niskie. Ryszard wyciągnął swoją armię na „ostateczne starcie”, lecz nie spodziewał się zwycięstwa, jakie odniósł. Zmierzyły się autorytety władców, a nie armie. Muzułmanie przestraszyli się wielkiego króla, wyjeżdżającego poza mury miasta. Uznali, że Allah stanął po ich stronie. Kiedy Ryszard wbił się w jednostki wroga, razem ze swoimi rycerzami tak ich przestraszył, że uciekli w popłochu. +Po tym zwycięstwie Ryszard w spokoju zebrał żołnierzy i wyruszył na święte miasto. Kiedy podjechał pod nie zmuszony został do odwrotu, ponieważ nowa armia nadciągała z odsieczą Jerozolimie. Ryszard uznał, że nawet jak zdobędzie miasto wojsko muzułmańskie tym razem go pokona. Europejczycy uznali Ryszarda za tchórza, ponieważ nie zdobył Jerozolimy. Ryszard Lwie Serce nawet nie próbował jej zdobyć. +Dalsze losy krucjaty. +Wyprawa prowadziła trzyletnie oblężenie Akki, zakończone jej zdobyciem i podpisaniem ugody z Saladynem. Skromne wyniki tej wyprawy (warunki pokoju zakładały zapewnienie pielgrzymom swobodnego dostępu do Jerozolimy oraz przekazanie przez Ajjubidów pasa wybrzeża morskiego od Tyru do Jaffy) skłoniły papiestwo do zorganizowania IV wyprawy krzyżowej. +Jurij Modin + +Jurij Iwanowicz Modin (ros. Юрий Иванович Модин, ur. 1921) – oficer wywiadu, jeden z najlepszych oficerów prowadzących w historii radzieckiego wywiadu, prowadził m.in. członków Siatki Szpiegowskiej Cambridge. +Busted + +Busted – brytyjski zespół grający pop rocka, założony w 2001 roku. +14 stycznia 2005 roku podczas oficjalnej konferencji prasowej zespół ogłosił, że kończy swą działalność. +Biografia. +Pop punkowe trio, rodem z przedmieść Londynu, powstało w październiku 2001 roku, a już w marcu 2002 podpisało kontrakt z dużą wytwórnią. Wszystko zaczęło się od Jamesa i Matta. Postanowili oni grać razem, jednak nie mieli trzeciego członka. Wtedy ich znajomy polecił im Charliego. Tak właśnie powstał Busted. +"Nazywanie nas boysbandem jest obraźliwe. Boysbandy tylko wychodzą na scenę i śpiewają gotowe piosenki, a ich albumy powstają bardzo szybko - powiedział kiedyś Charlie - My potrzebujemy na to więcej czasu, bo musimy skomponować muzykę, znaleźć producentów i nagrać to. To zupełnie inny proces". +Ich pierwszy singel "What I Go To School For", nawiązywał do czasów perypetii szkolnych, kiedy to uczeń staje się kujonem i zasiada do pierwszej ławki tylko po to by oglądać tyłek nauczycielki. Taka historia naprawdę przydarzyła się Mattowi. +"Year 3000" - inspirowany przez ulubiony film Jamesa, "Powrót do przyszłości" - opowiada o roku 3000, kiedy to zespół Busted wydaje siódmą płytę, kobiety mają po trzy piersi, a wszyscy mieszkają pod wodą. Najwyraźniej te beztroskie klimaty spodobały się publiczności, bo zespół już w początkach swojej kariery został uhonorowany dwiema nagrodami "Bravo Supershow" w Niemczech. +Oficjalnie Busted rozpadło się 14 stycznia 2005r, ze względu na Charliego, który chciał odejść na rzecz swojego nowego, rockowego zespołu Fightstar. +"Nie ma sensu kontynuować tego tylko w dwóch, chcemy by Busted było zapamiętane w sposób w jaki istniało, a nie tylko jako dwóch z nas." +Charlie Simpson na temat rozpadu Busted: +"Moje pasje pokładam w muzyce Fightstar. Przygoda z Busted zaczęła się kiedy miałem 16 lat. Ujrzałem okazję, wykorzystałem ją i było to lepsze od chodzenia do szkoły. To była zabawna praca, ale nie mógłbym stwierdzić, ze Busted mógł być czymś innym niż tylko zespół popowy. Busted to nie jest dla mnie idealny zespół, w którym chciałbym być." +"Smutny to dla nas dzień, ale zawsze powtarzaliśmy, że jeśli jeden z nas postanowi odejść, nie będziemy tego dłużej ciągnąć. Ostatnie trzy lata były niesamowite. Przy okazji chciałbym bardzo podziękować naszym fanom – byliście cudowni." +Choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba + +Choroba Creutzfeldta-Jakoba (dawniej: zespół Nevina-Jonesa, stwardnienie kurczowe, stwardnienie rzekome; łac. "pseudosclerosis spastica", "encephalopathia subacuta progressiva", ang. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, CJD) – choroba neurologiczna z grupy pasażowalnych encefalopatii gąbczastych (TSE), której czynnikiem patogennym są najprawdopodobniej priony. Podobnie jak inne choroby z tej grupy ma charakter neurozwyrodnieniowy i cechuje ją odkładanie w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym i niektórych innych tkankach nieprawidłowej izoformy białka prionu, PrPSc. CJD występuje w czterech postaciach różniących się przede wszystkim etiologią: sporadycznej (sCJD), rodzinnej (fCJD), jatrogennej (jCJD) i tzw. wariantu choroby (vCJD). +Klasyfikacja. +Historycznie w obrębie CJD wyróżniano ponadto zespoły: ataktyczny (zespół Betty Brownell-Oppenheimera), zespół ze ślepotą korową Heidenheina, zespół amiotroficzny (mylony ze stwardnieniem zanikowym bocznym przebiegającym z otępieniem) i panencefalopatyczny. +Historia. +Chorobę jako pierwsi opisali niezależnie od siebie Alfons Jakob (1884-1931) z Uniwersytetu w Hamburgu w 1921 roku i Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt (1885-1964) z Uniwersytetu we Wrocławiu w 1920 roku. Pięć przypadków opisanych przez Jakoba zostało zweryfikowanych histopatologicznie w latach 60. przez Mastersa i Gajduska; trzy z nich nie odpowiadały CJD we współczesnym rozumieniu. Przypadek opisany przez Creutzfeldta nie był przypadkiem sCJD. Rodzinną postać CJD opisał Walter Kirschbaum w 1924 roku, a sześć lat później Friedrich Meggendorfer (1880-1953) przedstawił pracę opisująca rodzinę Backer, do której należał przypadek Kirschbauma. W 1929 roku Adolf Heidenhain opisał trzy przypadki CJD, którym towarzyszyła ślepota korowa; historycznie wyróżniano te przypadki jako tzw. zespół Heidenheina. Pierwsze przypadki jatrogennej CJD miały miejsce w latach 80., a etiologię choroby wyjaśniono pod koniec dekady. Ogłoszenie nowego wariantu CJD (nvCJD, potem vCJD) miało miejsce w marcu 1996 roku podczas III Sympozjum Chorób Wywołanych przez Priony w Paryżu. +Epidemiologia. +Sporadyczna CJD. +90% wszystkich przypadków choroby Creutzfeldta-Jakoba stanowi sCJD. Częstość sCJD szacuje się na 0,5-1:1 000 000 populacji. W Polsce wyliczono częstość na 0,25:1 000 000, co przypuszczalnie odzwierciedla niedodiagnozowanie choroby. +Jatrogenna CJD. +Jatrogenne przypadki CJD występowały po podawaniu zanieczyszczonego hormonu wzrostu otrzymanego z przysadek mózgowych człowieka. Pojedyncze przypadki wystąpiły po podaniu gonadotropin, przeszczepie opony twardej, zabiegach neurochirurgicznych, przeszczepie rogówki i użyciu elektrod stereotaktycznych. Do dziś przedstawiono na całym świecie około 200 przypadków jCJD. +Wariant CJD. +vCJD jest najprawdopodobniej skutkiem przeniesienia encefalopatii gąbczastej bydła (BSE) na człowieka. Wedle konsensusu specjalistów od pasażowalnych chorób prionowych (Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory Committee, SEAC): "Wobec braku jakiejkolwiek wiarygodnej alternatywy najbardziej prawdopodobne jest, że przypadki tego schorzenia są związane z narażeniem na kontakt z BSE przed wprowadzeniem zakazu stosowania określonych podrobów bydlęcych Specified Bovine Offal, SBO w 1989 roku". +Rodzinna postać CJD. +Rodzinna postać CJD (fCJD) spowodowana jest mutacjami w genie "PRNP". Za fenotyp fCJD odpowiada kilkanaście mutacji genu "PRNP"; inne mutacje w tym samym genie powodują chorobę Gertsmanna-Strausslera-Scheinkera (GSS) oraz śmiertelną rodzinną bezsenność (FFI). +Patogeneza CJD i teoria prionu. +Według szeroko przyjętej teorii Stanleya B. Prusinera, pasażowalne encefalopatie gąbczaste spowodowane są odkładaniem się w ośrodkowym układzie nerwowym nieprawidłowej izoformy białka prionu PrP. Forma ta (PrPSc albo PrPCJD) tworzy się w wyniku konwersji prawidłowej formy komórkowej (PrPC), kodowanej przez gen człowieka "PRNP" i ulegającej ekspresji we wszystkich tkankach człowieka. Niewyjaśniony jest mechanizm w jakim prawidłowe białko przybiera konformację charakterystyczną dla białka patologicznego. Obie izoformy mają identyczną sekwencję aminokwasową i są tak samo glikozylowane. Różnią się natomiast strukturą drugorzędową i konformacją przestrzenną, co implikuje istotne różnice fizykochemiczne. PrPC posiada dwie alfa-helisy i dwie beta-nici, natomiast w PrPSc przeważa struktura beta-kartki. +Objawy i przebieg. +Klasyczna triada objawów w CJD to otępienie, mioklonie i typowy obraz w EEG. Występują one łącznie u około 70% pacjentów. U około 30% stwierdza się objawy prodromalne: osłabienie, zaburzenia snu i łaknienia. W klasycznej postaci CJD postępujący deficyt neurologiczny i otępienie kończą się śmiercią chorego w 1. roku choroby. Około 5% to przypadki o długim, przewlekłym przebiegu. +W okresie prodromalnym choroby opisywano uporczywy świąd (tzw. prion pruritus). +Wariant CJD. +Obraz kliniczny vCJD znacznie się różni od obrazu klinicznego klasycznej postaci CJD. +Diagnostyka. +EEG. +W 70% przypadków stwierdza się charakterystyczny obraz EEG (kompleksy iglica-fala wolna). W vCJD wyniki badania EEG są całkowicie nieswoiste. Nie obserwuje się charakterystycznych dla sCJD kompleksów iglica-fala wolna. Niekiedy wynik badania EEG jest prawidłowy mimo zmian neurologicznych. +Tomografia komputerowa. +Obraz mózgu pacjentów z CJD w tomografii komputerowej jest zazwyczaj prawidłowy. Zasugerowano, że prawidłowy wynik badania CT u pacjenta z otępieniem przemawia za rozpoznaniem CJD. +MRI. +W vCJD badanie MRI wykazuje hiperintensywny sygnał w poduszce wzgórza (tzw. objaw poduszki, ang. pulvinar sign). Jest to objaw patognomoniczny dla vCJD. W sCJD bardzo intensywny sygnał w projekcji T2 pochodzi z jąder kresomózgowia. +Badania laboratoryjne. +W płynie mózgowo-rdzeniowym chorych z sCJD stwierdza się obecność białka 14-3-3. Czułość i swoistość tego objawu szacowana jest na więcej niż 90%. Białko 14-3-3 wykrywane jest metodami Western blotting lub odmianami metody ELISA. +Badanie neuropatologiczne. +Klasyczna postać CJD. +Zmiany o takim charakterze obecne są w różnych obszarach mózgowia. Zmiany gąbczaste są patognomoniczne dla całej grupy chorób, do której należy CJD. Niekiedy, w przypadkach o długim przebiegu, zmiany gąbczaste mogą zostać zamaskowane przez zaniki neuronów i astrocytarny rozplem gleju. Zmiany gąbczaste (ang. "spongiform change") wymagają różnicowania ze stanem gąbczastym ("spongiform state") pojawiającym się przy nasilonym uszkodzeniu kory. Astrocytozę można rozpoznać metodami impregnacyjnymi, takimi jak metoda Cajala albo Holzera. W korze mózgu glejoza włóknista zajmuje głębsze warstwy i towarzyszy zmianom gąbczastym, i dominują w niej formy gemistocytarne astrocytów. W korze móżdżku ma miejsce rozplem gleju Bergmanna i komórek Fañanása (lofogliocytów, gleju pióropuszowego). Niekiedy spotyka się nacieki zapalne wokółnaczyniowe o słabym nasileniu i prawdopodobnie niewielkim znaczeniu patogenetycznym. +Wariant CJD. +W obrazie neuropatologicznym vCJD stwierdza się patognomoniczne blaszki amyloidowe otoczone wianuszkowato wakuolami (ang. "florid plaques"). Blaszki te rozsiane są w korze mózgu i móżdżku, w jądrach kresomózgowia, wzgórzu i podwzgórzu. +Immunohistochemia. +Badania immunohistochemiczne z użyciem przeciwciał anty-PrP pozwalają na definitywne rozpoznanie chorób prionowych. Brak ekspresji PrPSc w większości przypadków wyklucza rozpoznanie. Ponieważ przeciwciała nie są swoiste dla PrPSc ani PrPC, zachodzi konieczność usunięcia z badanych tkanek prawidłowej komórkowej izoformy białka. Dokonuje się tego przez autoklawowanie hydrolityczne i wodne, inkubację z kwasem mrówkowym i (lub) inkubację w kuchni mikrofalowej. Immunohistochemia uwidacznia akumulację PrP wokół zmian gąbczastych i wokół wypustek neuronalnych. +Mikroskopia elektronowa. +W badaniu ultrastrukturalnym stwierdza się otoczone błoną wakuole gąbczaste wewnątrz elementów neuronalnych, wewnątrz których tworzą się wakuole wtórne, również otoczone błonami (ang. secondary chambers). Wakuole zawierają nieznanego pochodzenia amorficzną treść. W istocie białej znajdują się wakuole śródmielinowe, rozdymające balonowato zmielinizowane włókna nerwowe. Aksony mogą być nienaruszone, ale też obkurczone i szczątkowe. +Polskie Zoo + +Polskie Zoo – polski program satyryczny autorstwa Marcina Wolskiego, współredagowany przez Jerzego Kryszaka i Andrzeja Zaorskiego, emitowany w I programie Telewizji Polskiej w latach 1991-1993. +W programie bohaterami były kukiełki zwierząt, reprezentujące najpopularniejszych polskich (i nie tylko) polityków. Nadawany co tydzień, w sobotni wieczór o godzinie 20:00, program cieszył się olbrzymią popularnością wśród widowni, ponieważ w barwny i złośliwy sposób komentował ówczesną polską rzeczywistość polityczną. +Politycy i odpowiadające im postacie zwierzęce w "Polskim Zoo". +Stojący nieodłącznie przy lwim tronie, Andrzej Zaorski i Jerzy Kryszak reprezentowali odpowiednio: prezydenckiego kapelana ks. Franciszka Cybulę oraz szefa gabinetu prezydenta Mieczysława Wachowskiego. Parodiowali też inne postacie polskiej polityki: Leszka Bubla, Andrzeja Leppera, Barbarę Labudę, Jana Piątkowskiego, Ryszarda Kuklińskiego, Anastazję Potocką, Hannę Gucwińską, Feliska Dzierżyńskiego, Janusza Zaorskiego, Madonnę, Stańczyka, Karola Marksa, Jerzego Koniecznego oraz Stanisławę Gierek. W "Szopce Noworocznej" 1991/1992 pojawił się też Marian Opania w roli Mieczysława Rakowskiego. Szczególnym przypadkiem był Edward Gierek, który nie pojawiał się ani w formie zwierzęcej kukiełki, ani nie był grany przez żadnego z aktorów. Innym wyjątkiem był Stanisław Kociołek, który w programie pojawił się jako mówiący kociołek. +W jednym ze specjalnych odcinków, jako zwierzęta pojawili się prowadzący: Jerzy Kryszak – chart i Andrzej Zaorski – zając. +W 2005 roku wydano komiks zatytułowany "Zoomiks Golden Fisza", przedstawiający perypetie mieszkańców zoo podczas wyborów. +Twórcy i obsada. +Teksty: Marcin Wolski +Muzyka: Włodzimierz Korcz +Dźwięk: Teresa Krzyżanowska +Redaktor nagrania: Alicja Goździecka +Światło: +Projekty lalek: Jacek Frankowski +Konsultacja animacyjna: Marek B. Chodaczyński +Asystent scenografa: Magdalena Michalska +Asystent reżysera: Beata Habiera +Montaż: Marek Król +Kierownictwo produkcji: Krystyna Bystrosz +Ammilon + +Ammilon (zm. 821 ?), arcybiskup Salzburga przez pół roku 821. +Miał być następcą pierwszego arcybiskupa Salzburga Arna, zmarłego w styczniu 821. Ponieważ w grudniu 821 znany jest już inny arcybiskup, Adalram, okres sprawowania godności przez Ammilona najwyżej mógł trwać dziesięć miesięcy. +O osobie arcybiskupa Ammilona wspomina Jan Leśny w artykule poświęconym Arnowi w "Słowniku starożytności słowiańskich" (tom VII, część II - suplement, 1984). Autor zaznacza, że istnienie Ammilona potwierdzają jedynie "niektóre źródła". +Wojna Kartagińczyków z najemnikami + +Wojna Kartagińczyków z najemnikami, zwana też wojną bezlitosną, wybuchła w 240 p.n.e. Po klęsce w pierwszej wojnie punickiej Kartagina znalazła się w fatalnej sytuacji gospodarczej. Zmuszona do płacenia Rzymowi wysokiej kontrybucji, nie miała pieniędzy na opłacenie tysięcy najemników służących w jej armii. +Nic dziwnego więc, że ponad 20 tysięcy najemników zbuntowało się. Powstańców, na czele których stanęli Libijczyk Matos i niewolnik Spendios, poparły kartagińskie miasta Utyka i Hippo Diarhytus oraz wieśniacy libijscy z opanowanych w 247 p.n.e. przez Hannona Wielkiego terenów i niewolnicy. Rosnąca w siłę armia zagroziła samej Kartaginie. Walkom położył kres Hamilkar Barkas, który przybył z wojskiem z Sycylii. +W powstaniu wzięli również udział mieszkańcy Sardynii, ale widząc, że nie obronią się przed kartagińskim korpusem ekspedycyjnym, zwrócili się do Rzymu o pomoc. Rzymianie wystosowali stanowcze ultimatum, w którym żądali od Kartaginy zrzeczenia się Sardynii i Korsyki oraz wypłacenia 1200 talentów srebra, grożąc nową wojną. Kartagińczycy przyjęli te warunki i w 238 p.n.e. utracili obie wyspy. Ostatnie oddziały rebeliantów zostały pokonane w 237 p.n.e. +W czasie tej wojny rozgrywa się akcja powieści "Salambo" Gustawa Flauberta. +Heorhij Kirpa + +Heorhij Mykołajowicz Kirpa, ukr. Георгій Миколайович Кірпа (ur. 20 lipca 1947 w Kubiwce w obwodzie chmielnickim, zm. 27 grudnia 2004 w Bortnyczach) – ukraiński polityk, minister transportu w rządzie Wiktora Janukowicza, z wykształcenia inżynier transportu. +Życiorys. +Do 2000 pracował na różnych stanowiskach w państwowych przedsiębiorstwach transportowych. Kierował m.in. narodowym przedsiębiorstwem kolejowym Ukrzaliznycia. Od 2000 do 2001 był wiceministrem transportu. W 2002 uzyskał mandat deputowanego (z listy koalicji Za Jedyną Ukrainę), nie złożył jednak ślubowania z uwagi na objęcie stanowiska ministra transportu. Urząd ten pełnił do lipca 2004. Wcześniej w tym samym roku założył własne ugrupowanie pod nazwą Partia Odrodzenia. +Zmarł tragicznie w okresie Pomarańczowej Rewolucji. Został znaleziony zastrzelony w podmiejskim domu w Bortnyczach koło Kijowa. Za najbardziej prawdopodobne uznano samobójstwo. W tym samym czasie pojawiły się zapowiedzi ze strony nowego prezydenta Ukrainy, Wiktora Juszczenki odnośnie kontroli wydatków państwowych, m.in. w resorcie transportu, z którego środki miały być przeznaczane na kampanię wyborczą Wiktora Janukowicza. +Został odznaczony m.in. Medalem "Złota Gwiazda" Bohatera Ukrainy i Orderem Księcia Jarosława Mądrego V klasy oraz radzieckim Orderem Przyjaźni Narodów. +Jezioro Dominickie + +Jezioro Dominickie to jezioro na Pojezierzu Leszczyńskim o powierzchni około 344 ha i głębokości ponad 17 m, położone na terenie Przemęckiego Parku Krajobrazowego w powiecie leszczyńskim. +Ma długość 3830 m, szerokość 1660 m, posiada dobre warunki do kąpieli gdyż jego dno opada łagodnie. Otoczone jest borami sosnowymi. Jest uznanym ośrodkiem żeglarskim, z uwagi na sąsiedztwo innych jezior, z którymi ma połączenia, stanowi ważny punkt dla wycieczek kajakowych. +Wokół jeziora znajduje się silnie rozbudowana infrastruktura turystyczna, miejscowości Boszkowo-Letnisko, Dominice to ośrodki wczasowe i domki letniskowe. Otoczone jest lasami sosnowymi. Na jeziorze można uprawiać prawie wszystkie dyscypliny sportów wodnych, a także turystykę kajakarską. Utworzono szlaki turystyki wodnej, pieszej, rowerowej i konnej. W okolicy znajduje się jeszcze kilka mniejszych jezior. Jest to najczystszy zbiornik wodny w okolicy. W oparciu o badania przeprowadzone w 2011 roku wody jeziora zaliczono do I klasy czystości +Irena Eris + +Irena Eris, właśc. Irena Szołomicka-Orfinger (ur. 1950 w Warszawie) – doktor farmacji, przedsiębiorca. +Biografia. +Ukończyła Akademię Medyczną w Warszawie, doktorat obroniła na berlińskim Uniwersytecie Humboldta. Współwłaścicielka (wraz z mężem Henrykiem Orfingerem) przedsiębiorstwa Laboratorium Kosmetyczne Dr Irena Eris Sp. z o.o, w którym jest dyrektorem ds. badań i rozwoju oraz sieci Hoteli SPA Dr Irena Eris. Od początku działalności firmy zajmuje się kreacją nowych produktów i zarządza procesem ich powstawania. +Laureatka wielu prestiżowych nagród m.in.: Dama biznesu dziesięciolecia (Business Centre Club, 1999), Biznesmen roku 1999 ( tytuł nadany przez studentów SGH, 2000), Nagroda Kisiela za stworzenie wielkiego, średniego przedsiębiorstwa (tygodnik Wprost, 2000), Perły Biznesu 2003 za stworzenie najcenniejszej polskiej marki z nazwiska (miesięcznik Businessman, 2003). W 2004 roku zajęła wysoką, 20 pozycję na liście najbardziej wpływowych kobiet w dziejach Polski – kobiet, które odwróciły bieg wydarzeń, przełamały stereotypy, zainicjowały nowy sposób myślenia (Poczet Kobiet Wpływowych, tygodnik Polityka, 2004). W 2005 roku znalazła się na drugim miejscu Listy 30. Najskuteczniejszych z Najlepszych – listy najskuteczniejszych i najbardziej godnych zaufania managerów polskiej gospodarki (miesięcznik Home & Market, 2005). W 2008 roku czasopismo Krajowej Izby Gospodarczej "Rynki Zagraniczne" przyznało jej nagrodę Wybitny Polski Eksporter – Polish Outstanding Exporter- za skuteczną i konsekwentną realizację polityki eksportowej. 5 listopada 2008 Irena Eris została odznaczona, w imieniu prezydenta Włoch, Orderem Gwiazdy Solidarności Włoskiej. +W styczniu 2009 Dr Irena Eris została uznana Osobowością SPA 2008 przez czytelników i internautów w plebiscycie ogłoszonym przez Spa & Wellness Magazine oraz spalanet.pl. +Computer History Museum + +Computer History Museum – muzeum założone w 1996 (pierwotnie jako "The Computer Museum History Center", od 2001 roku pod obecną nazwą), poświęcone historii wieku informacji i cyfrowej rewolucji. Muzeum mieści się w Mountain View w hrabstwie Santa Clara (w Dolinie Krzemowej). +, w tym wiele rzadkich obiektów, jak superkomputer Cray, komputer kuchenny firmy Honeywell z 1969, Apple I – . +Legenda o świętym Aleksym + +Legenda o świętym Aleksym – średniowieczny utwór o charakterze hagiograficznym, wykorzystywany jako przykład dawnego języka polskiego. Najstarsza zapisana wersja pochodzi z XV wieku. Zabytek polskiej wersji utworu przechowywany jest obecnie w Bibliotece Jagiellońskiej w Krakowie. Postać głównego bohatera zyskała sławę w Europie Zachodniej, gdzie jego kult został przeszczepiony z Bizancjum. Wyrazem tej popularności jest istnienie wierszowanych wersji legendy w wielu językach, np. w starofrancuskim i włoskim. +Legenda mówi o ascecie, który całe życie poświęcił Bogu, żyjąc w bólu, smutku i niedoli. +Hernando de Soto + +Hernando de Soto (ur. 1496 lub 1500, zm. 21 maja 1542) – hiszpański żeglarz, odkrywca i konkwistador, pierwszy Europejczyk, który zbadał Florydę. +Urodził się w Hiszpanii, jako drugi syn hiszpańskiego hidalgo – szlachcica i rycerza. Do 14 roku życia pobierał nauki, ale porzucił szkołę, by w 1514 roku wyruszyć na swą pierwszą wyprawę. +Agar + +Agar (san. "aguru"; ang. "agarwood"; ja. 沈香 "jinkō") – żywiczne drewno różnych gatunków drzew z rodzaju "Aquilaria", +Składniki. +Żywica agaru zawiera mieszaninę seskwiterpenów i innych substancji, stosowanych jako substancje zapachowe. Niektóre z nich, np. jinkoh-eremol i agarospirol również oddziałują na układ nerwowy ssaków. +Zastosowanie. +Agar znajduje zastosowanie w ajurwedzie i medycynie chińskiej i kosmetyce. Z drewna otrzymuje się również alkoholowy destylat noszący nazwę "oud". W medycynie wschodniej wyciągi z agaru stosowane są jako środek uspokajający, ich właściwości jako depresantów stwierdzono również w badaniach na myszach. +Znaczenie w hinduizmie. +Drewno to tradycyjnie wykorzystywane w Indiach i krajach południowo-wschodniej Azji do produkcji kadzideł używanych podczas obrzędów religijnych. +SPARC + +SPARC - ang. "Scalable Processor ARChitecture" - architektura mikroprocesorów RISC zaprojektowana początkowo przez firmę Sun Microsystems, a od roku 1989 rozwijana przez organizację SPARC International. +Opis. +Architektura SPARC określa 32-bitową (SPARC version 8) oraz 64-bitową (SPARC version 9) architekturę programową mikroprocesora (ang. "ISA - Instruction Set Architecture") oraz zawiera wskazówki pomagające w implementacji tej architektury. SPARC jest otwartą architekturą ("zgodnie z dawną definicją otwartości - przyp. autora"), oznacza to że dostępna jest publicznie cała dokumentacja opisująca ISA oraz wskazówki dla osób lub firm implementujących. Dodatkowo firmy będące członkami organizacji SPARC mają wpływ na rozwój tej architektury oraz prawo do używania znaków handlowych. Dostępna jest także otwarta implementacja - na licencji GNU LGPL, kod w języku VHDL - procesora o nazwie LEON. +Procesory opracowane na podstawie architektury SPARC używane są powszechnie w wysokowydajnych serwerach, stacjach roboczych, a także systemach wbudowanych (ang. "embedded"). +Zaprezentowane po raz pierwszy w 1985 roku przez Sun Microsystems. Architektura SPARC, będąca zawczasu bardzo radykalna, pozwala na ominięcie wielokrotnych pętli mnożenia i dzielenia. Inną podstawową cechą architektury SPARC, nieczęsto spotykaną w innych rozwiązaniach, jest zastosowanie bardzo dużego zestawu rejestrów ogólnego przeznaczenia (zalecenia implementacyjne mówią nawet o zestawie 64 do 528 - 64-bitowych rejestrach) dostępnych poprzez "okna rejestrów" które mogą być przełączane podczas każdorazowego wywołania podprogramu czy obsługi przerwania, za pomocą instrukcji "SAVE", tak że zbiór rejestrów stanowiących parametry wywołania podprogramu staje się automatycznie zbiorem rejestrów parametrów lokalnych bez dodatkowych działań programowo-sprzętowych ("patrz obrazek"). +Specyfikacja SPARC-v9. +Architektura SPARC-v9 zawiera dwa typy rejestrów: rejestry ogólnego przeznaczenia (nazywane rejestrami roboczymi) oraz rejestry statusowe/kontrolne. +Rejestry ogólnego przeznaczenia - "r", podzielone są na grupy: 8 rejestrów globalnych (ang. "global registers"), 8 alternatywnych rejestrów globalnych (ang. "alternate global registers") oraz zależną od implementacji liczbę zestawów 24 rejestrów dostępnych jako okno rejestrów (ang. "register window") podzielone jako: 8 rejestrów wejściowych (ang. "in"), 8 rejestrów lokalnych (ang. "local") i 8 rejestrów wyjściowych (ang. "out"). Rejestry "r- r[7" stanowią zestaw rejestrów globalnych o nazwach odpowiednio "g0 - g7". Rejestr globalny "g0" ("rzawiera zawsze wartość zero i zwraca ją podczas odczytu, natomiast podczas zapisu do tego rejestru zapisywana wartość jest ignorowana (tak naprawdę, to odwołanie do tego rejestru za pomocą pewnych instrukcji - LDD, LDA, STD, STA, powoduje zapisanie wyniku w rejestrze "r[0"). Drugim specyficznym rejestrem jest "r" do którego zapisywany jest adres instrukcji wywołania CALL. Wybór pomiędzy zestawami rejestrów globalnych - aktualnym i alternatywnym - odbywa się poprzez wybór w polu AG (ang. "alternate global") rejestru stanu procesora PSTATE. Dodatkowy zestaw rejestrów globalnych został wprowadzony w specyfikacji v9. Przełączanie okien rejestrów ogólnego przeznaczenia "r" realizowane jest za pomocą instrukcji SAVE (zwiększająca numer aktywnego okna) oraz RESTORE (zmniejszająca numer aktywnego okna). Przekroczenie możliwych wartości w rejestrze CWP wskazującego na aktualne okno rejestrów jest kontrolowane przez zawartość rejestrów CANSAVE oraz CANRESTORE i w przypadku przekroczenia procesor generuje pułapkę (ang. "trap"). +Zestaw tej zorganizowany jest w ten sposób, że rejestry mogą na siebie nachodzić. Zestaw ten w przeciwieństwie do rejestrów ogólnego przeznaczenia nie jest podzielony na okna rejestrów i jest dostępny cały czas. Dostęp i operacje wykonywane na tych rejestrach realizowany jest za pomocą specjalnych instrukcji zmiennopozycyjnych FPop. Zestaw rejestrów oraz wykonywane na nich operacje zgodne sa z normą IEEE std 754-1985. +Organizacja SPARC International. +SPARC International została założona w 1989 roku jako niezależna organizacja niekomercyjna (ang. "non-profit") w celu nadzorowania i kierowania rozwojem architektury SPARC. Organizacja posiada prawa do modelu programowego (ang. "ISA - Instruction Set Architecture") architektury SPARC, znaków handlowych (ang. "trademarks") SPARC, oraz pochodnych znaków handlowych (ang. "derivative trademarks - TM") SPARC. Organizacja jest utrzymywana wyłącznie przez członków organizacji wspierających architekturę SPARC oraz technologie otwartych standardów. Członkami organizacji SPARC są m.in: Fujitsu, Sun Microsystems, Texas Instruments, LSI Logic, Toshiba Corporation oraz wiele mniej lub bardziej znanych firm. +Maurowie + +Maurowie, w czasach dzisiejszych mieszkańcy Mauretanii, części Algierii i Maroka, w średniowieczu zamieszkiwali znaczne partie Półwyspu Iberyjskiego, wywierając ogromny wpływ na kulturę i architekturę dzisiejszej Hiszpanii i Portugalii. +Pochodzenie nazwy. +Słowo "Maurowie" (łac. "Mauri") pochodzi od Mauretanii, nazwy krainy historyczno-geograficznej, obecnie zachodniej części Algierii i północnego Maroka i w różnych okresach historycznych zmieniało swoje znaczenie: +W średniowieczu nazwą Maurów w Europie określano wszystkich muzułmanów zamieszkujących zarówno Andaluzję, jak i północne obszary Afryki wywodzących się od Arabów, jak i Berberów. Nazwa ta, wiążąca się jednoznacznie z muzułmańskimi mieszkańcami Hiszpanii, jest w czasach dzisiejszych archaizmem i odnosi się głównie do mieszkańców północnych wybrzeży śródziemnomorskiej Afryki, przede wszystkim Maroka. +W czasach dzisiejszych określenie "Moor" lub "Moreno" - przeważnie pejoratywne - oznacza człowieka o ciemnej karnacji skóry lub przesadnie opalonego. +Polskie słowo Murzyn pochodzi od słowa Maur, które z kolei wywodzi się od łac. "Maurus" (-a, um), przymiot. mauri (-orum) – czarny, będący rzymskim określeniem mieszkańców dzisiejszego Maghrebu (por. Maurowie). +Dzieje Maurów. +W starożytności królestwo Maure było handlowym partnerem Kartaginy. Podczas II wojny punickiej dwaj królowie numidyjscy stanęli po przeciwnych stronach, Syfaks wspierał zbrojnie Kartaginę, Masynissa Rzymian, przyczyniając się do zwycięstwa pod Zamą. Również w późniejszych czasach Maurowie to wojowali z Rzymem, to zawierali z nim traktaty pokojowe. Za panowania Jugurty wybuchła wojna, ale król Juba, ostatni władca, był uważany w Rzymie za przyjaciela. W rezultacie licznych konfliktów cały region dostał się pod panowanie Rzymu, jako prowincje Mauretania Tingitana i Mauretania Caesariensis; obszar wokół Kartaginy był już wówczas częścią prowincji Africa. Władza Rzymu przynosiła określone korzyści dla prowincji, co spowodowało, że ziemie te na stałe wtopiły się w imperium. +W czasach chrześcijańskich, działali tu dwaj znakomici przedstawiciele Kościoła - Tertulian i święty Augustyn. Po upadku cesarstwa ziemiami tymi zarządzali królowie germańskich Wandalów, ale w sto lat później przejęli je władcy Bizancjum. Niezależnie jednak od tego, kto panował na wybrzeżu, wnętrze lądu nadal było we władaniu Berberów. W VIII wieku Berberowie przez ponad 50 lat powstrzymywali armie arabskie nadciągające ze wschodu. Szczególnie silny opór stawiła im Kahina berberyjska prorokini z Awras w latach 690-701. Jednakże w końcu muzułmanie zapanowali nad całą Afryką Północną. +Do roku 711 muzułmańscy już Maurowie pobili chrześcijańskich Wizygotów i zajęli Hiszpanię. Pod wodzą Tarika i jego następców, w ciągu trwającej blisko osiem lat kampanii, podporządkowali sobie niemal cały półwysep. Następnie przekroczyli Pireneje, ale zostali pokonani przez Franków pod wodzą Karola Młota, w bitwie pod Poitiers w roku 732. Państwo Maurów w latach 750. pogrążyło się w zamęcie wojny domowej, więc dalsze postępy w Europie musiały zostać zaniechane, jak się okazało na zawsze. +Maurowie władali Półwyspem Iberyjskim, którego ziemie nazywali "Al-Andalus", z wyjątkiem ziem położonych na północnym zachodzie (Asturia, gdzie zostali pobici w bitwie pod Covadonga) oraz większości Kraju Basków w Pirenejach; przez kilka dziesięcioleci władali też nad prawie całą Afryką północno-zachodnią. I jakkolwiek liczba etnicznych "Maurów" pozostała w mniejszości, wiele lokalnych plemion, które przeszły na islam, zaczęło uważać się za ich współziomków. Według Ronalda Segala , około 5,6 miliona spośród 7 milionów mieszkańców dzisiejszej Hiszpanii przeszło do roku 1200 (bez stosowania bezpośredniego przymusu) na islam. +Prześladowania mahometan i zmuszanie do przejścia na katolicyzm w czasach rekonkwisty do końca XVI wieku, co spowodowało masową ucieczkę ludności muzułmańskiej na kontynent afrykański, są uważane za bezpośrednią przyczynę zmniejszenia się liczby hiszpańskich Maurów do roku 1600 o ponad dwie trzecie. Znacznie jednak wcześniej wyraźną oznaką ich upadku był podział kraju na liczne, a niewielkie islamskie państewka, zwane taifami, z których znaczna część uznawała zwierzchnictwo kalifatu kordobańskiego. +Z chrześcijańskiej enklawy w królestwie Asturii, niewielkiego wizygockiego państewka na północnym zachodzie Hiszpanii, rozpoczął się w X wieku proces spychania Maurów na południe i odbierania im kolejnych terytoriów. Nowe państewka chrześcijańskie, jak Nawarra, Galicja, León, Portugalia, Aragonia, Katalonia, znana także jako "Marca Hispanica" (czyli Marchia Hiszpańska), i wreszcie Kastylia podjęły ekspansję, by w ciągu kilku stuleci skonsolidować nowe państwo hiszpańskie pod sztandarami rekonkwisty. +W roku 1212 koalicja królów chrześcijańskich pod przywództwem Alfonsa VIII Kastylijskiego wyparła muzułmanów z centrum półwyspu. Jednakże na południu przez następne trzy stulecia przetrwał mauretański kalifat Grenady. W czasach dzisiejszych państwo to znane jest zwłaszcza z zachowanych pereł architektury mauretańskiej, jak np. pałac kalifów w Alhambrze. 2 stycznia 1492 roku ostatni obrońcy Grenady skapitulowali przed armią zjednoczonej Hiszpanii powstałej po zawarciu związku małżeńskiego przez Ferdynanda Aragońskiego i Izabelę Kastylijską. Pozostali w Hiszpanii muzułmanie i żydzi zmuszeni zostali albo do opuszczenia kraju, albo do przyjęcia katolicyzmu pod groźbą utraty większości praw obywatelskich, a nawet życia. +Powstała w roku 1480 z inicjatywy pary monarszej hiszpańska inkwizycja skierowana była swym ostrzem przede wszystkim przeciw tym muzułmanom i żydom, którzy - jak podejrzewano - tylko pozornie przeszli na katolicyzm, w rzeczywistości sekretnie wyznając swoją dawną religię (nazywano ich wówczas Moryskami), jak również przeciwko wszelkiego typu heretykom odrzucającym chrześcijaństwo w myśl zasad Kościoła katolickiego i praktykującym mistycyzm lub spirytualizm. Na znacznych obszarach w Aragonii i Andaluzji Moryskowie stanowili znaczny odsetek ludności rolniczej nim po nieudanym powstaniu zostali, w latach 1609-1614,wygnani z kraju. Przypuszcza się, że los ten spotkał około 300 000 osób. Uciekinierzy zasilili rosnące wówczas w siłę emiraty Algieru i Oranu. +Zdaniem historyka Richarda Fletchera "liczba Arabów w Hiszpanii była raczej niewielka. Hiszpańskimi "Maurami" byli przede wszystkim Berberowie z Afryki północno-zachodniej. Berberów mogło tu być około 400 000, podczas gdy Arabów nie więcej niż 40 000". +Stosunki religijne. +Główną zasadą obowiązującą w mauretańskiej Hiszpanii w czasach supremacji kalifatu kordobańskiego była tolerancja religijna wobec chrześcijan i żydów zamieszkujących określone terytoria, co nie oznacza, że wyznawcy tych religii byli traktowani na równi z muzułmanami. W różnych okresach żydzi byli usuwani z Hiszpanii, a chrześcijanie traktowani jako obywatele drugiej kategorii. Kalifat kordobański upadł w roku 1031, a władzę przejęła dynastia Almorawidów. W tym okresie (rządy Berberów/Maurów) w Hiszpanii miejsca na tolerancję religijną już nie było, podobnie jak w okresie rekonkwisty. +Architektura. +Typowa dla mauretańskiej sztuki Hiszpanii jest dekoracja stalaktytowa łuków podkreślająca wertykalizm budowli. Ważną dla tego stylu budowlą jest meczet w Kordobie z VIII-IX wieku; Jego centralnym miejscem jest wielka sala modlitw podzielona kolumnadami na dziewiętnaście części. +Przykładem wykwintnej architektury mauretańskiej jest Alhambra w Granadzie, pałac zbudowany w latach 1232-1273 i rozbudowywany do XIV wieku. Został zaplanowany wokół dwóch dziedzińców, z których przypuszczalnie większe znaczenie miał Dziedziniec Lwów, nazwany tak od rzeźb lwów dźwigających czaszę fontanny. "Cechuje go niezwykła wytworność ornamentów rozrzuconych hojnie po ścianach i łukach, inkrustowanych posadzek, rzeźbionych kolumn i kapiteli". +Fatalizm sztuki islamu znajdował swe odbicie w ziemskim pięknie architektury, które miało być niejako wstępem do szczęścia niebiańskiego. Sztuka hiszpańska, tak renesansowa jak i nowożytna, wiele zawdzięcza wpływom mauretańskim. +Tony Bourge + +Tony Bourge (ur. 24 listopada 1948 w Cardiff) – rockowy gitarzysta brytyjski, Walijczyk. +Był członkiem zespołu Budgie; po odejściu z Budgie (1978) współzałożyciel zespołu Tredegar wraz z innym byłym członkiem Budgie - Rayem Phillipsem. Od początku lat '90 nie występuje na scenie i nie nagrywa. Prowadzi własną firmę meblarską w Cardiff. Ostatnio jednak został poproszony o nagranie nowych wersji kilku starych utworów grupy Budgie umieszczonych na jubileuszowych wersjach starych albumów. Wielu artystów wymienia go wśród źródeł swoich muzycznych inspiracji, m.in. Jerry Cantrell (Alice in Chains), Josh Homme (Queens of the Stone Age) oraz Kim Thayil (Soundgarden). +W 2004 roku muzyk został sklasyfikowany na 94. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych gitarzystów heavymetalowych wszech czasów według magazynu Guitar World. +Episkop + +Episkop (gr. "επι" - na + "σκοπεω" - patrzę) urządzenie umożliwiające rzutowanie (wyświetlanie) na ekran projekcyjny lub np. ścianę pomieszczenia obrazów oświetlonych światłem odbitym od nich, co umożliwia prezentację w powiększeniu np. stron papierowych wydawnictw (gazet, książek itp.) lub specjalnie w tym celu wykonanych plansz. +Episkop jest wcześniejszą wersją bardziej uniwersalnego urządzenia - epidiaskopu, który w jednej obudowie łączy episkop z diaskopem umożliwiając także prezentację w powiększeniu materiałów, które można oświetlić światłem przechodzącym przez nie (np. różnego rodzaju folie). +Elektrofony elektromechaniczne + +Elektromechaniczne instrumenty muzyczne (pot. "elektryczne instrumenty muzyczne") - grupa instrumentów muzycznych należąca do elektrofonów, w których dźwięk tworzony jest przez układ elektromechaniczny. +Wczesne instrumenty elektryczne wykorzystywały elektryczne i elektroakustyczne zjawiska w celu wytworzenia dźwięków muzycznych lub quasi-muzycznych. Zaczęły powstawać od roku 1876 i choć miały bardzo ograniczone zastosowanie - rzadko pisano utwory z myślą o nich - stanowią bardzo ważny etap na drodze do powstania nowoczesnych instrumentów elektronicznych, takich jak np. organy Hammonda czy melotron. Dopiero w drugiej połowie XX wieku instrumenty elektromechaniczne stały się ważnym elementem muzyki, głównie rozrywkowej. Odegrały też w pewnym okresie znaczącą rolę w awangardowej muzyce współczesnej. +Wybrane konstrukcje. +Wybrane instrumenty elektrycznych w porządku chronologicznym według daty wynalezienia/konstrukcji: muzyczny telegraf (1876), telharmonium (1897), śpiewający łuk (1899), choralcello (1909), Audion Piano (1915), pianino optotoniczne (1916), Elektrophon (1921) oraz jego odmiany: Kurbelsphärophon, Klaviatursphärophon, Partiturophon i Kaleidophon, Pianorad (1926), Cellulofon (1927), Givelet (1927), Hellertion (1929), Givelet (1930), Rhythmicon (1930), Wiolonczela Teremena (1930), elektrochord (1932), organy Hammonda (1935), Hellertion (1936), Organy światłotonowe (1936), Vocoder (1939), Clavivox (1950), Electronium (1950), Side Man (1959), Melotron (1963), Optigan (1971), Dynatone (1987). +Transformacje istniejących instrumentów. +Zupełnie inną drogą szli konstruktorzy instrumentów elektromechanicznych, które powstawały na bazie tradycyjnych instrumentów akustycznych i miały podobny do nich wygląd. Sposób gry na takich instrumentach jest taki sam, jak na instrumentach akustycznych, a różnica pomiędzy nimi polega na budowie instrumentu – bezpośrednie źródło dźwięku pozostaje to samo, natomiast elementy rezonansowe (odpowiedzialne głównie za wzmocnienie dźwięku, choć pośrednio także i za barwę) są zastąpione przez przetworniki, zamieniające drgania mechaniczne na sygnał elektryczny. Podobieństwo do instrumentów elektronicznych polega natomiast na tym, że do usłyszenia instrumentu potrzebny jest wzmacniacz i głośnik, a barwa instrumentu może być poszerzana na drodze elektronicznej. +Twórcom pierwszych instrumentów elektrycznych zależało na możliwie jak najwierniejszym odtworzeniu brzmienia akustycznego odpowiednika instrumentu. Potem jednak odkryto, że stosując różne techniki gry oraz inne zjawiska (np. przesterowanie wzmacniacza lub sprzężenie zwrotne), można uzyskać niespotykane wcześniej charakterystyki brzmieniowe. Dodatkowo zaczęto również stosować cały szereg urządzeń efektowych - najpierw analogowych, później także cyfrowych. +Pierwotnie (i przez dość długi czas) w instrumentach elektrycznych stosowano jedynie przetworniki elektromagnetyczne. Ograniczało to poważnie elektryfikację wielu rodzajów instrumentów, gdyż wibrator musiał mieć właściwości ferromagnetyczne, co w praktyce oznaczało, że instrumentami takimi mogły być jedynie te zaopatrzone w metalowe struny. Dopiero w latach 80. XX wieku technika piezoelektryków została udoskonalona na tyle, że przetworniki oparte na tym zjawisku mogły zostać praktycznie zastosowane w technologii akustycznej. Od tego momentu stało się możliwe stworzenie instrumentów elektrycznych dla większości instrumentów akustycznych, włączając w to instrumenty perkusyjne oraz instrumenty dęte, choć niewiele rodzajów takich instrumentów weszło do powszechnego użytku. +Do najczęściej używanych instrumentów elektrycznych należą gitara basowa, gitara elektryczna, kontrabas elektryczny tzw. "stick", mandolina elektryczna, pianino elektryczne oraz skrzypce elektryczne. +Ferdynand Ossendowski + +Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (ur. 27 maja 1876 w Lucynie w Inflantach Polskich, zm. 3 stycznia 1945 w Żółwinie) – polski pisarz, dziennikarz, podróżnik, antykomunista, nauczyciel akademicki, członek Akademii Francuskiej, działacz polityczny, naukowy i społeczny. +Życiorys. +Syn lekarza Marcina Ossendowskiego i Wiktorii z domu Bortkiewicz. Rodzina miała korzenie tatarskie, szlacheckie, herbu Lis. Po urodzeniu się siostry Ferdynanda rodzina Ossendowskich przeniosła się do guberni pskowskiej, skąd pochodził ojciec, a w 1884 r. przeprowadziła się do Kamieńca Podolskiego. Tam młody Ossendowski zaczął uczęszczać do rosyjskiego gimnazjum, które ukończył - po kolejnej przeprowadzce - w Petersburgu. W tym czasie zmarł ojciec Ferdynanda. Rodzinę utrzymywała matka udzielając lekcji muzyki, zaś młody Ossendowski pomagał jej udzielając korepetycji. +Po ukończeniu szkoły studiował nauki matematyczno-przyrodnicze w Petersburgu, gdzie został asystentem znanego przyrodnika, prof. Szczepana Zalewskiego. W tym czasie wziął udział w wyprawach naukowych na Kaukaz, nad Dniestr, nad Jenisej i w okolice jeziora Bajkał. Dotarł również do Chin, Japonii, na Sumatrę i do Indii. Wrażenia z Indii były podłożem dla jego pierwszej powieści pt. "Chmury nad Gangesem". +Z powodu udziału w zamieszkach studenckich w 1899 r. musiał opuścić Rosję. Wyjechał do Paryża, gdzie studiował fizykę i chemię u prof. Marcellina Berthelota na Sorbonie. Tu także miał okazję poznać Marię Skłodowską-Curie. +Po powrocie do Rosji został docentem Uniwersytetu Technicznego w Tomsku. Nie pozostał jednak długo na uczelni, by poświęcić się karierze naukowej; jego pasją były podróże. W 1905 roku, po wybuchu wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej, został wysłany do Mandżurii, gdzie prowadził badania geologiczne w poszukiwaniu surowców niezbędnych dla armii. Za organizowanie w Harbinie protestów przeciw rosyjskim represjom w Królestwie Kongresowym został aresztowany i skazany na karę śmierci. Dzięki wyjątkowemu szczęściu uniknął wykonania wyroku i uzyskał jego nadzwyczajne złagodzenie. Wkrótce potem został wybrany przewodniczącym Rewolucyjnego Komitetu Naczelnego, który przez pewien czas sprawował władzę w Mandżurii. W wyniku procesu, który potem wytoczono jego członkom, Ossendowski został skazany na półtora roku twierdzy. Odzyskał wolność w 1908 roku. Wydana w 1911 r. książka pt. "W Ludskoj Pyli" ("W ludzkim pyle"), poświęcona więziennym doświadczeniom Ossendowskiego, zyskała przychylną ocenę m.in. Lwa Tołstoja. W tym czasie nawiązał współpracę z wieloma rosyjskimi gazetami. Gdy w 1909 r. zaczął wychodzić w Petersburgu polskojęzyczny "Dziennik Petersburski", został jego korespondentem, a następnie redaktorem. +W 1918 r. opuścił zrewolucjonizowany Petersburg i wyjechał do Omska. W czasie wojny domowej w Rosji czynnie współpracował z dowództwem "Białych"; był m.in. doradcą admirała Kołczaka. Przekazał na Zachód tzw. dokumenty Sissona, które wykazywały, że Lenin był agentem wywiadu niemieckiego, a działalność partii bolszewickiej finansowana była za niemieckie pieniądze. Choć niektóre źródła uważają te dokumenty za sfałszowane, to fakt pomocy udzielonej Leninowi przez Niemieckie Naczelne Dowództwo jest pewny. +Powszechnie znany ze swojej antykomunistycznej postawy po upadku Kołczaka był poszukiwany przez bolszewicką policję polityczną (CzeKa). Dzięki niezwykłym zdolnościom przystosowawczym (m.in. znał biegle 7 języków obcych, w tym chiński i mongolski), udało mu się przedostać z kontrolowanej przez bolszewików Rosji do Mongolii. W jej stolicy Urdze został doradcą barona Ungerna walczącego przy pomocy zorganizowanej przez siebie Azjatyckiej Dywizji Konnej z bolszewikami. Dane na temat roli, jaką Ossendowski odegrał w Mongolii, są okryte tajemnicą; była ona niewątpliwie dość istotna, sam jednak mówił na ten temat niechętnie. Istnieje teza, jakoby Ossendowski stał się depozytariuszem wiedzy o ogromnym skarbie, ukrytym przez "Krwawego Barona" Ungerna gdzieś w mongolskich stepach, a który miałby posłużyć do sfinansowania kolejnej wojny z komunistami. +Ossendowskiemu światową sławę przyniosła książka: „Zwierzęta, ludzie, bogowie”, która na przełomie 1920 i 1921 r. ukazała się w Nowym Jorku, w 1922 r. w Londynie a w 1923 r. w Warszawie. Łącznie osiągnęła ona rekordową liczbę dziewiętnastu tłumaczeń na języki obce. Ossendowski opisał w niej wspomnienia z ucieczki z Rosji ogarniętej chaosem rewolucji. Opis obejmuje ucieczkę z Krasnojarska opanowanego przez bolszewików, zimę w tajdze, przeprawę do Mongolii i pobyt w niej u boku barona Ungerna. +Do Polski powrócił w roku 1922. W okresie międzywojennym zajmował się działalnością literacką, publikując wiele powieści, przeważnie w stylu „romansu podróżniczego”. Ukazało się 77 książek pisarza, które wydano również w 150 przekładach na 20 języków. Przez pewien czas należał do piątki najbardziej poczytnych pisarzy na świecie, a jego książki porównywano z dziełami Kiplinga, Londona czy Maya. W latach międzywojennych łączny nakład książek "polskiego Karola Maya" sięgnął 80 mln egzemplarzy. Gdy chodzi o przekłady na języki obce, Ossendowski zajął wówczas drugie miejsce po Henryku Sienkiewiczu i do dziś nikomu nie udało się go w tej kategorii pobić. +W 1936 został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim Polskiej Akademii Literatury „za zasługi na polu literatury podróżniczej”. +Pod koniec okupacji, w lutym 1943, wstąpił do konspiracyjnego Stronnictwa Narodowego. Zmarł w Żółwinie w 1945 roku, tuż przed wkroczeniem Armii Czerwonej, pochowany na cmentarzu w Milanówku. Nigdy nie ujawnił żadnych szczegółów swojej działalności polityczno-wywiadowczej. Archiwum zostało skrupulatnie zniszczone przed jego śmiercią. +Ze względu na treść jego książki "Lenin", fabularyzowanej biografii przywódcy rewolucji październikowej, niezwykle ostrej krytyki rewolucji i komunizmu, po zajęciu Polski przez Rosjan grób Ossendowskiego był pilnie poszukiwany. Po jego znalezieniu ekshumowano zwłoki, gdyż NKWD chciało się upewnić, czy "osobisty wróg Lenina" na pewno nie żyje. Inna interpretacja tego faktu zakłada, że NKWD-ziści szukali przy zwłokach pisarza jakiejś informacji lub wskazówki co do miejsca ukrycia skarbu barona Ungerna. +Pamięć o pisarzu. +Po wojnie skazany na zapomnienie, umieszczony w "„zapisie cenzorskim.”" Wszystkie jego utwory objęte cenzurą w 1951 roku podlegały natychmiastowemu wycofaniu z bibliotek. Dopiero od roku 1989 jego prace mogą być w Polsce oficjalnie wydawane. +W 2004 władze Milanówka sfinansowały nowy nagrobek pisarza na miejscowym cmentarzu, jego imię nosi jeden z miejskich skwerów. W 2006 wmurowano pamiątkową tablicę na domu przy ulicy Grójeckiej 27 na warszawskiej Ochocie, gdzie pisarz mieszkał w czasie wojny; wskutek protestów wspólnoty mieszkańców, usunięto z tablicy napis „antykomunista”. W 2009 r. odsłonięto pamiątkową tablicę na domu pisarza w Nieszawie. W Michalinie (dzielnica miasta Józefów) powstaje Muzeum Podróżników Polskich zawierające ekspozycję o podróżach pisarza. +Odwołania w literaturze. +Bohaterowie książki Kornela Makuszyńskiego „Awantury i wybryki małej małpki Fiki-Miki” znajdują w piaskach pustyni głowę, która okazuje się zakopanym „profesorem Ossendowskim” („Odkopali go czym prędzej, do murzyńskiej wiodą wioski, a tam krzyczą – Niech nam żyje pan profesor Ossendowski”). +Eastman Kodak + +Eastman Kodak – jeden z największych koncernów na świecie zajmujących się produkcją sprzętu fotograficznego i filmowego. Ma status międzynarodowej spółki akcyjnej. Firmą, od której pierwotnie wywodzi się obecny Eastman Kodak, jest Eastman Dry Plate Company założona przez wynalazcę George'a Eastmana i inwestora Henry'ego Stronga w 1881 r. Centrala firmy znajduje się w Rochester w stanie New York w USA. +Słowo "Kodak" zostało stworzone w 1888 roku przez samego Eastmana, który po latach tak pisał o jego etymologii: "Z filologicznego punktu widzenia słowo "kodak" jest więc równie pozbawione znaczenia jak pierwsze "gu" dziecka. Słowo to – zwięzłe i szorstkie aż do granicy grzeczności, dosłownie ucięte z obu stron przez mocne, nieustępliwe spółgłoski – brzmi jak migawka aparatu. Czegóż chcieć więcej?". Początkowo nazwę tę nosił aparat małoobrazkowy współpracujący z filmami w rolkach, który był sprzedawany przez Eastman Dry Plate Company. Popularność tego aparatu była tak wielka, że firma była bardziej kojarzona ze słowem "Kodak" niż z nazwiskiem Eastmana i stąd zdecydowano się zmienić nazwę firmy na "Kodak". Eastman ukuł także slogan reklamowy firmy: "Ty naciskasz guzik, my robimy resztę". +Firma wprowadziła na rynek wiele podstawowych obecnie technologii fotograficznych, takich jak film fotograficzny w rolkach 35 mm oraz pierwszy aparat fotograficzny dla amatorów. Oprócz stworzenia standardu fotografii małoobrazkowej firma była też pionierem w fotografii kolorowej, wprowadzając jako pierwsza w roku 1935 wielowarstwowy, oparty o subtraktywną syntezę kolorów, film barwny Kodachrome oraz standard automatycznego wywoływania filmów znany jako proces C-41, który obecnie stosują praktycznie wszyscy wytwórcy kolorowych negatywów fotograficznych na świecie. Równolegle z firmą Polaroid Corporation rozwijała technologię fotografii błyskawicznej, jednak po przegraniu sprawy patentowej przeciw Polaroidowi 19 stycznia 1986 wycofała się całkowicie z tego segmentu rynku. W latach 90. XX wieku firma forsowała nową technologię fotografii tradycyjnej o nazwie Advanced Photo System, mającą zastąpić aparaty małoobrazkowe. Technologia ta umożliwia radykalne zmniejszenie rozmiarów aparatów, stosowanie filmów umożliwiających zapisanie do 135 zdjęć na jednej rolce i automatyczne ich katalogowanie. +Firma jest zaangażowana w rynek fotografii cyfrowej, którego opanowanie jest obecnie głównym celem strategicznym koncernu. 13 stycznia 2004 koncern ogłosił zaprzestanie produkcji aparatów małoobrazkowych w USA i Europie Zachodniej i zarzucenie całkowicie rozwijania technologii Advanced Photo System, która nie cieszyła się specjalnym zainteresowaniem klientów. Produkcja i rozwój technologii tradycyjnych filmów fotograficznych będzie jednak kontynuowana. +Na początku XXI wieku koncern Eastman Kodak przeżywał kryzys ekonomiczny, związany ze strategicznymi błędami w zarządzaniu, popełnionymi w ciągu kilku wcześniejszych lat. Kryzys pogłębiło niedoszacowanie kosztów i skutków restrukturyzacji. W 4. kwartale 2006 roku Eastman Kodak po raz pierwszy od 2004 roku odnotował dodatni wynik w swej ogólnoświatowej działalności rynkowej. +Kodak jest notowany na oraz na Giełdzie Nowojorskiej (NYSE): EK. +Obecnie Kodak złożył wniosek o ochronę przed upadłością i zamierza przeprowadzić restrukturyzację. +Zmarli w roku 2003 + +Lista znanych i mniej znanych osób zmarłych w 2003 +Nowa lira turecka + +Nowa lira turecka - była jednostka monetarna Turcji, obowiązująca od 1.01.2005 do 1.01.2009, zastąpiła starą lirę turecką (1 nowa lira = 1 000 000 starych lir). Nowa lira dzieliła się na 100 nowych kuruszy. +Obecnie od 1 stycznia 2009 weszły w obieg (ponownie) liry tureckie (tzw. emisja E-9) o tej samej wartości. +Poprzednie pieniądze trzeba wymienić do końca grudnia 2009 roku. Kod ISO 4217 waluty Turcji to "TRY", kod numeryczny - 949 2. +Stosunek administracyjnoprawny + +Stosunek administracyjnoprawny - stosunek prawny regulowany przez normy prawa administracyjnego. Powstaje wskutek zaistnienia przesłanek faktycznych lub określonych faktów prawnych. Ustaje z chwilą wydania przez organ administracji publicznej, wiążącego rozstrzygnięcia (pogląd dyskusyjny - zdaniem niektórych badaczy, to właśnie decyzja administracyjna kształtuje stosunek administracyjnoprawny). +Prokarbazyna + +Prokarbazyna (ang. "procarbazine", PCB) – organiczny związek chemiczny, lek z grupy leków przeciwnowotworowych (L 01 XB 01), inhibitor replikacji DNA. +Blokuje wytwarzanie białek i DNA przez komórki nowotworu poprzez degradację matrycy DNA, co uniemożliwia im wzrost i namnażanie się. +Wraz z PCB nie należy przyjmować jakichkolwiek dostępnych bez recepty leków bez wcześniejszej konsultacji z lekarzem. Prokarbazyna podobnie jak inne leki przeciwnowotworowe może mieć negatywny wpływ na rozwój płodu (wpływ teratogenny). +Lomustyna + +Lomustyna, CCNU (ATC: L 01 AD 02) – lek przeciwnowotworowy z grupy związków alkilujących. +Jego działanie polega na tym, iż "przyczepia się" do jednego z łańcuchów DNA komórki nowotworowej, uniemożliwiając jej podział. +Lomustyna jest zaliczana do cytostatyków o dużym potencjale emetogennym. +Lomustyna reaguje z alkoholem. +Adam Daniel Rotfeld + +Adam Daniel Rotfeld (ur. 4 marca 1938 w Przemyślanach) – polski naukowiec i dyplomata, minister spraw zagranicznych w 2005. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo. +Urodził się w Przemyślanach koło Lwowa w rodzinie pochodzenia żydowskiego; syn adwokata Leona Rothfelda i jego żony Berty. Rodzice zostali zamordowani przez Niemców w 1943 w Przemyślanach. Od końca 1941 był ukrywany w klasztorze w Uniowie przez greckokatolickich duchownych z zakonu studytów, którego archimandrytą (zwierzchnikiem) był Klemens Szeptycki. W klasztorze przebywał pod przybranym nazwiskiem Czerwiński. Do prawdziwego wrócił dopiero kilka lat po wojnie (w formie spolszczonej pisowni – z oryginalnego Rothfeld). W 1946, po rozwiązaniu klasztoru i delegalizacji kościoła greckokatolickiego w ZSRR, władze radzieckie przeniosły dzieci do sierocińca w Złoczowie. W 1951 dzięki staraniom ambasady polskiej w Moskwie został repatriowany do Polski, przebywał w Domu Dziecka nr 2 w Krakowie. +Wykształcenie. +W 1955 ukończył V Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Augusta Witkowskiego w Krakowie. W 1954 został usunięty z organizacji młodzieżowej ZMP za żarty z władz. W latach 1955–1960 studiował na Wydziale Dyplomatyczno-Konsularnym Szkoły Głównej Służby Zagranicznej w Warszawie, gdzie uzyskał tytuł magistra z zakresu międzynarodowego prawa publicznego na podstawie pracy o nieważności układu monachijskiego z 1938. Następnie studiował w studium dziennikarskim Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (1960–1962). W 1969 uzyskał stopień doktora nauk prawnych na Wydziale Prawa Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego na podstawie dysertacji o prawie narodów do samostanowienia w systemie współczesnego prawa międzynarodowego. W 1990 został doktorem habilitowanym nauk humanistycznych w oparciu o monografię zatytułowaną "Europejski system bezpieczeństwa in statu nascendi", a w 2001 otrzymał tytuł naukowy profesora nauk humanistycznych. +Działalność zawodowa. +W latach 1961–1989 pracował w Polskim Instytucie Spraw Międzynarodowych w Warszawie, gdzie początkowo zajmował stanowisko redaktora (1961–1962), a następnie sekretarza redakcji miesięcznika "Sprawy Międzynarodowe" (1962–1968) i od 1964 jednocześnie zastępcy redaktora naczelnego Redakcji Wydawnictw PISM. W 1969 został mianowany adiunktem w Zakładzie Bezpieczeństwa Europejskiego PISM. W 1978 objął stanowisko kierownika w Zakładzie Bezpieczeństwa Europejskiego PISM. W latach 1974–1975 brał udział w pracach drugiej fazy Konferencji Bezpieczeństwa i Współpracy w Europie jako członek polskiej delegacji w Genewie oraz w Spotkaniach KBWE w Belgradzie, Madrycie oraz Wiedniu. W 1989 został kierownikiem projektu badawczego w Międzynarodowym Instytucie Badań nad Pokojem (SIPRI) w Sztokholmie, gdzie w 1991 wybrano go na pięcioletnią kadencję dyrektorską oraz powtórnie na następną kadencję przedłużoną do czerwca 2002. +W latach 1992–1993 był Osobistym Przedstawicielem przewodniczącego KBWE ds. politycznego rozwiązania konfliktu w Naddniestrzu, a wynikiem jego pracy było przyjęcie końcowego raportu dającego podstawy do pokojowego rozstrzygnięcia konfliktu. W 2000 został mianowany przez prezydenta Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego członkiem Rady Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. 15 listopada 2001 objął stanowisko podsekretarza stanu w Ministerstwie Spraw Zagranicznych w rządzie Leszka Millera, od 30 czerwca 2003 pełnił funkcję sekretarza stanu w tym resorcie. 5 stycznia 2005, po objęciu urzędu marszałka Sejmu przez Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza, Adam Rotfeld przejął stanowisko ministra spraw zagranicznych. Sprawował tę funkcję do 31 października 2005. +W 2006 został przez Sekretarza Generalnego ONZ powołany na członka, a w 2008 na przewodniczącego Kolegium Doradczego Sekretarza Generalnego ONZ do spraw Rozbrojenia. W styczniu 2008 mianowano go współprzewodniczącym Polsko-Rosyjskiej Grupy do Spraw Trudnych. W sierpniu 2009 Sekretarz Generalny NATO mianował go członkiem Grupy Ekspertów NATO do przygotowania Nowej Koncepcji Strategicznej Sojuszu ("Grupa Mędrców"). W latach 2006–2008 był wykładowcą Collegium Civitas w Warszawie. Prowadzi wykłady w Kolegium Europejskim (College of Europe) w Natolinie oraz w Akademii Dyplomatycznej i Studium Polityki Zagranicznej. W 2011 został profesorem w Instytucie Badań Interdyscyplinarnych "Artes Liberales" Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. +Działalność społeczna i naukowa. +W latach 1962–1964 pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego Studenckiego Stowarzyszenia Przyjaciół ONZ w Polsce. W 1962 został członkiem Polskiej Grupy Stowarzyszenia Prawa Międzynarodowego (ILA), a w 1992 – Międzynarodowego Instytutu Studiów Strategicznych (IISS) w Londynie. W okresie 1995–2006 był członkiem rady naukowej Instytutu Badań nad Pokojem i Polityką Bezpieczeństwa przy Uniwersytecie Hamburskim. W 1996 został członkiem Szwedzkiej Królewskiej Akademii Wiedzy Wojskowej, w 2001 członkiem Rady Międzynarodowego Centrum Demokratycznej Kontroli nad Siłami Zbrojnymi (DCAF), a w 2003 Genewskiego Centrum Polityki Bezpieczeństwa (GCSP). W 2009 wszedł w skład Międzynarodowej Komisji, przygotowującej Euro-Atlantycką Inicjatywę Bezpieczeństwa (EASI). Został także członkiem Europejskiej Rady Stosunków Międzynarodowych (ECFR). Wszedł również w skład rad naukowych Instytutu Studiów Politycznych Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Ośrodka Studiów Wschodnich. Jest współzałożycielem i członkiem władz kilku fundacji, m.in. Centrum im. Bronisława Geremka oraz Fundacji Ryszarda Kapuścińskiego. +Jest inicjatorem Warszawskiej Grupy Refleksyjnej i redaktorem naukowym wydawanej pod jej auspicjami serii raportów: m.in. "New Political Act for the United Nations" (2004), "Towards Complementarity of European Security Institutions" (2005), "Arms Control Revisited: Non-Proliferation and Denuclearization" (2009). Pod jego redakcją naukową ukazały się zbiory pt. "Dokąd zmierza świat?" (Wyd. PISM, Warszawa 2008) oraz "Białe plamy. Czarne plamy. Sprawy trudne w relacjach polsko-rosyjskich 1918–2008" (red. naukowa wspólnie z Anatolijem Torkunowem, Wyd. PISM, Warszawa 2010). +Adam Daniel Rotfeld jest autorem ponad 400 publikacji naukowych w tym ponad 10 książek, a także współautorem blisko 20 monografii, około 50 rozdziałów w pracach zbiorowych oraz ponad 350 artykułów. Trzy z jego monografii uzyskały nagrody prezesa Polskiej Akademii Nauk, Polskiego Instytutu Spraw Międzynarodowych i ministra spraw zagranicznych. +Chemical Markup Language + +Chemical Markup Language, CML - format zapisu różnorodnych informacji o związkach chemicznych i ich reakcjach, formalnie jeden z języków znaczników zdefiniowanych za pomocą składni XML. Inicjatorami tego formatu są Peter Murray-Rust i Henry Rzepa. Obecnie rozwój tego języka jest prowadzony jako jeden z projektów Sourceforge. +Tradycyjnie informacje o związkach chemicznych i reakcjach są zapisywane w wielu różnych formatach, które nie są z sobą wzajemnie zgodne. CML jest zbiorem znaczników i zasad ich użycia umożliwiających jednolite i niezależne od oprogramowania zapisywanie tego rodzaju informacji. Dzięki temu, że jest to format zgodny z XML do jego obróbki można adaptować programy pierwotnie napisane do obsługi innych formatów z rodziny XML. Np: informacje o strukturze cząsteczek zapisanych w XML można łatwo wizualizować za pomocą zmodyfikowanych programów wyświetlających pliki SVG. Dokumenty CML można bez trudu łączyć z innymi dokumentami XML - np. XHTML, dzięki czemu można je bezpośrednio wpisywać do kodu stron WWW. +Oprogramowanie. +XML w odróżnieniu od np. Smiles jest formatem otwartym, którego specyfikacja jest jawna i nie objęta patentami czy licencjami ograniczającymi możliwość jego legalnego użycia. Z tego względu jest on adoptowany zarówno do programów opartych na wolnych licencjach jak i programów komercyjnych. +i wiele innych. +Bogwidza + +Bogwidza, "*Bogowid" — staropolskie imię męskie złożone z członów "Bog-" ("Bóg", ale pierwotnie "los, dola, szczęście") i "-widz-a" ("widzieć"). Może zatem oznaczać "tego, który widzi Boga" albo "tego, który widzi los, widzi przyszłość". Pierwotna forma tego imienia najprawdopodobniej brzmi Bogowid, a forma Bogwidza jest zapisem imienia zdrobniałego, uformowanego przy użyciu przyrostka "-ja", pod wpływem którego wygłosowe "-d" przeszło w "-dza". Imię to miało zatem kształt "*Bogowid", z drugim członem "-wid" jak w imieniu Snowid. +Prawo bankowe + +Prawo bankowe – zespół norm prawnych regulujących powstawanie, funkcjonowanie oraz zasady likwidowania instytucji bankowych (zwłaszcza banków), a także zasady funkcjonowania nadzoru bankowego. +Ustawa Prawo bankowe. +Prawo bankowe reguluje ustawa z dnia 29 sierpnia 1997 r. – Prawo bankowe (tekst jednolity ). +Ustawę nowelizowano wielokrotnie. Ostatnia zmiana weszła w życie w 2011 roku. +Monte Carlo + +Monte Carlo - dzielnica Monako, znana m.in. z kasyn i plaży. Zamieszkuje ją ok. 20 tys. osób. Położona jest na stoku górskim, nad Morzem Liguryjskim (część Morza Śródziemnego). Znajdują się tam: uzdrowisko i kąpielisko morskie, ogród botaniczny, Musée National des Beaux-Arts, pochodzące z lat 1878-1879 kasyno zaprojektowane przez Charlesa Garniera oraz inne budynki eklektyczne z 2 połowy XIX wieku. +W Monte Carlo znajduje się trasa znanego rajdu samochodowego oraz rozgrywany jest coroczny wyścig Formuły 1 - Grand Prix Monako. +Nazwą 'Monte Carlo' został nazwany niski tulipan o żółtych, pełnych kwiatach. +Monte Carlo jest historyczną stolicą hazardu. +Polski ruch oporu w czasie II wojny światowej + +W trakcie II wojny światowej Polska była krajem okupowanym, w którym ruch oporu rozpoczął swoją działalność niemal natychmiast po zaprzestaniu regularnych działań wojennych. Również od samego początku jedną z jego form była walka zbrojna. +Budowa i rozwój konspiracji politycznej. +W początkowych latach okupacji część przedwojennych działaczy politycznych wyemigrowała, a ci którzy zostali przeszli do podziemia. +Prawicowy/narodowy nurt ruchu oporu. +Organizacje narodowe/nacjonalistyczne. +I wiele innych mniejszych, bądź regionalnych inicjatyw, grup i organizacji. +Dokumentacja programu + +Dokumentacja programu to ogół dokumentacji technicznej i dokumentacji użytkownika stworzonej dla określonego programu komputerowego przez jego twórców. +Tradycyjnie pisanie dokumentacji jest czynnością wykonywaną przez programistów niechętnie, stąd powstają systemy automatycznego generowania dokumentacji technicznej wprost z kodu źródłowego, np. doxygen. +Dokumentacja programu powinna w swojej podstawie zawierać dokumenty piśmiennicze (w języku naturalnym, w formie zrozumiałej dla człowieka, z ang. "human readable"), choć w zależności od wymagań i rodzaju dokumentacji wskazane może być posiłkowanie się dokumentami niepiśmienniczymi, takimi jak fragmenty kodów źródłowych, wykresy, graficzne reprezentacje algorytmów, zdjęcia interfejsu użytkownika, diagramy przepływu, opisy UML czy XML). +Również użytkownicy niechętnie korzystają z dokumentacji – przypomina o tym stosowany w odpowiedzi na niektóre (zwłaszcza banalne) pytania skrót RTFM. +Louis Truman + +Louis Watson Truman (ur. 20 czerwca 1908 w Kansas City w stanie Missouri, zm. 2 grudnia 2004) – generał broni (ang. "Lieutenant General") Armii Stanów Zjednoczonych, głównodowodzący 3rd US Army. +Zarys biografii. +Był kuzynem prezydenta Stanów Zjednoczonych – Harry'ego Trumana. W 1932 ukończył prestiżową akademię wojskową West Point. W okresie II wojny światowej zajmował głównie stanowiska sztabowe, jako kapitan przeżył atak Japończyków na Pearl Harbor 7 grudnia 1941. +Uczestniczył w wojnie koreańskiej. Później był m.in. dowódcą 7. Korpusu Armii USA, stacjonującego w Stuttgarcie, a w 1962 kierował specjalną wojskową misją prezydenta Johna Kennedy'ego w Demokratycznej Republice Konga. Pod koniec służby został głównodowodzącym 3rd US Army. W 1967 przeszedł w stan spoczynku w randze generała broni. W następnych latach pracował w administracji stanu Georgia. Mieszkał w Atlancie. +Kimono + +Kimono to ubiór o kroju prostym, w kształcie litery T, przypominający nieco szlafrok. Rękawy są długie i na całej długości bardzo szerokie – nawet do pół metra. Według tradycji, kobiety nie mające męża powinny nosić kimono o wyjątkowo długich rękawach, sięgających niemal podłogi. Szata jest owinięta wokół ciała, przy czym lewa strona powinna być zawsze na wierzchu. Całość ubioru uzupełnia szeroki pas wiązany na plecach, zwany obi. +Historia i opis kimono. +Historia kimona we współczesnej postaci rozpoczyna się w okresie Heian (794-1192 rok n.e.). Od tamtej pory podstawowy kształt męskiego i damskiego kimono pozostaje właściwie ten sam. +Zgodnie z tradycją wszystkie kobiece kimono są tego samego rozmiaru. Ubiór można jednak dostosować do figury i wzrostu dzięki zaszewkom i fałdom materiału. Kimono sporządzano z jednej beli tkaniny, przy czym bele miały określone, standardowe rozmiary a do sporządzenia stroju zużywano całą dostępną tkaninę. Wszystkie tradycyjne kimono są szyte ręcznie, a tkanina, której się do tego używa, często jest również wytwarzana i dekorowana ręcznie. Używa się do tego różnorodnych technik, takich jak yuzen – substancja chroniąca przed barwieniem sporządzana z pasty ryżowej, shibori oraz malowanie ręczne. Warunkują one rozmieszczenie wzorów na ubiorze oraz to, czy są one pojedyncze, czy powtarzają się wielokrotnie. Wzory, które powtarzają się wielokrotnie na dużej powierzchni sporządza się przy użyciu techniki yuzen i szablonów. +W przeszłości kimono często rozdzielało się na części do prania, a następnie zszywało na nowo, by je nosić. Nowoczesne tkaniny i metody czyszczenia spowodowały jednak, że obecnie robi się to rzadko. Gdy kimono ma być przechowywane, jego zewnętrzne obrzeża często fastryguje się, czyli zszywa długim, luźnym ściegiem. Dzięki temu kimono nie zwija się, nie marszczy i zachowuje układ warstw, w jaki zostało złożone. +W miarę upływu lat wykształcała się coraz większa różnorodność kolorów, rodzajów stosowanych tkanin i dodatków, takich jak obi. +Istnieje wiele fasonów kimono na różne okazje, od bardzo formalnego po swobodny. Poziom uroczystości stroju kobiecego zależy od kształtu (głównie długości rękawów), wzoru i tkaniny, a także koloru. Kimono męskie ma zwykle stały kształt i dość przytłumione kolory – poziom uroczystości ubioru zależy od rodzaju i koloru dodatków, tkaniny oraz od obecności i ilości "mon" (herbów rodzinnych). Najbardziej uroczystą i pożądaną tkaniną jest jedwab. Bawełna znamionuje bardziej swobodny strój. Obecnie produkuje się także kimono z poliestru – należą one do bardziej swobodnych. +W dzisiejszych czasach coraz częściej dostępne są różne rozmiary męskich i żeńskich kimono. Zgodnie z tradycją strój ten sporządza się z jednej beli materiału, dlatego też większy rozmiar jest trudniej znaleźć, a jego produkcja jest bardzo droga. Osoby bardzo wysokie lub masywne, takie jak zapaśnicy sumo, muszą sporządzać dla siebie kimono na zamówienie. +Kimono bywają bardzo drogie. Cena kobiecego kimono może przekroczyć 10 tysięcy dolarów, zaś kompletny strój, składający się z kimono, bielizny, obi, skarpet, sandałów i dodatków, może kosztować ponad 20 tysięcy dolarów. Koszty obi mogą wynieść nawet kilka tysięcy dolarów. Na szczęście w praktyce większość kimono posiadanych przez hobbystów lub osoby praktykujące tradycyjną sztukę japońską są znacznie tańsze. Zdarza się, że kimono i bieliznę do niego sporządza się własnoręcznie lub z elementów starego stroju. Tańsze, sporządzane maszynowo tkaniny mogą zaś zastąpić tradycyjny, barwiony ręcznie jedwab. W Japonii intensywnie rozwija się też rynek odzieży używanej. Mimo to kobiece obi są drogie: nawet używane pasy kosztują setki dolarów a dla osoby niedoświadczonej własnoręczne sporządzenie obi jest trudnym zadaniem. Męskie obi, nawet te jedwabne, bywają znacznie tańsze, gdyż są węższe i krótsze niż te, które noszą kobiety. +Kimono nie wyrzuca się. Stare stroje wykorzystuje się powtórnie na wiele sposobów: można z nich sporządzić haori lub kimono dziecięce; tkaniny można użyć do załatania podobnego kimono, większe części materiału mogą posłużyć do uszycia dodatków, takich jak torebka'; mniejsze – do produkcji obić, toreb lub skrzynek do przechowywania różnych narzędzi, na przykład tych używanych w czasie ceremonialnego parzenia herbaty. Kimono zniszczone w niższych partiach można założyć pod hakama, by ukryć uszkodzenie. +Współcześnie kimono zakłada się tylko na specjalne okazje; robią to głównie kobiety. Zdarzają się jednak kobiety starsze, które wciąż noszą je codziennie. Mężczyźni noszą kimono zazwyczaj na ślubach i podczas ceremonii herbacianej. Zawodowi zapaśnicy sumo mają obowiązek nosić kimono zawsze gdy pojawiają się publicznie poza ringiem. +W Japonii jest wielu hobbystów kimono, organizuje się też kursy jego noszenia. Obejmują one dobieranie stroju zależnie od pory roku, dobieranie wzoru i tkaniny zależnie od okazji, naukę dopasowywania bielizny i dodatków, wybierania i zawiązywania obi i inne tematy. Istnieją również kluby poświęcone kulturze kimono, takie jak Kimono de Ginza. +Kimono damskie. +Większość japońskich kobiet nie byłaby w stanie założyć samodzielnie kimono, gdyż typowy strój kobiecy składa się z dwunastu lub więcej elementów, które powinny zostać założone, dobrane i umocowane w określony sposób. Korzysta się więc z usług zawodowców, którzy pomagają kobiecie ubrać się w kimono na specjalną okazję. Osoby te muszą posiadać licencję, i choć wiele z nich pracuje w salonach fryzjerskich, można je także wezwać telefonicznie. +Kimono męskie. +W odróżnieniu od ubioru kobiecego, stroje męskie są znacznie prostsze, składają się zazwyczaj jedynie z pięciu części, nie licząc skarpet i sandałów. +Obecnie męskie kimono różnią się od siebie głównie tkaniną i wzorami. Typowy ubiór męski ma przytłumione, ciemne kolory: czernie, ciemne zielenie i odcienie niebieskiego, czasem brązy. Dominują tkaniny matowe. Niektóre stroje zdobione są w delikatne wzory, materiał ozdobny bywa stosowany często w bardziej swobodnych ubiorach, mogą one mieć także nieco jaśniejszy kolor, taki jak rozjaśnione odcienie purpury, zieleni i niebieskiego. Zawodnicy sumo noszą niekiedy bardzo jasne stroje, na przykład w kolorze fuksji. +Najbardziej uroczyste kimono jest oczywiście całkowicie czarne a na ramionach, klatce piersiowej i plecach powinno mieć pięć kamon. Mniej uroczyste kimono ma tylko trzy kamon. Noszona do nich bielizna i dodatki powinny być białe. +Prawie każde kimono można uczynić bardziej uroczystym, zakładając do niego hakamę lub haori. +Jedno z najbardziej uroczystych kimon to kamashimo (czasem kamasimo), +czyli kimono z kataginu, które jest charakterystyczne, ponieważ nie posiada boków i jest bardzo szerokie w górze. +Haori męskie jest zazwyczaj krótsze od damskiego. +Kimono w jęz. polskim. +W potocznej polszczyźnie "kimono" służy za określenie każdego rodzaju dalekowschodniego stroju. Na przykład "kimonem" nazywają często strój do ćwiczeń kendo, karate, aikido itd. +Gościwid + +Gościwid - staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Gości-" ("podejmować kogoś, gościć") i "-wid" ("widzieć", ale może od "widz" - "sługa, posłaniec"). Może więc oznaczać "tego, który widzi gości", albo "tego, który jest sługą swoich gości". Imię to mogło w wymowie zbliżać się do imienia Gościwit. +Hong Hu + +Hong Hu (; ur. w czerwcu 1940 w powiecie Jinzhai w prow. Anhui) − chiński działacz państwowy. +Studiował inżynierię chemiczną w Pekińskim Instytucie Technologicznym, który ukończył w 1963. Po studiach podjął pracę zawodową w przemyśle, w 1965 roku wstąpił do Komunistycznej Partii Chin. Pełnił szereg funkcji kierowniczych w przemyśle lokalnych i krajowym, zajmując jednocześnie ważne stanowiska w hierarchii partyjnej. Od 1991 do 1998 roku był wicedyrektorem Państwowej Komisji Restrukturyzacji Gospodarki. W latach 1992-2007 członek Komitetu Centralnego KPCh, do 1997 roku także jako członek Centralnej Komisji Dyscypliny Partyjnej. +W latach 1998-2004 członek Komitetu Prowincjonalnego KPCh prowincji Jilin. W 1998 roku wybrany wicegubernatorem i p.o. gubernatora prowincji Jilin, rok później gubernatorem. W październiku 2004 roku zrezygnował z funkcji gubernatora, zastąpił go Wang Min. Od 2002 roku delegat do Ogólnochińskiego Zgromadzenia Przedstawicieli Ludowych, od 2005 roku jest wiceprzewodniczącym parlamentarnej Komisji Prawnej. +Shirley Chisholm + +Shirley Anita Chisholm, z domu St. Hill (30 listopada 1924 - 1 stycznia 2005), amerykańska działaczka polityczna, członkini Izby Reprezentantów. Bez powodzenia ubiegała się o nominację Partii Demokratycznej w wyborach prezydenckich w 1972, była pierwszą Afroamerykanką wybraną do Kongresu USA. +Kształciła się w szkole publicznej w Brooklynie, następnie studiowała w Brooklyn College (ukończyła w 1946) oraz na Columbia University (1952). Pracowała jako nauczycielka w szkole pielęgniarskiej w Nowym Jorku, następnie kierowała Centrum Opieki Pediatrycznej Hamilton-Madison w Nowym Jorku. +Z ramienia Partii Demokratycznej zasiadała w latach 1964-1968 w Zgromadzeniu Stanowym Nowego Jorku. W 1968 stanęła do wyborów do Izby Reprezentantów w okręgu nowojorskim i jako pierwsza czarnoskóra kobieta zasiadła w Kongresie z wyboru, pokonując kandydującego w szeregach Partii Republikańskiej działacza praw człowieka Jamesa Farmera. Jej kadencja rozpoczęła się 3 stycznia 1969 - zasiadała w izbie przez kolejne siedem kadencji, do stycznia 1983. W styczniu 1969 współtworzyła grupę parlamentarną Afroamerykanów - Congressional Black Caucus. +Zgłosiła swoją kandydaturę w walce o nominację prezydencką Partii Demokratycznej w 1972. Zdobyła 151 głosów na konwencji wyborczej, co nie wystarczyło do uzyskania nominacji. Ostatecznie demokraci wybrali na swojego kandydata senatora z Południowej Dakoty George'a McGoverna, który w walce o prezydenturę nie sprostał Richardowi Nixonowi. Pewne kontrowersje (jeszcze przed rozstrzygnięciem sprawy nominacji Partii Demokratycznej) wywołała wizyta Chisholm u innego kandydata demokratów, George'a Wallace'a (znanego z przeciwnych poglądów), ciężko postrzelonego w trakcie kampanii. +W czasie swojej pracy w Kongresie Shirley Chisholm była rzeczniczką zwiększenia wydatków na cele społeczne, opiekę zdrowia, edukację, sprzeciwiając się jednocześnie zwiększaniu wydatków na wojsko. +Autorka książek: "Unbought and Unbossed" (1970) i "The Good Fight" (1973). W 1993 została uhonorowana miejscem w Narodowej Hall of Fame Kobiet Amerykańskich. +Paulicjanie + +Paulicjanie (ormiański: Պաւլիկեաններ) – średniowieczna grupa chrześcijańska powstała prawdopodobnie około VII wieku na terenach zamieszkiwanych przez Ormian, której początki i pochodzenie są niejasne. Wiadomo że paulicjanie zamieszkiwali południowo- wschodnią część Azji Mniejszej a w wyniku przesiedleń pojawili się także w Tracji. Największy rozkwit paulicjanizmu miał miejsce w IX wieku ale w X wieku Bizancjum grupa ta zaczęła zanikać. Jej ostatni wyznawcy w XVIII wieku przyjęli katolicyzm. Od początków swojego istnienia grupa ta była uważana za heretycką, najpierw przez kościół ormiański, później przez ortodoksyjny kościół bizantyjski. +Paulicjanie byli wyznawcami chrześcijańskiego dualizmu. Wierzyli w istnienie dwóch bogów, w dwa akty stworzenia. Byli "doketami" - zaprzeczali, iżby Syn Boży faktycznie cierpiał na krzyżu jako człowiek, ponieważ zrzucił on tylko grzeszną, cielesną powłokę. Po wygnaniu z Bizancjum walczyli wspólnie z Arabami przeciw Bizancjum, później zaś część z nich sprzymierzyła się z Turkami, istnieją relacje o żołnierzach paulicjańskich walczących przeciwko krzyżowcom. Inna grupa Paulicjan została przesiedlona przez cesarzy bizantyjskich do Tracji, gdzie ich poglądy spotkały się z zainteresowaniem ze strony części miejscowych, dając w ten sposób początek bogomilizmowi. +Historia. +Tło. +Religia chrześcijańska docierała na tereny Armenii niemal od samego początku swego istnienia. Bardzo szybko też, jak podaje tradycja, za sprawą świętego Grzegorza Oświeciciela, na początku IV wieku stała się oficjalną religią państwa. Grzegorz i jego następcy Nerses i Mesrop byli zwolennikami ortodoksji, współpracowali ze świętym Bazylim i tak zwaną szkołą teologiczną w Cezarei. Oficjalny, popierany przez władców kościół był zatem ortodoksyjny ale na terenie Armenii istniały także heterodoksyjne grupy wyznaniowe. Źródła zaświadczają że już w III wieku w Ani zamieszkiwali marcjonici i adopcjanie. W IV wieku w Armenii Mniejszej pojawili się archontycy i przez pewien okres czasu, za sprawą działalności Eutychesa z Satali, cieszyli się tam dużym powodzeniem wśród warstw wyższych. Jest wprawdzie kwestią dyskusyjną czy manichejczyków należy uznać za odłam chrześcijaśtwa czy raczej za wyznawców innej religii, faktem jednak jest że i oni żyli w Armenii a jeszcze do VI wieku najważniejsze pisma manichejskie tłumaczone były na ormiański. W pierwszej połowie V wieku poważnym zagrożeniem dla zwolenników ortodoksji byli mesalianie i tajemniczy borboryci. +Sytuacja kościoła ormiańskiego w drugiej połowie V wieku szczególnie sprzyjała rozwojowi różnego rodzaju sekt i grup heretyckich. Najwyższe funkcje w kościele takie jak biskupstwa i katolikat były dziedziczne, przechodziły z wuja na siostrzeńca, co powodowało że obejmowali je często ludzie którzy trybem życia daleko odbiegali od wzoru dobrego pasterza. Prowadziło to także często do traktowania dóbr kościelnych jako własności rodziny i dla duchowieństwa ważniejsze od posługi stało się pomnażanie majątku. Do tego dochodziły rozległe układy z władzą świecką, często niezbyt wyrozumiałą wobec poddanych. W wyniku tych patologii wielu ludzi, zwłaszcza z niższych warstw społecznych, pragnęło innego kościoła, mniej uwikłanego w sprawy doczesnego świata, skromniejszego i stojącego po stronie ludu. +Nie ulega wątpliwości że grupy sprzeciwiające się takiemu stanowi rzeczy przeżywały wówczas rozkwit ale, paradoksalnie, informacji o nich nie mamy zbyt wielu. Był to prawdopodobnie skutek rozłamu jaki nastąpił między oficjalnym kościołem ormiańskim a resztą ortodoksyjnego chrześcijaństwa. Po soborze w Chalcedonie w 451 roku kościół ormiański zbliżył się bowiem do monofizytyzmu. Autorzy greccy i łacińscy skupiali się więc raczej na krytyce doktryny monofizyckiej i nie pisali zbyt wiele o pomniejszych wyznaniach. Również autorzy ormiańscy zajęci byli tym konfliktem i o lokalnych odłamach wspominali na marginesach swych dzieł. Ze źródeł ormiańskich wyłania się bardzo niedokładny opis, prawdopodobnie istniał wówczas jeden, dominujący odłam, szczególnie popularna wśród niższych warstw społecznych i co za tym idzie, zawierająca wątki ludowe. O późniejszych tego typu ruchach wiadomo równie niewiele. +Początki. +Pierwsze wzmianki o paulicjanach pochodzą z początku VII wieku, z kanonów wielkiego synodu w Dwinie. Zebrani tam biskupi, zwołani przez Jana z Odzunu, zajęli się między innymi potępieniem paulicjanizmu i wprowadzeniem sankcji za jego wyznawanie oraz wspieranie wyznawców. Sami paulicjanie byli jednak grupą istniejącą już od dłuższego czasu, dokumenty synodu podają iż już w czasie pontyfikatu katolikosa Nersesa III (641-661) doszło do ich pierwszych prześladowań. W źródłach ormiańskich brakuje jednak dokładnego opisu doktryny i pochodzenia tej grupy. +Więcej informacji na ten temat podają późniejsze źródła bizantyjskie. Ich powstanie zawdzięczamy temu że paulicjanie pod koniec IX wieku mocno dawali się we znaki cesarstwu i dwór konstantynopolitański był żywo zainteresowany tą kwestią. Według badaczy wszystkie te źródła korzystały z opisów Piotra Sycylijczyka który w okolicach 870 roku odwiedził siedzibę Paulicjan w Tefrike jako cesarski poseł. Zdaniem bizantyjczyków nazwa "Paulicjanie" pochodziła od Pawła z Samosaty, biskupa żyjącego w III wieku. Paweł i jego brat Jan mieli propagować w Samosacie manicheizm, religię swojej matki, Kallinike. W połowie VII wieku Konstantyn, Ormianin pochodzący z Mananali, w czasie swoich podróży natknął się na Diakonusa, wyzwoleńca z Syrii, zaangażowanego w samosacką gminę. Zasady wiary głoszone przez Diakonusa oczarowały Konstantyna i osiedlił się on na jakiś czas w Samosacie aby pobierać nauki. Następnie powrócił do Mananali gdzie rozpoczął działalność misyjną wśród swoich rodaków.Udało mu się zdobyć niewielką grupę zwolenników z którą przeniósł się do Kibossy, nieopodal Kolonei, gdzie liczba jego zwolenników wzrosła. Konstantyn i jego uczniowie mieli zdominować Kibossę a ich kościół działał tam dwadzieścia siedem lat, dopóki nie został wykryty przez władze. +Do Kibossy wysłano niejakiego Symeona któremu nadano wszelkie uprawnienia niezbędne do uporania się z odstępcami. Po dotarciu na miejsce i zbadaniu sprawy Symeon, prawdopodobnie aby rozbić więzi między członkami kościoła, rozkazał paulicjanom zgładzić Konstantyna. Przywódca został w końcu zamordowany przez swojego syna o imieniu Justus. Nie był to jednak koniec ponieważ Symeon w miarę śledztwa coraz mocniej fascynował się żarliwością religijną grupy którą kazano mu zniszczyć. W końcu sam porzucił ortodoksję, przystał do tych których niedawno prześladował i nawet zajął miejsce po Konstantynie. Władze cesarskie monitorowały jednak sprawę i nie zamierzały poprzestać na jednej próbie. Symeon był liderem zaledwie trzy lata, następnie zginął w prześladowaniach rozpoczętych przez Justyniana II. +Odwilż. +Po okresie prześladowań trwających między 690 a 695 rokiem sytuacja uspokoiła się choć paulicjanie nadal obawiali się prześladowań. Po śmierci Symeona przywódcą został, choć źródła nie stwierdzają tego wprost, niejaki Paweł Ormianin. Aby uniknąć represji, wraz ze swoimi zwolennikami, przeniósł się z Kibossy do wsi Episparis a następnie do Mananali. Po Pawle przywódcą został jego syn Gegnezjusz, który miał przewodzić paulicjanom przez następne trzydzieści lat. W czasie gdy kierował sektą sytuacja uspokoiła się na tyle że Gegnezjusz mógł nawet wziąć udział w dyspucie teologicznej z patriarchą Konstantynopola, która odbyła się prawdopodobnie w 728 lub 729 roku. Spokój jakim cieszyli się wówczas paulicjanie wynikał prawdopodobnie z tego iż byli oni skrajnymi ikonoklastami a władzę cesarską sprawowali wówczas władcy popierający ten ruch. Możliwe że to właśnie z tego powodu doszło do debaty między patriarchą Konstantynopola a Gegnezjuszem- przeciwnicy ikon, chcieli poznać poglądy grupy popierającej ich idee. +Przywódcy paulicjan zmieniali swoje siedziby, ale wraz z nimi nie przenosili się wszyscy ich zwolennicy, po za tym ciągle prowadzili działalność misyjną pozyskując nowych sympatyków i wiernych. W czasie panowania Konstantyna V (741-775) pierwsze wspólnoty paulicjan pojawiły się w Europie, przesiedlone tam przez cesarza w celach militarnych oraz po to by stworzyć przeciwwagę dla miejscowych ikonolatrów, czyli zwolenników kultu ikon. +Po śmierci Gegnezjusza doszło do schizmy wśród paulicjan. Zmarły lider miał dwóch synów, Józefa i Zachariasza, którzy rywalizowali o objęcie schedy. Zachariasz zastąpił początkowo ojca ale to Józef cieszył się większym poparciem wśród ludzi. Zagrożony Zachariasz uciekł się do próby zabicia brata, ta jednak zakończyła się niepowodzeniem i Józefowi udało się uciec. Prześladowany przez brata zbiegł na tereny zajęte przez Arabów gdzie liczył na pomoc. Nie wiadomo jak, ale wkrótce zatriumfował nad Zachariaszem, udało mu się objąć przywództwo i zjednoczyć paulicjan. Miejscowy, ortodoksyjny władca o imieniu Krichorakes, zainteresował się jednak działalnością Paulicjan i zmusił Józefa i jego zwolenników do opuszczenia zamieszkiwanych przez nich ziem. Józef zmarł w Chorakopeum, które lokuje się w pobliżu pizydyjskiej Antiochii. +Prześladowania. +Po jego śmierci przywódcą został Baanes, ale szybko utracił znaczenie na rzecz Sergiusza, ponownie zatem doszło do rozłamu i tym razem nie był on krótkotrwały. Paulicjanie podzielili się na dwie frakcje: kynochorytów i astatian. Rodzina Sergiusza pochodziła z Ani a on sam przyjął doktrynę paulicjan za namową kochanki. W okresie jego działalności sekta rozwinęła działalność misjonarską na szeroką skalę, zdobywając sobie licznych zwolenników. W międzyczasie, w Konstantynopolu, doszło do zmian, bardzo niekorzystnych dla różnych grup popierających ikonoklazm. W 797 roku, w wyniku spisku, do władzy doszła Irena, zwolenniczka kultu ikon. Ona sama nie wprowadziła wprawdzie jakiejś represyjnej polityki w stosunku do paulicjan a jej następca który objął tron w 802 roku, Nicefor, był nawet podejrzewany o sprzyjanie sekcie ale wydarzenia te zapowiadały triumf ikonolatrów i w konsekwencji- prześladowanie ikonoklastów. Nie był to wprawdzie koniec tarć bo później władzę sprawowali jeszcze cesarze będący przeciwnikami kultu ikon, ale w przeciwieństwie do swoich poprzedników z VIII wieku nie odnosili się oni przychylnie do paulicjan. +Ze względu na ożywioną działalność misjonarską w czasie działalności Sergiusza, władze bizantyjskie zareagowały represjami. Przodowali w tym cesarze Michał I (811-813) i Leon V (813-820). Tym razem okazało się jednak iż Paulicjanie byli już na tyle silni że potrafili się bronić, zabili między innymi Tomasza, metropolitę Cezarei oraz prefekta Parakondatesa. Przyłączyli się również do buntu przeciwko cesarzowi Michałowi II, stając po stronie jego konkurenta, Tomasza Słowianina (mimo iż był on ikonolatrem). Po klęsce powstania, wobec nowych prześladowań zwolennicy zarówno Sergiusza jak i Baanesa zbiegli na ziemie zajęte przez Arabów, oddając się pod opiekę emira Meliteny. Saraceni podarowali im dwie wioski, Argaoun oraz Amarę i w zamian za podatki zostawili w spokoju. Korzystając z ochrony muzułmanów paulicjanie dokonywali zbrojnych wypadów na tereny cesarstwa. +W 835 roku Sergiusz został zamordowany przez niejakiego Tzaniona z Nikopolis w czasie rąbania drewna. Jego uczniowie postanowili że nie powołają nowego przywódcy i będą rządzić się demokratycznie, uznali również że zwolenników Baanesa należy wyeliminować. Od tego zamiaru odwiódł ich jednak uczeń Sergiusza, Teodot. Doszło wówczas do jakiejś formy pojednania. Paulicjanie zajęli się najeżdżaniem ziem Bizancjum, gdzie brali jeńców, których sprzedawali później Arabom jako niewolników. Powstanie odrębnego państewka mocno zaniepokoiło Konstantynopol, zwłaszcza że wielu paulicjan nadal zamieszkiwało wschodnie tereny cesarstwa. +Z uwagi na częste najazdy cesarz Teofil przedsięwziął radykalne kroki przeciwko paulicjanom. Zainicjował wielkie prześladowania na bardzo szeroką skalę, ale przerwała je jego śmierć. Kontynuatorką Teofila była jego żona, Teodora, która po śmierci męża sprawowała regencję. Ośmielona sukcesem jakim było oficjalne przywrócenie kultu ikon uznała że nawrócenie paulicjan również jest możliwe. Oni jednak odrzucali pouczenia religijne bizantyjskiego kleru. Wobec takiego obrotu spraw Leon Argyrus, Andronik Dukas i Sudales, oficerowie oddelegowani przez cesarzową do tej sprawy, uznali że paulicjan należy zniszczyć. Źródła podają że w wyniku ich działalności zginęło około 100 000 ludzi co wydaje się jednak liczbą mocno przesadzoną. Faktem jest że po tej kampanii paulicjanizm na terenie cesarstwa praktycznie przestał istnieć. Pozostawało jednak państewko na terenach opanowanych przez muzułmanów. +Państwo paulicjan. +Kampania przeprowadzona przeciwko paulicjanom w cesarstwie wzmocniła grupy żyjące w Argaoun i Amarze. W obawie o życie i dobytek wielu decydowało się na opuszczenie ziem Bizancjum i ucieczkę do współwyznawców żyjących pod opieką muzułmanów, także społeczność ta bardzo się rozrosła. Dodatkowo okrucieństwo cesarskich sprawiło że i tak już wojowniczy paulicjanie, zyskali kolejny powód do walki. Sposób w jaki rozprawiono się z paulicjanami w cesarstwie zraził także wielu ludzi sprzyjających Paulicjanom i oni również często decydowali się na przyłączenie do tych z którymi niedawno zaledwie sympatyzowali. Znajdowali się wśród nich także wojskowi, często wysoko postawieni. +Tak właśnie było z Karbeasem, dowódcą gwardii stratega temu Anatolikon. Gdy ojca Karbeasa zabito w czasie prześladowań, syn zebrał pozostałych przy życiu zwolenników paulicjanizmu i zbiegł z nimi do Argaoun. Ciężka sytuacja w jakiej znalazła się sekta sprawił iż potrzebowała ona zdolnego dowódcy wojskowego, dlatego też wybrano Karbeasa na nowego przywódcę. Jedną z jego pierwszych decyzji było przeniesienie się z Argoun i Amary do Tefrike. Pod względem strategicznym miejsce to było znacznie lepsze, było dogodniejszą bazą wypadową na ziemie zarówno cesarstwa jak i te zamieszkane przez Ormian. Po za tym Tefrike znajdowało się dalej od Meliteny a Karbeas chciał być bardziej niezależny od miejscowego emira. +Gdy tylko sytuacja w Tefrike uspokoiła się Karbeas rozpoczął najazdy na ziemie Bizancjum. Były one teraz znacznie częstsze a dzięki dobremu dowództwu także lepiej zorganizowane. Paulicjanie docierali nawet do wybrzeży Morza Czarnego, łupiąc po drodze wsie i miasta oraz biorąc ludzi w niewolę. Najazdy były często zgrane z wyprawami emirów Meliteny i Tarsu a współpraca między Karbeasem a Arabami układała się tak dobrze że Bizantyjczycy podejrzewali nawet że przeszedł on na islam. W 856 roku wojska bizantyjskie pod dowództwem brata Teodory, Petronasa, wyprawiły się przeciwko paulicjanom. Ekspedycji tej nie udał się jednak rozbić paulicjan i ich muzułmańskich sprzymierzeńców. W 858 roku na czele podobnej wyprawy stanął cesarz Michał III i jego wuj Bardas. Wojska cesarskie doszły aż do Samosaty, gdzie według jednej z relacji doszło do druzgocącego zwycięstwa paulicjan, do niewoli dostało się wielu możnych a młody władca ledwo uszedł z życiem. Tej wersji nie potwierdzają jednak żadne inne źródła, nawet te mocno Bizantyjczykom nieprzychylne więc wydaje się że starcie to albo nie miało miejsca, albo miało inny przebieg. Wiadomo wprawdzie że do niewoli paulicjańskiej trafiło kilku dostojników greckich ale możliwe że doszło do tego w skutek na przykład ataku paulicjan na jakiś odizolowany oddział. Tak czy inaczej wyprawa z 858 roku również nie przyniosła cesarstwu sukcesu. +W 860 roku Karbeas wraz z Arabami napadł na Azję Mniejszą i według źródeł dotarł wówczas aż do południowych wybrzeży morza Czarnego. Wojska bizantyjskie, dowodzone przez Petronasa zmusiły wprawdzie paulicjan do odwrotu ale dopiero po bardzo ciężkich bojach. W 863 roku, w czasie jednego z najazdów na ziemie cesarstwa, Karbeas poległ w walce z oddziałami bizantyjskimi. Nowym przywódcą paulicjan został jego kuzyn, Jan Chryzocheiros. Pochodził on z możnego rodu bizantyjskiego ale powiązania rodzinne sprawiły że sympatyzował z paulicjanami. Korespondował z nim sam patriarcha Konstantynopola, Focjusz, który w swoich listach próbował namówić Jana do pozostania przy ortodoksji. Starania patriarchy nie dały jednak oczekiwanych rezultatów a Jan otwarcie przyznał się do wyznawania paulicjanizmu po czym zbiegł do Tefrike. Karbeas przyjął go bardzo serdecznie, oddając mu za żonę swą córkę i mianując następcą. +W 868 lub 867 roku Jan, korzystając z zamętu panującego w Konstantynopolu po uzurpacji Bazylego poprowadził swoje wojska aż do Nikomedii, dotarł także do Efezu gdzie zamienił kościół świętego Jana na stajnię dla koni swoich wojowników. w 869 roku cesarz, którego absorbowały przede wszystkim sprawy posiadłości bizantyjskich w Italii próbował kupić sobie pokój na wschodzie. W tym celu wysłał do Tefrike Piotra Sycylijczyka, który próbował nakłonić Jana do zaprzestania najazdów. Jego misja zakończyła się fiaskiem ale w jej wyniku powstało jedno z najważniejszych źródeł do badań nad dziejami sekty. Wobec niepowodzenia dyplomatycznego Bazylii postanowił rozwiązać problem paulicjan siłą. W 870 roku stanął na czele wyprawy która miała zadać ostateczny cios paulicjanom. Cesarzowi udało się zdobyć wiele osad zamieszkiwanych przez paulicjan. Wydawało się że pełne zwycięstwo jest już blisko gdy w wojska cesarskie stanęły pod Tefrike. Doszło do walk które jednak zakończyły się zwycięstwem Jana i rozbiciem armii bizantyjskiej. Bazylii uratował się tylko dzięki pomocy ormiańskiego chłopa o imieniu Teofilakt, który w zamian za ratunek zrobił potem błyskotliwą karierę na dworze konstantynopolitańskim a jego syn, Roman Lekapen został nawet cesarzem. +Paulicjanie triumfowali i w 871 roku jedna z ich wypraw dotarła aż do Ankyry. Cesarstwo jednak szybko się otrząsnęło po porażce i w 872 roku domestyk Chyrtoforos, zięć Bazylego, wyruszył z wojskami do Azji Mniejszej, którą paulicjanie bezkarnie łupili. Wódz bizantyjski odczekał aż najeźdźcy będą wycofywali się z łupami i dopiero wówczas ich zaatakował. Do bitwy doszło nieopodal miejscowości Bathyrrhyaks, u podnóża góry Zogoloenus. Armia paulicjan, osobiście dowodzona przez Jana Chryzocheiros, znalazła się w potrzasku między wojskami Chrystoforosa i oddziałami temów Armeniakon i Charsianon. Otoczeni paulicjanie zostali niemal doszczętnie wyrżnięci, jedynie nielicznym udało się zbiec. Wśród nich znajdował się Jan ale został on wkrótce zamordowany przez niejakiego Puladesa, Greka który mu towarzyszył. Jego głowa została odesłana do Konstantynopola, gdzie uświetniła triumf cesarza Bazylego. W tym czasie armia cesarska dotarła do Tefrike, gdzie nie zastała jednak żadnych paulicjan. Klęska pod Bathyrrhyaks oznaczała koniec państewka paulicjan. Bizantyjczycy przyłączyli tereny opanowane przez sektę do cesarstwa. +Bałkany. +Upadek Tefrike nie oznaczał jednak końca paulicjan. Ich grupy, żyjące na rubieżach cesarstwa były bowiem całkiem liczne, tyle że teraz pozbawiono je przywództwa politycznego. Bazylii nie prześladował pokonanych paulicjan, wręcz przeciwnie, wielu z nich zaoferował służbę w oddziałach cesarskich i nie brakowała takich którzy przyjęli jego ofertę. Do najsłynniejszych należał Diakonices, przyjaciel Chryzocheirosa, który dowodził później oddziałami cesarskimi w czasie walk w Italii. Znaczna liczba paulicjan zamieszkiwała południowo- wschodnie rubieże cesarstwa aż do X wieku, kiedy to patriarcha Antiochii nakłonił cesarza Jana Tzimiskesa do przesiedlenia wątpliwie lojalnych paulicjan z dala od Saracenów. Jan przesiedlił ich w okolice Filipopolis, warowni, którą niedawno odebrał Bułgarom. Chciał wykorzystać bitność paulicjan do obrony bałkańskich granic cesarstwa. Osiedliło się tam tak wielu paulicjan że, według niektórych relacji, przez pewne okresy uciskali oni nawet miejscową, ortodoksyjną ludność. +Cesarze zdawali sobie sprawę że na tolerowanie odstępców jest na dłuższą metę szkodliwe i dlatego dążyli do ich nawrócenia. Celował w tym zwłaszcza Aleksy Komnen (1081-1118) który w czasie walk z Normanami został opuszczony przez oddziały złożone z paulicjan. Po zapewnieniu sobie spokoju ze strony Normanów, zebrał on oficerów paulicjańskich wojsk w Mosynopolis pod pretekstem urzędowej rejestracji. Tam, podstępem odebrano im broń i uwięziono. Następnie zorganizowano dysputy z udziałem ortodoksyjnych mnichów którzy tłumaczyli paulicjanom ich błędy w rozumieniu wiary chrześcijańskiej. Jakaś część oficerów zdecydowała się przyjąć ortodoksję ale wielu innych upierało się przy swoich poglądach. Z uwagi na inne sprawy Aleksy odłożył na razie plan nawrócenia paulicjan i oficerów uwolniono, represje zastosowano tylko wobec nielicznych prowodyrów, zsyłając ich na Wyspy Książęce. +Do swoich zamiarów Aleksy powrócił przed wojną z Połowcami, gdy rezydował w Filipopolis. Cesarz zorganizował akcję misyjną i szereg dysput w których sam brał udział. Według relacji źródeł każdego dnia wielu paulicjan wyrzekało się herezji i przyjmowało ortodoksję. Anna Komnena podaje iż ogółem 10 000 ludzi porzuciło wówczas paulicjanizm. Aleksy osiedlił nawróconych paulicjan w mieście nieopodal Filipopolis i nadał im nowe ziemie. Kuleona, Kusinusa i Folusa, którzy byli przywódcami paulicjan, zabrał ze sobą do Konstantynopola i tam prowadził z nimi dyskusje na tematy teologiczne, chcąc udowodnić im że tkwią w błędzie. Kuleon uznał wyższość argumentacji cesarza i nawrócił się ale pozostali trwali przy swoim zdaniu. Aleksy aresztował ich i choć mieli zapewnione wszelkie wygody to do końca życia pozostali więźniami. +W wyniku zabiegów Aleksego liczba paulicjan w Tracji uległa znacznemu zmniejszeniu, niemniej jednak przetrwała. Świadczą o tym na przykład relacje krzyżowców którzy natknęli się na osiedla paulicjańskie w pobliżu Pelagonii oraz źródło mówiące że wspólnota paulicjan chciała w 1205 roku oddać Filipopolis carowi bułgarskiemu, za co zostali ukarani przez łacinników. W 1717 roku Mary Wortley Montagu podróżująca do Stambułu zatrzymała się w Filipopolis gdzie spotkała paulicjan. W XVIII wieku ostatni paulicjanie zostali nawróceni przez Pietro Salinate i Ilię Maynowa na katolicyzm i weszli w skład Bułgarskiego Kościoła Katolickiego, który istnieje do dziś. +Azja. +Nie wszyscy paulicjanie zostali przesiedleni przez Jana Tzimiskesa do Tracji. Część z nich pozostała w Azji, ale ich dzieje są bardzo ciężkie do zrekonstruowania. Wiadomo że w czasie pierwszej wyprawy krzyżowej, w 1097 roku, krzyżowcy natknęli się na twierdzę którą Castra Publicanorum którą władali Ormianie a później, nieopodal Trypolisu, na zamek Arche, również zamieszkany przez Ormian. Źródła łacińskie wspominają również o oddziałach paulicjańskich, które wspierały muzułmanów w walce z krzyżowcami. Słowo "publicani" którym łacinnicy określali paulicjan, na trwale weszło do literatury zachodniej i z czasem zaczęło oznaczać wszystkie odłamy dualistyczne. Wiadomo również że część paulicjan po klęsce pod Bathyrrhyaks zbiegła do Armenii, gdzie przyłączyła się do sekty tondrakitów, którzy przetrwali w górach aż do XIX wieku. +Doktryna. +O ile dzieje paulicjan są dosyć dobrze udokumentowane i istnieje wiele źródeł je opisujących o tyle ich wierzenia nie są dla współczesnych historyków zbyt jasne. Nie przetrwały bowiem żadne dzieła teologiczne paulicjan o ile jakieś w ogóle istniały, potwierdzone jest tylko że mieli własną wersję biblii. O systemie religijnym dowiadujemy się zatem praktycznie tylko ze źródeł opisujących polityczne dzieje ich wspólnoty. Głównym źródłem na ten temat są informacje zbierane przez posłów bizantyjskich którzy przebywali wśród paulicjan z misjami dyplomatycznymi. O wierzeniach paulicjan mówi również Focjusz, który brał udział w dysputach teologicznych z członkami sekty. Jednym ormiańskim źródłem które poświęca paulicjanom więcej niż krótką wzmiankę są prace Jana z Odzunu, który jednak koncentrował się na polityce. +Na temat doktryny paulicjańskiej wiele mogą nam powiedzieć teksty tondrakitów, pod warunkiem że przyjmiemy iż obydwie sekty były do siebie bardzo podobne co nie jest jednak pewne. Tondrakicki tekst, zwany "Kluczem do prawdy" przetrwał bowiem do naszych czasów ale z drugiej strony zawiera on poglądy sekty w późnym okresie jej istnienia. +Etymologia i pochodzenie. +Niejasne jest już samo pochodzenie słowa "paulicjanie" jak i faktyczne początki sekty. Jej brzmienie jasno wskazuje na jakieś związki z imieniem Paweł ale z drugiej strony nie wiadomo do końca o jakiego Pawła może chodzić. Sprawę utrudnia fakt iż przymiotnik od tego imienia przybiera zazwyczaj formę "pauliańsk" lub "pauliński". Według językoznawców "ic" obecne w wyrazie wskazuje na ormiański rodowód tego określenia. Ormiańskie "paulikios" było pogardliwym zdrobnieniem od imienia Paweł. Wydaje się zatem że paulicjanie to zwolennicy jakiegoś Pawła który nie cieszył się zbytnim poważaniem w ówczesnych wyższych kręgach duchowieństwa i społeczeństwa. Nadal jednak nie wiadomo kim ów Paweł mógł być. +Autorzy grecy i arabscy, prawdopodobnie opierając się na tradycji sekty, podają że chodzi tu o Pawła i Jana z Samosaty, synów zwolenniczki manicheizmu, Kallinike. Focjusz podaje że "paulicjański" to tak naprawdę zniekształcenie od "paulioański" co jego zdaniem potwierdza wersję o Pawle i Janie. Nie wiadomo jednak czy ludzie ci faktycznie istnieli czy była to tylko legenda samych paulicjan. Jeśli tak to wielu zwolenników ma teoria identyfikująca owego Pawła, syna Kallinike, z Pawłem z Samosaty, co sugeruje Masudi. Tu jednak pojawia się problem ponieważ nie znamy imienia jego matki a na domiar złego nie mogła być ona wyznawczynią manicheizmu, gdyż Mani urodził się około 216 roku a Paweł około 200 roku. Rozwiązaniem tego problemu mogło by być uznanie że określenie "manichejski" zastosowano tu w takim sensie że jej poglądy były dualistyczne, źródła bowiem często nazywały różne herezje manicheizmem z uwagi na to że ten system był dla wczesnego chrześcijaństwa silnym konkurentem. Być może była po prostu gnostyczką. Istnieje tu jednak zbyt dużo niejasności i przeinaczeń żeby można było uznać którąkolwiek z tych hipotez za prawdziwą. +Dodatkowym problemem dla uznania identyfikacji Pawła, syna Kallinike z Pawłem z Samosaty jest fakt, że jego herezja jest dość odległa w czasie od paulicjanizmu. Po za tym Paweł z Samosaty był zwolennikiem adopcjanistycznego nurtu monarchianizmu a paulicjanie według przekazów mieli być dualistami. Wydaje się mało prawdopodobne że autorzy greccy popełnili tutaj błąd, gdyż wielu z nich było biegłych w dziedzinie teologii. Po za tym Bizantyjczycy nigdzie nie dali jasno do zrozumienia że Paweł, syn Kallinike jest tą samą osobą co Paweł z Samosaty. O tym drugim wiedzieli oni wiele, był bowiem jednym z najsłynniejszych herezjarchów, po za tym sprawował urząd biskupa Antiochii, która wówczas należała do cesarstwa. +Istnieje druga teoria na temat etymologii słowa "paulicjanie" i pochodzenia tego odłamu. Możliwe bowiem że nazwa pochodzi po prostu od świętego Pawła Apostoła a autorzy greccy słysząc paulicjańską legendę o Pawle i Janie zbyt pochopnie stwierdzili że kwestia pochodzenia nazwy sekty jest oczywista. Zwolennicy tej teorii przytaczają słowa lady Mary Wortley Montagu z 1717 roku, piszącej iż napotkani przez nią paulicjanie szczególną czcią otaczali Pawła Apostoła. Jednak i tu pojawia się problem bowiem jej relację od pierwszych wzmianek o paulicjanach dzieli około 1000 lat a w tym czasie wiele poglądów czy też legend, mogło przejść daleko idącą ewolucję, zwłaszcza że nie znamy żadnych paulicjańskich tekstów religijnych. Możliwe więc że nauki przekazywane były wyłącznie drogą ustną. Entuzjaści drugiej teorii tłumaczą nazwę "paulicjanie" w ten sposób iż Ormianie widząc praktyki paulicjan i ich uwielbienie dla Pawła Apostoła nazywali ich pogardliwie maluczkimi naśladowcami Pawła. Potwierdzeniem tej teorii jest wiele praktyk paulicjańskich. +Wierzenia. +Wiadomo że sami paulicjanie nazywali siebie po prostu chrześcijanami a wyznawców innych odłamów tej religii określali mianem Rzymian. Podobnie jak wiele innych sekt uważali że tylko oni wyznają prawdziwą i jedynie słuszną wersję objawienia chrystusowego. Większość autorów piszących o paulicjanach określa ich mianem manichejczyków, co najpewniej oznacza że byli po prostu dualistami a nie dosłownie, zwolennikami nauk Maniego. Uprawdopodabnia to relacja grecka o tym, że paulicjanie wyklinali Maniego i uważali go za heretyka. Wiadomo że większość swoich zgromadzeń nazywali kościołów założonych przez Pawła Apostoła. Kongregacja w Kibossie była określana jako Macedonia, w Mananali- Achaja, w Argaoun- Kolosy, w Mopsuestii- Efez zaś w Kynopolis- Laodycea. Przywódcy paulicjan przyjmowali imiona uczniów Pawła i tak Konstantyn nazywał się Sylwanem, Symeon Tytusem, Gegnezjusz Tymoteuszem, Józef Epafrodytem a Sergiusz Tychikiem. Imiona te były nadawane prawdopodobnie po nabożeństwie inicjacyjnym. Znamienne jest że Jan Chryzocheiros i Karbeas nie przyjęli imion uczniów Pawła. Zapewne nie uważano ich za przywódców religijnych tylko za wodzów i być może nie byli dopuszczeni do grona najbardziej wtajemniczonych. +Według źródeł greckich wierzenia paulicjan opierały się na wierze w dwie Zasady, Istotę Niebiańską, Trzy Osoby w Jednym oraz w Stwórcę- Demiurga. Demiurg stworzył świat materialny i władać nim będzie aż do jego końca. Następnie władzę obejmie Istota Niebiańska. Nie oddawali czci Maryi, uznając że Chrystus przeszedł przez nią "jak przez kanał" a sama Maryja nie była dziewicą, współżyła z Józefem i z tego związku narodziły się dzieci. Nie uznawali również sakramentów, uważając że są one pustym rytuałem. Nie poważali również krzyża, w tym względzie byli zwolennikami doketyzmu, twierdzili że Chrystus zmarł na nim tylko pozornie. Odrzucali również Stary Testament a z Nowego uznawali Ewangelie, Listy Pawła, List Jakuba, Listy Jana i Judy. Mieli również czytać listy o Pawle napisane przez Sergiusza ale nie wiadomo czy nie jest to wtręt grecki gdyż ich istnienie jest niepotwierdzone. Nie uznawali hierarchii kościelnej i nie posiadali konsekrowanych świątyń. Wiązało się to z całkowitym odrzuceniem kultu ikon i relikwii. Twórcy źródeł pisali również o "przebiegłości" paulicjan przejawiającej się w tym iż wolno im było udawać ortodoksyjnych chrześcijan to znaczy na przykład przyjmować sakramenty czy też uczestniczyć w nabożeństwach, jeśli miało im to pomóc w zabezpieczeniu się przed prześladowaniami. Nie wiadomo jednak czy nie jest to wtręt mający przedstawić paulicjan w złym świetle, jako przewrotnych, nie szanujących zasad własnej wiary. +Do tego momentu źródła greckie pozostają w zasadzie zgodne ze sobą ale jeśli chodzi o kapłaństwo to nie jest to tak jasne. Część źródeł twierdzi że paulicjanie nie mieli księży tylko tak zwanych ministrów i notariuszy, którzy mieli się niczym nie różnić od ludzi świeckich. Z drugiej jednak strony obrzędy i inicjacje przy których nadawano imiona uczniów Pawła Apostoła wskazuje że istnieli jacyś liderzy duchowi, nauczyciele, wtajemniczeni w wyższe prawdy wiary. Tezę te potwierdza również opinia Sergiusza o sobie który głosił że jest Parakletem. Prawdopodobnie oznaczało to że osiągnął najwyższy stopień wtajemniczenia. +Tondrakici. +Kwestia utożsamienia tondrakitów z paulicjanami jest jedną z głównych osi sporu w sferze badań nad tym odłamem. Autorzy ormiańscy, którzy z racji tego że tondrakici działali na ich terenie, byli chyba najlepiej zorientowani w tych sprawach nie stosowali tych nazw zamiennie po za jednym przypadkiem na którym opiera się teorią identyfikująca obydwie grupy jako jedną. Grigor Magistros w swym liście do katolikosa Syrii napisał iż pod nazwą tondrakici ukrywają się tak naprawdę "paulicjanie, których zatruł Paweł z Samosaty". Przeciwnicy utożsamiania tondrakitów z paulicjanami uważają jednak, iż Grigor napisał tak aby katolikos, który bardzo dobrze znał paulicjan i potępiał ich jako heretyków, nie dał się zwieść opowieściami tondrakitów, szukającymi schronienia na terenie jego metropolii. Gdyby faktycznie nazwa "tondrakici" oznaczała to samo co "paulicjanie" fakt ten powinien, argumentują historycy, zostać bardziej podkreślony, odpowiednim opisem. +Po za tym jak okazuje się na podstawie analizy "Klucza do Prawdy", tondrakickiego teksu zawierającego główne prawdy ich wiary, sekta ta była raczej adopcjanistyczna a nie dualistyczna, jak utrzymuje większość ormiańskich autorów. Być może Grigor Magistros miał na ich temat inne zdanie i to właśnie miał na myśli pisząc że tondrakitów "zatruł Paweł z Samosaty", który faktycznie był zwolennikiem adopcjanizmu. Z racji tego że autorstwo, wiek i pochodzenie "Klucza do Prawdy" nie jest jasne, istnieje jednak możliwość iż była to księża ormiańskich adopcjanistów, później przejęta przez tondrakitów, którzy na jej podstawie zrewidowali założenia swojej wiary. Wiadomo też że tondrakici nie byli do końca spójnym ruchem, pojęcie mogło to obejmować także jakąś sektę uznającą założenia adopcjanizmu gdy tym czasem inne odłamy były zwolennikami dualizmu. Sprawa jest więc bardzo skomplikowana. +Autorzy ormiańscy dość szczegółowo opisywali sektę, tereny na których działała oraz imiona przywódców i nazwy te zupełnie nie pokrywają się, ze znanymi nam ze źródeł greckich, opisami paulicjan. Możliwe jest jednak że obydwie grupy na siebie wpływały, zwłaszcza że wiadomo na pewno że część azjatyckich paulicjan schroniło się wśród tondrakitów. Być może niektóre grupy tondrakitów przejęły część założeń i zwyczajów paulicjańskich. +Niemieckie nazwy polskich miejscowości + +Niemieckie nazwy miejscowości położonych obecnie na terenie Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, w brzmieniu administracyjnym przed 1945 rokiem. +Tasiemczyca + +Tasiemczyca, tenioza, cestodoza (łac. "taeniasis", "Taenia" – tasiemiec) – jest to pasożytnicze zakażenie przewodu pokarmowego przez tasiemca. Istnieje wiele gatunków tego pasożyta, w Polsce najczęściej spotyka się tasiemca nieuzbrojonego i uzbrojonego, rzadziej bruzdogłowca szerokiego. +Objawy. +Bruzdogłowiec szeroki charakteryzuje się dużym zapotrzebowaniem na witaminę B12, której niedobory w organizmie ludzkim mogą się objawić poważną anemią. +Gdy człowiek jest żywicielem pośrednim, np. tasiemca uzbrojonego ("Taenia solium"), skutki obecności larw w jego organizmie są poważniejsze. Wągry osadzające się w mięśniach powodują bóle i upośledzenie ich czynności. Mogą się także zagnieździć w innych narządach (mięśniu sercowym, wątrobie, płucach, a nawet siatkówce oka czy w mózgu)i spowodować ich uszkodzenie, a nawet śmierć chorego na tasiemczycę. Szczególnie niebezpieczny jest tu tasiemiec bąblowcowy. +Przyczyny. +Tasiemczyca jest chorobą odzwierzęcą. Do zakażenia dochodzi drogą pokarmową, poprzez spożycie mięsa zawierającego postacie przetrwalnikowe pasożyta, tak zwane wągry. Pośrednikami w rozwoju tasiemca są zwierzęta: bydło dla tasiemca nieuzbrojonego, świnie dla tasiemca uzbrojonego oraz ryby dla bruzdogłowca szerokiego. W jelicie człowieka wągry przekształcają się w postacie dojrzałe. Wydalane z kałem fragmenty ciała tasiemca (człony) zawierają jaja, którymi mogą zarazić się zwierzęta. Jeśli człowiek połknie jaja tasiemca, np. wraz z zanieczyszczoną kałem ludzkim wodą lub żywnością, sam stanie się żywicielem pośrednim. +Leczenie. +W leczeniu farmakologicznym tasiemczyc stosuje się prazykwantel, niclosamid, albendazol. +Zalecenia ogólne. +Leczenie prowadzi się w domu. Badanie kału powinno się wykonać również u członków rodziny chorego. +Dieta nie ma znaczenia. +Nie ma ograniczeń odnośnie aktywności fizycznej. +Leczenie farmakologiczne. +Preparaty stosowane w zakażeniu tasiemcem są bardzo skuteczne. W leczeniu stosuje się prazykwantel lub niklozamid. Lek przyjmuje się jednorazowo. +Po 3-6 tygodniach sprawdza się skuteczność leczenia badając kał. +W razie niepowodzenia kurację się powtarza. +Dolina Kołowa + +Dolina Kołowa (słow. "Kolová dolina", niem. "Pflockseetal", "Rundseetal", węg. "Karó-tavi-völgy", "Kerek-tavi-völgy") – odnoga Doliny Zadnich Koperszadów ("Zadné Meďodoly") w Tatrach Słowackich. Odchodzi od niej w kierunku południowo-wschodnim u jej wylotu do Doliny Jaworowej ("Javorová dolina"). W całości położona na terenie Słowacji ma długość ok. 2,5 km. Niedostępna dla turystów (znaczna jej część położona jest na obszarze ochrony ścisłej), widoczna z szlaku prowadzącego przez Zadnie Koperszady na Przełęcz pod Kopą ("Kopské sedlo"). +Topografia. +Górna część doliny podzielona jest na dwie części krótką Kołową Granią ("Kolový hrebeň") odchodzącą od Modrej Turni ("Zmrzlá veža", 2312 m). Część wschodnia to Bździochowe Korycisko ("Kotlinka pod Kolovým sedlom"), a zachodnia – Bździochowa Kotlina ("Kotlinka pod Bránami"). +Opis. +Dolina ma długość ponad 2 km. W jej dolnej części doliny rośnie gęsty las przechodzący wyżej w kosodrzewinę. W środkowej partii, na wysokości 1565 m n.p.m. położony jest największy w Dolinie Jaworowej Kołowy Staw ("Kolové pleso") o powierzchni ok. 1,7 ha. Od nazwy tego stawu pochodzi nazwa doliny. Wypływa z niego Kołowy Potok ("Kolový potok") wpadający do Koperszadzkiego Potoku ("Meďodolský potok"). W Dolinie Kołowej znajduje się około 30 jaskiń. +Dolina była wypasana od XVI wieku przez mieszkańców wsi: Jurgów, Czarna Góra i Lendak, przetrząsali ją też poszukiwacze skarbów. Były tutaj również kopalnie rud miedzi i srebra istniejące jeszcze do połowy XIX wieku. W 1751 r. dolina była zwiedzana przez cesarską komisję badającą Tatry (był w niej Jakob Buchholtz), od połowy XIX wieku zaczęli (rzadko) odwiedzać dolinę turyści podążający tędy na Jagnięcy Szczyt i Kołową Przełęcz. W zimie jako pierwszy w Dolinie Kołowej był Stanisław Hiszpański 2 kwietnia 1928 r. Całą dolinę wraz z Bździochowym Koryciskiem przeszedł Stanisław Krystyn Zaremba 9 kwietnia 1934 r. +Maronici + +Maronici – chrześcijańska ludność z Bliskiego Wschodu zamieszkująca pierwotnie na terenie Syrii i Libanu. Maronici są w przeważającej mierze wschodnimi katolikami, członkami Kościoła maronickiego. +Do lat 70. XX wieku maronici mieszkali głównie na terenie Libanu i stanowili około 30% ludności tego kraju. Zamieszkiwali północne i centralne regiony w paśmie górskim Libanu i we wschodniej części Bejrutu. Od 1926 r. maronicka nacja odgrywa ważną rolę w życiu politycznym Republiki Libanu. Na mocy niepisanej umowy pomiędzy libańskimi grupami religijnymi z tej społeczności wybierany jest prezydent państwa. +Istnieje również liczna diaspora maronicka poza Libanem. Duże skupiska maronitów znajdują się na Cyprze, w Izraelu, w Meksyku, w Stanach Zjednoczonych Ameryki. +Flawiusz Silwa + +Lucjusz Flawiusz Silwa, jego pełne nazwisko (według jednego napisu CIL 10, 243) brzmiało: "Lucius Flavius Silva Nonius Bassus". Rzymski namiestnik Judei w latach 73 (lub 74) - 81 n.e. Wcześniej, od 72 r. n.e. dowodził oblężeniem cytadeli Masada, stanowiącej ostatni punkt oporu po upadku Jerozolimy. Dowodził wojskiem liczącym 5 tys. żołnierzy rzymskich, 9 tys. niewolników i jeńców wojennych przeciwko około 1000 obrońcom cytadeli (w tym kobiet i dzieci). Do zdobycia twierdzy przyczyniły się zastosowane przez niego rozwiązania inżynieryjne: mur, uniemożliwiający ucieczkę z twierdzy, a następnie rampa (zachowana do dzisiaj), która umożliwiła machinom i wojsku dojście do murów twierdzy i dokonanie wyłomu. Wcześniej jednak niemal wszyscy obrońcy popełnili samobójstwo. W 81 sprawował urząd konsula (drugim był Asinius Pollio Verrucosus). +BitComet + +BitComet – program komputerowy do wymiany plików w sieci peer to peer BitTorrent. +Napisany w całości w C++, oferuje dużą szybkość działania i nie obciąża nadmiernie zasobów komputera. Nie zawiera reklam ani oprogramowania szpiegującego, jest bezpłatny. Do wyboru jest wiele wersji językowych programu, w tym polska. +Zwalczanie BitComet. +Wprowadzenie DHT w wersji 0.59 zmniejszyło sens istnienia prywatnych trackerów. +DHT pozwalała ściągać pliki pomiędzy użytkownikami BitComet, jeżeli +Spowodowało to oburzenie ze strony posiadaczy prywatnych trackerów. Większość prywatnych trackerów utrzymuje się z opłat za rejestrację nowych użytkowników, datków od użytkowników, lub reklam. Dzięki opcji DHT można było używać identycznych plików torrent ściągniętych z publicznych stron WWW bez żadnej rejestracji, ani innych restrykcji w ściąganiu plików wprowadzonych przez właścicieli prywatnych trackerów. +Żeby temu zapobiec administratorzy prywatnych trackerów zaczęli blokować użytkowników BitComet. W wersji 0.61 zmieniono działanie programu w ten sposób, że jeżeli BitComet wykryje, że torrent jest prywatny to nie będzie używał dla niego sieci DHT. Mimo tej zmiany klient jest wciąż blokowany na wielu trackerach. +Krytyka programu. +Pomimo wielu użytkowników, starsze wersje BitComet spotykają się z krytyką właścicieli prywatnych trackerów. +Sieć bittorent opiera się na wzajemnej wymianie, nie na oszustwach. BitComet zaś często prowadzi nieuczciwą grę. W wersji 0.60 był problem zwany "The DHT exploit", przez co BitComet jest blokowany przez inny program kliencki – bittornado, o czym zdecydował jego twórca John Hoffman. +Innym powodem, dla którego administratorzy trackerów często blokują BitComet, jest jego tzw. agresywność. Chodzi o fakt zbyt częstego wysyłania zapytań do trackera (4-5 razy częściej w porównaniu z innymi klientami BitTorrent), co sprawia, że użytkownicy BitComet szybciej łączą się z osobami udostępniającymi dany torrent, kosztem innych użytkowników, jak również przeciążają łącze serwera. +Trackery, na których BitComet jest zablokowany, zazwyczaj blokują też inne podobnie agresywne aplikacje klienckie BitTorrent, na przykład BitSpirit. +Bruce Boa + +Bruce Boa (ur. 1930 w Calgary, zm. 17 kwietnia 2004 w Londynie) – aktor angielski, pochodzenia kanadyjskiego. +Bogwiedz + +Bogwiedz, "Bogowied" — staropolskie imię męskie złożone z członów "Bog-" ("Bóg", ale pierwotnie "los, dola, szczęście") i "-wied" ("wiedzieć"). Pierwotna forma tego imienia najprawdopodobniej brzmi Bogowied, Bogwied, zaś forma Bogwiedz jest zapisem imienia zdrobniałego, uformowanego przy użyciu przyrostka "-jь", pod wpływem którego wygłosowe "-d" z początkowego "*Bogowied" przeszło w "-dz". Imię to mogło oznaczać "ten, który zna Boga" albo "ten, który zna los, zna przyszłość". +Wieliczki + +Wieliczki (niem. "Wielitzken") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim, w powiecie oleckim, w gminie Wieliczki. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa suwalskiego. +Miejscowość jest siedzibą gminy Wieliczki. +Historia. +Wieliczki istniały już w roku 1540. Była to wieś czynszowa, założona na 40 włókach na prawie chełmińskim. Parafia Wieliczki powstała około 1552 roku. Wkrótce założono też we wsi szkołę parafialną. W 1600 roku w Wieliczkach mieszkała wyłącznie ludność polskiego pochodzenia. Jeszcze w roku 1833 do szkół na terenie parafii uczęszczało 613 dzieci polskich i 23 narodowości niemieckiej. Wśród tych pierwszych znajdował się Krystyn Lach z Wojnasów, późniejszy pisarz i filozof, który na przełomie XVIII i XIX wieku uczył się w szkołach w Wojnasach i Wieliczkach. W 1938 roku Wieliczki liczyły 616 mieszkańców i otrzymały w ramach akcji germanizacyjnej niemiecką nazwę "Wallenrode". +Oświetlenie sztuczne + +Sztuczne oświetlenie jest wynikiem dążenia ludzi do uniezależnienia się od ograniczeń narzucanych im przez naturę. Chcąc przedłużyć swoją działalność na godziny wieczorne i nocne, a także rozszerzyć ją na obszar zamkniętych pomieszczeń pozbawionych okien, zaczęto posługiwać się różnymi dostępnymi źródłami światła. +Chronologia. +Należy spodziewać się, iż w niedalekiej przyszłości duże znaczenie uzyskają, ze względu na dużą sprawność i trwałość, źródła światła wykorzystujące diody elektroluminescencyjne (LED, a także OLED oparte na związkach organicznych). +Rafinacja + +Rafinacja – oczyszczanie substancji (np. tłuszczów, benzyn) w celu nadania im odpowiednich właściwości, np. pozbawienia zabarwienia, poprawienia zapachu, zwiększenia trwałości. Rafinacja może odbyć się za pomocą metod fizycznych (destylacja, ekstrakcja) lub chemicznych (działanie kwasami, zasadami) +Akaba + +Akaba (arab. العقبة, al-ʿAqabah; hebr. עקבה) – miasto w południowo-zachodniej Jordanii, stolica muhafazy Akaba, nad Zatoką Akaba (Morze Czerwone), będące jedynym portem morskim kraju (jedynie 27 km linii brzegowej). Miasto ma port rybacki, lotnisko, połączenie drogowe i kolejowe z Ammanem oraz drogowe z Medyną (Arabia Saudyjska). Przez port wywozi się fosforyty, jest strefa wolnocłowa, przemysł chemiczny to gł. produkcja nawozów fosforowych. Znajduje się tutaj ośrodek sportów wodnych oraz akwarium morskie. +Klimat. +Suchy kontynentalno-tropkalny. Lato jest gorące i wietrzne temperatura powyżej 30 °C; zima jest ciepła temperatura ok. 20 °C. +Transport. +Miasto posiada z Tabą, Nuwajbi i Szarm el-Szejk połączenia promowe, dzięki którym podróżując z Jordanii do Egiptu można ominąć Izrael. +Oświetlenie + +Zobacz też: natężenie oświetlenia +Unisław + +Zobacz też: Unisław Śląski +Kuna (waluta) + +Kuna – waluta Chorwacji. Obowiązywała w Niezależnym Państwie Chorwackim w czasie II wojny światowej (1941-1945). Została ponownie wprowadzona w 1994 r. jako waluta Republiki Chorwackiej. Dzieli się na 100 lip. +Pochodzenie i znaczenie nazwy. +Słowa "kuna" i "lipa" mają w językach chorwackim i polskim takie samo znaczenie. Nazwa waluty nawiązuje do okresu średniowiecza, kiedy na terenie Chorwacji skóry kun stosowane były w handlu jako jednostka wartości. +Niekiedy słowo "kuna" błędnie łączone jest z "koroną" – nazwą waluty m.in. Czech. +Historia. +Pierwsza kuna, 1941-1945. +Kuna została wprowadzona po utworzeniu w czasie II wojny światowej Niezależnego Państwa Chorwackiego. Jedna kuna dzieliła się na 100 banic i zastępowała jugosłowiańskiego dinara wg równego parytetu. Po upadku NPCh i odtworzeniu Jugosławii ponownie wprowadzono dinara, tym razem wg parytetu 1 dinar = 40 kuna. +Druga kuna, od 1994. +Kuna została ponownie wprowadzona w czerwcu 1994 po okresie przejściowym 1991-1994, kiedy na miejscu jugosłowiańskiego dinara obowiązywał dinar chorwacki. Kurs wymiany dinara na kunę wynosił 1000 do 1. +Wybór nazwy "kuna" wiązał się z licznymi kontrowersjami. Wynikały one z historii waluty, która poprzednio obowiązywała w NPCh. Chorwacki rząd bronił swojego wyboru, zwracając uwagę na historyczne nawiązanie do handlu skórami kun, podczas gdy przeciwnicy nazwy podkreślali, że sugeruje ona ciągłość pomiędzy wojennym reżimem i odtworzonym demokratycznym państwem chorwackim. +Jako alternatywę proponowano nazwę "kruna" (korona), nawiązującą do korony austro-węgierskiej. Propozycję odrzucono, ponieważ także sugerowała ciągłość z NPCh. Nowa waluta dzielić się miała na 100 banic, lecz ostatecznie kuna dzieli się na 100 lip. Banknoty są dość podobne do marki niemieckiej. +Kuna jest emitowana przez Narodowy Bank Chorwacji. Monety są bite w Chorwackim Instytucie Monetarnym. +Monety i banknoty w obiegu. + +Aktualny kurs wymiany. +AUD|CHF| +EUR| +GBP| +JPY| +USD| +PLN +APIC + +APIC (ang. "Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller" - zaawansowany programowalny kontroler przerwań) – układ umożliwiający działanie przerwań sprzętowych w komputerowych systemach wieloprocesorowych wyprodukowany przez firmę Intel. Został zaimplementowany w układzie Intel 82093AA, który jest montowany na wszystkich wieloprocesorowych płytach głównych tej firmy. +APIC jest układem rozproszonym: I/O APIC wchodzi w skład chipsetu, local APIC znajduje się wewnątrz obudowy procesora (w przypadku, gdy procesorów jest kilka, każdy posiada "swój" local APIC). Oba komunikują się ze sobą poprzez linie ICC. Głównym zadaniem APIC jest obsługa przerwań sprzętowych. Docierające poprzez linie IRQ ("Interrupt ReQuest") przerwanie jest rejestrowane przez I/O APIC, które następnie informuje o tym local APIC. +Dolina Zadnich Koperszadów + +Dolina Zadnich Koperszadów, Zadnie Koperszady (Koperszady Polskie; słow. "Zadné Meďodoly", dawniej "Zadné Koperšády", niem. "Hintere Kupferschächte", węg. "Hátsó-Rézaknák") – największe wschodnie odgałęzienie tatrzańskiej Doliny Jaworowej ("Javorová dolina"). Położona jest na terenie Słowacji pomiędzy Tatrami Wysokimi a Tatrami Bielskimi. +Topografia. +Dolina ciągnie się początkowo w kierunku południowo-wschodnim, a dalej wschodnim, wznosząc się pod Przełęcz pod Kopą ("Kopské sedlo"). Dolinę Zadnich Koperszadów od północy zamyka grań Tatr Bielskich od Szalonego Wierchu przez Płaczliwą Skałę po Hawrań, a następnie Stefanowy Dział ("Štefanov diel"), opadający na południowy zachód z Niżniego Hawraniego Zwornika. Od wschodu graniczy z Doliną Przednich Koperszadów ("Predné Meďodoly"), a od południowego wschodu z Doliną Białych Stawów ("dolina Bielych plies"), rozdziela je główna grań Tatr od Szalonego Wierchu przez Przełęcz pod Kopą i Koperszadzką Grań po Jagnięcy Szczyt. Od południowego zachodu oddzielona jest od Doliny Kołowej Jagnięcą Granią ("hrebeň Jahnencov") odchodzącą od Jagnięcego Szczytu. +Opis doliny. +Dolina ma długość ok. 5,5 km i powierzchnię 6,5 km². Była pokryta lodem w czasie ostatniego zlodowacona, główny zbiornik lodu znajdował się w Jagnięcym Kotle. W dolnej jej części rośnie gęsty las, a dnem doliny płynie Koperszadzki Potok ("Meďodolský potok"), zasilany licznymi dopływami, z których największy to Kołowy Potok ("Kolový potok"). Jedynymi jeziorkami w dolinie (poza Kołowym Stawem w Dolinie Kołowej) są dwa Płaczliwe Stawki i dwa Koperszadzkie Stawki. Wszystkie cztery są bardzo niewielkich rozmiarów. U swojego ujścia do Doliny Jaworowej Dolina Zadnich Koperszadów ścieśnia się na krótkim odcinku w wapienny wąwóz, zwany Bramką ("Bránka"). +Powyżej Hawraniego Działu dno doliny i jej zbocza zajmują dwie duże hale, które dawniej były jednym z większych ośrodków pasterskich. Wypasała tutaj miejscowość Biała Spiska. Gleba jest tutaj bardzo żyzna, jak na tatrzańskie warunki, a porost trawy bardzo dobry. Początkowo wypasano tylko woły (ok. 1900 r. 400 sztuk), później również owce (w 1926 r. 2600 sztuk). Feliks Berdau w 1855 r. pisał: ""Wegetacja na tych ogromnych łąkach tak bujna, że trawa prawie po pas, a tysiące wołów węgierskich wypasa się corocznie tamże"". Sąsiedzi zazdrościli mieszkańcom Białej Spiskiej tych hal, zachowały się informacje o napadach na ich trzody i szałasy w latach 1562, 1578 i 1596 przez poddanych zamku w Niedzicy (do niego należały tereny poniżej własności bielskich) i mieszkańców Frankowej. Po zniesieniu pasterstwa hale te zarastają stopniowo lasem. +Naukowcy turyści bywali w Dolinie Zadnich Koperszadów od dawna. W 1751 r. dotarła tu z Jakobem Buchholtzem cesarska komisja naukowa, później dolinę odwiedzili m.in. brat Cyprian z Czerwonego Klasztoru (1766–1768) i Stanisław Staszic (1805). Zimą jako pierwsi dolinę przeszli Theodor Wundt i Jakob Horvay 16 kwietnia 1884 r. +Nazewnictwo. +Według "Wielkiej encyklopedii tatrzańskiej" nazwa "Koperszady" jest związana z prowadzonym na obszarze doliny kopalnictwem rud miedzi. Zajęciem tym w XVIII wieku, a być może również wcześniej, zajmowali się niemieccy górnicy ze Spisza. Teren ten nazywano po niemiecku: "Kupferschächte" (szyby miedzi). Z tego powstały polskie "Koperszady" i słowackie "Koperšády" (obecnie "Meďodoly"). Nazwa jest bardzo stara; znana jest od 1435 jako "Kompenschecht", w latach 1589-1595 jako "Kumperszachty". Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski (1894) twierdzi, że nazwa pochodzi od niemieckiego słowa "Koperschächte", czyli szyby pod Kopą. +Szlaki turystyczne. +Chociaż dolina położona jest na obszarze ochrony ścisłej, przebiega przez nią szlak turystyczny na Przełęcz pod Kopą, zatem na tej drodze jest dostępna dla turystów. +Zatoka Akaba + +Zatoka Akaba (Zatoka Eilat; hebr. מפרץ אילת, "Mifrac eilat" ; arab. خليج العقبة, "Khalīj al-'Aqabah") – zatoka w północnej części Morza Czerwonego (oddzielona od reszty morza przez Cieśninę Tirańską), pomiędzy półwyspami Arabskim a Synaj. Przebiega tędy rów tektoniczny Abisyński. +Zatoka ma długość 180 km, szerokość od 12 do 28 km i głębokość dochodzącą do 1 829 metrów. Zasolenie wód zatoki waha się pomiędzy 40-41‰, a temperatury 18-24 °C w zimie, natomiast w lecie dochodzi do 30 °C. +Wybrzeża Zatoki Akaba – Zatoka Eilat należą do Izraela, Jordanii, Egiptu i Arabii Saudyjskiej. Główne porty leżące nad zatoką to Akaba oraz Ejlat. +Kedyw (wojsko) + +Kedyw (Kierownictwo Dywersji Komendy Głównej Armii Krajowej) – wydzielony pion organizacyjny Armii Krajowej. +Formowanie Kedywu. +Rozkaz nr 84 Dowódcy Armii Krajowej gen. Stefana Roweckiego "Grota", wydany 22 stycznia 1943 noszący nazwę "Uporządkowanie odcinka walki czynnej", miał za zadanie stworzenie podstawy formalnej dla nowej organizacji organów kierujących walką bieżącą i realizujących ją. Postanowiono połączyć dotychczasowe wysiłki Związku Odwetu i Wachlarza i wzmocnienie ich osobami dotychczas nie biorącymi udziału w walce czynnej. +Rozkaz 84 nakazywał zorganizowanie tak w KG, jak w komendach Obszarów i Okręgów "komórek sztabowych" o nazwie "Kedyw" (Kierownictwo Dywersji). Zwracano przy tym uwagę na dyspozycyjność podległych tym komórkom oddziałów, oraz polecano stworzenie dla nich odrębnej sieci szybkiej łączności z komendantami Okręgów i Obszarów. +Organizację Kedywu rozpoczęto jednak wcześniej: na naradach i odprawach przeprowadzonych w listopadzie 1942. Pierwszą akcją wykonaną przez patrole saperskie Kedywu KG było uderzenie w transport kolejowy ("Odwet za Zamojszczyznę") wykonane w noc sylwestrową z 31 grudnia 1942 na 1 stycznia 1943. +Podporządkowanie. +Ten sam rozkaz nakazywał oddanie wszystkich oddziałów sabotażowo-dywersyjnych działających w Okręgach pod bezpośrednie rozkazy komendantów Okręgów, w których również powstawać zaczęły oddziały Kedywu Okręgów. Nie dotyczyło to jedynie Kedywu KG. Z chwilą "zmontowania" Kedywu swoją odrębność organizacyjną stracić miały Związek Odwetu i Wachlarz. Planowano włączenie do Kedywu tych grup bojowych, które działały już w ramach mniejszych oddziałów organizacji. +Ze Związku Odwetu Kedyw KG wchłonął działające tam od listopada 1942 Grupy Szturmowe "GS" Szarych Szeregów. +W marcu 1943 nastąpiło scalenie z dowodzoną przez ppłk Jana Mazurkiewicza ps. "Radosław" Tajną Organizacja Wojskową. Dowództwo objął płk August Emil Fieldorf ps. "Nil", a po 1 lutego 1944 roku, po odejściu płk Fieldorfa - ppłk Jan Mazurkiewicz ps. "Radosław". +Oddziały Kedywu zapisały swoją bohaterską kartę w czasie powstania warszawskiego walcząc w ramach zgrupowania Radosław. +Bibliografia. +Erdman J., Armia Krajowa. Rozwój organizacyjny, Warszawa 1996 +Szczesniak A.L., Kedyw, Encyklopedia Białych Plam T. IX +IronPython + +IronPython – dynamiczny język programowania napisany w języku C# i stworzony na platformie programistycznej .NET Framework 2.0. Jest to pełnoprawna implementacja języka Python stworzona na bazie specyfikacji Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) i wykonywana pod kontrolą środowiska uruchomieniowego Common Language Runtime (CLR). Jego twórcą jest Jim Hugunin, który jest również twórcą implementacji Jython, napisanej w języku Java i uruchamianej pod kontrolą maszyny wirtualnej Javy. +Do najważniejszych cech implementacji IronPython należy zaliczyć jej pełną integrację z platformą .NET Framework, co wiąże się z możliwością wykorzystania olbrzymiej ilości standardowych i zewnętrznych bibliotek stworzonych dla tej platformy, przy zachowaniu pełnej zgodności z samym językiem Python. Implementacja ta odznacza się dodatkowo doskonałą wydajnością oraz posiada zaimplementowaną w kodzie zarządzanym większą część bibliotek standardowych dostarczanych wraz z językiem Python. IronPython posiada również wsparcie we flagowym środowisku programistycznym firmy Microsoft, czyli Visual Studio. Implementację IronPython można wykorzystywać również, tworząc rozwiązania w technologii internetowej Silverlight. +Rozwój implementacji IronPython przyczynił się do powstania uniwersalnego środowiska uruchomieniowego dla dynamicznych języków programowania o nazwie Dynamic Language Runtime (DLR), który stał się zarówno integralną częścią platformy .NET Framework 4.0, jak i samodzielnym, otwartym dla społeczności, projektem typu Open Source. Innym znanym projektem stworzonym na bazie środowiska DLR jest IronRuby, będący implementacja języka Ruby. +IronPython – przykłady integracji z platformą .NET Framework. +Poniższe przykłady ilustruję specyficzne dla implementacji IronPython przykłady użycia języka. +Rozszerzanie funkcjonalności języka. +W implementacji IronPython, własne metody, klasy, czy komponenty tworzy się tak samo łatwo jak w każdym innym, wspieranym przez tę platformę, języku programowania. Innymi słowy, każdy komponent stworzony np. w języku C# da się wykorzystać z poziomu języka IronPython bez najmniejszego problemu, a w dodatku bez żadnych dodatkowych warstw pośredniczących, czy konwersji typów danych, co ma bardzo pozytywny wpływ na wydajność i łatwość ich tworzenia. +using System; +namespace CSharpLib + +import clr +clr.AddReference("CSharpLib.dll") +from CSharpLib import SampleClass +sc = SampleClass() +print sc.SayHello("IronPython") + +Wykorzystanie bibliotek standardowych platformy .NET. +IronPython umożliwia łatwe wykorzystanie bibliotek standardowych dostarczanych wraz z platformą programistyczną .NET Framework. +import clr +clr.AddReference('System.Windows.Forms') +from System.Windows.Forms import (Application, Form) +form = Form( Text = 'Hello, Windows Forms!' ) +Application.Run(form) + +Osadzanie języka IronPython. +Implementacja IronPython dostarcza również wiele mechanizmów umożliwiających osadzanie i wykonywanie tego języka we własnych programach i aplikacjach. +using IronPython.Hosting; +namespace PythonHostingSamples + +Elektroniczne nieposłuszeństwo obywatelskie + +Elektroniczne nieposłuszeństwo obywatelskie (ang. "electronic civil disobedience", ECD) - dowolny typ obywatelskiego nieposłuszeństwa wykorzystujący techniki informatyczne dla przeprowadzenia akcji. W praktyce chodzi tu głównie o wykorzystanie Internetu. ECD jest współczesną formą obywatelskiego nieposłuszeństwa, którego pionierem był żyjący w XIX w. amerykański pisarz i filozof Henry David Thoreau, autor programowego eseju "Walden; or, Life in the Woods". +Elektroniczne nieposłuszeństwo obywatelskie jest wykorzystywane zarówno w akcjach politycznej i społecznej natury, jak i w akcjach skierowanych przeciwko konkretnym podmiotom – przykładem były ataki skierowane przeciwko firmom komputerowym uznanym w pewnych środowiskach za szkodzące rozwojowi informatyki (np. znana sprawa własności fragmentów kodu w systemie operacyjnym Linux). Generalnie specyfika ECD polega na tym, że angażuje znaczną liczbę osób, które wykonują formalnie zgodne z prawem czynności (np. wielokrotne wczytywanie stron internetowych), ale suma tych czynności jest niszcząca dla atakowanego serwera. +Snowid + +Snowid - staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Sno-" ("sen") i "-wid" ("widzieć"). Może więc oznaczać "tego, który widzi sny". +Grodzisko + +Grodzisko Dolne, Grodzisko Górne, Grodzisko Nowe +Szary Wtorek + +Szary Wtorek (ang. "Grey Tuesday") - akcja w ramach tzw. Elektronicznego nieposłuszeństwa obywatelskiego, która miała miejsce 24 lutego 2004 r. Protestujący naruszali świadomie prawa wytwórni muzycznej EMI do płyty "The White Album", dystrybuując masowo pliki MP3 z utworami-przeróbkami pochodzącymi z albumu "The Grey Album", usiłując zwrócić uwagę na problem reformy prawa autorskiego oraz ideały przyświecające przeciwnikom takich praw. +Akcja była prowadzona przez organizację non-profit Downhill Battle, która postawiła sobie za cel walkę z monopolami na rynku muzycznym – 170 serwerów oferowało przez 24 godziny zawartość albumu, który stał się dzięki temu najpopularniejszym albumem muzycznym w USA. +Richard Kuhn + +Richard Kuhn (ur. 3 grudnia 1900 w Wiedniu, Austria, zm. 1 sierpnia 1967 w Heidelbergu, Niemcy) – biochemik niemiecki, laureat Nagrody Nobla z chemii w 1938 roku. +Był profesorem politechniki w Zurychu (1926), następnie uniwersytetu w Heidelbergu (1929). Zajmował się badaniem karotenów, enzymów i witamin. +W 1938 roku otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla za prace nad karotenoidami i witaminami. +Papier-mâché + +Papier-mâché (z fr.) – dająca się formować, twardniejąca po wysuszeniu masa z rozdrobnionego i rozmiękczonego w wodzie papieru (makulatury) z dodatkiem substancji wiążących: kleju, gipsu oraz uszlachetniających: kredy, barwników i konserwujących. Masę nakłada się niezbyt grubą warstwą na uprzednio przygotowaną formę i pozostawia do wyschnięcia. +Wykorzystywana (najczęściej w teatrze) do wykonywania elementów dekoracyjnych, masek oraz w lalkarstwie (zobacz: pacynka). +Od 1925 ogromne kukły z papier-mâché są ozdobą karnawału w Viareggio. +Dzirżyterg + +Dzirżyterg – staropolskie imię męskie, pojedynczo poświadczone na Śląsku, złożone z członów "Dzirży-" ("trzymać") i "-terg" o nieznanym pochodzeniu (może przekształcenie członu "-tęg" – "mocny" albo "-targ"). +Dzirżyterg imieniny obchodzi 16 marca. +Tęgomir + +Tęgomir – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Tęgo-" ("mocny") "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Może zatem oznaczać "trwały, stabilny pokój". +Tęgomir imieniny obchodzi 25 listopada. Imię to nosił książę Stodoran, Tęgomir. +Atak statystyczny + +Inne metody mogą polegać na poszukiwaniu takich statystycznych własności tekstu jawnego, które pomimo zastosowania algorytmu szyfrowania ukrywającego częstości znaków tekstu jawnego nadal są możliwe do odtworzenia na podstawie szyfrogramu (porównaj: test kappa, mutual information, entropia) +Kryptoanaliza statystyczna. +Zbiór metod kryptoanalitycznych opierających się na fakcie nierównomiernego występowania poszczególnych liter i sylab w językach naturalnych. Powoduje to również nierównomierny rozkład liter i zlepków literowych w tekście zaszyfrowanym. +Na ataki z tej grupy podatne są szczególnie szyfry podstawieniowe. +Obecnie historyczna wersja kryptoanalizy statystycznej ma marginalne znaczenie ze względu na praktyczne wycofanie z użycia szyfrów podatnych na łamanie tymi metodami. Jednak metody statystyczne w kryptoanalizie przeżywają swój renesans ze względu na znaczne ilości informacji, jakie są szyfrowane współcześnie. Daje to olbrzymie próbki statystyczne umożliwiające ataki kryptoanalityczne, co nie byłoby możliwe w wypadku szyfrogramów składających się jedynie z kilkuset znaków. +Typowymi przykładami są: analiza entropii, analiza współinformacji (mutual information), poszukiwanie kolizji. Kryptoanaliza statystyczna jest obecnie podstawowym narzędziem służącym sprawdzaniu jakości algorytmów szyfrujących. +Atak kryptologiczny + +Atak kryptologiczny – próba odczytania informacji zaszyfrowanej bez znajomości pełnego zespołu potrzebnych do tego informacji, inna próba wrogiego wykorzystania protokołu krytpograficznego celem uzyskania informacji, do których nie jest się autoryzowanym, lub innego oszustwa, jak np. możliwości cyfrowego podpisania się z fałszywą tożsamością itp. +Skuteczny atak na jakikolwiek szyfr zwykle wykorzystuje techniki należące do wielu rodzajów ataków. I tak startując od przechwyconego szyfrogramu oceniamy w pierwszej kolejności możliwe algorytmy szyfrowania, które posłużyły do wygenerowania kryptu. Jednocześnie zwykle prowadzimy dalszy nasłuch, tak aby uzyskać większa ilość informacji, w tym szyfrogramów (ale nie tylko, istotne mogą być także inne informacje, ich określeniem zajmuje się sztuka inwigilacji). Tym samym z kategorii pierwszej przesuwamy się przez drugą do trzeciej, a czasem do czwartej. Czasami możliwe jest nakłonienie osoby do przesłania pewnej informacji w sposób zaszyfrowany, co powoduje, że możemy zastosować metody z kategorii piątej. +Warto pamiętać, że znane są przypadki złamania nawet "absolutnie bezpiecznych" kryptosystemów, jak np. projekt Venona, w którym dzięki błędowi człowieka złamano rzekomo absolutnie bezpieczny szyfr, tzw. one time pad. +Antauro Humala + +Antauro Humala - peruwiański działacz nacjonalistyczny, wojskowy (major). +W październiku 2000 wraz z bratem Ollantą był liderem nieudanej próby przewrotu wojskowego, mającego na celu obalenie prezydenta Alberto Fujimori. Bracia, kierujący ruchem "Movimiento Etnocacerista", nie ponieśli większych konsekwencji, ponieważ wkrótce Fujimori został zmuszony do ustąpienia. +1 stycznia 2005 Humala na czele popierających go żołnierzy, których liczbę szacowano rozmaicie - od 70 do 300, zajął posterunek policji w miejscowości Andahualyas (Apurimac). W czasie walk śmierć poniosło 4 policjantów i jeden z ludzi Humali. Buntownicy wzięli dziesięciu policjantów jako zakładników i zażądali dymisji prezydenta Alejandro Toledo, którego Humala oskarżył o korupcję i nielegalne powiązania z firmami zagranicznymi, szczególnie chilijskimi. +4 stycznia 2005 Antauro Humala został aresztowany w trakcie negocjacji warunków poddania. +Dobiemiest + +Dobiemiest — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Dobie-" ("stosowny, zdatny" albo "waleczny, dzielny") i "-miest" ("mścić", jak w imieniu Mścisław, lub być może "miotać" jak w imieniu Miecisław). Imię to mogło oznaczać "ten, kto dzielnie się mści", "ten, kto celnie miota" lub in. Możliwe staropolskie zdrobnienia: Doba (masc.), Dobak, Dobal, Dobczyk, Dobek, Dobiec, Dobiesza (masc.), Dobieszek, Dobieszka (masc.), Dobieszko, Dobinka (masc.), Dobisz, Dobk, Dobka, Dob, Dobusz, Doch, Dochel (?), Dosz, Doszek, Doszko. +Dobiemiest imieniny obchodzi 26 listopada. +Reakcja egzotermiczna + +Reakcja egzotermiczna − reakcja chemiczna, która ma dodatni bilans wymiany ciepła z otoczeniem. Można też powiedzieć, że jest to reakcja, w której ciepło znajduje się po stronie produktów, albo inaczej która emituje ciepło. +Reakcje egzotermiczne, wbrew rozpowszechnionych poglądom, często nie wymagają chłodzenia do ich zachodzenia. Bardzo często, mimo że same w sobie są egzotermiczne, ich podgrzewanie często je jednak przyspiesza. Reakcjom, samym w sobie egzotermicznym mogą towarzyszyć inne przemiany (np. zmiany entropii układu, albo endotermiczne procesy rozpuszczania), które powodują, że bilans wymiany ciepła z otoczeniem procesu rozpatrywanego jako całość może być mimo wszystko ujemny. +Warto też zauważyć, że w konwencji termodynamicznej, w której bilans ciepła rozpatruje się tradycyjnie nie od strony otoczenia tylko od strony samego układu, reakcje egzotermiczne mają ujemny wynik cieplny, gdyż emitują ciepło, czyli tracą energię, a zatem całkowita energia wewnętrzna układu maleje. +Odwrotnością reakcji egzotermicznej jest reakcja endotermiczna. +Zamek w Łańcucie + +Zamek w Łańcucie, Zamek Lubomirskich i Potockich w Łańcucie – dawna rezydencja magnacka w Łańcucie. +Dzieje zamku. +Pierwotna rezydencja w postaci wieży obronnej znajdująca się na terenie istniejącego dziś założenia, zbudowana została prawdopodobnie przez ród Pileckich i jest datowana na 2 poł. XVI wieku. Zamek około 1610 roku został rozbudowany przez Stadnickich i jego plan przybrał kształt podkowy. Najpoważniejsza rozbudowa wg projektu którego autorem był Maciej Trapola nastąpiła w latach 1629-1641 gdy jego właścicielem był wojewoda Stanisław Lubomirski. Stąd często stosowana nazwa "Zamek Lubomirskich w Łańcucie". Zamek został wtedy otoczony potężnymi fortyfikacjami bastionowymi, które uchroniły zamek przed zdobyciem przez Szwedów w 1655 i Węgrów w 1657 roku. W roku 1745 właścicielem zamku w Łańcucie został marszałek wielki koronny Stanisław Lubomirski, którego żoną była Izabela Lubomirska z Czartoryskich (powszechnie nazywana "księżną marszałkową"). Po śmierci Stanisława Lubomirskiego pełne władanie nad zamkiem uzyskała jego żona, która po 1783 roku tereny fortyfikacji ziemnych zamieniła na ogrody. Po jej śmierci w roku 1816 Łańcut przeszedł w ręce jej wnuków Alfreda i Artura Potockich. W roku 1830 Łańcut stał się ordynacją z Alfredem Potockim jako pierwszym ordynatem. Artur Potocki otrzymał Krzeszowice. +Potoccy w czasie II wojny światowej nie byli prześladowani przez Niemców, a w zamku mieścił się sztab Wehrmachtu. Przed wkroczeniem Armii Czerwonej 1 sierpnia 1944 roku, Alfredowi Potockiemu udało się uciec na Zachód, bardzo wiele dóbr zamkowych za pozwoleniem Niemców wywieźć. W czasie działań wojennych II wojny światowej zamek nie ucierpiał. +Zamek został przejęty przez władze Polski Ludowej i zamieniony w muzeum. Dział Edukacji Muzealnej prowadzi zajęcia warsztatowe w oparciu o zbiory muzeum dla szkół podstawowych, gimnazjów i szkół średnich. Można tu zamówić lekcje m.in. na tematy biblijne i mitologiczne w malarstwie, judaizm – religia i sztuka, obyczaje i zwyczaje w dawnej Polsce, teatr dworski i tradycje żywych obrazów. Co do ostatniego tematu to służą mu m.in. oryginalne dekoracje teatralne i scenograficzne projekty z przełomu XIX i XX w., unikatowe w skali polskiej. +W nawiązaniu do tradycji zapoczątkowanych przez księżnę Izabelę Lubomirską zamek prowadzi ożywioną działalność muzyczną. Od 1960 roku nieprzerwanie do dziś, zawsze w maju, organizowana jest impreza, która nosiła pierwotnie nazwę Dni Muzyki Kameralnej. W 1981 roku przekształcono ją w Festiwal Muzyki, którego dyrektorem artystycznym został Bogusław Kaczyński. Festiwal jest jedną z najważniejszych imprez muzyki poważnej w kraju. Od 1975 roku organizowane są tu również mistrzowskie kursy interpretacji muzycznej. +Zamek pełni również funkcje reprezentacyjne i służebne wobec instytucji państwowych. W 1996 roku odbyło się tu spotkanie 9 prezydentów państw Europy Środkowej. Dość często odbywają się w nim również sympozja naukowe. Osobom fizycznym i instytucjom prywatnym pomieszczeń zamkowych nie udostępnia się. Wyjątek uczyniono jedynie dwa razy – dla potomków byłych właścicieli. W zamku odbyły się uroczystości ślubne Stanisława Potockiego i Rosy Larco de la Fuente oraz część uroczystości pogrzebowych związanych ze sprowadzeniem do Polski prochów śp. Elżbiety z Radziwiłłów Potockiej, jej synów Alfreda i Jerzego oraz jego żony Susany Iturreguiy Orbegoso. +W 1981 r. Ministerstwo Kultury i Sztuki kupiło dla zamku w Galerii Heim w Londynie kilka portretów Potockich, a istniejąca od kilku lat Fundacja na rzecz Muzeum-Zamku w Łańcucie nabyła portret Alfreda I Potockiego pędzla Jana Tabińskiego. Na terenie zamku powstała też kolekcja sztuki cerkiewnej oraz izba pamięci 10 Pułku Strzelców Konnych. Do obiektów objętych oddziaływaniem muzeum włączono również ufundowaną przez jednego z Lubomirskich synagogę ze zbiorami judaików. +W 2005 r. zespół zamkowy został uznany przez Prezydenta RP za pomnik historii. +Wnętrza zamku. +Na tle innych magnackich rezydencji w Polsce zamek w Łańcucie wyróżnia się – mimo strat – bogactwem zbiorów i zachowanymi założeniami parkowo-pałacowymi, a więc ogrodami, budynkami mieszkalnymi i służebno-gospodarczymi. +Po wejściu do zamku przechodzi się do Wielkiej Sieni, której układ zachował się aż z XVII wieku. +Jest tam jeden filar i 4 przęsła sklepienia. Na sklepieniu znajdują się 3 herby rodzin spokrewnionych z Lubomirskimi (Czartoryskich, Sanguszków i Radziwiłłów) oraz herb samych Lubomirskich. +Oryginalne jest ich wyposażenie, w tym znakomita kolekcja pojazdów konnych wraz z akcesoriami. Do najcenniejszych dzieł sztuki należą m.in. autoportret Sofonisby Anguissoli z 1556 r. i rzeźba dłuta Antonia Canovy przedstawiająca Henryka Lubomirskiego jako Amora. W Łańcucie znajduje się obecnie również największy w Polsce i najlepiej zachowany przykład biblioteki magnackiej (liczącej 22 tys. woluminów). +Park. +Wokół zamku znajduje się park o charakterze angielskiego parku krajobrazowego. Obecny jego kształt w znacznym stopniu powstał pod koniec XVIII i na początku XIX wieku kiedy należał on do Stanisława i Izabeli Lubomirskich. Księżna marszałkowa Izabela Lubomirska z zamiłowaniem dbała o sukcesywne powiększanie i ulepszanie zamkowych ogrodów, zamkowej Oranżerii oraz parku. Park ma obszar 36 ha i dzieli się na: park wewnętrzny w obrębie fosy i park zewnętrzny poza fosą na wschód od zamku. W skład parku wewnętrznego wchodzą Ogród Włoski, Ogród Różany oraz Ogród Bylinowy; znajduje się w nim również glorieta (ok. 1800). +Na terenie parku znajduje się szereg obiektów zabytkowych: Oranżeria (1802), Zameczek Romantyczny (1800), ujeżdżalnia (1830), stajnie (1898), wozownia (1902), szkoła muzyczna (dawniej dom ogrodników), Storczykarnia (1904/2008), oraz kort tenisowy. W obrębie parku znajduje się także niewielkie jezioro. +Fortyfikacje. +Pierwotna wieża obronna znajdująca zbudowana została prawdopodobnie przez ród Pileckich i jest datowana na 2 poł. XVI wieku. Powstała jako obiekt najstarszy w całym założeniu i była później częścią obronnego fortalicjum z pocz. XVII wieku należącego do rodu Stadnickich. Stadniccy po 1610 roku rozbudowali fortalicjum w zamek na planie podkowy z krużgankami i czterema małymi bastejami w narożach. W latach 1629-1641 wojewoda Stanisław Lubomirski całkowicie przebudował zamek na założenie w typie ""pallazzo in fortezza"" otaczając zamek potężnymi ziemno-murowanymi fortyfikacjami bastionowymi na planie gwiazdy oraz fosą. Plan zamku był autorstwa Macieja Trapola, a fortyfikacje zaprojektował Krzysztof Mieroszewski. Fortyfikacje były na tyle potężne, że w 1655 roku Szwedzi pod dowództwem gen. Douglasa nawet nie próbowali szturmu i po odmowie kapitulacji przez komendanta Adama Dzierżaka wycofali się spod zamku. W 1657 roku twierdza obroniła się także przed siedmiogrodzkimi wojskami Rakoczego. W 2 poł. XVII wieku przeprowadzono remont i unowocześnienie fortyfikacji. Po 1783 roku księżna Izabela Czartoryska rozpoczęła poszerzanie ogrodów w związku z czym zniwelowano częściowo fortyfikacje bastionowe przez co straciły one funkcje obronne. Do dzisiaj jednak widoczny jest ich zarys w terenie. +Zamek w filmie. +W zamku w Łańcucie kręcono sceny do dwóch znanych polskich filmów fabularnych: "Trędowatej" (1976) i "Hrabiny Cosel" (1968). +Prakseda + +Prakseda - imię żeńskie pochodzenia greckiego, powstało od wyrazu "praksis" ("działanie"). Prakseda imieniny obchodzi 21 lipca. +Morfologia krwi + +Morfologia krwi – podstawowe badanie diagnostyczne, polegające na ilościowej i jakościowej ocenie elementów morfotycznych krwi. Do standardowego badania składu krwi należą: RBC, MCV, MCH, MCHC, WBC, PLT, HGB, HCT. Badanie ilościowe poszczególnych elementów układu białokrwinkowego (granulocyty, limfocyty, monocyty) wykonywane jest zazwyczaj ręcznie pod mikroskopem (tzw. "rozmaz") lub za pomocą automatu. Wartość MID, pojawiająca się często na wydrukach badań morfologii krwi, oznacza ilość komórek, których automat nie potrafił prawidłowo zidentyfikować. Niektóre specjalistyczne kliniki (np. kliniki hematologiczne) posiadają automaty umożliwiające prawidłowe oznaczenie większości hemocytów. Badanie ilościowe limfocytów CD4+, CD8+, NK jest badaniem specjalistycznym, wykonywanym np. u chorych na AIDS. +Do morfologii krwi nie zalicza się badania poziomu hemoglobiny, jednak ze względu na automatyzację procesu, parametr ten jest oznaczany równolegle. +Prawidłowe wskaźniki przedstawia poniższa tabela, jednakże normy badań laboratoryjnych zależą od wielu czynników i nie powinny być rozpatrywane w oderwaniu od innych elementów procesu diagnostycznego a ocenę może najlepiej przeprowadzić lekarz prowadzący. +Interpretacja. +Hemoglobina - norma: K: 12-16 g/dl, M: 14-18 g/dl +Hemoglobina - do jej zadań należy transport tlenu i dwutlenku węgla od i do komórek organizmu. To ważny parametr służący do rozpoznawania niedokrwistości. Stężenie hemoglobiny zależy od wieku i płci. Najwyższe stężenie hemoglobiny jest u noworodków. Kiedy poziom hemoglobiny jest powyżej normy? Nadmiar hemoglobiny powyżej zalecanej normy może wystąpić wskutek odwodnienia (biegunki, wymioty, poty), w nadkrwistościach pierwotnych (czerwienica prawdziwa) oraz w nadkrwistościach wtórnych (przewlekłe choroby płuc, wady serca, nowotwory nerek). Wzrost wartości hemoglobiny może wynikać również z powodu niedotlenienia (np. podczas przebywania w wyższych partiach gór). Skąd wynika niedobór hemoglobiny? Wartości hemoglobiny poniżej zalecanej normy mogą wynikać z niedokrwistości i przewodnienia. +Erytrocyty (RBC) - norma: K: 4,2-5,4 mln/ul, M: 4,7-6,2 mln/ul +Erytrocyty to tzw. czerwone krwinki. Komórki odpowiadają za transport tlenu do tkanek i dwutlenku węgla z tkanek do płuc. Powstają w szpiku kostnym i żyją około 100 dni. Liczba krwinek czerwonych zależy od płci i wieku. Erytrocyty powyżej normy: wzrost wartości erytrocytów może być spowodowany czerwienicą prawdziwą, przewlekłymi chorobami płuc, wadami serca, nowotworami, torbielowatością nerek i zespołem Cushinga. Może wynikać także z leczenia sterydami, odwodnienia, wstrząsu, zapalenia otrzewnej, oparzeń z utratą osocza. Wzrost czerwonych krwinek może nastąpić podczas pobytu w górach. Erytrocyty poniżej normy: wartości poniżej normy występują w niedokrwistości, przewodnieniu oraz przy nagłej utracie krwi. +MCV - norma: K: 81-99 fl, M: 80-94 fl +MCV to średnia objętość pojedynczej krwinki. Podwyższone wartości MCV mogą świadczyć o niedoborze witaminy B12 lub kwasu foliowego w przebiegu chorób, np. zapalenia bądź niewydolności wątroby, w chorobie alkoholowej, mielodysplazji oraz niedoczynności tarczycy. Wzrost ten może wystąpić także po chemioterapii, ostrym krwotoku lub hemolizie (masywnym niszczeniu krwinek czerwonych). Wartości poniżej normy może świadczyć o niedokrwistości z niedoboru żelaza, talasemii, a także niedokrwistości syderoblastycznej. Może pojawiać się w chorobach przewlekłych. +MCH - norma: K: 27-31 pg, M: 27-34 pg +MCH to średnia masa hemoglobiny w krwince. Powyżej normy: podwyższone wartości MCH mogą świadczyć o sferocytozie. Poniżej normy: wartości poniżej normy odnotowuje się w zaburzeniach wodno-elektrolitowych typu przewodnienia hipotonicznego oraz w niedokrwistościach niedobarwliwych. +MCHC - norma: 33-37 g/dl +MCHC to średnie stężenie hemoglobiny w krwince. Powyżej normy: MCHC powyżej normy może świadczyć o sferocytozie lub hipertonicznym odwodnieniu. Poniżej normy: obniżony wskaźnik MCHC może wskazywać zaburzenia wodno-elektrolitowe typu hydrotonicznej hiperhydracji. Może być on obniżony również w niedokrwistości spowodowanej niedoborem żelaza. +Hematokryt (HCT) - norma: K: 37-47%, M: 42-52% +Hematokryt to stosunek objętości krwinek czerwonych do objętości osocza. Wartość HCT zależy od liczby krwinek czerwonych, objętości ertrocytów, objętości krwi krążącej, płci i wieku. Powyżej normy: wartości powyżej normy mogą być wywołane czerwienicą prawdziwą, niedotlenieniem tkanek, przewlekłymi chorobami płuc, wadami serca, nowotworami lub torbielowatością nerek. Podwyższony wskaźnik hematokrytu może być również spowodowany pobytem w górach lub na skutek leczenia sterydami. Poniżej normy: wartości poniżej normy odnotowuje się przy niedokrwistości i w przewodnieniu ustroju. +Anizocytoza (RDW) - norma: 11,5-14,5% +Anizocytoza to współczynnik zmienności rozkładu objętości erytrocytów. Powyżej normy: podwyższony wskaźnik anizocytozy może być spowodowany niedokrwistością z niedoboru żelaza, jak również niedokrwistością megaloblastyczną, hemolityczną, makrocytową (choroby wątroby). Wzrost wartości RDW może wystąpić po przetoczeniu krwi i w wyniku przerzutów nowotworowych. Poniżej normy: spadek wartości RDW zazwyczaj świadczy o różnych rodzajach niedokrwistości. +Anizochromia (HDW) - norma: 2,2-3,2 g/dl +Anizochromia to zjawisko występowania w badanej krwi różnorodnie wybarwionych erytrocytów. Powyżej normy: wzrost wartości może być spowodowany niedokrwistością hemolityczną lub z niedoboru żelaza. +Retykulocyty (RET) - norma: 5-15‰ +Retykulocyty są to młode formy erytrocytów (czerwone krwinki), które powstają w szpiku. Mają one jądro komórkowe. Powyżej normy: wzrost wartości występuje w zespole hemolitycznym, ostrej niedokrwistości pokrwotocznej i w ostrym niedotlenieniu. Poniżej normy: wartości poniżej normy występują w wyniku niedokrwistości hipo- i aplastycznej, niewydolności nerek i zespołu mielodyplastycznego. +Leukocyty (WBC) - norma: 4-10 tys/µl +Leukocyty są to jądrzaste komórki, które powstają w szpiku kostnym i w tkance limfatycznej. Występuje 5 rodzajów tych komórek. Są to: neutrofile, eozynofile, bazocyty, monocyty i limfocyty. Główną funkcją leukocytów jest obrona organizmu przed mikroorganizmami. Powyżej normy: fizjologiczny wzrost wartości WBC występuje w stresie, ciąży, podczas porodu, po posiłku oraz wysiłku fizycznym. Patologiczny wzrost WBC występuje w ostrych i przewlekłych procesach zapalnych, zakażeniach (bakteryjne, wirusowe, grzybicze, pasożytnicze), chorobach nowotworowych (zwłaszcza z obecnością przerzutów), ostrych krwotokach, chorobach rozrostowych układu krwiotwórczego. Wzrost ten może nastąpić także w wyniku uszkodzeń tkanek (oparzenia, rozległe urazy, stany pooperacyjne), zawału mięśnia sercowego, ostrej martwicy wątroby i zaburzeń metabolicznych. Poniżej normy: wartości poniżej normy mogą wystąpić w wyniku aplazji i hipoplazji szpiku wrodzonej i nabytej, ciężkiego zakażenia bakteryjnego (posocznice), zakażenia wirusowego (grypa, odra, WZW, ospa wietrzna, różyczka), kolagenozy czy też zespołu rozrostowego (ostra białaczka, szpiczak). +Limfocyty (LYMPH) - norma: 2,5-4,5 tys./µl +Limfocyty (LYMPH) to komórki układu odpornościowego, które należą do leukocytów. Są zdolne do swoistego rozpoznawania antygenów. Funkcjonalnie limfocyty są komórkami uczestniczącymi i będącymi podstawą odpowiedzi immunologicznej w zwalczaniu białek pochodzenia pozaustrojowego. Powyżej normy: liczba limfocytów wzrasta w wyniku przewlekłej białaczki, krztuśca, chłoniaków, przewlekłej białaczki, odry, świnki, gruźlicy, kiły, różyczki oraz chorób immunologicznych. Poniżej normy: obniżone wartości limfocytów najczęściej występują w przebiegu przewlekłego leczenia preparatami glikokortykosterydów (Encorton, Encortolon). Spowodowane mogą być również ciężkim, przewlekłym stresem oraz białaczką i ziarnicą złośliwą. +Monocyty (MONO) - norma: 0,3-0,8 tys./l’l +Monocyty (MONO) to komórki żerne, które oczyszczają krew ze skrawków obumarłych tkanek i bakterii. Produkują interferon, który hamuje namnażanie się wirusów. Powstają przeważnie w szpiku kostnym. Są największe wśród białych krwinek. Powyżej normy: liczba monocytów wzrasta w przypadku wystąpienia gruźlicy, kiły, zapalenia wsierdzia, mononukleozy zakaźnej, zakażenia pierwotniakowego oraz nowotworów. Poniżej normy: spadek ich liczby może być wynikiem toczącej się w organizmie infekcji lub stosowania niektórych leków (np. glikokortykosterydów). +Eozynofile (EOS) - norma: 0,1-0,3 K/µl (G/l) +Eozynofile to krwinki białe, które zaliczane są do granulocytów kwasochłonnych. Wyróżniają się one obecnością okazałych ziarnistości w cytoplazmie, które barwią się na czerwono eozyną. stanowią 1-4% wszystkich krwinek białych we krwi. Powyżej normy: podwyższone wartości eozynofilu mogą wystąpić w wyniku chorób alergicznych (astma oskrzelowa, katar sienny) i pasożytniczych, a także chorób krwi (ziarnica złośliwa), łuszczycy. Ich wzrost może być też spowodowany zażywaniem niektórych leków (np. penicyliny). Poniżej normy: obniżenie wartości może być skutkiem zakażeń, duru brzusznego, czerwonki, posocznicy, urazów i oparzeń. Towarzyszą one również zwiększonemu wysiłkowi fizycznemu. Mogą być też skutkiem nadmiernego wydzielania hormonów nadnerczowych. +Bazofile (BASO) - norma: 0-0,13 x 109/l +Za wzrost wartości bazofilów odpowiadają granulocyty zasadochłonne, rodzaj krwinek białych, które wykazują powinowactwo do związków o odczynie zasadowym. Mają one właściwości żerne, tj. wchłaniania i niszczenia drobnoustrojów oraz komórek obcych lub zmienionych komórek własnego organizmu. Powyżej normy: podwyższone wartości występują na skutek chorób alergicznych, przewlekłej białaczki szpikowej, przewlekłego stanu zapalnego przewodu pokarmowego, wrzodziejącego zapalenia jelit, niedoczynności tarczycy oraz rekonwalescencji po przebytej infekcji. Poniżej normy: wartości poniżej normy odnotowuje się w ostrych infekcjach, ostrej gorączce reumatycznej, nadczynności tarczycy, ostrym zapaleniu płuc oraz w stresie. +Neutrofile (NEUT) - norma: 50-70 tys./µl +Neutrofile (NEUT) to komórki układu odpornościowego, które należą do granulocytów. Pełnią zasadniczą rolę w odpowiedzi odpornościowej organizmu przeciwko bakteriom, ale nie pozostają obojętne względem innych patogenów. Ich znaczenie wynika głównie z faktu szybkiego reagowania na obce organizmowi substancje. Powyżej normy: podwyższona norma występuje przy zakażeniach, chorobach nowotworowych, hematologicznych, metabolicznych, po urazach, u palaczy oraz u kobiet w trzecim trymestrze ciąży. Poniżej normy: obniżone wartości mogą wystąpić w wyniku zakażeń grzybiczych, wirusowych (grypa, różyczka), bakteryjnych (gruźlica, dur), pierwotniakowych (np. malaria). +Trombocyty (PLT) - norma: 150-400 tys/µl +Trombocyty to bezjądrzaste elementy morfotyczne krwi, które są nazywane płytkami krwi. Powstają w szpiku i tkance limfatycznej. Powyżej normy: nadpłytkowość, czyli podwyższenie dopuszczalnej normy, jest skutkiem przewlekłego zespołu mieloproliferacyjnego, jak również nadmiernego wytwarzania płytek krwi wskutek m.in. infekcji, choroby nowotworowej, regeneracji po krwotoku, hemolizie czy stanie po usunięciu śledziony. Poniżej normy: wartości poniżej zalecanej normy, czyli małopłytkowość, spowodowane są zmniejszeniem wytwarzania płytek krwi (w zespole Fanconiego, niedokrwistości aplastycznej, aplazji megakariocytowej, chłoniakach, ostrej białaczce szpikowej, w zwłóknieniu szpiku, przy zażywaniu leków mielosupresyjnych, naświetlaniu promieniami jonizującymi, w niedokrwistości megaloblastycznej i z niedoboru żelaza, w zakażeniach wirusowych i w niewydolności nerek). Liczba płytek krwi może być również obniżona wskutek nadmiernego ich niszczenia, np. w samoistnej autoimmunologicznej plamicy małopłytkowej, a także w małopłytkowości poprzetoczeniowej, polekowej, w autoimmunologicznej niedokrwistości hemolitycznej, toczniu rumieniowatym układowym i we wstrząsie anafilaktycznym. Inną przyczyną utraty płytek krwi mogą być krwotoki. +Odczyn Biernackiego (OB) - norma: K: 3-15 mm, M: 10 mm +Odczyn Biernackiego (OB) to badanie szybkości opadania krwinek czerwonych. To test oceniający zaburzenia składu białek osocza oraz właściwości erytrocytów. Powyżej normy: podwyższona norma może być spowodowana stanem zapalnym, ciążą, chorobą nowotworową, niedokrwistością oraz chorobą autoimmunologiczną. Poniżej normy: obniżenie normy występuje w chorobach alergicznych, w obniżonej wartości fibrynogenu i w nadkrwistości. +Żelazo (Fe) - norma: 12,5-26 l’mol/l +Żelazo w organizmie wchodzi w skład hemoglobiny i mioglobiny. Występuje również w postaci związanej z białkami. Stężenie żelaza w surowicy zależy od wchłaniania w przewodzie pokarmowym, magazynowania w jelicie, śledzionie i w szpiku kostnym, syntezy i rozpadu hemoglobiny, a także jego utraty z ustroju. Powyżej normy: wartości podwyższone mają związek z przedawkowaniem preparatów żelaza, stanami zapalnymi nerek lub zatruciem ołowiem. Poniżej normy: wartości obniżone wynikają z niedoborów żywieniowych, utraty żelaza przez przewód pokarmowy, drogi moczowe lub stanu zwiększonego zapotrzebowania, tj. w ciąży czy w okresie karmienia piersią. +Ferrytyna - norma: K: 12-150 µg/l, M: 15-200 µg/l +Ferrytyna jest to miarodajny i najczulszy wskaźnik niedoboru żelaza, który dobrze odzwierciedla ilość żelaza magazynowanego w ustroju, tzn. zawartość szpiku. Powyżej normy: podwyższenie normy odnotowuje się w stanach zapalnych, reumatoidalnym zapaleniu stawów, uszkodzeniu wątroby, martwicy komórek - szczególnie wątroby lub nowotworowych, a także nadmiarem żelaza w ustroju. Poniżej normy: obniżenie normy występuje w wyniku niedoboru żelaza. +Transferyna (TRF) - norma: K: 223-446 µg/dl, M: 251-391 µg/dl +Transferyna (TRF) to białko regulujące stężenie jonów żelaza w osoczu krwi i transportujące je do tkanek. Badaniem laboratoryjnym dotyczącym transferyny jest TIBC. Powyżej normy: podwyższona norma może wystąpić w trzecim trymestrze ciąży (objaw prawidłowy) oraz podczas stosowania doustnych leków antykoncepcyjnych i estrogenów. Poniżej normy: obniżenie normy może wystąpić w zespole nerczycowym, przy przedawkowaniu żelaza, w hemochromatozie, hemolizie, w niektórych chorobach krwi, a także po częstym przetaczaniu krwi. +Erytropoetyna (EPO) - norma: 6-32 µg/ml +Erytropoetyna (EPO) to hormon peptydowy, który stymuluje erytropoezę, czyli proces powstawania krwinek czerwonych (erytrocytów) w szpiku kostnym. Hormon ten produkowany jest w wątrobie i w nerkach. Najwyższe jego stężenie we krwi obserwuje się w godzinach nocnych, najmniejsze zaś nad ranem. Powyżej normy: wzrost produkcji erytropoetyny obserwuje się w spadku utlenowania krwi oraz w zwyrodnieniu wielotorbielowatym nerek. Poniżej normy: spadek produkcji erytropoetyny ma miejsce w przypadku przewlekłej mocznicy. +Całkowita zdolność wiązania żelaza (TIBC) - norma: 306-429 µg/dl lub 54,7-76,8 µmol/l +Całkowita zdolność wiązania żelaza (TIBC) to parametr, który dokładnie ocenia wewnątrzustrojową gospodarkę żelaza. Jest pośrednim pomiarem ilości żelaza, jakie może wiązać transferyna. Powyżej normy: wartość TIBC wzrasta w niedoborze żelaza w organizmie, podczas ciąży, w wyniku utraty krwi (ostrej lub przewlekłej), a także w wyniku leczenia estrogenami. Poniżej normy: wartość TIBC maleje m.in. w zespole nerczycowym, przewlekłych zakażeniach, nowotworach, hemochromatozie, hemosyderozie, przeładowaniu organizmu żelazem, mocznicy oraz innych chorobach przewlekłych. +Potocznie słowo morfologia używane jest w znaczeniu: skład (budowa) krwi. +Wadim + +Wadim — rosyjskie imię męskie o nieznanej etymologii. +Wadim imieniny obchodzi 9 kwietnia +Anthony Burgess + +Anthony Burgess właściwie John Anthony Burgess Wilson (ur. 25 lutego 1917 w Manchesterze, zm. 25 listopada 1993 w Londynie) – brytyjski pisarz. +Życiorys. +Miał trudne dzieciństwo – matka i siostra zmarły na grypę hiszpankę. W Manchesterze ukończył studia anglistyczne, po czym odbył 5 lat służby wojskowej (do 1946). Pracował jako nauczyciel angielskiego, był pracownikiem Ministerstwa Oświaty, wykładowcą literatury angielskiej na uniwersytecie w Birmingham, przez krótszy czas również w Leningradzie, Tangerze, Marrakeszu, na Teneryfie, również kilkakrotnie jako profesor przebywał w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Niezbyt szczęśliwe małżeństwo z Walijką Llewelą (Lynne) Jones znalazło swoje odbicie w "Trylogii malajskiej" (1956-1959 "Czas na Tygrysa", "Wróg w pościeli", "Łoża na Wschodzie"). +W 1961 po powrocie z Malezji Burgess zaczął cierpieć na zaburzenia psychiczne, okazało się, że ma nowotwór mózgu i nie dawano mu wielu szans na przeżycie. Przeżył, jednak w 1968 zmarła jego żona Llewela, wkrótce potem pisarz na stałe opuścił Anglię. Również w 1968 Burgess ożenił się po raz drugi z włoską hrabianką Lilianą Macellari; to małżeństwo pozwoliło Burgessowi rozwinąć skrzydła i żyć pełnią życia. Zmarł na raka płuc. +Teoria katastrof + +Teoria katastrof (nazywana również teorią morfogenezy lub teorią przejść nieciągłych) to dział matematyki, zajmujący się systemami dynamicznymi, w szczególności sytuacjami, gdy ciągła zmiana parametru kontrolnego prowadzi do jakościowych zmian zachowania systemu. Jej autorem jest francuski matematyk René Thom. +Teorię katastrof próbowano stosować do opisu zachowań społecznych, lecz z małym skutkiem. Sprawdziła się natomiast w zastosowaniach technicznych. +Katastrofy w ekonomii. +Katastrofa wierzchołka +Katastrofa motyla +Gościsława + +Gościsława – staropolskie imię żeńskie. Składa się z członu "Gości-" ("gościć", "gość") i "-sława" ("sława"). Mogło zatem oznaczać "ta, u której gości sława" lub in. Jego formę pochodną mogło stanowić m.in. imię Gosława. W źródłach polskich poświadczone od XIII wieku (1265 rok). +Męski odpowiednik: Gościsław +Gościsława imieniny obchodzi 15 października. +1. List Jana + +Data powstania. +Przyjmuje się na ogół, że List został napisany w końcu I wieku, przy czym powstał prawdopodobnie później od Ewangelii, później od Drugiego i Trzeciego Listu. Nie brak jednak egzegetów zakładających, że List został napisany przed Ewangelią (np. R. Schnackenburg). Problem kolejności pism Janowych jest trudny do rozwiązania. Nie ma on charakteru typowo starożytnego (brakuje adresu i zakończenia; co ciekawe, adresy pojawiają się w 2. i 3. Liście, a nawet w Apokalipsie). Mimo to dzieło posiada wiele elementów charakterystycznych dla listów, takich jak odwołanie do warunków lokalnych, błędów, osobistych akcentów. +Autorstwo. +Autor nie podaje swego imienia, lecz prawdopodobnie jest nim autor Ewangelii Jana. "Fragment Muratoriego" identyfikuje autora Listu z autorem czwartej Ewangelii i nazywa go uczniem (nie apostołem). +Adresaci. +Trudno jest umiejscowić adresatów listu. List był przeznaczony prawdopodobnie do grupy Kościołów, znajdujących się być może w Azji Mniejszej, i chociaż Jan nie był ich założycielem, to interesował się ich działalnością. Ich adresatami byli chrześcijanie, nawróceni z judaizmu, mówiący po grecku. Autor chce ich zapewnić, że znajdują się na drodze zbawienia, rozbudzić wiarę oraz przestrzec przed fałszywymi prorokami, którzy głosili gnostycyzm. Treść Listu jest bowiem skierowana przeciwko tezom gnostyków, którzy głosili, iż ten, kto posiada wiedzę (gnoza), otrzymuje zbawienie. Ich zdaniem poznanie jest ważniejsze niż miłość. Autor podkreśla, że miłość jest ważniejsza od poznania. Autor kwestionuje również doketyzm. Autor jako kryterium rozpoznawcze przed tego typu herezjami podaje uznawanie faktu, że Chrystus przyszedł w ciele. +Język i styl. +Formą i treścią przypomina niektóre partie Ewangelii Jana. +Język jest poprawny, jakkolwiek zauważalny jest brak wprawy, słownictwo jest proste i ubogie, występują zaledwie cztery terminy nie użyte w pozostałych księgach Nowego Testamentu. Styl zdradza semickie pochodzenie autora. Autor często stosuje paralelizmy syntetyczne, jak i antytetyczne. +Cel. +Przesłaniem Listu poza wyżej wspomnianymi jest to, że "Bóg jest światłością" (1 J 1,5; 2,8-10), tzn. jest miłością (która objawiła się w wydaniu Syna, który umarł na krzyżu na przebłaganie za nasze grzechy), świętością, najwyższym dobrem, człowiek poprzez wiarę współpracuje z Jego dziełem zbawienia i staje się z Nim jednością, a miłość bliźniego jest nierozerwalnie związana z miłością Boga. +„Na to objawił się Syn Boży, aby wniwecz obrócić dzieła diabła” (1 J 3, 8). +Reakcja endotermiczna + +Reakcja endotermiczna to reakcja chemiczna, dla której bilans wymiany ciepła z otoczeniem jest ujemny. Można też powiedzieć, że jest to reakcja, w której ciepło znajduje się po stronie substratów, albo inaczej która pochłania ciepło z otoczenia. +Reakcje endotermiczne, wbrew rozpowszechnionych poglądom, często nie wymagają ogrzewania do ich zachodzenia. Reakcjom, samym w sobie endotermicznym mogą towarzyszyć inne przemiany (np. zmiany entropii układu, albo egzotermiczne procesy rozpuszczania), które powodują, że bilans wymiany ciepła z otoczeniem procesu rozpatrywanego jako całość może być mimo wszystko dodatni. +Warto też zauważyć, że w konwencji termodynamicznej, w której bilans ciepła rozpatruje się tradycyjnie nie od strony otoczenia tylko od strony samego układu. Reakcje endotermiczne mają dodatni wynik cieplny, gdyż pochłaniają ciepło, czyli zyskują energię z zewnątrz, a zatem całkowita energia wewnętrzna układu wzrasta. +Odwrotnością reakcji endotermicznej jest reakcja egzotermiczna. +Portal (wydawnictwo) + +Wydawnictwo Portal - założone w 1999 roku w Gliwicach przez Ignacego Trzewiczka. +Początkowo wydawało czasopismo "Portal" traktujące o grach fabularnych - obecnie wydawca "Gwiezdnego Pirata". +Wydawnictwo Portal wydało wiele produktów RPG jak systemy: Neuroshima (obecnie powstała edycja 1.5 tego systemu) wraz z dodatkami czy Monastyr, również wraz z dodatkami. Wydawnictwo publikuje też tzw. gry nowej fali jak: Frankenstien faktoria, Baron Munchausen, Władcy losu, De Profundis czy Droga Ku Chwale, a także gry karciane (Zombiaki, Machina, Saloon, Gody, Spadamy!, 51. Stan) i planszowe (Neuroshima Hex!, Stronghold, Prêt-à-Porter). Pod koniec roku 2006 wydawnictwo ruszyło z nową linią gier planszowych - Dobra Gra. Główną ideą linii jest wydawanie dobrych, tanich gier . Portal został również wydawcą czasopisma "Świat Gier Planszowych", redagowanego przez autorów bloga Games Fanatic. +Obecnie niektóre z gier wydawnictwa zostały wydane za granicą: Frankeinstein faktoria - w Hiszpanii nakładem wydawnictwa Edge Entertainment (pierwsza polska gra fabularna wydana poza granicami kraju), a także De Profundis - w Anglii nakładem wydawnictwa Hogshead (tym samym stając się pełnoprawną częścią angielskiej serii New Style), w Hiszpanii nakładem wydawnictwa Edge Entertainment oraz w Niemczech, nakładem wydawnictwa Krimsus KK.. +Modlibog + +Modlibog, Modliboż – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Modli-" ("modlić się, prosić") i "-bog" ("Bóg", ale pierwotnie "los, dola, szczęście"). Prawdopodobnie oznaczało pierwotnie: "ten, który prosi los". +Żeński odpowiednik: Modliboga. +Konarzewo (powiat poznański) + +Konarzewo – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim, w gminie Dopiewo 15 km na płd.zach. od Poznania, przy drodze Dopiewo - Szreniawa, na północnym krańcu miejscowości przebiega autostrada A2 Berlin - Poznań - Warszawa. W pobliżu miejscowości znajduje się Miejsce Obsługi Podróżnych (MOP Konarzewo) dla jadących Autostradą A2 w kierunku Poznania. +Wieś położona w otulinie Wielkopolskiego Parku Narodowego, 5 km na płd.zach. ścisły rezerwat przyrody Trzcielińskie Bagno +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa poznańskiego. +Historia. +Prawdopodobnie pierwszy drewniany kościół wybudowano w miejscu obecnego jeszcze w XII w. Dokładniejsze informacje pojawiają się w dokumentach z 1370 r. z których dowiadujemy się, że był on pod wezwaniem św. Marcina i św. Piotra w Okowach. Jego fundatorami byli najprawdopodobniej Drogosławowie, którzy wówczas dziedziczyli Konarzewko. Miejsce drewnianego kościoła zastąpił na przełomie XVI/XVII wieku murowany kościół wzniesiony przez rodzinę Ostaszewskich. Został on poświęcony św. Marcinowi w roku 1636 r. +Jak wynika z dekretu z dnia 25 października 1786 r. władza duchowna połączyła parafię Konarzewo z parafią w Dopiewie - postanowiono wówczas, że kościołem parafialnym będzie świątynia konarzewska. Dlatego też w 1803 roku rozebrano kościół dopiewski. w 1938 r. kardynał August Hlond ponownie z parafii konarzewskiej wydzielił nową parafię dopiewską. +W dniu wybuchu II wojny światowej proboszczem parafii był ks. Jan Laskowski, który przybył do Konarzewa z Wrześni, po tzw. "strajku dzieci wrzesińskich", którego był duchownym przywódcą. Niemcy weszli do wsi 1 września i rozbili swój posterunek na placu przy kościele. Parafianie przez dwa miesiące mogli swobodnie uczestniczyć we wszystkich nabożeństwach odprawianych w kościele. Okupanci znając przeszłość ks. Laskowskiego często zjawiali się u niego i kontrolowali jego poczynania. W piwnicy plebanii przechowywany był przywieziony potajemnie z Buku łaskami słynący obraz Matki Boskiej Literackiej, przy którym każdego dnia modlił się samotnie ks. Jan Laskowski. 17 października na plebanii zjawiło się gestapo, aby przesłuchać proboszcza. Po tej wizycie, o godzinie 14.20 ks. Jan zmarł na atak serca. Został pochowany na cmentarzu parafialnym, a jego pogrzeb ze względów bezpieczeństwa należał do skromnych, choć uczestniczyło w nim wielu parafian. +Opieką duszpasterską nad parafianami zajął się po śmierci proboszcza ksiądz Czesław Sibliski z Dopiewa. Jego posługa nie trwała długo. Hitlerowcy aresztowali go 21 stycznia 1940 roku i więzili najpierw w Forcie VII, później w Chludowie i Lublinie. Życie zakończył w obozie Dachau, w którym zmarł 2 grudnia 1942 roku. +Po aresztowaniu ks. Sibliskiego ówczesna dziedziczka Konarzewa Teresa Czartoryska poprosiła ks. Józefa Molskiego ze Skórzewa, aby co 2 tygodnie przyjeżdżał do Konarzewa i odprawiał Msze święte. 25 września 1940 roku z polecenia bpa Walentego Dymka przybył do Konarzewa nowy kapłan ks. Stanisław Waraczewski, który gorliwie troszczył się o ducha swoich parafian. Podczas próby śpiewów kościelnych 9 grudnia 1940 roku został wraz z młodzieżą aresztowany. Parafian po kilku dniach zwolniono, natomiast ks. Stanisław nie powrócił już do Konarzewa, którego osadzono najpierw w Forcie VII, a później wywieziono do Oświęcimia, gdzie zmarł 10 września 1941 roku. +Po tym wydarzeniu duszpasterzował ponownie ks. Józef Molski ze Skórzewa. Podzielił on los wielu wielkopolskich kapłanów. Aresztowano go 6 października 1941 roku i osadzono w Forcie VII, a następnie przewieziono do Dachau, w którym zginął 1 sierpnia 1942 roku. +Sport. +W miejscowości funkcjonuje klub sportowy Orkan Konarzewo, założony w 1949 roku. +Kentucky Fried Chicken + +Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) – jedna z największych sieci barów szybkiej obsługi serwujących dania fast food, założona przez Harlanda Sandersa, bardziej znanego jako "pułkownik Sanders". Centrala firmy znajduje się w Louisville w stanie Kentucky w USA. +Obecnie w całej Polsce funkcjonuje 210 barów KFC, będących samodzielnymi jednostkami oraz do grudnia 2008 funkcjonowało kilkanaście lokali „2 w 1”, zazwyczaj w połączeniu z Pizza Hut jednak Firma zrezygnowała z takich łączonych barów oddzielając obie marki. Od kilku lat w Polsce można spotkać również bary typu "drive-through", w których klienci mogą zamawiać i odbierać dania bez wysiadania z samochodu. Wyłącznym franczyzobiorcą marki KFC w Polsce jest europejska spółka AmRest Holdings SE z siedzibą we Wrocławiu, która notowana jest na Giełdzie Papierów Wartościowych w Warszawie. +Krytyka firmy. +W 2003 roku organizacja broniąca praw zwierząt PETA wezwała do bojkotu KFC. Oskarża tę firmę o "niehumanitarny chów" oraz uśmiercanie zwierząt będących źródłem mięsa. +Akcję Kentucky Fried Cruelty, namawiająca ludzi do bojkotu KFC i niekorzystania z usług tej sieci, wsparli znani wegetarianie. M.in. Paul McCartney, Pamela Anderson, Phil Collins, XIV Dalajlama. +Sponsoring. +W Polsce do ok. 1997 roku KFC sponsorował turniej koszykarski 1 na 1 (organizowany na warszawskiej Agrykoli): „KFC SINGEL BASKET CUP”. +Doskonałość + +Doskonałość – termin określający cechę m.in. osoby, czynności, umiejętności, dzieła, przedmiotu, produktu. Używany w wielu dziedzinach, np. w naukach przyrodniczych, matematyce, fizyce, chemii, a także sztuce, teologii, teorii na temat moralności, jak i w życiu potocznym. W teorii poznania zastąpiony przez inne określenia (np. nie istnieje prawda doskonała – w takim przypadku jest jedynie prawdopodobieństwem). +Należy do pojęć, których znaczenie potoczne jest inne od właściwego sensu. +Etymologia i znaczenie. +Słowo "doskonałość" jest spolszczoną wersją łacińskiego "perfectio", zaś doskonały – "perfectus". "Perfectio" oznaczało dokonanie czegoś, zrobienie do końca. "Doskonałość" w swym dosłownym znaczeniu określa dokonanie, wykończenie (dokonany, wykończony). Dzieło dokończone nie powinno posiadać braków, powinno być pełnym. W dawnej polszczyźnie używano słowa "doskonalstwo" (np. Skarga pisał: "Jezus jest wzorem doskonalstwa"). +Odpowiednikiem "perefectio" było zaś w języku polskim "dokonanie" i "Vollendung" (w niemieckim). W innych słownikach z tamtego czasu podawano także: "integritas", "finitus", "consummatus". Słowem bliskoznacznym miała być "zupełność". +W myśli greckiej doskonałe jest to, co istniało zawsze - wieczne idee (Platon). Arystoteles w "Metafizyce" pisał, iż "doskonałe jest to, co jest zupełne, zawiera wszystkie należne części", a także "to, co osiągnęło swój cel". Określano również, iż to co spełnia wszystkie funkcje, do których zostało stworzone, również zasługuje na miano doskonałego. Innymi cechami miały być także: harmonijność, budowa według jednej, właściwej zasady, zgodność, prostota (niezłożoność). +W starożytności pojęcie to określało umiejętności jakie posiadają ludzie (np. doskonały lekarz), a także dokonań, idei (np. doskonały ustrój społeczny) i przedmiotów, które tworzą. Początkowo nie miało zabarwienia moralnego. Parmenides za doskonały uważał kosmos. +Mimo iż jest uważana za ideał, jest także kresem dążeń ludzkich, gdyż rzecz doskonała nie może być, zgodnie ze swym znaczeniem, ulepszana. Zwracano także uwagę na paradoks, głoszący, iż "doskonałość świata leży w jego niedoskonałości", co pozwala na ciągłą pracę, jak i ulepszanie, okrywanie nowych właściwości, dopełnianie. +W renesansie określano doskonałość jako cechę obiektywną i rzadką, właściwą raczej sztuce niż naturze, a także dotyczącą całości, nie jej składników. +Strzeżysława + +Strzeżysława, Strzesława — staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członu "Strzeży-" ("strzec") oraz członu "-sława" ("sława"). Oznacza "tę, która strzeże sławy". W źródłach poświadczone w XII wieku. +Strzeżysława imieniny obchodzi 5 lutego +Męskie odpowiedniki: Strzeżysław, Strzedzsław, Strzecsław, Strzecław, Strzesław. +Antoni Barwiński + +Antoni Tadeusz Barwiński (ur. 9 czerwca 1923 w Jaśle, zm. 5 stycznia 2005 w Tarnowie) – piłkarz, reprezentant Polski. +Był jednym z najbardziej znanych piłkarzy w dziejach sportu tarnowskiego, grał na pozycji prawego obrońcy. Jako pierwszy piłkarz Tarnovii wystąpił w reprezentacji Polski, kiedy po serii pozytywnych recenzji za mecze w walce o miejsce w ekstraklasie został powołany przez trenera Wacława Kuchara i kapitana Henryka Reymana na spotkanie z Rumunami 19 lipca 1947. W kadrze dość niespodziewanie zajął miejsce słynnego Władysława Szczepaniaka. +W tym samym roku świętował awans z Tarnovią do I ligi; występy w ekstraklasie trwały jeden sezon, Tarnovia zajęła 11. miejsce i pożegnała się z najwyższą klasą rozgrywkową. +W reprezentacji Polski rozegrał 17 spotkań w latach 1947-1950. W 1947 obok debiutanckiego meczu z Rumunią grał przeciwko Jugosławii i ponownie Rumunii, w 1948 – z Bułgarią, Czechami, Danią, Jugosławią, Węgrami, Rumunią i Finlandią, w 1949 – z Danią, Węgrami, Bułgarią, Albanią, w 1950 – z Albanią, Rumunią i Węgrami. Pożegnalny mecz w kadrze rozegrał 4 czerwca 1950, chociaż jeszcze na jesieni tego roku był rezerwowym na spotkaniu reprezentacji z Bułgarią. +Występował także w barwach drugiego tarnowskiego klubu, Unii. +Światowe Stowarzyszenie Przewodniczek i Skautek + +WAGGGS - Światowe Stowarzyszenie Przewodniczek i Skautek ("World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts") – stowarzyszenie założone w 1928 roku, skupiające żeńskie organizacje skautowe z całego świata. Obecnie liczy ponad 8 milionów członkiń w ponad 144 krajach. +W Polsce członkiem WAGGGS jest Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego (członek-założyciel WAGGGS w latach 1928-1950 i ponownie od 1996). +Misja. +Misją WAGGGS jest stwarzanie dziewczętom i młodym kobietom warunków do pełnego rozwijania swoich możliwości i umiejętności jako odpowiedzialnych obywatelek świata. +Władze. +Konferencja Światowa. +Najwyższą władzą WAGGGS jest Konferencja Światowa, która odbywa się co 3 lata. +Ostatnia, 32 Światowa Konferencja WAGGGS odbyła się w czerwcu 2005 roku w Jordanii. +Komitet Światowy. +Pomiędzy Konferencjami władzę sprawuje Komitet Światowy. Aktualnie złożony jest z 17 członkiń. Pięć z nich to przewodniczące regionów, które są wybierana przez Konferencje Regionalne, pozostałe są wybierane demokratycznie przez Konferencję Światową. Kadencja trwa trzy lata. Przewodniczącą w kadencji 2002-2005 była Kirsty E. Gray; 2005-2008 - Elspeth Henderson; od 2008 jest Margaret Treloar. +Biuro Światowe. +Biuro Światowe to sekretariat WAGGGS, mieści się w Londynie, w Wielkiej Brytanii. Składa się z około 50 specjalistów. Zajmuje się między innymi kontaktami z organizacjami członkowskimi i kandydującymi, organizowaniem Konferencji Światowej i spotkań Komitetu Światowego, wprowadza w życie decyzje podjęte przez Konferencję i Komitet. +Symbol. +Symbolem WAGGGS jest koniczyna: trzy liście reprezentują trzy części przyrzeczenia: służba Bogu i ojczyźnie, pomoc bliźnim, przestrzeganie prawa skautowego. Dwie pięcioramienne gwiazdki na bocznych liściach oznaczają prawo i przyrzeczenie. Nerw koniczynki w centrum reprezentuje igłę kompasu, który pokazuje skautkom i przewodniczkom dobrą drogę. Podłoże koniczyny symbolizuje płomień miłości międzyludzkiej. Kolor złoty i niebieski oznaczają słońce świecące nad dziećmi na całym świecie. +Odczyn Biernackiego + +Odczyn Biernackiego, Opad Biernackiego, OB, BR, ESR (ang. "Biernacki Reaction" – reakcja Biernackiego lub "erythrocyte sedimentation rate" – wskaźnik sedymentacji erytrocytów) – miara szybkości opadania czerwonych krwinek w osoczu w jednostce czasu. Zwykle jest określany po jednej, a czasem dwóch godzinach. Test ten i jego zastosowanie w diagnostyce medycznej zostały po raz pierwszy opracowane w 1897 przez polskiego lekarza Edmunda Biernackiego. W warunkach fizjologicznych jest wartością stałą, zależną od masy właściwej krwinek i osocza, stężenia białek krwi, wielkości opadających cząstek i innych mniej poznanych czynników. Potocznie mylnie nazywany "objawem Biernackiego". +Wykonanie. +Polega na pobraniu krwi, najczęściej z żyły odłokciowej, do strzykawki zawierającej cytrynian sodu i następnie umieszczeniu tej krwi w specjalnie kalibrowanej (co 1 milimetr) rurce. +Wartości prawidłowe. +Dzieci +Kobiety +Mężczyźni +Zwierzęta +Przyczyny przyspieszenia opadania (podwyższenia wartości). +Fizjologiczne: +Autorotacja + +Autorotacja – zjawisko polegające na samoczynnym obrocie wirnika nośnego wiropłatów, np. śmigłowca czy wiatrakowca, wywołane ruchem wiropłata względem powietrza. W czasie autorotacji wirnik nośny nie ma mechanicznego połączenia z zespołem napędowym wiropłata, co jest sytuacją typową dla wiatrakowca i awaryjną dla śmigłowca. W śmigłowcu jednokierunkowe sprzęgło pozwala głównemu wirnikowi obracać się swobodnie przy zatrzymanym silniku. Mechaniczne połączenie wirnika głównego ze śmigłem ogonowym (dotyczy śmigłowca wyposażonego w takie śmigło) jest zachowane, co zapewnia pilotowi sterowanie kierunkowe. Obracający się podczas autorotacji wirnik nośny pobiera energię od strug napływającego powietrza (pośrednio od ciężaru opadajacej maszyny) bez wykorzystania napędu (silników), zapewniając lot. Pilot wiropłata w locie bezsilnikowym, dysponując sterowaniem kierunkowym, sterowaniem okresowym i sterowaniem ogólnym może wylądować autorotacyjnie. Przy autorotacji obrót wirnika głównego nie wywiera momentu obrotowego na śmigłowiec. +Apertura + +Apertura – otwór ograniczający przestrzeń, przez którą przechodzą fale elektromagnetyczne. W przypadku instrumentu optycznego jest to efektywna średnica otworu (np. teleskopu, lunety), przez który wpada światło lub też soczewki lub lustra zapoczątkowującego dany układ optyczny, mierzona jako rozwartość układu, czyli jako kąt pomiędzy promieniami świetlnymi wpadającymi do układu z najbardziej odmiennych kierunków. Apertura wzrasta ze średnicą układu, a maleje z jego długością. Im większa apertura układu, tym czulszy instrument. W przypadku anten, zarówno odbiorczych jak i nadawczych, jest to odpowiednio pole powierzchni odbierającej lub promieniującej energię. +Optyka. +W przypadku instrumentów optycznych apertura występuje w dwóch znaczeniach: apertura kątowa oraz apertura liczbowa. Kąt ("u") pod którym widać źrenicę wejściową układu optycznego, patrząc z punktu przecięcia się głównej osi optycznej przyrządu z płaszczyzną, w której znajduje się przedmiot, to kąt apertury. Apertura liczbowa ("A") jest wielkością opisywaną wzorem +formula_1 +gdzie "n" jest współczynnikiem załamania ośrodka, w którym znajduje się przedmiot. +Wielkość ta jest istotna dla układów optycznych: zdolność rozdzielcza jest proporcjonalna do apertury liniowej, natomiast jasność obrazu jest proporcjonalna do jej kwadratu. +Zwiększenie apertury jest możliwe poprzez zastosowanie imersji. +Szlamiec krótkodzioby + +Wszystkie ptaki zimują na morskich wybrzeżach południowej części Ameryki Północnej oraz w Ameryce Południowej po Brazylię. Bardzo rzadko zalatuje do Europy, w tym Polski. +Cechy gatunku. +W okresie godowym ptaki brązowe z ciemnymi cętkami na grzbiecie, wierzch głowy ciemnobrązowy, spód jaśniejszy, również z cętkami. Na piersi wyraźnie zaznaczony rdzawy nalot, dziób samicy dłuższy niż samca. W zimie upierzenie szare z ciemnymi cętkami, dziób ciemny, nogi żółte. +Wymiary średnie. +dł. ciała ok. 25-29 cmrozpiętość skrzydeł ok. 50 cmwaga ok. 80-120 g +Biotop. +Mokradła tajgi i tundry, zimuje na morskich wybrzeżach. +Gniazdo. +Na ziemi. +Jaja. +W ciągu roku wyprowadza jeden lęg, składając 4 zielono-brązowe lub oliwkowe, cętkowane jaja. +Wysiadywanie. +Jaja wysiadywane są przez okres około 21 dni przez obydwoje rodziców. +Pożywienie. +Bezkręgowce +Cray-3 + +Cray-3 - projektowany w Cray Research jako następca legendarnego superkomputera Cray-2. Był pierwszym poważnym zastosowaniem arsenku galu (GaAs) w systemach obliczeniowych. +Opis. +System Cray-3 był rozwinięciem architektury znanej z Cray-2. W systemie mogło pracować do 16 wektorowych procesorów obliczeniowych (drugoplanowych) i procesor sterujący pierwszoplanowy. Okres zegara wynosił 2 nanosekundy (500 MHz). +Historia. +Ze względu na ograniczenia w równoległym finansowaniu projektów Cray-C90 (początkowo był to projekt MP) i Cray-3, Cray Research postanowiła powołać oddzielną firmę Cray Computer Corporation, wraz z projektem do nowej firmy przeszedł Seymour Cray. trudności techniczne podczas projektowana systemu, a w szczególności problemy z procesem technologicznym układów z arsenku galu, spowodowały znaczny wzrost kosztów realizacji projektu, który doprowadził do upadku firmy w 1989 roku. Następcą systemu Cray-3 jest Cray X1. +Grodzisława + +Grodzisława - imię żeńskie pochodzenia słowiańskiego, nienotowane w formie żeńskiej w źródłach staropolskich. Imię żeńskie od imienia Gromisław. +Grodzisława imieniny obchodzi 12 października. +Gmina Białaczów + +Gmina Białaczów – gmina wiejska w województwie łódzkim, w powiecie opoczyńskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie piotrkowskim. +Siedziba gminy to Białaczów. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2007 gminę zamieszkiwały 5952 osoby. +Za Królestwa Polskiego gmina Białaczów należała do powiatu opoczyńskiego w guberni radomskiej. 13 stycznia 1870 do gminy przyłączono pozbawiony praw miejskich Białaczów. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 11,02% powierzchni powiatu opoczyńskiego. +Sołectwa. +Białaczów, Kuraszków, Miedzna Drewniana, Ossa, Parczów, Parczówek, Petrykozy, Radwan, Sędów, Skronina, Sobień, Wąglany, Zakrzów, Żelazowice. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Gowarczów, Końskie, Opoczno, Paradyż, Sławno, Żarnów +Interwencja kryzysowa + +Interwencja kryzysowa, jako forma pomocy psychologicznej, polega na kontakcie terapeutycznym, skoncentrowanym na problemie wywołującym kryzys, czasowo ograniczonym, w którym dochodzi do konfrontacji osoby z kryzysem i do jego rozwiązania. Redukcja symptomów i przywrócenie równowagi psychicznej zapobiega dalszej dezorganizacji (W. Badura-Madej (1996). Interwencja kryzysowa to działalność prewencyjna, związaną z prewencją wtórną – zapobieganiem pogłębianiu się patologii w konsekwencji nierozwiązanych kryzysów. Prewencja pierwotna to zapobieganie rozwojowi kryzysów i patologizacji w wymiarze ogólnospołecznym. +Klasyczny model interwencji kryzysowej polega na zapewnieniu wsparcia emocjonalnego, poczucia bezpieczeństwa, zredukowaniu lęku. +Pojęcie kryzysu i interwencji kryzysowej coraz częściej gości w praktyce psychologicznej. Terapeuci pomagający ludziom w trudnych sytuacjach uważają, że jest to najlepszy moment na udzielenie pomocy i wsparcia. Takie sytuacje niosą w sobie nadzieję na zmianę i rozwój. W praktyce psychoterapii uzależnienia i współuzależnienia w ostatnich latach również funkcjonował termin "interwencja kryzysowa". Związany on był z metodą opisaną przez V. Johnsona i spopularyzowaną przez dr Wandę Sztander. Metoda ta zakładała przygotowanie bliskich osób z otoczenia alkoholika do rozmowy, która konfrontowała go ze skutkami picia. Interwencja taka jest więc spiętrzeniem (sprowokowaniem) kryzysu, w którym jedynym konstruktywnym wyjściem jest podjęcie leczenia odwykowego. Alkoholik znajduje się więc przed interwencją w zupełnie innej sytuacji psychologicznej niż osoba przeżywająca kryzys. Dlatego właściwiej będzie nazywać to oddziaływanie interwencją wobec alkoholika, czy motywowaniem go do leczenia. +Zapoznając się z teorią i praktyką interwencji kryzysowej, należy ustalić znaczenia takich terminów jak: kryzys i interwencja kryzysowa. Potoczne kryzys rozumie się jako okres przełomu, przesilenia, decydujących zmian. W języku angielskim termin ten zawiera dodatkowo takie cechy jak: nagłość, urazowość i negatywne przeżycia. Tak więc kryzys to moment rozstrzygający, punkt zwrotny, okres przełomu. +Rodzaje kryzysów. +Według teoretyków kryzysu powinno wystąpić kilka cech, które pozwolą nam go rozpoznać. Są to: obecność ostrego wydarzenia krytycznego lub przewlekłego stresu, odczuwanie wydarzenia jako nieoczekiwanego, spostrzeganie sytuacji jako utraty lub zagrożenia, poczucie niepewności, co do przyszłości, poczucie utraty kontroli, nagłe naruszenie rutynowych sposobów zachowania, stan napięcia emocjonalnego trwający przez jakiś czas, konieczność zmiany dotychczasowych sposobów funkcjonowania. Podsumowując: kryzys, (według Geralda Caplana amerykańskiego psychiatry jednego z twórców interwencji kryzysowej, który opracował schemat przebiegu reakcji kryzysowej), to sytuacja, która powstaje wtedy, gdy jakaś osoba na drodze do osiągnięcia ważnych celów życiowych napotyka przeszkody i nie jest w stanie tych przeszkód przezwyciężyć za pomocą dotychczasowych metod rozwiązywania problemów; kryzys powoduje, iż osoba traci równowagę w jakiej się znajduje i wchodzi w stan braku równowagi i dezorganizacji. +Jak przebiega kryzys? +Najczęściej trudne sytuacje, zagrażające życiu i zdrowiu człowieka są sprawdzianem dojrzałości. Większość kryzysów, które przeżywamy, jesteśmy w stanie rozwiązać sami, bez pomocy z zewnątrz. Niektórzy autorzy twierdzą, że im człowiek wrażliwszy i inteligentniejszy, tym więcej kryzysów przeżywa. Jednak niektóre z nich, zwłaszcza kryzysy egzystencjalne (dotyczące sensu życia), jeśli występują wraz z dużym zagrożeniem suicydalnym, wymagają profesjonalnej interwencji. +Czym jest więc interwencja? Potoczne rozumienie oznacza włączanie się, wtrącanie się w jakąś sprawę; wywieranie wpływu na kogoś w jakiejś sprawie w celu uzyskania określonego efektu (Słownik Wyrazów Obcych PWN 1999). Dla nas najważniejsze jest rozumienie interwencji kryzysowej jako działania wobec osoby przeżywającej kryzys psychologiczny. Czyli jest to działanie psychologiczne mające na celu przywrócenie równowagi. +Interwencja kryzysowa jest to działanie doraźne, krótkoterminowe, zmierzające do udzielenia natychmiastowej pomocy osobom znajdującym się w sytuacji kryzysowej. Formy organizacyjne obejmują między innymi: telefony zaufania, zespoły interwencji kryzysowej, krótkotrwałą hospitalizację. Pomoc obejmuje krótkotrwałą psychoterapię, farmakoterapię, pomoc prawną, socjalną, materialną oraz ułatwianie kontaktów z innymi instytucjami (Encyklopedyczny Słownik Psychiatrii PZWL 1986). +Po pierwsze: należy być z tą osobą. Jeżeli nie mamy czasu, jeżeli nie mamy możliwości być dłużej, to nie powinniśmy podejmować interwencji. Czas interwencji jest nieograniczony we wstępnej fazie. Kontakty powinny być intensywne. Powinniśmy pracować do skutku, czyli do ustalenia jakiegoś sposobu postępowania. +Po drugie: w niektórych sytuacjach należy być dyrektywnym. Osoba w kryzysie nie jest w stanie sama rozwiązać swoich problemów. Nie widzi swej sytuacji z metapoziomu. Koncentrujemy się na problemach "tu i teraz". +Po trzecie: osoba pomagająca powinna okazywać maksymalny poziom empatii. Powinna popatrzeć na świat osoby w kryzysie z jej punktu widzenia. Zobaczyć jej trudności oraz zasoby pomocne w rozwiązaniu problemu. +Po czwarte: osoba pomagająca osobom w kryzysie powinna uczyć nowych rozwiązań, a nie dawać gotowe recepty. +Jak przebiega interwencja kryzysowa? +Krok I. Prośba o pomoc.. +Osoba w kryzysie poszukuje pomocy. Należy odebrać jej sygnały, usłyszeć jej wołanie. +Krok II. Analiza sytuacji powodującej kryzys. +Terapeuta analizuje jej aktualne funkcjonowanie w relacji z sobą, z innymi, w domu, w pracy. Analizuje aktualne cele, wartości. +Pytania klucze: jak wygląda twój dzień? Jakich masz znajomych, przyjaciół? Co myślisz o sobie? Co dla Ciebie jest ważne w życiu? Jakie uczucia najczęściej przeżywasz? +Krok III. Rozpoznanie strategii i działań, które podejmowane były przez osobę w kryzysie. +Terapeuta analizuje wszystkie możliwe działania, które podejmowała oso +ba w kryzysie i efekty tych działań. Należy dowiedzieć się jak wygląda dotychczasowy schemat rozwiązywania problemów. Jakie towarzyszą temu schematy poznawcze, emocjonalne i behavioralne. +Pytania klucze: Jak dotychczas radziłeś sobie z trudnościami? Jakie były efekty twoich działań? W jaki sposób radziłeś sobie w podobnych sytuacjach? +Krok IV. Sprawdzenie możliwych, preferowanych rozwiązań. +Terapeuta sprawdza co jest celem osoby w kryzysie. Na ile preferowany jest ten cel oraz czy dana osoba w jakiś sposób już podobne rzeczy realizowała. +Pytania klucze: Czy były takie chwile w twoim życiu, że udawało ci się realizować choćby część z tych celów? W jaki sposób udawało ci się "to" zrobić? Co takiego musiałoby się zdarzyć, abyś częściej "to" robił? Co będziesz robił, kiedy ten problem zostanie rozwiązany? +Krok V. Nauczenie nowych strategii postępowania. +Terapeuta powinien nauczyć nowego sposobu widzenia świata, rozwiązywania problemów oraz zachowania się. Niezbędne są tutaj treningi zachowań konstruktywnych. Osoba w kryzysie ma dzięki nam zobaczyć swój problem z metapoziomu. Wykorzystać wszystkie swoje zasoby. +Krok VI. Kontrakt na uczenie się nowych zachowań i wdrażanie nowej strategii. +Na tym etapie terapeuta doprowadza do końca swoją interwencję. Osoba wspomagana powinna dalej sama wdrażać w codziennym życiu nowe strategie. Jest to sprawdzian działania przeorientowanych mechanizmów obronnych oraz nowych schematów postępowania. +Nie bójmy się kryzysów. One dają nam szansę na uruchomienie swoich potencjałów i powodują nasz rozwój. +Strykowo + +Strykowo – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim, w gminie Stęszew. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie poznańskim. +Położenie, historia i komunikacja. +Niegdyś miejscowość znana jako "Stryków". Największa wieś w gminie, położona nad Jeziorem Strykowskim, ok. 6 km na pd.-zach. od Stęszewa. W XVII w. własność Korzbok-Strykowskich, później Skaławskich. W XIX wieku przeszło na własność von Treskowów. +We wsi znajduje się stacja kolejowa Strykowo Poznańskie, położona na linii kolejowej z Lubonia (Poznania) do Wolsztyna, którą kursują planowo parowozy z Parowozowni Wolsztyn. Do lat 50. XX w. Strykowo było punktem stycznym wąskotorowej kolei folwarcznej z Modrza. +Pałac w Strykowie. +Oryginalny, "pałaco-zamek", udający warowną rezydencję, neogotycki, jednak ze zdobieniami secesyjnymi. Powstał w 1900 r. dla ówczesnego właściciela wsi, Hansa von Treskowa, o czym świadczy herb umieszczony nad głównym wejściem. Złożony z wielu przylegających do siebie brył, nad którymi góruje umieszczona centralnie masywna wieża. Remontowany w 2004 r., leży nad brzegiem jeziora i jest otoczony parkiem. Obecnie w rękach prywatnych - restauracja i hotel. +Zamek otacza 10 hektarowy park, w którym znajdują się 500 letnie dęby – pomniki przyrody. +Gimnazjum w Strykowie. +Szkoła powstała 3 kwietnia 1876 r. Od 1972 r. mieści się w dwóch budynkach. W tym oddanym do użytku w 1972 r. znajduje się obecne Gimnazjum (dawniej Szkoła Podstawowa). Od 31 maja 1986 r. szkoła nosi imię Janusza Korczaka, a od 1997 r. posiada swój sztandar. +Alastor (grupa muzyczna) + +Alastor - polski zespół grający muzykę thrash metalową, jeden z weteranów tego gatunku na polskiej scenie muzycznej. Powstał w Kutnie w 1986 roku. +Biografia. +W roku 1989 światło dzienne ujrzał debiutancki longplay "Syndroms of the Cities" wydany przez włoską wytwórnię Metalmaster w całej Europie. Polskojęzyczna wersja płyty pojawiła się w roku następnym tylko pod postacią kasety wydanej przez firmę Polmusic. Współpracę z katowickim Metal Mind Productions kończy nagrana w roku 1990 płyta "Przeznaczenie". Rok później zarejestrowana jako "The Destiny". Zastój we współpracy spowodowany był – jak twierdził – MMP "brakiem koniunktury" na prezentowaną przez zespół muzykę, przyczynił się do wygaśnięcia współpracy. W roku 1992 zespół wydał kasetę z nowymi propozycjami w Carnage Records "Garage'92 – Live Sesion". Po kilku występach na deskach jarocińskiego festiwalu to w roli gwiazdy bądź zespołu konkursowego (taki to był wówczas muzyczny rynek) Alastor stanął do konkursu festiwalowego w sierpniu 1993 roku. Zwycięstwo w Jarocinie przyniosło płytę "Zło" wydaną przez Loud Out Records. Czas płynął, Alastor stał się kwartetem i już bez Osieckiego stworzył w 1997 roku płytę "Żyj, gnij i milcz", którą wydał label firmy Morbid Noizz – Sound Factory Records. Dobre recenzje płyty nie poparte promocją sprawiły, że materiał przepadł metalowym tyglu, a zespół zawiesił działalność. +W roku 2002 miała miejsce pierwsza próba powrotu. Na miejsce Osieckiego w zespole pojawił się "Zwolak" z gostynińskiego Spin, lecz dobre chęci nie wytrzymały konfrontacji z rzeczywistością. Nie wszyscy wytrzymali życiowe przeszkody, zmienił się skład. Już bez Frydrysiaka, do działań żelaznej, starej gwardii (Bryłka, Stankiewicz, Matuszewski) zostali zaproszeni: Jacek Kurnatowski – bas (ex Spin) oraz Marcin "Crowbar" Bilicki – gitara (ex Projekt Q). We wrześniu 2006 ukazało się trzyutworowe demo, zapowiedź nowego albumu – "Spaaazm". +W 2009 roku zespół nagrał płytę "Spaaazm". W między czasie do składu wrócił Radek Zwoliński tym razem w roli basisty. +W 2010 roku nowym wokalistą został Mish Jarski, który zastąpił Roberta Stankiewicza. Latem 2011 roku nasąpiła kolejna zmiana w składzie - Radka Zwolińskiego zastąpił Jakub Kubasiński. W tym składzie (Bryłka - Matuszewski - Bilicki - Jarski - Kubasiński), po serii udanych koncertów, jesienią 2011 roku zespół nagrał w podolkuskim ZED Studio materiał na kolejną płytę pod roboczym jak dotąd tytułem "Out of Anger". Płyta w całości anglojęzyczna będzie miała swoją premierę w pierwszej połowie 2012 roku. +Na początku 2012 roku po 6 latach z zespołu odszedł Marcin "Crowbar" Bilicki, a jego miejsce zajął Artur "Naho" Banach. +Zespół ma na swoim koncie występy na wszystkich większych festiwalach metalowych oraz rockowych: Metal Battle, Metalmania, FMR Jarocin, Rock Festiwal Węgorzewo, Strash'ydło w Ciechanowie, Mayday Festiwal, Dramma, Wojna z trzema schodami i wiele innych. +Muzycy. +Oś czasu. +ImageSize = width:850 height:400 +PlotArea = left:110 bottom:120 top:0 right:30 +Alignbars = justify +DateFormat = mm/dd/yyyy +Period = from:01/01/1986 till:04/01/2012 +TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy +Colors = +Legend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:2 +ScaleMajor = increment:2 start:1986 +ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1986 +LineData = +BarData = +PlotData= + +WBC (medycyna) + +WBC –(ang.white blood cells) w morfologii krwi wskaźnik określający liczbę białych krwinek. +Wartości prawidłowe. +4000-10000/mm3. U zdrowego niemowlęcia i małego dziecka: 9000-15000/mm3. +Charles Wright Mills + +Charles Wright Mills (ur. 28 sierpnia 1916 w Waco w Teksasie, zm. 20 marca 1962 w Nyack w Nowym Jorku) – socjolog amerykański. +Kariera akademicka. +W 1939 ukończył uniwersytet stanowy Teksasu, dwa lata później obronił doktorat na uniwersytecie stanowym Wisconsin. Od 1946 był wykładowcą Columbia University. Charles Wright Mills utrzymywał kontakty z socjologami w Polsce, którą trzykrotnie odwiedził w latach 1957-1961. +Koncepcje i publikacje. +Był twórcą terminu wyobraźnia socjologiczna, który rozwinął w książce z 1959 r. pod tym samym tytułem, uznawanej za jedną z najbardziej wpływowych publikacji w socjologii XX wieku. Za pomocą tego pojęcia chciał poszerzyć spojrzenie jednostek na rzeczywistość, zazwyczaj ograniczone do najbliższego kręgu społecznego. Twierdził, że socjologia powinna skoncentrować się na analizie związków ludzkich biografii z historią społeczeństw w celu zrozumienia istoty oddziałujących na jednostki struktur społecznych w danym miejscu i czasie. Wyobraźnia socjologiczna to perspektywa poznawcza umożliwiająca przekroczenie ograniczonego, indywidualnego doświadczenia biograficznego ("osobiste troski") i ujęcie go w kategoriach procesów społeczno-historycznych o ponadindywidualnym charakterze ("publiczne problemy"). +Pierwszą poważną pracą C.W. Millsa była redakcja pism Maxa Webera w przekładzie na na język angielski (wspólnie z Hansem H. Gerthem, 1946). Jego szczególnie ważne dzieła, stanowiące swoistą trylogię analizy klasowej społeczeństwa amerykańskiego, to: "Nowi ludzie władzy. Przywódcy ruchu robotniczego w Ameryce" ("The New Men of Power: America's Labor Leaders", 1948), "Białe kołnierzyki. Amerykańskie klasy średnie" (1951) oraz "Elita władzy" (1956). Inne ważne prace Millsa to "Przyczyny trzeciej wojny światowej" (1958), "Słuchajcie Jankesi. Rewolucja kubańska" (1960) oraz napisana wspólnie z Hansem H, Gerthem "Charakter i struktura społeczna. Psychologia Instytucji społecznych" ("Character and Social Structure. The Psychology of Social Institutions" 1953). +Mills zajmował się głównie tematyką struktury społecznej oraz refleksją nad intelektualną, moralną i polityczną rolą nauk społecznych (sam preferował określenie "badania społeczne") we współczesnym świecie. Podejmował również problematykę stosunków politycznych, otwarcie krytykując zarówno amerykański model liberalno-kapitalistyczny, jak i radziecki socjalizm państwowy. W obu konsekwentnie poddawał krytyce etos biurokratyczny. Nie stronił od ujawniania wartości inspirujących jego pracę intelektualną, wśród których były postulaty takie, jak poszukiwanie możliwości zmiany w kierunku bardziej sprawiedliwego systemu społeczno-gospodarczego czy konieczność zażegnania groźby nowego światowego konfliktu zbrojnego między dwoma blokami geopolitycznymi okresu zimnej wojny. Mills wyrażał poparcie dla sił politycznych i ruchów społecznych gotowych podjąć te wyzwania. Z 1960 roku pochodzi jego słynny "List do Nowej Lewicy" opublikowany w brytyjskim czasopiśmie "New Left Review". +Godzisława + +Godzisława – żeńska forma imienia Godzisław, nienotowana w źródłach staropolskich. Jej formę pochodną mogło stanowić m.in. imię Gosława. +Godzisława imieniny obchodzi 24 grudnia. +Pałac w Konarzewie + +Pałac w Konarzewie – barokowa, piętrowa budowla na planie prostokąta, wzniesiona w latach 1689–1699 dla Jędrzeja Radomickiego herbu Kotwicz, starosty osieckiego, późniejszego wojewody poznańskiego. Radomiccy byli właścicielami Konarzewa do 1808, kiedy to majątek przeszedł drogą dziedziczenia na Franciszka Ksawerego Działyńskiego. W listopadzie 1806 w pałacu zatrzymał się Napoleon Bonaparte. W Konarzewie rozpoczął gromadzenie swoich zbiorów (później przeniesionych do Kórnika) syn Franciszka Działyńskiego, Tytus. +Po Działyńskich, Konarzewo odziedziczyli Dzieduszyccy, później przeszło w posiadanie Czartoryskich. Ostatnim przedwojennym właścicielem Konarzewa był książę Roman Czartoryski. Podczas okupacji pałac został zdewastowany. Remonty przeprowadzone w latach 1953 i 1971 spowodowały częściową utratę oryginalnego charakteru wnętrz. Obecnie siedziba firmy "Animex Wielkopolska". +Prosta i elegancka fasada frontowa pałacu zwrócona ku północy, przed nią duży podjazd, otoczony murem z barokową bramą. Fasada ogrodowa z dwupiętrowym ryzalitem. Dach czterospadowy. Wewnątrz pałacu, na przestrzał osi głównej, zachowana sień o sklepieniu beczkowym z lunetami oraz podobne pomieszczenie na piętrze. Częściowo zachowana dekoracja sztukateryjna i malarska z przełomu XVII i XVIII w. +Obok pałacu późnobarokowa oficyna z końca XVII w., kryta łamanym dachem polskim z okienkami powiekowymi. +Otaczający rezydencję ogród, pierwotnie urządzony w stylu włoskim (zachowały się tarasy w bezpośrednim pobliżu pałacu), przechodzący w park, został, za czasów Działyńskich, wykorzystany jako zaplecze szkółkarsko-hodowlane arboretum w Kórniku. Obecnie zaniedbany. +Grupa eksperymentalna + +Grupa eksperymentalna - w metodologii nauki grupa obiektów, na której odbywa się manipulacja eksperymentalna. +Wyniki uzyskane w grupie eksperymentalnej z reguły są porównywane z wynikami uzyskanymi w innych grupach eksperymentalnych lub w grupie kontrolnej, w której nie zastosowano manipulacji eksperymentalnej. Do porównywań wykorzystuje się różne techniki analizy statystycznej. +Jerzy Swatoń + +Jerzy Swatoń (ur. 24 maja 1947 w Cieszynie) – polski polityk, w latach 2004-2005 minister środowiska. +Życiorys. +Absolwent I Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. Antoniego Osuchowskiego w Cieszynie i Wyższej Szkoły Ekonomicznej w Pradze, na której odbył także studia doktoranckie z zakresu organizacji i zarządzania (bez obrony pracy). Ukończył również Wydział Automatyki i Informatyki Politechniki Śląskiej w Gliwicach. +W latach 1970–1989 należał do PZPR. Od 1971 do 1988 pracował m.in. jako instruktor Naczelnej Organizacji Technicznej, nauczyciel, a także etatowy działacz Zrzeszenia Studentów Polskich i Socjalistycznego Związku Studentów Polskich. Następnie do 1993 był zatrudniony w katowickim urzędzie wojewódzkim. +Zajmował stanowisko prezesa zarządu Wojewódzkiego Funduszu Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej w Katowicach, a latach 2002–2003 był jego wiceprezesem. W okresie 2003–2004 był zastępcą prezesa zarządu i następnie prezesem zarządu Narodowego Funduszu Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej. Od 2 maja 2004 do 25 kwietnia 2005 pełnił funkcję ministra środowiska w rządach Marka Belki. Od 2008 pełni funkcję dyrektora jednego z departamentów w NFOŚiGW. +Należy m.in. do Stowarzyszenia Ordynacka oraz Polskiego Klubu Ekologicznego. +E-pistolografia + +E-pistolografia, epistolografia elektroniczna – sztuka pisania listów z wykorzystaniem nowoczesnej technologii, nadawca przesyła odbiorcy wiadomość za pośrednictwem telefonu komórkowego (SMS) lub Internetu (e-mail). +Termin e-pistolografia utworzony został przez modyfikację zapisu graficznego słowa epistolografia. Zbieżność pierwszej litery "e" w wyrazie epistolografia jak i w słowie e-mail umożliwiły nową formę zapisu, która wskazuje zarówno na tradycyjne pojęcie epistolografii jako sztuki pisania listów, jak i na nową formę kontaktów międzyludzkich, jaką jest list elektroniczny. +Analogicznie do drugiego znaczenia epistolografii – dział literatury zajmujący się utworami napisanymi w formie listów – e-pistolografia w przyszłości określać będzie dział literatury dotyczący korespondencji internetowej. W kwestii wymowy znak "-" sugeruje krótką pauzę. +Apelles + +Apelles (ur. około 370 p.n.e. w Kolofonie lub na Kos, zm. około 300 p.n.e. na Kos) - największy (wedle opinii starożytnych) malarz grecki, syn Pytheosa z Kolofonu. +Życie. +Był jońskim Grekiem. Po studiach u Eforosa w Efezie i w słynnej doryckiej szkole w Sykionie, gdzie jego nauczycielem był Pamfilos, Apelles został nadwornym malarzem i portrecistą Filipa II Macedońskiego i jego syna Aleksandra Wielkiego. Miał wyłączne prawo portretować Aleksandra w malarstwie, tak jak Lizyp w rzeźbie. Później pracował w Efezie, na Kos i Rodos oraz krótko w Aleksandrii na dworze Ptolemeusza I Sotera. +Był najsłynniejszym malarzem swoich czasów i ceny jego obrazów z biegiem czasu rosły. Poddawał je pod krytykę opinii publicznej i zgadzał się na poprawianie błędów, jakie zauważali przechodnie (stąd słynna anegdota o szewcu, którego uwagi na temat złego namalowania obuwia artysta przyjął do wiadomości, lecz sprzeciwił się, gdy szewc zaczął krytykować szaty i proporcje namalowanej osoby, mówiąc mu: „Niech szewc nie wyrokuje powyżej kopyta", po łacinie "Ne sutor ultra crepidam"). +Cechy warsztatu artystycznego. +Do malarstwa wprowadził postać zwróconą plecami do widza ("aversa facie") i różowawą karnację kobiet. +W swoich dziełach, łącząc tradycje jońskie (szkoły Eforosa) z doryckimi (szkoły sykiońskiej), jak się też mówi, łącząc dorycką precyzję z jońską elegancją, dał najdoskonalsze podsumowanie wcześniejszych osiągnięć całego malarstwa greckiego. Doświadczenia artystyczne zawarł w traktacie adresowanym do swego ucznia Perseusza. +Tematyka prac. +Obrazy Apellesa niestety nie zachowały się do naszych czasów. Ich tematyka była wyjątkowo szeroka: portret (m.in. konny), autoportret, alegorie, sceny mitologiczne, zwierzęta, a nawet zjawiska natury, np. błyskawice, piorun, huragan. +Portrety i alegorie. +Namalował wiele znakomitych portretów, głównie władców i dostojników: m.in. Filipa II i Aleksandra Wielkiego (co najmniej po kilka), Antygona Jednookiego (dla ukrycia defektu ukazanego w trzech czwartych), satrapy Lidii Menandra, arcykapłana świątyni Artemidy efeskiej Megabyzosa i dowódcy Aleksandra Wielkiego Klejtosa. Malował jednak też portrety zwykłych ludzi np. aktora Gorgosthenesa (prawdopodobnie jego kopia znajduje się w Herkulanum) czy też portret hetery Pankaspe. Wizerunki przez niego tworzone tak doskonale oddawały charakter malowanych osób, że nazywano je niedyskretnymi. Wykonał także pierwszy w historii autoportret. +Ponadto namalował równie wiele obrazów o treściach alegorycznych i mitologicznych np. "Triumf Aleksandra Wielkiego ze spętaną wojną", "Heraklesa", "Tyche i Charis (Wdzięk)". +Najwybitniejsze dzieła. +Jednak największą sławę zdobyły: +Gosław (imię) + +Gosław – staropolskie imię męskie; forma skrócona takich imion, jak Godzisław, Gorzysław lub Gościsław. +Gosław imieniny obchodzi 18 kwietnia, 1 grudnia, 27 grudnia i 29 grudnia. +Gmina Ujazd (powiat strzelecki) + +Gmina Ujazd (niem. "Gemeinde Ujest") – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie opolskim, w powiecie strzeleckim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie opolskim. W 2006 roku w gminie wprowadzono język niemiecki jako język pomocniczy. +Siedziba gminy to Ujazd. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwały 6293 osoby. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 11,19% powierzchni powiatu. +Miasto zajmuje powierzchnię 14,69 km², które zamieszkuje 1631 mieszkańców. Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 111 mieszkańców na 1 km². +Obszar wiejski zajmuje powierzchnię 68,62 km², zamieszkany jest przez 4673 mieszkańców. Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 68 mieszkańców na 1 km². +Miejscowości wchodzące w skład gminy. +Balcarzowice, Buczek (należy do Zimnej Wódki), Dziedzinka, Gaj, Grzeboszowice (należy do Sieroniowic), Janków, Jaryszów, Klucz, Kolonia Jaryszów, Komorniki, Kopanina, Księży Las, Niezdrowice, Nogowczyce, Olszowa, Sieroniowice, Stary Ujazd, Wesołów(należy do Zimnej Wódki), Ferdynand (należy do Starego Ujazdu), Wydzierów, Zimna Wódka. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Kędzierzyn-Koźle, Leśnica, Rudziniec, Strzelce Opolskie, Toszek +German (imię) + +German – imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego. Wywodzi się od nazwy "Germanus" pochodzącej od nazwy etnicznej "Germania"; istnieje także słowo łacińskie "germanus" – „rodzony, spokrewniony z kimś”. Odpowiednik żeński to Germana. W Polsce imię odnotowano już w średniowieczu. Istnieje około trzydziestu świętych patronów tego imienia. Ze względu na podobne brzmienie imię mylone jest niekiedy z imieniem Herman. +Petrykozy (powiat opoczyński) + +Petrykozy – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie łódzkim, w powiecie opoczyńskim, w gminie Białaczów, nad Drzewiczką. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa piotrkowskiego. +Historia. +Wczesnośredniowieczne ślady osadnictwa zachowane w postaci owalnego grodziska położonego na przepływającej przez Petrykozy rzece Drzewiczce (tzw. kopiec). Nazwa miejscowości pochodzi prawdopodobnie od rodu Petrykozkich. W XVIII w. ze względu na obfitość rud żelaza na tym terenie rozwinęło się hutnictwo, a Petrykozy stały się własnością rodziny Małachowskich. Stanisław Małachowski herbu Nałęcz, marszałek Sejmu Wielkiego, zbudował fryszerki, a w 1791 r. kościół klasycystyczny pod wezwaniem św. Doroty. Projektantem kościoła był sam wielki nadworny architekt króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego, Jan Christian Kamsetzer. W ostatnich latach swego panowania król odwiedził Petrykozy goszcząc u Małachowskich. +W XIX w. przez Petrykozy poprowadzono linię kolejową (odcinek Opoczno – Końskie). Po I wojnie światowej w 1919 r. zbudowano tartak istniejący do dziś (obecnie ma status zakładu pracy chronionej). W czasie okupacji hitlerowskiej działali tu partyzanci Armii Krajowej, m.in. Witold Kucharski ps. Wicher i Ludwik Lucjan Zieliński ps. Brzeszczot. +Obecnie w Petrykozach znajduje się punkt pocztowy, cztery placówki handlowe, tartak, Ochotnicza Straż Pożarna (nowa remiza), ośrodek zdrowia i parafia rzymskokatolicka pod wezwaniem św. Doroty. Na miejscowym cmentarzu najstarsze zachowane groby pochodzą z połowy XIX w. +Zamek książąt mazowieckich w Czersku + +Zamek książąt mazowieckich w Czersku – zamek gotycki zbudowany na przełomie XIV i XV wieku. +Historia. +W miejscu dzisiejszego zamku w XI wieku istniał drewniano ziemny gród o konstrukcji izbicowej zbudowany w czasach panowania Bolesława Śmiałego lub Władysława Hermana. Gród ten był głównym ośrodkiem administracyjnym księstwa czerskiego. W 1224 roku wymieniono w źródłach kasztelana czerskiego Piotra Pilcha. W 1229 książę Konrad mazowiecki uwięził w tutejszym lochu księcia Henryka Brodatego. Wypuścił go dopiero po interwencji przybyłej ze Śląska księżnej Jadwigi. W 1239 Konrad uwięził w grodzie Bolesława Wstydliwego. Z 1350 roku pochodzi wzmianka z dokumentu księcia Kazimierza Trojdenowicza o obowiązku wsi biskupich do budowy izbic na grodzie czerskim uszkodzonych podczas najazdu Litwinów. W XIV wieku książę mazowiecki Janusz I, rozkazał w miejscu przestarzałego grodu wznieść ceglany zamek, który wybudowano w latach 1388 - 1410. Była to jedna z najważniejszych rezydencji księcia Janusza I, który zmarł na tym zamku w dniu 8 grudnia 1429 roku. +Gdy tereny te zostały przyłączone do Królestwa Polskiego w 1526 roku, zamek stał się własnością królewską. W tym też okresie nadbudowano cylindryczne wieże. Od 1547 roku zamek podlegał królowej Bonie, która nakazała wymianę drewnianej zabudowy dziedzińca na murowaną. Powstała wtedy tzw. rezydencja Bony czyli pałac o wymiarach 10 x 30 metrów zwany dworem Feliksa Parysa lub Wielkim Domem wzmiankowanym w 1549 roku, a także Dom południowy. +W czasie Potopu szwedzkiego, w 1656 roku, zamek w Czersku doznał bardzo poważnego uszczerbku. Wojska szwedzkie po doznaniu klęski od Stefana Czarnieckiego pod Warką, wycofując się, opanowały zamek i poważnie go zdewastowały. +W latach 1762–1766 starosta czerski marszałek wielki koronny Franciszek Bieliński podjął próbę remontu zamku (wtedy powstał most przez fosę) w celu umieszczenia w nim sądu grodzkiego i ziemskiego z archiwum. Jednak po III rozbiorze Polski i objęciu Czerska przez Prusaków mury zostały częściowo zburzone. Od tego czasu zamek jest zrujnowany. W latach 1907-1911 Towarzystwo Opieki nad Zabytkami Przeszłości sfinansowało pierwsze prace konserwatorskie przeprowadzone przez Kazimierze Skórewicza. Podczas I wojny światowej zamek został uszkodzony podczas walk niemiecko-rosyjskich w 1915 roku. W 1927 roku podjęto badania, dzięki którym odkryto fundamenty kościoła św. Piotra. +Obecnie zamek udostępniony jest zwiedzającym. +Architektura. +Zamek zbudowano na planie nieregularnym wyznaczonym przez obwód wałów wcześniej istniejącego w jego miejscu grodu ziemnego. Brama wjazdowa do zamku została zlokalizowana w monumentalnej 22 metrowej wieży gotyckiej zbudowanej na planie czworoboku. W wieży tej mieściła się komnata burgrabiego. Dwie wieże cylindryczne w czasach książąt mazowieckich miały wysokość murów obwodowych. Wieże te po przyłączeniu ziemi czerskiej do Korony w 1526 roku nadbudowano do dzisiejszej wysokości. Wieża południowo-zachodnia o wysokości 24 metrów miała wejście prowadzące z murów, a w jej przyziemiu znajdowała się cela więzienna. Wieża zachodnia była dostępna z dziedzińca. +Do dzisiaj zachowana jest większość murów zamku oraz wszystkie trzy wieże (Brama, Południowa i Zachodnia), z których można podziwiać panoramę okolicy. W obrębie murów znajdują się fundamenty kościoła zamkowego pod wezwaniem św. Piotra. Murowana zabudowa z XVI wieku nie zachowała się. +Zamek w kulturze. +W latach 70. ubiegłego wieku w otoczeniu zamku zespół Skaldowie z Łucją Prus nagrał teledysk do piosenki "W żółtych płomieniach liści". +Podpierścień + +Podpierścień – podzbiór pierścienia sam będący pierścieniem ze względu na działania indukowane z pierścienia wyjściowego. Dokładne znaczenie pojęcia zwykle wynika z kontekstu: zwykle wymaga się, by "podpierścień" był obiektem tej samej kategorii co "pierścień", a wszystkie odstępstwa najczęściej są zaznaczane. W ten sposób od "podpierścieni" pierścienia z jedynką wymaga się często, aby same miały jedynkę (choć nie jest to regułą). Nie mniej niektóre własności są dziedziczne, np. przemienność, czy brak dzielników zera (tzn. podpierścienie pierścienia przemiennego są przemienne, podobnie zachowywany jest brak dzielników zera). +Definicja. +Niech formula_1 będzie pierścieniem. Podzbiór formula_2 zbioru formula_3 jest podpierścieniem pierścienia formula_3, jeżeli jest on zamknięty ze względu na działania formula_5 i formula_6, tzn. dla dowolnych elementów formula_7 zachodzi +oraz +Równoważnie podpierścieniem pierścienia formula_1 nazywa się algebrę ogólną formula_11, gdzie formula_12, przy czym formula_13 oraz formula_14 oznaczają zawężenia działań pierścienia formula_3 do zbioru formula_2. +Związek z ideałami. +Ideał właściwy nie może być podpierścieniem, jeśli wymaga się, by miał jedynkę, gdyż musiałby być on wtedy całym pierścieniem. Przykładowo, ideały w formula_20 są postaci formula_21, gdzie formula_22 jest liczbą całkowitą. Są one podpierścieniami wtedy i tylko wtedy, gdy formula_23 (w innych przypadkach nie zawierają jedynki), kiedy to są całym formula_20. +Ahimsa (grupa muzyczna) + +Ahimsa to polska grupa sceny niezależnej powstała w 1989 r. w Warszawie, nazwa pochodzi od odmiany filozofii hinduistycznej. Założycielami zespołu byli Tomek Grewiński (instrumenty perkusyjne) i Tomek Sierajewski (gitara), wkrótce do zespołu dołączył brat Grewińskiego, Mirosław Grewiński (gitara basowa). Przez dłuższy okres zespół poszukiwał wokalisty, jeden z przejściowych nabytków Paweł Krawczyk został następnym gitarzystą grupy. Dopiero w 1993 r. do zespołu przyłączył się na stałe wokalista Andrzej Mazurowski. Zespół wziął udział w Przystanku Woodstock i często koncertował za granicą. Autorką niektórych tekstów grupy jest Kayah, była życiowa partnerka Tomka "Tomika" Grewińskiego. Obecnie jest on jej managerem. Z kolei, Paweł Krawczyk gra obecnie w zespole Hey, a Tomek Sierajewski w zespołach Elvis Deluxe i The Black Tapes. Andrzej Mazurowski w latach 1997-2008 był dziennikarzem TVP. Pracował m.in. dla Panoramy, Teleexpressu i Monitora Wiadomości. +Tatomir + +Tatomir, Tatomier, Tatumir – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Tatu-" ("tata") "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Może zatem oznaczać "przynoszący pokój swojemu ojcu". +Tatomir imieniny obchodzi 12 lipca. +Medal 30-lecia Polski Ludowej + +Medal 30-lecia Polski Ludowej – polskie cywilne odznaczenie państwowe okresu PRL. +Medal 30-lecia Polski Ludowej został ustanowiony dekretem Rady Państwa z dnia 7 lutego 1974 roku dla uczczenia trzydziestej rocznicy powstania Polski Ludowej, „"dając wyraz uznaniu dla wkładu ludzi pracy w budownictwo socjalistyczne i rozwój społeczno-gospodarczy kraju"”. Opis odznaki i zasady nadawania ustalono uchwałą Rady Państwa z tego samego dnia. Dekret ustanawiający medal został uchylony dnia 23 grudnia 1992 roku. +Zasady nadawania. +Medal nadawany był za co najmniej 15-letnią ofiarną, wyróżniającą się pracę zawodową w okresie 30-lecia Polski Ludowej i odznaczające się zaangażowaną działalnością społeczno-polityczną. +Medal nadawany był jednorazowo w 1974 roku, począwszy od dnia 22 lipca przez Radę Państwa. +Opis odznaki. +Odznaką Medalu 30-lecia Polski Ludowej jest krążek srebrzony, oksydowany o średnicy 32 mm. Na awersie pośrodku medalu znajduje się wgłębiony kwadrat o zaokrąglonych rogach, na którym znajduje się wypukły wizerunek orła państwowego. Po obu stronach tarczy znajdują się wypukłe daty: 1944 i 1974. Nad tarczą jest umieszczona rzymska cyfra XXX, a pod nią napis PRL. Na rewersie medalu pośrodku jest napis w trzech wierszach WALKA / PRACA / SOCJALIZM w otoku wieńca z liści dębowych. +Wstążka medalu ma szerokość 32 mm i jest koloru czerwonego z odcieniami czerwieni rozjaśniającymi się w kierunku brzegów wstążki. Baretka jest w kolorach wstążki, umieszczona jest na niej metalowa lub wyhaftowana nakładka koloru srebrnego z poziomej listewki o szerokości 2 mm i liczby „XXX” o wysokości 6 mm. +Medal noszono na lewej stronie piersi w kolejności po medalu „Zasłużonym na Polu Chwały”. +Statystyki. +Łącznie przyznano 229 049 Medali 30-lecia PRL . +Michał Rożek + +Michał Rożek (ur. 19 sierpnia 1946 w Krakowie) – historyk sztuki, autor licznych publikacji poświęconych głównie sztuce i historii Krakowa. +W 1964 roku zdał maturę w II Liceum im. Sobieskiego w Krakowie, w 1969 ukończył studia z historii sztuki na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, tamże habilitowany w 1979. +Członek Towarzystwa Miłośników Historii i Zabytków Krakowa, pracował dla TVP Kraków współrealizując programy o Krakowie. Od 1998 współpracuje z "Dziennikiem Polskim" pisząc w sobotnich wydaniach gazety. Autor kilkuset artykułów, wielu książek i innych publikacji. Aktywnie uczestniczy w różnych akcjach edukacyjnych, przeznaczonych również dla najmłodszych (spotkania w filiach bibliotek krakowskich). +Laureat wielu nagród m.in. w 1990 Nagrody Miasta Krakowa, we wrześniu 1995 Nagrody "Krakowska Książka Miesiąca" (za książkę "Wawel i Skałka. Panteony polskie"). +George Patton + +George Smith Patton Junior (ur. 11 listopada 1885 w San Gabriel, zm. 21 grudnia 1945 w Heidelbergu w Niemczech) – amerykański generał okresu II wojny światowej. +Był postacią bardzo kontrowersyjną już za życia, budził skrajne uczucia zarówno u swoich podwładnych, jak i u przełożonych. Wśród swoich żołnierzy znany był jako "Old blood and guts". Znakomity kawalerzysta i szermierz (napisał m.in. instrukcję szermierczą dla kawalerii amerykańskiej), namiętnie grywał w polo. Opowiadał o swoich bardzo realistycznych wizjach wcześniejszych wcieleń. Wierzył w reinkarnację, uważał się m.in. za wcielenie kartagińskiego żołnierza, rzymskiego legionisty, napoleońskiego generała i wielu innych postaci. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Urodził się na Rancho Lake Vineyard, w pobliżu miasta San Gabriel w Kalifornii. Jego ojcem był George Smith Patton senior, matką: Ruth (Wilson) Patton. Pochodził z rodziny z silnymi tradycjami wojskowymi, jego przodkowie walczyli w wielu wojnach, m.in. w czasie rewolucji amerykańskiej, a także w czasie wojny secesyjnej po stronie Konfederatów. W dzieciństwie marzył o tym, by zostać bohaterem wojennym i generałem. Czytał książki i opracowania historyczne oraz wojskowe, cierpiał jednak na dysleksję, co spowodowało późniejsze trudności z nauką. +Karierę wojskową rozpoczął w Virginia Military Institute, z którego przeniósł się rok później do West Point. Ukończył tę szkołę po pięciu latach (zamiast zwyczajowych czterech – głównie z powodu dysleksji), w 1909. Uplasował się na 46. pozycji rankingu absolwentów tego rocznika. Żonaty od 26 maja 1910 z Beatrice "Beą" (Ayer) Patton. +Na Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w Sztokholmie w 1912 reprezentował USA w pięcioboju nowoczesnym i w kontrowersyjnych okolicznościach zajął 5. miejsce. W trakcie przeprowadzania zawodów w strzelaniu z pistoletu nie znaleziono śladu po jednej z kul wystrzelonych przez Pattona – uznano, że chybił on całkowicie, choć bardziej prawdopodobne było, że brakująca kula przeszła otworem zrobionym już wcześniej przez inny strzał. +Patton służył jako adiutant przy gen. Johnie Pershingu w wyprawie do Meksyku, mającej na celu pojmanie rewolucjonisty Francisco "Pancho" Villi. Przebywał tam do lutego 1917. Wsławił się zabiciem dowódcy gwardii przybocznej Pancho Villi, "generała" Julio Cardenasa, w czasie rutynowego patrolu z oddziałem żołnierzy z 6. Dywizji Piechoty. +I wojna światowa. +Po przystąpieniu Stanów Zjednoczonych do I wojny światowej został awansowany do stopnia kapitana i udał się do Francji jako adiutant Pershinga, który polecił mu zorganizowanie amerykańskiego korpusu czołgów – U.S. Tank Corps. W czasie bitwy pod Cambrai Patton był obserwatorem przy angielskim oddziale czołgów, a pozyskane doświadczenie wykorzystał przy organizacji i treningu amerykańskich czołgistów. Jego zdolności organizacyjne zostały szybko zauważone i docenione, dwukrotnie go w tym czasie awansowano – osiągnął stopień podpułkownika jeszcze zanim jego oddziały wzięły udział w walce. W czasie bitwy pod St. Mihiel został ciężko ranny. Stało się to, kiedy osobiście udał się na pierwszą linię frontu, aby dozorować posuwające się natarcie. Otrzymał za to odznaczenie za odniesione rany, a później Distinguished Service Cross, oraz został awansowany na pułkownika. W momencie podpisywania zawieszenia broni przebywał w szpitalu. +Okres międzywojenny. +W 1919, po powrocie do Ameryki, zaprzyjaźnił się z Dwightem Eisenhowerem. Przyjaźń ta miała później ogromny wpływ na kariery ich obu. W tym czasie Patton starał się wielokrotnie o dodatkowe fundusze na rozwój broni pancernej i zajął się opracowaniem nowej taktyki i teorii związanej z tym rodzajem broni. Jego wysiłki spełzły na niczym, a po jednym z artykułów Pattona w "Infantry Journal", w którym kwestionował przyszłą rolę piechoty i przekonywał o potrzebie rozwoju wojsk pancernych, zagrożono mu nawet sądem wojskowym, gdyż głoszone przez niego poglądy znacznie różniły się od przyjętej wtedy amerykańskiej doktryny wojennej. W tym okresie poznał amerykańskiego konstruktora Waltera Christiego i według niektórych źródeł finansował jego badania nad napędem i zawieszeniem dla następnej generacji czołgów. Zniechęcony niepowodzeniami przeniósł się z powrotem do kawalerii z nadzieją na rozwój własnej kariery. +W styczniu 1923 został skierowany do Wyższej Szkoły Kawalerii (Advanced Cavalery School) w Ford Riley, którą ukończył w czerwcu. We wrześniu zaczął uczęszczać na kurs w Szkole Dowództwa i Sztabu Generalnego w Leavenworth, który ukończył w czerwcu 1924 z wyróżnieniem. Po ukończeniu edukacji trafił do I Korpusu w Bostonie. W marcu 1925 został przeniesiony na Hawaje, gdzie poznał Omara N. Bradleya. W trakcie tej służby napisał do Departamentu Stanu o zagrożeniu, jakie może stanowić Japonia, ostrzegając, że Pearl Harbor jest narażone na nagły atak bez wypowiedzenia wojny, który może być przeprowadzony przez samoloty startujące z lotniskowców. W lipcu 1934 został przeniesiony do 5. Pułku Kawalerii w Forcie Clark w Teksasie i awansował do stopnia pułkownika. W listopadzie 1937 r. kolejny raz trafił do 3. Pułku Kawalerii w Forcie Myer, tym razem już jako jego dowódca. Po ataku Niemiec hitlerowskich na Polskę przekonał Kongres o potrzebie stworzenia nowoczesnych oddziałów pancernych. Otrzymał promocję na generała i został dowódcą brygady zmechanizowanej, która wkrótce powiększyła się do rozmiarów dywizji i otrzymała nazwę 2. Amerykańskiej Dywizji Pancernej. +II wojna światowa. +W czasie amerykańskich przygotowań do II wojny światowej zorganizował Desert Training Center w Kalifornii i wziął udział w manewrach w Luizjanie w 1941. +Operacja "Husky". +Po zakończeniu kampanii północnoafrykańskiej Pattonowi powierzono dowództwo 7. Armii podczas przygotowań do inwazji na Sycylię (operacja Husky). Z powodów politycznych pierwotne plany opanowania wyspy, opracowane przez Pattona, zostały odrzucone. Nowe plany Montgomery'ego zakładały zajęcie wyspy głównie przez wojska brytyjskie z 7. Armią pełniącą funkcję pomocniczą, polegającą na ochronie zachodniego skrzydła Brytyjczyków. +Po udanym lądowaniu na Sycylii wojskom brytyjskim, wbrew planom, nie udało się szybko dotrzeć wzdłuż wschodniego wybrzeża do Messyny. Patton wykorzystał tę sytuację. Po szybkim zajęciu Palermo zmienił kierunek ataku na wschodni i posuwając się wzdłuż północnego wybrzeża Sycylii dotarł do Messyny przed Montgomerym. +Z politycznego punktu widzenia, znacznie poważniejszym zdarzeniem był tzw. incydent ze spoliczkowaniem. 3 sierpnia Patton w czasie wizytacji szpitala spoliczkował i wyzwał żołnierza, który przebywał tam bez żadnych oczywistych oznak ran fizycznych, gdyż cierpiał na silną nerwicę okopową. Podobny przypadek zdarzył się ponownie 10 sierpnia w innym szpitalu. Po ujawnieniu całej sprawy w mediach, Eisenhower odebrał Pattonowi dowództwo 7. Armii. +W czasie inwazji na Włochy Patton, pomimo że formalnie nie był dowódcą żadnej jednostki, miał duży wpływ na dalszy przebieg wojny. Po sukcesach w Afryce i na Sycylii Niemcy uważali go za najlepszego alianckiego generała. Uznali oni, że publiczne pozbawienie Pattona dowodzenia to jedynie część planu aliantów, mającego na celu wprowadzenie ich w błąd. Przedłużający się jego pobyt na Sycylii zinterpretowano jako przygotowania do inwazji na południową Francję, a jego wizytę w Kairze uznano za część przygotowania inwazji na Bałkanach. Strach przed nim pomógł unieruchomić wiele niemieckich jednostek, co zostało później świadomie wykorzystane przez aliancki kontrwywiad. +FUSAG. +Przed inwazją na Normandię w ramach Operacji "Fortitude" Patton został dowódcą fikcyjnej 1. Grupy Armii (First US Army Group, FUSAG), która pozorowała przygotowania do przeprowadzenia inwazji na Francję w okolicach Pas-de-Calais. +W tym czasie miało miejsce jeszcze jedno wydarzenie, które negatywnie wpłynęło na karierę Pattona. W czasie nieoficjalnego przemówienia w miejscowości Knutsford powiedział on, że po wojnie świat będzie zapewne rządzony przez Amerykę, Anglię i Rosję. Z nieznanych powodów relacje prasowe jego przemówienia w amerykańskich gazetach nie wspomniały o Rosjanach, co wywołało burzę medialną w ramach której oskarżano Pattona o obrazę sojuszniczych sił sowieckich. +Normandia. +Podczas początkowej fazy Operacji Overlord Patton przebywał w Anglii. Dopiero 1 sierpnia 1944 w wyniku reorganizacji jednostek alianckich w Normandii został dowódcą nowo utworzonej amerykańskiej 3 Armii, która weszła w skład 12 Grupy Armii i zajęła prawe (zachodnie) skrzydło frontu. +Po przybyciu na kontynent wziął udział w końcowej fazie Operacji Cobra, która przełamała impas wojny pozycyjnej, z której nie mogły się wyrwać wcześniej wojska alianckie. W czasie szybkiego marszu przez Francję z powodzeniem użył zmodyfikowanej przez siebie taktyki blitzkriegu, pokonując ponad 900 km w ciągu zaledwie dwóch tygodni. Wojska Pattona wyzwoliły większość północnej Francji, ale tuż przed wejściem do Paryża zostały w kontrowersyjny sposób zatrzymane przez Eisenhowera, aby pozwolić na zajęcie tego miasta przez francuską 2 Dywizję Pancerną pod dowództwem generała Philippe'a Marie Leclerca. +Lotaryngia. +Szybka ofensywa Pattona została nagle zatrzymana w Lotaryngii na początku września 1944 tuż przed Metzem, kiedy szybko posuwających się wojsk nie można już było zaopatrzyć w paliwo i amunicję, gdyż kwatermistrzostwo nie przewidziało szybkości, z jaką będzie przesuwał się front, zwłaszcza że niedostępne były bliżej położone porty morskie. Krótka przerwa w natarciu pozwoliła Niemcom na dalsze ufortyfikowanie Metzu. Przez następne dwa miesiące 3. Armia uwikłała się w ciężkie walki pozycyjne, zadając wiele strat Niemcom, tracąc przy tym dużo własnych żołnierzy i nie zdobywając wiele terenu. +Ofensywa w Ardenach. +Pod koniec 1944 niemiecka armia przeprowadziła ostatnią wielką ofensywę na froncie zachodnim. 16 grudnia 29 niemieckich dywizji (łącznie ok. 250 tys. żołnierzy) rozpoczęło operację "Wacht am Rhein" (Straż nad Renem), której celem było rozdzielenie wojsk aliantów oraz dotarcie do portów Holandii, pozbawiając w ten sposób zaopatrzenia znajdujące się we Francji wojska koalicji antyhitlerowskiej. +Patton jako jedyny z wyższych dowódców alianckich przewidział możliwość takiej ofensywy i dzięki temu jego armia była do tego dobrze przygotowana. Niemcy już dwukrotnie przeprowadzali analogiczne ataki w tym rejonie w podobnych okolicznościach, w czasie wojny prusko-francuskiej i I wojny światowej. W przeciągu zaledwie dwóch dni Patton zmienił oś ataku dwóch korpusów 3. Armii o 90 stopni i uderzył w lewe skrzydło niemieckiej armii docierając do okrążonych w Bastogne oddziałów 101. Dywizji Powietrznodesantowej. +Pod koniec lutego wojska niemieckie przeszły do obrony i Patton wkrótce, przełamując "Linię Zygfryda" wkroczył do Zagłębia Saary. W szybkim marszu opanował południowe Niemcy, oswobodził również dużą część Czechosłowacji. Planował wyzwolenie Pragi i dotarł kilkanaście kilometrów od jej przedmieść, otrzymał jednak od Eisenhowera kategoryczny zakaz dalszego pościgu za wojskami niemieckimi i cofnięcia się na wysokość Pilzna, gdyż do Pragi wchodzili już Rosjanie. +Okres powojenny. +Po kapitulacji Niemiec Patton miał nadzieję, że zostanie przeniesiony na front działań na Pacyfiku, pozostawiono go jednak w Europie, gdzie został wojskowym gubernatorem Bawarii. Jego zadaniem było teraz odbudowanie tego regionu. +Jako gubernator Bawarii Patton bardzo szybko znalazł się w konflikcie politycznym ze swoimi przełożonymi. Zdaniem Pattona oficjalna polityka denazyfikacji była błędem i automatyczne wykluczenie z życia publicznego wszystkich osób, które były członkami partii nazistowskiej było zbyt restrykcyjne. Porównał on to do sytuacji panującej w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w której obywatele czasami zostają członkami partii demokratycznej czy republikańskiej tylko po to, aby ułatwić sobie dalszą karierę zawodową, a nie ze względów ideologicznych. Jego słowa zostały zniekształcone przez niektóre media, które doniosły, że Patton porównuje demokratów i republikanów do nazistów. Po wybuchu powszechnego oburzenia opinii publicznej Eisenhower przeniósł Pattona do 15. Armii (w rzeczywistości była to grupa kilkunastu wojskowych, zajmująca się pisaniem oficjalnej historii II wojny światowej). +Patton zmarł 21 grudnia 1945 w szpitalu w Heidelbergu w wyniku obrażeń odniesionych w wypadku samochodowym, który miał miejsce 9 grudnia 1945. +Patton – legenda a rzeczywistość. +Większość ludzi zna postać Pattona wyłącznie na podstawie filmu o nim, a to, jak został on tam przedstawiony, różni się bardzo od tego, jaki był w rzeczywistości. Był on człowiekiem pełnym sprzeczności – głęboko religijny, interesował się historią sztuki i literaturą, a z drugiej strony był niezwykle gwałtowny, porywczy i stosujący wulgaryzmy językowe. Pod stworzoną na użytek kariery wojskowej maską "macho" krył się wrażliwy człowiek, który potrafił szczerze opłakiwać poległych podkomendnych. Spośród wszystkich alianckich dowódców był zapewne najczęściej odwiedzającym wojskowe szpitale generałem. +W wyobraźni wielu osób Patton istnieje jako uosobienie niezależnego wojownika, osoby wyłamującej się z reguł wojskowego establishmentu. W rzeczywistości jako zawodowy żołnierz świetnie poruszał się w realiach biurokracji w armii. Jeszcze w czasach I wojny światowej potrafił prowadzić znakomity lobbing wśród swoich przełożonych, korzystając z pomocy innych oficerów, w celu uzyskania wysokiego odznaczenia za akcję, w której brał udział. Pożądał sławy i wiele z jego zachowań było nastawionych wyłącznie na pokaz. +Był niezmiernie wymagający dla wszystkich swoich podwładnych i oczekiwał od nich absolutnego posłuszeństwa, ale z drugiej strony zawsze był gotowy wynagrodzić i pochwalić dobre i skuteczne inicjatywy, nawet jeżeli były one sprzeczne z jego punktem widzenia czy nawet z jego rozkazami, o ile tylko ich pomysłodawca potrafił udowodnić ich słuszność. +Po śmierci Pattona pojawiły się plotki i teorie, iż został on zabity przez agentów NKWD na rozkaz Stalina we współpracy z agentami OSS i za zgodą niektórych wyższych polityków rządu Stanów Zjednoczonych. Powodem dokonania zamachu na Pattona miało być to, iż Patton dość głośno wyrażał swoje poglądy antysowieckie (m.in. krążyła plotka, iż chciał doprowadzić do konfliktu z Armią Czerwoną, aby w ten sposób wywołać z ZSRR wojnę. W tym celu miał podobno utrzymywać w gotowości całe oddziały jeńców niemieckich). Dodatkowo swoją wiedzą na temat nieudolności swoich przełożonych (Dwight Eisenhower) i współpracowników (Bernard Law Montgomery), mógł zaszkodzić w budowaniu ich późniejszych karier zawodowych i politycznych. +Na potwierdzenie swoich teorii, ich twórcy wysuwają szereg faktów (m.in.: brak oryginalnego samochodu Pattona w muzeum mu poświęconym). +Patton w kulturze. +George Patton był tytułowym bohaterem powstałego w 1970 filmu "Patton" (odtwórca głównej roli George C. Scott otrzymał Oscara za najlepszą rolę męską). Film ten stał się bardzo popularny. Przedstawiona w nim sylwetka generała, a zwłaszcza słynne przemówienie z jego początku (oparte na prawdziwym przemówieniu Pattona do jego żołnierzy przed inwazją na Normandię) wykreowała postać Pattona jako agresywnego, żądnego krwi bojownika. Historycy wojskowości krytykują ten film za fałszywy obraz generała. Zdaniem krytyków, jest to efektem wpływu, jaki na film wywarł Omar Bradley jako doradca do spraw wojskowych i współautor scenariusza. Współpraca Pattona i Bradleya w czasie wojny była momentami bardzo burzliwa. Sam Bradley miał bardzo niskie zdanie o samym Pattonie, jak i o jego metodach, a film pokazuje Bradleya w sposób wybitnie hagiograficzny, często przekręcając fakty i czyniąc z Pattona bohatera negatywnego. +Amerykański reżyser Oliver Stone uważa, że film "Patton" miał bezpośredni wpływ na historię wojny wietnamskiej. Według niego, ówczesny prezydent Stanów Zjednoczonych Richard Nixon po obejrzeniu tego filmu wydał rozkaz eskalacji wojny w Wietnamie poprzez bombardowanie Kambodży. Stone pragnął nawet umieścić fragment "Pattona" w jego filmie biograficznym o Nixonie, ale nie otrzymał na to pozwolenia George'a Scotta. +W 1986 powstała druga cześć filmu o Pattonie: "Ostatnie dni Pattona". Film opowiada o wydarzeniach bezpośrednio poprzedzających śmiertelny wypadek samochodowy, w którym zginął generał, jak też sam wypadek i hospitalizacje Pattona. W filmie w postać Pattona ponownie wcielił się George C. Scott. +Odznaczenia. +Patton był także nagradzany licznymi pamiątkowymi medalami i odznakami, które nie były zakładane do munduru paradnego czy polowego, gdyż nie były uważane za oficjalne odznaczenia wojskowe. +Adelaide + +__NOTOC__ +Krzysztof Skubiszewski + +Krzysztof Jan Skubiszewski (ur. 8 października 1926 w Poznaniu, zm. 8 lutego 2010 w Warszawie) – polski polityk, profesor, minister spraw zagranicznych w latach 1989–1993. Kawaler Orderu Orła Białego. +Brat Piotra Skubiszewskiego. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawno-Ekonomicznym Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego. Obronił doktorat i habilitację. Uzyskał tytuł naukowy profesora, specjalizował się w zakresie prawa międzynarodowego. Wykładał we Francji, USA, Wielkiej Brytanii i Szwajcarii, publikował prace naukowe i opracowania, był współautorem podręcznika do prawa międzynarodowego "Prawo międzynarodowe publiczne. Zarys wykładu". Był członkiem-korespondentem PAN i pracownikiem naukowym Instytutu Nauk Prawnych PAN. +W latach 1981–1984 wchodził w skład Prymasowskiej Rady Społecznej, a w okresie 1986–1989 był członkiem Rady Konsultacyjnej przy Przewodniczącym Rady Państwa PRL, Wojciechu Jaruzelskim. Działał w „Solidarności” oraz w Wielkopolskim Klubie Politycznym „Ład i Wolność”. +13 września 1989 został powołany na stanowisko ministra spraw zagranicznych w gabinecie Tadeusza Mazowieckiego. Utrzymał tę tekę w kolejnych gabinetach – Jana K. Bieleckiego, Jana Olszewskiego, Waldemara Pawlaka i Hanny Suchockiej (do 25 października 1993). 14 listopada 1990 wraz z Hansem-Dietrichem Genscherem podpisał układ graniczny między Polską a Niemcami, gwarantujący uznanie przez RFN granicy na Odrze i Nysie. W okresie jego urzędowania zapoczątkowane zostały rokowania dotyczące członkostwa RP w NATO. Negocjował także zawarty 17 czerwca 1991 traktat polsko-niemiecki o dobrym sąsiedztwie i przyjaznej współpracy. W 1992 jego nazwisko pojawiło się na tzw. liście Macierewicza. +Po odejściu z rządu został przewodniczącym Trybunału Rozjemczego USA-Iran oraz sędzią "ad hoc" Międzynarodowego Trybunału Sprawiedliwości w Hadze. +Zmarł 8 lutego 2010 po krótkiej chorobie związanej z kontuzją stawu biodrowego. Został pochowany 18 lutego tego samego roku w Panteonie Wielkich Polaków w Świątyni Opatrzności Bożej . +Odznaczenia. +Otrzymał tytuły doktora "honoris causa" kilku uniwersytetów m.in. Uniwersytetu Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego, odznaczony najwyższymi orderami polskimi i międzynarodowymi, w tym Krzyżem Wielkim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (postanowieniem prezydenta Lecha Wałęsy z 26 października 1993), Orderem Orła Białego (7 grudnia 1999), Orderem Wielkiego Księcia Giedymina II klasy (2001) i Krzyżem Zasługi Republiki Federalnej Niemiec. +Wspólnie z Hansem-Dietrichem Genscherem był laureatem nagrody ministrów spraw zagranicznych Polski i Niemiec, ustanowionej w 1993. W 2005 został uhonorowany polsko-niemiecką nagrodą Pomerania Nostra, przyznawaną ludziom szczególnie zasłużonym dla Pomorza Zachodniego i Przedniego w jednej z trzech dziedzin: sztuce, nauce lub polityce. +13 listopada 2009, "w uznaniu wybitnych zasług dla polskiej służby zagranicznej i dorobku naukowego na arenie międzynarodowej", minister Radosław Sikorski nadał mu Odznakę Honorową Bene Merito. +Doskonałość aerodynamiczna + +Doskonałość aerodynamiczna (doskonałość statku powietrznego) - stosunek współczynnika siły nośnej formula_1 do współczynnika oporu formula_2. Jest to wartość niemianowana (np.: 32). Doskonałość statku powietrznego zmienia się w zależności od jego kąta natarcia. Maksymalną doskonałość osiąga się na optymalnym kącie natarcia. +Doskonałość jest wskaźnikiem teoretycznym i określa jak daleko zaleciałby statek powietrzny z wysokości 1 km (czyli 1000 m) w nieruchomym powietrzu przy warunkach standardowych oraz prędkości optymalnej, przy której stosunek Cz do Cx osiąga wartość maksymalną. Praktyczny zasięg statku bez napędu jak szybowiec, lotnia, paralotnia istotnie zależy od zjawisk zachodzących w atmosferze, przede wszystkim od ruchów powietrza (poziomych, tj. wiatru, oraz pionowych prądów termicznych), a także ewentualnego oblodzenia, zmieniającego kształt profilu skrzydła. Zasięg w mniejszym stopniu zależy również od zanieczyszczeń (przyklejone owady lub kurz) na powierzchni płatowca, które powodując zawirowania zwiększają opór. Zasięg zależy również od prędkości z jaką porusza się szybowiec względem powietrza. Przy większej prędkości zasięg się zmniejsza. Zależności te opisuje biegunowa prędkości. +Germanik (imię) + +Germanik - imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, oznaczające "pochodzący z Germanii". Patronem tego imienia jest św. Germanik, żyjący w I/II wieku. +Germanik imieniny obchodzi 19 stycznia i 11 października. +Dziedzina całkowitości + +Dziedzina całkowitości – niezerowy pierścień przemienny z jedynką bez (właściwych) dzielników zera. Pierścienie te są uogólnieniem pierścienia liczb całkowitych i stanowią one naturalny kontekst do badania podzielności ze względu na dość regularne reguły przeprowadzania rachunków; najistotniejszą ich własnością jest tzw. "prawo skracania". +Nieprzemienne dziedziny całkowitości nazywa się dziedzinami, wiele pozycji jednak się nimi nie zajmuje (ograniczając się do klasy pierścieni przemiennych), nazywając dziedziny całkowitości w skrócie również "dziedzinami". Inną nazwą dziedziny całkowitości, pochodzącą od Langa, jest pierścień całkowity. +Własności. +Dowód: Wystarczy wykazać, że dowolny element jest odwracalny. Rozważmy dla danego elementu formula_6 jego iloczyny ze wszystkimi elementami pierścienia: formula_7. Gdyby wśród nich nie było jedynki, to pewien element występowałby dwa razy (co najmniej) dla iloczynów z różnymi elementami. Jednak wówczas formula_8 i z własności skracania: formula_9. +Domicjan (imię) + +Domicjan — imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, genetycznie cognomen od łac. "Domitianus", oznaczające "należący do Domicjusza, adoptowany przez Domicjusza, wyzwoleniec Domicjusza". Podstawę zaś nazwy rodowej Domicjusz stanowi wyraz pospolity, który oznacza "oswojenie, poskromienie". Istnieje około dziesięciu świętych katolickich o tym imieniu, m.in. biskup Châlons z IV oraz biskup Tongeren-Maastricht z VI wieku. +Żeńskim odpowiednikiem jest Domicjana. +Domicjan imieniny obchodzi 7 maja, 12 maja, 1 lipca i 9 sierpnia. +Tajemniczy ogród + +Tajemniczy ogród (ang. "The Secret Garden") – powieść obyczajowa autorstwa Frances Hodgson Burnett, po raz pierwszy opublikowana w 1909 roku. +"Tajemniczy ogród" jest współcześnie uważany za najlepszą powieść tej autorki i zaliczany do klasyki literatury dziecięcej. Prócz warstwy obyczajowej, książka daje też wyraz przekonaniu o uzdrowicielskiej, wręcz mistycznej sile natury. Ludzie pozostający w silnym z nią związku są zdrowi i mocni (także moralnie), czego przykładem jest Dick Sowerby, owo "dziecko natury". Ozdrowieńczego jej oddziaływania doświadczają także inni jej bohaterowie: Mary Lennox, oderwana od angielskich korzeni, jest chorowita i brzydka – zmienia się to po powrocie do ojczyzny i poddaniu się mocy przyrody. W tej tezie widoczne są wpływy Stowarzyszenia Chrześcijańskiej Nauki, z którym Frances Hodgson Burnett była związana. +Powieść jest lekturą w szkole podstawowej. +Tytuł. +Tajemniczy ogród to zapomniany, zamknięty od 10 lat i otoczony murem zakątek wielkiego parku otaczającego posiadłość stryja Mary, lorda Cravena. Mimo zaniedbania i braku opieki, wciąż rosną w nim róże i inne wrażliwe, wymagające pielęgnacji kwiaty. Natura pokazuje swoją siłę, wystarczy odrobina starań, by rozkwitła pełnym blaskiem. Widoczna jest tu paralela do sytuacji Mary – dziecka zaniedbanego pod względem rozwoju psychicznego i społecznego, które jednak, przy odrobinie poświęconej mu uwagi, potrafi zmienić się w osobę pełną radości życia. +Treść. +Główną bohaterką powieści jest Mary Lennox, która przyszła na świat w Indiach. Jej ojciec był wysokim urzędnikiem administracji kolonialnej, matka zajmowała się głównie życiem towarzyskim: balami i spotkaniami. Wychowywanie córeczki pozostawiali hinduskiej niańce Ayah. Pozbawiona rodzicielskiej opieki Mary terroryzowała służbę, była dzieckiem chorowitym, niegrzecznym i niemiłym. Gdy miała dziesięć lat, jej rodzice zginęli podczas epidemii cholery. Opiekę nad nią przejął wuj Archibald Craven. Dziewczynka pojechała do Anglii, do położonej na wrzosowiskach posiadłości wuja. Jednak i tu wydaje się być pozostawiona sama sobie – wuj w domu nie mieszka, a gospodyni od razu oznajmia, że nie ma obowiązku zajmowania się nią, poza zaspokajaniem podstawowych potrzeb. +Niepotrafiąca nawiązać właściwych kontaktów z otoczeniem Mary początkowo w dalszym ciągu jest niemiła w stosunku do służby wuja, lekceważąc ich i usiłując wymóc takie traktowanie siebie, do jakiego przywykła w Indiach. Jej stosunek zaczyna się zmieniać pod wpływem prostodusznej, sympatycznej i szczerze Mary współczującej młodej służącej Marty, która, sama mając liczne rodzeństwo, potrafi zrozumieć potrzeby dziecka. Dużą rolę odgrywa też budzenie się zainteresowania przyrodą i ruch na świeżym powietrzu w wielkim ogrodzie otaczającym pałac Cravena. Mary spotyka tam ogrodnika Bena Weatherstaffa, ponurego milczka, w którym czuje pokrewną duszę. +Pałacowe tereny kryją tajemnicę – otoczony wysokim murem, zamknięty ogród. Mary przypadkowo, obserwując gila, odnajduje do niego klucz. Ten skryty przed ludźmi zakątek zaczyna uważać za swoje królestwo. Ale tajemnicę kryje też wielki dom – dziewczynka słyszy w nocy czyjeś krzyki, a domownicy zbywają jej dociekania. +Mary poznaje Dicka Sowerby'ego, młodszego brata Marty – prostolinijnego, sympatycznego chłopca, opiekującego się porzuconymi i zranionymi dzikimi zwierzętami. Spokojny Dick, także zainteresowany przyrodą i mający dar oswajania zwierząt, staje się dla Mary wzorem do naśladowania. Prowadzi go do tajemniczego ogrodu i pokazuje, jak starała się pomóc budzącym się właśnie do życia roślinom. +Pewnej nocy Mary znów słyszy krzyki. Tym razem nie daje za wygraną i odszukuje miejsce, z którego dochodzą wrzaski. Odnajduje rozhisteryzowanego chłopca i daremnie starających się go uspokoić służących. Colin Craven, syn jej wuja, jest nieruszającym się z łóżka, wydelikaconym hipochondrykiem, przez całe otoczenie utwierdzanym w przekonaniu o swojej słabości i chorobie. Dzieci zaprzyjaźniają się, Mary często odwiedza Colina. Pewnego dnia odnajduje go w stanie histerii. Rozzłoszczona i ona daje popis swoich możliwości. Jej reakcja – burzliwa kłótnia z chłopcem – daje efekt lepszy niż delikatność dorosłych. Colin jest przekonany, że rośnie mu garb. Stanowcze zapewnienie Mary, że nic takiego nie widzi, uspokaja go. +Mary, pomna własnych doświadczeń, przekonuje Colina, by i on skorzystał z dobroczynnej mocy natury. Dzieci we trójkę odprawiają w tajemniczym ogrodzie wymyślone przez siebie rytuały, mające pomóc wyzdrowieć niepotrafiącemu chodzić Colinowi. Podczas jednego z takich seansów przyłapuje ich ogrodnik Ben, przedostający się przez mur po drabinie. Rozmowa z młodym paniczem powoduje, że i on przyłącza się do "spisku". Okazuje się też, że tajemniczy ogród był ulubionym miejscem matki Colina i został zamknięty przez rozpaczającego po jej śmierci męża, a Ben mimo decyzji swego chlebodawcy stara się dbać o porastające go różane krzewy. +Podróżujący po Europie pan Craven dostaje list od pani Soverby z prośbą o powrót do domu. Ulega mu i trafia akurat na moment, w którym jego chory, słaby syn, dziecko, do którego nie chciał się przywiązywać, by nie przeżyć jego przewidywanej utraty tak, jak śmierci żony, staje na nogi i idzie ku niemu. Siłom natury, jej mocy, udaje się uzdrowić bohaterów książki i przywrócić rodzinną więź. +Dezyderiusz (imię) + +Dezyderiusz - oboczna forma imienia Dezydery. +Dezyderiusz imieniny obchodzi: 11 lutego, 25 marca, 23 maja i 19 września. +Soter + +Soter - greckie imię męskie. Oznacza "Zbawcę" +Bardzo popularny przydomek władców hellenistycznych. np. Antioch I Soter czy Ptolemeusz I Soter. +Żeńska forma: Sotera. +Soter imieniny obchodzi 22 kwietnia. +Imi Lichtenfeld + +Imi Lichtenfeld, hebr. Imi Sde-Or (1910 w Budapeszcie - 9 stycznia 1998), twórca izraelskiego systemu walki Krav maga. +Dzieciństwo i młodość spędził w Bratysławie, gdzie jego ojciec Emanuel był czołowym detektywem czechosłowackiej policji, a także instruktorem samoobrony. W założonym przez ojca klubie "Herkules" uprawiał zapasy, boks oraz sztuki samoobrony. W 1928 zdobył mistrzostwo Słowacji w zapasach, rok później także w boksie i gimnastyce; uchodził za czołowego zapaśnika na świecie. +W latach 30. w obliczu terroru faszystowskiego zorganizował grupę samoobrony dla ochrony dzielnicy żydowskiej. Zauważył niską skuteczność walk - wielokrotnie Żydzi mieli za przeciwników grupy liczniejsze, stosujące noże, pałki, kastety, łańcuchy. Wnioski Lichtenfelda z tego okresu stanowiły podstawę systemu Krav Maga - także dla potrzeb swojej grupy samoobrony dołączył umiejętność walki kijem i nożem oraz innymi podręcznymi przedmiotami. +W 1940 w obawie przed aresztowaniem opuścił Europę na statku rzecznym "Penczo", docierając po wielu przejściach (m.in. zatopienie łodzi) do Palestyny. Został szefem wyszkolenia organizacji samoobrony żydowskiej Hagana, szkolił uczestników, a także sam brał udział w akcjach grup specjalnych Palmach. Po utworzeniu państwa Izrael (1948) Lichtenfeld został szefem wyszkolenia fizycznego i walki wręcz Izraelskich Sił Obrony (powstałych z przekształcenia Hagany) i pracował nad udoskonalaniem systemu walki Krav Maga. W 1968 przeszedł w stan spoczynku. +Kalikst III + +Kalikst III "(łac. Callistus III)", faktycznie Alfons de Borja (ur. 31 grudnia 1378 r. w Játivie w Hiszpanii, zm. 6 sierpnia 1458 r. w Rzymie) - papież od 8 kwietnia 1455 roku do 6 sierpnia 1458 roku. +Urodził się jako syn drobnego właściciela ziemskiego. Studiował prawo, a później wykładał na uniwersytecie w Lleidzie. Następnie stał się szanowanym prawnikiem na dworze aragońskim oraz prywatnym sekretarzem króla Alfonsa V. Król Alfons V już wtedy zabiegał o kapelusz kardynalski dla niego, ale bezskutecznie. W 1429 roku prowadził w jego imieniu negocjacje w sprawie abdykacji antypapieża Klemensa VIII, za co otrzymał bogate biskupstwo Walencji, sakrę biskupią przjął 31 sierpnia 1429 roku z rąk kardynała Pierre de Foixa. Ponownie okazał dyplomatyczne zdolności w roku 1443, doprowadzając do oderwania króla od soboru bazylejskiego i pojednania go z papieżem Eugeniuszem IV; został za to mianowany kardynałem-prezbiterem od SS. Quattro Coronati. +Nie odznaczył się niczym wybitnym w okresie jedenastu lat kardynalstwa; prowadził w swym pałacu surowe samotnicze życie, a jego pogarda dla luksusu i wystawności stała się znana. +Jego niespodziewana elekcja po śmierci Mikołaja V była wynikiem kompromisu: jeden z dwu oczywistych kandydatów był niemożliwy do przyjęcia jako przyjaciel rodu Collonów, drugi natomiast był Grekiem. Zaawansowany wiek Kaliksta zdawał się zapowiadać krótki pontyfikat. +Ze zdumiewającą energią, jak na tak starego człowieka, cierpiącego na podagrę, zajął się natychmiast organizowaniem krucjaty w celu odzyskania Konstantynopola, zdobytego przez Turków w maju 1453 roku. Rozsyłał po całej Europie kaznodziejów i legatów wyposażonych w prawo nadawania odpustów, nakładał podatki i wyznaczył 1 marca 1456 roku jako dzień wyruszenia floty i armii. W Rzymie rozpoczął na Tybrze budowę galer, gromadząc fundusze dzięki sprzedaży dzieł sztuki ze złota i srebra, nawet wartościowych opraw książkowych. Jego entuzjazm spotkał się jednak z obojętnością władców chrześcijańskich zajętych sprawami narodowymi. W rezultacie sporadyczne sukcesy militarne nie mogły być wykorzystane. +We Włoszech papież popadł w konflikt ze swym dawnym opiekunem i protektorem, królem Aragonii i Neapolu Alfonsem V, który skierował flotę krzyżowców na Genuę z myślą o swych terytorialnych zdobyczach, a nie o walce z Turkami. Spór przeciągał się. Tymczasem po śmierci Alfonsa papież postanowił przekazać Królestwo Neapolu swemu bratankowi Ferdynandowi. +Papież Kalikst III był człowiekiem surowym, także w swojej pobożności, miłosiernym, ale upartym i samowolnym, i nie tolerował sprzeciwu ze strony swych kardynałów. Po papieżu-mecenasie sztuk Mikołaju V brak zainteresowania sztuką Kaliksta III rozczarował humanistów, nie był on jednak (jak to sugerowali) wrogo do nich nastawiony. Jeżeli przyhamował wspaniałe plany Mikołaja V odbudowy Rzymu, to winna jest jego wrodzona oszczędność, a w jeszcze większym stopniu potrzeby związane z nową krucjatą. Łaski, jakimi obsypywał swoich krewnych i współrodaków, wywołały wielkie rozgoryczenie. By czuć się pewny, obsadził twierdze w Państwie Kościelnym komendantami hiszpańskimi, a swego bratanka Pedra Luisa, mianował księciem Spoleto, ustanawiając go jednocześnie gubernatorem Zamku św. Anioła i prefektem Rzymu. Dwóch innych bratanków mianował kardynałami, gdy mieli zaledwie po dwadzieścia parę lat; jeden z nich, Rodrigo Borgia (późniejszy papież Aleksander VI), został mianowany wicekanclerzem kurii. Jego hiszpańscy nominaci zdominowali kurię, ale ich beneficja były w większości hiszpańskie, a nie włoskie. +Kalikst III podjął sprawę Joanny d'Arc, spalonej na stosie w Rouen 30 maja 1431 roku pod zarzutem czarów i herezji; 16 czerwca 1456 roku pierwotny wyrok na nią został unieważniony i orzeczono jej niewinność. W tym samym roku papież odnowił twarde prawo, trochę zapomniane przez jego poprzedników, zakazujące społecznych kontaktów chrześcijan z Żydami. Dla upamiętnienia zwycięstwa nad Turkami pod Belgradem postanowił, by Święto Przemienienia było obchodzone w całym Kościele w dniu 6 sierpnia. Jego śmierć właśnie w tym dniu w roku 1458 stała się sygnałem do wybuchu gwałtownego protestu przeciwko znienawidzonym "Katalończykom". +Neuroshima + +Neuroshima – polska gra fabularna w konwencji postapokaliptycznej, której akcja osadzona jest w zniszczonych wojną atomową Stanach Zjednoczonych połowy XXI wieku. System jest wzorowany na grze Fallout oraz filmie Mad Max. Widać w nim również mocne wpływy takich dzieł jak Aleja Potępienia (powieść Rogera Zelaznego), Terminator, Wysłannik przyszłości, Matrix czy . Pierwotny tytuł gry brzmiał "Necropunk", ale po rozpadzie grupy tworzącej grę na dwa odrębne zespoły, system (powstający na bazie tej części "Necropunka", która stanowiła własność intelektualną wydawnictwa Portal) otrzymał obecny tytuł, będący odwołaniem do utworu zespołu Laaz Rockit, zatytułowanego ""Euroshima"". +Całość liczy około 480 stron w formacie B5. W chwili obecnej podręcznik podstawowy w wersji 1.0 jest niedostępny w sprzedaży. W 2005 roku ukazała się edycja 1.5 podręcznika podstawowego (popularnie zwana NS 1.5). Podręcznik został poprawiony, zawiera kosmetyczne zmiany w mechanice, usunięta została też część zbędnego materiału. Podręcznik liczy 416 stron, dołączona została do niego mapa świata gry (Stany Zjednoczone w 2054 roku) w formacie A4. +Świat. +Według założeń systemu, 5 września 2020 potężny system komputerowy zyskał świadomość, uznał ludzi za wrogów i sprowokował wybuch III wojny światowej, podczas której maszyny użyły arsenału chemicznego i biologicznego (broń masowego rażenia użyli sami ludzie), zabijając znaczną część populacji USA oraz powodując śmiertelne skażenie ziemi, wody i powietrza. Lata po wojnie, w roku 2054 ludzkość próbuje się odrodzić. Formują się nowe państwa, jednak zagrożenie stanowią zarówno inni ludzie (np. Gangersi), jak i twór utworzony przez sztuczną inteligencję, zwany przez ludzi Molochem. +Posterunek. +Posterunek to garstka ludzi walcząca o przyszłość ludzkości. Walczą z molochem, na froncie. To oni zdobywają nowe dane o Molochu, posiadają najnowocześniejszą armię, gdyż kradną technologie Molochowi, lub przeszukują stare ruiny w ich poszukiwaniu. Dzięki wieloletniej walce z Molochem opracowali setki taktyk przeciw niemu. Są intensywnie wspierani przez Nowy Jork i jego mieszkańców. +Vegas. +Miasto, które doznało najmniej szkody przez wojnę. Może się wydawać ,iż jego mieszkańcy praktycznie nie widza chaosu wokół nich. Słynie jako miasto rozrywki, narkotyków, hazardu i mafii. Vegas jest kontrolowane przez cztery kartele, z których każdy obejmuje inną dziedzinę rozrywki. Ten układ gwarantuje brak wojen, gdyż żaden kartel nie może się obyć bez reszty. +Moloch. +Moloch jest gigantyczną konstrukcją ze stali i betonu, zajmującą obszar kilkunastu północnych stanów, składającą się z wojskowych obiektów, fabryk broni, elektrowni itp. Moloch prowadzi powolną aczkolwiek brutalną ekspansję, zajmując fabrykę za fabryką, hutę za hutą, kolejne złoża surowców takich jak ropa czy rudy. Używa do tego śmiercionośnych robotów oraz cyborgów stworzonych z pojmanych ludzi, przeprogramowanych i oszalałych, czasami odzyskującymi świadomość, co kończy się katatonią lub samobójstwem. +Mutanci. +Inaczej ma się sprawa z "mutkami", którzy są wynikiem eksperymentów "Maszyny na mięsie", albo wynikają z samego skażenia środowiska. Mutanci nie są do końca sługami Molocha, jednak ludzie, traktując ich jako zagrożenie, zwalczają ich, co zmusza mutantów obojętnych wobec Molocha, do zwrócenia się przeciwko ludziom, jednoznacznie jednocząc się z mutantami sympatyzującymi z Molochem. +Neodżungla. +Bardzo szybko rosnąca, drapieżna dżungla na granicy USA z Meksykiem. Jest pełna krwiożerczych i zmutowanych zwierząt, ludzi oraz roślin. +Tornado. +Tornado to najbardziej popularny i zarazem mocno degradujący narkotyk niewiadomego pochodzenia. Jego naturalne pochodzenie to czarne burze "tornadowe", które wędrują po całych Stanach niczym burze piaskowe. Ludzie zrobili z tego interes, dzięki czemu Tornado jest dostępne w niemal każdej postaci (proszek, tabletki, płyny). Specyfika tego narkotyku polega na tym, że im w czystszej postaci się go zażywa, tym większa szansa na "doznanie wizji" – całkowicie niewyjaśnionego przeniesienia się psychicznie do przeszłości i wkroczenia do ciała ówczesnego człowieka. +Gambling. +W świecie Neuroshimy nie ma waluty. Wszelki handel odbywa się tak zwanym "gamblingiem", czyli wymianą towar za towar, gdzie fikcyjną walutą jest "gambel". Większe ośrodki starają się wprowadzać własną walutę, jednakże z dość słabym skutkiem – najlepiej radzi sobie Nowy Jork, którego dolary (ale tylko w formie fosforyzujących monet) są uznawane w większej części wschodnich Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Technika. +Wiele narzędzi, którymi posługują się gracze, są stylizowane na Falloutowski styl Retro. +30 lat po wojnie nuklearnej większość elektroniki było bezużyteczne, chociaż co niektórzy ludzie posiadają cyborgizacje lub sztuczne organy przeszczepiane od mutantów. +Cztery kolory. +Cztery kolory to cztery sposoby gry i cztery wizje świata. Każdy z nich prezentuje odmienne spojrzenie na świat po zagładzie nuklearnej. +Stal. +Stal jest kolorem walki i odbudowy. W świecie Stali ruiny służą do odbudowy, wraki i złom do konstrukcji nowych maszyn, a broń – do aktywnej walki z każdym, kto wchodzi w drogę zdeterminowanym aby przeżyć ludziom. Stalowa Neuroshima pełna jest twardych i odważnych ludzi, którzy mają już dość chowania się po ruinach i słuchania o tym, że nie ma już czego ratować. Oni dobrze wiedzą, że nadzieja istnieje tylko wtedy, gdy każdy dzień zamieni się w konsekwentnie prowadzoną walkę. Dzięki dobrej organizacji, odpowiedniej ideologii oraz samodyscyplinie podejmą wyzwanie – i może kiedyś wreszcie wygrają, stworzą świat wolny od Molocha, radiacji, Tornado i mutantów. +Rdza. +Rdza to kolor rezygnacji, rozkładu, nieodwracalnego zniszczenia. W Rdzy świat już dawno umarł – mniej więcej trzydzieści lat temu, w chwili, kiedy wybuchła wojna. Całe życie później, to tylko powolne umieranie – ludzkość nękana przez Molocha, promieniowanie, coraz to nowe choroby jest skazana na zagładę – nie ma już po co walczyć ani żyć, jest tylko po co umierać. Brakuje sił nawet na rozpacz, pozostała wyłącznie rezygnacja. W opustoszałych miastach, ginących osadach i pośród ciszy pustkowi, żyją ludzie, którzy dawno się poddali. Chcą tylko godnie przeżyć ten czas, jaki im jeszcze został – odnaleźć rodzinę, ruszyć w podróż, pomyśleć o bliskich i przyjaciołach. A potem skończyć wreszcie to wszystko. +Rtęć. +Rtęć jest kolorem strachu i tajemnicy. Rtęciowa Neuroshima to miejsce, w którym człowiek już dawno przestał być panem sytuacji. Świat ogarnęła ciemność, ludzie na powrót stali się istotami kruchymi i bezbronnymi. Każdej nocy zastanawiają się, co kryje mrok i czy uda im się dożyć następnego dnia. Maszyny, bezwzględni mordercy, mutanci, choroby degenerujące ciało i umysł – to wszystko chce nas zniszczyć, zaszczuć. Przepełnieni lękiem i paranoją ludzie nie ufają dzisiejszym, pustym tylko z pozoru, ruinom, obawiają się reliktów dawnych czasów skrywających mroczne tajemnice i szkielety trupów i z każdą chwilą przegrywają walkę z najgroźniejszym z wrogów – ze strachem. +Chrom. +Chrom dla odmiany jest negacją wszystkich trzech pozostałych kolorów. Nikogo nie obchodzi tu odbudowa świata, strachy na lachy czy ględzenie o żegnaniu się ze światem w spokoju. Świat umarł, ale ludzie jeszcze żyją! To, jak zresztą wiele innych rzeczy, jest powodem do nieustającej zabawy i świętowania. A w Chromie świętuje się karkołomnymi wyczynami, popisami odwagi i brawury, szpanując ile wlezie i wyciskając tyle radości z życia w postnukleranym świecie, ile się da. Nie ma już prawa, przepisów, nie ma norm ani obowiązków – zostaje miejsce na niczym nieograniczoną wolność, której od zawsze brakowało człowiekowi. Świat opustoszał, ale znaczy to tylko tyle, że jest w nim teraz o wiele więcej miejsca na dobrą zabawę! +Gościmir + +Gościmir, Gościmiar — staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Gości-" ("gościć", "gość") "-mir" ("pokój, spokój, dobro"). Mogło zatem oznaczać "ten, u którego gości spokój" lub in. +Gościmir imieniny obchodzi 15 marca i 18 grudnia. +Staropolskie zdrobnienia od Gościmira i innych podobnie zaczynających się imion męskich: +Strzeżysław + +Strzeżysław, Strzedzsław, Strzecsław, Strzecław, Strzesław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Strzeży-" ("strzec") oraz członu "-sław" ("sława"). Oznacza "tego, który strzeże sławy". +Forma żeńska: Strzeżysława, Strzesława. +Strzeżysław imieniny obchodzi 2 stycznia i 15 maja. +Kopolimery + +Kopolimery – rodzaj polimerów, których łańcuchy zawierają dwa lub więcej rodzajów merów. W odróżnieniu od kopolimerów, polimery zawierające tylko jeden rodzaj merów nazywa się często "homopolimerami". Głównym powodem otrzymywania kopolimerów są ich szczególne własności fizyczne, których nie mogą posiadać homopolimery i ich proste mieszaniny zawierające te same mery. +Własności fizyczne. +Własności kopolimerów prawie nigdy nie są prostą wypadkową homopolimerów zawierających te same mery. +Kopolimery statystyczne i naprzemienne posiadają zwykle mniejszy stopień krystaliczności i niższe temperatury mięknięcia od obu wyjściowych homopolimerów. Przy odpowiednim doborze kombinacji merów mają one jednak często dużo lepsze własności mechaniczne (zwłaszcza podwyższoną udarność). Typowymi przykładami kopolimerów statystycznych są np: SAN (Styren-akrylonitryl) - który jest jednocześnie dość przezroczysty, ale nie tak kruchy jak sam poliakrylonitryl. Innym dobrze znanym przykładem jest kopolimer ABS (akrylonitryl-butadien-styren), który jest łatwy w formowaniu, a jednocześnie posiada bardzo dobrą wytrzymałość na rozciąganie, połączoną z dużą udarnością. +Kopolimery blokowe, które jest znacznie trudniej otrzymać niż statystyczne czy naprzemienne, mają zdolność do mikroseparacji bloków. W stopie, bloki merów mają tendencje do krystalizowania razem z sobą, co daje w efekcie materiały o budowie warstwowej - nieco podobnej do tradycyjnych kompozytów, ale w których warstwy nie są z sobą sklejone lecz tworzą jeden lity blok materiału. Tego typu materiały posiadają często wyjątkowo dobre własności mechaniczne, oraz mają często własności anizotropowe (różne w różnych kierunkach). +Jeśli w kopolimerze występują długie bloki o własnościach hydrofobowych i jednocześnie bloki o własnościach hydrofilowych, całość uzyskuje własności amfifilowe, które mogą być wykorzystywane na różne sposoby - np: do produkcji farb emulsyjnych, jako środki czyszczące, jako warstwy zapobiegające zaparowywaniu się szyb itp. +Kopolimery szczepione otrzymuje się zwykle na bazie biopolimerów, po to aby zmodyfikować ich własności. Np. często stosowanym zabiegiem w przemyśle skórzanym jest szczepienie skóry (a ściśle biorąc tworzących ją polipeptydów za pomocą poliakrylanów, co powoduje wygładzanie i trwałe nabłyszczenie powierzchni, przy zachowaniu tradycyjnych walorów użytkowych). +Gracjan (imię) + +Gracjan – imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego. Wywodzi się od gentilicium "Gratius", utworzonego od rzeczownika "gratia" (łaska, uczynność, usłużność, wdzięk). +Gracjan imieniny obchodzi 23 października. Szeroko znana data 18 grudnia to w rzeczywistości imieniny mało znanego w Polsce imienia Kacjan. +Żeński odpowiednik: Gracjana, Gracjanna. +Gaudenty (imię) + +Gaudenty – imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, wywodzące się od słowa "gaudens, -tis ", 'radujący się', oznaczającego "człowieka o radosnym usposobieniu". +Patronem imienia jest m.in. św. Gaudenty (biskup Brescii), wspominany 25 października. +Oboczną formą imienia jest Gaudencjusz. +Żeńską formą imienia jest Gaudencja. +Gaudenty imieniny obchodzi 22 stycznia, 12 lutego, 19 czerwca, 25 sierpnia, 14 października i 25 października. +Zobacz też: +Radociech + +Radociech – słowiańskie/staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Rado-" (motywowany przez "rad" – "być zadowolonym, chętnym, cieszyć się" lub "radzić" – "troszczyć się, dbać o coś") oraz członu "-ciech" ("cieszyć"). Może ono oznaczać "tego, który chętnie się cieszy". +Radociech imieniny obchodzi 17 kwietnia i 25 kwietnia. +Cyfry znaczące + +Cyfry znaczące, cyfry wartościowe – cyfry rozwinięcia dziesiętnego mierzonej wielkości fizycznej, począwszy od pierwszej cyfry niezerowej aż do ostatniej cyfry, której wartość nie zmienia się wewnątrz przyjętego przedziału ufności. +Przykład: +W wyniku pomiaru określono wartość napięcia na +przy czym dokładność pomiaru wynosi formula_2. +Wiemy zatem, że mierzone napięcie zawiera się w przedziale ufności +Mamy zatem trzy cyfry znaczące: +Wielka msza h-moll + +Wielka msza h-moll BWV 232 uważana jest przez krytyków za najdoskonalsze dzieło muzyki religijnej Jana Sebastiana Bacha. +Msza h-moll w historii literatury muzycznej jest utworem nietypowym, powstała bowiem ponad podziałami między Kościołem katolickim i protestanckim w dwuwyznaniowych Niemczech. +Katolicka msza napisana przez protestanckiego kantora była zjawiskiem wyjątkowym. Jej historia powstania wiąże się ze staraniami Bacha o posadę nadwornego kompozytora na katolickim dworze elektora Saksonii i króla Polski Augusta III w Dreźnie, z tą myślą przesłał dwie pierwsze części mszy: "Kyrie" i "Gloria" w 1733 roku. Ale w opinii muzykologów dzieło to nie jest do końca jednoznaczne, jest w swoim klimacie zarówno +katolickie jak i protestanckie, gdyż z tych dwóch tradycji czerpał kompozytor. Z tego też powodu, nie mając praktycznego zastosowania, msza h-moll nie była wykonana nigdy za życia Bacha. Monumentalna, wykraczająca poza ramy kompozycji obrzędowej, jest uważana za przejaw tego, co w człowieku odwołuje się wprost do Stwórcy, do religijności, nie analizującej przynależności do kościoła jako wspólnoty. +W 1945 roku rękopis partytury, wraz ze zbiorami Pruskiej Biblioteki Państwowej (tzw. „Berlinki”) trafił do Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej, gdzie znajdował się aż do roku 1977, kiedy to I sekretarz KC PZPR Edward Gierek wręczył go wraz z manuskryptami partytur m.in. „Czarodziejskiego fletu” Mozarta i IX symfonii Beethovena przewodniczącemu Socjalistycznej Partii Jedności Niemiec Erichowi Honeckerowi. +Budowa utworu. +Msza składająca się z 26 wokalno-instrumentalnych ogniw (17 chórów, 3 duety i 6 arii) obejmuje sześć stałych części mszy: "Kyrie", "Gloria", "Credo", "Sanctus", "Benedictus" i "Agnus Dei". Dwie pierwsze były utworami nowymi, następne oparł Bach – co było częstą praktyką w owych czasach – na wcześniejszych kantatach, wykorzystanych jednak w nowatorski sposób. Dzięki charakterystycznej dla Bacha konsekwencji w budowaniu formy kompozycja tworzy jednolitą całość. +Dzieło wspiera się na rozbudowanych partiach polifonicznych chóru. Partie chóralne, z jednej strony rozpisane na typową dla twórczości Bacha formę kantaty, z drugiej nawiązują do stylu szkoły rzymskiej Palestriny, a nawet jeszcze wcześniejszych; "Credo" czerpie z motywów chorału gregoriańskiego. +W utworze Bach zastosował symbolikę liczb. Np. w "Credo" dużą rolę odgrywa liczba 7, która symbolizuje Stworzyciela i akt twórczy. Wyraz "credo" pojawia się 49 razy (7x7). +Razem więc liczy cała Msza 27 ogniw.W dwu największych częściach, "Gloria" i "Credo "możemy doszukać się akcentów trynitarnych: liczą one po 9 ogniw, a więc 3x3 elementów. Obydwie te części posiadają symetralną strukturę, zwłaszcza "Gloria", której centrum, tak strukturalnym, jak i (możemy się domyślać) teologicznym, jest "Domine Deus", a w przypadku "Credo" – motyw ukrzyżowania. +Michał Płoński + +Michał Płoński (ur. 1778 r. w Warszawie - zm. 2 czerwca 1812 tamże) — polski rysownik i grafik. Uczył się rysunku w pracowni ("Malarni") Jana Piotra Norblina. Mając 18 lat wyjechał do Włoch, gdzie zapoznał się z malarstwem europejskim. Po powrocie do kraju tworzył głównie szkice i rysunki — pejzaże, scenki rodzajowe, portrety postaci charakterystycznych. Ponownie wyjechał w 1800, kształcił się w sztuce rytowniczej w Kopenhadze, Amsterdamie i Paryżu. W Paryżu został zatrudniony w Cesarskim Gabinecie Rycin. Jego twórczość z tego okresu obejmuje przede wszystkim akwaforty, będące kopiami dawnych mistrzów. W Amsterdamie wydał "Album", gdzie prezentował m.in. reprodukcje Rembrandta. Przez ostatnie lata cierpiał na chorobę psychiczną. Powrócił do Warszawy, zmarł w szpitalu dla obłąkanych u bonifratrów. +Edward Hejdukiewicz + +Edward Gabriel Hejdukiewicz (ur. 31 marca 1868 w Mińsku Litewskim, zm. 1 stycznia 1932 w osadzie Krzywucha w pow. Dubno) – polski dowódca wojskowy, pułkownik armii rosyjskiej oraz tytularny generał dywizji Wojska Polskiego. Odznaczony Orderem Virtuti Militari. +Zarys biografii. +Ukończył kurs w Korpusie Kadetów w Jarosławlu oraz Szkołę Junkrów w Wilnie. Służył w armii rosyjskiej, od 1887 był oficerem zawodowym piechoty. Jako dowódca kompanii walczył w wojnie rosyjsko-japońskiej 1904-1905. W 1910 ukończył szkołę strzelań w Oranienburgu i objął stanowisko dowódcy batalionu. W lipcu 1914 został awansowany do stopnia podpułkownika. Dowodził batalionem na froncie, następnie objął dowództwo pułku piechoty. Pułkownik z 1915. Walczył na frontach I wojny światowej, m.in. jako dowódca 56 Pułku Piechoty. Odznaczył się w boju, był kilkakrotnie ranny i kontuzjowany. +Od 2 listopada 1917 był dowódcą 3. Pułku Strzelców w I Korpusie Polskim w Rosji (gen. Dowbora-Muśnickiego). Za walki pod Bobrujskiem w lutym 1918 został odznaczony Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Virtuti Militari. W 1918 był dowódcą polskiej samoobrony i komendantem placu w Odessie. W czerwcu 1918 współorganizował w Odessie 4 Dywizję Strzelców Polskich gen. Żeligowskiego, w której był przewodniczącym sądu, i z którą przybył do Polski. +Od czerwca do grudnia 1919 dowodził 12 Pułkiem Strzeleckim (później: 54 Pułk Strzelców Kresowych) armii gen Hallera i krótko – 24 Brygadą Piechoty. Od grudnia 1919 do sierpnia 1920 sprawował stanowisko dowódcy Ekspozytury Okręgu Generalnego Lublin w Kowlu. Następnie do listopada był okręgowym inspektorem Armii Ochotniczej w Lublinie, a potem – do kwietnia 1921 – dowódcą XXVIII Brygady Piechoty Wielkopolskiej. Od kwietnia do września dowodził 20 Dywizją Piechoty. Później – do marca 1923 był zastępcą dowódcy Okręgu Korpusu IX w Brześciu. Uczestniczył w wojnie polsko-bolszwickiej, dowodząc XXVIII Brygadą Piechoty i 2 Dywizją Litewsko-Białoruską. +14 października 1920 zatwierdzono go w stopniu generała podporucznika z dn. 1 kwietnia 1920. 3 maja 1922 został zweryfikowany w stopniu generała brygady ze starszeństwem z 1 czerwca 1919. Od marca 1923 do maja 1927 wchodził w skład Oficerskiego Trybunału Orzekającego. 5 lutego 1927 został mianowany tytularnym generałem dywizji z dn. przeniesienia w stan spoczynku – 30 kwietnia 1927. +Stopień dysocjacji + +Stopień dysocjacji to stosunek liczby moli cząsteczek danego związku chemicznego, które uległy rozpadowi na jony do łącznej liczby moli cząsteczek tego związku, znajdującego się w roztworze, fazie gazowej lub stopie, w którym zaszło zjawisko dysocjacji elektrolitycznej. +Stopień dysocjacji zależy od: +Zobacz też: moc kwasu, stała dysocjacji +Timothy Hunt + +Sir Tim Hunt (ur. 19 lutego 1943 w Neston, Cheshire jako Richard Timothy Hunt) – biochemik angielski, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie medycyny 2001. +W 1968 obronił doktorat na Uniwersytecie Cambridge. Pracuje w Fundacji Imperium Brytyjskiego Badań nad Rakiem. +W 2001 został laureatem Nagrody Nobla za odkrycia dotyczące kontroli cyklu komórkowego. Badania Hunta – oraz wyróżnionych razem z nim Lelanda Hartwella i Paula Nurse'a – otworzyły drogę do opracowania nowych terapii w walce z rakiem. Hunt odkrył cykliny – białka regulujące działanie enzymu odpowiedzialnego za cykl komórkowy i zaobserwował, że są one niszczone zaraz po wykorzystaniu w tym cyklu, co stanowi dodatkowy mechanizm kontrolujący. +Atak w oparciu o słabość algorytmu + +Najważniejszy, podstawowy rodzaj ataku kryptologicznego. Polega na wykorzystaniu słabości algorytmu szyfrowania, przez co uzyskuje się pewną wiedzę na temat zaszyfrowanego tekstu, co zwykle pozwala przeprowadzić następne kroki w deszyfracji aż do częściowego lub całkowitego odtworzenia informacji. +Nietęg + +Nietęg – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Nie-" (przeczenie) i "-tęg" ("mocny"). Może zatem oznaczać "słaby". +Gmina Stęszew + +Gmina Stęszew – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie poznańskim. Gmina położona jest 25 km na południowy zachód od Poznania. +Przez gminę przebiega droga krajowa nr 5 łącząca Poznań z Wrocławiem oraz droga na Zieloną Górę. Gmina jest złożona z miasta Stęszew (prawa miejskie od 1370 r.) liczącego ponad 5000 mieszkańców oraz 19 sołectw obejmujących 23 wsie zamieszkanych przez ponad 8000 osób. +Największą miejscowością, będącą zarazem siedzibą organów gminy (burmistrza i rady gminy), jest miasto Stęszew. Największą wsią w gminie jest Strykowo (ponad 1000 mieszkańców). Miejscowością, która niegdyś posiadała prawa miejskie jest wieś Modrze. Po wybudowaniu linii kolejowej z Poznania do Grodziska Wielkopolskiego w 1905 r. Modrze utraciło znaczenie na rzecz Strykowa. +Herbem Gminy Stęszew jest herb miasta Stęszewa. Herb został ukształtowany historycznie i jest złożony z herbów rodów, które były właścicielami miasta. +Pomimo że większą część powierzchni gminy stanowią grunty rolne, to pod względem zatrudnienia mieszkańców gmina ma charakter przemysłowo-rolniczy. Północno-wschodnia część gminy znajduje się w Wielkopolskim Parku Narodowym i w jego otulinie. Znaczna część mieszkańców Stęszewa zawodowo związana jest z Poznaniem. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 9,22% powierzchni powiatu. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Buk, Czempiń, Dopiewo, Granowo, Kamieniec, Komorniki, Kościan, Mosina +Bogumił Kobiela + +Bogumił Kobiela (ur. 31 maja 1931 w Katowicach, zm. 10 lipca 1969 w Gdańsku) – polski aktor teatralny i filmowy. +Biografia. +Ukończył gimnazjum w Krzeszowicach, liceum w Katowicach a w 1953 r. PWST w Krakowie. Aktor Teatru Wybrzeże w Gdańsku (1953–1955 i 1958–1960), teatrzyku studenckiego Bim-Bom wraz ze Zbigniewem Cybulskim (1955–1958), Teatru Ateneum w Warszawie (1960–1963), kabaretów Dudek i Wagabunda (1963–1966), Teatru Komedia (1966–1969). Często występował w Telewizji Polskiej w programach estradowych, satyrycznych, a także w Teatrze Telewizji. +Popularność zyskał grając w filmach najwybitniejszych polskich reżyserów, m.in. Munka i Wajdy, tworząc role tragikomiczne, oddające złożoność sytuacji, w jakiej znalazła się jednostka pośród wydarzeń historycznych XX wieku w Polsce. Zapamiętany głównie z roli Jana Piszczyka w "Zezowatym szczęściu" Munka. +2 lipca 1969 w Buszkowie pod Koronowem uległ wypadkowi (poślizg), prowadząc biały samochód marki BMW 1600. Aktor doznał pęknięcia śledziony oraz krwotoku wewnętrznego. Zmarł 8 dni później, w gdańskiej klinice, po dwóch operacjach i blisko godzinnej reanimacji. Został pochowany w swojej rodzinnej miejscowości, w Tenczynku pod Krakowem przy grobie swojej matki. +Jego życie przedstawia książka Macieja Szczawińskiego "Zezowate szczęście", wydana w 1996 w Katowicach przez Towarzystwo Zachęty Kultury. +14 maja 1999 na ul. Piotrkowskiej w Łodzi odsłonięto jego gwiazdę w Alei Gwiazd (w okolicach Hotelu Grand). Dnia 10 września 2010 odsłonięto popiersie Bogumiła Kobieli w Galerii Artystycznej na placu Grunwaldzkim w Katowicach. +Jego ojcem był Ludwik Kobiela, bratem Marek Kobiela. +Burlington (Vermont) + +Burlington – największe miasto stanu Vermont, położone w hrabstwie Chittenden, na wschodnim brzegu Jeziora Champlain. +Demografia. +3.6% mieszkańców deklaruje pochodzenie polskie. +Grodzisław + +Grodzisław, Grodzsław – staropolskie imię męskie. Składa się z członu "Grodz(i)-" ("grodzić, otaczać płotem") i "-sław" ("sława"). +Grodzisław imieniny obchodzi 10 kwietnia i 12 października. +Ceará + +Ceará (wym. ) – jednen z 26 stanów Brazylii, (+ Dystrykt Federalny) położony w północno-wschodniej części kraju. Od zachodu graniczy ze stanem Piauí, od południa ze stanem Pernambuco, od wschodu ze stanami Paraíba i Rio Grande do Norte, północną granicę stanowi Ocean Atlantycki. +Zobacz też. +Jaguaribe +Stęszew + +Stęszew (niem. "Stenschewo") – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim, położone na południowy zachód od Poznania przy drodze krajowej nr 5 Poznań – Wrocław oraz przy drodze do Zielonej Góry. Przez Stęszew przebiega linia kolejowa z Poznania do Wolsztyna. Kursują nią m.in. parowozy. +Siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Stęszew. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. poznańskiego. Przez miasto przepływa rzeka Samica. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 5596 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Stęszew leży w wojowództwie wielkopolskim. W jego okolicach znajduje sie 9 jezior , nad którymi znajdują się ośrodki wypoczynkowe. W pobliżu Stęszewa przebiega granica Wielkopolskiego Parku Narodowego. +Stęszew jest zaliczany do aglomeracji poznańskiej. +Historia. +Stęszew dawniej leżał na ważnym szlaku handlowym ze Śląska. W 1370 roku Kazimierz Wielki nadał prawa miejskie. W XV wieku w Stęszewie powstała szkoła parafialna. Miasto rozwijało się dynamicznie aż do najazdu Szwedów i wojny 7-letniej. Stęszew był miastem prywatnym i często zmieniał właścicieli. W 1793 roku miasto dostało się pod panowanie pruskie. W 1799 roku Dorota Jabłonowska sprzedała miasto księciu Wilhelmowi VI Orańskiemu, przyszłemu królowi zjednoczonej Holandii i Belgii, a następnie trafiło do spadkobiercy. Od 1922 roku Stęszew należał do powiatu poznańskiego. W okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej stęszewską ludność wywożono do robót przymusowych i do obozów koncentracyjnych. Wyzwolenie Stęszewa i okolic nastąpiło w styczniu 1945 roku. +W 1645 spalono na stosie w Poznaniu Reginę Boroszkę ze Stęszewa. Według zeznań wymuszonych torturami była ona czarownicą, która spółkowała z lokalnym diabłem Pacholicą. +Szamotuły + +Szamotuły (niem. "Samter") – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie szamotulskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Szamotuły. Położone nad rzeką Samą, na Pojezierzu Wielkopolskim, ok. 35 km na północny zachód od Poznania. +Według danych z 31 marca 2011 r. miasto miało 19 071 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2010 r. powierzchnia miasta wynosiła 11,08 km². +Miasto jest położone w dorzeczu dolnej Warty, nad rzeką Samą, w północnej części Pojezierza Poznańskiego. +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. poznańskiego. +Architektura. +Stare Szamotuły. +Niecałe 3 km na północ od Szamotuł, pod ziemią, znajdują się ruiny miasta z końca XIII w., tzw. Starych Szamotuł założonych przez Tomisława z Szamotuł. Odkrycia tego dokonano po tym gdy archeolog Ryszard Pietrzak poprosił prof. Włodzimierza Rączkowskiego z Instytutu Prahistorii Uniwersytetu im. A.Mickiewicza aby zbadał ten teren za pomocą fotografii lotniczych. Okazało się, że miasto to miało powierzchnię 23 hektarów, wybudowano je wokół rynku na planie czworoboku o długości 75 metrów. Badania mgr Tomasza Herbricha, geofizyka z Instytutu Etnologii i Archeologii PAN wykazały, że układ ulic w późniejszym mieście z XIV w. jest taki sam, jak w odnalezionej osadzie z XIII w. Teren ten jest nazwany zespołem archeologicznym Mutowo. +Kultura i oświata. +Szamotuły posiadają tradycje kulturalno-oświatowe i folklorystyczne. Folklor szamotulski, stroje, tradycje, melodie i przyśpiewki kultywują kapele "Łed Szczuczyna", Zespół Folklorystyczny "Szamotuły" oraz zespół "Małe Szamotuły". Miasto jest siedzibą wielu placówek kulturalnych (Szamotulski Ośrodek Kultury, Biblioteka Publiczna, Powiatowa Biblioteka Publiczna, Muzeum-Zamek Górków z bogatą kolekcją ikon, Ognisko Muzyczne). +Sport. +W 1649 r. powstało tu "Bractwo Kurkowe", w II poł. XIX w. – gniazdo Towarzystwa Gimnastycznego "Sokół", a w 1922 r. – Szamotulski Klub Sportowy, który pod nazwą Sparta Szamotuły działa do dziś z sekcją piłki nożnej. Klub "Sparta" wykorzystuje obiekty Szamotulskiego Ośrodka Sportu i Rekreacji (m.in. 2 boiska piłkarskie, płyta treningowa, hala "Wacław", basen kąpielowy, kryta pływalnia i korty tenisowe). W Szamotułach ma swą siedzibę szkółka piłkarska MSP Szamotuły. W lipcu 2006 w mieście odbywały się mecze fazy grupowej Mistrzostw Europy U-19 w piłce nożnej. W Szamotułach działają też dziecięcy klub sportowy MKS Szamotuły oraz drużyna seniorów Sparta Szamotuły, które niedawno się połączyły i stanowią jedną całość. +Transport i komunikacja. +Szamotuły stanowią węzeł drogowy. +Ok. 11 km na północ od miasta funkcjonuje lądowisko Jaryszewo. +Sołtys Wąchocka + +Sołtys Wąchocka – obok bohatera zbiorowego, jakim są mieszkańcy Wąchocka, jest jedyną indywidualną postacią dowcipów i opowiastek. Na jego cześć wzniesiono w Wąchocku nawet pomnik. +Drukiem ukazało się kilka tomików dowcipów o sołtysie i wąchocczanach. +W roku 1994 Wąchock odzyskał prawa miejskie i stanowisko sołtysa zostało zastąpione stanowiskiem burmistrza. +Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Wąchocka wymyśliło więc postać Honorowego Sołtysa Wąchocka, który wybierany jest tradycyjnie od 1994 r. Obecnie funkcję tę pełni Marek Samsonowski. +Free Soil Party + +Free Soil Party ("Freesoilerzy", "Partia Wolnej Ziemi") – amerykańska partia polityczna założona przez abolicjonistów w latach 1847-1848 jako sprzeciw na rozciągnięcie niewolnictwa na tereny przyłączone do Stanów Zjednoczonych po wojnie z Meksykiem. Partia zakończyła działalność w 1854 roku. +Albert Rosenfield + +__NOTOC__ +Albert Rosenfield to efemeryczny zespół muzyczny działający w latach 1994-1998. Został założony przez braci Jacka "Jacko" (z zespołu Hey) i Marka "Bruno" Chrzanowskich (z zespołu Wilki) (gitara basowa). Pozostali członkowie zespołu to Wojtek Kuzyk (gitara basowa - gra między innymi z Kasią Kowalską i Urszulą), Piotr "Posejdon" Pawłowski (perkusja - grupa Closterkeller) oraz Tomasz "Titus" Pukacki (gitara basowa, śpiew z Acid Drinkers). +Nazwa zespołu powstała od imienia i nazwiska agenta FBI z serialu "Miasteczko Twin Peaks", ponadto jedna z płyt nazywa się "Twin Pigs". Zespół nagrał dwie płyty, na których wszyscy muzycy normalnie grający na gitarach basowych zagrali na innych instrumentach; jedną z piosenek na ich debiutanckim albumie skomponowała Edyta Bartosiewicz. +Tadeusz Olechowski + +Tadeusz Olechowski (ur. 10 stycznia 1926 w Wilnie, zm. 4 stycznia 2001) – polski polityk okresu PRL, minister spraw zagranicznych w latach 1988–1989. +Życiorys. +W 1948 ukończył Wydział Prawa na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim oraz Akademię Handlową w Krakowie. W latach 1948–1955 był pracownikiem Centrali Handlu Zagranicznego "Metalexport". W 1955 był szefem Polskiej Misji Handlowej, a następnie attaché handlowym Ambasady PRL w Rangun w Birmie. Po powrocie do Polski w 1957 został wicedyrektorem Centrali Handlu Zagranicznego "Metalexport". W 1958 rozpoczął pracę jako wicedyrektor departamentu w Ministerstwie Handlu Zagranicznego. O 1961 radca handlowy Ambasady PRL w Rzymie. W latach 1965–1969 był wiceministrem spraw zagranicznych, następnie ambasadorem we Francji (1969–1972 i 1976–1980). W 1972 objął stanowisko ministra handlu zagranicznego w rządzie Piotra Jaroszewicza. Lata 1972–1974 spędził w Egipcie jako ambasador. W latach 1983–1986 był ambasadorem w RFN. +Ponownie zajmował stanowisko wiceministra spraw zagranicznych w latach 1980–1983 i 1986–1988. W czerwcu 1988 zastąpił Mariana Orzechowskiego na stanowisku ministra spraw zagranicznych (w rządzie Zbigniewa Messnera). Utrzymał stanowisko w gabinecie Mieczysława Rakowskiego (do sierpnia 1989). Członek PZPR. +Został odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim i Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Medal Za udział w walkach w obronie władzy ludowej + +Medal "Za udział w walkach w obronie władzy ludowej" – polskie odznaczenie wojskowe i cywilne okresu PRL. +Historia. +Medal "Za udział w walkach w obronie władzy ludowej" został ustanowiony ustawą z dnia 22 listopada 1983 roku „"w uznaniu zasług żołnierzy Ludowego Wojska Polskiego, funkcjonariuszy organów bezpieczeństwa publicznego i Milicji Obywatelskiej, członków Ochotniczej Rezerwy Milicji Obywatelskiej oraz osób cywilnych, którzy w pierwszych latach po wyzwoleniu brali czynny udział w walkach z reakcyjnym podziemiem skierowanym przeciwko władzy ludowej"” (w oficjalnej historiografii okresu PRL jako "reakcyjne podziemie" rozumiano głównie niepodległościowe organizacje konspiracyjne, nie godzące się z podporządkowaniem Polski Związkowi Radzieckiemu i wprowadzeniem komunizmu w Polsce). +Zasady nadawania. +Medal był nadawany obywatelom polskim, także pośmiertnie. W szczególnych przypadkach mógł być nadawany obywatelom innych państw, którzy brali czynny udział w walkach lub wnieśli istotny wkład w obronę władzy ludowej. Medal nadawany był z okazji Święta Odrodzenia Polski (22 lipca). +Do końca 1989 odznaczono medalem ponad 137 tysięcy osób. Z dniem 23 grudnia 1992 ustawa o ustanowieniu Medalu "Za udział w walkach w obronie władzy ludowej" utraciła moc i medal ten usunięto z polskiego systemu odznaczeń. +Opis odznaki. +Odznaką medalu "Za udział w walkach w obronie władzy ludowej" jest krążek srebrzony, oksydowany o średnicy 38 mm. Na awersie medalu w środku znajduje się orzeł piastowski na tle obusiecznego miecza skierowanego ostrzem ku dołowi, skrzyżowanego z rozwiniętą flagą państwową PRL i dwiema gałązkami oliwnymi i napisem MANIFEST PKWN 1944. Na rewersie znajduje się w środku tarcza, na której znajdują się kontury granic Polski i napis PRL. Wokół medalu w otoku napis UCZESTNIKOM WALK W OBRONIE WŁADZY LUDOWEJ. +Wstążka medalu ma szerokość 38 mm w kolorze czerwonym, zielonym oraz białym i czerwonym na obrzeżach. +Medal noszono na lewej stronie piersi po Medalu "Za udział w wojnie obronnej 1939". +Olefiny + +Olefiny – organiczne związki chemiczne z grupy węglowodorów nienasyconych, w których występuje jedno lub więcej podwójnych wiązań chemicznych między atomami węgla. Olefiny mogą mieć budowę niecykliczną (alkeny, polieny) lub cykliczną (cykloalkeny, cyklopolieny). +Werner (imię) + +Werner - imię męskie pochodzenia germańskiego. +Werner imieniny obchodzi 2 lutego, 4 lipca, 19 kwietnia i 1 października. +Duszan + +Duszan - męskie imię pochodzenia słowiańskiego, wywodzące się od słów: dusza, duch. Używane głównie w Czechach, Słowacji oraz krajach południowosłowiańskich. +Duszan imieniny obchodzi 26 marca, 9 kwietnia. +Luminofor + +Luminofor – związek chemiczny wykazujący luminescencję. +W zależności od rodzaju aktywatora, dodawanego w niewielkiej ilości (nawet rzędu 0,0001%), można otrzymać luminofory o różnych barwach i czasach poświaty. Niektóre luminofory są bardzo wrażliwe na obecność zanieczyszczeń; nawet zbyt duży dodatek aktywatora może spowodować zanik świecenia luminoforu. +Każdy luminofor można scharakteryzować wydajnością świetlną, wydajnością energetyczną, czasem poświaty, temperaturą barwową lub barwą za pomocą koordynat X-Y. Wydajność świetlna wyraża stosunek luminancji luminoforu badanego do wzorcowego i często jest wyrażana w procentach. Wydajność energetyczna jest stosunkiem luminancji luminoforu do mocy dostarczonej luminoforowi i jest wyrażana w kandelach na wat (cd/W) +Czas poświaty określa, po jakim czasie od zaniku czynnika pobudzającego luminofor, jego luminancja spadnie do 1% wartości początkowej. Czas poświaty jest mierzony w ułamkach milisekundy, minutach, a nawet godzinach. +Podział luminoforów. +Luminoforami mogą być związki organiczne i nieorganiczne. Do luminoforów organicznych zalicza się niektóre polimery, fluoresceinę, eozynę i wiele innych. +Godzimira + +Godzimira — żeńska forma imienia Godzimir, nienotowana w źródłach staropolskich. +Dziennik Polski + +Dziennik Polski – pismo codzienne wydawane od 4 lutego 1945 przez Spółdzielnię Wydawniczą "Czytelnik", od 1991 przez Wydawnictwo Jagiellonia SA, od 2011 przez Polskapresse. +Planowane jako pismo o zasięgu ogólnopolskim, początkowo ograniczono do regionu krakowskiego oraz rzeszowskiego. Obecnie ukazuje się sześć wydań lokalnych na terenie województwa małopolskiego. Do każdego wydania, od poniedziałku do soboty, dołączany jest dodatek tematyczny. +W raporcie Instytutu Monitorowania Mediów z maja 2008 jest najczęściej cytowanym tytułem prasowym z województwa małopolskiego. +Istotne zmiany w strukturze gazety zostały przeprowadzone jesienią 2008 roku przez zespół kierowany przez Tomasza Maciejowskiego (wówczas dyrektora zarządzającego Wydawnictwa Jagiellonia SA) oraz Piotra Legutko (ówczesnego redaktora naczelnego gazety). Zmiany obejmowały m.in. zamknięcie nierentownych projektów (wydanie niedzielne, edycja podkarpacka), uporządkowanie gazety i ujednolicenie layoutów, wprowadzenie koloru na wszystkie strony, stworzenie czytelnego podziału gazety na sekcje i dodatki tematyczne. Projekt nowego układu został przygotowany przez dyrektora artystycznego Tomasza Bocheńskiego, przy współpracy z Tonym Suttonem, kanadyjskim doradcą ds. mediów, prezesem News Design Associates Inc. Zmiany wsparła intensywna akcja promocyjna na terenie Małopolski, co pozwoliło podtrzymać spadającą wówczas sprzedaż egzemplarzową. Równocześnie wystartował nowy, rozbudowany serwis internetowy "Dziennika Polskiego". +Nie uchroniło to jednak "Dziennika Polskiego" przed zmianami właścicielskimi. Dotychczasowy wydawca, Wydawnictwo Jagiellonia SA, postanowiło sprzedać tytuł koncernowi Polskapresse, wydawcy m.in. największego konkurenta lokalnego, "Gazety Krakowskiej". Transakcję zrealizowano w czerwcu 2011 roku. W listopadzie 2011 roku nowy właściciel przeniósł siedzibę redakcji z Pałacu Prasy przy ul. Wielopole 1 do lokalu przy al. Pokoju. W lutym 2012 r. redaktorem naczelnym pisma został Marek Kęskrawiec. +Sambwa Pida N'Bagui + +Sambwa Pida N'Bagui (ur. 1941, zm. 4 marca 1998), polityk Demokratycznej Republiki Konga (Zairu), były premier. +Pochodził z ludu Bantu. Studiował ekonomię na uniwersytecie w Brukseli. Pracował w administracji rządowej, po dojściu do władzy Mobutu Sese Seko został członkiem rządzącego ugrupowania Ludowy Ruch Rewolucji. W latach 70. kierował Bankiem Zairu, następnie był m.in. ministrem ekonomii i przemysłu, ministrem planowania i budżetu. Od marca do listopada 1988 pełnił funkcję premiera (I komisarza). +Ostoja (województwo zachodniopomorskie) + +Ostoja (do 1945 niem. "Schadeleben") – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie zachodniopomorskim, w powiecie polickim, w gminie Kołbaskowo. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie szczecińskim. +Historia. +Już w XVI w. istniał tu folwark. Na początku XIX w. wybudowano klasycystyczny, parterowy dwór otoczony parkiem angielskim. W drugiej połowie XIX w. do dworu dobudowano okazałe, neogotyckie skrzydło nadając mu cechy pałacyku, a park powiększono . Od pocz. XIX w. do pocz. II wojny światowej na okolicznych polach znajdowała się plantacja buraków cukrowych które przerabiano w znajdującej się nieopodal cukrowni. +Posiadłość często zmieniała właścicieli. Przez kilka lat po wojnie mieścił się tu PGR, a w 1955 r. majątek przekazano Akademii Rolniczej w Szczecinie, która utworzyła tu Rolniczy Zakład Doświadczalny. Od 2005 r. w pałacu (zwanym oficjalnie dworem) znajduje się, należący do ZUT, Ośrodek Szkoleniowo-Badawczy w Zakresie Energii Odnawialnej. +Symplicjusz + +Symplicjusz, Symplicy - imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego, łac. "simplex" - "prosty, uczciwy". +Symplicjusz i Symplicy imieniny obchodzą 2 marca, 10 marca, 10 maja, 15 maja (jako wspomnienie św. Symplicjusza, biskupa i męczennika, zm. 304), 23 czerwca, 24 czerwca (jako wspomnienie św. Symplicjusza, biskupa Autun, zm. 350), 29 lipca, 16 sierpnia, 26 sierpnia, 8 listopada, 20 listopada i 18 grudnia. +Żeński odpowiednik: Symplicja +Tezeusz (imię) + +Tezeusz – imię męskie pochodzenia greckiego. +Tezeusz imieniny obchodzi 11 stycznia. +Dolina Batyżowiecka + +Dolina Batyżowiecka (słow. "Batizovská dolina", niem. "Botzdorfer Tal", węg. "Batizfalvi-völgy") – dolina walna położona w Tatrach Wysokich na terenie Słowacji. +Topografia. +Dolina jest stosunkowo stroma – średni spadek wynosi ponad 8 stopni. W dolnej części jest pokryta lasami i kosodrzewiną, wyżej wznosi się tarasami. Główna część doliny oddzielona jest skalnym progiem, Batyżowieckimi Spadami. W górnej części doliny sterczy samotna turnia zwana Kościołkiem ("Kostolík"), która dzieli ją na dwie części. +Wody. +Za skalnym progiem, na wysokości 1884 m położony jest Batyżowiecki Staw ("Batizovské pleso") o powierzchni ok. 2,78 ha i głębokości 11,2 m. Z niego wypływa Batyżowiecki Potok ("Batizovský potok"). Wody potoku na granicy kosodrzewiny tworzą serię kaskad zwaną Batyżowieckimi Wodospadami ("Batizovské vodopády"). +W dolinie znajduje się jeszcze kilka mniejszych stawków. Są to: Czarny Staw Batyżowiecki ("Čierne pleso", ok. 1230 m), Mały Batyżowiecki Stawek ("Malé Batizovské pliesko", ok. 1920 m), Stawek pod Kościołkiem ("Pliesko pod Kostolíkom", ok. 2075 m) oraz trzy niewielkie Batyżowieckie Oka ("Batizovské oká", ok. 2200 m). Czarny Staw Batyżowiecki jest najniżej położonym naturalnym, stałym zbiornikiem wodnym na terenie Tatr Wysokich. +Turystyka. +Obok Batyżowieckiego Stawu poprowadzona jest trasa Magistrali Tatrzańskiej, łącząca doliny: Wielicką, Batyżowiecką i Mięguszowiecką. Poprowadzony jest także szlak odchodzący od Magistrali w pobliżu Batyżowieckiego Stawu w kierunku miejscowości Wyżnie Hagi ("Vyšné Hágy"). W głąb doliny nie poprowadzono znakowanych tras turystycznych, zatem tylko z przewodnikiem tatrzańskim można dotrzeć do jej wnętrza lub wyżej na Gerlach. +Historia. +Dolina Batyżowiecka oraz pobliskie Dolina Stwolska i Dolina Wielkiej Huczawy zostały przekazane przez króla w 1264 r. "comesowi" Botyzowi, od którego to wzięła się nazwa miejscowości Batyżowce i licznych obiektów w Tatrach. Jako tzw. państwo batyżowieckie tereny te należały później do rodziny Máriássych – aż do roku 1897, kiedy to prawie całe zostały wykupione przez Christiana Hohenlohego. Wyjątkiem była górna część Doliny Batyżowieckiej, przejęta w 1901 r. przez państwo węgierskie. Wszystkie dobra Hohenlohego po południowej stronie Tatr zakupiło państwo czechosłowackie w roku 1928. Dziś cały ten obszar należy do TANAP-u, a tereny pomiędzy Magistralą Tatrzańską a Drogą Wolności stanowią rezerwat ścisły. +Dawniej w Dolinie Batyżowieckiej istniało pasterstwo, ale w dość skromnym zakresie. Próbowano tu także wydobywać złoto. Od długiego czasu dolinę odwiedzali myśliwi ze Stwoły i innych miejscowości. Do najlepszych znawców tych okolic należeli Ján Ruman Driečny młodszy i Ján Pastrnák. Pierwszymi znanymi osobami, które przeszły przez dolinę, byli B. Łoś z przewodnikiem Jędrzejem Walą starszym w 1860 r. Zimą dotarł tu jako pierwszy Miklós Szontagh senior w latach 1873-1880. +Rząd Bolesława Bieruta + +Rząd Bolesława Bieruta – rząd pod kierownictwem premiera Bolesława Bieruta (dotychczasowego Prezydenta RP i przewodniczącego KC PZPR), desygnowanego na Prezesa Rady Ministrów 20 listopada 1952 r. przez Sejm PRL I kadencji, po ustąpieniu dotychczasowego rządu Józefa Cyrankiewicza. 21 listopada 1952 r. Sejm powołał rząd w składzie zaproponowanym przez Bieruta. W skład Rady Ministrów weszło 39 członków: premier, 8 wicepremierów i 30 ministrów. Cztery ministerstwa pozostały nieobsadzone. +W 1954 roku Bierut został odwołany ze stanowiska prezesa Rady Ministrów, a zastąpił go dotychczasowy wicepremier Józef Cyrankiewicz. +Rząd istniał do 20 lutego 1957 r., kiedy premier Cyrankiewicz złożył dymisję gabinetu Sejmowi II kadencji. W składzie Rady Ministrów następowały duże zmiany: spowodowane odwołaniem Bieruta w 1954 r. oraz wydarzeniami Października 1956 r. +Październik 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Ranasinghe Premadasa + +Ranasinghe Premadasa (23 czerwca 1924 w Kolombo - 1 maja 1993 w Kolombo), polityk Sri Lanki, w latach 1978-1989 premier, następnie prezydent państwa. +Kształcił się na uczelni katolickiej, ale pozostał buddystą. W młodym wieku rozpoczął aktywność polityczną w szeregach ruchu społeczno-religijnego "Suczarita" (Wstrzemięźliwość). W latach 50. był członkiem rady miejskiej i zastępcą burmistrza Kolombo, a od 1956 deputowanym do parlamentu z ramienia Zjednoczonej Partii Narodowej. +W latach 1968-1970 i w 1977 pełnił funkcję ministra ds. samorządu lokalnego. W 1978 objął stanowisko premiera z nominacji prezydenta Jayewardene. 19 grudnia 1988 został wybrany w wyborach powszechnych na następcę Jayewardene i objął urząd 2 stycznia 1989. +Zginął w zamachu bombowym, zorganizowanym przez organizację Tamilskie Tygrysy. +Czas efemeryd + +Czas efemeryd (ET) jest wyznaczony przez obserwację położeń Księżyca, planet i mechanikę nieba. +Jedną z odmian czasu efemeryd jest tak zwany czas ziemski (TT), mierzony na powierzchni wirującej geoidy. Wskutek zmniejszania się prędkości wirowania Ziemi, różnica między czasem efemeryd a czasem uniwersalnym rośnie od zera do 2 sekund na rok i służby czasu mogą dodawać co pół roku do czasu uniwersalnego "sekundę przestępną". Inną odmianą jest tak zwany barycentryczny czas dynamiczny (TDB) odniesiony do środka masy Układu Słonecznego. Czas efemeryd nie zależy od położenia obserwatora i jest taki sam jak czas uniwersalny. +Peter Molyneux + +Peter Douglas Molyneux (ur. 5 maja 1959 w Guildford, Surrey, Wielka Brytania) – projektant gier komputerowych i programista gier, odpowiedzialny za znane "god games": "Dungeon Keeper", "Populous", czy "Black & White", a także m.in. za gry ekonomiczne, takie jak "Theme Park" czy "The Movies". We wrześniu 1997 Molyneux opuścił studio Bullfrog Productions, aby założyć nowy zespół developerski, Lionhead Studios. Nazwisko Molyneux zostało w 2004 r. umieszczone w AIAS Hall of Fame oraz został nagrodzony Orderem Imperium Brytyjskiego klasy oficera orderu na Noworocznej Liście Zasłużonych ogłoszonej 31 grudnia 2004 r. W marcu 2007 francuski rząd nadał mu również tytuł "Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres". W lipcu 2007 został nagrodzony tytułem doctor honoris causa nauk ścisłych przez University of Southampton. +Chwalony jako jeden z najlepszych i najbardziej pomysłowych developerów gier na świecie, Molyneux jest znany również ze zbyt optymistycznych opisów swoich gier, będących w danej chwili w fazie produkcji, a które po wydaniu okazywały się być nieco mniej ambitne. Najbardziej znanym przykładem jest gra ', wydana w 2004 z pominięciem wielu aspektów, o których Molyneux wspominał w wywiadach. Po premierze Molyneux publicznie przeprosił za przereklamowanie gry. Jego rola zmieniała się od projektanta i developera do publicysty i producenta wykonawczego. Chociaż użycza swojego nazwiska do promowania kilku ostatnich projektów, Molyneux nie był w rzeczywistości głównym projektantem ', "The Movies", czy "Black & White 2". +6 kwietnia 2006 r. Lionhead Studios zostało kupione przez Microsoft i obecnie jest częścią Microsoft Game Studios. Na E3 2006 Peter Molyneux udzielił kilku wywiadów dla prasy, w których stwierdził, że "teraz kiedy jego Lionhead Studios jest częścią Microsoftu, jest bardziej niezależne, niż kiedy było niezależnym studiem." +W marcu 2009 r. Peter Molyneux został dyrektorem kreatywnym Microsoftu w Europie i pomagał przy pracach nad Kinectem - kontrolerem dla konsoli Xbox 360. 7 marca 2012 r., po ukończeniu , Molyneux zrezygnował ze stanowisk w Lionhead Studios i Microsofcie. Wraz z Timem Rancem założył studio 22Cans. +Gwiezdny Pirat (czasopismo) + +Gwiezdny Pirat jest czasopismem traktującym o Grach fabularnych. +Jest ono wydawane przez wydawnictwo Portal od 2002 roku i po rocznej przerwie wróciło na polski rynek we wrześniu 2004. Od numeru 20. (kwiecień 2007) Gwiezdny Pirat jest wydawany w formie elektronicznej na stronie wydawnictwa. +Pismo zawiera 80 stron (wcześniej 54) w formancie A4. Czytelnicy znajdą w Gwiezdnym Piracie informacje ze światowego rynku RPG, oraz artykuły i przygody do systemów Neuroshima, Monastyr, Warhammer i innych a także materiały o grach planszowych i karcianych. +Agressiva 69 + +Agressiva 69 – polski zespół muzyczny, jeden z pierwszych przedstawicieli rocka industrialnego, założony w 1989 w Krakowie. +Założycielami grupy są Tomasz Grochola (śpiew, samplery) i Jacek Tokarczyk (gitara, samplery). Po nagraniu pierwszej płyty dołączyli do nich: Bogusław Pezda (samplery, efekty), Sławomir Leniart i Robert Tuta. +Konfabulacja + +Konfabulacja, wspomnienie rzekome – pochodzący z łaciny termin oznaczający uzupełnianie brakujących wspomnień informacjami nieprawdziwymi, które możliwie dobrze pasują do całego logicznego ciągu wydarzeń. Konfabulacja różni się od świadomego zmyślenia tym, że konfabulujący człowiek jest przekonany o prawdziwości swoich wspomnień, i jeśli o nich kogoś informuje, to wówczas nie kłamie, gdyż kłamać można wyłącznie świadomie. Konfabulacja często jest zjawiskiem czysto wewnętrznym, gdy człowiek jedynie przywołuje wspomnienia wyłącznie dla siebie. +W kognitywistyce, konfabulację uważa się za podstawową czynność umysłu, kluczową w procesach wnioskowania i przewidywania jako naturalne uzupełnienie braków wiedzy. Przesadna konfabulacja jest jedną z cech myślenia dziecięcego, a także objawem zaburzeń psychicznych - pamięci i myślenia, zwłaszcza u ludzi w podeszłym wieku. +Poniat + +Poniat - staropolskie imię o przedsłowiańskiem rodowodzie. +Dolina Wielkiej Huczawy + +Wyróżnić można dwie części doliny: tatrzańską o długości ponad 3,5 km od Drogi Wolności do wierzchołka Tępej oraz pozatatrzańską poniżej Drogi Wolności aż do miejscowości Stwoła. Część górną tworzą granitowe skały trzonu krystalicznego Tatr, natomiast dolną – czwartorzędowe osady stożków deluwialnych. W dolinie tej nie było lodowca, nie ma tu więc stawu. +Doliną biegnie trasa Magistrali Tatrzańskiej, łącząca ją przez Przełęcz pod Osterwą z Doliną Mięguszowiecką. Dawniej prowadził doliną także niebieski szlak pieszy i konny od Drogi Wolności na Osterwę. +Dolina Wielkiej Huczawy ma dwie odnogi. W stronę północno-wschodnią na wysokości ok. 1300 m odbiega płytka dolina Ryniczki ("Ryničky"), natomiast niżej w tym samym kierunku odgałęzia się Dolina Małej Huczawy ("dolina Malej hučavy"), łącząca się z główną doliną już poza granicami Tatr. +Dolną częścią doliny płynie potok Wielka Huczawa ("Veľká hučava"), którego źródła położone są na wysokości ok. 1600 m. Jedynym jej większym dopływem jest Mała Huczawa ("Malá hučava"), płynąca z Doliny Małej Huczawy. Nazwy dolin pochodzą bezpośrednio od nazw potoków, te zaś od huku płynącej wody. +Dawniej Dolina Wielkiej Huczawy wraz z terenami Doliny Batyżowieckiej należała do państwa batyżowieckiego. W 1897 r. została wykupiona od spadkobierców Ferenca Máriássyego przez Christiana Hohenlohego. Od roku 1928 tereny te zostały przejęte przez państwo czechosłowackie. Dziś jest to rezerwat ścisły TANAP-u. +Gmina Strzelce Opolskie + +Gmina Strzelce Opolskie – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie opolskim, w powiecie strzeleckim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie opolskim. +Siedziba gminy to Strzelce Opolskie. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2010 gminę zamieszkiwało 32 958 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 27,19% powierzchni powiatu. +Sołectwa. +Adamowice, Błotnica Strzelecka, Brzezina, Dziewkowice, Farska Kolonia, Grodzisko, Jędrynie, Kadłub, Kadłubski Piec, Kalinowice, Kalinów, Ligota Dolna, Ligota Górna, Mokre Łany, Niwki, Nowa Wieś, Osiek, Płużnica Wielka, Rozmierka, Rozmierz, Rożniątów, Sucha, Suche Łany, Szczepanek, Szymiszów, Szymiszów-Osiedle, Warmątowice. +Pozostałe miejscowości. +Banatki Duże, Banatki Małe, Breguła, Dołki, Doryszów, Kaczorownia, Kasztal, Koszyce, Lipieniec, Pakoszyn, Stara Poczta. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Gogolin, Izbicko, Jemielnica, Kolonowskie, Leśnica, Ozimek, Toszek, Ujazd, Wielowieś, Zdzieszowice +Richard Byrd (lotnik) + +Richard Evelyn Byrd, Jr. (ur. 25 października 1888 w Winchester w stanie Wirginia, zm. 11 marca 1957 w Bostonie w stanie Massachusetts) – amerykański lotnik, pionier wypraw polarnych, Rear Admiral US Navy. +Życiorys. +Urodził się 25 października 1888 w Winchester w stanie Wirginia. Latać samolotem nauczył się w czasie I wojny światowej podczas służby w US Navy. Był autorem wielu technik nawigacji nad otwartym morzem. Posiadał stopień admirała. +W 1924 Richard Byrd dowodził małym oddziałem polarnym w wyprawie arktycznej komandora D. B. MacMillana na Grenlandię. +9 maja 1926 Richard Byrd i Floyd Bennett dokonali próby przelotu nad biegunem północnym samolotem Fokker F.VII/3m o nazwie "Josephine Ford". Start nastąpił w Ny-Ålesund na wyspie Spitsbergen. Piloci orzekli, że ich wyczyn zakończył się sukcesem, jednak analiza dzienników pokładowych oraz mechaniczna analiza ich samolotu dostarczyła sporych wątpliwości co do tego faktu. Niemniej jednak, dokonali przelotu w pobliżu bieguna. Mimo tych wątpliwości Richard Byrd zdobył dość duży rozgłos, co pomogło mu w zbieraniu środków na kolejną próbę, najpierw przelot przez Atlantyk do Europy, następnie nad biegunem, ale tym razem nad południowym. +W 1927 roku Richard Byrd był jednym z kilku pilotów, którzy zamierzali zdobyć nagrodę "Orteig Prize" ($25,000) ustanowioną przez milionera Raymonda Orteiga za przelot bez lądowania ze Stanow Zjednoczonych do Francji. Wyprawa Byrda sponsorowana była przez właściciela sklepów wielobranżowych Rodmana Wanamakera, wizjonera lotów komercyjnych przez Atlantyk. Do lotu został użyty Fokker C-2 (wersja cywilna) o nazwie "America" (nr. rejstr. NX-206) zbudowany w USA przez Atlantic Aircraft Corp., była to ulepszona wersja samolotu Fokker F-VIIA. W dniu 16 kwietnia podczas startu do lotu testowego samolot rozbił się raniąc poważnie załogę w wyniku czego lot przez Atlantyk został opóźniony. W czasie naprawy samolotu okazało się, że lotnik Charles Lindbergh 20 maja 1927 wystartował z Garden City w stanie New York i po 33,5 godzinach wylądował w Paryżu, zdobywajac tym samym nagrodę Orteiga. Fakt ten nie zniechęcił Byrda i przygotowania do lotu trwały dalej. Samolot został obficie wyekwipowany co sprawiło, że wyprawa miała charakter raczej ekspedycji naukowej niż sportowej. Jednym z najważniejszych zaplanowanych zadań było zbadanie warunków w jakich tworzy się szron na skrzydłach samolotu. W skład załogi oprócz komandora Richarda E. Byrda wchodzili: pilot por, Bernt Balchen (Norweg), pilot Bert Acosta oraz inż.Georg Otto Noville- radiotelegrafista. Samolot zabrał ze sobą 5400 litrów paliwa i 160 litrów smarów, dwie tratwy ratunkowe zaopatrzone w żywność, co najmniej na trzy tygodnie i urządzenie do destylacji wody. Płatowiec posiadał również radiostację o zasięgu około 800 km. Do samolotu załadowano także worek z pocztą. W dniu 29 czerwca 1927 roku o godzinie 5.25 samolot "America" wystartował z lotniska Roosevelt Field East Garden City celem przelotu przez Atlantyk i wylądowania w Paryżu. O godz. 15.50 sygnalizowano jego przelot nad Saint-Jean, miasto we wschodniej Kanadzie, w południowo-wschodniej części wyspy Nowa Fundlandia, nad Oceanem Atlantyckim. Pogoda była fatalna, silny wiatr i gęstniejąca w miarę posuwania się samolotu nad oceanem mgła, towarzyszyły załodze przez cały czas lotu. Następnego dnia 30 czerwca, rano francuski parowiec transatlantycki "Paris" nie widząc samolotu, sygnalizował jego obecność w odległości około 600 km od brzegów Irlandii. O godz. 20.30 meldowano jego przelot nad miastem Brest około 22 nad Rennes. Na nieszczęście już w locie nad ziemią, busola w samolocie uległa uszkodzeniu. Zapadł zmrok i zaczął padać silny deszcz tak, że załoga absolutnie nic przed sobą nie widziała. +Poszukiwanie lotniska Le Bourget nie przyniosło pozytywnego rezultatu. Przez pięć godzin załoga krążyła nad północno-zachodnią Francją, nie wiedząc gdzie się znajduje. W końcu obrano przypuszczalny kierunek na ocean aby lądować na wodzie gdyż kończyła się benzyna.Po godzinie 2, już 1 lipca załoga zobaczyła błysk latarni morskiej i skierowała się w jej stronę, lądując po chwili 200 metrów od brzegu łamiąc podwozie. Załoga dopłynęła na tratwie pneumatycznej do małej miejscowości Ver-sur-Mer miedzy Cherbourg a Le Havre, na połnocnym wybrzeżu Francji, gdzie została otoczona troskliwą opieką przez tamtejszych mieszkańców. Po odpoczynku trwającym 16 godz. Byrd i trzej jego towarzysze zostali powitani przez przybyłe do miateczka władze i etuzjastycznie odwiezieni do Paryża.Lot samolotu Richarda Byrda do Francji trwał 46 godz. i był pierwszym który przeleciał Atlantyk na samolocie wielosilnikowym z czteroosobową załogą i pierwszym który przewiózł oficjalną pocztę do Europy drogą powietrzną. Po powrocie do Ameryki komandor Richard E. Byrd został rekomendowany do nadania mu krzyza lotniczego Distinguished Flying Cross. +W 1928 rozpoczął wyprawę nad Antarktydę, w której brały udział dwa statki i trzy samoloty. Baza została wybudowana na Lodowcu Szelfowym Rossa, z której wyruszały wyprawy polegające na badaniach geologicznych oraz na wykonywaniu zdjęć lotniczych. 29 listopada 1929 odbył się słynny lot nad biegunem południowym. Richard Byrd, drugi pilot Bernt Balchen, łącznościowiec Harold June i fotograf Ashley McKinley dolecieli samolotem "Floyd Bennet" nad biegun i z powrotem w 18 godzin i 41 minut. Pomimo problemów w czasie lotu, osiągnęli sukces. Dalsze badania w bazie trwały aż do 18 czerwca 1930, kiedy to cała ekspedycja powróciła do Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Byrd przedsięwziął następnie trzy dalsze wyprawy na biegun południowy, w latach 1933–1935, 1939–1941 i 1946–1947 (operacja "Highjump"). +Jak pisze w swoim dzienniku, rzekomo udało mu się dostać do podziemnego królestwa Agharty. +Za swoje zasługi, a także osobistą odwagę podczas ekspedycji, przejawiającą się w ratowaniu życia innych, Byrd został uhonorowany wieloma odznaczeniami. +Zmarł 11 marca 1957 w Bostonie w stanie Massachusetts. Został pochowany na Narodowym Cmentarzu w Arlington w stanie Wirginia. +Dolina Stwolska + +Dolina zbudowana jest ze skał krystalicznych: granitów i granodiorytów. Pod samą Stwolską Przełęcz podchodzi górne piętro doliny, piarżysta Stwolska Łąka ("Lúka"). Poniżej biegnącej na wysokości ok. 1860 m Magistrali Tatrzańskiej dolina zmienia kierunek na południowy wschód. Obszar na południe od tego szlaku pokryty jest rumowiskami i kosodrzewiną. Jeszcze niżej Dolina Stwolska jest zalesiona, kończy się już poza Tatrami. Długość tatrzańskiej części wynosi ok. 5 km. +Przez dolinę przebiega trasa Magistrali Tatrzańskiej oraz niżej położony szlak z Wyżnich Hagów nad Batyżowiecki Staw. +Nazwa Doliny Stwolskiej pochodzi od wsi Stwoła ("Štôla"). Doliną Suchą bywała dawniej nazywana z powodu braku stałego cieku wodnego. W przeszłości dolina, podobnie jak sąsiednia Dolina Wielkiej Huczawy, stanowiła teren polowań. Dziś w środkowej jej części rozciąga się rezerwat ścisły TANAP-u. +Dolina Stwolska od dawna była znana myśliwym ze Stwoły i innych miejscowości. Pierwszymi znanymi turystami, którzy przebyli górną część doliny, byli Alexander Münnich i jego towarzysze w 1874 r. Zimą prawdopodobnie pierwsi byli tu Ernst Dubke oraz przewodnicy Johann Breuer i Johann Franz senior 14 lutego 1906 r. +Ubald + +Ubald, Hubald – imię męskie pochodzenia germańskiego. Powstało ze słów "hyg" i "bald", a oznacza "silny ratownik". Patronami imienia są św. Ubald, biskup Gubbio (+ 1160) i św. Umbald Adimari (+ 1315). +Ubald imieniny obchodzi 9 kwietnia i 16 maja. +Chłopcy z ferajny + +Chłopcy z ferajny (ang. "Goodfellas") – amerykański film fabularny z 1990 roku w reżyserii Martina Scorsese. +Opis fabuły. +Akcja filmu rozgrywa się w świecie nie przebierających w słowach gangsterów,zaznaczyć trzeba że jest to autentyczna opowieść oparta na zeznaniach Henry'ego Hilla . Główny bohater, a zarazem narrator filmowej opowieści, Henry Hill, prowadzi nas przez wydarzenia trzydziestu lat swojego życia, od pałętania się wokół postoju taksówek, poprzez zaprzyjaźnienie się z lokalnymi gangsterami, do rozbojów, wymuszeń i handlu narkotykami. Tytułowi chłopcy z ferajny m.in. Jimmy i Tommy, postępują zgodnie z zasadami podziwianej przez nich mafii sycylijskiej, do której, ze względu na pochodzenie, nie może należeć Jimmy. +Film ukazuje głównie działanie i codzienne życie gangsterów, zlepione luźną zaprawą fabularną. Główną osią filmu jest handel narkotykami, który rozpoczyna Henry i wkrótce angażuje weń cały gang Jimmy'ego, wbrew ostrzeżeniom swojego dawnego przełożonego z początków kariery, Paula Cicero. Ważnym momentem jest też pobicie i zabójstwo Billy'ego Battsa, dawnego członka gangu Jimmy'ego, a później członka mafii, gdyż w wyniku zemsty za niego ginie przyjaciel głównego bohatera, Tommy. Po jego śmierci Jimmy morduje wszystkich dawnych popleczników. Równocześnie na trop wpada policja śledząc Henry'ego w helikopterze i przeprowadzając akcję w jego domu. Henry, chcąc ratować się przed Jimmym, który również jego chce zabić, oraz przed pójściem do więzienia na długie lata, decyduje się zeznawać w sądzie jako świadek koronny. Zarówno Jimmy jak i Paulie zostają skazani, a Henry dostaje nową tożsamość, mieszkanie i pracę, rozpoczyna nowe życie szarego człowieka, które już go nie cieszy. +Film powstał w oparciu o książkę należącą do literatury faktu, "Wiseguy" (w Polsce wydana w roku 1991 pod tytułem "Chłopcy z ferajny") Nicholasa Pileggiego, przez co jest bardziej autentyczny niż mitologizujący gangsterów "Ojciec chrzestny" (1972). +Roger Taylor (Duran Duran) + +Roger Taylor (ur. 26 kwietnia 1960 w Birmingham) – perkusista zespołu Duran Duran. Rozpoczął naukę grania na perkusji około 12. roku życia wzorując się na swoich ulubionych wykonawcach Paul Thompson z Roxy Music, Charlie Watts z The Rolling Stones i Tony Tompson z Chic. Grał razem z lokalnymi zespołami, ale dopiero w 1979 roku przystąpił do profesjonalnego zespołu Duran Duran. +Na początku lat 80. XX wieku razem z Duran Duran szybko zdobywał popularność. Po wielkim światowym tournée w 1985 roku zespół postanowił zrobić przerwę i zrealizować solowe projekty. Razem z Simon Le Bonem i Nick Rhodesem stworzyli grupę Arcadia. Roger Taylor zagrał jeszcze raz wspólnym z zespołem Duran Duran w trakcie Live Aid w Filadelfii, a następnie rozstał się z zespołem na kilkanaście lat i zniknął ze sceny. Z końcem 1985 roku powrócił na wieś w Anglii do żony i dzieci. +W 1994 roku brał udział w sesji nagraniowej płyty Thank You Duran Duran. +W 2001 roku ponownie przystąpił do połączonego w oryginalnym składzie Duran Duran. +Tryt + +Tryt (radiowodór) jest nietrwałym izotopem wodoru, którego jądro (tryton) składa się z jednego protonu i dwóch neutronów. Oznaczany jest symbolem 3H lub T. +Energia przemiany to 0,019 MeV. +Tryt w minimalnych ilościach występuje w atmosferze, jednak głównym źródłem jego pozyskiwania są reakcje jądrowe. Używany jest jako wskaźnik izotopowy np. do określania wieku przedmiotów czy badań mechanizmów reakcji chemicznych i procesów biologicznych. +Marian Czakański + +Marian Czakański (ur. 1 października 1946 w Siemianowicach Śl.) – polski ekonomista i menedżer, minister zdrowia w drugim rządzie Marka Belki. +Życiorys. +Ukończył w 1969 studia na Wydziale Finansów i Statystyki Szkoły Głównej Planowania i Statystyki w Warszawie. W 1975 obronił doktorat z ekonomii na Politechnice Warszawskiej, pracował na tej uczelni jako nauczyciel akademicki. +Od 1970 był zatrudniony w administracji publicznej. Do początku lat 90. zajmował m.in. kierownicze stanowiska w Ministerstwie Współpracy Gospodarczej z Zagranicą i Urzędzie Rady Ministrów. W latach 1989–1992 pełnił funkcję radcy Ambasady RP w Kanadzie. +Od 1992 pracował w zarządzie Banku Pekao S.A., w latach 1995–1998 jako jego wiceprezes. W 1998 został prezesem zarządu Powszechnego Towarzystwa Emerytalnego Nationale-Nederlanden, w czerwcu 2000 prezesem zarządu Banku Śląskiego S.A. Zasiadał też w licznych radach nadzorczych, m.in. w Polskiego Koncernu Naftowego Orlen S.A. +11 czerwca 2004 został mianowany ministrem zdrowia w rządzie Marka Belki. Złożył rezygnację już w lipcu tego samego roku po serii krytycznych wypowiedzi w trakcie sejmowej debaty na temat służby zdrowia. 15 lipca 2004 został zastąpiony przez Marka Balickiego. +Po dymisji powrócił do ING Banku Śląskiego S.A., był m.in. doradcą prezesa zarządu. +Domasuł + +Domasuł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Doma-" ("dom"; psł. "*domъ" oznacza "pomieszczenie, gdzie człowiek żyje ze swoją rodziną"; "wszystko, co jest w domu, rodzina, mienie, majątek", "ród, pokolenie", "strony rodzinne, kraj ojczysty") i "-suł" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy"). Może oznaczać "możniejszy w swojej siedzibie", "możniejszy posiadaniem swojego domu". +Domasuł imieniny obchodzi 16 sierpnia i 7 września. +Lelów + +Lelów – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie śląskim, w powiecie częstochowskim, siedziba gminy wiejskiej gminie Lelów. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie częstochowskim. Lelów leży na Progu Lelowskim, nad rzeką Białką, ok. 35 km na wschód od Częstochowy. +Liczba mieszkańców – około 2000. +Komunikacja. +Droga krajowa nr 46 (Kudowa – Jędrzejów), droga wojewódzka nr (Koniecpol – Kraków), droga wojewódzka nr (Staromieście – Brusiek), niegdyś część drogi wojewódzkiej (Staromieście – Lubliniec). +Sulibrat + +Sulibrat – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Suli-" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy") i "-brat" ("brat"). Może oznaczać "ten, który uczyni swojego brata (swoich braci) możniejszym(i)". +Disko (wyspa) + +Disko (grl. "Qeqertarsuaq", duń. "Disko Ø") – wyspa na Morzu Baffina u zachodnich wybrzeży Grenlandii, oddzielona od niej cieśniną Vaigåt i zatoką Disko Bugt (Qeqertarsuup Tunua). Powierzchnia wynosi 8600 km², wyspa jest górzysta (najwyższy szczyt ma 1919 m n.p.m.), występują lodowce. Klimat subpolarny. Obszary wolne od lodu (wybrzeża) zajmuje tundra. +Wojciech Kostrzewa + +Wojciech Julian Kostrzewa (ur. 18 października 1960 w Warszawie) - polski ekonomista, od stycznia 2005 roku prezes i dyrektor generalny Grupy ITI. +W latach 1979 - 1981 studiował prawo na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, a po studiach rozpoczętych w roku 1982 ukończył w 1987 ekonomię na Uniwersytecie Kilońskim (Niemcy). W roku 1981 wraz z czterema studentami z Niemiec (RFN), Austrii oraz Węgier założył Europejskie Stowarzyszenie Studentów Prawa (ELSA), które obecnie zrzesza około 30 tys. studentów prawa i młodych prawników z 220 uniwersytetów z 41 krajów Europy. W latach 1988-1991 pracownik naukowy w Institut fuer Weltwirtschaft w Kilonii. Był doradcą Leszka Balcerowicza od grudnia 1989 do grudnia 1991. W 1990 roku w wieku 30 lat został powołany na stanowisko prezesa Polskiego Banku Rozwoju SA. W listopadzie 1995 r. odszedł z PBR i objął posadę w Banku Rozwoju Eksportu SA. BRE Bankiem kierował od maja 1998 roku do listopada 2004 roku. Wcześniej był wiceprezesem (od lutego 1996 roku) i pierwszym wiceprezesem (od maja 1997 roku) tego banku. Od stycznia 2002 do listopada 2004 członek Zarządu Regionalnego Commerzbank AG (Frankfurt) odpowiedzialny za całość operacji w Europie Centralnej i Wschodniej. Od 1999 roku związany z Grupą ITI jako członek Rady Dyrektorów, od stycznia 2005 pełni funkcję jej Prezesa i Dyrektora Generalnego. Aktywny uczestnik World Economic Forum. W latach 2004 - 2007 Prezes Polsko-Niemieckiej Izby Przemysłowo-Handlowej. Od 2007 Wiceprezydent PKPP "Lewiatan". Członek Polskiej Rady Biznesu. Od 2005 roku zasiada w Radzie Nadzorczej TVN SA, a od 2007 roku pełni funkcję jej Przewodniczącego. W czerwcu 2012 został powołany do Rady Nadzorczej (Verwaltungsrat) szwajcarskiej Grupy Stadler Rail, europejskiego producenta pojazdów szynowych. Członek rad nadzorczych firm krajowych i zagranicznych. +Dolina Mięguszowiecka + +Dolina Mięguszowiecka (słow. "Mengusovská dolina", niem. "Mengsdorfer Tal", węg. "Menguszfalvi-völgy") – jedna z większych dolin walnych położonych po południowej stronie Tatr Wysokich na Słowacji o długości ok. 7,5 km i powierzchni ok. 16,0 km². +Topografia. +Dolina rozszerza się w części środkowej i wachlarzowo rozgałęzia na doliny boczne: w środkowej części, w kierunku południowo-wschodnim znajduje się Dolina Złomisk ("Zlomisková dolina") rozgałęziona w wyższych partiach na Dolinkę Rumanową ("Rumanova dolinka") i Dolinkę Smoczą ("Dračia dolinka"). Wyższe piętra Doliny Mięguszowieckiej to: Kotlinka pod Wagą ("dolinka pod Váhou"), Dolina Żabia Mięguszowiecka ("Žabia dolina mengusovská") z Kotłem Żabich Stawów Mięguszowieckich ("kotlina Žabích plies"), Dolina Hińczowa ("Hincova kotlina") i niewielka Dolinka Szatania ("Satania dolinka"). W ograniczającą ją od zachodu Grań Baszt wcina się licznymi żlebami: Szeroki Żleb ("Široký žľab"), Czerwony Żleb ("Červený žľab"), Szatani Żleb ("Satanov žľab"). +Geomorfologia i rzeźba terenu. +Obszar doliny zbudowany jest z granitów, a jej rzeźbę ukształtowały lodowce. Świadczą o tym dobrze zachowane moreny boczne i środkowe, progi dolinne oddzielające kolejne piętra doliny, wyraźnie ukształtowane kotły lodowcowe i wygładzone przez lodowiec bule skalne. W okresie swojego największego rozwoju lodowiec wypełniający Dolinę Mięguszowiecką łączył się z lodowcem sąsiedniej Doliny Młynickiej w wielki lodowiec piemoncki. Miał on powierzchnię 3900 ha, grubość 200 m i wyniósł na swoje przedpole największe w całych Tatrach zwały aluwiów i moren. Zajmują one powierzchnię 20 km², a ich łączna objętość wynosi 1,7 km³. +Dolina jest otwarta w kierunku południowym, o dość wąskiej i zalesionej części dolnej, wyżej krajobraz zmienia się na alpejski. W 1906 r. Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski pisał o niej: "„...dolina ta wybija się na czoło, należy w ogóle do najbardziej tatrzańskich, jeśli tak powiemy, zjawisk w Tatrach”." +Sieć wodna. +Doliną płynie Mięguszowiecki Potok ("Hincov potok") wypływający z Wielkiego Hińczowego Stawu. Jego dopływem jest Żabi Potok ("Žabí potok mengusovský") biorący początek z Żabich Stawów. Ze Zmarzłego Stawu wypływa Zmarzły Potok ("Ľadový potok") wpadający do Popradzkiego Stawu, z którego wypływa potok Krupa ("Krupa") łączący się z Mięguszowieckim Potokiem w rzekę Poprad ("Poprad"). W Dolinie Mięguszowieckiej płynie jeszcze kilka mniejszych potoków: Szatani Potok ("Satanov potok") i Mały Hińczowy Potok ("Malý Hincov potok") – dopływy Hińczowego Potoku, Smoczy Potok ("Dračí potok") i Rumanowy Potok ("Rumanov potok") – dopływy Zmarzłego Potoku. +W wnętrzu doliny znajdują się liczne stawy. Największy z nich to Popradzki Staw ("Popradské pleso") nazywany także „Mięguszowieckim Stawem” lub „Małym Rybim Stawem”. Położony jest on na wysokości 1494 m n.p.m., ma 6,9 ha powierzchni i 17,6 m głębokości. Najgłębszym jest Wielki Staw Hińczowy (jest to równocześnie najgłębszy staw w całych Tatrach Słowackich). Łącznie w dolinie znajduje się 7 większych stawów oraz kilka mniejszych. +Historia. +Od najdawniejszych czasów właścicielami doliny był ród Máriássych z Batyżowiec. W latach 1897-98 część doliny kupił Christian Hohenlohe i dołączył do swojego rezerwatu myśliwskiego. W 1928 r. teren doliny wykupił rząd Czechosłowacji i przeznaczył na zalążek TANAP-u. Niegdyś dolina była wypasana, w XIX w. wypasano tutaj głównie woły. W 1879 r. Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski pisał o ścieżkach wydeptanych ku Żabim Stawom przez woły. Penetrowali ją poszukiwacze skarbów, a Ludwik Zejszner w 1855 r., pisząc o płatach śniegu w Dolinie Hińczowej, dodał: „"pod którymi lud prawi, że leżą bogate żyły złota”". Prowadzono też w niektórych miejscach prace górnicze (m.in. w Grani Baszt). +Dolina Mięguszowiecka należy do dolin często odwiedzanych przez uczonych, turystów i taterników. W 1813 r. był tutaj szwedzki botanik Göran Wahlenberg, on też wspomina o kolebie "Nachtstein" (najprawdopodobniej o Kolebie Wolarskiej). Nad brzegiem Popradzkiego Stawu znajduje się schronisko ("Chata pri Popradskom plese"). Obok przebiega trasa Magistrali Tatrzańskiej. Dawniej zielone znaki odchodzące przy Wielkim Hińczowym Stawie prowadziły także na Mięguszowiecka Przełęcz pod Chłopkiem ("Mengusovské sedlo"), ale szlak od strony Słowacji został zamknięty i wejście jest możliwe tylko od strony polskiej. Przy szlaku na Rysy, w Kotlince pod Wagą, znajduje się najwyżej położone schronisko w Tatrach – schronisko pod Rysami ("Chata pod Rysmi"). Obecnie dolina jest jedną z częściej zwiedzanych przez turystów dolin tatrzańskich, liczni są tutaj turyści polscy. W jej otoczeniu znajduje się wiele stromych ścian, na których wspinają się taternicy. +W pobliżu Popradzkiego Stawu mieści się Tatrzański Cmentarz Symboliczny ("Symbolický cintorín"), pamiątka ofiar gór. +20 stycznia 1974 r. o godz. 10.40 w Dolinie Mięguszowieckiej wydarzyła się największa jak do owej pory katastrofa lawinowa w Tatrach. Żlebem spod Przełęczy nad Skokiem w Grani Baszt zeszła potężna lawina, która przewaliła się przez Mięguszowiecki Potok i wdarła 140 m na przeciwległy stok, wspinając się na niego z rozpędu aż 44 m w górę. Na stoku tym, na śnieżnym pólku trenowali z instruktorem uczestnicy kursu narciarskiego ze słowackiego Technikum Budowlanego. Lawina przysypała 24 z nich. Dzięki błyskawicznej akcji ratunkowej (było to tylko 400 m od schroniska nad Popradzkim Stawem) udało się odgrzebać spod śniegu 11 płycej przywalonych. W ciągu następnych godzin i kilku dni liczne zespoły ratunkowe (z pomocą przyszło również wojsko) odgrzebały ciała 10 uczestników kursu; wśród nich nauczyciela z 12-letnim synem. Pies wskazał miejsce, gdzie po 5 godzinach od zejścia lawiny wydobyto żywego 18-latka przywalonego metrową warstwą śniegu. Ciała dwóch uczniów udało się znaleźć dopiero wiosną po stopieniu się śniegu. +Zimą jako pierwszy nad Popradzkim Stawem był Viktor Lorenc 22 grudnia 1877 r. Całą dolinę przeszli zimą jako pierwsi Theodor Wundt i przewodnik Jakob Horvay w dniach 9-10 kwietnia 1884 r. +Georg von Frundsberg + +Georg von Frundsberg (ur. 24 września 1473 w Mindelheim, zm. 20 sierpnia 1528 w Mindelheim) – niemiecki wojskowy, dowódca wojsk cesarza Maksymiliana I i Karola V. +W 1499 wziął udział w nieudanej inwazji na Szwajcarię, gdzie armia cesarska została pokonana przez szwajcarskich pikinierów. W tym samym roku wziął udział w kampanii włoskiej, wspomagając oddziały Ludwika Sforzy w walce z Francuzami. Jako doświadczony żołnierz w imieniu cesarza Maksymiliana walczył o jego sukcesję w księstwie Landshut w Bawarii, a następnie w Niderlandach. +Z polecenia cesarza dokonał analizy kosztu utrzymania wojsk zaciężnych (nie zawsze do końca wiernych) i przedstawił pomysł utworzenia narodowej regularnej piechoty, wzorowanej na szwajcarskich pikinierach, znanej odtąd jako landsknechci. Za zgodą cesarza sformował i przeszkolił takie oddziały, wyposażając część z nich w 3-metrowe piki. Na ich czele w 1509 rozgromił wojska weneckie, a w latach 1513-1514 odniósł szereg zwycięstw nad połączonymi wojskami wenecko-francuskimi. +Po powrocie do Niemiec został mianowany głównym naczelnikiem wojsk Ligi Szwabskiej, które pod jego komendą zaprowadziły ład w Wirtembergii. Wraz ze wznowieniem wojny z Francją dokonał skutecznej inwazji na Pikardię (1521), a następnie rozgromił Lombardczyków w 1522, oddając tę ziemię we władanie nowemu cesarzowi Karolowi V. Trzy lata później odegrał niebagatelną rolę w zwycięstwie nad Francuzami pod Pawią. +Wojna chłopska, która ogarnęła Niemcy, zmusiła go do powrotu i podjęcia walki o przywrócenie władzy cesarskiej na objętych buntem terenach. Wobec trudnej sytuacji finansowej Cesarstwa, własnym sumptem wyekwipował armię i wspólnie z Hiszpanami ruszył na Rzym. Choroba zmusiła go jednak do zdania komendy nad wojskiem i powróciwszy do domu zmarł 20 sierpnia 1528 w rodzinnym Mindelheim. +Georg von Frundsberg stał się symbolem wierności i wyrzeczeń dla Cesarstwa i Habsburgów, co skrzętnie wykorzystano w III Rzeszy, ukazując go jako wzór patrioty i nadając 10. Dywizji Pancernej SS jego imię. Był jednym z najwybitniejszych dowódców swej epoki, obok takich postaci jak: de Córdoba, Bayard i Gaston de Foix, a na gruncie rodzimym Götz von Berlichingen oraz Geyersberg. +Ilulissat + +Ilulissat, duń. Jakobshavn – miasto w zachodniej części Grenlandii, położone nad zatoką Qeqertarsuup Tunua ("Disko Bugt"), założone w 1741. Liczba mieszkańców: 4606 (2011 r.). Ilulissat jest trzecim pod względem liczby ludności miastem na Grenlandii i ośrodkiem turystycznym wyspy (m.in. fiordy). Nazwa w języku grenlandzkim oznacza "góry lodowe". Przemysł spożywczy: przetwórstwo ryb i krewetek. +Położenie. +Ilulissat leży około 2 km na północ od ujścia fiordu Ilulissat do zatoki Qeqertarsuup Tunua. Fiord ten ma ok. 40 km długości, 7 km szerokości i do 1200 m głębokości. U jego nasady leży Sermeq Kujalleq ("Jakobshavn Isbræ") – najszybciej przesuwający się lodowiec świata. Przemieszcza się on w tempie do 19 m dziennie w kierunku zachodnim. Odłamują się od niego przy tym ogromne góry lodowe, mogące mieć do kilku kilometrów długości i do kilometra wysokości. Wystają na 150 m ponad powierzchnię wody. Wraz z pływami morskimi przesuwają się one wzdłuż fiordu, aż trafią na wypiętrzenie dna u wylotu fiordu o głębokości ok. 300 m. Większe góry lodowe zatrzymują się w tym miejscu, co powoduje gromadzenie się lodu. W 2004 roku fiord wpisano na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +Na zachód od Ilulissat leży zatoka Qeqertarsuup Tunua z wyspą Qeqertarsuaq. +Historia. +Ilulissat został założony w 1741 roku w odległości ok. 2 km od Sermermiut – ówcześnie największej osady na wyspie, liczącej 250 mieszkańców. Jednym z najbardziej znanych mieszkańców Ilulissat był polarnik Knud Rasmussen, który badał Arktykę podczas licznych ekspedycji i przyczynił się do rozbudzenia samoświadomości Inuitów. +Gospodarka. +W Ilulissat działają przetwórnie ryb. Ważną gałęzią gospodarki stała się także w ciągu ostatnich 30 lat turystyka. Zimą, kiedy temperatury spadają do −30 °C (dzięki suchemu klimatowi mróz jest jednak łatwy do zniesienia), turystów przyciągają tu możliwości podróży w psich zaprzęgach. Latem, gdy temperatury są wyższe, z Ilulissat rozciągają się widoki na zatokę z topniejącymi górami lodowymi. +Ilulissat posiada port (dwa razy w tygodniu przybija tu prom, zapewniający połączenie z położonymi dalej na południe miastami Grenlandii) oraz lądowisko dla helikopterów (połączenia lotnicze zapewnia Air Greenland i Air Iceland). +Populacja. +Według danych oficjalnych liczba mieszkańców w roku 2011 wynosiła 4606 osób.. +Klimat. +Ilulissat znajduje się na zachodnim wybrzeżu, 250 km za kołem podbiegunowym. Panuje tam klimat subpolarny. Średnie temperatury wynoszą: w lipcu 11 °C (dzień), 5 °C (noc) oraz w marcu -12 °C (dzień), -19 °C (noc). +Qeqertarsuaq + +Qeqertarsuaq (duń. "Godhavn", "Godthavn") – miejscowość w południowej części wyspy Qeqertarsuaq ("Disko Ø"), położonej u zachodnich wybrzeży Grenlandii. Rok założenia: 1773, wcześniej istniała osada wielorybnicza. W przeszłości ważny ośrodek handlowy północnej części Grenlandii, później utrata znaczenia na rzecz Nuuk. +W Qeqertarsuaq znajduje się heliport a także port rybacki, przemysł spożywczy (fabryka konserw); stacje naukowe: badań arktycznych Uniwersytetu w Kopenhadze oraz badań jonosfery. +Obecna liczba mieszkańców: 760 (2012). +Leszek Możdżer + +Leszek Możdżer właściwie Lesław Możdżer (ur. 23 marca 1971 w Gdańsku) – polski kompozytor, pianista jazzowy i producent muzyczny, twórca muzyki filmowej. +Absolwent Akademii Muzycznej im. Stanisława Moniuszki w Gdańsku. Laureat nagrody Ad Astra przyznawanej przez Ministra Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego, nagrody polskiego przemysłu fonograficznego Fryderyka i Paszportu Polityki. Wielokrotnie nagradzany w plebiscytach i konkursach muzycznych m.in.: czasopisma Jazz Forum, Jazz Juniors, Jazz Melomani i Jazzowe Oskary. +Działalność artystyczną rozpoczął od występów w zespole klarnecisty Emila Kowalskiego, a następnie z grupą Miłość, z którą uzyskał pierwsze sukcesy artystyczne. Jest wieloletnim współpracownikiem kompozytorów filmowych Jana A.P. Kaczmarka i Zbigniewa Preisnera. Wraz ze szwedzkim kontrabasistą Larsem Danielssonem i izraelskim perkusistą Zoharem Fresco współtworzy trio jazzowe. Solo, jako członek zespołu oraz sideman nagrał ponad osiemdziesiąt albumów oraz odbył szereg koncertów na całym świecie m.in. w Stanach Zjednoczonych, Brazylii, Argentynie, Kanadzie czy Polsce. +Możdżer współpracował ponadto z takimi wykonawcami i grupami muzycznymi jak: Marcus Miller, Wojciech Pilichowski, David Gilmour, Jacek Olter, Zbigniew Namysłowski, Lester Bowie, Adam Pierończyk, Kazik Staszewski, Michał Urbaniak, Tomasz Stańko, Lipali, Phil Manzanera, Anna Maria Jopek, Eldo, Bończyk & Krzywański, L.U.C, Janusz Radek, David Friesen, Olo Walicki, Andrzej Olejniczak, Adam Klocek, Tymon Tymański, Lars Danielsson, Myslovitz, Blenders, Grammatik czy Behemoth. +W 30. rocznicę powstania Solidarności oraz 200-lecia urodzin Fryderyka Chopina w ramach Solidarity of Arts 2010 na Targu Węglowym w Gdańsku kompozytor przygotował widowisko jazzowe. +Biografia. +Lesław Możdżer urodził się 23 marca 1971 roku w Gdańsku. Grę na fortepianie rozpoczął w wieku pięciu lat za namową rodziców. W 1996 roku otrzymał dyplom ukończenia Akademii Muzycznej im. Stanisława Moniuszki w Gdańsku. Naukę pobierał w klasie fortepianu pod kierownictwem Andrzeja Artykiewicza na Wydziale Instrumentalnym. +Chaos (matematyka) + +Chaos deterministyczny - w matematyce i fizyce, własność równań lub układów równań, polegająca na dużej wrażliwości rozwiązań na dowolnie małe zaburzenie parametrów. Dotyczy to zwykle nieliniowych równań różniczkowych i różnicowych, opisujących układy dynamiczne. +Przesłankę prowadzącą do sformułowania teorii chaosu były badania Edwarda Lorenza nad modelami prognozowania pogody. Zgodnie z ówczesnym, deterministycznym rozumieniem rzeczywistości minimalna zmiana warunków początkowych powinna prowadzić do proporcjonalnie niewielkich zmian wyniku modelu. W trakcie pracy nad modelem, z natury dynamicznym (dane z iteracji wcześniejszych są danymi wyjściowymi dla iteracji następujących), w celu ułatwienia pracy wprowadził zaokrąglone wartości wyjściowe. Okazało się, że wynik modelu diametralnie odbiegał od tego co przewidywał ten sam model przy danych wprowadzonych z większą dokładnością. +Dalsze badania nad układami dynamicznymi doprowadziło do wniosku, iż, wbrew przekonaniu powszechnym w nauce, niewielkie zaburzenie warunków początkowych powoduje rosnące wykładniczo z czasem zmiany w zachowaniu układu. Popularnie nazywane jest to efektem motyla - znikoma różnica na jakimś etapie może po dłuższym czasie urosnąć do dowolnie dużych rozmiarów. Powoduje to, że choć model jest deterministyczny, w dłuższej skali czasowej wydaje się zachowywać w sposób losowy. +Zachowanie takie można zaobserwować w wielu zjawiskach fizycznych, między innymi w zmianach pogody, oscylujących reakcjach chemicznych, zachowaniu niektórych obwodów elektrycznych i ruchu ciał oddziałujących grawitacyjnie. +Zachowanie układów chaotycznych. +Ścisłym kryterium chaotyczności jest określenie wartości wykładników Lapunowa. Układ jest chaotyczny, jeśli ma co najmniej jeden dodatni wykładnik Lapunowa. W takim wypadku w przestrzeni fazowej blisko leżące trajektorie mogą po pewnym czasie dowolnie się od siebie oddalić. Choć dla idealnie dokładnie zadanych parametrów początkowych jesteśmy w stanie dokładnie przewidzieć zachowanie się układu, w praktyce, gdzie warunki początkowe znane są zawsze ze skończoną dokładnością, w krótkim czasie układ staje się nieprzewidywalny. +Szczególną cechą układów chaotycznych jest tzw. "mieszanie topologiczne". Oznacza ono, że jeśli weźmiemy dowolny region (zbiór otwarty) w przestrzeni fazowej układu, to w miarę jego ewolucji w czasie pokryje się on częściowo z dowolnym innym wybranym regionem. +Warto nadmienić, że niektóre równania i układy liniowe posiadają także rozwiązania niestabilne. Tym samym niestabilność rozwiązań jest własnością słabszą niż chaotyczność. W przypadkach liniowych niestabilność dotyczy jednak jedynie specjalnie dobranych warunków początkowych. Układ jest uważany za chaotyczny, gdy niestabilność dotyczy prawie wszystkich warunków początkowych (formalnie zestawy tych warunków tworzą zbiór gęsty). +Dowiedzenie, że dany, konkretny układ równań jest chaotyczny dla pewnych wartości parametrów modelu, jest na ogół procesem złożonym. Dlatego niewłaściwe jest nazywanie chaotycznym każdego układu przejawiającego skomplikowane zachowania. Przykładami układów mylnie nazywanych chaotycznymi są turbulencje i zachowanie giełdy. Nie udowodniono chaotyczności dla pełnego układu równań Naviera-Stokesa, a dla zachowania giełdy nie znamy nawet równań różnicowych czy różniczkowych, opisujących ją w zadowalający sposób. Tym samym nie potrafimy się wypowiedzieć o chaotyczności ich rozwiązań. +Atraktory. +Niektóre układy dynamiczne są chaotyczne wszędzie, ale w większości wypadków takie zachowanie dotyczy jedynie pewnego podzbioru przestrzeni fazowej. Najbardziej interesujący przypadek zachodzi, gdy chaotyczność dotyczy jakiegoś atraktora, gdyż trajektorie z całego jego obszaru przyciągania mają tę własność. +Atraktory w układach liniowych są zwykle punktami lub okręgami. W układach chaotycznych pojawiają się dziwne atraktory – o bardzo złożonej budowie, często fraktalnej. Jednym z najsłynniejszych przykładów jest trójwymiarowy atraktor Lorenza, przypominający kształtem motyla. +W celu badania własności chaosu rozwinięto wiele technik w zakresie analizy równań różniczkowych oraz wykorzystano w nowy sposób wiele istniejących narzędzi matematycznych. Na potrzeby symulacji komputerowych dla układów chaotycznych korzysta się z przekrojów Poincarégo, umożliwiających zmniejszenie wymiaru przestrzeni fazowej. Następnie z własności tych przekrojów wnioskuje się na temat własności pełnej przestrzeni fazowej rozwiązań. +Historia. +Pierwsze odkrycia dotyczące chaosu można przypisać Hadamardowi, który opublikował w 1898 roku pracę dotyczącą bil poruszających się bez tarcia po powierzchni o ujemnej krzywiźnie. Hadamard pokazał, że w takich warunkach wszystkie trajektorie są niestabilne w tym sensie, że oddalają się od siebie wykładniczo, z dodatnim wykładnikiem Lapunowa. +Na początku XX wieku Henri Poincaré pokazał, że w problemie n-ciał istnieją orbity, które są aperiodyczne, ale nie są zbieżne ani rozbieżne. Problem ten był badany w kolejnych latach przez wielu matematyków i fizyków. Efektem tych prac było pokazanie podobnego zachowania dla wielu układów, takich jak turbulentne przepływy i oscylacje w obwodach elektrycznych. Zbudowanie teorii opisującej te zjawiska wymagało jednak dopiero zastosowania symulacji komputerowych. +Pionierem teorii chaosu stał się Edward Lorenz, który w 1961 przeprowadzał numeryczne analizy zjawisk pogodowych. Symulowany przez niego układ opisywał własności ogrzewanej, prostokątnej komórki gazowej. Składał się z pięciu równań różniczkowych nieliniowych, będących ograniczoną wersją równań Naviera-Stokesa. Lorenz, chcąc uprościć obliczenia przerwane błędem sprzętowym, zamiast przeprowadzać je od początku, rozpoczął kontynuację symulacji od wyników pośrednich uzyskanych przed momentem awarii. Jak zauważył pod koniec, otrzymane wyniki w znaczny sposób odbiegały od symulacji przeprowadzonych od początku do końca. Okazało się to skutkiem zaokrąglenia wprowadzanych ręcznie wyników. Równania okazały się zaskakująco czułe na niewielką zmianę warunków początkowych. +Brian Joubert + +Brian Joubert (ur. 20 września 1984 w Poitiers, Francja) – francuski łyżwiarz figurowy. Pięciokrotny mistrz Francji w indywidualnej jeździe na lodzie, złoty medalista Mistrzostw Europy w 2004 i srebrny medalista Mistrzostw Świata w tym samym roku. Podczas Mistrzostw Europy w 2005 nie obronił tytułu mistrzowskiego i zdobył srebrny medal. Tytuł wicemistrza świata obronił w 2006 roku na Mistrzostwach Świata w Calgary, a w 2007, na Mistrzostwach Świata w Tokio po raz pierwszy zdobył tytuł mistrza świata. +Złoty medal zdobył także na Grand Prix 2006. Sezon 2006/2007 jest dotychczasowo najlepszym w jego karierze. +Życie prywatne. +Brian Joubert, syn Jean-Michela i Raymonde Joubert, urodził się w Poitiers w 1984 roku. Poważnie zachorował mając 11 miesięcy. Lekarze byli zmuszeni usunąć mu nerkę. Łyżwiarstwo figurowe zaczął trenować pod wpływem sióstr w wieku 4 lat. Próbował zająć się hokejem na lodzie, ale mając 6 lat stwierdził, że woli skakać. W pierwszych zawodach wziął udział mając 5 lat. +W 2004 roku było głośno o jego związku z miss Francji Laetitią Bléger. Modelka w jednym z wywiadów oświadczyła, że Joubert spotykał się z nią, żeby ukryć, że jest homoseksualistą. Łyżwiarz wniósł oskarżenie do sądu. Zgodnie z wyrokiem Bléger i magazyn wypłacili mu odszkodowanie w wysokości 17 tysięcy euro. +W latach 2005-2009 spotykał się z mistrzynią Włoch Valentiną Marchei. Pojawiały się plany wspólnego występu na Zimowych Igrzyskach Olimpijskich 2010 w Vancouver. Para zdecydowała się na rozstanie w styczniu 2009, najprawdopodobniej związane to było z ich karierami sportowymi. +Trzykrotnie wziął udział we francuskiej edycji programu „Fort Boyard” (2004, 2007, 2008). Został sponsorem fundacji na rzecz dzieci z zespołem Williamsa. 13 marca 2006 wydano biografię Jouberta „Le feu sur la glace” (fr. "Ogień Na Lodzie"). +Technika i choreografia. +Brian Joubert znany jest z żywiołowości, ciekawych choreografii i wykonywania perfekcyjnie pewnych elementów, zwłaszcza skoków. Do słynnych należą skoki poczwórne: Salchow i Toeloop. Do historii przeszedł program dowolny z sezonu 2006/07, w którym wykonywał 3 skoki poczwórne. Często podkreśla, że są dla niego bardzo ważne,nowy system nie gwarantuje za nie lepszych ocen, ale świadczą o poziomie prezentowanym przez łyżwiarza. Do elity solistów zalicza się m.in. dzięki kombinacji skoków 4-2 (np. poczwórny Toeloop - podwójny Toeloop). Jego skoczność przejawia się w również w niezwykle mocnych, silnych i wyrazistych skokach jak potrójny Lutz czy death-drop (skok do piruetu przez Axla). Z kolei żywiołowość to przede wszystkim bogate w trudne figury i elementy sekwencje kroków. +Jego słabą strona są na pewno piruety, za które często jest krytykowany. Podjęcie współpracy z Lucinda Ruth w sezonie 2005/06, miało na celu zniwelowanie niedoskonałości łyżwiarza. Niejednokrotnie przyczyną przegranej Jouberta była również pewność siebie. Podczas Mistrzostw Świata 2009 w Los Angeles, zaliczanych do największych porażek łyżwiarza, był o krok od wygranej. Przed występem podkreślał, że zamierza wygrać, a zapewni mu to bogactwo elementów, z których słynie. Po programie krótkim prowadził. Podczas programu dowolnego dopuścił się dwóch błędów, w tym jednego poważnego, na stosunkowo łatwym dla siebie podwójnym Axlu. W ten sposób ominęło go nie tylko złoto i srebro. +Joubert jest charyzmatyczny i chimeryczny. Zarówno programy dowolne, jak i obowiązkowe przykuwają uwagę. Wyróżniają się spośród innych, prezentowanych na zawodach poprzez muzykę, kombinacje, szybkość czy wyszukane elementy. Jako podkłady wykorzystuje znane ścieżki dźwiękowe, nieraz pochodzące z filmów (np. Matrix, Requiem dla snu) czy typowo klubowe utwory. Joubert lubi zmieniać zdanie co do choreografii. Znana jest historia sprzed Mistrzostw Europy 2009, gdy na 2 tygodnie przed zawodami postanowił wykorzystać inną muzykę w programie krótkim, a co za tym idzie, także choreografię. +Mostek dwusiarczkowy + +Mostek dwusiarczkowy (inaczej mostek disulfidowy) – mostek utworzony przez dwa atomy siarki (-S-S-) dwóch cząsteczek tego samego lub różnych związków chemicznych. Związki zawierające mostki dwusiarczkowe noszą nazwę disulfidów. +W białkach wiązania disulfidowe powstają między atomami siarki dwóch reszt cysteinowych (→ cystyna). +Ma to duże znaczenie w tworzeniu struktury trzeciorzędowej białka. +Gmina Izbicko + +Gmina Izbicko (niem. "Gemeinde Stubendorf") – gmina wiejska w województwie opolskim, w powiecie strzeleckim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie opolskim. W 2006 roku w gminie wprowadzono język niemiecki jako język pomocniczy. +Siedziba gminy to Izbicko. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwały 5613 osoby. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 11,41% powierzchni powiatu. +Miejscowości. +Borycz, Grabów, Izbicko, Krośnica, Ligota Czamborowa, Lwowska, Otmice, Poznowice, Siedlec, Sprzęcice, Suchodaniec, Utrata. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Chrząstowice, Gogolin, Ozimek, Strzelce Opolskie, Tarnów Opolski +Pikinierzy + +Pikinierzy - jedna z formacji wojskowych z przełomu XV i XVI wieku i pierwsza nowoczesna piechota tamtej epoki. Ich charakterystyczna broń - długa pika (początkowo długości 2,5 m a później nawet 5,5 m) siała w ich sprawnych rękach spustoszenie w szeregach przeciwnika. +Uzbrojenie ochronne w postaci pancerzy, półpancerzy i hełmów posiadał jedynie pierwszy szereg i zewnętrzne szeregi boczne. Broń pikinierów stanowiły długie piki, kusze i broń palna, co w połączeniu ze schodkowym ustawieniem kolumn (batalii), składających się każda z kilku szeregów pikinierów (przeważnie tzw. trzy batalie), dawało ich formacjom dużą manewrowość i przynosiło łatwe zwycięstwa nad rycerstwem feudalnym. Natarcie prowadzono kierując w przeciwnika trzymane na wysokości głowy piki czterech pierwszych szeregów batalii, następne szeregi trzymały piki w pionie i w miarę wbijania się w szeregi wroga opuszczały je w jego kierunku. O szeregi pikinierów rozbijały się szarże konne, a ich szyki w obronie były bardzo trudne do przełamania. +Doskonałą opinię o wysokich walorach bojowych mieli pikinierzy ze Szwajcarii. Ceniły ich wszystkie dwory europejskie najmując ich na służbę, zaś Niemcy (Frundsberg), Francuzi i Hiszpanie starali się skopiować wzorce szwajcarskie i utworzyć własne narodowe formacje piechoty. Szwajcarzy często byli instruktorami. Tak powstały pikinierskie formacje lancknechtów czy tercios. +Rozwój ręcznej broni palnej w XVI w. sprawił, że pod koniec tego stulecia pikinierzy i formacje wzorowane na nich stanowiły niespełna 50% stanu liczebnego piechoty. +W batalionach Maurycego Orańskiego pikinierzy używani byli przeważnie jako osłona dla strzelców. Gustaw Adolf ponownie uczynił z pikinierów formację atakującą. W takiej formie pikinierzy przetrwali do końca XVII wieku. +Pikinierzy do połowy XVII wieku wyposażeniu byli w moriony i kirysy, a później w kolety. Ich uzbrojenie obok piki stanowiła także broń sieczna, a nierzadko i pistolet. Zarówno w Europie, jak i w Polsce, pikinierzy zaniknęli na przełomie XVII i XVIII wieku. Spowodowane to było pojawieniem się bagnetu i karabinu skałkowego. +Sulistryj + +Sulistryj – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Suli-" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy") i "-stryj" ("stryj"). Może oznaczać "ten, który uczyni swojego stryja możniejszym". +Bhumi Jensen + +Bhumi (Poom) Jensen, ภูมิ เจนเซน (16 sierpnia 1983 - 26 grudnia 2004), wnuk króla Tajlandii Ramy IX. +Był synem najstarszej córki króla Ramy, księżniczki Ubol Rattany oraz jej amerykańskiego męża Petera Ladda Jensena. Mimo iż jego ojciec był cudzoziemcem, miał w Tajlandii przywileje członka rodziny królewskiej. Chorował na autyzm, co zwróciło uwagę Tajlandczyków na problem tej choroby. +Zginął w trakcie wakacji w Khao Lak w prowincji Phang Nga, jako jedna z wielu tysięcy ofiar trzęsienia ziemi i tsunami w grudniu 2004. +Odpust + +Odpust – w teologii katolickiej pojęcie oznaczające darowanie przez Boga kary doczesnej za grzechy, które zostały odpuszczone co do winy. Odpust może być zupełny, jeśli jest darowaniem całej, przewidzianej przez Boga kary, lub cząstkowy – jeśli jest tej kary zmniejszeniem. Odpust może być udzielony żywym lub zmarłym i dotyczy wyłącznie chrześcijan. +Pojęcie odpustu ściśle związane jest z pojęciami dotyczącymi prawa rządzenia w Kościele i związanym z tym "prawem kluczy" oraz z wiarą w wymianę darów pomiędzy żyjącymi i umarłymi, tzn. obcowanie świętych. W przeciwieństwie do sakramentów, które są łaską i wprowadzają w stan łaski uświęcającej, a także są niezależne od zasług, odpusty są skutkiem zadośćuczynienia. +Z powodu nadużyć, które miały miejsce w historii Kościoła, odpusty stały się jedną z przyczyn wystąpienia Marcina Lutra i reformacji. +Pojęcie współczesne. +Jedynym dysponentem odpustów w Kościele jest papież. Tylko on może określać warunki jego uzyskania, lub delegować swą władzę w tej materii innym. Delegacja ta nie może być przekazywana dalej, chyba, że ze zgodą papieża. +Każdy wierny może zyskiwać odpusty czy to cząstkowe, czy zupełne albo dla siebie, albo ofiarowywać za zmarłych na sposób wstawiennictwa. Nie można uzyskać odpustu dla innego żyjącego. Odpust zupełny można uzyskać tylko jeden raz w ciągu dnia (wyjątek stanowi chwila śmierci, w której to można uzyskać odpust zupełny, chociażby tego dnia wierny uzyskał już wcześniej inny), natomiast odpust cząstkowy można uzyskać kilka razy dziennie. +Po jednej spowiedzi można uzyskać kilka odpustów zupełnych, natomiast po jednej komunii i jednej modlitwie zyskuje się tylko jeden odpust zupełny. +Trzy ostatnie warunki (spowiedź, komunia, modlitwa) można wypełnić na wiele dni przed lub po wykonaniu przepisanej czynności. Wypada jednak by Komunia św. i modlitwa w intencjach papieża miały miejsce w tym dniu, w którym wykonuje się wspomnianą czynność związana z odpustem. +W przypadku odpustu cząstkowego wymagane jest jedynie wykonanie czynności i przynajmniej skrucha serca. +Czynności związane z odpustem mogą być różnorakie. Mogą to być określone modlitwy, określone dobre uczynki lub określone praktyki religijne. Czynności te mogą być ponadto związane z określonym miejscem lub z określonym czasem. +Podstawowe zasady dotyczące uzyskiwania odpustów zawarte są w prawie kanonicznym. Nad właściwym sprawowaniem odpustów czuwa w Kościele trybunał Penitencjarii Apostolskiej, który publikuje również "Enchiridion Indulgentiarum", będący swoistym katalogiem odpustów. Ostatnie, czwarte wydanie "Enchiridionu" ukazało się w lipcu 1999 i związane było z Wielkim Jubileuszem Roku 2000. +Historia doktryny. +Pierwszym znanym odpustem jest odpust udzielony w 1019 przez biskupa Poncjusza z Arles dla pielgrzymów przybywających do opactwa w Montmajour. Następnie, ok. 1063 papież Aleksander II i w 1095 Urban II udzielili odpustu dla wszystkich uczestników wypraw krzyżowych. W 1300 Bonifacy VIII ogłosił pierwszy Rok Jubileuszowy, w związku z którym na mocy bulli "Atiquorum habet" udzielił odpustu wszystkim pielgrzymującym do grobu Piotra Apostoła. +Pierwszy rok jubileuszowy spełnił oczekiwania duszpasterskie i w związku z tym Klemens VI ogłosił rok 1350 kolejnym jubileuszem. Z tego powodu wydał w 1343 bullę Unigenitus Dei Filius. Bulla ta była nie tylko ogłoszeniem jubileuszu, ale również pierwszym wykładem teologicznym dotyczącym odpustów. Od tamtej pory lata jubileuszowe i odpusty z nimi związane obchodzone są w Kościele regularnie. +Kolejnymi zachowanymi dokumentami dotyczącymi odpustów są akta procesowe zwolenników Jana Wiklefa i Jana Husa z okresu Soboru w Konstancji (1414–1418). Wśród pytań, które stawiano oskarżonym o herezję były również te, które dotyczyły prawa papieża do udzielania odpustu oraz możliwości skorzystania z odpustu w ogóle. +Na początku XVI wieku arcybiskupem Magdeburga był Albrecht Brandenburski. Biskup ten zaczął gromadzić majątek i przywłaszczać beneficja w sposób sprzeczny z zasadami. Współpracował z nim ściśle dominikanin Jan Tetzel, który upraszczając doktrynę i działając jako wędrowny kaznodzieja, opracował sposób na gromadzenie zysków przez handel "listami odpustowymi", które nie tylko miały być dowodem odpuszczenia kar doczesnych, ale miały być również gwarancją zbawienia. Takie postępowanie wzbudziło powszechny niesmak i zgorszenie wśród duchownych. 31 października 1517 augustianin Marcin Luter wywiesił na drzwiach kościoła w Wittenberdze 95 tez przeciw "handlowi odpustami". Dzięki wynalazkowi druku tezy szybko rozpowszechniły się w Rzeszy. +Bulla ta została szybko zakwestionowana. Miała bowiem charakter listu prywatnego do ówczesnego legata papieskiego w Niemczech, kardynała Kajetana de Vio. Zabrakło w niej wyraźnego zaprzeczenia nauczaniu Tetzla, nadto papież nie wyraził w niej jasno, że jest to nauczanie "ex cathedra". Jesienią 1518 po nieudanych spotkaniach de Vio i Lutra, Mistrz Marcin wystąpił z Kościoła. Dopiero 30 czerwca 1519 w tzw. "Liście do Szwajcarów" Leon X wyjaśniał, iż miał zamiar podać naukę zawartą w bulli jako obowiązującą. +Pod wpływem uniwersytetów w Kolonii i Louvanium Leon X wydał w 1520 kolejną bullę – "Exsurge Domine". Bulla ta uznawała za nieprawowierne 41 zdań Lutra i wzywała go do ich odwołania w ciągu 60 dni. Wśród tych zdań sześć dotyczyło odpustów. +W 1545 zwołany został Sobór Trydencki, który był reakcją Kościoła na reformację. 27 listopada 1563 papież Pius IV, który spodziewał się rychłego nadejścia swojej śmierci, w liście do kardynała Karola Boromeusza prosił o szybkie zakończenie obrad. W nocy z 3 na 4 grudnia zredagowano "Dekret o odpustach", który o świcie został przyjęty przez ojców soborowych. Był to jeden z ostatnich dekretów soboru i ograniczał się do zdefiniowania podstaw nauki o odpustach, czyli prawa Kościoła do dysponowania nimi oraz do rzeczywistego pożytku dla korzystających z nich. +Papież Paweł VI wydał w 1967 r. konstytucję apostolską "Indulgentiarum Doctrina", w następnym roku uzupełniony przez zawierający szczegółowy wykaz odpustów "Enchiridion Induldentiarum". Zniesiono miary czasu odpustów cząstkowych: „Co do odpustu cząstkowego pominięto dawne określenie dni i lat, a wyszukano nową formę czyli miarę, wedle której bierze się pod uwagę samą czynność wiernego, spełniającego dzieło ubogacone odpustem.” Uzasadnieniem jest fakt, iż czas jest właściwością rzeczywistości ziemskiej i trudno o nim mówić w przypadku czyśćca. Konstytucja mówi natomiast o wielkości odpustu cząstkowego, „tym większej, im większa jest miłość działającego i wartość dzieła.” +Konstytucja zasugerowała także zmniejszenie liczby odpustów zupełnych, po to, by bardziej docenić ich wartość. Zniesiono także zasadę "toties quoties", czyli możliwość uzyskiwania wielokrotnie w ciągu dnia łaski odpustu przy ponownym spełnieniu warunków. Paweł VI zostawił jeden wyjątek: drugi odpust zupełny można zyskać tego samego dnia w godzinie śmierci. +Walencja (wspólnota autonomiczna) + +Walencja, Wspólnota Walencka (katal. "Comunitat Valenciana", hiszp. "Comunidad Valenciana") – wspólnota autonomiczna położona w południowo-wschodniej Hiszpanii ze stolicą w Walencji. W większości obejmuje historyczny region zwany Krajem Walencji (hiszp. "País Valenciano"), który jako Królestwo Walencji (katal. "Regne de València") wraz z Katalonią, Aragonią i Balearami tworzył historyczną Koronę Aragońską. Od północy graniczy z Katalonią i Aragonią, od zachodu z Kastylią-La Manchą, od południa z Murcją. +Podstawą gospodarki jest rozwinięte rolnictwo, a przede wszystkim turystyka na wybrzeżu Morza Śródziemnego. +Języki urzędowe regionu to: hiszpański (kastylijski) i kataloński (w statucie noszący nazwę walenckiego). Język hiszpański dominuje w głębi kraju, na południu oraz na wybrzeżu, natomiast kataloński na północy i w małych wioskach. Ponieważ liczba użytkowników katalońskiego spada, Wspólnota Walencka została oficjalnie podzielona według granic XIX-wiecznych na część katalońskojęzyczną, w której kataloński jest promowany, i część kastylijskojęzyczną, w której wcale język kataloński nie jest używany i nauczany. +Podobnie jak w Katalonii, system władzy określa się katalońskim słowem "generalitat" (hiszp. "generalidad"). Zgromadzenie ustawodawcze Walencji nosi nazwę kortezów (hiszp. "Cortes Valencianas", katal. "Corts Valencianes"), zaś władzę wykonawczą sprawuje rząd (hiszp. "Consejo", katal. "Consell"), na którego czele stoi prezydent "generalitat" (hiszp. "Presidente de la Generalidad", katal. "President de la Generalitat"). Walencja posiada prawo do samodzielnego decydowania o kadencji władz regionu i ustalania terminów wyborów. +Świętem wspólnoty jest Dzień Wspólnoty Walenckiej – 9 października. +Paweł Bryliński + +Paweł Bryliński (ur. 21 czerwca 1814 w Wieruszowie, zm. 18 kwietnia 1890 w Masanowie k. Ostrowa) – wielkopolski rzeźbiarz ludowy. +Pejzaż Wielkopolski kojarzy się raczej z zasobnymi wsiami i zagospodarowanymi polami, niż z zarezerwowanym w powszechnej świadomości dla Podkarpacia czy Podlasia widokiem urokliwych świątków, krzyży i kapliczek zdobiących pola, rozstaje dróg lub mostki. Tymczasem można tu spotkać, zwłaszcza w południowej części regionu rzeźby o wysokich walorach artystycznych. Wyjątkowym zjawiskiem są powszechne w trójkącie pomiędzy miastami Krotoszyn, Kalisz, Ostrzeszów wysokie, przekraczające nawet dziesięć metrów, krzyże i słupy przydrożne zdobione kilkoma, a nieraz kilkunastoma płaskorzeźbami lub rzeźbami. Taka forma krzyży znana tu była już w XVIII wieku. Nawiązali do niej i rozwinęli, każdy w swoim niepowtarzalnym stylu, dwaj dziewiętnastowieczni rzeźbiarze ludowi – Paweł Bryliński i Franciszek Nowak. +Paweł Bryliński urodził się w leżącym na pograniczu Małopolski, Śląska i Wielkopolski Wieruszowie w rodzinie rzemieślniczej. Jako rzeźbiarz, był najprawdopodobniej samoukiem, chociaż istnieje prawdopodobieństwo, że rozwijał swój talent pod okiem wuja, wieruszowskiego snycerza. W 1835 roku Brylińscy przeprowadzili się do Wielowsi Klasztornej, a później do niedalekiego Masanowa. W promieniu do kilkudziesięciu kilometrów od tej miejscowości Paweł Bryliński pozostawił po sobie kilkadziesiąt charakterystycznych słupów i krzyży. +Wiódł życie wędrownego rzeźbiarza. Z nastaniem wiosny opuszczał dom z wózkiem wypełnionym narzędziami. Podczas wykonywania pracy mieszkał najczęściej u fundatora krzyża lub słupa. Jako materiału używał głównie grubych belek dębowych, rzadziej sosnowych, dostarczanych również przez fundatora. Pionowe drzewce wielometrowego słupa lub krzyża zdobił rzeźbami. Najczęściej figury były rzeźbione oddzielnie i przytwierdzane dużymi gwoździami do belki. Rzadziej rzeźbiarz wycinał rzeźby bezpośrednio w drzewcu krzyża. +Najczęstszym motywem ikonograficznym była tematyka Wielkiego Tygodnia. Piętrowo ustawione, dochodzące do półtora metra wysokości, rzeźby świętej Marii Magdaleny, Matki Boskiej, świętego Jana Ewangelisty, czasem jeszcze inne, adorowały umieszczonego nad nimi Chrystusa, nad którym często znajdował się jeszcze pelikan karmiący krwią małe. Tego typu słupy i krzyże nazywane są popularnie „bożą męką”. Po bokach słupa rzeźbiarz umieszczał świętych, patronów fundatora i jego rodziny. Szczególnie imponujące są słupy i krzyże zawierające po kilkanaście rzeźb, na przykład w Kani koło Grabowa nad Prosną. Nie wszystkie były tak okazałe, co zależało prawdopodobnie od zasobności chłopskich mecenasów Brylińskiego. Swoje prace rzeźbiarz upiększał polichromią, stosując żywe kolory. Malował nie tylko szaty postaci, ale również podkreślał barwą rysy twarzy. +Dzieła Pawła Brylińskiego oprócz monumentalnego wyglądu odznaczają się wysokim kunsztem artystycznym. W toku kilkudziesięcioletniej działalności rzeźbiarz wypracował własny styl, pozwalający łatwo odróżnić prace, które wyszły spod jego ręki. Charakteryzują się one dużym realizmem przedstawionych postaci, obfitą dekoracją, starannością wykonania detali. +Rzeźbiarz cieszył się w południowej Wielkopolsce dużą sławą, stąd dzieło jego dłuta dodawało wsi splendoru. W okolicach Odolanowa i Ołoboku niemal w każdej wsi znajdował się krzyż lub słup autorstwa Brylińskiego. Swą trwającą czterdzieści pięć lat wędrówkę artystyczną (data 1840 wyryta jest na najstarszym znanym słupie pochodzącym z Ołoboku, a 1885 na krzyżu z Masanowa) rzeźbiarz zaznaczył ponad pięćdziesięcioma dziełami. Zmarł w 1890 roku. W ostatnich pięciu latach życia nie miał już sił zmagać się z potężnymi dębowymi klocami. Zajmował się struganiem zabawek, drobnych sprzętów, skrzypiec i fujarek. Został pochowany na cmentarzu przy dawnym kościele parafialnym pod wezwaniem świętego Jana Chrzciciela w Ołoboku. +Artysta umieszczał często, najpewniej na życzenie fundatorów, inskrypcje zawierające ich nazwiska i daty powstania rzeźb. Nie sygnował natomiast dzieł własnym imieniem. Pamięć o twórcy zanikała, pozostały jednak jego dzieła. W czasie II wojny światowej wiele z nich zniszczyli okupanci niemieccy, którzy programowo niszczyli krzyże i kapliczki przydrożne w Polsce. Część poddała się warunkom atmosferycznym i upływowi czasu. Postać Pawła Brylińskiego wydobył z zapomnienia wielkopolski etnograf Stanisław Błaszczyk. Jeszcze w latach trzydziestych XX wieku podczas badań terenowych zauważył on specyficzny styl części wielofigurowych krzyży i słupów. Uznając je za dzieło jednego artysty, odnalazł w Masanowie potomków Brylińskiego i odtworzył z ich opowieści sylwetkę twórcy. +Do dziś zachowało się "in situ" niewiele ponad dziesięć krzyży i słupów Brylińskiego. Kilka niekompletnych znajduje się w kościołach Odolanowa, Sokolnik i Ołoboku oraz w zbiorach Muzeum Etnograficznego w Poznaniu. +Wrzesień 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Ałła Pugaczowa + +Ałła Borisowna Pugaczowa, ros. Алла Борисовна Пугачёва (ur. 15 kwietnia 1949 w Moskwie) – rosyjska piosenkarka, kompozytorka, aktorka, autorka tekstów, reżyser i producent muzyczny. +Ukończyła wydział dyrygentury chóralnej Szkoły Muzycznej im. M. Ippolitowa-Iwanowa w Moskwie oraz wydział reżyserii estradowej w Państwowym Instytucie Sztuki Teatralnej im. A. Łunaczarskiego w Moskwie (1981). +Pugaczowa dysponuje głosem o rozpiętości ponad 3 oktaw (sopran - kontralt) i charakterystycznej barwie z chrypką. Wykształciła swoisty styl interpretacji, z pogranicza piosenki aktorskiej i rockowej, prezentowany w ramach konceptualnych widowisk estradowych: teatru piosenki. +Kariera. +W 1975 roku otrzymała Grand Prix Międzynarodowego Festiwalu Piosenki "Złoty Orfeusz" w Słonecznym Brzegu za interpretację piosenki "Arlekino". Grand Prix prestiżowego socjalistycznego festiwalu otwierało możliwość wydania płyty w monopolowej wówczas radzieckiej wytwórni „Melodia”. Wydany w 1975 roku winylowy krążek z 3 nagranymi przez Pugaczową piosenkami stał się kultową sensacją w ZSRR. Jaskrawa odmienność stylu wykonawczego Pugaczowej wobec dotychczasowych standardów radzieckiej estrady wywołała niesłychany rezonans wśród publiczności. „Arlekino” utorowała sobie drogę do radia, piosenkarka pojawiła się w telewizji, a singel „Ałła Pugaczowa” sprzedano w nakładzie ponad 15 mln, co jest porównywalne ze światowymi rekordami w tej dziedzinie. +W 1978 wykonywaną przez artystkę piosenkę "Wsio mogut koroli" nagrodzono Grand Prix II Festiwalu Interwizji w Sopocie. Jednocześnie wokalistka zbierała pochwały za główną rolę w filmie muz. "Żenszczina, kotoraja pojot" (reż. A. Orłow), do którego skomponowała muzykę i kilka piosenek. +Od początku lat 80. stała się w ZSRR obiektem swoistego kultu. Poświęciła się wówczas także pracy kompozytorskiej, tworząc wiele sławnych piosenek, zwłaszcza we współpracy z poetą Ilją Rieznikiem. Od 1985 zwróciła się ku muzyce rockowej. W 1997 reprezentowała Rosję na konkursie Eurowizji w Dublinie. W 1998 roku zaprezentowała jubileuszowy program "Izbrannoje". Występowała z koncertami w większości krajów europejskich, także w USA, Izraelu i Indiach. Jest m.in. laureatką przyznawanego przez International Biographical Centre w Cambridge imiennego medalu 2000 Outstanding Musicians, nagród w plebiscytach popularności. Szacuje się, że płyty Pugaczowej osiągnęły na całym świecie łączny nakład 250 mln egzemplarzy, co stawia ją w gronie absolutnych liderów światowego show-biznesu zaraz po The Beatles, grupie ABBA i Elvisie Presleyu. +Została odznaczona m.in. Orderem Zasług dla Ojczyzny II i III klasy oraz azerbejdżańskim Orderem Przyjaźni. +Od 2011 roku jest przewodniczącą jury w rozrywkowym programie Faktor A "Фактор А", którego nazwa została specjalnie utworzona na cześć Ałły Pugaczowej. +Życie prywatne. +Słynne były też wielokrotne małżeństwa i rozwody piosenkarki (kolejni mężowie to: Mykołas Orbakas (1969-1973) z tego związku urodziła się jedyna córka Pugaczowej - Kristina Orbakaitė, również piosenkarka; Aleksandr Stefanowicz (1976-1980); Jewgienij Bołdin (1985-1993) i dwukrotnie młodszy od niej Filipp Kirkorow (1994-2005)). 5 stycznia 2012 roku poślubiła o 27 lat młodszego rosyjskiego aktora i piosenkarza Maksima Gałkina. Pugaczowa należy do najbogatszych Rosjan, pod swoim nazwiskiem produkuje perfumy, buty i odzież. Znana również z poddania się licznym operacjom plastycznym. +Komisja śledcza ds. prywatyzacji PZU + +Komisja Śledcza do zbadania prawidłowości prywatyzacji Powszechnego Zakładu Ubezpieczeń Spółka Akcyjna - powołana 6 stycznia 2005 roku sejmowa komisja do zbadania okoliczności prywatyzacji PZU. +Najistotniejsze zagadnienie to zbadanie prywatyzacji przeprowadzonej w 1999 roku oraz zawartego w 2001 roku aneksu do umowy prywatyzacyjnej. Wniosek o powołanie komisji złożyły kluby SLD i Samoobrony, a poparły go wszystkie ugrupowania reprezentowane w Sejmie RP. Za powołaniem komisji głosowało 411 posłów, przeciwko był jeden poseł, Konstanty Miodowicz, a wstrzymało się dwóch. Początkowo ustalono, że w skład komisji wejdzie jedenastu posłów, a następnie zmniejszono ich liczbę do dziesięciu. Jest to trzecia komisja śledcza powołana w historii Sejmu III RP. +Skład komisji. +19 stycznia 2005 Prezydium Sejmu RP nie zgodziło się, by przewodniczący Samoobrony Andrzej Lepper kandydował do komisji. Samoobrona postanowiła nie wystawiać innego kandydata. W związku z tym Sejm podjął decyzję o zmniejszeniu liczby członków komisji do dziesięciu. +Skład komisji został ustalony 21 stycznia 2005, weszli do niej: +Yoper + +Yoper "(ang.”Your Operating System”)" – bardzo popularna w 2004 roku dystrybucja Linuksa oparta na KDE, stworzona z myślą o architekturze i686. Zgodnie z założeniami twórców, Yoper jest bardzo szybkim Linuksem (wyprzedza go jedynie Gentoo), przyjaznym i łatwym w obsłudze. Domyślnie korzysta z plików binarnych TGZ, jednak oprócz tego obsługuje takie pakiety jak RPM i deb. Głównym problemem Yoper’a jest za mała liczba programistów, mimo to deweloperzy z Nowej Zelandii kontynuują prace nad swoim dziełem. +Gmina Jemielnica + +Gmina Jemielnica (; ) – gmina wiejska w województwie opolskim, w powiecie strzeleckim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie opolskim. W 2006 roku w gminie wprowadzono język niemiecki jako język pomocniczy. +Siedziba gminy to Jemielnica. +Nazwa. +W 1475 roku w łacińskich statutach "Statuta synodalia episcoporum Wratislaviensis" miejscowość wymieniona jest w zlatynizowanej staropolskiej formie "Gymilnicz". +Struktura narodowościowa. +W Narodowym Spisie Powszechnym Ludności i Mieszkań z 2002 r. okazało się, że 24,29% mieszkańców Gminy Jemielnica stanowią Niemcy. Zgodnie z ustawą z dnia 6 stycznia 2005 r. o „Mniejszościach narodowych i etnicznych oraz o języku regionalnym” () +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 15,21% powierzchni powiatu. +Demografia. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 7627 osób. +Dzielnice Jemielnicy. +Jemielnica-Wiejska, Gajdowe (niem. Gaidowe), Zawodzie (niem.Zawodzie, Teichhäuser), Nowa Kolonia (niem. Neue Kolonie), Stara Kolonia (niem. Alte Kolonie), Borek (niem. Borek, Waldeck), tzw. rejon Bacops (rejon zieleńca), rejon "Bank"(przy ulicy Strzeleckiej, rejon SzK(ul.Szkolna),rejon "Eka"(ul.Strzelecka) +Miejscowości. +Barut (niem.Liebenhain), Bokowe (niem. Bokowe / Bockkretscham, Bockhäuser), Centawa (niem. Centawa), Gąsiorowice (niem. Gonschiorowitz, Quellental), Graniczny, Jemielnica (niem. Himmelwitz), Łaziska (niem. Lasisk, Läsen), Miłosna, Piotrówka (niem. Petersgrätz, czes. Petrovice), Redwina, Wierchlesie (niem. Wierchlesche, Hohenwalde), Zielona. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Kolonowskie, Strzelce Opolskie, Wielowieś, Zawadzkie +Kate + +Kate (ang. "KDE Advanced Text Editor"), zaawansowany edytor tekstu zawarty w środowisku KDE. +Kate jest częścią KDEBase od wydania KDE 2.2 (15 sierpnia 2002). Dzięki technologii KParts, istnieje możliwość osadzania Kate w innych aplikacjach KDE jako komponent edycyjny. +Suligniewa + +Suligniewa – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Suli-" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy") i "-gniewa" ("gniew"). Może oznaczać "ta, której gniew jest gwałtowniejszy". +Suligniewa imieniny obchodzi 30 maja. +Atari TT + +Atari TT 030 - zaprezentowany w 1990 roku podczas targów CeBIT w Hanowerze wyposażony był w procesor MC68030 @ 32 MHz (pierwotnie 16 MHz) i nowy chipset. Komputer ten posiadał standardowo zainstalowany koprocesor FPU 68882 @ 32Mhz. 2 MB RAM i kontroler SCSI. System operacyjny TOS w nowej wersji 3.0. Elegancka obudowa desktop. Była to linia tzw. HighEnd – komputer przeznaczony dla profesjonalistów z ogromnymi możliwościami rozbudowy dzięki SCSI i złączom VME (umożliwiające rozbudowę m.in. o zaawansowane karty graficzne, sieciowe). Komputer dostępny był w cenie 2995 dolarów za model wyposażony w 2 MB pamięci i dysk twardy o pojemności 50 MB. Pierwszy model serii Atari ST z fabrycznie zamontowanym procesorem wyższym niż MC68000. Istniała wersja TT/X pracująca pod kontrolą systemu UNIX. Projekt komputera opierał się na rozwiązaniach tworzących linię Atari ST, lecz wprowadzono do niego szereg usprawnień, które stworzyły silną jednostkę. +Historia. +Firma Atari zdała sobie sprawę z tego, że by jej produkty pozostały konkurencyjne, musi podjąć kroki polegające na wykorzystaniu większych możliwości leżących w szybszych procesorach firmy Motorola z serii 68000. W tamtym czasie najlepszym rozwiązaniem wydawał się procesor Motorola 68020. Była to pierwsza jednostka Motoroli wyposażona w 32-bitową szynę danych i 32-bitowy zestaw instrukcji. Inaczej niż w procesorach Motorola 68000 użytych do konstrukcji komputerów Atari ST, jednostka "68020" była w stanie pobrać pełną 32-bitową porcję danych w jednym cyklu zegara, podczas gdy komputery linii ST do pobrania 32 bitów danych potrzebowały dwóch cykli zegara. Mogła też zaadresować 4 GB pamięci RAM. +Początkowo więc plany komputera Atari TT opierały się właśnie na procesorze Motorola 68020. Podczas prac projektowych firma Atari zorientowała się jednak, że układ ten nie był najszczęśliwszym rozwiązaniem, gdyż brakowało w nim kilku cech, oferowanych przez następcę linii, układ Motorola 68030. Procesor ten również operował 32-bitową szyną, zestawem rozkazów oraz rejestrami wewnętrznymi. Posiadał również wirtualne przestrzenie pamięci, opisane jako "Supervisor" (nadzorca), "User" (użytkownik), "Program" (program) i "Data" (dane), plus wbudowaną jednostkę zarządzania pamięcią oraz dwa zintegrowane z układem banki pamięci podręcznej dla rozkazów i danych, po 256 bajtów każdy. +Po podjęciu decyzji o oparciu nowego komputera o układ 68030, zaczęły się kłopoty. Początkowo komputer miał pracować z częstotliwością 16 MHz, by zapewnić kompatybilność wsteczną. Układy obecne w komputerach serii ST i przeniesione do linii TT (na przykład kontrolery DMA i układ graficzny) nie radziły sobie z szybkościami powyżej tej granicy. Część oprogramowania również wykazywała niestabilność przy uruchamianiu na szybszych jednostkach. By umożliwić pracę komputera z 32-megahercowym układem 68030, Atari musiało dokonać pewnego rodzaju przeskalowania swojego projektu, dodając sporych rozmiarów pamięć podręczną. W ten sposób udało się pogodzić procesor pracujący z częstotliwością 32 MHz i szynę systemową działającą o połowę wolniej. +Zarządzający komputerami Atari TT system operacyjny to ulepszona wersja TOS o numerze 3.0. Został on umieszczony w czterech kościach ROM (512-kilobajt). Nie oferował jednak użytkownikowi wielozadaniowości z wywłaszczeniem. Inny wariant, znany pod nazwą TT/X, korzystał z systemu operacyjnego Unix System V R4 lub WISH (rozszerzenia systemu "Motif"). +Komputer po raz pierwszy został przedstawiony na targach CeBIT w niemieckim mieście Hanower, a produkcja ruszyła w roku 1990. Cena zestawu ustalona została na 2995 dolarów za komputer wyposażony w 2 MB pamięci i dysk twardy o pojemności 50 MB. W Polsce komputer wyposażony w 4 MB ST RAM, 4 MB TT RAM i dysk twardy o pojemności 208 MB kosztował w roku 1992 45 milionów złotych (bez monitora). W Stanach Zjednoczonych komputer sprzedawano od roku 1991. W roku 1992 Atari zaprojektowało komputer Atari Falcon040 który był zarówno następcą Atari Falcona jak i Atari TT, łączył on w sobie obie technologie. Wycofanie się Atari w roku 1993 z rynku sprzętu komputerowego było jednoznaczne z końcem linii TT. Pewna liczba tych komputerów została jednak stworzona jako maszyny deweloperskie w pracach nad konsolą Atari Jaguar. +Szczegóły. +Atari TT030 zawierał szereg nowych urządzeń. Przykładem jest port LAN, który domyślnie miał obsługiwać sieć AppleTalk, nigdy jdnak nie doczekał się sterownika, co prawdopodobnie spowodowane było kwestiami licencyjnymi. Inne nowości to szyna rozszerzeń VME, tryby graficzne VGA i host dla urządzeń SCSI m.in. dysków twardych. W komputerze zastosowano również rozwiązania znane z serii ST, takie jak złącza MIDI, gniazdo cartridge'a, gniazdo zewnętrznej stacji dysków, czy port ASCI/DMA. +Jednym z urządzeń wykluczonych z projektu był układ graficzny BLITTER, po raz pierwszy zastosowany w komputerach Atari Mega ST około pięciu lat wcześniej. Decyzja Atari najprawdopodobniej spowodowana była faktem, że procesor Motorola 68030 dostarczał systemowi wystarczająco dużo mocy, więc BLITTER stał się zbędny. +Dla komputera stworzono nową wersję Atari TOS-u oraz opracowaną przez Atari wersję systemu Unix (System V) - ASV. +Komputer Atari TT oznaczył ostatnie wielkie parcie firmy Atari na rynek stacji roboczych przeznaczonych dla firm. Później na rynku pojawiły się komputery MEGA STe oraz Atari Falcon 030, ale nie były one kierowane w tym samym stopniu do klientów korporacyjnych, co TT 030. Mimo tego, komputer Atari TT wydawał się od samego początku skazany na zagładę. Już w trakcie prac na rynku dostępna była wersja procesora Motorola 68030 taktowana zegarem 50 MHz, a do premiery procesora Motorola 68040 pozostało niewiele czasu. Szyna systemowa taktowana zegarem 16 MHz i dwukrotnie szybszy procesor nie wydawały się rynkowi korporacyjnemu wystarczająco silnym zestawem. W latach 1990/1991 wielkim słowem-kluczem była "wielozadaniowość", której nowe Atari nie oferowało. Nastąpiło to dopiero w roku 1993, po wprowadzeniu MultiTOS-u. Dopiero ta wersja Atari TOSu była w stanie wykorzystać potencjał jednostki zarządzania pamięcią zastosowanej w Atari TT, która oprócz wielozadaniowości oferowała chroniony tryb pamięci. +Kolejnym problemem okazała się niedostępność systemu operacyjnego Unix dla Atari TT do połowy roku 1992. Do końca owego roku Atari porzuciło wszelkie prace rozwojowe związane z Uniksem. Istniała jednak wersja Atari TT, która miała pracować jako komputer uniksowy, oznaczona symbolem TT/X, dla której dostępne były systemy operacyjne Unix System V R4 i WISH (rozszerzenie OSF Motif) +Amélie Mauresmo + +Amélie Simone Mauresmo (ur. 5 lipca 1979 w Saint-Germain-en-Laye) – tenisistka francuska, zwyciężczyni wielkoszlemowych turniejów Australian Open 2006 i Wimbledonu 2006, nr 1 w kobiecym tenisie na świecie w 2004 i 2006, wicemistrzyni olimpijska z Aten, 2004 w singlu, zdobywczyni Pucharu Federacji. +W marcu 2007 została uhonorowana przez prezydenta Francji tytułem Kawalera Orderu Legii Honorowej, najwyższego francuskiego odznaczenia państwowego. +W filmie Asterix na Olimpiadzie zagrała w jednej ze scen samą siebie. +3 grudnia 2009 ogłosiła zakończenie kariery sportowej. +Kariera tenisowa. +1993. +Zagrała w pierwszym turnieju z cyklu ITF w Marsylii. Przegrała w pierwszej rundzie. +1994. +Zagrała w kolejnych sześciu turniejach ITF. W jednym doszła do półfinału. +1995. +Zadebiutowała w rozgrywkach WTA Tour. Swój pierwszy mecz rozegrała we French Open. Przegrała w pierwszej rundzie. Wcześniej przyznano jej dziką kartę do eliminacji. W cyklu ITF wygrała jeden turniej w singlu i dwa w deblu. +1996. +Wygrała swoje pierwsze mecze seniorskie. We French Open pokonała Beate Reinstadler w pierwszej rundzie. Przegrała z Brendą Schultz-McCarth 4:6, 7:5, 5:7 w drugiej. W Rosmalen pokonała Aleksandrę Fusai w pierwszej rundzie. Przegrała z Ivą Majoli w drugiej. Odpadła w eliminacjach do Australian Open i do turnieju Open Gaz de France. Wygrała juniorskie French Open i Wimbledon. +1997. +Zagrała w sześciu turniejach WTA. Czterokrotnie doszła do drugiej rundy, w tym we French Open (zagrała jako dzika karta, przegrała ze Steffi Graf). Odpadła w eliminacjach do Australian Open i Wimbledonu. Wygrała drugi i ostatni w karierze turniej ITF w singlu. Zadebiutowała w pierwszej setce rankingu WTA. 22 grudnia zajmowała 100 miejsce. +1998. +Po raz pierwszy zakończyła sezon w czołowej trzydziestce rankingu. Największym sukcesem był awans do finału turnieju kategorii I w Berlinie. Mauresmo obroniła piłkę meczową w eliminacjach. Potem pokonała numer 2 Lindsay Davenport i numer 3 Janę Novotną. Były to jej pierwsze zwycięstwa nad zawodniczkami z czołowej dziesiątki. Przegrała w finale z Conchitą Martínez. Była najniżej notowaną zawodniczką (65. miejsce w rankingu), której w jednym turnieju udało się pokonać dwie tenisistki z czołowej trójki od czasów Lisy Bonder, której udało się to w 1983 w Tokio (zajmowała wówczas 54. pozycję). Była także pierwszą zawodniczką z eliminacji i czwartą pod względem najniższego rankingu, której udało się osiągnąć finał turnieju kategorii I. Dwukrotnie awansowała do ćwierćfinału: w Pradze i New Haven (pokonała sklasyfikowaną na dziewiątym miejscu Nathalie Tauziat i po raz trzeci ograła zawodniczkę z czołowej dziesiątki). Osiągnęła trzecią rundę w dwóch turniejach wielkoszlemowych (za każdym razem był to jej debiut). W Australian Open przegrała z Venus Williams, w US Open rozegrała trzy-setowy mecz z Martiną Hingis. Na Wimbledonie doszła do drugiej rundy. Odpadła w pierwszej rundzie French Open. +1999. +Po raz pierwszy zakończyła sezon w czołowej dziesiątce rankingu. Niespodziewanie zadebiutowała w finale turnieju wielkoszlemowego w Australian Open. Jako 29. zawodniczka świata obroniła piłkę meczową grając przeciwko Corinie Morariu w pierwszej rundzie. Potem pokonała numer 9 Patty Schnyder w drugiej rundzie oraz numer 1 Lindsay Davenport 4:6, 7:5, 7:5 w półfinale. W finale uległa numerowi 2 Martinie Hingis. Pozostałymi dobrymi rezultatami były zwycięstwo w pierwszym turnieju cyklu WTA Tour w Bratysławie (w finale pokonała Kim Clijsters), finał Open Gaz de France w Paryżu (pokonała numer 1 Martinę Hingis, przegrała z Sereną Williams 7:6 w trzecim secie), półfinały w Rzymie i Linzu i ćwierćfinały w New Haven (pokonała numer 10 Julie Halard-Decugis) i Tokio (Princess Cup). Raz osiągnęła czwartą rundę turnieju (w US Open, przegrała z Anke Huber), trzecią rundę dwukrotnie, drugą rundę dwukrotnie (w tym we French Open) i trzykrotnie odpadła w pierwszej rundzie (w tym w WTA Tour Championships, przegrała z Davenport w trzech setach). 10 maja zadebiutowała w czołowej dziesiątce rankingu (dołączyła do Mary Pierce i Nathalie Tauziat, Francja została wówczas trzecim krajem, po USA i Australii, z którego trzy zawodniczki były jednocześnie w czołowej dziesiątce). 15 listopada dołączyła do Halard-Decugis, Pierce i Tauziat, dzięki czemu Francja miała jednocześnie cztery zawodniczki w dziesiątce. Skręciła prawą kostkę podczas meczu pierwszej rundy debla we French Open, przez co nie wystąpiła na Wimbledonie. +2000. +Zakończyła rok na 16. miejscu po sezonie, w którym największym osiągnięciem było wygranie drugiego turnieju singlowego w Sydney. Pokonała numer 5 Mary Pierce, numer 1 Martinę Hingis i numer 2 Lindsay Davenport w ostatnich trzech rundach (została czwartą kobietą w historii, której udało się pokonać trzy zawodniczki z czołowej piątki w turnieju niewielkoszlemowym). Jako jedynej w okresie od września 1999 do kwietnia 2000 udało jej się wygrać z Lindsay Davenport. Doszła do finału w Bol (przegrała z Tatianą Pisnik) i Rzymie (pokonała numer 5 Mary Pierce i numer 10 Arantxę Sánchez Vicario, przegrała z Monicą Seles). Osiągnęła półfinał w Hanowerze (przegrała 6:7 w trzecim secie z Sereną Williams) i Moskwie (przegrała z Martiną Hingis). Doszła do czwartej rundy we French Open (przegrała z Seles). Odpadła w drugiej rundzie Australian Open i w pierwszych rundach Wimbledonu i Olimpiady w Sydney. W Linz wygrała swój pierwszy turniej deblowy (grała w parze z Chandą Rubin). Skreczowała podczas meczu drugiej rundy w Indian Wells z powodu kontuzji pleców. Później przez siedem tygodni nie występowała. Podczas turnieju w Rzymie przekazała 6750 dolarów nagrody uzyskanej za dojście do półfinału w deblu włoskiemu dziecku, które odniosło szereg obrażeń w wypadku samochodowym. W lipcu i sierpniu ponownie wycofała się z szeregu turniejów (w tym z US Open) z powodu kontuzji pleców oraz z kończącego sezon Turnieju Mistrzyń z powodu kontuzji nogi. +2001. +Po raz drugi zakończyła sezon w czołowej dziesiątce rankingu. Wygrała cztery turnieje (w tym trzy pod rząd). Wygrała 16 kolejnych spotkań, dzięki czemu triumfowała kolejno w Open Gaz de France, Nicei i Amelia Island. Dzięki udanym występom powróciła do czołowej dziesiątki rankingu. Awansowała na dziewiąte miejsce, wyprzedziła Mary Pierce i po raz pierwszy została numerem 1 we Francji. Przegrała w ćwierćfinale w Charleston z Martiną Hingis, ale powróciła do formy i wygrała swój czwarty turniej w 2001 w Berlinie (pokonała numer 1 Hingis i numer 4 Jennifer Capriati w ostatnich dwóch rundach). Doszła do finału w Rzymie (po raz kolejny pokonała numer 1 Martinę Hingis w półfinale, przegrała z Jeleną Dokić w finale). Pierwszy raz awansowała na piąte miejsce w rankingu, po tym jak była dziewiętnasta 11 lutego. W okresie od 5 lutego do 20 maja uzyskała wynik 25:1 (wygranych do przegranych). Nieoczekiwanie odpadła w pierwszej rundzie French Open, pomimo że była uznawana za faworytkę (miała piąty numer w rozstawieniu, przegrała z Janą Kandarr). Doszła do półfinału w Sydney (pokonała numer 4 Monicę Seles, wycofała się przed meczem z Lindsay Davenport z powodu kontuzji pleców). Osiągnęła ćwierćfinały w New Haven, US Open (przegrała z Capriati) i Filderstadt. Odpadła w czwartej rundzie Australian Open (przegrała z Venus Williams) i w trzeciej rundzie Wimbledonu. Przegrała mecz otwarcia w Turnieju Mistrzyń z Sandrine Testud. Wycofała się z turniejów w Bol, Eastbourne i Zurychu z powodu wyczerpania. Nie zagrała także w Luksemburgu z powodu kontuzji lewej nogi. +2002. +Po raz trzeci zakończyła sezon w czołowej dziesiątce rankingu. Wygrała turnieje w Dubaju (po drodze pokonała Monicę Seles) i Montrealu (pokonała numer 3 Jennifer Capriati w finale). Dwa razy pod rząd awansowała do półfinału w turniejach wielkoszlemowych. Na Wimbledonie pokonała numer 3 Capriati w ćwierćfinale, przegrała z Sereną Williams. W US Open pokonała numer 7 Kim Clijsters i numer 3 Capriati, przegrała w trzech setach z Venus Williams. Cztery pozostałe półfinały osiągnęła w Open Gaz de France, Antwerpii, Moskwie i Filderstadt (przegrała z Kim Clijsters po tym jak miała piłkę meczową przy stanie 5:3 w trzecim secie). Sześciokrotnie osiągnęła ćwierćfinał (w tym w Australian Open, gdzie przegrała z Capriati). Doszła do czwartej rundy we French Open. Po raz pierwszy w karierze zarobiła ponad milion dolarów w sezonie. Nie wystąpiła w Zurychu, a potem wycofała się z Turnieju Mistrzyń z powodu zapalenia chrząstki w prawej nodze. +2003. +Po raz pierwszy zakończyła sezon w czołowej piątce rankingu. Osiągnęła ćwierćfinał lub więcej w 14 z 17 startów. Wygrała turnieje w Warszawie (w finale Venus Williams skreczowała z powodu naciągnięcia mięśni brzucha) i Filadelfii. Doszła do czterech finałów: w Open Gaz de France (przegrała z Sereną Williams), Rzymie (pokonała numer 7 Jennifer Capriati i numer 1 Serenę Williams, przegrała z Kim Clijsters w trzech setach), Moskwie (przegrała z Anastazją Myskiną) i w Turnieju Mistrzyń (uzyskała wynik 1:2 w grupie, w półfinale pokonała numer 2 Justine Henin, przegrała z numerem 1 Kim Clijsters w finale). Trzykrotnie była półfinalistką, pięciokrotnie ćwierćfinalistką (w tym po raz pierwszy w dziewiątym występie we French Open i w US Open). Na początku roku powróciła na kort po czteromiesięcznej przerwie spowodowanej kontuzją. W lutym rozpoczęła sezon od występu w Open Gaz de France. Była jedyną zawodniczką, której w 2003 udało się pokonać obie siostry Williams. Wygrała wszystkie mecze w Pucharze Federacji. Dzięki jej ośmiu zwycięstwom Francja po raz drugi sięgnęła po tytuł. Wycofała się z Wimbledonu z powodu kontuzji mięśnia prawego żebra. +2004. +Po raz kolejny zakończyła rok w czołowej piątce rankingu. Wygrała pięć turniejów i awansowała na pierwsze miejsce w klasyfikacji WTA. Dobrze spisała się na kortach ziemnych. Wygrała turnieje kategorii I w Berlinie (pokonała Jennifer Capriati w półfinale, w finale walkowerem poddała jej mecz Venus Williams, z powodu kontuzji kostki) i Rzymie (w finale pokonała Capriati 3:6, 6:3, 7:6, obroniła piłkę meczową przy stanie 4:5 w trzecim secie). Została trzecią zawodniczką w historii, której udało się w jednym roku wygrać turnieje w Berlinie i Rzymie. Wcześniej dokonały tego Steffi Graf w 1987 i Monica Seles w 1990. W Montrealu pokonała Jelenę Lichowcewą w finale i zdobyła tam swój drugi tytuł. Był to jej trzeci turniejowy triumf w turnieju kategorii I w sezonie. Po US Open 13 września 2004 została liderką rankingu WTA (była pierwszą zawodniczką z Francji, której udała się ta sztuka). Utrzymała prowadzenie przez pięć tygodni. 18 października została wyprzedzona przez Lindsay Davenport. Osiągnęła finał w turnieju olimpijskim w Atenach (przegrała z Justine Henin). Zdobyła srebrny medal. Pod koniec roku wygrała dwa turnieje pod rząd, w Linzu i Filadelfii (w drodze do finału pokonała Venus Williams, w finale ograła Wierę Zwonariową). Była także finalistką w Sydney (przegrała z Justine Henin), Amelia Island (pokonała numer 1 Justine Henin 6:7, 7:5, 6:3 w półfinale, obroniła piłkę meczową przy stanie 4:5 w drugim secie, przegrała z Lindsay Davenport) i Filderstadt (po raz pierwszy wystąpiła jako numer 1, w finale grając przeciwko Davenport skreczowała z powodu naciągnięcia mięśnia przywodziciela). Osiągnęła półfinał w Eastbourne, na Wimbledonie (przegrała z Sereną Williams 7:6, 5:7, 4:6, po tym jak miała piłkę dającą prowadzenie 4:1 w drugim secie) i WTA Tour Championships (nie przegrała seta w meczach grupowych, m.in. pokonała późniejszą triumfatorkę Marię Szarapową, przegrała z Sereną Williams 6:4, 6:7, 4:6, po tym jak prowadziła 3:1 w drugim secie). Zakończyłaby rok na pierwszym miejscu w rankingu, gdyby zdobyła tytuł. Była ćwierćfinalistką czterokrotnie, w tym we French Open, US Open i Australian Open (odniosła kontuzję podczas meczu czwartej rundy przeciwko Alicii Molik, naciągnęła mięśnie pleców i nie przystąpiła do ćwierćfinału przeciwko Fabioli Zuluadze). Przegrała wcześniej niż w ćwierćfinale tylko w jednym z 16 startów (w drugiej rundzie w San Diego uległa Molik). Wycofała się z turniejów Open Gaz de France, Antwerpia, Dubaj, Ad-Dauha i Indian Wells z powodu kontuzji mięśni odniesionej podczas Australian Open. Wycofała się także z turnieju w Charleston. Zrezygnowała z udziału w turnieju w Moskwie z powodu kontuzji mięśnia przywodziciela odniesionej podczas finału w Filderstadt. Wygrała 63 mecze. Był to jej najlepszy wynik w karierze oraz najlepszy spośród wszystkich zawodniczek w sezonie (tyle samo spotkań wygrała Lindsay Davenport). +2005. +Po raz kolejny zakończyła rok w czołowej piątce rankingu. Wygrała cztery turnieje, w tym po raz pierwszy WTA Tour Championships. Do Turnieju Mistrzyń zakwalifikowała się po raz siódmy z rzędu (nie wystartowała w nim w 2000 i 2002 z powodu kontuzji). Po raz trzeci z rzędu osiągnęła tam półfinał lub więcej. Wyszła z grupy z wynikiem 2:1 (przegrała z Mary Pierce). Następnie pokonała Marię Szarapową w półfinale i zrewanżowała się za porażkę grupową Pierce. W trwającym trzy godziny i sześć minut finale zwyciężyła 5:7, 7:6, 6:4 (jest to drugi najdłuższy finał w historii turnieju, odkąd rozgrywa się go do dwóch wygranych setów, najdłuższym jest finał z 2007). Została pierwszą zwyciężczynią z Francji w pierwszym całkowicie francuskim finale. Wygrała zacięte mecze finałowe w trzech innych turniejach: w Antwerpii (pokonała Venus Williams 4:6, 7:5, 6:4, po tym jak przegrywała 3:5 w drugim i 2:4 w trzecim secie), Rzymie (pokonała Patty Schnyder 2:6, 6:3, 6:4, był to jej szósty wygrany turniej kategorii I) i Filadelfii (pokonała Jelenę Diemientjewą 7:5, 2:6, 7:5, po raz pierwszy wygrała jeden turniej trzy razy z rzędu). Trzykrotnie osiągnęła finał: w Open Gaz de France, New Haven i Filderstadt. Cztery razy odpadła w półfinale: w Ad-Dausze (przegrała z Alicią Molik, powróciłaby na pierwsze miejsce w rankingu, gdyby wygrała mecz), Miami, na Wimbledonie i w Toronto. Osiągnęła trzy ćwierćfinały: w Australian Open, Berlinie i US Open. Nie osiągnęła ćwierćfinału w 5 z 19 startów, w tym we French Open (przegrała z Aną Ivanović w trzeciej rundzie). Spędziła cały rok w czołowej czwórce rankingu. Na Wimbledonie doszła do pierwszego finału wielkoszlemowego w deblu (grała w parze ze Swietłaną Kuzniecową). W finale Pucharu Federacji uzyskała wynik 1:2 (pokonała Anastazję Myskinę, przegrała z Jeleną Diemientjewą oraz przegrała w decydującym meczu deblowym z Diemientjewą i Dinarą Safiną, jej partnerką była Mary Pierce). Francja przegrała finał 2:3. +2006. +Był to jak do tej pory jej najlepszy sezon. Wygrała w nim swoje dwa pierwsze turnieje wielkoszlemowe i przez większość roku zajmowała pierwsze miejsce w rankingu. Siedem lat po awansie do pierwszego finału wielkoszlemowego (w Australian Open 1999), zdobyła swój pierwszy wielkoszlemowy tytuł. Triumfowała w Australian Open. Mając trzeci numer w rozstawieniu pokonała rozstawioną z numerem drugim Kim Clijsters w półfinale (Clijsters skreczowała w trzecim secie z powodu skręcenia prawej kostki). Następnie pokonała rozstawioną z numerem ósmym Justine Henin w finale (Henin skreczowała przy stanie 6:1, 2:0 dla Mauresmo z powodu problemów z układem pokarmowym). Była drugą najdłużej czekającą na zwycięstwo wielkoszlemowe zawodniczką w historii. Pierwszy raz wygrała w 32. próbie. Zwyciężyła także na Wimbledonie (mając pierwszy numer w rozstawieniu pokonała rozstawioną z numerem czwartym Marię Szarapową w półfinale, następnie ograła rozstawioną z numerem trzecim Justine Henin 2:6, 6:3, 6:4 w finale). Została pierwszą mistrzynią Wimbledonu z Francji w erze Open. Jej wynik w finałach wielkoszlemowych wynosi teraz 2:1. W początkowej części sezonu wygrała dwa turnieje kategorii II: Open Gaz de France (jako najwyżej rozstawiona obroniła piłkę meczową w półfinale przeciwko Tatianie Golovin, następnie pokonała rozstawioną z numerem drugim Mary Pierce w finale) i Antwerpię (była rozstawiona z numerem drugim, pokonała najwyżej rozstawioną Kim Clijsters w finale). Trzykrotnie była finalistką: w Ad-Dausze (pokonała Martinę Hingis w półfinale, przegrała z Nadieżdą Pietrową w finale), Pekinie (pokonała Lindsay Davenport w ćwierćfinale i Jelenę Janković w półfinale, przegrała ze Swietłaną Kuzniecową w finale) i WTA Tour Championships, gdzie broniła tytułu (zakwalifikowała się do turnieju z numerem trzecim w rankingu rocznym, awansowała do półfinału uzyskując wynik 2:1 w grupie, przegrała z Nadieżdą Pietrovą, ale pokonała Martinę Hingis i Justine Henin, następnie ograła Kim Clijsters w półfinale, w finale przegrała z Henin). Trzykrotnie osiągnęła półfinał turnieju: w Miami (przegrała ze Swietłaną Kuzniecową), Berlinie (pokonała Martinę Hingis w ćwierćfinale, przegrała z Justine Henin) i US Open (była rozstawiona z numerem pierwszym, pokonała grającą z dziką kartą Serenę Williams w czwartej rundzie, przegrała z późniejszą triumfatorką Marią Szarapową w trzech setach). Czterokrotnie była ćwierćfinalistką: w Dubaju (przegrała ze Swietłaną Kuzniecową 6:7, 4:6, pomimo że miała trzy piłki setowe w tiebreaku pierwszego seta i prowadziła 3:0 w drugim, przez tę porażkę nie wygrała czwartego z rzędu turnieju, przerwana została też jej seria szesnastu kolejnych zwycięstw rozpoczęta w Australian Open), New Haven (przegrała z Lindsay Davenport), Moskwie (przegrała z Nicole Vaidišovą 6:1, 5:7, 6:7, po tym jak prowadziła 5:2 w trzecim secie i miała trzy piłki meczowe) i Zurychu (wycofała się przed meczem z powodu kontuzji prawego ramienia). Nie osiągnęła ćwierćfinału w 3 z 17 startów: w Sydney (przegrała mecz otwierający sezon z Aną Ivanović), we French Open (była rozstawiona z numerem pierwszym, przegrała w czwartej rundzie z turniejową szesnastką Nicole Vaidišovą) i Eastbourne (przegrała mecz otwarcia z Nathalie Dechy). Rozpoczęła rok na trzecim miejscu w rankingu. 30 stycznia, po Australian Open, awansowała na drugą pozycję. Następnie powróciła na prowadzenie 20 marca. Utrzymała się na pierwszym miejscu przez 34 tygodnie. 6 listopada została wyprzedzona przez Justine Henin. W sumie była numerem jeden przez 39 tygodni (przez pięć tygodni w 2004). W Eastbourne, grając w parze ze Swietłaną Kuzniecową, wygrała swój drugi deblowy turniej. Najszybciej w historii kobiecego tenisa zarobiła milion dolarów w sezonie. Dokonała tego dochodząc do półfinału w Antwerpii. Poprawiła wynik Justine Henin z 2004 roku o miesiąc. Uzyskała wynik 1:1 w meczu pierwszej rundy Pucharu Federacji z Włochami (pokonała Flavię Pennettę, przegrała z Francescą Schiavone). Francja przegrała 1:4. Wycofała się z turniejów w Rzymie (z powodu choroby), Montrealu (z powodu naciągnięcia mięśnia prawego ramienia) i Stuttgarcie (z powodu kontuzji prawego ramienia). +2007. +Po raz dziewiąty z rzędu zakończyła rok w czołowej dwudziestce rankingu, ale po raz pierwszy od siedmiu lat znalazła się poza czołową dziesiątką. W sezonie zdarzyły się jej dwie dwumiesięczne przerwy. Uzyskała wynik 13:4 w pierwszych pięciu startach. Doszła do ćwierćfinału w Sydney (była rozstawiona z numerem pierwszym, przegrała z Jeleną Janković), do czwartej rundy w Australian Open (była rozstawiona z numerem drugim i broniła tytułu, przegrała z Lucie Šafářovą 4:6, 3:6, po tym jak prowadziła 4:1 w pierwszym secie), do półfinału w Open Gaz de France (była rozstawiona z numerem drugim, przegrała z rozstawioną z numerem czwartym Nadieżdą Pietrową 7:5, 4:6, 6:7, po tym jak prowadziła 4:1 w trzecim secie i nie wykorzystała piłki meczowej przy stanie 7:6 w tiebreaku), wygrała turniej w Antwerpii (była rozstawiona z numerem pierwszym, pokonała rozstawioną z numerem drugim Kim Clijsters w finale, zdobyła swój trzeci z rzędu tytuł i wygrała wysadzaną diamentami złotą rakietę) oraz doszła do finału w Dubaju (była rozstawiona z numerem drugim, przegrała z Justine Henin w finale). W niedzielę 18 marca przeszła operację usunięcia wyrostka robaczkowego. Z powodu operacji wycofała się z turniejów w Miami, Amelia Island i Charleston (w sumie nie grała przez dwa miesiące). W meczach rozgrywanych na kortach ziemnych uzyskała wynik 5:4. Odpadła wcześnie w Berlinie (była rozstawiona z numerem drugim, przegrała w trzeciej rundzie z Julią Wakułenko w trzech setach), Rzymie (była rozstawiona z numerem pierwszym, przegrała w drugiej rundzie z Samanthą Stosur 5:7, 7:6, 6:7, po tym jak prowadziła 4:1 w trzecim secie i miała później dwie piłki meczowe) i we French Open (była rozstawiona z numerem piątym, przegrała w trzeciej rundzie z rozstawioną z numerem 25 Lucie Šafářovą). Doszła do finału w Strasburgu (była rozstawiona z numerem pierwszym, przegrała z rozstawioną z numerem szóstym Anabel Mediną Garrigues w trzech setach). Solidnie spisała się na kortach trawiastych. Doszła do finału w Eastbourne (była rozstawiona z numerem drugim, przegrała z rozstawioną z numerem pierwszym Justine Henin 5:7, 7:6, 6:7, po tym jak prowadziła 4:2 i 5:3 w trzecim secie) i do czwartej rundy na Wimbledonie (była rozstawiona z numerem czwartym i broniła tytułu, przegrała z rozstawioną z numerem czternastym Nicole Vaidišovą w trzech setach). Uzyskała wynik 1:1 w półfinałowym meczu Pucharu Federacji z Włochami. Francja przegrała 2:3. Następnie wycofała się z turnieju w Toronto i US Open z powodu naciągnięcia prawego przywodziciela (w sumie pauzowała przez dziewięć tygodni). Powróciła na korty, ale nie udało się jej wygrać dwóch meczów w jednym turnieju w pozostałych czterech startach. Najlepszym uzyskanym rezultatem był ćwierćfinał w Pekinie (była rozstawiona z numerem trzecim, przegrała z Peng Shuai w trzech setach). Doszła do drugiej rundy w Zurychu (była rozstawiona z numerem ósmym, przegrała z Aloną Bondarenko w trzech setach) i odpadła w pierwszych rundach w Stuttgarcie (przegrała z Jeleną Diemientjewą) i Moskwie (przegrała z Wierą Zwonariową w trzech setach). Rozpoczęła rok na trzecim miejscu w rankingu. 9 lipca, po Wimbledonie, spadła z czwartej na szóstą pozycję (po tym jak spędziła 191 tygodni pod rząd w czołowej piątce rankingu). 10 września, po US Open, spadła z siódmej na jedenastą pozycję (po tym jak spędziła 270 tygodni pod rząd w czołowej dziesiątce rankingu). Ostatecznie zajęła osiemnaste miejsce w ogłoszonym 12 listopada końcowym rankingu rocznym (była to jej najniższa zajmowana pozycja od 11 lutego 2001). +2008. +W styczniu doszła do ćwierćfinału w turnieju Gold Coast (była rozstawiona z numerem szóstym, przegrała z rozstawioną z numerem czwartym Patty Schnyder). Wycofała się z turnieju w Sydney z powodu naciągnięcia mięśnia prawego uda. Doszła do trzeciej rundy w Australian Open (była rozstawiona z numerem osiemnastym, przegrała w trzech setach z Casey Dellacqua). W lutym osiągnęła ćwierćfinał w turnieju Open Gaz de France (była rozstawiona z numerem szóstym, przegrała z najwyżej rozstawioną, późniejszą triumfatorką Anną Czakwetadze w trzech setach). Przegrała w drugiej rundzie turnieju w Ad-Dausze (była rozstawiona z numerem czternastym, uległa zawodniczce z eliminacji Tamarine Tanasugarn 6:7, 5:7, po tym jak miała piłkę setową przy stanie 6:5 w tiebreaku pierwszego seta i prowadziła 5:3 w drugim). Osiągnęła ćwierćfinał turnieju w Dubaju (przegrała z rozstawioną z numerem drugim Swietłaną Kuzniecową 1:6, 6:7, po tym jak prowadziła 5:3 w drugim secie). W marcu doszła do trzeciej rundy w Indian Wells (była rozstawiona z numerem siedemnastym, przegrała z rozstawioną z numerem piętnastym Aloną Bondarenko) i Miami (była rozstawiona z numerem dwudziestym czwartym, przegrała w trzech setach z Zheng Jie). W kwietniu osiągnęła ćwierćfinał w Amelia Island (była rozstawiona z numerem jedenastym, po drodze pokonała rozstawioną z numerem siódmym Agnieszkę Radwańską i odniosła 500 zwycięstwo w singlu, została dwudziestą czwartą zawodniczką, której udała się ta sztuka, przegrała z Dominiką Cibulkovą 1:6, 6:7, po tym jak prowadziła 5:3 w drugim secie). Uzyskała wynik 2:0 w meczu Pucharu Federacji pomiędzy Japonią i Francją. Francja wygrała 4:1 i awansowała do grupy światowej. W maju wycofała się z turniejów w Berlinie i Rzymie z powodu naciągnięcia prawego mięśnia międzyżebrowego. +Życie prywatne. +Jej trenerem od turnieju w Rzymie w 2002 jest trener francuskiej reprezentacji występującej w Pucharze Federacji Loic Courteau. Matka ma na imię Françoise. Ojciec, Francis, umarł 12 marca 2004. Ma starszego brata, Fabiena, który, podobnie jak ojciec, jest inżynierem. Twierdzi, że postanowiła zająć się tenisem tuż przed skończeniem czwartego roku życia, po obejrzeniu w telewizji triumfującego we French Open 1983 Yannicka Noah. Była zaszczycona kiedy Noah powołał ją do reprezentacji Francji występującej w Pucharze Federacji w 1998. Lubi narciarstwo alpejskie, gokarty, jazdę konną, windsurfing i muzykę Dido. Od pięciu lat ma złotego psa myśliwskiego o imieniu Sophia. Lubi czerwone wina. Ma prywatną winnicę. Najlepiej ze swojej kariery wspomina moment, w którym została pierwszą z Francji liderką rankingu WTA we wrześniu 2004. +W 2007 r. znalazła się wśród setki najseksowniejszych kobiet świata opublikowanej w lesbijskim portalu internetowym "AfterEllen". +Brook Taylor + +Brook Taylor (ur. 18 sierpnia 1685 na przedmieściach Londynu Edmonton, zm. 29 grudnia 1731 w Londynie), angielski matematyk, znany jako odkrywca pojęcia zwanego dziś szeregiem Taylora. +Rodzina Taylora była dobrze sytuowana i dzięki temu młody Taylor odebrał staranne wykształcenie matematyczne i humanistyczne (zwłaszcza muzyczne i w dziedzinie malarstwa). W roku 1703 wstąpił do kolegium Św. Jana w Cambridge, gdzie jego zainteresowania matematyczne rozwinęły się jeszcze bardziej. Ukończył Cambridge w roku 1709, a w 1712 został przyjęty do Royal Society. W tym samym roku został wyznaczony jako członek komisji, która miała rozstrzygnąć słynny spór między Newtonem a Leibnizem o pierwszeństwo w odkryciu rachunku różniczkowego. +Dwa lata później Taylor objął stanowisko Sekretarza Royal Society i piastował je do 21 października 1718 gdy złożył rezygnację. Okres tych czterech lat był najpłodniejszym w jego karierze matematycznej, opublikował w tym czasie dwie książki "Methodus incrementorum directa et inversa" oraz "Linear Perspective". W pierwszej z nich pojawia się bez dowodu wzór Taylora oraz wzór na szereg Taylora dowolnej funkcji, druga poświecona jest zagadnieniom perspektywy. +Z rozwinięcia funkcji w szereg nazwany imieniem Taylora matematycy korzystali już wcześniej, znali go na przykład Newton, Leibniz, de Moivre i Johann Bernoulli jest jednak zasługą Taylora, że podał go w ogólnej postaci. +Między rokiem 1712 a 1724 Taylor opublikował kilkanaście artykułów na tak różne tematy jak działanie kapilar, budowa termometrów i magnetyzm, podał też nową metodę obliczania logarytmów. +Niestety, jego życie osobiste nie szło w parze z osiągnięciami naukowymi – Taylor wszedł z konflikt z ojcem, a w roku 1723 zmarła mu poślubiona dwa lata wcześniej żona. Dwa lata później ożenił się ponownie, lecz i to małżeństwo nie było udane; druga żona Taylora zmarła w roku 1729. Załamany tym Taylor podupadł na zdrowiu i zmarł dwa lata później. +Konsole + +Konsole, to emulator terminali wyposażony w zakładki. Napisany został przez Larsa Doelle w C++. Rozprowadzany jest na licencji GPL w wersji 2. Konsole jest częścią składową KDE. +Mike Vallely + +Mike Vallely, znany też jako Mike V (ur. 29 czerwca 1970 w Edison, New Jersey)- profesjonalny skater mieszkający w Long Beach w Kalifornii. Karierę rozpoczął w 1986 roku i jest jednym z najdłużej jeżdżących skaterów w historii. Mike znany jest z motywowania młodzieży do uprawiania sportów. Sławę zyskał dzięki niecodziennym, teraz już "oldschoolowym" trikom. Szybko zyskał sponsorów, co pozwoliło mu na dalsze rozwijanie kariery. Najsławniejszy film, w którym wystąpił, nosi nazwę "Drive - my life in skateboarding". Mike opisuje w nim swój stosunek do skateboardingu. +Mike V jest również wrestlerem i wokalistą zespołu Revolution Mother( a wcześniej Mike V and the Rats). Niejako biograficzny film o Mike' u nosi tytuł: Mike V's Greatest Hits. +Triki deskorolkowe; szczegółowe opisy trików wykonywanych na deskorolce"--> +Maus. Opowieść ocalałego + +Maus. Opowieść ocalałego (ang. "Maus. A survivor's tale") – powieść graficzna autorstwa amerykańskiego rysownika Arta Spiegelmana, uhonorowana w 1992 roku Nagrodą Pulitzera. Została wydana w wielu krajach świata, w Polsce w roku 2001. +Wszystkie postacie w komiksie są przedstawione w formie zwierząt, które metaforycznie symbolizują ich narodowości. I tak Żydzi są przedstawieni jako myszy, skazane na zagładę przez koty, obrazujące Niemców. Polacy zostali przedstawieni jako świnie, Francuzi jako żaby, Amerykanie – psy, Brytyjczycy – ryby, Cyganie – ćmy, Szwedzi zaś jako jelenie. +Opis. +Jest to komiksowa opowieść oparta na prawdziwych wydarzeniach z życia mieszkających w Nowym Jorku Arta Spiegelmana oraz jego ojca – Władka Szpigelmana, polskiego Żyda, który ocalał z Holocaustu, ale okupił to znacznymi zmianami w swoim charakterze. Trudna osobowość Władka zawsze powodowała liczne komplikacje pomiędzy nim a jego synem Artiem – młodym rysownikiem, mającym za sobą pobyt w zakładzie psychiatrycznym. Poprzez realizację komiksu i wywiady z ojcem młody Art stara się zrozumieć historię swojego ojca oraz jego życiowe postępowanie, które doprowadziło do tak wielu konfliktów w przeszłości. Samobójstwo żony Władka i matki Artiego – Andzi w USA w 1968 roku na skutek powracających w jej głowie koszmarów wojny przeżytej w Polsce, utrata całej licznej rodziny podczas II wojny światowej (w tym starszego syna – Rysia), lata (od marca 1944 r. do stycznia 1945 r.) spędzone w obozie koncentracyjnym w Auschwitz uczyniły z Władka człowieka nieufnego wobec świata i ludzi, oszczędnego do granic chorobliwego skąpstwa, nieprzyjemnego dla bliskich i stale doszukującego się spisku w działaniach drugiej żony – Mali. Wspólne rozmowy ojca z synem stają się jednak podstawą do uporządkowania skomplikowanych relacji między nimi oraz próbą przedstawienia czasów Holocaustu z punktu widzenia jednostki. +Znacząca część akcju utworu ma miejsce w getcie sosnowieckim. +Kontrowersje. +Komiks Arta Spiegelmana wzbudzał od początku swojego istnienia wiele kontrowersji. Początkowo krytykowano zamysł przedstawienia wydarzeń z czasów Holocaustu w formie komiksu, uznawanego przez niektórych krytyków za mało poważną i dziecinną. Czarno-biała forma pracy, oszczędność środków wyrazu, przedstawienie tragedii prawdziwej rodziny, do destrukcji której doprowadziły wydarzenia Holocaustu oraz oparcie całej historii na faktach oddaliły jednak te wątpliwości. +W Polsce komiks doczekał się wydania dopiero w 2001 roku – głównym powodem tak późnego pojawienia się tego dzieła na polskim rynku były oskarżenia o jego antypolski charakter. Przypisanie Polakom świńskiej twarzy oburzało wielu krytyków, którzy dopatrywali się w tym jawnej inwektywy. Również pokazanie w kilku miejscach Polaków nie tylko jako ludzi walczącego z Niemcami i wspierającego Żydów, lecz również jako antysemitów (scena linczu na Żydzie, który wrócił po wojnie na swoje gospodarstwo) bądź jako obozowych kapo spowodowało liczne protesty. Krytycy zaznaczali niesprawiedliwość w ocenie i podkreślali ogromne poświęcenie, jakim wykazali się Polacy w czasie II wojny światowej – za ochronę Żydów groziła śmierć. +Sam autor komiksu wyraził zasmucenie powstałą sytuacją, jako że jego intencją nie było wcale przedstawienie Polaków w negatywnym świetle – świński wygląd miał budzić pozytywne skojarzenia z sympatycznymi bohaterami amerykańskich filmów rysunkowych takimi jak Miss Piggy czy też Porky Pig. Natomiast jeżeli chodzi o "antypolskość" metaforycznej opowieści, to jest ona, zdaniem autora, w równej mierze "antysemicka", ponieważ pokazuje przypadki Żydów współpracujących w czasie II wojny światowej z nazistami, nie mówiąc już o postaci Władka, która, wiernie sportretowana, przypomina typowy stereotyp "starego, skąpego i nieufnego wobec nikogo Żyda". Art Spiegelman wyraził również ogromną radość z powodu ukazania się polskiego wydania jego komiksu. +Karl Wilhelm Feuerbach + +Karl Wilhelm Feuerbach (ur. 30 maja 1800 w Jenie, zm. 12 marca 1834 w Erlangen) – matematyk niemiecki, zajmował się geometrią. Syn Paula Johanna Anselma von Feuerbacha (prawnika), brat Ludwiga Feuerbacha (filozofa). +Był profesorem gimnazjum w Erlagen. W 1822 podał twierdzenie o okręgu dziewięciu punktów. Na krótko przed śmiercią wprowadził do swych rozważań, niezależnie od Möbiusa, współrzędne jednorodne. +Trauma + +Trauma lub uraz psychiczny - ostry, nagły uraz (szok), który może spowodować zaburzenia psychiczne i somatyczne. +Często na skutek intensywnej emocji lub urazu czaszkowego, wywołanego wypadkiem lub jednorazową katastrofą (trzęsienie ziemi, pożar, itd.), człowiek przejawia mniej lub bardziej trwałe objawy zaburzeń psychicznych ("syndrom pourazowy"). Najważniejsze z nich to drażliwość, łatwe uleganie zmęczeniu, astenia, amnezja, regres do któregoś ze stadiów okresu dziecięcego, czasem ucieczka w chorobę i alkoholizm. +Gmina Solec Kujawski + +Gmina Solec Kujawski – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim, w powiecie bydgoskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie bydgoskim. W 1999 roku zostało uruchomione Radiowe Centrum Nadawcze, które za pomocą dwóch masztów nadajnikowych emituje 1 Program Polskiego Radia. +Siedzibą gminy jest miasto Solec Kujawski. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2005 gminę zamieszkiwało 16 055 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 12,57% powierzchni powiatu. +Ochrona przyrody. +Na terenie gminy znajduje się rezerwat przyrody Łażyn chroniący naturalny starodrzew sosnowy w Puszczy Bydgoskiej. +Wrzeszcz + +Wrzeszcz – część miasta Gdańska, znajdująca się na północ od Śródmieścia, nad strugą Strzyżą. Od 2010 roku jej terytorium jest podzielone pomiędzy dwie dzielnice: Wrzeszcz Dolny i Wrzeszcz Górny. +Etymologia nazwy. +Dawne nazwy: "Vriest", "Vriezst" (1263), "Vryst" (1342), "Langenfort" (1404), "Lange Vore" (1480), "Langen Furth" (1778), "Langefurt" (1780), "Lange Fuhre" (1822), "Danzig - Langfuhr" (1906), "Lęgfor" (1923). +Nazwa "Wrzeszcz" pochodzi od dawniejszych nazw "Wrest" i "Wrzost", która z kolei oznacza wrzos (niegdyś na tych terenach istniał las z wrzosowiskiem). +Z dokumentu księcia Świętopełka z roku 1263 wynika, że dawna nazwa brzmiała "Vriezst". W 1404 r. osadę nazwano "Langfuhr"– w tym czasie Krzyżacy mieli w niej swoje folwarki. +"Langfuhr" w języku niemieckim oznacza „długi przejazd” (tu: „długi podjazd”, co miało odnosić się do faktu, że położenie Wrzeszcza wyznaczało skrzyżowanie ówczesnych ciągów komunikacyjnych). Niemiecka nazwa osady a następnie dzielnicy używana była do 1945 roku. Kaszubi nadal używają nazwy "Lengforda". +Historia. +Po raz pierwszy osada została wspomniana z dokumencie księcia Świętopełka z roku 1263. W XIII wieku była własnością kościoła św. Katarzyny. W 1345 Wrzeszcz został przejęty przez Zakon Krzyżacki (komturia gdańska). Od 1404 wieś na prawie chełmińskim. Na początku XV wieku w osadzie Krzyżacy mieli swoje folwarki. Od XV do XVIII wieku własność patrycjuszowska. W 1772 został włączony do Królestwa Prus, od 1807 wieś w obrębie Wolnego Miasta Gdańska. +Od XVII wieku we Wrzeszczu mieli własny cmentarz Żydzi. +Wrzeszcz został administracyjnie przyłączony do miasta 17 marca 1814. +W drugiej połowie XIX wieku powstała tu linia kolejowa z dworcem Gdańsk Wrzeszcz. W 1904 roku założono Królewską Wyższą Szkołę Techniczną ("Königliche Technische Hochschule zu Danzig"), istniejącą do dziś jako Politechnika Gdańska. Od 1910 roku funkcjonowało tu pierwsze lotnisko (lotnisko Gdańsk-Wrzeszcz) na terenie Gdańska oraz pierwsze w granicach współczesnych Polski. We Wrzeszczu w 1927 roku urodził się i mieszkał wybitny niemiecki pisarz, laureat literackiej Nagrody Nobla Günter Grass. +W okresie międzywojennym we Wrzeszczu znajdowało się jedno z największych skupisk Polaków w Gdańsku, w tym polska dzielnica określana jako Polenhof. Istniały polskie parafie katolickie, działał polski klub sportowy KKS Gedania. +Po II wojnie światowej do 1948 Wielka Brytania utrzymywała konsulat (zob. Konsulat Generalny Wielkiej Brytanii w Gdańsku), mieszczący się w dawnej willi Patschkego przy ul. Uphagena 23. W 1945 ponownie otwarto konsulat generalny ZSRR w Gdańsku. Został umieszczony w budynku przy ul. Matki Polki 10 (któremu później zmieniono adres na ul. Batorego 15), gdzie mieści się do dziś. W 1962 władze Niemieckiej Republiki Demokratycznej powołały w Gdańsku konsulat generalny (zob. Konsulat Generalny Niemiec w Gdańsku), mieszczący się przy al. Zwycięstwa 23 (w zbudowanym przed 1933 budynku b. Klubu Żeglarskiego; arch. Albert Carsten). Po upadku NRD w 1990, budynek stał się siedzibą konsulatu generalnego RFN. +Transport i komunikacja. +Kolej. +Na terenie dzielnicy znajduje się jedna z trzech największych stacji kolejowych w Gdańsku – Gdańsk Wrzeszcz. Stacja ta jest obsługiwana przez wszystkie pociągi pasażerskie kursujące po liniach 202 (PKP IC, PR, Arriva PCC, SKM w Trójmieście) i 250 (SKM w Trójmieście). Na stacji zaczynała się rozebrana po II wojnie światowej linia Wrzeszcz – Stara Piła. Zgodnie z planami budowy Kolei Metropolitalnej obsługującej wschodnią część Gdańska w tym port lotniczy im. Lecha Wałęsy, Gdańsk Wrzeszcz ma być jednym z węzłów kolei podmiejskiej w Trójmieście. +Na terenie dzielnicy znajdują się ponadto wyłączone z eksploatacji w 2005 roku przystanki osobowe: Gdańsk Kolonia i Gdańsk Nowe Szkoty - w biegu linii kolejowej Gdańsk Główny – Gdańsk Nowy Port. +Tramwaje. +Sieć tramwajowa w Gdańsku-Wrzeszczu jest bardzo nietypowa. Składa się zasadniczo z dwóch ramion (al. Grunwaldzka i al. Hallera), które rozchodzą się przy Operze Bałtyckiej, oraz dwóch odnóg (w stronę pętli Zaspa ulicą Mickiewicza i w stronę centrum przez Jana z Kolna ulicą Kliniczną). Mimo, że większość gdańskich linii tramwajowych przejeżdza przez Wrzeszcz, to w wykazach za przejeżdzające przez Wrzeszcz uznane są te linie, które przejeżdzają al. Grunwaldzką. +Linie tramwajowe jadące przez Wrzeszcz. +Na terenie Gdańska przy ulicy Wita Stwosza znajduje się zajezdnia tramwajowa Wrzeszcz jednakże zajezdnia leży w dzielnicy Strzyża. +Autobusy. +Na placu przeddworcowym znajduje się jeden z dwóch dworców autobusowych obsługujących połączenia regionalne. Dworzec ten ma jednak zdecydowanie mniejsze znaczenie niż dworzec Gdańsk Główny. Gdańsk Wrzeszcz obsługuje część połączeń z miejscowościami w powiecie kartuskim, głównie z Kartuzami. +Przez przystanek Wrzeszcz PKP kursuje jeszcze linia: +Aleksander Waszkiewicz + +Aleksander Waszkiewicz (ur. 15 sierpnia 1901 w Białowieży, zm. 22 kwietnia 1945 w Tauer) – Białorusin, pułkownik Armii Czerwonej i generał brygady Ludowego Wojska Polskiego. +Urodził się 15 sierpnia 1901 w Białowieży. Wykształcenie ogólne - osiem klas szkoły podstawowej. W 1919 wstąpił do Armii Czerwonej. Wykształcenie wojskowe - dywizyjna szkoła ckm 27. DP (październik 1919 - kwiecień 1920). Uczestniczył w wojnie domowej w szeregach Armii Czerwonej, a w latach 1922-1924 kształcił się i ukończył szkołę oficerską w Smoleńsku w stopniu podporucznika. Po ukończeniu szkoły dowodził plutonem, a w latach 1934-1936 pełnił obowiązki szefa sztabu pułku. W latach 1938-1942 pełnił obowiązki szefa oddziału szkolenia w Akademii Wojskowej im. Michaiła Frunzego w Moskwie, równocześnie uczył się w niej i w 1942 ją ukończył. +Od 15 sierpnia 1942 do 2 lutego 1943 dowodził 793 Pułkiem Strzelców 213 Dywizji Strzelców (II formowania). Od 2 do 15 lutego 1943 dowodził 182 Pułkiem Strzelców Górskich 68 Dywizji Strzelców Górskich, a od 22 czerwca 1943 do 23 lipca 1944 był dowódcą 797 Pułku Strzelców 232 Dywizji Strzelców (II formowania). Następnie był zastępcą dowódcy 116 Dywizji Strzelców. +We wrześniu 1944 będąc pułkownikiem został skierowany do Ludowego Wojska Polskiego. 22 września 1944 został organizatorem i dowódcą 5 Dywizji Piechoty. 3 listopada 1944 Krajowa Rada Narodowa mianowała go generałem brygady. Dywizja pod jego dowództwem (w składzie 2 Armii Wojska Polskiego) wzięła udział w zaciętych walkach pod Budziszynem w kwietniu 1945. W trakcie tych walk w rejonie miejscowości Tauer sztab 5 Dywizji Piechoty został okrążony przez atakujące wojska niemieckie; po jego rozbiciu 21 kwietnia 1945 ciężko ranny Aleksander Waszkiewicz został wzięty do niewoli. Dokładna data śmierci nie jest znana. Prawdopodobnie następnego dnia 22 kwietnia 1945 został poddany torturom i zamordowany. Zmasakrowane zwłoki odnaleziono dopiero 4 maja w lesie niedaleko Stiftswiese. Generał Waszkiewicz pochowany został w Warszawie na Cmentarzu Wojskowym na Powązkach 28 maja 1945 roku. +11 lipca 1945 pośmiertnie został awansowany na generała majora. +Za męstwo okazane w walce w trakcie forsowania Dniepru w 1943 został 28 października 1943 odznaczony tytułem Bohatera Związku Radzieckiego oraz medalem Złotej Gwiazdy i Orderem Lenina. Otrzymał pośmiertnie Krzyż Złoty Orderu Virtuti Militari. +Nadal nosi jego imię główna ulica w Białowieży, przy której stoi jego rodzinny dom. +Lois Hole + +Lois Elsa Hole z d. Veregin (ur. 30 stycznia 1933 w Buchanan w prowincji Saskatchewan, zm. 6 stycznia 2005 w Edmonton) – kanadyjska działaczka państwowa, odnosząca sukcesy w biznesie, gubernator porucznik prowincji Alberta w latach 2000-2005. +Zarys biografii. +Razem z mężem Tedem Hole'm prowadziła z dużym powodzeniem firmę ogrodniczą (wraz z uprawą roślin). Z synami Billem i Jimem przekształciła firmę w 1979 w przedsiębiorstwo handlowe Hole's Greenhouses & Gardens. Opublikowała kilkanaście książek poradniczych o tematyce ogrodniczej, m.in. "Vegetable Favorites", była także autorką autobiografii "I'll Never Marry a Farmer". Wydawała rocznik „Lois' Spring Gardening”. +W 1995 przyznano jej tytuł „Kobiety Roku w Biznesie” w Edmonton, w 1999 została odznaczona Orderem Kanady. 10 lutego 2000 została mianowana gubernatorem porucznikiem Alberty, pełniła tę funkcję do końca życia. Była także kanclerzem Uniwersytetu Alberty, odebrała doktoraty "honoris causa" Uniwersytetu Athabasca (1983) oraz Uniwersytetu Alberty (2000). +Sulidziad + +Sulidziad – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Suli-" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy") i "-dziad" ("dziad"). Może oznaczać "ten, który uczyni swojego dziada możniejszym". +Chmiel + +Chmiel ("Humulus" L.) – rodzaj roślin pnących z rodziny konopiowatych. Należą do niego w zależności od ujęcia 3 lub 5 gatunków występujących w strefie klimatu umiarkowanego półkuli północnej. W Polsce rośnie dziko i uprawiany jest chmiel zwyczajny. +Systematyka. +"Humulopsis " Grudz., "Lupulus" Mill. +Rodzaj należący do rodziny konopiowatych ("Cannabaceae" Endl) , kladu różowych w obrębie okrytonasiennych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa ukęślowe ("Dilleniidae" Takht. ex Reveal & Tahkt.), nadrząd "Urticanae "Takht. ex Reveal, rząd pokrzywowce ("Urticales" Dumort.), rodzina konopiowate ("Cannabaceae" Endl.), plemię "Humuleae" Dumort., rodzaj chmiel ("Humulus" L.). +Uprawa i zastosowanie. +Chmiel zwyczajny jest przyprawą wykorzystywaną do produkcji piwa, a także niektórych leków, kosmetyków i likierów. Uprawia się go na ziemiach żyznych (takich jak mady), dobrze nasłonecznionych. +Polska jest piątym na świecie i trzecim w Europie producentem chmielu po Niemczech, Stanach Zjednoczonych, Czechach i Chinach. W 2009 r. zbiory chmielu w Polsce wyniosły prawie 3 700 t i były o ponad 7 proc. większe od zbiorów w 2008 r. Chmiel uprawiany jest na obszarze 2 166 ha. Produkcją tą zajmuje się ok. 1000 gospodarstw. W samej gminie Wilków (województwo lubelskie) ponad 600 gospodarstw uprawia 40 proc. całej krajowej produkcji chmielu. +Andy Taylor + +Andy Taylor (ur. 16 lutego 1961 roku w Tynemouth) – angielski gitarzysta muzyki pop. +Grać na gitarze rozpoczął w wieku 11 lat, gdy miał 16 grał już z lokalnymi zespołami. Wcześnie porzucił szkołę i z wieloma grupami grał w Anglii i w Europie w klubach oraz bazach wojskowych. +W 1980 przystąpił do zespołu muzycznego Duran Duran jako najbardziej doświadczony muzyk. Jednak nie był zadowolony z przewagi syntezatorów, gdy sam preferował ostrzejszą muzykę. W trakcie przerwy w działalności Duran Duran wziął udział w projekcie Power Station razem z basistą Johnem Taylorem. Rok 1985 zakończył udziałem w Live Aid. Z zespołem Duran Duran ostatecznie rozstał się w trakcie sesji nagraniowej płyty "Notorious". +W późniejszym okresie nagrał solową płytę Thunder 1986 oraz Dangerous. +Współpracował z wieloma muzykami m.in. z gitarzystą nieistniejącego już zespołu punkrockowego Sex Pistols Steve'em Jonesem, Belindą Carlisle, Robertem Palmerem oraz był producentem dla Roda Stewarta. +W 1997 ponownie wziął udział w projekcie Power Station. +W 2001 przystąpił ponownie do zespołu Duran Duran, z którego odszedł jesienią 2006 r. w czasie trasy koncertowej po USA. Podobno był niezadowolony z perspektywy współpracy z Timbalandem, wolał bowiem, aby zespół powrócił do brzmienia w stylu new romantic. +Chmiel (powiat bieszczadzki) + +Chmiel – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie podkarpackim, w powiecie bieszczadzkim, w gminie Lutowiska. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie krośnieńskim. +W miejscu znajduje się kościół rzymskokatolicki pw. Św. Mikołaja. +Położenie. +Miejscowość położona jest w dolinie Sanu u podnóża pasma górskiego – Otrytu. Nazwa pochodzi od chmielu. +Historia. +Lokowana na prawie wołoskim przez Kmitów w początku XVI wieku. Podawane są dwie daty lokacji 1502 i 1526. Piotr Kmita Sobieński do 1553 dziedziczy Chmiel, a po jego śmierci bezdzietna wdowa Barbara Kmita z Herburtów. W dobrach Kmitów pozostawała do 1580 a następnie była własnością rodu Stadnickich do 1653. W końcu XVI wieku zbudowano pierwszą cerkiew greckokatolicką, która spłonęła. W 1709 wioska została spalona przez cofających się Szwedów W 1795 wysiłkiem mieszkańców obok XVII-wiecznej dzwonnicy postawiono nową cerkiew pod wezwaniem św. Mikołaja. Cerkiew ta przetrwała do 1904, w którym ze względu na zły stan techniczny rozebrano ją wznosząc kolejną w 1906 poświęconą temu samemu patronowi. +Wiek XVIII i XIX przynosił stałe zmiany właścicieli aż do 1900 gdy Chmiel nabył Mendel Rand. W 1930 majątek przeszedł na Arona Jarmusza. W tym czasie zamieszkiwało go ok. 300 osób, z czego 98% grekokatolicy i 2% żydzi. W 1939 wraz z innymi terenami II RP został anektowany przez ZSRR. Do Polski powrócił dopiero po korekcie granicy w 1951. Chmiel ponownie został zasiedlony osadnikami z Nowosądecczyzny i innych regionów kraju. Wróciło do niego też wielu autochtonów, których wojenne losy rzuciły w odległe zakątki Polski. Obecnie w Chmielu zamieszkuje 130 osób. Znajdują się trzy placówki handlowe, przystanek PKS, oraz kilka gospodarstw agroturystycznych. +Zabytki. +Atrakcją jest cerkiew pw. św Mikołaja, od 1970 służąca jako kościół rzymskokatolicki. Na cmentarzu znajduje się nagrobek z 1641 z inskrypcją w języku starocerkiewnym. Kolejnym zabytkiem jest nagrobek Emanuela Ricci, właściciela dóbr ziemskich z pierwszej połowy XIX w. z napisem w języku polskim, oraz kilkadziesiąt krzyży greckokatolickich. Ród Riccich posiadał na tym terenie kilka dóbr, mimo że największe skupisko tej rodziny było aż we Lwowie (zob. Księga adresowa miasta Lwowa 1904). +nr rej.: A-139 z 29.05.1968 +Zobacz też. +Inne miejscowości z prefiksem "Chmiel":Chmiel (ujednoznacznienie), Chmielno, Chmielnik, Chmielówka, Chmielowice, Chmielów, Chmielonek, Chmielniki, Chmielinko, Chmielewo, Chmielew, Chmielewko, Chmieleń, Chmielek i Chmielarze +Swojsław + +Swojsław, Swosław - staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Swoj-" ("swój") i "-sław" ("sława"). Może oznaczać "ten, który zapewnia sobie sławę". Imię to w formie skróconej mogło być jednobrzmiące z imieniem Wojsław. +Swojsław imieniny obchodzi 30 lipca i 30 sierpnia. +Kim Clijsters + +Kim Antonie Lode Clijsters () (ur. 8 czerwca 1983 w Bilzen) – belgijska tenisistka, była liderka rankingu światowego w singlu i w deblu, ośmiokrotna finalistka turniejów wielkoszlemowych, triumfatorka US Open 2005, US Open 2009, US Open 2010 i Australian Open 2011 w singlu oraz Wimbledonu 2003 i Roland Garros 2003 w deblu. W sumie wygrała 41 turniejów w grze pojedynczej i 11 w grze podwójnej (2012-07-09). Wchodziła także w skład reprezentacji Belgii, która w roku 2001 zwyciężyła w rozgrywkach Fed Cup., jednak po prawie dwóch latach (26 marca 2009) zapowiedziała powrót jeszcze tego roku na letni sezon twardych kortów. 11 sierpnia 2009 opodal Cincinnati rozegrała swój pierwszy mecz po ponaddwuletniej przerwie, związanej m.in. z urodzeniem dziecka. Zawodniczka określa ten nowy etap mianem "drugiej kariery". W trzecim turnieju po przerwie wygrała swoje drugie mistrzostwo wielkoszlemowe w grze pojedynczej. +29 sierpnia 2012 podczas turnieju US Open rozegrała swój ostatni mecz w karierze singlowej. +Styl gry. +Cechują ją następujące warunki fizyczne: 174 cm wzrostu, waga 68 kg, mocne mięśnie ud oraz duża giętkość. Clijsters, podobnie jak Jelena Janković i Swietłana Kuzniecowa, potrafi wykonywać głębokie szpagaty, by odbić piłkę znajdującą się poza jej zasięgiem. Umie ślizgać się na każdej nawierzchni, nawet na korcie twardym. +Clijsters posługuje się prawą ręką, ale jej backhand jest oburęczny. Gra zawodniczki oparta jest głównie na grze kątowej oraz utrzymywaniu się przy linii końcowej, chociaż potrafi ona wykorzystać każde miejsce kortu. Jej uderzenia po odbiciu się piłki są głębokie i mocne. Ponadto wykorzystuje w meczach różnorodne top spiny oraz grę kątową. Tenisistka wykonuje szybko drugi serwis po nietrafionym pierwszym, co powoduje wysoką liczbę podwójnych błędów serwisowych w niektórych spotkaniach. Styl gry Clijsters to połączenie wszechstronności i agresywności. W związku z agresywnym stylem gry jaki prezentowała, odniosła różnorodne kontuzje. +Kariera. +Kariera juniorska. +Karierę juniorską rozpoczęła pod koniec maja 1997. W pierwszym roku występów grała wyłącznie na kortach ziemnych. Dwa razy dotarła do półfinału – w Prato i Międzynarodowych Mistrzostwach Juniorów "Astrid Bowl" w Belgii. Wzięła także udział w turnieju Orange Bowl, ale odpadła w nim w ćwierćfinale po porażce z Tiną Pisnik 0:6, 5:7. +Rok 1998 rozpoczęła od zwycięstwa w zawodach rozgrywanych na Słowacji. Wygrała tam m.in. z Danielą Hantuchovą i Klárą Koukalovą. We Florencji i "Astrid Bowl" przegrała w finale, w tym drugim pokonała ją Jelena Dokić. W Międzynarodowych Mistrzostwach Juniorów we Francji odpadła w I rundzie, wyeliminowana znowu przez Pisnik. Następnie Clijsters wystąpiła w juniorskim Wimbledonie, gdzie zrewanżowała się Pisnik w ćwierćfinale, a Dokić w półfinale. W decydującym pojedynku jej rywalką była Katarina Srebotnik, ale Belgijka ten mecz przegrała 6:7, 3:6. W US Open odpadła w drugiej rundzie. Pod koniec roku wygrała "Prince Cup". +W 1999 wystąpiła tylko w międzynarodowych mistrzostwach juniorów we Francji, w których przegrała w ćwierćfinale z Liną Krasnorucką 6:1, 4:6, 4:6. Był to jej ostatni turniej juniorski. +Najwyższą pozycję jaką osiągnęła w rankingu juniorskim w grze pojedynczej było miejsce 11. w rankingu opublikowanym 31 grudnia 1998. +W grze podwójnej osiągnęła więcej sukcesów. W pierwszym starcie z Sofie Borgions triumfowała w Salsomaggiore Terme po wygranej w finale z deblem Anastasija Myskina i Jelena Diemientjewa 3:6, 6:4, 6:3. Pod koniec 1997 z Węgierką Zsófią Gubacsi wygrała Orange Bowl. +W 1998 z Jeleną Dokić zwyciężyła w juniorskim French Open, pokonując w finale parę Jelena Diemientjewa i Nadieżda Pietrowa 6:4, 7:6. Z tą samą partnerką odpadła w I rundzie Wimbledonu. Grając z Dunką Evą Dyrberg, wygrała w turnieju w Kanadzie, a następnie w US Open. +Ostatnim rozegranym turniejem juniorskim był French Open w 1999, w którym debel Kim Clijsters i Mia Buric przegrał w finale z parą Flavia Pennetta i Roberta Vinci 5:7, 7:5, 4:6. +Najwyższą pozycję jaką osiągnęła w rankingu juniorskim w grze podwójnej było miejsce 4. w rankingu opublikowanym 31 grudnia 1998. +Początki. +Turniejową mentorką Belgijki (osobą wprowadzającą tenisistkę w świat zawodowego tenisa ziemnego) była Sabine Appelmans. +Swój pierwszy turniej ITF Clijsters rozegrała w sierpniu 1997 w Koksijde, gdzie dotarła do ćwierćfinału. Były to jedyne rozgrywki ITF, w których wzięła udział w tym roku. +Rok później wystartowała w czterech turniejach ITF w singlu. Wygrała dwa pierwsze, w Brukseli i Koksijde. W dwóch następnych dotarła do drugiej rundy (w Brukseli) i ćwierćfinału (w Ramat Hasharon). W tych samych zawodach grała również w grze deblowej. Dwukrotnie wygrała w stolicy Belgii jako partnerka Stephanie De Ville oraz Cindy Schuurmans, w Koksijde osiągnęła półfinał z Brechtje Bruls, natomiast w Ramat Hasharon triumfowała wspólnie z Justine Henin. +Zawodową karierę rozpoczęła w 1999, w wieku 16 lat. Najpierw wystąpiła w trzech turniejach ITF. Zwyciężyła w Sheffield, była finalistką w Reims – przegrała z Henin – i półfinalistką w Espinho. W swoim debiucie w turnieju WTA (Belgian Open) odpadła w III rundzie kwalifikacji, ale mimo to dostała się do turnieju głównego jako "lucky loser". Dotarła do ćwierćfinału, w którym Sarah Pitkowski pokonała ją 3:6, 7:5, 6:1. Na Wimbledonie jako kwalifikantka w III rundzie wyeliminowała Amandę Coetzer (rozstawioną z "dwunastką"), jednak w kolejnym pojedynku przegrała ze Steffi Graf. W Knokke-Heist odpadła w I rundzie. W US Open w trzecim spotkaniu poniosła porażkę 6:4, 2:6, 5:7 z późniejszą triumfatorką turnieju, Sereną Williams. +Pod koniec września wygrała swój pierwszy turniej WTA. Był to FORTIS Championships Luxembourg, w którego finale Clijsters pokonała inną Belgijkę, Dominique Monami. We wcześniejszych rundach wygrała m.in. z Katariną Srebotnik i Anke Huber. Kilka tygodni później dotarła do finału w grze pojedynczej Eurotel Slovak Indoor w Bratysławie, gdzie przegrała 3:6, 3:6 z Francuzką Amélie Mauresmo. Następnie odpadła w I rundzie w Lipsku i w "Advanta Championships" w Filadelfii. +W grze podwójnej osiągnęła półfinał ITF-u w Sheffield i I rundy w Reims oraz Espinho. W Belgian Open dotarła do ćwierćfinału, w Knokke-Heist przegrała w pierwszym spotkaniu. Następnie, wraz z Laurence Courtois, wygrała Eurotel Slovak Indoor. W Lipsku i Filadelfii osiągnęła kolejno ćwierćfinał i I rundę. +2000 – 2001. +Na początku 2000 zwyciężyła w Hobart. Wygrała tam z takimi zawodniczkami jak Ruxandra Dragomir czy Chanda Rubin. W Australian Open i French Open odpadła w I rundzie, w Wimbledonie i US Open w drugiej. Osiągnęła II rundę turnieju w Hannoverze i IV rundy BNP Paribas Open oraz Sony Ericsson Open. W Belgian i UNICEF Open dotarła do II rundy. Turnieje w Stanford i San Diego zakończyły się dla niej porażkami w pierwszym meczu. +Dotarła do ćwierćfinału Pilot Pen Tennis, a także rozgrywek w Luksemburgu. W Filderstadt po zwycięstwach m.in. nad Conchitą Martínez i Nathalie Tauziat wystąpiła w finale, w którym przegrała z Martiną Hingis 0:6, 3:6. Triumfowała w Sparkassen Cup w Lipsku po pokonaniu w decydującym spotkaniu Jeleny Lichowcewej 7:6(6), 4:6, 6:4, wcześniej eliminując z turnieju dwie zawodniczki z pierwszej dziesiątki rankingu WTA, Arantxę Sanchez-Vicario i Annę Kurnikową. W mistrzostwach WTA odpadła w ćwierćfinale. +W grze deblowej przegrała w I rundzie Australian i French Open, w II Wimbledonu i w III US Open. Wystąpiła w trzech finałach, w pierwszym rozgrywanym w Hobart z Alicią Molik (przegrały z Ritą Grande i Émilie Loit), drugi w Antwerpii zakończył się jej triumfem z rodaczką Sabine Appelmans. W turnieju rozgrywanym w Lipsku z Laurence Courtois uległa parze Sánchez Vicario/Sidot. +Dotarła do III rundy French Open oraz finału miksta w Wimbledonie w parze ze swym ówczesnym partnerem życiowym Lleytonem Hewittem, jednak w decydującym spotkaniu przegrali z Kimberly Po i Donaldem Johnsonem 4:6, 6:7(3). +W 2001 r. osiągnęła II rundę Sydney International i czwartą Australian Open, w której przegrała z Lindsay Davenport. Potem dotarła do ćwierćfinału zawodów w Scottsdale oraz finału Indian Wells, gdzie pokonała ją Serena Williams 4:6, 6:4, 6:2. We wcześniejszej fazie tego turnieju wyeliminowała Justine Henin i Martinę Hingis. W Miami odpadła w IV fazie rywalizacji. Przed French Open wystąpiła w trzech turniejach na kortach ziemnych. Najdalej dotarła w chorwackim Bol (półfinał), w Berlinie poniosła porażkę w pierwszym spotkaniu z Anne Kremer, a w Rzymie przegrała w II rundzie. +Po wcześniejszych nieudanych występach dotarła do półfinału French Open, w którym wygrała z Justine Henin 2:6, 7:5, 6:3 i osiągnęła swój pierwszy wielkoszlemowy finał w grze pojedynczej, triumfowała w nim jednak jej rywalka Jennifer Capriati. Mecz zakończył się po 2 godzinach i 21 minutach walki wynikiem 6:1, 4:6, 10:12, a trzeci set był najdłuższym w historii kobiecych finałów w tej imprezie. +Następnie Clijsters dotarła do finału UNICEF Open, gdzie pokonała ją Henin, i ćwierćfinału Wimbledonu. W Knokke-Heist przegrała w półfinale z Irodą To'laganovą. +W Bank of the West Classic zrewanżowała się w finale Davenport za porażkę w tegorocznym Wimbledonie, wygrywając z nią 6:4, 6:7(5), 6:1. W kolejnych turniejach nie zdołała powtórzyć tego wyniku – zawody w San Diego to przegrana w II rundzie, w LA Women's Tennis Championships – w ćwierćfinale. W New Haven osiągnęła półfinał, który poddała walkowerem w meczu przeciwko Davenport. Po zwycięstwach nad m.in. Henrietą Nagyovą i Jeleną Diemientjewą dotarła do ćwierćfinału US Open, gdzie została pokonana przez Venus Williams. W Tokio dotarła do półfinału. +Następnie obroniła tytuł w Lipsku, wygrywając z Francescą Schiavone, Silvią Fariną Elią, Jeleną Diemientjewą i Magdaleną Maleewą. W Filderstadt odpadła w II rundzie, po czym po raz drugi wygrała turniej w Luksemburgu po zwycięstwie w finale nad Lisą Raymond 6:2, 6:2. W mistrzostwach WTA pokonała ją w półfinale Lindsay Davenport. Jesienią tego roku wraz z reprezentacją narodową zdobyła Puchar Federacji, zwyciężając z drużyną rosyjską 2:1. W swoim pojedynku Kim Clijsters wygrała z Diemientjewą 6:0, 6:4. +W grze deblowej przegrała w III rundzie Australian i French Open. W Wimbledonie z Ai Sugiyamą dotarła do finału rozgrywek, w których finale pokonały je Lisa Raymond i Rennae Stubbs 6:4, 6:3. W Sydney, Indian Wells, Miami, Rzymie oraz w Los Angeles odpadała po pierwszych meczach. Turniej w Scottsdale to poddany walkowerem mecz finałowy, natomiast w 's-Hertogenbosch debel Clijsters/Oremans w decydującym spotkaniu przegrał z Ruxandrą Dragomir i Nadią Pietrową 6:7(5), 7:6(5), 4:6. W San Diego, Lipsku oraz Filderstadt przegrała w półfinale. W Tokio osiągnęła czwarty finał, także przegrany, tym razem z deblem Black/Huber. +2002. +Rok 2002 rozpoczęła od półfinału rozgrywanego w Sydney turnieju Sydney International, gdzie lepsza okazała się od niej Martina Hingis. Kolejny start, czyli Australian Open, to wyrównanie wyniku z rozgrywanych na początku roku zawodów. Tym razem poniosła porażkę z Jennifer Capriati 5:7, 6:3, 1:6. W obu turniejach pokonała w ćwierćfinałach bez straty seta Justine Henin. W Indian Wells odpadła już w II etapie po pojedynku z Nathalie Dechy. Start w Miami zakończyła na fazie ćwierćfinałowej, w której pokonała ją Monica Seles 4:6, 6:3, 6:3. +Clijsters wystąpiła potem w dwóch niemieckich turniejach. Najpierw odniosła triumf w Betty Barclay Cup po wygranej w finale z Venus Williams 1:6, 6:3, 6:4. Wcześniej dwie spośród jej rywalek poddały mecz przez krecz – były to Barbara Rittner i Jelena Dokić. Następnie w Berlinie odpadła już w II rundzie, pierwszą miała wolną. Jej pogromczynią była Anna Smashnova-Pistolesi. W Rzymie po zwycięstwie w ćwierćfinale nad Sandrine Testud doszło do ósmego spotkania Kim Clijsters z Justine Henin. Tym razem wygrała ta druga, a bilans między zawodniczkami był równy – 4:4. +W kolejnych dwóch turniejach wielkoszlemowych Belgijka odpadła w III rundzie French Open i w drugiej Wimbledonu po porażkach z Clarisą Fernández i Jeleną Lichowcewą. W międzyczasie przegrała w ćwierćfinale UNICEF Open z Tiną Pisnik 6:7(5), 2:6. W Stanford wyeliminowała w ćwierćfinale Jelenę Janković, wtedy 262. zawodniczkę rankingu WTA. Później wygrała z Lindsay Davenport 4:6, 6:4, 6:2. W finale pokonała ją Venus Williams 6:3, 6:3. +Podczas Acura Classic w San Diego po raz kolejny pokonała ją Williams, tym razem w ćwierćfinale 6:3, 5:7, 6:4. +Następnie doznała dwóch wczesnych porażek, w II rundzie w LA Women's Tennis Championships z Katariną Srebotnik 4:6, 6:2, 4:6 oraz w III rundzie w Montrealu z Barbarą Schett 4:6, 4:6. W US Open dotarła do IV rundy, gdzie wygrała z nią Amélie Mauresmo. +W końcówce sezonu osiągnęła dalsze fazy turniejów – najpierw finał w Tokio (przegrana z młodszą z sióstr Williams 6:2, 3:6, 3:6), potem półfinał Sparkassen Cup i porażka z Anastasiją Myskiną 4:6, 7:5, 6:7(3). W kolejnym starcie odniosła triumf w Porsche Tennis Grand Prix, gdzie wygrała z 5 zawodniczkami z pierwszej trzydziestki rankingu: Myskiną, Ivą Majoli, Davenport, Mauresmo oraz Danielą Hantuchovą. Podczas Zurich Open w Zurychu przegrała w ćwierćfinale z Davenport. +Następnie triumfowała w singlu w Luksemburgu po zwycięstwie w decydującym meczu z Magdaleną Maleewą 6:1, 6:2. Ostatnim startem tenisistki w tym roku był WTA Championships. Osiemnastoletnia Clijsters, wtedy numer 6 na świecie, wygrała z numerem 4 Justine Henin 6:2, 6:1 oraz numerem 14 Chandą Rubin 6:1, 6:2. W półfinale pokonała – numer 2 Venus Williams 5:0 i krecz rywalki, a w finale jej siostrę (ówczesną liderkę światowego rankingu) Serenę 7:5, 6:3, +Brała udział w kilku turniejach w grze podwójnej. Z Ai Sugiyamą odpadła w I rundzie w Sydney i w III rundzie Australian Open. Wspólnie z Jeleną Dokić dotarła do ćwierćfinału w Montrealu, w Lipsku, San Diego i Tokio odpadła w I fazie rywalizacji. Wygrała z nią także rozgrywki w Los Angeles, gdzie w finale debel Clijsters/Dokić pokonał parę Hantuchová/Sugiyama 6:3, 6:3. Z Meghann Shaughnessy osiągnęła ćwierćfinał US Open po wyeliminowaniu w III rundzie debla Raymond/Stubbs rozstawionego z numerem 1. W Filderstadt z Chandą Rubin przegrała w I rundzie, a w Zurychu z Hantuchovą w półfinale. W ostatnim starcie, w Luksemburgu, razem z Janette Husárovą zwyciężyła w całym turnieju. +2003. +Belgijka rozpoczęła rok 2003 od zwycięstwa w turnieju Sydney International. Bez straty seta pokonała w nim Szwajcarkę Patty Schnyder, Chandę Rubin, Henin oraz Davenport. Po sukcesie w Sydney osiągnęła półfinał Australian Open, w którym uległa Serenie Williams 6:4, 3:6, 5:7. W nowym turnieju w Antwerpii dotarła do finału, gdzie lepsza okazała się Venus Williams. Kolejny start i finał singla – tym razem w Scottsdale – przegrała z Sugiyamą 6:3, 5:7, 4:6. Następnie Clijsters triumfowała w Indian Wells po wygranej z Lindsay Davenport 6:4, 7:5 w decydującym meczu. W ostatnim starcie na kortach twardych w pierwszej połowie roku dotarła do półfinału Nasdaq-100 Open, gdzie doznała kolejnej porażki z Sereną. +Sezon kortów ziemnych to finały Clijsters: w Qatar Telecom German Open przegrała z Justine Henin 4:6, 6:4, 5:7 po wcześniejszych dwóch wygranych z rodaczką na początku sezonu, w Rzymie natomiast pokonała Amélie Mauresmo 3:6, 7:6(3), 6:0. Następnie po raz drugi w karierze zagrała w finale wielkoszlemowego turnieju. Po wygranych z Amerykanką Amy Frazier, Niemką Marlene Weingärtner, Argentynką Paolą Suárez, Bułgarką Magdaleną Maleewą, Hiszpanką Conchitą Martínez i Rosjanką Nadią Pietrową po raz czwarty w tym roku miała zmierzyć się z Henin. Poniosła drugą porażkę – przegrała 0:6, 4:6. +Na kortach trawiastych wygrała zawody w 's-Hertogenbosch, przy stanie 6:7(4), 3:0 jej rywalka Henin skreczowała. Następnie odpadła w półfinale Wimbledonu. Przegrała tam z Venus Williams 6:4, 3:6, 1:6. +Przed US Open osiągnęła kolejne 3 finały w grze pojedynczej. W Stanford wygrała z Jennifer Capriati, w San Diego przegrała z Henin, w East West Bank Classic pokonała zaś Davenport w finale. Po wygranym turnieju LA Women's Tennis Championships została liderką rankingu WTA jako pierwsza w historii Belgijka. Tydzień wcześniej została liderką tego samego rankingu, ale w deblu. Dokonała tego bez zwycięstwa w turnieju wielkoszlemowym. +Jako pierwsza zawodniczka rankingu odpadła w III rundzie rozgrywek w Toronto – wygrała z nią Rosjanka Lina Krasnorucka. Bez straty seta pokonała sześć rywalek, m.in. Swietłanę Kuzniecową, Mauresmo czy Davenport i dotarła do finału US Open. W nim jej rywalką była Justine Henin. Clijsters przegrała z nią drugi finał wielkoszlemowy, w tym pojedynku 5:7, 1:6. +W Lipsku półfinałowe spotkanie z Anastasiją Myskiną Belgijka poddała przez krecz. Swojej rodaczce Henin zrewanżowała się w Filderstadt, gdzie wygrała z nią 5:7, 6:4, 6:2 w decydującym spotkaniu. Było to ósme i ostatnie ich spotkanie w tym roku, a każda z nich wygrała po 4 mecze. W następnych turniejach dotarła do półfinału Zurich Open i wygrała w Luksemburgu (w półfinale pokonała Mariję Szarapową 6:0, 6:3). +W ostatnim turnieju w roku (mistrzostwach WTA) Clijsters wygrała ze wszystkimi swoimi rywalkami: Mauresmo (w rozgrywkach grupowych i w finale), Diemientjewą, Rubin i Capriati i po raz drugi wygrała w tych rozgrywkach. +W całym roku 2003, dotarła do 15 finałów turniejowych w grze singlowej, wygrywając 9 z nich. Jej bilans spotkań w grze pojedynczej wyniósł 90-12. +Przez cały rok występowała w grze podwójnej z Japonką Ai Sugiyamą. Triumfowała w 7 turniejach, w tym w dwóch wielkoszlemowych (French Open i Wimbledon). W tym pierwszym w decydującym pojedynku debel Clijsters/Sugiyama pokonał Hiszpankę Virginię Ruano Pascual i Argentynkę Paolę Suárez 6:7, 6:2, 9:7. W drugim wygrały z tym samym deblem 6:4, 6:4. +Pozostałe zwycięstwa odniosła w Sydney, Antwerpii, Scottsdale, San Diego i Zurychu. Do finałów debel dotarł w Indian Wells, Berlinie i mistrzostwach WTA, w których Suárez i Ruano Pascual zrewanżowały się za dwa przegrane finały wielkoszlemowe. +W Australian Open Clijsters i Sugiyama osiągnęły ćwierćfinał, gdzie przegrały z siostrami Williams 4:6, 5:7, w US Open para odpadła w II rundzie po poddaniu spotkania walkowerem. W Miami debel przegrał w ćwierćfinale. Bilans spotkań Belgijki w grze deblowej wyniósł 47-5. +2004 – 2005. +Pierwszym startem Kim Clijsters w 2004 był udział w Australian Open. Belgijka wygrała w nim 6 spotkań bez straty seta, m.in. z Rosjanką Dinarą Safiną, Włoszką Silvią Fariną Elią, Rosjanką Anastasiją Myskiną i Szwajcarką Patty Schnyder. W finale znowu grała z Justine Henin. Po trzech setach walki (3:6, 6:4, 3:6) musiała uznać wyższość rywalki, z którą przegrała trzeci spośród czterech ostatnich finałów wielkoszlemowych. +W lutym Clijsters odniosła dwa turniejowe triumfy na nawierzchni dywanowej. Pierwszym był Open GDF Suez i zwycięstwo 6:2, 6:1 nad Francuzką Mary Pierce w finale, drugim Proximus Diamond Games i wygrana z Fariną Elią. Następnie poddała walkowerem mecz III rundy w Indian Wells z Amerykanką Laurą Granville. Przyczyną były problemy Belgijki z nadgarstkiem. +W maju tego roku podczas turnieju w Berlinie doznała kontuzji lewego nadgarstka i po raz drugi poddała spotkanie walkowerem (tym razem z Chorwatką Karoliną Šprem). W czerwcu przeszła operację i prawie całą resztę sezonu spędziła na rehabilitacji. +Kontuzja wyłączyła ją ze startów na prawie 5 miesięcy. Podczas próby powrotu we wrześniowym turnieju w belgijskim Hasselt kontuzja odnowiła się w czasie półfinałowego meczu z Rosjanką Jeleną Bowiną. Uraz przedłużył przerwę w startach Clijsters do lutego kolejnego roku i groził nawet zakończeniem kariery w wieku 21 lat. Przerwa w startach spowodowała spadek Belgijki na 87. miejsce (początek lutego 2005) w rankingu WTA. +W lutym 2005 wystąpiła w belgijskiej Antwerpii. Z turnieju wyeliminowała ją w ćwierćfinale Serena Williams. Jako 133. zawodniczka rankingu rozpoczęła grę w Indian Wells. Pokonała tam 7 rywalek, z czego 5 rozstawionych (Shinobu Asagoe, Jewgieniję Liniecką, Conchitę Martínez, Jelenę Diemientjewą i Lindsay Davenport) i sięgnęła po tytuł. W Miami również wygrała wszystkie spotkania, eliminując 6 rozstawionych tenisistek. Były to: nr 24 Amy Frazier, nr 12 Nathalie Dechy, nr 5 Anastasija Myskina, nr 4 Diemientjewa, nr 1 Mauresmo i nr 2 Marija Szarapowa. Clijsters nie straciła w tym turnieju seta. Po tych dwóch triumfach Clijsters awansowała o 116 pozycji w rankingu. +Następnie dotarła do półfinału J&S Cup oraz III rundy w Berlinie. Pomiędzy dwiema porażkami z Lindsay Davenport w IV rundach French Open i Wimbledonu zwyciężyła w Eastbourne. W finale wygrała tam z Wierą Duszewiną 7:5, 6:0. +Kolejne turniejowe zwycięstwo odniosła w Stanfordzie, gdzie w decydującym spotkaniu pokonała Venus Williams 7:5, 6:2. W San Diego dotarła do ćwierćfinału, wcześniej wygrywając w II rundzie z Polką Martą Domachowską (wtedy 52. zawodniczką rankingu WTA) 6:3, 6:1. Porażka z Chinką Peng Shuai w ćwierćfinale była jej jedyną porażką w US Open Series. Następne dwa starty (Los Angeles i Toronto) to kolejne zwycięstwa Belgijki. W finale pierwszego turnieju wygrała ze Słowaczką Danielą Hantuchovą 6:4, 6:1 natomiast w drugim pokonała Justine Henin 7:5, 6:1. W rozgrywkach tych znowu nie straciła seta. Tym samym wygrała cykl US Open Series, a do US Open przystępowała jako nr 4 rankingu. +Turniej ten rozpoczęła od zwycięstw nad Martiną Müller i Fabiolą Zuluagą 7:5, 6:0. Później pokonała Ai Sugiyamę i Maríę Vento-Kabchi 6:1, 6:0. W drodze do finału rozegrała trzysetowe pojedynki z Venus Williams (ćwierćfinał; 4:6, 7:5, 6:1) i Marią Szarapową (półfinał; 6:2, 6:7(4), 6:3). W meczu finałowym pokonała Francuzkę Mary Pierce 6:3 6:1 i zdobyła swój pierwszy tytuł wielkoszlemowy. Za swój triumf otrzymała rekordową nagrodę pieniężną w historii kobiecego tenisa – 2,2 mln $ (1,1 mln za US Open i 100% bonusu za wygranie US Open Series). +Pod koniec września zagrała w FORTIS Championships Luxembourg. Dzięki wygranym z Klárą Zakopalovą, Francescą Schiavone i Nathalie Dechy wystąpiła w finale. Tam zmierzyła się z Niemką Anną-Leną Grönefeld. Mecz zakończył się wynikiem 6:2, 6:4 dla Clijsters. W Filderstadt nie zdołała przebrnąć przez ćwierćfinał, w którym lepsza okazała się od niej Jelena Diemientjewa. W ostatnim występie przed mistrzostwami WTA jako nr 2 rankingu wystąpiła w Hasselt. Po wygranych m.in. z Rosjanką Dinarą Safiną 6:0, 6:1 w półfinale oraz Włoszką Schiavone 6:2, 6:3 w ostatnim turniejowym spotkaniu zwyciężyła w dziewiątym turnieju w tym roku. +Udział w kończącym sezon turnieju Masters rozpoczęła od dwóch porażek z Francuzkami Mauresmo 3:6, 6:7(4) i Pierce 1:6, 6:4, 6:7(2). Mimo wygranej z Diemientjewą w ostatnim spotkaniu 6:2, 6:3, nie zdołała wyjść z grupy. +Rok zakończyła jako liderka WTA Champions Race i wiceliderka rankingu i był on jednym z najbardziej udanych w jej dotychczasowej karierze – doszła do 9 finałów turniejowych i wszystkie wygrała (łącznie brała udział w 15 turniejach). +Wystąpiła w po jednym turnieju w grze podwójnej i mieszanej. Z Els Callens dotarła do półfinału Hasselt, w którym lepszy okazał się debel Krajicek/Szávay. W mikście natomiast wspólnie z rodakiem Olivierem Rochusem zagrała w Wimbledonie. Tam w trzeciej rundzie belgijski mikst pokonał Marka Knowlesa i Venus Williams. Ostatecznie w ćwierćfinale rozgrywek Clijsters oraz Rochus zostali wyeliminowani przez mikst Mahesh Bhupathi i Mary Pierce, który wygrał 6:1, 7:5. +2006. +Rok rozpoczęła od udziału w pokazowym turnieju w Hongkongu. W pierwszym pojedynku wygrała z Chinką Zheng Jie 3:6, 6:2, 6:2. W półfinale w dwóch setach (6:3, 6:3) pokonała Jelenę Diemientjewą. W decydującym spotkaniu pokonała Lindsay Davenport 6:3, 7:5. Sukcesu z gry pojedynczej nie powtórzyła w finale debla, przegrywając wspólnie z Sanią Mirzą 5:8 z Diemientjewą i Zheng. +Po zwycięstwie nad Chinką Li Na w II rundzie Medibank International Belgijka poddała walkowerem mecz ćwierćfinałowy przeciwko Francesce Schiavone. Dotarła do półfinału Australian Open, w którym jej rywalką była Amélie Mauresmo. Belgijka skreczowała przy wyniku 5:7, 6:2, 3:2 z powodu kontuzji stopy. Dzień wcześniej, dzięki pokonaniu Martiny Hingis, zapewniła sobie powrót na 1. miejsce w rankingu. +Na kort powróciła turniejem w belgijskiej Antwerpii, gdzie w finale po raz kolejny uległa w trzech setach Mauresmo. Przegrała w II rundzie rozgrywek w Miami z Jill Craybas 5:7, 6:3, 5:7. Swój pierwszy tytuł 2006 roku wywalczyła w maju na nawierzchni ceglanej w Warszawie, gdy pokonała w finale turnieju J&S Cup Rosjankę Swietłanę Kuzniecową (7:5, 6:2). W Rzymie odpadła w III rundzie. W trzech następnych turniejach (Roland Garros, AEGON International i Wimbledonie) osiągnęła półfinały – w każdym z nich uległa rodaczce Justine Henin-Hardenne. W Wimbledonie w IV rundzie pokonała Agnieszkę Radwańską 6:2, 6:2. +Obronę tytułów wywalczonych rok wcześniej podczas amerykańskiego lata na kortach twardych rozpoczęła w Stanford, pokonując w finale Szwajcarkę Patty Schnyder 6:4, 6:2. Tydzień później przegrała finał w San Diego z Mariją Szarapową 5:7, 5:7. +Podczas meczu II rundy Rogers Cup z Kanadyjką Stéphanie Dubois upadła na kontuzjowany wcześniej lewy nadgarstek. Odnowiona kontuzja wykluczyła ją nie tylko z dalszej gry w Montrealu, ale także uniemożliwiła obronę tytułu na US Open oraz występ w finale Pucharu Federacji. Po powrocie na kort obroniła tytuł w Hasselt po wygranej z Estonką Kaią Kanepi 6:3, 3:6, 6:4. Zakwalifikowała się także do WTA Tour Championships, gdzie w półfinale uległa w trzech setach Francuzce Mauresmo. +W grze deblowej wystąpiła tylko raz (w Miami z Maes), ale para ta przegrała w II rundzie z deblem Katarina Srebotnik i Shinobu Asagoe 3:6, 5:7. +2007 – przerwa w karierze. +W rozgrywanym na początku roku pokazowym turnieju w Hongkongu powtórzyła ubiegłoroczny sukces. W pierwszym meczu ponownie grała z Zheng, którą pokonała tym razem 6:3, 6:2. Półfinał to trzysetowy pojedynek ze Schnyder, zakończony wygraną Belgijki 4:6, 6:4, 6:4. W finale Clijsters wygrała z Mariją Szarapową 6:3, 7:6(8). Drugie (już oficjalne) zwycięstwo odniosła w Sydney, pokonując w finale Serbkę Jelenę Janković 4:6, 7:6(1), 6:4. +Potwierdziła tym samym swoją formę przed Australian Open. W turnieju tym Belgijka bez przeszkód dotarła do ćwierćfinału, nie tracąc seta przeciwko Alonie Bondarenko i Danieli Hantuchovej we wcześniejszej fazie turnieju. W ćwierćfinale zmierzyła się z Hingis, którą pokonała w trzech setach. Półfinał z Mariją Szarapową nie był dla niej zwycięski i Kim Clijsters odpadła z rozgrywek. +Grę w pożegnalnym występie w Antwerpii rozpoczęła od zwycięstw nad Olgą Puczkową, Aną Ivanović i Tatianą Golovin. Ostatecznie po raz kolejny przegrała w finale z Amélie Mauresmo. W marcu 2007 Belgijka ogłosiła, że nie zagra w wielkoszlemowym Roland Garros, ponieważ będzie przygotowywać się do ślubu z amerykańskim koszykarzem Brianem Lynchem. W IV rundzie turnieju w Miami odpadła z Chinką Li Na. W turnieju tym zagrała również w deblu (był to jedyny jej start w grze podwójnej w tym roku), lecz przegrała w pierwszej rundzie. +W ograniczonym do minimum kalendarzu występów Clijsters znalazł się jeden na kortach ziemnych: obrona tytułu na J&S Cup. Tym razem jednak gra w Warszawie okazała się całkowicie nieudana. Już w pierwszym meczu turnieju Belgijka musiała uznać wyższość kwalifikantki z Ukrainy, Julii Wakułenko, przegrywając 6:7(3), 3:6. Był to ostatni przed dwuletnią pauzą mecz z udziałem Kim Clijsters, choć sama tenisistka oficjalnie mówiła o zakończeniu kariery. +O planowanym zakończeniu kariery przez Belgijkę mówiono już w 2005 roku. Oficjalnie Clijsters potwierdziła tę informację w 2007 roku. Ograniczyła starty w tym sezonie do kilku ulubionych turniejów. W międzyczasie zaplanowała m.in. ślub i podróż poślubną. 6 maja 2007 roku na oficjalnej stronie tenisistki pojawiła się informacja o zakończeniu kariery ze skutkiem natychmiastowym. Stało się to po występie w Warszawie. +Podsumowanie kariery do 14 maja 2007. +W momencie przerwania kariery Clijsters zajmowała czwarte miejsce w rankingu tenisistek z sumą punktów 2699. Przez dziesięć lat zawodowej kariery wygrała 34 turnieje singlowe i 11 deblowych. Zdobyła jeden tytuł wielkoszlemowy w grze pojedynczej na US Open oraz dwa tytuły w grze deblowej z Ai Sugiyamą na French Open 2003 i w tym samym roku na Wimbledonie. Była w finale Wimbledonu w grze mieszanej wspólnie z Lleytonem Hewittem. Dwukrotnie triumfowała w imprezie WTA Tour Championships. W roku 2001 zdobyła Puchar Federacji wraz z drużyną Belgii. Nigdy nie wystąpiła na igrzyskach olimpijskich (w 2004 roku problemy ze sponsorem). Była jedną z pięciu tenisistek, które prowadziły jednocześnie w rankingu singlowym i deblowym (2003). Finałem na French Open 2001 została pierwszą belgijską finalistką turnieju wielkoszlemowego. Najwięcej spotkań (22) rozegrała ze swoją rodaczką, Justine Henin, wygrywając 10 z nich. Zarobiła dzięki grze 14 764 296 $. +2009 – druga kariera. +26 marca 2009 na konferencji prasowej w rodzinnym mieście Bree Clijsters ogłosiła powrót na korty. Wspomniała, że poprosiła o dzikie karty do turniejów w Cincinnati, Toronto oraz do US Open. 17 maja 2009 Kim Clijsters, Andre Agassi, Steffi Graf oraz Tim Henman wzięli udział w oficjalnym otwarciu przebudowanego Kortu Centralnego w Wimbledonie. Belgijka wspólnie z Henmanem pokonała parę Agassi/Graf 7:6(5). Ponadto Clijsters zagrała mecz singlowy przeciwko Niemce, wygrywając 6:4. +14 czerwca 2009 rozegrała pokazowy mecz przeciwko Holenderce Michaëlli Krajicek podczas turnieju UNICEF Open. Spotkanie zakończyło się wynikiem 6:1, 6:3 dla Clijsters. +Pierwszym oficjalnym turniejem w ramach rozgrywek WTA, w którym wystąpiła Belgijka, był sierpniowy Western & Southern Financial Group Masters & Women's Open w pobliżu Cincinnati, rozgrywany w ramach US Open Series. +11 sierpnia 2009, grając z dziką kartą jako ostatnia, 45. zawodniczka turnieju, pokonała w I rundzie turnieju rozstawioną z numerem 12 Marion Bartoli w dwóch setach – 6:4, 6:3. Następnie wygrała z rozstawioną z turniejową 20 Patty Schnyder 6:2, 7:5, a w meczu o ćwierćfinał z turniejową nr 6 Swietłaną Kuzniecową 6:4, 4:6, 6:2. W ćwierćfinale przegrała z liderką rankingu, Dinarą Safiną 2:6, 5:7. +W rozgrywanych w Montrealu zawodach Rogers Cup osiągnęła III rundę. W dwóch pierwszych spotkaniach pokonała Brytyjkę Elenę Baltachę 6:3, 6:4 i rozstawioną z numerem 9 Białorusinkę Wiktoryję Azarankę 7:5, 4:6, 6:1, ale ostatecznie poniosła porażkę z Serbką Jeleną Janković 6:1, 3:6, 5:7. +Na US Open w I rundzie pokonała Ukrainkę Wiktorię Kutuzową 6:1, 6:1, a potem ponownie wygrała z Marion Bartoli. W III fazie turnieju pokonała rodaczkę Kirsten Flipkens, a w IV etapie rywalizacji triumfowała nad rozstawioną z numerem 3 Amerykanką Venus Williams. W ćwierćfinale zmierzyła się z Chinką Li Na. Wygrała to spotkanie 6:2, 6:4. W półfinale zwyciężyła z Sereną Williams 6:4, 7:5, gdy ta ostatnia, serwując przy stanie 5:6 15-30, straciła ostatnie dwa punkty bez wprowadzenia piłki na trajektorię (ang. "foot fault" oraz punkt karny w następstwie drugiego upomnienia, za pierwszym razem – złamania rakiety, tym razem – niesportowego zachowania się względem sędziego od "foot faultu"). Ostatnią zawodniczką, która pokonała siostry Williams w jednym turnieju, była Justine Henin, podczas US Open 2007. W finale pokonała Caroline Wozniacki 7:5, 6:3, zdobywając drugi swój tytuł wielkoszlemowy – na tym samym korcie. Po zakończeniu US Open awansowała na 19. pozycję w rankingu. Jest pierwszą matką, która wygrała wielkoszlemowy turniej od roku 1980, kiedy na kortach Wimbledonu zwyciężyła Evonne Goolagong Cawley. +Dzięki dzikiej karcie wystąpiła w turnieju FORTIS Championships Luxembourg jako rozstawiona z numerem 2. W pierwszym pojedynku wygrała z Amerykanką Meghann Shaughnessy 6:2, 6:2, jednak w następnej rundzie uległa reprezentantce Szwajcarii Patty Schnyder 4:6, 6:3, 6:7(6). +10 grudnia pokonała w rozegranym w Antwerpii meczu pokazowym Venus Williams 6:1, 7:5. Rok 2009 zakończyła na 18. pozycji w rankingu. +Wystąpiła w dwóch turniejach w grze deblowej, w Cincinnati i Luksemburgu. W pierwszym z Yaniną Wickmayer odpadła w I rundzie. Natomiast w drugim debel Clijsters/Flipkens dotarł do II rundy, w którym przegrał z deblem Benešová/Záhlavová Strýcová 6:3, 3:6, 5-10. +2010. +Sezon rozpoczęła w australijskim Brisbane International. W początkowej fazie turnieju pokonała Włoszkę Tathianę Garbin 6:2, 6:1 i Australijkę Alicię Molik 6:0, 6:3. W ćwierćfinale wygrała z Czeszką Lucie Šafářovą 6:1, 0:6, 6:4. Niemka Andrea Petković była jej rywalką w półfinale – Belgijka zwyciężyła w nim 6:4, 6:2. Pojedynek finałowy rozegrała ze swoją rodaczką, powracającą po 20-miesięcznej przerwie od tenisa, Justine Henin. Clijsters objęła w nim prowadzenie 6:3, 4:1, ale następnie przegrała 8 gemów z rzędu. Po doprowadzeniu do remisu 3:3 w trzecim secie Henin wygrała następne 2 gemy. Przy stanie 4:5 15-40 we własnym gemie serwisowym zwyciężczyni ubiegłorocznego US Open obroniła dwie piłki meczowe. O zwycięstwie w turnieju zadecydował tie-break, w którym przy stanie 6:3 osiemnasta w rankingu zawodniczka nie wykorzystała żadnej z piłek meczowych. Ostatecznie wygrała dwa kolejne punkty, a całe spotkanie 6:3, 4:6, 7:6(6). Było to jej 36. turniejowe zwycięstwo. +Rozstawiona z numerem 15 w Australian Open wygrała w I rundzie z Valérie Tétreault wynikiem 6:0, 6:4. Po wygraniu w II rundzie z Tamarine Tanasugarn wynikiem 6:3, 6:3 przegrała w III z rozstawioną z numerem 19 Nadieżdą Pietrową wynikiem 0:6, 1:6 w zaledwie 53 minuty. Jest to jedna z najwyższych przegranych w jej karierze. W turnieju w Indian Wells odpadła w III rundzie po porażce z Alisą Klejbanową 4:6, 6:1, 6:7(4). +Następnie wraz z Venus Williams, Aną Ivanović i Swietłaną Kuzniecową wzięła udział w pokazowym turnieju "Billie Jean King Cup" na początku marca. W półfinałowym spotkaniu zagrała z tą drugą, zwyciężając 7:6 (2). Spotkania tej fazy zawodów rozgrywano do jednego wygranego seta. W finale jej przeciwniczką była Amerykanka, która okazała się późniejszą triumfatorką turnieju. Wygrała z Belgijką 6:4, 3:6, 7:5. Clijsters zarobiła 300 tysięcy dolarów za dotarcie do decydującego pojedynku. +W Sony Ericsson Open w I rundzie miała wolny los, w kolejnych pojedynkach pokonała Petrę Kvitovą, Shahar Peer, Wiktorię Azarenkę. W fazie ćwierćfinałowej wyeliminowała Australijkę Samanthę Stosur, w półfinale natomiast Henin 6:2, 6:7 (3), 7:6 (6). W finale pokonała Venus Williams 6:2, 6:1 i triumfowała w turnieju. Po turnieju w Miami znalazła się na 10. miejscu w rankingu WTA. Następnie po wygranej z Alexandrą Dulgheru przegrała z zajmującą wtedy 258. lokatę w rankingu kobiet Beatriz Garcíą Vidagany w drugiej rundzie Andalucia Tennis Experience 5:7, 6:4, 4:6. Z powodu kontuzji lewej stopy, której doznała podczas kwietniowych rozgrywek Pucharu Federacji, Belgijka nie zagrała m.in. we French Open. +W dwóch turniejach na kortach trawiastych(Eastbourne i Wimbledon) dotarła do ćwierćfinału. Po wygranych z Wickmayer i Lucie Šafářovą Wiktoryja Azaranka okazała się jej pogromczynią w pierwszym z nich, w drugim z kolei pokonała ją Rosjanka Wiera Zwonariowa 3:6, 6:4, 6:2. We wcześniejszej rundzie Wimbledonu doszło do 25. spotkania między Clijsters a Henin. Po raz 13. wygrała Clijsters, tym razem 2:6, 6:2, 6:3. +8 lipca Clijsters zagrała w pokazowym meczu z Amerykanką Sereną Williams na stadionie piłkarskim im. króla Baudouina w Brukseli. Początkowo rywalką Belgijki miała być Henin, która w wyniku kontuzji nie mogła wystąpić w spotkaniu. Mecz został zorganizowany, aby pobić rekord publiczności (30 472 osób) na spotkaniu tenisowym, który ustanowiono w 1973 roku w Houston w "bitwie płci" pomiędzy Billie Jean King a Bobbym Rigsem. Wtedy King wygrała 6:4, 6:3, 6:3. Po 27 latach rekord został pobity – 35 681 widzów obejrzało sędziowany przez Martinę Navratilovą mecz Kim Clijsters z Sereną Williams, w którym ta pierwsza wygrała 6:3, 6:2. +Udział w Western & Southern Financial Group Women's Open oraz Rogers Cup rozpoczęła od II rundy, w I miała wolny los. W Cincinnati najpierw wygrała z Dinarą Safiną 7:5, 6:2 oraz z Amerykanką Christiną McHale 6:1, 6:1. W ćwierćfinale pokonała Flavię Pennettę 7:6 (6), 6:4. W dwóch kolejnych spotkaniach grała z byłymi liderkami rankingu WTA. W półfinale z Aną Ivanović – Serbka skreczowała przy wyniku 2:1 dla Belgijki. W finale z Mariją Szarapową, która w drugim secie miała trzy piłki meczowe, jednak mecz został przerwany przez opady deszczu. Po powrocie na kort Kim Clijsters wygrała 10 z 13 rozgrywanych gemów i zakończyła mecz wynikiem 2:6, 7:6(4), 6:2. +W Montrealu, po zwycięstwach nad Bethanie Mattek-Sands oraz Kaią Kanepi, przegrała w ćwierćfinale z Wierą Zwonariową 6:2, 3:6, 2:6. +Rywalizację w US Open Series zakończyła na drugiej pozycji. Z takim samym numerem została rozstawiona w US Open, gdzie broniła wywalczonego w ubiegłym roku tytułu. W pierwszym meczu wygrała z Węgierką Grétą Arn 6:0, 7:5, w II rundzie pokonała Australijkę Sally Peers 6:2, 6:1. W pojedynku III rundy z Czeszką Petrą Kvitová od stanu 0:3 zwyciężyła w kolejnych 12 gemach. Po wygranej nad Aną Ivanović 6:2, 6:1 awansowała do ćwierćfinału, w którym pokonała Samanthę Stosur 6:4, 5:7, 6:3. W półfinale spotkała się z rozstawioną z nr 3 Venus Williams. Kim Clijsters zwyciężyła w tym meczu 4:6, 7:6(2), 6:4. W finale jej rywalką była Wiera Zwonariowa, z którą Clijsters przegrała w tym roku dwa mecze. +Tym razem Belgijka wygrała (6:2, 6:1) i była to jej trzecia wygrana w rozgrywkach US Open. Dzięki zwycięstwu w turnieju zarobiła 2,2 mln $(1,7 mln za US Open i 0,5 mln bonusu za drugie miejsce w US Open Series). Z powodu kontuzji stopy zrezygnowała z udziału w turnieju China Open. +Na początku października zakwalifikowała się do mistrzostw WTA w Ad-Dausze, które byłe rozgrywane pod koniec tego miesiąca. Belgijka w pierwszej fazie turnieju grała w grupie białej, gdzie odniosła 2 zwycięstwa (z Jeleną Janković i Wiktoryją Azaranką) i przegrała mecz z Wierą Zwonariową. Następnie awansowała do półfinału, w którym pokonała Samanthę Stosur 7:6(3), 6:1. W finale jej przeciwniczką była Dunka Caroline Wozniacki. Kim Clijsters wygrała ten mecz 6:3, 5:7, 6:3. Był to jej szósty finał a zarazem szósty triumf od powrotu na tenisowe korty. +Rozegrała dwa turnieje w grze podwójnej. Z Kirsten Flipkens dotarła do II rundy rozgrywek w Miami. Tam pokonał je debel Kirilenko/Radwańska 6:2, 7:5. W Eastbourne grała wspólnie z Swietłaną Kuzniecową, jednak para ta odpadła po pierwszym meczu. +W Wimbledonie wystąpiła w grze mieszanej. Jej partnerem był rodak Xavier Malisse. W III rundzie Clijsters i Malisse wyeliminowali parę Stosur/Zimonjić rozstawioną z jedynką, ale w następnym pojedynku (ćwierćfinał) belgijski mikst przegrał z Melo i Stubbs 6:7(3), 6:7(3). +2011. +1 stycznia zagrała w pokazowym meczu w Tajlandii z Caroline Wozniacki. Belgijka wygrała w stosunku 6:3, 4:6, 12-10. +Następnie zagrała w turnieju Medibank Internatonal w Sydney. Na początku pokonała Rumunkę Alexandrę Dulgheru i Czeszkę Barborę Záhlavovą Strýcovą. W ćwierćfinale wygrała z Białorusinką Wiktoryją Azaranką 6:3, 6:2 a w pojedynku półfinałowym po 3 setach gry – 4:6, 6:3, 7:6(1) z Rosjanką Alisą Klejbanową. W finale mimo prowadzenia 5:0 w pierwszym secie, przegrała 6:7(3), 3:6 z Chinką Li Na. +Udział w Australian Open rozpoczęła od zwycięstwa 6:0, 6:0 nad Dinarą Safiną. Potem wyeliminowała z turnieju Hiszpankę Carlę Suárez Navarro i Francuzkę Alizé Cornet. +W 4. rundzie pokonała Rosjankę Jekatierinę Makarową 7:6(3), 6:2. Mecz ćwierćfinałowy to kolejna wygrana, tym razem z Agnieszką Radwańską 6:3, 7:6(4). W półfinale wygrała z Wierą Zwonariową 6:3, 6:3. Na konferencji prasowej po tym spotkaniu Belgijka oświadczyła, że rok 2011 najprawdopodobniej będzie ostatnim, w którym rozegra pełny sezon tenisowy. +W finale ponownie jej rywalką była Li Na. Kim Clijsters rozpoczęła mecz od prowadzenia w pierwszym secie, a potem podobnie jak dwa tygodnie temu utraciła wypracowaną przewagę – od wyniku 2:0 Chinka wygrała 6 z 7 kolejnych gemów. Następne dwa sety wygrała jednak Belgijka i mecz zakończył się jej zwycięstwem 3:6, 6:3, 6:3. Był to pierwszy wielkoszlemowy tytuł Clijsters wywalczony w Australian Open a ogólnie czwarty w jej karierze. +Na początku lutego osiągnęła finał Open GDF Suez, w którym przegrała 4:6, 3:6 z Petrą Kvitovą. Mimo to, od 14 lutego została nową liderką rankingu WTA (umożliwiło jej to zwycięstwo nad Jeleną Dokić w ćwierćfinale turnieju). +W 4. rundzie turnieju BNP Paribas Open zrezygnowała z gry przy stanie 6:3, 1:3 przeciwko Marion Bartoli z powodu kontuzji prawego ramienia. Po ćwierćfinałowej porażce 3:6, 3:6 z Wiktorią Azarenką nie obroniła wywalczonego przed rokiem triumfu na kortach w Miami. +W kwietniu doznała kontuzji podczas wesela u kuzyna. W jej wyniku odpadła w 2. rundzie French Open i UNICEF Open po przegranych z niżej notowanymi w rankingu WTA rywalkami – Arantxą Rus (nr 114) i Rominą Oprandi (nr 82). Musiała także zrezygnować z występu na Wimbledonie. +Grę wznowiła w sierpniu od startu w Rogers Cup. W pierwszej rundzie miała wolny los, w drugiej jej przeciwniczką była Chinka Zheng Jie. Przy prowadzeniu 6:3, 1:2 Belgijka poddała jednak mecz w wyniku kontuzji mięśni brzucha. +Z powodu urazu wycofała się ze startu w Western & Southern Open 2011. Nie wzięła również udziału w US Open, przez co nie mogła obronić tytułów wywalczonych w tym turnieju w dwóch poprzednich latach. +Następnie na swojej stronie internetowej oświadczyła, że przez kontuzję nie wystąpi w tym roku w żadnym turnieju i koncentruje się na przygotowaniach do kolejnego sezonu. Przyznała także, że jej pierwszym testem przed rozgrywkami w 2012 roku będzie występ na początku grudnia w pokazowym meczu w Antwerpii. W spotkaniu tym zagrała przeciwko Caroline Wozniacki. Pokonała Dunkę w dwóch setach – 6:2, 7:6(5). W Antwerpii wraz z siostrą Elke rozegrała także mecz deblowy a rywalkami Belgijek były Wozniacki i Yanina Wickmayer. Siostry Clijsters zwyciężyły w nim 6:2, 6:1. +2012. +Rok rozpoczęła od udziału w turnieju Brisbane International na kortach twardych. W pierwszym spotkaniu pokonała Rumunkę Simonę Halep, w kolejnym w trzech setach Anę Ivanović. W pojedynku ćwierćfinałowym wygrała 6:3, 6:2 z Czeszką Ivetę Benešovą. W półfinale rywalką Belgijki była Słowaczka Daniela Hantuchová. Clijsters po wygraniu pierwszego seta 7:6(4), w drugim przy stanie 1:3 podjęła decyzję o poddaniu meczu z powodu kontuzji lewego biodra. Jednakże zapewniła, iż powinna wziąć udział w nadchodzącym Australian Open. +W drugiej połowie stycznia po raz dziesiąty w karierze zagrała w turnieju Australian Open. Na początku rozgrywek pokonała kolejno reprezentantkę Portugalii Marię João Koehler, Francuzkę Stéphanie Foretz oraz Danielę Hantuchovą. W czwartej rundzie podczas meczu z Li Na skręciła kostkę, mimo to nie podjęła decyzji o kreczu a całe spotkanie wygrała 4:6, 7:6(6), 6:4. Obroniła w nim także cztery piłki meczowe (Chinka prowadziła w tie-breaku drugiego seta 6-2). Następnie wyeliminowała ówczesną liderkę rankingu WTA Caroline Wozniacki 6:3, 7:6(4). W półfinale przegrała z późniejszą triumfatorką turnieju Białorusinką Wiktoryją Azaranką 4:6, 6:1, 3:6. +Z powodu kontuzji kostki podjęła decyzję o wycofaniu się z BNP Paribas Open. +Pierwszy mecz po przerwie zagrała w Sony Ericsson Open – wygrała w nim z Australijką Jarmilą Gajdošovą 4:6, 6:1, 6:0. W drugiej rundzie pokonała Julię Görges 6:2, 7:5. W kolejnym spotkaniu przegrała z rodaczką Yaniną Wickmayer 4:6, 6:7(5). W związku z przedłużającą się rekonwalescencją po urazie biodra zrezygnowała z udziału w turniejach rozgrywanych na kortach ziemnych . Następnie potwierdziła, iż po występie na tegorocznym US Open zakończy karierę . +Udział w turnieju UNICEF Open rozpoczęła od wygranej z reprezentantką Szwajcarii Rominą Oprandi 6:7(5), 6:2, 6:3. Potem pokonała Ukrainkę Katerynę Bodnarenko oraz Francescę Schiavone. W wyniku nadwyrężenia mięśni brzucha poddała walkowerem półfinałowe spotkanie z Polką Urszulą Radwańską. Zapewniła jednak, że weźmie udział w rozpoczynającym się w kolejnym tygodniu Wimbledonie. W nim osiągnęła czwartą rundę, gdzie przegrała z rozstawioną z nr 8 Angelique Kerber 1:6, 1:6. We wcześniejszych meczach wygrała kolejno z Jeleną Janković, Andreą Hlaváčkovą i Wierą Zwonariową. +28 lipca 2012 zadebiutowała na letnich igrzyskach olimpijskich. W pierwszej rundzie turnieju gry pojedynczej kobiet na Letnich Igrzyskach Olimpijskich 2012 pokonała Włoszkę Robertę Vinci 6:1, 6:4. Następnie wygrała z reprezentantką Hiszpanii Carlą Suarez Navarro 6:3, 6:3 i Serbką Aną Ivanović 6:3, 6:4. W ćwierćfinale poniosła porażkę z Rosjanką Mariją Szarapową 2:6, 5:7. +Definitywne zakończenie kariery. +Postanowiła wystartować we wszystkich możliwych turniejach seniorskich podczas US Open. Swój udział w grze pojedynczej rozpoczęła od zwycięstwa 6:3, 6:1 nad Amerykanką Victorią Duval. W drugiej rundzie jej rywalką była Brytyjka Laura Robson. Clijsters przegrała to spotkanie 6:7(4), 6:7(5). Tym samym Robson przerwała serię 22 kolejnych zwycięstw Belgijki na kortach US Open (ostatni raz przegrała tu w 2003 roku w finale z Justine Henin). Był to także ostatni mecz Kim Clijsters w karierze singlowej. +W grze podwójnej partnerką Kim Clijsters była jej rodaczka Kirsten Flipkens. Belgijki odpadły w pierwszej rundzie po porażce z Chuang Chia-jung i Zhang Shuai 3:6, 4:6. +W grze mieszanej jej partnerem jest Amerykanin Bob Bryan. W pierwszym pojedynku pokonali Amerykanów Irinę Falconi oraz Steve'a Johnsona 6:2, 6:2. +Rozgrywki drużynowe. +Puchar Federacji. +Brała udział w ośmiu edycjach Pucharu Federacji. +Zadebiutowała w roku 2000 w Moskwie, gdzie odbywały się pojedynki grupy C. Belgia w składzie Clijsters, Justine Henin, Dominique Monami i Els Callens rywalizowała z Francją, Rosją i Australią. Drużyna belgijska wszystkie pojedynki wygrała 2:1 w setach i awansowała do półfinału rozgrywek. Kim wygrała dwa (z Anną Kurnikową i Nathalie Tauziat) spośród trzech spotkań gry singlowej, jakie rozegrała. Porażki doznała z Jeleną Dokić. +W półfinale ekipa belgijska musiała się zmierzyć z faworyzowanymi Amerykankami. Clijsters przegrała swój mecz z Lindsay Davenport 6:7(4), 6:4, 3:6. Ostatecznie drużyna USA pokonała Belgię 2:1. +W roku 2001 Belgijki ponownie wygrały rozgrywki grupowe, zwyciężając 3:0 z Australijkami, Niemkami i Hiszpankami. Clijsters zagrała dwa mecze w grze pojedynczej i oba wygrała. Finałowymi rywalkami były Rosjanki. Mecze singlowe rozgrywały Kim Clijsters oraz Justine Henin, natomiast parę deblową stanowiły Els Callens i Laurence Courtois. Po dwóch grach drużyna Belgii zagwarantowała sobie triumf w zawodach. Henin wygrała z Nadią Pietrową 6:0, 6:3, a Clijsters z Jeleną Diemientjewą 6:0, 6:4. Mecz gry podwójnej Belgia przegrała, ale mimo to zwyciężyła 2:1. +Udział w kolejnej edycji w roku 2002 Belgijki kierowane przez Ivo Van Akena (był trenerem drużyny w latach 1999-2004) rozpoczęły od pokonania Australijek 3:1. Kim Clijsters pokonała Alicię Molik 6:0, 6:2. W ćwierćfinale zwyciężczynie ubiegłorocznego Pucharu Federacji przegrały z Włoszkami 1:4. Clijsters, podobnie jak Henin, nie brała udziału w tym pojedynku. +Rok później Belgijki pierwsze dwa spotkania rozgrywały u siebie. Najpierw w Bree pokonały 5:0 drużynę Austrii, a Clijsters oraz Henin zdobyły po dwa punkty w grze singlowej. Potem w Charleroi wygrały ze Słowacją również 5:0. Clijsters wygrała 6:0, 6:1 z Janette Husárovą i 6:3, 6:1 z Ľubomírą Kurhajcovą. W półfinale nie zagrała, a Belgia poniosła porażkę 1:4 z USA. +W 2004 Belgijka zdobyła 2 punkty dla swojego kraju, który zwyciężył z Chorwacją 3:2. Clijsters wygrała z Jeleną Kostanić Tošić i Karoliną Šprem. Z powodu kontuzji nie wystąpiła w ćwierćfinale przeciwko Hiszpanii, który ostatecznie Belgijki przegrały 2:3. +Od 2005 trenerem drużyny został Carl Maes. W pojedynku pierwszej rundy Fed Cup z Amerykankami nie wystąpiła, a Belgia przegrała 0:5 i na początku lipca musiała walczyć o utrzymanie w I Grupie Światowej. Rywalkami Belgijek była drużyna Argentyny. Clijsters rozegrała 3 pojedynki, dwa singlowe i jeden w grze podwójnej. Wszystkie wygrała, z Marianą Díaz-Oliva 6:1, 6:2, z Giselą Dulko 6:4, 6:1, a w deblu razem z Callens 6:4, 3:6, 7:5 ze swoimi rywalkami singlowymi. Ekipa belgijska zwyciężyła 3:2 i utrzymała się w I Grupie Światowej. +Start w 2006 Belgijki rozpoczęły od pojedynku z Rosjankami. Mecze rozgrywały tylko Clijsters i powracająca po trzyletniej przerwie do drużynowej rywalizacji Henin. Dzięki trzem wygranym w grze pojedynczej – jednej Clijsters i dwóch Henin – Belgia pokonała Rosję 3:2 i awansowała do półfinału, w którym miała zagrać z USA. Clijsters ponownie rozegrała dwa spotkania w grze pojedynczej i we wszystkich triumfowała, co pomogło drużynie Belgii w wygranej 4:1. Swoje zwycięstwa odniosła nad Vanią King i Jameą Jackson. Z powodu kontuzji w finale z Włoszkami Clijsters nie wystąpiła, Belgia ostatecznie przegrała go 2:3. +Do rozgrywek Pucharu Federacji powróciła w roku 2010. Trenerką drużyny od 2007 była dawna tenisistka Sabine Appelmans. W pierwszym pojedynku z reprezentacją Polski Clijsters nie wzięła udziału. Spowodowane to było przerwą w startach, którą postanowiła sobie zrobić po porażce w trzeciej rundzie Australian Open. Mimo to Belgia wygrała 3:2 i w meczu o awans do I Grupy Światowej (Belgia wypadła z niej w 2007) zmierzyła się z Estonią. Kim Clijsters zagrała tam w jednym meczu i wygrała w nim z Maret Ani 6:4, 6:2. W następnych pojedynkach nie mogła wziąć udziału z powodu kontuzji. Ostatecznie belgijska ekipa zwyciężyła 3:2. +W 2011 wygrała 2 mecze gry singlowej przeciwko Amerykankom Bethanie Mattek-Sands i Melanie Oudin w ćwierćfinałowym pojedynku Fed Cup. Ostatecznie reprezentacja Belgii wygrała rywalizację z USA 4:1. Z powodu kontuzji ramienia i nadgarstka nie mogła wystąpić w półfinałowym meczu Belgijek przeciwko Czeszkom. Tę rywalizację Belgijki przegrały 2:3. +Puchar Hopmana. +Belgijka wystąpiła czterokrotnie w Pucharze Hopmana, turnieju rozgrywanym na przełomie grudnia i stycznia w Australii, uznawanym nieoficjalnie za mistrzostwa świata mieszanych zespołów. +Wystartowała w nim po raz pierwszy w 2001 roku. W rozgrywce play-off Belgia w składzie Kim Clijsters i Olivier Rochus triumfowała nad drużyną Japonii 2:1. Kim Clijsters pokonała Japonkę Ai Sugiyamę 7:6, 5:7, 6:4. W grze mieszanej odniosła drugie zwycięstwo, Clijsters i Rochus wygrali z Sugiyamą i Suzukim 6:4, 6:4. Dzięki temu belgijska drużyna wystąpiła w rozgrywkach grupowych, które rozpoczęła od meczu z Rosją. Clijsters wygrała z Jeleną Lichowcewą 6:1, 6:4 i przed mikstem Belgia prowadziła 2:0. W ostatnim meczu Clijsters i Rochus przegrali z Lichowcewą i Safinem 3:6, 6:7, ale mimo tego reprezentacja Belgii zwyciężyła 2:1. W kolejnych dwóch spotkaniach belgijska drużyna poniosła porażki (1:2 ze Słowacją i 0:3 z USA). Clijsters odniosła jedyne w tych meczach zwycięstwo nad Kariną Habšudovą – 0:6, 6:4, 6:1. Pozostałe wyniki to przegrane miksta Clijsters/Rochus z Habšudovą i Hrbatým 4:6, 6:3, 3:6 oraz Gambillem i Seles 6:4, 1:6, 6:7. Pojedynek singlowy w meczu z USA to porażka Kim Clijsters z Seles 6:7, 0:6. Belgijska drużyna ostatecznie zajęła czwarte (ostatnie) miejsce w swojej grupie i siódme w całych rozgrywkach. +W latach 2002-2004 partnerem Clijsters był Xavier Malisse. +Udział w turnieju w roku 2002 ekipa Belgii rozpoczęła od dwóch zwycięstw 2:1 nad Francją i Włochami. Clijsters wygrała wtedy w jednym pojedynku singlowym nad Francuzką Virginie Razzano 6:3, 6:2, przegrała natomiast ze Schiavone 4:6, 4:6. Clijsters i Malisse odnieśli dwa zwycięstwa w grze mieszanej nad Clémentem i Razzano 1:6, 6:3, 7:6 oraz Sanguinettim i Schiavone 6:3, 6:4. W decydującym pojedynku z drużyną amerykańską Belgia poniosła porażkę 1:2, przez co zajęła trzecie miejsce w grupie, a czwarte w turnieju. Clijsters przegrała z Seles, tym razem 6:4, 4:6 2:6, a jedyne zwycięstwo odniósł belgijski mikst w pojedynku przeciwko parze Gambill/Seles 7:6, 6:2. +Występ w Pucharze Hopmana w 2003 Belgia rozpoczęła podobnie jak w ubiegłorocznych rozgrywkach. Najpierw dwa zwycięstwa 2:1 z Hiszpanią i 3:0 z Uzbekistanem, a potem porażka z USA 1:2. Clijsters wygrała dwa mecze w grze pojedynczej, z Hiszpanką Virginią Ruano Pascual 6:1, 6:0 i Uzbeczką Irodą To'laganovą 6:3, 6:2. Porażkę 5:7, 3:6 poniosła z Sereną Williams. Mikst Clijsters/Malisse także odniósł dwa zwycięstwa, z parą Robredo/Ruano Pascual 2:6, 7:5, 7:6 i Ogorodov/Tuliaganowa 6:1, 6:1, przegrał natomiast z mikstem Blake/Williams 6:7, 6:3, 6:7. Belgia była druga w grupie oraz trzecia w turnieju. +W roku 2004 drużyna belgijska wystąpiła w tylko dwóch spotkaniach. Po porażce 0:3 z Australią i wygranej 3:0 ze Słowacją Belgia wycofała się z rozgrywek. W pojedynku z Australijką Alicią Molik przy stanie 6:3, 6:7, 3:2 Kim skreczowała. Mecz gry mieszanej przeciwko i Hewittowi i Molik Clijsters oraz Malisse poddali walkowerem. Ze Słowaczką Danielą Hantuchovą Belgijka wygrała 6:1, 6:2, a w mikście para Clijsters/Malisse odniosła zwycięstwo nad parą Hantuchova/Kučera 6:2, 6:4. Ostatecznie Belgia została sklasyfikowana na ostatnim (czwartym) miejscu w grupie i szóstym w rozgrywkach. +Osiągnięcia. +Rekordy. +2003 +2005 +2006 +2009 +2010 +2011 +Nagrody. +Belgijka została uhonorowana przez Erica Elsta, który jedną z odkrytych przez siebie planetoid nazwał Kimclijsters. +Życie prywatne. +Kim Clijsters urodziła się w Bilzen, obecnie mieszka w Bree. Jej ojciec, Leo Clijsters, to były reprezentant Belgii, uczestnik mistrzostw świata w piłce nożnej 1986 i 1990. Matka, Els Vandecaetsbeek, była gimnastyczką, wielokrotną mistrzynią Belgii. Rodzice rozstali się pod koniec 2005 roku. Leo zmarł 4 stycznia 2009 na raka płuc. W tenisa grała też młodsza siostra Kim, Elke. Wygrała w 2002 roku US Open w grze deblowej juniorek, lecz 2 lata później zakończyła karierę w wyniku kontuzji. +Przez blisko pięć lat Clijsters związana była z australijskim tenisistą Lleytonem Hewittem. Para ogłosiła zaręczyny w listopadzie 2003 roku. Związek zakończył się w październiku 2004 roku, na cztery miesiące przed planowanym ślubem. +Nowym partnerem Kim Clijsters został Brian Lynch, amerykański koszykarz grający w klubie z Bree. Zaręczyny miały miejsce w kwietniu 2006. +10 lipca 2007 ojciec tenisistki poinformował, że jego córka spodziewa się dziecka. 13 lipca o godzinie szóstej rano Clijsters i Lynch zostali małżeństwem. Ślub cywilny miał miejsce w Bree. Według planów uroczystość miała się odbyć dzień wcześniej, w czwartek o godzinie 20.00, jednak pod ratuszem zaczęli zbierać się fotoreporterzy, których obecności nowożeńcy sobie nie życzyli. Ślub został przesunięty bez podania planowanego czasu i miejsca jego zawarcia. Obecni byli tylko najbliżsi młodej pary, a świadkami zostali siostra tenisistki i brat koszykarza. Następnego dnia po południu odbył się ślub kościelny, a po nim przyjęcie weselne. +We wrześniu 2007 została wydana książka Belgijki "My Fans, Kim", w której zawodniczka chciała podziękować fanom za wsparcie, jakie otrzymała od nich w ciągu kariery. Wydawnictwo składa się ze skrawków listów otrzymanych przez Clijsters we wcześniejszych latach od kibiców. +27 lutego 2008 Clijsters urodziła córkę, Jadę Elli, która w chwili narodzin ważyła 3,035 kg i miała 51 cm wzrostu. Poród odbył się w belgijskim Tongeren. +10 marca jej 43-letnia matka przedwcześnie urodziła syna, Zetha, którego ojcem jest Jan Goossens, trener golfa. Goossens to partner matki Kim Clijsters od momentu rozpadu związku z jej ojcem. +W 2009 mąż Kim Clijsters poinformował o zakończeniu kariery koszykarskiej. +Na początku lutego 2010 firma Mattel pokazała w Norymberdze trzy unikatowe lalki Barbie. Jedną z nich była Clijsters wraz z córką, pozostałe dwie przedstawiają J. K. Rowling oraz księżniczkę Wiktorię. Lalki nie zostały wystawione na sprzedaż. +W marcu 2010 Belgijka została ambasadorem linii zegarków Citizen Signature Collection. Z tej okazji otrzymała wysadzany 65 diamentami zegarek. +Rok później przyznała, że pragnie adoptować dziecko, co będzie się starała zrealizować po zakończeniu kariery. +25 lutego 2013 poinformowała za pomocą konta na Twitterze, że spodziewa się narodzin drugiego dziecka. +Działalność charytatywna. +Kim Clijsters czynnie wspiera organizacje charytatywne. +Od 2005 roku pełni funkcję matki chrzestnej projektu Buba&Batma, którego założycielem jest Hetty Schiltmans. Projekt ten pomaga dzieciom z ulicy oraz sierotom w południowych Indiach, wspiera również lokalną pomoc medyczną, edukację i handel. Belgijka wsparła finansowo budowę w pełni funkcjonalnego sierocińca. +Przed turniejem w Brisbane w 2010 roku odwiedziła Brisbane’s Royal Children’s Hospital. Tydzień później, po zwycięskim pojedynku nad Justine Henin w finale rozgrywek, postanowiła przekazać całą wygraną, czyli 37 tysięcy dolarów na ten szpital. +W tym samym miesiącu wzięła udział w "Hit for Haiti" – meczu rozgrywanym podczas Australian Open na rzecz ofiar trzęsienia ziemi na Haiti. Oprócz Clijsters w przedsięwzięciu tym wystąpili: Novak Đoković, Roger Federer, Lleyton Hewitt, Rafael Nadal, Andy Roddick, Bernard Tomic oraz Samantha Stosur i Serena Williams. Zebrano ponad 150 tysięcy dolarów. +Na aukcję również zbierającą fundusze na ten cel Kim przekazała swoją rakietę. +W kwietniu postanowiła wraz z mężem i córką wesprzeć długoterminowo pracę Belgijskiego Stowarzyszenia SOS Wioski Dziecięce. Projekt nazywa się "Simba House". +W roku 2011 ponownie zagrała w pokazowym meczu ("Rally for Relief") podczas Australian Open, tym razem dla ofiar powodzi w Queensland. W spotkaniu tym zagrali także Rafael Nadal, Roger Federer, Novak Đoković, Andy Roodick, Andy Murray, Lleyton Hewitt, Patrick Rafter, Samantha Stosur, Caroline Wozniacki, Ana Ivanović, Justine Henin, Wiera Zwonariowa, Wiktoryja Azaranka. Zebrano prawie 2 miliony dolarów. Kim przeznaczyła na aukcję na rzecz ofiar powodzi swój strój sportowy. +Pod koniec roku z mężem i córką zdecydowała się pomóc po raz kolejny Belgijskiemu Stowarzyszenia SOS Wioski Dziecięce. Comiesięcznie przeznaczają wspólnie 30 euro na jedno z dzieci ze stowarzyszenia, aby zapewnić mu opiekę zdrowotną i bezpieczne środowisko dorastania. +Turnieje. + Dane na dzień 2011-07-09 +Historia występów w turniejach. + Dane na dzień 2012-08-30 +Gra pojedyncza. + Dane na dzień 2012-07-09 +Statystyki. +Przeciwko czołowym zawodniczkom. + Dane na dzień 2012-08-03 +Bank Światowy + +Bank Światowy (ang. "World Bank") rozpoczął działalność jako efekt postanowień konferencji w Bretton Woods z lipca 1944. Główną przesłanką dla jego stworzenia była przede wszystkim chęć odbudowy zniszczonych II wojną światową krajów Europy i Japonii. Istotnym celem statutowym było również wsparcie dla rozwijających się krajów Azji, Ameryki Łacińskiej i Afryki. Obecnie zrzesza on 187 krajów członkowskich. Siedzibą Banku Światowego jest Waszyngton. +Termin Bank Światowy odnosi się do dwóch z pięciu wyspecjalizowanych agencji ONZ, działających razem w Grupie Banku Światowego: +Ale powszechnie używa się tego terminu na określenie jedynie banku. Pozostałe trzy agencje działające w ramach Grupy Banku Światowego to: +Bank Światowy nie jest bankiem w ścisłym tego słowa znaczeniu. Zapewnia długoterminowe pożyczki o preferencyjnym oprocentowaniu dla najbardziej potrzebujących krajów członkowskich oraz przedsiębiorstw publicznych (po otrzymaniu gwarancji rządowych), dotacje, pomoc techniczną – obecnie wszystko do celów walki z ubóstwem i finansowania rozwoju takich dziedzin życia społecznego jak ochrona zdrowia, edukacja, ochrona środowiska czy też rozbudowa infrastruktury. W zamian za to wymaga jednak pewnych działań politycznych, takich jak walka z korupcją, rozwój demokracji, czy też najważniejszego – rozwoju sektora prywatnego. +Fundusze na udzielanie kredytów państwom słabiej rozwiniętym pochodzą ze składek państw członkowskich, spłaty przez państwa wcześniejszych długów oraz dzięki emisji obligacji na światowych rynkach kapitałowych. +Prezesi Banku Światowego. +Prezesami Banku Światowego byli zawsze obywatele USA. +KGet + +KGet to menedżer pobierania plików. KGet jest częścią składową środowiska KDE. +Wostok 6 + +Wostok 6 - oznaczenie kodowe "Czajka" (ros. Чайка) – pierwszy lot kosmiczny kobiety; ostatni załogowy lot kosmiczny w ramach programu Wostok; drugi, po misjach Wostok 3 i Wostok 4, lot grupowy. Misja Wostoka 6 trwała od 14 do 19 czerwca 1963 roku. Na pokładzie znajdowała się jedna kosmonautka - Walentina Tierieszkowa (jej dublerkami były Irina Sołowjowa i Walentina Ponomariowa). +Lot Wostoka 6 odbył się równocześnie z Wostokiem 5. Minimalna odległość między nimi w przestrzeni kosmicznej wynosiła 6 km. Przez 3 dni załogi obu statków utrzymywały łączność z Ziemią. +Po wykonaniu 48 okrążeń Ziemi, kapsuła powrotna powróciła do atmosfery i wylądowała na terenie kołchozu Pawiński, w pobliżu wsi Bajewo (). Tak jak w poprzednich misjach Wostok, moduł serwisowy nie do końca odczepił się od kapsuły powrotnej, a pilot katapultował się i lądował osobno, na spadochronie. Z powodu silnego wiatru, kosmonautka o mało co nie wpadła do jeziora, i mając kłopoty z wypięciem się ze spadochronu, stłukła sobie nos. +Przez wiele lat o przebiegu lotu Tiereszkowej krążyło wiele plotek mówiących o chorobie lokomocyjnej, menstruacji, a nawet o płaczu i wybuchu histerii kosmonautki (którą miała uspokoić rozmowa z Siergiejem Korolowem), co miałoby wyjaśnić wielogodzinną przerwę w łączności między statkiem a Ziemią. Jednak zapisy lotu i sprawozdania świadków, zarówno sprzed jak i po rozpadzie Związku Radzieckiego, mówią, że wypełniła ona cały plan lotu. +W 2004 ujawniono, że w programie deorbitacji Wostoka 6 wystąpił błąd. Statek zamiast obniżać orbitę, podwyższał ją. Tiereszkowa zauważyła błąd pierwszego dnia lotu i powiadomiła o nim Korolowa. Błąd szybko usunęła kosmonautka wprowadzając nowe dane przekazane z Ziemi. Na prośbę Korolowa, Tiereszkowa nigdy nie wspominała o tym błędzie. +Kapsuła powrotna statku jest eksponatem w Muzeum RKK Energia w Korolowie. +Mistrzostwa świata w łyżwiarstwie figurowym + +Mistrzostwa świata w łyżwiarstwie figurowym rozgrywane są dla mężczyzn od 1896, dla kobiet od 1906, pary sportowe uczestniczą w mistrzostwach od 1908, a pary taneczne – od 1951. +Pierwsze mistrzostwa świata w łyżwiarstwie figurowym odbyły się w 1896 roku w rosyjskim Sankt Petersburgu. +Gorce + +Gorce (513.52) – pasmo górskie leżące w Beskidach Zachodnich. Nazwa ""Gorce"" związana jest prawdopodobnie ze słowem ""gorzeć"" (palić się, płonąć) i pochodzi od sposobu uzyskiwania polan śródleśnych metodą żarową. Spotykana jest już w aktach z 1254 r. ("item mons Gorcz nuncupatus"), używał jej Jan Długosz w 1480 r. ("in monten Gorcz"). W innych źródłach można też spotkać nazwę Górce, która by mogła oznaczać niskie góry. +Topografia. +Przy tak ustalonych granicach Gorce mają z zachodu na wschód długość w prostej linii 33 km, szerokość 15 km i łączną powierzchnię około 550 km². +Niektóre z tych grzbietów rozgałęziają się na dalsze, podrzędne grzbiety. +Turbacz (1310 m), Jaworzyna Kamienicka (1288 m), Kiczora (1282 m), Kudłoń (1276 m), Czoło Turbacza (1259 m), Mostownica (1251 m), Gorc Troszacki (1235 m), Gorc (1228 m), Lubań (1225 m). Wszystkie te szczyty poza Turbaczem i Lubaniem znajdują się na terenie Gorczańskiego Parku Narodowego. +Geomorfologia. +Wznoszące się wysoko nad otaczającymi je dolinami szczyty Gorców są łagodne, kopulaste, niewiele wznoszące się ponad grzbiet. W Gorcach jest 11 ważniejszych dolin, z czego pod Turbacz podchodzi pięć. Najdłuższa jest dolina Kamienicy (33 km), a najobszerniejsza — dolina Ochotnicy (109 km²). Gorce zbudowane są z fliszu karpackiego, który powstał na dnie morza, a potem uległ wypiętrzeniu. Spływające z gór wody wyrzeźbiły głębokie V-kształtne doliny z licznymi wodospadami, progami i gruzowiskiem dużych i mniejszych głazów. Na stromych zboczach znajdują się liczne osuwiska, głębokie wąwozy, wychodnie i liczne źródła. Zbudowane z bardziej odpornych na wietrzenie gruboławicowych piaskowców i zlepieńców utwory skalne utworzyły wychodnie o oryginalnych kształtach, jak np. Białe Skały, Kudłoński Baca, Czubaty Groń. Występuje kilka jaskiń, powstałych głównie w wyniku przesunięć skalnych. Największa z nich to Zbójnicka Jama. W piętrze regla dolnego występują głównie gleby brunatne, w reglu górnym głównie gleby bielicowe. +Klimat. +Klimat jest typowo górski. W najwyższym piętrze klimatycznym, znajdującym się powyżej 1100 m n.p.m. jest to klimat chłodny. Średnia temperatura roczna wynosi tu +3 °C, roczna suma opadów 1200 mm, a okres wegetacyjny trwa zaledwie 160 dni. Grubość pokrywy śnieżnej w niektórych miejscach sięga 1,5 m, w głębokich dolinach potoków w wyższych partiach utrzymuje się ona bardzo długo, szczególnie na północnych zboczach. +Wody. +Gorce charakteryzują się bardzo dobrze rozwiniętą siecią wodną, na którą składają się liczne potoki, źródła, młaki i wysięki wodne. Jeziorka są tylko dwa: Pucołowski Stawek i Morskie Oko w masywie Kudłonia. Obydwa są niewielkie i są już w końcowej fazie zarastania. Wszystkie potoki stanowią dorzecze dwóch rzek: Dunajca i Raby. Wzdłuż grzbietu Turbacz – Gorc Troszacki przebiega dział wodny między zlewniami tych rzek. Największymi potokami, mającymi swoje obszary źródliskowe w Gorcach są Kamienica i Ochotnica. Występują także źródła z wodami mineralnymi, które eksploatowane są w Rabce-Zdroju i Szczawie. +Świat roślinny. +Gorce są w większości zalesione; występuje w nich piętro pogórza, regiel dolny i regiel górny. Bardzo charakterystycznym elementem przyrodniczo-krajobrazowym są liczne polany. W środkowej części Gorców utworzono Gorczański Park Narodowy, obejmujący najbardziej wartościowe przyrodniczo rejony Gorców. Oprócz tego Paśmie Lubania istnieje rezerwat przyrody Modrzewie. W Gorcach występuje wiele gatunków roślin bardzo rzadkich w Karpatach: bagno zwyczajne, dzwonek piłkowany, głodek żółty, irga czarna, kukułka bzowa, marzanka pagórkowa, ostrożeń dwubarwny, ostrożeń głowacz, pływacz zachodni, podejźrzon lancetowaty, rozrzutka brunatna, turzyca dwupienna, turzyca obła, turzyca skąpokwiatowa, widlicz Isslera, widlicz Zeillera, zarzyczka górska. Wiele z nich rzadkie jest również w całej Polsce. +Świat zwierzęcy. +Występuje tu 185 gatunków kręgowców, z tego 21 jest w rejestrze Polskiej Czerwonej Księgi Zwierząt. Wśród płazów jest to traszka karpacka, wśród ptaków cietrzew, dzięcioł białogrzbiety, dzięcioł trójpalczasty, głuszec, orlik krzykliwy, orzeł przedni, puchacz, puszczyk uralski, sóweczka, włochatka, wśród ssaków koszatka, mroczek posrebrzany, mroczek pozłocisty, niedźwiedź brunatny, podkowiec mały, popielica, rzęsorek mniejszy, ryś, wilk, żbik. +Z większych ssaków w Gorcach spotkać można także dzika, jelenia, sarny, wydry, borsuka, gronostaja. Występuje 9 gatunków nietoperzy, 130 gatunków ptaków (w tym 100 gniazdujących na terenie parku), 7 gatunków płazów. W potokach występują 2 gatunki ryb: pstrąg potokowy i głowacz pręgopłetwy. Stwierdzono występowanie ponad 1000 gatunków bezkręgowców, w tym 23 endemity karpackie lub karpacko-sudeckie. Liczne są gatunki bezkręgowców górskich i borealnych (ok. 100 gatunków). Sporo gatunków chrząszczy, a na polanach liczne motyle (m.in. rusałka admirał, rusałka pokrzywnik, perłowiec większy) +Gorce są terenem na którym najliczniej w Polsce występuje salamandra plamista, która znajduje się w logo Gorczańskiego Parku Narodowego. +Turystyka. +Początki turystyki w Gorcach sięgają początku XIX w. Opisywał je i badał Wincenty Pol i Bronisław Gustawicz, a Seweryn Goszczyński w swoim "Dzienniku podróży do Tatrów" opisał swoje wrażenia z pobytu w Gorcach. W Gorcach przebiegały akcje utworów Władysława Orkana pochodzącego z Poręby Wielkiej pod Gorcami. Pisał on: "Naprzeciw Tatr, między doliną nowotarską, a wężowatą kotliną Raby, wspięło się gniazdo dzikich Gorców. Od romantycznych Pienin rozdzielał je wartki kamienicki potok, a od spiskiej krainy odgraniczył je bystry Dunajec. Samotnie stoją nad wzgórzami." Kazimierz Sosnowski opublikował przewodnik, a Polskie Towarzystwo Tatrzańskie wytyczyło pierwsze szlaki i wybudowało pierwsze bazy noclegowe. Szczególnie popularne stały się Gorce po wybudowaniu schroniska na Turbaczu. Stały się modne wśród studentów, którzy organizują tutaj rajdy studenckie; na Turbacz przychodzą także wycieczki szkolne. Turystów przyciągają też panoramy widokowe z gorczańskich polan, cisza (ruch turystyczny jest tutaj umiarkowany) i dobrze zachowana przyroda. +Za wstęp na niektóre ścieżki spacerowe pobierane są opłaty. Ambitniejszych turystów ucieszą znajdujące się przy ważniejszych szlakach estetycznie wykonane i ciekawe merytorycznie tablice z opisem przyrody, historii tych miejsc i panoramami szczytów. +Gorce posiadają także ścieżki dydaktyczne. +Turystyka narciarska +Gorce są najbogatszą lokalizacją zawierającą walory do uprawiania turystyki narciarskiej w Beskidach Zachodnich. Wszystkie trasy w Gorcach nadają się do uprawiania tej turystyki, można więc oszacować że tras narciarskich jest ponad 80. Na mapach uwzględniany jest jednak tylko jeden szlak narciarski. Gorce słyną głównie z Ostoi Górskiej Koninki w Porębie Wielkiej. Jest to najdłuższa nartostrada w Gorcach, powołała ona też 8 innych szlaków biegowych. +Grupy etnograficzne. +Gorce zamieszkuje kilka grup etnograficznych posiadających wyróżniki etnograficzne i językowe. Od południowej strony gorczańskie wsie zamieszkują Podhalanie (od Obidowej po Dębno oraz w dolinie Ochotnicy), w Paśmie Lubania i południowo-wschodniej części Gorców Górale Pienińscy. Na północnych stokach Gorców Zagórzanie (od Lubomierza po Olszówkę i Rabę Niżną), a od doliny Kamienicy gorczańskiej rozciągają się Górale łąccy (zwani też niekiedy "Góralami Białymi" "Kamienicko-Łąckimi" bądź "Kamienickimi"). Niegdyś Gorce zamieszkiwali także Kliszczacy. +Stefan Szolc-Rogoziński + +Stefan Szolc-Rogoziński (ur. 14 kwietnia 1861 w Kaliszu, zm. 1 grudnia 1896 w Paryżu) – polski podróżnik, badacz Afryki, zwłaszcza Kamerunu. +Urodzony w Kaliszu jako syn Ludwika Scholtza, tamtejszego przemysłowca oraz Malwiny z Rogozińskich, córki znanego warszawskiego adwokata. W 12 roku życia rozpoczął naukę w szkole niemieckiej, we Wrocławiu. W 1878 roku wstąpił, wbrew woli ojca, jako ochotnik do akademii marynarki wojennej w Kronsztadzie. 29 kwietnia 1880 roku zdał egzamin i otrzymał stopień oficera. Wkrótce wypłynął w pierwszy rejs, do Władywostoku , na pokładzie żaglowca krążownika "Generał Admirał". W maju 1881 r., po przybyciu do Paryża, został przyjęty do Paryskiego Towarzystwa Geograficznego. W Neapolu opracował plany wyprawy w głąb Kamerunu. Święta Bożego Narodzenia w 1881 r. spędził w rodzinnym Kaliszu. Próbował uzyskać pomoc finansową od ojca, nie udało mu się jednak. Przeznaczył na wyprawę pieniądze ze spadku po matce, która zmarła w 1877 r. +W celu zbierania funduszów, Rogoziński rozpoczął w Warszawie szeroko zakrojoną akcję. Popierali go Filip Sulimierski, redaktor "Wędrowca", Henryk Sienkiewicz czy Bolesław Prus. Rogoziński propagował swoją wyprawę jako misję narodową, mającymi zwrócić uwagę świata na Polaków. +Podróżnik kupił we Francji statek "Łucja Małgorzata", 13 grudnia 1882 r. opuścił na jego pokładzie Hawr. Nad statkiem łopotała bandera francuska i flaga armatora, z herbem Warszawy - Syrenką. Towarzyszyli mu geolog Klemens Tomczek i meteorolog Leopold Janikowski. +U wybrzeży Kamerunu w zatoce Ambas kupił wyspę Mondoleh (za czarny tużurek, cylinder i trzy skrzynki dżinu). Stanowiła ona potem miejsce wypadowe wypraw. Badał wybrzeże Kamerunu, dorzecze rzeki Mungo oraz odkrył Jezioro Słoniowe (Balombi-O-M'Bu). W Kamerunie założył w 1882 polską kolonię. Ta jednak nie przetrwała długo, gdyż już w 1884 przybyli na te tereny Niemcy i Anglicy. Wtedy Stefan Szolc-Rogoziński zdecydował o poddaniu tejże kolonii Brytyjczykom, jednak już w niedługim czasie Kamerun i polską kolonię przejęli Niemcy. 20 maja 1884 r. zmarł Klemens Tomczek. 12 grudnia tego samego roku Rogoziński wraz z Janikowskim zdobyli szczyt Fako (dziś: wulkan Kamerun, 4095 m n.p.m.) - najwyższy szczyt Kamerunu. 29 sierpnia 1885 r., podczas kolejnego pobytu w kraju, Stefan Rogoziński ożenił się z literatką Heleną Janiną Boguską, piszącą pod pseudonimem "Hajota". Wrócił do Afryki pod koniec 1886 r. Kupił plantację na wyspie Fernando Po, jednak nie przyniosła ona zysków, które pozwoliłyby sfinansować następne wyprawy. Od 1885 roku członek Królewskiego Towarzystwa Geograficznego w Londynie. W latach 1892-1893 podróżował po Egipcie. W 1893 powrócił do kraju, jednakże z nadzieją na następne wyprawy pojechał do Paryża. Tam, w wieku 35 lat zginął tragicznie pod kołami paryskiego omnibusa. +Założył warszawskie Muzeum Etnograficzne ofiarowując mu zebrane eksponaty. +W Gliwicach, Warszawie, Wrocławiu i Pruszczu Gdańskim istnieją ulice nazwane jego nazwiskiem. W Kaliszu, oprócz ulicy nazwanej jego nazwiskiem, przy Głównym Rynku wmurowana jest płaskorzeźba z jego wizerunkiem (obok portretów Asnyka, Dąbrowskiej i Konopnickiej). +Gmina Koronowo + +Gmina Koronowo – gmina miejsko-wiejska w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim, w północno-zachodniej części powiatu bydgoskiego. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie bydgoskim. Gmina ma charakter turystyczno-rolniczy, jest największa w powiecie. +Siedzibą gminy jest miasto Koronowo. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2010 gminę zamieszkiwało 23 716 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 29,52% powierzchni powiatu. +Ochrona przyrody. +Na terenie gminy znajdują się 2 rezerwaty przyrody +Sołectwa. +Buszkowo, Byszewo, Bytkowice, Dziedzinek, Glinki, Gogolin, Gogolinek, Gościeradz, Huta, Krąpiewo, Lucim, Łąsko Małe, Łąsko Wielkie, Mąkowarsko, Morzewiec, Nowy Dwór, Nowy Jasiniec, Okole, Osiek, Popielewo, Salno, Samociążek, Sitowiec, Skarbiewo, Stary Dwór, Stary Jasiniec, Tryszczyn, Wierzchucin Królewski, Więzowno, Wilcze, Wiskitno, Witoldowo, Wtelno. +Pozostałe miejscowości. +Aleksandrowiec, Bieskowo, Dąbrowice, Drzewianowo, Grabino, Iwickowo, Lipinki, Łakomowo, Mąkowarsko PGR, Młynkowiec, Romanowo, Różanna, Sokole-Kuźnica, Srebrnica, Stopka, Tryszczyn-Elektrownia, Tuszyny, Wilcza Góra. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Dobrcz, Gostycyn, Lubiewo, Osielsko, Pruszcz, Sicienko, Sośno, Świekatowo +Disko (zatoka) + +Disko (grl. "Qeqertarsuup Tunua", duń. "Disko Bugt", pol. "Zatoka Disko") – zatoka w południowej części Morza Baffina u zachodnich wybrzeży Grenlandii, od północy ograniczona wyspą Disko ("Disko Ø"). Nad zatoką położone są miasta: Aasiaat ("Egedesminde"), Ilulissat ("Jakobshavn"), Qasigiannguit ("Christianshåb"). +Cechą charakterystyczną zatoki jest bardzo intensywny spływ jęzorów lądolodu z Grenlandii, skąd odrywają się liczne góry lodowe. +Suligost + +Suligost — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z dwóch członów: "Suli-" ("obiecywać" albo "lepszy, możniejszy") i "-gost" ("podejmować kogoś, gościć"). Mogło oznaczać "mający możniejszych gości", "lepiej podejmujący gości". +Niektóre możliwe staropolskie zdrobnienia: Sul, Sulak, Sulec, Sulech, Suled, Suledo, Sulej, Sulek, Sulen, Sulęt, Sulęta (masc.), Sulik, Sulist, Sulisz, Suliszek, Suliszka (masc.), Suliszko, Sulk, Sulka, Sulko, Suł, Suła (masc.), Sułak, Sułek, Sułk, Sułko, Sułoch, Sułoń, Sułosz, Sułuj, Sułuja (masc.), Suchala, Suchan, Suchanik, Suchań, Suchasz, Suchęcin, Suchla, Suchoń, Suchotek, Suchta, Suchto, Suszej, Suszek, Suszko, Suszyk. +Suligost imieniny obchodzi 4 stycznia. +Panendoskopia + +Panendoskopia, często w uproszczeniu nazywana gastroskopią – metoda diagnostyczna górnego odcinka przewodu pokarmowego polegająca na wprowadzeniu do niego giętkiego przewodu (endoskopu) zaopatrzonego w źródło światła i układ przekazujący obraz z wnętrza ciała. +Po raz pierwszy wziernikowanie żołądka za pomocą sztywnej metalowej rury zostało wykonane w 1868 przez Adolfa Kussmaula u połykacza mieczy. Na ziemiach polskich metody tej użył po raz pierwszy Jan Mikulicz-Radecki w Krakowie (1881) +W badaniu tym stosuje się znieczulenie miejscowe gardła, przez które wprowadza się endoskop. Dzięki temu zazwyczaj nie jest to badanie bolesne, ale u wielu pacjentów może powodować nieprzyjemnie odczucia (odruch wymiotny, wrażenie "duszenia się"). Po badaniu może również występować ból gardła. +Badanie całego górnego odcinka przewodu pokarmowego (od przełyku do dwunastnicy) w sensie stricte medycznym powinno być nazywane ezofagogastroduodenoskopią. +W czasie badania niekiedy pobierany jest materiał do badań +cytologicznych i histopatologicznych, a także wykonywane są drobne +zabiegi, takie jak polipektomia (usunięcie polipów błony śluzowej), +zatamowanie drobnych krwawień czy usunięcie niewielkich ciał obcych. +Niektóre ze schorzeń, których wykrywanie stało się możliwe +Pandenoskopia należy do grupy badań endoskopowych czyli badań wnętrza ciała. +Dunfermline Athletic F.C. + +Dunfermline Athletic Football Club – szkocki klub piłkarski założony w 1885 roku. Drużyna gra na stadionie East End Park. +W sezonie 2005/06 w barwach Dunfermline występował polski napastnik Bartosz Tarachulski. +Aktualny skład. +"stan na 13 sierpnia 2011" +Aberdeen F.C. + +Aberdeen Football Club – klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Aberdeen w Szkocji, obecnie grający w Scottish Premier League, najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej w kraju. Przydomki klubu to "The Dons", "The Reds" i "The Dandies", a główną barwą - czerwony. Aberdeen gra mecze na Pittodrie Stadium, posiadającym 22 199 krzesełek. Największe sukcesy klub odnosił pod wodzą Sir Alexa Fergusona w latach 80. ubiegłego stulecia. +Największym rywalem z racji położenia geograficznego i walki o prymat w lidze za czasów Fergusona jest Dundee United - oba zespoły określa się jako New Firm (w opozycji do Old Firm), a ich mecze - New Firm Derby. +Aktualny skład. +"stan na 13 sierpnia 2011" +Rangers F.C. + +Rangers Football Club (błędnie nazywany "Glasgow Rangers", wymowa: /ˈɹeɪndʒə(ɹ)s/) – klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Glasgow w Szkocji, w sezonie 2012/2013 występujący w Scottish Third Division, rozgrywający domowe spotkania na posiadającym zadaszone i wyposażone w 50 987 krzesełek trybuny Ibrox Stadium (znanym również jako "Ibrox Park"), położonym w południowo-zachodniej części miasta. +Rangers, powstały w 1872 roku, jest jednym z dziesięciu klubów, z których inicjatywy powołano Scottish Football League – pierwszą w kraju organizację kontrolującą zawody ligowe w Szkocji. Nieprzerwanie, aż do sezonu 2011/2012 „The Gers” występowali w najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej. W wyniku problemów finansowych i toczącego się sporu z Urzędem Skarbowym w lutym 2012 r. rozpoczęto postępowanie upadłościowe, a cztery miesiące później kontrolę nad Rangers przejęła nowo powstała na tę okoliczność spółka, czego efektem była konieczność aplikowania o miejsce w ekstraklasie. Zdecydowaną większością głosów wniosek ten został odrzucony, a ostatecznie klub umieszczono w czwartej lidze. +Rangers jest najbardziej utytułowanym przedstawicielem piłki nożnej na świecie, będąc 54-krotnym Mistrzem Szkocji oraz mając wywalczone 33 Puchary Szkocji i 27 Pucharów Ligi Szkockiej, a także Puchar Zdobywców Pucharów zdobyty w 1972 roku, po wygranej na Camp Nou z Dynamem Moskwa. Klub występował w finałach tychże rozgrywek również w latach 1961 i 1967, a w 2008 r. dotarł do finałowego meczu w Pucharze UEFA. „The Gers” rekordowo, siedmiokrotnie, sięgali po trzy krajowe trofea w ciągu jednego sezonu. +Od końca lat 90. dziewiętnastego stulecia Rangers toczą rywalizację z lokalnym przeciwnikiem – Celtikiem, a ich derbowe pojedynki, nazywane Old Firm Derby rozegrano już 399 razy. +Historia. +Założenie klubu i pierwsze lata (1872–1899). +Bracia Moses i Peter McNeil i ich przyjaciele, Peter Cambell oraz William McBeath, spotkali się w marcu 1872 roku i zainspirowani widokiem kilku mężczyzn grających w piłkę w dzielnicy Flesher's Haugh postanowili założyć własny zespół, któremu nadali nazwę Rangers, wzorując się na angielskiej drużynie rugby. W maju tego samego roku w parku Glasgow Green rozegrano wypożyczoną piłką i w niejednakowych kostiumach pierwszy, towarzyski mecz z nieistniejącym już klubem Callander F.C., zakończony bezbramkowym remisem, a kilka miesięcy później „The Gers” zmierzyli się w kolejnym sparingu, który był zarazem premierowym występem w błękitnych barwach, gromiąc ekipę Clyde 11:0. Rok później odbyło się pierwsze, oficjalne zebranie, kiedy to dokonano wyboru klubowych władz, w związku z czym przez pewien czas uznawano właśnie rok 1873 za datę powstania klubu. +Pierwszy pełny sezon upłynął pod znakiem meczów towarzyskich wskutek niepowodzenia związanego ze zgłoszeniem do Scottish Football Association i tym samym klub nie wziął udziału w debiutanckich rozgrywkach Pucharu Szkocji. Wraz z upływem kolejnych lat Rangers stawali się coraz to bardziej profesjonalnym zespołem, czego efektem było powołanie w 1876 r. Mosesa McNeila na spotkanie reprezentacyjne Szkocji z Walią (4:0), a rok później obecność „The Gers” w pierwszym w swojej historii finale krajowego pucharu, przegranym ostatecznie z ekipą Vale of Leven (0:0, 1:1, 2:3). 28 maja 1888 r. doszło natomiast do pierwszego, towarzyskiego spotkania z Celtikiem. W składzie „The Bhoys” w większości wystąpili gościnnie zawodnicy Hibernianu, którzy zwyciężyli 5:2. Kilkanaście miesięcy wcześniej Rangers byli natomiast blisko triumfu w Pucharze Anglii, gdzie dopiero w fazie półfinałowej ulegli późniejszym zwycięzcom – drużynie Aston Villa. +16 sierpnia 1890 r. miał miejsce debiutancki występ w rozgrywkach ligowych, rozgrywanych w ramach Scottish Football League, zakończony zwycięstwem 5:2 nad Hearts. Po rozegraniu zaplanowanych osiemnastu pojedynków na pierwszym miejscu "ex-aequo" uplasowały się drużyny Rangers i Dumbarton, więc o tytule miał zadecydować dodatkowy mecz. Zakończył się on jednak wynikiem remisowym (2:2) w związku z czym mistrzostwo przyznano obu klubom. +„The Gers” swój pierwszy triumf w Pucharze Szkocji zanotowali w 1894 r. po finałowej wygranej 3:1 nad Celtikiem, a kolejne trofea w tych rozgrywkach zdobyli w latach 1897 i 1898. Przed końcem XIX wieku klub wywalczył jeszcze dwa mistrzostwa kraju – w sezonach 1898/1899 i 1899/1900. W sezonie 1898/1899 Rangers w drodze po końcową wygraną zwyciężyli we wszystkich osiemnastu spotkaniach, czego nigdy już nie udało się powtórzyć. +William Wilton (1899–1920). +Wkrótce po tym, jak „The Gers” zdobyli swoje drugie Mistrzostwo Szkocji, 27 maja 1899 roku doszło do przełomowego wówczas zebrania klubowych przedstawicieli, na którym Rangers formalnie zostali przejęci przez powołaną dwa miesiące wcześniej spółkę z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością ("limited liability company") – The Rangers Football Club Ltd. W takiej formie klub pozostawał nieprzerwanie do 2000 roku. Tego samego dnia podjęte zostały również inne kluczowe decyzje, na czele z powołaniem Jamesa Hendersona na stanowisko prezesa nowo wybranego zarządu, a także powierzono Williamowi Wiltonowi, ówczesnemu sekretarzowi i niespełnionemu zawodnikowi funkcję pierwszego w dziejach Rangers menadżera. +W międzyczasie klub dwukrotnie zmieniał swoją siedzibę, a ostatecznie po pobycie w Burnbank i Kinning Park, dzięki podjętym w maju 1899 r. decyzjom, przeprowadził się do dzielnicy Govan i pierwszy oficjalny mecz na Ibrox Park miał miejsce 30 grudnia tego samego roku, zakończony zwycięstwem 3:1 nad Hearts. +ż kilka lat po otwarciu nowego obiektu, podczas meczu Szkocja – Anglia, rozgrywanego 5 kwietnia 1902 r. w ramach British Home Championship miała miejsce pierwsza wielka tragedia ("First Ibrox disaster"), w wyniku której śmierć poniosło 25 osób, a 517 zostało rannych. Jak wykazało dochodzenie, zawalenie się drewnianej konstrukcji Trybuny Zachodniej spowodowane było jej uszkodzeniem wskutek obfitych opadów deszczu w noc poprzedzającą mecz. +W pierwszych trzech sezonach działalności w nowej roli (1899–1902) Wilton za każdym razem prowadził swój zespół do końcowego triumfu w rozgrywkach ligowych. Kolejne lata upłynęły jednak pod znakiem wyraźnej dominacji lokalnego rywala, który sześciokrotnie zdobywał najważniejsze krajowe trofeum, w związku z czym „The Gers” na kolejny tytuł musieli czekać aż do roku 1911. Niepowodzenia w walce o mistrzostwo zostały częściowo zrekompensowane zdobytym w 1903 r. czwartym w historii klubu Pucharem Szkocji, po pokonaniu Hearts (1:1, 0:0, 2:0). +Sześć lat później Rangers mieli szansę powtórzenia tego osiągnięcia, kiedy to zmierzyli się w decydującym pojedynku z Celtikiem. Po pierwszym meczu finałowym, zakończonym remisem 2:2, obie ekipy spotkały się ponownie tydzień później i także tym razem nie wyłoniono zwycięzcy (remis 1:1). Wśród około sześćdziesięciu tysięcy widzów zasiadających tego dnia na Hampden Park panowało powszechne przekonanie, że o losach Pucharu Szkocji zadecyduje dogrywka. Zgodnie z przepisami tego typu rozwiązanie stosowano jednak wyłącznie po ewentualnym trzecim remisie. Gdy tylko piłkarze obu drużyn udali się do szatni, pijani i rozwścieczeni fani, których zdaniem nierozstrzygnięty wynik był z góry ustalony, celem uzyskania dodatkowego przychodu z tytułu kolejnego meczu, wtargnęli na murawę i przez ponad dwie godziny dokonali olbrzymich zniszczeń na stadionie. W starciach tych, które zapisały się w historii szkockiej piłki nożnej jako Hampden Riot, rannych zostało ponad sto osób, spośród których około połowę stanowili policjanci. Ostatecznie Scottish Football Association podjęła decyzję o odwołaniu ostatniego meczu i tym samym nieprzyznaniu trofeum żadnemu z klubów, które jednocześnie zostały zmuszone do wypłacenia rekompensaty miejscowemu Queen's Park za wyrządzone szkody. +Mistrzostwo Szkocji z 1911 roku zapoczątkowało okres trzyletniej dominacji Rangers na froncie ligowym, a kolejne triumfy przypadły na sezony 1917/1918 i 1919/1920, w którym „The Gers” rekordowo, 106 razy wpisywali się na listę strzelców. Jak się później okazało, sukces z tamtego roku był ostatnim, ósmym pod wodzą Wiltona. 2 maja 1920 r. menadżer Rangers, w wieku 54 lat uległ śmiertelnemu wypadkowi, tonąc podczas żeglugi u zachodnich wybrzeży Szkocji, niedaleko Gourock. +Nowym menadżerem klubu mianowano dotychczasowego asystenta Wiltona – Billa Strutha. +Bill Struth (1920–1954). +Bill Struth, który na Ibrox pracował od 1914 roku w charakterze doradcy Williama Wiltona, po sześciu latach został menadżerem klubu, zapoczątkowując tym samym „złotą erę” w historii Rangers. Już w swoim debiutanckim sezonie drużyna Strutha okazała się zdecydowanie najlepsza, zdystansowała przewagą dziesięciu punktów ekipę Celticu i w 42 ligowych spotkaniach odniosła tylko jedną porażkę. Rok później tytuł mistrzowski wrócił do lokalnego rywala, ale w ciągu kolejnych siedemnastu sezonów trzynastokrotnie triumfowali piłkarze Rangers, notując serie pięciu (1926–1931) i trzech (1922–1925, 1932–1935) kolejno wygrywanych tytułów. Najmniej udane były rozgrywki 1925/1926, kiedy to „The Gers” zajęli ostatecznie szóstą pozycję – najniższą w swojej historii. +Do końca lat 30. dwudziestego stulecia podopieczni Strutha sześć razy wywalczyli Puchar Szkocji, z czego cztery takie osiągnięcia przypadły na lata, w których zwyciężali w rozgrywkach ligowych, co pozwoliło skompletować pierwsze klubowe dublety. Pierwszy z triumfów w krajowym pucharze za kadencji nowego menadżera miał miejsce w sezonie 1927/1928, a finałowa wygrana 4:0 nad Celtikiem zakończyła 25-letni okres oczekiwania na to trofeum. +Wskutek wybuchu II wojny światowej rozgrywki piłkarskie w całym kraju zostały zawieszone 2 września 1939 r. Przez sześć lat odbywały się jedynie lokalne zawody piłkarskie, które choć niezaliczane do oficjalnych klubowych osiągnięć, zakończyły się sukcesem Rangers, którzy triumfowali w 1940 r. w Emergency War League i Emergency War Cup, a także sześciokrotnie triumfowali w Southern League i czterokrotnie w Southern League Cup. +Wznowienie oficjalnych rozgrywek w Szkocji w 1946 r. było zarazem inauguracją nowego turnieju – Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej, który odtąd regularnie pojawiał się w kalendarzu szkockich zespołów i był okazją do wywalczenia potrójnej korony, czyli tzw. Treble. Pierwsze tego typu osiągnięcie Rangers zanotowali w sezonie 1948/1949, gdy w Scottish League Division A jednym punktem okazali się lepsi od Dundee, a w finałach krajowych pucharów pokonali Clyde (4:1) i Raith Rovers (2:0). +Latem 1947 r. doszło natomiast do sporych zmian organizacyjnych w klubie. Amatorskiemu wówczas zarządowi, w skład którego wchodzili głównie byli piłkarze Rangers, przewodniczył James Bowie. Zasugerował on wtedy 71-letniemu już Struthowi, by opuścił stanowisko menadżera, dając tym samym szansę młodszym. Po tych szokujących dla wielu słowach Bowie został usunięty ze struktur zarządczych i nigdy więcej nie pojawił się już na Ibrox. +Wcześniej, bo już w premierowym powojennym sezonie, „The Gers” skutecznie obronili wywalczony w 1939 r. mistrzowski tytuł i łącznie w pierwszych siedmiu latach po przymusowej przerwie cztery razy sięgali po najwyższe ligowe laury, również czterokrotnie zdobyli Puchar Szkocji i dwukrotnie Puchar Ligi. Szczególnie wyjątkowym było zdobycie mistrzostwa w roku 1953, kiedy to wyrównanie na kwadrans przed końcem ostatniego w sezonie pojedynku dało punkt, który pozwolił na zrównanie się z ekipą Hibernianu i wyprzedzenie jej stosunkiem bramkowym (wówczas przy równej liczbie zdobytych punktów decydowała nie różnica w zdobytych i straconych golach, ale ich iloraz). +Sezon 1953/1954, który Rangers zakończyli bez sukcesu, zajmując dopiero czwarte miejsce w rozgrywkach ligowych, okazał się ostatnim w roli menadżera dla Strutha. Ze swojego stanowiska zrezygnował 15 czerwca 1954 r. 34 lata jakie spędził na ławce trenerskiej uczyniły go najdłużej pracującym i najbardziej utytułowanym szkoleniowcem w historii klubu, z którym wywalczył kilkadziesiąt różnych trofeów, wśród nich 18 krajowych mistrzostw i 10 Pucharów Szkocji. Struth wsławił się również swoim ogromnym przywiązaniem do dyscypliny u zawodników, od których wymagał określonych standardów zachowań, również poza boiskiem czy też odświętnego ubioru, których nieodzownym elementem było nakrycie głowy – melonik. +Po odejściu na sportową emeryturę Struth był członkiem zarządu, w którym pełnił rolę wiceprezesa. Przy jego udziale na nowego menadżera wybrano Scota Symona. +Scot Symon (1954–1967). +Choć pierwszy sezon pod wodzą nowego szkoleniowca zakończył się bez zdobycia żadnego trofeum i przegranej walki o mistrzostwo nie tylko z Celtikiem, ale również z Aberdeen, to w przeciągu kolejnych dziewięciu lat Rangers skutecznie nawiązywali do osiągnięć drużyny prowadzonej przez Billa Strutha, sześciokrotnie triumfując w rozgrywkach ligowych i dokładając do tego cztery Puchary Szkocji i trzy Puchary Ligi. Szczególnie pod tym względem udany był sezon 1963/1964, w którym „The Gers” drugi raz w swojej historii sięgnęli po potrójną koronę, dystansując w Scottish League Division One ekipę Kilmarnock, a w krajowych pucharach pokonując w finałach Dundee (3:1) i Morton (5:0). +Początek lat 60. był również okresem, w którym wyróżniali się dwaj piłkarze Rangers – Jim Baxter, uznany później za jednego z najlepszych szkockich zawodników wszech czasów i John Greig – rekordzista pod względem liczby występów dla klubu z Ibrox (755 oficjalnych pojedynków). +W sezonie 1956/1957 Scot Symon jako pierwszy menadżer w historii poprowadził Rangers w rozgrywkach europejskich, które zainaugurowano rok wcześniej. Jako mistrzowie Szkocji „The Gers” reprezentowali kraj w Pucharze Europy Mistrzów Klubowych i choć w pierwszej rundzie zostali wyeliminowani przez francuskie Nice, to debiutancki mecz pod egidą UEFA zakończył się triumfem ekipy z Ibrox 2:1. W rewanżowym pojedynku w takich samych rozmiarach zwyciężyli piłkarze z Nicei, a w dodatkowym spotkaniu, rozgrywanym w Paryżu ponownie lepsi okazali się mistrzowie Francji (3:1). +W kolejnych sezonach Rangers spisywali się znacznie lepiej na arenie międzynarodowej, docierając do fazy półfinałowej (1959/1960, rekordowa porażka w dwumeczu z Eintrachtem Frankfurt 4:12) i ćwierćfinałowej (1961/1962 i 1964/1965) najbardziej prestiżowych rozgrywek klubowych na świecie, a także dwukrotnie wystąpili w decydujących meczach Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów – w 1961 r. (porażka z Fiorentiną 0:2 i 1:2) i 1967 r. (0:1, po dogrywce z Bayernem Monachium). +Udane reprezentowanie kraju na europejskich stadionach nie przełożyło się jednak na dalsze sukcesy w rodzimych rozgrywkach. Od czasu wspomnianej potrójnej korony „The Gers” zapisali na swoje konto tylko dwa trofea – Puchar Ligi z 1965 r. i Puchar Szkocji wywalczony rok później. Dopiero piąta pozycja w lidze, poprzedzająca dwa tytuły wicemistrzowskie, połączona z początkiem wyraźnej dominacji na krajowym podwórku ekipy Celticu sprawiły, że gdy lokalny rywal rozgrywał jesienią 1967 roku w Ameryce Południowej mecze o miano najlepszej drużyny świata władze klubu zaoferowały 58-letniemu Symonowi stanowisko menadżera generalnego i tym samym odsunięcie go od bezpośredniego kierowania zespołem. 1 listopada tego samego roku propozycja ta została przez niego odrzucona, co poskutkowało jego natychmiastowym zwolnieniem i mianowaniem nowym szkoleniowcem Rangers Davida White'a, dotychczasowego asystenta Symona. +David White (1967–1969). +David White, który na Ibrox trafił dopiero kilka miesięcy wcześniej – latem 1967 roku – od początku swojego pobytu w Glasgow był przymierzany do roli przyszłego menadżera, a jego bardzo niewielkie doświadczenie w kierowaniu zespołem miało ulec zmianie podczas asystowania Scotowi Symonowi, kiedy ten samodzielnie prowadził ekipę „The Gers”. Niespodziewanie szybkie odejście z klubu poprzedniego szkoleniowca sprawiło jednak, że zarząd Rangers powierzył tę funkcję nieprzygotowanemu jeszcze do tej roli 34-letniemu White'owi. White nie odnosił jednak sukcesów z drużyną, będąc pierwszym menadżerem w historii klubu, który nie triumfował w krajowych rozgrywkach. +Ekipa White'a najbliżej końcowego sukcesu i przerwania rosnącej dominacji Celticu była w pierwszym dla nowego szkoleniowca sezonie, gdy „The Gers” dopiero na finiszu polegli w walce o mistrzowski tytuł, przegrywając swój jedyny mecz w ostatniej kolejce (2:3 z Aberdeen) i tym samym okazując się minimalnie słabszym od „The Bhoys”, którzy triumfowali różnicą dwóch punktów. Przed kolejnymi rozgrywkami klub dokonał dwóch, rekordowych wówczas, transferów, pozyskując z St. Johnstone za 50 tysięcy funtów Alexa MacDonalda i za kwotę dwukrotnie wyższą młodego napastnika Hibernianu – Colina Steina. Nowi zawodnicy wnieśli sporo ożywienia w grę „The Gers”, ale w ostatnich tygodniach, przede wszystkim wskutek absencji bramkostrzelnego Szkota, ponownie okazali się gorsi od Celticu. Szansą na uratowanie honoru były rozgrywki Pucharu Szkocji, ale w finałowym spotkaniu Rangers przegrali z Celtikiem 0:4. Winą za tę porażkę obarczono Alexa Fergusona, który został po meczu przesunięty do zespołu juniorów, a po kilku tygodniach sprzedany do Falkirk. +Na arenie europejskiej w latach 1967–1969 „The Gers” występowali w mającym niższą rangę Pucharze Miast Targowych i docierali do fazy ćwierćfinałowej oraz półfinałowej, za każdym razem ulegając późniejszemu triumfatorowi – odpowiednio Leeds United i Newcastle United. Jako finaliści Pucharu Szkocji z 1969 r. Rangers wystartowali w kolejnym sezonie w Pucharze Zdobywców Pucharów, ale zostali wyeliminowani przez drużynę Górnika Zabrze, dwukrotnie przegrywając 1:3. 27 listopada 1969 r., dzień po rewanżowym starciu, White otrzymał wypowiedzenie, a tymczasowym menadżerem mianowano Williego Thorntona. +William Waddell (1969–1972). +Zanim posadę menadżera Rangers objął William Waddell, czołowy zawodnik z ery Billa Strutha, mający na swoim koncie również trenerski sukces – zdobycie z Kilmarnock Mistrzostwa Szkocji, przez niespełna dwa tygodnie drużynę prowadził Willie Thornton, pod którego wodzą „The Gers” zwycięsko zakończyli obydwa rozegrane spotkania. 8 grudnia 1969 roku nowym szkoleniowcem został Waddell, który miał przerwać panowanie Celticu w Szkocji. +W sezonie 1969/1970, rozpoczętym jeszcze przez Davida White'a, „The Gers” ponownie zostali wicemistrzami kraju bez żadnego zdobytego trofeum. W kolejnych rozgrywkach ligowych Rangers spisali się jeszcze gorzej i walkę o miano najlepszej szkockiej drużyny przegrali nie tylko z lokalnym rywalem, ale również z Aberdeen i St. Johnstone. Piłkarze Waddella znacznie lepiej zaprezentowali się w zawodach pucharowych. Finał Scottish Cup zakończył się co prawda wygraną Celticu (1:1, 1:2), ale Puchar Ligi Szkockiej trafił już na konto klubu z Ibrox. Wygrana 1:0 w decydującym meczu z ekipą z Celtic Park nie tylko powstrzymała drużynę zza miedzy od wywalczenia potrójnej korony, ale przede wszystkim przerwała pięcioletni okres oczekiwania na jakiekolwiek trofeum. +Wszelkie osiągnięcia sportowe z tego sezonu zostały jednak zepchnięte na dalszy plan z powodu wydarzeń, jakie miały miejsce 2 stycznia 1971 r. Tego dnia na Ibrox rozgrywano tradycyjne, noworoczne Old Firm Derby. Gdy w 90. minucie meczu Celtic za sprawą Jimmy'ego Johnstone'a objął prowadzenie część fanów „The Gers” zaczęła opuszczać trybuny Ibrox. Wówczas, na sekundy przed końcowym gwizdkiem, Colin Stein doprowadził do wyrównania, ustalając wynik spotkania na 1:1. W tym czasie upadek dziecka pośród tłumu wychodzącego ze stadionu schodami nr 13 spowodował, że ludzie zaczęli się wzajemnie tratować. Naporu nie wytrzymały barierki i ogromny ścisk przyczynił się do zablokowania dróg oddechowych, a w konsekwencji śmierci 66 kibiców. Wydarzenia z tamtego popołudnia, znane pod nazwą Ibrox disaster, zapoczątkowały szereg zmian na stadionie Rangers, a podczas jego gruntownej modernizacji wzorowano się na obiekcie Borussi Dortmund – Westfalenstadion. +Rozczarowująca dyspozycja na krajowym podwórku w kolejnym sezonie (dopiero trzecia pozycja w Scottish League Division One i gra bez sukcesów w szkockich pucharach), została w pełni zrekompensowana występami w rozgrywkach europejskich. Rangers rozpoczęli zmagania w Pucharze Zdobywców Pucharów od pierwszej rundy, w której zmierzyli się ze Stade Rennais, remisując we Francji 1:1 i zwyciężając w Glasgow 1:0. Kolejnym przeciwnikiem „The Gers” byli piłkarze Sportingu Lizbona. Spotkanie rozgrywane na Ibrox zakończyło się zwycięstwem gospodarzy 3:2 i w takim samym stosunku triumfowali dwa tygodnie później w portugalskiej stolicy gracze "Lwów". W dogrywce obie drużyny wpisały się na listę strzelców i choć wynik 3:4 premiował do dalszej gry podopiecznych Waddella, prowadzący to spotkanie holenderski arbiter Laurens van Raavens błędnie zadecydował o konieczności rozegrania serii rzutów karnych, w której lepiej spisali się Portugalczycy. Ich radość z awansu nie trwała jednak długo, gdyż wkrótce po zakończeniu meczu menadżer Rangers zwrócił uwagę na obowiązujący przepis o bramkach strzelanych na wyjeździe i ostatecznie to szkocka drużyna znalazła się w ćwierćfinale. W nim „The Gers” spotkali się z AC Torino i podobnie jak w przypadku pierwszego dwumeczu zremisowali 1:1 na terenie rywala i jedną bramką zwyciężyli na własnym obiekcie. W kolejnej rundzie ekipa z Glasgow skutecznie walczyła z Bayernem Monachium (1:1 w Niemczech, 2:0 w Szkocji) i zapewniła sobie udział w majowym finale, gdzie przeciwnikiem był zdobywca Pucharu ZSSR – Dynamo Moskwa. Rangers zwyciężyli 3:2 i wywalczyli swoje pierwsze i jak dotąd jedyne europejskie trofeum, osiągając tym samym największy sukces na arenie międzynarodowej. +Po zakończeniu spotkania świętujący kibice „The Gers” opanowali murawę Camp Nou, wskutek czego John Greig otrzymał trofeum z rąk oficjeli UEFA w jednym ze stadionowych pomieszczeń. W związku z zachowaniem fanów szkockiej drużyny włodarze moskiewskiego klubu domagali się ponownego rozegrania finałowego pojedynku i choć początkowo ku takiemu scenariuszowi skłaniała się Europejska Unia Piłkarska, do powtórki nigdy nie doszło i Rangers zachowali wywalczone w Barcelonie trofeum. Mimo to klub został ukarany dwuletnim zakazem występu w rozgrywkach międzynarodowych (ostatecznie zawieszenie to skrócono do jednego roku), co odebrało „The Gers” szansę na obronę tytułu w kolejnym sezonie. +Tydzień po zdobyciu Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów z funkcji menadżera niespodziewanie zrezygnował Waddell i postanowił zająć miejsce w zarządzie, a dotychczasowe stanowisko przekazał swojemu doradcy – Jockowi Wallace'owi, który oficjalnie nowym szkoleniowcem został 31 maja 1972 r. +Jock Wallace (1972–1978). +Początek pracy Jocka Wallace'a w roli menadżera był nieudany (dwa zwycięstwa w pierwszych sześciu ligowych spotkaniach) i choć od października aż do końca rozgrywek Rangers doznali zaledwie jednej porażki, wygrywając przy tym zdecydowaną większość pojedynków i notując zarazem serię szesnastu kolejnych triumfów w Division One, ostatecznie przegrali z Celtikiem jednym punktem walkę o mistrzostwo. Klub wygrał za to Puchar Szkocji, w finale triumfując 3:2 nad lokalnym rywalem w obecności ponad 120 tysięcy widzów, wśród nich Księżnej Aleksandry. +Mimo że w kolejnym sezonie „The Gers” nie zanotowali większych sukcesów, a w rozgrywkach ligowych uplasowali się na najniższym stopniu podium, to rok później piłkarze prowadzeni przez Wallace'a przerwali trwającą blisko dekadę dominację „The Bhoys” i po jedenastu latach zdobyli Mistrzostwo Szkocji, zdecydowanie wyprzedzając ekipy Hibernianu i Celticu. Sezon 1974/1975 był zarazem ostatnim, w którym szkocka ekstraklasa liczyła osiemnaście zespołów. Od 1975 r. nosiła ona miano Scottish Premier Division i uczestniczyła w niej już tylko dziesiątka najlepszych drużyn w kraju. W pierwszych zawodach rozgrywanych w nowej formule ponownie bezkonkurencyjni okazali się zawodnicy z Ibrox, którzy dodatkowo wywalczyli Puchar Szkocji (3:1 z Hearts) i Puchar Ligi (1:0 z Celtikiem), kompletując tym samym trzecią w historii potrójną koronę. +Rozczarowujący przebieg sezonu 1976/1977, zakończonego nieskuteczną obroną wszystkich trzech trofeów został możliwie jak najlepiej zrekompensowany rok później, kiedy to Rangers drugi raz w przeciągu trzech lat zwyciężyli w lidze i dwóch krajowych pucharach. W Premier Division słabo spisał się Celtic, zajmując dopiero piąte miejsce, a do ostatnich tygodni walkę o tytuł „The Gers” toczyli z Aberdeen. Z tą samą drużyną podopieczni Wallace'a wygrali 2:1 w finale Scottish Cup, a triumf w League Cup został osiągnięty dzięki pokonaniu takim samym stosunkiem rywala zza miedzy. +Mimo zdominowania krajowego podwórka i tak wyczekiwanego zdetronizowania Celticu, Wallace rozstał się z klubem 23 maja 1978 roku. Przyczyną takiego ruchu była sprzeczka z Williamem Waddellem i klubowym zarządem, który dzień później ogłosił nowym menadżerem dotychczasowego kapitana „The Gers” – Johna Greiga. +John Greig (1978–1983). +Greig, rekordzista pod względem występów w barwach „The Gers”, który całą swoją karierę spędził w klubie z Ibrox natychmiast po rezygnacji Jocka Wallace zakończył zawodowe granie w piłkę nożną i przejął schedę po poprzednim szkoleniowcu. Początki Greiga na trenerskim stołku okazały się nieudane i dowodzony przez niego zespół w pierwszych dziewięciu spotkaniach ligowych zdołał zwyciężyć zaledwie raz. Mimo że gra i wyniki odnoszone przez aktualnego wówczas mistrza Szkocji nie uległy znaczącej poprawie, to Rangers byli bardzo blisko końcowego triumfu. Ostatecznie tytuł trafił w ręce Celticu, który zakończył zmagania z trzema punktami więcej, a decydująca o utracie miana najlepszej drużyny w kraju była derbowa porażka w dzielnicy Parkhead 2:4, mimo że jeszcze na osiem minut przed końcem meczu był remis, pozwalający „The Gers” na zachowanie pozycji lidera wobec dwóch pozostających do rozegrania spotkań. Nowi mistrzowie zwyciężyli więc ligę rekordowo małą liczbą zdobytych punktów (48). Pocieszeniem po przegranej walce w Scottish Premier Division były skutecznie obronione trofea Pucharu Szkocji (zwycięstwo z Hibernianem 0:0, 0:0, 3:2) i Pucharu Ligi (2:1 z Aberdeen) oraz dobry występ w Pucharze Europy – wyeliminowanie Juventusu oraz PSV Eindhoven i dopiero ćwierćfinałowa porażka z FC Köln. +W kolejnych latach pod wodzą Greiga Rangers spisywali się już zdecydowanie słabiej. Piłkarze z Ibrox nie byli w stanie nie tylko nawiązać wyrównanej rywalizacji z lokalnym rywalem, ale również z nową konkurencją z wschodniego wybrzeża Szkocji – Aberdeen i Dundee United, które zyskały wówczas miano New Firm, w opozycji do „starych” gigantów z Glasgow. „The Gers” zajmowali wówczas kolejno piątą, dwukrotnie trzecią i czwartą pozycję, bez powodzenia startowali w rozgrywkach europejskich i jedynym pocieszeniem była gra w krajowych pucharach. W Scottish Cup drużyna regularnie dochodziła do meczu finałowego, ale tylko jeden z nich – w sezonie 1980/1981 – zakończył się zdobyciem trofeum (0:0, 4:1 nad Dundee United). Dwa razy Rangers wystąpili w decydującym spotkaniu Scottish League Cup i pół roku po wywalczeniu Pucharu Szkocji zanotowali swój, jak się okazało, ostatni ważny triumf pod wodzą Greiga, ponownie odprawiając z kwitkiem ekipę z Dundee, zwyciężając 2:1. +Po przegraniu pięciu z dziewięciu pierwszych pojedynków ligowych nowego sezonu i czując rosnącą presję ze strony mediów i kibiców (średnia frekwencja na trybunach Ibrox spadła na początku lat 80. o prawie osiem tysięcy) Greig zrezygnował z funkcji menadżera 28 października 1983 roku. Tymczasowo drużynę prowadził Tommy McLean, a klubowy zarząd złożył oferty pracy obecnym wówczas szkoleniowcom Aberdeen i Dundee United, ale zarówno Alex Ferguson, jak i brat McLeana – Jim odrzucili możliwość poprowadzenia Rangers. Ostatecznie, 10 listopada na Ibrox powrócił Jock Wallace i to on został następcą Greiga. +Jock Wallace (1983–1986). +Druga przygoda Jocka Wallace'a z Rangers nie okazała się równie udana jak pierwsza, mimo że obejmował on posadę menadżera w podobnym okresie jak na początku lat 70. Sezon 1983/1984, w trakcie którego nastąpiła zmiana szkoleniowców, „The Gers” zakończyli ostatecznie na czwartym miejscu w lidze ze sporą stratą do Aberdeen. Drużyna wywalczyła jednak Puchar Ligi Szkockiej, po pokonaniu Celticu 3:2, dzięki trzem trafieniom nowego napastnika – Ally'ego McCoista, który już w pierwszym swoim sezonie w barwach nowego zespołu dwudziestokrotnie pokonywał bramkarzy rywali. McCoist, który na Ibrox trafił jeszcze za kadencji Johna Greiga, osiem razy wygrywał wewnętrzną rywalizację o miano najskuteczniejszego zawodnika Rangers, a w trakcie piętnastu lat gry na Ibrox zdobył łącznie 355 bramek, dzięki czemu zdecydowanie prowadzi w klasyfikacji najlepszych strzelców w historii klubu. +W kolejnym sezonie „The Gers” w dalszym ciągu nie potrafili nawiązać skutecznej rywalizacji z dominującym trio – Aberdeen, Celtic, Dundee United i znów zajęli dopiero czwarte miejsce w Scottish Premier Division. Ponownie jednak drużyna Wallace'a okazała się najlepsza w rozgrywkach Pucharu Ligi, które po raz trzynasty w historii padły łupem Rangers. W finałowym pojedynku ekipa z Glasgow minimalnie zwyciężyła Dundee United. +Szybkie odpadnięcie z rozgrywek pucharowych w sezonie 1985/1986, a także jeszcze słabsza dyspozycja w lidze (ostatecznie „The Gers” zajęli piątą lokatę i zgromadzili najmniej punktów w swojej historii – 35 w 36 spotkaniach) sprawiły, że Wallace podał się do dymisji jeszcze na kilka kolejek przed zakończeniem zmagań o mistrzostwo – 7 kwietnia 1986 roku. Dzień później nowym menadżerem klubu został Graeme Souness, któremu powierzono zadanie odbudowania pogrążonego w kryzysie zespołu. +Graeme Souness (1986–1991). +Zasiadający wówczas na stanowisku prezesa Rangers David Holmes postanowił pozyskać w kwietniu 1986 roku za kwotę 300 tysięcy funtów pomocnika Sampdorii – Graeme'a Sounessa i uczynił go pierwszym grającym menadżerem „The Gers”. Asystentem nowego szkoleniowca został pracujący dotychczas w Dundee United Walter Smith i wkrótce po dokończeniu nieudanego sezonu 1985/1986 rozpoczęła się nowa era w dziejach klubu, która przeszła do historii jako The Souness Revolution. +W wyniku zamieszek na Heysel z maja 1985 r. i zawieszenia jakie nałożyła UEFA na kluby Football League First Division, nowy menadżer miał ułatwione zadanie w realizacji swojego celu, jakim było zbudowanie swojego zespołu w oparciu o angielskich, a nie jak dotychczas, jedynie szkockich zawodników. Już pierwszego lata pod wodzą Sounessa na Ibrox trafiło kilku graczy zza południowej granicy, na czele z reprezentantami kraju Chrisem Woodsem (pomiędzy 29 listopada 1986 r. a 31 stycznia 1987 r. nowo pozyskany bramkarz ustanowił brytyjski rekord 1196 minut bez straconej bramki ) i Terrym Butcherem, a premierowy dla nich sezon 1986/1987 zakończył się zdobyciem pierwszego od dziewięciu lat Mistrzostwa Szkocji oraz Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej, po finałowej wygranej 2:1 nad Celtikiem. +Pomimo kolejnych głośnych transferów z 1987 r. (m.in. Richard Gough, Ray Wilkins, Trevor Francis czy Mark Walters) i stale słabnącej siły New Firm „The Gers” rozczarowali w rozgrywkach ligowych, nie zdołali obronić tytułu i ostatecznie zajęli trzecią pozycją, przegrywając nie tylko z Celtikiem, ale i z Hearts. W Pucharze Mistrzów drużyna z Ibrox zanotowała najlepszy od dziewięciu lat wynik, dochodząc do fazy ćwierćfinałowej (porażka w dwumeczu 2:3 ze Steauą Bukareszt), a ponownym sukcesem zakończył się start w League Cup, gdzie Rangers zwyciężyli w decydującym pojedynku Aberdeen (3:3, 5:3 w rzutach karnych). +Począwszy od sezonu 1988/1989, przez dziewięć kolejnych lat klub wygrywał ligowe rozgrywki, wyrównując tym samym osiągnięcie Celticu z lat 60. i 70. XX wieku, a okres ten na kartach historii zapisał się jako Nine In A Row. +W 1989 roku klub zdobył tytuł mistrzowski z przewagą sześciu punktów, notując między innymi najwyższą w historii wygraną w derbowym pojedynku, pokonując Celtic 5:1 (w rywalizacji obu klubów trzykrotnie „The Gers” osiągali taki rezultat). Po ligowym spotkaniu na Pittodrie Stadium na blisko trzy lata z gry wykluczony został Ian Durrant, po brutalnym faulu Neila Simpsona. Również z Aberdeen piłkarze z Ibrox zmierzyli się w finale Pucharu Ligi (wygrana 3:2), a do pełni szczęścia zabrakło jedynie triumfu w Scottish Cup, gdzie minimalnie lepsi okazali się „The Bhoys”, zwyciężając na Hampden 1:0. +23 listopada 1988 r. nowym właścicielem Rangers został David Murray, kupując od Lawrence'a Marlborough za 6 milionów funtów większościowe udziały, a w czerwcu następnego roku mianował się prezesem, zastępując na tym stanowisku Holmesa. Od początku swojego panowania na Ibrox Murray zaskakiwał wielu kibiców i obserwatorów swoimi działaniami, a jednym z najbardziej szokujących posunięć było pozyskanie już po kilku tygodniach Mo Johnstona – byłego gracza Celticu i pierwszego od kilkudziesięciu lat otwartego wyznawcy religii rzymskokatolickiej do mającego protestanckie tradycje Rangers. Tylko w pierwszym dziesięcioleciu władania szkockim klubem nowy właściciel przeznaczył na wzmocnienia składu i rozwój infrastruktury przeszło 140 milionów funtów i to właśnie w tych działaniach eksperci doszukują się genezy kryzysu finansowego Rangers. +Mimo fatalnego początku kolejnego sezonu, umiarkowanie dobrej drugiej części sezonu i wygraniu zaledwie 20 z 36 ligowych meczów Rangers ponownie okazali się najlepszym zespołem w kraju, siedmioma punktami dystansując Aberdeen i Hearts. Nie najlepsza postawa przełożyła się jednak na wyniki w Pucharze Europy, w których „The Gers” startowali bez większego powodzenia. +W sezonie 1990/1991 głównym rywalem Rangers w walce o mistrzostwo Szkocji był Aberdeen. 16 kwietnia 1991 r., gdy liga wkraczała w decydującą fazę, rezygnację złożył Souness, który postanowił pomóc swojemu byłemu klubowi – Liverpoolowi. Murray, w podziękowaniu za pracę jaką Szkot wykonał dla Rangers, pozwolił mu odejść do Anglii, a trzy dni później nowym menadżerem ogłosił Waltera Smitha, asystującemu do tej pory byłemu szkoleniowcowi. Ostatnim trofeum wywalczonym za kadencji Sounessa był Puchar Ligi zdobyty w listopadzie 1990 r. po finałowej wygranej 2:1 nad Celtikiem. +Walter Smith (1991–1998). +Na cztery mecze przed końcem rozgrywek, w momencie przejęcia drużyny przez Waltera Smitha, Rangers zajmowali pozycję lidera szkockiej ekstraklasy z dwoma punktami przewagi nad Aberdeen. Dwa minimalne zwycięstwa poprzedzające wysoką porażkę z Motherwell sprawiły, że przed ostatnią kolejką to piłkarze z północno-wschodniej Szkocji wysunęli się na prowadzenie, dzięki korzystniejszemu bilansowi bramkowemu. W bezpośrednim meczu obu drużyn na Ibrox, który miał zadecydować o tytule mistrzowskim lepsi okazali się gospodarze i po dwóch trafieniach Marka Hateleya trzeci rok z rzędu zostali najlepszą szkocką drużyną. +Przed kolejnym sezonem, pierwszym pełnym za kadencji Smitha, dokonane zostały spore zmiany kadrowe. Ibrox opuścili między innymi Chris Woods, Mo Johnston i Trevor Smith, który za ponad 5,5 miliona funtów przeszedł do Olympique Marsylia, a w ich miejsce pozyskano takich zawodników jak Aleksiej Michajliczenko, Stuart McCall czy Andy Goram – w opinii większości kibiców „The Gers” najlepszy bramkarz w historii klubu. Nowi zawodnicy z powodzeniem zaprezentowali się w barwach nowego zespołu i przyczynili się do pewnego triumfu w rozgrywkach ligowych oraz wygrania pierwszego od jedenastu lat Pucharu Szkocji (2:1 w finale z Airdrieonians). +Sezon 1992/1993 był jednym z najlepszych w wykonaniu Rangers w całej historii klubu. Oprócz wyraźnie zdobytego kolejnego z rzędu trofeum za mistrzostwo, „The Gers” wywalczyli Puchar Ligi Szkockiej i Puchar Szkocji (finałowe wygrane 2:1 nad Aberdeen) kompletując piątą potrójną koronę. Piłkarze Smitha wystartowali również w debiutanckich rozgrywkach Ligi Mistrzów, gdzie po wygranych w eliminacjach z Lyngby (3:0) i Leeds United (4:2) trafili do fazy grupowej, rozgrywanej w nietypowym formacie, zgodnie z którym zwycięzca awansował bezpośrednio do finału. W niej Mistrzowie Szkocji rywalizowali z Olympique Marsylia, Club Brugge oraz CSKA Moskwa i pomimo nieprzegrania żadnego z sześciu spotkań ostatecznie wywalczyli zaledwie punkt mniej od francuskiej ekipy. Choć ekipie z Ligue 1 udowodniono działania korupcyjne na krajowym podwórku w trakcie tego samego sezonu, to wskutek braku dowodów na podobne działania w zawodach organizowanych przez UEFA, wyniki klubu z Marsylii zostały podtrzymane, a Rangers nigdy później nie znaleźli się tak blisko zdobycia najcenniejszego europejskiego trofeum. +Choć w kolejnym sezonie europejska przygoda „The Gers” zakończyła się już na pierwszej rundzie, po porażce w dwumeczu z Lewskim Sofia, ponownie udało się zwyciężyć w Premier Division i Pucharze Ligi (2:1 nad Hibernianem w finale) i tylko przegrana 0:1 w decydującym meczu Scottish Cup z Dundee United powstrzymała klub z Ibrox od kolejnego Treble. +Głośny transfer Briana Laudrupa za kwotę 2,5 mln funtów pozwolił drużynie Smitha na zdobycie siódmego z rzędu mistrzowskiego tytułu z bardzo wysoką przewagą nad drugim w tabeli Motherwell, co zrekompensowało szybkie odpadnięcie z rozgrywek pucharowych. Radość z kolejnego ligowego sukcesu przesłoniła jednak wiadomość o nagłej śmierci Davie Coopera – klubowej legendy i ulubieńca kibiców z lat 70. i 80. +Przed sezonem 1995/1996 na Ibrox trafił reprezentant Anglii – Paul Gascoigne, który w dużej mierze przyczynił się do ponownego zwycięstwa w Premier Division, zdobywając łącznie dziewiętnaście trafień, wśród nich hat-tricka w pieczętującej tytuł mistrzowski wygranej nad Aberdeen (3:1). Po dwóch latach przerwy „The Gers” wystartowali, tym razem bez powodzenia, w fazie grupowej Champions League, a do ósmego z rzędu mistrzostwa dołożyli Puchar Szkocji po zwycięstwie 5:1 w finale nad Hearts. +Decydujące w zdobyciu Mistrzostwa Szkocji w sezonie 1996/1997 okazały się cztery ligowe derbowe pojedynki z Celtikiem. Powracający po latach problemów finansowych do wysokiej dyspozycji zawodnicy „The Bhoys” dorównywali kroku w trakcie rozgrywek Premier Division, ale w bezpośrednich starciach zdobyli zaledwie jednego gola i dzięki kolejnym wygranym 2:0, 1:0, 3:1, 1:0 to Rangers okazali się w końcowym rozrachunku lepsi o pięć punktów. Rywal zza miedzy zrewanżował się za te porażki w Pucharze Szkocji, ale League Cup trafiło ponownie na Ibrox po finałowym zwycięstwie 4:3 z Hearts. +Choć w sezonie 1997/1998 nowo pozyskany Włoch Marco Negri strzelał gole w każdym z pierwszych dziesięciu meczów (zdobywając wówczas 23 bramki), to ogłoszona w lutym decyzja Waltera Smitha o planowanym opuszczeniu klubu po zakończeniu rozgrywek oraz marcowe odejście Gascoigne'a miały znaczący wpływ na obniżkę formy zespołu. Pomimo wygranej nad Celtikiem na cztery kolejki przed końcem sezonu, co pozwoliło objąć pozycję lidera, w trzech następnych spotkaniach „The Gers” dwukrotnie przegrywali, w tym z Kilmarnock po bramce z 90. minuty, która pozwoliła lokalnemu rywalowi na przypieczętowanie tydzień później mistrzowskiego tytułu. W Pucharze Szkocji klub przegrał 1:2 z Hearts, przez co był to pierwszy od dwunastu lat sezon bez zdobytego trofeum (z Pucharu Ligi piłkarzy z Ibrox wyeliminowało w ćwierćfinale Dundee United). Zapowiedziane wcześniej odejście Smitha ostatecznie nastąpiło 31 maja 1998 r. Dzień później jego następcą mianowano pierwszego w historii klubu zagranicznego menadżera – Holendra Dicka Advocaata. +Dick Advocaat (1998–2001). +Przybycie na Ibrox dotychczasowego szkoleniowca PSV Eindhoven było początkiem niespotykanej wcześniej w Glasgow ofensywy transferowej, której efektem miało być nie tyle zdominowanie krajowych rozgrywek, co odegranie znaczącej roli na arenie europejskiej. Odejście większości zawodników z ery Nine In A Row zmusiło nowego menadżera do całkowitego zreorganizowania kadry, na co wydano podczas pierwszego dla Holendra sezonu kwotę 36 milionów funtów, a wśród nowych nabytków znaleźli się między innymi Giovanni van Bronckhorst, Arthur Numan oraz Andriej Kanczelskis, którego pozyskano za rekordowe wówczas 5,5 mln. W celu dorównania europejskim standardom, na wniosek Advocaata, rozpoczęto także budowę nowoczesnego ośrodka szkoleniowego, której koszt wyniósł około 14 mln. +Choć tak znaczące wydatki nie przełożyły się w oczekiwanym stopniu na sukcesy w Europie (odpadnięcie w trzeciej rundzie Pucharu UEFA z AC Parma) to udany okazał się przebieg krajowych rozgrywek, całkowicie zdominowanych przez Rangers, którzy sięgnęli po szóstą w historii klubu potrójną koronę. Tytuł mistrzowski odzyskany został po meczu na Celtic Park, wygranym 3:0, w finale Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej słabsi okazali się zawodnicy St. Johnstone, a w decydującym meczu Scottish Cup – rywale zza miedzy. +Kolejnego lata jedynym poważnym wzmocnieniem był Michael Mols pozyskany za 4 mln funtów z Utrechtu, ale tego samego roku na Ibrox trafił pierwszy polski zawodnik – Dariusz Adamczuk. Sezon 1999/2000 okazał się jednym z najlepszych w historii pod względem występów w rozgrywkach ligowych, gdyż drugi w tabeli Celtic stracił ostatecznie do Rangers 21 punktów. Równie dobrze „The Gers” spisali się w Pucharze Szkocji, gdzie w finałowym pojedynku wygrali 4:0 z Aberdeen i mimo że z tą samą drużyną polegli na etapie ćwierćfinałów Pucharu Ligi, to zaprezentowali się z nieco lepszym skutkiem na europejskich arenach. Siedem punktów wywalczonych w fazie grupowej Champions League dały awans z trzeciego miejsca do rundy play-off Pucharu UEFA, gdzie po serii rzutów karnych lepsza okazała się Borussia Dortmund. +Przed sezonem 2000/2001 David Murray ponownie postanowił zwiększyć szansę na sukces w Lidze Mistrzów, przeznaczając łącznie blisko 31 mln funtów na transfery. Na Ibrox przybyli m.in. Holendrzy – Bert Konterman, Fernando Ricksen i kupiony z Barcelony Ronald de Boer, a także norweski napastnik Tore André Flo, który kosztował klub rekordowe 12 mln. W tym samym czasie powzięto kroki prawne w celu zwiększenia kapitału i redukcji zadłużenia poprzez przekształcenie spółki kontrolującej klub od 1899 r. z "limited liability company" w "public limited company" (będącej zbliżeniem do rozumianej w polskim znaczeniu spółki akcyjnej), co doprowadziło do zmiany jej nazwy w The Rangers Football Club plc. Drużyna ponownie zajęła trzecie miejsce w grupie Ligi Mistrzów i szybko odpadła z UEFA Cup, słabo spisała się na krajowym podwórku, przegrywając z Celtikiem walkę o Mistrzostwo Szkocji piętnastoma punktami i doznając w międzyczasie porażki 2:6 w Old Firm Derby, a także szybko odpadła z Pucharu Szkocji i Pucharu Ligi. +4 lipca na przedmieściach Glasgow otwarto kompleks treningowy – Murray Park, nazwany na cześć jego fundatora, ale wydane latem 2001 r. kolejne 11 mln na nowych graczy nie poprawiły sytuacji Rangers. Przegranie walki o awans do fazy grupowej Champions League i słabnąca dyspozycja w Scottish Premier League sprawiły, że 12 grudnia 2001 r. Advocaat podał się do dymisji, objął stanowisko dyrektora piłkarskiego i wspólnie z Murrayem wyznaczył na nowego menadżera Alexa McLeisha. +Alex McLeish (2001–2006). +Początek pracy na Ibrox nowego menadżera okazał się udany. Rangers pod wodzą Alexa McLeisha doznali w rozgrywkach ligowych zaledwie jednej porażki i pomimo bardzo dobrych rezultatów nie zdołali odrobić jedenastopunktowej straty do znakomicie dysponowanego wówczas Celticu. Dobra gra „The Gers” w drugiej części sezonu przełożyła się jednak na wywalczenie dwóch trofeów – Pucharu Ligi, po pewnym zwycięstwie w finale nad Ayr United (4:0) i Pucharu Szkocji, zakończonego emocjonującym pojedynkiem z „The Bhoys”, wygranym 3:2. +Stale rosnące zadłużenie sprawiło, że przed sezonem 2002/2003 McLeish był w stanie pozyskać nowych graczy jedynie za pieniądze uzyskane ze sprzedaży Tore Andre Flo. Rangers przeprowadzili więc latem 2002 roku dwa gotówkowe transfery, w tym 20-letniego Mikela Artety. Mimo radykalnego wprowadzania sporych oszczędności drużyna udanie spisała się w krajowych rozgrywkach. Przez pierwsze pięć miesięcy była niepokonana w Scottish Premier League i dopiero dwie wiosenne porażki z Celtikiem zrównały obie ekipy w tabeli. Na kolejkę przed końcem ligowych zawodów oba kluby z Glasgow miały identyczną liczbę punktów i bilans bramkowy, a „The Gers” zajmowali pierwszą lokatę tylko dzięki jednej bramce strzelonej więcej. O tytule mistrzowskim zadecydowała więc wysokość wygranej w ostatnim meczu i triumf na Ibrox 6:1, wobec wygranej Celticu 4:0 dał klubowi jubileuszowe, 50. w historii Mistrzostwo Szkocji. Równie skutecznie podopieczni McLeisha spisali się w Pucharze Ligi (zwycięstwo w finale 2:1 z „The Bhoys”), a kończąca sezon wygrana z Dundee na Hampden Park dała Rangers kolejny Puchar Szkocji i tym samym siódmą, ostatnią jak dotychczas, potrójną koronę. +Odejście z klubu kilku podstawowych zawodników, na czele z kapitanem Barrym Fergusonem, znacząco wpłynęło na wyniki Rangers w kolejnych rozgrywkach. Mimo udanego startu „The Gers” coraz częściej tracili punkty, a dodatkowo polegli we wszystkich czterech derbach miasta i ostatecznie stracili do Celticu aż siedemnaście punktów. Równie nieudanie ekipa z Ibrox spisała się w walce o obronę krajowych pucharów, gdzie między innymi ponownie musiała uznać wyższość lokalnego rywala, a sytuacji nie poprawiły również występy na arenie europejskiej. Po dwóch latach przerwy Rangers znaleźli się co prawda w fazie grupowej Ligi Mistrzów, ale wywalczyli w niej zaledwie cztery punkty i zajęli ostatnią pozycję. +Powrót na Ibrox Fergusona połączony z transferami stosunkowo niedrogich zawodników (Dado Pršo, Nacho Novo, Marvin Andrews, Thomas Buffel) i ostateczne pożegnanie się ze wszystkimi grającymi jeszcze za czasów Advocaata ponownie pozwoliło klubowi odzyskać miano najlepszej drużyny w kraju. Tylko dwie porażki w sezonie zasadniczym Scottish Premier League sprawiły, że przed pięcioma rozstrzygającymi pojedynkami Rangers tracili do równie dobrze grającego Celticu dwa punkty. Mimo że Rangers przegrali pod koniec kwietnia z Celtikiem, to częściowo odrobił straty i do ostatniego meczu przystępował mając ponownie dwa punkty mniej. Zwycięstwo z Hibernianem 1:0 oraz porażka Celticu z Motherwell 1:2 (dzięki bramkom Scotta McDonalda z końcówki meczu) zapewniły Rangers ligowe trofeum, a dzień 22 maja 2005 roku przeszedł do historii szkockiego futbolu jako Helicopter Sunday, od tego, w jaki sposób dostarczono do Edynburga nagrodę dla zwycięzców SPL. W tym samym roku na konto klubu trafił również Puchar Ligi Szkockiej, dzięki wygranej 5:1 z Motherwell. +Pomimo utrzymania w klubie najważniejszych zawodników przebieg ligowych rozgrywek w sezonie 2005/2006 okazał się największym od kilkunastu lat rozczarowaniem. „The Gers” regularnie tracili punkty z niżej notowanymi rywalami, notując w międzyczasie w SPL serię sześciu meczów bez zwycięstwa. Jeszcze w lutym 2006 r., po wcześniejszym odpadnięciu z krajowych pucharów i ligowej porażce z Aberdeen ogłoszono, że po zakończeniu rozgrywek ze stanowiska menadżera odejdzie McLeish, a zastąpi go znany z pracy w Olympique Lyon Paul Le Guen. Lepsza końcówka sezonu nie uchroniła jednak Rangers nie tylko od wyraźnie przegranej walki o mistrzostwo z Celtikiem, ale za silna okazała się także ekipa Hearts i ostatecznie „The Gers” finiszowali na najniższym stopniu podium. +Zdecydowanie lepiej McLeish prowadził wówczas swoją drużynę na arenie europejskiej. Po wygranych eliminacjach z cypryjskim Anorthosisem Famagusta Rangers trafili do fazy grupowej Ligi Mistrzów i po udanych występach z FC Porto, Interem Mediolan i Artmedią Bratysława zostali pierwszym szkockim klubem, który wywalczył awans do 1/8 finału najbardziej prestiżowych rozgrywek klubowych na świecie. W niej rywalem „The Gers” był hiszpański Villarreal, a dwa remisy – 2:2 w Szkocji i 1:1 w Hiszpanii premiowały do ćwierćfinału ekipę z La Liga. +Zgodnie z zapowiedzią, McLeish opuścił Glasgow 8 maja 2006 roku, a dzień później jego następcą oficjalnie został Le Guen. +Paul Le Guen (2006–2007). +Paul Le Guen, który już od marca 2006 roku przygotowywał się do objęcia schedy po Alexie McLeishu, w trakcie letniego okienka transferowego pozbył się aż dwunastu zawodników pierwszego zespołu, między innymi Petera Løvenkrandsa i Fernando Ricksena oraz młodego szkockiego pomocnika Rossa McCormacka. W ich miejsce sprowadzono wielu mniej znanych graczy, a większość z nich odeszła z klubu już po kilku miesiącach. +Wyniki uzyskiwane w lidze przez drużynę Le Guena okazały się słabe i Rangers regularnie mieli problemy ze zdobywaniem punktów w starciach z niżej notowanymi rywalami – spośród pierwszych trzynastu meczów w SPL tylko pięć zakończyło się zwycięsko. Ponadto w listopadzie klub przegrał u siebie z drugoligowym St. Johnstone. W Pucharze UEFA po przebrnięciu rundy eliminacyjnej „The Gers” z dziesięcioma punktami wygrali rywalizację w grupie i zapewnili sobie na wiosnę udział w europejskich pucharach. +Po rozegraniu nieco ponad połowy ligowych pojedynków Rangers tracili do swojego największego rywala siedemnaście punktów i byli zmuszeni walczyć jedynie o drugą lokatę z napierającym duetem Aberdeen – Hearts. Le Guena nie ratowały także wyniki bezpośrednich rywalizacji z Celtikiem, bowiem w nich „The Gers” wywalczyli zaledwie punkt. W obliczu otwartego konfliktu szkoleniowca znad Sekwany z idolem kibiców – Barrym Fergusonem, którego Francuz pozbawił opaski kapitańskiej, w dniu 4 stycznia 2007 r., po siedmiu miesiącach, rozwiązany został za porozumieniem stron kontrakt z Le Guenem, którego tymczasowo zastąpił trener drużyny rezerw, Ian Durrant. +Walter Smith (2007–2011). +Tymczasowo powołany na stanowisko menadżera Ian Durrant poprowadził Rangers tylko w jednym spotkaniu – przegranym 2:3 z Dunfermline Athletic w ramach trzeciej rundy Pucharu Szkocji. 10 stycznia 2007 roku zastąpił go Walter Smith, który porzucił pracę selekcjonera reprezentacji Szkocji, wracając do klubu, z którym w latach 90. wywalczył Nine In A Row. Wobec braku realnych szans na odzyskanie mistrzowskiego tytułu priorytetem dla Smitha stało się wywalczenie drugiego miejsca w lidze dającego prawo gry w eliminacjach Ligi Mistrzów. Seria trzynastu meczów bez porażki, w tym dwa derbowe zwycięstwa z Celtikiem pozwoliła na częściowe zmniejszenie straty do lokalnego rywala i pewne wywalczenie drugiej lokaty na koniec sezonu. +Po sporych zmianach kadrowych w lecie 2007 r., sprzedaży większości zawodników z ery Paula Le Guena i pozyskania w ich miejsce wielu utalentowanych i doświadczonych graczy za stosunkowo niewielkie pieniądze, Smith rozpoczął swój pierwszy pełny sezon z Rangers po dziewięcioletniej przerwie. Zwycięstwo w pierwszych pięciu meczach ligowych, poprzedzające mało udany okres z przełomu września i października, okraszone jednakże wysoką wygraną w Old Firm Derby pozwoliło na utrzymanie kontaktu z lokalnym rywalem na czele tabeli. Kolejne miesiące znów należały jednak do ekipy „The Gers”, która od listopada do kwietnia była niepokonana, notując w tym czasie serię kolejnych trzynastu wygranych spotkań w SPL. Tak dobre wyniki przełożyły się nie tylko na zdobycie pierwszego od trzech lat trofeum (marcowe zwycięstwo w finale Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej nad Dundee United), ale również udane reprezentowanie kraju na arenie europejskiej. Po przebrnięciu eliminacji Champions League (wygrane z Zetą Golubovci i Crveną Zvezdą Belgrad) Rangers trafili, w zgodnej opinii ekspertów, do najtrudniejszej spośród ośmiu grup. W rywalizacji z Barceloną, Olympique Lyon i VfB Stuttgart „The Gers” wywalczyli siedem punktów i dzięki zajęciu trzeciego miejsca awansowali do 1/16 finału Pucharu UEFA, gdzie kolejno eliminowali Panathinaikos (0:0, 1:1), Werder Brema (2:0, 0:1), Sporting Lizbona (0:0, 2:0) i Fiorentinę (0:0, 0:0, 4:2 w rzutach karnych), co dało awans do finału tych rozgrywek. Choć jeszcze na początku maja drużyna Smitha miała szansę na wywalczenie The Quadruple (poczwórnej korony), to nagromadzenie wielu zaplanowanych już wcześniej oraz odwołanych z różnych względów spotkań zniweczyło te plany. Mające duży wpływ na końcowy wygląd tabeli trzy pozostające do rozegrania Old Firm Derby odbyły się na przestrzeni zaledwie czterech spotkań i poprzedziły one okres 21 dni, w trakcie których Rangers musieli aż ośmiokrotnie rywalizować na boisku, zaś na cztery ostatnie pojedynki w sezonie władze SFA i SPL przeznaczyły drużynie Smitha osiem dni. Tak absurdalne ułożenie terminarza w naturalny sposób przełożyło się na niepowodzenie zarówno w finale UEFA Cup (przegrana 0:2 z Zenitem Sankt Petersburg) i Scottish Premier League, gdzie bezpieczna, wydawała się przewaga, została w ostatnich tygodniach roztrwoniona i pozwoliła ekipie Celticu na sięgnięcie po raz trzeci z rzędu po tytuł mistrzowski. Pocieszeniem po dwóch dotkliwych porażkach był finał Pucharu Szkocji, zwyciężony przez „The Gers” 3:2 z ekipą Queen of the South. +Zanim na krajowych boiskach wystartował nowy sezon, Rangers zmierzyli się w eliminacjach Ligi Mistrzów z FBK Kowno. Mimo że zdecydowanym faworytem byli piłkarze z Ibrox, do dalszej fazy awansowali Litwini. Klęska na arenie europejskiej zmusiła sir Davida Murraya do przeznaczenia sporych środków finansowych na wzmocnienia składu. Do Glasgow trafiło wówczas dziewięciu nowych graczy, na których wydano blisko 18 mln funtów, ale dwie trzecie tej kwoty pochodziły ze sprzedaży kilku zawodników. Odważne działania na rynku transferowym ostatecznie opłaciły się i choć po przeciętnej w wykonaniu „The Gers” pierwszej części sezonu tracili oni do liderującego Celticu siedem punktów, to niezwykle udana końcówka rozgrywek pozwoliła wyprzedzić lokalnego rywala i różnicą czterech punktów wywalczyć pierwsze od 2005 r. mistrzostwo Szkocji. Do ligowego triumfu tydzień później piłkarze Smitha dołożyli Puchar Szkocji, po wygranej 1:0 nad Falkirk, a zdobycie potrójnej korony uniemożliwili gracze „The Bhoys”, którzy po dogrywce okazali się lepsi w finale Pucharu Ligi. +Choć przed sezonem 2009/2010 klub nie był w stanie dokonać żadnego transferu w wyniku pogłębiających się kłopotów finansowych, to zwyciężył rozgrywki ligowe. Piłkarze Smitha dokonali tej sztuki ostatecznie na trzy kolejki przed końcem i skompletowali zarazem kolejny dublet, wygrywając wcześniej z St Mirren finał Pucharu Ligi, mimo gry przez większość drugiej połowy w dziewiątkę. Kolejnym rozczarowaniem zakończył się natomiast występ w Lidze Mistrzów. Jako triumfatorzy SPL Rangers nie musieli przebijać się przez eliminacje, ale w grupie zajęli ostatnią pozycję z zaledwie dwoma punktami na koncie i upokarzającymi porażkami 1:4 na własnym stadionie z Sevillą i debiutującą na arenie europejskiej Unireą Urziceni. +Latem 2010 r. Smith przedłużył o jeden sezon wygasający wówczas kontrakt, zaznaczając jednocześnie, że po jego zakończeniu w wieku 63 lat przejdzie na sportową emeryturę. Mimo zwycięstw w pierwszych dziewięciu ligowych spotkaniach to ekipa Celticu przez dłuższą część rozgrywek zajmowała pozycję lidera. Niezwykle udany ostatni etap walki o mistrzostwo sprawił jednak, że Rangers wrócili do gry, a majowa porażka „The Bhoys” w zaległym pojedynku ze znacznie niżej notowanym Inverness Caledonian Thistle dała ekipie Smitha okazję na zdobycie trzeciego z rzędu tytułu. Pewnie odniesione zwycięstwa w ostatnich meczach i objęcie trzybramkowego prowadzenia po upływie niespełna siedmiu minut decydującego o ligowym triumfie starcia z Kilmarnock rozwiały wszelkie nadzieje lokalnego rywala. W sezonie 2010/2011 na Ibrox, oprócz trofeum za zwycięstwo w SPL, trafił Puchar Ligi, dzięki finałowej wygranej nad Celtikiem, a łącznie we wszystkich rozgrywkach obie ekipy spotkały się aż siedmiokrotnie, co nigdy wcześniej nie miało miejsca w ponad stuletniej rywalizacji obu klubów. +Na początku maja 2011 r. władzę w klubie przejął Craig Whyte, który za symbolicznego funta odkupił od Murray'a większościowe udziały i zobowiązał się uregulować zadłużenie Rangers. Dokładnie dziesięć dni później, 16 maja z posady menadżera zrezygnował Smith, a jego miejsce zajął wyznaczony już wcześniej dotychczasowy asystent, Ally McCoist. +Ally McCoist (od 2011). +Początki samodzielnej pracy Ally'ego McCoista na Ibrox były nieudane. Drużyna szybko pożegnała się bowiem z krajowymi i europejskimi pucharami i szansą na jedyne trofeum było zdobycie czwartego z rzędu tytułu mistrzowskiego. Choć na początku listopada Rangers pewnie prowadzili w SPL, mając aż 15 punktów więcej od Celticu to jeszcze przed końcem roku to właśnie „The Bhoys” wysunęli się na czoło tabeli. Walka o końcowe zwycięstwo zakończyła się jednak przedwcześnie na skutek olbrzymich problemów finansowych Rangers. +Nowy właściciel, zdając sobie sprawę z trudnej sytuacji klubu z Glasgow, postanowił od początku swojego panowania na Ibrox nie rozliczać się z Urzędem Skarbowym. Po miesiącach negocjacji na własną prośbę Sąd Najwyższy w Edynburgu wyznaczył 14 lutego 2012 roku londyńską firmę Duff & Phelps jako zarząd komisaryczny klubu. Poskutkowało to automatyczną karą odebrania dziesięciu punktów w ligowej tabeli (a więc "de facto" mistrzostwem Szkocji dla Celticu). Konsekwencje dla Rangers okazały się jednak znacznie poważniejsze. Opublikowany przez Zarząd raport finansowy wykazał, w przypadku porażki w sądzie, szacowane zadłużenie na ponad 130 milionów funtów, co wobec braku inwestorów oznaczałoby likwidację klubu. Ostatecznie po wielu nieudanych próbach do porozumienia z Duff & Phelps doszło konsorcjum Sevco, dowodzone przez Charlesa Greena. Jego oferta dla wierzycieli w wysokości 8,5 mln została odrzucona w procesie Company Voluntary Arrangement, więc za 3 mln mniej zakupił on 14 czerwca 2012 r. klubowe aktywa (stadion, ośrodek treningowy, herb, nazwę, historię, kontrakty pracowników itp.) i przetransferował je do nowej spółki – The Rangers Football Club Ltd, która oficjalnie przejęła kontrolę nad klubem i prawa do wszystkich jego osiągnięć z przeszłości. Tego samego dnia powołane zostały również nowe władze z prezesem Malcolmem Murrayem na czele. Stara spółka założona w 1899 r. i przekształcona w 2000 r., zostanie wkrótce zlikwidowana przez wyznaczoną na tą okoliczność firmę BDO Stoy Hayward LLP, której zadaniem będzie także postawienie przed odpowiedzialnością byłych dyrektorów i właścicieli, którzy doprowadzili do jej upadku. +Proces z utworzeniem tzw. NewCo, choć nie ma wpływu na istnienie klubu piłkarskiego, to niesie za sobą konsekwencje w postaci trzyletniego zakazu występu w rozgrywkach europejskich, a także konieczności uzyskania pozwolenia na wznowienie gry w Scottish Premier League. 4 lipca na Hampden Park prezesi klubów SPL podjęli decyzję o niedopuszczeniu Rangers do ekstraklasy, a dziewięć dni później „The Gers” przyjęto w szeregi Scottish Football League – na czwarty poziom rozgrywek. +Rangers, w dalszym ciągu prowadzeni przez McCoista, powrócili na boisko 29 lipca 2012 r., dzień po otrzymaniu od SFA licencji na grę, a nowy sezon zainaugurowali meczem 1. rundy Challenge Cup przeciwko trzecioligowemu Brechin City, zwyciężając po dogrywce 2:1. +20 listopada 2012 roku sąd w Edynburgu ogłosił wyrok dotyczący tzw. Big Tax Case, stosunkiem głosów 2:1 postanawiając, że żądania Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (brytyjskiego Urzędu Skarbowego) na kwotę ponad 70 milionów funtów w sprawie zaległości podatkowych z lat 2001–2010, które w znaczącym stopniu przyczyniły się do późniejszego bankructwa klubu były bezzasadne, a stosowanie przez „The Gers” za pośrednictwem Murray Group Holdings (spółki podległej byłemu właścicielowi) modelu Employee Benefits Trust – zgodne z obowiązującym wówczas prawem. +Symbole i barwy. +Herb. +Rangers naprzemiennie używają obecnie dwóch herbów. Pierwszy z nich, przedstawiający splecione ze sobą litery R, F i C (pochodzące od pełnej nazwy klubu), pojawił się już w 1872 r., a po zakończeniu sezonu 2002/2003, w którym „The Gers” wywalczyli swoje 50. Mistrzostwo Szkocji, nad herbem umieszczono pięć złotych gwiazdek, z których każda miała symbolizować dziesięć tytułów. Począwszy od 1968 r. widnieje on na klubowych strojach. +W roku 1959 wprowadzono natomiast okrągły emblemat z centralnie umieszczonym na niebieskim tle czerwonym lwem otoczonym dwoma białymi pierścieniami – na wewnętrznym widnieje nawiązujące do klubowego motta hasło "READY" (zaczerpnięte od Aye Ready, co w języku szkockim znaczy "zawsze gotowi"), a na zewnętrznym "RANGERS FOOTBALL CLUB". Choć herb ten regularnie pojawia się w działalności marketingowej klubu, nigdy nie został umieszczony na koszulkach zawodników. +Koszulki. +Od początku istnienia Rangers podstawowymi barwami klubu były błękit królewski (royal blue) i biel, a z czasem dołączyła do nich także czerwień. W oparciu o te trzy kolory co sezon projektowany jest nowy wygląd pierwszego kompletu strojów, którego podstawowy design pozostaje niezmienny – niebieska koszulka (często z białym bądź czerwonym wykończeniem), białe spodenki i czarno-czerwono-białe getry. Wyjątek od tej reguły stanowiły lata 1879–1883, kiedy to piłkarze „The Gers” występowali w koszulkach w biało-niebieskie pasy. +Nieco inaczej wygląda sytuacja w przypadku strojów wyjazdowych i trzecich kompletów, które wprowadzono w 1994 roku. W koszulkach tych dominują zazwyczaj kolory białe, czerwone i czarne, choć zdarzyło się również, że drużyna z Ibrox występowała w pomarańczowych trykotach. +Producenci i sponsorzy. +W poniższej tabeli przedstawieni są producenci oficjalnych strojów Rangers i główni sponsorzy, których logo widoczne było na koszulkach. +Kibice. +Rangers posiada jedno z najsilniejszych na świecie zaplecze kibicowskie, a średnia frekwencja na ligowych spotkaniach rozgrywanych na własnym stadionie (w sezonie 2011/2012: 46 324) regularnie mieści się w pierwszej dwudziestce na liście europejskich klubów z najwyższą liczbą widzów. Kibice „The Gers”, zwani niekiedy Bluenoses bądź Bears, są autorami wielu rekordów, między innymi najwyższej frekwencji na brytyjskim meczu ligowym (118 567 z Celtikiem, 2 stycznia 1939 roku), spotkaniu towarzyskim (104 679 z Eintrachtem Frankfurt, 17 października 1961 r.), meczu pucharowym niebędącym finałem (143 470 z Hibernianem, 27 marca 1948 r.) czy też ligowym pojedynku na czwartym poziomie rozgrywek (49 913 ze Stirling Albion, 8 grudnia 2012 r.). +Na terenie Wielkiej Brytanii funkcjonuje łącznie 159 fanklubów, a kolejne 92 zarejestrowane są w wielu krajach na świecie – 3 z nich w Afryce (Nigeria, Kamerun, Republika Południowej Afryki), 5 w Azji (Bahrajn, Hongkong, Singapur, Zjednoczone Emiraty Arabskie), 15 w Australii i Oceanii (Australia, Nowa Zelandia), 18 w Europie (Austria, Azerbejdżan, Belgia, Dania, Francja, Grecja, Hiszpania, Holandia, Irlandia, Macedonia, Niemcy, Polska, Szwajcaria, Włochy) i 51 w Ameryce Północnej (Bermudy, Kanada, Stany Zjednoczone). +Do grona najsłynniejszych kibiców Rangers należą m.in. Sean Connery, Amy Macdonald, Angus i Malcolm Young z zespołu AC/DC oraz Graeme Dott. +Rywalizacje. +Od ponad stu lat najbardziej wyrazistą rywalizację Rangers prowadzą z Celtikiem, obie drużyny zwykło się określać mianem Old Firm („stare firmy”), a ich bezpośrednie spotkania, rozgrywane kilka razy do roku – Old Firm Derby. Współzawodnictwo obu klubów z Glasgow ma swoją genezę nie tylko w kwestiach czysto sportowych, ale przede wszystkim w społecznych, politycznych i religijnych. Z „The Gers” od zawsze sympatyzowała lokalna ludność wyznania protestanckiego wyrażająca się silnym poparciem dla brytyjskiej monarchii i idei unionizmu, w większości o prawicowych poglądach. Fani „The Bhoys” stanowili natomiast katoliccy, lewicowi imigranci z Irlandii, którzy przybyli do Szkocji w XIX wieku, po klęsce głodu, jaka nawiedziła „Zieloną wyspę”, dodatkowo sprzeciwiający się rodzinie królewskiej. +Tak wielkie różnice między fanami obu zespołów doprowadziły do nasilającego się w dwudziestym stuleciu konfliktu na tle sekciarskim i dopiero na początku nowego tysiąclecia władze Rangers i Celticu powzięły działania mające na celu go załagodzić. Na przestrzeni kilkunastu ostatnich lat inicjowane zostały wszelkiego rodzaju kampanie („Old Firm Alliance”, „Pride Over Prejudice”, „Follow With Pride”, „Ready To Learn”) ukierunkowane na pozytywne, antyrasistowskie kibicowanie. Choć klub był kilkukrotnie nagradzany m.in. przez UEFA za swoje działania, to w dalszym ciągu sekciarstwo nie zostało całkowicie wyeliminowane ze stadionów, czego efektem były kary nakładane na Rangers po meczach pucharowych z Villarrealem (2006), Osasuną (2007) czy PSV Eindhoven (2011) i wciąż przewijająca się, zakazana przez klub przyśpiewka „Famine Song”, zawierająca wers "„Głód się skończył, dlaczego nie wróciliście do domu?”". +Rangers wyjątkowo silnie rywalizują również z Aberdeen, ale w tym przypadku ma to podłoże czysto sportowe, a olbrzymia niechęć między „The Gers” a „The Dons” pojawiła się w latach 80. XX wieku, kiedy ekipa z północno-wschodniej Szkocji święciła swoje największe triumfy. +Stadion i ośrodek treningowy. +Ibrox Stadium. +W pierwszych latach istnienia klubu, do 1899 roku, klub używał różnych miejsc do rozgrywania domowych meczów. Pierwszym z nich było Flesher's Haugh usytuowane w Glasgow Green, gdzie Rangers spędzili lata 1872–1875. Następnie „The Gers” przenieśli się na Burnbank (1875) i Kinning Park (1876–1887). Od lutego 1887 klub występował na Cathkin Park, a nowy sezon rozpoczął już w dzielnicy Ibrox w południowo-zachodniej części miasta. Dwanaście lat później otwarto tam obiekt Ibrox Park, na którym pierwszy mecz rozegrano 30 grudnia 1899. Jego architektem był Archibald Leitch, prywatnie kibic „The Gers” i człowiek, który odegrał znaczącą role przy projektowaniu wielu brytyjskich stadionów, między innymi Old Trafford w Manchesterze i Anfield Road w Liverpoolu. +Już po niespełna trzech latach na stadionie doszło do pierwszej katastrofy, w której zginęło 26 osób, a 517 doznało uszczerbku na zdrowiu. Druga tragedia, ze stycznia 1971 r., pochłonęła 66 ofiar i raniła ponad 200 kibiców. Wydarzenia te, które przeszły do historii jako Ibrox Disasters, doprowadziły do gruntownej modernizacji stadionu, nadzorowanej przez Williama Waddella. Po wielu latach przebudowy obecny wygląd obiektu Rangers uzyskano w 1997 roku, kiedy oficjalnie zmieniono jego nazwę na Ibrox Stadium. Efekt tych prac doceniła UEFA, przyznając mu maksymalną notę "pięciu gwiazdek", która następnie została zastąpiona przez Kategorię Elite. Po kolejnych modyfikacjach w ocenie stadionów Ibrox zajmuje obecnie miejsce na liście obiektów najwyższej, Kategorii 4. +Ibrox Stadium tworzą obecnie cztery trybuny: The Bill Struth Main Stand (południowa), Govan Stand (północna), Copland Stand (wschodnia) i Broomloan Stand (zachodnia). Trzy ostatnie, dwupoziomowe trybuny są ze sobą połączone dwoma narożnikami, wypełnionymi miejscami siedzącymi i telebimami, w przeciwieństwie do wolno stojącej, wyższej o jeden poziom (wybudowany w latach 90. Club Deck) Main Stand, której ceglana fasada znajduje się na liście brytyjskich zabytków "Kategorii B", co uniemożliwia jej wyburzenie. Po utworzeniu latem 2006 r. Baru 72 całkowita pojemność obiektu wynosi 50 987. +Murray Park. +4 lipca 2001 r. w Auchenhowie, na przedmieściach Glasgow, nastąpiło uroczyste otwarcie Murray Park – nowego ośrodka treningowego klubu, nazwanego na część jego fundatora – sir Davida Murray'a. Jego budowa, która pochłonęła około 14 milionów funtów została zaproponowana trzy lata wcześniej, wkrótce po przybyciu na Ibrox nowego menadżera – Dicka Advocaata i był to pierwszy tego typu obiekt powstały w Szkocji. +Na powierzchni ponad 15 hektarów znajduje się obecnie budynek podzielony na trzy skrzydła: administracyjne, młodzieżowe i przeznaczone dla zawodników pierwszego zespołu. Drużyny juniorskie oraz dorosła kadra mają do dyspozycji oddzielną recepcję, jadalnię, szatnię i czytelnię, a na terenie Murray Park wszyscy zawodnicy mogą również korzystać z siłowni, pływalni, gabinetu lekarskiego i wewnętrznych placów do gry ze sztuczną nawierzchnią. Na zewnątrz umiejscowione są boiska piłkarskie – sześć pełnowymiarowych, dwa mniejsze i jedno rozgrzewkowe. +W Murray Park regularnie odbywają się także konferencje prasowe oraz prezentacje nowych zawodników. +Finanse. +27 maja 1899 roku, kontrolę nad klubem przejęła spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością ("The Rangers Football Club Ltd"). W takiej formie Rangers pozostawał niezmiennie do 2000 r., gdy ówczesny właściciel – David Murray – zadecydował o debiucie klubu na giełdzie papierów wartościowych (zmiana w "The Rangers Football Club plc"). W wyniku stale rosnącego zadłużenia, odmowie zapłaty podatków i widma porażki w sądzie w sporze z Urzędem Skarbowym, 14 lutego 2012 r. do Rangers na wniosek rządzącego na Ibrox od dziewięciu miesięcy Craiga Whyte'a wprowadzony został zarząd komisaryczny, który choć nie uchronił spółki przed likwidacją, sprzedał w czerwcu tego samego roku wszystkie klubowe aktywa konsorcjum Sevco (zarejestrowane jako "Sevco Scotland Ltd", zmieniło ono po kilku tygodniach nazwę na "The Rangers Football Club Ltd"), a reprezentujący je Charles Green przejął wówczas tym samym kontrolę nad Rangers. Tego typu działanie nie ma wpływu na historię i wcześniejsze dokonania klubu. +Z danych opublikowanych na początku grudnia 2012 roku i obejmujących trzymiesięczny okres funkcjonowania "The Rangers Football Club Ltd", od jej założenia po dzień 31 sierpnia, wynika że spółka zanotowała zysk na poziomie £13 884 000, środki pieniężne wzrosły o £4 186 000, suma bilansowa wynosiła £73 914 000, a także (stan na 31.10.2012) wykazywała zerowe zadłużenie. W efekcie przeprowadzonej 10 października przez DM Hall LLP wyceny klubowych nieruchomości ustalono wartość Ibrox Stadium na £65 200 000, a Murray Park - na £14 000 000. +18 grudnia 2012 r. po raz drugi w swojej historii klub został przyjęty na Giełdę Papierów Wartościowych w Londynie, a notowany na niej był od dnia następnego poprzez spółkę "Rangers International Football Club plc". Dzięki emisji nowych akcji Rangers uzyskali od prywatnych inwestorów i kibiców kapitał w wysokości ok. 22,2 milionów funtów, przewyższając tym samym o ponad 10% wstępne oczekiwania klubowych władz. Rynkowa wartość Rangers oceniona została na ok. 45,6 mln. +Głównymi udziałowcami klubu są Charles Green (7,79%), Hargreave Hale Limited (7,60%), Artemis Investment Management LLP (6,58%), Blue Pitch Holding (6,14%), Mike Ashley (4,61%), Margarita Funds Holding Trust (3,99%), Cazenove Captial Management Limited (3,76%), Richard Hughes (3,38%), Imran Ahmad (3,38%) i Legal & General Investment Management Limited (3,07%). +Fundacja charytatywna. +Rangers Charity Foundation została powołana w 2002 roku i zajmuje się od tego czasu prowadzeniem działalności charytatywnej klubu. Jej główną misją jest w wielu aspektach pomoc najmłodszym, ich leczenie, edukacja i zaspokajanie potrzeb materialnych. Fundacja współpracuje z Funduszem Narodów Zjednoczonych na rzecz Dzieci (UNICEF), Prostate Cancer Charity (zajmującą się wsparciem dla osób z nowotworem prostaty) i Erskine, zrzeszającym weteranów wojennych. Przez pierwsze dziesięć lat istnienia Rangers Charity Foundation przekazała na rzecz potrzebujących ponad 2,3 miliona funtów. +Zawodnicy. +Pierwszy zespół. +"Stan na 1 marca 2013 roku" +Menadżerowie. +"Stan na 13 maja 2012 roku (ostatni mecz sezonu 2011/2012). Uwzględnione są jedynie mecze oficjalne. +Objaśnienia: M – mecze, Zw – zwycięstwa, Re – remisy, Po – porażki, Br+ – bramki strzelone, Br- – bramki stracone, Zw% – procent zwycięstw +Do 1899 roku w klubie nie było stanowiska menadżerskiego - w XIX wieku drużynę prowadzili sekretarze - James Gossland (1885-1889) i William Wilton (1889-1899). Bilans Rangers z tego okresu przedstawia się następująco: 275 meczów, 177 zwycięstw, 42 remisy, 56 porażek, 896 bramek strzelonych, 377 bramek straconych, 64,36% wygranych. +Pracownicy klubu. +"Stan na 19 grudnia 2012 roku" +Rekordy. +Światowe. +115 +54 +7 +100% (sezon 1898/1899) +49 913 (Rangers vs Stirling Albion, 08.12.2012) +Klubowe. +13:0 (Rangers vs Possilpark, 06.10.1877) +13:0 (Rangers vs Uddingston, 10.11.1877) +0:13 (Kelvinside vs Rangers, 28.09.1889) +2:10 (Rangers vs Airdrieonians, 06.02.1886) +118 567 (Rangers vs Celtic, 02.01.1939) +5 000 (Rangers vs Brechin City, 23.09.1981) +Indywidualne. +John Greig (755, 1960-1978) +Ally McCoist (355, 1983-1998) +Tore André Flo (12 000 000 funtów, 23.11.2000 z Chelsea) +Wojny bałkańskie + +Wojny bałkańskie – dwa konflikty zbrojne na terenie Bałkanów, które wybuchły na początku XX wieku. Pierwszy z nich miał charakter wielonarodowej wojny wyzwoleńczej. Drugi konflikt wybuchł na tle podziału terytoriów, uprzednio odebranych imperium osmańskiemu. +Geneza. +Od początku lat pięćdziesiątych XIX wieku Imperium osmańskie traciło swe wpływy na Bałkanach, co wynikało zarówno z jego wewnętrznej słabości, konfliktów z Rosją, jak i narodowych powstań miejscowej ludności. Powodowało to rosnące wpływy mocarstw oraz młodych państw bałkańskich. Głównymi graczami na tym terenie stały się Austro-Węgry i Rosja. Oba kraje w różny sposób tłumaczyły swe pretensje do tych ziem: Austria - chęcią obrony swej integralności (szczególnie po rozpoczęciu okupacji Bośni i Hercegowiny w 1878), Rosja zaś - obroną ludności prawosławnej. Sytuację komplikowały także niemieckie wpływy w Rumunii, Bułgarii, Grecji i Turcji oraz brytyjskie w Grecji. +Sytuacja jednak była w miarę ustabilizowana aż do kryzysu bośniackiego, wywołanego formalną aneksją Bośni przez Austro-Węgry 5 października 1908 roku. Wówczas zagrożona Serbia ostatecznie przesunęła się w kierunku obozu rosyjskiego. Wraz z francusko-niemieckim konfliktem o Maroko, Włochy mając wolną rękę w sprawach kolonialnych zaatakowały Turcję 28 listopada 1911 i dość szybko ją pokonały. Osłabiona Turcja zgodziła się na niekorzystny pokój dopiero 15 października 1912, zagrożona bezpośrednio wojną z krajami bałkańskimi. +I wojna bałkańska. +Wzrost rosyjskich wpływów w Bułgarii doprowadził do podpisania pod auspicjami cara Mikołaja II tajnego porozumienia antytureckiego przez Serbię i Bułgarię w dniu 13 marca 1912. Oba kraje ustaliły również ewentualny podział zdobytych na Turcji ziem. Wyjątek stanowił około 60-kilometrowy obszar ziemi w Macedonii w okolicach rzeki Wardar. Teren ten miał podlegać arbitrażowi Mikołaja II po wojnie. +29 maja 1912 układ antyturecki zawarła Bułgaria i Grecja, a nieco później Czarnogóra i Serbia. Ostatnią umową był ustny układ czarnogórsko-bułgarski. Sieć porozumień stworzyła nieformalną "Ligę Bałkańską" (sojusz bałkański) wymierzoną przeciwko Turcji, ale również w pewnym stopniu przeciw Austo-Węgrom i Albańczykom. +Na początku października 1912 roku wybuchło antytureckie powstanie Albańczyków na obszarze obecnej północnej Albanii i zachodniego Kosowa. 8 października koalicja zaatakowała Turcję, która mimo koncentracji znacznych sił na Bałkanach i zajmowania nowoczesnych umocnień, powstałych pod kierunkiem specjalistów niemieckich , nie potrafiła się skutecznie bronić. 24 października Bułgarzy pokonali Turków pod Kirkkilise (obecnie Kirklareli), a 29 października pod Lüleburgaz. Serbowie zwyciężyli 24 października armię sułtana pod Kumanovem. Rozpoczęło się również serbsko-macedońskie powstanie w Macedonii. Tymczasem wojska serbskie wkroczyły do Kosowa i innych północnych ziem albańskich tłumiąc tamtejszy zryw. W trakcie tych walk Serbowie wymordowali około 25 tys. Albańczyków, co odbiło się szerokim echem w Europie i utrudniło im aneksję tych terenów. +Grecy, po serii niespodziewanych zwycięstw na lądzie i morzu, już 8 listopada stanęli przed umocnieniami Salonik, osiągając ich kapitulację. O niewiele godzin drogi wyprzedzili w ten sposób wojska bułgarskie. Gdy część wyczerpanych walkami Bułgarów także wkroczyła następnie do Salonik, powitano ich jako gości greckich władz, udostępniających kwatery i szpitale sojusznikom . Wsparci przez swe okręty, Grecy zdążyli jeszcze zająć także Kawalę, odstępując ją następnie rozdrażnionym Bułgarom. +Ruszyła silna bułgarska ofensywa na Konstantynopol, a Turcy tymczasowo przenieśli stolicę do Ankary. Bułgarzy oblegali Adrianopol, lecz zostali powstrzymani na fortyfikacjach Czataldży. 3 grudnia Turcy poprosili o rozejm, który dzięki wysiłkom Brytyjczyków wszedł w życie następnego dnia. Rokowania toczyły się w Londynie, lecz zostały zerwane na krótko 16 grudnia, natomiast trwale zerwane zostały przez sułtana 3 lutego 1913. W marcu Bułgarzy (z posiłkami serbskimi) zajęli Adrianopol, a Grecy silnie umocnioną Janinę i resztę pozostających jeszcze w rękach tureckich wysp Morza Egejskiego - pokonani Turcy poprosili 16 kwietnia o rozejm i pokój. 30 maja w Londynie zawarto pokój. +Na jego mocy Serbia otrzymała Kosowo i część Macedonii Wardarskiej, Grecja Macedonię Egejską, oprócz odstąpionego Bułgarii okręgu Kawali oraz większość wysp egejskich, w tym Kretę, Czarnogóra - tereny graniczące z nią do tej pory. Wbrew naciskom Serbii, która chciała również otrzymać Albanię z dostępem do morza, oraz Greków, uważających zajęty już Epir Północny za swe terytorium etniczne, utworzono niezależne Księstwo Albanii. Stało się tak na skutek silnej presji Austro-Węgier (wspieranych przez Niemcy), które obawiały się wzrostu znaczenia Serbii. Status Albanii nie był jednak do końca uregulowany (podobnie jak Sandżaku) - mocarstwa zachodnie liczyły, że rządzona przez osmańską dynastię Albania stanie się zależna od Turcji, dzięki czemu nie zostanie ona aż tak bardzo osłabiona (znaczną część armii sułtana stanowili Albańczycy). Pozostałe tereny zajęła Bułgaria, a jej granicę z Turcją miała stanowić linia miast Enez - Midye, na której zatrzymały się bułgarskie wojska. +II wojna bałkańska. +Bułgarzy uznali pokój londyński za niesprawiedliwy, gdyż uważali, że ich straty i wysiłek wojenny były największe, co winno zapewnić im większe nabytki w Macedonii. Twierdzili też, że ludność zamieszkująca Macedonię ze względu na bliskość etniczną i językową powinna znaleźć się w granicach państwa bułgarskiego. W nocy z 29/30 czerwca 1913 zaatakowali Greków i Serbów. Serbom z pomocą pospieszyli Czarnogórcy, a po kilku dniach Bułgarię zaatakowała Rumunia (żądająca południowej Dobrudży) i Turcja. Bułgarzy, mimo bardzo ciężkich walk wkrótce musieli cofnąć się. Grecy oraz nie-bułgarscy Słowianie zarzucają im przy tym popełnienie masowych zbrodni wojennych na ludności cywilnej. Wobec ciężkich porażek militarnych, Bułgarzy w krótkim czasie poprosili o pokój. 10 sierpnia zawarto pokój w Bukareszcie. +Skutki. +W wyniku obu wojen Grecja zwiększyła swą ludność o 1,6 miliona, Serbia o 1,2 miliona, Bułgaria o 400 tys., a Rumunia i Czarnogóra o ponad 100 tys. Wojna znacznie osłabiła Turcję, ale również Bułgarię. Głównym politycznym zwycięzcą zostały Grecja, i Serbia (choć kraje te nie zdołały podzielić uprzednio zajętego już terytorium Albanii). Grecja włączyła w swe granice niemal wszystkie wyspy Morza Egejskiego, prócz Dodekanezu, w 1912 zajętego przez Włochy. Powstające od 1821 roku narodowe państwo Greków okazało się zwycięzcą w wielonarodowym, ponad tysiącletnim sporze o Macedonię Egejską. Po raz pierwszy objęło też granicami większą część etnicznie greckiej ludności. Możliwa wydawała się teraz Grekom szybka realizacja ich Wielkiej Idei. Serbia stała się Piemontem południowych Słowian - w szczególności zamieszkujących Austro-Węgry. Bułgaria wyszła spod wpływów Rosji. Zagrożone Niemcy i Austria odnowiły swą politykę "pozyskiwania" w stosunku do Rumunii, Bułgarii i Turcji, którą w ostatnich latach zaniedbały. +Podsumowanie. +Wojny bałkańskie całkowicie zmieniły Bałkany zarówno w sensie terytorialnym, jak i politycznym. Turcja przestała być liczącym się graczem i coraz wyraźniej stawała się proniemiecka. Rosjanie, którzy stracili znaczną część wpływów w pozostałych krajach skoncentrowali się na politycznym wspieraniu i uzależnianiu Serbii. Ta poczuła się na tyle silna, że zaostrzyła swoją antyhabsburską politykę. Niemcy widząc słabość Austrii wyraźniej się z nią związali, co zmniejszyło znacznie jej (jako słabszego partnera) suwerenność. Narastające zawirowania w "bałkańskim kotle" i jego światowe reperkusje były bezpośrednią przyczyną I wojny światowej. +Celtic F.C. + +Celtic Football Club (wym. ) – profesjonalny klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Glasgow, w Wielkiej Brytanii, założony w 1888 roku. 43-krotny Mistrz Szkocji, 35-krotny zdobywca Pucharu Szkocji, 14-krotny zdobywca Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej oraz triumfator Pucharu Europy w 1967. +Obecnie klub popularnie zwany przez kibiców "The Bhoys" lub "Celts", występuje w rozgrywkach Scottish Premier League, rozgrywając swoje mecze na stadionie Celtic Park. +Barwami klubowymi są zieleń i biel uformowane na koszulkach w poprzeczne pasy. +Celtic F.C. od lat toczy nieustanną rywalizację o prymat w szkockim futbolu z lokalnym rywalem Rangers F.C. (tzw. "Old Firm"). +Old Firm Derby. +Old Firm Derby (sc. "Auld Firm") – popularna nazwa piłkarskich derbów Glasgow, rozgrywanych pomiędzy Celtic F.C. a Rangers F.C. Oba kluby zmonopolizowały rozgrywki Scottish Premier League, zdobywając łącznie – 69 pucharów Szkocji i 98 tytułów mistrzowskich na 112 możliwych (stan na 2012). Początkowo terminu "Old Firm" używano w ironicznym znaczeniu, podkreślając monotonię szkockiej ligi, zdominowanej przez kluby z Glasgow. Obecnie są to jedne z najpopularniejszych derbów piłkarskich na świecie oraz stanowią ważne wydarzenie w Szkocji. +Oprócz typowej rywalizacji sportowej podłoże derbów ma również charakter religijno-kulturowy. +Zwolennicy Rangers F.C. tradycyjnie utożsamiani są z protestancką, rojalistyczną częścią szkockiego społeczeństwa, popierającą pozostanie kraju w ramach Wielkiej Brytanii. Fani Celtiku są z kolei w dużej mierze potomkami irlandzkiej imigracji zarobkowej, przybyłej do Glasgow głównie w okresie rewolucji przemysłowej. Stąd też dość powszechnie łączy się ich z katolicką strefą wpływów. Podteksty te sprawiły, że mecze derbowe należą do bardzo widowiskowych spotkań, a każdy klub traktuje je bardzo prestiżowo. +Statystyka. +Na górę strony | Początek wątku +Celtic Park. +Celtic Park jest stadionem piłkarskim w Glasgow, w Szkocji. Jest to główny stadion klubu piłkarskiego Celtic F.C. Stadion ten wszystkie miejsca ma siedzące (betonowe ławki), dzięki temu oprócz nazwy 'Parkhead' ma również przydomek 'Paradise' – nadany przez kibiców. Pojemność stadionu wynosi 60 832 widzów, którzy przeważnie zapełniają trybuny do ostatniego miejsca. Warto dodać też, że zdaniem angielskiego 'Daily Mail' atmosfera jaką stwarzają kibice na Celtic Park jest trzecią w europie tuż za Camp Nou (F.C. Barcelona) i Anfield Road (LIverpool F.C.) +Celtic przeniósł się z „rdzennego” Celtic Park do obecnego miejsca w 1892. Stadion przeszedł 4 remonty; W trakcie jednego z nich w 1988, powstało charakterystyczne wejście z czerwonej cegły prowadzące na trybunę główną. Ostatnia modernizacja miała miejsce w połowie lat 90. i miała na celu przystosowanie stadionu do norm wyznaczonych przez Raport Taylora. +Z ciekawostek, można dodać że projektantem trybuny głównej jest Archibald Leitch, architekt, który zaprojektował również stadiony klubów: Rangers F.C., Sunderland A.F.C., Everton F.C. itp. +Dla kibiców gości przewidziana jest trybuna East Stand. +Na stadionie tym znajduje się 96 miejsc dla kibiców gospodarzy i 10 dla fanów gości, poruszających się na wózkach inwalidzkich. W zachodniej części trybun znajduje się pięć specjalistycznych toalet, a we wschodniej dwie dla kibiców niepełnosprawnych. W części East Stand jest ulokowana siedziba policji, natomiast w sekcji South Stand mieści się muzeum Celtic F.C. +W 1938 na stadionie Celtiku odnotowano największą liczbę kibiców: 92 000, kiedy grał przeciwko Rangers. Możliwy jest wynajem stadionu. +Na górę strony | Początek wątku +Hymn klubu. +Na górę strony | Początek wątku +Trenerzy. +Na górę strony | Początek wątku +Zawodnicy. +Polacy w klubie. +W przeszłości w klubie występowali Polacy: Dariusz Dziekanowski (1989–1992), Dariusz Wdowczyk (1989–1994), Artur Boruc (2005–2010), Maciej Żurawski (2005–2008). Od 2009 zawodnikiem klubu jest Łukasz Załuska. Wiosną 2012 roku w klubie występował polski napastnik wypożyczony z tureckiego Trabzonsporu - Paweł Brożek. +Obecny skład. +"stan na 1 listopada 2012" +Scott Ian + +Scott "NOT" Ian właśc. Scott Ian Rosenfeld (ur. 31 grudnia 1963 w Queens w Nowym Jorku) - amerykański muzyk rockowy, gitarzysta, założyciel i lider thrashmetalowej/speedmetalowej grupy Anthrax. Felietonista polskiego magazynu muzycznego Mystic Art. +Grał również w grupie S.O.D. (Stormtroopers of Death) i był producentem albumów M.O.D. (Methods Of Destruction). Jego nazwiskiem sygnowane są efekty gitarowe firmy DigiTech z serii Black-13. +W 2004 roku muzyk został sklasyfikowany na 31. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych gitarzystów heavymetalowych wszech czasów według magazynu Guitar World. Z kolei w 2009 roku został sklasyfikowany na 28. miejscu listy 50 najlepszych heavymetalowych frontmanów wszech czasów według Roadrunner Records. +Jeden z ulubionych przez muzyka przepisów kulinarnych ukazał się w 2009 roku w książce "Hellbent For Cooking: The Heavy Metal Cookbook" (Bazillion Points, ISBN 978-0979616372). Ponadto w książce znalazły się przepisy nadesłane przez takich muzyków jak: Marcel Schirmer (Destruction), Jeff Becerra (Possessed), John Tardy (Obituary) czy Andreas Kisser (Sepultura). +Michał Maleczkowski + +Michał Maleczkowski herbu Ostoja – wielkorządca krakowski. Wcześniej żupnik olkuski i kuchmistrz wielki koronny (1576-1577). +Szwagier Zybulta Ajchigiera – Niemca ożenionego z jego siostrą, protoplasty polskiej linii rodu Ajchigierów przybyłego do Polski za czasów Zygmunta I. +Heart of Midlothian F.C. + +Heart of Midlothian Football Club – szkocki zawodowy klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Edynburgu, założony w 1874. Czterokrotny mistrz Szkocji, czterokrotny zdobywca Pucharu Ligi, ośmiokrotny zdobywca Pucharu Szkocji oraz ćwierćfinalista Pucharu UEFA. Lokalny rywal Hibernian F.C.. Zespół posiada rozbudowaną sieć fanklubów. +Założony w 1874, zespół ma głębokie tradycje patriotyczne – szesnastu piłkarzy służyło w trakcie I wojny światowej, z czego siedmiu poległo. W 1890 Hearts był jednym z założycieli Scottish Football League. We wczesnej fazie rozwoju klub odnosił sukcesy na arenie narodowej – był mistrzem Szkocji w latach 1895 i 1896, czterokrotnie triumfował w Pucharze Szkocji. W niedokończonym sezonie w 1914 zespół znajdował się na 1. miejscu w lidze, do 1954 klub nie odniósł żadnych sukcesów. Najlepszy okres dla Hearts przypadł w latach 1954-1963 – zespół zdobył Puchar Szkocji (1956), dwukrotnie mistrzostwo Szkocji (1958, 1960) oraz czterokrotnie Puchar Ligi Szkockiej. W latach 70. zespół kilkakrotnie spadał do niższych rozgrywek ligowych, by w 1984 powrócić do ekstraklasy. Hearts kilkakrotnie awansowali do Pucharu UEFA (np. w 1987 ulegli Dukli Praga; najlepszym wynikiem klubu w tych rozgrywkach jest ćwierćfinał w sezonie 1988/1989). W latach 90. władze klubu zatrudniały kilku trenerów, zespół zaś awansował do finału Pucharu Szkocji (1996), zdobył Puchar (1998) oraz odpadł w 1. rundzie Pucharu UEFA (1999). W 2006 klub został wicemistrzem Szkocji oraz zdobył Puchar Szkocji. +Stadionem domowym zespołu jest Tynecastle Stadium. Głównym udziałowcem klubu jest rosyjski biznesmen i bankier Władimir Romanow, posiadający obywatelstwo litewskie. Managerem w sezonie 2011/2012 został Portugalczyk Paolo Sergio, który zastąpił Jima Jefferiesa po drugiej kolejce szkockiej Premier League. +Historia. +Założenie klubu. +Heart of Midlothian Football Club został założony w 1874. Nazwa klubu została zainspirowana nazwą klubu tanecznego w Edynburgu, który natomiast zapożyczył ją z tytułu powieści Sir Waltera Scotta – "The Heart of Midlothian" (polski tytuł: "Więzienie w Edynburgu"). +Pierwszym kapitanem Hearts został Tom Purdie, wybrany w wyniku demokratycznego głosowania. Początkowo klub rozgrywał swoje mecze na The Meadows, Powburn oraz Powderhall, zanim przeniósł się do dzielnicy Gorgia w 1881. Pięć lat później Hearts przenieśli się na obecny obiekt Tynecastle. +Najwcześniejsza wzmianka o Heart of Midlothian, w kontekście sportowym, pojawiła się w gazecie The Scotsman 20 lipca 1864. Artykuł dotyczył meczu krykieta pomiędzy Scotsman i Heart of Mid-Lothian. Nie jest znane czy był to ten sam klub, który w późniejszym czasie wszedł w skład grona założycieli Heart of Midlothian Football Club. +Hearts był jedynym klubem ze wschodniej Szkocji, który razem z kilkoma innymi drużynami z zachodniej części kraju założył Scottish Football League w 1890. To właśnie w początkowych latach działalności tych rozgrywek klub odnosił znaczące sukcesy, zdobywając mistrzostwo Szkocji w sezonie 1894/1895. Ponadto w 15-letnim okresie, od 1891 do 1906, klub czterokrotnie triumfował w Pucharze Szkocji – w latach: 1891, 1896, 1901 oraz 1906. +Za największy sukces klubu w tamtych czasach uważa się zwycięstwo w Pucharze Szkocji 14 marca 1896. W finale tych rozgrywek spotkały się dwie drużyny mające siedzibę w Edynburgu: Heart of Midlothian oraz Hibernian. Drużyna Hearts, w meczu rozegranym na Logie Green, w jedynym finale rozegranym poza Glasgow, pokonała lokalnego rywala 3:1. Jednym z najwybitniejszych piłkarzy, grających w bordowej koszulce był 29-krotny reprezentant Szkocji Bobby Walker. W 222 meczach, rozegranych w latach 1896-1919, strzelił 142 bramki. +Pierwsza połowa XX wieku. +W listopadzie 1914 Hearts przewodzili w pierwszej lidze, zmierzając po kolejny tytuł mistrzowski. Na drodze do triumfu stanął jednak wybuch pierwszej wojny światowej, która znacząco wpłynęła na historię zespołu. Szesnastu piłkarzy wstąpiło do Armii Brytyjskiej, służąc w: 16th Royal Scots (McCrae Batalion) oraz The First Royal Scots. Oprócz piłkarzy w jednostkach tych służyło wielu trenerów, działaczy oraz samych sympatyków klubu. Już w bitwie nad Sommą w 1916 trzech piłkarzy Hearts poległo na linii frontu. Ogólny bilans walk Wielkiej Wojny zamknął się liczbą siedmiu poległych zawodników Hearts +Po wojnie, zawodnicy, którzy przeżyli grali dalej w zespole. W 1922 uhonorowano poległą siódemkę, stawiając dla uczczenia ich ofiarności memoriał. Pomnik znajduje się w Haymarket, w pobliżu biura, w którym gracze zaciągnęli się do wojska. +Z wydarzeniami na kontynencie zbiegł się długi okres niepowodzeń Hearts w rozgrywkach ligowych i pucharowych, trwający od 1906 do 1954. +1954-1963: Złota dekada. +Złoty okres klubu nastąpił w latach: 1954-1963. Wówczas menedżer Tommy Walker doprowadził w 1956 do zdobycia Pucharu Szkocji. Ponadto w tym okresie Jambos dwukrotnie zdobyli mistrzostwo Szkocji w sezonach: 1957/1958 oraz 1959/1960. Sezon 1957/1958 w wykonaniu Heart of Midlothian, okazał się być jednym z najlepszych w historii szkockiej ligi. Hearts w 32 spotkaniach zdobyli 62 punkty, 29 spotkań wygrywając, 4 remisując oraz jedno przegrywając. Na zakończenie sezonu ich przewaga nad drugimi w tabeli Glasgow Rangers wyniosła 13 punktów. Niewątpliwym wyczynem było również strzelenie 132 bramek (jest to nadal niepobity rekord szkockiej pierwszej ligi) przy stracie zaledwie 29 goli. Do tych sukcesów należy dodać również czterokrotny triumf w Pucharze Ligi Szkockiej w sezonach: 1954/1955, 1955/1956, 1958/1959, 1959/1960 oraz 1962/1963. +Sukcesy krajowe nie przełożyły się jednak na wyniki w europejskich pucharach. W sezonie 1958/59 klub zadebiutował w rozgrywkach o Puchar Europy. W eliminacjach Hearts spotkali się z ówczesnym mistrzem Belgii – Standardem Liège. W pierwszym spotkaniu w Liège, Hearts ulegli 1:5. Strzelcem honorowej bramki, a zarazem pierwszego gola dla Heart of Midlothian w europejskich pucharach był Ian Crawford. W rewanżu rozegranym na Tynecastle Stadium, w obecności 39 500 widzów, po bramkach Williego Baulda Hearts wygrali 2:1. Rywalizacja między drużynami zakończyła się stosunkiem bramek 6:3 dla Standardu, który awansował do dalszych rozgrywek. +Po wywalczeniu mistrzostwa Szkocji w 1959/1960, klub zakwalifikował się ponownie do rozgrywek o Puchar Europy w sezonie 1960/1961. W rundzie eliminacyjnej "Jam Tarts" zmierzyli się z SL Benfica – późniejszym triumfatorem całych rozgrywek. Pierwszy mecz w Edynburgu wygrała Benfica 2:1 (bramka dla Hearts: Alex Young). W rewanżu w Lizbonie, portugalski klub pokonał Hearts 3:0. +Lata 1965-1983. +Od połowy lat 60. sytuacja Hearts, jak wielu innych szkockich klubów, uległa pogorszeniu. Oprócz Celtiku i Rangers, kluby szkockie nie były w stanie rywalizować na płaszczyźnie finansowej z angielskimi drużynami. Kluby z Anglii podkupywały młodych, utalentowanych zawodników oferując im umowy na lepszych warunkach finansowych. Zjawisko to nasiliło się w latach siedemdziesiątych oraz na początku lat osiemdziesiątych. +Skutkiem tego zjawiska była nieustabilizowana forma "Jambos". W sezonie 1975/1976 klub zajął 5 pozycję w lidze, docierając równocześnie do finału Pucharu Szkocji. W finałowej rozgrywce Hearts ulegli drużynie Rangers F.C. 1:3. Przegrany finał Pucharu Szkocji zapewnił jednak klubowi ze stolicy Szkocji start w rozgrywkach Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów w kolejnym sezonie. +Początkowo nic nie zwiastowało, że sezon 1976/1977 okaże się jednym z najsłabszych sezonów w historii klubu. W 1/16 Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów, Hearts pokonali w dwumeczu drużynę Lokomotive Lipsk. Mimo iż w NRD spotkanie zakończyło się wygraną gospodarzy 2:0, to w rewanżu Szkoci rozgromili swoich przeciwników 5:1. W 1/8 rozgrywek klub okazał się gorszy od Hamburgera SV i odpadł z dalszej rywalizacji, tracąc łącznie 8 bramek. Słabsza postawa zespołu w Pucharze Zdobywców Pucharów, przełożyła się również na rozgrywki ligowe, które klub zakończył na dziewiątej pozycji. 27 punktów zgromadzonych pod koniec rozgrywek Scottish Premier Division, nie zapewniło utrzymania drużynie z Edynburga, która spadła do Scottish League Division One (odpowiednik II ligi). +W następnym sezonie, (1977/1978) "Jambos" zdobywając 58 punktów, zajęli drugie miejsce gwarantujące powrót do Premier Division. W 1978/1979 klub ponownie opuścił najwyższą klasę rozgrywek, plasując się na przedostatnim, dziewiątym miejscu. W rok później Hearts triumfowali w Scottish League Division One zdobywając 53 punkty. Nie wystarczyło to jednak, aby utrzymać się w następnym sezonie w pierwszej lidze, z której Hearts spadli zajmując ostatnie, dziesiąte miejsce. W 32 spotkaniach piłkarze Hearts zgromadzili zaledwie 18 punktów, przegrywając 24 spotkania. W kolejnym sezonie spędzonym w II lidze, zespołowi nie udało się awansować, gdyż przegrał rywalizację z Motherwell F.C. oraz Kilmarnock F.C.. Zajmując trzecie miejsce, klub przegrał awans z drugim Kilmarnock zaledwie jednym punktem różnicy. +Sezon 1982/1983 okazał się lepszym w wykonaniu Hearts, którzy zajęli 2 miejsce dające awans. W 39 meczach Hearts zgromadzili 54 punkty, ustępując o jeden punkt St. Johnstone F.C.. Była to zasługa Wallace Mercera – nowego prezesa klubu mianowanego w 1981. +Powrót do I ligi. +Sezon 1983/1984 był prawdziwym wyzwaniem i ważnym sprawdzianem, dla klubu który spędził 3 lata rozgrywając swoje mecze w II lidze. Jako beniaminek, Hearts zajęli 5 lokatę, ponadto wyróżniającym się piłkarzem był John Robertson. +Równocześnie klub zakwalifikował się do rozgrywek Pucharu UEFA sezonu 1984/1985. W 1/32 Hearts zmierzyli się z francuskim Paris Saint-Germain ulegając na wyjeździe 0:4. Spotkanie na Tynecastle Stadium zakończyło się wynikiem 2:2. +Dopiero sezon 1985/1986 ukazał prawdziwą siłę i możliwości zespołu, który podjął równorzędną walkę o tytuł mistrzowski z Celtikiem. Rywalizacja tych drużyn była bardzo zacięta i wyrównana. Po rozegraniu 35 z 36 kolejek ligowych, prowadzili Hearts, którzy zgromadzili 50 punktów, Celtowie zaś zdołali zgromadzić 48 oczek. O tytule mistrzowskim zadecydować miała ostatnia kolejka w której Hearts grali z Dundee F.C. na Dens Park, natomiast Celtic przeciwko St. Mirren F.C. na St. Mirren Park. "Sercom" do zdobycia upragnionego trofeum wystarczał remis. Hearts przegrali jednak 0:2. Ich rywal w walce o mistrzostwo wykorzystał nadarzającą się szansę, gromiąc St Mirren 5:1. Mimo iż obie drużyny zgromadziły taką samą ilość punktów – 50, to tytuł mistrzowski przypadł drużynie z Glasgow. Zadecydował o tym korzystniejszy bilans bramkowy. "Serca" musiały się zadowolić się wyłącznie wicemistrzostwem ligi, co było dużym wyczynem zważywszy na fakt, że trzy lata wcześniej klub grał w II szczeblu rozgrywek ligowych. +W związku z zajęciem drugiej lokaty, klub wystąpił w europejskich pucharach, kwalifikując się do rozgrywek Pucharu UEFA sezonu 1986/1987. W 1/32 przeciwnikiem Hearts był czeski klub Dukla Praga. Spotkanie na Tynecastle Stadium zakończyło się zwycięstwem 3:2. W rewanżu w Pradze lepsi okazali się Czesi, którzy wygrali 1:0 i awansowali do następnej rundy. +W kolejnym sezonie "Serca" uplasowały się poza czołówką zajmując 5 miejsce w lidze. W sezonie 1987/1988 klub wywalczył wicemistrzostwo Szkocji, ponownie ustępując miejsca na podium Celtom. +Tytuł wicemistrzowski dał szansę drużynie z Edynburga na start w rozgrywkach Pucharu UEFA. Sezon 1988/1989 okazał się najlepszym sezonem w wykonaniu Hearts w europejskich pucharach. Klub pokonując kolejno: St. Patrick’s Athletic Dublin (1/32), Austrię Wiedeń (1/16) oraz Velež Mostar (1/8) dotarł do ćwierćfinału tych rozgrywek. W 1/4 finału przeciwnikiem szkockiej drużyny był utytułowany Bayern Monachium. Pierwszy mecz został rozegrany na Tynecastle 28 lutego 1988. Hearts pokonali "Bawarczyków" 1:0 po bramce Iaina Fergusona. W rewanżu "Serca" uległy niemieckiemu klubowi 0:2 na Stadionie Olimpijskim w Monachium. Niemniej jednak, ćwierćfinał Pucharu UEFA oraz triumf nad Bayernem Monachium uważa się za największe sukcesy w europejskich pucharach w całej historii klubu. +Lata 90.. +Początek lat 90. w wykonaniu Hearts zapowiadał się obiecująco, szczególnie po tym jak w sezonie 1991/1992 ponownie wywalczyli wicemistrzostwo Szkocji, przegrywając jedynie z Rangers F.C.. W następnych latach nie udało się jednak powtórzyć podobnego sukcesu. Sytuację w klubie pogarszał fakt, że Hearts na kolejny triumf w rozgrywkach ligowych bądź pucharowych, czekali od ponad 30 lat. Za przyczynę braków upatrywano kolejnych szkoleniowców "Serc". Joe Jordan, Sand Clark oraz Tommy McLean zostali kolejno zwolnieni w ciągu dwóch lat (1993-1995) z funkcji trenera. Kryzys szkoleniowy połączony był ze wzrostem pozycji hegemonów z Glasgow: Celtic F.C. oraz Rangers F.C., z którymi większości szkockich klubów trudno było rywalizować na płaszczyźnie sportowej i finansowej. +Mimo że Hearts nie zdobyli w tym okresie żadnego trofeum, to kibice byli z nich dumni z jednego powodu: piłkarze Heart of Midlothian rozegrali 22 kolejne mecze ligowe bez porażki z rywalem zza miedzy – Hibernian F.C.. +W 1995 zatrudniono Jima Jefferiesa, byłego piłkarza Hearts w latach 1967-1981, na stanowisku trenera. Decyzja ta przyniosła oczekiwane efekty już w następnym sezonie 1995/1996. "Serca" dotarły wtedy do finału rozgrywek Pucharu Szkocji. w finale, rozegranym 18 maja 1996 Hearts nie sprostali jednak drużynie Rangers F.C. ulegając 1:5. Przegrany finał był jednak zapowiedzią powrotu Hearts do czołówki Scottish Premier League. +Przełamanie złej passy bez trofeów nastąpiło w 1998 roku. W finałowym meczu Pucharu Szkocji, rozegranym na Celtic Park 16 maja 1998, Hearts wygrali z Rangers F.C. 2:1, biorąc rewanż za porażkę sprzed dwóch lat. Był to pierwszy tytuł wywalczony przez klub po 35-letniej przerwie. +Przez następne kilka lat forma Hearts wahała się. Dzięki zajęciu trzeciego miejsca w sezonie 1999/2000 klub mógł wystąpić w rozgrywkach Pucharu UEFA. Mimo że zespół odpadł w 1 rundzie, był bliski wyeliminowania niemieckiego zespołu VfB Stuttgart, wygrywając na Tynecastle Stadium 3:2. +W grudniu 2000 były kapitan zespołu – Craig Levein, zastąpił Jima Jefferiesa na stanowisku trenera. Nowy menedżer powtórzył sukces poprzednika, doprowadzając Hearts do trzeciego miejsca w lidze w sezonie 2002/2003, dającego kwalifikacje do Pucharu UEFA. Tam "Serca" trafiły na francuski klub Girondins Bordeaux. Mimo że na Parc Lescure Hearts wygrali 1:0, to na Tynecastle Stadium zespół z Bordeaux odrobił straty, wygrywając 2:0. Kolejny sezon przyniósł ponownie trzecie miejsce w lidze oraz start w Pucharze UEFA, tym razem w nowej formule. W pierwszej rundzie drużynie z Edynburga przyszło się zmierzyć z portugalskim klubem SC Braga. W meczu na Tynecastle Jambos pokonali SC Bragę 3:1. W rewanżu zaś uzyskali korzystny dla siebie remis 2:2. W fazie grupowej Pucharu UEFA klub wylosował: Feyenoord, Schalke 04, Ferencvárosi TC oraz FC Basel. W czterech meczach klub odnotował zaledwie jedną wygraną – z FC Basel – oraz 3 porażki. Z powodu słabej postawy swojej drużyny do dymisji podał się trener Craig Levein, który odszedł do Leicester City. Stało się to w październiku 2004, w trakcie rywalizacji o Puchar UEFA. +Działacze klubu byli zmuszeni rozpocząć poszukiwania nowego menedżera. Nie było zaskoczeniem, że został została nim legenda klubu – John Robertson. Był on tak związany z Hearts, że zrezygnował z posady w Inverness Caledonian Thistle, aby dołączyć do drużyny. Pod jego wodzą Hearts odnotowali jedyne zwycięstwo w fazie grupowej, wygrywając w Bazylei. +W 2004, manager zarządzający, Chris Robinson ogłosił plany sprzedaży Tynecastle Stadium, który "nie dostosowuje się do zakładanych celów". W związku z tym klub zakładał wynajęcie obiektu Murrayfield od Scottish Rugby Union. Działania te były wymuszone narastającym zadłużeniem Heart of Midlothian, a były bardzo niepopularne wśród kibiców. Zorganizowali oni kampanię "Save Our Hearts" (pl. "Uratujcie nasze serca"), której celem było zmuszenie zarządu do odstąpienia od sprzedaży obiektu Robinson przeforsował jednak plan sprzedaży, zawierając wstępną umowę kupna z firmą deweloperską, opiewającą na 20 milionów funtów. +Od 2004: Władimir Romanow prezesem klubu. +Problemy finansowe Hearts w 2004 sprawiły, że w działalność klubu włączył się rosyjski biznesmen z litewskim obywatelstwem – Władimir Romanow, którego posunięcia ochrzczono mianem "Rewolucji Romanowa". Po tym, jak Romanow rozpoczął negocjacje w sprawie przejęcia pakietu akcji Hearts, zagrożenie sprzedaży Tynecastle Stadium, ku uciesze kibiców zostało oddalone. W lutym 2005 Rosjanin zdołał zakupić akcje Leslie Deansa i Chrisa Robinsona. Jego grupa inwestycyjna zdobyła pulę 29,9% akcji klubu, powiększając ją w grudniu do 80%. W ten sposób Romanow stał się właścicielem pakietu większościowego Heart of Midlothian F.C.. +Na początku działalności wyłożył 4 500 000 funtów na bieżącą działalność klubu i spłatę zobowiązań wobec wierzycieli. Równocześnie Romanow ogłosił, że celem Hearts jest triumf w rozgrywkach Ligi Mistrzów. Działania te pociągnęły za sobą również zmiany kadrowe w spółce. Dyrektor do spraw sportowych – Chris Robinson zrezygnował ze stanowiska. Jego zwierzchnika na stanowisku Chief Executive Officer – Siergejusa Fedotowasa zastąpił były szef Szkockiego Związku Rugby – Phil Anderton, mianowany 3 marca 2005. 9 maja John Robertson, zrezygnował z zajmowanego stanowiska trenera. Rezygnacja Robertsona spotkała się z zaniepokojeniem wśród kibiców. Były szkoleniowiec Ipswich Town i Derby County – George Burley, został 30 czerwca 2005 zatrudniony na jego miejsce. +Sezon 2005/06. +Na początku sezonu, wielu fanów Hearts wierzyło, że przy finansowym wsparciu Romanowa i doświadczeniu Burleya, klub jest w stanie sięgnąć po mistrzostwo ligi w sezonie 2005/2006. +Udany start w rozgrywkach ligowych pokazał, że marzenia kibiców nie były mrzonkami. Klub z Edynburga w odnotował serię 8 kolejnych zwycięstw, włączając w to wygraną 1:0 na ówczesnym mistrzem – zespołem Rangers F.C.. +Po 10 spotkaniach bez porażki oraz objęciu fotelu lidera, zarząd klubu Heart of Midlothian postanowił zwolnić Burleya. Odbyło się to 22 października 2005, na godziny przed ligowym meczem z Dunfermline Athletic w atmosferze skandalu. Krążyły pogłoski, że Burley nie miał dobrych stosunków w właścicielem klubu – Władimirem Romanowem i to było powodem jego zwolnienia. John McGlynn został tymczasowo wyznaczony na stanowisko trenera. Pod jego wodzą Hearts rozegrali 4 spotkania, odnosząc pierwszą ligową porażkę z Hibernian F.C.. Spotkanie z lokalnym rywalem poprzedzone zostało dymisją dyrektora zarządzającego Phila Andertona. Na znak protestu do dymisji podał się również ówczesny prezes klubu George Foulkes, którego zastąpił na tym stanowisku syn właściciela – Roman Romanow. +7 listopada 2005 zatrudniono na stanowisku szkoleniowca Grahama Rixa, byłego trenera Chelsea, Portsmouth, Oxford United. Podobnie jak McGlynn z Hearts nie odniósł z nimi znaczących sukcesów. W dziewiętnastu rozegranych meczach "Serca" wygrały jedynie dziewięć razy spadając z pozycji lidera na drugie miejsce w tabeli, co było spowodowane porażką z Celtikiem 2:3 w Nowy Rok. +Trzy miesiące po objęciu stanowiska, 7 lutego 2006, na światło dzienne wypłynęła informacja o atmosferze panującej w szatni. Według zawodników, trener Graham Rix miał powiedzieć, że skład ustala osobiście Romanow, który "pociąga za sznurki" (ang. "pulling the strings"). Ostatecznie Anglik pożegnał się z Edynburgiem 22 marca 2006. Jego miejsce zajął były szkoleniowiec FBK Kowno, Valdas Ivanauskas. + Zwycięstwo 4:0 nad lokalnym rywalem Hibernian F.C. w półfinale Pucharu Szkocji zagwarantowało sercom występ w finale tych rozgrywek. 13 maja 2006 na stadionie Hampden Park, Hearts zmierzyli się z zespołem Gretna F.C.. +Po regulaminowym czasie gry oraz dwóch dogrywkach utrzymywał się wynik 1:1, a o losie pucharu zadecydować miały rzuty karne. W karnych lepszy okazał się zespół z Edynburga pokonując Gretna F.C. 4:2. +Zasługą litewskiego trenera było również wywalczenie wicemistrzostwa Szkocji, które zagwarantowało "Sercom" udział w kwalifikacjach do Ligi Mistrzów w następnym sezonie. +Sezon 2006/07. +Przed rozpoczęciem sezonu 2006/2007, w przerwie letniej, z klubu odeszli Rudolf Skácel (do Southampton) oraz, po konfliktach w klubie, Andy Webster (do Wigan). Wypożyczeno natomiast chilijskiego napastnika Mauricio Pinillę oraz Christosa Karipidisa z PAOK. Skład zespołu został uzupełniony poprzez wypożyczenie Mariusa Žaliūkasa, Kęstutisa Ivaškevičiusa, Andriusa Velički oraz Romana Bednářa z FBK Kowno, klubu będącego również własnością Romanowa. Wskutek tego liczba litewskich piłkarzy w szkockim klubie wzrosła do dziewięciu. +Hearts na arenę rozgrywek pucharowych wybrali stadion Murrayfield. Decyzja ta kierowana była względami finansowymi, ponieważ Murrayfield Stadium posiadał większą widownię niż Tynecastle, co oznaczało wzrost wpływów z biletów dla klubu. +W drugiej rundzie eliminacji Champions League Hearts trafili na mistrza Bośni i Hercegowiny – Široki Brijeg. W pierwszym spotkaniu rozegranym w Edynburgu "Serca" wygrały 3:0. W rewanżu, w Bośni, padł bezbramkowy remis, dający awans Szkotom. W kolejnej rundzie rywalami Hearts był klub AEK Ateny. W meczu na Murrayfield Stadium do 85 minuty utrzymywał się korzystny dla gospodarzy, wynik 1:0. Spotkanie to zakończyło się jednak porażką Jambos 1:2, po tym jak Grecy strzelili 2 bramki w ostatnich 5 minutach. W rewanżu rozegranym na zmodernizowanym Stadionie Olimpijskim w Atenach, AEK odniósł zwycieśtwo 3:0. Porażka klubu w kwalifikacjach Ligi Mistrzów oznaczała, że "Serca" dołączyły do drużyn biorących udział w rozgrywkach Pucharu UEFA. W meczu 1 rundy Pucharu UEFA z czeską Spartą Praga, rozegranym na Murrayfield 14 września 2006, Hearts ulegli 0:2. Remisując 0:0 w Pradze, klub odpadł z dalszych rozgrywek pucharowych. +W lidze forma Hearts była niestabilna. Drużyna odnotowała porażki na Ibrox Park oraz z St. Mirren F.C. na Tynecastle Stadium, jak również dwa zwycięstwa nad Motherwell (1:0) i Aberdeen (3:1). +23 października 2006 szkoleniowiec Valdas Ivanauskas wziął dwutygodniowy urlop w związku z chorobą. Władimir Romanow stwierdził: "Mam pełne zaufanie do Valdasa i spodziewam się jego powrotu". +Dyrektor sportowy, Eduard Małofiejew, zastąpił Ivanauskasa, stając się 7 trenerem Hearts w ciągu zaledwie 20 miesięcy. 27 listopada Litwin powrócił na zajmowane stanowisko piastując je przez następne 4 miesiące. 20 marca 2007 za obopólną zgodą: klubu i Ivanauskasa, rozwiązano jego kontrakt z klubem. +Atmosfera w klubie stawała się coraz bardziej napięta za sprawą samego właściciela. 27 października 2006, Romanow ostrzegł swoich piłkarzy, że jeżeli nie wygrają najbliższego spotkania z Dunfermline Athletic F.C. zostaną wystawieni na listę transferową. Kapitan Hearts – Steven Pressley w wydanym oświadczeniu, przed meczem z Dunfermline, wyraził zaniepokojenie piłkarzy panującą sytuacją w klubie. Piłkarz wspomniał o "znaczącym niepokoju", który panuje w szatni Hearts. Spotkanie zakończyło się remisem 1:1. 13 listopada 2006, Pressley został odsunięty od meczu w Falkirk, z Falkirk F.C. Inny zawodnik "Serc" – Paul Hartley, który był obecny podczas odczytania oświadczenia, został posadzony na ławkę rezerwowych. Pressley powrócił do składu 19 listopada w przegranym 0:1 meczu z Rangers. Hartley wystąpił w tym spotkaniu przejmując od Pressleya opaskę kapitańską. 9 grudnia kontrakt Stevena Pressleya został rozwiązany za porozumieniem stron. Zawodnik przeszedł na zasadzie wolnego transferu do Celticu i już 1 stycznia 2007, wraz z nowymi kolegami pokonał swój dawny zespół 2:1. W przerwie zimowej, Paul Hartley został sprzedany za kwotę 1 100 000 funtów i również przeszedł do "The Bhoys". +Porażka 1:0 z Dunfermline Athletic F.C. poniesiona 3 lutego 2007, ostatecznie pogrzebała szanse klubu na wywalczenie Pucharu Szkocji. 2 marca Anatolij Koroboczka ogłosił, iż rezygnuje ze stanowiska dyrektora sportowego, jednocześnie obejmując stanowisko tymczasowego trenera. Ostatecznie Hearts z 61 punktami uplasowali się na 4. miejscu w Scottish Premier League. +28 lipca 2007 hiszpański klub FC Barcelona w trakcie okresu przygotowawczego do sezonu 2007/08 rozegrał mecz towarzyski z Hearts na stadionie Murrayfield, w Edynburgu. Spotkanie cieszyło się dużym zainteresowaniem wśród kibiców, którzy wykupili wszystkie 20 000 biletów dostępnych w sprzedaży. Mecz zakończył się wynikiem 1:3. Strzelcami bramek byli: dla Hearts – Juho Mäkelä, dla FC Barcelona – Ronaldinho (2 gole) oraz Giovani dos Santos. +Sezon 2007/08. +Po spotkaniach w pre-sezonie, kilku litewskich piłkarzy powróciło do swojego klubu. Natomiast z FBK Kowno zostało wypożyczonych dwóch zawodników: Audrius Kšanavičius i Ričardas Beniušis. Kontrakty podpisali także: Rubén Palazuelos z hiszpańskiego RS Gimnástica de Torrelavega i Michael Stewart, który wrócił do klubu po dwóch sezonach spędzonych w Hibernian F.C.. Przed rozpoczęciem rozgrywek w sezonie do "Jambos" przyszedł Stephen Frail, którego mianowano asystentem Koroboczki. Nowy sezon piłkarze Hearts rozpoczęli od porażki z zespołem Hibernian 0:1. Drużyna kontynuowała sezon, remisując z Gretna F.C. 1:1, i przegrywając z przedsezonowymi triumfatorami rozgrywek, Celtic F.C., 0:5. Postawa klubu oburzyła kibiców, dlatego zdecydowano się, za pośrednictwem Szkota Stephena Fraila, porozmawiać z zawodnikami. +31 grudnia 2007 Władimir Romanow ogłosił, iż w związku z pięcioma kolejnymi porażkami w lidze, które spowodowały, że klub spadł na przedostatnią lokatę w tabeli – jedenastą, wyznaczyć brytyjskiego menedżera, który miałby kontrolę nad wydarzeniami w drużynie. Po tym wydarzeniu, Stephen Frail został tymczasowym menedżerem. Po zakończeniu sezonu, w którym klub zajął ósmą pozycję w tabeli ligi, nie przedłużył umowy z klubem. W Pucharze Szkocji Hearts poniosło porażkę 0:1 w pierwszym meczu czwartej rundy, natomiast w rewanżu, który odbył się 22 stycznia 2008, padł wynik 2:2, który oznaczał odpadnięcie "Jambos" z rywalizacji o krajowy puchar. W półfinale Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej, 30 stycznia 2008, Rangers F.C. pokonał Serca 2:0. Najskuteczniejszy napastnik – Andrius Velička, który strzelił w sezonie jedenaście goli, został sprzedany do Viking Stavanger za 1 mln funtów. +Sezon 2008/09. +W związku z ósmą pozycją w tabeli na koniec poprzedniego sezonu, do klubu zdecydowano zakupić Davida Obuę, Mike'a Tullberga, Adriana Mrowca i Janosa Balogha. +Po okresie poszukiwań nowego szkoleniowca, 11 lipca 2008 władze klubu poinformowały opinię publiczną, że nowym szkoleniowcem został węgierski trener o rumuńskich korzeniach, Csaba László. Klub rozpoczął sezon od wygranej 3:2 przeciwko Motherwell F.C.. Dzięki dobrym rezultatom, drużyna uplasowała się na drugim miejscu w tabeli SPL po siedmiu rozegranych meczach. We wrześniu, z powodu błędów technicznych, piłkarze Hearts jak i sztab szkoleniowy zespołu nie otrzymali na czas pensji, co zostało następnie uregulowane. +Po niekorzystnym dla Hearts październiku (dwa remisy, jedna porażka), w listopadzie drużyna odniosła pięć zwycięstw z rzędu, kończąc passę 13 grudnia 2008, gdzie zremisowała z Celtic F.C. 1:1. Podczas styczniowego okienka transferowego za 2,5 mln funtów został sprzedany Christophe Berra do Wolverhampton Wanderers, natomiast opaskę kapitańską przejął od niego Robbie Neilson. Klub zakończył sezon ligowy na trzeciej pozycji w tabeli; w ramach ostatniej, 38. kolejki, zremisował 0:0 z Celtic F.C.. +Rozgrywki w Pucharze Ligi Szkockiej w sezonie 2008/2009 piłkarze Hearts rozpoczęli od drugiej rundy, gdzie odpadli z Airdrie United F.C. 0:0 (0:0 również w pierwszym meczu, 3:4 w karnych dla Airdrie). +Natomiast w czwartej rundzie Pucharu Szkocji drużyna Hearts odniosła zwycięstwo w Edynburgu z miejscowym rywalem, Hibernian F.C. 2:0. "Jambos" zakończyli zmagania po piątej rundzie, gdzie przegrali na Tynecastle Stadium z Falkirk F.C. 0:1. +Sezon 2009/10. +13 sierpnia 2009 roku, przed rozpoczynającym się sezonem 2009/2010 trener Csaba László ogłosił, że kapitanem drużyny Hearts zostanie Michael Stewart, zaś wicekapitanem – Marius Žaliūkas +Z rozgrywek o Puchar Ligi Europy piłkarze Hearts odpadli w rundzie play-off, przegrywając na wyjeździe z Dinamo Zagrzeb 0:4 oraz wygrywając u siebie 2:0. +Z powodu postawy piłkarzy Hearts w lidze (6 miejsce w SPL), 29 stycznia 2010 roku zwolniono Csabę László i zatrudniono nowego trenera – Jima Jefferiesa. +Derby Edynburga. +Za najsłynniejsze derby Szkocji uznaje się Old Firm, czyli potyczki między klubami: Celtic F.C. i Glasgow Rangers. Jednak dużo starsze od nich są "WeeTeam", czyli rywalizacja między Hibernian F.C. i Heart of Midlothian F.C. +Pierwszy raz obie drużyny natknęły się na siebie tuż po ich utworzeniu (drużyny powstały w 1875 i 1874 roku), dnia 24 grudnia 1875 roku. Mimo że gospodarzem meczu był Hibernian F.C., to zwycięzcą meczu okazali się Hearts, którzy wygrali to spotkanie 1:0. Mecz rozegrany w Wigilię Bożego Narodzenia zapoczątkował długą tradycję pojedynków derbowych. +Derby Edynburga swym charakterem i kontekstami znacząco przypomina rywalizację Old Firm. +Podłoże obu derbów ma charakter religijny. Hibernian, podobnie jak Celtic to klub utożsamiany z katolicką częścią szkockiego społeczeństwa, natomiast Hearts uważani są za klub protestancki. Hearts zdobywali czterokrotnie mistrzostwo Szkocji, czterokrotnie Puchar Ligi, oraz sześciokrotnie Pucharów Szkocji. Natomiast Hibernian pomimo iż zdobył tyle samo mistrzostw Szkocji co "Serca", ma skromniejszy dorobek pucharowy – trzy Puchary Ligi oraz dwa Puchary Szkocji. +Podteksty te sprawiły, że mecze derbowe należą do widowiskowych spotkań, a każdy klub traktuje je bardzo prestiżowo. +Statystyki. +"stan na 15 lutego 2010" +Tynecastle Stadium. +Hearts swoje mecze rozgrywają na Tynecastle Stadium, popularnie zwanym przez kibiców "Tynie". Inauguracja stadionu odbyła się 10 kwietnia 1886. W pierwszym spotkaniu na nowym obiekcie "Serca" w towarzyskim meczu pokonały angielski klub piłkarski – Bolton Wanderers F.C. 4:1. Dzień ten rozpoczął długą i bogatą historię obiektu z Gorgie Road, w Edynburgu. +26 marca 1892, w sześć lat od otwarcia, na Tynecastle rozegrano pierwszy międzynarodowy mecz piłkarski pomiędzy: reprezentacją Szkocji i reprezentacją Walii, zakończony wygraną gospodarzy 6:1. +Na początku XX wieku dużym nakładem sił i środków klub rozbudowywał stadion, dostawiając kolejne trybuny w latach: 1903, 1911 oraz 1914. Wiązało się to z dużymi kosztami sięgającymi zawrotnej wówczas kwoty 12 000 funtów. +Rok 1927 przyniósł nowe możliwości dotarcia do kibiców, po tym jak BBC rozpoczęła nadawanie relacji sportowych z meczów Hearts. W okresie międzywojennym padł również rekord frekwencji na stadionie. Mecz Pucharu Szkocji, który został rozegrany 13 lutego 1932 przeciwko drużynie Rangers F.C. obejrzało 53 396 widzów. +W latach 50. pojemność stadionu ograniczono do 49 000 miejsc, kierując się względami bezpieczeństwa. Po katastrofach na Ibrox Park w 1971 oraz na Hillsborough Stadium w 1989, pojemność Tynecastle Stadium została ograniczona do 30 tysięcy widzów. Sam obiekt przeszedł gruntowną modernizację w połowie lat 90. wyniku której wybudowano od podstaw trybuny: Wheatfield Stand i Roseburn Stand. +W 2005 stadion został dostosowany do rygorystycznych norm bezpieczeństwa UEFA, w wyniku czego uzyskał obecny wygląd. Na dzień dzisiejszy pojemność obiektu wynosi 17 420 miejsc siedzących. +Kibice. +Klub posiada rozbudowaną sieć fanów, którzy tworzą The Heart of Midlothian Supporters' Trust (HOMST) – oficjalny fanklub zespołu dofinsansowywany przez władze klubu. Organizacja została założona w styczniu 2003, odpowiedzialna jest za transport fanów Hearts na miejsce spotkań. HOMST jest członkiem Supporters Direct – organizacji zrzeszającej fankluby w całej Wielkiej Brytanii. Fanklub jest wspierany przez Heart of Midlothian Shareholders' Association – lokalną organizację udziałowców klubu. Oficjalna strona Heart of Midlothian oferuje forum internetowe przeznaczone dla fanów. +Kibice zespołu mają możliwość podania swoich danych adresowych w archiwum klubu – każdy zainteresowany może wstąpić do Federation of Hearts Supporters' Clubs, której przewodniczącym jest John Borthwick. prowadzony jest również fanklub dla dzieci poniżej 16 lat – Hearts Juniors, któego szefem jest obecnie (kwiecień 2009) Eggert Jonsson. Fankluby Hearts w porozumieniu z klubem prowadzą charytatywne aukcje internetowe (osadzone w serwisie eBay), na których sprzedawane są gadżety i pamiątki związane z zespołem. +Sponsorzy. +Zespół jest sponsorowany przez brytyjskie korporacje istotne dla rodzimej gospodarki. Głównym sponsorem Hearts jest Clydesdale Bank, koszulki swoim logiem sygnuje Ūkio bankas, zaś za sprzęt sportowy odpowiedzialna jest firma Umbro. Do sponsorów Hearts należą również: firma bukmacherska Ladbrokes, dostawcy usług informatycznych: Microsoft i Dell, Coca-Cola Company, producent wody Vittel, sieć hoteli Marriott International oraz dom handlowy Jenners w Edynburgu. Partnerami medialnymi Hearts są: BBC Radio Scotland, szkocka telewizja STV, agencja sportowa Sportfive, dziennik "The Sun", stacja radiowa Talk 107 oraz stacja telewizyjna ITV Evening News. Do partnerów strategicznych należą: Walkers, Nestlé, rada miasta Edynburg oraz serwis oferujący bilety, Ticketmaster. +Symbole klubu. +Pierwotnie stroje klubu byłby całkowicie białe z akcentami kasztanowymi koloru i sercem wyszytym na piersi – zespół występował w tych strojach do 1876. Przez jeden sezon zespół grał w strojach z czerwonymi, niebieskimi i białymi paskami (byłby to kolory klubu St. Andrew, który zaczerpnął barwy z symboli St. Andrew's University, z którego pochodziło większość cżłonków zespołu). W wyniku modyfikacji obecnie barwy Hearts to przeważnie kasztanowy, kolor, z którym władze klubu identyfikowały się od momentu powstania. Przed sezonem 2008-2009 kolor strojów (kasztanowo-biały) ewoluował w stronę całkowicie kasztanowego. +Logo klubu zainspirowane zostało wyglądem mozaiki wmurowanej w kamienisty trakt na rynku w Edynburgu zwanej Heart of Midlothian. +Maskotkami klubu są Tynie i Teenie Tiger. Maskotki po raz pierwszy zostały zaprezentowane 6 sierpnia 2006 po wygranym przez Hearts meczu z Celtikiem 2:1, w podziękowaniu dla strzelca zwycięskiej bramki, Romana Bednářa. +Autorem nieoficjalnego hymnu zespołu, "Hearts Song", jest Hector Nicol, kibic St. Mirren. Utwór jest odśpiewywany przed każdym meczem na Tynecastle Stadium. +Statystyki. +Europejskie puchary. +Dotychczas Hearts wystąpili w 19 sezonach europejskich pucharów, grając 10-krotnie w Pucharze UEFA, 3-krotnie w Pucharze Europy, 3-krotnie w Pucharze Miast Targowych 3-krotnie w rozgrywkach Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów, oraz 1 raz w Lidze Europy. +Za największy sukces klubu w europejskich rozgrywkach uznaje się dojście do ćwierćfinału Pucharu UEFA w sezonie 1988/1989. W ośmiu meczach klub odnotował 5 zwycięstw, w tym wygraną 1:0 nad Bayernem Monachium, jeden mecz zremisował oraz dwa spotkania przegrał. +Erlang (jednostka) + +Erlang – jednostka natężenia ruchu telekomunikacyjnego (w żargonie: "trafiku"). Nazwa wywodzi się od nazwiska Agnera Krarupa Erlanga, autora teorii masowej obsługi, znanej rowniez jako teoria kolejek, która stanowi uogólnienie zjawisk zaobserwowanych w telekomunikacji. +Dla danego systemu telekomunikacyjnego składającego się z 1 linii, i czasu obserwacji równego 1 godzinie (60 minut), jeśli linia ta zajęta jest cały czas przez pełną godzinę, to natężenie ruchu wynosi 1 Erlang; odpowiednio, jeśli linia ta zajęta jest przez 30 minut, natężenie to wynosi 0,5 Erlanga. +Ajchigierowie + +Ajchigierowie — ród herbu Ajchigier, którego protoplastą był Zybult Ajchigier – przybyły do Polski za czasów Zygmunta I z Niemiec. Ożeniony z Polką, z domu Maleczkowską, siostrą wielkorządcy krakowskiego Michała, ojciec Zybulta i Jerzego. +Zybult Ajchigier młodszy służył na dworze hospodara wołoskiego. Miał dwóch synów. Obaj żołnierze, zginęli w XVII wieku. Jeden służył w chorągwi husarskiej hetmana polnego koronnego Marcina Kazanowskiego. Drugi pod hetmanem wielkim koronnym Stanisławem Potockim. +Jerzy Ajchigier był dworzaninem Stefana Batorego. W jego służbie wykonywał poufne misje na Węgrzech. +Among the Living + +Among the Living to trzeci studyjny album grupy Anthrax, wydany w marcu 1987 roku przez Megaforce / Island Records na CD, kasecie i winylu (również jako "picture disc"). +Utwór "Among The Living" został oparty na powieści Stephena Kinga "Bastion". Opowiada o Randallu Flaggu, głównym bohaterze książki, a pierwszy wers: "Disease, disease, spreading the disease!" mówi o użytej w tej książce broni biologicznej. +Piosenka "I Am The Law" opowiada o komiksowej postaci o imieniu Judge Dredd. Kompozycja "Efilnikufesin (N.F.L.)" opowiada o życiu i śmierci Johna Belushiego. Piosenka "Skeleton In The Closet" inspirowana nowela Stephena Kinga "Apt Pupil". Z kolei utwór "Indians" opowiadający o konkwiście i zagładzie rdzennych Indian. Mówi o tym jak byli zamieniani w obywateli drugiego rzędu, jak znęcano się nad nimi. +Hibernian F.C. + +Hibernian Football Club – zawodowy klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Leith, w Edynburgu, w Szkocji, w Wielkiej Brytanii. Założony został w 1875 przez irlandzkich imigrantów. Tożsamość irlandzka została później zbagatelizowana, ale nadal jest widoczna w nazwie i herbie. Półfinalista Pucharu Europy oraz Pucharu Miast Targowych. "Hibernia" to łacińska nazwa Irlandii. +Przydomki piłkarzy to "Hibs", "Hibees" oraz "The Cabbage". Domowe mecze piłkarze klubu rozgrywają na Easter Road Stadium. Hibernian F.C. czterokrotnie zdobywał mistrzostwo Szkocji, ostatni raz w 1952. Trzy z czterech mistrzostw wywalczył w latach 1948-1952, co było zasługą głównie The Famous Five na czele z Lawriem Reilly, który został wówczas trzykrotnie królem strzelców. Klub dwukrotnie triumfował w rozgrywkach o Puchar Szkocji, dziesięć razy przegrał w finałach, ostatni raz w 2012. Ostatnie dotąd trofeum klub zdobył w 2007, wygrywając w finale Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej z Kilmarnock F.C. 5:1. +Obecnie klub występuje w rozgrywkach Scottish Premier League. Trenerem drużyny od października 2010 jest Szkot Colin Calderwood. +Historia. +Założenie klubu. +Hibernian Football Club został założony w sierpniu 1875 przez parafian rzymskokatolickiego kościoła pod wezwaniem Świętego Patryka, położonego przy ulicy Cowgate w Edynburgu. Głównymi założycielami Hibernian byli: Canon Edward Joseph Hannan oraz przewodniczący miejscowego stowarzyszenia "Catholic Young Men's Association", Michael Whelahan, który stał się również pierwszym kapitanem klubu. Klub początkowo, tak jak większość edynburskich drużyn, rozgrywał swoje mecze w parku The Meadows, położonym na południe od centrum miasta. W 1880 klub przeniósł się do wschodniej dzielnicy Edynburga – Leith, budując Hibernian Park. Stadion znajdował się w miejscu, gdzie obecnie rozciąga się Bothwell Street. W 1891 "Hibees" przenieśli się na obecny stadion – Easter Road, położony kilkadziesiąt metrów od miejsca, w którym znajdował się poprzedni obiekt klubu. +W latach 70. i 80. XIX wieku jedynymi rozgrywkami, w których uczestniczyły szkockie kluby piłkarskie, był Puchar Szkocji, zainaugurowany w 1874. Występował w nich również zespół Hibernian F.C., nie odnosząc znaczących sukcesów. Dopiero w dwanaście lat od powstania, "Hibees" zdobyli swoje pierwsze trofeum sportowe. 12 lutego 1887 w finałowym meczu Pucharu Szkocji Hibernian pokonał 2:1 zespół Dumbarton F.C., stając się jednocześnie piątą drużyną, która zdobyła Puchar Szkocji w ciągu jego trzynastoletniego istnienia. Przed Hibernianem Puchar zdobyły jedynie: Queen's Park F.C., Vale of Leven F.C., Dumbarton F.C. oraz Renton F.C.. +Na kolejny sukces sportowy zawodnicy i kibice "Hibs" nie musieli długo czekać, 13 sierpnia 1887 Hibernian pokonał bowiem angielski Preston North End F.C. w meczu firmowanym przez The Football Association i Scottish Football Association jako "Championship of the World". Był to pierwszy, a zarazem jedyny triumf Hibernianu w rozgrywkach międzynarodowych. +Powstanie ligi. +W 1890 dziesięć zespołów ze Szkocji założyło Scottish Football League – system rozgrywek ligowych, wzorowany na angielskiej The Football League założonej w 1888. Wśród dziesięciu założycieli ligi nie znalazł się Hibernian F.C., był za to lokalny rywal "Hibs" – Heart of Midlothian F.C.. Przez początkowe trzy lata istnienia Scottish Football League składała się z jednego szczebla rozgrywkowego, w wyniku czego drużyna zajmująca ostatnie miejsce w lidze nie miała możliwości spadku. Wzrost popularności piłki nożnej w Szkocji oraz naciski pozostałych klubów niezrzeszonych w Scottish Football League (w tym m.in. Hibernianu) spowodowały, że w sezonie 1893/1894 rozszerzono je o jedną klasę rozgrywkową. Wskutek tych działań powstały: Scottish Division One oraz Scottish Division Two, będąca odpowiednikiem II ligi. +Sezon 1893/94 był debiutem Hibernian F.C. w rozgrywkach ligowych. Klub z dziewięcioma innymi zespołami utworzył Scottish Division Two. W swoim debiutanckim sezonie w Scottish Division Two klub zajął pierwsze miejsce. W 18 spotkaniach zdobył 29 punktów, wygrywając 13 meczów, remisując 3 oraz przegrywając 2. Mimo iż klub zwyciężył w rywalizacji ligowej, I ligę zasilił zespół Clyde F.C.. Sytuacja ta spowodowana była faktem, że o awansie do Scottish Division Two decydowały kluby Scottish Division One. Poprzez głosowanie wybrały one spośród trzech czołowych drużyn II ligi przyszłego beniaminka – Clyde F.C. Klub w następnym sezonie powtórzył swoje osiągnięcie, ponownie wygrywając Scottish Division Two. Tym razem triumf w lidze dał upragniony awans do I ligi. +W sezonie 1895/96 Scottish Division One "Hibs", grając jako beniaminek, odnotowali 11 zwycięstw, 2 remisy oraz 5 porażek, zdobywając łącznie 24 punkty. Pozwoliło to Hibernianowi na zajęcie trzeciego miejsca w lidze. Był to niewątpliwy sukces, szczególnie, że "Hibees" wyprzedzili lokalnego rywala, a zarazem ustępującego mistrza – Heart of Midlothian F.C., który uplasował się na czwartym miejscu. Obie drużyny spotkały się w finale Pucharu Szkocji. 14 marca 1896, w meczu rozegranym na Logie Green, w jedynym finale rozegranym poza Glasgow, Hibernian przegrał z Hearts 1:3. Był to swoisty rewanż "Serc" za niepowodzenia w lidze. +W następnych sezonach Hibernian utrzymywał się w czołówce ligi, zajmując w latach 1896-1901 miejsca w ligowej tabeli powyżej piątego. "Hibs" prowadzili równocześnie rywalizację z Hearts o prymat w derbach Edynburga. Rywalizacja o wyższe miejsce w tabeli od lokalnego rywala prowadzona była ze zmiennym szczęściem. Do sezonu 1901/02 pojedynki te nie przynosiły Hibernianowi znaczących sukcesów w lidze oraz pucharach. Sezon 1901/02 klub zaliczył do udanych, pomimo zajęcia szóstego miejsca w lidze. 26 kwietnia 1902 "Hibs" zmierzyli się w finale Pucharu Szkocji z drużyną Celticu. Wygrywając 1:0, zespół przypieczętował swój drugi triumf w tych rozgrywkach. +Kolejny sezon 1902/03 w wykonaniu "Hibees" był bardzo udany – zespół z Edynburga wywalczył swoje pierwsze Mistrzostwo Szkocji w historii. W 22 meczach ligowych Hibernian zgromadził 37 punktów, wyprzedzając drugi Dundee F.C. o sześć oczek. "Hibs", którzy w mistrzowskim sezonie odnieśli 16 zwycięstw, 5 remisów i jedną porażkę, stali się 5. drużyną, która triumfowała w rozgrywkach ligowych. +Początek XX wieku. +W 1903 Hibernian zatrudnił pierwszego szkoleniowca, którym został Dan McMichael. McMichael pełnił funkcję trenera w latach 1903-1919. Za jego kadencji klub plasował się wśród ligowych średniaków, zajmując miejsca poniżej piątej pozycji. W początkowym okresie jego rządów, w latach 1903-1910, "Hibs" dwukrotnie zajmowali piątą lokatę (w sezonach: 1904/05 i 1907/08), a raz byli szóstą drużyną ligi (sezon 1908/09). Spadek formy zespół odnotował w kolejnej dekadzie, kiedy to oscylował wokół ostatniej pozycji. +Wybuch pierwszej wojny światowej wpłynął znacząco na działalność wielu szkockich klubów. W związku z faktem, że Szkocja nie była zagrożona nalotami bombowymi, kontynuowano rozgrywki ligowe, zmieniając jedynie ich formułę. Z dwóch lig powstała jedna, składająca się z 20 zespołów, która prowadziła rozgrywki pod nazwą Scottish League Division One. Działania, które spowodowały okrojenie ligi, okazały się nader korzystne dla "Hibees". Klub od dłuższego czasu przeżywał kryzys, którego ekstremum przypadło na lata wojenne. W sezonie 1915/16 Hibernian zajął 19. – przedostatnie miejsce w lidze, natomiast trzy lata później klub uplasował się na ostatnim, 18. miejscu. Zespół uniknął wtedy degradacji do niższej klasy rozgrywkowej tylko i wyłącznie dzięki brakowi II ligi, zawieszonej na czas działań wojennych. +Jedynym znaczącym osiągnięciem trenera Dana McMichaela było dotarcie do finału Pucharu Szkocji w 1914. W spotkaniu rozegranym 11 kwietnia 1914, przeciwko Celtic F.C. padł bezbramkowy remis. O losie Pucharu zadecydował dodatkowy mecz, rozegrany 16 kwietnia 1914. W drugim spotkaniu finałowym Celtic pokonał zespół z Edynburga 4:1, zdobywając po raz dziewiąty to trofeum. +Kolejne zmiany na stanowisku trenerskim nie przynosiły znaczących zmian w grze drużyny, której forma bardzo się wahała. Ani David Gordon w latach 1919-1920, ani Alex Maley w latach 1920-1925 nie osiągnęli z klubem znaczących sukcesów sportowych. Fakt ten spowodował, że klub zdecydował się na zatrudnienie Bobby'ego Templetona na stanowisku szkoleniowca w 1925. Templeton pomimo ogromnej pracy włożonej w drużynę nie zdołał utrzymać jej w I lidze. W sezonie 1930/1931 "Hibees" zajęli 19. – przedostatnie miejsce w lidze, gromadząc 25 punktów. W 38 spotkaniach sezonu 1930/1931 Hibernian odnotował 9 zwycięstw, 7 remisów i aż 22 porażki, które skazały go na grę w II lidze. +W kolejnym sezonie klub grając w Scottish League Division Two zajął siódmą pozycję, tracąc 11 punktów do lidera. Dopiero sezon 1932/33 przyniósł oczekiwany awans do I ligi. "Hibs" przypieczętowali go, zajmując pierwszą pozycję, z dziewięciopunktową przewagą nad drugim Queen of the South F.C. W 37 spotkaniach klub wywalczył 60 punktów, odnosząc 28 zwycięstw, 4 remisy i 5 porażek. +W pierwszym sezonie po awansie Hibernian, występując jako beniaminek, utrzymał się w lidze, zajmując 16. miejsce w tabeli. Przez sześć kolejnych sezonów od powrotu do ligi, aż do wybuchu II wojny światowej, "Hibees" plasowali na końcu ligowej tabeli, zajmując jednak zawsze miejsca gwarantujące pozostanie w lidze. W latach 1939-1945 rozgrywki ligowe zostały zawieszone na czas wojny światowej. +Era Hugh Shawa – lata świetności. +Rozgrywki w Szkocji. +W 1946 szkocka liga wznowiła swe rozgrywki. Trener William McCartney, zatrudniony w 1936, powrócił do pracy w klubie. Już w pierwszym sezonie po wojnie, 1946/47, zdołał wywalczyć wicemistrzostwo Szkocji, ustępując jedynie Rangers F.C.. Był to niewątpliwy sukces szkoleniowca, który zdołał przekształcić "Hibs" z drużyny walczącej o utrzymanie pod koniec lat 30. w czołowy klub szkockiej I ligi lat 40. i 50. Kolejnym jego ważnym osiągnięciem było dotarcie do finału Pucharu Szkocji w 1947. W meczu rozegranym 19 kwietnia klub z Edynburga nie sprostał jednak Aberdeen F.C., przegrywając 1:2. +Prawdziwy sukces miał nadejść dopiero w kolejnym sezonie 1947/48. Klub, pod wodzą McCartneya, zdobył po 45 latach przerwy tytuł Mistrza Szkocji. Hibernian, gromadząc 48 punktów, wyprzedził na finiszu rozgrywek ligowych ustępującego mistrza – Rangers F.C. różnicą dwóch punktów. Z 30 spotkań klub wygrał 22, zremisował 4 i odnotował 4 porażki. Sezon 1947/48 był zapowiedzią powrotu "Hibees" do czołówki ligi, po 40-letnim okresie niepowodzeń. +W 1948 z klubem pożegnał się trener McCartney, który odszedł w mistrzowskiej sławie. Jego następcą został wybrany Szkot Hugh Shaw. To za jego kadencji, trwającej od 1948 do 1962, klub osiągnął największe sukcesy sportowe. +W sezonie 1948/49 Szkotowi nie powiódł się plan obrony mistrzowskiego trofeum, które wywalczyli Rangersi. Ostatecznie Hibernian zakończył rozgrywki ligowe na trzeciej pozycji, którą poprawił w następnym sezonie, zdobywając tytuł wicemistrza Szkocji. O tytule mistrzowskim, który znów przypadł Rangersom, zadecydował jeden punkt różnicy. To właśnie w trakcie sezonu 1949/50 został ustanowiony rekord frekwencji obiektu. 2 stycznia 1950 derby Edynburga przeciwko Hearts obejrzało 65 860 osób. +Sezon 1950/51 przyniósł klubowi trzeci tytuł Mistrza Szkocji. Na zakończenie sezonu "Hibs" zgromadzili 48 punktów, wyprzedając drugich w tabeli Rangersów 10 punktami. Oprócz wysokiej pozycji w lidze, klub wystąpił również w finale Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej. Mecz rozegrany 28 października 1950 był debiutem "Hibees" w finale tych rozgrywek. Pojedynek finałowy zakończył się porażką Hibernianu z zespołem Motherwell F.C. 0:3. Rozgrywki ligowe sezonu 1951/52 udowodniły prawdziwą siłę zespołu, który obronił mistrzowskie trofeum. "Hibees" zwieńczyli sezon z pulą 45 punktów, pokonując na finiszu rozgrywek Rangers F.C. Triumfując w sezonie 1951/52, Hibernian został czwartą drużyną, która w 55-letniej historii rozgrywek ligowych obroniła tytuł mistrzowski. Jak się miało potem okazać, był to zarazem ostatni triumf "Hibees" w rozgrywkach ligowych. +Sezon 1952/53 przyniósł zaskakującą sytuację – Rangers F.C. oraz Hibernian F.C. zakończyły rozgrywki ligowe z identycznym dorobkiem punktowym, wynoszącym 43 oczka. Obecnie taką sytuację rozstrzyga dodatkowy mecz, bilans bezpośrednich spotkań lub różnica bramek strzelonych i straconych. W sezonie 1952/53 "Hibs" dwukrotnie spotykali się z Rangers F.C., wygrywając 11 października 1952 na Ibrox Park 2:1 oraz remisując 1:1 u siebie 17 stycznia 1953. Również bilans bramkowy przemawiał na korzyść klubu z Edynburga, który strzelił 93 bramki przy stracie 51 (różnica 42 bramek). Piłkarze Rangers F.C. strzelili natomiast 80 goli, przy 39 straconych (różnica 41 bramek). W związku z tym, że zaistniała sytuacja miała miejsce pierwszy raz w szkockiej lidze, Scottish Football Association zadecydowała, że losy tytułu mistrzowskiego rozstrzygnie nie różnica, tylko stosunek bramek strzelonych do straconych. Dzięki tej decyzji to właśnie Rangersi mogli cieszyć się ze zdobycia 28. tytułu Mistrzów Szkocji, ponieważ ich stosunek bramkowy wynosił 2,05 przy 1,82 zespołu "Hibees". +Shaw, pracując z Hibernianem do 1962, nie powtórzył już sukcesów ligowych z początku lat 50.. Jedynym osiągnięciem w rozgrywkach ligowych, które zanotował w latach 1953-1962, było dotarcie do finału Pucharu Szkocji w sezonie 1957/58. W finałowym meczu, 26 kwietnia 1958 na Hampden Park, Hibernian uległ zespołowi Clyde F.C. 0:1, przegrywając jednocześnie swój piąty z kolei finał Pucharu Szkocji. O ile "Hibees" słabo spisywali się w lidze, o tyle zespół zupełnie inaczej prezentował się w europejskich pucharach. +Europejskie puchary. +W sezonie 1955/1956 wystartował Puchar Europy. W jego rozgrywkach wziął udział Hibernian, jako jedyny klub z Wielkiej Brytanii. Sukces był o tyle większy, że klub dotarł do półfinału Pucharu Europy, pokonując w dwumeczu niemiecki Rot-Weiss Essen oraz szwedzki Djurgårdens IF. Dopiero w spotkaniu z Stade de Reims, musiał uznać wyższość rywali, przegrywając 0:2 na wyjeździe i 0:1 u siebie. +W pięć lat później Hibees ponownie wystąpili w europejskich pucharach, tym razem były to już jednak rozgrywki Pucharu Miast Targowych. Przeprawa przez 1/8 nie nastręczyła Hibernianowi poważniejszych problemów. Szwajcarski Lausanne Sports, przegrywając pierwszy mecz 0:2, następny oddał walkowerem. W kolejne rundzie klub natknął się na FC Barcelona. W pierwszym meczu rozegranym 27 grudnia 1960 obie drużyny zmierzyły się na Camp Nou. Hibernian już po 18 minutach spotkania prowadził 2:0, po bramkach Bakera i MacLeoda. FC Barcelona doprowadził do remisu, po bramkach Kocsisa w 36. i 53. minucie. Kolejne trafienia Bairda oraz Bakera spowodowały, że Hibees na szesnaście minut przed końcem prowadzili 4:2. Barcelona odpowiedziała w 83. minucie trafieniem Kocsisa, który skompletował hat-tricka. "Duma Katalonii" nie dała jednak za wygraną i na minutę przed zakończeniem meczu doprowadziła do remisu, za sprawą gola Evaristo. +Rewanż rozegrano 22 lutego 1961 na Easter Road Stadium w Edynburgu, przy pełnych trybunach. Pierwsi do ataku ruszyli gospodarze, co przyniosło im bramkę już w 10. minucie gry. Przewaga "Hibees" stopniowo malała, co pozwoliło na strzelenie przez FC Barcelona dwóch bramek przed przerwą. Druga połowa spotkania długo nie przynosiła zmiany rezultatu, do 74. minuty, kiedy to Sammy Baird zdobył wyrównującą bramkę. Następne dziesięć minut spotkania stało na wyrównanym poziomie – żadna ze stron nie uzyskała wyraźnej przewagi. Decydująca o awansie akcja meczu została rozegrana w 85. minucie, kiedy to zawodnik "Hibees" został faulowany w polu karnym. Skutecznym egzekutorem rzutu karnego okazał się Kmloch, który dał awans swojej drużynie. Wyeliminowanie hiszpańskiego giganta było największym sukcesem klubu z Edynburga na arenie międzynarodowej. +W półfinale Pucharu Miast Targowych Hibernian spotkał się z włoską AS Roma. Pierwsze dwa mecze zakończyły się remisami, odpowiednio 2:2 i 3:3. Zgodnie z ówczesnymi zasadami o awansie zadecydować miał dodatkowy mecz – play off, który został rozegrany 27 maja 1961 w Rzymie. W spotkaniu tym Hibernian został rozgromiony 0:6, odnotowując jednocześnie najwyższą porażkę w historii swoich występów w europejskich pucharach. +Lata 1962-1980. +Kolejne lata przyniosły kibicom "Hibees" wiele rozczarowań. Klub plasował się w środku tabeli ligowej, nie odnosząc żadnych sukcesów w rozgrywkach Pucharu Szkocji oraz Pucharu Ligi. W ciągu dziewięciu lat od ustąpienia trenera Hugh Shawa w 1962 zatrudniono pięciu szkoleniowców. Kolejno: Walter Galbraith, Jock Stein, Bob Shankly, Willie MacFarlane oraz Dave Ewing obejmowali posadę szkoleniowca, nie doprowadzając "Hibees" do znaczących sukcesów. +W pierwszym sezonie po odejściu Shawa Hibernian pod wodzą Waltera Galbraitha uplasował się, w tabeli liczącej 18 zespołów, dopiero na szesnastym miejscu. Było to ostatnie miejsce dające utrzymanie w I lidze. Mimo katastrofalnej postawy w lidze, Galbraith prowadził zespół w kolejnym sezonie 1963/64, doprowadzając go do dziesiątego miejsca. Stanowisko trenera przejął po nim Jock Stein, który pracował w Edynburgu przez jeden sezon – 1964/65. Klub zajął czwartą lokatę, która pozwoliła mu na start w następnym sezonie w Pucharze Miast Targowych, już pod wodzą nowego szkoleniowca. Pojawienie się Boba Shankly'ego ożywiło nadzieje kibiców na sukces. W pierwszych trzech latach pracy na Easter Road Stadium Shankly zajął z drużyną odpowiednio szóste, piąte i trzecie miejsce w lidze. Ponadto klub ponownie zaistniał w europejskich pucharach, trzykrotnie grając w Pucharze Miast Targowych, dwukrotnie dochodząc do 1/8 rozgrywek. Najlepszym okresem Shankly'ego z "Hibees" w Europie był sezon 1968/69, kiedy to klub wygrał pięć z sześciu spotkań pucharowych. O awansie do ćwierćfinału Pucharu Miast Targowych, mimo wygranej 2:1 nad niemieckim Lokomotive Lipsk, zadecydowały bramki strzelone na wyjeździe. O ile w Pucharze klub poczynał sobie dobrze, o tyle sezon 1968/69 w lidze nie należał do najbardziej udanych. Klub zajął 12. miejsce, przegrywając 15 z 34 spotkań, co spowodowało dymisję Shankly'ego. +Jego następcą został Willie MacFarlane, który prowadził klub w sezonie 1969/70. Doprowadził on "Hibees" do zajęcia trzeciego miejsca w lidze, dającego awans do kolejnej edycji Pucharu Miast Targowych. Tam, już pod wodzą Davego Ewinga, Hibernian awansował do 1/8 rozgrywek, przegrywając rywalizację z Liverpool F.C. 0:3. +W 1971 funkcję trenera przejął Eddie Turnbull, który piastował ją przez dziewięć lat. Już w pierwszym sezonie pod wodzą Turnbulla, "Hibs" zajęli czwartą pozycję w lidze, dochodząc jednocześnie do finału Pucharu Szkocji. 6 maja 1972, w meczu finałowym z Celtic F.C., Hibernian został rozgromiony 1:6. Okazja do rewanżu nadarzyła się już 9 grudnia 1972, kiedy to "Hibees" zmierzyli się z Celtami, będącymi ówczesnymi mistrzami Szkocji, w meczu finałowym Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej. Pojedynek zakończył się wynikiem 2:1 dla "Hibs", którzy tym samym wywalczyli swój pierwszy Puchar Ligi. W kolejnych sezonach ligowych Hibernian spisywał się coraz lepiej, zajmując wysokie pozycje na zakończenie rozgrywek. W sezonie 1972/73 klub zajął trzecią lokatę, ustępując jedynie hegemonom z Glasgow – Celtic F.C. oraz Rangers F.C.. W kolejnych dwóch sezonach "Hibees" nawiązali równorzędną walkę o mistrzostwo Szkocji z klubami z Glasgow, zdobywając dwukrotnie wicemistrzostwo Szkocji w sezonach: 1973/74 oraz 1974/75. W rozgrywkach sezonu 1975/76 Hibernian ostatecznie został zmuszony do uznania wyższości Old Firm w lidze, po tym jak zajął 3. lokatę. Na dokładkę klub ponownie wystąpił w finale Pucharu Ligi. Spotkanie przeciwko Celtic F.C., rozegrane 26 października 1974, zakończyło się porażką klubu z Edynburga 3:6. +Wysoka pozycja w lidze, którą "Hibees" utrzymywali przez kilka lat, przyniosła możliwość zaistnienia klubu w europejskich pucharach na dłużej. Podczas dziewięciu lat pracy Turnbulla klub sześciokrotnie stawał w szranki z europejskimi drużynami, w tym czterokrotnie z rzędu w Pucharze UEFA, w latach 1973-1977. Występując w Pucharze UEFA w sezonie 1974/75 Hibernian odniósł swoje najwyższe zwycięstwo na arenie międzynarodowej, pokonując 2 października 1974 norweski Rosenborg BK 9:1. +Pod koniec lat 70. klub nadal znajdował się w czołówce ligi. W sezonie 1977/78 "Hibees" zajęli 4. pozycję, zaś następny sezon zakończyli na piątym miejscu, nic więc nie zapowiadało fatalnej postawy drużyny w sezonie 1979/80. W trakcie sezonu zwplniono z posady trenera Eddiego Turnbulla, którego zastąpił Willie Ormond. Ostatecznie Hibernian zajął wtedy ostatnie, 12. miejsce, które oznaczało relegację z I ligi. W 36 spotkaniach ligowych "Hibees" zdobyli 18 punktów, wygrywając 6 spotkań oraz odnosząc jednocześnie 24 porażki. Był to jeden z najgorszych sezonów w wykonaniu klubu z Edynburga w jego historii. +Od Aulda do Millera. +W sezonie 1980/81 klub występował w Scottish League Division One – odpowiedniku II ligi. W 39 spotkaniach pod wodzą Bertiego Aulda "Hibees" zdobyli 57 punktów, które zapewniły pierwsze miejsce w Scottish League Division One oraz awans do Scottish Premier Division. Podczas tego sezonu klub zanotował 25 zwycięstw, 8 remisów oraz 6 porażek, tracąc 22 bramki. Auld prowadził Hibernian również w następnym sezonie, kiedy to klub jako beniaminek wywalczył 6. lokatę. +Kolejne lata nie przyniosły znaczącej poprawy formy. Klub w latach 80. należał do ligowych średniaków, plasując się siedmiokrotnie na miejscach od 6. do 8. W latach 1982-1986 drużyną kierowali Pat Stanton oraz John Blackley. Jedynym znaczącym osiągnięciem klubu tamtych lat było dotarcie do finału Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej. 27 października 1985 Hibernian przegrał 0:3 z drużyną Aberdeen F.C.. Był to zarazem czwarty przegrany mecz finałowy o to trofeum w historii klubu z Edynburga. Wyróżniającymi się zawodnikami, którzy jednocześnie stanowili o sile zespołu lat 80., byli: Alan Rough, Gordon Durie oraz John Collins. +W 1986 roku posadę trenerską objął Alex Miller i piastował ją przez dekadę. Mimo tej zmiany klub nadal nie błyszczał w rozgrywkach ligowych, gdzie plasował się w dolnej części tabeli. Najwyższą lokatą, którą Hibees zajęli pod wodzą Millera, było trzecie miejsce w sezonie 1994/95, kiedy to przegrali rywalizację o mistrzostwo Szkocji z Rangers F.C. oraz Motherwell F.C.. Znacznie lepiej wiodło się Hibernianowi w rozgrywkach pucharowych. Dzięki zajęciu piątego miejsca w lidze w sezonie 1988/89 klub wystąpił, po dziesięcioletniej przerwie, w rozgrywkach Pucharu UEFA. W 1/32 Szkoci dwukrotnie pokonali Videoton FC, odpowiednio: 1:0 na Easter Road oraz 3:0 na wyjeździe. W kolejnej fazie klub z Edynburga toczył zaciętą rywalizację w R.F.C. de Liège. W pierwszym spotkaniu rozegranym w Belgii padł bezbramkowy remis. W rewanżu, po 90 minutach regulaminowego czasu gry, również utrzymywał się bezbramkowy remis. O awansie Belgów do dalszej fazy rozgrywek zadecydowała bramka strzelona w dogrywce. +W krajowych pucharach Hibernian spisywał się zdecydowanie lepiej niż w lidze, dwukrotnie dochodząc do finału Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej. 27 października 1991 klub zdobył swój drugi Puchar Ligi, pokonując 2:0 zespół Dunfermline Athletic F.C.. W dwa lata później, 24 października 1993, Hibernian ponownie awansował do finału tych rozgrywek. W decydującym meczu edynburski klub musiał uznać wyższość Rangersów, którzy wygrali to spotkanie 2:1. Puchar Ligi w 1991 był pierwszym trofeum zdobytym po 19-letniej przerwie. +Klub na przełomie wieków. +W 1996 trenerem Hibernianu został Szkot Jim Duffy. W debiutanckim sezonie pracy na Easter Road zajął z klubem 9. lokatę z dorobkiem 38 punktów. Zgodnie z przepisami ligowymi klub musiał rozegrać baraż o pozostanie w I lidze z drugą drużyną II ligi sezonu 1996/97 – Airdrieonians F.C.. Pierwsze spotkanie zostało rozegrane na Edynburgu i zakończyło się wygraną gospodarzy 1:0. W rewanżu, 22 maja 1997 "Hibees" wygrali 4:2. Dzięki temu zwycięstwu piłkarze z Edynburga utrzymali się w lidze. +W sezonie 1997/98 klub spisywał się fatalnie w rozgrywkach ligowych. W 36 spotkaniach Hibernian zdobył 30 punktów, odnosząc 6 zwycięstw, 12 remisów i aż 18 porażek. Bilans ten spowodował, że klub uplasował się na ostatniej – 10. lokacie w lidze, co wiązało się z relegacją do II ligi. Był to drugi spadek do niższej ligi w historii klubu. Z pracą szkoleniowca drużyny pożegnał się natomiast Jim Duffy, który został zastąpiony przez Alexa McLeisha. +Sezon 1998/99 klub spędził w Scottish League Division One. Hibernian zakończył go zajmując pierwszą lokatę, dającą awans do zreformowanej I ligi – Scottish Premier League. W 36 spotkaniach klub odnotował 28 zwycięstw przy 3 porażkach, co pozwoliło mu na zgromadzenie 89 punktów. Przewaga nad drugim w tabeli – Falkirk F.C. – wyniosła 23 oczka, co dobitnie pokazało, że miejsce "Hibs" jest w pierwszej lidze. +W debiucie w Scottish Premier League – szkockim odpowiedniku Premier League – klub uplasował się na szóstym miejscu. Kolejny sezon 2000/01 należał do bardzo udanych. "Hibees" zajęli trzecią lokatę, ustępując jedynie potentatom z Glasgow – Celtic F.C. oraz Rangers F.C.. Klub odnotował również udany start w Pucharze Szkocji, dochodząc do finału tych rozgrywek, gdzie 26 maja 2001 uległ mistrzowi Szkocji – Celticowi 0:3. +Z sezonem 2001/02 kibice i działacze "Hibs" wiązali duże nadzieje na ligowy sukces. Jak się okazało, złudne, ponieważ klub uplasował się na trzecim miejscu od końca tabeli. Zespołowi nie wiodło się również w rozgrywkach pucharowych – klub odpadł z rozgrywek Pucharu Szkocji, w 1/8 przegrywając z Rangers F.C. 1:4. W Pucharze UEFA nie sprostał natomiast w pierwszej rundzie greckiemu AEK Ateny. Mimo wygranej 3:2 w Edynburgu, klub nie zdołał awansować, gdyż wcześniej przegrał na wyjeździe 0:2. Do tego doszły również roszady na stanowisku trenera. W trakcie sezonu zwolniony został Alex McLeish. Drużynę tymczasowo objął Donald Park, do czasu sprowadzenia byłego piłkarza "Hibees" – Francka Sauzée. Francuz, w związku ze słabą postawą drużyny, został zdymisjonowany przed zakończeniem sezonu 2001/02. Funkcję trenera ponownie objął Donald Park, który pełnił ją do zakończenia rozgrywek ligowych. W oknie transferowym Hibernian zatrudnił długoletniego szkoleniowca Kilmarnock F.C. – Bobby'ego Williamsona. +Prowadził on klub w sezonach: 2002/03 oraz 2003/04, nie odnosząc znaczących sukcesów ligowych. Jedynym jego osiągnięciem było dotarcie do finału Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej, w którym Hibernian uległ Livingston F.C. 0:2. +Od 2004 do 2006. +24 maja 2004 stanowisko trenera "Hibees" objął Tony Mowbray, zastępując niepopularnego wśród kibiców Williamsona. Nominacja ta okazała się dużym zaskoczeniem, ponieważ media od dłuższego czasu spekulowały na temat innych kandydatów do objęcia funkcji trenera. Wśród wymienianych znaleźli się: John Gorman, David Hay oraz Tommy Burns Zmiany przyniosły efekty już w pierwszym sezonie pracy nowego szkoleniowca. W sezonie 2004/05 Hibernian wywalczył trzecią lokatę w lidze, zdobywając 61 punktów. Zapewniło to klubowi z Edynburga start w rozgrywkach Pucharu UEFA w następnym sezonie. +Początek sezonu 2005/06 w wykonaniu "Hibees" okazał się rewelacyjny. W 14 pierwszych meczach klub odnotował 10 zwycięstw. Wielu komentatorów upatrywało w Hibernianie pretendenta do tytułu mistrzowskiego, sam Mowbray stwierdził jednak, że "Hibs" będzie trudno walczyć o mistrzowską koronę z klubami mającymi o wiele większe budżety – Celtic F.C., Rangers F.C. oraz Heart of Midlothian F.C. Kontuzje oraz sprzedaż Garry'ego O'Connora do Łokomotiwu Moskwa spowodowały, że zespół stracił skuteczność z początku sezonu. Rozczarowująca druga połowa sezonu sprawiła, że klub ostatecznie zajął czwarte miejsce w lidze, plasując się z 56 punktami za: Celtic F.C., Hearts oraz Rangers F.C.. Wywalczenie czwartej pozycji pozwoliło jednak klubowi na zakwalifikowanie się do rozgrywek Pucharu Intertoto w następnym sezonie. +W 1. rundzie rozgrywek Pucharu UEFA Hibernian nie sprostał Dnipro Dniepropietrowsk, remisując bezbramkowo u siebie i przegrywając 1:5 na wyjeździe Bardzo obiecująco wyglądały natomiast występy "Hibees" w Pucharze Szkocji w piłce nożnej. W drodze do półfinału tych rozgrywek klub pokonał 6:0 Arbroath F.C., 3:0 Rangers F.C. oraz 5:1 Falkirk F.C. W półfinałowym meczu Hibernian zmierzył się z lokalnym rywalem – Heart of Midlothian F.C. Półfinałowy pojedynek derbowy, rozegrany 2 kwietnia 2006 na Hampden Park w obecności 43 180 widzów, zakończył się porażką "Hibs" 0:4. Bramki dla Hearts zdobyli: Paul Hartley (hat-trick) oraz Edgaras Jankauskas +Od 2006 do dnia dzisiejszego. +Sezon 2006/07 rozpoczął się dość nieoczekiwanie dla klubu – ze stanowiska szkoleniowca drużyny zrezygnował Tony Mowbray. Funkcję trenera objął były piłkarz "Hibs" – John Collins. W 38 spotkaniach klub odnotował 13 zwycięstw, 10 remisów oraz 15 porażek, co pozwoliło na zajęcie 6. miejsca w lidze. Zupełnie inaczej wiodło się "Hibees" w rozgrywkach Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej. Klub dotarł do finału tych zawodów, pokonując po drodze: 4:0 Peterhead F.C. +6:0 Gretna F.C., +1:0 Hearts +oraz 3:1 St. Johnstone F.C.. +W finale przeciwnikiem Hibernianu okazał się zespół Kilmarnock F.C. W decydującym meczu, rozegranym 18 marca 2007 na Hampden Park przy 52-tysięcznej widowni, "Hibs" wygrali 5:1, zdobywając tym samym swój trzeci Puchar Ligi Szkockiej. Bramki dla zwycięzców zdobyli: Abdessalam Benjelloun (dwie), Steven Fletcher (dwie) oraz Rob Jones. +Sezon 2007/08 zaczął się od zwycięstwa w Derbach Edynburga nad Hearts 1:0. Brian Kerr, który zadebiutował w tamtym meczu w barwach "Hibs", ustalił wynik spotkania w drugiej minucie meczu na Tynecastle Stadium. Następnie Hibernian wygrał z Gretna F.C. 4:2, pomimo że przegrywał w tym meczu 0:2. Następne dwa mecze zremisował – 0:0 z Dundee United F.C. na wyjeździe i 3:3 z Aberdeen F.C. u siebie. W meczu przeciwko Inverness CT, wygranym 1:0, Yves Makabu-Makalambay obronił rzut karny wykonywany przez Mariusa Niculae. Dotychczasową skuteczność piłkarze potwierdzili w meczu z Celtic F.C., wygranym 3:2 po dwóch błędach Artura Boruca. W Pucharze Ligi Szkockiej Hibs pokonał Kilmarnock F.C. 4:1 między innymi dzięki hat-trickowi Claytona Donaldsona. Później wygrał z Rangers F.C. na Ibrox Park 1:0, przedłużając serię bez porażki do dziesięciu meczów. W Hibernian F.C. następnie doszło do załamania formy u piłkarzy, którzy przegrali z Motherwell F.C. i St. Mirren F.C.. Po zwycięstwie nad Gretna F.C. 1:0, drużyna nie wygrała kolejnych jedenastu meczów w lidze, co spowodowało spadek poniżej "Top Six", a pracę w klubie stracił John Collins pod koniec grudnia 2007. +Nowego menedżera powołano 10 stycznia 2008, został nim Fin Mixu Paatelainen. Klub wygrał 3:0 z Inverness w Pucharze Szkocji, a następnie przegrał derbowe spotkanie z Hearts 0:1 na Tynecastle Stadium. Hibs wygrali cztery mecze w lutym – z Gretna F.C. 4:2, z Aberdeen F.C. 3:1, z Inverness CT 2:0 i 2:0 z Falkirk F.C.. Następnie przegrali 0:2 z Celtic F.C., by wygrać przeciwko Motherwell F.C. 1:0 i 2:0 przeciwko Kilmarnock F.C., wygrywając sześć z siedmiu rozegranych meczów w lidze pod wodzą nowego szkoleniowca. Później przegrali dwa mecze – z Rangers F.C. i Motherwell F.C., ale pokonali St. Mirren F.C. 2:0 w ostatnim meczu przed podzieleniem Scottish Premier League na dwie części – spadkową i mistrzowską. Hibernian F.C., zajmując szóste miejsce, zagwarantowali sobie miejsce w grupie mistrzowskiej i udział w rozgrywkach Pucharu Intertoto. +Szóste miejsce w sezonie 2008/2009, w tym odpadnięcie z krajowych pucharów, spowodowało, że wielu kibiców Hibernian F.C. chciało, by trener, Mixu został zwolniony. Jednak klub zdołał awansować do grupy mistrzowskiej na koniec sezonu. Mika-Matti Paatelainen zrezgnował z pracy po zakończeniu sezonu. +Wraz z początkiem sezonu, na stanowisko trenera drużyny mianowany został John Hughes, który, podobnie jak Mika-Matti Paatelainen, był wcześniej piłkarzem "Hibs". +Hughes kupił Antony’ego Stokesa oraz Liama Millera, którzy przyczynili się do zajęcia trzeciego miejsca w pierwszej połowie sezonu 2009/2010. Pojawiły się komentarze, że istnieje możliwość zajęcia drugiego miejsca w lidze na koniec sezonu i rozdzielenia między sobą Old Firm. +Kibice i kultura. +Hibernian F.C. jest jednym z dwóch zawodowych klubów piłkarskich pochodzących ze stolicy Szkocji i drugiego pod względem wielkości miasta w tej części składowej Wielkiej Brytanii. +Klub mógł poszczycić się piątą średnią frekwencji na stadionie w sezonie 2008/2009, która wyniosła 12 684 widzów. +W latach 80. oraz 90. XX wieku, uformowała się grupa huligańska pod nazwą Capital City Service i działa do dnia dzisiejszego. +Literatura. +Powieść Irvine’a Welsha, Trainspotting, zawiera kilka odniesień do Hibernian F.C.. Zespół był często wspominany w nieformalnych rozmowach. Adaptacja Trainspotting, wykonana przez Danny’ego Boyle’a również została wzbogacona o kilka wzmianek na temat klubu. +W finale książki The Acid House, Coco Bryce, chłopak z grupy chuligańskiej Hibernian F.C., został porażony piorunem pod wpływem LSD w parku Pilton, znajdującym się w Edynburgu. Jego dusza została przeniesiona do ciała nienarodzonego dziecka, znajdującego się w jednej z najbardziej zamożnych dzielnic Edynburga. +Hibernian F.C. został również często wspominany w serii dzieł Iana Rankina o Inspektorze Rebusie. Sam Rebus był fanem Raith Rovers F.C., natomiast jego koleżanka, sierżant Siobhan Clarke, była kibicem Hibernian F.C. i posiadała karnet na mecze rozgrywane na Easter Road Stadium. W telewizyjnej adaptacji z 2006 roku, Rebus proponował wejście na stadion Hibernian. Ken Stott, fan Heart of Midlothian F.C., grał w trzech seriach adaptacji. +Muzyka. +Hymn Hibernian F.C., "Glory, Glory to the Hibees" napisany i po raz pierwszy wykonany został przez szkocką komik, Hector Nicol. Wokalista zespołu Marillion, Fish jest fanem "Hibs". Fish wspomniał o Easter Road Stadium w piosence "Lucky" z albumu Internal Exile. +Fanami "Hibees" są również członkowie zespołu The Proclaimers. Tytułowy utwór z albumu Sunshine on Leith stał się hymnem klubu i jest tradycyjnie rozgrywany przed meczami o wysoką stawkę. Został on również odegrany po triumfie w Pucharze Ligi Szkockiej w sezonie 2006/2007, wygranym przez Hibernian F.C. 5:1 przeciwko Kilmarnock F.C. +Jednym z fragmentów innego utworu The Proclaimers, "Cap in Hand", również pochodzącego z albumu Sunshine on Leith, jest: +Kolory oraz herb. +Główne kolory Hibernian F.C. to zielony i biały, które po raz pierwszy zostały użyte w 1875 roku, gdy utworzono klub. Koszulka ma zazwyczaj zielony środek, białe rękawy oraz biały kołnierzyk. Spodenki są przeważnie białe, zielone natomiast są używane w ostatnich kilku sezonach. Skarpety są zielone, z dodatkami w kolorze białym. Piłkarze Hibernian F.C. używali żółtych, fioletowych, czarnych, białych i ciemnozielonych jako strojów alternatywnych. Stroje alternatywne po raz pierwszy zostały użyte w 1977 roku po tym, gdy telewizja odmówiła transmisji meczów „Hibees”, ponieważ piłkarze używali strojów domowych w tych samych kolorach, co reklamy sponsora. +W pierwszych latach istnienia klubu, piłkarze nosili białe i zielone, prążkowane koszulki. Było to inspiracją dla stylu przyjętego później przez Celtic F.C.. Piłkarze Hibernian F.C. nosili wszystkie zielone koszulki od 1879 roku, natomiast białe mankiety zostały dodane w 1938 roku. +W 2004 roku, zmieniono kolor skarpet i spodenek na zielony, dla uczczenia czterdziestej rocznicy wygranego 2:0 meczu z Realem Madryt. +Herb klubu zmieniał się co kilka lat. Jednym z głównych czynników jest tożsamość klubu i jego identyfikacja z Irlandią, albo obawa o oskarżenie o sekciarstwo. Irlandzka harfa została po raz pierwszy usunięta w latach 50. XX wieku, następnie ponownie wprowadzona do herbu w 2000 roku. Dyrektor Scottish Football Museum, Ged O’Brien w 2001 powiedział, iż obecny projekt herbu jest zgodny ze wszystkimi aspektami klubowej tradycji. +Derby Edynburga. +Za najsłynniejsze derby Szkocji uznaje się Old Firm, czyli potyczki między klubami: Celtic F.C. i Glasgow Rangers, jednak dużo starsze od nich są "WeeTeam", czyli rywalizacja między Hibernian F.C. i Heart of Midlothian F.C. +Pierwszy raz obie drużyny napotkały na siebie tuż po ich utworzeniu (drużyny powstały w 1875 i 1874 roku), dnia 24 grudnia 1875 roku. Mimo że gospodarzem meczu był Hibernian F.C., zwycięzcą meczu okazał się klub Heart of Midlothian F.C., wygrywając to spotkanie 1:0. Mecz rozegrany w Wigilię Bożego Narodzenia zapoczątkował długą tradycję pojedynków derbowych. +Derby Edynburga swym charakterem i kontekstami znacząco przypomina rywalizację Old Firm. +Podłoże obu wydarzeń ma charakter religijny. Hibernian F.C., podobnie jak Celtic, to klub utożsamiany z katolicką częścią szkockiego społeczeństwa, natomiast Hearts uważani są za klub typowo protestancki. +Klub znajdujący się we wschodniej części Edynburga – "The Hibees" zdecydowanie gorzej wypada na tle swojego przeciwnika pod względem sportowym. Hearts zdobywali czterokrotnie mistrzostwo Szkocji, czterokrotnie Puchar Ligi oraz sześciokrotnie Puchar Szkocji. Hibernian, pomimo iż zdobył tyle samo mistrzostw Szkocji co "Serca", ma skromniejszy dorobek pucharowy – trzy Puchary Ligi oraz dwa Puchary Szkocji. +Podteksty te sprawiły, że każdy klub traktuje je prestiżowo. +Statystyki. +"stan na 5 marca 2010" +Easter Road Stadium. +Piłkarze Hibernian F.C. przez pierwsze dwa lata istnienia klubu grali na The Meadows, potem przenieśli się na Newington (Mayfield Park) i Bonnington Road w Leith (Powderhall) w latach 1877-1879. Po wygaśnięciu okresu dzierżawy Mayfield Park, Hibernian F.C. przenieśli się do Hibernian Park, obecnie pod nazwą Bothwell Street. Klub stracił na tej podstawie umowy najmu, które przyczyniły się do upadku starego klubu "Hibernians". +Po tych wydarzeniach nowym stadionem, na którym rozgrywają mecze do dziś piłkarze Hibernian F.C., został Easter Road Stadium popularnie zwanym przez kibiców "The Leith San Siro". Inauguracja stadionu odbyła się 1892. Najlepszy okres w historii klubu przypadł na lata 40. i 50., kiedy to "Hibees" święcili swoje największe triumfy. W trakcie sezonu 1949/50 został ustanowiony rekord frekwencji obiektu. 2 stycznia 1950 derby Edynburga przeciwko Hearts obejrzało 65 860 osób. W owym okresie dokonnano również przebudowy obiektu. Skutkiem tego była większa pojemność stadionu, na którym mogło być jednocześnie ponad 60 000 widzów. Natomiast po wydaniu Raportu Taylora, nakazano, by wszystkie miejsca na stadionach były siedzące, skutkiem tego była przebudowa i zmniejszenie pojemności obiektu, która wynosi obecnie około 14 000 miejsc. +Oprócz meczów klubowych, na obiekcie od 1998 organizowano również spotkania międzynarodowe. Mecz Korea Południowa – Ghana 6 czerwca 2006 był ostatnim dotąd spotkaniem międzynarodowym rozegranym na Easter Road Stadium. +W 2007 władze klubu rozpoczęły konsultacje z kibicami w sprawie przebudowy wschodniej trybuny. Po opublikowaniu sprawozdania finansowego za rok 2008, Rod Petrie zawiesił procedurę przebudowy aż do czasu uzyskania wystarczających środków finansowych na ten cel. +Podczas walnego zgromadzenia władz w 2009, Petrie ogłosił inicjację negocjacji z przedsiębiorstwem budowlanym w celu ustalenia kosztów przebudowy. Po zakończeniu negocjacji w lutym 2010, rozpoczęły się prace mające na celu powiększenie objętości stadionu do 20 250 miejsc siedzących. +Piłkarze. +Skład zespołu. +"stan na 13 sierpnia 2011" +Statystyki. +Europejskie puchary. +Dotychczas "Hibees" wystąpili w 18 sezonach europejskich pucharów, grając 9-krotnie w Pucharze UEFA, 7-krotnie w Pucharze Miast Targowych oraz jednokrotnie: w rozgrywkach Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów oraz Pucharu Europy. +Do największych osiągnięć klubu w europejskich pucharach zalicza się dotarcie do półfinału rozgrywek Pucharu Europy w sezonie 1955/56. W debiutanckim sezonie Pucharu Europy, Hibernian był jedynym klubem z Wielkiej Brytanii. W sześciu meczach Hibernian odnotował 3 zwycięstwa, jeden mecz zremisował oraz dwa spotkania przegrał. +Spektakularnym sukcesem było również dotarcie "Hibees" do półfinału Pucharu Miast Targowych, poprzednika Pucharu UEFA w sezonie 1960/61. Klub w trakcie rywalizacji pucharowej wyeliminował hiszpańskiego hegemona – FC Barcelona – remisując na Camp Nou 4:4 i wygrywając u siebie 3:2. W półfinale potrzeba było trzech meczów, aby wyłonić zwycięzcę rywalizacji Hibernianu z włoskim AS Roma. Ostatecznie to właśnie Włosi awansowali dalej gromiąc "Hibees" w dodatkowym meczu 6:0. +Agner Krarup Erlang + +Agner Krarup Erlang (ur. 1 stycznia 1878, zm. 3 lutego 1929) - matematyk duński. Był pionierem w dziedzinie teorii ruchu telekomunikacyjnego i teorii kolejek. Jego modele są wciąż wykorzystywane w analizie ruchu w sieciach telefonicznych. +Dzieciństwo i edukacja. +Agner K. Erlang urodził się w Lønborg, na Półwyspie Jutlandzkim w Danii. Jego ojciec, Hans Nielsen Erlang, był dyrektorem lokalnej szkoły i urzędnikiem parafii. Jego matką była Magdalene Krarup, daleka potomkini innego duńskiego matematyka Thomasa Fincke. Agner miał starszego brata, Frederika, i dwie młodsze siostry, Marie i Ingborg. Jako dziecko Agner lubił towarzyszyć swojemu bratu w nauce. Siedział wówczas naprzeciw niego i czytał jego odwrócone książki. W szkole jego ulubionym przedmiotem była astronomia, pisał nawet wiersze z nią związane. Po skończeniu szkoły podstawowej miał prywatnych nauczycieli. W wieku 14 lat udało mu się zdać z wyróżnieniem "Præliminæreksamen", egzamin organizowany przez Uniwersytet Kopenhaski, przy czym ze względu na młody wiek musiał otrzymać specjalne pozwolenie, aby w nim uczestniczyć. Przez kolejne dwa lata sam był nauczycielem w szkole swojego ojca. W 1896 roku zdał z wyróżnieniem egzaminy wstępne na Uniwersytet Kopenhaski. W 1901 roku otrzymał dyplom magisterski z matematyki jako głównego przedmiotu, oraz astronomii, fizyki i chemii jako przedmiotów dodatkowych. +Praca. +Po ukończeniu studiów Erlang przez 7 lat uczył w różnych szkołach. W tym czasie dał się poznać również jako utalentowany pedagog. Był członkiem "Duńskiego Stowarzyszenia Matematyków", dzięki któremu poznał Johana Jensena, głównego inżyniera "Kopenhaskiej Kompanii Telefonicznej". W 1908 roku został w niej zatrudniony jako pracownik naukowy, a po pewnym czasie awansował na dyrektora laboratorium. +Erlang zajął się problemem ruchu w sieciach telefonicznych stosując teorię rachunku prawdopodobieństwa. W 1909 opublikował pierwszą pracę, w której udowodnił że połączenia telefoniczne o charakterze losowym podlegają rozkładowi Poissona . W najważniejszej swojej publikacji , napisanej w roku 1917, przedstawił wzory na prawdopodobieństwo blokady połączenia w centralach telefonicznych, znane jako model Erlanga. Jego publikacje tłumaczono na języki angielski, francuski i niemiecki. Ze względu na zwięzły styl pisania, prace Erlanga były trudne do zrozumienia dla osób nie będących specjalistami. Jeden z pracowników amerykańskiego Bell Telephone Laboratories nauczył się języka duńskiego, aby móc je czytać w oryginale. +Od nazwiska Erlanga pochodzi nazwa jednostki natężenia ruchu telekomunikacyjnego, oraz nazwa języka programowania. +Erlang miał szeroki zakres zainteresowań, do których zaliczały się historia, filozofia i poezja. Zgromadził bogaty księgozbiór, związany głównie z przedmiotami swoich studiów. Był również specjalistą od tablic matematycznych zawierających wartości znanych funkcji, opracował nawet własną metodę ich obliczania. Erlang nigdy się nie ożenił, poświęcając swój czas pracy i nauce. Ciężka praca odbiła się na jego zdrowiu. W styczniu 1929 trafił do szpitala na operację, po której zmarł po kilku dniach. +Schronisko PTTK "Perła Zachodu" + +Perła Zachodu (do 1945 "Turmsteinbaude") – schronisko turystyczne PTTK położone w Siedlęcinie nad Jeziorem Modrym. Od strony Jeleniej Góry do schroniska prowadzi niebieski szlak rowerowy, położony nad rzeką Bóbr. Wiedzie on przez Borowy Jar, Perłę Zachodu do Siedlęcina i dalej w kierunku Bolesławca. Od strony Siedlęcina możliwy jest dojazd samochodem. +Schronisko powstało 8 kwietnia 1950 na miejscu zbudowanej w 1927 gospody "Turmsteinbaude". Początkowo bardzo popularne, później praktycznie nieodwiedzane z powodu zanieczyszczenia rzeki Bóbr, której skażone wody doprowadziły do nazwania przez okolicznych mieszkańców i turystów schroniska "Perłą Smrodu". Obecnie wraz ze znaczną poprawą sytuacji ekologicznej obiekt zdobywa popularność. Związane jest to również z wyremontowaniem ścieżki rowerowej oraz wytyczeniem i rozbudową sieci szlaków rowerowych w Dolinie Bobru. +Schronisko dysponuje bazą noclegową, restauracją, świetlicą oraz bezpłatnym parkingiem. Czynne jest cały rok. Organizowane są również imprezy okolicznościowe. +Mk III Valentine + +Mk III Valentine – najliczniej produkowany brytyjski czołg piechoty z okresu II wojny światowej. Był znany z małego kosztu produkcji i niezawodności. +Historia konstrukcji. +Valentine skonstruowano na bazie czołgu szybkiego Cruiser Mk II (A10) w korporacji Vickers-Armstrong. Został zatwierdzony do produkcji przez brytyjskie Ministerstwo Wojny 14 lutego 1940 roku. Jak wiele innych projektów, budowa pojazdu została przyspieszona po stracie dużej ilości sprzętu pod Dunkierką. +Była to konstrukcja łącząca dużą masę i rozmiar czołgu piechoty oraz słaby pancerz i prędkość czołgu szybkiego. Mimo że Valentine miał gorszy pancerz oraz silnik niż Matilda Mk II, kontynuowano produkcję ze względu na niższy koszt oraz niezawodność. +Był to najliczniej produkowany brytyjski czołg podczas II wojny światowej, z łączną liczbą 6855 sztuk oraz 1420 sztuk wersji wyprodukowanej w Kanadzie. Wiele z tych czołgów trafiło do ZSRR w ramach Lend-Lease Act. Armia Czerwona otrzymała 2394 brytyjskich i 1388 kanadyjskich czołgów (pozostałe 32 służyło do treningu w Kanadzie). +Valentine zdobyte przez Niemców były oznaczane jako Infanterie Panzerkampfwagen Mk.III 749(e). +Odnalezienie czołgu w Warcie. +25 października 2012 z koryta starorzecza Warty (niedaleko miejscowości Warta, woj. łódzkie) wydobyto czołg Valentine Mk IX z czasów II wojny światowej. Okoliczni mieszkańcy od dawna opowiadali historię o zatopionym w starym korycie rzeki Warty czołgu. W styczniu 1945 r. pod pojazdem załamał się lód i maszyna, należąca do Armii Czerwonej, utknęła w rzece na dziesięciolecia. Akcja wydobycia trwała dwa dni. Wrak był zatopiony w mule i dzięki prawie beztlenowemu środowisku czołg zachował się w idealnym stanie. Po wydobyciu obracały się koła i gąsienice. Do czasów obecnych zachowało się kilkanaście egzemplarzy czołgu Valentine różnych wersji, z czego zachowane są prawdopodobnie tylko 3 lub 4 egzemplarze tego czołgu które brały udział w działaniach bojowych podczas II wojny światowej, pozostałe to egzemplarze używane wyłącznie do szkoleń lub w celach doświadczalnych. +Warianty. +W nawiasach podano przybliżoną ilość wyprodukowanych sztuk. +Pierwsza wersja czołgu, która nie była używana z uwagi na problemy techniczne podczas produkcji (pojazdy przebudowano do innych wersji). Był uzbrojony w działo 2-funtowe i sprzężony karabin maszynowy. Ciasna wieża wymuszała, aby dowódca był jednocześnie ładowniczym. Używał silnika benzynowego o mocy 131 KM. +Ten model używał silnika diesla, co zwiększało jego zasięg. Pierwszy raz użyty podczas operacji "Crusader" w Afryce Północnej, gdzie zaczęto zastępować nimi czołgi Matilda. +Zamontowano większą wieżę, w której zmieścił się ładowniczy, odciążając tym samym dowódcę. +Wersja II używająca amerykańskiego silnika diesla General Motors o mocy 138 KM. Zmniejszyło to zasięg czołgu, zyskując za to cichszą i wydajniejszą pracę napędu. +Valentine III używająca silnika General Motors. +Kanadyjska wersja czołgu, różniąca się odlewaną wieżą i karabinem maszynowym Browning zamiast Besa. +Unowocześniona wersja modelu VI, miała zabezpieczenie zbiorników paliwa, nowe gąsienice oraz powiększoną wieżę podobną do wersji III. Produkowany jedynie w Kanadzie. +Wersja III z działem 6 funtowym. Aby je zmieścić w wieży zrezygnowano z karabinu maszynowego i ładowniczego. Dla obniżenia masy musiano zmniejszyć grubość bocznego pancerza. +Wersja V z działem 6 funtowym. Podobne modyfikacje jak w modelu VIII. +Nowa spawana wieża, dzięki której powrócił sprzężony km. Czołg miał także lepszy silnik General Motors o mocy 165 KM. +Model X wyposażony w działo 75 mm. Używany wyłącznie jako czołg dowodzenia. +Polskie siły zbrojne. +Do walki czołgiści ruszyli już na nowocześniejszych czołgach. +Berlin Zachodni + +Berlin Zachodni (niem. "West-Berlin", "Berlin-West", "Westberlin") – zachodnia część Berlina w latach 1949-1990, na którą składały się sektory okupowane przez aliantów zachodnich, od północy: francuski, brytyjski i amerykański – łącznie stanowiły one enklawę na terytorium NRD zarządzaną przez aliantów zachodnich. +Na Berlin Zachodni składały się przede wszystkim peryferyjne dzielnice południowe i zachodnie, wcielone do miasta dopiero w 1920 roku, ponadto park Tiergarten i niewielka południowa część historycznego centrum. +Zimna wojna. +W 1948 roku doszło do pierwszego poważnego konfliktu między dawnymi aliantami wokół Berlina. Okupacyjne władze radzieckie zarządziły blokadę zachodnich sektorów miasta oraz odcięły do niego dostawy energii elektrycznej. Wobec istnienia zapasów żywności jedynie na 30 dni mocarstwa zachodnie rozpoczęły tworzenie mostu powietrznego, który pozwolił im utrzymać "status quo" Berlina Zachodniego. +13 sierpnia 1961 władze NRD rozpoczęły budowanie muru berlińskiego, który miał uniemożliwić przechodzenie obywateli na stronę zachodnią. John F. Kennedy powiedział 26 czerwca 1963 "Ich bin ein Berliner" (pol. "jestem berlińczykiem"). +Pomimo tej specjalnej opieki mocarstw zachodnich w latach 60. Berlin Zachodni był miejscem kontestacji środowisk lewicowych oraz gwałtownych protestów studenckich w latach 1967-1968 +Po podpisaniu traktatu czterech mocarstw między USA, Wielką Brytanią, Francją i ZSRR w dniu 3 września 1971 potwierdzającym status quo nastąpiło pewne odprężenie. Traktat ten umożliwił dalsze umowy między Senatem Berlina a rządem NRD, ułatwiające ruch tranzytowy do RFN oraz pozwalające mieszkańcom zachodniej części miasta na regularne wizyty w Berlinie Wschodnim. W 1987 Ronald Reagan powiedział "Panie Gorbaczow, niech pan zburzy ten mur". W wyniku rewolucji w NRD mur upadł 9 listopada 1989 roku, zaś połączenie miasta nastąpiło wraz ze zjednoczeniem Niemiec w 1990 roku. +Status prawny. +Berlin Zachodni nie był postrzegany jako część RFN, lecz miał status "obszaru specjalnego administrowanego przez aliantów", o statusie zbliżonym do wolnego miasta. Fakt ten szczególnie podkreślały władze NRD, co przejawiało się także w oficjalnym określaniu go jako "Westberlin", podczas gdy w RFN i samym Berlinie Zachodnim używano określeń Berlin, "Berlin (West)" lub nieoficjalnie "West-Berlin". Władze alianckie przyznawały jednak istnienie "szczególnych powiązań" z RFN. Fakt ten manifestował się m.in. w tym, iż budżet miasta w połowie pochodził z dotacji rządu federalnego. +Większą część władzy wykonawczej mocarstwa okupacyjne scedowały na Senat Miasta Berlina, który uważał się za pełnoprawną władzę całego miasta łącznie z jego wschodnimi dzielnicami. Funkcję parlamentu pełniła Berlińska Izba Reprezentantów. Ustawy uchwalone przez parlament zachodnioniemiecki w Bonn nie miały mocy prawnej w Berlinie Zachodnim i były samodzielnie uchwalane (zazwyczaj w identycznym brzmieniu) przez Izbę Reprezentantów. +Berlińczycy nie mogli także brać udziału w wyborach do zachodnioniemieckiego Bundestagu – reprezentowało ich tam 20 delegatów bez prawa głosu, wybieranych przez Izbę Reprezentantów. Przedstawiciele Berlina Zachodniego mieli natomiast prawo głosu na posiedzeniach izby wyższej zachodnioniemieckiego Bundesratu. Byli oni delegowani przez Senat (odpowiednik rządu krajowego w systemie federalnym). Ponadto na terenie Berlina Zachodniego nie istniał powszechny obowiązek obrony, w związku z czym wielu poborowych z Niemiec Zachodnich przeprowadzało się do Berlina, aby uniknąć służby wojskowej. +Szczególny status miasta widoczny był także w zakresie komunikacji. Przestrzeń powietrzna nad miastem zarezerwowana była wyłącznie dla lotnictwa mocarstw okupacyjnych, dlatego też w Berlinie Zachodnim nie lądowały samoloty Lufthansy. Zakaz ten dotyczył także samolotów prywatnych. Na mocy postanowienia aliantów obsługę linii kolejowych na terenie Berlina Zachodniego przejęły wschodnioniemieckie koleje państwowe. Konflikt powstały na tym tle uwidocznił się szczególnie po budowie muru berlińskiego – berlińczycy z zachodniej części miasta rozpoczęli bojkot zarządzanej przez NRD szybkiej kolei miejskiej, tak iż z czasem z dziesięciu linii czynnych pozostały trzy. Władze Berlina Zachodniego w zamian silnie forsowały rozbudowę metra, które znajdowało się pod ich kontrolą. Dopiero w roku 1984 NRD zgodziła się oddać coraz mniej rentowną szybką kolej miejską Senatowi w dzierżawę. Linie kolei dalekobieżnych, zarządzane tak jak szybka kolej miejska przez NRD, pozostały aż do zjednoczenia niezelektryfikowane. Berlin Zachodni wydawał także własne znaczki pocztowe, uznawane jednak również przez pocztę zachodnioniemiecką. +W związku ze specyficznym statusem miasta prawnicy zachodnioniemieccy spierali się, czy Berlin Zachodni należy uznać za "okupowane i niesuwerenne terytorium Rzeszy Niemieckiej". +Nadburmistrzowie Berlina Zachodniego: +Eksklawy na terytorium NRD. +Berlin Zachodni posiadał dziesięć niewielkich eksklaw na terytorium NRD. Poprzez wymianę terytorium część z nich przeszła we władanie NRD, część uzyskała połączenie z Berlinem Zachodnim. Najbardziej znaną i jedyną stale zamieszkiwaną eksklawą było "Steinstücken" (około 200 mieszkańców). Miejscowość ta należała administracyjnie do amerykańskiego sektora Berlina, podczas gdy tereny wokół należały do miasta Poczdam. 18 października 1952 roku oddziały policji NRD zajęły bezprawnie "Steinstücken", wycofały się jednak cztery dni później po proteście Amerykanów. Władze NRD wprowadziły w odpowiedzi kontrole graniczne wokół "Steinstücken". Po wybudowaniu muru berlińskiego "Steinstücken" przez pewien czas umożliwiało stosunkowo łatwą ucieczkę na zachód, ponieważ otoczone było jedynie zasiekami z drutu kolczastego. Dopiero po ucieczce ponad dwudziestu pograniczników NRD miejscowość otoczono murem. Od roku 1961 Amerykanie utrzymywali w niej stały posterunek wojskowy, by podkreślić jej przynależność do amerykańskiego sektora Berlina – wymiana personelu odbywała się za pomocą helikopterów. Dopiero po podpisaniu traktatu czterech mocarstw w 1971 roku "Steinstücken" uzyskało w drodze wymiany terytorium korytarz łączący je z Berlinem, otoczony po obu stronach murem. +Ponadto na terenie Berlina Zachodniego znajdowały się dwie niewielkie eksklawy należące do NRD, zlikwidowane przy okazji wymiany terytorium w roku 1988. +Richard Fecteau + +Richard Fecteau (ur. 1927) – oficer Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej, wzięty do niewoli w Chinach po zestrzeleniu 29 listopada 1952 samolotu szpiegowskiego (C-47 Dakota). Poza Richardem Fecteau na jego pokładzie był jeszcze jeden oficer wywiadu John Downey i siedmiu innych agentów zwerbowanych na Tajwanie. +W tym czasie CIA przerzucała na kontynent agentów zwerbowanych na Tajwanie w ramach wsparcia starań o przywrócenie Czang Kaj-szekowi władzy nad Chinami kontynentalnymi. W grudniu 1954 władze Chin podały do wiadomości publicznej fakt wzięcia do niewoli i skazania za działalność szpiegowską dwóch agentów CIA. John Downey otrzymał karę dożywocia, Fecteau skazany został na dwadzieścia lat więzienia. Po podpisaniu przez Stany Zjednoczone i Chiny porozumienia o wymianie jeńców wojennych wziętych do niewoli podczas zakończonego konfliktu koreańskiego, ani Richard Fecteau ani John Downey nie znaleźli się na liście sporządzonej przez Amerykanów, co wynikało z nieprzyznania się przez władze USA, że byli oni pracownikami CIA. W 1957 Chińczycy korzystając z kanałów pośrednich ponownie złożyli propozycję zwolnienia skazanych oficerów, jednak ówczesny sekretarz stanu John Foster Dulles odrzucił tę propozycję. +Obu więźniów zwolniono dopiero po oficjalnym potwierdzeniu ich związków z CIA przez prezydenta Nixona. Richard Fecteau wyszedł na wolność w 1971, John Downey dwa lata później, w 1973. +Dundee United F.C. + +Dundee United Football Club – klub piłkarski z siedzibą w Dundee w Szkocji, aktualnie grający w Scottish Premier League, najwyższej klasie rozgrywkowej w kraju. Przydomki klubu to "The Terrors", "The Tangerines" ("mandarynki") i "The Arabs" ("Arabowie"), a główną barwą - pomarańczowy. Dundee United gra mecze na Tannadice Park, posiadającym 14 209 krzesełek. Największe sukcesy klub odnosił pod wodzą Jima McLeana w latach 80. ubiegłego stulecia, kiedy z powodzeniem walczył o Mistrzostwo Szkocji i grał w finale Pucharu UEFA +Największym rywalem z racji położenia geograficznego i walki o prymat w lidze za czasów McLeana jest Aberdeen - oba zespoły określa się jako New Firm (w opozycji do Old Firm), a ich mecze - New Firm Derby. Innym klubem, z którym zaciekle walczy United jest lokalny rywal Dundee F.C., którego stadion, Dens Park położony jest kilkadziesiąt metrów od Tannadice. Tak bliskie ulokowanie dwóch stadionów piłkarskich jest rekordem na skalę światową . +Ireneusz Loth + +Ireneusz Loth (ur. 15 marca 1964) – polski muzyk, perkusista, założyciel i były członek zespołu KAT. +Loth założył Kata wraz z Piotrem Luczykiem na przełomie 1979 i 1980 roku. Początkowo wykonywali muzykę instrumentalną, po przyjściu wokalisty Romana Kostrzewskiego zwrócili się w stronę New Wave of British Heavy Metal oraz thrash metalu. Zespół przechodził perturbacje i zmiany w składzie, ale Loth brał udział w nagraniu każdej płyty. +Po rozpadzie w 1999 roku zaangażował się w inne projekty muzyczne. Trafił do niemieckiego zespołu PIK, grał na zlocie fanów grupy Metallica. Wziął udział w trasie koncertowej z zespołem Alkatraz, założonym przez byłych członków Kata. Trasa była pierwszym krokiem w kierunku reaktywacji zespołu, co ostatecznie stało się faktem w 2002 roku. Razem z pozostałymi muzykami ruszył na trasę "Somewhere in Poland 2002" oraz grał na zarejestrowanym na DVD koncercie w Hali Ludowej we Wrocławiu. +Jednak w 2004 roku nastąpiły spięcia w zespole i Loth został usunięty ze składu bez podania dokładnej przyczyny. W 2005 roku wraz z byłym wokalistą i autorem tekstów zespołu KAT założył zespół KAT & Roman Kostrzewski +Jan Ziębicki + +Jan Ziębicki (ur. między 1370 a 1390, zm. 27 grudnia 1428 w Starym Wielisławiu) – książę ziębicki w latach 1410-1428. +Jan był drugim pod względem starszeństwa (a najstarszym, który przeżył ojca) synem księcia ziębickiego Bolka III i księżniczki bytomskiej Eufemii. W chwili śmierci ojca Jan był już pełnoletni, w związku z czym bez przeszkód przejął władzę. Do 1420 rządy sprawował wspólnie z bratem Henrykiem. Podobnie, jak jego ojciec wiernie stał u boku swojego suwerena – rodu Luksemburgów. +U progu swoich samodzielnych rządów Jan wziął udział w wojnie Polski z zakonem krzyżackim po stronie tych ostatnich. Uczestnictwo księcia ziębickiego, będącego na żołdzie krzyżackim ograniczyło się jednakże wyłącznie do bitwy pod Tucholą 4 listopada 1410. Przebieg bitwy nie jest dla księcia chwalebny, gdyż, podobnie jak i rycerze krzyżaccy, zbiegł z pola bitwy. +6 stycznia 1420 Jan był obecny na zjeździe we Wrocławiu, gdzie wydano niekorzystny dla Polski wyrok w procesie z Krzyżakami. +Wpływ księcia na politykę względem Śląska był znikomy, gdyż fundusze malutkiego księstewka składającego się wyłącznie z Ziębic były bardzo ograniczone. Z tych powodów sporym zaskoczeniem dla historyków jest fakt ożenku Jana z wdową po potężnym magnacie polskim Spytku z Melsztyna Elżbietą (zmarłą w 1424 r.), córką wojewody siedmiogrodzkiego Emeryka. Przyniosło to Janowi Ziębickiemu olbrzymi posag i niezależność finansową. Sprawa jest o tyle dziwna, że pierwszy mąż Elżbiety był współpracownikiem króla Polski Władysława Jagiełły, wroga suwerena Jana Zygmunta Luksemburczyka. Zresztą politykę wrogą Luksemburgom Elżbieta z powodzeniem kontynuowała poprzez swoje liczne kontakty, także po wyjściu za mąż za księcia ziębickiego. Małżeństwo to pozostało bezdzietne, tak więc Jan miał zostać ostatnim przedstawicielem ziębickiej linii Piastów. +W 1428 r. nad księstwem zawisło niebezpieczeństwo interwencji wojsk husyckich. Początkowo, nie widząc szans zwycięstwa książę ziębicki razem z księciem brzeskim Ludwikiem II zawarł układ, w którym się zobowiązywał nie przeszkadzać w ruchach wrogich wojsk. Z nieznanych jednak przyczyn, dopiero co zaprzysiężone zawieszenie broni Jan złamał - przygotowując się do starcia zbrojnego. +Książę zginął 27 grudnia 1428 w bitwie pod Starym Wielisławiem w Kotlinie Kłodzkiej stoczonej z husytami dowodzonymi przez Jana Kralovca. Przyczyną klęski był nierozważny atak na husycki wagenburg tabor, czyli szaniec zbudowany z wozów bojowych. Nie wiadomo, gdzie został pochowany. Na domniemanym miejscu śmierci księcia stoi kaplica wybudowana w latach 1904-1905 według projektu Ludwiga Schneidera. +Księstwo ziębickie stało się częścią korony czeskiej, której posiadacze Luksemburgowie wyznaczyli miasto z okręgiem na ziemię zastawną. Stan ten utrzymał się do 1453 r., kiedy Ziębice zostały przekazane przez Władysława Pogrobowca – potężnemu czeskiemu magnatowi i umiarkowanemu husycie Jerzemu z Podiebradów. +Jan Ziębicki w literaturze. +Jan Ziębicki jest jednym z bohaterów powieści Andrzeja Sapkowskiego: "Narrenturm" oraz "Boży bojownicy" +John Downey + +John Downey (ur. 1930), oficer Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej, wzięty do niewoli w Chinach 29 listopada 1952. +Podczas studiów na Uniwersytecie Yale został zwerbowany do CIA. Po przeszkoleniu został skierowany do ściśle tajnej bazy agencji w Japonii, skąd zwerbowanych agentów (głównie na Tajwanie) po przeszkoleniu kierowano do Chin. Podczas jednej z takich operacji 29 listopada 1952 nieoznakowana dakota C-47 ostrzelana została przez chińską artylerię przeciwlotniczą i zmuszona do lądowania. Na jej pokładzie poza pilotami z Tajwanu i Downeyem znajdował się jeszcze jeden oficer CIA o nazwisku Richard Fecteau i siedmiu tajwańskich agentów, których miano zrzucić w górach Mandżurii. Zorientowani o charakterze misji dzięki własnemu nasłuchowi radiowemu Chińczycy aresztowali Downeya i Fecteau. Tajwańczyków prawdopodobnie stracono lub przewerbowano. Trzymając się ustalonej wcześniej wersji Departament Stanu oświadczył, że samolot z dwoma pracownikami departamentu obrony Fecteau i Downeyem zaginął podczas rutynowego lotu z Seulu do Tokio; obu uznano oficjalnie za zmarłych. W tym samym czasie Stany Zjednoczone i Chiny doprowadziły do podpisania porozumienia o wymianie jeńców wojennych z zakończonego niedawno konfliktu koreańskiego. Lecz ani Richard Fecteau, ani John Downey nie znaleźli się na liście sporządzonej przez Amerykanów - wynikało to z nieprzyznania się przez władze USA, że obaj byli pracownikami CIA. W 1957 Chińczycy korzystając z kanałów pośrednich ponownie złożyli propozycję zwolnienia skazanych oficerów, jednak ówczesny Sekretarz Stanu John Foster Dulles odrzucił tę propozycję. +Obu więźniów zwolniono dopiero po oficjalnym potwierdzeniu ich związków z CIA przez prezydenta Nixona. Richard Fecteau wyszedł na wolność w 1971, John Downey dwa lata później w 1973. +George Clair + +George Clair (ur. 3 sierpnia 1930, zm. 11 sierpnia 2011), wysoki funkcjonariusz Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej, m.in. zastępca Dyrektora Centrali Wywiadu do spraw operacyjnych, główna postać afery Iran-Contras. Także pierwszy wyższy rangą funkcjonariusz CIA (drugim był DCI Richard Helms) skazany przez sąd z oskarżenia o ciężkie przestępstwo w trakcie pełnienia obowiązków służbowych. +George Clair wstąpił do Sił Lądowych Stanów Zjednoczonych (US Army) w 1953, następnie w 1955 wstąpił do Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej - CIA. Początkowo pracował w Korei Południowej, następnie w 1957 został przeniesiony na placówkę CIA do Hongkongu. W następnych latach był ciągle przenoszony, m.in. do Afryki, Indii, Grecji i w końcu powrócił do centrali agencji w Langley. Już jako zastępca Dyrektora Centrali Wywiadu ds. operacyjnych zangażował się w nielegalną transakcję sprzedaży broni do Iranu w zamian za uwolnienie zakładników amerykańskich przetrzymywanych w Libanie. +Przed sądem stanął z oskarżenia o utrudnianie śledztwa, krzywoprzysięstwo i złożenie 14 października 1986 fałszywych zeznań przed Komisją ds. Wywiadu Izby Reprezentantów w sprawie zestrzelenia nad Nikaraguą 5 października 1986 samolotu transportowego z bronią dla rebeliantów Contras. Pierwszy proces Claira w sierpniu 1992 przerwano, nie wydając wyroku, z powodu błędów proceduralnych ze strony oskarżenia. W drugim procesie, który miał miejsce 9 grudnia 1992, został uznany za winnego dwukrotnego złożenia fałszywych zeznań w Kongresie. Wyrok miał zapaść na początku 1993, ale 24 grudnia 1992 prezydent George H. W. Bush ułaskawił Claira i pięć innych osób zamieszanych w sprawę Iran-Contras. +Wolff Goldstein + +Wolff Goldstein (ur. 1921, zm. 2007) agent radzieckiego wywiadu, który wedle wszelkiego prawdopodobieństwa jako pierwszy agent radziecki prowadził działalność szpiegowską przeciwko Izraelowi. +Urodzony w rodzinie żydowskiej, zamieszkałej w Europie Wschodniej, od wczesnej młodości był zafascynowany ideą komunizmu. Został zwerbowany przez radzieckie Ministerstwo Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego - MGB (lub może jeszcze przez NKWD) przed wyjazdem do Izraela (1948). Po pewnym czasie podjął pracę w Departamencie Gospodarczym Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych, przyjął także nowe hebrajskie nazwisko Ze'ev Avni. W latach 50. przebywał na placówkach dyplomatycznych w Brukseli i Belgradzie. Miał dostęp do izraelskiego systemu łączności rządowej i materiałów tajnych negocjacji. Dzięki temu KGB uzyskało dostęp do całej izraelskiej korespondencji dyplomatycznej, w tym kierowanej do oficerów wywiadu (Mossadu) działających pod przykrywką dyplomatyczną. Podejrzenia izraelskiego kontrwywiadu i służby bezpieczeństwa (Shin Bet) wobec Wolffa Goldsteina wzbudziła jego nadgorliwość, między innymi chęć pracy poza godzinami w pomieszczeniach tajnej łączności gmachu ambasady. Odwołany pod jakimś pretekstem z powrotem do Izraela i poddany przesłuchaniom Goldstein przyznał się do pracy dla KGB. +Obradujący przy drzwiach zamkniętych sąd skazał go na długoletnie więzienie. Po odbyciu 10 lat kary zwolniony przedterminowo Goldstein wyjechał do Szwajcarii. Kilka lat później wywiad izraelski pozwolił mu na powrót do kraju; Goldstein otrzymał nową tożsamość i został zatrudniony jako psycholog w armii izraelskiej. +Krzysztof Oset + +Krzysztof Oset, pseudonim "Fazee" - polski muzyk, basista, członek zespołu KAT. +Zaczynał grać w thrashmetalowym zespole "Kill off". Do Kata trafił tuż po Jacku Regulskim (którego znał już wcześniej), zaproszony przez gitarzystę, Piotra Luczyka. +Po rozpadzie w 1999 roku dołączył do projektu Alkatraz, w którym brał również udział wokalista zespołu, Roman Kostrzewski i nagrał wraz z nim płytę. Do Kata wrócił w momencie reaktywacji w 2002 roku. +Prywatnie pracuje jako menedżer i naukowiec w jednym z instytutów badawczych oraz jest właścicielem prywatnej firmy z branży informatyczno-elektronicznej. +Dundee F.C. + +Dundee Football Club – szkocki klub piłkarski założony w 1893 roku. Barwy granatowo-białe. Drużyna rozgrywa swoje mecze na Dens Park – stadionie, który wraz z obiektem ich największego rywala – Dundee United, są prawdopodobnie najbliżej siebie położonymi stadionami piłkarskimi na świecie.W latach 1996-1999 piłkarzem tego klubu był Dariusz Adamczuk, srebrny medalista olimpijski z Barcelony.Największym sukcesem klubu, oprócz Mistrzostwa Szkocji w sezonie 1961/62 był awans do finału Scottish Cup w roku 2003, gdzie Dundee FC przegrało 0:1 z Rangers. ów sukces pozwolił The Dees wystąpić w Pucharze UEFA, gdzie po wyeliminowaniu albańskiej Villazni Szkodra musieli uznać wyższość włoskiej Perugii. +W sezonie 2012/13 Dundee występuje w Scottish Premier League w miejsce karnie zdegradowanego +do czwartej ligi Rangers. +Sławociech + +Sławociech, Sławciech – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Sławo-" ("sława") i "-ciech" ("cieszyć się"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto cieszy się sławą". +Imię to nosił Sławociech, czeski książę z IX wieku. +Najsłabsze ogniwo + +Najsłabsze ogniwo – teleturniej polski, oparty na brytyjskim formacie The Weakest Link. Program nadawany był w latach 2004 – 2006 od poniedziałku do czwartku na antenie telewizji TVN oraz od niedawna w Polsce i w Wielkiej Brytanii na kanale BBC Entertainment. Nagrano cztery serie programu, którego średnia oglądalność wyniosła 1,5 mln widzów. Najchętniej oglądane odcinki gromadziły 3-milionową widownię. . Pierwszy odcinek "Najsłabszego ogniwa" został wyemitowany 1 marca 2004 roku, a ostatni 26 stycznia 2006 roku. Program prowadziła Kazimiera Szczuka. +Obecnie BBC Entertainment Polska emituje brytyjski format w wersji lektorskiej. +Zasady programu. +W każdym odcinku udział bierze 8 osób. Program składa się z siedmiu rund i finału. Po każdej rundzie zawodnicy eliminują tytułowe "najsłabsze ogniwo". Każdy pozostający w grze uczestnik po każdej rundzie ma obowiązek napisać na kartce, kogo chce wyeliminować, przy czym nie ma obowiązku wskazywać tego, kto odpowiadał najsłabiej. Widzowie przed poznaniem decyzji graczy dowiadują się, kto wg statystyk odpowiadał w danej rundzie najsłabiej. W przypadku remisu (sytuacja, w której dwóch lub więcej zawodników otrzymało taką samą liczbę głosów) o tym, kto odpada, decyduje gracz, który odpowiadał najlepiej w rundzie poprzedzającej. Po każdej rundzie prowadząca wdaje się w rozmowę z poszczególnymi graczami pytając ich o motywy wskazania danej osoby oraz wytyka im błędy w odpowiedziach. +W finale spotyka się dwóch uczestników, którzy odpowiadają na zmianę na pytania. Osoba, która udzieli więcej poprawnych odpowiedzi wygrywała zdobyte przez drużynę pieniądze. Jeżeli zawodnicy odpowiedzieli na tą samą liczbę pytań, wtedy były zadawane pytania dodatkowe (w stylu rzutów karnych w piłce nożnej). Gdy zawodnik A źle odpowiedział na pytanie, a zawodnik B dobrze, to zawodnik B wygrywał grę. +Operacja Fortitude + +Operacja Fortitude (ang. "hart ducha") to nazwa kodowa operacji kontrwywiadu aliantów w czasie II wojny światowej, której zadaniem było zmylenie wywiadu i sztabu niemieckiego co do prawdziwych planów aliantów, jakimi było lądowanie w Normandii. Była to część operacji "Bodyguard". +"Fortitude" składała się z dwóch części: "Fortitude North" i "Fortitude South". Zadaniem operacji "Fortitude North" było przekonanie Hitlera, że alianci (4 Armia z siedzibą dowództwa w Edynburgu) zaatakują Norwegię w celu odwrócenia uwagi na główny atak który miał się rzekomo odbyć w regionie Pas-de-Calais, lub w celu przerzucenia przez neutralną Szwecję wojsk desantowych nad Morze Bałtyckie. Dlatego też radiostacje 4 Armii przekazywały sobie różne informacje mające świadczyć o przygotowaniach do walk w niskich temperaturach w warunkach górskich. Padały np. pytania o rodzaje smarów odpornych na zamarzanie, bądź rozkazy kierujące żołnierzy na kursy narciarskie. +"Fortitude South” była największą tego typu operacją w czasie całej wojny. W jej ramach zbudowano fałszywe lotniska, na których postawiono makiety samolotów, powstały całe obozy wojskowe zapełnione nadmuchanymi, gumowymi modelami czołgów. Ślady gąsienic czołgów i opon samochodów ciężarowych wiodły w głąb lasów, co miałoby sugerować, że ukryto tam znaczne ilości wojsk. Utworzono grupę radiostacji które "porozumiewały" się wzajemnie nadając komunikaty o treści, jakich można się spodziewać w czasie formowania dużej grupy armii. Z dziennikarzami i dyplomatami państw neutralnych spotykali się "przypadkowo" oficerowie noszący na ramionach naszywki nieistniejących jednostek. Lokalne gazety donosiły o zaniepokojeniu mieszkańców "znacznym nagromadzeniem zagranicznych żołnierzy". +Dużą część decepcji stanowili niemieccy agenci przebywający na terenie Anglii. Niemcy mieli w czasie wojny ponad 50 szpiegów dla nich pracujących, ale wszyscy zostali ujęci przez MI5 i część z nich została podwójnymi agentami, którzy przesyłali do Niemiec sfałszowane informacje potwierdzające wiadomości, które wywiad niemiecki otrzymywał z innych źródeł. +Dowódcą fikcyjnej 1 Grupy Armii Stanów Zjednoczonych (FUSAG), którą stworzono dla potrzeb "Fortitude", był generał George Patton (został on wcześniej pozbawiony dowództwa 7. armii amerykańskiej po niesławnym incydencie na Sycylii). Wyznaczenie Pattona dowódcą FUSAG-u grało bardzo dużą rolę dla całości tego przedsięwzięcia, jako że Niemcy uważali go za najlepszego z alianckich generałów i fakt, że on właśnie został dowódcą ugrupowania, umocniło w oczach Niemców jego autentyczność, tym bardziej, że generał podróżował od miasta do miasta, spotykał się z mieszkańcami popełniając kolejne gafy, głośno komentowane w prasie. +"Fortitude" była nie tylko największą operacją tego typu, ale i najbardziej udaną. Sztab niemiecki do końca wierzył, że prawdziwe lądowanie nastąpi w Pas de Calais. Co więcej, nawet po lądowaniu w Normandii Niemcy przez następne tygodnie trzymali silne rezerwy w rejonie Pas de Calais, dalej spodziewając się tam głównego uderzenia aliantów. To błędne rozmieszczenie niemieckich sił miało kapitalne znaczenie w czasie operacji Overlord. +William Bentinck (gubernator generalny Indii) + +William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck, Lord Bentinck (ur. 14 września 1774, zm. 17 czerwca 1839 w Paryżu) - angielski lord, generalny gubernator Indii. +Był drugim synem Williama Cavendish-Bentincka, 3. księcia Portland, dwukrotnego premiera Wielkiej Brytanii, młodszym bratem Williama Bentincka, 4. księcia Portland, członka rządu. Służył wojskowo, dochodząc do stopnia oficerskiego. W latach 1803-1807 był gubernatorem Madrasu. Uczestniczył w wojnie hiszpańskiej, następnie dowodził siłami brytyjskimi na Sycylii. Został odwołany w 1815. +Zasiadał w Izbie Gmin. W 1827 został mianowany gubernatorem generalnym Indii, gdzie jego zadaniem było m.in. przekształcenie przynoszącej straty Kompanii Wschodnioindyjskiej w organ administracji brytyjskiej na tym terenie. Występował jako przeciwnik miejscowych obyczajów, uważanych przez Brytyjczyków za barbarzyńskie, m.in. palenia wdów na stosach pogrzebowych mężów (sati). Podobno miał wysunąć propozycję rozebrania Tadź Mahalu, mającego wówczas dwieście lat, zaniedbanego, zarośniętego, niemalże popadłego w ruinę. Bentinck miał zaproponować przesłanie marmuru statkiem do Londynu i tam sprzedanie go, a decyzja ta, fatalna dla przyszłych pokoleń, nie doszła do skutku tylko dlatego, że marmur zerwany z Czerwonego Fortu nie znalazł nabywców. +William Bentinck pełnił funkcję gubernatora generalnego Indii do 1835. Po powrocie do Anglii nie przyjął miejsca w Izbie Lordów, zasiadał natomiast ponownie w Izbie Gmin jako reprezentant Glasgow. +Polimeryzacja łańcuchowa + +Polimeryzacja łańcuchowa to rodzaj chemicznej reakcji polimeryzacji. Podstawową cechą tej reakcji odróżniającą ją od polimeryzacji stopniowej jest brak bezpośredniej zależności między stopniem polimeryzacji a stopniem przereagowania grup funkcyjnych pochodzących od monomeru. +Przebieg polimeryzacji łańcuchowej. +Propagacja. +Wszystkie te akty przyłączania kolejnych cząsteczek monomeru następują bardzo szybko jedna po drugiej i łącznie nazywa się je propagacją. W klasycznych, wolnorodnikowych reakcjach polimeryzacji, pojedyncze akty propagacji zajmują czas rzędu kilku-klikunastu nanosekund ( 0,000 000 001 s) co oznacza, że w jednej sekundzie przyłącza się kilkaset tysięcy merów, a powstanie od zera pojedynczej cząsteczki polimeru o stopniu polimeryzacji rzędu 1 miliona zajmuje kilka sekund. +Terminacja. +Teoretycznie propagacja może trwać tak długo, aż wszystkie dostępne cząsteczki monomeru zostaną przyłączone do rosnących łańcuchów polimerów. Tak jednak dzieje się wyłącznie w przypadku tzw. polimeryzacji żyjącej. We wszystkich innych przypadkach propagacja kończy się na skutek rozmaitych reakcji ubocznych, które prowadzą do zaniku centrum aktywnego na końcu rosnącego łańcucha polimeru, co nazywa się terminacją. +Stopień polimeryzacji w reakcji łańcuchowej. +W polimeryzacji łańcuchowej wszystkie trzy procesy – inicjowanie, propagacja i terminacja zachodzą cały czas na raz w trakcie jej trwania. Oznacza to, że w każdej chwili jej trwania wzrost jednych łańcuchów polimeru właśnie się zaczyna, innych jest akurat w trakcie, a jeszcze inne łańcuchy są już nieaktywne na skutek zajścia terminacji. Wszystko to powoduje, że w zasadzie stopień polimeryzacji powstającego polimeru jest w miarę stały w czasie trwania reakcji i niemal nie zależy od aktualnego stopnia przereagowania monomeru. +W praktycznie wykonywanych, typowych reakcjach polimeryzacji łańcuchowej, obserwuje się w pierwszych dwóch-trzech sekundach jej trwania gwałtowny wzrost średniego stopnia polimeryzacji (bo zaczynają powstawać pierwsze łańcuchy polimeru), następnie jest mniej więcej stały przez większość czasu jej trwania, aby pod sam koniec nieco wzrosnąć. Końcowy wzrost wynika z tzw. efektu Tromsdorffa, który jest spowodowany zmniejszeniem się prawdopodobieństwa wystąpienia reakcji terminacji, wynikającym ze zwykłej statystyki. +Naturalnie, koniecznym warunkiem do zajścia polimeryzacji łańcuchowej jest to aby szybkość propagacji była znacznie większa od szybkości wszystkich reakcji terminacji. Czym większa jest ta różnica tym większy stopień polimeryzacji można osiągnąć w trakcie jej trwania. Pewien wpływ na stopień polimeryzacji ma też proporcja ilości użytego inicjatora do ilości monomeru, a także stosunek szybkości inicjowania do szybkości propagacji. +Skrajnym przypadkiem polimeryzacji łańcuchowej jest polimeryzacja żyjąca, w której udało się całkowicie wyeliminować wszystkie reakcje terminacji, a proces inicjowania jest znacznie szybszy od propagacji. Sytuacje pośrednie, gdy np. szybkość procesu inicjowania jest zbliżona do szybkości propagacji, albo gdy reakcje terminacji nie zostały całkowicie wyeliminowane ale są bardzo powolne albo odwracalne nazywa się polimeryzacją pseudożyjącą. +Mustafa Barghouti + +Mustafa Barghouti (ur. 1954 w Bait Rima koło Ramallah) - palestyński działacz polityczny, kandydat w wyborach prezydenckich w styczniu 2005. +Z wykształcenia lekarz, kształcił się w Jerozolimie i w ZSRR, a także na amerykańskim Stanford University. W 1979 założył organizację pozarządową Unię Pomocy Medycznej Palestyny i stał przez wiele lat na jej czele. Brał udział w konferencji w Madrycie (1991), zajmującej się konfliktem palestyńsko-izraelskim. W 1996 bez powodzenia kandydował w wyborach do parlamentu Autonomii Palestyńskiej. +W 2002 był współzałożycielem Narodowej Inicjatywy Palestyńskiej "al-Mubadara", która ma stanowić alternatywę zarówno dla Organizacji Wyzwolenia Palestyny, jak i dla radykałów Hamasu; pełni funkcję sekretarza Inicjatywy. +W 1996 został postrzelony przez żołnierzy izraelskich w czasie wykonywania obowiązków lekarza. +Kandydował w wyborach prezydenckich Autonomii Palestyńskiej w styczniu 2005, po śmierci Jasera Arafata. Zdobył ok. 20% głosów, zajmując drugie miejsce za zwycięzcą, byłym premierem Mahmudem Abbasem. +Jego kuzynem jest Marwan Barghouti, popularny przywódca palestyński więziony w Izraelu, który, będąc jednym z faworytów wyborów w 2005, wycofał się z rywalizacji jeszcze w grudniu 2004. +Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen + +Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF) – drugi program niemieckiej telewizji publicznej. +Od 2002 roku dyrektorem ZDF jest Markus Schächter. +Historia. +Idea powstania ZDF narodziła się w 1960 roku, przy okazji budowy sieci nowych nadajników telewizyjnych. Program wystartował 1 maja 1961 roku pod nazwą ARD 2, ale nazwę ZDF (i zupełnie nowy status) uzyskał dopiero 1 kwietnia 1963 roku. Początkowo ZDF nadawała z prowizorycznego ciasnego studia w Eschborn, następnie z przyczyn ekonomicznych siedzibę przeniesiono do Wiesbaden, tam jednak nie znajdowała się ona w jednym budynku, a agendach rozrzuconych po całym mieście. +W swojej pierwszej audycji ZDF nadało składankę berlińskich biesiadnych melodii. W roku 1964 nadawane były głównie relacje sportowe i relacje z imprez kulturalnych. Dopiero po przeprowadzce do Wiesbaden możliwe było rozpoczęcie własnej produkcji telewizyjnej. Od 1967 roku nadaje w kolorze. +25 czerwca 1964 ZDF zakupił w Moguncji dużą działkę budowlaną z zamiarem wybudowania kompleksowej i nowoczesnej siedziby telewizyjnej. Na wiosnę 1974 rozpoczęto nadawanie transmisji z nowego studia w Moguncji, a w 1984 roku otwarto jeszcze nowszą część nadawczo-transmisyjną. 17 lipca 2009 roku otwarte zostało najnowsze studio ZDF w Moguncji. +Dzisiaj ZDF ma ponad 15 terenowych agend telewizyjnych, jak również prawie 20 redakcji zagranicznych. +Organizacja. +W przeciwieństwie do ARD, dla którego nie istnieje żaden centralny ośrodek, ZDF ma swoje centrum w Moguncji. Nad ZDF stoi Rada Telewizyjna, która zatwierdza zarząd, budżet i wybiera dyrektorów. Stanowiska są zajmowane przez delegatów partyjnych proporcjonalnie do ich liczebności w Bundestagu, co w ostatnich latach wydaje się być dość kontrowersyjne. +ZDF jako telewizja publiczna współfinansowana ze środków abonamentowych, w niedziele i święta nie nadaje żadnych reklam i materiałów ogłoszeniowych. Zazwyczaj przerwy reklamowe trwają około 1-3 minuty, rzadko też zdarza się, aby reklamy przerywały program. Ogólnie, średnia za każdy dzień roboczy nie może przekraczać 20 minut reklam na antenie ogólnokrajowej. +W 2008 roku ZDF (podobnie jak stacje wchodzące w skład ARD) przeszło prawie wyłącznie na nadawanie cyfrowe i jest to jeden z pierwszych ogólnokrajowych programów nadający w nowej technologii. 15 sierpnia 2009 roku uruchomiono kanał ZDF HD. +"Rodzina ZDF". +Dzisiaj ZDF jest największą w Europie siecią telewizyjną. +Irfan Skiljan + +Irfan Skiljan (ur. 1973) - bośniacki informatyk, autor programu IrfanView Prawidłowa wymowa imienia twórcy jak i pierwszego członu nazwy programu w języku polskim to "ierfan" (IPA "ɪərfæn"). +Irfan Skiljan urodził się w miejscowości Jajce, w Bośni, dzisiejszej Bośni i Hercegowinie, w kantonie Centralna Bośnia. Obecnie mieszka i pracuje w Wiedniu. Jest absolwentem Uniwersytetu Technicznego w Wiedniu. +Jest specjalistą od grafiki i programów graficznych, zarówno przez wzgląd na swój flagowy program, rozwijany od jedenastu lat, jak i ze względu na kierunek swoich studiów na TUWien. Oprócz rozwijania IrfanView pracuje od czasu do czasu nad różnymi programami graficznymi dla różnych firm. +Ponieważ IrfanView nie jest darmowy w zastosowaniach komercyjnych, stanowi główne źródło dochodu autora. Skiljan nadal pracuje nad tworzeniem i rozwijaniem go oraz nad sprawami związanymi z tym programem (odpowiadanie na e-maile od użytkowników, kontakt z twórcami wersji językowych oraz rozszerzeń, itp.). +Sławobor + +Sławobor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Sławo-" ("sława") i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto sławi walkę". +Żeński odpowiednik: Sławobora +Sławobor imieniny obchodzi 14 grudnia. +Jean-Paul Marat + +Jean-Paul Marat (ur. 24 maja 1743, zm. 13 lipca 1793) – francuski polityk czasów rewolucji francuskiej, dziennikarz i lekarz, wolnomularz. +Młodość. +Marat urodził się w Boudry, w księstwie Neuchâtel, leżącym na terenie Szwajcarii, wówczas części Prus. Był synem pochodzącego z Sardynii Jean-Baptiste'a Marata (Giovanniego Mara) i urodzonej w Genewie Louise Cabrol. Już w wieku 16 lat Marat porzucił rodzinny dom. Osaidł najpierw w Tuluzie, potem w Bordeaux, w końcu dotarł do Paryża, gdzie rozpoczął studia medyczne. Wkrótce jednak udał się do Zjednoczonego Królestwa, gdzie na uniwersytecie St. Andrews ukończył studia. Następnie przeniósł się do Londynu, gdzie rozpoczął praktykę lekarską. +Już wtedy interesował się filozofią i problemem sprawiedliwej organizacji społeczeństwa. W 1772 r. opublikował "Esej filozoficzny o człowieku", w którym wykazał się gruntowną znajomością współczesnej filozofii angielskiej, francuskiej, włoskiej i hiszpańskiej, krytykował też czysto materialistyczne pojmowanie człowieka jako istoty kierującej się prymitywnymi instynktami. Esej Marata wzbudził spore zainteresowanie, Voltaire wdał się z nim w polemikę, co jeszcze zwiększyło popularność młodego, oryginalnego myśliciela. W dwa lata później opublikował on kolejną pracę, jeszcze ostrzejsze w wymowie "Kajdany niewolnictwa", wzywające do odrzucania w wyborach parlamentarnych w Anglii kandydatów zgłoszonych przez króla. Również praktyka lekarska Marata może zostać uznana za udaną. Cieszył się w tym zakresie dobrą reputacją, publikował też prace na temat chorób oczu. +W 1777 roku wyjechał do Paryża, aby objąć stanowisko lekarza w służbie hrabiego Artois. Po powrocie do Francji większą część jego klienteli stanowili arystokraci. Za ich pieniądze Marat mógł wyposażyć własne laboratorium fizyczne, w którym prowadził badania nad ciepłem, światłem i prądem elektrycznym. Korespondował z Franklinem i udzielał się w życiu naukowym Paryża, zdobywając wszędzie opinię niezwykle bezkompromisowego, spierającego się z największymi autorytetami ówczesnej nauki. Ta opinia nie pozwoliła mu zostać członkiem Akademii Francuskiej, o co się ubiegał. W 1787 r. opublikował tłumaczenie niektórych prac Newtona na temat optyki, zaś w 1788 r. własne wyniki badań o świetle. +Początki rewolucji. +Zwołanie Stanów Generalnych sprawiło, że Marat porzucił zajęcia badawcze i zdecydował się zostać lewicowym dziennikarzem. We wrześniu 1789 r. zaczął wydawać gazetę, która ostatecznie przyjęła tytuł "Przyjaciel ludu". Gazeta wyróżniała się ultraradykalizmem, nawoływaniem do krwawej rozprawy z "wrogami ludu", atakami zarówno na arystokrację, jak i na bardziej umiarkowanych rewolucjonistów. Marat krytykował zarówno absolutyzm, jak i monarchię konstytucyjną na wzór angielski, domagając się proklamacji republiki. Bezkompromisowość w krytykowaniu najbardziej wpływowych osób we Francji szybko naraziła Marata na odpowiedzialność karną. Uciekając przed uwięzieniem w styczniu 1790 znowu znalazł się w Anglii. Wrócił w maju, wstąpił do klubu kordelierów i ponownie zaczął redagować gazetę. Obdarzony gigantyczną energią, niekiedy wydawał nawet dwa numery czasopisma dziennie, a przez swoje apele do masowego mordowania arystokratów (słynne wezwanie do ścięcia pięciuset głów) wielokrotnie musiał się ukrywać. +Członek Konwentu. +W marcu 1792 Marat ożenił się z Simone Évrard, którą poznał w redakcji swojej gazety. Trzy miesiące później zbyt aktywne nawoływanie do republiki zmusiło go do ponownego ukrywania się. Nie brał udziału w szturmie na Tuilerie, choć zasługuje na miano jednego z ideowych ojców tego wydarzenia. We wrześniu 1792 został wybrany deputowanym do Konwentu, choć nadal nie był zrzeszony na stałe w żadnym popularnym klubie. Nie porzucił działalności dziennikarskiej - zmienił tylko nazwę gazety na "Dziennik republiki francuskiej". Zadziwił czytelników swoją spokojną postawą w czasie procesu króla - gdy Robespierre i Saint-Just atakowali Ludwika XVI, Marat ogłosił go winnym jedynie zaakceptowania antyludowej konstytucji w 1791 roku i choć domagał się jego śmierci, z szacunkiem raportował jego obronę przed Konwentem. W czasie sporu Góry z Żyrondą Marat obok Robespierre'a i Dantona należał do sztandarowych postaci tego pierwszego obozu. W czasie gdy ukrywał się przed prześladowaniami w kanałach Paryża, nabawił się choroby skóry. Oskarżany przez żyrondystów o działanie swoją ultraradykalną publicystyką na szkodę narodu, został nawet postawiony przed Trybunałem Rewolucyjnym, gdzie jednak uzyskał wyrok uniewinniający. Był to szczytowy moment popularności Marata, który został z gmachu Trybunału wyniesiony na rękach rozentuzjazmowanego tłumu. +Śmierć. +13 lipca 1793 Marat redagował swoją gazetę siedząc w wannie - ciepłe kąpiele miały pomagać mu w walce z chorobą skóry. Zgodził się na spotkanie z Charlotte Corday, która twierdziła, że ma dlań ważne wiadomości z Normandii. Wpuszczona do domu, dziewczyna (związana politycznie z Żyrondą), zadała mu jeden cios nożem w klatkę piersiową i nie próbowała uciec. Marat zdołał jedynie zawołać "Pomóżcie mi", po czym zmarł na miejscu. Zabójczyni przyznała się przed trybunałem do swojego czynu i została 17 lipca zgilotynowana w czerwonym woalu ojcobójczyni. +Kult Marata. +Niemal natychmiast po zamordowaniu Marat został uznany za męczennika rewolucji, jego imieniem nazwano kilka świąt republikańskich, a ciało przeniesiono do Panteonu po tymczasowym pochówku w klubie kordelierów. W mowie pogrzebowej, oficjalnie rozesłanej przez Konwent na prowincję, jego walka w imię ludu została porównana z działalnością Chrystusa. Wizerunek Marata wisiał w sali posiedzeń Konwentu w Tuileries. W ramach ogólnokrajowej kampanii zmian nazw miasto Hawr otrzymało nazwę Hawr-Marat, którą nosiło do roku 1795. Ten rok był końcem krótkotrwałego kultu Marata, który został uznany za niegodnego szacunku piewcę krwawego terroru i usunięty z Panteonu. Druga fala kultu Marata miała miejsce w ZSRR, gdzie słowo "Marat" funkcjonowało jako imię męskie, a francuski rewolucjonista miał liczne ulice i pomniki, a nawet okręt wojenny swego imienia. +Antypater + +Przedstawiciele dynastii herodiańskiej +Niecka + +Niecka +Paradygmat + +Paradygmat − w rozumieniu wprowadzonym przez filozofa Thomasa Kuhna w książce "Struktura rewolucji naukowych" ("The Structure of Scientific Revolutions") opublikowanej w 1962 roku – to zbiór pojęć i teorii tworzących podstawy danej nauki. Teorii i pojęć tworzących paradygmat raczej się nie kwestionuje, przynajmniej do czasu kiedy paradygmat jest twórczy poznawczo - tzn. za jego pomocą można tworzyć teorie szczegółowe zgodne z danymi doświadczalnymi (historycznymi), którymi zajmuje się dana nauka. +Charakterystyka. +Najogólniejszym paradygmatem jest "paradygmat metody naukowej", jest to kryterium uznania jakiejś działalności za naukową. +co nie oznacza, że naukowcy głosują nad przyjęciem lub odrzuceniem paradygmatu, liczy się zgodność paradygmatu z dotychczasową wiedzą i spełnienie wielu warunków (w zakresie np. istniejących dowodów) +Pojęcie "absolutnej słuszności" nie ma charakteru naukowego. +Struktura rewolucji naukowych. +Paradygmat w nauce. +W 13 rozdziałach, Kuhn dowodzi, że nauka nie jest jednostajnym, kumulatywnym pozyskiwaniem wiedzy. Zamiast tego nauka jest serią spokojnych okresów przerywanych przez gwałtowne intelektualne rewolucje, po których jeden koncepcyjny światopogląd jest zamieniany przez inny. Kuhn spopularyzował w tym kontekście termin "paradygmat", opisywany przez niego jako w istocie zbiór poglądów podzielanych przez naukowców, zestaw porozumień o pojmowaniu zagadnień. Pomimo tego krytycy zarzucali mu brak precyzji w stosowaniu tego terminu. +Zgodnie z poglądami Kuhna "paradygmat" jest istotny dla badań naukowych, gdyż "żadna nauka przyrodnicza nie może być wyjaśniana bez zastosowania splecionych teoretycznych i metodologicznych poglądów pozwalających na wybór, ocenę i krytykę". Paradygmat kieruje wysiłkiem badawczym społeczności naukowych i jest tym kryterium, które najbardziej ściśle identyfikuje obszary nauk. Fundamentalnym argumentem Kuhna jest to, że dla dojrzałej nauki typową drogą rozwojową jest kolejne przechodzenie w procesie rewolucji od jednego do innego paradygmatu. Gdy ma miejsce zmiana paradygmatu, "świat naukowy zmienia się jakościowo i jest jakościowo wzbogacany przez fundamentalnie nowe zarówno fakty jak i teorie". +Kuhn utrzymywał także, że - wbrew obiegowym opiniom - typowi naukowcy nie są obiektywnymi i niezależnymi myślicielami, a są konserwatystami, którzy godzą się z tym, czego ich nauczono i stosują tę naukę (wiedzę) do rozwiązywania problemów zgodnie z dyktatem wyuczonej przez nich teorii. Większość z nich w istocie jedynie składa układanki, celując w odkrywaniu tego, co i tak już jest im znane - "Człowiek, który usiłuje rozwiązać problem zdefiniowany przez istniejącą wiedzę i technikę nie ma szerszych horyzontów. Wie on co chce osiągnąć, i w zgodzie z tym projektuje swoje narzędzia i kieruje swoimi myślami." +W naukach społecznych, gdzie mogą jednocześnie występować różne paradygmaty, dochodzi do wojen paradygmatycznych, czyli zwalczania się nawzajem uczonych z różnych obozów i odmawiania innym charakteru naukowości. Paradygmaty w socjologii i antropologii są bardzo podzielone i na całym świecie zaobserwować można spory pomiędzy ich przedstawicielami. +Paradygmat a rewolucja naukowa. +W czasach nauki instytucjonalnej (określenie również wprowadzone przez Kuhna) podstawowym zadaniem naukowców jest doprowadzenie uznanej teorii i faktów do najściślejszej zgodności. W konsekwencji naukowcy mają tendencję do ignorowania odkryć badawczych, które mogą zagrażać istniejącemu paradygmatowi i spowodować rozwój nowego, konkurencyjnego paradygmatu. +Na przykład Ptolemeusz spopularyzował pogląd, że Słońce obiega Ziemię, i to przekonanie było bronione przez stulecia nawet w obliczu obalających go dowodów. Jak zaobserwował Kuhn, w trakcie rozwoju nauki "nowości wprowadzane są z trudem i z towarzyszącym mu, zgodnym z oczekiwaniami, jawnym oporem". I tylko młodzi uczeni, nie tak głęboko indoktrynowani przez uznane teorie - jak Newton, Lavoisier lub Einstein - mogą dokonać odrzucenia starego paradygmatu. +Takie rewolucje naukowe następują tylko po długich okresach nauki instytucjonalnej, tradycyjnie ograniczonej ramami, w których musiała się ona (nauka) znajdować i zajmować się badaniami, zanim mogła te ramy zniszczyć". Zresztą kryzys zawsze niejawnie tai się w badaniach, ponieważ każdy problem, który nauka instytucjonalna postrzega jako łamigłówkę, może być ujrzany z innej perspektywy, jako sprzeczność (wyłom), a zatem źródło kryzysu – jest to "istotne obciążenie" badań naukowych. +Kryzysy w nauce. +Kryzysy są wyzwalane, gdy uczeni uznają odkryte sprzeczności za anomalię w dopasowaniu istniejącej teorii z naturą. Wszystkie kryzysy są rozwiązywane na trzy sposoby: +Kuhn argumentuje, że rewolucje naukowe są nieskumulowanym epizodem rozwojowym, podczas którego starszy paradygmat jest zamieniany w całości lub po części przez niezgodny z nim paradygmat nowszy. Ale nowy paradygmat nie może być zbudowany na poprzedzającym go, a raczej może go tylko zamienić, gdyż "instytucjonalna tradycja naukowa wyłaniająca się z rewolucji naukowej jest nie tylko niezgodna, ale też nieuzgadnialna z tą, która pojawiła się przed nią". Rewolucja kończy się całkowitym zwycięstwem jednego z dwóch przeciwnych obozów. +Krytyka falsyfikacji. +Kuhn nie podzielał poglądu Karla Poppera o sprawdzaniu teorii poprzez falsyfikowanie. Uważał, że niekompletność i niedoskonałość w dopasowaniu danych i teorii określających układankę charakteryzują naukę instytucjonalną. +Jeśli, jak sugeruje Popper, niepowodzenie dopasowania stanowi podstawę do odrzucenia teorii, to wszystkie teorie będą stale odrzucane. Zatem czy i jak w obliczu takich argumentów nauka może się rozwijać, i co jest istotą jej rozwoju? +Rola paradygmatu. +Kuhn udowadnia, że normalna nauka rozwija się, ponieważ dojrzałe społeczności naukowe pracują na gruncie pojedynczego paradygmatu lub zestawu ściśle powiązanych ze sobą paradygmatów, i ponieważ różne społeczności naukowe rzadko kiedy badają te same problemy. Rezultat udanej twórczej pracy rozwiązującej problemy wywołane przez paradygmat stanowi postęp. +W istocie tylko w czasach normalnej nauki postęp wydaje się być zarówno oczywisty jak i pewny. Co więcej, "człowiek który upiera się, że filozofia nie dokonała żadnego postępu podkreśla tylko to, że ciągle są arystotelicy, a nie to, że rozwój filozofii arystotelejskiej zakończył się niepowodzeniem." +Ewolucja idei. +W myśl koncepcji Kuhna proces rozwoju nauki stanowi ewolucję od prymitywnych początków przez następujące kolejne stadia charakteryzujące się wzrastająca szczegółowością i coraz bardziej wyrafinowanym zrozumieniem przyrody. +W konsekwencji porównywał on własną koncepcję ewolucji idei naukowych do darwinowskiej koncepcji ewolucji organizmów żywych, ale dowodził, że nie jest to proces ewolucji w odniesieniu do czegokolwiek, i pyta, czy rzeczywiście pomaga to wyobrazić sobie, że istnieje jedyny, pełny, obiektywny, prawdziwy obraz przyrody. I chociaż postęp naukowy prowadzi do odkryć fundamentalnych prawd, Kuhn zaobserwował, że "jawnie lub skrycie rezygnujemy z poglądu, iż zmiany paradygmatów prowadzą naukowców i ich uczniów bliżej i coraz bliżej do prawdy". +Definicja dziedziny nauki. +Argument Kuhna, że społeczność naukowa określa się przez swoją wierność pojedynczemu paradygmatowi miał szczególny oddźwięk w dziedzinie wieloparadygmatycznych (lub przedparadygmatycznych) nauk społecznych, gdyż członkowie tych społeczności są często oskarżani o zazdrość wobec paradygmatycznej fizyki. +Kuhn sugerował, że na pytanie o to, czy dana dyscyplina jest czy też nie jest nauką, może być dana odpowiedź tylko wtedy, gdy członkowie społeczności naukowej powątpiewający o swoim statusie osiągną konsens co do oceny swoich przeszłych i obecnych osiągnięć. +Macierz dyscyplinarna. +Macierz dyscyplinarna (disciplinary matrix), to najbardziej spójna i najgłębiej internalizowana przez grupę uczonych część paradygmatu. Składa się z podzielanych przez tę grupę: (1) generalizacji symbolicznych, (2) metafizycznej składowej paradygmatu, (3) wartości, (4) wzorców rozwiązywania problemów naukowych. +Kasimow + +Kasimow (ros.: "Касимов", tat.: "Qasím", dawniej: "Xankirmän", "Gorodziec Mieszczorskij", "Nowy Nizowoj") - miasto w obwodzie riazańskim w Rosji, stolica Okręgu Kasimowskiego. Miasto leży na lewym brzegu rzeki Oki. +Historia. +Pierwotnie obszar ten zasiedlało ugrofińskie plemię zwane Mieszczorami. Później zasymilowali się oni z Rosjanami i Tatarami. +Późniejszy Kasimow założony został w 1152 roku przez włodzimiersko-suzdalskiego księcia Jurija Dołgorukija jako Gorodziec, potem Gorodziec Miesziorskij ("Городец Мещёрский"). W 1376 gród ten zniszczony został przez najeźdźców tatarsko-mongolskich, lecz wkrótce został odbudowany jako Nowy Nizowoj ("Новый Низовой"). +Po bitwie pod Suzdalem w 1445, gdy wielki książę moskiewski Wasyl II został schwytany przez wroga, ziemie mieszorskie przypadły Uług Mehmedowi, Chanowi Kazańskiemu, jako okup za życie księcia. W 1452 roku Wasyl II oddał gród kazańskiemu księciu Kasym-chanowi, który przeszedł na stronę Rosjan. Kasym i jego brat Josif uciekli jednak z Kazania po tym, jak tronu pozbawił ich Mahmutek, ich brat. Po 1471, miejscowość znana była jako "Miasto Kasyma" i pozostała stolicą Chanatu Kasymskiego do 1681, gdy chanat ponownie włączony został do Rosji. +Grupa Tatarów ponownie osiedliła się w tej okolicy i znani są oni jako Tatarzy Kasymscy. Mówią dialektem języka tatarskiego mishar, zmieszanym z dialektem środkowotatarskim. +Od XIII wieku Kasimow był jednym z głównych ośrodków islamu w tym regionie. +Homo antecessor + +Homo antecessor – kości kilku hominidów tego gatunku, o mózgu objętości ok. 1000 cm³, odkryto w latach 1996-1997 w jaskini Cueva Mayor w Atapuerca koło Burgos. Datuje się je w oparciu o metodę paleomagnetyczną na 780 tys. lat. +W małej komorze jaskini, na dnie głębokiego na 15 m szybu, znaleziono ok. 1300 kości i zębów należących przynajmniej do 30 ludzi. Szczątki te wykazują mieszaninę wcześniej­szych cech "Homo erectus" i bardziej progresyw­nych. Kości palców, ramieniowe, biodrowe i nóg przypominają kości ich następców w Europie, czyli neandertalczyków. +Martynian (imię) + +Martynian - imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego. Istnieją liczni święci patroni tego imienia. +Martynian imieniny obchodzi 2 stycznia, 13 lutego, 2 lipca i 16 października. +Commodore & Amiga + +Commodore & Amiga. Magazyn użytkowników komputerów Commodore - miesięcznik wydawany przez Spółdzielnię Bajtek w latach 1992-1995 (dokładniej: od numeru 01/1992 do 10/1995). Poświęcone było komputerom serii Commodore & Amiga. +Pismo wypełniały opisy programów, sprzętu, gier, kursy programowania, relacje z copy party oraz konkursy. +Fani komputerów Commodore & Amiga amatorsko wznowili wydawanie pisma pod nowym tytułem Commodore & Amiga Fan. C&A Fan wydawany jest nieregularnie tylko w wersji elektronicznej. +Kazimierz Ryczan + +Kazimierz Ryczan (ur. 10 lutego 1939 w Żurawicy) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, doktor habilitowany nauk teologicznych, profesor Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego, biskup diecezjalny kielecki od 1993. +Życiorys. +Absolwent II Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. Kazimierza Morawskiego w Przemyślu. Święcenia kapłańskie otrzymał 16 czerwca 1963 w Przemyślu. 17 lipca 1993 został mianowany biskupem kieleckim. Sakrę biskupią otrzymał z rąk kardynała Franciszka Macharskiego, ingres do bazyliki katedralnej miał miejsce 11 września 1993. +20 czerwca 2008 został Krajowym Duszpasterzem Ludzi Pracy. Zastąpił arcybiskupa Tadeusza Gocłowskiego, będącego jako biskup senior na emeryturze. W marcu 2011 został wybrany do Rady Stałej Konferencji Episkopatu Polski, gdzie zastąpił zmarłego arcybiskupa lubelskiego Józefa Życińskiego. +Jest profesorem nadzwyczajnym KUL-u. W 1992 uzyskał na tej uczelni stopień doktora habilitowanego nauk teologicznych. Wykłada socjologię religii w Instytucie Teologii Pastoralnej KUL-u oraz w Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Kielcach. +Odznaczenia i tytuły. +18 października 2009 został odznaczony Złotym Medalem za Długoletnią Służbę. +Otrzymał tytuł honorowego obywatela gminy Żurawica. +Karel Svoboda + +Karel Svoboda (ur. 19 grudnia 1938 w Pradze, zm. 28 stycznia 2007 w Jevanach), jeden z najbardziej znanych i wszechstronnych kompozytorów czeskich. Najbardziej znanym dziełem w Polsce była muzyka do czołówki serialu animowanego pt. "Pszczółka Maja". +Początkowo Svoboda studiował medycynę; w latach 50. dołączył do zespołu rockowego "Mephisto". Komponował dla Laterna Magica w Pradze i dla wszystkich znaczących czeskich piosenkarzy; szczególnie znany jest jako twórca wielkich hitów, które wykonywał Karel Gott. Svoboda skomponował muzykę do około 900 filmów. Stworzył także musical "Dracula" (1995) i "Monte Christo" (2000). +28 stycznia 2007 roku został znaleziony w przydomowym ogrodzie z raną postrzałową, przyczyna śmierci to najprawdopodobniej samobójstwo. +Paradygmat fleksyjny + +Paradygmat fleksyjny leksemu – zbiór wszystkich form fleksyjnych danego wyrazu. Na opis paradygmatu oprócz informacji, w jakich formach fleksyjnych może dany wyraz występować, składa się także informacja o właściwych poszczególnym formom końcówkach fleksyjnych. +Chrzest Polski + +Chrzest Polski – zwyczajowa nazwa początku procesu chrystianizacji państwa polskiego. Proces ten został zapoczątkowany przez osobisty chrzest Mieszka I w 966 r. (najczęściej podawaną datą jest 14 kwietnia 966 r., ponieważ zgodnie z ówczesnym zwyczajem ceremonia odbywała się w Wielką Sobotę). Następnym ważnym posunięciem była budowa organizacji kościelnej na przełomie X i XI w. (przy czym istnieją przesłanki pozwalające przypuszczać, iż wcześniej podejmowano próby chrystianizacji na terenach Małopolski). +Powszechnie przyjmuje się, iż chrystianizacja ziem polskich trwała aż do początków XIII w., choć według źródeł kościelnych poprzednie religie słowiańskie nadal usilnie zwalczano aż do wieku XVII. +Mieszko I przyjął chrzest w obrządku rzymskim. Chrzest władcy i erygowanie niezależnego biskupstwa zrównały państwo gnieźnieńskie z chrześcijańskimi krajami Europy i związały Polskę z zachodnim kręgiem kultury chrześcijańskiej. +Chrześcijaństwo na ziemiach polskich przed chrztem Mieszka I. +Chrześcijaństwo obrządku słowiańskiego istniało na ziemiach polskich już w IX wieku, kiedy państwo wielkomorawskie uzależniło od siebie państwo Wiślan i zmusił księcia do przyjęcia chrześcijaństwa. Chrzest musiał mieć miejsce podczas drugiego pobytu Metodego na Morawach, więc w latach 873-885. Ślady kultu w obrządku słowiańskim znajdujemy m.in. w Krakowie, Wiślicy i Przemyślu. Ośrodki te nie były pod kontrolą Kościoła łacińskiego i pozostawały pod wpływem cywilizacji bizantyjskiej z liturgią słowiańską i cyrylicy. +Istnieje również hipoteza, że w postrzyżynach Siemowita uczestniczyło dwóch obcokrajowców. Według niektórych historyków, ci obcokrajowcy to Cyryl i Metody, lub ich uczniowie, którzy mogli go ochrzcić w obrządku słowiańskim. +Okoliczności przyjęcia chrztu. +W chwili przyjęcia chrztu Mieszko I rządził już państwem zorganizowanym (wg zapisków Ibrahim ibn Jakuba) z dużą siłą wojskową. Nie chciał go przyjąć od Niemców, więc ożenił się z czeską księżniczką Dobrawą i przyjął chrzest w 966 r. Wiemy też (Widukind, Ibrahim ibn Jakub), że Mieszko prowadził wtedy wojny z Wieletami (Ibrahim ibn Jakub nazywa ich "Weltaba"), z którymi książę Polan nie radził sobie (zob. Wichman). W tym samym czasie Mieszko opanował plemię Lubuszan (Widukind), wchodząc w strefę wpływów cesarstwa. Zamieszany w walki z Wichmanem nie zdecydował się na wojnę z cesarzem i zgodził się płacić mu trybut. Pozostawało jeszcze uregulowanie stosunków z księciem czeskim Bolesławem I Okrutnym, który pozostawał w sojuszu z Wieletami, co Mieszko I osiągnął poprzez ślub z Dobrawą. Aby jednak równocześnie zdobyć sojuszników w Saksonii (w tym czasie wrogiej Czechom), władca gnieźnieński zdecydował się na chrzest. Wypada na podstawie tego stwierdzić, że chrzest miał przede wszystkim wymiar polityczny, a zachowanie Mieszka I w tamtym czasie świadczy o jego świetnym rozeznaniu i dalekowzroczności. Pozwoliło mu to wkrótce rozwiązać problem z Wichmanem. +Nie bez znaczenia dla podjęcia tej decyzji musiały być też plany Cesarstwa, zakładające kolonizację terenów na wschód od Rzeszy Niemieckiej poprzez +podporządkowanie ich Kościołowi niemieckiemu. Realizacją tych planów było założenie w roku 968 biskupstwa w Magdeburgu, którego granice od wschodu były nieokreślone. Stąd wniosek, że jednym z jego zadań była ekspansja wschodnia. +Obecnie zakłada się, iż Mieszko I przyjął chrzest na terenie swojego państwa w Poznaniu, na Ostrowie Lednickim lub w Gnieźnie; w dwóch pierwszych miejscach znaleziono bowiem baptysteria datowane na II poł. X wieku. Część historyków sądzi jednak, że mogło się to stać na terenie Niemiec (wielu uczonych wskazywało na Ratyzbonę), Czech bądź też w samym Rzymie. +Znaczenie chrztu. +Mieszko I po przyjęciu chrztu stał się równy władcom chrześcijańskim. Mógł zawierać przymierza i sojusze. Przyjęcie chrztu umacniało też znaczenie władcy wobec poddanych. Kościół głosił bowiem, że władza księcia pochodzi od Boga i każde wystąpienie przeciwko władzy uznawano za grzech. +Do Polski, po przyjęciu chrześcijaństwa, coraz liczniej przybywali duchowni. Uczyli ludzi nowej religii oraz służyli pomocą władzy. W tamtych czasach jedynie duchowni potrafili czytać i pisać. Przede wszystkim znali łacinę, którą posługiwali się m.in. w kontaktach międzynarodowych. Klasztory i kościoły były ośrodkami życia intelektualnego i artystycznego. +Duchowni znali również tajniki uprawy roli, to oni nauczyli Polan melioracji podmokłych terenów, zastosowali nowe narzędzia oraz dwupolówkę, co bardzo przyczyniło się do rozwoju gospodarki rolnej. +Po rozpowszechnieniu chrześcijaństwa zaczęto wznosić pierwsze kościoły, w związku z czym pojawił się nowy rodzaj zapotrzebowania na malarstwo i rzeźbę sakralną. +Osobnym tematem jest często ignorowany fakt rozciągłości czasowej wprowadzania chrześcijaństwa w Polsce. O powolności tego procesu, zarówno przed, jak i po r. 966, świadczą m.in. późnośredniowieczne znaleziska czynnych pogańskich miejsc kultu. Opinii o przeprowadzeniu chrztu całej Polski w ciągu jednego roku przeczy również zdrowy rozsądek. Współcześni historycy bezskutecznie próbują zwracać uwagę na umowność uznawanej powszechnie daty chrztu Polski. +Winna Góra (województwo wielkopolskie) + +Winna Góra – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie średzkim, w gminie Środa Wielkopolska. Nazwa pochodzi od powszechnych w okolicy w wiekach średnich winnic. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa poznańskiego. +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka o "Vineus Mons" (Winnej Górze) pochodzi z roku 1246, kiedy to książę Bolesław Pobożny nadał wieś biskupowi poznańskiemu Boguchwałowi. Wieś w 1331 roku została spustoszona przez Krzyżaków. +W posiadaniu biskupów poznańskich Winna Góra pozostawała do 1796 roku, kiedy to rząd pruski przeprowadził kasatę majątków kościelnych. W 1807 roku Napoleon nadał Winną Górę wraz z okolicznymi folwarkami generałowi Janowi Henrykowi Dąbrowskiemu. Dąbrowski spędził w Winnej Górze ostatnie lata swojego życia, po nim majątek odziedziczył syn, Bronisław Dąbrowski, a następnie potomkowie córki, Bogusławy z Dąbrowskich Mańkowskiej. +W rękach Mańkowskich Winna Góra pozostawała do 1939 roku. Obecnie pałac jest własnością poznańskiego Instytutu Ochrony Roślin, który posiada we wsi placówkę doświadczalną. Od 2003 wydzierżawiony w prywatne ręce lokalnemu przedsiębiorcy. W pałacu znajduje się niewielka ekspozycja poświęcona generałowi Dąbrowskiemu (oddział gnieźnieńskiego Muzeum Początków Państwa Polskiego). +Turystyka. +Przez Winną Górę przebiega czarny szlak rowerowy, łączący Żerków przez Raszewy, Śmiełów, Nową Wieś Podgórną, Czeszewo i Białe Piątkowo z Miłosławiem. +Antypater z Sydonu + +Antypater z Sydonu ( "Antipatros ho Sidonios"; II wiek p.n.e.) – grecki poeta, sporządził listę najsłynniejszych budowli i najznamienitszych dzieł sztuki ówczesnego świata znanych później jako siedem cudów świata. +Meleager z Gadary zamieścił epigramaty Antypatra w powstałej około 60 p.n.e. antologii zatytułowanej "Wieniec", zawierającej utwory własne i czterdziestu ośmiu najsłynniejszych poetów i poetek greckich. +Sjęgniew + +Sjęgniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członu "Sję-" ("s-jąć" – "wziąć, chwycić, trzymać"), oraz członu "-gniew" ("gniew"). +Może oznaczać "tego, kto ujarzmia swój gniew". +Trójjodotyronina + +Trójjodotyronina (T3) – organiczny związek chemiczny, trójjodowa pochodna tyroniny. Hormon wytwarzany przez komórki pęcherzyków tarczycy, magazynowany w postaci tyreoglobuliny i wydzielany do krwiobiegu. +Trójjodotyronina jest u człowieka głównym hormonem tarczycy, który powstaje głównie przez odjodowanie tyroksyny (T4, czterojodowej pochodnej tyroniny) na poziomie tkankowym. Działanie hormonów tarczycy jest niezbędne do prawidłowego funkcjonowania organizmu, ich działanie ujawnia się we wszystkich komórkach organizmu i jest szczególnie ważne w okresie rozwoju ośrodkowego układu nerwowego oraz dla wzrostu. +Niedobór hormonów tarczycy w okresie niemowlęcym prowadzi do nieodwracalnych zmian w mózgu i niedorozwoju umysłowego. Dawniej to zaburzenie było nazywane kretynizmem tarczycowym. Obecnie w krajach cywilizowanych bada się noworodki badaniem przesiewowym na występowanie wrodzonej niedoczynności tarczycy. Wczesne rozpoznanie i leczenie tego schorzenia zapewnia prawidłowy rozwój dziecka. +Eduardo Hay (działacz sportowy) + +Eduardo Hay (ur. 19 lutego 1915 w Limie, zm. 5 stycznia 2005), meksykański działacz sportowy, lekarz, członek i członek honorowy Międzynarodowego Komitetu Olimpijskiego (MKOl). +Jego ojciec, także Eduardo, był w latach 1935-1940 ministrem spraw zagranicznych Meksyku i generałem, a wcześniej w latach 1914-1915 ambasadorem w Peru. +Studiował nauki medyczne w Lyonie (Francja). Po powrocie do kraju służył w wojsku. Był uznanym specjalistą w dziedzinie ginekologii, profesorem Uniwersytetu w mieście Meksyk, dyrektorem Szpitala Brytyjsko-Amerykańskiego tamże. +Uprawiał w młodości szermierkę, zdobywał mistrzostwo Meksyku i Ameryki Środkowej w szpadzie, był członkiem kadry narodowej. Po zakończeniu kariery sportowej był aktywnym działaczem sportowym. W latach 1950-1955 kierował Meksykańską Federacją Szermierki, następnie (1955-1957) Panamerykańską Federacją Szermierki. Jako wiceprezydent meksykańskiego Narodowego Komitetu Olimpijskiego przekonał działaczy MKOl do przyznania Meksykowi prawa organizacji igrzysk olimpijskich w 1968. W czasie olimpiady był szefem protokołu oraz koordynatorem prac Kongresu Olimpijskiego. Jednocześnie w latach 1965-1972 pełnił funkcję dyrektora Meksykańskiego Centrum Sportów Olimpijskich. +W 1971 został wybrany członkiem MKOl; w latach 1967-1993 brał udział w pracach Komisji Medycznej MKOl (od 1980 jako jej wiceprzewodniczący). W 1991 nadano mu członkostwo honorowe MKOl. Był ponadto członkiem Międzynarodowego Towarzystwa Medycyny Olimpijskiej oraz prezydentem Panamerykańskiej Konfederacji Medycyny Sportowej. +Wygaszacz ekranu + +Wygaszacz ekranu (ang. "screensaver") – program komputerowy, którego zadaniem jest zwiększenie czasu bezawaryjnej pracy monitora poprzez wyłączanie go lub wypełnianie nieustannie, często losowo, zmieniającymi się wzorami lub obrazami. Dzisiaj wygaszacze ekranu pełnią w głównej mierze funkcję rozrywkową. +W monitorach CRT obraz powstaje przez bombardowanie luminoforu wiązką elektronów. Podczas wyświetlania obrazu niektóre jego fragmenty (np. pasek startowy w systemie Microsoft Windows) pozostają wyświetlane cały czas tak samo, co w starszych modelach monitorów mogło trwale uszkodzić ("wypalić") luminofor w tych miejscach i doprowadzić do powstania tzw. "obrazów - duchów" - fragmenty te mogą pozostać widoczne, mimo że komputer już ich nie wyświetla. +Wygaszacz ekranu po określonym czasie, w którym użytkownik nie wykonał ruchu myszką, ani nie nacisnął żadnego klawisza na klawiaturze, może wyłączyć ekran lub kreślić różne krzywe, wyświetlać obrazy albo napisy lub w dowolny inny sposób wymuszać ciągłe odświeżanie ekranu. Zapobiega to wypalaniu się luminoforu. Dlatego angielska nazwa, w dosłownym tłumaczeniu, znaczy: "ratownik ekranu". +Współczesne ekrany CRT są dużo mniej podatne na tego typu usterki. Ekrany LCD używane we wszystkich komputerach przenośnych i z coraz większą liczbą komputerów stacjonarnych są odporne na ten efekt. Używanie w tym przypadku wygaszacza ekranu zamiast wyłączania monitora tak naprawdę powoduje szybsze zaciemnienie ekranu. +Dodatkową funkcją wygaszaczy ekranu może być automatyczne zabezpieczanie hasłem stacji roboczej podczas braku aktywności (czyli prawdopodobnie nieobecności) użytkownika. Niektóre wygaszacze ekranu aktywują użyteczne funkcje, np. skanowanie dysku programem antywirusowym. +Działanie. +Microsoft Windows. +Jeśli system wykryje bezczynność trwającą dłużej niż czas określony w panelu sterowania, sprawdza czy aktywny program jest zwykłym programem (a nie np. innym wygaszaczem), wysyłając tzw. "WM_SYSCOMMAND message" z argumentem "SC_SCREENSAVE". Jeśli program wywoła w odpowiedzi standardową funkcję systemu (DefWindowProc) to zostaje uruchomiony zdefiniowany w panelu sterowania wygaszacz. +Atari. +Jako jedne z pierwszych wygaszacze ekranu pojawiły się w ośmiobitowych komputerach firmy Atari, wymuszając systemowo zmiany barw przy bezczynności komputera trwającej kilka minut (różne czasy w zależności od modelu), zapisane w systemowym ROMie komputera. +Albatros C.X + +Albatros C.X – niemiecki samolot rozpoznawczy i bombowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1917 roku w niemieckiej wytwórni lotniczej Albatros-Werke GmbH. +Historia. +W 1917 roku w niemieckiej wytwórni lotniczej Albatros-Werke GmbH. inżynierowie Robert Thelen i Schubert skonstruowali samolot rozpoznawczo-bombowy "Albatros C.X". Stanowił on rozwinięcie konstrukcji samolotu rozpoznawczo-bombowego "Albatros C.VII". Samolot "Albatros C.X" miał od niego większe wymiary i był napędzany silnikiem o większej mocy. Samolot oblatano w połowie 1917 roku. Podczas prób w locie spisywał się doskonale, charakteryzował się dobrymi właściwościami pilotażowymi i osiągami. W kadłubie z przodu mieścił się silnik rzędowy, który wystawał poza obrys kadłuba. Za silnikiem znajdowała się odkryte kabiny – najpierw pilota, za za nią obserwatora. Na końcu kadłuba było zamontowane usterzenie klasyczne z podziałem na stateczniki i stery. Przy silniku pokrycie kadłuba stanowiła blacha duraluminiowa, za silnikiem skleja. Płaty o konstrukcji drewnianej, dwudźwigarowe, kryte płótnem. Lotki umieszczono na obu płatach. Komorę płatów usztywniono słupkami metalowymi oraz cięgnami i drutami stalowymi. Podwozie klasyczne z płozą ogonową było amortyzowane sznurem gumowym. W latach 1917 – 1918 ogółem w różnych wytwórniach niemiecki wyprodukowano ponad 300 "Albatrosów C.X". +Pierwsze samoloty "Albatros C.X" niemieckie lotnictwo wojskowe wprowadziło na froncie zachodnim do działań bojowych w październiku 1917 roku. Stosowano je przede wszystkim do rozpoznania na korzyść artylerii i innych jednostek, a także do bombardowania i ostrzeliwania wojsk nieprzyjaciela. W działaniach wojennych brały udział do końca I wojny światowej. +Użycie w Wojsku Polskim. +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości w listopadzie 1918 roku polskie oddziały wojskowe zdobyły w Wielkopolsce i Małopolsce 15 samolotów "Albatros C.X". Po ich wyremontowaniu w 1919 roku przez warsztaty Stacji Lotniczej w Poznaniu na lotnisku Ławica znalazły się one na wyposażeniu 12 eskadry wywiadowczej. Załogi polskie na samolotach "Albatros C.X" walczyły w latach 1919 – 1920 w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej. Na kilku z nich prowadzono również szkolenie w Szkole Lotniczej na lotnisku Ławica. W lotnictwie wojskowym samoloty "Albatros C.X" używane były do 1923 roku. +W 1924 roku z inicjatywy lekarzy Okręgu Wojskowego w Poznaniu w warsztatach 3 Pułku Lotniczego jeden samolot "Albatros C.X" przerobiono na samolot sanitarny. Przeróbka polegała na wymontowaniu uzbrojenia i likwidacji tylnej kabiny obserwatora. W wyniku tego wygospodarowano za kabiną pilota pomieszczenie w kadłubie (kabinę sanitarną) w którym można było ustawić piętrowo nosze dla dwóch chorych. Chorych do kabiny wnoszono przez drzwi wyposażone w trzy okrągłe okienka, usytuowane na lewym boku kadłuba samolotu. Samolot ten stał się pierwszym w Polsce wojskowym samolotem sanitarnym. Pomalowano go na kolor zielono-oliwkowy. Na górnej części płatów i na sterze kierunku widniał znak Czerwonego Krzyża, na obu stronach kadłuba wymalowano polskie znaki lotnicze biało-czerwone szachownice. Samolot ten był stosowany podczas manewrów wojskowych w Biedrusku koło Poznania. Jego lotniskiem macierzystym była Ławica w Poznaniu. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot "Albatros C.X" był dwumiejscowym samolotem rozpoznawczo-bombowym lub trzymiejscowym samolotem sanitarnym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie – stałe. Napęd: 1 silnik rzędowy 6-cylindrowy "Mercedes D.IV", śmigło dwułopatowe drewniane. +Nadrenia-Palatynat + +Nadrenia-Palatynat (niem. "Rheinland-Pfalz") – kraj związkowy w południowo-zachodnich Niemczech. Założony został w 1947 r. Stolicą kraju związkowego jest Moguncja. +Graniczy z krajami związkowymi: Nadrenia Północna-Westfalia, Hesja, Saara, Badenia-Wirtembergia oraz na zachodzie z Belgią, Francją i Luksemburgiem. +Podział administracyjny. +24 powiaty, 12 miast wydzielonych, 163 gmin związkowych (niem. "Verbandsgemeinde"), 2 258 gmin. +Historia. +Kraj związkowy został sformowany 30 sierpnia 1946 r. zarządzeniem francuskiego rządu wojskowego z krainy Palatynat i części Nadrenii. Powstanie nowego kraju związkowego zostało zatwierdzone podczas referendum 18 maja 1947 roku. +Ciekawostki. +W Ramstein-Miesenbach, niedaleko Kaiserslautern, znajduje się amerykańska baza lotnicza Ramstein – największa na świecie poza terytorium USA. +W miejscowości Nurburg znajduje się słynny tor wyścigowy Nürburgring, na którym są rozgrywane wyścigi Formuły 1. Nadrenia-Palatynat posiada 90% udziałów w tym torze. +Kwantowy oscylator harmoniczny + +Oscylator harmoniczny - układ fizyczny, który ma duże zastosowanie i znaczenie w wielu działach fizyki. +Jest to ciało o masie formula_1, na które działa siła proporcjonalna do wychylenia z przeciwnym zwrotem formula_2. Ponieważ siła formula_3 to układ opisany jest przez potencjał +U(x)=\frac{1}{2}k x^2=\frac{1}{2}m\omega^2 x^2. +Jego energia całkowita jest równa +E=\frac{1}{2} m v^2 + U(x)=\frac{p^2}{2m} + U(x) +gdzie pęd formula_4. +W mechanice kwantowej pęd formula_5 przechodzi w operator +formula_6 spełniający regułę komutacyjną formula_7. +Wygodnie jest zdefiniować zamiast x, p dwa operatory +a=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(\sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{\hbar}}x + i\frac{1}{\sqrt{m \omega \hbar}}p), +a^{+}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(\sqrt{\frac{m\omega}{\hbar}}x - i\frac{1}{\sqrt{m \omega \hbar}}p) +nazywane operatorami anihilacji i kreacji. Stąd operator położenia x to +x=\sqrt{\frac{\hbar}{2m\omega}}(a + a^{+} ) + +Bozonowy oscylator harmoniczny. +Hamiltonian czyli operator energii przyjmuje teraz postać +H=\frac{1}{2}\hbar \omega (a^{+} a + a a^{+}) +Komutator zdefiniowany jest jako formula_14 a antykomutator formula_15. Hamiltonian można przekształcić do postaci +H=\hbar \omega (n + \frac{1}{2})=\hbar \omega n + E_0 +gdzie formula_16 jest energią stanu podstawowego. Hamiltonian posiada całą drabinkę stanów własnych formula_17 z energiami własnymi +E_n=\hbar \omega (n + \frac{1}{2})=\hbar \omega n + E_0 +i stanami własnymi +\psi_{0} = C_{0} \exp(-\frac{1}{2}{(\frac{x}{x_0})}^2) +\psi_n (x)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{n!}}(a^{+})^{n}\psi_0(x)=C_n H_n(\frac{x}{x_0})\psi_0(x) + gdzie +H_n(x)=(-1)^n e^{x^2}\frac{d^n}{dx^n}e^{-x^2}. +Fermionowy oscylator harmoniczny. +Fermionowy oscylator harmoniczny opisujemy hamiltonianem +H=\frac{1}{2}\hbar \omega(c^{+}c - c c^{+} ) +Hamiltonian ten można przekształcić do postaci +H=\hbar \omega(n - \frac{1}{2})=\hbar \omega n + E_0 +gdzie formula_32 jest energią stanu podstawowego. Reguła komutacyjna formula_33 oznacza zakaz Pauliego, istnieje tylko stan próżni formula_18, pierwszy stan wzbudzony formula_35, drugi stan wzbudzony już nie istnieje: formula_36, bo z reguł antykomatacyjnych wynika, iż formula_37. Fermionowy oscylator harmoniczny zbudowany jest tylko z dwóch stanów, stanu podstawowego formula_18 i stanu wzbudzonego formula_39. Posiada tylko dwie wartości własne formula_32 i formula_41. +Supersymetria. +Bozonowy i fermionowy hamiltonian razem posiada dodatkową symetrię, która miesza bozonowe stopnie swobody z fermionowymi - nazywamy ją supersymetrią, +H= \frac{1}{2} \hbar \omega ( \{ a^{+},a \}+[c^{+},c]). +\{ Q,Q^{+} \}=2 H . +Ta własność jest podstawą konstrukcji supersymetycznej teorii pola. +Tytus Liwiusz + +Titus Livius (59 p.n.e. - 17 n.e.) - rzymski historyk pochodzący z miasta "Patavium" (dzis. Padwa). Autor monumentalnego dzieła o historii Rzymu. +Liwiusz był z wykształcenia nauczycielem retoryki. Około roku 30 p.n.e. przeniósł się z Padwy do Rzymu. Mimo pochodzenia z zamożnej rodziny nie zajął się zwykłą dla Rzymian działalnością polityczną, nie sprawował urzędów, nie zasiadał w Senacie. Całe życie zajmował się nauczaniem retoryki i pisaniem. +W pracy wykorzystywał Liwiusz dostępne prace historyków greckich i rzymskich, dokumenty urzędowe Senatu, korespondencję dyplomatyczną, dokumenty wojskowe i tym podobne, zaginione dziś, materiały źródłowe. Z tego powodu dzieło Liwiusza pozostaje do dziś jednym z kluczowych źródeł do poznania historii Rzymu i państw ościennych. +To właśnie Tytus przekazał nam legendę o Romulusie i Remusie, legendarnych założycielach Rzymu. +Był pisarzem o nastawieniu retorycznym. Dzieje rzymskie relacjonował przez pryzmat zwycięstw i bohaterstwa Rzymian. Jego sympatie polityczne skłaniały się ku rządom oligarchii senatorskiej i z tego punktu widzenia przedstawiał najdawniejsze dzieje Rzymu. W okresie wczesnej młodości wyraźnie sympatyzował z "optymatami" (zwolennicy rządów senatu) przeciwko "popularom" (stronnictwo reform społecznych i politycznych). +Kryspina (imię) + +Kryspina - imię żeńskie pochodzenia łacińskiego. +Kryspina imieniny obchodzi 5 grudnia. +Imię pochodzi z języka łacińskiego: "crispa" - (osoba) o kręconych włosach. +Skaziczest + +Skaziczest – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Skazi-" ("skazić") i "-czest" ("cześć"). Może oznaczać "ten, kto poprzez swoje pojawienie się skaził cześć (rodu?)". +Pax Romana + +Pax Romana (łac. "Pokój Rzymski") – w starożytnym Rzymie określenie stanu pokoju istniejącego wewnątrz i na zewnątrz państwa. Był hasłem politycznym w czasie wojen domowych (schyłku republiki, ok. I wieku p.n.e.). Został wprowadzony po wojnach domowych w Rzymie, które toczyły się o władzę w republice. Pokój trwał ok. 207 lat. +Tristan i Izolda (opera) + +Tristan i Izolda – dramat muzyczny w trzech aktach skomponowany w 1859 roku przez niemieckiego kompozytora Richarda Wagnera, bazujący na historii Tristana i Izoldy w legendach arturiańskich (wersja Gotfryda ze Strasburga). +Zobacz też. +Akord tristanowski +Kwas masłowy + +Kwas masłowy ("kwas butanowy"), C3H7COOH – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy kwasów karboksylowych. Występuje w zjełczałym maśle, nadaje lekko gorzki posmak wielu serom i . Sole i estry kwasu masłowego to maślany. +Otrzymywanie. +Kwas masłowy produkuje się najczęściej w tzw. masłowej fermentacji skrobi, w której do wodnego roztworu skrobi dodaje się bakterii normalnie stosowanych do fermentacji serów ("Bacillus subtilis"). W laboratorium można go też otrzymać poprzez przepuszczanie tlenku węgla (CO) przez mieszaninę octanu sodu (CH3COONa) i etanolanu sodu (CH3CH2ONa) w temperaturze 205 °C. +W wielu procesach przemysłowych kwas masłowy powstaje jako produkt uboczny, który najczęściej wyodrębnia się poprzez strącanie go wodorotlenkiem wapnia (Ca(OH)2), gdyż sól wapniowa kwasu masłowego jest nierozpuszczalna w wodzie. +Właściwości. +Kwas masłowy to w temperaturze pokojowej oleista, bezbarwna ciecz. Jest łatwo rozpuszczalny w wodzie i większości organicznych rozpuszczalników polarnych (aceton, etanol, eter dietylowy itp.). +W mniejszych stężeniach (od 10 do 100 ppm) nadaje potrawom lekko gorzki smak, z zauważalną nutą słodką. W nieco większych stężeniach jego zapach kojarzy się wielu ludziom z wymiocinami, ze względu na to, że to właśnie ten związek nadaje charakterystyczny zapach wymiocinom małych dzieci, które są nadmiernie karmione mlekiem. W większych stężeniach posiada ostry, intensywny, trudny do zniesienia zapach zjełczałego tłuszczu. +Zastosowanie. +Kwas masłowy ma zastosowanie w produkcji środków zapachowych, barwników i leków. +Chociaż ma nieprzyjemny zapach, jego pochodne estrowe pachną bardzo ładnie i są stosowane w przemyśle spożywczym do produkcji esencji owocowych. Na przykład maślan butylu ma zapach ananasa. +Nanocebulka + +Nanocebulki - struktury odkryte w produktach kondensacji monowarstw grafitu wykazujące sferyczność i wielościenność. Zaliczane są do rodziny fulerenów. Posiadają one strukturę wielowarstwową przypominającą budowę cebuli. +Syria starożytna + +Syria starożytna – terytorium, którego granice w okresie od około VII tys. p.n.e. do około 330 roku p.n.e. zakreślały od zachodu Morze Śródziemne, od wschodu – Eufrat, od północy – góry Taurus, od południa – linia graniczna starożytnej Palestyny. Terytorium to nie pokrywa się obszarowo ze współczesną Syrią. +Syria starożytna dzięki swojemu położeniu łączy cywilizacje egipską, mezopotamską, anatolijskie i egejską. Ukształtowanie geologiczne powierzchni nie sprzyjało rozwojowi większych organizmów państwowych, a brak naturalnych granic powodował łatwe zdobywanie terenów przez kolejnych najeźdźców, co z kolei było przyczyną braku ciągłości polityczno-kulturowej. Obszar bogaty był w drzewa, co powodowało rozwój handlu z państwami, pozbawionymi tego surowca, przede wszystkim z Egiptem i Mezopotamią. +Granice historyczne. +Najstarsze odkrycia archeologiczne z obszaru Syrii starożytnej są datowane na VII tys. p.n.e. Syryjskie źródła pisane mają stosunkowo młodą metrykę. Najstarsze pochodzą z pierwszej połowy II tys. p.n.e. W piśmiennictwie mezopotamskim i egipskim najwcześniejsze informacje dotyczące regionu pochodzą z połowy III tys. p.n.e. Górna granica historii Syrii starożytnej przypada na czasy podboju Aleksandra Wielkiego, który po wygranej bitwie pod Issos w 333 roku p.n.e. wyruszył do Syrii i w 332 roku p.n.e. zdobył Tyr. Po podboju Egiptu ogłosił się oswobodzicielem Syrii spod władzy Persów. +Geografia Syrii starożytnej. +Granice zakreślające obszar Syrii starożytnej nie pokrywają się z granicami współczesnego państwa. Nie należy do niej obszar na wschód od Eufratu, pod względem geografii historycznej zaliczany do Mezopotamii. Ponadto tereny Syrii starożytnej obejmują należące do Turcji obszary pomiędzy Gaziantep i Kilis oraz pomiędzy zatoką İskenderun a ujściem Orontesu, a także ziemie współczesnego Libanu. Od zachodu naturalną granicą jest wybrzeże Morza Śródziemnego. +Pod względem ukształtowania krajobrazu Syria starożytna dzielił się na trzy obszary. Wzdłuż wybrzeża ciągnął się bogaty w surowce górzysty pas przerywany równinami i ujściami rzek płynącymi na zachód, co stwarzało dogodne warunki do powstawania miast portowych oraz komunikację z obszarami położonymi w głąb kraju. Druga strefa obejmowała górzysty kraj ciągnący się wąskim pasem od północy do południa i przerywany licznymi rzekami. Warunki przyrodnicze nie sprzyjały do powstawania na tych terenach osiedli. Trzeci obszar obejmował żyzne równiny na północy w okolicach Aleppo i pastwiska w pobliżu Damaszku na południu. +Tadź Mahal + +Tadź Mahal (hindi: ताज महल urdu: تاج محل) – indyjskie mauzoleum wzniesione przez Szahdżahana z dynastii Wielkich Mogołów, na pamiątkę przedwcześnie zmarłej, ukochanej żony Mumtaz Mahal. Obiekt bywa nazywany "świątynią miłości". +Położenie. +Tadź Mahal został wzniesiony w Agrze, mieście nad rzeką Jamuna, w indyjskim stanie Uttar Pradesh. Agra leży w odległości ok. 200 kilometrów od Delhi – dawnej stolicy Indii. Jest to jeden z głównych punktów wielu wycieczek zagranicznych. +Kompleks budowlany Tadź Mahal składa się z głównej świątyni z wielką kopułą, w kształcie cebuli, charakterystyczną dla sztuki islamu i olbrzymią bramą, symbolizującą wrota do Raju. Jest ona osadzona na plincie, w której rogach stoją cztery minarety – wieże z ktorych imam nawołuje wiernych do modlitwy. Uzupełnieniem kompleksu są standardowe elementy tego typu budowli: kanały wodne oraz podzielony na cztery części ogród krajobrazowy. Konstrukcja ogrodu perskiego przed mauzoleum imituje muzułmańskie wyobrażenie raju, które cechuje duże podobieństwo do jego chrześcijańskiego odpowiednika. +Budowa i historia. +W 1631 roku Mumtaz Mahal, żona panującego wówczas indyjskiego cesarza z dynastii Wielkich Mogołów, Szahdżahana, zmarła przy porodzie jego czternastego dziecka. Miała zaledwie 38 lat, chociaż w stanie małżeńskim przeżyła 18 lat. +Według legendy przed śmiercią zobowiązała męża do spełnienia 3 obietnic: nigdy się nie ożenić, zaopiekować się dziećmi oraz postawić na jej cześć budynek, który będzie ją upamiętniał po śmierci. Zrozpaczony małżonek spełnił wszystkie prośby (brak oficjalnej żony jednak nie przeszkodził mu w posiadaniu konkubin). Postanowił zbudować na jej cześć grobowiec-mauzoleum, który byłby godzien jego zmarłej żony – budowlę nie mającą porównywalnego odpowiednika w świecie. Według popularnego podania, pogrążony w smutku monarcha osiwiał w przeciągu jednej nocy. Po ukończeniu budowy miał on rzekomo wydać rozkaz o obcięciu kciuków wszystkim robotnikom, by nigdy nie byli już w stanie stworzyć podobnego dzieła. Tak naprawdę żadne źródła nie potwierdzają tego faktu – do dzisiaj potomkowie tych rzemieślników, są zaangażowani w renowację budowli. +Budowa Tadź Mahalu trwała dwadzieścia dwa lata (1632–1654) i pracowało przy niej, według różnych podań, od 20 do 25 tysięcy robotników. W budowie mogli mieć swój udział dwaj Europejczycy: Włoch pochodzący z Wenecji (Geronimo Veroneo) oraz Francuz. Wzmianka o tym pochodzi od hiszpańskiego księdza, który ok. 1640 roku odwiedził Agrę. Brak jest jednak pewniejszych historycznych źródeł, by potwierdzić ten przekaz. Oficjalne kroniki dworskie nie podają imienia architekta, sugerując, że projekt był dziełem samego władcy, i poprzestają na osobach Makramat-chana i Mir Abd al-Karima, którzy byli odpowiedzialni za prowadzenie robót. Z odnalezionych dokumentów wynika jednak, że właściwym architektem był Ustaz Ahmad Lahori, który m.in. zaprojektował niektóre komnaty w Czerwonym Forcie. +Tadź Mahal zbudowano z marmuru, przywiezionego z kamieniołomu odległego o prawie 350 km. Wbrew wielu fotografiom nie jest on biały. Z powodu zanieczyszczenia środowiska marmur staje się coraz ciemniejszy (z tego powodu wydano też zakaz lokalizowania obiektów przemysłowych w promieniu 50 km od zespołu budowli). Marmurowe powierzchnie pokryte są tysiącem kamieni szlachetnych, półszlachetnych i dekoracji kaligraficznych z czarnego marmuru. +W latach trzydziestych XIX wieku, mający dwieście lat Tadź Mahal, był zaniedbany i zarośnięty, niemalże popadł w ruinę. Lord William Bentinck, generalny gubernator Bengalu, wysunął propozycję rozebrania tego wyjątkowego monumentu, przesłania marmuru statkiem do Londynu i tam sprzedania go. Zamiar ten nie doszedł do skutku tylko dlatego, że marmur zerwany z Czerwonego Fortu nie znalazł nabywców. W roku 1900 kolejny wicekról Indii, lord George Curzon, nakazał odrestaurować podupadłe mauzoleum. +Według legendy cesarz planował wznieść duplikat po przeciwległej stronie rzeki Jamuny wykonany w całości z czarnego marmuru. Czarny Tadź Mahal był jednak tylko wymysłem francuskiego podróżnika Jean-Baptiste Taverniera. Po drugiej stronie widać jednak pewne pozostałości, które można było uznać za fundamenty pod drugi Tadź Mahal – są to jednak pozostałości po dalszych ogrodach oryginalnego Tadź Mahal, które zostały zrujnowane na skutek powodzi. Inne pogłoski mówią, jakoby Czarny Tadź miał być tak naprawdę tylko odbiciem Tadź Mahalu w basenie w przeciwległych ogrodach. +Tadź Mahal jest przykładem szczytowych osiągnięć architektonicznych Indii w epoce Wielkich Mogołów. W 2004 roku świętowano 350. rocznicę ukończenia jego budowy, zaś niedługo potem, 7 lipca 2007 obiekt został ogłoszony jednym z siedmiu nowych cudów świata. +Fabrizio Meoni + +Fabrizio Meoni (ur. 31 grudnia 1957 w Castiglion Fiorentino, zm. 11 stycznia 2005 w Kifie) – sportowiec, motocyklista włoski startujący w rajdach terenowych. +W 2001 i 2002 wygrał rywalizację motocyklistów w Rajdzie Dakar (na motocyklu KTM). W 2005 roku, także na motocyklu KTM, przez pewien czas był liderem tej imprezy. Zmarł na atak serca na trasie 11. etapu; zajmował w chwili śmierci 2. miejsce w klasyfikacji generalnej. +Enceladus (księżyc) + +Enceladus (Saturn II) – jeden z księżyców Saturna, odkryty w 1789 roku przez Williama Herschela. Jego nazwa pochodzi od Enkeladosa, jednego z gigantów w mitologii greckiej, który został przygnieciony przez Zeusa wyspą Sycylią. +Odkrycie. +Został odkryty wraz z Mimasem w 1789 roku przez W. Herschela, słynnego odkrywcę Urana. Nastąpiło to aż 105 lat po odkryciu Tetydy i Dione. +Kształt i rozmiary. +Enceladus jest stosunkowo niewielkim satelitą. Jego średnica wynosi około 500 kilometrów, czyli siedem razy mniej niż średnica ziemskiego Księżyca. Jego powierzchnia całkowita przekracza 800 tysięcy km², czyli jest ponad dwa razy większa niż powierzchnia Polski. +Pod względem masy i średnicy Enceladus jest szóstym co do wielkości satelitą Saturna po Tytanie, Rei, Japecie, Dione i Tetydzie. Z drugiej strony, jest jednym z najmniejszych satelitów Saturna o regularnym, sferycznym kształcie, ponieważ wszystkie mniejsze księżyce z wyjątkiem Mimasa mają nieregularny kształt. Dokładniej, Enceladus ma kształt spłaszczonej elipsoidy o rozmiarach, obliczonych na podstawie zdjęć wykonanych przez sondę Cassini, 513 na 503 na 497 km. +Budowa i powierzchnia. +Enceladus jest księżycem lodowym, zbudowanym w znacznym stopniu z lodu. Jego powierzchnia jest stosunkowo młoda, bogata w twory takie jak kratery, gładkie równiny oraz rozległe szczeliny i grzbiety. Przypuszcza się, że ukształtowała się ok. 100 milionów lat temu wskutek wydobywania się wody z wnętrza księżyca. Pokrywający ją świeży, czysty lód sprawia, że Enceladus ma największe albedo ze wszystkich obiektów w Układzie Słonecznym - odbija on ponad 99% padającego nań światła. Niewielka ilość pochłanianej energii słonecznej powoduje, że temperatura powierzchni tego księżyca wynosi w południe zaledwie -198°C. Mimo to na tym niewielkim księżycu występują aktywne lodowe wulkany lub gejzery. +Rozmiary Enceladusa nie są na tyle duże, by zachodzące w jego wnętrzu reakcje rozpadu pierwiastków promieniotwórczych mogły obecnie dostarczać znaczące ilości energii. Jednak występujące na powierzchni księżyca pęknięcia, szczeliny i inne deformacje terenu świadczą, że zachodzą na nim złożone zjawiska tektoniczne, pomimo że jego wnętrze powinno ostygnąć już dawno temu. Źródłem ciepła może być tutaj grzanie pływowe, wynikające z istnienia rezonansu orbitalnego Enceladusa z innym księżycem, Dione, w stosunku 1:2. +Badania Enceladusa. + sondy Cassini 17 lutego i 9 marca 2005 pozwoliły zbliżyć się odpowiednio na 1167 i 500 km, odkrywając jednocześnie cienką atmosferę w rejonie bieguna południowego i rejestrując tysiące cząsteczek kosmicznego pyłu wokół satelity. Podczas bliskiego przelotu sondy 9 marca 2005, wykonano bardzo szczegółowe zdjęcia, pokazujące wielką różnorodność jego powierzchni. Było to jak do tej pory największe zbliżenie podczas czteroletniej misji Cassiniego. Zdjęcia te mogą pomóc w odtworzeniu sekwencji procesów geologicznych, które zachodziły na powierzchni księżyca przez miliony lat. Enceladus tak zainteresował naukowców, że zdecydowali się skorygować trasę Cassiniego w taki sposób, aby także podczas następnego przelotu (14 lipca 2005) sonda zbliżyła się do księżyca na odległość zaledwie 175 km. +W trakcie lipcowego zbliżenia sonda wykryła na południowym biegunie księżyca miejsce cieplejsze aż o kilkadziesiąt stopni od obszarów okołorównikowych. Analiza zdjęć uzyskanych z sondy Cassini potwierdziła istnienie w tym miejscu lodowego wulkanu. Modele wnętrza księżyca, wyjaśniające jego aktywność sugerują, że na Enceladusie płynna woda może znajdować się zaledwie kilka metrów pod powierzchnią lodu w postaci niewielkich zbiorników, które uwalniają swą zawartość podobnie jak ziemskie gejzery. W związku z tym niektórzy uczeni uważają, że na tym księżycu mogą istnieć warunki do powstania organizmów żywych. +Inna hipoteza sugerowała, że źródłem wyrzucanej z powierzchni księżyca pary i kryształków lodu może być tarcie o siebie bloków lodowych, wywołane przez siły pływowe pochodzące od Saturna. Lotny materiał miał sublimować, kiedy siły pływowe otwierają szczeliny w obszarze "tygrysich pasów". Jeżeli hipoteza ta byłaby prawdziwa, oznaczałoby to, że lodowa skorupa Enceladusa ma wszędzie grubość kilku kilometrów, ale pod nią musi znajdować się ocean wody umożliwiający na tyle silne ruchy skorupy, by wywołać jej pęknięcia. Okazało się jednak, że aktywność kriowulkaniczna nie zmienia się zgodnie z tym modelem. +Gejzery. +Gejzery na Enceladusie są źródłem co najmniej większości materii pierścienia E Saturna. Materia taka opada na planetę w ciągu najwyżej kilku tysięcy lat, co dowodzi aktywności księżyca, choć możliwe jest też, że pierścień jest zasilany również odłamkami powstałymi podczas zderzeń księżyców z niewielkimi meteoroidami. Gejzery wyrzucają cząsteczki lodu z prędkością ok. 400 m/s, 1500 km ponad powierzchnię Enceladusa. Ich rozmiary są bardzo niewielkie, porównywalne z grubością ludzkiego włosa. Sonda Cassini stwierdziła istnienie dwóch rodzajów tych cząsteczek. Jeden to czysty lód wodny, a drugi to lód wymieszany z innymi substancjami (w tym z solami). Z obserwacji struktury księżyca wynika, że czysty lód pochodzi z powierzchni, a ten zabrudzony z wnętrza satelity. +W 2011 roku badania prowadzone przez Kosmiczne Obserwatorium Herschela dowiodły, że woda wyrzucana z powierzchni księżyca tworzy olbrzymi pierścień pary wodnej wokół Saturna. Odkrycie to identyfikuje źródło wody górnych warstw atmosfery Saturna. W ten sposób Enceladus stał się jedynym znanym księżycem w Układzie Słonecznym, o którym wiadomo, że wpływa na skład chemiczny planety, wokół której krąży. Para wodna jest wrzucana poprzez sieć dżetów zlokalizowanych wokół południowego bieguna księżyca. Jej ilość szacuje się na około 250 kg/s. +Tektonika. +Dokładniejsze obserwacje obszaru "tygrysich pasów" ukazały, że są to struktury zaskakująco podobne do grzbietów oceanicznych na Ziemi. Oprócz charakterystycznej "schodkowej" struktury, tworzonej przez strefy spreadingu i uskoki transformujące zaobserowano także porzucone ryfty i pasujące do siebie części struktur powierzchniowych, rozdzielone przez "tygrysie pasy". Te obserwacje sugerują, że na księżycu zachodzą procesy rozrostu lodowej skorupy, jednak w odróżnieniu od ziemskiego spreadingu, jest to proces asymetryczny. +CRT + +CRT (z ang. "Cathode-Ray Tube") – oznaczenie kineskopu z działem elektronowym. W języku polskim pod tym słowem przyjęto potoczną nazwę skrótową, synonim dla wyrażenia: monitor CRT – czyli oznaczenie dla modeli monitorów komputerowych, których ekran oparty jest na kineskopie. +Właściwe określenie to monitory kineskopowe. +W monitorach tego rodzaju do wyświetlania obrazu używa się wiązki elektronów wystrzeliwanej z działa elektronowego (najczęściej katoda), która odchylana magnetycznie (przy pomocy cewek odchylania poziomego i pionowego) pada na luminofor, powodując jego wzbudzenie do świecenia. +Określenie "CRT" zaistniało w języku polskim po wprowadzeniu na rynek alternatywnych sposobów wyświetlania obrazu w monitorach komputerowych oraz odbiornikach telewizyjnych. +W starszych modelach monitorów CRT w celu zmniejszenia promieniowania nakładano na nie specjalną folię ochronną. +Zostały one wyparte z rynku przez nowsze modele jakimi są ekrany LCD. +Wywiad gospodarczy + +Wywiad gospodarczy to pozyskiwanie informacji na temat gospodarki przedsiębiorstw i państw. +Wywiad gospodarczy polega w szczególności na uzyskiwaniu lub potwierdzaniu informacji dotyczących sytuacji prawnej i finansowej wybranych przedsiębiorstw na zlecenie innych podmiotów gospodarczych w celu zmniejszenia ryzyka współpracy gospodarczej lub też dla podjęcia odpowiednich kroków dla odzyskania należności. Wywiad gospodarczy może być też skierowany na osobę prywatną. +Niekiedy wywiad gospodarczy jest zdobywaniem informacji gospodarczej, np. informacji o nowych technologiach wdrażanych w firmach konkurencyjnych, w celu podjęcia kroków prewencyjnych dla zachowania lub uzyskania odpowiedniej pozycji rynkowej. +Wywiadem gospodarczym zajmują się np. wyspecjalizowane biura detektywistyczne czy firmy, w szczególności firmy windykacyjne. +Wywiad gospodarczy należy odróżnić od szpiegostwa, przez które rozumie się próbę uzyskania dostępu do tajnych informacji przy użyciu prawnie niedozwolonych środków. +Informacje pozyskiwane przez wywiad gospodarczy mogą być również wykorzystywane przez wywiady różnych krajów np. w celach wojskowych. +Artemiusz + +Artemiusz – imię męskie, pochodzenia greckiego, w wersji Αρτέμιος/Artemios wywodzące się od imienia bogini Artemidy, a w wersji Ἀρτεμής/Artemes znaczące "bezpieczny, idealnego zdrowia". Imię to nosiło kilku świętych Forma żeńska – Artemia. +Artemiusz imieniny obchodzi 6 czerwca i 20 października. +Zobacz też: Artiom +Sakrament święceń + +Sakrament święceń, święcenia kapłańskie, kapłaństwo, święcenia – sakrament w Kościele katolickim, także Kościołach prawosławnych, anglikańskich i starokatolickich, który nadaje władzę uświęcania, tj. udzielania innych sakramentów. +Kościół katolicki. +Święcenia sakramentalne posiadają trzy stopnie: diakonat, prezbiterat oraz biskupstwo. W ciągu wieków wykształciła się także praktyka udzielania niższych stopni święceń: ostiariatu, lektoratu, egzorcystatu, akolitatu i subdiakonatu. Z czasem subdiakonat został zaliczony do święceń wyższych. W 1972 roku papież Paweł VI, reformując święcenia niższe, zachował jedynie lektorat i akolitat, i to jako posługi powierzane mężczyznom świeckim. +W mowie potocznej ze święceniami kapłańskimi utożsamia się drugi stopień (prezbiterów zwyczajowo nazywa się księżmi), natomiast biskupstwo określa się jako pełnię sakramentu kapłaństwa. Kandydat do kapłaństwa przyjmuje święcenia diakonatu co najmniej 6 miesięcy przed święceniami prezbiteratu, zaś stali diakoni w Polsce są nieliczni (w przeciwieństwie do krajów zachodnich). Diakonat upoważnia do udzielania uroczystego chrztu, błogosławienia małżeństw, prowadzenia pogrzebu, głoszenia kazań i asystowania celebrującemu kapłanowi. Prezbiterom zastrzeżone jest sprawowanie Eucharystii, sakramentu pokuty oraz namaszczenia chorych. Biskupi udzielają bierzmowania (choć prezbiterzy także mogą być jego nadzwyczajnymi szafarzami; w Kościołach wschodnich udzielają go jako zwyczajni szafarze) oraz sakramentu święceń. +Według nauczania Kościoła katolickiego, stan kapłański jest władzą ustanowioną przez Jezusa, w której działa On sam. Historycznie urząd ten nawiązuje do żydowskiego kapłaństwa świątynnego. Według św. Tomasza z Akwinu ("Summa Theologica") "Chrystus jest źródłem całego kapłaństwa: kapłani Starego Zakonu zapowiadali Chrystusa, kapłani Nowego Zakonu działają w osobie Chrystusa". Sakramentu święceń (każdego stopnia) może udzielić tylko biskup. +Obecnie podkreśla się urzędowy (służebny) charakter kapłaństwa sakramentalnego na tle powszechnego kapłaństwa chrzcielnego wszystkich wiernych. +Katolicy uznają ważność święceń kapłańskich Kościołów, które zachowały sukcesję apostolską biskupów: prawosławnych, części starokatolickich oraz chrześcijan wschodnich (przedchalcedońskich). Święcenia anglikańskie uważa się za nieważne, z powodu defektu formuły sakramentalnej. +Kandydat do święceń biskupich musi być bezżenny. W Kościele łacińskim celibat obowiązuje również kandydatów do święceń prezbiteratu, możliwe jest jednak udzielenie tych święceń bezżennemu wdowcowi lub żonatemu na podstawie indultu Stolicy Apostolskiej (np. przy konwersji duchownego z innego Kościoła). +Katechizm Kościoła Katolickiego ściśle określa wynikające z przyjęcia święceń skutki: "Kto został wyświęcony w sposób ważny, może oczywiście ze słusznych powodów zostać zwolniony z obowiązków i funkcji związanych ze święceniami, nie może jednak stać się człowiekiem świeckim w ścisłym sensie, ponieważ charakter wyciśnięty przez święcenia jest nieusuwalny. Powołanie i posłanie otrzymane w dniu święceń naznaczyły go na zawsze" (por. KKK #1583). Kapłan sprowadzony do stanu świeckiego ma prawo, a nawet obowiązek, rozgrzeszenia wiernych będących w niebezpieczeństwie śmierci. +Kościoły prawosławne. +Pojmowanie kapłaństwa jest praktycznie identyczne z katolickim, przy czym obowiązki duchownych poszczególnych stopni nieznacznie się różnią, a także praktykuje się udzielanie święceń niższych (chirotesji) – lektora-kantora i subdiakona. Święcenia wyższe nazywane są chirotonią. +Diakon nie może samodzielnie sprawować ceremonii liturgicznych, jego zadaniem jest asystować kapłanowi. Prezbiter może udzielać wszystkich sakramentów z wyjątkiem święceń, które są zastrzeżone biskupowi. +Niektórzy teolodzy prawosławni dopuszczają możliwość pozbawienia święceń, lecz dominuje pogląd, jak w katolicyzmie, że znamię sakramentu święceń jest niezniszczalne. Święceń raz udzielonych ważnie już się nie powtarza. +Kościoły starokatolickie. +Starokatolicy sakrament kapłaństwa pojmują podobnie jak katolicy, jednak duchowni nie są zobowiązani do przestrzegania celibatu, jedynie tradycja Kościoła Starokatolickiego w RP zobowiązuje duchownych do celibatu. Obecnie w kościołach starokatolickich trwa dyskusja nad ordynacją kobiet, która jest powodem zrywania kontaktów i współpracy między poszczególnymi wspólnotami ("patrz: Unia Utrechcka Kościołów Starokatolickich"). +W Kościele Katolickim Mariawitów (w Polsce) praktykowane jest również kapłaństwo ludowe. +Kościoły protestanckie. +Kapłaństwo wiernych postrzegane jest jako możliwość wzajemnego wsparcia modlitwą. Odrzuca się jednak pogląd, jakoby jakikolwiek człowiek, czy to żywy, czy zmarły, był kapłanem-pośrednikiem. W myśl zasady Solus Christus wyłącznie Chrystus ma ten przywilej jako Najwyższy Kapłan Nowego Przymierza. +Duchowni protestanccy (pastorzy) są uznawani przede wszystkim za kaznodziejów i duszpasterzy. Tradycyjnie udzielają oni chrztu i Wieczerzy Pańskiej, choć nie jest to ich wyłączny przywilej. W protestantyzmie nie stosuje się święceń kapłańskich. Pastorzy są ordynowani poprzez wkładanie rąk. Duchowni, w zależności od tradycji, określani są jako księża, pastorzy, starsi, prezbiterzy etc. +Pismo Święte o kapłaństwie (według Biblii Tysiąclecia). +Zbliżając się do Tego, który jest żywym kamieniem, odrzuconym wprawdzie przez ludzi, ale u Boga wybranym i drogocennym, wy również, niby żywe kamienie, jesteście budowani jako duchowa świątynia, by stanowić święte kapłaństwo, dla składania duchowych ofiar, przyjemnych Bogu przez Jezusa Chrystusa. +1P 2, 4-5 +Duch Pana Boga nade mną, bo Pan mnie namaścił. +Posłał mnie, by głosić dobrą nowinę ubogim, by opatrywać rany serc złamanych, by zapowiadać wyzwolenie jeńcom i więźniom swobodę; aby obwieszczać rok łaski u Pana, i dzień pomsty dla naszego Boga; aby pocieszać wszystkich zasmuconych, by rozweselić płaczących na Syjonie, +aby dać im wieniec, zamiast popiołu, olejek radości zamiast szaty smutku, pieśń chwały zamiast zgnębienia na duchu. Wy zaś będziecie nazywani kapłanami Pana, mienić was będą sługami Boga naszego. Tak mówi Pan: «Oddam im nagrodę z całą wiernością i zawrę z nimi wieczyste przymierze. Plemię ich będzie znane wśród narodów i między ludami ich potomstwo. Wszyscy, którzy ich zobaczą, uznają, że oni są szczepem, który Pan pobłogosławił». +Iz 61, 1-3a., 6a., 8b-9 +Łaska wam i pokój od Jezusa Chrystusa, świadka wiernego, pierworodnego umarłych i władcy królów ziemi. Temu, który nas miłuje i który przez swą krew uwolnił nas od naszych grzechów i uczynił nas królestwem, kapłanami dla Boga i Ojca swojego, Jemu chwała i moc na wieki wieków. Amen. Oto nadchodzi z obłokami i ujrzy Go wszelkie oko i wszyscy, którzy Go przebodli. I będą Go opłakiwać wszystkie pokolenia ziemi. Tak: Amen. Jam jest Alfa i Omega, mówi Pan Bóg, który jest, który był i który przychodzi, Wszechmogący. +Ap 1, 4-8 +Góry Bystrzyckie (Sudety) + +Góry Bystrzyckie (332.53, czes. "Bystřické hory", niem. "Habelschwerdter Gebirge") – rozległy, słabo zróżnicowany masyw górski w Sudetach Środkowych. Administracyjnie Góry Bystrzyckie położone są w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie kłodzkim. +Od północy Góry Bystrzyckie sąsiadują z Górami Stołowymi i Obniżeniem Dusznickim, od zachodu z Górami Orlickimi, oddzielone od nich dolinami Bystrzycy Dusznickiej i Dzikiej Orlicy – ta ostatnia odgranicza Góry Bystrzyckie także od południowego zachodu. Wschodnią granicę wyznacza Rów Górnej Nysy, ku któremu góry opadają wyraźnym uskokiem tektonicznym, granicząc z Wysoczyzną Łomnicy, Obniżeniem Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej i Wysoczyzną Międzylesia. Większość obszaru pasma leży na terenie Polski, na teren Czech przechodzi jedynie mały skrawek w południowej części (na południe od Lesicy). +Wg czeskich geografów Góry Bystrzyckie kończą się na granicy państwowej i nie przechodzą na obszar Czech, a ich kontynuację stanowią Góry Orlickie, a dokładniej Mladkovská vrchovina. +Góry Bystrzyckie wyróżniają się dużą lesistością. Teren jest bardzo słabo zaludniony i ze względu na trudne warunki ciągle wyludniający się w wyniku procesu zanikania wsi. Małe urozmaicenie rzeźby terenu, znaczne zalesienie i słaba baza noclegowa powodują, że Góry Bystrzyckie nie są popularnym regionem turystycznym. Są one atrakcyjne dla wytrwałych piechurów i rowerzystów górskich poszukujących miejsc wolnych od masowej turystyki. +Miejscowości. +Spalona – Lasówka – Piaskowice – Mostowice – Rudawa – Niemojów – Lesica – Wójtowice – Nowa Bystrzyca – Stara Bystrzyca – Zalesie – Młoty – Huta – Różanka – Gniewoszów – Poniatów – Poręba – Ponikwa – Nowa Łomnica – Paszków – Wyszki – Kamieńczyk – Bobrowniki – Pokrzywno – Sokołówka. +Nazwa. +Nazwa Gór Bystrzyckich pochodzi od nazwy rzeki (i miasta) Bystrzyca. Bezsprzecznie etymologię da się wyprowadzić od ogólnosłowiańskiego przymiotnika "bystry". Ale i tu pojawiają się problemy – nazwa niemiecka brzmi "Habelschwerdter Gebirge", co pochodzi od niemieckiej nazwy miasta "Habelschwerdt" (niem. "Habel" to pol. imię "Haweł", "Gaweł"), po wojnie nazwanego po polsku Bystrzyca Kłodzka. Sprawa jest o tyle skomplikowana, że niemiecka nazwa gór pochodzi od nazwy miasta ("Habelschwerdt"), natomiast polska – od nazwy rzeki Bystrzycy, która w Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej wpada do Nysy Kłodzkiej i nadała również nazwę temu miastu. Nazwa tej rzeki jest słowiańska i przetrwała od średniowiecza, również w niemieckim nazewnictwie – w zniekształconej formie "Weistritz". +Dodatkowym problemem jest, że nazwa miejscowa Bystrzyca jest bardzo popularna i chętnie nazywano tak liczne górskie rzeczki o wartkim nurcie. W samych Górach Bystrzyckich mamy dwie rzeki o nazwie Bystrzyca, obie są lewobrzeżnymi dopływami Nysy Kłodzkiej. Jedna z nich, Bystrzyca Dusznicka (niem. "Reinerzer Weistritz") bierze początek w Zieleńcu, oddziela północną część Gór Bystrzyckich od Gór Orlickich, płynie przez Duszniki-Zdrój, Szczytną i Polanicę-Zdrój i wpada do Nysy Kłodzkiej. Druga Bystrzyca, czasem nazywana dla odróżnienia Bystrzycą Łomnicką (niem. "Kressen Bach Weistritz"), ma swoje źródła na Zbójnickiej Górze i oddziela główny grzbiet Gór Bystrzyckich od masywu Łomnickiej Równi, następnie płynie przez wsie Młoty, Wójtowice, Nowa Bystrzyca i Stara Bystrzyca a w Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej uchodzi do Nysy Kłodzkiej. +Rzeźba terenu. +Góry Bystrzyckie rozciągają z północnego zachodu na południowy wschód, od Obniżenia Dusznickiego po Przełęcz Międzyleską (534 m n.p.m.) na długości ok. 40 km. Przełęcz Spalona (811 m n.p.m.) dzieli te góry na dwie nierówne części: północną i południową. Część północna to rozległe stoliwo górskie ze słabo wyróżniającymi się kulminacjami Łomnickiej Równi (890 m n.p.m.) i Smolnej (865 m n.p.m.), rozcięte doliną Bystrzycy Łomnickiej na dwie równoległe części. Masyw Łomnickiej Równi opada stromo ku Wysoczyźnie Łomnicy. +W części południowej – tworzącej wyraźny grzbiet górski, poprzecinany poprzecznymi dolinami rzek, wznosi się najwyższy szczyt gór – Jagodna (977 m n.p.m.). Na południe od niej grzbiet, podzielony obniżeniami rozpada się na wyspowe masywy, Gniewosza (853 m n.p.m.) i Czerńca (891 m n.p.m.), u podnóża którego znajduje się jedyna w Górach Bystrzyckich jaskinia krasowa – Solna Jama. Dalej na południe Góry Bystrzyckie łagodnie opadają w kierunku Przełęczy Międzyleskiej (534 m n.p.m.). W południowej części Gór Bystrzyckich wznoszą się szczyty: Kamyk (721 m n.p.m.), Bochniak (713 m n.p.m.), Graniczny Wierch (711 m n.p.m.) oraz Kamieńczyk (702 m n.p.m.). +Od wschodu masywy Jagodnej, Gniewosza i Czerńca opadają stromo do kotlinowatego obniżenia, w którym położone są Wyszki, Ponikwa i Poręba. Obniżenie to od Rowu Górnej Nysy oddziela Wyszkowski Grzbiet. +Szczyty. +Poniżej wymieniono szczyty w tym masywie górskim o wysokości większej niż 800 m n.p.m. +Budowa geologiczna. +Góry Bystrzyckie zbudowane są głównie ze skał metamorficznych należących do metamorfiku Gór Bystrzyckich i Orlickich (metamorfiku bystrzycko-orlickiego), stanowiącego część tzw. metamorfiku orlicko-kłodzkiego, albo kopuły kłodzko-orlickiej. Lokalnie, głównie w części południowej pasma występują skały wapienne: wapienie krystaliczne (marmury kalcytowe i dolomitowe) i erlany (okolice Różanki, Rudawy, Gniewoszowa), z którymi związane są zjawiska krasowe. Skały te były dawniej eksploatowane w licznych małych kamieniołomach, np. koło Solnej Jamy i w okolicach Różanki. +W części północnej oraz wschodniej na skałach metamorficnych zalegają górnokredowe margle, piaskowce i mułowce będące przedłużeniem osadów depresji śródsudeckiej. +Osady czwartorzędowe (np. gliny deluwialne, torfy oraz aluwia rzek i potoków) mają niewielkie rozprzestrzenienie. +Najważniejszą i największą jednostką budującą Góry Bystrzyckie jest metamorfik orlicko-kłodzki, stanowiący prekambryjski górotwór zbudowany z kambryjskich łupków łyszczykowych, gnejsów i paragnejsów. Jest on fragmentem paleogeńskiej równiny potrzaskanej uskokami tektonicznymi w oligocenie i wydźwigniętej. Stąd opada bardzo stromymi zboczami do Rowu Nysy Kłodzkiej (wzdłuż uskoków), a samo stoliwo Gór Bystrzyckich ma postać szerokiej i płaskiej wierzchowiny, nad którą sterczą niskie kopuły szczytów – dawne pagóry paleogeńskiej równiny. +Wody. +Cieki. +Przez teren Gór Bystrzyckich przebiega dział wodny oddzielający zlewiska Morza Bałtyckiego i Morza Północnego. Przebiega on głównym grzbietem Gór Bystrzyckich na linii Kamyk-Bochniak-Czerniec-Gniewosz-Jedlnik-Przeł. nad Porębą-Jagodna-Sasin-Przeł. Spalona-Przeł. pod Uboczem-Kłobuk-Biesiec-Topieliska-Hutnicza Kopa. +Przeważająca wschodnia i północna część Gór Bystrzyckich oraz większość polskiej części przyległych Gór Orlickich należy do dorzecza Odry poprzez dopływy Nysy Kłodzkiej – największe z nich to Bystrzyca Dusznicka, Bystrzyca Łomnicka i Łomnica. Zachodni skłon Gór Bystrzyckich odwadniany jest przez Dziką Orlicę (czes. "Divoká Orlice", dorzecze Łaby), która na odcinku od Lasówki do Lesicy stanowi jednocześnie granicę państwową. Największe lewobrzeżne dopływy Dzikiej Orlicy z polskiej strony to: Czarny, Mostowy i Tartaczny Potok, Jelonik oraz Czerwony Strumień. +Głównym czynnikiem determinującym układ sieci rzecznej jest struktura geologiczna. Według klasyfikacji geometrycznej większość potoków ma układ dendryczny, rzadziej pierzasty sieci rzecznej. Mają one swoje źródła na granicy warstw wodonośnych z podścielającymi je utworami nieprzepuszczalnymi, w strefie kontaktu skał krystalicznych i osadowych. +Zbiorniki astatyczne. +W niższych położeniach rzadko występują zbiorniki astatyczne pochodzenia antropogenicznego. Utworzone są zwykle w dolinach potoków i zasilane ich wodami. Są to niewielkie stawki wiejskie (np. w Starkówku) oraz zalewy utworzone na potokach w celach rekreacyjnych (Rudawa). Na terenie Gór Bystrzyckich istnieje również kilka leśnych zbiorników retencyjnych, utworzonych głównie dla celów przeciwpowodziowych (np. na Bystrzycy Łomnickiej koło Zielonego Mostu, w Różance). +Przyroda. +Roślinność. +Potencjalna roślinność naturalna. +Jedyny nieleśny typ roślinności potencjalnej to kompleks torfowisk wysokich ("Sphagnetalia magellanici") w północnej części pasma na obszarze źródliskowym Dzikiej Orlicy "Torfowisko pod Zieleńcem". +Roślinność rzeczywista. +Obecnie wierzchowina i zbocza porośnięte są głównie sztucznie wprowadzonymi lasami świerkowymi, w większości w postaci jednogatunkowych monokultur. Miejscami zachowały się jednak naturalne kwaśne i żyzne buczyny. W dolinkach potoków występują zbiorowiska lasów łęgowych: podgórski łęg jesionowy "Carici remotae-Fraxinetum" czy jaworzyny z miesiącznicą trwałą "Lunario-Aceretum pseudoplatani" (np. w dolinie potoku Głownia poniżej Gniewoszowa. Na kamieńcach w dolinie Dzikiej Orlicy na kilku odcinkach zachował się rzadki w Sudetach zespół olszynki górskiej "Alnetum incanae" z dominacją olszy szarej w drzewostanie. +Zbiorowiska nieleśne są wynikiem działalności człowieka i koncentrują się wokół terenów osadniczych, największe z nich występują w otoczeniu Spalonej i Lasówki oraz w niskich położeniach na wschodnim obrzeżeniu Gór Bystrzyckich. Stanowią je głównie świeże i wilgotne łąki górskie ("Polygono-Trisetion", "Calthion"), pastwiska ("Nardetalia"). Na terenie wsi i wzdłuż dróg wykształcają się nitrofilne ziołorośla ("Artemisietea") z licznym udziałem: świerząbka korzennego ("Chaerophylletum aromatici"), świerząbka orzęsionego, pokrzywy zwyczajnej, marchewnika anyżowego i in. +Flora. +Ogółem na terenie Gór Bystrzyckich stwierdzono ok. 850 gatunków roślin naczyniowych, w tym 69 gatunków górskich. +Z roślin chronionych oprócz rzadkich roślin torfowiskowych występujących na Torfowisku pod Zieleńcem, np. (rosiczki, brzozy karłowatej, sosny drzewokosej) w lasach stosunkowo często występują wawrzynek wilczełyko, paprotka zwyczajna, pierwiosnek wyniosły, śnieżyca wiosenna, czosnek niedźwiedzi, lilia złotogłów. +Charakterystycznym gatunkiem dla porzuconych zarastających łąk górskich jest tu łubin trwały, masowo występujący np. w rejonie Spalonej. +Fauna. +Ptaki. +Na terenie pasma stwierdzono 116 gatunków ptaków, w tym 67 lęgowych, 29 prawdopodobnie lęgowych, a 20 przypuszczalnie mogących gniazdować. Nad potokami często spotkać można pluszcza i pliszkę górską, na górskich łąkach derkacza. Występują tu również bocian czarny, siwerniak, czeczotka, dzięcioł zielonosiwy, puchacz, włochatka, krzyżodziób świerkowy, drozd obrożny, świergotek łąkowy, świerszczak, dziwonia, pokląskwa. +Bezkręgowce. +Na terenie torfowiska pod Zieleńcem występuje bogata entomofauna charakterystyczna dla torfowisk, wśród której znajdują się relikty glacjalne i tyrfobionty, np. szlaczkoń torfowiec, modraszek bagniczek, kilka gatunków ważek. Kilka gatunków pajęczaków ma tam również jedyne stanowiska w Polsce. +W Górach Bystrzyckich występuje także rzadki gatunek ślimaka świdrzyk kasztanowaty. +Ochrona przyrody. +Góry Bystrzyckie wchodzą w skład Obszaru chronionego krajobrazu "Góry Bystrzyckie i Orlickie". W północno-zachodniej części znajduje się rezerwat ścisły "Torfowisko pod Zieleńcem" (Topieliska, Tundra Syberyjska), obejmujący unikalne przyrodniczo torfowisko wysokie z rzadkimi gatunkami roślin i zwierząt, np. trzy gatunki rosiczek, bagno zwyczajne, brzoza karłowata, sosna drzewokosa i in. +Obszar doliny Dzikiej Orlicy zarówno ze strony czeskiej jak i polskiej jest projektowanym specjalnym obszarem ochrony siedlisk "Natura 2000" – w wodach Dzikiej Orlicy żyje m.in. głowacz białopłetwy. +Historia. +Pierwsze ślady bytności człowieka na tym terenie datowane są na epokę kamienną. Ważny szlak wiódł przez Przełęcz Międzyleską wzdłuż Rowu Górnej Nysy Kłodzkiej do Kłodzka. Na jego osi założyły się w średniowieczu grody Międzylesia i Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej. +Tereny te przez stulecia stanowiły strefę pograniczną, należącą do hrabstwa kłodzkiego, początkowo między Czechami a Śląskiem, a następnie między monarchiami niemiecką a austriacką. Do XVI wieku granica zachodnia hrabstwa kłodzkiego biegła głównym grzbietem Gór Bystrzyckich, w 1589 roku przesunięto ją na nurt Dzikiej Orlicy, co spowodowało nasiloną kolonizację doliny i rozwinięcie istniejącego tam ciągu osadniczego. +Stałe i zwarte osadnictwo wiejskie wkroczyło na teren Gór Bystrzyckich stosunkowo późno, ze względu na niekorzystne warunki klimatyczne, trudne warunki uprawy i pierwotne zalesienie. W średniowieczu istniało tym terenie państewko feudalne Szczerba (którego siedzibą był Zamek Szczerba), które przyczyniło się do jego kolonizacji. Osady łańcuchówki tworzyły ciągi osadnicze prawie wyłącznie w dolinach: łatwiej dostępnych, zasobnych w wodę, gdzie panowały korzystniejsze warunki do uprawy ziemi. +Odlesienie wyższych partii Gór Bystrzyckich postępowało na większą skalę dopiero w XVI-XIX w. w związku z intensyfikacją gospodarki leśnej i postępującą ich kolonizacją. Również rozwój małego przemysłu wiejskiego (szklarstwo, hutnictwo, papiernictwo) oraz górnictwa żelaza, które potrzebowały znacznych ilości drewna spowodował znaczne odlesienia, miejscami wręcz rabunkową gospodarkę leśną. W XVI w. zaczęła się, trwająca aż do XIX w. kolonizacja terenów górskich tej części Sudetów ludnością niemieckojęzyczną, napływającą zarówno z terenów Śląska, hrabstwa kłodzkiego, jak i dalszych obszarów Sudetów Zachodnich. Po zaprzestaniu wyrębów na wielką skalę w Sudetach Zachodnich (głównie w Karkonoszach), część osadników związanych z pracą w lesie przeniosła się na teren Gór Orlickich i Bystrzyckich. Część tych osadników pochodziła z przedgórza i pogórza Alp. +Po przejęciu tego obszaru przez państwo polskie w 1945 jego dotychczasowa ludność została w całości wysiedlona do Niemiec. +Wyludnienie. +. Proces ten dotyczy w największym stopniu doliny Dzikiej Orlicy, gdzie większość osad już zanikła (np. Piaskowice, Głożyna, przysiółki Rudawy, Mostowic i Lesicy) a pozostałe liczą zwykle po kilka domostw. Dotyczy on również dużych niegdyś wsi na wschodnim obrzeżeniu Gór Bystrzyckich (np. Paszkowa, Huty, Łomnicy), które znacznie zmniejszyły liczbę mieszkańców i utraciły liczne dawniej kolonie. Zjawisko to nie dotknęło w większym stopniu jedynie wsi położonych w sąsiedztwie większych miast i uzdrowisk, które spełniają rolę letniskową lub są ośrodkami sportowymi (Spalona, Lasówka), lub ich ludność pracuje w sąsiednich większych miejscowościach (np. Różanka, Sokołówka, Stara Bystrzyca, Bobrowniki). +Odpływ ludności spowodowany był głównie bardzo niekorzystnymi warunkami naturalnymi do uprawiania rolnictwa. W latach 60. i 70. podjęto próby aktywacji rolniczej tych terenów prowadząc tutaj sezonowe wypasy owiec i bydła z Podhala i Bieszczadów w ramach tzw. Agrokompleksu „Sudety”, natomiast w Kosterze (obecnie część Paszkowa) założono Górska Stacja Wdrożeniowo-Upowszechnieniowa Dolnośląskiego Ośrodka Doradztwa Rolniczego, która prowadzi poszukiwania form rozwoju gospodarki rolnej na tym terenie. +Turystyka. +Ze względu na małe urozmaicenie i znacznie zalesienie oraz niewielką bazę noclegową Góry Bystrzyckie nie są popularnym regionem turystycznym. Teren jest natomiast atrakcyjny dla wytrwałych piechurów. Przez góry prowadzą liczne szlaki turystyczne, jest czynnych kilka schronisk turystycznych. Istnieje gęsta sieć śródleśnych dróg asfaltowych, dostępnych głównie dla pieszych, rowerzystów i pojazdów leśnych. Duże walory widokowe posiada Droga Sudecka zwana też Autostradą Sudecką, która została zbudowana w 1938 roku. +Atrakcje turystyczne. +Mimo znacznego wyludnienia regionu, w Górach Bystrzyckich mają też swoje atrakcje pochodzenia kulturowego. Największymi miastami leżącymi u podnóża Gór Bystrzyckich są: Duszniki-Zdrój, Szczytna, Polanica-Zdrój oraz Bystrzyca Kłodzka. Stanowią one bazę wypadową dla wielu wycieczek, poza tym same są miejscami godnymi zwiedzenia i bywają często celem wyjazdów. +W samych Górach Bystrzyckich (poza miastami) znajduje się bardzo niewiele obiektów antropogenicznych. Należy do nich m.in. Muzeum Misyjno-Etnograficzne, położone na stokach góry Kostera (administracyjnie należy do Polanicy-Zdrój). Obiekt prowadzą misjonarze z zakonu oo. Sercanów Białych (Zgromadzenie Najśw. Serc Jezusa i Maryi). Ekspozycję stanowią dzieła sztuki ludowej oraz przedmioty codziennego użytku z Konga, Tahiti i Peru. +Wśród lasów spotyka się stare domki myśliwskie, w sąsiedztwie dawnych i obecnych osad przydrożne kapliczki i krzyże. Warta wymienienia jest kamienna rzeźba człowieka w kapeluszu z niem. napisem "Grauer Mann" (Szary człowiek) i datą 1872. Stoi w lesie w pobliżu wsi Huta przy drodze zwanej Wieczność, stąd jest popularnie nazywana "Strażnikiem Wieczności". Mimo wątpliwej wartości artystycznej rzeźba kamiennego człowieka zyskała sławę i krążą o niej legendy. W południowo-wschodniej części Gór Bystrzyckich, na południe od Gniewoszowa znajdują się ruiny kamiennego zamku Szczerba Zamek Szczerba z ok. XIV wieku. +We wsi Niemojów znajdują się ruiny kamiennego dworu sołtysów z 1576 r. Unikatowość tego obiektu przejawia się pałacowym potraktowaniem architektury budynku mieszkalnego dworu. +Na terenie Gór Bystrzyckich znajdują się 3 barokowe drewniane kościoły z XVIII w.: w Nowej Bystrzycy, Zalesiu i Kamieńczyku. Kościół w Zalesiu posiada ciekawy zespół polichromii ze scenami Starego Testamentu (tzw. "Biblia dla ubogich"). +Innymi atrakcjami są pozostałości wybudowanych pod koniec XVIII wieku fortyfikacji. Powstały one na rozkaz Fryderyka Wilhelma II i miały stanowić obronę przed wojskami austriackim. W Górach Bystrzyckich znajdowały si dwa takie forty – Fort Wilhelma i Fort Fryderyka na Kamiennej Górze. Oba nigdy nie zostały wykorzystane w celach militarnych i w drugiej połowie XIX wieku zarządzono ich rozbiórkę, ponieważ ich utrzymanie stało się zbyt kosztowne. Obecnie pozostała tylko niewielka część murów i dawna fosa, widoczna zwłaszcza w Forcie Wilhelma. Większość materiału rozbiórkowego została powtórnie wykorzystana m.in. przy budowie mostu i szkoły w Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej. +Lolita (imię) + +Lolita – imię żeńskie, zdrobnienie od imienia Dolores. Po publikacji książki Vladimira Nabokova, od imienia głównej jej bohaterki utworzono rzeczownik "lolita", wykorzystywany najczęściej w przemyśle erotycznym i pornograficznym na określenie młodej lub niepełnoletniej dziewczyny, potrafiącej wykorzystać swoje wdzięki i umiejętnie okręcić sobie wokół palca mężczyzn. +Lolita imieniny obchodzi: 15 września. +Równonoc wiosenna + +Równonoc wiosenna - moment, w którym Ziemia przekracza punkt na swojej orbicie, w którym promienie słoneczne padają prostopadle na równik i są równocześnie styczne do jej powierzchni przy biegunach, i od tej chwili przez pół roku biegun północny będzie bliżej Słońca niż biegun południowy (Słońce bardziej oświetla północną półkulę Ziemi). Inaczej mówiąc jest to moment przecięcia przez Słońce równika niebieskiego w trakcie jego pozornej wędrówki po ekliptyce z półkuli południowej na półkulę północną. Równonoc wiosenna następuje 20/21 marca i wyznacza na półkuli północnej początek wiosny, a na półkuli południowej jesieni. W astrologii równonoc wiosenna wyznacza także początek znaku zodiaku Barana. +W starym kalendarzu rzymskim była początkiem roku (miesiąca Martius). W 155 p.n.e. przesunięto w Rzymie początek roku urzędowego na 1 stycznia. +W 325 n.e. równonoc wiosenna wypadała 21 marca i ten termin został przyjęty przez sobór nicejski do obliczania daty święcenia Wielkanocy. Niedokładność kalendarza juliańskiego spowodowała, że w XVI w. równonoc przesunęła się na 11 marca. W wyniku wprowadzenia kalendarza gregoriańskiego w 1582 i pominięcia wówczas 10 dni, termin równonocy wypada stale w okolicach 21 marca. +Obyczaje ludowe. +Równonoc wiosenna związana jest w Polsce z obyczajem topienia Marzanny, będącym częścią obchodów Jarego Święta. Jest to symboliczne pożegnanie Zimy, zła i śmierci (kojarzonych z tą porą roku). Zwyczaj ten dawniej kultywowany głównie po wsiach obecnie chętnie jest świętowany także przez młodzież szkolną w miastach. Zwłaszcza, że związane to jest zwykle z masowymi wagarami i radosnym obchodzeniem Pierwszego Dnia Wiosny. +Paluzzo Paluzzi-Altieri + +Paluzzo Paluzzi-Altieri degli Albertoni (ur. 8 czerwca 1623 w Rzymie, zm. 29 czerwca 1698 w Rzymie), włoski duchowny katolicki, wpływowy kardynał w okresie pontyfikatu Klemensa X. +Na Uniwersytecie w Perugii obronił doktorat prawa. W połowie lat 40. XVII wieku rozpoczął pracę w Kurii Rzymskiej, był m.in. audytorem generalnym Komnaty Apostolskiej. Papież Aleksander VII mianował go kardynałem, początkowo w tajemnicy ("in pectore", 14 stycznia 1664), ogłaszając powszechnie nominację w lutym 1666. Paluzzi otrzymał tytuł prezbitera Ss. XII Apostoli, w marcu 1666 został także biskupem Montefiascone i Corneto (konsekrowany 2 maja 1666). +W maju 1670 na papieża został wybrany kardynał Emilio Altieri, który przyjął imię Klemensa X. Będący w podeszłym wieku nowy papież uczynił spowinowaconego kardynała Paluzziego najbliższym współpracownikiem, przyjmując go jednocześnie do swojej rodziny (wówczas przy nazwisku kardynała pojawił się człon Altieri) i mianując kardynałem-nepotem. Paluzzi był przedostatnim oficjalnym kardynałem-nepotem (tj. bliskim krewnym urzędującego papieża sprawującym oficjalną władzę w Państwie Kościelnym) w dziejach Kościoła. +Kardynał Paluzzi-Altieri zgromadził w swoim ręku dużą władzę i liczne stanowiska. Był m.in. legatem w Awinionie (1670-76) i Urbino (1673-77), prefektem Kongregacji Rozkrzewiania Wiary (od 1671), proprefektem Kongregacji Soboru Trydenckiego (1671-72) oraz sekretarzem Listów Apostolskich. Od sierpnia 1671 był także kamerlingiem Św. Kościoła Rzymskiego (już po śmierci papieża Klemensa w latach 1678-1679 był jednocześnie kamerlingiem Kolegium Kardynalskiego), a w karierze duchownej został awansowany na arcybiskupa Rawenny (1670-1674). Wykonywał funkcję kardynała-protektora wobec licznych zakonów, wspólnot i instytucji, m.in. wobec zakonu dominikańskiego oraz katolików irlandzkich. Liczne stanowiska kardynał wykorzystał do wzbogacenia się, wielkie sumy wydał na budowę okazałego pałacu rodowego w Rzymie. Niepopularny, pozostał jednak w Kurii Rzymskiej także po śmierci protektora. Na konklawe 1691 był poważnym kandydatem na papieża. W 1689 został promowany na kardynała-biskupa, kolejno diecezji Sabina (1689-91), Palestrina (1691-98) i Porto e Santa Rufina (1698). Od 1693 był archiprezbiterem Bazyliki Laterańskiej, a od grudnia 1697 subdziekanem Kolegium Kardynałów. +Zmarł nagle w Rzymie i został pochowany w rzymskim kościele S. Maria in Campitelli. +Jego osoba jest ważna dla Kościoła Rzymskokatolickiego nie ze względu na jakieś nadzwyczajne osiągnięcia lub biografię ale raczej na fakt, że prawie wszyscy (91%) biskupi Kościoła Rzymskokatolickiego w sukcesji apostolskiej mają jego jako poprzednika. Jego własne święcenia mają więc szczególnie istotne znaczenie. +Marian Florczyk + +Marian Florczyk (ur. 25 października 1954 w Kielcach) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, doktor nauk społecznych, biskup pomocniczy kielecki od 1998. +Życiorys. +Młodość i wykształcenie. +Pochodzi z parafii Matki Bożej Fatimskiej w Kielcach-Dyminach. W 1975 uzyskał świadectwo dojrzałości i wstąpił do Wyższego Seminarium Duchownego w Kielcach, w którym do 1981 odbywał studia filozoficzno-teologiczne. Rok wcześniej, 29 marca 1980, z rąk biskupa diecezjalnego kieleckiego Jana Jaroszewicza otrzymał święcenia diakonatu. Święcenia kapłańskie otrzymał 6 czerwca 1981 z rąk nowo mianowanego biskupa diecezjalnego Stanisława Szymeckiego. +Działalność naukowa i dydaktyczna. +W 1984 rozpoczął studia specjalistyczne na Wydziale Nauk Społecznych Papieskiego Uniwersytetu Świętego Tomasza z Akwinu w Rzymie, gdzie w 1987 na podstawie pracy "Prawa związków zawodowych" uzyskał stopień licencjata. W 1990 dzięki rozprawie "Prawa rodziny w nauczaniu społecznym Kościoła" uzyskał doktorat nauk społecznych. Po powrocie do kraju w 1991 rozpoczął wykłady z nauki społecznej w Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Kielcach. 2 sierpnia 1994 roku objął rektorat w Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Kielcach, który to urząd pełnił przez cztery lata. +Działalność prezbiterska. +W latach 1981–1984, objąwszy wikariat w parafii Chrystusa Króla w Kielcach, mocno angażował się w duszpasterstwo robotników i pomoc internowanym podczas stanu wojennego. +W latach 1991–1994 był diecezjalnym duszpasterzem robotników, w latach 1991–1993 wizytatorem generalnym, a także egzaminatorem z katolickiej nauki społecznej przy egzaminach proboszczowskich. W grudniu 1991 został członkiem rady kapłańskiej, a trzy lata później członkiem rady duszpasterskiej. Uznany jest za pierwszego opiekuna ukazującej się od 11 października 1992 kieleckiej edycji „Gościa Niedzielnego”. +Działalność biskupia. +21 lutego 1998 został mianowany biskupem pomocniczym diecezji kieleckiej i biskupem tytularnym Limaty. Sakrę biskupią przyjął 18 kwietnia 1998 z rąk arcybiskupa metropolity krakowskiego kardynała Franciszka Macharskiego oraz biskupów kieleckich: diecezjalnego Kazimierza Ryczana i pomocniczego Mieczysława Jaworskiego w kościele św. Józefa Robotnika w Kielcach. Od 1998 jest dyrektorem Intelektualnej Formacji Kapłanów w diecezji kieleckiej. +Obecnie jest wikariuszem generalnym diecezji kieleckiej, członkiem Diecezjalnej Rady Duszpasterskiej i Rady Kapłańskiej, delegatem Konferencji Episkopatu Polski ds. Duszpasterstwa Sportowców. Należy do Kolegium Konsultorów. Jest również przewodniczącym Komisji Rewizyjnej Wydziału Gospodarczo-Finansowego oraz Asystentem Kościelnym ds. Ruchów, Wspólnot i Stowarzyszeń Katolickich diecezji kieleckiej. +Publikacje. +Obszar jego zainteresowań badawczych skupiony jest wokół katolickiej nauki społecznej. Jest autorem licznych artykułów naukowych oraz popularnonaukowych, m.in.: "Katolicy a polityka", "Problem wolności na podstawie nauczania Jana Pawła II", "Nauka społeczna Kościoła w nowej ewangelizacji", "Zaangażowanie świeckich w życie polityczne", "Wokół Prawdy i Miłości". +Peter Schmeichel + +Peter Bolesław Schmeichel (ur. 18 listopada 1963 w Gladsaxe) – piłkarz duński (bramkarz), wielokrotny reprezentant Danii w piłce nożnej (także kapitan reprezentacji) oraz prezenter telewizyjny. Jego ojciec jest Polakiem, a matka Dunką. Drugie imię piłkarza nadano dla uczczenia pamięci jego pradziadka. +Kariera. +Znany jest z wieloletniej gry w angielskim klubie Manchester United, gdzie trafił w 1991 roku za kwotę 533 tysięcy funtów oraz prowadzenia programu "Brudna robota" (oryg. "Dirty Jobs with Peter Schmeichel"). +Zawodnik Hvidovre IF, następnie Brøndby IF. W barwach Manchesteru United (od 1991) pięciokrotnie świętował mistrzostwo Anglii, a także Superpuchar Europy w 1991 i Liga Mistrzów w 1999. Zakończył karierę w kadrze w 2001 (ostatni mecz rozegrał w kwietniu 2001 roku, mecz ze Słowacją wynik 0:3), w piłce klubowej – po występach jeszcze w Sportingu Lizbona, Aston Villa i Manchesterze City – w 2003. Cieszył się opinią jednego z najlepszych bramkarzy na świecie, został uznany bezapelacyjnie najlepszym bramkarzem w historii Manchesteru United. +Wraz z zespołem narodowym zdobył mistrzostwo Europy w 1992 (ekipa Danii awansowała do turnieju finałowego w awaryjnym trybie, po wykluczeniu Jugosławii). Brał także udział w mistrzostwach świata we Francji w 1998, które Dania zakończyła na ćwierćfinale po porażce z obrońcą tytułu Brazylią 2:3. Wystąpił łącznie w 129 meczach reprezentacji, strzelając 1 bramkę – z rzutu karnego w meczu towarzyskim z Belgią 3 czerwca 2000 roku (2:2). W 30 spotkaniach był kapitanem drużyny. +Po przejściu na emeryturę, kupił duński klub Hvidovre IF, w którym rozpoczynał zawodową karierę. Obecnie Schmeichel prowadzi program na kanale Discovery Channel oraz komentuje mecze Ligi Mistrzów dla duńskiej telewizji TV3+ razem z byłymi kolegami z reprezentacji – Prebenem Elkjærem Larsenem oraz Brianem Laudrupem. +Sukcesy. +Brøndby IF +Manchester United +Sporting Lizbona +Aston Villa +Reprezentacja Danii +Powiat mikołowski + +Powiat mikołowski - powiat ziemski w województwie śląskim, utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. +Siedzibą powiatu jest miasto Mikołów. +Położenie. +Powiat mikołowski położony jest w południowo-zachodniej Polsce na granicy Wyżyny Śląsko-Krakowskiej i Kotliny Oświęcimskiej. Administracyjnie położony w południowo-zachodniej części województwa śląskiego i Górnośląskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego (GOP). +Echo Dnia + +Echo Dnia - kielecki dziennik regionalny wydawany od roku 1971. Należy do pierwszej dziesiątki najlepiej sprzedających się gazet regionalnych w Polsce (według Związku Kontroli Dystrybucji Prasy). +Sprywatyzowany w roku 1991, jego właścicielem została kielecka Agencja Handlu i Marketingu "Acumen". Od 8 lipca 1991 wydawany w nowej szacie graficznej i formacie. W roku 1992 tytuł przejęty przez nowego właściciela, którym zostało Przedsiębiorstwo Budowlane Mitex, należące do znanego kieleckiego biznesmena Michała Sołowowa. Do roku 1993 wydawany jako popołudniówka, następnie, aż do dziś, jako dziennik poranny. Od listopada 1993 roku do piątkowego wydania dołączana osobna wkładka - program telewizyjny. +Gazeta drukowana jest w trzech wydaniach: radomskim, kieleckim i podkarpackim. Oprócz redakcji w Kielcach działają dwa oddziały redakcyjne w Radomiu i Tarnobrzegu. Swoim zasięgiem gazeta obejmuje trzy województwa: świętokrzyskie, podkarpackie (cztery powiaty: mielecki, niżański, stalowowolski i tarnobrzeski) i mazowieckie (część południowa). +Do podstawowej gazety dołączane są stałe dodatki; w poniedziałek - Super Echo Sportowe, we wtorek - Mój Dom, w środę - Nasz Styl, w czwartek - Zdrowie , w piątek - Super Relaks oraz na terenie niektórych powiatów tygodniki Echo Ponidzia, Echo Powiśla, Echo Koneckie, Echo Skarżyska, Echo Ostrowca, Echo Jędrzejowskie i Echo Przysuchy; w sobotę - Na luzie. +Obecnie Echo Dnia to nie tylko papierowe wydanie. Wydawca postawił na portal internetowy (www.echodnia.eu). Czytelnicy znajdą tam większość artykułów drukowanych w papierowym wydaniu. Wydawca uruchomił też portale tematyczne, między innymi kultura.echodnia.eu, Jedzenie i Zabawa, Na Językach, Sport , Zdrowie i Uroda. +Obecnie (Wyniki badania Megapanel PBI - kategoria Informacje i Publicystyka/Informacja regionalna i lokalna - lipiec 2011) ECHODNIA.EU jest największym w Polsce regionalnym prasowym serwisem internetowym, a w regionie świętokrzyskim osiąga największą oglądalność (Real Users), wyprzedzając nawet ogólnopolskie portale takie jak Onet, Gazeta, Interia czy WP. Szefem redakcji online Echa Dnia od 2007 roku jest Miłosz Skiba. +W gazecie tej praktykował m.in. znany dziennikarz Marcin Pawłowski. +W 2005 r. roku gazetę zakupiła Orkla. 1 czerwca 2006 roku Echo Dnia połączyło się ze Słowem zachowując stary tytuł. Od 1 września 2006 roku nakład posiada kolorowy druk, zmieniła się też szata graficzna, tak zwany layout. Obecnie gazeta należy do brytyjskiego funduszu Mecom Group. Redaktorem naczelnym jest Stanisław Wróbel. +Incydent ze spoliczkowaniem + +Incydent ze spoliczkowaniem (ang. "slapping incident") - incydent wojenny w czasie II wojny światowej z udziałem generała George'a Pattona, którego konsekwencje miały poważny wpływ na dalszy przebieg działań wojennych Armii Amerykańskiej. +W czasie inwazji na Sycylię generał Patton dwukrotnie spoliczkował żołnierzy, którzy przebywali w szpitalu polowym bez żadnych fizycznych ran (jeden z nich miał gorączkę, a drugi cierpiał na nerwicę) oskarżając ich o tchórzostwo. Oburzeni lekarze skierowali oficjalny raport do generała Bradleya (który w tym czasie był podwładnym Pattona). Bradley, nie wiedząc co z nim zrobić, zdecydował się ukryć list, ale sami lekarze dotarli nieoficjalnymi kanałami do generała Eisenhowera (przełożonego Pattona). +Eisenhower napisał list do Pattona, w którym w ostrych słowach wyraził oburzenie z powodu obu incydentów i nakazał mu przeproszenie żołnierzy. Nie nadał tej sprawie biegu oficjalnego mając nadzieję, że sprawa została już zakończona. +Wkrótce jednak o całym wydarzeniu dowiedzieli się obecni na Sycylii reporterzy, którzy udali się do Eisenhowera z prośbą o wyjaśnienie całej sprawy. Po zapoznaniu się z faktami, wszyscy zainteresowani doszli do wniosku, że nie ma potrzeby dalszego jej nagłaśniania, a sam Patton był, według słów Eisenhowera, "absolutnie niezbędny dla dalszego wysiłku wojennego". +Mimo to 21 listopada 1943 roku skandalizujący reporter Drew Pearson zdecydował się na ujawnienie tego, w jego własnych słowach, "skandalu", przeinaczając przy tym niektóre fakty na niekorzyść Pattona i sprawa stała się bardzo głośna w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Bezpośrednim skutkiem było odsunięcie Pattona od dowodzenia 7. armią amerykańską. Eisenhower obiecał także Marshallowi, że w ramach "kary" Patton nie obejmie już dowodzenia większą jednostką niż armia (dlatego właśnie w czasie kampanii w Europie dowództwo nad grupą armii amerykańskich objął Bradley; podwładny Pattona na Sycylii, a sam Patton dowodził tylko 3. armią amerykańską). +Po odsunięciu Pattona od dowodzenia, nie wziął on udziału w inwazji w Normandii (jak wcześniej planowano), a w ramach operacji "Fortitude" dowodził FUSAG (1 Grupą Armii Stanów Zjednoczonych). +Konstans (imię) + +Konstans – imię męskie pochodzenia łacińskiego. Wywodzi się od słowa "constans" (stały, silny, niezmienny). Oznacza: ten, który wyróżnia się stałością przekonań lub niezmiennością w uczuciach. +Konstans to odmiana imienia Konstancjusz. Inne formy tego imienia to: Konstanty, Konstantyn. +Zdrobnienia imienia: Konstantynek, Tynek, Tinek. +Konstans imieniny obchodzi 5 października. +Mieczysław Jaworski + +Mieczysław Jaworski (ur. 29 lipca 1930 w Morawicy, zm. 19 sierpnia 2001 w Kielcach) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, biskup pomocniczy kielecki w latach 1982–2001. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w rodzinie Jana i Stanisławy z d. Stramskiej. Dzieciństwo spędził we Włoszczowie. W 1945 rozpoczął naukę w Gimnazjum i Liceum św. Stanisława Kostki w Kielcach, a po utworzeniu Gimnazjum we Włoszczowie tam kontynuował naukę i uzyskał maturę. W 1950 wstąpił do Wyższego Seminarium Duchownego w Kielcach. 17 czerwca 1956 otrzymał święcenia kapłańskie z rąk biskupa Franciszka Bardy. +W 1958 otrzymał nominację na prefekta Wyższego Seminarium Duchownego w Kielcach, a w 1968 na jego wicerektora. W 1978 został proboszczem parafii katedralnej w Kielcach. +7 maja 1982 został mianowany biskupem pomocniczym diecezji kieleckiej i biskupem tytularnym Rapido. Sakrę biskupią przyjął 6 czerwca 1982 z rąk biskupa diecezjalnego kieleckiego Stanisława Szymeckiego. Jako swoje zawołanie w herbie biskupim przyjął: „Kochać miłosierdzie”. Znany był z wrażliwości na ludzką biedę i z łatwości nawiązywania kontaktu z ludźmi. W grudniu 1984 wspierał młodzież z Włoszczowy w czasie strajków o krzyże. W okresie sede vacante w 1993 pełnił funkcję administratora diecezji. +Upamiętnienie. +Pamięć o bp. Jaworskim trwa w różnoraki sposób w środowiskach, z którymi był najbardziej związany. W kościele Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Maryi Panny we Włoszczowie na ścianie bocznej kaplicy znajduje się jego popiersie i napis: „Nigdy stąd nie odszedłem” – słowa z jednego z ostatnich kazań, jakie wygłosił w rodzinnym mieście. W listopadzie 2001 Rada Gminy Włoszczowa jednej z ulic nadała imię Biskupa Mieczysława Jaworskiego. Uchwałę przyjęto bez żadnego uzasadnienia. Jego imię nosi także jedna z ulic w Kielcach. +Odznaczenia. +Postanowieniem prezydenta RP Lecha Kaczyńskiego z 1 października 2008 został pośmiertnie odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Digitalizacja (bibliotekarstwo) + +Dlatego bardzo istotnym procesem wykonywanym po skanowaniu jest obróbka cyfrowa, polegająca m.in. na kompresji danych graficznych oraz automatycznym rozpoznawaniu znaków, słów i całego tekstu metodami OCR. W wyniku takiej obróbki materiały nadają się do upublicznienia w bibliotece cyfrowej. +W Polsce do udostępniania cyfrowych materiałów piśmienniczych w Internecie wykorzystywany jest m.in. system dLibra, do materiałów muzealnych dMuseion, a do archiwaliów system ZoSIA i serwis szukajwarchiwach.pl. +Emiliano Mercado del Toro + +Emiliano Mercado del Toro (ur. 21 sierpnia 1891 w Cabo Rojo, zm. 24 stycznia 2007 w Isabela) - Portorykańczyk, znany z długowieczności, uznawany za najstarszego żyjącego mężczyznę po śmierci Amerykanina Freda Hale w listopadzie 2004. W grudniu 2006 po śmierci Amerykanki Elizabeth Bolden przeszedł na niego tytuł najstarszego żyjącego człowieka na świecie. Jest jednym z trzech mężczyzn w historii, którzy dożyli 115 lat (obok Jirōemona Kimury i Christiana Mortensena). +Życiorys. +W czasie I wojny światowej został powołany do armii amerykańskiej, ale jego udział w działaniach wojennych ograniczył się do odbycia kursu w obozie treningowym w ostatnich dniach wojny. Przez wiele lat pracował na plantacjach trzciny cukrowej jako kierowca. Nie założył rodziny. +Długowieczność. +Po śmierci Ramony Iglesias-Jordan, uznawanej za najstarszą osobę na świecie przez "Księgę Guinessa" (maj 2004), został prawdopodobnie najstarszym mieszkańcem Portoryko. Był znany badaczom długowieczności od 2001, kiedy jako 110-latek wziął udział w paradzie wojskowej. Po śmierci Freda Hale (19 listopada 2004) zostały zgłoszone dokumenty, udowadniające wiek Mercado del Toro (akt urodzenia, akt chrztu, adnotacja ze spisu powszechnego z 1910 oraz dokumentacja wojskowa z 1918), co pozwoliło badaczom z amerykańskiego Gerontology Research Group przyznać mu tytuł najstarszego żyjącego mężczyzny. W styczniu 2005, kiedy na liście Gerontology Research Group wśród najstarszych osób figurował na pozycji nr 7, także "Księga Guinessa" zatwierdziła jego tytuł. +11 grudnia 2006 śmierć Elizabeth Bolden wyniosła go na pierwsze miejsce na liście najstarszych żyjących osób na świecie. Po raz pierwszy od czasu kwestionowanego przypadku Japończyka Shigechiyo Izumiego (zmarłego w 1986) tytuł światowego nestora przypadł mężczyźnie. Zmarł miesiąc później, a miano światowej seniorki przejęła po nim Amerykanka Emma Tillman. +Emiliano Mercado del Toro jest trzecim najstarszym mężczyzną w historii, którego wiek nie budzi wątpliwości (starszy był osiadły w USA Duńczyk Christian Mortensen oraz obecnie najstarszy żyjący mężczyzna, Japończyk Jirōemon Kimura), w chwili śmierci w styczniu 2007 znajdował się na 16. miejscu na liście najstarszych osób w historii (bez kwestionowanych przypadków Izumiego, Aniticy Butariu, Carrie White i Kamato Hongo na 13. miejscu). Od maja 2006, kiedy osiągnął wiek Ramony Iglesias-Jordan, był również rekordzistą długości życia Portoryko. +Bezpośrednio po śmierci Freda Hale za najstarszego mężczyznę uznano Niemca Hermanna Dörnemanna, który był jednak młodszy od Portorykańczyka prawie dwa lata. Należy pamiętać, że także Mercado del Toro tytuł nestora mógł być przypisywany niesłusznie, był on jednak najstarszym człowiekiem, którego datę urodzenia odpowiednio udokumentowano. +Kontratyp + +Kontratyp – okoliczność wyłączająca karną bezprawność czynu. Zaistnienie kontratypu powoduje, że zachowanie wypełniające znamiona czynu zabronionego nie jest przestępstwem. Innymi słowami – postępowanie, które w normalnych warunkach jest bezprawne, staje się prawnie dozwolone ze względu na zaistnienie określonych przesłanek. +Geneza. +Konstrukcja i pojęcie kontratypu powstały w polskiej nauce prawa karnego, ich twórcą był Władysław Wolter. Instytucja ta w innych systemach prawnych nazywana jest okolicznością wyłączającą przestępność, bezprawność lub karalność. +Rodzaje kontratypów. +Pozakodeksowe. +Należy zastrzec, że podany katalog zawiera także takie kontratypy, których istnienie jest w literaturze prawa karnego negowane. Niektóre z nich (jak np. czynności lecznicze i zgoda dysponenta dobrem) są przez część doktryny uważane za wypadki, kiedy ustawowe znamiona czynu zabronionego nie są wypełnione. Istnienie innych (takich, jak karcenie małoletnich i zwyczaj) jest przez niektórych autorów całkowicie negowane. +Kontratyp w prawie karnym. +Kontratyp powoduje, że zachowanie wypełniające znamiona czynu zabronionego nadal jest czynem zabronionym, ale nie jest przestępstwem. Innymi słowy uchyla on karną bezprawność czynu. Kontratyp określony w przepisach prawa karnego nie musi uchylać bezprawności czynu w innych gałęziach prawa. Kontratyp w prawie karnym określa się zwrotem "nie popełnia przestępstwa", który jednak nie jest charakterystyczny tylko dla kontratypu, ponieważ może się również odnosić do wyłączenia winy (art. 26 § 2 Kodeksu karnego). Większość doktryny jest zdania, że kontratypy nie są znamionami czynu zabronionego, aczkolwiek sam autor tego pojęcia, Władysław Wolter, był zdania, że do ustawowych znamion każdego czynu zabronionego należy zanegowany kontratyp (teoria negatywnych znamion kontratypu). Według niego zatem przepis o zabójstwie należy odczytywać następująco: "Kto zabija człowieka, lecz nie w obronie koniecznej...". +Klasyfikacja kontratypów. +Kontratypy klasyfikuje się na: +Pojęcia związane. +Prawo cywilne. +W prawie cywilnym skutkiem okoliczności wyłączającej bezprawność czynu jest przede wszystkim wyłączenie odpowiedzialności za wyrządzoną szkodę ze względu na fakt, że zachowanie wypełniające znamiona czynu niedozwolonego nim nie jest. +Prawo konstytucyjne. +Każda regulacja życia za pomocą prawa powoduje ograniczenie wolności człowieka. Prawo dzieli zachowania na prawne, czyli dozwolone, i bezprawne, przy czym istnieje zasada domniemania wolności jednostki i domniemania braku kompetencji organów państwa. W tym układzie zachowanie wypełniające znamiona czynu bezprawnego leży w sferze zachowań zakazanych przez prawo, a zaistnienie okoliczności wyłączającej bezprawność przenosi to zachowanie z powrotem do sfery zachowań prawnych. +Toksemia + +Toksemia ("jadzica") – krążenie we krwi toksyn bakteryjnych (jak przy błonicy i tężcu), zwierzęcych (przy ukąszeniu żmii) lub roślinnych. U ludzi stanowi główną przyczynę zgonów okołoporodowych matek i noworodków. +W medycynie niekonwencjonalnej termin "toksemia" stosuje się dla określenia przeciążenia organizmu "toksynami", co ma czynić go podatnym na infekcje. +Tajne komplety + +Tajne komplety – używane w Polsce określenie nauczania prowadzonego nielegalnie poza szkołą lub uczelnią w okresie zaborów lub wojny. +Zabory. +Władze zaborców zlikwidowały wiele szkół, a w pozostawionych usunięto całkowicie język polski. Patriotyczne kręgi inteligencji przeciwstawiały się temu, organizując tajne nauczanie, prowadzone na wszystkich poziomach. +Sytuacja w różnych zaborach przedstawiała się odmiennie. Najgorsze warunki były w zaborze rosyjskim i pruskim, lepsze, szczególnie po uzyskaniu w 1867 przez Galicję autonomii, w zaborze austriackim, w którym stopniowo przywracano szkolnictwo polskie na wszystkich poziomach nauczania. Stojące na wysokim poziomie polskie szkolnictwo średnie, wyższe i różne instytucje naukowe we Lwowie i Krakowie dały odrodzonej po zaborach niepodległej Polsce liczne kadry naukowe, urzędników i polityków. +Jednym z wykładowców w zaborze rosyjskim był Stefan Żeromski (jako student weterynarii), prowadzący tajne komplety wśród robotników i rzemieślników. Dzięki tajnym kompletom – mimo że zaborcy niszczyli polską kulturę, zakazali nauczania języka polskiego – kwitło podziemne życie kulturalne i naukowe. +Okupacja (1939-1945). +W czasie okupacji niemieckiej, Niemcy nie kryli swoich planów w stosunku do ludności polskiej. Nie tylko chodziło im o zdobycie terytorium, ale i o zniszczenie kultury polskiej oraz biologiczną zagładę narodu polskiego. Częścią składową planu biologicznej zagłady było maksymalne ograniczenie możliwości rozwoju umysłowego polskiej młodzieży. Heinrich Himmler powiedział – "(...) dla polskiej ludności Wschodu nie mogą istnieć szkoły wyższe niż 4-klasowa szkoła ludowa. Celem takiej szkoły ma być wyłącznie proste liczenie, najwyżej do pięciuset, napisanie własnego nazwiska, wiedza, iż boskim przykazaniem jest być posłusznym Niemcom, uczciwym, pracowitym i rzetelnym. Czytania nie uważam za konieczne". +Po klęsce wrześniowej, społeczeństwo polskie zaczęło szybko usuwać zniszczenia i organizować szkolnictwo. Niemcy również szybko zaczęli wprowadzać swoją administrację cywilną. +Tajne komplety to nie tylko kształcenie młodzieży, ale i wysiłek wychowawczy. Nauczyciele uważali prowadzenie tajnych kompletów za swój obywatelski obowiązek, a młodzież garnęła się do nauki i osiągała dobre wyniki. W końcowych latach okupacji w szkołach średnich uczyło się ponad 100 tysięcy młodzieży, a wiedzę na poziomie wyższym zdobywało kilka tysięcy studentów. +Tajne nauczanie było bezwzględnie zwalczane przez niemieckie władze okupacyjne – w latach 1939-1945 życie straciło 8,5 tys. polskich nauczycieli. Nauczyciele i uczniowie wiedzieli, że w razie wykrycia groziło im, a nawet właścicielom mieszkań, w których odbywały się komplety, więzienie i obóz koncentracyjny. Brutalne represje stosowane przez okupanta nie powstrzymywały jednak tajnego nauczania. Mimo grożących kar za nielegalne nauczanie większość nauczycieli nie przerwała swej misji i przez cały okres okupacji służyła młodzieży. Tajne komplety, prowadzone na tak wielką skalę na ziemiach polskich, były jedyną tego rodzaju formą oporu w okupowanej Europie. +Tereny włączone do Rzeszy. +Na terenach włączonych do Rzeszy nie było polskich szkół, w celach germanizacyjnych polskie dzieci chodziły do szkół niemieckich. A jednak mimo terroru, powstało tam samorzutnie podziemne tajne nauczanie, które znajdowało się pod nadzorem tajnych organizacji wojskowych. Nauczyciele zbierali po kilkoro dzieci i w największej konspiracji uczyli je. Jeden nauczyciel uczył swoją grupę w zakresie szkoły powszechnej według programu przedwojennego dwa lub trzy razy w tygodniu. Ilość kompletów wzrastała i nauczyciel musiał ułożyć plan zajęć, żeby objąć nauczaniem kilka grup w różnych lokalach. Było to możliwe przy ścisłej współpracy z rodzicami. +Generalne Gubernatorstwo. +W Generalnym Gubernatorstwie zlikwidowano szkoły wyższe i średnie. Pozostawiono natomiast szkoły podstawowe i zawodowe z okrojonym programem nauczania i zakazem uczenia historii, geografii i literatury. Niemiecka organizacja szkolnictwa opierała się na polskich urzędach oświaty, wprowadzając do nich Niemców jako zwierzchników, stopniowo zmniejszając liczbę zatrudnionych Polaków i zakres ich kompetencji. +W końcu października 1939 r. w Warszawie zostaje powołana Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska (TON) – jednocząca największy Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego oraz pięć innych organizacji nauczycielskich. Należało stworzyć konspiracyjny system nauczania oparty na całym społeczeństwie. Była to jedna z form walki z okupantem. TON początkowo objęła szkolnictwo powszechne, wkrótce powstały jednak komplety o programie szkoły średniej. Szybko ustalono zasady organizacyjne kompletu (liczbę uczniów i godzin nauki, stworzono tajne programy nauczania oraz zasady korzystania z lokali). Na podstawie tajnych programów uczono przede wszystkim zakazanych przedmiotów: języka polskiego, geografii i historii. Tajnym nauczaniem w zakresie szkoły podstawowej objęto w całej Polsce 1,5 miliona dzieci. Tajne komplety prowadzili profesorowie wyższych uczelni w Warszawie i Krakowie. Otwieranie nowych szkół zawodowych (za zgodą władz niemieckich), pomagało w zorganizowaniu tajnego nauczania na poziomie uniwersyteckim. Mogło się ono odbywać w lokalach tych szkół i korzystać z pomocy naukowych. Nauczanie w tajnych kompletach przynosiło wymierne efekty. Tysiące licealistów i studentów kontynuowało naukę i studia, zdawało maturę oraz uczyło się mowy ojczystej i historii. +Tereny okupowane przez Związek Radziecki. +Na ziemiach polskich okupowanych w latach 1939-1941 przez Związek Sowiecki (na wschód od Bugu) utrzymywały się w różnym stopniu i formach szkoły podstawowe i średnie z językiem polskim. Były one jednak przez sowiecki system poważnie zreorganizowane, zarówno jeżeli chodzi o skład grona pedagogicznego (wykluczenie duchownych, a także nauczycieli zaangażowanych patriotycznie), jak też programu nauczania (wprowadzenie dodatkowych przedmiotów, najczęściej związanych z komunistyczną ideologią, usunięcie religii, zmiany w programach nauczania historii, geografii itd.) czy organizację szkół (likwidacja szkół prywatnych i prowadzonych przez zgromadzenia zakonne, wprowadzenie koedukacji w szkolnictwie średnim). Szkoły wyższe zostały poddane dość gruntownej ukrainizacji lub rusyfikacji, usunięto część kadry profesorskiej, wprowadzając na jej miejsce wykładowców sprowadzonych z całego terenu ZSRR zlikwidowano wydziały teologiczne, wprowadzono nauczanie ideologii komunistycznej, dzielono (np. z Wydziału Lekarskiego Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza utworzono Instytut Medyczny) lub łączono wydziały czy uczelnie (połączono Wydziały Prawa Uniwersytetu w Czerniowcach i Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego - [http://www.lwow.home.pl/rocznik/prawo39-45.html. +Gdy te terytoria trafiły po 1941 r. pod władzę niemiecką – okupant niemiecki zlikwidował również i te szkoły. Po roku 1941 tajne nauczanie podjęły uniwersytety we Lwowie (Uniwersytet Lwowski) i w Wilnie (Uniwersytet Wileński). We Lwowie niemieccy okupanci pozwolili z czasem na częściowe reaktywowanie szkolnictwa wyższego, jednak na zasadzie wyższych szkół zawodowych ("Fachkurse"). Dzięki temu prowadzono wyższe kursy medyczne na dawnym Wydziale Lekarskim UJK [http://www.lwow.home.pl/lek/albert1.html] i kursy zawodowe na niektórych wydziałach Politechniki Lwowskiej. Zajęcia prowadzone w większości przez przedwojenną polską kadrę naukową stały na wysokim poziomie i z reguły absolwenci tych kursów uzyskiwali po wojnie nostryfikację swych dyplomów na polskich uczelniach. +In vivo + +In vivo (łac. "na żywym") – termin stosowany zazwyczaj przy opisywaniu badań biologicznych, odnosi się do czegoś, co ma miejsce wewnątrz żywego organizmu - w ustroju żywym. +Sławobora + +Sławobora – staropolskie imię żeńskie, złożone z członów "Sławo-" ("sława") i "-bora" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Może oznaczać "ta, która sławi walkę". +Męski odpowiednik: Sławobor +Sławobora imieniny obchodzi 25 marca. +Dolinka Smocza + +Dolinka Smocza, Siarkańska Dolinka (słow. "Dračia dolinka", niem. "Drachenseekessel", "Drachenseetal", węg. "Sárkány-tavi-katlan", "Sárkány-tó-völgy", "Sárkány-völgy-ecske") – niewielka tatrzańska dolinka leżąca na Słowacji, w Tatrach Wysokich. Jest boczną odnogą Doliny Złomisk ("Zlomisková dolina"). +Jedynym ciekiem wodnym w dolinie jest Smoczy Potok, płynący częściowo pod ziemią i uchodzący do Zmarzłego Potoku. +Przez dolinkę nie przebiega żaden znakowany szlak turystyczny, należy ona do najrzadziej odwiedzanych w Tatrach. Nazwa dolinki pochodzi od Smoczego Stawu, ta zaś związana jest z dawnymi legendami o smoku, który rzekomo w nim występował. +Pod koniec XIX wieku Dolinka Smocza była odwiedzana częściej niż obecnie – wchodzono nią na Wysoką. Pierwszymi osobami znanymi z nazwiska, które odwiedziły to miejsce, byli Tytus Chałubiński i uczestnicy zorganizowanej przez niego 10 sierpnia 1876 r. wycieczki na Wysoką. Zimą dotarli do doliny jako pierwsi Ernst Dubke, Aladár Polnisch senior, Johann Breuer i Johann Franz senior 6 marca 1905 r. +Farman F-68 Goliath + +Farman F-68BN4 Goliath – francuski ciężki samolot bombowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1919 roku w wytwórni lotniczej Avions Henri et Maurice Farman. +Historia. +Samolot bombowy Farman F-68BN4 został zbudowany we francuskiej wytwórni lotniczej Avions Henri et Maurice Farman w 1919 roku jako rozwinięcie konstrukcji samolotu bombowego Farman F-60 Goliath, zaprojektowanego w 1918 roku. Farman F-60 nie zdążył wziąć udziału w I wojnie światowej jako bombowiec, lecz po wojnie został przekształcony w licznie produkowany samolot pasażerski dla 12 pasażerów. Po zakończeniu wojny w wytwórni wykonano kilka ulepszonych wariantów tego samolotu od F-61 do F-69 włącznie. Samoloty te różniły się między sobą w zasadzie różnymi typami silników i wyposażeniem, natomiast kształt sylwetki i wymiary miały te same. +Użycie w Wojsku Polskim. +W związku ze zorganizowaniem w Polsce w połowie lat dwudziestych lotnictwa niszczycielskiego, przeznaczonego do przeprowadzania bombardowania w nocy, przeważnie celów stałych, zaczęto rozważać możliwości zakupu odpowiednich samolotów za granicą. Zastosowane początkowo do tego celu lekkie samoloty bombowe Potez XV w 13. i 14. eskadrze niszczycielskiej 1 pułku lotniczego w Warszawie nie zdały egzaminu jako zbyt lekkie. W 1925 roku zakupiono więc we Francji 32 ciężkie samoloty bombowe Farman F-68BN4 Goliath w ramach francuskiej pożyczki zbrojeniowej. Przewidywano, że 24 z nich wejdzie na uzbrojenie nowego czteroeskadrowego pułku bombowego, o przewidywanym numerze 21. +Pierwsze samoloty Farman F-68BN4 Goliath dostarczono do Polski w lecie 1926 roku. Zamierzano przezbroić w pierwsze Goliathy dwie dotychczasowe eskadry niszczycielskie, lecz podczas badań samolotu w IBTL, gdy jeden z Goliathów omal się nie rozbił na skutek awarii silnika, okazało się, że stosowane w nich silniki są zawodne i awaryjne. Mimo że samolot miał dość dobre właściwości pilotażowe, jednak niemożność kontynuowania lotu na jednym silniku zmuszała pilota do przerwania lotu w razie awarii, często bez możliwości wybrania odpowiedniego terenu do lądowania. Ponadto, na skutek zastosowania silników o zbyt małej mocy, miały one małą prędkość lotu, co przy niewystarczającej stateczność kierunkowej bardzo utrudniało awaryjne lądowanie. Dodatkowo - pomimo impregnacji fabrycznej - konstrukcja płata bardzo nasiąkała wodą deszczową, co było przyczyną pogorszenia osiągów i zmniejszania udźwigu. +Dlatego też zrezygnowano z wprowadzenia Goliathów na wyposażenie jednostek bojowych. Wpływ na to miała również zmiana koncepcji lotnictwa wojskowego, towarzysząca odwołaniu gen. Zagórskiego z funkcji szefa Departamentu Aeronautyki, prowadząca do rezygnacji z rozwijania lotnictwa bombowego. Część zaczęto wykorzystywać od 1927 do szkolenia w pilotażu samolotów wielosilnikowych w Centrum Wyszkolenia Oficerów Lotnictwa w Dęblinie i szkolenia w skokach spadochronowych (metodą "zrywu" tzn. skoczek stojąc na podstawce na dolnym skrzydle samolotu otwierał spadochron w locie). Część samolotów w 1929 przekazano jako sprzęt treningowy dla nowo tworzonych 211. i 212. eskadr bombowych nocnych, które miały otrzymać bombowce Fokker F.VIIB/3m. +W 1927 prowadzono próby z wykorzystaniem Goliatha jako samolotu rolniczego z aparaturą opylającą, lecz zrezygnowano z tego wykorzystania z uwagi na zawodność silników. Kilka sztuk (prawdopodobnie 7) sprzedano Rumunii, co spowodowało problemy dyplomatyczne w stosunkach z Francją z uwagi na warunki pożyczki. Ostatniego Goliatha wycofano z Dęblina w 1935. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot Farman F-68BN4 Goliath był czteromiejscowym ciężkim samolotem bombowym nocnym, dwusilnikowym dwupłatem o konstrukcji drewnianej. Kadłub o przekroju prostokątnym, w postaci nieprofilowanej kratownicy przestrzennej pokrytej sklejką. Z przodu na grzbiecie kadłuba zamocowano na obrotnicy podwójnie sprzężone ruchome karabiny maszynowe Lewis, obsługiwane przez strzelca. Tuż przed komorą płatów znajdowała się w kadłubie odkryta kabina pilota, osłonięta z przodu wiatrochronem. Za fotelem pilota znajdował się fotel obserwatora. Za skrzydłem, z prawej strony kadłuba, znajdowały się duże prostokątne drzwi dla załogi i ładunku. Stosunkowo duża przestrzeń wewnątrz kadłuba umożliwiała przewóz większych przedmiotów, skoczków spadochronowych lub podchorążych szkolonych na obserwatorów. Za komorą płatów, na grzbiecie kadłuba, znajdowało się stanowisko podwójnie sprzężonych ruchomych karabinów maszynowych Lewis na obrotnicy, obsługiwanych przez obserwatora. Piąty, pojedynczy karabin maszynowy tego typu, obsługiwany przez bombardiera, strzelał w dół przez wykrój w spodzie kadłuba. Celownik bombardierski zamontowany był na burcie kabiny, na zewnątrz samolotu. Bomby zawieszane były na wyrzutnikach pod kadłubem. +Płaty o konstrukcji drewnianej, pokryte sklejką i płótnem. Komorę płatów usztywniono oprofilowanymi rozpórkami stalowymi oraz cięgnami z lin stalowych. Lotki umieszczono na obu płatach. Usterzenie klasyczne, drewniane kryte było płótnem. Podwozie samolotu klasyczne, z płozą ogonową. Podwozie główne składało się z dwóch oprofilowanych goleni z amortyzatorami i parą kół na każdej. Wyposażony był w radiostację pokładową AD-8P zapewniającą łączność w promieniu 300 – 500 km. +Napęd: dwa silniki gwiazdowe 9-cylindrowe Gnome-Rhône Jupiter, umieszczone w gondolach zamocowanych między płatami, w pewnej odległości od kadłuba. Śmigła dwułopatowe drewniane. Zbiorniki paliwa w gondolach silnikowych, o pojemności po 950 litrów oraz zapasowy zbiornik w kadłubie o pojemności 500 l. +Koło Wiedeńskie + +Koło Wiedeńskie (niem. "Wiener Kreis") – grupa filozoficzna istniejąca od 1922 roku skupiona wokół prowadzonej przez Moritza Schlicka na uniwersytecie w Wiedniu Katedry Filozofii i Historii Nauk Indukcyjnych. Poglądy myślicieli należących do koła ogniskowały się wokół pozytywizmu logicznego, dla którego inspiracją były poglądy Ludwiga Wittgensteina, sformułowane w jego "traktacie logiczno-filozoficznym. +W skład grupy wchodzili: Gustav Bergmann, Rudolf Carnap, Philipp Frank, Hans Hahn, Tscha Hung, Victor Kraft, Karl Menger, Richard von Mises, Marcel Natkin, Otto Neurath, Olga Hahn-Neurath, Theodor Radakovic, Rose Rand and Friedrich Waismann. Bliskie kontakty z Kołem utrzymywali filozofowie ze szkoły lwowsko-warszawskiej: Alfred Tarski, Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz, Leon Chwistek, Stanisław Leśniewski, Jan Łukasiewicz, Tadeusz Kotarbiński. Duży wpływ na recepcję głoszonego przez Koło pozytywizmu logicznego miał Karl Popper. +Początki działalności. +Po przybyciu Carnapa, uważanego często za najwybitniejszego w tym gronie filozofa, Koło Wiedeńskie zostało skompletowane. W opublikowanym w 1929 r. manifeście podano nazwiska jego czternastu członków. Oprócz już wymienionych Carnapa, Feigla, Franka, Gödla, Hahna, Krafta, Mengera, Neuratha, Schlicka i Waismanna, należeli doń filozofowie Gustav Bergmann, Marcel Natkin, Theodor Radković i matematyk - siostra Hahna i druga żona Neuratha - Olga Hahn-Neurath. Po wyjeździe Bergmanna i Feigla do Stanów Zjednoczonych ich miejsca zajęli Bela von Juhos i Edgar Zilsel. +Członkowie Koła nawiązali współpracę z założonym w Berlinie w 1928 r. Towarzystwem Filozofii Empirycznej. Jego przywódcą był Hans Reichenbach (1891-1953), który - aby podkreślić pewne różnice poglądów - określał siebie mianem logicznego empirysty, Carnapa i jego kolegów nazywając logicznymi pozytywistami. Wśród berlińskich empirystów znajdował się Carl Gustav Hempel (ur. 1905), który odebrał wykształcenie z matematyki i fizyki. Do grupy należeli też logik Kurt Grelling i rozwijający teorii prawdopodobieństwa Richard von Mises. +W 1929 r. przyjechał do Warszawy Karl Menger, którego poruszyły osiągnięcia założonej na przełomie wieków przez Kazimierza Twardowskiego (1866-1938) szkoły lwowsko-warszawskiej w zakresie logiki i metodologii. Wkrótce potem do Wiednia pojechał Alfred Tarski, by w ramach prowadzonego przez Mengera kolokwium matematycznego przedstawić najważniejsze osiągnięcia logiczne własne i swych kolegów. Wkrótce potem Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz, Leon Chwistek, Kazimierz Leśniewski, Jan Łukasiewicz, Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Alfred Tarski i inni nawiązali z wiedeńskimi empirystami logicznymi stałą współpracę. +Złudzenie to zaczęło pryskać już w połowie lat trzydziestych, a pogłębiające się różnice poglądów między niegdysiejszymi uczestnikami ruchu sprawiły, iż w latach pięćdziesiątych nikt już nie chciał nazywać siebie empirystą logicznym. Wreszcie w latach sześćdziesiątych wykazano zasadniczą błędność podstawowych założeń całego programu, a określenie "logiczny empirysta" zaczęło funkcjonować niemal jako epitet. Przyjrzyjmy się historii ruchu, który wprawdzie poniósł porażkę, ale w sposób nieodwracalny ukształtował świadomość dwudziestowiecznych filozofów. +W 1895 r. Ernst Mach (1838-1916) objął na Uniwersytecie Wiedeńskim nowo utworzoną Katedrę Historii i Teorii Nauk Indukcyjnych. Gdy po wylewie krwi do mózgu zrezygnował z pracy na uczelni, jego miejsce zajął w 1902 r. fizyk i filozof Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906), który zmienił jednak nazwę katedry aby nie wygłaszać wykładu inauguracyjnego na cześć swojego poprzednika, a filozoficznego wroga. +W 1907 r. w czwartkowe wieczory w jednej z wiedeńskich kawiarni zaczęła odbywać regularne spotkania grupa młodych naukowców i filozofów, wśród których na plan pierwszy wysunęli się fizyk Philipp Frank (1884-1966), znany matematyk Hans Hahn (1879-1934) i ekonomista Otto Neurath (1882-1945). Przejęci byli kryzysową sytuacją, w jakiej na początku dwudziestego wieku znalazła się fizyka, a jeszcze bardziej znaczeniem rewolucji w fizyce zapoczątkowanej ogłoszeniem przez Einsteina szczególnej teorii względności. Załamanie się mechanicystycznego obrazu świata, stanowiącego od dwóch stuleci wzorzec naukowości, wielu uznało za klęskę nauki w ogóle: okazała się ona użytecznym technicznie narzędziem, ale nie prawdziwą wiedzą o świecie. Wspomniani młodzi myśliciele usiłowali w tej sytuacji sformułować zasady nowej filozofii nauki, w której świetle fizyka zachowałaby prawo do miana wiedzy, a osiągnięcia Einsteina jawiłyby się jako postęp poznawczy w stosunku do fizyki klasycznej. Źródła inspiracji znaleźli w pismach Macha (krytyka wyjaśniania jako redukcji do procesów mechanicznych, radykalny empiryzm) i Poincarégo ("Był on dla nas niczym Kant uwolniony od pozostałości średniowiecznej scholastyki i naoliwiony współczesną nauką" (Frank 1950, Wstęp, § 4)), a także Duhema ("W fizyce niemożliwe jest experimentum crucis"), Hilberta (ujęcie aksjomatów jako "ukrytych definicji") oraz w filozoficznych i metodologicznych uwagach Einsteina. Żywo dyskutowali też zagadnienia moralne, religijne i polityczne. +Dało to początek nieformalnej grupie, która w 1922 r. zaprosiła do Wiednia Moritza Schlicka (1882-1936) aby objął na uniwersytecie wspomnianą katedrę po Machu i Boltzmannie, przemianowaną tym razem na Katedrę Filozofii i Historii Nauk Indukcyjnych. Wkrótce po przybyciu Schlick zaczął w czwartkowe wieczory prowadzić seminarium, wokół którego w ciągu następnych kilku lat uformowała się grupa określana mianem Koła Wiedeńskiego. Wielu jej członków nie było profesjonalnymi filozofami, zaś filozofowie w większości mieli pozafilozoficzne wykształcenie. Do najaktywniejszych należeli początkowo, obok wspomnianych już Hahna, Neuratha i Schlicka, historyk Victor Kraft, prawnik Felix Kaufmann, matematyk Kurt Reidemeister i dwóch studentów, Friedrich Waismann (1896-1959) i Herbert Feigl (1902-19..). Często przyjeżdżał do Wiednia pracujący na Uniwersytecie Karola w Pradze wspomniany już Frank, luźniej z Kołem związany był matematyk Karl Menger, a także słynny później logik Kurt Gödel (1906-1978). +Otto Neurath urodził się w Wiedniu w rodzinie żydowskiej. Studiował matematykę, by potem przerzucić się na lingwistykę, prawo, ekonomię, a wreszcie socjologię. Doktorat uzyskał na podstawie pracy o myśli ekonomicznej w starożytności. Jego pierwsze publikacje dotyczyły ekonomii i polityki, ogłosił też trochę prac logiczno-matematycznych. Dobrze znał pisma Marksa, był członkiem partii socjaldemokratycznej. Po I Wojnie światowej włączył się do prac socjalistycznego rządu Bawarii, zastąpionego wkrótce przez komunistyczno-anarchistyczny rząd Spartakusa. Po reakcyjnym przewrocie został aresztowany i skazany na więzienie; po proteście rządu Austrii wyszedł na wolność i (z zakazem powrotu do Niemiec) przybył do Wiednia, gdzie objął stanowisko dyrektora Muzeum Społeczno-Ekonomicznego. Traktował Koło Wiedeńskie jako ruch polityczny, w czym pozostał odosobniony, choć prawie wszyscy neopozytywiści mieli poglądy lewicowe (aktywnym socjaldemokratą był też Hahn). +Moritz Schlick pochodził z bogatej pruskiej rodziny o nacjonalistycznych tradycjach. Studiował fizykę, doktorat na podstawie pracy o odbiciu światła w ośrodkach niejednorodnych, pisanej pod kierunkiem Maxa Plancka, uzyskał w Berlinie w 1906 r. Choć jego pracę o czasie i przestrzeni w fizyce współczesnej pochwalił sam Einstein, zdecydował się porzucić fizykę dla filozofii, którą wykładał na uniwersytetach w Rostocku i Kiel. Jego pierwsza książka filozoficzna była poświęcona poszukiwaniu szczęścia, rozgłos przyniosła mu natomiast ogłoszona w 1918 r. Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre (Ogólna teoria poznania). +W 1926 r. przybył do Wiednia Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970). Przyszedł na świat w rodzinie niemieckich tkaczy. Pracę nad doktoratem z fizyki przerwał mu wybuch wojny, którą spędził jako oficer na froncie. Doktorat z filozofii otrzymał w Jenie w 1921 r. na podstawie pracy o przestrzeni we współczesnej fizyce; był w tym czasie głęboko poruszony filozoficznym znaczeniem teorii względności. Jeszcze przed wojną uczęszczał na wykłady Gottloba Fregego z logiki, studiował też logiczne i epistemologiczne prace Bertranda Russella. Przed przybyciem do Wiednia oprócz kilku artykułów o czasie, przestrzeni i przyczynowości, napisał ogłoszony parę lat później Abriss der Logistik (Zarys logiki matematycznej, 1929). Wkrótce potem ukończył swoje pierwsze ważne dzieło filozoficzne, Der logische Aufbau der Welt (Logiczna budowa świata, 1928). +Po przybyciu Carnapa, uważanego często za najwybitniejszego w tym gronie filozofa, Koło Wiedeńskie zostało skompletowane. W opublikowanym w 1929 r. manifeście podano nazwiska jego czternastu członków; oprócz już wymienionych Carnapa, Feigla, Franka, Gödla, Hahna, Krafta, Mengera, Neuratha, Schlicka i Waismanna, należeli doń filozofowie Gustav Bergmann, Marcel Natkin, Theodor Radković i matematyk - siostra Hahna i druga żona Neuratha - Olga Hahn-Neurath. Gdy Bergmann i Feigl wyjechali do Stanów Zjednoczonych ich miejsca zajęli Bela von Juhos i Edgar Zilsel. +Rychło nawiązano współpracę z założonym w Berlinie w 1928 r. Towarzystwem Filozofii Empirycznej. Jego przywódcą był Hans Reichenbach (1891-1953), który - aby podkreślić pewne różnice poglądów - określał siebie mianem logicznego empirysty, Carnapa i jego kolegów nazywając logicznymi pozytywistami. Najwybitniejszą wśród berlińskich empirystów postacią okazał się Carl Gustav Hempel (ur. 1905), który odebrał wykształcenie z matematyki i fizyki. Do grupy należeli też logik Kurt Grelling i zasłużony dla rozwoju teorii prawdopodobieństwa Richard von Mises. +W 1929 r. przyjechał do Warszawy Karl Menger, którego bardzo poruszyły osiągnięcia założonej na przełomie wieków przez Kazimierza Twardowskiego (1866-1938) szkoły lwowsko-warszawskiej w zakresie logiki i metodologii. Wkrótce potem do Wiednia pojechał Alfred Tarski, by w ramach prowadzonego przez Mengera kolokwium matematycznego przedstawić najważniejsze osiągnięcia logiczne własne i swych kolegów. Wkrótce potem Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz, Leon Chwistek, Kazimierz Leśniewski, Jan Łukasiewicz, Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Alfred Tarski i inni nawiązali z wiedeńskimi empirystami logicznymi stałą współpracę. +Obok Macha decydujący wpływ na kształtowanie się filozoficznego programu Koła Wiedeńskiego wywarł Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), którego młodzieńcza praca Logisch-philosophische Abhandlung ukazała się w 1921 r., w rok później wydano ją wraz z równoległym przekładem angielskim jako Tractatus logico-philosophicus. Wkrótce członkowie kształtującego się Koła uznali, że w książce tej sformułowane zostały podstawowe zasady filozofii, jakiej poszukiwali. Ponoć prowadzone w roku 1926 studia nad tekstem przypominały w nastroju egzegezę pism objawionych. Tymczasem Wittgenstein porzucił uprawianie filozofii i przez parę lat pracował jako nauczyciel wiejski w Dolnej Austrii. Gdy przeniósł się do Wiednia Schlickowi udało się w 1927 r. nawiązać z nim kontakt. Przez kilka lat Schlick i Waismann spotykali się, początkowo w towarzystwie Carnapa i Feigla, z Wittgensteinem - nie były to spotkania dyskusyjne, raczej ich uczestnicy wysłuchiwali improwizowanych uwag autora Traktatu niczym, by użyć określeń ze wspomnień Carnapa, dzieła sztuki bądź boskiego objawienia. +W 1929 r. na cześć powracającego do Wiednia Moritza Schlicka (który po wykładach w Stanach Zjednoczonych odrzucił oferty pracy na tamtejszych uniwersytetach) wydano filozoficzny manifest: Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung: Der Wiener Kreis (Naukowy światopogląd: Koło Wiedeńskie). Napisany przez Neuratha, przy pomocy Carnapa i Hahna, ten dwudziestostronicowy tekst poglądy samego Schlicka przedstawiał w dość krzywym zwierciadle; część członków Koła odniosła się do niego z dezaprobatą. Nigdy więcej podobnego manifestu nie sporządzono. (Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, zasadniczy podział w Kole Wiedeńskim przebiegał między jego "lewym skrzydłem" Neuratha i Hahna, podkreślającym intersubiektywny charakter wiedzy i społeczną rolę nauki, a "prawym skrzydłem" Schlicka i Waismanna, znajdującym się pod przemożnym wpływem Wittgensteina i nastawionym indywidualistycznie. Carnap usiłował czas jakiś godzić oba stanowiska, w końcu skierował się w lewo.) +W 1930 r. Koło Wiedeńskie rozpoczęło intensywną działalność wydawniczą i propagandową. Przejęty kwartalnik filozoficzny przemianowano na "Erkenntnis"; pismo to, redagowane przez Carnapa i Reichenbacha, stało się główną trybuną nowej filozofii. W latach 1928-1937 wydano dziesięć książek w serii "Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung", m. in. Schlicka Zagadnienia etyki (1930), Neuratha Empirische Soziologie (1931), Carnapa Logiczną składnię języka (1934), a także Logikę odkrycia naukowego (1934) Karla Poppera (który nie należał do Koła i ani razu nie uczestniczył w czwartkowym seminarium Schlicka). Opublikowano też w latach 1933-1939 dziewięć broszur w redagowanej przez Neuratha serii "Einheitswissenschaft". Zaczęto organizować kongresy nowej filozofii; pierwszy w Pradze w 1929 r., drugi rok później w Królewcu. Począwszy od kongresu w Pradze w 1934 r. poczęli w nich uczestniczyć, oprócz Austriaków i Niemców, Polacy, Skandynawowie, Amerykanie i inni. Jeśli chodzi o Amerykanów, to współpracę z Kołem nawiązali Charles Morris (1901-1979), Ernest Nagel (1901-1985) i Willard van Orman Quine (1908-2000). W Anglii empiryzm logiczny miał tylko jednego wybitnego przedstawiciela, Alfreda J. Ayera (1910-1989), który po pobycie w Wiedniu przedstawił - we własnym ujęciu - podstawowe założenia tej filozofii w książce Language, Truth and Logic (Język, prawda i logika, 1936). Bliscy nowej filozofii byli Skandynawowie Jørgen Jørgensen, Eino Kaila, Arne Naess, Åke Petzäll. Kolejne kongresy odbyły się w Paryżu (1935), Kopenhadze (1936), znów w Paryżu (w ramach Dziewiątego Międzynarodowego Kongresu Filozofii, 1937), w Cambridge (1938), a we wrześniu 1939 r. w Harvardzie. +Kres działalności empirystów logicznych w Europie położyła ekspansja niemieckiego faszyzmu. Feigl, Neurath, Reichenbach i Waismann byli bezpośrednio zagrożeni jako Żydzi, dla pozostałych (inaczej niż dla Heideggera) faszyzm był nieakceptowalny. W 1934 r. niespodziewanie umarł Hahn. W 1936 r. Schlick został zastrzelony przez umysłowo chorego studenta, co położyło kres regularnym spotkaniom Koła (jego zabójca po włączeniu Austrii do Niemiec został wypuszczony z więzienia jako członek partii faszystowskiej, ponownie uwięziony przez Rosjan wyszedł rychło na wolność jako świeżo nawrócony komunista). W tym samym roku Carnap, który jeszcze w 1931 r. przeniósł się z Wiednia do Pragi, wyemigrował do Stanów Zjednoczonych (pracował kolejno na uniwersytetach w Chicago i w Los Angeles), gdzie od paru lat przebywał już Feigl; dołączyli do nich Gödel, Kaufmann, Menger i Zilsel. Neurath przeniósł się do Holandii, skąd w 1940 r. zdołał przeprawić się do Anglii. Wyemigrował tam też Waismann. Reichenbach w 1933 r. opuścił Niemcy i przez pięć lat wykładał na Uniwersytecie w Stambule, później pracował w Uniwersytecie Kalifornijskim w Los Angeles. Od 1937 r. w Yale, a potem w Princeton wykładał Hempel. W 1938 r., gdy zakazano rozpowszechniania publikacji empirystów logicznych w krajach niemieckojęzycznych, Neurath przeniósł "Erkenntnis" do Hagi; wydawał to pismo do 1940 r. pod tytułem zmienionym na "Journal of Unified Science". +Ostatnim wielkim przedsięwzięciem Koła Wiedeńskiego i jego współpracowników miała być International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (Międzynarodowa Encyklopedia Nauki Zjednoczonej). Otto Neurath, autor projektu, żywił nadzieję, że odegra ona podobną rolę jak niegdyś Wielka Encyklopedia Francuska. Całość miała składać się z 26 tomów, poświęconych kolejno zagadnieniom podstaw nauki zjednoczonej, problemom metodologicznym, przeglądowi aktualnego stanu poszczególnych dyscyplin, a wreszcie omówieniu praktycznych zastosowań wiedzy naukowej. Każdy tom zawierałby 10 monografii napisanych przez naukowców i filozofów zarówno zachodnich, jak i azjatyckich, publikowano by je równolegle w językach angielskim, francuskim i niemieckim; dziesięciotomowy suplement składałby się z map i wykresów. Byłaby to wielka synteza nauk ujętych z perspektywy logicznego empiryzmu. Projekt został zaaprobowany podczas Pierwszego Międzynarodowego Kongresu Jedności Nauki w Paryżu w 1935 r., w trzy lata później ukazały się, pod redakcją Neuratha, Carnapa i Morrisa, dwa zbiory artykułów o charakterze programowym. Ostatecznie seria przeobraziła się jednak w zbiór odrębnych prac filozoficznych coraz bardziej odległych od ideału jedności nauki. Ostatni, VI Międzynarodowy Kongres Jedności Nauki, odbył się w 1941 r. w Chicago. W ramach "Encyklopedii" ukazała się - jako jedyna książka w serii broszur - w 1962 r. Struktura rewolucji naukowych Thomasa S. Kuhna (zob. rozdz. 4), uważana powszechnie za gwóźdź do trumny logicznego empiryzmu. +Jak powiedziano, po II wojnie światowej dawni członkowie i współpracownicy Koła Wiedeńskiego przestali określać siebie mianem empirystów czy pozytywistów logicznych. Prawie wszyscy, wraz ze swymi uczniami, prowadzili działalność na terenie Stanów Zjednoczonych, ale nie powstał tam żaden jednolity ruch filozoficzny. Z drugiej strony między ich poglądami zachodziły liczne podobieństwa: łączyły ich zarówno idee przejęte (w złagodzonej postaci) po Kole Wiedeńskim, jak i nieustanne oddziaływanie wzajemne, co w sumie pozwala określić ich dokonania mianem standardowej koncepcji teorii naukowych. Podstawową trybuną tej filozofii nauki stał się założony w 1934 r. kwartalnik "The Philosophy of Science", a także tomy wydawane od 1956 r. w serii "Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science". +Poniżej ograniczę się do omówienia dziejów empiryzmu logicznego w wąskim tego słowa znaczeniu, a zatem skończę tę historię około 1936 roku; skoncentruję się też na poglądach trzech bezdyskusyjnie najważniejszych członków Koła Wiedeńskiego, Carnapa, Neuratha i Schlicka. Nawet przy takich ograniczeniach powstają poważne trudności. Nie jest mianowicie jasne, czy w ogóle można mówić o jednej filozofii empiryzmu logicznego. Wprawdzie wspólnie przyjmowano pewne bardzo podstawowe założenia, ale tylko dopóty, dopóki wyrażano je w sposób ogólnikowy. Gdy dochodziło do konkretów, rozbieżności ujawniały się na każdym niemal kroku. Nigdy nie powstała praca będąca uznaną przez pozostałych jego członków syntezą poglądów Koła Wiedeńskiego. Co więcej, empiryści logiczni nieustannie zmieniali poglądy. A jednak pewne cele i metody dociekań powtarzały się w ich pracach w różnych odmianach i konfiguracjach, przyjmowali też najczęściej pewne bardzo podstawowe założenia. Można więc mówić o zachodzeniu między ich poglądami rozlicznych podobieństw rodzinnych - te podobieństwa, powtarzające się motywy, spróbuję teraz wydobyć. Trzeba ich poszukiwać w intelektualnym dziedzictwie empiryzmu logicznego, na które składały się - na co wskazuje sama nazwa kierunku - z jednej strony empiryzm, a z drugiej nowa, matematyczna logika i jej filozofia. +Takson parafiletyczny + +Takson parafiletyczny (grupa parafiletyczna) – takson, który obejmuje tylko część potomków wspólnego przodka. Istnienie taksonów parafiletycznych wynika po części z niedoskonałości metod stosowanych dotychczas przez naukowców, a częściowo także z przyzwyczajenia i tradycji pewnych kręgów. Taksony te określane są mianem sztucznych (podobnie jak i polifiletyczne) w odróżnieniu od naturalnych taksonów monofiletycznych. +Taksonami parafiletycznymi są np. protisty, które pochodzą od jednego wspólnego przodka, ale nie stanowią całej gałęzi drzewa ewolucyjnego. Protisty pochodzą od jednego wspólnego przodka, ale jest on także przodkiem roślin, grzybów i zwierząt. Taksonem parafiletycznym są też zielenice, bo nie obejmują roślin lądowych, czy gady, bo nie obejmują ptaków. +Grupę parafiletyczną nazywa się gradem (ang. grade – stopień). +Dulka + +Dulka – część łodzi wioślarskiej służąca do utrzymywania wiosła w odpowiedniej pozycji. +Umieszczona bezpośrednio na burcie (łodzie turystyczne, rybackie) lub na odsadni w łodziach sportowych. +Dawniej wykonywana z drewna, obecnie przeważnie z tworzyw sztucznych. +Dolinka Rumanowa + +Dolinka Rumanowa (słow. "Rumanova dolinka", niem. "Rumantal", węg. "Ruman-völgy") – niewielka dolinka w słowackiej części Tatr Wysokich, boczna odnoga Doliny Złomisk ("Zlomisková dolina"). +W obszarze Dolinki Rumanowej znajdują się Rumanowe Stawy ("Rumanové plesá"): Rumanowy Staw ("Rumanovo pleso") oraz Wyżni Rumanowy Stawek i Rumanowe Oko ("Vyšné Rumanovo pliesko", "Nižné Rumanovo pliesko"). Do jej wnętrza nie prowadzi żaden znakowany szlak turystyczny. +Nazwa doliny upamiętnia przewodnika górskiego Jána Rumana Driečnego młodszego. +Równonoc jesienna + +Równonoc jesienna – moment przecięcia przez Słońce równika niebieskiego w trakcie jego pozornej wędrówki po ekliptyce z półkuli północnej na półkulę południową. Równonoc jesienna następuje 22/23 września i wyznacza na półkuli północnej początek jesieni, a na półkuli południowej wiosny. W astrologii równonoc jesienna wyznacza także początek znaku zodiaku Wagi. +Artemizja + +Artemizja - greckie imię żeńskie. +Bronisław Markiewicz + +Bronisław Bonawentura Markiewicz (ur. 13 lipca 1842 w Pruchniku koło Jarosławia, zm. 29 stycznia 1912 w Miejscu Piastowym) – polski ksiądz katolicki, założyciel Zgromadzenia Świętego Michała Archanioła (CSMA), pedagog. +Biografia. +Urodził się jako szóste z jedenastu dzieci burmistrza Jana Markiewicza i Marianny Gryzieckiej. Młodość spędził w Przemyślu, gdzie w roku 1863 ukończył gimnazjum a następnie Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne. Dnia 15 września 1867 roku został wyświęcony na kapłana. Przez sześć latach pracował jako wikariusz w Harcie i w Katedrze w Przemyślu. Następne dwa lata studiował pedagogikę, filozofię i historię na Uniwersytecie Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie i Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w Krakowie. W roku 1875 został mianowany proboszczem w miejscowości Gać a dwa lata później w Błażowej. W roku 1882 powierzono mu wykłady z teologii pastoralnej w Wyższym Seminarium Duchownym w Przemyślu. W roku 1885 udał się do Włoch, gdzie został uczniem św. Jana Bosko i salezjaninem. Po powrocie do Polski w roku 1892, objął parafię w Miejscu Piastowym, gdzie zajmował się w utworzonych przez siebie zakładach wychowawczych młodzieżą opuszczoną i zaniedbaną. Prowadził też działalność wydawniczą, m.in. zapoczątkował wydawanie miesięcznika "Powściągliwość i Praca". Był autorem i wydawcą wielu publikacji i dramatu pt. "Bój bezkrwawy", w którym przepowiedział Papieża Polaka. W 1897 skierował do biskupa przemyskiego i do papieża prośbę o pozwolenie na założenie Zgromadzenia Michała Archanioła, opartego na duchowości i statutach opracowanych przez Św. Jana Bosko. Mimo usilnych starań nie doczekał się chwili zatwierdzenia Zgromadzenia. Stało się to po jego śmierci - gałąź męską zatwierdzono w 1921 a gałąź żeńską w 1928 roku. Zmarł 29 stycznia 1912. +W roku 1958 odbyła się pierwsza sesja procesu beatyfikacyjnego. 2 lipca 1994 roku w obecności Jana Pawła II został ogłoszony Dekret o heroiczności cnót ks. Markiewicza. Dziesięć lat później, dnia 20 grudnia 2004 roku został promulgowany Dekret o cudzie zdziałanym przez Boga za wstawiennictwem Ks. Markiewicza, co otworzyło drogę do jego beatyfikacji w dniu 19 czerwca 2005 w Warszawie. Papież Benedykt XVI upoważnił do tego prymasa Polski Józefa Glempa. Wspomnienie bł. Bronisława Markiewicza obchodzone jest 30 stycznia. +Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Techniczno-Ekonomiczna w Jarosławiu przybrała ks. Bronisława Markiewicza za swojego patrona. +Niebiesko-Czarni + +Niebiesko-Czarni – zespół wokalno-instrumentalny założony w 1962 roku w Gdyni przez Franciszka Walickiego i Jerzego Kosselę. +Historia. +Debiutancki koncert Niebiesko-Czarnych odbył się 24 marca 1962 w klubie "Żak" w Gdańsku. Tego samego roku, w czerwcu, zajęli pierwsze miejsce na Pierwszym Festiwalu Młodych Talentów. Pierwszych nagrań radiowych dokonali we wrześniu, a nagrań płytowych w listopadzie tego samego roku. W 1962 i 1963 byli gospodarzami sopockiego Non-Stopu. W styczniu 1963 powołanego do wojska Jerzego Kosselę zastąpił Janusz Popławski, a w lipcu i sierpniu podczas Non-Stopu opuścili zespół: Daniel Danielowski, Henryk Zomerski i Jerzy Kowalski. Ich miejsce zajęli: Zbigniew Bernolak, Zbigniew Podgajny i Andrzej Nebeski. Również od Non-Stopu w 1963 r. rozpoczął występy z Niebiesko-Czarnymi Michaj Burano. W grudniu 1963 roku wspólnie z Michajem Burano, Czesławem Niemenem i Heleną Majdaniec wystąpili w paryskiej Olimpii i nagrali pierwszą płytę na zachodzie Europy (DECCA 460.811 M). +W styczniu 1964 roku z zespołem rozpoczął występy wokalista Wojciech Korda, który od lipca, po odejściu Krzysztofa Klenczona, pełnił również funkcję gitarzysty. W latach 1963-1965 zespół był nagradzany na Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu, również w 1965 roku Niebiesko-Czarni wystąpili w Sopocie na V Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w koncercie p.t. Na płytach całego świata . +Od lipca 1965 r. w miejsce Włodzimierza Wandera, Andrzeja Nebeskiego i Zbigniewa Bernolaka, którzy założyli grupę Polanie, przyszli: Krzysztof Wiśniarowski i Tadeusz Głuchowski z zespołu Tony. W listopadzie 1966, opuścił zespół Czesław Niemen, który założył własny zespół Akwarele. W roku 1966 wspólnie z Michajem Burano zdobyli Grand Prix Festiwalu Piosenki w Rennes, a w Paryżu zajęli 1. miejsce w turnieju zespołów rockowych w klubie Golf Drout. W 1967 zespół opuścili: Krzysztof Wiśniarowski (którego zastąpił Krzysztof Potocki), Helena Majdaniec i Piotr Janczerski. W nocy z 31 października na 1 listopada 1967 Niebiesko-Czarni wystąpili w Radiu Luksemburg. +W 1968 dołączono sekcję saksofonów – w jej skład wchodzili Wiesław Żakowicz i Mirosław Polarek. W 1969 zwrócili się z apelem o wykupienie willi Karola Szymanowskiego, "Atmy". W tym czasie odbywali liczne koncerty w Szwecji, Jugosławii, na Węgrzech, Francji, krajach Beneluksu, Finlandii, NRF, Bułgarii, USA, Kanady, ZSRR. W 1971 wystąpili w amerykańskim programie telewizyjnym Danny Sulivan Show. Po powrocie z USA rozpoczęli próby tworzenia pierwszej polskiej Rock-opery "Naga", której premiera odbyła się 22 kwietnia 1973 w Teatrze Muzycznym w Gdyni. Po wystawieniu ok. 150 przedstawień "Nagiej" Niebiesko-Czarni częściej występowali za granicą niż w kraju. Po koncercie we Lwowie 30 czerwca 1976 nastąpiło rozwiązanie zespołu. +W ponad czternastoletniej historii Niebiesko-Czarni nagrali 8 płyt długogrających oraz 24 single i czwórki o łącznym nakładzie 3,5 mln szt.; dali ponad 3000 koncertów; przejechali ponad 245 000 kilometrów w trasach koncertowych. +Okazjonalnie Niebiesko-Czarni reaktywowali się w latach 1986, 1987, 1992 i 2002. +Jan Pieter Schotte + +Jan Pieter Schotte (ur. 29 kwietnia 1928 w Beveren-Leie, diecezja Brugia; zm. 10 stycznia 2005 w Rzymie) – belgijski duchowny katolicki, kardynał, wieloletni sekretarz generalny Światowego Synodu Biskupów. +W 1946 wstąpił do zgromadzenia zakonnego misjonarzy z Scheut (Kongregacja Niepokalanego Serca Maryi, C.I.C.M.), kształcił się w zakonnych domach nauki oraz na uniwersytetach katolickich w Louvain i Waszyngtonie. Święcenia kapłańskie przyjął 3 sierpnia 1952. Pracował jako wykładowca na uniwersytecie w Louvain, był także wicerektorem kongregacji zakonnej w Belgii, później rektorem misyjnego seminarium zakonnego w Waszyngtonie. W latach 1967–1972 sekretarz generalny zakonu w Rzymie. +27 czerwca 1980 został mianowany sekretarzem Papieskiej Rady "Iustitia et Pax"; jako asystent grupy francuskojęzycznej brał udział w obradach VI sesji zwykłej Światowego Synodu Biskupów w Watykanie (1983). 20 grudnia 1983 został biskupem tytularnym Silli i wiceprezydentem Rady "Iustitia et Pax". Sakry biskupiej udzielił mu 6 stycznia 1984 Jan Paweł II. +24 kwietnia 1985 został podniesiony do godności arcybiskupa tytularnego i mianowany sekretarzem generalnym Światowego Synodu Biskupów. W okresie pełnienia przez niego tej funkcji w Watykanie odbyło się siedem sesji Synodu, dwie zwykłe, jedna nadzwyczajna oraz cztery specjalne (dla poszczególnych kontynentów). W kwietniu 1989 został także przewodniczącym Biura Pracy Stolicy Apostolskiej, zajmującego się świeckimi pracownikami Watykanu. +Od 26 listopada 1994 był kardynałem, z tytułem diakona S. Giuliano dei Fiamminghi. Wielokrotnie reprezentował papieża jako jego specjalny wysłannik na uroczystościach zagranicznych, m.in. konsekracji katedry w Irkucku (2000). Krótko przed śmiercią w grudniu 2004 był wysłannikiem papieża na waszyngtońskie obchody 150-lecia ogłoszenia dogmatu o Niepokalanym Poczęciu Maryi. +Kardynał, poliglota władający sześcioma językami, przez wiele lat był zaliczany do czołowych postaci w Watykanie. Po osiągnięciu wieku emerytalnego zrezygnował z funkcji sekretarza generalnego Światowego Synodu Biskupów w lutym 2004. Zmarł w rzymskiej klinice Gemelli po długiej chorobie. +Roślina dwuletnia + +Roślina dwuletnia, roślina dwuroczna (ang. "biennial", łac. "biennis") - roślina potrzebująca do odbycia cyklu rozwojowego dwóch okresów wegetacyjnych. Podczas pierwszego roku wytwarzana jest rozeta liści asymilujących oraz organy spichrzowe (zmodyfikowane korzenie i pędy). W drugim roku wydawane są pędy kwiatowe i nasiona, po czym roślina zamiera. +W niektórych przypadkach rośliny dwuletnie można uprawiać jako rośliny ozime, które wysiewane są jesienią. Ich pierwszy rok wegetacyjny jest wtedy skrócony. Zdarza się też, że roślina dwuletnia już w pierwszym roku wegetacji wytwarza pędy kwiatowe. +Przykładami roślin dwuletnich są np.dziewanna, naparstnica, a także wiele roślin uprawnych, np. kapusta, cebula jadalna, marchew, burak. +Okres wegetacyjny + +Okres wegetacyjny – część roku, gdy roślinność może się rozwijać ze względu na dostateczną ilość wilgoci i ciepła. W Polsce jest to okres ze średnią dobową temperaturą powietrza powyżej 5 °C. Podczas okresu wegetacyjnego w roślinie zachodzą intensywne procesy rozwojowe. W klimacie umiarkowanym trwa od ostatnich przymrozków wiosennych do pierwszych przymrozków jesiennych. Za początek okresu wegetacyjnego przyjmuje się też zakwitanie leszczyny, kaczeńca, podbiału, a za koniec – opadanie liści kasztanowca i brzozy. Najwcześniej, średnio już przed 25 marca, okres ten rozpoczyna się na południowym zachodzie w rejonie Leszna, Wrocławia i Głogowa oraz w rejonie Tarnowa, a najpóźniej, dopiero po 15 kwietnia, na Pojezierzu Mazurskim i w górach. Najwcześniej, przed 25 października, kończy się na Pojezierzu Mazurskim i w górach, a najpóźniej w pasie biegnącym wzdłuż wybrzeża Bałtyku, doliną Odry, Niziną Śląską i Kotlinami Podkarpackimi. W wyniku tych różnic długość okresu wegetacyjnego waha się w nizinnej części kraju od zaledwie 190 dni na Mazurach do ponad 220 dni na Dolnym Śląsku, a w górach 100-150 dni. +Bibliografia. +Marian Molga. "Meteorologia rolnicza". Państwowe Wydawnictwo Rolnicze i Leśne, Warszawa 1983, str. 172, ISBN 83-09-00200-9. +Roślina jednoroczna + +Roślina jednoroczna, terofit (gr. "theros" = "lato", "phyton" = "roślina") – jedna z form życiowych roślin. Oznacza roślinę przechodzącą cały cykl rozwojowy (od wykiełkowania z nasiona do wydania własnych nasion) w ciągu jednego okresu wegetacyjnego, później ginąca. Obumierają zarówno nadziemne pędy, jak i części podziemne. Niesprzyjającą wegetacji porę roku przetrwają tylko nasiona. Rośliny jednoroczne należą do roślin monokarpicznych. Są roślinami zielnymi – mają zielne, niezdrewniałe pędy. +Do terofitów należy wiele gatunków roślin klimatu umiarkowanego. Są nimi: większość roślin uprawnych, np. wszystkie zboża, rzepak, słonecznik, len, wiele warzyw, liczne gatunki chwastów. +Należy jednak pamiętać, że niektóre gatunki roślin zielnych pochodzące z obszarów tropikalnych, u nas ze względu na klimat uprawiane jako jednoroczne, na obszarze swojego naturalnego występowania są roślinami wieloletnimi – bylinami. Ponadto niektóre gatunki roślin ozdobnych będące bylinami są uprawiane tylko przez jeden rok, gdyż później stają się nieładne, stąd też przez ogrodników bywają mylnie nazywane roślinami jednorocznymi. +Józef Pawłusiewicz + +Józef Leonard Pawłusiewicz (ur. 6 listopada 1902 w Łęgu, 7 kilometrów od Wołkowyi - zm. 1979) – pułkownik WP, dowódca oddziału polskiej samoobrony w Bieszczadach, hodowca psów gończych. +Urodził się w Bieszczadach, przed wojną z zamiłowania był myśliwym. Brał czynny udział w walkach polsko-ukraińskich w 1918 i 1919. +Awansowany do stopnia podporucznika rezerwy artylerii ze starszeństwem z 1 stycznia 1929 r. Następnie pełnił służbę w Straży Granicznej. +We wrześniu 1939 w stopniu porucznika dowodził oddziałem pograniczników w walkach z Niemcami. Następnie po rozbiciu wojsk polskich powrócił w rodzinne strony i działał w obronie miejscowej ludności przed hitlerowcami i nacjonalistami ukraińskimi. Zorganizowany i dowodzony przez niego oddział samoobrony, początkowo przerzucał ludzi przez granicę ze Słowacją, ukrywał Żydów i zbiegłych jeńców radzieckich. Następnie prowadził akcje dywersyjne, organizował zamachy na dygnitarzy hitlerowskich oraz działania wywiadowcze. W wyniku dalszych działań partyzanckich jego oddział, jako czwarta kompania polska wszedł w skład radzieckiego oddziału partyzanckiego im. Stalina, dowodzonego przez Polaka kapitana Mikołaja Kunickiego ps. "Mucha". +1 stycznia 1945 otrzymał stopień kapitana i został wcielony do 1 Brygady Zaporowej w Majdanku. Następnie w po kilku miesiącach pracy jako komendant Szkoły Podoficerskiej Kawalerii awansował na majora i został skierowany do zorganizowania Zakładu Tresury Psów Służbowych Korpusu Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego w Michalinie (od 1946 r. w Sułkowicach). Jednocześnie pełnił też obowiązki instruktora szkolenia szwadronów kawalerii. W 1959 r. mianowany został komendantem Zakładu Tresury Psów Służbowych Korpusu Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego i Milicji Obywatelskiej w Sułkowicach. Od 1 kwietnia 1956 r. do 1 września 1958 r. kierował Zakładem Tresury Psów Służbowych Milicji Obywatelskiej w Sułkowicach. Awansował do stopnia pułkownika i w 1959 przeszedł na zasłużoną emeryturę. +Po wojnie aktywnie działał w związku kynologicznym i oddał nieocenione zasługi w hodowli rasy Gończy polski. Jest autorem książki "Na dnie jeziora", która została wydana już po jego śmierci w Polsce w 1981 r. oraz w Czechach w 1989 r. Jest to biografia, która stanowi ważną pozycję w historii polskich Bieszczadów. + powieści przygodowej dla młodzieży "Dzikus, czyli wyjęty spod prawa" autorstwa Wandy Żółkiewskiej, rozgrywa się w Rajskim w domu Józefa Pawłusiewicza. Jednymi z bohaterów jest on sam oraz cztery jego ogary. W powieści tej nakreślona jest wyraźnie sylwetka Pawłusiewicza, jego charakter na co dzień. Autorka uwidoczniła jego wielkie zamiłowanie i znawstwo ogarów, jak również umiłowanie ziemi bieszczadzkiej i znajomość jej historii. Pawłusiewicz w swych opowieściach przytacza wiele faktów ze swej wojennej przeszłości, wiele innych wspominanych jest ustami pozostałych bohaterów powieści. +Artemia (rodzaj) + +Artemia ("Artemia") – rodzaj skorupiaków z gromady skrzelonogów. Gatunki z tego rodzaju określane są czasami nazwą solowiec, choć nazwa ta dotyczy gatunku "Artemia salina". +Partenogenetyczne populacje artemii występują w Europie, Afryce, Azji i Australii. +Charakterystyka i znaczenie gospodarcze. +Gatunki z tego rodzaju, jak np. słonaczek ("Artemia salina"), zwany też solowcem lub solankowcem, żyją i rozwijają się w słonych jeziorach, w wodzie o zasoleniu do 200‰. Są do siebie bardzo podobne morfologicznie. Odróżnienie poszczególnych gatunków wymaga zastosowania profesjonalnych metod. Z tych powodów nie opracowano kluczy do identyfikacji gatunków. +Artemie są stosowane często w akwakulturach i przez akwarystów jako cenny pokarm dla ryb, szczególnie dla świeżo wylęgniętego z ikry narybku. +Taksonomia. +Opublikowano wiele naukowych opisów dotyczących różnorodnych (z różnych dziedzin nauki) badań nad "Artemia" sp. W wielu z tych opisów powoływana jest nazwa "Artemia salina", podczas gdy dotyczą one różnych gatunków z rodzaju "Artemia". Dla uporządkowania wiedzy o taksonomii tego rodzaju skrzelonogów Alireza Asem i współpracownicy opracowali zestawienie zweryfikowanych danych taksonomicznych poszczególnych gatunków. +Różne. +Nazwa projektu SeaMonkey ("morska małpka") Fundacji Mozilli pochodzi od handlowej nazwy artemii sprzedawanej pod taką nazwą jako zwierzę akwarystyczne w Stanach Zjednoczonych, Kanadzie i Wielkiej Brytanii. +Operacja Husky + +Operacja Husky – kryptonim inwazji na Sycylię przez wojska aliantów w czasie II wojny światowej. +Planowanie. +Na początku 1943 sztab sprzymierzonych zdał sobie sprawę, że nie zdoła już otworzyć „drugiego frontu”, przeprowadzając inwazję na Francję. Postanowiono więc wykorzystać jednostki, które uczestniczyły w kampanii północnoafrykańskiej do wykonania inwazji na Sycylię. Celem strategicznym tej inwazji było pozbawienie państw osi Sycylii jako bazy wypadowej dla lotnictwa i marynarki, otwierając dla aliantów całe Morze Śródziemne. Drugim celem było wciągnięcie do działań wojennych większej ilości sił włoskich, z nadzieją na ewentualne wyeliminowanie tego państwa z wojny. Sama inwazja na Sycylię miała też służyć jako próba generalna przed atakiem na same Włochy, choć to ostatnie nie było jeszcze uzgodnione, a Stany Zjednoczone były raczej przeciwko temu przedsięwzięciu, uważając, że może ono tylko opóźnić inwazję na Francję. +Dowódcą całego przedsięwzięcia był generał Dwight Eisenhower, generał Sir Harold Alexander został dowódcą wojsk lądowych, które otrzymały nazwę 15. grupy armii i składały się z brytyjskiej 8. armii pod dowództwem generała Montgomery’ego i 7. armii amerykańskiej dowodzonej przez generała Pattona. Siły obrońców pod dowództwem włoskiego generała Alfredo Guzzoni składały się z 200-300 tys. żołnierzy włoskich i 30 tys. niemieckich. +Początek inwazji. +Lądowania nastąpiły w bardzo niesprzyjających warunkach, przy silnym wietrze, który z jednej strony utrudnił operację desantową, ale równocześnie umożliwił zaskoczenie obrońców. Miejsce desantu wyznaczono w południowej i wschodniej części wyspy. Wojska brytyjskie stworzyły wschodnie skrzydło frontu, a amerykańskie jego zachodnią część. W ramach inwazji przeprowadzono też cztery operacje powietrznodesantowe, w nocy z 9 na 10 lipca. Dwa zrzuty były amerykańskie, a dwa brytyjskie. Dla amerykańskiej 82 dywizji spadochronowej był to chrzest ogniowy. Silne wiatry sprawiły, że zrzut nie był udany. Zaledwie połowa żołnierzy trafiła na zaplanowane miejsca. Nie lepiej powiodło się Brytyjczykom. Zaledwie 12 ze 144 szybowców wylądowało we właściwych miejscach, a część nawet wodowała na morzu. Część spadochroniarzy zginęła jeszcze zanim dotarła do miejsca zrzutu, część okrętów i statków biorących udział w inwazji otworzyła ogień w kierunku własnych samolotów, zestrzeliwując część z nich. +Desant morski, pomimo niesprzyjającej pogody, odniósł sukces, głównie dlatego, że stacjonujący na wybrzeżu obrońcy byli źle wyposażeni i brakowało im środków transportu. Jeden z kontrataków wojsk Osi prawie zepchnął do morza atakujące oddziały amerykańskie, które jednak zostały uratowane w ostatniej chwili przez celny ostrzał okrętów osłaniających lądowanie. +Brytyjczycy zdobyli Syrakuzy praktycznie bez walki, jedynie Amerykanie natrafili na opór wroga, dokładnie w tych miejscach, które miały zająć oddziały spadochronowe. 11 lipca po silnych namowach Eisenhowera i dowódców wojsk spadochronowych, Patton zgodził się na następny desant spadochroniarzy, tym razem w środku własnego frontu w celu jego wzmocnienia. Niestety, raz jeszcze wskutek złej komunikacji wewnętrznej, część okrętów otworzyła ogień do własnych samolotów, strącając 37 ze 144 biorących udział w ataku. +Przebieg kampanii. +Największym problemem postawionym przed Pattonem i Montgomerym był fakt, iż nie istniały praktycznie żadne plany zajęcia wyspy. Już samo planowanie inwazji było zajęciem bardzo trudnym, a wybrany ostatecznie plan autorstwa Montgomery’ego był kompromisem politycznym ze strony Eisenhowera, który odrzucił znacznie lepszy plan Pattona, aby zaspokoić ambicje brytyjskich aliantów. Założono po prostu, że po lądowaniu obie armie będą się posuwały do przodu, wyzwalając rejony, które im zostały przydzielone. Aby uniknąć sporów pomiędzy Pattonem a Montgomerym ustalono nieprzekraczalne granice dla obu armii. +Początek inwazji był bardzo obiecujący, szybko zdobyto Vizzini na zachodzie i Augustę na wschodzie. +Wkrótce jednak wojska brytyjskie trafiły na silny opór wojsk Osi i Montgomery przekonał generała Alexandra do zmiany granic między armiami. Miało mu to pozwolić na szybsze przełamanie oporu wroga, ale z drugiej strony, zabranie Amerykanom ważnych dróg zaopatrzeniowych pozbawiało ich możliwości prowadzenia dalszej ofensywy. +Niezadowolony z takiego przebiegu spraw Patton postanowił zdobyć stolicę Sycylii Palermo, choć nie przewidywały tego żadne uprzednie plany (według których „Monty” miał wyzwolić Messynę w ciągu kilku dni). +Patton wysłał silny zwiad w kierunku miasta Agrigento, wyzwalając je, i za zgodą Alexandra kontynuował atak w kierunku Palermo. Alexander wkrótce zmienił jednak zdanie i zakazał Pattonowi dalszego ataku, ten jednak, po otrzymaniu zmienionego rozkazu odpowiedział, iż informacja nie została zrozumiana z powodów zniekształceń transmisji i zanim Alexander przesłał rozkaz ponownie, wojska Pattona wkroczyły do Palermo. +Upadek Palermo zainspirował zamach stanu przeciwko Benito Mussoliniemu, który został odsunięty od władzy. I chociaż wyłączenie Włoch z wojny było jednym z celów ataku na Sycylię, ten zamach stanu całkowicie zaskoczył aliantów, którzy nie spodziewali się takiego przebiegu zdarzeń. +Pomimo upadku Palermo Brytyjczykom nadal nie udało się przełamać frontu nieprzyjaciela i Patton zmienił kierunek ataku, posuwając się północnym wybrzeżem w kierunku Messyny, która stała się jego nowym celem. Wojska osi, którymi dowodził teraz niemiecki generał Hans Hube, przygotowały silną linię obrony (tzw. linia Etny) dookoła Messyny, która miała umożliwić stopniowe wycofywanie i ewakuowanie sił włoskich i niemieckich. Patton rozpoczął swój atak na wysokości miasta Troina i po ciężkich walkach, przy pomocy desantu morskiego za linią frontu, udało mu się w końcu przełamać opór przeciwnika. +Niestety, z punktu widzenia aliantów, wojska osi wygrały dość czasu, aby ewakuować większość część swoich sił do Włoch. Elementy amerykańskiej 3 dywizji piechoty wkroczyły do Messyny kilka godzin po tym jak wyspę opuściły ostatnie oddziały niemieckie. +Warto zauważyć, że według pierwotnego planu zaproponowanego przez Pattona, wojska amerykańskie miały wylądować niedaleko Messyny i ją zdobyć pierwszą, uniemożliwiając przy tym ucieczkę i ewakuację obrońców. +Konsekwencje inwazji. +Straty po stronie sił Osi wyniosły 29 tys. żołnierzy zabitych i zaginionych oraz 140 tys. jeńców. Po zdobyciu przez Amerykanów lotniska w Biscari doszło do kontrowersyjnego wydarzenia tzw. masakry w Biscari, w której amerykańscy żołnierze zamordowali 73 jeńców, tłumacząc się później, że zostali do tego zainspirowani płomiennymi przemówieniami Pattona. Straty sił amerykańskich wyniosły 2237 zabitych i zaginionych oraz 6544 rannych i jeńców. Brytyjczycy stracili 2721 zabitych i 10 122 rannych i jeńców. Niewątpliwą klęską aliantów był fakt, że obrońcom udało się ewakuować z wyspy ponad 100 tys. żołnierzy i ponad 10 tys. pojazdów różnego typu. +Inwazja miała też poważne konsekwencje na froncie wschodnim. Po rozpoczęciu operacji „Husky” Niemcy byli zmuszeni zakończyć bitwę pod Kurskiem, gdyż zdecydowali się wysłać część jednostek biorących w niej udział do Włoch. +„Husky” była największą operacja amfibijną II wojny światowej, pod względem ilości żołnierzy i długości frontu. W momencie lądowania przyćmiła ona nawet późniejszą operację „Overlord”. Strategiczne cele inwazji, jakimi było otwarcie Morza Śródziemnego i wyeliminowanie Włoch z wojny, zostały częściowo osiągnięte. Powodzenie operacji umożliwiło także następne posunięcie, jakim była inwazja na Włochy (operacja Baytown). +Hominizacja + +2. W filozofii chrześcijańskiej terminem tym określa się proces "dojrzewania do pełni człowieczeństwa" w sensie duchowym. +Solna Jama + +Solna Jama – niewielka jaskinia krasowa w wyrobisku starego kamieniołomu u południowo-wschodniego podnóża masywu Czerńca, w dolinie potoku Gołodolnik, jedyna w Górach Bystrzyckich. +Opis jaskini. +Powstała w wyniku wypłukiwania przez wodę krystalicznych wapieni, tworzących soczewę wśród łupków (nazwa od śnieżnobiałego, gruboziarnistego wapienia, przypominającego kryształy soli kamiennej). Długość ok. 40 m, składa się z korytarza, który następnie rozwidla się – prawa odnoga prowadzi do komory z jeziorkiem krasowym, zaś lewa kończy się syfonem wodnym. Bywała nazywana również "Jaskinią Gniewoszowską" (najbliższa miejscowość to Gniewoszów). Szata naciekowa jaskini nie zachowała się prawie w ogóle. Obecne wejście do jaskini zostało odsłonięte w trakcie prac w kamieniołomie, dawniej naturalny otwór znajdował się niżej, nad samym brzegiem potoku Gołodolnik. +Niedaleko jaskini znajdują się ruiny średniowiecznego zamku Szczerba. +Flora i fauna. +Stanowisko endemicznego bezskrzydłego owada "Onychiyrus paxi" i ślepego skorupiaka "Nimphargus puteanus". +Miłochat + +Miłochat – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Miło-" ("miły", "miłujący") i "-chat" (?). Zapis tego imienia niektórzy badacze odczytują też jako Miłoczat lub Miłodziad. +Zjawiska świetlne podczas trzęsienia ziemi + +Światła trzęsienia ziemi (ang. earthquake lights, w skrócie EQL) – zjawisko białych lub niebieskawych świateł obserwowanych przez kilka sekund podczas trzęsień ziemi średniej i dużej wielkości. +Zjawisko to zostało sfotografowane w latach 1965-1967, w okresie trzęsień ziemi Matsushiro i dopiero wtedy zyskało uznanie specjalistów. Do tej pory nie ma satysfakcjonującego wytłumaczenie "EQL". Rozważane jest kilka hipotez: zjawisko piezoelektryczności, ogrzewanie przez tarcie, emisja eksoelektronowa, tryboluminescencja. To ostatnie może zajść tylko w skałach o krystalicznej budowie. +Tony Hawk's Skateboarding + +Tony Hawk's Skateboarding (w USA wydana jako Tony Hawk's Pro Skater, THPS) – pierwsza gra z serii Tony Hawk's. Gra została wydana na PlayStation (1999), Nintendo 64 (2000), Dreamcast (2000), Game Boy Color (2000), oraz N-Gage (2003). +Na grę składa się 9 poziomów - w 6 z nich gracz musi wykonywać określone zadania, aby odblokować kolejne poziomy, a 3 rundy to turnieje - gracz musi zdobyć jak największą liczbę punktów, aby pokonać skaterów sterowanych przez komputer i zdobyć medal. +1. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów + +1. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów za rok 1998, miała miejsce 21 czerwca 1999 roku w Kinie Capitol w Warszawie. Ceremonię wręczenia nagród poprowadzili Piotr Machalica i Maria Pakulnis. +Organizatorem wręczonych po raz pierwszy Polskich Nagród Filmowych było Stowarzyszenie Niezależnych Producentów Filmowych i Telewizyjnych. Nagrody wręczono w dwunastu kategoriach. +Najwięcej nominacji – po 10 – otrzymały dwa filmy: "Historia kina w Popielawach" w reżyserii Jana Jakuba Kolskiego oraz "Kroniki domowe" Leszka Wosiewicza. O osiem nagród ubiegały się również dwa tytuły: "Nic" Doroty Kędzierzawskiej oraz "Zabić Sekala" w reżyserii Vladimira Michálka. Sześć nominacji przyznano filmowi "Farba" Michała Rosy. Wszystkie wyżej wymienione filmy zostały nominowane w kategorii najlepszy film. +Najwięcej nagród – 4 – odebrali twórcy filmu "Historia kina w Popielawach", który nagrodzony został za najlepszy film, zdjęcia, muzykę i montaż. Obraz "Zabić Sekala" otrzymał trzy nagrody – za najlepszy scenariusz, nagrodę dla najlepszego producenta oraz za główną rolę męską w wykonaniu Olafa Lubaszenki. Nagrodę za główną rolę kobiecą odebrała Agnieszka Krukówna za rolę w filmie "Farba". +Nagrodę za osiągnięcia życia wręczono Wojciechowi Jerzemu Hasowi. +Laureaci i nominowani. +Najlepszy film. +Reżyser / Producenci − "Film" +Annalistyka + +Annalistyka (łac. "annus" - rok) jest nauką zajmującą się badaniem i porównywaniem roczników i kronik. +Złota akcja + +Złota akcja – akcja dająca wpływ na strategiczne decyzje spółki. W większości przypadków dotyczy to blokowania niekorzystnych dla jej posiadacza postanowień. W dobie prywatyzacji państwo często zatrzymuje złotą akcję w najważniejszych spółkach. +Złota akcja ma najczęściej ograniczony czasowo okres ważności (nie działa bezterminowo). +W polskim systemie prawnym wprowadzono ustawą z 3 czerwca 2005 r. "o szczególnych uprawnieniach Skarbu Państwa oraz ich wykonywaniu w spółkach kapitałowych o istotnym znaczeniu dla porządku publicznego lub bezpieczeństwa publicznego." () instytucję zbliżoną merytorycznie do złotej akcji, nazywaną też "złotym wetem". Jest to uprawnienie osobiste Skarbu Państwa do wetowania niektórych uchwał, a nawet czynności w spółkach o znaczeniu strategicznym. Uprawnienie to jest, w przeciwieństwie do prawa weta związanego z dokumentem uprzywilejowanej akcji, niezbywalne. +W każdym innym przypadku ustanowienie złotej akcji jest niedopuszczalne jako sprzeczne z zasadą jednakowego traktowania. Również sama ustawa z 3 czerwca 2005 r. "o szczególnych uprawnieniach Skarbu Państwa oraz ich wykonywaniu w spółkach kapitałowych o istotnym znaczeniu dla porządku publicznego lub bezpieczeństwa publicznego." () budzi wyjątkowo poważne zastrzeżenia co do jej zgodności z Konstytucją i prawem wspólnotowym. +Władysław Starewicz + +Władysław Starewicz (ur. 8 sierpnia 1882 w Moskwie z ojca Aleksandra i matki Antoniny z Legęckich, zm. 26 lutego 1965 w Fontenay-sous-Bois, Francja) – pionier animowanego filmu lalkowego. +Biografia. +"Krążyły plotki, że Starewicz nie jest Polakiem. On zawsze był Polakiem. Tylko wybuch wojny w 1939 r. uniemożliwił mu powrót do kraju, do Warszawy. Kilka miesięcy przed wybuchem wojny, producent pan Stefan Katelbach podpisał z nim kontrakt na realizację filmu pt. "Pani Twardowska", na podstawie poematu A. Mickiewicza." - Charles Ford bliski przyjaciel Starewicza +Ojcem Władysława był Aleksander Starewicz mieszkający w Sumiliszkach niedaleko Kiejdan, a matką Antonina Legęcka z Kowna. Oboje rodzice pochodzili z polskiej szlachty. Ojciec po Powstaniu styczniowym ukrywał się na Litwie. Po śmierci matki czteroletni Władysław został oddany na wychowanie do babki mieszkającej w Kownie, gdzie spędził dzieciństwo i młodość. Później ukończył Gimnazjum w Dorpacie (obecnie Tartu w Estonii). Chłopiec już w młodości zaczął uprawiać malarstwo, rysunek i fotografię. Doskonalił karykaturę, zyskując coraz większą popularność jako satyryk. Jego główną pasją było jednak kolekcjonowanie i preparowanie owadów. Właśnie zamiłowaniu do entomologii zawdzięczał w dużym stopniu swoją karierę. +W czerwcu 1910 w Kownie, w swojej małej, domowej pracowni Starewicz dokonał oryginalnego eksperymentu. Zafascynowany różnorodnością i bogactwem form i kształtów świata owadów postanowił najciekawsze i najwspanialsze okazy filmować. Wybór padł na unikalne żuki jelonki, mieszkańców puszczy litewskiej, których zwyczajami interesował się od dawna. +Kariera w Moskwie. +Jego kariera reżyserska zaczęła się w styczniu 1912, po podpisaniu umowy z producentem filmów Chanżonkowem, z Moskwy. Do Moskwy zabrał też ze sobą żonę Annę, która pomagała mu przy realizacji filmów, córkę Irenę i montażystkę Marię Wodzińską, późniejszą kierowniczkę działu montażu w wytwórni Chanżonkowa. Przywiózł także ze sobą owoc dwuletnich doświadczeń i poszukiwań, kopię ośmiominutowego filmu pt. "Piękna Lukanida". Ten pierwszy w historii film lalkowy przyniósł młodemu twórcy rozgłos i pieniądze. Premiera filmu o żukach jelonkach odbyła się w Moskwie 26 marca 1912. Po premierze niektórzy krytycy pisali o tresowanych owadach występujących w filmie. +W Moskwie Starewicz zrealizował następny film pt. "Konik Polny i Mrówka", pierwszą adaptację utworu literackiego, transpozycję znanej bajki Jean de La Fontaine. Artysta sięgnął tym razem do alegorii, ukazując środkami filmu lalkowego tragedię, losów ludzkich. Premiera filmu odbyła się 15 grudnia 1912 w Kopenhadze. Sukces przeszedł oczekiwania. Obraz obejrzeli widzowie Europy i Ameryki. Wykonano rekordową ilość kopii – 140. Jedną z nich w srebrnym pudełku Chanżonkow ofiarował następcy tronu rosyjskiego Aleksemu Nikołajewiczowi. Sam producent otrzymał złoty pierścień z brylantem, reżyser zaś od producenta medalion ze znakiem wytwórni – rozbuchany Pegaz. +Zaraz potem, zimą 1914 Starewicz zwolnił się z wytwórni Chanżonkowa. +Przyczyn było wiele, ale wszystkie one wynikały z jednego – pragnienia niezależności twórczej. Jeszcze u Chanżonkowa postanowił spróbować swych sił jako reżyser i operator aktorskich filmów fabularnych. Doskonałe opanowanie różnych technik filmowych pozwoliło mu na podejmowanie tematów, w których dominowały motywy ludowej i bajkowej fantastyki. Adaptował utwory Nikołaja Gogola – "Straszliwa Zemsta", "Noc Przed Bożym Narodzeniem", "Noc Majowa" i "Seroczyński Jarmark" – wszystkie z bajkową scenografią, a także poemat Puszkina "Rusłan i Ludmiła". Powstały filmy: "Jola", ekranizacja powieści Jerzego Żuławskiego, "Pan Twardowski" na podstawie powieści Ignacego Kraszewskiego oraz "Cagliostro" według popularnej w tym czasie książki Saliasa "Hrabia Cagliostro". +Po wybuchu I wojny światowej Starewicz nakręcił szereg parodii obyczajowych oraz kilka grotesek politycznych o antywojennej wymowie. Jedna z nich to "Lilia Belgii", będąca satyrą na Wilhelmowskie Niemcy, dokonujące najazdu na Belgię. W dramatach filmowych Starewicza występowali znani aktorzy rosyjscy tej miary, co Iwan Mozżuchin, późniejsza gwiazda europejskich ekranów, Olga Gzowska, Zofia Gosławska, Władymir Gajdarow, Jewgienij Wachtangow, a także wielu polskich aktorów – Halina Starska, Krystyna Niewiarowska, Antoni Fertner, Stefan Jaracz, Jan Wiszniewski oraz węgierski aktor Fryderyk Jarossy, późniejsza gwiazda warszawskich kabaretów. Coraz częściej w filmach ojca i z coraz większym powodzeniem, występowały jego córki, starsza Irena i młodsza Nina. +Kariera w Paryżu. +W 1919 Starewicz opuścił Rosję i przez Stambuł i Rzym udał się do Paryża. +Filmy Starewicza były rozpowszechniane na całym świecie, nie wyłączając Chin, gdzie kolejna jego bajka "Żaby chcą króla" cieszyła się szczególnym powodzeniem. Nakręcona w 1922 była udaną satyrą polityczną na ustrój parlamentarny. +Zabawnym filmem z 1923 była satyra na hollywoodzkie mody i obyczaje, animowana parodia westernu pt. "Miłość czarna i biała". Główne role w tym filmie grały lalki popularnych amerykańskich aktorów. Zakochany Charlie Chaplin rywalizuje z kowbojem Tomem Mixem o względy naiwnej Mary Pickford. Po tej parodii Starewicz wrócił znów do swoich ulubionych bajek. Według jego własnych scenariuszy powstały – "Mała śpiewaczka uliczna" i bajka chińska "Oczy smoka". Nawet w tak idyllicznej inscenizacji Starewicz nie przestał być satyrykiem. Wielki bonza w tym filmie, to nic innego jak parodia gry słynnego już w owym czasie Iwana Możuchina. +W 1928 Starewicz nakręcił "Zaczarowany zegar" – średniowieczną bajkę o zegarze i mistrzu, który go zbudował, oraz u uczniu mistrza, który ten cudowny zegar ożywia, powołując do życia świat marzeń i wyobraźni. +Próbował także zainteresować producenta "Stworzeniem Świata", apokaliptyczną wizją opartą na motywach biblijnych. Zrealizować jednak udało mu się tylko jeden film pełnometrażowy, kukiełkową "Opowieść o Lisie" ("Le Roman de Renart"), na podstawie średniowiecznego cyklu "Powieść o lisie". Pracę nad scenariuszem rozpoczął w 1926, a ukończył film w 1930 brakowało mu jednak pieniędzy na sfinansowanie jego udźwiękowienia. Dla zarobku, z udziałem lalek z tego filmu, nakręcił krótkie bajki według La Fontaina "Lew i mucha" i "Lew starzeje się" oraz całą serię filmów z malutkim pieskiem Fetichem – maskotką, wierząc ciągle w zmianę losu. Wreszcie po siedmiu latach nieustannych zabiegów gotowy obraz wykupiła niemiecka wytwórnia filmowa "UFA" i udźwiękowiła go. 28 kwietnia 1937 odbyła się w Berlinie uroczysta premiera z udziałem Starewicza. +Zmierzch kariery. +Walka o realizację wymarzonych filmów nie ustawała. Starewicz eksperymentował, próbował nowych wynalazków. Lansował filmy i obrazki stereoskopowe. Doskonalił ciągle swoją technikę filmową. Pracował nad nowoczesną konstrukcją lalki. Już w szkicach projektu przewidywał mimikę i ruch swoich bohaterów, rzeźbiąc setki mini główek lub używał plastycznych masek. Dla lalki grającej pierwszoplanową rolę, potrzeba ich było aż 1500. Lalki, które wykonywała i ubierała córka Irena używając takich materiałów jak drut, ołów, drewno, korek, ircha, gaza, jedwab, skóra, masa plastyczna stawały się doskonałością w swoim rodzaju. +W latach 1949-1958 zrealizował we Francji jeszcze kilka filmów dla dzieci. Pierwszym z nich była "Zanzabelle w Paryżu" według scenariusza napisanego z córką Ireną na podstawie bajki Soniki Boe. Film ten jak i następne "Kwiat Paproci", "Świergotka", "Niedziela w Szczebiotkowie", "Czujny Nos" i "Północna Karuzela" przysporzyły autorowi kolejnych międzynarodowych nagród. Jego dochody jednak zmalały. Ostatnia próba zrealizowania "Snu Nocy Letniej" skończyła się finansową klęską. +Zmarł w biedzie, pochowany na koszt gminy w Fontenay-sous-Bois. +Komando + +Komando (niem. "Kommando") - podstawowa komórka w organizacji pracy w niemieckich obozach koncentracyjnych, składająca się z kilku, kilkudziesięciu bądź nawet kilkuset więźniów, na czele których stał więzień funkcyjny kapo. +Komanda wywodzą się z organizacji pracy pierwszych transportów, które budowały obóz od podstaw (stawiały baraki, kopały rowy itp.). +W systemie śmiertelnego wycieńczania pracą dostanie się do określonego komanda było kwestią życia lub śmierci. Do najtrudniejszych komand należały zatrudnione przy fizycznej pracy na zewnątrz. Zimą zbierały one największą liczbę ofiar. W niektórych perspektywa życia nie była większa niż 2-3 tygodnie. Do najlżejszych, rokujących na dłuższe przeżycie należała np. praca w kuchni, w orkiestrze obozowej, w administracji czy praca przy sortowaniu różnego rodzaju mienia po zagazowanych w "Kanadzie". +Komanda pracujące na zewnątrz obozu stwarzały z kolei szansę więźniom na "zorganizowanie" dodatkowych racji żywnościowych, nielegalnych narzędzi, lekarstw (często przy pomocy ludności okolicznej). Były one ułatwieniem dla szukających ucieczki z obozu. +Psychicznie najcięższą pracą była praca przy wypróżnianiu komór gazowych i obsłudze krematoriów (to komando było prawie zawsze złożone wyłącznie z Żydów), nazywane w Auschwitz-Birkenau Sonderkomandem. +Z rozwojem ekonomicznej, gospodarczej roli obozów powstawały komanda obsługujące nie tylko sam obóz i jego zbrodniczą machinę, lecz całą siatkę przedsiębiorstw niemieckich. Kierownictwo obozu wynajmowało więźniów, jako niezwykle tanią siłę roboczą. Niektóre fabryki usytuowane były za daleko od obozu macierzystego, aby codziennie mogły dochodzić do nich komanda więźniów. Wówczas zakładano podobozy. +Pomnik Alana Turinga + +Pomnik Alana Turinga – pomnik Alana Turinga znajdujący się w "Sackville Gardens" w Manchester, poświęcony pamięci ojca nowoczesnych komputerów. +Pomnik został odsłonięty w rocznicę urodzin Turinga w 2001 r. Po lewej stronie postaci znajdują się budynki uczelni (University of Manchester), po prawej budynki dzielnicy zwanej "gay village" przy Canal Street – dwa symbole łączące się z tragiczną samobójczą śmiercią uczonego. +Fatum + +Fatum – zły los. W mitologii rzymskiej to personifikacja nieuchronnego, nieodwracalnego losu; nieodwołalna wola bogów, na którą nikt nie ma wpływu. Fatum ciążące nad człowiekiem ograniczało ramy jego wolnej woli, kierując skutki działań w jednym tylko, zgubnym kierunku. Było bezpośrednią przyczyną jego końcowej klęski i tragedii. +Mackenzie (rzeka) + +Mackenzie – najdłuższa rzeka w Kanadzie i drugi system rzeczny w Ameryce Północnej (po Missisipi-Missouri). Jej długość wynosi 4241 km, a powierzchnia dorzecza 1760 tys. km2. +Mackenzie wypływa z Wielkiego Jeziora Niewolniczego. Powyżej jeziora nosi ona nazwę Rzeki Niewolniczej, która powstaje z połączenia rzek Peace i Athabaska. Mackenzie uchodzi deltą do Zatoki Mackenzie, do Morza Beauforta. Obszar ujściowy stanowi miejsce zamieszkiwania ptactwa wodnego, m.in. gęsi śnieżnej, łabędzi. Stanowi też miejsce składania ikry przez bieługi. +W skład systemu rzeki Mackenzie wchodzą jeziora: Jezioro Athabaska, Wielkie Jezioro Niewolnicze i Wielkie Jezioro Niedźwiedzie. +Rzeka jest żeglowna na odcinku 2000 km przez około 5 miesięcy (od maja do września). Zimą można podróżować po zamarzniętym lodzie. Ważniejsze porty rzeczne to Fort Simpson i Fort Providence. +Mackenzie przepływa przez prowincję Alberta i Terytoria Północno-Zachodnie. Dział wodny z rzeką Jukon stanowi granicę między tym ostatnim terytorium a Terytorium Jukon. +Nazwa rzeki pochodzi od nazwiska podróżnika Alexandra Mackenzie, który podróżował nią próbując dotrzeć do Pacyfiku. +Powiat białobrzeski + +Powiat białobrzeski - powiat w Polsce (południowo-zachodniej części województwa mazowieckiego), reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Białobrzegi. +Podział administracyjny. +Powiat białobrzeski graniczy z 4 powiatami województwa mazowieckiego: przysuskim, grójeckim, kozienickim, radomskim. +Historia. +Utworznie powiatu białobrzeskiego spowodowało znaczną zmianę granicy województw kieleckiego i warszawskiego, ponieważ aż 5 gromad zmieniło przynależność wojewódzką. Na uwagę zasługuje też fakt, iż w momencie utworzenia powiatu białobrzeskiego jego stolica była wsią; prawa miejskie, które Białobrzegi utraciły w 1870 roku, zostały im ponownie przyznane dopiero 1 stycznia 1958 roku ; tego dnia do powiatu białobrzeskiego przyłączono również gromadę Dobieszyn z powiatu kozienickiego . +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku terytorium zniesionego powiatu białobrzeskiego weszło w skład nowo utworzonego województwa radomskiego . +1 kwietnia 1983 roku z gminy Promna wyłączono sołectwo Jastrzębia i włączono je do gminy Mogielnica . 1 lipca 1986 roku z gminy Radzanów wyłączono wieś Maksymilianów i włączono ją do gminy Przytyk . 1 lutego 1991 roku miasto Wyśmierzyce (najmniejsze w Polsce) i gminę wiejską Wyśmierzyce połączono we wspólną gminę miejsko-wiejską , natomiast podobnej fuzji uległy 1 stycznia 1992 roku miasto i gmina Białobrzegi . +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku w nowym województwie mazowieckim przywrócono powiat białobrzeski o identycznych granicach co w 1975 roku. +W porównaniu z obszarem z 1956 roku jedynie obszar dawnej gromady Długie leży obecnie na terenie powiatu przysuskiego - pozostałe są ponownie w powiecie białobrzeskim. +3. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów + +3. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów za rok 2000, miała miejsce 23 kwietnia 2001 roku w Teatrze Wielkim w Warszawie. Ceremonię wręczenia nagród poprowadził aktor Piotr Gąsowski. +Nominacje do nagród zostały ogłoszone 12 marca 2001 roku przez Piotra Kraśkę. Podczas odczytywania nominacji Grażyna Szapołowska zaprezentowała nową statuetkę nagrody, zaprojektowaną przez Adama Federowicza. +Polskie Nagrody Filmowe zostały tegorocznie wręczone w szesnastu kategoriach. O nominację do nagrody ubiegały się 23 filmy. +Najwięcej nominacji – po 12 – otrzymały dwa filmy: "Prymas. Trzy lata z tysiąca" w reżyserii Teresy Kotlarczyk oraz "Życie jako śmiertelna choroba przenoszona drogą płciową" Krzysztofa Zanussiego. Dziewięć nominacji otrzymał film Jerzego Stuhra "Duże zwierzę", a osiem "Daleko od okna" w reżyserii Jana Jakuba Kolskiego. Po pięć nominacji otrzymały trzy filmy: "Wrota Europy", "Córy szczęścia" oraz "Syzyfowe prace". +Pośmiertną nominację za najlepszy scenariusz do filmu "Duże zwierzę" otrzymał Krzysztof Kieślowski. +Najwięcej nagród otrzymał film "Życie jako śmiertelna choroba przenoszona drogą płciową", który łączenie otrzymał siedem nagród, w tym m.in. za najlepszy film, najlepszą reżyserię oraz za najlepszą główną rolę męską w wykonaniu Zbigniewa Zapasiewicza. +Trzy nagrody odebrali twórcy filmu "Wrota Europy". Dwie nagrody otrzymali drugoplanowi aktorzy z filmu "To ja, złodziej" – Janusz Gajos i Krystyna Feldman. Nagrodę za najlepszą główną rolę kobiecą odebrała Dominika Ostałowska za rolę w filmie "Daleko od okna". +Film "Prymas. Trzy lata z tysiąca" z dwunastu nominacji otrzymał tylko jedną nagrodę, za najlepszy dźwięk. Obraz "Duże zwierzę" w reżyserii Jerzego Stuhra pomimo dziewięciu nominacji nie otrzymał żadnej nagrody. +Nagrody specjalne otrzymali: reżyser Roman Polański oraz Stanisław Pacuk, prezez Kredyt Banku. Laureatem nagrody za osiągnięcia życia został Stanisław Różewicz. +Laureaci i nominowani. +Najlepszy film. +Reżyser / Producenci − "Film" +Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 + +"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2" – komputerowa gra zręcznościowa wyprodukowana przez Neversoft i Treyarch oraz wydana w 2000 przez Activision. Jest to druga gra z serii "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater". Początkowo została wydana na PlayStation, z której potem przekonwertowano ją na platformy Nintendo 64, Dreamcast, Mac OS i komputery osobiste. +Podczas gry gracz wciela się w profesjonalnego skatera i wykonuje dane przez twórców misje, za które nagrodą są pieniądze. Za zdobyte pieniądze można zwiększać współczynniki umiejętności oraz kupować lepsze deskorolki. "THPS 2" była pierwszą grą w serii, w której wprowadzono trik o nazwie manual. +"Pro Skater 2x". +"Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2x" została wydana na konsolę Xbox. Gra ta łączyła dwie pierwsze części serii – "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater" i "Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2". Dodatkowo zawierała nowe misje i poziomy oraz poprawioną oprawę graficzną. +Pieniądz zastępczy + +Pieniądz zastępczy – definiuje się najczęściej jako znaki pieniężne wydawane przez wystawców innych, niż instytucje państwowe lub banki upoważnione do emisji oficjalnego pieniądza, które miały na celu doraźne zapobieżenie brakom środków płatniczych lub pewnych jego nominałów w obiegu, przy czym nie ma znaczenia, czy emisja pieniądza zastępczego odbywa się z zachowaniem wymaganych procedur, czy nie. +Aspekt ekonomiczny. +Na gruncie teorii, pieniądz zastępczy spełniał głównie funkcję środka cyrkulacji (środka wymiany) w zakresie ściśle określonym terytorialnie i czasowo. W mniejszym stopniu pełnił też funkcję środka płatniczego (regulacji zobowiązań) i to tylko fakultatywnie. Nie spełniał natomiast funkcji miernika wartości (jednostki obrachunkowej) ani środka tezauryzacji (przechowywania bogactwa). Sporadycznie w tej ostatniej funkcji występowały tzw. bony stałowartościowe, które nie podlegały inflacji w warunkach gwałtownych spadków wartości oficjalnej waluty. +Pieniądz zastępczy pojawiał się na ogół w okresach wojen, wybuchu ruchów społecznych albo kryzysów gospodarczych. Wydawany bywał zarówno z zachowaniem formalnych zezwoleń władz, jak i nieoficjalnie. Często miał pewien ściśle określony termin ważności. Jego emitentami bywała administracja cywilna lub wojskowa, władze lokalne różnych szczebli, miejskie banki, dyrekcje kolei, różne firmy prywatne lub spółdzielnie. Przykładem może tu być np. pieniądz obozowy, pieniądz kolejowy, pieniądz pańszczyźniany czy pieniądz miejski. +Historia. +W Europie pieniądz zastępczy pojawiał się począwszy od XVI w. w formie monet, a od XVIII w. w postaci bonów. Nieco wcześniej występowała w obiegu pewna jego forma – tzw. pieniądz w oblężeniu miasta, który bywał bity w twierdzach, aby umożliwić wypłatę żołdu broniącej się załodze. +Znanych jest wiele przypadków wydawania zastępczego pieniądza, m.in. na Śląsku w okresie wojen napoleońskich i w okresie Wiosny Ludów. W największej ilości pojawił się w Niemczech i Austrii w latach 1914-1924 – tak zwany "Notgeld" drukowany w związku z wydarzeniami I wojny światowej. Zawirowania ekonomiczne wywołały wówczas pojawienie się pieniądza zastępczego na mniejszą skalę w każdym z krajów europejskich z wyjątkiem Wielkiej Brytanii, którą jako jedyną ominęły zakłócenia w obiegu środków płatniczych. Ponownie, choć w dużo mniejszej ilości, pieniądz zastępczy był używany w okresie wielkiego kryzysu lat 1929-1933. Na ziemiach polskich zastępcze pieniądze kursowały w czasie II wojny światowej, a także na krótko w niektórych miastach tuż po wyzwoleniu. +Bełżec + +Bełżec – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie lubelskim, w powiecie tomaszowskim, w gminie Bełżec, na szlaku komunikacyjnym Lublin-Lwów . Siedziba gminy Bełżec. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa zamojskiego. +Wieś leży na terenie Roztocza Środkowego, 8 km na południe od Tomaszowa Lubelskiego oraz 16 km od przejścia granicznego w Hrebennem. +Etymologia nazwy. +Nazwa Bełżec pochodzi od narzeczowego bełzy (bełży) się, 'bieli się'; prasłowo, tylko w polskim zachowane (jak np. uścieć, uścić się). Podobne: Bełz, Bełżyce, Bełza. +Historia. +W czasie II wojny światowej, pod koniec 1941 roku, Niemcy założyli w Bełżcu obóz zagłady SS-Sonderkommando Belzec utworzony w ramach operacji Einsatz Reinhardt. Metody zagłady opracowane w obozie bełżeckim zostały następnie wykorzystane w obozach w niemieckich obozach śmierci w Sobiborze i Treblince. Do obozu hitlerowcy wywieźli około 500 tys. Żydów z Polski i zagranicy (w tym około 300 tys. z dystryktu Galicja). Deportacje z zagranicy objęły także Żydów z Austrii, Czechosłowacji oraz Niemiec. Kilka tysięcy Polaków Niemcy przywieźli na zagładę z pobliskich miejscowości i ze Lwowa, głównie za udzielanie pomocy Żydom i za przynależność do organizacji konspiracyjnych. Obóz został zamknięty w grudniu 1942 roku. W ciągu kilku kolejnych miesięcy Niemcy demontowali urządzenia obozowe oraz zacierali ślady swoich zbrodni. +Ofiary uśmiercano w prymitywnych komorach gazowych, a ich ciała grzebano w masowych mogiłach. W okresie od stycznia do kwietnia 1943 roku groby te zostały rozkopane, a zwłoki spalono na stosach wykonanych z szyn kolejowych. W ciągu kolejnych miesięcy Niemcy zdemontowali urządzenia obozowe, teren zniwelowali i zalesili, zaś ostatnich więźniów wysłali do Sobiboru. +Wieś została wyzwolona 21 lipca 1944 r. przez oddziały AK Obwodu tomaszowskiego, przed nadejściem wojsk sowieckich. +Na miejscu byłego obozu zagłady znajduje się mauzoleum. +Galeria. +Plik:PL Belzec extermination camp 1.jpg|Obóz zagłady - mauzoleum +Plik:Belzec_lubelskie_wies_cerkiew_01.JPG|Cerkiew w Bełżcu +Plik:Belzec_lubelskie_wies_dworzec_pkp.JPG|Dworzec PKP w Bełżcu +Plik:Belzec_lubelskie_wies_OSP.JPG|Ochotnicza Straż Pożarna + +Briana Banks + +Briana Banks (ur. 21 maja 1978 w Monachium) − niemiecka aktorka występująca w filmach pornograficznych. +Arrau + +Arrau ("Podocnemis expansa") – gatunek żółwia z rodziny pelomeduzowatych. To największy amerykański żółw z podrzędu żółwi bokoszyjnych. +Medycyna sądowa + +Medycyna sądowa – specjalność medyczna zajmująca się zagadnieniami dotyczącymi życia i śmierci w świetle prawa. +Jej szczegółowe zainteresowania dzieli się na: tanatologię, toksykologię, traumatologię i serohematologię. +Medycyna sądowa jest ściśle związana z kryminalistyką, stanowi jeden z jej elementów. Specjaliści medycyny sądowej zajmują się sekcjami zwłok, oględzinami żywych - poszkodowanych, ustalaniem ojcostwa itp. +Medycy sądowi są pomocni również w dociekaniu prawdy historycznej, są np. obecni przy ekshumacjach zwłok. +Medycyna sądowa jest specjalizacją lekarską inną niż patomorfologia. +Andrzej Zając (lekarz) + +Andrzej Zając (ur. 31 marca 1929 w Sosnowcu Niwce, zm. 31 grudnia 2000) - lekarz, specjalista medycyny przemysłowej i chorób wewnętrznych, założyciel Polskiego Towarzystwa Ergonomicznego, współzałożyciel Śląskiej Organizacji Technicznej. +Urodzony w rodzinie górniczej życie zawodowe związał z problematyką zdrowia pracowników górnictwa i hutnictwa. W 1953 uzyskał dyplom lekarza Collegium Medicum Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +W 1954 rozpoczął pracę w przemysłowej służbie zdrowia, odbywając równocześnie praktyki pod okiem Witolda Zahorskiego. W 1957 został kierownikiem Zakładu Lecznictwa Zapobiegawczego przy Sosnowieckich Zakładach Budowy Kotłów Przemysłowych. W 1959 uzyskał pierwszy, a w 1964 drugi stopień specjalizacji medycyny przemysłowej i chorób zawodowych; z kolei w 1965 uzyskał uprawnienia do prowadzenia szkoleń lekarzy w tej dziedzinie. +W latach 1965-1970 pracował ponad rok w Poliklinice Zakładowej Kombinatu Metalurgicznego w Eisenhüttenstadt, jako kierownik jej Oddziału Chorób Zawodowych i Medycyny Przemysłowej. Po powrocie do kraju kontynuował pracę w ZZL. +W latach 1974-1978 pracował jako starszy asystent Franciszka Spiocha w Zakładzie Fizjologii Pracy przy Instytucie Medycyny Pracy w Przemyśle Węglowym i Hutniczym w Sosnowcu oraz kierownik jego Pracowni Ergonomicznej. +16 maja 1977 zainicjował działalność Polskiego Towarzystwa Ergonomicznego. +W 1978 powołany na stanowisko głównego specjalisty ds. medycyny przemysłowej w Okręgowej Inspekcji Pracy w Katowicach. +W latach 1987-1994 pracował w Górniczym Zespole Opieki Zdrowotnej w Katowicach, w późniejszym okresie jako kierownik Przychodni Zakładowej Głównego Instytutu Górnictwa; jednocześnie w latach 1986-1991 lekarz przemysłowy sosnowieckiego "Politexu". Karierę zawodową zakończył w 1995. +Uhonorowany Medalem im. Wojciecha Jastrzębowskiego za szczególne zasługi na polu ergonomii i jej zastosowań oraz dwoma odznaczeniami państwowymi NRD za pracę i osiągnięcia w zakresie ochrony zdrowia pracowników. +Geek Code + +Geek Code - kod opisujący geekowe zainteresowania i preferencje opracowany przez Roberta A. Haydena w 1993. Ostatnia wersja o numerze 3.12 pochodzi z 1996. +Plusy i minusy. +Chcąc określić stosunek do danej kategorii (nie tyczy się pierwszej) możemy użyć plusów (+) i minusów (-) w odpowiednich ilościach. Przykładowo aby okazać naszą sympatię do Linuksa piszemy L+++ lub antypatię do WWW piszemy W---. Dokładne informacje na temat poszczególnych ilości plusów i minusów można znaleźć na oficjalnej stronie Geek Code. +Blok kodu. +Pełny Geek Code tworzy tzw. blok. Zaczyna się on od linijki wskazującej na jego początek: -----BEGIN GEEK CODE BLOCK-----. W drugiej linii określamy wersje jakiej użyliśmy do sporządzenia go: Version: 3.1. Dalej wpisujemy nasz kod w trzech linijkach i kończymy blokiem: ------END GEEK CODE BLOCK------. Gotowy Geek Code często spotyka się w sygnaturach użytkowników poczty elektronicznej, grup dyskusyjnych czy forów internetowych. +Najzabawniejszy dowcip świata + +Najzabawniejszy dowcip świata (ang. "The Funniest Joke in the World") pochodzi ze skeczu z pierwszego odcinka Latającego Cyrku Monty Pythona pod tym samym tytułem. Znany jest także jako „Zabójczy dowcip”. Skecz pojawił się w pierwszym odcinku serialu Latający cyrk Monty Pythona, został później odegrany w krótszej wersji w filmie "A teraz coś z zupełnie innej beczki". +Dowcip ten pozwolił aliantom wygrać drugą wojnę światową. Ostatnia istniejąca angielska kopia dowcipu została złożona w Berkshire. +Korbacz + +Korbacz to rodzaj bata na krótkim trzonku, za pomocą którego wymierzana była chłosta. Zwany także kańczugiem i harapem. Najczęstsza kara w prawie wiejskim. Nazwa pochodzi z tureckiego: "kırbaç" 'bat, knut'. +Korbacz to także niepoprawna nazwa kiścienia +Sobibór + +Sobibór – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie lubelskim, w powiecie włodawskim, w gminie Włodawa, nad rzeką Bug. +W latach 1867-1933 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Sobibór. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa chełmskiego. +Nazwa ta związana jest z imieniem Sobiebor. Wieś znajduje się nad rzeką Bug na skraju lasów sobiborskich. Z zabytków warto wymienić murowany dwór mieszczący jeszcze niedawno szkołę. +4 km na zachód od wsi, w środku lasu, znajduje się Sobibór Stacja Kolejowa. Znajduje się tam czynna towarowa stacja kolejowa Sobibór (przeładunek drewna) i muzeum wraz z pomnikiem, upamiętniającym dawny obóz zagłady. Przy stacji działał w latach 1942-1943 niemiecki obóz zagłady SS-Sonderkommando Sobibor, w skład załogi którego wchodziło 30 Niemców oraz 150 Ukraińców. Zamordowano tam co najmniej ćwierć miliona ludzi. 14 października 1943 w obozie wybuchł bunt części internowanych, w wyniku którego zostało zabitych dwunastu esesmanów, zaś trzystu więźniom udało się uciec z obozu. +Chabarowsk + +Chabarowsk (ros. "Хабаровск") – miasto w Rosji, położone w południowo-wschodnim regionie azjatyckiej części tego kraju, nad Amurem w pobliżu ujścia rzeki Ussuri.Stolica Kraju Chabarowskiego; 606 tys. mieszkańców (2002). Współrzędne geograficzne: 48°25′ N 135°07′ E. +Chabarowsk jest największym ośrodkiem przemysłowym Rosji na Dalekim Wschodzie. Przemysł maszynowy, elektrotechniczny, petrochemiczny, farmaceutyczny, drzewny, materiałów budowlanych, odzieżowy i spożywczy. +Historia. +Założone jako forteca Chabarowka (na cześć rosyjskiego odkrywcy Jerofieja Chabarowa) w 1858 roku. Prawa miejskie od 1880 roku. Od 1893 roku miasto nosi obecną nazwę. W roku 1905 do Chabarowska doprowadzono linię Kolei Transsyberyjskiej. W okresie wojny domowej w Rosji w latach 1918–1920, ważny ośrodek rewolucyjny na Syberii. +Transport. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Chabarowsk. +Scopus + +Scopus to naukowa baza danych, prowadzona przez wydawnictwo Elsevier, zawierająca abstrakty (streszczenia) artykułów z 16 000 czasopism naukowych z dziedziny nauk przyrodniczych, inżynieryjnych, medycznych oraz społecznych. Została ona utworzona na bazie wirtualnej biblioteki o nazwie ScienceDirect. +Scopus powstał w 2002 r. jako odpowiedź wydawnictwa Elsevier na wzrastającą popularność i oddziaływanie analogicznego serwisu Instytutu Filadelefijskiego ("ISI Web of Science"). Według twórców, baza Scopus obejmuje 16 000 czasopism (w porównaniu z 16 725 w ISI – dane na koniec listopada 2008), łatwiejsza i przyjemniejsza w obsłudze i lepiej zintegrowana z elektronicznymi bazami danych wydawców poszczególnych czasopism. Posiada ona podobny system indeksowania cytowań jak baza ISI, który obejmuje także cytowania patentowe, podobnie jak w bazie ISI. ISI posiada jednak indeks cytowań od 1900 r., podczas gdy Scopus dopiero od 1996. Baza Scopus reklamuje się także jako mniej "amerykocentryczna". W bazie ISI ponad 70% indeksowanych czasopism jest wydawana w USA, podczas gdy w Scopus jest to 60%. +Baza ta jest, podobnie jak ISI Web of Science, dostępna przez swoją stronę WWW po opłaceniu rocznej subskrypcji. +Powiat gostyniński + +Powiat gostyniński - powiat w Polsce (w zachodniej części województwa mazowieckiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Gostynin. +Miś Uszatek + +Miś Uszatek – polski telewizyjny serial animowany, emitowany w latach 1975-1987. Serial znany też pod alternatywnym tytułem Przygody Misia Uszatka. +Informacje o serialu. +Główną postacią serialu jest tytułowy Miś Uszatek. Postać ta znana była wcześniej z książek dla dzieci, powstała 6 marca 1957 roku jako dzieło pisarza Czesława Janczarskiego oraz ilustratora Zbigniewa Rychlickiego. +Początkowo "Miś Uszatek" gościł głównie w pisemku dla dzieci "Miś", którego był patronem, później stał się bohaterem licznych książek, tłumaczonych również na obce języki. W 1962 powstał pierwszy indywidualny film, według scenariusza napisanego przez Czesława Janczarskiego pod tytułem "Miś Uszatek". Prawdziwa eksplozja popularności misia nastąpiła jednak dopiero w 1975 roku, kiedy to Studio Małych Form Filmowych Se-ma-for w Łodzi, na zlecenie Telewizji Polskiej rozpoczęło produkcję lalkowego serialu z Uszatkiem, któremu głosu użyczył Mieczysław Czechowicz. Czesław Janczarski w tym czasie już nie żył i dlatego tematy do scenariuszy, czerpiąc pomysły z opowiadań Janczarskiego, wymyślał najczęściej Janusz Galewicz, występujący też pod pseudonimem Łukasz Czerwiec. +Miś Uszatek był bohaterem popularnym głównie wśród dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym – takim dzieciom łatwo się było identyfikować z Uszatkiem, bo z jednej strony przypominał on dostępną wszystkim pluszową zabawkę, a z drugiej strony był poważnym partnerem, kolegą z przedszkola. Na dodatek okazał się bohaterem na wskroś współczesnym, nie tylko w zachowaniu czy języku, ale i w ubiorze, o co zawsze dbał projektant Zbigniew Rychlicki. +W szybkim tempie powstawały filmy na wszystkie możliwe okazje i wszystkie pory roku. Popularność napędziła produkcję i w efekcie do 1987 roku powstały 104 odcinki serialu, co pozwoliło bajce zająć drugie miejsce w rankingu produkcji ówczesnych filmów animowanych (pierwsze miejsce należało do "Bolka i Lolka", którzy byli bohaterami 150 odcinków i dwóch filmów pełnometrażowych pod tym samym tytułem). 104 odcinki z Misiem Uszatkiem w roli głównej stanowiły materiał na pełne dwa lata cotygodniowej emisji dobranocek w TVP. Potem nadawany był także na innych stacjach, m.in. MiniMini+ i Kino Polska. +Telewizja Polska, finansująca serial zdecydowała o zakończeniu realizacji I części serialu w 1979 r. W tym czasie w studio przygotowano produkcję czterech kolejnych odcinków. Zostały one ukończone w 1980 roku pod ogólnym tytułem "Nowe przygody Misia Uszatka" z przeznaczeniem do kin na seanse "porankowe" dla dzieci. W filmach tych Miś nie żegnał dzieci w piżamce i nie było końcowej, dobranockowej piosenki. Produkcja została sfinansowana z pieniędzy otrzymanych przez Studio z Ministerstwa Kultury. Później kontynuowano produkcję serialu telewizyjnego do roku 1987. +Postacie z serialu. +Ponadto liczne postaci drugo- i trzecioplanowe: dwa Koguciki, Jeż, Wiewiórki, Wróble, Osiołek, Sarenka, Sójka, Mopsik, Strach na wróble, rodzina Kaczek, Jamnik, Baranki, Koziołek, rodzina Bobrów, Kot, Sowa, Myszy, Koza-woźna, Pies-hydraulik. +Piosenki Misia Uszatka. +Słowa do piosenek z czołówki i końcówki napisał Janusz Galewicz. Muzykę skomponował Piotr Hertel. Śpiewał Mieczysław Czechowicz. W czteroodcinkowej serii "Nowe przygody Misia Uszatka" każdy odcinek otwierany był inną niż w poprzedniej serii piosenką. +Lista odcinków. +Serial liczy 104 odcinki emitowane w TVP pod tytułem "Przygody Misia Uszatka" i 4 odcinki pod tytułem "Nowe przygody Misia Uszatka". +Nakręcono także serię 38 krótkich filmów z Misiem Uszatkiem zapowiadających programy dobranockowe w TV oraz dwa filmy indywidualne "Miś Uszatek" w 1962 roku (scenariusz Czesław Janczarski i Lucjan Dembiński) i "Zaproszenie" w 1968 roku (scenariusz Lucjan Dembiński i Leszek Nartowski)– oba w reżyserii Lucjana Dembińskiego. Muzykę do pierwszego napisał Jerzy Matuszkiewicz a do drugiego Janusz Sławiński. Projekty plastyczne postaci Zbigniewa Rychlickiego znacznie się różniły od późniejszych, serialowych. Między innymi Miś był szczuplejszy i miał klapnięte prawe uszko a nie lewe jak w dobranockach. +Charakter wychowawczo-dydaktyczny bajki. +Serial animowany opowiada o przygodach Misia Uszatka i jego przyjaciół, którym przytrafiają się różne często niespodziewane przygody. Każdy odcinek kończy się morałem skierowanym do dzieci, który jest podsumowaniem danej historii. +Uszatek za granicą. +Serial o Uszatku jest najlepiej sprzedającym się za granicą produktem Telewizji Polskiej. W dwóch krajach – Słowenii i Finlandii – licencje na emisję filmu odnawiane są co dwa lata, co oznacza, że serial jest nadawany bez przerwy od wielu lat. Co tydzień dzieci z tych krajów mogą obejrzeć jeden odcinek. W Finlandii Uszatek nazywa się "Nalle Luppakorva", w Słowenii "Medvedek Uhec", w Katalonii "L'osset Faluc", w Macedonii "Mečeto Uško", w Holandii "Teddy Hangoor", na Słowacji "Macko Uško", a na Węgrzech "Füles Mackó". Miś Uszatek zagościł także na ekranach japońskich jako "Oyasumi Kuma-chan" (おやすみクマちゃん). +Program emitowano także w języku białoruskim na antenie Biełsat TV, stacji telewizyjnej TVP skierowanej na rynek białoruski. +Se-ma-for planował nakręcić nowe odcinki o Misiu Uszatku oraz film pełnometrażowy, którego finansowaniem miałby zająć się japoński koncern EDEN Entertainment. +Pomnik i monety z Uszatkiem. +24 października 2009, w ramach projektu Łódź Bajkowa, przy ulicy Piotrkowskiej w Łodzi odsłonięto pomnik Misia Uszatka oraz wyemitowano dukata "Łódkę", którego głównym motywem graficznym jest Uszatek. +W czerwcu 2010 roku Mennica Polska na zlecenie wyspy Niue, terytorium stowarzyszonego z Nową Zelandią, wybiła 8000 sztuk monet jednodolarowych z wizerunkiem "Misia Uszatka" i jego przyjaciół. Moneta wchodzi w skład serii "Bohaterowie kreskówek" emitowanej na wyspie Niue wykonano ją ze stopu srebra. +Klasa zaprzyjaźniona + +Klasa zaprzyjaźniona - w języku programowania C++ inna klasa, która ma dostęp do prywatnych i chronionych składników danej klasy, a konkretniej: której funkcje składowe (metody) mają dostęp do prywatnych i chronionych składników danej klasy. Przyjaźń deklaruje zawsze klasa która chce by inna klasa miała dostęp do jej składników prywatnych - nigdy na odwrót. +Przykład w C++. + +Gnassingbé Eyadéma + +Gnassingbé Eyadéma (ur. 26 grudnia 1937 w Pya, zm. 5 lutego 2005 nad Tunezją) – wojskowy i polityk Togo, prezydent kraju w latach 1967-2005. +Zarys biografii. +Po urodzeniu otrzymał imię: „Étienne”. W młodości był oficerem francuskiej Legii Cudzoziemskiej. W 1963 obalił w zamachu stanu prezydenta Togo Sylvanusa Olympio. W latach 1963-1967 był szefem sztabu armii. W latach 1967-2005 sprawował funkcję prezydenta Togo. Był najdłużej pozostającym przy władzy politykiem afrykańskim. +24 stycznia 1974 jako jedyny przeżył katastrofę lotniczą samolotu Douglas C-47 Skytrain Sił Powietrznych Togo. Zginęło wówczas kilku wysokich rangą wojskowych. +Zmarł w 2005 wskutek zawału serca, doznanego w samolocie lecącym nad Tunezją. Po jego śmierci dowództwo sił zbrojnych ogłosiło, że następcą zmarłego będzie jeden z jego synów – Faure. +Jerzy Wojnar (ur. 1930) + +Jerzy Wojnar (ur. 7 października 1930 we Lwowie, zm. 2 lutego 2005 w Warszawie) – polski pilot szybowcowy i saneczkarz, z zawodu inżynier-ceramik. Pilot szybowcowy Aeroklubu Krakowskiego. Trzykrotny rekordzista świata w szybownictwie (1954-1955). +Od 1968 roku pracował jako pilot doświadczalny w PZL na Okęciu. +Sportowo saneczkarz Olszy Kraków i SNPTT Zakopane. Mistrz świata w saneczkarstwie w 1958 i 1961 oraz wicemistrz w 1962. Dwukrotny uczestnik igrzysk olimpijskich (w 1964 w Innsbrucku i w 1968 w Grenoble). +Został pochowany na cmentarzu przy ul. Wałbrzyskiej. +Uchwałą nr XIV/252/2011 z 14-04-2011 rondo u zbiegu ulic: Łopuszańskiej, Alei Krakowskiej i Hynka zostało nazwane jego imieniem. +Tenuta + +Tenuta – słowo pochodzenia włoskiego. Ma dwa znaczenia: "tenuta dzierżawna" - czynsz dzierżawczy (renta dzierżawna), którą dzierżawca przekazuje właścicielowi ziemi; w innym znaczeniu jest to dzierżawa dóbr królewskich lub książęcych. +Wysokość tenuty zależy od umowy. Typowym krajem, gdzie jest stosowana szeroko renta pieniężna jest Wielka Brytania, na drugim miejscu jest Francja, a dalej Belgia, Holandia. Poza Europą – stosowana jest głównie na obszarach kolonizowanych przez Brytyjczyków (wyspy Morza Karaibskiego, Australia, Nowa Zelandia, niektóre kraje afrykańskie). Wadą tej formy dzierżawy jest niepewność dzierżawcy, czy poniesione nakłady zwrócą się, zanim termin umowy wygaśnie. +Termin stosowany jest w odniesieniu do czynszu z terenów leśnych (obwodów łowieckich) lub z tytułu dzierżawy statków. +Z drugiego znaczenia wywodzi się nazwa "tenutariusz" śred. łac. – dzierżawca, zwłaszcza dzierżawca królewszczyzny czyli starosta niegrodowy. +Transformator wysokiego napięcia + +Transformator wysokiego napięcia – typ transformatora, służący do podwyższania napięcia do kilku a nawet kilkudziesięciu kV. Najczęściej tego typu elementy można spotkać w telewizorach i monitorach CRT. Transformatory wysokiego napięcia są wyposażone w specjalną cewkę WN charakteryzującą się dużą odpornością na przebicia wewnętrzne. +Anwil Włocławek + +Włocławskie Towarzystwo Koszykówki Anwil Włocławek – polski klub koszykarski, grający w Polskiej Lidze Koszykówki nieprzerwanie od 1992. +Historia. +W 1990 grupa sponsorów postanowiła przejąć opiekę nad III-ligową drużyną Włocławii. Utworzono również kierownictwo sekcji w składzie: Andrzej Dulniak, Artur Radke i Zbigniew Polatowski. Pierwszymi zagranicznymi wzmocnieniami w historii byli: Jewgienij Pustogwar oraz Siergiej Staniewski. Drużyna wygrywając rywalizację na szczeblu regionu oraz nie ponosząc żadnej porażki w półfinałach i finałach, wywalczyła awans do II ligi. +Sezon 1991/1992. +Skład: Roman Bruździński, Andrzej Czerwiński, Arkadiusz Czyżnielewski, Jarosław Dubicki, Igor Griszczuk, Adam Kadej, Wojciech Kobielski, Andrzej Korejwo, Wawrzyniec Królikowski, Maciej Marciniak, Jewgienij Pustogwar, Ireneusz Szumiński, Mirosław Wiśniewski. +Trenerzy: Mirosław Noculak (II liga) i Szczepan Waczyński (baraże) +Byli czołową drużyna II ligi. O sile Provide-Włocławii stanowili tacy gracze jak: Igor Griszczuk, Jewgienij Pustogwar, czy Jarosław Dubicki. Zespół z Kujaw uplasował się na drugim miejscu w tabeli, przegrywając z Pogonią Szczecin jedynie różnicą koszy i o awans do ekstraklasy musieli walczyć w barażach z Górnikiem Wałbrzych. Pojedynki obydwóch drużyn były niesamowicie ciekawe. Jednak lepsi okazali się zawodnicy z Kujaw, wygrywając rywalizację 3:1 (107:106, 85:94, 100:95, 104:91) i tym samym osiągając awans do ekstraklasy koszykarzy. +Miejsce po sezonie: awans do ekstraklasy! +Miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 2 (19/3) +Sezon 1992/1993. +Skład: Roman Bruździnski, Andrzej Czerwiński, Igor Griszczuk, Wojciech Kobielski, Andrzej Korejwo, Wawrzyniec Królikowski, Maciej Marciniak, Roman Olszewski, Jewgienij Pustogwar, Wojciech Puścion, Grzegorz Skiba, Mirosław Wiśniewski. +Trenerzy: Szczepan Waczyński i Maciej Mackiewicz (asystent) +W pierwszym sezonie w I lidze doszło do zmiany strategicznego sponsora drużyny. Ze względu na fakt, iż spółka Provide wycofała się ze sponsorowania – klub pod swą opiekę wzięła Kujawska Fabryka Farb i Lakierów "Nobiles". Lepszej inauguracji rozgrywek ekstraklasy nie można było sobie wymarzyć. Nobiles wygrał we Włocławku z Zastalem Zielona Góra 100:94. Na początku celem było pewne miejsce w I lidze, jednak z każdym zwycięstwem coraz częściej myślano o pierwszej ósemce najlepszych drużyn. Zespół z Kujaw zaskoczył chyba wszystkich. W sezonie zasadniczym wygrali z takimi drużynami jak: Śląsk Wrocław, czy Lech Poznań. Nobiles awansował do play-off z siódmej pozycji, gdzie spotkał się w pierwszej rundzie ze Stalą Bobrek Bytom. Początek rywalizacji nie był udany, Nobiles przegrał dwa pierwsze spotkania (84:88, 80:93). Jednak nie poddali się i walczyli do końca. W efekcie zwyciężyli w trzech kolejnych meczach (109:91, 69:68, 90:83), co dało awans do półfinału. Tam los ich zetknął z ASPRO Wrocław – jednym z czołowych kandydatów do medalu. Zespół z Kujaw pokonał również i tę przeszkodę, wygrywając w stosunku 3-2 (103:115, 94:86, 95:92, 56:72, 72:69) i dotarł do finału rozgrywek o mistrzostwo Polski. W finale czekał już inny zespół z Wrocławia – PCS Śląsk. Mistrzowie Polski okazali się zbyt wymagającym rywalem dla beniaminka z Włocławka, Nobiles przegrał ze Śląskiem 0-3 (73:121, 84:92, 65:101). Królem strzelców sezonu został Igor Griszczuk (1044 pkt.), trzecie miejsce zajął Roman Olszewski (1027 pkt.). Oprócz srebrnych medali zespół wywalczył także prawo reprezentowania polskiej koszykówki w rozgrywkach o Puchar Europy. +Miejsce po sezonie:2 Miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans):7 (12/10, 19/13) +Sezon 1993/1994. +Skład: Jerzy Bińkowski, Roman Bruździński, Andrzej Czerwiński, Igor Griszczuk, Mirosław Kabała, Andrzej Korejwo, Wawrzyniec Królikowski, Roman Olszewski, Wojciech Pietrzak, Tomasz Protasiuk, Wojciech Puścion, Grzegorz Skiba, Aleksiej Ugriumow. +Trenerzy: Szczepan Waczyński (mecze 1-5), Wojciech Krajewski (mecze 6-42), Maciej Mackiewicz (asystent) +Po udanym poprzednim sezonie nikt już nie lekceważył drużyny z Włocławka. Nobiles przez cały sezon zasadniczy grał bardzo dobrze, co pozwoliło zająć im drugie miejsce przed fazą play-off. Najlepsi w Polsce szybko przebrnęli przez ćwierćfinał, wygrywając z Aspro Brzeg Dolny trzy mecze z rzędu – 102:88, 105:98, 116:67. Także walka w półfinale z Lechem Batimex Poznań nie sprawiła większych problemów (wyniki spotkań – 119:108, 109:87, 97:90). Natomiast w finale Nobiles spotkał się po raz drugi z wrocławskim klubem, przegrywając 1:3 (83:74, 79:87, 80:81, 73:81). +Miejsce po sezonie: 2 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 2 (15/7, 20/12) +Sezon 1994/1995. +Skład: Krzysztof Blachowski, Daniel Bógdał, Roman Bruździński, Andrzej Czerwiński, Przemysław Klimczak, Wojciech Pietrzak, Marcin Smoliński, Paweł Urbański, Siergiej Żełudok, Grzegorz Skiba, Roman Olszewski, Mirosław Kabała, Tomasz Jankowski, Igor Griszczuk, Henryk Wardach. +Trenerzy: Wojciech Krajewski i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) +W tym sezonie najlepszy polski klub koszykarski po raz pierwszy mieli zaprezentować się w europejskich pucharach. Jednak na początku Nobiles musiał przebrnąć przez rundę wstępną. Tam wygrał z takimi rywalami jak: Tapiolan Honka Espoo (Finlandia), Žalgiris Kowno (Litwa), AD Ovarese Ovar (Portugalia) i awansował do rozgrywek grupowych. Nobiles zajął czwarte miejsce w grupie i nie awansował dalej. Jednak punkty zdobyte przez WTK dały Polsce 15. miejsce w rankingu Federacji Narodowych w Europie. Natomiast w lidze nie było najgorzej. Klub z Włocławka zajął trzecie miejsce po sezonie zasadniczym i już w ćwierćfinale pokonał mistrza Polski – Śląsk Wrocław 3:0 (86:77, 88:72, 86:76). Przygoda w fazie play-off skończyła się na półfinale. Włocławianie przegrali po zaciętych meczach z Mazowszanką Pruszków 3:2 (69:82, 83:90 ,90:78, 68:67, 60:76). Mecz o trzecie miejsce to potyczka ze Śnieżką Aspro Świebodzice. WTK zdobyło trzecie miejsce, wygrywając gładko 3:0 (101:82, 98:76, 85:78). Za rok 1994 Włocławskie Towarzystwo Koszykówki Nobiles zostało odznaczone dyplomem "fair play" Polskiego Komitetu Olimpijskiego za szczególne zasługi w promowaniu wartości "fair play" w środowisku kibiców. +Miejsce po sezonie: 3 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 3 (18/4) +Sezon 1995/1996. +Skład: Mirosław Kabała, Tomasz Jankowski, Igor Griszczuk, Ikie Corbin, Andrzej Wierzgacz, Roman Olszewski, Jarosław Krysiewicz, Wojciech Pietrzak, Tomasz Protasiuk, Paweł Urbański, Sebastian Młyńczyk, Przemysław Klimczak, Marek Jankowski, Daniel Bógdał. +Trenerzy: Wojciech Krajewski i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) +Pierwszym Amerykaninem klubu z Włocławka okazał się Ike Corbin. Celem zespołu na ten sezon była znów walka o mistrzostwo. Przez sezon zasadniczy włocławianie szli jak burza. WTK przystąpiło do fazy play-off z pierwszego miejsca. Jednak w pierwszej rundzie WTK zmierzyło się z toruńska Elaną i wygrało dopiero po pięciu spotkaniach. W półfinale Nobiles uległ Śląskowi 1:3 i pozostała walka o brązowy medal. Niestety i tam Nobiles przegrał. Tym razem pogromcą ekipy z Włocławka okazała się Polonia Przemyśl. W tym samym sezonie włocławianie ponownie okazali się jedynym polskim klubem liczącym się na arenie europejskiej. W swych występach w Pucharze Europy awansowali do fazy rozgrywek grupowych, gdzie mieli okazję zmierzyć się m.in. z PAOK Saloniki, Dynamo Moskwa, Olimpią Smelt Lublana. Nie wypadli w tej konfrontacji okazale – zajęli przedostatnie miejsce w grupie, doznając m.in. dwóch druzgocących porażek z PAOK Saloniki: 66:109 (35:49) i 57:112 (30:58). Po sezonie 95/96 nastąpiła zmiana trenera. Wojciecha Krajewskiego zastąpił Jacek Gembal. Jednak i on nie zagrzał długo miejsce na ławce zespołu z Włocławka. Do końca tego sezonu jako pierwszy trener pracował Wojciech Kobielski. +Miejsce po sezonie: 4 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 1 (16/6) +Sezon 1996/1997. +Skład: Charles Claxton, Mariusz Sobacki, Igor Griszczuk, Tomasz Jankowski, Wojciech Pietrzak, Robert Kościuk, Henryk Wardach, Ryan Jamison, Andrzej Wierzgacz, Andrzej Czerwiński, Jarosław Dubicki, Daniel Stec, Tomasz Andrzejewski, Marcin Kuczkowski, Roman Bruździński. +Trenerzy: Jacek Gembal (mecze 1-6) i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) oraz Wojciech Kobielski (mecze 7-39) i Marian Woźniak (asystent) +Ten sezon zapowiadał się jeszcze gorzej niż ubiegły. Po przeciętnych występach w rundzie zasadniczej włocławianie szybko polegli w ćwierćfinale z Komfortem/Forbo Stargard Szczeciński 73:77, 70:87, 70:76. Za to musieli jednak zapłacić kary finansowe, jakie nałożył na nich zarząd klubu w związku z kompromitującą postawą w całym sezonie. Szansą na uratowanie twarzy miało być zdobycie po raz trzeci z rzędu Pucharu Polski – nie doszło jednak i do tego po porażce z Polonią Przemyśl 113:114 (102:102, 54:56). Natomiast w europejskich rywalizacjach Nobiles/Azoty radził sobie bardzo dobrze. Z trzeciego miejsca w grupie A awansował do 1/16 Pucharu Europy, gdzie przegrali dwumecz z FC Porto. +Miejsce po sezonie: 5 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 5 (16/10, 22/14) +Sezon 1997/1998. +Skład: Igor Griszczuk, Roman Prawica, David Van Dyke, Mariusz Sobacki, Keith Williams, Tomasz Andrzejewski, Wojciech Błoński, Roman Bruździński, Andrzej Czerwiński, Dominik Frontczak, Marcin Kuczkowski, Wojciech Pietrzak, Norbert Stańko, Sladjan Stojković, Henryk Wardach, Andrzej Wierzgacz, Robert Witka, Frazier Johnson, Jerrel Horne. +Trenerzy: Rajko Toroman (mecze 1-12) i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent); Wojciech Kobielski (mecze 13-14); Eugeniusz Kijewski (mecze 15-51) i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) +Cały sezon natomiast upłynął pod znakiem poszukiwań ratunku dla dramatycznej sytuacji, w jakiej znalazła się włocławska koszykówka. W ten sposób funkcję I trenera objął szkoleniowiec reprezentacji Polski – Eugeniusz Kijewski. Do Włocławka ściągnięto amerykańską, nieco przykurzoną, gwiazdę polskich parkietów – Keitha Williamsa. Perłą jednakowoż okazał się sprowadzony do Polski w połowie sezonu amerykański środkowy David van Dyke. Nobiles/Azoty musiał wziąć udział w barażach i walczyć z PKK Wartą Szczecin o wejście do fazy play-off. W efekcie dostał się do pierwszej ósemki, jednak już w ćwierćfinale poległ z bardzo silną ekipą Ericssona Bobrów Bytom. Włocławianie skończyli sezon na 7 siódmym miejscu. +Miejsce po sezonie: 7 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 7 (22/20) +Sezon 1998/1999. +Skład: Alan Gregov, Dariusz Kondraciuk, Igor Griszczuk, Vlatko Ilić, Bartłomiej Tomaszewski, Tomasz Jankowski, Arkadiusz Makowski, David Van Dyke, Roman Prawica, Tomasz Andrzejewski, Hubert Radke, Robert Witka, Marcin Cieślak, Maciej Schwarz. +Trenerzy: Eugeniusz Kijewski i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) +Celem było powrócenie do czołówki. Na początku wszystko się udawało. Włocławianie szli jak burza. Na start w play-offach wygrali z ekipą z Torunia 3:1. Walka o brąz dla koszykarzy Ericcsona Bobrów Bytom, którzy przegrali z zespołem z Włocławka 3:0. W finale czekał już Zepter Śląsk Wrocław. Siedem meczów stojących na najwyższym poziomie i... wygrana Śląska. Po raz kolejny zespół z Włocławka musiał zadowolić się srebrnym medalem. Jednak nikt z kibiców Nobilesu nie pamiętał o stracie Gregova, która zadecydowała o zwycięstwie Wrocławian. Gdy o 3 nad ranem, autokar z drużyną podjechał pod halę OSiR-u szału radości nie było końca. Jak się okazało to była największa szansa Igora Griszczuka, aby pokonać Śląsk w finale. Jednak to nie załamało włocławian. Byli jeszcze bardziej żądni rewanżu. Do Włocławka przyszedł Raimonds Miglinieks. Ten sam, który w ubiegłym sezonie karcił Nobiles celnymi trójkami z 8 metrów. +Miejsce po sezonie: 2 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 2 (24/6) +Sezon 1999/2000. +Skład: Raimonds Miglinieks, Tomasz Jankowski, Edgars Šneps, Roman Prawica, Dariusz Kondraciuk, Igor Griszczuk, Arkadiusz Makowski, Bartłomiej Tomaszewski, Dainius Adomaitis, Ivan Grgat, Theodore Jeffries, Marcus Timmons, Marcin Cieślak, Robert Witka, Tomasz Andrzejewski +Trenerzy: Eugeniusz Kijewski (mecze 1-16) i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) oraz Daniel Jusup (mecze 17-42) i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) +Sezon zasadniczy był udany. Jednak po porażce z zespołem ze Szczecina z posadą trenera pożegnał się Eugeniusz Kijewski. Na jego miejsce przyszedł Daniel Jusup, który od razu wziął sprawy w swoje ręce. Najpierw ze składem pożegnał się Timmons, a parę tygodni później Jeffries. W ich miejsce Jusup ściągnął Litwina – Dainusa Adomaitisa, specjalistę od zadań obronnych i swojego krajana – Chorwata Ivana Grgata. Po raz kolejny mimo wielu konfliktów Anwil awansował do finału. Włocławianie o mistrzostwo Polski zmierzyli się... z Zepterem Śląskiem Wrocław. Po dwóch zwycięstwach we Wrocławiu 78:64 i 62:48 wrocławianie przyjechali do Włocławka, by tu najpierw minimalnie ulec 57:59 w meczu pierwszym, lecz już w kolejnym po dogrywce pokonać Anwil 71:70. W Hali Ludowej Śląsk postawił już kropkę nad i, wysoko zwyciężając 84:71. +Miejsce po sezonie: 2 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 3 (22/8) +Sezon 2000/2001. +Skład: Davor Marcelić, Roman Prawica, Vladimir Krstić, Igor Griszczuk, Bartłomiej Tomaszewski, Tomasz Jankowski, Paweł Szcześniak, Miladin Mutavidzić, Edgars Šneps, Jewgienij Kisurin, Tomasz Andrzejewski, Marcin Cieślak, Marcin Twierdziński. +Trenerzy: Daniel Jusup (mecze 1-23) i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent); Wojciech Kobielski (mecze 24-33) i Marian Woźniak (asystent); Stevan Tot (mecze 34-43) i Wojciech Kobielski (asystent) +Kolejny sezon z tym samym celem – zdobycia mistrzostwa Polski. Pomóc to osiągnąć mieli tacy gracze jak Vladimir Krstić, czy Davor Marcielić. Anwil znów awansował do finału. Znów była szansa na mistrzostwo. Znów zespół nie wykorzystał jej. Pogromcą okazał się znowu Śląsk Wrocław. Podopieczni Muliego Katzurina wygrali tę potyczkę 4:1. +Miejsce po sezonie: 2 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 2 (23/5) +Sezon 2001/2002. +Skład: Jeff Nordgaard, Ed O'Bannon, Mladen Silobad , Igor Griszczuk, Roman Prawica, Mattew Santangelo, Aleksander Koul, Marek Andruška, Goran Savanović, Armands Šķēle, Vladimir Anzulović, Hrvoje Henjak, Luka Pavićević, Marcin Cieślak, Robert Witka +Trenerzy: Stevan Tot (mecze 1-15) i Djuro Cusić (asystent) oraz Aleksandar Petrović (mecze 16-46) i Djuro Cusić (asystent) +Trener Stevan Tot, mając do dyspozycji bardzo duży budżet, ściągnął do Włocławka takie gwiazdy, jak Aleksander Koul czy Ed O'Bannon. Wspierać ich mieli Goran Savanović i Jeff Nordgaard. 6-letni kontrakt podpisał również Armands Šķēle, który w oczach wielu kibiców miał być drugim Igorem Griszczukiem. Dużo się mówiło, że to jest sezon Anwilu Włocławek. W tym roku również została zbudowana nowa hala, w której rozgrywają do dziś mecze koszykarze z Włocławka – Hala Mistrzów. Anwil przeszedł jak burza sezon zasadniczy i dopiero w półfinale napotkali silnego przeciwnika – Prokom Trefl Sopot. Po zaciętych spotkaniach podopieczni Aleksandra Petrovicia polegli w stosunku 3:2 i została walka o brązowy medal. Jednak i w "małym finale" włocławianie przegrali ze Stalą Ostrów Wlkp. W lidze Anwil nie zachwycił, jednak to co zrobił w Pucharze Saporty zasługuje na pochwałę. Zespół z Włocławka dotarł aż do półfinału, ulegając dopiero Pamesie Walencje w dwóch spotkaniach. Ten sezon jest również ostatnim sezonem Igora Griszczuka jako zawodnika. Griszczuk został drugim trenerem. +Miejsce po sezonie: 4 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 4 (14/8) +Sezon 2002/2003. +Skład: Marek Andruśka, Tomasz Andrzejewski, Živko Badžim, Dušan Bocevski, Valdas Dabkus, Damir Krupalija, Kris Lang, Igor Milicić, Jeff Nordgaard, Tomas Pačėsas, Andrzej Pluta, Maciej Raczyński, Armands Šķēle, Milan Soukup, Piotr Szczotka, Robert Witka. +Trenerzy: Andriej Urlep, Igor Griszczuk (asystent) i David Dedek (asystent) +Nikt się nie spodziewał, że do Włocławka przyjdzie Andriej Urlep. Słoweniec miał na koncie 4 mistrzostwa Polski w 4 sezonach spędzonych w naszym kraju. Kibice z Włocławka liczyli, że i w tym sezonie "magia Urlepa" zadziała i Anwil zdobędzie pierwsze mistrzostwo w historii klubu. Sezon zasadniczy włocławianie zakończyli na drugim miejscu. W ćwierćfinale i półfinale zawodnicy Urlepa nie przegrali ani jednego meczu. Jednak w finale nie było tak łatwo. Naszpikowany gwiazdami zespół Prokomu Trefla Sopot chciał również zdobyć złoto. Pierwszy mecz wygrywali włocławianie, którzy dzięki "złotemu" rzutowi Jeffa Nordgaarda zapewnili sobie zwycięstwo w ostatnich sekundach. Po meczach we Włocławku był remis – 2:2. Teraz czekał Anwil mecz w Sopocie. Jak się później okazało – wygrany mecz. Teraz przed drużyną z Włocławka była wielka szansa na zdobycie upragnionego złota. Prowadzili 3:2 i czekał ich mecz przed własną publicznością. Po dramatycznym i emocjonującym do ostatniej sekundy meczu Anwil Włocławek zdobył pierwsze mistrzostwo Polski. +Miejsce po sezonie: 1 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 2 (19/3) +Sezon 2003/2004. +Skład: Jānis Blūms, Dušan Bocevski, Vladimir Krstić, Sharone Wright, Robert Witka, Gatis Jahovičs, Donatas Zavackas, Tomas Nagys, Piotr Szczotka, Gintaras Kadžiulis, Armands Šķēle, Marek Miszczuk. +Trenerzy: Andrej Urlep, Igor Griszczuk (asystent) i David Dedek (asystent) +Tym razem do Włocławka przyjechali młodzi, perspektywiczni gracze, którzy wciąż się jeszcze uczyli prawdziwej koszykówki. Jednak Andrej Urlep chciał powtórzyć sukces z poprzedniego sezonu. Liderami zespołu byli: Armands Šķēle i Dušan Bocevski. Włocławianie po sezonie zasadniczym zajęli trzecie miejsce. W ćwierćfinale napotkali Unię/Wisłę Kraków. Szybko jednak rozprawili się z tym zespołem i w półfinale zmierzyli się z jednym z kandydatów do zdobycia tytułu mistrzowskiego – Prokomem Treflem. W rywalizacji do 3 zwycięstw był remis po 2. Włocławianie w ostatnim meczu stracili 3 graczy, którzy przez kontuzje nie byli zdolni do gry. Po dość wyrównanym widowisku przegrali mecz o wejście do finału i musieli zadowolić się walką o brąz. Po pojedynkach we Włocławku i w Warszawie było 1:1 i decydował mecz w Hali Mistrzów. Tam po rewelacyjnej pierwszej kwarcie to Polonia okazała się lepsza i zdobyła trzecie miejsce. Anwil znów był poza podium. +Miejsce po sezonie: 4 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 3 (17/5) +Sezon 2004/2005. +Skład: Kęstutis Marčiulionis, Wacław Piński, Hubert Radke, Ed Scott, Robert Witka, Gatis Jahovičs, Joe Crispin, Tomas Nagys, Dušan Jelić, Gintaras Kadžiulis, Rinalds Sirsniņš, Dušan Vukčević, Seid Hajrić, Michał Gabiński +Trenerzy: Andrej Urlep, Igor Griszczuk (asystent) i David Dedek (asystent) +Sezon zapowiadał się bardzo ciekawie. W sezonie zasadniczym Anwil zanotował 8 zwycięstw z rzędu na początku rozgrywek. Jednak później coś się zacięło. Włocławianie nie byli już sobą i przegrywali coraz więcej meczów. W lutym doszło do Anwil trzech nowych zawodników i nie trzeba ukrywać, że bardzo zmienili oblicze zespołu. Bardzo duża zasługa jest po ich stronie, że zespół Andreja Urlepa dobrze sobie radził. Zajął drugie miejsce po sezonie zasadniczym i szybko rozprawił się w ćwierćfinale ze Śląskiem Wrocław, a w półfinale z warszawską Polonią. O złoty medal Anwilowi przyszło walczyć z Prokomem Treflem. Mecze były bardzo zacięte. Gracze z Włocławka bardzo dobrze sobie radzili, jednak to nie wystarczyło, by odnieść sukces. Podopieczni Andreja Urlepa przegrali tę rywalizację 4:2 i zdobyli srebrny medal mistrzostw Polski. +Źródło: http://www.anwil.e-basket.pl oraz Artur Gąsiorowski ""10 lat w elicie"", Wydawnictwo ART-TOM, Włocławek 2003. +Miejsce po sezonie: 2 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 2 (17/5) +Sezon 2005/2006. +Skład: Robert Witka, Pete Lisicky, Brent Scott, Seid Hajrić, Michał Ignerski, Dante Swanson, Gatis Jahovičs, Ed Scott, Marcin Sroka, Wiktor Grudziński, Marius Prekevičius +Trenerzy: Andrej Urlep i David Dedek (asystent) +Miejsce po sezonie: 4 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 4 (17/9) +Sezon 2006/2007. +Skład: Andrzej Pluta, Otis Hill, Chris Thomas, Dušan Bocevski, Nikola Otašević, Goran Jagodnik, Zbigniew Białek, Wiktor Grudziński, Gatis Jahovičs, Bartłomiej Wołoszyn, Seid Hajrić, Kamil Michalski +Trenerzy: David Dedek (do stycznia 2007) oraz Aleš Pipan (od stycznia 2007) +Miejsce po sezonie: 4 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 4 (17/9) +Sezon 2007/2008. +Skład: Andrzej Pluta, Łukasz Koszarek, Patrick Okafor, Zbigniew Białek, Gatis Jahovičs, Bartłomiej Wołoszyn, Tomas Gaidamavičius, Alex Dunn, Wiktor Grudziński, Alan Daniels, Željko Zagorac, Vladimir Petrović, Grzegorz Sołtysiak, Vladas Vasylius, Marek Piechowicz. +Trenerzy: Aleš Pipan +Miejsce po sezonie: 5 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 3 (14/10) +Sezon 2008/2009. +Skład: Andrzej Pluta, Kamil Michalski, Dawid Adamczewski, Ian Boylan, Wojciech Glabas, Omar Barlett, Gerrod Henderson, Bartłomiej Wołoszyn, Michał Gabiński, Łukasz Koszarek, Miloš Paravinja, Oliver Stević, Marko Brkić, Stipe Modrić, Brian Brown, Paul Miller, Tommy Adams. +Trenerzy: Igor Griszczuk, Zmago Sagadin – do października 2008, Krzysztof Szablowski +Miejsce po sezonie: 3 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 4 (17/9) +Sezon 2009/2010. +Skład: Andrzej Pluta, James Dru Joyce, Kamil Chanas, Mujo Tuljković, Krzysztof Szubarga, Nikola Jovanović, Dawid Adamczewski, Bartłomiej Wołoszyn, Alex Dunn, Rashard Sullivan, Wojciech Glabas, Brett Winkelman, Mike Trimboli, Wojciech Barycz, Kevyn Green. +Trenerzy: Igor Griszczuk, Krzysztof Szablowski +Miejsce po sezonie: 2 miejsce po rundzie zasadniczej (bilans): 2 (22/4) +Sezon 2010/2011. +Skład: Andrzej Pluta, Dardan Berisha, Eric Hicks, Seid Hajrić, Stipe Modrić, Nikola Jovanović, Robert Skibniewski, Bartłomiej Wołoszyn, Michał Pietrzak, Łukasz Majewski, Patryk Czerwiński, Bartosz Diduszko, Darryl James Thompson, Paul Miller. +Trenerzy: Igor Griszczuk/Emir Mutapčić, Krzysztof Szablowski +Sezon 2011/2012. +Skład: Łukasz Majewski, Dardan Berisha, Seid Hajrić, Lorinza Harrington, Krzysztof Szubarga, John Allen, Bartłomiej Wołoszyn, Kamil Maciejewski, Wojciech Glabas, Michał Sokołowski, Corsley Edwards, Nick Lewis, Lawrence Kinnard, Louis Hinnant, Marcin Nowakowski. +Trenerzy: Emir Mutapčić/Krzysztof Szablowski +Hala. +W latach 1991-2001 drużyna rozgrywała mecze w starej hali OSiR. Od 2001 mecze ligowe i pucharowe odbywają się w nowoczesnej Hali Mistrzów. +Państwo wyznaniowe + +Państwo wyznaniowe to takie, które zasady religii przekłada na struktury państwowe. Dochodzi wówczas do fuzji struktur państwa ze strukturami danego wyznania. +Pojęcie państwa wyznaniowego jest pojęciem potocznym. +O państwach wyznaniowych mówi się zwykle w kontekście krajów muzułmańskich bądź luterańskiej Skandynawii, gdzie istnieją Kościoły państwowe. W Szwecji każdy obywatel był automatycznie rejestrowany jako wyznawca religii państwowej w chwili urodzin, a potem ewentualnie mógł się jej wyrzec. +Elementy państwa wyznaniowego często występują w wielu spośród krajów, w których dominująca jest jedna religia. Jednak z braku zapisu konstytucyjnego nie są to państwa wyznaniowe de nomine, a jedynie de facto. Tak więc pojęcie państwa wyznaniowego jest subiektywne. +Podział. +a) system powiązania: +Wśród państw wyznaniowych wyróżnić możemy: +b) system rozdziału: nie istnieje jeden model tego systemu. Wiele czynników kształtuje państwo. +Pamięć stronicowa + +Pamięć stronicowa - to sposób podzielenia pamięci wirtualnej komputera na większe jednostki (strony pamięci) o rozmiarze od 4 kB do 32 kB. Dzięki takiemu rozwiązaniu zwiększa się efektywność menedżera pamięci systemu operacyjnego oraz możliwe jest przenoszenie nieużywanych danych z pamięci RAM na dysk twardy komputera (do pliku stronicowania lub partycji wymiany). Za możliwość stronnicowania jest odpowiedzialny menedżer pamięci komputera, znajdujący się w procesorze lub chipsecie płyty głównej. +4. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów + +4. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów za rok 2001, miała miejsce 9 marca 2002 roku na Zamku Królewskim w Warszawie. +Nominacje do nagród zostały ogłoszone dnia 5 lutego 2002 roku. O nominacje do nagród ubiegało się w tym roku 27 filmów. Nagrody tegorocznie zostały wręczone w szesnastu kategoriach. +Najwięcej nominacji – po 10 – otrzymały dwa filmy: "Cześć Tereska" w reżyserii Roberta Glińskiego oraz "Weiser" Wojciecha Marczewskiego. Sześć nominacji otrzymał film "Boże skrawki" w reżyserii Yurka Bogayewicza. Wyżej wymienione filmy wraz z "Angelusem" oraz "Requiem" zostały nominowane w kategorii najlepszy film. +W kategorii najlepsza drugoplanowa rola kobieca, dwie nominacje otrzymała piętnastoletnia wówczas Olga Frycz. Nominacje otrzymała za role w filmach "Weiser" oraz "Boże skrawki". +Najwięcej nagród, otrzymał film "Cześć Tereska" Roberta Glińskiego, który łącznie otrzymał pięć nagród, w tym za najlepszy film, najlepszą reżyserię, najlepszy scenariusz oraz najlepszą główną rolę męską Zbigniewa Zamachowskiego. Film otrzymał również przyznaną poraz pierwszy nagrodę publiczności. +Po trzy nagrody otrzymali twórcy filmów "Weiser" oraz "Quo vadis". Nagrodę za najlepszą główną rolę kobiecą otrzymała Kinga Preis, za rolę w filmie "Cisza". Nagrody drugoplanowe przyznano Stanisławie Celińskiej za rolę w "Pieniądze to nie wszystko" oraz Jerzemu Treli za występ w filmie "Quo vadis". +Nagrodę za najlepszą muzykę otrzymał pośmiertnie Grzegorz Ciechowski za skomponowanie muzyki do "Wiedźmina". Laureatem nagrody za osiągnięcia życia został Tadeusz Konwicki. +Laureaci i nominowani. +Najlepszy film. +Reżyser / Producenci / Koproducenci − "Film" +Sztuczne zbiorniki wodne na świecie + +Poniższa lista przedstawia ważniejsze sztuczne zbiorniki wodne na świecie, w podziale na kontynenty. +Planetarium + +Planetarium – obiekt lub urządzenie służące do odtwarzania wyglądu nieba w różnych szerokościach geograficznych oraz ruchów ciał niebieskich, a także zespół urządzeń i obiektów przeznaczonych do nauczania i popularyzacji astronomii. +Pierwotnie "planetarium" oznaczało aparaturę służącą do wyświetlania obrazu nocnego nieba na półkulistym ekranie. W nowoczesnym znaczeniu stosuje się słowo "planetarium" dla określenia obiektu, który jest wyposażony w salę i urządzenia do projekcji nieba oraz inne elementy pełniące różnorakie funkcje popularnonaukowe i edukacyjne, m.in. obserwatorium astronomiczne, bibliotekę, sale prelekcyjne i sale wystawowe. +Chociaż zasadniczo przez planetarium rozumiemy planetarium stałe (stacjonarne), to od kilkunastu lat na świecie coraz liczniej pojawiają się planetaria przenośne (mobilne), organizujące pokazy nieba w specjalnym rozkładanym namiocie, przyjmującym po nadmuchaniu kształt półsferycznej kopuły imitującej nieboskłon. Jakość tych pokazów zazwyczaj nie dorównuje jakości seansów prezentowanych w planetariach stacjonarnych, ale ich zaletą jest możliwość rozstawienia planetarium w typowej sali gimnastycznej w szkole - planetarium przyjeżdża do uczniów. Również w Polsce są osoby prowadzące taką działalność edukacyjną i popularyzatorską. +Planetaria stacjonarne w Polsce. +W 2011 r. istniało w Polsce 30 planetariów, z tego 20 to planetaria stacjonarne, zaś 10 - przenośne. Spośród planetariów stacjonarnych 19 było czynnych i aktywnych (nieczynne jest wojskowe planetarium w Komorowie). +Tuja (rzeka) + +Tuja (także "Tuga") – rzeka na Żuławach Wiślanych, prawy dopływ Szkarpawy. Źródła rzeki znajdują sie w okolicach Cypla Mątowskiego. +Do lat siedemdziesiątych XX wieku była rzeką żeglowną, czego świadectwem są most zwodzony w Nowym Dworze Gdańskim i pozostałości nabrzeża przy spichlerzu w tym mieście. Obecnie rzeka o słabym nurcie i zarastającym korycie, dostępna tylko dla niewielkich jednostek sportowych. +Długość rzeki wynosi 49,2 km, a powierzchnia dorzecza obejmuje obszar 267,6 km². +Górny bieg rzeki do miejscowości Nowy Dwór Gdański nosi nazwę "Święta". +Burza magnetyczna + +Burza magnetyczna – nagłe i intensywne zmiany pola magnetycznego Ziemi (magnetosfery). Zaburzenia te powodowane przez koronalne wyrzuty masy ze Słońca, powstające w czasie trwania rozbłysków (burz słonecznych), wywołują gwałtowne zmiany parametrów fizycznych wiatru słonecznego. Te z obłoków cząstek naładowanych, które przemieszczają sie w kierunku Ziemi, docierają tam przeważnie po 20-70 godzinach i natrafiają na ziemską magnetosferę. Powodują także istotne zmiany w jonosferze w czasie burzy magnetycznej, która może trwać około dwóch dni. Rozróżnia się początkową fazę dodatnią i następującą potem bardziej długotrwałą ujemną. +Największe odnotowane burze. +Między 28 sierpnia a 2 września 1859 obserwowano na Słońcu liczne plamy, zaś 1 września - rozbłysk, który potem, jako pierwszą taką obserwację, opisano w czasopiśmie naukowym. Olbrzymi koronalny wyrzut masy (CME) skierowany w stronę Ziemi dotarł wtedy do naszej planety po zaledwie 18 godzinach, podczas gdy zwykle pojawia się w tej okolicy po 3 lub 4 dniach. 1 i 2 września zarejestrowano burzę magnetyczną, w czasie której zmiana składowej poziomej pola magnetycznego sięgnęła chwilowo 1600 nT (pomiary w obserwatorium Colaba w pobliżu Bombaju w Indiach); taki sam wynik uzyskano też rok przed początkiem ostatniej wojny w jednym z obserwatoriów europejskich. +Zmiany pola magnetycznego w czasie tej burzy indukowały napięcie elektryczne w liniach telegraficznych w Ameryce i Europie. Spowodowały one m.in. zapalenie się nasączonego substancją chemiczną papieru w telegrafie. Natomiast zorze polarne, zwykle widywane tylko w pobliżu biegunów, obserwowano wtedy daleko na południu (Hawaje, Meksyk, Kuba, Włochy). +Wydarzenie to przeszło do historii jako burza magnetyczna roku 1859, zaś na podstawie badań zmian obfitości związków chemicznych w rdzeniach lodowych wydobywanych w obszarach polarnych wiadomo także, że takie burze mogły zdarzać się również wcześniej. +Po roku 1859 podobne lub nieco mniej intensywne zaburzenia magnetyzmu zarejestrowano w latach 1921 i 1960. Zakłóciły one m.in. odbiór transmisji i audycji radiowych na całym świecie. +13 marca 1989 burza magnetyczna spowodowała wyłączenie sieci energetycznej w Quebec w Kanadzie w efekcie kaskadowego zadziałania zabezpieczeń. Awaria ta przez 9 godzin uniemożlwiała korzystanie z energii elektrycznej 6 milionom mieszkańców regionu i miała poważne skutki ekonomiczne. Burzy tej towarzyszyły zorze widoczne daleko na południu, na przykład w Teksasie. Koronalny wyrzut masy, będący przyczyną tych zaburzeń, zarejestrowano 9 marca 1989 roku. +W sierpniu 1989 inna burza zakłóciła działanie komputerów, powodując wstrzymanie handlu na giełdzie w Toronto. +Potencjalne zagrożenie. +W raporcie National Research Council of the National Academies of Sciences (Amerykańska Akademia Nauk) naukowcy ostrzegają, iż podobna burza, jak ta z roku 1859, dzisiaj mogłaby spowodować globalną katastrofę. W marcu 1989 roku wytworzony w początkowej fazie burzy impuls w sieci energetycznej spowodował np. zniszczenie transformatora wysokiego napięcia i jak do tej pory było to jedno z dwóch takich zdarzeń. +Według analizy, która odbyła się w 2008 roku, nieco większa burza od tej z maja 1921 roku, zniszczyłaby w samych Stanach Zjednoczonych ok. 350 transformatorów i lokalnych stacji elektroenergetycznych, dostarczających energii dla 130 milionów osób, co jednak nie wydarzyło się w roku 1989. Zjawiska te miały podobne natężenie; porównaj dane współczesne z. +Sieci energetyczne w Europie są ze sobą mocno powiązane, a mimo to podobne awarie w tej części świata się nie zdarzają. Obawy przed przeciążeniem jakiegoś "oczka" sieci powodującego kolejne usterki są jednak wciąż duże. Koszty związane z brakiem reakcji operatorów systemu energetycznego mogłyby być ogromne, ponieważ jeden spalony transformator powoduje przerwę w funkcjonowaniu systemu, zaś czas produkcji nowego (na zamówienie) wynosi ok. 12 miesięcy. Pisanie w podobnym kontekście o burzy o tak dużym natężeniu, jak tej z 1859 roku, która mogłaby zniszczyć cały system energetyczny krajów uprzemysłowionych, jest kwestią kontrowersyjną, jakkolwiek funkcjonowanie systemu nie powinno być beztrosko pozostawiane działaniu promieni kosmicznych. +Obecnie istnieje globalny system wczesnego ostrzegania przed rozbłyskami słonecznymi (np. satelity SOHO, SDO, GOES). Przed skutkami tych emisji można sieci chronić głównie wyłączeniami oraz zmieniając napięcie przez podłączenie w miarę możliwości sfazowanej zawady w postaci kondensatora; . Z systemu korzystają np. amerykańskie badania geologiczne i energetyka. Zupełnie inną kwestią jest sprawność działania służb miejskich w czasie zaciemnień i możliwość korzystania z własnych źródeł energii (takie generatory są w każdym warszawskim wysokościowcu), jak również sprawność administracji w dużych osiedlach, w których budynki nie mają własnych mini-elektrowni. +Nowy Dwór + +43 miejscowości w Polsce: +oraz +Zobacz też: Nowy Dwór-Leśniczówka, Nowy Dwór Bratiański, Nowy Dwór Elbląski, Nowy Dwór Gdański, Nowy Dwór Królewski, Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki, Nowy Dwór Pelpliński, Nowy Dwór Prudnicki, Nowy Dwór Wejherowski, Nowy Dwór-Parcela, osiedle Nowy Dwór we Wrocławiu +Miłobrat + +Miłobrat – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Miło-" ("miły", "miłujący") i "-brat" ("brat", "członek wspólnoty rodowej", "człowiek bliski"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, który miłuje swoich bliskich". +Miłobrat imieniny obchodzi 18 października. +Kazufumi Miyazawa + +Urodził się w Kōfu, około 100 kilometrów na zachód od Tokio. Zadebiutował w 1989 jako wokalista grupy rockowej The Boom. +Bardzo dużą popularność zdobyła jego płyta "Shima-uta" ("Pieśń z wyspy") z 1993. Została sprzedana w liczbie ponad półtora miliona egzemplarzy. Tytułowa piosenka była wykonywana nie tylko w Japonii, ale także za granicą. Jej cover w wykonaniu gwiazdy argentyńskiego popu, Alfredo Casero, mimo iż śpiewany po japońsku, stał się oficjalnym przebojem kibiców drużyny argentyńskiej podczas piłkarskich Mistrzostw Świata w Korei i Japonii 2002. Miyazawa i Casero wykonywali wspólnie utwór przed wielką publicznością w Buenos Aires, Tokio i Okinawie. +W 1998 Miyazawa wydał dwie solowe płyty: "Sixteenth Moon" (London Recording, z Hugh Padghamem), a także "Afrosick" (Brasil Recording), z brazylijskimi muzykami nowej generacji. +Koncerty solowe (Miyazawa Sick Band) Miyazawa gra w innym składzie i z innymi muzykami, nie tylko zresztą japońskimi. W skład zespołu wchodzi także kubański wirtuoz trąbki Luis Valle i brazylijski perkusista Marcos Suzano. Zespół gra funk, rock, reggae, tworzy muzykę niezwykle oryginalną. +Swój trzeci album solowy zatytułowany po prostu "Miyazawa", zawierający duże inspiracje Okinawą, takie jak "Okinawa-ni furu yuki" ("Śnieg na Okinawie") czy "Chimuguri utasha", Miyazawa nagrywał w Brazylii, Tokio, Nowym Jorku i na Okinawie. +Jak dotąd, Miyazawa odwiedził Polskę dwa razy. 17 lipca 2003 odbył się koncert w Studiu Koncertowym Radiowej Trójki przy ul. Myśliwieckiej 3/5/7 w Warszawie. Koncert był retransmitowany w radiowej Trójce. Drugie spotkanie odbyło się podczas jego tournée po Europie w 2005. W Polsce odbyły się wówczas dwa koncerty – 4 lutego w Przemyślu i 6 lutego we Wrocławiu. Na konferencji prasowej zorganizowanej po koncercie w Przemyślu, artysta zapowiedział, że jeśli tylko go zaproszą, to przyjedzie znów do Polski na Dni Japońskie w Krasiczynie. +Miyazawa jest artystą o wielu talentach. Oprócz działalności muzycznej i aktorskiej, ceniony jest również za swą twórczość poetycką. Wydał dotąd dziesięć tomików poezji i esejów. Kilka razy w roku organizuje spotkania poetyckie. +Sonderkommando + +Sonderkommando (niem. "komando specjalne") - nazwa komanda złożonego najczęściej z więźniów pochodzenia żydowskiego zatrudnianego w obozach zagłady bezpośrednio przy mordowaniu więźniów lub też do zacierania śladów ludobójstwa. Czasem odnoszące się do innych komand zajmujących się pracą, której "" niemieccy narodowi socjaliści nie chcieli nazwać bezpośrednio. Najbardziej znanym jest Sonderkommando obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz-Birkenau. +Sonderkommando w Auschwitz. +Pierwsze komando specjalne w Auschwitz I (w Oświęcimiu) założone zostało w celu obsługi pierwszego krematorium (na terenie niemieckiego obozu Auschwitz I) i uczestniczyło w pierwszych próbach gazowania cyklonem B na polskich więźniach politycznych oraz radzieckich jeńcach wojennych w piwnicach jednego z bloku. Wraz z powstaniem obozu Auschwitz II Birkenau (w niedalekiej Brzezince) Sonderkommando zostało przeniesione na teren nowego obozu. Podczas pracy przy zagładzie było złożone prawie wyłącznie z Żydów. W pierwszym etapie więźniowie pracowali przy dwóch prowizorycznych komorach gazowych, założonych w dwóch domach chłopskich (tzw. Biały Domek i Czerwony Domek). Następnie w zbudowanych specjalnie i oddanych do użytku w marcu, kwietniu i czerwcu 1943 krematoriach nr II i III (zawierających pod ziemią część rozbieralną) oraz naziemnych krematoriach IV i V. Wszystkie te krematoria oprócz pieców posiadały swoje komory gazowe. +Sonderkommando dzieliło się na grupy wedle rodzajów pracy. Pierwsi pomagali ofiarom rozbierać się i zapraszali do komór gazowych, pod pretekstem kąpieli i dezynfekcji. Następnie zbierali pozostawione ubrania. Drudzy opróżniali komorę z ciał po przeprowadzonej przez SS akcji zagazowania. Przed wrzuceniem ciał do dołów paleniskowych bądź krematoriów, tzw. "dentyści" wyrywali ofiarom złote zęby i ściągali pozostałą biżuterię. Następni zajmowali się wrzucaniem ciał do dołów bądź - w drugiej fazie - układaniem ciał do wózków paleniskowych oraz kremowaniem ciał. Spośród wszystkich komand była to najcięższa psychicznie praca. Zdarzało się, że więźniowie widzieli śmierć najbliższych im osób. +Więźniowie pracujący w Sonderkommando byli trzymani z dala od reszty więźniów. Mogli zabierać dla swych potrzeb znalezione wśród ubrań ofiar jedzenie. W związku z tym byli dużo lepiej odżywieni od reszty więźniów. Mieszkali wpierw w odrębnych barakach, później na poddaszu krematoriów. Mieli własne łóżka i koce. Zdawali jednak sobie sprawę, że jako pierwsi świadkowie zagłady zostaną unicestwieni. +7 października 1944 roku nastąpił słynny "bunt Sonderkommando" w Krematorium IV. Był to ostatni z trzech wielkich buntów w dziejach hitlerowskich obozów (po buncie w Sobiborze i Treblince). Wzięło w nim udział prawie całe Sonderkommando (poza obsadą Krematorium III). Po zgromadzeniu przemyconych z obozu w Monowicach materiałów wybuchowych więźniowie częściowo zniszczyli krematorium nr IV i razem z więźniami osadzonymi w krematorium nr II podjęli próbę masowej ucieczki - zakończyła się ona niepowodzeniem. Większość z nich (451 osób) zginęła na miejscu. Straty były też po stronie załogi obozu. Buntem kierowali polscy Żydzi: Jankiel Handelsman, Josef Deresiński, Załmen Gradowski, Josef Darębus. Podjęte po buncie śledztwo ujawniło, że materiały wybuchowe dostarczyły cztery więźniarki, Żydówki – Roza Robota, Ala Gertner, Regina Safirsztain i Estera Wajcblum, pracujące przy demontażu starych samolotów. Zostały ujęte i publicznie powieszone w styczniu 1945 r., na 21 dni przed wyzwoleniem obozu. +Dzięki rozluźnieniu panującemu przy wyprowadzaniu więźniów Auschwitz-Birkenau przed nadejściem Armii Czerwonej, wielu z pozostałych przy życiu przedostało się do pozostałych części obozu, do innych więźniów, a dzięki wcześniejszemu lepszemu odżywieniu przeżyło marsz śmierci. +Po wojnie członkowie Sonderkommando byli pierwszymi świadkami na procesach przeciwko Niemckim zbrodniarzom wojennym. Przez dłuższy czas wielu z nich nie odważyło się opowiadać swych losów nawet najbliższej rodzinie, bywali napiętnowani jako uczestnicy mordów. +Komanda specjalne w innych obozach. +W innych obozach zagłady istniały również grupy więźniów wykonujących prace przy procesie eksterminacji, jednakże nazwa Sonderkommando funkcjonowała wyłącznie w Auschwitz-Birkenau. +W Treblince, Sobiborze oraz Bełżcu oficjalna nazwa ośrodków zagłady brzmiała "SS-Sonderkommando". +W okresie okupacji tworzono także doraźne "komanda specjalne", których zadaniem była praca przy zacieraniu zbrodni nazistowskich np. poprzez ekshumację i palenie zwłok pomordowanych. Po wykonaniu tych prac członkowie komand byli uśmiercani. +Red Bull + +Red Bull – bezalkoholowy napój pobudzający (kategoria tzw. "energy drinków"), produkowany przez wywodzącą się z Austrii firmę Red Bull GmbH (z miejscowości Fuschl am See niedaleko Salzburga). Obecnie firma sprzedaje 2 miliardy puszek napoju rocznie. +W skład napoju wchodzą m.in. tauryna, glukuronolakton, kofeina, witaminy grupy B oraz inozytol. Nie jest napojem izotonicznym. 100 ml napoju zawiera 32 mg kofeiny - ilość zbliżoną do zawartości w filiżance kawy. +Obecnie w sprzedaży jest: Red Bull Energy Drink oraz Red Bull Sugar Free (pozbawiony cukru). Napoje te sprzedawane są w puszkach oraz butelkach o pojemności 250 ml. W sprzedaży można spotkać również puszkę Red Bulla o pojemności 355 ml i 473 ml. +W sierpniu 2010 roku został wprowadzony na rynek Red Bull w butelce plastikowej o pojemności 330 ml. W większych placówkach handlowych w sprzedaży są również Red Bull'e w 4 Pack'ach (wyłącznie puszki 250 ml) +W styczniu 2010 r. wprowadzono na rynek Red Bull Energy Shot. Jego pojemność wynosi 60ml, a zawartość kofeiny to 133mg/100ml. Zawartość kofeiny wynosi 80mg – tyle co w 250 ml tradycyjnego Red Bulla (o zawartości 32 mg kofeiny na 100ml). +Firma sprzedała w 2007 roku w 143 krajach 3,5 mld puszek napoju. W 2008 roku wprowadziła do sprzedaży w siedmiu krajach napój o nazwie Red Bull Simply Cola, który ma być produkowany wyłącznie z naturalnych składników. +W 2012 r. Red Bull wypuścił na rynek m.in niemiecki, brytyjski czy austriacki limitowane serie napojów Red Bulla "Blue Edition" o nieokreślonym smaku, "Red Edition" o smaku żurawinowym oraz "Silver Edition" o smaku limonkowym. Ponadto w tych krajach także wprowadzono puszki klasycznego Red Bull'a o pojemności 473ml z serii "Champions Edition" z wizerunkami znanych sportowców sponsorowanych przez Red Bull'a jak np. Sebastian Vettel czy Mark Webber. +Historia. +Założyciel Red Bulla, Dietrich Mateschitz, po ukończeniu wyższej uczelni został przedstawicielem firmy "Blendax" (niemieckiego producenta pasty do zębów). Podczas podróży do Tajlandii kupił napój energetyczny o nazwie "Krating Daeng" ("Czerwony bizon"). Napój ten był produkowany od lat siedemdziesiątych przez firmę TC Pharmaceutical, która została założona w 1962 roku przez Chaleo Yoovidhya na licencji Blendexu. Mateschitz postanowił ściągnąć napój do Europy, jednak zmienił nazwę z "Czerwonego bizona" na "Czerwony byk" (byk to znak zodiaku Mateschitza). +W 1984 roku Dietrich Mateschitz założył wraz z Yoovidhya w Austrii firmę Red Bull GmbH. Obaj włożyli po 500 000 dolarów amerykańskich na rozruch firmy. 49% udziałów w firmie ma Dietrich Mateschitz, tyle samo ma Chaleo Yoovidhya, a 2% ma syn Chaleo Chalerm. Red Bull został wprowadzony do sprzedaży w Austrii w 1987 roku i miał skład zbliżony do "Krating Daeng". Wygląd puszki zaprojektował brytyjski grafik Tom Baum. +Badania, jakie zlecił Mateschitz przed wprowadzeniem na rynek, wykazały, że "Ten produkt to katastrofa, ludzie nie zaakceptują jego smaku, logo ani nazwy". Początkowo Red Bull nie został dobrze przyjęty, pojawiały się plotki na temat pochodzenia składników Red Bulla oraz protesty rodziców przeciwko temu napojowi. Jednak dzięki kampanii reklamowej, już w 1988 roku firma sprzedała ponad milion puszek napoju. +Red Bull pojawił się poza granicami Austrii w roku 1992 roku na Węgrzech i w Słowenii, w 1994 r. rozpoczęto sprzedaż w Niemczech, w roku 1995 w Polsce, a w roku 1997 w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Dziś Red Bull sprzedawany jest w ponad 150 krajach na całym świecie. +Red Bull był lub ciągle jest zabroniony w sprzedaży w Danii, Norwegii, Urugwaju oraz Islandii z powodu wysokiej zawartości tauryny i kofeiny. W krajach tych sprzedaż została ograniczona do aptek. Niektóre z tych krajów wycofały wspomniane zakazy +Szwedzka narodowa administracja żywności ostrzega, że nie powinno się mieszać tego napoju z alkoholem oraz pić go po ciężkim wysiłku fizycznym. +Firma weszła w konflikt z fundacją "Skrzydełko", która chciała zacząć sprzedawać własne produkty spożywcze oznaczane hasłem "Dodajmy Dzieciom Skrzydeł". Pomimo nagłośnienia konfliktu medialnie, żaden wniosek w tej sprawie nie wpłynął do sądu. +Sponsoring. +Firma Red Bull od początku swojej działalności sponsorowała sporty ekstremalne, organizowała także różnego rodzaju imprezy. Od roku 1995 zaangażowała się w Formułę 1, sponsorując stajnię Sauber. Gdy w 2004 r. Ford postanowił sprzedać zespół Jaguar Racing, kupcem okazał się Dietrich Mateschitz (właściciel Red Bulla). Stajnia Red Bull Racing zadebiutowała w sezonie 2005. W tym samym roku Red Bull kupił włoski zespół Minardi, którego nazwa została zmieniona na Scuderia Toro Rosso (wł. Stajnia Czerwonego Byka) . Zespół Red Bull Racing był wicemistrzem świata konstruktorów z sezonu 2009, a w sezonie 2010 zdobył mistrzostwo świata. Markę tego napoju reklamowała m.in. amerykańska piosenkarka pop-rockowa Kelly Clarkson. +Red Bull obecny jest także w skokach narciarskich. Kask z logo firmy w myśl sloganu: "Red Bull doda ci skrzydeł" noszą podopieczni austriackiego menadżera Ediego Federera: Thomas Morgenstern i Gregor Schlierenzauer. Podczas konkursów w Japonii w ramach LGP 2010 kask z Red Bullem nosił reprezentant Japonii - Daiki Ito. Wcześniej byli to Adam Małysz i Andreas Goldberger, jednakże zakończyli już oni swoje sportowe kariery. +Firma Red Bull wspiera również żużlowców Jarosława Hampela, Jasona Crumpa, Emila Sajfutdinowa i lodowego motocyklistę Franza Zorna +Red Bull sponsoruje także wiele zespołów rajdowych, startujących m.in. w Rajdzie Dakar: Volkswagen Motorsport czy Kamaz Master Team. +Red Bull sponsoruje też PŚ w narciarstwie alpejskim w Kitzbühel oraz wyścigi MotoGP na torach Laguna Seca oraz Indianapolis. +Kolejni zawodnicy sponsorowani przez Red Bulla to Szymon oraz Dawid Godziek. Są to zawodnicy dirt jumpingu rowerowego. +Powiat grodziski (województwo mazowieckie) + +Powiat grodziski – powiat w Polsce (województwo mazowieckie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Grodzisk Mazowiecki. +Jenna Jameson + +Jenna Jameson (właśc. Jennifer Marie Massoli, ur. 9 kwietnia 1974 w Las Vegas) – amerykańska aktorka pornograficzna. +Życiorys. +Pochodzi z Las Vegas w stanie Nevada. Córka policjanta; kiedy miała dwa lata jej matka zmarła na raka. Kiedy miała 16 lat zaczęła pracę striptizerki w lokalnych klubach korzystając z podrobionego dowodu tożsamości, podpisała w nich parę kontraktów i zaczęła pozować dla męskich magazynów. Wystąpiła w 143 produkcjach filmowych jako aktorka i w 4 jako reżyserka. +Pomagała w uruchomieniu Vivid Entertainment’s V2 Division, które osiągnęło dochody na poziomie 1,2 miliarda dolarów. Zarobiła 72 miliony dolarów na sprzedaży swojej spółki – Jenna Club. Aktualnie mieszka w Arizonie. +Obecność w mediach. +Pojawiła się na ponad 300 okładkach magazynów w tym Playboy, Cosmopolitan czy Glamour. Wystąpiła w reklamach Adidas, PETA, Zoo York i wielu innych. Występowała w filmach fabularnych, takich jak Zombie Strippers czy Części intymne. Prowadziła kilka programów w telewizji E!, zagościła w MTV za sprawą teledysku Eminema Without Me. Użyczyła głosu w kreskówce Głowa rodziny. Udzielała wywiadów dla stacji telewizyjnych NBC, CNBC, Fox News i CNN. W 2002 dubbingowała porno-gwiazdę znaną jako „Candy Suxxx” w popularnej grze wideo "". Brała udział w debacie w Oxfordzie nt. szkodliwości pornografii. Jej argumenty przekonały słuchaczy. Wygrała stosunkiem głosów 204 do 27. W 2006 roku w muzeum Madame Tussaud's w Las Vegas postawiono jej woskową figurę. Jest autorką wydanej w sierpniu 2004 autobiografii "How to Make Love Like a Porn Star: A Cautionary Tale", która przez 6 tygodni utrzymywała się na liście bestsellerów New York Times. W marcu 2009 ukazała się polska wersja tej książki – „Jak kochać się jak gwiazda porno. Opowieść ku przestrodze”. +Ekonomia nowodworska + +Ekonomia nowodworska królewszczyzna nadawana na Żuławach Wiślanych w dzierżawę przez króla polskiego w zamian za liczne pożyczki i inne przysługi. Początkowo była zastawem, później dzierżawą. +Historia. +Tocząca się wojna trzynastoletnia przyczyniła się do opróżnienia kasy królewskiej i w związku z tym wiele dóbr należących do króla polskiego była przedmiotem zastawu w zamian za liczne przysługi. Takimi dobrami były też liczne wsie na Żuławach Wiślanych. W 1457 r. król Kazimierz Jagiellończyk nadał w zastaw za pożyczone 700 dukatów, mieszczaninowi gdańskiemu, Rudolfowi Feldstedt, okręg szkarpawski. W 1472 w zamian za liczne dostawy sukna dla wojska jeszcze wieś Jeziernik. W 1510 r. król Zygmunt Stary w zamian za kolejną pożyczkę powiększa zastaw o wsie: Ostaszewo, Lubieszewo, Orłowo i Tuja. W 1515 r. król zatwierdza dożywotni charakter zastawu dla wsi Orłowo, Tuja i Lubieszewo i prawo do wykupu wsi Ostaszewo. Obszar ekonomii był w późniejszych latach staraniem kolejnych dzierżawców powiększany. Doszły do niej m.in.: okolice dzisiejszego Stawca, Żelichowo, Cyganek, a w XVII wieku tereny położone nad Zalewem Wiślanym. W 1548 r. Michael Loitz przeniósł siedzibę swojej rodziny z Gdańska i wybudował na terenie dzisiejszego miasta Nowy Dwór Gdański dwór, przebudowany następnie na zamek. W okresie dzierżawy ziem przez Wejherów ze względu na bogactwo miejsca zwano też obszar ekonomii starostwem. W 1680 r. decyzją sejmu dzierżawa stała się własnością króla Jana III Sobieskiego, a następnie jego synów - Jakuba i Konstantego. Ostatnia właścicielka terenu, Józefa Antonina Zamojska, przepisała w testamencie żuławskie dobra na rzecz utworzonego przez siebie w 1745 r. Zakonu Kanoniczek Świeckich w Warszawie. Kres istnienia ekonomii nowodworskiej przyniósł I rozbiór Polski w 1772 r. Dobra królewskie zostały skonfiskowane przez Prusy, a dwa lata później Zakon Kanoniczek wynegocjował rekompensatę za utracone tereny w wysokości 47345 talarów i 16 groszy. +2. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów + +2. ceremonia wręczenia Orłów za rok 1999, miała miejsce 11 kwietnia 2000 roku w Teatrze Wielkim w Warszawie. +Polskie Nagrody Filmowe zostały tegorocznie wręczone w czternastu kategoriach. +Najwięcej nominacji – po 11 – otrzymały dwa filmy: "Pan Tadeusz" w reżyserii Andrzeja Wajdy oraz "Tydzień z życia mężczyzny" w reżyserii Jerzego Stuhra. Dziesięć nominacji otrzymał obraz "Dług" Krzysztofa Krauzego, nominację mniej (czyli dziewięć) przyznano filmowi "Ogniem i mieczem" w reżyserii Jerzego Hoffmana. Siedem nominacji otrzymał film "Wojaczek" w reżyserii Lecha R. Majewskiego. Wszystkie wyżej wymienione tytuły nominowane zostały w kategorii najlepszy film. +Najwięcej nagród otrzymał film "Pan Tadeusz" Andrzeja Wajdy, który łącznie otrzymał sześć nagród, jednak tylko w kategoriach technicznych (najlepsze zdjęcia, muzyka, montaż, scenografia, dźwięk i nagroda za najlepszą główną rolę kobiecą Grażyny Szapołowskiej). Pięć nagród, w najważniejszych kategoriach: najlepszy film, reżyseria, scenariusz, główna rola męska i drugoplanowa rola męska, otrzymali twórcy filmu "Dług". Dwie nagrody otrzymał film "Ogniem i mieczem" (nagroda dla najlepszego producenta i za drugoplanową rolę kobiecą Ewy Wiśniewskiej). +Obraz "Tydzień z życia mężczyzny" Jerzego Stuhra pomimo jedenastu nominacji nie otrzymał żadnej nagrody. Laureatem nagrody za osiągnięcia życia został Andrzej Wajda. +Laureaci i nominowani. +Najlepszy film. +Reżyser / Producenci / Koproducenci − "Film" +Rocco Siffredi + +Rocco Tano znany jako Rocco Siffredi (ur. 4 maja 1964 w Ortona a Mare, w regionie Abruzja, w prowincji Chieti, we Włoszech) – włoski aktor porno, również reżyser i producent filmów pornograficznych. Znany również jako "włoski ogier". +Życiorys. +Swój pseudonim artystyczny przyjął od nazwiska kinowego bohatera – Rocha Siffrediego, którego grał Alain Delon w dramacie kryminalnym "Borsalino" (1970). Dziesięć lat wcześniej Delon wcielił się w główną rolę jako Rocco Parondi we francusko-włoskim dramacie Luchino Viscontiego "Rocco i jego bracia" ("Rocco e i suoi fratelli", 1960). +W wieku 17 lat wyjechał do Paryża, do swojego starszego brata Giorgio. Tam zgłosił się na ochotnika do służby wojskowej. Potem pomagał swojemu bratu w pracy w restauracji. Pracował w dyskotekach i domach publicznych. Mając 19 lat w jednym z paryskich lokali poznał słynnego w latach 70. i 80. XX wieku francuskiego gwiazdora filmów pornograficznych Gabriela Pontello, redaktora magazynu "Supersex" i rozpoczął swoją karierę w pornobiznesie jako fotomodel. Następnie skontaktował się z francuskim producentem Markiem Dorcelem i reżyserem Michelem Ricaudem i zadebiutował w filmie pornograficznym "Piękna miłość" ("Belle d'Amour", 1985). Wyróżniał się wśród innych odtwórców ról erotycznych wielkością penisa (ok. 23 cm we wzwodzie). Przez jakiś czas mieszkał w Margate ze swoją przyjaciółką Louise Germaine. W grudniu 1990 roku pojawił się na okładce miesięcznika dla pań "Playgirl". +Jako reżyser rozpoczął od włoskiego "Prawdziwe opowieści Rocco" ("Rocco e le storie vere", (1993). Realizował filmy pornograficzne w stylu gonzo na Węgrzech (Budapeszt jest siedzibą firmy "Rocco Siffredi Produzioni"), Montrealu, Rosji, Brazylii, Los Angeles, Kenii, Australii i Filipinach oraz różnych wschodnioeuropejskich krajach (w tym w Polsce: "Rocco Invades Poland"). Wystąpił w ponad 1300 filmowych produkcjach pornograficznych. Zagrał także w dwóch kontrowersyjnych filmach kinowych w reżyserii Catherine Breillat – "Romans X" ("Romance X", 1999) jako Paolo i "Anatomia piekła" ("Anatomie de l'enfer/Anatomy of Hell", 2004) oraz zagrał postać Antochta w thrillerze włoskim "Miłość ekstremalna" ("Amore Estremo", 2001) Marii Martinelli. We wrześniu 2006 ukazała się autobiografia pt. "Io, Rocco" (wyd. Mondatori). +W czerwcu 2004 roku zadeklarował, że chce zakończyć grę w filmach porno i skupić się na reżyserii i produkcji. Przyczyną tego były jego dzieci, powiedział "moje dzieci dorastają, nie mogę już dłużej mówić "tato idzie do pracy zarobić pieniądze dla rodziny", one chcą wiedzieć więcej". Siffredi powrócił do grania w branży pornograficznej w 2007 roku biorąc udział między innymi w takich produkcjach jak "Briana loves Rocco", "Rocco's Dirty Dreams 5" +Rodzina. +Od roku 1991 jest żonaty z pochodzącą z Węgier ex-aktorką pornograficzną Rosą Caracciolo, z którą ma dwóch synów – Lorenzo (ur. 16 kwietnia 1996) i Leonardo (ur. 1999). +Reguła lewej dłoni + +Reguła lewej dłoni, reguła Fleminga – reguła określająca kierunek i zwrot wektora siły magnetycznej (elektrodynamicznej). +Jeżeli lewą dłoń ustawi się tak, aby linie pola magnetycznego zwrócone były prostopadle ku wewnętrznej powierzchni dłoni (aby wnikały w wewnętrzną stronę dłoni), a wszystkie palce - z wyjątkiem kciuka - wskazywały kierunek i zwrot płynącego prądu (poruszającej się cząsteczki o ładunku dodatnim), to odchylony kciuk wskaże kierunek i zwrot siły elektrodynamicznej działającej na dodatni ładunek elektryczny umieszczony w tym polu (dla ładunku ujemnego zwrot siły będzie przeciwny). +Drugi sposób na określenie kierunku i zwrotu siły elektromagnetycznej polega na ułożeniu kciuka (Thrust or Motion), palca wskazującego (Field) i środkowego (Current) pod kątami prostymi. W takim ułożeniu palec wskazujący pokazuje kierunek linii pola magnetycznego, palec środkowy kierunek i zwrot prądu, a kciuk kierunek i zwrot siły. +Summoning + +Summoning – austriacki zespół muzyczny wykonujący epicki black metal. Teksty większości utworów Summoning nawiązują do fantastycznego świata Śródziemia wykreowanego przez J.R.R. Tolkiena, niejednokrotnie zawierając cytaty pochodzące z twórczości tego pisarza. Wyjątkami od tej reguły są albumy "Stronghold" i "Let Mortal Heroes Sing Your Fame". Nowością w twórczości Summoning jest również płyta "Oath Bound", na której po raz pierwszy w historii zespołu ukazał się utwór napisany w całości w Czarnej Mowie Mordoru, zatytułowany "Mirdautas Vras". +Pokrewne zespoły. +Protector (Richard Lederer) jest zaangażowany w projekty: +Devon (aktorka pornograficzna) + +Devon (znana również jako Devin lub Devin Striker, ur. 28 marca 1977 r. w Allentown w Pensylwanii) – to aktorka filmów porno. "Bomis Babe Report" uznał Devon za jedną z najbardziej pociągających kobiet w przemyśle filmów pornograficznych. +Devon uprawiała gimnastykę do piętnastego roku życia. Po skończeniu nauki w szkole średniej została kelnerką. Wzięła udział w przesłuchaniu na "amatorską noc" w kabarecie Ala Diamonda (później uzyskała pierwsze miejsce). Devon tańczyła w kabarecie Ala Diamonda przez trzy lata. +Pierwsze zetknięcie Devon z przemysłem erotycznym i pornograficznym nastąpiło w "New Breed" (1998). Po krótkim czasie podpisała kontrakt z firmą Vivid Video. W 1999 r. Devon wystąpiła w "E! Entertainments"' programie Howarda Sterna. Zaczęła również pozować dla kilku męskich magazynów (jej zdjęcie opublikowano na okładce "Club Magazine", została również "Penthouse Pet" w styczniu 2001). W styczniu 2002 dostała pierwszą nagrodę w swojej karierze w kategorii "Best interactive DVD" za "Virtual Sex with Devon" ("Virtual Sex with Devon" zostało również później nagrodzone przez "Empire" i "AFW"). Firma Digital Playground podpisała z Devon kontrakt na wyłączność. W maju 2002 r. była na rozkładówce magazynu "Stuff". +Sekrety i kłamstwa + +Sekrety i kłamstwa ("Secrets & Lies") – angielski film fabularny w reżyserii Mike'a Leigh z 1996 roku. +Produkcja. +Choć Leigh jest wymieniony jako autor scenariusza, większość scen w rzeczywistości została zaimprowizowana: Leigh opowiedział każdemu z aktorów o ich roli i pozwolił by stworzyli własne kwestie. +"Sekrety i kłamstwa" został częściowo sfilmowany w Whitehouse Way, Southgate, London. +Wzruszającą scenę w barze, w której Cynthia uświadamia sobie, że naprawdę jest matką Hortensji, sfilmowano w jednym nieprzerwanym ujęciu trwającym prawie 8 minut. +Nagrody. +Film spotkał się z życzliwym przyjęciem krytyki. Na stronie "Rotten Tomatoes", która zbiera recenzje filmów uzyskał 93% pozytywnego przyjęcia, przy średniej wynoszącej 8,7, czyli przewyższając oceny większości filmów. +Film uzyskał nominację do Oskara dla najlepszej aktorki pierwszoplanowej (Brenda Blethyn), najlepszej aktorki drugoplanowej (Marianne Jean-Baptiste), najlepszego reżysera oraz za najlepsze zdjęcia. +Film na festiwalu w Cannes zdobył również w 1996 "Złotą Palmę" oraz dla najlepszej aktorki (Brenda Blethyn). Złoty Glob jak również 50. nagrodę Brytyjskiej Akademii Filmowej dla najlepszej aktorki. +Opis fabuły. +Film opowiada historię czarnoskórej lekarki Hortensji Cumberbatch, tropiącej historię rodziny i odkrywającej, że jej biologiczną matką jest biała kobieta z klasy robotniczej, Cynthia Rose Purley. +Jako niepełnoletnia angielska dziewczyna Cynthia zaszła w ciążę z Murzynem. Dziecko zostało oddane do adopcji jeszcze w szpitalu i od tego czasu rodzina udaje, że fakt ten nigdy się nie wydarzył. Cynthia ukrywa to później, również przed swoją dorosłą córką, którą samotnie wychowuje. Jej brat, fotograf Maurice Purley, żyje w pozornie szczęśliwym małżeństwie, które jednak przenika głęboki kryzys spowodowany ukrywaną przed światem i rodziną niepłodnością żony. Zmowę milczenia i kłamstwa przerywa pojawienie się Hortensji. +Grzegorz Gauden + +Grzegorz Gauden (ur. 17 marca 1953 w Poznaniu) – polski dziennikarz prasowy i radiowy. +Życiorys. +Ukończył w 1975 studia na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. +W latach 1975–1977 pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego komisji kultury zarządu wojewódzkiego Socjalistycznego Związku Studentów Polskich. Na początku lat 80. działał w "Solidarności", był redaktorem naczelnym dziennika "Wiadomości Dnia", a także "Obserwatora Wielkopolskiego" (tygodnika zarządu Regionu Wielkopolska związku). Po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego internowano go na okres od 13 grudnia 1981 do 7 lipca 1982. Po zwolnieniu współpracował z wydawnictwami drugiego obiegu. Od 1984 do 1993 przebywał na emigracji w Szwecji. Studiował na Uniwersytecie w Lund, organizował szwedzki Komitet Poparcia Solidarności. +Od 1989 zaczął publikować w prasie krajowej, m.in. we "Wprost". Po powrocie do kraju został przedstawicielem koncernu Bulls Press zajmującego się dystrybucją w Polsce komiksów i materiałów agencyjnych. Od 1995 pozostawał związany z norweskim koncernem prasowym Orkla Media. W 1999 został prezesem zarządu spółki Presspublica, a w okresie od września 2004 do września 2006 był redaktorem naczelnym dziennika "Rzeczpospolita". Jest dyrektorem Instytutu Książki. +Pełni funkcję wiceprezesa Izby Wydawców Prasy, a także Stowarzyszenia "Polska Książka". W 2007 był jednym z inicjatorów reaktywowania konwersatorium Doświadczenie i Przyszłość. Pełni również funkcję przewodniczącego ("Wielkiego Bambra") Warszawskiego Klubu Wielkopolan EKA, nieformalnego stowarzyszenia Wielkopolan mieszkających w stolicy. +W 2012 prezydent Bronisław Komorowski odznaczył go Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Kontusz + +Kontusz (węg. "köntös" – suknia z tur. "kontos"; rum. "contas"; bułg. "kontos") – szata wierzchnia, rodzaj płaszcza lub kamizelki, z charakterystycznymi tzw. wylotami, czyli rozciętymi od pachy do łokci rękawami, które albo luźno zwisały, albo, odrzucone do tyłu, odsłaniały żupan. +Kontusz był przewiązany ozdobnym pasem kontuszowym. +Był to charakterystyczny element stroju polskiej szlachty w XVII i XVIII wieku. Noszony był także przez zamożne mieszczaństwo, choć przepis nakazywał mieszczaninowi przewiązywać pasem nie kontusz, a żupan. W czasach saskich oraz stanisławowskich noszenie się "z polska" stało się też pewnego rodzaju manifestacją polityczną. +W początkach XIX wieku został zastąpiony znacznie tańszym frakiem, a później surdutem, jednak jeszcze w latach 60. przeżywał renesans w Galicji, kiedy władze austriackie zezwoliły obywatelom Krakowa i Lwowa na występowanie w strojach narodowych podczas oficjalnych okazji. Jako odświętny strój kontusz pojawiał się jeszcze do dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, zwłaszcza na uroczystościach rodzinnych zamożnego ziemiaństwa i arystokracji: ślubach, zjazdach, pogrzebach. Pan młody miał wówczas na sobie żupan, kontusz, delię, na głowie czapkę z przypiętymi piórami, u boku karabelę wysadzaną drogimi kamieniami. Panna młoda zakładała biały kontusik ozdobiony futerkiem. +Helena Łuczywo + +Helena Łuczywo (ur. 18 stycznia 1946 w Warszawie) – polska dziennikarka prasowa, związana z „Gazetą Wyborczą”, działaczka opozycji w okresie PRL, redaktor naczelna „Tygodnika Mazowsze”. +Życiorys. +Ukończyła w 1969 Wydział Ekonomii Politycznej na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, studiowała też w latach 70. anglistykę na tej uczelni. Promotorem jej pracy magisterskiej był Włodzimierz Brus. +Do 1967 należała do Związku Młodzieży Socjalistycznej. Była aktywną uczestniczką strajków studenckich w 1968, za co czasowo relegowano ją ze studiów. W okresie PRL zaangażowana w działalność opozycyjną, od 1976 współpracowała z Komitetem Obrony Robotników. Była współpracowniczką Komitetu Samoobrony Społecznej KOR. W 1977 brała udział w założeniu i do 1981 redagowała pismo „Robotnik”. Z przyczyn politycznych została zwolniona z pracy w Liceum Ogólnokształcącym im. Jana Zamoyskiego w Warszawie, zajmowała się następnie zarobkowo tłumaczeniami. Od 1980 do 1981 była korespondentką „Daily Telegraph”. W 1981 została redaktor naczelną Agencji Prasowej „Solidarność”. Po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego przez ponad rok pozostawała w ukryciu. Po śmierci Jerzego Zieleńskiego została w 1982 redaktorem naczelnym „Tygodnika Mazowsze”, największego pisma podziemnej „Solidarności”, funkcję tę pełniła do 1989. W tym samym roku uczestniczyła jako przedstawicielka strony opozycyjnej w obradach zespołu ds. mediów w ramach rozmów Okrągłego Stołu. +W 1989 była jedną z osób zakładających „Gazetę Wyborczą”, w której objęła stanowisko zastępcy redaktora naczelnego. W latach 1990–1998 zajmowała stanowisko prezesa spółki wydawniczej Agora-Gazeta, następnie do 2004 była wiceprezesem zarządu Agory. Od 2004 do 2007 "de facto" pełniła funkcję redaktora naczelnego „Gazety Wyborczej” w związku z chorobą Adama Michnika. W 2009 przeszła na emeryturę. +W 1989 otrzymała nagrodę Harvard University Niemann Foundation Lyons Award for Conscience and Integrity in Journalism, a w 1986 – Radcliffe's Bunting Institute Peace Fellowship. W 1999 została wyróżniona Knight International Press Fellowship Award. W 2002, 2004 i 2005 była notowana była na liście najbogatszych Polaków tygodnika „Wprost”. +Jest córką działaczy komunistycznych żydowskiego pochodzenia, Ferdynanda Chabera i Doroty (Debory) z domu Guter. Rozwiedziona z Witoldem Łuczywą, działaczem opozycji demokratycznej i organizatorem podziemnej poligrafii w czasach PRL. Mają córkę Łucję, absolwentkę Wydziału Stosowanych Nauk Społecznych i Resocjalizacji Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. +Apomiksja + +Wyróżniamy apomiksję fakultatywną oraz obligatoryjną. +J.J. Cale + +J.J. Cale, właśc. John W. Cale (ur. 5 grudnia 1938 w Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Stany Zjednoczone) – wokalista, gitarzysta, kompozytor, autor tekstów, producent muzyczny. +Sławę zdobył utworami "After Midnight" i "Cocaine", które rozsławił Eric Clapton. Jego muzyka wywarła wpływ m.in. na Marka Knopflera z Dire Straits. +Występował m.in. z Neilem Youngiem, Artem Garfunkelem. Najbardziej znane i cenione utwory artysty, to oprócz dwu wspomnianych wcześniej: "Slow Motion", "Call Me the Breeze", "Sensitive Kind", "Call the Doctor", "Super Blue", "Reality", "Let Me Do It to You", "Bringing It Back", "Magnolia", "Changes". +Alka zwyczajna + +Alka zwyczajna, alka, alka krzywonosa ("Alca torda") – gatunek średniego ptaka morskiego z rodziny alk (Alcidae), jedyny przedstawiciel rodzaju "Alca". +Występowanie. +Zamieszkuje cały północny Atlantyk, w tym ptasie wyspy mórz północnych. Gnieździ się na wybrzeżach Atlantyku od wschodnich wybrzeży Ameryki Północnej, przez Grenlandię, Islandię, wyspę Jan Mayen, Wyspę Niedźwiedzią, Irlandię, Wyspy Brytyjskie, Wyspy Owcze, Francję, południowe i wschodnie wybrzeża Morza Północnego i Morza Norweskiego aż po Półwysep Kolski na wschodzie. Zasadniczo to gatunek osiadły, ale niektóre populacje są wędrowne. Alki zimują na zachodnich wybrzeżach Atlantyku, w Afryce północno-zachodniej, Kanale La Manche, Morzu Śródziemnym, Morzu Północnym (nieliczne pary na Helgolandzie) oraz na Bałtyku. Młode ptaki dolatują dalej niż dorosłe. +Charakterystyka. +Cechy gatunku. +Brak wyraźnego dymorfizmu płciowego. W upierzeniu godowym głowa, szyja oraz wierzch ciała czarne, brzuch biały. Cienka biała przepaska na skrzydle i cienka biała linia łącząca oko z nasadą dzioba. Nogi i dziób czarne. Ogon długi, ząbkowany i spiczasty. Dziób silnie bocznie spłaszczony z fałdami po bokach i białą pręgą. W szacie spoczynkowej gardło i boki głowy. Brakuje białej linii ciągnącej się między okiem a dziobem. U młodych dziób jest mniejszy, gładki, spiczasty i nie ma na nim rysunku. Przypominają młode nurzyków polarnych w czasie zimy, choć za okiem jest więcej bieli. W locie widoczna jest mocna i krótka szyja oraz wachlarzowaty ogon. W powietrzu palce nóg są przykryte. Gdy alka siada na ziemi jest pionowo wyprostowana, swój ciężar opiera na całych skokach nóg. +Rozróżnienie. +Alki są średniego wzrostu. W porównaniu z nurzykiem ma ciemniejszy wierzch, a jaśniejsze spody skrzydeł. W powietrzu ma więcej bieli na bokach kupra. Czarny, wysoki, spłaszczony bocznie i poprzecznie prążkowany dziób z charakterystyczną białą linią wzdłuż boku pozwala na łatwe odróżnienie alki od innych ptaków morskich. Niektórzy niedoświadczeni obserwatorzy mylą je jednak z pingwinami, choć wskazuje na to w pewnym stopniu francuska nazwa "Petit Pingouin". Natomiast angielska nazwa "razorbill" oznacza brzytwodzioba, co w polskiej systematyce oznacza zupełnie inny gatunek. +Wymiary średnie. +dł. ciała ok. 42 - 48 cmrozpiętość skrzydeł ok. 63 - 67 cmwaga ok. 550 - 920 g +Głos. +Gdy alka siedzi na gnieździe wydaje odgłosy podobne do warczenia (głębokie i szorstkie "urrr") lub łagodnego pogwizdywania. Na terenach lęgowych odzywa się raczej rzadko. +Biotop. +Związana jest całkowicie z morzem, na którym znajduje pożywienie i schronienie wśród skał. Występuje na skalistych wybrzeżach morskich, głównie stref subpolarnych i borealnych. Poza sezonem lęgowym na pełnym morzu. Na lądzie chroni się tylko w czasie gwałtownych burz. +Okres lęgowy. +Gniazdo. +Na lęgowiska wraca w marcu i kwietniu, zaraz po stopieniu się lodu i śniegu na skałach, które zajmuje. Gniazd zwykle nie buduje, a jaja składa w skalnej szczelinie na półce skalnej. Czasami zdarza się, że tworzy prowizoryczne miejsce na jaja ze znalezionych kamieni, ususzonych odchodów, porostów lub fragmentów roślin. Gnieździ się pojedynczo lub w koloniach, często w towarzystwie innych ptaków z rodziny alk. Kolonie ulokowane są na najwyższych partiach przybrzeżnych skał, przeważnie ponad lęgowiskami nurzyka podbielałego. Zdarzają się lęgi w półjaskiniach. +Jaja. +Para może kopulować kilkadziesiąt razy na miesiąc przed złożeniem jaja, a samice z większą ilością samców. W ciągu roku wyprowadza jeden lęg, składając w maju-czerwcu jedno, brązowo lub czarno cętkowane owalne jajo (różni się zatem od stożkowatych jaj nurzyka). Jego zabarwienie może się różnić, od białego przez brązową po czerwoną barwę. +Wysiadywanie i dorastanie. +Jajo wysiadywane jest przez okres 33 - 36 dni przez obydwoje rodziców. Mogą opuszczać gniazdo co pewien czas na dość długo. Pisklęta opuszczają skaliste gniazdo po około 18-21 dniach skacząc prosto do morza. Robią to, choć jeszcze nie potrafią latać, dlatego też taki skok może kończyć się poobijaniem młodego ptaka o skały. Gdy znajdzie się w wodzie rodzice nadal go pilnują i karmią głównie rybami, a rzadziej mięczakami, skorupiakami i innymi bezkręgowcami. Łowić mogą je nawet 20 kilometrów dalej przynosząc na raz nawet 20 ryb, zwykle ok. 6. Puch piskląt jest na grzbiecie brunatny, a na głowie i brzuchu biały. Odnotowano sytuacje gdy młode opuszczają gniazdo zaraz po wylęgnięciu. +Pożywienie. +Polują na drobne ryby. Głównie są to śledziowate, dobijakowate, młode dorszowate. Mogą też zjadać morskie robaki i skorupiaki. +Nurkują po nie za pomocą skrzydeł nawet na duże głębokości, co wygląda jak "lot" pod wodą. Jego szybkość wynosi ok. 1,5 m/s. Żerowanie odbywa się na płytkich wodach szelfowych, gdzie o pokarm konkurują z nurzykami podbielałymi. +Ochrona. +Gatunek chroniony. +Grożą jej głównie zanieczyszczenia wody, najczęściej olejami, jak też zbyt duże połowy ryb dokonywane przez rybołówstwo. +Miyazawa Sick Band + +Miyazawa Sick Band - nazwa grupy artystów występujących razem z Kazufumi Miyazawą w jego projektach solowych. +Jenna Haze + +Jenna Haze, właśc. Jennifer Corrales, (ur. 22 lutego 1982 w Fullerton w hrabstwie Orange w Kalifornii) – amerykańska stiptizerka, pracująca jako aktorka pornograficzna. +Urodziła się i wychowywała w konserwatywnej miejscowości. Gdy uczyła się w szkole średniej, jej rodzice rozwiedli się. Piętnastoletnia Jenna przerwała naukę i rozpoczęła pracę, aby pomóc matce. Wykonywała dorywczo niskopłatne prace. Kiedy skończyła 18 lat podjęła się pracy jako striptizerka. Jednak już po pierwszym dniu tej pracy odeszła. Rok później, podczas pobytu w dyskotece poznała osobę mająca kontakty w branży porno. 19 lipca 2001 Jenna Haze nakręciła swoją pierwszą scenę porno. W latach 2002-2005 miała kontrakt na wyłączność z Jill Kelly Productions, w ramach którego występowała jedynie w scenach lesbijskich. W 2003 otrzymała nagrodę magazynu AVN w kategoriach "Best New Startlet" i "Best Solo Sex Scene". +Muzyka alternatywna + +Muzyka alternatywna – termin określający twórczość muzyczną, która odbiega od konwencji muzyki komercyjnej. +Często termin "muzyka alternatywna" stosowany jest zamiennie z określeniem "rock alternatywny". Traktowanie obu definicji jako synonimów jest błędne, jako że muzyką alternatywną określa się nie tylko muzykę rockową, ale także m.in. elektroniczną. Często jest to muzyka awangardowa i niszowa. +Wnioskowanie + +Wnioskowanie jest to jedna z najbardziej podstawowych odmian rozumowania obok sprawdzania, dowodzenia i wyjaśniania. +"Wnioskować" - za Kazimierzem Ajdukiewiczem - znaczy tyle co "na podstawie uprzednio uznanych zdań (sądów) dochodzić do uznania nowego (dotąd nie uznawanego) zdania (sądu), lub wzmacniać pewność z jaką nowe zdanie uznajemy". Zdania uznawane, na podstawie których dochodzimy do uznania lub wzmocnienia pewności nowego zdania nazywane są przesłankami, zaś zdanie na ich podstawie uznane nazywany jest wnioskiem (konkluzją). Pomiędzy przesłankami a konkluzją nie musi zachodzić jakiś szczególny stosunek, a zwłaszcza jedno z nich nie musi być racją dla drugiego – wnioskowanie może być: (a) pewne albo prawdopodobne; (b) poprawne albo niepoprawne. +Logika formalna. +W logice formalnej rozważa się teorie, będące zbiorami zdań logicznych. Wprowadza się następnie reguły wnioskowania. Reguły są zapisywane za pomocą symbolu formula_1, oznaczającego, iż jeśli do jakiejkolwiek teorii należą zdania formula_2, to należy do niej także formula_3. Przykładem może tutaj być reguła modus ponens:formula_4. +Jeśli zdanie formula_5 daje się wywnioskować z pewnych zdań teorii formula_6 zapisujemy to formula_7. +Bogumysław + +Bogumysław – imię męskie, które powstało prawdopodobnie poprzez "poprawienie" hipotetycznego staropolskiego imienia Bogumysł, kiedy świadomość jego pochodzenia zatarła się i błędnie zostało ono uznane za imię kończące się członem "-sław" (zamiast "-mysł"). +Linienie + +Linienie, linka (łac. "ecdysis") – proces okresowego zrzucania zewnętrznych warstw ciała (naskórka, oskórka, pancerza, piór lub włosów) u niektórych zwierząt. +Stawonogi. +U stawonogów linienie polega na odrzuceniu pozostałości zewnętrznej, twardej powłoki ciała, nazywanej wylinką. W okresach po zrzuceniu zewnętrznego szkieletu i przed stwardnieniem nowego następuje bardzo wydatne powiększenie rozmiarów ciała, uwarunkowane regulacją hormonalną. Hormony juwenilne regulują linienie. Przeobrażenie następuje za sprawą ekdyzonu. +W wyniku linienia owadów schodzi całkowicie zewnętrzna powłoka ciała oraz wyściółka jelita przedniego i tylnego, tchawek i narządów tympanalnych. +Płazy i gady. +U płazów i gadów linienie polega na zrzucaniu zewnętrznej warstwy naskórka. Może zachodzić kilka razy w roku. Jest regulowane przez hormony przysadki, tarczycy i kory nadnerczy. Wiąże się ze wzrostem organizmu oraz ma znaczenie jako wymiana zniszczonego pokrycia skóry. Wylinka schodzi płatami, a pochewki węży w całości. +Ssaki. +W klimacie umiarkowanym lub chłodnym ssaki linieją zwykle 2 razy do roku, wiosną i jesienią. Ich okresowe, sezonowe linienie, polegające na zmianie okrywy włosowej (sierści), ma związek z dostosowaniem ciepłoty ciała do panujących temperatur. Zrogowaciała cebulka włosowa oddziela się od brodawki włosowej, a stary włos zostaje wypchnięty przez powstający w jego poprzednim miejscu nowy włos. Linienie ssaków może być również związane z rozrodem. Proces linienia zależny jest od wpływu światła i temperatury. Jest sterowany hormonalnie przez przysadkę mózgową i tarczycę. +Rymarstwo + +Rymarstwo – dział rzemiosła zajmujący się wytwarzaniem uprzęży konnych, siodeł, akcesoriów jeździeckich i skórzanych pasów pędnych. +Tradycyjnie wyroby szyte były ręcznie ze skór, a następnie wykańczane metalowymi okuciami. Część pracowni zachowało ten sposób pracy, pozostałe wykorzystują szycie maszynowe. Rymarze posiadali własne cechy regulujące zwyczaje, zasady zdobywania zawodu i rozsądzające spory. +Rymarstwo należy do zanikających zawodów rzemieślniczych. Główną przyczyną jest ograniczone zapotrzebowanie na wyroby rymarskie. W czasach poprzedzających rewolucję przemysłową, a w szczególności rozwój kolei i motoryzacji, konie stanowiły siłę pociągową, wykorzystywaną w transporcie i rolnictwie. Na przestrzeni XX w. rolę koni w większości przejęły maszyny. +Na przełomie XX i XXI wieku nastąpiło niewielkie ożywienie w tym zawodzie, spowodowane rosnącym zainteresowaniem turystyką konną i jeździectwem. W wyniku tego powstało lub rozwinęło się wiele stadnin i gospodarstw ukierunkowanych na naukę jazdy konnej. Usługi rymarskie świadczone są także dorożkarzom, sportowcom uprawiającym jeździectwo i rolnikom. +Wyroby. +Uprząż może być jednokonna lub parokonna, chomątowa lub szorowa. +Do akcesoriów jeździeckich zalicza się: bat, biczysko, bykowiec, chomąto, czapsy, czaprak, janczary, kantar, kapelusz, lonża, lejce, naszelnik, ochraniacze na kostki, ogłowie, palcat, pas popleczny, pasy pociągowe, podogonie, popręg, przedpierśnik, puśliska, rychliny, sakwy, strzemiona, uzda, wędzidło, wodze, wytok. +Materiały. +Wyroby rymarskie produkowane są ze skóry zwierzęcej oraz włókien roślinnych służących do zszywania (nici, szpagat). +Jan Sowa + +Jan Sowa (ur. 1976) - socjolog, eseista. +Studiował polonistykę, psychologię i filozofię na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w Krakowie. Od 2006 doktor socjologii. Aktualnie jest adiunktem w Instytucie Kultury Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +Publikował m.in. w "Lampie", "Krytyce Politycznej" i magazynie "Ha!art", z którym jest związany od 1999 roku (jako redaktor działu kulturoznawczego). Jest redaktorem Linii Radykalnej Korporacji Ha!art. Przewodniczący rady Fundacji Korporacja Ha!art. Współpracuje z kwartalnikiem Praktyka Teoretyczna. +Tłumaczył książki i artykuły z zakresu politologii, filozofii i socjologii. Pracował również jako dziennikarz w krakowskim oddziale Polskiego Radia i kurator w Galerii Sztuki Współczesnej Bunkier Sztuki w Krakowie. Prowadzi krakowską świetlicę Goldex Poldex (z Kubą de Barbaro i Jankiem Simonem). +Zainteresowania Jana Sowy skupiają się wokół kwestii społeczno-kulturowych. Zajmuje się szeroko pojętą teorią kultury. W szczególności interesuje go problematyka związana z mediami, przeobrażeniami społecznymi w cywilizacji Zachodu oraz odniesieniem kultury europejskiej do innych kultur (w tym kwestia kolonializmu, globalizacji, imigracji oraz zderzenia Zachodu ze światem Islamu). +Dużo podróżował, między innymi po Indiach, Azji Południowo-Wschodniej, Afryce i obu Amerykach. +Czynnie uczestniczy w ruchu antyglobalistycznym. +Mieszka w Krakowie. +Publikacje. +"Sezon w teatrze lalek" to zbiór, na który składają się teksty napisane między rokiem 2000 a 2003. Można tam znaleźć większość esejów publikowanych na łamach "Ha!artu" oraz teksty wcześniej nie drukowane (w tym prawie cały cykl "pocztówki patafizyczne" pojawiający się w internetowym miesięczniku "Ha!art" w latach 2001-2003). Poruszają one taką tematykę jak: urbanizacja, ewolucja wiedzy naukowej, konsumpcja, ruchy rewolucyjne, media niezależne, neoliberalizm ekonomiczny, polityka, współczesne postacie kontrkultury, Internet, terroryzm, globalizacja oraz ruchy anty- i alterglobalistyczne. +"Frustracja. Młodzi o Nowym Wspaniałym Świecie" to głos grupy ludzi urodzonych w latach 70. To "manifest generacji", którą nazywano "pokoleniem nic". Ten zbiór esejów jest krytycznym głosem o "nowym wspaniałym świecie" polskiej demokracji i wolnego rynku. Zdaniem autorów po upadku PRL zapowiadały się one jako spełnienie wszystkich najwspanialszych marzeń, a okazały się być światem skomercjalizowanej tandety - wypełnionym intelektualnym banałem, bezmyślną konsumpcją i rządami zasady maksymalizacji finansowych zysków. +Autorki i autorzy zbioru "Zniewolony umysł 2. Neoliberalizm i jego krytyki" poddają ideologię i praktykę „wolnorynkową" analizom zakorzenionym w różnych wersjach krytyki władzy. Konstruują alternatywne propozycje myślenia i szukają rozwiązań dla problemów późnej nowoczesności poza przestrzenią wyznaczoną przez logikę kapitału. Zdaniem autorów i autorek neoliberalny dyskurs zniewala umysły i wyklucza głosy krytykujące, umiejscawia szereg „niepodważalnych” dogmatów - pragnie być systemem „pozbawionym alternatywy” i „zgodnym z naturą ludzką”. +Publikacja "Ciesz się, późny wnuku!" opisuje rozwój demokracji w świecie zachodnim i próby demokratyzacji poza jego obszarem - z jednej strony jest polemiką z tradycją myśli liberalnej, z drugiej, poruszając kwestie reprezentacji, rewolucji i ideologii, wchodzi w dialog ze współczesnymi autorami lewicowymi, takimi jak Ernesto Laclau, Chantal Mouffe czy Slavoj Žižek. +Autor kontrastuje demokrację parlamentarną z modelem greckiej demokracji uczestniczącej i z demokracją radykalną. Zastanawia się nad możliwością demokratyzacji reżimów autorytarnych oraz nad dalszym rozwojem demokracji w krajach zwanych już demokratycznymi. Rozważa wpływ kolonializmu i globalizacji na społeczno-polityczną kondycję społeczeństw peryferyjnych. Obszernie omawia też przemiany społeczno-polityczne w Polsce po 1980 roku. +Misław + +Misław – staropolskie imię męskie; skrócona forma imienia Mirosław lub Miłosław. +Zobacz też: Misław (książę chorwacki) +Gytia + +Mokradła, których podłożem jest gytia określa się jako gytiowiska. +Termin "gytia" (oryginalnie szw. "gyttja") wprowadził Hampus von Post w roku 1862. +Polskie Nagrody Filmowe + +Polskie Nagrody Filmowe – powszechnie znane jako Orły – doroczna nagroda przyznawana przez Polską Akademię Filmową w dziedzinie filmu. Pierwsze rozdanie nastąpiło 21 czerwca 1999 roku. +Historia. +Polskie Nagrody Filmowe po raz pierwszy rozdano 21 czerwca 1999 roku w warszawskiem Kinie Capitol – nagrody wręczono w dwunastu kategoriach, za rok 1998, a galę wręczenia nagród poprowadzili Piotr Machalica i Maria Pakulnis. Organizatorem, oraz inicjatorem powstania oraz przyznania nagrody było Stowarzyszenie Niezależnych Producentów Filmowych i Telewizyjnych (później przemianowane na Krajową Izbę Producentów Audiowizualnych) z ówczesnym prezesem na czele Dariuszem Jabłońskim, który to był pomysłodawcą nagrody. Producentem wszystkich ceremonii wręczenia nagród jest utworzona w tym celu Niezależna Fundacja Filmowa, której pomysłodawcą jest również Dariusz Jabłoński. +W 2003 roku, z inicjatywy KIPA powstała Polska Akademia Filmowa, mająca za zadanie oficjalnia przyznawać Polskie Nagrody Filmowe, na wzór innych narodowych akademii filmowych (np. w Hiszpanii – Hiszpańska Akademia Sztuki Filmowej, przyznająca nagrodę Goya). Do tej pory, nagrody były przyznawane przez członków elektoratu nagrody. Członkami Akademii zostali ci członkowie dotychczasowego elektoratu nagród, którzy do tej pory mieli prawo głosować na Polskie Nagrody Filmowe i przyjęli zaproszenie KIPA do grona Członków-Założycieli Polskiej Akademii Filmowej. Od 14 kwietnia 2008 roku Prezydentem Akademii jest Agnieszka Holland. Prezydent PAF pełni funkcję honorową i jest wybierany na dwuletnią kadencję. +Początkowo ceremonie wręczenia nagród odbywały się pod honorowym patronatem Prezydenta RP. Obecnie patronat honorowy nad Polskimi Nagrodami Filmowymi obejmuje Minister Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. +Przyznawanie nagrody. +Kandydatami do Polskich Nagród Filmowych mogą być wszystkie polskie filmy fabularne (oraz ich twórcy i aktorzy), które były wyświetlane po raz pierwszy w Polsce przez co najmniej tydzień na ogólnodostępnych płatnych pokazach, w okresie od 1 stycznia do 31 grudnia. Nominacje uzyskują kandydaci, którzy osiągną pięć najlepszych rezultatów w każdej kategorii. Grupę, ponad 500 członków Polskiej Akademii Filmowej, stanowią profesjonaliści dziewięciu zawodów filmowych, którzy w swoim dorobku mają przynajmniej jeden film fabularny, rozpowszechniany w Polsce po 1989 roku. +Wszyscy artyści nominowani do Polskich Nagród Filmowych, otrzymują zaproszenie do członkostwa w Europejskiej Akademii Filmowej. +Głosowanie na Polskie Nagrody Filmowe jest dwuetapowe, korespondencyjne i tajne, aż do ogłoszenia rezultatu. Głosowanie zazwyczaj rozpoczyna się w pierwszych tygodniach stycznia, kiedy to firma PricewaterhouseCoopers, nadzorująca przebieg i gwarantująca wiarygodność procesu głosowania, wysyła do wszystkich członków Akademii imienne karty do głosowania. Pierwsza tura głosowania trwa do początku lutego − wówczas zostaje zamknięta skrzynka, na którą były odsyłane wypełnione karty do głosowania. Następnie firma PricewaterhouseCoopers zlicza wszystkie ważne głosy członków Akademii. Druga tura głosowania wyłania laureatów Orłów. Firma PricewaterhouseCoopers jest partnerem Polskich Nagród Filmowych od samego początku istnienia nagrody. +Statuetka. +Statuetka nagrody, przedstawia rozwarte skrzydła orła, umiejscowione na białym cokole. Skrzydła jak i cokół, są przeplatane przez wstęgę, przypominającą klatkę filmową. Autorem statuetki, która przyznawana jest od 2001 roku, jest polski rzeźbiarz, Adam Fedorowicz. +Jedyny Pierścień + +Jedyny Pierścień – fikcyjny artefakt ze stworzonej przez J. R. R. Tolkiena mitologii Śródziemia, najpotężniejszy z Pierścieni Władzy. +Dysponował dużą częścią mocy swojego twórcy, Saurona; w ten sposób miał być zdolny do rządzenia pozostałymi Pierścieniami Władzy, dając swojemu posiadaczowi potęgę i kontrolę nad posiadaczami Pierścieni Władzy. Miał też pewien rodzaj własnej inteligencji: chcąc wrócić do swego twórcy skupiał na sobie uwagę, potrafił wywierać wpływ na właściciela i zawładnąć istotami o woli słabszej, niż wola Saurona. Wyjątkami były osoby wyjątkowo mądre (Gandalf, Galadriela, Aragorn) lub proste (Samwise Gamgee, Tom Bombadil). +Historia Pierścienia. +Sauron, chcąc zawładnąć Śródziemiem, zwiódł elfów i dał im wiedzę pozwalającą wykuć Pierścienie Władzy. Kiedy mistrz kowalstwa tamtych czasów, Celebrimbor, pracował nad wykuwaniem swoich pierścieni, Sauron udał się do Mordoru, aby w ogniu Orodruiny wykuć własny Pierścień Władzy. Jedynie pierścienie elfów nie uległy wpływowi Jedynego, gdyż jako wykute osobiście przez Celebrimbora nigdy nie miały styczności z Sauronem. Po pewnym czasie, gdy doszło do walki Saurona z Ostatnim Przymierzem elfów i ludzi, w bitwie na stokach Góry Przeznaczenia pod ciosami Saurona zginął król Arnoru i Gondoru, Elendil oraz Najwyższy Król Ñoldorów, Gil-galad. Następnie syn Elendila, Isildur, pękniętym ostrzem Narsila pozbawił Saurona palca wraz z Pierścieniem. Władca Ciemności został pokonany, lecz jego duch, którego trwanie było uzależnione od istnienia Pierścienia, przeżył. Isildur zagarnął Pierścień dla siebie i dwa lata później, podczas powrotu do Arnoru, zginął w bitwie na polach Gladden z rąk orków, a Pierścień spoczął na dnie Anduiny. +Po wielu latach odnalazł go hobbit z plemienia Stoorów, Déagol, lecz wkrótce został zabity przez swojego przyjaciela, Sméagola. Ten zagarnął Pierścień, a moc artefaktu nienaturalnie wydłużyła mu życie i zmieniła go tak, że został przezwany Gollumem. +Po kolejnych stuleciach Pierścień dostał się w ręce Bilba Bagginsa, który przekazał go swojemu krewnemu, Frodowi. Frodo udał się do Mordoru wraz z Drużyną Pierścienia w celu zniszczenia go w ogniu Góry Przeznaczenia, co ostatecznie uwolniło Śródziemie od Saurona. +Powiernik Pierścienia. +Pojęcie "powiernik Pierścienia" pojawia się we "Władcy Pierścieni" jako określenie każdej istoty, która jest w posiadaniu Jedynego Pierścienia. W drugiej księdze "Władcy Pierścieni", podczas narady u Elronda, Pierścień zostaje powierzony Frodowi. +Tytuł powiernika przysługiwał też dwóm innym hobbitom: Bilbowi Bagginsowi (który odnalazł Pierścień w powieści "Hobbit, czyli tam i z powrotem") oraz Samwise'owi Gamgee, który przez krótki czas niósł Pierścień podczas podróży z Frodem przez Mordor. +Pierścień nosiły też inne istoty, których nie określa się w powieści tytułem powiernika. Należą do nich Sauron, Isildur, Gollum i Tom Bombadil, na którego Pierścień nie miał żadnego wpływu. +Pierścień trzymały też dwie inne istoty, które jednak nie założyły go na palec: Déagol, którego Pierścień kusił, i Gandalf, który trzymał go przez krótki czas w domu Froda. +Thaksin Shinawatra + +Thaksin Shinawatra, taj. ทักณ ชินษิวัตร (ur. 26 lipca 1949 w Chiang Mai) – tajski polityk, premier Tajlandii w latach 2001–2006. +Jest bratem tajskiej premier Yingluck Shinawatry. +Życiorys. +Pracował jako policjant. W 1973 wyjechał na studia prawnicze do Stanów Zjednoczonych. Po powrocie do kraju zbudował imperium telekomunikacyjne i stał się jednym z najbogatszych ludzi w Tajlandii. W 1998 założył partię Thai Rak Thai (taj. "Taj Kocha Taja"). W wyborach parlamentarnych w 2001 jego partia zdobyła najwięcej mandatów, a Shinawatra został premierem. W 2005 Thai Rak Thai zdobyła w wyborach zdecydowaną przewagę i Shinawatra pozostał na stanowisku premiera na drugą kadencję, mając poparcie większości parlamentarnej. +4 kwietnia 2006 zrezygnował z urzędu premiera. Jego obowiązki przejął wicepremier Chidchai Vanasatidya. 23 maja 2006 powrócił na stanowisko, ale kilka miesięcy później (we wrześniu) został odsunięty od władzy przez przewrót wojskowy. +W latach 2007–2008 był właścicielem większościowego pakietu akcji klubu piłkarskiego Manchester City F.C. +Brooke Ashley + +Brooke Ashley, właśc. Anne Marie Ballowe (ur. 5 maja 1973 w Taegu) – amerykańska aktorka pornograficzna. +Postanowiła odejść z przemysłu filmowego 29 marca 1998, po odkryciu, że jest zarażona wirusem HIV. Według reżysera Rodneya Moore'a do zarażenia doszło podczas udanej próby ustanowienia rekordu świata w liczbie partnerów w seksie analnym (50), co zostało pokazane w filmie "The World's Biggest Anal Gangbang". Do branży pornograficznej powróciła w 2005, występuje w filmach ze swoim chłopakiem Eddym Woodem. Wystąpiła w dokumencie MTV o przemyśle filmów pornograficznych. +Jej ojciec był amerykańskim robotnikiem, a matka Koreanką. +Powiat grójecki + +Powiat grójecki - powiat w Polsce (województwo mazowieckie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Grójec. +W latach 1999-2002 do powiatu grójeckiego należała również gmina Tarczyn, która 1 stycznia 2003 została przyłączona do powiatu piaseczyńskiego . +Powiat grójecki graniczy z 8 powiatami województwa mazowieckiego: przysuskim, białobrzeskim, kozienickim, garwolińskim, otwockim, piaseczyńskim, grodziskim, żyrardowskim i z 3 powiatami województwa łódzkiego: +tomaszowskim, rawskim, opoczyńskim. +Kombajn do Zbierania Kur po Wioskach + +Kombajn do Zbierania Kur po Wioskach – polski, alternatywny rockowy zespół muzyczny pochodzący z Nowego Dworku – miejscowości położonej niedaleko Świebodzina, założony w 2001 roku. +W 2003 roku wygrali Festiwal Rockowy w Węgorzewie, a 17 stycznia 2005 pod patronatem radiowej Trójki wydali swój debiutancki album – "Ósme piętro". +23 października 2006 roku wydali kolejną płytę, zatytułowaną "Lewa strona literki M". +Pomerium + +Pomerium (łac. "post murus", za murami) – u Rzymian linia o charakterze sakralnym wyznaczająca granice miasta. +Zwyczaj wyznaczania pomerium pochodził od Etrusków. Według legendy Romulus w 753 p.n.e. wyorał pługiem bruzdę na zachodnim wierzchołku Palatynu, wytyczając w ten sposób granice Miasta ("Roma quadrata"). Przez pomerium rozumiano również wewnętrzny obszar miasta. Linię pomerium poświęcano bóstwom podziemnym. Jej przekroczenie było niedozwolone i zagrożone śmiercią z powodu rytualnej zmazy. Podczas wyznaczania granicy kilkakrotnie podnoszono pług, pozostawiając niezaoraną ziemię. W tych miejscach powstawały bramy. Linię pomerium oznaczano później kamiennymi słupami i wzdłuż niej starano się poprowadzić wały i mury obronne. +W przypadku Rzymu, podążając za rozbudową miasta, wyznaczano uroczyście nowe pomerium. Następowało to z opóźnieniem, co powodowało perturbacje komunikacyjne wewnątrz organizmu miejskiego. Dopiero na przełomie II i I wieku p.n.e. pomerium objęło teren zamieszkany już za Serwiusza Tuliusza (druga połowa VI wieku p.n.e.), a i to z wyłączeniem Awentynu, który w obręb pomerium wszedł dopiero za panowania cesarza Klaudiusza. Ostatni raz pomerium wyznaczono za panowania cesarza Aureliana (271), ustanawiając je wzdłuż wybudowanych wówczas murów obronnych. „Mur Aureliana” miał 19 km długości (duża część zachowała się do dziś). Dopiero po I wojnie światowej Rzym rozrósł się poza ustanowioną wówczas świętą granicę miasta. +Pomerium miało znaczenie kultowe i prawne. Oddzielne wróżby urzędowe należało wykonywać dla obszarów wewnątrz i na zewnątrz pomerium. W obrębie świętej granicy można było dokonywać pochówku tylko Westalek i specjalnie zasłużonych Rzymian. Dopiero po zwycięstwie chrześcijaństwa w IV wieku zaczęły powstawać przykościelne cmentarze wewnątrz miasta. Pomerium rozgraniczało zasięg władzy cywilnej i wojskowej. Imperium wojskowe nie obowiązywało w jego granicach. Stąd wodzowie w niepewnych czasach schyłku republiki często zwoływali senat w świątyniach na Polu Marsowym, które leżało już poza pomerium. Do Miasta nie można było, z wyjątkiem triumfów, wchodzić z bronią. Z tego powodu na Polu Marsowym zbierały się również komicja centurialne. Na znak nieograniczonej władzy urzędników rzymskich poza Miastem, liktorzy wychodząc z niego wkładali topór przy przekraczaniu pomerium do noszonego w lewej ręce pęku rózg (fasces). W obręb pomerium nie mieli prawa wchodzić "hostes populi Romani" (wrogowie ludu rzymskiego). Dlatego posłów państw będących z Rzymem w stanie wojny lub rozejmu senat przyjmował w świątyni Bellony na Polu Marsowym. Nawet Cezar musiał uszanować pomerium i wizytująca go Kleopatra nie przekroczyła granic Miasta. +Jill Kelly + +Jill Kelly, właśc. Adrianne Diane Moore (ur. 1 lutego 1971 w Pomonie) – amerykańska aktorka pornograficzna, reżyserka i producentka. +W czasie dziesięcioletniej kariery wystąpiła w ponad czterystu filmach pornograficznych. Najbardziej znana jest z pracy w przemyśle pornograficznym, ale wystąpiła również w produkcjach hollywoodzkich, między innymi w filmie "Gra o honor". +W 1999 założyła firmę Jill Kelly Productions. +Nagrody. +Adult Video News (AVN) +X-Rated Critics Organization (XRCO) +Przypowieść + +Przypowieść (parabola) – gatunek literatury moralistyczno-dydaktycznej, którego cechy formalne (schematyzm fabuły, uproszczona konstrukcja postaci, obiektywny narrator, selekcja realiów) służą właściwemu odczytaniu alegorycznego lub symbolicznego znaczenia przedstawionego świata, przekazaniu prawdy moralnej. Posługuje się narracją, w której postacie i zdarzenia pełnią funkcję nosicieli i zarazem przykładów prawd uniwersalnych. +Fabuła ulega zwykle schematyzacji, realia zaś występują w postaci zredukowanej. Interpretacja przypowieści wymaga sięgnięcia do znaczeń alegorycznych lub symbolicznych. Przypowieść była szczególnie rozpowszechniona w literaturze religijnej Dalekiego i Bliskiego Wschodu. Wiele znanych przypowieści znajduje się w Biblii, np. przypowieść o synu marnotrawnym. +Stosowana często w homiletyce i literaturze parenetycznej, inspirowała wielu pisarzy, np. Adama Mickiewicza ("Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego") czy Alberta Camusa ("Dżuma"). +Moduł Peltiera + +Moduł Peltiera (zwany także ogniwem Peltiera) – urządzenie elektryczne wykorzystujące efekt Peltiera do chłodzenia. +Typowa budowa. +"Ogniwo Peltiera" jest elementem półprzewodnikowym zbudowanym z dwóch cienkich płytek (ceramika tlenków glinu), pomiędzy którymi znajdują się – dzięki miedzianym ścieżkom na wewnętrznych powierzchniach płytek obudowy ceramicznej – szeregowo ułożone półprzewodniki (naprzemiennie typ p i n) – wykonane z tellurku bizmutu domieszkowanego antymonem i selenem. +Zasada działania. +W strukturze półprzewodnika p występuje niedostateczna liczba elektronów, aby w pełni "obsadzić" górny poziom energetyczny. Natomiast w półprzewodniku n występuje nadmiar elektronów. W momencie przepływu prądu (elektrony płyną od półprzewodnika typu n do p) elektrony stają się ładunkami nadmiarowymi, więc muszą zwiększyć swoją energię kosztem energii cieplnej z otoczenia. Kiedy prąd płynie w odwrotnym kierunku elektrony spadają na niższy poziom energetyczny, co powoduje wydzielenie ciepła, wobec czego jedna ze stron modułu może działać jako chłodnica, a druga nagrzewnica. +Ilość odprowadzonego ciepła zależna jest od natężenia płynącego prądu. Jednak przepływ prądu przez układ powoduje wydzielanie się ciepła w samym module (w wyniku oporu elektrycznego – ciepło Joule'a). Przy zwiększeniu natężenia prądu, zwiększa się ilość transportowanego ciepła, ale także ilość ciepła wydzielanego przez moduł. Przy określonym natężeniu zachodzi zrównanie się ilości ciepła powstającego i ciepła transportowanego (będzie to maksymalna wydajność modułu, natomiast po "zimnej" stronie układu powstanie najniższa możliwa temperatura). Do odprowadzenia powstającego w układzie ciepła może posłużyć radiator, radiator z wentylatorem lub chłodzenie wodą. +Zastosowanie. +Wydajność chłodzenia za pomocą ogniw Peltiera może być zwiększona poprzez połączenie dwóch ogniw - po połączeniu strony "gorącej" jednego modułu ze stroną "zimną" modułu kolejnego. W zależności od ilości połączonych w ten sposób elementów, można uzyskiwać coraz niższe temperatury, co ograniczone jest maksymalną wydajnością całego układu. Ze względu na wydzielanie Ciepła Joule'a przez każde z ogniw, poziom następny musi odprowadzić ciepło przekazywane oraz wytworzone przez poprzednie poziomy - co decyduje o konieczności łączenia ogniw w strukturze piramidalnej oraz zastosowania dodatkowego chłodzenia. +Linki zewnętrzne. +http://www.peltier.pl +Chełmno (powiat kolski) + +Chełmno (nazwa urzędowa), znane także jako Chełmno nad Nerem – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie kolskim, w gminie Dąbie, nad Nerem. +Do 1954 roku miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Chełmno. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa konińskiego. Miejsce utworzenia w 1941 r. pierwszego na ziemiach polskich niemieckiego obozu zagłady. +Historia. +Wzmiankowana w języku polskim po raz pierwszy w 1136 r. pośród innych miejscowości w tzw. Bulli gnieźnieńskiej jednym z najcenniejszych zabytków polskiej historiografii. Już wówczas była własnością arcybiskupów gnieźnieńskich. Od połowy XVI wieku stanowiła centrum klucza składającego się z sześciu wsi. Istniał tutaj także folwark arcybiskupi. W 1837 r. generał lejtnant Karol Bystram otrzymuje jako darowiznę majątek, którego centrum stanowi dawny pałac arcybiskupi. Jest to nagroda za zasługi wojenne i tłumienie powstania listopadowego. Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości majątek przechodzi na własność Skarbu Państwa. W dniu 7 października 1863 r. doszło w pobliżu wsi do potyczki pomiędzy kilkudziesięcioosobowym oddziałem jazdy powstańczej a kozakami. W połowie listopada 1914 r. w okolicach Chełmna i Rzuchowa dochodzi do bitwy pomiędzy wojskami rosyjskimi i niemieckimi. Świadectwem tamtych wydarzeń jest cmentarz wojenny, na którym spoczywają polegli w bitwie żołnierze. W czasach drugiej wojny światowej istniał tutaj niemiecki obóz zagłady Kulmhof. W okresie okupacji Niemcy zmienili nazwę wsi na niem. "Kulmhof an der Nehr" (1939–1945). 31 stycznia 1942 naziści za próbę poinformowania opinii publicznej o istnieniu obozu, dokonują aresztowania sekretarza gminy, Stanisława Kaszyńskiego. Wkrótce potem zostaje aresztowana również jego żona Karolina Kaszyńska. Kaszyński zginął rozstrzelany trzy dni później. 7 kwietnia 1943 r. pałacyk został zburzony przez Niemców. W 1973 r. otwarto nowo wybudowaną szkołę podstawową, która od 1999 r. nosi imię Adama Mickiewicza. +Kościół. +We wsi, na stromym zboczu doliny rzeki Ner, znajduje się eklektyczny kościół Narodzenia Najświętszej Maryi Panny z 1875 r. Budynek kościoła zaprojektował inżynier powiatowy Ignacy Miłobędzki ojciec Tadeusza Miłobędzkiego, profesora chemii, który w latach 1920–1921 pełnił funkcję rektora SGGW w Warszawie. Ołtarz główny z obrazem Matki Boskiej Częstochowskiej oraz rzeźbami św. Piotra i św. Pawła. Na początku lat 90. XX wieku gruntownie przebudowano prezbiterium świątyni. W latach 1944–1945 w kościele znajdowała się "stacja obnażenia". Żydów ograbiano z bagaży i odzieży, ładowano do samochodów - komór gazowych; fakt ten upamiętnia pomnik przy kościele. +Ośrodek zagłady. +W 1941 Niemcy utworzyli tutaj jeden z pięciu - obok Bełżca, Sobiboru, Treblinki i Auschwitz-Birkenau - na ziemiach polskich ośrodków zagłady pod niemiecką nazwą tej miejscowości Kulmhof am Nehr. Przed przystąpieniem do jego organizacji wywieźli ze wsi większość jej mieszkańców. Ośrodek składał się z dwóch elementów. Pierwszy znajdował się w pałacu d. właścicieli Chełmna z parkiem, który otoczono wysokim drewnianym parkanem. +Drugim elementem był pobliski las rzuchowski, gdzie grzebano ofiary zagłady. +U zarania swej działalności ośrodek stał się najpierw miejscem zagłady ludności żydowskiej z okolicznych powiatów. Następnie łódzkich Żydów, w tym ok. 5000 Cyganów, którzy przeszli przez łódzkie getto oraz ok. 15 000 Żydów z Europy zachodniej, uprzednio przywiezionych do łódzkiego getta. +Współdziałanie obu tych elementów zostało tak opracowanie przez oprawców, aby ofiary do momentu znalezienia się w ruchomej komorze gazowej zamontowanej na samochodzie nie zorientowały się w istocie tego miejsca. Przywożone tu ofiary były natychmiast likwidowane, miejsce nie było przewidziane do przetrzymywania przez dłuższy czas jakichkolwiek grup Żydów. Wyjątkiem była kilkudziesięcioosobowa grupa mężczyzn zmuszonych do "pracy" przy procesie zagłady. Nocą przetrzymywano ich w podziemiach pałacu chełmskiego. Przy najmniejszym objawie opóźniania się w tym działaniu, a tym bardziej jakiejkolwiek formy oporu byli oni natychmiast zabijani a na ich miejsce z kolejnego transportu wybierano następne osoby. +Przywiezione osoby najpierw wprowadzano na dziedziniec pałacowy. Tu wyznaczony esesman informował ofiary, że zostaną najpierw poddane kąpieli a potem skierowane do obozu pracy. W tym celu musieli pozostawić na dziedzińcu wszystkie swoje rzeczy i ubrania. Następnie grupami po kilkadziesiąt osób byli wprowadzani do pałacu, przez który przechodzili do rampy na jego tyłach, gdzie podjeżdżały auta na których zamontowano szczelnie zamykane konstrukcje. Po wypełnieniu maksymalnie tej ruchomej komory gazowej zamykano jej drzwi, a następnie kierowca włączał silnik auta z którego spaliny były kierowane do wnętrza komory. Kierowca miał możliwość obserwacji z kabiny postępu duszenia się ofiar. W odpowiednim momencie proces napełniania komory spalinami był kończony i auto ruszało powoli w stronę lasu rzuchowskiego, odległego o ok. 4 kilometry. Tu komando Żydów wyrzucało zwłoki do masowych grobów. W przypadku natrafienia na osobę jeszcze żyjącą była ona zabijana przez nadzorujących proces zagłady wachmanów. Nie wykluczone były przypadki pogrzebania żywcem. Ponadto, przed zrzuceniem zwłok do grobu, były one poddawane szczegółowej rewizji w celu odnalezienia precjozów lub waluty. Dokonywali tego również zmuszeni do tego robotnicy żydowscy. +Początkowo zwłoki zakopywano we wspólnych mogiłach. Od lata 1942 r. podjęto akcję ich wydobycia i palenia w ogromnych ogniskach. W tym celu wybudowano także dwa prowizoryczne piece krematoryjne. +Szczegółowo proces zagłady został przedstawiony między innymi w "Medalionach" Zofii Nałkowskiej, w opowiadaniu-relacji pt. "Człowiek jest mocny", na bazie wspomnienia jednego z trzech ocalałych z tego miejsca zagłady - Szymona Srebrnika, robotnika zmuszonego do "pracy" w procesie zagłady, któremu udało się stamtąd zbiec. +Ośrodek funkcjonował od 8 grudnia 1941 do kwietnia 1943 oraz krótko w połowie 1944 r., kiedy to podjęto akcję ostatecznej likwidacji łódzkiego getta. Do Kulmhof wywieziono wówczas ofiary pierwszego etapu, w czerwcu. Potem kierowano je już tylko do komór gazowych Auschwitz-Birkenau. +Według historyków zginęło tutaj ponad 300 000 osób, przede wszystkim Żydów, nieliczni Polacy oraz wspomniana wyżej 5-tysięczna grupa Cyganów. +Załogę stanowiło kilkunastu funkcjonariuszy Gestapo z Poznania oraz kilkuset żandarmów i policjantów, tworzących tzw. Sonderkommando. +Ośrodek zagłady w Kulmhof a. Nehr (Chełmno n. Nerem) odegrał ważną rolę w organizacji procesu zagłady ludności żydowskiej w ramach zbrodniczej nazistowskiej akcji ostatecznego rozwiązania kwestii żydowskiej. Był jego "ośrodkiem doświadczalnym" w kwestii sposobu szybkiego uśmiercania dużych grup ludzi. Korzenie powstania komór gazowych Auschwitz-Birkenau tkwią w Chełmnie. +Obecnie na miejscu obozu mieści się muzeum i oraz monumentalny pomnik, wzniesiony 27 września 1964 r. Potężna betonowa płyta o wymiarach 35 i 36 m i wysokości 6-7 m, wsparta jest na pięciu piramidach. Na jej przedniej ścianie znajduje się olbrzymia płaskorzeźba, przedstawiająca sceny męczeństwa więźniów. Obok widniej napis - "Pamiętamy". Na tylnej ścianie pomnika wyryto fragment wstrząsającego listu napisanego przez jedną z ofiar: +""Wzięto nas od starca do niemowlęcia między miastem Koło a Dąbie. Wzięto nas do lasu i tam nas gazowano i rozstrzeliwano i palili... Otóż prosimy aby nasi przyszli bracia ukarali naszych morderców. Świadków naszego gnębienia, którzy mieszkają w tej okolicy jeszcze raz prosimy o rozgłoszenie tego morderstwa po całym świecie..."" +Po południowej stronie pomnika utworzono lapidarium nagrobków ze zniszczonego w latach 1941–1943 cmentarza żydowskiego w Turku. W głębi lasu - obok zrekonstruowanych fragmentów krematorium i zbiorowych mogił - ustawiono w 1990 r. Ścianę Pamięci. Przy niej znajdują się liczne tablice i pomniki upamiętniające ofiary Holocaustu. +Powiat garwoliński + +Powiat garwoliński – powiat w Polsce (województwo mazowieckie), utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Garwolin. +Położenie. +Powiat położony jest na pograniczu historycznego Mazowsza (Ziemia Czerska) obejmującego północą część regionu wraz z miastami Garwolin i Pilawa. Południowa część należy natomiast do ziemi stężyckiej w Małopolsce, położone są tam +miasta Łaskarzew i Żelechów. +Zachodnią granicę powiatu stanowi Wisła. Północna część regionu wchodzi w skład Równiny Garwolińskiej, wschodnia należy do Wysoczyzny Żelechowskiej, zachodnia do Dolin Środkowej Wisły. +Historia. +Historię regionu ze stolicą w Garwolinie wywodzi się do 25 lutego 1539 r., kiedy to król Zygmunt I Stary nakazał przeniesienie roków ziemskich dla prawobrzeżnej części powiatu czerskiego (z wyłączeniem Karczewa i Radwankowa) do Garwolina. Do okresu zaborów region obejmował jednak tylko obszar na Mazowszu. Dopiero w XIX w. włączono weń większą część ziemi stężyckiej. W podobnej postaci powiat przetrwał do 1975 r., kiedy to zlikwidowano powiaty. Po przywróceniu tych jednostek podziału administracyjnego w 1999 r. południowa część dawnego powiatu znalazła się w powiecie ryckim w woj. lubelskim. +Demografia. +Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 88,82 osób na 1 km². Stopień urbanizacji wynosi 27,3%, co oznacza, że zdecydowana większość ludzi zamieszkuje wsie – 72,7% (powiat jest klasyfikowany jako słabo zurbanizowany). +Religia. +Większość mieszkańców jest katolikami. Istnieje zbór Garwolin oraz diaspora Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów. Wyznaje się również Prawosławie i kilka innych wyznań. +Jeszcze kilka lat temu w Gocławiu (gm. Pilawa) istniał Kościół Starokatolickich Mariawitów. Budynek popadał w ruinę i został rozebrany. +Gra w życie + +Gra w życie (Life, The game of life) – jeden z pierwszych i najbardziej znanych przykładów automatu komórkowego, wymyślony w roku 1970 przez brytyjskiego matematyka Johna Conwaya. +Gra została spopularyzowana przez Martina Gardnera na łamach Scientific American. Od momentu publikacji zawsze wzbudzała duże zainteresowanie z powodu zaskakującego sposobu, w jaki struktury potrafią ewoluować. To właśnie jej pojawienie się wzbudziło zainteresowanie automatami komórkowymi wśród studentów, którzy traktowali ją jako rozrywkę oraz fizyków, którzy zwrócili uwagę na możliwości automatów w zakresie symulatorów fizycznych. Dzisiaj matematyków, ekonomistów i naukowców z innych dziedzin interesuje sposób, w jaki przy zastosowaniu tylko kilku prostych reguł powstają skomplikowane struktury. +Powstanie gry. +Conway zainspirowany pracami Stanisława Ulama oraz Roberta Schrandta nad układami sąsiadów i regułami zmian, eksperymentował nad stworzeniem takiego automatu pod koniec lat 60. XX wieku. Reguły, które w ostateczności przyczyniły się do powstania gry "Życie", zostały wybrane, ponieważ pozwalały na równowagę pomiędzy zbyt szybkim rozrastaniem się struktur i zbyt wolnym pojawianiem się szybko znikających obiektów. Do badania populacji żyjących Conway używał komputera PDP-7. +Opis reguł gry. +Gra toczy się na nieskończonej planszy (płaszczyźnie) podzielonej na kwadratowe komórki. Każda komórka ma ośmiu "sąsiadów", czyli komórki przylegające do niej bokami i rogami. Każda komórka może znajdować się w jednym z dwóch stanów: może być albo "żywa" (włączona), albo "martwa" (wyłączona). Stany komórek zmieniają się w pewnych jednostkach czasu. Stan wszystkich komórek w pewnej jednostce czasu jest używany do obliczenia stanu wszystkich komórek w następnej jednostce. Po obliczeniu wszystkie komórki zmieniają swój stan dokładnie w tym samym momencie. Stan komórki zależy tylko od liczby jej żywych sąsiadów. W "grze w życie" nie ma graczy w dosłownym tego słowa znaczeniu. Udział człowieka sprowadza się jedynie do ustalenia stanu początkowego komórek. +Zdefiniowano kilka wzorców reguł generowania, najbardziej rozpowszechnione są reguły wymyślone przez Conwaya. Do nich też odnosi się podział struktur, przedstawiony w dalszej części artykułu. +Szczegółowy podział struktur ze względu na zachowanie. +Niezmienne. +Struktury niezmienne, inaczej stabilne lub statyczne, pozostają identyczne bez względu na krok czasowy (dla każdej żywej komórki spełniony jest warunek przetrwania i dla żadnej spośród martwych nie jest spełniony); najprostsza taka struktura (Block) składa się z 4 żywych komórek. Pojawiają się bardzo często jako produkty końcowe ewolucji struktur. Tworzy się je stosunkowo prosto, istnieją schematy według których można wymyślać nowe tego typu struktury. +Oscylatory. +Oscylatory zmieniają się okresowo, co pewien czas powracają do swojego stanu pierwotnego; najprostsza taka struktura składa się z trzech żywych komórek położonych w jednym rzędzie. Najprostsze z nich dość często pojawiają się jako produkty końcowe ewolucji struktur. +Okresy oscylatorów najczęściej przyjmują wartości 2, 3, 4, 6 lub 8, choć w grze w życie znaleziono i takie, których okres wynosi prawie 150000. Dla pewnych reguł istnieje nawet oscylator o nazwie "biały rekin", który ma okres 150000034. +Większość liczb naturalnych może być długościami okresu oscylatora. Wyjątkami są jednak liczby 19, 23, 31, 37, 38, 41, 43, oraz 53. Nie wiadomo, czy oscylatory dla takich długości okresów istnieją, ale jest bardzo prawdopodobne, że tak jest. Warto dodać, że dla okresów 34 i 51 jedyne znane oscylatory składają się z niezależnie działających struktur o okresie 2 lub 3 i 17. Przykładowo oscylator o okresie 34 tworzy się z oscylatorów długości 2 i 17 w takiej odległości, by na siebie nie wpływały. Dla cyklu długości 14 istnieje natomiast tylko jeden oscylator (Fontanna). +Charakterystyczną cechą oscylatorów o dłuższych okresach jest podobieństwo tych o cyklu jednakowej długości (np. oscylatory długości 32 przypominają zegary z obracającą się wskazówką). Ich tworzenie jest dość trudne (wymaga sporej wyobraźni). +Niestałe. +Struktury niestałe zmieniają się, nie powracając nigdy do swojego stanu pierwotnego. Jest to w praktyce grupa łącząca struktury nie należące do żadnej z pozostałych kategorii. Z tego też powodu jest ich najwięcej, a ich uzyskanie nie sprawia większych trudności (losowy układ komórek wprowadzony jako warunki początkowe zwykle okazuje się być strukturą niestałą). +Najdłużej rozwijające się w struktury niezmienne nazwane są matuzalemami (nazwa pochodzi od Matuzalema). Terminem "diehard" (ang. "die" – umierać, "hard" – trudno) natomiast określa się układ, który co prawda znika, ale dopiero po długim czasie. +Ogrody Edenu formalnie są strukturami plasującymi się w kategorii niestałych, ale zostały wyróżnione ze względu na swoją szczególną właściwość. Są to bowiem układy, które nie mogą powstać w wyniku ewolucji jakiejkolwiek struktury. Jest ich bardzo niewiele, najmniejszy spośród nich składa się z około 100 komórek. +Statki (spaceships). +Tzw. "statki" zwykle zmieniają się okresowo – choć okresy nie przekraczają jednak najczęściej kilkunastu kroków czasowych – ale wraz z każdym cyklem przesuwają się o stałą liczbę pól po planszy w określonym kierunku. +Najbardziej znanym przykładem takiej struktury, będącym jednocześnie niejako symbolem gry w życie, jest glider (szybowiec). +Glider. +Przez długi czas po powstaniu gry w życie nie było jasne, czy istnieje jakikolwiek statek, czyli struktura, która mogłaby poruszać się w nieskończoność po planszy. Wyznaczono nawet nagrodę za jego odkrycie, w wysokości 50 dolarów. Udało się w końcu (w wyniku ewolucji R-Pentomino) odnaleźć układ, nazywany po polsku "szybowcem" (ang. "glider"), który przesuwa się po planszy i nigdy nie zastyga. +Układ ten stał się symbolem społeczności hakerskiej. W październiku 2003 roku Eric Raymond zaproponował szybowiec na emblemat hakerski. Został on bez większych głosów sprzeciwu zaakceptowany przez społeczność, chociaż część hakerów uważa, że społeczność nie powinna mieć godła jako takiego. +Glider jest oscylatorem, o okresie długości 4. Może przesuwać wyłącznie się na ukos, pod kątem 45 stopni. Nie istnieją jego modyfikacje, to znaczy, że nie istnieje taki algorytm, który pozwala na dodawanie nowych komórek tak, aby powstające struktury dalej były statkami. +Glider często powstaje samoczynnie, jako produkt reakcji, w których olbrzymia liczba komórek ewoluuje w chaotyczny sposób. +Inne statki. +Poza tym znane są także tzw. statki kosmiczne. Różnią się one od glidera kierunkiem poruszania się (pion lub poziom, a nie ukos) oraz możliwością modyfikacji – poprzez dodawanie komórek w odpowiedni sposób będziemy uzyskiwać kolejne statki. W zależności od ich wielkości nazywane są LWSS, MWSS, HWSS lub OWSS (skrótowce od "Light/Medium/Heavy/Over Weight Space Ship" – Lekki/Średni/Ciężki/"Nadciężki" Statek Kosmiczny). Stosuje się też do nich nazwę Dakota z liczbą określającą ich rozmiar. Jeszcze większe Dakoty nie mogą latać samodzielnie, ale mogą w towarzystwie mniejszych. +Poza tym istnieje jeszcze kilka innych statków o stosunkowo niewielkich rozmiarach (m.in. Maszyna Schicka, Rzutka). Pozostałe (kilkaset) takie struktury są duże (kilkaset żywych komórek) i trudne do tworzenia. Wymyślający je informatycy nadają im często artystyczną formę, np. ryby czy falującej wody. +Działa (guns). +Działa to oscylatory, które co jeden okres "wyrzucają" z siebie jeden statek, który odłącza się i egzystuje samodzielnie. Najwięcej dział generuje glidery, poza tym część jest zdolna do wytwarzania statków kosmicznych. Długość okresu tych struktur waha się od 30 (najprostszy Gosper Glider Gun) aż do kilkudziesięciu tysięcy kroków czasowych. Ze względu na fakt, że są to formy bardzo zaawansowane (od stu do nawet kilku tysięcy żywych komórek), ich tworzenie jest zwykle bardzo czasochłonne i wymaga praktyki. +Gosper Glider Gun +Puffery. +Puffery, inaczej puffer trainy – dymiące pociągi. Struktury oscylujące (o okresie zwykle w okolicach kilkunastu kroków) oraz poruszające się po planszy, a przy tym pozostawiające za sobą cyklicznie inne struktury, które odłączają się i egzystują samodzielnie. +Najprostsze puffery (składają się one już z dwudziestu kilku żywych komórek) – zostawiają za sobą statki lub chaotyczny, stabilny pas, tzw. ruiny (debris). Bardziej złożone – oscylatory, działa czy nawet inne puffery. Powszechnie stosowaną metodą tworzenia prostych pufferów jest odpowiednie składanie MWSS-ów oraz niewielkiej struktury niestałej, jak np. B-Heptomino. +Puffery są najbardziej efektownymi strukturami gry w życie. Przykładowo, mają one możliwość przeprowadzenia algorytmu wyznaczającego liczby pierwsze. Jednocześnie, ich tworzenie jest tak trudne, że nawet doświadczeni informatycy traktują je jako wymagające nie lada poświęcenia. Wpływa na to między innymi fakt, że niektóre z tych struktur mają po 5000 komórek żywych w stadium początkowym. Do tej pory wynaleziono około setki pufferów. +Puffera, który zostawia za sobą statki, nazywamy rake'iem (ang. grabie, hulaka). Najprostszy rake składa się z 2 LWSS-ów i B-Heptomina, w skład wszystkich innych również wchodzą WSS-y. Najbardziej złożona struktura tego typu, Spider-Rake, składa się z około 1000 komórek w pierwotnym stadium. Istnieje kilkadziesiąt odkrytych rake'ów. +Breedery (ang. rozpłodnik, hodowca) natomiast to puffery o bardzo złożonym zachowaniu. Breedery pozostawiają za sobą działa lub nawet inne puffery, jednak jedynym warunkiem określającym czy dany puffer jest breederem, jest kwadratowy przyrost w czasie populacji jego żywych komórek (istnieją też działa wystrzeliwujące "hulaków" i regularne układy z brzegiem zapewniającym im rozszerzanie się). Zachowanie breederów przebiega zwykle ten sposób: "czoło", a więc oscylująca i produkująca nowe obiekty część puffera, wysyła w różnych kierunkach statki, które zderzając się, tworzą strukturę niezmienną. Następnie, zwykle po kilkudziesięciu krokach, wskutek zderzeń struktur niezmiennych z gliderami tworzy się działo. W takim razie, skoro co pewien okres czoło wytwarza działo, a każde z dział tworzy statek – przyrost populacji wyraża się funkcją kwadratową. Breedery są najtrudniejszymi i najbardziej skomplikowanymi (po kilka tysięcy komórek w stadium początkowym) strukturami gry w życie. Jak do tej pory, wynaleziono ich kilkanaście. +Warto jednak zwrócić uwagę, że istnieją różne złożone struktury, ale większość z nich po najdrobniejszym zakłóceniu praktycznie zawsze rozpada się, stabilizując się w sposób podobny do losowych układów. Tworzą się klocki, światła uliczne (często w formie całych skrzyżowań, jak z wypełnionego kwadratu 3 na 3), kryształy (również często w czwórkach, jak z wypełnionego kwadratu 5 na 5)), bochenki, nieco łodzi, stawów i podobnych do łodzi drobnych układów stabilnych. Wylatują też szybowce. Inne migacze są rzadkością, a bardziej złożonych układów praktycznie się nie spotyka. +Przykład Breedera +Modyfikacje gry w życie. +Modyfikacje reguł. +Reguły Conwaya można więc zapisać : 23/3, a reguły Trzy Cztery : 34/34. +Modyfikacji gry w życie jest zbyt wiele (218 = 262144), by pomieścić je tu wszystkie. Tabela zawiera reguły dołączone do programu Mirek's Cellebration, te wspomniane przez Wolframa oraz kilka innych. +Warto też zauważyć, że wszystkie reguły, które zawierają element /1, np. 1/1 lub 01356/13456 będą miały charakter eksplozji dla każdego wzoru początkowego. Dla każego kroku czasowego komórka ("x","y"), gdzie "x" i "y" to minimalne współrzędne żywej komórki, komórka ("x"-1,"y"-1) ma tylko 1 żywego sąsiada, więc ożyje. +Modyfikacje kształtu komórek. +Oprócz powszechnie przyjętego podziału płaszczyzny na kwadraty można zastosować także sześciokąt (siatka heksagonalna). Najczęściej stosowaną regułą jest 3/24, jednak nie znaleziono struktur tak interesujących jak w oryginale. +Modyfikacje kolorystyczne. +Nie zmieniając reguł automatu, możemy zabarwić część komórek, co da ciekawszy efekt, nie wpłynie jednak na kształt generowanych struktur. +Darwinia. +Gra w życie pojawiła się jako jedno z intr do gry komputerowej Darwinia +Charakterystyka automatu komórkowego "Gra w życie". +Stephen Wolfram, który podzielił automaty komórkowe na cztery różne klasy, biorąc pod uwagę efekty jakie one wywołują, przyporządkował "grę w życie" do klasy czwartej, charakteryzującej się tym, że nie prowadzi ona ani do globalnego porządku, ani do globalnego chaosu. Przedstawił on hipotezę, że ten automat może wykonywać obliczenia i jest równoważny maszynie Turinga. Chris Langton, twórca innego popularnego automatu komórkowego, znanego jako mrówka Langtona wykazał w roku 1991, że proponowana przez Wolframa klasa czwarta, znajduje się pomiędzy klasą zachowań chaotycznych (klasa II) i struktur okresowych (klasa III). +Jaskinia krasowa + +Jaskinia krasowa – jaskinia powstała wskutek procesu krasowienia. Zaliczana jest do form krasu podziemnego. +Woda do jaskini dostaje się ponorem, natomiast uchodzi wywierzyskiem, jeśli dnem płynie rzeka. W zagłębieniach mogą także powstawać jeziorka. +Jaskinie mogą być rozbudowane w kierunku poziomym lub pionowym. +Jaskinie krasowe w skałach węglanowych i ich szata naciekowa są szczególnie wrażliwe na antropopresję zewnętrzną i wewnętrzną ze względu na wrażliwy stan równowagi, od którego zależne jest krystalizowanie lub rozpuszczanie materiału skalnego (węglanu wapnia i magnezu). Z tego względu na jaskinie te zły wpływ może mieć już nawet ich otwarcie i zmiana warunków przepływu powietrza i wilgotności, a także zmiana wilgotności w wyniku przebywania w nich ludzi, toteż w wielu udostępnionych turystycznie jaskiniach krasowych istnieją limity wejść, a niektóre z nich są zamknięte, aby nie naruszać ich warunków wilgotnościowych (a nie tylko dla ochrony zamieszkujących je organizmów żywych). +Andrej Urlep + +Andrej Urlep (ur. 19 lipca 1957 w Lublanie) – słoweński koszykarz i trener koszykarski. +Biografia. +12 maja 2006 został nominowany na stanowisko trenera męskiej reprezentacji Polski, po czym wywalczył awans do turnieju finałowego Mistrzostw Europy 2007. Podczas tej imprezy Polska zajęła ostatnie miejsce w swojej grupie (grupa D), przegrywając wszystkie trzy mecze (66:74 z Francją, 52:70 z Słowenią i 70:79 z Włochami). Po mistrzostwach Urlep przestał trenować kadrę (przejął ją Muli Katzurin). Po ponad rocznym rozbracie z koszykówką w listopadzie 2008 objął zespół z dolnych rejonów PLK – Basket Kwidzyn. 3 grudnia 2009 roku został trenerem Turowa Zgorzelec. 6 grudnia 2011 został trenerem kolejnego zespołu z PLK - AZS-u Koszalin. Podczas jego wieloletniej kariery w Polsce, nadano mu liczne przydomki, m.in.: "Gargamel", "Kudłaty", "El Furioso". +Funkcja zaprzyjaźniona + +Funkcja zaprzyjaźniona – w języku programowania C++ funkcja, która ma dostęp do prywatnych składników klasy. +Przykład w C++. + +SkiArena Szrenica + +SkiArena Szrenica – zespół nartostrad w Szklarskiej Porębie na stokach Szrenicy i Łabskiego Szczytu. +Światowa Rada Kościołów + +Światowa Rada Kościołów (ang. World Council of Churches) – ekumeniczna organizacja chrześcijańska, założona w 1948 w Amsterdamie. +Początki. +Pierwsza sesja została oficjalnie zapoczątkowana nabożeństwem ekumenicznym, sprawowanym 22 sierpnia 1948 r. w Nieuwe Kerk w Amsterdamie. Uczestniczyło w niej 351 delegatów, reprezentujących 147 wspólnot kościelnych, głównie protestanckich i mniejszych starożytnych Kościołów wschodnich z 44 krajów. Była też niewielka delegacja prawosławnych z Konstantynopola i Grecji. Delegatom towarzyszyły setki zmienników, akredytowanych obserwatorów, delegatów młodzieży oraz dziennikarze. +Nie uczestniczył Patriarchat Rosyjski oraz Kościół katolicki. +Struktury. +Obecnie siedziba organizacji mieści się w Genewie. Na czele rady stoi Komitet Naczelny, wybierany co 7 lat. W sierpniu 2009 na kolejnego sekretarza generalnego został wybrany ks. dr Olav Fykse Tveit z Kościoła Norwegii. Wcześniej od 2003 funkcję tę pełnił dr Samuel Kobia z Kenii z Kościoła Metodystów. +Kościoły członkowskie. +Kościół rzymskokatolicki nie jest członkiem ŚRK, ale od ponad 30 lat współpracuje z Radą, wysyłając obserwatorów na wszystkie większe konferencje, jak również na spotkania Komitetu Centralnego i Zebrania plenarne Grup roboczych. Papieska Rada do spraw Popierania Jedności Chrześcijan mianuje 12 osób w charakterze pełnoprawnych członków do komisji "Wiara i Porządek" ("Faith and Order"). +Zgromadzenia ogólne. +Przedstawiciele wszystkich kościołów członkowskich spotykają się co siedem lat podczas Zgromadzeń ogólnych, gdzie wybierają członków Komitetu Naczelnego, zarządzającego Radą. +Chad Channing + +Chad Channing (ur. 31 stycznia 1967 w Santa Rosa w USA) to amerykański muzyk i instrumentalista (perkusista). Chad początkowo grał na gitarze basowej, lecz zaniepokojeni postępującym zanikiem mięśni nóg syna rodzice postanowili kupić perkusję, która stała się lekarstwem na dolegliwości Channinga. Znany przede wszystkim z występów w grupie muzycznej Nirvana (1988 - 1990). W 1989 roku z Nirvaną nagrał debiutancki album grupy "Bleach". Na własną prośbę opuścił zespół w czerwcu 1990 roku, a jego miejsce zajął Dave Grohl. Po odejściu Chad Channing brał jeszcze udział w nagrywaniu płyty Incesticide - jego perkusję można usłyszeć w "Big Long Now", "Dive" i "Stain". Obecnie Channing gra w zespole East of the Equator. +Liero + +Liero – bezpłatna gra komputerowa z gatunku strzelanek, stworzona w 1998 roku przez fińskiego programistę Joosę Riekkinena na system operacyjny MS-DOS. Została ona opisana przezeń jako "Worms" w czasie rzeczywistym (w odróżnieniu od stosowanego w "Worms" systemu turowego). Możliwa jest gra dwóch osób na podzielonym ekranie lub gra z przeciwnikiem sterowanym przez komputer. +Ostatnia napisana przez Riekkinena wersja 1.33 została wydana 13 lutego 1999 roku, po czym autor utracił kod źródłowy (Turbo Pascal 7) wskutek awarii twardego dysku. W marcu 2005 roku został przypadkowo odnaleziony kod źródłowy "Liero" w wersji 0.25. 8 sierpnia 2008, za zgodą Riekkinena, za oficjalną kontynuację "Liero" została uznana gra "OpenLiero", która działa między innymi w systemach Windows i Linux. Obecna wersja to 1.35b2. +"Liero" zyskało status dzieła kultowego wśród części graczy, co zaowocowało licznymi modyfikacjami oraz klonami gry. Dzieło Riekkinena stanowiło inspirację dla polskiej gry Michała Marcinkowskiego pod nazwą "Soldat". +Rozgrywka. +Gracz ma do dyspozycji dżdżownicę (fin. "liero") uzbrojoną w pięć rodzajów broni, które można wybrać lub wylosować spośród czterdziestu dostępnych. Każda dżdżownica jest także wyposażona w sprężystą linę z hakiem. Dany robak może poruszyć się w prawo lub w lewo, podskakiwać, a także uruchamiać broń lub linę. Do wykorzystania w rozgrywce dostępne są różne rodzaje broni, między innymi bazooka, granat, strzelba i pistolet maszynowy, które posiadają nieskończoną amunicję (aczkolwiek broń wymaga przeładowywania). Postać gracza ma określoną liczbę punktów zdrowia, które traci wskutek obrażeń. +Klony. +Do czasu wersji 1.34, "Liero" działało jedynie w systemie operacyjnym MS-DOS, co powodowało problemy dla użytkowników nowszych systemów operacyjnych. Powstały liczne gry naśladujące "Liero" pod względem sposobu rozgrywki, między innymi hiszpańskie "Gusanos", "Liero Xtreme" zawierające obsługę modyfikacji, a także "OpenLiero" uznane za oficjalną kontynuację "Liero". +Dzongkha + +Dzongkha རྯོང༌ཁ༌ (transliteracja Wyliego: "rdzong-kha"); alternatywna nazwa: འབྲུག༌སྐད༌ (transliteracja Wyliego: "brug skad", wymowa: "trukkä") – język urzędowy Bhutanu, spokrewniony z niektórymi dialektami tybetańskimi używanymi w Sikkimie i południowym Tybecie. Mówiony dzongkha i współczesny standardowy język tybetański są wzajemnie niezrozumiałe, lecz dzongkha znajdował się pod silnym wpływem klasycznego języka tybetańskiego, używanego do lat 60. w szkolnictwie bhutańskim. Język dzongkha zapisywany jest w lokalnej odmianie pisma tybetańskiego, zwanej "dzioji" "mgyogs yig". Czasami bywa klasyfikowany jako dialekt języka tybetańskiego. +Nazwa języka oznacza "język" (kha, ཁ་) używany dawniej w "dzongach" ("dzong", རྫོང་) – klasztorach-twierdzach powstałych w Bhutanie w XVII wieku. +Dichlorodifenylotrichloroetan + +Dichlorodifenylotrichloroetan (łac. "Clofenotanum"; DDT, "Azotox") – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy chlorowanych węglowodorów. Stosowany jako środek owadobójczy. Syntezę DDT przeprowadził po raz pierwszy w 1874 austriacki chemik Othmar Zeidler. Właściwości owadobójcze tego związku odkrył Szwajcar Paul Müller, za co otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w 1948 r. +Wykorzystywany był powszechnie od początku lat 40. do początku lat 60. XX wieku. Na większą skalę zastosowano go w czasie II wojny światowej do ochrony wojsk sprzymierzonych przed tyfusem plamistym roznoszonym przez wszy. Wydawał się wprost idealnym środkiem do ochrony roślin, w latach 60. XX w. stosowany na całym świecie w potężnych ilościach. +Toksyczny dla owadów – wnika w sposób kontaktowy przez przewód pokarmowy lub powłoki ciała i powoduje zaburzenia pracy systemu nerwowego owadów. +Wpływ na środowisko i zdrowie człowieka. +Bardzo trwały. Okres połowicznego rozpadu w glebie: 2-15 lat, w wodzie: 56 dni, 28 w rzece. Produkty rozpadu to głównie DDE i DDD, które mają zbliżone właściwości i są jeszcze bardziej trwałe. Odkładają się w tkankach tłuszczowych zwierząt. +DDT jest organochloryną, wykazującą słabą aktywność estrogeniczną, przez co może zaburzać równowagę hormonalną u zwierząt, jak wykazały badania laboratoryjne na myszach i szczurach. Nie potwierdzono tego u ludzi. Teoretyczne objawy ostrego zatrucia DDT u ludzi: wzmożona pobudliwość, zaburzenia koordynacji ruchów, bóle głowy, wymioty i drgawki, zgon na skutek porażenia ośrodka oddechowego i obrzęku płuc. Jednoznaczne potwierdzenie DDT jako trucizny, będącej przyczyną zgonu, nie zostało odnotowane. Przeprowadzono nawet badania, w których ochotnicy spożywali 35 mg DDT dziennie przez prawie 2 lata. Wyniki okazały się kontrowersyjne, ale ustalono przybliżoną dawkę 10 mg/kg powodującą konwulsję. Dawka śmiertelna LD50 przekracza 50 mg/kg. Długotrwała ekspozycja na DDT może zwiększać ryzyko zachorowania na raka piersi. +Początkowo związek uważano za nieszkodliwy dla ludzi, ssaków i ptaków. W 1949 roku amerykański lekarz M. S. Biskind oskarżył DDT o wywoływanie u dzieci choroby Heinego-Medina, w rzeczywistości wywoływanej przez wirus. +W opublikowanej w 1962 roku książce "Silent Spring" amerykańska biolog Rachel Carson, pracownik United States Fish and Wildlife Service, oskarżyła przedsiębiorców stosujących DDT o doprowadzenie do wyginięcia całych populacji ptaków, wskazując na związek pomiędzy jego stosowaniem a zbyt cienkimi skorupkami jaj ptaków drapieżnych. Publikacja zaowocowała masową kampanią medialną oraz postępowaniem EPA ("Environmental Protection Agency"), które po toczących się w latach 1970-1972 przesłuchaniach zakazało stosowania DDT w USA. Liczne badania sprawdzające wpływ DDT na środowisko wykazały, że u wielu gatunków ptaków ekspozycja na tę substancję wpływa na znaczne zmniejszenie grubości skorupki jaj. Nie został jeszcze zbadany mechanizm, który wywołuje to zjawisko, jednakże podejrzewa się, że p,p'-DDE (pochodna rozpadu DDT) inhibituje ATPazę wapnia i redukuje ilość wapnia absorbowanego z krwi podczas wytwarzania jaja. Przeprowadzono również badania, które wykazały obniżanie jakości skorupki jaja przez o,p'-DDT. Masowe stosowanie DDT spowodowało również istotny spadek liczebności (lokalnie nawet wymarcie) północnoamerykańskich sokołów wędrownych i w konsekwencji znaczne zmniejszenie różnorodności genetycznej tamtejszych populacji. +Zakaz spowodował gwałtowny wzrost zachorowań na malarię. W Sri Lance w 1946 roku na malarię chorowały prawie 3 miliony ludzi, po zastosowaniu DDT liczba przypadków tej choroby spadła do zaledwie kilkunastu. Po wycofaniu DDT choroba powróciła i w roku 1969 chorowały na malarię ponad 2 miliony mieszkańców Sri Lanki. +Zwolennicy zakazu stosowania DDT postulują stosowanie zasady ostrożności. W krajach trzeciego świata DDT w dalszym ciągu jest używany do walki z malarią. +Historia. +Pierwszy raz został zsyntetyzowany w 1873 przez Othmara Zieldera, ale jego owadobójcze właściwości zostały odkryte dopiero w 1939 przez szwajcara Paula Hermanna Müllera, który w 1948 otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w kategorii Fizjologia i Medycyna. +Rozgłos i uznanie DDT zdobył podczas II wojny światowej, kiedy był używany przez Aliantów i sojuszników jako środek zwalczający wszy i pchły, co chroniło przed przenoszonym przez nie tyfusem plamistym (prawie go eliminując). Dzięki DDT udało się wytępić malarię z Europy i Ameryki Płn., oraz znacznie zredukować jej występowanie w Afryce i Ameryce Płd. +Jako pierwsze zakaz stosowania DDT wprowadziły Norwegia i Szwecja w 1970, USA po długich sporach poszła w ich ślady w lecie 1972. W Polsce zakaz wszedł w życie 1976, w Wielkiej Brytanii w 1984. W 2001 ratyfikowano konwencję sztokholmską, podpisaną przez 98 państw, zobowiązujących się do nie używania bądź znacznego ograniczenia produkcji pestycydów nie ulegających degradacji. +Walka z malarią. +Światowa Organizacja Zdrowia (WHO) podaje, że rocznie malarią zaraża się od 300 do 500 mln ludzi, z czego około 1 mln umiera. 90% ofiar to dzieci afrykańskie poniżej 5. roku życia. Obecnie użycie DDT ogranicza się do ochrony przed komarami ("Aedes aegypti, Anopheles culicifacies, Anopheles subpictus"), przenoszącymi tę chorobę. Suazi, Mozambik i Ekwador są przykładami krajów, którym udało się znacznie ograniczyć śmiertelność właśnie dzięki DDT. +W latach 50. udało się zredukować wskaźnik śmiertelności na malarię ze 192 os./100 tys. do 7 os./100 tys. DDT był również stosowany na szeroką skalę w rolnictwie – na 50 hektarów pola wystarczała tona tego środka. Ze względu na zwiększanie użycia powstawało coraz więcej odpornych mutacji komarów. +Produkcja w Polsce. +W Polsce produkcję Azotoxu uruchomiono po II wojnie światowej w 1947 w Zakładach Chemicznych Organika Azot w Jaworznie, a jeden z preparatów zawierających DDT produkowano także w Zakładach Chemicznych Gamrat w Jaśle. +Preparaty handlowe. +"Azotox", "Ditox", "Tritox" , "Anofex", "Cesarex", "Chlorophenothane", "Dedelo", "Dinocide", "Didimac", "Digmar", "ENT 1506", "Genitox", "Guesapon", "Guesarol", "Gexarex", "Gyron", "Hildit", "Ixodex", "Kopsol", "Neocid", "OMS 16", "Micro DDT 75", "Pentachlorin", "Rukseam", "R50", "Zerdane" i in. +Kosaciec + +Kosaciec, irys ("Iris" L.) – rodzaj roślin należący do rodziny kosaćcowatych. Kosaćce występują w stanie dzikim na półkuli północnej i jest ich ponad 200 gatunków. Gatunkiem typowym jest kosaciec bródkowy ("Iris germanica" L.). +Systematyka. +Jeden z rodzajów podrodziny "Iridoideae" Eaton w rodzinie kosaćcowatych ("Iridaceae") należącej do rzędu szparagowców ("Asparagales") w obrębie jednoliściennych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa jednoliścienne ("Liliopsida" Brongn.), podklasa liliowe ("Liliidae" J.H. Schaffn.), nadrząd "Lilianae" Takht., rząd kosaćcowce ("Iridales" Raf.), podrząd "Iridineae" Engl., rodzina kosaćcowate ("Iridaceae" Juss.), podrodzina "Iridoideae" Eaton, plemię "Irideae" Kitt., podplemię "Iridinae" Pax in Engl. & Prantl, rodzaj kosaciec ("Iris" L.). +Z rodzaju "Iris" część gatunków wyróżniana jest czasem w rodzaje "Juno" Tratt. i "Xiphium" Mill. W systemie Crescent Bloom rodzaje te włączone są do rodzaju "Iris" i traktowane jako synonimy. +Baptysterium we Florencji + +Baptysterium San Giovanni – najstarszy budynek usytuowany na Piazza San Giovanni we Florencji. Znajduje się w pobliżu wejścia do katedry Santa Maria del Fiore. +W środku baptysterium zbudowano otwarte do wnętrza empory oparte na kolumnach o gładkich trzonach i kanelurowanych filarach. Dwudzielne, arkadowe okna umieszczono pomiędzy pilastrami. Głowice kolumn, pilastrów i filarów wzorowane są na porządku korynckim. Powierzchnie ścian i posadzkę zdobią barwne płyty kamienne ułożone w geometryczne wzory. Łuk tęczowy i wewnętrzną powierzchnię dachu zdobią mozaiki z XIII wieku. Jedną z powierzchni sklepienia zdobi postać Chrystusa na tronie, w sąsiednich polach umieszczone są sceny z Starego Testamentu. Pozostałe pięć pól podzielono na sześć pasów. Pas najbliżej latarni wykonano na wszystkich ośmiu polach, zdobią go postacie Chóru Anielskiego z dekoracyjnym ornamentem z wici roślinnej. Niżej ukazano sceny ilustrujące Księgę Rodzaju z postaciami Adama i Ewy, Kaina i Abla, Noego z rodziną, dalej z życia św. Józefa, poniżej z życia Jezusa Chrystusa i Marii, najniżej z życia św. Jana Chrzciciela. +W baptysterium znajduje się nagrobek antypapieża Jana XXIII, dwa sarkofagi rzymskie oraz sarkofag biskupa Ranieri. +Nartostrada + +Nartostrada – trasa o niskim stopniu trudności (niskim stopniu nachylenia również), prowadząca do dolnej stacji wyciągu, ale nie najkrótszą drogą tak jak stok. Nartostrady nie prowadzą bezpośrednio w dół doliny tak jak stoki, czasami biegną wręcz w poprzek stoku (np. gdy niebieska nartostrada przecina stok czerwony w którymś jego punkcie, np. na Jaworzynie Krynickiej – dwukrotnie). Czasami nartostrady są zrobione przez człowieka, w wcześniej wyżłobionych w tym celu półkach. Trasa narciarska może np. zaczynać się trasą zjazdową i kończyć nartostradą, tak jak np. trasa nr 5 z Pilska do Korbielowa. +Miłobor + +Miłobor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Miło-" ("miły") i "-bor" (od "*borti (sę)", "*boriti (sę)" – "walczyć, zmagać się, mocować"). Mogło oznaczać "tego, który miłuje walkę". Imię to notowane jest w Polsce co najmniej od 1427 roku, przy czym notowana w 1267 roku forma "Meleboritz" winna być rozumiana jako Miłoborzyc, tj. "syn Miłobora". +Niektóre możliwe staropolskie zdrobnienia: Miłowan, Miłwan, Mila (masc.), Milan, Milana (masc.), Milec, Mileczko, Milej, Milejko, Milel, Mileń, Milesz, Milesza (masc.), Milęta, Milich, Milik, Miłach, Miłacz, Miłaczek, Miłaj, Miłajek, Miłak, Miłek, Miłka (masc.), Miłko, Miłoch, Miłocien, Miłoj, Miłoń, Miłost, Miłościech, Miłościej, Miłot, Miłota (masc.), Miłuj, Miłusz, Mich, Michej, Michna (masc.), Michnik, Michno, Michol, Michola, Micholak, Michoł, Michoła, Michołak, Michoń, Michońko, Misz, Miszo, Misza (masc.), Miszak, Miszala (masc.), Miszała (masc.), Miszec, Miszej, Miszejko, Miszek, Miszko, Miszka (masc.), Miszota, Miszyna (masc.). +Inne imiona staropolskie o pierwszym członie "Mił(o)-": Miłobąd, Miłobrat, Miłochat, Miłodrog, Miłodziad, Miłogost, Miłosław, Miłorad, Miłostryj, Miłowit, Miłwit, Miłowuj. +Miłobor imieniny obchodzi 25 stycznia i 18 czerwca. +Gauge + +Gauge (ur. 24 lipca 1980 w Hot Springs w stanie Arkansas) - amerykańska aktorka pornograficzna. Zaczęła pracować w przemyśle filmów dla dorosłych w wieku dziewiętnastu lat. Jej pierwszy oficjalny film to "More Dirty Debutantes #129" z Edem Powersem. +Polar Music Prize + +Polar Music Prize - nagroda za osiągnięcia w dziedzinie muzyki. Została ustanowiona w 1989 przez Stiga Andersona. Jest przyznawana dorocznie przez Szwedzką Królewską Akademię Muzyczną i wręczana 18 maja w Sztokholmie w Szwecji przez króla Szwecji Karola XVI Gustawa. Laureat otrzymuje jeden milion szwedzkich koron. +Biuro Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych + +Biuro Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych - jednostka pomocnicza Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych utworzona na podstawie art. 13 ust. 1 ustawy z 29 sierpnia 1997 o ochronie danych osobowych . +Strukturę organizacyjną i zasady działania "Biura" określa statut nadany w drodze rozporządzenia Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z 29 maja 1998 w sprawie nadania statutu Biuru Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych . +Biuro ma zapewnić wykonanie zadań wynikających z kompetencji Generalnego Inspektora określonych w ustawie, a także w innych przepisach powszechnie obowiązującego prawa. Biuro ma siedzibę w Warszawie. Pracą Biura kieruje jego dyrektor. +Ponadto GIODO może powoływać komisje jako organy pomocnicze i opiniodawczo-doradcze, określając cel ich powołania, skład osobowy, zakres zadań i tryb działania. +Arsène Lupin + +Arsène Lupin – fikcyjna postać dżentelmena-włamywacza (niekiedy również detektywa), stworzona przez francuskiego pisarza Maurice'a Leblanca, który opublikował pierwszą historię o jego przygodach w 1905. Główny bohater to szarmancki, inteligentny mistrz charakteryzacji, czuły na wdzięki kobiet, potrafiący znaleźć wyjście z każdej, nawet najbardziej beznadziejnej sytuacji. Żył z kradzieży, ale jego ofiarami padali zawsze ludzie źli i podli. Działając poza prawem, wymierzał im sprawiedliwość. +Impuls (teoria sygnałów) + +Impuls – sygnał o skończonym czasie trwania, który ma określone parametry opisujące jego charakterystykę. +Przykładem są impulsy cyfrowe, czyli bity przesyłane pomiędzy dwoma urządzeniami cyfrowymi (np. komputerami) reprezentowane jako podwyższenia lub obniżenia napięcia elektrycznego w kablu miedzianym, promienie świetlne przepuszczane przez kabel światłowodowy albo fale radiowe wymieniane pomiędzy maszynami sieci bezprzewodowej. +Wilhelm Gaczek + +Wilhelm Gaczek (ur. 23 listopada 1881 w Suchej, zm. 14 listopada 1941 w obozie Auschwitz) – prowincjał zakonu augustianów, więzień obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz, działacz społeczny. +Honorowy Obywatel Prokocimia koło Krakowa, depozyt i twórca parafii Matki Bożej Dobrej Rady i jej pierwszy proboszcz. Był radnym gminy Prokocim, znanym i cenionym animatorem życia społecznego i obywatelskiego, opiekunem wielu organizacji prokocimskich. +W dniach wybuchu I wojny światowej zbierał datki na „Polski Skarb Wojenny”. Był kapelanem wojskowym. W 1917 został przewodniczącym „Kółka Rolniczego” w Prokocimiu. Od tego samego roku był proboszczem parafii prokocimskiej. +W 1937 mianowano go prowincjałem Zakonu o.o. Augustianów w Krakowie. +Aresztowany wraz z innymi Augustianami krakowskimi przez Gestapo 19 września (lub 19 sierpnia) 1941 pod zarzutem działalności antyniemieckiej. Działalność ta miała rzekomo polegać na czytaniu prasy podziemnej i słuchaniu radia w klasztorze. Początkowo przetrzymywany w krakowskim więzieniu przy ul. Montelupich, został 4 listopada 1941 przywieziony do niemieckiego obozu koncentracyjnego KL Auschwitz, gdzie jako polski więzień polityczny o numerze 22401 po 10 dniach zamęczony zginął 14 listopada. Oficjalna przyczyna śmierci podana na świadectwie zgonu to udar mózgu. +Pomnik o. Wilhelma Gaczka znajdujący się przed kościołem rektoralnym św. Mikołaja z Tolentino przy ul. Górników 27 w Prokocimiu w Krakowie. +RWD-17 + +RWD-17 – polski samolot szkolno-akrobacyjny z 1937 roku, produkowany w Doświadczalnych Warsztatach Lotniczych (DWL). +Rozwój. +Samolot został zaprojektowany w biurze konstrukcyjnym RWD jako przejściowy samolot szkolny między najliczniejszymi w polskich szkołach cywilnych i wojskowych samolotami szkolenia podstawowego RWD-8, a jednomiejscowymi samolotami wymagającymi większych umiejętności pilotażu, jak akrobacyjny RWD-10. Nowy samolot szkolny, oznaczony RWD-17, miał także być przeznaczony do akrobacji. Prace rozpoczęły się w 1936, głównym projektantem był inż. Bronisław Żurakowski. Konstrukcja i sylwetka samolotu była zbliżona do RWD-8, lecz prawie wszystkie części zostały nowo zaprojektowane. Pierwszy lot prototypu, noszącego oznaczenia SP-BMX, miał miejsce 14 sierpnia 1937. Po badaniach w Instytucie Techniki Lotniczej, został zaakceptowany do produkcji. Od 1938 do wybuchu wojny zbudowano niewielką serię RWD-17 (według polskiego rejestru statków powietrznych, zbudowano oprócz prototypu 23 seryjne RWD-17, noszące oznaczenia SP-: BNZ, BOA-BOJ, BOL-BOZ). Samolot RWD-17 w swej pierwotnej formie posiadał nadmierną stateczność jak na maszynę szkolno-akrobacyjną, co szczególnie widoczne było podczas wykonywania figur autorotacyjnych (np. szybkie beczki). +Na wiosnę 1938 opracowano wersję wodnosamolotu pływakowego RWD-17W, różniącą się zastosowaniem mocniejszego silnika gwiazdowego Bramo Sh-14a o mocy 160 KM. Miała ona montowane zamiennie pływaki lub podwozie kołowe. W wariancie na pływakach montowano też powiększony ster kierunku z płetwą ustateczniającą pod kadłubem. Prototyp o znakach SP-BPB oblatano najpierw z podwoziem kołowym w czerwcu 1938, następnie przetestowano na pływakach. Serię 5 RWD-17W zamówiło Kierownictwo Marynarki Wojennej z przeznaczeniem jako wodnosamoloty szkolne dla Morskiego Dywizjonu Lotniczego w Pucku. Zbudowano je w 1939. +RWD-17W posiadał niedopracowany układ chłodzenia silnika, co owocowało jego nadmiernym grzaniem się (nadmierna temperatura oleju). Jest też prawdopodobne, iż silniki Bramo Sh-14a miały faktyczną moc niższą niż moc katalogowa. +Ciekawym i bardzo praktycznym rozwiązaniem była możliwość zmontowania do RWD-17W podwozia kołowego i oblot maszyny (oraz np. jej dostarczenie do odbiorcy) na kołach. +Na wiosnę 1939 inż. Żurakowski opracował nowy płat dla RWD-17, o zmienionym cieńszym profilu i zwężających się końcówkach w obrysie z góry, oraz większej o 1 metr rozpiętości, w celu polepszenia własności akrobacyjnych samolotu. Z powodu problemów z samolotem PWS-35, polskie lotnictwo wojskowe zainteresowało się zmodyfikowanym RWD-17 jako następcą samolotu szkolno-treningowego PWS-26. Planowano zbudować od 50 do 120 samolotów, z dostawami od początku 1940 roku. Wariant ten miał prawdopodobnie otrzymać oznaczenie RWD-17bis. Samolotów tych nie zbudowano z powodu wybuchu wojny. +Użycie. +Samoloty RWD-17 były używane w ograniczonej ilości w polskim lotnictwie cywilnym. W aeroklubach i szkole lotniczej w Świdniku, używano ich jako samolotów szkolnych i akrobacyjnych. Po wybuchu wojny, 8 z nich, włącznie z prototypem, zostało ewakuowanych do Rumunii. Dwa zostały ewakuowane na Łotwę. Przynajmniej jeden był używany jako samolot łącznikowy (w 56. eskadrze obserwacyjnej) i został rozbity 12 września +Z pięciu seryjnych RWD-17W, dwa zostały odebrane przez Marynarkę Wojenną tuż przed wybuchem wojny. Nie zostały one jednak dostarczone do Morskiego Dywizjonu Lotniczego. Zostały użyte, jako samoloty łącznikowe, na podwoziu kołowym. Trzy pozostałe zostały ewakuowane z fabryki do Rumunii, także na podwoziu kołowym. Prototypowy RWD-17W, należący do Aeroklubu Gdańskiego, został ewakuowany na Półwysep Helski. Przetrwał on obronę Helu, zamaskowany w lesie. 30 września postanowiono ewakuować go lotem do Szwecji. Na skutek awarii silnika, rozbił się jednak niedaleko Helu (załoga ocalała). Był to ostatni start polskiego samolotu na wybrzeżu w 1939 roku. +W Rumunii, RWD-17 i 17W były używane przez lotnictwo do końca lat 40. Żaden RWD-17 nie ocalał do chwili obecnej. +Opis konstrukcji. +Samolot w układzie zastrzałowego górnopłata, konstrukcji mieszanej, metalowo-drewnianej, kryty płótnem (osłona silnika z blachy aluminiowej, skrzydła do pierwszego dźwigara kryte sklejką). +Skrzydło o lekkim skosie z centralnym wykrojem nad kabiną pilota, podparte na piramidce i dwóch zastrzałach po każdej stronie. Usterzenie klasyczne. Dwie odkryte kabiny załogi w układzie tandem z wiatrochronami, wyposażone w podwójne przyrządy sterowania. Podwozie stałe, w układzie klasycznym z kołem ogonowym. W wersji RWD-17W dwa pływaki wyposażone w mechanizm do sterowania na wodzie. +Napęd: +Dwułopatowe śmigło drewniane. Zapas paliwa 111 litrów wystarczał na 4-godzinny lot (RWD-17) lub 3-godzinny lot (RWD-17W). Przelotowe zużycie paliwa 28 l/h (RWD-17) lub 35 l/h (RWD-17W). +km (320 km) +Stanisław Albinowski + +Stanisław Józef Albinowski (ur. 20 lipca 1923 we Lwowie, zm. 25 stycznia 2005), to polski ekonomista, publicysta i dziennikarz ekonomiczny. Przez wielu polskich dziennikarzy uważany za nestora polskiego dziennikarstwa ekonomicznego. +W czasie II wojny światowej pracował w niemieckich przedsiębiorstwach w okupowanej Polsce (1940-1944) i w obozie pracy przymusowej w Kłajpedzie na Litwie. Był także członkiem Armii Krajowej, gdzie służył w stopniu kaprala. +W 1960 ukończył studia na Wydziale Nauk Politycznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. W latach 1952-1980 pracował jako publicysta ekonomiczny w wielu polskich gazetach i czasopismach, a w latach 1968-1972 był korespondentem w Bonn, ówczesnej stolicy Niemiec (RFN) +W latach osiemdziesiątych członek Rządowej Komisji ds. reformy Gospodarczej (od 1980), oraz członek grupy ekspertów do prac nad rządowym "Raportem o stanie gospodarki" i "Programem przezwyciężania kryzysu" (1981). +W ostatnich latach współpracował m.in. z Prawem i Gospodarką, Gazetą Wyborczą i Pulsem Biznesu oraz opublikował książkę "Bogactwo i nędza narodów" (1996) +Publikacje książkowe. +Był także autorem kilkunastu książek +Teofil (cesarz bizantyński) + +Teofil (ur. 813, zm. 20 stycznia 842) – cesarz bizantyjski od 829 (drugi cesarz z dynastii amoryjskiej), syn Michała II i jego pierwszej żony – Tekli. +Jego ojcem chrzestnym był cesarz Leon V. Do godności współcesarza został wyniesiony już w 821 roku. Wychowywali go przeciwnicy kultu ikon, między innymi Jan Gramatyk, późniejszy patriarcha. W odróżnieniu od niewykształconego ojca, był rozmiłowany w sztuce i nauce, miał solidne wykształcenie. Uwielbiał sztukę arabską. Żywił niechęć do kultu obrazów i usiłował bezskutecznie odrodzić ikonoklazm. Naśladował kalifa abbasydzkiego Haruna ar-Raszida (786-809), przechadzając się po stolicy, rozmawiając z mieszkańcami i słuchając ich skarg. 2 października 829 został koronowany na jedynego władcę. +Teofil był dobrym administratorem. Rozbudował temy w Azji Mniejszej i utworzył dwa nowe: Paflagonię i Chaldię. Uczynił też Krym temem. Najważniejszą rzeczą za jego rządów były jednak wojny z Arabami. Cesarz rozmiłowany w sztuce i kulturze arabskiej musiał przez całe panowanie prowadzić z Arabami wojny. Tym gorsze, że na dwóch frontach: na Sycylii, gdzie Bizantyńczycy utracili w 831 roku Palermo i w Azji Mniejszej. Wojna w Azji toczyła się ze zmiennym szczęściem dla obu stron. W 830 i 838 roku powstrzymano dwie kampanie kalifa al-Mamuna. W czasie tej drugiej doszło jednak do klęski pod Demizon 22 lipca 838 roku. Utracono też siedzibę rodową cesarza, twierdzę Amorion. +Gmina Zagnańsk + +Gmina Zagnańsk (do 1976 "gmina Samsonów") – gmina wiejska w województwie świętokrzyskim, w powiecie kieleckim, w otulinie Suchedniowsko-Oblęgorskiego Parku Krajobrazowego (Góry Świętokrzyskie). W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie kieleckim. +Siedziba gminy to Zagnańsk. Niektóre instytucje, takie jak Gminna Biblioteka Publiczna, czy główny oddział Banku Spółdzielczego mieszczą się w pobliskim Samsonowie. Jedną z głównych atrakcji tej miejscowości jest pomnik przyrody - potężny dąb szypułkowy liczący sobie około 650 lat, zwany Bartkiem. Oprócz tego w Zagnańsku warto zobaczyć kościół św Rozalii i Marcina z XVII w. (rozbudowany XIX w. i XX w.) oraz drewniane wille z okresu II Rzeczypospolitej, kiedy to Zagnańsk był znaną miejscowością letniskową. Wydawany jest także bezpłatny biuletyn "Gazeta Zagnańska". +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwały 12 724 osoby. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 5,53% powierzchni powiatu. +Sołectwa. +Bartków, Belno, Chrusty, Długojów, Gruszka, Janaszów, Jaworze, Kajetanów, Kaniów, Kołomań, Lekomin, Samsonów, Szałas, Tumlin (miejscowości: Tumlin-Dąbrówka, Tumlin-Osowa, Tumlin-Węgle, Tumlin-Zacisze), Umer, Zachełmie, Zagnańsk. +Pozostałe miejscowości. +Borowa Góra, Goleniawy, Jasiów, Osiedle Wrzosy, Samsonów-Ciągłe, Samsonów-Dudków, Samsonów-Komorniki, Samsonów-Piechotne, Siodła, Ścięgna, Zabłocie. +Sport. +W gminie istnieją takie kluby piłkarskie jak: Skała Tumlin, Lubrzanka Kajetanów, Samson Samsonów. Do niedawna występował w klasie A Leśnik Zagnańsk. A w najbliższym czasie grał będzie LZS Szałas. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Bliżyn, Łączna, Masłów, Miedziana Góra, Mniów, Stąporków +Michał III Metystes + +Michał III Metystes (gr. Μιχαήλ Γ΄, Mikhaēl III; 9 lub 10 stycznia 833 roku w Konstantynopolu — 23 lub 24 września 867 roku, tamże) – cesarz bizantyjski od 842, ostatni z dynastii amoryjskiej. +Młodość. +Drugi syn cesarza Teofila i cesarzowej Teodory. Koronowany w 842 roku, początkowo pozostawał bez rzeczywistego wpływu na sprawy państwowe, ponieważ regencję nad nim sprawowała jego matka Teodora. +Rządy. +W roku 856 Michał wraz ze swoim wujem Bardasem przeprowadził przewrót pałacowy, w wyniku którego Teodora została wysłana do klasztoru, a Bardas zyskał znaczne wpływy, ostatecznie zostając mianowany współcesarzem w maju 862. W związku z zamiłowaniem Michała do pijatyk i innych rozrywek, to Bardas zajmował się zarządzaniem imperium. Z jego inicjatywy odnowiono uniwersytet w Konstantynopolu, przyczynił się on do odparcia najazdu Rusinów na Konstantynopol w roku 860. W 863 roku wysłał Cyryla i Metodego w misji chrystianizacyjnej na Morawy; umocnił wpływy Bizancjum na Bałkanach m.in. poprzez chrzest władcy Bułgarii w 864 roku. Bardas został zamordowany przez kolejnego carskiego faworyta Bazylego w roku 866, podczas przygotowań do odbicia Krety spod panowania arabskiego. +Zamach. +Pijany cesarz został zamordowany w wyniku rewolucji pałacowej we wrześniu 867 roku. Jej efektem był upadek dynastii amoryjskiej, oraz dojście do władzy Bazylego I. +Życie rodzinne. +Jego żoną była Eudokia Dekapolitissa, ale nie miał z nią żadnych dzieci. +Zdrój Mieczysław + +Mieczysław – mineralna woda lecznicza z Krynicy-Zdroju. Szczawa wapniowo-sodowo-magnezowa. Stosowana przy chorobach przewodu pokarmowego, nerek, dróg moczowych i niedokrwistości. Woda jest dostępna w "Pijalni Mieczysław" w Starym Domu Zdrojowym. +Orgia + +Orgia (gr. "όργιον") – obrzędy ku czci starożytnych bogów, zwłaszcza Dionizosa, połączone z ekstatycznymi śpiewami i tańcami. Praktykowane m.in. w Starożytnej Grecji, Egipcie i Rzymie, w kulturze masowej kojarzone także z wyuzdaniem seksualnym i pijatyką. +Wyrok + +Wyrok – orzeczenie sądu, rozstrzygające merytorycznie o kwestii będącej przedmiotem postępowania sądowego. +W postępowaniu karnym jest to rozstrzygnięcie w przedmiocie winy oskarżonego, mogące zawierać także rozstrzygnięcia o karze, środkach karnych lub środkach zabezpieczających. +W postępowaniu cywilnym, w procesie, wyrok rozstrzyga o zasadności dochodzonego przez powoda roszczenia lub innej kwestii będącej przedmiotem postępowania. +Sentencja wyroku. +Treść (sentencja) wyroku składa się z części wstępnej (komparycji, "rubrum") oraz tenoru (formuły) rozstrzygnięcia. +Tenor. +Tenor zawiera rozstrzygnięcie o żądaniach stron, postanowienia dodatkowe oraz orzeczenie o kosztach postępowania. +Sentencję wyroku wieńczą podpisy wszystkich członków składu orzekającego. +Środki zaskarżenia i prawomocność wyroku. +Wyrok wydany w I instancji może zostać zaskarżony apelacją. +Z chwilą bezskutecznego upływu terminu do wniesienia apelacji lub z chwilą ogłoszenia wyroku w postępowaniu odwoławczym, wyrok staje się prawomocny, a tym samym - zależnie od rodzaju zawartego w nim rozstrzygnięcia - wykonalny bądź skuteczny. Treść wyroku prawomocnego może zostać wzruszona tylko wyjątkowo, za pomocą nadzwyczajnych środków odwoławczych. +Wacław Jędrzejewicz + +Wacław Jędrzejewicz (ur. 29 stycznia 1893 w Spiczyńcach na Ukrainie, zm. 30 listopada 1993 w Cheshire w stanie Connecticut) – podpułkownik dyplomowany Wojska Polskiego II RP, polski działacz niepodległościowy, działacz państwowy II Rzeczypospolitej – dyplomata, polityk i historyk. +Brat pedagoga i polityka Janusza Jędrzejewicza, premiera II RP. +Życiorys. +W 1903 rozpoczął naukę w warszawskim gimnazjum założonym przez gen. Pawła Chrzanowskiego (późniejsze Gimnazjum im. Jana Zamoyskiego matura w 1909), jego kolegą z klasy był m.in. ksiądz Ignacy Skorupka. W gimnazjum w 1909 współtworzył kółko lotnicze. W 1912 rozpoczął loty na szybowcu. Od 1913 studiował w Studium Rolniczym Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +Wstąpił do Związku Strzeleckiego, gdzie ukończył szkołę podoficerską. W sierpniu 1914 przebywał w Warszawie. Współtworzył Polską Organizację Wojskową (POW). Za zgodą Józefa Piłsudskiego na czele tzw. Batalionu Warszawskiego w sierpniu 1915 dołączył do I Brygady Legionów walczącej wówczas na Wołyniu. Skierowany ponownie do pracy w POW. Był członkiem Komendy Naczelnej i komendantem okręgów POW w Częstochowie i Zagłębiu, angażował się też działalność polityczną. W lipcu 1917 został aresztowany przez Niemców i skazany na 10 lat więzienia. Uwolniony z chwilą odzyskania niepodległości przez Polskę w listopadzie 1918, wstąpił do organizowanego Wojska Polskiego. +Jako należący do najbliższego kręgu zaufanych Józefa Piłsudskiego został skierowany do pracy w II Oddziale Sztabu Generalnego. W lipcu 1920, podczas wypełniania lotniczej misji wywiadowczej na trasie Lida-Wilno, dostał się do niewoli bolszewickiej. Po udanej ucieczce "via" Litwa powrócił do Polski. Jako ekspert uczestniczył w rokowaniach nad traktatem ryskim, równocześnie współdziałał przy tworzeniu w państwach bałtyckich polskich komórek wywiadowczych mających zadanie zbierania informacji o Rosji. W 1921 ukończył Wyższą Szkołę Wojenną. W latach 1921–1925 był szefem Referatu Wschód II Oddziału Sztabu Generalnego (wywiad na ZSRR). Z dniem 1 kwietnia 1926, w randze majora SG, mianowany został attaché wojskowym przy Poselstwie Polskim w Tokio. +Jesienią 1928 przeniesiony w stan nieczynny. Objął stanowisko dyrektora departamentu administracyjnego Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych. Od 1930 był dyrektorem departamentu konsularnego MSZ. We wrześniu 1933 otrzymał nominację na stanowisko podsekretarza stanu w Ministerstwie Skarbu. Od lutego 1934 zajmował stanowisko ministra Wyznań Religijnych i Oświecenia Publicznego (w rządach Janusza Jędrzejewicza, Leona Kozłowskiego i Walerego Sławka). W październiku 1935 ustąpił ze stanowiska. Pełnił funkcje sekretarza generalnego Komitetu Krzyża i Medalu Niepodległości. W 1937 prezes Polskiego Komitetu Międzynarodowej Wystawy w Paryżu. +We wrześniu 1939 powrócił do czynnej służby wojskowej w charakterze oficera łącznikowego przy MSZ. Uczestniczył w ewakuacji depozytu Funduszu Obrony Narodowej (FON) z Polski przez Rumunię do Francji, gdzie skarb został przekazany Rządowi Rzeczypospolitej. +Otoczenie gen. Władysława Sikorskiego uniemożliwiło mu zarówno dalszą służbę państwową jak i służbę wojskową w Polskich Siłach Zbrojnych na Zachodzie. +W konsekwencji wiosną 1941 wyjechał do Stanów Zjednoczonych. Pracował jako pracownik fizyczny na fermie kurzej, a później jako szlifierz w fabryce zbrojeniowej. Działał społecznie w środowisku Polonii amerykańskiej. Współorganizował wraz z Ignacym Matuszewskim i Henrykiem Floyar-Rajchmanem Komitet Narodowy Amerykanów Polskiego Pochodzenia (KNAPP). Był jednym z założycieli powstałego w lipcu 1943 Instytutu Józefa Piłsudskiego w Ameryce (w latach 1943–1948 był jego pierwszym dyrektorem i prezesem). Jesienią 1948 otrzymał tytuł profesora języka i literatury rosyjskiej w Wellesley College. W latach 1958–1963 był kierownikiem studiów slawistycznych w Ripon College w stanie Wisconsin. W 1963 przechodzi na emeryturę i powraca do Nowego Jorku, gdzie poświęca się działalności w Instytucie Józefa Piłsudskiego jako dyrektor (1963–1964), sekretarz zarządu (1971), wiceprezes (1972–1976) i prezes (1977–1978). Członek Polskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego na Obczyźnie (od 1961). +Jego prochy złożono na Cmentarzu Powązkowskim w Warszawie. +Publikacje. +Autor około 300 artykułów historycznych publikowanych m.in. w paryskich „Zeszytach Historycznych” oraz obszernych prac: "Poland in the British Parliament 1939-1945" i "Kronika życia Józefa Piłsudskiego 1867-1935". +Odznaczenia i nagrody. +Odznaczony Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Virtuti Militari Nr 4944 (odznaczenie wręczył mu osobiście Marszałek Józef Piłsudski 11 listopada 1921), Krzyżem Niepodległości z Mieczami, czterokrotnie Krzyżem Walecznych, Krzyżem Wielki Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (pośmiertnie - postanowieniem prezydenta Lecha Wałęsy 3 grudnia 1993) i IV, Legią Honorową oraz orderami i odznaczeniami dwunastu innych krajów, estoński Krzyż Wolności. W 1993 roku przyznano mu Honorowe Obywatelstwo Stołecznego Królewskiego Miasta Krakowa. +W 1992 Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Lech Wałęsa nadał mu stopień generała brygady WP. +Fryderyki - wokalistka roku + +Laureatki i nominowane do Nagrody Akademii Fonograficznej Fryderyk w kategorii wokalistka roku. +W 2012 roku wyróżnienie w kategorii przyznano po raz ostatni. +Zdrój Józef + +Józef - mineralna woda lecznicza z Krynicy-Zdroju. Szczawa wodorowęglanowowapniowa, silnie moczopędna, stosowana w chorobach nerek, dróg moczowych i niedokrwistości. +W parku zdrojowym w Krynicy, w bocznej alejce od Bulwarów Dietla w kierunku dolnej stacji kolejki szynowej na Górę Parkową znajduje się drewniany budynek pijalni wód "Jan i Józef", w którym oprócz wody mineralnej Józef udostępniona jest dla kuracjuszy i turystów także woda mineralna Jan. +Warrant subskrypcyjny + +Warrant subskrypcyjny – dokument (certyfikat) często dołączony do akcji lub obligacji dający posiadaczowi ograniczone lub nieustające prawo kupna papierów wartościowych lub innych aktywów po ustalonej cenie lub prawo do subskrypcji przyszłych emisji obligacji tego samego emitenta. +Biskup koadiutor + +Biskup koadiutor – w Kościele katolickim prawnie ustanowiony przez papieża biskup, który po śmierci lub awansie biskupa diecezjalnego ma prawo następstwa po nim na urzędzie biskupa diecezji zgodnie z kanonem 403 § 3 kodeksu prawa kanonicznego z 1983. +Koadiutor (starofr. "coadjuteur" z łac. co- od cum ‘z, razem z’ + adiutor ‘pomocnik’) to duchowny wyznaczony przez władze zwierzchnie do pomocy duchownemu wyższego stopnia, zwykle biskup tytularny pomagający w obowiązkach biskupa diecezjalnego lub też administrator przy stolicy biskupiej, z prawem następstwa po zawakowaniu beneficjum. W historii spotyka się także często koadiutorów opatów, prałatów, kanoników lub proboszczów, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do zamożniejszych beneficjów. +RuneScape + +RuneScape – gra komputerowa z gatunku MMORPG osadzona w świecie fantasy, stworzona w 2001 roku przez firmę Jagex Ltd.. Gracz w niej wciela się w bohatera, który może wykonywać różne misje związane ze zwalczaniem zła oraz pełnić profesje zwiększające umiejętności. Kierowana postać wchodzi w interakcje z innymi graczami. "RuneScape" dostępna jest bezpłatnie, aczkolwiek gracze mogą dokonać płatnej subskrypcji, co wzbogaca rozgrywkę o nowe możliwości, na przykład nowe rodzaje broni, lokacje bądź umiejętności. +Świat RuneScape. +Podstawową metodą poruszania się po świecie jest chodzenie na piechotę, co ze względu na wielkość świata RuneScape jest bardzo czasochłonne. Dla darmowych graczy dostępne są również teleportacje do głównych miast. Twórcy udostępnili także szybsze metody, jak latanie na lotni z Gnomami liniami lotniczymi (lotnie), latanie na latających dywanach (tylko na pustyni) i balonami, żeglugę pasażerską, czarter statków oraz wiele innych rodzajów przemieszczania się. +Członkowie ("Members"). +Od 6$ do 10$ (w zależności czy płacimy kartą kredytową, zamawiamy subskrypcję przez telefon, czy też na poczcie wypełniamy druk) miesięcznie w grze można wykupić płatne konto ("membership"). Daje to graczom spore korzyści. Przede wszystkim gracze z płatnym kontem mają dostęp do nowych miast i wielu krain. Mogą też spróbować sił przy ponad 100 nowych zadaniach, których liczba nieustannie rośnie. Poza tym płatne konto otwiera dostęp do kilku nowych umiejętności, takich jak złodziejstwo czy rolnictwo oraz umożliwia wykorzystanie dodatkowych możliwości w pozostałych profesjach. Mogą też wyzywać innych graczy na pojedynek poza Wilderness, na arenie pojedynkowej (teraz także dla graczy bez opcji members) czy polach bitewnych. Na tym nie koniec – Członkowie mogą korzystać także z legendarnego uzbrojenia i pancerza oraz z setek innych przedmiotów. Mogą też brać udział w kilkunastu mini grach. +Płatne konto daje graczom także wiele innych ciekawych możliwości, których tu nie wymieniono. +Farmerstwo (Farming), złodziejstwo (Thieving), zielarstwo (Herblore), zręczność (Agility), wyrabianie łuków/struganie (Fletching), budownictwo (Construction), polowanie (Hunter), zabijanie potworów poprzez wykonywanie zadań (Slayer) oraz przywoływanie (Summoning) są dostępne tylko dla graczy z płatnym kontem, nie należy zapominać również, że wiele opcji w bezpłatnych umiejętnościach jest możliwe tylko dla Członków. +Rozgrywka. +Rejestracja, w trakcie której gracz tworzy swoją postać, nie jest skomplikowana. Jagex pozwala grać bezpośrednio w przeglądarce (wymagany jest plugin Java), lub w oknie, jeśli posiada się odpowiedniego klienta. +Nowo utworzona postać trafia do piwnicy gdzie rozgrywa się misja samouczka, i dokona w niej pierwszego wyboru – czy za pomocą kilofa zniszczy kamienie czy też użyje siekiery by pozbyć się wystających korzeni. Decyzja ta wpłynie na premię do odpowiedniej umiejętności po skończeniu samouczka. Po ukończeniu samouczka gracz dostaje się do Lumbridge skąd może podróżować do reszty świata. Z początku jego bohater dysponuje umiejętnościami na najniższym poziomie czyli 1 (oprócz kilku wyjątków wspomnianych niżej), wyzwanie stanowią dla niego nawet zwykłe gobliny – potwory, które obok krów, kurczaków, szczurów itp. są jednymi z najsłabszych mieszkańców Gielinoru. Początkowo trening umiejętności (w tym walki) nie jest trudny, ponieważ ilość potrzebnego doświadczenia do osiągnięcia kolejnych poziomów zwiększa się w tempie geometrycznym. +RuneScape oferuje graczom szereg umiejętności, których gracze mogą używać w różnych celach. Przykładowo można rąbać drewno, rozpalać ogniska, łowić ryby, zabawić się w piekarza, ogrodnika czy też polować na potwory za pomocą wymyślnych pułapek, a także wykonywać wiele innych czynności. Dzięki temu rozgrywka staje się jeszcze ciekawsza i realistyczna. W grze jest 25 niezależnych umiejętności (w tym 9 tylko dla graczy z wykupionym członkostwem). Zaraz po rozpoczęciu gry ich poziom jest minimalny (wynosi 1, poza wytrzymałością, której poziom wynosi 10, Combata czyli ogólnego poziomu postaci przez umiejętności bojowe który wynosi 3 oraz umiejętności zależnie od wybranej drogi w samouczku która wynosi 4). Za wykorzystywanie umiejętności w praktyce gracz otrzymuje doświadczenie. Mając odpowiednio dużo doświadczenia, awansuje na kolejne poziomy danej profesji. Wyższe poziomy dają nowe możliwości wykorzystywania danych umiejętności i poprawiają ich skuteczność (np. możemy tworzyć nowe pancerze, rzadziej zdarza nam się przypalić potrawę lub możemy szybciej wydobywać rudy w kopalniach). Im wyższym poziomem danej umiejętności dysponuje gracz, tym więcej musi trenować, aby otrzymać kolejny. Na przykład, awans z poziomu 1 na 5 jest łatwiejszy niż z 15 na 16. Maksymalny poziom każdej umiejętności wynosi 99 (z wyjątkiem umiejętności Dungeoneering). Osiągnięcie go wymaga bardzo ciężkiej pracy – awans z 98 na 99 poziom wymaga tyle doświadczenia, ile z 1 na 75. +Oprócz walki i odgrywania codziennego życia postaci, gra oferuje również wiele misji (ang. "quest"), które można wykonywać – od odbicia porwanej księżniczki po zabicie smoka. Graczy przyzwyczajonych do misji typu "Zabij 30 smoków i wróć" czy "Znajdź tę rzecz", RuneScape zaskakuje wielką różnorodnością zadań, nietuzinkową fabułą pełną zwrotów akcji i aluzji do naszego życia codziennego (choćby czy tajna organizacja pingwinów KGP szykująca inwazję na kapitalistyczne państwa z południa). To sprawia, że gracz nie będzie się nudzić wykonując kolejne misje i zbierając kolejne trofea. Posiadacze płatnych kont nie muszą się martwić, że zabraknie im questów, gdyż co miesiąc wprowadzane są jeden lub dwa nowe. +Za zdobycie 99 poziomu danej umiejętności lub zrobienie wszystkich misji możemy zdobyć specjalną pelerynę, na której widnieje znaczek umiejętności. +Zdobycie 99 poziomu jest bardzo trudne i czasochłonne. Skill Cape dostaje się za 99k (tysięcy) np. Gdy uda nam się uzyskać 99 poziom ataku możemy kupić pelerynkę w Gildii Wojowników. +Jeśli gracz ma dwie lub więcej umiejętności na poziomie 99 może dostać pelerynę w wersji "trimmed", która ma ozdobny pas na boku w kolorze podbicia i kołnierza peleryny. +Skill Cape ma własną emotikonkę, każda peleryna daje inną. +Misje ("Quests"). +W RuneScape możemy wykonywać rozmaite misje. Nagrodami w nich są przedmioty, doświadczenie, złoto lub dostęp do nowych miejsc, przejść lub umiejętności. Na początku, kiedy już utworzymy konto, musimy przejść "Tutorial" – samouczek. Uczymy się w nim głównych podstaw umiejętności w RuneScape. Po jego przejściu zostajemy przeniesieni do normalnego już świata gry. Następnie będziemy mogli wykonywać już właściwe misje. Dla f2p jest ich tylko 20, dla Członków o wiele więcej (co jakiś czas ukazują się nowe). W sumie liczba misji przekroczyła liczbę 160. Po ukończeniu każdej misji gracz otrzymuje "Quest Points" – punkty misji. Potrzebne są one do rozpoczęcia pewnych zadań takich jak: "Swan song", "Recipe for a Disaster" czy też "While Guthix sleeps". Dawniej służyły jako przelicznik handlowy gracza (przelicznik został usunięty wraz z ponownym dodaniem PvP na wilderness). Za zdobycie wszystkich dostępnych Quest Points (ukończenie wszystkich misji) możemy kupić za 99k coins Quest point cape. +Krosno (ujednoznacznienie) + +Zobacz też: Krosno Odrzańskie +Absorpcja (optyka) + +Absorpcja – w optyce proces pochłaniania energii fali elektromagnetycznej przez substancję. Natężenie światła wiązki przechodzącej przez substancję ulega zmniejszeniu nie tylko w wyniku absorpcji, lecz również na skutek rozpraszania światła. O ile jednak promieniowanie rozproszone opuszcza ciało, to część zaabsorbowana zanika powodując wzrost energii wewnętrznej tego ciała. +Mechanizm absorpcji. +W procesie absorpcji światło zachowuje się jak strumień cząstek elementarnych i może być pochłaniane tylko w określonych porcjach, których wielkość zależy od częstotliwości światła "ν" +gdzie "h" – stała Plancka. +Kwant światła, czyli foton niosący tę określoną porcję energii może oddziaływać z elektronem walencyjnym w atomie substancji ośrodka. Jeżeli energia fotonu równa jest różnicy energii pomiędzy dowolnym stanem wzbudzonym elektronu a stanem podstawowym, wówczas foton zostanie pochłonięty (następuje absorpcja fotonu). Gdy energia fotonu jest inna, wówczas albo przechodzi on przez substancję bez przeszkód, albo jest rozpraszany. Na skutek absorpcji fotonu atom przechodzi w stan wzbudzenia o wyższej energii. Wzbudzone atomy powracają do stanu podstawowego emitując foton o takiej samej lub mniejszej energii. Zmniejszenie energii emitowanego fotonu w porównaniu z energią fotonu absorbowanego nosi nazwę luminescencji. Układ poziomów energetycznych elektronów w atomach, czas życia stanów wzbudzonych i sam proces absorpcji wynika z praw mechaniki kwantowej. +Absorpcja w gazach atomowych. +W zimnych gazach atomowych poziomy energetyczne charakteryzujące stany wzbudzenia leżą stosunkowo daleko od siebie. Dlatego substancje te mogą absorbować tylko niektóre fotony o ściśle określonych energiach (i częstotliwościach). Jeżeli widmo światła padającego jest widmem ciągłym, powoduje to powstawanie w tym widmie ciemnych linii. Po raz pierwszy zjawisko absorpcji zostało zaobserwowane w widmie słonecznym przez Fraunhofera a jego prawidłową interpretację podał Bunsen i Kirchhoff. +Możliwa jest również absorpcja przez wzbudzony atom (absorpcja ze stanów wzbudzonych). +Absorpcja w gazach cząsteczkowych. +W przypadku cząsteczek układ poziomów energetycznych elektronów jest dużo bardziej złożony, ponieważ oprócz poziomów związanych z konfiguracją elektronów dochodzą jeszcze poziomy oscylacyjne – związane z drganiami atomów wewnątrz cząsteczki i poziomy rotacyjne – związane z obrotami całej cząsteczki. Poziomy energetyczne leżą tak blisko siebie, że zlewają się w całe pasma o różnej szerokości. +Wykorzystanie zjawiska absorpcji. +W wyniku absorpcji światła przechodzącego przez substancje (np. gaz) z widma światła padającego zostają usunięte fotony o określonej częstotliwości. Na tej podstawie można stwierdzić, przez jakie substancje przechodziło światło. Zjawisko to wykorzystuje się do badania składu chemicznego mieszanin związków chemicznych, gazów otaczających gwiazdy, obłoków gazowych we Wszechświecie. Zajmuje się tym spektroskopia absorpcyjna. +Wielkości charakteryzujące absorpcję światła. +Ilościową miarą wielkości absorpcji są absorbancja promieniowania i transmitancja. +Zdolność absorpcyjna. +Ułamek światła pochłoniętego. +Absorbancja. +Wielkość absorpcji światła można obliczyć na podstawie prawa Bouguera. Zgodnie z tym prawem natężenie światła zmienia się wykładniczo wraz z grubością substancji. Aby ułatwić obliczanie wielkości absorpcji, wprowadzono w miejsce natężenia wielkość addytywną – absorbancję zwaną również gęstością optyczną. Oznacza się ją symbolem "ABS" lub "A". +Absorbancja jest miarą absorpcji promieniowania i wyraża się wzorem +gdzie +Absorbancję naturalną wyrażoną wzorem +nazywa się również ekstynkcją promieniowania elektromagnetycznego. +Transmitancja. +Transmitancja wskazuje, jaka część promieniowania padającego została przepuszczona przez substancję. Wyraża się ona wzorem +Można ją również wyrażać w procentach +Absorbancja powiązana jest z transmitancją wzorem +Absorpcja (chemia fizyczna) + +Absorpcja (łac. "absorbere" = wchłaniać) – termin z zakresu chemii fizycznej oznaczający proces wnikania jednej substancji (cząsteczek, atomów lub jonów) do innej substancji tworzącej dowolną fazę ciągłą (gazu, cieczy, ciała stałego itp.). +Absorpcji nie należy mylić z adsorpcją, która jest zjawiskiem powierzchniowym. Absorpcja, adsorpcja i wymiana jonowa są wspólnie nazywane procesami sorpcji. +Mechanizm absorpcji polega na podziale absorbowanego składnika pomiędzy dwie fazy (ośrodki) objętościowe. Stan równowagi w podziale składnika między fazy opisuje prawo podziału Nernsta, a w szczególnym przypadku dla układu gaz/ciecz – prawo Henry'ego. +Zjawiska absorpcji są powszechne w naturze, np. oddychanie jest procesem absorpcji tlenu do krwi. Absorpcja jest też stosowana na masową skalę w procesach technologicznych. Stanowi np. podstawowy mechanizm umożliwiający oczyszczanie związków chemicznych przez ekstrakcję. Jest to proces dyfuzyjny zachodzący podczas bezprzeponowego zetknięcia cieczy z gazem zawierającym składnik, który chcemy z niego usunąć. Składnik gazowy pochłaniany przez ciecz nazywa się absorbatem, a ciecz używana do pochłaniania określonego składnika nazywa się absorbentem. W chemii mamy najczęściej do czynienia z absorpcją jednej substancji (absorbat) i przez (absorbent) znajdującą się w jednej fazie oraz z absorpcją promieniowania (elektromagnetycznego, korpuskularnego, fal akustycznych) przez różne substancje. +Absorpcja jest pochłanianiem całą objętością absorbentu, którym najczęściej jest ciecz (rzadko ciało stałe, np. gazowy wodór pochłaniany przez pallad) absorbująca gazy lub inne ciecze. Metodą absorpcji można np. oczyszczać gazy, selektywnie absorbując niepożądane składniki (np. tlenki siarki pochłaniane w roztworze wodorotlenku wapnia). Absorpcja jest związana z reakcjami chemicznymi pomiędzy absorbatem i absorbentem. +Absorpcję prowadzi się w absorberach, zazwyczaj w niskich temperaturach. Przyspiesza to cały proces dzięki obniżeniu prężności par pochłanianego składnika nad cieczą. +Absorpcja w laboratorium. +Absorpcja jest jedną z podstawowych technik wykorzystywanych w czasie analiz stopnia zanieczyszczenia powietrza lub odlotowych gazów przemysłowych. Zawarte w gazach zanieczyszczenia są pochłaniane w roztworach sorpcyjnych o składzie dostosowanym do chemicznych właściwości oznaczanych związków chemicznych (często po absorpcji zachodzą reakcje chemiczne). Stosowane są zestawy płuczek laboratoryjnych, zwykle barbotażowych (drobne pęcherzyki gazu przepływające przez warstwę cieczy), umożliwiające zatrzymanie całej ilości oznaczanego związku zawartej w określonej objętości gazu, przepuszczanego przez płuczkę/płuczki. +Absorpcja w technice. +W inżynierii i technologii chemicznej procesy absorpcji są prowadzone w różnego rodzaju absorberach, których konstrukcja umożliwia niezbędne rozwinięcie powierzchni wymiany masy. Stosuje się m.in. absorbery +Absorpcja w hydrologii. +W hydrogeologii absorpcją nazywa się najczęściej proces wchłaniania gazów przez wody podziemne. Gaz w tym procesie rozpuszcza się równomiernie. +Simmerring + +Simmerring "pierścień Simmera"; w Polsce spotykana jest też pisownia "simmering") – pierścień wykonany z gumy usztywniony metalową wkładką, czasem obudowany blaszaną pokrywą. Stosowany do uszczelniania elementów obrotowych pracujących np. w smarze, oleju, paliwie lub wodzie, zwykle przy ciśnieniach do 0,1 MPa (1 atm.), w zakresie temperatur od -30 do +110 °C. +Simmerringi są również często spotykanym uszczelnieniem na połączeniach przesuwanych. +Ludwik Krzywicki + +Ludwik Krzywicki, pseudonimy K. R. Żywicki, J. F. Wolski i inne (ur. 21 sierpnia 1859 w Płocku, zm. 10 czerwca 1941 w Warszawie) – polski myśliciel marksistowski, socjolog i ekonomista, pedagog, działacz społeczny, polityk. Prekursor i jeden z twórców polskiej socjologii. +Biografia. +Pochodził ze zubożałej rodziny ziemiańskiej osiadłej w Płocku i pieczętującej się herbem Kierdeja. Wychowywany był w patriotycznej atmosferze domu swego dziadka. Ukończył rządowe Płockie Gimnazjum Gubernialne (obecnie Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Marszałka Stanisława Małachowskiego w Płocku – „Małachowianka”), tam kolegami jego byli późniejsi działacze partii Proletariat: Aleksander Dębski i Edmund Płoski. Wspólnie rozczytywali się wówczas w literaturze pozytywistycznej. Próbując swoich sił pisarskich, Krzywicki zadebiutował w 1876 r. na łamach nielegalnego pisemka szkolnego „Jutrzenka”. W 1878 r. Krzywicki, po otrzymaniu matury, wstąpił na Cesarski Uniwersytet Warszawski, by studiować matematykę. +Ogromny wpływ na młodego studenta wywarła w 1880 r. lektura "Kapitału" Karola Marksa. Odtąd stał się gorącym zwolennikiem i propagatorem zawartych tam idei. W końcu 1882 r. uformowała się na uniwersytecie grupa młodzieży socjalistycznej „krusińszczyków”, do której obok przywódcy Stanisława Krusińskiego, zdolnego publicysty Bronisława Białobłockiego należał również Krzywicki. Im zawdzięczamy pierwszy polski przekład 1 tomu "Kapitału" Marksa, oni też podjęli legalną publicystykę socjalistyczną na łamach dotychczasowego organu pozytywistów, "Przeglądu Tygodniowego". Krzywicki zadebiutował w dziedzinie piśmiennictwa politycznego artykułem "Jeszcze o program", atakując program pracy organicznej przedstawiony przez Bolesława Prusa. +Represje po buncie młodzieży w 1883 r. przeciw poczynaniom szkolnego kuratora Aleksandra L. Apuchtina zakończyły działalność „krusińszczyków”. Krzywicki wyjechał wtedy nielegalnie do Krakowa. Jego szlak emigracyjny wiódł później przez Lipsk, Berno, Zurych, Paryż, Lwów. +W Lipsku uczęszczał na wykłady Wilhelma Wundta, studiował ekonomię pod kierunkiem Wilhelma Roschera, ale najwięcej czasu poświęcał sprawie wydania "Kapitału", która była też tematem jego korespondencji z Fryderykiem Engelsem. Po rewizji w jego mieszkaniu wyjechał w 1884 r. do Szwajcarii. Tu nawiązał kontakty z polską i niemiecką emigracją socjalistyczną, poznał Szymona Dickszteina, Marię Jankowską-Mendelson, Stanisława Mendelsona, Witolda Piekarskiego, Wilhelma Liebknechta, Eduarda Bernsteina, Karla Kautsky’ego. Po raz pierwszy też w tak szerokim zakresie zapoznał się w literaturą socjalistyczną, a wiele prac Marksa i Engelsa przetłumaczył na język polski. Jako jego tłumaczenie wydana została tylko praca Engelsa: "Pochodzenie rodziny, własności prywatnej i państwa", pt. "Początki cywilizacji". Rozpoczął również współpracę z polskimi emigracyjnymi pismami socjalistycznymi: „Walką klas” w Genewie i „Przedświtem” w Paryżu. +Przez blisko półroczny okres pobytu w Zurychu przysłuchiwał się uniwersyteckim wykładom Richarda Avenariusa. Od 1885 r. w Paryżu objął Krzywicki redakcję „Przedświtu”. W nim i w „Walce Klas” umieścił blisko 30 różnych artykułów, zaliczanych powszechnie do szczytowych osiągnięć polskiej myśli socjalistycznej ówczesnej doby. Studiował także w Ecole d'Anthropologie. Do Lwowa przybył na jesieni 1885 roku, gdzie obok publicystyki podjął wykłady w tajnych kółkach młodzieży socjalistycznej. Tam zawarł związek małżeński z poznaną w Zurychu rosyjską studentką medycyny Rachelą Feldberg, a także poświęcał ten czas pracy naukowej z zakresu etnologii, archeologii i antropologii. +Po dwuletnim pobycie w Płocku Krzywicki w 1888 r. zamieszkał w Warszawie. Od chwili powstania Związku Robotników Polskich stał się obok Juliana Marchlewskiego aktywnym jego działaczem i czołowym teoretykiem. Po aresztowaniach niektórych członków ZRP wyjechał do Berlina, w 1893 r. odwiedził Stany Zjednoczone, później często wyjeżdżał na krótko z Warszawy do bibliotek w Berlinie, Petersburgu i Londynie. Do 1916 r. współpracował z PPS-Lewicą. Powszechnie znany i ceniony jako teoretyk marksistowski ma wielkie zasługi w wykształceniu kilku pokoleń młodzieży socjalistycznej poprzez wykłady (od 1888 r. wykładał na tajnym Uniwersytecie Latającym w Warszawie, od 1904 tamże w Towarzystwie Kursów Naukowych, oraz na Wolnej Wszechnicy Polskiej), dorobek publicystyczny i naukowy. Dwukrotnie więziony był X Pawilonie Cytadeli Warszawskiej: w latach 1899-1900 (za „organizowanie bezpłatnych czytelni”) oraz w 1905 r. za udział w rewolucji. +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości w 1918 r. pracował w kilku placówkach naukowo-badawczych i uczelniach. Kierował katedrą historii ustrojów społecznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego i Instytutem Gospodarstwa Społecznego. W 1938 r. Instytut Gospodarstwa Społecznego wydał jubileuszową księgę pamiątkową na jego cześć. Za swe osiągnięcia na polu nauki powołany został w skład Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności. Jednogłośnie wybrano go też na przewodniczącego nowo powstającego Polskiego Towarzystwa Socjologicznego. +W latach 30. zajął wybitną pozycję jako socjolog i uczony. Jego dorobek jest ogromny, zarówno pod względem liczby dzieł, jak i tematyki. Wydał m.in. fundamentalną pracę "Społeczeństwo pierwotne, jego rozmiary i wzrost" (1937). Spisał także trzytomowe wspomnienia, ogłoszone drukiem już pośmiertnie. +Za swoją działalność Ludwik Krzywicki został uhonorowany m.in. nagrodą im. Natansona, Kasy im. Mianowskiego oraz w 1934 r. Nagrodą Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy za całokształt działalności. W 1940 roku Uniwersytet w Kownie przyznał mu doktorat honoris causa, chcąc w ten sposób wyrazić uznanie za prowadzone przez Krzywickiego niemal od początku wieku badania nad litewskimi grodziskami. Wiele jego prac poświęconych temu tematowi zostało przetłumaczonych na język litewski. +Zmarł na atak serca 10 czerwca 1941 r. w Warszawie. +Poglądy i dorobek naukowy. +Krzywicki zajmował się przede wszystkim teorią rozwoju społecznego, analizą mechanizmów zmiany społecznej i badaniami formacji społeczno-ekonomicznych wspólnoty pierwotnej i kapitalizmu. Do oryginalniejszych osiągnięć Krzywickiego należą jego koncepcja społeczeństw terytorialnych, tzn. takich, w których istnieje własność prywatna, i teoria idei społecznych. Zajmował się analizą najniższych form więzi społecznej (koncepcja podziału ustrojów społecznych na rodowe i terytorialne, czyli klasowe), zagadnieniem rodowodu, mechanizmów rozpowszechniania i oddziaływania idei społecznych, a także analizą rozwoju rolnictwa amerykańskiego i europejskiego oraz spółdzielczością. +Krzywicki należy do pierwszego pokolenia polskich uczniów Karola Marksa i nauce jego pozostał wierny do końca życia. Na jego recepcję marksizmu duży wpływ wywarła ogólna kultura filozoficzna końca XIX w., ona sprawiła, że w jego dorobku widoczne są koneksje z pozytywizmem, ewolucjonizmem i empiriokrytycyzmem. Niechętny problematyce ontologicznej (nieznane były wówczas pozostające w rękopisie do lat 20. XX w. filozoficzne "sensu stricto" rozprawy Marksa), w marksizmie dostrzegał głównie teorię i metodę badań społecznych. Akcentował jednak ważną rolę filozofii w tworzeniu całościowej wizji świata. Fundamentalnymi tezami jego światopoglądu były: monizm, ewolucjonizm, scjentyzm i determinizm. +Szczególne znaczenie przywiązywał Krzywicki do problemów materializmu historycznego. Rozwój był dlań procesem powolnym, stopniowym, ciągłym i żywiołowym, chociaż wczesną publicystykę Krzywickiego cechowała postawa rewolucyjna. Siły wytwórcze nazywał wiecznym rewolucjonistą w dziejach i one jako czynnik pierwotny określały nadbudowę prawno-ideologiczną społeczeństwa. Co nie bez znaczenia, Krzywicki czerpał wiedzę na temat praw rozwoju społecznego z "Przyczynku do krytyki ekonomii politycznej" Marksa. Zgodnie z Krzywickiego interpretacją zawartej tam wykładni materializmu historycznego źródłem wszelkich przemian społecznych jest powolne przekształcanie się stosunków rzeczowych, będących podstawą więzi społecznej w społeczeństwie terytorialnym. Te stosunki rzeczowe, czy inaczej, "spoidła przedmiotowe" to zarówno narzędzia, jak i podział pracy. Owe stosunki rzeczowe stanowią podłoże, które zmienia się pod wpływem wprowadzania udoskonaleń metod i narzędzi produkcji używanych przez człowieka, czyli sił wytwórczych. Rozwój sił wytwórczych dokonuje się żywiołowo, bez planu – nie przyświeca mu żadna idea, żaden cel społeczny. Napędzają go osobiste interesy i osobiste dążenia ludzi. Jednak do pojawienia się ludzkich więzi, ludzkich stosunków, oprócz powyższego, materialnego czynnika, potrzebny jest jeszcze drugi czynnik – ideowy. Pojawienie się „rozczłonkowanej mowy”, pozwalającej na sformułowanie istniejących stosunków w formie etyki prawa i celów społecznych, ma wedle Krzywickiego współokreślać rozwój, ewolucję więzi społecznej. Zatem Krzywicki rozumiał rozwój więzi społecznej dwutorowo: jako obustronne sprzęgnięcie czynnika materialnego i ideowego, które umożliwiają osiąganie przez społeczeństwo coraz większej złożoności i uzyskanie coraz większej niezależności od martwej przyrody. Całkowite zapanowanie nad tą ostatnią umożliwić ma wzrost wiedzy i stopień jej rozpowszechnienia, które mają iść w parze z walką o ustrój socjalistyczny. +Ponieważ centralną rolę w rozwoju stosunków społecznych odgrywały zgodnie z doktryną Krzywickiego, siły wytwórcze, powstaje pytanie o rolę idei, czy świadomości ludzi i możliwości oddziaływania na mechanicznie zachodzące zmiany. Otóż, według Krzywickiego, kierunek zmiany więzi społecznej wyznaczają stosunki rzeczowe, ale jej przebieg, dynamikę i kształt dookreśla m.in. podłoże historyczne. Na podłoże historyczne składają się przede wszystkim właściości psychiczne ludzi oraz czynnik antropologiczny. +Przyjmując Marksowski podział na formacje społeczno-ekonomiczne, najwięcej uwagi poświęcał Krzywicki epoce wspólnoty pierwotnej. Źródłem do jej badań była dla Krzywickiego literatura etnograficzna, dotycząca istniejących na kuli ziemskiej społeczeństw przedpiśmiennych. W badaniu wspólnot pierwotnych Ludwik Krzywicki stał na stanowisku zbliżonym do stanowiska Fryderyka Engelsa, tj. iż to ewolucja rodziny, a nie społeczne siły wytwórcze, stanowi o rozwoju wspólnoty pierwotnej. A więc w ustrojach rodowych, w przeciwieństwie do ustrojów terytorialnych, to reprodukcja samego życia była dźwignią rozwoju i kształtowała więzi pomiędzy ludźmi. +Twórczym i cenionym do dzisiaj wkładem Ludwika Krzywickiego do marksizmu jest jego analiza roli idei w rozwoju społecznym, rozpatrywana w trzech grupach tematycznych: rodowód idei, wędrówka idei w czasie i przestrzeni oraz podłoże historyczne. +Zdrój Jan + +Jan – mineralna woda lecznicza z Krynicy-Zdroju. Słabo zmineralizowana szczawa wodorowęglanowowapniowa. Bardzo silnie moczopędna, stosowana przy leczeniu kamicy nerkowej, skazie moczanowej, miażdżycy i cukrzycy. +W parku zdrojowym w Krynicy, w bocznej alejce od Bulwarów Dietla w kierunku dolnej stacji kolejki szynowej na Górę Parkową znajduje się drewniany budynek pijalni wód "Jan i Józef", w którym oprócz wody mineralnej Jan udostępniona jest dla kuracjuszy i turystów także woda mineralna Józef. Wody mineralnej "Jan" można się napić także w Pijalni Głównej. +Pływające miasto + +Pływające miasto (inna wersja tytułu wydań po polsku: Miasto pływające) +(fr. "Une ville flottante", 1871) - jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu literackiego "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 39 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy przekład w języku polskim opublikowano w 1872. +Książka powstała w oparciu o wrażenia z krótkiej podróży do Stanów Zjednoczonych Ameryki, którą Verne odbył w 1867 na pokładzie największego wówczas statku świata - parowca "SS Great Eastern". Pobyt w Ameryce był krótki - 8 dni (w tym od 10 kwietnia do 14 kwietnia wycieczka nad wodospad na Niagarze i do Kanady) z konieczności - atrakcyjna, promocyjna cena powrotnego biletu morskiego łączyła się z krótkim postojem statku w amerykańskim porcie. +Polscy rewolucjoniści XIX wieku + +Początki zainteresowania się hasłami rewolucji społecznej na ziemiach polskich związane są z pojawieniem się tej myśli w państwach zaborczych, między które podzielona była dawna Polska. Największe znaczenie mają tutaj ziemie zaboru rosyjskiego. +Hasła rewolucyjne pojawiły się w Rosji w latach siedemdziesiątych XIX stulecia. +I Proletariat. +W roku 1874 zaczęto zakładać pierwsze polskie kółka socjalistyczne. Wśród ich założycieli wyróżnił się Ludwik Waryński. Działacze tych kółek wywodzili się głównie z młodzieży studenckiej. Pierwszy program we wrześniu 1878 został zatwierdzony na zebraniu w pobliżu Olszynki Grochowskiej. Wydrukowano go jednak dopiero w październiku 1879 roku na łamach teoretycznego pisma "Równość". Dla zmylenia policji jako miejsce wydania podano Brukselę stąd nazwa - "Program brukselski". +W latach 1878-1879 doszło do pierwszych aresztowań. Wielu socjalistów zdecydowało się na emigrację. Miejscem, w którym gromadzili się socjaliści nie tylko polscy, stała się od 1879 roku Genewa. Znaleźli się tam Ludwik Waryński, Stanisław Mendelson, oraz Maria Jankowska-Mendelson. Publikowali na łamach pism "Równość", a później "Przedświt". Wkrótce podjęli pracę w kraju na terenie zaboru pruskiego i zaboru rosyjskiego. Uważali, że robotnicy są podmiotem sprawczym historii, którzy prowadzą walkę z burżuazją walka klas. Aby pomóc robotnikom pragnęli w ich imieniu przejąć władzę polityczną. Środkiem prowadzącym do tego celu miało być wywołanie ogólnopolskiej rewolucji. Aby doprowadzić do tego wydarzenia, utworzono w 1882 roku w Warszawie partię Proletariat. Ta rewolucja, rozpoczęta tutaj, ponieważ, zdaniem działaczy właśnie w Rosji i w Polsce istniały najlepsze warunki do jej wybuchu, miała stać się zaczynem przemian ogólnoświatowych. +Miał być to przewrót, dokonany przez garstkę inteligencko-robotniczego kierownictwa partii. Nie było czasu na uświadamianie szerokich mas, bowiem zmiany miały nastąpić niebawem. +Po zwycięstwie rewolucji wszyscy mieli być sobie równi pod względem majątkowym i prawnym, miały zniknąć granice, i w związku z tym wojny. Państwo zastąpić miały wolne gminy, stowarzyszenia i samorządy.Praca miała się odbywać pod ogólnym kierownictwem wszystkich, co miało spowodować zdecydowane ograniczenie liczby przestępstw, jeśli nie ich całkowite wyeliminowanie. Stosunki między mężczyznami i kobietami miały opierać się wyłącznie na miłości. Koncepcja przebiegu rewolucji byłla bliska myśli Pierre'a Proudhona, choć najsilniejsze odwołania odnosiły się do koncepcji Karola Marksa. +Ważnym elementem dziedzictwa proletaryjczyków okazała się ich postawa antyniepodległościowa, przejęta później przez inne partie: Socjaldemokrację Królestwa Polskiego i Litwy, a później Komunistyczną Partię Polski i Polską Partię Robotniczą. Dowodem ponadpaństwowej postawy działaczy partii była chociażby jej pełna nazwa - Międzynarodowa Socjalistyczna Partia Proletariat. +Odezwy, oraz kilka numerów partyjnej gazety były wydawane w zorganizowanej przez partię drukarni. Agitacja odbywała się wśród różnych grup społecznych. Jeden z działaczy partii, Henryk Dulęba próbował pozyskać dla niej niepiśmiennych chłopów udających się z pielgrzymką na Jasną Górę. Partia brała też czynny udział w organizowaniu manifestacji bezrobotnych w Warszawie. +Działalność Proletariatu trwała krótko i zakończyła się wraz z aresztowaniem czołowych działaczy| w 1883 został aresztowany Ludwik Waryński, a niedługo później Stanisław Kunicki, w 1885 roku aresztowano ostatnią przewodniczącą Marię Bohuszewiczównę, co zakończyło działalność partii. Wobec stosowania w kilku przypadkach przez działaczy partii i aktów terroru w stosunku do działaczy nadzoru fabrycznego i reprezentantów władzy carskiej doprowadziło proletaryjczyków do represji i procesu. W jego wyniku pięciu działaczy zostało skazanych na karę śmierci. Zginęli Stanisław Kunicki i sędzia Piotr Bardowski. Ludwik Waryński został skazany na długoletnie więzienie i zmarł w twierdzy szlisselsburskiej. +II Proletariat. +Odrodzenie ruchu nastąpiło odrodzenie ruchu. Powstały wówczas dwie organizacje: tak zwany II Proletariat oraz Związek Robotników Polskich. +Ta pierwsza organizacja podkreślała konieczność obalenia caratu na drodze przewrotu. Wśród jego przywódców wyróżniali się Ludwik Kulczycki, Feliks Perl, czy Stanisław Mendelsohn natomiast Związek Robotników Polskich, któremu przewodzili Julian Marchlewski, Adolf Warski czy Jan Leder, preferował codzienną walkę o poprawę bytu robotników, chociaż jego członkowie brali też czynny udział w organizacji Święta 1 Maja od początków jego funkcjonowania. +Obie organizacje były osłabiane przez aresztowania. Najbardziej istotną akcją zorganizowanym właśnie przez członków tej organizacji był bunt robotników w Łodzi, co miało miejsce w 1892 roku. +Polski socjalizm po zjeździe w Paryżu w 1892 r.. +Wydarzeniem, które dla polskiego socjalizmu miało większe znaczenie, był zjazd polskich socjalistów w Paryżu w listopadzie 1892 roku. Udział w nim wzięli tacy działacze jak Bolesław Limanowski, Edward Abramowski, czy Feliks Perl. +Program. +Odeszli oni od działań metodą terrorystycznych, wskazując na konieczność stosowania agitacji wśród ludu za pomocą zrozumiałego dlań języka religijnego. W programie nowej partii, nazwanej Polska Partia Socjalistyczna na pierwszy plan wysunięto kwestię odzyskania niepodległości przez Polskę. Zakładano również, że nowa Polska będzie państwem ze wszech miar demokratycznym, zaś liczne reformy socjalne miały zapobiec wybuchowi rewolucji socjalnej, której konieczność negowano, podobnie jak konieczność dyktatury proletariatu. Mimo tak antyrewolucyjnej postawy działacze organizacji byli główną siłą rewolucji 1905 roku, kiedy to sławę zyskał na przykład stracony na stokach Cytadeli Warszawskiej Stefan Aleksander Okrzeja. +Po zjeździe paryskim program partii został przekazany działaczom w kraju, głównie na terenie zaboru rosyjskiego. Na czele ówczesnej PPS stanęli +Józef Piłsudski, Aleksander Sulkiewicz, Aleksander Malinowski oraz Stanisław Wojciechowski. +Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego. +Znaczna część polskich robotników i lewicowych inteligentów nie zaakceptowała programu socjalistów. Zwolennicy postawy internacjonalistycznej i rewolucyjnej utworzyli w 1893 roku partię Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego. +Celem partii było początkowo obalenie caratu i utworzenie republiki demokratycznej, a w dalszym planie obalenie tej demokracji na drodze rewolucji i utworzenie państwa socjalistycznego, choć bez dyktatury proletariatu. +Czołowymi działaczami organizacji byli Julian Marchlewski, Bronisław Wesołowski, oraz Róża Luksemburg. Stosunki między SDKP i PPS nie układały się, wskutek przedstawionych różnic i pewnej rywalizacji źle i coraz gorzej. +SDKP zaprzestała działalności już po niecałych trzech latach. Stało się tak w wyniku skazania jej przywódców i ich aresztowania, bądź ucieczki. Do odbudowy partii doszło dopiero w roku 1900, kiedy to również doszło do połączenia odbudowanych kółek z Królestwa Polskiego oraz powstałych na Litwie. Do przywódców nowej partii należeli Stanisław Trusiewicz, Feliks Dzierżyński i Adolf Warszawski-Warski. +Rok 1905. +Wojna rosyjsko-japońska, do której wybuchu doszło po ataku sił japońskich na flotę rosyjską w lutym 1904 ujawniła słabe strony rosyjskiego systemu politycznego. +Pobudziło to do aktywności polskie organizacje polityczne, również PPS i SDKPiL, coraz częściej organizujące strajki oraz manifestacje antywojenne i antyrządowe. +PPS urządzała manifestacje po wyjściu ludzi z kościołów. Przeciwko takiemu mieszaniu wątków narodowych i religijnych z rewolucyjnymi protestowała SDKPiL. +Obie partie rozpoczęły w tym okresie duże akcje agitacyjne w oparciu o swe drukarnie. W obronie jednej z należących do SDKPiL zginął Marcin Kasprzak. +Znaną akcją działaczy PPS była tak zwana zbrojna manifestacja antywojenna 13 września na placu Grzybowskim w Warszawie, kiedy to atak ze strony policjantów i kozaków powitały kule ochraniającej pochód Organizacji Bojowej PPS. +W styczniu 1905 zaogniła się sytuacja na obszarze całego Imperium Rosyjskie, kiedy to manifestacja chłopów i robotników idących z petycją do cara 22 stycznia została ostrzelana przez policję. Rewolucyjne wystąpienia miały również miejsce na ziemiach zaboru rosyjskiego. +Najważniejsze wydarzenia miały miejsce w maju i czerwcu 1905. +Wtedy to w Łodzi wzniesiono około 100 barykad, a w walkach zginęło około 200 osób. +Nastąpił definitywny rozłam ruchu robotniczym. SDKPiL dążyła do działań rewolucyjnych wspólnych z robotnikami rosyjskimi, a na razie podnosiła postulaty socjalne. Jej stanowisko poparła również część członków PPS, tak zwani "Młodzi". Natomiast "Starzy", do których należeli Józef Piłsudski, Walery Sławek, czy Aleksander Prystor rozbudowali Organizację Bojową i w oparciu o nią toczyli walki z policją. +15 sierpnia 1905 miała miejsce tak zwana krwawa środa, kiedy to socjaliści zabili 72 policjantów i żandarmów. Organizowali też zamachy na generała gubernatora Skałłona. Wtedy działali też wspomniany już Stefan Okrzeja i Józef Montwiłł-Mirecki. +Upadek rewolucji 1905 roku zakończył pierwszy etap w działalności rewolucyjnej w Polsce, ponieważ w wyniku podjętych przez rząd carski represji działalność organizacji została na jakiś czas poważnie osłabiona. +Zobacz też. +Anarchiści w Rewolucji 1905 roku (ziemie polskie) +Pakiet zintegrowany + +Pakiet zintegrowany - klasa oprogramowania obejmująca programy przeznaczone dla domu lub małego biura, będąca uproszczonym odpowiednikiem pakietu biurowego. Niekiedy mianem pakietu zintegrowanego mylnie określano rozbudowane, biurowe zestawy, jak Microsoft Office, WordPerfect Office lub OpenOffice. +Pakiety zintegrowane są rozwijane od początku lat 80. ubiegłego wieku. +AppleWorks został zaprezentowany w roku 1983. +Microsoft Works pojawił się na rynku w 1987 r. (w wersji dla MS-DOS). +W pierwszej połowie lat 90. korporacja WordPerfect Corporation rozwijała WordPerfect Works. +Najsilniejszym funkcjonalnie programem tego typu w tamtym okresie był pakiet ClarisWorks. +Obecnie najlepszymi przedstawicielami tej kategorii są pakiety GNOME Office i KOffice. +Pakiety zintegrowane zawierają zawsze edytor tekstu, program do obsługi kartotekowych baz danych oraz arkusz kalkulacyjny, a niekiedy również dodatkowe programy, jak kalendarz, moduł graficzny itd. Podstawowe aplikacje są zwykle uproszczonymi wersjami odpowiednich programów z dużych pakietów biurowych, zaspokajającymi potrzeby domu lub niewielkiej firmy, w której nie stosuje się relacyjnych baz danych czy rozbudowanych narzędzi analitycznych arkusza kalkulacyjnego. +W ostatnich latach zauważalna jest tendencja do wbudowywania w takie programy narzędzi do maksimum upraszczających ich obsługę (szablony, kreatory), co jest istotne dla masowego odbiorcy, mającego na ogół niewielkie doświadczenie w pracy z komputerem. +Izaak + +Izaak (hebr. יִצְחָק "Jic'chak" – zaśmieje się ) – patriarcha biblijny, jedyny wspólny syn Abrahama i Sary. +Dzieje Izaaka przedstawia Księga Rodzaju. Najbardziej pamiętnym zdarzeniem związanym z Izaakiem było złożenie go na żądanie Boga Jahwe w ofierze przez ojca na górze Moria. Dramatyczne opowiadanie ukazuje gotowość ojca do spełnienia ofiary i interwencję anioła, który cofnął nakaz, słowami "Nie podnoś ręki na chłopca i nie czyń mu nic złego! Teraz poznałem, że boisz się Boga, bo nie odmówiłeś Mi nawet twego jedynego syna" (Rdz 22,12). Według tradycji na tym miejscu stanęła Świątynia Jerozolimska. +Żoną Izaaka była Rebeka, z którą miał dwóch synów, bliźniaków – Ezawa i Jakuba, z których prawa pierworodnego podstępem uzyskał Jakub. +Według Biblii Jakub wrócił do ojca swego Izaaka do Hebronu, gdzie mieszkał przed Izaakiem też Abraham. Gdy Jakub powrócił Izaak miał 180 lat, gdzie zmarł. Pochowany został przez swoich synów (Księga Rodzaju 35:28, 29). +Według Józefa Flawiusza Izaak zmarł w wieku 185 lat. Został pochowany obok swojej żony w jaskini Machpela, gdzie wcześniej złożono ciała jego rodziców i żony, a później także jego syna Jakuba (Rdz 49:29-32); (J.Flawiusz DDIk1_346) +Józef (imię) + +Józef (hebr. יוסף – Josef) – imię męskie pochodzenia biblijnego. Wywodzi się od patriarchy Józefa, syna Jakuba i Racheli; oznacza ono "niech przyda Jahwe (Bóg)". Jest to skrócona forma imienia Josifiasz: " (by) Jah dodał (pomnożył)". W zdrobnieniach występuje w formach: Józek, Józefek, Józuś, Ziutek. +Józef imieniny obchodzi: 1 stycznia, 19 stycznia, 29 stycznia, 4 lutego, 14 lutego, 15 lutego, 19 lutego, 28 lutego, 1 marca, 17 marca, 19 marca, 23 marca, 24 marca, 3 kwietnia, 4 kwietnia, 7 kwietnia, 17 kwietnia, 27 kwietnia, 30 kwietnia, 1 maja, 9 czerwca, 23 czerwca, 28 czerwca, 3 lipca, 4 lipca, 7 lipca, 22 lipca, 25 sierpnia, 27 sierpnia, 31 sierpnia, 18 września, 24 października, 27 października, 8 listopada, 14 listopada, 15 listopada, 25 listopada i 24 grudnia. +OpenSolaris + +OpenSolaris - projekt firmy Sun Microsystems, mający na celu stworzenie otwartej wersji jej natywnego systemu operacyjnego Solaris; podobne rozwiązanie zostało już zastosowane w przypadku pakietu biurowego StarOffice, który ma również otwartą wersję OpenOffice.org. +Historia projektu. +Otwieranie Solarisa było stopniowe. Pierwsza porcja kodu źródłowego, uwolniona 25 stycznia 2005, to Dynamic Tracing Toolkit (znany jako DTrace), narzędzie dla administratorów i programistów zajmujących się dostrajaniem systemu. Kod źródłowy Solarisa Sun opublikował 14 czerwca 2005, w oparciu o nową licencję Common Development and Distribution License (CDDL), bazującą na Mozilla Public License (MPL) v. 1.1. Podobnie jak MPL, CDDL nie jest zgodna z popularną GNU General Public License. CDDL została zaakceptowana przez Open Source Initiative w połowie stycznia 2005. +5 maja 2008 roku ukazała się pierwsza wersja systemu: OpenSolaris 2008.05. +13 sierpnia 2010 roku Steven Stallion opublikował na swoim blogu informacje o zakończeniu rozwoju systemu OpenSolaris ze względu na politykę firmy Oracle. +Arduinna + +Arduinna - celtycka bogini księżyca, polowania i lasów, której atrybutem był dzik. +Wizards of the Coast + +Wizards of the Coast (często nazywana WotC lub Wizards) – przedsiębiorstwo wydawnicze założone w 1990 roku przez Petera D. Adkisona. Przejęte przez Hasbro Inc. we wrześniu 1999. +Sukces przyniosła przedsiębiorstwu gra karciana "". Obecnie przedsiębiorstwo wydaje gry karciane oraz gry fabularne oparte na mechanice d20. +Człowiek Roku tygodnika Wprost + +Człowiek Roku – nagroda przyznawana przez tygodnik Wprost osobie, która wywarła największy wpływ na życie społeczne, gospodarcze i polityczne. +Wybór "Człowieka Roku" przebiega w dwóch etapach. W pierwszym etapie znane osobistości wypełniają ankiety, na podstawie których tworzona jest lista kandydatów – postaci życia publicznego. W drugim etapie spośród kandydatów redakcja tygodnika wyłania laureata nagrody. +Andriej Tupolew + +Andriej Nikołajewicz Tupolew, ros. "Андрей Николаевич Туполев" (ur. w Kimry, zm. 23 grudnia 1972 w Moskwie) – radziecki generał-pułkownik inżynier, konstruktor samolotów bombowych i pasażerskich, deputowany do Rady Najwyższej ZSRR 3., 4., 5., 6., 7. i 8. kadencji (1950–1972), trzykrotny Bohater Pracy Socjalistycznej (1945, 1957, 1972). +Życiorys. +Urodził się w miejscowości Kimry koło Tweru, gdzie ukończył szkołę średnią, a następnie studiował w Wyższej Szkole Technicznej w Moskwie, którą ukończył w 1918. +Po jej ukończeniu został współpracownikiem Nikołaja Jegorowicza Żukowskiego – pioniera rosyjskiego lotnictwa. Pod koniec 1918 wspólnie z Żukowskim założyli Centralny Instytut Aerohydrodynamiczny (CAGI). W 1922 Tupolew w ramach CAGI utworzył Doświadczalne Biuro Konstrukcyjne (OKB), a on sam został głównym konstruktorem biura. Biuro Konstrukcyjne Tupolewa zajmowało się samolotami bombowymi, pasażerskimi i transportowymi, choć konstruowano tam także inne pojazdy i uzbrojenie, takie jak kutry torpedowe, aerosanie, ślizgacze, rakiety. +Pierwszym zaprojektowanym w biurze Tupolewa samolotem wprowadzonym do seryjnej produkcji, był samolot bombowy ANT-4 (TB-1), który został zaprojektowany w 1924. Tupolew prowadził dalej badania nad nowymi wersjami swoich samolotów, z których część została wprowadzona do produkcji. Za swoje osiągnięcia w 1933 został odznaczony Orderem Lenina. +W 1937 został aresztowany przez NKWD z grupą innych konstruktorów lotniczych i oskarżony o założenie tajnej partii faszystowskiej. W więzieniu przebywał do lipca 1941, przy czym w 1940 został skazany na karę 10 lat więzienia za prowadzenie rzekomej działalności antyradzieckiej. W czasie pobytu w więzieniu na polecenie NKWD prowadził dalej badania nad samolotami w ramach tzw. Centralnego Biura Konstrukcyjnego 29 (CKB-29) – był to specjalny oddział więzienia w Moskwie, gdzie przebywali zatrzymani konstruktorzy lotniczy. To właśnie w więzieniu powstała konstrukcja bombowca nurkującego Tu-2. W roku 1956 został oczyszczony z zarzutów. +Po wyjściu z więzienia został ponownie głównym konstruktorem Biura Konstrukcyjnego w CAGI, którego dyrektorem był do swojej śmierci. Pod jego kierownictwem w biurze opracowano ponad 100 samolotów bombowych i pasażerskich. Między innymi w jego biurze skonstruowano pierwszy samolot bombowy o napędzie odrzutowym Tu-14 w 1947, strategiczny samolot bombowy do przenoszeni głowic jądrowych Tu-26 w 1956, a także pierwszy radziecki pasażerski samolot o napędzie odrzutowym Tu-104. Ostatnim samolotem opracowanym przez Andrieja Tupolewa był Tu-144 zbudowany w 1968, później głównym konstruktorem biura został jego syn Aleksiej Tupolew (1925-2001). +Deputowany do Rady Najwyższej ZSRR od 3. do 8. kadencji (1950–1972). W 1953 został członkiem (akademikiem) Akademii Nauk ZSRR. W 1967 został mianowany na stopień generała-pułkownika wojsk technicznych. Był trzykrotnie nagradzany tytułem honorowym Bohatera Pracy Socjalistycznej (ros. "Герой Социалистического Труда") (1945, 1957, 1972) – najwyższego wyróżnienia za działalność naukową, kulturalną, gospodarczą w ZSRR. Samoloty jego konstrukcji ustanowiły 78 rekordów międzynarodowych, wykonały 28 unikalnych lotów m.in. Walery P. Czkałow wraz z G. F. Bajdukowem i A. B. Bieljakowem w dniach 18–20 czerwca 1937 na samolocie ANT-25 po raz pierwszy przelecieli nad Biegunem Północnym, lecąc z Moskwy do Portland w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Przelatując bez lądowania odległość w linii prostej 8504 km i przebywając w powietrzu 63 godziny i 16 minut. Andriej Tupolew był także honorowym członkiem brytyjskiego stowarzyszenia konstruktorów lotniczych Royal Aeronautica Society i amerykańskiego American Institut of Aeronautics and Astronautics. +Zmarł 23 grudnia 1972 w Moskwie i został pochowany na Cmentarzu Nowodziewiczym. +Saldo + +Saldo (łac. "solidus") – stan konta księgowego w rachunkowości przedsiębiorstw wykazywany w danym dniu jako różnica między sumami zapisów strony "Wn" (Winien) i strony "Ma" konta. Saldo konta księgowego pozwala ustalić stan składnika ewidencjonowanego na tym koncie (np. stan zapasów magazynowych, stan gotówki w kasie, salda rozrachunków z kontrahentami). W zależności od rodzaju konta, saldo może występować po stronie "Winien" lub "Ma" (niektóre konta dopuszczają występowanie salda tylko po jednej stronie, np. konta ewidencjonujące koszty działalności podstawowej, środki trwałe, umorzenie środków trwałych). +Przykład. +Ewidencjonowanie zapisów konta: "Środki pieniężne w gotówce (kasa)" +Saldo konta na dzień 07-01-2007: ΣWn 2120,00 – ΣMa 1850,00 = Wn 270,00 +Zdrój Karol + +Karol początkowo Quelle – według historii uzdrowiska jedno z dwóch najstarszych, po zdroju Głównym, źródeł mineralnych wód leczniczych eksploatowanych w Krynicy-Zdroju. +Po raz pierwszy zostało poddane naukowej analizie przez badającego krynickie zdroje radcę górniczego, profesora Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego Baltazara Hacqueta oraz opisane w jego pracy pt. "Neueste physicalische Reisen in den Jahren 1788-1795 durch die dacischen und sarmatischen Karpathen" wydanej w 1796. Była to szczawa wodorowęglanowowapniowa z duża ilością kwasu węglowego stosowana jako woda dietetyczna. +Obecnie źródło już nie istnieje. +Świętochłowice + +Świętochłowice ( (niem. "Schwientochlowitz") – miasto na prawach powiatu, położone w południowej Polsce, położone na Górnym Śląsku, w województwie śląskim, w centrum Górnośląskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego. +Świętochłowice leżą nad rzeką Rawą, w południowej części Wyżyny Śląskiej – Wyżynie Katowickiej. +Są najgęściej zaludnionym miastem w Polsce – 4 041,9 osób/km². Jednocześnie są najmniejszym z miast na prawach powiatu pod względem zajmowanej powierzchni – 13,31 km². Prawa miejskie Świętochłowice posiadają od 1 stycznia 1947. Do intensywnego rozwoju miasta przyczynił się przemysł ciężki, głównie górniczy i hutniczy. Obecnie w wyniku procesu restrukturyzacji kopalnie węgla kamiennego zostały zlikwidowane. Do dziś na terenie Świętochłowic funkcjonuje dawna "Huta Florian", obecnie jako część koncernu "ArcelorMittal Poland". Jednym z najciekawszych zabytków na terenie miasta jest pochodzący z XIX wieku kościół św. Piotra i Pawła. +Według danych GUS z 31 marca 2011 miasto miało 53 150 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Świętochłowice graniczą od północy z Bytomiem, od zachodu i południowego zachodu z Rudą Śląską, a od wschodu i południowego wschodu z Chorzowem. Przez Świętochłowice przepływa rzeka Rawa. +Rozciągłość w kierunku południkowym wynosi ok. 6 km, a w kierunku równoleżnikowym ok. 3,7 km. Długość granic wynosi 23,22 km. Powierzchnia wynosi 13,31 km² (64. lokata w kraju). +Świętochłowice są najgęściej zaludnionym miastem w Polsce i należą do najgęściej zaludnionych miejscowości w Europie. 31 grudnia 2008 Świętochłowice zamieszkiwało 54 360 osób (59. lokata w kraju). Na 1 km² przypadało więc 4084,1 osób. +To usytuowanie pokładów węgla zadecydowało o bardzo wczesnym i od razu intensywnym rozwoju górnictwa węglowego, które stało się podstawą uprzemysłowienia tego terenu. +Środowisko naturalne. +Obszar Świętochłowic stanowi fragment południowej części Wyżyny Śląskiej, znajdujący się w obrębie Wyżyny Katowickiej. Pod względem tektonicznym obszar ten zajmuje część karbońskiego siodła głównego, przebiegającego wzdłuż osi Zabrze-Mysłowice. W obrębie tego siodła występują kopuły stanowiące wypiętrzenia warstw karbońskich o dużej miąższości pokładów węgla kamiennego, dochodzące do powierzchni ziemi. Jedną z nich jest kopuła chorzowska, w skład której wchodzi także obszar Świętochłowic. +Rzeźba terenu. +Najwyższym wzniesieniem jest Góra Hugona – 314 m n.p.m. znajdująca się na południu miasta w obrębie Wzgórz Chropaczowskich. +Klimat. +Świętochłowice wraz z całym obszarem Górnośląskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego leżą w obrębie śląsko-krakowskiej dzielnicy klimatycznej. Charakteryzuje ją przewaga wpływów oceanicznych nad kontynentalnymi oraz sporadyczne oddziaływanie docierających tu od południowego zachodu przez Bramę Morawską mas powietrza zwrotnikowego. Docierają tu również zimne masy powietrza arktycznego z północy – głównie w chłodnej połowie roku. Średnia temperatura stycznia wynosi ok. -2,5 °C, lipca +19,1 °C, roczna +8 °C. Liczba dni ze średnią temperaturą dobową co najmniej +5 °C dochodzi do 220, co stwarza korzystne warunki dla wegetacji roślin. Średnia roczna suma opadów wynosi ok. 700 mm, najwyższe opady są w lipcu, a najniższe w lutym. Świętochłowice, podobnie jak i cały obszar Górnośląskiego Okręgu Przemysłowego, cechuje także dość długi okres zalegania pokrywy śnieżnej oraz stosunkowo duża jej przeciętna grubość w porównaniu do nizinnych terenów Polski środkowej. +Przeważają wiatry zachodnie i południowo-zachodnie, przynoszące w zimie powiewy ciepłych mas powietrza znad Europy Zachodniej i basenu Morza Śródziemnego, powodując często odwilże. W lecie wiatry przynoszą znad Atlantyku wilgotne masy powietrza, które obniżają temperatury i powodują opady. +Gleby. +Gleby obszaru Świętochłowic można podzielić na dwa rodzaje: gleby bielicowe, wytworzone z glin różnej genezy oraz piasków na glinionych i na iłowych oraz gleby brunatne, wytworzone z piasków gliniastych na wapniowych. Gdzieniegdzie można spotkać także gleby bagienne. Gleby te nie przedstawiają większej wartości rolniczej, ponieważ znajdują się w zasięgu silnego oddziaływania szkodliwych wpływów przemysłu. +Hydrografia. +Obszar Świętochłowic leży w strefie wododzielnej zlewisk górnej Wisły i górnej Odry. Oddzielający te zlewiska dział wodny I rzędu przebiega północną częścią miasta z południowego zachodu na północny wschód. Obszar należący do zlewiska Wisły jest odwadniany przez Rawę, prawy dopływ Brynicy. Północna część miasta drenowana jest Strugą Chropaczowską – dopływem Bytomki, prawym dopływem Kłodnicy, a później Odry. +Usytuowanie obszaru miasta w strefie wodo dzielnej powoduje niedobór wód, zarówno powierzchniowych, jak i podziemnych. Rzeka Rawa, a właściwie ciek wodny o tej nazwie, prowadzi średnio zaledwie 10% swoich wód, a resztę stanowią ścieki z miasta. Na większości swojego biegu Rawa jest uregulowana, przykryta betonowymi płytami. +Na teranie miasta Świętochłowice znajduje się szereg zbiorników powierzchniowych pochodzenia antropogenicznego utworzonych w zagłębieniach powstałych wskutek osiadania terenu w wyniku działalności górniczej. Przeważająca większość z nich ma charakter bezodpływowy. Jedynie w północnych rejonach miasta część z nich łączy Struga Chropaczowska. +Część stawów z uwagi na dobrą jakość wód wykorzystywana jest w celach rekreacyjnych, zaliczyć tu można m.in. stawy: Foryska, Wąwóz. +Ekologia. +Do XIX wieku Świętochłowice były miejscowością typowo leśną. Jednak rozwój przemysłu spowodował degradację środowiska i wycinkę lasów na jego potrzeby. Istniejące obecnie w różnej postaci obszary zadrzewione oraz łąki obejmują wprawdzie około 30% terenu miasta, ale stan ich jest daleki od zadowalającego. Ogółem w Świętochłowicach znajduje się 17,9 ha powierzchni terenów o szczególnych walorach przyrodniczych, prawnie chronionych. Plany na najbliższe lata, ale także już wprowadzone w życie mają za zadanie zalesienie hałd. +Wraz z zanikaniem wielkich drzew leśnych i naturalnych zbiorowisk roślinnych, zniknęły również sprzyjające faunie warunki bytowania. W wyniku dokonanej analizy warunków siedliskowych wyodrębniono szereg zespołów florystyczno-faunistycznych. Charakteryzują się one największymi wartościami przyrodniczymi w Świętochłowicach i mają ogromne znaczenie dla funkcjonowania ekosystemów otaczających wyróżnione zespoły. +Fauna i flora. +Flora Świętochłowic nie jest zbyt obfita. Liczy ponad 300 gatunków roślin. Dominują w mieście gatunki pospolite, ale można tu znaleźć również wiele okazów rzadkich i chronionych jak np. bluszcz pospolity, kruszczyk błotny, kruszczyk szerokolistny, centuria pospolita, skrzyp olbrzymi i inne. +Z waloryzacji przyrodniczej Świętochłowic wynika, że na terenie miasta odnaleziono około 260 gatunków zwierząt, z czego około 60 podlega ochronie prawnej. W oparciu o badania ornitologiczne z lat 1986-2003 stwierdzono, że samych ptaków występuje tu 146 gatunków, z tego 91 gatunków lęgowych, 15 prawdopodobnie lęgowych i 40 nielęgowych (przelotnych, zimujących lub zalatujących okresowo). +Użytkowanie gruntów. +W ogólnym areale gruntów miasta znaczący udział mają grunty zakwalifikowane jako innego przeznaczenia (tj. grunty pod szpitalami, szkołami, drogami, kolejami, pod stawami, grunty rekreacyjne), które stanowią 43% powierzchni miasta, grunty zadrzewione i zakrzewione stanowią 13,21%, a użytki rolne (w tym ogródki działkowe) 11,5% powierzchni miasta. +W strukturze użytkowania gruntów 14,3% powierzchni miasta stanowiły grunty pod zabudową mieszkaniową, natomiast udział gruntów pod zabudową przemysłową wynosił 9,83%. +Podział administracyjny. +Niemniej w przeszłości granice obecnych dzielnic przebiegały odmiennie. Przykładowo większa, wschodnia część obecnej dzielnicy Zgoda (Kalina, Os. Nowowiejska, Góra Hugona) historycznie należy do Świętochłowic (Centrum), natomiast tereny na zachód od ul. Śląskiej (Zgoda właściwa) stanowiły część gminy Nowy Bytom. Z kolei Piaśniki wchodziły w skład gminy Lipiny. Ponadto na terenie obecnego miasta istniały w przeszłości inne kolonie robotnicze tj. Martinschacht, czy Kol. Kojejowa. +Na górę strony +Pochodzenie nazwy miasta. +Na górę strony +Historia. +Pierwsza wzmianka o Świętochłowicach pochodzi z 25 maja 1313. Istnieją też wcześniejsze zapisy jednak te dotyczą wyłącznie dzisiejszej dzielnicy miasta – Chropaczowa (z 21 lipca 1295). Na przestrzeni dziejów właściciele miasta bardzo często się zmieniali. Poszukiwania węgla na tym terenie rozpoczęły się z początkiem lat 20. XIX w. W 1825 firma "Spadkobiercy Gieschego" uruchomiła na terenie Lipin pierwszą kopalnię "Król Saul". +We wrześniu 1939 w mieście nie były prowadzone żadne poważniejsze działania wojenne. Zajęcie Świętochłowic nastąpiło w nocy z 2 na 3 września. Na terenie miasta powstało filie obozów koncentracyjnych. Najbardziej znany był utworzony w 1943 r. obóz Eintrachthütte w dzielnicy Zgoda. Był on filią obozu KL Auschwitz, na terenie którego zginęło kilkaset więźniów. 27 stycznia 1945 miasto zostało zajęte przez Armię Czerwoną. Natychmiast po zajęciu miasta przez Armię Czerwoną ponownie otwarto Obóz Zgoda. Komendantemi zostali Aleksy Krut i Salomon Morel. W ciągu 300 dni istnienia obozu zmarło lub zostało zamęczonych do 2500 przetrzymywanych osób. Obóz zlikwidowano 16 listopada 1945. +Do 1946 siedziba wiejskiej gminy Świętochłowice. +Na górę strony +Komunikacja. +Przez Świętochłowice przebiega linia kolejowa nr 137 łącząca Katowice z Legnicą (2-torowa zelektryfikowana na odcinku Katowice-Rudziniec Gliwicki). Dworzec (istniejący od listopada 1845 do lat 90. XX wieku) mieścił się przy ul. Dworcowej w centrum miasta. Obecnie znajduję się tam tylko przystanek kolejowy. +W odległości około 35 km na północ od Świętochłowic znajduje się międzynarodowy port lotniczy Katowice-Pyrzowice z asfaltobetonową drogą startową o długości 2800 metrów i szerokości 60 metrów. +W odległości do 100 km od Świętochłowic znajdują się jeszcze dwa międzynarodowe porty lotnicze: port lotniczy Ostrawa i Airport Kraków w Balicach. +Wspólnoty religijne. +Katolicyzm +Protestantyzm +Inne +Kultura i edukacja. +W Świętochłowicach znajduje się 10 przedszkoli, 7 szkół podstawowych, 5 gimnazjów oraz 6 szkół ponadgimnazjalnych (3 licea ogólnokształcące, 2 licea profilowane i jedno technikum elektroniczne). Poza tym istnieją także dwie szkoły policealne – zawodowe. +Najważniejszą instytucją z dziedziny kultury jest Centrum Kultury Śląskiej, które ma dwie filie w Lipinach i na Zgodzie. CKŚ zajmuje się organizowaniem i koordynowaniem wydarzeń kulturalnych w mieście oraz prowadzi warsztaty dla młodzieży. Inną instytucją organizującą kulturę w mieście jest Muzeum Miejskie, które promuje kulturę śląską, urządza wystawy i koncerty. W mieście jest 8 bibliotek. Inną ważną instytucją jest Młodzieżowy Dom Kultury, który jest organizatorem życia kulturalnego dla dzieci i młodzieży miasta. +W mieście odbywają się festiwale bluesowe oraz jazzowe. W CKŚ o. Zgoda cyklicznie mają miejsce wieczory kabaretowe, na których występują największe gwiazdy sceny kabaretowej. W początku września na "Skałce" odbywa się Międzynarodowy Festiwal Polki, na którym można zobaczyć i wysłuchać najlepsze zespoły muzyczne z Polski i świata oraz m.in. zespoły folklorystyczne i orkiestry dęte. +Miejska Biblioteka Publiczna im. Juliusza Ligonia wraz ze swymi 6 filiami prowadzi także działalność oświatową dzieci i młodzieży. +Od 2006 roku działa Grupa Artystów Nieprofesjonalnych "Grota" skupiająca na początku twórców świętochłowickich, a obecnie także z innych miast regionu. +Sport. +Na terenie miasta znajduje się tor motocrossowy oraz kompleks sportowy – OSiR "Skałka", w którym są: stadion (do piłki nożnej i żużla), boisko boczne trawiaste i żwirowe, korty tenisowe, boiska do koszykówki, siatkówki i piłki ręcznej, tor speed rowerowy oraz wypożyczalnia kajaków na pobliskim stawie Skałka. W Lipinach znajduje się boisko tamtejszego Naprzodu (obecnie w remoncie). Do 2002 roku w Świętochłowicach istniał klub żużlowy. +W mieście działa, również "Świętochłowickie Stowarzyszenie Rowerowe FR Bonito" , które propaguje kolarstwo grawitacyjne. Grupa kilkunastu rowerzystów trenuje głównie na Górze Hugona. +Ścieżki rowerowe. +Przez miasto przebiegają ścieżki rowerowe. Trasa składa się z 6 oddzielnych odcinków. Pięć odcinków posiada nawierzchnię asfaltową, a jeden znajduje się na drodze gruntowej i prowadzi na Górę Hugona. +Polityka. +Prezydentem Świętochłowic jest od 2010 roku Dawid Kostempski reprezentujący PO. W Radzie Miejskiej zasiada 23 radnych (po 6 z okręgów: Centrum, Chropaczów, Lipiny-Piaśniki oraz 5 ze Zgody). Prezydent Świętochłowic w latach 2000-2010, Eugeniusz Moś, odpadł w pierwszej turze wyborów uzyskując 11,54% głosów. +W wyborach samorządowych w 2010 wygrał w II turze Dawid Kostempski uzyskując 54,89% głosów i pokonując Rafała Świerka (45,11%). Najwięcej mandatów w Radzie Miasta zdobył Ruch Ślązaków – osiem. Platformę Obywatelską, Platformę Świętochłowicką, Aktywnych dla Świętochłowic oraz Prawo i Sprawiedliwość reprezentować będzie po trzech radnych. Dwa mandaty uzyskało Porozumienie Świętochłowickie, jeden Nasze Miasto. +Zabytki. +Wpis do rejestru zabytków posiadają: zespół zabudowań walcowni na terenie dawnych Zakładów Cynkowych "Silesia" w Lipinach, kościół ewangelicki pw. Jana Chrzciciela, wieże wyciągowe szybów I i II kopalni "Polska", kościół pw. Matki Boskiej Różańcowej, zespół trzynastu witraży w kościele św. Augustyna, Krzyż Męki Pańskiej w Chropaczowie, organy w kościele św. Augustyna w Lipinach. +Przemysł i gospodarka. +Pierwsze kopalnie pojawiły się w mieście już od 1826, natomiast huty od 1830. Przemysł górniczy w procesie restrukturyzacji już upadł, jednak hutniczy wciąż istnieje. Huty Florian i Zgoda działają do dziś. Po hucie Silesia pozostała jedynie zachodnia część kompleksu. Na terenie miasta funkcjonuje już z powodzeniem kilkanaście firm z udziałem kapitału zagranicznego. Poza tym w mieście istnieje fabryka kosmetyków "Pollena-Malwa", fabryka opon Michelin, fabryka silników Volvo, jedna z większych w Polsce firma spedycyjna – "Delta Trans", platforma logistyczna Yves Rocher – Polska oraz wiele innych mniejszych firm, m.in. "Veldus", "Tyco Wterworks". W niedalekiej przyszłości powstanie Centrum Kapitałowe oraz wytwórnia ciastek "Lambertz". +Stworzony został także Śląski Park Przemysłowy (wspólnie z Rudą Śląską), gdzie ściągani są inwestorzy. Dobre umiejscowienie Świętochłowic, w centrum GOP, stanowi dobrą możliwość tworzenia nowych przedsiębiorstw. W mieście znajduje się wiele supermarketów, m.in. Lidl, Carrefour, Tesco, Biedronka. Handel i usługi w mieście obsługuje sieć placówek spółdzielczych oraz prywatnych. Kilkadziesiąt zakładów rzemieślniczych różnych branż zapewnia świadczenie podstawowych usług dla ludności. Na terenie miasta znajduje się 8 filii lub oddziałów różnych banków, które zapewniają obsługę finansową podmiotów gospodarczych i mieszkańców miasta. +Procesy restrukturyzacji górnictwa i hutnictwa spowodowały bardzo wysokie bezrobocie w mieście. Jednak w miarę, gdy w Polsce zmniejszało się bezrobocie także i w Świętochłowicach spadało, by w październiku 2008 osiągnąć najniższy poziom od kilku lat, czyli 9,2%. Zmianę bezrobocie obrazuje grafika umieszczona poniżej. +Zasoby infrastruktury technicznej miasta. +Gospodarka wodno-kanalizacyjna. +Woda dla całego obszaru miasta dostarczana jest poprzez sieć magistralną Górnośląskiego Przedsiębiorstwa Wodociągów w Katowicach do systemu wodociągowego miasta. Eksploatację sieci wodno – kanalizacyjnej Świętochłowic prowadzi Chorzowsko – Świętochłowickie Przedsiębiorstwo Wodociągów i Kanalizacji Sp. z o.o. (ChŚPWiK Sp. z o.o.), które realizuje zadania z zakresu zaopatrzenia miasta w wodę, jak również odprowadzania ścieków do urządzeń kanalizacyjnych oraz ich oczyszczania. +W 2005 roku długość sieci wodociągowej eksploatowanej w Świętochłowicach przez ChŚPWiK wynosiła 68 289,7 mb. Świętochłowice posiadają rozbudowany system kanalizacji sanitarnej, deszczowej i ogólnospławnej. Długość sieci kanalizacyjnej miasta w 2005 roku wynosiła 84 622,8 mb. +Gospodarka odpadami komunalnymi. +Świętochłowice posiadają nowoczesne (wybudowane w 1991 roku) składowisko odpadów komunalnych. Zarządzanie składowiskiem powierzono Miejskiemu Przedsiębiorstwu Komunalnemu Sp. z o.o., w której 100% udziałów posiada gmina Świętochłowice. +Składowisko zlokalizowane jest w zachodniej części miasta Świętochłowice, na terenie wyrobiska hałdy hutniczej huty „Florian”. Składowisko składa się z ośmiu komór. Powierzchnia całego terenu przeznaczonego na składowisko wynosi 12,17 ha, z czego same kwatery składowania odpadów zajmują powierzchnię 7,076 ha. +Wśród dostarczanych na wysypisko odpadów komunalnych dominują niesegregowane (zmieszane) odpady, wytwarzane w większości w gospodarstwach domowych, które stanowią 89,2% wszystkich dostarczanych odpadów. +Na terenie składowiska w tym roku planowana jest budowa nowoczesnej linii do segregacji odpadów komunalnych. Dzięki temu na wysypisko trafi mniej odpadów i docelowo znajdzie tu zatrudnienie ok. 40 osób. +Ciepłownictwo. +Głównym producentem energii cieplnej dla Świętochłowic jest Elektrociepłownia Chorzów "Elcho". Zadania w zakresie przesyłu i dystrybucji energii cieplnej dla celów grzewczych i ciepłej wody użytkowej oraz produkcji ciepła w źródłach własnych realizuje Przedsiębiorstwo Energetyki Cieplnej Katowice S.A. +W 2005 roku spółka na terenie miasta zarządzała siecią ciepłowniczą o łącznej długości 32 915 m w tym sieci magistralnej wysokoparametrowej 21 311 m oraz niskoparametrowej 11 604 m. Spółka eksploatowała na terenie miasta 6 kotłowni lokalnych, w których produkowała 9 069,7 GJ. +Gazownictwo. +Na terenie miasta Świętochłowice eksploatację sieci gazowej prowadzi Górnośląska Spółka Gazownictwa Sp. z o.o. w Zabrzu – Rozdzielnia Gazu w Świętochłowicach. Długość sieci gazowej w mieście w roku 2005 wynosiła 94 948 mb. +Telekomunikacja. +W 2005 roku w Świętochłowicach funkcjonowało 25 central telefonicznych o łącznej pojemności ok. 15000 abonentów, wykorzystywanych w 80%. W ostatnich latach w Świętochłowicach nastąpiła wyraźna dynamika w rozwoju telekomunikacji i jej dostępności dla mieszkańców (np. w 1995 r. były 3 centrale telefoniczne o pojemności 5680 w 100% abonenci wykorzystywali te możliwości). +Zdrój Słotwinka + +Słotwinka – mineralna woda lecznicza z Krynicy-Zdroju. +Szczawa wodorowęglanowo-magnezowo-sodowo-wapniowo-żelazista. Stosowana w przewlekłych chorobach przewodu pokarmowego, dróg moczowych, nerwicach i stanach stresowych. Można ją stosować w stanach profilaktycznych i leczniczych. Posiada przyjemny zapach i dobry smak. Do konsumpcji najlepiej podawać ją po ogrzaniu. +W Krynicy-Zdroju, na terenie Parku Słotwińskiego, w bezpośrednim sąsiedztwie restauracji "Koncertowa", znajduje się pijalnia "Słotwinka". Woda jest dostępna także w Pijalni Głównej. +Cecil Barclay + +Cecil Barclay – oficer brytyjskiej Tajnej Służby Wywiadowczej MI6. +Pod koniec II wojny światowej Barclay został wysłany z ramienia wywiadu brytyjskiego do Moskwy, z zadaniem zaopatrywania szefa radzieckiego wywiadu wojskowego GRU Fiodora Kuzniecowa w wybrane materiały Ultry. Wywiad brytyjski i amerykański zdecydowały się nie informować radzieckich sojuszników o źródle materiałów Ultra, ci jednak wiedzieli sporo na ten temat, głównie dzięki informacjom pracującego w Bletchley Park Johna Cairncrossa, brytyjskiego agenta z siatki szpiegowskiej Cambridge. +Barclay wspominał później, że szef GRU dawał mu do zrozumienia, że wie o Ultra więcej niż on sam. +Michał II Amoryjczyk + +Michał II Amoryjczyk (770-829, zwany także Psellos, tj. "bełkoczący", "mówiący niewyraźnie", ale także "używający wulgarnego języka"), cesarz bizantyjski od 820 do śmierci, pierwszy cesarz dynastii amoryjskiej. +Michał urodził się we frygijskim mieście Amorion. Rozpoczął swoją karierę jako zwykły żołnierz, jednak dzięki swym zdolnościom zdołał awansować do rangi generała. +Jako towarzysz broni Leona V sprzyjał zamachowi stanu, w wyniku którego Leon objął w 813 r. władzę. Jednak w późniejszym czasie ich drogi rozeszły się, a Michał zawiązał spisek wymierzony przeciwko cesarzowi. Spisek został jednak wykryty; Michała złapano i grudniu 820 r. osadzono w więzieniu. Jednak Leon nie uniknął upadku: w Wigilię Bożego Narodzenia 820 r. został zamordowany przez spiskowców, którzy osadzili na tronie uwolnionego Michała. +Za panowania Michała miało miejsce wielkie powstanie pod wodzą Tomasza Słowianina, który czasem uważany jest nawet za cesarskiego brata. Miało ono miejsce w latach 822-824. Uzurpator uzyskał poparcie Arabów i temów Azji Mniejszej. Tylko temy Opsikon i Anatolikon poparły Michała. Przygotowania do tego powstania trwały jeszcze za poprzedniego cesarza. Tomasz postawił sobie dwa cele: zakończyć ucisk i nędze ludu i odnowić kult obrazów. Powstanie to wyglądało jak powstanie Spartakusa. Niewolnicy i ludność niezadowolona z rządów Michała zbiegła do Tomasza. Było to spowodowane wysokimi podatkami i samowolą urzędników. Tomasz zebrał ogromną armię złożoną z Arabów, Iberów, Armeńczyków i innych ludów kaukaskich. Patriarcha Antiochii Job koronował Tomasza na cesarza. Wtedy to uzurpatora poparł tem nadmorski Kibyration. Tomasz dostał wtedy flotę i popłynął z Azji do Grecji. Głosząc tam hasła antyikonoklastyczne, zyskał poparcie wszystkich europejskich prowincji cesarstwa. Poszły za nim masy Słowian osiadłych w Grecji. W grudniu 821 roku przystąpił do oblężenia stolicy. Nie udałó mu się jednak jej zdobyć, bowiem Michałowi pomagali Bułgarzy. Tomasz ostatecznie skapitulował w Arkadiopolis i po torturach został zabity. Powstanie trwające trzy lata zniszczyło całe cesarstwo, głównie wsie w Azji Mniejszej. +Jako władca Michał prowadził dość wyważoną politykę wewnętrzną. W odróżnieniu od swojego poprzednika Leona, zagorzałego ikonoklasty, unikał prześladowań zwolenników kultu ikon, sam jednak ikonoklazmowi sprzyjał. Wzbudził jednak niechęć kleru swym drugim małżeństwem, zawartym z córką Konstantyna VI Eufrozynę, która uprzednio wstąpiła do klasztoru. +Jeśli chodzi o sytuację zewnętrzną państwa, charakteryzuje ją rosnący nacisk ze strony Arabów, którzy w 823 r. zdobyli Kretę, a w 827 r. rozpoczęli najazdy na Sycylię. W 827 wybuchło powstanie na Sycylii. Tamtejszy uzurpator Euphemios został szybko pokonany, lecz na wyspie wylądowali Arabowie. Rozpoczęły się tam długoletnie walki z nimi o Sycylię. Michał uznał tytuł Ludwika I cesarza Zachodu. +Zabór rosyjski + +Zabór rosyjski – ziemie dawnej Rzeczypospolitej zajęte w wyniku rozbiorów przez Imperium Rosyjskie. +Obszar ziem dawnej Rzeczypospolitej pod władzą cesarza rosyjskiego zmieniał się na przestrzeni lat, tj. od I rozbioru w 1772 r. do chwili odzyskania niepodległości przez Polskę w 1918 r. +Po kongresie wiedeńskim na terenach byłego Księstwa Warszawskiego (oprócz departamentu bydgoskiego i poznańskiego) utworzono Królestwo Polskie połączone z Rosją unią personalną. Cesarz Aleksander I oktrojował konstytucję, lecz po jakimś czasie przestała ona być przestrzegana, co było jednym z powodów wybuchu powstania listopadowego w 1830 r. +I rozbiór Polski – rok 1772. +W jego wyniku Rosja zajęła: polskie Inflanty, północną część województwa połockiego oraz województwa: witebskie, mścisławskie i południowo-wschodnią część mińskiego (ok. 92 tys. km²; 1,3 mln ludzi). +II rozbiór Polski – rok 1793. +Zostały zagarnięte ziemie ukraińskie i białoruskie na wschód od linii Druja – Pińsk – Zbrucz, tj. województwa: kijowskie, bracławskie, część podolskiego, wschodnią część wołyńskiego i brzeskiego, mińskie i część +wileńskiego (ok. 250 tys. km²). +III rozbiór Polski – rok 1795. +Trzeci rozbiór objął: ziemie litewskie, białoruskie i ukraińskie na wschód od Bugu i linii Niemirów – Grodno (ok. 120 tys. km²). +Po III rozbiorze Polska zniknęła z mapy Europy na 123 lata. +Późniejsze zmiany. +W 1807 r. zabór rosyjski objął uzyskany od Prus obwód białostocki. Na ostateczny kształt granic zaboru rosyjskiego miało wpływ utworzenie Księstwa Warszawskiego (istniało w latach 1807-1814), a po jego upadku utworzenie w 1815 r. będącego częścią Rosji Królestwa Polskiego. +Zabór rosyjski obejmował w 1815 r. 82% terytorium dawnej Rzeczypospolitej w granicach z 1772, tj. ziemie litewsko-ruskie tzw. ziemie zabrane oraz inne ziemie rdzennie polskie. Utworzone na części terytorium zaboru Królestwo Polskie straciło swą autonomię w wyniku powstań narodowych 1830 i 1863 r. +Po I wojnie światowej i pokoju ryskim (w 1921 r.), kończącym wojnę polsko-bolszewicką, znaczna część ziem dawnego zaboru rosyjskiego pozostała przy ZSRR bądź znalazła się w granicach Litwy i Łotwy. +Początki zaboru. +Spośród trzech zaborców Rosja odegrała rolę decydującą nie tylko jako sprawca (wraz z Prusami) rozbiorów, ale również ze względu na wielkość zagarniętego przez siebie obszaru. Po III rozbiorze (1795) zaanektowała ponad 60% ówczesnego terytorium Rzeczypospolitej z połową jej ludności. +W dużej mierze przyczyniła się do tego władczyni Rosji – cesarzowa Katarzyna II. Prowadząc początkowo wobec Polski politykę uzależnienia, ostatecznie przyłączyła do Rosji ziemie białoruskie, ukraińskie i litewskie należące do Rzeczypospolitej i wraz z innymi zaborcami wymazała z mapy jej przedrozbiorowe granice. Sytuacja uległa krótkotrwałej zmianie po śmierci w 1796 roku. Nowym carem został syn Katarzyny, Paweł I, przychylnie nastawiony do Polaków. Wyraził on zgodę na wypuszczenie przebywającego w więzieniu petersburskim Tadeusza Kościuszki i jego towarzyszy. +Czasy ponapoleońskie. +Namiestnikiem, czyli zastępcą cara na obszarze Królestwa Polskiego, został gen. Józef Zajączek. Naczelnym wodzem mianowano wielkiego księcia Konstantego, brata cara. Kongresówka nie była jednak niepodległym państwem, toteż idee narodowowyzwoleńcze pozostawały wciąż żywe. Pierwsze tajne związki zaczęto organizować w środowisku oficerskim. Z inicjatywy majora Waleriana Łukasińskiego powstało Wolnomularstwo Narodowe (1819). Dążyło ono do przyłączenia reszty terenów polskich do Królestwa Polskiego oraz do utrzymania tożsamości narodowej. Tajne stowarzyszenia tworzyły się również w środowisku młodzieżowym. Zaliczyć do nich należy organizację Panta Koina (gr. "wszystko wspólne"), której głównym celem było podniesienie poziomu umysłowego i moralnego młodego pokolenia. +Powstanie listopadowe. +Pod koniec 1828 roku, powstała tajna organizacja przy Szkole Podchorążych Piechoty w Warszawie. Za zadanie postawiła sobie wywołanie powstania. Przewodził jej ppor. Piotr Wysocki. Podchorążówka dopięła celu, rozpoczynając wieczorem 29 listopada 1830 roku powstanie. Na rozkaz Wysockiego cywilni spiskowcy zaatakowali Belweder – siedzibę wielkiego księcia Konstantego, któremu jednak udało się zbiec. Wojskowi podążyli ulicami Warszawy pod Arsenał, gdzie zdobyli broń. Władzę w mieście objęła Rada Administracyjna, która prowadziła rozmowy pokojowe z Konstantym. Wkrótce przekształciła się w Rząd Tymczasowy. Jego członkiem był m.in. Joachim Lelewel. 5 grudnia 1830 roku nowy rząd powierzył gen. Józefowi Chłopickiemu funkcję dyktatora. Ponieważ prowadził on politykę mającą na celu porozumienie z Rosją, 18 stycznia 1831 roku musiał podać się do dymisji. Sejm powołał Rząd Narodowy. Jego prezesem został książę Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, zaś na czele armii stanął gen. Michał Radziwiłł. Regularne działania wojenne rozpoczęły się na początku lutego 1831 roku. Licząca 115 tysięcy ludzi armia rosyjska pod dowództwem Iwana Dybicza wkroczyła do Królestwa, kierując się na stolicę. Wojsko polskie składało się z 50 tysięcy żołnierzy. Pierwszą zwycięską potyczkę stoczono pod Stoczkiem (14 lutego), gdzie dowodził gen. Józef Dwernicki, a generalną bitwę o Olszynkę Grochowską (25 lutego 1831). Sprawujący wówczas faktyczne dowództwo gen. Józef Chłopicki został ciężko ranny. Kolejnym naczelnym wodzem mianowano gen. Jana Skrzyneckiego. Na szefa sztabu powołano natomiast gen. Ignacego Prądzyńskiego. Wkrótce polskie wojska stoczyły trzy zwycięskie bitwy: pod Iganiami, Wawrem i Dębem Wielkim. Skrzynecki nakazał jednak wstrzymać ofensywę i wycofał wojska. +26 maja 1831 roku doszło do starcia pod Ostrołęką, w którym Polacy ponieśli duże straty i tylko odważny atak artylerii Józefa Bema pozwolił im wycofać się pod Warszawę. W czerwcu zmarł głównodowodzący wojskami rosyjskimi. Stanowisko to objął Iwan Paskiewicz. Nie udało się zmusić Rosjan do wyprowadzenia wojsk z Królestwa. Działania powstańcze na Litwie również zakończyły się niepowodzeniem. Opinia publiczna domagała się ustąpienia Skrzyneckiego, co też nastąpiło 11 sierpnia. Naczelnym wodzem mianowano gen. Henryka Dembińskiego. Zmiana ta nie zadowoliła społeczeństwa. Doszło do manifestacji ludności Warszawy. Władzę przekazano gen. Janowi Krukowieckiemu, który pełnił ją jako dyktator. Jednak pobłażliwość wobec wroga doprowadziła do jego dymisji. Po krwawych walkach wojska rosyjskie 8 września 1831 roku wkroczyły do Warszawy. Powstanie listopadowe upadło. Jego klęska stała się powodem emigracji około 10 tysięcy Polaków. Większość wyjeżdżających z kraju stanowiła szlachta, choć znajdowali się wśród nich także chłopi i mieszczanie. Kierowano się do Francji, Belgii, Anglii, a nawet Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Zabór rosyjski po powstaniu listopadowym. +Za granicą toczono dyskusje nad przyczynami klęski powstania i metodami dalszej walki o niepodległość Polski. Doprowadziło to do rozłamu wśród emigrantów. Niesnaski przybierały formę ostrych sporów. Dochodziło do nich zwłaszcza we Francji. Jednym ze stronnictw był działający tam obóz złożony z arystokracji, skupiający się wokół księcia Adama Jerzego Czartoryskiego, z siedzibą w Hôtel Lambert. Program stronnictwa zakładał odzyskanie niepodległości na drodze powstania zbrojnego. Liczono na poparcie Anglii i Francji. Dostrzegano też potrzebę zniesienia pańszczyzny i równouprawnienia zamożnego mieszczaństwa ze szlachtą. Inne poglądy głosiło Towarzystwo Demokratyczne Polskie. Powstało ono 17 marca 1832 roku również na terenie Francji. Na jego czele stanął Tadeusz Krępowiecki. Program Towarzystwa zawierał hasła walki o niepodległość w oparciu o lud i rewolucjonistów z innych krajów. Zakładał również uwłaszczenie chłopów. W Anglii tworzono Gromady Ludu Polskiego (Grudziąż, Humań, Praga). Występowały one przeciwko szlachcie i burżuazji. +W kraju następstwem klęski powstania listopadowego były liczne represje. Namiestnikiem Królestwa został Iwan Paskiewicz. Jego okrutne rządy zaznaczyły się wzniesieniem Cytadeli warszawskiej, miejsca więzienia i straceń powstańców. Mimo to Polacy nie rezygnowali z dążeń niepodległościowych. Ważną rolę w działaniach konspiracyjnych odegrali m.in. Józef Zaliwski, Szymon Konarski i Piotr Ściegienny. Na początku lat 60. XIX wieku ruch narodowy przekształcił się w akcję spiskową. Była to odpowiedź Polaków na brutalne działania wojsk carskich wymierzone w pokojowe manifestacje patriotyczne. +Powstanie styczniowe. +W Warszawie powstało stronnictwo „czerwonych”. Składało się ono z inteligencji, rzemieślników, oficerów w służbie rosyjskiej i studentów. Zwolennicy pełnej autonomii Królestwa na powołanie tej organizacji odpowiedzieli utworzeniem stronnictwa „białych”. Działalność „czerwonych”, przygotowujących powstanie, została wykryta przez władze carskie. Aby uniemożliwić rozpoczęcie zrywu, margrabia Aleksander Wielopolski, powołany przez cara na stanowisko naczelnika rządu cywilnego, zwolennik ugody z carem, zaplanował brankę, czyli pobór młodych ludzi do wojska rosyjskiego. Jednak na wieść o krokach podjętych przez zaborcę przyspieszono wybuch powstania. Rozpoczęło się ono w nocy z 22 na 23 stycznia 1863 roku. Powołano do życia Rząd Narodowy ogłosił manifest wzywający do walki wszystkich Polaków. Wydał też dwa dekrety zapowiadające zniesienie pańszczyzny (projekt ten nie został jednak zrealizowany). Zabrakło silnego wodza, który poprowadziłby cały naród do walki ze znienawidzonym caratem. Na tym tle toczyły się spory między stronnictwami „białych” i „czerwonych”. Pierwszym przywódcą powstania został Stefan Bobrowski. Po nim funkcję tę pełnił Ludwik Mierosławski, a następnie Marian Langiewicz, ponownie Stefan Bobrowski i Karol Majewski. Wojna od początku przybrała charakter partyzancki. Stoczono około tysiąca potyczek. Do ważniejszych należy zaliczyć starcia pod Węgrowem, Małogoszczem, Miechowem i Siemiatyczami. W październiku 1863 roku władzę dyktatorską objął Romuald Traugutt. Wiosną następnego roku został aresztowany, a potem stracony. Ostatecznym ciosem dla powstania był ukaz uwłaszczeniowy z marca 1864 roku. Nadając chłopom ziemię, car odciągnął ich od walki. Powstanie styczniowe było ostatnim zrywem narodowowyzwoleńczym Polaków w XIX wieku. Podobnie jak poprzednie próby odzyskania niepodległości, zakończyło się przegraną. Tysiące Polaków wywieziono na Syberię, język polski usunięto ze szkół i urzędów, zlikwidowano odrębność Królestwa Polskiego, powołując na jego miejsce Kraj Nadwiślański. Przez następne lata, na znak żałoby narodowej, spora część społeczeństwa nosiła czarne stroje, a także biżuterię z symbolami narodowymi. +Druga połowa XIX wieku. +W latach 70. XIX wieku na terenie zaboru rosyjskiego, obok stowarzyszeń wolnościowych, zaczęły powstawać organizacje socjalistyczne. Jednym z ich działaczy był Ludwik Waryński – założyciel partii Wielki Proletariat (1882). W roku 1892 socjaliści z zaboru rosyjskiego, których większość przebywała na emigracji, uchwalili w Paryżu szkic programu Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej. W 1893 roku na czoło przywódców PPS wysunął się Józef Piłsudski. W 1906 roku doszło do podziału tej partii na PPS-Frakcję Rewolucyjną skupiającą zwolenników walki narodowowyzwoleńczej (działał tu Piłsudski) i PPS-Lewicę opowiadającą się przede wszystkim za rewolucją. W 1893 roku powstała Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego (później Socjaldemokracja Królestwa Polskiego i Litwy). Głosiła ona jedność międzynarodowego ruchu robotniczego. +W 1905 roku wybuchły w Rosji strajki, które zapoczątkowały rewolucję także na ziemiach polskich objętych zaborem rosyjskim. Trwała ona do 1907 roku i przyniosła robotnikom poprawę ich sytuacji materialnej. Dała także możliwość tworzenia organizacji związkowych. Język polski powrócił do urzędów i części szkół. +Szkaplerz + +Szkaplerz (łac. "scapulare" od "scapula" – ramiona, barki, plecy) – wierzchnia część habitu w niektórych zakonach (karmelici, karmelici bosi, dominikanie, benedyktyni, cystersi, trynitarze, serwici) w postaci szerokiego płata materiału z otworem na głowę, takiego samego z jakiego uszyta jest tunika i zazwyczaj w tym samym co ona kolorze. Szkaplerz okrywa barki oraz sięga na plecy i na piersi. Na szkaplerz nakłada się pelerynkę z przyszytym do niej kapturem i płaszcz. "Kukulla" - wierzchnia szeroka tunika z długim kapturem, nakładana na tunikę ze szkaplerzem, noszona podczas uroczystości przez opatów z benedyktyńskich zakonów mniszych: benedyktyni, cystersi, trapiści, kameduli, kartuzi, sylwestryni. Szkaplerz nie wchodzi w skład oficjalnego habitu franciszkanów, franciszkanów konwentualnych, kapucynów, ani klarysek, ale spotykany jest nieraz jako część habitu w niektórych zgromadzeniach franciszkańskich trzeciego zakonu regularnego. +Rys historyczny. +W nocy z 15 na 16 lipca 1251 w Aylesfort w hrabstwie Kent w Anglii św. Szymon Stock, przełożony generalny zakonu karmelitów, miał otrzymać od Matki Bożej obietnice dotyczące noszenia karmelitańskiego habitu - szkaplerza. Od tamtej pory szkaplerz karmelitański stał się jedną z form pobożności Maryjnej w całym Kościele. Klemens VII bullą "Ex Clementi" z dnia 12 sierpnia 1530 zatwierdził i obdarzył duchowymi przywilejami karmelitańskie Bractwo Szkaplerzne. Przywileje szkaplerzne zatwierdzali również papieże: Paweł II w 1534 i 1539, Pius V w 1564, Grzegorz XIII w 1577, Paweł V w 1613, Klemens X w 1637, Pius XI w 1922. +Nałożenie szkaplerza. +"Brązowy szkaplerz Najświętszej Maryi Panny z Góry Karmel", może być ważnie nałożony wiernemu wyznania rzymskokatolickiego przez kapłana z zakonu karmelitów, albo karmelitów bosych lub każdego kapłana posiadającego upoważnienie od karmelitów lub karmelitów bosych na przyjmowanie do Szkaplerza karmelitańskiego, przy zachowaniu zatwierdzonego przez Kościół specjalnego na tę okoliczność obrzędu. Podczas "Obrzędu błogosławieństwa i nałożenia Szkaplerza" następuje nałożenie szkaplerza tak, jak ma być noszony: jedna część na piersiach, druga na plecach. Dla ważności przyjęcia szkaplerza podczas tej ceremonii nie wolno posługiwać się medalikiem szkaplerznym, ale można go potem nosić zastępując nim ważnie nałożony i przyjęty szkaplerz. Kapłan przyjmujący wiernego do brązowego szkaplerza Karmelu naznacza mu odmawianie codzienne jakiejś modlitwy Maryjnej, zazwyczaj "Pod Twoją Obronę" lub "Witaj Królowo", której odmawianie nie obowiązuje pod grzechem. Przyjmujący szkaplerz karmelitański może dowolnie przystąpić do Bractwa szkaplerznego lub nie zrzeszać się. Przyjęcie szkaplerza odnotowuje się w Księdze Bractwa Szkaplerznego. +Medalik szkaplerzny. +Św. Pius X 16 grudnia 1910 dekretem Świętego Oficjum zezwolił używać medalik szkaplerzny, którym można zastąpić noszenie szkaplerza sukiennego. Medalik szkaplerzny musi mieć koniecznie z jednej strony wizerunek Najświętszego Serca Jezusa, a z drugiej strony wizerunek Matki Bożej ze szkaplerzem w dłoni. Szkaplerz sukienny i medalik szkaplerzny mają taką samą wartość duchową. +Objaśnienia. +Przyjęcie do Szkaplerza karmelitańskiego dokonuje się tylko jeden raz. Gdy zniszczy się szkaplerz, albo zgubi medalik szkaplerzny, wówczas zastępujemy go nowym i nakładamy samemu sobie prywatnie. Nie jest wymagane poświęcenie nowego szkaplerza, ale gdybyśmy tego chcieli, to poświęcić go może każdy kapłan. Wierny, który przestanie nosić szkaplerz lub medalik szkaplerzny, a powróci potem do praktykowania jego noszenia i odmawiania modlitw określonych podczas jego przyjęcia, nie musi ponawiać obrzędu przyjęcia do Szkaplerza. Zmniejszona wersja brązowego szkaplerza karmelitańskiego składa się z dwóch małych prostokątów sukiennych (najczęściej wełnianych) związanych dwiema tasiemkami. Nosi się go tak, że jedna część leży na piersiach, a druga na plecach wiernego. Naszyte na szkaplerzach karmelitańskich obrazki lub wyhaftowane symbole religijne nie są koniecznie potrzebne, ale często można je spotkać. Istnieją różne szkaplerze zatwierdzone przez Kościół, przeznaczone dla wiernych świeckich i duchownych, najczęściej związane są z danym zakonem lub specyficznym nabożeństwem i powiązane z określonym bractwem (konfraternią). +Obietnice. +1. Kto umrze odziany szkaplerzem świętym, nie zazna ognia piekielnego. +2. Noszący(a) szkaplerz jako czciciel(ka) Matki Bożej zapewnia sobie Jej opiekę co do duszy i ciała w tym życiu i szczególną pomoc w godzinie śmierci. +3. Każdy(a), kto pobożnie nosi szkaplerz i zachowuje czystość według stanu, zostanie wybawiony(a) z czyśćca w sobotę po swej śmierci. +4. Ci, którzy przyjęli szkaplerz, są złączeni z zakonem karmelitańskim i mają udział w jego duchowych dobrach za życia i po śmierci, a więc: we Mszach świętych, Komuniach świętych, umartwieniach, odpustach, modlitwach, postach itp. +Obowiązki. +1. Naśladować cnoty Najświętszej Dziewicy i szerzyć Jej cześć. +2. Dniem i nocą nosić na sobie szkaplerz. +3. Odmawiać codziennie modlitwę naznaczoną w dniu przyjęcia do Szkaplerza (zazwyczaj "Pod Twoją Obronę", "Witaj Królowo"). +4. Czynić dobrze bliźnim. +Praktyki zalecane noszącym szkaplerz święty. +1. Przynajmniej raz w miesiącu, jeżeli pozwolą na to warunki oraz w święta Matki Bożej przystępować do Spowiedzi i Komunii świętej. +2. Nawiedzać często kościół i przynajmniej przez kilka minut modlić się do Matki Bożej. +3. Od czasu do czasu z miłości do Matki Bożej wyrzec się czegoś dozwolonego (drobne umartwienia). +Szkaplerze. +Brązowy szkaplerz +Niebieski szkaplerz +Czarny szkaplerz +Biały szkaplerz +Czerwony szkaplerz +Zielony szkaplerz +Fioletowy szkaplerz +Niebiesko-czarny szkaplerz +Pięcioraki szkaplerz +Krzysztof Mroziewicz + +Krzysztof Mroziewicz (ur. 1945 w Słupicy koło Jedlni) – polski publicysta, korespondent wojenny, dyplomata, komentator spraw międzynarodowych w "Polityce" i programie TVP "7 dni świat". +Życiorys. +Jako początkujący dziennikarz pracował w tygodniku studenckim "itd", gdzie piastował funkcje m.in. zastępcy szefa działu kultury, szefa działu kultury oraz wiceredaktora naczelnego. Wyjechał na stypendium ZSP do Panamy, gdzie zajmował się pisaniem doktoratu nt. myśli Ernesta Che Guevary. W latach 1996–2001 pełnił misję jako ambasador Polski w Indiach, Sri Lance i Nepalu. +Obecnie pracuje jako wykładowca Wydziału Dziennikarstwa i Nauk Politycznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego i innych wyższych uczelni. +Otrzymał wiele nagród i odznaczeń, m.in. trzy Wiktory, Złoty Medal Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego oraz medal z okazji 300-lecia tego uniwersytetu. +Fryderyki - wokalista roku + +Laureaci i nominowani do Nagrody Akademii Fonograficznej Fryderyk w kategorii wokalista roku. +W 2012 roku wyróżnienie w kategorii przyznano po raz ostatni. +Jakub (postać biblijna) + +Jakub (hebr. Yaʿăqōḇ, Yaʿaqov יַעֲקֹב, arab. يعقوب, Yaʿqūb, od "aqeb" - "pięta"), nazywany też Izraelem (hebr. יִשְׂרָאֵל - Israel ""Walczący z Bogiem"") – patriarcha biblijny, którego dzieje przedstawia Księga Rodzaju. +Jakub był synem Izaaka i Rebeki, bratem-bliźniakiem Ezawa. Dzieci walczyły ze sobą już w matki, co Jahwe objaśnił jej słowami "Dwa narody są w twym łonie, dwa odrębne ludy wyjdą z twych wnętrzności; jeden będzie silniejszy od drugiego, starszy będzie sługą młodszego" (Rdz 25,23). +Biblia określa Jakuba jako człowieka spokojnego, a Ezawa - jako zręcznego myśliwego. Ezaw był faworyzowany przez ojca, a Jakub - przez matkę. Ezaw był pierworodnym, jednak lekceważył ten przywilej i odstąpił go bratu za potrawę z gotowanej soczewicy. Również ojcowskie błogosławieństwo Jakub uzyskuje podstępem od niedowidzącego ze starości Izaaka. Z powodu gniewu brata był zmuszony udać się do Charanu, do brata swojej matki Labana, którego obie córki - Rachelę i Leę - poślubił. +Księga Rodzaju opisuje walkę Jakuba z tajemniczą postacią, która powiedziała: "Odtąd nie będziesz nazywał się Jakub, ale Izrael (ישׂראל), bo walczyłeś z Bogiem i z ludźmi i zwyciężyłeś." (Rdz 32,29). Józef Flawiusz w DDIk1_331-334 opisuje powrót Jakuba do brata swego Ezawa, podczas której natknął się on na zjawę i walczył z nią ciężko, odnosząc zwycięstwo. Zwyciężona zjawa przedstawiła się jako Anioł Boży. +Po 17 latach pobytu w Egipcie zmarł w wieku 147 lat, pochowany został w jaskini Makpela. +Ponadto Lea urodziła mu jedyną córkę - Dinę. +Potomstwo dwunastu synów Jakuba tworzyło dwanaście plemion izraelskich; do których jednak nie zalicza się nieposiadających własnych ziem potomków Lewiego - lewitów, natomiast rozróżniając dwóch synów Józefa - Efraima i Manassesa, którzy zostali przez Jakuba adoptowani. +Ciekawostki. +Jakub jest bohaterem pieśni Jacka Kaczmarskiego pt."Walka Jakuba z aniołem". +Irena (cesarzowa bizantyńska) + +Irena, Irene Sarantapechaina, gr. "Ειρήνη Σαρανταπήχαινα", Irena z Aten, gr. "Ειρήνη η Αθηναία)" (ur. ok. 752 w Atenach, zm. 9 sierpnia 803 na Lesbos) – cesarzowa bizantyńska (797-802), żona Leona IV, święta Kościoła katolickiego i prawosławnego.__NOTOC__ +Biografia. +Od 780 regentka przy małoletnim synu Konstantynie VI. Gdy pełnoletni syn próbował ją odsunąć od władzy, oślepiła go i uwięziła. W 787 r. podczas II soboru nicejskiego przywróciła kult obrazów. Organizatorka pierwszego konkursu piękności w Bizancjum. W latach 797-802 sprawowała samodzielnie rządy jako pierwsza kobieta w historii Bizancjum. +Regencję w imieniu syna miała sprawować do czasu jego pełnoletności. Początki jej regencji były trudne. Brat zmarłego cesarza uknuł spisek, lecz Irena go stłumiła. Rozkazała pięciu braciom męża przyjęcie święceń kapłańskich. Na Sycylii tutejszy gubernator Elpidos wzniecił powstanie w Syrakuzach. Oddziały z Peloponezu wierne Irenie, stłumiły tę rebelię. Z kolei nieobecność tych oddziałów w Grecji spowodowała groźny najazd Słowian w roku 782. W tym samym czasie Arabowie wdarli się do Azji Mniejszej. Irena odsunęła ich niebezpieczeństwo, płacąc wysoki haracz kalifowi Al.- Mahdiemu. W końcu grudnia roku 784 zaczęła przygotowania do soboru powszechnego, który miał przywrócić kult obrazów i potępić ikonoklazm. Nowy patriarcha konstantynopolitański oraz papież i patriarchowie Wschodu przyjęli to przychylnie. Sobór zebrał się 31 lipca 786 roku w Konstantynopolu. Do obradujących w kościele św. Apostołów wdarli się żołnierze z gwardii stacjonującej w stolicy. Rozpędzili zebranych powołując się na dekret Konstantyna V. Irena postanowiła wezwać z Tracji korpus składający się z ikonodulów, a oddziały ikonoklastyczne wysłać na granicę wschodnią. Następny sobór został zwołany do Nicei na rok 787. Przybyli tam legaci papiescy i przedstawiciele patriarchów Aleksandrii, Antiochii i Jerozolimy. Obrady trwały krótko od 24 września do 13 października. Cesarz Konstantyn i Irena złożyli ostatniego dnia swoje podpisy na dokumencie uchwał soboru. Zniesiony został ikonoklazm i przywrócono możność czczenia świętych obrazów. Był to wielki sukces Ireny, lecz opozycja ikonoklastyczna nie dała za wygraną. Na jej czele stanął generał ikonoklasta z czasów Konstantyna V - Michał Lachanodrakon. Konstantyn VI już osiągnął pełnoletność, ale Irena nie dopuszczała go do władzy. Wykorzystali to ikonoklaści, popierając młodego cesarza. W 790 roku zawiązano spisek przeciw Irenie, lecz ta go stłumiła. Wydawało się, że sprawa tronu Konstantyna jest stracona. Jego stosunki z matką wisiały na włosku. W październiku 790 roku cała armia Azji Mniejszej, wszystkie temy okrzyknęły Konstantyna cesarzem - jedynym i prawowitym. Na czele tego buntu stał Michał Lachanodrakon. Irena musiała ustąpić. Dopiero po ponad roku została przywrócona do łask. Stronnicy Ireny wybłagali Konstantyna, aby pogodził się z matką. W styczniu 792 roku została współcesarzową, miała sprawować władzę wraz z synem. Latem roku 792 Konstantyn wyruszył na wyprawę przeciw Bułgarom, z którymi toczono od 789 roku wojnę. Armia dowodzona przez niego została kompletnie rozbita pod Markellai. Michał Lachanodrokon zginął wraz z całym kwiatem dowódców na polu bitwy. Konstantyn uciekł z pola bitwy, co bardzo zachwiało jego pozycję. Wykorzystał to znowu cezar Nicefor i pozostali czterej wujowie cesarza. Konstantyn, gdy wykrył ich spisek kazał oślepić Nicefora, a pozostałym czterem stryjom wyrwać język. Jednocześnie cesarstwo musiało płacić Bułgarii wysoką daninę. Wiosną 793 roku oddziały z temu Anatolikon wznieciły powstanie przeciwko cesarzowi. Było one spowodowane oślepieniem strategosa tego temu Aleksego. Został on okaleczony za sprzyjanie Niceforowi. Konstantyn nie był już popularny. W styczniu zerwał kontakty z Marią z Paflagonii, z którą małżeństwo w 788 roku narzuciła mu matka. Konstantyn kochał się jednak w Teodote, damie dworu matki. Ożenił się z nią. Był to cios dla Ireny, a tym samym cesarz poróżnił się ze sprzyjającym mu duchowieństwem. Irena przygotowywała bunt w Bitynii, ale tutejsze oddziały jej nie poparły, ale uszło jej to bezkarnie. Postanowiła oślepić syna, do czego zdołała pozyskać gwardię pałacową. Konstantyn uprzedzony wcześniej wymknął się ze stolicy i prosił o wsparcie oddziały z Anatolii, lecz tam został aresztowany. 15 sierpnia 797 roku został okrutnie oślepiony z rozkazu matki. Odbyło się to w tej samej komnacie w której się urodził. Oślepiony Konstantyn żył jeszcze długo w więzieniu, zmarł przed 805 rokiem. +Część elit zachodnich skupionych wokół papieża Leona III uznała w tej sytuacji tron cesarski za faktycznie opróżniony i w 800 r. ofiarowała godność cesarską Karolowi Wielkiemu. W celu zjednoczenia prowincji zachodnich i wschodnich Karol Wielki planował małżeństwo z Ireną, do którego jednak nie doszło. Bunt ministrów i dworzan obalił 31 października 802 roku Irenę. Została wygnana na Wyspy Książęce, a potem na Lesbos. Tam jak głosi legenda pokutowała za swoją dawną gwałtowność. Zmarła w październiku 803 roku. +Dzień obchodów. +W Kościele katolickim wspomnienie liturgiczne świętej obchodzone jest 9 sierpnia, w Cerkwi prawosławnej 9/22 sierpnia, tj. 22 sierpnia wg kalendarza gregoriańskiego. +Józef (postać biblijna) + +Józef, Józef Egipski (hebr. יוֹסֵף; arab. يوسف Jusuf, skrócona forma imienia Josifiasz: "Jah dodał [pomnożył") – patriarcha biblijny, syn Jakuba i Racheli, żył 110 lat. Jego historia jest opisana jedynie w Księdze Rodzaju, nie ma potwierdzenia w źródłach egipskich. Jednakże biblijny opis dostarcza spójnych i zbieżnych informacji z faktami historycznymi na temat okresu, na który datuje się pobyt Józefa w Egipcie takich jak cena niewolnika czy panujący władcy. Znamiennym faktem, który jest jednym z silnych dowodów potwierdzających pobyt Józefa w Egipcie jest znalezisko w Muzeum Egipskim w Kairze. Badacze z zespołu Sa’ida Muhammada Thabeta, prowadzący prace inwentaryzacyjne w muzeum, odkryli monety z imieniem i wizerunkiem biblijnego patriarchy. Zdaniem odkrywców mogą one pochodzić z czasów, kiedy Józef żył w Egipcie. +Historia biblijna. +Jako ukochany syn był znienawidzony przez swych braci, gdyż "donosił ojcu ich, co o nich mówiono złego". ojciec kochał go "najbardziej ze wszystkich synów [..., ponieważ urodził mu się na starość" (a także dlatego, gdyż był synem ukochanej żony Jakuba, Racheli), podarował mu "długą szatę z rękawami", a na dodatek Józef miał kiedyś 2 sny, które dobitnie sugerowały, że bracia (w drugim śnie również ojciec i matka) mu się pokłonią (co mimo wszystko ostatecznie niemal w całości się sprawdziło). +Bracia chcieli go zabić, kiedy przyszedł do nich, wysłany przez ojca, podczas wypasania owiec w okolicach Sychem, jednak najstarszy przyrodni brat Ruben do tego nie dopuścił. +Ostatecznie, za namową Judy sprzedali go w niewolę Izmaelitom, donosząc ojcu, że został zabity przez dzikie zwierzę. Został sprzedany do Egiptu, gdzie stał się niewolnikiem Potifara (Putyfara) – dowódcy straży przybocznej faraona. W niedługim czasie Józef został przez niego uczyniony zarządcą całego majątku. +Żona Potifara, kiedy nie udało jej się uwieść Józefa, oskarżyła go fałszywie o próbę gwałtu, co zaprowadziło go do więzienia. Tam zasłynął trafną interpretacją snów współwięźniów przepowiadając jednemu z nich (podczaszemu) powrót do dawnych godności, a drugiemu (nadwornemu kucharzowi) śmierć. +Pewnej nocy faraon miał we śnie tajemniczą wizję siedmiu krów tłustych i siedmiu krów chudych oraz siedmiu kłosów pełnych i siedmiu pustych. Wtedy podczaszy przypomniał sobie Józefa, wezwano więc go na dwór, gdzie wyjaśnił, że krowy symbolizują lata dobrych zbiorów i nieurodzajów, a powtórzony motyw w drugim śnie oznacza, iż stanie się to niebawem. Zaproponował też władcy gromadzenie zapasów żywności w oczekiwaniu na siedem lat nieurodzajów. Faraon ustanowił wtedy Józefa zarządcą całego Egiptu, nadając mu imię "Safnat Penaech". Józef ożenił się z córką egipskiego kapłana Poti-fera, Asenat (z którą miał dwóch synów: Efraima i Manassesa). +Józef zgromadził podczas siedmiu lat dobrych zbiorów znaczne zapasy zboża, które później sprzedawał w latach głodu. Głód zmusił też jego ojca, Jakuba, do wysłania dziesięciu synów do Egiptu w celu nabycia zboża. Józef początkowo oskarżył ich o szpiegostwo i uwięził Symeona, ale przy drugiej wizycie dał się poznać i przebaczył swoim braciom. Następnie sprowadził ojca i całą rodzinę do Egiptu. Józef w okresie głodu wykupił dla faraona większość ziem, zmieniając egipskich właścicieli w dzierżawców. Zmarł mając 110 lat i został zabalsamowany. +Datowanie. +Alfred Tschirschnitz datuje przybycie Józefa do Egiptu na ok. 1660 p.n.e., a więc na czas Drugiego Okresu Przejściowego. Egipt znajdował się wówczas pod panowaniem Hyksosów, którzy chętnie otaczali się przybyszami z Syropalestyny. Innym argumentem przemawiającym za takim datowaniem jest sugerowana przez Biblię niewielka odległość stolicy od ziemi Goszen. Warunek ten spełnia jedynie Awaris. +Święty Sebastian + +Święty Sebastian, "Sabastián " (zm. ok. 288 w Rzymie) – męczennik chrześcijański i święty Kościoła katolickiego oraz prawosławnego +Życie. +O życiu Sebastiana dostarcza informacji "Opis męczeństwa" nieznanego autora z roku 354 roku oraz komentarz św. Ambrożego do Psalmu 118. Według tych źródeł, ojciec Sebastiana pochodził z rodziny urzędniczej w Narbonne (hist. "Narbona" w Galii), matka - z Mediolanu. Dzięki starannemu wychowaniu i stanowisku ojca, Sebastian został przywódcą gwardii cesarza Marka Aurelego Probusa (panującego 276-282). +Według św. Ambrożego Sebastian miał być dowódcą przybocznej straży Dioklecjana (panującego 284-305). +Za wyznawanie nauki Chrystusa został przywiązany do słupa (drzewa) i przeszyty strzałami. Sebastian nie zginął jednak. Kobieta, która postanowiła go pochować, zauważyła oznaki życia i doprowadziła go do zdrowia. Gdy Sebastian wyzdrowiał, poszedł bezpośrednio do cesarza i zarzucił mu barbarzyństwo w stosunku do chrześcijan. Cesarz w przypływie gniewu kazał go bić pałkami, żeby mieć pewność, iż tym razem Sebastian na pewno zginie. Prawdopodobnie nastąpiło to w 288 roku. Ciało męczennika wrzucono do kanałów miejskich. +Patronat. +Św. Sebastian, otoczony wielką czcią w całym Kościele, należał do najbardziej znanych świętych. Rzym uczynił go jednym ze swoich głównych patronów. +Św. Sebastian jest patronem chorych na choroby zakaźne, inwalidów wojennych, kamieniarzy, konwisarzy, łuczników, myśliwych, ogrodników, rusznikarzy, strażaków, strażników, strzelców, żołnierzy. Również patron Niemiec oraz Gwardii Szwajcarskiej. Jest orędownikiem w czasie epidemii. +Relikwie. +Znaczną część relikwii Sebastiana papież Eugeniusz II podarował opactwu św. Medarda w Soissons, a relikwię głowy świętego podarował dla bazyliki w Rzymie, pod wezwaniem "Czterech Żołnierzy Koronowanych" (w pobliżu Koloseum), Leon IV. +Świętego Sebastiana zaliczano do 14 Orędowników. +Dzień obchodów. +Wspomnienie liturgiczne św. Sebastiana w Kościele katolickim obchodzone jest 20 stycznia. +Cerkiew prawosławna wspomina męczennika 18/31 grudnia, tj. 31 grudnia wg kalendarza gregoriańskiego. +Ikonografia. +W ikonografii przedstawiany jest, jako obnażony młodzieniec przywiązany do słupa lub drzewa, przeszyty strzałami; zbroja u nóg, nad głową przybity wyrok śmierci. +Atrybutami świętego są: krucyfiks, palma męczeństwa, włócznia, miecz, tarcza, dwie strzały w dłoniach, przybity wyrok śmierci nad głową. +W tradycji prawosławnej Sebastian przedstawiany jest jako typowy męczennik. Jest mężczyzną w średnim wieku z króciutką, jasnokasztanową brodą i krzyżem (a niekiedy również Ewangelią) w dłoni, ubranym w czerwony płaszcz. +Progeria + +Progeria (zespół progerii Hutchinsona-Gilforda, łac. "progeria", z gr. "przedwczesna starość", ang. Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, HGPS) – genetycznie uwarunkowany zespół charakteryzujący się przyspieszonym procesem starzenia. HGPS spowodowany jest mutacją punktową "de novo" w położonym na chromosomie 1 genie "LMNA" kodującym laminę A. Białko to stabilizuje błonę otaczającą jądro komórkowe, a jego mutacje powodują zaburzenia w strukturze i funkcjach jądra komórkowego. Średnia długość życia osób z progerią wynosi 13 lat. +Naukowcy szczególnie interesują się progerią, gdyż badania nad tą chorobą mogą ujawnić informacje dotyczące normalnego procesu starzenia. +Objawy i przebieg. +Pierwsze objawy progerii można dostrzec u dzieci powyżej 2 roku życia. Należą do nich: napięcie, sztywność i ścieńczenie skóry, brak prawidłowego przyrostu masy ciała, łysienie. Na tym etapie zazwyczaj rodzice zaczynają przypuszczać istnienie jakiejś choroby. +U dzieci z progerią później formują się zęby, dzieci te mają starszy wygląd skóry (m.in. liczne zmarszczki), są zwykle łyse i niskorosłe. Z tych powodów wyglądają o wiele starzej. Nos jest "ściągnięty", policzki zapadnięte - z powodu utraty tkanki tłuszczowej. Utrata tkanki tłuszczowej może być również przyczyną owrzodzeń na przedniej powierzchni goleni i na stopach. +Mogą też pojawiać się problemy ze sztywnością stawów, problemy z przemieszczaniem się stawu biodrowego. Zdarzają się krwawienia z nosa, bóle głowy, miażdżyca i schorzenia układu krążenia. Zanotowano także przypadki, gdy dochodziło do zaniku mięśni. +Co charakterystyczne, mimo wszelkich cech starczych osoby chorujące na progerię nie wykazują zwiększonej zapadalności na schorzenia neurodegeneracyjne czy choroby nowotworowe. +Charakterystyczny jest także wysoki ton głosu. Czaszka jest duża w porównaniu z resztą ciała, z nieproporcjonalnie małą dolną częścią twarzy. +Aktualny wiek ciała chorych zmienia się o 8-10 lat na każdy przeżyty przez chorego rok. Jednak rozwój umysłowy nie jest zaburzony. +Podsumowując, do charakterystycznych cech w pełnoobjawowej progerii należą: +Czasami wygląd opisywany jest jako wygląd "oskubanego ptaka". +Leczenie. +Nie istnieje żadna metoda leczenia przyczynowego progerii, nie określono też ścisłych zaleceń w terapii pacjentów z tą chorobą. Zgon następuje najczęściej z powodu chorób układu krążenia (udar mózgu, zawał mięśnia sercowego) w wyniku postępującej miażdżycy naczyń wieńcowych i mózgowych. +Stosuje się jedynie leczenie fizykoterapeutyczne w celu zapobiegania przykurczom mięśni. +Historia. +Chorobę jako pierwszy opisał sir Jonathan Hutchinson w 1886 roku na łamach "Lancet". Kolejnym, który przedstawił opis progerii, był angielski chirurg Hastings Gilford w 1886 roku. Pacjent Gilforda zmarł w wieku 18 lat z powodu zawału serca. Gilford wprowadził do medycyny określenie "progeria". Terminu zespół Hutchinsona-Gilforda pierwszy użył DeBusk w 1972 roku. Do 9 czerwca 2010 chorują na nią 53 osoby +Ami Ayalon + +Ami Ayalon (ur. 1945) – kontradmirał, wysoki oficer izraelskiej Marynarki Wojennej, szef służby bezpieczeństwa (Szin Bet) w latach 1996-2000. +Ayalon rozpoczął w 1963 służbę w Marynarce Wojennej jako komandos płetwonurek, w latach 1970-1973 przeszedł szkolenie oficerskie. Następnie objął dowodzenie kilkoma niewielkimi okrętami; w tym samym czasie pełnił także służbę na lądzie. W 1981 objął stanowisko zastępcy dowódcy marynarki, które sprawował do 1991; następnie wyjechał na studia do Stanów Zjednoczonych, studiował m.in. w US Naval War College i na Uniwersytecie Harwardzkim, gdzie uzyskał magisterium. +Po powrocie do Izraela w 1993 został mianowany dowódcą Marynarki Wojennej Izraela; stanowisko sprawował do grudnia 1995. Został odznaczony najwyższym odznaczeniem bojowym Izraela – Medalem za Wybitną Odwagę – za operację desantu na silnie umocnioną Green Island u południowego wejścia do Kanału Sueskiego 19 lipca 1969. +Ayalon był pierwszym szefem Szin Bet, którego nominację na to stanowisko podano do wiadomości publicznej oraz pierwszym oficerem marynarki na czele tej instytucji. Objął tę funkcję w styczniu 1996, po dymisji Karmiego Gilona, który wziął na siebie pełną odpowiedzialność za niezapobieżenie zabójstwu premiera Icchaka Rabina (4 listopada 1995). Po odejściu z Shin Betu w 2000 Ayalon został politykiem partii Awoda. Po przegranej rywalizacji o przywództwo z Ehudem Barakiem wycofał się w 2008 roku z życia politycznego. +SS Great Eastern + +SS Great Eastern (wstępna nazwa "Lewiatan") – statek parowy zaprojektowany przez Isambarda Kingdoma Brunela, zwodowany w 1858. Był to wówczas największy na świecie parowiec. +Jego pojemność wynosiła 18 914 BRT, długość – 211 metrów, szerokość – 25 metrów, wysokość – 18 metrów +(dla porównania wymiary zatopionego przez górę lodową "Titanica": długość – 269 metrów, szerokość – 29 metrów, wysokość kadłuba – 18 metrów). +SS Great Eastern posiadał podwójne stalowe poszycie oraz dwa pędniki – czterołopatkową śrubę napędową i dwa koła łopatkowe średnicy 17 m. Jako napęd pomocniczy posiadał także możliwość rozpięcia ożaglowania. Umożliwiał przewiezienie w rejsie dookoła świata bez zawijania do portów 4000 pasażerów. +Kłopoty ze znalezieniem dostatecznej liczby pasażerów sprawiły, że został przerobiony na statek towarowy do kładzenia telegraficznego kabla podmorskiego i posłużył w 1865 do ułożenia 4200 kilometrów kabla na dnie Atlantyku. Zezłomowany w 1889. +Rejs "Great Eastern" w 1867 posłużył pisarzowi Juliuszowi Verne'owi za inspirację do napisania książki "Pływające miasto" wydanej przez Pierre'a Jules'a Hetzla w cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże". +Star Wars Combine + +Star Wars Combine to darmowa internetowa gra, czy też symulacja, typu MMORPG osadzona w realiach "Gwiezdnych wojen". Rozgrywka prowadzona jest w oknie przeglądarki i nie wymaga instalowania żadnego programu. +Świat Star Wars Combine obejmuje prawie 5 tysiący planet i księżyców w 621 systemach. Gracze mogą wcielić się w postać dowolnej rasy i zawodu, należącą do jednej z wielu frakcji - Imperium, Rebelia, piraci, handlowcy itp. Gra umożliwia produkcję wyposażenia, takiego jak statki, pojazdy, broń, droidy i inne, a także prowadzenie pomiędzy graczami handlu. +W Galaktyce Star Wars Combine nie znajdziemy klasycznych bohaterów Sagi "Gwiezdnych wojen", takich jak Han Solo, Anakin, czy Luke Skywalker. Rezygnacja z tych postaci wiąże się z oddzieleniem i uniezależnieniem fabuły gry od fabuły filmów i przekazanie w ręce graczy niczym nie ograniczonej kontroli nad wszystkim wydarzeniami w galaktyce, łącznie z działaniami dwóch najpotężniejszych frakcji - Imperium i Rebelii, których przywódcy także odgrywani są przez graczy. +Gra stworzona została przez fanów "Gwiezdnych wojen" w 1999 roku, obecnie (kwiecień 2008) jest ponad 4000 aktywnych graczy z całego świata. +Krzysztof Hartknoch + +Krzysztof Hartknoch (ur. w 1644 w Jabłonce koło Pasymia, zm. 3 stycznia 1687 w Toruniu) – historyk, profesor protestanckiego Gimnazjum Akademickiego w Toruniu, historyk Pomorza i Prus. +Historia. +Krzysztof Hartknoch urodził się we wsi Jabłonka koło Pasymia. Uczył się w szkołach w Pasymiu i w Królewcu, nie ukończył jednak studiów z powodów finansowych. W 1665 roku wyjechał do Kowna, gdzie został domowym nauczycielem. Pracował także w Wilnie i w Gdańsku, w 1667 roku powrócił do Królewca, gdzie mieszkał do 1677 roku. Dnia 21 kwietnia 1672 roku uzyskał stopień magistra filozofii na Akademii w Królewcu, gdzie do roku 1677 pozostał jako wykładowca. +Zainteresowany historią Prus, ogłosił w tym czasie szereg łacińskich rozpraw historycznych: "O Początkach Prus, O formie dawnego państwa pruskiego, O prawie pruskim, O bałwochwalstwie i przesądach dawnych Prusów." Wtedy też odnalazł i opracował pochodzącą z XIV wieku krzyżacką kronikę Piotra z Dusburga, którą wydał drukiem w 1679 w Lipsku. Napisał również rozprawę "Res Publica Polonica duobus libris ilustrata", o ustroju i historii Polski. Zajmował się także tematyka prawno-ustrojowa Polski, publikując anonimowo krytyczne i liczne poprawki do dzieła M. Chwałkowskiego. +Na początku 1677 roku został zaproszony do Torunia przez rektora toruńskiego Gimnazjum Akademickiego Ernesta Königa by objął stanowisko profesora gimnazjalnego. Od 1681 roku był dyrektorem, a od 1686 konrektorem tego gimnazjum. +Mieszkając w Toruniu napisał swoje dwa najobszerniejsze i najważniejsze dzieła historyczne: "Altes und Neues Preussen" (1684) i "Preussische Kirchen–Historia" (1686). Były to obszerne monografie historyczne prowincji, znane i cenione do dziś przez historyków. +Zmarł 3 stycznia 1687 roku i został pochowany w Toruniu w podziemiu kościoła NMP. +Karol VI Habsburg + +Karol VI Habsburg (ur. 1 października 1685 w Wiedniu, zm. 20 października 1740 tamże) – cesarz Świętego Cesarstwa Rzymskiego, król Węgier i Czech oraz arcyksiążę Austrii od 1711 r., ostatni męski przedstawiciel dynastii Habsburgów. Był drugim synem Leopolda I Habsburga i Eleonory Magdaleny z Wittelsbachów. Jego żoną była Elżbieta Krystyna Welf, z którą miał czworo dzieci. +W 1713 r. ogłosił tak zwaną sankcję pragmatyczną, według której po jego śmierci posiadłości Habsburgów będzie mogła objąć jego córka – Maria Teresa Habsburg. Na nim wygasła męska linia rodu Habsburgów, a jego córka zapoczątkowała linię habsbursko-lotaryńską. +Wczesne lata życia. +Urodził się w Wiedniu. Został ochrzczony pod imionami Karol Franciszek Józef. Jego wychowawcą był Antoni Florian von Liechtenstein. Jako dziecko przejawiał muzyczne zdolności. Jego nauczycielem muzyki był Johann Joseph Fux. Karol komponował (m.in. muzykę do oper), dyrygował i grał na klawesynie. +W tym czasie wymierała hiszpańska linia Habsburgów. Cesarz Leopold chciał, aby następcą upośledzonego na ciele i umyśle Karola II został właśnie Karol. Jego konkurentami byli młodszy wnuk króla Francji Ludwika XIV, książę Filip Andegaweński, i syn elektora bawarskiego, Józef Ferdynand Wittelsbach. W 1698 r. zawarto traktat w którym następcą tronu hiszpańskiego uznawano Józefa Ferdynanda. Włoskie posiadłości Hiszpanii miały być podzielone między Francję i Austrię. O podziale swoich ziem nie chcieli jednak słyszeć Hiszpanie. Król Karol w swoim testamencie ustanowił Józefa Ferdynanda dziedzicem wszystkich swoich ziem. Śmierć książątka bawarskiego na początku 1699 r. jeszcze bardziej skomplikowała sytuację. +W 1699 r. zawarto kolejny traktat, w którym Karol otrzymywał Hiszpanię, Belgię i kolonie, zaś Francja posiadłości włoskie. Hiszpanie jednak wciąż chcieli zachować jedność swojego imperium. Grandowie uznali, że zapewni im to tylko potęga Ludwika XIV. Po naleganiach ze strony Rady Królewskiej, Karol II 2 października 1700 r. podpisał testament na rzecz Filipa. Zmarł 1 listopada. Na wieść o postanowieniach testamentu Ludwik wysłał swojego wnuka do Madrytu, gdzie został koronowany jako Filip V. +Po ogłoszeniu Filipa królem Hiszpanii Ludwik był zdeterminowany utrzymać w ręku swojego wnuka całość hiszpańskiego imperium. W lutym 1701 r. francuskie wojska weszły do Mediolanu, co zdenerwowało cesarza. Holendrzy zostali usunięci z twierdz w Belgii, które przyznano im w 1697 r. traktatem w Rijswijk. Ludwik ogłosił ponadto syna obalonego w 1688 r. króla Anglii Jakuba II prawowitym królem Anglii, Szkocji i Irlandii, Jakubem III. To z kolei zdenerwowało Anglię. 15 maja 1702 r. Anglia i Holandia wypowiedziały Francji wojnę. Wkrótce przystąpiło do niej Cesarstwo. Rozpoczęła się wojna o sukcesję hiszpańską. +Walka o koronę hiszpańską. +Kandydatem koalicji na tron hiszpański został arcyksiążę Karol. W 1704 r. został proklamowany królem Hiszpanii Karolem III (w Hiszpanii był znany jako Don Carlos). Jeszcze w tym samym roku Karol wylądował w Lizbonie i na czele wojsk angielsko-portugalskich ruszył w głąb Hiszpanii. Jego uderzenie na Madryt zostało odparte przez marszałka Berwicka. W 1705 r. na rzecz Karola wybuchło powstanie w Katalonii. Karol zajął Barcelonę i został przyjął tytuł króla Aragonii i hrabiego Barcelony. W 1706 r. alianci zajęli Madryt a Karol wkroczył do Saragossy. Filip V uciekł do Burgos. +Przeciwko Karolowi rozpętała się wojna partyzancka (guerilla), gdyż Kastylijczycy nienawidzili otaczających Karola Katalończyków. Wskutek tych działań Karol został wyparty z Madrytu jeszcze przed końcem roku. W 1707 r. Berwick wyparł stronników Karola z Walencji i Aragonii. Karol utrzymał się tylko w Barcelonie. W 1710 r. Karol ponownie zajął Madryt, ale guerilla raz jeszcze zmusiła go do odwrotu. +Ojciec Karola, cesarz Leopold, zmarł w 1705 r. Jego następcą został starszy brat Karola, Józef. Kiedy ten zmarł 17 kwietnia 1711 r. niepozostawiwszy męskiego potomka tron cesarski przypadł Karolowi. Połączenie koron cesarskiej i hiszpańskiej naruszałoby jednak równowagę europejską, więc dotychczasowi sojusznicy Karola zaczęli zawierać traktaty pokojowe z Francją. W 1713 r. Anglia, Holandia, Portugalia, Sabaudia i Prusy podpisały pokój z Francją w Utrechcie. Osamotniony Karol VI czas jakiś toczył jeszcze wojnę z Francją, aż w końcu 7 marca 1714 r. podpisał pokój w Rastatt. +W 1714 r. Berwick wyparł Karola z Barcelony, aczkolwiek cesarz nie wyrzekł się pretensji do hiszpańskiego tronu. Karol utrzymywał jeszcze stosunki ze swoimi katalońskimi stronnikami, na jego dworze przebywało wielu uchodźców z Hiszpanii, a wielkie wpływy na dworze miała tzw. hiszpańska rada. Traktaty z lat 1713-1714 przyznawały Karolowi hiszpańskie posiadłości we Włoszech - Mediolan i Neapol (Sycylia przypadła księciu Sabaudii Wiktorowi Amadeuszowi II). Ku Włochom kierowały się również ambicje Filipa V, podsycane przez jego drugą żonę, Elżbietę Farnese, która dla swojego pierworodnego Karola szukała szansy na tron właśnie we Włoszech, gdzie wymierały książęce rody w Parmie i Toskanii. +Korzystając z zaangażowania cesarza w wojnę z Turcją, w 1717 r. flota hiszpańska zajęła Sardynię. Rok później hiszpański desant opanował Sycylię. Wtedy jednak zainterweniowały Francja, Anglia i Holandia. Cesarz zawarł pokój z Turcją i przyłączył się do sojuszu. Flota hiszpańska została zniszczona przez Anglików, a armia Berwicka wkroczyła do Hiszpanii. Filip w 1720 r. ugiął się i zawarł pokój z Karolem, który uznał go królem Hiszpanii. Karol zamienił z Wiktorem Amadeuszem Sardynię na Sycylię. +Konflikt o posiadłości włoskie rozgorzał na nowo podczas wojny o sukcesję polską. Familijny pakt francusko-hiszpański z 1733 r. przewidywał wyparcie Habsburgów z Italii. W wyniku dwuletniej wojny Karol zrzekł się na rzecz Hiszpanii Neapolu i Sycylii, które przypadły młodszemu synowi Filipa, Karolowi. Cesarz otrzymał jednak w zamian księstwa Parmy, Piacenzy i Guastalli. Razem z Mediolanem i uzyskaną w międzyczasie Toskanią utworzyło to silne związek habsburskich ziem na północy Italii. +Cesarz niemiecki. +Cesarz Józef zmarł 17 kwietnia 1711 r. Karol był jego naturalnym następcą, ale uzyskanie godności cesarskiej wymagało zgody elektorów. Uzyskanie jej było czystą formalnością. 12 października 1711 r. we Frankfurcie nad Menem elektorzy (król Prus Fryderyk I Hohenzollern jako margrabia brandenburski, król Polski August II Mocny jako książę saski, palatyn reński Jan Wilhelm Wittelsbach, książę hanowerski Jerzy Ludwik, arcybiskup Moguncji Lothar Franz von Schönborn, arcybiskup Trewiru Karol Józef Lotaryński, arcybiskup Kolonii Józef Klemens Wittelsbach oraz sam Karol jako król Czech) okrzyknęli Karola cesarzem Świętego Cesarstwa Rzymskiego Narodu Niemieckiego). +Podporządkowanie Węgier. +1 maja 1711 r. dobiegło końca wieloletnie powstanie księcia siedmiogrodzkiego Franciszka II Rakoczego. W imieniu przebywającego na wygnaniu w Polsce księcia Sándor Károlyi złożył broń i podpisał z cesarzem pokój w Satmarze. Rakoczy nie uznał pokoju i do swojej śmierci w 1735 r. tułał się między Polską, Francją a Turcją, chcąc pozyskać sojuszników do walki o niepodległość Siedmiogrodu. W 1718 r. austriacko-turecki pokój w Pożarewie przekazywał całe Węgry pod panowanie Habsburgów. +Podpisując pokój w Satmarze powstańcy otrzymali obietnicę, że cesarz będzie respektował węgierskie prawa, przywróci im skonfiskowane majątki i uszanuje swobody religijne. Karol nie miał zamiaru dotrzymywać tych warunków. Uczestników powstania wygnano, a ich majątki zostały skonfiskowane. Rządy austriackie oparte zostały na grupie proaustriackich magnatów (tzw. labancach), którzy utrzymywali dobre kontakty z księciem Eugeniuszem Sabaudzkim. Sejm z lat 1712-1715 zniósł pospolite ruszenie szlachty i powołał do życia stałą armię składającą się w połowie z cudzoziemców i pozostającą pod austriacką komendą. Sejm stopniowo tracił znaczenie. Cesarz zwoływał go coraz rzadziej, a przez 10 ostatnich lat swojego panowania obywał się w ogóle bez sejmu. Wojsko podporządkowano wiedeńskiej Radzie Wojennej. +Organem rządu centralnego na Węgrzech i w Siedmiogrodzie były Rady Namiestnicze. Na ich czele stał namiestnik na Węgrzech i gubernator w Siedmiogrodzie. Wszystkie ważniejsze sprawy załatwiano jednak w Wiedniu. Na Węgrzech siłą wprowadzano katolicyzm. Szlachcie pozostawiono rozległe uprawnienia stanowe, samorządy komitetowe i sądownictwo patrymonialne nad chłopami. Magnateria szybko uległa zniemczeniu, średnia szlachta była bardziej przywiązana do madziarskich tradycji, ale pogodziła się z habsburskimi rządami za cenę zachowania przywilejów. Proces włączania Węgier do monarchii habsburskiej zakończyło w 1723 r. przyjęcie przez Sejm sankcji pragmatycznej. Faktycznym testem na lojalność Węgrów wobec monarchii miała stać się dopiero wojna o sukcesję austriacką. +Wojny z Turcją. +Od prawie 200 lat głównym konkurentem Habsburgów w walce o opanowanie Bałkanów była Turcja. Od końca XVII w. austriacka monarchia była stroną ofensywną. Stronnictwo niemieckie, na czele z wybitnym wodzem, księciem Eugeniuszem Sabaudzkim, popychało Karola ku dalszej walce o Bałkany. Cesarz wahał się jednak, naciskany przez radę hiszpańską, która pchała go ku sprawom włoskim. Ostatecznie śmierć Ludwika XIV w 1715 r. i skoncentrowanie na Węgrzech 80 000 żołnierzy przeważyło szalę na korzyć stronnictwa niemieckiego. W kwietniu 1716 r. cesarz zawarł traktat z Wenecją (Austria wytargowała od znękanej wojną Republiki swobodę żeglugi na Adriatyku). Na początku czerwca Austria wypowiedziała Turcji wojnę. +Działaniami wojennymi dowodził niezrównany książę Eugeniusz. 5 sierpnia 1716 r. pokonał Turków pod Petrovaradinem. W sierpniu 1717 r. padł Belgrad. Po stronie Austrii wystąpili Serbowie, a część bojarów wołoskich prosiła cesarza o przyłączenie Wołoszczyzny do Austrii. Podobne nastroje panowały w Mołdawii, opanowanej przez Austriaków po linię rzeki Seret. Tymczasem Austrię zaabsorbowała hiszpańska inwazja na Italię. W dniach 17-27 lipca 1718 r. zawarto pokój w Pożarewie, który oddawał Austrii północną Serbię z Belgradem, Banat i Małą Wołoszczyznę. +Kolejna wojna z Turcją wybuchła prawie 20 lat później. W latach 1735-1736 Rosjanie zdobyli Azow, spustoszyli Krym i podeszli pod Stambuł. Zagrożona Turcja przyjęła mediację Austrii. W Wiedniu patrzono z zazdrością na rosyjskie sukcesy. Mediacja służyła temu, aby uzyskać dogodną pozycję przetargową w celu dokonania rozbioru Turcji. Kongres pokojowy w Niemirowie był więc farsą i już w 1737 r. Austriacy uderzyli na Turcję. Tu spotkała ich jednak niespodzianka. +Zorganizowana przy pomocy francuskich doradców armia turecka zadała ciężkie straty Austriakom. Widać było brak zdolnego wodza w osobie księcia Eugeniusza, który zmarł w 1736 r. W 1739 r. Turcy oblegli Belgrad. 18 września podpisano w tym mieście traktat pokojowy, na mocy którego Turcja odzyskała utracone na rzecz Austrii w 1718 r. tereny. +Polityka wewnętrzna. +Włączenie Węgier sprawiło, że punkt ciężkości monarchii habsburskiej przesunął się na wschód. Krótki miraż hiszpańskiego tronu pozostawił w rękach naddunajskiego monarchy Belgię i większość Italii. Ogółem pod berłem domu habsburskiego żyło 20 milionów ludzi. +Za panowania Karola na wiedeńskim dworze walczyły o wpływy rada hiszpańska i stronnictwo niemieckie. Wiedeń stał się kosmopolityczną stolicą późnego baroku. Nastąpił rozkwit włosko-hiszpańsko-flamandzko-czesko-austriackiej sztuki dworskiej, pałacowej i kościelnej. Dwór Karola uważany był za najbardziej pompatyczny i ceremonialny w całej Europie. Gibelińska polityka Józefa I odeszła w przeszłość. Karol był podporą papiestwa, prześladował protestantów, a jego otoczenie było zdominowane przez jezuitów. Wspierał również antyprotestanckie działania w Rzeszy niemieckiej. W 1731 r. wojska cesarskie wygnały 20 000 protestantów z Salzburga. +Karol kontynuował merkantylistyczną politykę gospodarczą swojego ojca i brata. Liczne wojny sprawiały jednak, że skarb państwa nieustannie borykał się z brakiem pieniędzy. Koszty wojny o sukcesję hiszpańską wyniosły 350 milionów guldenów, a wspierający skarb państwa kredytem żydowscy bankierzy, Oppenheimer, Wertheimer i inni, zbankrutowali. W 1706 r. założono w Wiedniu bank państwowy (Wiener Stadt-Bank). Hrabia Gundaker Starhemberg zaprowadził porządek w finansach. Dążono do rozwoju handlu wewnętrznego. Temu celowi służyły powołana w 1705 r. Deputacja Komercyjna Krajów i powstała w 1714 r. Komisja Merkantylna. Zakładano państwowe manufaktury i ustanawiano monopole. +Marzeniem Karola było wyprowadzenie swojej monarchii na morza. Temu celowi miało służyć powołanie w 1719 r. Kompanii Wschodniej nastawionej na handel z Lewantem. Kompania ta nie spełniła jednak pokładanej w niej nadziei. Opanowanie Belgii sprawiło, że Karol zainteresował się handlem z koloniami. Kupcy belgijscy konkurowali z kupcami holenderskimi. W 1722 r. Karol, za radą szkockiego aferzysty Johna Kera of Kersland, założył Kompanię Indyjską w Ostendzie. Wywołało to sprzeciw Anglii i Holandii. Karol był uparty, ale państwa morskie nie przebierały w środkach. Podczas kryzysu gibraltarskiego w 1727 r. okręty Royal Navy zatapiały statki kompanii. Karol w 1727 r. zawiesił, a w 1731 r. zniósł Kompanię Ostendzką za cenę uznania przez państwa morskie sankcji pragmatycznej. +Próba z Kompanią Ostendzką nie powiodła się, a w handel lewantyński zdominowali Grecy. Karol nie zdołał uczynić z Austrii mocarstwa handlowego, ale dzięki jego poparciu nastąpił rozwój wolnego portu Triest. Rozbudowano sieć dróg i zniesiono cła wewnętrzne. Największą potrzebą habsburskiej monarchii była reforma administracji. +Reformy tej Karol jednak nie przeprowadził. Monarchia habsburska pozostała konglomeratem krajów rządzących się swoimi prawami i posiadającymi silne instytucje stanowe. Najwyższym organem monarchii pozostała Tajna Konferencja (sześciu ministrów i kanclerz pod przewodnictwem cesarza). Istniała również Nadworna Izba Handlowa i Nadworna Rada Wojenna. Kancelaria Nadworna zarządzała dziedzicznymi krajami monarchii. Istniały również kancelarie czeska, węgierska, siedmiogrodzka, włoska i niderlandzka. Rządy Karola nie spowodowały umocnienia centralizmu w monarchii. Stworzyły ku temu jednak dobrą podstawę prawną. +Sankcja pragmatyczna. +Karol był ostatnim męskim przedstawicielem dynastii Habsburgów. W 1703 r. jego ojciec wydał akt, że gdyby żaden z jego synów nie pozostawił męskiego dziedzica, kraje dziedziczne Habsburgów mają przypaść najstarszej córce Józefa. 19 września 1713 r. Karol wydał sankcję pragmatyczną, która dziedziczką tych krajów ustanawiała jego córki, z pominięciem potomstwa Józefa. W latach 1722-1723 cesarz doprowadził do przyjęcia sankcji przez wszystkie kraje monarchii. W ten sposób dotychczasowa unia personalna ustępowała miejsca unii realnej. +Cesarz niestrudzenie również zabiegał o uznanie sankcji na arenie międzynarodowej. Hiszpania uznała ją w 1725 r., Rosja w 1726, Prusy w 1728, Wielka Brytania i Holandia w 1731, Hanower w 1732, Rzesza Niemiecka również w 1732, a Francja w 1738 r. +Karol zmarł w 1740 r. W październiku wybrał się na polowanie podczas którego zjadł danie z grzybów. Wkrótce po zjedzeniu potrawy poczuł się niedobrze. Kiedy przyjechał do Wiednia był już o krok od śmierci. Zmarł 20 października. Przed śmiercią zdążył jeszcze upomnieć swojego szambelana, że cesarzowi rzymskiemu przy ostatnich sakramentach przysługują cztery świeczniki. Jego dziedziczką została jego najstarsza córka, Maria Teresa. Pogrzeb Karola odbył się 24 października w Wiedniu. Cesarz, wielki legalista, uważał, że umowy międzynarodowe zapewnią jego córce bezproblemowe objęcie tronów w krajach dziedzicznych monarchii. O niepodzielności tych krajów miał jednak zadecydować oręż. +Pełna tytulatura. +"Karol, z Bożej łaski uświęcony i wybrany cesarz rzymski, po wieki August, król Niemiec, Kastylii, Leonu, Aragonii, Sycylii, Neapolu, Jerozolimy, Węgier, Czech, Dalmacji, Chorwacji, Slawonii, Nawarry, Grenady, Toledo, Walencji, Galicji, Majorki, Sewilli, Sardynii, Kordoby, Korsyki, Murcji, Jaén, Algabres, Algeciras, Gibraltaru, Wysp Kanaryjskich, Indii Zachodnich i Wschodnich oraz innych wysp i lądu stałego Morza Oceanicznego etc. etc. arcyksiążę Austrii, książę Burgundii, Brabancji, Mediolanu, Mantui, Styrii, Karyntii, Karnioli, Luksemburga, Limburga, Geldrii, Wirtembergii, Górnego i Dolnego Śląska, Kalabrii, Aten i Neopatrii etc. książę Szwabii, Katalonii i Asturii, margrabia Świętego Cesarstwa Rzymskiego, Burgau, Moraw, Górnych i Dolnych Łużyc, hrabia Habsburga, Flandrii, Tyrolu, Barcelony, Ferreti, Kyburga, Gorycji, Artois etc. etc. landgraf Alzacji, margrabia Oristano, hrabia Goceano, Namur, Rousillon i Cerdagne etc. etc. pan Marchii Wendyjskiej, Port Naon, Biskajów, Moliny, Salin, Trypolisu i Mechelen etc. etc. etc." +Manifest 22 stycznia + +Manifest 22 stycznia – manifest wydany 22 stycznia 1863 w Warszawie przez Komitet Centralny Narodowy ogłaszający wybuch powstania styczniowego. +Manifest przekształcał Komitet Centralny w Tymczasowy Rząd Narodowy. Do walki przeciw Imperium Rosyjskiemu zostali wezwani wszyscy mieszkańcy przedrozbiorowej Rzeczypospolitej – Polacy, Litwini, Rusini i Żydzi. Zakładał on powstanie niepodległego państwa i równe prawa dla wszystkich obywateli. +Konstantyn VI (cesarz bizantyński) + +Konstantyn VI (ur. 14 stycznia 771, zm. 797 lub 802) – cesarz bizantyjski od 780. +Jedyny syn Leona IV Chazara, został uwięziony i oślepiony przez matkę, cesarzową Irenę - oficjalnie była to kara za bycie ikonoklastą. Konstantyn został koronowany na współcesarza 24 kwietnia 776, kiedy jego ojciec był cesarzem - po śmierci ojca w 780 – został jedynym władcą w wieku 9 lat. Jego matka była regentką i nie przekazała mu władzy nawet kiedy osiągnął pełnoletność. +W 782 został zaręczony z Rotrudą, córką króla Franków – Karola Wielkiego i jego trzeciej żony Hildegardy. Irena jednak w 788 zerwała zaręczyny. +Digambarowie + +Digambarowie (dewanagari: दिगंबर) – jeden z dwóch głównych (obok śwetambarów) kierunków w łonie dźinizmu. +Etymologia. +W sanskrycie słowo "digambar" (दिगंबर) oznacza dosłownie "odzianego w sferę nieba", "odzianego w przestwór" +i odnosi się do tego, iż digambarowie chodzili zupełnie nago w odróżnieniu od śwetambarów, którzy ubierali się na biało. Jednak obecnie również i digambarowie używają ubrań (dawny zwyczaj pozostał tylko w obrębie niektórych klasztorów). +Doktryna. +Podział na digambarów i śwetambarów zaistniał prawdopodobnie już w czasach Mahawiry, gdyż śwetambarowie nie przyjęli wszystkich jego reform. Rozłam nasilił się w II wieku n.e., jednak jeszcze do XI wieku istniały wspólne świątynie obu odłamów. Pozycja kobiet jest gorsza niż w rywalizującej grupie: zaprzecza się możliwości osiągnięcia przez nie mokszy zanim nie narodzą się jako mężczyźni, nie mogą także zostać mniszkami. W odróżnieniu od śwetambarów nie mają kanonu świętych pism- twierdzą iż "kanon dźinijski" zaginął. +Poczucie winy + +Poczucie winy - stan emocjonalny powstający w sytuacji uświadomienia sobie popełnienia czynu prawnie albo moralnie niedozwolonego. Związane jest zwykle z chęcią zadośćuczynienia i poddania się karze. +Nie zawsze poczucie winy wiąże się z faktyczną winą. Nieuzasadnione poczucie winy może występować pod wpływem szoku u osób, które np. utraciły kogoś bliskiego w wypadku, choć nie miały na to wpływu. Ponieważ takiego zdarzenia nie można cofnąć, poczucie winy może prowadzić do depresji. +Poczucie winy ma podłoże społeczne także poprzez powszechny wzorzec reakcji na przekraczanie obowiązujących norm. W niektórych kulturach dominuje poczucie winy (np. wśród wyznawców judaizmu), w innych podobną funkcję kulturową pełni wstyd (np. w Japonii). W chrześcijaństwie natomiast poczucie winy jest uznawane za prymitywną reakcję duchową na grzech, w przeciwieństwie do skruchy oraz żalu. +Paweł Berger + +Paweł Józef Berger (ur. 6 września 1950, zm. 27 stycznia 2005) – polski muzyk, klawiszowiec, kompozytor i jeden ze współzałożycieli zespołu Dżem. Wykorzystujący m.in. organy Hammonda. +Jest uważany za pierwszego nieoficjalnego wokalistę grupy. Od 1979 roku (z małymi przerwami) nieodłącznie związany z zespołem. +Towarzyszył w nagraniach wielu muzyków, m.in. Leszka Dranickiego, Tadeusza Nalepy, Martyny Jakubowicz. +Rano 27 stycznia 2005 zginął w wypadku samochodowym na trasie A4, w okolicach Jaworzna. Zespół Dżem wracał z koncertu w Rzeszowie. 2 lutego 2005 został pochowany na cmentarzu w katowickiej dzielnicy Piotrowice. +Od 2007 w Kaliszu organizowany jest Festiwal Muzyczny im. Pawła Bergera, na którym zawsze koncertuje Dżem. +Microsoft Works + +Microsoft Works - tani pakiet zintegrowany firmy Microsoft, będący znacznie uproszczonym odpowiednikiem biurowego zestawu Microsoft Office. Program był przeznaczony dla domowego użytkownika, ale był też w stanie obsłużyć potrzeby niewielkiej, zwłaszcza rodzinnej firmy. Został zastąpiony w 2010 roku pakietem Microsoft Office 2010 w wersji Starter. +Program, rozwijany od 1987 r. do 2008 r., był oferowany na rynku w wielu wersjach językowych. Od początku 2005 r. na rynku dostępna m.in. polskojęzyczna wersja Works 8 oraz anglojęzyczna wersja Works Suite 2005, różniące się znacznie zakresem oferowanych narzędzi. Dodatkowo wersja 9 jest darmowa, ale na licencji zbliżonej do adware (z reklamami, których wyłączenie kosztuje ok. $39). +Narzędzia. +Works 8 zawiera kalendarz obsługujący wpisy wszystkich użytkowników komputera, a więc rozdzielający informacje zależnie od zalogowanej osoby. Ułatwienie stanowi duża liczba gotowych szablonów dokumentów, arkuszy i baz danych, które można wykorzystać w rozmaitych okolicznościach, oraz kreatorów projektów. Podstawowym założeniem jest łatwość obsługi programu, zakładająca niewysoki poziom komputerowego doświadczenia domowych użytkowników. +Translacja (matematyka) + +Translacja, przesunięcie – przekształcenie prostej, płaszczyzny lub dowolnej przestrzeni afinicznej, które można intuicyjnie rozumieć jako równoległe przesunięcie wszystkich punktów dziedziny bez deformacji i obracania. +Definicja. +Niech formula_1 będzie dowolnym wektorem (swobodnym) pewnej przestrzeni afinicznej formula_2. +Wektor formula_1 nazywamy "wektorem translacji". +Niekiedy także obraz figury formula_6 w przekształceniu formula_3 nazywa się translacją figury formula_6 o wektor formula_1 i oznacza formula_10 +Własności. +Jeśli formula_11, to translacja formula_12 jest przekształceniem tożsamościowym; jeśli zaś formula_13, to formula_12 nie ma żadnego punktu +stałego. +Translacje wraz ze składaniem tworzą grupę izomorficzną z grupą addytywną przestrzeni liniowej stowarzyszonej z daną przestrzenią afiniczną. Jest więc izomorficzna z grupą wektorów swobodnych. +Translacja w przestrzeniach euklidesowych jest izometrią, nie zmienia zatem kształtu figury ani żadnej relacji wewnętrznej między jej elementami, natomiast zmienia jej położenie w stosunku do pozostałych (nie podlegających translacji) figur. +Ważną własnością grupy translacji w przestrzeniach euklidesowych jest to, że dla dowolnej translacji formula_15 i dowolnej izometrii formula_16 przekształcenie formula_17 też jest translacją. W języku teorii grup oznacza to, że grupa translacji jest podgrupą normalną grupy izometrii. Ponadto Iloraz grupy izometrii przez podgrupę translacji jest izomorficzny z grupą ortogonalną. +Niezmiennikiem definiującym grupę translacji jest długość i zwrot wektora. +Każda translacja prostej jest złożeniem dwóch symetrii punktowych, translacja na płaszczyźnie jest złożeniem pewnych dwóch symetrii osiowych o równoległych osiach, analogicznie translacja w przestrzeni jest złożeniem dwóch symetrii płaszczyznowych o równoległych płaszczyznach. +Każda translacja jest złożeniem pewnych dwóch symetrii środkowych (w przestrzeniach dowolnego wymiaru). +Reign in Blood + +Reign in Blood – to trzeci album studyjny thrashmetalowej grupy Slayer, który został wydany 7 października 1986 roku. W 1994 roku w Europie ukazała się pierwsza zremasterowana reedycja albumu z dwoma utworami bonusowymi (w Polsce zaś w 1998 roku), w kolejnych latach wydano następne reedycje albumu. +Powiat nowosądecki + +Powiat nowosądecki – powiat w Polsce (województwo małopolskie), utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Nowy Sącz. +Graniczy z Republiką Słowacką, od wschodu z powiatem gorlickim, od północy z tarnowskim i brzeskim, a od zachodu z limanowskim i nowotarskim. +Historia. +Pierwsze wzmianki pisane, które mówią o kasztelanie sądeckim pochodzą z 1224 r. +W 1257 r. Bolesław Wstydliwy przekazał ziemię sądecką swojej żonie Kindze, która uwłaszczyła otrzymanymi dobrami sprowadzony do Starego Sącza zakon klarysek. Tutaj też przeniesiono z Podegrodzia siedzibę władz sądeckich. Kinga, a później Gryfina (wdowa po Leszku Czarnym) miały w tej ziemi uprawnienia książęce i tytułowały się paniami sądeckimi. Władza kasztelana została wtedy ograniczona do funkcji wojskowych. Sprawy administracyjno-sądowe nad podległą ludnością przyjęli natomiast urzędnicy Kingi i Gryfiny. +W 1292 r. król Wacław II przenosi miasto Sącz do wsi Kamienica, która leży nad bardziej znaczącym od Popradu, Dunajcem. Tak powstaje Nowy Sącz. Miasto szybko rozwija się dzięki licznym przywilejom, położeniu przy ważnych szlakach komunikacyjnych oraz usytuowaniu tu siedziby kasztelana i starosty. +Kres świetności przyniosły klęski żywiołowe i epidemie w I połowie XVII wieku oraz najazd Szwedów, którzy wkroczyli do Nowego Sącza w 1655 r. +W wyniku I rozbioru Polski Sądecczyzna znalazła się pod panowaniem austriackim. Utworzony został powiat sądecki, podległy okręgowi wielickiemu. Rozparcelowano też włości sióstr klarysek między nowo przybyłych na te tereny niemieckich kolonistów. Kolejna reforma administracyjna w miejsce powiatów i obwodów wprowadziła cyrkuły. Stolicą jednego z nich stał się Nowy Sącz, dzięki czemu miasto zyskało na znaczeniu. +W czasie I wojny światowej do miasta praktycznie bez walki wkroczyli Rosjanie, wyparci następnie przez wojska austro-węgierskie i Legiony Polskie. Okres międzywojenny nie przyniósł ze sobą ożywienia gospodarczego. +II wojna światowa dosięgła Sądecczyznę 6 września, kiedy to po zaciętych bojach Niemcy następnego dnia wkroczyli do Nowego Sącza. Wyzwolenie nadeszło 19 stycznia 1945. +Po wojnie ziemię sądecką włączono do województwa krakowskiego, a Nowy Sącz stał się siedzibą powiatu. W wyniku reformy administracyjnej w 1975 r. powstało województwo nowosądeckie, zniesione w 1999 r. Nowy Sącz znów stał się siedzibą powiatu. +Geografia. +Większość powierzchni powiatu zajmują tereny górskie i wyżynne (pogórza), a także doliny rzeczne Dunajca z jego głównymi dopływami: Popradem i Kamienicą. Rzeki te rozdzielają główne pasma górskie Sądecczyzny: Beskid Sądecki, Beskid Niski i Beskid Wyspowy, otaczające Kotlinę Sądecką, która stanowi główne skupienie osadnicze regionu. +Lasy i tereny leśne zajmują 44% obszaru powiatu, w tym najwięcej w gminach górskich: Rytro (72,8%), Łabowa (70,8%), Piwniczna (63,6%), Muszyna (61,2%), Krynica (57%), Kamionka Wielka (46,2%), Łącko (42,8%), Nawojowa (41,6%). +Długość potoków i rzek sięga na ziemi sądeckiej 1900 km. Największą rzeką jest Dunajec a dalej: Poprad, Kamienica Nawojowska. Na terenie powiatu brak jest jezior naturalnych, ale na skutek działalności człowieka powstało sztuczne – jezioro Rożnowskie (nazwę swą wzięło od Pogórza Rożnowskiego), o długości dochodzącej do 20 km. +Znaczną część powiatu obejmuje Popradzki Park Krajobrazowy. +Gospodarka. +Ważną rolę gospodarczą w regionie odgrywa rolnictwo; użytki rolne zajmują 47,1%, w tym 20,6% łąki i pastwiska, sady – 1,6%. Podmioty gospodarcze reprezentują najczęściej handel, usługi, produkcję i budownictwo; wiele firm zajmuje się prowadzeniem hoteli i restauracji. Kluczową dziedzinę gospodarki regionu stanowi turystyka. +Kultura i turystyka. +Sądecczyzna spełnia prawie wszystkie wymagania turystów – można tu znaleźć góry, jezioro, ostępy leśne i pełne zabytków miasta, łemkowskie drewniane cerkiewki i monumentalne kościoły, a także najnowocześniejszą infrastrukturę sportową i szereg słynnych kurortów sanatoryjnych i uzdrowiskowych. Na terenie powiatu znajduje się ponadto wieś Kamianna – światowe centrum apiterapii. +W największych centrach sadowniczych (Łącku i Łososinie Dolnej), każdego roku w okresie kwitnienia sadów organizowane są Święta Kwitnącej Jabłoni, będące przeglądem kulturalnych i gospodarczych osiągnięć regionu. W imprezach tych biorą udział zespoły regionalne, orkiestry dęte oraz znani artyści scen polskich. +Religia. +W powiecie nowosądeckim dominują kościoły rzymsko-katolickie, choć na terenie powiatu jest 5 zborów Świadków Jehowy (3 w Nowym Sączu, 1 w Krynicy-Zdroju i 1 w Długołęce). +Franciszka Cegielska + +Franciszka Cegielska (ur. 2 sierpnia 1946 w Miluzie we Francji, zm. 22 października 2000 w Krakowie) – polski polityk, samorządowiec, prezydent Gdyni w latach 1990–1998, minister zdrowia w latach 1999–2000, posłanka na Sejm III kadencji. +Życiorys. +W 1970 ukończyła studia na Wydziale Mechanicznym Politechniki Szczecińskiej, a w 1975 studia podyplomowe na Politechnice Gdańskiej. Do 1987 wykładała w Wyższej Szkole Morskiej w Gdyni. +W 1989 organizowała miejski Komitet Obywatelski, obejmując jego przewodnictwo. W latach 1990–1998 była prezydentem Gdyni. Pełniła też obowiązki wiceprezesa Związku Miast Polskich. W 1997 została posłem na Sejm z listy AWS. Rok później w wyborach samorządowych uzyskała najwięcej głosów w regionie i objęła funkcję przewodniczącej sejmiku pomorskiego. W 1999 została przewodniczącą Ruchu Stu, zastępując Czesława Bieleckiego. Jako członkini tej partii zasiadała w Zespole Parlamentarnym PPChD. +W rządzie Jerzego Buzka od 1999 do śmierci sprawowała urząd ministra zdrowia (od 26 marca 1999 jako minister zdrowia i opieki społecznej, od 19 października 1999 jako minister zdrowia). +W lutym 2000 rada miasta Gdyni przyznała jej Medal im. Eugeniusza Kwiatkowskiego. We wrześniu 2000 otrzymała Medal Honorowy Związku Miast Polskich. Zmarła na raka trzustki, została pochowana na Cmentarzu Witomińskim w Gdyni. +Jej imieniem nazwano węzeł drogowy w centrum miasta i Szkołę Podstawową nr 47 w Gdyni. +Zdrój Główny + +Zdrój Główny, Kryniczanka – mineralna woda lecznicza z Krynicy-Zdroju. Szczawa żelazisto-wapienna z dużą zawartością kwasu węglowego. Stosowana przy chorobach żołądka, anemiach, krzywicach. Woda jest dostępna w Pijalni Głównej. +Nazwa "Kryniczanka" pochodzi od potoku, nad którym leży Krynica-Zdrój. +Zdrój Tadeusz + +Tadeusz – mineralna woda lecznicza z Krynicy-Zdroju. Szczawa wodorowowęglanowo-wapniowo-żelazista. Stosowana przy nadkwasocie i niedowładzie żołądka, nieżytach jelit: cienkiego i grubego oraz niedokrwistości. Woda dostępna jest w Pijalni Głównej. +Kwiecień 2003 + +__NOTOC__ +Powiat pińczowski + +Powiat pińczowski – powiat w Polsce (województwo świętokrzyskie), w dolinie rzeki Nidy, utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Pińczów. +Gminy. +Liczba ludności i powierzchnia gmin wg stanu na 31 grudnia 2010 r. +Położenie geograficzne. +Obszar ten wchodzi w skład makroregionu Niecki Nidziańskiej stanowiącej rozległe obniżenia pomiędzy Wyżyną Krakowsko–Częstochowską, a Wyżyną Kielecką. W skład powiatu wchodzą w całości lub części następujące mezoregiony: Garb Pińczowski, Dolina Nidy, Płaskowyż Jędrzejowski, Niecka Solecka, i Garb Wodzisławski. Na granicy południowej części na odcinku ok. 4 km przepływa rzeka Nidzica. +Teren powiatu pińczowskiego mimo niewielkiej powierzchni (613 km²) posiada niepowtarzalne walory krajobrazowe, co spowodowało, że prawie cała powierzchnia jest objęta różnymi formami ochrony w ramach trzech parków krajobrazowych: Kozubowskiego, Nadnidziańskiego oraz Szanieckiego Parku Krajobrazowego. +Nicefor I Genik + +Nicefor I Genik (grec. "Νικηφορος") (ur. 765, zm. 26 lipca 811) – cesarz bizantyjski od 802. Założyciel dynastii Niceforów. +Był patrycjuszem z Seleucji, jego rodzina miała arabskie korzenie. Cesarzowa Irena mianowała go ministrem finansów ("logothetēs tou genikou"). Z pomocą innych patrycjuszy i eunuchów udało mu się zdetronizować i wygnać Irenę. Dokładnie 31 października 802 został wybrany kolejnym cesarzem. W grudniu 803 koronował swojego syna Staurakiosa na współcesarza. +W czasie swego panowania dążył do umocnienia państwa poprzez porządkowanie finansów, walkę z Arabami i umacnianiu wpływów w Europie południowo-wschodniej (stłumienie buntu Słowian na Peloponezie w 805). W 811 roku był bliski podbicia Bulgarów po zdobyciu ich stolicy Pliski. Zginął jednak niedługo po tym zabity w przegranej bitwie na przełęczy Wyrbica u stóp chana Kruma. +Pan Samochodzik i templariusze + +Pan Samochodzik i templariusze – powieść dla młodzieży autorstwa Zbigniewa Nienackiego, wydana po raz pierwszy w roku 1966. Powieść wchodzi w skład cyklu "Pan Samochodzik", opisującego przygody historyka sztuki - detektywa noszącego to przezwisko. +Opis fabuły. +Akcja powieści rozgrywa się w Miłkokuku (Pojezierze Suwalskie), Malborku oraz Kortumowie (lokalizacja nieokreślona - z tekstu powieści nie wynika jednoznacznie, gdzie może mieścić się Kortumowo). Pan Samochodzik poszukuje ukrytych skarbów templariuszy. Dużą pomoc okazują mu zaprzyjaźnieni harcerze. Z powodu opublikowania w gazecie artykułu o skarbie, który, być może znajduje się w Polsce, Pan Samochodzik ma wielu konkurentów, między innymi państwa Petersenów, od których tajemniczy Malinowski wyłudził pieniądze i informacje o skarbie. Panu Samochodzikowi pomóc ma hasło "Tam skarb twój, gdzie serce twoje". Wkrótce wpada on na trop skarbu. +Ekranizacja. +Powieść została zekranizowana jako serial telewizyjny w 1971 pod tytułem "Samochodzik i templariusze". W tytułowej roli wystąpił Stanisław Mikulski. +Wydania. +i inne +Stosunek przerywany + +Stosunek przerywany (łac. "coitus interruptus") – metoda zapobiegania ciąży, polegająca na celowym szybkim wycofaniu penisa z pochwy na krótko przed zbliżającym się wytryskiem nasienia (ejakulacją). W efekcie nasienie – i zawarte w nim plemniki – nie trafiają do pochwy. Jest to bardzo niepewny sposób antykoncepcji, gdyż wydzielina wydobywająca się z prącia jeszcze przed wytryskiem (preejakulat) może zawierać plemniki, a nadto często nie udaje się partnerowi wycofać penisa przed rozpoczęciem wytrysku. Wskaźnik Pearla dla stosunku przerywanego ocenia się na 15-28, a przy perfekcyjnym użyciu 4. +Przez wiele lat wyniki badań nie wykazywały obecności żywych plemników w preejakulacie. Najnowsze badania kliniczne (2011) wskazują jednak, że preejakulat może zawierać żywe plemniki zdolne do zapłodnienia. Dlatego, jak podsumowują autorzy tych studiów, stosunek przerywany nie jest skuteczną metodą antykoncepcji i właściwa antykoncepcja powinna być stosowana od samego początku stosunku. +Uprawianie stosunku przerywanego wiąże się często z brakiem pełnego orgazmu, zwłaszcza u kobiet, a u mężczyzn może być źródłem frustracji. Zatem cel stosunku przerywanego (osiągnięcie satysfakcji seksualnej) nie jest w pełni osiągany. Uprawianie stosunków przerywanych może powodować u kobiety oziębłość płciową, zwłaszcza jeśli do wytrysku dochodzi bardzo szybko. +Modyfikacją stosunku przerywanego jest tzw. karezza, czyli bardzo wydłużony stosunek płciowy mający na celu jak najdłuższe utrzymanie obojga osób w fazie silnego pobudzenia, bez wytrysku nasienia. +Bartłomiej Apostoł + +Bartłomiej Apostoł, Bartłomiej Natanael, Święty Bartłomiej, cs. "Apostoł Warfołomiej" (ur. w I wieku n.e. w Kanie Galilejskiej, zm. ok. 70 w Albanopolis w Armenii) – jeden z dwunastu apostołów dwojga imion, zwany, w Ewangeliach Mateusza, Marka i Łukasza, Bartłomiejem (grecko-aramejskie "bar-Tholomaios" "syn Tolomaja-Ptolemeusza" lub "syn oracza"), a przez Jana – Natanaelem (hebr. "Bóg dał"). Wbrew apokryfom i stanowisku Augustyna z Hippony i Grzegorza Wielkiego, Kościół rzymskokatolicki przyjął, że to ta sama osoba; męczennik i święty Kościoła katolickiego oraz prawosławnego. Święty ten wymieniany jest w Modlitwie Eucharystycznej (Communicantes) Kanonu rzymskiego. +Żywot świętego. +Bartłomiej wymieniany w Ewangeliach Mateusza (Mt 10, 3 TB), Marka (Mk 3, 18), Łukasza (Łk 6, 14), a także Dziejach Apostolskich (Dz 1, 13), utożsamiany jest z pojawiającym się u Jana Natanaelem (Jan 1, 45-51; 21,2). Jeśli rzeczywiście Bartłomiej był tożsamy z Natanaelem, to wyróżniał się w gronie apostolskim dobrym wykształceniem. Możliwe jest, że poprzez znajomość z Natanaelem Jezus został zaproszony na wesele w Kanie Galilejskiej. Z apokryfów o św. Bartłomieju zachowały się Ewangelia Bartłomieja i "Apokalipsa Bartłomieja". Znana jest jednak w dość drobnych fragmentach. Zachował się również obszerniejszy apokryf "Męka Bartłomieja Apostoła". Według niego Bartłomiej miał głosić Ewangelię w Armenii, a także w Indiach, Arabii, a nawet w Etiopii. Podobno miał nawrócić brata króla Armenii, Polimpiusza. Z rozkazu króla Astiagesa pojmano Bartłomieja w mieście Albanopolis (obecne Emanstahat). Był męczony i rozpięty na krzyżu głową w dół, żywcem obdarty ze skóry i ukrzyżowany; potem go ścięto. +Kult. +W ikonografii przedstawiany jest z kordelansem do zdzierania skóry. +Jest patronem wielu rzemieślników: rzeźników, garbarzy, introligatorów, siodlarzy, szewców, tynkarzy, górników, krawców, piekarzy, sztukatorów, a we Florencji - sprzedawców oliwy, serów i soli; wzywany w przypadku chorób nerwowych, konwulsji i chorób skóry. Ponadto jest uważany za patrona bartników, pasterzy, właścicieli winnic, grzybiarzy i rolników. +Relikwie świętego znajdują się w Bazylice św. Bartłomieja w Rzymie. +Święto liturgiczne św. Bartłomieja w Kościele katolickim obchodzone jest 24 sierpnia. +Międzychód + +Międzychód (niem. "Birnbaum") – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie międzychodzkim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Międzychód. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. gorzowskiego. Położone nad Wartą w Kotlinie Gorzowskiej. Po roku 1998 nastąpił powrót miasta w granice województwa wielkopolskiego. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009, miasto liczyło 10 915 mieszkańców. +Nazwa miasta. +Od średniowiecza równolegle z polską używana była niemiecka nazwa miasta ("Birnbaum"). Oznacza ona gruszę, co znalazło swoje odzwierciedlenie w herbie miejskim. +Historia. +Międzychód, położony w granicach historycznej Wielkopolski, uzyskał prawa miejskie prawdopodobnie przed 1378 r. Przyjmuje się, że nazwa miasta wzięła swój początek z "chodzenia między brodami", Międzybród - Międzychód, chociaż nie ma żadnych przesłanek, by istniały w tym miejscu jakieś przeprawy przez rzekę Wartę. +W wyniku II rozbioru Rzeczypospolitej w 1793, miasto przeszło w posiadanie Prus. +Na mocy traktatu wersalskiego Międzychód ponownie znalazł się w granicach Polski, stanowiąc w latach 1920-1939 najdalej wysunięte na zachód miasto II Rzeczypospolitej (granica z Rzeszą Niemiecką przebiegała ok. 4 km na zachód od miasta). +Obecnym burmistrzem miasta jest Roman Musiał (2002-2007). Miasto częściowo rozbudowuje się, chociaż daje się odczuć stagnację. Piękne krajobrazy przyciągają turystów i wędkarzy (kraina 100 jezior). Na terenach należących do Międzychodu od 2001 trwają prace nad wydobyciem ropy naftowej oraz gazu. Pierwsze próbne odwierty (Sowia Góra, Lubiatów) zakończyły się pomyślnie. +Gospodarka. +W Międzychodzie i okolicach działa kilka znaczących firm. Jedną z najbardziej znanych jest zakład przetwórstwa owocowo-warzywnego Pudliszki-Heinz. W Międzychodzie produkowano keczup "Międzychód". Po przejęciu fabryki przez Pudliszki wyrób ten przestał być produkowany. Inne duże firmy to "MHM Paech" (zakład budowlany), "GRENEX" (produkcja maszyn rolniczych), "Schedpol" (produkcja styropianu) czy "DOSO". +W okolicach miasta silnie rozwinięte jest rolnictwo. Charakterystyczne dla gminy są rozległe pola uprawne ziemniaków i pomidorów. +Sport. +Na terenie Międzychodu działają liczne kluby sportowe m.in. MKS Sokół MARBO (koszykówka), UKS MIKST Międzychód (koszykówka), MLKS Warta Międzychód (piłka nożna), KTS Jeziorak, Wilki Miedzychód. +Oświata. +Dla starszych osób w Międzychodzkim Domu Kultury odbywają się sesje Uniwersytetu Trzeciego Wieku. +Ryszard Stanibuła + +Ryszard Zbigniew Stanibuła (ur. 24 października 1950 w Rachaniach) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm II, III i IV kadencji. +Życiorys. +Z wykształcenia lekarz weterynarii, studiował na Wydziale Weterynarii Akademii Rolniczej w Lublinie (ukończył w 1976); uzupełniał wykształcenie w dziedzinie prawa rolnego Unii Europejskiej na francuskim Uniwersytecie Camerino. Należał do Zjednoczonego Stronnictwa Ludowego, następnie przystąpił do Polskiego Stronnictwa Ludowego. W latach 1976–1991 był kierownikiem lecznicy dla zwierząt. Od 1984 do 1988 zasiadał w Wojewódzkiej Radzie Narodowej. +Od 1993 do 2005 sprawował mandat posła II, III i IV kadencji (z przerwą w latach 1997–1998; nie został wybrany w 1997, ale objął rok później mandat po zmarłym Ryszardzie Bondyrze). Pracował m.in. w Komisji Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Wsi i Komisji Zdrowia. W 2005, 2007 i 2011 bez powodzenia kandydował w wyborach parlamentarnych; w 2004 bezskutecznie ubiegał się o mandat posła do Parlamentu Europejskiego, a w 2006 radnego sejmiku lubelskiego. +Zasiada we władzach regionalnych lubelskiego PSL i w zarządzie głównym Związku Ochotniczych Straży Pożarnych. Pracuje w Lubelskim Wojewódzkim Inspektoracie Weterynarii w Lublinie. +Państwo Muszyńskie + +Państwo Muszyńskie (starostwo muszyńskie), zwane też kluczem muszyńskim, kresem biskupim państwa, kresem muszyńskim lub Biskupszczyzną – historyczne latyfundium w powiecie nowosądeckim przy granicy ze Słowacją (niegdyś zwaną Górnymi Węgrami), z centrum administracyjnym w Muszynie, o obszarze ok. 450 km², dysponujące własną administracją, sądownictwem i wojskiem, istniejące od XIII wieku do 1781 roku. +Historia. +Państwo Muszyńskie powstało prawdopodobnie około 1288 roku po tym, jak Muszyna z przyległościami została zapisana w testamencie przez Wysza Niegowickiego, scholastyka kapituły krakowskiej, biskupowi Pawłowi z Przemankowa. Dobra te zostały odebrane biskupowi krakowskiemu Janowi Muskacie przez Władysława Łokietka, prawdopodobnie za działania przeciw królowi w czasie buntu wójta Alberta. Później, do przełomu XIV i XV wieku, latyfundium muszyńskie należało do dóbr królewskich, po czym w 1391 roku, za panowania Władysława Jagiełły, zostało odzyskane dla biskupstwa krakowskiego przez biskupa Jana z Radliczyc (według niektórych źródeł nastąpiło to przed 1448 rokiem, za panowania biskupa krakowskiego Zbigniewa Oleśnickiego). +W 1391 roku król Władysław Jagiełło miał nadać biskupom krakowskim i włączyć do Państwa Muszyńskiego pobliski Tylicz (wówczas Miastko); rzekomy dokument Jagiełły zawierający to nadanie uznawany jest za XVI-wieczny falsyfikat. +Państwo Muszyńskie należało do biskupów krakowskich do 1781 roku, kiedy przeszło na własność rządu austriackiego jako dobra kameralne; znajdujące się tam majątki przeznaczono na tzw. fundusz religijny. Wcześniej, w sierpniu 1770 roku, tereny te oderwano od Polski i przyłączono do Węgier. Po I rozbiorze Polski włączono je do Galicji. +W osadach wiejskich Państwa Muszyńskiego przeważała ludność wołosko-ruska (Łemkowie); ludność polska była skoncentrowana w dwu miastach, Muszynie i Tyliczu, i nielicznych okolicznych wsiach. Ok. 1785 roku latyfundium liczyło 16 885 mieszkańców, w tym 14 919 ludności wyznania greckokatolickiego, 1863 ludności katolickiej oraz 103 osoby wyznania mojżeszowego. +W 1958 roku w Muszynie otwarto Muzeum Regionalne PTTK Państwa Muszyńskiego; posiada ono przeszło 2000 eksponatów, w tym podróżny sepet biskupi z XVI wieku; na jego zewnętrznej ściance namalowano wizerunek Świętej Rodziny, a na wieku od wewnątrz herb Pomian i insygnia biskupie (do motywu insygniów biskupich nawiązuje również herb Muszyny). W 2010 roku podjęto przebudowę budynku muzeum. +W okresie istnienia latyfundium plagą tych okolic było zbójnictwo; obecnie przez rejon Muszyny przebiega międzynarodowy Szlak Zbójników Karpackich (karpaccy zbójnicy działający na pograniczu polsko-słowacko-ukraińskim byli często nazywani beskidnikami; uprawiali swój proceder również w Bieszczadach). +Historyczne ziemie Państwa Muszyńskiego. +W skład Państwa Muszyńskiego weszły ostatecznie 2 miasta (Muszyna i Tylicz) i 47 wsi; obejmowało ono w całości lub częściowo tereny dzisiejszych gmin Muszyna, Krynica-Zdrój, Łabowa, Uście Gorlickie. +Podział w 1867 roku. +W 1867 roku historyczne tereny Państwa Muszyńskiego rozdzielono między powiaty sądecki i grybowski. +Siły zbrojne Państwa Muszyńskiego. +Naczelnym dowódcą wojskowym na terytorium latyfundium był starosta muszyński; do pomocy miał on przybranych rotmistrza i poruczników. +Harnicy. +Główną część sił zbrojnych Państwa Muszyńskiego tworzyła piechota, tzw. harnicy, w liczbie od 200 (w czasie pokoju) do 600 (w czasie wojny). Muszyńscy harnicy uczestniczyli m.in. w obronie Krakowa (1655), Sandomierza i Nowego Sącza w czasie potopu szwedzkiego, a także w bitwie pod Wiedniem w 1683 roku (pod wodzą hetmana Stanisława Jana Jabłonowskiego, który zimował w Muszynie, wracając spod Wiednia do Polski). +Dragonia biskupia. +Państwo Muszyńskie dysponowało również jazdą – dragonią biskupią; służyli w niej wyłącznie sołtysi. Oddział dragonów muszyńskich w sile 200 ludzi uczestniczył w oswobodzeniu Nowego Sącza od Szwedów 13 grudnia 1655 roku. +Pospolite ruszenie. +Wszyscy mężczyźni zdolni do noszenia broni mieszkający na terenie latyfundium mieli obowiązek posiadania rynsztunku wojskowego i uczestniczyli w comiesięcznych musztrach pod nadzorem starosty; brali w nich udział na zmianę coraz to nowi kmiecie, dzięki czemu do wojny przygotowani byli wszyscy mieszkańcy Państwa Muszyńskiego. +Kotlina Gorzowska + +Kotlina Gorzowska (315.32) – jednostka geomorfologiczna w zachodniej Polsce będąca fragmentem Pradoliny Toruńsko-Eberswaldzkiej. +Charlotte Bühler + +Charlotte Buhler, z domu Malachowski (ur. 20 grudnia 1893 w Berlinie, zm. 3 lutego 1974 w Stuttgarcie) – niemiecka uczona, psycholożka, żona Karla Ludwiga Bühlera. +W 1971 powróciła do Niemiec. +Szembruczek + +Szembruczek - wieś i sołectwo w Polsce, położone w gminie Rogóźno w powiecie grudziądzkim, w województwie kujawsko-pomorskim, 3 km na południowy zachód od innej wsi o podobnej nazwie - Szembruk która leży nad rzeką Gardęgą. Nazwa pochodzi z niem. "Schöne Brücke" ("ładny most"). Szembruczek przed 1918 r. nazywał się "Klein Schönbrück", po odzyskaniu niepodległości przez Polskę i włączeniu w jej granice otrzymał obecną nazwę. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość położona była w województwie toruńskim. +Szembruczek należy do parafii Szembruk pod wezwaniem św. Bartłomieja (drewniana świątynia z 1715) podległej dekanatowi Łasin diecezji toruńskiej. We wsi mieści się szkoła podstawowa, w pobliżu funkcjonuje nieduża odlewnia żeliwa i miedzi. +W Szembruczku urodził się historyk Henryk Zieliński. +Stanisław Łubieński + +Stanisław Łubieński herbu Pomian (ur. 1574 w Łubnej koło Kalisza, zm. 16 kwietnia 1640 w Warszawie) – biskup płocki, podkanclerzy koronny, sekretarz królewski; brat Macieja. +Po ukończeniu Kolegium Jezuickiego w Kaliszu, gdzie kształcił się w sztuce wojennej oraz prawie, studiował w Grazu, Rzymie, Perugii - doktor obojga praw. Od 1591 sekretarz królewski. Opat komendatoryjny w Tyńcu. Historyk, uważany za jednego z najwybitniejszych historyków XVII w. Był związany z królem Zygmuntem III i obozem kontrreformacji. W 1593 towarzyszył królowi w podróży do Szwecji. W 1613 przeprowadził uporządkowanie archiwum na zamku krakowskim, później w ciszy klasztoru tynieckiego, którego administrację powierzył mu król, zbierał materiały historyczne. Od 1614 był regentem kancelarii królewskiej, potem sekretarzem koronnym, a od 1622 biskup łucki, 1626 podkanclerzy koronny., 1627 biskup płocki, złożył pieczęć podkanclerską 1628 i gorliwie pracował nad podniesieniem swej diecezji. W 1624 otrzymuje sakrę biskupią na Wawelu, a w 1627 r. +Był autorem kroniki łacińskiej, zawierającej wierny opis rokoszu Zebrzydowskiego. +Dbał o rozwój życia zakonnego, będąc aktywnym działaczem politycznym, tolerancyjnym wobec innowierców. +Swą wspaniałą bibliotekę przekazał kapitule płockiej. Był człowiekiem o rozległym horyzoncie, gorliwie popierającym oświatę, przyjacielem Sarbiewskiego. +Jego dzieło historyczne: "„De motu civili in Polonia libri V.”" (wyszło w "„Opera posthuma, historica..., edita ab executoribus testamenti”" (1643), w którem niekiedy stronniczo, lecz zawsze jasno przedstawia osoby działające w rokoszu Zebrzydowskiego. +Verbeia + +Verbeia – w wierzeniach celtyckich bogini rzeki Wharfe w północnym Yorkshire w Anglii; czczona na terenie rzymskiej Brytanii. W miejscowości Ilkey w Yorkshire odkryto poświęcony jej kamienny ołtarz. +Agata Buzek + +Agata Bronisława Buzek (ur. 20 września 1976 w Pyskowicach) – polska aktorka i modelka. Córka byłego premiera Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej Jerzego Buzka i Ludgardy Buzek. +W dzieciństwie uczęszczała do Gliwickiej Szkoły Baletu, występowała w Gliwickim Teatrze Muzycznym. Później uczyła się w II LO im. Walerego Wróblewskiego w Gliwicach i jednocześnie w Studium Aktorskim w Katowicach. W 1999 roku ukończyła studia na Akademii Teatralnej w Warszawie. 30 września 2006 roku w Lublińcu wyszła za mąż za Adama Mazana – absolwenta Uniwersytetu im. Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego, teologa i historyka sztuki. +Za rolę główną w filmie "Rewers" została wyróżniona nagrodą dla najlepszej aktorki pierwszoplanowej na Festiwalu Filmów Fabularnych w Gdyni oraz Nagrodą Publiczności im. Zbyszka Cybulskiego. W 2010 roku otrzymała nagrodę za najlepszą pierwszoplanową rolę kobiecą "Orły 2010". W marcu tego samego roku dostała nominacje do nagrody Viva! Najpiękniejsi w kategorii Najpiękniejsza Polka, a w maju nominację do nagrody Wiktory w kategorii "Najpopularniejszy Aktor Telewizyjny 2009". W 2010 roku zajęła sześćdziesiąte pierwsze miejsce w rankingu "Forbes" na sto najcenniejszych gwiazd polskiego show-biznesu. +Agata Buzek jest wegetarianką i działaczką na rzecz praw człowieka. +Palmiarnia Lubiechowska + +Palmiarnia Wałbrzyska – palmiarnia o powierzchni ok. 1900 m², znajdująca się na terenie wałbrzyskiego osiedla Lubiechów. Jest to jeden z najstarszych obiektów tego typu w Polsce, wybudowany w latach 1911-1913 z polecenia Henryka XV von Pless. Palmiarnia, przy której funkcjonuje kawiarnia i sklep z roślinami, jest dostępna dla zwiedzających. Zgromadzono w niej około 80 gatunków roślin z całego świata, a dodatkową ciekawostką jest fakt, iż ściany palmiarni od wewnątrz pokrywa tuf wulkaniczny z Etny. +Historia. +Lubiechów został zakupiony w XVI wieku przez księcia Conrada von Hochberg. Od tego czasu był związany z rodem Hochbergów. Pod koniec XIX w. powstał pomysł wybudowania tzw. "zimowego ogrodu", czyli palmiarni. Z polecenia Henryka XV von Pless palmiarnię wybudowano w latach 1911-1913. Kosztowne przedsięwzięcie pochłonęło 7 mln marek. Wnętrze obiektu wyłożono lawą pochodzącą z sycylisjkiego wulkanu Etny. Kopuła budynku wznosiła się na wysokość 15 m. Przy palmiarni usytuowano ogród japoński, rosarium, ogród owocowo-warzywny i obszar do uprawy krzewów. Po ukończeniu budowy sprowadzono ok. 80 gatunków egzotycznych roślin. W 1963 zmodernizowano budynek, wymieniono ogrzewanie i oszklenie. W 1978 wydłużono szlak turystyczny do 500 m. Wymieniono część konstrukcji. Od lipca 1994 do września 2012 roku właściciel palmiarni była Agencja Nieruchomości Rolnych Skarbu Państwa. Obecnym właścicielem jest miasto Wałbrzych, które kupiło palmiarnię we wrześniu 2012 roku. +Kamela + +Kamela (dodatkowa nazwa w j. kaszub. Kaméla) – wieś kaszubska w Polsce położona w województwie pomorskim, w powiecie kartuskim, w gminie Somonino, 1,8 km na wschód od drogi krajowej nr 20 ze Stargardu Szczecińskiego do Gdyni. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa gdańskiego. +Flip (jazda na deskorolce) + +Flip – grupa trików na deskorolce. Flipy polegają na nadawaniu desce obrotu wokół własnej osi długiej, średniej lub krótkiej (poziomej) lub też dwóch, trzech, czterech osi na raz (wariacje). Ponadto obroty dokonują się tylko o wartościach 180, 360 ewentualnie 540 czy 720 stopni (nie licząc flipów wplecionych w kombinacje). Podane niżej triki można wykonywać na różnych pozycjach: goofy (prawa stopa z przodu) lub regular (lewa stopa z przodu), switch, nollie, fakie. +Teoria społecznego uczenia się + +Teoria społecznego uczenia się Alberta Bandury jest rozwinięciem teorii uczenia się. Według Bandury uczenie się zachowań zachodzi jednak nie tylko poprzez warunkowanie reaktywne i warunkowanie sprawcze, ale także poprzez obserwowanie zachowań innych ludzi. Ten sposób uczenia się można nazwać modelowaniem lub naśladowaniem. +Podstawy teorii naśladowania zauważalne są już na szczeblu zwierzęcym. Objawialne są w sposobach uczenia się reakcji w danych sytuacjach i przejmowania doświadczenia od innych osobników. Jest również silnie zauważalne i w szerszym zakresie, u człowieka w okresie dziecięcym. +Zwolennicy teorii społecznego uczenia się sądzą, inaczej niż przed nimi behawioryści, że uczenie się następuje, gdy obserwator świadomie przygląda się jakiemuś zachowaniu (np. zapalaniu zapałki) i następnie umieszcza efekt obserwacji w pamięci długotrwałej. Obserwator dotąd nie wykonał zaobserwowanego zachowania, nie zaszły więc żadne behawioralne konsekwencje (wzmocnienia), które zdaniem behawiorystów są niezbędne, by doszło do uczenia się. Jednak bez względu na to, jak długo wspomnienie jest przechowywane w pamięci, obserwator wie, jak zapalić zapałkę, niezależnie, czy zrobi to, czy nie. To samo da się powiedzieć o wielu prostych czynnościach, jak hamowanie samochodu, jedzenie łyżką i otwieranie butelki. +Ćwiczenia i próby w wyobraźni wykorzystywane w nauczaniu bezpośrednim pomagają uczniom utrwalić i wykonać daną czynność (zachowanie). +Koncepcja procesu uczenia się akcentuje znaczenie koncentracji uwagi w metodach podających stosowanych w prezentacjach multimedialnych oraz jej wpływ na zapamiętywanie. Możliwość uczenia się czynności poprzez ich obserwację jest szczególnie istotna w przypadku uczenia się z wykorzystaniem multimediów. +Nabywanie umiejętności przez osoby dorosłe (studentów) nie musi być związane z wykonywaniem czynności praktycznych. Często wystarczająca jest analiza obserwowanego działania pod kątem określonego problemu teoretycznego (por. M. Jakowicka, 1991, s.36). +Odroczona w czasie reakcja (rozwiązanie zadań testowych), uzależniona od jakości i ilości zapamiętanych i odpowiednio przetworzonych informacji, stanowi wskaźnik uczenia się stymulowanego poprzez elementy koncentrujące uwagę zamieszczone w prezentacji multimedialnej. +Koncepcja Alberta Bandury pozwala spojrzeć na proces uczenia się nie tylko w wąskim kontekście "akcja-reakcja". Efekty uczenia się stanowią wewnętrzny potencjał jednostki, który może być wykorzystany w przyszłości. Poglądy te są w znacznym stopniu zbieżne z koncepcjami konstruktywistów. +Modelowanie w nurcie teorii uczenia się społecznego, można także rozpatrywać w charakterze metodycznego formułowania właściwych postaw i zachowań osób wykluczonych społecznie, niedostosowanych społecznie. +Psychoterapia psychodynamiczna + +Terapia psychodynamiczna – metoda terapii zaburzeń psychicznych, oparta na założeniach teorii psychoanalizy. Zgodnie z nią podstawą objawów chorobowych są nieświadome popędy, którym cenzura (w rozumieniu funkcji aparatu psychicznego) nie pozwala na wkroczenie do świadomości i realizację. W efekcie tego stanu rzeczy muszą one szukać innej drogi ujścia. Tą drogą okazują się być objawy neurotyczne. +Z psychoanalizy wywodzi się też współczesna psychoterapia, której jednak nie należy mylić z samą psychoanalizą, gdyż "psychoterapia to zbiór podejść terapeutycznych", z których tylko część pochodzi z psychoanalizy. +Psychoanaliza. +W klasycznej psychoanalizie pacjent przyjmuje pozycję leżącą, analityk zaś siedzi na fotelu umieszczonym za głową pacjenta. Pozycja taka ułatwia pacjentowi stan regresji, którą wywołuje analityk w postaci nerwicy przeniesieniowej. W trakcie terapii pacjent mówi. Temat mówienia jest zupełnie dowolny. Jedyną obowiązującą zasadą jest mówienie wszystkiego tego co przyjdzie pacjentowi do głowy, bez dbania o to, czy jest to logiczne, sensowne, czy pozostaje w związku z problemem. Analityk natomiast dokonuje interpretacji wypowiedzi. +Procesowi analizy sprzyja postawa "neutralności" analityka. Polega ona na ograniczaniu wprowadzania własnej osoby do terapii (tzn. analityk nie mówi o tym co lubi, nie opowiada historii ze swojego życia, itp.). Dzięki temu pacjent "domyślając się" tego, jaki jest jego terapeuta (projektując na terapeutę swoje fantazje), tworzy przeniesienie, czyli jego kontakt z terapeutą odtwarza pewną ważną relację z inną osobą. Etap ten zwie się "nerwicą przeniesieniową". Analizowanie tej ostatniej jest jednym z najistotniejszych terapeutycznie etapów analizy. +Celem terapii jest reorganizacja struktury charakteru, redukcja obron patologicznych, integracja dążeń i oczekiwań. Zasadniczy cel, jaki stawia sobie pacjent, to poznanie i zrozumienie siebie, co ma implikować poprawę objawową. Wymogiem wstępnym jest względnie dojrzała osobowość pacjenta, by móc korygować odchylenia rozwojowe, dobra sytuacja życiowa, motywacja do kontaktu, zdolność tolerowania frustracji, zdolność nawiązania stabilnego związku oraz refleksyjność psychologiczna. +Terapia psychoanalityczna trwa: 2-5 lat (chociaż nie ma żadnej zasady regulującą tą sferę, tzn. może trwać zarówno 1 rok, jak i 21 lat). Spotkania odbywają się 4-5 razy w tygodniu i trwają ok. 50 minut. +Podejście. +Podejście psychodynamiczne koncentruje się wokół koncepcji, że u klienta zachodzi niedostosowanie funkcjonowania, które jest co najmniej po części nieświadome. Zakładane niedostosowanie rozwija się we wczesnym dzieciństwie i w końcu powoduje dysonanse w codziennym życiu. Terapeuta psychodynamiczny najpierw interweniuje w celu złagodzenia dyskomfortu skojarzonego ze słabo rozwiniętą funkcją, a następnie pomaga klientowi zwrócić uwagę na istnienie niedostosowania, pracując przez cały czas z klientem nad rozwinięciem strategii prowadzących do zmiany. +Psychoterapia wglądowa. +Kontakt następuje ""twarzą w twarz"", w pozycji siedzącej. Uwaga terapeuty krąży swobodnie, lecz jest bardziej, niż w klasycznej psychoanalizie, skupiona. Mniejszy nacisk kładzie się na wolne skojarzenia, większy na dyskusje z pacjentem oraz wydarzenia interpersonalne. Przeniesienie interpretowane jest w kierunku innych osób niż terapeuta. Nie dąży się do wytworzenia nerwicy przeniesieniowej, a bardziej rozwija związek terapeutyczny. Terapia wglądowa unika zjawiska regresji, z wyjątkiem sytuacji gdy niezbędne jest uzyskanie materiału potrzebnego do analizy treści podświadomych i nieświadomych. +Celem terapii jest rozwiązanie wybranych konfliktów, usunięcie niektórych obron patologicznych oraz poprawa objawowa, która jest skutkiem zrozumienia siebie. Warunki wstępne to względnie dojrzała osobowość, zdolność do związku terapeutycznego, minimalna zdolność tolerowania frustracji, adekwatna motywacja, minimalny stopień refleksyjności. +Czas trwania: od kilku sesji do kilku lat. Spotkania odbywają się 1-3 razy w tygodniu i trwają od 30 minut do godziny. +Psychoterapia oparta na związku terapeutycznym. +Terapeuta funkcjonuje jako realna osoba, skupia się na aktualnych prawach i problemach pacjenta. Jest utożsamiany z rodzicem. Przedmiotem interpretacji jest omawianie wydarzeń interpersonalnych, przeniesienie może być interpretowane, nerwica przeniesieniowa i regresja są przeciwwskazane. Nie stosuje się ""kanapki psychoanalitycznej"". Dodatkowym środkiem może być terapia grupowa, rodzinna i kontakty terapeuty z rodziną. +Celem terapii jest dojrzewanie osobowości niedojrzałej przez katalityczny związek z terapeutą oraz wyrównanie zaburzeń, wynikających z wcześniejszych związków z osobami znaczącymi. Wstępne wymagania to zdolność do związku terapeutycznego, osobowościowe możliwości dojrzewania. Sytuacja życiowa może być trudna. +Czas trwania: od 1 miesiąca do kilku lat. Spotkania odbywają się 1-2 razy w tygodniu, trwają od 30 minut do godziny. +Psychoterapia wspierająca. +Aktywność terapeuty jest największa spośród psychoterapii analitycznych. Terapeuta interweniuje, doradza, zachęca do dialogu, unika technik wywołujących mechanizmy obronne, z wyjątkiem sytuacji odreagowania ("katharsis"). Interpretacje przeniesienia do terapeuty są unikane, z wyjątkiem silnych zakłóceń w związku terapeutycznym. Regresja, poza samoistną jest niewskazana. Stosowane są dodatkowe środki w postaci: psychofarmakoterapii, hospitalizacji, terapii zajęciowej, kontaktów z rodziną oraz innymi terapeutami. +Celem terapii jest odzyskanie wcześniejszej równowagi, redukcja lęku i strachu, pomoc w przystosowaniu się do niekorzystnych sytuacji, niemożliwych do zmiany. Wstępne warunki do podjęcia terapii to osobowość od dojrzałej do psychotycznej, minimalne zdolności do wejścia w związek. +Czas trwania: od jednego spotkania do kilku lat (nawet całe życie). Spotkania odbywają się z częstotliwością od codziennych sesji do spotkań raz na kilka miesięcy, trwają od kilku minut do godziny. +Wykonywanie zawodu – stowarzyszenia psychoanalityczne. +W 1910 r. Zygmunt Freud założył Międzynarodowe Towarzystwo Psychoanalityczne (IPA), które wydaje certyfikaty uprawniające do wykonywania zawodu psychoanalityka. Warunkiem uzyskania takiego certyfikatu są wieloletnie studia w Towarzystwie, składające się m.in. z własnej psychoanalizy, pracy klinicznej przebiegającej pod ścisłym nadzorem superwizorskim i szkoleń teoretycznych. W Polsce działa Polskie Towarzystwo Psychoanalityczne (zarejestrowane w 1997 r.). W 2004 r. zrzeszało ono 24 członków posiadających kwalifikacje uznawane przez Międzynarodowe Towarzystwo Psychoanalityczne. +TrackPoint + +TrackPoint (po polsku - punkt dotykowy lub manipulator punktowy) – manipulator, jedno z urządzeń wejściowych komputera, służy do interakcji użytkownika z systemem operacyjnym i programami. +Nazywany w zależności od producenta: TrackPoint (IBM, a później Lenovo), TrackStick (Dell), Pointstick (Hewlett-Packard Compaq), touchstick (Fujitsu Siemens Computers), FineTrack (Acer), NX Point (NEC), lub AccuPoint (Toshiba). +Funkcjonalnie trackpoint to mały dżojstik (w postaci niewielkiego gumowego kapturka), reagującego na siłę i kierunek nacisku, umieszczony w środkowej części klawiatury (okolice klawiszy G, H, B (pomiędzy nimi)). Stosowany w laptopach w zastępstwie touchpada lub jako alternatywa. W przypadku trackpointa dwa lub trzy klawisze odpowiadające przyciskom myszy, umieszczane są zaraz pod klawiszem spacji. +Dehumanizacja (mechanizm obronny) + +Dehumanizacja w psychologii to odmiana psychologicznego mechanizmu obronnego zwanego intelektualizacją. O ile klasyczna intelektualizacja przenosi w przestrzeń abstrakcyjną myśli i zdarzenia, o tyle dehumanizacja robi to samo z ludźmi. Inni ludzie przestają posiadać w świadomości danej jednostki cechy ludzkie, są uważani za przedmioty, zwierzęta, podludzi. Takie nastawienie może służyć jednostce do uzasadniania poniżania, wrogości bądź okrucieństwa wobec tych ludzi. Przykładem dehumanizacji było nazywanie Japończyków "żółtkami" przez żołnierzy amerykańskich: o wiele łatwiej bowiem strzelać do "żółtków" niż do ludzi. Dehumanizacja jest też charakterystyczna dla uprzedzeń: w oczach osób je przejawiających obniża wartość dyskryminowanej grupy. +W słabszej wersji dehumanizacja jest bardzo rozpowszechniona. Można ją zaobserwować na przykład w urzędach, gdzie z jednej strony petenci są traktowani przez urzędników jako "przypadki do załatwienia", z drugiej strony urzędnicy są utożsamiani przez petentów z instytucją, którą reprezentują. +Gmina Stara Kiszewa + +Gmina Stara Kiszewa - gmina wiejska, położona w południowej części województwa pomorskiego - w powiecie kościerskim, w pasie Pojezierza Pomorskiego - 18º10'E i 53º59'N. W latach 1975-1998 gmina administracyjnie należała do województwa gdańskiego. +Północno-zachodnia część gminy należy do Kaszub; centralna, południowa i wschodnia do Kociewia. Naturalną granicę pomiędzy tymi jednostkami stanowi dolina największej rzeki gminy - Wierzycy. +Gmina Stara Kiszewa zajmuje powierzchnię 213,1 km², w tym 46,55% użytków rolnych, 42,03% lasów i 8,6% wód. +W skład gminy wchodzi 20 sołectw: Bartoszylas, Chwarzenko, Chwarzno, Czerniki, Foshuta, Góra, Górne Maliki, Kobyle, Konarzyny, Lipy, Nowe Polaszki, Nowy Bukowiec, Olpuch, Pałubin, Stara Kiszewa, Stare Polaszki, Stary Bukowiec, Wilcze Błota Kościerskie, Wygonin, Zamek Kiszewski. +Siedziba gminy to Stara Kiszewa. +Sąsiaduje z gminami kolejno od północy: Kościerzyna, Liniewo, Skarszewy, Zblewo, Kaliska, Karsin. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwało 6229 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Powierzchnia gminy stanowi 18,28% powierzchni powiatu. +Wojciech Pęgiel + +Wojciech Pęgiel (ur. 1 kwietnia 1955 w Krakowie, zm. 12 stycznia 2005) – polski polityk, historyk, poseł na Sejm I kadencji. +Ukończył w 1986 historię na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Był aktywnym działaczem opozycji krakowskiej w latach 80. i współorganizatorem Obywatelskiej Inicjatywy w Obronie Praw Człowieka "Przeciw Przemocy". Wydawał pismo drugoobiegowe "6 Sierpnia". W okresie studiów działał w NZS, potem w Konfederacji Polski Niepodległej. Z ramienia KPN zasiadał w Sejmie I kadencji w latach 1991-1993. Był wiceprzewodniczącym Komisji Obrony Narodowej. Przez kilka miesięcy p.o. przewodniczącego tej komisji. Pracował w handlu nieruchomościami oraz jako archiwista, kandydował na prezesa Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej. +Od 1981 brał udział w corocznym Marszu Szlakiem I Kompanii Kadrowej na trasie Kraków-Kielce, przewodniczył Kapitule Odznaki "Uczestnikowi Marszu Szlakiem Kadrówki", należał do Komitetu Obywatelskiego Opieki nad Kopcem Józefa Piłsudskiego i Związku Piłsudczyków. +Tadeusz Tomaszewski (psycholog) + +Tadeusz Tomaszewski (ur. 12 lipca 1910, zm. 19 marca 2000) – polski psycholog, twórca teorii czynności, nauczyciel psychologii. +Urodził się we Lwowie, studiował na Uniwersytecie im. Jana Kazimierza polonistykę i psychologię pod kierunkiem Mieczysława Kreutza. Ukończył studia w 1934 roku pracą "Geneza ocen niedorzeczności". Był asystentem Kreutza w katedrze psychologii. Doktoryzował się w 1938 na podstawie rozprawy "Metody badań dyspozycji złożonych". +W latach 1938/39 odbywał staż w Paryżu u Henri Pierona i Henri Wallona. W latach 1939/41 pracował w katedrze psychologii na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim. Od 1945 roku był zastępcą profesora na Wydziale Matematyczno-Przyrodniczym UMCS w Lublinie. +W 1947 habilitował się na podstawie rozprawy "Rodzaje i motywy reakcji negatywnych". W 1949 otrzymał profesurę na UMCS. W latach 1950-1968 był kierownikiem Katedry Psychologii Ogólnej Wydziału Humanistycznego UW, a od 1968 do 1978 roku - dyrektorem Instytutu Psychologii na Wydziale Psychologii i Pedagogiki. Zmarł w wieku 89 lat. Został pochowany 24 marca 2000 na Cmentarzu Ewangelicko Reformowanym. +Był wiceprzewodniczącym Komitetu Nauk Pedagogicznych i Psychologicznych PAN oraz przewodniczącym w latach 1972-1981 Komitetu Nauk Psychologicznych PAN, w latach 1963-1980 - wiceprzewodniczącym Międzynarodowej Unii Psychologii Naukowej, a także członkiem Komitetu Wykonawczego Międzynarodowego Komitetu Psychologii Stosowanej. Został wybrany honorowym przewodniczącym Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego. +W 1980 roku UMCS przyznał mu tytuł "doktora honoris causa". +Niezależny Krąg Instruktorów Harcerskich Leśna Szkółka + +Niezależny Krąg Instruktorów Harcerskich "Leśna Szkółka" imienia Henryka Wieczorkiewicza jest lokalną organizacją harcerską. Jest zarazem stowarzyszeniem posiadającym osobowość prawną. +Siedziba organizacji mieści się w Gdyni, przy ul. Górniczej 37/3. W chwili obecnej działa na terenie Gdańska i Gdyni. +Przy Kręgu działa Harcerski Związek Drużyn, skupiający harcerzy, harcerki i zuchy (są to tzw. współpracownicy Kręgu), działających w drużynach bądź samodzielnych zastępach. Członkowie Kręgu dzielą się na: zwyczajnych, obserwatorów, wspierających i honorowych. +Z końcem roku 2010 NKIH "Leśna Szkółka" stała się organizacją pożytku publicznego. +Historia. +Początków Kręgu można upatrywać w kursie instruktorskim "Leśna Szkółka", prowadzonym przez hm. Jerzego Gacha w dniach 25 czerwca-16 lipca 1981, w ramach obozu ZHP w Wygoninie. Nazwa kursu był dosłownym tłumaczeniem kryptonimu czeskich leśnych kursów instruktorskich - "Lesni Szkola". Po zakończaniu obozu Komendant Rejonu ZHP Przymorze powołuje Szkoleniowy Młodzieżowy Krąg Instruktorski "Leśna Szkółka", do którego należą absolwenci kursu w Wygoninie. Krąg miał stać się rodzajem szkoły instruktorskiej. W Kręgu wprowadzono zwyczaj mówienia sobie po pseudonimach - mianach leśnych. W lutym 1982 Krąg zmienił nazwę na Szkoleniowy Krąg Instruktorski "Leśna Szkółka". +Ze względu na ograniczenia stanu wojennego, Krąg był zmuszony zaniechać szkoleń. Pomimo restrykcji, poprowadził dla Rejonu Przymorze seminarium przybocznych. 22 czerwca 1982 Krąg zyskał patrona w osobie Henryka Wieczorkiewicza - działacza i dziennikarza polskiego w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku. +W czerwcu 1983, 10 osób z "Leśnej Szkółki", w pełnej tajemnicy przed władzami ZHP uczestniczyło w Białej Służbie w Częstochowie - przy obsłudze porządkowo-sanitarnej pielgrzymki Jana Pawła II. Od tej pory "Leśna Szkółka" brała udział w Białej Służbie podczas każdej pielgrzymki papieża Jana Pawła II do Polski. +Wydzielenie się kręgu ze struktur ZHP nastąpiło 8 stycznia 1990 - powstał Niezależny Krąg Instruktorów Harcerskich "Leśna Szkółka" im. Henryka Wieczorkiewicza. Wpis do rejestru sądowego nastąpił w dniu urodzin Henryka Wieczorkowicza - 22 czerwca. Rok później, w czerwcu 1991, przy pomocy Kręgu "Leśna Szkółka" powstał Niezależny Hufiec Harcerstwa Polskiego "Leśna Szkółka - Kaszuby" w Szwecji. +Na spotkaniu Komisji Porozumiewawczej Organizacji Harcerskich w Warszawie z 21 stycznia 1995 przedstawiciel "Leśnej Szkółki" przedstawił propozycję NKIH "LS" oraz Federacji Drużyn im. Cichociemnych w Krakowie o pilnym powołaniu Federacji Harcerstwa Polskiego. Propozycję poparł przedstawiciel Polskiej Organizacji Harcerskiej. Podjęta została decyzja o zwołaniu zbiórki założycielskiej FHP w Kościele NMP w Gdyni, w dniu 18 lutego tego roku. +W początkowej fazie, Federację tworzyli: NKIH "LS", FDC, POH. 26 lutego 1995 - na mocy specjalnej zgody członków założycieli - ZHR (uchwałą swojego Zjazdu) przystąpiło do Federacji jako czwarty członek. +Rozłam. +Dnia 3 października 1996 reprezentacja "LS" wzięła udział w pikiecie antyaborcyjnej przed budynkiem Senatu RP. Akcję tę potępia duża grupa członków Kręgu, uznając ją za działanie polityczne. W związku z tym Komendant Kręgu "Leśna Szkółka" - hm. Jerzy Gach - wystosował list otwarty do członków Kręgu, zaczynający się od słów: +W odpowiedzi na list, zwołany został w trybie pilnym nadzwyczajny Sejmik Kręgu (17 października 1996), na którym odwołano J. Gacha z funkcji Komendanta NKIH "LS". Kilka dni później Jerzy Gach wraz 1 Niezależną Sopocką Drużyną Harcerzy "Knieja" przeniósł się do ZHR. Tam razem z grupą instruktorów ZHR założył Krąg Starszego Harcerstwa ZHR "Drzewo Pokoju", działający dziś jako niezależna organizacja Leśna Szkółka - Drzewo Pokoju. +Metoda wychowawcza. +Krąg metodycznie nawiązuje do tradycji polskiego harcerstwa oraz idei Roberta Baden-Powella i Ernesta Thompsona Setona. W pracy wychowawczej stara się kłaść nacisk na następujące wartości: puszczaństwo, styl chrześcijański, wychowanie do życia w rodzinie oraz tożsamość narodową. +Symbolika. +"Leśna Szkółka" korzysta z tradycyjnej, harcerskiej symboliki, obejmującej mundur, Krzyż Harcerski, zawołanie "Czuwaj!" i inne. Obowiązujące w Regulaminie Mundurowym organizacji nakrycie głowy to rogatywka. Lilijka i naszywka używane w NKIH "Leśna Szkółka" są elementem odróżniającym wygląd umundurowania harcerzy z "LS" od innych organizacji harcerskich. +Władze. +Sejmik Kręgu jest to walne zebranie wszystkich jego członków, zwoływane w trybie zwyczajnym dorocznie we wrześniu. W praktyce Sejmiki zwołuje się co najmniej dwukrotnie w roku - zazwyczaj po biwaku zimowym HZD również odbywa się Sejmik. Komendanta i resztę członków Komendy Sejmik wybiera na dwuletnią kadencję, podobnie jak Komisję Rewizyjną, której skład nie może się pokrywać ze składem Komendy. +Mim + +Mim – aktor nie posługujący się głosem, lecz mową ciała. Występuje on najczęściej w teatrze oraz na ulicach miast. Ponieważ jego sztuka polega na ruchu, a nie na bezruchu, dlatego mylnie ulicznych "staczy" nazywa się mimami. Mimowie często charakteryzują się umalowanymi na biało twarzami. Przedstawienie mimów określa się jako pantomimę bądź "mimodram". +Mimowie w kulturze. +W serii książek Terry'ego Pratchetta "Świat Dysku", niechęć do mimów jest jedyną niewyjaśnioną i nielogiczną cechą Havelocka Vetinariego, Patrycjusza Ankh-Morpork. Każdy mim, który pojawi się w mieście, ląduje w jamie ze skorpionami, w której na jednej ze ścian napisane jest "Naucz się Słów" . +W Polsce znanym mimem jest Ireneusz Krosny. +Wysoka Tama + +Wysoka Tama (Wysoka Tama Asuańska, Wielka Tama Asuańska) - jedna z dwóch tam na Nilu, w pobliżu miasta Asuan w Egipcie. +Wysoka Tama ma długość 3 600 m, szerokość u podstawy 980 m i 40 m u szczytu oraz wysokość 111 m. Do jej zbudowania użyte zostały 43 miliony m³ materiału. Maksymalna przepustowość tamy wynosi 11 000 m³/s. +Moc elektrowni wodnej Wysokiej Tamy wynosi około 2,1 gigawatów (12 generatorów po 175 megawatów każdy). +W okolicy zachodniego końca tamy, znajduje się wieża w kształcie kwiatu lotosu. Wybudowana została jako pomnik przyjaźni egipsko-radzieckiej, dla upamiętnienia pomocy ZSRR przy budowie Wysokiej Tamy. +Konstrukcja Tamy. +W 1946 wybudowana na początku XX wieku i dwukrotnie rozbudowywana w latach późniejszych Tama Asuańska okazała się niewystarczająca. Powzięto w związku z tym decyzję o budowie większej tamy, 6 km w górę Nilu. +Plany budowy Wysokiej Tamy rozpoczęto w 1952 roku, po rewolucji Nasera. Początkowo Tama miała być współfinansowana przez USA, ale po formalnym uznaniu przez Egipt Chińskiej Republiki Ludowej rząd amerykański wycofał się ze swej obietnicy. W związku z tym, rząd Egiptu zamierzał sfinansować budowę tamy z zysków, jakie przynosił Kanał Sueski. Pomocy udzielił Egiptowi również Związek Radziecki, proponując pokrycie około jednej trzeciej kosztów budowy. ZSRR zaoferował także pomoc radzieckich inżynierów oraz maszyny. +Budowę tamy rozpoczęto w roku 1960, a ukończono 21 lipca 1971 roku. Jezioro Nasera zaczęto zalewać już w roku 1964, po ukończeniu pierwszego etapu budowy. +Ocalenie zabytków. +Utworzenie Jeziora Nasera groziło zalaniem wielu zabytków starożytnego Egiptu. Wskutek protestów archeologów, UNESCO rozpoczęło w 1960 roku operację ratowania tych zabytków. 24 większe obiekty zostały bądź przeniesione do wyżej położonych miejsc (najbardziej znanym przykładem jest Abu Simbel) lub oddane krajom, które brały udział w tej operacji. +Korzyści. +Elektrownia wodna zaczęła działać w roku 1967, a jej wydajność wynosiła wówczas około połowy całej produkcji energii elektrycznej Egiptu (w roku 1998, udział ten wynosił 15%). Po raz pierwszy umożliwiła dostarczenie energii elektrycznej do wielu egipskich wiosek. +Tama umożliwia regulację poziomu wody na Nilu, poniżej Asuanu. Pozwoliła między innymi na zmniejszenie efektów powodzi w latach 1964 oraz 1973, a także susz w latach 1972-1973 i 1983-1984. Ponadto, umożliwiła rozwój rybołówstwa w obrębie Jeziora Nasera. +Jezioro Nasera nazywane jest zbiornikiem dekadowym, bądź dziesięcioletnim. Obecne szacunki wskazują, iż przy założeniu braku opadów w całej Afryce przez 10 kolejnych lat, ilość wody w zbiorniku wystarczy dla napojenia całej ludności Egiptu przez całą dekadę (przy ograniczeniu zużycia wody przez przemysł). +Jezioro Nasera jest zbiornikiem samooczyszczającym się. Obecne badania wskazują na zerową klasę czystości wody, co oznacza wodę bezpośrednio nadającą się do picia. +Problemy. +Z biegiem czasu oprócz korzyści tama ujawniła również wiele problemów. Abstrahując od konieczności przesiedlenia podczas jej budowy 60.000 ludzi, najbardziej brzemiennym w skutki okazało się zatrzymywanie przez nią żyznych namułów, które od tysiącleci umożliwiały rozwój rolnictwa w Delcie Nilu. Rosnący dotąd dzięki osadom żyzny obszar będzie się teraz stopniowo kurczyć, już rozpoczęło się jałowienie i erozja gleby w Delcie oraz na brzegach Nilu powyżej. Brak piasku niesionego przez Nil oznacza erozję barier brzegowych w całej wschodniej części Morza Śródziemnego, co w przypadku Egiptu przyniesie zanik rybołówstwa na słonych jeziorach przybrzeżnych, w tej chwili stanowiącego największe źródło ryb, oraz rosnące zasolenie pól Delty na których aktualnie uprawiany jest ryż. Kolejnymi kłopotami jest upadek tradycyjnego budownictwa (wypalanie cegieł) oraz rosnące zanieczyszczenie środowiska nawozami sztucznymi, którymi rolnicy są zmuszeni zastępować nilowe namuły. +Budowa tamy wywarła zauważalny wpływ na całą wschodnią części Morza Środziemnego (zmiany w zasoleniu morza, ubożenie ekosystemu, zmniejszanie się połowów ryb). +Większe od spodziewanych okazały się również koszty działania elektrowni (uszkodzenia agregatów i przestoje spowodowane przez piasek i muł). Odpowiednio do ilości zatrzymywanych materiałów z upływem lat zmniejsza się również objętość Jeziora Nassera. +Babizm + +Babizm (po persku: بابی ها Bâbihâ) - ruch religijny wywodzący się z jednego z odłamów szajchizmu, powstały ok. 1844 w Persji. Babizm zakładał szerg reform społecznych i religijnych, reinterpretował dżihad, wprowadzał nowy kalendarz, monogamię (wyznawcy mogli brać za żonę tylko współwyznawczynie) i równość ludzi wobec prawa. +Założycielem babizmu był Ali Muhammad z Szirazu (1819–1850), który nadał sobie tytuł ""Bab"" ( ""Brama"") i ogłosił się mahdim oraz Boskim Objawicielem (Prorokiem, założycielem nowej religii) zapowiadającym w swej Księdze Bayan przyjście mesjasza wszystkich religii. Dla wielu wyznawców babizmu tym zapowiedzianym przez Baba był Baha'u'llah. +Historia posłannictwa Baba rozpoczęła się 23 maja 1844 roku . W tym dniu pierwszy wyznawca Baba Mulla Husayn uznał Baba za "Bramę" (Báb). Wielu innych prominentnych wyznawców szajchizmu przyjęło jego wiarę w ciągu kilku miesięcy. Wśród nich była kobieta, której Bab nadał imię Tahirih (z per. Czysta). Bab przekazał każdemu ze swych apostołów, którym nadał tytuł Litery Żyjącego, misję nauczania nowej wiary w różnych miastach Persji. Większość z nich została męczennikami. Kilku z nich zaginęło bez wieści. Niezwykle dramatyczne było życie Mulli Husayna, Tahirih i Quddusa Quddus – ostatniego z apostołów +Nauki Baba wprowadzające drastyczne zmiany do obowiązujących w Iranie zasad duchowych islamu i szybko rosnąca populacja babitów spowodowały prześladowania. Dziesiątki tysięcy wyznawców Baba zostało uśmierconych w ich efekcie. Sam Bab został uwięziony w twierdzach Mah Ku i Chiriq, a w końcu został rozstrzelany przez pułk egzekucyjny w wojskowych koszarach w Tabrizie. Ciało Baba wyłożone na widok publiczny przy pobliskiej fosie zostało wykradzione w drugą noc po egzekucji przez oddanych wyznawców i złożone w drewnianej trumnie ukrywanej przez lata. W roku 1909, po ukończeniu budowy Mauzoleum Baba w Hajfie, ciało Bába zostało złożone tam przez syna Baha'u'llaha - Abdu'l-Bahę. +Po śmierci Baba ruch wciąż się rozwijał, lecz w 1863 (a ostatecznie w 1866, po publicznym ogłoszeniu swych objawień przez Bahá'u'lláha) duża część wyznawców Baba przyjęła wiarę Baha'u'llaha wierząc, iż jest on zapowiadanym przez Baba w Księdze Bayan posłańcem od Boga. Do dzisiaj w Iranie istnieje mała grupa wyznawców Baba, których można spotkać w świętych miejscach związanych z historią życia Baba czy jego apostołów. +Po podziale na dwie powyższe religie część wyznawców babizmu przez kilka/kilkanaście kolejnych lat nie opowiedziała się po żadnej ze stron konfliktu. Grupa ta z czasem malała, tracąc wyznawców na korzyść bahaizmu (i w mniejszym stopniu azalizmu). Niektórzy przedstawiciele niezdecydowanych opowiedzieli się za jeszcze innymi prorokami (najlepiej znani są Mirza Abdullah i Aga Baszir Mohammed) - grupy te jednak szybko zanikły. +Flawonoidy + +Flawonoidy (związki flawonowe) – grupa organicznych związków chemicznych występujących w roślinach, spełniających funkcję barwników, przeciwutleniaczy i naturalnych insektycydów oraz fungicydów, chroniących przed atakiem ze strony owadów i grzybów. Większość z nich jest barwnikami zgromadzonymi w powierzchniowych warstwach tkanek roślinnych, nadając intensywny kolor i ograniczając szkodliwy wpływ promieniowania ultrafioletowego. +Wszystkie flawonoidy są oparte na szkielecie 2-fenylochromanu, przy czym większość typów flawonoidów (poza katechinami i antocyjanidynami) zawiera szkielet flawonu, z grupą ketonową w pozycji 4. Flawonoidy różnią się między sobą liczbą i rodzajem podstawników, przy czym różnice między związkami w poszczególnych klasach wynikają zazwyczaj z odmiennej budowy tylko jednego skrajnego pierścienia. Większość flawonoidów zawiera grupy hydroksylowe, z których jedna lub więcej jest zwykle połączona z cząsteczką cukru tworząc glikozydy. +Flawonoidy są związkami występującymi powszechnie w roślinach, dzięki czemu stanowią codzienny element diety przeciętnego człowieka (ok. 1 g/dzień). +Występują m.in. w owocach (szczególnie owocach cytrusowych), warzywach (np. pomidory, papryka i brokuły), roślinach strączkowych (np. soi), herbacie, yerba mate i czerwonym winie. +Zawartość poszczególnych flawonoidów w warzywach czy owocach jest różna. Najbardziej popularnym i najlepiej poznanym flawonoidem jest kwercetyna i jej glikozydy. +Wpływ na płody ludzkie. +Stwierdzono iż flawonoidy są silnymi inhibitorami topoizomeraz i mogą wywoływać pęknięcia DNA w genie "MLL", którego mutacje są częste w ostrych białaczkach. Takie działanie wykazano w komórkach macierzystych krwi traktowanych flavonoidami "in vitro." +Hachette + +Hachette – francuska grupa mediowa, której najbardziej znaną częścią jest wydawnictwo Hachette Livre. Ponadto w skład grupy wchodzą także: Hachette Filipacchi Médias (wydaje czasopisma) oraz Hachette Distribution Services (zajmuje się dystrybucją). Stanowi część holdingu Lagardère. Częścią międzynarodowej grupy wydawniczej Hachette, skupiającej wydawnictwa z Francji, Hiszpanii, Włoch, Wielkiej Brytanii, Japonii, Ameryki Północnej i Południowej, jest wydawnictwo Hachette Polska sp. z o.o. +W skład grupy wchodzą m.in. wydawnictwa Larousse, Harlekin, Hatier. Do grupy należą też oficyny Orion, Hodder, Headline, Little Brown & Co., John Murray i Octopus w Wielkiej Brytanii, Anaya, Bruno, Edelsa i Salvat w Hiszpanii, Escala w Brazylii, Aique w Argentynie, Dilibel w Belgii czy Diffu Livre w Szwajcarii oraz koncern mediowy Time Warner w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Do grupy należą także dwa wydawnictwa edukacyjne – EDICEF i Hatier. +Historia. +Wydawnictwo założył w 1826 roku Louis Hachette (ur. 1800, zm. 1864). Po 38 latach działalności wydawnictwo stało się światowym liderem na rynku wydawniczym książek. Dynamiczny rozwój firmy pozwolił na przekroczenie granic Francji już w 1947 r. Pod koniec XX w. firma otrzymała aktualną nazwę Groupe Hachette Livre. +Polska. +Hachette Polska Sp. z o.o. (pierwotnie Hachette Livre Polska Sp. z o.o.) powstała w 2000 r. w wyniku zakupu przez Groupe Hachette Livre polskiego wydawnictwa Wiedza i Życie, posiadającego wieloletnie doświadczenie na rodzimym rynku. Przez lata Hachette Polska budowało i umacniało swoją pozycję na polskim rynku książki w segmencie przewodników turystycznych i poradników. Od 2009 oferta spółki została rozszerzona o serię „Pisane przez życie”. +W roku 2007 Hachette Polska zakupiła aktywa spółki Larousse, rozszerzając swoją ofertę o książki dziecięce, wydawnictwa encyklopedyczne i słowniki. Wydawnictwo Larousse zostało założone w 1852 r. w Paryżu przez Pierre’a Larousse’a. Od początku swego istnienia specjalizuje się w szeroko rozumianej tematyce encyklopedycznej. W 2002 r. została utworzona spółka Larousse Polska. Od 2008 roku książki z marką Larousse ukazują się nakładem wydawnictwa Hachette Polska. +Do Hachette należą w Polsce także firmy: spółka HDS – dystrybutor m.in. prasy i książek (posiadający sieci sprzedaży Inmedio i Relay), Hachette Filipacchi Magazines (wydawca czasopism: „Elle”, „Elle Decoration”, „Film” oraz „Samo Zdrowie”) i EuroZet, będąca współwłaścicielem Radia Zet. +Charydżyzm + +Charydżyzm albo chawarydżyzm (arab. خوارج, "chawāridż") − najmniejszy z trzech nurtów islamu (obok sunnizmu i szyizmu). Był pierwszą grupą rozłamową w tej religii, powstałą wskutek sporu o sukcesję do tronu kalifa. +Charydżyci oddzielili się od głównego nurtu islamu podczas bitwy pod Siffin (657), gdy Ali przyjął pertraktacje, czym zraził do siebie część swych zwolenników, uważających iż jedynie walka rozstrzygnąć może spór o sukcesję po proroku. +Wyznają egalitaryzm i skrajnie surową etykę – nie uznają rozróżnienia między wiarą a czynami, twierdząc iż osoba popełniająca ciężki grzech staje się niewiernym. Obecnie istnieje tylko najmniej radykalna ich gałąź: ibadyci w Algierii, Omanie i Bahrajnie. +Charydżyci czuli odrazę do koncepcji głoszącej, że namiestnictwo Proroka jest dostępne tylko dla członków wybranych klanów, jak to utrzymują szyici. Twierdzili zaś, że kalifem może być obrany każdy głęboko wierzący i prawy muzułmanin, podobnie zresztą jak w przypadku odejścia od czystego islamu powinien być usuwany. Charadżyci byli i pozostają nadal surowymi fundamentalistami, interpretującymi Koran w sposób dosłowny. Angażowali się w gwałtowne zamachy terrorystyczne, skierowane przeciwko muzułmanom nie podzielającym ich poglądów. Jedyną pozostałą po nich podsektą są ibadyci, żyjący w Omanie i północno-wschodniej Afryce. Różnice, które wystąpiły w historii islamu, odnosiły się w mniejszym stopniu do zagadnień teoretycznych i dogmatycznych, zaś w większym do zagadnień społeczno-politycznych. Sekty w islamie różniły się między sobą w sprawach teologii, ale większe różnice występowały w sprawach praktycznych, np. kto powinien kierować społecznością muzułmańską. +Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach + +Johann Bernhard Fischer (ur. 20 lipca 1656 w Grazu, zm. 5 kwietnia 1723 w Wiedniu) – austriacki architekt i rzeźbiarz okresu baroku. +Na początku lat 70. XVII wieku wyjechał na studia w Rzymie. Podjął współpracę z Johannem Paulem Schorem, dzięki któremu uzyskał znajomości i dojścia do twórców i mecenasów kultury. W 1687 powrócił do Austrii, osiedlając się w Wiedniu. W trakcie studiów poznawał ruiny antycznego Rzymu, kształcił się w zakresie architektury okresu renesansu i baroku. Opublikował "Historię architektury", jedną z ważniejszych osiemnastowiecznych książek poświęconych architekturze. +Był czołowym przedstawicielem baroku w austriackiej architekturze. Zaprojektował m.in. kościół św. Karola Boromeusza i Pałac Schönbrunn w Wiedniu, a także budowle pałacowe i sakralne w Salzburgu (kościoły Trójcy Świętej, św. Marka, szpitalny św. Jana i Uniwersytecki) i Pradze, kaplicę Bożego Ciała we wrocławskiej Katedrze. +Jego synem był Joseph Emanuel Fischer von Erlach (1693–1742) również architekt. +Herb gminy Lasowice Wielkie + +Herb gminy Lasowice Wielkie posiada żółtą (złotą) tarczę kształtu typowego dla Niemiec. +Centralną część zajmuje wizerunek czarnej wieży drewnianego kościoła, zwieńczonej hełmem, nad którym jest kula, a na samym szczycie krzyż. Wejście do kościoła z otwartymi na zewnątrz zielonymi skrzydłami bramy. +Symbol ten wskazuje na istnienie tego typu zabytków w gminie. +Boki wieży uskrzydlają przylegające symetrycznie zielone drzewa z czarnymi gałęziami i liśćmi, przypominające całością płuca. Symbol ten podkreśla walory przyrodnicze gminy. +Poniżej pofalowane pasy, na przemian białe (srebrne) i błękitne, symbolizujące wodę, pod którą wypełnienie zielenią, również nawiązujące do elementów natury. +Istnieje również wersja herbu umieszczona pośród dodatkowych motywów. +Sintra + +Sintra jest miastem powiatowym w Portugalii, koło Lizbony liczącym około 9300 mieszkańców. +Odbita Maurom przez króla Alfonsa I Zdobywcę w 1147, wkrótce po zdobyciu Lizbony; prawa miejskie nadał Sintrze ten właśnie król 9 stycznia 1154. +Komunikacja. +Do Sintry z Lizbony najłatwiej dostać się pociągiem ze stacji Rossio (centrum, dojazd min. zieloną linią metra). Cena biletu w jedną stronę 1.70€, w dni powszednie pociąg kursuje co 20 minut, trasę pokonuje w ok. 32 min. +W Sintrze na stacji kolejowej znajduje się Informacja Turystyczna, gdzie nieodpłatnie można dostać mapę. Autobus nr 434 (przystanek koło dworca) dowiezie nas do centrum, potem pod zamek Maurów, a na końcu pod Pałac Pena. Cena biletu w dwie strony 5€. +Stacja kolejowa Sintra. W Sintrze działa turystyczna linia tramwajowa. +Dyzartria + +Dyzartria – termin z zakresu neurologii; jeden z typów zaburzeń mowy, wynikający z dysfunkcji aparatu wykonawczego (języka, podniebienia, gardła, krtani). Dysfunkcja może być spowodowana: uszkodzeniem mięśni, unerwiających ich nerwów czaszkowych, jąder tych nerwów, dróg korowo-jądrowych, układu pozapiramidowego. +W wyniku ich uszkodzenia powstaje tzw. mowa dyzartryczna, która charakteryzuje się tym, że jest powolna, niewyraźna, afoniczna (czyli bezgłośna) z tzw. "przydźwiękiem nosowym", które jest spowodowane opadnięciem podniebienia miękkiego i sprawia wrażenie mowy z "kluskami w ustach". +W najcięższych przypadkach przyjmuje formę anartrii, kiedy nasilenie zaburzeń dyzartrycznych przyjmie zaawansowaną postać i mowa staje się bełkotliwa i niezrozumiała. +Spadochron szybujący + +Spadochron szybujący – spadochron, którego własności aerodynamiczne są wynikiem wytwarzania przez czaszę spadochronu siły nośnej. Zwany także "latającym skrzydłem", spadochronem "tunelowym" lub po prostu "skrzydłem". Zrewolucjonizował spadochroniarstwo dzięki swoim unikalnym, w stosunku do spadochronów okrągłych, właściwościom lotnym. Spadochron taki działa jak każde inne skrzydło: samolotu, szybowca, czy ptaka. Potrafi, dzięki swojej budowie, wytwarzać siłę nośną, która unosi go w powietrzu, w odróżnieniu od spadochronu z okrągłą czaszą, który wykorzystuje opór powietrza. +Freestyle (spadochroniarstwo) + +Freestyle - zespołowa konkurencja spadochronowa wykonywana w czasie swobodnego spadania. +Zadaniem zespołu, w skład którego wchodzi zawodnik i kamerzysta, jest zbudowanie prawidłowo kolejnych figur (w wiązankach obowiązkowych i dowolnych), wyłonionych spośród figur i sekwencji nakazanych, w wyznaczonym czasie pracy. +W tej konkurencji jest oceniana, oprócz prawidłowości figur, wartość artystyczna programu oraz wrażenia estetyczne. Pojęciem "freestyle" mylnie nazywana jest również olimpijska dyscyplina sportowa, narciarstwo akrobatyczne. +Tramwaje w Sosnowcu + +Tramwaje w Sosnowcu – system komunikacji tramwajowej działający na terenie miasta Sosnowiec, będący częścią sieci należącej do Tramwajów Śląskich, działający nieprzerwanie od 1928. +Historia. +Już w 1912 istniały pomysły na uruchomienie tramwajów w Sosnowcu, jednak I wojna światowa pokrzyżowała te plany. Tramwaje pojawiły się w mieście dopiero w 1928, kiedy to otwarto trasy: 18 stycznia 1928 śródmieście Sosnowca - Będzin przez Pogoń i 14 lipca 1928 Stary Sosnowiec - Szopienice. Obydwie linie, dzięki wybudowaniu wiaduktu pod Warszawsko-Wiedeńską linią kolejową (dzisiejsza ulica "Piłsudskiego"), uzyskały wzajemne połączenie 2 marca 1931; do tej pory pasażerowie chcący się przesiąść pokonywali około kilometrowy odcinek pieszo. +W 1933 rozpoczęto budowę torowiska pomiędzy obrzeżami Milowic a Środulą, oddając poszczególne odcinki tej trasy do użytku: 7 grudnia 1933 do rejonu Ostrej Górki (most nad rzeką Czarną Przemszą), 1 maja 1934 przez Ludwik do historycznej "KWK Renard" w Sielcu by 22 lutego 1935 zainaugurować przejazd tramwaju na całej trasie, którą od 22 stycznia 1951 wydłużono jeszcze w głąb Milowic do ówczesnej "KWK Milowice" (po 1976 KWK Czerwona Gwardia, po 1989 "KWK Saturn", obecnie już nieistniejąca). +15 stycznia 1952 otwarto trasę od Ludwika do Dańdówki, która rozwidlając się w tej dzielnicy była następnie sukcesywnie przedłużana; w kierunku wschodnim oddawano do użytku odcinki: 1 maja 1952 do Klimontowa i 1 maja 1959 do Porąbki, gdzie na przeszkodzie stanęła linia kolejowa (choć ten sam problem kilometr wcześniej rozwiązano budując wiadukt); w kierunku południowym 30 kwietnia 1954 otwarto odcinek do Mysłowic, łączący się tam z inną linią do Szopienic. +4 grudnia 1960 kursujące dotychczas do Porąbki tramwaje, poprzez wydłużenie torowiska obok linii kolejowej, dotarły do nowej pętli w pobliżu Kazimierza Górniczego, gdzie ponownie napotkały tę samą przeszkodę; tutaj jednak zakończenie trasy stało się mało praktyczne. +Lata 70. XX wieku, oznaczające wielką przebudowę całego Zagłębia Dąbrowskiego, przyniosły również modernizację sieci tramwajowej, która uzyskała wówczas współczesny kształt. W 1970 zreorganizowano układ torowisk w śródmieściu, oddając do użytku nowe odcinki (przy ul. St. Małachowskiego i ul. H. Sienkiewicza) oraz łączniki torowe umożliwiające zmiany kierunków; w latach 1974–1977 część tras przebudowano na dwutorowe, zmieniając przy tym w lutym 1975 przebieg przez Pogoń; w 1975 wybudowano ponadto nowe pętle torowe: w Pogoni i Milowicach. W 1979 oddano do użytku trójkąt torowy w Środuli, na którym tramwaje zmieniają kierunek jazdy cofając; jednocześnie na przełomie lat 70. i 80., podczas budowy dwupoziomowego skrzyżowania w Sielcu, przez kilka lat tramwaje nie dojeżdżały do tego miejsca. +W 1980 przystąpiono do ostatniej inwestycji rozwijającej sieć tramwajową – budowy trasy do Zagórza, opatrzonej niefortunnym zakończeniem. Na całej długości oddano ją do użytku w 28 października 1982, jednak ruch tramwajowy do Środuli uruchomiono jeszcze w trakcie budowy 21 lipca 1980. +Lata 90. XX wieku to czas remontów torowisk, ale tylko w Śródmieściu Sosnowca. Jednocześnie w 1997 zlikwidowano odcinek przy ulicy Kościelnej, pomimo uprzedniego dobudowania do niego łączników torowych pozwalających na przejazd tramwaju tą ulicą z każdej i w każdą stronę. +Plany inwestycyjne obejmują wydłużenie dwóch tras w głąb osiedli mieszkaniowych Zagórze i Środula, czego realizacja jest mało prawdopodobna. Ponadto zagłębiowskie gminy starają się o pozyskanie funduszy unijnych, za które miałyby zostać m.in. zmodernizowane przystanki, lecz dotychczasowe wnioski pozostawały odrzucone. +Oprócz planów inwestycyjnych były też plany likwidacyjne. Na 2009 planowano fizyczne zlikwidowanie linii na Środulę (24) i do Kazimierza Górniczego (27), jednak przez liczne protesty mieszkańców i list prezydenta Kazimierza Górskiego zadecydowano tylko o wycofaniu obsługi Będzina z trasy linii 27 oraz skróceniu linii 24 do Będzina Zajezdni. +W grudniu 2009 Tramwaje Śląskie ogłosiły przetarg na projekt przedłużenia linii 15 od dotychczasowej pętli na Mecu do ronda Jana Pawła II. Trasa ma przebiegać tunelem pod ul. Braci Mieroszewskich, potem wzdłuż ulic Wolności, Białostockiej, Paderewskiego i Rydza-Śmigłego aż do skrzyżowania z ul. Braci Mieroszewskich (rondo Jana Pawła II), gdzie ma powstać pętla. Istnieją również plany późniejszego połączenia nowej pętli z linią 27. +Infrastruktura techniczna. +W XXI wiek tramwaje w całym Zagłębiu Dąbrowskim weszły zapomniane. Infrastruktura techniczna wymagana dla ich sprawnego funkcjonowania jest mocno wyeksploatowana, gdyż od lat nie przeprowadzano żadnych większych remontów, w tym w zakresie usuwania szkód górniczych. +Wagony tramwajowe produkcji chorzowskiego Konstalu, typu 105Na i pochodne oraz spotykane na linii 15 starszego typu 102Na są przestarzałe konstrukcyjnie, mocno zużyte i ulegające częstym awariom, nieekonomiczne i niedostępne dla niepełnosprawnych. W 2011 roku na linii 26 wprowadzono do użytku zmodernizowany austriacki tramwaj E1 (tramwaj). +Przystanki, poza zlokalizowanymi przed dworcem kolejowym, są skromnie wyposażone, w większości niedostępne dla niepełnosprawnych (również w śródmieściu; w niektórych przypadkach nie ma nawet możliwości dojścia pieszego), a często też są niebezpiecznie usytuowane. +Francis Burkle-Young + +Francis A. Burkle-Young (zm. 17 stycznia 2005 w Arington, Wirginia), historyk amerykański. +Steal This Album! + +Steal This Album! – album grupy muzycznej System of a Down. Była to odpowiedź zespołu na nielegalnie krążący w sieci album "Toxicity II", zawierający skradzione ze studia "odrzuty" z sesji nagraniowej do "Toxicity" i jeszcze niedokończone utwory. Okładka albumu imituje własnoręcznie zrobioną przez tzw. pirata, a cztery limitowane serie zawierają płyty z nadrukowanymi bazgrołami członków zespołu. Tytuł płyty to lekko zmieniona nazwa książki "Steal This Book" napisanej przez Abbi Hoffman. +Kulewryna + +Kulewryna – broń palna używana w XV – XVII wieku ładowana odprzodowo. +Początkowo była to broń małokalibrowa, później – w miarę zwiększania kalibru i zmiany kształtu łoża – przeobraziła się w działo średnie. Kulewryny strzelały początkowo kulami kamiennymi, a później żelaznymi i ceglanymi. +Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro + +Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro z Pleszowic, herbu Bończa, ps. "Błażej Lipowski" (ur. ok. 1620 w ziemi przemyskiej, zm. 25 kwietnia 1679 w Przemyślu) – dworzanin królewski, kasztelan lwowski od 1654, starosta krośnieński, wojewoda podolski od 1676, senator, poseł i marszałek sejmu z 1652 roku. Polityk i filozof, fundator klasztoru i kościoła w Kalwarii Pacławskiej, projektodawca reform wojskowych, pisarz barokowy podejmujący tematykę polityczną, gospodarczą i wojskową, nazywany polskim Tacytem; moralista, pedagog, mówca, historyk. +Życiorys. +Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro urodził się na ziemi przemyskiej jako syn stolnika i wojskiego przemyskiego Jerzego Stefana Fredry (zm. 1634 w Przemyślu) i Katarzyny Biereckiej. Był wnukiem wojskiego przemyskiego – Andrzeja Fredry (zm. w 1621). W 1634 roku po śmierci ojca nad Andrzejem Maksymilianem opiekę przejęli jego stryjowie, Jakub Maksymilian i Jan. +W 1637 roku Fredro podjął studia na Akademii Krakowskiej. Karierę polityczną zapoczątkował w 1646 roku, po raz pierwszy uczestnicząc w sejmie walnym. W 1647 roku wybrano Fredrę do komisji, która obradowała w sprawach granicznych między Polską, a Węgrami. Brał również udział w sejmie konwokacyjnym w 1648 roku. W tym samym roku bronił − przed oblegającymi go chłopami i kozakami − swych Kormanic. W 1649 roku wsparł liczbą stu żołnierzy wojska koronne w bitwie pod Zborowem. W latach 1648–1651 sprawował godność marszałka sejmiku, a także posłował na sejm. W 1651 roku został wysłany przez króla z poselstwem do księcia Siedmiogrodu, Jerzego II Rakoczego. Miał za sobą prawdopodobnie zagraniczną podróż do Niderlandów lub Francji. +W 1652 roku Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro sprawował na sejmie funkcję marszałka sejmu. Wybrany na tę godność 27 stycznia już w dwa dni później rozpoczął obrady mową powitalną, w której chwalił ustrój Rzeczypospolitej, gdzie król jest ograniczony prawami. Ostatecznie sprzeciw Władysława Sicińskiego na prolongatę obrad z dnia 9 marca 1652 roku doprowadził do precedensowej sytuacji. Fredro uznał jednostkowy protest, który historiografia uważa za pierwsze liberum veto. Spowodowało to, że sejm rozszedł się bez podjęcia jakichkolwiek uchwał, choć według wielu historyków i tak miał małe szanse na owocne zakończenie. +W czasie Potopu Fredro pozostał wierny Janowi Kazimierzowi. Został mianowany w 1656 roku przez szlachtę ruską wodzem pospolitego ruszenia ziemi lwowskiej. W roku 1658 z polecenia szlachty ruskiej Fredro objął kierownictwo nad pracami fortyfikacyjnymi w Przemyślu, uzyskując m.in. prawo do przeprowadzania wywłaszczeń. W tym samym roku założył w Kormanicach żupę solną, funkcjonującą do 1773 roku. Po najeździe Rakoczego odbudował zamek w Kormanicach. Na sejmie w 1661 roku był jednym z tych przedstawicieli szlachty, którzy sprzeciwili się udziałowi w elekcji vivente rege, mimo, że wcześniej w obliczu wojny ze Szwecją popierał ten projekt. W 1665 ufundował Kalwarię Pacławską. Pieniądze na tę i inne inwestycje czerpał z żupy solnej, która zapewniała 10 000 złotych rocznego dochodu. +W latach sześćdziesiątych XVII wieku Fredro przebywał głównie w swoich dobrach. Niechętny w tym czasie królowi, w kwestiach politycznych popierał Jerzego Lubomirskiego, broniąc go np. w roku 1664 na sejmiku w Sądowej Wiszni. Podczas rokoszu Lubomirskiego nie brał jednak udziału w walkach i nie opowiadał się za żadną ze stron. Po abdykacji Jana Kazimierza Fredro został zwolennikiem elekcji „Piasta”. W latach siedemdziesiątych ograniczył działalność polityczną. W 1671 roku zajął się ponownie fortyfikowaniem Przemyśla. Wziął także udział w elekcji Jana III Sobieskiego. Od 1676 roku piastował godność wojewody podolskiego. W 1678 roku został członkiem rady przybocznej króla. Zmarł 15 czerwca 1679 roku, a jego ciało zostało pochowane w krypcie kościoła Franciszkanów w Przemyślu. +Twórczość i poglądy. +Lata 50. XVII wieku. +Andrzej Maksymilian Fredro pozostawił po sobie prozę, pisaną głównie w języku łacińskim. Jego twórczość jest bogata i różnorodna tematycznie. Podejmował w ciągu swojego życia sprawy polityczne, społeczno-gospodarcze czy militarne. Szczególnie obfite jeśli chodzi o twórczość literacką były dla Fredry lata sześćdziesiąte XVII wieku. +Pierwszym dziełem, które wyszło spod pióra Fredry, była praca historyczna pt. "Gestorum Populi Poloni sub Henrico Valesio", obejmująca okres od śmierci Zygmunta Augusta w 1572 roku do 1576 roku włącznie. Dzieło cieszyło się dużym wzięciem w XVII wieku, czego dowodem były cztery wydania książki w tym stuleciu. "Gestorum" to jedna z dwóch prac w historii siedemnastowiecznej polskiej historiografii, mająca charakter monograficzny. W równej mierze jak dziełem historycznym, jest traktatem, którego autor przedstawił własne poglądy na współczesne mu życie polityczne, społeczne i gospodarcze. Fredro bronił w "Gestorum" szlacheckiej wolności, co powtarzał także w swoich późniejszych pismach. Przedstawiał też w tym utworze charakterystyczne dla niego przekonanie o doskonałości ustroju Rzeczypospolitej. Za inspirację do napisania "Gestorum" posłużyły dzieła Tacyta, co wyrażało się m.in. w podobnej konstrukcji zdań u obu dziejopisarzy, ale także w stosowaniu podobnej metody polegającej na włączaniu do narracji o przeszłości uwag dotyczących czasów współczesnych Fredrze. +W 1658 roku wydano "Przysłowia mów potocznych, obyczajowe, radne, wojenne". Był to zbiór sentencji, jedyne dzieło Fredry napisane w języku polskim. Kasztelan lwowski dał się poznać w "Przysłowiach" zarówno jako intelektualista o europejskich horyzontach, jak i gawędziarz opowiadający o sarmackich realiach. Fredro podkreślał w "Przysłowiach" pesymizm wobec ludzi. Stwierdzał, iż kierujące człowiekiem motywacje to uczucia i emocje, a nie pobudki wynikające z racjonalnego podejścia. Pisarz krytykował obłudę, zalecał nieufność wobec pochlebców. Wypowiadał się również w kwestii wychowania, którego podstawą miała być sprawiedliwość i uczciwość, w czym nawiązywał do poglądów Jana Amosa Komeńskiego. W nauczaniu propagował utylitaryzm, a szczególnie zalecał peregrynacje zagraniczne młodzieży, które zapewniałyby możliwość wykorzystywania obcych wzorców z pożytkiem dla Rzeczypospolitej. W tym dziele Fredro prezentował poglądy filozofii neostoicyzmu. Za inspiracje zaś posłużyła twórczość Justusa Lipsiusa, od którego przejął również niektóre cytaty umieszczone w "Przysłowiach mów potocznych". +Lata 60. XVII wieku. +W 1660 roku Fredro wydał swój kolejny utwór pt. "Scriptorum seu togae et belli notationum fragmenta". Wypowiedział się w nim na temat liberum veto, broniąc tej zasady. Poglądy na temat weta są najbardziej osławionym elementem w twórczości autora. Według niego chęć zniesienia weta wypływa z tych kręgów, które nie rozumieją, na czym polega specyfika Rzeczypospolitej. Krytykował postulaty wprowadzenia w państwie metody głosowania większością. Podstawą dla takiego stanowiska w "Scriptorum" było przekonanie o bezmyślności wśród większości ludzi. W konsekwencji weto dawało szansę mądrym jednostkom decydować o losie państwa. Aprobując w "Scriptorum" ustrój Rzeczypospolitej, Fredro rezygnował z czerpania z obcych wpływów kulturalnych, chociaż godził się tak jak i w "Przysłowiach mów potocznych" na peregrynacje zagraniczne. +"Scriptorum" to dzieło, w którym Fredro wypowiedział się również na temat zagadnień militarnych. Wytykał braki w wojsku, a szczególnie słabość piechoty. Akcentował też rolę czynnika narodowościowego. Zalecał, by armia składała się z Polaków, a oficerowie mieli rekrutować się z dowódców jazdy. Opowiadał się jednak za wyborem na tron kandydata cudzoziemskiego, wyrażając tym samym sprzeciw wobec wyboru "Piasta". W "Scriptorum" nawiązywał także do spraw ekonomicznych. Według niego rolnictwo było podstawą gospodarki państwa i jego bogactwa. +W 1664 roku ukazało się dzieło Fredry z dziedziny paremiografii pt. "Monita politico-moralia et icon ingeniorum". "Monita" cieszyły się znaczną popularnością zarówno w kraju, jak i w Europie. Tłumaczono je na język francuski, niemiecki, rosyjski. Był to swego rodzaju poradnik, adresowany do polityków i mężów stanu. W "Monitach" Fredro zwracał uwagę na zachowanie umiaru we wszelkich działaniach. Istotną rolę w utworze odgrywał lud ("populus"), o którym Fredro nie miał najlepszego mniemania. Wskazówki Fredry miały też pouczać rządzących, jak zachować szacunek tych, nad którymi sprawują władzę. Należy w polityce kierować się realizmem, premiowany był więc pragmatyzm i wykorzystywanie dostępnych możliwości dla osiągania celów. "Monita", choć w znacznej mierze składają się z prawideł o charakterze ogólnoludzkim, to w niektórych miejscach autor wyraźnie odnosi się do współczesnych mu czasów i postaci. Wspomina m.in. swój zatarg z królem Janem Kazimierzem, choć imię władcy w utworze się nie pojawiło.W dziele uzasadniał konieczność gospodarczej przebudowy Polski i rozbudowy komunikacji, manufaktur oraz handlu, w których upatrywał źródło bogactwa narodu. Wskazywał potrzebę opieki państwa nad wynalazczością. Proponował również wprowadzenie przymusu oszczędzania, utworzenie funduszów pożyczkowych, a także ustanowienie państwowego budżetu dochodów i wydatków oraz przestrzeganie dyscypliny w jego wykorzystaniu. Dzięki temu utworowi Fredro po raz kolejny dał się poznać jako wykształcony człowiek, zaznajomiony z twórcami z krajów zachodniej Europy. Dowodem na to są odniesienia w "Monitach" do Niccolò Machiavellego czy Diego de Saavedry. +W 1668 roku Fredro wydał pracę pt. "Militarium seu axiomatum belli ad harmoniam togae accomodatorum libri duo". Dzieło poświęcone głównie tematyce militarnej było także najpełniejszą wykładnią poglądów pisarza na sprawy ekonomiczne. Filozof dał się poznać jako zwolennik idei merkantylizmu, opowiadając się za zakazem wywożenia surowców z terytorium państwa i znacznym ograniczeniem importu. Uważał również, że należy zamknąć nadmiar mennic i obniżyć kurs pieniądza, o czym informował też w swych innych pracach, jak choćby w napisanym w 1666 roku "Sposobie przywrócenia dobrej monety". Zmienił także swoje stanowisko wobec rolnictwa jako podstawy rozwoju państwa. W "Militarium..." stwierdzał, że urodzajna ziemia często nie sprzyja inicjatywie uprawiających ją ludzi, stąd zalecał, aby stawiano na rozwój manufaktur i handlu. Podkreślał również znaczenie gospodarcze utrzymywania w dobrym stanie dróg lądowych i wodnych. Co do tych ostatnich zalecał budowę kanałów, które choć są inwestycjami drogimi, potrafią się zwrócić wielokrotnie. +W "Militarium..." zawarł poglądy w kwestii wzrostu liczby ludności w państwie zgodnie z założeniami merkantylizmu i kameralizmu. Zajął się również sprawą przygotowań wojennymi, uzbrojeniem, itp., choć nie wniósł nic nowego do tej tematyki, cytując autorów z XVI i XVII wieku, jak choćby Jana Zamoyskiego, Jana Karola Chodkiewicza, czy Stanisława Koniecpolskiego. +Rok 1669 przyniósł wydanie utworu zatytułowanego "Epistola ad amicum". Tak jak w "Scriptorum", Fredro podjął się obrony liberum veto. Uważał, że zasada weta sprzyja Rzeczypospolitej. Państwo polsko-litewskie zajmowało wielkie obszary, stąd zdaniem filozofa interesy pewnych prowincji nie musiały się pokrywać z interesami innych. Na tej podstawie Fredro wnioskował, iż weto to jedyny sposób na wymuszenie kompromisu w tak rozległym i różnorodnym państwie jak Rzeczpospolita. Przy tym Fredro nie rozważał w "Epistola ad amicum" sytuacji, w której weto stałoby się narzędziem w ręku nieodpowiedzialnych polityków, działających na szkodę państwa. +Rodzina (religia) + +Rodzina (obecna nazwa: The Family International) - nowy ruch religijny założony przez pastora Davida Berga w latach 60. na zachodnim wybrzeżu USA. W Polsce działa pod nazwą "Wspólnota Niezależnych Zgromadzeń Misyjnych „Rodzina”". +Pierwsza założona przez Berga wspólnota nosiła nazwę "Nastolatki dla Jezusa (ang. Teens for Christ)". Dużą popularność uzyskał m.in. dzięki stałemu głoszeniu końca świata, co miało nastąpić w wyniku trzęsień ziemi (Kalifornia miała zostać pochłonięta przez ocean) i wielkiej światowej bitwy w miejscu Har-Magedon, co miało nastąpić w 1993 roku oraz upadku całego systemu ekonomicznego świata. +Ugrupowanie z czasem ewoluowało - zmieniło nazwę na "Dzieci Boga" (Children of God), a sam Berg ogłosił się ostatnim i najważniejszym prorokiem oraz przybierał nowe imiona: Mojżesz, Dawid, MO (skrót od Mojżesz) i Ojciec. Stał się bardzo autorytarny i wprowadzał do wierzeń i zasad grupy coraz więcej motywów seksualnych. Kolejna zmian nazwy na "Rodzina Miłości" (The Family of Love) miała miejsce pod koniec lat 70., a ostatnia na "Rodzina (The Family)" w 1987. W organizacji istnieje 4-5-szczeblowa hierarchia. +MO (tak się zwykle podpisywał) z czasem, szczególnie po ostrych reakcjach ze strony rodziców wyznawców i pozwach sądowych, stronił od publicznego pojawiania się, do tego stopnia, że od początku lat 80. nie pokazał się ani razu. Z grupą kontaktował się za pomocą listów. Z listów tych emanował coraz większy seksualizm - Berg twierdził, że Bóg jest sexy, więc taki sam obowiązek mają wszyscy wyznawcy. W grupie, w której i tak od dawna panował znaczny promiskuityzm, zapanował zwyczaj dzielenia się partnerami, w tym również małżonkami - jest to tzw. "sharing". Młode adeptki miały natomiast obowiązek szerzenia wiary na świecie i zdobywania funduszy poprzez flirt i seks, czemu miało sprzyjać noszenie skąpych ubrań ("flirty fishing"). Pieniądze na działalność zdobywano w sporej części przez sprzedaż na ulicy biuletynów łączących w sobie treści seksualne z religijnymi. Od 1995 roku obowiązuje we wspólnocie kolejna kontrowersyjna doktryna - Loving Jesus. +W związku z niesprawdzaniem się przepowiedni, ale również epidemią HIV, grupa stała się nieco bardziej zachowawcza. Obecnie grupą kieruje wdowa po Bergu, Karen Zerby. Grupa liczy około 16000 członków, w Polsce około 300 osób. +Neuralgia + +Neuralgia, inaczej nerwoból ("neuralgia") - termin z zakresu medycyny, związany z uszkodzeniem nerwu obwodowego. Ma charakter ostry, rwący, szarpiący, promieniuje w obszarze unerwienia określonego nerwu lub jego gałęzi. Najczęściej dotyka ona nerw trójdzielny (zob. neuralgia trójdzielna). W wielu wypadkach obraz chorobowy wykazuje podobieństwo do neuropatii a istniejące techniki obrazowania (w tym MRI) w wielu wypadkach nie pozwalają na postawienie właściwej diagnozy. Leczeniem bólu o charakterze neuralgii zajmują się Poradnie Leczenia Bólu oraz poradnie neurologiczne. +Synchronous Digital Hierarchy + +Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH), czyli Synchroniczna Hierarchia Systemów Cyfrowych, Jest to technologia sieci transportu informacji, charakteryzująca się tym, że wszystkie urządzenia działające w sieci SDH, pracujące w trybie bezawaryjnym, są zsynchronizowane zarówno do nadrzędnego zegara (PRC) jak i do siebie nawzajem (w odróżnieniu od takich technologii jak, np. ATM). +Ważną cechą jest również to, że podstawowa jednostka transportowa STM-N (Synchronous Transport Module - Synchroniczny Moduł Transportowy) w czasie zwielokrotniania ma przepływność, będącą N-tą wielokrotnością STM-1 (155,52 Mbit/s). Ta właściwość nie występuje np. w technologii PDH. +Sieci SDH są w dzisiejszych czasach jedynym sposobem (oprócz DWDM) na przesyłanie danych cyfrowych do odległych lokalizacji, dzięki temu, że pozwalają na odwzorowanie wielu typów sygnałów, o niższych przepływnościach, niezsynchronizowanych z SDH, do struktur synchronicznych. Z usług SDH korzystają m.in. GSM, Internet, DQDB, FDDI. Sieci SDH charakteryzują się również o wiele większą niezawodnością od innych oraz mniejszą podatnością na uszkodzenia wynikającą z budowy m.in. struktur pierścieniowych. Dzięki temu mają możliwość automatycznej rekonfiguracji w czasie krótszym niż 50 ms. +max do 160Gb/s +Andrzej Dziuba (samorządowiec) + +Andrzej Dziuba (ur. 1 grudnia 1956 we Wrocławiu) – polski samorządowiec, od 2000 prezydent Tychów. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Górniczym Politechniki Wrocławskiej oraz studia podyplomowe z zakresu ekonomiki górnictwa na Akademii Górniczo-Hutniczej w Krakowie. Pracował w Kopalni Węgla Kamiennego Ziemowit, przez 12 lat przeszedł większość szczebli zawodowych w zakładzie, dochodząc do stanowiska głównego inżyniera ds. inwestycji. W 1992 przeniósł się do firmy DBT Scharf Polska Sp. z o.o., gdzie zajmował się marketingiem i sprzedażą. +W 2000 został wybrany na urząd prezydenta Tychów (z ramienia Unii Wolności), dwa lata później został pierwszym prezydentem tego miasta wybranym w wyborach bezpośrednich (w drugiej turze uzyskał ponad 63% głosów). 26 listopada 2006 uzyskał reelekcję na to stanowisko, kandydując z poparciem Platformy Obywatelskiej, otrzymując w drugiej turze wyborów samorządowych 15 913 głosów (52% głosów). Cztery lata później po raz kolejny został wybrany, tym razem wygrywając w pierwszej turze. +Działalność społeczna. +Obejmował funkcje przewodniczącego rady powierniczej Wyższej Szkoły Zarządzania i Nauk Społecznych w Tychach, członka zarządu Stowarzyszenia Gmin Górniczych w Polsce oraz rady nadzorczej Katowickiej Specjalnej Strefy Ekonomicznej. 8 marca 2010 na XXXI Zgromadzeniu Ogólnym ZMP został wybrany na członka zarządu tej organizacji. +W latach 90. był prezesem klubu hokejowego GKS Tychy. Jest honorowym członkiem tego klubu. W 2000 otrzymał Złotą Odznakę Polskiego Związku Hokeja na Lodzie. +Życie prywatne. +Żonaty (żona Ewa), ma dwie córki (Aleksandrę i Martę). +Dolina Koprowa + +Dolina Koprowa (słow. "Kôprová dolina", niem. "Koprovatal", węg. "Koprova-völgy") – słowacka dolina walna położona na terenie Tatr. Polscy geografowie zaliczają ją razem z Liptowskimi Kopami do Tatr Wysokich, słowaccy traktują ją jako granicę między nimi a Tatrami Zachodnimi. +Geomorfologia. +Przy długości ok. 11,0 km i powierzchni ok. 31,3 km² należy do większych dolin tatrzańskich. Wylot doliny skierowany na południe z lekkim odchyleniem na zachód znajduje się w pobliżu wylotu Doliny Cichej. Dolina Koprowa w dolnej części przebiega w kierunku północnym, wyżej skręca na północny wschód, a w części górnej ostro załamuje się na wschód. Dobrze zachowały się w niej ślady zlodowaceń: głęboki żłób lodowcowy, kilka cyrków lodowcowych w górnych partiach doliny, progi skalne z wodospadami i wały moren bocznych. Według opisów jednego z turystów z końca XIX w. Dolina Koprowa "„łączy w sobie dzikość Tatr Wysokich z łagodnością i melancholią Tatr Zachodnich”". +Wody. +Przez Dolinę Koprową przepływa potok Koprowa Woda ("Kôprovský potok"), który po połączeniu z wypływającym z Doliny Cichej potokiem Cicha Woda Liptowska ("Tichý potok") tworzy niewielką rzeczkę Biała Liptowska ("Belá"). Koprową Wodę zasilają liczne mniejsze potoki wypływające z dolinek bocznych, największe dopływy to Ciemnosmreczyński Potok ("Temnosmrečinský potok"), Hliński Potok ("Hlinský potok") i Niewcyrski Potok ("Nefcerský potok"). U wylotu bocznej doliny Niewcyrki znajdują się dwa wodospady zwane Niewcyrskimi Siklawami: Niżna Niewcyrska Siklawa ("Nižný nefcerský vodopád") oraz Pośrednia Niewcyrska Siklawa ("Kmeťov vodopád") o wysokości 80,0 m. Na Ciemnosmreczyńskim Potoku, przy szlaku turystycznym jest jeszcze jeden wodospad – Ciemnosmreczyńska Siklawa ("Vajanského vodopád"). +W dolinie znajduje się kilka stawów, wśród których największe to: Niżni Ciemnosmreczyński Staw ("Nižné Temnosmrečinské pleso"), położony na wysokości ok. 1674 m, trzeci pod względem wielkości staw tatrzański na Słowacji, Wyżni Ciemnosmreczyński Staw ("Vyšné Temnosmrečinské pleso"), 1716 m, Niżni Teriański Staw ("Nižné Terianske pleso"), ok. 1940 m, Wyżni Teriański Staw i Kobyli Stawek. +Historia. +Pierwszymi znanymi osobami w Dolinie Koprowej byli Georg Pongrátz ok. 1750 r. oraz Jakob Buchholtz 26 sierpnia 1751 r. Zimą jako pierwsi dolinę odwiedzili E. Baur i Alfred Martin 18 marca 1906 r. +Dolina była od dawna wypasana, jeszcze do 1954 r. wypasano na Garajowej Polanie. Lasy były silnie eksploatowane. Jak podaje Maria Steczkowska, w 1858 r. były one bardzo przerzedzone, a w wielu miejscach całkiem wycięte. Skutkiem tego były ogromne lawiny schodzące z Liptowskich Kop. Lasy niszczył też pożar: w 1943 r. w ogromnym, kilkudniowym pożarze spłonęło 240 ha lasu na prawych zboczach doliny. Jednak w trudno dostępnych miejscach, jak np. w dolinie Niewcyrce, w Ciemnych Smreczynach czy na Krywaniu, przetrwały duże partie pierwotnych lasów i niezmienionego przez człowieka krajobrazu. Górale z Zakopanego od dawna w Dolinie Koprowej polowali na kozice i niedźwiedzie, a dolina była często opisywana w polskiej literaturze. Tutaj toczyły się akcje powieści Kazimierza Przerwy-Tetmajera, Tadeusza Malickiego, Jadwigi Roguskiej-Cybulskiej i Adama Bahdaja. W latach 1944–1945 w zakątkach Doliny Koprowej chroniły się duże oddziały partyzantki słowackiej i radzieckiej. +Poprowadzono przez dolinę kilka znakowanych szlaków turystycznych. W XIX w. i przed II wojną światową Dolina Koprowa była popularna wśród polskich turystów. Przybywali oni tutaj szlakiem turystycznym z przełęczy Liliowe przez Zawory. Szlak ten jednak po wojnie został zamknięty. Obecnie Dolina Koprowa jest obszarem ochrony ścisłej TANAP-u, nie ma też w niej schronisk turystycznych. Ruch turystyczny jest niewielki. +Nazwa doliny, podobnie jak inne podobne, pochodzi od marchwicy, przez Słowaków nazywanych "kôprovníček bezobalný", nie ma natomiast związku z rudami miedzi (niem. "Kupfer"), nigdy tu nie występującymi. +Szlaki turystyczne. +Czasy przejścia podane na podstawie mapy. +Kościół św. Wojciecha w Poznaniu + +Kościół pw. św. Wojciecha w Poznaniu – świątynia wznosząca się na Wzgórzu św. Wojciecha, w dzielnicy Święty Wojciech, w Poznaniu. +Historia. +Po raz pierwszy zostaje wymieniona w 1244, kiedy książę Przemysł I zamienił się z biskupem poznańskim odstępując kościół i otaczającą go osadę w zamian za osadę i kościół św. Rocha. Pośrednio z dokumentów wynika, że świątynię wzniesiono w 1222. Według podania kościół wzniesiono w miejscu, gdzie św. Wojciech wygłosił kazanie przed udaniem się z wyprawą misyjną do Prus i gdzie prawdopodobnie od XI wieku znajdowała się drewniana kaplica. W miejscu pierwszej świątyni, w XV wieku postawiono nowy, gotycki kościół. W pierwszej połowie XVI wieku dobudowano nawy boczne, a sto lat później szczyty wieńczące wschodnią i zachodnią fasadę. W 1634 roku przy południowej nawie wzniesiono kaplicę św. Antoniego. Podczas remontu w latach 1911-1912 wnętrze otrzymało secesyjne polichromie autorstwa Antoniego Procajłowicza oraz witraże wykonane według projektów Stanisława Wyspiańskiego i Józefa Mehoffera. +Podczas okupacji hitlerowskiej był to jeden z dwóch dostępnych dla Polaków kościołów w Poznaniu. Podczas walk o Cytadelę wzgórze znalazło się na linii najbardziej zaciętych walk. Kościół został poważnie uszkodzony. Zniszczony został cały dach, runęło część Sklepienia i murów, ucierpiało również wnętrze. Zniszczone zostały również cenne witraże, ocalał natomiast bogaty skarbiec. +Świątynię odbudowano w latach 1946-1949. Podczas tych prac usunięto tynki ze wszystkich ścian poza późnorenesansowymi szczytami. Odsłonięto również gotyckie portale na północnej i południowej elewacji, podczas gdy główne wejście od strony zachodniej musiano zrekonstruować. Natomiast w latach 1951-1952 przeprowadzono prace konserwacyjne we wnętrzu. Nowe witraże wykonali Stanisław Powalisz – w nawie głównej i północnej, oraz Henryk Nostitz-Jackowski w nawie południowej. +Przed kościołem znajduje się drewniana, kryta gontem, dzwonnica pochodząca z przełomu XVI i XVII wieku – najstarszy drewniany zabytek w mieście. +Budowa. +Z zewnątrz z daleka zwraca uwagę wysoki, dwuspadowy dach kryty dachówką. Na fasadzie znajduje się gotycki fryz ze skośnie ułożonej cegły całość zaś wieńczy późnorenesansowy szczyt o łagodnych liniach. +Wnętrze pseudobazylikowe, trójnawowe. W nawie głównej i północnej sklepienia gwiaździste zaś w południowej sieciowe (siatkowe). Z dawnych dwunastu ołtarzy do naszych czasów dotrwało pięć. W prezbiterium znajduje się ołtarz szafkowy z rzeźbą przedstawiającą wniebowzięcie pochodzącą z XVI wieku (szafka została odtworzona w XX wieku) wykonany prawdopodobnie przez osoby związane z warsztatem Wita Stwosza. W nawie północnej, w późnorenesansowym ołtarzu umieszczono obraz przedstawiający Anioła Stróża z 1630, za którego autora uznaje się Krzysztofa Boguszewskiego, który był proboszczem tego kościoła w latach 1630-1635. W nawie południowej, w ołtarzu, który również pochodzi z późnego renesansu, znajduje się obraz przedstawiający Opłakiwanie Chrystusa. Malowidło powstało w połowie XVI wieku w szkole florenckiej. Na zachodniej ścianie wisi kilka portretów trumiennych oraz blach herbowych należących w dużej części do rodu Naramowickich a pochodzących z XVII i XVIII wieku. +Wejście do kaplicy św. Antoniego zamyka kuta, żelazna krata z pierwszej połowy XVII wieku wykonana w stylu renesansowym. +Całość kościoła pokrywa pochodząca z początku XX wiek modernistyczna polichromia autorstwa Antoniego Procajłowicza odnowiona w 1999 roku. +Poznańska Skałka. +Krypta zasłużonych powstała w roku 1923 z inicjatywy proboszcza ks. Bogusława Kościelskiego na wzór Skałki w Krakowie . Zaczęto wówczas przenosić do kościoła prochy zasłużonych Wielkopolan. +Inni sławni spoczywają na Cmentarzu Zasłużonych Wielkopolan, który znajduje się przy kościele karmelitów bosych, stojącym naprzeciw kościoła św. Wojciecha. +Apraksja + +Apraksja - upośledzenie precyzyjnych, celowych ruchów przy braku niedowładu, objawów móżdżkowych i zaburzeń czucia. Zaburzenia apraktyczne są często wynikiem udarów, guzów, spotyka się je również w chorobie Alzheimera. +Podstawowe postacie apraksji. +Apraksja wyobrażeniowa (ideacyjna). +Apraksja wyobrażeniowa występuje przy rozległych chorobach mózgu, objawia się niemożnością realizowania planowanego ruchu, przestawianiem czy pomijaniem jego istotnych elementów składowych a dodawaniem zbędnych. +Apraksja ruchowa. +Apraksja ruchowa polega na niemożności wykonywania ruchów precyzyjnych (np. pisanie, gra na instrumentach muzycznych); ruchy chorego są niezgrabne, niepewne; zwykle występuje po stronie przeciwnej do uszkodzenia. +Apraksja wyobrażeniowo-ruchowa. +W tej postaci apraksji chory nie może wykonać poleconej funkcji (mimo że wie jak to zrobić), przy czym instrukcja wspomagająca nie zmienia sytuacji, natomiast analogiczne czynności mogą być wykonane w sposób automatyczny. +Kartaczownica Gatlinga + +Kartaczownica Gatlinga – jeden z prekursorów karabinu maszynowego. W odróżnieniu od poprzednich broni tego typu, wielolufowy karabin Gatlinga zapewniał dużą szybkostrzelność i łatwość ponownego ładowania. Z technicznego punktu widzenia ta konstrukcja, nie jest karabinem maszynowym, gdyż ogień z niej prowadzony jest ręcznie, a nie automatycznie. Skonstruowany został w roku 1861 przez Richarda Gatlinga, wyparł wcześniejszą kartaczownicę Agera. +Zasadnicza idea broni była znana już w XVIII wieku – kilkanaście umieszczonych obok siebie luf, odpalanych kolejno, miało zapewnić prowadzenie nieprzerwanego ognia. Na przeszkodzie w realizacji tego pomysłu stały jednak brak odpowiednich nabojów i ograniczenia technologiczne, których pokonanie możliwe było dopiero w drugiej połowie XIX wieku. +Gatling wykorzystał pojawienie się nabojów zespolonych z metalową łuską i opracował nowatorski system odpalania ładunków z poszczególnych luf, połączony z ruchem samych luf, podajnika i zamka. Dzięki temu jego broń miała teoretyczną szybkostrzelność około 1200 strzałów na minutę, a szybkostrzelność praktyczna dochodziła do 200 strz./min. Obsługę karabinu stanowiło 4 żołnierzy. +Lufy, podajnik i cylinder blokujący były oddzielnymi częściami zamontowanymi na łożu. Tylne części luf, każda z osobnym zamkiem, oraz mechanizm spustowy mieściły się w cylindrze. Obrót korby powodował obrót luf, a naboje umieszczone w zasobniku wsuwały się pod swym ciężarem do podajnika. Odpowiedni mechanizm powodował wsuwanie naboju do lufy, ryglowanie jej osobnym zamkiem i strzał, a następnie wyrzucenie łuski z lufy. Podczas jednego obrotu korby każda lufa oddawała jeden strzał. +Wraz z wynalezieniem metody wyciągania łuski z lufy za pomocą odrzutu zamka, a następnie wykorzystania energii gazów prochowych, system Gatlinga stał się przestarzały. Miejsce karabinów wielolufowych zajęły karabiny systemu Maxima. +Idea broni wielolufowej odżyła w latach pięćdziesiątych XX wieku w szybkostrzelnych działkach i karabinach lotniczych oraz systemach antyrakietowych stosowanych na okrętach wojennych. Zespół luf obracany jest dziś silnikiem elektrycznym – dzięki temu sześciolufowe działko M61 Vulcan kalibru 20 mm osiąga szybkostrzelność 6000 strzałów na minutę i jest używany do dziś w US Air Force. +Wielopierścieniowe węglowodory aromatyczne + +Wielopierścieniowe węglowodory aromatyczne, Policykliczne węglowodory aromatyczne (w skrócie WWA od "Wielopierścieniowe Węglowodory Aromatyczne" lub PAH z angielskiego "Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons") – policykliczne węglowodory zawierające skondensowane pierścienie aromatyczne bez podstawników. Wiele z nich podejrzewanych jest lub ma udowodnione własności kancerogenne. +Powstają podczas niecałkowitego spalania wszystkich węglowodorów z wyjątkiem metanu. Wydzielają się także w trakcie spalania drewna iglastego, palenia papierosów, produkcji asfaltu, pracy pieców koksowniczych, są obecne w spalinach samochodowych i smole pogazowej. +W postaci czystej stosowane są do produkcji leków, farb, pestycydów i tworzyw sztucznych. +Do WWA zalicza się ponad 200 związków, m.in. fenantren, antracen, piren, fluoranten, chryzen, benzo-α-piren, benzo-α-antracen. +Zostało stwierdzone, że 16 WWA jest szczególnie niebezpiecznych, a na pierwszym miejscu wymienia się benzo-α-piren. Związki te wykazują stosunkowo niską toksyczność ostrą, ale bardzo wyraźną toksyczność przewlekłą. Organizm ludzki z żywnością przyjmuje 3 – 4 mg WWA, a dopuszczalne stężenie w wodzie wynosi 0,2 mg/dm3. +Są to związki bardzo niebezpieczne, ponieważ wywołują zmiany nowotworowe w różnych tkankach. +Przykładowe wielopierścieniowe węglowodory aromatyczne +Jean Dybowski + +Jean Thadée Emmanuel Dybowski, Jan Dybowski ( ur. 20 kwietnia 1856 w Charonne koło Paryża, zm. 18 grudnia 1928 w Mandres koło Paryża ), agronom, botanik i podróżnik działający w służbie Francji, pochodzenia polskiego. +Był synem Józefa Ksawerego, polskiego emigranta we Francji, stryjecznym bratem Benedykta Dybowskiego, wybitnego przyrodnika i badacza Azji oraz Władysława Dybowskiego, zoologa. +Był profesorem botaniki i ogrodnictwa w Grignon we Francji, a następnie w Paryżu. +Położył zasługi w zagospodarowaniu obszarów pustynnych Sahary, propagował prace nawadniające, budowę studni artezyjskich, zakładanie sztucznych oaz. Odbył szereg wypraw badawczych po Afryce. W roku 1889 odbył podróż do Algieru. W 1891 został wysłany do obszarów pomiędzy dorzeczem Konga i jeziorem Czad, gdzie m.in. dokonał ustalenia biegu rzeki Szari oraz jej dopływów. Dostarczył również informacji na temat tragicznie zakończonej wyprawy Francuza Paula Crampela. Przywiezione przez niego materiały trafiły do zbiorów Musée de L'Homme w Paryżu, a sam Dybowski został uhonorowany złotym medalem francuskiego Towarzystwa Geograficznego. +Ponownie przebywał w okolicach Konga w latach 1893-1894, gdzie prowadził badania przyrodnicze. W 1895 kierował wyprawą do Tunisu, dokonując analizy możliwości rolniczych. Dzięki 6-letnim badaniom w Afryce został uznanym specjalistą rolnictwa tropikalnego, autorem wielu publikacji w prasie francuskiej (a także w języku polskim). +W ostatnich latach życia współpracował z Państwowym Instytutem Naukowym Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Puławach (jako profesor). +Pisał z zakresu ogrodnictwa, ponadto spostrzeżenia z podróży do Algieru. Jest autorem prac: "Lextreme Sud Algerier" (1891) oraz "La route du Tchad" (1893). +Był założycielem Instytutu Agronomii Kolonialnej w Paryżu oraz członkiem Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności. +Stręczycielstwo + +Stręczycielstwo – nakłanianie innych osób do prostytucji, w wielu państwach uznane za działanie karalne w rozumieniu prawa karnego. +W Polsce stręczycielstwo jest przestępstwem, określonym w art. 204 § 1, a także § 3 i 4 Kodeksu karnego, zagrożonym karą do 3 lat pozbawienia wolności. Kara surowsza (od roku do 10 lat pozbawienia wolności) przewidziana jest w wypadkach, kiedy osoba uprawiająca prostytucję jest małoletnia lub uprowadzona za granicę w celu uprawiania prostytucji. +Stręczyciel, nakłaniając inne osoby do prostytucji, czerpie z tego także zyski. Potocznie określany jest mianem "alfonsa" lub rajfura. +Blohm & Voss Bv 141 + +Blohm & Voss Bv 141 – niemiecki samolot rozpoznawczy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1937 roku w niemieckiej wytwórni lotniczej Blohm & Voss w Hamburgu. +Historia. +W 1937 roku dowództwo Luftwaffe wydało nowe wymagania techniczne na taktyczny samolot rozpoznawczy. Opracowano wtedy szereg nowych projektów samolotów rozpoznawczych, które poddano ocenie dowództwa Luftwaffe. Wśród projektów znalazł się projekt dr inż. Richarda Vogta z zakładów Blohm & Voss, oznaczony symbolem Ha 141 (skrót od Hamburger Flugzeugbau). Był to projekt jednosilnikowego samolotu rozpoznawczego, który jednak miał niesymetryczna budowę. Trzyosobowa kabina tego samolotu znajdowała się bowiem na płacie z prawej strony od właściwego kadłuba, zakończonego silnikiem i usterzeniem. Projekt ten nie został przyjęty +Pomimo tego wytwórnia zbudowała prototyp tego samolotu oznaczony "Ha 141-0". Prototyp ten został oblatany 25 lutego 1938 roku, wykazując dobre właściwości lotne, co przyczyniło się do zamówienia 3 prototypów tego samolotu, w tym pierwszego zbudowanego już prototypu, który otrzymał nazwę "Blohm & Voss Bv 141 V-2". We wrześniu 1938 roku oblatano następny prototyp oznaczony "Bv 141 V-1", który różnił się kształtem kabiny załogi. Samoloty te jak również następny prototyp oznaczono V-3 napędzane były silnikiem gwiazdowym 9-cylindrowym "BMW-132N" o mocy 952 KM (700 kW). +Ponieważ prototypy samolotu "Bv 141" zachowywały się w locie poprawnie, a moment wynikający z asymetrii ciągu zrównoważony był oddziaływaniem strumienia zaśmigłowego na usterzeniu pionowym, a niesymetryczne położenie środka masy było równoważone przez moment oporu śmigła. Zamówiono 5 samolotów serii doświadczalnej oznaczonej A-0, która otrzymała równoległe numery prototypów (V-4 do V-8) i została ona włączona do prób, w tym także bojowych. Próby te wypadały pomyślnie, lecz dowództwo Luftwaffe niechętnie odnosiło się do nowatorskiej konstrukcji samolotu. Głównym zarzutem była zbyt mała moc silnika. Wtedy opracowano nową wersję samolotu dostosowaną do 14-cylindrowego silnika w układzie podwójnej gwiazdy "BMW-801" o mocy 1564 KM (1150 kW). Zmieniono wtedy także budowę płatowca, zwiększając rozpiętość i zmieniając obrys płata oraz kształt i przekrój kadłuba. Zasadniczej zmianie uległo usterzenie poziome, które stało się niesymetryczne, przesunięte w lewo, przez co tylny strzelec miał nieograniczone pole ostrzału. Pierwszy samolot nowej wersji B-01 został oblatany w styczniu 1941 roku. Zbudowano jeszcze 5 samolotów Bv 141B-0, lecz ostatecznie Luftwaffe zrezygnowało z tej konstrukcji w związku z wejściem do uzbrojenia samolotu rozpoznawczego Focke-Wulf Fw 189. +Użycie bojowe samolotu. +Zbudowano tylko prototypy oraz krótką serię informacyjną. Samoloty nie były eksploatowane bojowo, wykonywały jedynie loty doświadczalne. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot rozpoznawczy "Blohm & Voss BV 141" był dolnopłatem o konstrukcji metalowej, niesymetrycznej budowie, usterzenie asymetryczne, podwozie chowane w locie. Napęd: 1 silnik gwiazdowy "BMW-132N" (w późniejszych wersjach "BMW-801"), śmigło trójłopatowe metalowe. +Fast Local Internet Protocol + +Fast Local Internet Protocol (ang.), FLIP - "szybki, lokalny protokół (między)sieciowy". Stworzony na potrzeby rozproszonego systemu operacyjnego Amoeba pakietowy (bezpołączeniowy) protokół komunikacyjny. Obsługuje komunikację grupową oraz zdalne wywołania procedur. Adresy protokołu FLIP identyfikują jednoznacznie procesy, a nie komputery. Skutkuje to brakiem wrażliwości tego protokołu na zmiany topologii sieciowej i bezproblemową (przezroczystą) migracją procesów między komputerami (jeśli zachodzi taka potrzeba). FLIP, w modelu OSI, jest protokołem warstwy sieciowej, podobnie jak IP. +Boris Pietrowski + +Borys Wasiljewicz Pietrowski (ur. 1908, zm. 5 maja 2004) – chirurg rosyjski, wieloletni minister zdrowia ZSRR. +Podczas II wojny światowej był naczelnym chirurgiem armii radzieckiej na froncie karelskim. Od 1956 kierował katedrą chirurgii szpitalnej I Moskiewskiego Instytutu Medycznego; w 1963 został (pozostając jednocześnie na poprzedniej funkcji) dyrektorem Ogólnozwiązkowego Naukowo-Badawczego Instytutu Chirurgii Klinicznej i Eksperymentalnej. W latach 1965-1980 był ministrem zdrowia ZSRR. +W pracy naukowej zajmował się patofizjologią chirurgiczną, przeszczepami narządów (zwłaszcza nerek), operacjami serca i śródpiersia. Był m.in. autorem "Chirurgija sriedostienija" (1960). W 1957 został członkiem Akademii Nauk Medycznych ZSRR, w 1966 Akademii Nauk ZSRR; od 1974 był również członkiem zagranicznym PAN. +Septoplastyka + +Septoplastyka – zabieg laryngologiczny mający na celu korekcję skrzywienia przegrody nosowej. Przegroda powinna przebiegać wzdłuż środka nosa. Kiedy zachodzi na jedną z jam nosowych, wtedy zwęża ją i utrudnia przepływ powietrza. Niedrożność spowodowana przez poważne odkształcenia przegrody prowadzi do przewlekłych schorzeń zatok. +Skrzywienie wynika najczęściej z nieprawidłowości tkanki chrzęstnej. Zabieg polega na wycięciu nieprawidłowych fragmentów tkanek lub przebudowie struktur celem odtworzenia prawidłowych stosunków anatomicznych. Przeprowadza się go w znieczuleniem ogólnym lub miejscowym. Istnieją różne metody operacyjne, do najbardziej rozpowszechnionych należy metoda podśluzówkowego wycięcia przegrody nosa według Killiana (chrząstkę odpreparowuje się od błony śluzowej, następnie wycina niepotrzebne fragmenty i zakłada szwy na błonę śluzową) lub rekonstrukcja przegrody nosa z dostępu szczękowo-przysiecznego według Cottle'a. +Nowa Fala (gry fabularne) + +Nowa fala jest nurtem w grach RPG, rozwijającym się od II połowy lat `90. Należą do niego krótkie, często nowatorskie systemy RPG, zwykle odrzucające tradycyjne ujęcie zabawy w gry fabularne i proponujące zupełnie nową formę rozgrywki. Podręczniki zawierają zazwyczaj tylko konkretny pomysł na świat, mechanika jest znacznie uproszczona. +W Polsce głównym popularyzatorem tej odmiany gier fabularnych jest wydawnictwo Portal. Oryginalny nurt nosił nazwę New Style, jego twórcą i popularyzatorem była brytyjska firma Hogshead, wydawca m.in. Barona Munchausena. +Systemy Nowej Fali wydane w Polsce +BAE Systems + +BAE Systems - wielonarodowy koncern przemysłu zbrojeniowego i lotniczego, powstały 30 listopada 1999 r. z połączenia British Aerospace (BAe) i Marconi Electronic Systems (MES) (część zbrojeniowa General Electric). Do swoich rynków macierzystych (domowych) koncern zalicza: Australię, Arabię Saudyjską, Republikę Południowej Afryki, Szwecję, Wielką Brytanię oraz Stany Zjednoczone, gdzie powstaje większość technologii koncernu. Dwoma największymi spółkami koncernu są zarejestrowana w Anglii i Walii BAE Systems plc oraz zależna od niej BAE Systems Inc. z siedzibą w Rockville w stanie Maryland, USA, jednakże koncern posiada swoje placówki w wielu krajach na wszystkich kontynentach, w tym w Polsce. +BAE Systems wytwarza samodzielnie lub w koprodukcji samoloty serii Airbus, BAE Hawk, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, okręty podwodne typu Astute, lotniskowce typu Queen Elizabeth, niszczyciele rakietowe typu 45, pojazdy opancerzone i inne systemy, w tym elementy amerykańskiego systemu antybalistycznego Ballistic Missile Defense (THAAD). Produkowało ono także samoloty: Harrier GR3, Harrier GR5 oraz Sea Harrier. +Wesoła (Warszawa) + +Wesoła – dzielnica Warszawy, włączona do miasta 27 października 2002, wcześniej oddzielne miasto. Leży w południowo-wschodniej części miasta i graniczy z warszawskimi dzielnicami Rembertów i Wawer. +Według danych GUS z dnia 31.12.2009 r. dzielnica ma powierzchnię 22,6 km² i liczy 22 757 mieszkańców. +Osiedla Wesołej. +Wola Grzybowska. +Początkowo folwark i osada należąca do gminy Okuniew. Legenda o pochodzeniu nazwy głosi, iż jej właścicielem był starosta warszawski – Grzybowski. Co najmniej od początku XX wieku własność księcia Emanuela Bułhaka. Według spisu z 1931 r. na terenie Woli Grzybowskiej były 52 domy. W czasach II wojny światowej poważnie zniszczona, odbudowana, w 1968 r. włączona do miasta Wesoła. +Wesoła-Centrum. +Tereny obecnego osiedla Wesoła-Centrum należały ok. 500 lat temu do dóbr wsi Długa, a w XVII w. – do gminy Okuniew. Początki osadnictwa są związane z budową Kolei Terespolskiej. W Wesołej powstała wówczas platforma przeładunkowa dla wojska rosyjskiego, która z czasem stała się przystankiem kolejowym. Wokół niego powstawały domy urzędników, kolejarzy, tramwajarzy, a także letnisko. W 1918 r. osiedle przybrało nazwę "Wesoła". Dalszy rozwój wiązał się ściśle z Warszawą. Według danych z 1931 r. w Wesołej było 70 budynków mieszkalnych. Pod koniec lat trzydziestych nastąpił burzliwy rozwój budownictwa willowego, czemu sprzyjał klimat i walory krajobrazowe osiedla. +Groszówka. +Nazwa Groszówka pochodzi od niskiej ceny ziemi – 20 kopiejek (popularnie 1 grosz) za łokieć gruntu. Piaszczyste gęsto zalesione pagórki utrudniały rozwój osadnictwa na tym terenie, ale dzięki temu współcześnie większość ulic przypomina leśne aleje, a całość jest jakby parkiem. +Grzybowa i Zielona. +Grzybowa w XVII w. była niewielką osadą, której rozwój warunkował trakt z Grochowa do Stanisławowa, przy którym stała karczma o nazwie Zielona. W spisach z 1827 r. Grzybowa miała zaledwie trzy domy i dwunastu mieszkańców. Natomiast wokół karczmy zaczynała rozwijać się osada Zielona. +W 1895 r. Zielona była wsią w powiecie warszawskim, w gminie Okuniew, o powierzchni 245 mórg z 68 mieszkańcami. W 1795 r. Austriacy wystawili tu komorę celną. Był to murowany, klasycystyczny budynek, zburzony w 1944 r. Grzybowa i Zielona od lat 30. z biednych osad przekształciły się w pokaźne osady letniskowe, wchodzące w skład gminy Wawer. Dzisiaj są to piękne osiedla położone wśród lasów między dwiema wydmami parabolicznymi. Na jednej z nich znajduje się "Kamień Piłsudskiego", upamiętniający ćwiczenia polowe Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej 29 kwietnia 1917, w których uczestniczył brygadier Józef Piłsudski. +Stara Miłosna. +Stara Miłosna jest najstarszym osiedlem Wesołej, której udokumentowana historia sięga XIV w. Była to wieś szlachecka. Najstarszy zapis nazwy ma postać "Milosina", późniejsze: "Miłośnia", "Miłośna", aż po znaną ze współczesności Miłosnę (także: Miłosną). Przez Miłosnę wiódł trakt, którym przeganiano stada bydła, a także wożono zaopatrzenie dla Warszawy. Przy trasie istniały liczne karczmy oraz "domy pocztowe" (zajazdy). W I połowie XIX w. właścicielem dużej części ziem Miłosny był książę Ksawery Drucki-Lubecki, ówczesny minister skarbu, który miał tu pałacyk letni, zniszczony w trakcie bitwy o Olszynkę Grochowską. +Następnie dobra Miłosny przeszły w ręce Rychłowskich, a na przełomie XIX i XX w. uległy parcelacji. W "Słowniku Geograficznym Królestwa Polskiego" z 1885 czytamy: "na dobra Miłosny składały się folwarki: Miłosna, Borków, Kaczydół i Żurawka, nomenklatury: Pohulanka, Janówek i Zakręt oraz osada Zakręt". Ponadto Miłosna "posiada stacyą drogi żelaznej warszawsko-terespolskiej, a w odległości 17 wiorst od Warszawy jest była stacya pocztowa przy drodze bitej". +Podczas I wojny światowej w 1915 r. wojska niemieckie przejęły rosyjską linię obrony, przebiegającą przez pasmo wydm Starej Miłosny, tworząc linię obronną zwaną Brückenkopf Warschau (Przedmoście Warszawy). W latach międzywojennych Stara Miłosna staje się prosperującą miejscowością letniskową z uzdrowiskiem borowinowym dla dzieci "Nasza Chata" i lotniskiem szybowcowym. Duże zniszczenia spowodowała II wojna światowa. W latach 1952-1957 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Wesoła (tzw. "dzielnicy powiatu"). +Od końca lat 80. nastąpiła intensywna rozbudowa osiedla i przyrost mieszkańców. Powstała zabudowa wielorodzinna oraz jednorodzinna (przed przemianami ustrojowymi nazwa osiedla miała brzmieć "Osiedle 50-lecia PRL"). Obecnie kolejne domy jednorodzinne zaczynają naruszać granice Mazowieckiego Parku Krajobrazowego. Od momentu wcielenia Wesołej do Warszawy (2002) postępuje budowa infrastruktury (drogi, kanalizacja), a także sukcesywnie rozwija się transport publiczny. Na osiedlu działa Stowarzyszenie Sąsiedzkie Stara Miłosna, biorące udział m.in. w wyborach samorządowych. +W roku 2005 osiedle liczyło 13000 mieszkańców, z czego 6098 zameldowanych w miejscu zamieszkania. +Plac Wojska Polskiego. +Do I wojny światowej przy starej drodze stanisławowskiej istniał duży kompleks koszarów dla potrzeb wojsk rosyjskich, w czasach II Rzeczypospolitej przekształcony w zaplecze poligonowe. W maju 1939 przeniesiono z Torunia 2 Dywizjon Pomiarów Artylerii, dla którego wybudowano sztab, budynek orkiestry i WAK-u, a także trzy budynki mieszkalne. W czerwcu 1946 do koszar przeniesiono Szkołę Oficerów Informacji w związku z czym obiekt został objęty ścisłą tajemnicą. Od 1957 w koszarach stacjonował 1 Pułk Piechoty 1 Dywizji Piechoty im. Tadeusza Kościuszki. Na terenie jednostki wybudowano wiele bloków,szkołę podstawową, amfiteatr, ogród działkowy "Zachęta", pawilon handlowy, Klub "Kościuszkowiec". Powstaje tam nowa kaplica, która będzie się znajdować na terenach starych basenów. Osiedle liczy 2000 mieszkańców i stanowi teren otwarty. +Historia wojenna i powojenna. +Podczas II wojny światowej Wesoła była ośrodkiem żywej +działalności konspiracyjnej. Organizatorem walki podziemnej i założycielem Piątej Kompanii Armii Krajowej Rejonu (pułku) "Dęby" w Wesołej był por. Stefan Berent – pseudonim "Steb". Piąta kompania składała się z trzech plutonów, z których pierwszy obejmował teren Wesołej, Groszówki, Grzybowej, Zielonej oraz Szkopówkę, drugi działał na obszarze Woli Grzybowskiej, Sulejówka i Żurawki, natomiast trzeci – obejmował Starą Miłosną, Żwir i Zakręt. W 1944 Piąta Kompania liczyła ok.100 żołnierzy. +W lipcu 1944 w związku z przygotowywaniem Niemców do obrony wysiedlono ludność i zaminowano teren. Wiele osób trafiło do Rembertowa, a także do obozu w Pruszkowie. Przez 6 tygodni przebiegał tu odcinek frontu niemiecko-sowieckiego. +Ze względu na duże zniszczenia w Warszawie, po wojnie przesiedlono na teren Wesołej ponad tysiąc mieszkańców stolicy. +W 1952 utworzono gminę Wesoła, wchodzącą w skład powiatu warszawskiego. Tworzyły ją wyłączone z dotychczasowej gminy Sulejówek gromady: Miłosna Stara, Szkopówka, Wesoła i Zielona Grzybowska, oraz gromada Pohulanka z gminy Wiązowna. +W 1957 r. Wesoła weszła w skład nowo powstałego powiatu otwockiego. 17 grudnia 1968 dotychczasowe osiedla połączono i utworzono miasto Wesoła w województwie warszawskim. W 1971 r. liczyło ono 8367 mieszkańców i obejmowało obszar 23 km². +1 stycznia 1999 w związku z reformą administracyjną znalazła się w powiecie mińskim w województwie mazowieckim a 1 stycznia 2002 została przeniesiona do powiatu warszawskiego w tymże województwie. +27 października 2002 większość mieszkańców Wesołej w referendum zdecydowała o wejściu miasta w skład Warszawy. Wesoła stała się wtedy jedną z 18 dzielnic stolicy. W głosowaniu brało udział ok. 25% mieszkańców Wesołej, z czego ponad 70% zagłosowało za przyłączeniem Wesołej do Warszawy.referendum do wglądu w UD Wesoła +Zhao Ziyang + +Zhao Ziyang (ur. 17 października 1919, zm. 17 stycznia 2005) – polityk chiński, były premier ChRL i sekretarz generalny Komunistycznej Partii Chin. +Urodził się w powiecie Hua w prowincji Henan w rodzinie posiadacza ziemskiego. W 1932 wstąpił do Ligi Młodzieży Komunistycznej, a w 1938 do Komunistycznej Partii Chin. Podczas wojny z Japonią działał w podziemiu komunistycznym, a następnie walczył w oddziałach Li Xianniana w wojnie domowej z Kuomintangiem. Od 1951 zajmował kierownicze stanowiska w lokalnych władzach partyjnych prowincji Guangdong, gdzie zainicjował szereg reform rolnych. W 1965 został pierwszym sekretarzem komitetu prowincjonalnego KPCh. Po rozpoczęciu rewolucji kulturalnej został w styczniu 1967 roku zdymisjonowany . +W 1971 roku został zrehabilitowany i przeniesiony do pracy w sekretariacie partyjnym w Mongolii Wewnętrznej. W 1973 roku został członkiem KC KPCh. W latach 1975-1980 sprawował funkcję pierwszego sekretarza KPCh w prowincji Syczuan, gdzie przeprowadził skuteczne reformy ekonomiczne (m.in. częściowo dekolektywizując rolnictwo i zwiększając samodzielność dyrektorów przedsiębiorstw), które w krótkim czasie podniosły produkcję przemysłową i rolną. Tzw. "eksperyment syczuański" stał się później modelem dla reform ekonomicznych przeprowadzonych przez Deng Xiaopinga. +W 1977 roku został członkiem Biura Politycznego Partii, a w kwietniu 1980 wicepremierem. W sierpniu 1980 roku zastąpił Hua Guofenga na stanowisku premiera, które piastował do 1987 roku. W okresie od 20 grudnia 1982 do 11 stycznia 1983 roku odbył podróż po 11 krajach afrykańskich, która przyniosła zacieśnienie relacji handlowych pomiędzy Chinami i Afryką. 19 grudnia 1984 roku podpisał z premier Wielkiej Brytanii Margaret Thatcher porozumienie o zwrocie Chinom Hongkongu. +Był jednym z głównych architektów przeprowadzonych w latach 80. reform wolnorynkowych. W styczniu 1987 roku zastąpił Hu Yaobanga na stanowisku sekretarza generalnego partii. Na początku demonstracji studenckich w Pekinie w 1989 roku szukał porozumienia z protestującymi. Został wówczas pozbawiony wszystkich stanowisk i osadzony w areszcie domowym na terenie rządowego kompleksu Zhongnanhai, gdzie przebywał do końca życia. +Tony Halik + +Tony Halik, właściwie Mieczysław Sędzimir Antoni Halik (ur. 24 stycznia 1921 w Toruniu, zm. 23 maja 1998 w Warszawie) – polski podróżnik, dziennikarz, pisarz, operator filmowy, fotograf, autor programów telewizyjnych o tematyce podróżniczej (z żoną Elżbietą Dzikowską). +W czasie II wojny światowej latał w Dywizjonie 201, ale w wyniku zestrzelenia znalazł się we Francji, gdzie przyłączył się do tamtejszego ruchu oporu. Za swoją działalność odznaczony został francuskim Krzyżem Wojennym. Po wojnie przez ponad trzydzieści lat pracował jako korespondent NBC. +W 1976 roku z Elżbietą Dzikowską i Edmundo Guillénem dotarli do legendarnej stolicy Inków – Vilcabamby. +Przez ponad dwadzieścia lat prowadził z żoną – Elżbietą Dzikowską programy (ponad trzysta) dla TVP: "Tam gdzie pieprz rośnie", "Tam gdzie rośnie wanilia", "Tam, gdzie kwitną migdały", "Tam, gdzie pachnie eukaliptus" oraz "Pieprz i wanilia". Zrealizował około czterystu filmów dokumentalnych. +Napisał trzynaście książek, wiele artykułów do gazet oraz współtworzył komputerową Encyklopedię Świata. +Lata dziecięce i młodzieńcze. +Urodził się jako Mieczysław Sędzimir Halik, syn Zbigniewa i Heleny (z domu Krasuskiej) – właścicieli majątków ziemskich Tupadło, potem Żabin. Rodzice postanowili jednak, że ich pierwsze dziecko urodzi się w Toruniu – po porodzie wrócili do rodzinnego majątku. Później przeprowadzili się do Płocka. +W wieku 14 lat wbrew woli ojca popłynął jako flisak na tratwie z Płocka do granicy Wolnego Miasta Gdańska. Wyprawie przeszkodziła Straż Graniczna, która pod eskortą odstawiła go do domu. Uczył się w płockim Liceum im. Stanisława Małachowskiego, jednakże ukończył inną szkołę – Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Władysława Jagiełły w Płocku. +II wojna światowa. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej Halik przedostał się przez Zaleszczyki do Rumunii i następnie do Francji, gdzie wstąpił do Wojska Polskiego. Następnie trafił do Wielkiej Brytanii, gdzie służył w Polskich Siłach Powietrznych. +Wówczas po raz pierwszy zetknął się z kamerą, filmując samoloty (również zestrzeliwane). Sam został zestrzelony przez Niemców w okolicach kanału La Manche. Pomoc dotarła dopiero po czterech godzinach i wyłowionego z wody, przemarzniętego i nieprzytomnego zawieziono go do szpitala w Szkocji. W czasie rekonwalescencji wysyłał listy do przyjaciela w Londynie, w których opisywał swoje wojenne losy. Listy te były drukowane w jednym z angielskich czasopism, a Halik polubił dziennikarstwo. +Po powrocie do zdrowia Halik wrócił do lotnictwa, ale został ponownie zestrzelony nad Francją. Uratował życie lądując na spadochronie na pewnej farmie, gdzie schronienia udzieliła mu Pierrette Andrée Courtin. Halik przyłączył się potem do Ruchu Oporu. +W 1943 roku dzięki pomocy francuskich partyzantów Halik dostał się przez Hiszpanię z powrotem do Wielkiej Brytanii. +Po wojnie, w 1946 roku, wziął ślub z Pierrette Andrée Courtin, dziewczyną, która udzieliła mu schronienia we Francji. Został odznaczony francuskim Krzyżem Wojennym (Croix de Guerre). Za męstwo otrzymał też brytyjskie i polskie odznaczenia wojskowe. +Został wysłany z Anglii do Afryki, jako budowniczy mostów i pomocniczych lądowisk. W Kenii zetknął się po raz pierwszy z plemionami o kulturze odległej od europejskiej. W Afryce zdobywał pierwsze doświadczenia w filmowaniu dzikich zwierząt. +Kariera dziennikarska. +Po powrocie do Wielkiej Brytanii w 1948 roku podpisał kontrakt z prywatną argentyńską transportową linią lotniczą. Wraz z żoną wyemigrował do tego kraju i w 1952 roku przyjął obywatelstwo argentyńskie (za zgodą władz polskich), aby móc swobodniej podróżować. W Argentynie nikt nie potrafił wymówić jego polskich imion – przyjął więc imię "Antonio". +W Buenos Aires zorganizował i prowadził szkółkę lotniczą, potem był fotografem w ekipie obsługującej Juana Peróna, ówczesnego szefa państwa. Zafascynowany Indianami, wyjeżdżał często z żoną do amazońskiej dżungli. Na swoją pierwszą powojenną podróż nie poleciał jednak samolotem, ale zakupił żaglówkę (która otrzymała nazwę "Halikówka") i z żoną popłynął rzeką Parana w poszukiwaniu indiańskich plemion. +Po tej wyprawie zaczął współpracować z czasopismem „Life”, a następnie "Time and Life", "Sport Magazine" oraz ze stacjami telewizyjnymi. Od 1950 roku zaczął pracować dla amerykańskiej sieci telewizyjnej NBC. Wtedy po raz pierwszy nazwano go zdrobnieniem "Tony" – i tak już zostało. +Na następną wyprawę Halik udał się w górę rzeki Paragwaj na pokładzie żaglówki "White Shadow". Przez dłuższy czas przebywali w amazońskim stanie Mato Grosso znanym jako "Zielone Piekło". Halik z żoną powrócili do Mato Grosso w latach 1955–1956. Po odłączeniu się od pewnej wyprawy myśliwskiej udali się w dół rzeki Araguai, a następnie poszukiwali rzeki Rio das Mortes ("Rzeki Śmierci"). Natrafili wówczas na górskie pasmo Serra do Roncador, w którym Halik odkrył system tuneli i jaskiń. Jedną z nich, ze względu na ciekawą kompozycje stalaktytów nazwał Jaskinią Orła Białego. Swoje przygody z tej wyprawy opisał w dwóch książkach: "200 dias de Mato Grosso" ("200 dni w Mato Grosso") oraz "Con cámara y rifle a través del Mato Grosso" ("Z kamerą i strzelbą przez Mato Grosso"). +Halik potrafił rozmawiać w wielu obcych językach: hiszpańskim , angielskim , francuskim , portugalskim , włoskim , rosyjskim , niemieckim , czeskim oraz w narzeczach Indian Hinan, Guarani i Xavante. Stronił od polityki, ale za jego cykl programów politycznych o Kubie NBC zdobyło nagrodę Pulitzera. +Najsłynniejszą podróż odbył z żoną Pierrette jeepem z Ziemi Ognistej do Alaski. Rozpoczęła się ona w 1957 roku i trwała 1536 dni – przemierzyli 182 624 km (ponad czterokrotna długość równika Ziemi) i wydali ponad 80 tysięcy dolarów. Zwiedzili wówczas 21 krajów, przekroczyli 140 rzek i bagien, wybudowali 14 mostów i zmienili 8 kompletów opon. Najwyżej dotarli na 5200 m n.p.m., podróżowali w temperaturach od –50 do +60 °C. Podczas podróży używali namiotu "Turin" z nieprzemakalną podłogą i podwójnym dachem, który rozbijali 684 razy i spędzili w nim 1253 noce. Na zakończenie podróży (w 1962 roku), za kręgiem polarnym, wbili w ziemię dwie flagi: polską i argentyńską. +Wiele lat później Halik, ku swemu zdziwieniu, dowiedział się, iż na trasie jego podróży powstała miejscowość Puente Halik (Most Halika). Jak się okazało podczas jednej z przepraw Tony Halik zbudował most. Dla żartu wbił w ziemię tablicę informacyjną z takim napisem i ruszył w dalsza drogę. Wkrótce potem ludzie zaczęli korzystać z prowizorycznego mostu, ulepszać go, a powstała tam osada przyjęła nazwę, jaką pozostawił po sobie Tony Halik. +Podczas tej wyprawy (5 stycznia 1959) urodził się ich syn Ozana. Otrzymał imię na cześć Indianina, który uratował Halikowi życie podczas walki dwóch zwaśnionych plemion. Halik uwielbiał Indian, często wśród nich przebywał – zyskał nawet miano "białego Indianina". Pokłosiem tej eskapady jest książka "180 tysięcy kilometrów przygody". +W latach 1960-1970 w Meksyku był korespondentem NBC na Amerykę Łacińską. Później został tamże prezydentem Związku Dziennikarzy Zagranicznych. W swoich wypowiedziach bronił Indian. W 1972 roku za film ukazujący ludobójstwo brazylijskich plemion zdobył w USA nagrodę "Humanitas Prize". +Wielokrotnie przyjeżdżał do Polski. Brał udział w wielu programach telewizyjnych, między innymi w programach Ryszarda Badowskiego "Kawiarenka pod globusem" i "Klub sześciu kontynentów". +W 1974 roku poznał w Meksyku Elżbietę Dzikowską, która przeprowadziła z nim wywiad dla "Kontynentów". Pierrette została w Meksyku, gdzie mieszka do dzisiaj. W 1975 roku przeniósł się na stałe do Polski i otrzymał Kartę Stałego Pobytu. Spędzili razem 24 lata, podróżując po świecie, który otwierali dla Polski dzięki bardzo popularnym cyklicznym programom telewizyjnym "Tam, gdzie pieprz rośnie", "Tam, gdzie rośnie wanilia" i "Pieprz i wanilia". Nadal pracował dla NBC, nadając korespondencje z okresu powstawania "Solidarności", strajków, stanu wojennego itp. +W 1976 roku razem z Elżbietą Dzikowską byli pierwszymi Polakami (w towarzystwie prof. Guillenema), którzy dotarli do Vilcabamby. Wcześniej inne wyprawy dotarły do tego miejsca, ale ekspedycja Guillena, Halika i Dzikowskiej była pierwszą, która dostarczyła dowody potwierdzające, że to właśnie miejsce jest legendarną stolicą Inków. +Ze swoich wypraw przywozili myśliwskie trofea, plemienne ozdoby, broń, amulety, ceramikę i egzotyczne kapelusze, które gromadzili w swoim warszawskim domu. Pamiątki wybierane były z myślą o widzach – Tony przywoził tylko to, co nadawało się do pokazania w "Pieprzu i Wanilii". Program ten nadawany był nie ze studia telewizyjnego, ale z prowizorycznego atelier zainstalowanego w ich domowej piwnicy w Międzylesiu pod Warszawą. +W 1985 roku otrzymał medal "Za zasługi dla miasta Torunia" m.in. za film popularyzujący w Stanach Zjednoczonych gród Kopernika. +Czytywał Dänikena i interesował się tematyką UFO. Marzył, aby być pierwszym dziennikarzem w kosmosie. Latał balonem z Bertie Forbesem, chętnie spotykał się z czarownikami, znachorami i szamanami. Rozmawiał z Henry Kissingerem, Fidelem Castro i Lechem Wałęsą, a w 1972 roku towarzyszył prezydentowi Richardowi Nixonowi podczas pobytu w Polsce. +Pisał książki i reportaże dla miesięcznika „Kontynenty”, udzielał wywiadów, spotykał się z czytelnikami – najchętniej z młodzieżą. Jest patronem czternastu szkół w Polsce. Dla społecznego liceum w Ostrołęce ufundował wakacyjne stypendium w Oksfordzie dla najlepszego absolwenta. +Praktycznie całe swoje życie podporządkował widzom – nawet te setki przedmiotów, przywiezionych z odległych zakątków świata. +Fałszywe wiadomości o śmierci i niebezpieczeństwa. +Podczas jego wypraw, trzykrotnie pojawiły się fałszywe wiadomości o śmierci Tony Halika. Po raz pierwszy stało się to podczas pobytu w Boliwii, w Tipuani. Jeden z poszukiwaczy złota oświadczył w La Paz, że widział jak wraz z żoną Halik tonął w rzece Coroico. Po artykule na temat swojej śmierci Halik musiał szybko wysyłać listy do przyjaciół, informując ich, że pozostali przy życiu. +Historia powtórzyła się, gdy opóźniał się powrót Halików od Indian Jibarów. Pojawiła się wówczas pogłoska, że spreparowano już ich głowy, które ozdobią muzeum etnograficzne. +Po raz kolejny wiadomość o swojej śmierci usłyszeli z radia, podczas odpoczynku na fermie przyjaciół w Cali – ich samochód był podziurawiony od kul i wymagał gruntownego remontu. Dziennikarz poinformował, że Halikowie zginęli pomiędzy Pasto a Popayán na drodze nawiedzanej przez uzbrojone grupy, napadające i rabujące podróżnych. Rzekomo szczątki ich wozu widziano u stóp skał, a ciał nie udało się zidentyfikować. +Tony Halik otarł się o śmierć wiele razy podczas: wojny, rejsów na morzu, polowań na dzikie zwierzęta, napadów rabusiów i wrogich Indian, w zatrutych strzałach i jadzie węży. Był zmuszony wyskoczyć na spadochronie z płonącego samolotu. Na wysokości 1370 metrów podczas filmowania gór Hondurasu ich śmigłowiec uległ awarii. Halik nie utracił zimnej krwi, tylko kontynuował filmowanie, wnioskując, że przynajmniej nagrany film może się uratować. Pilot był jednak w stanie uniknąć rozbicia – Halik zawisnął na pasach, łamiąc sobie obojczyk. Innym razem do spokojnie bawiącego się syna skradał się jaguar. Halik, nie tracąc opanowania, zastrzelił go jednym strzałem. +Ciekawostka – „wynalazek” Tony’ego Halika. +Podczas długich podróży samochodowych sprawą kłopotliwą było pranie ubrań. Halik wymyślił i skonstruował bardzo prostą, ale jednocześnie bardzo praktyczną pralkę. Wykonana była z wojskowej puszki po konserwach, zawieszonej na zewnątrz samochodu. Pranie odbywało się poprzez dodanie wody i mydła – wyboje i dziury na drodze powodowały wstrząsy, więc pranie było tym czystsze im gorsza droga. Ubrania schły na słońcu i wietrze, na sznurku przymocowanym do boku samochodu. +Śmierć i po śmierci. +Zmarł po długiej chorobie. 28 maja 1998 został pochowany na Cmentarzu Bródnowskim w grobie rodzinnym obok Jadwigi Zbańskiej, primo voto Górskiej, matki Elżbiety Dzikowskiej. W 2002 roku wykonano pomnik z granitu, na którym widnieje krzyż z zawieszonym na nim plecakiem – autorem jest polski rzeźbiarz profesor Gustaw Zemła. +W 2003 roku w Toruniu powstało Muzeum Podróżników im. Tony Halika – większość eksponatów, pochodzących z ich wspólnych wypraw, podarowała Elżbieta Dzikowska, która stale je uzupełnia. W Chałupach i Pucku odbywają się doroczne regaty łodzi kaszubskich jego imienia. Od 2010 roku w Obornikach Śląskich odbywa się "Festiwal Kultur Świata im. Tony'ego Halika" którego celem jest przybliżanie widzom interesujących obrazów codziennego i niecodziennego życia mieszkańców różnych zakątków świata. +Tony Halik był osobą niezwykle popularną i obecnie jego nazwisko przeniknęło również do kultury graffiti pod postacią krótkiego napisu "Byłem tu. Tony Halik." +Wojna rosyjsko-japońska + +Wojna rosyjsko-japońska – wojna pomiędzy Imperium Rosyjskim a Cesarstwem Japonii toczona w okresie od 8 lutego 1904 do 5 września 1905 na Dalekim Wschodzie zakończona traktatem z Portsmouth i zwycięstwem Japonii, która dzięki temu awansowała do grona światowych potęg. Japońska armia o stosunkowo małym doświadczeniu bojowym uzyskała miażdżące zwycięstwo nad siłami Rosji, co było dużym zaskoczeniem dla wielu obserwatorów konfliktu. Poniżający szereg klęsk armii rosyjskiej w ogromnym stopniu przyczynił się do niezadowolenia społecznego w Rosji i był główną przyczyną rewolucji w 1905. Wojna była jednym z lokalnych konfliktów wybuchających przed I wojną światową. +Geneza. +Oba państwa od dłuższego czasu prowadziły politykę ekspansyjną na terenach objętych późniejszymi walkami. +Sytuacja w Japonii oraz Chinach. +Jednym z ważniejszych wydarzeń na Dalekim Wschodzie do których doszło na krótko przed wojną był konflikt między Chinami a Japonią o władzę na Półwyspie Koreańskim. Efektem walk prowadzonych w latach 1894-1895 było podpisanie pokoju, który zmusił Chiny do oddania pod zwierzchnictwo zwycięskiej Japonii wielu swoich terenów w tym m.in. Korei. W związku z interwencją rządów Rosji, III Republiki Francuskiej oraz Cesarstwa Niemieckiego wygrana strona zrzekła się jednak półwyspu Liaotung. +Klęska Chin rozpoczęła politykę osłabiania tego państwa przez m.in. Rosję, Francję, Niemcy oraz Wielką Brytanię, które wymuszały na nim korzystne dla siebie umowy i traktaty. Wiązało się to np. z zajmowaniem przez wojska europejskich mocarstw przybrzeżnych miast i portów Chin. +Pogarszająca się sytuacja na terytorium Chin doprowadziła do wybuchu powstania bokserów. Walki trwające od 1899 do 1901 zostały krwawo stłumione, głównie przez państwa europejskie. Było to kolejne wydarzenie osłabiające pozycję Chin na arenie międzynarodowej oraz uzależniające je od innych potęg. +Polityka Rosji. +W kwietniu 1896 Rosja otrzymała od Chin koncesję na budowę Kolei Wschodniochińskiej. Miała ona zostać połączona z Koleją Transsyberyjską, której budowa rozpoczęła się pięć lat wcześniej. Podpisana została także umowa, która zobowiązywała oba kraje na wypadek wojny wystąpić zbrojnie przeciwko Japonii. Strona rosyjska wydzierżawiła w 1898 na okres 25 lat półwysep Liaotung. Po otrzymaniu kolejnej koncesji, tym razem na eksploatację zasobów leśnych w Korei w 1902 wprowadziła swoje wojska na Półwysep Koreański, a następnie do Mandżurii. Rosyjską ekspansją zaniepokoiła się Wielka Brytania, która widziała w niej swojego przeciwnika na dalekim wschodzie. Wraz z Japonią nie chciała zgodzić się na rosyjskie warunki nieudzielania przez Chiny koncesji w rejonie Mandżurii państwom trzecim. Doprowadziło to do podpisania sojuszu japońsko-brytyjskiego 30 stycznia 1902. Zawarty on został na okres 5 lat, a w 1905 został przedłużony na kolejne 5. +Przyczyny. +Bezpośrednią przyczyną wybuchu konfliktu było odrzucenie przez stronę rosyjską propozycji Japonii w sprawie podziału stref wpływów na Dalekim Wschodzie (Japonia – Korea, Rosja – Mandżuria) czego skutkiem było zerwanie przez nią stosunków dyplomatycznych 6 lutego 1904. +Wojna. +Plany wojny, siły stron i mobilizacja. +Z punktu widzenia ekonomii, Japonia była znacznie słabsza. Rosja uważała Japonię za słabego przeciwnika i liczyła na szybkie zwycięstwo. Nie brano do końca pod uwagę odległości teatru działań wojennych od centrum kraju i centrów przemysłu, co znacznie obniżało potencjał strategiczno-wojenny. +Japonia miała w czasie pokoju armię w sile 180 tys. żołnierzy (przy 46 mln ludności) i dysponowała rezerwami ok. 850 tys. ludzi. Po mobilizacji Japonia miała 13 dywizji piechoty i 13 rezerwowych brygad piechoty (ponad 375 tys. żołnierzy i 1140 dział polowych). Razem siły zbrojne po mobilizacji liczyły ok. 1,2 mln żołnierzy. Marynarka Wojenna Japonii miała 6 nowych i 1 stary pancernik, 8 krążowników pancernych (2 z nich budowane za granicą, przybyły po rozpoczęciu wojny), 17 krążowników pancernopokładowych w tym kilka starego typu, 19 niszczycieli, 28 torpedowców, 11 kanonierek. Dowodzenie wojskami japońskimi powierzono szefowi Sztabu Generalnego marszałkowi Iwao Ōyama, który od czerwca został naczelnym dowódcą wojsk lądowych w Mandżurii. Japonia zorganizowała cztery armie (działające w kolejności od wschodu): 1 Armia – dowódca gen. Tamemoto Kuroki, 4 Armia dowódca – gen. Michitsura Nozu, 2 Armia – dowódca gen. Yasukata Oku i 3 Armia – dowódca gen. Maresuke Nogi. Flotą japońską dowodził admirał Heihachirō Tōgō. Okręty japońskie przewyższały rosyjskie parametrami i osiągami takimi jak szybkość, zasięg działania, jakość opancerzenia i pocisków dział (ekwiwalent materiału wybuchowego w pociskach 12", 8" i 6" rosyjskich i japońskich był jak 1:1,2), waga salwy (Flota Zjednoczona Japonii – 12 418 kg, Eskadra Port Artur – 9111 kg). +Rosja posiadała armię, w czasie pokoju, w sile ok. 1,1 mln żołnierzy (przy 146 mln ludności) i dysponowała rezerwami ok. 3,5 mln żołnierzy. Jednak na Dalekim Wschodzie, od Bajkału na wschód, miała w styczniu 1904 ok. 150 tys. żołnierzy z tego: Wojska Ochrony Pogranicza w tym rejonie liczyły ok. 24 tys. ludzi i miały 26 dział; garnizon Port Artura 28,1 tys.; wojska kolejowe ochrony Chińsko Wschodniej Kolei Żelaznej 35 tys.; oddziały w twierdzach 7,8 tys.; oraz ok. 60 tys. żołnierzy oddziałów liniowych, 148 dział i 8 ciężkich karabinów maszynowych (ckm) gotowych do walki (skoncentrowanych w rej. Władywostoku ok. 45 tys. i w Mandżurii ok. 28 tys.). Siły ww. były dyslokowane na olbrzymim terytorium od Czyty do Władywostoku, i od Błagowieszczeńska do Port Artura. Przepustowość Kolei Transsyberyjskiej wynosiła na początku wojny 3 pary eszelonów na dobę. W czasie wojny zwiększono przepustowość linii do 4 par pociągów (zasadniczym ograniczeniem przepustowości była przeprawa przez Bajkał). Do Mandżurii było skierowanych ok. 1,2 mln żołnierzy (większość w 1905). Rosyjska Marynarka Wojenna na Dalekim Wschodzie miała: 7 pancerników, 4 krążowniki pancerne, 10 krążowników pancernopokładowych, 2 kanonierki torpedowe, 35 niszczycieli i torpedowców (1 wszedł po rozpoczęciu wojny), 7 kanonierek. Większość Floty bazowała w Port Artur. We Władywostoku bazowały 3 krążowniki pancerne, 1 krążownik pancernopokładowy i 10 torpedowców. Obiekty obronne Port Artura nie były zakończone. Silnym atutem Rosji były Flota Bałtycka i Flota Czarnomorska, po wielkości każda równa Flocie na Dalekim Wschodzie, jednak trzeba je było dyslokować na Daleki Wschód. Flota Bałtycka nie mogła przejść w całości przez Kanał Sueski, zatem musiała opływać Europę i Afrykę. +Flota Czarnomorska miała zamknięte przejścia przez Cieśniny Bosfor i Dardanele. Naczelnym dowódcą wojsk rosyjskich na Dalekim Wschodzie był admirał Jewgienij Aleksiejew, któremu podporządkowani byli dowódca Armii Mandżurskiej Aleksy Kuropatkin i dowódca Floty admirał Stiepan Makarow. +Dowództwo rosyjskie uważało, że siły Japonii nie będą w stanie szybko rozpocząć natarcia na lądzie. Dlatego też głównym zadaniem w początkowym okresie wojny było powstrzymywaniu wojsk japońskich na lądzie, do czasu przybycia głównych sił z centrum Rosji. Rozpoczęcie operacji zaczepnych na lądzie przewidywano po siódmym miesiącu wojny. Planowano po podciągnięciu sił, zepchnąć lądowe wojska japońskie na morze i wysadzenie desantów na wyspach Japońskich. Marynarka Wojenna Rosji miała prowadzić działania o panowanie na morzu i nie dopuścić do desantowania wojsk japońskich na ląd w Korei lub Chinach. +Japońskie plany strategiczne przewidywały przejęcie panowania na morzu drogą niespodziewanego ataku i zniszczenia eskadry okrętów w Port Artur, po czym wysadzenie wojsk lądowych w Korei i Południowej Mandżurii, opanowanie Port Artur i rozbicie głównych sił rosyjskich w rejonie Liaoyang. Zadaniem dalszym było opanowanie Mandżurii, Kraju Ussuryjskiego i Kraju Nadmorskiego (Primorskogo). +Zasadniczym teatrem działań floty japońskiej było Morze Żółte, na którym Zjednoczona Flota miała blokować rosyjską eskadrę w Port Artur. Na Morzu Japońskim rosyjskiemu Oddziałowi Władywostockiemu przeciwstawiono 3 Eskadrę, z zadaniem przeciwdziałania atakom rajdowym rosyjskich krążowników na komunikacjach morskich Japonii. +Wybuch. +W nocy z 8 na 9 lutego 1904 roku flota japońska zaatakowała, z zaskoczenia, główną rosyjską bazę morską w Port Artur, oraz stacjonujące tam główne siły rosyjskiej floty (7 pancerników, 1 krążownik pancerny i 4 krążowniki lekkie). Następnego dnia car Mikołaj II wypowiedział wojnę Japonii. +Walki. +W trakcie wojny Rosja poniosła bezprecedensową w historii wojen morskich klęskę, tracąc dwie spośród swoich trzech flot (prawie całą Flotę Bałtycką i Flotę Oceanu Spokojnego) z minimalnymi stratami drugiej strony. Jedynie Flota Czarnomorska przetrwała (na czas wojny nie opuszczała Morza Czarnego). Japonia stała się szóstą morską potęgą świata, podczas gdy rosyjska flota wojenna została niewiele silniejsza od floty Austro-Węgier. +Pokój. +Wojna rosyjsko-japońska została zakończona pokojem w Portsmouth zawartym w dniu 5 września 1905. +Skutki wojny. +Wojna rosyjsko-japońska była prowadzona o panowanie w północno-wschodnich Chinach i w Korei. Japończycy rozbili Rosję na lądzie w generalnej bitwie pod Mukdenem i flotę rosyjską w bitwie pod Cuszimą. Wojna zakończyła się pokojem w Porsmouth, w wyniku którego Rosja uznała Koreę za strefę wpływów Japonii, oddała część swoich terytoriów w Azji. Wojna przyspieszyła początek rewolucji 1905-1907. +Rosja: zabici – 25 331, ranni – 146 032, zmarli z ran – 6127, zmarli od chorób – 11 170, straty floty – 6299, razem – 194 959; oraz do niewoli dostało się 59 218 żołnierzy i oficerów. +Rosja straciła na wojnę ok. 2347 mln rubli, oprócz tego ok. 500 mln rubli stanowiły straty spowodowane oddaniem Japonii zasobów gospodarczych i sprzętowych oraz zatopionych statków i okrętów. Pomimo trudnej sytuacji i niezdolności kadry oficerskiej do dowodzenia wojskami i prowadzenia działań, rosyjski żołnierz pokazał męstwo, odporność i odwagę. Na bazie doświadczeń wojny w armii rosyjskiej rozpoczęło się wprowadzanie reform wojskowych 1905 – 1912. Klęska Rosji w wojnie oraz straty wojenne spowodowały niezadowolenie narodu i katastrofalny wzrost procesów rewolucyjnych w społeczeństwie, które objawiły się jako „pierwsza rewolucja rosyjska”. Mimo że w 1907 rewolucyjne działania zostały stłumione przez władze carskie, carat nie odzyskał swojej świetności. +Japonia: zabici – 47 387, ranni – 173 425, zmarli z ran – 11 425, zmarli od chorób – 27 192, straty floty – 2000, razem – 261 429; Japonia zaciągnęła 4 pożyczki w USA i Wielkiej Brytanii, w okresie od kwietnia 1904 – maja 1905, w wysokości ok. 410 mln dolarów, którymi pokryła 40% rozchodów na wojnę. Japoński żołnierz pokazał swoje umiejętności walki i fanatyczne oddanie służbie. +Wojna wywarła wielki wpływ na taktykę i sztukę operacyjną. Z taktycznego punktu widzenia, na masową skalę w wojnie po raz pierwszy użyto broni maszynowej. Wojna pokazała wielką wartość karabinu maszynowego jako środka obrony i środka ofensywnego. Pokazała wartość ognia artyleryjskiego z pozycji zakrytych. Transzeje w obronie zastąpiły do tej pory stosowane obiekty fortyfikacyjne (fortyfikacji stałej). Wojna pokazała konieczność doskonalenia współdziałania różnych rodzajów wojsk i służb na polu walki. Na morzu po raz pierwszy wykorzystano torpedowce. Bitwa pod Cuszimą, była pierwszą i ostatnią wielką bitwą epoki pancerników morskich, była wówczas największą bitwą morską od czasów Trafalgaru. Bitwa wyraźnie dowiodła, że aby wygrać na morzu trzeba znać taktykę morską we współdziałaniu z taktyką artylerii morskiej. Psychologiczne i polityczne zwycięstwo Japonii w tej wojnie było punktem zwrotnym w historii świata. Kraje Azji przekonały się, że Europejczycy nie zawsze są niepokonani. „Supremacja białych” się zestarzała. +Wojna przyniosła narodom Rosji i Japonii obniżenie poziomu życia, wzrost podatków i cen. Dług Japonii wzrósł 4 razy. +Pomimo ograniczonego charakteru wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej, miała ona istotny wpływ na równowagę sił na świecie, na zmianę wielu procesów politycznych i konfrontacji wojennych. +Zwycięstwo Japonii w wojnie spowodowało przebudowę na wielką skalę kraju i dążenie do budowy struktur państwa na europejskim poziomie rozwoju. Wzrosły tendencje militarystyczne w polityce wewnętrznej oraz militaryzacja gospodarki. Już 17 listopada 1905 Japonia zmusiła Koreę do podpisania traktatu o protektoracie, a w 1910 włączyła Koreę do Imperium Japońskiego. +Nastąpiło rozdwojenie polityki zagranicznej Japonii między potrzebą zapobiegania odwetowi z północy i potrzebą ekspansji na południe i południowy zachód. Te sprzeczności znalazły odzwierciedlenie w stałym konflikcie między armią i marynarką. +Japonię dominującą w Korei i części przybrzeżnej Chin, zaczęła interesować baza morska Niemiec w Qingdao. Było to jedną z przyczyn opowiedzenia się cesarstwa w czasie I wojny światowej po stronie wrogów Niemiec. Dalsza ekspansja japońska w Chinach była przyczyną coraz bardziej rosnącego tarcia z USA. +Mając doświadczenie skutecznego działania na morzu, japońska marynarka rozpoczęła aktywną budowę infrastruktury morskiej, okrętów i statków. Jednostki japońskie nie ustępowały najlepszym statkom angielskim. W końcu I wojny światowej Japonia stała się trzecią potęgą morską na świecie. +Stan równowagi geopolitycznej na świecie znacznie się zmienił. Rosja straciła swoją pozycję na Pacyfiku. Oznaczało to, że została zmuszona do odstąpienia od ekspansji na wschodzie i na południowym wschodzie Azji i rozpoczęła zmianę kierunku swoich wpływów na Europę, Bliski Wschód i rejon cieśnin Morza Śródziemnego i Czarnego. Ze względu na osłabienie sił morskich Rosji i powrotu do polityki „kontynentalnej”, nastąpiła poprawa stosunków rosyjsko-brytyjskich, w wyniku czego podpisano umowę z Wielką Brytanią w sprawie podziału stref wpływów w Afganistanie. +Osłabienie siły militarnej Rosji po wojnie czasowo zmieniło równowagę sił w Europie na rzecz Państw Centralnych, co dało możliwość Austro-Węgrom do aneksji Bośni i Hercegowiny. Ogólnie jednak Berlin i Wiedeń z porażki Rosji w wojnie rosyjsko-japońskiej nic nie zyskały i to nie tylko z powodu utworzenia sojuszu brytyjsko-francusko-rosyjskiego. Wstyd z porażki Rosji w wojnie doprowadził do pozytywnych zmian w armii i marynarce. Przeprowadzone reformy wojskowe w latach 1905-1912 sprawiły, że na frontach I wojny światowej armia rosyjska działała bardziej sprawnie niż w latach 1904-1905. Oficerowie młodsi i starsi aktywnie wykorzystywali zgromadzone doświadczenie bojowe. Prowadzono bardziej aktywne szkolenie, co było szczególnie widoczne w artylerii. Rosyjskie działa polowe w 1914 roku, prowadziły skuteczny ogień z zakrytych pozycji, tworząc trzon obrony m.in. w bitwie galicyjskiej. +Nawiązania do konfliktu. +Uwaga całego świata skupiona wokół wojny spowodowała inspiracje konfliktem m.in. w sztuce oraz literaturze. +Parestezja + +Parestezja ("paraesthesiae"), inaczej czucie opaczne – przykre wrażenie, najczęściej mrowienie, drętwienie lub zmiany temperatury skóry (uczucie silnego gorąca lub zimna) bądź też "przebiegnięcia prądu". Parestezje występują najczęściej w przypadku uszkodzeń nerwów obwodowych, mogą jednak być objawem uszkodzenia centralnego układu nerwowego. Często parestezje dotyczące jednej lub więcej kończyn, tułowia, a także głowy (twarzy) występują np. w stwardnieniu rozsianym ("Sclerosis Multiplex"). Może być jednym z objawów hipokalcemii oraz hiperkaliemii. Parestezje wokół miejsca wtargnięcia drobnoustrojów chorobotwórczych mogą występować w chorobach zakaźnych: tężcu i wściekliźnie. Innymi częstymi przyczynami występowania parestezji są zaburzenia psychiczne, a szczególnie nerwice lękowe i wegetatywne, objawy często są mylone z SM i innymi schorzeniami ośrodka nerwowego. Ilościowo jest to znacznie częstsze niż poważne choroby somatyczne. +Tama (producent instrumentów) + +Tama Seisakusho – przedsiębiorstwo produkujące instrumenty perkusyjne, założone w 1974 roku w Japonii. Właścicielem TAMY jest japońska firma Hoshino Gakki której własnością jest też firma Ibanez produkująca gitary. +Firma produkuje również oktobany, tymp tomy, cowbelle, pałki, hardware mikrofonowy i perkusyjny (statywy, stopy, siedziska itp.) +Su-28 + +Su-28 (ros. Су-28) — radziecki samolot szkolno-treningowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1984 roku w radzieckim biurze konstrukcyjnym im. Pawła Suchoja. +Samolot Su-28 jest wersją treningową samolotu szturmowego Su-25 +Opis techniczny. +Samolot Su-28 jest dwumiejscowym samolotem szkolno-treningowym odrzutowym o konstrukcji całkowicie metalowej, wyposażony w urządzenia do lotów bez widoczności oraz w fotele wyrzucane, dające możliwość opuszczenia samolotu we wszystkich zakresach prędkości i wysokości, włącznie z fazą startu i lądowania. Napęd: 2 silniki turboodrzutowy "Sojuz-Tumańsk R95Sz". +Imamizm + +Imamizm – główny nurt szyizmu uznający pierwszych 12 imamów. +130 mln. wyznawców (2009), głównie: Iran (90-96% populacji), Azerbejdżan (ok. 70%), Irak (ok. 60%), Bahrajn (ok. 55%), Liban (ok. 30%), Afganistan (15-20%), Pakistan (10-15%), Kuwejt (ok. 13%) ZEA (ok. 12%), Arabia Saudyjska (7-10%),Oman (3-4%), Turkmenistan (ok. 3%), Indie (1-1,4%). Islam imamicki jest od XVI wieku religią państwową Persji, a obecnie Iranu. W Polsce przedstawicielem islamu imamickiego jest Stowarzyszenie Jedności Muzułmańskiej. +W pierwszych dwóch wiekach islamu nazwy "imamici" używano często wobec wszystkich nurtów szyickich. +W sensie prawno-religijnym olbrzymia większość imamitów przynależy do tzw. szkoły dżafaryckiej. Jej nazwa pochodzi od szóstego imama, Dżafara as-Sadika, który miał stworzyć podstawy szyickiej myśli prawnej. Imamici dzielą się na usulitów i achbarytów. Czasem w ramach usulityzmu wyodrębnia się jako odrębny kierunek szajchizm. W łonie imamizmu istnieje również mahdyzm – czyli wiara w rychłe przyjście Mahdiego, który jest charakterystyczny dla całego szajkizmu i mniejszej części usulitów, choć w tej ostatniej grupie poglądy takie stają się coraz częstsze po rewolucji lat 1978 – 1979 w Iranie. Od XVIII wieku ruchem dominującym jest usulizm. Obecnie jedynie 0,5-2% imamitów stanowią achbaryci (liczebność ich znacznie spadła w Iranie po rewolucji, obecnie zamieszkują oni głównie Bahrajn i pd. Irak); szajkiści (pd. Irak, Iran) stanowią zaś prawdopodobnie poniżej 0,1%. +Pistolet maszynowy Ingram M10 + +Ingram M10 (MAC 10) – amerykański pistolet maszynowy opracowany w 1964 roku w amerykańskiej firmie Military Armament Corporation przez Gordona B. Ingrama. +Historia. +W 1964 roku Gordon B. Ingram opracował w amerykańskiej firmie Military Armament Corporation zlokalizowanej w Powder Springs, stan Georgia w USA pistolet maszynowy Ingram. Jest to broń samoczynno-samopowtarzalna, działająca w oparciu o zasadę odrzutu swobodnego zamka . Broń strzela z zamka otwartego, co obniża jej celność. Pistolet zdolny jest do prowadzenia ognia zarówno ciągłego jak i pojedynczego, nie posiada ogranicznika długości serii. Ogólny układ broni jest podobny do czechosłowackiego pistoletu wz. 25 lub 9mm pistoletu maszynowego Uzi, ale został on zaprojektowany o wiele później i jego konstrukcja, ani projekt nie pozostają w żadnym związku z powyższymi konstrukcjami. +Opracowano dwa wzory pistoletu Ingram, oznaczone są one jako M10 (MAC-10) i M11 (MAC-11). Obydwa wzory mają identyczną konstrukcję , różnią się jedynie wymiarami, masą i rodzajami stosowanych nabojów. Wszystkie wersje posiadają na lufie gwint do mocowania tłumika dźwięku. +Pistolet maszynowy Ingram M10 jest wyposażony w lufę o kalibrze 11,43 mm (0,45 cala) przystosowaną do 11,43 × 23 mm naboju pistoletowego Colt lub w lufę o kalibrze 9 mm przystosowaną do 9 × 19 mm naboju pistoletowego Parabellum. +Pistolet maszynowy Ingram M11 jest wyposażony w lufę o kalibrze 9 mm (0,38 cala) przystosowaną do naboju pistoletowego Short. +Pistolet maszynowy Ingram produkowany jest w firmie RPB Industries Inc., ale wiele jego klonów powstawało w wielu innych amerykańskich firmach, takich jak SWD Inc. (USA), Cobray (USA), Jersey Arms (USA). Broń była szczególnie chętnie używana przez USA, Wielkiej Brytanii, Izraelu, Portugalii, Boliwii, Kolumbii, Gwatemali i Hondurasie. +W chwili obecnej pistolet maszynowy Ingram M11 jest produkowany pod nazwą 9 mm pistolet maszynowy Cobray w firmie Cobray. +Opis techniczny. +Podstawowymi elementami pistoletu maszynowego Ingram są: lufa z osłoną, zamek, obudowa mechanizmu spustowego, rękojeść pistoletowa, magazynek i metalowa rozkładana kolba. Długość pistoletu zmniejszono dzięki temu, że w przednim skrajnym położeniu zamek teleskopowo nabiega na lufę. W celu stworzenia jednakowych warunków użytkowania pistoletu przez strzelców lewo- i praworęcznych, wszystkie urządzenia służące do tego celu umieszczone zostały w płaszczyźnie symetrii broni. Rękojeść do napinania zamka znajduje się na górze komory zamkowej, spełniając jednocześnie funkcję bezpiecznika, ryglując zamek w przednim położeniu (po obrocie rękojeść o 90º) Drugi bezpiecznik – nastawny, do blokowania zamka w przednim i tylnym położeniu umieszczono przed kabłąkiem spustu. Przyrządy celownicze usytuowano na komorze zamkowej składają się z muszki umieszczonej w osłonie i stałego celownika przeziernikowego. +Szczególną cechą pistoletu maszynowego Ingram jest tłumik dźwięku MAC nakręcany na wylot lufy. +Podstawowy sposób strzelania z pistoletu maszynowego Ingram przewiduje trzymanie broni z kolbą przyciśniętą do biodra i korygowanie ognia przez obserwację padania pocisków przy przełączniku ustawionym na ogień ciągły. Do trzymania broni drugą ręką służy rzemień umocowany w przedniej części komory zamkowej. +PEN Club + +PEN Club (ang. "pen" – pióro, oraz skrót pierwszych liter słów: "Poets, Essayists, Novelists") – międzynarodowe stowarzyszenie pisarzy założone w 1921 w Londynie przez Catherine Amy Dawson Scott, w celu promowania przyjaźni oraz intelektualnej współpracy pomiędzy pisarzami z całego świata. Kieruje się zasadą, że literatura spełnia istotną rolę w rozwoju współpracy międzynarodowej. Jest to organizacja niepolityczna i pozarządowa, związana z UNESCO oraz Komisją Ekonomiczno-Społeczną Narodów Zjednoczonych. +PEN Club składa się z oddziałów lokalnych, które reprezentują swoich członków, nie kraje. Członkostwo dostępne jest dla wszystkich wykwalifikowanych pisarzy, dziennikarzy, tłumaczy, historyków oraz wszystkich zaangażowanych na polu literatury niezależnie od narodowości, rasy czy religii. Każdy z członków musi podpisać regulamin PEN Clubu i tym samym go zaakceptować. +PEN Club w Polsce. +Polski Oddział PEN Clubu założył Stefan Żeromski w 1925, on także sprawował funkcję pierwszego prezesa. Po jego śmierci stanowisko to przejmowali kolejno: +Polscy delegaci (Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński i Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz) po raz pierwszy wzięli udział w Trzecim Światowym Kongresie w roku 1925 w Paryżu. W 1927 polskie centrum gościło Tomasza Manna, a gospodarzem Kongresu Światowego była Warszawa. Sekcja pisarzy żydowskich istniała do 1939 roku. +Okupacja Polski podczas II wojny światowej uniemożliwiła działalność organizacji, jednak polski PEN istniał na emigracji w Londynie, a jego prezesem była Maria Kuncewiczowa. +Po wojnie, w roku 1947, PEN Club został reaktywowany w kraju pod prezesurą Jana Parandowskiego. Głównym Sekretarzem był Michał Rusinek, a jego następcą w 1972 Władysław Bartoszewski. W 1958 w Warszawie odbył się Międzynarodowy Zjazd Tłumaczy Literatury. W czasach PRL polski PEN Club zrzeszał wielu pisarzy i artystów, spełniając funkcje biernego oporu wobec władzy. +Po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego w 1981 spotkania odbywały się w obozach internowania. W 1983 przymusowo rozwiązano zarząd, który odmówił uznania władzy komisarycznej. Na podstawie porozumienia z Międzynarodowym Pen Clubem ("International Pen Club") działalność polskiego oddziału zawieszono. +Ravensbrück + +Ravensbrück – dzielnica niemieckiego miasta Fürstenberg/Havel, znajdującego się w kraju związkowym Brandenburgia, w powiecie Oberhavel, ok. 80–90 km na północ od Berlina. +W latach 1938-1945 istniał tu jedyny niemiecki obóz koncentracyjny przeznaczony dla kobiet KL Ravensbrück. Na przełomie lat 1944-1945 stał się on centralnym obozem rozdzielczym dla licznych transportów więźniów. Oszacowano, że przez bramy tego obozu przeszło prawie 132 000 kobiet i dzieci z 27 narodowości (w tym najwięcej Polek), z których 92.000 zamordowano. +Oczopląs + +Oczopląs (łac. "nystagmus") – objaw wrodzony lub wywołany niektórymi chorobami lub lekami, polegający na mimowolnych, rytmicznych oscylacjach gałek ocznych w płaszczyźnie poziomej lub elipsoidalnej, które występują w następstwie fizjologicznego lub patologicznego pobudzenia komórek receptorowych narządu przedsionkowego. Drgania mogą być stałe lub zmieniać się zależnie od kierunku spojrzenia. Oczopląs związany jest z uszkodzeniem sensorycznym (obustronne bardzo słabe widzenie, np. achromatopsja) lub motorycznym (zez). Ze względów praktycznych za oczopląs należy uważać każdy ruch drgający gałek ocznych w odpowiedniej płaszczyźnie. +Do głównych typów oczopląsu zaliczyć możemy oczopląs wahadłowy, gdy oczy wychylają się rytmicznie w obie strony w jednakowym czasie oraz oczopląs skaczący, występujący wtedy, gdy ruch oczu w jedną stronę jest szybszy niż w drugą (jego kierunek określa się zależnie od kierunku fazy szybkiej). +• Oczopląs ośrodkowy +• Oczopląs obwodowy +• Oczopląs samoistny – może być pochodzenia błędnikowego, ośrodkowego i ocznego (fiksacyjnego) +• Oczopląs wywołany – indukowany – może być patologiczny lub fizjologiczny. Może być wywołany bodźcami cieplnymi, kinetycznymi, oraz stymulacją galwaniczną i optokinetyczną +• Za pomocą pobudzeń cieplnych lub obrotowych można wywołać oczopląs błędnikowy z wyraźnie zaznaczoną fazą szybką i wolną. Kierunek oczopląsu określa się zgodnie z kierunkiem fazy szybkiej. Uważa się, że faza wolna zależy od pobudzeń receptorów błędnikowych, a faza szybka stanowić ma komponent ośrodkowy i jest wyrazem kompensacji +• Stosując zmienne przyspieszenie kątowe udaje się wywołać w czasie obrotu ciała tzw.oczopląs podczasobrotowy, skierowany w stronę działającego przyspieszenia. Po zatrzymaniu badanego występuje oczopląs poobrotowy, z kierunkiem odwrotnym do kierunku dokonywanych obrotów. +• Oczopląs cieplny można wywołać przez wprowadzenie do przewodu słuchowego zewnętrznego wody o temperaturze innej niż temperatura ciała badanego. W przypadku wody zimniej (30˚C) wystąpi oczopląs skierowany w stronę przeciwną do oziębianego ucha, natomiast w przypadku stosowania wody ciepłej (44˚C) – oczopląs będzie skierowany w stronę badanego ucha. +• Oczopląs optokinetyczny– występuje podczas patrzenia na obrazy szybko przesuwające się przed oczami obserwatora. Jest następstwem dążenia do zatrzymania ruchomego obrazu na siatkówce oka. Na przykład podczas jazdy środkami komunikacyjnymi. +• Ruchy nystagmoidalne gałek ocznych – wychylenia oczu z mniejszym lub większym zaznaczeniem fazy szybkiej i wolnej. Są to więc ruchy bez wyraźnego zaznaczenia faz, mające charakter pływania lub niepokoju gałek ocznych. Wahadłowe ruchy oczu o cechach pływania lub niepokoju,a także drganie o zmiennej częstotliwości i różnym kierunku są niezwykle charakterystyczne dla pobudzeń płynących z ośrodkowego układu nerwowego. Ruchy nystegmoidalne tego typu stwierdza się w wielu chorobach OUN +Leczenie może przynieść poprawę w tych przypadkach, w których istnieje "blokada" ("strefa ciszy") oczopląsu przy pewnym ustawieniu gałek. Polega ono na odpowiednim chirurgicznym ustawieniu oczu. Niekiedy ustawienie takie można uzyskać stosując szkła pryzmatyczne. +Oczopląs symulowany. +Około 8% populacji w wieku studenckim może wytworzyć oczopląs na zawołanie. 4/5 takich osób ma krewnych, którzy także są do tego zdolni. Oczopląs symulowany przypomina kształtem fali oczopląs wahadłowy, natomiast częstotliwością – niektóre formy wahadłowego drgania gałek ocznych. Nie może on być utrzymywany średnio dłużej niż 25 s. Parametry te pozwalają na odróżnienie go od oczopląsu patologicznego. +Bibliografia. +Fizjologia człowieka z elementami fizjologii stosowanej i klinicznej pod redakcją Władysława Z. Traczyka i Andrzeja Trzebskiego +Nizaryci + +Nizaryci, arab. النزاريون, znani także jako Asasyni, arab. الحشاشين – dominujący współcześnie odłam ismailitów, uznający linię imamów wywodzącą się od Nizara. +Historia. +Okres Alamutu. +Początki nizaryzmu wiążą się z osobą przywódcy irańskich ismailitów Hasana-i Sabbaha (zm. 1124), któremu na początku lat 90. XI wieku udało się zbudować na terenie Iranu niewielkie isma’ilickie państwo z ośrodkiem w twierdzy Alamut. W roku 1094 zmarł fatymidzki kalif Al-Mustansir (pan. 1036-1094) i sprawujący rzeczywistą władzę wezyr Al-Afdal (zm. 1121) ustanowił jego następcą nie wcześniej wyznaczonego przez kalifa jego najstarszego syna Nizara (zm. 1095), ale młodszego Al-Musta'liego (pan. 1094-1101). Nizar zbuntował się przeciwko tej decyzji i zginął w roku 1095. Hasan-i Sabbah to jednak jego uznał za prawowitego imama, który tym samym wraz z jego śmiercią miał przejść do ukrycia. Poprzez ten akt irańscy isma’ilici przestali uznawać zwierzchnictwo nadal rządzących w Egipcie Fatymidów. Byli oni odtąd rządzeni przez władców Alamutu, używających tytułu „hudżdża”, to jest „dowód, wskazówka” – w domyśle na istnienie nieobecnego imama, który powróci jako mahdi. +Pierwsze kilkadziesiąt lat historii nizarytów to głównie walka z sunnickimi Wielkimi Seldżukami. Największe sukcesy odnosili nizaryci w Iranie, gdzie ich walka miała podtekst zarówno narodowościowy (Persowie kontra tureckie warstwy panujące), religijny (walka szyitów z sunnitami), jak i społeczny (uciskane i grabione przez Seldżuków niższe warstwy społeczne kontra związane z nimi warstwy panujące). Do połowy pierwszej dekady XII wieku, w dużej mierze dzięki pracy wysyłanych przez Hasana da'ich, zdołali nizaryci opanować liczne terytoria w Iranie, ale także w Iraku i Syrii. W okolicy Alamutu stworzyli dominium, które można by w zasadzie uznać za niewielkie państwo. Obalili władzę Seldżuków w odległym, położonym na zachód od Heratu Kuhistanie. Objęli w posiadanie m.in. liczne fortece w Farsie, Mazandaranie, Kermanie. Opanowali również miasto Tikrit w Iraku. Początkowy sukces kierowanej przez Hasana sekty głęboko wstrząsnął państwem Seldżuków. Prawdziwym szokiem było zwłaszcza opanowanie przez nizarytów, około roku 1100, cytadeli Szahdiz, znajdującej się w bezpośredniej bliskości ówczesnej seldżuckiej stolicy, Isfahanu. +Jednak pomimo tych pierwotnych sukcesów nizarytów, Seldżucy, korzystając z oczywistej dysproporcji sił, począwszy od roku 1106 stopniowo odzyskiwali stan posiadania. Dokonywano wewnętrznych czystek w seldżuckiej armii, mordując podejrzanych o sympatie nizaryckie. Całkowicie przepędzono nizarytów z południowych prowincji Iranu, Farsu oraz Kermanu, Seldżucy odbili także fortece w okolicy stołecznego Isfahanu oraz irackie miasto Tikrit. Konieczność prowadzenia nierównej walki z przeważającym przeciwnikiem spowodowała, że nizaryci zaczęli uciekać się do stosowania skrytobójstwa. Eliminowali oni w ten sposób znaczących przedstawicieli wroga, przede wszystkim przywódców duchowych i politycznych, ale również urzędników niższego szczebla oraz uczonych. Mordy te miały zwykle wymiar propagandowy i polityczny, rzadziej militarny. Z rąk nizaryckich skrytobójców zginęły m.in. takie osobistości jak wezyr Nizam al-Mulk (zm. 1092), kalif abbasydzki Al-Mustarszid (pan. 1118-1135) i kalif fatymidzki Al-Amir (pan. 1101-1130). Należy jednak zauważyć, że nizaryci nie byli pierwszymi, którzy uciekli się do takich metod, ani nie jedynymi, którzy stosowali je w tym okresie. To, że zaczęto ich wręcz utożsamiać z bezwzględnymi zabójcami, było przede wszystkim zasługą sunnickiej propagandy, która wyolbrzymiała ich dokonania na tym polu, dbając by przylgnęła do nich jak najgorsza opinia. +Mimo momentami krytycznej sytuacji ostatecznie nizarytom udało się przetrwać ataki Seldżuków, którzy po śmierci sułtana Muhammada Tapara (pan. 1105-1118) przestali zagrażać ich istnieniu. W tym okresie nizaryci zaczęli powiększać swoje przyczółki w Syrii, gdzie zetknęli się z krzyżowcami. Prawdziwe znaczenie na tym terenie uzyskali oni jednak dopiero wtedy kiedy w roku 1162 przywództwo syryjskich nizarytów objął Raszid ad-Din Sinan (zm. 1192 lub 1193). Krzyżowcy nazywali nizarytów „asasynami”, co wywodzi się od ich pogardliwego arabskiego określenia „hasziszijja”, „zażywający haszysz”, które w oczach sunnitów miało symbolizować ich bezbożność i amoralność. W Europie asasyni szybko stali się przedmiotem na wpół fantastycznych opowieści, a Raszid ad-Din Sinan na wpół legendarnym „Starcem z Gór”. Ostateczną syntetyczną formę tych historii spopularyzował Marco Polo. +Do zmiany koncepcji legitymacji władzy wśród nizarytów doszło za trzeciego następcy Hasana-i Sabbaha, Hasana II (imam 1162-1166). W roku 1164 ogłosił on nastanie epoki mahdiego, to jest „kijamy”, oczekiwanego przez isma’ilitów dnia Zmartwychwstania, podczas którego ród ludzki miał zostać osądzony i przeznaczony do raju lub piekła. Kijamę interpretowano symbolicznie jako koniec ziemskiego życia, opartego na przestrzeganiu „zewnętrznego” („zahir”) szariatu, który przestał obowiązywać. W zamian miała nadejść epoka „wewnętrznej”, „głębokiej” („batin”) esencji prawa, odrodzenia nizarytów do duchowego życia oraz duchowej śmierci niezdolnych do rozpoznania wewnętrznej prawdy pozostałych ludzi. Jednocześnie Hasan zaczął przyznawać sobie status już nie hudżdży, ale samego imama. Jego syn i następca, Muhammad (imam 1166-1210), ogłosił że on i jego ojciec w rzeczywistości są potomkami wnuka Nizara, Al-Muhtadiego, którego niegdyś sekretnie przetransportowano do Alamutu, a później ukrywano. Twierdzenia te zostały zaakceptowane przez nizarytów. Następca Muhammada, Hasan III (imam 1210-1221), ogłosił koniec ery „kijamy” i przywrócił przestrzeganie szariatu, i to w formie sunnickiej. Publicznie spalił on dzieła swoich poprzedników i uzyskał uznanie swojej władzy przez kalifa. To zbliżenie ze światem sunnickim zakończyło się już za panowania jego syna, Ala ad-Dina Muhammada (imam 1221-1255), który uznał działania ojca za przykład takijji, to jest ukrywania własnej religii, i powrócił do polityki kijamy. Za jego życia nizaryci zetknęli się z Mongołami, którzy rozpoczęli podbój ich terytoriów. Kolejny imam, Churszah (imam 1255-1257), po niezdecydowanych próbach oporu poddał się Mongołom, wydając im większość nizaryckich twierdz. Alamut poddał się w 1256 roku, zaś ostatnia twierdza nizarytów, Girdkuh, w roku 1270. Jednocześnie nizaryci syryjscy zostali zmuszeni do podporządkowania się sułtanowi mameluków Bajbarsowi (pan. 1260-1277). Tym samym państwo nizarytów przestało istnieć. +Podział na dwie linie i nawrócenie chodżów. +Niepotrzebny Mongołom Churszah został przez nich zamordowany w roku 1257. Zgodnie jednak z nizarycką tradycją już wcześniej ukryto jego małoletniego syna, Szams ad-Dina Muhammada (imam 1257-1310), który teraz został kolejnym imamem. We wrogim otoczeniu zarówno imam, jak i jego wyznawcy przyjęli praktykę takijji. W tym okresie wielu nizarytów wyemigrowało z Iranu do Afganistanu, Azji Środkowej i Sindu. Po śmierci Szams ad-Dina Muhammada wybuchł niejasny dla współczesnych historyków spór o sukcesję, w wyniku którego wyłoniły się dwie linie imamów: Muhammad Szahi i Kasim Szahi. W wieku XIX imamowie tej drugiej linii zaczęli się posługiwać dziedzicznym tytułem Aga Chan, stąd ich zwolennicy są znani obecnie jako aga chanowie. Wydaje się, że początkowo większe znaczenie miała linia Muhammad Szahi, która cieszyła się szczególnym poważaniem w Iranie i Azji Środkowej. Ich najsłynniejszym imamem był Szah Tahir (imam 1509-ok. 1545), który jednak w wyniku prześladowań szacha Iranu Isma’ila (pan. 1501-1524) musiał uciekać do Indii. Odtąd rezydujący w Indiach imamowie Muhammad Szahi zaczęli tracić swych zwolenników w Iranie, a w wieku XVIII także na subkontynencie. Od roku 1796 syryjscy nizaryci wierni linii Muhammad Szahi nie mieli żadnych wieści od swojego imama, Muhammada al-Bakira. Ponieważ późniejsze poszukiwania jego potomków nie przyniosły rezultatu, w roku 1887 większość nizarytów syryjskich linii Muhammad Szahi złożyła przysięgę wierności aga chanom, reprezentowanym przez Agę Chana III (imam 1885-1957). Pozostali w Syrii zwolennicy linii Muhammad Szahi pod koniec XX wieku liczyli około 15 tysięcy ludzi. +Ważnym wydarzeniem historii nizarytów po upadku Alamutu jest zdobycie wyznawców wśród Indusów. Chociaż być może proces ten rozpoczął się już wcześniej, to pierwsze opisujące go wiarygodne źródła dotyczą pierwszej połowy XIII wieku. Najwcześniejszą związaną z nim postacią jest półlegendarny Pir Szams ad-Din, założyciel dziedzicznego rodu „pirów” (od persk. słowa „pir” – starzec, które było zwyczajowym określeniem sufickiego mistrza) sprawujących władzę nad nawróconymi Indusami. Najsłynniejszym misjonarzem na tym terenie był prawnuk Pir Szams ad-Dina, Pir Sadr ad-Din, zmarły gdzieś pomiędzy pierwszą połową XIV wieku a początkiem wieku XV. Miał on nawrócić wielu przedstawicieli kupieckiej kasty lohana, których zaczęto nazywać chodżami. Termin ten przyjął się w odniesieniu do wszystkich indyjskich nizarytów, którzy zresztą do dzisiaj są niemal wyłącznie kupcami. Islam chodżów miał charakter synkretyczny. Przeniknęło do niego wiele wątków zaczerpniętych z hinduizmu. Pir Sadr ad-Din miał głosić m.in. że imamowie są awatarami Wisznu, a kto ich nie uzna będzie skazany na reinkarnację. Koran przedstawiano jako ostatnią z Wed. Chodżowie od początku swego istnienia uznawali imamów z linii Kasim Szahi, jednak w sytuacji początkowego braku kontaktu z imamem pirowie "de facto" sprawowali nad nimi władzę z zupełnym jego pominięciem. +Odrodzenie Andżudanu i wzrost znaczenia nizarytów w Iranie. +We wczesnym okresie poalamuckim nizaryci zaczęli ukrywać się jako adepci sufizmu, ich imamowie zaś występowali jako suficcy mistrzowie. Z biegiem czasu związki z sufizmem coraz bardziej pogłębiały się, odciskając swoje piętno na nizarytach. W połowie XV wieku imamowie linii Kasim Szahi ustanowili swoją stałą siedzibę w Andżudanie, gdzie występując na zewnątrz jako suficcy mistrzowie mieszkali aż do imamatu Szaha Nizara (imam 1680-1722). Okres ten znany jest jako „Odrodzenie Andżudanu”. Nizarytom udało się wówczas odrodzić działalność misyjną poprzez sieć da’ich działających pod przykrywką mistrzów sufickich, którzy przesyłali zebrane w swoich wspólnotach podatki religijne imamom. Odrodziła się także ich literatura. W okresie Andżudanu imamowie podjęli systematyczne wysiłki zmierzające do kontrolowania władzy różnych lokalnych rodów nad społecznościami nizaryckimi, w tym także władzy indyjskich pirów. Po śmierci następcy Pir Sadr ad-Dina, Pir Hasana Kabir ad-Dina, imam z pominięciem jego synów wyznaczył na pira jego brata, Tadż ad-Dina, co spowodowało liczne konflikty w społeczności chodżów. Po śmierci Pir Tadż ad-Dina pod koniec XV wieku imam nie wyznaczył jego następcy. Od tej pory chodżowie, którzy znacznie przewyższali liczebnie perskich nizarytów, odbywali okresowe podróże do Andżudanu, aby odwiedzić imama. +Po zdobyciu władzy w Iranie na początku XVI wieku przez szyickich Safawidów nizaryci ograniczyli swoje praktyki takijji. Ich nadzieje okazały się jednak płonne. Safawidzi rychło stali się gorliwymi imamitami i rozpoczęli prześladowania innych wyznań. Trzydziesty szósty imam, Murad Mirza, w roku 1574 zginął z rozkazu szacha Tahmaspa I (pan. 1524-1576). W czasach szacha Abbasa I (pan. 1587-1629) nizaryci uprawiali już takijję jako imamici, zaś następca Murada Mirzy, Chalil Allah I (imam 1574-1634), poślubił safawidzką księżniczkę. Szah Nizar przeniósł swoją siedzibę do położonego blisko Andżudanu miasta Kahak, w połowie zaś XVIII wieku imam zamieszkał w Szahr-i Babak w prowincji Kerman, bliżej szlaku indyjskich pielgrzymów, co było widomym świadectwem przesunięcia się ciężkości nizaryckiego imamatu w stronę dostarczających większości funduszy chodżów. Czterdziesty czwarty imam, Abu al-Hasan Ali (zm. 1792), pod rządami Karim Chana (pan. 1750-1779) był namiestnikiem Kermanu, a po jego śmierci sprawował w nim właściwie niezależną władzę. Kiedy został zaatakowany przez jednego z następców Karim Chana, Lotf Ali Chana (pan. 1789-1794), stawił mu skuteczny opór, jednocześnie opowiadając się za jego przeciwnikiem, Agha Mohammadem Chanem (pan. 1794-1797), który ostatecznie został szachem. +Aga Chanowie. +Syn Abu al-Hasana Alego, Szah Chalil Allah III (imam 1792-1817), przeniósł się z niestabilnego Kermanu najpierw do Kahaku, potem zaś do Jazdu, gdzie w 1817 roku zginął podczas ataku tłumu na swój dom. Wdowa po nim udała się z prośbą o sprawiedliwość do ówczesnego szacha Fath Ali Szaha (pan. 1797-1834). Ten nie tylko ukarał zabójców, ale ożenił 13-letniego syna Szaha Chalil Allaha, Hasan Ali Szaha (imam 1817-1881), z własną córką, oraz uczynił go zarządcą Komu i podarował dobra w pobliżu Mahallatu, a także nadał tytuł „Aga Chan”. Tytuł ten stał się następnie dziedziczny w linii imamów Kasim Szahi. W 1835 szach Mohammad Szah (pan. 1834-1848) nadał Aga Chanowi I stanowisko gubernatora pogrążonej w anarchii prowincji Kerman. Kiedy jednak udało mu się w niej zaprowadzić porządek, został pozbawiony swojego stanowiska, co sprowokowało go do buntu. W 1841 uciekł on wraz ze swoimi zwolennikami do Afganistanu, a następnie do Indii. W tym czasie na tym terenie toczyła się I wojna brytyjsko-afgańska, w której siły imama współpracowały z Brytyjczykami. W Indiach Aga Chan, który w 1848 roku osiadł na stałe w Bombaju, skoncentrował się na wzmocnieniu nizaryckiej tożsamości chodżów oraz swojej kontroli nad nimi. Wieki przebywania w środowisku hinduistycznym, w oddaleniu od imama, jak również częstego stosowania takijji, sprawiły bowiem że nizaryzm chodżów był przesiąknięty praktykami zarówno hinduskimi, jak i sunnickimi oraz imamickimi. W 1862 roku imam wysłał dokument, wyliczający wierzenia i praktyki nizarytów, prosząc każdego chodżę aby go podpisał. Większość chodżów podpisała go, jednak niewielka grupa nie uznała isma’ilickiej tożsamości chodżów, w roku 1866 wnosząc sprawę przed Sąd Najwyższy w Bombaju. W swoim wyroku Sąd potwierdził jednak uprawnienia Agi Chana do władzy nad chodżami oraz do wszystkich zwyczajowo pobieranych podatków religijnych. +Aga Chan I zmarł w 1881 roku, a jego następcą został jego syn, Aga Chan II (imam 1881-1885), który jednak zmarł już w roku 1885. W ten sposób w roku 1885 imamat oficjalnie objął ówcześnie ośmioletni Aga Chan III (imam 1885-1957). Jego polityka miała charakter centralizacyjny i modernizacyjny. Realizował ją poprzez wydawanie konstytucji dla poszczególnych społeczności, oraz pisemne i ustne polecenia. Starał się on z dobrym skutkiem rozwinąć wśród społeczności nizaryckich system samorządu, oraz zadbać w szczególności o rozwój edukacji, opieki zdrowotnej, organizacji dobroczynnych oraz polepszenie statusu kobiet. Na zrealizowanie tej polityki przeznaczał dochody z podatków religijnych, zakładając wiele instytucji o charakterze edukacyjnym, dobroczynnym i medycznym, które służyły nie tylko isma’ilitom. Generalnie jego polityka spotykała się z akceptacją społeczności nizarytów, chociaż w 1905 roku wystąpiło przeciwko niemu do Sądu Najwyższego w Bombaju kilku członków jego rodziny. I tym razem wyrok tego Sądu był korzystny dla Agi Chana i silnie podkreślał status imama w jego rodzinie i społeczności. Niewielka część chodżów nie akceptowała jednak centralizacyjnej i modernizacyjnej polityki imama i na przełomie XIX i XX wieku oficjalnie przyjęła nauki imamitów, sunnitów lub nawet hinduizm. Aga Chan III odgrywał ważną rolę w polityce indyjskiej, przyczyniając się do odzyskania przez Indie niepodległości. Świadectwem uznania dla jego aktywności międzynarodowej było wybranie go na przewodniczącego sesji Ligi Narodów w roku 1937. +Przedbor + +Przedbor, Przedwor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Przed-" ("przed", ale też "naj" i wiele innych znaczeń) i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Imię to mogło oznaczać "stawiający wyżej walkę". +Przedbor imieniny obchodzi 27 września. +Anastazja Nikołajewna Romanowa + +Wielka księżna Anastazja Nikołajewna Romanowa (Wielikaja Kniażna Anastasija Nikołajewna Romanowa, ros. Великая Княжна Анастасия Николаевна Романова), ur. 18 czerwca 1901 w Peterhofie, zm. 17 lipca 1918 w Jekaterynburgu) – najmłodsza córka cara Mikołaja II, ostatniego władcy Imperium Rosyjskiego, i jego żony Aleksandry Fiodorowny. +Anastazja była młodszą siostrą wielkiej księżnej Olgi, wielkiej księżnej Tatiany i wielkiej księżnej Marii, i starszą siostrą Aleksieja Nikołajewicza, rosyjskiego carewicza. Została zamordowana razem z rodziną 17 lipca 1918 roku przez tajną bolszewicką policję. +Od jej śmierci krążyły plotki o jej rzekomej ucieczce, podsycane faktem, że miejsce jej pochówku nie było znane przez dziesięciolecia rządów komunistów. W masowym grobie koło Jekaterynburga w 1991 roku odkryto szczątki cara, jego żony i trzech córek, ale ciał Aleksieja Nikołajewicza i jednej z jego sióstr – Anastazji lub jej starszej siostry Marii – tam nie odnaleziono. +Teza, jakoby miała przeżyć, została całkowicie obalona. W styczniu 2008 roku rosyjscy naukowcy ogłosili, że zwęglone szczątki młodego chłopca i młodej kobiety znaleziono niedaleko Jekaterynburga w sierpniu 2007 roku, należały najprawdopodobniej do trzynastoletniego carewicza i jednej z Romanowych wielkich księżnych. Rosyjscy naukowcy zajmujący się medycyną sądową 30 kwietnia 2008 potwierdzili, że należały one do carewicza Aleksieja i jednej z jego czterech sióstr. W marcu 2008 roku ostateczne wyniki badań DNA zostały opublikowane przez dr. Michaela Coble’a z Amerykańskiego Laboratorium Sił Zbrojnych Identyfikującego DNA, potwierdzając raz na zawsze, że szczątki wszystkich czterech wielkich księżnych zostały sklasyfikowane i żadna nie uciekła. +Kilka kobiet fałszywie utrzymywało, że są Anastazją, najbardziej znaną z nich była Anna Anderson. Ciało Anderson zostało skremowane po jej śmierci w 1984, ale badania DNA w 1994, przeprowadzone na dostępnych kawałkach tkanek i włosów Anderson nie wykazały związków DNA z carską rodziną. +Biografia. +Życie i dzieciństwo. +Kiedy Anastazja się urodziła, jej rodzice i dalsi krewni byli zawiedzeni, że mają czwartą córkę, ponieważ chcieli syna, który mógłby być następcą tronu. Car Mikołaj II wyszedł na długi spacer, by poukładać sobie myśli, zanim po raz pierwszy odwiedził carycę Aleksandrę i nowo narodzoną Anastazję. Jej imię znaczy między innymi „łamacz łańcuchów” lub „otwieracz więzień”. Czwarta wielka księżna otrzymała swoje imię, ponieważ, dla uczczenia jej narodzin jej ojciec przeprosił i przebaczył studentom, którzy poprzedniej zimy zostali uwięzieni za udział w zamieszkach w Sankt Petersburgu. Jej imię oznacza też „zmartwychwstanie”, a ten fakt często odwoływał się do późniejszych opowieści o jej przeżyciu. Tytuł Anastazji jest przeważnie tłumaczony jako „wielka księżna”, a oznacza to, że Anastazja była „Cesarską Wysokością”. Była wyższa rangą od innych księżniczek w Europie, które były „Królewskimi Wysokościami”. +Wychowanie dzieci carskich było surowe. Spały na twardych pryczach bez poduszek, z wyjątkiem sytuacji, gdy były chore. Brały zimne kąpiele rano i były przyzwyczajone do tego, że oczekuje się od nich czystości w pokojach. W chwilach wolnych od innych zajęć wykonywały robótki ręczne, które miały być sprzedawane na różnych akcjach charytatywnych. Domownicy, łącznie ze służącymi, zwracali się do wielkiej księżnej używając jej pierwszego imienia i patronimu – Anastazja Nikołajewna – nie używano tytułu „Jej Cesarska Wysokość”. Okazjonalnie była nazywana francuską formą jej imienia, "Anastasie", albo rosyjskimi zdrobnieniami: "Nastja", "Nastas" albo "Nasteńka". Inne rodzinne przezwiska wielkiej księżnej Anastazji brzmiały: "Malenkaja" lub "Szwybzyk" (rosyjskie słowo oznaczające diabełka, chochlika). Miała zniekształconą lewą stopę, podobnie jak jedna z kobiet podających się za jej osobę, Anna Anderson. +Dopasowując się do swoich pseudonimów, mała Anastazja wyrosła na żywe i energiczne dziecko, krótko opisane jako skłonne do tycia, z błękitnymi oczami i włosami w kolorze rudo-blond. Margaretta Eagar, guwernantka czterech wielkich księżnych, powiedziała, że pewien człowiek stwierdził, iż mała Anastazja miała największy osobisty urok ze wszystkich dzieci, które kiedykolwiek widział. +Chociaż często była opisywana jako utalentowana i bystra, ona nigdy nie przejmowała się ograniczeniami w klasach, które wprowadzali jej nauczyciele, Pierre Gilliard i Sydney Gibbes. Gibbes, Gilliard i damy dworu Lili Dehn i Anna Wyrubowa opisywały Anastazję jako żywą, złośliwą i utalentowaną aktorkę. Jej ostre, dowcipne uwagi czasem trafiały w czułe punkty. +Brawura Anastazji czasem przekraczała granice dopuszczalnych zachowań. „Ona bez wątpienia pobiła rekord w czynach karalnych w swojej rodzinie, w nieposłuszeństwie była prawdziwym geniuszem”, powiedział Gleb Botkin, syn nadwornego fizyka Jewgienija Botkina, który później zmarł wraz z rodziną w Jekaterynburgu. Anastazja czasami podkładała nogi służącym i bawiła się psocąc nauczycielom. Jako dziecko wspinała się na drzewa i odmawiała zejścia na dół. Kiedyś, podczas bitwy na śnieżki, w rodzinnym polskim majątku, Anastazja włożyła kamień do śnieżki i rzuciła nią w swoją starszą siostrę Tatianę, przewracając ją na ziemię. Dalsza kuzynka, księżniczka Nina Georgiewna, powtórzyła, że „Anastazja była paskudna pod względem bycia złym” i mogła oszukiwać, kopać i podstawiać nogi swoim rówieśnikom podczas gry; była zazdrosna, bo młodsza Nina była wyższa niż ona. Również mniej przejmowała się swoim wyglądem niż siostry. Hallie Erminie Rives, amerykańska autorka bestsellerów i żona amerykańskiego dyplomaty, opisała, jak dziesięcioletnia Anastazja zjadła czekoladę, nie zadając sobie trudu zdjęcia swoich długich, białych operowych rękawiczek w sankt petersburskiej operze. +Anastazja i jej starsza siostra Maria wśród rodziny były znane jako „Mała Para”. Dwie dziewczynki dzieliły pokój, często ubierane były w takie same sukienki i spędzały dużo czasu razem. Ich starsze siostry, Olga i Tatiana, również dzieliły pokój i znane były jako „Wielka Para”. Cztery dziewczynki czasami podpisywały listy używając pseudonimu „OTMA”, który był utworzony od pierwszych liter ich pierwszych imion. +Mimo energii, zdrowie fizyczne Anastazji czasami było słabe. Wielka księżna cierpiała z powodu bolesnego stanu "hallux valgus" (koślawości palucha), który miał wpływ na oba jej duże palce. Anastazja miała słabe mięśnie pleców i został jej przepisany masaż dwa razy w tygodniu. Ukrywała się pod łóżkiem lub w kredensie, żeby go opuścić. Według jej ciotki od strony ojca, wielkiej księżnej Olgi Aleksandrowny, która była później zapytana o jej życie, starsza siostra Anastazji, Maria, podobno dostała krwotoku w grudniu 1914, podczas operacji usuwania migdałków. Lekarz prowadzący operację tak się denerwował, że musiał poprosić o kontynuowanie matkę Marii, carycę Aleksandrę. Olga Aleksandrowna powiedziała, że wierzy, iż jej wszystkie cztery siostrzenice krwawią obficiej niż normalnie, i wierzy, iż posiadają gen hemofilii, jak ich matka. Objawami u nosicielek genu, które same nie są hemofilikami, mogą być symptomy hemofilii, czyli niższy od normalnego czynnik krzepliwości krwi, który może prowadzić do krwotoku. Badania DNA na szczątkach carskiej rodziny w 2009 roku wykazały, że Aleksiej cierpiał na Hemofilię B, rzadszą postać choroby. Jego matka i jedna z sióstr, zidentyfikowana przez Rosjan jako Anastazja, a przez Amerykanów jako Maria, były nosicielkami. Potencjalnie Anastazja mogłaby przenieść chorobę, jeśli przeżyłaby, by mieć dzieci. Anastazja, jak cała jej rodzina, hołubiła długo oczekiwanego carewicza Aleksieja, lub „Małego”, który doświadczał częstych ataków hemofilii i kilka razy był bliski śmierci. +Znajomość z Grigorijem Rasputinem. +Jej matka radziła się rosyjskiego chłopa, Grigorija Rasputina, nazywanego „świętym człowiekiem” i wielokrotnie modlącego się za chorego carewicza. Anastazja i jej rodzeństwo nazywali Rasputina „Naszym Przyjacielem” i zwierzali mu się. Jesienią 1907 roku ciotka Anastazji, wielka księżna Olga Aleksandrowna została zaproszona przez cara, by poznać Rasputina. Anastazja, jej siostry i brat Aleksiej, wszyscy mieli na sobie swoje długie, białe koszule nocne. +„Wszystkie dzieci zdawały się go lubić”, powiedziała Olga Aleksandrowna. „Czuły się przy nim naprawdę swobodnie”. Przyjaźń Rasputina z carskimi dziećmi widoczna była w niektórych listach, które im posyłał. W lutym 1909 Rasputin wysłał carskim dzieciom telegram, doradzając im w nim „Kochać całą Boską naturę, wszystkie Jego twory, szczególnie te ziemskie. Matka Boża zawsze zajmowała się kwiatami i haftowaniem”. +Film. +Na podstawie życia Anastazji nakręcono film dramatyczny pt. "Anastazja" (1956) i film animowany pt. "Anastazja" z 1997 roku. +Airbus A380 + +Airbus A380 (początkowo znany jako Airbus A3XX) potocznie nazwany SuperJumbo – dwupoziomowy, czterosilnikowy samolot pasażerski produkowany przez przedsiębiorstwo Airbus. Dzięki temu, że górny pokład ciągnie się przez całą długość kadłuba, A380-800 mieści 555 osób przy podziale na trzy klasy lub nawet 853 przy konfiguracji całej maszyny do standardu klasy ekonomicznej, wyprzedzając pod względem powierzchni drugiego na liście Boeinga 747-400 (Jumbo Jeta) o 50%. +Historia. +Rozwój i testy. +Pierwsze przymiarki do stworzenia bardzo dużego samolotu pasażerskiego Airbus uczynił na początku lat 90., planując poszerzyć swoją ofertę, a zarazem zepchnąć Boeinga z jego Jumbo Jetem z dominującej pozycji w tym segmencie rynku. Konsorcja lotnicze – pamiętając, że rywalizacja McDonnell-Douglasa z DC-10 i Lockheeda z L-1011 TriStar zakończyła się wyeliminowaniem tej drugiej firmy z rynku cywilnego z powodu nasycenia rynku maszynami tej klasy, do której należały oba samoloty – postanowiły uniknąć ryzyka i wspólnie opracować jedną maszynę, która samodzielnie opanowałaby segment 600-800-miejscowych samolotów pasażerskich. W styczniu 1993 Boeing i kilka z firm tworzących konsorcjum Airbus rozpoczęły wspólne badania nad programem VLCT ("Very Large Commercial Transport" – Bardzo Duży Transport Komercyjny). +W czerwcu 1994 Airbus rozpoczął opracowywanie własnego bardzo dużego samolotu pasażerskiego oznaczonego A3XX. Rozważano wówczas różne koncepcje konstrukcji, w tym tak dziwne jak dwa przylegające do siebie bokami kadłuby A340, największego wówczas samolotu Airbusa. Wspólne prace nad programem VLCT zakończyły się w lipcu 1996 – Boeing stworzył własny projekt, 747X będącego Jumbo Jetem z przedłużonym "garbem" na szczycie głównego kadłuba, który wkrótce został porzucony, a następnie wznowiony, by wyewoluować w 747-8 Intercontinental, A3XX szybko zaś otrzymał kształt dwupokładowca z pokładami umieszczonymi jeden nad drugim. +19 grudnia 2000 roku rada nadzorcza Airbusa przegłosowała rozpoczęcie wartego 8,8 mld euro programu budowy A3XX, przemianowanego na A380 – nazwa ta była zerwaniem z tradycją nadawania kolejnych numerów kolejnym samolotom, ale zdecydowano się na ten krok, gdyż cyfra 8 przypomina poprzeczny przekrój dwupokładowej maszyny, a ponadto w niektórych kulturach oznacza szczęście. Firma otrzymała wówczas zamówienie na 55 maszyn od sześciu klientów. +Ostateczny kształt nadano maszynie w 2001 roku. 23 stycznia 2002 rozpoczął się montaż pierwszego samolotu. Gdy go ukończono, koszty programu wynosiły już 11 miliardów euro. Producent samolotu apelował do wszystkich dostawców wyposażenia, aby dostarczane części były możliwie jak najbardziej odchudzone. Warstwa farby została zmniejszona o 1 mikrometr, przez co zaoszczędzono 80 kg. Poszycie górnego kadłuba zbudowane zostało z kompozytów co pozwoliło zmniejszyć masę całkowitą o 800 kg. Dodatkowe 360 kg zaoszczędzono dzięki lekkiej konstrukcji opon. +Pierwszy A380 – numer seryjny 001, rejestracja F-WWOW – został zaprezentowany w Tuluzie 18 stycznia 2005. Po raz pierwszy wzniósł się w powietrze 27 kwietnia o godzinie 10:29 czasu lokalnego. Na lot zostało zabranych tylko sześć osób: dwaj piloci i czterech inżynierów-nawigatorów. Na dwudziestotonowy ładunek składały się instrumenty testowe oraz balast wodny. +W listopadzie 2005 A380 udał się na tournée testowo-promocyjne do południowo-wschodniej Azji i Australii, w trakcie którego odwiedził Singapur, Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne i Kuala Lumpur, a na kadłub nanoszono – jako dodatek do firmowych barw Airbusa – barwy kolejno: Singapore Airlines, Qantas i Malaysia Airlines. 19 listopada A380 w barwach wyłącznie Emirates został zaprezentowany na Dubai Airshow. +10 stycznia 2006 A380 w ramach wysokościowych testów silników wykonał pierwszy lot transatlantycki – do kolumbijskiego Medellín. 6 lutego przybył do Iqaluit w Kanadzie, gdzie testowano jego zdolność radzenia sobie z niskimi temperaturami. Ta sama maszyna poleciała następnie do Singapuru w barwach Singapore Airlines, by wziąć udział w wystawie Asian Aerospace 2006. +26 marca A380 poddany został w Hamburgu przeglądowi i testom (między innymi ewakuacja 853 pasażerów i 20 członków załogi w poniżej 90 sekund przez jedynie połowę wyjść) celem wydania certyfikatu EASA i FAA. +Pięć A380 wybudowano w celu prowadzenia testów i demonstracji. Pierwszy przeznaczony na sprzedaż nosi numer seryjny 003 i rejestrację F-WWSA; po raz pierwszy wzniósł się w powietrze w maju 2006. +4 września odbył się pierwszy lot z zapełnioną kabiną pasażerską – samolot wystartował z Tuluzy z 474 pracownikami Airbusa, rozpoczynając w ten sposób serię testów wyposażenia przedziału dla pasażerów. Miesiąc później zaczęto próby częstych, długotrwałych lotów, gdyż w takich właśnie warunkach mają operować A380. +Do grudnia 2006 w powietrze wzniosło się osiem A380. Pięć spośród nich, które wyznaczono do prób, wylatały łącznie ponad 2300 godzin w trakcie 730 lotów. W ich trakcie odwiedził osiemnaście krajów: Australię, Kanadę, Chiny, Kolumbię, Etiopię, Francję, Niemcy, Islandię, Irlandię, Japonię, Malezję, Singapur, RPA, Koreę Południową, Hiszpanię, Tajlandię, Zjednoczone Emiraty Arabskie i Wielką Brytanię. 12 grudnia 2006 roku odbyła się ceremonia wręczenia certyfikatów EASA i FAA. +Opóźnienie w dostawach. +Ze względu na różne wersje programu CAD CATIA w dwóch oddziałach Airbusa (CATIA 4 w Hamburgu, CATIA 5 w Tuluzie) wynikły problemy z okablowaniem samolotu (ok. 500 km kabli) co doprowadziło do opóźnień w produkcji. +Wejście do służby. +Pierwszy samolot został dostarczony 15 października 2007 liniom Singapore Airlines. Pierwszy komercyjny lot na trasie z Singapuru do Sydney odbył się w czwartek 25 października 2007. +Całkowita liczba miejsc – 471 +W dniu 18 marca 2008 r. odbył się pierwszy lot na trasie z Singapuru do Londynu, a w dniu 20 Maja na trasie z Singapuru do Tokio. +28 lipca 2008 w Hamburgu został przekazany pierwszy samolot A380 dla linii lotniczej Emirates, samolot w konfiguracji dla 489 pasażerów (14/76/399) odbył pierwszy komercyjny lot do Nowego Jorku (JFK) 1 sierpnia 2008. +Większość klientów zrezygnowała z instalacji maksymalnej ilości miejsc tj. 853 na rzecz większego komfortu pasażerów, zwiększenia możliwości transportu cargo oraz zwiększenia zasięgu samolotu. Wyjątkiem są linie Air Austral, które podczas Dubai Airshow 2009 zamówiły dwa samoloty w konfiguracji z 840 miejscami. +Zamówienia na A380. +Do końca października 2012 zostało złożone 257 Z powodu opóźnień w dostawach samolotów wersji A380-800F (transportowej), wszyscy dotychczasowi klienci zdecydowali się anulować swoje zamówienia. W związku z utratą zamówień, program rozwoju modelu A380-800F został przerwany i pierwsze egzemplarze tego modelu pojawią się dopiero około roku 2014. +Użytkownicy. +EA = Engine Alliance GP7200; RR = Rolls-Royce Trent 900 +Incydenty z udziałem A380. +W dniu 4 listopada 2010, Qantas Lot 32 (VH-OQA), na trasie z Singapur Changi Airport do Sydney, nastąpiła awaria silnika nr 2. Samolot musiał z przyczyn technicznych awaryjnie lądować w Singapurze. Nie było żadnych obrażeń pasażerów, załogi lub ludzi na ziemi, pomimo że części gondoli silnika uszkodziły skrzydło i spadły na indonezyjską wyspę Batam. Linie Qantas zawiesiły wszystkie loty A380. Śledczy ustalili, że przyczyną wybuchu był wyciek oleju w silniku Rolls-Royce Trent 972. +W 2010 w skrzydłach samolotów wykryto dwa rodzaje pęknięć: w żebrach oraz wspornikach mocujących pokrycie skrzydeł. Pęknięcia były spowodowane błędami konstrukcyjnymi. W 2013 roku Airbus przeprojektuje skrzydła A380, ale wprowadzenie zmian w produkcji spowolni dostawy do 25 egzemplarzy w 2013, pierwsze maszyny po zmianach będą dostarczone w 2014, naprawy objęły też wszystkie wyprodukowane egzemplarze. W 2012 roku koszty poniesione przez producenta na naprawę ożebrowania skrzydeł w większości przekazanych egzemplarzach wyniosły 251 mln euro, a w roku 2013 mają wynieść 85 milionów. +14 kwietnia 2011 wydarzył się następny incydent w Nowym Jorku na lotnisku J.F. Kennedy'ego w Nowym Jorku Airbus A380 należący do linii Air France podczas kołowania zahaczył lewym skrzydłem o ogon Bombardiera CRJ-700 linii Delta Air Lines. Nikomu na pokładzie samolotów nic się nie stało. +19 czerwca 2011 Airbus A380 (prototyp MSN004) o znakach rejestracyjnych F-WWDD podczas kołowania na podparyskim lotnisku Le Bourget zahaczył skrzydłem o budynek. +21 lipca 2011 Airbus A380 koreańskich linii Korean Air podczas lądowania na lotnisku Tokio-Narita na pasie 34L przeszlifował silnikiem o powierzchnię pasa startowego. Na pokładzie znajdowało się 168 pasażerów. Nikomu nic się nie stało. Samolot został podholowany na płytę postojową. Po trwającym ok. godziny przeglądzie samolot odleciał do Seulu. +4 listopada 2011 Super Jumbo linii Qantas lecący z Singapuru do Londynu awaryjnie lądował na lotnisku w Dubaju. Powodem była awaria jednego z silników (problem z poziomem oleju). Na pokładzie znajdowały się 283 osoby. Nikomu nic się nie stało. +16 lutego 2013 na pokładzie Airbusa A380 należącego do linii lotniczych Emirates otworzyły się drzwi. Załoga próbowała rozwiązać problem, zatykając dziurę poduszkami i kocami. Niedługo później maszyna bezpiecznie wylądowała na lotnisku w Hongkongu. Nikt nie ucierpiał +Lilijka Zawiszacka + +Lilijka Zawiszacka jest odznaką organizacyjną Stowarzyszenia Harcerstwa Katolickiego "Zawisza". +Ma ona formę lilijki skautowej z tarczą herbową, na której przedstawiono wizerunek Krzyża Pańskiego wkomponowanego w literę "V". Lilijka oznacza jedność z ruchem skautowym, Krzyż oznacza Chrystusa - Zbawiciela świata. Dla ludzi ten znak stał się nadzieją na zwycięstwo nad złem i śmiercią. Zwycięstwo to symbolizuje litera "V" (od łac. ""vincere" - zwyciężać"). Chrystus mówił o sobie, że jest Prawdą (łac. ""Veritas""). Symbol Krzyża wpisanego w "V" należy odczytywać "VERITAS VINCIT" - Prawda zwycięży. Lilijka Zawiszacka noszona była zamiast Krzyża Harcerskiego, otrzymywało się ją po złożeniu Przyrzeczenia Harcerskiego, każdy egzemplarz jest numerowany. Po wstąpieniu "Zawiszy" w struktury Federacji Skautingu Europejskiego, stowarzyszenie przejęło obrzędowość Skautów Europy, zmieniła się też rola odznaki. Dziś jest oznaką stopnia Harcerza RzeczypospolitejHarcerki Rzeczypospolitej.. +Historia. +Choć jest stosunkowo młodą odznaką, jej historia jest bardzo interesująca. Początkowo harcerze działającego nieformalnie Szczepu "Zawisza" nosili mundury identyczne z ówczesnym ZHP i używali Krzyża Harcerskiego. Podczas letniego obozu nad Wierną Rzeką w sierpniu 1982 wychodząca z kościoła drużyna napotkała wizytatorów Kieleckiej Chorągwi ZHP, 2 dni później obóz nawiedził kurator wojewódzki w asyście milicji celem jego rozwiązania. Od tej pory "Zawisza" ustanowiła element wyróżniający - Krzyż Harcerski noszono na skórzanym pasku na kieszeni munduru. W 1985 zrezygnowano całkowicie z jego używania, na krótko wprowadzono lilijkę z wizerunkiem Ojca Świętego oraz zmieniono kolor mundurów na brązowy. Niedługo później wprowadzono Lilijkę Zawiszacką z sybolem "Veritas Vincit". +Lilijka Skautów Europy. +Od czasu wstąpienia do FSE SHK "Zawisza" nie używa lilijki harcerskiej z literami ONC, w użyciu jest lilijka Skautów Europy wpisana w krzyż ośmioramienny. +Zajdyci + +Zajdyci – najmniejsza i najbardziej zbliżona do sunnizmu (i mutazylitów) grupa szyitów. Powstali w VIII wieku jako zwolennicy imamatu Zajda ibn Alego ibn Husajna, brata Muhammada al Bakira – uznawanego za imama przez imamitów i ismailitów. Prawo do imamatu miał uzyskać poprzez wywołanie rewolty przeciw kalifom (jego brat był wówczas bierny). Uznają pierwszych 4 imamów (wliczając Alego), którzy jednak nie są postaciami nadprzyrodzonymi, a głównie przywódcami i zarządcami. Jako jedyni szyici tolerowali częściowo władzę pierwszych kalifów. Uznają, że imamat nie musi przechodzić z ojca na syna, a warunkiem wystarczającym jest pochodzenie od Alego. Nie uznają imamickiej koncepcji ukrytego imama, dzieląc poglądy z ismailitami poprzez wiarę w żyjących imamów. Zajdyci występowali w Jemenie i Persji. W latach 864/865 – 928 rządzili w Tabarystanie. Duchowni zajdyccy sprawowali władzę w Jemenie Północnym w latach 897 (893, imamat powstał dopiero w 964) – 1962 (z licznymi przerwami), używając często tytułu kalifa. Ostatni raz stracili władzę we wrześniu 1962, kiedy to po śmierci imama Ahmada ibn Jahja (18 września) jego syn i następca Muhammad został obalony przez lewicowych wojskowych (26 września). Zajdyci jako jedyni szyici stworzyli koncepcję wakatu na pozycji imama- imamowie mogą zanikać i powracać. Takie dwie przerwy między imamatami miały miejsce w latach 928 – 964 i od 1962; obecnie zajdyci oczekują trzeciego imamatu. Wierzą również, że imamem może być w tym samym czasie więcej niż jedna osoba. +Zajdyci liczą ok. 12 mln. wyznawców (szacunek na 2006, wg innych danych zaledwie 8-9 mln.), niemal wyłącznie w Jemenie, gdzie stanowią 48% populacji kraju (nowsze dane sugerują zaledwie 25%) oraz Arabii Saudyjskiej. Zanikają w wyniku presji wahhabitów i salafitów, którzy prowadzą w Jemenie intensywną akcję zwalczania "herezji zajdyckiej" oraz rządowego programu antyzajdyckiego prowadzonego w Arabii Saudyjskiej od 2000 roku (zamknięto wtedy wszystkie meczety zajdyckie w tym kraju i przekazano je imamom sunnickim). Większość nauczycieli zajdyckich w Jemenie przeniosła się w latach 90. XX wieku na wieś, gdzie mieszka obecnie większość zajdytów. Zajdycka partia Hizb-al-Haqq poniosła druzgocącą klęskę w wyborach do jemeńskiego parlamentu w 1993 (zdobywając 2 mandaty), a od wyborów w 1997 nie jest już reprezentowana w parlamencie. +Poglądy i sekty. +W kwestiach teologicznych zajdyci należą do szkoły mutazylickiej, natomiast w kwestiach prawa islamskiego zbiliżeni są do szkoły hanafickiej z elementami szkoły szafi'ickiej oraz szyickiej szkoły dżafaryckiej. Odrzucają wszelkie formy religijności zbliżone do sufich. W przeszłości istniały 3 sekty ortodoksyjnego zajdyzmu (obecnie istnieje jedna) i jedna (do dziś istniejąca) nieortodoksyjna. +Dżarudija. +Dżarudija (Abu'l Dżarud Zijad ibn Abi Zijad) – była najstarszą oraz najbardziej ortodoksyjną sektą zajdycką. Odrzucała towarzyszy proroka jako jego ewentualnych następców i kalifów. Twierdzili, że Mahomet zostawił jasne wskazówki, że to Ali powinien zostać jego następcą i imamem. Dość aktywni przez pierwsze dwa wieki islamu, ale zanikli, wchłonięci przez bardzo zbliżony imamizm. +Sulajmanija. +Sulajmanija (Sulajman ibn Jarir) – druga w kolejności powstania sekta, której wyznawcy uważali, że kwestia imamatu powinna być rozwiązana na zasadach dyskusji tzn. – dyskusja jest dopuszczalna, ale imamem i następcą proroka powinien zostać Ali i jego potomkowie. Abu Bakr, Umar i Uthman byli według nich w poważnym błędzie, ale nie zgrzeszyli. Talha, Zubajr i Aisza przez swój "grzech" wyłączyli się ze wspólnoty wiernych i zostali uznani za niewiernych. +Tabirija. +Tabirija zwana też Butriyya lub Salihiyya (Kathir an-Nawa Al-Abtar and Hasan ibn Salih) to najmłodsza ortodoksyjna szkoła (współcześni zajdyci wywodzą swe poglądy głównie z tej szkoły). Od poprzedniej różni się tylko znacznie łagodniejszym traktowaniem Usmana. +Wasyci. +Wasyci – nieortodoksyjna szkoła zajdyzmu powstała w wyniku imamickich i sunickich wpływów na zajdytów pozostałych na terenie obecnego Iraku (po zabójstwie Zajda większość zajdytów wyemigrowała do Arabii). Wastyci nie uznają Zajda za prawdziwego imama, a jedynie za świętego, a ich doktryna nieznacznie tylko odbiega od sunnizmu. Uznają imamów imamickich, nadają im jednak mniejsze znaczenie. Ich największa grupa nosi nazwę "Saadat-e-Bara" (głównie Indie i Pakistan). +Raszków + +Raszków – miasto w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie ostrowskim, w Kaliskiem, siedziba gminy Raszków. +W latach 1975–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do województwa kaliskiego. Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 2079 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Raszków leży na Wysoczyźnie Kaliskiej, nad Ołobokiem; 27 km na zachód od Kalisza i 11 km od Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego, na skrzyżowaniu dróg powiatowych Ostrów Wielkopolski-Raszków-Dobrzyca-Jarocin i Krotoszyn-Raszków-Lewków. +Gospodarka. +Raszków jest niewielkim ośrodkiem, głównie handlowym, o znaczeniu gminnym. Zlokalizowany jest tu drobny przemysł oparty na przetwórstwie spożywczym. +Jan V zatorski + +Jan (Janusz) V (zwany też w literaturze IV) zatorski (ur. około 1455, zmarł 17 września 1513) – w latach 1468-1474 książę zatorski razem z braćmi, od 1474 na połowie Zatoru, z bratem Władysławem, 1482 podział w wyniku którego książę na połowie Zatoru (strata Wadowic), od 1490, druga część Zatoru, od 1493 Wadowice, w 1494 rezygnacja z władzy. +Jan V był trzecim pod względem starszeństwa synem księcia zatorskiego Wacława I i szlachcianki Małgorzaty Kopczowskiej. +W chwili śmierci ojca Wacława Jan był prawdopodobnie jeszcze małoletni, pomimo tego objął razem ze starszymi braćmi Kazimierzem i Wacławem II rządy w księstwie zatorskim. Wspólne rządy trwały do 1474, kiedy w wyniki podziały malutkiego księstwa Jan otrzymał wraz z młodszym Władysławem połowę Zatoru wraz z terytoriami na zachód od rzeki Skawy. +W 1477 wraz z pozostałymi braćmi zawarł układ i wzajemnym dziedziczeniu posiadłości, który niebawem, na krótko zresztą pozwoli Janowi na powrót zjednoczyć księstwo. Pomimo tego Jan jeszcze w 1477 rozpoczął rozmowy z księciem cieszyńskim Kazimierzem II, z którym także zawarł układ o wzajemnym dziedziczeniu na wypadek bezpotomnej śmierci. Porozumienie to skutek braku zatwierdzenia ze strony pana lennego księstwa zatorskiego tj. króla Polski Kazimierza Jagiellończyka pozostało jednak martwą literą. +W 1482 Jan i Władysław podzielili się miniaturową połową księstwa zatorskiego. Odtąd aż do śmierci Władysława w 1493 od państewka Jana V odpadły Wadowice. +Bezpotomne śmierci braci najpierw Wacława pomiędzy 1484 a 1487, potem Kazimierza w 1490, wreszcie Władysława w 1493 pozwoliły Janowi na powrót zjednoczyć księstwo zatorskie. Brak jednak legalnego potomstwa skłoniło Jana do sprzedaży w dniu 29 lipca 1494 królowi polskiemu Janowi Olbrachtowi swojego dziedzictwa za 80000 florenów. Odtąd formalnym właścicielem tych ziem stała się Polska, choć Jan zachował tytuł książęcy i własność wielu nieruchomości w okolicy, w której zresztą dalej mieszkał. Jako dodatkowe uposażenie pozwalające Janowi utrzymać rangę książęcą było 200 grzywien rocznych dochodów zabezpieczonych na żupach solnych w Wieliczce. +Pomimo tego, że księstwo od 1494 stanowiło już formalną własność korony polskiej, pozycja Jana była na tyle silna, że zdołał wywalczyć możliwość złożenia ponownego hołdu lennego nowym władcom polskim - Aleksandrowi w 1501 i Zygmuntowi Staremu w 1506. +Jan był żonaty od około 1477 z Barbarą z córką księcia cieszyńskiego Bolesława II, z wdową po Baltazarze żagańskim. Małżeństwo to pozostało bezdzietne. Jan posiadał jednak syna imiennika ze związku poza małżeńskiego, który jednak nie miał praw do spadku po ojcu (chodzi zwłaszcza o tytuł książęcy). +Jan V Zatorski zginął tragicznie w dniu 17 września 1513, zamordowany przez bogatego polskiego szlachcica - Wawrzyńca Myszkowskiego ze Spytkowic. Powód zabójstwa ostatniego księcia zatorskiego był bardzo banalny - woda ze stawu spuszczona niebacznie przez ludzi książęcych, co przyniosło znaczne straty finansowe Myszkowskim. Jan V został pochowany w Zatorze, choć nie wiemy w którym z kościołów parafialnych. +Ostateczne przejęcie księstwa zatorskiego przez Polskę nastąpiło 26 października tegoż roku, kiedy starosta oświęcimski Andrzej Kościelecki odebrał od miejscowej szlachty przysięgę na wierność królowi polskiemu. +Film oświatowy + +Film oświatowy - jeden z rodzajów filmowych obok filmu dokumentalnego, fabularnego i animowanego. Filmy oświatowe realizowane w celach edukacyjnych mogą mieć charakter zarówno dokumentalny jak i inscenizowany. W Polsce tego rodzaju filmy realizowane są w Wytwórni Programów Oświatowych I Programów Edukacyjnych PIF (wydzielonej 1 stycznia 1994 z Wytwórni Filmów Oświatowych) i w Telewizji. Czołowym twórcą oświatowego filmu przyrodniczego w Polsce był Włodzimierz Puchalski +Hochfilzen + +Hochfilzen – gmina w austriackim Tyrolu, w powiecie Kitzbühel, w dolinie Pillersee. Ośrodek sportów zimowych, zwłaszcza narciarstwa biegowego i biathlonu. +W 2005 były tu rozgrywane mistrzostwa świata w biathlonie. Wcześniej ośrodek ten gościł najlepszych biatlonistów świata w 1978 i 1998. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Oficjalna strona Hochfilzen +Michelle Kwan + +Michelle Wing Kwan (; ur. 7 lipca 1980 w Torrance, Kalifornia) – amerykańska łyżwiarka figurowa chińskiego pochodzenia. +Michelle Kwan - jedna z najbardziej utytułowanych łyżwiarek w historii. W ciągu swojej przeszło dziesięcioletnije kariery zdobyła wszystkie najważniejsze tytuły, poza złotem olimpijskim. Kwan jest dziewięciokrotną mistrzynią USA (podobny wynik osiągnęła do tej pory jedynie Maribel Vinson Owen w latach 1928 – 1937) i dziewięciokrotną medalistką mistrzostw świata, w tym pięciokrotnie złotą (1996, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2003), dwukrotnie stawała także na podium Igrzysk Olimpijskich (1998 – srebrny medal, 2002 – brązowy medal). +Życiorys. +Michelle Kwan jest trzecim dzieckiem Danny'ego i Estelli Kwan, chińskich emigrantów z Hongkongu. Michelle zainteresowała się łyżwiarstwem w wieku pięciu lat kiedy – jej brat, Ron, był hokeistą, siostra, Karen, uprawiała łyżwiarstwo figurowe. Zaczęła trenować razem z siostrą 3-4 godziny dziennie. Wstawały o 3 rano, aby trenować przed szkołą, a następnie wracały na lodowisko po szkole. Treningi doprowadziły do trudności finansowych rodzinę. Kiedy Michelle miała 10 lat, rodziców nie było stać na opłacanie trenera. W tym czasie rodzina otrzymała pomoc finansową od jednego z członków klubu Los Angeles Figure Skating Club, co pozwoliło Michelle kontynuować treningi w Ice Castle International Training Center w Lake Arrowhead, Kalifornia. +Michelle uczęszczała do szkoły podstawowej Soleado Elementary School w Palos Verdes, w Kalifornii, lecz w wieku 13 lat opuściła szkołę i realizowała program szkolny ucząc się w domu. Po ukończeniu Rim of the World High School w roku 1998, przez rok uczęszczała na University of California w Los Angeles. W jesieni 2006 roku przeniosła się na Uniwersytet Denver. W czerwcu 2009 Kwan ukończyła studia międzynarodowe na college'u i uzyskała tytuł Bachelora. W roku 2009 rozpoczęła studia magisterskie na kierunku stosunków międzynarodowych we Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy na Uniwersytecie Tufts. +Jest bohaterką gry komputerowej Michelle Kwan Figure Skating. +Do roku 2002 trenowana u Franka Carrolla, później pracowała z Rafaelem Arutunianem. +Praca w dyplomacji. +Michelle Kwan była zaproszona na oficjalny obiad wydany przez prezydenta George'a W. Busha na cześć przewodniczącego ChRL, Hu Jintao, podczas jego wizyty w USA w 2006 roku. +9 listopada 2006 roku, ówczesna Sekretarz Stanu, Condoleezza Rice wyznaczyła Kwan po raz pierwszy w historii na Społecznego Wysłannika Dyplomacji Amerykańskiej. Zadaniem Kwan jest reprezentowanie wartości amerykańskich szczególnie wśród młodzieży i entuzjastów sportu. Pozycja ta wymaga podróżowania. Pierwszą wizytę w tym charakterze Kwan odbyła do Chin w terminie 17-25 stycznia 2007 roku. +Administracja Baracka Obamy również zaakceptowała kandydaturę Michelle Kwan na tym stanowisku. Michelle podjęła współpracę z wiceprezydentem Joe Biden oraz Sekretarz Stanu Hillary Clinton.. +Inne działania. +Michelle Kwan napisała książkę dla młodzieży z kategorii książek motywacyjnych, zatytułowaną "The Winning Attitude: What it Takes to be a Champion". W wieku 17 lat napisała również autobiografię "Heart of a Champion". +Kwan podpisała wiele kontraktów reklamowych i występowała w reklamach telewizyjnych takich sponsorów jak Campbell's Soup, VISA, Coca-Cola, oraz Kraft. +Chevrolet Motor Division firmy General Motors wraz z Michelle Kwan ustanowił program stypendialny o nazwie Chevrolet/Michelle Kwan R.E.W.A.R.D.S.. +W lutym 2006 roku Kwan została "gwiazdą" The Walt Disney Company. +Alfons I Waleczny + +Alfons I Waleczny (ur. ok. 1073, zm. 7 września 1134) – król Aragonii i Nawarry 1104–1134. +Był młodszym synem Sancha V – króla Nawarry i Aragonii (jako Sancho I) i oba królestwa odziedziczył po śmierci swojego starszego brata Piotra I w 1104 r. +Alfons w czasie swojego panowania podbił wiele miast na obszarze doliny Ebro: Egeę, Tudelę, Saragossę (po 7-miesięcznym oblężeniu), Calatayud, Borję, Tarazonę, Darokę oraz Monreal del Campo. Zmarł we wrześniu 1134 po nieudanej bitwie z Maurami podczas oblężenia Fragi. +Ten miłośnik wojowania (brał udział w dwudziestu dziewięciu bitwach przeciwko chrześcijanom lub Maurom), ożenił się 30 czerwca 1109 z Urraką z Kastylii, wdową po Rajmundzie z Burgundii, wyjątkowo rozwiązłą i zapalczywą kobietą. Małżeństwo zostało zaaranżowane przez jej ojca, Alfonsa VI z Kastylii, w 1106, by zjednoczyć dwa kraje chrześcijańskie przeciwko Almorawidom oraz by dostarczyć im zdolnego przywódcę militarnego. Urraca jednak była wyjątkowo upartą królową. Mąż i żona kłócili się bezustannie, nieraz uciekając się do przemocy fizycznej, aż w końcu rozpoczęli ze sobą otwartą wojnę. Będąc znacznie lepszym żołnierzem niż którykolwiek z jego przeciwników, Alfons wygrywał bitwy pod Sepalwedą i Fuente de la Culebra, jednak jego jedynymi godnymi zaufania poplecznikami byli Aragończycy, którzy nie byli dość liczni, by zwyciężyć Kastylię i León. Papież unieważnił jego małżeństwo z Urraką, pod pretekstem kuzynostwa trzeciego stopnia. +Król kłócił się z Kościołem – przede wszystkim z cystersami – prawie tak brutalnie jak ze swoją żoną. Gdy tylko ją zwyciężył, wygnał arcybiskupa Bernarda wraz z mnichami z Sahagun. W końcu Aragończyk został zmuszony do odstąpienia Kastylii i Leonu swojemu pasierbowi Alfonsowi, dziecku Urraki i jej pierwszego męża. Interwencja papieża Kaliksta II pomogła w ustanowieniu porozumienia między imiennikami. +Alfons Waleczny zdobył uznanie i wygrywał swoje najwspanialsze bitwy w środkowym Ebro, gdzie wygnał Maurów z Saragossy; podczas wielkiego rajdu 1125, kiedy to odbijał chrześcijańskich poddanych z Grenady; w południowo-zachodniej Francji, do której miał prawa jako król Nawarry. Trzy lata przed śmiercią ogłosił wolę, na mocy której jego królestwo miało przypaść templariuszom, joannitom i bożogrobcom; jego poddani odmówili jej spełnienia. Był gwałtownym, brutalnym człowiekiem, pobożnym jedynie z pozoru. Odegrał ogromną rolę podczas rekonkwisty. +Pogrzybów + +Pogrzybów – wieś sołecka w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie ostrowskim, w gminie Raszków. +Miejscowość graniczy z miastem Raszków tworząc z nim i z Przybysławicami zwarty zespół miejscowości. Do Pogrzybowa można dojechać z Ostrowa autobusami komunikacji miejskiej. +Historia. +Pierwotnie Grzybowo. Wzmiankowany w 1213 roku w związku z nadaniem dóbr klasztorowi w Ołoboku przez Władysława Odonica. W XVI wieku majątek Pogrzybowskich, od 1612 własność Daźdźboga Karnkowskiego, starosty bobrownickiego i odolanowskiego. Karnkowscy byli właścicielami wsi do lat '30 XIX wieku. W czasie Wiosny Ludów krótko stacjonowała tu polska Szkoła Podchorążych. W latach 1861-1894 własność Niemojowskich, później dobra nabyła pruska Komisja Kolonizacyjna. Losy miejscowości są ściśle związane z dziejami sąsiedniego Raszkowa. Przed 1932 rokiem miejscowość położona była w powiecie odolanowskim, w latach 1975-1998 w województwie kaliskim, w latach 1932-1975 i od 1999 w powiecie ostrowskim. +Andrea Palladio + +Andrea Palladio (ur. 30 listopada 1508 w Padwie, zm. 19 sierpnia 1580 w Maser) – włoski architekt i teoretyk architektury. +Urodził się w skromnej rodzinie rzemieślniczej, pod nazwiskiem Andrea di Pietro della Gondola, a zmienił je na Andrea Palladio pod wpływem swego mecenasa i poety, Gian Giorgio Trissino. Palladio studiował architekturę, zabytki starożytnego Rzymu, dzieła architektów, takich jak Giulio Romano, Donato Bramante i Baldassare Peruzzi, a także dzieło Witruwiusza. +Pierwszym poważnym zadaniem powierzonym Palladio była renowacja fasady Basilica a Vicenza (nowy wystrój XV-wiecznego Palazzo della Ragione poprzez jego nową obudowę z krużgankami i przekrycie hali Palazzo ogromną drewnianą kolebką o konstrukcji zbliżonej do odwróconego kadłuba fregaty) w 1549 (tzw. Basilica Palladiana). W latach 1558 do 1566 zajmował się odbudową i dokończeniem budowy XV-wiecznej katedry w Vicenzie. Następne prace powstawały w tej samej okolicy, były to rezydencje i budynki użyteczności publicznej, w tym pałace miejskie: Barbaran da Porto, Chiericati, Thiene, Porto, Valmarana, wille rezydencje podmiejskie: Villa Capra zwana Villa Rotonda w Vicenzie czy willa Foscari (la Malcontenta) w Mestre koło Wenecji. +W okresie od 1560 do 1580 Palladio zbudowal kilka kościołów w Wenecji, w tym San Francesco della Vigna, San Giorgio Maggiore i Il Redentore. W 1567 zbudował słynny drewniany (z galerią krytą dachem) most w Bassano nad rzeką Brentą (odbudowany po zniszczeniach II wojny światowej). Ponadto zbudował murowany ceramiczny most wsparty na kamiennych kolebkach nad rzeką Tesiną w Torri di Quartesolo w 11 lat od pierwszych szkiców w 1569 (most wzorowany na antycznych rzymskich). +Jego ostatnim dziełem był słynny Teatro Olimpico w Vicenzie, ukończony w pięć lat po śmierci architekta, w 1585. +Palladio był jednym z pierwszych nowożytnych architektów, który zawarł w formie traktatu i następnie stosował systemowe zasady organizacji i projektowania przestrzeni rezydencjonalnych. Był pod silnym wpływem architektury i starożytnej sztuki rzymskiej, wykorzystywał wiele rozwiązań znanych z budowli antycznych. +Andrea Palladio jest autorem traktatów o architekturze. Jego dzieło "I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura" – "Cztery Księgi o Architekturze" – stało się źródłem inspiracji dla twórców epoki klasycyzmu. +Szczególnie silne oddziaływanie miały poglądy artysty w Anglii, gdzie jego dzieło wydano w 1709, a jego kontynuatorzy, Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren i inni, stworzyli styl zwany palladianizmem. +Piotr I (król Aragonii) + +Piotr I z Aragonii (ur. 1069, zm. 27 września 1104) – król Aragonii i Nawarry 1094–1104. +Po jego śmierci w 1104 władzę w królestwach Aragonii i Nawarry objął jego młodszy brat Alfons I Waleczny. +Reptiliologia + +Reptiliologia - nauka zajmująca się badaniem gadów w tym m.in. budową ich ciała, fizjologią, zachowaniem się i systematyką. Częściej spotykanym pojęciem jest herpetologia (nauka o płazach i gadach). W ramach reptiliologii mieści się chelonologia - zajmująca się żółwiami i ofiologia - zajmująca się wężami. +Powiat skierniewicki + +Powiat skierniewicki - powiat w Polsce (w północno-wschodniej części województwa łódzkiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Skierniewice. Same Skierniewice nie są jednak częścią tego powiatu, gdyż jest to "miasto na prawach powiatu", tj. stanowi osobny powiat samo w sobie. +W skład powiatu wchodzą gminy wiejskie: Bolimów, Głuchów, Godzianów, Kowiesy, Lipce Reymontowskie, Maków, Nowy Kawęczyn, Skierniewice, Słupia. +Loch Ness + +Loch Ness (wym. ; gael. "Loch Nis", wym. , dosłownie "jezioro Nis") – słodkowodne jezioro położone w Szkocji, o długości około 37 km. Położone jest na wysokości 16 m n.p.m., na południowy zachód od miasta Inverness. Jest to największy zbiornik wodny na linii tektonicznej znanej jako Great Glen, która biegnie z północy od Inverness do Fort William na południu. Kanał Kaledoński łączący morze po obu stronach Great Glen biegnie poprzez Loch Ness. +Loch Ness jest jednym z wielu połączonych ze sobą jezior szkockich, które powstały w miejscach wyrzeźbionych przez lodowiec w czasie ostatniej epoki lodowcowej. Przejrzystość wody w Loch Ness jest niska, co jest spowodowane dużą zawartością torfu w ziemi przylegającej do jeziora. +Loch Ness jest drugim co do wielkości szkockim jeziorem, ma powierzchnię 56,4 km², ale ma największą objętość dzięki swojej głębokości. W najgłębszym miejscu mierzy ono 226 m. +Jezioro Ness służy także jako niższy rezerwuar dla elektrowni wodnej Foyers. +Na południowo-zachodnim krańcu jeziora, w pobliżu Fortu Augustusa, znajduje się jedyna wyspa Loch Ness – Cherry Island. Jest ona przykładem "crannog", sztucznej wyspy stworzonej przez człowieka z okresu epoki żelaza. +Popularność Loch Ness zawdzięcza potworowi znanemu jako "Nessie", rzekomo zamieszkującemu jego głębiny. +Jest najbardziej znanym jeziorem w Szkocji. +Karkemisz + +Karkemisz (asyr. "Karkamisz", egip. "Karkamesza") - starożytne miasto położone w dzisiejszej wschodniej Turcji, w prowincji Gaziantep na granicy z Syrią. Najbliższym współczesnym miastem jest Dżarabulus po stronie syryjskiej. W Turcji w pobliżu kompleksu ruin położona jest wieś Kargamiş. +Historia. +Miasto zawdzięczało swój rozwój korzystnemu położeniu na skrzyżowaniu szlaków handlowych, łączących Anatolię, Mezopotamię i Egipt. Było ośrodkiem kultu bogini Kubaby (hetycka "poprzedniczka" frygijskiej bogini Kybele). Nazwa Karkemisz po raz pierwszy pojawiła się na tabliczkach z Mari, datowanych na 1800 r. p.n.e. W tym okresie władzę w mieście, stanowiącym zarazem stolicę królestwa obejmującego okoliczne ziemie sprawował król Aplachanda i jego syn Jatarami. +W pewnym okresie na krótko miasto zdobyli Egipcjanie, a w sąsiedztwie Karkemisz faraon Totmes III wystawił stelę, sławiącą swoje syryjskie zwycięstwa. +W połowie XIV w. p.n.e. hetycki król Suppiluliuma I po tygodniowym oblężeniu zdobył twierdzę i wcielił ją do państwa hetyckiego. Karkemisz stało się wicekrólestwem hetyckim w Syrii. Władcą został Pijassili, syn Suppiluliumy I. +Potęga miasta rosła, a jego kolejni władcy: Szahurunuwa, Ini-Teszup i Talmi-Teszup odgrywali znaczącą rolę w wydarzeniach dziejących się w północnej Syrii. +Podczas bitwy pod Kadesz po stronie Hetytów brały udział również wojska z Karkemisz. Gdy król hetycki Mursili II zdominował królestwo Ugarit, to właśnie wicekról z Karkemisz stał na straży zawartych traktatów. +W czasie najazdu ludów morskich na królestwa w Azji Mniejszej Karkemisz uległo zniszczeniu. Za panowania Sargona II w 717 p.n.e. Asyria zamieniła obszar podległy niegdyś władzy Karkemisz w swoją prowincję. W 605 p.n.e. król babiloński Nabuchodonozor II pokonał pod Karkemisz egipską armię faraona Necho II. +Prace wykopaliskowe. +W latach 1912-1919 (z przerwą w latach trwania I wojny światowej) w Karkemisz prace wykopaliskowe z ramienia British Museum prowadzili Charles Leonard Woolley (odkrywca słynnych Grobów Królewskich z Ur) i Thomas Edward Lawrence (znany później jako Lawrence z Arabii). +Ciśnienie cząstkowe + +Ciśnienie cząstkowe (ciśnienie parcjalne) - ciśnienie, jakie wywierałby dany składnik mieszaniny gazów, gdyby w tej samej temperaturze sam zajmował objętość całej mieszaniny. +Dla gazów rzeczywistych, szczególnie dla wysokich ciśnień gazu, zamiast ciśnienia należałoby używać aktywności ciśnieniowej (lotności) gazu. +Napięcie magnetyczne + +Napięcie magnetyczne - to różnica potencjałów magnetycznych skalarnych wyrażająca się całką liniową natężenia pola magnetycznego wzdłuż drogi między dwoma punktami w tym polu. +Drawsko Pomorskie + +Drawsko Pomorskie (niem. "Dramburg") – miasto w północno-zachodniej Polsce, w województwie zachodniopomorskim, siedziba powiatu drawskiego oraz gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Drawsko Pomorskie. Od roku 1946 na południe od miasta znajduje się Poligon Drawski, jeden z największych poligonów w Polsce. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2009 roku, miasto miało 11 419 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Miasto leży nad rzeką Drawą na Pojezierzu Drawskim. Przez Drawsko Pomorskie przechodzi droga krajowa nr 20 oraz linia kolejowa nr 210. Przez miasto przebiegała też wąskotorowa linia kolejowa Stara Dąbrowa - Drawsko Pomorskie. +W granicach miasta znajduje się niewielkie jezioro Okra oraz ok. 3 km od miasta jezioro Lubie. +Odległość do Morza Bałtyckiego wynosi stąd około 90 kilometrów, do stolicy województwa - Szczecina jest stąd zaś 100 km. +W Drawsku wyróżnia się takie części miasta jak: Jankowo, Koleśno, Okrze, Zdroje. +W skład miasta wchodzą następujące dawne miejscowości: Gogółczyn, Kłosy. Wyróżnia się także osiedla mieszkaniowe: Os. Łobeskie, Os. Toruńskie i Os. Złocienieckie. +W latach 1946-1950 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. szczecińskiego, natomiast w latach 1950-1998 do woj. koszalińskiego. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia miasta wynosi 22,33 km². +Historia. +W 1946 r. wprowadzono urzędowo nazwę "Drawsko", zastępując poprzednią niemiecką nazwę "Dramburg". W 1948 r. zmieniono nazwę na "Drawsko Pomorskie". +W 2001 roku do miasta przyłączono obszar o łącznej powierzchni 90,18 ha. +Architektura. +Kościół parafialny neoromański pw. św. Pawła z lat 1928 - 1929, rzymskokatolicki należący do dekanatu Drawsko Pomorskie, diecezji koszalińsko-kołobrzeskiej, metropolii szczecińsko-kamieńskiej. +Administracja. +Miasto jest siedzibą gminy miejsko-wiejskiej. Mieszkańcy Drawska Pomorskiego wybierają do swojej rady miejskiej dziesięciu radnych (10 z 15). Pozostałych pięciu radnych wybierają mieszkańcy terenów wiejskich gminy Drawsko Pomorskie. Organem wykonawczym jest burmistrz. Siedzibą władz jest budynek przy ul. Sikorskiego. +Części miasta: Jankowo, Koleśno, Okrze, Zdroje. +Gmina Drawsko Pomorskie utworzyła w obrębie miasta 2 jednostki pomocnicze, zwane osiedlami (tj. Osiedle Nr 1 Samorządu Mieszkańców w Drawsku Pomorskim i Osiedla Nr 2 ...). Organem uchwałodawczym w obu jest ogólne zebranie osiedla. Organem wykonawczym jest zarząd osiedla, który składa się z 9 osób, z przewodniczącym na czele. Zarząd wybierany jest przez ogólne zebranie osiedla. +Mieszkańcy Drawska Pomorskiego wybierają posłów na Sejm z okręgu wyborczego nr 40, senatora z okręgu wyborczego nr 99, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. +Drawsko Pomorskie jest członkiem Związku Miast Polskich, Komunalnego Związku Celowego Gmin Pomorza Zachodniego "Pomerania" oraz Stowarzyszenia Gmin Pojezierza Drawskiego. +Miasto jest siedzibą Starostwa Powiatu Drawskiego. W mieście znajduje się także sąd rejonowy i prokuratura rejonowa. +Sport. +Miejscową drużyną piłkarską jest MKS "Drawa" Drawsko Pomorskie. Klub powstał w 1946 roku, posiada barwy klubowe niebiesko-biało-czerwone. Swe mecze rozgrywa na stadionie przy ul. Okrzei mogącym pomieścić 1 500 kibiców. W sezonie 2010/2011 zespół grał w IV lidze zachodniopomorskiej i uzyskał awans do III ligi grupy bałtyckiej +W Drawsku funkcjonuje Międzyszkolny Uczniowski Klub Sportowy "Oyama", trenujący karate Kyokushin. Treningi odbywają się na hali przy Gimnazjum A. Mickiewicza, a także w plenerze. +Wspólnoty religijne. +Miasto posiada dwie parafie rzymskokatolickie. Znajduje się tu siedziba dekanatu, która podlega pod diecezję koszalińsko-kołobrzeską. W mieście istnieje też Sala Królestwa miejscowego Chrześcijańskiego Zboru Świadków Jehowy. W Drawsku znajduje się cmentarz żydowski. +Krzysztof Materna + +Krzysztof Materna (ur. 28 października 1948 w Sosnowcu) – polski konferansjer, satyryk, aktor, reżyser i producent telewizyjny. +Biografia. +Absolwent II Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. E. Plater w Sosnowcu. Rozpoczynał karierę jako pracownik Zjednoczonych Przedsiębiorstw Rozrywkowych, był reżyserem oraz dyrektorem artystycznym koncertów na festiwalach opolskich i sopockich. +Wspólnie z Mannem zajął 1. miejsce w ankiecie "Polityki" na najważniejsze osobowości telewizyjne. Jest miłośnikiem gry w golfa, tenisa i piłki nożnej. Kolekcjonuje sztukę współczesną. +Jest współpracownikiem Internetowego Radia Baobab, gdzie prowadzi cykl audycji "Z pamięci Krzysztofa Materny" oraz wspólnie z Wojciechem Mannem "Między nami-dziadami" i "O radiach i magnetofonach". +20 maja 2009 z rąk ministra kultury i dziedzictwa narodowego Bogdana Zdrojewskiego odebrał Srebrny Medal "Zasłużony Kulturze Gloria Artis". +Od 25 września 2012 razem z Grzegorzem Markowskim prowadzi wtorkową audycję "Daję słowo" w Radiowej Jedynce. +Ma syna Michała i córkę Matyldę. +Jest członkiem Rady Nadzorczej klubu siatkówki kobiet Impel Wrocław. +Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer + +Scaled Composites Model 311 Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer – samolot zaprojektowany przez Burta Rutana na pokładzie którego Steve Fossett wykonał samotny lot bez lądowania dookoła świata w dniach od 28 lutego 2005 do 3 marca 2005. Samolot jest obecnie eksponatem w muzeum lotnictwa National Air and Space Museum w Waszyngtonie. +Historia. +Ideą powstania samolotu była chęć wykonania lotu dookoła świata, bez lądowania, w jednoosobowej maszynie. Rutan miał już doświadczenie w konstruowaniu takich samolotów, jego Rutan Voyager, napędzany dwoma tłokowymi silnikami, w grudniu 1986 roku, z dwuosobową załogą wykonał taki lot. Aby mógł tego dokonać jeden człowiek potrzebny był znacznie szybszy samolot. Pierwsze szkice nowej maszyny (oznaczonej jako 311-1) powstały w 1999 roku, nowa konstrukcja napędzana miała być silnikiem turbośmigłowym z dwoma śmigłami, jednym z przodu kadłuba a drugim z tyłu, umieszczonym na szczycie statecznika pionowego, używanym tylko podczas startu maszyny. Kolejne analizy przydatności takiego silnika wypadły na jego niekorzyść i w następnych wersjach samolotu brany był pod uwagę już tylko napęd odrzutowy. Wybrano silnik turbowentylatorowy Williams International FJ44, o takim wyborze zadecydowało to, że był to masowo produkowany silnik (używany między innymi w samolotach Cessna Citation), ekonomiczny, łatwy w obsłudze, niezawodny, sprawdzony i o niskich kosztach eksploatacji. Zastosowanie zaawansowanych programów komputerowych do zaprojektowania kształtu samolotu pozwoliło uzyskać konstrukcję o doskonałości aerodynamicznej rzędu 37 (tyle co dobrej klasy szybowiec). Praktycznie oznaczało to, że samolot znajdujący się na wysokości około 15 km, był w stanie przelecieć z wyłączonym silnikiem około 400 km. W 2005 roku maszyna była gotowa do rekordowego przelotu. +Rekord. +Pierwotnie zakładano, że samolot wystartuje w swój rekordowy lot w pierwszym tygodniu stycznia 2005 roku, jednak analiza prądów powietrza na wysokości przelotowej maszyny wykazała, że nie jest to najkorzystniejszy moment. 6 stycznia 2005 roku GlobalFlyer znalazł się w Salina w stanie Kansas. Wybrano ten port lotniczy do startu z racji niewielkiego ruchu lotniczego panującego w okolicach oraz posiadania przez miejscowe lotnisko pasa o znacznej długości 3 750 metrów. Stanowisko kontroli lotu umieszczono na terenie kampusu miejscowego uniwersytetu stanowego ("Kansas State University"). 28 lutego 2005 roku po blisko miesiącu oczekiwania na dogodne warunki pogodowe, o godzinie 18:47 czasu lokalnego GlobalFlyer, za sterami którego siedział Steve Fossett oderwał się od ziemi i poleciał na wschód. Po dwóch godzinach maszyna osiągnęła wysokość 12 kilometrów a po kolejnych 20, na swoją optymalną wysokość przelotową. Samolot przeleciał nad wschodnim wybrzeżem Kanady i lecąc nad Północnym Atlantykiem skierował się ku Wyspom Brytyjskim. Minąwszy Irlandię pilot poleciał w kierunku Grecji i dalej na Bliski Wschód i Arabie Saudyjską. Po 27 godzinach od startu GlobalFlyer był już nad Pakistanem. Warunki panujące na pokładzie nie były komfortowe. Fossett siedział w bardzo ciasnej kabinie, przez pierwszą dobę lotu w ogóle nie spał a później wpadał w trwające kilka minut drzemki, z których budzili go kontrolerzy lotu. Z powodu braku toalety na pokładzie i wynikających z tego powodu problemu odżywiał się tylko mieszankami mlecznymi, kupionymi podobno w zwykłym supermarkecie. GlobalFlyer przeleciał nad północnymi Indiami i skierował się w kierunku Chin. Po minięciu państwa środka pojawił się problem, okazało się, że w zbiornikach samolotu znajduje się mniej paliwa niż zakładano i może nie starczyć go na dokończenie lotu, w perspektywie był przelot nad Pacyfikiem. Fossett podjął decyzję o dalszym locie licząc na sprzyjające prądy strumieniowe co okazało się słuszną decyzją. Po 67 godzinach, 1 minucie i 46 sekundach od startu, po pokonaniu 36 819 km (o 31 km więcej niż wymagały przepisy FAI) ze średnią prędkością 550,5 km/h Steve Fossett wylądował w Salina, po lądowaniu okazało się, że w zbiornikach znajduje się jeszcze 680 kg paliwa. +Konstrukcja. +GlobalFlyer jest trzykadłubowym, jednosilnikowym samolotem z napędem odrzutowym zbudowanym z kompozytów węglowo-epoksydowych. W kadłubie wewnętrznym umieszczona jest ciśnieniowa kabina pilota nad którą znajduje się silnik turbowentylatorowy. Z przodu umieszczono przednią goleń dwukołowego podwozia. Zbiorniki paliwa znajdują się w zewnętrznych kadłubach oraz w skrzydle. Zewnętrzne kadłuby zakończone są klasycznym usterzeniem. W nich również umieszczono chowane w czasie lotu jednokołowe podwozie główne. Samolot lądując hamuje przy użyciu wypuszczanych przed przyziemieniem dwóch spadochronów. +Ansaldo SVA.5 + +Ansaldo SVA-5 – włoski dwupłatowy samolot zwiadowczy używany do rozpoznania, jako lekki bombowiec oraz samolot eskortujący ciężkie samoloty bombowe. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1917 roku w włoskiej wytwórni lotniczej Societe Gio Ansaldo Cia w Turynie. +Historia. +W koniec 1916 roku zatrudnieni w wytwórni Societe Gio Ansoldo Cia inż. Umberto Savoia i inż. Emilio Verduzio opracowali nowy lekki jednomiejscowy samolot zwiadowczy w układzie dwupłata, napędzany silnikiem rzędowym chłodzonym cieczą. +Prototyp samolotu zbudowano na początku 1917 roku , a jego oblot nastąpił 3 marca 1917 roku. Samolot otrzymał nazwę SVA-5 (nazwa pochodzi z pierwszych liter nazwisk konstruktorów oraz nazwy firmy Ansaldo, a cyfra oznacza kolejną konstrukcję produkowaną seryjnie). Samolot SVA-5 poprzedzały bowiem jednomiejscowe samoloty rozpoznawczo- bombardujące SVA-3 i SVA-4 wprowadzone do działań bojowych w lotnictwie włoskim na początku 1918 roku na froncie włosko-austriackim. +Prototyp samolotu SVA-5 miał dopracowaną aerodynamicznie sylwetkę, odznaczał się lekkością i zwartością. Dzięki zastosowaniu trójkątnego przekroju tyłu kadłuba, zwężonemu u dołu, pilot samolotu miał bardzo dobrą widoczność w dół do tyłu, co miało duże znaczenie w walkach powietrznych. Przód i środek kadłuba miał kształt prostokąta. Kadłub miał konstrukcję drewnianą, kratownicową, z przodu mieścił silnik osłonięty blachą aluminiową. Za silnikiem, przy końcu płatów, znajdowała się odkryta kabina pilota. Kabinę z przodu osłaniał mały wiatrochron. Na końcu kadłuba umieszczono skośne usterzenie klasyczne z podziałem na stateczniki i stery. Pokrycie kadłuba stanowiła sklejka. Płaty o konstrukcji dwudźwigarowej, drewnianej były kryte płótnem. Lotki znajdował się tylko na płacie górnym. Na nim też w środku umieszczono zbiornik paliwa połączony przewodem z silnikiem. Chłodnicę cieczy chłodzącej umieszczono przed silnikiem. Podczas prób prototyp samolotu spełniał wymagania konstruktorów i przewidziane osiągi, potwierdziły się również dobre właściwości pilotażowe i zwrotność. +Produkcję seryjną samolotu SVA-5 rozpoczęto już na jesieni 1917 roku. Pierwsze z nich pod koniec 1917 roku trafiły do włoskich szkół lotniczych. A od lutego 1918 roku samoloty SVA-5 znalazły się w jednostkach lotniczych na froncie włosko-austriackim. +Łącznie w latach 1917 – 1918 wyprodukowano 1245 samolotów myśliwskich SVA-5 co było wówczas rekordem w produkcji seryjnej samolotów. +Użycie bojowe. +Samoloty zwiadowczy SVA-5 w lutym 1918 roku znalazły się we włoskich jednostkach lotniczych na froncie włosko-austriackim. Wykonywały one tam zadania typowo myśliwskie. Na samolocie tym latał również włoski as myśliwski z I wojny światowej mjr Francesco Baracci, choć na tym typie samolotu nie odniósł żadnych zwycięstw. Samolot również zastosowano do strategicznych lotów rozpoznawczych co było możliwe dzięki ich zasięgowi i długotrwałości lotu. Był to pierwszy samolot użyty do takich lotów rozpoznawczych. +Na przykład włoski pilot Tenente Locatelli w dniu 21 maja 1918 roku wykonał lot do Friedrichshafen (Niemcy), gdzie sfotografował bazę sterowców. Ten sam pilot w dniu 21 czerwca dokonał lotu rozpoznawczego nad Zagrzeb. Głośnego rajdu na Wiedeń dokonał na samolocie SVA-5 w dniu 9 sierpnia 1918 roku znany pisarz i pilot włoski Gabriele D'Annuzio, który nad miastem zrzucił ulotki wzywające do zakończenia wojny. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +W połowie 1919 roku przebywająca we Włoszech Polska Misja Wojskowa gen. Kątkowskiego zakupiła kilka samolotów SVA-5 dla lotnictwa polskiego. Samoloty te dotarły do Polski w styczniu 1920 roku. Jeden z tych samolotów używany był do szkolenia i treningów w krakowskiej szkole pilotów. Co do pozostałych brak jest wiarygodnych informacji. +Opis techniczny samolotu myśliwskiego SVA-5. +Samolot SVA-5 był jednomiejscowym samolotem zwiadowczym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd – silnik rzędowy chłodzony cieczą, śmigło dwułopatowe, drewniane. +Łobez + +Łobez (niem. "Labes") – miasto w północno-zachodniej Polsce, w województwie zachodniopomorskim, siedziba powiatu łobeskiego i gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Łobez, położone nad rzeką Regą na Wysoczyźnie Łobeskiej. Według danych z 30 czerwca 2009 miasto miało 10 330 mieszkańców. Prawa miejskie Łobez otrzymał przed 1295 r. +Położenie. +Miasto Łobez znajduje się w środkowej części Pomorza Zachodniego, na Wysoczyźnie Łobeskiej, nad rzeką Regą, u ujścia do niej strugi Łoźnicy. Krzyżują się tu trzy drogi wojewódzkie – droga wojewódzka nr 147, 148 oraz 151. Odległość do Morza Bałtyckiego wynosi stąd około 70 kilometrów, do stolicy województwa – Szczecina jest stąd zaś 90 km. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2009 powierzchnia miasta wynosi 11,75 km². +Części miasta tworzą także Łobzówek, Łośnica, Świętoborzec oraz Wodnik. Ponadto bezpośrednio w okolicy miasta położone są następujące wsie: Dalno, Łobżany, Niegrzebia, Suliszewice, Przyborze oraz osada Trzeszczyna. Łobez leży także w pobliżu jezior Karwowo, Jezioro Strzemielskie (Biały Zdrój), Chełm, Klępnicko, Helka, Jurkowo, Dybrzno i innych. +Historia. +We wczesnym średniowieczu powstał na prawym brzegu Regi gród obronny Pomorzan, przy którym wytworzyło się podgrodzie. Podgrodzie stało się zalążkiem miasta – skupiała się tam ludność rzemieślniczo-handlowa, pełniło też funkcje administracyjno-wojskowe. Pierwsze wzmianki o Łobzie pochodzą z 1271. Jest w nich mowa rycerzu Wolfie Borko jako pana na Łobzie – „dominus de Lobis”. Dalsze losy Łobza łączą się z losami rodu Borków, którzy byli właścicielami miasta i okolic. +Łobez znalazł się wśród miejscowości, które jako pierwsze otrzymały prawa miejskie – już w 1295 roku figuruje jako „miasto”, w 1348 zaś dostał potwierdzenie swoich praw miejskich według prawa lubeckiego. W XIV wieku występuje już burmistrz i rada miejska. Wtedy też Łobez otoczono murami, które przetrwały do XVIII wieku. W 1460 uzyskał własne sądownictwo. Borkowie wznieśli też w Łobzie zamek, który przetrwał do XVIII wieku. W 1648 miasto weszło w skład Brandenburgii. W latach 1818-1945 miasto administracyjnie należało do powiatu Regenwalde, początkowo z siedzibą w Resku, a od roku 1860 z siedzibą w Łobzie. +W 1945 r. miasto zostało dotkliwie zniszczone. Łobez został wyzwolony 3 marca 1945 r. po ostrzale artyleryjskim z Suliszewic i nocnych walkach z fanatykami z Hitlerjugend (HJ – przybudówka Oddziałów Szturmowych SA, kompanie bojowe „Jagdkommandos” – uzbrojenie: granatnik pancerfaust) przez żołnierzy Armii Czerwonej (1 Armia Pancerna 1 Frontu Białoruskiego, 44 Brygada Pancerna Gwardii (Dowódca: płk Ivan Josif Gussakowski-później generał, II-krotny „Bohater Związku Radzieckiego”), 108 Gwardyjski Pułk Czołgów Ciężkich (Dowódca: płk Władimir D. Reutow(?)) i oddział łobeskich partyzantów (Polacy i (prawdopodobnie) osoby innej narodowości (Rosjanie, Francuzi lub Serbowie), którzy zbiegli z okolicznych jenieckich obozów pracy, gdzie było ich wiele w powiecie, a w Łobzie istniały w czasie wojny dwa obozy pracy). Następnie do Łobza weszli żołnierze polscy LWP z 43 Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej (Dowódca: mjr Ilia Sadowski), którzy stoczyli potyczkę 6.03.1945 r. w Świętoborcu z oddziałami XX Korpusu SS (Dowódca: gen.porucznik Günther Krappe (ur. 1893, †1981). +W następstwie II wojny światowej Łobez włączony został do Polski. Ludność, która pozostała w mieście wysiedlono do Niemiec. +W latach 1946-1975 Łobez był siedzibą powiatu łobeskiego (przejściowo w roku 1945 powiatu Ławiczka) zlikwidowanego w trakcie zmian administracyjnych w roku 1975. Od roku 2002 Łobez jest ponownie siedzibą powiatu łobeskiego. +W latach 1946–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. szczecińskiego. +W części miasta Świętoborzec działało Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne – "Państwowe Stado Ogierów Łobez", gdzie więcej o osiągnięciach sportowych (jeździectwo i powożenie) miejscowych sportowców można przeczytać w książce Zdzisława Bogdanowicza „"Historia sportu łobeskiego"”. Obecnie (od 2009 r.) majątek tego gospodarstwa przejęła firma SBS Stado Ogierów Łobez spółka z o.o. i klub jeździecki LKS „Hubal”. +W 1960 roku Łobez miał 6255 mieszkańców. +Historia nazwy miasta. +Pierwsze źródła podają nazwę miasta w formie: "Lobis" (1271), "Lobese" (1280), "Lobse" (1285). Nie do końca wyjaśniona jest etymologia słowa „Łobez”. Przypuszcza się, że miasto wywodzi swoją nazwę od rzeki, nad którą jest położone lub od łabędzia (historycy niemieccy – "łabędź" – starosłowiańskie: "labez", "labendz"). Starosłowiańskie słowo „"laba"”, oznaczało wszystko płynące lub zachowujące stan płynny. Inna interpretacja wskazuje pochodzenie nazwy od słowa "lobose", które oznaczało miejsce podmokłe, porośnięte tatarakiem, gęstwiną, krzakami, zaroślami zwanym w języku staropolskim "łabuziem". W obu przypadkach akcentowana jest lokalizacja osady nad wodą, na co wskazuje występujący także w innych nazwach rdzeń "łob" (np. Łobżenica, Łobżany). +Obecna nazwa miasta formalnie obowiązuje od 19 maja 1946. +Historyczne mapy. +Łobez na historycznych mapach. +Zabytki. +Więcej o kościele znajdziesz: Wikipodróże - Kościół - [http://pl.wikivoyage.org/wiki/%C5%81obez#Galeria_.E2.80.9EKo.C5.9Bci.C3.B3.C5.82_p.w._Naj.C5.9Bwi.C4.99tszego_Serca_Pana_Jezusa.E2.80.9D] +Więcej o zabytkach i ciekawych miejscach znajdziesz: Wikipodróże - [http://pl.wikivoyage.org/wiki/%C5%81obez#Galeria_.E2.80.9EZabytki_i_ciekawostki.E2.80.9D] +Atrakcje turystyczne. +Przez Łobez przebiega kilka opisanych i oznakowanych szlaków turystycznych, rowerowych, kajakowych w tym kajakowy Szlak Papieski i szlak konny Pojezierza Drawskiego (Świętoborzec – Biały Bór). +Miłośnicy koni znajdą je tak w Łobzie, Świętoborcu, Boninie i w najbliższej okolicy]. +Miłośnicy wędkarstwa mają w mieście rzekę Regę, jezioro miejskie Dybrzno oraz wiele okolicznych jezior. Miłośnicy sportów motorowych mają do jazdy wydzielony zalesiony teren w mieście w starym żwirowisku za cegielnią. +Miłośnicy głazów narzutowych znajdą je najbliżej w Przyborzu (9,1 m) i w Siedlicach (Maćkowe Łoże – 16 m). +Miłośnicy agroturystki wiedzą, że „Ziemia Łobeska” to piękny i jeden z najczystszych ekologicznie rejonów Polski. Atrakcyjne okolice Łobza, będące oazą piękna i spokoju sprzyjają zdrowemu i aktywnemu wypoczynkowi. Sąsiedztwo dziewiczych lasów z całym bogactwem runa leśnego, bliskość rybnych, czystych i niezatłoczonych jezior i rzek pozwala zregenerować siły. Docenią to amatorzy grzybobrania, jagód i malin, a także miłośnicy wędkowania. Pobyt na wsi to także świeże powietrze, przestrzeń i swoboda. Gospodarstwa agroturystyczne zlokalizowane są w Klępnicy (jezioro, las, zabytki, stacja kolejowa), Karwowie (jezioro, las, grodzisko, drzewa pomnikowe, zabytki), Prusinowie (rzeka, las, zabytki, stacja kolejowa), Bełcznie (zabytki, jezioro), Zagórzycach (las, rzeka, zabytki) i Łobzie. +Miłośnicy przyrody wiedzą, że „Ziemia Łobeska” charakteryzuje się dużą różnorodnością form roślinnych i zwierzęcych. Dużo jest lasów i zadrzewień, więcej niż przeciętnie w Polsce i w Europie. Nie są to zwarte obszary, lecz kępy leśne rozrzucone po całej gminie, najczęściej w pobliżu rzek i jezior. Wśród mieszanych lasów przeważa sosna, buk, dąb, brzoza i świerk. Piękne lasy bukowe porastają zbocza doliny Regi na południowy zachód od Łobza (Łobeskie Bieszczady) oraz w okolicach Karwowa. Rarytasem dla myśliwych są przebogate tereny łowieckie, na których występują jelenie europejskie, sarny, dziki, lisy, zające, kuny i ptactwo wodne, m.in. dzikie kaczki, dzikie gęsi, łyski i inne ptactwo łowne. Działają tu cztery koła łowieckie: „Lis” Łobez, „Jeleń” Łobez, „Cyranka” Szczecin i „Rogacz” Węgorzyno. Wielkim bogactwem lasów łobeskich są jagody, borówki, żurawiny, maliny, jeżyny i grzyby. Przy sprzyjających warunkach pogodowych sezon grzybobrania trwa od czerwca do późnej jesieni. Stosunkowo dużo zachowało się na terenie gminy drzew pomnikowych. Sędziwe okazy spotkać można na terenie miasta, jak i w wiejskich parkach podworskich, na cmentarzach, przy zabudowaniach oraz przy drogach (aleje klonowe, lipowe, jesionowe, brzozowe). Najokazalsze okazy zostały ustanowione pomnikami przyrody. Są to dęby „Bartek” w Unimiu i trochę młodszy, ale historyczny „Maćko” w Strzmielu, lipa „Elizabeth” i platan „Dzidźka” w Zachełmiu, kasztan „Cichowo” nad Mielnicą pomiędzy Strzmielem a Zachełmiem. +Demografia. +Więcej informacji o mieszkańcach Łobza, Patrz: +Administracja i polityka. +Mieszkańcy miasta wybierają do łobeskiej rady miejskiej 11 z 15 radnych, pozostałych 4 radnych wybierają mieszkańcy gminy Łobez. Organem wykonawczym władz jest burmistrz. Urząd miejski ma siedzibę przy ulicy Niepodległości. +wybrani w wyborach bezpośrednich (od roku 2002) oraz zastępcy +Przed rokiem 1989 rolę głowy miasta pełnił mianowany na to stanowisko Naczelnik Miasta i Gminy, którym ostatnim w Łobzie był Zbigniew Con. +Gmina Łobez utworzyła w obrębie całego miasta jednostkę pomocniczą – „Osiedle w Łobzie”. Mieszkańcy miasta (czyli osiedla) wybierają 15-osobową radę osiedla wg obwodów wyborczych na zebraniu wyborczym. Rada osiedla wybiera spośród swoich członków zarząd osiedla, który składa się z 5 członków, wraz z przewodniczącym zarządu osiedla i jego zastępcą. Obecnie Przewodniczącą Rady Osiedla jest Mirosława Borowska, wcześniej był Zdzisław Szklarski i Jerzy Sola. +Mieszkańcy wybierają posłów z okręgu wyborczego nr 41, senatora z okręgu nr 98, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu nr 13. +Transport. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa, przez którą przechodzi linia kolejowa nr 202 (trasa Stargard – Gdańsk Gł.), kursują autobusy PKS i prywatne busy osobowe. Do 1991 r. czynna była linia wąskotorowa ze Stargardu Szczecińskiego (ruch towarowy do 1995 r. ruch osobowy do do 1991 r.). +Kalendarium. +Krótka historia Łobza. +Władcy Aragonii + +Lista władców Aragonii. W latach 926-1134 również władców Nawarry, od 1164 także hrabiów Barcelony, a od 1238 królów Walencji +Królowie Aragonii. +Habsburgowie. +Od 1714 r. Aragonia w składzie Korony Hiszpańskiej +Prawo Raoulta + +Prawo Raoulta stosuje się wyłącznie dla roztworów rozcieńczonych. +a także skład pary (indeks "v"), z reguły inny niż skład cieczy: +Zgodnie z prawem Raoulta faza gazowa (para cieczy) będzie zawsze bogatsza od fazy ciekłej w składniki łatwiej lotne (mające wyższe ciśnienie pary nasyconej a niższą temperaturę wrzenia, zobacz regułę składu pary). +Zastosowania i odchylenia od prawa Raoulta. +Jeżeli ciśnienie pary nasyconej jest wyższe niż przewidywane przez prawo Raoulta, mówi się o dodatnim odchyleniu od prawa Raoulta. Jeśli ciśnienia pary nasyconej są mniejsze, wówczas mówi się o odchyleniach ujemnych. Jeżeli odchylenia są tak duże, że na wykresie P(x) pojawia się ekstremum (maksimum lub minimum) mówi się o azeotropach. +Prawo Raoulta pozwala wytłumaczyć podwyższenie temperatury wrzenia dla cieczy zawierających substancje nielotne - ciśnienie nad cieczą przy standardowej temperaturze wrzenia, określonej przez ciśnienie zewnętrzne jest niższe niż wymagane do wrzenia. Wymagane jest więc ogrzanie cieczy do wyższej temperatury. +Różnica składu fazy ciekłej i gazowej umożliwia stosowanie procesu destylacji do rozdzielania mieszanin ciekłych. W procesie tym faza gazowa (para) jest wzbogacana w składnik lotniejszy, a faza ciekła jest wzbogacana w składnik mniej lotny. Mieszaniny ciekłe posiadające punkt azeotropowy nie mogą być całkowicie rozdzielone na składniki w procesie destylacji. +Sergio Leone + +Sergio Leone (ur. 3 stycznia 1929 w Rzymie, zm. 30 kwietnia 1989 tamże) – włoski reżyser i scenarzysta filmowy, twórca i przedstawiciel spaghetti westernu. +Karierę zaczynał jako asystent reżysera przy filmach włoskich i amerykańskich. Sławę zdobył jako twórca tak zwanej dolarowej trylogii ("Za garść dolarów", "Za kilka dolarów więcej", "Dobry, zły i brzydki"), w której polemizował z motywami występującymi w klasycznych hollywoodzkich westernach. Dalszy etap jego twórczości stanowią westerny "Pewnego razu na Dzikim Zachodzie" i "Garść dynamitu" oraz dramat gangsterski "Dawno temu w Ameryce". W twórczości Leone dostrzegano między innymi wpływy włoskiego neorealizmu; on sam oddziaływał na takich reżyserów, jak Sam Peckinpah, Clint Eastwood, Robert Rodriguez i Quentin Tarantino. +Życiorys. +Młodość. +Sergio Leone urodził się 3 stycznia 1929 roku w Rzymie. Jego ojcem był reżyser filmów niemych Vincenzo Leone (pod pseudonimem Roberto Roberti), a jego matką – aktorka Edvige Valcarenghi. Mimo nalegań ojca, żeby studiował prawo, Sergio Leone postanowił podjąć pracę w kinematografii. +Leone rozpoczął karierę w 1948 roku jako asystent reżysera Vittoria De Siki przy filmie "Złodzieje rowerów". W latach 50. XX wieku pracował przy około pięćdziesięciu filmach włoskich i amerykańskich, między innymi "Helenie Trojańskiej" Roberta Wise’a i "Ben-Hurze" Williama Wylera. Po raz pierwszy przejął obowiązki reżyserskie, zastępując Mario Bonnarda przy kręceniu obrazu "Ostatnie dni Pompei" z 1959 roku. +1960–1969. +Pierwszym autonomicznym dziełem Sergia Leone był nakręcony w 1960 roku, osadzony w czasach starożytnych kostiumowy film przygodowy "Kolos z Rodos". Kręcony w Hiszpanii i we Włoszech film traktował o pięciu żołnierzach greckich, którzy dostają zadanie zniszczenia Kolosa Rodyjskiego. Recenzent pisma „The New York Times”, Howard Thompson, ocenił "Kolosa z Rodos" jako film dobrze wykonany pod względem wizualnym, ale absurdalny pod względem fabuły. +Na początku lat 60. XX wieku we włoskiej kinematografii nastąpił kryzys finansowy, który omal nie przyniósł ruiny finansowej wytwórni Cinecittà, w której pracował Leone. Biorąc pod uwagę sukces niemieckich westernów opartych na powieściach o Winnetou, włoski reżyser nakręcił w 1964 roku film kowbojski "Za garść dolarów" inspirowany dziełem Akiry Kurosawy "Straż przyboczna", rozpoczynający tak zwaną dolarową trylogię. Jego budżet wynosił 200 000 dolarów amerykańskich. Główną rolę bezimiennego kowboja, który przybywa do wioski ogarniętej walką między dwoma gangami, przyjął wówczas mało znany Clint Eastwood, choć Leone zamierzał powierzyć ją Henry’emu Fondzie, a potem Jamesowi Coburnowi. Muzykę do filmu stworzył szkolny kolega reżysera, Ennio Morricone, który stał się stałym współpracownikiem Leone. W "Za garść dolarów" został przełamany hollywoodzki schemat klasycznego filmu kowbojskiego, w którym istniał wyraźny podział na dobrych bohaterów unikających przemocy i bandytów ją preferujących. Główny bohater filmu kieruje się w swych poczynaniach wyłącznie zyskiem, gangsterzy nie przejawiają żadnych cech pozytywnych, a kobiety, które w hollywoodzkich filmach odgrywały ważną rolę, zostały zmarginalizowane. Dzięki subtelnym zbliżeniom, długim sekwencjom i eksperymentalnej muzyce Morricone "Za garść dolarów" zyskał miano filmu artystycznego. Jakkolwiek nie był on pierwszym westernem zrealizowanym we Włoszech (przed nim nakręcono około 25 innych), ustanowił podstawę nurtu spaghetti westernów, charakteryzującego się wysokim poziomem przemocy i czarnym humorem. "Za garść dolarów" odniósł znaczący sukces we Włoszech i innych państwach Europy Zachodniej, zarabiając 3,5 miliarda lirów; przez amerykańską krytykę został przyjęty sceptycznie, mimo to przyniósł w Stanach Zjednoczonych zysk o wartości 14,5 miliona dolarów. Dzięki niemu Eastwood zyskał międzynarodową sławę, a Cinecittà została uratowana przed bankructwem. +Powodzenie "Za garść dolarów" zachęciło Leone do nakręcenia w 1965 roku kolejnego filmu, "Za kilka dolarów więcej". Jego treścią jest rywalizacja między dwoma łowcami nagród (Clint Eastwood i Lee Van Cleef), poszukującymi zbiegłego bandyty (Gian Maria Volontè). Film kosztował równowartość 600 000 dolarów amerykańskich, a po premierze przyniósł zysk w wysokości 3,2 miliarda lirów. Po premierze w Stanach Zjednoczonych "Za kilka dolarów więcej" zarobił 15 milionów dolarów. Wówczas uzyskał mieszane recenzje – od negatywnych, piętnujących Leone za gloryfikację przemocy, po pozytywne, w których chwalono aktorstwo i realizację techniczną dzieła. Późniejsi krytycy dostrzegali w drugim westernie Leone ponadprzeciętnie zrealizowany film, który przełamał kolejne konwencje klasycznego kina kowbojskiego, z operową niemal muzyką Morricone oraz licznymi zbliżeniami. Sławę dzięki niemu zyskał Van Cleef, który wziął udział w kilkunastu innych włoskich westernach. +W 1966 roku Leone zamknął dolarową trylogię, kręcąc film "Dobry, zły i brzydki" osadzony w realiach wojny secesyjnej, którego bohaterami była trójka rzezimieszków o odmiennych charakterach (Clint Eastwood, Eli Wallach, Lee Van Cleef), poszukujących skarbca ze złotem. Było to najdroższe dzieło z trylogii, sfinansowane przy udziale wytwórni United Artists, którego budżet wynosił 1 200 000 dolarów amerykańskich, Film zawierał czarny humor, spektakularną akcję i finałową scenę pojedynku trzech bohaterów w cmentarzu. Podobnie jak poprzednie filmy Leone, "Dobry, zły i brzydki" odniósł sukces komercyjny, zarabiając 3,5 miliona lirów w kraju oraz ponad 25 milionów dolarów w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Otrzymał natomiast negatywne recenzje od krytyków amerykańskich, którzy zarzucali mu marną fabułę, aczkolwiek chwalili stronę wizualną. Ostatecznie jednak film został zrehabilitowany jako klasyk gatunku z wyrafinowaną wizją plastyczną i mistrzowską realizacją. +Popularność trylogii spowodowała, że amerykańska wytwórnia Paramount Pictures zatrudniła Leone w celu nakręcenia kolejnego westernu. Nad scenariuszem filmu zwanego "Pewnego razu na Dzikim Zachodzie" pracowali Bernardo Bertolucci i Dario Argento. Nakręcony w 1968 roku film podejmował klasyczny wątek budowy kolei, ukazując jednocześnie konfrontację bezimiennego kowboja (Charles Bronson) z bezwzględnym bandytą (Henry Fonda). Budżet filmu wyniósł 3 miliony dolarów. "Pewnego razu na Dzikim Zachodzie" został ciepło przyjęty przez widzów w Europie Zachodniej, natomiast w Stanach Zjednoczonych, gdzie film ocenzurowano, krytycy odebrali go lekceważąco. Dopiero w latach 80. XX wieku, po ukazaniu się wersji reżyserskiej, zrehabilitowano western Leone jako arcydzieło gatunku. +1970–1979. +Początek lat 70. XX wieku Sergio Leone spędził na kręceniu westernu opartego na scenariuszu Luciana Vincenzioniego i Sergia Donatiego pod tytułem "Garść dynamitu". Film, który został nakręcony w 1971 roku, osadzony był w realiach rewolucji meksykańskiej i traktował o współpracy meksykańskiego rzezimieszka (Rod Steiger) z irlandzkim terrorystą (James Coburn). W "Garści dynamitu" reżyser powstrzymał się od podtekstów politycznych, charakteryzujących ówczesne włoskie westerny w podobnych realiach. Zamiast tego pokazał ciemną stronę rewolucji, wyrażającą się w masowych egzekucjach. Film, początkowo ostro krytykowany za fabułę, został ostatecznie częściowo zrehabilitowany; krytycy wskazywali na niedopracowany warsztat techniczny i zbędne motywy polityczne, ale również chwalili dynamiczną akcję i muzykę Morricone. +Leone po tym filmie długo nie reżyserował kolejnych; odrzucił propozycję sfilmowania powieści "Ojciec chrzestny", którą później zaadaptował Francis Ford Coppola. Zbierał natomiast fundusze do pracy nad planowanym dramatem gangsterskim pod tytułem "Dawno temu w Ameryce". Zajmował się też produkcją kilku włoskich filmów, między innymi "Nazywam się Nobody" w reżyserii Tomina Valerii. Leone w 1971 roku był członkiem jury na Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Filmowym w Cannes, a w 1978 roku – na Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Filmowym w Berlinie. +1980–1989. +Po zdobyciu odpowiednich funduszy Sergio Leone rozpoczął w 1982 roku zdjęcia do "Dawno temu w Ameryce". Film ukazał się w 1984 roku i był opowieścią o życiu gangstera żydowskiego pochodzenia (Robert De Niro) oraz jego przyjaciół od czasów prohibicji do lat 60. XX wieku. Stanowił on polemikę z hollywoodzkimi filmami gangsterskimi, wyrażającą jednocześnie rozczarowanie Leone Stanami Zjednoczonymi i tamtejszym brakiem wartości. 3,5-godzinna saga została bardzo pozytywnie przyjęta przez publiczność poza konkursem na Festiwalu Filmowym w Cannes, jednak na rynek amerykański weszła okrojona o 84 minuty i zmontowana w kolejności chronologicznej, tracąc swą logikę i sens. W wyniku tego film w Stanach odniósł klęskę finansową, zarabiając jedynie ponad 5 milionów dolarów. Reakcje amerykańskich krytyków na oryginalną wersję były różne: od atakującego film Leone Vincenta Canby'ego z „The New York Timesa”, przez chwalącego sposób narracji Richarda Corlissa z magazynu „Time”, po pełnego entuzjazmu Rogera Eberta, który ogłosił "Dawno temu w Ameryce" arcydziełem. Dzieło Leone otrzymało dwie nagrody BAFTA. Swoją działalność w filmie Leone zakończył jako przewodniczący jury na 45. Festiwalu Filmowym w Wenecji. +Śmierć. +Pomimo niewydolności serca Leone planował nakręcić film o blokadzie Leningradu, jednak plany przerwała jego śmierć 30 kwietnia 1989 roku. W chwili śmierci miał żonę Carlę oraz trzy córki: Raffaelę, Francescę i Andreę. +Styl filmowy. +Mimo przemocy i ironii występującej w filmach Leone australijski krytyk filmu, Arthur Martin, zaliczył twórczość włoskiego reżysera do dzieł romantycznych, dających widzowi wrażenie spełnienia jego cudownych marzeń. Leone parodiował charakterystyczne cechy klasycznego hollywoodzkiego westernu, ale przejawiał także zdolności w tworzeniu artystycznej wizji świata. W dziełach Leone odnajdywano odwołania do postmodernizmu, wyrażające się w ironicznym traktowaniu hollywoodzkich motywów i mitów; na przykład "Pewnego razu na Dzikim Zachodzie" cechują odwołania do licznych hollywoodzkich westernów, między innymi "W samo południe", "Jeźdźca znikąd", "Miasta bezprawia", "Żelaznego konia" i "Człowieka, który zabił Liberty Valance'a". Brytyjski historyk filmu, Christopher Frayling, doszukał się w trylogii dolarowej nawiązania do dorobku włoskich neorealistów. +W swoich westernach Leone patrzył na Dziki Zachód z perspektywy Europejczyka, w związku z czym ironicznie traktował mity tworzone przez Hollywood w amerykańskich filmach kowbojskich. Jednocześnie, układając swe dzieła z klasycznych filmów gatunku, nie odejmował im swego mitologicznego charakteru. Westerny Leone nie zawierają żadnych przesłań moralnych, typowych dla tradycyjnych filmów kowbojskich. Również "Dawno temu w Ameryce" wyraża rozczarowanie reżysera Stanami Zjednoczonymi i dokonuje rewizji pozytywnych poglądów na to państwo. +Leone zasłynął wieloma zabiegami technicznymi. W "Dobrym, złym i brzydkim" reżyser po raz pierwszy zastosował na dużą skalę wielkie zbliżenia, a krajobrazy pustynne zostały sfilmowane tak, by przypominały sztukę surrealistyczną. Z kolei w "Dawno temu w Ameryce" zaburzona została struktura narracyjna poprzez częste zmiany czasu akcji, a momenty liryczne przeplatano z wysoką brutalnością. +Filmy Leone cechuje staranne budowanie napięcia oraz misterne układanie zagadek fabularnych, które widz musi rozwiązać. Ważną rolę w filmach włoskiego reżysera odgrywa też harmonia obrazu z muzyką. +Znaczenie. +Sergio Leone wywarł znaczący wpływ na rozwój dalszej kinematografii. Bezpośrednio oddziałał on na brutalne filmy Sama Peckinpaha z "Dziką bandą" na czele; Peckinpah przyznał się, że bez znajomości twórczości włoskiego reżysera nie mógłby wyprodukować tego filmu. Zdaniem Adriana Martina twórczość Sergia Leone (szczególnie "Za garść dolarów") przyczyniła się do narodzin nowego rodzaju kina, stanowiąc wyraźną inspirację dla kontestacyjnych dzieł Francisa Forda Coppoli, Martina Scorsese czy Philipa Kaufmana. Styl Leone naśladowali też tacy twórcy, jak George Miller, John Woo czy Sam Raimi; Robert Rodriguez stworzył wyraźnie inspirowane jego twórczością filmy "Desperado" i "". Clint Eastwood zadedykował Leone (a także Donowi Siegelowi) rewizjonistyczny western "Bez przebaczenia". Quentin Tarantino z drugiej części "Kill Billa", również dedykowanej Sergiowi Leone, uczynił film naśladujący spaghetti westerny włoskiego reżysera, w którym przejawiał, podobnie jak Leone, skłonność do drobiazgowego przedstawiania szczegółów sceny. Podobnie w stylu włoskiego reżysera był utrzymany film "Bękarty wojny". Bezpośrednie naśladownictwo dzieła Leone stanowił film "Dobry, zły i zakręcony" w reżyserii Kim Ji-woona. +Taśma filmowa + +Taśma filmowa lub błona filmowa – perforowany, światłoczuły nośnik filmu, negatyw lub kopia pokazowa pozytywowa – najczęściej o szerokości 35 mm ale także 16, 8 i 70 mm. Najpopularniejsze z firm produkujące materiały filmowe: Kodak, Fujifilm, Agfa i nie istniejąca już ORWO. Podłożem (mechanicznym nośnikiem) taśmy filmowej stosowanym w przeszłości był łatwopalny celuloid, obecnie stosowane są trudnopalne podłoża na bazie octanu celulozy bądź ostatnio poliesterów. +Na taśmie film jest zapisany w postaci pojedynczych klatek – kadrów, przesuwających się w projektorze kinowym z prędkością 24 klatek na sekundę (w epoce kina niemego było to 16 klatek na sek.). Oprócz obrazu z boku kadru znajduje się ścieżka dźwiękowa. Perforacja służy do przesuwu taśmy w projektorze i kamerze. +Coraz rzadziej są stosowane inne szerokości taśmy – 70, 16, 8 mm i Super 8 mm. +W ciągu ponad stu lat istnienia kinematografii wymyślono wiele formatów zapisu obrazu na taśmie filmowej. Format standardowy to klatka w proporcjach 1,37:1. W latach 60. i 70. popularny był format panoramiczny CinemaScope z proporcjami obrazu – 2,35:1. Obecnie w kinach powszechnie stosuje się tzw. kaszetę z proporcjami obrazu 1,85:1 lub 1,66:1. Taśma 70 mm znalazła zastosowanie m.in. przy wyświetlaniu obrazów (tradycyjnych i trójwymiarowych) w systemie IMAX. Ekran ma tu proporcje 1,43:1, kadr ustawiony jest poziomo, a nie pionowo jak na taśmie 35 mm. +Powiat wieluński + +Powiat wieluński - powiat w Polsce (województwo łódzkie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Wieluń. +Utworzony w XIV wieku powstał na obszarze historycznej ziemi rudzkiej (wieluńskiej), istniejącej już od XIV w. Terytorialne ukształtowanie się powiatów zależało wówczas od miejsca odbywania się sądów, te zaś odbywały się w miejscach bardziej zaludnionych. Na przestrzeni wieków granice powiatu ulegały zmianom. W czasie okupacji został wcielony do Rzeszy Niemieckiej. Po wyzwoleniu odbudowano administrację powiatową wedle stanu z 1939 r. Kolejne zmiany, a zarazem duży cios ukształtowanej przez stulecia wspólnocie kulturalnej, ekonomicznej i społecznej, jaką na przestrzeni blisko ośmiu wieków była ziemia wieluńska, zadała reforma podziału administracyjnego państwa z 1 czerwca 1975 r. Powiat wieluński przestał istnieć, a jego obszar znalazł się w granicach dwóch województw: sieradzkiego i częstochowskiego. +Powiat w 1999 roku zawarł umowy partnerskie z chorwackimi miejscowościami: Karlobag, Senj, Novalija a w 2010 z niemieckim miastem Ochtrup. +Surowce. +Na terenie powiatu wieluńskiego znajduje się część złoża węgla brunatnego o zasobności ok 490 mln ton. Złoże nosi nazwę "Złoczew" i zlokalizowane jest 20 km na północ od Wielunia, na terenie gmin : Ostrówek, Złoczew i Burzenin (na pograniczu powiatów wieluńskiego i sieradzkiego). Eksploatację złoża wstępnie planuje się na lata 2025-2045. Wydobyty węgiel będzie transportowany do elektrowni Bełchatów. Transport do elektrowni będzie najprawdopodobniej odbywał się za pomocą przenośników taśmowych. +Transport. +Drogi. +Do 2011 roku ma powstać obwodnica północna Wielunia w ciągu drogi krajowej nr 8. Przez obrzeża powiatu, przebiega także zatwierdzony północny wariant drogi ekspresowej S8. +Kolej i komunikacja PKS. +Przez powiat przebiega również wybudowana w 1926 roku linia kolejowa nr 181 relacji (Kępno – Wieluń – Herby Nowe). Obecnie na terenie powiatu zlokalizowanych jest pięć działających stacji kolejowych: Wieluń Dąbrowa, Wieluń Miasto, Biała, Pątnów Wieluński oraz Dzietrzniki. +Do końca lat 80. XX wieku funkcjonowała Wieluńska Kolej Dojazdowa, która łączyła Wieluń z Praszką. +Komunikację z okolicą oraz z całym krajem zapewnia PKS Wieluń, oraz nowoczesny (choć wybudowany w 1976) dworzec autobusowy, obsługujący również komunikację międzynarodową. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Szlak Bursztynowy Ziemi Wieluńskiej +Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir + +Abu Aamir Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Abi Aamir, Al-Hajib Al-Mansur, w Europie znany jako Almanzor, أبو عامر محمد بن عبد الله بن أبي عامر الحاجب المنصور (ur. ok. 938, zm. 8 sierpnia 1002) – faktyczny władca Al-Andalus w drugiej połowie X wieku. Za jego rządów, muzułmańska Hiszpania przeżyła swój złoty wiek. +Urodził się jako Muhammad Ibn Abi Aamir w arabskiej rodzinie szlacheckiej w okolicach Algeciras. Pojawiając się na dworze w Kordowie jako student prawa i literatury, został zarządcą posiadłości miejskich księcia Hiszama. +W ciągu zaledwie paru lat, knując i spiskując, awansował z tej skromnej pozycji na wyżyny dworskich wpływów, eliminując po drodze swoich przeciwników politycznych. Kalif Al-Hakam zmarł w 976 roku i to właśnie Ibn Abi Amir najbardziej przyczynił się do zagwarantowania młodemu, dwunastoletniemu Hiszamowi II sukcesji po poprzedniku. Dwa lata później został uznany za "hajiba" (odpowiednika Wielkiego Wezyra na muzułmańskim wschodzie). W ciągu następnych trzech lat umacniał swoją władzę, równocześnie izolując kalifa od świata w nowym pałacu Medina Azahara. +W roku 981, po swoim powrocie do Kordowy po bitwie, podczas której zmiażdżył swojego ostatniego przeciwnika (ojczyma, Uthmana al-Mushafi), zdobył tytuł Al-Mansur bi-llah, Zwycięzcy z Woli Boskiej. W chrześcijańskiej Europie nazywano go Almanzorem (Al-Mansur). +Jego władza nad Al-Andalus był absolutna i pozwoliła mu na całkowite poświęcenie się kampaniom militarnym przeciwko chrześcijańskim królestwom na Półwyspie. Zorganizował i prowadził pięćdziesiąt siedem kampanii, a każdą z nich wygrał. +Pomimo że walczył głównie z Leónem i Kastylią, w roku 985 zdobył Barcelonę, a w 997 – Santiago de Compostela w Galicji, gdzie złupił miasto, zabrał katedralne dzwony, jednak oszczędził grób Świętego Jakuba Apostoła. Walczył również z Nawarrą. +Ożenił się z Abdą, córką Sancho I Garcesa, króla Nawarry, która urodziła mu syna, Abda al-Rahmana. Powszechnie nazywano go Sanchuelem (Mały Sancho, po arabsku "Shanjoul"). +Jego zwycięstwa na północny ostrzegły chrześcijańskich władców półwyspu i spowodowały, że sformowali sojusz około roku 1000. To właśnie walcząc z nimi spędził ostatnie lata swojego życia. Zmarł w roku 1002, kiedy wracał do Kordowy po ataku na klasztor San Millán de la Cogolla. Stało się to w wiosce Salem, blisko Medinaceli, gdzie obecnie znajduje się jego grobowiec. +Jego następcą był jego syn Abd al-Malik, który rządził Al-Andalus jako "hajib" aż do śmierci w 1008 roku. +Po Abd al-Maliku, jego ambitny przyrodni brat Sanchuelo przejął władzę z zamiarem zagarnięcia całego kalifatu dla siebie i całkowitego odsunięcia Hiszama. Wywołało to wojnę domową, rozbiło państwo na szereg mniejszych królestw, które katoliccy władcy podbijali jedno po drugim. +Adsorpcja względna + +Adsorpcja względna (ang. "relative adsorption") określa, jaki ułamek pojemności adsorpcyjnej adsorbentu jest zajęty przez cząsteczki adsorbatu. Pojęcie to jest stosowane przy opisie adsorpcji na powierzchniach płaskich, jak i porowatych. Oznacza się je takim samym symbolem, jak pokrycie powierzchni. +W przypadku adsorpcji monowarstwowej oraz wielowarstwowej pojemność adsorpcyjna ao jest równa pojemności monowarstwy am, a adsorpcja względna ma sens (statystycznego) pokrycia powierzchni lub statystycznej grubości warstwy adsorpcyjnej wyrażonej jako krotność grubości monowarstwy. W przypadku adsorbentu mikroporowatego adsorpcja względna określa, jaka część dostępnych adsorpcji mikroporów jest już zapełniona. +Izoterma reakcji + +Izoterma reakcji (izoterma van 't Hoffa) – zależność powinowactwa chemicznego reakcji ("A") od stałej równowagi reakcji ("K") i rzeczywistych stężeń substratów i produktów reakcji w środowisku reakcji oraz warunków fizycznych (np. ciśnienia i temperatury). +gdzie: ci – stężenia molowe reagentów (A, B, C i D), Kc – stała równowagi (analogiczny iloraz stężeń reagentów w stanie równowagi), "R" – stała gazowa. +Powinowactwo chemiczne (A) jest wyrażane w warunkach "T,p" = const przez zmianę entalpii swobodnej Gibbsa (Δ"G", potencjał izotermiczno-izobaryczny), a w warunkach "T,v" = const przez zmianę energii swobodnej Helmholtza (Δ"F", potencjał izotermiczno-izochoryczny). +Przedstawiona forma równania izotermy odnosi się do reakcji w rozcieńczonych roztworach. W przypadku reakcji w roztworach stężonych zamiast stężeń stosuje się ich aktywności, a w przypadku reakcji gazowych – ich ciśnienia cząstkowe. +Izoterma reakcji umożliwia przewidywanie kierunku reakcji chemicznej (biegnącej samorzutnie w taką stronę stanu o najniższej energii). Nie określa szybkości tych reakcji – zagadnień kinetyki reakcji dotyczy empiryczna „reguła van 't Hoffa” oraz równanie Arrheniusa. +Żółwiak afrykański + +Żółwiak afrykański ("Trionyx triunguis") – gatunek gada z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych z rodziny żółwiaków. +Sancho Ramírez + +Sancho Ramírez (ur. przed 1045 - zm. 6 lipca 1094) − król Aragonii (1064-1094, jako Sancho I) oraz Nawarry (1076-1094, jako Sancho V). +Był synem króla Aragonii, Ramiro I, i Ermesindy z Bigorre. Władzę w Aragonii objął w 1061 roku, a po śmierci ojca (1064?) został królem Aragonii. W 1076 roku został wybrany na króla Nawarry, po tym jak Sancho IV zmarł bezpotomnie. +Podbił Barbastro w 1065, Graus w 1083 i Monzón w roku 1089. Ok. 1065 roku ożenił się z Izabelą z Urgel (rozwiedli się w roku 1071), córką hrabiego Armengola III z Urgel. Po raz drugi ożenił się w 1076 roku, z Felicją de Roucy, córką hrabiego Hilduina III z Roucy, dzięki czemu połączył królestwa Aragonii i Nawarry. Po raz trzeci ożenił się z Filipą z Tuluzy. +Z Izabelą miał syna Piotra I, z Felicją Alfonsa I Wojownika i Ramira II Mnicha. Wszyscy trzej kolejno zasiedli na tronie Aragonii. +Tadeusz Czerwiński + +Tadeusz Czerwiński (ur. 17 lutego 1910, Gronowiec, zginął 22 sierpnia 1942, Saint-Omer) – kapitan pilot Wojska Polskiego i major ("ang. Wing Commander") Królewskich Sił Powietrznych. +W 1936 ukończył Kurs Wyższego Pilotażu w Grudziądzu. Do wybuchu II wojny światowej był instruktorem w Szkole Podchorążych Lotnictwa w Dęblinie. W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 był dowódcą jednego z kluczy myśliwskich sformowanych z pilotów Eskadry Ćwiczebnej Pilotażu. Walczył w rejonie Dęblina. Po zakończeniu działań wojennych w Polsce, przez Rumunię, przedostał się do Francji. +W kampanii francuskiej 1940 walczył w składzie I/145 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego "Warszawskiego". 8 czerwca zestrzelił dwa myśliwce Bf-110. +Ewakuowany do Wielkiej Brytanii 23 lipca 1940 wszedł w skład 302 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego Poznańskiego, w którym 15 września 1940 został dowódcą Eskadry B. Walczył w bitwie o Anglię. 2 lutego 1941 został odznaczony Krzyżem Walecznych z jednym okuciem. 3 maja 1941 został instruktorem w 55 OTU w Osworth, a od listopada 1941 – instruktorem w 58 OTU w Grangemouth. +8 stycznia 1942 został przeniesiony do 306 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego na stanowisko dowódcy Eskadry A. 15 kwietnia 1942 został dowódcą tego dywizjonu. 26 kwietnia zaliczono mu zestrzelenie samolotu FW-190. +Zginął 22 sierpnia 1942 zestrzelony przez niemiecką artylerię przeciwlotniczą podczas wykonywania zadań bojowych w rejonie Saint-Omer (północna Francja). Pośmiertnie został odznaczony trzecim Krzyżem Walecznych. Pochowany na cmentarzu w Souvenir-Longuennes we Francji (grób 16, rząd A, działka 8). +Mołdawska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka + +Mołdawska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Mołdawia (ros. "Молдавская Советская Социалистическая Республика", mołd., "Република Советикэ Сочиалистэ Молдовеняскэ") powstała 2 sierpnia 1940 r. W jej skład weszła większość ziem przyłączonych w 1940 r. do ZSRR kosztem Rumunii, oraz około połowy obszaru istniejącej od 1924 r. na wschodnim, należącym do ZSRR, brzegu Dniestru Mołdawskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej (w składzie Ukraińskiej SRR). +Mołdawska SRR niepodległość jako Republika Mołdawii ogłosiła 23 maja 1991 r., zaś wkrótce potem jej leżące na wschodnim brzegu Dniestru ziemie, stanowiące tereny dawnej Mołdawskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej ogłosiły niepodległość jako Naddniestrzańska Republika Mołdawska. +Til Schweiger + +Til Schweiger, właściwie Tilman Valentin Schweiger (ur. 19 grudnia 1963 we Fryburgu) – niemiecki aktor, reżyser, scenarzysta i producent filmowy i telewizyjny. +Życiorys. +Syn pary nauczycielskiej, dorastał w Gießen. Początkowo miał zostać nauczycielem i studiował przez cztery semestry germanistykę. W 1989 ukończył szkołę aktorską Der Keller w Kolonii. Występował w teatrach w Kolonii i Bonn, dorabiał także jako kelner i DJ. Swoją ekranową karierę zapoczątkował udziałem w serialu "Ulica Lipowa" ("Die Lindenstraße", 1990-1992). Po debiutanckim występie na kinowym ekranie w komedii "Manta, Manta" (1991), kolejna kreacja Rudy'ego w komedii kryminalnej "Ebbies Bluff" (1993) przyniosła mu nagrodę na Max Ophüls Festival w Saarbrücken. +Pojawił się potem gościnnie w serialach: "Komisarz" ("Die Kommissarin", 1994-1996) jako Nick Siegel z Johannesem Brandrupem i ARD "Telefon 110" ("Polizeiruf 110", 1995). Za postać nieuleczalnie chorego pacjenta szpitala, który wyrusza skradzionym samochodem w ostatnią podróż w swoim życiu w komedii "Pukając do nieba bram" ("Knockin' on Heaven's Door", 1997) został uhonorowany nagrodą Silver St. George na festiwalu filmowym w Moskwie. Sukcesem okazała się kreacja Anglika polskiego pochodzenia, Jerry'ego Bruteckiego, ps. Brute, recydywisty i bandyty, który zostaje zesłany w ramach resocjalizacji do dziecięcego szpitala w Rumunii w dramacie psychologicznym Macieja Dejczera "Bandyta" (1997), za którą odebrał nagrodę na Festiwalu Polskich Filmów Fabularnych w Gdyni. W 1998 zadebiutował jako reżyser thrillera "Niedźwiedź polarny" ("Der Eisbär") z udziałem Benno Fürmanna. +Pojawił się w teledysku zespołu Blank & Jones do piosenki pt. "Beyond Time" (2000). Powodzeniem cieszyła się rola Rocka Fertiga Ausa w komedii sci-fi "" ("(T)Raumschiff Surprise – Periode 1", 2004), za którą zdobył nagrodę specjalną Bambi i German Comedy Award w Kolonii. Zagrał tytułową postać rezolutnego kowboja Lucky'ego Luke'a w komediowym westernie "Lucky Luke" ("Les Dalton", 2004). W 2010 gościnnie wystąpił w teledysku Keri Hilson do jej singla "I Like". Klip promował komedię romantyczną z udziałem Schweigera zatytułowaną "Zweiohrküken" (2009). +19 czerwca 1995 ożenił się z Daną Carlsen (ur. 29 lutego 1968). Mają syna Valentina (ur. 1995) oraz trzy córki: Lunę (ur. 1997), Lili Camille (ur. 1998) i Emmę Tiger (ur. 2002). +Republika Ostrowska + +Republika Ostrowska, także "Rzeczpospolita Ostrowska" (10-26 listopada 1918) – wystąpienie Polaków w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim przeciwko władzy pruskiej, na miesiąc przed wybuchem powstania wielkopolskiego. Efektem wystąpienia był m.in. szereg ustępstw na rzecz Polaków na terenie powiatu ostrowskiego. +Przebieg wydarzeń. +Już we wrześniu Polacy powołali tajny Komitet Obywatelski, przygotowujący się do przejęcia władzy w mieście. Klęska Niemiec w I wojnie światowej, a zwłaszcza rewolucja w Berlinie 9 listopada 1918 rozpoczęły proces odzyskiwania niepodległości w Wielkopolsce. Informacje o abdykacji cesarza Wilhelma II oraz o tworzeniu przez socjalistów rad robotniczych i żołnierskich dotarły do jednostki batalionu zapasowego 155. pułku piechoty w Ostrowie jeszcze tego samego dnia i 9 listopada 1918 w obliczu wiadomości o rewolucji w Niemczech powołano Radę Żołnierską, w której skład wchodził tylko jeden Polak. +Komitet Ludowy kierowany przez Michała Langego przeprowadził rozmowy z niemiecką Radą Żołnierską, w rezultacie których żołnierze-Polacy opuścili jednostkę i w dniach 10-11 listopada utworzyli pierwszy polski pułk piechoty. Dało to początek polityce faktów dokonanych: ochotników werbowano od 11 listopada "na żołd 1. pułku piechoty", 12 listopada wymuszono na żołnierzach niemieckich przekazanie tzw. starych koszar Moltkego (przy ulicy Zduńskiej, obecnie Wolności) i uzbrojenia w postaci 500 karabinów, 50 skrzyń amunicji, dwóch karabinów maszynowych oraz dwóch samochodów ciężarowych, koszary przemianowano na im. Józefa Piłsudskiego, obsadzono gmachy urzędowe. W dniach 10-11 listopada do niemieckich urzędów i władz wprowadzono polskich kontrolerów z prawem kontrasygnaty, Stefana Rowińskiego i Wojciecha Lipskiego. Żołnierzy 1. pułku piechoty polskiej (początkowo pod dowództwem Mariana Modrzejewskiego, które 5 listopada przekazano Marianowi Nerskiemu, a 16 listopada wracającemu z frontu ppor. Władysławowi Wawrzyniakowi), zaprzysiężono 13 listopada. O powstaniu Republiki Ostrowskiej doniosła berlińska prasa, która uznała ten krok za akt separatystyczny. +19 listopada utworzono polsko-niemiecką Komendę Placu ("Platzkommendantur"), która miała dbać o spokój w mieście; jej członkami zostali na zasadzie parytetu: Wuttke, Rungius, Dobrzycki oraz Aleksander Dubiski. Na wspólnym posiedzeniu 21 listopada 1918 w obecności przedstawicieli polskiej i niemieckiej ludności cywilnej oraz dwóch wysłanników poznańskiej Rady Robotników i Żołnierzy, pod naciskiem Naczelnej Rady Ludowej w Poznaniu (która uznała, w obawie przed zbrojną reakcją Niemiec, że wypadki w Ostrowie i faktyczne przejście dużej części władzy w ręce polskie są przedwczesne), obie ostrowskie rady żołnierskie, polską i niemiecką, połączono w jedną. Każda strona miała zagwarantowane 4 miejsca. W spotkaniu udział wzięli m.in. hr. Bogdan Szembek, lekarze Szulczewski i Aleksander Dubiski, dentysta Świtała, ppor. rez. Marian von Nerski, i niechętny Polakom Rudolf Fatken, naczelnik odcinka drogowego kolei +, pastor Schmidt, Schulz z Landsturmu, sierż. Nerger, rezerwista Klemz i st. szer. Riedel. Na mocy zawartej wówczas umowy, która weszła w życie 25 listopada 1918 roku o godzinie 8.00, Rada miała sprawować władzę na obszarze powiatów: ostrowskiego, odolanowskiego, ostrzeszowskiego i kępińskiego. 23 listopada ukazała się wspólna, dwujęzyczna odezwa Rady Żołnierzy, polskiej Powiatowej Rady Ludowej oraz Komendy Placu, powołująca do życia Straż Obywatelską, której celem było utrzymanie spokoju i porządku w powiecie oraz zapobieganie wykroczeniom ze strony powracających do Ostrowa jeńców. Odezwa głosiła: +W każdej miejscowości ustanowiono mężów zaufania, wybierających od jednego do czterech strażników, którzy mieli zadanie zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa obok dotychczas istniejących urzędów policyjnych. +26 listopada rozwiązano polski oddział wojskowy, a na żądanie Niemców koszary opuścili żołnierze nienależący do ostrowskiego garnizonu lub zapasowego batalionu 155. pułku piechoty. Strona polska zobowiązana była do sporządzenia imiennych list zwalnianych żołnierzy, głównie Polaków, którzy mieli też oddać broń. +Efekty wystąpienia Polaków. +Pomimo rozwiązania 1. pułku piechoty polskiej, udało się wywalczyć miejsca dla polskich przedstawicieli w Radzie Żołnierskiej i w radzie miejskiej. Dzięki rokowaniom przedstawicieli nowej, wspólnej, Rady Żołnierskiej wycofano z ziemi ostrowskiej niemiecki 46. pułk piechoty im. Hrabiego Kirchbacha (46. Infanterie-Regiment Graf Kirchbach – 1. Niederschlesisches), a w Królewskim Katolickim Gimnazjum Męskim przywrócono naukę religii w języku polskim. +Włączenie powiatu ostrowskiego do Polski. +Część żołnierzy przedostała się do powstającej II Rzeczypospolitej, do pobliskiego Szczypiorna, gdzie podjęli służbę w 1. batalionie pogranicznym, który 13 grudnia na placu św. Józefa w Kaliszu złożył przysięgę wojskową. 27 grudnia doszło do wybuchu powstania wielkopolskiego. Pod Boczkowem poległ Jan Mertka jako pierwszy powstaniec. +31 grudnia ze Szczypiorna do Ostrowa wjechał dowodzony przez ppor. Jana Szlagowskiego pociąg pancerny nr 11 "Poznańczyk" z częścią kaliskiego batalionu pogranicznego. Zajęcie strategicznych punktów miasta odbyło się przy udziale miejscowych ochotników. Naczelnikiem oddziałów powstańczych, później wojennym komendantem miasta mianowano Mariana Modrzejewskiego, przejmowaniem koszar kierował Kierekesz, a zajęciem poczty Włodzimierz Lewandowski. Opanowaniem dworca dowodził Zygmunt Wieliczka, co trwało około 15 minut i odbyło się bez jakiegokolwiek oporu ze strony Niemców. Wartownikowi odebrano karabin, pas z bagnetem i hełm, przekazując je Polakowi, który zgłosił się na ochotnika z tłumu żołnierzy. +Jak doniósł „Orędownik Ostrowski”, w sylwestrową noc przed północą, landrat Walter Tiemann, został "uprzejmie poinformowany" przez delegację polskich powstańców, że przestał rządzić. 1 stycznia 1919 polski już Ostrów wizytował Ignacy Jan Paderewski. +Echa współczesne. +O wydarzeniach związanych z Republiką Ostrowską opowiadają serial "Republika Ostrowska" (1986) oraz film pełnometrażowy (1988) "Republika nadziei", których współscenarzystą był Kazimierz Radowicz. Powieściową wersją serialu była książka Radowicza "Noc sylwestrowa" (Ostrów Wielkopolski, 1993). W 1988 wydano monograficzną pracę Zenona Dykcika "Republika Ostrowska. Przyczynek do historii powstania wielkopolskiego 1918-1919", (kolejne wydania w 1992 i 2003). +Na pamiątkę proklamowania Republiki Ostrowskiej, święto miasta Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego obchodzone jest 10 listopada, a jej imię nadano w 2006 jednemu z rond. W latach 2008 i 2009 w Ostrowie odbyły się wielkie inscenizacje historyczne dla upamiętnienia rocznicy tych wydarzeń. +Hironobu Sakaguchi + +Biografia. +Jako student bardzo interesował się komputerami, m.in. Apple II. Grał w wiele gier, jednak kiedyś, gdy zaczęły go już nudzić, postanowił sam nauczyć się programowania i tworzyć własne gry na komputery osobiste. +Mając 21 lat, w 1983 roku, dostał pracę dorywczą w Square, Co. Ltd., wtedy firmą, która zajmowała się oprogramowaniem dla jednej z elektrowni w Tokushima. Trzy lata później, gdy Square stało się samodzielną firmą, został dyrektorem od spraw planowania i rozwoju. Zajmował się głównie grami na platformy NES i PC. Na przełomie 1985/86 roku, sprowadził do firmy dobrze zapowiadającego się kompozytora muzycznego, Nobuo Uematsu. +W 1987 roku, gdy firmie groziło bankructwo, Sakaguchi zaproponował szefostwu stworzenie gry podobnej do wydanej rok wcześniej przez Enix, Dragon Quest. Pomysł ten się spodobał i ironicznie, nazwano tę grę Final Fantasy, jako że miała być ona ostatnią fantazją jej twórców na wybicie się na szczyt. Gra odniosła fenomenalny sukces i to głównie dzięki temu, Sakaguchi awansował na zastępcę prezesa Square, Co. Ltd. w 1991 roku. W 1995 roku został przeniesiony do Stanów Zjednoczonych i został tam prezesem Square LA, Inc.. +W maju 2000 roku, Sakaguchi otrzymał wyróżnienie w Galerii Sław podczas Trzeciego Dorocznego Rozdania Nagród za Osiągnięcia Interaktywne w Los Angeles podczas targów Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3). Uzasadnieniem wyróżnienia był jego "długotrwały, powalający i inspirujący wkład w świat interaktywnej rozrywki". W tym samym roku, został on reżyserem filmu interaktywnego Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within. Niestety, okazał się on ogromną finansową klapą, przez co w lutym 2001 roku, Sakaguchi zrezygnował ze swojej pozycji wiceprezesa Square, Co. Ltd. +Przyszłość. +W 2001 roku, Sakaguchi zarejestrował w Japonii znak towarowy Mistwalker. Dopiero trzy lata później okazało się, że jest to jego nowa firma zajmująca się tworzeniem gier na różne platformy sprzętowe. Pomimo swojego odejścia, nie zaprzestaje on pomagać Square Enix przy tworzeniu kolejnych gier z serii Final Fantasy. +Gry. +"Gry zostały uszeregowane alfabetycznie" +Bronowice Wielkie (Kraków) + +Bronowice Wielkie – obszar Krakowa, dawna podkrakowska wieś. Przyłączona do Krakowa 19 października 1910 jako XXXVI dzielnica katastralna. +Od północy graniczy z Toniami (granica biegnie potokiem Sudół), od wschodu z Krowodrzą (granica biegnie dzisiejszą ul. Stachiewicza), od południa z Łobzowem i Bronowicami Małymi (granica biegnie dzisiejszą ul. Radzikowskiego) od zachodu z Modlniczką. +Obecnie stanowi fragment Dzielnicy IV Prądnik Biały. +Góra kopiasta + +Góra kopiasta, kopa – góra charakteryzująca się stromymi stokami oraz zaokrąglonym, niezbyt szerokim wierzchołkiem. +Pokrycie powierzchni + +W przypadku adsorpcji monowarstwowej jej sens fizyczny (przy założeniu, że każda cząsteczka adsorbatu zajmuje tę samą określoną powierzchnię, zwaną powierzchnią siadania) jest w pełni zgodny z powyższą definicją i pokrycie powierzchni nie może być wówczas większe od jedności. +W przypadki adsorpcji wielowarstwowej gazów (np. izoterma BET - bez ograniczenia adsorpcji maksymalnej), podaje się pokrycia powierzchni, które mogą być większe od 1 (wielokrotność monowarstwy). +Adsorpcja względna. +Adsorpcja względna jest terminem bardzo ogólnym, nie zawierającym żadnych dodatkowych założeń. Podaje wielkość adsorpcji względem jakiegoś wybranego stanu charakterystycznego, najczęściej jest to "adsorpcja maksymalna", ale może to też być "pojemność monowarstwy". +wówczas zamiast terminu pokrycie powierzchni lepiej jest używać określenia adsorpcja względna lub podawać wielkości adsorpcji jako ułamki molowe lub objętościowe (zamiast ułamka powierzchniowego, którym jest pokrycie powierzchni). +Powiat sieradzki + +Powiat sieradzki - powiat w Polsce (w zachodniej części województwa łódzkiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Sieradz. +Historia. +Powiat sieradzki jest częścią starej piastowskiej prowincji, nazywanej w średniowieczu najpierw kasztelanią, a potem Ziemią Sieradzką. +W czasach I Rzeczypospolitej pow. sieradzki od poł. XIV w. do 1793 r. należał do województwa sieradzkiego, a po II rozbiorze Polski został włączony do zaboru pruskiego. Po utworzeniu Królestwa Polskiego był częścią składową guberni kaliskiej, w l. 1845-1867 należał do guberni warszawskiej, potem znowu do kaliskiej - aż do 1914 r. W okresie międzywojennym powiat został włączony do nowo utworzonego woj. łódzkiego. W czasach okupacji niemieckiej w niezmienionych granicach został włączony do rejencji kaliskiej w tzw. Kraju Warty. Po II wojnie światowej jego powierzchnia wynosiła 1422 km kw., a zamieszkiwało w nim 130 tys. ludności. W 1955 r. jego część pn. włączono do nowego pow. poddębickiego, zatem liczba ludności zmniejszyła się do 120 tys., a powierzchnia do 1316 km kw. W l. 1975-1999 powiat nie istniał bowiem wtedy w miejsce powiatów utworzono w Polsce tzw. rejony. +Ziemia Sieradzka spełniała ważną rolę w dziejach politycznych, jako miejsce synodów i zjazdów ogólnokrajowych. Położenie na skrzyżowaniu ważnych szlaków komunikacyjnych z Wielkopolski do Małopolski i z Mazowsza na Dolny Śląsk nadało tej ziemi rangę szczególną, bowiem pełniła ona rolę pomostu i pogranicza pomiędzy tymi historycznymi dzielnicami. +Surowce. +Na terenie powiatu sieradzkiego znajduje się część złoża węgla brunatnego o zasobności ok. 490 mln ton . Złoże nosi nazwę "Złoczew" i zlokalizowane jest 30 km na południe od Sieradza, na terenie gmin: Ostrówek, Złoczew i Burzenin (na pograniczu powiatów wieluńskiego i sieradzkiego). Eksploatację złoża wstępnie planuje się na lata 2025-2045. Wydobyty węgiel będzie transportowany do elektrowni Bełchatów. Transport do elektrowni będzie najprawdopodobniej odbywał się za pomocą przenośników taśmowych. +Demografia. +Ludność powiatu sieradzkiego (wg stanu na 31.12.2006 r. – dane Urzędu Statystycznego w Łodzi) liczyła 120,8 tys. osób, co stanowiło 4,7% ogólnej liczby mieszkańców województwa łódzkiego (trzecia lokata w regionie pod względem liczebności po Łodzi i powiecie zgierskim) oraz 0,31% mieszkańców kraju. +Ludność powiatu zmniejsza się zarówno w miastach, jak i na obszarach wiejskich. Tylko w gm. Sieradz i gm. Brzeźnio odnotowano wzrost liczby mieszkańców. W poniższej tabeli przedstawiono stan ludności w latach 2003-2006 według podziału na miasta i gminy (obszary wiejskie). +Spaghetti western + +Spaghetti western (lub macaroni western) – potoczna nazwa nurtu we włoskiej kinematografii w latach 1963–1973, stanowiąca określenie kręconych we Włoszech i Hiszpanii westernów. Twórcą charakterystycznych cech tego podgatunku był Sergio Leone. +Spaghetti westerny były produkowane przy wykorzystaniu zwykle niskiego budżetu, z udziałem aktorów europejskich oraz latynoskich i kilku amerykańskich. Cechowały się wysoką brutalnością, nihilizmem moralnym i czarnym humorem. Do głównych przedstawicieli nurtu zalicza się Sergia Leone i Sergia Corbucciego. +Spaghetti westerny początkowo były z góry oceniane negatywnie przez amerykańskich krytyków, którzy nie tolerowali podróbek ich rodzimego gatunku. Niektóre z filmów nurtu jednak zrehabilitowano jako dzieła wyróżniające się wizją artystyczną (przede wszystkim filmy Leone). Dwa z nich ("Dobry, zły i brzydki" oraz "Pewnego razu na Dzikim Zachodzie") uważane są za arcydzieła światowego kina. Do dokonań spaghetti westernów nawiązywała między innymi twórczość Clinta Eastwooda, Quentina Tarantino i Roberta Rodrigueza. +Geneza. +Pierwszym szeroko pojętym westernem opublikowanym we Włoszech była opera Giacoma Pucciniego z 1910 roku pod tytułem "Dziewczyna ze Złotego Zachodu". Bezpośrednie narodziny włoskiej odmiany westernów filmowych miały przyczynę w filmach europejskich (eurowesternach) kręconych od lat 20. XX wieku, początkowo głównie w Niemczech i we Francji. Przykładem eurowesternów sprzed epoki spaghetti westernów jest "" (1963). Tworzenie westernów w Europie nasiliło się po II wojnie światowej w związku z postępującą amerykanizacją Europy Zachodniej. +Od 1958 roku w Stanach Zjednoczonych ze względu na kryzys finansowy w Hollywood spadała produkcja filmowych westernów amerykańskich. Wskutek tego Amerykanie w celu zmniejszenia kosztów zaczęli przenosić produkcję do Włoch, nawiązując współpracę z miejscowymi włoskimi reżyserami, takimi jak Sergio Leone, Sergio Corbucci i Mario Bava (na przykład Sergio Leone asystował przy produkcji "Heleny Trojańskiej" z 1956 roku i "Ben-Hura" z 1959 roku). Włoski przemysł filmowy zaczął dzięki pomocy pieniężnej wytwórni hollywoodzkich finansować tworzenie własnych imitacji klasycznego filmu kowbojskiego. +Nazwa. +Nazwa „spaghetti western” została użyta po raz pierwszy przez krytyków filmowych i była traktowana jako pogardliwe określenie westernów włoskich. Po raz pierwszy tę nazwę do prac naukowych wprowadził brytyjski historyk filmu Christopher Frayling dla określenia filmów powstałych we Włoszech i Hiszpanii. Dimitris Eleftheriotis próbował tłumaczyć owo określenie jako używane w kontekście hybrydy gatunkowej, jaką było połączenie klasycznego hollywoodzkiego westernu z kinem włoskim. +Określił jednak taką nazwę nurtu mianem niejasnej, gdyż nie precyzowała, czy spaghetti western odnosi się do gatunku czy też podgatunku; uznał takie nazewnictwo jako pogardliwe dla nurtu, przypominając fakt, iż Włosi tej nazwy nie zaakceptowali. +Historia. +Twórczość Leone. +Pionierem nurtu w filmie była wytwórnia Cinecittà, która przed 1964 rokiem wyprodukowała około 25 własnych podróbek westernu. Prawdziwym przełomem w historii podgatunku spaghetti westernów stał się jednak film "Za garść dolarów" (1964) w reżyserii Sergia Leone. Konwencją klasycznego westernu było to, iż występował wyraźny podział na złych kowbojów (często uciekających się do przemocy) oraz dobrych bohaterów, którzy dobrowolnie bronili ludność prowincjonalnego miasteczka. Wraz z pojawieniem się "Za garść dolarów" na ekranach kin podział ten uległ zatarciu. Fabuła filmu była po części wzorowana na filmie "Straż przyboczna" z 1959 roku w reżyserii Akiry Kurosawy, po części zaś na komedii włoskiej "Arlecchino servitore di due padroni" Carla Goldoniego z 1743 roku. Do meksykańskiej wioski nękanej przez dwa gangi przybywa tajemniczy rewolwerowiec (Clint Eastwood), który lawirując pomiędzy nimi, doprowadza je do samozniszczenia, a na końcu pojedynkuje się z hersztem bandy meksykańskiej (Gian Maria Volontè). W "Za garść dolarów" reżyser rozprawił się z mitem bezinteresownego bohatera i silnych kobiet-dziewic – główna postać filmu to człowiek kierujący się przede wszystkim zyskiem, gangsterzy nie mają żadnych ludzkich odruchów, kobiety zaś są mało istotnymi dla fabuły, słabymi wdowami; wyraźną cechą dzieła Leonego był także czarny humor. Film zawierał jednocześnie charakterystyczną muzykę Ennia Morricone, inspirowaną meksykańską muzyką ludową z solówkami granymi przez trąbki, użyciem sycylijskich instrumentów ludowych i gwizdami. Subtelne, budzące napięcie zbliżenia oraz długie sekwencje nadały filmowi miana artystycznego. +Twórcy "Za garść dolarów" w wersji na amerykański rynek maskowali swoje włoskie pochodzenie, podpisując się angielskimi nazwiskami; na przykład Leone w napisach początkowych widniał jako Bob Robertson. Podobnie czyniła większość twórców westernów włoskich. +Sukces filmu skłonił Leone do stworzenia kolejnego dzieła pod tytułem "Za kilka dolarów więcej" (1965). Opowiadał on o rywalizacji dwóch łowców głów (Clint Eastwood, Lee Van Cleef) polujących na bandytę (Gian Maria Volontè, towarzyszy mu postać grana przez Klausa Kinskiego) – jeden czyni to dla pieniędzy, drugi zamierza pomścić swoją siostrę zgwałconą przez złoczyńcę. Podobnie jak poprzednia część trylogii, film charakteryzował się czarnym humorem, częstymi zbliżeniami oraz charakterystyczną muzyką Morricone, wykorzystującą dzwony zegarowe. +Dwa pierwsze filmy tak zwanej trylogii dolarowej były kameralne i kręcone przy niskim budżecie. Podczas produkcji filmu "Dobry, zły i brzydki" (1966) koszty produkcji wzrosły znacząco. Bohaterami dzieła byli różniący się charakterem trzej rewolwerowcy (Clint Eastwood, Lee Van Cleef, Eli Wallach) poszukujący skarbca pełnego złota. Tłem dla ich poczynań jest wojna secesyjna. Sergio Leone ukazał ją w kontekście I wojny światowej (walka pozycyjna o pojedynczy most) i II wojny światowej (obóz jeniecki żołnierzy Unii ukazany jak nazistowskie stalagi). W filmie następuje sarkastyczna konfrontacja ideałów kowbojskich z prawdziwymi, amoralnymi działaniami bohaterów. "Dobry, zły i brzydki" kończy się mitycznym wręcz pojedynkiem trójki rewolwerowców na cmentarzu. +Podsumowanie całego dorobku trylogii podjął Leone w filmie "Pewnego razu na Dzikim Zachodzie" (1968), łączącym klasyczny dla filmów hollywoodzkich motyw budowy kolei z postacią tajemniczego rewolwerowca żądnego zemsty za śmierć brata (Charles Bronson) i jego głównego antagonisty (Henry Fonda). Innymi gwiazdami byli Jason Robards i Claudia Cardinale. Film zawierał liczne odwołania do amerykańskich westernów (między innymi "W samo południe"), ironicznie traktując wszelkie konwencje związane z gatunkiem i jednocześnie mitologizując je (pojedynek przy wtórze harmonijki). Początkowo ignorowany, "Pewnego razu na Dzikim Zachodzie" stał się filmem uważanym przez część amerykańskich krytyków za jeden z najlepszych westernów w historii. +Inne wybrane dzieła. +Ironiczny wobec klasycznych motywów westernowych styl Leone rozpowszechnił się wśród innych twórców. Na twórczości Leone było opartych wielu włoskich reżyserów, którzy posuwali się do parodii nie tylko hollywoodzkich filmów kowbojskich, ale też twórczości inicjatora nurtu. Jednym z bardziej popularnych dzieł tego typu był brutalny "Django" (1966) w reżyserii Sergia Corbucciego, uwypuklający tematykę tytułowego samotnego rewolwerowca (Franco Nero) z karabinem maszynowym, chroniącego ludność prowincjonalnego miasteczka przed zwalczającymi się grupami. Cechą charakterystyczną dla filmu Corbucciego, jak również dla samego nurtu, jest samotność głównego bohatera – swoją ukochaną już utracił – oraz motyw zemsty. "Django" odniósł znaczący sukces w Europie Zachodniej. Imię tytułowej postaci wykorzystywano w kilkudziesięciu tanich produkcjach, wśród których wyróżnia się epatujący przemocą "Se sei vivo, spara" (1967, znany także jako "Django, Kill") w reżyserii Giulia Questiego; nie oszczędzał on widzowi scen takich jak skalpowanie, wyrafinowane tortury czy zabijanie dzieci. Na fali popularności "Django" powstały liczne tytuły różnych twórców, które stwarzały innych bohaterów: Sartanę, Ringo, Sabatę i Trinity. Corbucci polemizował także ze schematami polegającymi na pozytywnych zakończeniach westernów; jego dzieło pod tytułem "Człowiek zwany Ciszą" (1968) było mroczne i z pesymistycznym zakończeniem. +Twórcy spaghetti westernów podejmowali również tematy polityczne, najczęściej związane z rewolucją meksykańską. Przykładem takiego westernu jest "Gringo" (1966, reż. Damiano Damiani) o bandycie (Gian Maria Volontè), który zabija najemnika Amerykanów mającego powstrzymać rewolucję. Jawnie lewicowy film odnosił się do wojny wietnamskiej jako bezprawnej ingerencji Amerykanów w wewnętrzne sprawy państw. W realiach rewolucyjnych osadzone były również takie filmy jak "Zawodowiec" (1968, reż. Sergio Corbucci) o polskim najemniku (Franco Nero) mieszającym się dla zysku w walki rewolucyjne oraz "Garść dynamitu" (1971, reż. Sergio Leone) o współpracy meksykańskiego rzezimieszka (Rod Steiger) z terrorystą IRA (James Coburn). +Na przełomie lat 60. i 70. XX wieku popularność zdobyły westernowe komedie w rodzaju "Lo chiamavano Trinità" (1970, reż. Enzo Barboni) i "Nazywam się Nobody" (1973, reż. Tomino Valerii) z udziałem Terence'a Hilla i Buda Spencera, które odniosły większy sukces niż filmy Leone. Ostatnie dokonania spaghetti westernu przypadają na rok 1973. +Kompozytorzy i muzyka. +Leone, Corbucci i kilku innych reżyserów włoskich współpracowało przy tworzeniu spaghetti westernów z Enniem Morricone. Tworzył on do spaghetti westernów dynamiczną muzykę inspirowaną utworami klasycznymi. Przykładowo w "Za kilka dolarów więcej" wykorzystał on "Toccatę i fugę d-moll" Bacha, w "Garści dynamitu" pojawiają się motywy z "Eine kleine Nachtmusik" Mozarta, a w filmie "La resa dei conti" Sergia Sollimy (1967) istnieje nawiązanie do "Dla Elizy" Beethovena. Innymi kompozytorami muzyki do spaghetti westernów byli Luis Bacalov, Armando Trovajoli i Bruno Nicolai. Tworzone kompozycje wykorzystywały trąbkę, pianino, gitarę, harmonijkę oraz głos ludzki. Muzyka do spaghetti westernów ze względu na swoją dynamikę i eksperymentalny charakter stanowiła opozycję do występującej w hollywoodzkich westernach; była osadzona w korzeniach europejskich. +Odbiór. +Spaghetti westerny odnosiły sukcesy w kraju, jednak w ojczyźnie filmów kowbojskich – Stanach Zjednoczonych, były początkowo bez wyjątku przyjmowane negatywnie. Krytyka ta odnosiła się zwłaszcza do najpopularniejszych wówczas filmów Leone. Przykładowo Bosley Crowther i Vincent Canby z pisma „The New York Times” zwracali uwagę na ich zdaniem rażącą brutalność i płytkość fabularną owych filmów. Jednak już wówczas znaleźli się krytycy patrzący z większym zainteresowaniem na nowy wówczas nurt: Roger Ebert z „Chicago Sun-Times” chwalił stronę techniczną dwóch ostatnich filmów trylogii dolarowej, aczkolwiek sam po latach przyznał, że nawet spaghetti westernów Leone nie traktował jako sztuki. +Przemianę w myśleniu o spaghetti westernach w krajach anglosaskich stanowiła praca "Spaghetti Westerns: Cowboys and Europeans from Karl May to Sergio Leone" z 1981 roku autorstwa brytyjskiego historyka filmu Christophera Fraylinga. Zwracał on uwagę na uprzedzenia amerykańskich krytyków do włoskiego nurtu biorące się ze względów narodowościowych; wspomniał o tym, że główni twórcy westernów, jak na przykład John Ford i Howard Hawks, też nie byli z pochodzenia prawdziwymi Amerykanami. W późniejszym czasie zaczęły masowo pojawiać się prace rehabilitujące spaghetti western jako nurt. +Dimitris Eleftheriotis, powołując się na prace Fraylinga i Mary Louise Pratt, dopatrzył się w spaghetti westernach przykładu transkulturacji klasycznego westernu z włoską kulturą. Zwrócił też szczególną uwagę na osobliwy charakter włoskich westernów, które tworzyły postacie bez imienia i przeszłości, kładąc silny nacisk na swą tożsamość narodową; zauważył też, że odrzucały romantyczną wizję Dzikiego Zachodu, ukazując mroczną stronę dawnych czasów. +Peter Bondanella jako najważniejsze filmy podgatunku wymienił trylogię dolarową Sergia Leone, "Django" Sergia Corbucciego, "Gringo" Damiana Damianiego, "Lo chiamavano Trinità" Enza Barboniego i "Nazywam się Nobody" Tomina Valeriego; Joanna Wojnicka wyróżniła jedynie twórczość Leone i Corbucciego, klasyfikując pozostałe filmy do miana kina klasy B. +Wpływ. +Spaghetti western wywarł znaczący wpływ na kondycję włoskiej kinematografii, która dzięki temu nurtowi stała się w latach 60. i 70. XX wieku najpotężniejszym przemysłem filmowym w Europie Zachodniej. W liczbie produkowanych filmów Włochy przewyższyły wówczas Stany Zjednoczone. Do końca lat 70. XX wieku wyprodukowano – także we współpracy z hiszpańskimi, francuskimi i niemieckimi spółkami – około 400 spaghetti westernów. Włoskie westerny stanowiły swoisty fenomen w Europie Zachodniej, który zaowocował w nawiązujących do nich komiksach. +Motywy spaghetti westernu podrabiali niektórzy reżyserzy amerykańscy. Czołowym przykładem amerykańskiego filmu inspirowanego nurtem włoskim jest "Dzika banda" (1969) w reżyserii Sama Peckinpaha z kulminacyjną sekwencją rzezi meksykańskich żołnierzy; Peckinpah przyznał, że bez znajomości twórczości Sergia Leonego nie wyprodukowałby tego filmu. Na spaghetti westernach – przede wszystkim twórczości Leone – wzorowali się w latach 60. XX wieku także Don Siegel i Ted Post ("Blef Coogana" i "Zemsta szeryfa", w których występował Eastwood) oraz George Roy Hill z filmem "Butch Cassidy i Sundance Kid". Tematykę nurtu w późniejszych czasach – szczególnie motyw tajemniczego rewolwerowca – przywoływał Eastwood w kręconych przez siebie filmach takich jak "Mściciel", "Wyjęty spod prawa Josey Wales" i "Niesamowity jeździec". +Spaghetti westerny stanowiły inspirację dla Quentina Tarantino. W jego "Kill Billu" doszukano się nawiązań do twórczości Sergia Leone oraz innych filmów takich jak "Se sei vivo, spara", "Navajo Joe" i "Zawodowiec". Filmem inspirowanym tym nurtem było też "" Roberta Rodrigueza. Innymi filmami nawiązującymi do spaghetti westernów były między innymi "Bękarty wojny" w reżyserii Tarantino, "Sukiyaki Western Django" (reż. Takashi Miike) oraz "Dobry, zły i zakręcony" (reż. Ji-woon Kim). +Janusz Niekrasz + +Janusz Niekrasz (ur. 2 marca 1958) – polski muzyk, gitarzysta basowy. Członek zespołu TSA. Twórca solowego projektu Janusz Niekrasz Band. +Punkt krytyczny (fizyka) + + +Zredukowane stałe krytyczne. +Wykorzystywanie wielkości parametrów zredukowanych pozwala łatwo określić "odległość" danego układu od warunków krytycznych i stwierdzić jakiego rodzaju model fizyczny zjawisk należy stosować. +Temperatury krytyczne niektórych związków chemicznych: +Korzkiewka + +Korzkiewka - potok w województwie małopolskim, prawy dopływ rzeki Prądnik, długości około 5 km. +Źródła w przysiółku Podgóry odległym od centrum Smardzowic około 1 km. +Stefan Raab + +Stefan Konrad Raab (ur. 20 października 1966, Kolonia) - niemiecki prezenter telewizyjny, komik, aktor komediowy, muzyk, wieloletni gospodarz programu telewizyjnego "TV Total" (nadawanego w telewizji Pro7), w którym gości m.in. znanych piosenkarzy i aktorów. Nazywany jest "najbardziej żywiołowym mężczyzną w niemieckiej telewizji rozrywkowej". +Biografia. +Dzieciństwo i rodzina. +Raab ukończył jeziucki internat Aloisiuskolleg w Bonnie. Przez rozpoczęciem pracy w branży rozrywkowej, pracował jako rzeźnik. Studiował prawo, ale po pięciu semestrach odszedłz uniwersytetu. Poza tym bardzo mało wiadomo o jego życiu prywatnym, ponieważ dba o swoją prywatność. Ma dziewczynę Nike oraz dwie córki (urodzone w 2004 i 2006 roku). +Kariera. +Telewizja. +Stefan Raab stał się popularny jako prowadzący program komediowy "Vivasion" dla niemieckiej telewizji muzycznej VIVA w latach 1993-1998. Od 1999 roku prowadził program "TV total", który od kwietnia 2001 roku nadawany jest cztery raz w tygodniu w telewizji ProSieben. Początkowo show głównie pokazywało i wyśmiewało zabawne sytuacje z innych programów telewizyjnych, ale później stał się wieczornym programem pełnym występów muzycznych, podobnym do "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" czy "Late Night with Conan O'Brien". +W 2006 roku wymyślił telewizyjne game show "Schlag den Raab", w którym konkurował z innymi uczestnikami w różnych dyscyplinach - niektóre odcinki programu trwały więcej niż pięć godzin. Często organizuje także "PokerStars.de Nacht" - pokerowy z gwiazdami. +We wrześniu 2012 roku ogłosił, że poprowadzi nowe talk show na kanale ProSieben, w którym pojawić mieli się politycy. Start programu zaplanowano na 11 listopada 2012 roku. +Muzyka. +W 1990 roku Raab zaczął pracować jako niezależny producent i kompozytor jingli i komercyjnych piosenek w swoim własnym studiu muzycznym w Kolonii. Od 1994 roku wyprodukował wiele popularnych utworów: "Böörti Böörti Vogts" (piosenkę o Berti Vogts), "Hier kommt die Maus", "Maschendrahtzaun", "Wir kiffen", "Gebt das Hanf frei!" (z Shaggym), "Hol' mir ma' 'ne Flasche Bier" i "Space Taxi" (z soundtracku filmu "Traumschiff Surprise - Periode 1" +Napisał utwór dla reprezentanta Niemiec do Konkursu Piosenki Eurowizji 1998 Guildo Horna - "Guildo hat euch lieb!", a w 2000 roku sam wystąpił w konkursie, z piosenką "Wadde hadde dudde da?". Raab zorganizował również selekcje do konkursu w 2004 roku "SSDSGPS" ("Stefan sucht den Super-Grand-Prix-Star", "Stefan seeks the super Grand-Prix star", satyryczna wersja tytułu niemieckiego "Idola" - "Deutschland sucht den Superstar"). Zwycięzca, Maximilian Mutzke, zajął 8. miejsce na festiwalu. W 2005 roku wymyślił nowy festiwal - Bundesvision Song Contest. W konkursie uczestniczyli reprezentanci wszystkich 16 landów niemieckich. +W 2009 roku kanał NDR, członek stacji ARD, zaproponował mu współorganizację krajowych preselekcji do Konkursu Piosenki Eurowizji 2010. ProSieben zaakceptował ofertę pracy Raaba w ARD/NDR. W rezultacie, 2 lutego 2010 roku zorganizowano eliminacje "Unser Star für Oslo", które podzielono na 8 odcinków. Raab pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego komisji sędziowskiej. 12 marca zorganizowano finał, który wygrała Lena Meyer-Landrut. 29 maja Meyer-Landrut wygrała Konkurs Piosenki Eurowizji 2010 z piosenką "Satellite", przynosząc Niemcom pierwsze zwycięstwo od 28 lat. +Jako muzyk, Raab gra na kilku instrumentach, m.in.: na pianinie, perkusji, gitarze, ukulele. +Uczestnictwo w Konkursie Piosenki Eurowizji. +19 maja 2011 roku Raab ostatecznie zakończył swoją przygodę z Konkursem Piosenki Eurowizji +Ramiro I (król Aragonii) + +Ramiro I z Aragonii (ur. przed 1007, zm. 8 maja 1063) - pierwszy tytularny król Aragonii (1035-1063). +Był nieślubnym synem Sancho III, króla Nawarry i Sanchy de Aybar. Po ojcu, w 1035, odziedziczył małą dolinę w północno-zachodnim zakątku dzisiejszej prowincji Huesca z tytułem króla. Po śmierci swojego brata Gonzalo w 1037 otrzymał królestwo Sobrarbe (na wschód od jego ówczesnych posiadłości) oraz Ribagorzę. Zginął podczas oblężenia Graus. +Izostera (meteorologia) + +Izostera to izolinia na mapie meteorologicznej łącząca punkty o tej samej objętości molowej powietrza. +Izabela Trojanowska + +Izabela Trojanowska z domu Schütz (ur. 22 kwietnia 1955 w Olsztynie) – polska aktorka i piosenkarka. +Biografia. +Pierwszy sukces, pod panieńskim nazwiskiem Schütz, odniosła na Festiwalu Pieśni Sakralnej Sacrosong w Chorzowie w 1971 roku jako chórzystka, wygrywając nagrodę im. Maksymiliana Kolbego, którą wręczył kardynał Karol Wojtyła. W 1972 jako solistka wzięła udział w Festiwalu Piosenki Radzieckiej w Zielonej Górze (zdobyła wówczas nagrodę Związku Kompozytorów Radzieckich) i na Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu (nagroda za debiut). W latach 1974–1978 studiowała w Studium Wokalno-Aktorskim przy Teatrze Muzycznym im. Danuty Baduszkowej w Gdyni. Zagrała w sztukach "Poemat pedagogiczny" oraz "Fontanna z Neptunem". +W roku 1980 rozpoczęła karierę muzyczną nawiązując współpracę z Budką Suflera. W tym okresie lider tego zespołu, Romuald Lipko, skomponował dla niej osiem piosenek, które stały się przebojami. Przełomowy był hit "Tyle samo prawd ile kłamstw". Wkrótce na KFPP w Opolu artystka wylansowała kolejny przebój "Wszystko czego dziś chcę". Za interpretację obu tych utworów została uhonorowana jedną z dwóch głównych nagród. W tym czasie oba te utwory wydano na dwóch singlach, zawierających dodatkowe przeboje: "Komu więcej, komu mniej" oraz "Tydzień łez". Kolejne utwory: "Jestem twoim grzechem", "Sobie na złość", "Nic za nic" i "Pytanie o siebie", wydano wkrótce na dwupłytowej EP-ce. Wszystkie wydane dotąd osiem nagrań zebrano na początku 1981 roku na debiutanckim albumie Trojanowskiej, "Iza". Płyta została zamówiona w rekordowym nakładzie blisko miliona egzemplarzy, jednak z przyczyn technicznych na rynek trafiło zaledwie 50 tys. egzemplarzy oraz kaseta magnetofonowa. Promujące ją single rozeszły się jednak w nakładzie ponad 300 tys. sztuk. +Po zakończeniu współpracy z Budką Suflera, zaraz po wydaniu ich wspólnego albumu, z Trojanowską rozpoczął współpracę zespół Stalowy Bagaż w składzie: Aleksander Mrożek (gitara, lider), Kazimierz Cwynar (gitara basowa) i Jacek Krzaklewski (gitara). Z tym zespołem Trojanowska wystąpiła na festiwalu w Opolu w 1981, śpiewając przeboje "Pieśń o cegle" oraz "Na bohaterów popyt już minął", ubrana w ZMP-owski strój z czerwonym krawatem. Wywołało to spore kontrowersje, a zarząd krakowskiego oddziału ZSMP wystosował protest przeciwko rzekomemu sprofanowaniu symbolu tej organizacji przez artystkę. Oba przeboje trafiły wkrótce na ich wspólną EP-kę, która rozeszła się w ponad 100 tys. egzemplarzy. +Następna płyta, "Układy", powstawała od końca 1981 i ukazała się w 1982. Zagrali na niej między innymi Aleksander Mrożek, Jan Borysewicz, Wojciech Bruślik, Andrzej Dylewski i Janusz Grzywacz. "Układy" prezentowały bardziej rockowe brzmienie niż jej pierwsza płyta. Album przyniósł kolejne przeboje: "Karmazynowa noc", "Brylanty" oraz "Obce dni". +W lipcu tego samego roku Trojanowska nagrała wspólnie z Tadeuszem Nalepą płytę "Pożegnalny cyrk", która zawierała utwory silnie krytykujące stan wojenny. Cenzura nie dopuściła do wydania albumu – czekał on na wydanie 11 lat. W tym okresie Trojanowska była z jednej strony atakowana przez „Solidarność” za pokazany w telewizji występ w Sali Kongresowej, a z drugiej strony szykanowana przez władzę za odmowę kolejnych występów. Wraz z mężem zdecydowała się na emigrację: przebywała w Holandii, USA, Wielkiej Brytanii, a w 1987 osiadła w Berlinie Zachodnim. +W 1991 artystka urodziła córkę Roxanę oraz wydała kolejny studyjny album "Izabela Trojanowska", tym razem zawierający wyłącznie anglojęzyczne utwory. Przeznaczony był na rynki zachodnie i trafił najpierw na rynek brytyjski, wydany nakładem niezależnej wytwórni Rondor Music. Rok później trafił też na rynki amerykański i kanadyjski (pod tytułem Independence). Rok wcześniej wokalistka zaprezentowała ten materiał na festiwalu w Sopocie. Album przeszedł jednak bez echa, przynosząc jedynie umiarkowany hit "Independence Day". W 1994 Trojanowska zaśpiewała razem z Budką Suflera na ich jubileuszowym tournée. W 1995 nawiązała współpracę artystyczną z kompozytorami zespołu Bajm, Adamem Abramkiem i Pawłem Sotem. Nagrała z nimi album "Chcę inaczej", który w następnym roku odniósł umiarkowany sukces, przynosząc przeboje: "I stało się", "Więcej niż życie" oraz "Nareszcie czuję". +W roku 1997 Trojanowska przyjęła rolę Moniki Ross-Nawrot w serialu "Klan", w którym nadal występuje. +Do 2008 roku występowała na koncertach z zespołem w składzie: Krzysztof Bożek – gitara, Tomasz Dąbrowski – gitara, Filip Leszczyński – perkusja, Maciej Pyc – instrumenty klawiszowe, Piotr Żak – bas i Bożena Zalewska – chórki. +Od stycznia 2009 roku współpracuje z zespołem Mafia. W sierpniu tego samego roku wystąpiła z Budką Suflera w Sopocie, Nałęczowie oraz Katowicach z okazji ich 35-lecia. +W 2011 ukazał się album pt. "Życia zawsze mało". +Układ (cybernetyka) + +Układ - w najogólniejszym znaczeniu cybernetycznym - wyodrębniony (realnie lub jedynie myślowo) fragment rzeczywistości, rozważany pod względem przekształcania oddziaływań na niego (docierających bodźców, stanów wejścia), na jego oddziaływania (przejawiające się reakcje, stany wyjścia). +Wszystko, co znajduje się poza rozważanym układem, i co może (mogłoby) wywierać na niego wpływ, lub na co układ może (mógłby) wywierać wpływ, to otoczenie układu. +Dany układ można traktować także jako część składową większego układu (nadukładu) lub rozważać jego części składowe (podukłady). +W układzie wyróżnia się wejścia (przez które do układu docierają bodźce) i wyjścia (przez które układ przejawia reakcje) - wewnętrzne i zewnętrzne. Wejścia i wyjścia wewnętrzne służą oddziaływaniu układu na samego siebie, zewnętrzne - oddziaływaniu między układem a otoczeniem. +Układ niemający żadnych wejść i wyjść zewnętrznych to układ bezwzględnie odosobniony, układ mający takie wejścia i wyjścia to układ względnie odosobniony. +Z innego punktu widzenia można wyróżnić wejścia i wyjścia informacyjne, przez które układ przyjmuje i przekazuje informację, oraz zasileniowe, przez które układ przyjmuje i przekazuje zasilenie (energię). +Układ fizyczny. +Jeżeli wyodrębnionym fragmentem rzeczywistości jest obiekt fizyczny lub zbiór takich obiektów, układ jest układem fizycznym. Może on być oddzielony od otoczenia wyraźnymi granicami, które są powierzchniami nieciągłości określonych wielkości fizycznych, charakteryzujących układ. +Układ fizyczny nie oddziałujący z otoczeniem, to układ fizyczny odosobniony. +Układ fizyczny rozpatrywany ze względu na jego stan termodynamiczny oraz wymianę z otoczeniem energii i składników (cząstek), to układ termodynamiczny. +Układ fizyczny rozpatrywany ze względu na zachodzące w nim reakcje chemiczne to układ chemiczny. +Układ jako system. +Układ rozpatrywany ze względu na budowę wewnętrzną (jako całość składająca się z powiązanych, sprzężonych ze sobą, oddziałujących wzajemnie na siebie elementów), określa się jako system. Jest to zbiór elementów (zwany składem systemu) wraz ze zbiorem relacji między nimi (zwanym strukturą systemu). +Termin "układ" ("system") może też oznaczać sposób rozmieszczenia (uporządkowania) elementów według określonych zasad. +Układ fizyczny jako system. +Układ fizyczny, rozpatrywany jako system, określa się jako zespół obiektów fizycznych, oddziałujących na siebie wzajemnie tzn. mogących przekazywać sobie nawzajem energię. +Daltonowie (komiks) + +Bracia Dalton to w serii komiksów autorstwa komiksów R. Goscinniego i Morrisa antagoniści głównego bohatera Lucky Luke'a. +Historia. +Początkowo Morris wykorzystał w swoich komiksach historycznych braci Daltonów Grat, Bill i Emmett, których przedstawił jako bardzo groźnych i inteligentnych przestępców. Niestety po pierwszym spotkaniu z Lucky Luke, zostali aresztowani i skazani w więzieniu na śmierć. Morris żałował potem swojej decyzji i wraz z Gościnnym wprowadził na ich miejsce, czwórkę kuzynów (także) Daltonów – Joe, Williama, Jacka i Averelle, którzy byli przeciwieństwem swoich kuzynów. Wiecznie pechowi, gamoniowaci i niezbyt inteligentni. Wkrótce stali się oni najpopularniejszymi postaciami w serii, zaraz po samym Lucky Luke i z czasem dołączył do nich pies Rantanplan. Doczekali się także solowego filmu dystrybuowanego w Polsce pt. "Lucky Luke" (oryg. "Les Dalton"). +O postaciach. +Charakterystyczną cechą braci Daltonów jest to iż każdy kolejny jest o głowę wyższy i głupszy od wcześniejszego. W większości fabuł uciekają z więzienia, tylko po to by na końcu zostać złapanymi i odprowadzonymi przez Lucky Luke. +Joe Dalton– Najniższy z braci a zarazem najstarszy i najinteligentniejszy, przywódca bandy. Z natury choleryk i agresor. Nienawidzi Lucky Luke i jest ogarnięty manią zemsty wobec cowboya. Na szczęście dla bohatera marnie strzela (zwłaszcza gdy jest wściekły). +William i Jack Dalton – Dwaj środkowi bracia. William Dalton został w pierwszym komiksie wprowadzony jako Jack, później przez pomyłkę rysownika zostali zamienieni imionami. Ów błąd przewija się przez całą serię (a nawet adaptacje animowane) i nie jest do końca pewne, który z dwójki jest oficjalnie tym niższym a który tym wyższym. +Jedną z głównych cech dwóch środkowych Daltonów jest to iż zdarza im się powtórzyć to same zdanie i często ich rolą jest uspokajanie Joe i rozdzielanie go z Arvrellem. O ile w późniejszych komiksach mają praktycznie identyczne charaktery, o tyle w swoich albumach Gościnny starał się nadać każdemu odrębne charakterystyki. +Niższy w pierwszym (i tylko tym) komiksie został przedstawiony jako maniak broni palnej. W dalszych albumach często był pokazywany jako wiecznie chwalący Joego za jego plany (czasem okazywał to, całując go w policzek). Okazyjnie dawał się znać jako przesadnie pewny siebie (w "Spadku Bzika" popisuje się że zna chiński). Także w niektórych dalszych albumach pokazany był jako dający się łatwo upić. +Wyższy w pierwszym albumie z kolei pokazany był jako spec od przebieranek. W albumie „Dalton City” razem z Joe rywalizuje o względy dziewczyny. +Averell Dalton – Najwyższy i najgłupszy z czwórki, często będący przyczyną zepsucia ich planów. Jego zachowanie zwykle drażni Joe, który często reaguje rzucając się na Avrelle'a i dusząc go. Mimo swojej głupoty, Avrelle jest najspokojniejszym z braci i często okazuje poczciwą naturę. Ma ogromny apetyt. W wielu komiksach był pokazany jak jadł mydło. +Inni Daltonowie w serii. +Mama Dalton – Matka klanu, także przestępczyni. Często ostra wobec swoich synów, choć zawsze łaskawa wobec Averella, którego faworyzuje. +Marcel Dalton – Wuj Daltonów, bankier z Szwajcarii. Czarna owca rodziny. Wygląda jak Averell. +Henry Dalton – Zmarły wuj Daltonów, wielki desperado i idol głównej czwórki. W albumie „Ballada Daltonów” Daltonowie próbują zdobyć jego spadek. Wygląda jak Joe. +Żółwiak chiński + +Żółwiak chiński, żółw chiński ("Pelodiscus sinensis") – gatunek gada z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych z rodziny żółwiaków. +Zrosłogłowe + +Zrosłogłowe, chimery (Holocephali) – podgromada ryb chrzęstnoszkieletowych obejmująca blisko 40 współcześnie żyjących gatunków zamieszkujących głębokie i chłodne wody morskie, oraz wiele taksonów kopalnych. Nazwa "chimery" jest odnoszona do współcześnie żyjących Holocephali, w odniesieniu do wymarłych gatunków z rodzin innych niż chimerowate nie powinna być stosowana. +Występowanie. +Chłodne i głębokie wody oceaniczne, poniżej 80 m p.p.m. +Cechy charakterystyczne. +Taka budowa umożliwia powiększanie jamy gębowej i gardzieli, zwiększa ruchliwość szczęk - ułatwia to pobieranie pokarmu. +Systematyka. +oraz wiele gatunków wymarłych, klasyfikowanych w kilku rodzinach. Ich pozycja taksonomiczna jest dyskutowana. +Marchew + +Marchew ("Daucus" L. 1753) – rodzaj roślin z rodziny selerowatych. Rodzaj liczy ok. 25 gatunków szeroko rozprzestrzenionych na kuli ziemskiej. Gatunkiem typowym jest "Daucus carota" L.. +Systematyka. +"Ammiopsis " Boiss., "Heterosciadium" Lange, "Pomelia" Durando ex Pomel +Rodzaj należący do podrodziny "Apioideae " Seemann, rodziny selerowatych ("Apiaceae" Lindl.), rzędu selerowców ("Apiales" Lindl.), kladu astrowych w obrębie okrytonasiennych . +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa dereniowe ("Cornidae" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal), nadrząd "Aralianae" Takht., rząd araliowce ("Araliales" Reveal), rodzina selerowate ("Apiaceae" Lindl.), podrodzina "Daucoideae" Burnett, plemię "Dauceae" W.D.J. Koch, podplemię "Daucinae" Dumort., rodzaj marchew ("Daucus" L.). +Władysław zatorski + +Władysław (Włodko) (ur. około 1455, zmarł 1493) – książę zatorski w latach 1468-1474 razem z braćmi, od 1474 na połowie Zatora z bratem Janem V, w wyniku podziału 1482 książę na Wadowicach. +Włodko był czwartym pod względem starszeństwa synem księcia zatorskiego Wacława I i szlachcianki Małgorzaty Kopczowskiej. Włodko po raz pierwszy w dokumentach pojawił się w 1470. Cztery lata później w wyniku podziału został wraz z Janem V księciem połowy Zatora i obszarów położonych na zachód od rzeki Skawy. Początkowo Jan i Władysław rządzili wspólnie, dopiero w 1482 doszło do podziału ich kompetencji i odtąd najmłodszy syn Wacława I otrzymał okręg wadowicki jako uposażenie. Władysław był żonaty z nieznaną bliżej Anną, z którą dochował się córki Agnieszki, wydanej za szlachcica, Jana z Tworkowa. Miał również najprawdopodobniej nieślubnego syna Włodzimierza, mnicha tynieckiego. Władysław Zatorski zmarł w 1493 roku przekazując obszar swojego księstwa jedynemu pozostałemu przy życiu bratu, Janowi V. Same Wadowice przekazał córce Agnieszce, jednak tylko jako posiadłość ziemską, bez rangi udzielnego księstwa. +Biegun magnetyczny + +Biegun magnetyczny w fizyce. +Igła magnetyczna ma dwa bieguny. Umieszczona w stałym polu magnetycznym ustawia się zgodnie z kierunkiem linii pola. W polu magnetycznym Ziemi jest to w przybliżeniu (na większości powierzchni Ziemi) kierunek zgodny z kierunkiem południków. W związku z tym końce igły nazywa się północnym (N) i południowym (S) – północnym jest koniec wskazujący geograficzny kierunek północny, południowym zaś koniec wskazujący geograficzne południe. Nazwy te w oczywisty sposób rozciągnięto na wszelkie magnesy, określając odpowiednio ich bieguny jako północne i południowe. +Analogicznie do prawa elektrostatyki, można sformułować prawo Coulomba dla magnetostatyki, opisujące oddziaływanie dwóch biegunów, jednak między tymi dwiema dziedzinami zachodzi istotna różnica. Wszystkie znane źródła pola magnetycznego posiadają parę biegunów magnetycznych - północny i południowy (dipol magnetyczny). Nie jest możliwe ich fizyczne rozdzielenie; przecięcie magnesu o dwóch biegunach tworzy dwa nowe magnesy, każdy o dwóch biegunach. +Monopol magnetyczny (pojedynczy biegun N lub S) pojawia się jako cząstka w niektórych teoriach fizycznych, jednak nie został on nigdy zaobserwowany. +Biegun magnetyczny w geografii. +Podobnie jak w przypadku ładunków elektrycznych, bieguny magnetyczne jednoimienne odpychają się, a różnoimienne przyciągają. Wynika stąd na pozór paradoksalny wniosek - skoro igła ustawia się swym biegunem północnym na północ, to w rejonie północnego bieguna geograficznego Ziemi znajduje się południowy biegun "ziemskiego magnesu" (i odwrotnie, koło południowego bieguna geograficznego - magnetyczny "biegun północny"). +Aby uniknąć nieporozumień i mieszania pojęć, w geografii i geofizyce nie określa się biegunów ziemskiego pola magnetycznego nazwami fizycznymi, a tylko geograficznymi. Tak więc biegun magnetyczny półkuli północnej nazywa się północnym, a biegun magnetyczny półkuli południowej południowym, mimo że "fizycznie" winny być nazywane akurat odwrotnie. +Lotność (gaz) + +gdzie formula_7 – mierzony eksperymentalnie współczynnik ściśliwości gazu. +Jak łatwo zauważyć, dla gazu doskonałego ("Z" = 1) dostaniemy zawsze formula_8, skąd formula_3 oraz formula_10. +Aby móc prawidłowo analizować równowagi chemiczne przy wysokich ciśnieniach oraz gęstościach (warunki interesujące w zastosowaniach technologicznych), należałoby w miejsce ciśnień składników gazowych używać ich lotności. +Steve Fossett + +Steve Fossett (ur. 22 kwietnia 1944 w Jackson, Tennessee, zm. 3 września 2007) – amerykański milioner i podróżnik, którego hobby było bicie różnego typu rekordów (na swoim koncie miał około 115 pobitych rekordów), członek Światowego Komitetu Skautowego (WOSM). Fossett zdobył swoją fortunę na amerykańskiej giełdzie papierów wartościowych. +Ostatni lot. +3 września 2007 po wystartowaniu z prywatnego rancza w Nevadzie jednosilnikowym samolotem sportowym Bellanca Super Decathlon Steve Fossett zaginął, w związku z czym rozpoczęto jego poszukiwania. Leciał prywatnym samolotem z zapasem paliwa na co najmniej 4 godziny lotu. +Po 3 miesiącach poszukiwań, które nie przyniosły efektu, żona wystąpiła o uznanie go za zmarłego i odczytanie testamentu. 15 lutego 2008 roku został formalnie uznany za zmarłego przez sąd w Chicago. +29 września 2008 w okolicy Mammoth Lakes (Kalifornia) turysta odnalazł dokumenty zaginionego, w tym jego licencję pilota. 2 października na wysokości około 3 100 m n.p.m. odnaleziono wrak samolotu należący do Steve’a Fossetta. Początkowo ogłoszono, że nie odnaleziono ludzkich szczątków oraz że w opinii ratowników jest mało prawdopodobne, aby ktoś mógł przeżyć katastrofę i oddalić się z jej miejsca o własnych siłach. Pod koniec trzeciego dnia poszukiwań w kadłubie odnaleziono szczątki organiczne, lecz trzeba było poczekać na wyniki badań DNA, aby określić ich przynależność do zaginionego. Przybliżone miejsce katastrofy ustalono na: . +4 listopada 2008 wyniki badań DNA szczątków odnalezionych w miejscu katastrofy samolotu potwierdziły śmierć Steve’a Fossetta. 11 lipca 2009 jako prawdopodobną przyczynę wypadku podano atmosferyczne prądy zstępujące, które nie pozwoliły jego lekkiej maszynie wznieść się i uniknąć rozbicia o zbocze kalifornijskiej góry. +Microsoft PowerPoint + +Microsoft PowerPoint – program do tworzenia prezentacji multimedialnych wchodzący w skład pakietu biurowego Microsoft Office. PowerPoint jest dostępny dla systemów Microsoft Windows oraz Mac OS. +Historia. +Microsoft przejął PowerPointa w 1987 roku od producenta oprogramowania dla komputerów Apple – Forethought. Firma ta była również właścicielem bazy danych Nashoba's FileMaker, z którą Microsoft rywalizował bez powodzenia swoim produktem – MicrosoftFile. +W 1990 roku, Microsoft wypuścił na rynek Word, Excel oraz PowerPoint pod wspólną nazwą Microsoft Office, najpierw dla Apple, a później dla Windows. +Opis. +W programie PowerPoint tekst, grafika, filmy lub inne obiekty są przez użytkownika łączone w slajdy. Slajdy mogą być drukowane lub (znacznie częściej) wyświetlane za pomocą monitora albo projektora multimedialnego. Przejścia pomiędzy slajdami, jak również pojawianie się obiektów, można animować na wiele – predefiniowanych przez producenta – sposobów. +PowerPoint, jak większość tego rodzaju programów, daje możliwość tworzenia szablonów slajdów (np. slajd tytułowy, slajd typu tabela, slajd tekst i wykres, itp.). Możliwy jest także wybór wzorca slajdów lub jego samodzielne utworzenie, co pozwala na jednolity wygląd wszystkich slajdów. Slajdy mogą być także całkowicie odmienne i nie wiązać się ze sobą wyglądem. +PowerPoint pozwala na korzystanie z obiektów z całego pakietu Microsoft Office, makr i skryptów pisanych w języku Visual Basic. Program ma jednak spore problemy z obsługą animacji wektorowych i niektórych formatów graficznych, takich jak animowane GIF-y i PNG z przezroczystością. Zdarza się też, że często błędnie interpretuje poprawnie skonstruowane pliki Windows Metafile, nie pochodzące z programów pakietu Microsoft Office. +Przybysławice (województwo wielkopolskie) + +Przybysławice – wieś sołecka w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie ostrowskim, w gminie Raszków. +Sąsiaduje z miastem Raszków oraz wsią Pogrzybów, tworząc z nimi zwarty zespół miejscowości. Do Przybysławic można dojechać z Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego autobusami komunikacji miejskiej. +Historia. +Wzmiankowane w 1392 roku jako "Przibislavicze". Losy wsi są ściśle związane z dziejami sąsiednich miejscowości, Pogrzybowa i Raszkowa. Przed 1932 rokiem miejscowość położona była w powiecie odolanowskim, w latach 1975-1998 w województwie kaliskim, w latach 1932-1975 i od 1999 w powiecie ostrowskim. +Chromosom submetacentryczny + +Chromosom submetacentryczny - chromosom, w którym centromer położony jest w pobliżu środka chromosomu, ale nie w środku, co sprawia, że podczas metafazy i anafazy przybiera kształt litery L. Położenie centromeru jest stałe, dlatego chromosom submetacentryczny wykazuje ten sam kształt we wszystkich komórkach danego osobnika. Typ budowy danego chromosomu może być cechą stałą dla gatunku, a nawet rodzaju, a tym samym może mieć znaczenie dla systematyki zwierząt i roślin. +Szeregowy + +Szeregowy (do 1976 szeregowiec) – najniższy stopień wojskowy, jaki bez szczególnego nadania otrzymują poborowi powołani po raz pierwszy do czynnej służby wojskowej z dniem stawienia się do służby, ochotnicy oraz osoby przeniesione do rezerwy bez odbycia służby wojskowej (do 31.12.2009 r.) – z dniem przeniesienia do rezerwy. +Kapral + +Kapral (od wł. "caporale" – "dowódca") – w Wojsku Polskim najniższy stopień wojskowy w korpusie podoficerskim. +Polska. +Podoficer o tym stopniu w WP pełni najczęściej służbę na stanowisku dowódcy drużyny (działonu, załogi, obsługi, radiostacji). W Marynarce Wojennej odpowiednikiem stopnia kaprala jest mat. +W okresie II RP stopień kaprala był przewidziany zarówno dla podoficerów zasadniczej służby wojskowej (w tym nadterminowej) jak i dla podoficerów zawodowych. W skali stopni wojskowych armii NATO odpowiada randze: OR-03. +W Siłach Zbrojnych PRL należał do grupy podoficerów młodszych. +Stopień kaprala występuje również w Straży Granicznej, Służbie Więziennej, Biurze Ochrony Rządu oraz Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego. Odpowiednikiem tego stopnia w Państwowej Straży Pożarnej jest sekcyjny. +Inne kraje. +Kapral (ang. Corporal) w Armii Brytyjskiej British Army jest stopniem podoficerskim, w przeciwieństwie do WP - drugim w kolejności w British Army tak samo jak i w Royal Marines. Stopień kaprala znajduje się między stopniami Lance Corporal a Sergeant. Stopień kaprala to dwa znaki w kształcie litery V (jest określany też jako "dwa haczyki" lub bardziej popularne - dwa paski na rękawie). Rola kaprala jest zależna od pułków/batalionów, jednak zazwyczaj kapral dowodzi 8-osobową sekcją, a jego zastępcą jest Lance Corporal (jako 2IC - Second In Command). Gdy sekcja podzieli się na dwie drużyny, każdy przejmuje dowództwo nad jedną z nich. W królewskich korpusach pancernych, kapral jest dowódcą czołgu. Obowiązki kaprali często przypominają te, które wykonują sierżanci a nawet st. sierżanci w US Army, dlatego też uważa się, że kaprale są kręgosłupem Armii Brytyjskiej. W koszarach kapral ma bardzo szeroki zakres obowiązków. +Historia. +Kapral pojawił się w średniowiecznej Europie Zachodniej jako dowódca samodzielnego oddziału wojsk najemnych. Od połowy XVI wieku był już tylko dowódcą najmniejszego pododdziału - drużyny. +W armii Maurycego Orańskiego i Gustawa Adolfa, a później w innych armiach europejskich był podoficerem kierującym ogniem czterech rot (czyli rzędów) muszkieterskich lub częścią kompanii pikinierów (kapralstwo, półpluton). W Polsce nazwa kaprala pojawiła się w XVII wieku wraz z wprowadzeniem autoramentu cudzoziemskiego. +Oznaczenia. +Oznaczeniem stopnia w Wojsku Polskim są dwie poziome belki w kolorze srebrnym na naramiennikach i otoku czapki. +W myśl Przepisu Ubioru Polowego Wojsk Polskich r. 1919 "na naramiennikach kurtki i płaszcza z tasiemki wełnianej karmazynowej szerokości 0,5 cm naszyte w poprzek naramiennika przeciętnie w połowie jego długości dwa paski w odległości 1 cm jeden od drugiego". +Zgodnie z przepisami ubiorczymi żołnierzy Wojska Polskiego z 1972 roku kapral nosił na przodzie otoku czapki garnizonowej wykonane z taśmy dystynkcyjnej dwa paski długości 3 cm i szerokości 5 mm; odstęp między paskami wynosił 2 mm; na naramiennikach kurtek dwa paski szerokości 8 mm podwinięte obydwoma końcami pod naramiennik (po 1 cm), pierwszy naszyty w odległości 2 cm od miejsca wszycia rękawa, a drugi 4 mm od pierwszego, w kierunku guzika naramiennika. +Oskar II + +Oskar II, "Oscar Fryderyk" (ur. 21 stycznia 1829 w Sztokholmie, zm. 8 grudnia 1907 tamże) – król Szwecji w latach 1872–1907 i Norwegii w latach 1872–1905, z dynastii Bernadotte. +Zarys biografii. +Syn króla Szwecji i Norwegii Oskara I i Józefiny de Beauharnais. Brat króla Szwecji i Norwegii Karola XV. Ojciec króla Szwecji Gustawa V. Ostatni koronowany monarcha szwedzki, następca Gustaw V nie koronował się. +W 1884 w Norwegii, a w 1905 w Szwecji zapoczątkował parlamentarno-gabinetowy system rządów. Po tym, jak odmówił utworzenia norweskiej służby dyplomatycznej, parlament norweski usunął go z tronu w 1905. W Szwecji panował do końca życia. +Maryla Rodowicz + +Maria Antonina Rodowicz (ur. 8 grudnia 1945 w Zielonej Górze) – polska piosenkarka, głównie muzyki pop, ale także pop-rock i folk rock. +Życie prywatne. +Rodzina Maryli Rodowicz pochodzi z Wilna; jej ojciec pracował na Uniwersytecie im. Stefana Batorego. Dziadkowie prowadzili koło Ostrej Bramy aptekę Pod Łabędziem. Przodkowie piosenkarki pochowani są na cmentarzu Bernardyńskim. +Ukończyła I Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Ziemi Kujawskiej we Włocławku, później warszawską Akademię Wychowania Fizycznego. W młodości z powodzeniem czynnie uprawiała lekkoatletykę m.in. w Kujawiaku Włocławek. +W 1986 wyszła za mąż za Andrzeja Dużyńskiego (wzięli cichy ślub, jedynie w obecności świadków: Agnieszki Osieckiej i Seweryna Krajewskiego). Ma troje dzieci: Jana Jasińskiego (ur. 1979), Katarzynę Jasińską (ur. 1982) – z Krzysztofem Jasińskim, i Andrzeja Dużyńskiego (ur. 1987). +Jest pasjonatką samochodów marki Porsche. Jej pierwszy samochód tej marki można oglądać w muzeum motoryzacji w Otrębusach. Obecnie jeździ czerwonym Porsche 911 Carrera. +Kariera. +Lata 1962-1970. +Pierwszy publiczny kontakt z piosenką Maryla Rodowicz miała w 1962 r., kiedy wzięła udział w eliminacjach do I Festiwalu Młodych Talentów w Szczecinie. Chociaż została zakwalifikowana do finału, nie wystąpiła w nim, ponieważ termin finału zbiegł się z Lekkoatletycznymi Mistrzostwami Polski Młodzików, w których zdobyła mistrzowski tytuł w sztafecie 4x100 m. +W czasie studiów na AWF w Warszawie od sierpnia 1965 r. Rodowicz występowała w składzie bigbitowego zespołu "Szejtany", działającego w studenckim klubie "Relax". +W 1965 r. wokalistka zdobyła z zespołem 1. miejsce na warszawskim przeglądzie zespołów bigbeatowych w klubie "Finka". +W 1966 r. związała się ze studenckim kabaretem "Gag", który działał pod przewodnictwem kompozytora Jerzego Andrzeja Marka i poety Adama Kreczmara. +Pierwszym jej poważniejszym sukcesem był występ w 1967 r. na Przeglądzie Piosenki Studenckiej w Lublinie i na Giełdzie Piosenki w Częstochowie z piosenką "Jak cię miły zatrzymać" (muz. Jerzy Andrzej Marek, sł. Adam Kreczmar, utwór z repertuaru Teresy Tutinas), gdzie zdobyła główną nagrodę. +Występ na odbywającym się w Krakowie w dniach 24-26 listopada 1967 r. VI Studenckim Festiwalu Piosenki zaowocował zdobyciem 1. nagrody za piosenki "Jak cię miły zatrzymać" i "Pytania" (słowa Jonasz Kofta). +Na początku 1968 r. Maryla Rodowicz (obok Skaldów, Niebiesko-Czarnych i Alibabek) wzięła udział w filmie TV "Kulig", w reżyserii Stanisława Kokesza. Zaśpiewała w nim piosenki "Jeszcze zima", "Trzy, może nawet cztery dni" i "Walc na trzy pas". Główną rolę grał Bogumił Kobiela. +W 1968 r. zadebiutowała na VI Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu w koncercie Debiutów z zainspirowanymi amerykańskim folkiem utworami "Zabierz moje sukienki" i "Co ludzie powiedzą". W tym samym roku dokonała pierwszych nagrań dla Radiowego Studia Piosenki III programu PR. Od listopada Maryli Rodowicz towarzyszą gitarzyści (Tomasz Myśków, Grzegorz Pietrzyk). +Na VII KFPP w Opolu w 1969 r. zdobyła nagrodę Przewodniczącego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Opola za piosenkę "Mówiły mu" (muz. Stefan Rembowski, sł. Andrzej Bianusz). W tym roku występowała także na: Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie ("Mówiły mu"), Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki Politycznej w Soczi (III nagroda i nagroda dziennikarzy za piosenki "Żyj mój świecie", "Za duże buty" i "Ech, drogi") oraz Festiwalu FAMA w Świnoujściu. +Rodowicz została nagrodzona Srebrnym Gwoździem Sezonu Plebiscytu Popularności Czytelników "Kuriera Polskiego", otrzymała też tytuł Piosenkarki Roku w plebiscycie rozgłośni radiowych oraz tytuł najpopularniejszej piosenkarki w kraju, przyznany w plebiscytach „Jazzu” i „Musicoramy”. Został też nakręcony film telewizyjny "Ballada wagonowa" z udziałem wokalistki. +Lata 70. +W roku 1970 na VIII Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Maryla Rodowicz zdobyła nagrodę TVP za wykonanie piosenki "Jadą wozy kolorowe" (muz. Stefan Rembowski, sł. Jerzy Ficowski). +W 1970 r. występowała także w wielu innych festiwalach: Piosenki Żołnierskiej w Kołobrzegu, w Sopocie (III nagroda za "Jadą wozy kolorowe"), w Palermo i kubańskim kurorcie Varadero. +W roku 1970 ukazał się pierwszy album Maryli Rodowicz „Żyj mój świecie” (Polskie Nagrania "Muza" – Muza SXL0598, zdobył status złotej płyty) oraz single na rynek brytyjski i czechosłowacki. Piosenka "Jadą wozy kolorowe" została Radiową Piosenką Roku. Artystka w tym czasie zagrała swoje pierwsze koncerty w Czechosłowacji. Została również nagrodzona po raz drugi Srebrnym Gwoździem Sezonu Plebiscytu Popularności Czytelników "Kuriera Polskiego". +W roku 1971 na IX Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Rodowicz zdobyła główną nagrodę za wykonanie piosenki "Z tobą w górach" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Jerzy Kleyny). W tym roku występowała także w wielu innych festiwalach: Piosenki Żołnierskiej w Kołobrzegu. W 1971 r. wydany został drugi album wokalistki „Wyznanie” (Pronit (1972)LP XL / SXL 0806). Po raz trzeci artystka otrzymała Srebrny Gwóźdź Sezonu Plebiscytu Popularności Czytelników "Kuriera Polskiego". W tym roku Maryla Rodowicz wyjechała również w swoją pierwszą trasę koncertową po ZSRR oraz w Czechosłowacji. +W 1972 r. na X Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu zdobyła nagrodę Państwowego Wydawnictwa Muzycznego za "Kochaniem, pragnieniem", oraz Tytuł Miss Obiektywu – Nagroda Fotoreporterów. Maryla wystąpiła także na Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie. Wokalistka wydała też kolejny singel na rynek czechosłowacki. W tym roku też wydała album „Maryla Rodovićzova”. +W 1973 r. na XI Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Maryla Rodowicz otrzymała wyróżnienie za "Diabeł raj" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Agnieszka Osiecka). Uczestniczyła także w Festiwalu „Bratysława Lira” w Bratysławie (Czechosłowacja) gdzie zdobywa Grand Prix du Disque, w Festiwalu „Złoty Orfeusz” w Słonecznym Brzegu (Bułgaria), Festiwalu Piosenki w Splicie (Jugosławia), Międzynarodowy Festiwal Piosenki w Sopocie gdzie zdobyła Grand Prix du Disque, Nagrodę Publiczności oraz Nagrodę Czytelników „Wieczoru Wybrzeża” za utwory "A gdzie to siódme morze" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Jerzy Kleyny), "Diabeł i raj" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Agnieszka Osiecka) i "Małgośka" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Agnieszka Osiecka). Artystka wzięła też udział w Światowym Festiwalu Młodzieży i Studentów w Berlinie. Nagrała album „Maryla Rodowicz” oraz pierwsze single na rynek NRD. Artystka otrzymała Nagrodę Ministra Kultury NRD, uczestniczyła w filmie TV „Nareszcie razem” wraz z Urszulą Sipińską. Koncertowała w NRD oraz Czechosłowacji. +W 1974 r. XII Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Maryla Rodowicz otrzymała wyróżnienie za "Urodzajny rok", wydała album „Rok”, trzeci album piosenkarki na polskim rynku. Uczestniczyła w ceremonii otwarcia Mistrzostw Świata w Piłce Nożnej w Monachium gdzie wykonała piosenkę "Futbol" (muz. Leszek Bogdanowicz, sł. Jonasz Kofta). Nawiązała współpracę z kompozytorem Jackiem Mikułą. Otrzymała po raz czwarty nagrodę Srebrnego Gwoździa Sezonu Plebiscytu Popularności Czytelników "Kuriera Polskiego", a piosenka "Małgośka" zajęła II miejsce w plebiscycie "Non Stopu" za 1973 r. +4 maja 1975 roku odbyła się premiera oratorium "Zagrajcie nam dzisiaj wszystkie srebrne dzwony". Na XIII Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Rodowicz wystąpiła w koncercie Premiery w duecie z Czesławem Niemenem z piosenką "Pieśń ocalenia", w Koncercie Przebojów "Do łezki łezka" oraz w koncercie Mikrofon i ekran w duecie z Danielem Olbrychskim wykonując piosenkę "Wrócą chłopcy z wojny". Wokalistka wzięła udział w Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie, oraz w spektaklu muzycznym TV Agnieszki Osieckiej „Sentymenty”. +W 1976 r. Rodowicz uczestniczyła w XIV Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Koncert Przebojów, Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie, Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Stambule. Został wydany czwarty album na polskim rynku „Sing-Sing”. Artystka została nagrodzona Gwoździem Sezonu 76, Złotym Medalem Estrady, Star of Year (tytuł przyznawany przez brytyjski "Music Week", Nagrodę „Kukułki” przyznawana przez "Radiokurier", tytułem Wokalistki Roku w plebiscycie miesięcznika "Non Stop". Rodowicz koncertowała w NRD i wzięła udział w 20 programach TV, w tym „Maryla 2000” w Sali Kongresowej. +W 1977 r. na XV Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu wzięła udział w koncercie „Nastroje, nas troje”, a dwie jej piosenki "Krąży, krąży złoty pieniądz" i "Bossanova do poduszki" znalazły się w dziesiątce najlepszych piosenek festiwalu. W Sopocie wzięła udział w Festiwalu Interwizji z piosenkami "Nie ma jak pompa" i "Kolorowe jarmarki", gdzie otrzymała Nagrodę Główną Publiczności Interwizji i Nagrodę Publiczności. Maryla Rodowicz wzięła również udział w filmie muzycznym „Hak” oraz w spektaklu Teatru STU w Krakowie „Szalona lokomotywa” (rola Hildy, występowała razem z Markiem Grechutą, spektakl reżyserował Krzysztof Jasiński). Otrzymała nagrodę „Złota Ręka” "Przekroju" za najwybitniejsze osiągnięcia roku w dziedzinie mody i kostiumologii. +W 1978 r. wzięła udział w XVI Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu, gdzie zdobyła I nagrodę za "Remedium". Uczestniczyła w telewizyjnym filmie muzycznym „Dziewczyna z zapałkami”. Koncertowała w Bułgarii USA i Kanadzie oraz wzięła udział w Festiwalu Młodzieży i Studentów w Hawanie (Kuba), gdzie poznała Fidela Castro. Na Sopockim Festiwalu Interwizji zaśpiewała w duecie z Heleną Vondráčkovą piosenkę "Laska nebeska". Wydała album „Wsiąść do pociągu”. +W 1979 roku Maryla Rodowicz odbyła trasę koncertową na Węgrzech. W Zielonej Górze uczestniczyła w Festiwalu Piosenki Radzieckiej z piosenką "Konie" (W.Wysocki/A.Osiecka). Uczestniczyła w XVII Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu. Została również uhonorowana Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. Zdobyła również tytuł Wokalistki Roku. Wydała album „Cyrk nocą”. +Lata 80. +Na początku lat 80. wystąpiła na Festiwalu Muzyki Country „Tulsa International Mayfest” w Tulsa w Oklahomie, gdzie zdobyła III nagrodę. Nawiązała współpracę z trio wokalnym "Gang Marcela". Wydała kolejny longplay zatytułowany „Cyrk nocą”, który uzyskał status złotej płyty. Uczestniczyła w cyklu programów TV z piosenkami dla dzieci pt. „Spotkanie Dobrych Znajomych”. Wzięła także udział w kolejnym Festiwalu Muzyki Country w Independent w stanie Kansas, gdzie zdobyła III nagrodę, oraz w XVIII Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu w koncercie Premier (III nagroda). Koncertowała w ZSRR oraz klubach Chicago i Nowego Jorku. +W roku 1981 wystąpiła na koncercie Premier XIX Krajowego Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu. Wydała kolejny longplay pt. „Święty spokój”. Wzięła udział w cyklu programów telewizyjnych pt. „Maryli Rodowicz podróże po podwórzach” (5 części). Odbywała koncerty w ZSRR oraz klubach Chicago i Nowego Jorku. +W roku 1982 zakłada zespół „Różowe Czuby”, który był żartobliwą próbą nawiązania do stylu punk. W tym roku zakazano również emisji piosenki "Różowych Czubów" "Dentysta-Sadysta" po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego. +W roku 1983 Maryla Rodowicz koncertowała po ZSRR oraz brała udział po roku przerwy w XX Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu w koncercie pt. „Dwadzieścia lat minęło”. Wydała w tym roku album pt. "Марыля Родович (Maryla Rodowicz)". +W 1984 roku wydała longplay na rynek ZSRR pt. „Maryla Rodowicz”, który uzyskał nakład bliski ok. 10 mln egzemplarzy. Piosenkarka uczestniczyła w Festiwalu Młodzieży i Studentów w Moskwie i Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie. Odbywała koncerty w ZSRR oraz klubach Chicago i Nowego Jorku. +W roku 1985 wzięła udział w koncercie Przebojów na XXII Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu. Otrzymała również nagrodę dziennikarzy za "Niech żyje bal" i wydała longplay „Był sobie król” (płyta dla dzieci). +W 1986 r. uczestniczyła w XXIII KFPP w Opolu, Festiwalu Muzyki Country Mrągowo’86, XXII Festiwalu Piosenki Radzieckiej Zielona Góra – koncert Przyjaźni. Została uhonorowana Dyplomem Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych za wybitne zasługi w upowszechnianiu kultury polskiej za granicą. Wydała longplay zatytułowany „Gejsza nocy”. Maryla Rodowicz odbyła także trasę koncertową po ZSRR. +W roku 1987 wzięła udział w XXIV KFPP w Opolu gdzie piosenka pt. "Polska Madonna" zdobyła Nagrodę Dziennikarzy. Maryla Rodowicz otrzymała również „Karolinkę” – nagrodę za 20-lecie profesjonalnej pracy estradowej. Wzięła udział w filmie „Pan Kleks w Kosmosie” (rola Linelli de Bazar „Kołysanka w stylu mango”), oraz filmie dla TV Radzieckiej „Czerwcowa fotografia” – Wilno. W tym roku otrzymała także Nagrodę I stopnia Ministra Kultury i Sztuki za całokształt działalności. Wydała kolejny longplay zatytułowany „Polska Madonna”. Koncertowała w Australii. +W latach 1988-1990 wzięła udział w kolejnych dwóch festiwalach w Opolu (XXV KFPP i XXVII KFPP). Uczestniczyła też w Międzynarodowym festiwalu Radiowym (1989), w San Remo w Jubileuszowym 40. Festiwalu Piosenki Włoskiej oraz w 1988 w pierwszym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Witebsku. Koncertowała w Izraelu i Chinach. W 1990 r. wydała longplay pt. „Absolutnie nic”, który był jej jedenastym albumem na polskim rynku. Na tej płycie wziął udział gościnnie w piosence „To już było” jako gitarzysta Wojciech Waglewski, w piosence „Gonią wilki za owcami” na trąbce zagrał Tomasz Stańko. +Lata 90.. +W 1991 r. Maryla Rodowicz wydała pierwszą w swojej dyskografii płytę kompaktową „Full”, która zawierała zupełnie nowe wersje jej największych przebojów. Na tej płycie też wystąpił Wojciech Waglewski. +W 1992 r. koncertuje w Kanadzie i Szwajcarii. W tym roku ukazała się również autobiograficzna książka piosenkarki pt. "Niech żyje bal", w której opisała nie tylko przebieg swojej kariery, ale też życie uczuciowe, ujawniając ponadto wiele opowieści zza kulis ówczesnego show-biznesu. Rodowicz uczestniczyła również w międzynarodowym Pikniku Muzyki Country Sopot ’92, XXX Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu, gdzie otrzymała nagrodę Grand Prix za całokształt twórczości, w Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie, gdzie zostaje nagrodzona Bursztynowym Słowikiem za twórczość estradową. +W 1993 r. wzięła udział w XXXI KFPP w Opolu oraz w nagraniach telewizyjnych: „Kabaretowa Lista Przebojów”, „Piosenki z butiku” i „Szansa na sukces”. +W 1994 r. wzięła udział w XXXII KFPP w Opolu. Nagrała album „Marysia biesiadna” z piosenkami biesiadnymi, który okazał się jej największym komercyjnym sukcesem w Polsce. Płyta uzyskała status podwójnie "Platynowej Płyty" i rozeszła się w ćwierćmilionowym nakładzie. Artystka promowała bestsellerowy album grając koncert pt. „Marysia biesiadna” dla TV Kraków oraz cykl koncertów pod hasłem „Gala Piosenki Biesiadnej”. W tym samym roku Rodowicz trzymała Nagrodę Artystyczną Polskiej Estrady „Prometeusz ’94”. +W 1995 r. Rodowicz zagrała epizod w filmie „Dzieje Mistrza Twardowskiego” obok Daniela Olbrychskiego, gdzie wcieliła się w rolę Pani Twardowskiej. Nagrała też album „Złota Maryla”, promowany przebojem „Dworzec”, który rozszedł się w nakładzie ponad 60 tysięcy sztuk. Uczestniczyła ponadto w programie TV niemieckiej oraz otrzymała muzyczną nagrodę programu „Teleexpress”. +W 1996 r. Rodowicz postanowiła podsumować swoją karierę trzypłytowym wydawnictwem „Antologia”, zawierającym jej największe przeboje – poszczególne części były dostępne także osobno. Wszystkie części łącznie osiągnęły status "Złotej Płyty", przekraczając nakład 50 tysięcy sztuk. Wokalistka uczestniczyła w XXXIII KFPP w Opolu w koncercie „Kwiaty we włosach” poświęconym twórczości Krzysztofa Klenczona. Na XXXV Jubileuszowym Festiwalu w Sopocie otrzymała Nagrodę Specjalną Prezesa TVP S.A. za całokształt twórczości. +W 1997 roku otrzymała nagrodę „Mateusz” dla Wybitnej Osobowości Rozrywkowej przyznaną przez Program III Polskiego Radia. Wydała dwupłytową kompilację „Tribute to Agnieszka Osiecka – Łatwopalni” zawierającą mniej znane piosenki Osieckiej nagrane przez Rodowicz w ciągu jej całej kariery oraz premierową piosenkę "Łatwopalni" napisaną ku pamięci zmarłej poetki przez Jacka Cygana i skomponowaną przez najpopularniejszego wówczas kompozytora, Roberta Jansona. Utwór ten okazał się tak wielkim przebojem, że po raz pierwszy doprowadził artystkę na sam szczyt prestiżowej radiowej "Listy Przebojów Programu Trzeciego". W 1997 r. Rodowicz uczestniczyła także w XXXIV KFPP w Opolu w koncercie „Zielono mi” poświęconym Agnieszce Osieckiej. Otrzymała też „Super Wiktora” za całokształt twórczości telewizyjnej. +W 1998 roku wzięła udział w XXXV KFPP w Opolu w Koncercie Jubileuszowym „Pamiętajcie o ogrodach”. Na XXXVII Sopot Festival w plebiscycie „O!Polskie piosenki” – „Małgośka” została przebojem 35-lecia. Maryla Rodowicz otrzymała także Nagrodę Prezydenta Miasta Sopotu za całokształt twórczości. Wydała także album „Przed Zakrętem”, który uzyskał status "Złotej Płyty", rozchodząc się w nakładzie ponad 80 tysięcy egzemplarzy. Płytę promował przebój „Bar przed zakrętem”, skomponowany ponownie przez Jansona. W tym samym roku Maryla Rodowicz rozpoczęła współpracę z telewizją Polsat gdzie w serialu pt. „Rodzina zastępcza” gra rolę zwariowanej cioci Uli. Rodowicz została też wyróżniona Statuetką przyznaną przez widzów programu „Jaka to melodia”. +W 1999 r. Maryla Rodowicz wzięła udział w trasie koncertowej w cyrkach obejmującej 10 miast. Uczestniczyła także w koncercie na Placu Czerwonym w Moskwie z okazji 750-lecia miasta. Zdobyła I miejsce wśród wokalistek w plebiscycie „Polityki” – „Piosenkarze, piosenkarki i zespoły XX wieku”, otrzymała nagrodę „Grubej Ryby” od Radia Kolor „za najbardziej zmysłowy głos”, tytuł Najpopularniejszej Piosenkarki rankingu OBOP-u, „Telekamerę ’99” przyznaną przez czytelników „TeleTygodnia” dla najpopularniejszej osobowości telewizyjnej w kategorii „Najpopularniejsza Wokalistka”. W tym roku został także wydany album „Karnawał 2000” z polskojęzycznymi wersjami największych latynoskich standardów, promowany singlem „Czadu Maryla” z melodią hitu „Maria” Ricky'ego Martina. +Lata 2000-2007. +W marcu 2000 r. Maryla Rodowicz koncertowała w Stanach Zjednoczonych (m.in. Nowy Jork, Chicago) oraz miała nagrania z chórem gospel w Los Angeles. W tym samym roku brała udział w koncercie „Tyle słońca” pamięci Anny Jantar. Uczestniczyła w koncercie w Wadowicach z okazji 80. urodzin Jana Pawła II. +Brała udział w koncercie z okazji „75-lecie Polskiego Radia”. Artystka odbyła ponadto wielką trasę koncertową „Niebieskie Lato z Marylą”, zorganizowaną przez Radio Zet. Tournée udokumentowano na pierwszej w jej karierze koncertowym albumie „Niebieska Maryla”, który zyskał status "Złotej Płyty". Wydała też w tym roku album ,Karnawał 2000". +W roku 2001 prowadziła telewizyjny program rozrywkowy pt. „Tour de Maryla – Viva Italia!”(piosenki włoskie) i „Tour de Maryla – Ole!” (piosenki hiszpańskie). Wydała CD pt. „12 najpiękniejszych kolęd”. +W 2002 roku koncertowała w Chicago i Nowym Jorku. Brała udział w 40-leciu Festiwalu Piosenki Studenckiej w Krakowie. Na koncercie galowym pt. „50 lat TVP” otrzymała nagrodę „Gwiazda Telewizji”. Śpiewała także na koncercie z okazji „80 lat Polskiego Radia”. Nagrała CD pt. „Życie ładna rzecz”. Wystąpiła również z koncertem dla polskich żołnierzy w Bazie Wojskowej ONZ w Libanie. +3 kwietnia 2003 r. wystąpiła w Moskwie na Kremlu. Wyruszyła w trasę koncertową promującą płytę pt. „Życie ładna rzecz”. Brała udział w XXXX KFPP w Opolu w koncertach „Premiery” i „40/40”. W Krakowie na XXXXI Studenckim Festiwalu Piosenki otrzymała Grand Prix za całokształt działalności artystycznej. +15 grudnia 2003 r. odbyła się premiera płyty „Maryla Rodowicz – Největší hity” wydanej przez czeski Universal Music. W styczniu 2004 r. ukazała się limitowana płyta „Maryla Rodowicz i Przyjaciele” wydana z okazji 85-lecia PKO BP. Natomiast w marcu 2004 r. Maryla Rodowicz wyruszyła w trasę po Ameryce Północnej – łącznie 7 koncertów – jeden w Kanadzie (Toronto) i sześć w Stanach Zjednoczonych (Detroit, Chicago, Trenton, Lodi i Nowy Jork). 30 kwietnia 2004 r. Rodowicz wzięła udział w koncercie „Anioły Europy” na wrocławskim rynku z okazji wejścia Polski do Unii Europejskiej. Rodowicz wykonała początek "Carminy Burany" Carla Orffa i "Va’Pensiero" z opery „Nabucco” Giuseppe Verdiego. 1 i 2 maja 2004 r. Maryla Rodowicz śpiewała w koncercie 25. Przeglądu Piosenki Aktorskiej we Wrocławiu poświęconym twórczości Seweryna Krajewskiego. W czerwcu 2004 r. Maryla Rodowicz wystąpiła na dwóch specjalnych koncertach na cele charytatywne Fundacji Ewy Błaszczyk oraz Anny Dymnej. 15 lipca 2004 wystąpiła na Festiwalu Kultury Romów w Ciechocinku. 27 września 2004 r. śpiewała na koncercie galowym VII edycji konkursu „Pamiętajmy o Osieckiej”. 14 października Rodowicz zdobyła nagrodę „Złoty Wołek” na koncercie z okazji 50. urodzin Jana Wołka. 30 października śpiewa w Sankt Petersburgu. 7 grudnia Maryla Rodowicz odebrała nagrodę „Busola”, przyznaną przez redakcję „Przeglądu Tygodniowego” za „osobowość, która nigdy nie daje wygrać sile przyzwyczajenia”. 12 grudnia wzięła udział w koncercie transmitowanym na żywo przez Program III Polskiego Radia, który odbył się w radiowym Studio M im. Agnieszki Osieckiej. 16 grudnia Maryla Rodowicz odebrała w Moskwie nagrodę Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych Rosji za działalność artystyczną i zasługi w zbliżeniu kultury polskiej i rosyjskiej. +9 stycznia 2005 r. brała udział w finale Wielkiej Orkiestry Świątecznej Pomocy w Kutnie. Następnie 24 stycznia 2005 r. uczestniczyła w Gali „Telekamery 2005”. 6 lutego 2005 r. występowała na koncercie plenerowym na rzecz ofiar tsunami „Pokonamy fale”. 7 lutego 2005 r. Maryla Rodowicz poleciała do Iraku gdzie wystąpiła w bazie wojskowej w Diwanii. Generał dywizji Andrzej Ekiert przyjął ją w poczet żołnierzy pełniących służbę w składzie Polskiego Kontyngentu Wojskowego w Iraku. W maju 2005 r. zakończył się trwający rok plebiscyt Programu I Polskiego Radia "80/80" (80 przebojów na 80-lecie Polskiego Radia) – cztery piosenki Maryli Rodowicz z czterech zaproponowanych przez organizatorów zdobyły cztery pierwsze miejsca: "Niech żyje bal", "Sing-Sing", "Mówiły mu" i "Małgośka". Na XXXXII KFPP w Opolu podczas koncertu „Wielkie, większe, największe” z okazji 80-lecia Polskiego Radia Maryla Rodowicz zaśpiewała dwie spośród czterech piosenek uznanych za największe przeboje radiowe 80-lecia. Artystka otrzymała także od prezesa PR wyróżnienie – Złoty Mikrofon Polskiego Radia. Pomiędzy 25 czerwca – 25 sierpnia 2005 r. Rodowicz koncertowała w ramach trasy „Magiczne Lato z Radiem 2005” (19 koncertów). Brała udział w Sopot Festival 2005. +10 września 2005 została odznaczona przez ministra kultury Waldemara Dąbrowskiego Złotym Medalem Zasłużony Kulturze Gloria Artis. +Nagrała również płytę „Kochać” z tekstami Katarzyny Nosowskiej, której premiera odbyła się 26 września 2005 r. +W 2006 r. z okazji Mistrzostw Świata w Piłce Nożnej 2006 Maryla nagrała piosenkę „Za Janasa” z tekstem Katarzyny Nosowskiej. 2 czerwca 2006 otrzymała na festiwalu w Opolu pierwszą w swojej karierze Superjedynkę w kategorii wykonawca roku, pokonując Beatę Kozidrak i zespół Goya. Otrzymała także tytuł Artystki Bez Granic, nagrodę TV Polonia oraz "Złotą Płytę" za album „Kochać”. 4 czerwca 2006 w koncercie dla Marka Grechuty zaśpiewała piosenki "Hop szklankę piwa" oraz "Nad zrębem planety". We wrześniu 2006 r. Maryla Rodowicz zaśpiewała podczas koncertu wspomnień Sopot Festival 2006 i dostała "Platynową Płytę" za album „Kochać” (za sprzedaż 50.000 egzemplarzy płyty). Pod koniec roku 2006 Maryla Rodowicz nagrała utwór „Dwie strony medalu” (muz. Romuald Lipko, sł. St. Krzesiński), który znalazł się w serialu telewizyjnym TVP pod tym samym tytułem. +W styczniu 2007 r. została nagrana w duecie z Rafałem Olbrychskim piosenka "Przyjaciel" (sł. Wojciech Młynarski). 19 maja 2007 w programie „Jak Oni śpiewają?” Maryla Rodowicz w duecie z Agnieszką Włodarczyk zaśpiewała piosenkę pt. "Dziś prawdziwych Cyganów już nie ma". 8 czerwca 2007 Maryla Rodowicz wystąpiła na V Festiwalu TOPtrendy. 17 czerwca 2007 wystąpiła na XXXXIV Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu w koncercie dla Seweryna Krajewskiego „Niebo z moich stron”. +W lipcu 2007 r. w sondażu TNS OBOP Maryla Rodowicz zajęła 1. miejsce dla artystki, która prezentuje najwyższy poziom artystyczny w Polsce. +Od 2008. +Od marca do kwietnia 2008 roku Rodowicz zasiadała w jury pierwszej edycji nowego telewizyjnego show z udziałem gwiazd, Gwiezdny Cyrk w telewizji Polsat. W maju 2008 roku wokalistka powróciła z nowym albumem "Jest cudnie", który zawierał akustyczne i folkowe brzmienia nawiązujące do początków jej kariery. Za produkcję płyty odpowiadał producent Andrzej Smolik. Album już po trzech tygodniach sprzedaży osiągnął status "Platynowej Płyty" za ponad 30 tysięcy sprzedanych egzemplarzy. W grudniu płyta nieoficjalnie osiągnęła diamentowy nakład 150 tysięcy egzemplarzy[http://muzyka.interia.pl/szukaj/news/diamentowa-maryla-jest-cudnie,1229671], choć ponad 100 tysięcy sztuk dołączono w listopadzie po kilkakrotnie niższej cenie do dziennika Gazeta Wyborcza, czego nie liczy się w certyfikacji płyt. +W ramach promocji albumu Maryla Rodowicz wystąpiła w czerwcu na XLV Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu z recitalem "Maryla Show", w którym zaśpiewała swoje największe przeboje. Koncert ten trafił w grudniu na pierwszą w karierze artystki płytę DVD, którą dołączono do reedycji albumu "Jest cudnie", zawierającą ponadto dwa premierowe nagrania. Wokalistka promowała album śpiewając ponadto w lipcu na festiwalu TOPtrendy, a w listopadzie w programach Taniec z Gwiazdami oraz Jak Oni Śpiewają – w tym ostatnim wystąpiła także gościnnie jako juror. +Polska Akademia Muzyczna w Londynie w ramach plebiscytu "PAM Awards 2008" nominowała Marylę w trzech kategoriach: Solistka Roku 2008, Piosenka Roku ("Jest cudnie") oraz Album roku POP/DANCE 2008 (Jest cudnie). +W lutym artystka wydała płytę PRO-FANACJA (Swa-Wola 6)- płyta wydana dla fanów w nakładzie 120 egzemplarzy zawiera piosenki Maryli z lat 70. i 80. XX wieku. W kwietniu artystka została nominowana w trzech kategoriach (artysta roku, płyta roku i przebój roku) w plebiscycie TVP- Superjedynki. W maju artystka zwyciężyła w plebiscycie radiowej "Jedynki" "Maj Polskiej Piosenki", z piosenką "Ech mała" (utwór zdobył ponad 40% głosów). W czerwcu piosenkarka zajęła pierwsze miejsce w raporcie "Celebrity Monitor", na osobę, która najbardziej z polskich "celebrytów" zasługuje na miano gwiazdy (artystka zdobyła 68,6% głosów). 26 czerwca 2009 r. artystka wystąpiła na festiwalu TOPtrendy, w koncercie "Top", (płyta Jest cudnie zajęła 4 miejsce w rankingu najlepiej sprzedających się polskich albumów w 2008 roku). Na sylwestrze 2009/2010 w Łodzi (TVP2) zaśpiewała w duecie z Dodą recital. +4 września 2010 r. Maryla Rodowicz, Lech Wałęsa, Robert Korzeniowski i Józef Młynarczyk zostali oficjalnymi przyjaciółmi EURO 2012 (ogółem ma zostać wybranych 50 przyjaciół z Polski i Ukrainy). Ich zadaniem będzie promocja turnieju. W 2011 r. na Festiwalu TOPtrendy w Sopocie zajęła 5. miejsce w konkursie TOP za sprzedaż płyty "50", natomiast na 48. KFPP w Opolu otrzymała Superjedynkę w kategorii "Superpłyta" (za płytę "50") oraz Superjedynkę Superjedynek za najlepszy festiwalowy występ. 25 listopada 2011 ukazał się album "Buty 2", na którym znalazły się utwory z tekstami Agnieszki Osieckiej. +Dorobek. +Maryla Rodowicz w swoim dorobku ma ok. 2000 piosenek, ponad 20 płyt polskich, a także po jednej angielskiej, czeskiej, niemieckiej, rosyjskiej. +Płyty Maryli Rodowicz sprzedano łącznie w nakładzie ok. 15 mln sztuk, z czego 10 mln w Rosji. Koncertowała na całym świecie – w Europie, Ameryce, Australii, Azji. Laureatka wielu nagród, uczestniczka wielu festiwali – również poza granicami Polski, m.in. w Oklahomie, Los Angeles, Tulsie, Festiwalu Piosenki i Piosenkarzy Studenckich w Krakowie, Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu. +Wystąpiła m.in. w oratorium Katarzyny Gaertner i Ernesta Brylla „Zagrajcie nam dzisiaj wszystkie srebrne dzwony” (1975), śpiewogrze „Na szkle malowane” (K. Gaertner, E. Bryll), spektaklu Teatru STU w Krakowie „Szalona lokomotywa” wg tekstów St. I. Witkiewicza (1977, rola Hildy; na scenie razem z Markiem Grechutą; reż. Krzysztof Jasiński). +Zajmuje się też aktorstwem, zagrała w kilku filmach i widowiskach muzycznych. Regularnie do 2009 roku występowała w serialu Telewizji Polsat „Rodzina zastępcza” (później „Rodzina zastępcza plus”). +W 1992 ukazała się autobiograficzna książka piosenkarki „Niech żyje bal”. +Aleksander Rozenfeld + +Aleksander Rozenfeld (ur. 30 czerwca 1941 w Tambowie) – polski poeta i dziennikarz żydowskiego pochodzenia, publicysta Gazety Polskiej. +Urodził się w Tambowie w Związku Radzieckim, gdzie podczas II wojny światowej przebywali jego rodzice Adam i Elżbieta z domu Nissenbaum. Wiele lat mieszkał, tworzył i pracował w Lublinie. W latach 1980-1981 pracownik NSZZ „Solidarność”, w latach 1982-1987 na emigracji z własnego wyboru. Zamieszkał w Izraelu, skąd wrócił do Polski przez Rzym. W Europie Zachodniej oczekiwał na przywrócenie obywatelstwa polskiego. Po powrocie zamieszkał w Złotowie w Wielkopolsce. +W latach 1996-2001 pracował jako doradca w Kancelarii Prezydenta RP. Wydał m.in. tomik poezji "Wiersze na koniec wieku", "Poemat o mieście Złotowie i trochę innych wierszy", "Bzyk - wiersze nie dla dzieci", "Szmoncesy" oraz "Opowieści lasku żydowskiego". +Szauszka + +Szauszka (Szawuszka) — hurycka i hetycka bogini miłości i wojny. Uważana za siostrę Teszuba. Wyobrażano ją sobie jako skrzydlatą boginię stojącą na grzbiecie lwa. Utożsamiana z Hebat, Isztar, Astarte. +Objętość cząstkowa + +Objętość cząstkowa (objętość parcjalna) - objętość, jaką zajmowałby dany składnik mieszaniny gazowej, gdyby w tej samej temperaturze sam wykazywał takie samo ciśnienie. +gdzie:i - objętość cząstkowa składnika "i"i - liczność (liczba moli) składnika "i"V = \sum_{i=1}^{k} v_{i} = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{k} n_{i}}{p} RT = \frac{n}{p} RT +gdzie:n - łączna liczność składników mieszaniny. +Dla gazów rzeczywistych, szczególnie dla wysokich ciśnień, zamiast ciśnienia należałoby używać aktywności ciśnieniowej (lotności) gazu. +Sancho III Wielki + +Sancho III z Nawarry, zwany Wielkim (ur. ok. 985, zm. 18 października 1035) był królem Nawarry od ok. 1000 oraz hrabią Aragonii +Syn Garcii II z Pampeluny i Jimeny Fernandez, wstąpił na tron w 1004, dziedzicząc Nawarrę, Aragonię, Sobrarbe i Ribagorzę. Mimo że był pierwszym chrześcijańskim monarchą, któremu udało się zjednoczyć tyle posiadłości hiszpańskich, zaprzepaścił - z dzisiejszego punktu widzenia - dzieło swojego życia, rozdzielając je na mniejsze domeny krótko przed śmiercią, by zapewnić ziemię każdemu ze swoich synów. +Wraz ze swoim siostrzeńcem, królem Alfonsem V z Leónu i hrabią Garcią Sanchezem z Kastylii, przeprowadził wspólny atak na Al-Mansura Ibn Abi Aamira (zmarłego w 1002, zwanego Almanzorem) i podbił terytoria na południu. +Stosunki między trzema chrześcijańskimi dziedzinami pogorszyły się po zabójstwie hrabiego Garcii w 1027. W ramach kroków wojennych, które nastąpiły po tym zdarzeniu, Sancho III najpierw atakował Kastylię, a następnie León. U szczytu swoich podbojów rozszerzył granice królestwa od Galicji na zachodzie do hrabstwa Barcelony na wschodzie oraz tytułował się "Rex Hispaniarum", królem Hiszpanów. +Przed śmiercią w 1035 Sancho podzielił swoje posiadłości pomiędzy synów. Ferdynand dostał Kastylię, Garcia - Nawarrę oraz kraj Basków, a Gonzalowi przypadła Sobrarba oraz Ribargorza. Nieślubny syn Ramiro otrzymał w spadku hrabstwo Aragonii, które potem przekształciło się w pełnoprawne królestwo. +Park Bródnowski w Warszawie + +Park Bródnowski znajduje się na jednym z najstarszych osiedli Warszawy - na Bródnie. Jest otoczony ulicami Kondratowicza, Chodecką, Wyszogrodzką oraz przedłużeniem ulicy Łabiszyńskiej. Zajmuje powierzchnię 25,4 hektarów. +Park był budowany przez dwa lata, począwszy od 1976 roku, według projektu inż. Stefanii Traczyńskiej. Miał to być obiekt wypoczynkowy, zaspokajający potrzeby mieszkańców tej części stolicy. Od 1997 roku trwają nieustanne prace modernizacyjne. Powstały pierwsze place zabaw wydzielone dla dzieci, boiska do koszykówki i siatkówki oraz ścieżki rowerowe. +Trzy akweny zajmują 0,7 ha powierzchni parku, a na środku największego z nich znajduje się fontanna. +Sportowa część parku. +W parku tym przez OSiR zostały wybudowane boiska do koszykówki, dwa do siatkówki, piłki nożnej a także stoły ping-pongowe. Ten mini-ośrodek ogrodzony jest bramą. Każdy może korzystać z boisk. Sprzęt, którym gra się można wziąć swój, bądź wypożyczyć za okazaniem dokumentu tożsamości. +Adsorpcja wielowarstwowa + +Adsorpcja wielowarstwowa (adsorpcja poliwarstwowa) to zjawisko lub proces adsorpcji w którym adsorbat na powierzchni adsorbentu jest gromadzony w postaci warstwy grubszej niż rozmiary pojedynczej cząsteczki adsorbatu, tzw. wielowarstwy (poliwarstwy). Siły adsorpcyjne (adhezja - siły dyspersyjne w adsorpcji fizycznej oraz wiązania chemiczne w adsorpcji chemicznej, chemisorpcji) działające pomiędzy adsorbatem i powierzchnią adsorbentu lub na granicy faz są odpowiedzialne za adsorpcję monowarstwową. Kolejne warstwy adsorbatu mogą ulec adsorpcji na zaadsorbowanych cząsteczkach adsorbatu głównie dzięki siłom kohezji odpowiedzialnym za kondensację pary w ciecz. +Podstawową wielowarstwową izotermą adsorpcji jest izoterma BET (w wersji dla nieskończonej ilości warstw adsorpcyjnych oraz wersji ograniczonej dla n-warstw) oraz jej nowsze modyfikacje, jak izoterma BDDT, izoterma LGD czy izoterma Sircara. Raczej historyczne znaczenie ma izoterma Hüttiga. +W izotermach tych kluczową rolę odgrywa tzw. ciśnienie względne czyli stosunek ciśnienia i ciśnienia pary nasyconej określający "odległość" układu adsorpcyjnego od warunków naturalnej kondensacji pary cieczy. +Biegus rdzawy + +Biegus rdzawy ("Calidris canutus") – gatunek średniego ptaka wędrownego z rodziny bekasowatych (Scolopacidae). +Powiat tomaszowski (województwo łódzkie) + +Powiat tomaszowski – powiat w Polsce (województwo łódzkie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Tomaszów Mazowiecki. +Geografia. +Położenie i obszar. +Powiat tomaszowski ma obszar 1 024,79 km². +Powiat stanowi 5,62% powierzchni województwa łódzkiego. +Podział administracyjny. +Ludność i powierzchnia + +Bitwa pod Megiddo (1918) + +Bitwa pod Megiddo – 19-21 września 1918 r. +Bitwa ta była bardzo ważnym wydarzeniem podczas podboju Palestyny przez brytyjskiego generała Edmunda Allenby w czasie I wojny światowej. +Wojska generała Allenby przystąpiły do zmasowanej ofensywy przechodząc od zachodu przez górę Karmel w kierunku doliny Jazreel, gdzie doszczętnie zniszczyły wojska tureckie. Bitwa była zapowiedzią klęski Imperium osmańskiego w I wojnie światowej. +Game Boy Advance + +Dane techniczne. +Game Boy Advance jest kompatybilny z większością gier na Game Boy Color. Jest zasilany przez baterie AA, dzięki którym może grać od 5 do 10 godzin. Posiada 32-bitowy procesor RISC, 16,8 MHz procesor ARM (ARM7TDMI) oraz ośmiobitowy CISC bazowany na Z80 (do obsługi gier na starsze wersje konsoli) taktowany zegarem 4 lub 8 MHz. Konsola jest zasilana dwiema bateriami AA lub zasilaczem AC. Jest kompatybilny z grami na Game Boy Color i zwykłego Game Boya, może on również współpracować z konsolą GameCube jako kontroler, po dokupieniu odpowiedniego kabla. Do GBA można dokupić też specjalną kamerę, która również znalazła zastosowanie w grach. W sprzedaży dostępna jest dodatkowo drukarka. +Wyświetlacz. +Wyświetlacz LCD o wielkości 2,9 cala może pomieścić 240x160 pikseli w kolorze 15-bitowym (32768 kolorów). Wyświetlacz zawiera więcej pikseli, niż w starszych wersjach Game Boya. Podczas grania w gry przeznaczone na starsze wersje Game Boya można wcisnąć przyciski "L" i "R", żeby poszerzyć ekran. +Gry na Game Boy Advance. +Dla Game Boya Advance zostało wyprodukowanych kilka tysięcy gier. Od klasyków takich jak Tank znanych z NES-a, Blackthorne ze SNES-a Wolfenstein 3D czy Doom znanych z PC, po hity takie jak , oraz tytuły dostępne tylko na tą platformę, jak Advance Wars +Gra wieloosobowa. +Game Boy Advance posiada port szeregowy do połączenia się z innymi konsolami tego typu poprzez kabel "Game Boy Advance Link Cable". Niektóre gry pozwalają na połączenie do czterech graczy korzystających z jednego kartridża. Przykładami gier o takiej możliwości są Advance Wars oraz , w pozostałych przypadkach każdy gracz musi posiadać własną kopię gry. +Czasami istnieje możliwość połączenia się ze sobą graczy grających w różne, zgodne ze sobą, gry np. z serii Pokémon. W takiej sytuacji istnieją pewne ograniczenia wynikające z różnic między grami - nie można np. wymienić pokémona na takiego, który nie istnieje w danej grze (podobnie ma się rzecz z ich atakami). +Ilona Senderek + +Ilona Senderek (ur. 15 grudnia 1988), polska łyżwiarka figurowa, mistrzyni Polski w 2005. +Łyżwiarstwo figurowe zaczęła trenować w roku 1998. Wcześniej jeździła figurowo na wrotkach. +Wybrane osiągnięcia. +"Objaśnienia skrótów : J - kategoria juniorów" +Ogród Zoologiczny w Warszawie + +Miejski Ogród Zoologiczny w Warszawie – zlokalizowany jest w Warszawie w dzielnicy Praga Północ, przy ulicy Ratuszowej 1/3. Zoo zostało otwarte w 1928 na powierzchni 12 ha i początkowo posiadało ok. 500 okazów. Obecnie jego powierzchnia wynosi 32 ha. +Historia. +Warszawskie zwierzyńce. +Warszawa długo nie miała ogrodu zoologicznego z prawdziwego zdarzenia. Wprawdzie już Jan III Sobieski miał zwierzyniec w Wilanowie-Morysinie, a i później powstawały niewielkie menażerie prywatne, pod tym względem jednak Warszawa późno dołączyła do takich miast jak Paryż, Amsterdam, Budapeszt, czy Poznań, który miał swój ogród zoologiczny już w 1875 roku. Wreszcie, staraniem Mieczysława Pągowskiego, 10 lipca 1926 roku został otwarty niewielki zwierzyniec na ulicy Koszykowej 47. Zajmował powierzchnię zaledwie 0,75 ha, ale znalazły się w nim ciekawe okazy zwierząt: niedźwiedź brunatny, lemury, koczkodany, aligator, kangur, jeżozwierz, aguti i wiele egzotycznych ptaków. Równocześnie wspólnym wysiłkiem kilku nauczycieli zoologii utworzono niewielki zwierzyniec przy ulicy Bagatela. Oba ogrody cieszyły się wielką sympatią warszawiaków. W rok później zoo Pągowskiego przeniosło się na 10-hektarowy teren przy alei 3 Maja, jednakże koszty utrzymania były tak wysokie, że wkrótce ogród zaczął podupadać. +Powstanie Miejskiego Ogrodu Zoologicznego. +Uchwałą magistratu z dnia 14 czerwca 1927 przyjęto decyzję o utworzeniu Miejskiego Ogrodu Zoologicznego na Pradze. Otwarcie dla publiczności nastąpiło 11 marca 1928 roku. Prowadzenie ogrodu powierzono Wenantemu Burdzińskiemu, byłemu dyrektorowi i założycielowi ogrodu zoologicznego w Kijowie. Pierwszymi mieszkańcami ogrodu stały się zwierzęta z upadłego zwierzyńca Pągowskiego i innych, mniejszych menażerii. +Po śmierci Burdzińskiego dyrektorem ogrodu został Jan Żabiński, człowiek wielkiej wiedzy, miłośnik zwierząt i popularyzator przyrody. W ogrodzie działo się dobrze. Na przykład, w 1937 r. przyszło na świat słoniątko, co było osiągnięciem na skalę światową, bowiem azjatycka słonica Tuzinka, córka Kasi i Jasia, była jednym z nielicznych, a konkretnie dwunastym słoniem urodzonym w warunkach ogrodu zoologicznego. Słoniątko bardzo szybko stało się ulubieńcem warszawiaków. +Wojna. +Wybuch II wojny światowej przerwał okres prosperity warszawskiego zoo. Gdy zaczęły się bombardowania, personel, ze względów bezpieczeństwa, musiał odstrzelić zwierzęta drapieżne i słonia Jasia. Słonica Kasia zginęła wskutek wybuchu bomby. Dzieła zniszczenia dokonało wywiezienie do Niemiec najcenniejszych okazów, w tym ukochanej przez warszawiaków Tuzinki. Wywózkę zwierząt zarządził dawny znajomy Żabińskich, profesor Lutz Heck, dyrektor Berlińskiego Ogrodu Zoologicznego, od lat trzydziestych XX wieku pracujący nad "odtworzeniem" wymarłego w XVII wieku tura. Zabierając zwierzęta obiecywał, że zostają tylko wypożyczone na czas prowadzenia działań wojennych. Heck zabrał też do Monachium żubry i tarpany. Te pierwsze miały posłużyć do odtworzenia tura, symbolu siły i potęgi, do którego chętnie odwoływali się naziści. Nie bacząc na sprzeciwy i prośby Antoniny Żabińskiej, Heck wysłał wówczas Tuzinkę do Królewca (miasto w III Rzeszy), wielbłądy i lamy do Hanoweru, hipopotamy do Norymbergi, konie Przewalskiego do Wiednia, a rysie i zebry do Schorfheide. Młoda słonica miała wówczas dwa lata; zdechła w Niemczech, w 1944 roku. +Okres powojenny. +Decyzja o odbudowie zoo podjęta została w 1946 roku i od razu przystąpiono do odbudowy i remontu budynków oraz gromadzenia zwierząt. W lipcu 1948 zoo zostało ponownie otwarte – ze 150 okazami, pochodzącymi głównie z darów od osób prywatnych. Po szybkim rozwoju nastąpiła stagnacja, wobec podjęcia decyzji o przeniesieniu zoo poza granice Warszawy, co zaowocowało długoletnim niedoinwestowaniem. +W 1978 r. zoo liczyło ok. 2000 okazów zwierząt reprezentujących 380 gatunków. W latach 1970-1978 frekwencja wynosiła ok. 900 000 zwiedzających rocznie. W latach 80. XX wieku zoo znalazło się w planie inwestycyjnym miasta i nastąpiła poprawa - powstały nowe budynki i poprawiły się warunki bytowe zwierząt. +W 1997 r. został otwarty wówczas bardzo nowoczesny pawilon dla gadów (herpetarium). Pod koniec roku 1998 otwarto ptaszarnię wraz z azylem dla ptaków krajowych. 2 maja 2003r. zakończyła się budowa słoniarni oraz budynków dla nosorożców. 14 stycznia 2006 r. otwarto pawilon dla bezkręgowców. 12 lipca 2006 r. wybieg dla jaguarów. +W 26 września 2008 został otwarty pawilon dla małp człekokształtnych. Wprowadzono tam: dwa goryle sprowadzone z Zurychu (Azizi został przywieziony do Warszawy 28 sierpnia, urodził się w 2000 roku.) oraz z Holandii (M’Tongé został przywieziony do Warszawy 3 września). W drugiej części budynku zamieszkują szympansy. Oba gatunki mają do dyspozycji wybiegi wewnętrzny i zewnętrzny. +10.04.2010 o godz. 11:00 odbyło się uroczyste otwarcie nowego obiektu dla hipopotamów i rekinów w którym od marca przebywają rekiny (między innymi żarłacze czarnopłetwe) oraz hipopotamy: Hugo (3 listopada 2009 przyjechał z Ostrawy) z Anielą. +Wyróżnienia. +Ogród wpisano do prestiżowego Europejskiego Stowarzyszenia Ogrodów Zoologicznych, skupiającego także 10 innych największych polskich ogrodów spełniających normy i wymogi EAZA - we Wrocławiu, Toruniu, Płocku, Poznaniu, Opolu, Gdańsku, Łodzi, Krakowie, Chorzowie i Zamościu. +Ogród Zoologiczny wpisany jest do rejestru zabytków wraz z Parkiem Praskim, nr rej.: 1434-A z dnia 3 lipca 1990 r. +Nowe Skalmierzyce + +Nowe Skalmierzyce (niem. "Neu Skalmierschütz") – miasto w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie ostrowskim, w gminie Nowe Skalmierzyce, w Kaliskiem, na Wysoczyźnie Kaliskiej, w aglomeracji kalisko-ostrowskiej, graniczy z Kaliszem. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 4961 mieszkańców. +Nowe Skalmierzyce są niewielkim ośrodkiem przemysłowym w Kalisko-Ostrowskim Okręgu Przemysłowym. W mieście znajduje się podstrefa Łódzkiej Specjalnej Strefy Ekonomicznej. +Położenie. +Przy północnej granicy miasta z Kaliszem płynie struga Lipówka. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2011 r. powierzchnia miasta wynosiła 1,58 km². +Nowe Skalmierzyce w latach 1945–1975 należały do województwa poznańskiego. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa kaliskiego. +Historia. +Nowe Skalmierzyce powstały w 1815 w wyniku wyodrębnienia administracyjnego przez administrację pruską jednej z kolonii wsi Skalmierzyce (z komorą celną) przy granicy Królestwa Polskiego. +W 1895 we wsi wybudowano graniczną stację linii kolejowej z Ostrowa, w 1906 połączonej z Koleją Warszawsko-Kaliską. Przyczyniło się to do gwałtownego rozwoju miejscowości, która nabrała cech miejskich. Wzniesiono tu także monumentalny dworzec kolejowy, na którym w 1913 spotkali się cesarz Wilhelm II i car Mikołaj II. Od 1908 do użycia wprowadzono zgermanizowaną formę nazwy miejscowości - "Neu Skalmierschütz". +27 grudnia 1918 wielu polskich mieszkańców Skalmierzyc przystąpiło do Powstania wielkopolskiego. 29 grudnia 1918 siły polskie ostatecznie przejęły kontrolę nad osadą. Formalnie Nowe Skalmierzyce zostały włączone do Polski wraz z większością historycznej Wielkopolski na mocy Traktatu Wersalskiego z 1919 r. W rezultacie miejscowość utraciła graniczną lokalizację, co wpłynęło na spowolnienie tempa życia i rozwoju gospodarczego. W kolejnych latach okresu międzywojennego rozwój ten powoli zaczął się odnawiać. +W 1939 miejscowość została zajęta przez wojska niemieckie, a następnie ponownie wcielona do Rzeszy. Administracja nazistowska stworzyła dla niej nowe nazwy: w l. 1940–43 "Neu Skalden", 1943–45 "Kalmen". Umieszczono tu hitlerowski obóz przejściowy i obóz pracy dla ludności polskiej (tablica pamiątkowa znajduje się na gimnazjum im. Polskich Noblistów). W 1943 dokonano tam akcji sabotażowej - spalono 40 wagonów z paszą, a w 1944 wykolejono transport wojskowy. +Miejscowość przynależała administracyjnie przed rokiem 1887 do powiatu odolanowskiego, a w latach 1887–1975 i od 1999 do powiatu ostrowskiego. +Skalmierzyce Nowe miały status osiedla przemysłowego w latach 1956–1962. W 1962 r. Skalmierzyce Nowe uzyskały status miasta, a także zmieniono nazwę na "Nowe Skalmierzyce". +Nowe Skalmierzyce są jedynym miastem w Polsce nie będącym siedzibą gminy, w której się znajdują (siedzibą gminy Nowe Skalmierzyce jest wieś Skalmierzyce). Do 31 grudnia 2009 drugim miastem tego typu były Siechnice, które jednak w przeciwieństwie do Nowych Skalmierzyc wchodziły w skład gminy o nazwie pochodzącej od nazwy wsi gminnej (w przypadku Nowych Skalmierzyc nazwa gminy pochodzi od nazwy miasta). Nowe Skalmierzyce były siedzibą gminy do 30 grudnia 1999. +Gospodarka. +Podstrefa Łódzkiej Specjalnej Strefy Ekonomicznej. +14 września 2009 oddano do użytku obwodnicę dla drogi krajowej nr 25: Bobolice-Bydgoszcz-Kalisz-Nowe Skalmierzyce-Ostrów-Oleśnica. Obwodnica Nowych Skalmierzyc znacznie przyczyni się do zmniejszenia ruchu i zwiększenia bezpieczeństwa w mieście. +Samorząd. +Została ustanowiona jednostka pomocnicza gminy obejmująca całe miasto o nazwie Samorząd Mieszkańców Miasta Nowe Skalmierzyce. Organem uchwałodawczym jest ogólne zebranie stałych mieszkańców. Organem wykonawczym jest przewodniczący zarządu, którego wspomaga organ pomocniczy – zarząd składający się z 3 do 7 członków. +Siła magnetomotoryczna + +i jest równa natężeniu prądu przepływającemu przez dowolną powierzchnię ograniczoną krzywą całkowania. +Dla zwojnicy siła magnetomotoryczna dowolnej krzywej obejmującej zwoje zwojnicy jest równa: +Jednostką w układzie SI jest amper lub w układzie MKS amperozwój [Az. +Prawo Daltona + +Prawo ciśnień cząstkowych. +Prawo ciśnień cząstkowych zostało opublikowane przez Daltona w 1810 r. Głosi ono: +Prawo Daltona jest słuszne dla gazów doskonałych nie reagujących z sobą. Dla gazów rzeczywistych jest słuszne jedynie dla gazów rozrzedzonych i w temperaturze znacznie powyżej punktu krytycznego. +Prawo objętości cząstkowych. +Prawo objętości cząstkowych głosi: +Wyprowadzenie. +gdzie +Bibliografia. +"Ilustrowana encyklopedia dla wszystkich", Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa, 1990, ISBN 83-204-0697-8 +Natężenie pola magnetycznego + +gdzie: +Jego jednostką w układzie SI jest A/m (amper na metr). +Natężenie pola magnetycznego nie zależy od właściwości magnetycznych środowiska. W materiałach anizotropowych i bezstratnych, czyli niewykazujących pętli histerezy, wektory natężenia pola magnetycznego i indukcji magnetycznej mają ten sam zwrot i kierunek. W materiałach nieliniowych wykazujących pętlę histerezy (np. ferromagnetykach) wektor indukcji może mieć inny kierunek lub zwrot ze względu na energię anizotropii, indukowane prądy wirowe itp. Wartość kąta zawartego między wektorem natężenia pola i indukcji magnetycznej jest w pewnym sensie miarą strat mocy występujących w takim materiale. +Natężenie pola magnetycznego jest wielkością charakteryzującą pole magnetyczne niezależną od własności materiału – wartością zależną jest natomiast indukcja magnetyczna. +Związek z indukcją magnetyczną. +Między indukcją magnetyczną B a natężeniem pola magnetycznego H zachodzi relacja: +gdzie +W ogólnym przypadku przenikalność magnetyczna jest tensorem, a w przypadku materiałów liniowych liczbą (skalarem). Dla ośrodków nieliniowych przenikalność magnetyczna nie jest stałą lecz funkcją, a w przypadku niektórych materiałów ma histerezę. +Dla cewki. +gdzie: "H" – natężenie pola "N" – liczba zwojów cewki (wielkość bezwymiarowa), "I" – natężenie prądu elektrycznego płynącego przez cewkę [A, "l" – długość cewki (w tym przypadku równoznaczna z długością drogi magnetycznej). +Wojna francusko-hiszpańska (1635-1659) + +Wojna francusko-hiszpańska 1635-1659. +Po zakończeniu wojny trzydziestoletniej we Francji doszło do niepokojów społecznych, zwanej Frondą. Przeciwko władzy królewskiej opowiedział się Kondeusz Wielki (walczący później w Niderlandach i północnej Francji po stronie Hiszpanii). Jego francuski przeciwnik Henri de Turenne okazał się jednak godnym przeciwnikiem. Pokonał Hiszpanów w bitwie pod Arras 25 sierpnia 1654 r. Mimo porażki Francuzów pod Valenciennes w lipcu 1656 roku udało im się osiągnąć sukces. W roku 1657 Francuzi zawiązali sojusz antyhiszpański z Anglią. Turenne poprowadził wojska angielsko-francuskie przeciwko Hiszpanom dowodzonym przez wicekróla Niderlandów Don Juana d'Austria, Kondeusza i grupie Jakobitów angielskich księcia Yorka. W czasie bitwy w pobliżu Dunkierki Turenne oskrzydlił przeciwnika siłami kawalerii a "Czerwone Kurtki" zdobyły miasto. Po tej porażce Filip IV zmuszony został oddać miasto Ludwikowi XIV. Wojna zakończyła się podpisaniem układu pokojowego 7 listopada 1659 roku. Francuzi odzyskali kilka hiszpańskich twierdz w Niderlandach, ustalono też przebieg granicy hiszpańsko-francuskiej w Pirenejach. Wojna francusko-hiszpańska doprowadziła do dominacji Francji na kontynencie i zmniejszenia roli Hiszpanii jako mocarstwa w Europie. +Wydarzenia wojny francusko-hiszpańskiej +Adsorpcja monowarstwowa + +Adsorpcja monowarstwowa to adsorpcja, w której adsorbat na powierzchni adsorbentu lub na granicy faz może tworzyć warstwę o grubości jednej cząsteczki. Jest to cechą przede wszystkim adsorpcji chemicznej (chemisorpcji) a w przypadku adsorpcji fizycznej zachodzi dla niskich gęstości adsorbatu na powierzchni, po przekroczeniu pewnej ilości adsorbatu dochodzi do adsorpcji wielowarstwowej. +Podstawowa monowarstwowa izoterma adsorpcji to izoterma Langmuira, natomiast podstawową izotermą wielowarstwową jest izoterma BET. +Izostera adsorpcji + +Izostera adsorpcji to zależność pomiędzy parametrami układu adsorpcyjnego przy zachowaniu stałości ilości zaadsorbowanej substancji (adsorbatu), np. zależność ciśnienia od temperatury przy stałej ilości adsorbatu na powierzchni adsorbentu. W takich warunkach wyznacza się niektóre ważne właściwości układów adsorpcyjnych, np. izosteryczne ciepło adsorpcji. +Sancho VII Mocny + +Sancho VII zwany Mocnym lub Silnym (hiszp. "Sancho el Fuerte", bask. "Santxo Azkarra", zm. 7 kwietnia 1234) - król Nawarry między 1194 i 1234. +Syn Sancho VI i Sanchy Kastylijskiej. Był ostatnim męskim potomkiem pierwszej dynastii królów Nawarry. +W 1200 roku poprowadził ekspedycję do Afryki. Korzystając z jego nieobecności, królowie Kastylii i Aragonii najechali Nawarrę, odbierając jej prowincje Alavy, Guipuzcoa i Vizcaya. Wyróżnił się jako przywódca podczas bitwy pod Las Navas de Tolosa w 1212. +Sancho złożył faktyczną władzę ("el Encarrado") w 1234, wkrótce potem zmarł. Jego siostra Blanka objęła wówczas obowiązki regentki królestwa. Po osiągnięciu wieku 21 lat nowym władcą jako Tybald I został syn Blanki i Tybalda III, hrabiego Szampanii - jednocześnie dziedzic hrabstwa Szampanii. +Małżeństwa. +Sancho był dwukrotnie żonaty. Jego pierwszą żoną była Konstancja, córka hrabiego Rajmunda VI z Tuluzy, z którą ożenił się około 1195 roku. Ich rozwód miał miejsce w roku 1200. Jego drugą żoną była, według niektórych źródeł, Klemencja, córka cesarza Fryderyka Barbarossy. Inne źródła jednak wskazują na córkę Abu Yaquba al-Mustansira Yusufa II, emira Maroka, jako jego drugą żonę. Współcześni historycy podejrzewają, że nieudane małżeństwa związane były z homoseksualizmem Sancha, jednak kroniki Karola z Viany wspominają o kilku nieślubnych dzieciach Sancho (Ferdynandzie, Wilhelmie i Roderiku), które miał z nieznanymi kobietami. +Izostery + +Izostery to związki chemiczne posiadające w powłokach elektronowych tworzących je atomów takie same liczby elektronów. Związki izosteryczne wykazują duże podobieństwo swoich właściwości fizykochemicznych, np. temperatur topnienia i wrzenia, rozpuszczalności w wodzie itp. +Liga Europy UEFA + +Liga Europy UEFA (ang. "UEFA Europa League", wym. ) – międzynarodowy klubowy turniej piłki nożnej, organizowany przez Unię Europejskich Federacji Piłkarskch, w którym biorą udział zespoły zajmujące czołowe lokaty w narodowych rozgrywkach najwyższego szczebla, z wyłączeniem drużyn biorących udział w Lidze Mistrzów. Utworzony został w 2009 roku jako kontynuacja Pucharu UEFA (ang. "UEFA Cup", wym. ) (1971–2009). +Historia turnieju. +O Puchar UEFA rywalizowano po raz pierwszy w sezonie 1971/1972. Powszechnie uważa się, że jest on kontynuacją Pucharu Miast Targowych. UEFA nie uznaje jednak tego drugiego za jej oficjalny turniej. +Obowiązująca początkowo reguła "jedno miasto, jeden klub", pochodząca jeszcze z Pucharu Miast Targowych, została zniesiona w sezonie 1975/1976, kiedy w rozgrywkach wzięły udział dwie drużyny z Liverpoolu – Liverpool F.C. i Everton F.C. Po reformach rozgrywek pucharowych w połowie lat 90 XX w. w Pucharze UEFA występowali także mistrzowie nisko notowanych federacji europejskich oraz dołączane są drużyny wyeliminowane z eliminacji i rozgrywek grupowych Ligi Mistrzów, a po likwidacji Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów także zwycięzcy krajowych rozgrywek pucharowych (w Polsce – Puchar Polski). +W sezonie 2009/2010 puchar został przekształcony w Ligę Europa UEFA. +System turnieju. +Puchar UEFA 1971–2004. +Od pierwszego sezonu Pucharu UEFA kolejne rundy były rozgrywane systemem play-off w dwumeczach. W sezonie 1997/1998 po raz pierwszy dwumecz finałowy zastąpiono pojedynczym spotkaniem. Od sezonu 1994/1995 rozgrywano rundę kwalifikacyjną. W sezonie 1996/1997 po raz pierwszy w rozgrywkach brały udział drużyny, które odpadły w rundzie kwalifikacyjnej Ligi Mistrzów UEFA tego samego roku, od sezonu 1999/2000 do turniejów o Puchar UEFA dołączały zespoły zajmujące 3 miejsce w rundzie grupowej Ligi Mistrzów w tym samym sezonie. +Puchar UEFA 2004–2009. +Rywalizowały one w dwumeczach (przegrywający odpada) – po każdej z nich pozostawało: 16, 8, 4 i 2 drużyny, które rozgrywają mecz finałowy na stadionie wybranym przed rozpoczęciem sezonu przez UEFA. +Liga Europa UEFA. +W 2008 roku zostały ustalone zasady przeprowadzania rozgrywek Ligi Europa UEFA, które obowiązują od sezonu 2009/2010. Turniej składa się z fazy kwalifikacyjnej, grupowej i pucharowej. +Faza kwalifikacyjna. +Kwalifikacje do Ligi Europa UEFA podzielone są na cztery rundy. Drużyny w nich startujące rozgrywają mecze w parach, na zasadach dwumeczu. Ogółem w fazie kwalifikacyjnej mogą wziąć udział 174 drużyny. +Faza grupowa. +Są one dzielone na 12 grup po 4 drużyny, w których wszystkie zespoły rozgrywają między sobą po dwa mecze. +Faza pucharowa. +Są one dzielone na 16 par, w których drużyny rozgrywają między sobą dwumecze. Zwycięzcy awansują do kolejnej rundy i konsekwentnie – przez ćwierćfinały i półfinały – do finału, rozgrywanego na wybranym przez UEFA stadionie. +Mecze finałowe. +Puchar UEFA +Żółwiak drapieżny + +Żółwiak drapieżny, żółwiak florydyjski ("Apalone ferox") – gatunek gada z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych z rodziny żółwiaków. To jeden z największych słodkowodnych żółwi Ameryki Północnej. +Ciśnienie względne + +Ciśnienie względne +W metrologii. +Ciśnienie mierzone względem ciśnienia otoczenia, określane jako różnica ciśnienia bezwzględnego i ciśnienia bezwzględnego otoczenia. +W meteorologii. +W meteorologii ciśnienie określone względem umownego ciśnienia, zazwyczaj ciśnienia jakie panowałoby na poziomie morza. +Architektura romańska w Hiszpanii + +Architektura romańska w Hiszpanii +Sztuka romańska przenikała na Półwysep Iberyjski różnymi drogami. Jedna z nich prowadziła przez Katalonię, w której nakładała się na wcześniejsze osiągnięcia sztuki karolińskiej. W okresie późniejszym w Katalonii widoczne są wpływy architektury lombardzkiej (np. kościół San Clemente w Taüll). Druga droga przenikania sztuki romańskiej prowadziła przez Aragonię i Nawarrę, przesuwała się w kierunku Leónu i dalej do Galicji, gdzie znajdował się cel licznych pielgrzymek – grób św. Jakuba w Santiago de Compostela. +Kościół w Santiago de Compostela istniał już w okresie początków chrześcijaństwa (za panowania Alfonsa Czystego), drugi zbudowano w stylu mozarabskim podczas rządów Alfonsa III Wielkiego (w IX wieku), zniszczony w 997 został wzniesiony ponownie w latach 1078 – 1128. Nowa katedra została zbudowana na planie krzyża łacińskiego. Trzy nawy przecina trójnawowy transept. Prezbiterium zakończone jest absydą. Przez wnętrze poprowadzono ambit, który pozwala na obejście całego kościoła wzdłuż naw bocznych korpusu i transeptu, za prezbiterium i powrót po drugiej stronie świątyni. Nad obejściem zbudowano empory okrążające całe wnętrze kościoła. Wokół obejścia za transeptem dobudowano pięć niewielkich absydek, kaplice umieszczono także przy nawach bocznych transeptu. Nawę środkową korpusu i transeptu oraz prezbiterium przekrywa sklepienie kolebkowe na gurtach, a nawy boczne sklepienia krzyżowe. Wnętrze doświetlają okna umieszczone w wieży nad skrzyżowaniem nawy głównej z transeptem. Kościół został przebudowany w wiekach późniejszych (zwłaszcza w baroku), wnętrze zachowało wiele elementów okresu romańskiego. Zachował się także jeden z trzech portali, tzw. Portal Złotników – "Puerta de las Platerias". Po przebudowie kościoła włączono do niego elementy z pozostałych dwóch portali (w XII wieku ufundowany został nowy portal zachodni a w XVIII przebudowano północny). Portal zachodni, tzw. Portal Chwały, zbudowany w latach 1168 – 1188 zdobią rzeźby łączące cechy romańskie i gotyckie. +Wzdłuż trasy pielgrzymek powstały inne kościoły nawiązujące do architektury katedry w Santiago de Compostela. Należą do nich m.in. kolegiata San Isidoro w León. Zachowały się także fragmenty krużganków klasztoru Santo Domingo de Silos w Burgos, portal kościoła San Vincente w Ávila i górna kaplica Cámara Santa w Oviedo. Wśród dzieł rzeźbiarskich związanych z architekturą zachowały się również: portale kościoła Santa Maria la Real w Sanguesa i klasztoru San Salvador w Leyre (na terenie Nawarry). Przykłady malarstwa ściennego najlepiej zostały zachowane w niewielkich kościółkach w Kastylii, León i w Galicji. +Charakterystyczne dla architektury romańskiej w Kastylii są kościoły z ośmiobocznymi wieżami nad skrzyżowaniem nawy głównej z transeptem. Wewnątrz ukryte są kopuły oparte na żebrach lub sklepienia krzyżowe. Dostawione z zewnątrz niewielkie wieżyczki pełnią rolę przypór. Najstarsze takie rozwiązanie jest zachowane w katedrze w Zamora (zbudowana w latach 1151-1174). Wieżę przykrywa kopuła oparta na szesnastu żebrach zaznaczonych z zewnątrz "grzebieniami". Kopułę przykrywa kamienna łuska. Poniżej kopuły, w arkadach, umieszczone są okna doświetlające wnętrze. Podobne rozwiązania są widoczne w katedrze w Salamance i kolegiacie w Toro. +Odmiennie kształtowała się architektura romańska na pozostałej części Półwyspu Iberyjskiego, tzw. kalifatu Kordoby. Obiekty zbudowane na tych ziemiach przechodząc pod władanie chrześcijańskich władców były zamieniane na kościoły. W Toledo taki los spotkał meczet zamieniony na kościół San Cristo de la Luz, żydowską synagogę zamienioną na kościół pod wezwaniem NP. Marii (Santa Maria la Blanca) a wieża Giralda w Sewilli początkowo służyła jako minaret. +Zobacz też: style architektoniczne, historia sztuki, sztuka romańska +Giebułtów (powiat krakowski) + +Giebułtów – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie krakowskim, w gminie Wielka Wieś. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa krakowskiego. +Giebułtów położony jest w odległości około 2 km na północny zachód od Krakowa. Zajmuje obszar 448,1 ha, liczy 1091 mieszkańców. +Pierwsze ślady osadnictwa na terenie obecnego Giebułtowa pochodzą z neolitu, z lat 4500-1650 przed naszą erą. Inne liczne wykopaliska na terenie dzisiejszego Giebułtowa pochodzą z przełomu I i II w. n.e, a także z IV i XI w. +Z 1337 pochodzi pierwsza wzmianka o Piotrze z Giebułtowa. Na przestrzeni wieków właścicielami Giebułtowa byli cystersi z Mogiły, klaryski z Krakowa, a w XVI i XVII wiek w. – ród Giebułtowskich. +Z tego okresu pochodzi późnorenesansowy, nawiązujący do gotyku, murowany kościół św. Idziego, ufundowany przez Kaspra Giebułtowskiego w latach 1600-1604. +Do Giebułtowa kursuje linia autobusowa aglomeracyjna nr 220, należąca do MPK Kraków. +W południowym krańcu wsi leży przysiółek Trojadyn. +AMD K5 + +AMD K5 był procesorem klasy Pentium, produkowanym przez firmę AMD od 1995 roku, następca Am5x86. +Jego struktura wewnętrzna bazowała na architekturze RISC. Jest to jeden z pierwszych procesorów tłumaczących złożone rozkazy x86 na mikrooperacje RISC. Wszystkie modele K5 składały się z około 4,3 miliona tranzystorów. Żaden z modeli K5 nie obsługiwał instrukcji MMX. +Procesory K5 produkowane były w dwóch odmianach - "5k86" i "K5", ale obie odmiany były sprzedawane jako K5. Chipy wyprodukowane jako 5k86 były taktowane częstotliwościami od 75 do 100 MHz, a linia K5 od 90 do 116 MHz. Z powodów marketingowych, chipy K5 były oznaczane tzw. wskaźnikiem PR rating który oznaczał ich wydajność w porównaniu z procesorami Pentium firmy Intel. Na przykład procesor taktowany zegarem 116 MHz sprzedawany był jako "K5 PR166" co miało oznaczać, że był ekwiwalentem Pentium 166. +Pojemność turystyczna + +Pojemność turystyczna – ogólna pojemność bazy noclegowej (liczba miejsc noclegowych), gastronomicznej (liczba miejsc konsumpcyjnych, wydawanych posiłków) i towarzyszącej (liczba miejsc lub powierzchnia) określająca maksymalną liczbę uczestników ruchu turystycznego mogących równocześnie korzystać z poszczególnych urządzeń, nie przyczyniając się do zmniejszania zakresu i poziomu podaży usług turystycznych oraz dezorganizacji życia społeczno-gospodarczego. Często mylona z chłonnością turystyczną. +Żółw czerwonolicy + +Żółw czerwonolicy, żółw czerwonouchy ("Trachemys scripta elegans") – podgatunek żółwia ozdobnego ("Trachemys scripta") z podrzędu żółwi skrytoszyjnych z rodziny żółwi błotnych. +Występowanie. +Ameryka Północna i Ameryka Środkowa po północny zachód Ameryki Południowej. W Polsce pojawia się na skutek wypuszczania na wolność przez osoby, które trzymały go w domowych terrariach, a ze względu na zdolności aklimatyzacyjne postrzegany jest jako inwazyjny gatunek obcy, który może stanowić konkurencję dla rodzimego żółwia błotnego ("Emys orbicularis"). +Opis. +Karapaks owalny i spłaszczony z nieznaczną stępką barwy oliwkowo-zielonej do prawie czarnej u niektórych starszych samców. U młodych osobników pancerz i skóra ma kolor od żółto-zielonego do ciemnozielonego. Po bokach zielonej głowy występują rozszerzające się do tyłu czerwone paski, a poniżej paski jasnożółte. Palce stóp łączy błona pławna. Samce są zazwyczaj mniejsze od samic i mają dłuższe i grubsze ogony oraz dłuższe pazury. +Rozmiary. +Długość pancerza od 12,5 - 28,9 cm. +Biotop. +Większe zbiorniki ze stojącą wodą. +Pokarm. +W diecie młodych osobników przeważa pokarm zwierzęcy. Wraz z wiekiem 90% osobników staje się roślinożercami. Uzupełnieniem ich diety są wodne owady, ślimaki, kijanki, raki, ryby. Pokarm muszą połykać w wodzie, gdyż z powodu braku mięśnia poruszającego językiem nie potrafią go przesuwać. +Zachowanie. +Zimuje w mule na dnie zbiorników wodnych. Gdy wygrzewa się w słońcu przyjmuje charakterystyczną pozycję rozkładając szeroko odnóża przednie, a tylne do tyłu z odwróconymi podeszwami do góry. +Rozmnażanie. +Gody odbywa wczesną wiosną. Samica składa od maja do lipca do dołka w ziemi zwilżonego moczem 4-23 jaja dwa lub trzy razy w sezonie. Młode wylęgają się po 2 do 2,5 miesiącach między lipcem a wrześniem i mierzą ok. 2,5 cm. Jeżeli wylęg nastąpi późną jesienią, młode mogą przezimować w gnieździe i wyjść z niego dopiero na wiosnę. +Ciekawostki. +Zwierzę to jest obiektem intensywnych badań biologów ze względu na mechanizm regulacji płci potomstwa w zależności od temperatury wylęgu jaj. Na razie nie rozpracowano kompletnej kaskady genów odpowiedzialnych za ten proces, obecnie określono poziomy RNA kilku genów związanych z różnicowaniem płci i rozwojem gonad. +Hodowla w terrarium. +Dieta. +W hodowli domowej należy zapewnić żółwiowi warunki jak najbardziej przybliżone do naturalnych. Dlatego w skład diety powinny wchodzić pokarmy przybliżone do takich, jakie zwierzę mogłoby znaleźć na wolności. Podstawę diety powinny stanowić żywe ryby, ślimaki, larwy zwierząt wodnych, skorupiaki oraz wszelkie rośliny wodne. Urozmaiceniem diety mogą być dżdżownice, niewielkie owady, rośliny łąkowe takie jak np. mniszek lekarski. Żółwiom nie należy podawać mięsa ssaków i ptaków, jak również owoców i warzyw. Jest to pokarm nienaturalny i po dłuższym podawaniu ma bardzo niekorzystny wpływ na gada. +Akwaterrarium. +Akwarium dla żółwia powinno być jak największe. Minimalne wymiary, to długość: 5*długość karapaksu żółwia, szerokość: 3*długość karapaksu żółwia, wysokość: jak największa, ważne, żeby poziom wody w akwarium wynosił minimum 1,5 razy długość karapaksu żółwia. Akwarium powinno być wyposażone w wydajny system filtracyjny, gdyż żółwie bardzo szybko zanieczyszczają wodę. Żółw powinien też mieć wyspę, na którą może wyjść i się wygrzewać. Nad wyspą powinna być umieszczona żarówka grzewcza (nie może być umieszczona zbyt nisko, by żółw nie doznał poparzeń) oraz świetlówka UVB, zastępująca naturalne promienie słoneczne. W miarę możliwości należy zapewniać żółwiowi częste kąpiele słoneczne, z umożliwieniem mu ukrycia się w cieniu, by żółw nie doznał udaru. Najlepiej urządzić wybieg zewnętrzny z oczkiem wodnym, odpowiednio ogrodzony, aby żółw nie mógł uciec, a także osłonięty od wiatru, ponieważ żółw może się przeziębić. +Rozpoznawanie płci żółwi czerwonolicych. +U młodych żółwi pleć jest nierozpoznawalna, długość pazurów czy ogona może być myląca. Dopiero z wiekiem cechy płciowe stają się wyraźnie widoczne. Przyjmuje się, że płeć można rozpoznać u 2-3 letnich żółwi. +U samców tego gatunku dość charakterystyczne są długie pazury. Chodzi dokładnie o trzy środkowe pazury przednich łap, które są kilkukrotnie dłuższe od pozostałych dwóch pazurów. +Drugą widoczną różnicą pomiędzy samcem i samicą jest ogon. Ogon samicy równomiernie zwęża się do tyłu jest prosty i smukły. Otwór kloaczny jest umiejscowiony w połowie długości ogona lub bliżej ciała żółwia. U samców ogon jest trochę dłuższy, gruby, a dopiero na końcu się zwęża, otwór kloaczny znajduje się dalej od ciała, wyraźnie za połową długości ogona. Za kloaką ogon wyraźnie się zwęża. +Prawo. +Żółwie czerwonolice były masowo sprowadzane na teren Unii Europejskiej, a następnie sprzedawane w sklepach zoologicznych jako tzw. "żywe zabawki". Bardzo często zdarzało się, że żółwie były wyrzucane przez nieodpowiedzialnych hodowców. Bardzo szybko zadomawiają się w obcym środowisku, przez co stanowią zagrożenie dla rodzimych gatunków flory i fauny. Rozporządzenie Rady UE nr 338/97/EC z dnia 9 grudnia 1996 r. wymienia ten gatunek żółwi w załączniku B, oznacza to że na przewóz żółwi tego gatunku przez granicę Unii Europejskiej wymagane jest zezwolenie Ministra Środowiska. W Polsce na podstawie ustawy o ochronie przyrody (Dz. U. Nr 92, poz. 880) posiadanie tego gatunku żółwia wymaga rejestracji w Wydziale Ochrony Środowiska miejscowego starostwa powiatowego, w ciągu 14 dni od daty jego nabycia. Podczas rejestracji należy udowodnić legalne pochodzenie żółwia, przez przedstawienie dowodu zakupu żółwia lub zaświadczenia lekarza weterynarii, że zwierzę zostało urodzone w hodowli. +Architektura romańska w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej + +Europa Środkowo-Wschodnia to obszar, na który chrześcijaństwo docierało z dwóch kierunków. Wraz z misjonarzami z Bizancjum docierały wpływy architektury bizantyjskiej. Cyryl i Metody przybyli na Morawy w 864 r., ich uczniowie powędrowali w kierunku Chorwacji i Węgier. W 973 r. książę Gejza sprowadził na swoje ziemie duchowieństwo z Włoch i Niemiec. Wraz z ich przybyciem gruntują się wpływy architektury romańskiej. Po koronacji Stefana I na terenie państwa węgierskiego utrwaliły się wpływy kościoła rzymskiego i umocniła się pozycja sztuki romańskiej. +Wśród najstarszych zabytków chrześcijańskich na terenie Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej dominują kościoły budowane na planie koła. Rotundy, jako typ świątyni budowanej na terenie grodu, budowano do końca XII wieku. Większość z nich ma dobudowaną niewielką, półokrągłą absydę, w której umieszczano ołtarz. Późniejsze budowle posiadają także wysoką, zazwyczaj kwadratową wieżę od zachodu. Po przybyciu duchownych ze świata łacińskiego pojawiają się trójnawowe bazyliki z trzema absydami na zakończeniu naw. Wpływy niemieckie owocują budowlami flankowanymi dwiema wieżami od strony wejścia. +Architektura romańska we Włoszech + +Architektura romańska we Włoszech, początki średniowiecza we Włoszech przypadają na okres wewnętrznych walk, anarchii i niepokojów. Dopiero po objęciu władzy kościelnej przez papieża Grzegorza VII daje się zaobserwować pewne uspokojenie w stosunkach społecznych pomiędzy skłóconymi miastami i rodami Italii. +W architekturze włoskiej tego okresu panuje zastój. Powielane są wzory architektury wczesnego chrześcijaństwa. Największą uwagę przywiązuje się do wystroju wewnętrznego i wyglądu elewacji, która często naśladuje osiągnięcia minionych epok. Nowe kościoły budowane są jako bazyliki z dachem opartym na więźbach dachowych, które niekiedy przesłaniają pułapy. Sklepienia na szerszą skalę zaczęto ponownie stosować dopiero w XII wieku. Do podziału wnętrza na nawy stosowane są zazwyczaj kolumny, wieloboczne filary spotykane są niezmiernie rzadko. Podobnie nieczęsto spotyka się wydłużone nawy poprzeczne i jeszcze rzadziej obejścia (wyjątkiem są kościoły Św. Zofii w Padwie i Św. Stefana w Weronie). Kościoły mają zazwyczaj absydy w osi głównej oraz, zwłaszcza na północy, dodatkowo dwie mniejsze absydy na przedłużeniu naw bocznych. Do pierwszych dzieł z okresu romańskiego należy przebudowa opactwa na Monte Cassino przeprowadzona w latach 1066 – 1071. Na miejscu istniejącego wcześniej kościoła zbudowano od podstaw nowy klasztor wzorowany na zbudowanej w Rzymie bazylice św. Piotra. Romańskie założenia, mimo licznych ingerencji poczynionych zwłaszcza w okresie baroku, zostały zachowane aż do 1944 r. +Ożywienie można zaobserwować jedynie na północy, w rejonie Lombardii. Spotykane na tym terenie motywy dekoracyjne nawiązują do architektury niemieckiej (północ kraju popierała władzę cesarską). Fasady rozwiązywane są jako wielopoziomowe, arkadowe galerie. Wejścia poprzedzają portale z dekoracją figuralną widoczną także na fasadach. Kolumny portali często są opierane na rzeźbionych lwach lub innych przykucniętych zwierzętach. Dla rejonu Toskanii charakterystyczne są okładziny elewacji z wielobarwnych kamieni (ten sposób zdobienia stosowany był we Florencji jeszcze na początku renesansu). Na południu Italii istotny wpływ wywiera architektura Bizancjum. W tym rejonie budowane są kościoły na planie podłużnym, krzyża łacińskiego lub centralno-krzyżowym z kopułą wspartą na trompach lub żaglach. Wpływy bizantyjskie widoczne są także w wystroju wnętrza. Powstały w tym okresie: kościół San Sabino (ok. 1100) w Canosa, pięciokopułkowy kościół San Corato w Molfetta i trójkopułkowy San Francesco w Trani. Z tego okresu pochodzi także zbudowana w stylu bizantyjskim bazylika św. Marka w Wenecji. +Oficer Wywiadu Departamentu Obrony + +Oficer Wywiadu Departamentu Obrony – specjalista wywiadu Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Funkcja utworzona została w 1974 roku przez generała porucznika sił lądowych "Daniela O Grahama", ówczesnego Dyrektora Agencji Wywiadu Obronnego (DIA – Defense Intelligence Agency). Kompetencje DIA i jej pozycja w hierarchii służb wywiadowczych Stanów Zjednoczonych nie były wówczas ściśle określone. Graham starał się o podniesienie tej pozycji, kierując swoich najbardziej doświadczonych współpracowników do specjalnych zadań wywiadowczych, zwłaszcza w Afryce. +Paweł Sito + +Paweł Sito (ur. 24 lipca 1965 w Warszawie) – polski dziennikarz radiowy, prasowy i telewizyjny. Syn poety i tłumacza Jerzego S. Sity. +Życiorys. +W drugiej połowie lat 80. współpracował z Polskim Radiem, współtworząc audycje: "Krajowa Scena Młodzieżowa", "Lista Przebojów Programu Trzeciego" (w latach 1987–1997, jako „druh zastępowy” poprowadził jej 14 wydań), "Muzyka Nocą" (Program I PR). W latach 1984–1991 w Programie IV PR prowadził Listę Przebojów Rozgłośni Harcerskiej. +W 1990 pełnił funkcję rzecznika prasowego Ministerstwa Edukacji Narodowej w rządzie Tadeusza Mazowieckiego. W latach 1992–1995 był dziennikarzem Radia Wolna Europa. +W latach 1995–1998 był szefem promocji w wydawnictwie fonograficznym Koch i dziennikarzem kanału TVP Tylko Muzyka. Od 1998 do 2001 pełnił funkcję dyrektora programowego Radiostacji, a w latach 2001–2003 szefa działu rozrywki w „Przekroju”. W 2003 pełnił funkcję dyrektora programowego kanału telewizyjnego Kino Polska, następnie do 2005 dyrektora programowego i producenta w telewizji 4fun.tv. W 2005 był dyrektorem i redaktorem naczelnym Radia Bis, zaś dla TVP tworzył programy "Kinoffkino" w TVP Kultura i "O!" w TVP 3. W latach 2006–2007 pełnił funkcję redaktora naczelnego miesięcznika „Lans”, następnie w latach 2008–2010 prezesa Fundacji Nowe Media. +Od 2012 prowadzi audycje w TOK FM: w niedzielę "Transformację", a we wtorek "Muzyczne Sito". Od 2002 współtworzy cotygodniową "Krzyżówkę Przekroju". +Laureat nagród Media Trendy i Machiner. +Dwupłat + +Dwupłat – układ konstrukcyjny płatowca, samolotu o dwóch płatach nośnych umieszczonych jeden nad drugim. Najczęściej górny płat umieszczony jest nad kadłubem na wspornikach lub zastrzałach i połączony z dolnym płatem za pomocą rozpórek oraz usztywniony za pomocą napiętych stalowych cięgien lub linek. Rzadziej górny płat mocowany jest bezpośrednio do górnej części kadłuba. Dolny płat zwykle mocowany jest do dolnej części kadłuba, rzadko pod kadłubem. Układ płatów górnego i dolnego wraz ze znajdującymi się między nimi zastrzałami, rozpórkami i cięgnami nosi nazwę komory płatów. +Zaletą samolotów dwupłatowych jest duża powierzchnia nośna skrzydeł przy rozpiętości mniejszej, niż w przypadku jednopłatów o porównywalnej powierzchni nośnej, a wadą jest ich znacznie większy opór aerodynamiczny. Stąd samoloty dwupłatowe miały co do zasady lepszą zwrotność oraz krótszy start i lądowanie w porównaniu z jednopłatami, natomiast były od nich wolniejsze, rzadko przekraczając prędkość 400 km/h. Zaletą układu dwupłatu w początkowym okresie rozwoju lotnictwa był też fakt, że konstrukcja przestrzenna komory płatów, usztywnionej rozpórkami i rozpiętymi na krzyż cięgnami, pozwalała na uzyskanie sztywności i wytrzymałości skrzydeł, przy prostocie i lekkości ich konstrukcji. W miarę rozwoju technologii i potrzeb zwiększenia szybkości samolotów, dwupłaty zostały wyparte przez wolnonośne jednopłaty. +W układzie dwupłatu skonstruowany był pierwszy udany samolot - Flyer I braci Wright, następnie wiele innych konstrukcji początków lotnictwa. Układ dwupłatowy stał się dominującym układem konstrukcyjnym w okresie I wojny światowej i lat 20., powszechnie stosowany był też w latach 30., aczkolwiek głównie w lżejszych samolotach sportowych, szkolnych i bojowych, w tym myśliwskich. Podczas II wojny światowej dwupłatowce używane były już na niewielką skalę, ich użycie jako samolotów bojowych ograniczyło się do pierwszej połowy wojny, z nielicznymi wyjątkami (np. sowiecki Kukuruźnik). Po II wojnie światowej sporadycznie jedynie budowano samoloty w układzie dwupłatu, głównie sportowe i rolnicze, lecz także lekkie transportowe (An-2). +Odmianą dwupłatu jest półtorapłat, w którym dolny płat ma mniejszą rozpiętość i zwykle mniejszą cięciwę od górnego. Zbliżony konstrukcyjnie do dwupłatu jest także trójpłat, różniący się posiadaniem trzeciego płata nośnego, pomiędzy górnym a dolnym. Konstruowano także prototypy samolotów z czterema płatami. +Ciekawostką jest, że istniały dwa modele dwupłatów o napędzie odrzutowym. Jeden z nich został skonstruowany w Polsce – PZL M-15 (Belphegor). +Gaik Badałowicz Owakimian + +Gaik Badałowicz Owakimian (Гайк Бадалович Овакимян; 1898-1967), generał radziecki, wysoki funkcjonariusz NKWD, rezydent Ludowego Komisariatu Spraw Wewnętrznych (NKWD) w Nowym Jorku w latach 30., zastępca szefa wywiadu zagranicznego. +Do Stanów Zjednoczonych przybył w 1933 i rozpoczął działalność wywiadowczą pod przykrywką Amtorgu. Inżynier z zawodu, specjalizował się w szpiegostwie przemysłowym. +W książce "FBI-KGB War" (1986) agent FBI Robert J. Lamphere i Tom Shachtman napisali "Często określano go mianem "Cwanego Ormianina", co było jednocześnie miarą jego przebiegłości, bo do końca nie wiedziano, czy jest istotnie Ormianinem, czy nie. Owakimian nie był dużej postury, przy wzroście 1,68 metra ważył 72 kilogramy". +Zgodnie z tym, co podają Lamphere i Shachtman, pracujący dla Owakimiana szpiedzy byli rozlokowani w całych Stanach Zjednoczonych, Meksyku i Kanadzie. To on zwerbował Juliusa i Ethel Rosenbergów do tzw. siatki szpiegów atomowych w 1938. Także on spotkał się z Ramónem Mercaderem i przekazał mu rozkaz zlikwidowania przebywającego w Meksyku Lwa Trockiego. Mercader dokonał zamachu 20 sierpnia 1940; Trocki zmarł następnego dnia w wyniku odniesionych ran. +W maju 1941 Federalne Biuro Śledcze aresztowało Owakimiana, zarzucając mu, że jako korespondent zagranicznej firmy nie zarejestrował swojej działalności w Departamencie Stanu. Przebywający w więzieniu Owakimian upierał się, że chroni go immunitet dyplomatyczny. Po wpłaceniu kaucji w wysokości 25 tysięcy dolarów przez ambasadę Związku Radzieckiego został zwolniony. Na mocy decyzji prezydenta Roosevelta zezwolono mu na opuszczenie Stanów Zjednoczonych, w zamian za zgodę na odesłanie z ZSRR sześciu przetrzymywanych tam amerykańskich agentów (ostatecznie odesłano tylko trzech). +Po powrocie do Związku Radzieckiego Owakimiana mianowano szefem jednego z wydziałów wywiadu zagranicznego NKWD (INO/INU), a w 1943 przeniesiono na stanowisko zastępcy szefa wywiadu zagranicznego (Pawła Fitina). Za zgodą Fitina Owakimian miał dużą swobodę działania, koncentrował się m.in. na wywiadzie atomowym. Po dymisji szefa wywiadu Fitina zdjęto także Owakimiana i pozostawiono go do dyspozycji Komitetu Informacji (KI), który przejął wywiad zagraniczny w 1947. Zwolniony z wywiadu po zdemaskowaniu Rosenbergów, podjął pracę jako dyrektor Naukowego Instytutu Doświadczalnego Przemysłu Chemicznego. +Franciszek Bujak (historyk) + +Franciszek Bujak (ur. 16 sierpnia 1875 we wsi Maszkienice, pow. Brzesko, zm. 21 marca 1953 w Krakowie) – polski historyk dziejów gospodarczych i społecznych Polski. +Profesor historii Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego (1909–1918, 1946–1952), Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (1919–1921) i Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie (1921–1941). Członek PAU od 1919 i PAN od 1952, prezes Polskiego Towarzystwa Historycznego (w latach 1932–1933 i 1936–1937). Polityk związany z PSL "Piast" i SL. +Stworzył szkołę badawczą polskiej historii gospodarczej, zwłaszcza dziejów wsi. Inicjator serii wydawniczej "Badania Dziejów Społecznych i Gospodarczych" (1931–1950) oraz czasopisma Roczniki Dziejów Społecznych i Gospodarczych. Autor wielu prac, m.in. "Studia nad osadnictwem Małopolski" (1905), "Wieś zachodniogalicyjska u schyłku XIX w." (1906). Autor pierwszej dojrzałej monografii socjologicznej wsi: "Żmiąca wieś powiatu limanowskiego. Stosunki gospodarcze i społeczne" (1903). +Życiorys. +Pochodził z rodziny chłopskiej. Szkołę podstawową i średnią ukończył w Bochni. Studia humanistyczne (historyczne, geograficzno-historyczne i prawnicze) ukończył w latach 1894–1900 na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim pod kierunkiem profesorów: Stanisława Smolki, Wincentego Zakrzewskiego, Anatola Lewickiego, Bolesława Ulanowskiego. +W 1899 uzyskał doktorat z historii geografii, po czym zwrócił się w badaniach i zainteresowaniach naukowych ku historii społecznej i gospodarczej. W latach 1901–1902 odbył w Lipsku, Rzymie i Genui studia uzupełniające. Był następnie asystentem na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, bibliotekarzem w Bibliotece Jagiellońskiej i archiwistą w Archiwum Krajowym Aktów Grodzkich i Ziemskich w Krakowie. W 1905 habilitował się na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim na podstawie pracy "Studia nad osadnictwem Małopolski". Była to pierwsza praca z historii gospodarczej w dziejach nauki polskiej. Od 1905 do 1919 prowadził z tej dziedziny zajęcia na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, tworząc pierwszy dydaktyczno-naukowy ośrodek historii gospodarczej; od 1909 jako profesor nadzwyczajny. +Był ekspertem delegacji polskiej na konferencji pokojowej w Paryżu w 1919 roku zajmującym się zagadnieniami gospodarczymi. +W 1919 związał się z Uniwersytetem Warszawskim, a także z Wyższą Szkołą Handlową w Warszawie, już jako profesor zwyczajny. Pełnił wówczas przez pewien czas funkcje publiczne, z których jednak szybko zrezygnował (w kwietniu 1920 został ministrem rolnictwa i dóbr państwowych w rządzie Władysława Grabskiego). +Od roku akademickiego 1920/1921 przeszedł do Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie, gdzie był profesorem i kierownikiem Zakładu Historii Społeczno-Gospodarczej. Pracował tam do 1939. Podczas sowieckiej okupacji Lwowa (1939–1941) wykładał historię gospodarczą na lwowskim uniwersytecie przemianowanym na Uniwersytet im. Iwana Franki. W 1945 ekspatriowany ze Lwowa do Krakowa. W 1946 powierzono mu Katedrę Ekonomiki Spółdzielczej na Wydziale Rolniczym Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego (Studium Spółdzielcze). Z tego powodu nie objął proponowanej mu wcześniej Katedry Historii Gospodarczej i Geografii Politycznej na Wydziale Humanistycznym Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego. +Brał też czynny udział w życiu naukowym kraju i odgrywał w nim znaczną rolę jako organizator nauki. Od połowy lat trzydziestych jego udział w zajęciach czysto dydaktycznych zmniejszył się. Część zajęć z historii społeczno-gospodarczej jako studium uniwersyteckiego przekazał swoim uczniom, docentom i asystentom. Prowadził jednak cały czas bardzo aktywną działalność naukową. Z uczniów i studentów tworzył zespoły badawcze (tematyczne), które dawały szansę na realizację głównych planów badawczych (tzw. "Szkoła Bujaka"). +W pierwszych latach po wojnie włączył się aktywnie w prace naukowe i organizacyjne "Komitetu Naukowego do Ziem Odzyskanych". W 1948 przeszedł na emeryturę, w 1949 opublikował ostatnią pracę naukową. +PZL.43 + +PZL.43 Czajka – polski samolot rozpoznawczo-bombowy, wersja eksportowa samolotu PZL.23 Karaś. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1936 roku w Państwowych Zakładach Lotniczych. +Historia. +W 1936 roku, w związku z chęcią zakupienia przez Bułgarię samolotów PZL.23 Karaś, lecz z mocniejszym, zakupionym przez nią we Francji silnikiem gwiazdowym Gnôme-Rhône 14 Kfs, inż. Henryk Malinowski opracował zmodyfikowaną wersję samolotu PZL.23 Karaś z tym silnikiem. Zmodyfikowany samolot otrzymał oznaczenie PZL.43. +Większa masa silnika zastosowanego w samolocie zmusiła konstruktora do zwiększenia długości kadłuba w części środkowej z kabiną. Nowy samolot otrzymał ponadto zmodyfikowaną kabinę załogi, bardziej przeszkloną, o przekroju owalnym zamiast trapezowego. Samolot ten otrzymał nowe trójłopatowe śmigło metalowe GR nastawne na ziemi. Wzmocniono również jego uzbrojenie, wprowadzając drugi karabin maszynowy dla pilota. +Samolot ten zakupiła 9 kwietnia 1936 r. Bułgaria w ilości 12 sztuk. Zostały one dostarczone do Bułgarii w kwietniu i maju 1937 roku. Samoloty te zyskały sobie dobrą opinię wśród bułgarskich pilotów. Następnie 31 marca 1938 r. rząd Bułgarii zakupił 42 samoloty, z tym, że miały to być samoloty z mocniejszym silnikiem Gnôme-Rhône 14N01. Samoloty te otrzymały oznaczenie PZL.43A. Maszyny miały być dostarczone do Bułgarii do początków sierpnia 1939 roku. Nastąpiło jednak opóźnienie dostawy i do końca sierpnia 1939 roku wysłano do Bułgarii 36 samolotów, natomiast ostatnie 6 sztuk było niemal przygotowane do wysyłki, lecz wybuch wojny spowodował, że nie zostały wysłane. +W 1940 roku Bułgaria otrzymała jeszcze jeden egzemplarz tego samolotu od Niemców. Był to samolot, który Niemcy zdobyli w Warszawie, a następnie w październiku 1939 roku wywieźli do Instytutu Technicznego Luftwaffe w Rechlinie, a po jego zbadaniu i wyremontowaniu w wytwórni PZL w Mielcu, przekazali do Bułgarii. +Samoloty te były wykorzystywane przez lotnictwo bułgarskie przez cały okres II wojny światowej, m.in do zwalczania partyzantów. +W lotnictwie bułgarskim samoloty PZL.43 pozostawały do początków 1945 r. Ostatnie egzemplarze skasowano i złomowano latem 1946. +Użycie samolotu w lotnictwie polskim. +1 września 1939 roku przygotowane już do wysyłki do Bułgarii 6 samolotów PZL.43A zostało wypakowanych i zmontowanych. Część samolotów po zmontowaniu odesłano na lotnisko polowe na Bielany, gdzie w dniu 4 września 1939 roku przejęli je piloci 41 eskadry rozpoznawczej Armii „Modlin”. Samoloty te wykonywały loty rozpoznawcze i bojowe, atakując kolumny wojsk niemieckich w rejonie działania armii. Wszystkie zostały jednak zniszczone przez Niemców. Ostatni z nich rozbił się w dniu 12 września 1939 roku w trakcie lądowania na lotnisku w Brześciu nad Bugiem, samolot był już uszkodzony po ostrzelaniu go przez samolot Messerschmitt Bf 109E. +Dwa samoloty PZL.43A, jeszcze nie w pełni zmontowane, zostały zniszczone w dniu 4 września 1939 roku na terenie zakładów PZL. +Zabieg Halsteda + +Zabieg Halsteda (ang. Halsted mastectomy, Meyer mastectomy, radical mastectomy; łac. "mastectomia modo Halsted", "mastectomia radicalis") - zabieg usunięcia gruczołu piersiowego wraz z wycięciem węzłów pachowych po tej samej stronie z usunięciem mięśnia piersiowego większego oraz mięśnia piersiowego mniejszego. Kiedyś metoda z wyboru w leczeniu operacyjnym raka sutka, w latach 80. coraz częściej zarzucany na rzecz zmodyfikowanej radykalnej mastektomii sposobem Pateya i jeszcze bardziej oszczędzających zabiegów. Obecnie wskazaniem do operacji Halsteda są tylko guzy bardzo duże lub naciekające mięsień piersiowy większy. +Wilhelm I Orański + +Wilhelm I Orański z przydomkiem Niemy, Cichy lub Milczący (ur. 24 kwietnia 1533 w Dillenburgu, zm. 10 lipca 1584 w Delft) – hrabia Nassau, książę Oranii od 1544, stadhouder prowincji Niderlandów od 1572. +Początkowo służył na dworze Małgorzaty Parmeńskiej, później był przywódcą walk z Hiszpanią o niepodległość prowincji (1561). Podczas tłumienia powstania przez księcia Albę uciekł do Niemiec. W 1572 powrócił i podjął walkę z Albą. Od 1572 wybierany na stadhoudera kolejnych prowincji Niderlandów. +Po zawarciu unii utrechckiej 1579 stracił wpływy w południowych Niderlandach, co jednak doprowadziło do powstania Republiki Zjednoczonych Prowincji. Został zabity przez fanatyka katolickiego Balthasara Gérarda w Delft. Bohater narodowy Holandii, o którym mówi hymn Holandii - "Wilhelmus van Nassouwe" +Małżeństwa i potomstwo. +25 sierpnia 1561 poślubił Annę Saksońską (1544-1577), jedyną córkę i dziedziczkę Maurycego, elektora Saksonii. Małżeństwo zostało anulowane w 1571. Para miała 4 dzieci: +Łyżwiarstwo + +Zawodnicy uprawiający sporty łyżwiarskie wyczynowo zrzeszeni są w Krajowych Związkach Łyżwiarskich, które z kolei są członkami Międzynarodowej Unii Łyżwiarskiej "(ISU – International Skating Union)". Na jej czele stoi aktualnie Ottavio Cinquanta. +Gmina Lipie + +Gmina Lipie – gmina wiejska w województwie śląskim, w powiecie kłobuckim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina położona była w województwie częstochowskim. +Siedziba gminy to Lipie. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2004 gminę zamieszkiwały 6554 osoby. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 11,14% powierzchni powiatu. +Sołectwa. +Albertów, Brzózki, Danków, Giętkowizna, Grabarze, Julianów, Kleśniska, Lipie, Lindów, Napoleon, Natolin, Parzymiechy, Rębielice Szlacheckie, Rozalin, Stanisławów, Szyszków, Wapiennik, Zbrojewsko, Zimnowoda. +Miejscowości bez statusu sołectwa: Chałków, Troniny. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Działoszyn, Krzepice, Opatów, Pątnów, Popów, Rudniki +Laserunek + +Laserunek – przezroczysta lub półprzezroczysta warstwa farby, zmieniająca ton lub barwę niższych warstw obrazu, zwłaszcza olejnego. Pochodzenie nazwy nie jest jasne, być może wywodzi się z określenia "lasur" w językach romańskich, tj. lazur, oznaczające błękit, ale także przejrzyste, jasne barwy. +Laserunki stosowane były już w średniowieczu, z wykorzystaniem bardzo rozcieńczonych temper lub gwaszy, jednak w pełni rozwinęły się dopiero wraz z rozwojem malarstwa olejnego. Aż do końca XVII w. i rozwoju techniki alla prima, laserunki były nieodłącznym elementem techniki olejnej. +W szczytowym okresie rozwoju (malarstwo flamandzkie XVII w.) budowa obrazu olejnego wyglądała następująco (w skrócie, abstrahując od przyzwyczajeń i trików poszczególnych twórców): na podkładzie drewnianym lub – rzadziej – płóciennym kładziono dość grubą warstwę chłonnej, kredowej, gipsowej lub bolusowej zaprawy, barwionej w masie lub powierzchniowo na dość ciemny szary lub brunatny kolor. Na to tło przenoszono szkic obrazu, a następnie modelowano światłocień monochromatycznymi temperami. Etap podmalówek kończyło pokrycie obrazu cienką warstwą barwnego werniksu – imprimitury, która nadawała ton i determinowała paletę barwną przyszłego obrazu. Dalsza praca nad obrazem polegała na nakładaniu kolejnych warstw laserunkowych nadmalunków, uzupełnianych czasem kryjącymi fragmentami. Zasadą było unikanie nadmiaru czerni, jako niszczącej efekt prześwitywania tła i brudzącej farby, i bieli, zarezerwowanej dla najjaśniejszych świateł obrazu. Dla osiągnięcia ostatecznego efektu konieczne było nałożenie kilku (w szczególnych wypadkach kilkunastu) warstw laserunków. Efekt przenikania i załamywania światła przez warstwy laserunkowe podkreślał i wydobywał z tła dominujące fragmenty sceny, malowane z reguły farbami półkryjącymi i kryjącymi, czasem nawet pastoso (grubą, modelowaną pędzlem warstwą kryjącej farby). Mistrzem w osiąganiu takich kontrastowych efektów był m.in. Rembrandt. +Efekty osiągane dzięki laserunkom, z oczywistych powodów, tylko częściowo nadają się do mechanicznej reprodukcji; głębia i niezwykłe efekty barwne warstw laserunków nie mogą być też naśladowane innymi technikami. Ze względu na ogromną pracochłonność malarstwo laserunkowe zanikło praktycznie w XVIII w. Próby wskrzeszenia tej techniki w czasach romantyzmu i neoromantyzmu nie zawsze były udane (m.in. z powodu używania tanich materiałów i barwników w rodzaju asfaltu). +Efekt laserunkowy (przezroczystości farby) osiągano dawniej przez użycie słabo kryjących pigmentów (jak, np. naturalna ultramaryna, siena palona, terre vert etc.), mocno rozrzedzonych przy użyciu medium żywiczno-olejnego. Obecnie sprzedawane farby laserunkowe są produkowane ze sztucznych barwników organicznych lub (rzadziej) nadzwyczaj drobno zmielonych pigmentów mineralnych. Ze względu na niewielki popyt, są o wiele droższe i trudniej dostępne od zwykłych farb olejnych. +Leonardo Bruni + +Leonardo Bruni , zwany też Leonardo Aretino (ur. ok. 1369/1370 r. w Arezzo, zm. 9 marca 1444 we Florencji) – humanista włoski, historyk, pionier historiografii renesansowej, polityk, dyplomata. +Studiował literaturę antyczną pod kierunkiem greckiego uczonego Manuela Chrysolorasa. W latach 1405-1415 zajmował, z krótkimi przerwami, stanowisko sekretarza kancelarii papieskiej. Jako sekretarz Jana XXIII uczestniczył w soborze w Konstancji. W 1415 po usunięciu Jana XXIII ze stolicy papieskiej, Bruni udał się do Florencji. Od 1427 aż do śmierci pełnił funkcję kanclerza Republiki Florenckiej. +Ceniony z powodu świetnej znajomości łaciny tłumaczył na ten język z greckiego m.in. dzieła Homera, Arystotelesa, Demostenesa, Platona, Plutarcha i Ksenofonta. Jest autorem znanego żywotu Dantego napisanego po włosku ("Vita di Dante"). Pozostawił również po sobie dzieła historyczne: "Rerum suo tempore gestarum commentaria" oraz "Historiarum florentini populi libri XII". To ostatnie, obejmujące okres od założenia miasta do 1404 roku, jest uznawane, ze względu na krytyczne wykorzystanie źródeł, za pierwszą nowoczesną pracę o historii Florencji. +Zapoczątkowała ona retoryczny model pisania historii w historiografii renesansowej. W pracy tej autor ściśle przestrzegł kanonów retoryki greckiej i łacińskiej, uznając antyczny styl pisarstwa historycznego za najdoskonalszy. Bruni odrzucił średniowieczne przeświadczenie o wpływach sił nadprzyrodzonych na bieg historii. Skupił się na historii politycznej i ludziach, którzy ją tworzyli. W uznaniu za to dzieło, Bruni i jego potomkowie zostali zwolnieni z obowiązku płacenia podatków przez Republikę Florencką. +Leonardo Bruni został pochowany na koszt państwa na cmentarzu Santa Croce we Florencji, do trumny włożono kopię jego "Historii florenckiej" oraz koronę laurową na jego głowę. Grobowiec Leonarda Bruni wykonał Bernardo Rossellino. +Plakodonty + +Plakodonty (Placodontia, czyli płyto- lub płaskozębne) – rząd triasowych gadów morskich prawdopodobnie z rzędu Sauropterygia – płetwojaszczurów, jednak ich systematyka jest niejasna. Skamieniałości plakodontów znajdowano na terenie Europy. +Miały krępe ciała spłaszczone od brzusznej strony, pokryte nieregularnie rozmieszczonymi płytkami kostnymi, które u niektórych rodzajów tworzyły bardziej zwarty pancerz. Szyja krótka, ogon długi i gruby, bocznie spłaszczony. Mierzyły do 2,5 m długości. Oko ciemieniowe miały dobrze wykształcone. +Wyspecjalizowały się w zbieraniu ze skał mięczaków i skorupiaków za pomocą mocnych płaskich zębów, którymi miażdżyły muszle ramienionogów i małżów czy też pancerze skorupiaków by wyjadać ich miękkie części. Niektóre miały zaokrąglone pyski z zębami wysuniętymi do przodu ("Placodus"), a inne z dobrze wykształconym pancerzem były bezzębne z wyciągniętymi ryjkami służącymi do wyszukiwania miękkich zwierząt zagrzebanych w mule dennym ("Placochelys"). +Ciekawy wygląd miał bezzębny, opancerzony "Henodus" z poźnego triasu, osiagający około 1 m długości, którego głowa była prostokątna, a krótkie ciało zamknięte pancerzem podobnym do pancerza żółwi. +Zamieszkiwały płytkie morza obfitujące w skorupiaki i głowonogi, którymi się żywiły. +Łąka + +Łąka – bezdrzewne zbiorowisko roślinne tworzone przez byliny ze znacznym udziałem traw. Stosowane są różne kryteria przy definiowaniu i wyodrębnianiu łąk odwołujące się do składu i struktury pokrywy roślinnej, sposobu użytkowania i funkcjonowania w krajobrazie. W szerokim znaczeniu termin obejmuje wszelkie formacje trawiaste występujące na Ziemi, w tym stepy i sawanny. Łąka wąsko definiowana to półnaturalne lub antropogeniczne zbiorowisko, którego utrzymywanie się zależne jest od koszenia. Łąki kośne określane bywają "łąkami właściwymi" i przeciwstawiane są naturalnym formacjom trawiastym oraz pastwiskom. W klasyfikacji fitosocjologicznej łąki właściwe należą do klasy roślinności "Molinio-Arrhenatheretea". +W węższym znaczeniu stosowanym w typologii użytków rolnych oraz klasyfikacji użytków gruntowych używanej w geodezji pojęcie łąki jest ograniczone do zbiorowisk tworzonych przez wieloletnie trawy, turzyce, rośliny motylkowe i rośliny innych rodzin, które występują na mezotroficznych i eutroficznych glebach o wysokim poziomie wód gruntowych, zawierających przez większą część roku od 60 do 80 procent wilgoci w stosunku do całkowitej ich pojemności wodnej. Niedobory wody mogą być uzupełniane między innymi przez nawadnianie bądź wykorzystywanie bliskiego poziomu wody gruntowej lub zalewów rzek. +Łąki (wąsko rozumiane) wraz z pastwiskami składają się na użytki zielone. Charakterystyczne dla łąk jest to, że korzenie i rozłogi roślinności łąkowej tworzą darń, dzięki której łąka może odrastać na nowo po każdym skoszeniu i spoczynku zimowym. Dlatego rośliny rosnące na użytkowanych rolniczo łąkach są pozyskiwane na paszę (łąki kośne). Łąki są przedmiotem badań łąkarstwa. +Klasyfikacja łąk. +Istnieje szereg kryteriów podziału łąk ze względu na ich genezę, warunki siedliskowe, sposób użytkowania, położenie, cechy roślinności. +Podział łąk w odniesieniu do kryterium ich genezy. +Ze względu na genezę wyróżnia się łąki naturalne, półnaturalne i antropogeniczne. +Podział łąk w odniesieniu do kryterium roślinności. +Ze względu na zaburzenia w składzie roślinności łąkowej powodowanym intensyfikacją użytkowania powstają łąki o składzie florystycznym zależnym od podsiewu lub stanowiące inne fazy degeneracji związane z silnym przekształceniem warunków ekologicznych. W związku z dominacją pojedynczych gatunków (głównie traw) na tego typu siedliskach, łąki tego rodzaju nazywane są od nazwy dominującej rośliny. Przykładem mogą być łąki śmiałkowe z dominacją śmiałka darniowego. Powstają one zwykle na skutek degeneracji innych zbiorowisk łąkowych po zbyt intensywnym wypasie lub obniżeniu poziomu wód gruntowych. Inne przykłady to łąki: sitowe z sitem rozpierzchłym, kłosówkowe z kłosówką wełnistą, trzcinnikowe z trzcinnikiem lancetowatym. +Ochrona łąk. +W Polsce i w Europie wiele typów łąk oraz związanych z nimi gatunków roślin i zwierząt ginie w wyniku zmiany w użytkowaniu – odejścia od tradycyjnych, ekstensywnych sposobów gospodarowania w tym wypasu łąk. Część łąk zostaje przekształcona w ziemie orne lub grunty budowlane. Część przestaje być użytkowana, porastając krzewami i drzewami, część jest zbyt intensywnie eksploatowana. W obu przypadkach prowadzi to do zmian w składzie gatunkowym zbiorowisk roślinnych i ustępowania cennych, zagrożonych gatunków roślin i zwierząt. Dodatkowym czynnikiem zagrożenia tych zbiorowisk jest nadmierne osuszanie się siedlisk spowodowane prowadzonymi przez dziesięciolecia melioracjami. Ginące łąki wymagają ochrony czynnej – przywracania lub podtrzymywania tradycyjnych metod użytkowania. W krajach Unii Europejskiej, a więc także w Polsce, wiele typów siedliskowych łąk podlega ochronie zgodnie z Dyrektywą Siedliskową i wymaga wyznaczenia dla ich zachowania obszarów Natura 2000. W celu utrzymania łąk ekstensywnych obowiązuje w Unii Europejskiej system dopłat rolnośrodowiskowych. Ponadto najcenniejsze fragmenty łąk mogą być chronione jako użytki ekologiczne, co umożliwia ich dalsze, bezproblemowe użytkowanie rolnicze. +Powstawanie. +Przed pojawieniem się człowieka obszar prawie całej Polski pokrywały lasy. Jedynie w dolinach rzek i na terenach położonych wysoko w górach można było spotkać roślinność zielną. Wieloletnie rośliny zielne które w odróżnieniu od drzew znoszą co roczne wylewy rzek w dolinach, tworzyły łąki zalewowe. Silne wiatry i mrozy panujące w wysokich górach oraz cienka warstwa gleby, to warunki w których mogą przetrwać tylko niskie, przytulone do ziemi rośliny, wchodzące w skład naturalnych hal (łąk wysokogórskich). +Osiedlenie się i chów zwierząt skłoniły człowieka do rozpoczęcia wycinki lasów. Na ich miejscu tworzył on m.in. łąki. Rośliny łąk są w większości rodzime, wcześniej były mieszkańcami śródleśnych polan, runa lasów, terenów nadwodnych oraz hal. Łąki nie zarastają krzewami i drzewami, jeśli są regularne koszone lub jeśli są na nich wypasane zwierzęta. +Zabieg Pateya + +Zabieg Pateya (ang. Patey mastectomy, modified radical mastectomy; łac. "mastectomia modo Patey") – zabieg usunięcia gruczołu sutkowego wraz z wycięciem węzłów pachowych po tej samej stronie, z zachowaniem mięśnia piersiowego większego i mięśnia piersiowego mniejszego. Mięsień piersiowy mniejszy ulega przecięciu w celu lepszego dostępu do leżących pod nim węzłów chłonnych. +Intel 8085 + +Intel 8085 był 8-bitowym mikroprocesorem produkowanym przez firmę Intel w latach siedemdziesiątych. +Był całkowicie zgodny w asemblerowych programach źródłowych z jego słynnym starszym bratem 8080, wymagał jednak mniej zewnętrznych układów scalonych, pozwalając w ten sposób na zmniejszenie kosztów budowy komputerów. +Cyfra "5" w nazwie modelu oznaczała, że 8085 potrzebował tylko +5 V napięcia zasilania, w odróżnieniu od +5V, -5V i +12V wymaganych przez 8080. Oba te procesory były używane w komputerach bazujących na systemie operacyjnym CP/M, a 8085 był później także powszechnie używany jako kontroler w wielu urządzeniach (właśnie z powodu zmniejszenia wymaganej ilości chipów pomocniczych). Oba te procesory zostały w późniejszym czasie zdystansowane przez mikroprocesor Z80 firmy Zilog który stał się najpopularniejszym procesorem używanym w komputerach domowych we wczesnym okresie lat osiemdziesiątych. +Architektura mikroprocesora 8085. +Elementy mikroprocesora 8085. +Jednostka sterująca (centralna) CU. +Wszystkie te sygnały są aktywne dla zera logicznego. +Licznik Rozkazów PC. +jest 16-bitowy, kieruje kolejnością wykonywania rozkazów, w przypadku wykonywania programów komórka po komórce licznik jest zwiększany o 1 przez co dostarcza adres komórki pamięci której zawartość (rozkaz, lub dana) jest przetwarzany. W przypadku kiedy kolejny rozkaz ma być pobrany z innej niż następnej komórki pamięci zawartości PC zmienia się o wartość różną od 1. Liczba bitów przeznaczona na PC określa maksymalną pojemność pamięci z jaką może współpracować mikro procesor. PC jest jedynym rejestrem, który w momencie resetowania mikro procesora ma wpisaną wartość 0000н. +Rejestr Adresów RA. +jest 16-bitowy, wpisana jest do niego wartość licznika PC +Akumulator A. +jest 8-bitowy, zawiera argument (lub pierwszy argument przy operacjach dwuargumentowych) dla operacji wykonywanych w ALU. Trafia do niego większość wyników wykonywanych w ALU. Pośredniczy on w układami wymiany danych wejścia wyjścia, to znaczy że w akumulatorze musi znajdować się wartość którą chcemy wysłać na port wyjściowy i tam trafia wartość odczytana z portu wejściowego. +Rejestr Rozkazów RR. +jest 8-bitowy, wpisywany jest do niego bart pobrany z pamięci, który ma być następnie zdekodowany. +Dekoder Rozkazów (flagowy) RF. +służy do dekodowania rozkazów, które polega na porównaniu bajta dostarczonego z RR z wartościami zdefiniowanymi jako rozkazy. Zależnie od wyniku dekodowania procesor albo sprowadza z pamięci dalsze bajty danych, albo przystępuje do wykonywania zdekodowanego rozkazu. +Rejestr Flagowy (Znaczników). +Normalnie flagi są zgaszone. +Rejestry Robocze (Pomocnicze). +służą do przechowywania danych pomocniczych, które są zazwyczaj drugimi argumentami dla ALU, lub do przechowywania wyników operacji cząstkowych. Mamy 6 ośmiobitowych rejestrów roboczych: B, C, D, E, H, L. Możemy je odpowiednio grupować w pary tworząc rejestry 16-bitowe: BC DE HL. Zadaniem rejestrów 16-bitowych jest adresowanie pamięci, lub są one wykorzystywane jako liczniki 16-bitowe. +Wskaźnik Stosu (SP). +jest rejestrem 6-bitowym który wykorzystuje się do ustalenia adresu początkowego do zapisu i odczytu danych z operacji na stosie. Po każdym zapisaniu danej na stos SP zmniejsza swoją wartość o 1. W ten sposób przy ciągłym zapisywaniu na stos może dojść do sytuacji, że zapiszemy obszar pamięci programu. Przy pobieraniu pamięci ze stosu zwiększa on swoją wartość o 1. +Skoki łyżwiarskie + +Skoki są jednym z ważniejszych elementów łyżwiarstwa i wrotkarstwa figurowego. Ich nazwy zazwyczaj pochodzą od nazwisk osób, które je wymyśliły. W trakcie skoku, zawodnik obraca się wokół własnej osi (zwykle przez lewe ramię), wykonując od jednego do czterech obrotów. +Skoki mogą być wykonywane solo oraz w kombinacjach "(kilka skoków jeden po drugim)" lub sekwencjach "(kilka skoków połączonych obrotami, kroczkami itp)". Pary sportowe wykonują dodatkowo skoki wyrzucane[http://www.sk8stuffmore.com/recog/p_throw_dsal_sdh.mpg] +Oprócz wyżej wymienionych, istnieją inne skoki, z ilością obrotów od pół do nawet kilku. Z powodu niskiego punktowego zakwalifikowania ich, są spotykane najczęściej w ramach elementów łączących. +Skoki. +Różnica pomiędzy podstawowymi skokami wykonywanymi przez łyżwiarzy pojawia się w momencie najazdu, a właściwie wybicia – obroty i lądowanie wyglądają w nich tak samo. Wszystkie z podstawowych skoków lądowane są tyłem, na zewnętrznej krawędzi prawej łyżwy. +Tabela opisuje je w kolejności od powszechnie uważanego za najłatwiejszy, do najtrudniejszego. Definicje są, jak dla łyżwiarzy wykonujących rotację w tradycyjnym kierunku tzn. przeciwnym do ruchu wskazówek zegara. +Historia skoków. +"Źródło:Skating First" +"Źródło:Skating First" +Wrotkarstwo figurowe + +Wrotkarstwo figurowe (zwane również artystycznym) – dyscyplina sportowa wywodząca się z łyżwiarstwa figurowego. Zwłaszcza kilkadziesiąt lat temu, kiedy technika nie pozwalała na budowanie lodowisk całorocznych, było ono wręcz dyscypliną zamienną, a najlepsi łyżwiarze figurowi często odnosili sukcesy również na wrotkach. +Wrotkarze figurowi mają do wyboru wrotki tradycyjne – czterokołowe (ang. "roller-skates lub quad skates") oraz bardziej nowoczesne łyżworolki ("inline skates"). Ostatnimi czasy sięgają oni jednak raczej po te drugie.Jazda figurowa na rolkach i wrotkach jest również dyscypliną cyrkową. +W dyscyplinie tej rozgrywane są międzynarodowe zawody, z Mistrzostwami Świata włącznie. Zawodnicy występują w licznych rewiach, przedstawieniach i pokazach, a Międzynarodowa Federacja Sportów Wrotkarskich od lat stara się o włączenie wrotkarstwa artystycznego oraz innych dyscyplin wrotkarskich do programu Letnich Igrzysk Olimpijskich. +Zawody wrotkarskie. +Zawody we wrotkarstwie figurowym rozgrywają się na specjalnie do tego przeznaczonych halach sportowych o odpowiednich wymiarach (1800 m²) i nawierzchni, zwanymi wrotowiskami, ale niekiedy może je zastąpić odpowiednio przygotowana sala gimnastyczna. +Tak samo, jak łyżwiarze mają do wykonania program skrócony i dowolny, a w przypadku par tanecznych – taniec obowiązkowy, oryginalny i dowolny. Za swoje układy otrzymują noty w wysokości od 1 do 10. Oceniani są za zawartość techniczną programu oraz tzw. wrażenie artystyczne. +Układ programów nie jest całkowicie dowolny – wrotkarze muszą zawrzeć w nich odpowiednią ilość i rodzaj skoków, piruetów, kroczków, spiral itp. Są to te same rodzaje elementów, jakie wykonują łyżwiarze. +Zakrzep + +Zakrzep, inaczej skrzeplina (łac. "thrombus") – tworzący się za życia organizmu, w świetle naczynia, czop, powstały na skutek wykrzepiania krwi lub zlepiania się i osadzania płytek krwi. +Patogeneza. +Skrzeplina powstaje gdy: +Powyższe trzy cechy to tak zwana triada Virchowa. +Przebieg. +Skrzeplina może ulegać rozmiękaniu (rozpuszczeniu przez granulocyty), organizacji lub zwapnieniu. +Organizacja skrzepliny polega na wrastaniu w nią fibroblastów wytwarzających włókna kolagenowe i otaczaniu jej przez śródbłonek naczynia. Jeżeli organizacji podlega skrzeplina przyścienna następuje trwałe zwężenie światła naczynia. Jeżeli proces dotyczy skrzepliny zamykającej, naczynie ulega zarośnięciu. Niekiedy w trakcie organizacji skrzepliny zamykającej, mogą wytworzyć się kanały, w które wnikają komórki śródbłonka, wyścielając je od środka i tworząc nowe drogi przepływu krwi. +Jan Jeziorański + +Jan Józef Bartłomiej Jeziorański herbu Jeziora (ur. 24 sierpnia 1835 w Lublinie, zm. 5 sierpnia 1864 w Warszawie), członek władz powstania styczniowego. Syn Jana Macieja h. Jeziora (1795-1846) i Wandy z Dolańskich h. Korab (1810-1853). +Był bratem stryjecznym Antoniego. +Był rewizorem dochodów tabacznych w Warszawie. Był członkiem Organizacji Miejskiej Warszawy, a po wybuchu powstania został dyrektorem Wydziału Komunikacji w Rządzie Narodowym. Aresztowany na początku kwietnia 1864 został 5 sierpnia tego roku wraz wraz z Romualdem Trauguttem, Józefem Toczyskim, Romanem Żulińskim i Rafałem Krajewskim powieszony na stokach Cytadeli Warszawskiej. +Wylegitymowany ze szlachectwa przed Heroldią Królestwa Polskiego ok. r. 1855 z herbem Jeziora. +Z małżeństwa z Wandą z Gołębiowskich pozostawił córki: Bronisławę Marię Magdalenę (22.07.1863 – 1941), zamężną za Stanisławem Romeyko-Hurko, Janinę Franciszkę (3.12.1864 – ?), zamężną Nipanicz i Zofię Katarzynę (26.04.1862 – ?). +Marantowate + +Marantowate ("Marantaceae") – rodzina roślin jednoliściennych z rzędu imbirowców ("Zingiberales"). Znanych jest ok. 550 gatunków zaliczanych do 32 rodzajów rosnących w tropikalnych rejonach Ameryki Południowej, Azji i Afryki. +Systematyka. +Klad okrytonasienne, klad jednoliścienne ("monocots"), rząd imbirowce ("Zingiberales"), rodzina marantowate ("Marantaceae"). Rodzina marantowatych jest siostrzana dla rodziny paciorecznikowatych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa jednoliścienne ("Liliopsida" Brongn.), podklasa "Zingiberidae" Cronquist, nadrząd "Zingiberanae" Takht. ex Reveal, rząd imbirowce ("Zingiberales" Griseb.), rodzina marantowate Marantaceae Petersen in Engl. & Prantl). +Zespół Mallory'ego-Weissa + +Zespół Mallory'ego-Weissa (ang. Mallory-Weiss syndrome) – podłużne pęknięcie błony śluzowej przełyku, zlokalizowane w okolicy wpustu żołądka, związane zwykle z wymiotami. +Zespół został opisany po raz pierwszy przez George'a Kennetha Mallory'ego i Somę Weissa w 1929 roku. +Etiopatogeneza. +Pęknięcie błony śluzowej w zespole Mallory'ego-Weissa powstaje najczęściej na skutek gwałtownych i obfitych wymiotów (około 40% chorych wymioty jednak neguje). Zespół Mallory'ego-Weissa najczęściej występuje u alkoholików lub osób, które nadużywają często alkoholu (wiąże się to z uporczywymi wymiotami). Może być również wywołany przez niepowściągliwe wymioty ciężarnych. Czynnikiem ryzyka zespołu Mallory'ego-Weissa jest także bulimia i prawdopodobnie przepuklina rozworu przełykowego. +Obraz kliniczny i rozpoznanie. +Pęknięcia błony śluzowej nie osiągają znacznych rozmiarów, mogą być jednak powodem krwotoku, niekiedy masywnego, objawiającego się krwistymi bądź fusowatymi wymiotami, a także smolistym stolcem. Chorobę rozpoznaje się badając endoskopowo okolicę połączenia przełyku z żołądkiem. Zespół Mallory'ego-Weissa należy odróżniać od zespołu Boerhaavego, w którym pęknięciu ulega cała ściana przełyku. +Leczenie. +Do opanowania uszkodzeń śluzówki zazwyczaj wystarcza leczenie zachowawcze (leki zobojętniające kwas żołądkowy, inhibitory pompy protonowej), niekiedy jednak, w przypadku krwawienia, zastosować należy metody endoskopowe, np. elektrokoagulację, koagulację argonową lub z wykorzystaniem lasera. +Hessonit + +Hessonit – rzadka odmiana grossularu. Inaczej zwany jest "kamieniem cynamonowym", dawniej "kanelem". +Właściwości. +Tworzy kryształy izomeryczne o postaci dwunastościanu rombowego lub dwudziestoczterościanu deltoidowego. Jest kruchy, przezroczysty. +Występowanie. +Niemal wyłącznie występuje w skałach metamorficznych. Najczęściej spotykany w skarnach, rzadziej rodingitach. Niekiedy jest składnikiem piasków i żwirow. +Miejsca występowania: Sri Lanka – spotykany w piaskach i żwirach, Kanada – Asbestos, USA – Kalifornia, Meksyk, Brazylia, Madagaskar, Niemcy, Czechy. +Diapsydy + +Diapsydy (Diapsida, z gr. "di" – dwa + "apsis" – łuk) – grupa owodniowców z gromady zauropsydów (Sauropsida), w których czaszce rozwinęły się dwie pary otworów skroniowych (po dwa – górny i dolny – za każdym okiem), przez które przewleczone są silne mięśnie szczęk. Dzięki temu czaszka stała się lżejsza a szczęki bardziej ruchliwe. Choć część diapsydów wtórnie straciła jedną lub obie pary otworów skroniowych (m.in. węże), są nadal zaliczane do tej grupy, gdyż ich przodkowie mieli diapsydalną budowę czaszki. +Diapsydy to najbardziej zróżnicowana i najliczniej reprezentowana grupa „gadów”. Pierwsi jej przedstawiciele (z grupy Araeoscelidia, m.in. rodzaj "Petrolacosaurus") pojawili się pod koniec karbonu a największy rozkwit osiągnęła ona w erze mezozoicznej. +Jeśli diapsydy mają być grupą monofiletyczną, należy do nich zaliczyć także ptaki, będące wyspecjalizowaną grupą teropodów. Choć żółwie przez większość naukowców zaliczane są do anapsydów, niektórzy uważają, że i one są diapsydami, które wtórnie straciły otwory skroniowe. +Systematyka. +Podgromada Diapsida +Architektura romańska w Skandynawii + +Przykładem budownictwa drewnianego jest kościół o wysoko spiętrzonych dachach zbudowany w Hitterdat w XIII wieku +Zobacz też: style architektoniczne, historia sztuki, sztuka romańska +Nadawca społeczny + +Nadawca społeczny – status, jaki Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i Telewizji może przyznać instytucji emitującej na terytorium Polski program radiowy lub telewizyjny, spełniającej warunki określone w Ustawie o Radiofonii i Telewizji. Nadawca społeczny jest zwolniony z opłaty za udzielenie przez KRRiTV koncesji i jej ponawianie na nadawanie programu. +W 1993 status nadawcy społecznego, jako pierwszy podmiot prawny w Polsce uzyskało po wielu sporach i dyskusjach w Krajowej Radzie Radiofonii i Telewizji należące do Warszawskiej Prowincji Redemptorystów Radio Maryja na wniosek Ryszarda Bendera. Natomiast, jako drugi i jak dotąd ostatni podmiot koncesję w takim zakresie otrzymało w 1994 Radio Fara, którego właścicielem jest archidiecezja przemyska. +Quake + +Quake – gra komputerowa z gatunku FPS, wydana 22 czerwca 1996 roku przez id Software. Jako jedna z pierwszych posiadała silnik graficzny wyświetlający trójwymiarowy, teksturowany obraz. Wywodzi się pośrednio z serii "Doom", kontynuując jej niektóre rozwiązania. W tej grze po raz pierwszy pojawiła się konsola służąca do konfiguracji i automatyzacji ustawień oraz rozmów z pozostałymi graczami. +W 1997 id Software wydało łatę do QuakeWorld, która zmieniała fizykę świata gry (m.in. dodała większą kontrolę lotu oraz zmieniła sposób obsługi skoków). +Rozgrywka. +Quake oferuje dwa podstawowe rodzaje rozgrywki: jednoosobowa oraz wieloosobowa. +Gra jednoosobowa. +Przed rozpoczęciem gracz ma do wyboru trzy ścieżki z łatwym, średnim i trudnym poziomem umiejętności, aby osiągnąć poziom umiejętności Nightmare (opisany w instrukcji gry jako "tak zły, że został ukryty, aby ludzie nie wchodzili tam przez przypadek"), gracz musi spaść w wodzie przed wejściem do 4 epizodu na zagiętą belkę, skręcić po belce w bok, i na końcu belki wejść do tajnego przejścia. +Po zakończeniu każdego epizodu gracz wraca do początkowego poziomu, gdzie może wybrać kolejny. Każdy epizod rozpoczyna się bez wcześniej zebranych broni i przedmiotów. Po ukończeniu wszystkich epizodów na początkowym poziomie otwiera się podłoga ukazując wejście do ostatniego poziomu "End". +Dodatki. +W 1997 roku zostały wydane dwa oficjalne dodatki do gry: "Mission Pack 1: Scourge of Armagon" oraz "Mission Pack 2: Dissolution of Eternity". Oba wprowadzają nowe poziomy, jak również kilka nowych rodzajów broni i przeciwników. Prace nad trzecim dodatkiem "Abyss of Pandemonium" zostały porzucone przez producentów w 2005 roku. Trzy lata później dodatek został wydany nieoficjalnie przez fanów. +Architektura romańska w Niemczech + +W architekturze romańskiej w Niemczech widoczna jest kontynuacja wcześniejszych wzorów architektury karolińskiej. Częściej niż w innych państwach Europy Zachodniej budowane są kościoły o układzie centralnym (np. kaplica w Schwarzrheindorf koło Bonn z 1151 r.), ale i tutaj przeważają budowle bazylikowe, najczęściej kryte drewnianymi, płaskimi stropami, zazwyczaj bogato zdobione polichromią. Wnętrze dzielone jest na nawy przy pomocy kolumn o monolitycznych, kamiennych trzonach ustawionych pomiędzy z masywnymi filarami. Po raz pierwszy to rozwiązanie zastosowano w Saksonii, w budowanym od 961 r. kościele Sankt Cyriakus w Gernrode (kolumny ustawiono na przemian z filarami). Rytm ten powtarzano w zróżnicowany sposób (najczęściej można spotkać ustawienie: filar – dwie kolumny – filar) w budowanych później świątyniach. Częstym rozwiązaniem jest zastosowanie dwóch absyd na zakończeniu nawy głównej oraz dwóch transeptów. Czasami w grubości murów dobudowywano mniejsze apsydiole, lub stawiano dodatkowe absydy na zakończeniach ramion transeptu albo przy prezbiterium. Charakterystyczną cechą niemieckich kościołów są wysokie wieże stawiane nad skrzyżowaniem naw, chórem zachodnim i parami na krańcach budowli. Przy zastosowaniu dwóch absyd i podwójnego transeptu wejście do kościoła umieszczano w elewacji bocznej. Fasady zdobią arkadowe fryzy i galerie, oprócz nich pojawiają się także posągi przedstawiające świętych i apostołów. +Zobacz też: style architektoniczne, historia sztuki, sztuka romańska +Łyżwy + +Łyżwy – twarde, płaskie elementy tworzące wąskie płozy, mocowane pod podeszwą buta w celu ślizgania się po lodzie. +Budowa samej łyżwy (płozy) zależy od dyscypliny, w której są wykorzystywane. Niektóre rodzaje dyscyplin sportowych wykorzystujących łyżwy to: +Historia. +Najstarsze znalezione łyżwy mają ok. 5 tys. lat, były zbudowane ze zwierzęcych kości, przywiązywane rzemieniami do butów. +Łyżwy drewniane z metalowym usztywnieniem pojawiły się w XIV w. Łyżwy zrobione całkowicie z żelaza wprowadzono w XVII wieku. Stalowe łyżwy z klamrami i zaciskami, przypinającymi je do butów, zostały sprzedane w 1850 r. i później przerodziły się w łyżwy na stałe przytwierdzone do butów. +Łyżwiarstwo przez długi czas było środkiem lokomocji w krajach z długimi, mroźnymi zimami jak: Norwegia, Szwecja, Finlandia a w szczególności Holandia. Do XVIII wieku łyżwiarstwo stało się już nie tylko sposobem przemieszczania się, lecz również dobrze przyjętym sportem. Europejscy koloniści szybko wprowadzili łyżwiarstwo w USA i Kanadzie. +Tradycyjne buty łyżwiarskie są wykonane ze specjalnej skóry i zawiązywane. Do celów rekreacyjnych coraz częściej wykorzystywane są buty plastikowe, zapinane na specjalne klamry. W XX wieku powstała również odmiana łyżew dwupłozowych (popularne: saneczki), wykorzystywanych głównie przez najmłodszych. +AMD K6 + +AMD K6 to procesor klasy Pentium produkowany przez firmę AMD, następca K5. +AMD K6 był bazowany na procesorze Nx686 zaprojektowanym przez firmę NexGen, która została przejęta przez AMD. K6 był produkowany w dwóch odmianach i dostępny w wersjach z zegarem 166, 200, 233, 266 i 300 MHz. Jako pierwszy procesor ze stajni AMD posiadał obsługę instrukcji MMX, a później 3DNow!. Późniejsze wersje AMD K6-2 i AMD K6-III były taktowane aż do 550 MHz. +Intel 8008 + +8008 – jeden z pierwszych mikroprocesorów zaprojektowanych i produkowanych przez firmę Intel, wprowadzony na rynek w kwietniu 1972. Oryginalnie został zaprojektowany na specjalne zamówienie firmy Computer Terminal Corporation do użycia w terminalu Datapoint 2200, ale ponieważ Intel spóźnił się z dostawą i procesor nie osiągał minimalnych wymagań CTC, 8008 ostatecznie nie został użyty w Datapoint 2200. CTC zgodziła się pozwolić Intelowi na sprzedaż tego procesora dla innych klientów. +Instrukcje dostępne na 8008 i innych późniejszych procesorach typu CISC produkowanych przez Intel były w znacznym stopniu wzorowane na specyfikacjach CTC. +Procesor w obudowie DIP18 miał 8-bitową magistralę, wyprowadzona na zewnątrz ośmiobitowa szyna odgrywała rolę szyny danych i adresowej, przez co wymagał kilku układów scalonych do zarządzania i buforowania sygnałów szyny. Pomimo, że wykonywał mniejszą liczbę instrukcji w sekundzie niż 4-bitowe procesory Intela 4004 i 4040, ale że 8008 przetwarzał osiem bitów na raz i miał dostęp do większej ilości RAMu oznaczał, że miał około 3-4 razy większą moc obliczeniową niż procesory 4-bitowe. +8008 był stosunkowo wydajny w urządzeniach, do użycia w których został zaprojektowany, ale był bardzo trudny do użycia w innych zadaniach. Zaledwie kilka wczesnych komputerów było bazowało na tym chipie, jego następca 8080 był w porównaniu z nim znacznie lepszym produktem do tych celów. +Ragoût + +Ragoût (wym. ragu, fr. "ragoût" odnotowane już w 1642; od "ragoûter" — wzmocnić smak (odnosi się do dania, a nie do osoby jedzącej); od "goût" — smak) — w kuchni francuskiej typ potrawy z mięsa, drobiu, dziczyzny, ryby lub warzyw, pokrajanych na regularnej wielkości kawałki i uduszonych w wywarze rybnym, warzywnym lub mięsnym, niekiedy w zagęszczonym zasmażką sosie, zwykle przyprawionych ziołami lub korzeniami. +Wyróżnia się dwa podstawowe rodzaje ragoût — brązowe i białe. Brązowe robi się z mięsa wstępnie zarumienionego z dodatkiem mąki przez smażenie w tłuszczu; białe przez gotowanie mięsa w białym sosie na podstawie jasnego wywaru mięsnego lub warzywnego, zagęszczanego śmietaną i zasmażką, i mającym konsystencję beszamelu. +W szerszym sensie ragoût może się odnosić do wszelkich potraw wykonanych z produktów rozdrobnionych w różnym stopniu i duszonych w sosie, podawanych jako samodzielne danie, dodatek lub rodzaj gęstego sosu, jak np.: francuskie fricasse czy pochodzące z Prowansji ratatouille, włoski sos boloński ("ragù alla bolognese"), węgierskie leczo "(lecsó)" i pörkölt oraz inne popularne w Europie Środkowej gulasze, angielski stew, czy polski bigos. +Call of Duty + +Call of Duty ([]) – gra komputerowa z gatunku first-person shooter osadzona w realiach II wojny światowej, wyprodukowana przez amerykańskie studio Infinity Ward i wydana przez Activision na komputery osobiste. Jej premiera na świecie odbyła się 29 października 2003 roku, a w Polsce – 5 grudnia tego samego roku. Jest to pierwsza część serii gier komputerowych "Call of Duty". +Akcja "Call of Duty" toczy się w latach 1942–1945 na różnych frontach II wojny światowej. Gracz przejmuje w niej kontrolę kolejno nad żołnierzami: amerykańskim, brytyjskim i radzieckim, którzy walczą przeciwko żołnierzom niemieckim. Kierowani przez gracza bohaterowie biorą udział w działaniach na linii frontu, a także rajdach na tyłach wroga. Nacisk w grze położony jest na współpracę ze sterowanymi przez komputer sojuszniczymi żołnierzami, a także na unikanie wrogiego ostrzału poprzez poszukiwanie osłon. Graczowi stawiane są zróżnicowane zadania, począwszy od niszczenia wrogich obiektów, przez uwalnianie wrogich więźniów, a kończąc na zdobyciu i utrzymaniu wrogich sektorów. Oprócz rozbudowanej kampanii dla jednego gracza udostępniony został też tryb gry wieloosobowej, w którym podzieleni na dwie drużyny gracze uczestniczyli w kilku różnych wariantów rozgrywki. +Gra "Call of Duty" została wyprodukowana przez byłych twórców "", również osadzonej w realiach II wojny światowej, przez co wykazuje duże podobieństwa do poprzedniej produkcji. Po wydaniu uzyskała ona w przeważającej części przychylne oceny recenzentów, którzy chwalili oprawę audiowizualną, intensywność rozgrywki oraz monumentalny charakter bitew, natomiast krytykowali zbytnie uproszczenie rozgrywki. "Call of Duty" ustanowiła nowy kanon komputerowego widowiska wojennego. Zarazem za pomocą nowatorskich zabiegów technicznych, między innymi symulowanego ogłuszenia, ukazała w niespotykany wcześniej sposób grozę wojny. +"Call of Duty" zdobyła przyznawaną po raz pierwszy nagrodę Brytyjskiej Akademii Sztuk Filmowych i Telewizyjnych dla gry roku oraz trzy nagrody Akademii Sztuk i Nauk Interaktywnych. W 2004 roku wydany został dodatek do niej, zatytułowany ', który rozbudował wątki fabularne dotyczące konfliktu oraz wprowadził znacznie ulepszony tryb gry wieloosobowej. Specjalna wersja gry, wydana pod nazwą "Call of Duty: Classic", ukazała się na platformach Xbox 360 i PlayStation 3 w dystrybucji elektronicznej 2 grudnia 2009 roku. Sukces "Call of Duty" spowodował powstanie licznych kontynuacji, między innymi "Call of Duty 2" przeznaczonej na platformy siódmej generacji oraz ' osadzonej w czasach współczesnych. +Fabuła. +Bohaterowie. +W trakcie kampanii jednoosobowej gracz obejmuje kontrolę nad trzema postaciami z perspektywy pierwszej osoby. Pierwszą z nich jest amerykański szeregowy Joey Martin, który bierze udział w lądowaniu w Normandii oraz operacji odbicia brytyjskich oficerów z obozu jenieckiego. Kolejnym bohaterem gry jest brytyjski sierżant Jack Evans, wykonujący operacje na tyłach wroga w ramach oddziałów brytyjskich komandosów. Ostatnia grywalna postać to radziecki szeregowy Aleksiej Woronin biorący udział w bitwie o Stalingrad, operacji wiślańsko-odrzańskiej i bitwie o Berlin. +W fabule dużą rolę odgrywają bohaterowie niezależni. Kapitan Foley (głosu użycza mu Steve Blum) i sierżant Moody (głos – Gregg Berger) są dowódcami oddziału Martina w kampanii amerykańskiej. W szeregach drużyny Martina służy jego przyjaciel, szeregowy Elder (głos – Giovanni Ribisi). Kapitan Price (głos – Michael Gough) w kampanii brytyjskiej jest przełożonym Evansa, dowodzącym brawurowymi atakami na pozycje i instalacje niemieckie. Jego protegowanym jest sierżant Waters (głos – Jason Statham). W kampanii radzieckiej ważną rolę odgrywają: strzelec wyborowy Borodin, dzięki któremu Woroninowi udaje się przeżyć szturm z rzeki Wołgi; major Zubow, który dowodzi oddziałem piechoty Woronina oraz sierżant Jakow Pawłow (głos – Michael Bell), jedyna historyczna postać w grze. Przewodzi on obronie domu Pawłowa. +Streszczenie. +Kampania amerykańska. +Gra rozpoczyna się 9 sierpnia 1942 roku, kiedy szeregowy Joey Martin odbywa szkolenie w Camp Taccoa w amerykańskim stanie Georgia. +W nocy z 5 na 6 czerwca 1944 roku Martin ląduje na krańcu miejscowości Sainte-Mère-Église we Francji. Jego celem jest skontaktowanie się z sierżantem Heathem. Okazuje się jednak, że ten został zabity. Martin zabiera torbę sierżanta zawierającą przekaźnik radiowy. Po oczyszczeniu załogi niemieckiego bunkra montuje przekaźnik, co powoduje zrzut spadochroniarzy niedaleko miejscowości. Spadochroniarze amerykańscy atakują Sainte-Mère-Église. Wkraczając do ruin wioski, oddział amerykański pod dowództwem kapitana Foleya, w walkach z Niemcami niszczy trzy pojazdy przeciwlotnicze i zajmuje wieś. +Nazajutrz rozpoczyna się ostrzał Sainte-Mère-Église z niemieckich moździerzy, wspierający kontratak sił Wehrmachtu. Żołnierze amerykańscy odpierają kontrofensywę przy użyciu Panzerfaustów i karabinów maszynowych MG 42 zamontowanych w ruinach kościoła. Następnie przeszukują północną stronę wioski w poszukiwaniu wrogich moździerzy, ale poszukiwania zostają przerwane kolejnym kontratakiem. Martin niszczy dwa czołgi niemieckie, po czym Amerykanie przez wyłom w murze docierają do silnie strzeżonych stanowisk moździerzy. Po likwidacji załogi dział Martin wsiada wraz z sierżantem Moodym i szeregowym Elderem do zdobycznego francuskiego pojazdu w celu poinformowania sztabu polowego o zdobyciu wioski. Moody prowadzi samochód przez drogę N13 strzeżoną przez niemieckich żołnierzy, podczas gdy Martin i Elder prowadzą ostrzał zza pojazdu. Żołnierze amerykańscy wpadają jednak w pułapkę Niemców – samochód zostaje zniszczony. Elder kradnie jednak wrogi Kübelwagen i Amerykanie docierają do sztabu. +Martin bierze następnie udział w misji zniszczenia dział 88 mm niedaleko Brécourt Manor. Amerykanie dostają się do niemieckich okopów. Moody detonuje dwa pierwsze działa, zaś Martin kradnie niemieckie dokumenty. Podczas akcji zostaje rannych kilku żołnierzy amerykańskich, jednak kryjący się w okopach sanitariusz odmawia udzielenia im pomocy z obawy o własne życie. Sierżant Moody przenosi rannych, sam jednak zostaje trafiony i oddaje ładunki wybuchowe Martinowi, który detonuje dwa następne działa. Następnie Amerykanie atakują Brécourt, oczyszczając miejscowość z Niemców. +Amerykańscy spadochroniarze lądują 7 sierpnia 1944 roku u podnóży Alp Bawarskich w Niemczech z misją uratowania przetrzymywanych w niewoli dwóch brytyjskich oficerów: kapitana Price'a i majora Ingrama. Eliminując straż, Amerykanie docierają do pobliskiej wilii obsadzonej przez Niemców i przeszukując ją, natrafiają na piwnicę. Kapitan Foley detonuje bramę do niej prowadzącą, po czym Amerykanie uwalniają Price'a. Dowiadują się, że major Ingram został przeniesiony do obozu jenieckiego w Strasshofie i ewakuują się z willi. Amerykańscy spadochroniarze dojeżdżają do obozu, którego straż eliminuje Martin. Atakują silnie strzeżony obóz i odnajdują Ingrama, po czym uciekają z dulagu przed przybyciem nazistowskich posiłków. +Kampania brytyjska. +Kampanię rozpoczyna lądowanie pododdziału brytyjskiej piechoty szybowcowej nocą z 5 na 6 czerwca 1944 roku niedaleko mostu "Pegaz" na rzece Orne. Atak sierżanta Jacka Evansa na bunkier zaczyna szybką akcję zajęcia mostu. Jednak ofensywę powstrzymuje czołg niemiecki. Kapitan Price nakazuje sierżantowi oraz szeregowemu inżynierowi Millsowi naprawę i zajęcie działa 88 mm. Za jego pomocą Evans niszczy czołg. Nazajutrz Niemcy rozpoczynają kontratak na pozycje brytyjskie. Uderzenie piechoty od zachodniej strony mostu zostaje powstrzymane przez obsługującego MG 42 Evansa. Obsadza on później działo 88 mm, niszcząc nadjeżdżające czołgi niemieckie. Nadejście posiłków brytyjskich ostatecznie niweczy kontrataki nazistów. +2 września Evans, będący już w szeregach Special Air Service, bierze udział w akcji sabotażu tamy Eder w Niemczech. Eliminując straż obiektu, podkłada ładunki wybuchowe na działkach przeciwlotniczych i generatorach. Po wykonaniu zadania zostaje ewakuowany w ciężarówce kierowanej przez kapitana Price'a. Brytyjczycy odjeżdżają w stronę pobliskiego lotniska, a goniący ich pościg powstrzymuje sierżant Waters, który wysadza most nad rzeką. Następnie dokonują rajdu na lotnisko, gdzie Evans, korzystając z działka przeciwlotniczego, niszczy przelatujące bombowce Stuka. Brytyjscy komandosi kradną samolot transportowy i odlatują z Niemiec. +Kolejną misję Brytyjczycy wykonują 27 października, w przebraniu niemieckich marynarzy dokonując infiltracji pancernika Tirpitz. Price i Evans przedostają się do okrętowej zbrojowni, gdzie zostają wykryci przez strażników; wtedy zabijają ich. Evans podkłada ładunki wybuchowe na okrętowych zbiornikach oraz niszczy niemiecką radiostację, po czym ucieka ze statku, pozostawiając tam Price'a, który nie zdążył się ewakuować. +Kampania radziecka. +Kampania radziecka rozpoczyna się 18 października 1942 roku podczas bitwy stalingradzkiej, kiedy żołnierze Armii Czerwonej płyną w barkach desantowych przez rzekę Wołgę. Na brzeg udaje się przedostać rosyjskiemu szeregowemu Aleksiejowi Woroninowi, który podczas przydziału broni dostaje jedynie amunicję. Staje się potem świadkiem rzezi sowieckich żołnierzy, dokonanej przez niemieckie załogi MG 42 i bombowce Stuka. Podczas ataku na umocnione pozycje dociera do strzelca wyborowego, szeregowego Borodina. Na polecenie snajpera Woronin biegnie między osłonami, by Borodin mógł zdjąć załogi karabinów maszynowych. Docierają do ruin budynku, obserwując radziecki ostrzał artyleryjski, po czym atakują niemieckie pozycje. +Tego samego dnia żołnierze radzieccy atakują silnie strzeżony przez Niemców Plac Czerwony. Podczas szturmu Woronin spotyka sierżanta Makarowa, który nakazuje mu zajęcie lepszej pozycji na flance oddziałów niemieckich. Obaj dostają się przez wyłom w ścianie do budynku, z którego Woronin eliminuje nazistowskich oficerów przywołujących posiłki. Ostrzał artyleryjski niszczy siły wroga broniące placu. Woronin dociera do stacji kolejowej, gdzie spotyka majora Zubowa. Sowieci oczyszczają okolice budynku z Niemców. +9 listopada Woronin przemierza kanały stalingradzkie, eliminując znajdujące się tam siły nieprzyjaciela. Dołączając do pozostałych sił kierowanych przez Jakowa Pawłowa, zabija strzelców wyborowych znajdujących się w ruinach odległego budynku. Potem żołnierze sowieccy atakują umocnione pozycje Niemców w "domu Pawłowa". Przejąwszy budynek, Pawłow organizuje obronę przed kontratakiem niemieckim. Wroga ofensywa zostaje odparta. +17 stycznia 1945 roku Woronin wraz z innymi żołnierzami sowieckimi zajmuje niemiecką fabrykę czołgów w Warszawie. Przy znajdujących się niedaleko torach kolejowych Woronin dołącza do żołnierzy 4. Armii, toczących regularną bitwę z Niemcami. Ostatecznie okolica zostaje zajęta. +26 stycznia Woronin przejmuje dowództwo nad czołgiem T-34. Sowieckie czołgi nad rzeką Odrą niszczą niemieckie siły pancerne. Czołg Woronina wkracza do miasteczka nad rzeką, dokonując destrukcji wrogich działek przeciwlotniczych i dział 88 mm. +Kampania aliancka. +15 stycznia 1945 roku amerykańscy żołnierze podejmują natarcie na wrogie bunkry niedaleko Bastogne. Szeregowy Martin kradnie nazistowskie dokumenty. Odsiecz sił niemieckich z użyciem czołgów zostaje powstrzymana przy pomocy zdobycznego sprzętu przeciwpancernego. +2 lutego, w pobliżu Burgsteinfurt, sierżanci Evans i Waters wkraczają do silnie bronionej bazy rakiet V2. Wraz z innymi brytyjskimi żołnierzami oczyszczają pobliskie bunkry z sił nieprzyjaciela, po czym Evans detonuje rakiety. +30 kwietnia oddziały radzieckie rozpoczynają natarcie na Reichstag w Berlinie. Szeregowy Woronin niszczy wrogie jednostki przeciwpancerne, broniące dostępu do placu. Po ostrzale Reichstagu przez czołgi żołnierze szturmują budynek, a po jego zdobyciu zawieszają flagę radziecką na dachu. +Rozgrywka. +W "Call of Duty" gracz kieruje jednym z trzech żołnierzy piechoty, biorących udział w akcjach na tyłach wroga oraz wielkich bitwach II wojny światowej. W każdej misji do wykonania jest kilka celów, zaznaczonych na kompasie; gracz musi wykonać wszystkie zadania, by ukończyć etap w grze. Możliwe jest zapisanie gry w dowolnym momencie; dostępny jest także system autozapisu. +Kierowany przez gracza bohater może nosić dwa rodzaje broni takiej jak karabiny i pistolety maszynowe, a także pistolet i granaty. Możliwa jest zmiana posiadanej broni oraz zbieranie amunicji do niej. Oprócz prowadzenia ostrzału z biodra dostępne jest namierzanie wrogich żołnierzy z przyrządów celowniczych; kierowana postać porusza się wtedy wolniej, ale celniej strzela. Na celność strzałów wpływa także pozycja żołnierza oraz szybkość ruchu. Ponadto gdy komputerowy wróg zbliży się na małą odległość do postaci gracza, możliwe jest uderzenie go kolbą broni. W niektórych misjach gracz może przejąć stacjonarne karabiny maszynowe. W przypadku braku ochrony przed ogniem nieprzyjacielskim często może dojść do śmierci kierowanego żołnierza, więc w grze preferowane jest poszukiwanie osłon i ostrzał zza nich. Leczenie rannego bohatera następuje poprzez zbieranie apteczek. +"Call of Duty" cechuje linearna struktura misji – wydarzenia ważne dla fabuły powtarzają się niezależnie od okoliczności, aczkolwiek gracz ma w niektórych etapach możliwość wykonania zadania na różne sposoby. Podczas misji gracz współpracuje z innymi żołnierzami sterowanymi przez komputer. Komputerowi piechurzy posiadają elementy sztucznej inteligencji – kryją się za osłonami, ostrzeliwują przeciwników ogniem zaporowym, a w niektórych etapach przenoszą rannych towarzyszy w bezpieczniejsze miejsce. Oprócz działań wykonywanych w ramach oddziału piechoty, w "Call of Duty" istnieją poziomy, w których gracz ostrzeliwuje niemiecki pościg z pojazdu podczas rajdu oraz etapy, w których należy przejąć kontrolę nad czołgiem. +W "Call of Duty" symulowane są efekty bezpośredniego ogłuszenia wybuchem: gdy bohater gracza znajdzie się zbyt blisko wielkiej eksplozji, następuje jego upadek, rozmycie obrazu i symulowane ogłuszenie. +Gra nie ma wysokiego poziomu realizmu: obrażenia odnoszone przez żołnierza kierowanego przez gracza nie mają wpływu na jego zdolność bojową, ponadto niemożliwe jest samodzielne otwieranie drzwi i bieganie. Choć wydarzenia są wzorowane na autentycznych (na przykład bitwa o Sainte-Mère-Église), a rodzaje broni – wiernie odwzorowane, to na potrzeby gry misje zostały uproszczone. Przykładem może być obrona „domu Pawłowa”, która w grze trwa jeden dzień, choć w rzeczywistości walki o budynek trwały 58 dni. +Tryb gry jednoosobowej zawiera ciąg kampanii: amerykańskiej, brytyjskiej i radzieckiej, po których następuje złożona z trzech misji kampania aliancka. Oprócz niego dostępny jest tryb gry wieloosobowej, wzorowany na grach "Counter-Strike" i "Return to Castle Wolfenstein". Oprócz trybów Deathmatch i Team Deathmatch, w których celem jest eliminacja odpowiedniej liczby graczy, dostępne są trzy dodatkowe: Behind Enemy Lines, w którym niewielka drużyna aliantów wykonuje działania na tyłach wroga, Search and Destroy, w którym należy zniszczyć obiekt należący do strony przeciwnej oraz Retrieval, w którym strony konfliktu mają za zadanie wykraść dokumenty jednej z nich. +W "Call of Duty" udostępnione zostało ponad dwadzieścia rodzajów broni takiej jak amerykański karabin M1 Garand, pistolet maszynowy Thompson, granat MK 2, brytyjski pistolet maszynowy Sten, radziecki karabin Mosin, niemiecki pistolet maszynowy MP 40 i granatnik przeciwpancerny Panzerfaust. +Tworzenie. +8 kwietnia 2003 roku przedsiębiorstwo Activision ogłosiło rozpoczęcie prac nad grą "Call of Duty". Za tworzenie gry odpowiedzialne było studio Infinity Ward, składające się z 22 byłych pracowników studia 2015, Inc., które wyprodukowało grę "". Do prac nad grą zaangażowano między innymi aktorów Jasona Stathama i Giovanniego Ribisi oraz scenarzystę Michaela Schiffera, autora scenariuszy do filmów "Karmazynowy przypływ" i "Peacemaker". Schiffer twierdził w wywiadzie dla portalu IGN, że starał się wzbogacić dialogi w grze o czarny humor i uzwględnić odmienną specyfikę armii, by uczynić grę bardziej realistyczną. Ścieżkę dźwiękową do gry skomponował Michael Giacchino. +Na targach Electronic Entertainment Expo w 2003 roku pokazano zwiastun z gry, przedstawiający głównie przeprawę wojsk radzieckich przez Wołgę oraz walki spadochroniarzy amerykańskich o Sainte-Mère-Église. Zaprezentowany został etap przedstawiający atak żołnierzy radzieckich na lewobrzeżny Stalingrad, który posłużył jako pokaz możliwości sztucznej inteligencji w grze. +29 sierpnia 2003 roku opublikowana została wersja demonstracyjna "Call of Duty", zawierająca jedną misję z kampanii amerykańskiej. 29 października tego samego roku ukazała się w Stanach Zjednoczonych pełna wersja gry. Polska wersja językowa gry została wydana 5 grudnia przez Licomp Empik Multimedia. Gra znalazła się w powtórnym obiegu w reedycji "Game of The Year Edition", która ukazała się 6 kwietnia 2004 roku i zawiera poprawki do trybu gry wieloosobowej, a także wsparcie dla standardu Environmental Audio Extensions. Wersja na konsolę N-Gage została wydana 23 listopada 2004 roku. +Silnik gry. +"Call of Duty" korzysta ze zmodyfikowanego silnika gry "" (id Tech 3). Obsługuje on moduł T&L i potrafi wyświetlać scenerie złożone z najwyżej 200 tysięcy wielokątów. Silnik ponadto obsługuje cieniowanie pikseli i cieniowanie wierzchołkowe, pozwalając na wyświetlanie szczegółowych scen batalistycznych z udziałem dużej liczby komputerowych żołnierzy. Dzięki kompilatorowi oświetlenia cienie w grze są wygładzone. +W silniku gry "Call of Duty" zawarty jest system animacji szkieletowej Ares, który pozwala na płynną animację żołnierzy. Ponadto umożliwia on symulowanie obrażeń komputerowych przeciwników – strzał w ich różne części ciała daje różne efekty. Natomiast system Conduit odpowiada za elementy sztucznej inteligencji, takie jak wyszukiwanie ścieżek przez komputerowe postacie, chowanie się za osłonami oraz inne formy interakcji z otoczeniem. +Dodatki i edycje. +"Call of Duty: United Offensive". +14 września 2004 roku został wydany dodatek do "Call of Duty", zatytułowany "". Został on wyprodukowany przez Gray Matter Interactive. Zawierał on trzy nowe kampanie: brytyjską (operacja Husky), radziecką (bitwa na Łuku Kurskim) i amerykańską (ofensywa w Ardenach). Gra podstawowa i dodatek zostały dołączone do reedycji "Call of Duty Deluxe Edition", którą wydano 6 kwietnia 2005 roku. +"Call of Duty Classic". +"Call of Duty Classic" jest specjalną edycją gry "Call of Duty" na platformy Xbox 360 i PlayStation 3. Pierwotnie została udostępniona do pobrania posiadaczom edycji "Prestige" lub "Hardened" gry "". Jako samodzielny produkt miała premierę 2 grudnia 2009 roku; jest dostępna do płatnego pobrania przez Xbox Live Arcade lub PlayStation Network. +Odbiór gry. +Wersja na komputery osobiste. +Komputerowa wersja gry została pozytywnie przyjęta przez recenzentów, osiągając według agregatora GameRankings średnią wynoszącą około 92% maksymalnych ocen. Chwalono wysokiej jakości oprawę audiowizualną i optymalizację silnika gry, która pozwalała na uruchomienie gry na słabszych komputerach, a także sztuczną inteligencję i monumentalny charakter bitew. Greg Kasavin z portalu GameSpot twierdził, że choć kierowany przez gracza bohater nie może na przykład otworzyć drzwi, to gra dzięki swojej prostocie nie frustruje. Chwalił także kampanię radziecką, której pierwsza misja jest wzorowana na filmie "Wróg u bram". Dan Adams z portalu IGN pisał, że gra mimo krótkiego trwania kampanii jednoosobowej jest satysfakcjonująca. Chwalono też tryb gry wieloosobowej. Sal Accardo z portalu GameSpy twierdził, że pomimo znacznego uskryptowienia gry i jej liniowej struktury możliwe jest stosowanie własnych taktyk przejścia etapów. Recenzent z portalu GameZone za zaletę uznał zróżnicowanie misji. +"Call of Duty" natomiast znacząco skrytykował Kristan Reed z portalu Eurogamer. Wśród wad wymieniał to, że niektóre ważne dla fabuły postacie są nieśmiertelne, niską brutalność gry oraz brak innowacji wprowadzonych do gatunku. Dan Morris z pisma „PC Gamer US” skrytykował niską jakość kampanii brytyjskiej w porównaniu do amerykańskiej. +Wersja "Call of Duty" na komputery osobiste zdobyła trzy nagrody organizacji Akademii Sztuk i Nauk Interaktywnych w kategoriach Game of the Year (Gra Roku), Computer Game of the Year (Komputerowa gra roku) i Computer First Person Action Game of the Year (Komputerowa pierwszoosobowa gra akcji roku). Otrzymała również nagrodę Brytyjskiej Akademii Sztuk Filmowych i Telewizyjnych (BAFTA) w kategorii Gry Roku. Do 14 września 2004, według wydawcy, "Call of Duty" zdobyła około 50 rekomendacji recenzentów i 80 nagród dla Gry Roku. +"Call of Duty" odniosła również sukces komercyjny – do stycznia 2004 w Stanach Zjednoczonych znajdowała się na pierwszym miejscu na liście najczęściej sprzedawanych gier. Do 11 listopada 2009 gra została sprzedana w Polsce w liczbie około 85 tysięcy egzemplarzy. +Inne wersje. +Port "Call of Duty" na N-Gage został umiarkowanie przyjęty przez recenzentów. Steve Palley z portalu GameSpot wprawdzie pozytywnie ocenił wielki jak na konsolę przenośną obszar gry oraz liczne rodzaje broni, ale skrytykował słabą w stosunku do wersji komputerowej sztuczną inteligencję. Albert Art z portalu 1UP.com stwierdził, że sterowanie postacią na konsoli jest niewygodne. Thomas Flint z portalu GameSpy zaliczył do wad gry przeciętną oprawę graficzną oraz mało rozbudowany tryb gry wieloosobowej. +"Call of Duty Classic" na konsole Xbox 360 i PlayStation 3 również spotkała się z umiarkowanym przyjęciem. Tom Price z portalu TeamXbox chwalił grę za intensywność akcji, natomiast negatywnie ocenił przestarzałą oprawę graficzną. Hilary Goldstein z portalu IGN krytykował ścieżkę dźwiękową, która jego zdaniem była gorsza od występującej w wersji komputerowej. Dan Whitehead z portalu Eurogamer negatywnie ocenił źle rozmieszczone punkty kontrolne i wysoki poziom trudności konsolowej edycji. +Waldemar Baszanowski + +Waldemar Romuald Baszanowski (ur. 15 sierpnia 1935 w Grudziądzu, zm. 29 kwietnia 2011 w Warszawie) - polski sztangista. Czterokrotny olimpijczyk, dwukrotny mistrz olimpijski, pięciokrotny zwycięzca mistrzostw świata, sześciokrotny mistrz Europy, dwudziestoczterokrotny rekordzista świata. Zdobył 9 złotych medali mistrzostw Polski, 61 razy ustanawiał rekordy Polski. Honorowy prezes Polskiego Związku Podnoszenia Ciężarów. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Był synem Jana Baszanowskiego, byłego podoficera 64 Pułku Artylerii i Elżbiety Klary Pilcek. +W 1957 roku ukończył Państwowe Technikum Mechanizacji Rolnictwa w Kwidzynie, a w 1961 roku warszawską Akademię Wychowania Fizycznego. +Kariera sportowa. +W 1960 wziął udział w Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w Rzymie. Zajął na nich 5 miejsce. Kolejne lata to pasmo sukcesów. W 1961 został po raz pierwszy w karierze mistrzem świata oraz mistrzem Europy. Na kolejnych zawodach mistrzowskich (mistrzostwa świata i w Europy 1962 i 1963) zdobył cztery medale - wszystkie srebrne. +Występ na Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w Tokio w 1964 zaowocował zdobyciem złotego medalu. Uzyskał w trójboju 432,5 kg, bijąc dotychczasowy rekord olimpijski o 25 kg. +W 1965 ponownie wywalczył mistrzostwo świata oraz mistrzostwo Europy, a w 1966 wicemistrzostwo świata i Europy. +Igrzyska Olimpijskie w Meksyku w 1968 to kolejny wielki sukces sztangisty. Powtórzył sukces z Tokio, wygrywając z drugim zawodnikiem z przewagą aż 15 kg. +W lipcu 1969 prowadzony przez niego samochód wpadł pod Łowiczem w poślizg i stoczył się do rowu, w wyniku czego śmierć poniosła jego żona Anita, a on sam i 6 letni syn zostali ranni. Mimo wypadku sezon uwieńczył ponownym zdobyciem tytułu mistrza świata i Europy w Warszawie, ustanawiając przy okazji cztery rekordy świata, a rok 1970 i dwa lata później 1971 na mistrzowskich imprezach sklasyfikowany został dwa razy na drugim miejscu na świecie i dwukrotnie na pierwszym w Europie. +W 1972 po raz czwarty wziął udział w Igrzyskach Olimpijskich w Monachium. Zakończył zawody na czwartym miejscu. +Inne osiągnięcia sztangisty to: dziewięciokrotne mistrzostwo Polski, 24 rekordy świata oraz 61 rekordów Polski. Trzykrotny chorąży polskiej ekipy olimpijskiej (1964, 1968, 1972). +W 1969 czytelnicy „Przeglądu Sportowego” uznali Baszanowskiego najlepszym sportowcem Polski. +Po zakończeniu kariery został trenerem i wykładowcą Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. Potem wyjechał do Azji, gdzie został trenerem kadry Indonezji. Do kraju powrócił w 1988 roku. W 1994 został szefem wyszkolenia Polskiego Związku Podnoszenia Ciężarów, a w 1999 wybrano go na stanowisko prezydenta Europejskiej Federacji Podnoszenia Ciężarów. +W klasyfikacji fachowego pisma „World Weightlifting” został uznany za trzeciego sztangistę wszech czasów (za Turkiem Naimem Suleymanoglu oraz Węgrem Imre Földi) +Życie prywatne. +Waldemar Baszanowski był trzykrotnie żonaty, miał syna Marka (urodzony w 1963 roku). +Przez wiele lat był aktywnym krótkofalowcem, pracującym głównie telegrafią. Posługiwał się znakiem wywoławczym SP5TZB. +10 lipca 1969 roku miał wypadek samochodowy we wsi Zabostów Mały. Prowadzony przez niego samochód wpadł w poślizg i przewrócił się do rowu, w wyniku czego zginęła jego pierwsza żona, Anita, a on sam, wraz z synem, został ranny. Jego druga żona, Krystyna, zmarła na raka w latach 80. XX wieku. W 2007 roku, na swojej działce pod Warszawą, spadł z drzewa. W wyniku upadku uszkodził rdzeń kręgowy i złamał kręgosłup. Został niemal całkowicie sparaliżowany i mógł poruszać tylko głową oraz rękami, przez co nie mógł poruszać się na wózku inwalidzkim i większość czasu spędzał w pozycji leżącej na łóżku. Zmarł nad ranem, 29 kwietnia 2011 roku, w szpitalu w Warszawie. 9 maja został pochowany na cmentarzu na Służewie przy ul. Wałbrzyskiej. +Został odznaczony Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski „za wybitne zasługi dla ruchu olimpijskiego, za działalność na rzecz rozwoju i propagowania kultury fizycznej, za wybitne osiągnięcia sportowe” (1998). Pośmiertnie został odznaczony Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą tego orderu „za wybitne osiągnięcia w działalności na rzecz rozwoju i upowszechniania dyscypliny podnoszenia ciężarów, za zasługi dla ruchu olimpijskiego”, order został przekazany rodzinie Baszanowskiego podczas ceremonii pogrzebowej. Spoczywa na cmentarzu służewskim. +Michał Bobrzyński + +Michał Hieronim Bobrzyński (ur. 30 września 1849 w Krakowie, zm. 3 lipca 1935 w Łopuchówku koło Poznania) – polski historyk i konserwatywny polityk, namiestnik Galicji. +Biografia. +W 1859 rozpoczął naukę w Gimnazjum św. Anny w Krakowie, a po jego ukończeniu studiował na Wydziale Prawa Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Duży wpływ na jego poglądy mieli jego uniwersyteccy wykładowcy – konserwatyści krakowscy: Julian Dunajewski i Antoni Zygmunt Helcel. +Po studiach podjął pracę w Prokuratorii Skarbu nie zaniedbując dalszej pracy naukowej. W 1872 obronił doktorat, zaś rok później habilitację na podstawie pracy poświęconej przywilejowi nieszawskiemu Kazimierza Jagiellończyka. W 1874 przebywał na studiach w Berlinie, a następnie w Strasburgu, gdzie pracował pod kierunkiem wybitnego romanisty Rudolfa Sohma nad tematyką historii prawa niemieckiego. Od 1877 był profesorem historii prawa polskiego i niemieckiego na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. +Od habilitacji do lat 80. XIX w. trwała ożywiona działalność naukowa i dydaktyczna Michała Bobrzyńskiego. W tym czasie jego uczniami byli: Władysław Abraham, Bolesław Ulanowski, Stanisław Estreicher, Oswald Balzer, Alfred Halban. Był współtwórcą krakowskiej szkoły historycznej, od 1878 członkiem Akademii Umiejętności. Od 1880 roku był członkiem honorowym Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk.Od 1893 został honorowym profesorem historii prawa polskiego i niemieckiego na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim. Był także dyrektorem Archiwum Krajowego Aktów Grodzkich i Ziemskich w Krakowie. +Jego aktywna działalność polityczna w Galicji i monarchii austro-węgierskiej rozpoczęła się w 1885, kiedy został posłem do Sejmu Krajowego we Lwowie i Rady Państwa w Wiedniu. W latach 1891-1902 był wiceprezydentem Rady Szkolnej Krajowej. Położył duże zasługi dla rozwoju oświaty w Galicji. W latach 1908-1913 był namiestnikiem Galicji, w 1915 założył Ligę Państwowości Polskiej, 1917 ministrem dla Galicji i w tym czasie czynił starania na rzecz reformy sejmowej i ugody z Ukraińcami. +W odrodzonej Rzeczypospolitej uczestniczył m.in. w pracach konstytucyjnych. +Ostatnie lata życia spędził w Wielkopolsce, gdzie kupił położony obok Środy Wielkopolskiej majątek Garby. Jego żoną była wnuczka Hipolita Cegielskiego. Z tego małżeństwa narodził się Jan, działacz gospodarczy, polityk i publicysta konserwatywny. +Pochowany na Cmentarzu Rakowickim w Krakowie, w kwaterze 45. +Założyciel tzw. krakowskiej szkoły historycznej, przywódca stronnictwa Stańczyków. +Dolnopłat + +Dolnopłat - samolot jednopłatowy o płacie umocowanym u dołu kadłuba. +Zazwyczaj są to konstrukcje wolnonośne. Tylko w nielicznych przypadkach stosuje się zastrzały, głównie w samolotach o małej prędkości jak np. samoloty rolnicze. +Pierwszy dolnopłat został wyprodukowany w końcowym okresie I wojny światowej przez Cesarstwo Niemieckie, a był nim samolot Junkers D.I. +Układ ten był szeroko stosowany podczas II wojny światowej w samolotach myśliwskich (np. Spitfire, Me 109, A6M1 "Zero") ze względu na dogodne umiejscowienie podwozia. W samolotach przy- i ponaddźwiękowych rzadko spotykany, ze względu na duży opór interferencyjny, małą krytyczną liczbę Macha, spadek stateczności oraz skłonności do wpadania w drgania typu "buffeting". +Obecnie często spotykany w lotnictwie komercyjnym i lekkim. +Fort Meade + +Fort Meade (Fort George Gordon Meade) od 1957 roku siedziba Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego w USA. +Fort położony w pobliżu Laurel w stanie Maryland zajmuje rozległe, dobrze zabezpieczone tereny, otoczone parkanem. Fort George G Meade (tak brzmi jego oficjalna nazwa) leży w połowie drogi między Baltimore a Waszyngtonem. +W 1952 roku obrano go na siedzibę Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Sił Zbrojnych (Armed Forces Security Agency - AFSA. Podczas II wojny światowej większość jednostek kryptoanalitycznyh skoncentrowana została w Waszyngtonie. Po jej zakończeniu zorientowano się, że skuteczny atak na stolicę, może całkowicie zniszczyć potencjał Stanów Zjednoczonych w dziedzinie przechwytywania i łamania szyfrów. W związku z tym połączony "Komitet Szefów Sztabu" postanowił skonsolidować biura AFSA i przenieść je poza obszar sąsiadujący bezpośrednio z Waszyngtonem. W 1950 roku, na nową siedzibę AFSA wybrano Fort Knox w stanie Kentucky. Okazało się jednak że wielu spośród 5 tysięcy pracowników nie ma zamiaru przeprowadzić, a utrata nawet niewielkiej części, wysoko wykwalifikowanego personelu mogłaby sparaliżować pracę agencji. Więc już dwa lata później w roku 1952,rozpoczęto poszukiwania nowej siedziby, położonej nie dalej niż w promieniu 40 kilometrów Waszyngtonu. Wybór padł na "Biuro Laboratorium Dróg Publicznych" (Bureau of Public Roads Laboratory) w Langley, w stanie Wirginia oraz '"Fort George G. Meade". Langley stało się ostatecznie siedzibą Centralnej Agencji Wywiadowczej (CIA). Założony w 1917 roku fort nazwano imieniem bohatera spod Gettysburga, gen. płk. George’a Gordona Meade’a. W latach I wojny światowej przeszło w nim przeszkolenie ponad 100 tysięcy żołnierzy piechoty, którzy zostali następnie wysłani do Europy. +W 1928 roku nazwę fortu zmieniono na "Fort Leonard Wood", przeciwko czemu stanowczo zaprotestowali jednak obywatele Pensylwanii dotknięci despektem, jaki spotkał ich bohatera narodowego. Przedstawiciele Pensylwanii w Izbie Reprezentantów, wymogli na deputowanych uzupełnienie wystawy o finansowaniu armii regularnej, o zapis nakazujący przywrócenie fortowi dawnej nazwy. W czasie II wojny światowej fort Goerge G. Meade, ponownie służył jako ośrodek szkoleniowy, a w chwili kiedy zdecydowano się przenieść tam siedzibę Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Sił Zbrojnych (AFSA), pełnił funkcję kwatery 2 Armii. Aby utrzymać fakt relokacji AFSA w tajemnicy, jej przeprowadzkę do Fort Meade oraz związane z nią szeroko zakrojone prace budowlane opatrzono kryptonimem Projekt K. Wkrótce po podjęciu decyzji o relokacji, na mocy nieoficjalnej decyzji prezydenta, powołano do życia tajną Agencję Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego ("National Security Agency" - NSA). Jeszcze w 1995 roku oficjalne informacje o forcie Meade nie wspominają o działalności NSA, mówi się jedynie o tym, że placówka obsługuje 57 jednostek organizacyjnych US ARMY w tym Dowództwo Naczelne, 1 Armię USA i Agencję Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. +Zajmująca powierzchnię 260 hektarów siedziba NSA jest najbardziej widoczną siecią światowego kompleksu jej dóbr, w skład którego wchodzą stacje naziemne w Sugar Grove w zachodniej Wirginii, tereny w stanie Waszyngton, Anchorage na Alasce i za granicą od Argentyny po Australię i Chiny. +Agencja kieruje stamtąd globalną siecią dozoru źródeł emisji fal elektromagnetycznych, posługując się satelitami, samolotami i systemem stacji naziemnych. W Fort Meade znajduje się miejsce na parking samochodowy na ok. 18 tys. samochodów, NSA dysponuje własnym zjazdem na jedną z głównych autostrad, z którego korzystać mogą jedynie pracownicy agencji. "Fort Meade" jest głównym ośrodkiem studiów kryptologicznych NSA, komputerowe centrum badawcze uważane jest za największe skupisko matematyków na świecie. Zatrudniająca w Fort Meade i jego okolicach ok. 20 tysięcy osób Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego jest największym pracodawcą w stanie Maryland,w skali globalnej zatrudnia 100 tysięcy osób. Fort Meade jest drugim pod względem wielkości odbiorcą elektryczności w całym stanie Maryland; z corocznego budżetu NSA 21 milionów dolarów jest przekazywanych na jej opłacenie. +Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych - Regent College + +Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych - Regent College uczelnia wyższa w Elblągu prowadzące studia w zakresie filologii angielskiej (w trybie dziennym oraz zaocznym), po ukończeniu których absolwenci otrzymują tytuł licencjata filologii angielskiej Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. +Operator d'Alemberta + +formula_3 +formula_5 +formula_6 +Operator d'Alemberta występuje w równaniu falowym, w równaniu Kleina-Gordona. +Ośrodek Karta + +Ośrodek KARTA – polska fundacja (pn. Fundacja Ośrodka KARTA), niezależna organizacja pozarządowa o statusie organizacji pożytku publicznego, stawiająca sobie za cel dokumentowanie i upowszechnianie najnowszej historii Polski oraz Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. Fundacja stanowi organizacyjną kontynuację wydawanego od 1982, w drugim obiegu w stanie wojennym pisma „Karta”. Od lipca 2004 Fundacja ma status organizacji pożytku publicznego (OPP). Ośrodek KARTA prowadzi również działalność wydawniczą (m.in. „kwartalnik historyczny "Karta”). Ośrodek KARTA był inicjatorem utworzenia Domu Spotkań z Historią, rozpoczynając jego działalność 17 września 2005 roku od otwarcia wystawy „Oblicza totalitaryzmu” – pokazującej doświadczenie komunizmu i nazizmu – z perspektywy Polski i jej sąsiadów. +Historia KARTY. +czerwiec 2008 – w Zamku Królewskim w Warszawie odbył się finał XII edycji konkursu „Historia Bliska” pt. „Małą ojczyzna w pamięci i świadectwach”. Po finale – druga część – w Domu Spotkań z Historią, gdzie uruchomiono Klub „Historii Bliskiej” +wrzesień 2010 – otwarcie internetowego forum dyskusyjnego KARTY www.forum.karta.org.pl +http://www.newsweek.pl/artykuly/sekcje/spoleczenstwo/list-otwarty-50-historykow-do-wladz-i-spoleczenstwa,57160,1 +Pola działalności. +Kwartalnik historyczny „Karta”. +Kwartalnik historyczny „Karta” jest kontynuacją powstałego w 1982 w stanie wojennym, w warunkach konspiracji podziemnego pisma „Karta”, wydawany przez Fundację Ośrodka KARTA. Od 1991 roku (momentu legalizacji) wydano 68 numerów. +Konkurs „Historia Bliska”. +Konkurs „Historia Bliska” to program realizowany przez Fundację Ośrodka KARTA i do XI edycji Fundację Batorego. Od XII edycji konkurs wspierają Fundacja Kronenberga, a także Fundacja Wspomagania Wsi i Polsko-Amerykańska Fundacja Wolności. W ramach programu organizowane są konkursy historyczne dla uczniów gimnazjów i szkół średnich. XV edycję współorganizują Ośrodek KARTA, Muzeum II Wojny Światowej w Gdańsku, Urząd do Spraw Kombatantów i Osób Represjonowanych, Biuro Edukacji m.st. Warszawy wraz z Warszawskim Centrum Innowacji Edukacyjno-Społecznych i Szkoleń oraz Fundacja Batorego. +Konkurs wspierają: Dom Spotkań z Historią w Warszawie, międzynarodowa sieć EUSTORY, Fundacja „Pamięć-Odpowiedzialność-Przyszłość” (EVZ) z Niemiec. Partnerem tematu polsko-rosyjskiego jest Stowarzyszenie „Memoriał” (Moskwa). +Uczestnicy w swoich pracach konkursowych w poszczególnych latach prezentują historię swoich rodzin i miejscowości, przeprowadzają rozmowy ze świadkami i rekonstruują lokalne wydarzenia historyczne. +Pierwsza edycja konkursu została ogłoszona w 1996 roku. +Od 1999 roku konkurs „Historii Bliskiej” stał się elementem EUSTORY – tworzonej przez Fundację Körbera z Hamburga międzynarodowej sieci niezależnych historycznych konkursów dla młodzieży ze wszystkich części Europy (obecnie członkowie z 18 krajów), które łączy idea uczenia przez doświadczenie, realizowana w prowadzonej przez młodych ludzi samodzielnej pracy badawczej. +W ramach programu „Historia Bliska” Ośrodek K wraz z Fundacją Bankową im. Leopolda Kronenberga zrealizowały również projekt „Prywaciarze 1945–89”. +„Prywaciarze 1945–89” był to konkurs na świadectwa dokumentujące wszelkie formy przedsiębiorczości – indywidualnej lub grupowej – jakie w powojennej Polsce zaistniały wbrew ograniczeniom, narzuconym przez system. Te formy samodzielnego działania często stawały się w Polsce powojennej tożsame z nielegalnością. „Spekulanci”, „cinkciarze”, „badylarze”, „prywaciarze” – to epitety, które wyrażały negatywne nastawienie do ludzi szukających niezależności gospodarczej. Efektem projektu była wystawa pod tym samym tytułem, a także publikacja albumowa zawierająca najciekawsze prace konkursowe oraz ponad sto zdjęć obrazujących „peerelowską” prywatną inicjatywę. +„Historia Mówiona”. +Historia Mówiona to program Ośrodka KARTA powołany do życia w 2003 r. +Rozpoczął go udział Karty w międzynarodowym projekcie dokumentacyjnym Mauthausen Survivors Documentation Project (marzec 2002 – maj 2003), w którym nagrywaliśmy relacje biograficzne byłych polskich więźniów niemieckich obozów koncentracyjnych systemu Mauthausen – w sumie 164 nagrania audio i video. +Był to powrót do pierwszych doświadczeń Ośrodka z nagrywaniem świadków historii XX w. W latach 1987-1993, w ramach Archiwum Wschodniego, nagrano ok. 1200 relacji Polaków i obywateli polskich represjonowanych przez ZSRR – głównie deportowanych z Kresów Wschodnich oraz więźniów łagrów – a także żołnierzy powojennego podziemia antykomunistycznego. +Pogotowie Archiwalne. +Pogotowie Archiwalne to program Ośrodka KARTA, istniejący od 2007 roku, który zbiera wszelkie sygnały z całej Polski dotyczące zagrożonych zbiorów archiwalnych: prywatnych, środowiskowych, o nieznanym pochodzeniu – związanych z okresem do 1989 roku. +Ponieważ codziennie ulega zniszczeniu wiele cennych, nierozpoznanych świadectw historycznych, Ośrodek KARTA ogłasza gotowość do przyjęcia archiwaliów historii najnowszej (od początku XX wieku do roku 1989) od wszystkich tych, którzy już ich nie potrzebują lub chcą się nimi podzielić. Pogotowie Archiwalne ma być ratunkiem dla zagrożonych materiałów i zbiorów. Ośrodek KARTA gwarantuje odbiór i transport archiwum, jego uporządkowanie i skatalogowanie, a także zabezpieczenie i upowszechnianie wszystkim zainteresowanym w ogólnodostępnej czytelni. KARTA daje również statutową gwarancję wieczystego przechowywania zbiorów. +Program został nazwany Pogotowiem ze względu na sposób funkcjonowania – specjalnie zakupiony przez Ośrodek KARTA samochód (dofinansowany przez PZU SA i DaimlerChrysler) będzie dojeżdżał na wezwanie osób, które zgłosiły chęć przekazania swoich zbiorów. Mogą to być fotografie, listy, dokumenty urzędowe, kroniki, pamiętniki, spisane wspomnienia, wycinki prasowe, stare plakaty i ulotki, gazetki ścienne, a nawet zeszyty szkolne. +Pogotowie Archiwalne ma ocalić od zniszczenia stare dokumenty przy minimalnym zaangażowaniu darczyńców. Odebrane materiały zostaną opracowane i włączone do zasobu Archiwum Ośrodka KARTA. +W zależności od okresu, którego będą dotyczyć, staną się integralną częścią Archiwum Wschodniego, przechowującego materiały z lat 1901–1956, bądź Archiwum Opozycji, które zajmuje się dokumentacją powstałą po 1956 roku. Osoby, które nie chcą rozstawać się ze swoimi archiwami, a uważają, że znajdują się w posiadaniu rzeczy godnych uwagi, mogą podzielić się z Ośrodkiem KARTA swoimi zbiorami. W takim przypadku zdjęcia i dokumenty zostaną zdigitalizowane zwrócone właścicielom. +Ośrodek KARTA od 25 lat zajmuje się dokumentacją i upowszechnianiem historii najnowszej Polski i Europy Wschodniej. Od 2001 roku jest zaangażowany w działania na rzecz ratowania unikatowych zbiorów archiwalnych w ramach ruchu archiwów społecznych. +Partnerem akcji jest Dom Spotkań z Historią, który działa na bazie zasobów źródłowych Ośrodka KARTA i ściśle z nim współpracuje. +Inauguracja działalności Pogotowia Archiwalnego nastąpiła 20 czerwca 2007 roku, podczas konferencji prasowej w Domu Spotkań z Historią przy ul. Karowej 20. +Indeks Represjonowanych. +Indeks Represjonowanych to program badawczy Ośrodka KARTA (realizowany od 1988 r.), w ramach którego prowadzona jest całościowa imienna dokumentacja losów obywateli polskich prześladowanych w ZSRR w latach 1939-1959. Od 2002 r. program realizowany jest pod patronatem Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej, przy wsparciu Ministerstwa Nauki i Informatyzacji i Fundacji na rzecz Nauki Polskiej. +Zgromadzone w Ośrodku KARTA ankiety personalne represjonowanych oraz materiały źródłowe z archiwów polskich i postsowieckich zostały skatalogowane i skomputeryzowane. Tak powstała podstawowa baza danych „Indeksu Represjonowanych”, która liczy obecnie ponad 754 tysiące biogramów; w przypadku osób występujących w kilku źródłach dane się powtarzają, a więc całość dotyczy mniejszej liczby osób. Zgromadzenie takiego materiału pozwoliło na podjęcie całościowych badań weryfikacyjnych i statystycznych. Całkowicie zweryfikowane informacje o ponad 114 900 tysiącach osób opublikowane zostały w piętnastu tomach serii wydawniczej Indeks Represjonowanych. Biogramy w tych tomach zawierają podstawowe dane identyfikujące osobę i opisujące formę represji w ZSRR oraz informacje o źródłach archiwalnych, w których jest to (czasem znacznie szerzej) zapisane. +Wspólne Miejsce – Europa Wschodnia. +Badawczo-opiniotwórczy program Wspólne Miejsce – Europa Wschodnia, polegający na wspólnym dokumentowaniu przeszłości, zainicjowany został w 1992 r. podczas Tygodnia Sumienia w Polsce – spotkania w Warszawie kilku tysięcy Sybiraków z członkami Stowarzyszenia Memoriał z Rosji i Ukrainy. Ośrodek od tej pory koordynował działania partnerskie mające na celu udokumentowanie szczególnie zaniedbanych poznawczo obszarów wspólnej historii XX wieku. W pracach programu uczestniczą partnerzy m.in. z Rosji, Białorusi, Litwy, Ukrainy, Bułgarii, Czech i Słowacji. +Opozycja w PRL. +Program badawczo-dokumentacyjny, służący zapisaniu historii działań środowisk opozycyjnych w Polsce w latach 1945-1989. Podstawowym przedsięwzięciem wydawniczym programu jest obecnie „Opozycja w PRL”. Słownik biograficzny 1956-1989, którego trzy pierwsze tomy ukazały się w latach 2000-2006. +Portal internetowy „Uczyć się z historii”. +Portal "Uczyć się z historii" – uruchomiony we wrześniu 2005 serwis internetowy poświęcony historii Polski i jej sąsiadów w XX wieku, gromadzący i służący publikacji historycznych projektów edukacyjnych dotyczących doświadczenia totalitaryzmów: nazizmu i komunizmu, a szczególnie okupacji, ludobójstwa i wysiedleń oraz ich dziedzictwu i współczesnej debacie o nich oraz płynącej z tamtej przeszłości nauki dla przyszłości, kształtowania i przestrzegania praw człowieka. +Strona internetowa adresowana jest do nauczycieli oraz innych osób i instytucji pracujących z młodzieżą, ale także do samej młodzieży. Ma być polem wymiany poglądów, pogłębiania wiedzy, szukania inspiracji do pracy i nauki oraz sprawdzania nowych metod przekazywania i zdobywania wiedzy. Na stronie publikowane są również aktualności związane z edukacją historyczną, a dział „Ze świata” – prezentuje informacje o zagranicznych inicjatywach edukacyjnych oraz artykuły spoza Polski. +Znajduje się tu również strefa "Historii Bliskiej" – konkursu historycznego Ośrodka KARTA, wraz z jego archiwum oraz udostępnianiem wybranych prac konkursowych uczniów oraz strefa jednego z tematów rosyjskiego konkursu „Człowiek w historii. Rosja – 20 wiek” pt. „Rosja i Polska: swój czy obcy”. +Jest także dział „Polacy-Rosjanie – spotkania w XX i XXI wieku”. Można tam znaleźć informacje, artykuły oraz materiały poświęcone tylko Polsce i Rosji i kwestiom edukacji historyczno-obywatelskiej. Strona propaguje dobre praktyki edukacyjne dotyczące polsko-rosyjskiej historii, prezentując m.in. jeden z tematów rosyjskiego konkursu „Człowiek w historii. Rosja – 20 wiek” pt. „Rosja i Polska: swój czy obcy” oraz jeden z tematów polskiego konkursu „Historia Bliska” pt. „Polacy-Rosjanie – spotkania w XX wieku”. +Portal internetowy www.XXwiek.pl. +Portal internetowy "XX wiek" stanowi wirtualny zbiorowy dziennik historii Polski XX wieku. Interaktywna oś czasu, będąca głównym mechanizmem portalu, daje możliwość dotarcia do świadectw historii: fragmentów najbardziej znaczących relacji świadków (ich wspomnień, dzienników, listów) oraz dokumentów – w postaci nagrań audio i wideo, jak również materiału ikonograficznego (zdjęć, plakatówek, ulotek i obiektów muzealnych). Oś czasu została podzielona na dekady, lata, miesiące i dni, tak by użytkownik mógł z łatwością dotrzeć do interesujących go materiałów ilustrujących każdy dzień stulecia. Celem jest wypełnienie takimi treściami – dzień po dniu – całego wieku. +Drugim komponentem portalu jest Biblioteka Cyfrowa (działająca w ramach pierwszego w Polsce systemu do budowy bibliotek cyfrowych dLibra) – miejsce prezentacji unikatowych archiwaliów KARTY. W przyszłości znajdą się tutaj także najcenniejsze obiekty ze zdigitalizowanych zbiorów społecznie tworzonych archiwów lokalnych przy bibliotekach gminnych, których zakładanie KARTA wesprze w ramach Programu Rozwoju Bibliotek. +Bazy danych. +Indeks Represjonowanych 1939-59 +W bazie danych Internetowego Centrum „Indeksu Represjonowanych” znajdują się informacje ze zweryfikowanych i opublikowanych dwudziestu zestawień, a także nie opublikowanego jeszcze zestawienia biogramów osób deportowanych w 1940 roku z obwodu brzeskiego do obwodu archangielskiego (6713 biogramów). +Ponadto w Internetowym Centrum można znaleźć informacje o osobach z dwóch pierwotnych zestawień – tzw. Listy Ukraińskiej oraz Wykazu spraw prowadzonych przez organa NKWD Zachodniej Ukrainy i Białorusi, będącego wiarygodnym spisem osób, które aresztowano i przeciw którym wszczęto śledztwo podczas okupacji sowieckiej 1939–41. W sumie dane te opisują los około 215 tysięcy osób, czyli około 37% wszystkich represjonowanych. +Represjonowani 1981-89 +Tworzona w Ośrodku KARTA komputerowa baza danych o osobach represjonowanych przez władze PRL w latach 1981-1989 powstaje w oparciu o zbiory Archiwum Opozycji – ogólnopolskiego centrum dokumentacji działań polskiej opozycji antykomunistycznej. W bazie znajdą się docelowo biogramy wszystkich osób prześladowanych z przyczyn politycznych w latach 80. – internowanych, aresztowanych, więzionych, skazanych przez sądy i kolegia do spraw wykroczeń. Dotychczas skomputeryzowaliśmy informacje o blisko 10 tysiącach internowanych w stanie wojennym. Każdy biogram zawiera podstawowe dane personalne, daty represji oraz, niekiedy, miejsca internowania. Baza obecnie nie jest publicznie udostępniana ze względu na ochronę danych osobowych określoną przez GIODO. +Baza danych ofiar „konfliktu polsko-ukraińskiego” w latach 40. XX wieku +Baza danych zawiera 3970 biogramów ofiar „konfliktu polsko-ukraińskiego” z lat 1942–1944 z terenu czterech gmin: Chotiaczów, Korytnica, Mikulicze i Werba przedwojennego powiatu włodzimierskiego województwa wołyńskiego. Są to osoby narodowości polskiej (2974 biogramy) i ukraińskiej (964 biogramy) oraz osoby o innej lub nieustalonej narodowości (32 biogramy). +Podstawę zestawienia stanowią dane pochodzące m.in. z akt Oddziałowej Komisji Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu w Lublinie dotyczących zbrodni popełnionych na terenie województwa wołyńskiego w latach 1939–1945 przez nacjonalistów ukraińskich, zbiorów Archiwum Wschodniego Ośrodka KARTA, zbiorów Państwowego Archiwum Obwodu Wołyńskiego w Łucku, materiałów zgromadzonych przez ukraińskiego badacza Jarosława Caruka, a także wielu publikacji książkowych. +Katalog zbiorów archiwalnych +Biblioteka Cyfrowa Ośrodka KARTA. +Biblioteka Cyfrowa to miejsce prezentacji w formie zdigitalizowanej części zbiorów archiwalnych Ośrodka KARTA. Aktualnie wprowadzone zostały do bazy dLibra: kolekcja Jacka Kuronia (ponad 13 tys. skanów dokumentów) oraz kolekcja „"Solidarność"– Narodziny Ruchu” (obecnie 4 tys. skanów, ciągle uzupełniania o nowe dokumenty) oraz kolekcje środowiskowe, w tym czasopisma poszczególnych organizacji niezaleznych (w sumie ponad 22 tys. skanów). +Cyfrowe Archiwa Tradycji Lokalnej (CATL). +Ośrodek KARTA w ramach "Programu Rozwoju Bibliotek" (prowadzonego przez Fundację Rozwoju Społeczeństwa Informacyjnego) wdrożył sieć lokalnych archiwów społecznych tzw. "Cyfrowych Archiwów Tradycji Lokalnej" (CATL). Sieć jest tworzona przez wybrane biblioteki gminne, które są centrami aktywizującymi miejscowe społeczności do ocalania, pielęgnowania i upowszechniania historii i tradycji lokalnej. +Projekt CATL zakłada współpracę między wszystkimi bibliotekami – stworzenie sieci, której osią jest udostępniana przez Ośrodek KARTA infrastruktura: biblioteka cyfrowa dLibra oraz system stron domowych CATL. Współpraca bibliotek dokonuje się w oparciu o zamknięta forum internetowe i blog internetowy. Blog ten jest otwarty także dla wszystkich zainteresowanych. +W ramach projektu biblioteki gminne inicjują i koordynują gromadzenie w ich gminach materiałów dokumentujących historię lokalną i zamieszczanie ich na otrzymanych, specjalnie do tego celu stworzonych stronach domowych. Materiały też można przeszukiwać poprzez stronę www.archiwa.org. +Fundacja Rozwoju Społeczeństwa Informacyjnego realizuje Program Rozwoju Bibliotek, który ma ułatwić polskim bibliotekom publicznym dostęp do komputerów, Internetu i szkoleń. Program Rozwoju Bibliotek jest wspólnym przedsięwzięciem Fundacji Billa i Melindy Gates oraz Polsko-Amerykańskiej Fundacji Wolności. +Wydawnictwo. +Informacje o wszystkich publikacjach Ośrodka KARTA znaleźć można na stronie wydawnictwa Fundacji Ośrodka KARTA oraz w internetowej księgarni Fundacji Ośrodka KARTA. Tu wymienione zostaną jedynie wybrane publikacje w kolejności chronologicznej. +Triada Cushinga + +Triada Cushinga – zespół objawów klinicznych, towarzyszących zwiększonemu ciśnieniu śródczaszkowemu (obrzęk mózgu, wodogłowie, guz mózgu, krwotok), w którego skład wchodzą: wzrost ciśnienia tętniczego, przyspieszony oddech (tachypnoe), bradykardia. +Wrotki (sprzęt sportowy) + +Wrotki – sprzęt sportowy i rekreacyjny mający postać kółek mocowanych do butów w sposób trwały lub doczepianych. Pierwsze konstrukcje tego typu pojawiły się w II połowie XVIII w., początkowo we Francji, Anglii i Belgii. Przez wiele dziesięcioleci były zmieniane i doskonalone, tak by jak najbardziej rozszerzać ich możliwości techniczne. +Obecnie wyróżniamy dwa rodzaje wrotek +W zależności od przeznaczenia wrotki różnią się budową buta, jak i samej wrotki. W związku z tym dzielą się na wrotki +Dawniej do jazdy typowo rekreacyjnej wykorzystywane były wrotki czterokołowe przypinane do butów. +Na początku XX wieku wrotkarnie istniały w wielu miastach na terenie polski: Warszawie, Wrocławiu, Katowicach. +Wymowa beznosówkowa + +Wymowa beznosówkowa - gwarowa wymowa w języku polskim, w której samogłoskę nosową zastępuje odpowiadająca jej ustna. Na przykład "wziety" lub "przysiega". Wymowy beznosówkowej nie wyzbył się na przykład Jan Kochanowski, który używał jej często w swoich utworach. +Ronald Pelton + +Ronald (William) Pelton – były analityk wywiadu w Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego NSA, który sprzedał Związkowi Radzieckiemu wiele informacji. Miał do nich dostęp z racji 14-letniej pracy w amerykańskiej agencji wywiadu elektronicznego. +Pelton studiował na Indiana University, gdzie przez rok uczył się języka rosyjskiego. Następnie w 1960 wstąpił do Sił Powietrznych Stanów Zjednoczonych (US Air Force). Wysłano go do Pakistanu do Agencji Wywiadu Łączności (Signal Intelligence Agency), gdzie prowadził nasłuch radzieckiej łączności. Z Sił Powietrznych Pelton został zwolniony w 1964; następnie podjął pracę w telewizji jako monter. Po kilku miesiącach pracy w telewizji został przyjęty do Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego NSA. +Początki pracy w NSA były dla niego bardzo pomyślne; był autorem "Encyklopedii Podsłuchów", na którą składały się informacje z 60 radzieckich radionadajników, systematycznie przechwytywane i analizowane. W 1979 wycofał się z NSA, ponieważ tak się zadłużył, iż stawiało to pod znakiem zapytania jego wiarygodność. +Zatrzymanie i skazanie Ronalda Peltona jako szpiega było uwieńczeniem akcji, która zaczęła się od podsłuchania 14 stycznia 1980 przez Federalne Biuro Śledcze rozmowy telefonicznej przeprowadzonej z urzędnikiem ambasady Związku Radzieckiego w Waszyngtonie. Rozmówca powiedział radzieckiemu dyplomacie – "Zgłaszam się z ..., jestem związany z administracją Stanów Zjednoczonych". Dyplomata odpowiedział – "Ach... administracja Stanów Zjednoczonych, może złoży pan nam wizytę". Rozmówca zgodził się przyjść do ambasady następnego dnia wieczorem, po zapadnięciu zmroku. Jednakże 15 stycznia o godzinie 14:32 ponownie zatelefonował do ambasady radzieckiej i zapowiedział swoją wizytę w ciągu 2 minut. Tego FBI się nie spodziewało; mimo że ambasada była pod stałą obserwacją agentów FBI, nie rozpoznano wchodzącego gościa. Ówczesny Dyrektor Centrali Wywiadu (m.in. dyrektor CIA) i były dyrektor Federalnego Biura Śledczego FBI) William Webster powiedział: "Widzieliśmy jak wchodzi do środka, widzieliśmy jego plecy, ale nie zaobserwowaliśmy jak z stamtąd wychodzi." +Okazało się później, że gość, a był nim Ronald Pelton, zgolił rudą brodę i opuścił budynek tylnym wyjściem razem z pracownikami placówki. Grupa wsiadła do mikrobusu ambasady. Taśma z nagraniami rozmów trafiła na półki archiwum FBI i nic więcej się nie działo w tej sprawie, aż do sierpnia 1985, kiedy Witalij Jurczenko, oficer Komitetu Bezpieczeństwa Państwowego Związku Radzieckiego (KGB) zdezerterował do USA. Wrócił do Związku Radzieckiego po trzech miesiącach, niemniej wśród przekazanych przez niego informacji była także uwaga dotycząca spotkania z byłym pracownikiem NSA w Waszyngtonie w 1980. Ów mężczyzna był rudy. Sprawdzając listę ok. 500 nazwisk agenci kontrwywiadu FBI wyselekcjonowali kilku podejrzanych. Po indentyfikacji głosowej nagrania z 1980 ślad zaprowadził ich do Ronalda Peltona. W rozmowie z oficerem KGB Witalijem Jurczenką, Pelton popisał się fotograficzną pamięcią, odtwarzając z posiadanych informacji swego rodzaju wywiadowczą mozaikę. +Najważniejszą wiadomością, jaką przekazał, było stwierdzenie, iż Amerykanie wykorzystywali własne okręty podwodne do nagrywania rozmów spod morskiego kabla na Morzu Ochockim, pomiędzy Kamczatką a kontynentem. Operację podłączenia się do grubych kabli podwodnych oznaczono kryptonimem "Ivy Bells" (Operacja Ivy Bells). 15 października 1985 Federalne Biuro Śledcze otrzymało sądową zgodę na rozpoczęcie inwigilacji Peltona i założenie podsłuchu. Po czasie żadne metody nie przynosiły oczekiwanych rezultatów. Jedynym dowodem przeciwko Peltonowi była taśma z jego głosu oferującego szpiegowskie usługi z 1980. Prowadzący śledztwo agenci FBI postanowili skonfrontować Peltona z nagraniem. 24 listopada 1985 Pelton w trakcie rozmowy z agentami FBI Davidem Faulknerem i Dudleyem Hodgsonem, którzy odtworzyli mu nagrania podsłuchu, zaczął ostrożnie napominać o podjęciu roli podwójnego agenta. Pelton przyznał się, iż wyjeżdżał do Wiednia na kilkudniowe sesje, podczas których opracowywał odpowiedzi na temat Agencji Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. Stwierdził także, że wypłacono mu 35 tysięcy dolarów i zwrócono koszty jakie poniósł w czasie podróży – dalsze 5 tysięcy dolarów. +Zeznania posłużyły jako podstawa do aresztowania i skazania Ronalda Peltona w czerwcu 1986 roku na trzykrotną karę dożywotniego więzienia. +Faza (maszynoznawstwo) + + +Faza ("sfazowanie") - ukośne ścięcie krawędzi przedmiotu (np. muru, lustra, stołu, części maszyn), wykonywane ze względów estetycznych, praktycznych (ostra krawędź łatwiej ulega uszkodzeniom) lub dla uchronienia użytkowników przed skaleczeniem (zranieniem). +Tak zwane fazowanie może być wykonywane ręcznie lub na szlifierce, strugarce, tokarce, frezarce albo w inny sposób. Fazowania otworów najczęściej wykonuje się na tokarce lub obróbką plastyczną - przy pomocy specjalnego młotka do sfazowań. +Skrzydło samolotu + +Skrzydło samolotu (płat nośny) – zespół płatowca, jeden z głównych elementów konstrukcyjnych stałopłatów (samolotów, szybowców) służący do wytwarzania siły nośnej. W przekroju skrzydło ma kształt profilu lotniczego. Na krawędzi skrzydła umieszczone są lotki i często urządzenia do zwiększenia siły nośnej (sloty, klapy). Skrzydło tworzy często zespół konstrukcyjny w skład którego mogą wchodzić gondole silnikowe, podwozie, zbiorniki paliwa oraz pomieszczenia na ładunek użytkowy. +Skrzydła są połączone z kadłubem okuciami nośnymi. W dwupłatach skrzydła są połączone ze sobą stójkami i usztywnione taśmami lub cięgnami. +Skrzydła (podobnie, jak inne części płatowca) mogą być drewniane, metalowe, kompozytowe lub o konstrukcji mieszanej. +Arcykapłan (w Biblii i judaizmie) + + Arcykapłan (hebr. כהן גדול "Kohen ha-Gadol") – najwyższy dostojnik religijny w starożytnym Izraelu od wyjścia z Egiptu do 70 n.e. +Urząd arcykapłana. +Arcykapłan (gr. "archiereus"), zwany też najwyższym kapłanem (hebr. "kohen ha-gadol" – „kapłan wielki”), głównym kapłanem (hebr. "kohen ha-rosz" – „kapłan-głowa”) i namaszczonym kapłanem (hebr. "kohen ha- mashiach " – „kapłan-mesjasz”) łączył w sobie funkcje najwyższego pośrednika między Bogiem, a Izraelem, zwierzchnika Przybytku Mojżeszowego, a potem Świątyni Jerozolimskiej, przełożonego kapłanów i lewitów oraz naczelnika (patriarchy) rodu Aaronitów. Arcykapłan Boga Jahwe był osobą szczególnie uświęconą i posiadał pełnię władzy kapłańskiej. Tylko on i tylko raz do roku (w święto Jom Kipur) mógł wejść do Miejsca Najświętszego Świątyni, aby dokonać przed Bogiem przebłagania za grzechy całego narodu. Obowiązywały go szczególnie restrykcyjne przepisy dotyczące czystości rytualnej, np. mógł mieć za żonę tylko dziewicę. +Historyczny rozwój urzędu arcykapłana. +Według Biblii urząd arcykapłana został ustanowiony w drugim roku po wyjściu Izraelitów z niewoli egipskiej. Miało to miejsce podczas postoju Izraela pod górą Synaj, kiedy to Bóg podyktował Mojżeszowi Prawo i zawarł z Żydami wieczyste przymierze. Pierwszym arcykapłanem został Aaron, brat Mojżesza. Odtąd arcykapłan, podobnie jak każdy inny kapłan, musiał być potomkiem Aarona w linii męskiej. +W okresie wędrówki Izraelitów po pustyni oraz w czasach sędziów arcykapłan był jedynym, stałym przedstawicielem związku plemion izraelskich. W czasach królów stał się jednym z urzędników dworskich, mających wpływ na politykę państwową. Ok. 850 p.n.e. arcykapłan został ustanowiony w królestwie Judy sędzią apelacyjnym w sprawach religijnych. Po powrocie Żydów z niewoli babilońskiej (536 p.n.e.) pozycja arcykapłana tak się umocniła, że ok. 370 p.n.e. stał się on namiestnikiem prowincji Judy. Taka sytuacja utrzymała się również pod rządami Ptolemeuszy i Seleucydów. Po odzyskaniu niepodległości przez Judeę (142 p.n.e.) urząd arcykapłana został połączony z godnością etnarchy, a później króla Judei (od 104 p.n.e.). Arcykapłan zachował władzę polityczną do 37 p.n.e. kiedy królem Judei została osoba świecka – Herod Wielki. Od tego momentu, aż do zburzenia Świątyni Jerozolimskiej w 70 r. n.e. znaczenie arcykapłana systematycznie słabło. W latach ok.200 p.n.e.-70 n.e. arcykapłan pełnił funkcję przewodniczącego Wielkiego Sanhedrynu – najwyższej rady religijno-sądowniczej judaizmu. +Chrześcijanie wierzą, że jedynym arcykapłanem żydowsko-chrześcijańskim jest Jezus Chrystus, który przez złożenie doskonałej ofiary z samego siebie zniósł urząd arcykapłana żydowskiego. +W dzisiejszym Izraelu funkcję zwierzchnika religijnego pełni naczelny rabin Izraela, który może, lecz nie musi pochodzić z kapłańskiego rodu Aarona. +Następstwo i chronologia arcykapłanów. +Wykazy arcykapłanów izraelskich znajdują się w Biblii, a także w dziełach Józefa Flawiusza, historyka żydowskiego żyjącego w I w. n.e. Wykazy te są w niektórych partiach ze sobą niezgodne. Dotyczy to w szczególności okresu między poświęceniem Świątyni Jerozolimskiej (959 p.n.e.), a jej zburzeniem przez Babilończyków (586 p.n.e.). Stąd też liczba, imiona i następstwo arcykapłanów dla tej epoki są hipotetyczne. (Zamieszanie wzmaga dodatkowo mało wiarygodna lista arcykapłanów z późnego żydowskiego źródła "Seder 'Olam Zuṭa" - tutaj niewykorzystanego). Daty dotyczące długości urzędowania poszczególnych arcykapłanów są znane lepiej dopiero od II w. p.n.e. Józef Flawiusz obliczył, że od Aarona do zakończenia wojny żydowskiej sprawowało urząd arcykapłański 81 mężczyzn. +Marian Jachimowicz + +Marian Jachimowicz (ur. 12 maja 1906 w Schodnicy (pow. drohobycki) - zm. 12 listopada 1999 r. w Wałbrzychu) - polski poeta, tłumacz i malarz. +Jego debiutancki tom poetycki „Ścieżką konieczną” ukazał się dopiero w 1957 roku, chociaż ukończony był już dziesięć lat wcześniej. Wiersze z lat stalinowskich ukazały się tomie ""W czas chłodu"" (1960), oraz w wyborze pt. ""Jaskółki jutra"'" (1996). +Izba muzealna pn. Pokój Pamięci Poety Mariana Jachimowicza znajduje się w Powiatowej i Miejskiej Bibliotece Publicznej ""Bibliotece pod Atlantami"" w Wałbrzychu. +Twórczość. +A także wspomnienia z kilkuletniego pobytu w Budapeszcie - ""Mój Paryż nad Dunajem"" (1991) oraz tłumaczenie - Sandor Petöfi: ""Na wielkiej drodze"" (1993) +Nowy Tomyśl + +Nowy Tomyśl (niem. "Neutomischel") – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, nad Szarką (dopływ Obry), w powiecie nowotomyskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Nowy Tomyśl. W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. poznańskiego. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010, miasto liczyło 14 865 mieszkańców. +Położenie geograficzne. +Nowy Tomyśl leży w zachodniej części województwa wielkopolskiego, przy osi Warszawa-Poznań-Berlin. Przez gminę przebiega autostrada A2 oraz międzynarodowa linia kolejowa E 20. +Przez miejscowość przepływa Szarka, niewielka rzeka dorzecza Odry, dopływ Obry. +Historia. +Początki Nowego Tomyśla sięgają XIII w., choć pierwsze ślady osadnictwa na tych obszarach pochodzą sprzed 11 tys. lat (m.in. pozostałości grobów skrzynkowych koło Wytomyśla i smolarni pod Jastrzębskiem Starym). Od średniowiecza znana była wieś Tomyśl, położona pośród wielkich kompleksów leśnych. W XVIII w. okolice Tomyśla zaczęli zagospodarowywać osadnicy olęderscy, sprowadzani przez właścicieli tych ziem, rodzinę Szołdrskich. Wśród nowych mieszkańców dominowali protestanccy Niemcy z Brandenburgii, Śląska i Pomorza, toteż wkrótce koniecznością stała się budowa zboru ewangelickiego. Świątynia powstała w osadzie "nova colonia Glinki" w 1780 r., a kilka lat później Feliks Szołdrski postanowił lokować koło kościoła nowe miasto. Ostatecznie osadzie nadano prawa miejskie i nazwę Nowy Tomyśl 8 kwietnia 1786 r. przywilejem wydanym przez króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. Wieś dla odróżnienia nazwano Starym Tomyślem. Pod koniec XIX wieku było to jedyne miasto w Wielkopolsce bez kościoła katolickiego, a wszyscy katolicy należeli do parafii w odległym o 8 km Wytomyślu. W 1905 r. Nowy Tomyśl liczył 1985 mieszkańców, z czego 86,1% stanowili Niemcy, 8,2% – Polacy, zaś Żydzi – 5,7%. Ludność niemiecka dominowała w mieście aż do lat 20. XX w. +Już kilka lat po lokacji miasto włączono do zaboru pruskiego. Podczas wojen napoleońskich Nowy Tomyśl znalazł się w granicach Księstwa Warszawskiego, żeby w 1815 roku znów powrócić we władanie państwa pruskiego. Miastem powiatowym stał się w 1848 r., kiedy Buk utracił ten przywilej w ramach kary za udział w Wiośnie Ludów. +Powstańcy wielkopolscy opanowali Nowy Tomyśl 3 stycznia 1919. Powrót miasta do Polski usankcjonował traktat wersalski z 28 czerwca 1919 r. Podczas II wojny światowej obszar ten był terenem silnej akcji germanizacyjnej, a mieszkańców polskiego pochodzenia wywożono na roboty do Niemiec. Walki o miasto zakończyły się 27 stycznia 1945 roku. +Komunikacja. +W 2011 przy ul. Poznańskiej otworzono oficjalnie sanitarne lądowisko. +Gospodarka. +W Nowym Tomyślu i okolicach działa kilka znaczących firm. Jedną z najbardziej znanych jest Fabryka Narzędzi Chirurgicznych „Chifa”, dziś znana pod nazwą „Aesculap Chifa” sp. z o.o., należąca do koncernu B.Braun Melsungen AG. Inne duże firmy to „Top-Tomyśl” (zakłady mleczarskie), położony w pobliskiej Paproci „Bartex” (największy polski importer win) czy produkująca złącza przemysłowe fabryka „Phoenix Contact”. +Rolnictwo. +Historia uprawy chmielu. +Pierwsze plantacje chmielu w okolicach Nowego Tomyśla pojawiły się pod koniec drugiego dziesięciolecia XIX w., a do jego intensywnego rozwoju w drugiej połowie XIX w. przyczynił się niemiecki kupiec pochodzenia żydowskiego – Józef Jakub Flatau. +Flatau sprowadzał w rejon Nowego Tomyśla szlachetne odmiany chmielu, a po wielu żmudnych doświadczeniach wyhodował także swoje własne odmiany. Chmiel z Nowego Tomyśla z roku na rok zdobywał coraz więcej nagród na wystawach krajowych i zagranicznych, a jego cena nieustannie rosła. Hermann Tietz w swoim szkicu biograficznym Józefa Jakuba Flataua pisze, że cena nowotomyskiego chmielu wzrosła z 9 talarów za cetnar w 1837 roku do 160 talarów w 1861 roku, co przyczyniło się do wzrostu zamożności wielu mieszkańców Nowego Tomyśla i okolic. Nowotomyski chmiel był już wykorzystywany jako surowiec nie tylko w lokalnych browarach (m.in. do produkcji słynnego piwa grodziskiego), ale także eksportowany do innych regionów Prus, a nawet za granicę (zwłaszcza odmiana lokalna). Było to możliwe z jednej strony dzięki wzrostowi wiedzy agrotechnicznej wśród plantatorów, a z drugiej strony dzięki działaniom marketingowym Flataua. W 1858 r. Józef Flatau został uhonorowany przez władze Nowego Tomyśla honorowym obywatelstwem (Hermann Tietz podaje, że miało to miejsce w 1864 roku). +Z wydawnictwa nowotomyskiego magistratu z 1873 roku "Wiadomości o chmielu w Nowym Tomyślu" wynika, że obszar plantacji chmielu w okolicy Nowego Tomyśla był największy w całych Prusach i stanowiły one jedyne źródło utrzymania dla ok. 10 tysięcy ludzi. W 1860 roku dochody z uprawy chmielu w tym regionie wyniosły 2,2 mln talarów. +Od połowy XIX w. odbywały się w Nowym Tomyślu jarmarki chmielarskie, na które przyjeżdżali także plantatorzy z Czech i Śląska. Dzięki uprawom chmielu miasto ożywiło się gospodarczo, a liczba jego mieszkańców systematycznie rosła. +Obecnie plantacje chmielu w okolicach Nowego Tomyśla obejmują obszar ok. 90 hektarów. +W całym kraju Nowy Tomyśl słynie też jako miasto wikliniarzy. Tradycje te sięgają XIX w., kiedy w te okolice sprowadzono z Ameryki Północnej specjalne odmiany wikliny. W mieście co roku w ostatni weekend wakacji organizowany jest Jarmark Chmielo-Wikliniarski. W 1985 r. założono tutaj Muzeum Wikliniarstwa i Chmielarstwa (oddział Muzeum Narodowego Rolnictwa i Przemysłu Rolno-Spożywczego w Szreniawie). +Turystyka. +KTR Szarka – klub turystyki rowerowej powstały w 2001 r. Skupia młodzież z terenu powiatu nowotomyskiego. Organizator trzydniowego Rajdu Szlakiem Chmielu i Wikliny. +Współpraca międzynarodowa. +Miasta partnerskie +Władysław Tatarkiewicz + +Władysław Tatarkiewicz (ur. 3 kwietnia 1886 w Warszawie, zm. 4 kwietnia 1980 tamże) – filozof i historyk filozofii, estetyk i etyk, historyk sztuki, członek Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności i Polskiej Akademii Nauk. +Biografia. +Ukończył gimnazjum filologiczne w Warszawie. Studiował na różnych kierunkach (prawo, psychologię, filozofię, antropologię, zoologię, historię sztuki) i na różnych uczelniach – PW, UW, tajne komplety tzw. Uniwersytetu Latającego, w Berlinie, Marburgu (u Hermana Cohena i Paula Natorpa, gdzie przejął się neokantyzmem, który jednak później porzucił), Paryżu, a także na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim, gdzie w 1919 roku zrobił habilitację. +Prowadził wykłady z historii filozofii, etyki, estetyki na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, w latach 1919–1921 wykłady z historii filozofii na Uniwersytecie Stefana Batorego w Wilnie, później wykłady z historii sztuki i estetyki w seminarium historii sztuki Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego. +Od 1924 był redaktorem naczelnym Przeglądu Filozoficznego, w latach 1960–1963 redaktorem naczelnym pisma „Estetyka”. Jeszcze w 1974 wykładał estetykę w Lozannie. +Opracował semantyczną analizę "szczęścia". Przeprowadził rozważania psychologiczne na temat przeżyć człowieka szczęśliwego i nieszczęśliwego. Dowodził, że nie istnieją wartości poza konkretnymi dobrami, choć mają charakter obiektywny. +Był naukowcem wszechstronnym. W swych pracach zawarł zagadnienia z teorii muzyki, poezji i plastyki. Zajmował się również estetyką i historią sztuki. Omówił szczegółowo genezę, rozwój i znaczenie podstawowych pojęć estetyki: sztuki, piękna, formy, twórczości, odtwórczości i przeżycia estetycznego. +Zapisał się w historii nauki polskiej głównie jako etyk i aksjolog, autor cenionych i tłumaczonych na wiele języków dzieł, m.in. 3-tomowej "Historii filozofii", monumentalnej i nowatorskiej "Historii estetyki" oraz z przystępnej filozofii moralności. +Był członkiem lwowsko-warszawskiej szkoły filozoficznej, stworzonej przez Kazimierza Twardowskiego, która przyniosła odrodzonej z niewoli Polsce wielu wybitnych naukowców: filozofów, logików, psychologów, socjologów, a także organizatorów życia akademickiego. +Sygnatariusz Listu 34 oraz listu do The Times, zawierającego stwierdzenie, że w Polsce nie było represji i dyskredytującego Radio Wolna Europa. +W 1933 roku został filistrem honoris causa korporacji akademickiej Aquilonia. +W 1938 odznaczony Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +W 1966 roku otrzymał nagrodę państwową I. stopnia. +Architektura romańska w Anglii + +Tradycyjnie, w Anglii przyjmowany jest nieco inny podział okresu romańskiego na style architektoniczne niż w pozostałych państwach Europy. Czas do bitwy pod Hastings 1066, związany z panowaniem anglo-saskim, zaliczany jest do okresu przedromańskiego, w którym duży wpływ na budownictwo wywierała architektura karolińska propagowana przez francuskich mistrzów. Lata panowania Normanów przypadają na okres rozkwitu sztuki romańskiej na kontynencie. Po 1189 (podawane są także daty: 1170 i 1180) rozpoczyna się nowy etap, nazywany też okresem staroangielskim ("Early English"), odpowiada końcowej fazie sztuki romańskiej i początkom gotyku. +Styl normandzki, chociaż występował także na Sycylii i w południowych Włoszech, najpełniej rozwinął się w Anglii. Cechują go monumentalne budowle o bogatej dekoracji geometrycznej umieszczanej na słupach, filarach, gzymsach i łękach. Najczęściej spotykane są trójnawowe bazyliki o wydłużonym korpusie i z fasadami flankowanymi dwiema wieżami. Nawy przecina wyraźnie zaznaczony transept (zdarza się stosowanie drugiej, węższej niż transept, nawy poprzecznej). Na przedłużeniu nawy głównej budowano podłużne, prostokątne prezbiterium (kontynuacja czasów anglosaskich). Nad skrzyżowaniem nawy głównej z transeptem stawiano wysokie wieże na planie wieloboku. Nawy boczne od głównej oddzielają rzędy arkad wspartych na masywnych filarach o ozdobnie pofałdowanej dolnej części głowic. Często filary stawiane są na przemian z kolumnami. Powyżej naw bocznych budowano otwarte do wnętrza empory. W ścianach nawy głównej, powyżej zadaszenia naw bocznych, umieszczano rzędy okien. W początkowym okresie nawy przekrywano płaskimi stropami lub więźbami, później pojawiły się sklepienia krzyżowe nad nawami bocznymi. +Styl nowoangielski, często zaliczany do początkowego okresu gotyku, cechuje się zachowaniem romańskiej formy i gotyckiego, ostrego łuku w arkadach oraz stosowaniem sklepień krzyżowo-żebrowych (połowa XIII wieku). +Om mani padme hum (muzyka) + +Om mani padme hum to oratorium na głosy solowe, chór i orkiestrę skomponowane przez koreańskiego kompozytora Isang Yun w 1964 roku. +Sama muzyka, oparta na tradycjach muzyki Wschodu, zrodziła się z doświadczeń medytacyjnych kompozytora. +William Robertson (1721-1793) + +William Robertson (ur. 1721 w Midlothian, zm. 1793), szkocki duchowny i historyk. +Studiował na uniwersytecie w Edynburgu. Rozgłos przyniosła mu opublikowana w 1759 praca pt. "Historia Szkocji za panowania królowej Marii i króla Jakuba VI", do końca XVIII wieku miała 19 wznowień. Dzięki tej pracy zwrócił na siebie uwagę dworu. W 1761 został królewskim kapelanem, a w 1764 oficjalnym historiografem królewskim. Od 1762 był rektorem Uniwersytetu w Edynburgu. Robertson był jednym z pierwszych, którzy traktowali historię jako naukę empiryczną. +Notozaury + +Notozaury (Nothosauria) – rząd wymarłych gadów morskich z nadrzędu zauropterygów (Sauropterygia). Ich przedstawiciele żyli w okresie triasowym. +Pierwotnie do tej grupy zaliczano liczne prymitywne rodzaje wchodzące w skład nadrzędu Sauropterygia (z wyjątkiem plakodontów), jednocześnie zaś uznawano tak definiowane notozaury za przodków plezjozaurów. Jednak tak definiowane notozaury, nie obejmując plezjozaurów, były grupą parafiletyczną, obejmującą przy tym różne dość daleko spokrewnione gatunki. W ostatnich latach podjęto próbę przedefiniowana notozaurów tak, aby stały się grupą monofiletyczną. W tym celu wyłączono z tej grupy rodzaje należące do linii ewolucyjnej prowadzącej do plezjozaurów, m.in. "Pistosaurus", "Cymatosaurus" czy "Corosaurus"; te rodzaje wraz z plezjozaurami tworzą szerszy klad Pistosauroidea, który z kolei wraz z monofiletycznymi notozaurami tworzy jeszcze szerszy klad Eusauropterygia. Przedefiniowane, monofiletyczne notozaury, nie będące przodkami plezjozaurów, obejmują m.in. rodzaje "Nothosaurus", "Simosaurus", "Germanosaurus", "Lariosaurus" i "Ceresiosaurus". Nie jest jasna pozycja systematyczna grupy Pachypleurosauria; dawniej zaliczano je do notozaurów, nowsze analizy kladystyczne sugerują jednak, że są od nich jeszcze prymitywniejsze, i należy je wyłączyć nie tylko z notozaurów, ale i z kladu Eusauropterygia (razem z którym pachypleurozaury wchodziłyby w skład jeszcze szerszego kladu Eosauropterygia). +Notozaury miały opływowy kształt ciała, kończyny zakończone pięcioma palcami, spiętymi błonami pławnymi. Kończyny przednie były krótsze niż tylne. Notozaury, podobnie jak dzisiejsze foki, żyły zarówno na lądzie jak i w wodzie. Mierzyły przeciętnie około 3 m długości. Ogon długi, cienki i spiczasty, z płetwą na jego górnej części, służył do pływania. Szczęki długie, cienkie i pełne spiczastych zębów przystosowanych do łapania ryb. Kopalne szczątki tych gadów znane są z osadów triasowych Europy, południowo-wschodniej Azji i Ameryki Północnej. +Złoty Medal Królewskiego Towarzystwa Astronomicznego + +Złoty Medal jest najwyższym odznaczeniem nadawanym przez Królewskie Towarzystwo Astronomiczne. +Początkowo medale nadawano w zależności od dokonywanych odkryć, nawet kilka w ciągu roku, ale w 1833 roku zdecydowano przyznawać każdego roku tylko jedno odznaczenie. Stało się to przyczyną konfliktu, gdy w 1846 roku położenie dotychczas nieznanej planety – Neptuna – wyznaczyło niezależnie dwóch uczonych, Anglik John Couch Adams oraz Francuz Urbain Le Verrier. Obydwa państwa rościły sobie prawa do odkrycia i wobec braku porozumienia w 1847 r. medalu nie przyznano. +Spór zażegnano, nadając rok później specjalne medale "okolicznościowe" 12 różnym osobom, w tym Adamsowi i Le Verrierowi, po czym powrócono do jednego odznaczenia rocznie. Odkrywcy Neptuna otrzymali własne złote medale dopiero w latach 1866 i 1868. +Do 1963 roku medale nadawano w zwykłym trybie, z wyjątkiem lat 1867 i 1886 kiedy przyznano dwa odznaczenia oraz kilku lat gdy nie przyznano ich wcale. Od 1964 r. Królewskie Towarzystwo Astronomiczne nadaje corocznie dwa złote medale, jeden za osiągnięcia z dziedziny astronomii, drugi – z geofizyki. +Srebrne medale. +Dwukrotnie przyznano również srebrne medale, jednak szybko zrezygnowano z tej praktyki. +Kilt + +Kilt – narodowy strój szkocki. Jest to spódnica zrobiona z tartanu, czyli materiału w kraciasty wzór. Kilt szyje się z pasa materiału o bardzo dużej szerokości, plisując go i składając na fason spódnicy kopertowej. Każdy ze szkockich klanów posiada własny wzór tartanu. Kilt jest strojem odświętnym, zakładanym na święta i uroczystości rodzinne. U skautów kilt jest częścią umundurowania. +Kilt jest tradycyjnie strojem męskim, choć dostępne są kobiece stroje wykonane z tartanu, oparte na tym wzorze. Mężczyźni mogą dodatkowo do kiltu nosić sporran − skórzaną lub futrzaną torebkę przyczepioną do paska na biodrach. Na kilcie często można spotkać broszę z symbolem klanu. Jest ona wpinana w dolny prawy róg. +Pierwsze wzmianki o kilcie pochodzą z XVI stulecia. Według opisu, ówczesny szkocki strój składał się z długiej lnianej koszuli, krótkiej kurteczki oraz wełnianego pledu. W zimie Szkoci zakładali wełniane obcisłe spodnie, a w lecie wełniane skarpetki pod kolana. Za obuwie służyły im lekkie kierpce z surowej skóry, chociaż zazwyczaj chodzili boso. +Ta koszula zanikła dopiero pod koniec XVI w. Na jej miejsce pojawił się wielki pled, mający prawie 2 metry szerokości i od 4 do 6 metrów długości. Żeby go założyć, Szkot musiał położyć pled na ziemi, specjalnie go zwinąć i zmarszczyć, a następnie, kładąc się na nim, owijał go sobie wokół ciała, przypinając skórzanym pasem. Na to wkładał kurtkę, a koniec pledu zarzucał na lewe ramię i spinał broszą. Tę postać kiltu określa się mianem "the great kilt" – wielki kilt. Na początku XVIII w. pojawiła się forma "philabeg" ("small kilt" − mały kilt), będąca dolną częścią wielkiego kiltu. +Standardy. +Standardy ogólne. +Najbliższym protoplaście – wielkiemu kiltowi – pozostaje standard ośmiojardowy. Są to najdroższe i najlepsze kilty. Zgodnie z nazwą, do ich uszycia potrzeba +ośmiu jardów materiału (ok. 7,5 m), choć czasem set składanej kraty wymaga więcej. Pojedyncza plisa ma ok. 10 cm głębokości. +Ośmiojardówki zakładane są na większe uroczystości, bale, śluby czy wesela. W wersji wieczorowej standardem jest założenie do takiego kiltu marynarki +typu "Prince Charlie" i sporranu typu "dress". Wymaga się eleganckich butów, najlepiej oryginalnego obuwia kiltowego, z półodkrytą cholewą i długimi sznurówkami (tzw. "ghilie brogues"). Noszenie pasa w takim stroju jest niewskazane. Wymagane są także tradycyjne, długie skarpety kiltowe ("kilt-hose"). +Kolejnym standardem kiltu jest "casual" – uboższy niż wersja ośmiojardowa. Występuje w kilku wersjach – najczęściej spotykane są wykonane z tartanu o długości 3 i 5 jardów. Są to kilty do użytku codziennego lub na mniej formalne imprezy. Ten typ noszą także dość często formacje militarne. Bywa też używany do tańca. Najczęściej nosi się do niego marynarki typu "Argyll" (Argyle) i prosty sporran skórzany lub typu "semi-dress". Gruby pas jest jak najbardziej wskazany. Dozwolone są dowolne buty, w zależności od okazji. Przy spacerach zalecane są zwykłe podkolanówki lub grube, spacerowe "kilt-hose". +Chłonność naturalna + +Chłonność naturalna to maksymalna liczba turystów, którzy mogą znaleźć się na danym terenie bez powodowania zmian degradacyjnych w jego środowisku. Wyrażana jest liczbą osób (turystów), które mogą przebywać przez tydzień na powierzchni 1 ha, bez szkody dla środowiska. +Ichtiozaury + +Ichtiozaury (Ichthyosauria, od gr. "ichtio" – ryba + "sauros" – jaszczur) – rząd gadów morskich, które pojawiły się we wczesnym triasie, a największe zróżnicowanie osiągnęły od środkowego triasu do środkowej jury. We wczesnej kredzie zaczęły ustępować miejsca plezjozaurom, a od cenomanu także i mozazaurom, by ostatecznie wymrzeć w późnej kredzie, w turonie, ok. 25 mln lat przed wielkim wymieraniem kredowym. Były jednymi z najpowszechniejszych wśród wyższych kręgowców morskich. W erze mezozoicznej wiele z nich zajmowało niszę ekologiczną, którą obecnie zajmują delfiny. Miały podobny do nich pociskowaty kształt, przednie kończyny przekształcone w płetwy i ogon zakończony dużą pionową płetwą napędową w kształcie półksiężyca, podobnie jak tuńczyki. +Pierwszy kompletny szkielet ichtiozaura odnalazła Mary Anning w 1811, w klifie nadmorskim w południowej Anglii. Największy okaz, zaliczany do gatunku "Shonisaurus sikanniensis"/"Shastasaurus sikanniensis", którego przedstawiciele mogli osiągać 23 metry długości, odnalazła Elizabeth Nicholls w 1991 na terenie Kolumbii Brytyjskiej w Kanadzie. Wcześniej za największego uchodził dochodzący do 16 metrów długości "Shonisaurus popularis". +Budowa. +Kształt ciała. +Typowy jurajski ichtiozaur miał krótkie ciało, lekko bocznie spłaszczone, kształtu wrzecionowatego, zakończone dobrze rozwiniętą płetwą ogonową kształtu księżyca, podobnie jakie mają współczesne tuńczyki i makrele, co znaczy, że musiały rozwijać znaczne prędkości. Prawdopodobnie mogły pływać z prędkością nawet 70 km/h. +Płetwa grzbietowa. +Najwcześniejsze rekonstrukcje ichtiozaurów pomijały płetwę grzbietową, która nie nie była usztywniona elementami kostnymi. Dopiero odnalezienie świetnie zachowanych okazów w 1890 w Fossillagerstätte w Holzmaden w Niemczech ujawniło ślady płetwy grzbietowej. +Szkielet. +Pas miednicowy utracił połączenie z kręgosłupem i był słabiej rozwinięty od pasa barkowego. Żebra ciągnęły się aż po nasadę ogona wzdłuż całego tułowia. Ogonowy odcinek kręgosłupa charakterystycznie zagięty ku dołowi. +Kończyny. +Wiosłowate kończyny przednie miały zredukowaną długość. Kości ramieniowe bardzo krótkie, natomiast palce wydłużone przez wykształcenie licznych, dodatkowych segmentów palcowych (hiperfalangia). U niektórych form uległa zwiększeniu ilość palców (hiperdaktylia), a u innych zmniejszeniu poniżej 5 (hipodaktylia). +Głowa. +Czaszka zakończona długim dziobem, powstałym wskutek przerostu kości międzyszczękowych i nosowych, chociaż kości szczękowe nie były duże. Część skroniowa czaszki mocno zredukowana. Zewnętrzne otwory nosowe były mocno przesunięte ku tyłowi i usadowione tuż przed oczodołami. +Oczy. +Oczy wielkości małej piłki, największe do tej pory wśród kręgowców, zapewniały doskonałą widoczność w ciemnych, głębokich wodach lub pozwalały polować nocą. Opatrzone były w dobrze wykształconą twardówką w postaci pierścienia drobnych kościstych płytek. +Słuch. +Najprawdopodobniej utraciły błonę bębenkową, co było wynikiem przystosowania do dużego ciśnienia wody, a fale dźwiękowe odbierały elementami kostnymi, tak jak wieloryby. +Zęby. +Zęby jednakowe, ostro zakończone, z rowkowaną powierzchnią, posiadały korzeń i koronę. Rozmieszczone wzdłuż brzegu szczęki w jednym szeregu. W jednej szczęce ich liczba mogła dochodzić do 200. Wydłużony pysk, uzbrojony w liczne szpiczaste zęby, u szeregu form wykazywał tendencję do ich zaniku, aż do wykształcenia całkowicie bezzębnych szczęk, służących jedynie do zgniatania pokarmu. +Paleobiologia. +Wszystkie ichtiozaury były drapieżnikami: żywiły się szybko pływającymi belemnitami (głowonogi) oraz rybami. Większe ichtiozaury mogły polować na duże kręgowce, w tym gady morskie, nie wyłączając nawet innych ichtiozaurów. Niektóre gatunki ichtiozaurów odżywiały się oskuropionymi bezkręgowcami, takimi jak amonity, małże, ślimaki oraz stawonogi, np. skorupiaki. +Badania przeprowadzone przez Bernarda i współpracowników, polegające na porównaniu składu izotopu tlenu w zębach z tymi występującymi u ryb, sugerują, że ichtiozaury były w stanie utrzymywać wysoką i stałą temperaturę ciała w ekosystemach oceanicznych od tropików do wód chłodnych. Szacowana temperatura ciała, wynosząca 35–39 °C, sugeruje wysokie tempo przemiany materii, wymagane do drapieżnictwa i szybkiego przemierzania dużych odległości. +Rodziny tego rzędu. +Ichthyosauria są tu definiowane za Motanim (1999) jako klad obejmujący gatunek "Ichthyosaurus communis" i wszystkie taksony bliżej z nim spokrewnione, niż z "Grippia longirostris". Maisch i Matzke (2000) oraz Maisch (2010) używają nazwy Ichthyosauria w szerszym znaczeniu, zaliczając do tej grupy wszystkich przedstawicieli Ichthyopterygia; przy przyjęciu tej terminologii do ichtiozaurów należałoby też zaliczyć najbardziej bazalnych przedstawicieli Ichthyopterygia - rodzaje "Thaisaurus" i "Utatsusaurus" oraz grupę Grippidia. +Błękit (chemia) + +Związek chemiczny, minerał, pigment lub barwnik o niebieskiej lub zbliżonej do niebieskiego barwie. +Grossular + +Grossular – rzadki minerał z gromady krzemianów zaliczany do grupy granatów, rozpowszechniony, tylko w niektórych regionach Ziemi. +Nazwa pochodzi od botanicznej nazwy "ribes grossularia", agrestu gdyż barwą i kształtem przypomina owoc tej rośliny. +Występowanie. +Minerał skał metamorficznych, występuje głównie w wapieniach, marmurach, żyłach serpentynitów i rodonitów. Niekiedy występuje w skałach okruchowych, najczęściej w piaskach i żwirach. +W Polsce – spotykany w skałach metamorficznych okolic Strzelina, w rejonie Sobótki, w okolicach Kowar. +Agencja Nieruchomości Rolnych + +Agencja Nieruchomości Rolnych - agencja państwowa powstała 15.07.2003 r. w miejsce Agencji Własności Rolnej Skarbu Państwa. ANR jest państwową osobą prawną z siedzibą w Warszawie. +Podstawy działania. +Podstawami działania ANR są ustawa o gospodarowaniu nieruchomościami rolnymi Skarbu Państwa z 19 października 1991 roku i statut, obecnie nadawany przez ministra do spraw rozwoju wsi w drodze rozporządzenia. Ten sam minister sprawuje nadzór nad ANR. +Organy. +Prezes ANR. +Agencja jest kierowana i reprezentowana na zewnątrz przez prezesa. Prezes jest powoływany przez Prezesa Rady Ministrów na wniosek ministra właściwego do spraw rozwoju wsi. Prezes ANR kieruje jej działalnością za pomocą wiceprezesów, dyrektorów zespołów Biura Prezesa i dyrektorów 11 oddziałów terenowych, reprezentuje ją na zewnątrz i ponosi odpowiedzialność za realizację jej zadań. +Pałac Vecchio + +Pałac Vecchio (wł. Palazzo Vecchio, dosł. "Stary Pałac") znajduje się we Florencji, przy "Piazza della Signoria". +Historia. +Zaprojektował go Arnolfo di Cambio w kształcie masywnego bloku na planie czworokąta. Trzykondygnacyjną budowlę zwieńczoną blankami zdobi charakterystyczna, wysoka (94,0 m) wieża z tarasem. Budowę pałacu rozpoczęto w 1299 r. Wieżę ukończono w 1310 r. W latach 1343-1592 wprowadzono wiele zmian (najwięcej w 1540 na polecenie Kosmy I, który zajmował pałac od 1537 do momentu przeprowadzki do Pałacu Pitti). Początkowo Pałac Vecchio był siedzibą republiki florenckiej, w okresie późniejszym pełnił rolę ratusza. +Architektura. +Kamienne, rustykowane elewacje ożywiają rzędy dwudzielnych okien zwieńczonych łukami. Pod łukami arkad podtrzymujących dwie kondygnacje obronnych ganków znajdują się freski z dziewięcioma herbami miasta. Zegar na wieży ratusza ma wbudowany mechanizm z 1667 r. Wieżę, podobnie jak główną bryłę gmachu, wieńczy dwukondygnacyjny ganek obronny z blankami w kształcie jaskółczych ogonów. Glorieta wsparta na czterech kolumnach została dobudowana podczas późniejszych przeróbek, podobnie jak wieńczący ją piramidalny daszek ozdobiony kulą i figurką lwa trzymającego lilię (tak wcześniej wyglądał symbol Florencji). +Nad łukiem drzwi wejściowych, w niebieskim polu ze złotymi liliami, znajduje się medalion z monogramem Chrystusa. Pod nim łaciński napis "Rex regum et Dominus dominatorum" umieszczony na polecenie Kosmy I w 1551. Po jego bokach umieszczono dwie statuetki lwów. +Po obu stronach drzwi stoją dwa marmurowe posągi. Wejście prowadzi na dziedziniec zaprojektowany przez Micheloza, pośrodku którego umieszczono fontannę z Puttem Verrocchia. Szerokie schody Vasariego prowadzą do Izby Pięciuset ("Salone dei Cinquecento"), w której, po wypędzeniu Medyceuszów, odbywały się zgromadzenia Naczelnej Rady Ludowej. Sala została zaprojektowana przez Il Cronaca (Simone del Pollaiuolo) w 1495. Zlecenie na namalowanie fresków zdobiących salę otrzymało w 1503 r. dwóch wielkich mistrzów renesansu: Michał Anioł i Leonardo da Vinci. Ich projekty nigdy nie zostały zrealizowane (Leonardo da Vinci próbował, bez powodzenia, zastosować nową metodę malowania fresków a Michał Anioł pozostawił tylko szkice). W drugiej połowie XVI wieku zamalowano nieudane próby Leonardo. Giorgo Vasari na ścianach i suficie umieścił freski sławiące Kosmę I: "Powrót Wielkiego Księcia Kosmy I do Florencji"; "Zdobycie Pizy i Sieny". Wystrój Sali uzupełniają marmurowe rzeźby, wśród nich jest eksponowane dzieło Michała Anioła "Geniusz unicestwiający Dziką Bestię" oraz Herkules i Diomedes Vincenza de'Rossi. +Obok Sali Pięciuset mieści się niewielki gabinet Franciszka I Medyceusza, zaprojektowany przez Vasariego a ozdobiony obrazami Bronzina, di Tito, Giovanni Stradano oraz rzeźbami Giambologni i Ammantiego. +Wśród wielu bogato zdobionych sal zwracają uwagę m.in.: sala Klemensa VII z freskiem Vasariego "Oblężenie Florencji", Sala Lilii, w której wystawiona jest rzeźba Donatello "Judyta" ("Judyta i Helofernes"), Sala Audiencyjna z marmurowym portalem i freskiem Domenica Ghirlandai, kaplica dei Priori, biura Machiavellego oraz "Sala delle Carte" ozdobiona szesnastowiecznymi mapami. +William Somerset Maugham + +William Somerset Maugham [ˈmɔːm] (ur. 25 stycznia 1874 w Paryżu, zm. 16 grudnia 1965 w Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat k. Nicei) – angielski powieściopisarz i dramaturg. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Paryżu, jego ojciec bowiem był wówczas pracownikiem ambasady brytyjskiej we Francji. Rodzice zmarli wcześnie i Maugham wrócił do Anglii pod opiekę krewnych. Uczęszczał do King's School w Canterbury oraz na uniwersytet w Heidelbergu, gdzie studiował literaturę, filozofię i germanistykę (znajomość języka niemieckiego przydała mu się później w pracy dla wywiadu). Ostatecznie ukończył edukację z dyplomem lekarza medycyny, uzyskanym po studiach w Szpitalu Św. Tomasza w Londynie, nigdy jednak nie praktykował w wyuczonym zawodzie. Po opublikowaniu pierwszych dwóch powieści poświęcił się całkowicie pisarstwu. +Pierwsze próby literackie nie przyniosły mu jednak ani rozgłosu, ani pieniędzy. Przez kilka lat mieszkał we Francji, początkowo na południu, gdzie wyjechał podreperować zrujnowane gruźlicą zdrowie, a potem w Paryżu, wiodąc życie na pograniczu nędzy. Jego sytuacja finansowa uległa radykalnej poprawie wraz z publikacją sztuk teatralnych, które odniosły duży sukces. +Podczas I wojny światowej służył w brytyjskim wywiadzie. Był m.in. wysłany z misją do Rosji. Później tak pisał o swoich doświadczeniach: „Praca agenta wywiadu jest skrajnie jednostajna i monotonna... większość jego działań jest pozornie lub faktycznie bezużyteczna. W roku 1917 wyjechałem do Rosji. Zostałem tam wysłany, żeby zapobiec rosyjskiej rewolucji i spowodować, aby Rosja nie wycofała się z wojny. Czytelnicy wiedzą doskonale, że moje wysiłki zakończyły się porażką”. W tym czasie poznał Amerykanina Fredericka Geralda Haxtona, który został jego homoseksualnym partnerem aż do 1944, kiedy zmarł. +Jednocześnie utrzymywał związek z projektantką wnętrz, Maud Gwendolen Syrie Wellcome, córką dr Thomasa Barnardo (znanego społecznika, twórcy organizacji obrony praw dziecka) i żoną magnata farmaceutycznego Henry'ego Wellcome'a. Jego owocem była córka – Elizabeth Mary „Liza” Maugham (1915-1998). Po rozwodzie Syrie, Maugham ożenił się z nią. Po jedenastu latach małżeństwo rozpadło się, m.in. z powodu biseksualizmu Maughama. +W 1928 pisarz kupił willę „Mauresque” z posiadłością ziemską na Francuskiej Riwierze i na stałe osiadł na południu Francji, skąd odbywał liczne podróże po całym świecie. Zmarł w 1965 w Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat k. Nicei. +Twórczość. +Najsłynniejsza powieść Maughama to utwór "W niewoli uczuć" (1915), książka w znacznej mierze autobiograficzna. Jej główny bohater, Philip Carey, podobnie jak pisarz, jest sierotą i kaleką. Mający bowiem kompleksy z powodu jąkania Maugham, obdarzył go szpotawością nóg. +Inne ważne utwory +Nagroda Somerseta Maughama. +W 1947 pisarz ustanowił Somerset Maugham Award, przyznawaną do dzisiaj pisarzom brytyjskim poniżej 35. roku życia. Obecnie laureat otrzymuje 35 000 funtów z przeznaczeniem na podróż zagraniczną. +Zauropterygi + +Zauropterygi, płetwojaszczury (Sauropterygia) – nadrząd wymarłych gadów morskich, do których zaliczamy: plezjozaury, notozaury i być może plakodonty (klasyfikacja jest niepewna). Przedstawiciele grupy Sauropterygia miały opływowe ciała, cztery kończyny przekształcone w odnóża pływne. Były dobrze przystosowane do życia w wodzie. Żyły podczas ery mezozoicznej. +Rzędy +Kopuła geodezyjna + +Kopuła geodezyjna ("kopuła Fullera") – wielościan, który odwzorowuje powierzchnię kuli. W kopule geodezyjnej najmniejszym stosowanym elementem geometrycznym jest najczęściej trójkąt równoramienny zbliżony do równobocznego, bowiem jest on najsztywniejszym wielokątem. +Geometryczny kształt kopuły geodezyjnej wykorzystywany jest w różnego rodzaju rozwiązaniach architektonicznych jako atrakcyjne, wytrzymałe i samonośne (tzn. niewymagające wewnętrznych podpór) przykrycie dużych powierzchni. Przykładem zastosowania są Złote Tarasy w Warszawie. +Pierwszą kopułę tego typu wybudowano w 1923 według projektu niemieckiego inżyniera Walthera Bauersfelda z przeznaczeniem na planetarium w Jenie. Pod koniec lat 40. XX wieku idee te zostały rozwinięte i spopularyzowane przez amerykańskiego konstruktora, architekta, kartografa i filozofa Richarda Fullera, który jest również twórcą nazwy „kopuła geodezyjna". +OpenOffice.org Base + +OpenOffice.org Base – zaawansowany system obsługi relacyjnych baz danych wchodzący w skład bezpłatnego pakietu biurowego Apache OpenOffice dostępnego m.in. na platformy Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS oraz Solaris. Inauguracją OpenOffice.org Base było wydanie wersji OpenOffice.org 2.0. Dostępna jest polska wersja językowa. +Program jest kompletnym systemem do tworzenia i obsługi relacyjnych baz danych, opartym na silniku baz danych HSQL. OpenOffice.org Base daje też dostęp do baz w wielu formatach, jak MySQL, dBASE, Microsoft Access (obecnie tylko obsługa tabel i tylko dla Windows) oraz interfejsy JDBC, ODBC, Oracle JDBC. +Zawiera narzędzia do tworzenia tabel, zapytań, raportów, projektowania formularzy, tworzenia relacji. +W porównaniu z systemem Microsoft Access, program nie zawiera jednak kreatora wyrażeń warunkowych dla zapytań i panelu przełączania jako interfejsu dla mniej doświadczonych użytkowników biurowych bazy. +W przyszłości OpenOffice.org Base będzie stosował domyślnie otwarty format OpenDocument, promowany obecnie jako uniwersalny standard wymiany informacji między programami biurowymi. OpenOffice.org Base obsługuje język programowania OOoBasic. +Program może służyć zarówno jako pełny system do tworzenia baz danych u użytkowników indywidualnych oraz w małych firmach i biurach, względnie jako front-end w systemie klient-serwer, gdzie funkcję back-endu pełni SQL-owa baza danych, jak MySQL czy PostgreSQL +Stado Ogierów w Bogusławicach + +Stado Ogierów w Bogusławicach – jednostka hodowli koni grupująca ogiery rozrodowe różnych ras. Stado mieści się w budynkach i na terenie będącym wcześniej częścią majątku biskupów kujawskich, w osadzie Bogusławice. +Historia. +Czasy przedwojenne +Historia stada w Bogusławicach sięga roku 1915, kiedy to około 170 ogierów zgrupowanych zostało w okolicach Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego przez władze austriackie. Komendantem stada został major Albin Kajetanowicz. Od roku 1918 Stado podlegało Polskiemu Zarządowi Wojskowemu, a od roku 1919 – Zarządowi Stadnin Państwowych w Ministerstwie Rolnictwa i Dóbr Państwowych. W tym czasie, w zaadoptowanych do potrzeb hodowli koni oborach i cielętniku majątku w Bogusławicach, zgromadzono ogiery rozpłodowe z różnych punktów krycia. W roku 1923 kierownictwo Stada przejął Tadeusz Nosarzewski, który przez 16 lat swojej działalności doprowadził je do rozkwitu. W roku 1926 Stado zostało poświęcone ""ku chwale hodowli i armii Rzeczypospolitej"", co upamiętniła tablica pamiątkowa w stajni nr 1. +II wojna światowa +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej, Stado liczące ponad 120 koni wyewakuowano na wschód, jednak w czasie ewakuacji zostało ono zbombardowane i ostrzelane przez armię radziecką; od odłamka zginął dyrektor Nosarzewski. Ostatecznie po niedługim czasie, Stado powróciło do Bogusławic, gdzie przeszło pod władzę okupanta niemieckiego. W roku 1945 zarządzono ewakuację koni na zachód, co doprowadziło je do prawie zupełnego wyniszczenia. +Czasy powojenne +Po zakończeniu wojny stado odbudowano, także przy udziale koni rewindykowanych z Niemiec w roku 1946, a następnie dzięki nowym wyhodowanym rocznikom koni. Obiekt w Bogusławicach został odbudowany, rozbudowany i unowocześniony. Od roku 1955 rozpoczął działanie Zakład Treningowy. W roku 1969 powstał "Bogusławicki Klub Jeździecki". W latach tych w Bogusławicach znajdowało się 150-200 ogierów; lata 60. XX wieku to okres dynamicznego rozwoju Stada. +W latach 70. i 80. w okolicach Stada kręcono sceny do wielu filmów, w których występowały tutejsze konie i jeźdźcy, np. "Wszystko na sprzedaż", "Pan Wołodyjowski", "Hubal", "Rzeczpospolita babska", "Ferdydurke" i "Trędowata". W latach 90. nastąpiła kolejna większa modernizacja infrastruktury. +""W 1989 r. zmarł dyrektor Andrzej Osadziński - człowiek oddany Bogusławicom bez reszty, będący jednocześnie wiceprezesem Polskiego Związku Jeździeckiego i sędzią międzynarodowym w skokach przez przeszkody i WKKW, działał czynnie przez długie lata w polskiej hodowli koni. Dla uczczenia pamięci dyrektora Andrzeja Osadzińskiego przed budynkiem dyrekcji ustawiono kamień z tablicą pamiątkową, a corocznie w maju organizowane są Ogólnopolskie Zawody w Skokach przez Przeszkody o Memoriał Barbary i Andrzeja Osadzińskich."" +Do 1993 funkcjonowało jako Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne pod nazwą "Państwowe Stado Ogierów Bogusławice". W 1993 po przekształceniu jako "Stado Ogierów Bogusławice". Od 1994, kiedy dokonano kolejnego przekształcenia, działa jako "Stado Ogierów w Bogusławicach Sp. z o.o.". W 2011 stado sprywatyzowano. +Hodowla. +W roku 2000 sprywatyzowano gospodarstwo rolne należące do Bogusławic oraz stadninę koni. Stado poddano restrukturyzacji, liczyło ono 90 sztuk koni i obsługiwało w celach hodowlanych województwo łódzkie i województwo świętokrzyskie. W roku 2002 rozpoczął działalność 100-dniowy Zakład Treningowy dla ogierów ras szlachetnych i hodowli zagranicznej. W 2007 roku uruchomiono 60-dniowy Zakład Treningowy dla klaczy. +Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini + +Gianfrancesco (Giovanni Francesco) Poggio Bracciolini (ur. 11 lutego 1380 w Terranuova, zm. 30 października 1459 we Florencji), włoski humanista i historyk. +Studiował we Florencji. W 1404 został sekretarzem papieża Bonifacego IX, funkcje tę sprawował za czasów pontyfikatu Innocentego VII, Grzegorza XII, Aleksandra V i Jana XXIII, do 1415. Następnie podróżował po Francji, Niemczech i Szwajcarii; w czasie tych podróży odnalazł w bibliotekach klasztornych zapomniane teksty autorów rzymskich, m.in. Cycerona, Lukrecjusza, Kwintyliana, Tacyta, Witruwiusza. W 1423 został ponownie sekretarzem papieskim, funkcję tę sprawował do 1450. W latach 1453-1458 był kanclerzem Florencji. +Sydney (Kanada) + +Sydney − przemysłowe miasto na wyspie Cape Breton w kanadyjskiej prowincji Nowa Szkocja. W 2001 roku miasto zamieszkiwało 24 115 osób. +Karta + +Mitologia +Drawit + +Drawit – minerał z gromady krzemianów, zaliczany do grupy turmalinów. Jest minerałem rzadkim. +Nazwa pochodzi od rzeki Drawy oraz okręgu Drave w Austrii (Karyntia). +Właściwości. +Tworzy kryształy słupkowe często wykazujące podłużne zbrużdżenia. Bywa spotykany w skupieniach zbitych, ziarnistych, oraz promienistych (słońca turmalinowe). Jest kruchy, przezroczysty, niekiedy zawiera chrom. +Występowanie. +Bywa spotykany w skałach metamorficznych i magmowych zasobnych w magnez. Występuje w formie otoczaków w osadach aluwialnych. +Miejsca występowania. +USA – stan Nowy Jork, Pensylwania, Teksas, Kalifornia, Chiny (okazy niebieskie), Australia – Australia Zachodnia, Kenia – Osarora (okazy ciemnoczerwone), Sri Lanka – Kaikawela, Matale (okazy żółte – oliwin cejloński), Nowa Zelandia, Pakistan i Zimbabwe (okazy zielone), Madagaskar (okazy brązowe, przezroczyste), Tanzania (okazy szmaragdowozielone), Jugosławia, Czechy – Morawy, Austria – okręg Drave, Rosja – Zabajkale, Ural, Wielka Brytania. +Karta kodów jednorazowych + +Karta kodów jednorazowych – lista haseł służąca do autoryzacji transakcji internetowych, najczęściej bankowych. Każde z haseł widniejących na karcie ma swój numer kolejny i może być użyte tylko raz – system prosi o podanie hasła o konkretnym numerze. +Karta kodów jednorazowych może być zwykłą zadrukowaną kartką papieru lub mieć postać zbliżoną do karty kredytowej. Często kolejne hasła są zasłonięte nadrukiem lub folią, które usuwa się przed użyciem uwidaczniając ukryte hasło. Hasłem jest najczęściej liczba pięcio- lub sześciocyfrowa; liczba pól karty jest zbliżona do 40, w przypadku wydruków może sięgać 100 i więcej. +Przed pierwszym użyciem kartę kodów jednorazowych należy najczęściej aktywować, czyli na żądanie systemu podać jej numer i kod z pierwszego pola. W przypadku użycia karty jako kolejnej, system z reguły pyta o ostatni lub ostatni niewykorzystany kod z aktualnie aktywnej karty, a czasem i pierwszy z nowej. Tylko jedna karta kodów jednorazowych do danego systemu może być aktywna, choć użytkownik może posiadać kilka kart dodatkowych do późniejszego użycia. +Odmianą karty kodów jednorazowych jest karta iTAN (indexed TAN) – tu hasła umieszczone są na przecięciu wierszy (oznaczonych np. literowo) i kolumn (oznaczonych np. liczbami), wybierane są losowo przez system i to samo hasło może być użyte wielokrotnie. Tego rodzaju karty zazwyczaj mają pewien określony czas ważności, po którym są zastępowane kolejną kartą. +Ze względu na niską cenę karty kodów jednorazowych są znacznie bardziej popularne niż tokeny. +Księga wieczysta + +Księgi wieczyste – rejestr publiczny, który przedstawia stan prawny nieruchomości. Pozwala autorytatywnie ustalić, komu i jakie przysługują prawa do danej nieruchomości. Instytucja ksiąg wieczystych jest wspólna dla rodziny kontynentalnych systemów prawnych, choć ustrój ksiąg wieczystych w poszczególnych krajach znacząco się różni. +Księgi wieczyste w Polsce. +W Polsce ustrój ksiąg wieczystych reguluje ustawa z 6 lipca 1982 o księgach wieczystych i hipotece ( z późn.zm.), zaś kwestie szczegółowe – rozporządzenie Ministra Sprawiedliwości z 17 września 2001 w sprawie prowadzenia ksiąg wieczystych i zbiorów dokumentów ( z późn.zm.). Ustawa ta w zasadzie powtarza regulacje zawarte w poprzednich aktach prawnych regulujących ustrój ksiąg wieczystych w Polsce (w dekrecie z 11 października 1946 – Prawo o księgach wieczystych i w ustawodawstwie zaborczym), dość przypadkowo łącząc je z regulacją hipoteki. Postępowanie w sprawach dotyczących ksiąg wieczystych regulują art. 626-626 Kodeksu postępowania cywilnego. +W latach 1964-1991 księgi wieczyste prowadziły państwowe biura notarialne, jednak doświadczenie wykazało, że tylko sąd, jest w stanie prawidłowo prowadzić księgi wieczyste. Od 1991 księgi wieczyste znów są prowadzone przez wydziały ksiąg wieczystych w sądach rejonowych właściwych według miejsca położenia nieruchomości ("sąd wieczystoksięgowy"). Są prowadzone dla nieruchomości a nie dla właścicieli, to znaczy, że jedna osoba może być wskazana jako właściciel w kilku księgach wieczystych, natomiast to samo prawo własności winno być wykazane w jednej i tylko w jednej księdze wieczystej. W praktyce zdarza się, że to samo prawo własności bywa wpisane w dwóch lub nawet trzech księgach – sytuację taką należy usunąć w drodze procesu o uzgodnienie treści księgi wieczystej z rzeczywistym stanem prawnym. +Zasady ksiąg wieczystych. +Pewne modyfikacje w zakresie wpisów w poszczególnych działach dotyczą ksiąg prowadzonych dla ograniczonych praw rzeczowych. +Wpisów do księgi wieczystej dokonuje sąd wieczystoksięgowy w osobie sędziego lub – coraz częściej – referendarza sądowego, na podstawie złożonych wniosków, wyjątkowo tylko z urzędu. Wpis do księgi jest specyficzną formą orzeczenia sądowego i jako taki podlega kontroli instancyjnej: od wpisu oraz oddalenia wniosku o wpis zarówno wnioskodawcy jak i uczestnikom postępowania wieczystoksięgowego służy apelacja (do sądu okręgowego) lub skarga na orzeczenie referendarza (do sądu rejonowego, w którym ten referendarz orzeka). +Przy każdej księdze wieczystej są prowadzone akta, gdzie składa się wszystkie dokumenty i pisma, które były podstawą wpisów w księdze. Akta, jak wyżej wskazano, nie są objęte zasadą pełnej jawności. +Dla nieruchomości, które nie mają założonych ksiąg wieczystych, prowadzi się tzw. "zbiory dokumentów". Są to, zgodnie z nazwą, prowadzone dla poszczególnych nieruchomości zbiory dokumentów, z których wynika stan prawny nieruchomości – stan własności i obciążenia. Obecnie nie zakłada się już zbiorów dokumentów, jednak istniejące nadal zachowują znaczenie prawne. +Dostęp elektroniczny. +Od 2003 w Polsce jest sukcesywnie prowadzona informatyzacja ksiąg wieczystych. W większości sądów wieczystoksięgowych nowe księgi są od razu zakładane i prowadzone w formie elektronicznej. Pozostałe księgi, prowadzone dotychczas w formie pisemnej są sukcesywnie informatyzowane. 16 czerwca 2010 na stronach Ministerstwa Sprawiedliwości uruchomiono publiczny system dostępowy. W tym dniu w bazie danych zapisanych było 12,1 mln spośród 18,8 mln wszystkich ksiąg wieczystych. Zakończenie przenoszenia wszystkich ksiąg wieczystych planowane jest na rok 2013. Dostęp do systemu możliwy jest tutaj: http://ekw.ms.gov.pl/ +Historia. +W czasach monarchii stanowej były prowadzone poprzez sądy ziemskie, lecz w XVII w. utraciły one tę funkcję na korzyść sądów grodzkich. Po likwidacji państwowości polskiej w końcu XVIII wieku zaborcy stopniowo wprowadzali własne regulacje prawne w zakresie rejestracji ziemskich stosunków własnościowych. Na obszarze Królestwa Kongresowego obowiązywało Prawo hipoteczne Królestwa Polskiego z 1818 r. zmienione ustawą z 1825 r. W Galicji zaprowadzono "księgi gruntowe" regulowane ustawami z 1871 r. i 1874 r., zaś na obszarze zaboru pruskiego podstawę funkcjonowania ksiąg stanowiły trzy ustawy o księgach wieczystych z lat 1897-99. +Nieliczne rejestry zaborcze prowadzone dla poszczególnych nieruchomości zachowują moc obowiązującą po dziś dzień, będąc księgami wieczystymi w rozumieniu obecnego prawa jako tzw. "księgi dawne". +Struktura wykazu hipotecznego w Galicji. +"Wykazy hipoteczne" prowadzone były dla poszczególnych nieruchomości w ramach ksiąg głównych obejmujących całe miejscowości. Często są to tomy liczące po wiele tysięcy stronic zapisywanych pismem ręcznym. +Struktura wykazu hipotecznego w Królestwie Polskim. +Wykazy hipoteczne prowadzono w ramach ksiąg hipotecznych. Na te ostatnie składały się nadto księgi umów wieczystych oraz zbiory dokumentów. +Bogusławice + +Miejscowości w Polsce: +Miejscowości na Białorusi: +CODATA + +CODATA (ang. "Committee on Data for Science and Technology"), Komitet Danych dla Nauki i Techniki - międzynarodowa organizacja z siedzibą w Paryżu, założona w 1966 roku jako część ICSU (Międzynarodowej Rady Stowarzyszeń Naukowych). +CODATA zajmuje się wszystkimi typami danych ilościowych, uzyskiwanych w wyniku eksperymentalnych pomiarów i obserwacji w naukach fizycznych, chemicznych, biologicznych, geologicznych i astronomicznych. Szczególną uwagę zwraca się przy tym na problem zarządzania danymi, wspólnymi dla różnych dyscyplin, a także na dane wykorzystywane w innych dziedzinach niż te, w których były one generowane. Podstawowym celem działań podejmowanych przez CODATA jest doskonalenie jakości danych i dostępności do nich. CODATA zajmuje się także metodami, przy pomocy których dane są pozyskiwane, zarządzane i analizowane. Do zadań CODATA należy oprócz tego ułatwianie współpracy międzynarodowej pomiędzy instytucjami gromadzącymi dane, organizującymi ich udostępnianie i bezpośrednio korzystającymi z danych, oraz wspieranie rosnącej świadomości w środowiskach naukowym i technicznym na temat wagi i znaczenia tych działań. +W pracach CODATA uczestniczą 22 przedstawicielstwa narodowe oraz reprezentacje 18 unii naukowych. CODATA działa poprzez Grupy Zadaniowe (Task Groups) i Grupy Robocze (Working Groups), 2 Stałe Komisje oraz (aktualnie) jedną Grupę Specjalną. Działalność organizacji wspiera finansowo szereg największych narodowych ośrodków i firm przemysłowych. Co dwa lata odbywają się Zgromadzenia Ogólne CODATA (dokonujące wyboru zarządu), zazwyczaj łączone z Międzynarodowymi Konferencjami, na których są prezentowane i dyskutowane najnowsze osiągnięcia w zakresie gromadzenia i przetwarzania danych. Polska uczestniczy w CODATA od momentu jego powstania, a Polacy odgrywają w nim dużą role: dwukrotnie polscy naukowcy byli wiceprezydentami CODATA. +Fort Holabird + +Fort Holabird - dawna siedziba ośrodka szkoleniowego wywiadu wojskowego US Army (Army Intelligence) w USA. +Bird ("ptak"), taką bowiem nadano mu nazwę, powstał jako kompleks budynków magazynowych kwatermistrzostwa sił lądowych w 1918 roku. W okresie międzywojennym korpus kwatermistrzowski założył montownię samochodów ciężarowych. W czasie II wojny światowej w Holabird sporządzano wykazy zapotrzebowania sił lądowych na samochody terenowe. Po wojnie przekształcony został w ośrodek szkolenia kontrwywiadu Armii Amerykańskiej, a w maju 1955 roku, otwarto w nim "Szkołę Wywiadu Sił Lądowych Stanów Zjednoczonych", US Army Intelligence School. Program szkolenia uległ poszerzeniu o rozpoznanie walką (taktyczne) oraz studia regionalne. W czasie wojny wietnamskiej, budynki szkoły okazały się zbyt małe, aby pomieścić wszystkich studiujących, w związku z czym rozpoczęto poszukiwania miejsca nadającego się na drugą siedzibę. Ze względu na rosnącą rolę rozpoznania radioelektronicznego i coraz większe zapotrzebowanie na specjalistów w tej dziedzinie, w 1971 roku pracownicy wywiadu US Army wybrali "Fort Huachuca" w zapadłym kącie pustynnego płaskowyżu w południowo-wschodniej Arizonie, na obszarze o stosunkowo małym zagęszczeniu ruchu radiowego. Fort Huachuca nazwano "Domem Wywiadu Wojskowego" - Home of Military Intelligence. Nazwę samej szkoły zmieniono na Centrum i Szkoła Wywiadu. Bird przestał służyć celom wojskowym w 1973 roku. +Bibliografia. +Zobacz też +Java Platform, Enterprise Edition + +Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (zwana również jako Java Enterprise, J2EE oraz Java EE czasami tłumaczona jako Java Korporacyjna) jest szeroko rozpowszechnioną serwerową platformą programistyczną języka Java. Definiuje standard tworzenia aplikacji w języku programowania Java opartych o wielowarstwową architekturę komponentową. Komponenty są zwykle osadzane na serwerze aplikacyjnym obsługującym Java Enterprise. Standard ten określa zestaw interfejsów programistycznych jakich musi dostarczać zgodny serwer aplikacyjny. +Standard Java Enterprise aktualnie tworzony jest przez Oracle, które wykupiło oryginalnego twórcę - Sun Microsystems. Firma ta dostarcza poza definicją interfejsów programistycznych, wzorcową implementację serwera aplikacyjnego (otwarta wersja: GlassFish, komercyjna Sun Java System Application Server). +Rozwiązanie oparte na Java Enterprise powinno poprawnie funkcjonować na dowolnej platformie sprzętowej, systemie operacyjnym czy też serwerze aplikacji Java Enterprise. Zdarza się, iż aplikacje wymagają pewnych zmian przy przenoszeniu na inny serwer. Wynika to z faktu, iż nie wszystkie aspekty funkcjonowania aplikacji są objęte specyfikacją. +Historia. +Początki Java Enterprise sięgają grudnia 1999 roku, kiedy to została wydana wersja J2EE 1.2. Zakres API wchodzących w skład Java Enterprise zmieniał się w kolejnych wersjach. Niektóre interfejsy były zastępowane przez nowsze wersje, inne przenoszone do zestawu API Java Standard Edition. W każdej wersji definiowano nową wersję standardu Java Platform oznaczaną numerem wydania. Pozostałe zmiany zostały zaprezentowane poniżej. +Soliter (botanika) + +Soliter, drzewo soliterowe (z fr. "solitaire" – samotny) – w dendrologii i ogrodnictwie określenie oznaczające drzewo lub krzew rosnące pojedynczo na otwartym terenie, szczególnie eksponowane. Poza ekspozycją w aranżacji krajobrazu solitery wyróżniają się z reguły swymi walorami ozdobnymi – np. efektownym kwitnieniem lub zabarwieniem liści. W sztuce planowania ogrodów szczególnie cenione są do tej roli gatunki i odmiany uprawne ozdobne przez cały rok – podczas kwitnienia, owocowania, okryte listowiem i podczas zimy. +Secure Digital + +SD (ang. "Secure Digital") – jeden ze standardów kart pamięci opracowany przez firmy Panasonic, SanDisk i Toshiba w 2000 roku. Karty SD charakteryzują się niewielkimi wymiarami (24 × 32 × 2,1 mm) i masą (ok. 2 gramów). Poza grubością, ich wymiary są identyczne jak kart MMC. +Karty SD posiadają 9 wyprowadzeń. Dodatkowo posiadają mały przełącznik zabezpieczający zapisane na karcie dane przed przypadkowym skasowaniem. +Dostępne są karty SD o pojemnościach od 8 MB do 4 GB. Karty od 4 GB do 32 GB określane są jako SDHC. Starsze urządzenia mają problemy z ich obsługą. Sporadycznie można również spotkać karty 4 GB SD (nie SDHC). Ten podział wynika z systemu plików stosowanego przy formatowaniu kart SD. Tym systemem jest FAT16, w którym ograniczenie wielkości partycji wynosi 2 GB. Wyjątkowo w tym systemie plików można utworzyć partycję o wielkości 4 GB jednak minimalna liczba urządzeń, nie będących komputerami, jest w stanie obsłużyć taką strukturę. Nawet część komputerowych systemów operacyjnych nie obsługuje 4 GB partycji w FAT16. Właśnie z tego powodu w grupie kart SD (SDHC) od 4 GB do 32 GB powierzchnia adresowana jest zgodnie z systemem plików FAT32. Powyżej 32 GB pojemności karty SD są często formatowane w systemie exFAT, gdyż w FAT32 przy wielkości partycji ponad 32 GB znacznie spada wydajność jej obsługi (zgodnie z opinią Microsoftu, będącego twórcą tego formatu). +Klasy prędkości kart SD. +Klasa prędkości jest oficjalną jednostką pomiaru prędkości zapisu kart SD, zdefiniowaną przez stowarzyszenie producentów kart SD. Jedna klasa = 8 Mb/s. +Niektórzy producenci używają wskaźnika prędkości odczytu w postaci x, a inni, np. Kingston, używają prędkości zapisu. +Nowości. +Najnowszym standardem dla kart pamięci SD jest SDXC (z ang. eXtended Capacity) o maksymalnej pojemności 2 TB (2 terabajty = 2048 GB) i szybkości zapisu i odczytu danych 104 MB/s (docelowo 300 MB/s). +Karty SD High Capacity (SDHC lub SD 2.0) są nowymi kartami SD bazującymi na specyfikacji 2.00, która dla kart SDHC definiuje system plików FAT32, co umożliwia zwiększenie pojemności kart SD od 4 GB do 32 GB i gwarantuje minimalną prędkość zapisu danych 6 MB/s (klasa specyfikacji 6). Karty SDHC są na ogół kompatybilne tylko z czytnikami obsługującymi wersję 2.0 standardu SD, istnieją jednak wyjątki od tej reguły. Niektóre czytniki zgodne z wersją 1.1 są w stanie bez problemu współpracować z kartami SDHC pod warunkiem, iż są kontrolowane spod systemu obsługującego wersję 2 standardu SD (na przykład czytniki wbudowane w Acery serii n300 i inne urządzenia typu PDA). +Producentami kart SDHC są: A-DATA, Kingston Technology, OCZ Technology Group, Panasonic, Pretec, Ritek (TRAXDATA), SanDisk, Toshiba, Transcend, Goodram, Samsung. +Architektura romańska we Francji + +Architektura romańska we Francji rozwijała się od X wieku do ok. 1140 r., w którym w północnej Francji rodzi się nowy kierunek – gotyk. Cechują ją dość duża różnorodność, stąd często wprowadzany jest podział na poszczególne szkoły. +Szkoła owerniacka. +Budownictwo Owernii cechuje się kościołami z dwukondygnacyjnymi nawami bocznymi. Dolną część naw przekrywa sklepienie krzyżowe a empory sklepienie półkolebkowe (w kształtach ćwierkoła). Wokół kościołów kształtowano obejścia. Przęsła transeptu w pobliżu wieży nad skrzyżowaniem z nawą główną są podwyższone, co pozwala na umieszczenie w ich ścianach dodatkowych okien. Ściany zewnętrzne zdobią ślepe arkady i kamienny kolorowy wątek wzorowany na budowlach karolińskich. +Szkoła Poitou. +W rejonie Poitou budowano kościoły o fasadach flankowanych wieżami przykrytymi stożkowatymi hełmami. +Szkoła normandzka. +Bazylikowe kościoły o wysokich nawach głównych umożliwiających umieszczenie w ścianach powyżej dachów naw bocznych dużych okien. Nawy główne z uwagi na ich wysokość i brak możliwości zrównoważenia sił rozporu od sklepień przykrywano drewnianymi więźbami albo w okresie późniejszym sklepieniami krzyżowo-żebrowymi. Fryzy, archiwolty i kapitele zdobi płaskorzeźba o motywach geometrycznych. Fasady z trzema portalami flankują potężne wieże. +Budownictwo świeckie. +Zobacz też: style architektoniczne, historia sztuki, sztuka romańska +John Densmore + +John Paul Densmore (ur. 1 grudnia 1944 w Santa Monica) – amerykański muzyk jazzowy, perkusista, członek grupy The Doors. +Autor książki "Riders On The Storm", przedstawiającej historię zespołu. Przed wstąpieniem do The Doors wziął udział w kilku sesjach Topanga Canyon i Compton oraz grał w mało znanych zespołach Terry Driscoll And The Twiglighters oraz Psychedelic Rangers. Z przyczyn zdrowotnych (chroniczna choroba uszu) nie wziął udziału wraz z Robby Kriegerem oraz Rayem Manzarkiem w reaktywowaniu grupy w 2002. Sprzeciwił się także używaniu przez nią nazwy The Doors. +W 2007 roku muzyk został sklasyfikowany na 36. miejscu listy 50 najlepszych perkusistów rockowych według "Stylus Magazine". +Kisangani + +Kisangani (dawniej Stanleyville) – miasto w środkowej Afryce w Demokratycznej Republice Konga, stolica prowincji Tshopo. +Miasto liczy 935 977 mieszkańców, aglomeracja ponad 1 mln. Leży nad rzeką Kongo. +W sierpniu 1964 r. Stanleyville było miejscem rzezi przeprowadzonej przez Ludową Armię Wyzwolenia, która 5 sierpnia po zajęciu miasta, rozpoczęła mordowanie czarnych mieszkańców miasta i wzięła jako zakładników 1600 obcokrajowców (Belgów, Brytyjczyków, Francuzów, Włochów, Austriaków, Greków, Portugalczyków, Pakistańczyków, Indusów i Amerykanów). W wyniku trwającej od 24 listopada operacji "Czerwony Smok" (Dragon Rouge) miasto zostało wyzwolone przez białych najemników majora Mike Hoare wspieranych przez oddziały belgijskie i amerykańskie. Podczas komunistycznej rebelii wymordowanych zostało 8 tys. czarnych mieszkańców Stanleyville i 185 białych zakładników. +Podczas tych wydarzeń obecny był w mieście Ryszard Kapuściński, który dostał się na miejsce potajemnie, bez wiedzy i zgody władz PRL, wraz z dwoma czechosłowackimi korespondentami wojennymi. Swój pobyt tam i poczynione obserwacje opisał w jednym z reportaży zawartych w zbiorze pt. "Wojna futbolowa". +Filiacja + +Filiacja (od łac. "filiatio" – wywodzenie syna od ojca) – to rodzaj stosunku genealogicznego zachodzącego pomiędzy dwiema osobami, z których jedna pochodzi od drugiej. +Znaczenie. +Jest to jeden z podstawowych faktów genealogicznych, jaki jest poszukiwany (ustalany) podczas badań przez genealogów-historyków (zawodowych) i genealogów rodzinnych (amatorów). Dlatego często spotyka się użycie tego słowa na nazwanie samego procesu dowodzenia (na podstawie źródeł), że dane dwie osoby pochodzą jedna od drugiej. W takim ujęciu filiacja może oznaczać również dowodzenie, że dziecko pochodzi od określonej pary rodziców. Należy to odróżnić od prawnego ustalania pochodzenia dziecka na podstawie różnych domniemań i powództw, które rządzi się własnymi regułami. +Filiacja może być bezpośrednia (pomiędzy rodzicem a dzieckiem) lub pośrednia (pomiędzy dalszym przodkiem a dalszym potomkiem, np. dziadek-wnuczka, prababcia-prawnuczka itd.). Jeżeli pomiędzy dwiema osobami zachodzi filiacja, to jednocześnie zachodzi między nimi pokrewieństwo pierwszego stopnia w linii prostej: jedna osoba jest wstępnym dla drugiej, a ta druga – zstępnym dla pierwszej. Występuje więc różnica jednego pokolenia lub więcej pokoleń. +Różnice z innymi pojęciami. +Filiacja tym różni się od pokrewieństwa, że nie obejmuje linii bocznej. Wobec linii prostej różni się tym, że filiacja obejmuje parę osób (tj. dwie osoby), a linia prosta – wszystkie kolejne osoby. Co więcej, można mówić o pokrewieństwie prawnym, do którego przyporządkowuje się adopcję pełną. Natomiast filiacja jest zawsze związkiem naturalnym (pokrewieństwo biologiczne). Nie obejmuje też powinowactwa, którego elementem jest koicja. +Dowodzenie filiacji. +W genealogii filiację można dowodzić na podstawie wszelkich "wiarygodnych" źródeł danych, w tym zwłaszcza na podstawie: ksiąg metrykalnych (wyznaniowych lub świeckich); innych ksiąg i akt parafialnych; innych dokumentów urzędowych zgromadzonych w archiwach państwowych lub kościelnych; dokumentów prywatnych (w tym korespondencji); ustnych relacji członków rodziny, sąsiadów czy znajomych; itp. Należy podkreślić, że do rzetelności pracy genealogicznej należy ocena wiarygodności wybieranych źródeł danych, a w efekcie niepodważalność ustalonej filiacji. Często nie można z całkowitą pewnością stwierdzić kim byli rodzice danej osoby, wobec braku źródeł lub ich nikłej wiarygodności. +W polskim prawie wyłącznym dowodem pochodzenia dziecka są akta stanu cywilnego (poprzez ich odpisy), z tym, że w wyjątkowych przypadkach treść tych aktów może ulec zmianie, a rodzicielstwo może być "unieważnione", "zaprzeczone" lub "ustalone" w wyniku pewnych powództw. +Hannibalianus + +Hannibalianus (zm. 337) – syn Dalmacjusza Starszego, przyrodniego brata cesarza Konstantyna Wielkiego, wnuk Konstancjusza Chlorusa i jego drugiej żony - Flavii Maximiany Theodory. Jego rodzonym bratem był cezar Dalmacjusz. +Za życia matki cesarza Konstantyna - Heleny, jego przyrodnie rodzeństwo zmuszone było żyć z daleka od dworu, na wygnaniu w Akwitanii. Tam też, w Tuluzie kształcił się Hannibalianus. Około 324 Dalmacjusz wrócił do łask cesarskich i zyskał duże znaczenie na dworze. Widocznym znakiem jego wpływów było małżeństwo Hannibalianusa z córką samego Konstantyna Wielkiego, Konstancją, zawarte ok. 335. W tym samym roku Hannibalianus otrzymał tytuł "króla królów i ludów Pontu" ("rex regum et Ponticarum gentium"). Tytuł ten był zapewne wyrazem pretensji, jakie Cesarstwo Rzymskie rościło sobie do ziem leżących na wschodzie - zwłaszcza Armenii zajętej w 334 przez Persów. +Konstantyn planował podjęcie generalnej rozprawy z państwem Sasanidów, czemu jednak przeszkodziła śmierć cesarza w 337. Sam Hannibalianus został zamordowany w tym samym roku, być może za cichym przyzwoleniem Konstancjusza II (Eutropiusz - historyk z IV wieku pisząc o zabójstwie Hannibalianusa i innych krewnych Konstantyna Wielkiego napisał, że "Konstancjusz raczej nań przyzwolił niż nakazał"). +Albus Dumbledore + +Albus Percival Wulfryk Brian Dumbledore (ur. w lipcu lub sierpniu 1881, zm. prawdopodobnie 28 czerwca 1997) – postać fikcyjna występująca w serii książek o Harrym Potterze autorstwa angielskiej pisarki Joanne K. Rowling. +Dumbledore był dyrektorem Szkoły Magii i Czarodziejstwa w Hogwarcie i zarazem najpotężniejszym czarodziejem swoich czasów (tylko jego lękał się Lord Voldemort). Albus został mianowany dyrektorem szkoły po odejściu na emeryturę Armando Dippeta. Wcześniej Dumbledore był tam nauczycielem transmutacji. Miał doskonałe poczucie humoru i nie przejmował się złymi opiniami na swój temat. Lubił muzykę kameralną i kręgle. Nie przepadał za fasolkami Bertiego Botta, ponieważ w młodości trafił na fasolkę o smaku wymiocin. Jego ulubiona konfitura miała smak malin. Posiadał feniksa, którego nazwał Fawkes. Kształt feniksa miał też jego patronus. Najlepszym przyjacielem Albusa w okresie jego młodości był Elfias Doge. +Dumbledore miał długie, w młodości kasztanowe włosy. Na świat patrzył niebieskimi oczami zza osadzonych na haczykowatym nosie okularów-połówek. Jak twierdził, blizna na jego kolanie była dokładnym planem londyńskiego metra. +W ekranizacjach pierwszych dwóch części, profesora Dumbledore grał Richard Harris, który jednak zmarł w 2002 roku. W kolejnych filmach zastąpił go Michael Gambon. +Rodzina i pierwsze lata w szkole. +Albus urodził się w rodzinie czarodziejów. Wraz z młodszym rodzeństwem, Aberfothem i Arianą oraz rodzicami, Kendrą i Percivalem, mieszkał w otoczeniu mugoli, co doprowadziło do tragedii. Kiedy Albus miał dziesięć lat, jego młodsza siostra została zaatakowana przez trzech mugolskich chłopców, którzy zobaczyli jak nieświadomie uprawia czary. Atak wywołał u niej ogromną traumę. Ariana, bojąc się siebie i swojej mocy, przestała jej używać, przez większość czasu pozostawała nieobecna duchem. Jej moc znajdowała ujście w losowych, niekontrolowanych wybuchach, co czyniło ją niebezpieczną dla siebie i innych, przez co potrzebowała stałej opieki. Percival, nie czekając na wymierzenie oprawcom jego córki sprawiedliwości, dokonał na nich samosądu, za co trafił do Azkabanu do końca życia. +Incydent ten odbił się szerokim echem w społeczności czarodziejów i zła sława ojca wpłynęła na pierwsze kroki syna w Hogwarcie. Młody Dumbledore, znając motywy i czyny swojego ojca, pomimo wielu pytań i zaczepek, unikał rozmów na jego temat. Szybko zaprzyjaźnił się z Elfiasem Dogem, również odrzuconym przez grupę kolegów z roku. Z czasem jednak własne umiejętności Albusa przyćmiły złą reputację jego ojca i pod koniec pierwszego roku nauki nikt nie traktował go jak syna wroga mugoli, ale jak najlepszego ucznia w historii szkoły. +Albus zdobywał nagrody i korespondował ze znakomitymi czarodziejami, takimi jak alchemik Nicolas Flamel, wybitna historyczka Bathilda Bagshot oraz teoretyk magii Adalbert Waffling. Sporo szkolnych wypracowań Albusa trafiło do naukowych pism, takich jak "Transmutacja Współczesna", "Horyzonty Zaklęć", czy "Eliksirotwórstwo Praktyczne". Wróżono mu karierę Ministra Magii, ale sam Albus nigdy nie interesował się polityką – od zawsze pragnął nauczać. +Powiązania z Gellertem Grindelwaldem. +Po skończeniu szkoły Albus pragnął wyruszyć w podróż po świecie, aby odwiedzić i obserwować czarodziejów z innych krajów. Do zmiany planów zmusiła go wiadomość o śmierci matki. Albus został jedynym żywicielem rodziny i postanowił wrócić do domu, aby zaopiekować się chorą siostrą i tym samym umożliwić swojemu bratu ukończenie szkoły. +Wkrótce po śmierci jego matki, do zamieszkiwanej przez Dumbledore'a Doliny Godryka wprowadził się Gellert Grindelwald, który zamieszkał u swojej ciotecznej babki, Bathildy Bagshot. Albus i Gellert, nie tylko jako jedyni młodzi czarodzieje w okolicy, ale również jako dwóch wybitnych ludzi, szybko przypadli sobie do gustu i zaczęli spędzać razem coraz więcej czasu. Choć nie zostało to sprecyzowane w książkach, w jednym z wywiadów Rowling powiedziała, że Dumbledore był homoseksualistą i zakochał się w Gellercie. Razem byli głęboko zafascynowani Insygniami Śmierci, które mieli zamiar odszukać i wykorzystać do podporządkowania mugoli czarodziejom, jak mówił Dumbledore, "dla większego dobra". +Wkrótce w domu rodzinnym pojawił się Aberforth, niezadowolony z poczynań brata, zdecydowany rzucić szkołę, żeby móc zająć się siostrą. Pomiędzy braćmi i obecnym wówczas w domu Dumbledore'ów Grindelwaldem wybuchła kłótnia, której świadkiem była Ariana. Przestraszona dziewczynka straciła panowanie nad swoją mocą. Dokładne okoliczności jej śmierci nie są znane – wiadomo tylko, że wszyscy obecni użyli zaklęć i któreś z nich zabiło dziewczynę. +Po tym wydarzeniu drogi Dumbledore'a i Grindelwalda rozeszły się na dobre – Gellert utrzymywał, że tragedia nie była ich winą, natomiast Albus zadręczał się wyrzutami sumienia. Po ich ostatniej kłótni Gellert wyjechał z Doliny Godryka. Ochłodziły się również stosunki obu braci – Aberforth zarzucał Albusowi, że ich siostra zginęła z powodu jego zbyt wysokiego mniemania o sobie. Na pogrzebie Ariany brat Albusa złamał mu nos, Dumbledore nawet się nie bronił. +Walka z Lordem Voldemortem. +Był jedyną osobą, której lękał się Lord Voldemort. Założył Zakon Feniksa, który miał na celu pokrzyżowanie planów Czarnego Pana. +W Harry Potter i Komnata Tajemnic udało mu się pozyskać zniszczony dziennik Riddl'a, który był jednym z horkruksów. +Pojedynkował się z Lordem Voldemortem podczas ucieczki tego drugiego z Ministerstwa Magii po próbie wykradnięcia przepowiedni – starcie nie zostało rozstrzygnięte z powodu pojawienia się aurorów i ucieczki Voldemorta. +W szóstej części rozpoczął poszukiwania horkruksów swojego największego wroga. Zdołał znaleźć i zniszczyć pierścień Marvolo Gaunta. Mimo wiedzy o klątwach ciążących na pierścieniu, założył go z powodu chęci spotkania z rodziną (w pierścień wprawiony był Kamień Wskrzeszenia). Severusowi Snape'owi udało się zatrzymać tymczasowo klątwę w uschniętej ręce, jednak Dumbledore'owi został tylko rok życia, gdyż skutki klątwy postępowały dalej, aby objąć w końcu całe ciało. Była to pośrednia przyczyna jego śmierci. Podczas poszukiwania medalionu, mającego być jednym z sześciu horkruksów Voldemorta, Dumbledore był zmuszony wypić szkodliwy Eliksir Rozpaczy. Stało się to drugą pośrednią przyczyną jego śmierci. Osłabiony i wyniszczony, nie był w stanie obronić się (jak myśleli wszyscy) przed śmiertelnym zaklęciem Avada Kedavra wymierzonym przez Severusa Snape’a. +Z 7. tomu dowiadujemy się jednak o tym, że to Albus polecił Snape'owi zabić siebie, zanim zrobi to Draco Malfoy. +Osiągnięcia. +Założyciel Zakonu Feniksa, po reaktywacji działającego w tajemnicy przed Ministerstwem Magii z jednej strony, a Lordem Voldemortem z drugiej. Albus Dumbledore znany jest ze zwycięstwa nad czarnoksiężnikiem Grindelwaldem w 1945 roku, z odkrycia dwunastu sposobów wykorzystywania smoczej krwi oraz ze swoich dzieł alchemicznych napisanych wraz z Nicolasem Flamelem. Zasiadał w Wizengamocie, był najznamienitszą postacią Międzynarodowej Konfederacji Czarodziejów, posiadał również Order Merlina Pierwszej Klasy. Wielokrotnie odmawiał propozycji przyjęcia posady Ministra Magii. +Data śmierci. +Na swojej oficjalnej stronie Rowling podaje, że Dumbledore żył w latach 1881-1996. Na tej samej jednak stronie podaje, że Harry Potter urodził się w 1980 roku, co podaje w wątpliwość datę śmierci Dumbledore'a. +Jeżeli Harry urodził się w 1980 roku, to jedenaście lat skończył w roku 1991 – i to byłby rok, w którym rozpoczyna pierwszy rok nauki w Hogwarcie i w którym zaczyna się właściwa akcja serii. Podążając tym tropem, akcja szóstego tomu, kończącego się śmiercią Dumbledore'a, rozpoczyna się w lipcu 1996 roku – dacie śmierci Dumbledore'a według Rowling. Jednakże według tych rachunków, Dumbledore umiera w czerwcu 1997 roku, a nie 1996. Obliczenia wydają się być poprawne, zgadzają się z najsolidniejszym dostępnym punktem odniesienia w serii (czyli datą śmierci Prawie Bezgłowego Nicka zamieszczoną w drugim tomie) i z innymi ujawnionymi przez Rowling datami. +Podejrzewa się, że zła data wynika z pośpiechu Rowling, jest literówką lub błędem w obliczeniach. +Inne. +W Harrym Potterze i Insygniach Śmierci, Rita Skeeter – dziennikarka "Proroka Codziennego" napisała książkę "Życie i kłamstwa Albusa Dumbledore'a", w której to oczerniła wielkiego profesora. +Ferdinand Foch + +Ferdinand Foch (ur. 2 października 1851 w Tarbes, zm. 20 marca 1929 w Paryżu) – francuski dowódca i teoretyk wojskowy, dowódca wyższych związków taktycznych armii francuskiej, marszałek Francji (1918), Field Marshal Wielkiej Brytanii (1919) i Marszałek Polski (1923), szef Sztabu Generalnego, przewodniczący Rady Wojennej Sprzymierzonych, naczelny wódz Sił Sprzymierzonych. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Urodził się 2 października 1851 w Tarbes – miejscowości leżącej w rejonie Midi-Pyrénées, w departamencie Hautes-Pyrénées u podnóża Pirenejów. Syn urzędnika, prawnuk oficera z armii Napoleona Bonaparte, wychowywany był w atmosferze kultu tradycji napoleońskich. Kształcił się w jezuickich kolegiach św. Michała w Saint-Étienne i św. Klemensa w Metz. Po rozpoczęciu wojny francusko-pruskiej w 1870 wstąpił ochotniczo do wojska do 4. Pułku Piechoty, ale nie brał udziału w działaniach bojowych. Zdemobilizowany w marcu 1871 rozpoczął naukę w politechnice w Paryżu. +Służba wojskowa. +Ukończył Oficerską Szkołę Inżynieryjną Artylerii. Stopień oficerski otrzymał we wrześniu 1874, służąc w 24. Pułku Artylerii. W 1887 ukończył Akademię Sztabu Generalnego (ASG). W latach 1887–1889 służył w 3. Oddziale Sztabu Generalnego. Od 1890 był wykładowcą strategii ogólnej w ASG. Napisał szereg rozpraw wojskowo teoretycznych o wykorzystaniu taktyki Napoleona we współczesnych warunkach. W latach 1895–1901 profesor ASG, w 1901 odwołany za klerykalizm. Potem pomocnik dowódcy 20. Pułku Artylerii. +Znany był z głębokiego przywiązania do wiary katolickiej, co w świeckiej Francji było nierzadko przeszkodą w zrobieniu kariery wojskowej. Mimo to został w 1903 awansowany do stopnia pułkownika i objął dowództwo 35. Pułku Artylerii. Od 1905 generał brygady z wyznaczeniem na komendanta ASG. Od 1911 dowódca 14. Dywizji, od 1912 – 8. Korpusu Armijnego (KA), a od 1913 – 20. Korpusu Armijnego, na czele którego rozpoczął udział w I wojnie światowej w składzie 2. Armii. +I wojna światowa. +Od 28 sierpnia 1914 dowódca Grupy Armijnej w składzie 9. i 11. KA, 42. Dywizji Piechoty i 2. Dywizji Kawalerii. 4 września tego roku grupa ta została przemianowana w 9. Armię. W czasie bitwy nad Marną dowodzona przez niego armia wykazała dużą waleczność i opór. 4 października wyznaczony na pomocnika Naczelnego Dowódcy gen. Josepha Joffre'a, z zadaniem koordynowania działań wszystkich armii działających na północy Francji. +Będąc w czasie I wojny światowej zwolennikiem działań ofensywnych, sprawił, że wielu żołnierzy z jego 20. Korpusu zginęło w sierpniu 1914 od ognia niemieckich karabinów maszynowych. W prowadzonych operacjach nie stosował manewru i prowadził operacje całym frontem, spychając wojska niemieckie na kolejne pozycje, co prowadziło do dużych strat w ludziach i technice, za co był krytykowany przez strategów jako zwolennik wojny pozycyjnej. +W listopadzie 1914 brał udział w bitwie pod Ypres, podczas której koordynował działania oddziałów sojuszniczych armii. W styczniu 1915 został wyznaczony na dowódcę Północnej Grupy Armii, z którą brał udział w operacjach zaczepnych m.in. dowodził ofensywą w Artois, a w okresie lipiec – listopad 1916 uczestniczył w bitwie nad Sommą. +Po odejściu ze stanowiska gen. Joffre'a w grudniu 1916 został zwolniony z obowiązków dowódczych i z grupą oficerów skierowany do opracowania planu działań w wypadku naruszenia neutralności Szwajcarii. W styczniu 1917 przedstawił projekt planu, który został zatwierdzony. Od stycznia do marca 1917 czasowo dowodził 7. i 8. Armią. W kwietniu 1917 przebywał z misją we Włoszech, gdzie uzgadniano warunki wejścia wojsk angielskich i francuskich do tego kraju, w wypadku konieczności. 5 maja 1917 wyznaczony na stanowisko szefa Sztabu Generalnego. W styczniu 1918, oprócz stanowiska szefa Sztabu Generalnego, został wyznaczony na przewodniczącego Rady Wojennej Sprzymierzonych. Od marca 1918 koordynator działań wojsk Sprzymierzonych na Zachodnim Froncie. We wrześniu 1918 przeprowadził udaną kontrofensywę nad Sommą, która zdecydowała o pokonaniu Niemiec. +W czasie kryzysu na froncie w marcu i maju 1918, kiedy wojska niemieckie zagrażały Paryżowi pokazał silny charakter, odwagę i gotowość do brania na siebie odpowiedzialności. Dzięki tym cechom doprowadził do zakończenia działań wojennych i zawarcia pokoju. Był głównym przedstawicielem Francji w rozmowach dotyczących zawieszenia broni w listopadzie 1918. Osobiście podyktował stronie niemieckiej warunki zawieszenia broni. +Jako naczelny wódz wszystkich sił Sprzymierzonych na froncie zachodnim podpisał w Compiègne rozejm kończący działania wojenne z Niemcami 11 litopada 1918 roku. Jego rola w ostatecznym zwycięstwie nad koalicją państw centralnych jest trudna do przecenienia. +Okres powojenny. +W latach 1918–1920 był jednym z organizatorów interwencji wojskowej w Rosji Radzieckiej. Od 1919 prezydent Wyższej Rady Wojennej. +Był nieprzejednanym wrogiem Niemiec, dążył do ostatecznego ich zniszczenia, by już więcej nie zagrażały Europie. Planował wspólne uderzenie wraz z Polską na Niemcy, które miało polegać na "przecięciu" Niemiec na pół, a potem osobno pacyfikować część północną i południową. +Autor: "O prowadzeniu wojny", "Wspomnienia (wojna 1914–1918)". Gdy podpisano traktat wersalski wypowiedział się o nim następująco: ""To nie pokój, lecz zawieszenie broni na dwadzieścia lat"". +Zmarł 20 marca 1929, w wieku 78 lat w Paryżu. Został pochowany w paryskim Kościele Inwalidów. Mowę pogrzebową wygłosił francuski prezydent czasu wojny Raymond Poincaré. +Związki z Polską. +Foch znany był jako przyjaciel Polski. Swą zdecydowaną postawą (m.in. groźbą interwencji zbrojnej) wymusił na rządzie niemieckim przerwanie kontrofensywy przeciwko powstańcom wielkopolskim. +""Znajduję się na tej ziemi francuskiej, zaprzyjaźnionej z Polską, którą z radością reprezentuję, w charakterze Prezydenta Republiki. Jednakże w obecności Wielkiego Wodza, który potrafił odnieść zwycięstwo wśród najtrudniejszych warunków, nie mogę zapomnieć, że jestem żołnierzem. Jako żołnierz podziwiałem i podziwiam olbrzymie dzieło, jakiego dokonałeś, biorąc na swoje barki tak olbrzymią odpowiedzialność. I dlatego dziś z uczuciem głębokiej radości ofiaruję Ci krzyż „Virtuti Militari”, ten krzyż, który jest mi tak drogi, a który nosiłem na swojej piersi, jako Naczelny Wódz Armii Polskiej."" +Ferdinand Foch otrzymał 13 kwietnia 1923 r. dekretem prezydenta RP stopień Marszałka Polski, na wniosek ministra Spraw Wojskowych gen. dyw. Kazimierza Sosnkowskiego i premiera rządu gen. dyw. Władysława Sikorskiego. 15 kwietnia 1923 r. wręczenia nominacji dokonał w imieniu prezydenta RP gen. K. Sosnkowski. Również 15 kwietnia został odznaczony Krzyżem Wielkim Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari i Orderem Orła Białego, ale Order Virtuti Militari został wręczony marszałkowi 4 maja podczas uroczystości w Belwederze. +11 maja 1922 r. odbyła się w auli Politechniki Lwowskiej uroczystość nadania doktoratu honoris causa marszałkowi Francji Ferdinandowi Fochowi. Wydarzeniu temu nadano szczególnie uroczysty charakter, całe grono wystąpiło we frakach, u wrót uczelni witali Focha rektor Julian Fabiański i prorektor Maksymilian Tytus Huber, oni też w auli wygłosili odpowiednie przemówienia. W imieniu młodzieży przemawiał, w mundurze kapitana Wojska Polskiego, były prezes Bratniej Pomocy, Jan Nawrocki. Kiedy marszałek opuszczał gmach, rozentuzjazmowana młodzież studencka wyprzęgła konie i pociągnęła karetę przy pomocy lin ulicami Sapiehy i Kopernika, wśród wiwatujących gęstych szpalerów ludności do ratusza, gdzie dostojnemu gościowi nadano obywatelstwo honorowe Lwowa. +Otrzymał także tytuły doktora honoris causa Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego (1918), Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (1921) oraz Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego (1923). Od 26 kwietnia 1923 jest również Honorowym Obywatelem Grudziądza, mimo iż nigdy w tym mieście nie był. Tytuł uzyskał w uznaniu zasług dla armii gen. Józefa Hallera. +Upamiętnienie. +Imieniem Ferdynanda Focha nazwano francuskie ulice m.in. w: Paryżu i Nicei oraz polskie w: Bydgoszczy, Chrzanowie, Gdańsku, Gdyni, Częstochowie, Grudziądzu, Krakowie, Nowym Dworze Mazowieckim, Ostrowcu Świętokrzyskim, Poznaniu (obecnie Głogowska), Pruszkowie, Przemyślu i Radomiu. +Przed II wojną światową ulicę marsz. Ferdynanda Focha posiadała również Warszawa. Po blisko 60 latach stolica Polski ma ponownie ulicę, której patronem jest marszałek – taką decyzję w styczniu 2010 r. podjeli stołeczni radni, a 1 czerwca 2010 prezydent Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz i ambasador Francji Francois Barry Delongchamps uroczyście nadali nazwę ulicy Focha przedłużeniu ul. Trębackiej do Ossolińskich. +Na wniosek francuskiego personelu kopalni Knurów w dniu 17 września 1922 r. szyb IV nazwano imieniem marszałka. Kopalnie tę po 2000 roku połączono z sąsiednią Kopalnią Węgla Kamiennego Szczygłowice. Obecnie jako Knurów-Sczygłowice, wchodzi w skład Kompanii Węglowej S.A. +Imieniem marszałka Focha nazwano okręt Francuskiej Marynarki Wojennej – lotniskowiec typu Clemenceau – Foch (R 99). +Pomniki konne marszałka znajdują się m.in. w Cassel, na Trocadéro w Paryżu, w Tarbes oraz w Londynie. Pełnopostaciowy kamienny monument znajduje się również w Compiègne. +Chris Slade + +Chris Slade (ur. 30 października 1946 w Pontypridd) – brytyjski muzyk rockowy, perkusista. +Współpracował z takimi zespołami jak Manfred Mann's Earth Band, Asia, Uriah Heep, The Firm, AC/DC oraz muzykami Davidem Gilmourem, Garym Numanem, Tomem Jonesem, Frankie Millerem, Mickem Rogersem, Colinem Patrendenem. +9 Pułk Artylerii Ciężkiej (II RP) + +9 Pułk Artylerii Ciężkiej (9 pac) – oddział artylerii ciężkiej Wojska Polskiego II RP. +Pułk w okresie pokoju. +Pułk został sformowany 8 września 1922 roku z połączenia I dywizjonu 9 Pułku Artylerii Ciężkiej, 30 Syberyjskiego Dywizjonu Artylerii Ciężkiej i III dywizjonu 8 Pułku Artylerii Ciężkiej, które w latach 1919–1920 brały udział w wojnie z bolszewikami. +Oddział stacjonował w garnizonie Siedlce, a później Włodawa, natomiast I dywizjon był detaszowany w garnizonie Brześć (Okręg Korpusu Nr IX). +Pułk podporządkowany był szefowi Artylerii i Uzbrojenia OK Nr IX, a od 1929 roku dowódcy 9 Grupa Artylerii. +Pierwotnie Święto pułku było obchodzone 29 czerwca, w rocznicę utworzenia I dywizjonu, a następnie w dniu 8 września, w rocznicę połączenia dywizjonów. +Pułk w kampanii wrześniowej. +Mobilizacja pułku w sierpniu 1939 roku +Działania bojowe +Pułk w składzie dwóch dywizjonów na początku września 1939 został skierowany do obrony Warszawy. w nocy z 5 na 6 września do stolicy dotarło jedynie dowództwo i trzecia bateria. Po dwóch dniach przyjechały pozostałe baterie I dywizjonu. Dywizjon wszedł w skład obrony odcinka "Warszawa-Zachód", a dowódcy 9 pac powierzono dowodzenie artylerią odcinka. Tu 9 pac (bez II dac) walczył aż do kapitulacji Warszawy. +II/9 pac, z uwagi na zniszczenia na liniach kolejowych, nie dotarł do Warszawy i został skierowany do dyspozycji dowódcy Armii Lublin. W składzie tej armii walczył do końca kampanii wrześniowej. +Żołnierze pułku. +Dowódcy pułku +Obsada personalna we wrześniu 1939 +dowódca pułku - ppłk dypl. Adam Dzianott, (VM) +Odznaczeni srebrnym krzyżem Orderu „Virtuti Militari” V klasy Spis utworzony na podstawie "Zarys historji wojennej 9-go pułku artylerii ciężkiej" s. 40 +Czesław Centkiewicz + +Czesław Jacek Centkiewicz (ur. 18 października 1904 w Warszawie, zm. 10 lipca 1996 także w Warszawie) – polski pisarz, reportażysta, podróżnik. +Biografia. +Syn Stanisława Centkiewicza i Stanisławy Bresteczer. Ukończył Gimnazjum św. Kazimierza w Warszawie (1924), następnie Institut Superieur w Liege (Belgia). W 1920 r. jako żołnierz Armii Ochotniczej brał udział w wojnie przeciw bolszewikom. Z zawodu inżynier elektryk. Był autorem prac naukowych z zakresu radiometeorologii i elektrotechniki. W 1932/1933 r. kierował pierwszą polską wyprawą polarną na Wyspę Niedźwiedzią. W latach 1934-1939 pracował w Obserwatorium Aerologicznym Państwowego Instytutu Meteorologicznego w Legionowie. +W młodości z powodzeniem uprawiał lekkoatletykę, zdobył m.in. srebrny medal mistrzostw Polski seniorów (Warszawa 1925) w biegu przełajowym na dystansie około 10 kilometrów. +Po powstaniu warszawskim trafił do obozu koncentracyjnego Neuengamme koło Hamburga. Pracował po wojnie jako dyrektor techniczny Zjednoczenia Energetycznego Okręgu Dolnośląskiego w Jeleniej Górze oraz w Państwowym Instytucie Hydrologiczno-Meteorologicznym. W 1950 r. osiadł w Legionowie, gdzie podjął pracę w Obserwatorium Meteorologicznym PIHM. W drugiej połowie 1955 r. przeprowadził się wraz z żoną na Saską Kępę w Warszawie. Działał w Związku Literatów Polskich, pełnił m.in. funkcję jego wiceprezesa. Był autorem szeregu powieści młodzieżowych i reportażowych poświęconych terenom podbiegunowym; większość z utworów napisał wspólnie z żoną Aliną (1907–1993). Otrzymał wiele nagród literackich – nagrodę Prezesa Rady Ministrów (1955), nagrodę marynistyczną im. Zaruskiego (1963), nagrodę I stopnia Ministra Kultury i Sztuki (1969). +Kawaler Orderu Uśmiechu (1970). 21 lipca 1972 roku odznaczony Orderem Sztandaru Pracy I. klasy. +26 września 2012 otrzymał pośmiertnie tytuł Honorowego Obywatela Miasta Legionowo. +Władysław Marcinkowski + +Władysław Marcinkowski (ur. 16 czerwca 1858 w Mieszkowie, zm. 10 grudnia 1947 w Poznaniu), rzeźbiarz polski. +Był synem szewca. Pierwsze nauki w kierunku rzeźby pobierał w Wieczorowej Szkole Rysunków i Modelowania w Poznaniu pod kierunkiem Mariana Jaroczyńskiego, następnie studiował w Berlinie i Paryżu. Jednym z jego nauczycieli w Paryżu był Cyprian Godebski. W okresie paryskim, a następnie berlińskim (osiadł w Berlinie około 1890), utrzymywał kontakty z mieszkającymi na emigracji Polakami, szczególnie artystami, wielokrotnie wykonując rzeźby portretowe. Brał także udział w Salonach paryskich oraz konkursach rozpisywanych w Polsce (konkursy na medaliony wieszczów rozpisane przez Poznańskie Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk, konkurs na fontannę przed gmachem Zachęty w Warszawie - II nagroda w 1900, konkurs na pomnik Chopina w Warszawie - II nagroda w 1909). Ok. 1905 przeniósł się do Sowińca, gdzie zarządzał majątkiem rodu Taczanowskich oraz pracował we własnym atelier rzeźbiarskim. +Był członkiem Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Sztuk Pięknych w Poznaniu, członkiem jego władz i stałego jury konkursowego. Działał także w Stowarzyszeniu Artystów Wielkopolskich. Od 1914 mieszkał na stałe w Poznaniu; miał własną pracownię, a w latach 1926-1939 był dyrektorem Wielkopolskiego Muzeum Wojskowego. W 1929 organizował Dział Sztuki na Powszechnej Wystawie Krajowej w Poznaniu. 50-lecie pracy artystycznej Marcinkowskiego zostało uczczone nagrodą artystyczną miasta Poznania w 1929. +Zasiłek + +Zasiłek - świadczenie pieniężne lub materialne wypłacane przez instytucje państwa i organizacje "non-profit" ich beneficjentom. W Polsce istnieje kilka rodzajów zasiłków, a głównymi instytucjami dystrybuującymi je są gminy za pomocą MOPS-ów (zasiłki z pomocy społecznej, zasiłek rodzinny, zasiłek pielęgnacyjny) oraz ZUS. +Zasiłek pogrzebowy. +Zasiłek pogrzebowy przysługuje rodzinie zmarłego w wysokości 200% przeciętnego wynagrodzenia. W okresie od marca do maja 2008 jego wysokość wynosiła 5799,66 zł a od grudnia 2010 do lutego 2011 wynosi 6406,16 złotych. Od 1 marca 2011 wynosić będzie 4000 zł. +Zasiłek chorobowy. +Ustawa z dnia 25 czerwca 1999 r. o świadczeniach pieniężnych z ubezpieczenia społecznego w razie choroby i macierzyństwa określa zasady ustalania prawa do zasiłków osób podlegających ubezpieczeniu chorobowemu ujętemu w ustawie z dnia 13 października 1998 r. o systemie ubezpieczeń społecznych. +Kodeks pracy stanowi, że pracownik niezdolny do pracy z powodu choroby lub odosobnienia w związku z chorobą zakaźną zachowuje prawo do wynagrodzenia, łącznie do 33 dni w roku kalendarzowym. Pracownik, który ukończył 50 rok życia w roku poprzedzającym okres niezdolności do pracy zachowuje prawo do wynagrodzenia przez 14 dni. +Okres wymienionych 33/14 dni ustala się sumując poszczególne okresy niezdolności do pracy w roku kalendarzowym, nawet w przypadku, jeśli występują pomiędzy nimi przerwy lub, gdy pracownik był w danym roku zatrudniony u więcej niż jednego pracodawcy. Jeżeli w roku kalendarzowym pracownik podejmuje dodatkowe zatrudnienie, do okresu 33/14 dni niezdolności do pracy, w którym zachowuje prawo do wypłaty wynagrodzenia, wliczone zostają okresy wypłaty wynagrodzenia przed podjęciem dodatkowego zatrudnienia. +Pracownik zyskuje prawo do zasiłku chorobowego finansowanego ze środków Funduszu Ubezpieczeń Społecznych począwszy od 34/15 dnia niezdolności do pracy w roku kalendarzowym. Zasiłek chorobowy przysługuje osobie ubezpieczonej, która stała się niezdolna do pracy w czasie trwania ubezpieczenia chorobowego. +Osoba ubezpieczona obowiązkowo nabywa prawa do zasiłku chorobowego po upływie 30 dni nieprzerwanego ubezpieczenia chorobowego, a wyjątkowo od początku zatrudnienia (np. wypadek w drodze do pracy lub ponad 10-letni staż w pracy). Ubezpieczony dobrowolnie zyskuje prawo do zasiłku po upływie 90 dni nieprzerwanego ubezpieczenia (Zmiana wprowadzona od 1 stycznia 2009 r.). +Prawo do zasiłku chorobowego nabyte po 30 dniach nie jest uzależnione od rodzaju zawartej przez pracownika umowy o pracę (Może to być umowa o pracę na okres próbny, na czas określony i na czas wykonania określonej pracy oraz na czas nieokreślony.). Niezdolność do pracy spowodowana chorobą w czasie wyczekiwania na nabycie prawa do zasiłku chorobowego traktowana jest na równi z okresem ubezpieczenia chorobowego – nie ulega wyłączeniu. Do okresu wyczekiwania zalicza się poprzednie okresy podlegania ubezpieczeniu chorobowemu, jeżeli przerwa między nimi nie przekroczyła 30 dni lub była spowodowana urlopem wychowawczym, urlopem bezpłatnym albo odbywaniem czynnej służby wojskowej przez żołnierza niezawodowego. Prawo do zasiłku chorobowego bez okresu wyczekiwania mają osoby posiadające minimalnie 10-letni okres ubezpieczenia, jeśli podlegają ubezpieczeniu obowiązkowemu oraz wymagany okres ubezpieczenia miał charakter obowiązkowy. Nie wlicza się do wymaganego czasu ubezpieczenia okresu urlopu wychowawczego i bezpłatnego oraz okresu pozostawania zarejestrowanym jako bezrobotny. +Absolwentom szkół wyższych zasiłek chorobowy przysługuje od pierwszego dnia ubezpieczenia chorobowego, jeżeli zostali objęci ubezpieczeniem chorobowym lub przystąpili do ubezpieczenia chorobowego w ciągu 90 dni od daty ukończenia szkoły (data podana na świadectwie lub data egzaminu dyplomowego). +Okres zasiłkowy wynosi maksymalnie 182 dni (Jeżeli niezdolność do pracy jest spowodowana gruźlicą literowy „D” w zaświadczeniu o czasowej niezdolności do pracy okres zasiłkowy może być przedłużony do 270 dni. Od 1 stycznia 2009 r. również ubezpieczone, których niezdolność do pracy przypada na okres ciąży mają prawo do zasiłku chorobowego przez okres do 270 dni.). +Prawo do zasiłku chorobowego nie przysługuje za okres pierwszych 5 dni niezdolności do pracy, jeżeli w zaświadczeniu o czasowej niezdolności do pracy zamieszczony jest kod literowy „C” lub, jeżeli w odpowiednim postępowaniu zostanie ustalone, że niezdolność ta została spowodowana nadużyciem alkoholu. +Jeżeli każdy miesiąc został przepracowany w wymiarze mniejszym niż połowa obowiązującego czasu pracy, ale przyczyny takiej sytuacji są usprawiedliwione, należy przyjąć do podstawy wymiary zasiłku wszystkie miesiące uzupełnione do pełnej wysokości. +Składniki wynagrodzenia wypłacane kwartalnie uwzględnia się w podstawie wymiaru zasiłku w wysokości 1/12 kwot wypłaconych pracownikowi za cztery kwartały kalendarzowe poprzedzające miesiąc, w którym powstała niezdolność do pracy. Składniki wypłacane za okresy roczne uwzględnia się w podstawie wymiaru zasiłku chorobowego w wysokości 1/12 kwoty wypłaconej pracownikowi za rok kalendarzowy poprzedzający miesiąc, w którym powstała niezdolność do pracy. Nie uwzględnia się podstawie wymiaru składników wynagrodzenia, do których pracownik zachowuje prawo w okresie pobierania zasiłku. Składniki te są uwzględniane w podstawie wymiaru zasiłku, który przysługuje za okres po ustaniu zatrudnienia. +Dla pracowników zatrudnionych w pełnym wymiarze czasu pracy podstawa wymiaru nie może być niższa niż proporcjonalna do stażu pracy kwota minimalnego wynagrodzenia, po odliczeniu 13,71% wymienionego wynagrodzenia (Jeżeli zasiłek przysługuje pracownikowi w okresie po dniu 31 grudnia 2007 r.). +Dla osób niebędących pracownikami podstawą do obliczenia kwoty zasiłku jest przeciętny miesięczny przychód, od którego opłacana jest składka na ubezpieczenie chorobowe lub wypadkowe, za okres 12 miesięcy kalendarzowych poprzedzających powstanie niezdolności do pracy lub, jeżeli niezdolność nastąpiła przed upływem wymaganego okresu, za pełne miesiące kalendarzowe z okresu podlegania ubezpieczeniu, po odliczeniu 13,71% podstawy wymiaru składek na ubezpieczenie (Gdy uwzględnia się przychód po dniu 31 grudnia 2007 r.). +Wpłata zasiłku chorobowego w wysokości 100% podstawy wymiaru z tytułu niezdolności do pracy przypadającej na okres ciąży jest związana z koniecznością okazania zaświadczenia lekarskiego o czasowej niezdolności do pracy z kodem literowym „B” lub odrębnego zaświadczenia stwierdzającego stan ciąży. +Wypłata zasiłku chorobowego w wysokości 100% podstawy z tytułu niemożności wykonywania pracy wskutek poddania się niezbędnym badaniom lekarskim przewidzianym dla kandydatów na dawców komórek, tkanek i narządów oraz niezdolności do pracy wskutek poddania się zabiegowi pobrania komórek, tkanek i narządów wymaga dodatkowego zaświadczenia wystawionego przez lekarza na zwykłym druku. +Jeżeli przyczyną niezdolności do pracy jest wypadek w drodze do pracy lub z pracy, zasiłek chorobowy w wysokości 100% wypłaca się na podstawie dokumentów potwierdzających. Jeżeli niezdolność do pracy wynika z późniejszych następstw zaistniałych w stanie zdrowia w związku z wcześniej stwierdzonym wypadkiem w drodze do pracy lub z pracy, zasiłek chorobowy przysługuje w wysokości 100% podstawy wymiaru. Związek tej niezdolności z wypadkiem powinien być potwierdzony zaświadczeniem lekarskim. +Jeśli występują okoliczności uprawniające do zasiłku chorobowego w wysokości 100% podstawy wymiaru, a zasiłek przysługuje z więcej niż jednego tytułu, zasiłek chorobowy przysługuje w tej wysokości z każdego z tych tytułów. +Zaświadczenie lekarskie stwierdzające czasową niezdolność do pracy należy dostarczyć płatnikowi zasiłku lub płatnikowi składek w ciągu 7 dni od daty otrzymania, bez uwzględniania dnia, w którym ubezpieczony otrzymał zaświadczenie. +W przypadku późniejszego, niż jest to wymagane, terminu dostarczenia zaświadczenia, zasiłek ulega obniżeniu o 25% za okres od ósmego dnia orzeczonej przez lekarza niezdolności. Zasady nie stosuje się, jeżeli niedostarczenie zaświadczenia w wymaganym terminie nastąpiło z przyczyn niezależnych od ubezpieczonego. +Jeżeli pracownik po wykorzystaniu okresu zasiłkowego pozostanie niezdolny do pracy, ale dalsze leczenie i rehabilitacja rokują odzyskanie zdolności do pracy, przysługuje mu świadczenie rehabilitacyjne. Przyznanie świadczenia orzeka lekarz orzecznik oddziału ZUS. Świadczenie rehabilitacyjne przysługuje ubezpieczonemu, który został skierowany na badanie przez lekarza orzecznika ZUS w celu przyznania renty z tytułu niezdolności do pracy, a lekarz orzekł, że rokuje on odzyskanie zdolności do pracy. +Podstawa wymiaru zasiłku w przypadku wypłat świadczenia rehabilitacyjnego ulega waloryzacji wskaźnikiem waloryzacji obowiązującym w kwartale, w którym wypada pierwszy dzień okresu świadczenia. +Zasiłek dla bezrobotnych. +Bezrobotni otrzymują zasiłek w wysokości 742,10 zł brutto przez pierwsze 3 miesiące i 582,70 zł brutto przez resztę uprawnionego okresu. Wyższy zasiłek otrzymają także ci bezrobotni, którym przyznano go do końca ubiegłego roku. Od 1 czerwca będą pobierali 595,20 zł (dotychczas 575,00 zł). Są to kwoty bazowe. Bezrobotny ma niższą stawkę (80%), jeśli jego staż pracy jest mniejszy niż 5 lat, i wyższą stawkę (120%), jeśli jego staż przekracza 20 lat. Okres pobierania zasiłku zależy od stopy bezrobocia w danym powiecie. Jeśli jest on niższy od 150% średniej krajowej stopy bezrobocia to okres ten wynosi 6 miesięcy (w innym wypadku wynosi on 12 miesięcy). Zasiłek jest wypłacany zawsze przez 12 miesięcy, jeśli bezrobotny ma więcej niż 50 lat i ma 20 lat stażu (pełnych składek). +Zasiłek przysługuje tylko tym osobom, które maja urzędowy status bezrobotnego, nie mogą znaleźć zatrudnienia odpowiadającego kwalifikacjom oraz płaciły przez 365 dni w ostatnich 18 miesiącach pełne składki na Fundusz Pracy (lub w tych terminach pracowały w innych krajach Unii Europejskiej). +Nauczycielski. +Nauczyciele którzy zakończyli pracę z powodów osobistych przed 1995 r. lub szybciej niż po 5 latach pracy, nie otrzymują zasiłku. +Spycharka + +Spycharka – potocznie nazywana spychaczem – jest jedną z najbardziej powszechnych maszyn do robót ziemnych, służącą do odspajania gruntu od podłoża lemieszem (odspojony grunt nazywamy urobkiem) i przesuwania urobku bezpośrednio po podłożu na nieduże odległości. Stosowana przy wykonywaniu wykopów, hałd, nasypów, profilowaniu i niwelowaniu podłoży, plantowaniu terenu i skrawaniu gruntu warstwami itd. Wynaleziona została w USA w 1923 przez J. Earl McLeod'a. +Ciężka spycharka gąsienicowa (spychacz) o bardzo dużym lemieszu, silniku o dużej mocy i dużej sile przesuwania (mogąca bez trudności np. zburzyć dom czy holować ciężki czołg) nazywa się potocznie buldożerem. +Podział spycharek. +Podział spycharek ze względu na sposób sterowania lemieszem. +-Podzial spycharek ze wzgledu na sposób przekazania napedu-*mechaniczne(sprzeglo cierne)*hydrauleczne- a te z kolei dzielimy na *hydrokinetyczne (zmiennik momentu obrotoweg) i *hydrostatyczne (silnik-zmiennik momentu-pompa hydrauliczna-silniki chydrauliczne napedzaja gąsienice) +Praca spycharek. +formula_1 +Wydajność spycharki. +Wydajność zależna jest od technologii pracy, wymiarów lemiesza, mocy ciągnika, rodzaju gruntu i pochylenia terenu oraz siły naporu spycharki. Czynnikiem decydującym jest cykl pracy. +Cykl pracy spycharki. +formula_2 +formula_4 +Efektywny czas pracy. +kc = Tn/60 +W normalnych warunkach przyjmuje się do kalkulacji kc = 0,80 +John Kluge + +John Werner Kluge (ur. 21 września 1914 w Chemnitz, Niemcy, zm. 7 września 2010 w Charlottesville) – amerykański przedsiębiorca, potentat mediowy, klasyfikowany na 35. miejscu na liście najbogatszych ludzi na świecie. +Najważniejszym posunięciem finansowym Johna Klugego był zakup akcji Metropolitan Broadcasting Company w połowie lat 50. XX w., które to przedsiębiorstwo rozpoczęło inwestycje w przemysł telewizyjny. John Kluge przyciągnął inwestorów, a po przejęciu firmy przemianował ją na Metromedia. W kwietniu 1986 odsprzedał swoje akcje Rupertowi Murdochowi, który połączył Metromedia ze swoim Fox Network. Wartość sprzedaży oceniana była na 4 miliardy dolarów. W 1987 „Forbes Magazine” umieścił Klugego na szczycie listy najbogatszych ludzi w USA. Dziś majątek Johna Klugego oceniany jest na 10,5 miliarda dolarów. +W roku 2000 John Kluge przekazał Bibliotece Kongresu 60 milionów dolarów, ustanawiając nagrodę Biblioteki Kongresu USA, która nosi imię fundatora i ma ambicję stać się „humanistycznym Noblem”. +Maciej Krzeptowski + +Maciej Krzeptowski (ur. 1938 w Rabce) – doktor nauk przyrodniczych, biolog, żeglarz, kapitan jachtowy, podróżnik, członek JK AZS Szczecin i Bractwo Wybrzeża – Mesa Kaprów Polskich|Bractwa Wybrzeża]], prawnuk Sabały. Honorowy Ambasador Szczecina. +Życiorys. +Absolwent biologii Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego, tytuł doktora nauk przyrodniczych zdobył na Akademii Rolniczej w Szczecinie. +Żeglarstwo zaczął uprawiać w Jacht Klubie AZS w Poznaniu. Następnie pływał na jeziorze Miedwie (Pojezierze Zachodniopomorskie) i Pojezierzu Mazurskim, uczestniczył w rejsach po Bałtyku na jachtach Klubu Morskiego Pogoń oraz w Regatach Bermudzkich na „Darze Szczecina” (1972). +W latach 1972–1981 był zatrudniony na stanowisku ichtiologa w Morskim Instytucie Rybackim w Świnoujściu. Odbywał wówczas rejsy na łowiska Afryki Zachodniej oraz brał udział w Pierwszej Polskiej Morskiej Ekspedycji Antarktycznej 1975–1976. +W latach 2000–2003 prowadził jacht SY „Maria” ze zmieniającą się załogą w rejsie dookoła świata. Celem wyprawy, oprócz wyczynu żeglarskiego, było zebranie zbiorów muzealnych (geologicznych, przyrodniczych i etnograficznych) oraz prowadzenie badań naukowych w zakresie przyrody morza. Jacht zawinął do kilkudziesięciu portów morskich w 30 krajach. +Trasa okołoziemskiej podróży wiodła szlakiem Magellana przez Wyspy Zielonego Przylądka, Montevideo, Cieśninę Magellana, Kanały Patagonii, Castro, Validivia, Wyspę Robinsona Cruzoe, Armada de Chile, archipelagi: San Juan Fernandez, Markizy, Samoa i Tonga, Nową Zelandię (Auckland), Wielką Rafę Australijską, Cieśninę Torresa, Komory, Madagaskar, Durban, Przylądek Dobrej Nadziei, wyspę Św. Heleny, wyspy Fernando de Noronha, wyspy Salut (Gujana Francuska), Barbados na Karaibach i Azory z powrotem do Polski. +Autor wystaw muzealnych: „Przyroda morza”, „Polacy w wyprawach polarnych” i „"Marią" przez Pacyfik” (pracował wówczas w Muzeum Narodowym w Szczecinie). Autor książek: „Marią dookoła świata dwadzieścia lat później” i „Pół wieku i trzy oceany” +Wyróżniony (razem z Ludomirem Mączką) Kolosem 2003 w kategorii żeglarstwo za wyprawę "Marią" dookoła świata. +Od 2008 członek rady programowej Polskiej Fundacji Morskiej. +Olimpiada informatyczna + +Olimpiada informatyczna – olimpiada przedmiotowa powołana 10 grudnia 1993 roku przez Instytut Informatyki Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. Olimpiada organizowana jest corocznie od 1993 roku i skierowana do uczniów szkół średnich oraz gimnazjów. Zadania polegają na napisaniu programu komputerowego rozwiązującego określony problem algorytmiczny ukryty w treści podanego zadania. +W zadaniach określona jest relacja pomiędzy danymi wejściowymi a danymi wyjściowymi. Zawodnik musi opracować taki algorytm, by ta relacja została zachowana dla wszystkich danych z przedziałów określonych w zadaniu. Opracowany algorytm musi zostać zaimplementowany w jednym z trzech języków programowania: C, C++ lub Pascal. Jako efekt końcowy zawodnik udostępnia kod źródłowy swojego programu. +Organizatorzy dokonują sprawdzenia zadania w kilku krokach wykorzystując specjalne oprogramowanie. Najpierw kod zostaje skompilowany, a następnie sprawdzana zostaje poprawność działania programu na zbiorze danych testowych. W zależności od poprawności oraz czasu wykonania poszczególnych danych testowych przez program zostaje on odpowiednio oceniony. +Sprawozdanie z każdej olimpiady, treści zadań oraz ich rozwiązania wraz z omówieniem, co stanowi cenną lekturę dla uczestników, zawierają Niebieskie Książeczki, dostępne m.in. do pobrania z witryny olimpiady informatycznej. +Osiągnięcia międzynarodowe. +Laureaci olimpiady osiągali później sukcesy w konkursach na poziomie akademickim (ACM ICPC) oraz innych otwartych konkursach programistycznych o charakterze algorytmicznym, takich jak: Google Code Jam, Internet Problem Solving Contest, TopCoder, Codechef i innych. +Cezary Baroniusz + +Cezary Baroniusz, "Cesare Baronio" (ur. 31 października lub 30 sierpnia 1538 w Sora, zm. 30 czerwca 1607 w Rzymie) – Sługa Boży Kościoła katolickiego, kardynał włoski, historyk i hagiograf. +Studiował prawo w Neapolu i w Rzymie, obronił doktorat praw pod kierunkiem znanego prawnika kanonisty i cywilisty Cesare Costy. W 1557 poznał przyszłego świętego, Filipa Neri, założyciela zakonu oratorian. Wkrótce Baronius wstąpił do zakonu, pozostając bliskim współpracownikiem Neriego. W grudniu 1560 przyjął święcenia subdiakonatu, w maju 1561 diakonatu; 27 maja 1564 otrzymał święcenia kapłańskie. Nie przyjął nominacji na opata w rodzinnej Sorze, chcąc pozostać blisko osoby Neriego. Kontynuował pracę duszpasterską przy kościele S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini w Rzymie, a po zatwierdzeniu papieskim zakonu oratorian (1575) przy kościele rzymskim S. Maria in Vallicella. +Papież Grzegorz XIII powierzył mu zadanie rewizji katalogu męczenników pierwszych wieków chrześcijaństwa, czego owocem było dzieło Martyrologium Rzymskie ("Martyrologium Romanum", 1586). W 1593 Baroniusz zastąpił sędziwego Neriego na czele Kongregacji Oratorian, a rok później został spowiednikiem nowego papieża, Klemensa VIII. Klemens obdarzył go godnością protonotariusza apostolskiego (1595), a 5 czerwca 1596 mianował kardynałem, nadając tytuł prezbitera Ss. Nereo ed Achilleo. Od maja 1597 Baroniusz pełnił funkcję bibliotekarza watykańskiego. Otrzymał także tytuł opata komendatariusza S. Gregorio al Monte Celio w Rzymie (1602). +Cieszył się opinią wybitnego historyka chrześcijaństwa. Wiele lat pracował nad swoim najsłynniejszym dziełem, "Annales ecclesiasticia a Christo nato ad annum 1198", które w dwunastu tomach przedstawiało dzieje Kościoła od czasów Chrystusa do 1198. Tomy ukazywały się w latach 1588-1607, ostatni już po śmierci Baroniusza. +Brał udział w dwu konklawe 1605; na pierwszym z nich był poważnym kandydatem na papieża, ale jego ewentualnemu wyborowi sprzeciwiła się Hiszpania. Kardynał Baroniusz został pochowany w kościele Santa Maria in Vallicella w Rzymie. +Niewolnictwo w Stanach Zjednoczonych + +Niewolnictwo w Stanach Zjednoczonych zostało zapoczątkowane na kontynencie północnoamerykańskim w początkach XVII wieku, istniało we wszystkich koloniach angielskich aż do amerykańskiej wojny o niepodległość. +Delaware już w pierwszej swojej konstytucji z 1776 roku zakazało importu i sprzedaży niewolników na terenie stanu, w 1783 roku niewolnictwo zlikwidowano w Massachusetts. W Pensylwanii dzieci niewolników miały uzyskać wolność po ukończeniu 28 roku życia, podobnie w Connecticut i Rhode Island. W Nowym Jorku niewolników uwolniono w 1785 roku, a w 1786 roku w New Jersey. Ogólnokrajowy zakaz niewolnictwa w stanach północnych i północno-zachodnich uchwalił Kongres w 1787 roku. +Niewolnicy w stanach południowych. +Niewolnictwo utrzymało się jednak w stanach południowych, mimo iż pod koniec XVIII wieku zmalała gospodarcza potrzeba niewolnictwa. Dotychczasowa gospodarka Południa opierająca się na eksporcie tytoniu, indygo i ryżu, stawała się coraz mniej opłacalna. Zaczęło brakować pracy dla niewolników, a ich ceny spadały. Jednak na Południu bano się skutków uwolnienia niewolników. +W 1790 roku na 4 000 000 mieszkańców Stanów Zjednoczonych, 750 000 (blisko 20 procent ludności) stanowili Murzyni (w zdecydowanej większości - niewolnicy), a 90 procent z nich mieszkało na Południu. W Wirginii, Karolinie Południowej i Północnej, Georgii oraz Maryland – na ogólną liczbę 1 793 000 mieszkańców, aż 641 600 (ok. 36 procent) stanowili niewolnicy, a 32 000 - wolni Murzyni. W samej Wirginii niewolnicy stanowili 40 procent populacji. +Ponowne zapotrzebowanie na tanią siłę roboczą (niewolników) wzrosło po skonstruowaniu w 1793 przez Eliego Whitneya odziarniarki bawełny. Rewolucja przemysłowa w Anglii i nowe wynalazki, jak maszyny do tkania i przędzenia, zmniejszyły koszty produkcji i wpłynęły na rozwój przemysłu tekstylnego i wzrost zapotrzebowania na surowiec – bawełnę. Nowa uprawa w szybkim tempie zdominowała gospodarkę południowych stanów USA, rosła także liczba niewolników, w 1810 było ich 1 200 000, a w 1860 już blisko 4 000 000. +Ukształtowanie się dwóch modeli gospodarczych w Stanach Zjednoczonych, które dzieliły często sprzeczne interesy, było powodem kryzysów politycznych w 1 połowie XIX wieku. Południe, z dominującą gospodarką rolną nastawioną na eksportową produkcję bawełny i sprowadzające z zagranicy potrzebne jej produkty przemysłowe, dążyło do utrzymania niewolnictwa i niskich ceł, które były gwarantem zysków plantatorów. Na północy, gdzie dominował handel i przemysł, domagano się wysokich ceł ochronnych i zniesienia niewolnictwa (żywo rozwijał się ruch abolicjonistyczny). Konflikty między Północą a Południem groziły rozbiciem Unii i wymagały wypracowania kompromisów. +Konstytucja Stanów Zjednoczonych z 1787. +Uchwalona w 1787 w Filadelfii Konstytucja Stanów Zjednoczonych przewidywała, że Kongres miał się składać z dwóch izb. W Senacie każdy stan miał mieć dwóch przedstawicieli, natomiast do Izby Reprezentantów miano wybierać posłów proporcjonalnie do liczby ludności. +Powstał problem, jak niewolnicy mają być traktowani. Południe chciało wliczyć niewolników do podstawy, według której obliczano liczbę mandatów poselskich dla poszczególnych stanów, ale nie liczyć ich, gdy rozdzielano na stany przypadające na nie podatki bezpośrednie, na to nie mogła się zgodzić Północ. Kompromis, jaki wypracowano, przewidywał, że liczba posłów i całość sum podatków bezpośrednich będzie podzielona między poszczególne stany proporcjonalnie „w stosunku do ich mieszkańców, która to liczba będzie ustalona w ten sposób, iż do liczby wszystkich ludzi wolnych (…) doda się trzy piąte wszystkich innych ludzi” (tj. niewolników). Konstytucja nakładała także obowiązek wydawania zbiegłych niewolników, a Kongres nie miał prawa zakazać handlu niewolnikami przed rokiem 1808. +W 1803 roku Stany Zjednoczone zakupiły od Francji tereny leżące na zachód od rzeki Missisipi. Na tych terenach powstały nowe stany, których konstytucje sankcjonowały niewolnictwo, Luizjana (przyjęta do Unii w 1812 roku), Missisipi (1817), Alabama (1819) potem Floryda, Teksas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky i Missouri. Ekspansja niewolnictwa następowała pomimo uchwalenia przez Kongres w 1807 roku zakazu przywozu niewolników od 1 stycznia 1808. Mimo iż ustawa z marca 1819 upoważniała prezydenta do wykorzystania okrętów do kontroli czy amerykańskie statki prowadzą handel niewolnikami, a ustawa z maja 1820 uznawała handel niewolnikami za akt piractwa, nie zdołano zatrzymać przemytu niewolników do Stanów Zjednoczonych. Rosło także znaczenie wciąż legalnego rynku wewnętrznego, Wirginia zyskała miano stanu zajmującego się hodowlą niewolników. +Kompromis Missouri z 1820. +Jednym z problemów, przed którym stały Stany Zjednoczone w początkach XIX wieku, było dopuszczenie niewolnictwa w nowo przyjmowanych do Unii stanach. Ekspansja jednego z dwóch rodzajów gospodarki oznaczała, poprzez przewagę w Kongresie oraz w kolegium elektorskim wybierającym prezydenta, możliwość realizacji własnych interesów w polityce rządu federalnego. Konflikt między Północą a Południem zaostrzył się w roku 1819. Po przyłączeniu do Unii Alabamy na dwadzieścia dwa stany jedenaście było stanami niewolniczymi, a jedenaście wolnymi od niewolnictwa. Gdy w 1819 roku o przyłączenie do Unii zwróciło się Missouri, powstał problem czy przyjąć ten stan jako niewolniczy, jak żądało tego Południe, czy wolny od niewolnictwa, za czym opowiadała się Północ. Kompromis uchwalony przez Kongres 3 marca 1820 roku przewidywał, że stan Missouri zostanie przyłączony jako stan niewolniczy, ale dla równowagi podniesiono do rangi stanu terytorium na północnym wschodzie Massachusetts – Maine. W ten sposób na dwadzieścia cztery stany połowa miała charakter niewolniczy, a w drugiej połowie obowiązywał zakaz niewolnictwa. Umowna granica pomiędzy jednymi i drugimi przebiegała wzdłuż Linii Masona-Dixona oraz rzeki Ohio. +Kompromis Missouri przewidywał także zakaz niewolnictwa na części terytoriów zachodnich leżącej na północ od 36° 30’ szerokości geograficznej północnej. +Kompromis 1850 roku. +Problem niewolnictwa powrócił w 1849 roku w związku z przyjęciem do Unii Kalifornii. Kalifornia we wniosku o przyjęcie do Unii chciała, aby na jej terenie obowiązywał zakaz niewolnictwa. Dotąd istniała równowaga między stanami wolnymi a niewolniczymi (po piętnaście stanów), przyjęcie Kalifornii naruszałoby równowagę. W Senacie ścierały się cztery poglądy. Niektórzy żądali wydłużenia aż do Pacyfiku ustalonej w Kompromisie Missouri granicy niewolnictwa. Inna propozycja przewidywała wprowadzenie zakazu niewolnictwa na wszystkich terytoriach leżących na zachodzie i niemających praw samodzielnych stanów. Część senatorów uważała, że Kongres w ogóle nie ma prawa zakazywać niewolnictwa. Ostatnie stanowisko przewidywało, że to mieszkańcy każdego terytorium powinni rozstrzygać o charakterze swojego terytorium. Aby uchronić Unię przed secesją i wojną senatorowie, pod przewodnictwem Henry’ego Claya i Daniela Webstera, zaproponowali rozwiązanie kompromisowe. Tzw. „Kompromis 1850 roku” zakładał przyjęcie Kalifornii do Unii jako stanu, w którym obowiązywał zakaz niewolnictwa, ale na terenach Nowego Meksyku i Utah sami osadnicy mieli zdecydować o charakterze przyszłych stanów. Zadecydowano, że w stołecznym okręgu Kolumbia niewolnictwo będzie dozwolone, ale handel niewolnikami zabroniony. Równolegle przyjęto także ustawę nakazującą surowe karanie osób, które udzielają pomocy zbiegłym niewolnikom. +Ustawa Kansas-Nebraska z 1854. +Ponownie konflikt wybuchł podczas przyjmowania do Unii stanu Nebraski. Ustawa Kansas-Nebraska z maja 1854 odwoływała kompromis Missouri z 1820, uznając, że jest sprzeczny z zasadą wprowadzoną w ustawie z 1850 roku o nieinterwencji Kongresu w sprawy niewolnictwa w poszczególnych stanach i terytoriach. Wszystkie sprawy dotyczące niewolnictwa winny być rozpatrywane przez właściwe sądy lokalne oraz Sąd Najwyższy Stanów Zjednoczonych. Z obszaru Nebraski wydzielono jego południową część i przyjęto do Unii jako wolny stan Kansas. +Sprawa Dreda Scotta z 1857. +Sprawą, która wywołała kontrowersje i niezadowolenie na północy, był wyrok w marcu 1857, w którym Sąd Najwyższy odrzucił pozew Murzyna – Dreda Scotta. Wystąpił on do sądu o uznanie go za wolnego, ponieważ mieszkając wraz ze swoim panem na północy, w wolnym stanie, przestał być niewolnikiem. W uzasadnieniu Sąd uznał, iż nawet Kongres nie ma prawa znieść niewolnictwa (kompromis Missouri z 1820 roku Sąd Najwyższy uznał za niezgodny z V poprawką do konstytucji). Konstytucja zabrania pozbawiania osób ich własności, a jednym z rodzajów własności, która podlega ochronie konstytucyjnej, jest własność niewolników. Sąd uznał, że Murzynom nie przysługuje obywatelstwo Stanów Zjednoczonych, a więc nie mogą oni występować przed sądem federalnym. +Wojna secesyjna. +Możliwość zniesienia niewolnictwa zarysowała się po secesji Południa i rozpoczęciu wojny w 1861. Południe zdecydowało się na wojnę dla ochrony południowych instytucji, z których jedną z ważniejszych było niewolnictwo. +W lipcu 1862 Północ wydała akt o konfiskacie – niewolnicy, którzy wstąpią do wojsk Unii oraz będący własnością rebeliantów, gdy staną się jeńcami wojennymi, otrzymują wolność na zawsze. 22 września 1862 Abraham Lincoln ogłosił proklamację emancypacyjną (obowiązującą od 1 stycznia 1863), oznaczała ona przyznanie wolności niewolnikom na obszarze podległym Konfederatom. Proklamację tę Lincoln wydał jako głównodowodzący armią i flotą, dlatego kwestionowano jej ważność. Dopiero uchwalona w 1865 XIII poprawka do konstytucji stwierdzała, że „niewolnictwo (…) nie będzie istniało w obrębie Stanów Zjednoczonych ani żadnym miejscu podległym ich jurysdykcji.” Zniesienie niewolnictwa, mimo iż było momentem przełomowym w historii Stanów Zjednoczonych, nie rozwiązało problemu ludności czarnej w Ameryce. Rasizm i wprowadzenie segregacji rasowej ciążyło na stosunkach wewnętrznych przez następne sto lat. +Franciszek Sonik + +Franciszek Sonik (ur. 17 września 1885 w Wawrzeńczycach, zm. 27 listopada 1957 w Kielcach) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, biskup pomocniczy kielecki w latach 1936–1957. +Życiorys. +Po studiach w Kielcach i Petersburgu 5 marca 1911 otrzymał święcenia kapłańskie. Był wikariuszem w Kielcach, kapelanem bp. Augustyna Łosińskiego i profesorem seminarium duchownego. Aktywnie działał społecznie, zasiadał w kapitule katedralnej, od 1930 pełnił funkcję proboszcza parafii św. Wojciecha w Kielcach. +16 grudnia 1935 został mianowany biskupem pomocniczym diecezji kieleckiej i biskupem tytularnym Margum. Sakrę biskupią przyjął 24 lutego 1936. Był wikariuszem generalnym i kapitulnym diecezji w latach 1937–1938. W latach 1951–1957 zarządzał diecezją w zastępstwie uwięzionego przez Urząd Bezpieczeństwa biskupa diecezjalnego Czesława Kaczmarka. +Józef Bilczewski + +Józef Bilczewski (ur. 26 kwietnia 1860 w Wilamowicach, zm. 20 marca 1923 we Lwowie) – polski święty Kościoła katolickiego, arcybiskup lwowski obrządku łacińskiego, profesor teologii dogmatycznej na Uniwersytecie Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie, rektor tego Uniwersytetu. +Biografia. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Urodził się w Wilamowicach koło Kęt w ubogiej rodzinie stolarza-cieśli, a zarazem rolnika – Franciszka Biby i Anny z Fajkiszów. W latach 1868-1872 uczęszczał do szkoły ludowej w Wilamowicach (trzy klasy) i Kętach (czwarta klasa). Był najstarszym dzieckiem spośród dziewięciorga rodzeństwa. W latach 1872-1880 był uczniem gimnazjum w Wadowicach, w którym zdał z odznaczeniem maturę. Następnie wstąpił do Wyższego Seminarium Duchownego Archidiecezji Krakowskiej. Jednocześnie rozpoczął studia na Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Równolegle był słuchaczem wykładów na Wydziale Filozoficznym. Obydwa fakultety ukończył z wynikiem celującym. +Kapłaństwo i praca naukowa. +6 lipca 1884 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie z rąk kardynała Albina Dunajewskiego. Po święceniach, w 1895 pełnił posługę kapłańską w Mogile k. Krakowa. +W latach 1885-1986 studiował na Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Wiedeńskiego, dokąd został skierowany przez kard. Albina Dunajewskiego, gdzie ciągu dwóch lat uzyskał stopień doktora teologii. W latach 1886-1887 studiował archeologię starochrześcijańską na Uniwersytecie Gregoriańskim w Rzymie a w 1888 przez jeden semestr teologię dogmatyczną w Instytucie Teologicznym w Paryżu. +W lata 1888-1890 po powrocie do kraju pracował przez rok jako wikariusz i katecheta w Kętach, przez następny rok w tym samym charakterze w Krakowie przy kościele św. Piotra i Pawła oraz jako suplent katechety (zastępca etatowego nauczyciela) w Gimnazjum św. Anny. +W 1890 na bazie rozprawy pt. "Archeologia chrześcijańska wobec historii Kościoła i dogmatu" habilitował się na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim z dogmatyki fundamentalnej. W 1891 mianowany został profesorem nadzwyczajnym dogmatyki specjalnej i objął Katedrę Dogmatyki Szczegółowej na Wydziale Teologicznym Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza we Lwowie. W 1893 uzyskał tytuł profesora zwyczajnego. W roku akademickim 1896/1897 był dziekanem Wydziału Teologii, a w 1900 rektorem Uniwersytetu Jana Kazimierza. +Był mnemonikiem. Odznaczał się niewiarygodnymi zdolnościami zapamiętywania tekstów przeczytanych książek. Napisał szereg prac naukowych, m.in. "Archeologia chrześcijańska wobec historii kościoła i dogmatu" oraz "Eucharystia w świetle najdawniejszych pomników piśmiennych, ikonograficznych i epigraficznych". +Biskupstwo. +17 grudnia 1900 papież Leon XIII ustanowił go metropolitą arcybiskupem lwowskim obrządku łacińskiego. +20 stycznia 1901 w katedrze we Lwowie uzyskał sakrę biskupią z rąk kard. Jana Puzyny. Współkonsekratorami byli: abp lwowski obrządku greckokatolickiego Andrzej Szeptycki i biskup przemyski Józef Sebastian Pelczar. W 1901 roku, w Czerniowcach, został członkiem wspólnoty katolickiej "K.D.St.V. Frankonia-Czernowitz" w niemieckim Cartellverband. +Praca duszpasterska. +Dzięki jego inicjatywie powstało na terenie archidiecezji lwowskiej 330 obiektów sakralnych na czele z monumentalnym kościołem świętej Elżbiety we Lwowie. Wspierał rozwój Wilamowic, a także miejscową społeczność i jej życie edukacyjne. W swojej pracy duszpasterskiej wzorował się na bł. Jakubie Strzemię. Pragnął pomagać wszystkim potrzebującym pomocy materialnej i duchowej. Głosił pogląd, że sama praca w kościele nie wystarcza, że należy do niej dołączyć pracę społeczną dążącą do oświecenia i poprawy bytu materialnego parafian oraz do usunięcia wszelkiego rodzaju nadużyć, którym ulegały środowiska ekonomicznie słabsze. W celu przygotowania księży do tej akcji organizował w swoim pałacu we Lwowie specjalne kursy społeczne. +Wybudował dla stowarzyszeń katolickich (z własnych funduszy i subwencji sejmu) Dom Katolicki we Lwowie. +Zajmował się pomocą dla studentów, szkół ludowych, środowisk robotniczych, wspomagał materialnie ubogich. Dla nich w czasie I wojny światowej był moralnym i materialnym oparciem. +Dzięki niemu w 1907 przybyli na ziemie polskie pallotyni, gdyż pozwolił im osiedlić się w Jajkowcach na terenie jego diecezji. +Postawa w czasie walk polsko-ukraińskich. +W czasie walk polsko-ukraińskich o Lwów w listopadzie 1918 stał na czele komitetu ratunkowego, który dostarczał żywność najbiedniejszym. Obaj arcybiskupi kościoła katolickiego we Lwowie: łaciński arcybiskup Józef Bilczewski i greckokatolicki metropolita Andrzej Szeptycki nie tylko próbowali pośredniczyć w toczących się rokowaniach, ale pod wpływem nuncjusza apostolskiego Achillesa Rattiego odczytali 16 listopada 1918 listy pasterskie, nawołujące wiernych do zaprzestania rozlewu krwi. Józef Bilczewski odznaczał się wielką wrażliwością społeczną, troską o biedotę. Usiłował zmniejszać konflikty polsko-ukraińskie. +Choroba i śmierć. +18 stycznia 1923 zapadł na ciężką chorobę (anemia pernitiosa - niedokrwistość złośliwa), następstwo - jak można przypuszczać - wytężonej pracy i prawie ascetycznego trybu życia. Zmarł 20 marca 1923 we Lwowie. Został pochowany pośród ubogich na cmentarzu Janowskim, odprowadzany na miejsce wiecznego spoczynku przez tłumy przedstawicieli wszystkich środowisk Lwowa. Jego zabalsamowane serce przekazano do parafii św. Stanisława Biskupa w Lubaczowie, gdzie spoczęło obok ołtarza z relikwiami metropolity halicko-lwowskiego bł. Jakuba Strzemię. W 2001 urnę z sercem ofiarowano katedrze lwowskiej. +Papież Pius XI nazwał go jednym z największych Biskupów Świata. +Proces beatyfikacyjny i kanonizacyjny. +Jeszcze za życia mówiono o nim jak o świętym. 2 lipca 1944 wyrażono zgodę na przeprowadzenie procesu beatyfikacyjnego. Pierwsza sesja tego procesu odbyła się w 1952 w rezydencji Arcybiskupiej w Krakowie. Praca tego trybunału trwała 9 lat. W 1962 przesłano akta procesu do Kongregacji Świętych Obrzędów w Rzymie. 17 grudnia 1997 Jan Paweł II podpisał dekret o heroiczności cnót. +26 czerwca 2001 beatyfikowany przez Papieża Jana Pawła II podczas jego wizyty we Lwowie. Kanonizacja Józefa Bilczewskiego przez papieża Benedykta XVI odbyła się 23 października 2005 w Rzymie. Datę kanonizacji wyznaczył jeszcze Jan Paweł II. +Wspomnienie liturgiczne w Kościele obchodzone jest w dzienną pamiątkę śmierci (20 marca). Po kanonizacji Kościół w Polsce i na Ukrainie wspomina świętego 23 października, w rocznicę kanonizacji. +Pylica płuc + +Pylica płuc – przewlekła choroba układu oddechowego, wywołana długotrwałym wdychaniem pyłów. Charakteryzuje się występowaniem przewlekłego zapalenia oskrzeli i postępowej rozedmy płuc, z czasem dochodzi do powstania serca płucnego i niewydolności krążenia. +Dotyczy ona grupy osób narażonych na wdychanie różnych pyłów np. pył węglowy powoduje pylicę węglową. Długotrwałe narażenie organizmu prowadzi do zmiany w obrębie tkanki płucnej, czego konsekwencją jest niewydolność oddechowa. +Pylica jest zaliczana do chorób zawodowych, mają z nią problemy np. górnicy. +Rys historyczny. +W okresie neolitu człowiek zajmował się wydobywaniem różnych surowców. Na podstawie wykopalisk oraz badań prowadzonych przez naukowców wiadomo, że już wtedy mogło dochodzić do powstawania pylicy węglowej. Niewątpliwie występowała ona w starożytnym Egipcie, o czym świadczą badania mumii, wykazujące anatomopatologiczne zmiany, sugerujące jej istnienie. W piśmiennictwie greckim i rzymskim znajduje się wiele informacji dotyczących ciężkich warunków pracy w kopalniach, w tym narażenia na pyły, oraz w związku z tym używania przy pracy skórzanych masek jako ochrony osobistej. +Już w XVI wieku publikowano informacje dotyczące chorób górników. Ich autorami byli Georg Bauer oraz Paracelsus. Pierwszy z nich opisywał różne stopnie narażenia, a jego ciężkość łączył także z koniecznością pracy w "nadgodzinach", co wynikało z niskich płac. +Drugi opisał schorzenia układu oddechowego specyficzne dla górników, powodujące wykrztuszanie "ropy" i wyniszczenie organizmu. Sugerował on używanie urządzeń odpylających w celu zmniejszenia zapylenia oraz zraszanie suchych pokładów, żeby zmniejszyć wydzielanie pyłu, mającego szkodliwy wpływ na układ oddechowy górników. Przyłączał przy tym greckie określenie opisywanej choroby: astma. +W XVII wieku ukazało się szereg monografii dotyczących schorzeń górników. I tak Martin Pansa opisał złogi węglowe w tkance płucnej. Samuel Stockhausen zdefiniował "chorobę górników" (czyli nienazwaną jeszcze wtedy pylicę węglową) charakteryzującą się trudnościami w oddychaniu, "krótkim oddechem", kaszlem i chrypką oraz utratą apetytu, co w konsekwencji powodowało wyniszczenie organizmu i zgon. +Jednak największe zasługi w obserwacji pylicy miał Bernardino Ramazzinl, który mówił o konieczności używania indywidualnych ochronników oraz wentylacji całej kopalni. +Jeszcze pod koniec XVIII wieku Thomas Beddoes stwierdził szkodliwy wpływ wdychanego pyłu na stan płuc. W 1832 roku Charles Turner Thackrah (angielski lekarz) wydał pierwszą angielską książkę z dziedziny medycyny przemysłowej. +Jako pierwszy podał informacje dotyczące występowania chorób i śmiertelności u brytyjskich górników i spróbował dojść do przyczyn takiego stanu rzeczy. Co prawda, za najpoważniejszą chorobę uważał oczopląs górników, jednak na drugim miejscu wymieniał szkodliwy wpływ suchego pyłu kopalnianego na układ oddechowy. Stwierdzał, że warunki pracy były tak ciężkie, że nawet pracodawcy, którzy wyzyskiwali pracowników do granic możliwości, nie widzieli szans wydłużenia czasu pracy powyżej 6 godzin dziennie, a i tak górnicy nie mogli pracować dłużej niż do 40. roku życia. +Z doniesień Williama Farra dotyczących stanu zdrowia południowoafrykańskich górników (w kopalniach węgla oraz kopalniach złota) wynikało, że przeszło 50% z nich nie było w stanie dopracować do wieku emerytalnego, kiedy powinni zakończyć pracę, a częstość zachorowań na chorobę płuc wzrastała wraz z wiekiem i stażem pracy. Wpływ krzemionki na powstanie pylicy płuc u górników kopalń węgla wykazał jako pierwszy dr Edward Headlam Greenhow, inspektor medyczny zakładów przemysłowych w Anglii. W 1864 roku zidentyfikował drobiny krzemionki w płucach osób narażonych, używając w tym celu spolaryzowanego światła. +Terminu silicosis (krzemica) po raz pierwszy użył w 1871 roku włoski naukowiec - Rovide. Natomiast określenie pneumoconiosis (pylica) zostało po raz pierwszy użyte przez niemieckiego naukowca Friedricha Zenkera. W roku 1890, na ziemiach polskich, doniesienie dotyczące pylic górników kopalń węgla opublikował dr Aleksander Fabian. +W XIX wieku bardzo trudno było leczyć pylicę płuc, bowiem lekarze zdani byli jedynie na swoje doświadczenie i wiedzę, natomiast nie mieli możliwości wykonywania badań diagnostycznych, którymi można się posłużyć obecnie. Oczywiście, pylica płuc powstaje nie tylko u górników narażonych na pył węglowy oraz wolną krystaliczną krzemionkę, występuje także poza górnictwem, bowiem na pyły narażeni są pracownicy wielu specjalności - np. pracownicy używający metody piaskowania. +Podział. +W zależności od zmian anatomopatologicznych podzielono pylice na kolagenowe i niekolagenowe. +Pylice niekolagenowe. +To choroby wywołane wdychaniem pyłów niezwłókniających np. pyłu żelaza ("siderosis"), cyny ("stannosis") i siarczanu baru ("barytosis"). +Gagat + +Gagat (Jet, Dżet) – bitumiczna odmiana węgla brunatnego o zbitej, jednorodnej budowie. +Nazwa pochodzi od rzymskiej nazwy miasta i rzeki Gagas w starożytnej Licji (Likji) w Azji Mniejszej (dzisiaj Turcja), gdzie po raz pierwszy znaleziono gagat "(gr. lithos gagates = kamień z Gagas)". +Właściwości. +Często zawiera domieszki takie jak: żelazo, siarka, chlor, glin, miedź, nikiel, potas, sód. +Jest substancją miękką, strugalną, kruchą, nieprzezroczystą o głębokiej czarnej barwie, lekką. Czasami wykazuje wyraźną podzielność, zgodną z pierwotną orientacja słojów drewna. +Gagat jest łatwopalny, przy spalaniu wydziela charakterystyczny zapach. Podobnie jak bursztyn wykazuje właściwości elektrostatyczne, dlatego często nazywa się go „czarnym bursztynem”. +Występowanie. +Gagat powstał z uwęglenia drzew z rodziny araukarii, które powszechnie rosły w Europie przed 180 milionami lat (w jurze). Powstał w środowisku wodnym, bez dostępu tlenu. Ostatecznie ukształtował się pod ciśnieniem warstw skalnych. +W postaci niewielkich węglistych wkładek występuje w skałach osadowych. +Występuje w Wielkiej Brytanii – hrabstwo Yorkshire, okolice Whitby, USA – Wayne w Utah , Francji – Sainte- Colombesur- l’Hers w Aude, Niemczech. Także w Kanadzie, Turcji, Indiach, Chinach, Portugalii oraz Gruzji w regionie Tkibuli. +W Polsce (rezerwat przyrody "Gagaty Sołtykowskie"), spotykany w osadach jurajskich k.Opoczna (Odrowąż) i w rejonie świętokrzyskim między Ostrowcem Świętokrzyskim a Skarżyskiem-Kamienną. +Zastosowanie. +Ma znaczenie kolekcjonerskie, od dawna stosowany do wyrobu biżuterii żałobnej. Ozdoby takie często nazywa się dżetami ("jet" – angielska nazwa gagatu). Daje się łatwo polerować, obrabiany jest ręcznie. +W farmacji do początku XIX w. wykorzystywany okazjonalnie jako źródło smoły wchodzącej w skład balsamów przeciw histerii Łacińska nazwa recepturowa: "gagates". +Herman Han + +Herman Han (ur. 1574 w Nysie, zm. 1627 lub 1628 w Chojnicach) - malarz gdański. +Biografia. +Urodził się w połowie lipca 1574 w Nysie, ochrzczony w kościele św. Jakuba 20 lipca 1574. +Pierwsze nauki w zakresie malowania pobierał od ojca, który również był malarzem. Następnie wyjechał za granicę, istnieje hipoteza, że do Niderlandów lub Włoch. Po powrocie ok. 1597 osiedlił się w Gdańsku i założył własną pracownię. +Poza kształceniem młodych artystów, malował głównie obrazy religijne dla cystersów w Oliwie i Pelplinie. W 1623 przeniósł się do Chojnic, ale dalej utrzymywał swoją gdańską pracownię. Wtedy powstało jego słynne dzieło "Koronacja Najświętszej Marii Panny", które zostało umieszczone na ołtarzu katedry w Pelplinie. Arcydziełem jest też "Koronacja Madonny" w lewym bocznym ołtarzu katedry w Oliwie. Znakomity obraz "Trójca Święta" znajduje się w Muzeum Narodowym w Gdańsku. +Han należy do mistrzów polskiego malarstwa epoki baroku. Bezbłędną i wyrazistą kolorystykę, wyrafinowaną kompozycję łączy z bogatymi treściami swych dzieł, które w symboliczny sposób ujawniają rzeczywistość duchową i stają się projektem doświadczeń wewnętrznych. +Zmarł w Chojnicach między 18 grudnia 1627 a 22 marca 1628. Pochowany został w podziemiach chojnickiej Bazyliki pw. Ścięcia św. Jana Chrzciciela. +Jaszczurka żyworodna + +Jaszczurka żyworodna, żyworódka ("Zootoca vivipara") — gatunek jaszczurki z rodziny jaszczurek właściwych (Lacertidae). Występuje na terenie Polski i podlega ścisłej ochronie. Jest jedynym przedstawicielem rodzaju "Zootoca". +Systematyka. +Młynarki umieszczał jaszczurkę żyworodną w rodzaju "Lacerta". Umieszczenie gatunku w rodzaju "Zootoca" polega na pracy Mayera i Bischoffa z 1996. +W języku polskim prócz nazwy "jaszczurka żyworodna" funkcjonuje również termin "żyworódka". Po angielsku określa się ją analogicznie "viviparous lizard" albo też "common lizard". +Gatunek obejmuje wiele zróżnicowanych linii. Być może niektóre z nich zasługują na status oddzielnych gatunków. +Budowa ciała. +Jaszczurka żyworodna nie należy do dużych gadów. osiąga długość do 14 lub 16 cm. Około 9,5 cm przypada na ogon. +Ubarwienie grzbietu nie wykazuje dostrzegalnych różnic w zależności od płci. Jest zwykle brunatne, ciemnobrązowe, jasnobrązowe, szarobrązowe, szare; Młynarski zauważa, że ciemniejsze, niż u jaszczurki zwinnki. Dalej opisuje on plamki i kropki tworzące wstęgi. Smugi są ciemniejsze od tła, podczas gdy plamki zarówno ciemne, jak i żółtawe. Ciemna podłużna pręga biegnie pośrodkowo. Niekiedy nie jest ona ciągła, ale tworzona przez drobniejsze plamy. Sprawia wrażenie delikatnej. Obok niej leżą plamki barwy jasnej lub ciemnej, porozrzucane nieregularnie albo regularnie ułożone. Ciemne, szerokie sługi i smugi jasne lub pojedyncze ciemne plamki o jasnych centrach, położone nad tymi ciemnymi, zdobią również boki ciała, zazwyczaj ciemniejszej barwy od grzbietu. Inaczej wygląda wentralna strona ciała. W przeciwieństwie do dorsalnej wykazuje ona dymorfizm płciowy w barwie. Mianowicie u samic zabarwiona jest na biało, żółtawo, szaro lub pomarańczowo, nieraz z nieznacznym plamkowaniem. Jeśli już ono występuje, ogranicza się zwykle do tylnej części brzucha. U samców natomiast brzuszna powierzchnia ciała przyjmuje kolor pomarańczowożółty. Przybierając barwy od żółci do pomarańczu, a nawet barwy pomarańczowoczerwonej, w porze godowej pokrywa się on dodatkowo czarnym deseniem. Samiec nosi takie barwy na brzuchu, spodniej stronie ogona i kończyn. Wyróżnia go też podgardle: bladoniebieskawe, białawe czy jasnoczerwone. Często spotyka się okazy melanistyczne, bardzo ciemne do całkiem czarnych. Widuje się je często w Tatrach. Wyróżniają się również osobniki młode. Ich grzbiet przyjmuje kolor ciemnobrunatny do czarnobrunatnego. Wykazuje również brązowy połysk. Także brzuszna strona ciała różni ich od dorosłych jaszczurek. Widnieją tam barwy ciemnoszara, niebieskawoczarna czy zielonkawoczarna. Dopiero w trzeci mroku swego życia wykształcają ubarwienie dorosłych jaszczurek. +Głowę zwierzęcia zdobią wyraźne tarczki. Okolica skroniowa, w odróżnieniu od innych jaszczurek polskich, wytwarza drobne łuseczki, a nie tarczki. Grzbiet pokrywają drobne łuski z kilkami. +Zwierze cechuje się delikatną, krępą budową ciała, w kształcie lekko walcowatego. +Głowa osiąga niewielkie rozmiary. Nie stwierdza się przewężenia szyjnego. Tułów jest wydłużony. Ogon określa się jako gruby, nieproporcjonalny w stosunku do reszty ciała, silny. Kończy się szpicem. +Kończyny są krótkie. +Fizjologia. +"Z. vivipara" ustępuje szybkością ruchów jaszczurce zwince. Wydaje się bardziej od niej ociężała, ruszając się niezbyt szybko. Z drugiej strony posiada umiejętność pływania. +Potrafi odłamać swój ogon. Narząd ten następnie odrasta. +Tryb życia. +Jaszczurka żyworodna prowadzi dzienny tryb życia. +Przebudzenie ze snu zimowego może nastąpić nawet w lutym, zazwyczaj jednak letarg kończy się w marcu. +Gody w Europie Środkowej zaczynają się niekiedy pod koniec kwietnia, w maju lub na początku czerwca. Na północy mogą odbywać się jesienią. Samce dokonują wtedy starań o zdobycie samicy. Jaszczurka żyworodna rozmnaża się właściwie nie przez żyworodność, ale przez jajożyworodność, choć niektóre źródła określają ją jako żyworodna. Ciąża trwa 3 miesiące. Gdy się kończy, w lipcu czy raczej w sierpniu matka wydaje na świat od kilku do kilkunastu młodych. Ich ilość mieści się zwykle w przedziale od 3 do 10 lub 11. W chwili składania jaj młode jaszczurki rozrywają ich osłonki. Poza wielkością nie różnią się znacząco od osobników dorosłych. W północnej części zasięgu występowania mogą one przyjść na świat dopiero w następnym roku, wiosną. Taki stan rzeczy jest typowy dla większości obszaru występowania jaszczurki żyworodnej. Rozród odbywa się inaczej w Hiszpanii, pobliskiej części Francji, we Włoszech, w Austrii i na Słowenii. Tam samica składa jaja – od 1 do 13 sztuk. Dostrzega się tu zależność pomiędzy sposobem wydawania na świat potomstwa, a klimatem: na północy i na dużych wysokościach dominuje żyworodność, jajorodność zaś na południu. +W październiku, z nastaniem przymrozków, żyworódka udaje się na sen zimowy. +Ekologia. +Pożywienie jaszczurki żyworodnej stanowią owady, dżdżownicowate, ślimaki nagie, pająki, wije, stonogi i inne bezkręgowce. +Zasiedla środowiska bardzo zróżnicowane, w tym wilgotne. Można tu wymienić wilgotne łąki, torfowiska, zwłaszcza wysokie. Wedle innych źródeł żyje przede wszystkim w lasach. Żyje też w wilgotnych, najlepiej widnych lasach, na skrajach cienistych lasów, na małych słabo nasłonecznionych polankach, często nad wodami, na brzegach lasów, na wilgotnych terenach porosłych roślinnością krzewiastą, na zakrzewionych skarpach, na łąkach i innych terenach trawiastych, w okolicach strumieni, zwłaszcza silnie zarosłych. Zajmuje też wybrzeża morskie, zarówno klifowe, jak i z piaszczystymi wydmami. Zamieszkuje też wysokie góry. Jaszczurka ta zajmuje tereny położone od poziomu morza aż do wysokości 2900 m nad nim, a wedle niektórych źródeł nawet 3000. Lubi siedliska górskie. Rekordową wysokość osiąga w Bułgarii. W polskich górach występuje najczęściej w piętrze dolnego regla, lecz sięga aż do pasa kosodrzewiny, do wysokości 1700 m. Jest najpospolitszym gadem tatrzańskim. W Karpatach w ogóle osiąga 2400 m. Spotyka się ją również na żywopłotach i w ogrodach wiejskich. Unika terenów suchych. +Zwraca uwagę zajmowanie przez jaszczurkę żyworodną siedlisk chłodnych i wilgotnych. Wśród gadów podobne habitaty zajmuje tylko żmija zygzakowata. Za adaptację do takich siedlisk uznaje się jajożyworodność zwierzęcia. +W razie poczucia zagrożenia jaszczurka ta chowa się w naturalnych kryjówkach. Schronić się może pod korą drzew, między korzeniami czy kamieniami, a nawet na dnie zbiorników wodnych, jeśli nie są głębokie. +Rozmieszczenie geograficzne. +Jaszczurka żyworodna posiada niezwykle szeroki zasięg występowania. Obejmuje on większą część kontynentu europejskiego i północną Azję. Na zachodzie sięga Wielkiej Brytanii i Irlandii, jednak populacje zamieszkujące Wyspy Brytyjskie są pofragmentowane. Na wschodzie dociera aż do Hokkaido w Japonii, a nieraz podaje się również północną Mongolię i Sachalin, czego nie wymienia IUCN. Północna granica zasięgu tej jaszczurki w Europie przebiega w Skandynawii, osiągając 70°N i Przylądek Północny. Zamieszkując wybrzeża Morza Barentsa i Morza Arktycznego najdalej z gadów sięga na północ. Południowa granica ciągnie się przez środkową Francję, południowy wschód Austrii i północne Włochy, by wstąpić dalej w Góry Dynarskie w obrębie Słowenii, Chorwacji, Bośni i Hercegowiny, Czarnogóry i Albanii na północy kraju, następnie zaś przebiega zachodnimi Węgrami, południową i środkową Rumunią, północną Mołdawią i środkową Ukrainą. +Prócz głównego zasięgu występowania International Union for Conservation of Nature wymienia również izolowane populacje żyjące na południowym zachodzie Francji, w północnej Hiszpanii, na zachodzie Bułgarii, w Serbii oraz na południowym wschodzie i południowym zachodzie Macedonii. +Prócz wyżej wymienionych IUCN podaje obecność gada w następujących państwach: Białoruś, Belgia, Chiny, Czechy, Dania, Estonia, Finlandia, Holandia, Litwa, Luksemburg, Łotwa, Niemcy, Norwegia, Polska, Rosja, Słowacja, Szwajcaria, Szwecja. +W Polsce żyworódka jest pospolita na terenie całego kraju, zwłaszcza w terenach górskich i podgórskich. Zastępuje w nich zwinkę. Uważa się ją za najpospolitszego gada w Tatrach polskich. +Zagrożenia i ochrona. +Gatunek lokalnie jest bardzo pospolity. Na niektórych terenach jego liczebność ulega spadkowi. Sytuacja taka ma miejsce chociażby w Holandii czy Wielkiej Brytanii. Istnieją również miejsca, gdzie prawie wyginął. Należą do nich nizinne tereny we Włoszech. W sumie całkowita liczebność gatunku spada. +Istnieją tylko miejscowe zagrożenia dla jaszczurki żyworodnej. Chodzi tutaj przede wszystkim o stratę środowiska naturalnego. Wynika ona z intensyfikacji rolnictwa, procesów urbanizacyjnych czy rozwoju turystyki, w tym w regionach górskich. +International Union for Conservation of Nature przyznaje jaszczurce żyworodnej status LC (Least Concern, czyli najmniejszej troski). Obejmuje ją Aneks II Konwencji Berneńskiej, jak też Anks IV Dyrektywy Siedliskowej Unii Europejskiej. +Poza tym "Z. vivipara" podlega ochronie prawnej w części swego zasięgu występowania. Chroni ją miedzy innymi Szwajcaria. Dodatkowow zwierzę zamieszkuje liczne tereny chronione. +Zatarcie skazania + +Zatarcie skazania – instytucja prawa karnego, która powoduje uznanie skazania za przestępstwo za niebyłe po upływie określonego czasu. Stanowi narzędzie ułatwiające resocjalizację (powrót do społeczeństwa) osób, które odbyły karę. +Rys historyczny. +Pierwotnie występująca forma piętnowania, polegająca na oznaczeniu na ciele skazanego jego karalności, rozwinęła się współcześnie w istnienie rejestrów karnych zawierających dane dotyczące osób uprzednio karanych. +Już w 1890 r. na IV Kongresie Międzynarodowym Karnym i Penitencjarnym w Petersburgu stwierdzono, że zbyt swobodne posługiwanie się rejestrem karnym stanowi rzeczywistą przeszkodę pomocy więźniom, utrudnia znalezienie im pracy i jest niekiedy powodem recydywy zwolnionych więźniów. Problematyka ta była także przedmiotem dyskusji na późniejszych kongresach. W okresie powojennym szeroko dyskutowano nad tym zagadnieniem na XII Kongresie Karnym i penitencjarnym w Hadze w 1950 r. +Zagadnienie to można zresztą rozpatrywać albo z pozycji koncepcji najdalej idącej – pozostawienie piętna skazania do końca życia, albo uznania osoby natychmiast po odbyciu kary za nie karaną, albo przyjąć rozwiązanie pośrednie, polegające na uznaniu za niebyłe skazania po pewnym określonym czasie. To ostatnie przyjmuje większość kodeksów karnych, w tym także polski. +Rola społeczna. +Instytucja zatarcia skazania powoduje uznanie skazania za niebyłe. Oznacza to, że osoba, co do której nastąpiło skazanie, jest uważana za niekaraną, a z zatartego skazania nie można wyciągnąć żadnych skutków prawnych (jest to przykład fikcji prawnej). Z Krajowego Rejestru Karnego jest usuwana karta karna. Tak więc osoba, wobec której zastosowano zatarcie skazania może w stosunkach prawnych występować jako niekarana. Z socjologicznego punktu widzenia zatarcie skazania ma pełnić funkcję ułatwiającą integrację skazanego ze społeczeństwem. Zatarcie skazania w polskim Kodeksie karnym z 1997 r. następuje z mocy prawa lub na wniosek skazanego. +Wpis o karalności, zwłaszcza gdy dotyczy przestępstwa popełnionego umyślnie, znacznie pogarsza szanse starającego się o pracę. Karty dotyczące karalności są również niezbędnym dokumentem, który należy złożyć w przypadku starań o wpis na listę radców prawnych czy adwokatów. W przypadku kandydatów na urzędników państwowych same urzędy występują o odpowiednie dane do Krajowego Rejestru Karnego. Z kolei wobec spotykanych nieprawidłowości w działaniach organów ochrony prawnej, zdarza się, że osoba wobec której przez długi okres toczy się postępowanie karne, nie wie w którym momencie postępowanie wobec niej może być umorzone. +Zatarcie skazania pełni ważną rolę społeczną. Prawidłowe funkcjonowanie tych instytucji prawa karnego materialnego, ich powszechna znajomość wpłynęły na pewność sytuacji prawnej obywateli. Mają więc one niebagatelny wpływ na życie społeczne w państwie. +Współcześnie zatarcie skazania powoli staje się instytucją martwą, gdyż w wielu zawodach zaufania publicznego wymagany jest tak zwany nieskazitelny charakter, co oznacza nie figurowanie w krajowym rejestrze karnym oraz rejestrach policyjnych. Dane z tych rejestrów nie są usuwane pomimo zatarcia skazania. W kontekście wyroku wojewódzkiego sądu administracyjnego z dnia 14 marca 2011 roku figurujący w żaden sposób nie może domagać się ich usunięcia. +Przesłanki zatarcia skazania. +Zatarcie skazania w przypadku skazania na karę pozbawienia wolności lub na karę 25 lat pozbawienia wolności następuje z mocy prawa z upływem 10 lat od wykonania lub darowania kary albo od przedawnienia jej wykonania (art.107 par.5 i 6 k.k.). +W przypadku kary pozbawienia wolności, jeżeli nie przekracza 3 lat, sąd może na wniosek skazanego zarządzić zatarcie już po upływie 5 lat od wykonania, darowania lub przedawnienia jej wykonania (art. 107 par. 2 k.k.). Warunkiem bezwzględnym jest jednak to, aby w tym okresie skazany przestrzegał porządku prawnego. +W razie skazania na karę dożywotniego pozbawienia wolności zatarcie następuje z mocy prawa z upływem 10 lat wykonania lub darowania kary albo od przedawnienia jej wykonania. Jeżeli sprawca czynu zabronionego przez ustawę karną był skazany na grzywnę albo karę ograniczenia wolności, zatarcie skazania następuje z mocy prawa z upływem 5 lat od wykonania lub darowania kary albo przedawnienia jej wykonania. Skazany może zgłosić do sądu wniosek o zatarcie skazania po upływie 3 lat od wykonania, darowania albo przedawnienia wykonania kary (art. 107 par. 4 k.k. ). +Sąd może nie uwzględnić wniosku skazanego o zatarcie skazania bądź to z przyczyn formalnych (np. nie upłynął jeszcze termin do zatarcia skazania), bądź też z przyczyn merytorycznych, a więc w razie stwierdzenia, że skazany w okresie wymaganym do zatarcia skazania nie przestrzegał porządku prawnego. Skoro pozytywne załatwienie wniosku skazanego uzależnione jest od przestrzegania przez niego porządku prawnego, sąd zobowiązany będzie do dokonania w tym przedmiocie ustaleń. +W przypadku odstąpienia od wymierzenia kary zatarcie skazania następuje z mocy prawa z upływem roku od wydania prawomocnego orzeczenia. Jeżeli orzeczono środek karny, zatarcie skazania nie może nastąpić przed jego wykonaniem, darowaniem albo przedawnieniem wykonania. W przypadku gdy na sprawcy ciążą dwa lub więcej skazań nie pozostających w zbiegu przestępstw, jak również jeśli skazany po rozpoczęciu lecz po upływie okresu wymagającego do zatarcia skazania ponownie popełnił przestępstwo, dopuszczalne jest tylko zatarcie wszystkich skazań. Zatarcie skazania musi doprowadzić do pełnego wykreślenia przestępstwa z karty karnej skazanego. Nie jest dopuszczalne wykreślanie skazań na raty tylko w stosunku do niektórych zamieszczonych w karcie karnej czynów. Nie może być sytuacji, gdy zaciera się jedno skazanie, a inne pozostają; zasada ta dotyczy zarówno zatarć i skazania z mocy prawa jak i tych dokonywanych na wniosek skazanego. Zatarcie skazania może nastąpić także wskutek zmiany ustawodawstwa, gdy według nowej ustawy czyn nie jest już zabroniony pod groźbą kary (art. 4 par. 4 k.k.), oraz w wypadku pomyślnego upływu okresu próby, na którą warunkowo zawieszono karę pozbawienia wolności, oraz dodatkowo 6 miesięcy (art. 76 par. 1 k.k.). +Przestępstwa, które nie ulegają zatarciu. +Zatarciu skazania (w Polsce) nie podlegają przestępstwa przeciwko wolności seksualnej i obyczajności, jeśli poszkodowanym była osoba poniżej 15 roku życia (Art.106a). +Zatarcie skazania w praktyce. +W świetle obecnej praktyki bezterminowego przechowywania danych zatarcie skazania nie jest skuteczne całkowicie. Zwraca się również uwagę, że obecne zasady przetwarzania przez Policję informacji o osobach KSIP są wadliwe pod względem prawnym. Gdyż w tym systemie do końca życia figurują osoby, którym skazanie z mocy prawa uległo zatarciu. +Żeń-szeń + +Żeń-szeń właściwy ("Panax ginseng" C.A. Meyer), nazywany także ginsengiem lub wszechlekiem – gatunek reliktowej byliny z rodziny araliowatych. Dziko występuje w północno-wschodnich Chinach, na północy Półwyspu Koreańskiego, w Japonii i wschodniej części Rosji (Kraj Nadmorski i zlewnia rzeki Ussuri).Nazwa rośliny na Zachodzie pochodzi od chińskiej nazwy "rénshēn" (人蔘) oznaczającej "człowieka-korzeń", co nawiązuje do kształtu kłącza. W większości języków europejskich żeń-szeń jest określany jako "ginseng" – łacińską transkrypcją chińskiej nazwy ustanowioną przez europejskich misjonarzy, którzy badali chińską medycynę i ziołolecznictwo. Polska nazwa "żeń-szeń" powstała na skutek błędnego odczytania transkrypcji rosyjskiej i stąd bierze się głoska "ń", nie występująca w języku chińskim. +Inne gatunki. +Wszystkie działają podobne do żeń-szenia właściwego, ale mają mniejszą zawartość substancji aktywnych. +Harvest Moon + +Harvest Moon (jap. 牧場物語 – Bokujou Monogatari; znana także jako Farm Story) – seria konsolowych symulatorów życia rolnika, produkowanych przez Victor Entertainment Software (od 2003 filii Marvelous Entertainment). "Harvest Moon" opowiada o rolniku, który musi w wyznaczonym terminie zrobić z zaniedbanej farmy dobrze prosperujące gospodarstwo. +Płonniki + +Płonniki ("Polytrichopsida") - klasa roślin należąca do gromady mchów, obejmująca gatunki charakteryzujące się wysokim stopniem organizacji gametofitów. +Charakterystyka. +Gatunki o dwupiennych skupieniach gametangiów (rodnie i plemnie tworzą się na szczytach łodyżek). W łodygach występuje centralna wiązka przewodząca, która u gatunków z rzędu płonnikowców zbudowana jest z hydroidów i leptoidów. Wiązki przewodzące w łodygach łączą się z żebrami, występującymi we wszystkich liściach. Na powierzchni liścia często występują lamelle. Gametofity duże (do 50 cm w przypadku dousonii). Ze szczytów łodyżek wyrasta sporofit, zbudowany z długiej sety zakończonej puszką z wieczkiem. Perystom typu komórkozębnego. +Systematyka. +Obecnie według B. Goffineta, W.R. Bucka i A.J. Shawa klasa płonników jest taksonem monotypowym obejmującym jeden rząd płonnikowców, z jedyną rodziną płonnikowatych. W systemie Bucka i Goffineta z 2000 r. do klasy płonników zaliczono także rząd "Tetraphidales", który następnie został rozdzielony na osobne klasy "Tetraphidopsida" i "Oedipodiopsida", zaś rodzina bezlistowatych klasyfikowana wcześniej w tym rzędzie została przeniesiona do klasy prątników. +Histereza kapilarna + +Histereza kapilarna jest zjawiskiem dotyczącym izoterm adsorpcji na materiałach porowatych posiadających pory w kształcie otwartych obustronnie cylindrów, butelek, beczek lub szczelin i oznacza inny przebieg (inaczej histerezę) izotermy adsorpcji przy podwyższaniu ciśnienia adsorbatu (gałąź adsorpcyjna izotermy) i przy obniżaniu ciśnienia (desorpcja, gałąź desorpcyjna izotermy). Zjawisko to jest wykorzystywane m.in. do badania struktury porowatych ciał stałych a także prowadzi do istotnego zwiększenia efektywnej pojemności adsorpcyjnej adsorbentów. +Kondensacja kapilarna. +Kondensacją kapilarną nazywamy obniżenie ciśnienia (w porównaniu z kondensacją na powierzchni płaskiej) przy którym para cieczy gwałtownie zapełnia por (szczelinę) o niewielkiej średnicy. +Adsorpcja w mezoporach przebiega w różny sposób w zależności od wielkości ciśnienia (w stosunku do ciśnienia pary nasyconej, ps, kształtu i rozmiaru poru, a także w zależności od tego czy ciśnienie jest zwiększane lub zmniejszane i jaka ilość adsorbatu już w porach się znajduje. +W przypadku obustronnie otwartych cylindrów oraz butelek, przy podnoszeniu ciśnienia adsorbatu (tzw. gałąź adsorpcyjna izotermy) przy pewnej wartości ciśnienia wzglednego x = p/ps następuje gwałtowne zapełnienie tych porów adsorbatem, czyli kondensacja. Podobnie przy obniżaniu cisnienia (gałąź desorpcyjna izotermy) po zapełnieniu porów adsorbentu adsorbatem (nasycenie) ale przy innym, niższym ciśnieniu następuje gwałtowne odparowanie adsorbatu z porów (ewaporacja). Znając kształt porów można przy wykorzystaniu równania Kelvina określić średnicę porów oraz ich ilość (łączną objetość identycznych porów). +Powstanie histerezy. +To gwałtowne zapełnienie porów (kondensacja) oraz ich opróżnienie (odparowanie, "ewaporacja"), następuje przy określonych wynikajacych z równania Kelvina wartościach ciśnienia, niższych niż ciśnienie pary nasyconej adsorbatu. Wielkość obniżenia ciśnienia zależy od średnicy poru (a właściwie tworzącego się w danych warunkach menisku adsorbatu) oraz jego kształtu. Największe obniżenie następuje w przypadku menisku sferycznego a mniejsze dla menisku cylindrycznego. Por cylindryczny przed zapełnieniem zawiera cylinryczny menisk adsorbatu, natomiast po całkowitym zapełnieniu poru adsorbatem, otwarte są jedynie oba końce kapilary o przekroju kołowym gdzie tworzy się menisk o podobnym promieniu krzywizny ale sferyczny i odparowanie następuje przy innym ciśnieniu. W butelkowym porze sferycznym przy adsorpcji mamy do czynienia z dużym sferycznym meniskiem we wnętrzu "bańki" poru, przy odparowaniu równowaga tworzy się pomiędzy fazą gazową a sferycznym meniskiem w wąskiej "szyjce" poru, a więc przy zachowaniu typu poru zmienia się jego średnica. +Dziedziczenie (programowanie) + +Dziedziczeniem (ang. "inheritance") w programowaniu obiektowym nazywamy mechanizm współdzielenia funkcjonalności między klasami. Klasa może dziedziczyć po innej klasie, co oznacza, że oprócz swoich własnych atrybutów oraz zachowań, uzyskuje także te pochodzące z klasy, z której dziedziczy. Klasa dziedzicząca jest nazywana "klasą pochodną" lub "potomną" (w j. angielskim: "subclass" lub "derived class"), zaś klasa, z której następuje dziedziczenie — "klasą bazową" (w ang. "superclass"). Z jednej klasy bazowej można uzyskać dowolną liczbę klas pochodnych. Klasy pochodne posiadają obok swoich własnych metod i pól, również kompletny interfejs klasy bazowej. +W językach programowania z prototypowaniem (np. JavaScript) nie występuje pojęcie klasy, dlatego dziedziczenie zachodzi tam pomiędzy poszczególnymi obiektami. +Pojęcie dziedziczenia zostało wprowadzone po raz pierwszy przez twórców języka Simula. +Klasy bazowe i pochodne. +Zależności między klasami bazowymi i pochodnymi tworzą tzw. "hierarchię klas". Klasy pochodne otrzymują wszystkie metody i atrybuty swoich klas bazowych oraz mogą dodawać nowe. Dopuszczalne jest także nadpisywanie istniejących metod, przy czym poszczególne języki programowania mogą żądać spełnienia dodatkowych warunków, np. pozostawienia niezmienionej listy argumentów wejściowych i typu wyniku. +Wiele języków programowania umożliwia deklarowanie klas jako "abstrakcyjnych". Nie można tworzyć obiektu klasy abstrakcyjnej, lecz można po takiej klasie dziedziczyć. Klasa abstrakcyjna może zawierać metody czysto wirtualne, które "muszą" zostać zaimplementowane przez klasy pochodne. Mechanizmu tego używa się, jeśli twórca klasy chce dostarczyć jedynie części funkcjonalności, tworząc szkielet dla innych, bardziej wyspecjalizowanych klas. +Rodzaje dziedziczenia. +W programowaniu obiektowym wyróżniane jest dziedziczenie "pojedyncze" oraz dziedziczenie "wielokrotne". Z dziedziczeniem pojedynczym mamy do czynienia, gdy klasa pochodna dziedziczy po dokładnie jednej klasie bazowej (oczywiście klasa bazowa wciąż może dziedziczyć z jakiejś innej klasy), natomiast w dziedziczeniu wielokrotnym klas bazowych może być więcej. +Powyższe problemy dotyczą przede wszystkim konfliktów implementacji. Dlatego nawet jeśli w danym języku programowania wielokrotne dziedziczenie klas jest niedozwolone, można je stosować w przypadku interfejsów, które mogą być traktowane, jak klasy abstrakcyjne zawierające wyłącznie metody czysto wirtualne. +Zastosowania. +Podstawowym zastosowaniem dziedziczenia jest ponowne wykorzystanie kodu. Jeśli dwie klasy wykonują podobne zadania, możemy utworzyć dla nich wspólną klasę bazową, do której przeniesiemy identyczne metody oraz atrybuty. Ułatwi to testowanie oraz potencjalnie zwiększy niezawodność aplikacji w przypadku zmian. W razie ewentualnych problemów łatwiej będzie również odnaleźć przyczynę błędu. +Dziedziczenie a polimorfizm (podtypowanie). +Hierarchia klas może przekładać się na hierarchię typów. Możliwe jest wtedy podstawienie pod zmienną (lub atrybut funkcji) typu T obiektu typu S będącego podtypem T i dalsze używanie go jakby był typu T. Jest to możliwe dzięki temu, że podklasa posiada kompletny interfejs swojej nadklasy. +W podklasie może być zdefiniowana metoda już istniejąca w nadklasie. Konstrukcja taka umożliwia wykonywanie operacji na obiektach bez informacji, z jakim właściwie obiektem mamy do czynienia. Rozpatrzmy typową aplikację GUI wyświetlającą na ekranie różne komponenty (np. przycisk, pole tekstowe czy listę rozwijaną). Reagują one na te same zdarzenia: kliknięcie myszką, naciśnięcie klawisza, lecz każdy z nich reaguje inaczej, stosownie do tego czym jest. System obsługi zdarzeń najpierw określa, który z komponentów powinien obsłużyć zdarzenie, a następnie przekazuje mu je. Dzięki podtypowanie opartym na dziedziczeniu możemy utworzyć wspólną klasę codice_1 z metodą codice_2, którą będą rozszerzać wszystkie rodzaje komponentów. Pobierając aktywny obiekt, możemy wywołać tę metodę bez zastanawiania się czy dany obiekt jest przyciskiem czy polem tekstowym. +Mamy klasę bazową codice_3 oraz dziedziczącą z niej klasę codice_4. Klasa bazowa definiuje metodę codice_5, która jest nadpisywana przez klasę pochodną. Przypadek pierwszy ("1") nie budzi żadnych wątpliwości: mamy utworzony obiekt klasy "A", dlatego wywołujemy wersję metody codice_5 zdefiniowaną w tej klasie. W przypadku drugim pod zmienną codice_7 podstawiony jest obiekt klasy pochodnej. Jednak wtedy w linijce oznaczonej przez "2" możemy: +Jeśli zachodzi sytuacja druga, powiemy, że metoda codice_5 jest metodą wirtualną. W niektórych językach (np. C++) metody muszą być jawnie deklarowane jako wirtualne przez programistę. W innych (np. Java) wszystkie metody są z definicji wirtualne. +W ogólnym ujęciu podtypowanie i dziedziczenie to dwa różne pojęcia. Dziedziczenie dotyczy powtórnego wykorzystania klasy bazowej, natomiast podtypowanie (polimorfizm) możliwości wykorzystania podtypu w miejscu nadtypu. +Ograniczenia. +Innym istotnym ograniczeniem jest uzależnienie kodu od konkretnej implementacji klasy, które może doprowadzić do błędów przy jej zmianie. Tego typu problem pojawia się zwłaszcza gdy dziedziczymy między klasami znajdującymi się w różnych komponentach (tzw. Problem kruchości klasy podstawowej). +Rozwiązania alternatywne. +Istnieje kilka rozwiązań alternatywnych eliminujących poszczególne ograniczenia dziedziczenia. +Kompozycja. +Kompozycja polega na zastąpieniu dziedziczenia składaniem mniejszych obiektów. Posługując się dalej powyższym przykładem, możemy zostawić klasę codice_15, która posiada listę ról takich, jak codice_16 czy codice_17. Obiektowi można przydzielać nowe oraz usuwać stare role w dowolnym momencie wykonania programu, eliminując tym samym problemy pojedynczości oraz niezmienności. Wadą kompozycji jest większe zużycie pamięci (dużo małych obiektów) oraz niewielki spadek wydajności podczas dostępu do metod. +Kompozycję można stosować w każdym języku obsługującym programowanie obiektowe. +Domieszki. +Domieszka pozwala uzyskać funkcjonalność podobną do wielokrotnego dziedziczenia, unikając jednocześnie trapiących je paradoksów. Jest to rodzaj klasy abstrakcyjnej, którą można „dodać” do właściwych klas. Klasa uzyskuje wszystkie atrybuty oraz metody zdefiniowane dodanych do niej domieszkach. Oddzielenie klas od domieszek pozwala wprowadzić jasne reguły rozwiązywania konfliktów. Przykładem języka wykorzystującego domieszki jest Ruby. +Interfejsy i cechy. +Interfejs to rodzaj klasy abstrakcyjnej, która może zawierać wyłącznie metody czysto wirtualne oraz stałe. Ponieważ paradoksy dotyczą wyłącznie implementacji, której tu nie ma, w interfejsach można bezpiecznie korzystać z wielokrotnego dziedziczenia. Również klasy mogą implementować więcej niż jeden interfejs jednocześnie. Przykładami języków wykorzystujących interfejsy są Java oraz C#. +Cechy umożliwiają wielokrotne wykorzystanie tego samego kawałka kodu w różnych klasach. W przeciwieństwie do domieszek, kod ten zachowuje się tak, jakby był zapisany w tych klasach bezpośrednio, a w momencie wykonania programu nie ma możliwości stwierdzenia czy dana metoda została zaimplementowana bezpośrednio w klasie czy dodana przez cechę. +Hanka Bielicka + +Hanka Bielicka, właśc. Anna Weronika Bielicka (ur. 9 listopada 1915 w Konowce koło Połtawy, zm. 9 marca 2006 w Warszawie) – polska aktorka, artystka kabaretowa, romanistka. Była pierwszą żoną aktora Jerzego Duszyńskiego. Małżeństwo było bezdzietne i zakończyło się rozwodem. +Życiorys. +Urodziła się koło Połtawy w czasie ucieczki rodziców przed ofensywą państw centralnych. Po I wojnie światowej, w wieku 2,5 lat, zamieszkała w Łomży, gdzie skończyła gimnazjum żeńskie im. Marii Konopnickiej. Mieszkała w Łomży przez prawie cały okres dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, a przez całe życie była silnie związana z miastem i jego środowiskiem kulturalnym. +W 1939 ukończyła studia na Wydziale Filologii Romańskiej Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego (gdy zdobywała absolutorium, etap pisania pracy magisterskiej przerwał wybuch wojny) oraz Państwowy Instytut Sztuki Teatralnej w Warszawie, w tym samym roku debiutowała jako aktorka. Wybuch wojny uniemożliwił jej też wyjazd do Francji na stypendium. Współpracowała z Teatrem Polskim „Pohulanka” w Wilnie w okresie wojennym, po 1945 była związana z zespołami teatrów Dramatycznego w Białymstoku, Kameralnego w Łodzi, Współczesnego w Warszawie i Państwowego Teatru „Syrena” w Warszawie. W 1977 przeszła na emeryturę, ale kontynuowała występy, zarówno teatralne i estradowe, jak i telewizyjne. Występowała także poza Polską. +Pierwszy jej kabaretowy epizod w krakowskim Kabarecie Siedem kotów w 1947 okazał się dla niej szczęśliwy: poznała Bogdana Brzezińskiego, który obiecał napisać dla niej coś specjalnego. Kilka lat później stworzył postać Dziuni Pietrusińskiej komentującej rzeczywistość sąsiedzką i ogólnospołeczną z pozycji „paniusi miejsko-wiejskiej z dość poważnie zmąconym poczuciem własnych korzeni” – jak scharakteryzował postać jej autor. Tę rolę Bielicka odgrywała przed publicznością i słuchaczami radiowego "Podwieczorku przy mikrofonie" przez 25 lat. +Zdzisław Gozdawa i Wacław Stępień – aktorzy Teatru Syrena w Warszawie – nazwali jej charakterystyczny głos „najpiękniejszą chrypką świata” – aktorka była dzięki niemu łatwo rozpoznawalna nie tylko przez publiczność estrady, ale także przez słuchaczy radiowych. Hanka Bielicka wygłaszała monologi z ogromnym temperamentem, witalnością, sympatią dla publiczności, posługiwała się przy tym śmiechem i uśmiechem. W czasie występów używała gwary warszawskiej, nawiązując do przedwojennego stylu życia Warszawy. Preferowała żart obyczajowy, unikając polityki. Nieodłącznym rekwizytem na scenie i elementem jej stroju był kapelusz, najczęściej staromodny z ogromnym rondem, mimo zmieniających się trendów politycznych i trendów mody. +Wystąpiła też w ponad 20 filmach kinowych i telewizyjnych. Nie powierzano jej jednak w nich nigdy ról pierwszoplanowych, głównie z powodu głosu, który – ceniony na estradzie – w filmie często był przeszkodą. Zagrała m.in. w serialach: "Wojna domowa", "Palce lizać", "Badziewiakowie", wcześniej także w filmach fabularnych: "Zakazane piosenki", "Celuloza", "Cafe pod Minogą", "Małżeństwo z rozsądku", "Piekło i Niebo" i słynną ciotunię w "Panu Wołodyjowskim" (1969). W ,Wojnie Domowej" pojawiła się w 10 odcinku, kiedy wycieczka stanęła przy bloku, zagrała zirytowaną lokatorkę, do której zadzwonił domofonem przewodnik wycieczki (Jacek Fedorowicz). +W 15 odcinku ("Siła wyobraźni") zagrała masażystkę, która przychodziła do pani Jankowskiej do domu. W 2006 na ekrany kin wszedł film pt.: "Ja wam pokażę!", w którym zagrała rolę Ciotki Judyty. +W 2002 roku nagrała płytę pt. "Kazali mi śpiewać". +1 marca 2006 wzięła udział w nagraniu programu "Szymon Majewski Show", w którym żartobliwie powiedziała „Dzisiejszy wieczór będzie pod nazwą: Bawcie się dzieci, nim babcia odleci.” Był to jej ostatni telewizyjny występ. Za pracę artystyczną otrzymała wiele odznaczeń i nagród. +Od 2007 roku organizowany jest w Łomży, w Centrum Katolickim im. Jana Pawła II, coroczny Konkurs Krasomówczy im. Hanki Bielickiej pod hasłem: „Radość spod kapelusza”, którego najważniejszym celem jest szerzenie zamiłowania do języka ojczystego i dbałość o czystość mowy polskiej. Wśród repertuarów wybieranych przez uczestników, prym wiodą monologi Hanki Bielickiej. +9 listopada to data urodzin Hanki Bielickiej oraz data powstania Telewizyjnego Kuriera Warszawskiego. W drugą rocznicę śmierci artystki została odsłonięta pamiątkowa tablica na ścianie domu przy ul. Śniadeckich 18, ufundowana przez redakcję Kuriera. W domu przy ul. Śniadeckich Hanka Bielicka mieszkała 37 lat. +Ostatnia gosposia Hanki Bielickiej - Joanna Manianin - we wspomnieniowym wywiadzie z Dariuszem Sipowskim dla "Życia Warszawy" mówi, że Hanka Bielicka w domu była zupełnie inna niż na estradzie. Spokojna, wyciszona i zdystansowana. Mieszkała w kamienicy na ul. Śniadeckich 18 w Warszawie. Kochała warszawską Starówkę i Łazienki Królewskie. Bardzo udzielała się też charytatywnie przeznaczając pieniądze zarówno dla ludzi potrzebujących, na rzecz różnych instytucji (Domy Dziecka) i na schroniska dla zwierząt. +Znana była z umiłowania do oryginalnych kreacji, które sama projektowała i z licznych kapeluszy, w które przebierała się już jako mała dziewczynka podczas pobytu w Konotewce na Ukrainie, gdzie jej mama była garderobianą. +Dzieliła ponad 40 lat wspólną garderobę z Ireną Kwiatkowską, z którą jednak zawsze były na „pani”. Sama Hanka Bielicka mawiała: „Jak ja bym chciała zobaczyć minę Ireny kiedy umrę”. +Joanna Manianin wspomina też, że nie znosiła kłamstwa i braku punktualności. +Śmierć i pogrzeb. +9 marca 2006 przed południem przeszła w szpitalu przy ul. Stefana Banacha w Warszawie operację tętniaka aorty, po której o godzinie 16:15 tego samego dnia zmarła. Nazajutrz, 10 marca, polski Sejm uczcił jej pamięć minutą ciszy. +Pogrzeb artystki odbył się 16 marca. Została pochowana na warszawskich Starych Powązkach w grobowcu rodzinnym Bielickich. Wielbiciele uhonorowali ją między innymi wieńcem z różowych kwiatów w kształcie kapelusza – nieodłącznego nakrycia głowy Bielickiej. +Zgodnie z życzeniem artystki w ostatniej drodze towarzyszył jej przyjaciel ze Związku Artystów Scen Polskich (ZASP), Zbigniew Korpolewski, który pisał dla Bielickiej satyryczne monologi. Wśród żegnających Bielicką byli także m.in. aktorzy Krzysztof Kolberger, Emilia Krakowska, Roman Kłosowski, satyryk i artysta kabaretowy Tadeusz Ross oraz żona prezydenta Polski Maria Kaczyńska. +LZ 129 Hindenburg + +LZ-129 Hindenburg – niemiecki sterowiec pasażerski. Wraz z bliźniaczym LZ-130 Graf Zeppelin II, był największym sterowcem w historii. Zapewniał podróżnym przelot przez Atlantyk w luksusowych warunkach. Na cześć byłego prezydenta Niemiec nosił imię Hindenburg. +Konstrukcja. +Miał długość 245 m, i średnicę 41 m, zawierał 200 tys. m³ wodoru w 16 zbiornikach. Napędzały go cztery silniki diesla o mocy 1200 KM każdy. Osiągał prędkość maksymalną 135 km/h. +Hindenburg był zdolny przewozić 72 pasażerów (50 w rejsie transatlantyckim) oraz 61 osób załogi. Z powodów aerodynamicznych pomieszczenia załogi znajdowały się wewnątrz sterowca, a nie w gondoli pod sterowcem. +Hindenburg był przystosowany konstrukcyjnie do wypełnienia helem, ale z powodu embargo narzuconego przez USA (podówczas jedynego producenta helu na świecie) sterowiec został przerobiony na użycie wodoru, co nie stanowiło większego problemu, ponieważ Niemcy miały doświadczenie z użyciem tego gazu. Żeby zapobiec zapaleniu gazu, poszycie sterowca było wykonane z materiału, który zapobiegał wyładowaniom elektrycznym. Na pokładzie sterowca znajdowała się również palarnia; pomieszczenie to było utrzymywane pod ciśnieniem, żeby zapobiec dostaniu się doń palnego gazu. +Zaletami zastosowania wodoru była jego niska (w porównaniu do helu) cena, a zatem i uproszczenie konstrukcji, polegające na tym, że aby obniżyć pułap statku powietrznego wystarczyło upuścić część wodoru zamiast instalować skomplikowanych urządzeń do bezstratnego sprężania znacznie droższego helu. Atutem była też większa siła nośna (dzięki mniejszej gęstości) wodoru, co pozwoliło na zwiększenie liczby kabin pasażerkich w stosunku do prototypu. +Dodatkowym argumentem za użyciem wodoru był fakt, że nigdy wcześniej żaden niemiecki statek powietrzny lżejszy od powietrza nie uległ wypadkowi spowodowanemu łatwopalnością wodoru. +Służba. +Kariera Hindenburga rozwijała się na bazie kariery jego poprzednika – sterowca LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin. Przez cały 1936 rok Hindenburg przeleciał 191 583 mile przewożąc 2798 pasażerów oraz 160 ton ładunku i poczty. Brał udział w tzw. „Deutschlandfahrt” - z jego pokładu podczas podróży przez całe Niemcy i Prusy Wschodnie zachęcano do głosowania za remilitaryzacją Nadrenii . W tym roku statek wykonał 17 lotów przez Atlantyk, w tym 10 lotów do USA i Brazylii. Pokonał również rekord Atlantyku, podwójnie go przekraczając w ciągu 5 dni, 19 godzin i 51 minut. +1 sierpnia 1936 r. Hindenburg był obecny podczas ceremonii otwarcia igrzysk olimpijskich w Berlinie. +Katastrofa. +Po wystartowaniu z Frankfurtu z 97 osobami na pokładzie (36 pasażerów i 61 osób załogi) i trzydniowej podróży przez Atlantyk, sterowiec spłonął 6 maja 1937 r. podczas cumowania na lotnisku w Lakehurst w stanie New Jersey (USA). Zginęło 13 pasażerów i 22 członków załogi oraz główny członek załogi naziemnej, kapitan Ernst Lehmann. Odpowiadał on m.in. za starty Hindenburga. Niektórzy uważają, że stał on na czele sabotażu i kazał zniszczyć Hindenburga. Wiele ofiar nie zginęło w płomieniach, ale zostało przygniecione przez innych, skaczących ze statku pasażerów. Katastrofę przeżył też kapitan sterowca Max Pruss. Z ciężkimi oparzeniami trafił do szpitala. +Jest kilka hipotez co do przyczyn katastrofy. Jedni sugerują sabotaż. Inni, że katastrofa Hindenburga została spowodowana zmęczeniem materiału poszycia sterowca. Pojawiła się również teoria, że sterowiec spłonął z powodu połączenia łatwopalnych substancji zastosowanych w farbie, którą zostało pomalowane poszycie, jednak teoria ta została obalona w programie Discovery "Prawda czy fałsz - pogromcy mitów" w odcinku Tajemnica Hindenburga +Badania ujawniły jednak, że poszycie sterowca było polakierowane środkiem, który miał właściwości gromadzenia w sobie ładunku elektrycznego. Podczas przelotu, na skutek tarcia powietrza na poszyciu w tylnej części sterowca zgromadziło się bardzo duża ilość ładunku elektrycznego. Ponadto sterowiec podróżował podczas burzy co jeszcze dodatkowo zwiększyło zgromadzony ładunek. Gdy zacumowano Hindenburga, między płatami naelektryzowanymi poszycia a nienaelektryzowanymi przeskoczyła iskra, która zapoczątkowała pożar łatwopalnej powłoki, zawierającej azotan celulozy i pył aluminiowy. Pożar wodoru nastąpił dopiero po kontakcie z ogniem. Za tą teorią przemawia również fakt, że na zdjęciach płomienie mają silną barwę – natomiast płomienie palącego się wodoru powinny być niewidoczne. Kolejny argument – wodór w zbiornikach sterowca celowo został silnie nasycony zapachem czosnku; zapach ten nie był odczuwalny przed katastrofą, co kwestionuje nieszczelność zbiorników i wyciek wodoru jako przyczynę katastrofy. Po tym wypadku niektórzy pasażerowie znajdowali w szczątkach maszyny swoje przedmioty, które dziwnym trafem ocalały. +Są również przeciwnicy teorii zapalenia się poszycia jako pierwszego źródła ognia. Wskazują oni, że szybkie rozprzestrzenianie się ognia na poszyciu jest wątpliwe, nawet pomimo łatwopalności poszycia – tym bardziej, że cały sterowiec płonął już w 34 sekundzie od pojawienia się pierwszych języków ognia. Twierdzą też, że kolor płomienia, który powinien być niewidoczny przy palącym się wodorze, dostał intensywnej barwy z powodu innych płonących elementów statku, które zajęły się ogniem – poszycia i aluminiowego szkieletu. +W programie National Geographic "Seconds From Disaster - The Hindenburg Disaster", ekspert NTSB, Greg'a Feith, specjalizujący się w badaniach katastrof lotniczych, przeprowadził analizę tragedii Hindenburga i doszedł do wniosku, że tak gwałtowny pożar sterowca mógł nastąpić tylko na skutek zapalenia się mieszanki wodoru i tlenu. Pomimo pokrycia poszycia łatwopalnym materiałem, ogień nie mógł się tak szybko rozprzestrzeniać. Przeprowadzony eksperyment potwierdził tą teorię - wykonany do celów doświadczenia fragment poszycia palił się zbyt wolno. + +Epilog. +Resztki aluminiowej konstrukcji statku zostały przewiezione do Niemiec i użyte do produkcji samolotów wojskowych dla Luftwaffe, podobnie jak szkielety LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin i LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II zezłomowanych w 1940 r. we Frankfurcie nad Menem. +Katastrofa zakończyła karierę sterowców w dziedzinie turystyki i komunikacji pasażerskiej na wiele następnych lat. Niemniej jednak maszyny nie wyszły z użytku - w latach 90. koncern Zeppelin zdecydował o stworzeniu spółki Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik GmbH i powrocie do budowy sterowców (wciąż bazujących na konstrukcji ramy pomysłu hrabiego Zeppelina) - od 1997 w powietrze wzbijają się kolejne Zeppeliny NT, wykorzystywane w m. in. w Niemczech, USA i Japonii w turystyce, badaniach georadarowych, służbach celnych, meteorologii, armii i reklamie. +Bibliografia. +Większość relacji z przebiegu katastrofy pochodzi z filmu dokumentalnego "Tuż przed tragedią: Sterowiec "Hindenburg". +Phil Rudd + +Phil Rudd właściwie Phillip Hugh Norman Witschke Rudzevecuis (ur. 19 maja 1954 w Melbourne), muzyk australijski, perkusista zespołu AC/DC. +Współpracował z grupami Buster Brown i Coloured Balls. Do AC/DC dołączył na początku 1975 zastępując Petera Clarka. Odszedł z zespołu w 1983 po sesji do albumu "Flick Of The Switch", borykając się z problemem uzależnienia narkotykowego i konfliktami z towarzyszami zespołu. Wyemigrował do Nowej Zelandii gdzie etablował wynajem helikopterów. Powrócił w 1994 i gra do dziś. +Brian Johnson + +Brian Johnson (ur. 5 października 1947 w Dunston) – brytyjski muzyk, wokalista zespołu AC/DC. +Obdarzony charakterystycznym głosem. Swoją drogę do kariery rozpoczął w świetnie zapowiadającym się zespole brytyjskim (z Newcastle) Geordie; z zespołem tym w Wielkiej Brytanii odnosił singlowe sukcesy. Do AC/DC dołączył po śmierci Bona Scotta w 1980; w tymże roku nagrał najlepiej sprzedający się album zespołu "Back in Black". Brian Johnson do dziś nagrywa i koncertuje z AC/DC. +Brian Johnson wystąpił gościnnie w filmie Gol! oraz podkładał głos w grze sierżantowi Starkeyowi. W 2006 roku piosenkarz został sklasyfikowany na 39. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych wokalistów wszech czasów według Hit Parader. +Bernardo di Quintavalle + +Bernardo di Quintavalle (ur. 1180, zm. 10 lipca 1241 w Asyżu), nazywany również bratem Bernardem di Berardello – doktor prawa kanonicznego i świeckiego, pierwszy towarzysz św. Franciszka z Asyżu, franciszkanin. +W 1208 zaprosił do swego domu w Asyżu przyszłego świętego Franciszka. Z ukrycia obserwując nocą jego żarliwą modlitwę, poprosił o wskazanie życiowej drogi dla siebie. 16 kwietnia tego samego roku wraz z Pietro Cattanim rozdał cały swój majątek i przystał do Biedaczyny z Asyżu. Był wysyłany przez Franciszka z misją do Bolonii i Florencji. Apostołował również w Hiszpanii (1213-1214). +Po śmierci Franciszka należał do opozycji nieakceptującej linii polityki wewnętrznej zakonu franciszkańskiego, wytyczonej przez brata Eliasza Bombarone. By uciec przed niepokojącą go sytuacją, przez długi czas przebywał w jednym z włoskich eremów. Przed śmiercią powrócił jednak do Asyżu; został pochowany w Bazylice św. Franciszka w Asyżu. +Fakty z jego życia przytacza m.in. Tomasz z Celano w swoim "Żywocie pierwszym" św. Franciszka oraz Luke Wadding w swoich "Annales". Nie został nigdy ogłoszony świętym. +XHTML Basic + +XHTML Basic ("Podstawowy XHTML") - oparty na XML język znaczników, tworzony przez W3C i używany głównie w urządzeniach przenośnych, jak telefony komórkowe, PDA, pagery i internetowe przystawki telewizyjne. +XHTML Basic jest podzbiorem XHTML, zawierającym minimalny zestaw modułów XHTML obsługujących strukturę dokumentu, obrazki, tabele i obiekty. Język ten ma zastąpić języki WML i C-HTML. Przewagą XHTML Basic nad tymi językami jest możliwość odmiennego renderowania zapisanych w nim stron w przeglądarce internetowej i w ręcznym urządzeniu bez konieczności tworzenia dwóch wersji strony. +Firma Nokia opracowała XHTML Mobile Profile projekt oparty na XHTML Basic, który zawiera dodatkowo elementy specyficzne dla obsługi telefonów komórkowych. +Aktualną wersją XHTML Basic jest 1.1 (rekomendacja). +Linki zewnętrzne. +http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml-basic/ +Synurbizacja + +Synurbizacja – w ekologii jest to proces dostosowania się populacji zwierzęcych do specyficznych warunków panujących w miastach. +Wśród zwierząt zasiedlających miasta najczęściej obserwowane są zmiany o charakterze etologicznym, np. zachowania agresywne, śmiałość wobec ludzi, "proszenie" o pokarm, zmiana aktywności z nocnej na dzienną, itp. Zmiany w populacjach mogą sięgać jednak cech fizjologicznych i genetycznych. Przykładami populacji synurbijnych mogą być kosy czy myszy polne. Synurbizacja jest pojęciem węższym w stosunku do synantropizacji. +Charakter schizoidalny + +Charakter schizoidalny – styl charakteru opisany przez Stephena Johnsona w oparciu o koncepcję psychoanalityczno-rozwojową. +Etiologia. +Charakter schizoidalny kształtuje zakłócenie bezpieczeństwa w wieku niemowlęcym. Przyjmuje się, że źródłem poczucia przerażenia jest niewłaściwa opieka rodzicielska: oschła, nieempatyczna i tworząca w świadomości dziecka poczucie bycia znienawidzonym, niechcianym. Dziecko, aby przetrwać taką wewnętrzną wizję opiekuna (od którego w dodatku jest w pełni zależne) może zareagować tylko wycofaniem się, rozdwojeniem, co następnie prowadzi do zablokowania ekspresji życiowej. +Postawa osoby dorosłej: Nacechowana jest lękiem, konfliktowością w relacjach interpersonalnych, postawą unikową. Osoba bywa autodestruktywna i ma trudności z samooakceptacją. Ma kłopoty z tworzeniem trwałych kontaktów z innymi ludźmi oraz z kontaktami intymnymi. Osoba taka pozostaje w oddzieleniu od własnego "self" i bez kontaktu z innymi ludźmi. Osoba cierpi na chroniczne napięcie mięśni i stawów. Jest to osoba ekstremalnie wrażliwa na wszelkie przejawy szorstkości ze strony środowiska, która nie potrafi na stałe angażować się w dowolne zajęcie czy relację. Często odczuwana jest kompensacyjna, zazwyczaj świadoma, potrzeba bycia kimś specjalnym. +Schizoidalny styl charakteru zbliżony jest do osobowości schizoidalnej lub osobowości schizotypowej jednakże nie jest on zaburzeniem osobowości, lecz jakościowo znacznie mniej poważnym zespołem wewnętrznych ograniczeń jednostki. +Osoba taka trwa w społecznym zawieszeniu, w poczuciu izolacji a chroniczne przerażenie wciąż w niej istniejące przykrywa prymitywną, tłumioną wściekłością. Umysłowo zazwyczaj są to osoby bardzo sprawne, przy czym dotyczy to generalnie myślenia abstrakcyjnego, gdyż inteligencja społeczna często nie jest zintegrowana ze stłumionymi emocjami i w związku z tym jest upośledzona. +Eurowizja (sieć telewizyjna) + +Sieć telewizyjna Eurowizji, ang. Eurovision Network - należąca do Europejskiej Unii Nadawców (EBU) sieć infrastruktury do przesyłu sygnału telewizyjnego między krajami członkowskimi tej organizacji, a także do innych krajów świata. +Oficjalne narodziny sieci telewizyjnej Eurovision datuje transmisja telewizyjna Festiwalu Narcyzów ze szwajcarskiego miasta Montreux, 6 czerwca 1954 roku. Pierwotnie sieć Eurovision opierała się na naziemnej sieci przesyłowej, obecnie używa się niemal wyłącznie przesyłu satelitarnego. +Charakter + +Charakter (z gr. - "charakteristikos" - odróżniający) - piętno, cecha, wizerunek lub właściwość. Zespół cech wyróżniających dany przedmiot, zjawisko, osobę od innych tego samego rodzaju, np. ze względu na wygląd, postać, działanie czy zachowanie. +Psychologia. +W psychologii charakter rozumiany jest jako: +Badaniem charakteru zajmuje się charakterologia, która m.in. tworzy i analizuje typologie charakteru. +Cybernetyka. +W polskiej szkole psychocybernetyki i cybernetyki społecznej, zapoczątkowanej przez Mariana Mazura, zespół sztywnych właściwości sterowniczych systemu autonomicznego (w tym, jako przypadek szczególny – człowieka) nazywa się "charakterem". Odróżnia się go wyraźnie od zespołu zmiennych właściwości sterowniczych, czyli "osobowości". Sztywne właściwości sterownicze są niezależne od "woli" systemu autonomicznego, zaś zmienne są od niej zależne. +Na charakter systemu autonomicznego składają się po 3 właściwości informacyjne i energetyczne. Do właściwości informacyjnych (tworzących łącznie intelekt) zalicza się: +Tejowate + +Tejowate, teidy, warany amerykańskie (Teiidae) – rodzina jaszczurek z grupy Lacertoidea. +Taksonomia. +Według Harveya i in. (2012) +Rodzaje zaliczane wcześniej do podrodziny Gymnophthalminae są obecnie klasyfikowane w odrębnej rodzinie okularkowatych (Gymnophthalmidae). Spośród rodzin współczesnych najbliższymi krewnymi Teiidae są właśnie Gymnophthalmidae. Tradycyjnie za najbliższych krewnych tejowatych uznawane są wymarłe Polyglyphanodontidae; analiza filogenetyczna przeprowadzona przez Gauthiera i współpracowników (2012) nie potwierdza jednak ich bliskiego pokrewieństwa. Tejowate prawdopodobnie wyewoluowały w połowie okresu kredowego. Wymarła podrodzina Chamopsiinae może być taksonem siostrzanym dla pozostałych podrodzin tejowatych lub też być bliżej spokrewniona z Polyglyphanodontidae. +Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski + +Adam Kazimierz Joachim Ambroży Marek Czartoryski książę herbu Pogoń Litewska, pseud. i krypt.: "A. C. G. Z. P. P.; Ad. Cz.; Daniel Belgram, kamerdyner J. K. Mci; W. Imci Pan Daniel Belgram, starosta malczewski; A. Dantiscus; Doświadczyński; Mikołaj Doświadczyński; Morzygodzina; Philhellène; Wincenty Turski; Theatralski(?)", (ur. 1 grudnia 1734 w Gdańsku, zm. 19 marca 1823 w Sieniawie) – polityk, dramatopisarz, krytyk literacki i teatralny, publicysta, mecenas sztuki, przywódca Stronnictwa Patriotycznego, feldmarszałek austriacki od 1805 roku, generał lejtnant komenderujący I i II Dywizją wojsk litewskich, szef Gwardii Pieszej Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego w latach 1765-1783. +Życiorys. +Był synem Augusta Aleksandra, wojewody ruskiego, i Marii Zofii Sieniawskiej ("primo voto" Denhoff), jego żoną była Izabela z domu Flemming, z którą miał 6 dzieci, w tym Adama Jerzego i Konstantego Adama. Początki wykształcenia odebrał w domu pod okiem francuskich guwernerów. W roku 1752 wyjechał na dalsze studia do Drezna, Brukseli i Włoch (początkowo towarzyszył mu ochmistrz, eks-jezuita i awanturnik Monet). Trzy lata później (1755) pojechał z pierwszą misją dyplomatyczną do Wiednia. +Z woli ojca został wysłany w roku 1757 na dalsze nauki do Anglii. Po powrocie do Polski posłował na sejmy w latach: 1758, 1760 i 1762. W tym okresie (1758) został generał ziem podolskich i przedstawiciel obozu reform. W roku 1759 wyjechał do Petersburga dla zjednania sobie poparcia politycznego dla familii Czartoryskich. Jego ojciec przygotowywał go do przyszłej roli króla polskiego. W roku 1761 poślubił zamożną Izabelą Flemming. Był posłem na sejm 1762 roku.W 1764 roku, jako marszałek Sejmu Konwokacyjnego, podpisał elekcję Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego, za co otrzymał order Św. Andrzeja. W roku 1767, jako poseł na Sejm Repninowski, wszedł w skład delegacji, wyłonionej pod naciskiem posła rosyjskiego Nikołaja Repnina, powołanej w celu określenia ustroju Rzeczypospolitej. Jeden z głównych, późniejszych przeciwników króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego wśród magnaterii. +W 1768 Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski został mianowany komendantem Szkoły Rycerskiej, w 1769 roku był członkiem loży wolnomularskiej Trzech Braci. Został później członkiem Komisji Edukacji Narodowej. Z Gdańskiem związany jako jeden z fundatorów obserwatorium astronomicznego na Biskupiej Górce założonego przez Nataniela Mateusza Wolfa. W 1782 roku był posłem na sejm z województwa wileńskiego. +W latach 1788-1792 był posłem na Sejm Czteroletni. W 1791 był jednym z założycieli Zgromadzenia Przyjaciół Konstytucji Rządowej. Był członkiem polskiej loży masońskiej Trzech Braci. +28 czerwca 1812 został marszałkiem Konfederacji Generalnej Królestwa Polskiego. W 1764 odznaczony Orderem Orła Białego, w 1765 został kawalerem Orderu Świętego Stanisława, w 1762 odznaczony rosyjskim Orderem św. Andrzeja Powołańca, w 1808 cesarskim Złotego Runa i carskim orderem Świętej Anny. Właściciel ordynacji międzyrzeckiej. Administratorem majątków księcia Kazimierza Czartoryskiego był Jan Kanty Brandys. +Twórczość. +Autor utworów dramatycznych, np. "Panna na wydaniu" (1771), "Kawa" (1779). +Ważniejsze utwory. +XIX wieku w Bibliotece Czartoryskich, sygn. 39643, (według J. F. Régnard: "Le Joueur") +Ponadto Czartoryski wydawał odezwy. Artykuły i drobne utwory zamieszczał w czasopismach: "Monitor" 1763, "Pamiętnik Warszawski" (1809, m.in. pod pseud. "Morzygodzina"), "Zabawy Przyjemne i Pożyteczne" (1774-1775). Jest także wysuwany na autora "Monitora" 1766, nr 65, podpisanego pseud. "Theatralski". Ponadto E. Kipa przypisuje mu autorstwo broszur: "Rozmowa Solona z Kadym", (Warszawa 1790); "Fragment z rękopisma arabskiego", brak miejsca wydania (1791). +Adam Wójcik (siatkarz) + +Adam Wójcik (ur. 31 maja 1965 w Łodzi), polski siatkarz. +Karierę siatkarską rozpoczął w klubie Wifama Łódź. Po kilku latach spędzonych w tym klubie przeniósł się do pierwszoligowego zespołu Gwardii Wrocław. Następnym klubem tego zawodnika był Chemik Kędzierzyn Koźle(obecnie Mostostal). Reprezentował Polskę na międzynarodowych imprezach sportowych jako junior; reprezentacja Polski juniorów, z Adamem Wójcikiem w składzie, zajęła 4. miejsce na Mistrzostwach Świata w Ułan Bator w 1984. +Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk + +F-117 Nighthawk – amerykański odrzutowy samolot bombowy wykonany w technologii stealth, produkowany przez firmę Lockheed. Służył w United States Air Force od 1983 do 2008. Pomimo oznaczenia "F", stosowanego w lotnictwie USA do klasyfikacji myśliwców, F-117 był taktycznym bombowcem, przeznaczonym do wykonywania precyzyjnych ataków na cele naziemne. +Historia. +Decyzja o budowie samolotu bojowego opartego na demonstratorze Have Blue została podjęta 16 listopada 1978 roku. Pierwszy testowy egzemplarz F-117 został oblatany 18 czerwca 1981 r. Pierwszy egzemplarz produkcyjny został oblatany 15 stycznia 1982 r, w tym samym roku pierwszy egzemplarz F-117A został dostarczony USAF. Gotowość bojową osiągnięto w październiku 1983. W 1990 roku zakończono produkcję F-117A. Łącznie wyprodukowano 59 sztuk tego samolotu. +Samolot był oficjalnie tajny do 1988 kiedy USAF przyznał się do posiadania "myśliwca stealth" i upublicznił kilka niewyraźnych zdjęć. Przedtem pojawiało się wiele pogłosek na jego temat . Przez wiele lat utrzymywało się przekonanie że samolot nosi oznaczenie F-19. Samolot został oficjalnie pokazany publicznie w kwietniu 1990. +W 2008 roku US Air Force miały na stanie 15 samolotów F-117. Zgodnie z planem zostały one wycofane z uzbrojenia 22 kwietnia 2008 roku. +Budowa. +Konstrukcja samolotu wykonana jest ze stopów aluminium i stopów tytanu oraz elementów ceramicznych. Cała powierzchnia pokryta jest powłoką wykonaną z materiałów RAM, której zadaniem jest absorpcja fal radarowych. Ponadto konstrukcja samolotu wykonana jest w taki sposób, aby jak najbardziej rozproszyć fale radarowe. Samolot napędzany jest dwoma turbowentylatorowymi silnikami firmy General Electric. +Zastosowane rozwiązania, mające na celu utrudnienie namierzenia, powodują, iż samolot jest wysoce niestateczny pod względem aerodynamicznym. Podczas lotu komputer pokładowy musi średnio 3 razy na sekundę stabilizować lot (sterowanie fly-by-wire), żeby nie dopuścić do utraty panowania nad samolotem przez pilota. Błędy w oprogramowaniu komputerowym były powodem wielu strat tych maszyn podczas prób, zginęło przy tym programie wielu pilotów doświadczalnych. +Maskowanie. +Efekt zmniejszonej wykrywalności przez radary uzyskano poprzez zastosowanie specjalnego kształtu. Samolot złożony jest z fragmentów płaszczyzn, ustawionych pod określonymi kątami, dzięki czemu znaczna część fal radarowych padających na samolot ulega rozproszeniu w różnych kierunkach, zamiast odbiciu w stronę radaru. Dodatkowo cała powierzchnia samolotu pokryta jest lakierem zawierającym materiały absorbujące promieniowanie elektromagnetyczne. +W celu dalszej minimalizacji możliwości namierzenia przez pasywne stacje radiolokacyjne, zrezygnowano z radaru pokładowego. Podczas wykonywania misji pilot wykorzystuje kamery na podczerwień oraz systemy laserowe. Systemy łączności radiowej używane są tylko w sytuacjach wyjątkowych, a do utrzymywania łączności pomiędzy samolotami wykorzystuje się system łączności laserowej. +Efektem zastosowania technologii stealth w F-117 Nighthawk jest uzyskanie współczynnika odbicia fal radarowych 2500 razy mniejszego niż w myśliwcu F-15 Eagle. +Bombowiec ma silniki schowane w kadłubie, a wloty powietrza i wyloty dysz osłonięte przez dolne powierzchnie kadłuba w celu zmniejszenia promieniowania cieplnego i echa radarowego. +Uzbrojenie. +Uzbrojenie przenoszone jest w dwóch wewnętrznych komorach bombowych. Masa uzbrojenia przenoszonego przez F-117 wynosi 2000 kg. Gama uzbrojenia obejmuje praktycznie cały zestaw uzbrojenia myśliwca Sił Powietrznych USA oraz broń jądrową. Samolot nie ma uzbrojenia strzeleckiego. +Zastosowanie bojowe. +Samolot F-117 Nighthawk był używany w kilku operacjach wojskowych. Pierwsza misja bojowa odbyła się podczas operacji Just Cause w Panamie w 1989 roku. Podczas tej misji samoloty F-117 zbombardowały lotnisko Rio Hato. Dwa lata później, podczas operacji Desert Storm nad Irakiem, samoloty F-117 dokonywały zrzutów naprowadzanych bomb na irackie cele. Samoloty F-117 brały także udział operacji Allied Force w byłej Jugosławii w 1999 roku. Zostały również użyte podczas misji "Trwała Wolność" (ang. "Enduring Freedom") w Afganistanie w latach 2001-2002 oraz operacji "Iracka Wolność" (ang. "Iraqi Freedom") w Iraku. +Jedna maszyna F-117 została zestrzelona 27 marca 1999 roku koło wsi Budanovci podczas operacji Allied Force nad Kosowem. Zestrzelenia dokonano przy pomocy systemu rakiet S-125 "Newa". Samolot został wykryty z odległości 15 kilometrów, czyli takiej, na jaką została przewidziana "niewidzialność" przez jego konstruktorów, w związku ze zwiększeniem współczynnika odbicia, spowodowanego otwarciem komory bombowej. Do namierzenia samolotu przyczynił się również sposób ustalania trasy lotów F-117, polegający na wykorzystywaniu kilkakrotnie tej samej trasy nalotu, jako jedynej możliwej w górzystym terenie. Pilot przeżył i został uratowany przez siły NATO. +Moise Czombe + +Moise Kapenda Czombe, także Tschombé (ur. we wrześniu 1919 w Musumba, zm. 29 czerwca 1969 w Algierze), polityk i przedsiębiorca kongijski, prezydent Katangi. +Urodził się w bogatej rodzinie w Musumba w Kongu Belgijskim. W 1950 zaangażował się w życie polityczne i utworzył partię CONAKAT, która broniła spraw katangijskiego plemienia Lunda. Opowiadał się za współpracą z belgijską administracją kolonialną. W 1960 Kongo stało się niepodległym państwem. Czombe i CONAKAT, po wygraniu wyborów w prowincji Katanga, ogłosili jej niezależność. W wyniku interwencji ONZ i przegranej wojny Czombe uciekł do kolonialnej Angoli w 1963. Później został uprowadzony do Algierii i skazany na karę śmierci. Zmarł na atak serca w więzieniu algierskim. +Nagroda Klugego + +Nagroda Biblioteki Kongresu USA im. Johna Klugego nagroda ufundowana przez amerykańskiego miliardera Johna Klugego, a przyznawana przez Bibliotekę Kongresu USA. W zamierzeniu fundatora ma to być odpowiednik Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinach humanistycznych. Pierwszym laureatem został Leszek Kołakowski. Nazwisko laureata, wedle oficjalnego komunikatu, miało być ogłaszane 5 listopada każdego roku, jednak nagroda nie jest przyznawana regularnie. +Nagroda to 1 milion dolarów amerykańskich. +I liga polska w piłce nożnej + +I liga polska w piłce nożnej (w latach 1949–2008 II liga polska) – druga w hierarchii klasa męskich ligowych rozgrywek piłkarskich w Polsce. Nazywana zwyczajowo ""zapleczem ekstraklasy"", stanowi pośredni szczebel rozgrywkowy między Ekstraklasą a II ligą polską (dawną III ligą polską), będąc jednocześnie drugim szczeblem centralnym (II poziom ligowy). Zmagania w jej ramach toczą się cyklicznie (co sezon) systemem kołowym i przeznaczone są dla 18 polskich klubów piłkarskich. Czołowe drużyny I ligi polskiej uzyskują awans do Ekstraklasy, zaś najsłabsze zespoły relegowane są do II ligi polskiej. Od samego początku do dziś zarządzana przez Polski Związek Piłki Nożnej. Od 2002 do udziału w jej rozgrywkach zostają dopuszczone wyłącznie kluby posiadające status profesjonalny (tj. działające w formie spółki akcyjnej), które – po spełnieniu wszelkich niezbędnych kryteriów – otrzymały roczną licencję na występy na tym szczeblu. W sezonie 2009/2010 przez kilka miesięcy sponsorem tytularnym ligi została szwedzka firma bukmacherska Unibet, jednakże z powodu uchwalenia przez polski rząd ustawy antyhazardowej, współpracę zakończono. +Historia. +Krajowa klasa B. +W latach 1913 i 1914 przeprowadzono dwie edycje piłkarskich mistrzostw Galicji – określanych mianem "mistrzostw klasy A" – w których udział wzięły cztery czołowe polskie kluby futbolowe zaboru austriackiego. +Równocześnie – dla pozostałych 20 polskich zespołów działających na terenie Galicji – zorganizowano rozgrywki klasy B. Nie była to co prawda klasyczna liga – w dodatku jej zwycięzca nie wywalczał promocji do klasy A – jednak to właśnie od tego momentu można mówić o hierarchiczności zmagań piłkarskich w Polsce i uznać owe rozgrywki za pierwsze w historii polskiej piłki nożnej zmagania drugiego szczebla. +Także w 1921, podczas nieligowych Mistrzostw Polski, istniał podział na dwie klasy. Zwycięzcy okręgowych klas A walczyli o tytuł mistrza Polski, natomiast dla słabszych zespołów, triumfatorów klas B zorganizowano wspólne rozgrywki finałowe. Wystąpiły w nich 4 zespoły: Cracovia II, Pogoń II Lwów, AZS Warszawa i Union Łódź, z których najlepsze okazały się rezerwy Cracovii. Z przyczyn finansowych w kolejnych latach zrezygnowano z ich przeprowadzania. +Turnieje barażowe (okres międzywojenny). +Podczas konferencji rozmawiano o utworzeniu narodowej B-klasy, którą miało tworzyć wspomnianych 12 klubów, jednak i z tego projektu nic nie wyszło. +Turnieje barażowe o awans do Ekstraklasy były w czasach międzywojennych sprawą dość skomplikowaną. Najpierw należało wygrać właściwą miejscowo regionalną A-klasą. Następnie rozgrywano spotkania między mistrzami A-klas z sąsiednich województw, wyłaniając w ten sposób mistrza makroregionu. Ostatnim etapem były zaś ogólnopolskie baraże, do których przystępowali czterej mistrzowie makroregionów: Polski płd.-zach., Polski płd.-wsch., Polski płn.-zach. oraz Polski płn-wsch. Z tego grona do Ligi awansowały dwa kluby. +Przykładem na opisanie tego procesu są baraże, które miały miejsce jesienią 1937. Zwycięzca warszawskiej A-klasy Polonia Warszawa, spotkała się najpierw z mistrzami sąsiednich okręgów – Gryfem Toruń, HCP Poznań oraz Unionem-Touring Łódź, a zwyciężając w tym turnieju została mistrzem północno-zachodniej Polski. +W barażach ogólnopolskich warszawianie grali ze Śmigłym Wilno (mistrz płn.-wsch. Polski), Unią Lublin (mistrz płd.-wsch. Polski) oraz Brygadą Częstochowa (mistrz płd.-zach. Polski). Z grona tych czterech drużyn awans do Ekstraklasy sezonu 1938 wywalczyły Polonia oraz Śmigły, które zastąpiły spadkowiczów – Garbarnię Kraków oraz Dąb Katowice. +Powstanie II ligi polskiej. +Pierwsze, realne plany zawiązania właściwej II ligi polskiej pojawiły się w 1947. Już rok później, w trakcie "31. Walnego Zgromadzenia PZPN" (zorganizowanego w Warszawie w dniach 14 lutego i 15 lutego 1948) projekt jej utworzenia próbowali przeforsować delegaci z Gdańska. Przeciwni temu byli jednak działacze z najsilniejszych piłkarsko ośrodków (Warszawa, Łódź, Kraków, Śląsk) i koncepcję tę trzeba było odłożyć do następnego spotkania. Tak się też stało i podczas "32. Nadzwyczajnego Walnego Zgromadzenia PZPN" w Warszawie, uchwałą z dnia 30 maja 1948, formalnie powołano II ligę państwową (jak ją pierwotnie nazywano), mającą liczyć 18 drużyn grających w jednej grupie. Jednak w przeddzień oficjalnego startu – uchwałą PZPN z 19 lutego 1949 – powiększono ją do 20 klubów, dzieląc przy tym na dwie grupy: północną i południową (w każdej po 10 drużyn). +Pierwsze mecze (w sumie 10 spotkań) rozegrano podczas inauguracyjnej kolejki sezonu 1949 w dniu 20 marca 1949. Premierowego gola zdobył Józef Kokot (piłkarz Naprzodu Lipiny) w pojedynku Naprzód Lipiny – Błękitni Kielce. Pierwszymi zwycięzcami zostały: Garbarnia Kraków (w grupie północnej) i Górnik Radlin (w grupie południowej) i to one awansowały do Ekstraklasy. Formalnie tytuł mistrza II ligi polskiej przyznano jednak tylko "Górnikom", którzy po dramatycznym barażowym trójmeczu ograli krakowian (4:2, 0:2 i 4:3). Tytuły pierwszych drugoligowych królów strzelców wywalczyli: w grupie północnej – Mieczysław Nowak (Garbarnia Kraków) z 24 bramkami (później słusznie uznany za króla strzelców całych rozgrywek), zaś w grupie południowej – Franke (Górnik Radlin), strzelec 19 goli. Niezbyt chlubne miano pierwszych spadkowiczów przypadło natomiast: Ognisku Siedlce i PTC Pabianice (w grupie północnej) oraz Błękitnym Kielce i Pafawagowi Wrocław (w grupie południowej). +Różne formuły rozgrywek II ligi polskiej. +Później II liga polska wielokrotnie zmieniała swoją formułę – rozgrywana była w jednej, dwóch lub czterech (jedynie w latach 1951-1952) grupach. 4 lutego 1951 podjęto bowiem uchwałę o przekształceniu II ligi polskiej na wzór radziecki tak, by każde z 17 nowo utworzonych województw miało przynajmniej jeden zespół w tej klasie, toteż już w sezonie 1951 wystąpiły w niej aż 32 drużyny (po 8 ekip w każdej z 4 grup). Dodatkowo, przed sezonem 1952 powiększono ją o kolejnych 8 zespołów, do – rekordowej w całej historii tej klasy – liczby 40 drużyn, grających nadal w 4 grupach. Różnice w poziomie były jednak na tyle znaczne, że po roku wycofano się z tego pomysłu i w marcu do rozgrywek sezonu 1953 dopuszczono jedynie 14 ekip. Wycofanie prawie 1/3 wcześniejszego składu stało się zaczątkiem utworzenia III ligi polskiej. Systemem jednogrupowym grano przez cztery kolejne sezony (w edycji 1954 – na skutek wycofania się Lotnika Warszawa i Zawiszy Bydgoszcz – w zaledwie jedenastozespołowym gronie, co do dziś jest najmniejszą liczbą w historii). +Uchwałą z 16 lutego 1957 powiększono II ligę polską – od sezonu 1957 – do 24 drużyn (grających ponownie w dwóch grupach). Kolejna zmiana nastąpiła przed sezonem 1961, gdy to 18 lutego 1961 połączono obydwie grupy w jedną 18-zespołową, by po roku (17 lutego 1962) znów je podzielić na dwie (zaledwie 8-zespołowe). Ta reforma miała jednak logiczne uzasadnienie, bowiem podczas "47. Walnego Zgromadzenia (sprawozdawczego) PZPN", obradującego Warszawie w dniach 17 lutego i 18 lutego 1962, podjęto uchwałę by od sezonu 1963 (a formalnie 1962/1963) – wzorem niższych klas rozgrywkowych – przejść z systemu "wiosna-jesień" na bardziej europejski model "jesień-wiosna" (podobnie miało się stać w przypadku Ekstraklasy). Pierwszą kolejkę nowego systemu (będącą jednocześnie inauguracyjną sezonu 1962/1963) rozegrano 11 sierpnia 1962. Od tego czasu w jednej grupie II ligi polskiej występowało niezmiennie 16 klubów. O tym, że przemyślane koncepcje są dużo trwalsze, niż "genialne" przebłyski niech świadczy fakt, iż przez następnych 11 sezonów... nic już nie zmieniono. +27 czerwca 1973 uchwałą Prezydium PZPN – na fali euforii, spowodowanej wspaniałymi występami narodowej reprezentacji Polski Kazimierza Górskiego – postanowiono od sezonu 1973/1974 dwukrotnie powiększyć II ligę polską (dwie grupy po 16 drużyn). W tenże sposób i z niezmienną liczbą drugoligowców (czyli w sumie 32) grano przez kolejnych 16 sezonów (do sezonu 1988/1989), zmieniały się tylko osie nazw grup (raz "północ-południe", raz "wschód-zachód"). Dopiero w 1989 – poniekąd na fali przemian ustrojowych kraju – postanowiono przy okazji zreformować rodzimą piłkę. W ten sposób od sezonu 1989/1990 II liga polska liczyła 20 klubów, grających w jednej grupie. Eksperyment ów przetrwał zaledwie dwa lata (do sezonu 1990/1991) i od edycji 1991/1992 grano z powrotem w dwóch grupach (tym razem już 18-zespołowych). +System dwugrupowy utrzymał się do sezonu 1998/1999 (jedynie przed edycją 1998/1999 – pod kątem planowanej reformy – zmniejszono liczbę klubów w każdej z nich do 14). W 1999 połączono obydwie grupy w jedną (aż 24-drużynową), tak więc w sezonie 1999/2000 każda z ekip rozegrała aż 46 ligowych bojów, co jest absolutnym rekordem w długiej historii polskiego futbolu i pewnie przez całe dekady takim pozostanie. Motywem przewodnim reformy PZPN była 20-zespołowa II liga polska i w sezonie 2000/2001 udało się do niego dojść. Po dwóch latach – przed sezonem 2002/2003 – zmniejszono liczbę klubów do 18. +II liga polska obecnie. +Od sezonu 2002/2003 w II lidze polskiej występuje 18 klubów, grających systemem ligowym (tj. "każdy z każdym mecz i rewanż"). Mistrz oraz wicemistrz uzyskiwali bezpośredni awans do I ligi, natomiast drużyna z 3. miejsca rozgrywała dwumeczowy baraż z 14. zespołem I ligi. Cztery ostatnie kluby (z miejsc 15., 16., 17. i 18.) spadały bezpośrednio do starej III ligi polskiej, zaś cztery kolejne (z miejsc 11., 12., 13. i 14.) rozgrywały dwumeczowe baraże z wicemistrzami poszczególnych grup starej III ligi (o układzie poszczególnych par decydowało losowanie). +Na skutek pojawienia się pierwszych kar dyscyplinarnych dla I- i II-ligowych klubów uwikłanych w aferę korupcyjną, PZPN w trakcie trwania sezonu 2006/2007 dwukrotnie dokonał zmian regulaminu spadków i awansów. Pierwsza została zawieszona przez Tomasza Lipca, jako przyjęta niezgodnie ze statutem Związku. Ostatecznie 10 maja 2007 Zarząd PZPN podjął uchwałę, według której OE opuszczą zespoły zajmujące po zakończeniu sezonu dwa ostatnie miejsca, zaś zespół sklasyfikowany na pozycji 14. rozegra baraże z trzecią drużyną starej II ligi. Niezależnie od tego OE opuszczą zespoły ukarane dyscyplinarnie. W przypadku, gdy co najmniej jedna z relegowanych dyscyplinarnie drużyn zajmie miejsce powyżej 15., baraży nie będzie się rozgrywać, a awans ze starej drugiej ligi (wg kolejności w tabeli na koniec sezonu) uzyska tyle drużyn, by uzupełnić do 16 liczbę zespołów występujących w OE w następnym sezonie. +Ciekawostki. +Drużyny rezerw nigdy nie grały w II lidze polskiej, niewiele jednak brakowało by do tego doszło. W 1952 awans na ten szczebel wywalczyły bowiem w barażach Cracovia II i Legia II Warszawa. Nie zagrały jednak w tej klasie, ponieważ decyzją władz piłkarskich zostały przesunięte do specjalnie w tym celu utworzonej ligi rezerw. Obecne przepisy zabraniają gry w I lidze polskiej zespołom rezerw, gdyż drużyny te nie mogą brać udziału w rozgrywkach ligowych na szczeblu centralnym. +Jan Uphagen + +Jan (Johann) Uphagen (ur. 1731, zm. 1802) - polski bibliofil, który zebrał ponad 14 tys. książek, przeważnie o profilu humanistycznym, odzwierciedlających tendencje oświeceniowe. W Gdańsku pełnik funkcję rajcy miejskiego i ławnika. Jego kamienica (Dom Uphagena) przy ul. Długiej 12, stała się po jego śmierci - na mocy testamentu - muzeum istniejącym w niezmienionej postaci do 1945. +Jan Uphagen odebrał gruntowne wykształcenie, na które złożyły się studia prawnicze, filozoficzne i historyczne odbyte w Getyndze. Znaczny wpływ na pogłębienie jego wiedzy miała także podróż po Niemczech, Holandii i Francji. Po powrocie do Gdańska Uphagen piastował szereg urzędów, był między innymi ławnikiem, zasiadał w zarządzie szpitali gdańskich. Ukoronowaniem jego działalności publicznej było zajęcie godności rajcy. Jednak w 1793 r. złożył ten urząd na znak protestu przeciwko przyłączeniu Gdańska do Prus w wyniku drugiego rozbioru Polski. +Uphagen miał rozliczne zainteresowania: był kolekcjonerem dzieł sztuki, historykiem-amatorem i bibliofilem. Poświęcił także wiele uwagi swojej kamienicy, której przebudowanie w stylu rokoko bezpośrednio po nabyciu (1775) zlecił budowniczemu Janowi Beniaminowi Dreyerowi. Na ukształtowanie wnętrz wpłynęła znajomość Uphagena francuskiej architektury pałacowej. Prace, w wyniku których przekształcono fasadę, prowadzone w kilku etapach, trwały do 1787 roku. +Jan Uphagen mieszkał w swej kamienicy aż do śmierci w 1802 r. Ponieważ nie pozostawił potomków, przekazał testamentem majątek utworzonej przez siebie uprzednio Fundacji Rodzinnej, z zastrzeżeniem, że kamienicy nie będzie można sprzedać ani przebudować. +Dom był główną siedzibą zarządzającego Fundacją. Jednak w drugiej połowie XIX w. Uphagenowie mieszkali przede wszystkim w majątkach ziemskich, a kamienica przy ul. Długiej popadła w zaniedbanie. Sytuacja ta trwała do początku XX w., kiedy to zainteresowały się nią władze miasta. +Bibliografia. +"Dom Uphagena", Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Gdańska, Oddział - Dom Uphagena, Gdańsk 1996 +Augustyn Łosiński + +Augustyn Łosiński (ur. 8 stycznia 1867, zm. 30 kwietnia 1937) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, biskup diecezjalny kielecki w latach 1910–1937. +Życiorys. +Uczęszczał do seminarium w Petersburgu, gdzie 24 kwietnia 1892 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie. +Był profesorem, ojcem duchownym i rektorem seminarium duchownego oraz kanonikiem kapituły katedralnej w Petersburgu. +7 kwietnia 1910 został mianowany biskupem diecezjalnym diecezji kieleckiej. Sakrę biskupią przyjął 5 czerwca 1910 w Petersburgu z rąk bp. Stefana Denisewicza, a ingres do katedry kieleckiej odbył 29 czerwca 1910. Ustanowił nowy podział administracyjny diecezji, erygował wiele nowych parafii, w 1924 reaktywował kolegiatę w Wiślicy. Erygował muzeum, założył „Przegląd Diecezjalny”, w 1927 przeprowadził w Kielcach I synod diecezjalny. Wspierał działalność wydawniczą, szkolnictwo katolickie i działalność charytatywną. Za jego rządów w 1925 diecezja została włączona do metropolii krakowskiej. +W poglądach politycznych reprezentował zdecydowany konserwatyzm. Po 1918 był zdecydowanym przeciwnikiem Józefa Piłsudskiego. Jego postawa po śmierci Piłsudskiego stała się przyczyną ostrego konfliktu między państwem polskim a Stolicą Apostolską. Biskup Łosiński nie wywiesił wtedy flag żałobnych, a tylko flagi państwowe bez oznak żałoby, a także odmówił żądaniu władz bicia w dzwony kościelne. Wówczas członkowie Związku Legionistów i innych organizacji prorządowych weszli samowolnie na dzwonnicę katedry i zaczęli bić w dzwony. Biskup wysłał ludzi, którzy usiłowali temu przeszkodzić, ale bezskutecznie, po czym doszło do zamieszek. Podburzony tłum usiłował wedrzeć się do rezydencji biskupa, co zostało udaremnione dzięki interwencji policji. W maju 1935 minister Józef Beck zażądał od papieża Piusa XI odwołania Łosińskiego. Konflikt zakończył się dopiero wraz ze śmiercią biskupa. +Johannes Gutenberg + +Jan Gutenberg, właściwie Jan Gensfleisch, niem. Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (ur. ok. 1399, zm. 3 lutego 1468) – złotnik i drukarz moguncki, niemiecki rzemieślnik, twórca pierwszej przemysłowej metody druku na świecie. +Życiorys. +Działalność Gutenberga przypada na okres rozwoju drukarstwa w zachodniej Europie. Początkowo Gutenberg stosował znane już wcześniej w Europie czcionki drewniane, z czasem opracował własną wersję czcionek metalowych (również znanych już w Europie), posługiwał się także czcionkami glinianymi. Skonstruował specjalny aparat do ich odlewania, w którym nowością było używanie wymiennych matryc. Zaprojektował również własną wersję prasy drukarskiej na wzór znanych już pras introligatorskich. +W 1448 r. założył w Moguncji drukarnię. W 1455 r. ukazała się drukiem tzw. "Biblia Gutenberga", której jeden egzemplarz można oglądać w muzeum diecezjalnym w Pelplinie. +Zmarł w biedzie. +Rodzina: matka – Else Wirich, ojciec – Johensosn Gutenberg, bracia – Johann Gutenberg, Alfred Gutenberg, Karmelt Gutenberg. +Wkład w historię druku. +Jest uważany za wynalazcę ruchomej czcionki, mimo że historia jej sięga przynajmniej XI w. (Chiny). Wynalazek czcionki ruchomej był prawdopodobnie pierwotnie autorstwa Laurensa Janszoona Costera, Holendra z Haarlemu. Gutenberg mógł zobaczyć jego druk wystawiony przy okazji uroczystości ku czci relikwii akwizgrańskich w roku 1440. Sposób konstruowania czcionek i ich składu został przez Gutenberga opracowany na nowo i następnie udoskonalany, dlatego też jemu przypisuje się wynalazek nowoczesnego druku. +Gutenberg popadł w długi i część jego warsztatu została przejęta przez Jana Fusta, który zatrudnił ucznia Gutenberga Piotra Schőffera. Z tego warsztatu wyszły druki dawniej przypisywane Gutenbergowi, m.in. "Psałterz moguncki" (1457), pierwszy tekst z drukowanymi iluminacjami (inicjały czerwone i niebieskie, ryte w metalu, nie w drewnie). +Jego prekursorskim dokonaniem było stworzenie w Europie pierwszego prawdziwie dużego wydawnictwa książkowego. Do tamtej pory drukowano tylko pojedyncze karty zawierające skomplikowane zdobienia, przeznaczone do dalszego wypełnienia pismem ręcznym, oraz niewielkie akcydensy. +Inne ważne osiągnięcia Gutenberga to udany projekt modyfikacji dotychczasowego gotyckiego kroju pisma ręcznego, a przede wszystkim stworzenia podstawowych zasad składu tekstu, z których korzysta większość zawodowych typografów, jak i projektanci oprogramowania dla DTP. +Za datę wynalezienia druku uznaje się rok 1450. +Biblia (tzw. Biblia 42-wierszowa, 1455) oraz Księga Wszelkiej Mądrości. +Tomasz Markowski (polityk) + +Tomasz Maciej Markowski (ur. 30 maja 1968 w Warszawie) – polski polityk, poseł na Sejm IV i V kadencji. +Życiorys. +Ukończył studia na Wydziale Prawa i Administracji Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Pod koniec lat 80. działał w Niezależnym Zrzeszeniu Studentów. +Od 1995 do 2001 należał do Ruchu Odbudowy Polski. Bez powodzenia kandydował z jego listy do Sejmu w 1997. W 1995 był członkiem sztabu wyborczego Jana Olszewskiego, a w latach 1998–2001 przewodniczącym Federacji Młodych ROP. Od 1999 zasiadał w prezydium rady politycznej tej partii. W 2001 przystąpił do Prawa i Sprawiedliwości. W 2001 i 2005 uzyskiwał z listy tego ugrupowania mandat poselski w okręgu bydgoskim. Pełnił funkcje członka prezydium Klubu Parlamentarnego PiS (2001–2002), wiceprezesa struktur w kujawsko-pomorskim (2003–2004), pełnomocnika regionalnego (2004–2006), wiceprzewodniczącego Klubu Parlamentarnego PiS (2005–2007), pełnomocnika okręgowego w Bydgoszczy (2006–2007) i prezesa zarządu okręgowego (2007–2008). W VI kadencji Sejmu był wiceprzewodniczącym Komisji Skarbu Państwa. +We wrześniu 2007 w "Gazeta Wyborcza" ujawniła, że mieszkający na stałe w Warszawie Tomasz Markowski zameldował się fikcyjnie w Bydgoszczy, dzięki czemu pobierał z Kancelarii Sejmu dodatek dla zamiejscowych posłów. W ciągu sześciu lat pobrał z tego tytułu 138 tys. zł nienależnych świadczeń. Tomasz Markowski, początkowo kandydujący do Sejmu w wyborach parlamentarnych z drugiego miejsca na bydgoskiej liście wyborczej PiS, został z niej skreślony jeszcze przed jej rejestracją. +Po publikacji Kancelaria Sejmu wytoczyła posłowi proces cywilny o zapłatę. W sierpniu 2009 Sąd Okręgowy w Warszawie zasądził na jej rzecz od Tomasza Markowskiego dochodzoną sumę. Równocześnie przeciw byłemu posłowi toczy się proces karny o wyłudzenie, również w sierpniu 2009 w pierwszej instancji został uniewinniony od popełnienia zarzucanego mu czynu. +Pietro Cattani + +Pietro Cattani, Piotr Cattani (zm. 10 marca 1221) – kanonik asyski, pierwszy generał franciszkanów. +Pochodził z Asyżu w Umbrii. Był najpierw kanonikiem katedralnym u św. Rufina w Asyżu. Za przykładem Bernarda z Quintavalle rozdał swoje mienie i przystał do św. Franciszka z Asyżu. W roku 1219 brał udział w wyprawie misyjnej do Syrii i na Bliski Wschód. W roku 1220 został mianowany przez Franciszka swoim następcą, tzw. wikariuszem. Wiązało się to praktycznie z pełnieniem funkcji generała. Pełniąc urząd rozwinął działalność charytatywną w klasztorze Matki Bożej Anielskiej – kolebce zakonu franciszkańskiego. Po śmierci, w roku 1221 relikwie jego otoczone były wielką czcią wiernych. Nigdy nie został oficjalnie ogłoszony świętym. +Fakty z życia Pietro Cattaniego opisuje m.in. Tomasz z Celano w swoich "Życiorysie pierwszym" i "Życiorysie drugim" św. Franciszka z Asyżu oraz Giacomo Oddi ("La franceschina"), Mariano da Firenze ("Compendium"), Luca Wadding ("Annales"). +Martinsyde F.4 + +Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard – brytyjski dwupłatowy samolot myśliwski, zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1918 roku w zakładach lotniczych Martinsyde w Brooklands. +Historia. +Pod koniec I wojny światowej konstruktor z zakładów lotniczych "Martinsyde Ltd" A. Fletcher rozpoczął pracę nad nowym samolotem, który miał być rozwinięciem konstrukcji samolotu dwumiejscowego "Martinsyde G.100" oraz jego jednomiejscowych modyfikacji – samolotów "Martinsyde R.G" i "F.3". Samoloty R.G i F.3 zostały oblatane w 1917 roku. Samoloty te miały dobre osiągi i własności pilotażowe i w 1918 roku miała rozpocząć się ich produkcja seryjna. Jednak w tym czasie A. Fletcher opracował nową wersję samolotu w której zastosował lepszy silnik, w związku z tym zaniechano dalszej prac nad samolotami Martinsyde R.G i F.3. +Nowy samolot otrzymał oznaczenie "Martinsyde F.4" i zastosowano w nim nowy silnik rzędowy Hispano-Suiza. Oblotu dokonano w czerwcu 1918 roku. Okazał się on najszybszym z wszystkich ówczesnych samolotów myśliwskich, natomiast zwrotnością i właściwościami pilotażowymi przewyższał samolot Martinsyde F.3 i dlatego też zaniechano produkcji samolotu F.3, natomiast wprowadzono do produkcji seryjnej samolot "Martinsyde F.4" pod nazwą "Buzzard Mk I" (pol. "Myszołów"). +Samolot myśliwski "Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Mk I" miał kadłub wykonany z drewna, w przedniej części kadłuba na metalowym łożu umieszczono silnik rzędowy chłodzony cieczą. Chłodnica cieczy znajdowała się z przodu silnika. Za silnikiem umieszczono poniżej zbiornik oleju o pojemności 18,2 litra. Między silnikiem a kabiną pilota umieszczono dwa zbiorniki paliwa o łącznej pojemności 172,7 litra. W górnej części kadłuba nad zbiornikami paliwa umieszczono 2 karabiny maszynowe obsługiwane z kabiny pilota. Kabina pilota była odkryta i wyposażono ja w niezbędne przyrządy pokładowe i urządzenia sterownicze. +Lotnictwo wojskowe Wielkiej Brytanii i Francji zamówiło ponad 1000 samolotów tego typu, jednakże do końca I wojny światowej zdołano wyprodukować zaledwie kilkadziesiąt sztuk, które nie wzięły praktycznie w walkach. Produkcję jednak kontynuowano i w sumie do 1920 roku wyprodukowano 370 samolotów Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Mk I. +Część tych samolotów sprzedano do Portugalii, Hiszpanii, Łotwy, Finlandii, Rosji Radzieckiej i Iranu. Chciała zakupić je również Japonia, lecz ostatecznie do transakcji nie doszło. +W 1920 roku w zakładach Martinsyde rozpoczęto produkcję dwumiejscowej wersji samolotu myśliwsko-rozpoznawczego oznaczonej "F.4A Buzzard Mk IA". W wersji tej za kabiną pilota dodano odkrytą kabinę obserwatora wyposażoną w umieszczony na obrotnicy ruchomy karabin maszynowy kal. 7,69 mm Lewis. Samolot ten miał ponadto w wyposażeniu radiostację nadawczo-odbiorczą, fotokarabin i aparat fotograficzny. +Użycie samolotu w lotnictwie polskim. +Polska Misja Zakupów, która na przełomie 1919 – 1920 roku przebywała w Wielkiej Brytanii zakupiła obok innych samolotów także jeden samolot "Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Mk I" w celu sprawdzenia jego przydatności w polskim lotnictwie wojskowym. Samolot ten został dostarczony do Polski w sierpniu 1920 roku. Pomimo dobrych osiągów nie zakupiono więcej samolotów tego typu, prawdopodobnie z powodu zakupienia już wcześniej we Francji innych typów samolotów myśliwskich. +Zakupiony natomiast samolot "Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Mk I" od lipca 1924 roku do 1926 roku był samolotem dyspozycyjnym dowódcy lotnictwa gen. bryg. Włodzimierza Zagórskiego. Samolot ten miał specjalne oznaczenie – gdyż zgodnie z rozkazem dowódcy lotnictwa – został cały pomalowany w podłużne pasy na przemian białe i czerwone. Nie posiadał natomiast znaków przynależności państwowej. Był to jedyny samolot pomalowany w ten sposób w lotnictwie polskim. +Opis techniczny samolotu Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Mk I. +Samolot "Martinsyde F.4 Buzzard Mk I" był jednomiejscowym dwupłatowym samolotem myśliwskim o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd: silnik rzędowy, śmigło dwułopatowe, drewniane. +Helodermowate + +Helodermowate (Helodermatidae) – rodzina jaszczurek obejmująca rodzaj "Heloderma" z trzema gatunkami (dwoma współczesnymi) oraz kilka rodzajów wymarłych. +Morfologia. +Głowa płaska, szeroka, tępo zaokrąglona. Oczy nieproporcjonalnie małe. Ciało krępe. Tułów gruby wałkowaty. Ogon stosunkowo krótki, wałkowaty, będący magazynem tłuszczu. Widoczne błony bębenkowe. Skóra szorstka i twarda, pokryta małymi ziarnistymi łuskami. Odnóża grube z masywnymi pazurami. Ubarwienie jaskrawe ostrzegawcze lub odstraszające. Gruczoły jadowe w żuchwie jako parzyste twory. Zęby ostre, ponad centymetrowe, osadzone na bocznych wewnętrznych powierzchniach kości żuchwy (pleurodontyzm). Jad na małe kręgowce działa podobnie do jadu grzechotnika teksaskiego. Wzrok słaby, węch dobrze rozwinięty (narząd Jacobsona). +Helodermy meksykańskie są większe od arizońskich – największe osobniki osiągają 1 m długości i ważą około 2 kg. +Klasyfikacja. +Helodermatidae są obecnie bardzo nieliczną rodziną, jednak jeszcze w trzeciorzędzie były szeroko rozprzestrzenione w Ameryce Północnej. Helodermowate są powszechnie zaliczane do grupy Varanoidea, obejmującej również m.in. rodzinę waranowatych. Dokładne pokrewieństwo wewnątrz Varanoidea pozostaje niejasne, jednak większość naukowców zgadza się, że takson ten składa się z dwóch głównych grup: Monstersauria, której jedynymi współczesnymi przedstawicielami są helodermy, oraz kladu obejmującego rodzaje "Varanus" i "Lanthanotus" (przez niektórych naukowców zaliczane do rodziny Varanidae, a przez innych do odrębnych Varanidae i Lanthanotidae). Analizy filogenetyczne wykorzystujące cechy molekularne sugerują jednak, że Helodermatidae są bliżej spokrewnione z padalcowatymi i Shinisauridae, niż z waranami. Niektórzy naukowcy w ogóle wyłączali Monstersauria z Varanoidea. +Nazwa Helodermatidae w rozumieniu Norella i Gao (1997) odnosi się jedynie do grupy koronowej, co oznacza, że do tak definiowanych helodermowatych należałyby jedynie współczesne helodermy, ich ostatni wspólny przodek i wszyscy jego potomkowie. Tak definiowane Helodermatidae nie są jednak zgodne z tradycyjnym rozumieniem tej grupy, gdyż przeważnie zaliczano do niej również rodzaje "Eurheloderma" i "Lowesaurus", dlatego Conrad (2008) przedefiniował Helodermatidae tak, by obejmowały ostatniego wspólnego przodka tych dwóch rodzajów oraz "Heloderma" i wszystkich jego potomków. Do helodermowatych w rozumieniu Conrada oprócz tych rodzajów mogłyby należeć również "Gobiderma", "Palaeosaniwa" i "Estesia", tylko "Estesia", lub przypuszczalnie żaden z powyższych rodzajów. +Robby Krieger + +Robert Alan Krieger (ur. 8 stycznia 1946 w Los Angeles) – amerykański gitarzysta, członek grupy The Doors. Autor takich piosenek grupy jak "Light My Fire", "Love Me Two Times", "Touch Me" i "Love Her Madly". +W 2003 został sklasyfikowany na 91. miejscu listy 100 najlepszych gitarzystów wszech czasów magazynu Rolling Stone. +Biografia. +Przyszedł na świat jako syn zamożnego doradcy agencji rządowych do spraw planowania i finansów. Od początku swojej przygody z gitarą interesowało go flamenco. Uczył się w wielu szkołach, nim trafił na UCLA, gdzie trzykrotnie zmieniał wydział, ostatecznie wylądował na fizyce. +W 1965 wraz z klawiszowcem Rayem Manzarkiem, wokalistą Jimem Morrisonem i perkusistą Johnem Densmore'em założył zespół The Doors, który w latach 60. stał się ikoną psychodelicznego rocka. +Po śmierci Morrisona w 1971 wraz z pozostałą dwójką pod szyldem The Doors nagrał jeszcze dwie płyty ("Other Voices" i "Full Circle"). Robby Krieger dzielił się wokalem z Rayem Manzarkiem. +Ostatecznie po rozwiązaniu przez Manzarka The Doors w 1973 Krieger wraz z Densmore'em założyli The Butts Band. Talent Kriegera pomógł mu również odnieść solowy sukces grając jazz. Z zespołem "The Robby Krieger Band", który działał w latach 70. i 80., nagrał między innym płyty "Versions" (1983) i "No Habla" (1986). +Udzielał się też kilkakrotnie partiami gitarowymi w zespole Blue Öyster Cult. W 2002 reaktywował wraz z Rayem Manzarkiem, Ianem Astburym i Stewart Copelandem The Doors pod zmienioną nazwą The Doors of the 21st Century. Wziął udział w "Experience Hendrix Tribute Tour" - tournée poświęconemu Jimiemu Hendriksowi. +Autostrada A10 (Niemcy) + +Niemiecka autostrada A10 (niem. "Bundesautobahn 10, BAB 10, Autobahn 10") – zewnętrzna autostradowa obwodnica Berlina. Potocznie znana jako Berliner Ring ("pierścień berliński"), jej obwód wynosi 196 km. Zaprojektowana przed wojną, jako "Reichsautobahn (RAB) 7". W latach 1936-1939 oddano do użytku 129 km drogi oznaczonych "RAB 7a" (część wschodnia) i "RAB 7b" (część południowa). Pozostałe 67 km (według planów przedwojennych "RAB 7c") na zachód i północ od stolicy, dokończono w latach 1972-1979, na obszarze ówczesnej NRD. Aktualnie w przebudowie jest węzeł "Autobahndreieck Schwanebeck" z autostradą A11, który od końca 2013 r. będzie posiadał nazwę "Autobahndreieck Barnim" (lub "Autobahnkreuz Barnim") oraz bezpośrednie połączenie z drogą B2, co przyczyni się do likwidacji węzła nr 36. +Ray Manzarek + +Raymond Daniel Manzarek (Manczarek) (ur. 12 lutego 1939 w Chicago) – amerykański muzyk, producent płytowy, reżyser, pisarz, klawiszowiec zespołu The Doors, którego wspólnie z Jimem Morrisonem był założycielem. +Biografia. +Rodzice Helena i Raymond Manczarek, oboje będący dziećmi emigrantów z Polski, od najmłodszych lat dbali o muzyczne wykształcenie ich syna, ucząc go gry na pianinie. Studiował muzykę w chicagowskim konserwatorium muzycznym. Poza studiami na brzmienie jego muzyki wpływ miały przede wszystkim jazz i blues. W Los Angeles studiował na University of California w Los Angeles na wydziale filmu; w czerwcu 1965 z bardzo dobrymi wynikami ukończył go. Przed założeniem The Doors grał i śpiewał w zespołach: "Rick And The Ravens" i "The White Trash Quintet". Po śmierci Jima Morrisona kontynuował karierę muzyczną. Solową karierę rozpoczął wydaniem płyty "Golden Scarab". Po trzech latach znudził się graniem w pojedynkę i z nowo sformowaną grupą "Nite City" nagrał dwie płyty. Po dziesięciu latach przerwy w 1993 stworzył muzykę do wierszy amerykańskiego poety Michaela McClure'a. W 1980 został producentem biorąc pod opiekę nagranie krążka punkowego zespołu X zatytułowanego "Los Angeles". W 2001 wrócił do reżyserowania obrazem "Love Her Madly". Poza wspomnieniami "Light My Fire: My Life with The Doors" opublikował również powieść "The Poet In Exile". Od września 2002 wraz z Robbiem Kriegerem grają w towarzystwie Iana Astbury'ego i Tya Dennisa jako The Doors of the 21st Century. +Szyszkowcowate + +Szyszkowcowate, jaszczurki kolczaste (Cordylidae) — rodzina naziemnych jaszczurek z rzędu łuskonośnych (Squamata). +Systematyka. +Podrodziny i rodzaje według Stanleya i współpracowników (2011). +Podrodzina: Platysaurinae +Podrodzina: Cordylinae +Orchidea + +Orchidea – potoczna nazwa roślin z rodziny storczykowatych, w szczególności stosowana w odniesieniu do roślin o efektownych kwiatach, uprawianych w warunkach szklarniowych. Odnoszona jest do wielu gatunków i mieszańców np. z rodzaju katleja, falenopsis, cymbidium. +Ortofonia + +Ortofonia (z gr. "orthós" → poprawny, "phōné" → dźwięk) – proces uczenia oraz nauka o poprawnej wymowie i brzmieniu wyrazów oraz ich połączeń. Ustala ona zasady prawidłowej wymowy danego języka. +Toster + +Toster (inaczej: "opiekacz") – przyrząd do opiekania m.in. tostów. Powstał u schyłku XIX wieku. Jednak dopiero z upowszechnieniem się prądu elektrycznego, opiekacze zadebiutowały w kuchniach. Na początku były dość siermiężne – trochę drutów i spirala – i nadal wymagały bacznej uwagi, aby nie przypalić pieczywa. Ponadto grzały chleb tylko z jednej strony, więc w stosownym momencie trzeba było kromki odwracać. +W 1919 roku Charles Strite, mając dosyć przypalonych grzanek, zbudował urządzenie ze sprężynką oraz czasomierzem. Grzanka sama nabierała rumieńców i sama wyskakiwała z opiekacza, gdy została właściwie opieczona. Urządzenie było testowane w sieci restauracji "Childs" i ulegało ciągłym modyfikacjom. W 1926 roku pojawił się pierwszy domowy opiekacz automatyczny – "Toastmaster". +John Major + +John Major KG (ur. 29 marca 1943 w Carshalton w hrabstwie Surrey), brytyjski polityk, minister w trzecim rządzie Margaret Thatcher, lider Partii Konserwatywnej i premier Wielkiej Brytanii w latach 1990-1997. Na czas jego urzędowania przypada koniec zimnej wojny oraz dyskusje dotyczące stopnia integracji Wielkiej Brytanii z Unią Europejską, które doprowadziły do podziałów wewnątrz konserwatystów. Stanowisko premiera utracił po największej od 1832 r. wyborczej porażce Partii Konserwatywnej. +Wczesne lata życia. +Przyszły premier urodził się w 1943 r. w St Helier Hospital w Carshalton. Jest synem Toma Pscala Huberta Majora-Balla. Ochrzczono go pod imionami John Roy, ale w akcie urodzenia pozostało tylko pierwsze imię. Jednakże młody Major aż do początku lat 80. używał imienia Roy. Wykształcenie odebrał w szkole podstawowej w Cheam Common oraz w Rutlish Grammar School w Merton (po 1954 r.). W latach 50. upadła działalność ojca związana z dekoracjami ogrodowymi, co zmusiło rodzinę do przeprowadzenia się do Brixton w 1955 r. W 1956 r. zobaczył po raz pierwszy debatę w Izbie Gmin. +Major opuścił szkołę w 1959 r. Starał się o posadę konduktora w autobusach, ale jego podanie zostało odrzucone. Dostał dopiero pracę urzędnika w biurze maklerskim "Pratt & Sons". Szybko jednak zwolnił się z tej pracy i razem z bratem Terrym pomogał ojcu w jego interesach. W tym czasie wstąpił do Młodych Konserwatystów. +Po kilku latach bez zatrudnienia rozpoczął w 1963 r. pracę w London Electicity Board. Rozpoczął również korespondencyjny kurs bankowości. W maju 1965 r. rozpoczął pracę w Standard Chartered Bank. +Kariera polityczna. +W 1964 r. Major wystartował w wyborach do rady Lambeth Borough i wybory te niespodziewanie wygrał. W radzie był przewodniczącym komisji budownictwa, odpowiadajac za budowę sieci osiedli mieszkaniowych. W maju 1971 r. przegrał wybory i utracił miejsce w radzie. W 1974 r. podjął próbę dostania się do Izby Gmin w okręgu St Pancras North. Okręg ten był jednak tradycyjnie laburzystowski i Major wybory te przegrał. W listopadzie 1976 r. został wybrany przez lokalny oddział Partii Konserwatywnej w Huntingdonshire jako kandydat w tym okręgu w najbliższych wyborach. Wybory te odbyły się w 1979 r. i zapewniły Majorowi miejsce w parlamencie. +Okręg Majora został zlikwidowany w 1983 r. Major wystartował wówczas w okręgu Huntingdon i ponownie wygrał wybory. Wygrywał także w latach 1987, 1992 i 1997. Wybory 1992 r. wygrał z rekordową przewagą 36 230 głosów. +W 1981 r. został parlamentarnym prywatnym sekretarzem, a w 1983 r. asystentem whipa. W 1985 r. został podsekretarzem stanu w ministerstwie zabezpieczenia socjalnego. W 1986 r. został ministrem stanu w tym departamencie. Po wyborach 1987 r. został członkiem gabinetu jako naczelny sekretarz skarbu. 24 lipca 1989 r. został ministrem spraw zagranicznych. Na tym stanowisku pozostał tylko przez 3 miesiące, obejmując następnie stanowisko Kanclerza Skarbu. Major przedstawił projekt tylko jednego budżetu (była to jednocześnie pierwsza transmisja telewizyjna tego wydarzenia). +Po rezygnacji urzędującej premier Margaret Thatcher w wyborach na lidera konserwatystów w 1990 r. Major został jednym z kandydatów w drugiej turze głosowań. Jego kontrkandydatami byli Michael Heseltine i Douglas Hurd. 27 listopada obyło się głosowanie, które wygrał Major uzyskując 185 głosów. Następnego dnia nowy lider Partii Konserwatywnej udał się do Pałacu Buckingham, gdzie królowa Elżbieta II powołała go na premiera Wielkiej Brytanii. +Na czele Rządu Jej Królewskiej Mości. +Początek rządów Majora przypadł na okres kryzysu w Zatoce Perskiej, kiedy irackie wojska Saddama Husajna zajęły Kuwejt. Podczas wojny odegrał ważną rolę w przekonaniu prezydenta USA George'a Busha do utworzenia stref zakazu lotów w celu ochrony Kurdów i Szyitów. +Podczas pierwszego roku rządów Majora nastąpił zastój gospodarczy Wielkiej Brytanii. W nadchodzących wyborach 1992 r. partii rządzącej nie dawano wielkich szans na reelekcję. Pewnym kandydatem na przyszłego premiera był Lider Opozycji Neil Kinnock. Major prowadził kampanię wyborczą na ulicach, wielokrotnie przemawiając z przenośnych platform (tzw. "soapbox"). Te działania zyskały dla konserwatystów sporo poparcia i przyczyniły się do nieoczekiwanego zwycięstwa Partii Konserwatywnej, chociaż przewaga w parlamencie stopniała do 21 głosów. +Niedługo po wyborach, 16 września 1992 r., doszło do tzw. Czarnej Środy, kiedy to w wyniku ataków spekulanckich i podwyższeniu stóp procentowych rząd Majora zmuszony był wycofać funta szterlinga z systemu ERM. Spowodowało to kryzys ekonomiczny, upadek wielu przedsiębiorstw oraz załamanie się rynku mieszkaniowego. W tej sytuacji Major rozważał swoją dymisję, do której ostatecznie nie doszło. +Po kilku miesiącach sytuacja gospodarcza poprawiła się, ale wówczas uwagę opinii publicznej przyciągnął spór jaki rozgorzał wewnątrz Partii Konserwatywnej na temat integracji europejskiej. Aminozje wystąpiły na tle sporu o ratyfikację traktatu z Maastricht z 1992 r. Wywołał on krytykę w partii oraz w rządzie. Ratyfikację poparła laburzystowska opozycja, ale krytykowała poszczególne fragmenty traktatu. "Zbuntowało" się również 23 konserwatywnych deputowanych (tzw. "Maastricht Rebels"), co spowodowało, że rząd utracił większość w Izbie Gmin i traktat nie został ratyfikowany. 23 lipca 1993 r. Major zażądał głosowania nad wotum zaufania dla swojego gabinetu. Uzyskał je większością 40 głosów. 2 sierpnia ostatecznie Wielka Brytania ratyfikowała traktat. +9 grudnia 1992 roku John Major poinformował w parlamencie o oficjalnej separacji księcia i księżnej Walii. Dodatkowo ogłosił, że stan cywilny obojga nie będzie miał wpływu na sukcesję (tym samym książę, pomimo rozwodu, będzie mógł zostać królem), a synowie pary zachowają prawa do tronu (zgodnie ze średniowiecznym zwyczajem zostaliby wydziedziczeni i wykreśleni z listy sukcesyjnej). Do rozwodu księstwa Walii doszło w 1996 roku. +Lata 1992–1993 były okresem licznych skandali obyczajowych w Partii Konserwatywnej, które były od razu nagłaśniane przez tabloidy. David Mellor, Dvid Ashby, lord Caithness, Alan Amos, Tim Yeo oraz Michael Brown byli zamieszani w skandale seksualne. Graham Riddick, David Tredinnick, Tim Smith oraz Neil Hamilton byli oskarżeni o przyjęcie łapówek od biznesmena Mohameda Al Fayeda. Spowodowało to, że na konferencji Partii Konserwatywnej w 1993 r. Major zainicjował politykę "Powrotu do korzeni" ("Back to Basics"), czyli do tradycyjnych rodzinnych wartości. Kampania ta nie przyniosła jednak żadnych rezultatów i została zaniechana. +Niedługo po objęciu urzędu premiera Major nawiązał rozmowy z Tymczasową IRA. We wrześniu 1994 r. IRA ogłosiła zawieszenie broni, które przetrwało do lutego 1996 r. +22 lipca 1995 r. spory w Partii Konserwatywnej osiągnęły taki stopień, że Major podał się do dymisji i zapowiedział swój start w wyborach na lidera. Przeciwko niemu wystartował minister ds. Walii John Redwood. Major wygrał te wybory uzyskują 218 głosów wobec 89 oddanych na Redwooda. Wygrane wybory nie poprawiły jednak pozycji Majora w Partii Konserwatywnej. W grudniu 1996 r. rząd utracił większość w Izbie Gmin. 17 marca 1997 r. zarządził wybory do Izby Gmin. Miał nadzieję, że wzrost gospodarczy poprawi notowania jego partii. +Wybory 1997 r. zakończyły się największą klęską konserwatystów po 1832 r. W nowym parlamencie Partia Konserwatywna uzyskała 165 miejsc. Przewaga zwycięskiej Partii Pracy wynosiła 179 głosów. Major wygrał w swoim okręgu wyborczym przewagą 18 140 głosów. 2 maja oficjalnie przekazał pieczęcie premiera królowej Elżbiecie. Królowa powołała na premiera lidera laburzystów, Tony'ego Blaira. +Na emeryturze. +Po wyborach Major na krótko pozostał Liderem Opozycji. Nowe wybory na lidera partii w czerwcu 1997 r. wygrał William Hague. Major pozostał deputowanym do 2001 r., kiedy zrezygnował z ubiegania się o reelekcję. W 1999 został odznaczony Order Kawalerów Honoru. 23 kwietnia 2005 r. został kawalerem Orderu Podwiązki. Odmówił przyjęcia dożywotniego tytułu parowskiego. +Major był zawsze zapalonym krykiecistą i na emeryturze poświęcił wiele uwagi swojej pasji. Do 2002 r. był prezydentem Surrey County Cricket Club. Od 1998 r. jest członkiem Carlyle Group's European Advisory Board, w maju 2001 r. został przewodniczącym Carlyle Europe. Z tego stanowiska zrezygnował w sierpniu 2004 r. W marcu 2001 r. wygłosił mowę pogrzebową w opactwie westminsterskim dla słynnego krykiecisty, lorda Cowdreya. W 2005 r. został wybrany do komitetu Marylebone Cricket Club. +Po śmierci księżnej Diany w 1997 r. został specjalnym opiekunem książąt Williama i Harry’ego, odpowiedzialnym za sprawy prawne i administracyjne. +Życie prywatne. +3 października 1970 r. poślubił Normę Johnson (ur. 12 lutego 1942), córkę Normana Wagstaffa i Edith Johnson. Norma była nauczycielką i członkinią Młodych Konserwatystów. Mają razem dwoje dzieci – syna Jamesa (ur. 1975) i córkę Elizabeth. Małżonkowie mieszkają niedaleko Weybourne w północnym Norfolk. +Gabinet Johna Majora. +Drugi gabinet, kwiecień 1992 – maj 1997. +Zmiany +Eli Whitney + +Eli Whitney (ur. 8 grudnia 1765, zm. 8 stycznia 1825), amerykański wynalazca i przedsiębiorca. +Jest konstruktorem "odziarniarki bawełny" (patent z 14 marca 1794), maszyny do mechanicznego oddzielania nasion bawełny od włókien. Maszyna ta zmniejszyła koszty uprawy bawełny; dzięki mechanizacji procesu oczyszczania bawełny wydajność jednego pracownika wzrosła 50-krotnie. +Wśród innych pomysłów Whitneya, duże znaczenie dla rozwoju przemysłu miał pomysł wykorzystania "linii montażowej" w produkcji masowej; pomysł ten wykorzystał z powodzeniem Henry Ford, a później także inni przemysłowcy. +Będąc na krawędzi bankructwa zdołał w roku 1798 zyskać kontrakt na dostawę 15 tysięcy karabinów dla armii amerykańskiej, z czego wywiązał się do roku 1809. Jego fabryka w New Haven w stanie Connecticut stała się wzorem dla innych przedsiębiorców produkujących broń. +Kuźniki (Wrocław) + +Kuźniki (niem. "Schmiedefeld") - osiedle w zachodniej części Wrocławia w dzielnicy Fabryczna. W granicach miasta od 1928 roku. +Pierwsza wzmianka w 1288. W połowie XIV wieku 11-łanowy folwark. W 1845 miała 180 mieszkańców, dwór, folwark, 23 domy, gospodę, trzy zakłady rzemieślnicze, dwa sklepy. Stacja kolejowa na linii Wrocław Gł.-Rudna Gwizdanów (obecna linia kolejowa nr 273) powstała w Kuźnikach w 1874. +Podczas oblężenia "Festung Breslau" w 1945 Kuźniki zajęte zostały przez Rosjan już w marcu, ale 29 marca doszło do kontrataku spadochroniarzy niemieckich. Użyli oni wówczas broni chemicznej (prawdopodobnie tabunu; ładunki z tym gazem nazywali "Pissbeuteln", tj. dosłownie "worki z sikami") wrzucając je do piwnic zajętych przez obrońców tak, że później przez wiele dni przechodząc tamtędy trzeba było używać masek przeciwgazowych. Armia Czerwona zajęła Kuźniki ponownie 1 kwietnia. +Kuźniki od południa i północy oddzielone są liniami kolejowymi nr 273 (Wrocław - Głogów od północy) i nr 275 (Wrocław - Legnica od południa), krzyżującymi się na wschodzie osiedla. Od zachodu granicę stanowi rzeka Ślęza. Od południa Kuźniki graniczą z osiedlem Nowy Dwór. Na północny zachód od Kuźnik, oddzielone linią kolejową głogowską (mieści się tu na niej stacja Wrocław-Kuźniki), leży osiedle Gądów Mały. +Główna część osiedla składa się z małych, 4-piętrowych bloków, wybudowanych około roku 1980. Na osiedlu są również grupy domków jednorodzinnych i szeregowców. Osiedle liczy 6 600 mieszkańców. Główne ulice to: Żernicka, Hermanowska, Sarbinowska, Koszalińska, Dźwirzyńska, Majakowskiego, Międzyzdrojska oraz Kołobrzeska. +Na osiedlu znajduje się publiczna Szkoła Podstawowa nr 37, publiczne Gimnazjum nr 9 oraz parafia pw. św. Andrzeja Boboli. +Osiedle skomunikowane jest z resztą miasta dziennymi liniami autobusowymi komunikacji miejskiej o numerach: 122, 126 i 129, jak również liniami nocnymi: 245 i 246. +Katedra św. Pawła w Londynie + +Katedra Świętego Pawła – (ang. St Paul's Cathedral) jeden z najbardziej znanych kościołów anglikańskich w Wielkiej Brytanii i budowli Londynu. Znajduje się w samym sercu londyńskiej dzielnicy City of London i formalnie pełni funkcję głównej świątyni tej dzielnicy. Pieczę nad nią sprawuje bezpośrednio Lord Mayor. +Katedra ta powstała pierwotnie na gruzach rzymskiej świątyni, wybudowanej niegdyś ku czci cesarza Klaudiusza. Normańska katedra była większa od obecnej i stanowiła największą świątynię ówczesnej Europy. Nie omijały jej pożary. Iglica została zniszczona przez piorun, wnętrze zostało splądrowane, a mury były w złym stanie. Katedra spłonęła ostatecznie podczas wielkiego pożaru Londynu w 1666 r. +Podjęto decyzję o budowie nowej katedry w stylu klasycyzującego baroku i rozpoczęto ją w roku 1675 pod nadzorem angielskiego architekta, Sir Christophera Wrena. Budowę zakończono po 35 latach, już pod kierunkiem syna Christophera Wrena, w roku 1710, chociaż pierwsze nabożeństwo odprawiono 2 grudnia 1697 roku. +Budowlę wieńczy kopuła o średnicy 50 metrów, która jest jednym z najbardziej charakterystycznych elementów architektury Londynu. +Katedra świętego Pawła była budowana jako symbol odrodzenia Londynu i cechuje ją rozmach i monumentalność, ustępuje ona jednak swoimi rozmiarami watykańskiej Bazylice Świętego Piotra. Katedra Świętego Pawła ma około 158 metrów długości i około 75 metrów szerokości. Wysokość budowli mierzona od posadzki do końca krzyża umieszczonego na kopule wynosi 108 metrów. +Wewnątrz katedry znajduje się kilka galerii. Największą popularnością cieszy się Stone Gallery, z której rozpościera się rozległy widok na zakole Tamizy. Druga galeria - Galeria Szeptów ("Whispering Gallery") - jest znana ze świetnej akustyki, umożliwiającej porozumiewanie się szeptem z odległości 30 m. +Nabożeństwa odbywają się codziennie wieczorem, a także w niedziele i Boże Narodzenie - to jedyna okazja, by zobaczyć katedrę bezpłatnie. +Katedra była miejscem wielu słynnych pogrzebów (np. admirała Nelsona, księcia Wellingtona i Winstona Churchilla). Pogrzeby, śluby i inne ceremonie kościelne brytyjska rodzina królewska organizuje zazwyczaj w Westminster Abbey, ale to w katedrze św. Pawła odbył się ślub księcia Walii - Karola Windsora i lady Diany Spencer. +Scynkowate + +Scynkowate, scynki, śligi (Scincidae) – najbogatsza w gatunki rodzina jaszczurek, obejmująca ponad 1500 gatunków. +Występowanie. +Azja Południowo-Wschodnia, Australia, Nowa Gwinea, Afryka, Madagaskar, Cejlon, Polinezja, środkowa Azja, Ameryka, Europa (kilka gatunków). +Charakterystyka. +Głowa pokryta dużymi symetrycznymi tarczkami. Ciało pokryte okrągłymi lub rombowymi łuskami zachodzącymi na siebie tak ściśle, że powierzchnia ich ciał jest bardzo błyszcząca i śliska. Zęby stożkowate, osadzone na wewnętrznej powierzchni kości szczęk (pleurodontyzm). Język krótki przystosowany do lizania, pokryty niewielkimi łuskowatymi brodawkami. Ogon łatwo odpada (poza nielicznymi gatunkami) i szybko regeneruje (autotomia). Kończyny u większości dobrze wykształcone, zredukowane ("Lerista" i "Chalcides") bądź ich brak ("Brachymeles", "Isopachys", "Typhlosaurus", "Acontias"). Brak gruczołów i otworów udowych. +Systematyka. +Systematyka scynkowatych jest ciągle badana i pozostaje kontrowersyjna. +Powiat chodzieski + +Powiat chodzieski - powiat w Polsce (województwo wielkopolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Chodzież. +C-HTML + +C-HTML (Compact HTML) – podzbiór HTML dla telefonów komórkowych NTT DoCoMo, zawierający kilka rozszerzeń nie znajdujących się w standardowym HTML. +C-HTML został opracowany w 1998 r. przez japońską firmę ACCESS, jako alternatywa dla WML (w przeciwieństwie do niego nie zawiera "kartowej" struktury) i XHTML Basic. Strony zapisany w tym języku mogą być oglądane w przeglądarce internetowej i tworzone w edytorze HTML. +W perspektywie C-HTML zostanie zastąpiony przez XHTML Basic. +Menisk + +Menisk (gr. "menískos" zdrobn. od "méne" "księżyc") jest to powierzchnia rozdzielająca od siebie dwie fazy płynne – gaz i ciecz lub dwie, niemieszające się z sobą ciecze. +Dla układu gaz-ciecz w rurce z materiału trudno zwilżalnego przez tę ciecz (np. rtęć w rurce szklanej), ciecz tworzy menisk wypukły. Jeżeli ciecz odpowiednio dobrze zwilża materiał rurki (np. etanol w rurce szklanej) tworzy się menisk wklęsły. W ostatnim przypadku, przy bardzo wąskim przekroju rurki (różnym dla każdego układu ciecz-materiał ścianek) pojawia się efekt kapilarny, polegający na tendencji do pełznięcia cieczy w rurkach o niewielkiej średnicy lub w materiale porowatym o niewielkich i połączonych porach. Efekt ten jest na tyle silny, że woda w cienkich rurkach podnosi się nawet na wysokość kilku metrów. +Aleksander Polus + +Aleksander Józef Polus (ur. 1 lutego 1914 w Dortmundzie, zm. 13 lutego 1965 w Poznaniu) – polski bokser, mistrz Europy. +Reprezentował barwy klubów Warty Poznań, Warszawianki i po wojnie ponownie poznańskiej Warty. +Zdobył mistrzostwo Europy w boksie w Mediolanie 1937, w kategorii piórkowej. Był pierwszym Polakiem w historii, który zdobył ten laur. Trzykrotnie wywalczył mistrzostwo Polski: 1932 i 1933 w wadze koguciej a 1935 w wadze piórkowej. W 1936 był także wicemistrzem Polski w wadze piórkowej. Dwukrotnie z zespołem Warty wywalczył drużynowe mistrzostwo Polski w 1932 i 1933 roku. W reprezentacji Polski wystąpił 6 razy w latach 1932 – 1936, odnosząc 3 zwycięstwa, 1 remis i 2 walki przegrywając. +Reprezentował Polskę na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Berlinie 1936, gdzie dotarł do ćwierćfinału. Przegrał z późniejszym mistrzem olimpijskim, Argentyńczykiem Oscarem Casanovasem. +W 1939 po kampanii wrześniowej, został internowany w Rumunii, w latach 1940 – 1945 walczył tam jako zawodowiec. Po powrocie do Polski w 1945 roku został zdyskwalifikowany za przekroczenie praw amatorskich. Powrócił na ring w 1947 walcząc jako amator do zakończenia swojej kariery. +Bilans walk na ringu to: 125 walk, 105 wygranych, 15 przegranych i 5 remisów. +Od 1972 w Poznaniu rozgrywany jest bokserski międzynarodowy Turniej o Złoty Pas Polusa. +Narząd Jacobsona + +Narząd Jacobsona, narząd przylemieszowy (łac. "organum vomeronasale") nazywany również narządem lub organem lemieszowym, lemieszowo-nosowym, lub womero-nasalnym, w skrócie oznaczany VNO (od ang. "vomeronasal organ") – występujący u wielu zwierząt, chemoreceptywny, parzysty narząd zmysłu wykrywający szereg substancji chemicznych. Zawiera receptory feromonów z rodzin V1R, V2R i V3R, które mają duże znaczenie w komunikacji zwierząt, ale jego funkcjonalność w zakresie przenoszenia bodźców ze związków infochemicznych wśród ludzi nie została potwierdzona. +Historia badań. +Ludzki VNO został odkryty przez Frederica Ruyscha w 1703 roku. Ludvig Levin Jacobson odnalazł VNO u innych ssaków w 1809 i opisał go w raporcie Annales Musée Histoire Naturelle w 1811. Przez wiele lat funkcje narządu nazwanego narządem (organem) Jacobsona pozostawały całkowicie nierozpoznane. Robert Broom zauważył, że wszystkie badane przez niego zwierzęta czworonogie (Tetrapoda) – dziobak, kangur, pancernik, koń, królik, mysz, świnka morska i bobroszczur – posiadają ten narząd, w różnym stopniu rozwinięty. Dalsze badania wykazały obecność narządu u płazów, gadów i wyżej rozwiniętych ssaków lądowych. Nie stwierdzono jego obecności u krokodyli i u ptaków. W 1991 David Moran i Bruce Jafek potwierdzili obecność narządu przylemieszowego u człowieka. +Do końca XX wieku uważano, że jest to zanikający, dodatkowy narząd zmysłu węchu, atawizm – pozostałość po ewolucyjnych przodkach zwierząt czworonogich. Jego obecność u człowieka jest nadal dyskutowana, pomimo opublikowanych wyników badań endoskopowych i mikroskopowych potwierdzających istnienie VNO przynajmniej po jednej stronie u większości ludzi. Szczególnie kontrowersje budzi funkcjonalność narządu przylemieszowego. +Sytuację zmieniła opublikowana w 1996 praca D. L. Berlinera wykazująca, że badany u dorosłych ludzi narząd Jacobsona reaguje na steroidowe womeroferyny. +U zwierząt. +Obecność VNO stwierdzono u większości płazów, gadów i ssaków. Dotychczas dobrze rozpoznano funkcje tego organu u węży i gryzoni. Substancje docierające do narządu Jacobsona wpływają na zachowania związane z kojarzeniem oraz na zachowania społeczne. U gryzoni działania feromonów mają drastyczny wpływ na przebieg rui i ciąży, do wymuszonego poronienia włącznie (zobacz: efekt Bruce). +Narząd Jacobsona płazów i gadów nie ma połączenia z jamą nosową, która jest umiejscowiona powyżej. Składa się z 2 kieszonek, których kanały otwierają się na podniebieniu przedniej części jamy gębowej niezależnie od siebie. Kieszonki te stale wypełnia ciecz produkowana w gruczołach przyocznych. Koniec języka przenosi substancje zapachowe z powietrza lub przedmiotów do wnętrza tego narządu, a tam za pośrednictwem płynu docierają do nabłonka węchowego na ściankach kieszonek. Gdy zwierzę wciągnie język do pyska jego rozdwojone końce przylegają do ujść narządu Jacobsona. Węże używają narządu Jacobsona do tropienia ofiary. +U ssaków występuje w pobliżu kości lemieszowej, wewnątrz jamy nosowej po obu stronach przegrody nosa. Większość ssaków poprzez lizanie lub węszenie przenosi zawarte w powietrzu molekuły do śliny, która następnie dociera do VNO. Słonie używają do tego celu swojej trąby. Niektóre ssaki (np. kotowate i kopytne) unoszą górną wargę w charakterystyczny sposób, by zapewnić dostęp powietrza do narządu Jacobsona. Dodatkowo narząd kurczy się i rozszerza zasysając docierające do niego substancje. +U ludzi. +Narząd przylemieszowy wykształca się w stadium embrionalnym człowieka pod koniec pierwszego trymestru u podstawy przegrody nosowej ("septum"). Jego obecność i podobieństwa do analogicznego narządu innych zwierząt jest bezdyskusyjna. Funkcjonuje u noworodków, ale dalsze jego stadium rozwojowe nie zostało dobrze poznane. Dotychczas nie odnaleziono żadnego połączenia między narządem Jacobsona i mózgiem człowieka. Doświadczenia wykazują jednak, że istnieje takie połączenie z podwzgórzem odpowiedzialnym za reakcje bezwiedne. Przeprowadzone badania sugerują, że jego funkcja u dorosłych osobników zanika. +Arnold Böcklin + +Arnold Böcklin (ur. 16 października 1827 w Bazylei, zm. 16 stycznia 1901 w Fiesole) – szwajcarski malarz. +Jego twórczość wywarła duży wpływ na rozwój symbolizmu. Malował głównie fantastyczne pejzaże przeniknięte niesamowitą senną atmosferą, często zaludnione przez mityczne stwory, nimfy, najady, trytony. +Rijeka + +Rijeka (chorw. „rzeka”; wł. "Fiume" - „rzeka”, niem. "St. Veit am Flaum", także "Pflaum") – miasto w północno-zachodniej Chorwacji, nad Zatoką Rijecką Morza Adriatyckiego. Leży na wzgórzach u podnóża masywu Risnjak. Liczy 128 tys. mieszkańców. Stolica i największe miasto Primorsko-goranskiej županiji. +Ważny ośrodek przemysłowy kraju i największy chorwacki port handlowy (m.in. dowóz ropy naftowej), rybacki i tranzytowy. Rozwinięty przemysł: stoczniowy, maszynowy, chemiczny, papierniczy, materiałów budowlanych, włókienniczy i spożywczy. Znajduje się tu duża rafineria ropy naftowej z rurociągiem naftowym do rafinerii w Sisaku oraz port lotniczy. +Duży ośrodek naukowy – szkoły wyższe i liczne instytuty naukowo-badawcze oraz kulturalny – liczne ośrodki turystyczne, muzea. +Historia. +Największe znaczenie i świetność miasto przeżywało w średniowieczu – dogodne położenie sprzyjało bogaceniu się na handlu, wysokie mury chroniły przed najeźdźcami. Rijeka należała początkowo do Chorwacji, następnie przeszła we władanie węgierskie, a w XV wieku pod rządy Habsburgów. W 1723 proklamowana "wolnym portem". W XIX wieku rozwój gospodarczy; od 1870 samodzielna jednostka administracyjna wchodząca w skład Krajów Korony Świętego Stefana – węgierskiej części dualistycznych Austro-Węgier. +Początkowo po I wojnie światowej miasto stało się przedmiotem sporów pomiędzy Włochami a nowo powstałym Królestwem Serbów, Chorwatów i Słoweńców. W czasie negocjacji dotyczących przyszłości Rijeki miasto zajął włoski awanturnik Gabriele d'Annunzio (1919) i proklamował objęcie władzy na tym obszarze (Regencja Carnaro). +W 1920 Włochy i SHS porozumiały się i powstało Wolne Miasto Rijeka (Fiume), jednak w 1924 uległo ono podziałowi – większość terytorium i samo miasto zostało przyłączone do Królestwa Włoch. Granica pomiędzy Rijeką a miejscowością Sušak biegła jak dawna granica pomiędzy terytorium Rijeki i Królestwem Chorwacji (autonomicznym regionem w węgierskiej części Austro-Węgier). +Po II wojnie światowej w 1947 miasto oficjalnie zostało przyłączone do Jugosławii. +Puklerz + +Puklerz (wojsk.) – zwyczajowa nazwa niewielkiej (ok 25 – 40 cm średnicy) okrągłej, zwykle w całości metalowej tarczy, o wybrzuszonym, sferycznym (półkolistym) lub szpiczastym środku (umbo), mieszczącym trzymającą go dłoń. Za uchwyt służył metalowy, lub drewniany imacz, który przechodził wzdłuż średnicy umba. Ochrona ta uznawana jest za charakterystyczną dla późnośredniowiecznych strzelców, zwłaszcza łuczników. Archaicznie w języku potocznym nazwa tarczy. +Zastosowanie. +Puklerz stosowany był w znacznie szerszym wymiarze niż jest to powszechnie znane. Stanowił bowiem prostą, lecz efektywną broń często używaną wraz z krótkim mieczem, tasakiem lub rapierem. Był popularny od ok. 1100 do ok. 1600 r. +Lipsk (powiat augustowski) + +Lipsk – miasto w woj. podlaskim, w powiecie augustowskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Lipsk. W latach 1975–1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. suwalskiego. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2012 miasto miało 2490 mieszkańców. +Położone nad rzeką Biebrzą. Lokalny ośrodek handlowy i usługowy. Gmina Lipsk sąsiaduje z granicą polsko-białoruską oraz gminami Sztabin, Dąbrowa Białostocka, Nowy Dwór, Augustów i Płaska. Ośrodkiem sztuki ludowej – pisankarstwo, tkactwo, Zespół Regionalny Lipsk. Siedzibą parafii rzymskokatolickiej pod wezwaniem Matki Bożej Anielskiej. +W Lipsku urodził się Janusz Panasewicz, wokalista grupy Lady Pank. +Historia. +Okolice Lipska były we wczesnym średniowieczu zamieszkiwane przez bałtyckie plemię Jaćwingów, których, podobnie jak Prusów, wytępili Krzyżacy. Nie znaleziono tu jednak żadnych pozostałości ich osad. Pewien ślad obecności Jaćwingów zachował się jednak w języku dzisiejszych mieszkańców tych terenów w postaci pojedynczych słów bałtyckiego (jaćwieskiego) pochodzenia. Tak na przykład osoby posługujące się miejscowym dialektem języka białoruskiego, nazywanym "językiem prostym" ("prosty jazýk") na określenie warg lub ust używają słowa "łúpy" (bałtyckie "łúpai"). +Pierwsze wzmianki o osadnictwie na tym terenie pochodzą z 1533 r. i mówią o wsi "Wola Lipska". +Za datę powstania miasta uznaje się 8 grudnia 1580 r. Tego dnia został wystawiony w pobliskim Grodnie przez wielkiego księcia Stefana Batorego (Lipsk do rozbiorów leżał w Wielkim Księstwie Litewskim, a nie w Koronie, Batory występował zatem jako wielki książę) przywilej nadający prawa magdeburskie oraz herb – łódź z żaglem. +Lipsk rozwijał się szybko do połowy XVII wieku, później ogarnął go kryzys związany z konfliktami wojennymi XVII i XVIII wieku. W 1795 r. Lipsk znalazł się w zaborze pruskim. W 1807 r. wszedł do Księstwa Warszawskiego, a w 1815 r. do Królestwa Kongresowego. +31 maja 1870 Lipsk traci prawa miejskie i wraz z częścią gminy Kurjanka tworzy nową gminę Petropawłowsk. +2 sierpnia 1914 r. został wyświęcony w Lipsku istniejący do dziś neogotycki kościół parafii katolickiej. Jego budowę rozpoczęto w 1906 r. W czasie I wojny światowej miasto zostało zniszczone w znacznej części. Wyzwolenie Lipska nastąpiło ok. 22 sierpnia 1919 r. +W 1939 r. z tego terenu wyrusza oddział majora Henryka Dobrzańskiego – Hubala. W mieście znajduje się tablica upamiętniająca te wydarzenie. Od 1940 r. w okolicy Lipska jest budowany system umocnień radzieckich. We wrześniu 1941 r. hitlerowcy wywieźli 99 osób pochodzenia żydowskiego do getta w Grodnie. Tragiczną datą w historii Lipska jest 13 lipca 1943 r., kiedy to wojska hitlerowskie rozstrzelały 50 mieszkańców Lipska na fortach w Naumowiczach koło Grodna. W wyniku działań wojennych miejscowość została mocno zniszczona. +Po zajęciu terenów przez Armię Czerwoną w okolicy Lipska rozpoczęła się budowa umocnień należących do Linii Mołotowa. Na linii Kamienna Nowa – Lipsk – Bohatery Leśne wybudowano 84 obiekty, jednak jedynie ok. 30 z nich zyskało zdolność bojową do momentu zajęcia terenów przez wojska niemieckie. +W roku 1973 miejscowość odznaczona została Orderem Krzyża Grunwaldu. +Lipsk odzyskuje prawa miejskie w 1983 r. Ważną rolę w tym fakcie przypisuje się pochodzącemu z Lipska gen. Mirosławowi Milewskiemu, od 1981 r. ministrowi spraw wewnętrznych PRL, a także Towarzystwu Przyjaciół Lipska – organizacji zrzeszającej byłych i obecnych mieszkańców. W latach 80. w Lipsku rozwija się przemysł lekki (produkcja podzespołów indukcyjnych oraz maszyn rolniczych). +Od lat 90. po upadku największych zakładów przemysłowych w Lipsku rozwija się turystyka (spływy kajakowe Biebrzą, agroturystyka), co jest powiązane z powstaniem Biebrzańskiego Parku Narodowego. +Karekin II Nersisjan + +Karekin II Nersisjan (orm.: "Գարեգին Բ", także "Garegin II Nersissian", ur. w 1951) – duchowny Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego, obecny (od 1999) najwyższy patriarcha tego kościoła - Jego Świątobliwość Katolikos Wszystkich Ormian, Patriarcha Świętej Stolicy Eczmiadzyna. +Przyszły patriarcha urodził się w 1951 w Woskehat koło Eczmiadzyna jako Krticz Nersisjan. W 1971 ukończył seminarium duchowne w Eczmiadzynie, a następnie przez rok w nim wykładał. W 1970 został wyświęcony na diakona, a w 1972 – na kapłana zakonnego, przy czym przyjął imię "Karekin". Następnie studiował w Wiedniu, potem w Bonn, gdzie posługiwał w tamtejszej wspólnocie ormiańskiej. Po powrocie do Armenii został wysłany na studia podyplomowe do prawosławnej Moskiewskiej Akademii Duchownej w Zagorsku. Naukę tam zakończył w 1979. +W marcu 1980 został kapłanem w stołecznej i patriarchalnej diecezji Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego – Ararat. W czerwcu 1983 zaczął pełnić obowiązki biskupa tej diecezji, a 23 października tego roku patriarcha Wasken I Baldżian udzielił mu sakry biskupiej. W listopadzie 1992 został podniesiony do godności arcybiskupiej. Jako biskup i arcybiskup Karekin Nersisjan odznaczył się aktywnością przy podnoszeniu Armenii z ruin po trzęsieniu ziemi w 1988, a także przy duchowej odbudowie Armenii po okresie sowieckim. +Na synodzie elekcyjnym w 1995 Karekin Nersisjan był jednym z kandydatów na patriarchę, jednak wybrano wtedy biskupa Karekina Sarkisjana. W 1998 patriarcha Karekin I mianował Karekina Nersisjana swoim wikariuszem generalnym. Obowiązki te Nersisjan pełnił do śmierci Sarkisjana w czerwcu 1999. +27 czerwca 1999 Karekin Nersisjan został wybrany najwyższym z czterech patriarchów Apostolskiego Kościoła Ormiańskiego, a 4 listopada tego samego roku został intronizowany na stolicę patriarszą w Eczmiadzynie jako Karekin II. Według oficjalnej listy patriarchów jest 132. patriarchą. +W 2006 złożył wizytę w Turcji, gdzie spotkał się z ekumenicznym patriarchą Konstantynopola Bartłomiejem I oraz ormiańską społecznością Stambułu. Podczas pobytu doszło do napięcia z rządem tureckim, ponieważ Karekin II nazwał przeprowadzoną przez Turków w czasie I wojny światowej Rzeź Ormian ludobójstwem. Turcja kategorycznie protestuje przeciwko używaniu tego określenia, jak też sprzeciwia się przedstawianiu tamtych wydarzeń w wersji ormiańskiej. +Decyzja administracyjna + +Decyzja administracyjna – akt administracyjny zewnętrzny wydany w trybie określonym w przepisach Kodeksu postępowania administracyjnego lub innych ustaw regulujących sferę indywidualnych praw i obowiązków obywateli np. Ordynacja podatkowa lub Prawo celne. +Część literatury definiuje decyzję administracyjną jako kwalifikowany akt administracyjny, odznaczający się określoną formą i wydawany po przeprowadzeniu sformalizowanego postępowania administracyjnego; inni nazywają ją aktem administracyjnym "sensu stricto", charakteryzującym się jednostronnością, zewnętrznością, indywidualnością i konkretnością. +Rozstrzyga sprawę co do istoty w całości lub części, a więc w sposób wiążący i trwały ustanawia, zmienia lub znosi stosunki administracyjne. Jest przejawem woli państwa reprezentowanego przez organ administracji publicznej wyrażonej w stosunku do strony postępowania administracyjnego. Podstawą prawną decyzji administracyjnej są przepisy o charakterze powszechnie obowiązującym. Decyzje wydawane są na podstawie przepisów prawa materialnego, a tylko wyjątkowo w oparciu o przepisy procesowe, np. decyzja stwierdzająca wygaśnięcie bezprzedmiotowej decyzji. Obowiązkiem organu administracji publicznej jest wydać decyzję administracyjną ilekroć organ ten ma władczo rozstrzygnąć o prawach lub obowiązkach jednostki w oparciu o przepisy prawa materialnego. +Adresatem decyzji jest zawsze strona postępowania. Stroną może być obywatel lub inny podmiot prawa, którego decyzja dotyczy. +Obligatoryjne składniki decyzji administracyjnej. +W przypadku decyzji wydanej przez organ kolegialny podpisy muszą złożyć wszyscy członkowie tego organu; wyjątki od tej zasady mogą być ustanawiane jedynie przez przepisy ustrojowe rangi ustawowej. +W orzecznictwie sądu administracyjnego ugruntowany jest pogląd, że „treść, a nie forma, przesądza o tym, czy dany akt jest decyzją administracyjną, jeżeli więc sprawa administracyjna podlega załatwieniu w drodze decyzji, to za decyzję należy uznać pismo organu rozstrzygającego, zawierające co najmniej oznaczenie tego organu, oznaczenie adresata aktu, rozstrzygnięcie w sprawie oraz podpis upoważnionego pracownika organu, gdyż spełnia to minimum podstawowych warunków wymienionych w art. 107 § 1 k.p.a.”. +Uchybienia w formalnej zawartości decyzji stanowią podstawę do złożenia odwołania do organu nadrzędnego lub skargi do sądu administracyjnego. Na powodzenie może liczyć wskazanie uchybienia formalnego lub uchybienia w trakcie postępowania administracyjnego (uchybienie proceduralne), które może mieć istotny wpływ na wynik postępowania i treść decyzji. +Mimo odrębności proceduralnej decyzjami administracyjnymi są także decyzje w sprawach celnych, podatkowych i ubezpieczeń społecznych. Z kolei charakteru decyzji administracyjnej nie mają m.in. zaświadczenie o numerze identyfikacyjnym REGON wydane przez organ statystyki publicznej, decyzja organu założycielskiego przedsiębiorstwa użyteczności publicznej o powołaniu dyrektora tego przedsiębiorstwa i odpowiedź na krytykę prasową. +Podział decyzji. +W literaturze dzieli się decyzje administracyjne na merytoryczne, które zawierają rozstrzygnięcie co do istoty sprawy, w sposób władczy określają uprawnienia i obowiązki indywidualnego adresata w sferze prawa materialnego, oraz decyzje, które w inny sposób kończą sprawę w danej instancji. Do tych ostatnich zalicza się decyzję o umorzeniu postępowania administracyjnego, decyzję kasacyjną organu odwoławczego, który uchyla orzeczenie organu I instancji i przekazuje temu organowi sprawę do ponownego rozpatrzenia, decyzję o odmowie wznowienia postępowania oraz decyzję o odmowie wszczęcia postępowania w sprawie stwierdzenia nieważności decyzji. +Decyzja częściowa. +Kodeks postępowania administracyjnego przewiduje (art. 104 § 2) wydanie decyzji częściowej. Wydanie takiej decyzji nie kończy jednak postępowanie w sprawie, nawet jeżeli stała się ostateczna. +Heinkel He 70 + +Heinkel He 70 Blitz – niemiecki samolot kurierski i rozpoznawczy z okresu II wojny światowej +Historia. +Pod koniec lat trzydziestych właściciele niemieckich linii lotniczych "Deutsche Lufthansa" zwrócili się do niemieckich wytwórni lotniczych o zbudowania samolotu komunikacyjnego o parametrach zbliżonych do amerykańskiego samolotu Lockheed 9 Orion, który użytkowały szwajcarskie linie lotnicze Swissair. Miało to zwiększyć możliwości niemieckiej linii lotniczej w Europie. +Projekt takie samolotu opracował w 1931 roku inż. Ernst Heinkel z zakładów Ernst Heinkel-Flugzeugwerke A.G., miał to być dolnopłat z silnikiem rzędowym "BMW Hornet" o mocy 575 KM (423 kW). Na wiosnę 1932 roku opracowano nowszy i o lepszych osiągach samolot, który oznaczono jako "Heinkel He 70". Samolot ten był napędzany silnikiem rzędowym "BMW VI 6,0" o mocy 647 KM (469 kW). +Pierwszy prototyp tego samolotu oznaczony He 70a został zbudowany pod koniec listopada 1932 roku i został oblatany w dniu 1 grudnia 1932 roku. Drugi prototyp oznaczony He 70b z dwuosobową załogą i z miejscami dla 4 pasażerów ukończono w lutym 1933 roku. Na tym prototypie pilot kpt. Untuckt osiągnął rekord prędkości lotu - 357 km/h z obciążeniem 500 i 1000 kg. Prędkość ta przewyższała ówczesne samoloty myśliwskie w związku z tym w 1933 roku opracowano kolejny prototyp oznaczony jako He 70c z otwartym stanowiskiem ruchomego karabinu maszynowego na grzbiecie kadłuba jako konstrukcja wyjściowa dla wersji lekkiego samolotu bombowego oraz wersji kurierskiej i rozpoznawczej. +W 1934 roku zbudowano dla Lufthansy prototyp He 70d z silnikiem "BMW VI 7,3" oraz dla Luftwaffe prototyp He 70e lekkiego bombowca z tym samym silnikiem. +Samolot pasażerski "Heinkel He 70A" budowany seryjnie dla potrzeb Lufthansy rozpoczął regularne loty pasażerskie 15 czerwca 1934 roku. Rozpoczęto także budowę kolejnych wersji dla Lufthansy – "He 70D" (zbudowano 12 egzemplarzy) i "He 70G". Jeden z samolotów wersji "He 70G" został sprzedany do Wielkiej Brytanii a do jego napędu użyto silnika rzędowego "Rols-Royce Kestrel V". +Produkcję samoloty "Heinkel He 70" zakończono w 1938 roku, łącznie wyprodukowano 324 samoloty tego typu wszystkich wersji, z tego 28 samolotów cywilnych. +Użycie w lotnictwie. +Samoloty "Heinkel He 70" od 1934 roku były użytkowane przez niemieckie linie lotnicze Lufthansa jako samoloty pasażerskie i pocztowe. Część tych samolotów później zostało przejętych przez Luftwaffe. +W niemieckim lotnictwie wojskowy samoloty te były użytkowane od 1935 roku. Pod koniec 1936 roku 18 samolotów "Heinkel He 70F-2" otrzymał Legion Condor biorący udział w hiszpańskiej wojnie domowej po stronie frankistów. +W latach następnych samolot ten był jednak wycofywany z użycia w jednostkach liniowych, wobec pojawienia się nowszych typów samolotów. Po wybuchu II wojny światowej samoloty te przeniesiono do pomocniczych eskadr kurierskich, gdzie eksploatowano je do momentu zużycia. +Konstrukcja. +Samolot "Heinkel He 70F" był dwumiejscowym samolotem kurierskim i rozpoznawczym, zabierającym 4 pasażerów. +Dolnopłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne chowane w locie. Napęd stanowił 1 silnik rzędowy 12-cylindrowym "BMW VI 7,3Z" o mocy 750 KM (552 kW). Śmigło dwułopatowe, metalowe. +Trawienie + +Trawienie pokarmu – złożony proces enzymatycznej hydrolizy wielkocząsteczkowych związków chemicznych w prostsze, w celu ich wchłonięcia i przyswojenia przez organizm. W zdecydowanej większości trawienie jest charakterystyczne dla zwierząt (wyjątkiem są rośliny mięsożerne). +Trawienie u człowieka. +W procesie trawienia zaangażowanych jest wiele mechanizmów i układów (hormonalny, autonomiczny układ nerwowy), które w skoordynowany sposób doprowadzają do rozbicia składników pokarmowych do postaci, która będzie zdolna do wchłaniania w przewodzie pokarmowym. Dzieje się to za sprawą enzymów trawiennych. +Kultura hamburska + +Kultura hamburska - jest to kultura archeologiczna paleolitu schyłkowego, która ok. 12 tys. lat temu, jako pierwsza wkroczyła na Niż Środkowoeuropejski. +Jej przedstawiciele prowadzili selektywne polowania na renifery przy użyciu łuku. +Do narzędzi kamiennych charakterystycznych dla tej kultury zaliczamy ostrza z zadziorami, które służyły jako groty strzał i oszczepów oraz przekłuwacze asymetryczne do obróbki kości i rogu. +Na ziemiach polskich narzędzia kamienne kultury hamburskiej znajdujemy na Dolnym Śląsku i w Wielkopolsce. +Henry Kissinger + +Henry Alfred Kissinger lub Heinz Alfred Kissinger (ur. 27 maja 1923 w Fürth) – amerykański polityk pochodzenia niemieckiego, dyplomata, laureat Pokojowej Nagrody Nobla 1973. +Zarys biografii. +Urodził się w żydowskiej rodzinie w Niemczech. W 1938 musieli uciekać przed nazistami do Stanów Zjednoczonych. W 1943 Kissinger uzyskał amerykańskie obywatelstwo. +Po wojnie służył jako tłumacz w 970. Korpusie Kontrwywiadu Stanów Zjednoczonych w okupowanych Niemczech, gdzie wsławił się dekonspiracją wielu agentów Gestapo. +W latach 60. specjalny doradca ds. bezpieczeństwa narodowego prezydentów Johna F. Kennedy’ego, a następnie Lyndona B. Johnsona i współpracownik w tym zakresie Nelsona Rockefellera. W latach 1969-1974 Dyrektor Rady Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. 1973-1977 sekretarz stanu – najpierw w administracji Richarda Nixona, a później Geralda Forda. +W 1973 laureat Pokojowej Nagrody Nobla, wspólnie z Wietnamczykiem Lê Đức Thọ. Człowiek Roku tygodnika Time w 1972 (razem z prezydentem Nixonem). +W 2002 przewodniczący prezydenckiej komisji ds. zbadania przyczyn zamachów z 11 września 2001. +Uważany za jednego z głównych architektów światowej polityki odprężenia (obok m.in. Richarda Nixona, Charles’a de Gaulle’a czy Willy’ego Brandta), dzięki której w dużej mierze zakończono zimną wojnę. Współodpowiedzialny za obalenie z pomocą USA prezydenta Chile Salvadora Allendego i dojście do władzy junty generała Augusto Pinocheta. Walnie przyczynił się do rozpoczęcia tajnego i nielegalnego bombardowania Kambodży podczas wojny w Wietnamie. +Henry Kissinger w pop-kulturze. +Henry Kissinger jest drugoplanową postacią w powieści Ericha Segala "Absolwenci" (tytuł oryginalny: "The Class", 1985). +Protonaród + +Protonaród inaczej naród bez państwa – typ grupy etnicznej, która dąży do uzyskania własnej suwerenności politycznej w postaci własnego państwa. +Tego typu grupy etniczne posiadają własne elity polityczne oraz własnych ideologów, którzy starają się generować ruch narodowy. Protonaród można uznać za fazę tworzenia się z grupy etnicznej narodu, co nie oznacza, że każdy protonaród musi stać się w przyszłości uznanym narodem i uzyskać własną niezależność polityczną w postaci państwa. +Pojęcie protonarodu wprowadzone zostało przez Thomasa Eriksena, dla odróżnienia tego typu grupy etnicznej od miejskich mniejszości etnicznych i ludów tubylczych, znajdujących się w fazie przedindustrialnej rozwoju oraz grup etnicznych w "społeczeństwach pluralistycznych" istniejacych w kulturowo heterogenicznych państwach pokolonialnych. +Protonarody zazwyczaj są liczebniejsze od innych typów mniejszości etnicznych. +Martin Schongauer + +Martin Schongauer, Schöngauer (ur. ok. 1448 w Colmarze, zm. 2 lutego 1491 w Breisach am Rhein), niemiecki malarz i rytownik. +Pochodził z Alzacji. W malarstwie pozostawał pod wpływem Rogiera van der Weydena; najbardziej znanym dziełem była "Madonna wśród róż" (1473), wykonana dla kościoła św. Marcina w Kolmar. Inne prace Schongauera prawdopodobnie znajdują się w Colmarze, Wiedniu, Monachium i Berlinie. +Był jednym z pierwszych rytowników niemieckich. Wraz z pozostającym pod jego wpływem Dürerem zaliczany jest do twórców tzw. grafiki autorskiej. Pozostawił ok. 120 rycin, charakteryzujących się delikatną kreską, czystym wykończeniem i wysokim zmysłem dekoracyjnym. Tematyką prac Schongauera były sceny z życia Chrystusa (w tym ukrzyżowanie), sceny rodzajowe i zwierzęta. We Włoszech zyskał przydomki Bel Martino i Martino d'Anversa. +Cytronelol + +Cytronelol, C10H20O – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy nienasyconych alkoholi alifatycznych zaliczany do monoterpenów, o intensywnym, przyjemnym zapachu, bardzo trudno krystalizuje. +Posiada jedno centrum chiralności i dlatego występuje w formie dwóch enancjomerów. Intensywny zapach posiada tylko jeden z enancjomerów (z konfiguracją absolutną "S" (+) ). Forma lewoskrętna nazywa się rodinolem. Przy małych stężeniach jego zapach kojarzy się z różami i melisą, a przy większych - bardziej przypomina intensywny zapach cytrusowy. +Citronelol występuje powszechnie w olejkach eterycznych wielu roślin, m.in. niektórych gatunków róży, melisy, trawy cytrynowej, liściach cytryny, geranium i pomarańczy. +Jest on masowo stosowany w kompozycjach perfumeryjnych, używanych w kosmetykach, oraz jako dodatek zapachowych do proszków do prania i innych środków czystości. +Perspektywa + +Perspektywa — określenie stosowane w architekturze, malarstwie, fotografii i innych sztukach wizualnych oznaczające sposób oddania trójwymiarowych obiektów i przestrzeni na płaszczyźnie. Istnieje kilka rodzajów perspektywy: linearna (zbieżna, geometryczna), barwna (malarska), kulisowa, powietrzna, odwrócona, perspektywa krzywoliniowa (poprawna). +Perspektywa linearna. +Zwana też perspektywą geometryczną lub zbieżną to sposób oddania głębi za pomocą rzutu środkowego. Jest to specyficzny sposób przedstawienia trójwymiarowej przestrzeni na płaszczyźnie, odpowiadający w przybliżeniu obrazowi przestrzeni, jaki tworzy oko ludzkie. +Istotą perspektywy jest rzutowanie wszystkich punktów przestrzeni na płaszczyznę lub inną powierzchnię, względem pewnego punktu zwanego środkiem perspektywy. Taki sposób przedstawienia powoduje powstawanie obrazu, w którym (oprócz pewnych specyficznych sytuacji) nie zostają zachowane prawdziwe wymiary i kąty w przestrzeni. Obraz ulega deformacji — charakterystyczne jest "zmniejszanie się" na obrazie przedstawianych elementów wraz z ich oddalaniem się od punktu obserwacji. Linie równoległe do siebie w perspektywie stają się zbieżne i spotykają się w pewnym teoretycznym punkcie. Konstrukcja perspektywy w rysunku i malarstwie opiera się właśnie na stosowaniu tzw. punktów zbiegu, które pozwalają wyznaczyć prawidłowy kształt przedstawianych obiektów. Perspektywa jest najczęściej używanym i najbardziej naturalnym dla człowieka sposobem odwzorowania przestrzeni na płaskiej powierzchni. +Karapaks + +Karapaks (łac. "carapax" pancerz) – twarda grzbietowa powłoka zewnętrzna ciała niektórych zwierząt. Występuje u skorupiaków, pajęczaków oraz u żółwi. +Skorupiaki. +U skorupiaków pancerz jest częścią szkieletu zewnętrznego, który pokrywa głowotułów. Jest szczególnie dobrze rozwinięty u homarów i krabów. +Żółwie. +Grzbietowa część pancerza żółwia (wypukła część skorupy) składająca się z zewnętrznej warstwy rogowych tarczek, które leżą na warstwie płytek kostnych. Łączenia płytek kostnych wypadają na środku tarczek rogowych. Natomiast brzuszna część pancerza żółwi to plastron. Pancerz doskonale chroni zwierzę przed urazami zewnętrznymi, ale często ozdobny karapaks służy również do maskowania się zwierzęcia. +Karapaks u żółwi powstał z przekształcenia wyrostków ościstych kręgów i żeber, ale u niektórych gatunków następuje wtórny zanik pancerza. Takie żółwie okrywa gładka skóra, przykładem jest żółw skórzasty. +Juhan Parts + +Juhan Parts (ur. 27 sierpnia 1966 w Tallinnie) – estoński polityk, były premier, minister gospodarki. +Życiorys. +Ukończył gimnazjum im. Gustawa Adolfa w Tallinnie, później studiował prawo na Uniwersytecie w Tartu. Pracował przez sześć lat w estońskim Ministerstwie Sprawiedliwości, dochodząc do stanowiska zastępcy sekretarza generalnego. W latach 1998–2002 pełnił funkcję generalnego audytora Estonii (odpowiednik szefa NIK). Krytykował publicznie kolejne rządy, uzyskując wkrótce pewną popularność. +W 2001 stanął na czele konserwatywnej partii Res Publica, głoszącej hasła szybkiej liberalizację estońskiej gospodarki, akcesji do struktur Unii Europejskiej i NATO. Nowe ugrupowanie w wyborach w 2003 uzyskało najwięcej miejsc w Riigikogu, jeden z nich objął Juhan Parts, rezygnując z niego w związku z nominacją na urząd premiera. Stanął na czele koalicyjnego rządu (współtworzonego przez Partię Reform i Związek Ludowy). Podał się do dymisji po dwóch latach w związku z odwołaniem przez parlament Kena-Martiego Vahera (członka partii Res Publica) z funkcji ministra sprawiedliwości. +Powrócił do sprawowania mandatu poselskiego, który utrzymał w wyborach w 2007 jako kandydat Isamaa ja Res Publica Liit, współtworzonego przez jego dotychczasowe ugrupowanie. W drugim rządzie Andrusa Ansipa 5 kwietnia 2007 objął resort gospodarki i łączności. W 2011 ponownie został posłem, 5 kwietnia 2011 zaprzysiężony na dotychczasowym urzędzie w trzecim gabinecie dotychczasowego premiera. +Publiczność + +Publiczność – typ zbiorowości, która wyróżniana jest ze względu na to, że jej uwaga koncentruje się na konkretnym przekazie. +Jako publiczność można wziąć pod także uwagę osoby, które relatywnie często uczestniczą w podobnego typu wydarzeniach, np. publiczność teatralna, gdy mówimy o ogóle osób uczęszczających do teatru. +Zbigniew Janas + +Zbigniew Piotr Janas (ur. 2 lipca 1953 w Warszawie) – polski polityk, działacz opozycji w PRL, poseł na Sejm X, I, II i III kadencji. +Życiorys. +Ukończył w 1973 Technikum Kolejowe. Od 1974 do 1978 pracował jako maszynista kolejowy w Elektrowozowni Warszawa Ochota. Następnie przez trzy lata był zatrudniony w Zakładach Przemysłu Ciągnikowego Ursus na stanowisku elektromontera. +W latach 1978–1980 był współpracownikiem KSS KOR. W 1980 wstąpił do „Solidarności”, kierował związkiem w Ursusie, od 1981 wchodził w skład Komisji Krajowej. W czasie stanu wojennego ukrywał się, zasiadał w podziemnych władzach związku. W latach 1985–1989 był działaczem podziemnej Solidarności Polsko-Czechosłowackiej, a w 1989 założycielem Solidarności Polsko-Węgierskiej. W drugiej połowie lat 80. pracował w Spółdzielni Pracy Unicum, był też założycielem i udziałowcem Loran CKM Sp. z o.o. +Od 1989 do 2001 pełnił funkcję posła na Sejm X, I, II i III kadencji z okręgu Siedlce, nie uzyskał mandatu posła IV kadencji. Należał do ROAD, Unii Demokratycznej, Unii Wolności i Partii Demokratycznej. +Od czasu zakończenia pracy w parlamencie prowadzi działalność gospodarczą (pod firmą Zbigniew Janas Konsultacje Doradztwo), zasiada w radach nadzorczych spółek akcyjnych. Był członkiem władz Fundacji im. Stefana Batorego, pełnił funkcję jej prezesa zarządu, a w latach 1990–1991 dyrektora Forum Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej działającego przy tej fundacji. Należy do Stowarzyszenia Solidarność Polsko-Czesko-Słowacka. +W 2007 odznaczony Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Przenośnik + +Przenośnik – urządzenie transportu bliskiego, przeznaczone do przemieszczania materiałów sypkich lub określonych ładunków, po określonym torze. +Rząd Aleksandra Skrzyńskiego + +Rząd Aleksandra Skrzyńskiego – rząd koalicyjny utworzony przez Aleksandra Skrzyńskiego 20 listopada 1925 roku. W skład rządu weszli politycy z ZLN, ChD, NPR, PSL "Piast" i PPS. Rząd działał do 5 maja 1926 roku. Upadł w rezultacie wycofania się (20 kwietnia 1926) PPS z koalicji, nie mogącej się pogodzić z planem ratowania budżetu kosztem mas pracujących, przedstawionym przez Jerzego Zdziechowskiego. +Przekładalność perspektyw + +Przekładalność perspektyw w interakcjonizmie symbolicznym to założenie, że w trakcie interakcji aktor społeczny stawia się w sytuacji drugiej jednostki, z którą wchodzi w interakcje i jest w stanie zrozumieć sens jej działania. W szerszym rozumieniu przekładalność perspektyw oznacza umiejętność rozpoznawania i przyjmowania roli osoby, z która dany aktor społeczny wchodzi w interakcje. Dzięki temu możliwy jest konsens społeczny oraz w ujęciu makrospołecznym ład społeczny. +Flaga Białorusi + +Państwowa flaga Republiki Białorusi – prostokątny płat tkaniny o proporcjach 1:2, składający się z dwóch poziomych pasów – czerwonego, stanowiącego 2/3 szerokości flagi, na górze i zielonego o szerokości 1/3 szerokości flagi na dole. Przy drzewcu mieści się pionowy pas o szerokości 1/9 długości flagi, na którym widnieje czerwony ornament ludowy na białym tle. +W swej obecnej wersji flaga Białorusi została przyjęta w drodze referendum i zatwierdzona 7 czerwca 1995 roku rozporządzeniem prezydenta Republiki Białorusi Alaksandra Łukaszenki. Status flagi Białorusi został określony w Konstytucji Republiki Białorusi 1996 roku, a jej wzorzec i zasady używania zostały ustalone w ustawie z 5 lipca 2004 roku. Ponadto ustawa ta definiuje barwę, zwieńczenie i długość drzewca flagi oraz warunki jej ekspozycji. +Flaga Republiki Białorusi jest ósmą z kolei, przyjętą po powstaniu państwa białoruskiego w 1918 roku. Aktualna flaga zastąpiła biało-czerwono-białą, używaną od rozpadu ZSRR w latach 1991-1995. Do zaprojektowania państwowej flagi Republiki Białorusi posłużyła flaga Białoruskiej SRR używana w latach 1951-1991, w której dokonano pewnych modyfikacji – usunięto z niej sierp i młot oraz inwertowano ornament. +Białoruś w dobie przemian po upadku Związku Radzieckiego. +27 lipca 1990 roku Białoruś ogłosiła niepodległość, a 19 września 1991 roku państwo przyjęło nazwę Republika Białorusi i nowe symbole państwowe - godło Pogoń i flagę biało-czerwono-białą. W pierwszych latach istnienia państwa narastał kryzys polityczny i gospodarczy. Aby zahamować pogarszanie się sytuacji, w 1993 roku parlament białoruski rozważał przeprowadzenie referendum, które określiłoby dalszą drogę rozwoju państwa. Już wtedy ówczesny poseł Łukaszenka wnioskował zmianę symboli państwowych. Idea nie zyskała poparcia wśród posłów. +15 marca 1994 roku została przyjęta Konstytucja niepodległej Republiki Białorusi, 10 lipca tego samego roku na prezydenta został wybrany Alaksandr Łukaszenka, który przystąpił do realizacji swoich zamiarów odnośnie zmiany symboli państwowych. 21 marca 1995 roku prezydent zaproponował wariant flagi składającej się z trzech pasów – zielonego, czerwonego i zielonego. 23 marca 1995 roku pojawiły się nowe propozycje państwowych symboli Republiki Białorusi, spośród których wybrano projekt, najbardziej zbliżony do ostatniej flagi Białoruskiej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej. Projekt flagi został zaprezentowany obywatelom, a pytanie o jego przyjęcie włączono do referendum w 1995 roku. +14 maja 1995 roku na Białorusi odbyło się referendum, w którym wśród czterech zaproponowanych pytań drugie brzmiało: +Wyniki głosowania były następujące: twierdząco odpowiedziało 3 622 851 osób uprawnionych do głosowania, co stanowiło 75,1% wszystkich głosujących. Przeciwko zagłosowało 988 839 osób, co stanowiło 20% wszystkich głosujących. 211 732 głosy uznano za nieważne. Wyniki referendum, zdaniem niezależnych obserwatorów, zostały sfałszowane. +7 czerwca 1995 roku rozporządzeniem prezydenta Nr 214 "O zatwierdzeniu Rozporządzenia o Państwowej fladze Republiki Białorusi" nowa flaga została uznana za oficjalny symbol państwowy. +Podstawa prawna. +Etalon flagi. +Rozporządzenia Państwowego Komitetu Standaryzacji, Metrologii i Certyfikacji Republiki Białorusi. +Po przyjęciu nowej symboliki państwowej Państwowy Komitet Standaryzacji, Metrologii i Certyfikacji Republiki Białorusi 29 września 1995 roku wydał rozporządzenie nr 10 "O zatwierdzeniu, wprowadzeniu w życie, zmianie, przedłużeniu, zniesieniu ograniczenia daty ważności, wykluczeniu z listy obowiązujących standardów i klasyfikatorów". Na mocy rozporządzenia etalon flagi Białorusi od 1 stycznia 1996 roku miał zostać wpisany do rejestru Republikańskich Standardów Białorusi ("РСТ Беларуси") z klasyfikatorem 911-91. +Wzorzec flagi państwowej został ponownie określony w ustawie prezydenta "O państwowych symbolach Republiki Białorusi" z dnia 5 lipca 2004 roku. W związku z istnieniem dwóch dokumentów prawnych, określających te same standardy 19 marca 2008 roku wyszło rozporządzenie nr 14 Państwowego Komitetu Standaryzacji Republiki Białorusi "O zatwierdzeniu, wprowadzeniu w życie, zmianie i zniesieniu technicznych normatywnych aktów prawnych w zakresie normalizacji i standaryzacji ogólnopaństwowego klasyfikatora Republiki Białorusi i zarządzeń Republiki Białorusi" ("СТБ 911-2008 "Государственный флаг Республики Беларусь. Общие технические условия""). Ten akt prawny w paragrafie 4.2 zniósł dotychczasowe standardy, zapisane w rozporządzeniu z 1995 roku, odnośnie kryteriów technicznych flagi Białorusi. +Ustawa "O państwowych symbolach Republiki Białorusi" z 5 lipca 2004 roku. +5 lipca 2004 roku została uchwalona ustawa "O państwowych symbolach Republiki Białorusi" (nr 301-3). Zgodnie z nią, państwowa flaga Republiki Białorusi jest symbolem suwerenności państwa na równi z państwowym godłem i hymnem. +Ustawa nie definiuje precyzyjnie barw flagi państwowej Białorusi, a jedynie określa je słownie. Zwyczajowo przyjęte odcienie czerwieni, zieleni i bieli przed wejściem w życie w 2008 roku standardu RTS 911-91 były definiowane na podstawie publikacji Armanda du Payrata "Album des pavillons nationaux et des marques distinctives", w której autor zastosował skalę kolorów, opracowaną przez korporację Pantone. +W określonych przez ustawę okolicznościach na końcu flagsztoka umieszcza się głowicę w kształcie rombu z wizerunkiem pięcioramiennej gwiazdy, wykonanej z żółtego metalu i podobnej do gwiazdy z godła Białorusi. Taką głowicę mają obowiązek posiadać, na przykład, flagi w służbowych gabinetach prezydenta, członków rządu, naczelników podporządkowanych prezydentowi instytucji, naczelników republikańskich instytucji, podporządkowanych rządowi, przewodniczących miejscowych rad poselskich oraz naczelników miejscowych organów wykonawczych. +Wzorzec flagi państwowej Republiki Białorusi (wielokolorowy, dwukolorowy i jednokolorowy, płaski i trójwymiarowy) jest przechowywany w Narodowym Archiwum Republiki Białorusi. Wykonanie flagi, niezależnie od jej rozmiaru, powinno dokładnie zgadzać się z jej etalonem. Niezgodność ze wzorcem jest karalna. +W 2012 roku dokonano nieznacznej korekty w wyglądzie flagi – zrezygnowano z białych obrzeży po bokach ornamentu tak, że dotyka on bezpośrednio krawędzi flagi po stronie drzewcowej i barwnego (czerwono-zielonego) pola po stronie wolnej. +Ustawa z 5 lipca 2004 roku określa miejsca i warunki używania flagi państwowej Białorusi. +Podczas jednoczesnego wywieszania flag Białorusi i innego państwa, flaga Białorusi powinna znajdować się po prawej stronie, jeśli stoi się twarzą do nich. Jeśli wywieszone są flagi trzech i więcej państw, to powinny być umieszczone w porządku alfabetycznym tych państw i mieć taki sam rozmiar. Podczas używania flag Białorusi i innego państwa na środkach transportu (z wyjątkiem statków), flagę Białorusi umieszcza się po lewej stronie pojazdu, flagę innego państwa – po prawej, przy czym muszą być umieszczone w jednej linii, prostopadłej do kierunku ruchu. Przy jednoczesnym wywieszeniu flagi państwowej Białorusi i sztandaru prezydenta, flagę umieszcza się z lewej strony, jeśli stoi się twarzą do nich. +Podczas jednoczesnego wywieszania flagi państwowej i flag jednostek administracyjno-terytorialnych, organów i organizacji państwowych, partii politycznych, związków zawodowych i zjednoczeń społecznych, flaga państwowa musi znajdować się po lewej stronie, jeśli stoi się twarzą do niej. Przy jednoczesnym wywieszeniu nieparzystej liczby flag, flagę państwową umieszcza się w centrum, w przypadku parzystej liczby (więcej niż dwie) – z lewej strony od centrum. +W okresie żałoby, ogłoszonej przez prezydenta Republiki Białorusi, flaga państwowa jest opuszczona na drzewcu do 1/3 jego długości. Na końcu flagsztoka mocuje się czarną wstęgę, równą długości płata flagi. +Wizerunek flagi państwowej Białorusi jest umieszczany na statkach powietrznych, zarejestrowanych na Białorusi. Zgodnie z ustawodawstwem Republiki Białorusi, podobizna flagi może być wykorzystywana w charakterze podstawy lub elementu odznaczeń państwowych oraz znaków heraldycznych – emblem i orderów organów państwowych. Wizerunek flagi państwowej może służyć do dekoracji jako symbol państwa i narodu pod warunkiem, że nie zaistnieje brak szacunku do niego. +Flagi białoruskich jednostek administracyjno-terytorialnych, organów i organizacji państwowych, partii politycznych, związków zawodowych i zjednoczeń społecznych nie mogą być identyczne z flagą państwową, która może posłużyć jedynie za podstawę dla tych flag. +Wizerunek białoruskiej flagi państwowej został wykorzystany do zaprojektowania sztandaru prezydenta Republiki Białorusi. +Święto flagi państwowej. +26 marca 1998 roku rozporządzeniem prezydenta Republiki Białorusi "O państwowych świętach, dniach świątecznych i pamiętnych datach w Republice Białorusi" został ustanowiony Dzień Godła Państwowego i Flagi Państwowej. Obchody święta przypadają na drugą niedzielę maja. +Symbolika flagi. +Czerwony kolor flagi państwowej Republiki Białorusi symbolizuje sztandary rycerzy dowodzonych przez Witolda w bitwie pod Grunwaldem, kolor flag Armii Czerwonej i białoruskich partyzanckich brygad. Zielony kolor jest symbolem nadziei, wiosny i odrodzenia, lasu i pola, a także dobra, wzrastania, rozwoju, dostatku i pokoju. Biały kolor symbolizuje wolność oraz cnotę czystości i mądrości. +Za wzór do ornamentu posłużył haft na ruszniku Matriony Markiewicz, chłopki ze wsi Kościeliszcze powiatu sienneńskiego. Praca była wykonana w 1917 roku i nazwana "Wschodzące słońce" – "Восходящее солнце". Na fladze ornament ma oznaczać przywiązanie do kultury ludowej, duchowe bogactwo i jedność narodu. +Według Sergiusza Rassadina, członka Rady Heraldycznej przy Prezydencie Białorusi, motyw ornamentu na fladze pochodzi z czasów prehistorycznych. Głównym jego tematem są romby – starożytny symbol, który odzwierciedla sakralne postrzeganie świata przez przodków. W biało-czerwonym wzorze jest zaszyfrowane słońce nad czworobocznym zaoranym polem. Taki sam ornament został odkryty podczas wykopalisk archeologicznych w siedlisku z czasów neolitycznych w miejscowości Dobry Bór nieopodal Baranowicz. +7 kwietnia 2004 roku zastępca ministra oświaty Białorusi T. N. Kowalewa podpisała "Rekomendacje do stosowania państwowej symboliki w instytucjach kształcących". W dokumencie znajduje się interpretacja zalecana w procesie wychowania patriotycznego w szkołach i na uczelniach. Dwie skrzyżowane linie z czterema kropkami między nimi są znakiem obsianego pola. Romb z krzyżem umieszczonym wewnątrz jest także traktowany jako klucz do szczęścia, magiczny symbol pomyślności, jest również najstarszym znakiem solarnym. Podwójne romby u dołu i na górze ornamentu symbolizują ideę cykliczności życia, odnowienia niwy. Linie pomiędzy rombem centralnym a figurami po brzegach oznaczają wota – ofiarę i prośby do bogów. Cały wzór ornamentu przesiąknięty jest ideą dobra, nadziei, życzeniami udanych plonów i zbliżającego się rozkwitu. Czerwony ornament jest wykonany na białym polu. Takie połączenie jest właściwe dla tradycji białoruskiej sztuki ornamentalnej. Białe tło oznacza światło południowego słońca, czystość, niewinność, gościnność, zgodę, wolność. +W latach 1995-2012 ornament na fladze był odsunięty od krawędzi przydrzewcowej i barwnego (czerwono-zielonego) pola wąskimi białymi pasami. W 2012 r. pasy te zlikwidowano. +Poprzednie flagi Białorusi. +Białoruska opozycja demokratyczna i środowiska emigracyjne za narodową uznają flagę biało-czerwono-białą. Barwy te powtarzają kolory historycznego symbolu Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego – herbu Pogoń, na którym umieszczony jest biały jeździec na czerwonym polu. Flaga biało-czerwono-biała była używana przez Białoruską Republikę Ludową od 25 marca 1918 roku do 5 stycznia 1919 roku, kiedy do Mińska wkroczyła Armia Czerwona. W okresie okupacji w czasie drugiej wojny światowej zależny od Hitlera rząd Radosława Ostrowskiego przywrócił flagę biało-czerwono-białą. +Pod koniec lat osiemdziesiątych XX wieku w poszczególnych republikach Związku Radzieckiego zaczęły się odradzać idee narodowościowe. Na Białorusi powstał Białoruski Front Ludowy, którego członkowie głosili idee odrodzenia języka białoruskiego i historii Białorusi. Na symbole została wybrana flaga biało-czerwono-biała i Pogoń, które miały przypominać o wywodzeniu się Białorusi z tradycji Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego. +Po ogłoszeniu niepodległości Białorusi w 1992 roku, władze zgodziły się na wprowadzenie białoruskiego jako języka państwowego, a do szkolnego programu nauczania historii włączono obowiązkowe pogadanki o legendarnym starolitewskim rycerzu, rannym w bitwie pod Grunwaldem, którego zakrwawiony bandaż dał początek fladze biało-czerwono-białej. +Po referendum 1995 roku oficjalna, biało-czerwono-biała, flaga utraciła swoje znaczenie w świetle prawa białoruskiego. Używanie jej stało się nielegalne. Mimo to jest jedyną flagą, uznawaną przez przeciwników rządów Łukaszenki. Wprowadzenie nowych symboli państwowych wywołało aktywność opozycjonistów rządowych. W obwodzie witebskim rozpoczął działalność Miron, tajemniczy sprawca lub grupa sprawców, zajmujących się wywieszaniem w miejscach publicznych flagi biało-czerwono-białej. Miron nie został wykryty przez milicję. +Hetman wielki koronny + +Hetman wielki koronny – z urzędu minister Korony Królestwa Polskiego. Dowódca wojsk zaciężnych, potem komputowych koronnych, czyli armii polskiej. Jeden z dwóch od czasów unii Polski z Litwą najwyższych zwierzchników wojskowych na ziemiach Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów – drugim był hetman wielki litewski, który był dowódcą wojsk Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego, czyli armii litewskiej. Wzajemny stosunek prawny obu ministrów opisano w haśle: hetman wielki litewski. +Ich zastępcami byli odpowiednio hetman polny koronny i hetman polny litewski. +Stéphane Breitwieser + +Stéphane Breitwieser (ur. 1971) – francuski złodziej, który przyznał się do kradzieży 239 dzieł sztuki, ich wartość szacowana jest na około 1,4 mld dolarów. +Breitwieser podróżował po Europie i pracował jako kelner. W tym samym czasie okradał małe muzea z ich najcenniejszych dzieł. Pierwszej kradzieży dokonał w 1995 podczas wizyty w średniowiecznym zamku Gruyères w Szwajcarii. Większość dzieł po prostu wyjmował z ram i wynosił pod płaszczem. Najcenniejszym dziełem, które skradł Breitwieser był obraz Lucasa Cranacha Starszego "Sybilla, księżna Cleves" z małego muzeum w Baden-Baden. Jego wartość szacowana jest na 5-5,6 mln funtów. Ostatecznie został złapany w listopadzie 2001, po kradzieży w muzeum w Lucernie. +Breitwieser wykazywał szczególne zamiłowanie dla sztuki flamandzkiej XVI i XVII wieku. Cały czas utrzymuje, że kradł nie dla zysków ze sprzedaży, ale po to by zgromadzić prywatną kolekcję sztuki. Podczas procesu mówił wielokrotnie: "Podziwiam sztukę. Kocham dzieła sztuki." W trakcie procesu ze szczegółami opisywał w jaki sposób dokonywał kradzieży, wielokrotnie poprawiał innych świadków, gdy ci mylili jakieś szczegóły dotyczące skradzionych obiektów. +7 stycznia 2005 sąd w Strasburgu skazał Stéphane'a Breitwiesera na 3 lata więzienia, z czego musi odsiedzieć 26 miesięcy. Na kary więzienia zostały skazane także jego matka (3 lata, z czego na pewno 18 miesięcy) oraz jego dziewczyna (18 miesięcy, z czego na pewno 6 miesięcy). W dniu ogłoszenia wyroku Breitwieser próbował popełnić samobójstwo w swojej celi, ale został odratowany przez strażników więziennych. +Stéphane Breitwieser nazywany jest niekiedy "dżentelmenem-włamywaczem", ponieważ według jego zapewnień kradł nie dla zysku. Przezwisko to ma nawiązywać do słynnego, fikcyjnego złodzieja dzieł sztuki Arsène'a Lupina. +Prowadnica + +Prowadnica (techn.) – profil mający za zadanie skierowanie ruchu elementu technicznego po z góry zadanym torze. Np. prowadnice w żaluzji budowlanej zewnętrznej są po bokach umiejscowionymi szynami, w których porusza się pancerz żaluzji (rolety), utrzymując go w jednej płaszczyźnie w stanie zamknięcia oraz naprowadzając go do przestrzeni zwijania (skrzynki) w momencie podnoszenia. Stąd zwana czasem szyną prowadzącą. +Dopuszczalna masa całkowita + +Dopuszczalna masa całkowita (dmc.) – według kodeksu drogowego największa, określona właściwymi warunkami technicznymi, masa pojazdu, obciążonego osobami i ładunkiem, dopuszczonego do poruszania się po drodze. +Rzut środkowy + +Rzut środkowy na płaszczyznę – odwzorowanie przestrzeni euklidesowej lub przestrzeni rzutowej trójwymiarowej na daną płaszczyznę przypisujące każdemu punktowi przestrzeni, różnemu od środka, punkt przecięcia się prostej przechodzącej przez ten punkt i przez środek rzutu z tą płaszczyzną. +Z punktu widzenia geometrii rzutowej rzut równoległy jest szczególnym przypadkiem rzutu środkowego (w tym przypadku środek rzutu leży w nieskończoności). +Istnieją również inne rodzaje rzutu środkowego, w których odwzorowanie odbywa się nie na płaszczyznę lecz sferę, powierzchnię walca, stożka lub inną. +Resocjalizacja + +Resocjalizacja – proces modyfikacji osobowości jednostki społecznej w celu przystosowania jej do życia w danej zbiorowości, a w węższym rozumieniu w społeczeństwie polegający na tym, iż poprzez odpowiednie zabiegi kształtuje się jej normy społeczne i wartości, których nie miała ona możliwości przyswoić wcześniej w trakcie socjalizacji jednocześnie powodując, iż rezygnuje ona z przyswojonych do tej pory reguł działania będących sprzecznymi z systemem aksjonormatywnym tej zbiorowości/społeczeństwa. +W każdym społeczeństwie istnieją odpowiednie instytucje, dzięki którym może odbywać się resocjalizacja. Funkcję osób dokonujących resocjalizacji mogą pełnić zarówno szamani, księża, pedagodzy jak i psychologowie w zależności od typu zbiorowości do której należy jednostka. Sama resocjalizacja może odbywać się na terenie więzienia, w zakładach poprawczych, lecz także w szkole, rodzinie czy w zakładzie pracy. +Dolina Szpania + +Dolina Szpania (słow. "Špania dolina") – tatrzańska dolina położona na terenie Słowacji, odgałęzienie Doliny Cichej ("Tichá dolina") odchodzące od niej w kierunku wschodnim. +Przez dolinę płynie Szpani Potok ("Špania voda"), dopływ Cichej Wody Liptowskiej ("Tichý potok"). U wylotu doliny (ok. 1140 m n.p.m.) przebiega umowna granica pomiędzy Tatrami Wysokimi i Zachodnimi. +Dolina w całości leży na terenie słowackiego Tatrzańskiego Parku Narodowego. Znajduje się na obszarze ochrony ścisłej, nie prowadzą nią żadne znakowane szlaki turystyczne i dlatego jest ona niedostępna dla turystów. +Dolina ta znana jest z katastrofalnych lawin. W marcu 1956 r. zeszła z niej lawina o objętości 288 tys. metrów sześciennych. +Dymitr Wiśniowiecki Bajda + +Dymitr Wiśniowiecki (ukr. Дмитро Іванович Вишневе́цький (Dmytro Iwanowycz Wyszneweckyj)) herbu Korybut (ur. przed 1535, zm. 1563) – przez kozaków zwany Bajdą. kozacki ataman. Kniaź, po Fiodorze Sanguszce, starosta bracławski i winnicki, a od 1550 roku także czerkaski i kaniowski, sławny awanturnik, książę-kozak. +W 1552 roku w odwecie za zniszczenie Bracławia przez chana Dewlet Gireja razem z wojskami Bernarda Pretwicza, Koreckiego i Mikołaja Sieniawskiego złupił okolice Oczakowa nad Morzem Czarnym. +Przewodził wielu wyprawom łupieskim przeciw Tatarom krymskim i Turkom. W latach 1554-1555 ufortyfikował na własne potrzeby Małą Chortycę dając początek Siczy Zaporoskiej. +Poróżniwszy się z królem Zygmuntem II Augustem wstąpił na służbę do cara Iwana IV Groźnego i w jego imieniu łupił pogranicze tatarsko-tureckie. Szybko ukorzył się jednak przed królem i uzyskał przebaczenie w zamian za obietnicę zaprzestania napadów na ziemie tatarskie i tureckie. Mimo to w 1559 roku zorganizował bardzo udaną wyprawę na Krym i na czele 8 tys. kozaków odbił jasyr, wziął jeńców i zdobył bogate łupy. +W 1563 roku "Bajda" interweniował na Wołoszczyźnie. Zwabiony podstępem dostał się do niewoli i trafił w ręce sułtana Sulejmana. +Jak głosi legenda i kozackie dumy, sułtan podziwiając męstwo i sprawność żołnierską "Bajdy" miał mu zaproponować córkę za żonę, jednak pod warunkiem przejścia Dymitra na islam. Hardy kniaź miał odpowiedzieć sułtanowi: "twoja doczka choroszaja, twoja wiara proklataja" i nazwać islam "psią wiarą". Za taką zniewagę sułtan kazał powiesić "Bajdę" "za ziobro poślednie". Wisząc na haku zdołał jeszcze Dymitr wyrwać jednemu ze strażników łuk i przez trzy dni raził z niego Turków, a nawet zranił sułtana. Wtedy "Bajdę" dobito. +Najprawdopodobniej jednak "Bajda" został stracony i pochowany z honorami w Stambule jako odważny żołnierz, sprawny zagończyk i sławny wódz. +Ciekawostka. +"Bajda" jest bohaterem jednaj z najbardziej znanych ukraińskich pieśni narodowych "W Carehradi na rynoczku" ("Pisnia pro Bajdu"), przedstawiającą go jako bohatera – obrońcę ziemi rodzinnej, który walczy z turecko-tatarskim uciskiem. Zapisano ponad 40 wariantów tej pieśni. +Pozycja społeczna + +Pozycja społeczna wyróżnione i określone w danej kulturze miejsce jednostki społecznej w hierarchii społecznej i szerzej w strukturze społecznej. Pozycja społeczna określa prestiż jednostki. Z zajmowanej pozycji społecznej wynika rola społeczna jaką odgrywać powinna jednostka. Osoba znajdująca się na pewnej pozycji społecznej związana jest też z określonymi przywilejami i obowiązkami, jakie powinna pełnić wobec grupy czy społeczeństwa. +Pozycja społeczna albo status społeczny to położenie jednostki w hierarchii grupy społecznej, wyznaczające pełnioną przez nią rolę społeczną. Wiąże się z oczekiwaniami grupy wobec postaw i zachowań jednostki oraz jej obowiązków, jak również z oczekiwaniami jednostki wobec grupy, wypływającymi z jej praw i przywilejów. +Pozycja społeczna wyznacza lub wzmacnia atrybuty jednostki takie jak wykształcenie, zawód, dochód, zakres władzy, styl życia. W ten sposób kształtuje się prestiż społeczny, rozumiany jako pozycja w hierarchii społecznej uznawana z punktu widzenia autorytetu, wpływu i poważania społecznego określonej jednostki. +Pozycja społeczna to również położenie całej grupy lub warstwy w hierarchii społeczeństwa jako całości. +Najczęściej pozycja społeczna wiązana jest z hierarchią społeczną, gdzie wynika ona z relacji podległości między jednostkami należącymi do różnych kategorii społecznych. W zakładzie pracy jest to na przykład relacja kierownik i podległy mu pracownik. W społeczeństwie feudalnym jest to relacja chłop - szlachcic. Z pozycją społeczną związana jest też najczęściej swoista symbolika, odmienne wzorce zachowań w określonych sytuacjach. +Pozycja społeczna jednostki rzutuje na jej ocenę rzeczywistości, a w szczególności ocenę własnego otoczenia społecznego. Określa ona też możliwości konsumpcyjne i dostępność do danych dóbr, co utożsamia ją ze statusem. +W ujęciu funkcjonalnym pozycja społeczna często utożsamiana była z rolą społeczną. W tym ujęciu jest ona zależna od miejsca w strukturze społecznej, a także od takich zmiennych jak płeć i wiek. Ze względu na to, że jednostka w społeczeństwie nowoczesnym należy do wielu różnych grup społecznych, posiada w nich odmienną pozycję. W zależności od roli jaką w danej chwili odgrywa, można mówić, że pewne jej statusy są wówczas "utajone", a pewne "czynne". W takich sytuacjach dochodzić może do konfliktu ról, jeżeli normy i wartości realizowane dzięki danej roli stoją w sprzeczności z wartościami i rolami innej roli. Przykładem takiego konfliktu może być sytuacja, gdy jednostka będąca nauczycielem musi podporządkować się wykładowcy, podejmując studia podyplomowe. +Niektóre pozycje społeczne można zdobywać sekwencyjnie, jak na przykład pozycję profesora, która wymaga pokonania szeregu szczebli w karierze naukowej, a więc kilku przejść między kolejnymi w tej sekwencji pozycjami społecznymi. +W ujęciu George'a Homansa pozycja jednostki zależy od: +Im bliżej centrum komunikacyjnego grupy znajduje się jednostka i im bardziej istotne dla funkcjonowania grupy wykonuje zadania, tym większy będzie jej prestiż. +Pozycje społeczne dzielą się na przypisane, na które nie ma wpływu sama jednostka, na przykład pozycja dziecka w rodzinie, przedszkolaka oraz osiągane, które wynikają z podjętych działań przez jednostkę, jak na przykład pozycja dyrektora w firmie czy pozycja burmistrza w strukturze społecznej miasta. +Yokosuka B4Y + +Yokosuka B4Y1 (w oznaczeniu amerykańskim "Jean") – japoński pokładowy samolot bombowo-torpedowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1935 roku w japońskiej wytwórni lotniczej I Technicznym Arsenale Lotnictwa Morskiego w Yokosuka. +Historia. +W 1934 roku sztab japońskiej marynarki w ramach programu rozwoju lotnictwa morskiego wydał wymagania taktyczno-techniczne na samolot torpedowy przystosowany do operowania z pokładów lotniskowców. +Z opracowanych projektów samolotów sztab marynarki wojennej przyjął do dalszych prac projekt opracowany w I Technicznym Arsenale Lotnictwa Morskiego w Yokosuka przez inż. Sanae Kawasaki. Projekt ten bowiem przewidywał wykorzystanie w konstrukcji gotowych i produkowanych już elementów, co pozwalało na szybkie uruchomienie produkcji. W istocie kadłub nowej konstrukcji połączono ze skrzydłami produkowanego już wodnosamolotu "E7K1", odznaczającymi się dobrymi właściwościami aerodynamicznymi. Prototyp samolotu "B4Y1", wyposażony w chłodzony cieczą silnik Hiro 91 o mocy 599 KM (440 kW), ukończono i oblatano w 1935 roku. W następnym roku zbudowano i oblatano dalsze cztery prototypy z chłodzonymi powietrzem silnikami gwiazdowymi Nakajima Kotobuki 3 o mocy 640 KM (470 kW) i Nakajima Hikari 2 o mocy 843 KM (620 kW). +Ostatnie prototypy uznano za odpowiadające wymaganiom marynarki i samolot Yokosuka "B4Y1" z silnikiem Nakajima Hikari 2 w listopadzie 1936 roku skierowano do produkcji jako "pokładowy bombowiec szturmowy marynarki Typ 96". +Użycie samolotów. +Samoloty "Yokosuka B4Y1" służyły na pokładach japońskich lotniskowców "Akagi", "Hōshō", "Kaga", "Ryūjō" i "Sōryū" do 1940 roku. Zostały użyte bojowo w trakcie wojny japońsko-chińskiej w latach 1937 – 1940. W 1940 roku, będąc już przestarzałe, zostały skierowane do rezerwy i używane były do szkolenia. Zostały zastąpione w służbie przez nowoczesne dolnopłaty z chowanym podwoziem "Nakajima B5N". +Opis techniczny. +Samolot Yokosuka B4Y1 był trzymiejscowym, jednosilnikowym usztywnionym dwupłatowcem konstrukcji całkowicie metalowej, pokryty płótnem. Płaty trójdzielne o jednakowej rozpiętości, obrysie prostokątnym i dużym wydłużeniu. Górny płat wysunięty był do przodu. Centralna część płata była przewężona dla poprawienia widoczności. Płaty w skrajnej części połączone były zastrzałami w kształcie litery „N” i usztywnione cięgnami. Płaty składały się do tyłu dla ułatwienia hangarowania samolotu na lotniskowcach. Lotki były na obu płatach, nie posiadały one klap. Kadłub o konstrukcji kratownicowej, oprofilowany listwami i pokryty płótnem o przekroju eliptycznym. Pilot, nawigator i radiotelegrafista zajmowali miejsce w długiej częściowo oszklonej kabinie. Usterzenie klasyczne, pionowe miało przekrój eliptyczny, statecznik poziomy podparty zastrzałami. Podwozie klasyczne, stałe, z kółkiem ogonowym. Podwozie główne trójgoleniowe, koła w kroplowych owiewkach. Silnik gwiazdowy z osłoną typu NACA. Śmigło dwułopatowe, nieprzestawialne. +Sekwencja palindromowa + +5' A A T T 3' +3' T T A A 5' +lub +5' A G G C C T 3' +3' T C C G G A 5' +Sekwencje palindromowe są często miejscem działania enzymów restrykcyjnych i z tego powodu są ważne dla inżynierii genetycznej. +Powiat radziejowski + +Powiat radziejowski – powiat w Polsce (w południowej części województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego), reaktywowany w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Radziejów. +Historia. +Na obszarze obecnego powiatu radziejowskiego już od XIII wieku istniał ośrodek władzy jakim była kasztelania. Powiat radziejowski jako jednostka administracyjna istniał od drugiej połowy XIV wieku (w XVII wieku starostą radziejowskim był Stefan Czarniecki) aż do 1870 roku, kiedy to na skutek represji carskich po powstaniu styczniowym został zlikwidowany. +1 stycznia 1958 roku do powiatu radziejowskiego przyłączono gromadę Zagajewice z powiatu aleksandrowskiego. +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku główna część terytorium zniesionego powiatu radziejowskiego weszła w skład nowo utworzonego województwa włocławskiego; jedynie gminę Wierzbinek przyłączono do nowego województwa konińskiego. +15 stycznia 1976 roku zniesiono gminę Nowy Dwór a jej tereny przyłączono do gmin Osięciny, Piotrków Kujawski, Radziejów i Topólka; równocześnie do gminy Dobre przyłączono większą część sołectw ze znoszonej gminy Zakrzewo. 1 stycznia 1977 roku z gminy Wierzbinek wyłączono sołectwo Goplana i włączono je do gminy Skulsk. +1 października 1982 roku utworzono w województwie włocławskim gminę Bytoń (gmina istniała także do 1954 roku w powiecie aleksandrowskim w województwie bydgoskim) z terenów wydzielonych z gmin Osięciny, Piotrków Kujawski, Radziejów i Topólka; gmina Bytoń była w praktyce obszarowym odpowiednikiem zniesionej w 1976 roku gminy Nowy Dwór. Tego samego dnia reaktywowano też gminę Zakrzewo, co spowodowało że gmina Dobre (a także gmina Koneck) została mocno okrojona o tereny, z których utworzono nową gminę). 1 stycznia 1988 roku do miasta Radziejowa przyłączono część obszaru wsi "Czołów" (o powierzchni 25,54 ha) z gminy Radziejów. +1 stycznia 1992 roku dokonano podziału "wspólnych organów" działających w mieście i gminie Radziejów a 27 listopada 1996 roku miasto Radziejów określono jako "gmina miejska". 1 stycznia 1998 roku prawa miejskie (utracone w 1870 roku) odzyskał Piotrków Kujawski, co sprawiło że gminę wiejską Piotrków Kujawski przekształcono w gminę miejsko-wiejską. +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku w nowym województwie kujawsko-pomorskim przywrócono powiat radziejowski. W porównaniu z obszarem z 1975 roku powiat został zmniejszony o gminę Wierzbinek, która znalazła się w powiecie konińskim w województwie wielkopolskim. Administracyjnie dawną gminę Nowy Dwór zastąpiła gmina Bytoń. +W porównaniu z obszarem z 1956 roku część dawnych gromad leży obecnie w w powiecie konińskim w województwie wielkopolskim (Boguszyce, Mąkoszyn, Morzyczyn, Sadlno, Tomisławice i Zakrzewek w gminie Wierzbinek oraz Ośno Górne w gminie Sompolno) – pozostałe są ponownie w powiecie radziejowskim. +Chemical Abstracts + +Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) - to największa na świecie chemiczna naukowa baza danych, będąca własnością American Chemical Society (ACS). CAS to także nazwa instytucji zajmującej się tworzeniem tej bazy danych. +CAS powstała w 1907 r. w Columbus w stanie Ohio w USA, z inicjatywy kilkunastu członków ACS. Obecnie zatrudnia ona ok. 1000 pracowników oraz korzysta z usług kilkudziesięciu tysięcy współpracowników na całym świecie. Instytucja ta jest formalnie biorąc przedsiębiorstwem, które jest w 100% własnością ACS. +Bazowe Chemical Abstracts. +Historycznie pierwszym produktem CAS były papierowe "Chemical Abstracts", które są zbiorem zindeksowanych, krótkich streszczeń (tzw. abstraktów) artykułów ze wszystkich dostępnych na świecie czasopism naukowych, książek naukowych, materiałów konferencyjnych i patentów, dotyczących chemii. Abstrakty są indeksowane wg nazwisk, słów kluczowych oraz nazw systematycznych związków chemicznych. +W odróżnieniu od innych tego rodzaju serwisów (ISI, Scopus, Beilstein) "Chemical Abstracts" nie stosują selekcji źródeł, lecz starają się gromadzić wszelkie dostępne dane. Drukowana wersja "Chemical Abstracts" jest nadal wydawana. Ukazuje się w formie zeszytów, które są wydawane raz na tydzień. W co czwartym numerze znajduje się indeks miesięczny, zaś raz do roku wydawany jest indeks roczny. Pojedynczy rocznik "Chemical Abstracts" zawiera ok. 800 000 streszczeń z ok. 9 500 czasopism naukowych i ok. 50 biur patentowych. Indeks roczny jest sam w sobie opasłym tomem liczącym obecnie ok. 1000 stron. Jeden rocznik "Chemical Abstracts" zajmuje obecnie ok. 1 metra bieżącego półki bibliotecznej. "Chemical Abstracts" w formie drukowanej były przez lata dostępne w niemal wszystkich szanujących się naukowych bibliotekach chemicznych, zajmując w nich całe jedno pomieszczenie. Na koniec 2004 r. liczba wszystkich zgromadzonych od 1907 r. streszczeń przekroczyła 24 miliony. +Obecnie większość bibliotek prenumeruje je w rozmaitych formach elektronicznych. Zaliczają się do nich: +SciFinder. +SciFinder - jest wygodnym interfejsem "Chemical Abstracts" - pełniącym funkcję literaturowej bazy danych umożliwiającej przeszukiwanie abstraktów po słowach kluczowych, nazwiskach autorów, nazwach związków chemicznych oraz po ich wzorach chemicznych, a po znalezieniu interesujących publikacji, umożliwia też pobieranie pełnych tekstów publikacji i patentów w formie plików PDF. Dostęp do abstraktów i narzędzi ich wyszukiwania jest płatny w formie rocznego abonamentu, zaś za ściągnięcie teksów źródłowych płaci się osobno "od sztuki". Wadą bazy SciFinder jest brak rejestrowania cytowań. Nie ma np. możliwości uzyskania listy cytowań artykułów danego autora, tak jak to jest możliwe w konkurencyjnej bazie danych ISI czy Scopus. SciFinder jednak dzięki temu, że bazuje na "Chemical Abstracts", jest znacznie bardziej obszerny. +CAS Registry. +CAS Registry to baza danych związków chemicznych, która jest tworzona na podstawie "Chemical Abstracts". Jest to obecnie największa na świecie tego rodzaju baza danych. Liczba związków zarejestrowanych w "CAS Registry" odpowiada mniej więcej liczbie wszystkich związków chemicznych znanych ludzkości. Do CAS Registry dane są dodawane w sposób ciągły, 24 godziny na dobę. Obecnie baza przyrasta średnio o ok. 12 tys. związków dziennie. W maju 2011 roku CAS Registry było zarejestrowanych ponad 59 mln organicznych i nieorganicznych substancji i 62 mln sekwencji. +CAS Registry przyznaje numery identyfikacyjne i nazwy systematyczne związkom chemicznym, które mają dla nich takie same znaczenie, jak numery ISBN dla książek. Nazwy związków nadawane wg systematyki CAS odbiegają od norm ustalonych przez zasady nomenklatury chemicznej IUPAC, za co CAS jest często krytykowany. Różnice w nazewnictwie polegają m.in. na niestosowaniu alfabetycznej kolejności podstawników w nazwach, lecz wg ich ważności dla własności tych związków. Zdaniem osób zarządzających CAS Registry, zasady nomenklatury IUPAC zbyt często się zmieniają, podczas gdy zasady CAS są niezmienne. Raz nazwany przez CAS związek pozostaje pod tą nazwą na zawsze, zaś zasady nazewnictwa IUPAC zmieniają się średnio co 10 lat. +CAS Registry zbiera tylko podstawowe informacje o związkach chemicznych oraz listy odnośników literaturowych, z których te dane zostały pobrane. Największą komercyjną konkurencją dla tej bazy danych jest Beilstein, który zawiera informacje o ok. 9 milionach związków - ale do Beilsteina są przyjmowane tylko związki, których istnienie jest dobrze udokumentowane, a dokumentacja zawiera wszystkie dostępne w literaturze naukowej informacje o nich. Inną, konkurencyjną bazą danych o podobnym charakterze jest PubChem, które zawiera informacje o ok. 20 milionach związków chemicznych (czerwiec 2009) i jest dostępna całkowicie bezpłatnie. +Radosław Ostrowski + +Radosław Ostrowski, "Radasłaŭ Astroŭski", biał. "Радаслаў Астроўскі" (ur. 6 listopada 1887, według kalendarza juliańskiego 25 października, w Zapolu w powiecie słuckim w Imperium Rosyjskim, zm. 17 października 1976 r. w Benton Harbor w USA) – białoruski publicysta i działacz narodowo-społeczny. +Uczył się w gimnazjum w Słucku, ale w 1907 r. został z niego wydalony za udział w działalności rewolucyjnej. W 1908 r. wstąpił na uniwersytet w Sankt Petersburgu na studia matematyczno-fizyczne. Przed ich ukończeniem został jednak w lutym 1911 r. aresztowany ponownie za działalność rewolucyjną. Przebywał w więzieniu w Petersburgu i Pskowie, po czym władze carskie nakazały mu osiedlenie się w Prużanie pod nadzorem policji. W 1913 r. uzyskał zgodę na dokończenie studiów na uniwersytecie w estońskim Tartu (Dorpat). Następnie pracował jako nauczyciel w szkołach w Częstochowie i Mińsku. Okres I wojny światowej spędził w Rosji. Od 1915 r. wykładał w mińskim instytucie pedagogicznym, gdzie uzyskał tytuł profesora. +Po rewolucji lutowej 1917 r. wyjechał na ziemie białoruskie, zostając w Słucku komisarzem powiatowym Rządu Tymczasowego. W marcu tego roku wziął udział w Konferencji Organizacji i Partii Białorusi. We wrześniu był organizatorem gimnazjum białoruskiego w Słucku, gdzie nauczał i został pierwszym jego dyrektorem. Należał do Białoruskiej Socjalistycznej Hramady. Wydawał też pismo ""Рoдны Край"". W grudniu 1917 r. uczestniczył w Kongresie Wszechbiałoruskim w Mińsku, opowiadając się za niezależnym państwem białoruskim. W obliczu zbliżającej się armii bolszewickiej wyjechał na Ukrainę Naddnieprzańską, gdzie wstąpił do białej Armii Ochotniczej gen. Antona I. Denikina. +Po zakończeniu wojny polsko-bolszewickiej jesienią 1920 r., powrócił na ziemie białoruskie. W listopadzie-grudniu tego roku brał udział w antybolszewickim powstaniu słuckim. Po niepowodzeniu walk przeszedł wraz z resztkami wojsk białoruskich na terytorium Polski. Wznowił swoją aktywność polityczną wśród Białorusinów mieszkających we wschodniej Polsce. Został administratorem pomocy amerykańskiej. W latach 1924-1936 był dyrektorem gimnazjum białoruskiego w Wilnie. W lutym 1924 r. zainicjował powstanie pro-polskiego Polsko-Białoruskiego Towarzystwa, ale po jego rozpadzie jeszcze w tym samym roku nawiązał współpracę z nielegalną Komunistyczną Partią Zachodniej Białorusi, wstępując w 1926 r. w jej szeregi. Założył i stanął na czele nielegalnego komsomołu w swoim gimnazjum. W 1925 r. został zastępcą przewodniczącego Białoruskiej Włościańsko-Robotniczej Hromady. Należał też do kierownictwa Towarzystwa Szkoły Białoruskiej, Białoruskiego Towarzystwa Dobroczynności, Białoruskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego i był dyrektorem banku spółdzielczego w Wilnie, przez który przechodziły pieniądze na finansowanie Hromady. Po rozpoczęciu działań przeciw Hromadzie na pocz. 1927 r., Ostrowskiego aresztowano, a następnie wydalono do centralnej Polski. +W 1928 r. powrócił do działalności politycznej, reprezentując postawę lojalną wobec władz państwowych, dbając przy tym o interesy ludności białoruskiej. W 1929 r. był współzałożycielem Białoruskiego Zawodowego Związku Nauczycielskiego. W 1930 r. wszedł w skład prezydium Centralnego Związku Białoruskich Kulturalno-Oświatowych oraz Gospodarczych Organizacji i Instytucji (Centrasajuzu). W II poł. lat 30. publikował pod pseudonimem "Эра" liczne artykuły w białoruskich pismach, w tym w gazecie ""Родны край"". W 1936 r. został zmuszony do opuszczenia Wilna i zamieszkał w Łodzi. +Po ataku wojsk niemieckich na ZSRR 22 czerwca 1941 r., podjął współpracę z okupantami. Na pocz. września roku przyjechał do okupowanego Mińska, rozpoczynając organizowanie administracji białoruskiej. Stanął na czele tzw. Nebenbureau, które było lokalnym odpowiednikiem generalnego komisariatu. Już w październiku został jednak zdymisjonowany przez gauleitera Wilhelma Kube z powodu współpracy w okresie międzywojennym z komunistami, a następnie władzami polskimi. Później pełnił funkcje burmistrza w Briańsku, Smoleńsku i Mohylewie. Pod koniec grudnia 1943 r. został przewodniczącym Białoruskiej Centralnej Rady (BCR), która miała się stać zalążkiem zależnego od Niemiec rządu Białorusi. W lutym 1944 r. podpisał odezwę w sprawie utworzenia i mobilizacji do Białoruskiej Obrony Krajowej. Pod koniec czerwca tego roku współorganizował w Mińsku II kongres wszechbiałoruski, a po zakończeniu jego obrad wraz z kierownictwem BCR ewakuował się do Rzeszy. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej zamieszkał w zachodnich Niemczech. Rozpuścił Białoruską Centralną Radę. Na pocz. czerwca 1945 r. w obozie dla przesiedleńców w Ratyzbonie został członkiem Białoruskiego Komitetu Narodowego. 31 grudnia 1947 r. wydał odezwę w sprawie utworzenia Centralnego Przedstawicielstwa Białoruskiego. Działał jako reprezentant Białorusinów w kierownictwie Antybolszewickiego Bloku Narodów. W 1956 r. wyjechał do USA, gdzie kontynuował emigracyjną działalność polityczno-społeczną. +Victor Garber + +Victor Garber (ur. 16 marca 1949) – kanadyjski aktor . +Brał udział w wielu amerykańskich i kanadyjskich filmach i serialach. Najbardziej znaną rolą Victora Garbera jest postać konstruktora Thomasa Andrewsa w kasowym filmie "Titanic" w reżyserii Jamesa Camerona. +Inne znane filmy, w których zagrał to m.in. "Godspell", "Legalna blondynka "(ang. "Legally blonde"), "Źródło młodości" (ang. "Tuck Everlasting"), "Bezsenność w Seattle" (ang. "Sleepless In Seattle"), "Zmowa pierwszych żon" (ang. "The First Wives Club") i inne. +Powiat sępoleński + +Powiat sępoleński - powiat w Polsce (w północno-zachodniej części województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Sępólno Krajeńskie. Niektóre jednostki organizacyjne powiatu mieszczą się w Kamieniu Krajeńskim i Więcborku. +Dramat w Inflantach + +Dramat w Inflantach. Wśród Łotyszów (fr. "Un Drame en Livonie" 1904) - jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 16 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1906, a w postaci książkowej (na stulecie śmierci autora) w 2005 +Miejscem akcji tej kryminalnej powieści jest teren krajów nadbałtyckich. Niewiele powieści Verne'a rozgrywa się tak geograficznie blisko terytorium dzisiejszej Polski. +Elektrownia Turów + +PGE Górnictwo i Energetyka Konwencjonalna S.A. Oddział Elektrownia Turów – trzecia co do wielkości w Polsce elektrownia cieplna, kondensacyjna, blokowa z międzystopniowym przegrzewem pary i zamkniętym układem wody chłodzącej. Elektrownia znajduje się w Bogatyni (powiat zgorzelecki). Jej moc osiągalna wynosi 1900 MW. Roczna produkcja energii elektrycznej brutto to 13 144 008 MWh. podczas której zużycie węgla brunatnego na jej produkcję i produkcję energii cieplnej wynosi 11 991 500 ton. +Elektrownia Turów pracuje nieprzerwanie od 1962 roku. W 2005 roku zakończono jej kompleksową modernizację, był to jeden z największych procesów inwestycyjnych w Europie Środkowej dzięki czemu jest najnowocześniejszą w kraju elektrownią opalaną węglem brunatnym. Dysponuje 8 blokami, z których sześć to nowoczesne bloki z kotłami fluidalnymi o wysokiej sprawności. +Udział mocy w systemie energetycznym kraju wynosi ok. 8,3% (2007 rok). Paliwo podstawowe - węgiel brunatny, dostarczany przenośnikami taśmowymi z Kopalni Węgla Brunatnego Turów. +Elektrownia Turów i Kopalnia Turów wchodzą w skład holdingu PGE. +Zatrudnia około 1800 osób. +Ekologia. +W raporcie WWF z 10 maja 2007 Elektrownia Turów została uznana za elektrownię emitującą największe względne (w przeliczeniu na produkcję energii elektrycznej; 1,15 tCO2/MWh) ilości gazów cieplarnianych do atmosfery w Polsce oraz ósmą w Europie. W emisji bezwzględnej (13 mln ton CO2) wyprzedza ją Elektrownia Bełchatów +Awaria w 1987 roku. +W dniu 7 lutego 1987 roku zawaliła się jedna z chłodni kominowych. Do dziś nie ustalono czy przyczyną był błąd konstrukcyjny, złe wykonanie czy warunki atmosferyczne. +Awaria w 1998 roku. +W wigilijną noc 1998 r. w Elektrowni Turów doszło do jednej z największych awarii w polskiej energetyce zawodowej. Prawie całkowitemu zniszczeniu uległ blok energetyczny o mocy 200 MW, uszkodzonych zostało wiele urządzeń sąsiednich jednostek wytwórczych, wyłączono większość generatorów a w maszynowni wybuchł groźny pożar. +24 grudnia 1998 r. w Elektrowni Turów prowadzono planowe wyłączenie z pracy bloku nr 5. Po obniżeniu mocy turbogeneratora przez zamknięcie dopływu pary do turbiny, obsługa bloku wysłała z elektrowni rozkaz wyłączenia wyłącznika blokowego w stacji wysokiego napięcia Mikułowa. Niestety, wskutek uszkodzenia hydraulicznego układu sterowania tego wyłącznika otworzyły się jedynie styki biegunów dwóch faz, natomiast biegun trzeciej fazy pozostał zamknięty. Mimo niecałkowitego otwarcia wyłącznika do układów automatyki bloku został wysłany błędny sygnał o pełnym, trzyfazowym wyłączeniu. W wyniku połączenia generatora z siecią tylko jedną fazą doszło do jego wypadnięcia z synchronizmu, po czym przeszedł do pracy silnika asynchronicznego zasilanego niepełnofazowo. +Ta ostatnia okoliczność spowodowała silne nagrzewanie stalowego wirnika niewzbudzonego generatora; była także przyczyną pulsacji momentu napędowego wywołującego naprężenia ścinające sprzęgieł między turbiną i wzbudnicą a generatorem. Jednocześnie wskutek termicznego uszkodzenia elementów konstrukcyjnych wirnika generatora doszło do jego mechanicznego zablokowania w stojanie, a w konsekwencji do wyrwania i wyrzucenia części sprzęgła i łożysk poza budynek. Elementy te uszkodziły szynoprzewody i transformator blokowy. W wyniku zniszczenia generatora nastąpił wypływ i zapalenie się wodoru i oleju. Pożar ogarnął cały generator bloku nr 5. Wskutek działania zabezpieczeń elektrycznych w rezultacie celowego zamknięcia zwieracza linii tego bloku zostały wyłączone (prawidłowo) trzy sąsiednie generatory. +Do katastrofy doszło pomimo prawidłowego postępowania personelu eksploatacyjnego i zgodnego z projektem działania układów automatyki i zabezpieczeń. Przyczyną była nieszczelność rurki z hydrolem w układzie napędu wspomnianego wyłącznika wysokiego napięcia. Bezpośrednią zaś przyczyną całkowitego zniszczenia maszynowni bloku było mechaniczne uszkodzenie generatora z powodu pracy niepełnofazowej z asymetrią prądową. +Przyczyny tego zdarzenia badało kilka komisji ekspertów. Poawaryjne wnioski na przyszłość obejmują zalecenia dotyczące głównie układów automatyki i zabezpieczeń, których projektowe rozwiązania okazały się nieskuteczne. +Awaria w 2012 roku. +Do wybuchu i pożaru doszło 24 lipca o godzinie 21:56 w bloku energetycznym nr 1 o wysokości 40 m. Pożar przeniósł się również na blok nr 2 o tej samej wysokości. Podczas pożaru bloki nr 3 i 4 zostały wyłączone, pozostałe wciąż pracowały. Powodem wybuchu był zapłon pyłu węglowego zmieszanego z pyłem z biomasy. Wskutek zdarzenia cztery osoby zostały ranne i zniszczony został m.in. dach jednego z bloków. +Elektrownia w literaturze. +W 2002 roku wydana została książka "Historie z Worka" autorstwa Marka Sznajdera. Opowiada ona o pionierskich latach 50. i 60., gdy powstawała kopalnia i elektrownia Turów. +Imiona japońskie + +Imiona japońskie – imiona używane przez mieszkańców Japonii i pochodzące z języka japońskiego. Imiona w założeniu mają wyrażać pożądaną przez rodziców cechę charakteru lub wyglądu dziecka. Można je podzielić na męskie i żeńskie, ale również takie, które nie są przypisane do żadnej z płci. Imiona, tak jak nazwiska japońskie, zazwyczaj zapisywane są za pomocą znaków kanji, ale istnieją również takie, do zapisu których używa się tylko lub również hiragany. +Budowa. +Większość Japończyków ma jedno nazwisko i jedno imię, z wyjątkiem japońskiej rodziny cesarskiej, której członkowie nie noszą żadnego nazwiska. Nazwisko określa się nazwą , lub , a imię z kolei lub . Nazwisko poprzedza imię. +Historycznie myōji, uji i sei miały różne znaczenia. Sei było pierwotnie matrylinearnym nazwiskiem. Później stało się przyznawane jedynie przez cesarza. Uji pierwotnie stosowano do określania patrylinearnego pochodzenia, ale później połączyło się z myōji, w tym samym czasie sei straciło matrylinearne znaczenie. Myōji było tym, co rodzina zdecydowała użyć jako nazwisko, w przeciwieństwie do sei przydzielanego przez cesarza. +Istnieje kilka nazwisk, które można także użyć jako imiona (np.: Mayumi 真弓, Kaneko 金子, Masuko 益子, lub Arata 新). Ponadto dla osób obeznanych z japońskimi imionami, jest to oczywiste, które z nich to imię, a które to nazwisko, bez znaczenia, w jakiej kolejności są one podane. Jednak ze względu na różnorodność wymowy i różnic językowych, niektóre nazwiska i imiona mogą być zbieżne podczas romanizacji: np. (imię) i (nazwisko). +Znaki. +Japońskie imiona są zazwyczaj pisane znakami kanji, chociaż do zapisu niektórych imion używa się hiragany, katakany, czy nawet połączenia znaków kanji i kana. Podczas gdy "tradycyjne" imiona odczytuje się sposobem kun'yomi (wymowa japońska), wiele imion i nazwisk czyta się sposobem on'yomi (wymowa zapożyczona z chińskiego). Większość nazwisk składa się z jednego, dwóch lub trzech znaków kanji. Istnieje również niewielka liczba nazwisk zbudowanych z czterech lub pięciu znaków kanji, np.: , czy , ale są to bardzo rzadkie przypadki. Dźwięk "no", czyli "z", i odpowiadający mu znak hiragana の, jest często zawarty w nazwiskach/imionach, ale nie jest pisany jako odrębny znak, jak w popularnym nazwisku 井上 (i-no-ue), lub w nazwiskach postaci historycznych, takich jak Ki no Tsurayuki. +Męskie imiona często zawierają znaki "hiro" ("szeroki", "rozległy"), "ki" ("drzewo", "stojący") +oraz "ta" ("duży", "gruby"). Czterosylabowe imiona nie należą do rzadkości, są szczególnie noszone przez najstarszych synów. Z kolei żeńskie imiona często kończą się sylabą "ko" zapisaną znakiem kanji znaczącym , lub "mi" zapisaną znakiem kanji znaczącym . +Wiele nazwisk w Japonii kończy się sylabą "-tō". Znakiem kanji, który służy do zapisania tej sylaby jest 藤, co oznacza glicynia (kanji może być również odczytane jako "-dō"). Wielu Japończyków ma nazwiska, które zawierają ten znak kanji jako drugi znak. Jest to dlatego, że nadawał swoim samurajom nazwiska ("myōji") kończące się pierwszym znakiem nazwy rodu, aby określić ich status w czasach, gdy zwykli ludzie nie mogli posiadać nazwisk. Przykładem tego są nazwiska Atō, Andō, Itō (choć wykorzystanie innego kanji końcowego jest również częste), Udō, Etō, Endō, Gotō, Jitō, Katō, Kitō, Kudō, Kondō, Saitō, Satō, Shindō, Sudō, Naitō, Bitō oraz Mutō. Japońskie nazwiska zazwyczaj zawierają znaki odnoszące się do miejsc i obiektów geograficznych. +Rozwój społeczny + +Rozwój społeczny – ukierunkowany proces społeczny, w wyniku, którego następuje ciągły wzrost pewnych istotnych dla danego społeczeństwa czy społeczności zmiennych. +Ukierunkowany ciąg zmian korzystnych dla danej zbiorowości określa się, jako postęp społeczny. Natomiast ukierunkowany ciąg zmian niekorzystnych dla danej zbiorowości określany jest, jako regres społeczny. +Narratologia + +Narratologia – dział nauki poświęcony badaniom nad opowiadaniem fabuł (literackim – ustnym bądź pisanym, filmowym, komiksowym i każdym innym). Badania narratologiczne oparte są na metodzie strukturalnej. Centralne dla narratologii jest rozróżnienie warstwy narracyjnej danego tekstu od jego głębokiej struktury formalnej. Badania narratologiczne szczególny nacisk kładą na drugi z tych komponentów, podkreślając, że to właśnie struktura jest elementem każdorazowo generującym konkretne sensy (treść fabularną). Badanie struktury formalnej jest tu rozumiane jako wyodrębnienie zestawu pewnych elementów fabularnych (postaci, wydarzenia) i relacji, które zachodzą między nimi (chronologia i inne zależności), a także analiza występowania w tekście pewnych kategorii gramatycznych (np. czasu) i ich wpływu na znaczenie (fabułę). Do tak rozumianej analizy nie należą np. badania nad stylem. Klasycznej narratologii nie powinno się traktować jako nauki o stylach, o formie językowej, o tym, co po polsku nazywa się "narracją" (ang. "narration") – w istocie bowiem jest ona nauką o "fabule" czy też "opowiadaniu" (ang. "narrative"). Jednak obecnie daje się zauważyć skłonność do obejmowania nazwą "narratologia" także analiz języka powieściowego. +Za najważniejszego prekursora narratologii uważa się na ogół Władimira Proppa – jego "Morfologia bajki" jest przykładem klasycznej analizy narratologicznej. Na podstawie dużego korpusu tekstów Propp wyprowadza zestaw reguł rządzących uporządkowaniem wewnętrznym rosyjskiej bajki magicznej. Drobiazgowa analiza narratologiczna ("avant la lettre") doprowadziła Proppa do rozpoznania stałego, skończonego zestawu 31 elementów ("morfemów"), z których można zbudować każdą bajkę. Sens bajki, jej ostateczna "tożsamość" wynika wyłącznie z tego, w jaki sposób składniki te zostaną uporządkowane i zhierachizowane – przy czym możliwe są pewne wariacje, tzn. pomijanie niektórych elementów. Jedynym niezmiennikiem okazuje się tu porządek: określone wydarzenia muszą zawsze zachodzić w pewnej kolejności, nawet jeśli niektóre zostaną pominięte. Także opis znaczenia postaci można dalece uprościć. Okazuje się, że ze względu na sens bajki nie jest np. istotna szczegółowa charakterystyka postaci, a jedynie ich "funkcja" – przede wszystkim to, czy pomagają, czy też przeszkadzają głównemu bohaterowi. +Inną prekursorką narratologii była Olga Frejdenberg, której precyzyjne analizy fabuł tekstów antycznych oparte były na założeniach podobnych do Proppowskich. Kontynuatorem Proppowskiego myślenia o literaturze oralnej jest Claude Lévi-Strauss, którego analizy mitów są kolejnym klasycznym przykładem badań narratologicznych. Również typologie fabuł Arystotelesa są w jakiś sposób narratologiczne, bowiem Arystoteles ściśle oddziela warstwę zdarzeniową (typologia fabuł oparta na binarnej opozycji szczęście-nieszczęście) od językowej. Tym, co wyróżnia nowoczesną narratologię na tle dokonań jej rozmaitych prekursorów, jest dążenie do ścisłej formalizacji wyników (nawiązywanie do logiki matematycznej i semiotyki logicznej) oraz do wyczerpującego opisu danego korpusu tekstów. +Sławnymi narratologami są (lub bywali) także: Claude Bremond, Roland Barthes, Gérard Genette, Algirdas Julien Greimas, Tzvetan Todorov, Christian Metz, Umberto Eco, Seymour Chatman, Gerald Prince, Jonathan Culler, Mieke Bal, Roger Fowler, Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan. +Narratologię uznaje się za poddziedzinę semiotyki. Termin "narratologia" (franc. "narratologie") ukuł w 1969 roku Tzvetan Todorov. +Rzeczywista masa całkowita + +Rzeczywista masa całkowita według kodeksu drogowego jest to masa pojazdu łącznie z masą znajdujących się na nim rzeczy i osób. +Dogonowie + +Dogonowie (zw. Habe, Kado i Tombo, w języku polskim spotykana także nazwa Dogoni) – negroidalny lud mieszkający w Afryce Zachodniej. +Dogonowie zamieszkują południowo-centralne Mali – okolice uskoku Bandiagara (tzw. Kraj Dogonów). Ich odrębna kultura, a zwłaszcza mitologia, od dawna budzi zainteresowanie naukowców, także polskich. +Dogonowie, liczący w samym Mali około 462 tys. osób (stan na 1995 rok) są ludem rolniczym, kopieniaczym, żyjącym głównie z uprawy prosa. Językowo, a także częściowo pod względem kultury należą do grupy woltyjskiej (języki gur z rodziny nigero-kongijskiej, zob. język dogoński). +Religia. +Dogonowie wierzą w bóstwo zwane Nommo, który był synem stwórcy świata. Aby oczyścić ludzi z grzechów, rozerwał się na 60 kawałków i po kilku dniach zmartwychwstał, jednakże stracił penisa, który został zjedzony przez rybę. Uważają, iż sami pochodzą z kosmosu i wylądowali przy akompaniamencie huków i płomieni nad jeziorem Debo. +Dogonowie jako astronomowie. +Ich wiedza astronomiczna dotycząca układu podwójnego gwiazdy Syriusz A i B jest zadziwiająco szczegółowa, wierzą również w istnienie (do dziś nieodkrytego) trzeciego składnika C. +Podejrzewa się, że Dogonowie mogli znać kilkaset lat wcześniej od Europejczyków cztery księżyce galileuszowe (Callisto, Io, Europa i Ganimedes). Do chwili obecnej nie wiadomo, skąd zaczerpnęli tę wiedzę. +Tajemnice Dogonów próbowano wyjaśnić na wiele sposobów. Niektórzy, jak Erich von Däniken, twierdzili, iż Dogoni musieli spotkać w neolicie w starożytności istoty pozaziemskie, które przekazały im swoją wiedzę. Robert K. G. Temple uważał, iż wiedzę tę czerpali od Starożytnych Egipcjan, którzy wraz z mieszkańcami cywilizacji mezopotamskich, niezależnie od siebie, odkryli tego typu obiekty, jednakże utrzymywali ten fakt w tajemnicy, książki zaś mające omawiać istnienie takich obiektów zniszczyło wojsko Aleksandra Macedońskiego napadające na Starożytny Egipt. Resztki wiedzy przekazali egipscy uciekinierzy, którzy pojawili się w Afryce Zachodniej. Uważa się, iż Dogoni poznali białe karły dzięki pewnej cywilizacji saharyjskiej, która pod koniec starożytności zanikła. Cywilizacja saharyjska istniała na terenie całej Sahary, a Dogoni byli jednym z jej ludów. Najprawdopodobniej Dogoni uciekli ze względu na pustynnienie, zmianę klimatu (oba punkty się nawzajem uzupełniają) lub z powodu pojawienia się Rzymian na terenie Afryki Północnej. +Proletariat + +Proletariat to jedna z wyróżnianych w socjologii klas społecznych. +Był skutkiem rewolucji przemysłowej w XIX wieku. Ludzie zatrudnieni w fabryce określani byli mianem proletariatu fabrycznego. Robotnicy rekrutowali się spośród zubożałych rolników bądź też z pracowników upadających warsztatów rzemieślniczych i manufaktur. +W ujęciu Karola Marksa proletariat to klasa społeczna pozbawiona środków produkcji, przeciwstawiana właścicielom środków produkcji, czyli burżuazji, będąca z tego powodu z nią w ciągłym konflikcie, widocznym w skali długiego procesu historycznego. Zakładał on podział społeczeństwa na dwie zwalczające się klasy – kapitalistów, czyli właścicieli środków produkcji (ziemi, fabryk, kapitału finansowego) i proletariuszy, a więc robotników nieposiadających tych środków. Uważał, że między nimi toczy się nieustanna walka klas. +W społeczeństwie informacyjnym proletariat, w przeciwieństwie do „digitariatu”, jest rozumiany jako klasa społeczna niemająca dostępu do technologii informacyjnych, w szczególności do globalnej sieci Internetu. +Pilotaż badań + +Pilotaż badań – w naukach społecznych wstępne badania próbne, stosowane najczęściej w badaniach ankietowych mające na celu: +Antoni Kocjan + +Antoni Kocjan (ur. 12 sierpnia 1902, zm. 13 sierpnia 1944) – polski konstruktor lotniczy szybowców, współpracownik wywiadu AK. +Syn Michała Kocjana i Franciszki Żurawskiej, urodzony we wsi Skalskie k. Olkusza. W 1923 ukończył Gimnazjum im. Kazimierza Wielkiego w Olkuszu. Brał udział w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej. Studiował następnie na Politechnice Warszawskiej na wydziale elektrycznym i lotniczym i w Szkole Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie. Zawarł związek małżeński z Elżbietą Zanussi 30 listopada 1929 roku w Warszawie. Podczas studiów był aktywnym członkiem Sekcji Lotniczej Koła Mechaników Studentów Politechniki Warszawskiej. Nadzorował powstawanie wszystkich samolotów sportowych, jakie powstały w Sekcji (JD-2, WR-1, SP-1), ściśle współpracował z kolegami, którzy później stworzyli Zespół RWD. W 1929 roku ukończył kurs pilotażu i w 1930 zdobył II nagrodę na Zawodach Młodych Pilotów (pierwszej nie przyznano). Później uczestniczył w biciu rekordów wysokości na samolotach RWD-2 i RWD-7. +To ogromne zaangażowanie w pracę w Sekcji Lotniczej spowodowało, iż nie uzyskał dyplomu inżyniera – podobnie jak wielu innych ówczesnych konstruktorów (Jerzy Dąbrowski, Bronisław Żurakowski, Tadeusz Chyliński i inni). W 1931 roku skonstruował swój pierwszy szybowiec szkolno-przejściowy "Czajka", budowany następnie w serii w kilku odmianach. +W 1932 Kocjan został głównym konstruktorem Warsztatów Szybowcowych na Polu Mokotowskim w Warszawie. Tu, w bardzo skromnych warunkach, opracował wiele doskonałych szybowców. Poprzez szybowiec szkolny "Wrona", następnie w 1933 szybowiec treningowo-wyczynowy "Komar". Te trzy udane szybowce, oraz ich ulepszone wersje "Czajka-bis", "Wrona-bis" i "Komar-bis", były budowane w Polsce w dużej serii, a także w mniejszej ilości na licencji za granicą, m.in. w Estonii, Finlandii, Jugosławii, Bułgarii i Palestynie. W 1934 roku opracował szybowiec treningowy "Sroka", zbudowany również w znacznej ilości. W 1935 roku opracował szybowiec akrobacyjny "Sokół", zbudowany w niewielkiej ilości, a w 1936, z inż. Szczepanem Grzeszczykiem, dwumiejscowy szybowiec wyczynowy "Mewa". W 1937 roku powstał najbardziej znany jednomiejscowy wyczynowy szybowiec "Orlik" konstrukcji Kocjana. Jego wersja "Orlik 3" zajęła w 1939 drugie miejsce w konkursie na standardowy szybowiec przewidywanych Letnich Igrzysk Olimpijskich 1940 roku, a na zmodyfikowanym "Orliku 2" w latach 1948-49 odnosił sukcesy oraz ustanowił światowy rekord wysokości 9600 m amerykański szybownik Paul McCready. W 1937 inż. Kocjan zaprojektował ponadto motoszybowiec "Bąk", zbudowany w serii ok. 10 sztuk. +Ten bardzo duży dorobek sprawił, iż przyznano mu stopień inżyniera. Konstrukcje Antoniego Kocjana stanowiły podstawę polskiego szkolnictwa szybowcowego przed II wojną światową i miały znaczny udział w polskim sporcie szybowcowym, będąc wysoce udanymi konstrukcjami. Produkcja "Komara" została wznowiona w Polsce również po wojnie. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej Kocjan został kontuzjowany odłamkiem bomby. Po klęsce Polski w kampanii wrześniowej został żołnierzem ZWZ, a następnie Armii Krajowej. Należał do głęboko zakonspirowanej organizacji wywiadowczej "Muszkieterzy", powstałej na przełomie października i listopada 1939 roku. 19 września 1940 roku zatrzymany w łapance na ulicach Warszawy, został wywieziony do niemieckiego obozu koncentracyjnego Auschwitz (nr 4267), z którego jednak został zwolniony po 10 miesiącach. Cechował się wybitną śmiałością w planowaniu działań polskiego ruchu oporu, niepospolitą odwagą i przebiegłością. Widać to było szczególnie w akcjach związanych z organizacją konspiracyjnej produkcji broni, Antoni Kocjan na podstawie fałszywych dokumentów zamawiał części do broni dla A.K. w niemieckich warsztatach. W skrytce jego warsztatów szybowcowych w Warszawie działała największa drukarnia konspiracyjna. Wniósł duży wkład w rozpoznanie niemieckiego ośrodka badań rakietowych w Peenemünde oraz rozpracowanie wywiadowcze pocisków rakietowych V-2. Części V-2 i własne analizy miał dostarczyć do Londynu w ramach operacji "Most III". Jednak w dniu 2 czerwca 1944 roku został wraz z żoną przypadkowo aresztowany i uwięziony na Pawiaku. Zamordowany 13 sierpnia 1944 w grupie czterdziestu ostatnich więźniów Pawiaka. +W 1944 r. odznaczony przez gen. Tadeusza Bora-Komorowskiego Srebrnym Krzyżem Orderu Virtuti Militari +Dolina Koprowica + +Dolina Koprowica (słow. "Kôprovnica") – tatrzańska dolina położona na terenie Słowacji, największe odgałęzienie Doliny Cichej Liptowskiej ("Tichá dolina") odchodzące w jej dolnej części w kierunku północno-wschodnim. +Dolina ma powierzchnię nieco ponad 5 km² i wyrzeźbiona jest w skałach krystalicznych. Jest w większości zalesiona (w wyższych partiach rosną limby) i porośnięta kosówką, ale w jej górnych partiach są jeszcze spore trawiaste obszary. Płynie przez nią potok Koprowica ("Kôprovnica"), dopływ Cichej Wody Liptowskiej ("Tichý potok"). Dolina jest niedostępna dla turystów, od 1948 r. stanowi obszar ochrony ścisłej TANAP-u. +Nazwa doliny, podobnie jak nazwa sąsiedniej Doliny Koprowej i inne podobne, pochodzi od marchwicy, przez Słowaków nazywanych "kôprovníček bezobalný", nie ma natomiast związku z rudami miedzi (niem. "Kupfer"), nigdy tu niewystępującymi. +SUSE Linux + +SUSE Linux ([]) to prosta w obsłudze dystrybucja Linuksa, stworzona z myślą o użytkownikach korzystających na co dzień z interfejsu graficznego, i przeznaczona zarówno dla użytkowników domowych (openSUSE), jak i do zastosowań komercyjnych (SUSE Linux Enterprise). Rozwijana początkowo w Niemczech przez SuSE GmbH, w styczniu 2004 przejęta przez firmę Novell. Pierwsza wersja systemu nosiła nazwę "S.u.S.E." (skrót od niem. "Software- und System-Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH, Nürnberg", od października 1998 zmieniona na "SuSE") i ujrzała światło dzienne w marcu 1994. W grudniu 2006 Novell oddzielił otwartą, ogólnodostępną wersję systemu, nazwaną openSUSE i rozwijaną przez społeczność z całego świata, od wydania komercyjnego, oferowanego wraz z pomocą techniczną i skierowanego do zastosowań profesjonalnych. +Cechy dystrybucji. +SUSE korzysta z menedżera pakietów RPM. Domyślnie, tuż po instalacji SUSE zawiera m.in. przeglądarkę internetową Firefox, pakiet biurowy LibreOffice i wiele innych programów. Na szczególną uwagę zasługuje wyszukiwarka pakietów oraz funkcja wprowadzona w wydaniu 10.3, dostępna także dla użytkowników 10.2 - "jednoklikowa" instalacja (ang. 1click install), dzięki której można wybrać kolekcję pakietów jak również pojedynczy pakiet z jakiegokolwiek repozytorium i go zainstalować, posługując się przyjaznym kreatorem. +Przykładem zastosowania tej technologii może być instalacja kodeków (innym sposobem jest próba odtworzenia pliku zakodowanego danym koderem, czyli uruchomienie instalatora kodeków). +Każdy menedżer pakietów korzystający z Build Service może współpracować nad projektami, jak również tworzyć własne repozytorium. Jeżeli publikowanie pakietów jest włączone, w wyszukiwarce pakietów zobaczymy wpisy zawierające nazwę pakietu, wersję, opis, projekt Build Service i odnośnik 1click install. +Jednym z bardziej popularnych składników dystrybucji jest YaST2 - przyjazny w obsłudze program instalacyjny, narzędzie do konfiguracji systemu i zarządzania pakietami w jednym, pozwalający na dostosowanie systemu do własnych potrzeb. Poza instalacją SUSE na dysku twardym, umożliwia wygodne, zautomatyzowane dodawanie, aktualizację i usuwanie programów (poprzez repozytoria pakietów), kontrolę usług systemowych, konfigurację sprzętu (wyjątkiem program SaX2, służący do konfiguracji ekranu, myszy, klawiatury, tabletu itp., który to nie jest modułem programu YaST, a oddzielnym programem). +Dostępne wersje systemu. +Istnieje kilka wersji dystrybucji, przeznaczonych zarówno dla firm, jak i dla użytkowników indywidualnych. W wariancie komercyjnym, firma Novell oferuje SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop ("SLED") lub jego wersję serwerową - SUSE Linux Enterprise Server ("SLES"). W odróżnieniu od wersji społecznościowej (openSUSE), zawierają one starsze wersje programów, w rezultacie zapewniając potencjalnie większą stabilność. +Do zastosowań domowych przeznaczony jest openSUSE, dostępny do pobrania za darmo z oficjalnej strony projektu (w postaci obrazów .iso liveCD lub DVD, który zawiera dodatkowe języki i własnościowe oprogramowanie), lub do kupienia w wersji pudełkowej, wzbogaconej o pakiety komercyjne, drukowaną instrukcję obsługi oraz kilkadziesiąt dni pomocy technicznej przy instalacji. +Systemy z rodziny SUSE dostępne są na architektury: x86, x86-64, PowerPC oraz (testowo) na IA64. +Żółwie wężoszyjne + +Żółwie wężoszyjne, żółwie wężoszyje, matamatowate (Chelidae) – rodzina żółwi z podrzędu żółwi bokoszyjnych. Ich cechą charakterystyczną jest nieproporcjonalnie długa, wężowata i naga szyja. Cały pancerz jest normalnie wykształcony. Są zwierzętami o półwodnym trybie życia. Ich pokarm stanowią różnorodne organizmy wodne w tym także ryby. Do rodziny należy około 40 gatunków należących do 11 rodzajów. Występują w Ameryce Południowej, Australii i na Nowej Gwinei. +Yvonne Sherman + +Yvonne Sherman-Tutt (ur. 3 maja 1930 – 2 lutego 2005 w Colorado Springs, Kolorado) – amerykańska łyżwiarka figurowa. +W ciągu kariery zdobyłą trzy tytuły mistrzyni USA – w 1949 i 1950 w kategorii solistek, w 1947 w parach sportowych (z Robertem Swenningiem). W 1948 w parze ze Swenningiem zdobyła wicemistrzostwo USA. +Odnosiła także sukcesy na arenie międzynarodowej. W parze ze Swenningiem zajęła 4. miejsce na igrzyskach olimpijskich w St. Moritz (1948). Na tych samych igrzyskach w gronie solistek była 6., zdobyła także wśród solistek dwa medale mistrzostw świata (srebro w 1949, brąz w 1950). Na mistrzostwach światach w 1948 zajęła 6. miejsce. Sięgnęła po złoto mistrzostw Ameryki Północnej w 1949. +Po zakończeniu kariery sportowej pracowała jako sędzia i działaczka amerykańskiej federacji łyżwiarskiej. Została wpisana do Hall of Fame Amerykańskiego Łyżwiarstwa Figurowego. +Jej mężem był William Thayer Tutt (1912-1989), zasłużony amerykański działacz hokejowy. +Nullsoft Streaming Video + +Nullsoft Streaming Video (NSV) to kontener multimedialny zaprojektowany do przesyłania strumienia wideo poprzez internet. NSV został opracowany przez firmę Nullsoft, która stworzyła również Winampa. +Aktualnie jako kodek dźwięku wykorzystywany jest format MP3 i AAC, a jako kodek obrazu VP3, VP5 lub VP6. +Każdy format ma swoje plusy i minusy, a zdobycie popularności nie jest łatwym zadaniem. +Mimo iż NSV został zaprezentowany na początku 2003 to dopiero ukazanie się Winampa w wersji 5 spowodowało prawdziwą eksplozję popularności NSV. To wraz z nim pojawiło się wbudowane narzędzie zwane "Media Library", które oferowało spis strumieni audio (SHOUTcast) i wideo (NSV). Identyczna funkcjonalnosć pojawiła się również w starej serii Winamp'a od wersji 2.9, ale miała inną nazwę - "Library". +Historia. +NSV został stworzony na przełomie 2002/2003 przez Justina Frankela kiedy pracował dla Nullsoft. +Początkowo kontener ten miał pokazać potencjał tkwiący w nowo rozwijanej technologii strumieniowej Ultravox. Od tamtego czasu został zaakceptowany jako medium strumieniowe AOL i wykorzystywany był do promocyjnych filmów dostępnych na stronach Winampa i AOL. +Holmenkollen + +Holmenkollen - położone na zalesionym wzgórzu przedmieście Oslo, stanowiące ważną część norweskiej i międzynarodowej historii narciarstwa. Znajdująca się tu ponad 100-letnia skocznia Holmenkollbakken była narodowym pomnikiem i jedną z największych atrakcji turystycznych: ponad milion osób każdego roku przebywało krótką drogę z centrum Oslo, aby ją zobaczyć. Została zburzona pod koniec 2008 roku. Jednak na jej miejscu została zbudowana nowa skocznia specjalnie na Mistrzostwa Świata w Narciarstwie Klasycznym 2011. Pierwszy oficjalny skok na nowej skoczni 3 marca 2010 oddała Anette Sagen. +Corocznie w Holmenkollen odbywa się Międzynarodowy Festiwal Narciarski („Tydzień Holmenkollen”) w konkurencjach klasycznych, będący niemal drugim świętem narodowym. Tutaj także kończy się Turniej Nordycki w skokach i rozgrywane są inne zawody (m.in. biathlon, biegi narciarskie czy kombinacja norweska) w ramach Pucharu Świata. Cały kompleks jest popularny również latem, dzięki znajdującemu się pod skocznią muzeum, wspaniałemu widokowi rozciągającemu się na jej szczycie oraz napełnianemu wodą podnóżu. +Centrum biathlonowe. +Oslo-Holmenkollen pięciokrotnie było gospodarzem mistrzostw świata w biathlonie (w latach 1986, 1990, 1999, 2000 oraz 2002). +Regularnie odbywają się tam zawody zaliczane do klasyfikacji Pucharu Świata. Mimo że w 1952 roku odbyły się tu zimowe igrzyska olimpijskie, biathlon nie był wtedy w programie zawodów. +Dojazd. +Do Holmenkollen można dojechać pociągiem linii metra Holmenkollen (linia nr 1) wysiadając na stacji Holmenkollen albo Besserud. +W roku 1992 artysta blackmetalowy Varg Vikernes podpalił Kaplicę Holmenkollen. +Kaolinit + +Kaolinit – bardzo pospolity i szeroko rozpowszechniony minerał z gromady krzemianów, zaliczany do minerałów ilastych (grupa kaolinitu). +Jego nazwa pochodzi od miejscowości "Gaoling" w Chinach (nazwa miejscowości oznacza "Wysoki Pagórek") , gdzie znajdują się duże i od dawna znane wystąpienia tego minerału. +Charakterystyka. +Właściwości. +Tworzy małe kryształy o pokroju tabliczkowym, blaszkowym - blaszki heksagonalne; zrosty robakowate. Przeważnie występuje w skupieniach ziemistych; zbitych i skrytokrystalicznych. Jego monomineralne nagromadzenia tworzą skałę zwaną kaolinem. Jest giętki, miękki, przeświecający. Agregaty kaolinitu rozcierają się w palcach; w dotyku dają wrażenie suchych i nieco tłustych, czasami szorstkich bądź śliskich. +Kaolinit sam nie jest ogniotrwały, tracąc bowiem wodę w stosunkowo niskiej temperaturze przestaje być już kaolinitem. Jednym z produktów jego rozpadu jest mullit - minerał, który w skorupie ziemskiej znaleziono tylko raz (na wyspie Mull u wybrzeży Szkocji), natomiast w produktach ceramicznych powstający bardzo często. +Mullit jest minerałem wytrzymującym temperatury do 1800 stopni C. +Kaolinit jest składnikiem kaolinu, miękkiej plastycznej skały, jednego z najważniejszych surowców ceramiki szlachetnej. Kaolin stosuje się w stanie surowym lub uszlachetnionym. Na jego przydatność wpływa biała barwa, drobnokrystaliczność, zdolność do przechodzenia w stan zawiesiny, niska twardość, obojętność chemiczna, powszechność występowania i niska cena surowca. Kaolin stanowi 40 - 65% masy do produkcji porcelany, fajansu, szamotowych materiałów ogniotrwałych oraz jako wypełniacz do papieru i gumy. +Występowanie. +Produkt wietrzenia glinokrzemianów, zwłaszcza skaleni. Składnik kaolinów, glin ogniotrwałych i ceramicznych oraz iłów kaolinitowych. +Miejsca występowania: Chiny, USA, Niemcy, Czechy, Wielka Brytania, Włochy, Ukraina, Rosja. +Polska - Główny składnik karbońskich górno- i dolnośląskich łupków ogniotrwałych oraz glin ogniotrwałych z okolic Strzegomia. Najważniejsze złoża kaolinu związane są z granitami i gnejsami Dolnego Śląska. +Kościół św. Józefa i klasztor karmelitów bosych w Poznaniu + +Kościół pw. św. Józefa i klasztor karmelitów bosych w Poznaniu – barokowa świątynia znajdująca się w dzielnicy Św. Wojciech, na Wzgórzu Św. Wojciecha, naprzeciwko kościoła św. Wojciecha. Jest to pierwszy kościół w Polsce poświęcony św. Józefowi. Jest to sanktuarium diecezjalnym św. Józefa, oblubieńca Najświętszej Maryi Panny i wielki ośrodek kultu tego świętego w archidiecezji poznańskiej. +Historia. +W 1553 roku w tym miejscu stanął zbór i szkoła braci czeskich, który został spalony przez uczniów kolegium jezuickiego podczas zamieszek religijnych w 1616 roku. Następnie, w 1618, ziemia trafiła w ręce zakonu karmelitów bosych, którzy przenieśli się tu po spaleniu przez Brandenburczyków ich dotychczasowej siedziby znajdującej się za Bramą Wroniecką. W okresie przejściowym schronienia udzielili im karmelici trzewiczkowi z klasztoru przy kościele Bożego Ciała +W miejscu drewnianej kaplicy, w latach 1658-1687, zbudowano dzisiejszy kościół. Autorem projektu i kierownikiem budowy był Krzysztof Bonadura Starszy, a po jego śmierci pracę przejął jego syn, Krzysztof Bonadura Młodszy oraz Jerzy Catenazzi. Przyjmuje się, że poznańska świątynia miała architektonicznie nawiązywać do rzymskich wzorców, mianowicie karmelitańskich kościołów Santa Maria della Scala oraz Santa Maria della Vittoria. W 1801 roku, pomimo czynnego oporu wiernych, którzy przez osiem dni okupowali świątynię, władze pruskie usunęły zakonników, a kościół zmieniono najpierw na szpital wojskowy, następnie na koszary, a w końcu na magazyn słomy i siana. W dalszej kolejności kościół przekazano starokatolikom, a w 1804 luteranom. Od 1830 pełnił rolę kościoła ewangelicko-augsburskiego garnizonowego. Protestanci w 1831 zamurowali w fasadzie nisze przeznaczone dla figur świętych, dodali sygnaturkę, usunęli ołtarze a dodali empory. Pracami tymi kierował . Po I wojnie światowej kościół przejęli ponownie katolicy, którzy rozebrali empory. W latach 1934-1939 świątynia ponownie przejęła na siebie funkcję kościoła garnizonowego. +W 1945 świątynia został ponownie przejęta przez karmelitów bosych, którzy w 1950 ukończyli odbudowę zniszczonej podczas walk o Cytadelę świątynię przywracając jej barokowy wygląd. Odbudowa trwała przez ponad 20 lat. W latach 1952-1993 klasztor był siedzibą Kolegium Filozoficznego dawnej Prowincji Polskiej. Od roku 1984 trwały tu prace nad całkowitą renowacją kościoła, którego poświęcenie odbyło się 19 marca 1990 r. Dnia 15 października 1990 r. przy klasztorze rozpoczął działalność Instytut Duchowości Carmelitanum. Od września 1993 roku w klasztorze poznańskim mieści się Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Prowincji Warszawskiej. Od kwietnia 2006 r. kościół został podświetlony. Przy klasztorze ma także obecnie siedzibę Wydawnictwo Warszawskiej Prowincji Karmelitów Bosych "Flos Carmeli". +Sanktuarium diecezjalne. +Zgodnie z kan. 1230 Kodeksu Prawa Kanonicznego ks. Arcybiskup Metropolita Stanisław Gądecki dekretem z dnia 21 września 2009 r. ustanowił kościół Karmelitów Bosych w Poznaniu SANKTUARIUM DIECEZJALNYM ŚW. JÓZEFA, OBLUBIEŃCA NAJŚWIĘTSZEJ MARYI PANNY. +Sanktuarium diecezjalne św. Józefa Oblubieńca NMP ściśle związane jest z historią powstania klasztoru Karmelitów Bosych w mieście Poznaniu w roku 1618. Z dotychczasowych badań wynika, że kościół św. Józefa w Poznaniu jest pierwszym pod tym wezwaniem w Polsce. Jego uroczyste poświęcenie i dedykacja miała miejsce 21 czerwca 1621 roku. +Oprócz racji historycznych należy zwrócić uwagę na szczególny rozwój kultu św. Józefa. Źródła historyczne mówią o powstaniu dnia 11 sierpnia 1666 roku bractwa św. Józefa, którego celem było rozszerzanie kultu Świętego poprzez własne nabożeństwa, ćwiczenia duchowne, a w szczególności naśladowanie jego cnót i dzieła miłości. Z tych czasów też pochodzi zwyczaj kultywowany do dnia dzisiejszego w kościele, by w każdą środę, jeżeli pozwalają na to przepisy liturgiczne, sprawować wotywę ku czci św. Józefa. Spisywana od XVII wieku kronika konwentu przytacza liczne przypadki łask otrzymywanych za pośrednictwem tego świętego. +Szczególną czcią otaczany jest obraz św. Józefa znajdujący się w ołtarzu głównym, namalowany przez Jerzego Kumalę z Krakowa i umieszczony w tym miejscu w 1989 roku. Jest on kopią dzieła flamandzkiego artysty br. Łukasza od św. Karola OCD (obecnie znajduje się w kościele Niepokalanego Poczęcia NMP w Krakowie). +Do sanktuarium licznie przybywają czciciele św. Józefa, aby jemu powierzyć swoje prośby i podziękowania za otrzymane łaski. +Sanktuarium ma stać się ośrodkiem umocnienia wiary, wzrastania w łasce dla licznych wiernych, aby wielbić Boga, dziękować za otrzymane łaski, pojednać się z Bogiem i Kościołem oraz przez pośrednictwo św. Józefa wyprosić łaski dla siebie i bliźnich. +Kościół św. św. Józefa jest dziesiątym sanktuarium w Poznaniu. Tytuł ten noszą sanktuaria Bożego Ciała (ul. Strzelecka 40), Miłosierdzia Bożego (os. Jana III Sobieskiego 116), Najświętszej Krwi Pana Jezusa (ul. Żydowska 34), Przemienienia Pańskiego (ul. Długa 1), Świętego Krzyża - Katedra (ul. Ostrów Tumski), Matki Bożej Nieustającej Pomocy - Fara (ul. Gołębia 1), Matki Bożej Różańcowej - kościół ojców Jezuitów (ul. Szewska 18), Matki Bożej w Cudy Wielmożnej Pani Poznania - kościół ojców franciszkanów (ul. Franciszkańska 2) i bł. Sancji Szymkowiak (ul. św. Rocha 10). +Tym samym osoby, które nawiedzą Sanktuarium i pobożnie odmówią modlitwy Ojcze nasz i Credo mogą uzyskać odpust zupełny pod zwykłymi warunkami: w uroczystość św. Józefa, raz w roku, w dniu wybranym przez wiernego, lub ilekroć uczestniczą w pielgrzymce, przy liczniejszym udziale wiernych. Sanktuarium św. Józefa jest także miejscem szczególnych łask otrzymywanych za pośrednictwem Świętego. +Wygląd. +Uwagę zwraca frontowa elewacja południowo-wschodnia. Gzymsy dzielą ją na trzy poziomy, natomiast podział pionowy wyznaczają pilastry. Między nimi znajdują się nisze, które niegdyś były wypełnione figurami świętych. Do naszych czasów zachowały się dwie - w najwyższej kondygnacji, przedstawiające św. Rafała Kalinowskiego i matkę Teresę Marchocką. Od zachodniej strony przylega trójskrzydłowy kompleks klasztorny z wirydarzem, odbudowany po zniszczeniach wojennych do 1953 roku. +Wnętrze bazylikowe, trójnawowe. Sklepienia kolebkowe z lunetami. Na przecięciu nawy głównej z transeptem płaska, niewidoczna z zewnątrz kopuła. +Ołtarz główny zaprojektowany został przez Józefa Dutkiewicza w latach osiemdziesiątych XX wieku. W jego centralnym miejscu umieszczono wspomniany wyżej obraz św. Józefa, patrona sanktuarium. +Kaplica znajdująca się po prawej stronie głównego ołtarza nosi patrocinium Matki Bożej Ostrobramskiej. Do unikatowych elementów jej wyposażenia należy zaliczyć ołtarz, który zbudowano z elementów rozebranego kominka z dawnej rezydencji cesarskiej w Poznaniu. +Po lewej stronie prezbiterium z kolei mieści się kaplica Krzyża, w niej centralne miejsce zajmuje XVIII-wieczny krycyfiks. +Większość wyposażenia uległo zniszczeniu podczas burzliwej historii świątyni. W kruchcie zachował się nagrobek Wojciecha Konarzewskiego (zm. 1668) na którym zmarły wyobrażony jest jako rycerz w zbroi. W świątyni znajduje się również tablica przypominająca, że w tym kościele pochowany jest Mikołaj Skrzetuski - pierwowzór sienkiewiczowskiego bohatera "Ogniem i mieczem", jego nagrobek nie zachował się do naszych czasów. +Przy świątyni znajduje się Cmentarz Zasłużonych Wielkopolan oraz pomnik stulecia Polskiego Towarzystwa Krajoznawczego. +Gumka do ścierania + +Gumka do ścierania – najczęściej wykonana z kauczuku, służy do wycierania śladów ołówka z papieru. +Historia gumki. +Gumka do ścierania została wynaleziona w 1770 roku przez odkrywcę tlenu Josepha Priestleya. +Zauważył on, że kawałek kauczuku świetnie nadaje się do wycierania śladów ołówka. Grafitowy pył ściera się wraz z włókienkami celulozy, nie uszkadzając papieru. Był tylko jeden problem: po kilku dniach kauczuk gnił. +Połączenie ołówka z gumką nastąpiło około 1850 roku za sprawą amerykańskiego wynalazcy Hymana Lippmana. Ołówek z gumką opatentowano w marcu 1858 roku. +Bibliografia. +Ilustrowana encyklopedia Wynalazki i Odkrycia Studio:Fenix str.65 +Dźwina + +Dźwina (łot. "Daugava", białorus. "Дзьвiна" - "Dźwina" lub "Заходняя Дзьвiна" - "Zachodniaja Dźwina", ros. "Западная Двина" - "Zapadnaja Dwina", , lit. "Dauguva", liw. "Väina", niem. "Düna", dawna nazwa: "Rubon") – druga pod względem wielkości rzeka uchodząca do Bałtyku. Przepływająca przez Rosję, Białoruś i Łotwę, mająca swoje źródła na wzgórzach Wałdaju w zachodniej Rosji, na północny zachód od miasta Andrieapol, uchodząca do Zatoki Ryskiej. +Charakterystyka. +Początkowo płynie w kierunku południowym, poniżej miasta Witebsk (Białoruś) przyjmuje kierunek północno-zachodni. Przepływa północnym skrajem Wyżyny Białoruskiej, uchodzi do Zatoki Ryskiej, na terytorium Łotwy. Długość 1020 km, powierzchnia dorzecza 87,9 tys. km² +Główne dopływy: +Przepływa przez Andrieapol w Rosji, Witebsk i Połock na Białorusi oraz przez Rygę, Salaspils i Dyneburg na Łotwie. +Historia. +W latach 1918 (1922) - 1939 rzeka graniczna między Polską i ZSSR oraz dalej między Polską i Łotwą. +Arnold Rüütel + +Arnold Rüütel (ur. 10 maja 1928 na wyspie Sarema) – estoński polityk, prezydent Estonii od 8 października 2001 do 9 października 2006. +Życiorys. +Ukończył szkołę rolniczą w Jänedzie, od 1949 pracował w wydziale rolnictwa powiatu Saaremaa. W latach 1955–1957 był nauczycielem w Instytucie Maszyn Rolniczych w Dorpacie. W 1964 został absolwentem Wydziału Nauk Rolnych Estońskiej Akademii Rolniczej. W 1969 objął stanowisko rektora tej uczelni, funkcję tę pełnił przez osiem lat. W 1972 uzyskał stopień kandydata nauk rolnych. +Działał w Komunistycznej Partii Estonii i KPZR, od 1977 sprawował funkcje państwowe. W 1983 wyznaczony został na przewodniczącego Prezydium Rady Najwyższej Estońskiej SRR (odpowiednik lokalnego prezydenta). W marcu 1990, gdy kraj ogłosił suwerenność, urząd ten zamieniono na przewodniczącego Rady Najwyższej Estonii. Na stanowisku tym pozostawał do 1992. +W latach 90. kontynuował pracę naukową. W 1991 uzyskał stopień naukowy doktora. Jest emerytowanym profesorem Estońskiej Akademii Rolniczej, doktorem Uniwersytetu Bentley College i Uniwersytetu Helsińskiego. Arnold Rüütel był pomysłodawcą utworzenia Związku Bałtyckiego, który skupiałby Litwę, Łotwę i Estonię (zrealizowano to w formie Rady Bałtyckiej). 5 października 1992 przegrał wybory prezydenckie z kandydatem sił niepodległościowych Lennartem Meri. +Od 1994 do 2000 był przewodniczącym stworzonego przez siebie Estońskiego Związku Ludowego. W 1995 wybrano go w skład Riigikogu, którego został wiceprzewodniczącym. 21 września 2001 wybrano go na urząd prezydenta, w ostatniej rundzie głosowania pokonał Toomasa Saviego. Jako głowa państwa opowiadał się za wejściem Estonii do Unii Europejskiej oraz sojuszem z NATO. 23 września 2006 ubiegając się o reelekcję przegrał z Toomasem Hendrikiem Ilvesem. +Odznaczony m.in. polskim Orderem Orła Białego (2002). +Towarzystwo im. Zygmunta Mycielskiego + +Towarzystwo im. Zygmunta Mycielskiego - towarzystwo założone w 1988 z inicjatywy Andrzeja Szypuły w Wiśniowej nad Wisłokiem. +Powstało przy nim w 1990 czasopismo „Kamerton”, które, podobnie jak towarzystwo, koncentruje się na dokumentacji i propagowaniu twórczości kompozytora Zygmunta Mycielskiego. +Od 2007 Towarzystwo organizuje coroczne ogólnopolskie plenery malarskie „Wiśniowa pachnąca malarstwem” nawiązujące do koloryzmu polskiego. Wydaje także czasopismo „Barbizon Wiśniowski”. +LVG C.VI + +LVG C.VI – niemiecki samolot wielozadaniowy (rozpoznawczy i lekki bombowiec). Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1917 roku w niemieckich zakładach lotniczych Luft-Verkehrs-Gesselschaft (LVG) w Berlinie. +Historia. +W drugiej połowie 1917 roku szwajcarskie konstruktor inż. Franz Schneider, pracujący w niemieckich zakładach lotniczych Luft-Verkehrs-Gesellschaft w Berlinie opracował nowy samolot wielozdaniowy LVG C.VI, który oparł na swoich poprzednich konstrukcjach tego rodzaju samolotów zbudowanych w tej wytwórni LVG, a w szczególności na samolocie doświadczalnym LVG E.I z 1914 roku oraz samolotach dwumiejscowych rozpoznawczych i lekkich bombowcach: LVG C.II z 1915 roku, LVG C.IV z 1916 roku i LVG C.V z 1917 roku. +Nowy opracowany samolot miał analogiczny układ dwupłata, jak wcześniejsze samoloty, lecz był bardziej dopracowany pod względem aerodynamicznym. Różnił się wymiarami, był także lżejszy i miał lepsze właściwości pilotażowe oraz osiągi. +Samolot LVG C.VI miał kadłub o konstrukcji drewnianej, kratownicowej, z przodu o przekroju okrągłym, a od środka prostokątnym, zwężał się ku tyłowi. W przedniej części kadłuba mieścił się silnik rzędowy chłodzony cieczą. Górna część silnika wystawała poza obrys kadłuba. Za silnikiem znajdowały się dwie kabiny odkryte: pierwsza – pilota, osłonięta z przodu małym wiatrochronem, druga – obserwatora. Z tyłu kadłuba było zamocowane usterzenie klasyczne o kształcie ekliptycznym – pionowe skośne, poziome – proste, składające się ze stateczników i sterów. Kadłub pokryty był z przodu, przy silnikach, blachą aluminiową, dalej sklejką. Płaty o konstrukcji dźwigarowej drewnianej miały kształt prostokątny i pokryte były płótnem. Na końcach były lekko zaokrąglone. Lotki znajdowały się tylko na górnym płacie, w którym również z przodu umieszczono zbiornika paliwa, a za nim pośrodku chłodnicę cieczy chłodzącej silnik. +Samolot LVG C.VI oblatano na początku 1918 roku i po zakończeniu prób uruchomiono produkcję seryjną. Samoloty te sukcesywnie kierowane były przez Niemców na front zachodni I wojny światowej. Także po zakończeniu wojny były użytkowe, w lotnictwie kilku państw. +Łącznie w wyprodukowano około 100 samolotów LVG C.VI. +Użycie samolotów w wojsku polskim. +Po listopadzie 1918 roku jeden samolot LVG C.VI został zdobyty na terenie Małopolski przez polskie oddziały, a w czerwcu 1920 roku jeden taki samolot wyremontowano w Poznaniu w Warsztatach Sekcji Lotniczej na lotnisku Ławica. W 1920 roku kilkanaście samolotów zostało zakupionych w niemieckiej firmie prywatnej. +Samoloty LVG C.VI wprowadzono na uzbrojenie eskadr wywiadowczych: 6., 8., 12. i 14. lotnictwa polskiego. Brały one udział w lotach rozpoznawczy w trakcie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej. +Po zakończeniu działań bojowych kilka z nich używano do celów szkoleniowych. Ostatnim z nich był prawdopodobnie samolot LVG C.VI używany w Oficerskiej Szkole Obserwatorów Lotniczych w Toruniu, który został skasowany w 1924 roku. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot LVG C.VI był dwumiejscowym samolotem wielozadaniowym – rozpoznawczym i lekkim bombowym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd silnik rzędowy, chłodzony cieczą. Śmigło drewniane, dwułopatowe. +Mieczysław Lesz + +Mieczysław Lesz (ur. 20 maja 1911 we Lwowie - zm. 21 grudnia 1998), polski działacz polityczny, profesor ekonomii. +Życiorys. +W 1930 jako student Politechniki Lwowskiej wstąpił do nielegalnego Komunistycznego Związku Młodzieży Polskiej. Ukończył Politechnikę ze stopniem magistra inżyniera budowy maszyn. Biegle znał język francuski, rosyjski i niemiecki. W 1934 aresztowany i skazany na 4 lata więzienia za działalność polityczną. W czasie II wojny światowej wstąpił jako ochotnik do wojska. Aresztowany przez gestapo w Warszawie i pod fałszywym nazwiskiem więziony w obozie Gross-Rosen do 1945. +Po wojnie członek PZPR (1964-1968 członek Komitetu Centralnego), sprawował szereg funkcji państwowych, m.in. ministra handlu wewnętrznego (1957-1965), zastępcy przewodniczącego Komisji Planowania (1957), I zastępcy przewodniczącego Komitetu Nauki i Techniki i ministra-członka Rady Ministrów (1965-1968). Wieloletni wiceprzewodniczący Towarzystwa Przyjaźni Polsko-Chińskiej. +Usunięty z pracy w rządzie po marcu 1968, obronił pracę doktorską i habilitacyjną, a następnie otrzymał tytuł profesora ekonomii. W latach 1970-1985 pracował w Instytucie Ekonomiki Przemysłu Chemicznego. Wykładał na wielu uczelniach w kraju i za granicą, był autorem kilkudziesięciu książek z dziedziny ekonomii i ekonometrii. +Sporty zimowe + +Sporty zimowe - dyscypliny rozgrywane w okresie zimowym. Niezbędnymi warunkami do ich przeprowadzenia są: mróz i często śnieg. Do sportów zimowych zaliczamy: narciarstwo alpejskie i klasyczne, snowboard, skoki narciarskie, saneczkarstwo, bobsleje, skeleton, hokej na lodzie, jazda figurowa na lodzie, short track, jazda szybka na lodzie, bojery, biatlon, curling, skibob. W dzisiejszych czasach wskutek rozwoju techniki większość z tych dyscyplin można rozgrywać w porze letniej np. hokej, jazda figurowa czy skoki narciarskie. Sporty zimowe cieszą się największą popularnością na kontynentach półkuli północnej tj. w Europie, Ameryce Północnej i Azji. +Modelarstwo kartonowe + +Modelarstwo kartonowe to rodzaj modelarstwa, w którym głównym budulcem jest karton, brystol, tektura oraz inne pochodne papieru. Jest to też najpopularniejszy rodzaj modelarstwa redukcyjnego z uwagi na mały koszt materiałów i dużą ilość modeli będących w sprzedaży. +Modele przeważnie drukowane są na kartonie o standardowych formatach A4 lub A3. Elementy wzbogacające mogą być także wykonane z drutu, sznurka, elementów fototrawionych, drewna i tworzyw sztucznych. Najczęściej spoiwem są kleje do drewna typu wikol, butapren, a także kleje cyjano-akrylowe. Modele można uatrakcyjnić montując np. silniczki napędzające śmigła w samolotach. +Modelarze często wykorzystują zamieszczone rysunki do wykonania modeli z innych materiałów np. z blachy, drewna. +Materiały. +itp. +Stosując dodatkowe materiały i zabiegi można poprawić znacząco estetykę wykonania modelu, np. można wyszpachlować i pomalować kadłub statku wodnego aby uzyskać idealnie obłe kształty. +Zawody. +Na świecie, a także w Polsce, odbywają się liczne zawody i konkursy modeli kartonowych. +Zazwyczaj dotyczą modeli statycznych, ale bywają też zawody latających modeli kartonowych. +Bobolice + +Bobolice (niem. "Bublitz") – miasto we wschodniej części woj. zachodniopomorskiego, w powiecie koszalińskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Bobolice. Położone na Pojezierzu Bytowskim, nad rzeką Chociel, w pobliżu jeziora Chlewo. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 miasto miało 4343 mieszkańców. +Przemysł spożywczy, przetwórstwo tworzyw sztucznych i drewna. +Położenie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2011 powierzchnia miasta wynosiła 4,77 km². +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. koszalińskiego. +W Bobolicach zbiegają się drogi krajowe: nr 11 i nr 25. +Historia. +Na polskiej mapie wojskowej z 1936 przy oznaczeniu miasta podano polski egzonim "Bobolice". +W 2012 uchwalono hejnał Bobolic. +Administracja. +Miasto jest siedzibą gminy miejsko-wiejskiej. Mieszkańcy Bobolic wybierają do swojej rady miejskiej 7 radnych (7 z 15). Pozostałych 8 radnych wybierają mieszkańcy terenów wiejskich gminy Bobolice. Organem wykonawczym jest burmistrz. Siedzibą władz jest budynek przy ul. Ratuszowej. +Mieszkańcy Bobolic wybierają parlamentarzystów z okręgu wyborczego nr 40, senatora z okręgu wyborczego nr 100, a posłów do Parlamentu Europejskiego z okręgu wyborczego nr 13. +Transkoder + +Transkoder to układ cyfrowy o n wejściach oraz k wyjściach. Jego działanie polega na zamianie dowolnego kodu cyfrowego (poza kodem 1 z N) na inny, dowolny kod cyfrowy (również z wyjątkiem kodu 1 z N). +Typowym przykładem takiego układu jest układ zamieniający naturalny kod binarny na kod wyświetlacza siedmiosegmentowego (czasami mylnie nazywanym 'dekoderem'). +Grupa Galileusza + +Transformacje Galileusza +x^i \rightarrow {x'}^i = R^i_j x^j +v^i t +x^i_0 +t \rightarrow t'=t+t_0 +zachowują strukturę czasoprzestrzeni Galileusza, tworzą one grupę Galileusza. Transformacje te są parametryzowane przez macierz obrotu formula_1, prędkość formula_2, translację w przestrzeni formula_3 i czasie formula_4. +Macierze obrotu same tworzą grupę O(3), spełniają warunek zachowania długości wektora przy obrotach +x^i \rightarrow {x'}^i = R^i_j x^j , +\sum_{i}^3 (x^i)^2 = \sum_{i}^3 ({x'}^i)^2 +Daje to warunek +gdzie macierz transponowana formula_6. Ponieważ macierz odwrotna spełnia formula_7, to dla grupy obrotów formula_8. W zbiorze macierzy ortogonalnych SO(3) istnieje element neutralny (macierz jednostkowa I), element odwrotny formula_7 i mnożenie dwóch macierzy ortogonalnych jest macierza ortogonalną. Zbiór macierzy ortogonalnych tworzy grupę. Dodatkowy warunek formula_10 definiuje podgrupę obrotów SO(3). Element grupy R można parametryzować w sposób ciagły przez trzy parametry (wektor formula_11, oś obrotu formula_12 i kat obrotu ψ ). +R=e^{i\sum_{a}^{3}T^a \alpha^a}. +Trzy macierze formula_13 nazywamy generatorami grupy obrotów. Gropa obrotów SO(3) jest ciagłą grupą Liego +Podgrupą grupy Galileusza jest podgrupa właściwych transformacji Galileusza +x^i \rightarrow {x'}^i = x^i +v^i t +x^i_0 +t \rightarrow t'=t+t_0 +Parametryzowana jest przez 7 parametrów: vektor v translację w przestrzeni i w czasie formula_14. +Podgrupą grupy Galileusza jest podgrupa translacji +x^i \rightarrow {x'}^i = x^i +x^i_0 +t \rightarrow t'=t+t_0 +Podgrupa ta parametryzowana jest przez cztery parametry. +Grupa Galileusza parametryzowana jest przez 10 ciagłych parametrów. Zgodnie z twierdzeniem Noether gdy grupa ta jest symetrią równań ruchu układu fizycznego odpowiada jej istnienie 10 odpowiednich praw zachowania (np. energii z translacji w czasie, pędu z translacji w przestrzeni, momentu pędu z symetrii obrotowej i pędu środka masy z transformacji własciwej generowanej przez v. +Zobacz też: Grupa Poincaré, Grupa Lorentza +Nukleacja + +Nukleacja (zarodkowanie) - początkowy etap przemiany fazowej, podczas którego powstają w substancji niewielkie zarodki nowej fazy. +Ogólne informacje. +Nukleacja to również proces powstawania i skupiania się, łączenia dyslokacji, pęknięć i małych cząstek w istniejącym materiale pod działaniem różnych czynników takich jak: zmienne naprężenie, zmiany temperatury. +Mechanizmy zarodkowania. +W klasycznej teorii zarodkowania, aby przemiana mogła zajść wymagane jest minimalne przechłodzenie. Powstawaniu nowych zarodków faz podczas przemian towarzyszy tworzenie się nowych powierzchni międzyfazowych. Na początku zarodki są bardzo małe, dlatego charakteryzują się dużą wartością stosunku powierzchni do objętości. Energia spożytkowana na utworzenie się zarodka składa się z energii swobodnej powierzchniowej i energii odkształceń sprężystych wynikających z różnicy objętości pomiędzy fazą wyjściową i produktem. +Zarodkowanie homogeniczne. +Zarodkowanie homogeniczne (jednorodne) jest zarodkowaniem występującym rzadko, wymagającym wielkich wartości przechłodzenia; bardzo często jest specjalnie indukowane. Ciecz i powstająca z niego faza stała są całkowicie jednorodne. Zarodek krystalizacji (embrion) może utworzyć się w dowolnym miejscu w cieczy, jeżeli osiągnie wielkość krytyczną. W ciekłym stopie w wyniku powstawania zespołów bliskiego uporządkowania, tworzą się zarodki krystalizacji. Te mające promień większy od krytycznego mogą wzrastać. Mniejsze ulegną rozpuszczeniu. Wymagane jest zatem powstanie embrionu o określonej wielkości, na którą wpływa głównie wielkość przechłodzenia ΔT. Gdy obniżamy temperaturę ciekłego stopu poniżej temperatury krystalizacji faza ciekła staje się niestabilna i pojawia się pewna objętość fazy stałej o niższej wartości G. Taka sytuacja sprzyja rozrostowi zarodka. Jednocześnie powstały kryształ ma powierzchnię, która działa przeciwnie i podwyższa energię. +formula_1 +Powyższy model matematyczny można przedstawić w postaci graficznej jak na rysunku 1. +Czerwona linia reprezentuje wydatek energetyczny związany z powstaniem granicy międzyfazowej o energii γ (odpowiada za zwiększenie energii swobodnej układu proporcjonalnie do pola powierzchni granicy międzyfazowej – funkcja rosnąca). +Błękitna linia reprezentuje powstanie pewnej objętości nowej fazy o energii ΔGV (odpowiada za zmniejszenie energii swobodnej układu proporcjonalnie do objętości kuli – funkcja malejąca). +Turkusowa linia reprezentuje sumaryczną zmianę energii swobodnej ΔG spowodowanej powstaniem kulistego zarodka o promieniu r. +Przy małych promieniach zarodka krystalizacji decydujący wpływ ma człon energii swobodna powierzchni międzyfazowej. Z tego powodu energia swobodna układu wzrasta. Punktem charakterystycznym jest tzw. krytyczny promień zarodka r* znajdujący się na samym szczycie wznoszącej się krzywej. W tym miejscu wpływ energii swobodnej powierzchni międzyfazowej i energii swobodnej objętościowej jest taki sam, a szansa rozpadu lub dalszego wzrostu zarodka jest taka sama. W przypadku dalszego wzrostu embrionu, energia swobodna układu maleje. +W celu wyznaczenia krytycznego promienia zarodka należy znaleźć położenie maksimum funkcji ΔG(r). +formula_2 +formula_3 +Promień krytyczny zarodka jest proporcjonalny do energii swobodnej powierzchni międzyfazowej i odwrotnie proporcjonalny do siły pędnej przemiany. +formula_4 +formula_5 +formula_6 +formula_7 +formula_8 +formula_9 +Krytyczny promień zarodka i praca zarodkowania maleją wraz ze wzrostem przechłodzenia. Z tego powodu do zaistnienia zarodkowania homogenicznego potrzebne są bardzo duże wartości zadanego przechłodzenia. Szybkie chłodzenie cieczy prowadzi do dużej częstości zarodkowania, przy małym rozmiarze zarodków, co z kolei prowadzi do otrzymywania drobnoziarnistej struktury. Przy odpowiednio dużej szybkości chłodzenia wielkość zarodka krytycznego dąży do zera i uzyskuje się strukturę amorficzną. Zarodkowanie homogeniczne może przebiegać także w stanie stałym. +Zarodkowanie heterogeniczne. +formula_10 +formula_11 +formula_12 +formula_3 +formula_14 +Z tego powodu najkorzystniejsze jest korzystanie z podkładek charakteryzujących się jak najniższym kątem styku θ. +formula_15 +formula_16 +formula_17 +Innym uprzywilejowanym miejscem zarodkowania w stanie stałym po granicach ziaren są dyslokacje. W przypadku stopów ten mechanizm ma wielkie znaczenie i determinuje wiele własności. +YaST + +Yet Another Setup Tool (YaST) – instalator systemu operacyjnego i narzędzie konfiguracyjne stosowane głównie w SUSE. Jest to również część United Linux. YaST działał tylko w trybie tekstowym, YaST2 działa w środowisku graficznym (używając bibliotek(i) Qt lub GTK) i środowisku tekstowym. +Program umożliwia m.in. instalację oprogramowania, konfigurację sprzętu, zainstalowanie sieci i serwera. +YaST jest Wolnym Oprogramowaniem. Obecnie firma Novell rozwija YaST na licencji GPL. +Krajowy system ratowniczo-gaśniczy + +Elementami systemu są m.in. Morska Służba Poszukiwania i Ratownictwa (SAR), Stacje Ratownictwa Górniczego, Policja, Pogotowie ratunkowe, Straż Graniczna, Państwowa Inspekcja Ochrony Środowiska, Państwowa Agencja Atomistyki, Instytut Meteorologii i Gospodarki Wodnej oraz organizacje pozarządowe, jak: GOPR, WOPR, TOPR, Aeroklub Polski, ZHP, Polska Misja Medyczna, PCK i inne. +Z Format + +Z Format – język tworzenia dokumentów zaprojektowany przez Davida H. Kristensena i Dana Ponte z Z Initiative. +Z Format, zainspirowany językiem TeX, jest luźno oparty na standardach XML i SGML, zachowując łatwość użycia, ale bez utraty funkcjonalności. +Z obsługuje style CSS poprzez zaimplementowanie obszarów formatowania, aczkolwiek z2html jest obecnie jedynym narzędziem rozpoznającym tę obsługę. +Płaskowyż Nazca + +Nazca – pustynny płaskowyż w Ameryce Południowej położony w południowo-zachodniej części Peru w paśmie Kordyliery Nadbrzeżnej. +Płaskowyż znany jest zwłaszcza z tzw. Rysunków z Nazca - systemu linii, które oglądane z góry przypominają kształtem zwierzęta lub figury geometryczne będących dziełem kultury Nazca. Są to naziemne geoglify, rysunki wykonane metodą nasypową. Rozciągają się one na przestrzeni kilkuset metrów jeden (pająk, kondor, drzewo). Widziane w całości mogą być tylko z lotu ptaka. +Według zwolenników paleoastronautyki wyglądem przypomina kosmodrom. +Bibliografia. +K. Kęciek, "Starożytność wyklęta. Archeolodzy i łowcy sensacji", Wydawnictwo Attyka, Warszawa 2008. +Kronika Wincentego Kadłubka + +Kronika Polski (łac. "Historia Polonica") – kronika historii Polski, obejmująca jej dzieje od czasów pradawnych po rok 1202. Została spisana przez Wincentego Kadłubka na polecenie księcia Kazimierza II Sprawiedliwego. +Dzieło to, liczące cztery księgi, zostało napisane po łacinie i obok "Kroniki..." Galla Anonima stanowi główne, aczkolwiek niezbyt wiarygodne, źródło historii tamtego okresu. Wątki dziejów Polski przeplatają się z dziejami Aleksandra Wielkiego, Juliusza Cezara, Grakchów itp. W celu osiągnięcia efektów estetycznych lub moralnych autor swobodnie przeinacza fakty. +Wincenty Kadłubek rozpoczął swą pracę pisarską najprawdopodobniej w 1190 roku i trwała ona jeszcze z pewnością w 1205 roku (w IV księdze można znaleźć informacje dotyczące bitwy pod Zawichostem, która rozegrała się 19 kwietnia 1205 roku), a została przerwana w 1208 roku, kiedy Kadłubek objął godność biskupa krakowskiego. +Kronika została wydana (po łacinie) po raz pierwszy w roku 1612, wydanie polskojęzyczne natomiast pochodzi z 1862 roku. +Autor. +Autorem Kroniki polskiej był Wincenty, pod koniec XIII wieku określany tytułem mistrza. W latach 1208-1218 był on biskupem krakowskim, po czym zrezygnował z tej godności i zamieszkał w klasztorze Cystersów w Jędrzejowie, gdzie zmarł w 1223 roku. Po śmierci cieszył się lokalnym kultem, lecz dopiero w 1764 roku został beatyfikowany. +Jak uważa zmarły przed paru laty wybitny polski filolog klasyczny i mediewista Marian Plezia są to prawie wszystkie pewne dane jakie możemy przytoczyć z jego życiorysu. Brygida Kürbis uważa jednak, że o życiu drugiego polskiego kronikarza wiemy więcej, dzięki temu, że był biskupem krakowskim, uczestniczył w wystawianiu dokumentów w charakterze świadka lub wydawcy. +Źródła średniowieczne dosyć lakoniczne wspominały postać Wincentego. Istnieje o nim krótka zapiska nekrologiczna w "Kalendarzu katedry krakowskiej". Podobnie rzecz się ma ze wzmianką w "Roczniku kapituły krakowskiej" i "Katalogu biskupów krakowskich". Inne wzmianki znajdują się w "Kronice wielkopolskiej" i bulli papieża Innocentego III z 1208 roku. Są to niemal wszystkie współczesne źródła wspominające mistrza Wincentego. W samej "Kronice..." imię Wincenty występuję w trzech miejscach, w rozdziałach 4, 17 i 13. Nie znamy dokładnej daty urodzenia mistrza Wincentego. W dokumencie z 1189 roku określany był tytułem mistrza, czyli nauczyciela musiał mieć przynajmniej 30 lat. Przypuszcza się więc, że Wincenty urodził się między 1150 a 1160 rokiem. Imię Wincenty było popularne po sprowadzeniu relikwii św. Wincentego do Wrocławia w 1145 roku. Przynależność rodowa kronikarza jest również kwestią hipotez. Jan Długosz zaliczał go do rodu Różyców, Barbara Kürbis za krewnego Lisów lub Łabędziów. W swoim dziele Wincenty nie podaje o tym wiadomości. Tradycja z czasów przed Długoszem podaje, że urodził się w miejscowości Kargów pod Stobnicą. +Posiadanie przez rodzinę Wincentego dóbr ziemskich pozwala stwierdzić badaczom, że pochodził ze znacznego rodu rycerskiego. Dużą emocje wywołuje też przydomek biskupa Wincentego – Kadłubek. Wincenty nie był znany z nazwą Kadłubek za życia, lecz dopiero po śmierci. Nazwa Kadłubek pochodzi według badaczy od imienia ojca biskupa, przezwiska ojca, które przeszło na syna (Kadłub to imię) lub przydomka od nazwy miejscowej. Edukację Wincenty odbył poza krajem zapewne w Bolonii we Włoszech bądź w Paryżu we Francji. Być może w obydwu ośrodkach podobnie jak biskup Iwo Odrowąż. W roku 1189 przebywał już w Polsce w środowisku duchowieństwa krakowskiego. +W kręgu hipotez pozostaje jaką sprawował wtedy funkcję pracownika kancelarii książęcej czy scholastyka kapituły krakowskiej. Nic też nie wiadomo o zaangażowaniu politycznym mistrza Wincentego w okresie panowania tak lubianego przez niego w jego dziele Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego (do 1194 roku) czy jego początków panowania jego syna Leszka Białego. Postać Wincentego pojawia się dopiero w 1208 roku, kiedy to został wybrany biskupem krakowskim. Warto zwrócić uwagę, że był to pierwszy wybór w Polsce biskupa przez kapitułę, zgodnie z ideałami reformy kościelnej wprowadzanej na ziemiach polskich przez arcybiskupa Kietlicza. Elektorzy jednak podzielili się głosami w sprawie kandydatury i głos należał do papieża Innocentego III, który bullą z 28 marca 1208 roku zatwierdził Wincentego jako biskupa krakowskiego. +O jego dziesięciu latach rządów nad diecezją nie wiadomo wiele. Był wówczas drugim dostojnikiem Kościoła w Polsce po arcybiskupie gnieźnieńskim. Dokumenty przekazały wiadomości o jego udziale w wielu zjazdach kościelnych: w 1210 roku w Borzykowie, w 1212 roku w Mstowie jak i też w Mąkolnie, w 1214 roku w Wolborzu na synodzie prowincjonalnym. Biskup Wincenty znajduję się też na liście uczestników IV soboru laterańskiego, który odbył się w 1215 roku był soborem powszechnym. Podczas swoich rządów biskup Wincenty prowadził też działalność fundacyjną. Już wcześniej nadał on dwie wsie Czerników i Gojców pod Opatowem, opactwu Cystersów w Sulejowie. Podarował też Cystersom z Koprzywnicy wieś Niekisałkę. Nadania te świadczyły o dużych względach dla Cystersów jak i też o stosunkach rodzinnych Wincentego. Wszystkie nadane bowiem wsie były położone blisko jego rodzinnych włości lub też należały do jego ojcowizny. Biskup Wincenty wystawiał też dokumenty dla wielu kościołów w tym rejonie, rozstrzygając przy tym spory o prawo patronatu, dziesięciny, darowizny. +Nic niestety nie wiadomo o powodach rezygnacji Wincentego ze stolicy biskupiej w Krakowie. Istnieje wiele hipotez na ten temat. Czy pociągała go surowa asceza u Cystersów i miał naturę kontemplacyjną? Czy poszedł za czyimś przykładem? Czy zmusiły go to tego zewnętrzne okoliczności? Jedno jest pewne zrezygnował z funkcji biskupa i osiadł jako zakonnik w klasztorze Cystersów w Jędrzejowie. "Kalendarz katedry krakowskiej" podaję jako datę jego śmierci 8 marca 1223 roku. Pochowany został w konwencie, przed wielkim ołtarzem. 26 kwietnia 1633 roku odnaleziono jego miejsce pochówku i przeniesiono jego zwłoki spod posadzki kościoła do jego ściany. Rok później na synodzie prowincjonalnym w Warszawie polski episkopat wyniósł Wincentego jako kandydata na błogosławionego i wysłał w tej sprawie pismo do Stolicy Apostolskiej. Dopiero w 1680 roku wszczęto proces beatyfikacyjny, który toczył się z przerwami i wielkimi trudnościami, nic dziwnego do dziś większość wiadomości, które o nim posiadamy są w sferze hipotez a jego dzieło nic nam w tej kwestii nie przynosi. Kult Wincentego jako błogosławionego ogłoszono dopiero 18 lutego 1764 roku przez papieża Klemensa XIII. +Miejsce powstania źródła. +Wincenty zwany Kadłubkiem zapisał się w historii głównie jako drugi kronikarz dziejów ojczystych poprzez swoje jedyne dzieło "Kronikę polską". Nie jest to oczywiście kronika we właściwym tego słowa znaczeniu, nie zwiera całego właściwego jej szkieletu chronologicznego. Nie ma w niej ani jednej daty rocznej, występują tylko sporadycznie daty dzienne. Jest to podobnie jak dzieło Galla Anonima rodzaj dziejopisarstwa wieków średnich określanych jako „gesta”. Wszyscy są zgodni co do tego, że źródło w całości lub tylko jego ostatnia czwarta księga powstały w klasztorze jędrzejowskim po roku 1218. Zaważyło tu utarte już przekonanie, że kroniki średniowieczne powstawały głównie w klasztorach. Wskazuje na to też kwestia iż w Jędrzejowie przechowywano średniowieczny rękopis, który w XVIII wieku uchodził za autograf samego mistrza Wincentego. Okazało się jednak, że był to rękopis N2 o wiele późniejszy a na pewno nie autograf czy oryginał dzieła biskupa krakowskiego. Powstanie dzieła badacze widzą w inicjatywie Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego (prolog 4, 1-2). Autor zwraca się do władcy trzy razy imiennie słowami (rozdział 4, 11 i 12): „uides ergo, Kazimire”. Wskazuje to na zwrot do osoby żyjącej – zapewne inicjatora napisania dzieła. +Czas powstania źródła. +Czas powstania źródła jest kwestią sporną, źródło nie dostarcza bowiem nam wiele wskazówek. Nie dysponujemy też innymi wskazówkami zewnętrznymi określającymi czas powstania źródła. Tekst dzieł urywa się na wydarzeniach roku 1202, ale warto zwrócić uwagę, że dzieło było kontynuowane jeszcze po roku 1205, o czym świadczą wzmianki w rozdziałach 4, 24 i 19. Zwrot: „uides ergo, Kazimire” wskazuje na osobę żyjącą – zapewne inicjatora napisania dzieła. Świadczy to tym, że kronika została zaczęta jeszcze za życia Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego czyli przed rokiem 1194. Kontynuowana zaś była na pewno do roku 1205. Zapewne po wyborze na biskupa krakowskiego w 1208 roku, autor nie miał czasu na jej kontynuowanie i dokończył ją po ustąpieniu z tego stanowiska. Pewne jest natomiast, że dzieła swego Kadłubek nie ukończył i rozstał się z nim wraz ze swoją śmiercią w 1223 roku. +Autentyczność i stan zachowania źródła. +Tradycja rękopiśmienna dzieła Wincentego Kadłubka jest dosyć bogata. H. Zeissberg badacz niemiecki znał 49 rękopisów. W tym samym czasie August Bielowski znał ich tylko 31. Dziś Marian Plezia może powołać się tylko na 29 rękopisów. Bezpowrotnie przepadły dwa rękopisy. Należały one do czasów powstania listopadowego do zbiorów Warszawskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego i Biblioteki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Po 1831 roku zagarnęli je Rosjanie i wywieźli do Petersburga podobnie jak wiele innych rękopisów polskich, gdzie były przechowywane w Cesarskiej Bibliotece Publicznej. Na mocy traktatu ryskiego zostały rewindykowane i w latach dwudziestych XX wieku wróciły do Polski, do Biblioteki Narodowej w Warszawie. Ich sygnatury z Petersburga to: O vel. IV 2 i Lat. Q chart. I 91. W 1944 roku podobnie jak wiele innych cennych zbiorów spłonęły w pożarze biblioteki podczas powstania warszawskiego. W połowie XIX wieku przepadł też jeden z rękopisów Muczkowskiego, być może nie bezpowrotnie i leży gdzieś nierozpoznany. 30 znanych dziś rękopisów dzieli się na 12 grup według ich miejsca przechowywania. Konieczne wydaje się w tym miejscu krótkie omówienie każdego z nich. Oznaczenia są podane za M. Plezią i w nawiasie za A. Bielowskim. Informacja oprócz oznaczenia dotyczy, gdzie dany rękopis jest przechowywany, na jakim materiale został napisany, kiedy i gdzie oraz jego sygnatura. +Rękopisy. +Rękopisy Baworowskich – Biblioteka Narodowa w Warszawie +Rękopisy Czaroryskich – Biblioteka Czartoryskich w Krakowie +Rękopis Działyńskich – Biblioteka PAN w Kórniku +Rękopisy Wiedeńskie – Österreichische National Bibliothek w Wiedniu +Rękopisy Jagiellońskie – Biblioteka Jagiellońska w Krakowie +Rękopisy Kapitulne – Biblioteka Kapitulna w Krakowie +Rękopis Muczkowskiego – Biblioteka Śląska w Katowicach +Rękopisy Biblioteki Narodowej w Warszawie +Rękopis Paulinów – Biblioteka klasztoru na Jasnej Górze +Rękopis Rhedigera – Biblioteka Uniwersytecka we Wrocławiu +Rękopis Tarnowskich z Dzikowa – Biblioteka Jagiellońska +Rękopis Zamoyskich – Biblioteka Narodowa w Warszawie +Do tych istniejących rękopisów należy dodać dwa wyciągi zwierających wyciągi z "Kroniki..." Kadłubka. Jest to rękopis z Biblioteki Ossolineum we Wrocławiu, sygn. 156/III, papierowy, z lat 40-50-tych XV wieku. Drugi rękopis to rękopis Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej, sygn. 5230, papierowy, z 1447 z Lublina. Wyżej wymienione rękopisy można podzielić jeszcze na dwie grupy. Do pierwszej należy: 26 rękopisów powstałych w Krakowie w latach 1434-1481. Wszystkie do tekstu źródła dołączony mają komentarz mistrza Jana z Dąbrówki. Ich powstanie łączy się z powstaniem i objaśnianiem tego źródła w ówczesnych szkołach polskich. Drugą rodzinę rękopisów stanowią dwa rękopisy z Wiednia (E i F). Rękopis E jest najstarszym dzisiaj istniejącym rękopisem dzieła Kadłubka. +Zawartość kroniki. +Całość dzieła została poprzedzona przez autora prologiem. Jest to utwór niezwykle charakterystyczny dla współczesnych tendencji exordialnych. Jest to krótka opowieść o trzech postaciach o antycznych imionach symbolizujących topos skromności. Autorskim zamierzeniem było ukazanie swoich motywacji odnośnie powstania dzieła. Pisanie o losach narodu jest tu ujęte jako przedsięwzięcie moralne i polityczne służące współczesnym oraz potomnym. Wincenty wskazuje także na księcia Kazimierza Sprawiedliwego, który zlecił mu napisanie tej kroniki. +Księga pierwsza – przedstawia pochodzenie narodu polskiego w świetle legend i podań etnogenetycznych. Wincenty poza cyklem podań wielkopolskich, napisanych już przez Galla umieścił także cykl legend małopolskich: o Kraku zwanym Grakchem, pokonaniu i założeniu miasta, o Wandzie i o podstępie Lestka z kolcami. Podania te w zamyśle miały łączyć przeszłość narodu z tradycją starożytną. +Księga druga – obejmuje okres od założenia państwa aż po konflikt Bolesława Krzywoustego ze Zbigniewem. +Księga trzecia – przedstawia losy kraju podczas rozbicia dzielnicowego. +Księga czwarta – rozpoczyna się wstąpieniem na tron Mieszka III Starego, a urywa się w momencie opowiadania o roku 1202. Ma zupełnie inny charakter literacki. Zawiera narracje z okresu znanego mistrzowi z autopsji. Zmiana formy narracji pozwoliła ją ożywić i zdynamizować. Opowiadanie stało się bardziej dramatyczne. Wincenty był nie tylko kronikarzem, ale także apologetą Kazimierza II Sprawiedliwego. Stworzył wizerunek idealnego władcy. Opis zewnętrzny zbiega się z prezentacją zalet wewnętrznych Kazimierza II. Jego charakterystyka jest wygłaszana przez jednego z „najznakomitszych mężów", co podnosi jej prestiż. Władca opisywany posiada zestaw „cnot oczyszczających". Były to zalety polityczne (we współżyciu z ludźmi i w rządzeniu), oczyszczające (wyzwalające ducha od ciała, wspomagające w walce ze złem), ducha oczyszczonego oraz zalety egzemplaryczne. +Ideał władcy łączy się w "Kronice polskiej" z koncepcją państwa (łac. "res publica") jako monarchii rządzonej na mocy prawa ustanowionego przez panujących, wybieranych przez obywateli. Łączy się to z podaniem o Grakchu. +Styl. +Styl Kroniki określa się jako trudny i ozdobny (łac. "ornatus difficillis") – według stylistycznej sztuki „trudnej ozdobności" postulującej mówienie o rzeczach nie wprost, lecz poprzez stosowanie wyszukanych figur i myśli, gry słów, metafor. Chętnie używano alegorii i personifikacji. +Dialogowość trzech pierwszych ksiąg kroniki była czymś wyjątkowym w średniowiecznej historiografii. Wincenty wprowadził dwóch rozmówców uzasadniając ich wybór dojrzałym wiekiem oraz wiarygodnością gwarantującą autorytatywność ich sądów i ocen. Wobec siebie zastosował literacką konwencję świadka dialogu. Dialog kończy się wraz z księgą trzecią. Pojawia się tu topos przerwania intelektualnej biesiady z powodu wieczornego zmęczenia i senności uniemożliwiających dalszą rozmowę. Został on wprowadzony również jako aluzja do śmierci dwóch konwersatorów. +Ich kwestie wzajemnie się uzupełniają, dając nie tylko obraz dziejów, ale także wykład poglądów na temat Polski. Obaj zmarli pod koniec lat 60. XII wieku. +Zarząd planowania europejskiego transportu śródlądowego + +Zarząd planowania europejskiego transportu śródlądowego ("Planning Board For European Inland Surface Transport", PBEIST) – został powołany na mocy Traktatu Północnoatlantyckiego w 1950. Jest jednym z dziewięciu specjalnych komitetów NATO, wykonujących działania z zakresu planowania obrony cywilnej na sytuację zagrożeń (CEP). Podlega bezpośrednio pod wysoki komitet planowania centralnego na sytuacje nadzwyczajnych zagrożeń (SCEPC). +W określonych sytuacjach współpracuje również z zarządem planowania żeglugi oceanicznej (PBOS) w zakresie żeglugi na wodach terytorialnych państw członkowskich. +Solidarność Walcząca + +Solidarność Walcząca – polska, antykomunistyczna organizacja podziemna założona we Wrocławiu w czerwcu 1982 przez Kornela Morawieckiego wspólnie m.in. z Pawłem Falickim. +Historia. +Była jedną z największych niepodległościowych organizacji niezależnych, wywodzących się z pierwszej w bloku wschodnim masowej organizacji społecznej NSZZ Solidarność, powstałych w konsekwencji delegalizacji "Solidarności" przez komunistyczne władze PRL oraz wprowadzenia stanu wojennego. Wśród twórców Solidarności Walczącej znaleźli się głównie działacze "Solidarności", którzy poróżnili się z kierownictwem tej organizacji w sprawie metod działania oraz celu, do jakiego dążyć powinna opozycja antykomunistyczna. Solidarność Walcząca przyjęła zasadę walki o całkowite odsunięcie od władzy komunistów. Działalność podziemna Solidarności Walczącej sprowadzała się do aktywności wydawniczej, propagandowej, analitycznej i wywiadowczej. +Pierwszym sukcesem SW były manifestacje 13 i 26 czerwca 1982. Na wezwanie redakcji pisma "Solidarność Walcząca" na ulice Wrocławia wyszły tysiące mieszkańców. Demonstracje przekształciły się w wielogodzinne walki uliczne, wznoszono barykady, niejednokrotnie zmuszając oddziały ZOMO do wycofania się. +Solidarność Walcząca drukowała i wydawała liczne broszury i książki oraz 134 periodyki, z których najbardziej znane są "Biuletyn Dolnośląski" (Wrocław), "Solidarność Walcząca" (Wrocław), "Solidarność Walcząca" (Poznań), "Czas" (Poznań), "Europa" (Warszawa), "Gencjana" (Jelenia Góra), "Gryf" (Szczecin), "Wolność" (Łódź) oraz "Galicja" (Rzeszów) i także innych organizacji podziemnych, prowadziła działania wywiadowcze i kontrwywiadowcze przeciwko Służbie Bezpieczeństwa oraz wspomagała antykomunistyczne organizacje poza Polską - także w Związku Radzieckim, w szczególności publikując wydawnictwa w językach rosyjskim, ukraińskim, czeskim +Do najsilniejszych ośrodków SW - obok Wrocławia - należały Poznań, Gdańsk, Rzeszów oraz Górny Śląsk. Czołowi działacze poza Dolnym Śląskiem to Maciej Frankiewicz (Poznań), Andrzej Kołodziej, Roman Zwiercan (Trójmiasto), Janina Jadwiga Chmielowska (Sosnowiec), Jerzy Gorzelik (Katowice), Krzysztof Korczak (Szczecin) czy Janusz Szkutnik (Rzeszów). Koncepcję działania Solidarności Walczącej podzielała powstała w połowie lat 80. Federacja Młodzieży Walczącej, aktywna zwłaszcza w Gdańsku i Wrocławiu. +Od momentu powstania do 1989 SW, jako jedyna organizacja podziemna w Polsce, nadawała każdego tygodnia audycje własnego radia we Wrocławiu, a także sporadycznie w Warszawie, Poznaniu, Rzeszowie, Zakopanem. +W latach 1989-1992 działacze Wydziału Wschodniego SW udzielali znaczącej pomocy sprzętowej, materiałowej i szkoleniowej działaczom niepodległościowym Litwy, Łotwy, Estonii, Ukrainy, a także Mołdawii, Gruzji, Kazachstanu, Armenii, Azerbejdżanu. +W 1990 spośród działaczy oraz środowiska Solidarności Walczącej powstała Partia Wolności. Kandydat Partii Wolności na prezydenta, Kornel Morawiecki, po zgłoszeniu swej kandydatury nie zebrał wymaganych 100 tys. podpisów. W czasie telewizyjnej kampanii wyborczej przed kamerami telewizyjnymi demonstracyjnie wywrócił okrągły stół. +15 czerwca 2007 76 czołowych działaczy SW zostało odznaczonych przez Prezydenta RP Krzyżami Odrodzenia Polski. 16 kwietnia 2010, dla upamiętnienia wysiłku członków i współpracowników Solidarności Walczącej w latach 1982–1991 oraz osób szczególnie zasłużonych w walce o "Wolność i Solidarność między ludźmi i narodami", ustanowiony został, przez Przewodniczącego Solidarności Walczącej Kornela Morawieckiego Krzyż Solidarności Walczącej oraz Krzyż Honorowy Solidarności Walczącej. Nadawany jest działaczom i współpracownikom Solidarności Walczącej. +Grupy Wykonawcze Solidarności Walczącej. +Grupy Wykonawcze Solidarności Walczącej to podziemna komórka Oddziału Warszawskiego SW powstała na początku 1986 w podwarszawskich Łomiankach. GW zostały utworzone z inicjatywy działaczy SW związanych z pismem "Alternatywa": Adama Cymborskiego, Tomasza Szostka i Jacka Guzowskiego. +Podstawowymi działaniami Grup Wykonawczych SW było prowadzenie akcji ulotkowych, wywieszanie transparentów, malowanie niepodległościowych haseł oraz ochrona uczestników demonstracji i wieców. Trzon grupy tworzyło dziesięć zaprzysiężonych osób, które dowodziły 4-6 osobowymi podgrupami. Wyznaczaniem zadań dla poszczególnych sekcji zajmował się Jacek Guzowski. GW wydawały pisma: "Warszawski Biuletyn Uliczny" oraz "WIS". +Program Solidarności Walczącej. +Solidarność Walcząca działała w oparciu o Program Organizacji SW tworzony od 1982, którego najpełniejsza wersja ukazała się w 1987. Od momentu powstania w swoim programie głosiła całkowity upadek komunizmu, niepodległość Polski i innych narodów zniewolonych przez komunizm, niepodległość republik radzieckich, zjednoczenie Niemiec przy zachowaniu narzuconych jałtańskim porządkiem granic powojennych. Proponując wizję Polski po upadku komunizmu, SW podkreślała potrzebę solidaryzmu społecznego i samorządności oraz odwoływała się do wartości wynikających z nauczania Kościoła. +Krzyż Solidarności Walczącej. +Odznaka pamiątkowa wprowadzona 16 kwietnia 2010 przez Przewodniczącego Solidarności Walczącej Kornela Morawieckiego dla upamiętnienia wysiłku członków i współpracowników organizacji w latach 1982–1991 oraz osób szczególnie zasłużonych w walce o "Wolność i Solidarność między ludźmi i narodami". Nadawany jest działaczom i współpracownikom Solidarności Walczącej. +Kapituła Krzyża Solidarności Walczącej liczy 25 osób powołanych jednorazowo przez Przewodniczącego Solidarności Walczącej, Kornela Morawieckiego. Krzyż nadawany jest w Polsce. Jego nadawanie zostanie uznane za zakończone z chwilą, gdy zostanie przy życiu mniej niż trzech członków Kapituły Krzyża. Krzyż Solidarności Walczącej noszony jest w kolejności po aktualnych polskich odznaczeniach państwowych. Autorką projektu Krzyża SW jest artystka-rzeźbiarka, Ludwika Ogorzelec, która także była zaprzysiężonym członkiem SW od początku jej istnienia w 1982 we Wrocławiu. +Zastrzyk trucizny + +Zastrzyk trucizny (ang. "lethal injection") – potoczna nazwa sposobu wykonywania egzekucji poprzez dożylne podanie śmiertelnej dawki trucizny w celu spowodowania śmierci. Jest obecnie najpopularniejszą metodą wykonywania kary śmierci w USA - po przywróceniu najwyższego wymiaru kary w tym kraju w 1976 roku, ponad 85% egzekucji przeprowadzono właśnie za pomocą zastrzyku trucizny. Stosowana również do eutanazji np. w Holandii. +Historia. +Historia tej metody sięga XIX wieku, kiedy władze Nowego Jorku poszukiwały "humanitarnej metody wykonywania kary śmierci". Propozycję zastrzyku wówczas odrzucono i zdecydowano się na krzesło elektryczne. Po 1976 roku (przywrócenie kary śmierci) poszukując alternatywy dla dotychczas stosowanych metod, zdecydowano się na zastrzyk. W 1977 Oklahoma została pierwszym stanem, który wprowadził tę metodę, jednak pierwsza egzekucja miała miejsce w Teksasie w 1982 roku, straconym był morderca Charles Brooks. +Pierwszą osobą straconą przez wstrzyknięcie trucizny w USA był niewolnik Nathan, którego egzekucja odbyła się 1 maja 1821 roku w Wirginii (dziś Wirginia Zachodnia). Był to jedyny taki przypadek do lat 80. XX wieku. +W chwili obecnej w każdym z 33 stanów USA, w których wykonywana jest kara śmierci, stosuje się tę metodę egzekucji, niekiedy jako alternatywę dla innych metod. Ostatnim stanem jaki adaptował zastrzyk trucizny była Nebraska w 2009 roku. Co miesiąc w USA wykonuje się kilka egzekucji za pomocą zastrzyku trucizny (w 2012 roku: 2 egzekucje w styczniu, 4 w lutym, 6 w marcu, 5 w kwietniu, 1 w maju, 5 w czerwcu, 1 w lipcu, 3 w sierpniu, 3 we wrześniu, 5 w październiku), zawsze do publicznej wiadomości podawane są personalia skazanego, jego zdjęcie oraz opis egzekucji. +Procedura. +Śmierć następuje w ciągu kilku minut i jest stwierdzana na podstawie wskazań kardiomonitora. +Alternatywne metody. +8 grudnia 2009 roku w Ohio przeprowadzono egzekucję za pomocą jednego środka – Tiopentalu w dawce 5 gramów. Skazany – Kenneth Biros – 10 minut po iniekcji zmarł. Dyrektor "Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Corrections." – Terry Collins – stwierdził, że egzekucja przebiegła bez problemów. +16 grudnia 2010 w stanie Oklahoma użyto podczas egzekucji pentobarbitalu - środka stosowanego do usypiania zwierząt (oprócz niego użyto również dwóch innych substancji). Skazaniec - John David Duty - w 2001 roku dopuścił się uduszenia współwięźnia prześcieradłem. Pentobarbital zastąpił stosowany wcześniej tiopental. 22 listopada 2010 Sąd federalny w Oklahomie udzielił pozwolenia na stosowanie tego środka podczas egzekucji jako substytutu tiopentalu. +Pytania kwestionariuszowe + +Pytania kwestionariuszowe w socjologii to pytania a właściwie pewne problemy do rozwiązania, które stawiane są respondentowi w czasie prowadzenia badań w oparciu o metodę wywiadu kwestionariuszowego sformułowane przez badacza i zapisane w kwestionariuszu. Zazwyczaj pytanie kwestionariuszowe ma formę zdania pytającego, lecz może być także sformułowane w formie zdania rozkazującego np. ‘’Proszę wybrać jedną z podanych niżej odpowiedzi’’. W takim przypadku badany musi mieć wgląd w listę odpowiedzi ustawionych na pewnej skali w formie kafeterii, które są odczytywane, jeśli pytania zadaje ankieter lub odczytuje je badany, gdy badania prowadzone są techniką ankiety. +Dopuszczalna ładowność + +Dopuszczalna ładowność według kodeksu drogowego jest to największa masa ładunku i osób, jaką może przewozić pojazd. Stanowi ona różnicę dopuszczalnej masy całkowitej i masy własnej pojazdu. +Stig Anderson + +Stig "Stikkan" Erik Leopold Anderson (ur. 25 stycznia 1931, zm. 12 września 1997) – szwedzki autor tekstów piosenek, kompozytor, menedżer i producent muzyczny. Założyciel wytwórni płytowej Polar Music i współtwórca sukcesów grupy muzycznej ABBA (jest współautorem tekstów kilku jej piosenek). +W 1989 ufundował nagrodę muzyczną Polar Music Prize. Przekazał na ten cel Szwedzkiej Akademii Muzyki 42 miliony koron szwedzkich. Jest laureatem nagrody Szwedzkiej Akademii Muzyki. +Karierę rozpoczął w wieku 19 lat jako kompozytor i autor tekstów. Największym sukcesem było zdobycie złotej płyty z artystą Klas-Göran. +W latach 60. założył wytwórnię "Polar Music International AB", która zajmowała się promocją lokalnych artystów. +Kontrakt z ABBĄ podpisał na początku istnienia grupy. +W 1989 sprzedał swą wytwórnię PolyGramowi. +Wielgomłyny + +Wielgomłyny – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie łódzkim, w powiecie radomszczańskim, w gminie Wielgomłyny. +W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa piotrkowskiego. +Miejscowość jest siedzibą gminy Wielgomłyny. +Atrakcją turystyczną jest zabytkowy klasztor paulinów. +Szkolnictwo: PSP w Wielgomłynach i PG w Wielgomłynach. Brak szkół średnich i wyższych. +Powiat rypiński + +Powiat rypiński – powiat w Polsce (we wschodniej części województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Rypin. +Stirlitz + +Stirlitz (właśc. Max Otto von Stierlitz, w oryginale ros. Штирлиц) – główny bohater książek Juliana Siemionowa i opartego na jednej z nich radzieckiego serialu telewizyjnego pod tytułem "Siedemnaście mgnień wiosny" w reżyserii Tatiany Lioznowej. W rolę głównego bohatera wcielił się Wiaczesław Tichonow. +Prawdziwe nazwisko Stirlitza to Wsiewołod Władimirowicz Władimirow (używający również operacyjnego pseudonimu Maksim Maksimowicz Isajew). Jako radziecki szpieg w randze SS-Standartenführera pracuje w Głównym Urzędzie Bezpieczeństwa Rzeszy (RSHA) w Berlinie. Serial powstał jako adaptacja powieści Juliana Siemionowa pod tym samym tytułem. Łącznie Siemionow napisał 12 powieści o Stirlitzu. +Stirlitz ze wszystkich opresji wychodzi bez szwanku. Konsekwencją tego fenomenu są niezliczone dowcipy, opierające się w większości na zasadzie konfrontacji inteligentnego Stirlitza z niezbyt bystrym Müllerem z RSHA. +Żółw słoniowy + +Żółw słoniowy ("Chelonoidis nigra") – gatunek jednego z największych żółwi na świecie. Podobny rozmiarem do żółwi olbrzymich z wysp Oceanu Indyjskiego. Jego pancerz grzbietowy może mieć 150 cm długości, a największy znaleziony osobnik mierzył prawie 3 metry i ważył 1000 kg. Na ogół za duże uważa się osobniki, których waga przekracza 200 kg, a wysokość dochodzi do 1 metra. Samce są zwykle większe od samic. Liczba jego podgatunków jest niepewna - wyróżnia się ich do 15, z czego 5 jest już wymarłych; nie jest pewne, czy podgatunki te nie stanowią w istocie odrębnych gatunków (patrz niżej). Żółwie słoniowe żyją na wyspach Galapagos. +Żółw słoniowy obok zięby Darwina stanowił dla autora teorii ewolucji Karola Darwina główny dowód zróżnicowania form zwierzęcych pochodzących od wspólnego przodka zajmujących odmienne biotopy lub odmienne wyspy. W 1835 roku przebywał on krótko na Galapagos i zauważył, że żółwie z poszczególnych wysp wyewoluowały w odmienne podgatunki pod wpływem różnych warunków środowiskowych. +Opis. +W stosunku do reszty ciała ich karapaks (górna część skorupy) jest bardzo duży. Wypukły, spadzisty karapaks jest z zewnątrz pokryty dużymi i gładkimi rogowymi tarczkami, od przodu wysoko uniesiony opada stromo ku tyłowi. Natomiast brak jest tarczki karkowej. Głowa mała osadzona na długiej szyi osłoniętej miękką skórą. Grube słupowate nogi (kształtem podobne do nóg słonia i stąd wzięła się nazwa tych żółwi) pokrywają duże tarczki, a palce zakończone są potężnymi pazurami. Podobnie jak inne żółwie nie mają zębów, a ich rolę spełniają ostre listwy rogowe, za pomocą których tną i miażdżą zjadaną roślinność. +Całe ciało jest jednolicie brunatne lub czarnawe. Karapaks niektórych osobników nad głową zakrzywia się w górę umożliwiając żółwiowi dosięganie wyższych roślin. +Poruszają się powoli na szeroko rozstawionych nogach w sposób typowy dla gadów. Takie ustawienie nóg powoduje, że więcej energii tracą na utrzymanie ciężaru ciała niż na rzeczywisty ruch. Wykonują powolne kroki noga za nogą zostawiając za sobą szeroki ślad. +Są długowiecznymi zwierzętami, gdyż w sprzyjających warunkach mogą dożyć nawet 300 lat. Dobrym przykładem może być żółw o imieniu Tu'i Malila, podarowany przez kapitana J. Cooka królowi Tonga ok. 1777 r. Jeszcze w 1949 r. był w dobrej formie, a umarł w 1965 roku w wieku ok. 188 lat. +Podgatunki. +Żółw słoniowy jest tradycyjnie klasyfikowany jako jeden gatunek; jednak zdaniem części autorów badania DNA mitochondrialnego żółwi z Galapagos dowodzą, że różnice między tradycyjnie wyróżnianymi podgatunkami żółwia słoniowego są na tyle duże, iż uzasadnione jest podniesienie ich do rangi odrębnych gatunków. Także Turtle Taxonomy Working Group od 2009 r. klasyfikuje tradycyjnie wyróżniane podgatunki żółwia słoniowego jako odrębne, choć blisko spokrewnione gatunki. 10 podgatunków/gatunków jeszcze żyje na swobodzie na wyspach: Santiago (ok. 800 żółwi), Pinzon (300), Santa Cruz (3000), San Cristobal (700), Española (120) i na Isabela na której rozróżnia się 5 podgatunków/gatunków żyjących na każdym z 5 wulkanów wyspy: Cerro Azul ( około 700), Sierra Negra (500), Alcedo (5000), Darwin (1000) i wulkanie Wolf (2000). +Pięć podgatunków/gatunków jest już wymarłych - z Fernandina, Santa Fe, Rábida, Floreana i Pinta, głównie z powodu polowań ludzi. Żółw z Santa Fe jest znany tylko z kości znalezionych na wyspie. +Pochodzenie. +Prawdopodobnie wszystkie podgatunki/gatunki żółwia rozwinęły się na Galapagos od wspólnego przodka, który został przyniesiony ze stałego lądu wraz z prądem morskim, a musiał być to Prąd Peruwiański. Chociaż to wydaje się nieprawdopodobne, faktem jest, że żółwie słoniowe potrafią pływać w morzu. Wystarczyłoby, że jedna zapłodniona samica albo para żółwi przebyłaby tę drogę np. na jakiejś pływającej wyspie z konarów drzew wyniesionej przez prąd rzeki po silnej ulewie na pełne morze by skolonizować wyspy. Jest wysoce prawdopodobne, że pierwszy żółw dopłynął do brzegów wyspy San Cristobal, a stamtąd jego potomkowie stopniowo rozproszyli się na pozostałe wyspy archipelagu tą samą drogą wraz z oceanicznym prądem. Najbliższym żyjącym krewnym żółwi słoniowych jest "Chelonoidis chilensis", mały żółw znaleziony w Chile. +Pierwotny przodek żółwi był prawdopodobnie przeciętnego rozmiaru, a rozwinął się do dzisiejszych dopiero po przybyciu na Galapagos. Jest to zjawisko zauważane w wielu ekosystemach, gdzie gigantyzm rozwija się tam, gdzie zwierzę nie ma wrogów, więc nie potrzebuje ukrywać się przed drapieżnikami, a także nie ma innych podobnych zwierząt, z którymi musiałoby współzawodniczyć o żywność. Żółwie ewoluowały na izolowanych wyspach do różnych podgatunków, które widzimy dzisiaj, niektóre mają pancerz w kształcie kopuły, a inne w kształcie siodła. Kształt siodła rozwinął się na różnych wyspach niezależnie od siebie, co świadczyłoby, że jest to udany projekt ewolucji. +Polowania. +W XVI wieku piraci zaczęli używać Galapagos jako bazy, czemu sprzyjało dogodne położenie archipelagu blisko szlaku hiszpańskich statków wywożących złoto Inków. Tutaj uzupełniali zapasy wody i naprawiali swoje statki między łupieżczymi wypadami na hiszpańskie kolonie w Ameryce Południowej. Bogactwem wysp były żółwie słoniowe, które były zabierane i przechowywane żywe na pokładach statków przez wiele miesięcy. Dlatego, iż są niewiarygodnie wytrzymałe na brak wody i pożywienia oraz skromne warunki tlenowe panujące pod pokładami statków, były one niegdyś wykorzystywane przez żeglarzy jako "żywe konserwy". +W XVIII wieku statki wielorybnicze i łowcy fok zabierali jako zapas świeżego mięsa po kilkaset żółwi, które mogły przetrwać na pokładzie (i w ładowni) wiele miesięcy bez jedzenia. Dużo więcej zabijali w celu uzyskania żółwiowego oleju. Od końca XVIII w. aż do początków XX w. ludzie, którzy tam się osiedlili polowali na nie dla mięsa i zagarnęli duże obszary pod rolnictwo. Osadnicy wprowadzili domowe zwierzęta, co miało zgubny wpływ na populację żółwi. +Nie wiadomo dokładnie, ile żółwi słoniowych żyło pierwotnie na wyspach, ale szacuje się, że więcej niż 100 000 było zabitych przez ludzi. W wyniku tego dzisiaj cztery podgatunki żółwia słoniowego są wygasłe. Żółwie obecnie przeniosły się dalej od brzegów i żyją w pobliżu zboczy wulkanów. Nielegalne polowania trwają, ale już w dużo mniejszej skali; mimo to od 1990 roku kłusownicy zabili ponad 120 żółwi słoniowych. +Pożywienie. +Żółwie wypełniły niszę, którą na stałym lądzie zajmują większe ssaki roślinożerne. +Żółw słoniowy żywi się prawie wszystkimi roślinami i owocami, także kaktusami. Nie pogardzi kwaśnymi i cierpkimi jagodami oraz plechami porostów. Z apetytem zjada trawę, owoce kaktusów i kwiaty. Gdy minie pora deszczowa, żółwie schodzą ze zboczy wulkanów na niziny, aby skubać świeżą trawę. Natomiast w czasie pory suchej wędrują w górę zboczy, gdzie jest więcej wilgoci i trawa pokrywa wilgotne łąki. Ich układ trawienny nie jest zbyt wydajny, ponieważ duży procent pokarmu wydalają nieprzetrawiony. Żółwie piją wodę, kiedy tylko na nią natrafią; są niezwykle wytrzymałe na brak pokarmu, bardzo długo (nawet kilka miesięcy) wytrzymują też bez wody. +Występowanie. +Występuje na wyspach Galapagos. Na każdej z wysp żyje inny podgatunek różniący się od innych kształtem i rozmiarami pancerza. Niektóre z nich przystosowały się do jedzenia niskorosnących roślin trawiastych, a u innych pancerz tak się wykształcił, że mogą wyciągać szyję wysoko i skubać liście z wyższych krzewów. +Środowisko życia. +Chociaż są zwierzętami lądowymi, to chętnie brodzą w płytkich wodach kiedy nadarzy się okazja. Lubią tereny o wilgotnym podłożu, zarówno nizinne jak i położone wyżej. +Rozmnażanie. +Dojrzałość seksualną osiągają prawdopodobnie w wieku około 40 lat. Sezon godowy zaczyna się zazwyczaj przy końcu gorącej pory między listopadem a kwietniem. Samiec ma wklęsłą nasadę przy skorupie i wchodzi na samicę od tyłu, przybliżając jej tył, w którym lokuje prącie, gdzie następuje kontakt z rodnym regionem samicy. Ten miłosny akt może trwać przez kilka godzin, w czasie których samce często wydają ochrypłe ryki. Samice idą potem nawet kilka kilometrów przeważnie w stronę wybrzeży, aby znaleźć dogodne miejsce do złożenia jaj. Miejsca te muszą mieć suchy, piaszczysty grunt i być dobrze nasłonecznione, aby mogły wykopać w nim gniazda oraz, aby jaja miały dostateczną ilość ciepła do inkubacji. Gdy znajdzie odpowiednie miejsce zaczyna tylnymi kończynami kopać jamkę o głębokości do 40 cm, gdzie potem złoży od 2 do 16 jaj białych, kulistych o rozmiarach piłek tenisowych (średnica ok. 5 cm). Samica zasypuje dołek piaskiem i zalepia dziurę ziemią zmieszaną z uryną, po czym odchodzi zostawiając potomstwo na łasce promieni słonecznych, w cieple których przechodzą proces inkubacji. Młode żółwie wylęgają się po około 130 dniach, wygrzebują się z dołka i zaczynają samodzielne życie, a ważą wtedy ok. 7 dekagramów. +Zachowanie. +Ogólnie wiodą spokojne, leniwe życie. Rano między 7:00 a 8:00 budzą się i wygrzewają w słońcu, aby podnieść temperaturę ciała. Są aktywne za dnia, spędzając czas na żerowaniu. Najgorętszą porę dnia przeczekują w cieniu schowane pod krzakami chroniąc się przed przegrzaniem. Około 4 albo 5 po południu zaczynają szukać miejsca, w którym spędzą chłodną noc. +Wieczorem zasypiają, często w osłoniętym wgłębieniu w gruncie albo wpół zanurzone w błocie lub wodzie, co najpewniej pomaga utrzymać dłużej ciepło. Piją wodę i lubią taplać się w wodzie i błocie. +Mają łagodne usposobienie. Dojrzałe samce nie są wobec siebie agresywne, a hierarchię między sobą ustalają na podstawie długości szyi. Zawody wygrywa ten, który potrafi wyżej wyciągnąć głowę, co dla drugiego samca żółwia oznacza wielkość i siłę przeciwnika. +W interesujący sposób pozbywają się kleszczy i innych pasożytów. Kiedy zobaczą ziębę Darwina albo przedrzeźniacza podnoszą się na nogach i wyciągają do góry szyję pozwalając małym ptakom usuwać pasożyty ze swojej skóry. Jest to klasyczny przykład symbiozy. Kiedy żółw czuje się zagrożony wciąga głowę, szyję i kończyny przednie do skorupy osłaniając się tarczą przed niedoszłym napastnikiem. Gdy żółwie ze skorupą w kształcie siodła tak robią, duża niechroniona luka pozostaje u szczytu ich skorupy. Pierwotnie to nie był problem ponieważ nie było żadnych naturalnych drapieżników na Galapagos. Zmieniło się to jednak kiedy ludzie sprowadzili psy, koty i inne zwierzęta, które potem zdziczały. Wszystkie 3 wygasłe podgatunki żółwia miały skorupę w kształcie siodła. +Ochrona. +Wyspy Galápagos są parkiem narodowym od 1959, chroniącym 97.5% obszaru archipelagu. UNESCO uznało wyspy jak Miejsce Światowego Dziedzictwa w 1978 r. Fundacja Karola Darwina została powołana do ochrony wysp w Belgii w 1959 r. +Żółwie z Galapagos nie są jeszcze wolne od zagrożeń. Domowe zwierzęta przywiezione na wyspy przez osadników zdziczały i żyją w Parku Narodowym powodując poważne problemy w ochronie populacji żółwi. Szczury, psy i świnie pożerają jaja i młode żółwie. Kozy i osły wyjadają szatę roślinną, bydło i konie tratują grunt zgniatając żółwie gniazda. Zdarzają się wypadki kłusownictwa, szczególnie na wyspie Isabela - w ten sposób zabito ok. 120 żółwi od 1990 r. +Dzięki utworzeniu na Galapagos Parku Narodowego zaczęto ratować zagrożone podgatunki żółwia słoniowego. W 1969 r. założono Stację Biologiczną Charles Darwin aby ratować 11 istniejących jeszcze podgatunków żółwia słoniowego. Jednym z najważniejszych zadań było ustabilizowanie środowiska życiowego dla żółwi. To wymagało wyrugowania z wysp wprowadzonych zwierząt. Jednocześnie zabierano złożone jaja, aby nie padły łupem zdziczałych zwierząt, a następnie poddawano procesowi inkubacji w stacji. Kiedy żółwie podrosły na tyle, by nie zagrażały im psy i szczury wypuszczano je na ich rodzimych wyspach. Te metody odniosły duży sukces i ochroniły populację żółwia na kilku wyspach takich jak Espaňola. W tym samym czasie usuwano wprowadzone zdziczałe zwierzęta. Chociaż kilka podgatunków żółwia słoniowego zostało uratowanych to wiele pracy jeszcze pozostaje do wykonania. +Zombie (komputer) + +Zombie (komputer zombie) - komputer przyłączony do Internetu, w którym bez wiedzy jego posiadacza został zainstalowany program sterowany z zewnątrz przez inną osobę. Celem takiego działania jest zazwyczaj wykorzystanie komputera do działań sprzecznych z prawem, jak ataki DDoS. Programy typu "backdoor" infekują zwykle maszyny użytkowników poprzez pocztę elektroniczną rozsyłaną masowo przez osoby kierujące takimi akcjami - przy braku odpowiednich zabezpieczeń posiadacze komputerów nie zdają sobie nawet sprawy, że są bezwolnym elementem szerzej zakrojonego działania. +Przykładem masowego wykorzystania komputerów "zombie" był atak przeprowadzony 1 lutego 2004 przez 250 tys. maszyn na serwery firmy SCO. Innym sposobem wykorzystania "zombie" jest wysyłanie spamu bez ujawniania prawdziwej tożsamości jego autorów. +Nazwa pochodzi od zombie. +Obrazy w mechanice kwantowej + +W mechanice kwantowej analizując rozwiązania niezależnego od czasu równania Schrödingera operujemy na niezależnych od czasu wektorach stanu formula_1. +Analiza równania Schroedingera zależnego od czasu prowadzi do +wektorów stanu zależnych od czasu, +formula_2 +Problem pojawia się, gdy chcemy rozważać operatory zależne od czasu - wtedy zarówno wektory stanów jak i same obserwable zmieniają się w czasie. +Aby uprościć analizę tego typu sytuacji rozważa się tzw. obrazy. +Zależność obserwabli od czasu. +Aby znaleźć zależność operatora od czasu obliczymy zupełną pochodną po czasie z elementu macierzowego operatora. +formula_3 +formula_4 +formula_7 +formula_8 +formula_10 +formula_11 +formula_12 +formula_13 +formula_14 +Które opisuje ewolucję czasową obserwabli. Ustalając konkretną postać operatora formula_15 otrzymujemy obrazy mechaniki kwantowej. +Obraz Schrödingera. +formula_17 +formula_18 +z którego wynika, że jeżeli obserwabla nie jest w jawny sposób zależna od czasu to jej operator nie zależy od czasu (jednak wartość średnia może zmieniać się w czasie, ponieważ wektory stanu ewoluują). +Obraz Heisenberga. +formula_20 +formula_21 +Obraz Diraca (Oddziaływania). +formula_22 +Gdzie formula_23 nazywamy zaburzeniem. +Platforma abrazyjna + +Platforma abrazyjna (także Bencz) – rodzaj przybrzeżnej powierzchni zrównania powstałej na skutek niszczenia brzegu morza lub dużego jeziora przez uderzające o brzeg fale, które rozkruszają i odrywają materiał skalny lub piasek. W związku z abrazją i falowaniem następuje przemieszczanie się materiału z klifu w stronę akwenu na długości załamywania się fal (przybój). Na przedpolu zniszczonego klifu powiększa się obszar właściwej platformy abrazyjnej, która tworzy płaską powierzchnię lekko nachyloną od lądu w kierunku morza. +Materiał skalny jest przeciągany przez fale w stronę morza i z powrotem do lądu, co skutkuje powstawaniem powierzchni abrazyjno-akumulacyjnej pokrytej cienką warstwą rumowiska. W pewnej odległości od klifu, w strefie najsilniejszego łamania się fal przyboju, na powierzchni abrazyjno-akumulacyjnej powstaje wał transportowanego materiału. Obszar właściwej akumulacji, gdzie odkłada się najwięcej rumowiska znajduje się za załomem ograniczającym platformę abrazyjną w stronę przybrzeża. +Na wybrzeżach podlegających pływom platformy abrazyjne mogę mieć znaczną szerokość. +Część platformy abrazyjnej, która znajduje się tuż obok niszczonego klifu to plaża. +Astoria Bydgoszcz + +Astoria Bydgoszcz – bydgoski klub sportowy założony 1 kwietnia 1924, przez długi czas funkcjonował jako wielosekcyjny KS Start - Astoria Bydgoszcz, dziś z wyodrębnionymi sekcjami: +Koszykówka. +Historia. +W sezonie 2003/2004 Astoria kupiła za 500 tysięcy złotych tzw. "dziką kartę" uprawniającą do gry w Era Basket Lidze. W sezonie tym po rundzie zasadniczej zajęła 9 miejsce i uczestniczyła w tak zwanych pre-playoffach, które przeszła z powodzeniem. We właściwych już play-offach nie dała rady pierwszemu po rundzie zasadniczej a po sezonie wicemistrzowi Polski Idei Śląsk Wrocław. W kolejnym sezonie bydgoszczanie uplasowali się na 5 pozycji, by po play-offach zając ostatecznie 6 lokatę, która jest najlepszą w historii bydgoskiej koszykówki. Sezon 2005/2006 zawodnicy z grodu nad Brdą rozegrają w Dominet Basket Lidze – nazwa ta zastąpiła Polską Ligę Koszykówki-najlepszą klasę rozgrywkową w Polsce. W Bydgoszczy w latach 2003 i 2004 rozegrano Mecz Gwiazd PLK. 29 marca 2003 Południe – Północ 92:86 i 24 stycznia 2004 Gwiazdy Era Basket Liga – Reprezentacja Polski w koszykówce 107:101. +18 maja 2007 walne zgromadzenie KS Start-Astoria podjęło uchwałę o samorozwiązaniu stowarzyszenia, już wcześniej sekcje usamodzielniły się i istnieją dalej jako nie zależne podmioty, kontynuujące tradycje klubu. +Nazwy. +Weltinex (90-91), Polfrost (91-92), Domar (94-7, Samsung (94-95), BFM (95-96), Kujawiak-Astoria (97-00), Astoria (00-02), Wody Mineralne Ostromecko / Astoria (02), teraz (07-): Kujawsko-Pomorska Szkoła Wyższa Astoria Bydgoszcz. +Sezony. +Sezon 2010/2011. +Terminarz 2010/2011. +I liga polska w koszykówce mężczyzn 2010/2011 +Sezon 2009/2010. +Terminarz 2009/2010. +II liga, grupa A. +Astoria zajęła 1 miejsce w lidze po sezonie zasadniczym, tym samym awansowała do rozgrywek play-off. Wygrała 27 pojedynków a 3 przegrała (w spotkaniach domowych bilans 14-1, podczas wyjazdowych 13-2), zdobyła przy tym 2771 punktów a straciła 2199 (stosunek 1.260). +Playoff. +W półfinale play-off Astoria zmierzyła się z czwartym zespołem po sezonie zasadniczym- Tur Bielsk Podlaski. Rywalizacja odbywała się do dwóch zwycięstw i zakończyła się zwycięstwem Astorii 2:0, która zmierzy się z SKK Siedlce, triumfatorem drugiego pojedynku z Norgips Piaseczno (2:0). Tylko zwycięzca (2:1) finałowej rozgrywki KPSW Astoria awansowała bezpośrednio do I ligi, pokonany SKK będzie musiał szukać szansy w turnieju barażowym. +Sezon 2008/2009. +Od sezonu 2008/2009 w II lidze występuju obowiązek gry przez całe spotkanie zawodnika urodzonego po dniu 31 grudnia 1985, zawodnik tej jest oznaczony biało-czerwoną opaską o szerokości 8 cm noszoną na prawym ramiączku koszulki +Terminarz 2008/2009. +Mecze których Astoria jest gospodarzem rozgrywane są w soboty o godzinie 17:00 +II liga, grupa A. +Astoria zajęła 3 miejsce w lidze po sezonie zasadniczym, tym samym awansowała do rozgrywek play-off. Wygrała 20 pojedynków a 6 przegrała (w spotkaniach domowych bilans 12-1, podczas wyjazdowych 8-5), zdobyła przy tym 2283 punktów a straciła 2042 (stosunek 1.118). +Playoff. +W półfinale play-off Astoria zmierzyła się z drugim zespołem po sezonie zasadniczym- RosaSport Radom. Rywalizacja odbywała się do dwóch zwycięstw i zakończyła się zwycięstwem RosaSport 2:0, który zmierzy się z AZS Politechnika Warszawską, triumfatorem drugiego pojedynku z ŻTS Nowy Dwór Gdański. Tylko zwycięzca finałowej rozgrywki AZS PW awansował do I ligi. +Sezon 2007/2008. +Klub wykupił tzw. "dziką kartę" czyli miejsce w organizowanych przez PZKosz rozgrywkach II ligi +Terminarz 2007/2008. +II liga, grupa A. +Astoria zajęła 4 miejsce w lidze po sezonie zasadniczym, tym samym awansowała do rozgrywek play-off. Wygrała 18 pojedynków a 8 przegrała (w spotkaniach domowych bilans 12-1, podczas wyjazdowych 6-7), zdobyła przy tym 2210 punktów a straciła 2084 (stosunek 1.06). +Play-off. +W półfinale play-off Astoria zmierzyła się z pierwszym zespołem po sezonie zasadniczym- ŁKS Łódź. Rywalizacja odbywała się do dwóch zwycięstw i zakończyła się zwycięstwem ŁKS 2:1, który zmierzy się z Bonduelle Gniewkowo, triumfatorem drugiego pojedynku z SIDEn Toruń. Tylko zwycięzca finałowej rozgrywki ŁKS Łódź awansował do I ligi. +Sezon 2006/2007. +"Zespół nie uzyskał licencji na rozgrywki Polskiej Ligi Koszykówki, przystąpił tylko do III ligi." +Sezon 2005/2006. +Terminarz 2005/2006. +Polska Liga Koszykówki. +Astoria po rundzie zasadniczej zajęła 10 pozycję i nie awansowała do rundy play-off. Wygrała 12, przegrywając 14 meczów i zbobyła 38 punktów. +Po niezakwalifikowaniu się do play-off Astorii pozostała gra o miejsca 9-12. Astoria zajęła po rozgrywkach play-outu 9 miejsce i jest to ostateczna pozycja bydgoskiego klubu w sezonie 2005/2006. +Sezon 1988/1989. +Młoda drużyna oparta na wicemistrzach Polski juniorów z 1988 awansowała z pierwszego miejsca w grupie B II ligi (bilans koszy 1660:1576) do ówczesnej I ligi (odpowiednika dzisiejszej ekstraligi) wraz ze zwycięzcą grupy A- Stalą Stalowa Wola, po barażach awansował także Spartakus Jelenia Góra. W kwietniu 1989 w turnieju finałowym Mistrzostw Polski juniorów zespół zajmuje 4. miejsce. +Pływanie. +Sekcja założona w 1962, jest jedną z najsilniejszych i najstarszych w województwie Kujawsko-pomorskim. +Basen 25-metrowy wybudowano z funduszy Totalizatora Sportowego. +Obecnie trenują w niej zawodnicy z roczników 88., 89., 90., 91. oraz młodsi. +Posiada dwa baseny: +Boks. +Bydgoskie Stowarzyszenie Boksu Astoria +Kajakarstwo. +Wodne Towarzystwo Sportowe Astoria +Sezon 2007. +X Mistrzostwa Polski w kajak-polo. +18-19 sierpnia 2007, Rzeszów +Sezon 2006. +IX Mistrzostwa Polski w kajak-polo. +29-30 lipca 2006, Kaniów +Seniorzy. +Wyniki. +4 miejsce +Seniorki. +Wyniki. +3 miejsce +Sezon 2004. +VII Mistrzostwa Polski w kajak-polo. +10-11 lipca 2004, Kaniów +Seniorzy. +Wyniki. +2 miejsce +Sezon 2003. +VI Mistrzostwa Polski w kajak-polo. +30-31 sierpnia 2003, Bydgoszcz +Seniorzy. +Wyniki. +2 miejsce +Sezon 2002. +V Mistrzostwa Polski w kajak-polo. +2002, Bydgoszcz +Seniorzy. +Skład. +Astoria I Bydgoszcz +Wyniki. +Astoria I - Włókniarz Chełmża 15:3, Astoria II - UKS Kormoran 5:1, Włókniarz Chełmża - Astoria II 1:7, UKS Kormoran - Astoria I 2:7, Włókniarz Chełmża - UKS Kormoran 4:5, Astoria I - Astoria II 7:2, UKS Kormoran - Set II Kaniów 7:2, Astoria I - UKS Set I Kaniów 6:0, Astoria II - BUKS Warszawa 3:2, Włókniarz Leśna - Astoria I 3:0, MOSK Wiking Tomaszów Mazowiecki - Astoria II 2:4, Astoria I - Astoria II 9:0, Kormoran - UKS Lubiana 4:3 ( mecz o 7 miejsce ), Astoria I - Włókniarz Leśna 2:1, Set I Kaniów - Astoria II 3:2, Włókniarz Leśna - Astoria I 2:3 +Ostateczna kolejność. +1 i 4 miejsce +Sezon 2001. +IV Mistrzostwa Polski w kajak-polo. +2001, Bydgoszcz +Sezon 2000. +III Mistrzostwa Polski w kajak-polo. +2000, Bydgoszcz +Piłka siatkowa. +Do 1973 roku silną dyscypliną w grach zespołowych była piłka siatkowa z sekcjami żeńską i męską oraz dobrze rozwiniętym własnym szkoleniem młodzieży. Siatkarki i siatkarze Astorii przewodzili w rozgrywkach wojewódzkich a także występowali przez kilka sezonów w silnej ówcześnie, ogólnopolskiej II Lidze. Wieloletnimi trenerami Astorii byli Czesław Kałamaja i Jan Remplewicz. Obecnie klub nie prowadzi już tej sekcji. +Władysław Bobowski + +Władysław Bobowski (ur. 19 marca 1932 w Tropiu) – polski biskup rzymskokatolicki, biskup pomocniczy tarnowski w latach 1974–2010, od 2010 biskup senior diecezji tarnowskiej. +Życiorys. +Święcenia kapłańskie przyjął 23 czerwca 1957. Wikariat sprawował w Ryglicach. Studiował dogmatykę na Katolickim Uniwersytecie Lubelskim oraz ascetykę w Rzymie. W latach 60. XX w. był katechetą w jednej z tarnowskich szkół podstawowych. Niedługo potem został sekretarzem ówczesnego biskupa tarnowskiego Jerzego Ablewicza. W 1969 na uniwersytecie w Rzymie obronił doktorat z teologii życia wewnętrznego. Po studiach wykładał w tarnowskim seminarium duchownym. +Sakrę biskupią przyjął 2 lutego 1975 w katedrze tarnowskiej. Jego dewizą biskupią są słowa: „To, co ludzkie, przebóstwiać”, a tytularną stolicą Abernethia. 2 lutego 2010 przeszedł na emeryturę. +Kalendarium historii Łotwy + +Kalendarium historii Łotwy +Dolina Krzyżna + +Dolina Krzyżna (słow. "Krížna dolina") – tatrzańska dolina położona na terenie Słowacji, dolne odgałęzienie Doliny Cichej ("Tichá dolina") podchodzące pod Krzyżne Liptowskie ("Krížne", 2039 m n.p.m.), którego ramiona oddzielają ją od sąsiednich dolin. +Rejon doliny zbudowany jest z łupków krystalicznych i gnejsów. Przez porośniętą lasem i kosodrzewiną dolinę płynie Krzyżny Potok ("Krížny potok"), zasilający Cichą Wodę Liptowską ("Tichý potok"). Dolina jest niedostępna dla turystów, od 1948 r. stanowi obszar ochrony ścisłej TANAP-u. +Pod koniec II wojny światowej w dolinie mieściła się baza oddziału partyzanckiego „Vysoké Tatry”. W listopadzie partyzanci zostali zaatakowani przez oddziały niemieckie i stoczyli z nimi potyczkę. Przypomina o tym ustawiony w 1968 r. pamiątkowy kamień w Dolinie Cichej na Niżniej Polanie Cichej, nieco powyżej wylotu Doliny Krzyżnej. +Hetman polny litewski + +Hetman polny litewski – jedna z najwyższych funkcji w wojsku polskim w okresie Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów. +Wkrótce po ustanowieniu instytucji hetmana, została ona podzielona na dwie funkcje o oddzielnych kompetencjach. Od 1579 tytuł hetmana stał się dożywotnim. +Hetman wielki w czasie pokoju pozostający przy dworze zajmując się ogólną administracją i strzegąc interesów wojska. +Hetman polny zwykle przebywał w polu z małymi oddziałami operacyjnymi, strzegąc granic, w szczególności na wschodzie, gdzie były najbardziej zagrożone jednocześnie prowadząc doraźne walki. Hetmani polni odpowiadali za wywiad, rozpoznanie i prowadzenie doraźnych walk (np. z Kozakami lub Tatarami). W trakcie bitwy pod zwierzchnictwem hetmana wielkiego dowodzili mniej prestiżowym lewym skrzydłem, a w razie jego braku przejmowali dowództwo. +Hetman polny litewski podlegał wielkiemu. Oba stanowiska istniały niezależnie dla Korony i Litwy. +Bibliografia. +Źródła +Opracowania +Sami Krounful + +Sami Krounful (ur. 1940, zm. 1 lutego 2005 w Bejrucie) - dyplomata libański. +W ciągu wieloletniej kariery dyplomatycznej pracował na placówkach w Rosji, Arabii Saudyjskiej, Kuwejcie, Maroku i Francji. W randze ambasadora reprezentował Liban w Tunezji, Maroku i Egipcie, a także przy Lidze Państw Arabskich. Od 2003 był stałym przedstawicielem Libanu przy ONZ. +Z powodu ciężkiej choroby (rak) miał zakończyć misję dyplomatyczną przy ONZ w kwietniu 2005, zmarł wcześniej w trakcie leczenia w Bejrucie. +Silnik graficzny + +Silnik graficzny – część kodu aplikacji odpowiedzialna za tworzenie grafiki (2D lub 3D) na ekranie komputera. Zawiera elementy konieczne do wykonywania złożonych matematycznych obliczeń i przekształceń elementów grafiki. +Silnik graficzny zajmuje się renderowaniem programowym bądź sprzętowym obrazu na zwykłym ekranie w czasie rzeczywistym. W przypadku grafiki trójwymiarowej oznacza to, że każda klatka obrazu musi zostać wygenerowana na tyle szybko, aby możliwe było swobodne 'poruszanie się' po trójwymiarowym świecie wirtualnym. Silniki graficzne do generowania obrazu 3D są czasami nazywane silnikami 3D. Do przyśpieszenia i wykonywania bardziej złożonych obliczeń mogą wykorzystywać wsparcie sprzętowe specjalizowanych procesorów graficznych oraz obsługujących je bibliotek graficznych takich jak DirectX czy OpenGL. +Przykładami takich silników mogą być Genesis3D, Irrlicht, OGRE, Antiryad Gx, Crystal Space, RAGE. +Choć zwykłemu posiadaczowi komputera kojarzą się przede wszystkim z grami, to są projektowane do wielu innych celów, np. wizualizacji projektowanych budynków czy wnętrz. Nie powinny być utożsamiane z silnikami gry. +QEMU + +QEMU - szybki emulator napisany przez Fabrice Bellarda i dostępny jako otwarte oprogramowanie. +QEMU umożliwia uruchomienie kilku systemów operacyjnych jednocześnie na jednej maszynie. Jest podobny do takich projektów jak Bochs czy PearPC, jednak ma kilka cech (np. większą szybkość i obsługę wielu architektur CPU), dzięki którym wyprzedza swoich konkurentów. +Tryby pracy. +QEMU pracuje w dwóch trybach emulacji: +Licencja. +Większość programu jest oparta na licencji LGPL, a sama część emulująca jest na GNU GPL. +Od 6 lutego 2007 również moduł kqemu (przyspieszający około 5-krotnie pracę QEMU) jest dostępny na licencji GNU GPL. Wcześniej moduł ten był darmowy, ale autor nie chciał udostępnić kodu źródłowego, dopóki nie uzyska bliżej nieokreślonej finansowej rekompensaty. Równolegle rozwijał się też otwarty odpowiednik tego modułu, qvm86, jednak, w związku z wydaniem programu VirtualBox na licencji GNU GPL, projekt ów został zamknięty na początku 2007 [http://savannah.nongnu.org/forum/forum.php?forum_id=4748]. +Prus (herb szlachecki) + +Prus I ("Półtora Krzyża, Słubica, Turzyna, Wagi, Wiskałła, Wiskawa, Wiszczała") - polski herb szlachecki. +Opis herbu. +"W polu czerwonym półtorakrzyża srebrnego. W klejnocie ramię zbrojne z mieczem, srebrne." +Najwcześniejsze wzmianki. +Po męczeńskiej śmierci Św. Wojciecha w 997 r. wielu Prusów przybyło do Polski i przyjęło chrześcijaństwo. Wśród pierwszych przybyłych byli trzej książęta pruscy, którym król Bolesław Śmiały nadał dobra w pobliżu Krakowa i herb Prusy. Zmiana nazwy na Prus nastąpiła w początkach XV w. +Pierwszy raz pojawia się w źródłach pisanych: 1389 - zawołanie i herb Turzyna; 1407 - proklamacja Wiskała. +Znane są następujące pieczęcie średniowieczne: 1456 - Tomasz Strzempiński, biskup krakowski; 1459 i 1468 - Jan z Pielgrzymowic, podsędek ziemski krakowski. +Sidney Lumet + +Sidney Lumet (ur. 25 czerwca 1924 w Filadelfii, zm. 9 kwietnia 2011 w Nowym Jorku) – amerykański reżyser, scenarzysta, aktor i producent filmowy. +Biografia. +Syn żydowskich aktorów Barucha Lumeta (urodzonego i zamieszkałego w Warszawie do 1920) i Eugenii Wermus. Po raz pierwszy wystąpił na scenie w wieku 4 lat w Yiddish Art Theatre, a na Broadwayu kilka lat później w sztuce Sidneya Kingsleya "Dead End". W 1939 zagrał w filmie Dudleya Murphy'ego "One Third of a Nation". +W latach 1942-46 służył w wojsku jako technik-radiolokator w rejonie Indiach i Birmy. Uczył sztuki aktorskiej w High School of Professional Arts. Od 1950 pracował w telewizji CBS (początkowo jako asystent reżysera, później samodzielny realizator), dla której zrealizował około 350 programów, w tym seriale, sztuki, między innymi: "You Are There", "Omnibus", "Best of Broadway", "Goodyear Playhouse", "Alcoa Theater". W 1955 debiutował na Broadwayu reżyserując sztukę Bernarda Shawa "The Doctor's Dilemma". +Lumet wyreżyserował ponad 40 filmów. Pierwszą nominację do Oscara otrzymał w 1958 za reżyserię sztuki Reginalda Rose "Dwunastu gniewnych ludzi" - swój kinowy debiut reżyserski (Grand Prix na MFF w Berlinie w 1957). Kolejne nominacje otrzymał za reżyserię filmów: "Pieskie popołudnie" (1975), "Sieci" (1976) oraz "Werdykt" (1982), a także za scenariusz do filmu "Książę Wielkiego Miasta" (1981). +27 lutego 2005 odebrał nagrodę honorowego Oscara za całokształt twórczości. +Był czterokrotnie żonaty; jego żonami były kolejno: Rita Gam (od 1949 do 1954), Gloria Vanderbilt (od 1956 do 1963), Gail Jones (od 1963 do 1978) i Mary Gimbel (od 1980 do śmierci w 2011). Ze związku z Jones miał 2 córki: Amy (ur. 1964) i Jenny (ur. 1967). +Zmarł w swoim domu na Manhattanie w Nowym Jorku. W ostatnim czasie cierpiał na nowotwór (chłoniaki). +Ułamek wagowy + +formula_1 +formula_2 +gdzie +Bestia z Gévaudan + +Bestia z Gévaudan – tajemnicze stworzenie zabijające w XVIII wieku ludzi we Francji, w okolicy Gévaudan (region położony w departamencie Lozère). +W okresie od 30 czerwca 1764 roku do 19 czerwca 1767 roku odnotowano 157 (według niektórych źródeł 179) ataków bestii, w tym 104 ze skutkiem śmiertelnym. Bestia napadała na dzieci i młodzież oraz na kobiety. Sprawozdania z epoki donoszą, że nigdy nie zginęła osoba płci męskiej powyżej 18 roku życia. +Pierwszą ofiarą była czternastoletnia Jeanne Boulet, zabita we wsi Hubacs, ostatnią dziewiętnastoletnia Jeanne Bastide, w dniu 17 czerwca 1767, którą znaleziono z rozszarpanym gardłem. W całym regionie panowała psychoza strachu i trwała jeszcze długo po ustaniu napadów. Kres morderczej działalności bestii położył Jean Chastel pochodzący z okolicznej parafii. +Opisy bestii z Gévaudan. +W sierpniu 1765 roku strażnik leśny, Rinchard, zastrzelił w lesie w Paulhac wyjątkowo dużego wilka. Ponieważ przez dwa miesiące nie było nowych ataków, sądzono, że siejąca grozę bestia została zabita. +"była wielkości rocznego cielaka, dużo zwinniejsza od wilka, miała długi, płowy grzbiet z ciemniejszą pręgą pośrodku, wzdłuż linii kręgosłupa i miała czerwonawe plamki na bokach i brzuchu, a także coś w rodzaju czarniawej grzywy przedłużającej się na szyję, miała potężny, bardzo szeroki pysk i dość długi ogon, którym poruszała, łapy były mocne i szerokie, zakończone wielkimi pazurami". +Powyższy opis odpowiada dość dokładnie innym, uzyskanym bezpośrednio od osób atakowanych przez bestię. Co ciekawe, wiele osób wspomina także o czymś w rodzaju guzików dostrzeżonych na brzuchu bestii. +Zależnie od opisu, nie był to wilk, lecz raczej "wielki pies, mieszaniec prawdopodobnie doga z chartem, wielkości rocznego byczka, z długą zjeżoną sierścią i wielką głową". +Kolejność i okoliczności wydarzeń w regionie Gévaudan. +Stworzenie zwane "Bestią z Gévaudan" działało bezkarnie przez trzy lata na ściśle ograniczonym terytorium (Gévaudan, Haut Gévaudan, Vivarais, Haut Vivarais, Vélay, Cantal i Margeride), którego środek wypadał w trójkącie mieszczącym się między trzema miejscowościami: Paulhac, Mont Mouchet i La Besseyre Saint Mary. W La Besseyre Saint Mary mieszkali bracia Chastel i Jean Chastel nazywany "Maską", którzy odegrali ważną rolę w dziejach bestii. +Miejscowości terroryzowane wokół Mont Mouchet leżą wszystkie na terenie gęsto zalesionym, górzystym i poprzecinanym licznymi wąwozami. Wielu autorów piszących o bestii z Gévaudan pomija fakt, że ten teren jest cały poryty szybami, korytarzami i galeriami podziemnymi licznych kopalni antymonu, z których wiele było wciąż czynnych w czasach działania bestii. Trzeba przyznać, że były to bardzo dogodne warunki do ukrywania się dla dowolnego stworzenia. Okoliczny las miał charakter bagienny. Wilki również zamieszkiwały te okolice, ale nigdy przed pojawieniem się "bestii" nie siały takiego postrachu. +Wiele osób próbowało zabić bestię, w tym także myśliwi, lecz bezskutecznie. Bestia (lub bestie) bywała postrzelona, jednak przez trzy lata uchodziła z życiem. Mieszkańcy nie widzieli związku między odległościami od miejsca zamieszkania Chastelów, ich szybką obecnością na miejscu ostatniej zbrodni, czy też masakry, a skutecznością jaką +w powstrzymaniu ataków bestii wywoływały jedynie ich działania. +Mieszkańcy okolic Gévaudan byli w tamtym okresie praktycznie bezbronni. W wyniku hugenockiego powstania kamizardów w Masywie Cévennes (1701 - 1705) oraz z powodu działalności słynnego bandyty, Louisa Mandrin (zabatożonego na śmierć w 1755 r.), skonfiskowano w regionie większość broni palnej. Chłopi musieli więc ograniczyć się do obrony za pomocą tzw. "noża z Aveyron", który osadzony na drzewcu służył podobnie jak bagnet. Większość pasterzy używała też zbrojonej żelazem pałki. +Warto zauważyć, że (na ilustracji przedstawiającej osaczoną bestię) zgodnie z klasycznymi zasadami symboliki heraldycznej, bestia jest "uzbrojona" (pazury), nosi "lampasy" (język), "oświecona" (oczy), pobrzydzona (płeć) - ale i otoczona. Podpis pod rysunkiem nosi charakterystyczny zapis: "Postać straszliwej bestii, o której sądzi się, że jest hieną". +Na rozkaz hrabiego de Moncan, wojskowego gubernatora Langwedocji, dość szybko podjęto wielkie polowania z nagonką na bestię. Np. 7 lutego 1765 r. zmobilizowano do nagonki ludność z 73 parafii, czyli kilka tysięcy osób. Jednak bez najmniejszego efektu. +Kolejne próby podjęli dwaj szlachcice sprowadzeni z Normandii, Dennevalowie, słynni myśliwi, pogromcy wilków. Przybyli oni w towarzystwie waleta, jednego człowieka z piką, sześciu z bronią białą i z dwoma wielkimi psami do polowań. Ten "zespół" dość szybko ubił sporo wilków, w tym niektóre wielkich rozmiarów, tym niemniej masakra ludności nie ustawała. Dennevalowie zwrócili się o pomoc do armii. Nieszczęśliwie się złożyło, że do akcji zostali skierowani dragoni, ci sami, którzy w niedawnej przeszłości zapisali się niechlubnie w pamięci mieszkańców jako sprawcy słynnych krwawych dragonad w czasie powstania kamizardów. Ci żołnierze byli więc znienawidzeni przez ludność, która mimo zagrożenia ze strony bestii znajdowała swoisty rewanż w kierowaniu ich na fałszywe tropy. +"20 000 uzbrojonych ludzi nie dało rady nieznanemu zwierzakowi, który po pożarciu 25 000 osób i całego transportu artylerii został następnego dnia pokonany przez zwykłą kotkę!". Z kolei Niemcy proponowali pomoc swoich lancknechtów, z którymi ostatnio nie wiedziano co począć. +Następnym pogromcą bestii został mianowany François Antoine, rusznikarz króla i Wielki Łowczy Wilków Królestwa. Ten myśliwy-dygnitarz przybył w towarzystwie 14 łowczych i sfory kilkudziesięciu psów. Wspomagała ich w akcji duża grupa miejscowej szlachty i żandarmów. Na miejscu był też syn Wielkiego łowczego, Antoine de Beauterne. +Przy tej okazji wydarzyła się poważna sprzeczka z braćmi Chastel, którzy świadomie narazili życie dwóch szlachciców powodując ich upadek z końmi do ciasnego wąwozu. Bracia zostali uwięzieni, a w czasie ich nieobecności nikt nie poniósł szkody ze strony bestii... Bracia Chastel zostali zwolnieni z więzienia po czasie niewspółmiernie krótkim do winy, nawet jak na ówczesne standardy, dzięki wstawiennictwu "wysoko postawionej osoby". Była nią prawdopodobnie krewna markiza d'Apcher (lub d'Apchier). +Jean Chastel (ojciec) otrzymał rozkaz zaprowadzenia porządku. W czasie najbliższego polowania, zorganizowanego przez markiza d'Apchera, ubił bestię używając poświęconych srebrnych kul - i od tego czasu nikt już nie zginął. Jean Chastel zdążył na widok zbliżającej się bestii złożyć okulary, pomodlić się, przystawić rusznicę do ramienia i wystrzelić. Przez 10 dni markiz d'Apcher przyjmował w swoim zamku gratulacje. W końcu zapanował porządek. +Następstwami tych wydarzeń były zniszczenia dokonanie w miejscach, z którymi związani byli bracia Chastel. Dom Chastelów w La Besseyre Saint Mary został zburzony, podobnie zamek w Besset (kwatera główna Antoine'a de Beauterre), kaplica Matki Boskiej z Beaulieu, przy której odbyła się ostatnia przed ubiciem bestii procesja i zostały poświęcone trzy kule, których Jean Chastel użył do zabicia bestii. Zburzono także leśny dom Antoine'a Chastela położony na szczycie Mont Mouchet. Powstrzymano się przed zburzeniem siedziby Jeana Charles'a de Molette, hrabiego Morangiès. Mieści się tam obecnie renomowany szpital psychiatryczny. +Czym lub kim była bestia z Gévaudan? +Występowały różne próby interpretacji zjawiska masakry z Gévaudan. +Współczesne wnioski. +Dzisiejsi badacze zjawiska bestii z Gévaudan dzielą się na zwolenników poszczególnych hipotez: przyjmując jedną z nich, usiłują oddalić fakty, które do niej nie pasują. Jednak fakty nie są jednoznaczne. Wskazują na kilka różnych rodzajów ataku, w tym na perwersyjne związane z agresją seksualną. Niektóre ofiary były ewidentnie zaatakowane przez zwierzę, inne niekoniecznie. Wiele przemawia za tym, że sprawcami byli ludzie i ich tajemnicze zwierzęta. Także za tym, że sprawcy mogli pochodzić z najwyższych kręgów i posługiwać się wynajętymi zbirami. Po tym jak przebrali miarę, musieli się uciszyć, a kompromitujące ślady zostały zatuszowane. Jednak nie do końca, gdyż kilka lat później fala podobnie bestialskich zbrodni przetoczyła się przez nieodległe miasteczko Vivrais. +Bestia w filmie. +Działalność bestii jest tematem filmu "Braterstwo wilków" ("Le Pacte des loups") w reżyserii Christophe'a Gansa (Francja 2001). Film przyjmuje wersję, że bestia była drapieżnym zwierzęciem kotowatym z Afryki (lwem lub lampartem) albo też hieną, ucharakteryzowaną i tresowaną do napaści na ludzi przez grupę zbrodniczych arystokratów i duchownych o antyoświeceniowych poglądach, zamierzających sterroryzować mieszkańców Francji rzekomym "bożym gniewem" za oświeceniowy racjonalizm. +Intermedia + +Intermedia – projekt hipertekstowy opracowany na Brown University, trzeci publicznie znany po HES (1967) i FRESS (1969). +System Intermedia został zainicjowany w 1985 przez Normana Meyrowitza, który był także zaangażowany we wcześniejsze badania uniwersyteckie nad hipertekstem. Projekt zbiegł się w czasie z utworzeniem Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship (IRIS). +Projekt został uruchomiony na systemie A/UX v. 1.1. Programowano go za pomocą języka zorientowanego obiektowo i standardowych funkcji bazodanowych. Obsługiwał dwukierunkowe odsyłacze między elementami tekstowymi i graficznymi oraz zawierał metainformacje o autorze, dacie utworzenia, tytule i wyrazach kluczowych. Informacja o odsyłaczach była składowana oddzielnie, poza głównym tekstem. Każdy użytkownik Intermedii mógł tworzyć własny zbiór powiązanych informacji - system był wielodostępny, z trzema poziomami uprawnień - czytania, pisania i adnotowania - podobnych do uprawnień w Uniksie. +System wymagał 4 MB pamięci operacyjnej i 80 MB miejsca na dysku. Był też ściśle związany z mało popularnym klonem Uniksa, uruchamianym na maszynach Macintosh - był więc nieprzenośny. W 1991 r., po zmianach dokonanych w AU/X i wskutek braku funduszy, projekt Intermedia został zakończony. +EN71 + +EN71 (typ "5Bh"+"6Bh"+"6Bh"+"5Bh", "5B"+"6B"+"6B"+"5B" i "5Bg"+"6Bg"+"6Bg"+"5Bg") – normalnotorowy czterowagonowy niskoperonowy elektryczny zespół trakcyjny, skonstruowany na bazie trójwagonowego EZT serii EN57, od którego różni się dodatkowym wagonem silnikowym. 20 zestawów tej serii zostało wyprodukowanych dla PKP przez PaFaWag Wrocław w 1976, a kolejnych 31 powstało przez zestawianie pojedynczych członów zestawów EN57 w lokomotywowniach. +Historia. +Geneza. +Zespoły serii EN71 zaprojektowano we wrocławskim PaFaWagu z myślą o obsłudze zelektryfikowanej w 1975 linii kolejowej Kraków - Zakopane. Występowały na niej bowiem specyficzne warunki eksploatacyjne, z którymi nie dawały sobie rady zespoły serii EN57. To właśnie na ich podstawie opracowano nową serię pojazdów, zwiększając ich moc i polepszając inne właściwości jezdne poprzez dostawienie jednego wagonu silnikowego. +Produkcja. +W 1976 PaFaWag dostarczył DOKP Kraków 20 jednostek serii EN71. W 1980 włączono do tej serii dwie sztuki EN57, które kursowały w zestawieniu czterowagonowym. Od 1984 w ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki" i lokomotywowniach dokonywano zestawiania EN71 z członów EN57. +Zakończenie produkcji. +Produkcja seryjna miała miejsce tylko w 1976 i objęła 20 sztuk tego EZT. Nie jest jednak nigdzie jednoznacznie powiedziane, że nie powstaną kolejne zespoły EN71. Na przykładzie działań ZNTK MM i lokomotywowni widać, że łatwo jest stworzyć taką jednostkę na bazie jej trójwagonowego protoplasty. Co więcej, do polskiego taboru kolejowego włączane są powracające z Jugosławii i modernizowane jednostki, które zestawia się w składy czterowagonowe i oznacza jako EN71. +Konstrukcja. +Nadwozie. +EN71 składa się z czterech wagonów - dwóch rozrządczych i dwóch silnikowych. Wagony rozrządcze (fabryczne oznaczenie "5B") są wagonami skrajnymi i oznaczane są na PKP jako "ra" i "rb" (wagon rozrządczy "a" i "b"). Wagony silnikowe (fabryczne oznaczenie "6B") znajdują się w środku składu i noszą oznaczenia "sa" i "sb" (wagon silnikowy "a" i "b"). Zastosowanie dwóch wagonów silnikowych miało na celu zwiększenie mocy istotne szczególnie w przypadku linii górskich. Wagony są połączone ze sobą tzw. krótkim sprzęgiem „fabrycznym” (bez głowicy, nierozłączalnym w warunkach eksploatacyjnych), oraz przejściem dla pasażerów. Na czołach wagonów sterowniczych (początek i koniec zespołu) zastosowano tzw. sprzęgi długie (samoczynne sprzęgi Scharfenberga), które umożliwiają połączenie zespołów w składy. Jednostki EN71 są przystosowane do jazdy w trakcji ukrotnionej z jednostkami tej samej serii oraz z seriami EN57 i ED72. Nie ma możliwości przejścia pomiędzy połączonymi jednostkami. +Ostoja każdego z wagonów jest wykonana z profili walcowych i tłoczonych lub zgiętych blach. Tworzą one szereg belek podłużnych, zwanych podłużnicami lub ostojnicami, orz belek poprzecznych, zwanych poprzecznicami. Całość konstrukcji jest spawana. Czołownice i belki skrętowe, które są szczególnymi miejscami w ostoi, wykonano jako konstrukcje skrzynkowe, zapewniając ich dużą wytrzymałość. +Pierwszych 20 sztuk posiada ryflowane boki pudła. Jednostki o numerach od 21 wzwyż zbudowane są z członów zespołów EN57 i mogą posiadać człony z blachą gładką i ryflowaną. +Wnętrze i przestrzeń pasażerska. +W każdym z wagonów znajdują się trzy przedziały ze środkowym przejściem między siedzeniami dostępne dla podróżnych, rozdzielone dwoma przedsionkami – każdy z parą rozsuwanych automatycznie, napędzanych pneumatycznie drzwi o szerokości 1300 mm. Skrajne przedziały wagonów rozrządczych są nieco inaczej urządzone (przy ścianach bocznych są rozkładane siedzenia, obok nich znajduje się dodatkowa para ręcznie otwieranych drzwi) i w zależności od potrzeb mogą służyć za pomieszczenie dla kierownika pociągu lub przedziały służbowe, bagażowe, do przewozu rowerów, wózków itp. większych bagaży. Do kabiny maszynisty można dostać się z nich przez otwierane drzwi. W odróżnieniu od EN57, seryjne jednostki EN71 (numery 001-020) wyposażone są w stojaki na narty umieszczone przy drzwiach w środku przedziałów w miejscu siedzeń. Reszta wyposażenia jest tożsama z wyposażeniem zespołów EN57. +Podwozie. +Każdy z wagonów skrajnych jest oparty na dwóch wózkach tocznych o rozstawie osi 2700 mm, średnicy czopów 130 mm, średnicy wału 160 mm i rozstępie oparcia resorów między czopami 1980 mm. Koła wózków tocznych są wykonane ze stali St65P, mają średnicę 940 mm, szerokość 135 mm i grubość 65 mm w stanie nowym (30 mm w stanie zużytym). Każdy z wagonów środkowych oparty jest na dwóch wózkach napędnych o rozstawie osi 2700 mm, średnicy czopów 130 mm, średnicach wału 170 mm i 175mm oraz rozstępie oparcia resorów między czopami 1980 mm. Koła wózków napędnych są wykonane ze stali 70P, mają średnicę 1000 mm, szerokość 135 mm i grubość 75 mm w stanie nowym (35 mm w stanie zużytym). Wózki te są wyposażone w obręczowe zestawy kołowe, amortyzatory hydrauliczne, resory piórowe i sprężyny śrubowe. Rozstawy czopów skrętu wynoszą dla wagonów skrajnych i wagonów środkowych odpowiednio 14 900 mm i 15 870 mm. +Zasilanie i napęd. +Prąd stały o napięciu 3000 V, przesyłany linią napowietrzną, odbierany jest przez cztery odbieraki prądu zamontowane na dachach członów środkowych. Napędza on osiem silników trakcyjnych, znajdujących się na osiach wózków napędnych wagonów środkowych. Szafy niskiego napięcia umieszczone są wewnątrz wagonów środkowych, wzdłuż jednej ze ścian bocznych. +W EN71 zastosowano przestarzały już w okresie ich budowy rozruch oporowy. +Modernizacje. +EN71AC. +W 2009 nowosądecki Newag wygrał przetarg na modernizację jednej sztuki EZT serii EN71 o numerze 045 dla SKM Trójmiasto. Zakres modernizacji objął zmianę rozruchu z oporowego na impulsowy, silników na asynchroniczne oraz wiele udogodnień dla pasażerów, w tym między innymi nowoczesną ubikację w obiegu zamkniętym, stojaki na rowery oraz windy i miejsca dla niepełnosprawnych. +W dniach 14-16 października 2009 jednostka "EN71AC"-045 została zaprezentowana podczas Międzynarodowych Targów Kolejowych "Trako 2009" w Gdańsku. +EN71KM. +Modernizacja "EN71KM" objęła 4 sztuki jednostek EN71, które w 2010 ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki" kupił od kolei chorwackich ( "Hrvatske željeznice"), a następnie zmodernizował i odsprzedał Kolejom Mazowieckim. Składy otrzymały nowe czoła, wnętrze dostosowane do przewozu rowerów i osób niepełnosprawnych oraz zmodernizowane wózki, pozostawiono w nich jednak stare silniki i rozruch oporowy. +EN71AKŚ. +14 września podpisano umowę ze spółką Newag na 7 letni leasing 2 zmodernizowanych EN71. Zmodernizowane EN71AKŚ dostarczono w grudniu tego roku. +Eksploatacja. +Zespół trakcyjny serii EN71 eksploatowany jest przez czterech przewoźników krajowych. +Przewozy Regionalne. +Zespoły te powstały z myślą o obsłudze linii na obszarach górzystych, gdzie jednostki EN57 nie zawsze dawały sobie radę. Przede wszystkim chodziło o zelektryfikowaną w 1975 trasę z Krakowa do Zakopanego. W kolejnych latach rozpoczęto ich eksploatację także na trasie do Krynicy i Szklarskiej Poręby. Na początku lat 90. zmodernizowane, wyposażone bardziej wygodnie (m.in. przedział pierwszej klasy i nowe malowanie) jednostki EN71 zaczęto eksploatować jako pociągi RegioPlus, zastąpione później zespołami ED72. +SKM Trójmiasto. +Trójmiejski przewoźnik dysponuje 14 sztukami EN71. Noszą one numery: 035, 038-040, 042 i 044-052. +Jednostka o numerze 046 była przejściowo eksploatowana przez Szybką Kolej Miejską w Warszawie. +Numer 045 został gruntownie zmodernizowany - diametralnie zmienione zostało wnętrze pojazdu, które zostało dostosowane dla osób niepełnosprawnych i przystosowane do przewozu rowerów, zamontowano rozruch impulsowy i silniki asynchroniczne, co pozwoliło znacznie poprawić właściwości jezdne pojazdu. Zakres tej modernizacji określa się często jako "EN71AC". +Koleje Mazowieckie. +W barwach Kolei Mazowieckich jeździ 6 sztuk EZT serii EN71. Wszystkie z nich zostały kupione przez ZNTK "Mińsk Mazowiecki" od kolei chorwackich ( "Hrvatske željeznice"), a następnie zmodernizowane i odsprzedane Kolejom Mazowieckim. +Pierwszą jednostkę zmodernizowano na początku czerwca 2007 i oznaczono numerem 100, kolejne doczekały się modernizacji w roku 2010. Numery od 102 do 105 oznaczono jako "EN71KM", mimo że zakres ich modernizacji nie obejmował zamontowania rozruchu impulsowego, jak to miało miejsce w przypadku modernizacji "EN57KM". +Jugosławia. +12 jednostek zostało w latach 1965-1966 wyeksportowanych do Jugosławii. Otrzymały tam oznaczenie "311/315-100" (311 to wagon rozrządczy, 315 – silnikowy). Kolejna seria 14 jednostek została dostarczona w latach 1974-1975 i otrzymały one oznaczenie "311/315-200". Obecnie pozostałe egzemplarze kursują w ramach kolei słoweńskich ( "Slovenske železnice"), a 10 sztuk sprzedanych zostało do Włoch. Jednostki słoweńskie zostały zmodernizowane w latach 2000-2002 poprzez montaż nowych silników firmy Siemens AG. W Jugosławii nosiły one przezwisko "gomułek" od nazwiska Władysława Gomułki, za którego czasów zostały wprowadzone do eksploatacji. +Kilka jednostek wróciło do Polski. Obecnie osiem z nowymi czołami kursuje w barwach Kolei Mazowieckich (6 czteroczłonowych EN71 i 2 trójczłonowe EN57), a dwie zostały zmodernizowane przez Newag dla Kolei Śląskich. +Michał Krasenkow + +Michał Krasenkow, ros. Михаил Владимирович Красенков (ur. 14 listopada 1963 w Moskwie) – polski szachista i trener szachowy ("FIDE Senior Trainer" od 2012) pochodzenia rosyjskiego, arcymistrz od 1989 roku. +Biografia. +Z wykształcenia inżynier-matematyk. Pierwsze znaczące sukcesy osiągnął w ZSRR (m.in. mistrz Gruzji 1987). Do Polski wyemigrował w 1992, od 1996 posiada polskie obywatelstwo i reprezentuje Polskę na arenie międzynarodowej. Dwukrotny mistrz Polski (2000, 2002), wicemistrz w latach 1997, 2001 i 2004. Posiada nieoficjalny rekord zwycięstw w Drużynowych Mistrzostwach Polski w szachach - 14: w barwach drużyn Stilon Gorzów Wielkopolski (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998) i Polonia Plus GSM Warszawa (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2009). Zwycięzca Klubowego Pucharu Europy (1997, w składzie rosyjskiej drużyny Ładia Azow) oraz srebrny medalista (2001, 2003 i 2005, w składzie Polonii Plus GSM Warszawa, 2008 w składzie OSC Baden-Baden). +Reprezentował Polskę na olimpiadach szachowych (1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004) oraz drużynowych mistrzostwach Europy (1997 - zdobył brązowy medal na I szachownicy; 1999 - srebrny medal na I szachownicy; 2001; 2003). +Trener i autor wielu artykułów o tematyce szachowej oraz autor dwóch książek szachowych wydanych w języku angielskim. W roku 2000 jako pierwszy z Polaków pokonał poziom 2700 punktów rankingowych, uzyskując w lipcu i październiku tego roku 2702 i zajmując 10. miejsce w klasyfikacji światowej. +Życie prywatne. +Żoną Michała Krasenkowa jest rosyjska mistrzyni międzynarodowa, Jelena Krasenkowa. +Rozmowy w Magdalence + +Rozmowy w Magdalence – spotkania władz państwowych PRL z przedstawicielami NSZZ Solidarność, odbywające się od 16 września 1988 roku w ośrodku konferencyjnym MSW Magdalence pod Warszawą(). Początkowo odbywały się w Warszawie w willi przy ulicy Zawrat. +Celem rozmów było przygotowanie obrad Okrągłego Stołu. Jednak nieporozumienia w obozie władzy spowodowały bardzo szybkie przerwanie spotkań. +Dopiero początek 1989 roku przyniósł w PZPR wzrost siły grupy reformatorów i 27 stycznia 1989 roku mikrobusy przywoziły do Magdalenki ekipy gen. Czesława Kiszczaka i Lecha Wałęsy. +Już 6 lutego 1989 w Warszawie rozpoczęły się obrady Okrągłego Stołu. Niebawem utknęły w martwym punkcie i 2 marca 1989 rozpoczęła się druga tura rozmów w Magdalence – rozpatrywano tam najbardziej sporne kwestie z obrad Okrągłego Stołu. +W rozmowach w Magdalence uczestniczyli przedstawiciele Kościoła katolickiego – ks. Alojzy Orszulik, ks. abp Bronisław Wacław Dąbrowski, ks. bp Tadeusz Gocłowski. +W czasie obrad Okrągłego Stołu odbyło się 5 spotkań w Magdalence (spotkania odbywały się też czasem w gmachu URM) - w czasie tych spotkań przygotowywano stanowiska wspólne, które znane były potem jako ustalenia Okrągłego Stołu. +W sumie tzw. Grupa Magdalenka spotykała się 13 razy – były to spotkania robocze i spotkania współprzewodniczących grup. +Spotkania były protokołowane - zajmowali się tym: Krzysztof Dubiński, Kazimierz Kłoda, Jacek Ambroziak. +W spotkaniach w Magdalence udział brali (w różnych zespołach i składach osobowych): gen. Czesław Kiszczak, Stanisław Ciosek, Artur Bodnar, Jan Janowski, Jan Jarliński, Mieczysław Krajewski, Harald Matuszewski, Jerzy Ozdowski, Romuald Sosnowski, Bolesław Strużek, Jan Szczepański, Tadeusz Szymanek, Stanisław Wiśniewski, Andrzej Gdula, Bogdan Królewski, Janusz Reykowski, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, Ireneusz Sekuła, Jerzy Uziębło, Władysław Baka, Jan Błuszkowski, Leszek Grzybowski. +Lech Wałęsa, Andrzej Stelmachowski, Władysław Frasyniuk, Lech Kaczyński, Władysław Liwak, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Jacek Merkel, Alojzy Pietrzyk, Edward Radziewicz, Bronisław Geremek, Mieczysław Gil, Witold Trzeciakowski, Adam Michnik, Zbigniew Bujak, Jacek Kuroń, Andrzej Wielowieyski, Ryszard Bugaj. +Albert Uderzo + +Albert Uderzo (ur. 25 kwietnia 1927 w Fismes) – francuski rysownik i scenarzysta komiksowy pochodzenia włoskiego. Znany m.in. z serii o Asteriksie i Umpa-pa, stworzonymi we współpracy z Rene Goscinnym. +Biografia. +Wczesne życie. +Urodził się jako Alberto Aleandro Uderzo w Fismes (Marna, Francja), w rodzinie włoskich imigrantów. Obywatelstwo francuskie otrzymał w 1934. Podczas II wojny światowej przeniósł się z Paryża do Bretanii, gdzie pracował na farmie i pomagał ojcu w prowadzeniu firmy meblarskiej. +Po wojnie rozpoczął karierę jako rysownik. Stworzył takie komiksy jak "Flamberge", "Clopinard", "Belloy l'Invulnérable" czy "Arys Buck". +Współpraca z René Goscinnym. +W 1951 spotkał René Goscinnego i rozpoczął z nim współpracę. Ich pierwsze prace to Umpa-pa, "Jehan Pistolet" i "Luc Junior". W 1958 zaczęli publikować Umpa-pa w magazynie komiksowym "Tintin" (do 1962). W 1959 zostali edytorami magazynu komiksowego "Pilote". 29 października 1959 opublikowali w nim pierwszy odcinek Asteriksa, który wkrótce został najpopularniejszym komiksem we Francji. W 1961 wydany został pierwszy osobny tom przygód Asteriksa: "Astérix le gaulois". Co roku autorzy publikowali dwa kolejne odcinki. Po śmierci Goscinnego w 1977 Uderzo dalej publikuje kolejne tomy komiksu o Asteriksie (z mniejszą częstotliwością), podpisując je "Goscinny et Uderzo". +Rodzina. +Jest żonaty i ma jedną córkę. Brat, Marcel Uderzo (ur. 1933) jest również rysownikiem komiksów. +Odznaczenia. +W 1985 został odznaczony Legią Honorową V klasy. W 2005 został włączony do "hali sław" ("Hall of Fame") Nagrody Eisnera. W 2007 roku odznaczony został Orderem Lwa Niderlandzkiego. +AMD Am286 + +AMD Am286 – mikroprocesor firmy AMD produkowany na licencji i 100% zgodny z procesorem Intel 80286. Intelowska wersja tego procesora miała maksymalną prędkość 12,5 MHz, najszybsza wersja AMD była taktowana zegarem o częstotliwości 20 MHz. +Arsène Wenger + +Arsène Wenger, OIE (wym. ; ur. 22 października 1949) – francuski trener i były piłkarz. Od 1996 roku prowadzi klub angielskiej Premier League Arsenal F.C.. Jest najbardziej utytułowanym, a także najdłużej pracującym menadżerem w historii klubu. Wenger jest pierwszym niebrytyjskim menadżerem, któremu udało się skompletować dublet (w 1998 i 2002 roku). Jemu także jako jedynemu szkoleniowcowi w historii angielskiej ekstraklasy udało się przejść cały sezon bez porażki (sezon 2003/04). Dzięki sukcesom jakie osiągał z Arsenalem, a wcześniej z Monaco, Wenger uważany jest za jednego z najlepszych menadżerów na świecie. Kawaler Legii Honorowej. W 2003 roku odznaczony Orderem Imperium Brytyjskiego. +Francuz posiada tytuł elektrotechnika oraz magistra ekonomii, które zdobył na Uniwersytecie w Strasburgu. Oprócz francuskiego, biegle posługuje się językami niemieckim, hiszpańskim i angielskim oraz w mniejszym stopniu włoskim i japońskim. +Kariera zawodnicza. +Zadebiutował jako zawodowy piłkarz w drużynie RC Strasbourg w meczu przeciwko AS Monaco w 1978. Nigdy jednak nie zrobił kariery jako zawodnik i od 1981 poświęcił się pracy trenerskiej, zaczynając od młodzieżowej drużyny Strasburga. +Kariera trenerska. +Pierwszym klubem w którym Arsene Wenger został pierwszym trenerem było francuskie Nancy. Pracował tam 3 lata a póżniej, w 1987 roku został trenerem AS Monaco. Z klubem tym wygrał w 1988 roku "Ligue 1" i Puchar Francji w 1991 roku. W 1992r. doszedł z Monaco do finału Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów, lecz uległ w nim 2 - 0 Werderowi Brema. W czasie, gdy trenerem Monaco był Arsene Wenger, grali w nim tacy zawodnicy jak Glenn Hoddle, George Weah, czy Jürgen Klinsmann. +Emmanuel Petit, Marc Overmars i Nicolas Anelka. +W następnym sezonie Arsenal zakończył rozgrywki o mistrzostwo angielskiej Premiership na drugim miejscu. Londyńczyków wyprzedził Manchester United, ta sama drużyna wyeliminowała Kanonierów z rozgrywek F.A. Cup, strzelając gola w dogrywce. Potem Arsenal przegrał także w finale Pucharu UEFA z Galatasarayem Stambuł, The Gunners gorzej wykonywali rzuty karne. W 2001 roku Arsene Wenger znowu nie miał szczęścia, bowiem Arsenal przegrał w finale F.A. Cup z Liverpoolem 1 - 2. Wtedy też do składu dołączyli tacy zawodnicy jak Sol Campbell, Fredrik Ljungberg, Robert Pires i Thierry Henry. +Arsene Wenger nie kazał długo czekać kibicom na następne tytuły. W sezonie 2001-02 Arsenal znów zdobył dublet, wygrywając zarówno F.A Cup jak i Premiership. Także w tym sezonie Arsenal pobił klubowy rekord, nie dając się pokonać w 23 meczach na wyjeździe. +W sezonie 2003-04 Arsenal jako pierwszy klub w historii Premiership zakończył sezon bez ani jednej porażki, 49 razy wygrywając i remisując. Sam Arsene Wenger powiedział, że dla niego bardziej liczy się wygrana w Premiership niż pobicie rekordu. Podpisał też nowy kontrakt z klubem z Londynu, który będzie go obowiązywał do sezonu 2007-08. Ostatni tytuł Arsene Wenger wywalczył w 2005 roku - Wygrana w F.A. Cup - a Wenger został najbardziej utytułowanym trenerem w historii Arsenalu. Sezon 2005 - 2006 był dla Arsena Wengera i Arsenalu najsłabszy od kilku lat, lecz po raz pierwszy w historii kanonierom udało się awansować do finału Ligi Mistrzów. Finał ten wygrała niestety Barcelona, pokonując grający niemal od początku meczu w dziesiątkę Arsenal 2 - 1. +Umiejętności. +Arsene Wenger jest znany z tego, że bardzo dobrze pracuje z młodymi talentami i potrafi je wyszukać w całej Europie oraz Afryce. Gdy był trenerem AS Monaco kupił George'a Weaha który został potem wybrany Najlepszym Piłkarzem Roku według FIFA. Pracując w Arsenalu pokazał światu nieznanych wcześniej zawodników, i przekształcił ich w światowej klasy piłkarzy. Byli to Patrick Vieira, Nicolas Anelka, Francesc Fabregas, Kolo Toure, Robin van Persie, Emmanuel Eboue, Johan Djourou. +Defensywa stworzona właśnie z takich piłkarzy zdołała awansować do finału Ligi Mistrzów. Łączna wartość defensywy Kanonierów wynosiła wtedy 5 milionów funtów. +Mimo, że Arsene Wenger niejednokrotnie miał bardzo dużo pieniędzy na transfery, wolał kupować tanio młodych zawodników i samemu przekształcać ich w wielkich piłkarzy. Arsene Wenger wydaje na roczne transfery około 5 milionów funtów, lecz bardzo wiele zyskuje na sprzedaży młodo kupionych i wytrenowanych zawodników. Przykładem jest Nicolas Anelka, za którego Arsene Wenger zapłacił L500,000, a sprzedał go później do Realu Madryt za Ł22.3m. Pieniądze te zostały wykorzystane na zakup 3 zawodników. Byli to Thierry Henry, Robert Pires i Sylvain Wiltord. +Zawodnicy ci bardzo pomogli drużynie zdobyć dublet w sezonie 2001-02 oraz wygrać Premiership bez porażki w sezonie 2003-04. +Gdy znajdzie nowy talent, często odmładza zespół, zastępując młodymi graczami graczy starszych, którzy zgubili formę. Dennis Berkamp, który przybył do Arsenalu na rok przed Wengerem, osiągnął swoją życiową formę, grając pod jego kierownictwem. +Wenger oddał opaskę kapitańską Tony'emu Adams'owi, kiedy ten wyeliminował swoje problemy z alkoholem. Wenger uważa, iż najważniejsze było to, że Adams bardzo się starał i osiągnął wysoka formę, dzięki temu zrehabilitował się w jego oczach. Adams zdobył z klubem dwa dublety. Poza Adamsem, dzięki Wengerowi, do wysokiej formy wróciło 3 defensorów: Nigel Winterburn, Lee Dixon i Martin Keown. Wenger uratował też karierę piłkarza, którego kiedyś trenował w AS Monaco. Thierry Henry po transferze z Monaco do Juventusu grał bardzo rzadko, a jeśli dostawał szansę gry to nie w ataku, lecz na lewej pomocy. Wenger sprowadził go do Arsenalu, a ten szybko stał się najlepszym strzelcem oraz kapitanem zespołu. +Arsene Wenger bardzo dużą wagę przywiązuje do planu żywieniowego swoich zawodników. Zakazał zawodnikom picia alkoholu, jedzenia w fast-foodach oraz jakichkolwiek odstępstw od ich planów żywieniowych. +David Dein, były wicedyrektor Arsenalu, uważa, że Wenger jest najlepszym trenerem, jaki kiedykolwiek siadał na ławce Arsenalu. +Kontrowersje. +Między 1996 a 2003 drużyna trenowana przez Arsene'a Wengera otrzymała 52 czerwone kartki. W 2004 i 2005 roku Arsenal pod wodzą Arsene'a Wengera wygrał Premier League's Fair Play League. Jest to statystyka drużyn gdzie punkty karne są przyznawane za ilość fauli, kartki oraz kary indywidualne. Kto zgromadzi najmniej punktów ten wygrywa. W 2006 roku Arsenal był drugi, zaraz za Charlton Athletic. +W 1999 roku, Wenger zaproponował drużynie Sheffield United F.C. powtórzenie meczu czwartej rundy Pucharu Anglii, w którym to Kanu sfaulował przeciwnika, a gdy ten leżał nie wybił piłki na aut, lecz podał do Overmarsa, który strzelił zwycięską bramkę. W powtórzonym meczu Arsenal zwyciężył 2 - 1. +Wenger bardzo często rywalizował z Alexem Fergusonem, zarówno w Premiership, jak i w Pucharze Anglii między 1990 a 2006 rokiem. Poza tym, Wenger nie darzył specjalną sympatią Ruuda van Nistelrooy'a. Boss Kanonierów musiał zapłacić 15000 funtów za telefon, w którym oskarżał go o oszustwo w wywiadzie, którego udzielił po jednym z meczów. Gdy Boss zapłacił tę karę zadzwonił do Ruuda ponownie, i powiedział mu, iż jest oszustem i bardzo podkolorował jego wypowiedź. Obaj trenerzy pogodzili się w końcu i "zawarli pokój". +Między Październikiem a Listopadem Wenger zaangażował się w Słowną Wojnę z trenerem Chelsea, Jose Mourinho. Mourinho oskarżył Wengera o nieprofesjonalną obsesję na punkcie Chelsea. "On się nas boi" - powiedział Mourinho. "Cały czas powtarza tylko: Chelsea to Chelsea tamto itp." Wenger twierdził, że odpowiadał tylko na pytania dziennikarzy odnośnie Chelsea, i nie ma mowy o żadnej obsesji a Mourinho będzie po prostu lekceważył. Mourinho przeprosił Wengera za nazwanie go podglądaczem a ten przeprosiny przyjął. +Wenger był zawsze krytycznie nastawiony do innych trenerów z Premiership, którzy zarzucali mu, że jego drużyna gra tak dobrze z powodu dużej liczby obcokrajowców, szczególnie Francuzów, a nie polega on w ogóle na graczach Brytyjskich. W tych oskarżeniach przodował trener West Ham United - Alan Pardew. Wenger odpowiedział, że nieważne z jakich krajów pochodzą jego zawodnicy, ważne że dobrze grają. Z kolei Trevor Brooking - Dyrektor Sportowy Do Spraw Rozwoju bronił Wengera twierdząc dość specyficznie, że "Liga angielska nie jest dla Anglików". +Piątego listopada 2006 roku doszło do konfrontacji Wengera i Alana Pardew'a. W 89 minucie, gdy West Ham zdobył gola, Pardew popędził w stronę ławki trenerskiej Arsenalu i zaczął celebrować zdobycie bramki. Zdenerwowany Wenger uderzył go. Wenger odmówił podania ręki trenerowi West Hamu po zakończeniu meczu. Po meczu Wenger oskarżył Pardew'a o prowokację. +Ogólnie znana jest też historia finału Carling Cup w 2007 roku, po którym Wenger musiał zapłacić 2500 funtów, za nazwanie sędziego liniowego kłamcą. Został też ostro skrytykowany przez Federację Angielską i przestrzeżony przed robieniem takich rzeczy ponownie. +Sukcesy. +Menadżer. +Nagoya Grampus. +W 1996 Arsene Wenger sprowadził do Japonii m.in. młodego Tomasza Frankowskiego (wtedy 22 lata) +XLS + +XLS (prawdopodobnie skrót od "eXceL Spreadsheet") – rozszerzenie (i zarazem potoczne określenie formatu) pliku tworzonego przez arkusz kalkulacyjny Microsoft Excel. +Rozszerzenie to obejmowało początkowo wyłącznie pliki w binarnym formacie Excela ("MS-XLS"). + + +W wersji Microsoft Excel 2007 formatem rodzimym arkuszy jest Office Open XML, zapisywany w plikach o rozszerzeniu XLSX. Starsze wersje pakietu MS Office obsługują ten format po zainstalowaniu poprawki dostępnej na stronie firmy Microsoft. +Mianowanie na pierwszy stopień oficerski + +Pierwszy stopień oficerski nadaje w Polsce Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, natomiast wręczenie tego stopnia stanowi element ceremoniału wojskowego, nawiązujący do średniowiecznej tradycji rycerskiej – pasowania na rycerza. +Pierwszym stopniem oficerskim jest w Polsce podporucznik i przyznawany jest on – w warunkach pokoju – po ukończeniu uczelni wraz ze studium wojskowym lub przeszkoleniem wojskowym oraz ukończeniu kursu oficerskigo (obecnie absolwent uczelni musi ukończyć jedynie kurs, uczelniane studium wojskowe i przeszkolenie wojskowe zlikwidowano), absolwentom szkoły oficerskiej (w Polsce szkoły oficerskie zaliczane są do kategorii szkół wyższych), której studenci noszą w czasie studiów tytuł podchorążych, absolwentom uczelni instytucji podległych Ministerstwu Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji np. Szkoła Główna Służby Pożarniczej. Wyjątkowo prymusi promowani byli na stopień porucznika, a w jednym przypadku kapitana. +Współcześnie uroczystość wręczenia pierwszego stopnia oficerskiego odbywa się publicznie, na placu apelowym np. jednostki wojskowej, Komendy Wojewódzkiej lub na centralnym placu miasta, z udziałem rodzin mianowanych podchorążych. Wręczenia dokonuje zazwyczaj zaproszony na tę uroczystość generał (admirał) służby czynnej. Ceremonia odbywa się przez dotknięcie przez generała szablą lewego ramienia przyklękającego przed nim na jednym kolanie podchorążego. Po tej czynności świeżo mianowany oficer wstaje i przyjmuje od generała gratulacje. +Jeśli promocja absolwenta Akademii Marynarki Wojennej odbywa się na okręcie, przy schodzeniu nowomianowanego oficera z jego pokładu, towarzyszy mu świst trapowy wykonywany przez 8 marynarzy, która to liczba jest zarezerwowana dla admirała. Ma to symbolizować życzenia awansu właśnie do tego stopnia. +Analogiczny ceremoniał stosowany jest przy promocjach funkcjonariuszy na pierwszy stopień oficerski Straży Granicznej, Policji (na stopień podkomisarza), PSP (na stopień młodszego kapitana), Służby Więziennej itd. +Zygfryd Szołtysik + +Zygfryd Ludwik Szołtysik (ur. 24 października 1942 w Suchej Górze (obecnie dzielnica Bytomia) , polski piłkarz, reprezentant Polski, mistrz olimpijski 1972. Na boisku nosił przydomki "Zyga" lub "Mały" (ze względu na drobną posturę – 162 cm, waga ok. 60 kg). +Karierę piłkarską rozpoczął w Zrywie Chorzów. Od 1962 bronił barw Górnika Zabrze, stając się jedną z legend klubu. Występował w Górniku przez 16 sezonów (do 1978, z przerwą 1975-1976 na grę we francuskim Valenciennes FC), zaliczając łącznie 395 spotkań ligowych (we wszystkich meczach oficjalnych Górnika – także w pucharach krajowych i europejskich – przekroczył 500). Jego udziałem stały się ówczesne sukcesy klubu – siedem tytułów mistrza Polski (1963-1967, 1971, 1972), sześć Pucharów Polski (1965, 1968-1972), finał Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów 1970. Zdobył łącznie 124 bramki jako piłkarz Górnika, w tym 91 w ekstraklasie. +Miał także bogatą karierę reprezentacyjną. Występował w kadrze w wielu kategoriach wiekowych (zdobył m.in. wicemistrzostwo Europy juniorów 1961). W reprezentacji seniorskiej zadebiutował 4 września 1963 w Szczecinie, już w pierwszym meczu strzelając Norwegom dwie bramki. Rozegrał w sumie 46 spotkań oficjalnych (a także 6 nieoficjalnych). Wraz z kadrą Kazimierza Górskiego zdobył złoty medal na olimpiadzie w Monachium w 1972, wkrótce potem kończąc reprezentacyjną karierę. W słynnym meczu z ZSRR decydującym o awansie do finału olimpijskiego zdobył kilka minut przed końcem spotkania zwycięską bramkę. +Na boisku grał jako pomocnik, rozgrywający, niekiedy napastnik. Wyróżniał się talentem i znakomitą techniką, stworzył silny duet boiskowy z Włodzimierzem Lubańskim. W 1969 został wyróżniony "Złotymi Butami" w plebiscycie redakcji katowickiego "Sportu", a redakcja "Encyklopedii Piłkarskiej FUJI", dokonując w latach 90. klasyfikacji polskich piłkarzy w minionych dziesięcioleciach, przyznała mu tytuł "Piłkarza roku" za sezon 1971. +Po odejściu z Górnika w 1978 przez krótki czas występował w Kanadzie (Toronto Falcons), następnie (1978-1984) w Górniku Knurów. W 1984 wyjechał do Niemiec, gdzie występował jeszcze do 1990 w zespołach niższych lig Eintracht Hamm i SVA Bockum Hoevel. W lidze niemieckiej próbował także występów jego syn Dariusz. +Był niezwykle lubianym i popularnym w Polsce piłkarzem. +Z wykształcenia technik górniczy, w 1981 otrzymał dyplom trenera piłki nożnej II klasy. +Legenda – imię i nazwisko / ilość strzelonych bramek / ilość meczów, w których zawodnik strzelał bramki / ilość rozegranych meczów ogółem. +Zygfryd Szołtysik – 10 / 9 / 46 +T – 7/6; IO – 1/1; EME – 2/2 +Eurypylos + +Eurypylos - syn Euajmona, króla Ormenion w Tesalii, uczestnik walk o Troję. Po podziale łupów otrzymał, wykonaną przez Heraklesa, skrzynkę z wizerunkiem Dionizosa; po otwarciu jej ogarnął go szał; wyrocznia delficka nakazała mu złożyć skrzynkę w miejscu, gdzie składają ofiary z ludzi; w Patrai Eurypylos trafił na taką uroczystość poświęconą Artemidzie i tam złożył swój dar; stał się przyczyną zaniechania krwawych ofiar dla Artemidy i wprowadzenia kultu Dionizosa. +Topografia + +Topografia (łac. "topographia", gr. "topographein") – konfiguracja powierzchni uwzględniająca jej kształt (rzeźbę terenu) oraz obecność i wzajemne położenie obiektów i punktów charakterystycznych. +Topografia powierzchni + +Topografia powierzchni – konfiguracja powierzchni uwzględniająca jej kształt oraz obecność i wzajemne położenie jej punktów charakterystycznych. +W adsorpcji topografia powierzchni oznacza zwykle powierzchniowy rozkład centrów adsorpcyjnych, czyli miejsc powierzchni wyróżniających się swoimi cechami adsorpcyjnymi, najczęściej energią adsorpcji (często w odniesieniu do konkretnego rodzaju adsorbatu). +Typy topografii powierzchni. +Topografia przypadkowa. +Inaczej topografia "random". Topografia przypadkowa oznacza takie wzajemne położenie różnych typów miejsc adsorpcyjnych, że nie istnieje pomiędzy nimi żadna korelacja – na podstawie typu lub energii danego miejsca adsorpcyjnego nie można nic powiedzieć o miejscach sąsiadujących. Czysta topografia przypadkowa jest mało prawdopodobna, gdyż siły oddziaływania między atomami i cząsteczkami nie są ograniczone odległością, chociaż słabną gwałtownie ze jej wzrostem. +Topografia płatowa. +Inaczej topografia "patchwise". Topografia płatowa oznacza takie uporządkowanie różnych typów miejsc adsorpcyjnych, że na podstawie danego miejsca adsorpcyjnego możemy z prawie 100% pewnością stwierdzić, że miejsca sąsiednie mają takie same właściwości. Inaczej mówiąc liczba miejsc adsorcyjnych położonych na granicy płatów miejsc o identycznych właściwościach jest pomijalny w stosunku do ilości miejsc zawartych w głębi płatów. Wymaga to obecności dużych płatów jednorodnych. +Np. przyjmując dla uproszczenia, że miejsca adsorpcyjne jak i płaty mają kształt koła, wówczas liczba miejsc na granicy płata w przybliżeniu (D,d – średnica płata i miejsca ads.): n ≈ πD/πd = D/d, natomiast liczba miejsc wewnątrz homogenicznego płata N ≈ [π(D-d)2/4]/[πd2/4] = [(D-d)/d]2. Tak więc n/N ≈ = (D/d)[d/(D-d)]2. +Topografia regularna. +Topografia regularna oznacza rodzaj powierzchni, na której występują silne korelacje przestrzenne pomiędzy centrami adsorpcyjnymi oznaczające okresowość (periodyczność) potencjału adsorpcyjnego o okresie większym niż rozmiar adsorbatu (okres równy rozmiarowi cząsteczki adsorbatu oznacza powierzchnię jednorodną (homogeniczną) z punktu widzenia energii adsorpcji). Topografia regularna jest cechą wszystkich powierzchni krystalicznych. +Topografia mieszana. +Topografia mieszana może zawierać elementy wszystkich pozostałych typów topografii. Jest najbardziej prawdopodobna. +Wpływ topografii na adsorpcję. +Adsorpcja bez oddziaływań bocznych. +Przy adsorpcji bez oddziaływań bocznych topografia powierzchni nie powinna mieć wpływu na adsorpcję, przynajmniej jeżeli rozmiar miejsc adsorpcyjnych jest taki sam jak rozmiar cząsteczki. +Topografia i energia adsorpcji dla dużych cząsteczek. +Jeżeli cząsteczka jest większa niż pojedyncze miejsca adsorpcyjne, wówczas możliwe energie adsorpcji (efektywny rozkład energii adsorpcji) będą zależały od topografii. +Dla przykładu dla cząsteczki o rozmiarze 2 miejsc adsorpcyjnych oraz miejscach o energii adsorpcji dla fragmentu ("meru") cząsteczki E1 i E2 (np. z prawdopodobieństwem odpowiednio 30% i 70%)równym, wówczas na powierzchni o topografii płatowej cząsteczka będzie mogła mieć 2 energie adsorpcji: 2E1 i 2E1 (z prawdopodobieństwem 30% i 70%). Na powierzchni o topografii całkowicie przypadkowej (random) będą możliwe energie: 2E1 (prawdopodobieństwo 9%), E1+E2 (42%) i 2E2 (49%). Korelacja pomiędzy typami miejsc adsorpcyjnych zmieni rozkład energii adsorpcji tak, że może być on pośredni w stosunku do powierzchni płatowej i przypadkowej, ale w niektórych przypadkach (ułożenia regularne) może być inaczej. +Adsorpcja z oddziaływaniami bocznymi. +Przy adsorpcji z oddziaływaniami bocznymi topografia ma wpływ na izotermy adsorpcji poprzez ogólne całkowe równanie adsorpcji. Wzrost lokalnej gęstości adsorbatu powoduje dodatkowe zwiększenie sił adsorpcyjnych. W przypadku topografii przypadkowej, ten wpływ jest uśredniony i identyczny dla całej powierzchni, natomiast w przypadku topografii płatowej jest silny na płatach o dużej energii adsorpcji i odpowiednio wysokiej gęstości adsorpcji, a słaby na płatach o niskiej energii adsorpcji (i odpowiednio niższej gęstości adsorbatu). Jako równanie izotermy lokalnej stosuje się izotermę Fowlera-Guggenheima (oddziaływania niespecyficzne) lub izotermę Kisielewa (oddziaływania specyficzne o charakterze asocjacyjnym). +Adsorpcja cząsteczek należących do szeregów homologicznych. +W przypadku adsorpcji cząsteczek o podobnych właściwościach, ale różniących się rozmiarami (liczba merów w łańcuchu, długość cząsteczki, powierzchnia siadania) – tak jak np. związki należące do szeregów homologicznych – energia adsorpcji rośnie liniowo wraz z wielkością cząsteczki niezależnie od rodzaju topografii. Podobnie jest dla minimalnej i maksymalnej energii adsorpcji. Rodzaj topografii silnie wpływa za to na obserwowaną dyspersję energii adsorpcji (czyli w przybliżeniu wielkość rozrzutu energii adsorpcji z uwzględnieniem prawdopodobieństwa wystąpienia). W przypadku topografii płatowej dyspersja energii rośnie liniowo z rozmiarem (powierzchnią siadania) cząsteczki, a w przypadku topografii przypadkowej rośnie słabiej, bo proporcjonalnie do pierwiastka kwadratowego z rozmiaru (długości lub powierzchni siadania) cząsteczki adsorbatu. +Kresy Zachodnie + +Kresy Zachodnie – obszar Rzeczypospolitej, który po 1815 roku znalazł się poza Królestwem Polskim - w zaborze pruskim, tj. Pomorze Gdańskie, Poznańskie i Warmia; termin wprowadzony w 1860 przez Jana Zachariasiewicza. +Kresami Zachodnimi po 1918 roku nazywano Pomorze Zachodnie, Pomorze Słupskie, Dolny Śląsk i Śląsk Opolski. . +Termin ten jest kopią terminu Kresy Wschodnie, nie przyjął się jednak równie powszechnie. Przykładem ówczesnego zastosowania pojęcia jest np. "Związek Obrony Kresów Zachodnich". +W okresie międzywojennym ludność tych obszarów stanowiła polityczne zaplecze Endecji, zaś w stosunku do obozu skupionego wokół Józefa Piłsudskiego zachowywała rezerwę bądź niechęć. Podstawą takiej postawy była wcześniejsza współpraca marszałka z Państwami Centralnymi, a podczas kształtowania się granic Polski jego większe zainteresowanie włączeniem Kresów Wschodnich, niż walką o kształt granicy na zachodzie. +Po 1945 roku nazwy tej używano również względem Ziem Odzyskanych, gdzie przesiedlono mieszkańców Kresów Wschodnich. +Saara + +Saara (niem. "Saarland"; fr. "Sarre") – kraj związkowy w zachodniej części Niemiec, którego stolicą jest miasto Saarbrücken. +Leży na obszarze Średniogórza Niemieckiego, obejmuje południowy skraj gór Hunsrück i zachodnią część pogórza Pfälzer Bergland. +Większość ludności i przemysłu skupia się w Zagłębiu Saary, znajdującym się w południowej części kraju związkowego. Tutaj znajdują się takie miasta, jak Saarbrücken, Völklingen i Homburg. +Historia. +W 1920 roku została odłączona od Rzeszy Niemieckiej i przekazana pod zarząd Ligi Narodów jako Terytorium Saary. +W przeprowadzonym w 1935 roku w referendum większość mieszkańców Saary opowiedziała się za powrotem do Niemiec. Podobnie rzecz się miała po II wojnie światowej: obszar Saary został oddzielony i stanowił "de iure" osobne państwo pod francuską kontrolą (Protektorat Saary), aby po referendum powrócić i stać się krajem związkowym Niemiec. Zgoda Francji stała się w tym wypadku kamieniem milowym na drodze niemiecko-francuskiego porozumienia. Ponowne włączenie Saary do RFN nastąpiło 1 stycznia 1957. +Ols + +Ols (inna nazwa - oles lub olszyna) – las olchowy (olszowy) porastający żyzne, bagienne siedliska, o wysokim poziomie wody stojącej. Ma zwykle charakterystyczną kępową strukturę runa - na kępach wokół szyi korzeniowej olszy rosną gatunki borowe, w dolinkach przynajmniej okresowo wypełnianych wodą - rośliny bagienne. +Olsy są zazwyczaj trudno dostępne, głównie ze względu na podmokły grunt. Poziom wody sięga od kilku do kilkudziesięciu centymetrów. Są to najczęściej wody stojące, rzadziej wolno płynące. +Kępy w mniej zwartych olsach mogą być znacznie od siebie oddalone, rozdzielone wodą. +Zbiorowisko to wytwarzane jest na glebach wytworzonych z torfowisk niskich, lecz często spotyka się je na glebach murszowych wytworzonych na piaskach i madach rzecznych, najczęściej są to gleby murszowo-mineralne, murszowe, mulowo-murszowe, torfowo-murszowe, murszowo-glejowe z mullem murszowatym. Dominującą forma próchnicy typu mull. +Gatunki roślin. +Gatunkiem drzewa dominującym w lesie tego typu jest olsza czarna, czasem towarzyszy jej brzoza omszona, jesion wyniosły lub sosna zwyczajna. Na podszyt składają się: czeremcha zwyczajna ("Padus avium"), kalina koralowa ("Viburnum opulus"), kruszyna pospolita ("Frangula alnus") a także niektóre gatunki wierzb, np. wierzba uszata ("Salix aurita"). Często spotykany jest również chmiel zwyczajny ("Humulus lupulus"). Kępy porasta bogata roślinność leśna, w tym: bluszczyk kurdybanek ("Glechoma hederacea"), kosaciec żółty ("Iris pseudacorus"), kuklik zwisły ("Geum rivale") i czyściec leśny ("Stachys sylvatica"). +Rośliny bagienne występujące w zalanych fragmentach lasu to przeważnie knieć błotna ("Caltha palustris"), pępawa błotna ("Crepis paludosa"), psianka słodkogórz ("Solanum dulcamara"). +Status syntaksonomiczny. +W Europie zachodniej występuje atlantycka odmiana olsu określana jako zbiorowisko "Carici laevigatae-Alnetum". +Ernest Pohl + +Ernest Pohl, w latach 1952-1990 Pol, (ur. 3 listopada 1932 w Rudzie Śląskiej, zm. 12 września 1995 w Hausach, Niemcy), polski piłkarz, reprezentant Polski, wielokrotny mistrz Polski, trzykrotny król strzelców polskiej ekstraklasy. Występował na pozycjach napastnika i pomocnika, nosił przydomki boiskowe "Nochal", "Yła", "Ewa". +Był z wykształcenia technikiem górniczym, a także instruktorem piłki nożnej. Pierwsze występy piłkarskie zaliczył w klubie Slavia Ruda Śląska. Lata 1952-1953, wcielony do wojska, spędził w Orle Łódź (w tamtym okresie pod nazwą Garnizonowy Wojskowy Klub Sportowy). Od 1953 występował w warszawskiej Legii, w ciągu trzech sezonów zaliczając dwa dublety – tytuł mistrza Polski i Puchar Polski w 1955 i 1956. Jako pierwszy zawodnik Legii został najlepszym strzelcem ligi w 1954. W 1956 przeszedł do Górnika Zabrze, gdzie w ciągu kolejnych jedenastu sezonów zdobył dalsze osiem tytułów mistrzowskich (1957, 1959, 1961, 1963-1967) i jeden Puchar (1965). W 1959 i 1961 ponownie był najlepszym strzelcem ligowym. Liczba strzelonych przez Pohla bramek – 186 w ekstraklasie – jest do dziś rekordowa w polskiej piłce nożnej. +Miał bogatą kartę reprezentacyjną. W latach 1955-1964 wystąpił w 46 oficjalnych spotkaniach kadry, strzelając 39 bramek; grał na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Rzymie (1960), gdzie w wygranym meczu z Tunezją zdobył pięć bramek (Polska wygrała 6:1), ale jego popisy strzeleckie nie zapobiegły odpadnięciu reprezentacji już w fazie eliminacyjnej po porażkach z Danią i amatorską drużyną Argentyny. +Był jednym z najwybitniejszych śląskich piłkarzy po wojnie, cenionym za umiejętności kreowania gry ofensywnej. Posiadał także zdolności egzekutorskie, skutecznie wykańczając akcje partnerów; jego atutem były silne i celne strzały, oddawane z różnych pozycji na boisku i wyłamujące się ze schematów. Laureat "Złotych Butów" w plebiscycie "Sportu" (1963/64). Eksperci cyklu "Encyklopedia piłkarska FUJI" uznali Pohla za najlepszego polskiego piłkarza w 1959, 1961 i 1964. +W ostatnich latach kariery partnerował na boisku przyszłym gwiazdorom reprezentacji i Górnika Zabrze Szołtysikowi i Lubańskiemu. Po zakończeniu kariery pozostał w Górniku jako trener, był asystentem kilku szkoleniowców. +W 1990 na stałe wyjechał do Niemiec (dokąd wcześniej udały się jego dwie córki i żona), tam też zmarł. +Od 2005 imię Ernesta Pohla nosi stadion Górnika Zabrze. +AMD Am486 + +Am486 - procesor produkowany w latach 90. przez firmę AMD. Klon serii procesorów Intel 80486. +Firma AMD wyprodukowała również serię procesorów AMD Am5x86, które miały wyższe taktowania od innych procesorów klasy 486 i pozwalały użytkownikom komputerów z takimi procesorami na tańszy upgrade. +Dae Soen Sa Nim + +Dae Soen Sa Nim (kor. "Wielki Mistrz Zen"), tytuł używany przez koreańczyków oznacza wielkiego nauczyciela. Dla buddystów koreańskiej Szkoly Zen Kwan Um używany był w stosunku do założyciela tej szkoły, mistrza zen Seung Sahna. +Podszyt + +Podszyt, podszycie – warstwa w ekosystemie leśnym zbudowana z krzewów (takich jak: kalina, głóg, leszczyna, czeremcha, jarzębina, bez czarny) rosnących obok podrostów drzew, drzewostanu i runa. Jej wysokość sięga do kilku metrów. Podszyt nigdy nie dorasta do dolnego piętra drzewostanu. +Dolna warstwa roślinności w lesie (głównie krzewy, ale i drzewa), która nigdy nie wyrasta ponad wysokość 4 metrów; spełnia rolę osłony gleby przed wysychaniem oraz zarastaniem, odgrywa też rolę biocenotyczną, wzmaga bowiem odporność drzewostanu na szkodliwe wpływy zewnętrzne, m.in. ze strony szkodliwych owadów. Podszyt tworzą głównie gatunki znoszące ocienienie. +Bujnym podszytem charakteryzują się na przykład lasy łęgowe. Podszyt zamieszkują liczne ptaki i owady. +Jarkko Oikarinen + +Jarkko Oikarinen, znany jako WiZ (ur. 16 sierpnia 1967), fiński informatyk, twórca sieci IRC ("Internet Relay Chat"). +Pierwszy serwer i program kliencki napisał w sierpniu 1988, pracując na uniwersytecie w Oulu. Miał on zastąpić program o nazwie MUT (MultiUser Talk) w fińskim BBS OuluBox. +W 1999 Oikarinen otrzymał stopień doktorski na uniwersytecie w Oulu. Specjalizuje się w dziedzinie grafiki komputerowej i obrazowaniu medycznym. +AMD Am5x86 + +AMD Am5x86 (znany także jako 5x86-133, X5-133, TurboChip) – procesor bazujący na architekturze x86, produkowany w latach 1995-1999 przez firmę AMD. +Procesor ten był często używany do upgrade'u komputerów klasy i486, pozwalając im uzyskać wydajność porównywalną do wprowadzanego wówczas na rynek procesora Pentium. +Dochody ze sprzedaży procesora Am5x86 były ważnym źródłem pieniędzy dla AMD w czasie, kiedy opóźnienia związane z produkcją AMD K5 zagroziły stabilności finansowej firmy. +Kwestie sprzętowe. +Procesor był wykonywany w technologii 0,35 mikrona przy użyciu procesu produkcji CMOS. Podobnie jak wiele innych późniejszych procesorów rodziny 486, AMD 5x86 był wyposażony w pamięć cache L1 typu write back, ale w odróżnieniu od większości innych klonów, jej pojemność wynosiła 16 kiB, a nie 8 kiB. +Architektura procesora 5x86 była oparta na specyfikacjach i486, co dawało mu stuprocentową kompatybilność ze starszymi systemami (w przeciwieństwie do niektórych produktów rywali, np. Cyrix 5x86). Dzięki największej częstotliwości taktowania w swojej klasie (133 MHz) i dużej pojemności pamięci cache, procesor 5x86 osiągał wydajność równą, a czasami nawet nieco wyższą niż procesor Pentium 75. Procesory 5x86 z dodatkowym oznaczeniem ADZ pracowały poprawnie w wyższej temperaturze i łatwo poddawały się przetaktowywaniu do 160 MHz, osiągając wydajność porównywalną z Pentium 90. Pojawiła się także bardzo rzadka seria procesorów o oznaczeniu X5-150ADW taktowanych częstotliwością 150 MHz (3 x 50 MHz). +Płyty główne z gniazdem Socket 3 pozwalały na ustawienie mnożnika wewnętrznego zegara procesora na maksymalnie 3x. Aby obejść to ograniczenie, procesor AMD Am5x86 interpretował ustawienie 2x jako 4x, umożliwiając uzyskanie częstotliwości taktowania wynoszącej 133 MHz (4 x 33 MHz). Procesor ten pasował także do płyt głównych z gniazdem Socket 1 i Socket 2, ale wtedy konieczne było zastosowanie stabilizatora napięcia, by obniżyć napięcie zasilania do 3,45 V. +Wydzielenie leśne + +Wydzielenie leśne - w leśnictwie, fragment lasu jednolity pod względem ważnych gospodarczo cech (np. wiek, skład gatunkowy drzewostanu), wymagający jednakowego traktowania gospodarczego. Elementarna jednostka opisu lasu i planowania gospodarki leśnej w urządzaniu lasu. Synonimy: pododdział leśny, żargonowo także drzewostan. +Wydzielenia w ramach oddziału leśnego są oznaczane małymi literami alfabetu, np. 284b oznacza wydzielenie b w oddziale 284. +Highbury (dzielnica) + +Highbury, dzielnica Londynu, 21.959 mieszkańców (2001), część Islington, znana głównie dzięki mieszczącemu się tutaj dawniej stadionowi Arsenalu F.C. +Brązowy karzeł + +Brązowy karzeł – obiekt gwiazdopodobny o masie zbyt małej (poniżej 8% masy Słońca – 80 mas Jowisza), by mogły zachodzić w nim reakcje przemiany wodoru w hel, które są głównym źródłem energii gwiazd ciągu głównego. Od gazowych planet odróżnia je to, że są zdolne do syntezy deuteru przynajmniej na początku istnienia i często występują samotnie w przestrzeni. Określa się je czasem (potocznie) mianem niewypałów, nieudanych gwiazd bądź superplanet. +Pierwszego brązowego karła, Gliese 229B, zidentyfikowano w 1995 roku. +Szacuje się, że w naszej Galaktyce istnieje dwukrotnie więcej brązowych karłów niż zwykłych gwiazd, ale ich łączna masa stanowi do 15% masy Galaktyki. +Powstawanie. +Mechanizm powstawania brązowych karłów nie jest jeszcze całkowicie znany. Uważa się, że brązowe karły powstają podobnie jak gwiazdy czyli w wyniku kolapsu obłoku molekularnego ale biorąc pod uwagę stosunkowo niewielką masę brązowych karłów w porównaniu z „pełnymi” gwiazdami jest mało prawdopodobne aby obłok molekularny o masie brązowego karła mógł scalić się w taki sam sposób jak większe obłoki z których powstają gwiazdy i całe układy planetarne. Prawdopodobne jest, że powstają one w większych obłokach molekularnych obracających się z dużą prędkością w których w pewnym momencie w przestrzeń kosmiczną zostaje wyrzucona część sformowanego już obłoku z którego w późniejszym czasie powstaje brązowy karzeł. Możliwe jest, że z jednego obłoku molekularnego może być wyrzuconych więcej niż jeden późniejszy brązowy karzeł, co może tłumaczyć dużą ilość brązowych karłów we Wszechświecie. +Cechy charakterystyczne. +Najczęściej stosowanym kryterium pozwalającym odróżnić brązowe karły od niezbyt masywnych gwiazd jest obecność litu, który występuje w gwiazdach jedynie przez krótki okres, na początku ich ewolucji. Zaraz po zapoczątkowaniu reakcji termojądrowych gwiazdy szybko tracą swój zapas tego pierwiastka poprzez reakcję 7Li z jądrem wodoru (protonem), której produktem są dwie cząstki 4He. Temperatura niezbędna do zajścia tej przemiany jest niewiele niższa od temperatury potrzebnej do przemiany wodoru w hel. Ruchy konwekcyjne wewnątrz gwiazdy sprawiają, że zużyty zostaje cały lit. W brązowych karłach pierwiastek ten zazwyczaj występuje (choć obiekty o masie większej od 0,06 masy Słońca „spalają” lit), tworząc w widmie łatwe do zaobserwowania linie, których nie ma w widmie gwiazdy. +Inną charakterystyczną cechą brązowych karłów jest silniejsze promieniowanie w podczerwieni niż w innych długościach fal. +Początkowo źródłem energii brązowego karła o masie nie mniejszej niż 1,3% masy Słońca są reakcje jądrowe z udziałem deuteru (D + p → ³He), albo litu (jeśli masa > 6% MS), niewymagające tak wysokich temperatur jak pełny cykl protonowy. Po ich ustaniu karzeł wydziela zgromadzone ciepło – jego jądro ogrzewa się wcześniej nawet do kilku milionów kelwinów. Emituje głównie promieniowanie podczerwone oraz w wąskim zakresie światło widzialne, nadające mu brązowawą barwę. Z czasem brązowy karzeł stygnie, tym wolniej im większą ma masę, przeistaczając się w czarnego karła. +Znane obiekty. +Dotychczas odkryto kilkaset brązowych karłów, jednakże są one prawdopodobnie najczęściej spotykanym typem obiektów w Galaktyce. Trudność w ich wykrywaniu polega na bardzo małej jasności, która przy obecnym stanie techniki uniemożliwia dostrzeżenie obiektów lżejszych od kilkunastu mas Jowisza, o ile nie są składnikami układów podwójnych lub wielokrotnych. Obserwacje prowadzone w podczerwieni ukazywały dziesiątki brązowych karłów w każdym obszarze, gdzie zachodzą procesy gwiazdotwórcze. +Masywna planeta czy brązowy karzeł? +Część naukowców za brązowe karły uważa również wiele spośród odkrytych do tej pory planet pozasłonecznych. Najczęściej stosowana technika pomiarów prędkości radialnej daje tylko dolne oszacowanie na masę obiektu, w związku z czym obiekt o masie minimalnej kilka razy większej niż masa Jowisza, w rzeczywistości może być znacznie masywniejszy. Jednakże w niektórych wypadkach znane jest także nachylenie orbity planety, np. obserwowane są przejścia planet przed tarczą gwiazdy, co pozwala z całą pewnością stwierdzić, że nie mamy do czynienia z brązowym karłem. +Jednak niektórzy uczeni uważają, że na miano brązowego karła zasługują wszystkie obiekty, które formują się podobnie jak gwiazdy, bezpośrednio z zapadającej się chmury gazu i pyłu, a nie na skutek kolizji mniejszych ciał. Takie zjawiska mogą też zachodzić w dyskach protoplanetarnych i niewykluczone, że w ten sposób powstały np. Jowisz i Saturn w Układzie Słonecznym. Ta definicja ma więc poważną wadę – na jej podstawie można by uznać wszystkie gazowe olbrzymy za mało masywne brązowe karły. +Obecnie przyjęta robocza definicja stwierdza, że każde ciało nie będące gwiazdą, o rzeczywistej masie powyżej 13 mas Jowisza (przy zawartości metali takiej jak w przypadku Słońca), jest brązowym karłem. +Atmosfera. +W 2002 roku na brązowych karłach odkryto ślady zmian pogodowych, wcześniej obserwowanych wyłącznie na planetach. Nieregularne wahania jasności wskazują, że obiekty te mogą posiadać nieprzezroczyste atmosfery, w których przy temperaturze rzędu 800-2500 °C powstają chmury z parujących metali, przede wszystkim żelaza. Zachodzące tam zjawiska atmosferyczne byłyby podobne do tych na Jowiszu, ale nieporównywalnie gwałtowniejsze. +W miarę ochładzania, coraz mniej związków chemicznych osiąga stan gazowy. Gdy chmury zanikną całkowicie, odsłonięcie powierzchni wywołuje nagły wzrost jasności karła. +Dysk protoplanetarny. +Ostatnie obserwacje wykazały, że podobnie jak zwyczajne gwiazdy, brązowe karły we wczesnym stadium rozwoju otoczone są przez dysk protoplanetarny. W jego wnętrzu mogą powstawać planetoidy, komety oraz planety. +Nałęcz (herb szlachecki) + +Nałęcz ("Choczennica, Łęczuch, Nalancz, Nalencz, Nałęczyta, Nałonie, Pomłość, Toczennica, Toczenica") – polski herb szlachecki, związany z zawołaniami "Nałęcz" i "Nałęcz Jezioro". Jeden z najstarszych herbów polskich – zachował się na pieczęci z 1293, zaś legendy herbowe umieszczają jego początek w czasach pierwszych Piastów. Występował głównie w gnieździe rodu Nałęczy – Wielkopolsce. Spośród ponad 900 rodów używających Nałęcza (Tadeusz Gajl podaje 932 nazwiska), największe znaczenie uzyskali Małachowscy, Ostrorogowie, Raczyńscy i Czarnkowscy (Czarnkowscy używali odmiany herbu, Nałęcz III, ale ukształtowała się ona na wzór pierwotnych wersji podstawowego Nałęcza, szczegóły niżej). Wysoki status tych rodów został potwierdzony nadaniem tytułów hrabiowskich i stosownych odmian w herbach (patrz sekcja odmiany, alternatywne wizerunki i wersje utytułowane). +Opis herbu. +Opis współczesny. +W polu czerwonym pomłość lub nałęczka (Pomłość występowała w średniowiecznych przedstawieniach herbu) srebrna. +W klejnocie, pomiędzy rogami jelenia – panna w sukni czerwonej, z włosami rozpuszczonymi, złotymi, spowitymi nałęczką srebrną. Dziewczyna trzyma się oburącz rogów. +Labry zdobiące herb są czerwone podbite srebrem. +Wizerunek taki ukształtował się najwcześniej w XVII wieku, wcześniej godło i klejnot podlegały kilku przemianom. Więcej informacji w sekcji poniżej. +Najwcześniejsze wzmianki. +Najwcześniejsze przedstawienia i ewolucja wizerunku. +Jeden z najstarszych herbów polskich, przez Franciszka Piekosińskiego wywodzony od stanicy runicznej. O dawności herbu świadczyć może umieszczenie go przez Długosza wśród sześciu głównych herbów Polski (łac. "arma baronum"), poza tym panów z Czarnkowa (późniejszych Czarnkowskich pieczętujących się odmianą herbu – Nałęcz III) wymienia się w dokumentach już w XII w. +Według niektórych heraldyków pierwotnie przedstawiał prawdopodobnie pomłość (wiązkę zżętego zboża), uformowaną w okrąg, z końcami założonymi na siebie. Późniejsze przedstawienia, od XV wieku, wprowadziły przewiązanie końców, a także zmieniły wiązkę zboża w chustę. +Sfragistyka początki Nałęcza umieszcza w XIII wieku. W czasach Rzeczypospolitej szlacheckiej często przesuwano takie oszacowania w czasy pierwszych Piastów, a nawet antyczne, tworząc legendy, które rodowcy dla podkreślenia starożytności rodu, przyjmowali za prawdę historyczną. Piotr Nałęcz-Małachowski na przykład stwierdza, że jego herb został nadany już w roku 846, w okresie panowania Piasta. +Najstarsza zachowana pieczęć z Nałęczem (nieznanego właściciela) pochodzi z 1293 roku. Kolejne, młodsze pieczęcie pochodzą m.in.: z 1343 (Tomisława z Szamotuł i Piotrowa, kasztelana gnieźnieńskiego – chusta jest tu niezwiązana), 1382 (Sędziwoja wojewody kaliskiego), 1383 (Sędziwoja Świdawy z Galew i z Żydowa, Mikołaja z Pierska (wtedy pisanego jako "Pietersko") sędziego kaliskiego i Jana z Czarnkowa sędziego poznańskiego), 1387 (Tomisława kasztelana żońskiego), 1389 (biskupa poznańskiego Dobrogosta z Nowego Dworu), 1399 (sędziego Mikołaja i arcybiskupa Dobrogosta z Nowego Dworu), 1403 (Sędziwoja z Ostroroga – chusta niezwiązana, klejnot), 1412 (Sędziwoja Ostroroga), 1419 (Wojciecha z Małej "Malskiego" – z klejnotem), 1430 (Jana de Lanszenicze i Dobrogosta z Szamotuł), 1433 (Wincentego z Szamotuł – chusta niezwiązana, także klejnot i Niemierzy z Przewieczerzyna), 1439 (Stanisława z Ostroroga – chusta niezwiązana), 1451 (Wojciecha z Małej "Malskiego"), 1473 (Piotra Świdwy Szamotulskego). +Nałęcz jest jednym z kilku herbów polskich zamieszczonych w zachodnich rolach herbowych. +"Armorial Bellenville" z lat (1360-1400) podaje herb barwny, z klejnotem – rogami jelenimi, które są jednak srebrne i mają zatknięte chorągiewki na rosochach. Herbarz przytacza też labry. Flamandzki "Herbarz Gelre" z lat (1370-1395) podaje herb w zasadzie identyczny. "Herbarz Złotego Runa" (około 1433-1435) zamieszcza barwny herb, ale bez klejnotu, rysunek jest bardziej szczegółowy, przypomina teraz chustę, a nie powrósło. "Codex Bergshammer" (XV w.) podaje barwy herbu i jego klejnot, ale rogi są czarne. W herbarzu tym pojawił się również niemal identyczny herb, z godłem złotym. Jedna z dwóch chorągwi Nałęczytów, wystawiona pod Grunwaldem, miała również godło złote. Andrzej Kulikowski twierdzi, że takie zróżnicowanie barwy miało oznaczać podział rodu na dwie linie. Ponadto, herb przytacza też "Armorial Lyncenich" (XV w.) – bez klejnotu. Godło w powyższych opracowaniach ma postać średniowieczną – z chustą niezwiązaną. +O ile przedstawienie z luźnymi końcami chusty przeważają w średniowieczu, to pojawiają się już w tej epoce wizerunki z końcami związanymi. Tak godło przedstawiają Długoszowe "Klejnoty", "Stemmata polonica", pieczęć Piotra z Moszyny oraz kartusz z kościoła w Stopnicy. Warto wspomnieć o ciekawej oboczności w wyglądzie godła na tym zabytku, które jest dodatkowo ukoronowane. +Interesującą odmianę klejnotu można zobaczyć w "J. Zamoyskiego notatach" nr. 484, s. 57, gdzie nad hełmem występuje samo godło. Warto dodać, że w innych miejscach "Notatów", klejnot jest standardowy dla epoki średniowiecza. +Do końca średniowiecza godło Nałęcza przedstawiano zatem dwojako – z końcami związanymi lub nie, choć przeważa drugi sposób przedstawiania. Motyw rogów jelenich jest w zasadzie stały jako klejnot, rozbieżności zachodzą jedynie w barwach i szczegółach rysunku. Postać ludzka między rogami nie pojawia się jak widać ani razu. W średniowieczu ustaliły się barwy herbu i labrów. +Wiek XVI przyniósł zmiany w wyglądzie zarówno godła jak i klejnotu herbu. Przepaska jest już stale związana (inne przypadki zostały sklasyfikowane jako odmiany). Tak rysowali godło autorzy ilustracji w następujących opracowaniach: nowszych wydaniach "Klejnotów" Długosza, autorstwa Chigi, Łętowskiego, Kamienia i Arsenalskiej, Herbarzu Ambrożego, "Gnieździe cnoty" i "Herbach" Paprockiego, "Kronice" Bielskiego, "Mazowieckich zapiskach herbowych" z 1506. +Nadal można spotkać zachowane XVI-wieczne wizerunki klejnotu Nałęcza z samymi rogami. Tak ukształtowany klejnot pojawia się w "J. Zamoyskiego notatach", s. 60, nr. 522 (rok 1506), pieczęci Andrzeja z Szamotuł (1501 i 1504) i Ł. Raczkowskiego (1591) oraz na portalu na zamku w Osiecznej (około 1600). Pojawił się jednak wzbogacony klejnot, w którym między rogami umieszczono męża w szacie srebrnej (przedstawienie to sklasyfikował później Ostrowski jako odmianę Nałęcz II). Takie przedstawienie znalazło się w "Gnieździe..." i "Herbach..." Paprockiego, "Kronice" Bielskiego, rękopisie Ossolińskiego 4510 III, karta 151v, obrazie Św. Anny w Szamotułach, nagrobkach w Środzie i Sobocie, pieczęci H. Gostomskiego i nagrobku P. Samostrzeleckiego z lat 1560-80 w Sadkach k. Wyrzyska. +Wprawdzie labry już od średniowiecza były czerwone, podbite srebrem, ale w XVI wieku pojawia się jeden wyjątek od tej reguły – rękopis Ossolińskiego podaje zielony wierzch z czerwonym podbiciem. +Pierwszy herbarz wieku XVIII, autorstwa Antoniego Swacha, będący kompilacją prac Bielskiego, Okolskiego i Jana Liwa Herbulta (1705), zamieszcza kilka wersji Nałęcza, w tym mniej powszechne i jedną niezidentyfikowaną, ale na pierwszym miejscu podaje wersję z postacią ludzką w klejnocie. Niedokładność rysunku nie pozwala na odróżnienie płci. Kasper Niesiecki nie miał już jednak wątpliwości, że w klejnocie winna znajdować się postać kobiety i zamieścił taki klejnot w swoim herbarzu, ze słowami "Pospoliciej jednak go takim kształtem u nas w Polszcze zażywają(...)". Słowo "pospoliciej" miało odnosić się do Nałęcza Czarnkowskich, sklasyfikowanego później przez Ostrowskiego jako Nałęcz III. +XIX-wieczny herbarz rosyjski, traktujący także o polskich herbach, "Heraldyka rosyjska" Aleksandra Łakiera (1854), zamieszcza jako podstawową, Nałęcz III, z piórami i strzałą zamiast panny w klejnocie,inne warianty opisując tylko słownie. Jako używających wersji z panną wymienia tylko Ostrorogów. Ponadto, wzmiankuje też odmianę Zdzitowieckich. +Kształt klejnotu wersji podstawowej Nałęcza, jak i oznaczenia cyframi rzymskimi jego wariantów, ustalił Juliusz Karol Ostrowski w "Księdze herbowej rodów polskich". Nieustalona pozostała tynktura sukni panny. Ostrowski podaje ją czerwoną, Chrząński – błękitną. Błękitna suknia jest również u Z. Leszczyca. Emilian Szeliga-Żernicki w "Die polnischen Stammwappen" (1904) zamieszcza wersję z piórami i strzałą jako Nałęcz I, zaś z panną, jako Nałęcz II. Panna ma suknię błękitną. W broszurce "Herby rycerstwa polskiego – Nałęcz" można znaleźć rysunek z suknią srebrną. +Opracowania współczesne, jak "Herbarz polski od średniowiecza do XX wieku" Tadeusza Gajla i "Herbarz rodowy" Alfreda Znamierowskiego, wobec rozbieżności w historycznych przekazach, nie zajmują wspólnego stanowiska na temat kształtu klejnotu podstawowej wersji herbu, chociaż zgadzają się co do kształtu herbu. Tadeusz Gajl przyjmuje wykładnię Ostrowskiego w kwestii barw i numeracji odmian. To właśnie wersja Gajla figuruje w infoboksie. Alfred Znamierowski rekonstruuje wygląd klejnotu na podstawie najdawniejszych przedstawień, ale wzmiankuje wersje z mężem i panną w klejnocie, nie podając barwy sukni tej drugiej. +Najwcześniejsze wzmianki pisane. +Pierwsza zapiska sądowa wzmiankująca herb pochodzi z 1398 i podaje nazwę "Nałęcz jezioro". Podobny zapis pojawia się jeszcze kilka razy. Zapis z ksiąg sądowych z 30 maja 1425 podaje nazwę "Pomłość": (łac.) "„...et de nostro Clenodio et proclamacione Nalancz wulgariter nancupato, in quo deferimus erpicurium dictum Pomloszcz”". Przywilej z 1505 nazywa zaś godło herbu "choczennicą". +W bitwie pod Grunwaldem w 1410 wzięły udział dwie chorągwie pod znakiem Nałęcz. Były to chorągwie Sędziwoja z Ostroroga (wojewody poznańskiego) i Dobrogosta Świdwa z Szamotuł. +W wyniku unii horodelskiej w 1413 herb został przeniesiony na Litwę (herb przyjął bojar litewski Koczan (Koczanus, Coczanus, Koczan), adoptował wojewoda poznański Sędziwój Ostroróg oraz sędzia poznański Mikołaj z Czarnkowa, piszący się później też ze Człopy). +Legendy herbowe. +Samuel Orgelbrand podaje dodatkowo, że herb mógł wejść jako oznaka władzy dawnych książąt słowiańskich na tarczę pomorskich książąt, władców Czarnkowa lub też (o czym wspomina Bielski) po mediacji księcia Czarnkowskiego, mógł zostać mu nadany przez króla Bolesława Krzywoustego. +Tak naprawdę Nałęcze a konkretnie „panowie na Czarnkowie” otrzymali nadanie Człopa (pisana wtedy jako „Słopunow” jak przekazuje nam Jan Dlugosz czy „Słopa” jak twierdzi Bartosz Paprocki i XIII-wieczne dokumenty „Slopa”) w XIII wieku z rąk Przemysła II.Człopa w rodzie Nałęczów pozostawał do końca XVI wieku czego potwierdzenie znajdujemy w kronice Bartosza Paprockiego czy Marcina Bielskiego. +Etymologia nazwy i zawołań. +Współcześnie brak jest jednolitego stanowiska na temat etymologii słowa Nałęcz. Istnieją na ten temat dwie główne teorie. +Teoria o obrazowym pochodzeniu nazwy. +Józef Szymański uważa, że nazwa jak i zawołanie "Nałęcz" są obrazowe i pochodzą od godła herbu – od "nałęcz" – chustka na głowę skręcona i związana. Szymański zgadza się tutaj z teoriami, które pojawiły się wcześniej w "Słowniku Staropolskim" i "Encyklopedii" Brücknera. +Opinia ta została jako pierwsza podana przez Długosza w jego dziele "Insygnia Seu Clenodia Regni Poloniae": co się przekłada na język polski – Wykładnię tę przyjęło wielu późniejszych heraldyków i językoznawców. +W metryce koronnej w rodowodzie Sebastiana z Oleśnik powiedziano, że jest to (łac.) "manipulare album in campo rubeo", czyli manipularz albo naręcznik biały. Opis ten według Orgelbranda nie jest wcale sprzeczny z przekazem Długosza, uwydatnia jedynie, że wstęga czy zawiązka stanowiąca godło, pierwotnie nie była zawiązana. +Teoria o topograficznym pochodzeniu nazwy. +Józef Szymański, mimo iż uznaje teorię o obrazowym pochodzeniu za obowiązującą, przytacza też inne opinie, taką jak np. drugą już na ten temat Brücknera, zawartą w "Słowniku etymologicznym". Brückner przeczy tutaj sam swej opinii ze "Słownika Staropolskiego", pisząc, że nazwa chustki jest wtórna i pochodzi od nazwy herbu, ta zaś ma pochodzić od jeziora Nałęcz. Miałaby to więc być nazwa topograficzna. +Pogląd taki można znaleźć też w: "Handbuch" i "Topograficzne nazwy rodowe". +Jedna z nowszych opinii na ten temat pochodzi od Andrzeja Kulikowskiego. W swoim "Wielkim Herbarzu rodów polskich" z roku 2005 zgadza się on z teorią o topograficznym pochodzeniu nazwy "Nałęcz". Taką teorię zdaje się potwierdzać jedno z zawołań – "Nałęcz jezioro", według Semkowicza pochodzenia topograficznego. +Inne teorie. +Antoni Małecki podaje informację, że nazwę herbu tłumaczono w ten sposób, że godło to jest podobne jest do łuku, a słowo "łuk" wymawiano dawniej jako "łęk". +Współcześni etymolodzy Maria Kowalska i L. Moszyński wywodzą nazwę herbu od starosłowiańskiego "nałękti" – "napinać łuk". Kowalska dopisek "Jezioro", potwierdzający jakoby tezę topograficzną, interpretuje jako zwykły przydomek wpisanego do ksiąg posiadacza herbu. +Etymologia zawołań i nazw obocznych. +Zawołanie "Łęczuch" ma być, podobnie jak nazwa, obrazowe. Słowo to pochodzi od "laczuch" – "łańcuch, powróz". Maria Kowalska podaje również staropolskie słowo "łęczuch" – przedmiot w kształcie łuku. +Herbowni. +Lista herbownych w artykule sporządzona została na postawie wiarygodnych źródeł, zwłaszcza klasycznych i współczesnych herbarzy. Należy jednak zwrócić uwagę na częste zjawisko przypisywania rodom szlacheckim niewłaściwych herbów, szczególnie nasilone w czasie legitymacji szlachectwa przed zaborczymi heroldiami, co zostało następnie utrwalone w wydawanych kolejno herbarzach. Identyczność nazwiska nie musi oznaczać przynależności do danego rodu herbowego. Przynależność taką mogą bezspornie ustalić wyłącznie badania genealogiczne. +Pełna lista herbownych nie jest dziś możliwa do odtworzenia, także ze względu na zniszczenie i zaginięcie wielu akt i dokumentów w czasie II wojny światowej (m.in. w czasie powstania warszawskiego w 1944 spłonęło ponad 90% zasobu Archiwum Głównego w Warszawie, gdzie przechowywana była większość dokumentów staropolskich). Lista nazwisk znajdująca się w artykule (w infoboksie po prawej stronie) pochodzi z "Herbarza polskiego" Tadeusza Gajla i została uzupełniona o jedno pominięte przez tego autora nazwisko. Jest to dotychczas najpełniejsza lista herbownych, uzupełniana ciągle przez autora przy kolejnych wydaniach "Herbarza". Występowanie na liście nazwiska nie musi oznaczać, że konkretna rodzina pieczętowała się herbem Nałęcz. Często te same nazwiska są własnością wielu rodzin reprezentujących wszystkie stany dawnej Rzeczypospolitej, tj. chłopów, mieszczan, szlachtę. +Niektóre z wymienionych rodzin herbownych weszły do rodu Nałęczytów drogą adopcji herbowej. Pierwszą taką adopcją była ta z 1413 dla bojara litewskiego Koczana, protoplasty Koczanów, Koczanowiczów i Koczanowskich. W przypadku późniejszych adopcji, część dopuszczonych do Nałęcza otrzymała herby odmienione, ale niektórzy przyjęli Nałęcza bez żadnych zmian. Grono herbownych poszerzył w 1581 Andrzej Hanowiecki, przypuszczony do herbu przez Jakuba i Tomasza Wierzbińskich. Jan Dziećmiarowski został dopuszczony do Nałęcza w 1590. Stefan Batory zaliczył w grono szlachty swojego kancelistę, Mateusza Postha w 1591. Protoplasta rodziny Cal, Niemiec Wilhelm Cal, został adoptowany w 1596 przez Hieronima Gostomskiego. Kolejnym nobilitowanym był wojskowy, Stanisław Papuskowski, adoptowany przez Jana Górskiego w 1611. Ostatnim przypuszczonym do niezmienionego Nałęcza był neofita Stefan Wolański w 1765. +Niewątpliwie obcego pochodzenia jest nazwisko Bethune. Chodzi tu zapewne o francuski ród de Bethuné, od XVII wieku utrzymujący związki z Rzecząpospolitą. Franciszek de Bethuné, poseł francuski w Polsce, poślubił Marię Ludwikę, siostrę królowej Marii Kazimiery. Eugeniusz de Bethuné otrzymał w 1784 roku Order Orła Białego. Nie jest jasne, w jakich okolicznościach i który przedstawiciel rodu został dopuszczony do Nałęcza. Jan Korytkowski w książce "Prałaci i kanonicy Katedry Metropolitarnej Gnieźnieńskiej" wspomina, że Maria Katarzyna de Bethune używała odmiany "w polu srebrnym Nałęcz złota". Również Kasper Niesiecki wspominał o takiej odmianie (opisując Sapiehów napisał że Alexander Paweł pojął Maryannę Katarzynę margrabiankę de Bethune z margrabiów de Bethune herbu złota Nałęcz na polu srebrnym). Tadeusz Gajl nie podaje jednak żadnej odmiany dla Bethunów, poza tym herb taki łamałby zasadę alternacji. +Ponadto na liście herbownych można znaleźć inne obco brzmiące nazwiska, których okoliczności dołączenia do Nałęczytów pozostają niejasne. Są to Blanday, Dahlke, Ditrich, Dersztorff, Falcz, Konradi – Konrady, Laband – Labanda i Lauterbach. +Często w przypadku adopcji herb nobilitowanego odmieniano, tworząc zupełnie nowy znak. Jednym z wcześniejszych takich przypadków była nobilitacja Stanisława Bartoloni z 1589, adoptowanego przez Andrzeja Malickiego. Jego herb, Bartoloni miał wzbogacony rysunek i odmieniony klejnot. Podobnie było też w przypadku nobilitacji Mikołaja Łączyńskiego w 1580, Jana Węgiera z 1613 i Ignacego Felsztyńskiego z 1780, których herby własne Łączyński, Węgier i Felsztyński różniły się od Nałęcza klejnotami. Jan Girk został zaliczony w poczet polskiej szlachty przez dołączenie Nałęcza do własnego herbu rodowego. Jego herb Girk był dwupolowy. +Zachodziły też sytuacje, w których adoptowano jednocześnie do Nałęcza i innego herbu, łącząc dwa godła ze sobą. Tak przebiegły nobilitacje z 1556 dla braci Janczewskich oraz z 1552 dla Jana Graffa z żoną. Oba herby (Graff i Janczewski) powstały z połączenia Nałęcza i Poroni (w/g Anny Wajs – Gozdawy). Zarówno Graffowie jak i Janczewscy, a przynajmniej niektórzy z nich, używali w czasach późniejszych Nałęcza bez żadnych dodatków. +Podobnie wyglądała sprawa adopcji Mikołaja Bucelli i jego siostrzeńca, Prospera Lippi, indygenowanych za zasługi w wojnie z Moskwą. Mikołaj został adoptowany do herbów Nałęcz Stanisława Gostomskiego i Lis Lwa Sapiehy, czego efektem jest herb własny Bucella, powstały przez połączenie godeł wzmiankowanych herbów i herbu rodowego. Prospero natomiast, miał według Szymańskiego otrzymać jedynie dodatek Nałęcza, bez Lisa. Kasper Niesiecki podaje, że rodzina Lippich używała Nałęcza bez połączenia z herbem rodowym Bucellich. Boniecki wzmiankuje jeszcze matkę Prospera, Małgorzatę, która wyszła powtórnie za mąż w Polsce. +Stanisław Dziadulewicz twierdzi, że Korkuciowie są rodziną pochodzenia tatarskiego. Świadczyć miałoby o tym częste użycie imienia Eljasz w rodzinie. Według niego Nałęcza miały też używać tatarskie rodziny Mićkiewiczów, Grocholskich i Sołtanowiczów. Serwis "Tatarzy polscy" wymienia nazwisko Jałomowicz, nie przytaczane przez Tadeusza Gajla, jako nazwisko rodziny tatarskiej, używającej Nałęcza. +Seweryn Uruski pisze, że Adam Benedykt Jocher otrzymał wraz z synami szlachectwo z Nałęczem w roku 1845, w Cesarstwie. Jest to dość niespotykana sytuacja, gdy obcy władca nadaje rdzennie polski herb bez żadnych odmian. +Znani herbowni. +Obok szeroko rozpowszechnionych rodów takich jak Ostrorogowie, Małachowscy i Raczyńscy, które wydały wielu zasłużonych mężów stanu, również niektórzy członkowie pomniejszych rodzin używających Nałęcza zapisali się w historii kraju. Józef Konrad Korzeniowski, znany szerzej jako Joseph Conrad, syn Apolla herbu Nałęcz przyznawał się do swego szlacheckiego pochodzenia i był z niego dumny. Herb nakazał umieszczać w angielskiej edycji swoich dzieł. Nałęczytą był też jeden z pierwszych polskich encyklopedystów, ksiądz Benedykt Chmielowski. +Nałęcz poza granicami Rzeczypospolitej. +Rosja. +Walkowski (Falkowski?), Raczyński, Podolski, Tichocki (Cichocki?), przy czym Łakier za podstawową wersję Nałęcza uznaje Nałęcz III, z piórami i strzałą zamiast panny w klejnocie. Jako używających wersji z panną wymienia tylko Ostrorogów. Ponadto, wzmiankuje też odmianę Zdzitowieckich. +Czechy. +Rodzina Dłuskich z Długiego na Śląsku osiadła w XVI wieku na Morawach, pisząc się od tego momentu Dlúzský z Dlúhégo i zaszczepiając w ten sposób Nałęcza w Czechach. Motyw związanej chusty (cz. "točenica") nie był w tym kraju bynajmniej nowością, posługiwały się nim jeszcze co najmniej dwa rody, których związki z Polską są na dzień dzisiejszy nieznane: Strpský ze Strpí oraz Severský z Kuličkova. Ci pierwsi używali złotej nałęczki, zaś w klejnocie nosili trzy pióra strusie – jedno złote między dwoma czerwonymi. Ci drudzy mieli herb identyczny, z barwą srebrną zamiast złotej. Nałęczka występuje też w Czechach we współczesnej heraldyce terytorialnej (gminy Točník, Kamenný Přívoz i Tetín), ale nie zaczerpnięto jej tam z herbu Nałęcz, bądź taki związek jest nieznany. +Występowanie w herbach terytorialnych. +Nałęczyci, jako liczny ród herbowy posiadali wiele dóbr prywatnych, włączając w to całe miasta. Fakt związku z rodem został upamiętniony w kilkudziesięciu polskich herbach terytorialnych na terenach dawnej Sandomierszczyzny, ziemi sieradzkiej, Wielkopolski, a nawet Małopolski. +Herby będące powtórzeniem rysunku Nałęcza. +Niemal niezmienionego Nałęcza używają miasta: Czarnków, będący od XIII w posiadaniu Nałęczytów – Czarnkowskich (zob. Herb Czarnkowa) i Ostroróg, posiadłość Ostrorogów. Samej nałęczki używają też gminy: Babiak (dawniej miasto, związane z Raczyńskimi), oraz Odrzywół, której siedziba została złożona w 1418 r. przez Dobrogosta Odrzywolskiego (na potrzeby herbu gminy odmieniono tynkturę chusty). +Herby łączące nałęczkę z innymi godłami. +Nałęczka występuje też w godłach herbu powiatu czarnkowsko-trzcianeckiego, herbu powiatu szamotulskiego i herbu powiatu nowodworskiego. W pierwszym i trzecim, chustkę zaczerpnięto bezpośrednio z herbu Czarnkowa, w tym drugim, godło pochodzi od Nałęczytów, którzy do XVI wieku wywierali znaczące wpływy na terenie dzisiejszego powiatu. +Miasta: Ostroróg, Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki i Szubin, gminy: Czarnków, Dąbrowa, Dobra, Głowaczów, Moszczenica i Stanin, oraz powiaty: czarnkowsko-trzcianecki i szamotulski umieściły ponadto nałęczki na swoich flagach. +Odmiany, alternatywne wizerunki i wersje utytułowane. +Gorzeński, Kęszycki, Łączyński, Małachowski, Moszczeński, Moszyński, Ostroróg, Raczyński. +Niezależnie od tego powstał szereg odmian, które na skutek adopcji herbowych, powielanych błędów opisu, łączenia godeł małżonków itp. od podstawowego wizerunku różniły się szczegółami godła bądź klejnotu. Należy zaznaczyć, że nie zawsze pierwotna wersja herbu jest uznawana za „podstawową”. Jest nią raczej wersja używana najdłużej i przez największą liczbę rodów. Rozróżnienia takiego, obecnie powszechnie akceptowanego, dokonał Juliusz Karol Ostrowski. +Bartoloni, Dybowski, Felsztyński, Gostomski I, Korth, Kunowski, Łączyński (Tadeusz Gajl nie uznaje czterech ostatnich za odmiany), Miliński, Morawski, Nałęcz II, Nałęcz III, Nałęcz IV, Nałęcz V, Nicz, Nowosielecki, Odachowski, Ostroróg II, Pirawski, Raczkowski, Rostworowski (Tadeusz Gajl nie uznaje tego herbu za odmianę, Emilian Szeliga-Żernicki uważa, że jest to herb hrabiowski), Szawłowski, Tański, Węgier, Woropaj, Żądłowski, Żychliński. +Obecnie nie uważa się ich za samodzielne odmiany. Są to raczej różne wariacje kształtów tarczy i godła, pochodzące ze źródeł historycznych. Nie wzmiankują o nich, jako o samodzielnych herbach, autorzy współczesnych opracowań – Tadeusz Gajl, Alfred Znamierowski i Józef Szymański. +Jadwiga Tressenberg + +Jadwiga Tressenberg, z domu Stefańska (ur. 27 maja 1924 w Teolinie koło Grodna, zm. 29 grudnia 2004 w Kutach), nauczycielka polska, popularyzatorka baśni mazurskich. +W Grodnie ukończyła szkołę średnią i w 1944 rozpoczęła studia w Instytucie Pedagogicznym; rok później przyjechała z rodziną do Polski. Podjęła studia w Wyższej Szkole Pedagogicznej w Gdańsku (Wydział Geograficzno-Przyrodniczy). W 1954 wyszła za mąż za Ludwika Tressenberga, leśniczego w Puszczy Boreckiej i osiadła na Mazurach, w Kutach (gmina Pozezdrze). Pracowała w wiejskiej szkole jako nauczycielka, następnie jako bibliotekarka (kierowniczka Gromadzkiej Biblioteki i Wiejskiego Ośrodka Kultury w Kutach, potem kierowniczka Gromadzkiej Biblioteki Publicznej i filii Gminnej Biblioteki Publicznej tamże). +Prowadziła działalność społeczną, będąc pośredniczką między ludnością napływową a wysiedlanymi rdzennymi Mazurami. Zainteresowania miejscową kulturą skoncentrowała na baśniach mazurskich. Pierwszy artykuł poświęcony tej tematyce zamieściła na łamach "Głosu Olsztyńskiego" we wrześniu 1959, w kolejnych latach publikowała w "Głosie" i "Warmii i Mazurach". W Kutach założyła izbę pamiątek polskości Mazur (1963). Za pracę na rzecz rozwoju lokalnej kultury otrzymała wiele nagród i odznaczeń, m.in. nagrodę Prezydium Wojewódzkiej Rady Narodowej w Olsztynie (1973), Srebrny Krzyż Zasługi, odznakę "Zasłużonym dla Warmii i Mazur" i odznakę "Zasłużony Działacz Kultury". +W 2000 wydała zbiór 24 baśni ludowych z Mazur "Opowieści mazurskie"; drugie wydanie, poszerzone o kolejne dwie baśnie, ukazało się już po śmierci Jadwigi Tressenberg wiosną 2005. Była również współautorką, m.in. z Ireną Kwinto, "Kiermaszu bajek" (1957) i "Nowego kiermaszu bajek" (1969), a w pracy zbiorowej "Siła życia" (1973) ogłosiła swoje wspomnienia. +W uznaniu wieloletniej działalności kulturalnej imię Jadwigi Tressenberg - jeszcze za jej życia (2000) - nadano szkole podstawowej w Pozezdrzu. Emerytowana nauczycielka zmarła pod koniec 2004 i pochowana została w Kutach. +Kazimierz I oświęcimski + +Kazimierz I Oświęcimski (ur. ok. 1396, zm. 1433 lub 1434) – książę cieszyński i oświęcimski od 1410 (tylko formalnie), w wyniku podziału w 1414 w Oświęcimiu, Toszku, w latach 1416-1427 w Strzelinie. +Kazimierz I był jedynym synem księcia oświęcimskiego Przemysława Młodszego (a wnukiem najwybitniejszego księcia cieszyńskiego Przemysława Noszaka) i nieznanej z imienia jego małżonki. W związku z tragiczną śmiercią ojca 1 stycznia 1406 Kazimierz początkowo znalazł się pod opieką dziadka Przemysława, a od 1410 stryja Bolesława I. +Do wydzielenia dzielnicy ojcowskiej przez stryja Bolesława Kazimierzowi doszło 19 grudnia 1414, kiedy to jedyny syn Przemysława Młodszego otrzymał księstwo oświęcimskie, toszeckie i gliwickie. Podział ten nie zaspokoił ambicji młodego Piastowicza, tak więc ostatecznie dwa lata później książę cieszyński nie chcąc ryzykować konfliktu zbrojnego, wydzielił mu dodatkowo Strzelin i wypłacił 300 grzywien srebra. +W 1424 Kazimierz wziął udział w Krakowie w koronacji Zofii Holszańskiej na królową Polski. Nie oznaczało to jednakże propolskiej polityki księcia, który w tym samym czasie utrzymywał kontakty z królem czeskim Zygmuntem Luksemburczykiem, u którego często przebywał na dworze (zachowały się informacje, że książę oświęcimski z nieznanych powodów pobierał nawet rentę od króla w wysokości 3000 złotych, być może była to zapłata za pośrednictwo z zakonem krzyżackim, z którym, jak wiemy skądinąd, Kazimierz miał dobre stosunki). +W 1428 część posiadłości Kazimierza została splądrowana przez husytów. Spalone wtedy zostały m.in. Kęty, Toszek i Pyskowice. Inne zaś miasto należące do Kazimierza – Gliwice stało się główną bazą wypadową husytów na Górnym Śląsku. Zmagania z husytami trwały w tym regionie aż do 1433, kiedy to Kazimierzowi udało się odzyskać z pomocą księcia karniowskiego Mikołaja V Gliwice i wyprzeć wrogów z sąsiedniego Bytomia. +Kazimierz I był dwukrotnie żonaty. Pierwszą żoną Kazimierza była Anna żagańska, córka księcia żagańskiego Henryka VIII Wróbla. Małżeństwo to doszło do skutku zapewne około 1417 i doczekało trójki synów: Wacława, Przemysława i Jana IV. Kazimierz owdowiawszy około 1430, ożenił się powtórnie z Małgorzatą, córką księcia raciborskiego Jana II. Drugie małżeństwo pozostało bezdzietne. +W 1430 książę oświęcimski nadał prawa miejskie Wadowicom. +Kazimierz I Oświęcimski zmarł w 1433 lub 1434 i został pochowany w nekropolii tamtejszej linii Piastów w klasztorze dominikanów. +Czesław Nalborski + +Czesław Nalborski (ur. 22 lutego 1910 w Grajewie, zm. 28 października 1992 w Ełku) – oficer Armii Krajowej ps. ""Dzik"" i harcmistrz Szarych Szeregów. +Od 1924 członek harcerskiej II Drużyny Męskiej im. Tadeusza Kościuszki w Grajewie. Walczył w wojnie obronnej 1939 w szeregach Suwalskiej Brygady Kawalerii. Został wzięty do niewoli, z której uciekł w 1939. Od 1942 członek AK, szef wywiadu na południową część Prus Wschodnich. Organizator i aktywny uczestnik akcji likwidacji hitlerowskiego komanda śmierci zwanego "Widmem Śmierci", dokonującego masowych egzekucji na jeńcach rosyjskich, włoskich i więźniach polskich z obozu w Boguszach pod Prostkami. Dzięki akcji przeprowadzonej 31 października 1943 ocalało 300 więźniów z obozu w Boguszach przeznaczonych do likwidacji. Wykonywanie masowych egzekucji na jeńcach i więźniach obozu w Boguszach zawieszono. Prowadził także akcje sabotażowo-dywersyjne na terenie Prus Wschodnich. Został odznaczony Krzyżem Srebrnym Orderu Virtuti Militari (1943). +Po wojnie więziony za działalność w AK i konspiracyjnym harcerstwie. +Tworzył i prowadził drużyny harcerskie w powojennym Ełku na wzór harcerstwa polski przedwrześniowej spotykając się z niechęcią władz komunistycznych. W czasach stalinowskich za wyświęcenie sztandaru drużyny w Kościele trafia do więzienia, drużyna zostaje rozwiązana. +Po śmierci Stalina organizował i prowadził społecznie kolejne drużyny harcerskie ucząc młodzież prawdziwej historii i patriotyzmu. W latach 80. odsunięty od pracy w harcerstwie za zapoznawanie młodzieży z wydawnictwami emigracyjnymi dotyczącymi prawdziwej historii. +Jedno z rond w Ełku nazwano jego imieniem. +Protosfera + +Protosfera - zewnętrzna, bardzo rozrzedzona i zjonizowana warstwa atmosfery ziemskiej, zawierająca protony, część egzosfery. +Kilonia + +Kilonia (niem.: "Kiel") – miasto na prawach powiatu w Niemczech, stolica kraju związkowego Szlezwik-Holsztyn "(Schleswig-Holstein)". +Kilonia leży nad Zatoką Kilońską w południowo-zachodniej części Morza Bałtyckiego. Jest jednym z większych portów na Bałtyku i jednym z większych w Niemczech. Pod Kilonią znajduje się wejście do Kanału Kilońskiego, łączącego Morze Bałtyckie (Zatoka Kilońska) z Morzem Północnym (u ujścia Łaby). +Historia. +Podczas II wojny światowej Kilonia została mocno zniszczona. Po wojnie została odbudowana, jednak planiści nie zdecydowali się odtworzyć dawnej zabudowy, jak to miało miejsce w innych miastach Szlezwika-Holsztynu: Lubece lub Szlezwiku. +Od 1655 roku w mieście działa Uniwersytet Christiana-Albrechta. +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa Kiel Hauptbahnhof. +Piaski-Szczygliczka + +Piaski-Szczygliczka (niem. "Sandkrug-Stieglitzka") - północna część miasta Ostrów Wielkopolski. +Do lat 60. istniało tu (ale nigdy nie funkcjonowało) krematorium wybudowane przez hitlerowców dla obozu pracy przy ulicy Kościuszki. +Obejmuje dawne osady Piaski ("Sandkrug", na wschodzie), Stary i Nowy Staw ("Altteich", "Neuteich", środkowa część), Szczygliczka ("Stieglitzka", na zachodzie) oraz obszar leśny Piaski (leśnictwo Nowy Staw). Administracyjnie część osiedla Wenecja. +Park Kultury i Wypoczynku. +Powstały w latach 70. ośrodek wypoczynkowy. Kolej wąskotorowa, sztuczny zbiornik wodny Piaski-Szczygliczka, stanica harcerska, drzewa pomnikowe. W pobliżu (Wenecja - ul. Limanowskiego) motel i ośrodek jazdy konnej (z krytą ujeżdżalnią) Borowianka. +Na terenie Parku znajduje się zbiornik rekreacyjny o powierzchni 30,5 ha, powstały w latach 1974-1978 na odnodze niewielkiej rzeki Ołobok. +W okresie zimowym zbiornik ten odgrywa dla ptaków rolę ważniejszą niż położona w sąsiedztwie Europejska Ostoja Ptaków - Dolina Baryczy. Spowodowane jest to m.in. sezonem polowań. +W Parku znajduje się ponadto Skansen Pszczelarski im. Marty i Edwarda Pawlaków. +Polski Związek Łyżwiarstwa Figurowego + +Polski Związek Łyżwiarstwa Figurowego (PZŁF) – organizacja zrzeszająca zawodników, trenerów i działaczy polskiego łyżwiarstwa figurowego. Powstał w 1921 roku jako Polski Związek Łyżwiarski, zrzeszający zarówno łyżwiarzy figurowych, jak i panczenistów. Prezesem został Aleksander Bobkowski. Organizacja początkowo miała swoją siedzibę we Lwowie, ale już w 1922 przeniosła się do Warszawy. Była w kontakcie z Międzynarodową Unią Łyżwiarską, gdyż jej członkiem od roku 1898 było Warszawskie Towarzystwo Łyżwiarskie. +W 1957 roku wydzieliły się z niej dwa związki: Polski Związek Łyżwiarstwa Figurowego oraz Polski Związek Łyżwiarstwa Szybkiego. Pierwszym prezesem PZŁF został Zbigniew Iwasiewicz. +Runo + +Runo to spójna masa luźno ze sobą powiązanych włókien lub innych włóknistych obiektów. Przykładem niech będzie "runo owcze" czyli zwarta masa owczej sierści otrzymana w procesie strzyżenia owcy (por. słynne "Złote runo"). Również biblijne "Runo Gedeona" (runo wełny) jest znanym przykładem runa. +Paradoks strzelby i służącego + +Paradoks strzelby i służącego został sformułowany przez Davida Hume'a jako ilustracja krytyki pojęcia przyczynowości. Filozof ten zauważył, że to co wiemy na temat dochodzących do nas bodźców, to tylko one same i ich następstwo czasowe. Jeśli np. bierzemy strzelbę i naciskamy spust, to dochodzi do nas przez palec bodziec naciskania spustu, a po chwili słyszymy huk i błysk wystrzału. Na tej podstawie tworzymy sobie ideę, że naciśnięcie spustu spowodowało wystrzał. Może się jednak tak złożyć, że złośliwy służący wyjął nam nabój ze strzelby, stanął za nami i huknął w momencie, gdy my nacisnęliśmy spust. Będziemy wtedy mieli dokładnie to samo wrażenie, że to my spowodowaliśmy wystrzał, mimo że naprawdę będzie inaczej. A zatem, tak naprawdę dane są nam tylko dwa bodźce następujące jeden po drugim i nic więcej. Co gorsza, tak jest praktycznie zawsze przy ustalaniu jakichkolwiek związków przyczynowo-skutkowych. +Zauropody + +Zauropody (Sauropoda) – infrarząd dinozaurów z rzędu dinozaurów gadziomiednicznych (Saurischia). Należały do niego największe zwierzęta lądowe, jakie kiedykolwiek stąpały po ziemi. Wszystkie były roślinożerne. Odkryto, że ostatnie z zauropodów, żyjące około 65 mln lat temu na terenie dzisiejszych Indii, mogły żywić się także trawami, na co wskazują przeprowadzone przez Caroline Stromberg i współpracowników badania skamieniałych odchodów znalezionych w Indiach. Wcześniej uważano, że trawy pojawiły się długo po wymarciu dinozaurów (w oligocenie). +Zauropody miały małe głowy na bardzo długich szyjach i długie ogony jako przeciwwagę dla ich szyj. Zęby stępione słupkowate lub łopatkowate, najczęściej rzadko rozmieszczone. Zwierzęta te zwykle poruszały się stosunkowo powoli na czterech grubych, słupowatych, pięciopalczastych nogach o palcach silnie skróconych z tępymi pazurami występującymi tylko na 1 palcu przednich kończyn oraz 1, 2 i 3 palcu kończyn tylnych. +Nozdrza były przesunięte daleko ku tyłowi, umieszczone w górnej części czaszki, czasami bardzo blisko oczu, często jednak daleko za nimi (jak w przypadku brachiozaurów). +Niektóre z późniejszych zauropodów miały częściowo opancerzone ciała, np. tytanozaury. +Występowały od późnego triasu ("Antetonitrus") do końca kredy na wszystkich kontynentach włącznie z Antarktydą. Do zauropodów należały np.: diplodok, apatozaur, brachiozaur, kamarazaur. +Pożywienie. +Zauropody żywiły się roślinami. W późnej jurze (gdy żyła większość tych zwierząt) rosły paprocie drzewiaste, benetyty, miłorzęby a przede wszystkim araukarie. +Długość szyi, rozmiary ciała i rodzaj uzębienia pozwalają wnioskować o rodzaju pożywienia. Gatunki długoszyjne (brachiozaur) sięgały koron drzew. Lżejsze gatunki (diplodok) przyjmowały często wyprostowaną postawę ciała przy obgryzaniu drzew z liści. Diplodok o cienkich i ostrych zębach mógł się żywić jedynie liśćmi z drzew, natomiast kamarazaur z mocniejszym uzębieniem odgryzał całe pędy a nawet gałęzie. +Zęby zauropodów nie były przystosowane do żucia twardych części roślin, więc zwierzęta połykały kamienie o rozmiarach śliwki czy jabłka, by w umięśnionym żołądku rozcierać nimi połknięty pokarm. +Klasyfikacja. +infrarząd: zauropody (Sauropoda) "sensu" Yates & Kitching, 2003 (anchizaury (Anchisauria) "sensu" Yates, 2007) +Filogeneza. +Kladogram według: Wilson, 2002 +Sas + +Zobacz też: SAS +Kanpur + +Kanpur (hindi: कानपुर, do 1948 r. znany jako "Cawnpore") – największe miasto stanu Uttar Pradesh w północnych Indiach. +Kanpur jest położony nad rzeką Ganges, na południowy zachód od Lakhnau i jest ważnym centrum przemysłu maszynowego, tekstylnego, elektronicznego, metalowego i chemicznego. Zajmuje obszar ok. 1000km², zaś jego populacja wynosi 4,13 mln (2001 r.). Kanpur posiada kilkanaście instytucji edukacyjnych takich jak: CSJM University, Indian Institut of Technology, Harcourt Butler Technological Institute (HBTI), University Institute of Engineering i Technology oraz GSVM Medical College. +Historia. +Na terenie obecnego miasta w 1207 roku Raja Kanti Deo z Prayag założył miejscowość "Kohna". W 1579 roku po raz pierwszy użyto nazwy Kanpur. +Od 1773 do 1801 Kanpur był częścią królestwa Avadh. W 1801 miejscowość została zajęta przez wojska brytyjskie. Pod wpływem Kampanii Wschodnioindyjskiej w mieście osiedliło się wiele firm kupieckich. Szybko wzrosła ilość ludności. +Podczas powstania Sipajów przeciwko okupantom brytyjskim w 1857 roku rebelianci indyjscy przyczynili się do śmierci całego garnizonu brytyjskiego. Zginęły wówczas także kobiety i dzieci. +Od 15 sierpnia 1947 roku tj. od momentu odzyskania przez Indie niepodległości miasto wchodzi w skład nowo powstałego państwa - Unii Indyjskiej. +W grudniu 1959 rząd indyjski założył w mieście IIT Kanpur ("Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur") - jedna z siedmiu elitarnych szkół technicznych Indii. +Klimat. +Podczas pory deszczowej, monsunu - gorący. Przeciętnie w ciągu roku temperatury wynoszą 25,7 °C (15,9 °C w styczniu i 33,6 °C w maju i czerwcu). Roczna ilość opadów około 823 mm. +Hubert Kostka + +Hubert Jerzy Kostka ur. 27 maja 1940 w Markdorf (Markowitz), w powiecie Ratibor – polski piłkarz (bramkarz), reprezentant Polski (także kapitan reprezentacji), mistrz olimpijski 1972, trener piłkarski. +Nosił boiskowy przydomek "Farorz" (co oznacza w gwarze śląskiej proboszcza). W 1964 uzyskał dyplom magistra inżyniera górnictwa na Politechnice Śląskiej; uzupełnił wykształcenie także w kierunku sportowym – w 1975 ukończył katowicką Akademię Wychowania Fizycznego, a od 1986 jest trenerem klasy mistrzowskiej. +Karierę sportową rozpoczął w klubie LZS Markowice. W 1957 przeszedł do Unii Racibórz, a jesienią 1960 do Górnika Zabrze. W barwach Górnika występował przez 14 sezonów ligowych, rozegrał 301 meczów oficjalnych, w tym 221 w ekstraklasie. Zdobył jako piłkarz 8 tytułów mistrza Polski (1961, 1963-1966, 1970-1972) i 6 Pucharów Polski (1965, 1968-1972), grał także w wiedeńskim finale europejskiego Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów, przegranym 1:2 z Manchesterem City. +Do najlepszych występów Kostki w kadrze zaliczano mecze przeciwko Belgom (1967), Holendrom (1969) i Bułgarom (1969). Został także zapamiętany z występów w barwach Górnika w meczach europejskich pucharów – z Dynamem Kijów (1967), Manchesterem United (1968), AS Roma (1970). Był uważany za jednego z najlepszych polskich bramkarzy. +Po zakończeniu kariery zawodniczej zajął się trenowaniem ekip młodzieżowych Górnika. W 1976 po raz pierwszy został trenerem zespołu seniorów; w pierwszym sezonie poprowadził drużynę do 3. miejsca w ekstraklasie, ale kolejny słabszy sezon (zakończony spadkiem) kosztował go utratę posady na półmetku ligi. W następnych latach prowadził m.in. Szombierki Bytom (mistrzostwo Polski 1980); powrócił do Górnika Zabrze w 1983 i zdobył tytuły mistrzowskie w 1985 i 1986. Trzeci raz prowadził klub z Zabrza przez kilka miesięcy 1994. Był ponadto trenerem Walki Makoszowy, Zagłębia Sosnowiec, Olimpii Poznań, Petrochemii Płock, Lechii/Olimpii Gdańsk, Rakowa Częstochowa; w Szwajcarii prowadził kluby z Grenchen i Aarau. +Jako trener współpracował z Kazimierzem Górskim w sztabie szkoleniowym przygotowującym start Polaków na mistrzostwach świata w 1974 oraz w eliminacjach mistrzostw Europy w 1975. Pomagał także następnym szkoleniowcom kadry – Jackowi Gmochowi i Antoniemu Piechniczkowi w przygotowaniach do kolejnych Mundiali. Sam kandydował na stanowisko trenera selekcjonera Polski w 1989, ale przegrał z Andrzejem Strejlauem. Tygodnik "Piłka Nożna" przyznał mu trzy razy tytuł Trenera Roku. +W maju 2005 został powołany przez prezesa Polskiego Związku Piłki Nożnej Michała Listkiewicza w skład specjalnej komisji etyki, która miała zajmować się przypadkami korupcji wśród sędziów piłkarskich, jednak zrezygnował z udziału w jej pracach. +Reprezentacja Polski. +Bronił w kadrze w latach 1962-1972, zaliczając 32 oficjalne występy. W trzech z nich pełnił obowiązki kapitana polskiego zespołu. Największy sukces w karierze reprezentacyjnej odniósł u jej schyłku, sięgając z zespołem Kazimierza Górskiego po złoto olimpijskie w Monachium w 1972. +Opera Software + +Opera Software ASA (OSA) (OSE OPERA) – norweska firma informatyczna założona przez Jona Stephensona von Tetzchnera i Geira Ivarsøya w 1995. +Historia. +Zarówno Jon S. von Tetzchner, jak i Geir Ivarsøy pracowali w największej norweskiej firmie telekomunikacyjnej Telenor, gdzie w 1994 roku rozpoczęli prace nad projektem przeglądarki stron WWW o nazwie „MultiTorg Opera”. Projekt został zarzucony przez Telenor, ale von Tetzchner i Ivarsøy otrzymali prawa do programu i w 1995 roku założyli własną firmę – Opera Software ASA, pod szyldem której kontynuowano prace nad przeglądarką. W 1997 roku zaprezentowano pierwszą ogólnie dostępną wersję tej aplikacji pod nazwą Opera 2. +Działalność firmy. +Opera Software ASA jest zaangażowana w tworzenie i promowanie standardów sieciowych. Jest członkiem organizacji World Wide Web Consortium, w ramach której bierze aktywny udział w rozwijaniu języków takich jak CSS i XHTML. +Według stanu na grudzień 2010 Opera Software zatrudnia 747 pracowników, jest notowana na giełdzie papierów wartościowych w Oslo, ma silną pozycję na rynku przeglądarek dla urządzeń mobilnych. Szacuje się, że z wersji Opery dla komputerów biurkowych korzysta około 50 milionów użytkowników na całym świecie. +Główne motto firmy brzmi: (ang.) ""Simply the Best Internet Experience on Any Device"", (pol.) ""Po prostu najlepsze doznania internetowe na dowolnym urządzeniu"". +Produkty. +Działalność firmy skupia się na tworzeniu przeglądarki internetowej Opera na różne platformy sprzętowe i systemowe. +Oddziały zamiejscowe. +Opera w Polsce. +2 listopada 2006 Opera Software otworzyła we Wrocławiu pierwsze w Polsce oraz w wschodniej części Europy centrum badawczo-rozwojowe Opery. Polscy inżynierowie (pozyskani na bazie zlikwidowanego centrum badawczego firmy BenQ Poland) zajmują się przenoszeniem przeglądarki Opera i Opera Mini na mobilną platformę BREW firmy Qualcomm. W Polsce zatrudnia ponad 100 osób i nadal zwiększa zatrudnienie. +W czerwcu 2008 Opera Software zawarła porozumienie z polskim serwisem aukcyjnym Allegro.pl. Efektem współpracy ma być promocja serwisu poprzez Operę 9.5 w tzw. wersji desktopowej oraz poprzez Operę Mini 4.1. Na mocy porozumienia wyszukiwarka Allegro.pl została centralnym elementem „strony szybkiego wybierania” (ang. Speed Dial) pakietu internetowego Opera w wersji 9.50 oraz lokalną wyszukiwarką zarówno w Operze 9.50 jak i Operze Mini 4.1. +W czerwcu 2009 firma otworzyła drugie Centrum Badań i Rozwoju w Warszawie. +Jason Thirsk + +Jason Matthew Thirsk (ur. 25 grudnia 1967, zm. 29 lipca 1996) – amerykański muzyk, basista i wokalista kalifornijskiego zespołu punkowego Pennywise. Nie stronił od używek, cierpiał na depresję. 30 lipca jego dziewczyna znalazła go martwego w domu. Zginął od strzału w brzuch, z ustaleń policji wynika, że popełnił samobójstwo. +Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna + +Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna – zbiór ośmiu opowiadań z gatunku fantasy, napisanych przez Andrzeja Sapkowskiego. Każde poprzedzone jest komentarzem odautorskim, zostało ponownie zredagowane, przez co stało się wierniejsze oryginałowi. Zbiór został wydany w roku 2000. +Alojzy Żółkowski (syn) + +Alojzy Fortunat Jazon Żółkowski (ur. 4 grudnia 1814 w Warszawie, zm. 25 listopada 1889 w Warszawie) – aktor polski. +Był synem znanego warszawskiego artysty komediowego, również Alojzego (1777-1822) oraz aktorki Marii Ludwiki z domu Ebel. Po śmierci ojca jego opiekunami zostali inni czołowi przedstawiciele warszawskiego życia teatralnego – aktor i dyrektor teatru Ludwik Adam Dmuszewski oraz aktor i reżyser Bonawentura Kudlicz. Pierwsze nauki pobierał u pijarów; planowano, że rozpocznie studia medyczne, ale ostatecznie wybrał rodzinny zawód aktora. +Wykształcenie zawodowe pobierał u Karola Kurpińskiego (muzyka) i Józefa Polkowskiego (śpiew). W 1832 dzięki staraniom matki otrzymał miejsce w chórze Opery Warszawskiej, co było równoznaczne ze zwolnieniem ze służby w wojsku rosyjskim. Rok później został przyjęty na etat w Warszawskich Teatrach Rządowych i zadebiutował jako Lord Kookburn w operze "Fra Diavolo". +Od początku życzliwie przyjmowany przez publiczność warszawską – najpierw ze względu na pamięć ojca, potem dzięki własnemu stylowi gry, szczególnie w rolach komediowych. Tworząc sceniczne postacie kierował się przede wszystkim intuicją i wyobrażeniem odniesionym po lekturze scenariusza, w odróżnieniu od innego, współczesnego mu, wybitnego aktora Jana Walerego Królikowskiego, który opierał się na głębokich studiach obyczajowych dotyczących tła przedstawienia. Według Eugeniusza Szwankowskiego Żółkowski był "aktorem oryginalnym i wyjątkowym; nie miał poprzednika i następcy, był zjawiskiem niepowtarzalnym w dziejach sceny polskiej. Otworzył on, a właściwie zapowiedział epokę gwiazd Teatru Rozmaitości i zamknął ją po 56 latach aktorskiej kariery." +Cieszył się popularnością zarówno wśród widzów z arystokracji, jak i rzemieślników i studentów. Występował niemal wyłącznie w Warszawie, którą rzadko opuszczał m.in. ze względu na chorobę (artretyzm). Uchodził za jednego z najlepiej opłacanych aktorów w Europie. W 1878 uroczyście obchodził 45-lecie, a w czerwcu 1883 50-lecie pracy scenicznej. Po raz ostatni wystąpił na dwa tygodnie przed śmiercią. Został pochowany na cmentarzu Powązkowskim. +Z małżeństwa z Teklą ze Skalskich (ślub 19 lutego 1846) miał córkę Alojzę Rafaelę (ur. 1850), żonę lekarza Adolfa Ostrowskiego. +Imagine (środowisko programistyczne) + +Imagine jest to środowisko programistyczne umożliwiające programowanie w języku Logo oraz twórcze uczenie się i nauczanie. +Zostało ono stworzone w 2001 roku na Słowacji przez zespół pracowników Uniwersytetu Komeniusza w Bratysławie: Andreja Blaho, Petera Tomcsányi, Lubomira Salanci i Ivana Kalaša. +W stosunku do poprzedników Imagine zostało rozbudowane o takie rzeczy jak: programowanie obiektowe, wielowątkowość, rozbudowana obsługa multimediów, komponenty typowe dla formularzy (przyciski, suwaki, pola tekstowe), obsługa sieci, system rozpoznawania mowy oraz o nowego żółwia. +Imagine jest przeznaczone dla systemu operacyjnego Windows. +Pozwala na tworzenie plików EXE. Jednak ze względu na to, że dołącza ono do nich swoją maszynę wirtualną, pliki te są bardzo duże. +Imagine umożliwia także uruchamianie programów poprzez kod stron internetowych, co jednak wymaga zainstalowania odpowiedniej wtyczki. +Polska wersja Imagine została nazwana, "Logomocja, polska edycja Imagine" i jest popularnie nazywana po prostu "Logomocja" (jej logo to popularny motyw kolorowej lokomotywy) Komunikuje się ona z użytkownikiem wyłącznie w języku polskim (interfejs, pomoc), spolszczeniu uległ nawet sam język programowania Logo. Imagine zostało wydane również w innych krajach, między innymi: w Wielkiej Brytanii, w Portugalii, w Brazylii, na Słowacji. +Wg opinii środowiska pedagogicznego Logomocja jest złym środowiskiem dydaktycznym do nauki informatyki. Jej autonomiczny język komunikacji z użytkownikiem jest zupełnie nieprzydatny do pracy z innymi oprogramowaniami. Polecany jest jednak jako użyteczny w "pierwszych krokach z komputerem" na poziomie edukacji przedszkolnej. +W skład pakietu Logomocji wchodzi także edytor graficzny obsługujący wiele formatów graficznych (m. in. BMP, GIF, JPEG, CUR, ICO, PNG). Można go wykorzystywać zarówno do projektowania postaci żółwi, tła projektu, oraz niezależnie jako samodzielny program do tworzenia na przykład gifów animowanych lub ikon. Program działa z Edytorem postaci Logomocji, o podobnym znaczku. +Dyspersja (optyka) + +Dyspersja w optyce – zależność współczynnika załamania ośrodka od częstotliwości fali świetlnej. Jednym ze skutków dyspersji jest to, że wiązki światła o różnych barwach, padające na granicę ośrodków pod kątem różnym od zera, załamują się pod różnymi kątami. Efekt ten można zaobserwować, gdy światło białe pada na pryzmat i ulega rozszczepieniu na barwy tęczy. +Współczynnik załamania światła wynika z prędkości rozchodzenia się światła w ośrodku. W optyce za dyspersję uznaje się też zależność prędkości rozchodzenia się światła od innych czynników np. w falowodzie określa się dyspersję modową, w której prędkość ruchu modu wzdłuż falowodu zależy od jego drogi w falowodzie. +Zależność współczynnika załamania światła od długości fali światła nazywana jest współczynnikiem dyspersji i jest parametrem określającym własności minerałów. Minerały o dużej dyspersji odpowiednio oszlifowane mienią się różnymi barwami w wyniku rozszczepiania światła białego. +Dyspersja w optyce jest szczególnym przypadkiem ogólniejszego zjawiska dyspersji fali, które oznacza zależność prędkości fazowej fali od jej częstości, a tym samym i długości. W ośrodku niedyspersyjnym, gdzie ta zależność nie występuje, prędkość fazowa fali jest jednakowa dla wszystkich długości fal i jest równa prędkości grupowej. Przykładem niedyspersyjnego rozchodzenia się światła jest rozchodzenie się fali elektromagnetycznej w próżni. +Dla niemalże każdego materiału rozchodzenie się światła jest dyspersyjne. +Dla fali elektromagnetycznej rozchodzącej się w jonosferze i wielu innych ośrodkach iloczyn prędkości fazowej i grupowej jest stały i wynosi +Prędkość grupowa jest mniejsza lub równa prędkości światła w próżni, a prędkość fazowa jest równa lub większa od prędkości światła. +Ogólniej, tak zwana relacja dyspersji formula_2 może być zapisana w postaci formula_3, gdzie formula_4 jest wektorem falowym. Szczegółowa zależność formula_5 określa własności fali. +Miara dyspersji. +Miarą dyspersji dla danej długości fali jest pochodna współczynnika załamania po długości fali lub po liczbie falowej +Aby liczbowo określić wielkość dyspersji w całym zakresie światła widzialnego, definiuje się dyspersję średnią, czyli +gdzie +Dyspersją względną (zdolnością rozszczepiającą) nazywa się stosunek dyspersji średniej do refrakcji żółtej linii sodu D (589,6 nm) +Ulrich Salchow + +Karl Emil Julius Ulrich Salchow (ur. 7 sierpnia 1877, zm. 19 kwietnia 1949 w Sztokholmie) – szwedzki łyżwiarz figurowy, który zdominował konkurencję jazdy solowej mężczyzn na początku XX wieku. +Salchow zwyciężał dziesięciokrotnie w łyżwiarskich mistrzostwach świata w latach 1901-05 i 1907-11. Jest to współcześnie trudny do pobicia rekord, który dzieli ze słynną norweską łyżwiarką figurową Sonją Henie. Ponadto Salchow stawał trzykrotnie na drugim miejscu podium mistrzostw świata. Jest on również dziewięciokrotnym mistrzem Europy (1898-1900, 1904, 1906-1907, 1909-1910, 1913). Gdy łyżwiarstwo figurowe pojawiło się po raz pierwszy podczas Letnich Igrzysk Olimpijskich w Londynie w 1908 z łatwością zdobył tytuł mistrzowski. +W 1909 r. Ulrich Salchow wykonał podczas zawodów skok wykonywany w jeździe tyłem z wewnętrznej krawędzi łyżwy, po którym wylądował na zewnętrznej krawędzi drugiej łyżwy – skok ten nosi nazwę salchow. +Był mężem dentystki, Anne-Elisabeth Salchow. +Po zakończeniu kariery zawodniczej Salchow nadal działał w sporcie – w latach 1925-1937 był przewodniczącym Międzynarodowej Unii Łyżwiarskiej (ISU). Ponadto w latach 1928 – 1939 był prezesem szwedzkiego klubu sportowego AIK Solna. +Zmarł w wieku 71 lat. Został pochowany na cmentarzu Norra begravningsplatsen. +Moduł ściśliwości + +Znak minus pochodzi stąd, że zwiększanie ciśnienia powoduje zmniejszanie objętości ciała i z tego powodu pochodna jest ujemna. Dla gazu doskonałego współczynnik ściśliwości zależy od ciśnienia. Zależność ta jest różna dla różnych przemian gazowych. +Przemiana izotermiczna. +W przemianie izotermicznej +Po zróżniczkowaniu +Podstawiając to wyrażenie do wzoru definiującego "β" dostaniemy +Przemiana adiabatyczna. +Wyrażenie to można zlogarytmować +a następnie wyznaczyć różniczkę +skąd +Dla gazów jest używana także inna wielkość zwana współczynnikiem ściśliwości (współczynnik kompresji) – jest to wielkość bezwymiarowa określająca odchylenie zachowania gazu rzeczywistego od gazu doskonałego. +Płyta gramofonowa + +Płyta gramofonowa – zwykle okrągła płyta o średnicy do 30 cm z zapisanym spiralnie w postaci rowka analogowym nagraniem dźwiękowym. +Płyty gramofonowe były wykonywane z różnych materiałów, najczęściej ebonitu, szelaku lub poli(chlorku winylu) - stąd nazwa potoczna – płyta winylowa. Choć produkowano je w różnych kolorach, to zdecydowanie najczęściej w czarnym, stąd inna nazwa potoczna – czarna płyta. Obecnie powszechnie określana jest też mianem płyty analogowej. +Płyty gramofonowe były podstawowym środkiem rozpowszechniania nagrań muzycznych od końca wieku XIX do lat 80 wieku XX. Obecnie zostały zmarginalizowane przez zapis cyfrowy na płytach CD. +Historia. +Wczesne metody mechanicznego zapisu dźwięku. +Thomas Young w roku 1807 podjął próby graficznego zobrazowania dźwięku za pomocą rysika na powierzchni pokrytej sadzą. Zapis taki oczywiście nie dawał się odtwarzać. W 1877 Thomas Alva Edison zbudował fonograf, pierwsze w pełni sprawne urządzenie umożliwiające zapis i odtwarzanie dźwięku. Fonograf wykorzystywał wgłębny zapis na walcu pokrytym folią cynową. W tym samym roku Francuz Charles Cros opatentował "Parleophone", koncepcję okrągłych płaskich płyt, produkowanych w oparciu o wzorzec. Cros nie zrealizował praktycznie swojego pomysłu. W 1878 Edison próbował zastosować do zapisu płaski krążek, ale zrezygnował ze względu na trudności ze zmieniającą się prędkością rylca względem rowka. Zaproponował też zapis wielokanałowy w celu poprawy jakości dźwięku. +W 1885 Alexander Graham Bell i Charles Sumner Tainter zmodernizowali fonograf poprzez pokrycie jego walca woskiem. Wprowadzili jeszcze kilka ulepszeń i otrzymane urządzenie nazwali "grafofonem". Założyli firmę American Graphophone Co., z której później wyrósł fonograficzny gigant CBS Columbia. W handlu pojawiły się pierwsze cylindry z nagraną muzyką oraz szafy grające. +Wynalazek i rozwój. +Początki płyty gramofonowej. +Wynalazcą płyt gramofonowych we współczesnym znaczeniu i technologii ich produkcji był Emil Berliner. Pierwszy patent USA otrzymał w 1887 i w ciągu kilku lat rozwinął technologię produkcji płyt. Nagrywał on dźwięk w postaci poziomej linii falistej na grubej warstwie sadzy. Z tak sporządzonego wzorca sporządzano kopię metodą fotochemiczną. Później stosowano bezpośrednie trawienie w wyniku którego otrzymywano matryce, za pomocą których tłoczono płyty z twardo wulkanizowanego kauczuku (ebonitu). Średnica pierwszych płyt wynosiła 5 cali (ok. 12,7 cm), a prędkość odtwarzania 70 obrotów na minutę. Dzięki stworzeniu możliwości uzyskiwania kopii w wielkiej liczbie egzemplarzy, Berliner stał się twórcą przemysłu fonograficznego. +W 1896 Eldridge R. Johnson zastosował sprężynowy napęd gramofonu, co zwiększyło stabilność prędkości obrotowej. W 1897 Emil Berliner zastosował do produkcji płyt szelak. Miał on mniejszą ziarnistość niż ebonit, co zmniejszyło szumy. W 1902 Eldridge R. Johnson wynalazł ramię gramofonowe, co uniezależniło nacisk igły na płytę od ciężaru tuby. +Płyty gramofonowe w kinematografii. +Od 1900 francuska firma Pathé przeprowadzała pokazy projekcji filmowych zsynchronizowanych z dźwiękiem odtwarzanym z płyt gramofonowych. Dwa lata później Léon Gaumont opracował urządzenie synchronizujące, w którym mechanizmy napędowe gramofonu i projektora były synchronizowane za pomocą wspólnego wału napędowego. Początkowo takie rozwiązania "filmów mówionych", z dźwiękiem osobno utrwalanym na płycie gramofonowej, zdobyły sporą popularność, ale na skutek dynamicznego rozwoju kinematografii szybko (około roku 1914) zeszły z rynku. Główną przyczyną był zbyt krótki czas odtwarzania ówczesnych płyt gramofonowych. +Wynikająca z potrzeb kinematografii konieczność odtwarzania dźwięku w dużych salach spowodowała rozwój techniki wzmacniania głośności dźwięku z płyt. W pierwszej dekadzie XX w. opracowano w tym celu kilka konstrukcji pneumatycznych, w których drgania mechanizmu głowicy gramofonu modulowały strumień sprężonego powietrza. +Elektroniczny zapis i odczyt płyt. +Wraz z upowszechnieniem się elektroniki, najpierw z użyciem lamp elektronowych, później tranzystorów, zmieniła się zarówno technika zapisu, jak i odtwarzania płyt. W 1924 roku Laboratorium Bella opracowano metodę przygotowywania wzorców płyt z użyciem wzmacniaczy elektronicznych. Pierwsze płyty w nowej technologii wytłoczono w zakładach Pathé. Rok później Victor Talking Machine Company wyprodukowała gramofon "Orthophonic Victorola" posiadający tubę o kształcie wykładniczym i wraz z nowymi płytami umożliwiający odtwarzanie dźwięku ze znacznie większą głośnością i lepszą jakością (osiągnięto pasmo przenoszenia 100-5000 Hz). Również w 1925 Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company wyprodukował pierwszy gramofon elektryczny. Rok później Victor wypuścił "Electrolę", pierwszy zestaw w pełni elektrycznego gramofonu z wysokiej klasy odbiornikiem radiowym. Upowszechnienie gramofonów elektrycznych nastąpiło jednak dopiero po II wojnie światowej. +W roku 1946 w studiach nagraniowych Deutsche Grammophon zastosowano magnetofon do wstępnej rejestracji w procesie nagrania płytowego. RCA zaś wprowadziła nowy materiał: poli(chlorek winylu), często zwany winylem. Miał on mniejszą ziarnistość i lepsze właściwości mechaniczne niż szelak i był głównym materiałem aż do końca rozwoju płyt gramofonowych. Mieszanina szelaku z wypełniaczami mineralnymi była jeszcze stosowana aż do lat pięćdziesiątych XX w., a w niektórych krajach takich jak Polska, czy Indie - do lat sześćdziesiątych. +Płyta drobnorowkowa. +W 1948 Columbia Records zademonstrowała drobnorowkową "płytę długogrającą". Prędkość odtwarzania zmniejszono do 33 1/3 obrotów na minutę, a gęstość rowków ponad dwukrotnie. Przy średnicy płyty 30 cm otrzymano około 25 minut nagrania na stronę. Rok później firma RCA wypuściła na rynek płyty drobnorowkowe o średnicy 7 cali (17,5 cm) z dużym otworem pośrodku i 45 obrotach na minutę. Duży otwór miał na celu pomieszczenie mechanizmu automatycznego zmieniacza płyt. Obydwa rozwiązania płyt drobnorowkowych zostały powszechnie przyjęte przez przemysł fonograficzny. +W 1979 firma EMI wypuściła pierwsze płyty tłoczone z zapisów wykonanych techniką cyfrową. +W 1983 zachodnioniemiecka firma Teldec zademonstrowała skonstruowaną w firmie Georg Neumann maszynę do bezpośredniego nacinania w miedzianym oryginale matryc do tłoczenia płyt (DMM - "Direct Metal Mastering"). Z procesu produkcyjnego płyt wyeliminowano w ten sposób jeden etap, wprowadzający dodatkowe zniekształcenia. +Płyty stereo. +W 1928 W. Bartlett Jones zaproponował dwukanałowy zapis na płycie gramofonowej. Jeden kanał miał być zapisywany wgłębnie, a drugi poprzecznie (wbocznie). +W 1931 Alan Dower Blumlein zaproponował dwukanałowy zapis stereofoniczny na dwóch zboczach tego samego rowka, pod kątem 45 stopni do powierzchni płyty (tak zwany system 45/45). Pierwsze płyty wyprodukował dwa lata później. Uzyskał separację kanałów około 20 dB i pasmo przenoszenia do 4000 Hz. Ze względu na trudności technologiczne i brak urządzeń do odtwarzania takich płyt nie był w stanie podjąć produkcji komercyjnej. +W 1957 firma Westerex Company z USA opracowała technologię masowej produkcji płyt stereo w systemie 45/45. Jeszcze w tym samym roku również amerykańska firma Audio Fidelity podjęła ich produkcję, mimo że na rynku nie było jeszcze urządzeń zdolnych do stereofonicznego ich odtwarzania. Pierwszy taki gramofon ukazał się w kilka tygodni później, wyprodukowany przez firmę Fairchild Recording Equipment Company. System 45/45 został uznany za standard i w krótkim czasie zaakceptowały go wszystkie firmy fonograficzne. +Pierwsze próby z dźwiękiem stereofonicznym wykazały trudności z uzyskaniem równomiernego rozkładu natężenia dźwięku w przestrzeni pomiędzy głośnikami. W kinematografii z powodzeniem stosowano systemy wielokanałowe (od 3 do 7 źródeł w płaszczyźnie), ale nagrania płytowe posługiwały się jedynie dwoma kanałami. Powstały nagrania sporządzone za pomocą "sztucznej głowy", ale właściwe efekty przestrzenne występowały wtedy jedynie przy słuchaniu ich za pomocą słuchawek. Problem w dużej mierze rozwiązała wprowadzona przez firmę EMI technika "Stereosonic", polegająca na nagrywaniu za pomocą odpowiedniego układu mikrofonów kierunkowych. +Płyty kwadrofoniczne. +W 1969 Peter Scheiber zademonstrował w studiu RCA metodę zapisu 4 kanałowego sygnału kwadrofonicznego poprzez zakodowanie dodatkowych informacji przestrzennej na płycie stereofonicznej poza zakresem słyszalnych częstotliwości (system SQ). Rok później JVC zademonstrował system zapisu kwadrofonicznego na czterech niezależnych kanałach. Mimo, że wiele firm fonograficznych (szczególnie w USA) podjęło produkcję płyt kwadrofonicznych, to brak zaakceptowanego standardu i wysoka cena sprzętu uniemożliwiły szersze rozpowszechnienie się zapisu kwadrofonicznego. +Schyłek. +W 1982 w Japonii i 1983 w Europie współpracujące firmy Philips i Sony wprowadziły na rynek Compact Disc, cyfrową technologię zapisu dźwięku w oparciu o laserowy odczyt optyczny. W przeciągu paru lat nowa technologia praktycznie wyparła z rynku tradycyjne płyty gramofonowe. Szczególne załamanie sprzedaży płyt gramofonowych nastąpiło na przełomie lat 80 i 90 XX w. W 1990 sprzedano 11.7 miliona płyt gramofonowych, a 286 milionów płyt CD. +Współczesność. +Obecnie (2008-2009, na rynku USA) sprzedaż płyt gramofonowych stanowi około 1% sprzedaży płyt CD. Coraz większy procent sprzedaży stanowią utwory pobierane on-line na komputery i telefony komórkowe. Ich wartość stanowi już ponad 40% zakupów na rynku muzycznym USA i bardzo dynamicznie rośnie. +Dzisiaj płyta gramofonowa najczęściej używana jest w subkulturach, gdzie potocznie nazywa się ""winylem"". Najczęściej jest kojarzona z DJ-ami, którzy preferują ten nośnik do odtwarzania muzyki w klubach, na dyskotekach czy na imprezach muzycznych ze względu na fakt, że płytę gramofonową można ręcznie przesuwać w celu modyfikacji dźwięku. +Odrębne grupy miłośników czarnej płyty stanowią melomani, kolekcjonerzy, a także audiofile, którzy uważają, że żaden, nawet najdoskonalszy zapis cyfrowy nie jest w stanie dorównać brzmieniu płyty gramofonowej. Nie ma to jednak potwierdzenia we współczesnym stanie wiedzy na temat przetwarzania sygnałów, ani w badaniach, w których nie są oni w stanie wykryć przetworników analogowo-cyfrowych i cyfrowo-analogowych wstawionych w tor odtwarzania dźwięku. +Zgodnie ze współczesną wiedzą dotyczącą przetwarzania sygnałów dowolny dźwiękowy zapis analogowy da się przetworzyć na zapis cyfrowy (w danym zakresie częstotliwości oraz z określoną dynamiką, a następnie odtworzyć analogowo bez utraty jakości możliwej do stwierdzenia słuchem człowieka (por. Twierdzenie Kotielnikowa-Shannona, Częstotliwość Nyquista, Kwantyzacja), co gwarantuje możliwość zapisania i uzyskania z nośnika cyfrowego (np. płyty CD) tego samego brzmienia, które jest uzyskiwane przy użyciu dowolnych nośników analogowych. +Wciąż istnieje też ogromny katalog nagrań, które nie zostały wydane ponownie na płytach CD. +Płyty gramofonowe w Polsce. +Początki. +Pierwsze płyty i gramofony trafiły do Polski w 1899, kiedy sprzedaż urządzeń Berlinera rozpoczął "Pierwszy w Kraju i Główny Skład Gramofonów przy Magazynie Optycznym" Gustawa Gerlacha. W tym samym roku powstaje pierwsza polska firma fonograficzna "Fonotypia Krajowa" F. Rafalskiego, produkująca wałki do fonografów. Powstaje też kilka filii przedsiębiorstw zagranicznych nagrywających polskich artystów, głównie opery i operetki. W 1904 Juliusz Feigenbaum zakłada w Warszawie fabrykę płyt, znaną później pod nazwą Syrena Rekord. Firma miała duże znaczenie dla polskiego rynku fonograficznego, sama prowadziła nagrania i produkcję płyt na znaczną skalę. Syrena dokonała około pięciu tysięcy nagrań, a dzienna produkcja płyt w 1911 wynosiła 6 tysięcy sztuk.. +W 1904 roku powstaje "Łódzka Pierwsza Fabryka Gramofonów" Józefa Amsela, a w 1908 "Pierwsza Warszawska Fabryka Gramofonów". Pojawiają się również rodzime patefony oraz urządzenia przeznaczone do odtwarzania obu rodzajów płyt. W 1910 w Warszawie funkcjonowało już 10 wytwórni gramofonów. +Okres międzywojenny. +Oprócz Syreny powstały nowe fabryki: Harmonia Record oraz Cristal-Electro. Nadal działały też liczne filie przedsiębiorstw zagranicznych. Fabrykę pod nazwą Polskie Zakłady Fonograficzne założył niemiecki Odeon. +Od roku 1929 zaczęły się pojawiać płyty z nadrukiem "Nagrano elektrycznie". +Po II wojnie światowej. +Po wojnie przez krótki czas działały jeszcze prywatne firmy płytowe. Pod koniec 1945 Mieczysław Wejman uruchomił w Poznaniu wytwórnię Mewa. W 1946 Mieczysław Fogg i Czesław Porębski założyli w Warszawie wytwórnię Fogg Records. W 1947 na bazie przedwojennej wytwórni Odeonu powstała państwowa firma Muza, która wkrótce przejęła zarekwirowany majątek firm prywatnych. W ten sposób doszło do państwowej monopolizacji przemysłu fonograficznego. W 1956 roku tłoczenie płyt podjęto również w Zakładach Tworzyw Sztucznych Pronit-Pionki w Pionkach, które oprócz tego były jedynym w kraju producentem masy płytowej. Zakłady Pronit używały starych pras Muzy otrzymanych po jej modernizacji. W późniejszych latach powstały nowe przedsiębiorstwa wydawnicze: Polton, Tonpress, Savitor, Wifon, Veriton, Arston i PolJazz. Niekiedy tłoczyły one swoje płyty w Pionkach. Masowej produkcji płyt gramofonowych zaprzestano w latach 90. +Rodzaje płyt i parametry techniczne. +Sposób zapisu i odczytu. +Rowek na tradycyjnej gramofonowej płycie monofonicznej zawiera tzw. zapis wboczny – w przeciwieństwie do fonografu i patefonu z zapisem wgłębnym. Ze względu na szerokość rowka, dzielimy płyty na: normalnorowkowe, mikrorowkowe i stereorowkowe. +Pierwsze płyty, tak zwane normalnorowkowe, miały rowek szerokości około 120 mikrometrów, i odtwarzane były przy pomocy igły o promieniu wierzchołka od 50 do 87.5 mikrometrów. Pierwsze igły były jednorazowe (przeznaczone do odtworzenia jednej strony płyty). W gramofonie mechanicznym (akustycznym) kształtem i grubością igły odczytującej można było w pewnym zakresie wpływać na głośność odtwarzania (sprzedawano igły w kilku "rodzajach głośności"). Nacisk główki takich gramofonów wynosił około 120-150 g. Po wprowadzeniu gramofonów elektrycznych zmniejszono masę głowicy (nacisk od 15 do kilkudziesięciu gramów), co umożliwiło zastosowanie igieł wielokrotnego użytku (wykonanych ze stali, szafiru lub diamentu). +Po II w.ś. opracowano lekkie i czułe przetworniki - najpierw piezoelektryczne, póżniej również magnetyczne. Umożliwiło to wprowadzenie płyt drobnorowkowych. Maksymalny nacisk główki określono na 7 g, szerokość rowka 65 mikrometrów, promień ostrza igły 25 mikrometrów. Czas odtwarzania jednej strony płyty wynosił początkowo do 22,5 minuty, a po wprowadzeniu zmiennej gęstości zapisu nawet do 30 minut. Wprowadzenie płyt stereofonicznych wymusiło dalsze zmniejszenie promienia wierzchołka igły w celu zmniejszenia zniekształceń – do 15 mikrometrów. +Prędkość odtwarzania. +Pierwsze płyty, odtwarzane za pomocą napędzanych ręcznie gramofonów nie miały znormalizowanej prędkości obrotowej. Dopiero po wprowadzeniu gramofonów z napędem sprężynowym, około roku 1918, przyjęto prędkość 78 obr./min. (choć przez pewien czas pojawiały się jeszcze płyty odtwarzane przy innych prędkościach). Po wprowadzeniu płyt drobnorowkowych pojawiły się dwa nowe standardy 45 obr./min. (najczęściej w tak zwanych singlach z muzyką rozrywkową) oraz 33 ⅓ obr./min. (w płytach długogrających). W latach 50 firma Columbia w USA zaproponowała prędkość 16 2/3 obr./min. Zdobyła ona pewną popularność (głównie nagrywano w ten sposób "książki dźwiękowe" dla niewidomych), wymagała jednak precyzyjnego i drogiego sprzętu odtwarzającego i nie odniosła znaczącego sukcesu komercyjnego.. +Wymiary. +Pierwsze płyty miały rozmiary od około 5 do 7 cali. Były nagrywane z jednej strony, dopiero w 1904 Odeon rozpoczął produkcję płyt dwustronnych. Później stosowano różne rozmiary płyt, najczęściej 300, 250 i 175 mm – co odpowiada to 12, 10 i 7 calom. Do zapisu profesjonalnego (na przykład w radiofonii) stosowano również płyty 16 calowe (400 mm). Typowy gramofon pozwalał odtwarzać płyty praktycznie o dowolnym kształcie i wymiarach - powstało więc wiele płyt o nietypowych średnicach, a także o kształtach odbiegających od koła (na przykład popularne w Polsce "pocztówki dźwiękowe"). +Rozmiar otworu środkowego drobnorowkowych płyt 7 calowych wynosi 7,24 mm (standard angielski) bądź 38,5 mm (standard amerykański). Wszystkie płyty 10 i 12 calowe mają otwór środkowy o średnicy 7,24 mm. Przez pewien czas płyty radzieckie miały otwór środkowy o średnicy 7,0 mm. Różne rozmiary otworu środkowego wymuszają konieczność stosowania specjalnej wkładki (zachodnie single, m.in. brytyjskie, zawierały plastikowy element z otworem o średnicy 7,24 mm, który można było łatwo wyłamać, uzyskując otwór o średnicy 38,5 mm). +Szumy. +Jedną z podstawowych wad płyt gramofonowych jest ziarnistość materiału płyty, która powoduje szum podczas odtwarzania i zużywanie igieł gramofonowych. +Zastosowanie zamiast szelaku tworzywa sztucznego – polichlorku winylu – spowodowało znaczne zmniejszenie szumu i ograniczenie zużywania się igieł. Zastosowano igły z syntetycznego szafiru, w droższych wykonaniach ze szlifowanego w kształcie stożka diamentu o półkulistym ostrzu. Przy produkcji płyt proces zgniatania rozgrzanego tworzywa można było zastąpić wtryskiem. +Nadal jednak szumy i trzaski były istotną wadą płyt gramofonowych. W 1974 firma dbx zademonstrowała system redukcji szumów DBX-120, który redukował szumy o ponad 30dB, a dynamika nagrań osiągała nieomal 100 dB. System jednak się nie przyjął - aparatura była droga, a wkrótce pojawiły się rozwiązania cyfrowe, gwarantujące zapis o poziomie szumów poniżej granicy słyszalności. +Pasmo przenoszenia. +Wraz z rozwojem technologii pasmo przenoszenia płyt gramofonowych bardzo się zmieniało. Wczesne gramofony mechanoakustyczne przenosiły wąski zakres częstotliwości (od około 600 Hz do 4 kHz) z dużą nierównomiernością sięgającą kilkunastu dB. +Postęp technologiczny powodował stopniową poprawę parametrów gramofonów mechanicznych, ale duża poprawa nastąpiła dopiero po wprowadzeniu technologii elektronicznych. Z jednej strony ówczesna radiofonia proponowała dźwięk o jakości lepszej od gramofonu, co powodowało konieczność poprawy parametrów płyt i sprzętu do odtwarzania. Z drugiej strony powstały elektryczne techniki nagrań i magnetyczne głowice odtwarzające. Uzyskano zakres odtwarzanych częstotliwości w zakresie 100 Hz do 5 kHz. +Po wprowadzeniu płyt drobnorowkowych i nowoczesnych głowic odtwarzających (początkowo piezoelektrycznych, później magnetycznych) pasmo przenoszenia płyt gramofonowych objęło całość słyszalnego zakresu częstotliwości. +Postulat Euklidesa + +Nazwa "piąty postulat" jest nazwą historyczną, wynikającą z kolejności jego występowania w Elementach autorstwa Euklidesa. Spośród wielu określeń tego postulatu, określenie postulat Euklidesa, choć bardzo popularne, jest nieco mylące, bowiem każdy z pięciu postulatów jest postulatem Euklidesa i w równej mierze konstytuuje geometrię euklidesową. +Euklides w Elementach, zgodnie z metodologią Arystotelesowską, osobno wyliczał aksjomaty (tj. aksjomaty logiczne i identyczności w dzisiejszej terminologii) i postulaty (tj. aksjomaty pozalogiczne). We współczesnej metodologii nauk określeń postulat i aksjomat używa się zamiennie, stąd niekiedy piąty postulat nazywa się nieprecyzyjnie piątym aksjomatem Euklidesa. +Historia. +Wyjątkowość piątego postulatu wynikała z tego, że od początku wydał się bardziej skomplikowany od pozostałych. Nasuwało to podejrzenia, że może on być wnioskiem z pozostałych, bowiem zgodnie z ówczesnymi wyobrażeniami każdy postulat powinien być prosty i oczywisty. Ponieważ piąty postulat nie był ani prosty, ani oczywisty, całe pokolenia matematyków próbowały go dowieść na podstawie pierwszych czterech. Wszystkie te próby – choć nie mogły się powieść – walnie przyczyniły się do uściślenia pojęć, wysublimowania metod dowodowych. Było to zagadnienie wytyczające przez wiele wieków kierunki rozwoju geometrii. +Na początku XVIII w. matematycy jak dotąd bezskutecznie zmagający się z problemem piątego postulatu zmienili podejście: zamiast podejmować kolejne próby jego dowodzenia, zaczęli starannie wyodrębniać twierdzenia wynikające z wyłącznie pierwszych czterech postulatów, a dołączając zaprzeczenie piątego postulatu, starali się uzyskać sprzeczność. Nieświadomie stworzyli przy tym podwaliny geometrii absolutnej, czyli geometrii opartej na pierwszych czterech postulatach Euklidesa. Największe zasługi mają tutaj Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri i Lambert. +Przez wiele lat podejmowane nieskuteczne próby znalezienia sprzeczności zrodziły najpierw podejrzenia, a potem przekonanie, że takiej sprzeczności po prostu nie ma, a teoria z zaprzeczonym piątym postulatem jest jak najbardziej poprawna (Gauss, Bolyai, Łobaczewski). Stworzenie przez Kleina modelu dla takiej teorii definitywnie zamknęło problem – aksjomat ten okazał się niezależny od pierwszych czterech. +Współcześnie geometria absolutna jest teorią, która ma dokładnie dwa rozszerzenia do teorii kategorycznej w zależności od tego, czy dołączy się do niej aksjomat Euklidesa o równoległych czy też jego zaprzeczenie. W pierwszym przypadku jest to geometria euklidesowa, w drugim – geometria hiperboliczna. +Zdania równoważne. +W zasadzie aż do XVII w. wszystkie próby udowodnienia aksjomatu Euklidesa sprowadzały się do „przemycenia” zdania, które dowodzący uważał za wynikające z pierwszych czterech postulatów, a które okazywało się być zdaniem równoważnym piątemu postulatowi. Za każdym razem skutkowało to dalszym przedłużaniem listy takich zdań. +Równoważność powyżej zamieszczonych zdań polega na tym, że +Aksjomat Euklidesa w geometrii afinicznej. +Jego zaletą jest to, że nie odwołuje się do pojęcia kąta prostego, odległości ani do pojęcia porządku (jak w czwartym z wymienionych na liście). Dlatego też jest również wykorzystywane w aksjomatykach geometrii afinicznej. +Grand Prix Juniorów w łyżwiarstwie figurowym + +W oryginale, the ISU Junior Grand Prix of Figure Skating – cykl imprez łyżwiarskich; juniorski odpowiednik seniorskiego Grand Prix, w ramach którego rozgrywa się w sezonie kilka zawodów – najlepsi łyżwiarze startują w trzech, z czego jedynie w dwóch punktują. Punkty te (uzyskane za zajęte miejsca) są sumowane i najlepsi zawodnicy/zawodniczki/pary sportowe i taneczne. kwalifikują się do ścisłego finału (rozgrywanego zwykle ok. grudnia). Zawody rozegrano po raz pierwszy w sezonie 1997/98, początkowo pod nazwą "ISU Junior Series". +Pasowanie na rycerza + +Pasowanie na rycerza (także: "akolada") – nadanie adeptowi rzemiosła rycerskiego – giermkowi – godności rycerza przez wręczenie mu miecza i pasa (stąd nazwa "pasowanie"). +Zwyczaj pasowania powstał we wczesnym średniowieczu i był m.in. skutkiem oddziaływania Kościoła katolickiego na etykę rycerską. Pierwotnie, w wieku IX i X, królowie frankijscy w chwili koronacji otrzymywali broń, podobnie niemiecki król Otton I Wielki w czasie koronacji wziął swój miecz z ołtarza. Jednak w miarę upływu stuleci zaliczenie do grona pełnoprawnych rycerzy – świeckiego zbrojnego ramienia kościoła – wymagało spełnienia coraz większej liczby warunków i coraz bardziej skomplikowanej ceremonii. Najważniejsze warunki to osiągnięcie przez chłopca odpowiedniego wieku i odbycie przezeń należytego stażu w charakterze rycerskiego sługi – giermka. Z kolei sama ceremonia z początku była bardzo uproszczona, wystarczało uderzenie przez innego rycerza dłonią w kark lub w policzek. Później jednak uroczystości pasowania stawały się często coraz bardziej rozbudowane i wyszukane, choć nigdy nie wytworzył się jakiś sztywno ustalony ceremoniał. Nie było nawet ustalone, kto mógł pasować młodzieńca na rycerza: czasem był to inny rycerz, czasem kapłan. Święto pasowania często urządzano w Zielone Świątki, co – oprócz sprzyjającej wiosennej pogody – miało przywoływać wspomnienie zesłania Ducha Świętego na apostołów, podkreślając mistyczny i religijny aspekt uroczystości. +Według trzynastowiecznego biskupa Mende we Francji, Wilhelm Durand, który zapisał przebieg uroczystości z 1295 roku, w przeddzień uroczystości adept rycerstwa odbywał oczyszczającą kąpiel w łaźni spędzając następnie noc w czystej pościeli. Rano wkładał białą – symbolizującą czystość – odzież, na którą zakładał wierzchnie odzienie w kolorze krwi, którą miał przelewać i brunatne obuwie – w kolorze ziemi, do której każdy musi wrócić. Potem następowało poświęcenie miecza i reszty uzbrojenia z towarzyszeniem licznych modlitw. Miecz ten wręczano rycerzowi, który chował go do pochwy i przypinał giermkowi – adeptowi rycerstwa – do pasa. W tym momencie obecni na uroczystości wymieniali znak pokoju, a na koniec biskup uderzał lekko młodego rycerza nakazując mu "odrzucenie pokus diabelskich, czujność i wierność Chrystusowi". W tym momencie młodzieniec mógł już wejść w szeregi innych rycerzy, a ci przypinali mu ostrogi, która to czynność nie była jednak już zaliczana do religijnej części ceremonii. +Zachowany jako pierwszy w Polsce opis pasowania odnosi się do Bolesława Krzywoustego, który odebrał swój pas i miecz od ojca, księcia Władysława Hermana. Uroczystość odbyła się 15 sierpnia 1100 roku, w święto Wniebowzięcia NMP; wraz z synem Władysław Herman pasował jeszcze tego dnia wielu jego rówieśników. +Współczesną kontynuacją tej tradycji jest mianowanie na pierwszy stopień oficerski słuchaczy szkół oficerskich – podchorążych. +Ceremonię w zakonach rycerskich, odprawianą przy przyjmowaniu nowych członków gdy wielki mistrz obejmował nowicjusza, kładąc mu ręce na szyi nazywano też akoladą (łac. "ad collum"); w szerszym znaczeniu termin ten oznacza ceremonię pasowania na rycerza. +Nikolaus Otto + +Nicolaus August Otto (ur. 10 czerwca 1832 w Holzhausen an der Haide/Taunus, Niemcy, zm. 26 stycznia 1891 w Kolonii) – samouk, wynalazca nazwanego na jego cześć silnika Otto (silnik o zapłonie iskrowym). Nigdy nie ukończył wyższej szkoły, jednakże otrzymał później tytuł doktora honoris causa. +Biografia. +Otto był synem rolnika, jego ojciec miał również lokalny urząd pocztowy. Otto przeszedł przeszkolenie na sprzedawcę, a po nim zarabiał na utrzymanie jako pomoc przy sprzedaży we Frankfurcie nad Menem i Kolonii. +Już w 1862 roku rozpoczął pierwsze eksperymenty z silnikami czterosuwowymi, które weszły do użytku dopiero od 1876. W 1863 roku zbudował swój pierwszy silnik benzynowy. W 1864 założył razem z inżynierem Eugenem Langenem najpierw pierwszą na świecie fabrykę silników, "N.A.Otto Cie", później w 1869 roku "Gasmotorenfabrik Deutz" (Fabryka Silników Benzynowych Deutz), dzisiejsze Deutz AG. Później wspólnie wynaleźli benzynowy silnik spalinowy (patent z 1877) pracujący według zasady czterech suwów. Jako podstawę swego wynalazku wykorzystali silnik benzynowy Lenoira, który był pierwszą konstrukcją tego rodzaju. +Na Paryskiej Wystawie w roku 1867 po raz pierwszy zaprezentowali publiczności własną wersję silnika benzynowego. Chodziło wtedy o przepływowy silnik tłokowy, gdzie tłoki przekazywały energię przez zębatkę, a nie mechanizm korbowy. Ta nowa konstrukcja silnika zużywała jedną trzecią paliwa w porównaniu do ówcześnie znanych silników. Wynalazcy zostali wyróżnieni złotym medalem w kategorii: ekonomiczne silniki dla małych przedsiębiorstw. Zanim silnik wprowadzono na rynek, zmieniono nazwę firmy z Otto-Langen na Deutz i na tej licencji wybudowano prawie 5 tysięcy sztuk. +W 1876 roku Otto udało się opracować silnik czterosuwowy ze sprężoną mieszanką paliwową. Ten typ silników do dzisiejszego dnia jest podwaliną pod budowę silników spalinowych o zapłonie iskrowym (dlatego wszystkie silniki benzynowe z zapłonem iskrowym i posuwisto-zwrotnym ruchem tłoka, gdzie energia z nich jest przenoszona przez wał korbowy są nazywane silnikami Otto). +W 1884 roku Otto wynalazł elektryczny zapłon dla swoich silników benzynowych. Dzięki tej innowacji stało się możliwe stosowanie innych paliw płynnych jako alternatywy dla benzyny, która była wówczas wyłącznie wykorzystywana. W następstwie dał on nazwę dla tzw. Obiegu Otta. +W 1882 Wydział Filozofii Uniwersytetu w Würzburgu przyznał mu tytuł doktora honoris causa. +Otto ożenił się z Anną Gossi, z którą miał siedmioro dzieci. Przed dworcem kolejowym Köln-Deutz (w Kolonii, Niemcy) stoi pomnik na cześć Nicolausa Augusta Otto i Eugena Langena. Także szkoły N-A-O-Schulen w Bad Schwalbach i w Diez są nazwane jego imieniem. +Konikotomia + +Konikotomia "(krikotyreotomia)" – zabieg laryngologiczny polegający na przecięciu więzadła pierścienno-tarczowego, umieszczonego między dolnym brzegiem blaszki chrząstki tarczowatej krtani oraz górnym brzegiem łuku chrząstki pierścieniowatej krtani. Stosowany jako szybki i doraźny sposób udrożnienia dróg oddechowych, które zostały zablokowane na wysokości lub powyżej szpary głośni. +Nazwa konikotomia (łac. "conicotomia"), wzięła się od nazwy stożka sprężystego (łac. "conus elasticus"), którego częścią jest przecinane podczas tego zabiegu więzadło pierścienno-tarczowe krtani (łac. "ligamentum cricothyroideum laryngis"). +Drzewostan + +Drzewostan – zespół większej liczby drzew rosnących na pewnej powierzchni leśnej w odpowiednim zagęszczeniu i zwarciu koron, wzajemnie na siebie oddziałujących. +Zróżnicowanie gatunkowe. +Drzewostan składający się tylko z jednego gatunku drzew to drzewostan jednogatunkowy (lity), np. sosnowy, świerkowy, dębowy. Gdy w skład drzewostanu wchodzi więcej gatunków jest to drzewostan mieszany (wielogatunkowy) np. sosnowo-dębowy, sosnowo-brzozowo-dębowy itp. +Budowa pięter. +W drzewostanach mieszanych poszczególne gatunki zwykle różnią się między sobą tempem wzrostu i rozwoju. Powoduje to - nawet przy równym wieku drzew - powstawanie odrębnych pięter. Gatunki światłożądne, obdarzone cechą szybkiego wzrostu w młodości, dystansują we wzroście pozostałe cienioznośne lub cieniolubne komponenty drzewostanu budując górne piętro drzewiaste, natomiast gatunki cieniste tworzą niższe piętro lub piętra podokapowe. Na przykład drzewostan złożony z sosny, dębu i brzozy. +W literaturze spotykane jest również podział na: +W zależności od udziału masy drzew poszczególnych gatunków, czyli składu gatunkowego (struktury gatunkowej), określa się procentowy ich udział. Procent ten określany jest w liczbach całkowitych od 1 do 10 i np. oznaczenie: 7 sosna, 2 dąb i 1 brzoza wskazuje, że 70% masy w danym drzewostanie zajmuje sosna, 20% dąb, a 10% brzoza. W zapisie taksacyjnym nie używa się liczb symbolizujących wielokrotności jednostki mniejszej niż 10% (zapis 45, 15 czy 5% nie jest używany). Udział gatunków mniejszy niż 10% określa się jako występujące pojedynczo, a poniżej 1% jako występujących sporadycznie. +Alternatywne definicje. +W ekologii drzewostan to jedna z warstw ekosystemu leśnego, obok podszytu i runa. +W leśnictwie drzewostan rozumie się jako fragment lasu, jednolity pod względem przyrodniczym i przeznaczenia gospodarczego, wymagający określonej pielęgnacji. W tym znaczeniu stosowane jest także określenie: wydzielenie leśne. +W urządzaniu lasu jako drzewostan traktuje się zbiorowość drzew na pewnej części powierzchni leśnej, reprezentującą określoną jednostkę przyrodniczo-gospodarczą, wyodrębnioną w toku prac taksacyjnych w lesie ze względu na konieczność stosowania odmiennych zabiegów gospodarczych w najbliższym 10-leciu. Charakter tych zabiegów wynikać może z przyjętych celów produkcji i z różnorodności elementów taksacyjnych drzewostanu: wieku, budowy, struktury, składu gatunkowego, bonitacji. +Drzewostany naturalne. +Drzewostany, o ile nie są wykorzystywane gospodarczo, w sposób naturalny przechodzą przez fazy rozwojowe. Zmiany związane z procesami rozsiewania, wzrostu i starzenia się drzew, są nieuniknione i mają charakter cykliczny. +Wyróżnia się fazy: +Fon (natężenie dźwięku) + +Fon – jednostka poziomu głośności dźwięku. Poziom głośności dowolnego dźwięku w fonach jest liczbowo równy poziomowi natężenia (wyrażonego w decybelach) tonu o częstotliwości 1 kHz, którego głośność jest równa głośności tego dźwięku. Dźwięki o tej samej liczbie fonów wywołują to samo wrażenie głośności, ale nie muszą być to dźwięki identyczne w sensie barwy (np. o różnych częstotliwościach). W odróżnieniu od jednostki son, która jest jednostką liniową głośności, fony nie podlegają arytmetycznemu sumowaniu przy obliczaniu całkowitego poziomu głośności kilku jednoczesnych dźwięków. +Davos + +Davos (romansz "Tavau", wł. "Tavate") – miasto we wschodniej Szwajcarii, w kantonie Gryzonia, nad rzeką Landwasser. Położone na wysokości 1560 m n.p.m. jest najwyżej położonym miastem w Europie. Ludność: 11 248 osób (2009). +Miasto znane jest głównie z odbywającego się tutaj co roku Światowego Forum Ekonomicznego. +Miasto stało się popularnym uzdrowiskiem zimowym pod koniec XIX wieku. Akcję swojej powieści Czarodziejska góra osadził w nim niemiecki pisarz Tomasz Mann. +Sport. +W mieście siedzibę ma hokejowy klub sportowy HC Davos startujący w szwajcarskiej lidze National League A. Swoje mecze rozgrywa na Vaillant Arena, gdzie odbywa się też coroczny międzynarodowy towarzyski turniej o Puchar Spenglera. +Dyspersja (chemia) + +Dyspersja – stan (także proces) rozdrobnienia substancji rozproszonej (zawieszonej) w układach koloidalnych. +Elvis Stojko + +Elvis Stojko (ur. 22 marca 1972 w Richmond Hill) – kanadyjski łyżwiarz figurowy. +Stojko zdobył dwa srebrne medale na igrzyskach olimpijskich w 1994 i 1998. Był trzykrotnym mistrzem świata w 1994, 1995 i 1997. Był też wielokrotnym mistrzem swojego kraju (1994, 1996-2000 i 2002). +Był pierwszym łyżwiarzem, który podczas zawodów wykonał kombinację skoków poczwórny-podwójny (mistrzostwa świata w 1991), również pierwszym, który wykonał kombinację poczwórny-potrójny skok (mistrzostwa świata w 1997). +Ostatecznie w 2002 przeszedł na zawodowstwo. +AMD Am386 + +Am386 to procesor produkowany przez firmę AMD od 1991, 100% kompatybilny klon intelowskiego i386. Sprzedano miliony egzemplarzy tego chipu i to właśnie od niego rozpoczęła się historia AMD jako głównego konkurenta Intela, do tej pory AMD było postrzegane wyłącznie jako firma produkująca procesory na zamówienie Intela. +Am386 był zaprojektowany i gotowy do produkcji już przed rokiem 1991, ale Intel rozpoczął proces sądowy z AMD o prawa do produkcji tego procesora. AMD wcześniej produkowało inne procesory dla Intela i według jego interpretacji umowa pokrywała wszystkie odmiany chipów, ale według Intela umowa mówiła wyłącznie o i286 i wcześniejszych projektach. Po trwającej kilka lat sprawie, AMD w końcu wygrało i uzyskało prawo sprzedaży Am386, co doprowadziło do większej konkurencji na rynku procesorów i obniżenia cen. +386 produkowane przez Intel były taktowane zegarem 33 MHz ale AMD zdołało zaprojektować i zbudować chipy o prędkości 40 MHz (w odmianach DX i SX), przedłużając w ten sposób długość użytecznego życia tej architektury. AMD 386DX-40 był bardzo popularny wśród małych producentów komputerów i hobbystów z powodu swoich wysokich osiągów, w większości testów okazywał się on szybszy od i486SX-25, a był przy tym znacznie tańszy. W niektórych zastosowaniach był nawet szybszy od 486DX-33. Dodatkowo jego moc obliczeniowa mogła być zwiększona poprzez dodanie niedrogiego koprocesora matematycznego 387DX, ale nawet po dodaniu tego chipu Am386 był wolniejszy w obliczeniach zmiennoprzecinkowych od 486DX, co oznaczało, że nie nadawał się on raczej jako procesor do gier trójwymiarowych. +Izoterma Freundlicha + +Izoterma Freundlicha – rodzaj empirycznej izotermy adsorpcji, która opisuje adsorpcję na powierzchniach heterogenicznych (energetycznie niejednorodnych) oraz na adsorbentach mikroporowatych. +gdzie: "a" – adsorpcja rzeczywista, "a"m – wielkość adsorpcji odpowiadająca zapełnieniu warstwy adsorpcyjnej lub zapełnieniu mikroporów, "k" – stała, "K" – stała równowagi adsorpcji, "p" – ciśnienie adsorbatu, "x = p/p"s – tzw. ciśnienie względne ("p"s – ciśnienie pary nasyconej), "n,m" – empirycznie określone tzw. parametry heterogeniczności ("m" = 1/"n" ≤ 1 – im wartość "m" jest mniejsza, tym większa jest niejednorodność energetyczna układu adsorpcyjnego). +Należy zwrócić uwagę na fakt, że dla praktycznie dowolnych układów eksperymentalnych można oczekiwać ograniczonej zgodności danych adsorpcji z równaniem izotermy Freundlicha (przybliżenie fragmentu krzywej odcinkiem prostej). Niektóre izotermy teoretyczne również redukują się do izotermy Freundlicha (np. izoterma GF dla niskich stężeń). W ramach teorii adsorpcji zlokalizowanej na niejednorodnych energetycznie ciałach stałych izotermie Freundlicha odpowiada eksponencjalnie malejąca funkcja rozkładu energii, f(E) = A exp(-mE), jednak w przeciwieństwie do równań opartych na monowarstwowym równaniu Langmuira, izoterma Freundlicha nie zawiera ograniczenia wielkości adsorpcji monowarstwą. +W układzie logarytmicznym (log(a) od log(c)) dane adsorpcji zgodne z równaniem Freundlicha układają się wzdłuż linii prostej, co pozwala na b. łatwe wyznaczanie parametrów równania i opis układów doświadczalnych z pomocą wyznaczonych parametrów. +Pemikan + +Pemikan ("pimîhkân", "pemmicane" Język kri - tłuszcz) - suszone mięso. Nazwą tą określa się zakonserwowane poprzez proces suszenia w promieniach słońca chude mięso upolowanych zwierząt (głównie bizonów, łosi i jeleni) pokrojone w cienkie paski lub plastry, a następnie rozdrobnione, wymieszane z bizonim łojem i kwaśnymi jagodami, a na koniec uformowane w wałki lub bochenki. +Taka metoda przygotowywania mięsa stosowana była powszechnie przez Indian północnoamerykańskich żyjących w rejonie Wielkich Jezior i Wielkich Równin. Tak zakonserwowane mięso mogło być przechowywane przez długi czas, nawet kilka miesięcy. Było też wygodne w użyciu w trakcie wielodniowych wypraw łowieckich lub wojennych poza obozowisko. Metoda ta umożliwiała także bardziej racjonalne korzystanie z mięsa upolowanych zwierząt. Indianie jeszcze przed erą podbojów Ameryki przez Europejczyków, przed erą broni palnej potrafili upolować w krótkim czasie większą liczbę zwierząt, np. bizonów, których mięso bez znajomości technologii konserwowania w ciągu niewielu dni w większości by się popsuło i zmarnowało. +Pierwotny lud południowoafrykański, Buszmeni, znał podobne metody konserwacji, a otrzymywany przez nich produkt nazywał się "biltong". Współcześnie tą nazwą w RPA określa się jednak po prostu lekko posolone i wysuszone plastry wołowiny lub mięsa strusia. +Sial + +Sial – dawna nazwa warstwy wyróżnianej w obrębie skorupy ziemskiej. Współcześnie częściej nazywana warstwą granitową. Sial stanowi najbardziej zewnętrzną warstwę skorupy ziemskiej tworząc kontynenty. Jego gęstość wynosi 2,7 g/cm³. Główne pierwiastki budujące warstwę to krzem (Si) i glin (Al). Wraz ze wzrostem głębokości sial przechodzi stopniowo w gęstszą simę (obecnie nazywaną warstwą bazaltową). Umowną granicą gęstości jest nieciągłość Conrada określona dla średniej gęstości 2,8 g/cm³. +Ludwik Mycielski (powstaniec 1863) + +Rotm. Ludwik hr. Mycielski (ur. 14 września 1837 w Chocieszewicach, powiat krobski, zm. 4 listopada 1863 koło wsi Bojanówka niedaleko Chełma) – polski ziemianin, uczestnik powstania styczniowego. +Był najstarszym synem działacza społecznego i oficera w powstaniu listopadowym Teodora (zm. 1874) i Anieli z Mielżyńskich, bratem m.in. Ignacego. Kształcił się w gimnazjum we Wrocławiu, następnie służył w kawalerii pruskiej. Dosłużył się stopnia podporucznika. Po opuszczeniu służby wojskowej objął dobra w Smogorzewie (powiat Koźmin). +Po wybuchu powstania udał się w marcu 1863 do Krakowa, a następnie do obozu Mariana Langiewicza w Goszczy. Został mianowany rotmistrzem i uczestniczył w organizowaniu powstańczej kawalerii. Wyróżnił się w bitwach pod Chrobrzem i Grochowiskami. Ranny, wyjechał na kurację do Wiednia. +Po powrocie do Krakowa zorganizował oddział kawalerii (trzy plutony, ok. 80 żołnierzy) i na jego czele w lipcu 1863 udał się w granice Królestwa Polskiego. Nie udało mu się połączyć z oddziałem powstańczym pod dowództwem "Kosy" i po porażce w potyczce z kozakami wycofał się do Galicji. Niepowodzenie akcji Mycielskiego spotkało się z ostrą krytyką (m.in. lwowskiej "Gazety Narodowej") i doprowadziło do wytoczenia mu sprawy przed sądem wojennym, który go jednak uniewinnił. W październiku 1863 udał się na Lubelszczyznę i dowodził jazdą w oddziale Tomasza Wierzbickiego. Poległ dowodząc patrolem w starciu z dragonami rosyjskimi, został pochowany na miejscu bitwy. +Nie był żonaty. Podobno wyróżniał się potężnym wzrostem i nieprzeciętną siłą fizyczną. +Tottenham Hotspur F.C. + +Tottenham Hotspur Football Club (bryt. wym. ) – angielski klub piłkarski z siedzibą w londyńskiej dzielnicy Tottenham, założony w 1882 roku jako Hotspur F.C. dwukrotny mistrz Anglii, ośmiokrotny zdobywca Pucharu Anglii, zwycięzca Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów oraz dwukrotny triumfator rozgrywek o Puchar UEFA. +Pierwszy klub w Anglii, który w XX wieku zdobył "podwójną koronę", czyli mistrzostwo oraz krajowy puchar w jednym sezonie (1961). Odwiecznym rywalem Tottenhamu jest drużyna zza miedzy – Arsenal. Do najbardziej znanych fanów tego zespołu należą aktorzy Jude Law, Pierce Brosnan oraz znany z filmów i boiska Vinnie Jones, a także Phil Collins, Adele, zespoły Klaxons oraz popularny w latach 70. Status Quo, pisarz Salman Rushdie, dyktator mody Ted Baker, prominentny polityk konserwatywny Iain Duncan Smith, znana z występów w Spice Girls Emma Bunton, koszykarz Steve Nash oraz aktor Leo Gregory, który w filmie Green Street Hooligans grał fana West Ham United. W przeszłości do kibiców Kogutów zaliczali się także Bob Marley i piosenkarka Amy Winehouse. +Derby północnego Londynu. +Mecze z Arsenalem to dla kibiców Tottenhamu jeśli nie najważniejszy, to jeden z najważniejszych pojedynków w sezonie. Pierwsze spotkanie pomiędzy tymi drużynami odbyło się 11 grudnia 1887, lecz skończyło się 15 minut przed końcowym gwizdkiem, podczas prowadzenia ekipy "Spurs" 2:1 . Po raz pierwszy w ligowych derbach 1:0 zwyciężył Arsenal . W meczach między tymi dwoma zespołami lepszy bilans ma Arsenal, który wygrywał już 67-krotnie. Najwięcej bramek padło 13 grudnia 2004, kiedy to "Kanonierzy" zwyciężyli 5:4 na White Hart Lane. Największe zwycięstwo Arsenalu to 6:0, natomiast Tottenham 2-krotnie wygrywał 5:0. "Koguty" derbowego meczu z rywalem zza miedzy nie wygrali od 7 grudnia 1999, kiedy to na White Hart Lane zwyciężyli 2:1. Niekorzystną serię udało się Kogutom zakończyć rewanżowym meczem rozgrywanym w ramach rozgrywek Pucharu Ligi (Carling Cup) kiedy to 22 stycznia 2008 zwyciężyli 5:1. +Krajowy Zarząd Parków Narodowych + +Krajowy Zarząd Parków Narodowych – organ funkcjonujący w latach 1990-2004, koordynujący działalność parków narodowych w Polsce. +Likwidacja. +Krajowy Zarząd Parków Narodowych z dniem wejścia w życie ustawa z dnia 16 kwietnia 2004 r. o ochronie przyrody czyli: 1 maja 2004 r. (z wyjątkiem art. 39 i 134 pkt 2 które weszły w życie z dniem 1 stycznia 2005 r.) zgodnie z art. 159 tej ustawy przeszedł w stan likwidacji. Jego obowiązki i kadry przejął minister właściwy do spraw środowiska +Xerox Star + +Xerox Star - oficjalnie znany jako 8010, był rewolucyjną stacją roboczą wypuszczona na rynek jako komercyjny produkt w 1981 r.; stację nazywano też Dandelion lub Dlion. Star został opracowany przez Xerox Systems Development Division, a nie przez Xerox PARC, jak się powszechnie sądzi. Niemniej wiele idei zostało zaczerpniętych z prac Xerox PARC, jak WYSIWYG, Ethernet i usługi sieciowe. Komputer zawierał maszynę wirtualną dla języka programowania Mesa, bezpośredniego prekursora Modula-2 i Modula-3. +Xerox Star został pierwotnie zaprojektowany nie jako samodzielna maszyna, lecz jako część zintegrowanego systemu "personal office system", połączona z innymi stacjami i usługami sieciowymi za pomocą Ethernetu. Był to pierwszy komercyjny komputer z graficznym interfejsem użytkownika, ze znanymi dzisiaj ikonami i komputerową myszą. Szereg pomysłów zaczerpnięto z wcześniejszego Xerox Alto. +Sprzedano jedynie 15 tys. maszyn, co było komercyjną porażką, ale Star położył podwaliny pod rozwój współczesnych komputerów osobistych. Przytaczana jest opowieść o wizycie w Xerox PARC Steve'a Jobsa z Apple Computer, której efektem miało być zaimplementowanie GUI i myszy w maszynie Lisa, a potem w pierwszym Macintoshu. Jest to częściowa prawda, gdyż Jobs widział w rzeczywistości środowisko programistyczne Smalltalk-80, które zawierało jedynie niewielką część interfejsu Stara i nie miało pulpitu i ikon. Inżynierowie Lisy zobaczyli Stara na jego pierwszym pokazie i postanowili przekształcić interfejs swojego komputera w klasyczny GUI. Pierwszy Macintosh zawierał potem uproszczoną wersję interfejsu Lisy. +Siestrzemił + +Siestrzemił – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Siestrze-" ("siostrze") i "-mił" ("miły"). Znaczenie imienia: "ten, który jest miły swojej siostrze". +Siestrzemił imieniny obchodzi 27 października. +Stanisław Ziemecki + +Stanisław Ziemecki, Landau (ur. 11 kwietnia 1881 w Warszawie, zm. 19 stycznia 1956) - fizyk polski, w latach 1953-1956 rektor Wieczorowej Szkoły Inżynierskiej w Lublinie. Początkowo używał nazwiska Landau. +Pochodził z rodziny inteligenckiej, był synem i wnukiem znanych lekarzy. W 1898 r. ukończył Gimnazjum Filologiczne im. Mikołaja Reja w Warszawie i podjął studia medyczne na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Nie ukończył jednak medycyny, w trakcie II roku studiów przeniósł się na Wydział Przyrodniczy. W 1904 uzyskał stopień kandydata nauk przyrodniczych, specjalizując się w fizyce. Obronił pracę dotyczącą własności optycznych kryształów dwuosiowych, opracowaną pod kierunkiem prof. G. Wulffa (uznanego krystalografa pochodzenia rosyjskiego). Na uniwersytetach w Genewie i Getyndze kontynuował edukację w zakresie matematyki, mechaniki i fizyki. +W 1909 został profesorem i kierownikiem laboratorium w Szkole Mechaniczno-Technicznej H. Wawelberga i S. Rotwanda w Warszawie. Lata międzywojenne spędził jako docent i profesor w Szkole Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego, gdzie organizował nauczanie fizyki. W 1926 r. na Wydziale Przyrodniczym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego obronił doktorat, a w 1931 na Wydziale Elektrycznym Politechniki Warszawskiej przeprowadził habilitację. +Po wojnie organizował życie naukowe w zakresie fizyki na nowo powołanym Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej w Lublinie. Zasłużył się dla powstania Wieczorowej Szkoły Inżynierskiej w Lublinie (późniejszej Politechniki Lubelskiej). Był jej pierwszym rektorem. Należał do Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, współzakładał Polskie Towarzystwo Fizyczne (1919). +Pierwszą znaczącą pracę opublikował jeszcze w czasie studiów w Getyndze; dotyczyła magnetycznego skręcania płaszczyzny polaryzacji w promieniowaniu ultrafioletowym. Objaśnił zjawisko jarzenia się par rtęci pod wpływem promieniowania rentgenowskiego. Prowadził pionierskie obserwacje promieniowania jądrowego w atmosferze. Wraz z Jodko-Narkiewiczem i Z. Burzyńskim wysunął pomysł lotu balonu do granic toposfery (1936), czego jednak nie udało się zrealizować. Opublikował łącznie 11 książek i kilkanaście prac naukowych. +Powiat głubczycki + +Powiat głubczycki - powiat w Polsce (województwo opolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Głubczyce. +Graniczy z powiatami: prudnickim, kędzierzyńsko-kozielskim, raciborskim (woj. Śląskie) oraz z Czechami (kraj Morawsko-śląski). +Płaskowyż Dobrej Ziemi. +Na terenie powiatu głubczyckiego jest czynna "Lokalna Grupa Działania Płaskowyż Dobrej Ziemi". +Tempest (gra arcade) + +Tempest – gra arcade Atari, zaprojektowana i zaprogramowana przez Davida Theurera. Wydana w październiku 1981. Gra jest również znana jako pierwsza gra z możliwością wyboru poziomu trudności gry. Gra jest tunelową strzelanką, typem strzelanek, gdzie środowisko gry jest stałe, a gracz może się poruszać jedynie w wybranych kierunkach. +Dioda tunelowa + +Dioda tunelowa, rzadziej dioda Esakiego – dioda półprzewodnikowa, która dla pewnego zakresu napięć polaryzujących charakteryzuje się ujemną rezystancją dynamiczną. +Taką charakterystykę uzyskuje się w złączach silnie domieszkowanych, bowiem jest w nich możliwe przejście tunelowe nośników z pasma walencyjnego do pasma przewodzenia zarówno z obszaru półprzewodnika typu "p+" do "n+", jak i z obszaru "n+" do "p+", także przy polaryzacji złącza w kierunku przewodzenia (porównaj ze zjawiskiem Zenera). Czas tunelowego przejścia nośników jest rzędu 10-13 s, dlatego diody tego typu wykorzystuje się do wytwarzania, wzmacniania i detekcji słabych drgań wysokich częstotliwości (rzędu kilkuset gigaherców), w układach impulsowych (np. cyfrowych) oraz jako elementy aktywne generatorów. +Typowe natężenie prądu formula_2 jest rzędu kilku, kilkunastu miliamperów. +Ważnym parametrem jest iloraz formula_10 – im jest on większy, tym lepiej. Ponadto, ze względu na przeznaczenie tych elementów do pracy z bardzo dużymi częstotliwościami, istotne stają się: pojemność złącza "p-n", indukcyjność pasożytnicza oraz pojemność obudowy, ponieważ wpływają na szybkość działania diody. +Barry Sharpless + +Karl Barry Sharpless (ur. 28 kwietnia 1941 w Filadelfii) - chemik amerykański, laureat Nagrody Nobla z chemii 2001. +Studiował w "Dartmouth College" w Hanover (New Hampshire), w 1963 obronił doktorat na Uniwersytecie Stanforda. Pracował na Uniwersytecie Stanforda, Harvardzie, a jako profesor w "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" i "Scripps Research Institute" w La Jolla (Kalifornia). +Zajmował się reakcjami syntezy związków organicznych, szczególnie utlenianiem. Wykorzystał w badaniach katalizatory chiralne, umożliwiające uzyskanie pożądanego izomeru. Jego badania wykorzystano do syntezy leków nasercowych (tzw. beta-blokerów). Za prace te został uhonorowany Nagrodą Nobla w 2001. Otrzymał połowę nagrody, druga połowa przypadła wspólnie Williamowi Knowlesowi i Ryōjiemu Noyoriemu. +Gmina Olesno (powiat dąbrowski) + +Gmina Olesno – gmina wiejska w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie dąbrowskim. W latach 1975-1998 gmina administracyjnie należała do województwa tarnowskiego. +Siedziba gminy to Olesno. +Według danych z 30 czerwca 2008 gminę zamieszkiwało 7626 osób. +Struktura powierzchni. +Gmina stanowi 14,76% powierzchni powiatu. +Sąsiednie gminy. +Bolesław, Dąbrowa Tarnowska, Gręboszów, Mędrzechów, Żabno +Biskup diecezjalny + +Biskup diecezjalny – biskup, któremu powierzono aktualnie istniejącą diecezję. Potocznie wobec biskupa diecezjalnego używa się również określenia biskup ordynariusz. +Biskup diecezjalny w Kościele katolickim. +W Kościele katolickim biskup diecezjalny jest to duchowny katolicki, który z sprawuje wszelką władzę zwyczajną, własną i bezpośrednią w powierzonej mu diecezji, z wyjątkiem spraw zastrzeżonych Stolicy Apostolskiej oraz podlegających innej władzy kościelnej. Posiadana władza ma swoje źródło w przyjętym sakramencie święceń w stopniu episkopatu (święcenia biskupie), a prawo do jej wykonywania nadaje papież. +Termin ten został wprowadzony przez Kodeks prawa kanonicznego z 1983 roku, gdyż poprzedni kodeks kodeks z 1917 używał terminu biskup rezydencjalny. +Potocznie używa się wobec biskupa diecezjalnego terminu biskup ordynariusz, chociaż termin ordynariusz jest pojęciem szerszym i obejmuje między innymi wikariuszy generalnych oraz wikariuszy biskupich, którzy najczęściej są biskupami pomocniczymi w danej diecezji. +Biskup diecezjalny reprezentuje swoją diecezję w załatwianiu wszystkich spraw, które mają prawny charakter, jak również podczas Synodu Biskupów czy też Konferencji Episkopatu. Do jego obowiązków należy wizytowanie całej diecezji, raz na pięć lat raportowanie Stolicy Apostolskiej o jej stanie (tzw. Wizyta ad limina), wyświęcanie kapłanów. +Pomocą w zarządzaniu diecezją mogą służyć biskupowi diecezjalnemu biskupi pomocniczy. +Czas, kiedy wakuje urząd biskupa diecezjalnego, określa się mianem sediswakancji, chociaż ten łaciński zwrot bardziej kojarzy się z okresem od śmierci papieża do wyboru jego następcy. +Biskup diecezjalny w innych kościołach. +Urząd biskupa diecezjalnego istnieje także w innych kościołach o ustroju episkopalnym: w kościołach prawosławnych, anglikańskich i w niektórych kościołach luterańskich (także w Kościele Ewangelicko-Augsburskim w RP). +Casa Loma + +Casa Loma – mały, neogotycki zamek w kanadyjskim mieście Toronto, znajdujący się przy Austin Terrace, zbudowany w latach 1911–1914. +Budowa tego domu kosztowała w 1911 roku 3,5 mln dolarów i angażowała 300 osób przez 3 lata budowy. Budynek stoi na wzgórzu, skąd wziął swoją nazwę (hiszp. "Casa Loma" – dom na wzgórzu). Architektem był E. J. Lennox, który wzniósł także stary ratusz miejski w podobnym stylu zamczyska, nawiązującym do europejskich pierwowzorów. +Sir Henry Mill Pellatt, właściciel i pomysłodawca willi, był przemysłowcem, finansistą i żołnierzem w służbie Korony Brytyjskiej. Należał do regimentu "Queen's Own Rifles", jednego z najstarszych istniejących w Kanadzie, a król Edward VII nadał mu tytuł szlachecki. W 1910 Sir Henry na własny koszt wysłał cały regiment, 600 żołnierzy, na manewry do Anglii. Po paru latach fortuna odwróciła się i musiał opuścić swój dom. Dziś jest to własność miasta, a od 1937 roku nadzorem zajmuje się "Kiwanis Club". Zarówno willa jak i wiktoriańskie ogrody są atrakcją i odwiedzane są przez ponad 400 tysięcy turystów rocznie. Często obiekt jest wynajmowany na bale, śluby lub ekipom filmowym. +Willa ma 98 pokoi i pomieszczeń na 3 poziomach oraz część podziemną. "Casa Loma" ma 22 kominki i pierwszą zainstalowaną w Toronto windę – "Otis I". Na zewnątrz najbardziej charakterystyczne są dwie wieże, nadające budynkowi wygląd zamku, a do zespołu należą także luksusowe stajnie (są tam mahoniowe boksy, hiszpańskie kafelki i złocone tabliczki z imionami koni), połączone z domem tunelem o długości 244 m. Stajnie zostały zbudowane na 4 lata przed powstaniem willi, w 1906, kosztem 250 000 dolarów. Przy stajni mieści się powozownia, gdzie zgromadzono wiele z używanych w epoce powozów. W części podziemnej znajduje się między innymi piwniczka winna, gdzie zgromadzono ponad 1800 butelek win. Odpowiednia temperatura była utrzymywana przez urządzenia chłodzące (w owych czasach nowość). Piwniczka była połączona tajnym przejściem bezpośrednio ze studiem Sir Henry'ego. +Do budowy i wystroju Casa Loma użyto wiele cennych materiałów, zarówno lokalnych jak i sprowadzanych z całego świata. Cieplarnia, ogrzewana w zimie, ma posadzkę z włoskiego marmuru i wspaniałą włoską oszkloną kopułę. Do cieplarni wiodą drzwi wykonane z brązu, które wówczas kosztowały 10 000 dolarów. Wielka sala ma 20 metrów wysokości, służyła także za salę balową. Wykładany drzewem tekowym i dębem korytarz, "Peacock Alley", jest wzorowany na podobnym przejściu w zamku windsorskim. W łazience Sir Henry'ego prysznic był tak skonstruowany, by obmywać ciało ze wszystkich stron. Warto wspomnieć, że jego łazienka była większa od łazienki jego żony, za to w łazience Lady Mary Pellatt zamontowano bidet – jak na owe czasy wyposażenie rzadko spotykane. Natomiast zdobienia paneli w "Oak Room" rzemieślnicy rzeźbili we francuskim dębie aż przez 3 lata. +Na zewnątrz znajduje się zadbany formalny ogród, który odrestaurowano w 1990 kosztem 1,5 miliona dolarów, starając się zachować pierwotny kształt i podział. +Osięgniew + +Osięgniew – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "O-", "się" (razem może "o siebie", "o sobie") i "-gniew" ("gniew"). Imię to mogło oznaczać "tego, kto gniewa się tylko na siebie". +Art Gallery of Ontario + +Art Gallery of Ontario – galeria sztuki w Toronto (Ontario, Kanada), najważniejsza galeria w Kanadzie, objętościowo największa w Ameryce Północnej. +Art Gallery of Ontario ma ponad stuletnią tradycję, zgromadziła około 26.000 dzieł sztuki zarówno europejskiej jak i kanadyjskiej czy amerykańskiej z ostatnich 600 lat. Budynek mieści się tuż obok Chinatown. +W najbliższym czasie (2005-2007) zostanie dobudowany aneks zaprojektowany przez Franka Gehry, projektanta bryły Guggenheim Museum w Bilbao. Architekt pochodzi on z Toronto i w dzieciństwie mieszkał w okolicy AGO. Galeria potrzebuje nowej przestrzeni także dlatego, że kolekcjoner i filantrop Kenneth Thomson przekazał kolejne dzieła sztuki, w tym nabyty niedawno obraz Rubensa "Rzeź niewinnych", za który zapłacił rekordową sumę jak na obraz tzw. "Starych Mistrzów", bo aż 117 milionów dolarów. +Galeria ma największą na świecie kolekcję rzeźb brytyjskiego artysty Henry'ego Moore'a. Miasto zakupiło i umieściło jego rzeźbę "The Archer" (Strzelec) w centralnym punkcie, przed nowym budynkiem magistratu, na Nathan Philip Square. Artysta docenił ten wybór i zaczął współpracować z Toronto, przekazując 300 prac za darmo. Moore był nieco zrażony zawistną atmosferą panującą w Londynie, czego efektem były kłopoty z akwizycją jego prac przez Tate Gallery. W Toronto zać doceniano jego sztukę. Dziś kolekcja liczy aż 931 dzieł sztuki autorstwa Moore'a. +Budynek posiada wiele galerii na dwóch piętrach, w których bądź wystawiane są stałe ekspozycje, bądź prezentowane są wystawy czasowe. Dodatkowo w budynku znajdują się sklepy, restauracja, biblioteka oraz sale multimedialne, gdzie często prezentowane są filmy lub odbywają się prelekcje. W podziemiach jest specjalna strefa dla dzieci, gdzie prowadzone są zajęcia – wszyscy zachęcani są do szkicowania – materiał dostarcza galeria. +W AGO można także zakupić lub wypożyczyć dzieła sztuki. Czasem galeria organizuje wieczory jazzowe. W budynku znajduje się także Cinemateque Ontario, kino prezentujące filmy niekomercyjne. Często odbywają się przeglądy twórczości najsławniejszych reżyserów świata. +Galerie sztuki europejskiej mają dzieła z różnych okresów, w tym tak znanych artystów jak Brueghel, Rembrandt, van Dyck, de la Tour, Poussin, Degas, Dürer, Renoir, Monet, Picasso, Piranesi, Pissarro, Chagall, Gauguin, Magritte, Modigliani, Whistler, van Gogh. +W "European Paintings and Sculpture Collection" podziwiać można między innymi jeden z największych na świecie zbiorów florenckich brązów z XVII w. oraz liczne płótna "Starych Mistrzów", jak Luca Giordano, Antoine Coypel, Jean Jouvenet. Znajduje się tu m.in. obraz Pietera Brueghel'a młodszego "Wiejskie wesele", przedstawiający szczegóły XVII-wiecznego życia, a także obrazy impresjonistów, jak Claude Monet ("Charing Cross Bridge: Fog", "Vétheuil in Summer"), Edgar Degas ("Woman in Bath"), Renoir ("Concert"). +Następny dział – "Twentieth-Century Collection" – obejmuje okres lat 1900-1970. Wśród zgromadzonych dzieł znajdują się m.in. kubistyczne kształty Picassa ("The Soup", "Seated Woman"), tajemnicze prace Chagalla ("Over Vitebsk"), charakterystyczne figury Gauguina ("Hina and Fatu") czy urodę modeli Modiglianiego ("Mrs. Hastings"). +AGO ma także dział "Prints and Drawing Collection" z takimi dziełami jak "Adam i Ewa" Dürera czy "Tobiasz i Archanioł Rafael" Pietro da Cortona. +Galerie kanadyjskie prezentują sztukę całego okresu istnienia kraju, w tym obrazy członków Grupy Siedmiu. Niektóre sale urządzono tak jak niegdyś wystawiano obrazy w galeriach – zawieszone niemal od podłogi po sufit. +W AGO znajdują się także rzeźby Inuitów, w kości i kamieniu. Z 4.000 dzieł, jest to jedna z największych kolekcji sztuki Inuitów na świecie, od rzeźb po rysunki. +AGO zaczęło kupować malarstwo amerykańskie w latach 60., a w latach 80. zajęło się także współczesną sztuką europejską. W galerii znaleźć można pop art, ekspresjonistów abstrakcyjnych, minimalistów, konceptualistów i Arte Povera. Z bardziej znanych dzieł są tu "Elvis" ręki Warhola czy wielki hamburger Oldenburga. +Oprócz stałych kolekcji AGO bardzo często gości bardzo ważne wystawy czasowe, zarówno sztuki współczesnej jak i klasycznej. Przykładowo w 2002 pokazywano unikalne płótna Rubensa czy impresjonistów ze sławnego Ermitażu. Galeria posiada także zbiory fotografii i filmów artystycznych, oraz obszerną bibliotekę. +Z AGO można przejść do historycznego budynku "The Grange", który był pierwszym lokum galerii. The Grange wybudowano dla D'Arcy Boulton w 1817. Jest jednym z najstarszych ceglanych budynków miasta, w stylu georgiańskim, określanym jako "Upper Canada Neo-Classic". Styl ten charakteryzował się prostotą (w przeciwieństwie do wiktoriańskiego), zachowaniem proporcji i symetrii. Budynek stoi w parku o tej samej nazwie, a został podarowany galerii przez Goldwina Smitha (kolejnego męża wdowy Boulton). Obsługa wolontariuszy w strojach z epoki oprowadzi was po XIX-wiecznych wnętrzach. +Henryk Wiercieński + +Henryk Wojciech Jakub Wiercieński (ur. 15 lipca 1843 w Kłodnicy k. Bełżyc, zm. 16 października 1923 w Lublinie) – uczestnik powstania styczniowego, sybirak, publicysta. +Zasłynął jako obrońca ziemi chełmskiej. Mieszkał w Nałęczowie, Lublinie. Był wielkim społecznikiem na terenie Lubelszczyzny. +Urodził się w Kłodnicy k. Bełżyc. Gimnazjum lubelskie ukończył w 1860 r. Powstanie styczniowe przerwało mu rozpoczęte studia w Warszawie. Walczył w oddziale gen. Langiewicza, biorąc udział w bitwach pod Wąchockiem, na Świętym Krzyżu i w Staszowie. Pod Małogoszczem dostał się do niewoli i przebywał w więzieniach do stycznia 1864 r, kiedy to został zesłany na Sybir. Po powrocie do domu w Niezabitowie zajął się gospodarowaniem. Zrujnowany, osiedlił się w 1880 r. w Nałęczowie, prowadząc działalność naukowo-publicystyczną. W 1915 r. przeniósł się do Lublina. Położył duże zasługi w obronie polskości Chełmszczyzny, gromadząc i publikując materiały dotyczące tego regionu. W czasie I wojny światowej zorganizował Biuro Statystyczne, które rejestrowało straty wojenne w 27 powiatach będących pod okupacją austro-węgierską. Autor "Opisu statystycznego guberni lubelskiej" i "Pamiętników". W Lublinie jedna z ulic (boczna ul. Głębokiej, biegnąca wzdłuż cmentarza) nosi jego imię. +Albatros C.XII + +Albatros CXII – niemiecki samolot wielozdaniowy. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1918 roku w niemieckiej wytwórni lotniczej Albatros GmbH. +Historia. +W 1917 roku w niemieckiej wytwórni lotniczej Albatros GmbH inżynierowie Thelen i Schubert skonstruowali samolot wielozadaniowy Albatros C.XII. Stanowił on rozwinięcie konstrukcji samolotu rozpoznawczo-bombowego Albatros C.X. W samolocie Albatros C.XII zmieniono kształt kadłuba na owalny, co wydatnie zmniejszyło opory aerodynamiczne i poprawiła osiągi. Kadłub stał się bardziej opływowy, można było w nim zastosować nowocześniejszą – lżejszą i wytrzymalszą konstrukcję półskorupową. W kadłubie z przodu zamontowano silnik rzędowy, chłodzony cieczą, schładzaną w chłodnicy umieszczonej na środku górnego płata. Silnik wystawał nieco poza obrys górnej części kadłuba. Za silnikiem mieścił się zbiornik paliwa, a za nim usytuowano jedna za drugą dwie odkryte kabiny – pierwsza pilota, druga obserwatora. W kabinie pilota znajdowały się urządzenia sterownicze oraz podstawowe przyrządy pilotażowe i nawigacyjne. Z tyłu kadłuba zamontowano usterzenie klasyczne, przy czym konstrukcję usterzenia pionowego skopiowano z samolotu myśliwskiego Albatros D.III, aby uprościć technologię jego montażu z kadłubem. Komora płatów i ich konstrukcja była identyczna jak w samolocie Albatros C.X. Niezmienione także pozostało podwozie. Budowę nowego modelu samolotu, oznaczonego Albatros C.XII, ukończono pod koniec 1917 roku, a jego oblotu dokonano na początku 1918 roku. Podczas prób w locie samolot zachowywał się poprawnie, odznaczał się dobrymi właściwościami pilotażowymi i osiągał zamierzone przez konstruktorów parametry lotu. +Po zakończeniu wymaganych prób, od razu uruchomiono produkcję seryjną tych samolotów. Pierwsze Albatrosy C.XII skierowano na front zachodni wiosną 1918 roku. Stanowiły one wyposażenie niemieckich jednostek lotniczych (niem. "Flieger Abteilug Flotte") i cieszyły się dobrą opinią załóg latających na tych samolotach. Stosowano je do końca I wojny światowej. +Ogółem w wytwórni Albatros GmbH w Pile oraz na licencji w zakładach Bayerische Flugzeug Werke (BFW) i Linke Hoffmann Werke wyprodukowano około 100 samolotów Albatros CXII. +Użycie w Wojsku Polskim. +W listopadzie 1918 roku polskie oddziały wojskowe zdobyły na terenie Małopolski 4 samoloty Albatros C.XII. Po wyremontowaniu dwa samoloty otrzymała Wyższa Szkoła Pilotów w Poznaniu na lotnisku Ławica, a pozostałe dwa przydzielono w lutym 1919 roku do 8 eskadry wywiadowczej wraz z samolotami Albatros C.III i Rumpler C.I. Eskadra ta od 7 kwietnia 1919 roku brała udział w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej, w której szybko utraciła swój sprzęt, przeważnie w czasie przygodnych lądowań. +Kilka kolejnych samolotów Albatros C.XII kupiono w wytwórni lotniczej Albatros. Samoloty te oprócz 8 eskadry wywiadowczej otrzymała 1 eskadra wielkopolska (późniejsza 12 eskadra), która w marcu 1919 roku działała z lotniska Hureczko koło Przemyśla. Po zakończeniu wojny polsko-bolszewickiej pojedyncze Albatrosy C.XII używane były do szkolenia w Szkole Obserwatorów i Strzelców w Toruniu, w Wyższej Szkole Pilotów w Grudziądzu i Niższej Szkole Pilotów w Bydgoszczy. +W polskim lotnictwie samoloty Albatros C.XII stosowane były do połowy lat dwudziestych XX wieku. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot Albatros C.XII był dwumiejscowym samolotem wielozadaniowym, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej. Podwozie klasyczne – stałe. Napęd: silnik rzędowy 6-cylindrowy "Mercedes D.IVa", śmigło dwułopatowe drewniane. +Garłacz + +Garłacz (gardłacz, szturmak albo tromblon) – odprzodowa broń palna wyposażona w lufę z rozszerzeniem przy wylocie. Garłacze miały wymiary pośrednie pomiędzy pistoletami, a karabinkami i mogły strzelać kulami lub grubym śrutem ołowianym. Pocisków z innych materiałów nie stosowano, ponieważ mogły one zniszczyć wykonaną najczęściej z mosiądzu lufę. Długość garłacza nie przekraczała najczęściej 50 cm. Na zachodzie Europy garłacz nosił nazwę "tromblonu", broń wojskowa zaś "eskopety", a garłacz używany w marynarce, mający od spodu trzpień do osadzania garłacza na podstawie, nosił nazwę "espingoli" +Garłacz został skonstruowany w XVI wieku w Holandii jako broń dla marynarzy. Rozszerzenie wylotu lufy (zwane trąbą) miało ułatwić ładowanie broni na rozchwianym pokładzie, uważano także, że takie rozszerzenie zwiększa rozrzut śrutu. W rzeczywistości rozszerzenie nie ma wpływu na rozrzut. Łatwość ładowania i możliwość zamiennego używania kul i śrutu sprawił, że garłacze rozpowszechniły się w Europie. Trafiły między innymi do uzbrojenia włoskiej lekkiej jazdy, załóg weneckich galer i hiszpańskich strzelców. Później stały się głównie bronią jazdy, i w tej roli rozpowszechniły się na Bliskim Wschodzie, Persji i na Kaukazie. +Garłacze były do końca XVIII wieku używane jako broń wojskowa, używana podczas walk w tłumie, czy podczas abordaży. Później garłacz stał się głównie bronią cywilną, używaną do samoobrony. Późne garłacze używane w Wielkiej Brytanii były mniejsze i były wielkości pistoletów. Z czasem zanikła także trąba i lufa zaczęła mieć jednakowy kaliber wzdłuż całej długości, a trąbę zaczęły imitować pierścienie na końcu lufy. +Garłaczem karabinowym nazywano w I połowie XX wieku granatnik nasadkowy. +Prokura + +Prokura – specjalny rodzaj pełnomocnictwa dla osoby fizycznej posiadającej pełną zdolność do czynności prawnych (prokurenta), którego udzielić może każdy przedsiębiorca podlegający wpisowi do rejestru przedsiębiorców (w Krajowym Rejestrze Sądowym). +Prokura upoważnia do dokonywania czynności (sądowych i pozasądowych) związanych z prowadzeniem przedsiębiorstwa. Z czynności tych wyłączone jest zbywanie i obciążanie przedsiębiorstwa i nieruchomości, co do których konieczne jest pełnomocnictwo szczególne. +Prokury nie można przenieść na inną osobę, prokurent może natomiast udzielić innej osobie pełnomocnictwa szczególnego do poszczególnej czynności. +Podmioty uprawnione do udzielania prokury mogą także udzielać zwyczajnych pełnomocnictw. +Powstanie, odwołanie i wygaśnięcie prokury. +Prokura powstaje z chwilą jej udzielenia na piśmie pod rygorem nieważności, sam wpis do rejestru ma jedynie charakter potwierdzenia. +W spółkach osobowych dla ustanowienia prokury konieczna jest zgoda wszystkich wspólników mających prawo prowadzenia spraw spółki, a w spółkach kapitałowych - zgoda wszystkich członków zarządu. +Dla odwołania prokury wystarcza oświadczenie - odpowiednio - jednego wspólnika lub członka zarządu. +Prokura wygasa na skutek wykreślenia przedsiębiorcy z rejestru, a także ogłoszenia upadłości, otwarcia likwidacji oraz przekształcenia przedsiębiorcy oraz wraz ze śmiercią prokurenta. Częściowa lub całkowita utrata przez prokurenta zdolności do czynności prawnych również powoduje wygaśnięcie prokury. +Prokura uregulowana jest obecnie w art. 1091 - 1099 kodeksu cywilnego. +Krosno tkackie + +Krosno tkackie – urządzenie, mechaniczne (maszyna) lub ręczne, do tworzenia (produkcji) tkanin. Tkanina powstaje przez połączenie dwóch, prostopadłych do siebie, układów nitek (osnowy i wątku) według odpowiedniego splotu. Surowcem do produkcji tkanin jest przędza tkacka. +Dundas Square + +Dundas Square - zbudowany niedawno plac w centrum kanadyjskiego miasta Toronto, mający pełnić funkcję współczesnego forum oraz miejsca na otwarte koncerty. Charakterystycznym elementem placu są liczne fontanny, działające według zaprogramowanych sekwencji. +W sąsiedztwie w budowie jest kompleks rozrywkowy z 30 salami kinowymi. Po jednej stronie stanął obiekt "Olympic Spirit" licencjonowany przez MKOL, budynek o powierzchni ponad 4500 m² z wieżą w kształcie pochodni olimpijskiej, mającej na celu popularyzację ducha olimpijskiego. +Po drugiej stronie, przed wejściem do Eaton Centre znajduje się wtopiona w beton metalowa wstęga przedstawiająca przebieg ulicy, uważanej przez miejscowych za najdłuższą ulicę świata - Yonge Street. +Anatoliusz + +Anatoliusz - imię męskie pochodzenia greckiego, oboczny wariant imienia Anatol. +Anatoliusz imieniny obchodzi 20 marca. +Powiat kluczborski + +Powiat kluczborski - powiat w Polsce (województwo opolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kluczbork. +Polska reforma administracyjna (1999) przeniosła do powiatu kluczborskiego gminę Lasowice Wielkie, dotychczas znajdującą się w granicach powiatu oleskiego. +Położenie. +Powiat kluczborski położony jest na Nizinie Śląskiej nad Stobrawą - prawym dopływem Odry, w północnej części województwa opolskiego. Większość jego obszaru nie wykracza poza wysokość 250 m n.p.m. W krajobrazie dominują tereny nizinne, a występujące nierówności terenu z reguły nie wykraczają poza wartości 20-40 m. +Powiat kluczborski administracyjnie podzielony jest na cztery gminy: Kluczbork, Wołczyn, Byczyna i Lasowice Wielkie - trzy pierwsze to gminy miejsko-wiejskie, czwarta to gmina wiejska. Na powierzchni powiatu liczącej 852 km² zamieszkuje obecnie około 72 800 osób. Na jego terytorium krzyżują się szlaki kołowe dróg krajowych nr 11 Lubliniec - Poznań oraz nr 45 Opole – Łódź. Miasto Kluczbork to również ważny węzeł kolejowy z liniami łączącymi: Katowice - Wrocław, Katowice - Poznań oraz kierunkami: Lubliniec i Opole. +Gospodarka. +Powiat ma charakter rolniczo-przemysłowy. Ponad połowę jego powierzchni zajmują użytki rolne. Średnia jakość gleb oraz łagodny klimat sprzyjają uprawie żyta, pszenicy i roślin okopowych. Do bogactw tych terenów należą zasoby mineralne: przede wszystkim lecznicza solanka wołczyńska, a także złoża żwirów budowlanych, piasków oraz torfu. Do najważniejszych działów kluczborskiej gospodarki można zaliczyć przemysły: elektromaszynowy, spożywczy i budowlany. Przemysł skupiony jest głównie w stolicy regionu – Kluczborku. Największe firmy gminy to: Fabryka Maszyn i Urządzeń "Famak", PV "Prefabet - Kluczbork" S.A. Wśród inwestorów zagranicznych dominuje kapitał niemiecki. Okucia do stolarki okiennej i drzwi produkuje tu firma SIEGENIA-AUBI, płyty i rury betonowe – wspomniany już P.V. Prefabet. Swoje markety usytuowały tu sieci francuska i niemiecka. Drugim ważnym ośrodkiem przemysłowym w powiecie jest Wołczyn. W końcu XIX wieku powstał tu zakład produkujący drożdże działający do dziś pod nazwą Lesaffre Bio-Corporation Sp. z o.o.. Działa tu również Huta Szkła Kama Vitrum. Obecnie na terenie powiatu zarejestrowanych jest blisko 5 tys. podmiotów gospodarczych. +Współpraca partnerska. +Powiat kluczborski w marcu 2000 r. podpisał akt partnerstwa z niemieckim powiatem Bad Dürkheim, a w maju 2000 r. deklarację o wzajemnej współpracy z powiatem brzeżańskim na Ukrainie. +Dakowie + +Dakowie (zwani także "Getami", "Dako-Getami" lub "Geto-Dakami"), to starożytny lud pochodzenia trackiego zajmujący Dację - tereny lewobrzeżnego Dunaju, na obszarze mniej więcej obecnego państwa rumuńskiego i częściowo węgierskiego, znany starożytnym Grekom już od VI w. p.n.e.. Pierwszym greckim autorem, który wymienił Getów był Hekatajos z Miletu, a jego informacje w całej rozciągłości potwierdził w swoich ""Dziejach"" Herodot w drugiej poł. V w. p.n.e. Według Strabona Dakowie nazywali siebie "Dáoi". +Jak wynika z badań archeologicznych Dakowie (lub też ich bezpośredni przodkowie) pojawili się na tych terenach już ok. 1700 r. p.n.e. i zamieszkiwali je aż do schyłku starożytności, ale już w nieco zmienionym składzie etnicznym, z domieszką innych nacji, najpierw po wojnach z Rzymianami na przeł. I i II w. n.e. (zakończonych podbiciem tych terenów przez Rzym w roku 106 n.e.) i kolonizacji rzymskiej, a następnie w wyniku tzw. "Wędrówki ludów", który to ruch migracyjny spowodował perturbacje etniczne w niemal całej Europie kontynentalnej. Stopniowo resztki Daków rozpłynęły się w napływowej ludności gockiej, germańskiej i później słowiańskiej. +Zróżnicowanie nazw: Dakowie, Getowie, Geto-Dakowie i Dako-Getowie, wynika z jednej strony z podziału plemiennego w łonie tegoż ludu (i prawdopodobnie od dominujących plemion), a także od pisarzy greckich i łacińskich - otóż Grecy nazywali ten lud Getami, a pisarze łacińscy Dakami. Zjednoczenie plemion Geto-Dackich w jeden organizm polityczny za panowania Burebisty usunęło jakiekolwiek podziały w nazewnictwie, czemu dał wyraz już Strabon. +Egipcjanin Sinuhe + +Egipcjanin Sinuhe (fin. "Sinuhe egyptiläinen") – najsłynniejsza powieść historyczna Miki Waltariego, wydana w 1944 roku. Podstawą powieści jest tradycyjna "Opowieść o Sinuhe". Powieść napisana została w narracji pierwszoosobowej, narratorem jest główny bohater, Sinuhe, który, relacjonując wydarzenia, przedstawia opinię o ówczesnym Egipcie. Pierwsze polskie wydanie powieści - przetłumaczone przez Zygmunta Łanowskiego z autoryzowanego przez Waltariego tekstu szwedzkiego - ukazało się w roku 1962 nakładem "Czytelnika". +Książka została przetłumaczona na 40 języków. W Stanach Zjednoczonych była najlepiej sprzedającą się powieścią zagraniczną do czasu wejścia na rynek "Imienia róży" Umberto Eco. +Opis fabuły. +Głównym wątkiem powieści jest życie lekarza Sinuhe, którego urodzenie i pochodzenie otoczone są tajemnicą. Jako dziecko odnaleziony został przez Kipę w trzcinowej łódce płynącej Nilem. Przygarnięty przez nią, dorastał w ubogiej dzielnicy Teb, w domu Senmuta, lekarza ubogich. Jako dziecko chciał zostać żołnierzem, potem jednak zdecydował się kontynuować lekarski fach ojca. Nauczył się pisma od starca Oneha, a w jego domu poznał utalentowanego Totmesa, z którym się zaprzyjaźnił. Dzięki pomocy królewskiego trepanatora Ptahora, którego znał Senmut, dostał się do Domu Życia, gdzie złożył egzaminy na najniższy stopień kapłaństwa na fakultecie teologicznym. Jako kapłan Amona mógł rozpoczął naukę leczenia w Domu Życia. Tam po raz pierwszy spotkał Nefernefernefer, która go zauroczyła. Asystował też Pathorowi przy trepanacjach, dzięki czemu dostał się do pałacu faraona, który zmarł wkrótce po trepanacji czaszki. Wtedy następca tronu Amenhotep IV nadał mu nowe imię – Ten, Który Jest Samotny. Po objawieniu się Amenhotepowi jego boga, spotkał oszczepnika Horemheba. Później zaczął zarabiać jako lekarz ubogich, za złoto otrzymane od faraona kupił jednookiego niewolnika Kaptaha, który został jego zaufanym sługą. Wkrótce po tym ponownie spotkał Nefernefernefer, której za "zażywanie z nią rozkoszy" przepisał cały majątek swój i swoich rodziców. Po śmierci Kipy i Senmuta zatrudnił się w Domu Śmierci, by zapewnić ciałom rodziców wieczne życie, nie płacąc balsamiarzom. Nauczywszy się sztuki balsamowania od Ramosego, zabezpieczył je przed rozkładem i pochował w piasku w Mieście Umarłych, gdyż oddał również ich grób. Potem, czując się pozbawionym praw i zhańbionym, tym, jak postąpił z mieniem rodziców, wraz z Kaptahem udaje się do krain czerwonych. Wmieszany zostaje w wydarzenia i intrygi swoich czasów, przeżywa wojny, rewolucje i prześladowania, kocha i nienawidzi, wreszcie kończy jako wygnaniec. +Miejsca akcji. +Pierwotnym miejscem akcji w utworze są Teby, stolica starożytnego Egiptu. Po wyjeździe z Egiptu Sinuhe odbył wiele podróży po "krajach czerwonych", czyli obcych Egiptowi, który zwano "krajem czarnym", więc miejsce akcji zmieniało się wraz z postępem jego podróży. +Bogowie występujący w powieści. +Bogowie syryjscy. +również kapłani-astrologowie z Wieży Marduka. +Ekranizacja. +Powieść została zekranizowana w 1954 roku – film "The Egyptian" w reżyserii Michaela Curtiza w Polsce jest znany pod tytułem "Egipcjanin Sinuhe". +William Knowles + +William Standish Knowles (ur. 1 czerwca 1917 w Taunton, Massachusetts, zm. 13 czerwca 2012 w Chesterfield, Missouri) – amerykański chemik, laureat Nagrody Nobla w dziedzinie chemii 2001. +W 1942 obronił doktorat na Uniwersytecie Columbia. Przez kilkadziesiąt lat pracował w koncernie Monsanto w St. Louis (Missouri), przeszedł na emeryturę w 1986. +W 2001 został uhonorowany Nagrodą Nobla za badania nad syntezą asymetryczną. Jako pierwszy zastosował związek optycznie czynny w roli katalizatora (1968), co doprowadziło do opracowania leku L-Dopa (dopamina), stosowanego w terapii choroby Parkinsona. Wraz z Knowlesem Nagrodą Nobla wyróżniono dwóch młodszych badaczy, którzy kontynuowali jego prace – Ryōjiego Noyoriego i Barry'ego Sharplessa; Noyori i Knowles otrzymali wspólnie połowę nagrody, drugą połowę przyznano Sharplessowi. +Aleksa + +Aleksa - forma żeńska imienia Aleksy. +Aleksa imieniny obchodzi 18 marca, 18 maja +Tinclad + +Tinclad (ang. "okryty blachą", l.mn. "tinclads") - popularne określenie amerykańskich lekko opancerzonych kanonierek rzecznych z okresu wojny secesyjnej w USA, operujących na rzece Missisipi i jej dopływach oraz w Zatoce Meksykańskiej. +Wraz z postępami wojsk i marynarki wojennej unionistów w kampanii na Missisipi i zaangażowaniem stosunkowo niewielkiej ilości posiadanych kanonierek pancernych w przełamywaniu oporu konfederatów w głównych punktach ich oporu, widoczna stała się potrzeba posiadania większej ilości okrętów do patrolowania rzek na zajętych obszarach, eskortowania transportowców i komunikacji oraz zadań łącznikowych. Okręty te mogły być słabiej opancerzone od kanonierek pancernych, gdyż głównym zagrożeniem, z jakim się miały spotykać, był ostrzał z broni ręcznej. Drugim powodem ich powstania były działania w górnej części płytszych rzek Cumberland i Tennessee, gdzie wymagane były lekkie okręty o niewielkim zanurzeniu, przy tym szybsze od ciężkich kanonierek pancernych. +Wynikiem tych potrzeb była budowa 76 okrętów, nazwanych "tinclad". Wbrew nazwie, nie były one chronione blachą, a głównie drewnem i w niewielkiej części kutym żelazem. Budowę "tincladów" rozpoczęto w połowie 1862, pierwsze z nich weszły do akcji w sierpniu 1862 (USS "Brilliant" i "General Pillow"). Około 35 weszło do służby przed upadkiem Vicksburga w lipcu 1863, kończącego zasadniczy etap walk na Missisipi, a ostatnie z nich oddano do służby w kwietniu 1865. Okręty te były przebudowywane w Cairo i Mound City z typowych amerykańskich rzecznych statków handlowych tego okresu, głównie tylnokołowców i nieco mniej licznych bocznokołowców. Wyjątkiem był "Little Rebel" o napędzie śrubowym (zdobyty okręt konfederacki). Ponieważ były przebudowywane z różnych jednostek, wszystkie różniły się od siebie, lecz jednocześnie były przebudowane w podobny sposób i miały podobne cechy konstrukcyjne. Na "tinclads" przebudowywano rzeczne statki handlowe, wyporności średnio 200 ton (od kilkudziesięciu do powyżej 200 ton). Większość używanych tylnokołowców miała długość ok. 45 m (150') i szerokość 9 m (30'), a żaden nie przekraczał długości 53,5 m (175'). Przeciętne bocznokołowce były podobnych rozmiarów. Wyjątkami były USS "Black Hawk" służący jako okręt sztabowy (902 t, długość 79,2 m) i "Ouachita" (572 t, długość 69,2 m). +Przebudowa polegała zwykle na obudowaniu dolnej partii nadbudówek na głównym pokładzie kazamatą z grubego drewna. Zwykle przednia ściana kazamaty była pochyła, boczne ściany były pionowe. Większość jednostek otrzymała wzmocnienie osłony w postaci płyt żelaznych grubości 12-25 mm w przedniej części kazamaty i wokół maszyn parowych. Górna część nadbudówki z kabinami załogi była zachowana nieopancerzona, wystająca nad kazamatą. Z okrętów usuwano natomiast trzecie piętro nadbudówek (tzw. "texas"). Sterówkę, umieszczoną na nadbudówkach, obniżano i lekko opancerzano. +Uzbrojenie "tincladów" różniło się, lecz zwykle składało się z 4-8 dział, najczęściej gładkolufowych dział 24-funtowych i 12-funtowych lub 20-funtowych dział gwintowanych. Rzadziej okręty przenosiły cięższe działa 32-funtowe gładkolufowe lub 30-funtowe gwintowane, a w jednym przypadku działa 8-calowe. Działa były umieszczane na burtach (w baterii burtowej), a dwa (zwykle najcięższe) w dziobowej ścianie kazamaty. Działa umieszczone były w kazamacie i strzelały przez strzelnice. Sporadycznie okręty przenosiły więcej dział, niż 8, maksymalnie 14, jedynie "Ouachita" była znacznie silniejsza. +"Tinclads" były znacznie tańsze od jednostek pancernych (ok. 9000 USD w porównaniu do 89.000 USD za kanonierkę typu "City"). Mogły też transportować na niewielkie odległości pewną liczbę żołnierzy i wysadzić ich jako desant. 19 czerwca 1863 (niedługo przed upadkiem Vicksburga) okręty otrzymały numery, z wyjątkiem dwóch największych (i utraconego wcześniej pierwszego "Glide"). +W toku służby, tylko jedna kanonierka USS "Rodolph" (#48) została zatopiona (1 kwietnia 1865 na minie), lecz 4 zostały zdobyte przez Konfederatów: #5 "Petrel" (22 kwietnia 1864), #26 "Queen City" (24 czerwca 1864), #45 "Wave" (6 maja 1864), #55 "Undine" (30 października 1864), a kolejne 4 zniszczone w celu uniknięcia zdobycia: #8 "Signal", #25 "Covington" (oba 27 kwietnia 1864 na Red River), #32 "Key West", #29 "Tawah" , #52 "Elfin" (wszystkie trzy 4 listopada 1864). Dalsze 4 utracono w wypadkach losowych, jak pożary (USS "Black Hawk" 22 kwietnia 1865, "Glide" 7 lutego 1863) lub przeszkody podwodne (#1 "Rattler" 30 grudnia 1864, #10 "Linden" 22 lutego 1864). +Po zakończeniu wojny secesyjnej, w 1865 wszystkie pozostające w służbie "tinclads" zostały zdemobilizowane i przebudowane z powrotem na statki handlowe. +Lista "tinclads". +Numery były przydzielane nowym jednostkom w miejsce utraconych. +Zobacz też: Kampania na Missisipi +Oskowie + +Oskowie albo Opikowie – lud zamieszkujący część Lacjum, Samnium i Kampanii. Język Osków należy do rodziny języków italskich, a jego śladów długo można było się doszukać w potocznej łacinie. +Meleager z Gadary + +Meleager z Gadary ( "Meleagros") w Palestynie – grecki poeta z I wieku p.n.e. +Autor między innymi epigramów, z których 128 zachowało się. Około 60 r. p.n.e. stworzył pierwszą antologię zatytułowaną "Wieniec" ( "Stephanos"), zawierającą epigramy jego własne i czterdziestu ośmiu najsłynniejszych poetów greckich, między innymi Safony, Leonidasa z Tarentu, Erinny z Telos, Asklepiadesa z Samos, Kallimacha z Cyreny, Symonidesa z Keos, Antypatra z Sydonu. +Filip z Tessaloniki w I wieku, w czasach cesarza Kaliguli, rozszerzył antologię Meleagra o epigramy trzynastu późniejszych poetów. Zbiory te nie przetrwały do współczesności, ale w X wieku Konstantyn Kefalas zredagował, opierając się na nich i innych antologiach, bardzo obszerny, liczący piętnaście ksiąg, zbiór epigramów w układzie tematycznym. Zachowany w bibliotece Palatynatu w Heidelbergu jedyny rękopis jego dzieła został wydany pod koniec XVIII wieku i znany jest jako Antologia Palatyńska. +Wcześniej (XIV wiek) mnich konstantynopolitański Maksym Planudes sporządził składający się z siedmiu ksiąg wyciąg ze zbioru Konstantyna. Pod koniec XV wieku został on wydany jako Antologia Planudejska. +W ten sposób do naszych czasów przetrwała część greckich epigramów. +Zobacz też: +Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego + +Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego (ZNP) – obecnie według Statutu ZNP jest "jednolitym, dobrowolnym, niezależnym i samorządnym związkiem zawodowym pracowników oświaty i wychowania, szkolnictwa wyższego i nauki, zrzeszającym osoby...", zwane dalej członkami ZNP. +Kalendarium. +1 października 1905 w Pilaszkowie doszło do zjazdu nauczycieli, na którym powołano do życia Związek Nauczycieli Ludowych. W krótkim czasie do tego związku przystąpiło ponad 1000 nauczycieli polskich. Przystępujący musieli podpisywać deklaracje, że będą dokładać wszelkich starań, aby nauczać dzieci języka polskiego i w duchu polskim. Tego typu deklaracja spowodowała, że władze carskie wystąpiły z represjami wobec działaczy związku, część z nich straciła pracę i została zmuszona do ucieczki do Galicji. +9 grudnia 1905 – powstaje druga organizacja nauczycielska pod nazwą Polski Związek Nauczycielski. Związek ten wchłonął ocalałych z prześladowań działaczy ZNL. +Tego samego dnia powstało Stowarzyszenie Nauczycielstwa Polskiego, które w swoich szeregach skupiało głównie nauczycieli prywatnych szkół średnich. +28 grudnia 1905 roku w Krakowie utworzono Krajowy Związek Nauczycielstwa Ludowego w Galicji, który grupował nauczycieli pracujących w szkołach różnego typu na terenie zaboru austriackiego. +2 stycznia 1917 – nastąpiło przyłączenie Polskiego Związku Nauczycielskiego do Stowarzyszenia Nauczycielstwa Polskiego. +Czerwiec 1917 – ukazał się pierwszy numer „Głosu Nauczycielskiego”, który pierwotnie był organem Zrzeszenia Nauczycielstwa Polskiego, a dzisiaj jest organem Związku Nauczycielstwa Polskiego. +28 grudnia 1918 – na wiecu nauczycieli w Poznaniu, w którym wzięli udział nauczyciele z Wielkopolski i Pomorza powołano Związek Dzielnicowy Stowarzyszeń Nauczycieli Polaków na zabór pruski. Siedzibą związku został Poznań. +Styczeń 1919 – powstał Związek Zawodowy Nauczycielstwa Polskich Szkół Średnich (ZZNPSŚ) +Kwiecień 1919 – powstał Związek Polskiego Nauczycielstwa Szkół Powszechnych (ZPNSP) z połączenia: Zrzeszenia Nauczycielstwa Polskich Szkół Początkowych i Związku Nauczycielstwa Ludowego w Galicji. Organizacja ta była organizacją o poglądach lewicowych. +Styczeń 1921 – powstało Stowarzyszenie Chrześcijańsko-Narodowe Nauczycielstwa Szkół Powszechnych (SCNNSP) z połączenia Związku Dzielnicowego Stowarzyszeń Nauczycieli Polaków w Poznaniu, Polskiego Towarzystwa Pedagogicznego we Lwowie, Polskiego Towarzystwa Nauczycielstwa Lwowskiego i Związku Nauczycielek w Przemyślu. Organizacja ta wyznawała poglądy endeckie. +lipiec 1930 – podczas wspólnego zjazdu ZZNPSŚ i ZPNSP, który odbył się w Krakowie następuje połączenie obu organizacji w jednolity Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego działający do dnia dzisiejszego. +1936 – Redagowane przez członków ZNP czasopismo „Płomyk” wychwala piórem Wandy Wasilewskiej stalinowski Związek Radziecki, co spotyka się z ostrą reakcją władz. +1 września 1939 – rozpoczęcie II wojny światowej, ZNP zostaje tak jak wszystkie polskie organizacje zdelegalizowany przez Niemców. +Październik 1939 – ZNP zaczęło działać w podziemiu pod nazwą TON – Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska. Członkowie tej organizacji rozpoczęli organizować tajne nauczanie, które z narażeniem życia prowadzili przez cały okres okupacji niemieckiej. +28 marca 1945 – odbyła się pierwsza konferencja prezesów okręgów ZNP, na której ogłoszono przywrócenie działalności ZNP +13 grudnia 1981 – wprowadzenie stanu wojennego, władze zdelegalizowały wszystkie organizacje związkowe, w tym i ZNP. +5 sierpnia 1983 – rejestracja statutu ZNP przez Sąd Wojewódzki w Warszawie, ZNP rozpoczął ponownie działalność. +17 marca 2007 odbyła się manifestacja ZNP, podczas której związkowcy domagali się spełnienia obietnicy ministra 5% podwyżki płac ponad inflację, czyli 7%. W manifestacji brało udział ok. 12 000 związkowców. +29 maja 2007 odbył się strajk ostrzegawczy w szkołach na 2 pierwszych godzinach lekcyjnych. +27 maja 2008 odbył się ogólnopolski strajk w 2/3 polskich szkołach i przedszkolach. +Struktura. +Na czele ZNP stoi Zarząd Główny, który obejmuje swoim działaniem cały kraj. Na szczeblu wojewódzkim tworzone są zarządy okręgów, odpowiedzialne za działanie na terenie danego województwa. W ramach gmin (czasami powiatów) tworzone są zarządy oddziałów. W poszczególnych placówkach działają zarządy ognisk – zdarza się, że do jednego ogniska należą członkowie z kilku placówek. +W ramach zarządów od szczebla oddziałów działają sekcje związkowe: sekcja pracowników administracji i obsługi, oraz sekcja emerytów i rencistów. +Żeby usprawnić pracę oraz by dostosować działalność do specyfiki różnych poziomów nauczania powołano sekcje zawodowe: wychowania przedszkolnego, szkolnictwa ogólnokształcącego, opieki nad dzieckiem, poradnictwa i pomocy psychologiczno-pedagogicznej, szkolnictwa specjalnego, szkolnictwa zawodowego i ustawicznego, szkolnictwa rolniczego, bibliotekarska, kształcenia i doskonalenia nauczycieli. +ZNP należy do Ogólnopolskiego Porozumienia Związków Zawodowych. +Funkcję prezesa Zarządu Głównego pełni od 23 października 1998 Sławomir Broniarz. Poprzednim prezesem był Jan Zaciura. +Herkulanum + +Herkulanum albo Herkulaneum, (łac. "Herculaneum", gr. "Heraklejon", wł. "Ercolano") – miasto w Kampanii położone w sąsiedztwie Wezuwiusza i zniszczone wraz z Pompejami i Stabiami podczas jego wybuchu 24 sierpnia 79 roku. +Historia miasta. +Herkulanum było pierwotnie miastem oskijskim, w VI wieku p.n.e. dostało się pod panowanie Etrusków, a w V wieku p.n.e. zdobyli je Samnici. W roku 307 p.n.e., w czasie drugiej wojny samnickiej podbili je Rzymianie i odtąd było sprzymierzeńcem Rzymu. Położone w pobliżu Neapolu miasto stało się miejscowością wypoczynkową, a w roku 89 p.n.e. Sulla założył w nim osadę weteranów. +Prace wykopaliskowe. +Podczas wybuchu Wezuwiusza miasto zostało zalane błotem wulkanicznym, którego grubość dochodzi do 12 metrów. Część nieodkrytego Herkulanum jest poza zasięgiem badaczy ponieważ powstały na niej następne miasta: Resina i Portici. Ruiny starożytnego Herkulanum zostały odkryte przypadkiem – w roku 1709 podczas kopania studni natrafiono na scenę teatru miejskiego. Odtąd datuje się prace wykopaliskowe, a wiele znalezisk jest w lepszym stanie niż w Pompejach. +Na rozkaz Karola Burbona II w latach 1738-1765 wykonano kilka sondaży, które zrobiły wiele szkód, ale także doprowadziły do odkrycia Willi Papirusów. W latach 1828-1865 próbowano wznowić prace, lecz skała wulkaniczna okazała się być zbyt twarda. Systematyczne prace rozpoczęto w 1927 roku i odsłonięto siedem insuli, lecz większość miasta wciąż nie jest odsłonięta. +Motywy dekoracyjne i proporcje wykopanych w Herkulanum budynków i sprzętów miały bezpośredni wpływ na sztukę neoklasycyzmu, a pod koniec XVIII wieku można było je odnaleźć w malarstwie ściennym i przedmiotach codziennego użytku w Europie. +Układ miasta. +Herkulanum, pierwotnie otoczone murami, schodziło tarasami do morza. W dolnej części miasta osiadała się arystokracja w willach z perystylami, przez co biedniejsi mieszkańcy budowali swoje domy w górnych tarasach. Typowy dom był o konstrukcji wzmocnionej kratownicą drewnianą. Można też zauważyć prawidłowość w rośnięciu rzymskich domów, ku bardziej ergonomicznemu wykorzystaniu przestrzeni. +Teatr rzymski był bardzo elegancki. Scena była wykładana marmurem różnych barw i rodzajów (giallo antico, cipollino), kolumny marmurem z Afryki i cała budowla była dekorowana rzeźbami z brązu. Inne budynki użyteczności publicznej, przebadane dzięki podziemnym tunelom to termy podmiejskie i foralne, oraz monumentalne gimnazjum, otoczone portykami z basenem na planie krzyża, z brązową fontanną w centrum. +Willa Papirusów. +Jednym z najsłynniejszych wykopalisk jest "Willa Papirusów". Położona nad brzegiem morza, schodzi ku niemu czterema tarasami, na jednym z nich prawdopodobnie stała biblioteka. Odnalezione zwoje papirusu są przechowywane w Muzeum Narodowym w Neapolu. Znaleziono tam 1785 zwojów, choć wiele z nich zostało uznane za kawałki węgla i wyrzucone przez badaczy wykopaliskowych XVIII wieku. Są tak zniszczone, że jedynie kilka z nich udało się otworzyć i częściowo odczytać, zawierają one dzieła epikurejczyków i łacińskie („De Bello Actiaco”). +Inne znaleziska. +Oprócz zabytków kultury materialnej w 1990 roku w porcie w Herkulanum odkopano również szkielety ludzkie pochodzące z pierwszego wieku naszej ery. Odkryto ogółem około 200 szkieletów osób różnych płci, wieku i pochodzenia społecznego. Znalezisko to jest tym cenniejsze, że aż do III wieku Rzymianie kremowali zwłoki i do naszych czasów zachowało się niewiele szczątków ludzkich z tamtego okresu. +Aleksander VII + +Aleksander VII "(łac. Alexander VII)", właściwie Fabio Chigi (ur. 13 lutego 1599 w Sienie, zm. 22 maja 1667 w Rzymie) – włoski duchowny katolicki, od 1655 papież. +Pochodził ze znanego rodu bankierów, podniesionego do godności hrabiowskiej. Jego ojciec Flavio był bratankiem papieża Pawła V. W dzieciństwie Chigi nie cieszył się dobrym zdrowiem i nauki początkowe pobierał w domu, pod kierunkiem matki oraz prywatnych nauczycieli. Na Uniwersytecie w Sienie obronił doktorat filozofii, prawa i teologii (1626). Wkrótce potem udał się do Rzymu i wstąpił do stanu duchownego. Pracował w Kurii Rzymskiej, był referendarzem Trybunału Sygnatury Apostolskiej, inkwizytorem na Malcie, zastępcą legata w Ferrarze. +W grudniu 1634 przyjął święcenia kapłańskie, a miesiąc później został mianowany biskupem Nardo i inkwizytorem Malty. W czerwcu 1639 udał się z misją nuncjusza apostolskiego do Kolonii, gdzie pozostawał aż do 1651. Odmówił wzięcia udziału w negocjacjach w Westfalii kończących wojnę trzydziestoletnią – argumentował, że nie może układać się w imieniu papieża z protestantami. W 1651 papież Innocenty X mianował go sekretarzem stanu, a 19 lutego 1652 obdarzył godnością kardynalską (z tytułem prezbitera S. Maria del Popolo). 13 maja 1652 kardynał Chigi został biskupem Imola. +Konklawe po śmierci Innocentego X trwało prawie trzy miesiące i było miejscem starć kilku frakcji, popieranych przez europejskie monarchie katolickie. Ostatecznie 7 kwietnia 1655 wybrano, mimo zdecydowanego sprzeciwu Francji, kardynała Chigiego, który przyjął imię Aleksandra VII (na cześć XII-wiecznego papieża Aleksandra III). Nowy papież został koronowany 18 kwietnia 1655, a 9 maja odbył uroczysty ingres do Bazyliki Laterańskiej. +W pierwszych dniach pontyfikatu Aleksander VII jawił się jako zdecydowany przeciwnik powszechnej praktyki nepotyzmu. Jedną z pierwszych decyzji był nakaz opuszczenia Rzymu przez wszechwładną Olimpię Maidalchini, szwagierkę zmarłego papieża Innocentego. Aleksander VII początkowo zabronił krewnym odwiedzać Rzym, ale już po roku, za namową swojego otoczenia z Kurii Rzymskiej, przywrócił panujące uprzednio obyczaje i rozdał rodzinie wiele ważnych, dochodowych stanowisk (m.in. bratanka Flavio mianował kardynałem w 1657). +Polityka zagraniczna papieża stała pod znakiem konfliktu z Francją. Opiekę w Rzymie znalazł kardynał Retz, przeciwnik pierwszego ministra kardynała Mazarina. W odpowiedzi dwór francuski poparł pretensje arystokratycznych rodów włoskich Farnese i Este do części terytoriów Państwa Papieskiego, a Mazarin udaremnił plany papieża odegrania roli negocjatora między Francją i Hiszpanią. Śmierć kardynała Mazarina (1661) nie zatrzymała konfliktu. Król Ludwik XIV oskarżył gwardię papieską o zamach na ambasadora Francji i zerwał stosunki dyplomatyczne, a następnie zajął enklawy papieskie (m.in. Awinion) i zagroził najazdem na Państwo Papieskie. Papież został zmuszony do podpisania traktatu w Pizie (1664), w którym uznał wszystkie żądania francuskie, w tym prawo nominacji biskupich we Francji dla króla Ludwika. +Poprawnie układały się stosunki dyplomacji papieża Aleksandra z Republiką Wenecką, natomiast doszło do konfliktu z Hiszpanią. Król nie zaakceptował nuncjusza, w odpowiedzi papież odmówił nominacji biskupich dla kandydatów królewskich. Król pozostawił w tej sytuacji diecezje bez biskupów, zyski z nich kierując do skarbu państwa. +W okresie pontyfikatu Aleksandra VII w Rzymie osiadła nawrócona na wiarę katolicką była królowa Szwecji Krystyna. +Ważne decyzje papież podjął w sprawach misyjnych. 23 marca 1656 wydał dekret, który zezwolił jezuickim misjonarzom w Chinach na stosowanie w ceremoniach kościelnych niektórych obrzędów lokalnych oraz rezygnacji z łaciny podczas nabożeństw. Decyzja ta została potem zmieniona przez jednego z następców, Klemensa XI (1704). W 1656 Aleksander VII potwierdził potępienie tez jansenistycznych. +Jako opiekun sztuk pięknych papież zlecił architektowi Berniniemu otoczenie Placu Św. Piotra półkolistą kolumnadą. Bernini zaprojektował także grobowiec papieża w Bazylice Watykańskiej. +Wśród świętych ogłoszonych przez Aleksandra VII byli m.in. wysoko ceniony przez niego Franciszek Salezy. +Ferroelektryki + +Ferroelektryki – dielektryki, które wykazują pętle histerezy w zewnętrznym polu elektrycznym. Wskutek występowania spontanicznie spolaryzowanych obszarów (domen) ferroelektryki mają bardzo dużą przenikalność elektryczną. +Ferroelektryki stanowią podgrupę piroelektryków, wszystkie są też piezoelektrykami. Są dielektrykami nieliniowymi, co oznacza, że polaryzacja dielektryczna zależy od zewnętrznego pola elektrycznego w sposób nieliniowy. Charakterystyczna dla wszystkich ferroelektryków jest pętla histerezy dielektrycznej. +Historia. +Pierwszym odkrytym ferroelektrykiem była sól Seignette'a, stąd też dawna nazwa ferroelektryków - segnetoelektryki. Odkrycia tego dokonał w 1920 J.Valasek. W tym czasie były już znane ferromagnetyki – dlatego użyto przedrostka ferro który oznacza żelazo mimo że ferroelektryki zawierające żelazo są bardzo nieliczne. +Budowa i właściwości. +Właściwości dielektryczne ferroelektryków szczególnie silnie zależą od temperatury. Poniżej temperatury krytycznej zwanej Temperaturą Curie, substancje te wykazują bardzo dużą przenikalność elektryczną, nieliniowość i histerezę. Przy zbliżaniu się do temperatury Curie przenikalność rośnie, często do bardzo dużej wielkości. Powyżej tej temperatury zanika polaryzacja spontaniczna, a przenikalność zaczyna stopniowo spadać zgodnie z prawem Curie-Weissa. +Zastosowanie ferroelektryków. +Ze względu na bardzo dużą przenikalność dielektryczną ferroelektryki znajdują zastosowanie w kondensatorach o dużej pojemności. Często wykorzystywane są w tym celu ceramiki oparte na tytanianie baru, zwykle zawierające również inne związki ferroelektryczne o podobnej strukturze. Ponadto są one używane w miernikach natężenia pola elektrycznego oraz układach techniki impulsowej. +Ferroelektryki używane są również do produkcji nieulotnej ferroelektrycznej pamięci RAM, w skrócie FRAM lub FeRAM. +Istnieją również ferroelektryki ciekłokrystaliczne. Zostały one odkryte w roku 1979. W ostatnich latach intensywnie poszukiwane i badane są nowe ferroelektryki ciekłokrystaliczne ze względu na ich dynamicznie rosnące zastosowanie w wyświetlaczach ciekłokrystalicznych (np. monitorach LCD). +Ważnym obszarem zastosowań ferroelektryków są urządzenia mikrofalowe. Zmiana stałej dielektrycznej pod wpływem przyłożonego napięcia umożliwia budowę elektronicznie przestrajanych anten i filtrów. +Omar Bradley + +Omar Nelson Bradley (ur. 12 lutego 1893 w Clark, zm. 8 kwietnia 1981 w Nowym Jorku w stanie Nowy Jork) – generał armii amerykańskiej, na froncie północno-afrykańskim i europejskim w czasie II wojny światowej, Przewodniczący Połączonego Kolegium Szefów Sztabów (1949–1953). +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i młodość. +Urodził się niedaleko miasteczka Clark w stanie Missouri, w rodzinie wiejskiego nauczyciela. Ukończył lokalną szkołę i chciał kontynuować edukację na uniwersytecie stanowym, namówiono go jednak, aby spróbował dostać się na West Point (gdzie edukacja była darmowa, co było faktem nie bez znaczenia dla biednej rodziny Bradleya). Ukończył West Point w 1915, jako jeden z wielu przyszłych generałów z tego rocznika. +Początkowo służył w 14. Pułku Piechoty. Przed wybuchem I wojny światowej stacjonował przy granicy z Meksykiem. Po jej wybuchu otrzymał promocje do stopnia kapitana i został przeniesiony do Montany. W 1918 został przeniesiony do 19. Dywizji Piechoty, która miała być wysłana na front europejski, ale zanim do tego doszło zostało podpisane zawieszenie broni. +Dwudziestolecie międzywojenne. +W okresie międzywojennym Bradley służył jako nauczyciel i studiował. W latach 1920–1924 wykładał matematykę w West Point. W 1924 otrzymał promocję na majora i przeszedł przez szkolenie "Advanced Infantry Course" w Fort Benning w Georgii. Po okresie służby na Hawajach ukończył kurs dla wyższych oficerów sztabowych "Command and General Staff School" w Fort Leavenworth. Od 1929 ponownie wykładał w West Point, w 1934 ukończył "Army War College". W 1936, po promocji na podpułkownika, pracował w Departamencie Wojny. +II wojna światowa. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej objął najpierw dowództwo 82. Dywizji Piechoty, a następnie 28. Dywizji Piechoty. +Miał zostać dowódcą VIII Korpusu biorącego udział w operacji "Torch", ale w ostatniej chwili został wysłany do Afryki Północnej do sztabu Dwighta D. Eisenhowera. Później został zastępcą gen. George'a Pattona w II Korpusie. W kwietniu 1943 awansował na dowódcę II Korpusu, następnie brał udział w operacji "Husky". +Został wybrany na dowódcę amerykańskiej 1. Grupy Armii w czasie przygotowań inwazji na Normandię oraz 12. Grupy Armii w czasie samej operacji. Pod jego dowództwem wojska amerykańskie uwikłały się w ciężkie walki pozycyjne i nie były w stanie przełamać frontu niemieckiego aż do czerwca 1944, kiedy rozpoczęła się operacja Cobra, w której wzięła udział 3. Armia pod dowództwem gen. Pattona. +Skala sukcesu, jakim była operacja "Cobra", zaskoczyła Bradleya i nie był on w stanie całkowicie wykorzystać jej sukcesu. Między innymi nie zamknął okrążenia w tzw. "worku pod Falaise", kiedy to zatrzymał atak 3. Armii pomimo protestów gen. Pattona. +Pod koniec września, kiedy wojska sprzymierzonych dotarły do Linii Zygfryda, pojawiły się poważne różnice zdań pomiędzy Bradleyem a Bernardem Montgomerym co do dalszej strategii prowadzenia wojny. Bradley sugerował atak szerokim frontem w kierunku Zagłębia Ruhry, Montgomery wolał atakować na wąskim froncie północnego skrzydła. Ostateczna decyzja należała do Eisenhowera, który zdecydował się dać priorytet pomysłom świeżo mianowanego na marszałka Montgomery'ego i pozwolił na wykonanie operacji "Market-Garden". +Po fiasku operacji "Market-Garden" front zachodni częściowo się ustabilizował, co pozwoliło Niemcom na zaplanowanie i wykonanie operacji "Wacht am Rhein". Niemcom częściowo pomogła decyzja Bradleya, który skierował do obrony Ardenów kilka zdekompletowanych dywizji (na odpoczynek) uważając, że jest to "cichy" odcinek frontu, pomimo że historycznie Niemcy już wcześniej atakowali właśnie przez ten region. Niemiecki atak został odparty dzięki skutecznemu i szybkiemu manewrowi 3. Armii gen. Pattona. +Po zatrzymaniu kontrofensywy niemieckiej wojska Bradleya szybko dotarły do Renu i po jego przekroczeniu wykonały manewr okrążenia, zamykając w pułapce ponad 300 000 żołnierzy niemieckich. +Okres powojenny. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej Bradley został szefem agencji ds. weteranów wojennych, a w 1948 został szefem sztabu armii amerykańskiej. Rok później awansował na szefa Sztabu Połączonych Sił Zbrojnych Stanów Zjednoczonych (najwyższe stanowisko w siłach zbrojnych USA). 22 września 1950 został awansowany do stopnia "pięciogwiazdkowego generała" ("general of the army"). Był piątą osobą która otrzymała ten stopień w XX wieku i ostatnią do tej pory. Odszedł z aktywnej służby w 1953. +Jako szef sztabu połączonych sił zbrojnych bardzo mocno skrytykował generała Douglasa MacArthura za jego plany rozszerzenia wojny koreańskiej na terytorium Chin. +W opublikowanych przez niego wspomnieniach w 1951 "A Soldier’s Story" Bradley zaatakował osiągnięcia marszałka Bernarda Montgomeryego (szczególnie jego wkład w bitwę w Ardenach). +Był wolnomularzem. Zmarł 8 kwietnia 1981 w Nowym Jorku. Został pochowany na Narodowym Cmentarzu w Arlington w stanie Wirginia. +Requiem Records + +Requiem Records - niezależne polskie wydawnictwo undergroundowe funkcjonujące nieprzerwanie od 1995 r. +"Requiem Records" zajmuje się promocją muzyki elektronicznej, ambientalnej i postindustrialnej tworzonej przez niezależnych artystów. Założycielem i siłą napędzającą wydawnictwa jest Łukasz Pawlak. Stanowi niewątpliwy i nieoceniony wkład w promocję muzyki niezależnej, która bez jego pomocy miałaby niewielkie szanse na dotarcie do szerszego grona odbiorców. +Wydawnictwo angażuje się również w projekty integrujące artystów i różne gatunki muzyczne. Na fali tego nurtu powstały m.in. takie projekty jak "City Songs", "Musli 24", czy "Sleep Well". +Amrish Puri + +Amrish Puri (22 czerwca 1932 – 12 stycznia 2005), jeden z najwybitniejszych aktorów indyjskich. +Młodszy brat aktora Madana Puri, debiutował w produkcjach filmowych w wieku 40 lat. Wystąpił w ponad 200 filmach, m.in. "Indiana Jones i świątynia zagłady" (1984 w roli Moli Rama). +Innocenty X + +Innocenty X "(łac. Innocentius X)", właściwie Giovanni Battista Pamfili (lub Giovanni Battista Pamphilj) (ur. 7 maja 1574 w Rzymie - zm. 7 stycznia 1655 w Rzymie) – papież od 15 września 1644 do 7 stycznia 1655. +Jego przodkowie osiedli w Rzymie pod koniec XV wieku. Był prapraprawnukiem Aleksandra VI, tym samym ostatnim papieżem w historii, będącym bezpośrednim potomkiem innego papieża. +Został nakłoniony przez stryja, późniejszego kardynała Girolamo Pamphilja, do wybrania kariery duchownej. W Collegio Romano obronił doktorat praw (1594). Pracował w Kurii Rzymskiej, w 1604 został sędzią trybunału Roty Rzymskiej (zastępując stryja mianowanego kardynałem); był także radcą Penitencjarii Apostolskiej. Od marca 1621 do 1625 przebywał z misją nuncjusza w Neapolu, następnie był radcą kardynała Francesco Barberiniego (starszego), specjalnego legata we Francji (1625) i Hiszpanii (1626). +19 stycznia 1626 został mianowany tytularnym patriarchą Antiochii, a w maju t.r. nuncjuszem w Hiszpanii. 30 sierpnia 1627 papież Urban VIII kreował nuncjusza Pamphiliego kardynałem (w sekretnym trybie "in pectore"), ujawniając nominację w listopadzie 1629. W latach 1639-1644 stał na czele Kongregacji Soboru Trydenckiego, a od 12 stycznia 1643 do 14 marca 1644 był kamerlingiem Św. Kolegium Kardynalskiego. Sprawował także urząd wiceprotektora Królestwa Polskiego. +Po długim pontyfikacie Urbana VIII elektorzy na konklawe postanowili wybrać papieża starszego wiekiem, a zarazem nie tak profrancuskiego jak Urban. Wybór padł na kardynała Pamphiliego 15 września 1644 po ponad miesięcznym konklawe. Nie zdążył dojechać przedstawiciel Francji, kardynał Jules Mazarin, mający przedstawić weto wobec tej kandydatury. Nowy papież przyjął imię Innocentego X, został koronowany 4 października 1644 i odbył ingres do Bazyliki Laterańskiej 23 listopada 1644. +Papież Innocenty na początku pontyfikatu stanął przed zadaniem rozliczenia rodziny swojego poprzednika, Barberinich, która korzystając z wpływów dopuściła się licznych nadużyć. Kilku przedstawicieli Barberinich wyjechało pospiesznie z Rzymu i znalazło schronienie u kardynała Mazarina. Innocenty X powołał specjalną komisję mającą zbadać nadużycia finansowe i polityczne Barberinich, ostatecznie jednak po kilku latach udzielił przebaczenia i zezwolił im na powrót do Rzymu, a w 1653 mianował nawet kolejnego Barberiniego (Carlo, stryjecznego wnuka Urbana VIII) kardynałem. +Sam papież Innocenty również nie był wolny od wady nepotyzmu, ale mianowani przez niego kardynałami krewniacy mieli mniejsze wpływy. Cień na pontyfikat Innocentego X rzuca natomiast zażyłość z wdową po jego bracie, donną Olimpią Maidalchini, która zdominowała i całkowicie podporządkowała sobie papieża. Innocenty spełniał wszystkie zachcianki bratowej i nie podejmował żadnej ważniejszej decyzji bez zasięgnięcia opinii "papieżycy Olimpii I", z ukrycia wysłuchującej wszystkich audiencji. Tym sposobem w Rzymie zalegalizowana została prostytucja, z której korzyści czerpała signora Maidalchini. Jednak nie tylko na nierządzie pochodząca z wpływowego, lecz średnio zamożnego rodu arystokratka dorobiła się ogromnego majątku i jednego z najbardziej wystawnych dworów siedemnastowiecznej Europy – za przekonanie papieża do podjęcia konkretnej decyzji brała łapówki od dziesiątek tysięcy "potrzebujących". Sam Innocenty również obsypywał bratową kosztownymi prezentami, co nie zmienia faktu, że i tak go notorycznie okradała, a po śmierci – ograbiła doszczętnie, do ostatniej koszuli. Olimpia Maidalchini zdołała również m.in. zdobyć nominację kardynalską i stanowisko sekretarza stanu dla swojego syna, Camillo. Ten jednak po pewnym czasie zrezygnował z piastowanych funkcji by ożenić się z księżniczką Olimpią Aldobrandi di Rossano, sukcesorką rodu papieża Klemensa VIII, tworząc w ten sposób najbogatszy ród Italii. +W pierwszych latach pontyfikatu Innocentego X zakończyła się wojna trzydziestoletnia. Papież nie był zadowolony z zawartego w Westfalii traktatu pokojowego, uznając, że jest zbyt korzystny dla protestantów. 24 października 1648 papież ogłosił dokument, w którym uznał warunki traktatu za nieważne, jednak głos ten został w Europie zlekceważony. W konflikcie hiszpańsko-francuskim Innocenty wspierał Hiszpanię. +Pamfili był pierwszym papieżem, który nadał nowoczesny charakter urzędowi sekretarza stanu, zwłaszcza od czasu, gdy po ustąpieniu papieskiego bratanka stanowisko to objął Fabio Chigi, przyszły papież Aleksander VII. +Innocenty X wspierał działalność misyjną, podniósł znaczenie Kongregacji Rozkrzewiania Wiary ("Propaganda Fide"), kolegium dominikańskiemu w Manili (Filipiny) nadał rangę uniwersytetu. Wsparł decyzję Kongregacji Rozkrzewiania Wiary zabraniającą misjonarzom jezuickim w Chinach używanie w liturgii miejscowych rytuałów; ta decyzja została zmieniona przez jego następcę. 31 maja 1653 papież ogłosił bullę "Cum occasione", w której zdecydowanie potępił tezy jansenistyczne, zawarte w dziele Jansena "Augustinus". W 1650 Innocenty patronował obchodom w Rzymie Roku Jubileuszowego. +Był protektorem sztuki. W okresie pontyfikatu Innocentego X ukończono zdobienie wnętrza Bazyliki Watykańskiej, odbudowano Piazza Navona, wybudowano Villa Doria Pamphili. Słynny portret papieża namalował Diego Velázquez w 1650 roku. +Papież Innocenty X dokonał reformy więziennictwa Państwa Papieskiego (wprowadzono wówczas podział na cele). W 1646 nominację kardynalską uzyskał Jan Kazimierz, syn Zygmunta III Wazy, który dzięki temu w honorowy sposób zakończył nowicjat jezuicki, a wkrótce został królem Polski. +Ali Šukrija + +Ali Šukrija alb. Ali Shukriu (ur. 12 września 1919 w Kosovskiej Mitrovicy - zm. 6 stycznia 2005), polityk jugosłowiański z Kosowa, Albańczyk z pochodzenia. +Studiował medycynę i nauki polityczne na Uniwersytecie Belgradzkim. W 1937 związał się z ruchem komunistycznym. Pełnił wiele ważnych stanowisk w kierownictwie Socjalistycznej Federacyjnej Republiki Jugosławii i okręgu autonomicznego Kosowo. W latach 1963-1967 był przewodniczącym Rady Wykonawczej (rządu) Kosowa, a 1981-1982 przewodniczącym Prezydencji okręgu autonomicznego. Od czerwca 1984 sprawował przez rok rotacyjne przewodnictwo Prezydium Komitetu Centralnego Związku Komunistów Jugosławii. +Kebab Commodore + +Kebab Commodore. Miesięcznik użytkowników komputerów C-64 i Amiga - miesięcznik wydawany przez Kebab Sp. z o.o. w Szczecinie w latach 1992-1993. +Był kontynuacją magazynu dyskowego "Kebab Magazine" wydawanego przez jedną z pierwszych polskich nieformalnych grup komputerowych "Quartet". Z niewielkimi zmianami redakcję Kebaba tworzyły osoby z właśnie tej grupy. +Magazyn poświęcony był komputerom C-64 i Amiga. Założeniem redakcji była popularyzacja ich efektywnego wykorzystania. Magazyn zawierał materiały na temat programowania, proste projekty techniczne rozszerzające możliwości komputerów, relacje z wydarzeń branżowych, krótkie recenzje gier. Poszczególne numery miały 32-52 stron. +Redaktorem naczelnym Kebaba był Patrycjusz Łogiewa, szefem działu C64 - Paweł Sołtysiński, zaś Amiga - Krzysztof Kobus. +Informacyjny wpływ społeczny + +Informacyjny wpływ społeczny to zjawisko psychiczne, występujące wówczas, gdy brak jasnych reguł, jakie zachowanie jest w danej chwili poprawne. +Taka reakcja zwykle następuje w nowych, zaskakujących albo kryzysowych sytuacjach, a więc wtedy, gdy reakcje nie są do końca zaplanowane. Zachowanie innych staje się wówczas ważnym źródłem informacji i jest wykorzystywane do wybierania właściwych kierunków działania. +Informacyjny wpływ społeczny kończy się zwykle akceptacją, gdy ludzie szczerze wierzą w to, co inni mówią i robią. Strach i lęk, niepewność, zakłopotanie, panika zwiększają wiarę w to, że inni mogą doradzić, jakie zachowanie jest stosowne. +Silne emocje mogą powodować zachowaniem na przykład inwestorów giełdowych, którzy nigdy nie mogą być pewni co do przyszłych ruchów cen, więc mogą być skłonni do działania pod wpływem impulsu od innych. +Karp + +Karp ("Cyprinus carpio") – gatunek słodkowodnej ryby z rodziny karpiowatych (Cyprinidae). Hodowany i poławiany na dużą skalę jako ryba konsumpcyjna. +Występowanie. +Zlewiska mórz Czarnego, Kaspijskiego i Aralskiego. Licznie odmiany hodowlane są rozpowszechnione zarówno w hodowli jak i w wodach otwartych niemal na całym świecie. +Żyje w głębokich rzekach, starorzeczach, odnogach lub rozlewiskach. +Historia. +Karp, jako gatunek, powstał na drodze naturalnej poliploidyzacji na przełomie trzeciorzędu i czwartorzędu w okolicach Morza Kaspijskiego i wschodniej Anatolii. Forma dzika (sazan) występowała pierwotnie w Europie południowo-wschodniej i zachodniej Azji w zlewiskach mórz Egejskiego, Czarnego, Kaspijskiego i Aralskiego. Najwcześniej karp został udomowiany w Chinach (V w p.n.e.). Już z roku 350 p.n.e. pochodzą pierwsze wzmianki o karpiu w Europie. Znajdujemy je u Arystotelesa. O karpiu pisze też Pliniusz Starszy (23-74 p.n.e.) w swojej "Historii Naturalnej". W Europie była to pierwsza ryba hodowana w sztucznych stawach zakładanych przy klasztorach. Od VII do XII wieku nastąpił szybki rozwój rybactwa w klasztorach majątkowych Belgii, Francji, Niemiec i na terenach byłej Jugosławii. Jest jedną z najważniejszych ryb hodowlanych. +W Polsce karp jest gatunkiem obcym, sprowadzonym pomiędzy XII a XIII wiekiem, prawdopodobnie z hodowli czeskich lub morawskich cystersów. +Na świecie odławia się ok. 200 tys. ton karpia rocznie. W Polsce stanowi połowę odławianych ryb słodkowodnych. Przez wędkarzy uważany za rybę waleczną i przebiegłą. +W Polsce w okresie powojennym został uznany za jedno z podstawowych dań wigilijnych, głównie ze względu na najniżsżą cenę i łatwość hodowli, która skłoniła ówczesne władze państowe do jego masowej hodowli na potrzeby wigilijne. +Budowa. +Osiąga ponad 1 m długości i masę ponad 30 kg (największy złowiony ważył 46,10 kg i mierzył 113 cmNajcięższy złowiony w Polsce karp ważył 34,00 kg przy długości 110 cm. Ciało wydłużone, wrzecionowate, prawie okrągłe w przekroju poprzecznym. Otwór gębowy dolny, mięsisty zaopatrzony w 2 pary wąsików. Łuski cykloidalne, duże, mocno osadzone w skórze. Płetwa grzbietowa jest bardzo długa. +Grzbiet ciemny, zielonkawobrązowy, lub szarozielony, boki jaśniejsze, ciemnooliwkowe ze złotym połyskiem, brzuch żółtawo-lub kremowobiały. Płetwy nieparzyste szarawoniebieskie, parzyste czerwonawe. +Liczne odmiany hodowlane karpia odznaczają się często silnie wygrzbieconym i szerokim ciałem oraz różnym stopniem zaniku łusek. Występują odmiany zupełnie pozbawione łusek lub z łuskami tylko w pobliżu nasad poszczególnych płetw. Wyhodowano również liczne odmiany ozdobne (Czerwone, białe lub pomarańczowe). +Odżywianie. +Żywi się larwami owadów, mięczakami, skorupiakami oraz innymi organizmami zwierzęcymi oraz roślinami. Aktywny przeważnie wieczorem i w nocy, pokarm pobiera z dna. +Rozród. +Dojrzewa w 3–4 roku życia, samce rok wcześniej niż samice. Trze się w maju i czerwcu w płytkiej, silnie zarośniętej wodzie. Tarło przebiega bardzo hałaśliwie, w jego trakcie tarlaki bardzo często wyskakują ponad powierzchnię wody. Ikra jest przyklejana do roślinności wodnej, wylęg następuje po 3–5 dniach. Larwy zaraz po wylęgu mierzą około 5 mm i mają duży woreczek żółtkowy oraz specjale gruczoły, które umożliwiają im przyczepianie się do roślinności wodnej przez okres 3–14 dni w zależności od odmiany. Po wchłonięciu woreczka żółtkowego odżywiają się planktonem. Po osiągnięciu około 2 cm długości zaczynają odżywiać się fauną denną. +Znaczenie gospodarcze. +Karp jest jedną z najważniejszych ryb gospodarczych. Jest hodowany w stawach od tysięcy lat, został wprowadzany do wód otwartych. Chętnie poławiany przez wędkarzy na grunt (tzw. wędkarstwo karpiowe) i spławik. +W wielu krajach jest uważany za szkodnika. W Polsce karp stanowi 80% zarybień wód otwartych. Budzi to duże kontrowersje, gdyż karp jest gatunkiem obcym i ma niekorzystny wpływ na zbiornik, do którego jest wpuszczany (zamulenie wody oraz degradacja dna zbiornika wodnego). +Powiat kędzierzyńsko-kozielski + +Powiat kędzierzyńsko-kozielski − powiat w Polsce, na terenie województwa opolskiego, utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kędzierzyn-Koźle. +Geografia. +Powiat kędzierzyńsko-kozielski jest położony w południowo-wschodniej części województwa opolskiego. +"Źródło: Biuletyn Statystyczny na dzień 31.03.2006 r." +Demografia. +Cechą charakterystyczną dla ludności zamieszkującej powiat kędzierzyńsko-kozielski jest wielokulturowość, która przejawia się w w harmonijnym współżyciem Ślązaków, Polaków z Kresów Wschodnich i Centralnej Polski oraz Niemców. Działalność ruchu mniejszości niemieckiej i powstanie Towarzystwa Społeczno–Kulturalnego Niemców na Śląsku Opolskim stanowi ważny element życia kulturalnego, społecznego i politycznego powiatu. +Gospodarka. +Powiat kędzierzyńsko-kozielski posiada duży potencjał gospodarczy, infrastrukturalny, społeczny i intelektualny. Gospodarka opiera się na dobrze rozwiniętym przemyśle chemicznym (jeden z największych zakładów chemicznych w kraju: ZAK Spółka Akcyjna i inne), dużym węźle kolejowym, stoczni i porcie rzecznym na Odrze, kopalni piasku oraz licznych zakładach usługowych i remontowo-budowlanych. +Ferd + +Ferd ("forde") - długa i wąska rynna polodowcowa zalana przez morze. Termin stosowany dla niskiego wschodniego wybrzeża Jutlandii. +Alfonsa + +Alfonsa - imię żeńskie pochodzenia germańskiego, żeński odpowiednik imienia Alfons, powstałe ze złożenia członów "al" ("cały") lub "adal" ("szlachetny ród") oraz "funs" ("szybka, chętna, życzliwa"). Patronką tego imienia jest św. Alfonsa od Niepokalanego Poczęcia zm. w Muttathupadam (w 1946 roku) oraz czcigodna Alfonsa Eppinger. Imię to występuje również b. rzadko w wersji Alfonsyna, stanowiącej spolszczenie zdrobnienia imienia Alfonsa, powstałego na gruncie romańskim. +Alfonsa imieniny obchodzi 28 lipca i 31 lipca. +Dolina Loary + +Dolina Loary – kraina historyczna Francji, na obszarze której znajduje się ponad 300 średniowiecznych i renesansowych zamków oraz pałaców doby oświecenia usytuowanych nad Loarą i jej dopływami. +Za turystyczną stolicę regionu, z racji swego położenia i kuchni, uznawane jest Tours. Na drugim miejscu znajduje się Angers, lecz więcej zabytków mają takie historyczne miasta, jak Amboise, Blois, Saumur i Beaugency, rozrzucone wzdłuż rzeki. Tradycyjnie rozumiana Dolina Loary to ciąg majestatycznych zamków, wśród których są niezwykłe malowniczy Château Azay-le-Rideau oraz otoczony pięknymi ogrodami zamek w Villandry. Dalej na północ znajdują się miasta Le Mans i Chartres ze średniowiecznymi katedrami otoczone murami galorzymskimi. Leżące na zachodzie regionu Nantes jest portem i bramą na Atlantyk. +Wprowadzenie. +Dolina Loary (franc. "Le Val de Loire") nazywana jest "Ogrodem Francji" i "Kolebką języka francuskiego". Jest znana i podziwiana ze względu na architekturę także takich miast jak Chinon, Nantes, czy Orlean i opromienionych sławą zamków. +Dolina Loary, wraz z jej licznymi pomnikami kultury, stanowi renesansowy i oświeceniowy wizerunek sztuki europejskiej. To połączenie piękna krajobrazu z kulturalnym dziedzictwem, którego obrazem są tutejsze miasta, wioski, liczne zamki i produkowane w regionie wino, decyduje o wyjątkowości doliny. +""an exceptional cultural landscape, of great beauty, comprised of historic cities and villages, great architectural monuments – the Châteaux – and lands that have been cultivated and shaped by centuries of interaction between local populations and their physical environment, in particular the Loire itself."" +Historia. +Dolina była zamieszkana już w czasach galijskich, ale decydującą przyczyną powstania wspaniałych budowli w dolinie Loary była nowa koncepcja rezydencji +Pojawiła się ona po powrocie Walezjuszów z wojen w Italii. Okazało się bowiem, że istniejące zamki średniowieczne nie mają już racji bytu, tym bardziej, że zapanował okres pokoju. +Karol VIII, Ludwik XII i Franciszek I zaczęli naśladować włoski styl życia, w którym o potędze władzy królewskiej świadczyła kultura, elegancja i przepych. +Większość zamków pochodzi z okresu renesansu i została zaprojektowana dla królów i arystokratów francuskich przez włoskich artystów. Istnieje także kilka zamków pochodzących z okresu wczesnego średniowiecza. +W połowie XVI wieku król Franciszek I przemieścił ośrodek sprawowania władzy z powrotem znad Loary do Paryża. Wielcy architekci podążyli za nim, ale Dolina Loary nadal dla arystokracji francuskiej pozostała miejscem wypoczynku. Wstąpienie na tron Ludwika XIV w połowie XVII wieku uczyniło z Paryża – gdy król zbudował pałac w Wersalu. Niemniej jednak ci, którzy cieszyli się łaską królewską, a byli bogaci, odnawiali stare zamki lub budowali zupełnie nowe letnie rezydencje nad Loarą. +Podczas rewolucji francuskiej część zamków została zburzona lub splądrowana. Ich dawni właściciele staracili życie na gilotynie. W czasie obu wojen światowych niektóre zamki pozamieniano na kwatery dowódcze różnych armii. +Dzisiaj te zamki, które pozostały w rękach prywatnych, służą ich właścicielom jako miejsca zamieszkania (w kilku przypadkach dostępne dla turystów), jednak większość to hotele i pensjonaty. Niektóre zajmują władze lokalne różnych szczebli, a największe, jak zamek w Chambord, znajdują się w gestii rządu francuskiego, jako odwiedzane przez setki tysięcy turystów rocznie muzea. +Alodia + +Alodia — imię żeńskie, wywodzące się prawdopodobnie od frankońskiego "al-ôd", co oznacza "dziedzictwo, pełne posiadanie". Imię to łączy się także ze średniowiecznym łacińskim wyrazem "allodium", który oznaczał "majątek ziemski wolny od ciężarów i powinności lennych", a pochodzi również od tego samego wyrazu frankońskiego. +dodatkowo 3 maja, jako wspomnienie bł. Marii Leonii Paradis, której imiona chrzestne to Alodia Wirginia. +Męski odpowiednik: Alodiusz. +Eksperyment więzienny + +Stanfordzki eksperyment więzienny ("Stanford Prison Experiment – SPE") – miał za zadanie zbadać psychologiczne efekty symulacji życia więziennego. Przeprowadziła go grupa psychologów uniwersytetu Stanford pod przewodnictwem Philipa Zimbardo w 1971 roku. Podczas selekcji kandydatów kierowano się ich dobrą kondycją psychofizyczną oraz brakiem kryminalnej przeszłości. 24 wybranych studentów losowo podzielono na więźniów i strażników. Eksperymentalne więzienie skonstruowano w piwnicy wydziału psychologii w Stanford. +Opis eksperymentu. +Ogłoszenie. +W lokalnej gazecie pojawiło się ogłoszenie, w którym oferowano 15 $ za dzień udziału w eksperymencie. Ponad 70 ochotników przebadano pod kątem kryminalnej przeszłości, problemów zdrowotnych i psychicznych. Ostatecznie wytypowano spośród nich 24 studentów z Kanady i Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Przygotowanie. +Piwnice stanfordzkiego wydziału psychologii przerobiono na więzienie, w oparciu o opinie byłych więźniów i personelu więziennego. Wymieniono w tym celu drzwi trzech sal zastępując je stalowymi kratami. Końce 9-metrowego korytarza, stanowiącego „główny dziedziniec” zabito deskami. Urządzono również trzy inne pomieszczenia: przebieralnię dla strażników, pokój wartownika oraz biuro dyrektora więzienia. Przełożonym obiektu został sam Zimbardo, co jak sam później stwierdził: „było poważnym błędem w założeniach” i zaangażowało go zbyt emocjonalnie w eksperyment. +Obraz rejestrowała kamera umieszczona w otworze na jednym z końców głównego korytarza. Rozmowy więźniów były podsłuchiwane. Więzienie pozbawione było okien i zegarów. +Strażnikom pozwolono wybrać umundurowanie i wyposażenie w pobliskim sklepie militarnym (ten zabieg miał silniej związać tę część uczestników z nowym więzieniem). Zdecydowali się oni na koszule w kolorze khaki, pałki policyjne i czarne okulary, uniemożliwiające kontakt wzrokowy. Zimbardo nie poinstruował dokładnie strażników, jak powinni się zachowywać. Powiedział tylko, że mają stać na straży prawa i porządku a pałki policyjne traktować jedynie jako symboliczną broń. Poinformowano ich także, że w razie ucieczki więźniów eksperyment dobiegnie końca. Reszta pozostawała w ich gestii. +9 strażników pracowało trójkami w czasie 8-godzinnych zmian (z możliwością wezwania wsparcia). Trzy cele mieściły po trzech więźniów. Pozostali uczestnicy mieli zostać wezwani w razie potrzeby. +Uczestnicy eksperymentu zostali poinformowani, że w razie wytypowania ich na więźniów, będą otrzymywali minimalne racje żywnościowe a część ich praw obywatelskich zostanie ograniczona. +Zatrzymanie. +Pierwszy dzień w niczym nie przypominał eksperymentu naukowego. Nieświadomi uczestnicy projektu (więźniowie) zostali aresztowani przez policję we własnych domach. Przedstawiono im zarzuty (napad z bronią w ręku i włamanie), odczytano prawa i skutych kajdankami odwieziono do pobliskiego komisariatu (policja zgodziła się współpracować z badaczami). Na miejscu ich spisano, zdjęto odciski palców i zamknięto w celi, przewiązując uprzednio oczy. +„Więźniowie” zostali odeskortowani do „uniwersyteckiego więzienia”, gdzie po przywitaniu przez naczelnika i powtórzeniu ciążących na nich zarzutów, zostali dokładnie przeszukani i rozebrani do naga. Następnie poddano ich procesowi odwszenia za pomocą aerozolu. +Zasady panujące w więzieniu. +Skazańcy zostali ubrani w długie białe koszule z numerem identyfikacyjnym po obu stronach. Do prawej stopy każdego z nich umocowano ciężki łańcuch zapięty na kłódkę. Czapkę stanowiła damska pończocha. Przygotowany w ten sposób strój miał ich upokorzyć i maksymalnie ujednolicić. +Więźniowie musieli zwracać się do strażników formułą „Panie oficerze penitencjarny”, a do siebie jedynie po numerze identyfikacyjnym. Aby utrwalić je w ich pamięci, strażnicy organizowali kilkakrotnie w ciągu każdej zmiany „odliczania”. Początkowo więźniowie nie traktowali ich poważnie, manifestując przy tym chętnie swoją niezależność. Strażnicy nie byli jeszcze zdolni zmusić ich do posłuszeństwa. +Popularną formą karania były pompki. Pozornie niegroźne, stały się z czasem metodą poniżania więźniów (zwłaszcza, kiedy strażnik stawiał nogę na odbywającym karę, albo kazał na nim siadać innemu więźniowi). +Bunt i jego konsekwencje. +Drugiego dnia eksperymentu wybuchł bunt. Więźniowie zabarykadowali się w celach, zdjęli czepki i zerwali numery identyfikacyjne. Zaczęli drwić ze strażników. Ci wezwali do pomocy inną zmianę i razem potraktowali skazańców dwutlenkiem węgla z gaśnicy. Zszokowani więźniowie zostali rozebrani, ich łóżka wyprowadzono na korytarz, a inicjatorów buntu zamknięto w izolatkach. Innych zmuszono do robienia pompek, odmówiono im posiłków i poduszek. +Strażnicy wyciągnęli wnioski z minionych zdarzeń i zgodnie z sugestią jednego z nich, postanowili „podejść więźniów psychologicznie a nie fizycznie”. W tym celu stworzono specjalną „celę uprzywilejowanych”, w której znalazły się łóżka, lepsze posiłki (spożywane w obecności pozostałych, którym tymczasowo zakazano jeść) i odebrane uprzednio ubrania. Ponadto uprzywilejowani mogli myć zęby i brać kąpiele. +Po połowie dnia „uprzywilejowanych” wysłano z powrotem do zwykłych cel, a na ich miejsce wprowadzono niektórych z inicjatorów buntu. Więźniowie poczuli się zdezorientowani. Pojawiły się spekulacje o współpracy „uprzywilejowanych” ze strażnikami. +Relacje w poszczególnych grupach zupełnie się zmieniły. Strażnicy zjednoczyli się w obliczu zagrożenia, solidarność więźniów uległa skruszeniu. +Strażnicy zaczęli traktować więźniów znacznie surowiej. Możliwość wyjścia do toalety zależała od ich humoru. Po godzinie 22 więźniowie korzystali z wiader pozostawionych w celach, których czasem nie pozwalano im opróżniać. Strażnicy wykazywali się szczególną bezwzględnością po zmroku, myśląc, że nie są obserwowani przez badaczy. +Więzień nr 8612. +Po 36 godzinach eksperymentu więzień o numerze 8612 zaczął wykazywać szereg niepokojących objawów. Na zmianę zachowywał się agresywnie i wybuchał płaczem, miał „zdezorganizowany sposób myślenia”. Strażnicy i naukowcy podejrzewali go o próbę oszustwa. Badający go specjalista zaproponował mu bycie informatorem w zamian za łagodniejsze traktowanie przez strażników. 8612 miał przemyśleć tę propozycję. +Podczas następnego odliczania więzień powiedział do pozostałych: „nie możecie stąd wyjść, nie da się przerwać eksperymentu”. Później stracił nad sobą panowanie: krzyczał i przeklinał. Dopiero wtedy badacze postanowili go wypuścić. Wśród więźniów umocniło się przekonanie, że to nie eksperyment, tylko prawdziwe więzienie. +Odwiedziny. +Następnego dnia urządzono odwiedziny dla rodziny i przyjaciół. Aby sprawić dobre wrażenie wyczyszczono całe więzienie, więźniom pozwolono się umyć i zjeść obfity posiłek, a nawet włączono muzykę przez interkom. Dla wzmocnienia pozytywnego efektu, przyjmowaniem gości zajmowała się cheerleaderka ze Stanford, Susie Phillips. +Przybyli musieli znieść szereg niedogodności przed zobaczeniem się z bliskim: zezwolenie wydawał każdorazowo naczelnik więzienia (Zimbardo), na spotkanie trzeba było czekać około pół godziny, wizyty były ograniczone do 10 minut, mogły w nich uczestniczyć tylko 2 osoby i przebiegały w obecności strażnika. Część odwiedzających zwróciła uwagę na zły stan swoich bliskich, ale pod wpływem autorytetu organizatorów eksperymentu rezygnowali z jakichkolwiek działań. +Plan ucieczki. +Jeden ze strażników podsłuchał więźniów omawiających plan ucieczki. Zgodnie z nim, wypuszczony wcześniejszej nocy nr 8612 miał zebrać kilku przyjaciół, wtargnąć do więzienia i uwolnić pozostałych. Naukowcy i strażnicy postanowili udaremnić ten plan za wszelką cenę. +Pierwszym krokiem było umieszczenie na miejscu nr 8612 nowego więźnia, który był współpracownikiem i informatorem „władzy”. Następnie Zimbardo zgłosił się do miejscowej policji z prośbą o przeniesienie więźniów do prawdziwego więzienia. Prośba została jednak odrzucona. Ostatecznie zdecydowano się rozebrać wszystkich więźniów, założyć im na głowy worki, skuć razem i przetransportować do magazynu, gdzie mieli przeczekać „włamanie”. Zimbardo liczył, że „włamywacze” zastaną na miejscu tylko jego, który obwieści im, że eksperyment dobiegł końca i wszyscy zostali zwolnieni. Później praca więzienia miała wrócić do normy. Rozważano również zwabienie byłego więźnia nr 8612 i aresztowanie go ponownie, tłumacząc to „fałszywymi przesłankami” wcześniejszego zwolnienia. +Ostatecznie nikt nie wtargnął do więzienia. Zimbardo odwiedził natomiast Gordon Bower, współlokator z czasów uniwersytetu w Yale, który chciał przyjrzeć się wynikom eksperymentu. Zasugerował on Zimbardo, że całe przedsięwzięcie odbiega od obiektywizmu i za bardzo angażuje emocjonalnie jego organizatorów. Zimbardo docenił jego spostrzeżenie dopiero „znacznie później”, stwierdzając, że zachowywał się bardziej jak dyrektor więzienia niż badacz naukowy. +Zemsta. +Po niedoszłym włamaniu strażnicy nasilili prześladowania wobec więźniów. Zmuszano ich do czyszczenia muszli toaletowych gołymi rękoma, robienia pompek, pajacyków i odliczeń, które przeciągały się nawet do kilku godzin. +Wizyta księdza. +W celu zbadania wpływu stworzonej atmosfery na więźniów, naukowcy zaprosili do współpracy katolickiego księdza, byłego kapelana więziennego. Odbył on osobiste spotkanie z niemal każdym z więźniów. Połowa z nich przedstawiła się za pomocą swojego numeru identyfikacyjnego. +Więzień nr 819 nie chciał widzieć się z księdzem, prosząc natomiast o wizytę lekarza. Podczas rozmowy z Zimbardo załamał się i wybuchnął płaczem. Równocześnie jeden ze strażników ustawił pozostałych więźniów w szeregu i kazał im głośno powtarzać: „więzień nr 819 jest złym więźniem. Przez to, co zrobił więzień nr 819 w mojej celi jest bałagan, Panie Władzo”. Zgromadzeni wykrzyczeli to kilkakrotnie. Gdy dotarło to do uszu więźnia nr 819, załamał się po raz kolejny. Mimo że był chory, chciał wrócić i udowodnić, że nie jest złym więźniem. Uspokoił go dopiero Zimbardo, tłumacząc, że to tylko eksperyment naukowy, a nie prawdziwe więzienie. +Komisja. +Następnego dnia część więźniów stanęła przed komisją, która miała rozważyć ich warunkowe zwolnienie. Na jej czele stanął wspomniany wcześniej eks-więzień i konsultant grupy Zimbardo. Większość więźniów gotowa byłaby zrezygnować z należnych im pieniędzy w zamian za natychmiastowe zwolnienie. Złożone przez nich wnioski o wypuszczenie miały zostać rozpatrzone w bliżej nieokreślonym terminie, na co więźniowie (nie czujący się już zupełnie jak uczestnicy eksperymentu) milcząco wyrazili zgodę. +Przerwanie. +Eksperyment zakończono już szóstego dnia z dwóch powodów. Strażnicy zaczęli dopuszczać się coraz bardziej gorszących praktyk, m.in. zmuszając więźniów do odgrywania aktów homoseksualnych. Ponadto Christiana Maslach, późniejsza żona Zimbardo, doktor ze Stanfordu stanowczo sprzeciwiła się eksperymentowi, po tym jak przeanalizowała jego zgubny wpływ na psychikę więźniów. Była to pierwsza osoba, która zanegowała moralną stronę eksperymentu. +Zachowanie uczestników. +Typy strażników +Wśród strażników można było wyróżnić trzy podstawowe typy zachowań. Pierwsza grupa była surowa, choć sprawiedliwa. Strażnicy z drugiej grupy starali się nie krzywdzić więźniów i udzielać im „drobne przysługi”. Pozostali natomiast znajdowali satysfakcję w znęcaniu się nad skazańcami, mimo że żaden test osobowości nie wykazywał u nich takich tendencji. Wszystkich strażników łączyło jedno: nie odmawiali wykonania żadnego rozkazu. Najbardziej znienawidzony z nich zyskał sobie miano Johna Wayne’a, ze względu na nieugiętość i bezwzględność. +Zachowanie więźniów +Więźniowie radzili sobie na różne sposoby z atmosferą podległości i poniżenia. Początkowo niektórzy z nich przeciwstawiali się i bili ze strażnikami. Czterech więźniów zareagowało załamaniem emocjonalnym, u jednego stres spowodował wysypkę psychosomatyczną. Część stała się „dobrymi więźniami”, którzy wykonywali wszystkie rozkazy strażników. Więźniowie jako grupa zostali całkowicie rozproszeni i zdominowani przez strażników. +"Zacząłem mieć poczucie, że tracę tożsamość. Tożsamość osoby, którą nazywałem "Clay", osoby, która kazała mi iść do tego miejsca, osoby, która dała się w tym więzieniu zamknąć – bo to było dla mnie więzienie, i nadal jest. Nie uważam, że to eksperyment ani symulacja, bo to po prostu więzienie prowadzone przez psychologów zamiast przez państwo. Zacząłem mieć poczucie, że osoba, którą byłem i która kazała mi iść do więzienia, była mi obca – obca tak bardzo, że w końcu stałem się 416. Naprawdę byłem swoim numerem" +Wnioski Zimbardo. +Amerykański psycholog tym samym udowodnił, że ludzie zdrowi psychicznie w specyficznych warunkach wcielają się w role oprawców i ofiar. Powodów takich zachowań upatruje on nie w zaburzeniach ludzkiej psychiki, lecz we wpływie otoczenia na jednostkę. Przez następne lata uczestnicy byli obserwowani – eksperyment nie wpłynął negatywnie na ich życie. Było to spowodowane tym, że zostali poddani terapii, na której dokładnie im wytłumaczono, czego byli uczestnikami i świadkami. Jednostki wyselekcjonowane do eksperymentu były w pełni zdrowe psychicznie, a eksperyment odbył się w jednym miejscu, dzięki czemu badani po jego zakończeniu wyszli ze swoich ról, zdjęli mundury i wrócili do normalnego życia. Starania eksperymentatorów sprawiły, że nie czuli oni winy ani wstydu. +Jednym z wniosków było też spostrzeżenie, że odgrywanie ról społecznych może wpływać na kształtowanie się osobowości jednostki, w szczególności w sytuacji, gdy nie ma ona możliwości zrzucenia schematu roli, lub gdy rola społeczna nie pozwala jej na margines swobody postępowania. Zaplanowany na dwa tygodnie eksperyment przerwany został już po sześciu dniach ze względu na brutalne zachowania osób, które przyjęły role strażników. +Późniejsze spostrzeżenia. +Po wydarzeniach znęcania się nad więźniami podczas drugiej wojny w Iraku Zimbardo przypomniał o wyniku swojego eksperymentu wskazując na warunki więzienne jako szczególnie sprzyjające przemocy. +Zimbardo w wypowiedziach na temat tego incydentu sugerował też, że zarówno żołnierzom jak i więźniom potrzebna będzie opieka terapeutyczna, taka jak ta, którą zapewnił uczestnikom swojego eksperymentu, by nie doszło do tragedii i samobójstw, życia w potępieniu przez opinię społeczną, w poczuciu winy za czyny, których to dopuścić może się każdy w takich specyficznych warunkach. +Eksperyment Zimbardo był kilka razy powtarzany. W 2005 roku zrobił to polski reżyser Artur Żmijewski. Jego eksperyment miał dużo łagodniejszy przebieg niż eksperyment Zimbardo. Zakończył się ”okrągłym stołem” więźniów i strażników, którzy w ten sposób zbuntowali się przeciwko artyście i wszyscy zrezygnowali z dalszego udziału. Zapisem eksperymentu jest film "Powtórzenie" pokazywany na Biennale Sztuki w Wenecji. +Na podstawie eksperymentu reżyser niemiecki Oliver Hirschbiegel nakręcił w 2001 film "Eksperyment", natomiast w roku 2010 ukazał się film "The Experiment", którego reżyserem jest Paul Scheuring, a w główne role wcielili się Adrien Brody i Forest Whitaker. +Royal Ontario Museum + +Royal Ontario Museum (ang. Królewskie Muzeum Ontario) – największe muzeum w Kanadzie, znajdujące się w Toronto, przy Bloor i Avenue Rd. Oprócz stałych ekspozycji, muzeum przygotowuje wystawy okresowe wystawy, organizuje warsztaty i prelekcje. +Muzeum posiada ponad 6 milionów eksponatów, rocznie dodaje się ok. 70.000 nowych. Muzeum utworzył 16 kwietnia 1912 lokalny parlament Ontario, przez uchwalenie "ROM Act". Oficjalnie otworzył je 19 marca 1914 Duke of Connaught z rodziny królewskiej. Był to budynek znajdujący się obecnie na tyłach kompleksu, drugi budynek dodano w 1933. Potem jeszcze dodawano lub rekonstruowano całość parę razy. Do 1955 ROM funkcjonowało jako 5 osobnych muzeów, a w 1968 oddzielono go oficjalnie od uniwersytetu. +ROM co roku odwiedza około miliona osób. Muzeum oferuje m.in. ok. 40 galerii. Pierwszymi eksponatami przy głównym wejściu są totemy Indian Nisgaas i Haida (Kolumbia Brytyjska nad Pacyfikiem) o wysokości 24,5 m. Zostały zakupione w 1920. Hall, w którym stoją totemy, ma sklepienie wyłożone kafelkami z weneckiego szkła, połyskujące złotem. Dekoracje sufitu nawiązuje do 16 różnych kultur. Ekspozycje w muzeum dotyczą wielu tematów, od kamieni szlachetnych po odtworzoną jaskinię nietoperzy i żywe owady z rejonów tropikalnych, dinozaurów i innych dawno wymarłych zwierząt. Oddzielne piętra w paru budynkach poświęcone są historii Indian zamieszkujących Ontario, wyrobom Inuitów, sztuce i cywilizacji starożytnych Greków, Egipcjan czy Rzymian, a także wnętrzom europejskim z różnych okresów historycznych. +ROM posiada jeden z największych zbiór dzieł sztuki Chin i Korei. Kolekcja obejmuje 8.000 lat. Znaleźć w niej można zarówno misternie zdobione przedmioty codziennego użytku, jak i grobowiec dynastii Ming. Ostatnio muzeum wzbogaciło się o 1.800 okazów sztuki chińskiej i neolitycznej od państwa Tanenbaum. Wartość darowanej kolekcji jest szacowana na ponad 100 milionów dolarów. W "SR Perren Gem and Gold Room" znajdują się klejnoty, kamienie szlachetne i kryształy. Można zobaczyć między innymi największy na świecie ceruzyt (898 karatów). +"Discovery Gallery" i "Hands-on Biodiversity", to z kolei ekspozycje w muzeum ROM, które charakteryzują się interaktywnymi eksponatami. +Obecnie trwa przebudowa muzeum. Od strony Bloor St. kompleks otrzyma nową fasadę, zaprojektowaną przez urodzonego w Łodzi architekta Daniela Libeskinda, w kształcie kryształu. W okresie rozbudowy (do 2006 roku) część ekspozycji jest wyłączona ze zwiedzania. +Rogers Centre + +Rogers Centre (do 2005 SkyDome) – jeden z pierwszych na świecie stadionów z całkowicie odsłanianym dachem, znajdujący się w kanadyjskim mieście Toronto, zbudowany w 1989 roku. Miejsce spotkań baseballowych drużyny Blue Jays oraz futbolu kanadyjskiego drużyny Argonauts. Mieści ok. 66 000 widzów. +Oprócz imprez sportowych stadion służy jako arena na wielkie koncerty gwiazd muzyki czy inne masowe imprezy. W 2000 roku w obiekcie odbyło się największe w historii spotkanie literackie. Autorka Harry Pottera, Joanne K. Rowling, czytała fragmenty swojej powieści ponad 25-tysięcznemu tłumowi poprzebieranych za czarodziei dzieci i ich rodziców. +Ruchoma kopuła waży 11.000 ton, ma możliwość całkowitego złożenia. Dach, oprócz murawy, odsłania 91% wszystkich miejsc siedzących. Dach znajduje się na wysokości 93 metry nad powierzchnią murawy. Złożony jest z 4 części, z których jedna pozostaje zawsze na miejscu, druga obraca się o 180 stopni, a z pozostałymi dwoma składają się teleskopowo do przeciwległego końca. Proces złożenia lub rozłożenia dachu trwa ok. 20 minut. Poszczególne fragmenty usadowione są na 76 wózkach i są napędzane silnikami o mocy 10 KM każdy. +Stadion udostępnia specjalne loże z najlepszym widokiem na płytę stadionu, których wynajem kosztuje do 235.000 dolarów rocznie. Stadion udostępnia ponadto sale konferencyjne, zaplecze odnowy biologicznej, pokój zabaw dla dzieci, kawiarnię Hard Rock Cafe, a także hotel Reinaissance Toronto, którego część apartamentów ma okna wychodzące na boisko, do wnętrza stadionu. Stadion udostępniony jest dla zwiedzających. Nietypowym wydarzeniem w historii obiektu były zorganizowane tutaj w 1993 roku halowe mistrzostwa świata w lekkoatletyce. +Niebuszewo + +Niebuszewo (do 1945 niem. "Zabelsdorf") – część miasta i osiedle administracyjne Szczecina, będące jednostką pomocniczą miasta, położone w dzielnicy Północ. +Według danych z 4 maja 2010 w osiedlu na pobyt stały zameldowanych było 17 678 osób. +Położenie. +Część miasta Niebuszewo jest przedzielone linią kolejową na dwie części, gdzie część północna, należąca do dzielnicy Północ, to Niebuszewo właściwe, które w większości zajmowane jest przez spółdzielcze osiedle Książąt Pomorskich oraz osiedle Bpa Bandurskiego. Za to część południowa należy administracyjnie do osiedla Niebuszewo-Bolinko w dzielnicy Śródmieście. +Na terenie Niebuszewa znajduje się między innymi centrum handlowo-usługowe Manhattan i Galeria Stara Cegielnia. Otoczone jest zielenią, od południa Parkiem Kasprowicza, od zachodu dawnym cmentarzem Oświęcimskim i Parkiem Dendrologicznym im. Stefana Kownasa, a od północy Parkiem Brodowskim. Wewnątrz znajduje się wiele zieleńców i skwerów. Niebuszewo jest węzłem komunikacyjnym dla mieszkańców północnych, rozwijających się dzielnic. W ciągu najbliższych lat przewidziana jest modernizacja głównych dróg. +Historia. +Do XVIII w. tereny na południe od linii kolejowej nie były zamieszkane, dopiero w XIX w. wraz z uprzemysłowieniem miasta zaczęto je zabudowywać. Część ta została włączona do Szczecina wraz z utworzeniem powiatu grodzkiego w 1857 r., natomiast część północna osiedla została kupiona w 1911 r. przez ówczesnego nadburmistrza Szczecina, Friedricha Ackermanna, od powiatu Randow. W międzyczasie w 1898 r. Niebuszewo zostało połączone "obwodową linią kolejową" (ob. linia kolejowa nr 406) prowadzącą wówczas do Jasienicy, przedłużoną 12 lat później do Trzebieży. Nalot aliancki w nocy z 29 na 30 sierpnia 1944 zniszczył wiele zabudowań os. Bolinko. Na Niebuszewie istniała również fabryka samochodów Stoewer, na ulicy Naruszewicza, oraz Browary Elysium i Tivoli (Niemcewicza). Na ówczesnym osiedlu Rollberg (dzisiaj północna część ulicy Krasińskiego) znajdowała się również strzelnica. Po wojnie część wschodnia dzielnicy, na której dziś znajduje się Osiedle Piastowskie, była pustkowiem pełnym ruin. Natomiast ocalała część stała się ośrodkiem społeczności żydowskiej, która jednak do końca lat sześćdziesiątych w większości wyemigrowała (do dziś na ul. Niemcewicza mieści się siedziba miejscowego oddziału TSKŻ oraz Gminy Wyznaniowej Żydowskiej). +Niebuszewo to w większości budynki mieszkalne. Wśród obiektów przyrodniczych znajdują się: Ogród Dendrologiczny im. Stefana Kownasa (d. Cmentarz Niemierzyński) i kilka ogrodów działkowych, a w sąsiedztwie także największy park miejski – Park Kasprowicza. +Samorząd mieszkańców. +Rada Osiedla Niebuszewo liczy 15 członków. W wyborach do rad osiedli 20 maja 2007 roku udział wzięło 413 głosujących, co stanowiło frekwencję na poziomie 1,03% (najmniejszą spośród osiedli Szczecina). W wyborach do rady osiedla 13 kwietnia 2003 udział wzięło 105 głosujących, co stanowiło frekwencję 2,80%. +Samorząd osiedla Niebuszewo został ustanowiony w 1990 roku. +Komunikacja. +Komunikację z pozostałymi osiedlami zapewniają linie tramwajowe 2 i 12, które mają na osiedlu swoją pętlę. Przez Niebuszewo przejeżdża też niezmiennie od XIX w. tramwaj linii 3, kończący swój bieg na pętli "Las Arkoński", w dzielnicy Niemierzyn. +Poza tym znajduje się tutaj pętla autobusowa przy Centrum Handlowym Manhattan. Linie autobusowe odjeżdżają z niej do większości północnych dzielnic Szczecina. +Jeszcze do roku 1998 na dworcu kolejowym Szczecin Niebuszewo zaczynało bieg wiele pociągów osobowych i pospiesznych, jednak w 2002 r. zamknięto całą linię Szczecin – Police – Trzebież. Obecnie czynna jest ona tylko jako linia towarowa, ze stacji Szczecin Niebuszewo prowadzi także linia do ładowni Szczecin Grabowo i dalej bocznica do Stoczni Szczecińskiej. W rozkładzie jazdy 2007/2008 przewidziano pociąg osobowy kursujący (tylko w wakacyjne weekendy i święta) po tej linii (Szczecin Główny – Szczecin Turzyn – Szczecin Niebuszewo – Police – Trzebież), jednak zanim rozpoczął kursowanie został skreślony z rozkładu z powodu braku uzyskania dofinansowania Gminy Police. +Innym komunikacyjnym obiektem jest otwarta w 1907 r. zajezdnia tramwajowa Niemierzyn, jedyna czynna tuż po zakończeniu II wojny światowej. 1 października 2004 została ona wyłączona z eksploatacji z powodu braku pieniędzy na jej remont (ostatnio remontowana była w latach 20. XX w.). W hali byłej zajezdni z dniem 1 stycznia 2006 powstało Muzeum Techniki i Komunikacji - Zajezdnia Sztuki w Szczecinie. +Zabytki. +Na Niebuszewie jest kilkanaście obiektów uwzględnionych jako zabytki. Wszystkie znajdują się na osiedlu Niebuszewo-Bolinko, a są to: +Charakterystyka. +Niebuszewo - Bolinko jest osiedlem secesyjnych i modernistycznych kamiennic, które otulają parki i skwery np. Park Kasprowicza, Ogród Dendrologiczny im. Stefana Kownasa oraz park Majdański (dawny cmentarz). Okolica jest znana ze swojej mrocznej przeszłości, co nadal da się odczuć, spacerując wieczorem tutejszymi ulicami. W miarę upływu czasu kamienice są remontowane, a ulice modernizowane, pojawia się coraz więcej inwestycji. Od marca 2010 roku działa tu Zajezdnia Sztuki Niemierzyn, a rozwija swoją działalność OFFicyna. +Wazotocyna + +Wazotocyna (AVT) – nonapeptyd, , analog oksytocyny, neurohormon. +Jest produkowana w podwzgórzu i wydzielana w nerwowym (tylnym) płacie przysadki mózgowej. Występuje ona u wszystkich kręgowców (płazy, gady, ptaki), najlepiej jego rola poznana jest u ryb. U ptaków powoduje skurcze mięśni gładkich gruczołu skorupowego. Podana dożylnie powoduje przedwczesne zniesienie jaj u kur. +Krosno chwytakowe + +Krosno chwytakowe - typ krosna tkackiego. +Budowa. +Krosno chwytakowe jest odmianą krosna tkackiego. Od innych typów krosien różni się budową mechanizmu przerzutowego i sposobem wprowadzania wątku do przesmyku. Elementem przenoszącym (wprowadzającym w przesmyk) wątek jest tutaj chwytak. +Chwytak - stalowy płaskownik, o wymiarach ok. 6 x 12 x 80 mm, z zaokrąglonymi bocznym krawędziami, z jednej strony zakończony obustronnym ścięciem, z drugiej wydrążony prawie na całej długości. W wydrążonym kanale zamocowane są miniszczęki, chwytające i przenoszące wątek. Szczegóły widoczne na rysunku. W pobliżu szczęk dodatkowo znajduje się otwór, w który wprowadzany jest stożek wypychacza, rozwierający szczęki podczas podnoszenia chwytaka z transportera do wyrzutni. +Zasada działania. +Chwytak specjalnymi szczękami chwyta wątek, następnie podczas otwarcia przesmyku osnowy jest przerzucany na drugą (prawą) stronę krosna. Przelatując przez szerokość krosna, przenosi za sobą wątek. Po drugiej stronie wątek jest odcinany, a chwytak spychany na transporter, na którym znajduje się od 8 do 12 takich samych chwytaków. Transporter, będąc w ciągłym ruchu, przenosi chwytaki z powrotem na lewą stronę krosna. Tu wypychacz rozwiera szczęki kolejnego chwytaka i ustawia go pozycji roboczej, na początku cyklu. Chwytak przygotowany jest do przeniesienia następnego wątku. Liczba chwytaków jest zależna od szerokości roboczej krosna. Przy szerokości roboczej krosna 140 cm na transporterze znajdować się może od 8 do 13 chwytaków. Ponieważ wątek wprowadzany jest tylko z jednej strony w postaci odcinków nieco dłuższych niż szerokość tkaniny, specjalny mechanizm - aparat krajkowy, zaplata odcięte końce wątku, tworząc tzw. krajkę, która zabezpiecza przed wysuwaniem się brzegowych nitek osnowy. +Problem ten nie występuje w krosnach czółenkowych, gdzie wątek jest wprowadzany na przemian z obu stron krosna. Jest to jeden kilkusetmetrowy odcinek nitki ułożony zygzakowato w tkaninie. +Zalety - duża wydajność, oraz przy precyzyjnej regulacji - uzyskiwana wysoka jakość tkanin. +Wady - szybkie zużywanie się elementów napędzających chwytaki i samych chwytaków. W przypadku złej regulacji istnieje zagrożenie zabrudzenia tkaniny olejem. Zabrudzenia olejowe są poważnym błędem tkackim, ponieważ nie dają się w pełni usunąć w późniejszym procesie wykończenia tkaniny. +Odmiany. +Istnieje też konstrukcja z jednym chwytakiem, wprowadzanym podobnie jak czółenko, z obu stron krosna. Wątek jest pobierany z dwóch nawojów krzyżowych, stożkowych, umieszczonych po obu stronach krosna. Mimo że każdy wątek jest odcinany, to jednak konstrukcja chwytaka pozwala wciągać końce odcinanych wątków w przesmyk, co umożliwia tworzenie krajki bez potrzeby używania specjalnych aparatów krajkowych. Konstrukcja ta jednak, ze względu na duże rozmiary i masę chwytaka, jest mało popularna. +Osiębor + +Osiębor – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "O-", "się" (razem może "o siebie", "o sobie") i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Imię to mogło zatem oznaczać "tego, kto walczy o siebie". +Habitus + +Sprawność /"habitus" / - termin etyczny stworzony przez Arystotelesa i rozwijany przez myślicieli wszystkich wieków. +Koncepcja Arystotelesa. +Sprawność wg Arystotelesa jest dyspozycją dobrego działania. +Koncepcja św. Tomasza. +Św. Tomasz rozwijał koncepcję Arystotelesa, dodając do niej sprawności nadprzyrodzone, takie jak wiara, nadzieja i miłość. +Koncepcja P. Bourdieu. +Wg P. Bourdieu habitus to system "nabytych dyspozycji" do określonych sposobów i schematów myślowych, percepcji, oceniania i działania. +Jego koncepcja zakłada, że habitusem jest całe pomysłotwórcze otoczenie określonej osoby. Obejmuje to także osobiste wierzenia, skłonności oraz sposoby rozwiązywania problemów (wybór drogi, odpowiednie zachowanie). Teoria habitusu kwestionuje założenia koncepcji wolnej woli (ang. "free will"), z racji tego, że zakłada ograniczoną (przez usposobienie, czy gotowość do działania) możliwość wyboru. Jednak człowiek nie jest automatem, ponieważ każdy habitus wykazuje pewną elastyczność, ale żaden nie jest wyłącznie wolną wolą. +Ogromna część koncepcji habitusu zwraca uwagę na to, że istnieją nieograniczone możliwości działania, o których dana osoba nigdy by nie pomyślała. Z tego powodu takie opcje realnie nie istnieją, ponieważ nie można z nich korzystać. W typowych sytuacjach społecznych jednostka polega na znacznym zasobie scenariuszy zachowań i dużym zasobie wiedzy, co ukazuje człowieka jako posiadającego pewien obraz świata i przygotowanego do reakcji w określonej sytuacji. +Całkowite poznanie habitusu danej osoby nie jest możliwe, ze względu na fakt, że jest on zakorzeniony w podświadomości. +Kabaret Potem + +Kabaret Potem – działający w latach 80. i 90. kabaret, założony przez studentów ówczesnej Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej w Zielonej Górze (dziś: Uniwersytet Zielonogórski). Istniał od 25 listopada 1984 do 28 czerwca 1999, z roczną przerwą w 1988. +Zdobył liczne nagrody, m.in. Grand Prix PaKI w latach 1986 i 1987 oraz Trójząb Neptuna na FAMIE w 1989 i 1990. +Historia kabaretu. +Początki kabaretu Potem to występy na studenckich imprezach okolicznościowych. Nazwa powstała przez skojarzenie z nazwą klubu studenckiego "Zatem". Próby kabaretu odbywały się w klubach Zatem i Gęba. +Pierwotny skład (od 25 listopada 1984) tworzyli dwaj studenci pedagogiki kulturalno-oświatowej Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej: Krzysztof Langer i Dariusz Kamys. W pierwszych latach występowali tam też między innymi Janusz Klimenko (1985-1990), Ewa Sopielewska (do 1987), Andrzej Kłos (w Potem tylko 2 miesiące) i Mirosław Kowalik. Pierwszym pianistą zespołu był Paweł Jarosz. W kwietniu 1985 Władysław Sikora (wówczas pracujący jako monter telefonów) zastąpił Krzysztofa Langera w roli lidera kabaretu. +Po działalności w latach 1984-1987 kabaret Potem rozpadł się. Bezpośrednią przyczyną rozpadu było powołanie do zasadniczej służby wojskowej dwóch członków grupy, ale pośrednio także spadek formy artystycznej kabaretu w kolejnych programach. Potem reaktywował się w 1989, a w nowym składzie znaleźli się byli członkowie kabaretu Drugi Garnitur Joanna Chuda (obecnie Kołaczkowska) i Adam Nowak (późniejszy lider zespołu Raz, Dwa, Trzy). Od około 1990 tworzyli go: Joanna Kołaczkowska, Mirosław Gancarz (od 1986), Leszek Jenek, Dariusz Kamys, Adam Pernal (pianista) i Władysław Sikora (kierownictwo). +Potem stanowił podstawę kabaretowej Formacji Zaś (1988-1990). Niektórzy członkowie Potem, na czele z liderem całego środowiska, Władysławem Sikorą, w ramach Formacji opiekowali się nowymi kabaretami Zielonogórskiego Zagłębia Kabaretowego. +Pożegnalny występ kabaretu miał miejsce 28 czerwca 1999 w kinie "Newa" w Zielonej Górze, ostatni występ odbył się 30 czerwca 1999 w Teatrze Ziemi Rybnickiej w Rybniku. +Po zamknięciu. +Po rozwiązaniu, kabaret nie utracił sympatii miłośników. Jeden z najpopularniejszych programów - "Bajki dla potłuczonych" - ukazał się na DVD w grudniu 2003. Kolejna płyta, tym razem z nagraniem programu "Różne takie story" wzbogaconym o "Paskudy i wywłoki" oraz "Piosenki kabaretu Potem", została wydana w 2004. +Działalność kabaretową do dziś prowadzą Joanna Kołaczkowska i Dariusz Kamys, którzy występują w kabarecie Hrabi. Leszek Jenek obecnie występuje w kabarecie Ciach. Władysław Sikora wraz z Zenonem Laskowikiem prowadził scenę kabaretową O.B.O.R.A. w Poznaniu, a od listopada 2007 razem z Adamem Pernalem współtworzy kabaret Adin. Wszyscy członkowie w mniejszym bądź większym stopniu udzielali się w tworzeniu amatorskich filmów w wytwórni A'YoY. +Twórczość. +Teksty dla Potemów pisał głównie Władysław Sikora, a także Joanna Kołaczkowska i Dariusz Kamys, kabaret korzystał też z tekstów Klubu Literatów Zeppelin. Autorami muzyki byli Władysław Sikora oraz Adam Pernal. Sikora był także scenarzystą i reżyserem programów. +W latach 1984-1987 powstały trzy programy kabaretowe ("Potem I", "Potem II" i "Potem III"), z których wybrane skecze złożyły się na "Pierwszy program". +Sztandarowa piosenka kabaretu Potem, "Zrób kabaret", jest dziełem grupy "Nieznani sprawcy" z Lublina. +Kasza jęczmienna + +Kasza jęczmienna – rodzaj kaszy wyrabianej z jęczmienia. +W Polsce kasze jęczmienne są najważniejszym ilościowo przetworem kaszarskim; przypada na nie blisko 70% ogólnej ilości produkowanych kasz. Obecnie produkuje się 3 typy kasz jęczmiennych: pęczak, kaszę jęczmienną perłową i kaszę jęczmienną łamaną. +Do produkcji kasz lepiej nadaje się ziarno jęczmienia wielorzędowego (szklistego), ponieważ jest ono łatwiejsze w obróbce (nie rozkrusza się), otrzymana z niego kasza zachowuje sypkość po ugotowaniu i ma wyższą wartość odżywczą (zawiera więcej białek). +Według obowiązujących norm jakościowych barwa kasz jęczmiennych powinna być jasnoszara z odcieniem zielonkawym lub żółtawym, zapach i smak swoisty. Dalsze wymagania dotyczą wilgotności, zawartości ziaren nieobłuskanych i niedołuskanych oraz zawartości zanieczyszczeń organicznych i nieorganicznych.__NOTOC__ +Rodzaje kasz jęczmiennych. +Pęczak. +Pęczak (w niektórych regionach Polski – np. na Lubelszczyźnie – występuje także forma mazurząca pęcak) jest to całe obłuskane i wypolerowane ziarno jęczmienia. Jest on traktowany jako przetwór zbożowy jakościowo gorszy, stąd jego konsumpcja jest stosunkowo niewielka. W kaszarstwie pęczak jest głównie półproduktem, z którego wyrabia się kaszę jęczmienną perłową i kaszę jęczmienną łamaną. Odpowiednio przygotowany pęczak jest często stosowaną przynętą w połowie ryb na wędkę. +Kasza jęczmienna perłowa. +Kasza jęczmienna perłowa uważana jest za najlepszy przetwór kaszarski z jęczmienia i cieszy się największym popytem. Otrzymuje się ją przez pocięcie pęczaku na duże cząstki, które poddaje się następnie obtoczeniu i polerowaniu. Gotowa kasza perłowa posiada cząstki zaokrąglone, o gładkiej powierzchni z połyskiem. W Polsce kaszę tę produkuje się w 3 gatunkach: jako grubą, średnią i drobną. +Kasza jęczmienna łamana. +Przez pocięcie pęczaku otrzymuje się również kaszę jęczmienną łamaną. W Polsce kasza ta wyrabiana jest w czterech gatunkach; jako łamana niestandardowa (zwana też mieszaną), gruba, średnia i drobna. +Teatr w Toronto + +Toronto jest trzecim największym ośrodkiem teatru angielskojęzycznego na świecie, po Londynie i Nowym Jorku. Corocznie, ok. 200 grup teatralnych wystawia w mieście ok. 10 000 przedstawień. +W Toronto funkcjonuje ponad 30 teatrów, z czego duża część w tak zwanym "The Theatre District". Znajduje się tam wiele zespołów wystawiających własne inscenizacje np. "Soulpepper", "The Canadian Stage" czy "Tarragon". Poza tym grane są przedstawienia pochodzące z Broadwayu. Wiele sztuk z Toronto odniosło także sukces na Broadwayu, np. ""Show Boat"" i ""Ragtime"". +Bilety w dniu przedstawienia zazwyczaj sprzedawane są za połowę ceny oraz. Ponadto, niektóre mniej znane teatry działają w systemie PWYC ("pay-what-you-can" - zapłać, ile możesz). Oznacza to, że nie istnieje sztywna cena biletu, widz sam decyduje, ile chce zapłacić. Sugerowana cena wynosi 8 dolarów, co należy rozumieć jako górną granicę. +Festiwale i przeglądy teatralne. +Teatry letnie. +Na terenie Ontario działa wiele teatrów, funkcjonujących tylko w sezonie letnim. Przedstawienia odbywają się w wielu małych turystycznych miejscowościach. Są one zrzeszone w ASTRO, czyli "Association of Summer Theatres "Round Ontario"", która drukuje broszurę informacyjną. Ponad 30 sezonowych kompanii teatralnych prezentuje corocznie 160 przedstawień dla 1 400 000 widzów. +W samym Toronto latem w High Park wystawiane są sztuki Szekspira. +Kabarety i komedie. +Z torontońskich kabaretów i stand-upów wywodzi się kilku znanych aktorów komicznych – m.in. Jim Carrey i Mike Myers. Jednym z największych kabaretów w mieście są "The Second City" i "Yuk Yuk’s Comedy Cabaret". Popularnością cieszy się także komediowy talk-show "Open Mike", odbywający się w budynku Masonic Temple. +Inną formą teatru, praktycznie nieznaną w Europie, są restauracje z przedstawieniami, które wciągają gości do wspólnej zabawy, najczęściej z tematycznymi motywami, takimi jak zagadki kryminalne ("Mysteriously Yours"), średniowieczne turnieje ("Medieval Times") czy przedstawienia taneczne ("Famous People Players"). +Balet i taniec. +W Toronto funkcjonuje Balet Narodowy "National Ballet" oraz wiele innych zespołów, najczęściej wywodzących się z lokalnej szkoły baletowej. Co roku w Du Maurier Theatre Centre odbywa się "World Moves Dance Series" - międzynarodowy przegląd zespołów baletowych. Innymi przeglądami tańca są "Dance Works" oraz "fFIDA - Fringe Festival of Independent Dance Artists" - sierpniowy przegląd nowoczesnych, często eksperymentalnych, form tańca. +Szkoły i kursy. +W Toronto funkcjonuje wiele szkół aktorskich, które prowadzą kursy dla mniej lub bardziej zaawansowanych aktorów, zarówno teatralnych, jak i filmowych. Większość szkół zrzeszonych jest w TAAS ("Toronto Association of Acting Studios"). +"Canadian Opera Company" we wrześniu organizuje amatorski przegląd operowy "Bathroom Divas". +Opakowanie + +Opakowanie – wytwór o określonej konstrukcji, którego zadaniem jest zabezpieczenie towaru lub otoczenia w trakcie transportu i przechowywania. Pełni on często funkcję narzędzia marketingowego, pobudzającego swoim estetycznym wyglądem oraz przekazem marketingowym (danymi nt. produktu) do nabycia towaru. +Klemens IX + +Klemens IX "(łac. Clemens IX)", właś. "Giulio Rospigliosi", (ur. 27 lub 28 stycznia 1600 w Pistoia - zm. 9 grudnia 1669 w Rzymie) – papież w okresie od 20 czerwca 1667 do 9 grudnia 1669. +Pochodził ze starego rodu lombardzkiego. Studiował nauki wyzwolone w seminarium rzymskim oraz prawo, teologię i filozofię na Uniwersytecie w Pizie (gdzie obronił w 1623 doktorat obojga praw). Po studiach wykładał filozofię w Pizie, następnie (1625) udał się do Rzymu. W Kurii Rzymskiej zajmował m.in. stanowiska referendarza Trybunału Sygnatury Apostolskiej, sekretarza Kongregacji Rytów, członka personelu legacji w Awinionie. Był także kanonikiem i wikariuszem Bazyliki Liberiańskiej. W latach 1634-1644 pełnił funkcję sekretarza pism dyplomatycznych ("Listów do Książąt"), w 1643 został radcą Trybunału Świętej Penitencjarii. Otrzymał honorowe obywatelstwo Rzymu. Publikował wysoko oceniane w Rzymie sztuki teatralne i poezje. +14 marca 1644 został mianowany arcybiskupem tytularnym Tarsu (przyjął sakrę biskupią 29 marca 1644 w Rzymie z rąk kardynała Antonio Barberiniego) i w lipcu t.r. udał się z misją nuncjusza do Hiszpanii. Pozostawał na tej placówce do stycznia 1653, po odwołaniu ostatnie lata pontyfikatu Innocentego X spędził na uboczu. W okresie sediswakancji po śmierci Innocentego Kolegium Kardynalskie powierzyło Rospigliosiemu w styczniu 1655 funkcję gubernatora Rzymu. +Nowy papież Aleksander VII powierzył mu funkcję sekretarza stanu (kwiecień 1655), a 9 kwietnia 1657 wyniósł do godności kardynalskiej (Rospigliosi został prezbiterem S. Sisto). Jako szef dyplomacji papieskiej kardynał Rospigliosi dbał o dobre stosunki z dworem francuskim, mimo negatywnego stosunku Francuzów do papieża Aleksandra. +Wieloletnia praca na stanowisku nuncjusza w Hiszpanii oraz udane współdziałanie z Francją zapewniły Rospigliosiemu pozycję neutralnego kandydata na konklawe po śmierci Aleksandra VII. 20 czerwca 1667 został on wybrany na papieża i przyjął imię Klemensa IX. 26 czerwca 1667 papież Klemens został koronowany, a 3 lipca odbył uroczysty ingres do Bazyliki Laterańskiej. +Miał opinię człowieka skromnego, o nieskazitelnym charakterze. Wyróżniało go to na tle skorumpowanej Kurii Rzymskiej, co znalazło realizację w ograniczeniu powszechnej w pierwszej połowie XVII wieku praktyki nepotyzmu. W polityce zagranicznej papież stanął przed problemem konfliktu francusko-hiszpańskiego, który daremnie próbował załagodzić. W większości spraw papież ulegał wpływom francuskim, m.in. zostawił królowi Francji wolną rękę w nominacjach na urzędy kościelne. Wskutek działań ministra francuskiego de Lionne'a Klemens IX zaakceptował tzw. pokój klementyński, który zezwalał czterem biskupom francuskim, znanym z poglądów jansenistycznych, podpisać kościelny akt potępienia tez jansenizmu; nie odstąpili oni jednocześnie od swoich poglądów, które mogli zatrzymać jako "prywatne". +Zamierzeniem militarnym papieża było wyzwolenie Krety spod panowania tureckiego. 6 września 1669 flota papieska, dowodzona przez krewnego Klemensa Vincenzo Rospigliosiego, poniosła klęskę, a Wenecja została zmuszona do poddania Turkom ostatniego chrześcijańskiego punktu Krety, Kandii (Iraklionu). Podobno ta klęska, która przyniosła Państwu Papieskiemu także straty finansowe, przyspieszyła śmierć papieża. Zmarł on po ataku apoplektycznym 9 grudnia 1669, został pochowany początkowo w Bazylice Watykańskiej; później zwłoki przeniesiono do Bazyliki S. Maria Maggiore. +Tolar + +Tolar (kod ISO 4217: SIT) był od października 1991 r. do 31 grudnia 2006 r. oficjalną walutą Słowenii. Dzielił się na 100 stotinów, przy czym wobec faktu, że jednostka podwielokrotna miała bardzo niską siłę nabywczą (przelicznik wynosił w przybliżeniu 1 SIT = 0,00417 EUR), stotiny nie były w praktycznym użyciu. +Tolar został zastąpiony przez euro 1 stycznia 2007 roku po kursie 239,640 SIT/€. +Nazwa "tolar" (podobnie jak dolar) pochodzi od dawnej srebrnej monety talar. +Graf (tytuł szlachecki) + +Graf (łac. "comes/comites", fr. "comte, marquis", włos. "conte, marchese") – tytuł szlachecki w dawnych Niemczech i wielu krajach pozostających kiedyś pod panowaniem cesarstwa - Holandii, Belgii, Luksemburgu, Austrii, Danii. +Pierwotnie urzędnicy królewscy (szlachta urzędnicza) zarządzających w zastępstwie króla znacznymi majątkami ziemskimi. Później niższa warstwa wysokiej szlachty (szlachta z urodzenia, "Uradel"). +Tytuł ten wywodzi się ze starołacińskiego "graffio" czyli bizantyjskiego "grapheus" lub "suggrapheus" (tj. osoba uprawniona do zwołania zjazdu). W okresie późnorzymskim tytułem "comes" określano wysokiego cesarskiego urzędnika finansowego ("comes largitionum"). Ponieważ tytuły te stały się już za czasów Ottonów poprzez "usus" (zwyczajowo) dziedzicznymi, w późniejszych czasach usystematyzowano je. Prerogatywa nadawania tytułów hrabiów w czasach nowożytnych przeszła na cesarza, potem na króla. +Po roku 1815 z różnych odmian tytułu pozostał tylko "Graf". Dwie rodziny panujące używały na dalszym miejscu w tytulaturze tytułu "Pfalzgraf" (dynastia Wittelbachów) i "Landgraf" (dynastia Hessen-Kassel). Także hrabiowie z nadań z czasów Świętego Cesarstwa Rzymskiego niekiedy nadal tytułowali się "Reichsgraf", by się odróżnić od nowszych, "gorszych" hrabiów. Najwyższą kategorię hrabiów stanowili hrabiowie których ziemie do 1815 roku były suwerenne, tj. podległe tylko cesarzowi. Po mediatyzacji stracili suwerenność, zachowując wiele honorowych przywilejów, m.in. inną niż hrabiowskie koronę rangową (tzw. "Erlauchtkrone"), płaszcz książęcy, tytuł "Erlaucht" i liczne przywileje patronackie w swoich dobrach. +Po 1918 roku w Niemczech zniesiono monarchię i wszelkie tytuły arystokratyczne czy szlacheckie, choć bywają one dalej w potocznym użyciu, od 1921 roku stały się jednak formalnie częścią nazwiska (wpisaną do dowodu osobistego, między imieniem a nazwiskiem rodowym, stosowano je nawet w NRD). +Natomiast Austria zniosła po wprowadzeniu republiki wszelkie tytuły w sposób bardziej radykalny: za używanie i tytułów i predykatu "von" przez obywateli tego kraju grozi kara sądowa. Stąd nazwisko Ottona Habsburga, dawniej "Otto Erzherzog von Österreich" brzmi obecnie "Dr. Otto Habsburg-Lothringen". Nawet po inkorporacji Austrii do III Rzeszy w roku 1938 Hitler nie przystosował prawa austriackiego do niemieckiego - ta sama rodzina z odgałęzieniami w obu krajach nosiła zatem różne nazwiska. +Powiat krapkowicki + +Powiat krapkowicki - powiat w Polsce (województwo opolskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Krapkowice. +Historia. +Na obszarze powiatu krzyżowały się niegdyś szlaki handlowe: ze wschodu na zachód i z północy na południe (ze Skandynawii na Bałkany przez Bramę Morawską). Mimo istnienia tradycyjnych, silnych więzi gospodarczych między trzema leżącymi w pobliżu siebie miejscowościami: Krapkowicami, Otmętem (teraz dzielnica Krapkowic) i Gogolinem, aż do roku 1956 należały one do różnych powiatów: opolskiego i strzeleckiego. +1 stycznia 1957 roku do gromady Komorniki w powiecie krapkowickim przyłączono wieś Pisarzowice, którą wyłączono z gromady Kierpień w powiecie prudnickim . 1 stycznia 1958 roku Gogolin uzyskał status osiedla , którym pozostał do 1 stycznia 1967 roku kiedy to nadano mu prawa miejskie . 31 grudnia 1961 roku osiedle Otmęt (o statusie osiedla od 13 listopada 1954 roku ) zostało zniesione przez włączenie jego obszaru do Krapkowic . 18 lipca 1962 roku prawa miejskie otrzymało także osiedle Zdzieszowice . +Po reformie administracyjnej obowiązującej od 1 czerwca 1975 roku terytorium zniesionego powiatu krapkowickiego włączono do nowego (mniejszego) województwa opolskiego . +Wraz z reformą administracyjną z 1999 roku przywrócono w nowym (zwiększonym) województwie opolskim powiat krapkowicki o granicach identycznych do tych z 1975 roku ; jedynie podział administracyjny nieco się zmienił po połączeniu 1 lutego 1991 roku jednoimiennych miast i gmin wiejskich Gogolin, Krapkowice i Zdzieszowice we wspólne gminy miejsko-wiejskie . +Karaś pospolity + +Karaś pospolity ("Carassius carassius") – słodkowodna ryba z rodziny karpiowatych (Cyprinidae). +Występowanie. +Europa z wyjątkiem zlewiska Oceanu Lodowatego, północnej Szkocji, Irlandii, zachodniej części Półwyspu Iberyjskiego, południwych i środkowych Włoszech oraz zachodniej części Bałkanów, a także w dorzeczach większych rzek syberyjskich aż po Lenę. +Preferuje małe i płytkie zbiorniki wodne (starorzecza, glinianki, torfianki). W Polsce jest spotykany we wszystkich nizinnych wodach śródlądowych, stojących i wolno płynących, w miejscach o porośniętym roślinami podłożu. Przebywa niedaleko brzegów, przy miękkim i mulistym dnie. Niewielkie jego ilości są hodowane w gospodarstwach stawowych. +Toleruje bardzo niską zawartość tlenu. Często w takich zbiornikach o wysokiej zawartości dwutlenku węgla i siarczku wodoru tworzy formę karłowatą która ma wysmukłe, wydłużone ciało i w wieku 8-10 lat osiąga zaledwie 9–10 cm długości. +Opis. +Osiąga długość 40(50) cm i masę 1(2)kg. Ciało bardzo mocno wygrzbiecone i krótkie, pokryte dużymi, równo ułożonymi łuskami. Płetwa grzbietowa bardzo długa, sięga niemal do nasady trzonu ogonowego. Jej górna krawędź jest wypukła, a ostatni twardy promień piłkowany (około 30 ząbków), podobnie jak ostatni twardy promień płetwy odbytowej. Głowa nieduża, otwór gębowy mały, znajduje się na końcu pyska ustawiony nieco skośnie ku górze. Zęby gardłowe ustawione są w jednym szeregu. Grzbiet i boki brunatnozłociste z zielonkawym połyskiem, brzuch żółtawy lub biały. Płetwy piersiowe i brzuszne przy nasadzie są lekko zaczerwienione. +Odżywianie. +Bezkręgowce wodne, żyjące w mulistym dnie lub w jego pobliżu, rzadko rośliny. +Rozród. +Tarło trwa od V do VII. Samica średniej wielkości składa kilkakrotnie ok. 200 000 jaj na płytkich miejscach, porośniętych wodnymi roślinami, do których się przykleja. Wylęg po 5-7 dniach. +Znaczenie gospodarcze. +Małe, ponieważ rośnie bardzo powoli. Często występuje w wielkich ilościach ale osiąga bardzo niewielkie rozmiary i wówczas rybacy traktują go jako chwast rybny, mimo że jego mięso jest bardzo smaczne. +Powiat brzeski (województwo opolskie) + +Powiat brzeski – powiat w Polsce w województwie opolskim, w obecnym kształcie utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Brzeg. +Ziemia Brzeska i Grodkowska są historycznymi częściami Dolnego Śląska natomiast Ziemia Niemodlińska znajduje się w granicach Górnego Śląska. +Powiat brzeski sąsiaduje z powiatami: nyskim od południa, opolskim od wschodu, namysłowskim od północy oraz z oławskim i strzelińskim od zachodu. +Powiat brzeski istniał również w latach 1945-1975. Bezpośrednio po II wojnie światowej należał do II okręgu administracyjnego "Dolny Śląsk" Ziem Odzyskanych. 28 czerwca 1946 r. wszedł w skład nowo utworzonego woj. wrocławskiego. W skład woj. opolskiego należał od 6 lipca 1950 r. aż do 1 czerwca 1975 r., kiedy w ramach ogólnopolskiej reformy zlikwidowano powiaty. +Aszkal + +Aszkal (fr. "Lac Ichkeul", arab. محمية إشكل) – jezioro w Tunezji, niedaleko wybrzeży Morza Śródziemnego. +Wraz z otaczającym je zabagnionym obszarem objęte jest ochroną w ramach Parku Narodowego Aszkal. Park ten wpisano na listę światowych rezerwatów biosfery (w 1980 roku także na listę listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO). Jezioro leży na trasie przelotów ptaków migrujących z Europy do Afryki. +Omulew (jezioro) + +Omulew – jezioro morenowe w województwie warmińsko-mazurskim +głębokość: Maks. - 32,5 m; śr. - 4,3 m +Klasa czystości wód: II (2001). +Dno: Muliste, miejscami piaszczyste i kamienisto-piaszczyste. W płytkich partiach wody zarośnięte roślinnością. +Dostępność: Dobrze dostępne praktycznie ze wszystkich stron. Bardzo dobry dostęp w okolicznych miejscowościach. +Ośrodki: Rozwinięta zabudowa letniskowa, ośrodki wypoczynkowe i pola biwakowe. +Kąpieliska: Kilka wyznaczonych i niestrzeżonych kąpielisk oraz dużo dzikich dojść do wody. +Linia brzegowa: Stosunkowo dobrze rozwinięta i urozmaicona. Jej długość wynosi około 28 km. Brzegi są wysokie, miejscami niskie i płaskie. Najbliższe otoczenie to lasy iglaste i zabudowania okolicznych miejscowości. Bezpośrednio nad brzegami dominuje olcha z niewielkim udziałem brzozy i wierzby. Wokół brzegów, pas roślinności szuwarowej o szerokości od kilku do kilkunastu metrów. Dominuje trzcina oraz pałka wąskolistna i szerokolistna. +Wędkarstwo : Jezioro bardzo urozmaicone gatunkowo, należące do typu sielawowego. Występuje tu leszcz, krąp, ukleja oraz inne gatunki ryb w mniejszym stopniu. + Turystyka kajakowa. Przez jezioro prowadzi jeden z najładniejszych w regionie szlaków kajakowych po rzece Omulew. +Dodatkowe info: Jezioro jest długie na prawie 7,5 km i szerokie na około 1 km. Zbiornik posiada 5 wysp, z których największa ma powierzchnię około 4 ha. +Etiuda + +Etiuda – krótki utwór w sztuce, mający na celu doskonalenie stylu literackiego, gry aktorskiej, techniki malarskiej itp.. W niektórych rodzajach dzieł (np. w utworach muzycznych) etiudą często nazywa się pełnowartościowe dzieło, kiedy etiuda jest utworem ćwiczącym walory techniczne pianisty, jak również dziełem popisowym. +Urostyl + +[[Grafika:Toad pelvic girdle.jpg|280px|right|thumb|Urostyl (4) ropuchy szarej ("Bufo bufo") +Urostyl - końcowy odcinek kręgosłupa ryb i płazów, odpowiednik kości guzicznej u ssaków. Urostyl ryb powstał ze zlania się kilku ostatnich kręgów kręgosłupa, ma kształt bocznie spłaszczony. U płazów urostyl jest połączony z ostatnim kręgiem, łączy się z obręczą miednicową, ma kształt wydłużony, sztabkowaty. +Pistolet maszynowy Danuvia 39M + +Danuvia 39 M – węgierski pistolet maszynowy kal. 9 mm, produkowany i używany w okresie II wojny światowej. +Węgierski pistolet maszynowy 39M został skonstruowany w 1939 roku przez Pála Király'ego na amunicję pistoletową 9 x 25 mm Mauser. +Pistolet maszynowy 39M jest bronią działającą na zasadzie wykorzystania energii odrzutu półswobodnego zamka, co stanowi rzadkość w pistoletach maszynowych. Ze względu na znaczną długość broni, a zwłaszcza lufy (449 mm) oraz użyty silny nabój pistoletowy, broń ta przypomina nieco karabin automatyczny, bardziej niż typowy pistolet maszynowy. +Pistolet maszynowy 39M wyróżnia się dość skomplikowaną budową zamka. Był to pierwszy praktyczny mechanizm zamka półswobodnego z +suwadłem poruszającym się w tej samej osi, co zamek, opatentowany przez Király'ego (podobne rozwiązanie wykorzystuje m.in. późniejszy francuski karabin FAMAS). W położeniu marszowym magazynek można było umieścić w łożu odchylając go do przodu, w wyniku czego pistolet stawał się konstrukcją zwartą, wygodniejszą do noszenia przez żołnierza. Broń była wyposażona w bezpiecznik, będący równocześnie przełącznikiem rodzaju ognia (pojedynczy / seryjny). +W oparciu o konstrukcję pistoletu maszynowego 39M opracowany został nowy pistolet maszynowy 43M, różniący się od wzoru 39M przede wszystkim krótszą lufą i metalową składaną kolbą oraz chwytem pistoletowym. +Opis techniczny. +Pistolet maszynowy 39M był bronią samoczynno-samopowtarzalną (na ogień pojedynczy i ciągły) działającą na zasadzie wykorzystania energii zamka półswobodnego. Zamek, cofając się po strzale pod naporem łuski, napierał na dźwignię, która popychała wstecz suwadło (z większą prędkością), opóźniając ruch zamka. Broń zasilana jest z magazynków pudełkowych o pojemności 40 naboi (gniazdo magazynka składane do przodu). Kolba stała, drewniana, łoże drewniane. Celownik krzywkowy z szczerbinką (nastawy 50 – 600 m). +Elektroencefalograf + +Elektroencefalograf – urządzenie wykorzystywane w elektroencefalografii (EEG); rejestruje zespół słabych sygnałów elektrycznych zapisanych jednocześnie w różnych punktach skóry głowy. Sygnały te wyrażają rytmy i fazy zwane także falami mózgowymi. Są to drgania elektryczne w miarę regularne o częstotliwości, która nie przekracza 0,5–35 Hz. Informują one o rozmieszczeniu źródeł fal elektromagnetycznych wewnątrz mózgu. +Zależności między wykresami pozwalają scharakteryzować fale mózgowe, a interpretację wykorzystać do celów diagnostycznych przez porównanie aktywności mózgu normalnej z patologiczną. +Jerzy Albin de Tramecourt + +Jerzy Albin de Tramecourt (ur. 1 marca 1889 w Lublinie, zm. listopad 1939) – major piechoty Wojska Polskiego, urzędnik państwowy, działacz niepodległościowy i społeczny, wojewoda lubelski i poleski. +Biografia. +Jako uczeń siedmioklasowej Szkoły Handlowej Zgromadzenia Kupców m. Lublina uczestniczył od 1904 r. w pracach kółek samokształcących, był wiceprzewodniczącym Związku Młodzieży Narodowej w Lublinie. Jako jednemu z organizatorów strajku szkolnego w 1905 r. uniemożliwiono mu kontynuowanie nauki w szkołach lubelskich. Edukację uzupełnił w Warszawie, gdzie w 1910 r. ukończył prywatną Szkołę Przemysłowo-Techniczną (bez matury). Jesienią powołano go do armii carskiej celem odbycia trzyletniej służby wojskowej. +Tuż po wybuchu I wojny światowej został ponownie zmobilizowany i wysłany na front rosyjsko-austriacki. W bitwie pod Kraśnikiem, w sierpniu 1914 r., dostał się do niewoli austriackiej. W 1916 r. zaciągnął się do Legionów, otrzymując przydział do 6 Pułku Piechoty Legionów. Wziął udział w jesiennych bojach nad Stochodem. Następnie wraz z pułkiem udał się do Nałęczowa i Dęblina na odpoczynek Po odmowie złożenia przysięgi na wierność cesarzom Niemiec i Austro-Węgier został internowany w obozie w Szczypiornie, a następnie Łomży. W obozie łomżyńskim pełnił funkcję dowódcy internowanych legionistów z 6 pp Leg. Zwolniony przez Niemców w lipcu 1918 r. powrócił do domu. Wkrótce, na rozkaz przełożonych, wyjechał do Siedlec, obejmując obowiązki komendanta III Okręgu Podlaskiego POW. +W niepodległej już Polsce kontynuował karierę wojskową, służąc w 22 Pułku Piechoty (zwanym powszechnie siedleckim). W okresie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej dowodził kompanią techniczną i przeszedł z nią cały szlak bojowy. Wyróżnił się zwłaszcza w bitwie pod Jełaniem-Strakomiczami (7 kwietnia 1920) oraz w walkach w obronie Warszawy. Po ustaniu działań zbrojnych pułk stacjonował w okolicach Mołodeczna, skąd powrócił do Siedlec dopiero we wrześniu 1922 r. +Po przewrocie majowym de Tramecourt otrzymał awans i w stopniu majora został oddelegowany do Wilna, gdzie w Dowództwie Obozu Warownego pełnił służbę jako oficer sztabowy. Jesienią 1928 r. opuścił szeregi WP i podjął pracę w administracji państwowej. W czerwcu 1929 r. został mianowany starostą w Mołodecznie. Następnie piastował urząd starosty dziśnieńskiego w Głębokiem (wrzesień 1931 – kwiecień 1932), wileńsko-trockiego (kwiecień 1932 – wrzesień 1935) i radomskiego (wrzesień 1935 – luty 1937). +17 lutego 1937 r. premier Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski mianował go wicewojewodą poleskim i powierzył pełnienie obowiązków wojewody na czas niedyspozycji Wacława Kostka-Biernackiego. Funkcję tę pełnił do 10 września 1937 r., gdy rozpoczął urzędowanie jako wojewoda lubelski (z datą nominacji 8 września 1937). Największym jego osiągnięciem okazało się włączenie w skład COP południowej części woj. lubelskiego. W Lublinie pełnił wiele funkcji dodatkowych. Był m.in. przewodniczącym Prezydium Honorowego Wojewódzkiego Obywatelskiego Komitetu Zimowej Pomocy Bezrobotnym, przewodniczącym Rady Wojewódzkiej, przewodniczącym Rady Fundacji Szpitala św. Wincentego a Paulo, prezesem Zarządu Aeroklubu Lubelskiego, przewodniczącym Wojewódzkiej Rady Funduszu Pracy, prezesem Okręgu Lubelskiego LOPP, a także członkiem honorowym Automobilklubu Lubelskiego. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej pozostał w Lublinie, nadzorując poczynania zarówno instytucji państwowych, jak i społecznych. Przyczynił się do uratowania m.in. obrazów Jana Matejki "Bitwa pod Grunwaldem" i "Kazanie Skargi", ewakuowanych galerami do Kazimierza Dolnego. Funkcję sprawował do 14 września 1939 r. Po zajęciu Lublina przez wojska niemieckie został 20 października 1939 r. aresztowany i rozstrzelany w listopadzie w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach. Data i miejsce pochówku pozostają do dziś nieznane. +Opera (architektura) + + +Opera, gmach opery, teatr operowy – budynek przeznaczony do wystawiania w nim widowisk muzycznych z towarzyszeniem orkiestry, a w szczególności spektakli operowych i baletowych. Ze względu na charakter wystawianych dzieł posiada zazwyczaj bardziej uroczystą i dostojną architekturę oraz wystrój wnętrz w porównaniu do teatrów operetkowych i musicalowych. Spośród tych trzech rodzajów budynków teatr operowy posiada największy orkiestron (miejsce dla grającej orkiestry) i jest on najniżej położony w stosunku do powierzchni sceny, za to stanowisko dyrygenta jest w nim najbardziej wyeksponowane. Zazwyczaj posiada również największe bezpośrednie zaplecze sceniczne z kieszeniami bocznymi, tylną, górną oraz zapadnią zdolnymi pomieścić dekoracje wielkości sceny głównej. Posiada również bardzo rozwiniętą widownię z amfiteatrem wydzielonym z części parterowej oraz piętrami balkonów ustawionych w linii pionowej. Posiada również najbardziej rozbudowane zaplecze dla artystów oraz wszystkich pozostałych pracowników współtworzących spektakle z rozbudowanymi pracowniami stolarskimi, malarskimi, szewskimi, krawieckimi, perukarskimi itd., co jest spowodowane tym, że w teatrach operowych często są wystawiane dzieła z repertuaru klasycznego, które wymagają bardzo rozbudowanej scenografii, jak również bogatych kostiumów z danych epok. +Wśród tych trzech rodzajów budynków, teatry operowe cechują się największą kubaturą, natomiast wszelkie cechy teatrów operetkowych, choć pośrednie pomiędzy teatrami operowymi i musicalowymi, są jednak bardziej zbliżone do tych pierwszych. Aspekty wielkości budynków są przede wszystkich implikowane głośnością spektakli. Teatry operowe są największe ponieważ występujący w nich artyści głównie śpiewają, co daje znacznie większą donośność dźwięku w porównaniu do cichszych ze swojej natury melodeklamacji i tekstów wypowiadanych przez aktorów, które mają często miejsce w spektaklach operetkowych i musicalowych. Jednak i tak wszystkie te budynki są większe od kameralnych w porównaniu z nimi teatrów dramatycznych. +Ciążeń + +Ciążeń – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie wielkopolskim, w powiecie słupeckim, w gminie Lądek. +Do 1954 roku siedziba gminy Ciążeń. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa konińskiego. +We wsi znajduje się przeprawa promowa przez Wartę. +Pierwsza wzmianka o Ciążeniu jako siedzibie kasztelanii pochodzi z 1251. Krótko potem (1260) wieś zostaje nadana przez Przemysła I w posiadanie biskupstwu poznańskiemu. W kolejnych latach biskupi uzyskiwali szereg przywilejów, m.in. na urządzanie jarmarków, założenie targu i prowadzenie karczmy. Ukoronowaniem dobrej passy jest otrzymany w 1504 przywilej na założenie miasta, lecz do lokacji najprawdopodobniej nie dochodzi, ze względu na konkurencję niedalekich Pyzdr. W latach 1508-1510 na dworze biskupim w Ciążeniu przebywał Andrzej Krzycki, poeta, późniejszy prymas Polski. W 1818 wieś skonfiskowana przez władze carskie i przekazana hrabiemu Wacławowi Gutakowskiemu, szwoleżerowi Gwardii Napoleona, a później adiutantowi cara Aleksandra I. Majątek nie przynosił szczęścia swoim właścicielom – zbankrutował zarówno Gutakowski, jak i jego następcy – Zakrzewscy, po czym, w 1924, majątek w Ciążeniu przeszedł na własność Skarbu Państwa. +We wsi znajdują się dwa zabytkowe zespoły budynków: późnobarokowy pałac biskupi wraz z pawilonem, galerią (z lat 1760-68) i parkiem, oraz kościół pod wezwaniem św. Jana Chrzciciela z 1535, pierwotnie gotycki, później (1760) przebudowany w stylu barokowym, wraz z dzwonnicą (poł. XIXw.) i plebanią (z 2 poł. XVIIIw.). +Obecnie w pałacu ciążeńskim mieszczą się unikatowe zbiory masońskie Biblioteki Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza. W kościele znajduje się późnorenesansowy tron biskupi oraz obraz "Adoracja Matki Boskiej Szkaplerznej" z połowy XVII w. przedstawiający prawdopodobnie króla Jana Kazimierza. +Wiktor Gorzołka + +Wiktor Gorzołka (ur. 1908 w Łabędach, zm. 24 sierpnia 1944) - przywódca polskiej młodzieży na Śląsku Opolskim, redaktor dwutygodnika Związku Polaków w Niemczech "Słowo Śląskie"i współwydawca "Katolika trzyrazowego". +Uczestniczył w zjazdach młodzieżowych organizowanych przez polskie środowiska w całych Niemczech. Był wybitnym działaczem młodzieżowym Związku Polaków w Niemczech. W 1934 roku wraz z Józefem Kachlem i Wincentym Wawrzyniakiem był inicjatorem tzw. "buntu młodych". W latach 1933-1939 prezes ZPMK na Śląsku Opolskim. W latach 1936-1937 sekretarz Związku Polaków na Śląsku. Latem 1937 roku aresztowany, wolność odzyskał w listopadzie 1937 roku, w dniu ogłoszenia deklaracji mniejszościowej przez Hitlera. Po napaści Niemiec na Polskę został 11 listopada 1939 roku ponownie aresztowany i wraz z innymi działaczami życia polskiego osadzony w Buchenwaldzie. Należał tu do współorganizatorów obozowego polskiego ruchu oporu. Po prawie pięciu latach obozowej katorgi zginął 24 sierpnia 1944 roku podczas nalotu amerykańskich samolotów na zakłady wojskowe znajdujące się w pobliżu Buchenwaldu. +Patronuje jednej z ulic w Gliwicach, Groszowicach, a także w Gorzowie Śląskim. +Nasiębor + +Nasiębor — staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "Na-" ("super" lub "na" przede wszystkim w stosunkach czasowych i przestrzennych; "na" w jednym ze znaczeń mogło też oznaczać "kogoś, ze względu na kogo się dzieje jakaś akcja"), "się" ("siebie", "sobie") i "-bor" ("walczyć, zmagać się"). Imię to mogło więc oznaczać "tego, kto bierze walkę na siebie". Po raz pierwszy poświadczone w 1365 roku. +Możliwe niektóre staropolskie zdrobnienia: Nach, Naszon, Naszan, Naszko, Naszętka (masc.), Naszotek. +Nasiębor imieniny obchodzi 2 października. +Nasiębąd + +Nasiębąd, Nasiębud – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z trzech członów: "Na-" ('wspaniały'; "na" w jednym ze znaczeń mogło też oznaczać "kogoś, ze względu na kogo się dzieje jakaś akcja"), "się" ("siebie", "sobie") i "-bąd" ("bądź"). Imię to mogło więc oznaczać "tego, kto żyje dzięki sobie". +Powiat nidzicki + +Powiat nidzicki – powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Nidzica. +Demografia. +Ludność w latach. +1975-1998 brak danych +Linki zewnętrzne. +Strona Starostwa Powiatowego w Nidzicy +Powiat bieszczadzki + +Powiat bieszczadzki – powiat w Polsce (województwo podkarpackie, wcześniej województwo krośnieńskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Ustrzyki Dolne. Jest to najrzadziej zaludniony powiat w Polsce (19,56 os/km²). +Granice powiatu. +Powiat swoim obszarem obejmuje najdalej wysunięty na południe skrawek Polski. Graniczy od zachodu z powiatem leskim (który w latach 1999-2002 należał administracyjne do pow. bieszczadzkiego) i na niewielkim odcinku z powiatem sanockim, od północy z powiatem przemyskim, natomiast od wschodu i południa granica powiatu pokrywa się z granica państwową z Ukrainą (obwód lwowski, obwód zakarpacki (rejon wielkoberezneński)). W jednym punkcie (szczyt Krzemieniec) (1221 m n.p.m.) powiat styka się z Republiką Słowacką, (powiat sninski). Do roku 1918 tereny obecnego powiatu graniczyły z węgierskim komitatem Ung. +Podział administracyjny. +Miasta. +W 2002 roku z części obszaru utworzono powiat leski. +Alodiusz + +Alodiusz — imię męskie urobione od frankońskiego "al-ôd", co oznacza "dziedzictwo, pełne posiadanie". Imię to łączy się także ze średniowiecznym łacińskim wyrazu "allodium", który oznaczał "majątek ziemski wolny od ciężarów i powinności lennych", a pochodzi również od tego samego wyrazu frankońskiego. W Kościele katolickim istnieje kilku świętych patronów tego imienia, m.in. św. Alodiusz, biskup Auxerre, następca św. Germana. +Alodiusz imieniny obchodzi 28 września. +Żeński odpowiednik: Alodia. +Erazm Gliczner + +Erazm Gliczner Skrzetuski znany też jako "Glicner, Glitzner, Glitznerus, Gliczner Znenensis, Znanius" (ur. w 1535, zm. 21 stycznia 1603 w Brodnicy) – polski pisarz, reformator religijny, teolog-polemista, pedagog, tłumacz, przywódca luteran wielkopolskich, brat działacza luterańskiego Mikołaja Glicznera. +Życiorys. +Urodził się w Laskach Wielkich pod Żninem jako syn mieszczański (ojciec Jakub, matka Dorota Ninińska). Po zdobyciu wykształcenia w cenionym gimnazjum humanistycznym Valentina Trozendorfa w Goldbergu (Złotoryi na Śląsku) odbył w latach 1554–1558 studia na uniwersytecie w Królewcu (tzw. Albertyna). Przez kilka lat był duchownym kalwińskim, by ostatecznie przejść na luteranizm. Od 1556 roku przebywał na dworze księcia Albrechta Hohenzollerna, po 1560 roku propagator luteranizmu w Polsce, od 1565 superintendent ewangelicko-augsburski w Wielkopolsce; następnie kaznodzieja ewangelicki przy kościele Marii Panny w Toruniu w latach 1567-1569. W latach 1569-1589 działał pod opieką rodziny Ostrorogów w Grodzisku Wielkopolskim, gdzie uruchomił szkołę, drukarnię i kursy teologiczne, od 1591 aż do 26 stycznia 1603 był ministrem zboru w Brodnicy, pełniąc jednocześnie funkcje pastora miejskiego i nadwornego kaznodziei Zofii Działyńskiej. Uczestniczył w zjeździe w Sandomierzu i był jednym z twórców ugody sandomierskiej z 1570. +Twórczość. +Autor pierwszego w Polsce traktatu pedagogicznego o wychowaniu dzieci – "Książki o wychowaniu dzieci barzo dobre, pożyteczne i potrzebne..." (1558), w którym opierając się na Biblii oraz dziełach starożytnych krytykował wychowanie dworskie i indywidualne, a zalecał wychowanie szkolne. Traktat ten znany jest także pod nazwą "Rozprawa Erazma Glicznera". Autor wyrażał w nim przekonanie, że dziecko stanowi największy skarb i szczęście rodziny, stąd dzieci powinny się rodzić w legalnych małżeństwach. Rodzice według niego powinni być autorytetem dla swoich dzieci. Był przeciwnikiem rozpieszczania dzieci, a zwolennikiem dyscypliny. Cenił wyżej wychowanie publiczne niż prywatne. Nauczyciel jego zdaniem powinien być prawym chrześcijaninem, zdolnym, sumiennym i wykształconym. +Human Error + +Human Error (właściwie "Rafał Kuczyński") (ur. 21 maja 1982) - polski undergroundowy twórca młodego pokolenia, zajmujący się muzyką elektroniczną, głównie ambientem. Komponuje przy użyciu komputera oraz klawiatury sterującej. Pierwsze produkcje datuje się około 2000 roku, zaś pierwszy oficjalny album ukazał się w roku 2002 nakładem wydawnictwa Requiem Records. +W 2003 roku wygrał konkurs na najlepszy remix utworu, organizowany przez serwis Syntezatory.pl. +Kolejny sukces odniósł w 2004 roku na organizowanym przez Dom Współpracy Polsko-Niemieckiej „Przeglądzie Europejskiej Sztuki Internetowej” w Katowicach, gdzie został zaproszony do zaprezentowania swojej twórczości. +Jego muzyka znalazła również uznanie wśród internetowych rozgłośni radiowych i można jej posłuchać w kilku mniej lub bardziej znanych radiach m.in. Cineversity Television, która promuje twórców niezależnych. +Od około 2005 roku zajmuje się komponowaniem muzyki ilustracyjnej do książek oraz filmów. Udźwiękowił m.in. film dokumentalny "TamiTu" w reżyserii Michała Dawidowicza oraz kilka krótkometrażowych animacji w reżyserii Marka Gołdy, z których „Awiator” wygrał pierwszą nagrodę w konkursie 4fun.tv na najlepsza krótkometrażową animację. Jest również autorem soundbooku do książki „Eden Park” autorstwa niemieckiego pisarza Jaume Hanbei. +Rok 2006 przyniósł nowe pomysły i projekty, m.in. Contemporary Electronic Soundscapes. Projekt ten realizowany jest przez użytkowników polskiego forum twórców i słuchaczy muzyki elektronicznej Studio Nagrań. Drugim ważnym projektem, nad którym obecnie pracuję jest udźwiękowienie czeskiej gry przygodowej Until Im Gone autorstwa Faraway Studios. Pod koniec roku 2006 jego muzyka była tłem do galerii Marka Kokorudz, młodego fotografa ze Stargardu Szczecińskiego. Wystawa miała miejsce 9-22 grudnia w Szczecinie. W tym roku dołączył również do muzycznego portalu MySpace. +Obecnie pracuje nad nowym, czwartym albumem o nazwie „Sudoku”. +Stanley Milgram + +Stanley Milgram (ur. 15 sierpnia 1933, zm. 20 grudnia 1984) – amerykański psycholog społeczny na uniwersytetach Yale, Harvarda oraz Nowojorskim. Z wykształcenia politolog. Na Uniwersytecie Yale przeprowadził eksperymenty posłuszeństwa wobec władzy (1963) oraz "świat jest mały". +Wychował się w Nowym Jorku. +W roku 1950 ukończył szkołę podstawową imienia Jamesa Monroe’a, razem z przyszłym psychologiem społecznym – Philipem Zimbardo. Absolwent Queens College. W trakcie studiów na Harvardzie, uczył się pod okiem Gordona Allporta, który wywarł silny wpływ na jego późniejsze prace oraz Solomona Ascha. +Kyzył + +Kyzył (ros. "Кызы́л") – miasto w Federacji Rosyjskiej, stolica Republiki Tuwa. Miejski kod OKATO to 93 401. +Informacje ogólne. +Miasto ma 102 tysiące mieszkańców (Rosjanie około 50%), co stanowi jedną trzecią ludności republiki. Na Kyzył przypada 70% produkcji przemysłowej Tuwy. Skupia się tu właściwie całe życie naukowe i kulturalne republiki. Ważniejszymi instytucjami są Tuwiński Uniwersytet Państwowy, republikańskie muzeum krajoznawcze Ałdan-Maadyr, teatr Kok-ooła. Miasto utrzymuje bezpośrednie połączenia lotnicze z Krasnojarskiem, Abakanem, Nowosybirskiem. +Geografia. +Miasto jest położone ok. 4700 km na wschód od Moskwy i ok. 301 km na wschód od Ak-Dowurak – innego ważnego ośrodka miejskiego w Tuwie. Kyzył znajduje się w geograficznym centrum Azji i łączą się tu, tworząc główny nurt Jeniseju (po tuwińsku "Uług-Chem"), dwa jego dopływy: Wielki Jenisej (tuw. "Bij-Chem") i Mały Jenisej (tuw. "Kaa-Chem"). Niedaleko miejsca połączenia obu rzek nad brzegiem stoi obelisk z napisami po: tuwińsku, rosyjsku i angielsku wskazujący środek Azji. +Historia. +Kyzył założony został w 1914 r. pod nazwą Biełocarsk, w 1918 przemianowano go na Chem-Bełdyr. Dzisiejszą nazwę – oznaczającą po tuwińsku ""czerwony"" – nadano miastu w 1926 r. +We wrześniu 2004 r. Kyzył obchodził 90. rocznicę przyznania praw miejskich oraz 60. rocznicę przyłączenia Tuwy do ZSRR. +Link zewnętrzny. +Lokalizacja na Google Maps +Jan II Dobry (książę opolski) + +Jan II Dobry (ur. ok. 1460 - zm. 27 marca 1532 w Raciborzu) – książę opolsko-niemodlińsko-strzelecki, w wyniku podziału w 1476 książę na Opolu, Strzelcach i Namysłowie, w Brzegu w latach 1476-1481, od 1494 Gliwice, od 1495 Toszek, od 1497 Niemodlin, od 1498 Bytom, od 1509 Koźle, od 1521 Racibórz. +Rodzice. +Jan II Dobry był synem księcia opolskiego Mikołaja I i Magdaleny, córki Ludwika II ks. legnicko-brzeskiego, był ostatnim przedstawicielem opolsko-raciborskiej linii Piastów. +Życie i działalność polityczna. +Rządy w księstwie opolskim objął po śmierci ojca i najstarszego brata Ludwika w 1476 r. Początkowo sprawował władzę wspólnie z młodszym bratem Mikołajem II. Wkrótce jednak zapewne jeszcze w 1476 r. bracia podzielili się swoją władzą w ten sposób, że Jan objął rządy w Opolu, Strzelcach i zastawionym książętom opolskim Brzegu, zaś Mikołaj w Niemodlinie. Podział ten był jednak tylko formalnością, gdyż obaj bracia w dalszym ciągu współdecydowali o losach całego dziedzictwa Mikołaja I. +W ciągu swojego długiego ponad siedemdziesięcioletniego życia Jan II doprowadził niewielkie księstwo opolskie do znacznego rozwoju gospodarczego. Nie bez znaczenia były również zakupy coraz to nowych terytoriów na Górnym Śląsku, przez co książę stał się władcą niezwykle potężnym. +Pierwsze lata rządów księcia opolskiego nie zapowiadały jednak tak dużego sukcesu. Wprawdzie już w 1477 r. razem z Mikołajem kupili od książąt oleśnickich ziemię prudnicką, lecz cztery lata później w 1481 r. na skutek nacisku książąt legnickich bracia musieli wyrazić zgodę na wykup zastawionego w 1450 r. ich ojcu Brzegu. +W 1497 r. zginął tragicznie – ścięty na rozkaz Kazimierza II cieszyńskiego, Henryka Ziębickiego i biskupa wrocławskiego Jana Rotha - brat Jana Mikołaj II Niemodliński. Śmierć Mikołaja bardzo dotknęła Jana, który na wieść o wydarzeniach w Nysie zaczął gromadzić wojska, by krwawo pomścić brata. Tylko na skutek zabiegów dyplomatycznych Władysława Jagiellończyka i w związku z brakiem poparcia wojny u sąsiadów księcia opolskiego, udało się zażegnać wybuch walk zbrojnych. +Powiększanie księstwa. +Kolejne lata Jan II Dobry poświęcił rozwojowi terytorialnemu swojego państewka. Dobre, gospodarne rządy umożliwiły bowiem księciu opolskiemu wykup od zadłużonych najczęściej książąt śląskich części ich dziedzictwa. W ten sposób w ciągu zaledwie kilkudziesięciu lat Jan II stał się właścicielem niemal większości Górnego Śląska. Poza jego władzą pozostał wyłącznie Cieszyn rządzony przez miejscową linię Piastów, oraz przyłączony do Polski Oświęcim. Rozrost księstwa następował powoli, ale nieustannie, a zakupy przypadały w większości już po zgonie Mikołaja: w 1494 r. kupił ziemię gliwicką, rok później księstwo toszeckie, w 1497 r. po zgonie Mikołaja dołączył do księstwa Niemodlin, w 1498 r. odkupił od Jana Starszego z Żerotina Bytom oraz zamek Świerklaniec z przyległościami, wreszcie w 1509 ziemię kozielską. +Zabiegi o Racibórz. +W ten sposób cała południowa granica oparła się o rządzone przez książąt z dynastii Przemyślidów księstwo raciborskie. Pierwsze umowy o ścisłej współpracy z rządzącym w Raciborzu księciem Janem V zostały zawarte jeszcze w 1478 r. Do ścisłej współpracy doszło jednak dopiero po śmierci Jana i jego synów Mikołaja VI oraz Jana VI w 1506 r., kiedy władzę osiągnął najmłodszy Walentyn. Najważniejszy układ został zawarty w 1511 r., kiedy bezdzietny Walentyn zgodził się zawrzeć z również bezdzietnym Janem układ o przeżycie. Układ potwierdzony przez króla czeskiego Władysława Jagiellończyka wszedł w życie po śmierci Walentyna w 1521 r. Dzięki połączeniu księstwa raciborskiego z opolskim państwo Jana II objęło swoim zasięgiem obszar od Ścinawy Niemodlińskiej i Nysy Kłodzkiej na zachodzie, Sudety i Wisłę na południu, i granicę z Polską na wschodzie i północy. Stanowiło to terytorium wielkości 12 000 kilometrów kwadratowych. +Jan II od początku był orędownikiem polskości i kultury polskiej, utrzymywał stały kontakt z królami polskimi Janem Olbrachtem, Aleksandrem Jagiellończykiem i Zygmuntem Starym. Istnieją nawet przypuszczenia, że książę opolski znał wyłącznie język polski oraz urzędowy na Śląsku czeski. +Książę raczej nie lubił opuszczać terytorium księstwa. Znany jest tylko jeden przypadek, ale za to dość niezwykły, wyjazdu Jana z kraju. Było to w 1476 r., kiedy Jan udał się do króla Apulii Ferdynanda po małżonkę dla króla węgierskiego Macieja Korwina. +Pasją Jana było polowanie w górnośląskich lasach. Na ten cel wydawał zresztą ogromne sumy pieniędzy. +Przywileje. +Jan II dbając o gospodarczy rozwój swojego władztwa wydawał liczne przywileje, z których największy rozgłos zyskał zawierający 72 artykuły Ordunek Gorny z 16 listopada 1528 r. Wydany w Opolu dokument był przywilejem gwareckim mającym na celu rozwój górnictwa kruszcowego, które wydatnie zasilało skarb książęcy. W zamian za przywileje dla miast i gwarków, książę otrzymywał część zysków z kopalni. Wtedy również powstały m.in. Tarnowskie Góry, które dzięki temu przywilejowi stały się jednym z większych miast Górnego Śląska. Na rok przed swoją śmiercią w 1531 r. Jan II wydał też przywilej ziemski, w którym brał m.in. w obronę chłopów przed uciskiem ze strony szlachty (tzw. Przywilej Hanuszowy). +Zabiegi o spadek. +Jan II nigdy się nie ożenił i nie miał następców. Powodem według wiarygodnych źródeł była impotencja. W związku z tym dwór książęcy w Opolu na wiele lat przed śmiercią Jana stał się miejscem rywalizacji różnych władców mających nadzieję na intratny spadek. Każda choroba Jana z miejsca powodowała ożywioną korespondencję między zainteresowanymi i ich nerwowe ruchy. Kandydatami do objęcia schedy po bezdzietnym księciu byli królowie czescy (po 1526 r. byli to Habsburgowie), burgrabia Pragi Zdenko Lew, Kazimierz II cieszyński i Fryderyk II legnicki. Początkowo najmniejsze szanse dawano jeszcze jednemu kandydatowi – księciu Jerzemu Hohenzollernowi. Potrafił on jednak uzyskać poparcie Ludwika Jagiellończyka, a zwłaszcza wejść w łaski starzejącego się Jana. Sprawa następstwa pogmatwała się wprawdzie po 1526 r. w związku ze śmiercią Ludwika i objęciem tronu czeskiego przez Ferdynanda I Habsburga. Dopiero układ praski z 17 czerwca 1531 i 183 333 guldenów przekonały króla czeskiego na postawienie na Jerzego Hohenzollerna. Habsburgom chodziło przede wszystkim, by cały olbrzymi majątek ruchomy Jana dostał się w ich ręce, co też istotnie Ferdynand zagwarantował sobie w układzie praskim. +Ostatni opolski Piast Jan II Dobry umarł bezpotomnie 27 marca 1532 w Raciborzu, a został pochowany w kościele św. Krzyża w Opolu. +Po jego śmierci księstwo opolsko-raciborskie dostało się w całości w ręce Jerzego Hohenzollerna. Majątek ruchomy zgodnie ze wcześniejszymi układami został natomiast wywieziony do Wiednia. +Carl van Vechten + +Carl van Vechten (ur. 17 czerwca 1880 w Cedar Rapids, zm. 21 grudnia 1964 w Nowym Jorku) – amerykański pisarz i fotograf. +Hurghada + +Hurghada (arab. الغردقة = "Al-Ghardaka", "Al Ghardaqah") – miasto we wschodnim Egipcie na wybrzeżu Morza Czerwonego, ośrodek administracyjny jednej z 29 egipskich muhafaz (prowincji gubernatorskich) Prowincja Morza Czerwonego, jeden z największych w Egipcie ośrodków turystycznych o znaczeniu międzynarodowym (Riwiera Morza Czerwonego). Nazwa miasta pochodzi od czerwonych jagód krzewu ("الغرقد أو الغردق") z rodzaju łużnik ("Nitraria"), z którego Beduini robią orzeźwiający napój. +Geografia. +Hurghada leży ok. 500 km na południowy wschód od Kairu i rozciąga się wąskim pasem wzdłuż pustynnego wybrzeża Morza Czerwonego na długości około 40 km. Liczy ok. 161 tys. mieszkańców, w tym kilkanaście tys. cudzoziemców. W pobliżu znajdują się jedne z najpiękniejszych na świecie rafy koralowe. W mieście rozwija się głównie turystyka, handel, budownictwo i inne usługi. Znajduje się tu także dworzec autobusowy (dzielnica Dahar) i międzynarodowy port lotniczy, obsługujący ok. 6 mln pasażerów rocznie, posiadający połączenia czarterowe m.in. z polskimi miastami (Katowice, Łódź, Poznań, Szczecin, Warszawa, Wrocław, Gdańsk, Kraków, Rzeszów i Bydgoszcz). +Historia. +Hurghada powstała nad Zatoką Sueską z brytyjskiej osady poszukiwaczy ropy naftowej (od ok. 1913 r.) i początkowo odgrywała rolę osady rybackiej. Miasto zostało założone na początku XX w. W roku 1930 powstała osada mieszkaniowa pracowników "Narodowego Instytutu Oceanografii i Rybołówstwa". Od wczesnych lat 80. XX w. po pokoju egipsko-izraelskim podpisanym w Camp David zaczęła się rozwijać jako wielki międzynarodowy ośrodek turystyczny dzięki arabskim i zagranicznym inwestorom. +Ciekawostki. +W południowej części Hurghady znajduje się hotel "Alf Leila Wa Leila", nawiązujący architektonicznie do pałaców z baśni "Tysiąca i jednej nocy", tu każdego wieczora odbywają się przedstawienia opowiadające o dawnym życiu Egipcjan, a także o historii Egiptu. +Hotel "Coral Beach" posiada jedyną nie tylko w Egipcie, ale też na całym Bliskim Wschodzie niewielką plażę dla nudystów. +Klimat. +Hurghada ma klimat zwrotnikowy suchy - przez cały rok świeci słońce; w najchłodniejszym miesiącu - lutym temperatura powietrza w dzień wynosi +23 °C do +25 °C i więcej (temp. wody w morzu +20 °C do +22 °C), w najcieplejszym miesiącu - sierpniu - temperatura powietrza wynosi powyżej +35 °C (temp. wody powyżej +28 °C). Zimą od morza wieje silny zimny wiatr powodujący duże amplitudy temperatury dobowej. +Ośrodek turystyczno-krajoznawczy. +Miasto to również baza wypadowa do innych atrakcji turystycznych, m.in. Kairu, Gizy, Luksoru, Karnaku, Doliny Królów, Abu Simbel, Pustynie Arabską, wysp na Morzu Czerwonym. Do Szarm el-Szejk można dostać się katamaranem lub samolotem, zwiedzając regionu Synaju (m.in. górę Synaj i Klasztor Świętej Katarzyny). Według "ULC" w 2010 roku był to najpopularniejszy kierunek lotniczej podróży turystycznej z Polski - 558,5 tys. turystów. +Wyciek ropy w 2010 roku. +14 czerwca 2010 w okolicach miasta - prawdopodobnie z tankowca - nastąpił wyciek ropy. Wybrzeże zostało tam zanieczyszczone na długości 150 kilometrów. W pięciu miejscach ropa uszkodziła rafy koralowe. Powstało też zagrożenie dla pobliskiego rezerwatu przyrody morskiej. +Precedens + +Precedens (z łac. "praecedens" – poprzedzający) – wyrok sądowy mogący wpływać na treść orzeczeń wydawanych w sprawach późniejszych. +"De facto" i "de iure". +Obowiązek wynika z zasady "stare decisis", zgodnie z którą sprawy raz już w pewien sposób rozstrzygnięte nie powinny być rozstrzygane inaczej w przyszłości. +Występowanie precedensów "de facto" przypisuje się kontynentalnym systemom prawnym ("civil law"), natomiast precedensów "de iure" systemom prawnym "common law", a więc przede wszystkim Wielkiej Brytanii i Stanom Zjednoczonym. +Kultura anglosaska. +W krajach kultury anglosaskiej (głównie Wielka Brytania i Stany Zjednoczone) precedensy stanowią nadal obok prawa ustawowego (statutowego) podstawowe źródło prawa. Dotyczy to w szczególności tradycyjnych gałęzi prawa cywilnego jak prawo kontraktów i deliktów jak i dziedzin prawa karnego. Ponadto mianem precedensów określane są również wyroki interpretujące postanowienia ustaw i innych aktów prawa stanowionego. Z tym jednak zastrzeżeniem, że o ile wyroki interpretujące ustawy są ściśle wiążące w sprawach późniejszych, o tyle sądowa interpretacja postanowień konstytucji (stanowych i federalnej) nie stanowi już dużej przeszkody do przyjęcia odmiennych rozwiązań w przyszłości. +Z reguły pod pojęciem anglosaskiego precedensu kryje się jego "ratio decidendi", a więc reguła precedensu (tzw. rule-model precedensu). Możliwe są jednak inne alternatywne ujęcia jego istoty, jak choćby model z zasad, model rezultatu, model z analogii czy nawet bardziej rozbudowane teorie jak teoria Ronalda Dworkina. Przy czym zwykło się przyjmować, że rule-model jest bardziej typowy dla Wielkiej Brytanii a model z analogii dla Stanów Zjednoczonych. +Polska. +W polskim porządku prawnym oprócz zasad prawnych Sądu Najwyższego oraz wyroków interpretacyjnych Trybunału Konstytucyjnego może być mowa jedynie o precedensach "de facto". Z tym jednak zastrzeżeniem, że używanie słowa precedens poza anglosaskim porządkiem prawnym jest zawsze narażone na możliwość spowodowania błędnego wrażenia co do tożsamości systemów common i civil law, które faktycznie różnią się znacznie bardziej niż tylko wiążącym lub niewiążącym charakterem zapadających w nich orzeczeń sądowych. Również nazwa prawa precedensowego dotyczy wyłącznie anglosaskiego porządku prawnego i nie może być używana w kontekście prawa civil law. +Znaczenia potoczne. +Nie należy mylić precedensu z wyrokiem sądowym w sprawie, dla której nie wydano jeszcze wcześniejszego orzeczenia; takie potoczne intuicje znaczeniowe wypaczają bowiem sens pojęcia precedensu. Precedensem w użyciu prawniczym może być tylko taki wyrok, który może później w jakiś sposób wpływać na wykładnie i stosowanie prawa. Jest to zupełnie niezależne od tego, czy przed nim wydano już jakieś rozstrzygnięcie w danej kwestii prawnej czy też nie. Nie zmienia to jednak faktu, iż w języku potocznym o wyroku wprowadzającym odmienne niż poprzednio rozwiązania lub usuwającym poważne kontrowersje co do treści dotychczasowego prawa mówi się nieraz, że ma charakter precedensowy lub po prostu, że to prawdziwy precedens. +W mowie potocznej "precedens" oznacza nietypowe zdarzenie lub decyzję, która może się zdarzyć wielokrotnie w przyszłości. +Wydarzeniem bez precedensu określamy takie, które wcześniej nie miało miejsca. +Makrofag + +Makrofag – komórka tkanki łącznej, wywodząca się z komórek prekursorowych pochodzących ze szpiku kostnego. Bezpośrednio wywodzi się z monocytów, które opuściły krew. +Makrofagi dzielą się na osiadłe i wędrujące. Głównym ich zadaniem jest funkcja obronna organizmu: fagocytoza oraz synteza różnych produktów biorących udział w procesach immunologicznych. Przeciętny makrofag może sfagocytować do 100 bakterii. +Zbroja + +Zbroja – część pasywnego uzbrojenia ochronnego wojowników, stosowana od starożytności do ok. XVII wieku. W Polsce przetrwały aż do wieku XVIII jako zbroje husarskie i kolczugi pancernych. +Elementy zbroi pojawiały się później, jednak były to odosobnione przypadki. Na XVIII oraz XIX-wiecznych polach bitew walczyli ciężkozbrojni jeźdźcy, kirasjerzy, na wyposażeniu których były kirysy oraz skórzane bądź żelazne hełmy – tzw. kaski. Podczas I wojny światowej uprzywilejowani oficerowie zaopatrzeni byli w tzw. pancerze okopowe, które miały za zadanie osłaniać dowódców przed m.in. pociskami szrapnelowymi. Pod koniec XX wieku wrócono do idei wykorzystywania pancerzy w uzbrojeniu żołnierzy w postaci płyt ceramicznych lub tytanowych uzupełniających kamizelki kuloodporne. +Termin "zbroja" jest nieprecyzyjny, ponieważ niektórzy bronioznawcy (np. Andrzej Nowakowski w "Uzbrojenie średniowieczne w Polsce") wprowadzają podział na dwa odrębne typy uzbrojenia ochronnego: pancerza jako ochrony elastycznej, oraz zbroi wykonanej ze sztywnych elementów. Ów podział jest dość płynny, zaś w obiegowym znaczeniu oba pojęcia są tożsame. +Podział ze względu na typ. +Oprócz zbroi dla ludzi wytwarzano także zbroje dla zwierząt tzw. ladry dla koni +Chakasja + +Chakasja ("Республика Хакасия") – autonomiczna republika w Federacji Rosyjskiej. +Geografia. +Republika położona jest w południowo-zachodniej części Wschodniej Syberii, w lewej części basenu Jeniseju, na wysoczyźnie Sajano-Ałtajskiej oraz w kotlinie Chakasko-Minusinskiej. +Od północnego zachodu graniczy z obwodem kemerowskim, od południa i południowego zachodu z republikami Ałtaj i Tuwa, od północy z Krajem Krasnojarskim. +Demografia. +Najliczniejszą grupą narodowościową w Chakasji są Rosjanie, stanowiący ok. 80 % mieszkańców. Narodowość tytularna republiki - Chakasi stanowi obecnie ok 11-procentową mniejszość, co wywołuje obawy o jej przyszłość. Język chakaski odgrywa w republice wyraźnie drugorzędną rolę, nie wytrzymując silnej konkurencji ze strony języka rosyjskiego. +Gospodarka. +Chakasja to ważny obszar rolniczy. Uprawiana jest zwłaszcza pszenica. Hodowla nastawiona jest na przemysł mleczarski, ważne miejsce w rolnictwie republiki zajmuje także hodowla owiec. Równocześnie umiejscowione są w niej zakłady przemysłowe. Prowadzi się wydobycie węgla, rozwinięta jest przeróbka drewna. Na przemysł Chakasji składają się również zakłady metalurgiczne, huty stali, prowadzone jest wydobycie molibdenu. Rozwinięty jest przemysł elektroenergetyczny, z Sajano-Szuszenską hydroelektrownią, najefektywniejszym tego typu obiektem w Rosji. +Historia. +Pierwszy organizm państwowy na terytorium południowej Syberii powstał około IV-III w. p.n.e. Kroniki starochińskie jego założycieli określali mianem ludu Dinlin, a samo państwo Dinlin-go. Około 201 r. p.n.e. państwo ludu Dinlin zostało rozbite przez wojska Xiongnu. Na obszar kotliny Chakasko-Minusinskiej zaczęli zaś napływać tureckojęzyczni Kirgizi. Stali się oni arystokracją w nowym społeczeństwie, zdominowanym dotąd przez ludność chińską. Mimo licznych napaści ze strony agresywnych sąsiadów (kaganatów tureckich i ujgurskich), państwo Kirgizów jenisejskich zdołało obronić niezależność aż do XIII w. Ich państwo, a wraz z nim oryginalną kulturę zniszczyło dopiero imperium mongolskie, rządzone przez Czyngis-chana i jego potomków. Autochtoniczna ludność poddawana była wyniszczeniu. W XVII wieku, kiedy zaczęli pojawiać się tu Rosjanie, ziemie należące do dzisiejszej Chakasji podzielone były na cztery niewielkie księstwa. Za oficjalną datę wejścia Chakasji w skład Imperium Rosyjskiego można uważać 20 sierpnia 1727, kiedy między Chinami a Rosją zawarty został pakt graniczny, mówiący o tym, iż wszystkie ziemie na północ od Sajanów przechodzą we władanie Rosji, a na południe- Imperium Chińskiego. Faktyczną kontrolę nad Chakasją Rosja przejęła dopiero w latach 60. XVIII w., kiedy zaczęła tam rozmieszczać kozackie garnizony. Miały one stanowić obronę przed Chinami, które w 1758 zawładnęły Dżungarią i stanowiły realne niebezpieczeństwo dla ziem rosyjskich. W 1923 powstał ujezd chakaski. W 1930 stworzono Chakaski Obwód Autonomiczny, w 1991 przekształcony w Chakaską ASRR. Od 1992 istnieje Republika Chakasji, mająca status jednego z podmiotów Federacji Rosyjskiej. +Podział administracyjny. +5 największych chakaskich miast stanowi miasta wydzielone; pozostały obszar republiki podzielony jest na 8 rejonów. +Tablice rejestracyjne. +Tablice pojazdów zarejestrowanych w Chakasji mają oznaczenie 19 w prawym górnym rogu nad flagą Rosji i literami RUS. +Polimeryzacja żyjąca + +Polimeryzacja żyjąca – rodzaj polimeryzacji łańcuchowej, w której udało się całkowicie wyeliminować wszystkie reakcje terminacji (zakończania łańcucha polimerów) a szybkość reakcji inicjowania jest przynajmniej o jeden rząd większa od reakcji propagacji (wzrostu łańcuchów polimeru). +Przebieg polimeryzacji żyjącej i jej stopień polimeryzacji. +Polimeryzacja żyjąca jest bardzo szczególnym przypadkiem polimeryzacji łańcuchowej. W zwykłej polimeryzacji łańcuchowej wszystkie trzy procesy – inicjowanie, propagacja i terminacja zachodzą cały czas równocześnie w trakcie jej trwania. Oznacza to, że w każdej chwili jej trwania wzrost jednych łańcuchów polimeru właśnie się zaczyna, innych jest akurat w trakcie, a jeszcze inne łańcuchy są już nieaktywne na skutek zajścia terminacji. Wszystko to powoduje, że w zasadzie stopień polimeryzacji powstającego polimeru jest w miarę stały w czasie trwania reakcji i niemal nie zależy od aktualnego stopnia przereagowania monomeru. +W polimeryzacji żyjącej wszelkie reakcje terminacji są wyeliminowane, co znaczy, że raz powstałe centra aktywne mogą istnieć w nieskończoność. Raz „uruchomione” rosnące łańcuchy polimerów z centrum aktywnym na ich końcach przyłączają kolejne cząsteczki monomerów aż do momentu gdy ich zabraknie w układzie reakcji. Jednak nawet wtedy, polimeryzację żyjącą można wznowić przez dodanie kolejnej porcji monomeru, która jest szybko „pochłaniana” przez wciąż „żyjący polimer”. +Właśnie ta cecha umożliwia prostą syntezę kopolimerów blokowych. Aby otrzymać tego rodzaju kopolimer, najpierw przeprowadza się polimeryzację żyjącą z jednym monomerem, a po jego wyczerpaniu dodaje się po prostu drugi monomer, po wyczerpaniu którego można dodać jeszcze trzeci, czwarty i więcej. +Dodatkowo w polimeryzacji żyjącej, reakcja inicjowania ma miejsce tylko na samym początku jej przebiegu, gdyż jej szybkość jest wielokrotnie większa od szybkości propagacji. Powoduje to, że w zasadzie wszystkie łańcuchy polimerów startują „naraz” i w równym tempie powiększają swój stopień polimeryzacji co skutkuje bardzo małym jej rozrzutem statystycznym. Można powiedzieć, że długość wszystkich łańcuchów polimeru jest w tej reakcji niemal jednakowa. +Na skutek takiego przebiegu polimeryzacji, stopień polimeryzacji powstających polimerów jest dokładnie równy liczbie cząsteczek (moli) monomeru podzielonej przez liczbę cząsteczek (moli) inicjatora. Dodatkowo, wzrost stopnia polimeryzacji wzrasta liniowo w czasie, co umożliwia kontrolę stopnia polimeryzacji poprzez „zabicie” reakcji w ściśle określonym momencie, poprzez dodanie do układu związku powodującego terminację (zakończenie) reakcji. +Polimeryzacje pseudożyjące. +Polimeryzacja żyjąca zachodząca idealnie jest bardzo trudna do przeprowadzenia. Gdy pewne cechy polimeryzacji żyjącej są zachowane procesy takie nazywa się polimeryzacją pseudożyjącą. W reakcjach takich szybkość inicjowania może być np. tak samo szybka, albo nawet wolniejsza niż reakcja propagacji, co powoduje, że powstające łańcuchy polimeru mają różną długość, ale centra aktywne na ich końcach „nie giną”. W innych reakcjach pseudożyjących reakcje terminacji co prawda zachodzą, ale są odwracalne i pozostają w równowadze z aktywnymi centrami, lub aktywne centra są nieustannie odtwarzane z użyciem kokatalizatora. +Zastosowania polimeryzacji żyjącej. +Polimeryzacja żyjąca jest bardzo trudna do przeprowadzenia i wymaga niezwykle ostrego reżimu technologicznego. Wszelkie zanieczyszczenia obecne w układzie reakcji powodują zwykle reakcje terminacji. Ich wyeliminowanie wymaga więc stosowania ultra czystych rozpuszczalników i monomerów. Polimeryzację żyjącą daje się przeprowadzić wyłącznie w przypadku polimeryzacji kationowej i anionowej. W przypadku polimeryzacji wolnorodnikowej i koordynacyjnej możliwe jest jedynie osiągnięcie warunków reakcji pseudożyjącej. +Wszystko to powoduje że polimeryzację żyjącą przeprowadza się tylko w sytuacji gdy potrzebne są szczególne własności otrzymywanego polimeru, które są ściśle zależne od jego stopnia polimeryzacji. Jest ona stosowana do produkcji kopolimerów o własnościach amfifilowych, wzorców polimerów, włókien o wyjątkowych własnościach mechanicznych, olejów hydraulicznych do maszyn precyzyjnych, tworzyw o dużej przezroczystości, dodatków do środków smarujących o szczególnie dobrych własnościach itp. +Karl Menger + +Karl Menger (ur. 13 stycznia 1902 r. w Wiedniu, zm. 5 października 1985 r. w Chicago w stanie Illinois w USA), austriacki matematyk, jeden z twórców teorii wymiaru, znany z konstrukcji kostki Mengera. +Menger kończył gimanzajum w Wiedniu razem z Wolfgangiem Paulim, a następnie rozpoczął studia z fizyki na uniwersytecie. Po jednym z wykładów matematycznych Hahna poświęconego nowemu podejściu do określenia pojęcia krzywej w matematyce Menger porzucił fizykę i poświęcił się matematyce. +Praca nad pojęciem krzywej doprowadziła Mengera do koncepcji wymiaru analogicznej do opracowanej nieco wcześniej przez Urysohna, lecz niezależnie od niego. Na podstawie uzyskanych wyników w roku 1924 obronił doktorat z matematyki. Rok później wyjechał do Amsterdamu na zaproszenie Brouwera i spędził tam dwa lata. W roku 1927 wrócił do Wiednia, gdzie objął katedrę geometrii. Interesował się też filozofią, był jednym z czternastu uczonych, którzy opublikowali w 1929 roku manifest Koła Wiedeńskiego. W roku 1938 w związku z sytuacją polityczną w Austrii wyemigrował do USA, gdzie uzyskał posadę na uniwersytecie w Notre Dame. Zorganizował tam kolokwium, którego jednym z uczestników był Kurt Gödel, ale nie udało mu się namówić Gödla do przyjęcia posady uniwersyteckiej w Notre Dame. +Z upływem czasu zainteresowania Mengera powiększały się o nowe dziedziny matematyki – pracował nad zagadnieniami geometrii hiperbolicznej i teorii funkcji. Jego prace z geometrii nie wywarły jednak wpływu na matematykę amerykańską. +W roku 1948 Menger przeniósł się do Instytutu Technologii w Chicago i pozostał tam aż do śmierci. +CN Tower + +Wieża CN (ang. CN Tower, dokładniej Canada's National Tower) – do niedawna najwyższa wolnostojąca budowla na świecie (rekord został pobity przez budowany Burdż Chalifa 13 września 2007 roku), o wysokości 553,33 m, znajdująca się w Toronto, w Kanadzie. Otwarta w 1976. Nazwa pochodzi od przedsiębiorstwa kolejowego Canadian National (CN), które wybudowało wieżę, lecz następnie pozbyło się jej w latach 90., co spowodowało nieznaczną zmianę oficjalnej nazwy z zachowaniem skrótu. +Działa jako wieża telewizyjna, ma ogólnodostępne tarasy widokowe, obrotową restaurację i kompleks rozrywkowy. Położona jest w centrum miasta, na styku Entertainment District, Financial District i Harbourfront. Obok wieży stoi Rogers Centre – pierwszy na świecie stadion z całkowicie odsłanianą kopułą. +CN Tower to najbardziej widoczny symbol i atrakcja miasta. Wieżę widać z każdego punktu miasta i z bardzo daleka poza nim. CN Tower przez ponad 25 lat był najwyższą wolnostojącą budowlą, wpisaną oficjalnie do Księgi Guinnessa. W pogodny dzień ze szczytu można dostrzec wodospad Niagara oraz Stany Zjednoczone po drugiej stronie jeziora Ontario. +Okoliczności powstania i budowa. +Projekt CN Tower powstał w lokalnych firmach John Andrews Architects i Webb Zerafa Menkes Housden Architects, obiekt budowały firmy kanadyjskie, badania przeprowadzali naukowcy z Uniwersytetu Toronto. +Podczas projektowania budowli architekci nie mieli na celu bicia rekordów, stało się to niejako przy okazji, ze względu na kłopoty komunikacyjne. W Toronto, po rozbudowie Financial District, gdzie umiejscowiło się wiele drapaczy chmur, sygnały telewizyjne zaczęły odbijać się od ich powierzchni i znacznie pogorszył się odbiór programów. Telewizja kablowa oraz satelitarna nie była jeszcze popularna, a powszechnym rozwiązaniem było umieszczanie anten na odpowiednio wysokich budynkach. Po zbudowaniu wieży Toronto i okolica cieszy się najlepszym odbiorem sygnałów radiowych i TV w całej Ameryce. +W trakcie budowy architekci zaproponowali "dodanie" do projektu paru metrów, tak, aby przewyższyć wieżę telewizyjną Ostankino w Moskwie. Dodano także jedno piętro w kształcie obwarzanka, ponieważ pierwotny projekt nie mieścił przekaźników dla wszystkich chętnych. +Ta bardzo wysoka budowla, wbrew pozorom, nie jest głęboko zapuszczona w ziemię. Po badaniach okazało się, że do utrzymania konstrukcji wystarczy nieco ponad 15 m głębokości, bez kotwiczenia fundamentów. +Ponieważ struktura wieży to 3 wielkie betonowe nogi, układanie mieszanki betonowej musiało odbywać się w technologii ciągłej. Przez 24 godziny na dobę, 365 dni w roku struktura wznosiła się ku niebu. A ponieważ tamtejsze zimy potrafią być mroźne, dostarczany beton musiał być podgrzewany. CN Tower budowano przez 40 miesięcy. Zużyto 40 523,8 m³ betonu. Waga całego obiektu sięga 130 000 ton. Tak wielki obiekt kosztował 63 miliony ówczesnych dolarów (dziś to wartość ok. 300 milionów). +102-metrowy maszt na szczycie wieży był montowany po kawałku, przy pomocy potężnego latającego dźwigu – Sikorsky S64E Skycrane, nazwanego "Olgą". Zajęło to kolejne 27 dni. Załoga – według różnych źródeł – wniosła od 40 do 44 segmentów masztu. Amerykańska załoga uczestnicząca w tej jedynej w swoim rodzaju operacji wspomina, że mieszkańcy Toronto uważali ich niemal za bohaterów. Oferowano darmowe bilety na mecze hokejowe, organizowano wycieczki turystyczne. +Ustawianie pierwszego fragmentu anteny nie obyło się bez kłopotów, gdy śmigłowiec nagle przemieścił się, co spowodowało wygięcie łącza. Robotnicy odspawali zaczepiony fragment, który pozostał połączony ze śmigłowcem, a ten wylądował jedynie z 14-minutowym zapasem paliwa. Gdy montowano ostatni fragment masztu, 2 kwietnia 1975, tłumy mieszkańców wyległy na ulice i do pobliskiego parku, by obserwować ten historyczny moment. Jeden z ekipy robotników, Paul Mitchell, po udanym przykręceniu ostatniej śruby, wdrapał się na sam szczyt i zatańczył radosny taniec na "dachu świata", bez żadnych zabezpieczeń, na przestrzeni na której ledwie mógł ustać. +Obiekt budowały m.in. koleje Canadian National (stąd skrót CN Tower), ale w 1995 roku własność została przeniesiona do "Canada Lands Company" i nie może być już odsprzedawana. Obecna oficjalna nazwa, "Canada's National Tower", oznacza "Narodową Wieżę Kanady". CN Tower jest dzierżawiona obecnie przez "TrizecHahn Corporation". +Wiejący wiatr powoduje niewielkie, zamierzone odchyły konstrukcji. Przy wietrze wiejącym z prędkością 190 km/h poziomy restauracji od pionu odchylają się o około 30 cm (chociaż w Sky Podzie, opisanym poniżej, wyraźne kołysanie da się odczuć już przy wietrze o prędkości 60 km/h, w przypadku odchyłów od osi na odległość większą niż 1 metr ze względów bezpieczeństwa poziom jest zamykany). Podwójne kuloodporne szyby w wyższych partiach wieży mają 6,4 i 9,5 mm grubości. +Wykorzystanie CN Tower. +Wieżę rocznie odwiedza ponad 2 miliony osób. Z myślą o nich przed paru laty kosztem 26 milionów rozbudowano jej podstawę, mieszczącą kawiarnie, sklepy, symulatory i centrum edukacyjne. Na zewnątrz jest ściana do wspinaczki i minigolf. +Największą atrakcją jest wjazd na samą górę. By dostać się na pierwszy poziom podróżuje się oszkloną windą z szybkością 6 m/s (zmniejszaną przy silnych wiatrach do 1,5 m/s). Podróż na 346 m wysokości trwa ok. minuty. Każda winda zawieszona jest na 8 linach, z których każda mogłaby utrzymać kabinę samodzielnie. +Obok 6 wind biegną najdłuższe stalowe schody świata, z 2579 stopniami, jednak oprócz specjalnych okazji, nie są dostępne dla turystów. Jedną z okazji jest coroczny bieg "United Way", z którego dochód przeznaczony jest na cele charytatywne. Około 8 tysięcy osób wchodzi wtedy na sam szczyt, po dostępnych 1769 stopniach. Rekordowe podejście z 1989 roku trwało 7 minut i 52 sekundy. Do swojego rekordu schody wykorzystał także kaskader Roger Brown – w 1990 "spadał" po nich przez 1 godzinę 51 minut. +Tak niezwykły obiekt skłania do bicia różnych nietypowych rekordów. Był więc rzut jajkiem, wejście "człowieka pająka", wspinanie się po linie, najdłużej trwające tyrolskie jodłowanie (7 godzin 29 minut), wjazd po schodach motorem, wyskakiwanie ze spadochronem, itp. +Samą CN Tower może pochwalić się paroma niepobitymi rekordami wysokości. W 2000 roku odpalono tu najwyższe sztuczne ognie. Obrotowa restauracja 360, wykonująca pełny obrót co 72 minuty, znajduje się na wysokości 351 metrów i posiada najwyżej położoną "piwnicę winną". Kawiarnia "Horizon's Cafe" położona jest na 346 metrach i gości 500 osób jednorazowo, a "Sky Pod" to najwyżej położona galeria obserwacyjna – znajduje się na wysokości 447 metrów. Widok z galerii sięga na odległość 160 km. Na 342. metrze wysokości znajduje się z kolei szklana podłoga o powierzchni 23,8 m², przez którą widać powierzchnię. Szklana posadzka skonstruowana jest z materiału o wytrzymałości pięciokrotnie przekraczającej normy. +Alberto Giglioli + +Alberto Giglioli (4 lutego 1924 w Buonconvento - 3 stycznia 2005), włoski duchowny katolicki, biskup. +Studiował w seminarium archidiecezjalnym w Sienie, przyjął święcenia kapłańskie 29 czerwca 1947 z rąk ówczesnego arcybiskupa Sieny, Mario Toccabelliego. Uzupełniał wykształcenie w Papieskim Instytucie Biblijnym w Rzymie, gdzie specjalizował się w egzegezie Pisma Świętego. Po powrocie do archidiecezji Siena wykładał problematykę biblijną i teologię dogmatyczną w tamtejszym seminarium, był również proboszczem w dwóch parafiach oraz delegatem arcybiskupa przy archidiecezjalnej Akcji Katolickiej. W 1967 został rektorem seminarium. +24 kwietnia 1970 został mianowany biskupem pomocniczym Sieny, ze stolicą tytularną Bitylius. Konsekracji dokonał 13 czerwca 1970 kolejny arcybiskup sieneński, dominikanin Ismaele Castellano. Po pięciu latach Giglioni został przeniesiony na samodzielną diecezję, od 7 października 1975 łączył w sobie unią personalną Chiusi-Pienza oraz Montepulciano. W nowych diecezjach aktywnie wspierał działalność Akcji Katolickiej oraz misje. Za jego rządów biskupich nastąpiła reforma administracyjna i obie diecezje zostały 30 września 1986 połączone w diecezję Montepulciano-Chiesi-Pienza. +Po prawie 30 latach posługi biskupiej i osiągnięciu wieku emerytalnego przeszedł w stan spoczynku 25 marca 2000. Zastąpił go franciszkanin Rodolfo Cetoloni, któremu odchodzący biskup, wspólnie z kardynałem Silvano Piovanellim, udzielił sakry w maju 2000. +Zmarł w styczniu 2005. +Motywacja zewnętrzna + +Motywacja zewnętrzna (ang. extrinsic motivation) – angażowanie się w daną aktywność dla osiągnięcia konsekwencji zewnętrznych (w odróżnieniu od motywacji wewnętrznej). +Zachowanie jest tutaj tylko instrumentem osiągnięcia czegoś innego. +Istnieją przesłanki do twierdzenia, że gdy człowiek rozumie swoje działanie jako motywowane zewnętrznie, to nie zauważa jednocześnie, że może ono być motywowane wewnętrznie, co prowadzi do utraty przyjemności. +Taki typ motywacji wykorzystuje się np. w leczeniu alkoholików. Motywatorem zewnętrznym może być na przykład wyrok sądu kierujący na leczenie, w trakcie terapii następuje przeformułowanie wartości i poczucie, że warto leczyć się dla siebie. +Siemimił + +Siemimił, Siemmił – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Siem(i)-" (psł. "*sěmьja" ma m.in. znaczenia "rodzina, ród; czeladź, służba, własność") i "-mił" ("miły"). Imię to oznacza "miły swojej rodzinie". +Zakon Rycerzy św. Łazarza + +Zakon Rycerzy i Szpitalników świętego Łazarza z Jerozolimy (łac. "Ordo Militaris et Hospitalis Sancti Lazari Hierosolymitani"), potoczne nazwy: lazaryci, łazarzyści, lazarianie – jedna z najstarszych chrześcijańskich instytucji szpitalnych, w skład której wchodzą duchowni przeorzy i kapelani oraz kawalerowie i damy, będący świeckimi członkami, oddanymi życiu w zgodzie z zasadami chrześcijańskiej wiary i miłosierdzia wobec innych. +Zakon istnieje jako instytucja "in pleno jure" (łac. w pełni praw), założona jako zakon rycerski na podstawie prawa kanonicznego ze stanowiskiem wybieralnego wielkiego mistrza. Aktualnie zakon jako niezawisła instytucja ponadnarodowa jest także rozpoznany państwowo m.in. przez: Austrię, Australię, Boliwię, Chorwację, Dominikanę, Estonię, Hiszpanię, Kanadę, Luksemburg, MacedonięNową Zelandię, Rosję, RPA, USA, Węgry i Komisję Europejską. Poza tymi krajami insygnia zakonne mogą być noszone do munduru wojskowego także w Australii, Czechach, Meksyku, Norwegii, Szwecji, Włoszech i na Malcie wraz z odznaczeniami państwowymi. W 2007 na podstawie umowy z Kancelarią Legii Honorowej Zakon w pełni swych spraw został rozpoznany we Francji. W Polsce mogą być noszone do mundurów po uzyskaniu personalnej zgody MON. +Zakon św. Łazarza jako instytucja kościelna posiada dwie religijne jurysdykcje. W Austrii egzystuje na zasadzie Prawa kanonicznego § 708 CIC jako „Pia unio”, co zostało potwierdzone przez Konferencję Episkopatu Austrii 6-8 kwietnia 1976 i bullę kardynała Franciszka Koeniga z 15 grudnia 1977 (Z. 1202-77). W efekcie władze religijne Zakonu w Austrii wybierane są przez Generalną Kapitułę są zatwierdzane przez Kościół Katolicki na zasadzie Konkordatu z 1933 i ustawy państwowej z 21 czerwca 1980. Także w Hiszpanii prymas, kardynał Marceli González Martín i Duchowy Przeor Zakonu zatwierdził swoją bullą z 18 marca 1984 tamtejszy Wielki Przeorat jako instytucję kościelną, w ramach czego Zakon otrzymał odnowienie statusu organizacji konwentualnej w Królestwie Hiszpanii (wraz z zakonnym Konwentem św. Urszuli w Toledo). +Historia. +Początki. +Według czternastowiecznej legendy początków Zakonu należy doszukiwać się w bractwie powstałym już w r. 72 n.e. Miało ono na celu obronę przed poganami prześladowanych za wiarę chrześcijan. Niektórzy historycy za fundatora i duchowego ojca Zakonu uważają świętego Bazylego, który w IV w. na rzymskim wschodzie rozpoczął na szeroką skalę prewencję i szerzenie ochrony zdrowia. Wtedy to zaczęły powstawać – nowoczesne jak na tamte czasy – szpitale dla ofiar trądu. +Faktycznie zakon został założony w Ziemi Świętej podczas I wyprawy krzyżowej w 1098 przez Gérarda de Martigues, zwierzchnika wszystkich instytucji szpitalnych w Jerozolimie. Zakon swą nazwę wziął od biblijnego Łazarza, patrona trędowatych, i jemu dedykował większość swych szpitali i kościołów. +Z początku był to zakon szpitalny, konieczna jednak stała się ochrona hospicjów przed niewiernymi i rabusiami, dlatego została utworzona milicja złożona z trędowatych rycerzy-pacjentów, u których choroba nie była jeszcze zbyt zaawansowana, (później jednak zbrojne ramię zakonu tworzyli także zdrowi rycerze). W większości byli to rycerze zakonów Suwerenny Rycerski Zakon Szpitalników św. Jana Jerozolimskiego zwany Rodyjskim i Maltańskim i bożogrobców, później także templariusze. Uczyli oni lazarytów sztuki walki, przez co stali się odpowiedzialni za przekształcenie zgromadzenia w zakon rycerski. Pierwsza wzmianka jako o zakonie militarnym pochodzi z 1154 r. +Przez pierwsze ok. 20 lat zakon był częścią zakonu joannitów. Usamodzielnił się odłączając się w 1120, gdy Boyand Roger dotychczasowy rektor szpitala joannitów, po zachorowaniu na trąd został mianowanym mistrzem Świętego Łazarza. Następny wielki mistrz – wcześniej także zwierzchnik joannitów – bł. Rajmund du Puy przyjął prosty, zielony krzyż jako znak i godło lazarytów. Krzyż stał się symbolem ich posłannictwa, poświęcenia dla Chrystusa, zieleń zaś stała się tradycyjnym kolorem ich posługi szpitalnej. Lazaryci byli jedyną organizacją w średniowieczu zajmującą się opieką nad trędowatymi. Od nazwy zakonu pochodzi słowo "lazaret" i " lazarium ". +Średniowiecze. +Rycerze Świętego Łazarza wsławili się w krwawych i słynnych bitwach pod Montgisard (1177), Hittinem (1187) czy Gazą (1244), jak i podczas obrony Jerozolimy, Akki, zamków Khirbet el Zeita i Medjel el Djemeriayh. Utworzyli własną flotę, kontrolującą obszar między Akką a innymi chrześcijańskimi portami Morza Śródziemnego, gdzie mieli swoje instytucje. W 1255 papież Aleksander IV zatwierdził im regułę świętego Augustyna. W 1265 papież nakazał przejście wszystkich samodzielnych leprozoriów pod władzę lazarytów, oraz nadał "in perpetuum" przywilej samodzielnego wybierania wielkiego mistrza, z którego zakon korzysta do dziś. Dla skutecznej prewencji rozprzestrzeniającego się trądu i innych zaraźliwych chorób, zbierających obfite żniwo w całej Europie, działalność zakonnych lazaretów okazała się niezbędna. W samej Europie na przełomie XIII/XIV w. zliczono około 20 000 tych specjalistycznych instytucji opieki medycznej, z których większość należała do zakonu św. Łazarza. W XII w. pojawiły się także pierwsze, żeńskie konwenty. W XIII w. zakon cieszył się pełną suwerennością na terenie palestyńskiej Akki. Zyskał specjalne przywileje ponadnarodowej, uniwersalnej instytucji. Rycerze św. Łazarza uczestniczyli w krucjacie Ludwika IX Świętego przeciwko Egiptowi oraz w wyprawach do Syrii w 1250–1254. Po upadku Akki, ostatniej twierdzy w Królestwie Łacińskim, zakon przeniósł się na Cypr, by następnie powrócić do swojej głównej siedziby we francuskim Boigny. Wcześniej jednak lazaryci zdążyli założyć komandorie i szpitale w większości krajów Europy m.in. we Francji, Italii, Sycylii, Anglii, Szkocji, Irlandii, Szwajcarii, Austrii, Niemczech, Czechach, Dalmacji, na Węgrzech, Bałkanach, Półwyspie Iberyjskim, a także w Polsce. W połowie XV w. – między innymi dzięki działalności lazarytów – trąd stał się chorobą coraz rzadszą. Zakon w efekcie przekształcał się w organizację bardziej rycerską, elitarną, choć posługa chorym i utrzymywanie szpitali dalej były jego istotnymi zajęciami. Ekspansja reformacji – jak i inne zawieruchy dziejowe – doprowadziły w wieku XV w. do pogorszenia kondycji i stanu liczebnego zakonu. +Bulla wydana w 1489 przez papieża Innocentego VIII nakazywała przyłączenie lazarytów do joannitów. Lazaryci z włoskiej Kapui zgodzili się podlegać wielkim mistrzom joannitów, jednak gałąź podległa magistratowi w Boigny (za zgodą wielkiego mistrza joannitów) bulli nie uznała. Tą drogą zakon utrzymał niezależność i własności we Francji, Hiszpanii, Szwajcarii, Anglii, Dalmacji i na Węgrzech. W 1517 Leon X unieważnił postanowienia bulli unifikacyjnej z joannitami. Przywrócił tym samym włoską gałąź rycerzy zakonu. Tymczasem w 1557 francuska część zakonu św. Łazarza podporządkowała się joannitom na zasadzie utrzymania wewnętrznej niezależności i samodzielnej nazwy Św. Łazarza. Od tego czasu, przez następne 47 lat każdorazowy wielki mistrz zakonu św. Łazarza wywodził się z zakonu św. Jana. Lazaryci uzyskali w ten sposób silnego i niezależnego protektora. W tych czasach praktycznie wszędzie poza Francją i Italią bractwo to przestało istnieć. Wtedy utrwalił się podział na dwie główne gałęzie Zakonu: obediencję francuską w Boigny, oraz włoską w Kapui. W 1572 włoska obediencja św. Łazarza została przez jej następnego mistrza generalnego i suwerena Sabaudii, księcia Emanuela Filiberta połączona z niedawno utworzonym dynastycznym Zakonem Domu Sabaudzkiego pod wezwaniem św. Maurycego. Książę związał godność zwierzchników tak powstałego nowego Zakonu Świętych Maurycego i Łazarza ze swoją osobą i swoimi następcami. +Unia personalna z zakonem NMP z Góry Karmel. +W 1604 Henryk IV Burbon ogłosił się protektorem Zakonu Świętego Łazarza obediencji francuskiej, który to odtąd przez ponad 200 lat pozostawał oficjalnie pod opieką królów Francji. W 1607 zakon św. Łazarza połączył się na zasadzie unii personalnej na stanowiskach wielkich mistrzów z nowo ustanowionym przez Henryka IV i papieża Pawła V Królewskim Zakonem Najświętszej Marii Panny z Góry Karmel. Dozwolono wówczas rycerzom św. Łazarza na zawieranie związków małżeńskich. Od tego czasu oba zakony istniały pod nazwą Połączone Zakony Królewskie, Rycerskie i Szpitalne Najświętszej Marii Panny z Góry Karmel i św. Łazarza z Jerozolimy (fr. "Ordres Royaux Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel et Militaires et Hospitaliers de Saint-Lazare de Jérusalem Réunis"). Henryk IV dla siebie i swoich następców potwierdził tytuły protektora zakonu św. Łazarza i suwerena zakonu Najświętszej Marii Panny z Góry Karmel. Ten swoisty związek obu zakonów został zaaprobowany przez papieża Innocentego X w 1645, a następnie w 1668 przez legata papieskiego, kardynała de Vendôme. +Swoją świetność zakon przeżywał na terenie Francji XVII i XVIII w. W XVII w. zakon odtworzył własną flotę wojenną ochraniającą wybrzeże Bretanii i szlaki handlowe Morza Śródziemnego. W tym czasie lazaryci powołali pierwszą na świecie Wojskową Akademię Morską, której absolwenci zasilali szeregi coraz bardziej elitarnego zakonu. Połączonym Zakonom przekazano własności rozwiązanych we Francji zakonów: św. Ducha z Montpellier, św. Jakuba z Compostelli, św. Katarzyny, św. Ludwika z Boucheraumont, Stróżów Grobu Bożego i Najświętszej Marii Panny Domu Niemieckiego. W XVII w. zaszczytnego stopnia rycerza św. Łazarza mógł dostąpić jedynie członek zakonu Najświętszej Marii Panny z Góry Karmel. Do końca francuskiej monarchii 1792 połączone zakony utrzymywały kilkaset szpitali i wojskowych lazaretów na terenie całego francuskiego dominium. Posługa chorym i ubogim, pomoc w czasie klęsk i wojen zawsze stała na pierwszym miejscu wśród obowiązków i zadań rycerzy Świętego Łazarza. +Po zwycięstwie rewolucji francuskiej i straceniu króla Francji jakobini upaństwowili wszelkie majątki kościelne w tym własności połączonych zakonów. Wydano rewolucyjny dekret o likwidacji wszystkich religijnych i rycerskich zakonów (co oczywiście nie likwidowało ich jako takich bo to uczynić mógł jedynie papież a nie władze antykościelnej rewolucji). W okresie jakobińskiego terroru i władzy Napoleona Bonapartego wielki mistrz połączonych zakonów Ludwik Burbon, Hrabia Prowansji i tytularny król Francji przebywał na wygnaniu. Starał się kontynuować rekrutację, przyjmując w zakonne szeregi kandydatów z najznakomitszych rodów Europy, w tym m.in.: króla Szwecji Gustawa IV Adolfa, cara Rosji Pawła I – wielkiego mistrza Zakonu Maltańskiego – oraz jego dwóch synów: Aleksandra i Konstantego. Po przywróceniu monarchii Burbonów we Francji, zakony na krótko powróciły do przedrewolucyjnej świetności. Wielki mistrz Ludwik XVIII objął władzę w Królestwie Francji i jako urzędujący suweren zrzekł się tytułu wielkiego mistrza (tak jak to robili jego świetni poprzednicy, gdy zostawali królami Francji) szanując niezależność i uniwersalność zakonu św. Łazarza. Kolejne zaburzenia społeczne i polityczne, zakończone proklamowaniem tzw. Monarchii Lipcowej w 1830 roku, spowodowały uchylenie wcześniejszych dekretów i rozwiązanie wszystkich francuskich królewskich zakonów rycerskich w tym Królewskiego Rycerskiego Zakonu Najświętszej Marii Panny z Góry Karmel. Nie dotyczyło to jednak jerozolimskiego zakonu św. Łazarza, bowiem – choć korzystał on przez dwa wieki z protektoratu suwerennych królów Francji – pozostał jednak ponadnarodową organizacją militarną i szpitalną, zachowując pełnię swoich uprawnień. +Pod protektoratem patriarchów Jerozolimy. +Rycerze św. Łazarza utraciwszy opiekę królów Francji, zwrócili się w 1841 o objęcie protektoratem do ówczesnego patriarchy Jerozolimy. Był nim – wówczas jedyny sprawujący ten urząd de facto, rezydujący w Ziemi Świętej i zatwierdzony przez papieża Grzegorza XVI katolicki melchicki patriarcha Jerozolimy, Antiochii, Aleksandrii i całego Wschodu – Maksymos III Mazloum. Dzięki przywilejowi nadanemu w 1837 przez Portę Osmańską, korzystał on za zgodą Ojca Świętego z prawa "rum millet" – prawa do świeckiej jurysdykcji, na przyznanym mu obszarze patriarchatu. Jak przed wiekami, protektorem zakonu znów stał się każdorazowy patriarcha Jerozolimy, któremu przysługiwało prawo nominowania rycerzy i powoływania kapelanów świętego Łazarza. W tym okresie wśród najznakomitszych kawalerów zakonu dali się poznać m.in.: admirał Alfons Hamelin, dowódca francuskiej Flotylli Śródziemnomorskiej w okresie wojny krymskiej, później minister floty i wielki kanclerz Legii Honorowej; admirał Ludwik Edward Bouet Willaumer, senator cesarstwa Francji; oraz hrabia d'Anselme de Puisaye, żuaw armii papieskiej i założyciel Stowarzyszenia Zielonego Krzyża w Tunisie, powołanego dla opieki nad chorymi. W latach 1844–1867 rycerze św. Łazarza wspomagali odbudowę klasztoru na górze Karmel w Ziemi Świętej, macierzystego opactwa Zakonu Karmelitańskiego. W 1910 – za radą Polaka, księdza kanonika Jana Tańskiego z Paryża, kapelana i jałmużnika Zakonu, sprawującego praktycznie funkcję pełnomocnika do spraw europejskich – patriarcha Cyryl VIII restytuował kapitułę Zakonu. W tym samym roku zarejestrowano w Republice Francuskiej charytatywne Stowarzyszenie Szpitalników i Rycerzy Świętego Łazarza, jako, że w tym czasie rząd francuski nie uznawał żadnych zakonów rycerskich (joannitów, Krzyżaków, bożogrobców, lazarytów) poza napoleońską Legią Honorową. W 1927 unowocześniono reguły i statuty zakonu (biorąc za podstawę Fundamentalne Statuty Zakonu Św. Łazarza z roku 1841). Rok później Pius XI przyjął dowód oddania kapituły, przekazując swoje błogosławieństwo i życzenia dalszego rozwoju zakonu św. Łazarza. +XX wiek. +W 1930 patriarcha Jerozolimy, widząc, że organizacja powraca do dawnej świetności, zrezygnował ze swojej zaszczytnej funkcji administratora. Decyzja patriarchy została zaakceptowana przez kapitułę, która nadała tytuł generalnego namiestnika zakonu ówczesnemu, wielkiemu baliwowi Hiszpanii, Franciszkowi Burbonowi, księciu Sewilli. Zakon otrzymał wtedy suwerenny protektorat króla Hiszpanii Alfonsa XIII. Patriarcha został najwyższym dostojnikiem duchownym Zakonu z tytułami: protektora duchowego, wielkiego duchowego przeora i dziekana. W 1935 książę Sewilli po 100 latach administrowania zakonem przez namiestników został zatwierdzony jako 44. wielki mistrz. Wkrótce wielki mistrz wsławił się na polu walki z bolszewizmem w ojczystej Hiszpanii, zyskując przydomek "Bohatera spod Malagi". Wtedy też opublikowane zostały unowocześnione prawa i regulaminy Zakonu Świętego Łazarza, obowiązujące – z pewnymi zmianami – do dzisiaj. W 1934 reaktywowano polską jurysdykcję Zakonu na czele z Janem hr. Zamoyskim. W czasie II wojny światowej rycerze Zakonu pełnili swoją szpitalną służbę w wielu miejscach, przynosząc pomoc ofiarom bombardowań i bitew. Co ciekawe we Francji w oddziałach partyzanckich działał specjalny korpus Świętego Łazarza Corps Lazaristes w tzw. grupie "Lorda Denysa". Po zakończeniu wojny – mimo doznanych strat – zakon kontynuował działalność w krajach całego świata. Intensywność działań szpitalnych i charytatywnych sprawiła, że szeregi Zakonu zaczęły szybko wzrastać. Przełożenie tradycyjnych zadań na czasy współczesne okazało się sukcesem. +W 1967 46. wielkim mistrzem został Pierwszy Książę Francji Karol Filip Burbon Orleański, książę de Alençon, Vendôme i Nemours. Po jego śmierci zakon podzielił się na dwie tzw. obediencje. W pierwszej zwanej maltańską na stanowisko 47. wielkiego mistrza został ponownie wybrany książę Franciszek Burbon Sewilski. Kawalerowie drugiej obediencji tzw. paryskiej na stanowisko wielkiego mistrza obrali Piotra de Cosse, księcia de Brissac. +W 2004 doszło do połączenia obediencji maltańskiej z obediencją paryską. Jednakże część członków dawnej obediencji paryskiej nie uznała tego porozumienia i powołała swoją strukturę zakonną (tzw. obediencja orleańska) pod protektoratem tytularnego Henryka VII Orleańskiego. Godność wielkiego mistrza tej obediencji objął Karol Filip Burbon-Orleański, książę Andegawenii. Obediencja orleańska stworzyła w świecie równoległą strukturę Zakonu Rycerzy św. Łazarza. +Zakon dziś. +Zakon św. Łazarza z Jerozolimy jest złożony z trzech obediencji. Dwóch z nich: tzw. "maltańskiej" i "paryskiej" wielkim mistrzem jest Karol de Gereda y de Bourbon, markiz Almazan, a duchowym protektorem melchickikatolicki Patriarcha Jerozolimy i Antiochii J. Em. Grzegorz III Laham. Trzeciej tzw. "orleańskiej" lub "Boigny" powstałej w 2004 jest Jan hrabia Dobrzenský z Dobrzenic (pod protektoratem tytularnego króla Francji Henryka VII), a Protektorem duchowym jest kardynał László Paskai, OFM, prymas Węgier. Pośród wielu najznamienitszych przedstawicieli dzisiejszego świata do zakonu należą m.in.: król Hiszpanii Jan Karol I Burbon, następca tronu hiszpańskiego Filip Burbon, były car następnie premier Bułgarii Symeon II, były król Rumunii Michał I Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, oraz wielu kardynałów i arcybiskupów. W latach 30. XX wieku zakon został reaktywowany w Polsce. +Obecnie zwierzchnikiem jurysdykcji polskiej (Wielkiego Przeoratu Polski) Rycerskiego i Szpitalnego Zakonu świętego Łazarza z Jerozolimy jest dr Julian Dutka, GCLJ. Wśród wybitnych Polaków należy wymienić takich członków zakonu jak: Władysław Bartoszewski, GCLJ; czy nieżyjący już: ks. Józef Gorzelany, SChLJ – budowniczy Arki Pana pierwszego kościoła w Nowej Hucie; Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, GCMLJ i dr Jan Deszcz, GCLJ – twórca pierwszego polskiego hospicjum w Nowej Hucie pod wezwaniem Św. Łazarza. Na przełomie lat 80. i 90. lazaryci dalej udzielali pomocy charytatywnej Polsce (na ogólną sumę ponad 20 milionów dolarów). W czasie zimy 1991/92 zakon przekazał pomoc humanitarną dla głodujących w Rosji na sumę 125 mln dolarów. W XXI wieku zakon św. Łazarza pozostaje niezmiennie wierny zasadzie pomocy chorym, rannym, niedołężnym i wszystkim potrzebującym. Obecne motto zakonu "Atavis et Armis" – "Poprzez przykład naszych przodków i tradycję oręża" – wyraża się w praktycznej formie niesienia pomocy humanitarnej, medycznej, jak i innych działaniach charytatywnych i społecznych. Lazaryci prowadzi tego typu działalność w ponad 100 krajach świata. +Oficjalne jurysdykcje (zwierzchnictwa) zakonu znajdują się w ponad 30 państwach. W Polsce zakon organizuje pomoc humanitarną i charytatywną, utrzymuje wolontariat oraz prowadzi wiele stacji medycznych i socjalnych p.n. Lazarus. +Lazaryci w Polsce. +Historia Zakonu w Polsce. +Do Polski lazaryci przybyli najprawdopodobniej na początku XIII wieku. Już w XIII wieku znalazł się na terenie Śląska (m.in. Wrocław) i Wielkopolski (Poznań). Dotarł też na Lubusz i Pomorze Zachodnie. W XIV wieku mnisi św. Łazarza zarządzali lazaretami przy wszystkich większych miastach. Do dzisiaj jedno z osiedli Poznania nosi nazwę Święty Łazarz, a we Wrocławiu znakiem tamtych czasów jest gotycki kościół zakonny św. Łazarza. +Znany jest wiersz śląskiego anonimowego poety z XIII w. wymieniający zwierzchników zakonów rycerskich na Śląsku, w tym brata Kunratha (Konrada) jako zwierzchnika lazarytów. Za swoją dobroczynną działalność zakon został doceniony przez władców Polski. Ludwik I Wielki, król Polski i Węgier wspierał rycerzy św. Łazarza jak tylko mógł. Kolejny król, Władysław III Warneńczyk, protektor Zakonu Św. Łazarza we wspólnocie polsko-węgierskiej, oddał swoje życie za Wiarę Chrześcijańską pod Warną w 1444, w czasie krucjaty przeciwko Turkom. Rycerze Św. Łazarza towarzyszyli władcy w tej nieudanej kampanii. Na przełomie wieków XV i XVI w Polsce jak i w całej Europie trąd stał się chorobą coraz rzadszą, (przede wszystkim z powodu intensywnej pracy zakonu). Lazaryci zaczęli więc troszczyć się o innych chorych. Niestety w związku z rozszerzaniem się protestantyzmu także w Europie Środkowej wielu z nich przyjęło nowe wyznanie. W wielu krajach Europy, jak w Niemczech, Czechach i w Polsce zakon praktycznie przestał istnieć. Jeszcze w 1526 ostatni rycerze Św. Łazarza ze środkowej Europy brali udział po wodzą Ludwika II Jagiellończyka w bitwie pod Mohaczem. W wiekach późniejszych Polacy do zakonu należeli sporadycznie (m.in.: Prokop Odrowąż-Pieniążek 1564, Franciszek Granowski z Granowa 1699, kawaler Przyborowski 1699, Jacek Dunin-Borkowski 1701, major Antoni Urbański 1726, ojciec i syn Lipscy 1699 i 1738, Ludwik Konarski 1738, ksiądz kanonik Jan Tański (kapelan Kapituły i jałmużnik zakonu) 1887). To za radą księdza Tańskiego ówczesny zwierzchnik i protektor zakonu Patriarcha Cyryl VIII Geha restytuował w 1910 Wielką Kapitułę w Europie. Od tego czasu Polacy coraz liczniej zostawali członkami Zakonu Św. Łazarza. Wielu Polaków przyjmowało także zaszczytny tytuł rycerza sabaudzkiego Zakonu Świętych Maurycego i Łazarza. Oficjalna jurysdykcja Rycerskiego i Szpitalnego Zakonu św. Łazarza z Jerozolimy została przywrócona w Polsce w roku 1934 przez wielkiego mistrza księcia Franciszka Burbona, księcia sewilskiego. Polskim zwierzchnikiem (Wielkim Przeorem) był najpierw hr. Jan Kanty Zamoyski GCLJ-J, po nim zmarły w 1968 ordynat dawidgródzki książę Karol Radziwiłł, GCLJ-J, a duchownym przeorem watykański ks. biskup Ignacy Dubowski (były biskup Łucka i Żytomierza). Po II wojnie światowej wielu polskich uchodźców wstępowało do Zakonu św. Łazarza na emigracji. Istniała jurysdykcja polska tzw. obediencji paryskiej, na czele której stał jako referendarz hr. Krystian Poniński, GCLJ-J. Organizacja hrabiego Ponińskiego pomagała głównie potomkom uchodźców polskich zamieszkałym w Adampolu w Turcji. +Następnie od 1979 działała Delegatura Polska ("Délégation de Pologne") obediencji paryskiej, której zwierzchność powierzono trzyosobowej kapitule z księciem Maciejem Radziwiłłem, GCLJ-J na czele. To dzięki Delegaturze we współpracy z innymi jurysdykcjami zakonu, przede wszystkim amerykańską, niemiecką (obediencji maltańskiej z siedzibą w Kolonii, tzw. "Lazarus-Hilfswerk"), brytyjską i austriacką inicjowano pomoc charytatywną dla kraju. W trudnych latach 80. pomoc zakonu św. Łazarza dla Polski (przede wszystkim dary żywnościowe przekazywane na "ręce" Episkopatu Polski i rozdawane w parafiach) osiągnęła równowartość ponad 80 mln dolarów. W podzięce za niesioną Polsce pomoc ówczesny wielki mistrz obediencji maltańskiej Franciszek Burbon, książę sewilski, ustanowił w 1984 specjalny "Polski Medal Wdzięczności" nadawany przez "Lazarus Hilfswerk" (zob. niżej, Insygnia). Wśród odznaczonych znaleźli się m.in. Jan Paweł II, Lech Wałęsa i Walter Scheel. Następnie zakonna prowincja austriacka (obediencji paryskiej) wniosła olbrzymi wkład w budowę pierwszego w Polsce hospicjum (w Nowej Hucie). Hospicjum na cześć zakonu otrzymało nazwę Świętego Łazarza. +W 1990 powołano Komandorię Polską obediencji maltańskiej, na czele z Juliuszem Sokolnickim, w 1999 komandorem został Krzysztof Konstanty Radziwiłł. Kapitułę Komandorii tworzyli: Igor Wójcik, vice-komandor; Paweł Suchoński, kanclerz; Henryk Wójcik, sekretarz; Agata Dąbrowska-Suchońska, skarbnik; o. Grzegorz Badziąg, kapelan (przeor duchowy). +W 1992 na czele Delegatury Polskiej obediencji paryskiej stanął dr Jan Deszcz; w 1994 jurysdykcję tą przeorganizowano na Wielki Przeorat Polski, na czele z Wielkim Przeorem Janem Deszczem. Pierwszą kapitułę Przeoratu tworzyli: ksiądz Józef Gorzelany, kapelan; Teresa Rawczyńska, sekretarz; dr Julian Dutka, szpitalnik; Cyprian Kargol, skarbnik; dr Ryszard Rudziński, ceremoniarz i Jerzy Skąpski – chorąży. Po śmierci dr. Deszcza Wielkim Przeorem został Julian Dutka, a szpitalnikiem dr Antoni Marcinek, po śmierci ks. J. Gorzelanego kapelanem zakonu został o. Jan Potępa, OFM. +Obecnie w Polsce istnieje Wielki Przeorat zjednoczonych obediencji maltańskiej i paryskiej, do którego przeszła część członków byłej Komandorii Polski obediencji maltańskiej. Pozostali członkowie Komandorii Polskiej dawnej obediencji maltańskiej zdecydowali się na przejście do tzw. obediencji orleańskiej, kontynuując od 2011 działalność w składzie Wielkiego Przeoratu Czech pod zwierzchnictwem wielkiego mistrza hr. Jana Dobrzenský'ego z Dobrzenic. Na czele Komandorii Polskiej stanął brygadier Jan Szmyd. Kapitułę Komandorii tworzą: Krzysztof Polasik-Lipiński, baliw (vice-komandor); Piotr Kowalczyk, kanclerz; Konrad Pacławski, szpitalnik; Bartosz Panek, skarbnik; Piotr Badziąg, kapitularz; Norbert Wójtowicz, herold; ks. Adrian Przybecki, kapelan.. +Symbole zakonu. +Krzyż. +Znakiem rozpoznawczym szpitalników i rycerzy św. Łazarza stał się zielony krzyż, noszony na habitach i rycerskich płaszczach, a dziś na ratowniczych uniformach, rycerskich płaszczach oraz na lewej piersi przez rycerzy i damy stanu szlacheckiego (po sprawiedliwości lub z prawa). Do XVI w. był to krzyż grecki, później krzyż ośmiorożny wzoru maltańskiego. +Od samego początku w herbie zakonu znajduje się zielony krzyż łaciński umieszczany na srebrnym (alternatywnie białym tle), a na fladze i chorągwiach zielony zwykły krzyż prosty na białym tle. +Zieleń. +Przyjęcie przez lazarytów zielonego koloru jako własnego znaku rozpoznawalnego nastąpiło w czasach krucjat (XII w.), kiedy to krzyżowcy naszywali na przednią część ubioru lub z lewej strony płaszcza krzyże. Z początku każda nacja rezerwowała sobie własny kolor np.: Francuzi – czerwony, Niemcy – czarny, Anglicy – niebieski. Także zakony rycerskie dla wzajemnego siebie rozróżnienia przyjmowały własny charakterystyczny kolor, umieszczany z czasem także w formie krzyża na chorągwiach bitewnych. Według różnych legend lazaryci wybrali zieleń albo z powodu szacunku do wroga – armii muzułmańskiej, której symbolem była właśnie zieleń, lub z powodu objawienia doznanego przez trędowatego króla Jerozolimy Baldwina IV, w którym Chrystus nakazywał lazarytom przyjęcie zieleni jako znaku ich posłannictwa i poświęcenia. +Strój zakonny. +Strój Zakony Dam i Kawalerów Rycerskiego i Szpitalnego Zakonu świętego Łazarza z Jerozolimy to przede wszystkim czarny płaszcz z zielonym krzyżem ośmiorożnym na lewej stronie. Członkowie "Towarzystwa Zasługi" Rycerskiego i Szpitalnego Zakonu świętego Łazarza z Jerozolimy mają prawo do noszenia białego płaszcza z zielonym krzyżem ośmiorożnym na lewej stronie. Członkowie "Towarzystwa Donatów" Rycerskiego i Szpitalnego Zakonu świętego Łazarza z Jerozolimy mają prawo do noszenia podobnego czarnego płaszcza z zielonym krzyżem ośmiorożnym na lewej stronie, ale w tym wypadku krzyż jest uszczerbiony (tj. pozbawiony górnego ramienia). +Kapelani Zakonu świętego Łazarza natomiast zakładają przede wszystkim mucet z zielonymi guzikami oraz obszyciem, naszywając również po jego lewej stronie krzyż zakonu. Mają również prawo nosić sutannę podobnie jak mucet z zielonymi guzikami oraz obszyciem, który podtrzymywany jest czarnym pasem, na którym wyszyty jest herb jurysdykcji. do stroju przynależy również biret (nakrycie głowy) z zielonym pomponikiem. Podczas uroczystych celebracji kapłani zakładają ornaty z zielonym krzyżem, na który zawieszają kapelańskie ordery zakonu świętego Łazarza. +Wszyscy na sobie właściwych szatach zakonnych noszą ordery nadane przez Wielkiego Mistrza. +Insygnia zakonne. +Historyczne. +Do końca XV w. rycerze św. Łazarza nosili na habitach zwieszane z szyi (na tasiemkach lub łańcuchach) zwykłe metalowe krzyże, świadczące o ich duchownym stanie. Takie pierwotne insygnia możemy znaleźć na nagrobnych wizerunkach lazarytów pochowanych w normandzkiej komandorii św. Antoniego de Grattemont. +Na początku XVI w. krzyże zwieszane z szyi zaczęły być emaliowane na kolor zielony, symbolizujący posługę lazarytów. +Za czasów wielkiego mistrza Jana de Levis (1557–1564) zaprojektowano nowy wzór insygniów św. Łazarza. Jako że lazaryci na mocy podpisanego układu stali się częścią joannitów (i nosili dwie oznaki zakonne, prosty zielony krzyż lazarytów oraz biały ośmiorożny krzyż joannitów), zadecydowano o złożeniu jednego krzyża z drugim. Tak powstał nowy emblemat rycerzy św. Łazarza, którym stał się krzyż metalowy biało emaliowany, wewnątrz którego znajdował się krzyż zielony. Lazaryci w efekcie przyjęli cienką białą bordiurę (joannitów) dookoła zielonego ośmiorożnego krzyża. Na znak tradycji i wdzięczności za opiekę Zakonu Maltańskiego nad lazarytami w tamtych trudnych czasach po dziś dzień w odznace orderowej zachowana jest cienka biała bordiura. W 1572 książę Filibert Emanuel Sabaudzki, nowy zwierzchnik rycerzy św. Łazarza z Kapui, na znak usamodzielnienia się od joannitów zrezygnował z używania bordiury w zakonnych znakach. +W 1608 doszło do połączenia na stanowisku wielkich mistrzów zakonów św. Łazarza i Najświętszej Marii Panny z Góry Karmel. Właściwymi insygniami połączonych zakonów stały się ordery, które składały się z krzyża ośmiorożnego, z jednej strony zielono emaliowanego, w środku którego znajdowała się okrągła tarcza z przedstawieniem wskrzeszenia Łazarza. Na drugiej zaś stronie z krzyża purpurowego z wizerunkiem Najświętszej Marii Panny. Pomiędzy skrzydłami krzyża znajdowały się złote lilie. Osiem końców krzyża obsadzone było złotymi kulkami. Komandorowie nosili ten krzyż na szerokiej wstędze zwieszanej z szyi. Kawalerowie na piersi, przy dziurce od guzika. Krzyż połączonych zakonów noszono na wstęgach purpurowych, aż do 1778, kiedy to rozdzielono insygnia obu zakonów. Krzyż większy symbolizujący tradycję św. Łazarza noszono na zielonej wstędze, a mały krzyż z wizerunkiem Najświętszej Marii Panny przy dziurce od guzika na wstążce purpurowej (tzw. krzyż Nowicjatu, przyznawany absolwentom zakonnej Akademii Wojskowej). Od 1830 po zniesieniu unii personalnej z zakonem NMP z Góry Karmel insygniami lazarytów stał się emaliowany zielony krzyż z białą bordiurą, w środku którego znajdowała się okrągła tarcza z wizerunkiem wskrzeszenia Łazarza. Na rewersie emaliowanym w te same barwy znajdowało się wyobrażenie Najświętszej Marii Panny. Między ramionami krzyża znajdowały się złote lilie. Krzyż zawieszano na wstędze koloru zielonego. +Obecne. +Właściwymi insygniami zakonu są oznaki umieszczone na zawieszce w kształcie trofeum składającego się ze zbroi rycerskiej z nałożonym białym krzyżem łacińskim i chorągwiami, noszone na zielonej wstędze, wielkości uzależnionej od przyznanej rangi. Order składa się w awersie ze złotego zielono emaliowanego z białą bordiurą krzyża ośmiorożnego, pośrodku którego na owalnej tarczy znajduje się przedstawienie wstającego z grobu św. Łazarza, z napisem ATAVIS ET ARMIS. Między ramionami krzyża znajdują się złote inicjały SLJ ("S. Lazarus de Jerusalem"). Również emaliowany rewers posiada jako medalion środkowy owalny medal z podobizną NMP z Góry Karmel. Kawalerowie i damy otrzymują także przypinaną do piersi złotą promienistą gwiazdę zakonną, na której umieszczony jest krzyż orderowy. Krzyż komandorów zwyczajnych, oficerów i członków zwykłych jest pozbawiony inicjałów między ramionami. Komandorzy zwyczajni otrzymują gwiazdę srebrną, bez inicjałów między ramionami krzyża. Rycerze i damy po sprawiedliwości (należący do szlachty) noszą oprócz tego na lewej piersi prosty zielony krzyż orderowy. Gwiazda rycerzy (tylko w obediencji maltańskiej) oraz komandorów (obie obediencje) jest noszona na prawej piersi. Wielki Krzyż jest noszony na zielonej wstędze z prawego ramienia na lewy bok, gwiazda na lewej piersi. Odznaczenia damskie są na ogół noszone na damskiej kokardzie powyżej lewej piersi. +Produkowany w Czechach do 1939 oraz w latach 1945-1947 i w Polsce od 1978 (dla Przeoratów Czech, Polski i Szwecji obediencji paryskiej) krzyż zakonny posiada zamiast prostych inicjałów stylizowane w kształcie liści lipowych litery SLJ między ramionami. Rewers jest w tym modelu w niektórych wykonaniach nieemaliowany i posiada medalion NMP z Góry Karmel. +Wielki łańcuch (kollana) orderu, noszony na ogół tylko przez wielkich przeorów i inne osobistości pełniące wysokie funkcje zakonne (jest najwyższym odznaczeniem zakonu), składa się z ogniw trzech rodzajów: zielonych krzyży zakonnych, otoczonych dewizą "Atavis et armis" na białym tle, białych tarcz z zielonym łacińskim krzyżem oraz złotych medalionów z herbem zakonu. +Ustanowiony w 1980 przez Wielkiego Mistrza ks. de Brissaca krzyż honoru i zasługi posiada pięć stopni według schematu Legii Honorowej. Insygnia są identyczne z oznaką orderową (bez inicjałów między ramionami), ale zamiast białej bordiury posiadają czarną. Zawieszką jest emaliowany na zielono i czarno wieniec laurowy otaczający splecione litery SL. Krzyż noszony jest na zielonej wstążce z czarnym i białym obustronnym paskiem. Posiadacze nie są członkami Zakonu, ale członek może otrzymać to odznaczenie za wybitne zasługi. +Posiada trzy stopnie (złoty, srebrny, brązowy). Krzyż złożony jest ze złotego zielono emaliowanego krzyża ośmiorożnego, pośrodku którego na jasno zielono-niebieskiej owalnej tarczy znajdują się złote inicjały "SLJ". Noszony jest na składanej w trójkąt czerwonej wstążce z zielonymi obustronnymi paskami. Krzyż zasługi obediencji maltańskiej jest nadawany tylko członkom zakonu za wybitne zasługi. +Pięcioklasowa oznaka tej kategorii członków (osób wiary niechrześcijańskiej, fr. "Compagnons de Saint-Lazare", niem. "Gefährten des Lazarusordens") to złota pięcioramienna gwiazda z medalionem orderu (Wskrzeszeniem św. Łazarza) pośrodku, noszona na zielonej wstędze z amarantowym paskiem po obu bokach. +Pierścień został ustanowiony 10 lutego 1972 przez ówczesnego zwierzchnika zakonu ("Chef Suprême de l'Ordre") księcia de Cossé-Brissac jako nagroda "dla wybitnych osobistości wyznania chrześcijańskiego, które dzięki swej szczególnej pozycji społecznej i wzorowym życiu w służbie wiary chrześcijańskiej, pielęgnacji tradycji i miłości dla bliźnich dają swym współczesnym przykład cnót rycerskich". +Pierścień otrzymali 10 marca 1972 przebywający na wygnaniu w Wiedniu prymas węgierski kardynał József Mindszenty i na swe 60 urodziny 12 listopada 1972 także kawaler Zakonu arcyksiążę Otto von Habsburg. Pod koniec życia zgodził się go przyjąć ksiądz kardynał Stefan Wyszyński, lecz do przekazania nie doszło wskutek choroby, a następnie śmierci prymasa Polski. +Trzyklasowy. Insygnia Donatów składają się z krzyża św. Łazarza, którego tylko trzy ramiona (boczne i dolne) emaliowane są zielono. Donaci 2. Klasy zawieszają krzyż na zawieszce w kształcie trofeum składającego się ze zbroi rycerskiej z nałożonym zielonym krzyżem św. Łazarza, chorągwiami i panopliami. Donaci 1. Klasy zawieszają krzyż na zawieszce w kształcie korony wschodniej, zwieńczonej krzyżem św. Łazarza. Nagrodzenie tytułem i krzyżem Donata mają prawo nosić zakonne kulle (płaszcze zakonne). Wstążeczka jest purpurowa z zielonym paskiem przez środek i żółtym paskiem obustronnie po brzegu. +Odnowiony przez wielkiego mistrza ks. Franciszka III Burbona Sewilskiego medal pochodzący z XVII wieku. Nadawany członkom zakonu za wybitne zasługi. Na medalu znajduje się wizerunek jeźdźca św. Łazarza w pełnej zbroi z uniesionym mieczem. W koło napis: ORDO*MILIT*S**LAZARI* HIROSOL*RESTITUTUS. W części dolnej napis: RESE*ASSERTORO*ET*SYMNO*DUCE* MDCLXXII. Trzystopniowy (złoty, srebrny i brązowy). Wstążeczka jest zielona z czerwonym paskiem przez środek, oraz cienkim czerwono-złotym, +czerwono-srebrnym, lub czerwono-brązowym obustronnym paskiem (w zależności od stopnia). +Jest nadawany członkom zakonu i osobom stowarzyszonym z zakonem po odbyciu pielgrzymki do Ziemi Świętej. Pielgrzymka musi być zorganizowana przez instytucje kościelne i musi odwiedzić Jerozolimę, Betanię i Betlejem. +Nagrodzeni mają prawo nosić wizerunek muszli pielgrzymiej na kullach (płaszczach rycerskich) pośrodku naszytego zielonego krzyża. Wstążeczka jest bordowa z żółtym szerszym paskiem, po którego bokach umieszczony są paski cienkie zielone. +Ustanowiony w 1984 przez Wielkiego Mistrza ks. Franciszka III Burbona Sewilskiego. Był przyznawany przez niemiecki Lazarus Hilfswerk (zakonna organizacja pomocy humanitarnej) za zasługi w pomocy dla Polski w latach osiemdziesiątych. Wśród odznaczonych znaleźli się m.in. Jan Paweł II, prezydent Lech Wałęsa i Walter Scheel – prezydent Niemiec. Na srebrnym medalu znajduje się umieszczony nad herbem zakonu św. Łazarza – zza którego wystają sztandary z herbami Polski i Niemiec – wizerunek Matki Boskiej Częstochowskiej Królowej Polski. W górze po otoku napis: "DANK FÜR POLENHILFE" +Wstążeczka jest zielona z biało-czerwonym (kolorem polskiej flagi) obustronnym paskiem. +Ustanowiona w lipcu 1984 przez Wielkiego Mistrza ks. Franciszka III Burbona Sewilskiego dla członków zakonu, którzy ukończyli 20 lat pracowitej służby w zakonie. +Składa się z ośmiorożnego krzyża zielono emaliowanego, zwieńczonego koroną, położonego na wieńcu ze złotych liści laurowych. W środku krzyża znajduje się gotycka tarcza herbowa zakonu z zielonym krzyżem prostym na białym tle. +Insygnia o charakterze lokalnym. +Ustanowiony 17 sierpnia 1978 w dzień urodzin cesarza Karola I (potocznie zwany "Karlmedaille") przez ówczesnego Wielkiego Przeora Austrii arcyksięcia Leopolda Habsburga (tytularnego W. Księcia Toskanii) trzystopniowy (złoty, srebrny i brązowy) medal za zasługi dla tej prowincji zakonu ma na awersie popiersie ostatniego cesarza Austrii i króla Węgier bł. Karola I zwróconego na lewo (identyczne z popiersiem cesarza na dawnym austriackim odznaczeniu Signum Laudis), otoczone napisem "Carolus I de Domo Austr. Serv. Dei Rex Hierosol. Exempl.Virt.O.S.L.J" ("Karol I z Domu Austriackiego Sługa Boży Król Jerozolimy Przykład Cnót dla O.S.L.J"), zaś na rewersie herb Leopolda Toskańskiego jako W. Przeora otoczony napisem "Ordo Equestr. St.Lazari Magn.Prior Austriae MCMLXXVIII" ("Zakon Rycerski Św. Łazarza Wielki Przeorat Austrii 1978"). Zawieszony jest na koronie królewskiej. Wstążeczka jest zielona z czerwono-biało-czerwonym obustronnym paskiem. +Przedstawiające popiersie księcia Karla VI von Schwarzenberga trzystopniowe (złoty, srebrny i brązowy) odznaczenie przyznawane przez Wielki Przeorat Bohemii za zasługi w dziedzinie charytatywne. +Został ustanowiony w 1982 przez ówczesną Delegaturę Polską Zakonu jako nagroda za pomoc dla ludności polskiej w czasie stanu wojennego. Oznaką był emaliowany na zielono krzyż maltański z nałożonym nań na awersie złotym orłem polskim mod. 1918, z dekoracją wojenną (karabinie skrzyżowanym z szablą) między ramionami. Rewers był nieemaliowany z miejscem na wygrawerowanie nazwiska odznaczonego. Zawieszką był czarno-zielony wieniec laurowy otaczający splecione litery SL. Noszony był na zielonej wstążce Zakonu. Krzyż nadany został poprzez trudności administracyjne tylko w jednym egzemplarzu, który otrzymał ówczesny Generalny Wizytator Zakonu obediencji francuskiej i przeor prowincji austriackiej Baron Edmund von Hammer. +Rangi i kategorie w zakonie. +Kategorie członkostwa. +Istnieją dwie główne kategorie przyjęć: ""z prawa"" oraz ""z łaski mistrzowskiej"". Kawalerowie i damy przyjmowani w kategorii ""z prawa"" muszą udowodnić pochodzenie szlacheckie po mieczu od minimum czterech pokoleń wstecz. Przysługuje im dodatkowa litera "-J" w akronimach rang zakonnych umieszczanym po nazwisku, np.: GCLJ-J. +W zakonie istnieje też kategoria członków ""Towarzystwa Zasługi"" i ""Towarzystwa Donatów"", osób, od których nie są wymagane śluby zakonne, a w ten sposób są nagradzani za swe działania w charytatywnych pracach zakonu. Istnieje także kategoria "Braci i sióstr Lazarytów"", osób wiary niechrześcijańskiej (zob. wyżej, Insygnia). +Fałszywe "zakony" św. Łazarza. +Od początku wieku XX zaczęły się pojawiać imitacje zakonu św. Łazarza (podobnie jak imitacje zakonu św. Jana, których jest ok. 20). Działają lub działały nielegalnie „nadając” tytuły „kawalerów” i „dam” św. Łazarza). +Państwowe wyższe szkoły teatralne w Polsce + +Państwowe wyższe szkoły teatralne w Polsce – polskie uczelnie artystyczne kształcące aktorów i reżyserów. +Osobowość typu A + +Osobowość typu A, WZA (wzór zachowania A), zachowanie typu A to typ osobowości, charakteryzującej się wysokim poziomem stresu, wywołanym presją czasu, tendencją do zachowań rywalizacyjnych, wysokim poziomem ambicji, agresywnością i wrogością wobec innych. Osoba z WZA postrzega otoczenie jako zagrażające i żyje w nieustannej reakcji alarmowej (fazie stresu). W kategoriach psychologicznych konstruktów teoretycznych WZA charakteryzuje neurotyczna ekstrawersja (EPQ-R) i niski poziom ugodowości (NEO-FFI). +Niektórzy współcześni badacze podają w wątpliwość związek między WZA a chorobą wieńcową. Wydaje się jednak, że pewien aspekt tego typu osobowości - niewyrażanie negatywnych uczuć, zwłaszcza tłumienie wrogości - jest jedną z istotnych przyczyn choroby wieńcowej. +WZA jest przeciwieństwem WZB, typu osobowości zdrowej somatycznie. +Mowa matczyna + +Mowa matczyna (ang. motherese) – specjalna forma mowy o przesadnej intonacji, której dorośli w niektórych kulturach używają mówiąc do niemowląt i małych dzieci. Mowa matczyna nazywana jest też często "mową nianiek". +Pojęcie zostało wprowadzone przez Anne Fernald. +Kurt Lewin + +Kurt Lewin (ur. 9 września 1890, zm. 12 lutego 1947) – psycholog niemiecki. +Urodzony w żydowskiej rodzinie w Mogilnie (wówczas leżącym w zaborze pruskim), od 1922 pracował na uniwersytecie w Berlinie, w 1932 emigrował do USA (University of Science and Technology w Ames i Massachusetts Institute of Technology w Cambridge). Prekursor action research i teorii zmiany organizacyjnej. +W swoich pracach czerpał dużo z psychologii postaci. +Teoria osobowości Lewina (1935). +Osobowość to mechanicznie osiągany stan równowagi między jednostką a środowiskiem. +Amnezja organiczna + +Amnezja, amnezja organiczna (, "amnesia") – całkowity lub czasowy zanik pamięci deklaratywnej. +Całkowitą lub przejściową amnezję może spowodować mocne uderzenie w głowę. Amnezja (ostra, nieodwracalna) występuje również w chorobie Alzheimera. +Automatyzm + +Automatyzm - czynności wykonywane automatycznie, bez udziału świadomego myślenia lub refleksji. Określenie to jest używane przede wszystkim w odniesieniu do takiego niekontrolowanego zachowania, jakie występuje w padaczce psychomotorycznej. Choć nie jest to zalecane, czasami określa się tym terminem odruchy i czynności dobrze wyuczone lub nawykowe, czyli "zautomatyzowane", np. prowadzenie samochodu przez wprawnego kierowcę, który nie musi zwracać specjalnej uwagi na to, w jaki sposób koordynuje ruchy ręki na kierownicy, drążku zmiany biegów oraz ruchy nóg wciskających pedały. +Dzierżyńska Góra + +Dzierżyńska Góra (biał. гара Дзяржынская, "hara Dziarżynskaja", ros. гора Дзержинская, "gora Dzierżinskaja") – najwyższe wzniesienie na Białorusi. +Dane geograficzno-geologiczne. +Wysokość Dzierżyńskiej Góry wynosi 345 m nad poziomem morza. Góra leży na Wysoczyźnie Mińskiej, stanowiącej centralną część Grzędy Białoruskiej. Znajduje się w obrębie wsi Skirmuntów, 20 kilometrów na północ od Kojdanowa i 30 kilometrów na południowy wschód od Mińska. Stok południowo-zachodni ma pochyłą około 5º, stoki północne i wschodnie są rozorane, a pochyła wynosi około 2º. 15% terytorium góry jest porośnięte młodym lasem. +Góra ma charakter morenowy, pokryta jest iłem i piaskowcem. Uformowała się podczas holocenu. U podnóża góry mają źródła rzeki basenu Niemna i Dniepra – Ptycz, Isłocz, Suła i Usa. +Etymologia nazwy. +Nazwa Święta pochodzi prawdopodobnie z czasów przedchrześcijańskich. Góra była miejscem kultu pogańskiego. +W pierwszej połowie XX wieku, po ustanowieniu władzy radzieckiej, góra została włączona do sowchozu "Komsomolec". W 1958 roku nazwa Święta została zamieniona na Dzierżyńską Górę na cześć działacza komunistycznego – Feliksa Dzierżyńskiego. +Obecnie góra jest popularnym obiektem wśród turystów. +Zatoka Botnicka + +Zatoka Botnicka (fiń. "Pohjanlahti", szw. "Bottniska viken") – najbardziej wysunięta na północ część Morza Bałtyckiego pomiędzy zachodnim wybrzeżem Finlandii a wschodnim Szwecji. Zatoka Botnicka połączona jest z właściwym Bałtykiem niewielkimi akwenami morskimi: Morzem Alandzkim o średniej głębokości około 80 - 100 m i maksymalnej 405 m oraz Morzem Archipelagowym o głębokości średniej 27 m i maksymalnej 146 m. Od południa zamyka ją archipelag Wysp Alandzkich. +Niewielkie zasolenie waha się od 7 promili w części południowej do zaledwie 2 promili w części północnej. Z tego względu podczas zimy bywa cała skuta lodem przez okres do ośmiu miesięcy. Żegluga jest wówczas możliwa wyłącznie dzięki stale operującym na zatoce lodołamaczom. +Nazwa. +Nazwa zatoki pochodzi z latynizacji staronordyckiego słowa oznaczającego "spód, dno" do formy "botn". Po raz pierwszy forma ta pojawia się w nazwie "Helsingjabotn", nazwanej po Hälsinglandzie, którą to nazwą określało się wówczas mniej więcej całe dzisiejsze szwedzkie wybrzeże zatoki. +Fińskie słowo "pohja" oznacza zarówno "spód", jak i północ. +Według niektórych teorii Zatoką Botnicką może być opisane przez Ottara z Hålogaland w IX wieku Morze Kwen ("Kven Sea"; inne teorie łączą je z Zatoką Fińską i Oceanem Arktycznym). Z zatoką łączy się też niekiedy użytą w XV wieku przez duńskiego geografa Claudiusa Clavusa nazwę "Mare Gotticus". +Geografia. +Długość akwenu wynosi 725 km, szerokość waha się od 80 do 240 km. Powierzchnia wynosi 117 000 km². Najbardziej na północ wysuniętym punktem jest szwedzka wieś Töre. +Zbiorniki te są oddzielone od siebie cieśniną Kvarken Północny o szerokości około 80 km. Kvarken Południowy łączy Zatokę z Morzem Archipelagowym pomiędzy wybrzeżem Szwecji a wyspami Alandzkimi. +Międzynarodowa Organizacja Hydrograficzna definiuje południową granicę Zatoki Botnickiej linią Simpnäsklubb (Szwecja) – Flötjan – Lagskær – – Fæstörne – Kökarsörn – Vænö-Kalkskær – półwysep Hanko (Finlandia), w ten sposób zawierając w niej m.in. Wyspy Alandzkie. +Rzeki. +Szwecja +Finlandia +Miasta. +Szwecja +Finlandia +Paweł V + +Paweł V "(łac. Paulus V)", właściwie Camillo Borghese, (ur. 17 września 1552 w Rzymie, zm. 28 stycznia 1621 w Rzymie) – papież w okresie od 16 maja 1605 do 28 stycznia 1621. +Był synem dziekana prawników Kurii Rzymskiej. Studiował nauki prawne w Perugii i Padwie, po powrocie do Rzymu został prawnikiem kurialnym oraz referendarzem trybunału Sygnatury Apostolskiej. W marcu 1576 został wikariuszem patriarchalnej Bazyliki Liberiańskiej. Od września 1588 do 1591 był wicelegatem w Bolonii, w 1595 odbył nadzwyczajną misję legata przy królu Hiszpanii Filipie II. +5 czerwca 1596 papież Klemens VIII mianował go kardynałem, z tytułem prezbitera S. Eusebio. W kwietniu 1597 Borghese został biskupem Iesi (do 1599), w czerwcu 1603 wikariuszem generalnym Rzymu i inkwizytorem. +Po śmierci Leona XI Borghese został na konklawe 16 maja 1605 wybrany na papieża. Przyjął imię Pawła V, koronował się 29 maja 1605, uroczysty ingres do Bazyliki Laterańskiej odbył 6 listopada 1605. +Postawił sobie za cel wzmocnienie autorytetu papiestwa wobec władzy świeckiej. Część państw włoskich – Sabaudia, Genua, Neapol – podporządkowała się nowym zarządzeniom, nie przyjęła ich natomiast Wenecja. Papież obłożył ekskomuniką senat i dożę, a całą Republikę Wenecką interdyktem; był to ostatni przypadek interdyktu papieskiego wobec suwerennego państwa. Duchowni, którzy zaakceptowali nałożone kary papieskie, zostali wygnani lub uwięzieni. Ostatecznie interwencja króla Francji Henryka IV zapobiegła przejściu Wenecji na protestantyzm; papież zdjął interdykt, jednak moralnie poniósł porażkę, a prestiż Stolicy Apostolskiej doznał uszczerbku. +Polityka papieża dążyła do zbliżenia z Francją, ale nie zapobiegła rozwojowi tendencji gallikańskich. Nieudane działania podjął Paweł V w sprawie katolików angielskich i irlandzkich. Parlament angielski nałożył na katolików obowiązek składania przysięgi, unieważniającej papieskie prawo odwoływania książąt świeckich. Papież żądał wycofania tego obowiązku, ale w tym samym czasie archiprezbiter George Blackwell wbrew woli przełożonych nakłaniał katolików do składania przysięgi. Ostatecznie Blackwella odwołano w 1608, ale sytuacja katolików uległa pogorszeniu. +W czasie II wojny polsko-rosyjskiej (tzw. moskiewskiej toczącej się w latach 1609-1618), zdecydowanie popierał Polaków mając nadzieję na podporządkowanie papiestwu ogromnych terenów prawosławnej Rosji. +Papież Paweł V potwierdził nakaz przebywania biskupów w swoich diecezjach. Opublikował odnowiony "Rytuał Rzymski", wzmocnił dyscyplinę w zakonach. Popierał działalność misyjną, w okresie jego pontyfikatu rozwinęły się m.in. misje kapucynów w Kongo i jezuitów w Paragwaju. Misjonarzom jezuickim w Chinach papież zezwolił na używanie miejscowego języka w liturgii. +W 1612 papież zatwierdził Instytut Kongregacji Oratorian Filipa Neri, rok później francuskie Oratorium Naszego Pana Jezusa Chrystusa (założone przez Pierre de Berulle'a). +1 listopada 1610 Paweł V kanonizował kardynała Karola Boromeusza (zm. 1584) i Franciszkę Rzymską (zm. 1440). +W okresie pontyfikatu ukończono budowę nawy głównej, fasady i portyku Bazyliki Św. Piotra. Papież zapewnił Rzymowi poprawę zaopatrzenia w wodę (kazał odbudować dwa akwedukty, w tym dawny Akwedukt Trajana). Wzbogacił zbiory Biblioteki Watykańskiej oraz ustanowił tajne zbiory archiwum. Obok zasług dla Rzymu papież pamiętał także o swojej rodzinie – siostrzeniec i bliski współpracownik papieża, kardynał Scipione Caffarelli-Borghese wybudował słynną Villa Borghese. +Papież Paweł V wydał kontrowersyjną decyzję o potępieniu Galileusza. W czasie tego pontyfikatu 5 czerwca 1616 Kongregacja Św. Oficjum (inkwizycja) potępiła dzieło Kopernika "De revolutionibus" i zamieściła je na Indeksie Ksiąg Zakazanych. +Pierwsza pomoc + +Pierwsza pomoc — zespół czynności wykonywanych w razie wypadku, urazu lub nagłego ataku choroby w celu ochrony życia lub zdrowia poszkodowanego oraz zminimalizowania niekorzystnych następstw, zanim możliwe będzie udzielenie specjalistycznej pomocy medycznej (po przewiezieniu do szpitala). +Łańcuch ratunkowy. +Łańcuch ratunkowy jest zespołem czynności ratowniczych zazębiających się i dających większe rokowania na przeżycie poszkodowanego. +Przebieg akcji ratunkowej powinien pozwolić na łagodne przejście do kolejnego ogniwa łańcucha (np. z etapu pomocy przedmedycznej do etapu pomocy specjalistycznej po przyjechaniu karetki pogotowia P- zespołu podstawowego, S-zespołu specjalistycznego z lekarzem), przez co ogniwa łańcucha ratunkowego nachodzą na siebie. +Zakres pierwszej pomocy. +Zabezpieczenie miejsca wypadku. +Zabezpieczenie miejsca wypadku ma na celu ochronę zarówno poszkodowanego, ratownika, jak i osób trzecich (gapiów, innych uczestników ruchu drogowego, itp.). +Procedury zabezpieczania są zależne od sytuacji. Standardowo w wypadkach komunikacyjnych zatrzymuje się ruch na danym odcinku drogi. W tym celu na drodze, w odpowiednio oddalonym miejscu ustawia się trójkąt ostrzegawczy. Praktycznie odległość ustawienia trójkąta od miejsca zdarzenia zależy od rodzaju drogi (inna będzie na drodze gminnej, inna na autostradzie), warunków atmosferycznych, rzeźby terenu, itd. Trójkąt ostrzegawczy w razie konieczności może być zastąpiony np. samochodem, który – o ile jest dobrze widoczny – może spełniać podobną funkcję. +Wypadki w domu, szkole, miejscu pracy nie wymagają zwykle szczególnych zabezpieczeń. W przypadku drgawek (np. epilepsji) konieczne jest usunięcie twardych przedmiotów (stoły, krzesła), aby ograniczyć urazy kończyn i tułowia. +Jeśli niemożliwe jest wystarczające opanowanie sytuacji (płonące mieszkanie lub samochód, skażenie chemiczne, pojazd mogący zjechać ze zbocza, możliwość karambolu, itd., ale także zagrożenie wstrząsem znajdujących się wewnątrz pojazdu poszkodowanych) w miarę możliwości przystępuje się do ewakuacji poszkodowanych. +Sprawdzenie stanu poszkodowanego, Funkcje życiowe. +U pacjenta nieprzytomnego należy określić, czy oddycha, przykładając policzek nad jego usta, obserwując zarazem czy unosi się klatka piersiowa (tzw. "widzę, słyszę, czuję" – jeśli ratownik na policzku nie wyczuł oddechu, nie usłyszał jego świstu ani nie zobaczył unoszącej się i opadającej klatki piersiowej powinien uznać, że poszkodowany nie oddycha). Przy określaniu innych nieprawidłowości kluczowe znaczenia ma obserwacja nieprzytomnego chorego. +O ile poszkodowany jest przytomny, ratownik może spróbować zebrać wywiad – jest to istotne szczególnie przy chorobach przewlekłych (takich jak cukrzyca), jeśli to one spowodowały, że chory potrzebuje pomocy (np. podania glukozy). +Wzywanie pomocy. +Wezwania pomocy należy dokonać po ustaleniu stanu poszkodowanego, ale przed rozpoczęciem udzielania pomocy (bezwzględnie dotyczy to resuscytacji krążeniowo-oddechowej, ale można poświęcić 1 minutę na opatrzenie obrażeń bezpośrednio zagrażających życiu, jak krwotok, czy wstrząs) lub – o ile to możliwe – równocześnie (np. prosząc przechodnia, aby zrobił to za ratownika). +Zwykle zawiadamia się albo pogotowie ratunkowe, albo straż pożarną. Drugą ze służb wzywa się w wypadku, gdy potrzebne może być użycie specjalistycznego wyposażenia do bezpiecznego wyciągnięcia poszkodowanego, ugaszenia pożaru, neutralizacji wycieku z cysterny, baku samochodu, itd. Po zawiadomieniu straży pożarnej na miejsce wypadku przybędą zarazem strażacy, karetka pogotowia, jak i inne potrzebne służby (policja, pogotowie gazowe, itd). +Po podaniu wszystkich informacji należy poczekać na dodatkowe pytania dyspozytora i potwierdzenie przyjęcia zgłoszenia. +Resuscytacja i inne czynności ratunkowe. +Resuscytacja i inne czynności ratunkowe zostały opisane w osobnych artykułach w kategorii medycyna ratunkowa. +Bezpieczeństwo ratownika. +Zarówno bezpieczeństwo ratownika, jak i osób postronnych jest priorytetem. Nie należy podejmować akcji ratunkowej, jeśli istnieje realne zagrożenie dla świadków zdarzenia (np. wybuchem). Należy pamiętać, że trudniej jest ratować dwie osoby niż jedną – z jednej ofiary i ratownika mogą nagle zrobić się dwie ofiary. +Ratownik powinien unikać kontaktu z krwią, ponieważ grozi to zakażeniem niektórymi patogenami (głównie HBV, HCV i HIV) oraz używać specjalnych maseczek w czasie prowadzenia sztucznego oddychania. +Po udzieleniu pierwszej pomocy ratownik może odczuwać zmęczenie fizyczne oraz przejściowe obniżenie nastroju. Wypadek (przeżycie roli ratownika) może spowodować tzw. stres pourazowy. Omówienie obaw i reakcji, jakie miały miejsce w czasie udzielania pierwszej pomocy, powinno nastąpić w ciągu 24-72 godzin od zdarzenia. Taką rozmowę należy odbyć z przygotowanym do tego typu porad psychologiem. W ten sposób można zapobiec późniejszym zaburzeniom emocjonalnym. Szybkie omówienie swoich obaw oraz wątpliwości zapobiega pojawieniu się zahamowań i lęków w przyszłości. +Song Renqiong + +Song Renqiong (宋任窮, 1909 w prowincji Hunan - 8 stycznia 2005 w Pekinie), chiński działacz komunistyczny, generał. +Od 1926 był członkiem Komunistycznej Partii Chin (KPCh). Zawodowy wojskowy, w 1955 mianowany generałem Chińskiej Armii Ludowo-Wyzwoleńczej. Przez wiele lat wchodził w skład kierownictwa partii, był członkiem Komitetu Centralnego (KC) od 1945, zastępcą członka Biura Politycznego KC w latach 1956-1969. Po kilkuletniej niełasce w okresie rewolucji kulturalnej został w 1975 wiceprzewodniczącym Komitetu Krajowego Ludowej Politycznej Konferencji Konsultacyjnej Chin (do września 1980). +Był sekretarzem KC KPCh po XI kongresie partii (1977), a na XII kongresie (1982) został wybrany w skład Biura Politycznego. W 1985 wraz z grupą weteranów odszedł na emeryturę, zasiadał jeszcze w Centralnej Komisji Doradczej KPCh, m.in. jako jej wiceprzewodniczący. +Siemomysł (imię) + +Siemomysł, Siemimysł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Siemo(i) – " (psł. "*sěmьja" ma m.in. znaczenia "rodzina, ród; czeladź, służba, własność") i "-mysł" ("myśleć"). Imię to oznacza "ten, kto myśli o swojej rodzinie". Podobnie jak Siemowit, imię to było charakterystyczne dla Piastów mazowieckich. +Przez pewien okres imię było błędnie odczytywane jako Ziemomysł. +Siemomysł, Siemimysł imieniny obchodzi 14 września. +Znane osoby noszące imię Siemomysł: +Istnieje słowacki odpowiednik tego imienia. +LeO H.135B3 + +LeO H.135B3 – francuski samolot amfibia patrolowy i szkolny. Zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1926 roku we Francji, w wytwórni lotniczej Liore et Olivier Levallois-Perret w Paryżu. +Historia. +Konstrukcja samolot "LeO H.135B3" została oparta na konstrukcji łodzi latającej "LeO H.13", oblatanej w 1922 roku. Układ samolotu z małymi modyfikacjami pozostawiono bez zmian, utrzymano także dwusilnikowy napęd. Samolot jako amfibia otrzymał podwozie wciągane w locie oraz podczas wodowania pod płat dolny. Tak zmodyfikowany samolot otrzymał nazwę "LeO H.135B3". Symbol na końcu B3 oznaczał samolot bombowy trzymiejscowy. +Prototyp "LeO H.135B3" oblatano w 1926 roku. Próby w locie zakończyły się pomyślnie i w połowie tego samego roku uruchomiono produkcję małej serii tych samolotów. +Samolot "LeO H.135B3" miał kadłub o konstrukcji drewnianej, łodziowy, płaskodenny z redanem. Pokrycie kadłuba stanowiła w całości sklejka. W przedniej górnej części kadłuba znajdowało się stanowisko do zamontowania obrotnicy ruchomego karabinu maszynowego. W środku kadłuba do jego górnej części zamocowany był płat dolny. Do niego za pomocą słupków z rur duralowych przytwierdzono płat górny, przy czym komorę płatów usztywniono cięgami stalowymi. W kadłubie, na wysokości komory płatów znajdowała się odkryta kabina załogi, w której obok siebie rozmieszczone były siedzenia – z lewej pilota, z prawej strony obserwatora, a przed nimi siedzenie strzelca pokładowego obsługującego przedni karabin maszynowyo. W razie potrzeby obserwator mógł obsługiwać ruchomy karabin maszynowy na obrotnicy na tylnym stanowisku za kabiną. Tył kadłuba przechodził w usterzenie pionowe, do którego przytwierdzono usterzenie poziome wsparte zestrzałami. Usterzenie dzielące się na stateczniki i stery, miało konstrukcję drewnianą i pokrycie płócienne, poza statecznikiem pionowym krytym skleją. Płaty były trójdzielne, dwudźwigarowe, drewniane, kryte płótnem. Lotki umieszczono na obu płatach. Pod płatem dolnym zamocowano dwa pływaki ustateczniające. Podwozie, którego golenie przymocowano do obu ścian kadłuba, było podczas lotu, wodowania, pływania w wodzie oraz startu z niej podciągane pod płat dolny, gdzie pozostawało w położeniu skośnym. Na lądzie samolot mógł lądować bezpiecznie z opuszczonym podwoziem. Pod płatem górnym na kozłach z rur stalowych zamocowano blisko kadłuba dwa silniki rzędowe ze śmigłami ciągnącymi. Chłodnicę cieczy usytuowano nad silnikami, a zbiornik paliwa o pojemności 400 litrów w środkowej części górnego płata. +Użycie w lotnictwie polskim. +Polska w ramach pożyczki przyznanej przez Francję na modernizację i zakup sprzętu lotniczego otrzymaną w 1926 roku rząd polski zakupił i przekazał dla Morskiego Dywizjonu Lotniczego (MDL) w Pucku 7 samolotów "LeO H.135B3". Otrzymały one numery boczne od 1 do 7 malowane na kadłubie, a później zmienione zaś na numery od 6.1 do 6.7 namalowane z przodu kadłuba. W latach 1927 – 1934 samoloty "LeO H.135B3" były używane do szkolenia załóg, patrolowania wód przybrzeżnych oraz terenów położonych nad wodami, a także do lotów nad lądem. "LeO H.135B3" latały do Poznania, Bydgoszczy, Torunia i Grudziądza W lecie 1929 roku klucz samolotów "LeO H.135B3" odbył grupowy przelot z oficjalną wizytą do Kopehagi. +W latach w 1927 – 1929 w Morskim Dywizjonie Lotniczym eksploatowano 7 samolotów "LeO H.135B3", w 1930 – 6, w 1931 – 4 oraz w latach 1932 – 1934 – 2 samoloty. W 1934 roku ostatni latający egzemplarz samolotu "LeO H.135B3" o numerze bocznym 6.4 wykorzystano do filmowania samolotów w locie za pomocą kamery zamontowanej na przednim stanowisku strzeleckim. +Opis techniczny. +Samolot "LeO H.135B3" był trzy- lub czteromiejscowym patrolowym lub szkolnym samolotem-amfibią, dwupłatem o konstrukcji mieszanej, podwozie klasyczne podciągane w locie pod dolny płat. Napęd: 2 silniki 8-cylindrowe "Hispano-Suiza 8ab", śmigło ciągnące, dwułopatowe. W lotnictwie polskim samolot nie miał uzbrojenia. +Feba (imię) + +Feba – imię żeńskie pochodzenia greckiego, od gr. (Foibe), co oznaczało „jasna, czysta”. Imię to nosiło kilka postaci z mitologii greckiej. Od jednej z nich – tytanidy – pochodzi nazwa księżyca Saturna, Febe. Patronką tego imienia jest św. Feba z Koryntu wymieniona przez apostoła Pawła w Liście do Rzymian 16:1 jako diakonisa wczesnego Kościoła chrześcijańskiego. +Feba imieniny obchodzi 3 września. +Elżbieta Zawacka + +Elżbieta Zawacka, ps. "Zelma", "Sulica", "Zo" (ur. 19 marca 1909 w Toruniu, zm. 10 stycznia 2009 tamże) – kurierka Komendy Głównej Armii Krajowej, jedyna spośród 15 kobiet, która pomyślnie przeszła trening cichociemnych i która służyła w ich szeregach, emerytowana profesor doktor habilitowana Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika w Toruniu, druga Polka w historii Wojska Polskiego awansowana na stopień generała brygady. Dama Orderu Orła Białego. +Młodość i działalność w II Rzeczypospolitej. +Elżbieta Zawacka urodziła się w czasie, gdy Toruń znajdował się pod zaborem pruskim, jednak szkołę podstawową i gimnazjum kończyła już w wolnej Polsce. Maturę zdała w Żeńskim Gimnazjum Humanistycznym, a następnie skończyła studia matematyczne na Uniwersytecie Poznańskim. Na czwartym roku studiów związała się z Organizacją Przysposobienia Kobiet do Obrony Kraju (późniejsze PWK). Po studiach podjęła pracę jako nauczycielka w szkole średniej i udzielała się społecznie jako instruktor Przysposobienia Wojskowego Kobiet (PWK). Przed rokiem 1939 pełniła w Katowicach funkcję komendantki Rejonu Śląskiego PWK. +Udział w kampanii wrześniowej i działalność kurierska. +We wrześniu 1939 była żołnierzem Kobiecego Batalionu Pomocniczej Służby Wojskowej, walczącym w obronie Lwowa. +W październiku tego samego roku wstąpiła do tworzącej się Służby Zwycięstwu Polski i pozostawała w jej szeregach aż do końca 1945. Na początku swej podziemnej działalności działając pod pseudonimem "Zelma" organizowała w oparciu o struktury PWK niezależną grupę SZP na Śląsku. +Pod koniec 1940 "Zo" przeniesiono do Warszawy – dostała przydział do Wydziału Łączności Zagranicznej Komendy Głównej Armii Krajowej "Zagroda". Od połowy 1941 r. jeździła między Warszawą a Berlinem przewożąc w obie strony pocztę, która kursowała przez Szwecję do Londynu i z powrotem. Dodatkowym zadaniem Zawackiej było zorganizowanie szlaków kurierów podążających do Londynu przez Niemcy. W latach 1939–1945 korzystając z fałszywych dokumentów przekraczała granice Rzeszy ponad sto razy przenosząc meldunki i informacje, zaś w przerwach między wyprawami uczyła się na tajnych kompletach. +Cichociemna. +W lutym 1943 wyruszyła jako emisariuszka Komendanta Głównego AK Stefana Roweckiego przez Niemcy, Francję, Andorę, Hiszpanię i Gibraltar do Sztabu Naczelnego Wodza w Londynie. Jej misja miała dwa cele: lepszą koordynację szlaków przesyłowych poczty krajowej, dostarczanej przez bazy łączności Sztabu działające w krajach neutralnych oraz przedstawienie żądań gen. Roweckiego dotyczących uprawnień kombatanckich kobiet-żołnierzy AK. Z Londynu powróciła 10 września 1943 zrzucona ze spadochronem. Była jedyną kobietą wśród cichociemnych. +Powstanie warszawskie, emigracja i powrót do kraju. +W marcu 1944, gdy "Zo" zagroziło aresztowanie, wycofano ją z działalności kurierskiej i przeniesiono do służby w dowództwie Wojskowej Służby Kobiet (WSK). Działając w WSK brała udział w powstaniu warszawskim, a po kapitulacji przedostała się do Krakowa skąd koordynowała działalność kurierską na trasach prowadzących do Szwajcarii. W październiku tego samego roku została mianowana kapitanem, a następnie majorem Wojska Polskiego. Po demobilizacji udała się na Zachód, jednak już w lutym ponownie znalazła się w konspiracji, tym razem antykomunistycznej – w 1946 powróciła do "normalnego" życia podejmując pracę w Państwowym Urzędzie Wychowania Fizycznego i Przysposobienia Wojskowego przy Ministerstwie Obrony Narodowej. +W 1948 pracowała jako nauczycielka w Łodzi, Toruniu i Olsztynie. 5 września 1951 została aresztowana przez UB i po procesie skazana na 10 lat więzienia. Na wolność wyszła 24 lutego 1955. +Wróciła do pracy w szkolnictwie, ucząc w szkołach w Sierpcu i Toruniu, nie zaniedbując jednak samodzielnej nauki. W 1965 uzyskała doktorat nauk humanistycznych na Uniwersytecie Gdańskim i pracowała tam jako adiunkt. Po uzyskanej w 1972 habilitacji wróciła do Torunia, gdzie podjęła pracę w Instytucie Pedagogiki i Psychologii UMK. Była założycielką Zakładu Andragogiki, który na skutek represji SB został zlikwidowany w 1978 – po tym zdarzeniu "Zo" odeszła na emeryturę. +Jeszcze w latach sześćdziesiątych Elżbieta Zawacka zajęła się gromadzeniem materiałów historycznych dokumentujących działalność Armii Krajowej w czasie wojny, jako emerytka powróciła do tej pracy. Działała w ruchu kombatanckim „Solidarności”, w 1986 współzakładała w Toruniu Klub Historyczny AK (działający następnie jako Klub Historyczny im. Antoniego Antczaka). Dzięki jej zaangażowaniu grono kilku osób w Toruniu zainicjowało, w końcu 1988 r., powstanie ogólnopolskiego stowarzyszenia byłych żołnierzy Armii Krajowej (obecnie Światowy Związek Żołnierzy Armii Krajowej). W pierwszym zarządzie głównym tej organizacji, który kładł podwaliny pod jej dalszy rozwój, pełniła funkcję wiceprezesa Zarządu Głównego. W 1990 współtworzyła Fundację "Archiwum Pomorskie Armii Krajowej" – była jej honorowym przewodniczącym. +W 1989 została laureatką Medalu Stolema – wyróżnienia przyznawanego w Zrzeszeniu Kaszubsko-Pomorskim osobom które w szczególny sposób przyczyniły się do pomnożenia dorobku i osiągnięć kultury i Pomorza lub do jej spopularyzowania. W 1990 została odznaczona Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, a w 1993. Krzyżem Komandorskim tego orderu z gwiazdą. Od 1995 była profesorem nauk humanistycznych. +3 maja 2006 roku Prezydent RP, Lech Kaczyński mianował ją na stopeń generała brygady. Została wówczas drugą po Marii Wittek kobietą - generałem w historii Wojska Polskiego. +Profesor Elżbieta Zawacka została dwukrotnie odznaczona Orderem Wojennym Virtuti Militari V klasy i pięciokrotnie Krzyżem Walecznych, zaś w 1995 prezydent Lech Wałęsa odznaczył ją Orderem Orła Białego. W 2002 otrzymała Nagrodę "Kustosz Pamięci Narodowej" z rąk Prezesa IPN prof. Leona Kieresa. +W 1990 z jej inicjatywy powstała Fundacja Archiwum i Muzeum Pomorskie AK oraz Wojskowej Służbie Polek w Toruniu, obecnie Fundacja Generał Elżbiety Zawackiej. +Gen. bryg. Elżbieta Zawacka jest fundatorką pomnika Wojskowej Służby Kobiet w Warszawie. +Pochowana na Cmentarzu św. Jerzego w Toruniu. +Z dniem 4 listopada 2009 imię gen. bryg. prof. Elżbiety Zawackiej przyjęła Biblioteka Pedagogiczna w Toruniu. +Z dniem 8 listopada 2009 imię gen. bryg. prof. Elżbiety Zawackiej przyjęła Szkoła Podoficerska Wojsk Lądowych w Zegrzu. +Z dniem 19 marca 2010 imię gen. bryg. prof. Elżbiety Zawackiej przyjęła Zasadnicza Szkoła Zawodowa nr 1 i Technikum nr 1 w Zespole Szkół Ekonomicznych w Toruniu. +Układ komorowy + +Układ komorowy (łac. "systema ventricularis") – zbiór czterech przestrzeni wewnątrz mózgowia, w których wytwarzany jest płyn mózgowo-rdzeniowy, i z których następnie wydostaje się do przestrzeni podpajęczynówkowej, gdzie krąży, otaczając cały ośrodkowy układ nerwowy. Płyn ten wytwarzany jest z osocza krwi przez splot naczyniówkowy. +Każda z obu półkul mózgu zawiera w sobie jedną komorę boczną posiadającą łukowaty kształt, przypominający przechyloną nieco w dół literę "C". W komorach bocznych wyróżnia się rogi przednie ("cornu anterius ventriculi lateralis") sięgające do płatów czołowych, rogi dolne ("cornu inferius") w płatach skroniowych, rogi tylne ("cornu posterius") w płatach potylicznych oraz części środkowe. Komory boczne poprzez otwory międzykomorowe Monro ("foramina intraventricularia") łączą się z leżącą nieco niżej, ale położoną centralnie komorą III, znajdującą się częściowo w obrębie międzymózgowia. W tylnej części komory III rozpoczyna się wąski kanał Sylwiusza, nazywany także wodociągiem mózgu ("aqueductus cerebri"), który nie posiada w sobie splotu naczyniówkowego i przebiegając przez śródmózgowie łączy się z leżącą jeszcze niżej, również w linii środkowej, komorą IV. Ostatnia z komór znajduje się pomiędzy tylną częścią pnia mózgu a móżdżkiem. Komora IV posiada dwa otwory boczne Luschki ("aperturae laterales ventriculi quarti") oraz jeden nieparzysty otwór Magendiego ("apertura mediana ventriculi quarti"), przez które płyn mózgowo-rdzeniowy przechodzi do przestrzeni podpajęczynówkowej. +Historia. +Około IV-V wieku n.e. Nemezjusz oraz św. Augustyn wypracowali, wywodząc od koncepcji czynności psychicznych Arystotelesa i koncepcji gazu psychicznego Galena, tzw. "doktrynę komorową", wg której komory mózgu pompują pneumę duchową i są siedliskami różnych cech, takich jak fantazja, wyobraźnia, ocenianie, myślenie, czy pamięć. +Samoutrudnianie + +Samoutrudnianie – w psychologii mechanizm obronny, polegający na przewidywaniu niepowodzenia i jednoczesnym przygotowywaniu takich jego wyjaśnień, które minimalizują brak zdolności jako jego możliwą przyczynę. +Samoutrudnianie idzie w parze z zaniżoną samooceną. Zalicza się je do defensywnych technik autoprezentacji, bowiem pozwala ochronić poczucie wartości (na krótką metę) jednak znacznie obniża szanse na osiągnięcie upragnionego sukcesu, w rezultacie czego na dłuższą metę obniża samoocenę. Pewien paradoks samoutrudniania polega na tym, że im bardziej zależy komuś na osiągnięciu sukcesu, tym bardziej prawdopodobne jest, że będzie stosować techniki samoutrudniające (jeśli ma zaniżoną samoocenę). +W polskiej psychologii społecznej samoutrudnianiem zajmowali się Dariusz Doliński i Andrzej Szmajke. Eksperymenty, które przeprowadzili, dowiodły między innymi, że zdenerwowanie przedegzaminacyjne i depresyjny nastrój mogą być technikami samoobronnymi. +Samoutrudnianie traktuje się jako patologiczną postać tendencji samoobronnej. Występuje ono z różnymi zaburzeniami, między innymi z depresją czy alkoholizmem. +Skrajną formą samoutrudniania jest proces rezygnowania z jakiegoś działania w celu ochrony poczucia własnej wartości w momencie, gdy osoba nie jest w stanie osiągnąć wymaganego od niej celu. +Prawo geologiczne i górnicze + +Prawo geologiczne i górnicze – gałąź prawa z pogranicza zagadnień prawa cywilnego jak i administracyjnego, regulująca kwestie własności kopalin, organizacji i nadzoru prac górniczych i geologicznych a także odpowiedzialności za szkody wywołane przez ruch zakładu górniczego. +Prawo górnicze i geologiczne w Polsce. +W Polsce podstawowym aktem prawnym normującym tę dziedzinę jest ustawa "Prawo geologiczne i górnicze". +Poszukiwanie i rozpoznawanie złóż kopalin objętych własnością górniczą, wydobywanie kopalin, podziemne bezzbiornikowe magazynowanie substancji oraz podziemne składowanie odpadów wymaga uzyskania koncesji. +Teoria pola (psychologia) + +Teoria pola (psychologicznego), zwana inaczej psychologią typologiczną – została stworzona przez Kurta Lewina (1890-1947) w 1936 roku. Opisuje ona zależności między polem psychicznym jednostki a środowiskiem zewnętrznym, z którym tworzy ona całość. +Założenia teorii. +Powstają napięcia w związku z potrzebami, następuje nadanie wartości określonym obszarom, po czym obszary stają się polami sił. +Wartość pozytywna – redukuje napięcie; wartość negatywna – redukuje obszar, w którym jednostka znajduje się teraz. ++ ← P → + +- → P ← - +- → P ← - +- → P ← - ++- ↔ P ++ P ← - ++(-!) ↔ P +Większość potrzeb może się znajdować w stanie deprywacji, zaspokojenia (nasycenie) i przesycenia. +Nowosiodł + +Nowosiodł – neologizm powstały przez analogię do takich staropolskich imion męskich, jak Dobrosiodł, Wszesiodł i Niesiodł, złożony z niespotykanego poza tym imieniem członu "Nowo-" oraz "-siodł" ("osada, siedziba"). Znaczenie imienia: "ten, który się nowo osiedlił". +West Point + +United States Military Academy at West Point, znana także jako "West Point" i skrótowiec "USMA", pol. "Akademia Wojskowa Stanów Zjednoczonych w West Point" – amerykańska uczelnia wojskowa (wojska lądowe), sytuowana w byłym forcie US Army. Akademia jest położona w mieście West Point w stanie Nowy Jork, nad rzeką Hudson, około 80 km na północ od Nowego Jorku. Jej powierzchnia wynosi 65 km². Jest to najstarsza instalacja wojskowa w Stanach Zjednoczonych. +Absolwenci – żołnierze uczelni otrzymują tytuł zawodowy "Bachelor of Science" (licencjata) i stopień wojskowy "Second Lieutenant" (podporucznika) w Armii Stanów Zjednoczonych. Po jej ukończeniu USMA są zobowiązani do co najmniej pięcioletniej służby w wojsku Stanów Zjednoczonych i przez okres przynajmniej trzech lat być w czynnej rezerwie. Studenci na pierwszym roku są znani jako "plebejusze" ("plebes"), na drugim jako "roczniaki" ("yearlings"), na trzecim "krowy" ("cows") i na czwartym "pierwsi" ("firsties"). +Drużyny studenckie były historycznie znane jako "Czarni rycerze z Hudson" (The Black Knights of the Hudson), ale ta nazwa została oficjalnie skrócona do "Czarni Rycerze". Amerykańska prasa sportowa pisząc o drużynach z West Point zazwyczaj używa synonimu "Army" i ten zwyczaj jest oficjalnie przyjęty. Symbolem "Army" jest muł. +Motto West Point to "Duty, Honor, Country" ("Obowiązek, Honor, Ojczyzna") +Historia West Point. +Miejsce na konstrukcję fortu zostało wybrane przez George'a Washingtona, a fortyfikacje zostały zaprojektowane przez Tadeusza Kościuszkę w 1778 Generał Washington uważał, że West Point był najważniejszą pozycją obronną na całym kontynencie północnoamerykańskim. Wysokie wzgórza nad meandrami rzeki Hudson pozwoliły armii amerykańskiej na całkowitą kontrolę nad ruchem po rzece w czasie rewolucji amerykańskiej. +George Washington szybko zorientował się, że nowo powstałe państwo potrzebuje akademii wojskowej, jednak jego sekretarz stanu Thomas Jefferson był przeciwny jej powstaniu argumentując, że konstytucja Stanów Zjednoczonych nic na ten temat nie wspomina. Niemniej, gdy Jefferson został prezydentem, podpisał 16 marca 1802 legislację pozwalającą na stworzenie takiej instytucji i szkoła została otwarta 4 lipca tego samego roku. +Rektorem (superintendentem) akademii był w latach 1817–1833 pułkownik Sylvanus Thayer, znany jako "ojciec akademii wojskowej". Podniósł on poziom nauczania i ustanowił dyscyplinę wojskową. Zainspirowany francuską École Polytechnique, Thayer w procesie dydaktycznym położył duży nacisk na nauki ścisłe, a szczególnie na inżynierię. Przez pierwszą połowę XIX wieku, absolwenci "USMA at West Point" byli głównymi budowniczymi dróg, systemu kolejowego, mostów i przystani w całych Stanach Zjednoczonych Ameryki, a inne uczelnie techniczne w dużej mierze wzorowały się na programie studiów w West Point. +Po I wojnie światowej superintendent Douglas MacArthur jeszcze bardziej zdywersyfikował program akademicki. MacArthur przeforsował zmiany w nauczaniu kultury fizycznej i rozszerzył program sportowy. Hasło "każdy kadet sportowcem" było bardzo istotną częścią jego programu. +Kobiety mogą studiować w West Point od 1976. Akademia West Point corocznie przyjmuje od kilku do kilkunastu obcokrajowców z prawie całego świata. Łącznie USMA ukończyło już ponad 350 obcokrajowców. +Znani absolwenci West Point. +W nawiasach podano rok, w którym dany absolwent ukończył akademię. +Pisarz i poeta Edgar Allan Poe opuścił uczelnię przed jej ukończeniem (ukończyłby ją w 1834 roku). +Major + +Major (skrót mjr) – stopień oficerski używany w armiach wielu krajów. W wojsku polskim jest to stopień niższy od podpułkownika, wyższy od kapitana. Major wchodzi w skład korpusu oficerów starszych, natomiast w okresie międzywojennym – w skład korpusu oficerów sztabowych. Odpowiednikiem majora w marynarce wojennej jest komandor podporucznik a w policji podinspektor Policji. +Oznaczenia. +Polski oficer w stopniu majora na naramiennikach nosi dwie belki i gwiazdkę. Oznaczenie stopnia na czapce garnizonowej składa się z dwóch wąskich galonów umieszczonych na całej długości łuku daszka oraz z jednej gwiazdki umieszczonej na środku otoku. +W myśl Przepisu Ubioru Polowego Wojsk Polskich z 1919 r.: na naramiennikach kurtki i płaszcza w odległości 1 cm od wszycia, w poprzek naramiennika, naszyte równolegle prosto w odległości 1,5 cm jeden od drugiego dwa płaskie sznureczki srebrne oksydowane szerokości 5 mm. Na środku naramiennika wzdłuż jedna gwiazdka haftowana oksydowanymi nićmi lub wytłaczana pięciopromienna, o ostrych promieniach. +Na wierzchu czapki wzdłuż szwów wierzchu na krzyż od otoka z jednej strony do otoka z drugiej i wzdłuż górnej krawędzi otoka dokoła, naszyty 1 płaski sznurek szerokości 5 mm, srebrny, oksydowany, dookoła otoku naszyte dwa takie same sznurki w odległości 0,5 cm jeden od drugiego. Z przodu pod orzełkiem jedna takaż gwiazdka jak na naramiennikach. +Zgodnie z przepisami ubiorczymi żołnierzy Wojska Polskiego z 1972 roku major nosił jedną gwiazdkę umieszczoną na środku taśmy otokowej w linii równoległej do krawędzi taśmy; odległość między ramionami gwiazdek wynosiła 2 mm. Na daszku czapki garnizonowej – dwa galony szerokości 6 mm naszyte obok siebie w odstępie 2 mm; zewnętrzny naszyty w odległości 6 mm od krawędzi daszka na całej długości jego łuku. +Na beretach i furażerkach – dwa paski na lewej stronie beretu (furażerki) długości 3 cm szerokości 5 mm w odstępie 4 mm, umieszczone pod kątem 45° w stosunku do dolnej krawędzi beretu (furażerki) oraz jedna gwiazdka rozmieszczona w linii prostej nad środkiem paska – prostopadle do jego położenia w odległości 5 mm od paska do podstawy jej ramion. +Na naramiennikach – dwa paski i jedną gwiazdkę. Paski szerokości 6 mm umieszczone były w poprzek naramiennika: pierwszy pasek w odległości 1 cm od wszycia rękawa, drugi – 4 mm od pierwszego. Gwiazdka umieszczona była na środku naramiennika, w odległości 1 cm od drugiego paska. +Stanowiska w Wojsku Polskim. +Obecnie w Wojsku Polskim dla oficera w stopniu majora przewidziane są między innymi stanowiska: zastępców dowódców batalionów, szefów sekcji oddziałów (pułk, brygada) oraz oficerów wydziałów w sztabach wyższych szczebli. +Etymologia. +Etymologia słowa – śrdw. łac. "major domus" dosł. „zarządca domu”; późn. łac. "maioratus" „wyższość” od łac. "maior" „większy”; „starszy” od "magnus". +Stopień majora w innych krajach. +W Armii Rosyjskiej (carskiej) nie było stopnia majora (zlikwidowano go w 1884). Kapitan od razu awansował do stopnia podpułkownika. Równocześnie istniał stopień sztabskapitana, wyższy od porucznika, niższy zaś od kapitana. +Historia. +Po raz pierwszy w dziejach stopień majora pojawił się w XVI wieku w hiszpańskiej piechocie. W Polsce stopień ten używany jest od XVII wieku, przy czym przez dłuższy czas wiązały się z nim obowiązki administracyjno-gospodarcze, szkoleniowe i dyscyplinarne. Później major był przeważnie dowódcą batalionu. +Strategia porównań podłużnych + +Strategia porównań podłużnych – sposób prowadzenia badania, który pozwala obserwować te same osoby wielokrotnie, na przestrzeni wielu lat. +Badania te oparte są na kryterium czasu i służą zrozumieniu mechanizmów zmian oraz czynników wpływających na zachowanie. Jednostki żyją w tym samym okresie społeczno-ekonomicznym, zmiany związane z wiekiem stwierdzone w tych badaniach, są na tyle dobrze udokumentowane, że istnieje małe prawdopodobieństwo mylnej interpretacji. +Jednymi z najambitniejszych badań podłużnych były studia nad geniuszami, rozpoczęte przez Lewisa Termana, zaraz po I wojnie światowej, a kontynuowane 60 lat później przez psychologów z Uniwersytetu Stanforda. +Wybrano ponad 1500 chłopców i dziewcząt urodzonych około 1910 roku, uczęszczających do klas od trzeciej do ósmej. Za kryterium wyboru przyjęto wyniki w testach inteligencji na poziomie bardzo wysokim. Od tamtej pory byli regularnie testowani w odstępach czasu. Najpierw po to, by sprawdzić, jak grupa badanych wypada w porównaniu z młodzieżą w ogóle, a potem by odkryć warunki i doświadczenia, które miały wpływ na satysfakcję z życia i style radzenia sobie z problemami. +Wyniki badania, jak do tej pory, okazały się być zaskakujące. Geniusze radzą sobie bardzo dobrze zarówno z rozwiązywaniem problemów życiowych, stereotyp o aspołecznych, chorowitych ludziach został obalony. +Jeszcze do niedawna prawie 75% wciąż żyjących badanych odsyłało wypełnione kwestionariusze rozsyłane co 10 lat. +Biegun (analiza zespolona) + +formula_4 gdy formula_5 dąży do formula_6 po dowolnej drodze. Zwyczajowo odnotowujemy to zapisem formula_7. +Swarzędz + +Swarzędz (niem. "Schwersenz") – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie poznańskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Swarzędz. Położone nad Jeziorem Swarzędzkim, ok. 10 km od centrum Poznania wchodzi w skład aglomeracji poznańskiej. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2011 r. miasto miało 31 031 mieszkańców. Jest ósmym co do wielkości w woj. wielkopolskim i ma jedną z największych gęstości zaludnienia spośród polskich miast (3 522,4 osób/km² – 4.lokata w kraju, za Świętochłowicami oraz podwarszawskimi: Piastowem i Legionowem). +Na terenie Swarzędza znajduje się największy w Europie skansen pszczelarski. +Dawniej jeden z ośrodków włókienniczych Wielkopolski, obecnie miejsce prosperowania bardzo wielu warsztatów stolarskich, tapicerskich i meblowych. +Położenie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2011 r. powierzchnia miasta wynosiła 8,23 km². +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. poznańskiego. +Historia. +Ślady osadnictwa człowieka w okolicach Swarzędza sięgają 8-3,5 tys. lat p.n.e. Potwierdzają to liczne stanowiska archeologiczne głównie z okresu kultury łużyckiej i przeworskiej, a także z mezolitu i wczesnego średniowiecza. +Pierwsze wzmianki pisane pojawiły się w 1366 r. o wsi Swarancz lub Swanrancz należącej do rodziny Górków herbu Łodzia. Byli oni w jej posiadaniu do 1592, kiedy to właścicielem został Mikołaj ze Srebrnej Góry koło Nakła. Następnie Swarzędz przeszedł w ręce rodziny Czarnkowskich herbu Nałęcz. Wieś liczyła wówczas 2,5 łana, 3 zagrodników, pasterza i 30 owiec. +W 1610 r. właścicielem Swarzędza został wojewoda inowrocławski i kaliski – Zygmunt Grudziński herbu Grzymała, by 28 sierpnia 1638 r. wystawić na zamku w Kórniku dokument lokacyjny na prawie magdeburskim, potwierdzony przez króla Władysława IV, nadając miastu nazwę Grzymałów. W kolejnych latach nazwę tę wyparła dawna nazwa wsi Swarzędz. +W 1910 r. Swarzędz liczył 3 459 mieszkańców, tym: 1 927 Polaków (55,7%), 1 371 Niemców (39,6%) i 161 Żydów (4,7%). +Z okazji 350-lecia nadania praw miejskich, przypadającego w 1988, społeczeństwo ufundowało dla miasta sztandar. Swarzędz został również odznaczony przez Radę Państwa Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Transport. +Przez Swarzędz przebiega droga krajowa nr 92. Przewoźnikiem miejskim na terenie Swarzędza jest Zakład Gospodarki Komunalnej w Swarzędzu obsługujący 15 autobusowych linii dziennych i jedną autobusową linię nocną. Do południowego Swarzędza dociera także linia 55 obsługiwana przez MPK Poznań. +Sport. +W Swarzędzu działa kilka klubów sportowych m.in. działający od 1921 piłkarski Klub Sportowy „Unia” – obecnie w trzeciej lidze, I-ligowy koszykarski Klub Sportowy „Unia-Probasket” oraz Uczniowski Klub Sportowy „Lider”. W Swarzędzu znajduje się kilka boisk przeznaczonych do gry w piłkę nożną, koszykówkę, kryty basen i lodowisko. +Wspólnoty wyznaniowe. +Na terenie miasta Swarzędza znajduje się pięć parafii rzymskokatolickich, które wchodzą w skład dekanatu swarzędzkiego. +Strategia porównań sekwencyjnych + +Strategia porównań sekwencyjnych (z ang. sequential design) – technika badawcza w naukach społecznych, w której osoby badane, mało różniące się pod względem wieku, grupowane są według roku urodzenia i obserwowane wielokrotnie w ciągu kilku lat. +Siemidrog + +Siemidrog – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Siemi-" (psł. "*sěmьja" ma m.in. znaczenia "rodzina, ród; czeladź, służba, własność") i "-drog" ("drogi"). Imię to oznacza "drogi swojej rodzinie". +Siemidrog imieniny obchodzi 12 kwietnia. +W języku polskim nie odnotowano żeńskich odpowiedników Siemidroga, ale w serbsko-chorwackim występowała "Semidraga". +Hefajstion + +Hefajstion był najlepszym przyjacielem (oraz, według niektórych źródeł, również kochankiem) króla Macedonii Aleksandra Wielkiego. Pochodził z macedońskiej arystokracji i wychowywał się razem z Aleksandrem. Podczas wyprawy na Persję zajmował coraz wyższe stanowiska i w końcu został zastępcą króla. Zmarł w Ekbatanie, latem 324 p.n.e. prawdopodobnie na chorobę tropikalną, jednak nie można wykluczyć otrucia. Wcześniej poślubił Drypetis - córkę Dariusza III i Statejry I oraz siostrę Statejry II - drugiej żony Aleksandra (Wesele w Suzie). +Aleksander z rozpaczy kazał zabić lekarza, który leczył Hefajstiona. +Zmarłemu przyjacielowi wyprawił piękny i bardzo drogi pogrzeb. +Król Macedonii zmarł rok później. +Organum + +Organum (gr. ὄργανον – "organon" "instrument") – gatunek średniowiecznej heterofonii, a następnie polifonii. Początkowo znaczenie terminu "organum" związane było z instrumentem – organami, później jednak tylko z muzyką harmonijnie zestrojoną w konsonansach. Od XII wieku "organum" oznaczało zwłaszcza utwory z długonutowym głosem tenorowym (zwykle jako "cantus prius factus" zaczerpniętym z chorału) i znajdującymi się nad nim bardziej ruchliwymi głosami. +Ogólniejsza definicja stwierdza, że w średniowiecznym "organum" znajduje się melodia zaczerpnięta z chorału wraz z co najmniej jednym dodanym głosem. W zależności od skali oraz formy chorału, dodatkowo może być śpiewany głos burdonowy. Jako że nie powstaje prawdziwie niezależny drugi głos, w takim przypadku nie mówimy o polifonii, lecz heterofonii. Początkowo "organum" zawierało dwa głosy: melodię zaczerpniętą z chorału oraz jej zdwojenie prowadzone równolegle w interwale konsonansowym, zwykle kwincie lub kwarcie. W tym przypadku kompozycja często rozpoczynała się i kończyła na unisonie. "Organum" było pierwotnie improwizowane: gdy jeden śpiewak wykonywał zapisaną linię melodyczną ("vox principalis"), inny "ze słuchu" dokomponowywał niezapisaną drugą linię ("vox organalis"). W miarę upływu czasu kompozytorzy zaczęli zapisywać dodawane głosy, które przestały być zwykłymi transpozycjami – w ten sposób kształtując już prawdziwą polifonię. +Historia. +Pierwszy opis wraz ze wskazówkami wykonawczymi pojawił się w Musica enchiriadis (ok. 895 r.), traktacie tradycyjnie – niesłusznie – przypisywanym Hucbaldowi z St. Amand. Najstarsze metody nauczania techniki organalnej znajdują się w Scolica enchiriadis dołączonym do "Musica enchiriadis". Początkowo organum nie miało być polifonią we współczesnym rozumieniu tego słowa; głos dodany miał być jedynie wzmocnieniem i harmonicznym wzbogaceniem melodii chorału, by dodać splendoru liturgii w większe święta. Analogię można dostrzec w architekturze: w XII i XIII wieku konsekrowano coraz większe gotyckie katedry, w których z kolei rozbrzmiewała coraz bardziej skomplikowana polifonia. +Największymi nowatorami w zakresie techniki organalnej byli Leoninus i Perotinus. Ich innowacje polegają w dużej mierze na rozwinięciu modi rytmicznych, zakorzenionych w formach chorału gregoriańskiego i odpowiadających teoretycznemu systemowi św. Augustyna. Zasługą tych kompozytorów, zwłaszcza Perotinusa, było urytmizowanie utworów według następstw i schematów określonych później jako "rytmika modalna". +Organum paralelne ścisłe. +Oba "Enchiriadis" ("Musica" i "Scolia") są przede wszystkimi traktatami omawiającymi koncepcję matematycznej budowy skal, opartą na teoriach wzajemnych stosunków między dwoma tetrachordami. W "Musica enchiriadis" opisana jest zapewne praktyka, która miała miejsce już wcześniej – być może miała nawet kilkusetletnią tradycję. Głos lub głosy dodane ("vox organalis") rozpoczynają, poruszają się i kończą w tym samym interwale – kwarty, kwinty lub oktawy (lub ich stosownej kombinacji) – względem głosu głównego ("vox principalis") wykonującego chorał. Ścisłe organum paralelne nie pojawia się we wczesnych traktach jako twór samodzielny: traktaty omawiają paralelizm jako fundament i następnie przechodzą do kolejnych – już innych – sposobów konstruowania organum. W rzeczywistości większość przykładów muzycznych w traktatach wykorzystuje interwały sekundy, tercji, kwarty, kwinty i seksty, by osiągnąć lepszy rezultat artystyczny. To bardziej urozmaicone organum było szerzej opisane przez Guidona z Arezzo w traktacie "Micrologus" ok. 1020 roku i określane jest najczęściej jako organum swobodne. +Badacze nie ustalili jeszcze jednak, czy ten typ organum wywodził się z wcześniejszego, bardziej prymitywnego ścisłego paralelizmu, czy też z jakiejś formy heterofonicznej, ograniczonej prawami harmonii modalnej. Ścisłe organum paralelne pojawia się, tak naprawdę, jedynie w niemieckiej muzyce, począwszy od XIII wieku, a nie w dużo wcześniejszych traktatach "Enchiriadis", dziełach Guidona lub w Troparium winchesterskim. +Organum swobodne. +Najwcześniejsze przykłady tego typu organum powstały w latach 1020–1050: "Micrologus" Guidona z Arezzo oraz "Troparium winchesterskie". Wykorzystują one wciąż równoległy ruch głosów i ruch boczny (wyższy głos porusza się, podczas gdy "tenor" trzyma jeden dźwięk), ale wprowadzony został także ruch przeciwny głosów i ruch prosty (głosy poruszają się w tym samym kierunku, lecz o inne interwały). Zjawiska te doprowadziły do usamodzielnienia linii melodycznych – co jest podstawowym warunkiem powstania kontrapunktu. Istnieją manuskrypty z późnego XI i XII wieku, które świadczą o zmieniającym się stylu – od prac Johannesa Cottona po tzw. manuskrypty z Chartres. Choć organum mieszane jest raczej izochroniczne (homorytmiczne) – oba głosy poruszają się bowiem w tym samym tempie – pojawiają się także przykłady więcej niż jednej nuty w głosie organalnym na jedną nutę tenoru; jest to także zalążek kontrapunktu. Głos dodany rozpoczyna w unisonie z głosem głównym, powtarzając pierwszą nutę. Poprzednie techniki były w istocie jedynie wzmocnieniem i uwydatnieniem pojedynczej linii melodycznej – dlatego też nie była to polifonia; organum mieszane jest zdecydowanie przełomowe – tworzy nową linię, która kontrastuje harmonicznie z chorałem w głosie niższym. +Organum melizmatyczne. +Organum jako gatunek muzyczny osiągnęło szczytowy moment rozwoju w XII wieku wraz z rozwinięciem organum melizmatycznego ("floridus") oraz działalnością dwóch odrębnych szkół kompozytorskich. Pierwsza nosi nazwę "polifonii akwitańskiej", ponieważ zapoczątkowana została w szkole Saint Martial zogniskowanej w opactwie Saint Martial w Limoges w Akwitanii. Późniejszy rozwój w XII wieku nastąpił w szkole Notre Dame w Paryżu, gdzie pojawiły się modi rytmiczne. Było to zasługą kompozytorów znanych z imienia – Leoninusa oraz Perotinusa, którzy wprowadzili szereg nowych technik kompozytorskich. Motet – mający stać się najistotniejszym gatunkiem, na którym miała się skupić inwencja kompozytorów w XIV wieku – wywodzi się z czasów Perotinusa. +Podstawową zasadą organum melizmatycznego jest to, że głos organalny wykonuje od dwóch do sześciu dźwięków nad jednym dźwiękiem w "tenorze". Opierało się na melodii zaczerpniętej z chorału, którą śpiewano w wydłużonych wartościach w niższym z głosów. Długość trwania poszczególnych wartości zależał od tego, jak długie frazy były im przypisane w głosie wyższym (organalnym). Chorał przeistoczył się więc w pochód długich dźwięków – stąd głos zawierający "cantus firmus" będzie nazwany "tenorem" (łac. "tenere" – "trzymać"). Wyższy głos organalny poruszał się w szerokich melizmatach na przedłużonych samogłoskach. Ten nowy styl znany był jako "organum duplum"' lub "organum purum", podczas gdy starszy homorytmiczny gatunek zaczął być nazywany "discantusem". +Organum z Saint Martial ma charakter rapsodyczny, ponieważ rytm nie jest jeszcze zorganizowany według sześciu modi rytmicznych – których wprowadzenie można przypisać dopiero Leoninusowi. +Organum w szkole Notre Dame. +Rozwój ośrodka życia kulturalnego i intelektualnego w XII-wiecznym Paryżu wiąże się w z Uniwersytetem Sorbony, który stał się wówczas uczelnią przyciągającą wielu studentów, nie tylko z Francji. Budowa katedry Notre Dame w latach 1153–1238 zbiega się z czasem rozwoju szkoły paryskiej i jej organum. Katedra i uniwersytet stały się znaczącym ośrodkiem kompozytorskim oraz teoretycznym w XII i XIII wieku dzięki Leoninusowi i Perotinusowi. Leoninus stworzył "Magnus Liber Organi de Gradali et Antiphonario", pisząc organa dupla oparte na istniejącym chorale – jak Alleluja, graduał lub Benedicamus Domino w nieszporach na większe ceremonie w roku liturgicznym. Zebranie utworów w "Magnus Liber" jest pierwszym projektem na tak szeroką skalę, który można przypisać jednemu kompozytorowi. Jednocześnie w zawartych w zbiorze utworach pojawiają się modi rytmiczne jako podstawowy element budowy. W organach duplach Leoninusa chorał, zgodnie z tradycją, znajduje się w niższym głosie ("tenorze"). +Sposób, w jaki słowa są przypisane melodii w chorale, determinuje sposób opracowania. Tam, gdzie chorał gregoriański jest potraktowany sylabicznie, powstaje organum melizmatyczne: tenor zatrzymuje każdy dźwięk chorałowy, nad którym głos organalny – duplum – rozwija melizmaty. Gdy chorał przestaje być sylabiczny, oba głosy zaczynają być zorganizowane według modi rytmicznych – "discantus". Ta sekcja "discantus" kończy się "copulą" – w której tenor zatrzymuje ostatnią wartość, a duplum porzuca modus rytmiczny i tworzy rapsodyczną, niezwiązaną rytmem kadencję zakończoną konsonansem. W ten sposób organa dupla Leoninusa wykorzystują trzy, przechodzące płynnie w siebie, techniki polifoniczne, by na koniec ostatnia fraza chorału została wykonana monodycznie. +Autorzy piszący o organum paryskim, m.in. Anonim IV, Johannes de Garlandia, Anonim z St. Emmeram oraz Franco z Kolonii, nie zawsze opisują techniki jasno. Można jednak stwierdzić, że: +Perotinus, cytując Anonima IV, angielskiego studenta, który przekazał szereg informacji na temat paryskiego organum i jego twórców, "jest najznakomitszym kompozytorem discantusa", rozwinął discantus w organach triplach, w których oba głosy organalne są diskantowe. Organum triplum nie jest możliwe w czystej technice organalnej – głosy dodane muszą być urytmizowane. Perotinus poszedł nawet dalej, tworząc dwa organa quadrupla – "Viderunt omnes" i "Sederunt principes", wykonane w katedrze Notre Dame na nowy rok (1198) i na święto św. Szczepana (1199). Poza organum rozwinął także akwitańskie "versa", odtąd zwane konduktusami. Każdy konduktus to nowa kompozycja do nowego tekstu, zawsze zorganizowana według modi rytmicznych. +Szczególną innowacją Perotinusa było stworzenie motellusa, w którym wyższy głos w sekcji diskantowej otrzymuje nowy tekst, tak że gdy niższy głos wypowiada jedną sylabę, wyższy – kilka; jest to pierwszy przykład dwóch tekstów zespolonych ze sobą w czasie. To z kolei zaowocuje powstaniem motetu. +Dobrosiodł + +Dobrosiodł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Dobro-" ("dobry") i "-siodł" ("osada, siedziba"). Znaczenie imienia: "ten, który się szczęśliwie osiedla", "mający dobrą siedzibę". +Dobrosiodł imieniny obchodzi 29 lutego. +John Pershing + +John Joseph "Black Jack" Pershing (ur. 13 września 1860 w Laclede w stanie Missouri, zm. 15 lipca 1948 w Waszyngtonie) – amerykański wojskowy. +Biografia. +John Pershing, jako jedyny w historii, ukończył karierę wojskową z najwyższym możliwym do osiągnięcia stopniem w armii amerykańskiej "General of the Armies" (stopień ten otrzymał także George Washington, ale dopiero pośmiertnie). Urodził się w Laclede w Missouri, karierę wojskową rozpoczął w 1886 r. po ukończeniu West Point. +Służąc w 6. Pułku Kawalerii, Pershing uczestniczył w kilku wojnach indiańskich. Był instruktorem taktyki na uniwersytecie w Nebrasce w latach 1891-1895. +W 1895 r. Pershing objął dowodzenie 10. Pułkiem Kawalerii, który składał się wyłącznie z czarnych żołnierzy dowodzonych przez białych oficerów. Pershing był zwolennikiem formowania "kolorowych" oddziałów w armii amerykańskiej. +W 1897 r. Pershing został instruktorem taktyki w West Point. Był bardzo wymagającym nauczycielem, żądającym od swoich uczniów wiele wysiłku. Nie przysporzyło mu to sympatii wśród studentów, którzy nadali mu pogardliwy przydomek "Nigger Jack" (czarnuch Jack). W czasie I wojny światowej, kiedy Pershing został bardzo popularną postacią w Stanach Zjednoczonych, przydomek ten został "złagodzony" na "Black Jack" (czarny Jack), co już nie miało negatywnych kontekstów rasowych. +W czasie wojny amerykańsko-hiszpańskiej Pershing odznaczył się w bitwach pod Kettle i na wzgórzach San Juan na Kubie. Wziął także udział w kilku wyprawach przeciwko powstańcom w czasie wojny filipińsko-amerykańskiej. W 1905 r. został wysłany do Tokio jako wojskowy attaché, był obserwatorem po stronie japońskiej w czasie wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej. Po powrocie z Japonii został gubernatorem prowincji Moro na Filipinach. +Pod dowództwem generała Fredericka Funstona Pershing poprowadził 8. Brygadę w czasie nieudanej ekspedycji karnej do Meksyku w poszukiwaniu Pancho Villi. Jednym z adiutantów Pershinga był w tym czasie George Patton. W czasie pobytu Pershinga w Meksyku, jego żona i 3 młode córki zginęły w pożarze koszar "Presidio" w San Francisco, ocalał jedynie jego sześcioletni syn. Pershing do końca życia obwiniał siebie za ich śmierć i osoby blisko go znające twierdziły, że nigdy sobie tego nie wybaczył. +Po wybuchu I wojny światowej prezydent Woodrow Wilson mianował Pershinga głównodowodzącym Amerykańskich Sił Ekspedycyjnych (AEF) w 1917 r. Pershing był odpowiedzialny za organizację, wyszkolenie i zaopatrzenie młodej i niedoświadczonej armii amerykańskiej, która do końca wojny rozrosła się do ponad 2 mln żołnierzy. W czasie pobytu w Europie Pershing był pod nieustannym naciskiem politycznym ze strony Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii, aby AEF zostały rozbite na mniejsze oddziały służące przy armiach francuskiej i angielskiej. Pershing był przeciwny takiemu rozwiązaniu i tylko dzięki jego uporowi AEF był jednolitą organizacją wyłącznie pod dowództwem amerykańskim. W tym czasie George Marshall był jednym z jego asystentów, a Patton został oddelegowany do stworzenia pierwszej amerykańskiej brygady czołgów. +Pershing był przeciwnikiem wojny pozycyjnej ("okopowej"), która była toczona do tej pory, uważając, że bitwy o małe kawałki "ziemi niczyjej", leżącej między okopami były bezsensowne i kosztowały zbyt wiele ofiar. Był zwolennikiem nowoczesnej wojny mobilnej, polegającej na bezpośrednich atakach na pozycje nieprzyjaciela i szybkim wykorzystaniu przełamania frontu poprzez głębokie wypady na tyły wroga. +Zwycięstwa AEF w ofensywach Meuse-Argonne i Saint-Mihiel we Francji spowodowały szybsze zakończenie wojny i wymuszenie na Niemcach zawieszenia broni. Autorem tych zwycięstw był głównie Pershing, który stał się w Ameryce bardzo znaną i lubianą postacią. +Za zasługi w czasie wojny, Kongres awansował Pershinga do stopnia "General of the Armies" ("pięcio/sześciogwiazdkowy generał" najwyższy stopień generalski). Pershing był w tym czasie pierwszą osobą, której nadano ten stopień (drugą był George Washington, który otrzymał go pośmiertnie w 1976 r). Pomimo faktu, że Pershing był teoretycznie starszy rangą od wszystkich "pięciogwiazdkowych" generałów ("General of the Army") Marshalla, MacArhtura, Eisenhowera, Arnolda i "pięciogwiazdkowych" admirałów (np. Chestera Nimitza) z okresu II wojny światowej, nigdy nie nosił więcej niż czterech gwiazdek generalskich na swoim mundurze. +Problem z nazewnictwem i rangą stopni generała Pershinga i admirała Deweya wynikł z zaszłości historycznych. Na początku XX w. wprowadzono w wojskach lądowych 4 stopnie generalskie (i w marynarce 4 stopnie admiralskie) oznaczane odpowiednią liczbą srebrnych gwiazdek. Oprócz tego dopuszczono możliwość istnienia honorowych (za zasługi wojenne) stopni wojskowych, będących odpowiednikiem stopnia marszałka występującego w wielu armiach. Pierwszą osobą, która taki stopień honorowy ("Admiral of the Navy") otrzymała był admirał Dewey, który dostał prawo do noszenia 4 złotych gwiazdek. Gdy chciano uhonorować generała Pershinga, przyznano mu także 4 złote gwiazdki, a nadany stopień nazwano "General of the Armies" (zrezygnowano z nazwy "General of the Army" na wzór "Admiral of the Navy", ponieważ w skład AEF oprócz jednostek wojsk lądowych – "Army" zgodnie z oficjalnym nazewnictwem – wchodziły jednostki piechoty morskiej). +W czasie II wojny światowej powstała potrzeba utworzenia dodatkowego stopnia generalskiego i admiralskiego, ponieważ w sojuszniczych armiach było coraz więcej marszałków. Utworzono więc w 1944 r. stopnie "pięciogwiazdkowego" admirała ("Fleet Admiral") i generała ("General of the Army") oznaczane 5 srebrnymi gwiazdkami – uznano nieoficjalnie, że będą one równoważne z honorowymi stopniami Pershinga i Deweya, ale inaczej oznaczane i nazywane. W przypadku admirała Deweya nie istniały problemy związane ze starszeństwem, bo zmarł w 1917 r., natomiast co do generała Pershinga i 5-gwiazdkowych generałów uznano, że obowiązuje tutaj zasada starszeństwa (w przypadku dwóch oficerów równym stopniem za ważniejszego uznaje się tego, który dłużej nosi dany stopień) stawiająca wyżej Pershinga. W 1945 pojawiły się propozycje, aby utworzyć przed inwazją na Japonię "sześciogwiazdkowe" (6 srebrnych gwiazdek) stopnie generalskie i admiralskie ("Flag Admiral" i "Flag General"), które zamierzano nadać MacArthurowi i Nimitzowi – równocześnie zamierzano zrównać z nimi stopnie nadane Pershingowi i Deweyowi. Jednakże z powodu kapitulacji Japonii do tego nie doszło – stało się to jednak źródłem problemów z określeniem rzeczywistej rangi stopni Pershinga i Deweya. Generał Pershing odmawiał konsekwentnie noszenia innych oznak stopnia niż przyznane mu 4 złote gwiazdki. +"Black Jack" Pershing został szefem sztabu wojsk amerykańskich w 1921 i służył na tym stanowisku do 1924 r. +Za swoje wspomnienia "My Experience in the World War" otrzymał nagrodę Pulitzera w 1932 r. +W 1940 r., jeszcze przed przystąpieniem Ameryki do wojny, był zwolennikiem udzielenia jak najdalej idącej pomocy dla Wielkiej Brytanii. Jego podobizna zdobi "Army of Occupation of Germany Medal". +John Joseph Pershing zmarł 15 lipca 1948 i został pochowany na Narodowym Cmentarzu w Arlington w pobliżu ostatniego miejsca spoczynku wielu żołnierzy, którzy służyli pod jego rozkazami w Europie. Jego nazwiskiem nazwano pocisk rakietowy MGM-31 Pershing oraz czołg M26 Pershing. +Pierre Cabanis + +Pierre Cabanis (ur. 5 czerwca 1757 w Cosnac, zm. 5 maja 1808 koło Meulan) – lekarz nadworny Ludwika XVI (prawdopodobnie świadek ścięcia króla, a później jego żony Marii Antoniny). +Należał do filozofów francuskiego oświecenia; empirystów, którzy przyczynili się do rozwoju psychologii. Przedmiotem jego refleksji były zaburzenia umysłu – w ten sposób wyjaśniał zjawisko przestępczości. Cabanis uznał mózg ludzki za najwyższy mechanizm nerwowy. Uczynił to, zastanawiając się podczas licznych w okresie rewolucji francuskiej egzekucji, czy ofiary gilotyny cierpią po odcięciu głowy. W myśl empirystycznej teorii poznania poprzez doświadczenie, zaproponował analizowanie rozwoju dzieci od stadium embriona aż do późnej starości, w kategoriach kryzysów – była to riposta na teorię Johna Locke'a mówiącą o rozwoju dzieci w kontekście narastania ich doświadczenia. +Tylicz + +Tylicz – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie nowosądeckim, w gminie Krynica-Zdrój. W latach 1973–1976 istniała gmina Tylicz. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa nowosądeckiego. +W miejscowości działało Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne – "Państwowy Ośrodek Hodowli Zarodowej Tylicz". +Położenie. +Tylicz położony jest 6 km na wschód od Krynicy, u zbiegu rzeki Muszynka ("Tyliczanka") i uchodzącego do niej potoku Mochnaczka. Znajduje się na granicy dwóch mezoregionów: Beskidu Sądeckiego i Beskidu Niskiego. Wieś leży przy drodze krajowej 75. W pobliżu znajduje się nieistniejące już przejście graniczne Muszynka-Kurov ze Słowacją na Przełęczy Tylickiej (683 m n.p.m.). +W miejscowości znajduje się b. dużo wyciągów narciarskich, szkoły jazdy i wypożyczalnie nart. Odwierty i rozlewnia wód mineralnych. +Historia. +Herby Tylicza +W 1612 r. bp. P. Tylicki nadał miejscowości razem z prawami miejskimi herb. Przedstawiał on dwie głowy patronów miasta św. Piotra i św. Pawła. +Obecnie Tylicz używa herbu (w różnych wersjach) przedstawiającego insygnia biskupie z Ewangelią. Podobny jest do herbu Muszyny. +Demografia. +Ludność według spisów powszechnych, w 2009 wg PESEL. +Siemisław + +Siemisław, Siemosław – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Siemo(i)-" (psł. "*sěmьja" ma m.in. znaczenia "rodzina, ród; czeladź, służba, własność") i "-sław" ("sława"). Imię to oznacza "ten, kto rozsławia swoją rodzinę" lub "ten, kto sławi swoją rodzinę". +Przez pewien okres imię to było błędnie odczytywane jako "Ziemosław" lub "Ziemisław". +Siemisław, Siemosław imieniny obchodzi 13 października i 25 grudnia. +Występował odpowiednik tego imienia w jęz. słowackim i jęz. południowosłowiańskich ("Sěmislavъ"). W tych ostatnich odnotowano też żeński odpowiednik tego imienia, tj. formę "Sěmislava". +Powroźnik + +Powroźnik – wieś w Polsce położona w województwie małopolskim, w powiecie nowosądeckim, w gminie Muszyna. +Leży pomiędzy Krynicą-Zdrojem a Muszyną. W latach 1975-1998 miejscowość administracyjnie należała do województwa nowosądeckiego. +Historia. +Powroźnik powstał najprawdopodobniej w XIVw. Pierwsza wzmianka historyczna o tej miejscowości pochodzi z aktu darowizny wydanego przez króla Władysława Jagiełłę w 1391 r. Kolejna wzmianka pochodzi z 1565 r. i mówi o wsi ruskiej lokowanej na prawie wołoskim przez biskupa krakowskiego Filipa Padniewskiego. W 1637 r. erygowano w Powroźniku parafię unicką. +W 1940 r. około 100 Łemków emigrowało z Powroźnika na Ukrainę, pod naciskiem Niemców. Następnie w ramach Akcji Wisła w 1947 r. wysiedlono z Powroźnika kolejne 451 osób. Na wyludnione tereny napłynęła ludność polska z Kresów Wschodnich i z innych wiosek Podkarpacia. W 1951 r. decyzją biskupa tarnowskiego, zlikwidowano parafię greckokatolicką w Powroźniku i erygowano parafię rzymsko-katolicką. +W miejscowości znajdują się: stacja kolejowa, wyciąg narciarski, nowoczesna oczyszczalnia ścieków dla Krynicy-Zdroju, jedna z najcenniejszych drewnianych cerkwi Sądecczyzny oraz "Sala Królestwa" Świadków Jehowy. Miejsce krzyżowania się szlaków turystycznych. Odwierty i rozlewnie wód mineralnych. +Demografia. +Ludność według spisów powszechnych, w 2009 wg PESEL. +Zabytki. +Drewniana cerkiew z 1604 r. pod wezwaniem św. Jakuba Młodszego Ap. (obecnie kościół rzymskokatolicki). Przypuszcza się, że zakrystia jest jeszcze starsza i służyła jako pierwsza cerkiew już w XVI w. +Wskazują na to bogate malowidła na ścianach i na sklepieniu pomieszczenia. +Główna wieża kościoła jest późniejsza, i pochodzi z 1780 r. Oryginalnie cerkiew zbudowana była na innym miejscu. Została przeniesiona w 1813 r. ze względu na zagrożenie powodziowe. +Ikonostas znajdujący się dziś w cerkwi w Powroźniku pochodzi z pierwszej połowy XVIII wieku. Najstarsze ikony w cerkwi pochodzą z początku XVI wieku (ikona Aarona). Ponieważ cerkiew służy dziś wiernym obrządku rzymsko-katolickiego, ikonostas jest nienaturalnie przesunięty na tylną ścianę prezbiterium. +Cerkiew, włącznie z cenną zakrystią, jest dostępna dla zwiedzających bezpośrednio po niedzielnych nabożeństwach. +Stryków + +Stryków – miasto w woj. łódzkim, w powiecie zgierskim, siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Stryków. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2008 miasto liczyło 3535 mieszkańców. +Stryków położony jest na obszarze Wzniesień Łódzkich, nad rzeką Moszczenicą, na północny wschód od Łodzi. W obrębie miasta znajduje się zalew o powierzchni 9 ha. +Historia. + +Stryków uzyskał prawa miejskie w 1394 z rąk Władysława Jagiełły na prośbę Deresława de Thulka – podskarbiego łęczyckiego i ówczesnego dziedzica tamtejszych dóbr. W średniowieczu Stryków leżał przy drodze ze Zgierza do Łowicza łączącej Mazowsze z Wielkopolską i Śląskiem. Miasto ze swymi 45 rzemieślnikami (13 sukienników, 5 kupców i kramarzy oraz 5 szynkarzy) stanowiło lokalny ośrodek handlu i rzemiosła, było też ośrodkiem dóbr szlacheckich. Po najeździe szwedzkim w XVII wieku miasto podupadło i zaczęło się odradzać dopiero pod koniec XVIII wieku dzięki F. Czarneckiemu, który próbował ze Strykowa uczynić ośrodek produkcji tekstylnej. +Mimo sprowadzenia handlarzy wełną oraz sukienników Stryków pozostawał ciągle miasteczkiem o charakterze rzemieślniczo-rolniczym i w 1870 utracił prawa miejskie. W 1902 Stryków uzyskał połączenie kolejowe z Łodzią i Warszawą. Również na początku XX wieku stał się dużym ośrodkiem mariawitów. Dzięki ponownemu rozwojowi rzemiosła, zwłaszcza krawiectwa, szewstwa i garbarstwa w 1923 Stryków odzyskał prawa miejskie. +W trakcie II wojny światowej miasto straciło 45% ludności – głównie Żydów – wymordowanych przez hitlerowców, oraz osiadłych w Strykowie Niemców, którzy opuścili miasto wraz z odwrotem okupantów. Na północny zachód od centrum Strykowa znajdują się pozostałości po cmentarzu żydowskim, na którym ostatni pochówek został przeprowadzony w 1946. Na pozostałościach cmentarza ewangelickiego znajduje się kilkanaście grobów protestanckich, w większości niemieckich, sprzed 1945. Duża kolonia osadników niemieckich znajdowała się w podstrykowskiej osadzie Tymianka. +W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do starego woj. łódzkiego. +Stryków na przestrzeni wieków wydał wielu znamienitych obywateli. Wywodzą się z niego między innymi: historyk, profesor Uniwersytetu Jagielońskiego Maciej Stryjkowski, Łazarz Andrysowicz – twórca polskiego drukarstwa oraz Paweł Radziszewski (1890-1931) – polski mineralog. +Turystyka. +Atrakcją turystyczno-rekreacyjną miasta jest (zwłaszcza w okresie letnim) zalew o pow. 9 ha wraz z plażą i strzeżonym kąpieliskiem. Na miejscu istnieje możliwość wypożyczenia sprzętu pływającego (rowery wodne, kajaki). Obok zalewu jest duży parking. Znajduje się też obiekt sportowy zbudowany w ramach programu Orlik 2012. W jego skład wchodzi boisko do piłki nożnej ze sztuczną murawą, boisko do koszykówki oraz tenisa ziemnego, a także szatnie. Z inicjatywy młodzieży, nad zalewem powstał również skatepark. W Strykowie znajduje się ośrodek zdrowia, posterunek policji, były dworzec PKP (obecnie nieczynny), postój taxi, hotel, jednostka Państwowej Straży Pożarnej, jednostka OSP, tor motocrossowy, trzy stacje paliw (w tym dwie z gazem, a jedna przy trasie do Łodzi). +Transport. +Drogi. +Obecnie przez Stryków przebiega droga krajowa nr 14 oraz autostrada A2. Na południowy wschód od miasta znajduje się węzeł autostradowy Łódź Północ - skrzyżowanie autostrad A1 i A2. +Kolej. +Przez miasto przebiega linia kolejowa nr 15. +W mieście znajduje się nieczynna stacja kolejowa: Stryków. Stacja ma zostać odnowiona w ramach projektu Łódzkiej Kolei Aglomeracyjnej. +Komunikacja miejska. +Miasto włączone jest do sieci komunikacji autobusowej MPK Łódź: linia 60. +Gospodarka. +Dzięki powstającemu skrzyżowaniu autostrad A1 i A2 miasto stało się jednym z najważniejszych punktów komunikacyjnych tej części Europy. Wpływa to na duży przypływ inwestorów - szczególnie z branży logistycznej. W ostatnich latach bezrobocie spadło z 13 do 4 proc., a budżet gminy urósł o 40 mln zł – z 10 do 50 (stan na 2012 rok). +W miejscowości działało Państwowe Gospodarstwo Rolne – "Państwowe Gospodarstwo Hodowli Zwierząt Futerkowych w Strykowie i Smolicach". +Oświata. +W Strykowie znajdują się 2 szkoły podstawowe i gimnazjum. +Wyznania. +W Strykowie znajdują się dwa kościoły: neobarokowy kościół św. Marcina będący siedzibą parafii rzymskokatolickiej i neogotycki kościół św. Anny i św. Marcina będący siedzibą parafii Kościoła Starokatolickiego Mariawitów. +W mieście znajduje się również kaplica domowa św. Anny, będąca filią parafii Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów w Niesułkowie. +Wierni ze Strykowa odprawiają w kaplicy adorację ubłagania 9. dnia każdego miesiąca. +Stresor + +Stresor – w psychologii, wewnętrzne lub zewnętrzne zdarzenie lub bodziec, który wywołuje stres. +Ogólny zespół adaptacyjny to układ niespecyficznych fizjologicznych mechanizmów adaptacyjnych, który występuje w reakcji na ciągłe zagrożenia przez prawie każdy poważny stresor. +Pomocne w radzeniu sobie ze stresorami jest przekonanie, że ma się zdolność wpływania na przebieg lub następstwa jakiegoś zdarzenia czy doświadczenia, nazywane spostrzeganą kontrolą (tzw. poczucie umiejscowienia kontroli co jest związane z wewnątrzsterownością). +Typowe stresory. +W roku 1967, dwaj psychiatrzy z Washington University w Seattle, tj. Thomas Holmes oraz Richard Rahe ogłosili alternatywną koncepcję stresu, bazującą na pojęciu stresora. Holmes i Rahe opracowali skalę 43 wydarzeń życiowych, którą wolontariusze uszeregowali według tego, jak wielkiego przystosowania wymaga każde wydarzenie. +Badacze zastanawiali się jak określić względną siłę stresujących wydarzeń. Wiadomo, że istotne są tu różnice indywidualne w sposobie rozumienia i reagowania na sytuację stresową, także cechy temperamentu i osobowości. Jednak po wręczeniu badanym listy różnych zdarzeń wraz z prośbą o ułożenie je wg potencjalnej zdolności wywoływania stresu okazało się, że badani postrzegają wiele sytuacji w sposób podobny. +W ten sposób powstał popularny kwestionariusz "Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)". +Poniższa tabela zawiera niektóre takie sytuacje. Przydzielano im umowne wartości punktowe od "0" – brak stresu do "100" – maksymalny stres. +Kwestionariusz "(SRRS)" Thomasa Holmesa i Richarda Rahe’a aplikowano ludziom przywiezionym na ostry dyżur oraz osobom towarzyszącym. Okazało się, że osoby chore doświadczyły znacznie więcej stresujących wydarzeń w przeciągu roku poprzedzającego chorobę, niż osoby towarzyszące. Udowodniono wówczas statystyczny związek pomiędzy stresorami, a chorobą. +Karl Friedrich Schinkel + +Karol Fryderyk Schinkel (niem. "Karl Friedrich Schinkel", także "Carl Friedrich Schinkel"; ur. 13 marca 1781 w Neuruppin, zm. 9 października 1841 w Berlinie) – niemiecki architekt, urbanista, projektant i malarz, jeden z wybitniejszych twórców klasycyzmu w Królestwie Prus, tworzący także w stylu arkadowym; szkołą Schinkla (niem. "Schinkelschule") nazwano działalność grupy niemieckich architektów kontynuujących styl Schinkla. +Życiorys. +Dzieciństwo i wczesna młodość. +Karol Fryderyk Schinkel urodził się w rodzinie urzędnika kuratorium szkolnego jako drugie z pięciorga dzieci. W wieku sześciu lat stracił ojca, który zmarł wskutek zapalenia płuc jakiego nabawił się podczas akcji gaśniczej wielkiego pożaru w Neuruppin. W 1794 rodzina przeprowadziła się do Berlina, gdzie Karol Fryderyk zaczął uczęszczać do gimnazjum (niem. "Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster"), które opuścił w 1798, by oddać się studiom architektonicznym. +Schinkel był wówczas pod wrażeniem rysunków Friedricha Gilly'ego, wschodzącego talentu niemieckiej architektury, który wygrał konkurs na projekt pomnika Fryderyka II Wielkiego (1797). Projekt Gilly'ego zakładał budowę Partenonu na planie ośmiokąta (późniejszego Leipziger Platz), lecz nigdy nie został zrealizowany. Pod wpływem prac Gilly'ego Schinkel postanowił zostać architektem i bardzo wcześnie zajął się rysunkiem. +Studia. +W 1798 Schinkel stał się uczniem Friedricha Gilly'ego i jego ojca Dawida, z którymi się zaprzyjaźnił. Wraz z Friedrichem Gillym założył biuro architektoniczne "Privatgesellschaft junger Architekten". Od 1798 uczęszczał do ich prywatnej szkoły budownictwa w Berlinie, gdzie podobnie jak inni studenci zamieszkał. W 1799, jako jeden z pierwszych studentów, podjął studia w nowo powstałej berlińskiej Akademii Budownictwa (niem. "Bauakademie"), której współzałożycielem był David Gilly i gdzie obydwoje Gilly'owie wykładali. Studia zorientowane były na zajęcia praktyczne, jedynie zimą oferowano wykłady, lato studenci spędzali na budowach. Ponadto Schinkel uczestniczył w wykładach Akademii Sztuk Pięknych (niem. "Akademie der Schönen Künste"). +Nie wiadomo dokładnie, jak długo studiował. Jego nazwisko zniknęło z list studentów w 1800. Schinkel był jednak jednym z pierwszych, którzy złożyli egzaminy do służby państwowej, zdobywając tytuł kierownika budowy (niem. "Bauleiter"). Pozwoliło mu to na samodzielne prowadzenie budów. 3 sierpnia 1800 zmarł na gruźlicę w wieku 28 lat Friedrich Gilly, który swoje wszystkie rozpoczęte projekty zostawił do ukończenia Schinklowi. Schinkel kontynuował realizację prac Friedricha Gilly’ego pod kierunkiem Davida Gilly'ego, m.in. klasycystycznego pałacu w Owińskach pod Poznaniem. Jednak głównym źródłem dochodu okazały się drobne zlecenia, m.in. projektowanie naczyń. +Po opuszczeniu Akademii Schinkel pracował na prowincji, wznosząc budynki gospodarcze i przeprowadzając mniejsze przebudowy. Dzięki tym zleceniom oraz spadkowi udało się mu uzbierać odpowiednią kwotę pieniędzy, by studiować architekturę klasyczną we Włoszech. +Malarstwo. +W latach 1803–1805 Schinkel odbył podróż studialną do Włoch. Wraz ze swoim przyjacielem Gottfriedem Steinmeyerem udał się przez Drezno, Pragę i Wiedeń do Rzymu, gdzie poznał Wilhelma Humboldta oraz austriackiego pejzażystę Josepha Antona Kocha, który pozytywnie wyraził się o rysunkach miast i pejzażach Schinkla sporządzonych w trakcie podróży. Schinkel zamierzał, wzorem innych podróżujących artystów, opublikować swoje prace po powrocie do domu. Jeszcze przed wyjazdem, uzyskał zgodę berlińskiego wydawcy Johanna Friedricha Ungera na publikację szkiców architektonicznych. Z Rzymu Schinkel udał się do Neapolu i na Sycylię w drodze powrotnej do Prus odwiedził Paryż. +Po powrocie do Berlina zarabiał na życie jako malarz. Po klęsce sił pruskich króla Fryderyka Wilhelma III w czasie kampanii pruskiej w bitwie pod Jeną-Auerstedt, architekci nie mieli zbyt wielu zleceń. Chociaż plany publikacji rysunków z podróży nie doszły do skutku, to posłużyły do wykonania pierwszych obrazów ("Antike Stadt an einem Berg", 1805) oraz dioram i panoram. W latach 1807–1815 Schinkel wykonał panoramy i dioramy dla Wilhelma Ernsta Gropiusa (1765–1852), który w dawnym domu Schinkla prowadził kawiarnię, a oprócz tego od 1806 fabrykę masek oraz teatr lalek. Syn Wilhelma, Carl Wilhelm Gropius (1793–1870), malarz dekoracji, wydawca i artysta sceniczny, należał do kręgu znajomych Schinkla. W Boże Narodzenie 1809 świąteczną dioramę Schinkla obejrzała rodzina królewska. +W 1809 wziął ślub z Susanne Berger, córką szczecińskiego kupca Georga Friedricha Bergera i Uranii Jacqueline Jeanson, którą poznał poprzez Gropiusa. +Kariera. +W 1810, dzięki protekcji Humboldta, Schinkel uzyskał nominację na stanowisko asesora budowlanego rządu pruskiego (niem. "Geheimer Oberbauassessor") a jego głównym zadaniem była ocena państwowych projektów budowlanych według kryteriów estetyki i sztuki. Schinkel zajął się również sporządzaniem własnych projektów architektonicznych (wówczas powstały m.in. Petrikirche (1810), nagrobek dla królowej Luizy Pruskiej (1810), pomnik ku czci poległych w wojnach VI koalicji antyfrancuskiej (1814)) i malarskich (m.in. "Gotische Klosterruine und Baumgruppen" (1809), "Gotische Kirche hinter Bäumen" (1810), "Gotische Dom am Wasser" (1814), "Mittelalterliche Stadt an einer Fluß" (1815)). +W 1815, po śmierci Paula Ludwiga Simonsa, Schinkel został nominowany na stanowisko tajnego radcy budowlanego (niem. "Geheimer Oberbaurat"), obejmując odpowiedzialność za wszelkie projekty budowlane na terenie Prus. W 1816 Fryderyk Wilhelm III zlecił Schinklowi przebudowę centrum Berlina, by uczcić zwycięstwo Prus nad Napoleonem. W tym kontekście powstały Nowy Odwach (niem. "Neue Wache") czy "Neues Schauspielhaus" przy Gendarmenmarkt. +Poza działalnością w ramach obowiązków państwowych, Schinkel zajmował się zleceniami prywatnymi, m.in. również od członków rodziny królewskiej. By podołać zobowiązaniom architektonicznym, zatrudniał swoich uczniów, m.in. Wilhelma Stiera, Johanna Heinricha Stracka, Augusta Stülera czy Ludwiga Persiusa, którzy zajmowali się kierownictwem budów. +Ponadto Schinkel działał jako ekspert budowlany. W 1815 pojechał do Nadrenii, skąd właśnie wycofały się wojska francuskie, by sporządzić raport o stanie budowli państwowych. W raporcie "Die Grundsätze zur Erhaltung alter Denkmäler und Altertüme in unserem Lande" Schinkel rekomendował powołanie do życia instytucji państwowej zajmującej się konserwacją zabytków. W październiku 1815 król wydał rozporządzenie, by wszystkie większe przebudowy obiektów państwowych były konsultowane z główną dyrekcją budów, co zapoczątkowało politykę konserwacji zabytków na terenie Prus. Sam Schinkel sporządził wiele ekspertyz, m.in. katedry św. Piotra i NMP w Kolonii, w której zachowanie i dalszą budowę angażował się osobiście. Popierał ochronę historycznych budowli, działał przeciwko ich wyburzaniu i zlecił sporządzenie listy zabytków. W 1830 pracował nad rekonstrukcją zamku Stolzenfels nad Renem koło Koblencji. W 1820 został mianowany członkiem Akademii Sztuk w Berlinie i objął stanowisko wykładowcy w Akademii Budowlanej. +W związku z planami budowy muzeów w Berlinie, Schinkel pojechał w 1824 w podróż służbową do Włoch, by zebrać informacje na temat technik muzealnych i porządkowania zbiorów dzieł sztuki. Towarzyszył mu historyk sztuki i przyszły dyrektor galerii narodowej Gustav Waagen (1794–1868). +W 1826 Schinkel wraz ze swoim przyjacielem Christianem Peterem Wilhelmem Beuthem (1781–1853), zajmującym się zagadnieniami handlu oraz procesem uprzemysłowienia Prus w służbie Ministerstwa Handlu i Przemysłu, udał się w wielomiesięczną podróż przez Francję do Anglii i Szkocji, by studiować tam architekturę i nauki inżynieryjne. Oficjalnym pretekstem do odbycia tej podróży było zebranie informacji o działalności muzeów w Paryżu i Londynie, by wykorzystać je przy pracach nad Altes Museum. W Paryżu Schinkel spotkał się z wieloma architektami francuskimi, studiował zastosowanie żelaza w konstrukcjach kopuły panteonu czy dachu giełdy. W Wielkiej Brytanii spotkał się z Markiem Brunelem (1769–1849), który właśnie rozpoczynał drążenie tunelu pod Tamizą. Ponadto obejrzał nowe konstrukcje mostów Thomasa Telforda (1757–1834) w Yorku, Manchesterze, Edynburgu i Glasgow. Wrażenia z podróży Schinkel opisał w swoich dziennikach, listach i szkicach. +W 1830, po śmierci Johanna Alberta Eytelweina, Schinkel objął dyrekcję berlińskiego urzędu budowlanego (niem. "Oberbaudirektor"), a w 1838 powierzono mu stanowisko dyrektora generalnego pruskiego urzędu budownictwa (niem. "Oberlandesbaudirektor"). +Choroba i śmierć. +Pierwsze problemy ze zdrowiem (najprawdopodobniej w wyniku przepracowania) wystąpiły w 1824, a od 1828 Schinkel zmuszony był do odbywania regularnych kuracji, które jednak przynosiły jedynie krótkotrwale polepszenie jego stanu zdrowia. +Pod koniec lat 30. XIX w. Schinkel zapadł na zdrowiu. We wrześniu 1840 przeszedł udar mózgu, po którym był prawostronnie sparaliżowany, cierpiał na zaburzenia mowy, a następnie zapadł w śpiączkę, z której się nigdy nie obudził. Zmarł 9 października 1841 w swoim mieszkaniu służbowym w berlińskiej Akademii Budownictwa. Przeprowadzona obdukcja jako przyczynę udaru wykazała zaawansowaną miażdżycę tętnic mózgowych. +Schinkel został pochowany jako zasłużony dla miasta Berlina na cmentarzu "Friedhof der Dorotheenstädtischen und Friedrichswerderschen Gemeinden" w kwaterze CAL G1. Jego nagrobek zdobi medalion z portretem architekta dłuta Augusta Kissa. +Działalność. +Schinkel zaprojektował wiele budowli, zarówno w samym Berlinie, jak i na całym terenie Prus. Niektóre z jego projektów weszły do europejskiego kanonu architektury neoklasycystycznej. Oprócz działalności architektonicznej, zajmował się również malarstwem, projektowaniem wnętrz oraz sztuką użytkową. +Architektura. +Klasycyzm. +W pracach Schinkla widać wpływ klasycyzmu Friedricha Gilly'ego. Jego klarowne formy, będące w opozycji do barokowych wypukłości i wklęsłości, doskonale oddawały ducha pruskiego klasycyzmu. Dla kontrastu z kojarzonym z niedawnymi francuskimi okupantami stylem empire, projekty Schinkla nawiązywały raczej do architektury greckiej niż rzymskiej. Architekt uważany jest za jednego z protagonistów nurtu określanego ang. terminem "greek revival". +Duży wpływ na prace Schinkla i jemu współczesnych miało wydane w 1762 dzieło historyków architektury Jamesa Stuarta i Nicholasa Revetta "The Antiquities of Athens". Forma, masa, detale oraz zastosowanie elementów antycznych przestały być zależne jedynie od talentu i fantazji projektującego. O ile jeszcze doryckie kolumny Bramy Brandenburskiej Carla Gottharda Langhansa z 1788 otrzymały bazy, o tyle, dzięki głębokiej wiedzy architektury antycznej, kolumny doryckie Schinkla odwachu straży królewskiej (niem. "Neue Wache") w Berlinie z 1818 zaprojektowane były prawidłowo – bez baz. +Najbardziej znane budowle Schinkla znajdują się w Berlinie i okolicy, m.in. budynek teatru (niem. "Neues Schauspielhaus" przy Gendarmenmarkt) zbudowany w latach 1819–1821 a zrekonstruowany po zniszczeniach wojennych w latach 80. XX w. czy gmach Altes Museum na Wyspie Muzeów (1823–1830), pierwszego muzeum otwartego dla publiczności w Berlinie, bazującego na wspólnym projekcie Schinkla i Johanna Carla Ludwiga Schmida. +W 1825, na zlecenie króla Fryderyka Wilhelma III, powstał projekt tzw. kościoła Schinkla (niem. "Normalkirche Schinkels"), który zrealizowano w wielu miasteczkach Prus, np. w Lütte, Heudeber czy Schönwalde. Wzorem dla tego projektu był ukończony w 1824 kościół św. Mikołaja w magdeburskiej dzielnicy Neue Neustadt. +W latach 1827–1828 Schinkel zaprojektował pierwszy dom handlowy, który miał stanąć przy Unter den Linden, jednak projekt ten nie został nigdy zrealizowany. +Neogotyk. +Obok budowli klasycystycznych, Schinkel opracowywał projekty nawiązujące do gotyku – w stylu neogotyckim, wyprzedzając tym samym późniejszy nurt historyzmu. Jednym z pierwszych dzieł neogotyckich był pałac Ehrenburg w Coburgu. Kolejną realizacją był kościół w Berlinie-Friedrichswerder (niem. "Friedrichswerdersche Kirche") – pierwsza w tym mieście budowla sakralna z nieotynkowanej cegły od czasów średniowiecza. Jednym z najbardziej innowacyjnych budynków Schinkla a zarazem uwieńczeniem jego berlińskiej działalności był nieistniejący od dawna gmach Akademii Budownictwa (1832–1835) z fasadą z cegły klinkierowej, zdobionej reliefami z terakoty. +Praca teoretyczna. +Schinkel miał także wkład do teorii architektury. Znany jest jako autor dwóch prac ("Sammlung architektonischer Entwürfe" i "Werke der höheren Baukunst") o charakterze teoretycznym, zawierających, między innymi, niezrealizowane, monumentalne projekty architektoniczne – projekt budowy pałacu na ateńskim Akropolu dla króla Grecji Ottona, a także rezydencji carów Rosji w Oriandzie na Krymie. +Schinkel, wspierany przez Beutha, pracował również nad podręcznikiem architektury "Das architektonische Lehrbuch", którego nigdy nie ukończył. Czterotomowe dzieło zostało wydane po jego śmierci pod redakcją zięcia Schinkla Alfreda von Wolzogena (1862–1864), który pozwolił sobie na liczne skróty oraz dowolność w aranżacji rysynków, oddzielając je od tekstów i zaburzając ich chronologię. Teksty i szkice Schinkla doczekały się uporządkowania przez Goerda Petschkena, który sklasyfikował je według pięciu okresów (1803–1840): romantycznego (1803–1805), narodowo-romantycznego (1810–1815), klasycystycznego (ok. 1825), „technicznego” (ok. 1830) oraz „legitymistycznego” (ok. 1835). +Ponadto Schinkel współpracował z Beuthem nad podręcznikiem dla przyszłych inżynierów i rzemieślników "Vorbilder für Fabrikanten und Handwerker", który ukazał się drukiem w 1821, stając się standardowym podręcznikiem studentów Akademii Budownictwa. +Malarstwo, dekoracje teatralne i sztuka użytkowa. +Początkowe działania malarskie Schinkla pozostawały pod wpływem prac Friedricha – Schinkel malował głównie pejzaże. W pracach malarskich Schinkel częściowo rozwijał rozwiązania architektoniczne, które później wykorzystywał w swoich projektach. Jego obrazy często ukazywały miasta idealne. Na berlińskiej wystawie sztuki w 1810 Schinkel przedstawił litografię "Gotycka katedra za drzewami". W 1811 został członkiem Królewskiej Pruskiej Akademii Sztuki. +W najbardziej monumentalnym obrazie "Spojrzenie na złoty wiek Grecji" (1825), Schinkel przedstawił naturę i działalność człowieka w pełnej harmonii. Na pierwszym planie widać półnagich herosów pracujących przy budowie jońskiej świątyni, w tle znajduje się greckie miasto. Obraz był prezentem ślubnym od miasta Berlina dla księżniczki Luizy. Od czasów II wojny światowej uważany za zaginiony. Obecnie, obrazy Schinkla znajdują się w Starej Galerii Narodowej w Berlinie (sala 3.05). +Schinkel wykonał również dekoracje teatralne do ponad 40 sztuk, m.in. do oper Christopha Willibalda Glucka (1714–1787) Ifigenia w Aulidzie (fr. "Iphigénie en Aulide") w 1802 i Mozarta (1756–1791) Czarodziejski flet (niem. "Die Zauberflöte") w 1816. +Od 1823 do śmierci zajmował się monumentalnym cyklem fresków we wnętrzach "Altes Museum". W 1825 ukończył swój ostatni obraz wielkoformatowy "Blick in Griechenlands Blüte", idealizujący architekturę antyczną. +Schinkel projektował również wnętrza pałacowe (np. w pałacu Charlottenhof) oraz meble (np. stolik z blatem z lazurytu w apartamencie wschodnim w Nowej Oranżerii). Popularne XX-wieczne projekty ławek parkowych o żeliwnych podstawach z drewnianymi siedziskami i oparciami przypominają XIX-wieczne prace Schinkla. +Ponadto Schinkel projektował również odznaczenia wojskowe. W 1813 wykonał projekt Krzyża Żelaznego według koncepcji Fryderyka Wilhelma III. W 1814 opracował projekt damskiego oznaczenia Orderu Luizy, nadawanego wyłącznie kobietom za opiekę nad chorymi i rannymi. +Ochrona zabytków. +Schinkel uważany jest za pioniera naukowego podejścia do zagadnień konserwacji zabytków. Jako pierwszy postulował wykonywanie inwentaryzacji przed rozpoczęciem prac konserwatorskich. Nadzorował, między innymi, roboty konserwatorskie na zamku w Malborku oraz w okresie 1819-1824 restaurację stargardzkiego kościoła Mariackiego. +Dzieła. +Architekt chętnie przyjmował zlecenia arystokracji na budowę bądź przebudowę pałaców i zamków. Projektował budowę pałaców w Antoninie i Owińskach. Jego szkice wykorzystano przy przebudowie zamku w Kórniku. Zleceniodawcami Schinkla była także pruska rodzina królewska, dla której przebudował pałac Charlottenhof w Poczdamie i Charlottenburgu (Nowy Pawilon). Był współtwórcą projektu poczdamskiego zamku Babelsberg. +Według projektów Schinkla zbudowano gmach pijalni wód "Elisenbrunnen" w Akwizgranie, odwach staromiejski w Dreźnie a także ratusze w Kołobrzegu i Oławie (przebudowa). Schinkel nie stronił również od budownictwa sakralnego – według jego projektów wybudowano szereg berlińskich kościołów: św. Pawła w dzielnicy Wedding, św. Jana na Moabicie, św. Elżbiety przy "Invalidenstrasse" i kościoła Nazaretanek w dzielnicy Wedding. Jego autorstwa jest również projekt kościołów św. Mikołaja w Poczdamie czy św. Marcina w Krzeszowicach. Zaprojektowane przez Schinkla kościoły w Lidzbarku Warmińskim i Ornecie są obecnie wykorzystywane jako cerkwie, kościół w Dobrym Mieście jako biblioteka, a dawny kościół ewangelicki w Bystrzycy Kłodzkiej – jako siedziba Muzeum Filumenistycznego. +W Bydgoszczy Schinkel zaangażowany był w projekt gmachu Rejencji (1834–1836) a w pobliskim Ostromecku pałacu Jakuba Marcina. +Schinkel jest także autorem projektu pomnika feldmarszałka Kutuzowa w Bolesławcu. Architekt nie stronił również od mniejszych form architektonicznych, projektując m.in. studzienkę św. Ottona z Bambergu w Pyrzycach). +Pałac w Kamieńcu Ząbkowickim (1838) – rezydencja Marianny Orańskiej i Albrechta Hohenzollerna – był ostatnim udokumentowanym projektem schorowanego architekta. Przypisuje mu się jeszcze opracowanie przebudowy pałacu w Zatoniu na kilka miesięcy przed śmiercią; nie mógł być jednak autorem tego projektu, bowiem kiedy właścicielka przystąpiła do przebudowy w 1841, Schinkel przebywał już w wielomiesięcznej śpiączce, z której się nie wybudził. +Sporządzenie pełnej listy budowli wzniesionych lub przebudowanych według projektów Schinkla jest zadaniem trudnym z uwagi na brak pełnej dokumentacji ingerencji Schinkla w projekty innych architektów przedkładanych mu do zaakceptowania w Urzędzie Budowlanym – stąd wiele projektów jest mu przypisywanych. Ponadto wiele z jego realizacji zostało przebudowanych w okresie późniejszym, zniszczonych podczas działań wojennych lub wyburzonych. +Budowle na terenie Niemiec. +Budowle na terenie Berlina i Poczdamu. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Cramera i innych z 2008, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. Lista nie obejmuje pomników nagrobnych projektu Schinkla. +Ponadto w 1831 Schinkel zaprojektował gmach Akademii Budownictwa w Berlinie, zbudowany w latach 1832–1836, który spłonął w czasie II wojny światowej i został ostatecznie wyburzony w roku 1962. +Budowle na terenie Brandenburgii. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Saksonii-Anhalt. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Meklemburgii-Pomorza Przedniego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Saksonii. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Turyngii. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Niemiec południowych (Bawarii, Hesji, Badenii-Wirtembergii). +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Saary. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Nadrenii-Palatynatu. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Nadrenii Północnej-Westfalii. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Polski. +Budowle na terenie województwa wielkopolskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie województwa lubuskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Möller podaje, że Schinkel sporządził również w 1813 projekt nagrobka Weroniki Röstel na starym cmentarzu w Gorzowie Wielkopolskim. +Dotychczas nie potwierdzono, by neogotycki kościół św. Andrzeja w Krośnie Odrzańskim (niem. "Crossen an der Oder") zbudowany w latach 1825–1827, został wzniesiony na bazie projektu Schinkla. +Schinkel dokonał poprawek w projekcie kościoła w Torzymiu (1828–1834). Zbudowany w latach 1837–1843 kościół w Rogozińcu jest jedynie wariantem "Normalkirche Schinkels". +Budowle na terenie województwa dolnośląskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie województwa opolskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie województwa małopolskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Ponadto Schinkel sporządził projekt pałacu w Krzeszowicach na zlecenie Artura Stanisława Potockiego, który jednak nie został zrealizowany. +Budowle na terenie województwa śląskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie do tej pory zachowane dzieła Schinkla, które zostały zrealizowane według planów architekta. +Budowle na terenie województwa zachodniopomorskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie województwa pomorskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie województwa warmińsko-mazurskiego. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie zrealizowane projekty Schinkla, które zachowały się do dnia dzisiejszego. +Budowle na terenie Rosji. +Poniższa lista sporządzona na podstawie informacji zamieszczonych w przewodniku po dziełach Schinkla autorstwa Bernharda z 2006, przedstawia wszystkie do tej pory zachowane dzieła Schinkla, które zostały zrealizowane według planów architekta. +Zaprojektowany przez Schinkla kościół staromiejski (niem. "Altstädtische Kirche") w Królewcu z 1838 został zniszczony podczas II wojny światowej. +Znaczenie. +Styl Schinkla był kontynuowany przez jego uczniów Ludwiga Persiusa i Fridriecha Augusta Stülera, a ich działalność określana jest często mianem Szkoły Schinkla (niem. "Schinkelschule"). +Trzy lata po śmierci Schinkla, w jego mieszkaniu na drugim piętrze gmachu Akademii Budownictwa urządzono jego muzeum (1844–1873). Od 1852 Stowarzyszenie Architektów i Inżynierów w Berlinie (niem. "Architekten- und Ingenieursverein zu Berlin") rozpisuje coroczny konkurs im. Schinkla dla młodych architektów, inżynierów i artystów. W 1996, przy "Schinkelplatz", postawiono ponownie pomnik ku czci architekta wykonany przez Friedricha Drakego (1805–1882). +2 marca 2006 Ministerstwo Finansów Niemiec wydało monetę okazjonalną o nominale 10 euro ku czci Karola Fryderyka Schinkla. +Mictlan + +Mictlan – jest azteckim określeniem na mityczny świat podziemny – a ściśle mówiąc piekło, do którego mieli trafiać wszyscy słabi, starzy, zmarli na łożu oraz ci, którzy unikali walki. Władało nim bóstwo śmierci zwane Mictlantecuhtli i jego żona Mictlancihuatli. Odpowiednikiem "Mictlanu" w wierzeniach Majów jest Mitnal. +Według azteckich legend do Mictlanu zstąpił bóg Quetzalcoatl po stworzeniu Słońca Ruchu ("Nahui Ollin"), czyli piątej epoki świata, aby z kości ludzi znajdujących się w świecie umarłych stworzyć nowych mieszkańców ziemi macehuales ("ci, którzy zawdzięczają swoje istnienie pokucie"). Quetzalcoatl prosił władców Mictlanu, Mictlantecuhtli i Mictlancihuatli o wydanie szczątków ludzi z poprzednich, nieistniejących już światów – te mitologiczne wydarzenia opisane są w "Annales de Cuauhtitlan", indiańskim dokumencie spisywanym między 1519 a 1570 r. n.e. w języku nahuatl; +"I natychmiast skrzyknęli się bogowie." +"Rzekli: "Kto zamieszka ziemię ?" +"[...] I wnet udał się Quetzalcoatl do Mictlanu," +"zbliżył się do Mictlantecuhtli i do Mictlancihuatli," +"i tak do nich rzekł:" +""Przybywam w poszukiwaniu drogocennych kości," +"które ty przechowujesz," +"przychodzę, żeby je zabrać." [...]" +""Bogowie pragną, by ziemia była zamieszkana."" +"Odpowiedział mu Mictlantecuhtli:" +""Niechaj tak będzie, uczyń tak, by zadźwięczała" +"muszla (ślimaka)," +"i okrąż nią czterokrotnie mój cudowny krąg"" +Siemomysław (imię) + +Siemomysław – imię męskie, które powstało poprzez "poprawienie" staropolskiego imienia Siemomysł, kiedy świadomość jego pochodzenia zatarła się i błędnie zostało ono uznane za imię kończące się członem "-sław" (zamiast "-mysł"). +Wyspy Nansei + +Powierzchnia 2,2 tys km² +Liczba mieszkańców: 1,2 mln (1990) +Główne miasto i port: Naha. +Panuje tu klimat podzwrotnikowy morski, notuje się aktywność wulkaniczna. Archipelag nawiedzają częste tajfuny. +Siemowit (imię) + +Siemowit – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Siemo-" (psł. "*sěmьja" ma m.in. znaczenia "rodzina, ród; czeladź, służba, własność") i "-wit" ("pan, władca", por. prasł. "*vitъ" – "pan, możny"). Znaczenie imienia: "pan swojego rodu". Imię to spopularyzowało się w czasach nowszych w zniekształconej formie jako Ziemowit. Siemowit był imieniem charakterystycznym dla dynastii piastowskiej i występował wśród Piastów mazowieckich do XV wieku. +Siemowit imieniny obchodzi 18 października. +Podobne imiona staropolskie: Siemidrog, Siemimił, Siemmił, Siemimysł, Siemomysł, Siemomysław, Siemirad, Siemisław, Siemosław, Siemoradz. +Dzierżyńsk (obwód miński) + +Dzierżyńsk, Kojdanów (biał. "Дзяржынск", ros. "Дзержинск"; hist. "Kojdanów", biał. "Койданаў", ros. "Койданов") – miasto i centrum administracyjne rejonu dzierżyńskiego w obwodzie mińskim Białorusi; 25,2 tys. mieszkańców (2010). +Historia. +Początki osadnictwa na jego terenie datowane są na XI wiek. Wpisało się ono w historię Rusi Kijowskiej, od XIV w. wchodziło w skład Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego, a od połowy XVI w. było ono we władaniu rodu Radziwiłłów, zasłynęło wówczas jako prężny ośrodek kalwinizmu (do 1921 istniała tutaj parafia reformowana w ramach Jednoty wileńskiej). +Po rozbiorach Rzeczypospolitej znalazło się ono w granicach guberni mińskiej Imperium Rosyjskiego. W okresie wojny polsko - bolszewickiej od sierpnia 1919 do ok. 10 lipca 1920 miasto pozostawało w polskich rękach. Nosiło nazwę Kojdanów (biał. "Койданава"), do 1932, kiedy sowieci zmienili nazwę miasta na Dzierżyńsk, na cześć Feliksa Dzierżyńskiego, czyniąc je jednocześnie stolicą Polskiego Rejonu Narodowego im. Feliksa Dzierżyńskiego - autonomicznej polskiej jednostki administracyjnej. Starą nazwę zachowała okoliczna stacja kolejowa. +W 1867 w Kojdanowie urodził się Antoni Potocki - polski pisarz i krytyk literacki. +Miasto w kulturze masowej. +Do historii Dzierżyńska (Kojdanowa) z okresu drugiej wojny światowej nawiązuje książka Marka Kurzem'a "Maskotka". Autor opisuje w niej historię swojego ojca - Alexa Kurzem'a, który po latach życia w Australii, będąc dorosłym człowiekiem, chce poznać swoje prawdziwe pochodzenie. Jako kilkuletnie dziecko Alex Kurzem uciekł przed masakrą dokonaną w czasie drugiej wojny światowej w małej miejscowości na Żydach, w której zginęli jego matka i rodzeństwo. Po długim czasie ukrywania się w lesie, trafił w ręce łotewskich oddziałów współpracujących z hitlerowcami, otrzymał nową - łotewską tożsamość i został ich "maskotką". Chłopiec sprzed masakry pamiętam wyłącznie dwa słowa: Panok i Kojdanów. +Książka jest gorzką i poruszającą opowieścią dojrzałego już człowieka, który krok po kroku, dzięki pomocy najbliższych, odkrywa swoją prawdziwą tożsamość i poznaje historię swojej rodziny. Miejscowość Kojdanów odgrywa w tej historii kluczową rolę. +Galeria. +Plik:Dzyarzhynsk1.JPG|Cerkiew +Plik:Dzyarzhynsk2.JPG|Budynek administracji rejonu + +Dzierżyńsk bywa mylony z majątkiem Dzierżynowo, w którym na świat przyszedł Feliks Dzierżyński. +Społeczny dowód słuszności + +Społeczny dowód słuszności - zasada, według której człowiek, nie wiedząc, jaka decyzja lub jaki pogląd jest słuszny (co może zależeć od różnych czynników), podejmuje decyzje lub przyjmuje poglądy takie same, jak większość grupy. Innymi słowy uważamy, że jakieś zachowanie jest poprawne wtedy, gdy widzimy innych ludzi którzy tak właśnie się zachowują. +Na przykład: jeśli mężczyzna nie wie, która ubikacja jest damska, a która męska, ponieważ nie ma oznaczeń na drzwiach, to użyje tej, do której wchodzi inny mężczyzna. +Zastosowanie. +Badacze posługujący się metodami opartymi na dowodzie społecznym uzyskują czasami zadziwiające rezultaty. Jednym z bardziej znanych jest Albert Bandura, który skonstruował wiele metod służących eliminowaniu niepożądanych zachowań. Na przykład wykazał, że ludzie cierpiący na fobie - silne lęki przed jakimś rodzajem przedmiotów - mogą w zadziwiająco prosty sposób zostać z nich wyleczeni. W jednym z wczesnych badań Bandury i jego zespołu (Bandura, Grusec i Menlove, 1967), cierpiące na silny lęk przed psami dzieci oglądały przez 20 minut dziennie chłopca wesoło bawiącego się z psem. Pomimo prostoty tego zabiegu, już po czterech dniach jego stosowania aż 67% dzieci godziło się zostać z psem sam na sam i próbowało się z nim pobawić. Pomiary lęku przed psami, wykonane w miesiąc później wykazały przy tym, że zmiana ta nie tylko nie zanikła wraz z upływem czasu, ale wręcz przeciwnie - skłonność dzieci do kontaktowania się z psami nawet nieco wzrosła. +Hierarchia potrzeb + +Hierarchia potrzeb (ang. "needs hierarchy") – w psychologii – sekwencja potrzeb od najbardziej podstawowych (wynikających z funkcji życiowych), do potrzeb wyższego poziomu, które aktywizują się dopiero po zaspokojeniu niższych. +Model Abrahama Maslowa. +Piramida potrzeb. +Piramida potrzeb nie tłumaczy jednakże wszystkich zachowań ludzkich. Pozornie według niej człowiek podejmuje działania z gatunku potrzeb wyższego rzędu, dopiero po zaspokojeniu potrzeb niższego stopnia, np. człowiek głodny nie będzie zajmować się kulturą. Od tej reguły zdarzają się istotne wyjątki. Sprzeczne bowiem z hierarchią potrzeb było zjawisko, np. teatru polskiego w czasie okupacji niemieckiej przy niezaspokojonej potrzebie bezpieczeństwa. Dlatego też na stosunek jednostki wobec swoich potrzeb wpływają jeszcze czynniki genetyczne, środowiskowe oraz aktywność własna jednostki lub też behawioralny system bodźców i reakcji. +Naukowa teoria kultury Bronisława Malinowskiego. +Zgodnie z teoriami instynktywistycznymi człowiek posiada pewną liczbę wrodzonych predyspozycji, "podstawowych potrzeb", na których nadbudowuje się dopiero kultura. Kultura jest więc ogromnym aparatem do zaspokojenia potrzeb i zespołem reakcji na te potrzeby. Opisać kulturę to opisać warunki, jakie muszą być spełnione aby zbiorowość była w stanie przetrwać. +Miało im odpowiadać 7 podstawowych imperatywów kulturowych: +Narwal + +Narwal ("Monodon monoceros") – gatunek walenia z rodziny narwalowatych żyjący w wodach strefy arktycznej. Jego cechą charakterystyczną jest pojedynczy, spiralnie skręcony kieł wyrastający z górnej, lewej szczęki. Może dorastać u samców nawet do 3 m długości. Kły samic są krótsze, bardziej proste i gładkie. Niektóre samce (średnio co pięćsetny) mają dwa kły. Przypuszczalnie funkcją kła jest rozbijanie pokrywy lodowej w celu zaczerpnięcia powietrza (narwal jak wszystkie walenie nie może oddychać pod wodą), jednakże wyniki ostatnich badań naukowych każą przypuszczać, iż o wiele istotniejsza jest funkcja sensoryczna kła – przebiega w nim bowiem ok. 10 mln włókien nerwowych umożliwiających narwalowi odczuwanie zmian temperatury, ciśnienia i stężenia różnych związków chemicznych w otaczającej go wodzie. Ułatwia to narwalom polowanie na ryby (tropienie za pomocą śladów zapachowych) i odczuwanie stopnia zasolenia akwenu, w którym się znajdują. Kieł może też przydawać się jako oręż w okresie godowym. Czasem służy do rytualnych demonstracji siły. Spośród wszystkich waleni narwal posuwa się najdalej na północ. Ich sezonowe wędrówki z północy na południe są określane granicą paku lodowego. Ale nierzadko spotkać je można na południe od koła polarnego. +Dla komercyjnego wielorybnictwa polowanie na małe narwale już dawno stało się nieopłacalne, dlatego silnie zredukowane pogłowie szybko się odradza. Obecnie ocenia się ich populację na ok. 80.000 osobników. Jedynie Eskimosi polują jeszcze na te zwierzęta – nie tylko dla kłów, ale przede wszystkim dla jadalnej skóry, bogatej w składniki odżywcze. +Charakterystyka. +Wielkość urodzeniowa: 1,5 m – 1,7 m +Dojrzałość płciowa: samice – ok. 3,4 m; samce – ok. 3,9 m +Dojrzałość fizyczna: samice – 4 m; samce – 6,2 m (bez ciosu) +Największy znany: samica – 5,1 m; samiec – 6,2 m, 1600 kg +Pokarm: głowonogi, ryby (łososie, śledzie, dorsze, halibuty itp.), skorupiaki +Występowanie: wody powyżej koła podbiegunowego północnego z przerwą między wschodnią Rosją, a zachodnią Kanadą +Aleksander Zelwerowicz + +Aleksander Zelwerowicz (ur. 14 sierpnia 1877 w Lublinie, zm. 18 czerwca 1955 w Warszawie) – polski aktor, reżyser, dyrektor teatru, pedagog, mąż reżyserki Krystyny Severin-Zelwerowicz. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Lublinie w kamienicy Rynek 3. Ukończył Klasę Dykcji i Deklamacji oraz Szkołę Handlową Kronenberga w Warszawie. Debiutował w "Komedii omyłek" Szekspira w teatrze ogródkowym w 1896. Po rocznym pobycie i studiach w Genewie w 1899 zaangażował się do teatru łódzkiego, gdzie w sezonie teatralnym 1899-1900 rozpoczął w trupie Michała Wołowskiego swój pierwszy etap zawodowej pracy aktora. Następnie w Teatrze Miejskim w Krakowie, w latach 1900-1908 ujawnił talent komediowy i charakterystyczny. Z biegiem lat rozszerzył repertuar o role dramatyczne, nasycone ironią i sarkazmem. Jego dorobek twórczy obejmuje ok. 900 ról. Sztuka aktorska Zelwerowicza nie poddaje się jednoznacznym definicjom. Realista, czerpał inspiracje z rozmaitych stylów i kierunków: naturalizmu, modernizmu czy ekspresjonizmu, zachowując jednak własny ton. +Ceniony reżyser, głównie komedii np. Fredry i Blizińskiego, przygotował ok. 280 przedstawień. +Był dyrektorem scen w Łodzi i Wilnie, dyrektorem Teatru Narodowego w Warszawie. Występował gościnnie w Poznaniu, Wilnie i Lublinie. Reżyserował również i występował gościnnie w Rydze i w Pradze. W 1925 został odznaczony Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +Współtwórca polskiego szkolnictwa teatralnego, w 1932 doprowadził do powstania Państwowego Instytutu Sztuki Teatralnej, pierwszej polskiej nowoczesnej uczelni kształcącej aktorów i reżyserów. Był dyrektorem PIST-u w latach 1932-1936 i reaktywował Instytut w Łodzi po wojnie. W 1937 został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim Polskiej Akademii Literatury "za szerzenie zamiłowania do polskiej literatury dramatycznej". +Podczas II wojny światowej ukrywał działacza Bundu i prezesa Rady Pomocy Żydom "Żegota" Leona Feinera +Pośmiertnie wydano jego wspomnienia "Gawędy starego komedianta " oraz zbiór artykułów o teatrze i korespondencję. +Został pochowany w Alei Zasłużonych na Cmentarzu Wojskowym na Powązkach w Warszawie. +W 1977 wraz z córką Heleną Orchon-Zelwerowicz otrzymał tytuł "Sprawiedliwy Wśród Narodów Świata" przyznawany osobom ratującym Żydów podczas Holocaustu przez izraelski Instytut Pamięci Yad Vashem. +W 1955 jego imię otrzymała PWST w Warszawie, obecnie Akademia Teatralna im. Aleksandra Zelwerowicza. Od 1985 redakcja miesięcznika "Teatr" przyznaje nagrodę im. Aleksandra Zelwerowicza dla najlepszej aktorki i najlepszego aktora sezonu. +W 1949 Prezydent RP Bolesław Bierut nadał mu Order Sztandaru Pracy I klasy. +Silos (magazyn) + +Silos - budowla (lub część budowli) przeznaczona do tymczasowego składowania materiałów sypkich. Silos może tworzyć jedna lub wiele komór (silos jednokomorowy lub wielokomorowy). Obiekty te mają dużą wysokość w porównaniu do wymiarów ich rzutu. Dzielą się na silosy smukłe (h > 1,5d) i krępe, zwane bunkrami. +W silosach często występuje zbyt mała zawartość tlenu w powietrzu, co bywa przyczyną zaburzeń bądź zatrzymania oddychania (zob. płuco pracowników silosów). +Askar Akajew + +Askar Akajewicz Akajew (ur. 10 listopada 1944 w Kyzyłbajraku), kirgiski polityk, prezydent Kirgistanu w latach 1990-2005. +Przed 1990 rokiem Akajew był niezaangażowanym politycznie naukowcem (profesorem fizyki) i prezesem Kirgiskiej Akademii Nauk, raczej nieprzychylnie nastawionym do partii komunistycznej, aczkolwiek prowadził potem promoskiewską politykę – był też autorem pomysłu Wspólnoty Niepodległych Państw. W 1991 roku został przewodniczącym Rady Najwyższej Kirgistanu, prowadząc swój kraj do ogłoszenia niepodległości 31 sierpnia 1991 roku. Nie mając żadnych kontrkandydatów zwyciężył w wyborach prezydenckich w 1991 r., zdobywając 95% głosów. Był powtórnie wybierany w latach 1995 i 2000, choć wskazywano wtedy na naruszenia procedury wyborczej. +W toku swojej prezydentury zaczął przejawiać coraz silniejsze dążenia autorytarne, które wywołały masowe protesty w 2002 roku, gdy Akajew był wzywany do rezygnacji z urzędu. Pod silną presją społeczną Akajew obiecał, iż ustąpi po upływie trzeciej kadencji w 2005 roku. W roku Zgromadzenie Ustawodawcze, izba niższa kirgiskiego parlamentu, zapewniło mu dożywotni immunitet. 24 marca 2005 roku w wyniku tulipanowej rewolucji, Akajew uciekł wraz z rodziną do Rosji. 4 kwietnia 2005 roku formalnie zrezygnował z urzędu prezydenta. Parlament przyjął jego rezygnację 11 kwietnia 2005 roku. +Askar Akajew jest żonaty, ma czworo dzieci. +KTH Krynica + +KTH Krynica (Krynickie Towarzystwo Hokejowe) – polski klub hokejowy założony w 1928 roku w Krynicy-Zdroju. +Historia. +Klub został założony 28 grudnia 1928 roku w willi "Nałęczówka" w Krynicy-Zdroju przez miejscowych miłośników hokeja na lodzie. Przed drugą wojną światową w Krynicy istniały trzy sekcje hokejowe. Oprócz KTH Krynica sekcje hokeja na lodzie były w klubach Jaworzyna Krynica i Krynickie Koło Sportowe. Na lodowisku KTH, w 1931 roku rozegrane zostały Mistrzostwa Świata i Europy w Hokeju na lodzie. Reprezentacja Polski zdobyła tytuł wicemistrzów Europy, a w światowym czempionacie uplasowała się na 4. miejscu. +W 1950 roku zdobył Mistrzostwo Polski w hokeju na lodzie. W latach 1950-1955 używano nazwy Związkowiec Krynica (pod tą nazwą wywalczono tytuł Mistrzów Polski) i Unia Krynica. W latach osiemdziesiątych (od 1982 roku), po rozwiązaniu sekcji hokejowej CWKS Legia Warszawa i przeniesieniu kilku zawodników do Krynicy, klub nosił nazwę CWKS Legia KTH Krynica. Pod nazwą KTH działy także sekcje saneczkarstwa, narciarstwa, tenisa ziemnego, lekkoatletyczna, piłkarska (sekcja pod nazwą Zuber) i szachowa. Przedstawicielami klubu byli liczni olimpijczycy i reprezentanci Polski w hokeju i saneczkarstwie. +Na fali wielkiego zainteresowania hokejem, powstały w Krynicy trzy amatorskie drużyny hokejowe. Najwyżej notowana jest drużyna Krynickie Diabły - Mistrz Polski Amatorów z 2004 roku i zdobywca Pucharu Polski Amatorów z 2009 roku. +Klub nie otrzymał licencji na grę w Polskiej Lidze Hokejowej w sezonie 2011/12, wobec czego został zgłoszony do I ligi. Przed rozpoczęciem sezonu 2012/2013 I ligi klub został wycofany z rozgrywek. +Zawodnicy. +Wybitnymi zawodnikami klubu z Krynicy w historii byli hokeiści: Mieczysław Kasprzycki, Stefan Csorich, Eugeniusz Lewacki, Józef Kurek, Szymon Janiczko, Władysław Pabisz, Edward Kocząb, Zdzisław Nowak , Andrzej Zabawa oraz saneczkarze: Ryszard Pędrak-Janowicz i Maria Semczyszak. Białoruski hokeista Andriej Prima grając w barwach KTH był jedynym przedstawicielem tego klubu, który wywalczył tytuł króla strzelców polskiej ekstraklasy z ilością 36 zdobytych bramek (sezon 2000/01). +Wychowankowie KTH grają obecnie w innych klubach: Grzegorz Pasiut, Sebastian Witowski, Daniel Galant, Radosław Galant, Sławomir Krzak, Michał Krokosz, Jakub Witecki, Artur Gwiżdż. +Niesiodł + +Niesiodł – staropolskie imię męskie, złożone z członów "Nie-" (przeczenie) i "-siodł" ("osada, siedziba"). Znaczenie imienia: "ten, który się nie osiedla". +Suicydologia + +Suicydologia - interdyscyplinarna nauka zajmująca się samobójstwami oraz próbami samobójczymi, lecz również szeroko pojętą autodestruktywnością. +Głównymi zagadnieniami suicydologii są: +Sublime + +Sublime - amerykańska grupa punk rockowa, utworzona z inicjatywy Bradley Nowell. +Wichita + +Wichita – miasto w USA, największe miasto stanu Kansas, nad rzeką Arkansas. Nazwa miasta pochodzi od nazwy plemienia Indian Wichita. +344 tys. mieszkańców ( 2000 ) +Założone w 1870, pierwsze połączenie kolejowe w 1872, prawa miejskie w 1886. +Podczas II wojny światowej miasto stało się jednym z najważniejszych ośrodków amerykańskiego przemysłu lotniczego. W mieście powstała główna fabryka produkująca słynny bombowiec Boeing B-29 Superfortress firmy Boeing. +Arch Linux + +Arch Linux jest dystrybucją Linuksa stworzoną przez Judda Vineta, która stawia na łatwość konfiguracji i użytkowania oraz na mnogość dostępnego oprogramowania, którym można w prosty sposób zarządzać. Łatwość ta nie jest jednak osiągana przez dużą ilość graficznych konfiguratorów, a poprzez rozsądnie rozmieszczone i konstruowane pliki konfiguracyjne, skrypty i programy. Dlatego też Arch Linux, mimo swojej prostoty, może nie być odpowiednim systemem dla osób nie mających wcześniej styczności z Linuksem ani dla tych, dla których używanie konsoli oraz edycja plików tekstowych w celu zmiany ustawień mogą sprawiać problemy. +Judd został zainspirowany inną dystrybucją Linuksa – CRUX. Arch jest oparty na systemie pakietów binarnych kompilowanych dla architektur i686 oraz x86_64 zarządzanych przez program pacman. Umożliwia on instalację, aktualizację oraz usuwanie pakietów. Pakiety mogą być także budowane ze źródeł przy pomocy ABS (Arch Linux Build System) – systemu podobnego do portów FreeBSD. Umożliwia on proste i szybkie budowanie pakietów i włączanie ich do systemu. Instalacja przebiega w trybie tekstowym a użytkownik może dokonać konfiguracji systemu edytując odpowiednie pliki. +Filozofia. +Arch Linux został zaprojektowany jako prosty (w konstrukcji) system operacyjny dla zaawansowanych użytkowników. Nie posiada żadnych zbędnych ozdóbek, graficznych narzędzi konfiguracyjnych itp. Filozofia jego konstrukcji jest w tym podobna do tej, zastosowanej w systemie CRUX, iż użytkownik musi posiadać pewien poziom wiedzy, aby przygotować system do działania. Poziom ten nie jest szczególnie wysoki, jednak Arch Linux nie jest najlepszym rozwiązaniem dla absolutnie początkujących użytkowników. +Historia powstania. +Idea powstania Arch Linuksa powstała w marcu 2002 roku, kiedy to Judd Vinet, zirytowany brakiem sposobu na łatwą aktualizację systemu, z którym przyszło mu pracować, rozpoczął pracę nad nowym systemem. Arch powstawał jednocześnie z menadżerem pakietów do niego — Pacmanem. Koncepcję budowy systemu Judd zaczerpnął z CRUX-a, który był bardzo prosty i szybki w działaniu, jednak trudny w konfiguracji dla początkującego użytkownika. Również koncepcja działania Pacmana została zaczerpnięta z innego oprogramowania — pakietu pkgtools pochodzącego z dystrybucji Slackware. +Wymowa nazwy. +Odnośnie wymowy nazwy systemu powstało kilka dyskusji i niejednokrotnie można spotkać się z różnymi użytkownikami, którzy wymawiają słowa "Arch Linux" w inny sposób. Jednakże twórca Archa i jednocześnie pomysłodawca nazwy wymawia słowo "Arch" jak "archer", czyli w polskim zapisie fonetycznym "Arcz Linuks". +Repozytoria paczek. +Aktywowanie, bądź deaktywowanie, poszczególnych repozytoriów możliwe jest poprzez edycję pliku "/etc/pacman.conf". W tym pliku można również dodać inne, nieoficjalne serwery z pakietami. W pliku "/etc/pacman.d/mirrorlist" znajduje się lista serwerów (i jednocześnie ich priorytety). +Wydania. +Co pewien czas wydawane są kolejne wersje Arch Linuksa pod postacią obrazów płyt. Jednakże dotychczasowi użytkownicy Archa nie mają potrzeby korzystania z nich, ponieważ ich system – zaktualizowany za pomocą Pacmana w momencie wydania kolejnej wersji – jest identyczny z wydaniem płytowym. Kolejne wydania to po prostu „migawka” stanu pakietów, często ze zmienionym instalatorem. Wraz z wydaniem wersji „Duke” zmieniło się numerowanie wersji, które aktualnie zawiera rok oraz miesiąc ukazania się obrazów płyt, zamiast stosowanych wcześniej kolejnych cyfr. Od wydania 2008.06 dostarczane są również obrazy dysków USB, dzięki których możemy zainstalować system prosto z pendrive. +Postawa + +Postawa – uwewnętrzniona przez jednostkę, wyuczona skłonność (akt woli przejawiający się w czynach) do reagowania w społecznie określony sposób, szczególnie przez podejmowanie określonych działań w odpowiedzi na oczekiwania społeczne. +Źródłem postaw jest przyjęty światopogląd, rozumiany jako zbiór subiektywnych doświadczeń intelektualnych oraz emocjonalnych, określających relację osoby do rzeczywistości. Postawa ma bezpośrednie odniesienie do władz intelektualnych (świadomość czynu) oraz woli (dobrowolność). +T.Mądrzycki 1977 Postawa to ukształtowana w procesie zaspokajania potrzeb, w określonych warunkach społecznych, względnie trwała organizacja: wiedzy, przekonań uczuć, motywów, pewne formy zachowania i reakcji ekspresywnych podmiotu związana z określonym przedmiotem lub klasą przedmiotów. +Termin „postawa” wprowadzony został do nauk społecznych przez Wiliama I. Thomasa i Floriana Znanieckiego we wstępie do „Chłopa polskiego w Europie i Ameryce” na oznaczenie procesów indywidualnej świadomości, determinujących zarówno aktualne, jak i potencjalne reakcje człowieka wobec świata społecznego. Autorzy ci proponowali, by pojęcie postawy uczynić centralną kategorią teoretyczną psychologii społecznej. Jak rzadko która, propozycja spotkała się z pozytywnym przyjęciem. +Wraz z rozwojem badań następowało coraz większe różnicowanie się samego pojęcia postawy, która mogła oznaczać: cele działania, motywy, przekonania, specjalny przypadek predyspozycji, determinator kierunku działania, reakcje próbne. +Mimo wielości znaczeń przypisywanych pojęciu postawy można wskazać na pewne elementy powtarzające się w większości rozważań teoretycznych i tworzące wspólny rdzeń znaczeniowy tego pojęcia. Postawa jest, po pierwsze, czymś, co zawsze wiąże się z afektywną oceną (pozytywną bądź negatywną) różnego typu obiektów – mogą nimi być ludzie, grupy społeczne, działania, instytucje, obiekty fizyczne lub zdarzenia. „Postawa obojętna” jest więc w zasadzie określeniem wewnętrznie sprzecznym, gdyż „postawa” zakłada jakiś, choćby najbardziej umiarkowany, emocjonalny stosunek do obiektu. Po drugie: emocjonalny stosunek nosi cechę trwałości i choć nastręcza ona pewne problemy operacyjne ze względu na fakt, iż postawy ulegają zmianie, większość badaczy zgodna jest co do tego, że o postawie można mówić jedynie w sytuacji, gdy mamy do czynienia z ocenami względnie trwałymi. Po trzecie: postawa jest zawsze postawą wobec czegoś, nawet jeżeli owo „coś” nie zostało wyspecyfikowane w nazwie pojęcia, jak np. wtedy, gdy mówimy o postawie prospołecznej, czy autorytarnej. Po czwarte: zakłada się, że postawy są nabywane i modyfikowane w procesie uczenia, przy czym istotną rolę odgrywają tu osobiste doświadczenia jednostki. Ze względu na to, że zakres tych doświadczeń jest silnie uwarunkowany położeniem społecznym jednostki, postawy stanowią najczęściej odzwierciedlenie jej pozycji w społeczeństwie. +"Tok dowodowy": J. Kowalewska, P. Graeber, Kształtowanie postaw zdrowotnych, w: "Życie Szkoły", WSiP, 2003/1 +Strategia porównań poprzecznych + +Strategia porównań poprzecznych (ang. cross-sectional design) – metoda badawcza, w której grupy badanych, różne pod względem wieku chronologicznego, są obserwowane i porównywane w danym momencie czasu. +Jest to metoda najczęściej używana w badaniach nad rozwojem człowieka. Badacz analizuje dane i porównuje różnice w zachowaniu, które mogą pozostawać w związku z wiekiem. +Uczestnicy w badaniu poprzecznym poddawani są w grupie eksperymentalnej bodźcom lub specjalnemu oddziaływaniu, podczas gdy badani z grupy kontrolnej – o takim samym rozkładzie wieku – nie są poddawani danej zmiennej niezależnej. +Dzięki temu naukowcy mogą badać cały interesujący ich zakres wieku w jednym badaniu. W takiej metodzie możliwe jest porównywanie ludzi, którzy nie tylko różnią się wiekiem, ale i rokiem urodzenia. +Egzegeza + +Egzegeza ( "eksegesis" – wyjaśnienie, wyprowadzenie) – badanie i krytyczna interpretacja tekstów, zwłaszcza świętych i utworów hagiograficznych (opowiadających o żywotach świętych). Egzegeza jest sztuką rozumienia i wykładnia ukrytych w utworach prawd, alegorii, symbolicznych kodów sensów teologicznych; poznawania warstwy metaforycznej. +Termin "egzegeza" używany jest często w sensie węższym w odniesieniu do "egzegezy" biblijnej, jest ważną częścią zarówno judaistycznych, np. egzegeza rabinistyczna (Midrasz, Kabała, Talmud), jak i chrześcijańskich studiów teologicznych, np. krytyka biblijna, historia form etc. +Amensalizm + +Amensalizm - jedna z antagonistycznych zależności międzygatunkowych, w której obecność i czynności życiowe jednego gatunku wpływają niekorzystnie na gatunek drugi, przy czym jest to relacja jednostronna tj. obecność tego drugiego gatunku dla pierwszego jest obojętna. Dokładne określenie bilansu takich interakcji nie jest proste, gdyż osłabienie przedstawicieli jednego gatunku przez zmniejszenie konkurencji, może przynieść pewną korzyść przedstawicielom gatunku innego. +Przykładem amensala jest pędzlak (Penicillium notatum) - grzyb, który produkując antybiotyk (penicylinę) - ogranicza rozwój bakterii. +W zasadzie, rodzajami amensalizmu są antybioza (wydzielanie antybiotyków) i antagonistyczna forma allelopatii. +Franciszek Pieczka + +Franciszek Pieczka (ur. 18 stycznia 1928 w Godowie) – polski aktor teatralny i filmowy. +Aktor urodził się i wychowywał w Godowie, wsi położonej w powiecie wodzisławskim na Górnym Śląsku. W Godowie grał na organach w miejscowym kościele i pracował na roli. Po II wojnie światowej studiował aktorstwo. +Absolwent PWST w Warszawie (1954). Debiutował w Teatrze Dolnośląskim w Jeleniej Górze. Potem przeniósł się do, prowadzonego przez Krystynę Skuszankę, Teatru Ludowego w Nowej Hucie, gdzie występował w latach 1955-1964. Aktor Teatru Powszechnego w Warszawie. +Fojbe (tytanida) + +Fojbe (także Febe, gr. Phoíbē, łac. Phoebe ‘Jaśniejąca’) – w mitologii greckiej tytanida, bogini wyroczni delfickiej przed Apollinem, proroctw i intelektu. +Należała do pierwszego pokolenia tytanów. Uchodziła za córkę Uranosa i Gai. Była siostrą tytanów (Hyperiona, Japeta, Kojosa, Kriosa, Kronosa, Okeanosa) i tytanid (Mnemosyne, Rei, Tei, Temidy, Tetydy) oraz cyklopów (Argesa, Brontesa, Steropesa) i hekatonchejrów (Ajgajona, Gygesa, Kottosa). Z Kojosem, swoim bratem, miała córki Asterię i Leto. Swojemu wnukowi Apollonowi, który był m.in. bogiem wróżbiarstwa, podarowała wyrocznię w Delfach. +Imieniem tytanidy nazwano jeden z księżyców Saturna – Febe ("Phoebe"). +Nikołaj Tanajew + +Mikołaj Timofiejewicz Tanajew (ur. 5 listopada 1944), były premier Kirgistanu. +Urodził się we wsi Michajłowka w obwodzie penzeńskim w Rosji. Pełnił funkcję wicepremiera, kiedy szefem rządu był Kurmanbek Bakijew. Obowiązki premiera zaczął pełnić 22 maja 2002 r., po odwołaniu Bakijewa z urzędu. Osiem dni później został zatwierdzony na swym urzędzie przez parlament. 8 kwietnia 2004 roku udało mu się uzyskać wotum zaufania w Zgromadzeniu Ustawodawczym. Za jego odwołaniem głosowało wtedy 27 deputowanych, wymagana zaś liczba według kirgiskiego prawodawstwa wynosi 30. 24 marca 2005 roku w wyniku Tulipanowej Rewolucji, podał się do dymisji. +Anthrax (amerykańska grupa muzyczna) + +Anthrax (ang. i łac.: dosł. "wąglik") - amerykański zespół założony w Nowym Jorku w 1981 roku. Zaliczany obok zespołów Metallica, Slayer i Megadeth do wielkiej czwórki thrash metalu. +Historia zespołu. +Zespół rozpoczął działalność w roku 1981, kiedy to założyli go Scott "Not" Ian (gitara) i Dan Lilker (gitara). W pierwszym okresie istnienia zespół doświadczył licznych zmian personalnych. Z początku wokalistą został John Connely, zastąpiony wkrótce przez Dirka Kennedy, Jasona Resenfelda i ostatecznie Neila Turbina. Na basie krótko grał m.in. Paul Kahn, na perkursji Dave Weiss, w którego miejsce został przyjęty Charlie Benante. Anthrax zaczynał jako support Metallica i Manowar. Materiał demo nagrał w roku 1983. Trafił on do Jona Zazuli, którego niezależna wytwórnia Megaforce Records wydała debiutancką płytę Metalliki. Przed wydaniem dużego albumu, we wrześniu 1983 ukazał się singel "Soldiers Of Metal". Wkrótce potem do zespołu dołączył Dan Spitz (gitara, wcześniej grał w Overkill), w związku z tym Dan Lilker zmienił instrument na gitarę basową. +Do studia pod koniec 1983 roku weszli: Scott Ian, Dan Lilker, Neil Turbin (śpiew), Dan Spitz i Charlie Benante (perkusja). W styczniu 1984 "Fistful of Metal" trafił na rynek. Anthrax dopiero kształtował własne brzmienie jednak płyta zebrała pochlebne opinie (oprócz okładki uznawanej wtedy za niesmaczną) i sprzedawała się dobrze. Grupa odbyła wspólną trasę koncertową z Metalliką i Raven. +W Anthraxie następowały jednak kolejne zmiany (odszedł Dan Lilker a Neil Turbin został wyrzucony) i nagranie w 1985 roku maksisingla "Armed and Dangerous" odbyło się z Mattem Fallonem (gitara basowa) i Joey Belladoną (śpiew). Płyta zawierała m.in. cover zespołu Sex Pistols "God Save The Queen". Ukazanie się tego nagrania było dowodem, że zespoły thrash metalowe czerpią garściami z tradycji punk rocka (w tym czasie równolegle z Anthrax Scott Ian udzielał się w hardcoreowym zespole S.O.D. - Stormtroopers Of Death). +W 1985 roku zespół podpisał kontrakt z Island Records i natychmiast wszedł do studia by nagrać album "Spreading The Disease". Ukazał się on na rynku pod koniec 1985 roku w USA i na początku 1986 w Europie oraz był poprzedzony wydaniem singla "Madhouse". Anthrax wyruszył na trasę koncertową z Metalliką zakończoną w Europie na festiwalu Aardshock w Holandii w październiku (dodatkowo w towarzystwie Slayera). +W listopadzie 1986 zespół pracował już nad kolejnym albumem. Producentem został Paul Kramer wcześniej pracujący m.in. z KISS. Do studia wszedł jednak po kolejnej zmianie w składzie. Nowym basistą został Frank Bello. "Among The Living" ukazał się w marcu 1987 poprzedzony wydanym miesiąc wcześniej singlem "I'm The Law". Singel sprzedawał się na tyle dobrze w Europie (dostał się do UK Top Ten), że zdecydowano się na wydanie w USA minialbumu pod tym tytułem. Osiągnął status złotej płyty. Istotną rzeczą dla tych sukcesów tych singli były eksperymenty z rapem, utwór "I'm The Man". W lipcu ukazał się singel "Indians" a do stacji telewizyjnych trafia videoklip z tym utworem. +Anthrax wyrusza na europejską i japońską trasę koncertową jako gwiazda (w towarzystwie Metal Church) a w USA poprzedza koncerty Kiss. +Początek roku 1988 zespół spędził na nagrywaniu albumu "State Of Euphoria". Wydano również singel "Antisocial". Album zdobył złotą płytę w 3 miesiące od ukazania się w październiku. Na trasie Road To Euphoria zespołowi towarzyszył Living Colour. +Anthrax wydał jeszcze drugi singel "Make Me Laugh" zanim wszedł do studia by rozpocząć nagrywanie kolejnej płyty. +Jeszcze w 1989 wyszedł na rynek EP "Penikufesin". Chociaż w czasie sesji nagraniowej zespół przeżył pożar i trzęsienie ziemi to jednak w sierpniu 1990 roku udało się wypuścić na rynek album "Persistance Of Time" i wyruszyć na trasę wraz z Iron Maiden (trasa nazywała się "No Prayer On The Road Tour") dołączył również do Slayera, Megadeth i Alice In Chains w serii koncertów Clash Of The Titans. +Kolejnym sukcesem był minialbum "Attack Of The Killer B`s", który zawierał wspólne nagranie z Public Enemy - "Bring The Noise". Zespół ten towarzyszył później Anthraxowi na wspólnej trasie koncertowej (wraz z Primus i Young Black Teens). Po jej zakończeniu zespół podpisał nowy kontrakt płytowy, z Elektra Records (współpraca z Island przestała się układać ze względu na słabą promocję ostatniego albumu). We wrześniu 1990 roku wraz z grupami Megadeth, Slayer, Testament, Alice in Chains oraz Suicidal Tendencies zespół ruszył w trasę Clash of the Titans. W 1992 z zespołu został również wyrzucony Joey Belladonna. Jako powód podano mały wkład pracy w działalność Anthraxu. Na jego miejsce został przyjęty John Bush z Armored Saint. +Z nowym wokalistą zespół nagrał i wydał w maju 1993 roku album "Sound Of The White Noise". Trasa koncertowa odbyła się w towarzystwie Fight, Clawfingera, King's X i M.O.D.. W ciągu lat 1993 i 1994 Anthrax nagrywał utwory do ścieżek dźwiękowych filmów oraz albumów tribute (m.in. John Bush i Scott Ian jako członkowie nagrywają utwór wydany na albumie w hołdzie Judas Priest w 1996 roku). +Pierwszy album koncertowy "Live: The Island Years" ukazuje się w 1994 roku. Był on jednak jedynie wypełnieniem kontraktu z wytwórnią Island. +Już podczas pracy nad "Sound Of The White Noise" współpraca z Danem Spitzem uległa znacznemu pogorszeniu co zaowocowało wyrzuceniem go z zespołu w 1995 roku. +Pozostali członkowie Anthraxu nie zdecydowali się jednak na zastąpienie go stałym gitarzystą i na nagrywanym "Stomp 442" grał gościnnie między innymi Dimebag Darrell z Pantery a także Paul Crook, który również towarzyszył zespołowi na koncertach. Część partii gitar nagrał perkusista Charlie Benante, który był jednym z głównych kompozytorów na tę płytę. +Wkrótce w związku ze słabą promocją nowych albumów przez Elektrę, zespół opuścił wytwórnię i zbudował własne studio nagrań w Yonkers w Nowym Jorku. +Po 3 latach przerwy Anthrax powrócił z wydaną w lipcu 1998 roku w Ignition Records płytą "Volume 8 - The Threat Is Real". W 1999 roku zespół podpisał kontrakt z Beyond Records i wkrótce potem wydał "Return of the Killer A's", zestaw różnych wersji utworów wcześniej wydanych na albumach studyjnych. W jednym z nich ("Ball Of Confusion") pojawili się wspólnie John Bush i Joey Belladonna. +W 2001 roku grupa była celem ataku mediów amerykańskich w związku z szeregiem zatruć wąglikiem w USA (po angielsku Anthrax to właśnie wąglik). Zespół próbowano zmusić do zmiany nazwy, ale muzycy tego nie zrobili. +Przed nagraniem kolejnego albumu w 2002 roku do zespołu dołączył stały gitarzysta: Rob Caggiano. +Pod koniec 2002 roku Anthrax ponownie wszedł do studia nagrań i rozpoczął pracę nad wydaną w 2003 roku płytą "We've Come For You All". +W kwietniu 2004 roku Anthrax opuścił ostatecznie basista Frank Bello przechodząc do odradzającego się zespołu Helmet. Na jego miejsce (początkowo tylko na trasę, ostatecznie na stałe) został zaangażowany Joey Vera, przyjaciel Johna Busha z Armored Saint. +5 sierpnia 2004 roku podczas trasy koncertowej promującej nowy album zespół wystąpił w warszawskim klubie Proxima. +Jeszcze w trakcie trasy koncertowej na rynek trafiło koncertowe DVD i album pod tytułem "Music Of Mass Destruction - Live from Chicago" a w listopadzie 2004 ukazał się studyjny album "Greater Of Two Evils" (wydany w USA przez Sanctuary). Album zawiera przearanżowane wersje utworów wydanych w czasach gdy wokalistą Anthraxu nie był jeszcze John Bush. Lista utworów na tej płycie jest wynikiem głosowania fanów. +Pod koniec kwietnia 2005 zespół wrócił do swojego klasycznego już składu z lat 1985-92 (Joey Belladonna, Frank Bello, Charlie Benante, Scott Ian, Daniel Spitz) rozpoczynając nowy okres trasą "Reunion Tour". +Po okresie niestabilności składu do zespołu dołączył wokalista Dan Nelson, zastępując tym samym Joeya Belladonnę. Do grupy dołączył także Rob Caggiano (gitara, 2003 - 2005); Dan Spitz nie jest już częścią zespołu. +Zespół planował skończyć i wydać nowy materiał w roku 2009, jednak jego wydanie się opóźniło. W maju 2010 do grupy powrócił Joey Belladonna. 16 czerwca 2010 w ramach Sonisphere Festival zespół wystąpił w Polsce w Warszawie (Lotnisko Bemowo). +Glen Cook + +Glen Charles Cook (ur. 9 lipca 1944 w Nowym Jorku) – amerykański pisarz fantasy i science fiction. +Wychował się w północnej Kalifornii. Zaczął pisać w siódmej klasie. Marzył, by zostać pilotem Phantoma F-4, ale ostatecznie trafił do oddziałów specjalnych US Marine Corps (3rd Marine Recon Battalion). Wojskową karierę podjął syn Glena, natomiast autor przez kilkadziesiąt lat pracował w różnych fabrykach koncernu General Motors. Uczęszczał na Uniwersytet Missouri i warsztaty dla pisarzy Clarion. Pierwszy utwór opublikował w 1970 roku. +Doświadczenia ze służby w armii przenosi na karty swoich książek (opowieść o najemnikach z Czarnej Kompanii była jedną z najpopularniejszych lektur wśród amerykańskich żołnierzy podczas Wojny w Zatoce). +Jak sam mówi o sobie: W przeciwieństwie do większości pisarzy, nie wykonywałem żadnego dziwnego zawodu jak np. skubanie kurczaków. Moim jedynym pracodawcą jest od lat General Motors. Ze względu na zmianę położenia zakładu, Glenn ograniczył pisanie od 1988 roku. Następnie przeszedł na emeryturę i całkowicie poświęcił się pisaniu. +Jako swoje hobby, Cook wymienia zbieranie znaczków, książek oraz historię wojny. Glenn Cook często bywa na konwentach i można go tam spotkać. +Najbardziej znany z cyklu dark fantasy o przygodach bractwa najemników – Czarnej Kompanii. Popularność przyniosła mu również seria detektywistyczno-sensacyjna w klimatach fantasy o detektywie Garrecie. +Samowiedza + +Samowiedza – w psychologii to zespół przekonań i wartości odnoszących się do własnego funkcjonowania osobistego jednostki, a także psychologiczne pojęcie własnego "ja" z cechami charakteru, które wpływają na myślenie, uczucia, działania. +Korona Sudetów + +Korona Sudetów – odznaka turystyczna ustanowiona w 2001 roku przez Komisję Turystyki Górskiej Oddziału Wrocławskiego PTTK. Celem odznaki jest popularyzacja Sudetów, jako gór leżących na styku granic trzech państw – Polski, Czech i Niemiec. Aby zdobyć odznakę należy wejść na najwyższe szczyty 22 pasm w Sudetach. +Do końca 2011 roku zdobyto 467 odznak, z czego kilka trafiło ponownie do tych samych osób. Rekordzista – Jan Suchecki z Lubina – posiada ich osiem. +Szczyty Korony Sudetów. +Poniższa tabela przedstawia szczyty należące do Korony Sudetów (na podstawie wykazu w książeczce odznaki "Korona Sudetów"). +Gustaw Lutkiewicz + +Gustaw Lutkiewicz (ur. 29 czerwca 1924 w Kownie) – polski aktor teatralny, filmowy i telewizyjny oraz radiowy, piosenkarz. +Życiorys. +W 1949 ukończył studia na Wydziale Aktorskim Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Teatralnej w Warszawie (wówczas z siedzibą w Łodzi). +Występował na deskach Teatru Nowego (1949–1960) i Teatru 7.15 (1960–1961), a następnie na scenach warszawskich: Teatru Dramatycznego (1961–1963), Teatru Powszechnego (1963–1969), Teatru Narodowego (1969–1974) i ponownie Teatru Powszechnego im. Zygmunta Hübnera (1974–2010). 31 sierpnia 2010 wycofał się z życia artystycznego z uwagi na postępującą utratę wzroku. +Często występował w słuchowiskach radiowych. Za tę formę twórczości w 1994 otrzymał "Złoty Mikrofon" (za rok 1993) "za wieloletnią współpracę z Polskim Radio oraz za kreację postaci Polikarpa Lepieszki w powieści radiowej "W Jezioranach"". +Występował również w Teatrze Telewizji. Jest też cenionym odtwórcą ballad Bułata Okudżawy (m.in. słynna "Modlitwa" z lat 60.). +Mąż aktorki Wiesławy Mazurkiewicz. +Filmografia. +Polski dubbing +Intel 8080 + +Intel 8080 jest jednym z pierwszych mikroprocesorów, wyprodukowany przez Intela w kwietniu 1974. Jest 8-bitowym mikroprocesorem wykonanym w technologii n-MOS, pracującym z częstotliwością taktowania 2 MHz. Jest on uniwersalną jednostką centralną złożoną z jednostki arytmetyczno-logicznej, rejestrów roboczych i układu sterowania. Dane i instrukcje są przesyłane do i z pamięci za pośrednictwem 8-bitowej szyny danych, pamięć jest adresowana 16-bitową szyną adresową. +Wyprodukowany w 1978 roku 16-bitowy procesor 8086, który jest protoplastą wszystkich stosowanych w komputerach zgodnych z PC, zawiera wszystkie instrukcje procesora 8080 (chociaż mają one inne kody maszynowe) i dlatego jest zgodny na poziomie programu źródłowego w kodzie asemblera z procesorem 8080. Początkowo układ sprzedawano w cenie 360 USD; cena ta – wraz z pojawianiem się na rynku wersji układu innych producentów – malała do poniżej 2 USD w roku 1991. +Schemat blokowy. +Blok rejestrów z układem wybierającym. +Licznik rozkazów zawiera adresy wykonywanych instrukcji. Przy pobraniu każdego bajta z pamięci zewnętrznej i wchodzącego w skład instrukcji, zawartość licznika jest automatycznie zwiększana o 1. Stos śladów organizowany jest w pamięci zewnętrznej RAM. Wskaźnik tego stosu (SP) zawiera adres ostatnio zajętego miejsca na stosie. Sześć ośmiobitowych rejestrów uniwersalnych jest dostępnych dla programisty i można je używać pojedynczo (jako rejestry 8-bitowe) lub w parach, jako rejestry 16-bitowe. W ten sposób można łączyć w pary rejestry B-C, D-E i H-L. Rejestr pomocniczy wytworzony z rejestrów W i Z nie jest dostępny dla programisty i wykorzystywany jest do operacji wewnętrznych. +Dane ośmiobitowe są wprowadzane do bloku rejestrów poprzez multiplekser. Między blokami rejestrów a rejestrem adresów i buforem adresów mogą zachodzić przesłania. Informacja szesnastobitowa może być zwiększona lub zmniejszona o 1, co zachodzi w układzie generacji następnika i poprzednika. Korzysta się z tego przy aktualizacji zawartości licznika rozkazów i wskaźnika stosu. Rejestr adresów jest połączony z trójstanowym buforem, który można wprowadzić w stan wysokiej impedancji, gdy wymagane jest odizolowanie mikroprocesora od pamięci zewnętrznej, tj. wtedy, gdy urządzenia zewnętrzne przesyłają dane bezpośrednio do pamięci z pominięciem jednostki centralnej (DMA). +Układ sterowania z rejestrem rozkazów. +Rejestr rozkazów jest rejestrem ośmiobitowym, do którego na początku każdego cyklu rozkazowego jest przesyłany pierwszy bajt instrukcji (zawierający kod instrukcji) pobrany z zewnętrznej pamięci przez szynę danych D0 ... D7 i wewnętrzną szynę danych. Zawartość rejestru rozkazowego jest dostępna dla dekodera instrukcji, który generuje, wraz z układem sterującym sygnały sterujące dla wszystkich układów mikroprocesora. Do układów są doprowadzone końcówki ф1, ф2, READY, INT, RESET i HOLD, przez które wprowadza się dodatkowe informacje sterujące. Z układu sterowania jest wyprowadzonych na zewnątrz sześć wyjść identyfikujących stany i cykle mikroprocesora dla układów zewnętrznych. Są to INTE, HLDA, DBIN, SYNC, WR i WAIT. +Historia. +W Polsce pod koniec lat 70. zakłady półprzewodnikowe CEMI produkowały mikroprocesor o nazwie MCY7880 w pełni zgodny z 8080 oraz dodatkowe układy wspomagające zgodne z układami Intela. +Motywacja wewnętrzna + +Motywacja wewnętrzna (ang. "intrinsic motivation") – motywacja powodująca zachowanie, którego celem nie jest osiągnięcie zewnętrznych nagród. Dana aktywność jest celem samym w sobie. +Czynności motywowane wewnętrznie prowadzą do specyficznego stanu umysłu, nazywanego "poczuciem przepływu" (ang. "flow"), które polega na utracie samoświadomości i poczucia upływu czasu oraz na koncentracji na samej czynności wykonywania zadania, z odsunięciem na drugi plan jego rezultatu. Stan taki jest przyjemny i może być wzbudzany także przez narkotyki i inne używki, ćwiczenia fizyczne itp. Badania pokazują jednak, że czynności dostarczają więcej przeżyć typu "flow" niż używki. Takie doświadczenie podobne jest w swojej jakości do doświadczenia mistycznego, opisywanego przez Maslowa. +Ustalono także, że gdy czynność motywowana jest wewnętrznie a jednocześnie jest silnie nagradzana, to motywacja zmienia się na zewnętrzną i dana osoba traci przyjemność czerpaną z tej aktywności, nawet jeśli ją wcześniej bardzo lubiła. Poprzez silne nagradzanie, grożenie karą (np. przy nauce), stosowanie przymusu, presję zewnętrzną, nacisk oceniania, można spowodować, że dana osoba zaczyna spostrzegać swoje działanie jako motywowane tylko zewnętrznie, co prowadzi do utraty przyjemności czerpanej z tego działania. Szerzej mówi o tym teoria dysonansu poznawczego. +Przykłady czynności motywowanych wewnętrznie: tworzenie Wikipedii, jedzenie pączków, pływanie żaglówką, słuchanie muzyki, granie na komputerze, także praca – jeśli wiąże się z głębokim zainteresowaniem. +Żargon + +Żargon – pejoratywnie nacechowana nazwa języka specjalnego. Ze względu na nacechowanie ekspresywne we współczesnej terminologii językoznawczej niemal całkowicie wyparta przez termin "slang". Zachowała się natomiast w języku potocznym, w którym określa się nią język specjalny, do którego ma się pogardliwy stosunek. +Terminem "żargon" określa się mowę określonych grup społecznych, zwłaszcza gwary zawodowe – nie gwary terytorialne. Tak rozumiane żargony różnią się od języka ogólnego przede wszystkim słownictwem, przy czym różnice te nie dotyczą słownictwa podstawowego. Wyjątkiem są tu jedynie tzw. języki tajne, jak gwara złodziejska, które wykazują różnice także w słownictwie podstawowym. +Ze względu na ujemne nacechowanie emocjonalne terminu "żargon" częściej niż w stosunku do mowy innych grup społecznych spotkać się można z określaniem nim gwary złodziejskiej, chuligańskiej itp. +McKinley + +McKinley, Mount McKinley, Mount Denali (6194 m n.p.m.) – najwyższy szczyt Ameryki Północnej, położony w górach Alaska (USA). McKinley zbudowany jest ze skał krystalicznych (głównie granitów i łupków krystalicznych). Jego masyw pokryty jest wiecznym śniegiem i lodowcami, a największy z nich - o długości ok. 50 km - to lodowiec Muldrow. Względem otaczających go dolin występuje u jego stoków jedna z największych deniwelacji na świecie - ponad 5 kilometrów. Ciśnienie na szczycie odpowiada ciśnieniu na wysokości 6900 m n.p.m. na terenach bliżej równika. Na szczycie notuje się bardzo niskie temperatury i wiatry dochodzące do 160 km/h. +Po raz pierwszy szczyt został zdobyty w 1913 roku. Nazwa na cześć amerykańskiego prezydenta Williama McKinleya, Denali to tradycyjna indiańska nazwa góry. Obecnie masyw McKinleya objęty jest Parkiem Narodowym Denali. Z uwagi na fakt, że jest to najwyższy szczyt Ameryki Północnej, wchodzi on w skład tzw. Korony Ziemi. +Pierwszym Polakiem na szczycie McKinley był Marek Głogoczowski, który zdobył górę w 1970 r. +Romanowowie + +Romanowowie (ros. Романовы) – ród rosyjski, dynastia carów, potem cesarzy rządzących Rosją od 1613 do 1917 roku. Spowinowacony z rodem Rurykowiczów osobą Nikity Romanowicza Zacharyna, szwagra Iwana IV Groźnego. +Dzieje rodu. +Za protoplastę rodu Romanowów uważa się powszechnie bojara Romana Jurjewicza Zacharyna-Koszkina (ok. 1470-1543). Roman Jurjewicz miał syna Nikitę i córkę Anastazję, żonę Iwana IV Groźnego. Ślub został zawarty 3 lutego 1547 na Kremlu. Małżeństwo okazało się nadzwyczaj dobrane i udane. Nie wszystkie sprawy rodzinne układały się jednak najlepiej: małżonkowie doczekali się 6 dzieci: trzech córek i trzech synów, z których dwóch: Dymitr i Iwan zmarło tragicznie. Jedynie najmłodszy, Fiodor, został carem, zarazem ostatnim z dynastii Rurykowiczów. Nikita Zacharyn w 1563 roku został dworzaninem Iwana IV. Pod koniec życia wstąpił do monastyru pod imieniem Nifont. Miał czterech synów, w tym Fiodora, późniejszego patriarchę Moskwy. Synem Fiodora był Michał - pierwszy Romanow zasiadający na tronie carskim. Michał Romanow został wybrany na cara Wszechrusi przez Sobór Ziemski złożony z mieszczan i szlachty rosyjskiej 21 lutego 1613 i ukończył okres Wielkiej Smuty trwający od śmierci cara Fiodora Rurykowicza (1598). +Męska linia Romanowów wygasła wraz ze śmiercią Piotra II w 1730 roku. W 1762 r. wnuk Piotra I Wielkiego, książę Holsztynu Karol Piotr Ulryk z dynastii Oldenburgów zasiadł na tronie imperatorów Rosji jako Piotr III Holstein-Gottorp-Romanow. Po okresie panowania jego żony Katarzyny II (1762-1796), jego potomkowie zasiadali na tronie rosyjskim do 1917 r. Od panowania Piotra III Holstein-Gottorp-Romanow niektórzy mówią o dynastii Holstein-Gottorp-Romanow (porównaj: Habsburgowie/Dom Habsbursko-Lotaryński) pomimo, że Piotr III wraz ze swymi potomkami przyjął nazwisko Romanow rezygnując z nazwiska rodowego. +Ostatni car Mikołaj II wraz z małżonką i ich dziećmi, został rozstrzelany w nocy 16 na 17 lipca 1918 przez bolszewików. +Współczesność. +Ród Romanowów liczy obecnie ponad 40 osób obojga płci mieszkających w większości poza granicami Rosji. Pretendentką do tronu rosyjskiego jest obecnie Maria Władimirowna Romanowa, tytularna imperatorka Wszechrosji ("де-юpe Импepатpицa и Caмoдеpжцa Bcеpoccийcкaя") mieszkająca w Danii. Przy okazji sprowadzenia do Rosji ciała i ponownego pogrzebu cesarzowej Marii Fiodorowny w Sankt Petersburgu 28 września 2006, Maria Władimirowna miała mimo wszystko precedencję przed wszystkimi żałobnikami, stojąc samotna w pierwszym rzędzie, co najwyraźniej zostało ustalone z rosyjskimi władzami cerkiewnymi i państwowymi. +Kminek + +Kminek ("Carum" L.) – rodzaj roślin z rodziny selerowatych. Liczy ok. 20 gatunków występujących w strefie umiarkowanej Europy. Gatunkiem typowym jest " Carum carvi" L.. +Morfologia. +Rośliny jednoroczne, dwuletnie lub byliny o budowie typowej dla rodziny selerowatych. Liście pierzastopodzielone, łodygi wzniesione, puste wewnątrz, kwiaty drobne, białe, zebrane w baldach złożony. Nasiona aromatyczne, suche. +Systematyka. +"Careum" Adans., "Carui" Mill., "Carvi" Bubani +Rodzaj należący do podrodziny "Apioideae" Seemann, rodziny selerowatych ("Apiaceae" Lindl.), rzędu selerowców ("Apiales" Lindl.), kladu astrowych w obrębie okrytonasiennych. +Gromada okrytonasienne ("Magnoliophyta" Cronquist), podgromada "Magnoliophytina" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, klasa "Rosopsida" Batsch, podklasa dereniowe ("Cornidae" Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal), nadrząd "Aralianae" Takht., rząd araliowce ("Araliales" Reveal), rodzina selerowate ("Apiaceae" Lindl.), syn. "Umbelliferae" Juss.), plemię "Careae" Baill., podplemię "Carinae" Engl., rodzaj koper ("Carum" L.)> +Wave Rock + +Wave Rock (ang. "skalna fala") – granitowy klif położony w miejscowości Hyden (około 340 km za wschód od Perth) w stanie Australia Zachodnia w Australii. +Ma 15 m wysokości i 100 m długości. Formacja skalna zawdzięcza swój kształt erozji wodnej i wietrznej, została ukształtowana w obecnej postaci około 60 milionów lat temu. W latach sześćdziesiątych kryształy pochodzące z Wave Rock zostały poddane analizie i datowane są na przynajmniej 2,7 miliarda lat. +Pasy kolorów na ścianie skały powodowane są przez deszcz spłukujący minerały (głównie związki żelaza) tworząc żółte, czerwone i szare pręgi. +Round robin + +Round robin (algorytm karuzelowy) to najprostszy algorytm szeregowania dla procesów w systemie operacyjnym, który nadaje każdemu procesowi odpowiednie przedziały czasowe, nie uwzględniając żadnych priorytetów. W związku z tym wszystkie procesy mają ten sam priorytet. W mechanizmach szeregowania używających priorytetów, często mechanizmu round robin używa się w stosunku do procesów o tym samym priorytecie. +Algorytm round robin rozpoczyna od pierwszego procesu w tablicy PDB (Process Descriptor Block), dając każdej aplikacji po kolei czas procesora. +Dużą zaletą algorytmu round robin jest jego prostota i łatwość implementacji programowej. +Gunpowder + +Gunpowder – chińska zielona herbata. Jej nazwa pochodzi od wyglądu – w trakcie produkcji liście są zwijane bardzo ciasno, przez co wyglądają jak proch strzelniczy. Produkowana jest w chińskiej prowincji Zhejiang od czasów dynastii Tang (618-907). +Szczególny proces produkcji sprawia, że objętość tej herbaty jest mniejsza od innych rodzajów. Zwinięte liście po zalaniu gorącą wodą rozprostowują się i "puchną". +Herbatę Gunpowder wysokiej jakości można poznać po tym, że zwinięte liście są bardziej lśniące i mniejsze. +Sposób zaparzania herbaty zielonej, a zwłaszcza typu Gunpowder, jest różny w różnych rejonach i zależy od osobistego upodobania. Przy zaparzaniu w około 80°C herbata daje łagodny smak. +Z zielonej herbaty można także robić wiele trunków. +Grzybek zaworu + +Grzybek zaworu - zwieradło zaworu wzniosowego mające postać grzybka składającego się z trzonka zakończonego talerzykiem, który ma na obwodzie gładką powierzchnię (zwykle stożkową), szczelnie przylegającą do powierzchni gniazda zaworu. +Kodeks cywilny + +Kodeks cywilny (skrót k.c. lub w języku prawniczym również kc) – usystematyzowany według określonych reguł (nawiązujących do systematyki pandektowej) zbiór przepisów prawnych z zakresu prawa cywilnego obejmujący przynajmniej podstawowy zestaw instytucji z tej dziedziny. +Polski kodeks cywilny. +Kodeks cywilny w Polsce wydany został ustawą z 23 kwietnia 1964. Wszedł w życie z dniem 1 stycznia 1965, z wyjątkiem artykułów 160–167, 178, 213–219 i 1058–1088, które weszły w życie z dniem ogłoszenia, czyli 18 maja 1964. Opublikowany został w Dzienniku Ustaw nr 16, poz. 93 z 1964. Organem wydającym był Sejm PRL, a organami zobowiązanymi: Rada Ministrów, Ministerstwo Rolnictwa i Rozwoju Wsi oraz Ministerstwo Obrony Narodowej. +Geneza. +Ustawa z dnia 23 kwietnia 1964 r. Przepisy wprowadzające kodeks cywilny (, z późn. zm.), która zawiera w głównej mierze przepisy derogacyjne, kolizyjne i intertemporalne przygotowała polski system prawa do wejścia w życie kodeksu cywilnego. Akty prawne wymienione wyżej zostały w całości lub w części uchylone przez niniejszą ustawę. +Zawartość polskiego kodeksu cywilnego. +Polski kodeks cywilny składa się z czterech ksiąg: części ogólnej (art. 1–125) dotyczącej m.in. osób i czynności prawnych, oraz ksiąg regulujących kolejno: prawo rzeczowe (art. 126–352), prawo zobowiązań (art. 353–921) oraz prawo spadkowe (art. 922–1088). +Księgi dzielą się na tytuły, tytuły na działy, działy na rozdziały, a niektóre rozdziały na oddziały. +Na podstawie kodeksu cywilnego wydanych zostało 10 rozporządzeń. +Nowelizacje. +Do końca 2011 roku wydano 64 akty zmieniające polski kodeks cywilny. Nie został jednak wydany dotąd jego tekst jednolity. +Pierwsza nowelizacja nastąpiła w 1971 r. W okresie PRL-u kodeks cywilny znowelizowano ośmiokrotnie. +Bardzo obszerna nowelizacja nastąpiła w 1990 r. w związku z transformacją ustrojową w Polsce. Przejście z gospodarki centralnie sterowanej na gospodarkę kapitalistyczną wywołało potrzebę dokonania głębokich zmian w kodeksie cywilnym, głównie w zakresie własności oraz umów (wprowadzono do kodeksu cywilnego np. zasadę swobody umów, która jest jednym z fundamentów gospodarki wolnorynkowej – mówi o niej art. 3531 kodeksu cywilnego). +Fenomenalizm + +Fenomenalizm – pogląd filozoficzny głoszący iż bezpośrednio dostępne są ludziom tylko układy doznań zmysłowych i emocjonalnych (nazywane fenomenami) i nie istnieje możliwość bezpośredniego poznania bytów "samych w sobie". Pogląd ten pozostaje w opozycji do esencjalizmu. +Koncepcję fenomenalizmu wprowadzili do nowożytnej, europejskiej filozofii George Berkeley i David Hume jako rezultat doprowadzenia do ostatecznych konsekwencji koncepcji brytyjskich empiryków. Koncepcje fenomenalizmu rozwinął znacznie Immanuel Kant, który starał się przezwyciężyć niektóre jego paradoksy poprzez koncepcję umysłu praktycznego. Współczesnym rozwinięciem fenomenalizmu jest z jednej strony neokantyzm, a z drugiej fenomenologia. +Hermann Stieve + +Hermann Stieve (ur. 22 maja 1886 w Monachium, zm. 6 września 1952 w Berlinie) – niemiecki lekarz, zbrodniarz wojenny. +Studiował w Monachium i Innsbrucku. W 1912 zdobył tytuł doktora medycyny. Praktykował szpitalu Instytutu Patologii w Monachium i w drugiej Klinice Uniwersytetu w Monachium. Był dyrektorem Instytutu Anatomii na Uniwersytecie Fryderyka Wilhelma w Berlinie. W 1918 habilitował się w Monachium w zakresie anatomii. W tym samym roku otrzymał posadę prorektora na Uniwersytecie w Lipsku, gdzie jako "privatdozent" wykładał anatomię i antropologię. +Prowadził eksperymenty na kobietach-więźniarkach w więzieniu w Plötzensee i w obozie koncentracyjnym w Ravensbrück. Badał cykl menstruacyjny kobiet pod stresem, włącznie z obserwacją nieregularnego krwawienia, które pojawiało się u kobiet, które wiedziały, że idą na egzekucje. Kiedy kobieta w wieku rozrodczym miała być zabita przez Gestapo, Stieve był informowany o tym, następnie ustalano datę, a na końcu więźniarka była informowana o dacie egzekucji. W rezultacie dr Stieve badał wpływ psychicznego urazu na proces menstruacyjny ofiary. Po egzekucji Stieve usuwał narządy ofiary w obrębie miednicy, a następnie ich tkankę poddawał badaniom histologicznym. Stieve opublikował rezultaty tych badań. +Po wojnie Stieve prowadził wykłady dla studentów medycyny na temat swoich badań dotyczących przemieszczania się ludzkiej spermy; badania te Stieve prowadził na kobietach gwałconych przez członków Gestapo przed ich egzekucją. Stieve prezentował rezultaty tych badań przed zgorszonymi, ale milczącymi studentami medycyny w Berlinie Wschodnim. Podobno po wojnie z wyników badań Stievego korzystali lekarze radzieccy. +Pomiędzy 1946-1949 był dyrektorem Instytutu Anatomii Uniwersytetu Berlińskiego w Berlinie. Stieve był dziekanem Wydziału Medycyny na Uniwersytecie Humboldta przemianowanym po wojnie z Uniwersytetu Berlińskiego. Popiersie Stievego na jego cześć stało na Sali wykładowej oraz w Berlińskim Szpitalu Charité. +Hermann Stieve umiera 6 września 1952 roku na udar mózgu. Zostaje pośmiertnie honorowym członkiem Niemieckiego Towarzystwa Ginekologicznego (Niemiecka Akademia Nauk Przyrodniczych Leopoldina, wpis do rejestru nr 3466). +Liu Xiang (lekkoatleta) + +Liu Xiang (; ur. 13 lipca 1983 w Szanghaju) – lekkoatleta chiński, specjalizuje się w sprinterskich biegach przez płotki. +W 2002 Liu rozpoczął światową karierę od wygrania zawodów IAAF Grand Prix w Lozannie, ustanawiając rekord świata juniorów i rekord Azji na dystansie 110 m przez płotki (13,12 s). +Podczas igrzysk olimpijskich w Atenach (2004) zdobył złoty medal w biegu na 110 m przez płotki, wynikiem 12,91 s wyrównując rekord świata należący od 1993 do Walijczyka Colina Jacksona. 11 lipca 2006 podczas mityngu Super Grand Prix IAAF w Lozannie czasem 12,88 s ustanowił nowy rekord świata. +W 2007 roku powierdził, że wcześniejsze sukcesy nie były dziełem przypadku zdobywając na mistrzostwach świata w Osace złoty medal czasem 12,95 s. +Z powodu kontuzji ścięgna Achillesa nie był w stanie walczyć o obronę tytułu mistrza olimpijskiego na igrzyskach w Pekinie. +José Bezerra da Silva + +Bezerra da Silva właściwie José Bezerra da Silva ( 9 marca 1927, Recife - 17 stycznia 2005, Rio de Janeiro) brazylijski muzyk, przedstawiciel samby. +Życie. +Urodzony w Brazylii w Recife, stolicy w północno-wschodniego stanu Pernambuco, w wieku 15 lat wyjechał za pracą do Rio de Janeiro jako pasażer na gapę statku towarowego. Zamieszkał w dzielnicy slumsów - Morro do Cantagalo. Pracował jako robotnik fizyczny na budowach, a w wolnym czasie zajmował się muzyką w miejscowej szkole samby. +W latach 50. zaczął występować już zawodowo w programach radiowych i klubach nocnych, a jego zachrypły głos stawał się coraz szerzej znany. Jednak dopiero w 1969 r. wydał pierwszy singel sygnowany własnym nazwiskiem. W 1975 udało mu się wydać kompletną płytę "O Rei do Coco" "("Król Coco")" utrzymaną w tradycyjnych tanecznych rytmach północnej Brazylii. W sumie wydał 27 albumów. +Twórczość. +Był jednym z najbardziej rozpoznawanych, barwnych i kontrowersyjnych muzyków Brazylijskich. Wylansował image złego chłopca, brazylijskiego macho - gardzącego pracą "malandro". W swoich tekstach piosenek pełnych ironii i krytycyzmu, Bazerra da Silva opowiadał o narkotykowych bossach, o przestępcach rządzących chaotycznie rozrastającymi się slumsami. Poruszał problemy społeczne i polityczne, krytykował wszechobecną korupcję wśród klasy politycznej, brutalność i niesprawiedliwość władzy i policji. Stał się znaczącym głosem brazylijskiej biedoty. +Krytycy jego twórczości muzykę którą tworzył nazwali "sambandido" (sambą bandytów), będącą odpowiednikiem amerykańskiego gangsta rapu. +Logowanie + +Logowanie, meldowanie (ang. "logging in") to proces uwierzytelniania i autoryzacji użytkownika komputera, polegający na podaniu identyfikatora użytkownika i hasła uwierzytelniającego w celu uzyskania dostępu oraz ściśle określonych uprawnień do korzystania z określonego systemu informatycznego, systemu komputerowego, komputera czy sieci komputerowej. Procesem odwrotnym do logowania jest wylogowanie (odmeldowanie), czyli rezygnacja z uprzednio uzyskanego dostępu. +Suche dni + +Obchody te winny służyć odnowie duchowej wiernych, poprzez obchody liturgiczne, praktyki pokutne i akcje duszpasterskie. +Obchodzenie "suchych dni" nie jest obecnie wymagane prawem kanonicznym, ich termin i formę obchodzenia może określić lokalny ordynariusz. Do czasów Soboru Watykańskiego II obowiązywał w te dni post ścisły. +Minorka + +Minorka (hiszp., katal. "Menorca") – wyspa hiszpańska na Morzu Śródziemnym, druga co do wielkości w archipelagu Balearów. Długość około 50 km, szerokość około 16 km, powierzchnia 668 km². Zamieszkuje ją około 92 000 mieszkańców. Głównym miastem wyspy jest Mahón, (katal. "Maó"). +Historia. +Wyspa słynie ze wspaniałych, unikalnych w swej klasie megalitów takich jak navety - kamienne grobowce komorowe, czy taule - w jęz. katal. oznaczające stół. +W starożytności należała do Kartaginy, następnie do Rzymu. W V wieku zdobyta przez Wandalów, pod koniec VIII wieku przez Maurów i dołączona do Kalifatu Kordoby. +Od XIII wieku pod władaniem Aragonii, następnie część Hiszpanii. Zdobyta przez Brytyjczyków w 1708, w czasie wojny o sukcesję hiszpańską, była w ich rękach przez następne 70 lat. Zdobyta przez Francuzów w 1756 podczas wojny siedmioletniej, zwrócona w 1763 według postanowień pokoju paryskiego. W 1782 zdobyta przez Hiszpanię. Ponownie zdobyta przez Wielką Brytanię w roku 1798, ostatecznie przyznana Hiszpanii w 1803 przez pokój w Amiens. +Posiadanie + +Posiadanie – instytucja prawa rzeczowego oznaczająca stan faktyczny, polegający na władaniu określoną rzeczą przez posiadacza. Stan ten pozostaje pod ochroną prawa, jak również niesie za sobą szereg skutków o zróżnicowanym charakterze prawnym. Może się wiązać z przysługującym posiadaczowi tytułem prawnym do rzeczy. +Patrząc na posiadanie z pozaprawnego punktu widzenia, jest ono pojęciem oznaczającym faktyczną władzę osoby nad rzeczą w najbardziej "naturalnym" tego słowa znaczeniu. +Elementy stanu posiadania. +Brak drugiej z wymienionych przesłanek oznacza, iż mamy do czynienia z innym istotnym prawnie stanem faktycznym, a mianowicie dzierżeniem (władaniem rzeczą za kogoś innego). +Rys historyczny. +Jako pierwsze oddzieliło posiadanie od własności prawo rzymskie. W epoce feudalizmu zwane dzierżeniem (w terminologii staropolskiej), "gewere" (z niemieckiego; oznaczało faktyczne władanie rzeczą), "seisin" ("saisine"; termin pochodził od obejmowania spadku), "possessio" (od łacińskiego "sedere" – siedzieć). +Posiadanie samoistne i zależne. +Kodeks cywilny dzieli posiadanie na samoistne i zależne. "Posiadaczem samoistnym" jest ten, który włada rzeczą jak właściciel, ale niekoniecznie musi nim być, natomiast "posiadacz zależny" włada rzeczą tak jak wykonujący inne prawo niż własność np. prawo dzierżawy, użytkowania, najmu. Posiadacz samoistny nie traci posiadania przez to że oddaje rzecz innej osobie w posiadanie zależne. +Ochrona posiadania. +Roszczenia posesoryjne wygasają, jeśli nie będą dochodzone w ciągu roku od chwili naruszenia posiadania. +Robert I Burgundzki + +Robert I de Bourgogne, "Robert Mocny" (ur. 1011 - zm. 21 marca 1076 w Fleury-sur-Ouche) - książę Burgundii w latach 1034-1076, hrabia Auxerre (1040-1060). Syn Roberta II, króla Francji z dynastii Kapetyngów, i jego trzeciej żony - Konstancji z Arles. +Został pochowany w Sémur. +Konidium + +Konidium (l.mn. konidia), zarodniki konidialne – rodzaj zarodników grzybów, stanowiących organ rozmnażania bezpłciowego. Występują w dwóch typach, jako blastokonidia i tallokonidia. Wytwarzane są często przez workowce ("Ascomycota"), rzadziej podstawczaki ("Basidiomycota"). Powstają na szczycie strzępki przez pączkowanie holoblastyczne (odcinanie wszystkich ścian pączka) lub enteroblastyczne (kiedy zewnętrzna ściana nie ulega odcięciu). +Ninurta + +Ninurta - sumeryjski bóg burzy, wojny i rolnictwa. Główne ośrodki kultu w Nippur (świątynia E-szu-me-sza) oraz Kalchu. +Pierworodny syn Enlila i Ninmah. Jego żoną była Gula, albo ze względu na identyfikacje z bogiem Ningirsu, bogini Bau. +Ninurta miał wojownicze usposobienie, mity opowiadają o jego bohaterskich czynach w walce przeciwko wrogom Sumeru, w szczególności tak zwanym "krajom zbuntowanym" (regiony w górach na wschód od Mezopotamii). Ninutra w imieniu bogów walczył przeciwko ptakowi Anzu (sum. Imdugudowi), który wykradł Enlilowi tabliczkę przeznaczeń. +Z wojowniczym usposobieniem kontrastuje rola boga-rolnika. W sumeryjskich "Georgikach" udziela rad jak uprawiać zboże i przygotowywać pola. +Symbolem Ninurty jest pług i ptak siedzący na grzędzie (okres nowoasyryjski). +Aspekt wojownika i rolnika połączone są w sumeryjskim poemacie "Lugale", w który Ninurta pokonuje demona Asaga i armię jego kamiennych sprzymierzeńców, a po tym zaczyna urządzać świat. Z kamieni buduje góry, dzięki którym woda ze strumieni i jezior spływa do Tygrysu i Eufratu, a rzeki te stają się przydatne przy nawadnianiu i uprawie roli. +Saab JA-37 Viggen + +Saab JA 37 Viggen (pol. kaczka czernica) – szwedzki samolot myśliwsko-szturmowy zaprojektowany w 1964 roku przez wytwórnię lotniczą SAAB i produkowany w latach 1970–1990 jako następca myśliwca J 35 Draken. +Historia. +Pierwsze próby skonstruowania samolotu mającego zastąpić Drakena podjęto w latach 1952 - 1957 pod kierunkiem słynnego projektanta fińskiego Aarne Lakomaa. Prace nad budową prototypu rozpoczęto w 1964 roku, a oblatano go 8 lutego trzy lata później. Celem projektu było zbudowanie jednosilnikowego samolotu z bardzo mocną jednostką napędową, posiadającego zdolności krótkiego startu i lądowania (STOL), który mógłby startować i lądować na zaimprowizowanych lotniskach polowych w postaci dróg lub autostrad w przypadku zniszczenia bronią jądrową głównych lotnisk. Inne wymagania poza zdolnością do lotów z prędkościami naddźwiękowymi na niskim pułapie i dwukrotną prędkością dźwięku na dużej wysokości to umiejętność krótkiego lądowania przy niskich kątach natarcia, w celu uniknięcia uszkodzeń podczas użytkowania polowych pasów startowych. +Opis konstrukcji. +Aby spełnić wszystkie te wymagania wytwórnia Saab postanowiła zbudować samolot w konfiguracji kaczki ze skrzydłami typu delta i dużymi przednimi powierzchniami sterowymi umocowanymi nieco wyżej i nadającymi maszynie charakterystyczną sylwetkę. Od tej pory konfiguracja płatowca w układzie kaczki stała się dość popularna wśród konstruktorów samolotów myśliwskich i stosowana także w nowocześniejszych maszynach takich jak Eurofighter Typhoon i IAI Kfir. Ze względu na duże dziobowe powierzchnie sterowe Viggena, które również generowały siłę nośną można porównać tę maszynę do nowoczesnego dwupłata. Przednie skrzydła kierowały powietrze ponad tylnymi płatami dzięki czemu zmniejszyła się prędkość przeciągnięcia co korzystnie wpłynęło na skrócenie drogi lądowania. +W celu zapewnienia odpowiedniej wytrzymałości maszyny do lądowania na lotniskach polowych, do budowy kadłuba użyto wielu elementów tytanowych (np. przegrody ogniowe silnika), a podwozie maszyny skonstruowano w nietypowym dwukołowym układzie tandem (dwa koła jedno za drugim). Taka konstrukcja podwozia jest typowa dla samolotów pasażerskich i transportowych, ale w myśliwcach raczej rzadko spotykana. Viggen od początku był projektowany jako maszyna łatwa do naprawy i obsługi także przez niewykwalifikowany personel naziemny. W kadłubie znajdowało się ponad 100 punktów umożliwiających dostęp do systemów maszyny bez użycia drabin czy podestów, a zdejmowana osłona dzioba pozwalała na łatwe przeglądy radaru, tak samo jak łatwa do zdjęcia tylna część kadłuba ułatwiająca dostęp do silnika. Wszystkie systemy pokładowe miały budowę modułową pozwalającą na łatwą ich wymianę, oraz wbudowane procedury samotestujące dla szybkiego diagnozowania uszkodzeń. +Kadłub maszyny był dość smukły z dwoma okrągłymi wlotami powietrza do silnika umieszczonymi po bokach kadłuba. Zastosowanie stopów aluminium jako materiału konstrukcyjnego, oraz tytanu spowodowało, że masa własna maszyny była relatywnie mała w porównaniu do jej rozmiarów. Na końcu kadłuba zainstalowano pojedynczy statecznik pionowy, który można było składać w lewą stronę w celu zmniejszenia wysokości maszyny i ułatwienia hangarowania w warunkach polowych. +Napęd maszyny stanowił silnik turbowentylatorowy Volvo RM8A będący licencyjną wersją silnika Pratt & Whitney JT8D-22, taki sam jaki użyto do napędu samolotu pasażerskiego Boeing 727. Silnik wyposażono w szwedzki dopalacz pozwalający uzyskać 115,7 kN ciągu, oraz odwracacz ciągu skracający drogę lądowania maszyny. Odwracacz ciągu miał postać trzech klap uruchamianych po dotknięciu przednim kołem podwozia powierzchni pasa startowego, które po otwarciu kierowały gazy wylotowe przez trzy prostokątne otwory w ogonowej części kadłuba. +Viggen był wyposażony w automatycznie wysuwaną wraz z podwoziem turbinę wiatrową, która generowała energię konieczną do zasilenia układów hydraulicznych w przypadku awarii zasilania głównego. Maszyna posiadała sześć zbiorników paliwa, po jednym w skrzydłach, jeden za kabiną i trzy zlokalizowane wokół silnika, jeden nad nim i dwa po bokach. Nie przewidywano możliwości tankowania w powietrzu, dlatego samolot nie posiadał przeznaczonej do tego sondy. +W kabinie Viggena zainstalowano wyprodukowany w Szwecji fotel wyrzucany wspomagany silnikiem rakietowym, oznaczony symbolem SAAB Mark 2 klasy zero-zero, czyli umożliwiającym ewakuację przy zerowej prędkości i zerowej wysokości. Później dodano urządzenie odbezpieczające fotel po przekroczeniu prędkości 75 km/h, ze względu na wypadek przypadkowego uruchomienia katapulty w stojącym samolocie co skutkowało śmiercią pilota. Szwedzki SAAB Mark 2 powstał ze względu na politykę Szwecji polegającą na opracowywaniu własnych rozwiązań bez względu na koszty, chociaż stosowany w większości ówczesnych maszyn odrzutowych fotel firmy Martin-Baker był równie dobry lub lepszy, oraz tańszy. +JA-37 Viggen został opracowany przy dużym wkładzie technologii i doświadczeń amerykańskich w ramach umowy o współpracy i wymianie technologii wojskowych zawartej między oboma rządami. Umowa ta była częścią gwarancji bezpieczeństwa udzielonych oficjalnie neutralnej Szwecji przez rząd Stanów Zjednoczonych. W zamian rząd amerykański żądał ochrony rozmieszczonych wzdłuż zachodnich wybrzeży Szwecji okrętów podwodnych wyposażonych w pociski UGM-27 Polaris z głowicami jądrowymi. W konsekwencji Viggen został opracowany szybciej i mniejszym kosztem niż gdyby był konstruowany wyłącznie przez Szwecję. +Wersje samolotu Viggen. +AJ 37. +Zbudowano 109 maszyn w wersji AJ 37, które weszły na wyposażenie sześciu eskadr Szwedzkich Sił Zbrojnych "Flygvapnet". +SF 37. +Samolot w wersji rozpoznawczej oblatany 21 maja 1973 roku. Oznaczenie SF od "Spanings Foto" - "samolot rozpoznania fotograficznego". Dostawy do jednostek rozpoczęły się w 1977 i do początku 1980 dostarczono 28 maszyn tego typu. SF-37 Viggen zastąpił w roli rozpoznawczej samolot S 35E Draken. +SF-37 był zmodyfikowaną wersją samolotu szturmowo-myśliwskiego AJ 37, ale wyposażoną w nową część dziobową zawierającą 7 kamer fotografujących pod różnymi kątami, skaner podczerwieni i urządzenia zapisujące. Kamery mogły być konfigurowane do wykonywania misji rozpoznawczych z dużego lub niskiego pułapu. Pilot posiadał w kabinie peryskop ułatwiający wykonywanie fotografii pionowych obiektów znajdujących się dokładnie pod samolotem. Zasobniki ze sprzętem rozpoznawczym podwieszone na uchwytach pod wlotami powietrza zawierały system czujników podczerwieni dla nocnych misji rozpoznawczych "Red Baron" ze specjalną lampą błyskową, lub kamerę dalekiego zasięgu z teleobiektywem (LOROP). SF 37 nie posiadał radaru, ale wyposażono go w odbiornik ostrzegający o opromieniowaniu wiązką radiolokacyjną RWR, środki przeciwdziałania namierzeniu przez obronę przeciwlotniczą, oraz dwa pociski rakietowe Sidewinder do samoobrony. +SH 37. +Samolot w wersji rozpoznania morskiego. SH od "Spanings Havsoevervakning" - "obserwacja i rozpoznanie wybrzeża". Maszyna testowa tej wersji powstała po przebudowaniu trzeciego prototypu AJ 37 i oblatana 10 grudnia 1973. Zewnętrznie maszyna była bardzo trudna do odróżnienia od odmiany myśliwsko-szturmowej. Największym modyfikacjom poddano awionikę dodając nowocześniejszy radar Ericsson PS-371/A o większym zasięgu, zoptymalizowany do pełnienia misji rozpoznania morskiego. Odczyty z ekranu radarowego były zapisywane na taśmie wideo przy pomocy kamery zainstalowanej w kabinie w celu późniejszej analizy. Druga kamera rejestrowała położenie celu w stosunku do samolotu, a pilot nagrywał swoje komentarze na magnetofon. SH 37 mógł przenosić zasobniki "Red Baron" i LOROP. Początkowo planowano budowę jednego samolotu rozpoznawczego, który miałby wypełniać zadania zarówno maszyn SF-37 jak i SH-37, ale ze względu na brak możliwości zainstalowania w części dziobowej jednocześnie radaru i zestawu kamer zrezygnowano z tego rozwiązania. SH 37 mógł przenosić odbiornik RWR i pociski Sidewinder do samoobrony, albo taki sam zestaw uzbrojenia ofensywnego jak AJ 37. Zbudowano 27 maszyn wersji SH 37 w latach 1977-1979. Szwedzkie eskadry rozpoznawcze posiadały oba typy maszyn. +SK 37. +Początkowo nie przewidywano budowy dwumiejscowej wersji Viggena, ale Szwedzkie Siły Powietrzne zdecydowały o powstaniu takiej odmiany. Nowy samolot oznaczony jako SK 37 ("SK" od "Skol" - "szkolny") został oblatany 2 lipca 1970 roku, a pierwszy z 17 egzemplarzy seryjnych dostarczono w czerwcu 1972. +SK 37 został zbudowany na bazie myśliwsko-szturmowego AJ 37 poprzez dodanie za kabiną pilota drugiej niezależnej kabiny dla instruktora. Miejsce na drugi kokpit wygospodarowano poprzez zmniejszenie znajdującego się tam zbiornika paliwa, w zamian dodając dodatkowy zbiornik pod ogonem maszyny. Dla poprawienia widoczności do przodu z kabiny instruktora zainstalowano dwa peryskopy. Statecznik pionowy wydłużono o 10 cm zaginając jego szczyt ku tyłowi. +SK 37 nie posiadał radaru przez co jego zdolności bojowe były znacznie ograniczone. Zrezygnowano również z odbiornika RWR chociaż jego osłona pozostała na miejscu. +JA 37. +Myśliwiec przechwytujący JA 37 ("J" od "Jakt" - "myśliwiec") został oblatany 27 września 1974 roku, a pierwsza maszyna produkcyjna 4 listopada 1977. Myśliwce JA 37 zaczęły trafiać do jednostek w 1980 roku, a do czerwca 1990 wyprodukowano 149 maszyn tego typu. +Główną widoczną różnicą w porównaniu z AJ 37 był wydłużony o 10 cm statecznik pionowy tak jak w wersji Sk 37. Kadłub maszyny został wydłużony o 10 cm w tylnej części w celu zmieszczenia nowego mocniejszego silnika Volvo RM8B o ciągu z dopalaniem wynoszącym 125 kN. Zwiększona moc była bardzo pożądana dla maszyny pełniącej rolę obrony powietrznej, dlatego jednostka napędowa charakteryzowała się zwiększoną tolerancją na długotrwałe przeciążenia podczas lotu na wysokim pułapie i z dużymi prędkościami. +Struktura płatowca została wzmocniona, a w kabinie zainstalowano nowy fotel wyrzucany SAAB Mark 3 klasy zero-zero, w który wyposażono później wszystkie typy Viggenów. JA 37 był cięższy od AJ 37 o około 400 kg. +JA 37 posiadał również jako jedyny Viggen wbudowane uzbrojenie strzeleckie w postaci szwajcarskiego działka automatycznego Oerlikon KCA kalibru 30 mm z zapasem 150 sztuk amunicji. Pod skrzydłami i kadłubem znajdowało się tak samo jak w wersji AJ 37 siedem węzłów uzbrojenia podwieszanego, na których można było umieścić pociski Sidewinder i naprowadzane półaktywnie radiolokacyjnie Rb-71 Skyflash, będące licencyjną wersją brytyjskich pocisków Skyflash, które z kolei były ulepszoną wersją amerykańskich AIM-7 Sparrow. +Wyposażenie awioniczne stanowił między innymi nowy posiadający wiele trybów pracy radar Ericsson PS-46/A o zasięgu 48 km, zdolny do namierzenia celu również na tle ziemi. +W 1975 Szwecja zaproponowała eksportową wersję Viggena oznaczoną jako Saab 37E Eurofighter jako następcę amerykańskich F-104 Starfighter dla europejskich krajów NATO, ale ostatecznie maszyna ta przegrała rywalizację z F-16 Fighting Falcon. Zbieżność nazwy "Eurofighter" z późniejszym europejskim programem Eurofighter Typhoon jest przypadkowa. Wytwórnia SAAB rozważała jeszcze inne możliwości sprzedaży Viggenów za granicę ale ostatecznie żadna transakcja nie doszła do skutku. +Modyfikacje Viggenów. +W okresie użytkowanie samolotów Viggen wielokrotnie je modyfikowano poprzez unowocześnienie awioniki, oprogramowania i dostosowania do przenoszenia nowego uzbrojenia. Jedną z ważniejszych modyfikacji było przeprowadzone pod koniec lat 80. dostosowanie maszyn AJ 37 do przenoszenia pocisków Rb-75 będących licencyjną wersją amerykańskich AGM-65A Maverick, oraz nowocześniejszych wersji AIM-9L Sidewinder (szwedzkie oznaczenie "Rb-74"). +W 1992 rząd szwedzki podjął decyzję o rozpoczęciu programu unowocześnienia 115 maszyn wersji AJ 37, SF 37 i SH 37 do standardu samolotu wielozadaniowego AJS 37 (od "Attack/Jakt/Spaning" - "szturmowy/myśliwski/rozpoznawczy". Ze względu na rozwijany równolegle program budowy samolotu Gripen, dostosowanie Viggenów do standardu AJS było wielokrotnie opóźniane. Również zakończenie zimnej wojny przyczyniło się do dalszych opóźnień, ale konieczność unowocześnienia Viggenów, które miały pełnić służbę do zastąpienia ich przez nowe samoloty Gripen doprowadziła ostatecznie do realizacji programu AJS 37. +Modernizacja polegała na zaimplementowaniu w starych maszynach nowocześniejszych systemów z Gripena, które jednocześnie umożliwiały użytkowanie nowoczesnego uzbrojenia i pozwoliły pilotom oswoić się z nowymi urządzeniami, w które miały być wyposażone Gripeny. Ostatecznie ze 115 zapowiadanych modyfikacji zrealizowano tylko 98. Pozostałe, takie jak szklany kokpit, okazały się zbyt trudne do zrealizowania, ze względu na przestarzałą konstrukcję maszyn. Poza tym nie udało się zmodyfikować maszyn wszystkich trzech typów do jednego standardu, a główne usprawnienia polegały na dodaniu możliwości przenoszenia nowszego uzbrojenia. +Na początku lat 90. przeprowadzono modernizację samolotów JA 37 do wersji JA 37D zdolną między innymi do używania pocisków AIM-120B AMRAAM. Poza tym zmodernizowano systemy elektroniczne, radar i komputery pokładowe. +Po wycofaniu maszyn J 32E Lansen w 1997 przebudowano 14 Viggenów wersji Sk 37 na samoloty walki elektronicznej Sk 37E Stoer Viggen (nazywanej "Erik"). Modernizacja polegała na dodaniu dodatkowej aparatury zakłócającej i wyposażanie tylnego kokpitu operatora systemów w odpowiednie urządzenia elektroniczne. W drugiej kabinie znajdowały się także niezależne systemy komunikacji radiowej i panel kontrolny urządzeń zakłócających. Maszyny te służyły jako "elektroniczny agresor" do ćwiczeń szwedzkiej obrony powietrznej. +Ostatni lot bojowy należącego do Flygvapnet Viggena miał miejsce 25 listopada 2005 roku. Dwie maszyny nadal są utrzymywane w stanie zdolnym do lotu, głównie dla celów pokazowych na Air Show. +Władysław Szkop + +Władysław Eugeniusz Szkop (ur. 12 września 1944 w Równem) – polski polityk, lekarz, poseł poseł na Sejm II, III, IV i VI kadencji. +Życiorys. +Ukończył w 1968 studia na Wydziale Lekarskim Akademii Medycznej w Gdańsku. Pracował na tej uczelni do 1973. Później był m.in. ordynatorem w Wojewódzkim Szpitalu Zespolonym, a w latach 1985–2000 dyrektorem Obwodu Lecznictwa Kolejowego w Słupsku. Należy do Polskiego Związku Łowieckiego. Od 1965 do rozwiązania należał do Polskiej Zjednoczonej Partii Robotniczej. +W 1993 i 1997 z listy Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej był wybierany na posła z województwa słupskiego. Należał do Socjaldemokracji RP, a następnie do SLD. W 2001 po raz trzeci uzyskał mandat poselski z ramienia koalicji SLD-UP w okręgu gdyńsko-słupskim. W kwietniu 2004 przeszedł do Socjaldemokracji Polskiej i jej klubu parlamentarnego. W Sejmie IV kadencji był wiceprzewodniczącym Komisji Zdrowia. W 2005 i 2007 bez powodzenia kandydował do Sejmu. W 2008 odszedł z SDPL. 24 czerwca 2009 objął mandat poselski w miejsce Joanny Senyszyn, która została wybrana do Parlamentu Europejskiego. Został posłem niezrzeszonym. 30 marca 2011 wstąpił do klubu poselskiego SLD, jednak nie został wpisany na listę wyborczą Sojuszu i pod koniec sierpnia tego samego roku wystąpił z klubu i do końca kadencji pozostał posłem niezrzeszonym. +Życie prywatne. +Żonaty, ma 3 dzieci. +Jęzor + +Jęzor − południowa, nieduża dzielnica Sosnowca, czasem błędnie traktowana jako część Niwki. +Graniczy od wschodu i południa z Jaworznem, a od zachodu i północy z Niwką i fragmentarycznie z Mysłowicami, którą to granicę wyznaczają przepływające tutaj rzeki: Biała Przemsza, do której na styku dzielnic uchodzi Bobrek, łącząca się następnie w Trójkącie Trzech Cesarzy z Czarną Przemszą, tworząc w ten sposób Przemszę. +Poprzecinana siecią dróg i torowisk: posiadającymi tutaj węzeł drogą ekspresową S1 i drogą krajową nr 79 oraz m.in. linią kolejową Katowice – Kraków. Znajdująca się na niej stacja nie jest obecnie czynna dla ruchu pasażerskiego, jednak pełni ważną rolę, łącząc sieć kolejową PKP PLK z siecią prywatnych linii kolejowych kolei piaskowych. +Historia. +W przeszłości ta dzielnica w całości należała do miasta Jaworzna. Dopiero w 1953 roku Jęzor został przyłączony do Sosnowca. Przed zaborami własność biskupów krakowskich, w czasie zaborów w zaborze austriackim, a w czasie Wolnego Miasta Krakowa jego część. +Chocim + +Chocim (ukr. Хотин, Chotyn, rum. "Hotin") – miasto w południowo-zachodniej części Ukrainy (Besarabia), w obwodzie czerniowieckim, nad Dniestrem. Ma 11,2 tys. mieszkańców (2001). +Historia. +Od X do XIII w. należał do księstw ruskich, od XIV w. w różnych okresach do Mołdawii, Turcji i Polski. W XVII–XVIII w. turecka twierdza graniczna. Miejsce dwóch wielkich bitew wojsk Rzeczypospolitej z Turkami (w 1621 i 1673). W 1812 włączony do Rosji, od 1918 – Rumunii. W latach 1940–1991 wraz z Bukowiną w granicach Ukraińskiej SSR (z wyjątkiem lat 1941–1944, kiedy był ponownie włączony do Rumunii), od 1991 należy do Ukrainy. +Dolina Niewcyrka + +Dolina Niewcyrka (słow. "Nefcerská dolina", "Nefcerka", niem. "Neftzertal", węg. "Nefcer-völgy") – dolina położona w Tatrach Wysokich na Słowacji, jedno z większych (ok. 3 km długości) odgałęzień Doliny Koprowej ("Kôprová dolina"), uchodzące do jej środkowej części od południowego wschodu. +Opis doliny. +Niewcyrkę od Doliny Koprowej oddziela wysoki (ok. 250 m) próg, na którym wody Niewcyrskiego Potoku ("Nefcerský potok") tworzą wodospady zwane Niewcyrskimi Siklawami: Niżnią Niewcyrską Siklawę ("Nižný nefcerský vodopád"), Pośrednią Niewcyrską Siklawę ("Kmeťov vodopád") oraz Wyżnią Niewcyrską Siklawę ("Vyšný Nefcerský vodopád"). Pośrednia Siklawa o wysokości ok. 20 m jest jednym z wyższych wodospadów w Tatrach (według niektórych dawniejszych źródeł jej wysokość błędnie szacowano nawet na 80 m). +W górnej części doliny znajdują się Teriańskie Stawy, w tym dość duży i o regularnym kształcie Niżni Teriański Staw ("Nižné Terianske pleso" (ok. 1940 m n.p.m., o powierzchni 4,9 ha i ok. 43,0 m głębokości). Wyżej znajdują się dwa znacznie mniejsze stawy: Wyżni Teriański Staw ("Vyšné Terianske pleso", ok. 2124 m) oraz Mały Teriański Stawek ("Malé Terianske pleso", ok. 2115 m). +Nazwa doliny prawdopodobnie pochodzi od nazwiska "Neftzer". +Niewcyrka leży w ścisłym rezerwacie i nie jest udostępniona turystycznie (nie prowadzi przez nią żaden szlak turystyczny). +Pierwszym turystą w dolinie, którego nazwisko się zachowało, był Eugeniusz Janota z towarzyszami i przewodnikiem Maciejem Sieczką 9 września 1867 r. W zimie pierwsi byli tu Józef Lesiecki i Józef Oppenheim 14 kwietnia 1914 r. +Jacek Pałucha + +Jacek Pałucha (ur. w 1966 w Częstochowie) – polski malarz, wokalista i autor tekstów. +Absolwent IV Liceum Ogólnokształcącego im. Sienkiewicza +w Częstochowie i Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w Warszawie (1993, wydział malarstwa w pracowni prof. Wiesława Szamborskiego). +Założyciel i lider zespołu rockowego Formacja Nieżywych Schabuff. W latach 1982–1989 był wokalistą, liderem i autorem tekstów tego zespołu. Następnie był wokalistą i liderem zespołów Furmanka, Superpałka i najeźdźcy z kosmosu oraz Superpałka 2. Zagrał główną rolę w filmie "Balanga" (1993) w reż. Łukasza Wylężałka. +Obecnie jego satyryczne rysunki publikowane są w piątkowym częstochowskim dodatku "Gazety Wyborczej". Jego wystawy można było oglądać w Niemczech, USA (Chicago), Francji oraz w Polsce. Jest także autorem okładki płyty "Spokojnie" zespołu Kult. +Nóż + +Nóż +I. Narzędzie do krajania, cięcia itp., składające się przeważnie z metalowego ostrza osadzonego na trzonku drewnianym, metalowym lub z tworzywa sztucznego; używany też jako broń. +III. Broń +Budowa noża. +Polska terminologia odnosząca się do poszczególnych rodzajów i części broni jest wyjątkowo bogata. Jej rodowód sięga wielu wieków. Rękojeść, a z nią cała broń biała, ma dwie strony: zewnętrzną i wewnętrzną. Pierwsza z nich to ta, która zwrócona jest na zewnątrz, gdy broń włożona jest do pochwy. Wewnętrzną jest strona znajdująca się przy ciele właściciela. +Każdy nóż składa się z dwóch najważniejszych części: rękojeści i głowni ("schemat 1. oraz schemat 2."). Głownia może być prosta lub zakrzywiona. Ma ona zawsze dwa płazy ("11, schemat 2."), czyli płaskie strony boczne. Może być jednosieczna lub obosieczna. Głownia jednosieczna ma tylko jedno ostrze ("5, schemat 2."), gdyż drugie zastąpione zostało grzbietem ("7, schemat 2."). Miejsce łączenia głowni z rękojeścią to nasada. Niektóre głownie mają nasadę zgrubiałą i obustronnie zatępioną - w takim wypadku nazywamy ją progiem ("9, schemat 1."). Końcową część głowni (jej „czubek”) nazywamy sztychem ("15, schemat 2."). Odcinek znajdujący się przed sztychem nazywany piórem ("6, schemat 2."). Sztych, nawet u głowni jednosiecznych, bywa niekiedy obosieczny. Przeważnie spotykamy głownie z wyszlifowanymi na ich płazach podłużnymi rowkami różnej szerokości. Rowek taki to zbroczę, bruzda lub strudzina ("8, schemat 2."). Tę ostatnią nazwę zwykło się stosować raczej do rowków węższych. Bardzo wąziutkie strudziny, wyżłobione rylcem w powierzchni głowni nazywa się bruzdkami. +[[Plik:Pochwa schemat copy.png|thumb|100px|left| +"Schemat 3." +1 - wlot +2 - kołnierz wlotu pochwy +3 - nit mocujący ławik +4 - okucie pochwy (okucie górne) +5 - hak zaczepu żabki +6 - płaszcz pochwy +7 - spinacz łączący okucie z płaszczem pochwy +8 - okucie dolne, trzewik pochwy +9 - gałka ochronna +W "rękojeści" wyróżniamy trzy zasadnicze elementy: trzon, nazywany też trzpieniem ("3, schemat 2.") (który może był obłożony okładzinami ("6, schemat 1.")), jelec ("7, schemat 1.") i głowicę ("schemat 1."). Trzon to część najważniejsza, ta, którą ujmuje się dłonią oraz na której mocowane są okładziny (które jednak nie znajdują się w każdym nożu). Składa się z trzpienia ("3, schemat 1.") (należącego jednocześnie do głowni) i okrywających go okładzin (jednej lub wielu, zazwyczaj dwóch). Głowica ("2, schemat 1.") to charakterystyczne, guzowate zgrubienie, stanowiące zwieńczenie rękojeści od góry. Na głowicy, znajduje się niekiedy metalowy nit mocowany do trzonu ("1, schemat 1."), stanowiący zakończenie noża (który ponadto pełni rolę ochronną rękojeści). W niektórych przypadkach głowice rękojeści są okute, a w przypadku kiedy okucie wykonane jest z mocnego tworzywa może służyć ono jako młotek. Jelec ("7, schemat 1.") ogranicza rękojeść od dołu, stwarzając zarazem ochronę dla dłoni. Należy jednak pamiętać, że niektóre rodzaje rękojeści nie posiadają jelca. Ponadto niekiedy zdarza się, że pomiędzy głownią z rękojeścią umieszczany jest dodatkowy, oddzielający je od siebie element - owalną lub okrągłą tarczkę ("8, schemat 1."). +Kształt pochwy w przybliżeniu odpowiada kształtowi głowni. W przypadku głowni skórzanych, wykonanie ich polegało na zszyciu dwóch kawałków skóry ze pomocą mocnych nici lub zespoleniu ich przy pomocy nitów. Oprócz elementu mocującą je do pasa rzadko posiadały dodatkowe elementy. Jeżeli już decydowano się na dodatki, mogły być to na przykład metalowe listy usztywniające pochwę (umożliwiając przez to sprawniejsze wyciąganie i wkładania noża do pochwy) lub małych rozmiarów kieszonki (naszywane na płaszcz pochwy) do przechowywania drobiazgów, np. kamienia do ostrzenia noża. Pochwy wykonane z różnego rodzaju tworzy sztucznych lub metali zazwyczaj posiadały (choć nie zawsze) kilka okuć. Dolne okucie, ochraniające i wzmacniające koniec pochwy nazywamy okuciem dolnym lub trzewikiem ("8, schemat 3."). Dodatkowym elementem chroniącym pochwę od strony spodniej jest gałka ochronna ("9, schemat 3."), które jednak nie zawsze jest stosowana. Okucie górnego końca pochwy, czyli jej wlotu ("1, schemat 3.") nazywane jest okuciem górnym ("4, schemat 3."). Oba okucia są przymocowanie do płaszcza pochwy przy pomocy spinaczy ("7, schemat 3.") lub na przykład nitów. Wlot pochwy dodatkowo posiada kołnierz ("2, schemat 3."), którego zadaniem jest spasowanie głowni do brzegów pochwy. Jeżeli dana pochwa przeznaczona jest do noszenia przy pasie, a przy tym nie posiada szlufek, na okucie górnym umieszcza się hak zaczepu żabki ("5, schemat 3."). W niektórych modelach pochew dodatkowo umieszczano był dławik, czyli dwie sprężyste, odpowiednio przetłoczone taśmy stalowe, które przez nacisk i tarcie o płazy głowni nie pozwalają jej na przypadkowe wypadnięcie z pochwy. Pochwa bywa (łącznie z rękojeścią) nazywana oprawą broni. Niekiedy do pochew skórzanych i wykonanych z tworzyw sztucznych dodawane były rzemyki, które umieszczano u spodu pochwy (w okolicach okucia dolnego), a które można była przywiązać do uda lub łydki, co ułatwiało dostęp do noża a ponadto polepszało szybkość i sprawność wyciągania i wkładania noża do pochwy. +Podział noży ze względu na parametry techniczne. +[[Plik:Knife styles july 2012.svg|thumb|100px| +(1) "Normal" +(2) "Trialing point" +(3) "Clip point " +(4) "Drop point" +(5) "Spear point" +(7) "Spey point" +(8b) "Americanised tanto" +(9) "Sheepsfoot" +(10) "Wharncliffe" +(11, 12) "Ulu"]] +Joanis Metaksas + +Joanis Metaksas (gr. "Ιωάννης Μεταξάς"; ur. 12 kwietnia 1871 na wyspie Itaka, zm. 29 stycznia 1941 w Atenach) – grecki polityk prawicowy i generał, premier rządu Grecji i faktyczny dyktator w latach 1936-1941. +Życiorys. +Czasy przed I wojną światową. +W 1897 brał udział w kampanii tesalskiej, walcząc przeciwko tureckiej agresji. W późniejszych latach jako członek a potem szef Sztabu Generalnego zreorganizował armię grecką, przyczyniając się walnie do jej zwycięstw w wojnach bałkańskich (1912-1913). +Lata międzywojenne. +W okresie schizmy narodowej Metaksas był zwolennikiem króla Konstantyna I i jego proniemieckiej polityki. Sprzeciwiał się zaangażowaniu Grecji w I wojnie światowej po stronie aliantów, gdyż był zdania, że osłabiłoby to kraj w ewentualnej konfrontacji z Bułgarią. +Po dymisji króla i objęciu władzy przez siły skupione przy premierze Venizelosie Metaksas został odsunięty od władzy i wpływów. W 1922 na tron wstąpił Jerzy II, syn Konstantyna I. Metaksas rozpoczął swą działalność polityczną, zakładając rojalistyczną Partię Wolnej Opinii, która wystąpiła z Partii Ludowej. W 1924 Grecja została republiką, jednakże Metaksas nie zawiesił działalności swej partii. Kryzys ekonomiczny i polityczny, jaki ogarnął Grecję w latach 30., spowodował wzrost niezadowolenia społecznego. W 1935 premier Panagis Tsaldaris z Partii Ludowej został zmuszony do ustąpienia przez sprzyjających monarchii wyższych oficerów. Premierem został na krótko Jeorios Kondilis, który przeprowadził w listopadzie 1935 plebiscyt w sprawie przyszłego ustroju Grecji. Sfałszowane wyniki głosowania wykazały 75% poparcia dla powrotu króla Jerzego II. Pierwsze po powrocie wybory parlamentarne nie były w stanie wyłonić jednego zwycięzcy - mandaty poselskie uzyskało 143 posłów rojalistów i 141 liberałów. Nastąpił wzrost aktywności Komunistycznej Partii Grecji, która wprowadziła do parlamentu 15 posłów. Liberałowie podjęli z nimi rozmowy w sprawie możliwego sformowania rządu. Zbulwersowany tym Jerzy II w kwietniu 1936, z pominięciem procedur parlamentarnych, powołał rząd Ocalenia Narodowego z Joanisem Metaksasem na czele. +W maju 1936 w Salonikach doszło do strajku generalnego, zorganizowanego przez komunistów. Doszło do starć z policją i wojskiem, w toku których zginęło 12 protestujących, zaś ok. 100 odniosło rany. Część oddziałów armii zaczęła przechodzić na stronę strajkujących. W tej sytuacji w sierpniu tego samego roku, za zgodą króla, Metaksas rozwiązał parlament i objął rządy dyktatorskie, nazwane reżimem 4 sierpnia (Jerzy II usunął się z działalności politycznej, pozostawiając mu swobodę działania). Zawieszeniu uległa większość praw obywatelskich zawartych w konstytucji Grecji, zabroniono działalności partii politycznych. +Dyktatura Metaksasa. +Jako oficjalną przyczynę wprowadzenia stanu wyjątkowego podano zagrożenie komunizmem i wynikającą z niego groźbę całkowitej destabilizacji Grecji. Z czasem Metaksas zaczął podawać jeszcze inne uzasadnienie swojego zamachu stanu. Twierdził, że winnymi chaosu w kraju byli przywódcy największych partii, którzy nie potrafili działać dla dobra całego narodu, dbając wyłącznie o interesy własne. Nowy rząd miał wykazać zupełnie odmienną postawę, doprowadzając do fundamentalnych przemian w greckiej gospodarce, siłach zbrojnych i ustawodawstwie socjalnym. +Metaksas oparł swoje rządy na zawieszeniu swobód demokratycznych, wprowadzeniu cenzury (która objęła także historyczne teksty literackie, m.in. Tukidydesa) i podjęciu represji przeciwko opozycji, zwłaszcza Komunistycznej Partii Grecji. Osoby podejrzewane o lewicowe poglądy mogły być bez problemu zwalniane z pracy, zaś ponad 400 opozycjonistów trafiło do specjalnie utworzonych obozów na greckich wyspach. Pod wpływem faszyzmu włoskiego, którego admiratorem był Metaksas, rozbudowana została warstwa propagandowa systemu: w 1936 powstała Narodowa Organizacja Młodzieżowa naśladująca włoskie faszystowskie organizacje młodzieżowe, dyktator przyjął tytuły Pierwszego Robotnika i Pierwszego Chłopa. Z programów nauczania w szkołach usunięto treści uznane za "propagandę rewolucyjną". Grecja została zewnętrznie upodobniona do państw faszystowskich, w tym poprzez wprowadzenie faszystowskiej symboliki. Metaksas pragnął zbudować "trzecią cywilizację grecką", łączącą najlepsze elementy dziedzictwa Grecji starożytnej i Bizancjum. +Jeszcze w 1935 przeprowadzona została reforma armii połączona z budową systemu fortyfikacji wzdłuż północnej granicy kraju (Linia Metaksasa). W ten sposób Metaksas zamierzał przygotować się do ewentualnych wojen z Włochami i Bułgarią. Reżim 4 sierpnia nie zawierał elementów rasizmu i antysemityzmu. Represjom poddano jednak słowiańskojęzyczną mniejszość w greckiej Macedonii i Albańczyków. +W pierwszych dwóch latach dyktatury Metaksas przeprowadził reformy społeczne, wprowadzając minimum socjalne, oddłużając chłopów, uruchamiając programy robót publicznych. Równocześnie zlikwidowano związki zawodowe, narzucając robotnikom w sytuacjach spornych arbitraż, co oznaczało przekazanie pełnej kontroli w ręce pracodawców. +Metaksas prowadził niezależną i neutralną politykę zagraniczną. Wzmacniając grecki przemysł zbrojeniowy, nie zawahał się przed sprzedażą nowoczesnej artylerii Republice Hiszpanii, wobec toczącej się w tym kraju wojny domowej, skoro było to warunkiem opłacalności produkcji także dla potrzeb Grecji. +W 1939 faszystowskie Włochy Benito Mussoliniego zajęły terytorium Albanii i zagroziły neutralności Grecji. Metaksas zaproponował pakt obronny Wielkiej Brytanii, lecz propozycja ta nie znalazła zrozumienia w Londynie. +II wojna światowa. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej Metaksas zdołał zachować neutralność kraju mimo coraz bardziej skomplikowanej sytuacji politycznej na Bałkanach. Kulminacyjnym punktem włoskich prowokacji było storpedowanie krążownika "Elli" w porcie Tinos 15 sierpnia 1940. Mimo oczywistych dowodów (szczątki włoskiej torpedy) Grecja i na tę prowokację nie zareagowała. Wkrótce jednak Włochy przedstawiły Grecji ultimatum, które w swej istocie pozbawiało niepodległości państwo greckie (m.in. postulat swobodnego przemarszu wojsk włoskich przez terytorium Grecji). 28 października 1940 Metaksas odrzucił je, co stało się pretekstem włoskiej agresji. +Naprędce zorganizowana włoska ofensywa po taktycznym odwrocie armii greckiej w góry Epiru zakończyła się porażką Włochów. Wciągnięta w pułapkę armia włoska poniosła w czasie zimowej kontrofensywy greckiej poważne straty i została wyparta z terytorium Grecji. Wojska greckie opanowały tereny północnego Epiru, zamieszkane głównie przez etnicznie grecką ludność. W trakcie zaciętych walk pozycyjnych, toczonych w warunkach srogiej zimy i w trudnym, górskim terenie, ludność cywilna udzieliła greckim wojskom decydującej w tej wojnie, jak oceniają historycy, pomocy. Kobiety z lokalnych wiosek, docierając wysoko w góry, codziennie dostarczały żołnierzom ciepłą strawę, świeżą bieliznę, opiekowały się rannymi, podczas gdy mężczyźni z bronią w ręku wspierali walczące oddziały. +W styczniu 1941 Wielka Brytania zaoferowała Grecji pomoc wojskową, jednak Metaksas odmówił zgody na lądowanie w Grecji brytyjskich wojsk lądowych, nie chcąc sprowokować agresji ze strony III Rzeszy. Jednak już klęska Włochów oznaczała kompromitację nie tylko dla Mussoliniego, ale i dla Hitlera, który zaczął snuć plany pomocy dla swojego włoskiego sojusznika. Wiosną 1941 nastąpiła agresja państw Osi na Grecję i Jugosławię. Tego jednak Metaksas nie doczekał, gdyż 29 stycznia 1941 zmarł w Atenach, na zapalenie migdałka. Nie został hospitalizowany, nie wykonano sekcji zwłok, a środowisko inteligenckie Aten, aż tak błahą przyczynę śmierci przyjęło ze zdumieniem i niedowierzaniem. Propaganda hitlerowska szerzyła następnie plotkę, iż Metaksas został zamordowany w brytyjskiej ambasadzie w Atenach. +Sencha + +Zaparza się ją jak każdą inną zieloną herbatę, czyli przez 2-3 minuty wodą przegotowaną, ostudzoną do ok. 80 °C. +Wypadek jądrowy + +Wypadek jądrowy – zdarzenie polegające na emisji promieniowania jonizującego lub substancji promieniotwórczych do otoczenia, mogące przejawiać niekorzystne oddziaływanie na ludzi i środowisko naturalne. +Skutki awarii. +Najczęściej w takich przypadkach podejmuje się ewakuację ludzi wokół terenu katastrofy. +Obecne zagrożenia. +Nad światem widmo katastrof zawisło po zbudowaniu pierwszej bomby atomowej i użyciu jej przez Stany Zjednoczone przeciwko Japonii podczas II wojny światowej. +Dopiero 18 lat po pierwszym użyciu bomby atomowej (w 1963 roku), ZSRR, USA i Wielka Brytania zawarły ""Układ o zakazie doświadczeń z bronią jądrową w atmosferze, przestrzeni kosmicznej i pod wodą"." Układ ten przyczynił się do spowolnienia wyścigu zbrojeń i oddalenia w pewnym stopniu groźby katastrofy nuklearnej jako wyniku konfliktu zbrojnego. W dalszej kolejności do układu przystąpiła większość państw świata, w tym także Polska. +Groźba katastrofy nuklearnej nie jest spowodowana tylko przez wojnę. Według organizacji ekologicznych niebezpieczne mogą być również elektrownie atomowe, w których katastrofa może mieć tragiczne konsekwencje. W takim przypadku skażeniu ulegają nie tylko określone tereny, ale także powietrze, rzeki i chmury, które przenosić mogą radioaktywną substancję na znaczne odległości. Przykładem może być katastrofa w elektrowni w Czarnobylu skąd radioaktywne chmury dotarły aż nad tereny Szwecji i Finlandii. Biorąc jednak pod uwagę przyczyny katastrofy czarnobylskiej, różnice w budowie tamtejszego reaktora a najpowszechniej wykorzystywanych reaktorów PWR, oraz ścisła krajową i międzynarodową kontrolę bezpieczeństwa jądrowego, powtórzenie się katastrofy jądrowej na podobną skale jest mało prawdopodobne. +Innymi zagrożeniami są odpady jądrowe. Wybuch takich odpadów może zrujnować ogromne obszary – np w Kistymiu wybuch zniszczył aż 30 wiosek i miast. Do dziś nie można tam mieszkać ani uprawiać ziemi. +Obecnie największa obawa wiąże się z użyciem broni jądrowej do celów militarnych. Wznowienie wzbogacania uranu przez Koreę Północną i Iran pozwala sądzić, iż państwa te "mogą" mieć zamiar wyprodukowania broni jądrowej. Z całą pewnością nie dokona tego Al-Kaida: do zbudowania broni potrzebne są ogromne środki finansowe i naukowe. Atak z użyciem broni jądrowej mógłby się okazać nieopłacalny. Natomiast realnym zagrożeniem jest brudna bomba – bomba radiologiczna, rozrzucająca pierwiastki radioaktywne wokół epicentrum wybuchu. Izotopy np. cezu-137 tworzą sole i wnikają w glebę. Obliczono, że wystarczyłby wybuch bomby siły 10 kg trotylu aby skazić miasto wielkości Londynu. Potrzebny cez można znaleźć w opuszczonych ośrodkach oraz wspomnianych poradzieckich napromiennikach, które stoją w lasach przy polach. Natomiast ekspertów do budowy takiej broni po prostu nie potrzeba. +Istnieje także poważny problem z tzw. walizkowymi bombami jądrowymi. Powstały one w czasach zimnej wojny i zostały rozsiane po terytorium byłego ZSRR. Z ponad setki odnaleziono zaledwie kilkadziesiąt. Zastępca Osamy bin Ladena wspomniał o chęci zakupu takiej bomby. +Z drugiej strony zwolennicy wykorzystania energii jądrowej uważają, że katastrofy nuklearne są niepotrzebnie nagłaśniane przez przeciwników tego rodzaju energii. W Czarnobylu oficjalnie umarło około 51 osób, a jeszcze 4.000 może umrzeć, zaś 10.000 w samej Rosji zapaść na choroby związane z promieniowaniem – rak, mutacje itp. Zaś np. w Bhopalu w Indiach wskutek wycieku pestycydów naraz zmarło około 7 000 osób, a może umrzeć jeszcze dalsze 15.000, zaś liczbę chorych ocenia się między 75 a 200.000. Co więcej, istnieje na świecie jedynie 13 reaktorów typu RBMK-1000, które mogą być źródłem zagrożenia. Test, który doprowadził do katastrofy, pokazał, iż zabezpieczenia tych reaktorów są niewystarczające. Dla porównania, w katastrofie w Three Mile Island, kiedy doszło do częściowego stopienia rdzenia, ani kropla paliwa nie wydostała się poza rdzeń. Natomiast paliwo z 4 reaktora elektrowni w Czarnobylu wciąż leży w podziemiach budowli i stwarza ogromne zagrożenie. Rozpoczęły się już przygotowania do budowy nowego sarkofagu dla bloku nr 4, trwa także wyładunek paliwa z bloku nr 3. +Nóż strugarski + +Nóż strugarski - narzędzie skrawające wykonujące ruch posuwisto-zwrotny, używane w strugarkach uniwersalnych do strugania płaszczyzn lub do obróbki kształtowej oraz obwiedniowej w strugarkach wyspecjalizowanych. W strugarkach narzędzie wykonuje ruch główny prostoliniowy oraz okresowy ruch posuwowy. +Dwunastu Apostołów (Australia) + +Dwunastu Apostołów (ang. "The Twelve Apostles") – grupa naturalnie powstałych kolumn z wapienia stojących w morzu, tuż przy brzegu w parku narodowym Port Campbell, przy Great Ocean Road w stanie Wiktoria w Australii. Kolumny są wynikiem erozji i mają różną grubość i wysokość. Chociaż nazwa na to wskazuje, kolumn wcale nie jest 12, a została zainspirowana tym, że kolumny stoją blisko siebie. Jest to jedna z najczęściej odwiedzanych i fotografowanych atrakcji turystycznych w Australii. +Ciągły proces erozji powoduje, że kolumny skalne są cały czas podmywane, część z nich uległa już zawaleniu. 2 lipca 2005 około godziny 9.00 rano czasu lokalnego na oczach wielu turystów zawaliła się jedna z kolumn mająca prawie 50 metrów wysokości, pozostawiając 8 stojących kolumn, 25 września 2009 zawaliła się kolejna kolumna, pozostawiając siedem stojących kolumn. +Pierwsza nazwa "Dwunastu Apostołów" brzmiała "Maciora i świnki" (ang. "The sow and piglets"), ale uznano, że nie jest ona wystarczająco majestatyczna. +Podobną nazwę noszą analogiczne formacje skalne na całym świecie, na przykład układ skał na szczytach masywu górskiego na południe od Watry Dornei, na rumuńskiej Bukowinie (reg. Suczawa), a także Grań Apostołów w Tatrach. +Teolog + +Teolog - specjalizacja akademicka, której tematem jest systematyczne, wykorzystujące metody filozoficzne, historyczne i in., studium objawionych prawd religijnych dotyczących Boga oraz Jego relacji do świata, w myśl maksymy "fides quaerens intellectum" - "wiara szukająca zrozumienia". Najczęściej związana z chrześcijaństwem. Poprzez zapożyczenie, czasem teologami nazywa się nauczycieli innych religii, jak judaizm czy islam. +Kompetencje akademickie i wiara Kościoła. +Teologiem nazywana jest osoba mająca uniwersyteckie wykształcenie teologiczne, często posiadająca stopień naukowy lub też tytuł naukowy profesora, prowadząca metodyczne studium oraz nauczanie " wiary szukającej zrozumienia". Ponieważ teologia, inaczej niż filozofia religii, związana jest z wiarą Kościoła, założonego przez Chrystusa, teologiem we właściwym sensie tego słowa jest ten, kto oprócz stopnia uczelnianego, otrzymał także mandat od władz kościelnych. W przypadku teologów Kościoła katolickiego oznacza ono swego rodzaju nostryfikację ze strony Magisterium Kościoła. Przykładem zależności teologów od wspólnoty wyznaniowej jest Uniwersytet Eberharda Karola w Tybindze - w jednym uniwersytecie istnieją dwa niezależne wydziały teologii: ewangelicki i katolicki. +Według rzymskiej Kongregacji Nauki Wiary, fakt konieczności posiadania mandatu kościelnego nie odbiera teologowi prawa do postawy krytycznej, krytycyzm nie jest jednak według tejże Kongregacji tożsamy z "duchem krytycznym", który naznaczony jest zwykle subiektywnymi emocjami i uprzedzeniami. Zgłębienie Objawienia wymaga sięgania do właściwego rodzaju filozofii i innych nauk, które harmonijnie ujmują prawdę o człowieku, świecie i Bogu. Kryterium oceny tych nauk i ich narzędzi pojęciowych stanowi sama "nauka objawiona". W zastosowaniu tego kryterium pomaga "nadprzyrodzony zmysł wiary" obecny w Kościele. Razem z szacunkiem do chrześcijańskiego depozytu nauczania wiary teolog w swej refleksji ma być krytyczny, ma prowadzić swe badania racjonalnie, rzetelnie spełniając jej wymogi epistemologiczne - ponieważ teologia w ciągu swego istnienia stworzyła własny system wiedzy naukowej. Przykładem teologów, którzy w XX w. utracili prawo do uprawiania teologii katolickiej z powodu zbyt wielkich rozbieżności ich poglądów z Tradycją Apostolską, byli m.in. niemieccy teolodzy Hans Küng oraz Uta Ranke-Heinemann. Historycznie, od początków drugiego tysiąclecia chrześcijaństwa ortodoksją teologów w Kościele katolickim zajmowała się inkwizycja, która później została przekształcona w Święte Oficjum, by w 1965 r. trakcie Soboru watykańskiego II otrzymać nazwę Kongregacja Nauki Wiary. +Ujęcie R. Latourelle'a. +Teolog chrześcijański znajduje fundament dla swej refleksji teologicznej w jednej i tej samej wierze Kościoła (por. Ef 4,5; 1 Kor 12,29), która skupia się wokół podstawowego twierdzenia, że Bóg objawia się i staje się darem w Jezusie Chrystusie. Przedmiotem badań teologa jest wiara jednocześnie jako tajemnica oraz jako wydarzenie historyczne. Zadanie teologa bowiem to nie tylko badanie Objawienia jako zespołu prawd wiary, lecz także studium nad interwencją Boga w historii ludzkości poprzez badania nad historią, ciałem i językiem Jezusa. Istotną cechą posługi teologa jest przynależność do społeczności Kościoła poprzez wiarę. Warunek ten jest na tyle istotny, że niespełnienie go neguje możliwość uznania danego uczonego za teologa. +Ujęcie Paula Tillicha. +Według Paula Tillicha, teolog - analogicznie do filozofa - jest w swej refleksji rozpięty między konkretną egzystencjalną rzeczywistością a uniwersalnym "logosem". Sytuacja ta jest trudna do zaakceptowania przez pobożny i wpływowy kościelny "chór tych, którzy żyją w [kręgu] niepodważalnych twierdzeń". W ten sposób teologia może stać się kamieniem potknięcia dla kościoła. Może jednak stać się również demoniczną pokusą dla teologa. Niezależność, która jest koniecznym warunkiem pracy teologicznej, może zniszczyć jego konieczne zaangażowanie w wiarę. To napięcie jest ciężarem ale i wielkością każdej pracy teologicznej. +W ujęciu Karla Bartha. +W ujęciu Karla Bartha z Bazylei, innego znanego XX w. teologa protestanckiego, głównym zadaniem, zarówno kaznodziei jak i teologa, jest mówienie o "Bogu w sposób poważny, tzn. poruszając się w rzeczywistości objawienia i wiary". Będzie to oznaczało poszukiwanie Słowa Bożego, które często jest w konflikcie z zawikłaną naturą ludzkiego życia. By je odnaleźć, należy zwrócić się do Biblii. Karl Barth, wysuwał ten postulat dostrzegając braki racjonalistycznej postawy liberalnej teologii protestanckiej. Urodzony w 1886 r., odbył studia teologiczne w Bernie, Berlinie, Tybindze i Marburgu, przyswoił sobie "metodologię rządzącą" nowoczesną teologią protestancką – metodę historyczno-krytyczną. W swojej dojrzałej refleksji poszedł jednak w ślady swego ojca Johanna Friedricha, który posługę pastora zamienił na pracę wykładowcy w "Kolegium Kaznodziejów" w Bazylei - uczelni powołanej do życia, by kształcić kaznodziejów w teologii biblijnej wbrew panującym trendom teologii liberalnej. Karl Barth uważał, że zarówno jego nauczyciele W. Herrmann, A. von Harnack i E. Troeltsch, jak i większość teologów od czasów Reformacji, w mniejszym lub większym stopniu Słowo Boże zastąpili słowem ludzkim. Teologia została głęboko naznaczona humanistycznym, antropocentrycznym racjonalizmem. Barth krytykował za to szczególnie F. Schleiermachera, którego teologia dominowała w XIX w.. +Specjalizacje. +Jak inne dziedziny wiedzy, tak i teologia przeszła w ciągu wieków proces specjalizacji. Stąd teolodzy współcześni zazwyczaj specjalizują się w jakiejś jednej określonej dziedzinie teologii, z których najbardziej znane są: dogmatyka, biblistyka, teologia moralna, teologia fundamentalna, teologia pastoralna, liturgika i inne. +Bibliści. +Biblista, który jest teologiem, nie może zająć niezaangażowanego poglądu na Biblię. Z jednej strony używa stojących do jego dyspozycji metod naukowych, badając teksty biblijne jako słowa ludzi, którymi posłużył się Bóg by wypowiedzieć swoje słowo - słowo Boże. Boskie autorstwo Biblii — które uznaje na podstawie wiary — jest faktem podstawowym. Encyklika "Divino afflante Spiritu" papieża Piusa XII oraz konstytucja "Dei Verbum" Vaticanum II dały biblistom katolickim uprawnioną wolność w odniesieniu do najwyższego nauczycielskiego autorytetu Kościoła. Dotyczy to zwłaszcza stosowania w krytyce biblijnej badającej ludzki aspekt Pisma Świętego takich samych reguł, jakie się stosuje w interpretacji każdego dzieła literackiego. Teksty te, od strony autorstwa ludzkiego podlegają potrójnej krytyce: tekstowej, literackiej oraz historycznej. +Liturgiści. +Liturgiści odegrali ogromną rolę w odnowie liturgicznej dokonanej po Soborze watykańskim II. Według M. Skelley SJ trzema teologami, którzy wpłynęli na myśl i praktykę liturgiczną Kościoła katolickiego XX wieku byli: Odo Casel, teolog benedyktyński z opactwa Maria Lach, holenderski dominikanin Edward Schillebeeckx OP oraz niemiecki jezuita Karl Rahner. Ci trzej teolodzy oprócz wielu innych, jak Louis Bouyer, Yves Congar, Jean Daniélou i inni, zmienili sposób rozumienia liturgii w Kościele XX w. poprzez badania nad takimi zagadnieniami jak "teologia misterium", Chrystus jako sakrament, Kościół jako sakrament, powszechność łaski, łaska jako samo-objawienie się Boga oraz natura znaków sakramentalnych. +Historia. +Teolog - kanonik. +W postanowieniach Soboru Trydenckiego znalazło się zalecenie utworzenia urzędu kanonika-teologa we wszystkich kościołach, w których istniała tzw. prebenda, czyli fundacja na rzecz wykładów z teologii i Biblii. Zalecenie to realizowano w kościołach katedralnych lub także kolegiatach poprzez wyznaczenie do tej funkcji jednego z kanoników. +Huta Cedler + +Huta Cedler - dawniej "Walcownia Rur i Żelaza Hrabia Renard", obecnie "Oddział Sosnowiec" spółki "ArcelorMittal Poland S.A." w Dąbrowie Górniczej. +Jan Jur-Gorzechowski + +Jan Tomasz Jur-Gorzechowski (ur. 21 grudnia 1874 w Siedlcach, zm. 21 czerwca 1948 w Brookwood, w hrabstwie Surrey, w Anglii) – generał brygady Wojska Polskiego. +Życiorys. +Działalność niepodległościowa. +Urodził się w rodzinie powstańca styczniowego. Po ukończeniu sześcioklasowego gimnazjum w Siedlcach kontynuował naukę w Wyższej Szkole Handlowej Leopolda Kronenberga w Warszawie. Studia zakończył w 1897 i został urzędnikiem kolejowym. W latach szkolnych i studenckich był członkiem młodzieżowych organizacji konspiracyjnych. Od 1904 działał w Organizacji Bojowej PPS. Był organizatorem i dowódcą akcji uwolnienia w 1906 dziesięciu bojowców PPS z więzienia na Pawiaku - skazanych wyrokiem doraźnego sądu wojskowego na karę śmierci. Akcję przeprowadził oddział bojowy OB PPS pod dowództwem Gorzechowskiego – "Jura" przebrany w mundury carskiej żandarmerii (pod pretekstem konwojowania więźniów). W listopadzie 1907 został aresztowany. W maju 1908 karę zesłania zamieniono mu na karę wydalenia z Rosji. Od 1908 działał w Związku Walki Czynnej, następnie w Związku Strzeleckim we Lwowie. W sierpniu 1914 wstąpił do Legionów Polskich. W listopadzie 1914, po rozformowaniu oddziału Wacława Kostki-Biernackiego objął szefostwo żandarmerii polowej I Brygady Legionów. Jesienią 1915 w Zamościu został aresztowany przez Austriaków za niedozwolony werbunek do legionów. Władze austriackie zażądały usunięcia go z Legionów, wobec czego pod koniec kwietnia 1916 przeniósł się do Warszawy i został członkiem Komendy Naczelnej Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej. +Służba w Wojsku Polskim. +W Wojsku Polskim od 11 listopada 1918 był komendantem Milicji Miejskiej w Warszawie, a następnie dyrektorem Policji i dyrektorem Departamentu Bezpieczeństwa w Ministerstwie Spraw Wewnętrznych. W styczniu 1919 w czasie nieudanego zamachu stanu dokonanego przez endecję został ciężko ranny, co jeszcze bardziej podniosło jego zasługi w oczach Piłsudskiego. +W sierpniu 1919 powrócił do służby w żandarmerii. Zajmował kolejno stanowiska: oficera do zleceń Dowództwa Żandarmerii Polowej, dowódcy Żandarmerii Polowej od 27 września 1920 i dowódcy 3 Dywizjonu Żandarmerii w Grodnie od 7 lipca 1922 do 22 grudnia 1927. W latach 1927–1928 był komendantem Miasta Brześć. W lutym 1928 przydzielony do Komendy Miasta Warszawy z zachowaniem dotychczasowego dodatku służbowego. Od 12 grudnia 1928 do 1 marca 1939 pełnił służbę na stanowisku komendanta głównego Straży Granicznej. 19 marca 1938 został awansowany do stopnia generała brygady. 1 marca 1939 przeniesiony w stan spoczynku. +Po kampanii wrześniowej internowany w Rumunii, w obozie w Ploeszti. Następnie przedostał się na Bliski Wschód, gdzie od grudnia 1940 do kwietnia 1943 przebywał w Ośrodku Zapasowym Samodzielnej Brygady Strzelców Karpackich w Palestynie. Od kwietnia 1943 do 1947 pozostawał bez przydziału. Za zgodą władz polskich, a na zlecenie władz brytyjskich organizował i kierował szkoleniem służb porządkowych w Palestynie. +Po demobilizacji osiedlił się w Wielkiej Brytanii, w Brookwood w hrabstwie Surrey. Zmarł 21 czerwca 1948 w szpitalu wojskowym w Londynie. Pochowany na cmentarzu Brookwood w Woking pod Londynem. +Rodzina. +Był synem Henryka, powstańca z 1863 i Zofii z domu Tonkel-Ślepowron oraz drugim mężem Zofii Nałkowskiej. Jego syn Stanisław Gorzechowski jako podporucznik rezerwy dowodził plutonem pieszym żandarmerii nr 28 wchodzącym w skład 28. Dywizji Piechoty. Zginął 25 września 1939. +Jerzy Wiatr + +Jerzy Józef Wiatr (ur. 17 września 1931 w Warszawie) – polski socjolog i politolog, działacz komunistyczny w okresie PRL, profesor i wykładowca akademicki, poseł na Sejm I, II i III kadencji, były minister edukacji narodowej, ojciec Sławomira Wiatra. +Życiorys. +Działalność naukowa. +Ukończył w 1954 studia na Wydziale Filozofii i Socjologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. W 1957 obronił doktorat, w 1961 habilitację. W 1967 został profesorem nadzwyczajnym, w 1976 zwyczajnym. +Był m.in. kierownikiem Zakładu Socjologii Polityki Instytutu Socjologii UW i wykładowcą na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim oraz Wojskowej Akademii Politycznej, gościnnie również na University of Michigan, University of British Columbia i Manchester University. Od 1 października 2007 pełni funkcję rektora Europejskiej Wyższej Szkole Prawa i Administracji w Warszawie. +Działalność polityczna w PRL. +W 1949 wstąpił do PZPR, której członkiem był do momentu jej rozwiązania w 1990. Był członkiem powołanego po wprowadzeniu w Polsce stanu wojennego Zespołu Partyjnych Socjologów przy KC PZPR. Przez dwie kadencje był prezesem zarządu głównego Polskiego Towarzystwa Nauk Politycznych. W latach 1979–1982 zajmował stanowisko wiceprezydenta IPSA (International Political Science Association). Od 1981 do 1984 był dyrektorem Instytutu Podstawowych Problemów Marksizmu-Leninizmu KC PZPR. W 1989 brał udział w obradach Okrągłego Stołu po stronie rządowej. +Działalność polityczna w III RP. +W latach 1991–1997 sprawował mandat posła na Sejm I i II kadencji. Pełnił funkcję ministra edukacji narodowej w rządzie Włodzimierza Cimoszewicza (w latach 1996–1997). W 1996 został uhonorowany przez prezydenta Aleksandra Kwaśniewskiego Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. W 2001 przez kilka miesięcy był posłem III kadencji, mandat uzyskał w miejsce Danuty Waniek. Należy do Sojuszu Lewicy Demokratycznej, od 2008 zasiada w komisji etyki tego ugrupowania. +Andrzej Szczeklik + +Andrzej Tadeusz Szczeklik (ur. 29 lipca 1938 w Krakowie, zm. 3 lutego 2012 tamże) – polski lekarz-naukowiec, profesor Kliniki Chorób Wewnętrznych Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, pisarz eseista i filozof medycyny, wiceprezes Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności, animator Akademii Młodych "PAUeczka Akademicka". Zajmował się pracą naukową z zakresu kardiologii i pulmonologii. +Biografia i działalność naukowa. +Urodził się w Krakowie jako syn lekarza-kardiologa, Edwarda Szczeklika. Ukończył Średnią Szkołę Muzyczną, a w roku 1961 Wydział Lekarski Akademii Medycznej w Krakowie. Dalej kształcił się w Stanach Zjednoczonych i w Szwecji. W roku 1963 rozpoczął pracę w III Klinice Chorób Wewnętrznych Akademii Medycznej we Wrocławiu. W 1966 roku uzyskał stopień naukowy doktora medycyny, a w 1969 doktora habilitowanego z zakresu chorób wewnętrznych. W 1979 roku otrzymał tytuł profesora nadzwyczajnego, a w 1989 profesora zwyczajnego. +Od stycznia 1972 roku objął kierownictwo Kliniki Akademii Medycznej w Krakowie. W latach 1990-1993 był rektorem Akademii Medycznej w Krakowie. Andrzej Szczeklik doprowadził do włączenia wydziałów medycznych do Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. W latach 1993-1996 pełnił funkcję prorektora ds. Collegium Medicum Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Od 1994 członek Papieskiej Akademii Nauk. +W 1975 przedstawił teorię rozwoju postaci astmy oskrzelowej, tzw. astmy aspirynowej. +W latach 70. prowadził badania nad prostacykliną i przyczynił się do wprowadzenia analogów prostacykliny do farmakoterapii. +Od 2009 roku był członkiem Społecznego Komitetu Odnowy Zabytków Krakowa (SKOZK). +Andrzej Szczeklik był autorem i współautorem ok. 600 prac naukowych, publikowanych w czasopismach międzynarodowych i krajowych. Wydał również kilka monografii i podręczników, także za granicą. Autor książek: „Katharsis. O uzdrowicielskiej mocy natury i sztuki” (Znak, Kraków 2003), oraz „Kore — O chorych, chorobach i poszukiwaniu duszy medycyny” (Znak, Kraków 2007) przetłumaczonych na język angielski, niemiecki, hiszpański, węgierski, i litewski. Był członkiem Papieskiej Akademii Nauk, PAU, PAN oraz innych towarzystw naukowych. Był doktorem honoris causa uniwersytetów medycznych w Warszawie i Katowicach. +Był kierownikiem II Katedry Chorób Wewnętrznych CM UJ. Był żonaty, miał dwóch synów i córkę. +Od listopada 2010 do swojej śmierci był członkiem Faculty of 1000. +Andrzej Szczeklik zmarł w Krakowie na zawał serca połączony z zapaleniem płuc. Pogrzeb profesora odbył się 8 lutego 2012 w Bazylice Mariackiej w Krakowie. Uczony został pochowany na Cmentarzu Salwatorskim w Krakowie. +Klimzowiec + +Klimzowiec – tradycyjna dzielnica Chorzowa, wchodząca w skład administracyjnej dzielnicy Centrum. Znajduje się we wschodniej części miasta w dorzeczu rzeki Rawy. +Geografia. +Położenie. +Klimzowiec znajduje się na Płaskowyżu Bytomsko-Katowickim będącym częścią Wyżyny Śląskiej, na terenie Górnego Śląska. +Klimzowiec graniczy od północy z WPKiW, od południa z dzielnicą Batory, od zachodu z dzielnicą Chorzów Miasto, a od wschodu z katowickim osiedlem Tysiąclecia i dzielnicą Załęże. +Granice dzielnicy. +Południową granicą dzielnicy Klimzowiec jest rzeka Rawa, natomiast wschodnią granica miasta Chorzowa z Katowicami. Północną granicą dzielnicy jest ulica Katowicka. +Zachodnia granica dzielnicy przebiega Aleją Bojowników o Wolność i Demokrację, wzdłuż zachodniego krańca Parku Róż. +Historia. +Klimzowiec powstał w latach 1850-1866 wokół młyna wybudowanego przez Jacka Klimzę (stąd też nazwa, pochodząca od niem. "Klimsawiese", "Łąka Klimzy"). W roku 1860 ludność Klimzowca liczyła ok. 1200 mieszkańców, a w 1866 roku już ponad 2000. W 1868 roku Klimzowiec wszedł w skład nowotworzonego miasta Koenigshuette-OS (Królewska Huta). +Początkowo Klimzowiec był osadą o charakterze rolniczym i wydobywczym. +Na przełomie XIX i XX wieku zabudowa indywidualna została wzbogacona o kamienice, tak zwane familoki, wybudowane dla robotników pobliskich zakładów przemysłowych, oraz Szkołę Podstawową przy ul. ks. Gałeczki. +W miejsce części gruntów ornych powstały ogródki działkowe. +W związku z pogarszającym się stanem wody w rzece w latach 1912-1913 wybudowano na terenie dzielnicy prowizoryczną doświadczalną oczyszczalnię ścieków. +Znaczny rozwój dzielnica odnotowała w XX wieku. +W latach 1919-1921 ludność Klimzowca częściowo uczestniczyła w powstaniach śląskich. +Od 1922 roku na mocy podpisanej w Genewie konwencji w sprawie Śląska obszar Klimzowca został przyznany Polsce. +W 1927 amerykańska firma „Dorr and Co” z Nowego Jorku rozpoczęła zakończoną w 1929 budowę oczyszczalni „RAWA”. +Do połowy lat 30. XX wieku ludność Klimzowca należała do parafii św. Jadwigi, później na terenie dzielnicy powstała osobna parafia pod wezwaniem św. Franciszka z Asyżu prowadzona przez franciszkanów z Katowic Panewnik (Prowincja Wniebowzięcia NMP). +W 1935 roku wybudowano drewniany kościół w kwartale ulic Gałeczki, Szkolnej (obecnie Franciszkańskiej) i Średniej. +Przed wybuchem II wojny światowej na Górnym Śląsku sławną stała się działalność patriotyczna franciszkanów z Klimzowca. Ich spory z władzami prowincjalnymi i sytuacja kanoniczna, której konsekwencją stały się zmiany w składzie personalnym placówki, żywo komentowane były na łamach lokalnej prasy: "Śląskiego Kuriera Porannego", "Polski Zachodniej" oraz "Gościa Niedzielnego". W tym okresie odwiedzał Klimzowiec przyszły Sługa Boży o. Euzebiusz Huchracki. +Pomiędzy 1 a 3 września 1939 roku na terenie dzielnicy odbyły się potyczki z wkraczającą na tereny II RP armią niemiecką. W czasie wojny w klimzowieckim klasztorze ukrywali się działacze niepodległościowi. W czynną pomoc ukrywającym się i ich rodzinom zaangażowany był o. Bernardyn Grzyśka, przełożony zakonnej wspólnoty i administrator parafii. +Pod koniec II wojny światowej pola wokół Klimzowca jako jedne z niewielu miejsc w okręgu katowickim zostały omyłkowo zbombardowane (ucierpiał jedynie dom przy ul. Górniczej). +Po II wojnie światowej w miejscu ogródków działkowych obok zabudowy z przełomu wieków zaczęły powstawać nowe domy i bloki. +Wybudowano także drugą szkołę podstawową i kompleks zabudowań Technikum Górniczego wraz z internatami, Pomaturalną Szkołę Geodezyjną i budynek oddziału Ministerstwa Górnictwa. +Do początku lat 60. XX wieku wschodnia część dzielnicy zabudowana była "fińskimi domkami". +W 1971 r. w miejscu "fińskich domków" rozpoczęto budowę budynków wg projektu Pracowni Projektów Budownictwa Ogólnego, w technologii ślizgowej. Była to kontynuacja rozpoczetego w roku 1961 (na terenie tzw. katowickiego "Dworu") Osiedla Tysiąclecia. +Od lat 70. XX wieku w wyniku reformy administracyjnej Klimzowiec został podzielony na część wschodnią - katowicką (Osiedle Tysiąclecia) i zachodnią - chorzowską (dzielnica Klimzowiec). +Od połowy lat 70. wybudowano na terenie dzielnicy nowe osiedla z zabudową wysokościową (Różanka, Krzywa-Astrów, Ryszki-Piaskowa, Gałeczki, Młodzieżowa) i centra handlowe. +Tylko w osiedlach wybudowanych w latach 70. i pierwszej połowie 80. XX wieku przez Chorzowską Spółdzielnię Mieszkaniową zamieszkało ponad 10 tys. mieszkańców, co stanowiło niecałe 25% ogólnej liczby mieszkańców. +W późniejszych latach liczba mieszkańców dzielnicy uległa dalszemu zwiększeniu. +Oprócz zabudowy wysokościowej w granicach dzielnicy istnieje także nowoczesna zabudowa niska budowana zarówno przez Urząd Miasta jak i ChSM, a także domy indywidualne. +1 września 1987 roku oddano do użytku trzecią szkołę podstawową o ogólnej kubaturze budynku 80 181 m 3 , która w owym czasie była najnowocześniejszą w województwie katowickim. +Od początku lat 90. XX wieku na terenie dzielnicy powstaje zabudowa średnia i niska, budowana przez ChSM, Urząd Miasta i TBS, o wysokim standardzie. +Na terenie dzielnicy powstały również: nowy kościół i klasztor franciszkanów, Urząd Celny, Wyższa Szkoła Bankowa oraz Górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Przedsiębiorczości i Śląska Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki. +Zmodernizowano i rozbudowano rzeczną oczyszczalnię ścieków. +Komunikacja miejska. +Na terenie dzielnicy funkcjonuje komunikacja miejska w postaci autobusów, minibusów oraz tramwajów. +Linie tramwajowe przebiegają ulicami granicznymi dzielnicy, tzn. ul. Katowicką i aleją BoWiD. +Transport. +Przez południową część dzielnicy przebiega Drogowa Trasa Średnicowa, łącząca wschodnią i zachodnią część aglomeracji katowickiej, wraz z dwoma węzłami drogowymi. +Północną granicą dzielnicy jest ul. Katowicka, będąca jednocześnie drogą krajową 79 (Warszawa - Kraków - Katowice - Chorzów - Bytom) +Połączenie lotnicze zapewnia lotnisko w Pyrzowicach, oddalone o ok. 35 km. +Bankomaty. +Bankomaty usytuowane są na ul. Gałeczki (Bank Śląski) i ul. Ryszki (PKO BP). +ul. Gałeczki (Biedronka) - EURONET +Stacje benzynowe. +Stacje benzynowe znajdują się na ul. Gałeczki, Górniczej, Racławickiej (przy DTŚ), Wojska Polskiego. +Sport i rekreacja. +Boiska i baseny. +Dzielnica Klimzowiec graniczy z największymi obiektami sportowymi w mieście, mianowicie ze Stadionem Śląskim oraz stadionem K. S. Ruch. +Tereny zielone. +Na terenie dzielnicy znajduje się Park Róż. W środkowej części parku stoi rzeźba matki z dzieckiem. +Na rogu ulic Gałeczki i Ryszki znajduje się skwer z pomnikiem ku czci bohaterskich harcerzy Chorzowa poległych w latach 1939-45, natomiast w kwartale ulic Gałeczki, Szczecińskiej i Młodzieżowej - skwer z boiskiem i placem zabaw. +Ponadto dzielnica graniczy z Wojewódzkim Parkiem Kultury i Wypoczynku. +Ekologia. +Pomimo dość zwartej zabudowy, w dzielnicy znajduje się dużo terenów zielonych (parki, skwery, ogródki działkowe). +Największym problemem dla środowiska są tzw. niska emisja dokuczliwa, szczególnie w miesiącach zimowych, oraz zanieczyszczenia powietrza wywołane przez ruch uliczny. +Kłopot stanowią także zanieczyszczone cieki wodne przepływające przez terytorium dzielnicy, oczyszczane dopiero przy granicy z Katowicami w Oczyszczalni ścieków "Klimzowiec". +Gospodarka. +Przemysł i usługi. +Na terenie dzielnicy nie ma dużych zakładów przemysłowych. +Większość przedsiębiorstw to małe zakłady z branży wytwórczej i usługowej. +Handel. +W dzielnicy Klimzowiec wyróżnić można dwa rodzaje punktów handlowych, małe sklepy osiedlowe należące do osób prywatnych oraz sklepy dużopowierzchniowe. +W granicach dzielnicy oraz na terenach przyległych znajdują się sklepy dużopowierzchniowe następujących sieci +Biedronka, Carrefour, Castorama, Auchan, Lidl, Żabka, PSS Społem. +Mother Earth + +Mother Earth – drugi studyjny album holenderskiej grupy Within Temptation, wydany w Holandii 4 grudnia 2000 roku. W innych częściach Europy płytę wydano 21 sierpnia 2001. Zespół zbliża się tu do metalu symfonicznego ze sporą domieszką motywów gotyckich, celtyckich i chórów. Płyta odniosła wielki sukces, co wstrzymało na jakiś czas prace grupy nad następnymi wydawnictwami. W styczniu 2003 roku w Niemczech i krajach sąsiednich nakładem wytwórni GUN Records wydano reedycję albumu uzupełnioną o 4 dodatkowe utwory. Ta sama edycja została wydana także w Wielkiej Brytanii we wrześniu 2004 roku przez wytwórnię Sanctuary Records. 28 września 2007 roku w Wielkiej Brytanii nakładem wytwórni Roadrunner Records wydano kolejną reedycję płyty, tym razem z 4 bonusowymi utworami wykonywanymi na żywo. Tę samą edycję pomniejszoną o jeden utwór bonusowy wydano w USA 5 sierpnia 2008 roku razem z albumem "The Silent Force". Płyta sprzedała się w Europie w ilości ponad 350,000 egzemplarzy. Uzyskała status platynowej w Holandii i Niemczech oraz złotej w Belgii. +Z albumu wydano trzy komercyjne single. Na pierwszym w 2001 roku ukazała się ballada "Our Farewell". Przełomem okazało się wydanie na małym krążku kompozycji "Ice Queen", która promowana dwoma teledyskami stała się wielkim przebojem w całej Europie i przyczyniła się do znacznego wzrostu popularności zespołu. Na singlu z tą piosenką umieszczono m.in. premierową kompozycję "World of Make Believe". W 2002 roku na trzecim singlu wydano utwór "Mother Earth", który powtórzył sukces swojego poprzednika. Na singlu z tą kompozycją również umieszczono wcześniej nie wydaną piosenkę "Bittersweet". W 2003 roku przy okazji premiery DVD "Mother Earth Tour" wydano także singiel promocyjny "Never Ending Story". +Reedycje albumu. +2003 Special Extended Edition +2003 UK Edition +2007 Roadrunner Records UK Edition +2008 Roadrunner Records US Edition +Subdiakon + +Subdiakon (z łaciny; po grecku: hipodiakon) – jeden ze stopni święceń, niższy od diakonatu. +Prawosławie i Katolickie Kościoły Wschodnie. +W Kościele prawosławnym jest to najwyższy stopień święceń niższych (chirotesja), wyższy od lektoratu. Istotą roli subdiakona w prawosławiu jest asystowanie celebransowi podczas hierarchicznej Boskiej Liturgii (przewodniczy jej biskup). Subdiakon ubiera biskupa, trzyma jego księgi używane podczas służby, nosi potrzebne rzeczy takie jak dikirion i trikirion (świece do błogosławieństwa). Istnieje specjalny ryt święceń subdiakońskich, aczkolwiek w praktyce zarówno akolita jak i lektor może otrzymać od biskupa błogosławieństwo na ubranie szat subdiakońskich i służenie za każdym razem, w konkretnych sytuacjach, bądź też na stałe. +Praktyka subdiakonatu ma początki w Kościele starożytnym, wspomina się o nich np. w Kanonach Apostolskich (kanon 26). Zapisana tam zasada zabrania subdiakonowi (podobnie jak diakonowi czy prezbiterowi) na zawarcie związku małżeńskiego po otrzymaniu święceń. +Subdiakon zakłada sticharion oraz orarion związany wokół jego bioder ponad plecami (krzyżując się z tyłu), które kończą się wisząc od frontu, zaczepione pod miejscem wokół bioder [http://old.svots.edu/Three-Hierarchs-Chapel/2004-0130-ordination/images/DSC_0061_jpg.jpg]. Często wyświęceni subdiakoni zakładają swoje orariony skrzyżowane od frontu bądź z tyłu aby odróżnić się od akolitów, którzy noszą sticharion w zwykły sposób. Podobnie jak lektorzy, subdiakoni mogą nosić sutannę, chociaż wielu z nich nosi ją tylko w momencie służenia. +W sytuacjach gdy nabożeństwu nie przewodzi biskup subdiakon przybiera rolę akolity, asystując prezbiterowi, podczas służby wewnątrz świątyni, jak i w prezbiterium. +Subdiakoni mają podobne funkcje w Kościołach orientalnych (jak Ormiański czy Koptyjski) oraz we wschodnich rytach Kościoła katolickiego. +Kościół Katolicki (obrządek łaciński). +Historia. +Subdiakonat wywodzi się z pierwszych wieków Kościoła. Gdy około wieku V ustalono precyzyjnie hierarchię i precedencję w Kościołach lokalnych, uznano subdiakonat za najwyższy stopień święceń niższych. +Z kolei za papieża Aleksandra II (1061-1073), subdiakonat zaliczono w Kościele łacińskim do święceń wyższych. Powodem było składanie przez kandydatów przyrzeczenia życia w celibacie i odmawiania brewiarza. Kolejnym argumentem było posługiwanie subdiakonów bezpośrednio przy ołtarzu i powierzenie im troski o naczynia liturgiczne. Teologicznie urząd ten nigdy nie wchodził w zakres świętej hierarchii (do której należeli diakoni, prezbiterzy i biskupi). +Święcenia te przyjmowali wszyscy kandydaci do kapłaństwa. Subdiakon ubierał się w tunikę (tunicellę), nie nosił stuły, lecz miał prawo używać manipularza. +Podczas Mszy szczególnie uroczystych (np. papieskich) jego funkcje, podobnie jak zadania innych usługujących, prawie zawsze powierzano dostojnikom kościelnym. Subdiakon miał obowiązek odmawiać brewiarz oraz zachowywać celibat. +Nadzwyczajna forma rytu rzymskiego. +Gdy nie ma wyświęconego subdiakona, może go zastąpić inny duchowny (diakon, kapłan) lub w ostateczności każdy kleryk po obłóczynach. W tym ostatnim przypadku nie może on jednak nosić manipularza oraz posługiwać przy kielichu (tj. wlewać do niego wody, wycierać czy nakrywać palką). +Współczesność. +15 sierpnia 1972 papież Paweł VI w motu proprio "Ministeria Quaedam" zreformował święcenia niższe w Kościele łacińskim, znosząc część święceń niższych, a także subdiakonat. +Jednakże w zgromadzeniach i instytutach przywiązanych do tradycyjnej liturgii, nadal udzielane są zarówno niższe święcenia, jak i subdiakonat. +Obecnie większość tych czynności sprawują świeccy – ministranci, lektorzy i akolici lub po prostu diakoni albo koncelebrujący kapłani. +Święcenia subdiakonatu są w dalszym ciągu udzielane w stowarzyszeniach katolickich przywiązanych do tradycyjnej liturgii, jak na przykład Bractwo Kapłańskie Świętego Piusa X. +Kościoły Starokatolickie. +Subdiakoni są wyświęcani w Kościele Starokatolickim Mariawitów i w Kościele Starokatolickim w RP +Huta Florian + +Huta Florian - dawniej huta żelaza w Świętochłowicach, obecnie "Oddział Świętochłowice" spółki "ArcelorMittal Poland S.A." w Dąbrowie Górniczej. +Zakład obecnie zajmuje się produkcją blach ocynkowanych i powlekanych lakierami oraz profili, od 1979 roku nie posiada wielkich pieców hutniczych, a stalownia przestała pracować w pierwszej połowie lat 90. Dziś po stalowni i wielkich piecach nie ma już śladu. +Ścin + +Ścin - w narzędziu skrawającym załamanie powierzchni natarcia lub przyłożenia narzędzia skrawającego w postaci paska sąsiadującego bezpośrednio z krawędzią skrawającą. +KSC Lokeren + +KSC Lokeren – belgijski klub piłkarski z miasta Lokeren w prowincji Flandrii Wschodniej. Swojego czasu występowali w nim Włodzimierz Lubański i Grzegorz Lato. Włodzimierz Lubański jest aktualnie II trenerem pierwszej drużyny. W KSC Lokeren występował również Dawid Janczyk, który był wypożyczony na pół roku z CSKA Moskwa. +Hugo I Burgundzki + +Hugo I de Bourgogne (ur. ok. 1057 - zm. 29 sierpnia 1093, Cluny) – książę Burgundii w latach 1076-1079. Był najstarszym synem Henryka Burgundzkiego i jego żony Sybilli. +Był jeszcze dzieckiem, kiedy zmarł jego ojciec, a jego dziadek mianował go swoim następcą. W 1075 ożenił się z Sybillą de Nevers (1058-1078), córką Wilhelma I, hrabiego Nevers, ale nie miał z nią dzieci. Razem z królem Aragonii - Sancho Ramírezem walczył z Maurami. Po śmierci żony abdykował na rzecz swojego młodszego brata Eudesa I i wstąpił do zakonu. Został opatem klasztoru w Cluny. +Zasobożerność + +Zasobożerność – negatywne określenie pewnego typu oprogramowania. Oznacza program, który ma nieproporcjonalnie duże zapotrzebowanie na zasoby systemowe (moc procesora, pamięć RAM oraz pamięć trwałą) w stosunku do swoich możliwości. Często program taki działa wolniej na komputerze o większej mocy obliczeniowej niż jego starsze odpowiedniki na sprzęcie mniej wydajnym, oferując jednocześnie porównywalne możliwości. +Tendencja do tworzenia takich programów pojawiła się na skutek lawinowego wzrostu liczby i jakości komputerów osobistych pod koniec XX wieku. Związany z tym był spadek kosztów sprzętu, relatywnie duży koszt pracy programistów i wzrost popytu. Zjawisko okazało się korzystne zarówno dla producentów oprogramowania jak i sprzętu – powstało swego rodzaju dodatnie sprzężenie zwrotne, pozwalające obu stronom przez długi czas osiągać niezwykły wzrost przychodów. +Piękny umysł + +Piękny umysł (ang. "A Beautiful Mind") – amerykański film biograficzny wyprodukowany w 2001 roku. Oparty częściowo na biografii profesora Johna Nasha Jr. - matematyka i noblisty w dziedzinie ekonomii. +"Piękny umysł" powstał na podstawie książki Sylvii Nasar pod tym samym tytułem z 1998, która opisuje Nasha jako matematyka oraz jego życie prywatne. W odróżnieniu od książki (która jest typową biografią) w filmie przemilczano wiele wątków (między innymi skłonności homoseksualne głównego bohatera oraz jego nieślubne dziecko), wiele uproszczono, a wielu nadano charakter bardziej fabularny, powodując tym samym odejście od dokumentalnej formuły książki. Było to konieczne choćby ze względu na jej objętość (książka ma prawie 500 stron dużego formatu). +Opis fabuły. +Film jest oparty na biografii profesora, Johna Nasha Jr – amerykańskiego matematyka i ekonomisty, noblisty i twórcy pojęcia równowaga Nasha. Przedstawia jego życie i pracę. +W roku 1947 cierpiący na schizofrenię John Nash Jr przybywa na Uniwersytet Princeton, aby zacząć podyplomowe studia matematyczne. Wręcz obsesyjnie myśli o dokonaniu zadziwiającego odkrycia naukowego, które wszystkich powaliłoby na kolana. W ten sposób raz na zawsze mógłby ustalić swoją pozycję i znaczenie w środowisku naukowym. Jego życie towarzyskie ogranicza się niemal całkowicie do kontaktu z urojonym sublokatorem, Charlesem (w tej roli Paul Bettany). Pewnego wieczoru w pubie, obserwując rywalizację kolegów o względy ponętnej blondynki, Nash doznaje olśnienia. W rezultacie powstaje praca na temat teorii gier. Nash otrzymuje stanowisko wykładowcy w najlepszej wyższej szkole nauk ścisłych – Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Jedna ze studentek, Alicia Larde (Jennifer Connelly), zakochuje się w nim i po krótkim czasie zostaje jego żoną. W tym samym czasie, gdy Nash prowadzi wykłady kontaktuje się z nim również urojony, wysoki stanowiskiem, Wiliam Pacher z wywiadu wojskowego. Wiedząc o jego umiejętnościach, proponuje Nashowi współpracę w ściśle tajnej operacji złamania kodu szyfrowego wroga. Zafascynowany nowymi wyzwaniami, Nash rzuca się w wir pracy. Po kilku latach jego choroba nasila się. Atmosfera tajemnicy i zagrożenia powodują, że Nash zaczyna zachowywać się w sposób obsesyjny, a podczas jednego z wykładów wydaje mu się, że chcą go porwać Rosjanie aby wydobyć z niego informacje na temat jego pracy, podczas gdy w rzeczywistości jest to lekarz psychiatra. Lekarze diagnozują u Nasha zaawansowaną schizofrenię paranoidalną. W międzyczasie rodzi mu się syn. John przebywa wielotygodniową kurację w zakładzie psychiatrycznym, a po wyjściu z niego próbuje wrócić do poprzedniego stylu życia. Niestety, leki zapobiegające nawrotom choroby otumaniają również inne sfery - Nash nie potrafi tworzyć, nie potrafi się skupić, nie jest w stanie sprostać obowiązkom męża. To prowadzi do odstawienia przez niego leków, co kończy się nawrotem halucynacji. Splot okoliczności następujących w kolejnych scenach prawie doprowadza do tragedii, ostatecznie jednak pomagają one uświadomić Nashowi, jak silne jest stadium jego choroby (dociera do niego, że jedna z halucynacji, Marcee - córka Charles'a, mimo upływu lat pozostaje małą dziewczynką). Dzięki silnej woli i wsparciu żony, jest w stanie kontynuować pracę naukową. Wraca na Princeton, gdzie w fotelu dyrektora znajduje dawnego konkurenta - Martina Hansena. Ten pomaga mu wrócić w mury uczelni, na początku tylko jako wizytatora biblioteki, gdzie Nash mimowolnie spotyka się ze studentami. Powoli oswajając się ze społeczeństwem i ignorując swoje halucynacje, Nash zaczyna pracować na uczelni. Rok później John jest nominowany do Nagrody Nobla za swoją teorię. O fakcie nominacji dowiaduje się od wysłannika kapituły, który chce się upewnić, czy Nash jest wystarczająco zdrowy psychicznie. Podczas kurtuazyjnego picia herbaty na profesorskiej stołówce, do stolika Nasha po kolei podchodzą wszyscy obecni wykładowcy kładąc przed nim swoje pióra. Jest to niezwykle ważny i wzruszający dla Nasha moment, ponieważ takie zachowanie jest oznaką oddania najwyższego szacunku i uznania dokonań, o czym marzył od pierwszych chwil pojawienia się w Princeton (scena nawiązuje do jednej ze scen początkowych w filmie, kiedy mentor Johny'ego tłumaczy mu ten rytuał). Film kończy się uroczystością wręczenia Nagrody Nobla oraz przemówieniem Nasha, w którym za wszystko dziękuje Alicii. +Nagrody i nominacje. +W sumie "Piękny umysł" zdobył 48 nominacji, z czego wygrał 27 razy. +Johan de Witt + +Jan de Witt ("Johan de Witt") (ur. 24 września 1625 w Dordrechcie, zm. 20 sierpnia 1672 w Hadze), holenderski polityk. Od 1653 wielki pensjonariusz Holandii. +Był synem Jakuba de Witt (1589-1674), jednego z głównych opozycjonistów z czasów rządów Wilhelma II Orańskiego, zwolennika partii republikańskiej. Był wszechstronnie wykształconym prawnikiem i matematykiem. Specjalizował się w dziedzinie ubezpieczeń. Był również poetą. Dzięki licznym koligacjom rodzinnym (jego wuj, Cornelis de Graeff był jednym z regentów Holandii), zrobił szybką karierę urzędniczą i już w wieku 28 lat został Wielkim Pensjonariuszem Holandii. Po śmierci Wilhelma II, w tzw. "okresie bez namiestnika" dzięki silnej pozycji prowincji Holandii i miasta Amsterdam Jan de Witt przejął de facto ster władzy w aparacie administracyjnym Niderlandów. Jan stał na czele mieszczańskiego stronnictwa republikańskiego, przeciwnego powrotowi domu Orańskiego do władzy i zwalczającego wszelkie wpływy o zabarwieniu monarchistycznym. +Tuż po przejęciu władzy, w roku 1654 doprowadził do pokoju z Anglią po pierwszej wojnie angielsko-holenderskiej. Jednym z warunków tego pokoju była klauzula o niedopuszczeniu w przyszłości dynastii Orańskiej do władzy w Niderlandach. Warunek ten postawił Oliver Cromwell, przywódca republikańskiej Anglii, który obawiał się powrotu skoligaconych z Orańczykami Stuartów na tron. Jan de Witt wraz z Cornelisem De Graeffem zdołali potajemnie przeforsować antyorańskie zapisy, które leżały w interesie ich zaplecza politycznego. Mimo tej zbieżności interesów antymonarchistycznych de Witt prowadził politykę profrancuską i podjął rywalizację z Anglią o panowanie na morzach. Rozbudował flotę Republiki i doprowadził Niderlandy po drugiej wojnie z Anglią (1665–1667) do statusu mocarstwa. Niderlandy stały się wówczas pierwszą potęgą morską świata i jednocześnie arbitrem Europy. To ściągnęło na Amsterdam gniew Króla Słońce, który zmontował szeroką koalicję antyholenderską. W 1672 roku, w trakcie wojny francusko-angielsko-niderlandzkiej, został odsunięty od władzy i okrutnie zamordowany wraz z bratem, Korneliuszem de Witt, w Aia. Ich śmierć oraz zbezczeszczenie zwłok są do dziś uważane w Holandii za najwstydliwszy moment w historii kraju. +Jego usunięcie z urzędu i śmierć otworzyły Wilhelmowi Orańskiemu drogę do rządów w Niderlandach, a w przyszłości także do tronu angielskiego. Śmierć braci de Witt literacko opisał Aleksander Dumas w powieści "Czarny tulipan". +Życie prywatne. +Po śmierci Jana i jego brata Korneliusza jego dzieci znalazły się pod opieką kuzyna, Piotra de Graeff. +Nerka (elektroakustyka) + +Nerka - charakterystyka czułości kierunkowej mikrofonu. Mikrofony-nerki to takie, które są najczulsze dla kierunku przed mikrofonem, i których czułość stopniowo spada do zera dla kierunku za mikrofonem. +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 1976 + +XXI Igrzyska Olimpijskie odbyły się w 1976 roku w Montrealu (Kanada). +Igrzyska pod względem sportowym oraz organizacyjnym, mimo ustanowionych 32 rekordów świata, uznano za nieudane. Przyczynił się do tego bojkot imprezy przez ekipy narodowe krajów afrykańskich (jedynymi państwami reprezentującymi ten kontynent na igrzyskach były Senegal i Wybrzeże Kości Słoniowej). Był to protest przeciwko niepodjęciu przez MKOL decyzji o wykluczeniu z igrzysk reprezentacji Nowej Zelandii, której jedna z drużyn rugby złamała międzynarodową izolację rasistowskiej Republiki Południowej Afryki, organizując tournée po tym kraju. Wśród państw bojkotujących igrzyska znalazł się także Tajwan, który nie uzyskawszy zgody na występowanie pod nazwą Republika Chińska, zrezygnował ze startu. Ciężka zima spowodowała, że Kanadyjczycy nie byli w stanie dokończyć wszystkich rozpoczętych inwestycji. Jednocześnie w środowisku sportowym rozgorzała dyskusja nad czystością sportu; coraz częściej podejrzewano sportowców (szczególnie z krajów bloku wschodniego) o stosowanie wyszukanych środków i technik dopingowych. Pojawiły się także głosy o upadającym duchu amatorstwa olimpijskiego, komercjalizacji sportu w krajach zachodnich oraz upolitycznienie w krajach socjalistycznych. Igrzyska w Montrealu były finansową klapą, a ich koszty obciążyły społeczeństwo kanadyjskie na wiele lat. +Do programu włączono nowe dyscypliny w kategorii kobiet – wioślarstwo, koszykówkę i piłkę ręczną. +Państwa uczestniczące. +UWAGA: Egipt, Kamerun, Maroko i Tunezja po dwóch dniach zbojkotowały igrzyska. +Nikołaj Judenicz + + +Nikołaj Nikołajewicz Judenicz, ros. Николай Николаевич Юденич (ur. 18 lipca/30 lipca 1862, Moskwa, zm. 5 października 1933, Saint-Laurent-du-Var, Francja) – rosyjski generał. +Ukończył 3 Aleksandryjską Oficerską Szkołę Artylerii. Mianowany na stopień oficerski w 1881 w litewskim pułku gwardii carskiej. Potem służył w 1 Turkiestańskim batalionie strzelców i 2 Chodżeńskim batalionie rezerwy. +W 1887 ukończył Mikołajewską Akademię Sztabu Generalnego. Po zakończeniu akademii służył w sztabie Warszawskiego Okręgu Wojskowego. Od 26 listopada 1887 starszy adiutant w sztabie 14 Korpusu Armijnego (AK). W l. 1889–1890 dowódca kompanii Litewskiego pułku gwardii cesarskiej. Od 9 kwietnia 1891 starszy oficer do zadań specjalnych w sztabie 14 AK, a od 27 stycznia 1892 starszy adiutant w sztabie Turkistańskiego Okręgu Wojskowego, od 6 grudnia 1896 oficer sztabowy dowództwa 1 Turkiestańskiej Brygady Strzelców. Od 16 lipca 1902 dowódca 18 pułku strzelców, z którym walczył w wojnie rosyjsko-japońskiej 1904–1905. Wyróżnił się w bitwie pod Mukdenem. Od 19 czerwca 1905 dowódca 2 Brygady w 5 Dywizji Strzeleckiej. Ciężko ranny. Za zasługi bojowe wyróżniony złotym pistoletem. Od 10 lutego 1907 generał kwatermistrz w sztabie Kazańskiego Okręgu Wojskowego. +6 grudnia 1912 mianowany na stopień generał-lejtnanta z wyznaczeniem na stanowisko szefa sztabu Kazańskiego Okręgu Wojskowego, a od 25 lutego 1913 Kaukaskiego Okręgu Wojskowego. +Wojna z Turcją. +Podczas I wojny światowej od 2 października 1914 szef sztabu Armii Kaukaskiej (dowódca gen.I. I Woroncow-Daszkow). Kiedy w zimie 1914 na kaukaskim teatrze działań wojennych w wyniku paniki gen. A. Z Myszłajewskiego doszło do porażek wojsk, Judenicz został przez dowódcę armii skierowany na ten teren działań w celu przywrócenia pomyślnej sytuacji operacyjnej. Po przybyciu do Armii (dowódca gen. A. Z. Myszłajewski) Judenicz został dowódcą 2 Turkiestańskiego AK, z którym wszedł do walki, osiągając znaczne sukcesy, m.in. zwycięstwo w bitwie pod Sarikamis w 1915 nad 2 Korpusem Tureckim. Pod dowództwem Judenicza wojska rosyjskie w okresie 22 grudnia 1914 – 7 stycznia 1915 rozbiły turecką armię dążącą do okrążenia głównych sił armii rosyjskiej. Korpus turecki został okrążony i wzięty do niewoli razem z dowódcą korpusu i trzema dowódcami dywizji. W czasie operacji pod Sarikamis wojska tureckie straciły 78 tys. żołnierzy (w tym 15 tys. wziętych do niewoli) i 65 dział, wojska rosyjskie straciły ok. 26 tys. żołnierzy. Za te osiągnięcia Judenicz został nagrodzony orderem Świętego Jerzego (Святого Георгия) 4 stopnia. Wkrótce po tym, 24 stycznia 1915 został mianowany generałem piechoty i wyznaczony na dowódcę Armii Kaukaskiej. 30 stycznia wojska Judenicza zdobyły Tebriz, a w lutym i marcu wyparły wojska tureckie z Kraju Czachorskiego. +Na bazie armii Judenicza zostały sformowane 5 Kaukaski KA, 4 Kaukaska Dywizja Strzelecka oraz 4 i 5 Kaukaska Dywizja Kozacka. 5 KA został skierowany na Front Zachodni. W dniach 19 maja – 2 czerwca wydzielony ze składu Armii Kaukaskiej oddział konnicy pod dowództwem gen. Szerpante przeprowadził rajd od Tebrizu na Urmię i Wan, co przyczyniło się do umocnienia prestiżu Rosji w Persji. Po otrzymaniu wiadomości o przygotowywanym natarciu wojsk 3 Armii Tureckiej Judenicz nakazał gen. P. I. Oganowskiemu siłami 4 Kaukaskiego KA przeprowadzenie operacji wyprzedzającej 11 lipca. Jednak nie osiągnęła ona powodzenia. +22 lipca wojska tureckie uderzyły w ramach operacji eufrackiej, próbując rozbić siły 4 Kaukaskiego KA. Judenicz sformował siły i uderzył w skrzydło i tyły wojsk tureckich, a wojska 4 KA rozpoczęły frontalne natarcie. Rozbite wojska tureckie wycofały się za Eufrat. Operacja eufracka została zakończona. Rosjanie wzięli w niej do niewoli ok. 5 tys. żołnierzy i zdobyli 12 armat. +Pod koniec 1915 Armia Kaukaska liczyła 133 tys. piechoty, 36 tys. kawalerii i 356 dział. +Pod koniec 1915 po rozbiciu wojsk angielsko-francuskich w Gallipoli gen. Judenicz podjął decyzję o rozpoczęciu nowej operacji zaczepnej, która miała na celu wyprzedzenie przerzutu rezerw z Frontu Dardanelskiego. +30 grudnia Judenicz rozpoczął operację erzurumską. Natarcie zaskoczyło wojska tureckie. Część wojsk wyszła na tyły przeciwnika. Wojska tureckie rozpoczęły odwrót na Erzurum. Pokonując wysokie szczyty gór zimą, 1 lutego wojska Judenicza rozpoczęły oblężenie Erzurum i po 5-dniowym szturmie, 16 lutego zajęły twierdzę. W czasie operacji wzięto do niewoli ponad 8 tys. żołnierzy 9 sztandarów i 315 dział. 3 Armia Turecka straciła ponad połowę stanu osobowego i prawie całą artylerię. Straty wojsk Judenicza wyniosły: 2300 zabitych, 14700 rannych i odmrożonych. +Od 5 lutego do 18 kwietnia w ramach operacji trapezundzkiej, przeprowadzonej przez wydzielony z Armii Oddział Nadmorski gen. Liachowa, został zdobyty Trapezunt. +W maju 1916 wojska Judenicza udaremniły operację zaczepną wojsk tureckich i do jesieni rozbiły siły 2 Armii Tureckiej. W czasie tych operacji wojska rosyjskie straciły ok. 20 tys. żołnierzy, Turcy ok. 56 tys. +Jesienią 1916 zreorganizowano Armię. W marcu 1917 wielki książę Mikołaj Mikołajewicz Romanow opuścił Kaukaz. 3 marca gen. N. Judenicz został wyznaczony na stanowisko naczelnego dowódcy Samodzielnej Armii Kaukazu, a po zorganizowaniu dowódcą Frontu Kaukaskiego. W związku z brakiem zaopatrzenia Armii i zmęczeniem fizycznym trwającymi długotrwałymi walkami w okresie zimowym, Judenicz przerwał operację na kierunku bagdadzkim, wycofując 1 i 7 KA w rejony bazowania. Nie patrząc na żądania Rządu Tymczasowego, nie zdecydował się prowadzić operacji zaczepnych. 31 maja został zdjęty ze stanowiska i przeniesiony do dyspozycji ministra wojny. +Działalność na Północnym Zachodzie. +W listopadzie 1918 gen. Judenicz emigrował do Finlandii. W maju 1919 utworzył "Konsylium polityczne". 24 maja 1919 na prośbę admirała Aleksandra Kołczaka został dowódcą wszystkich rosyjskich sił na Północnym Zachodzie, a 10 czerwca został wyznaczony przez Kołczaka naczelnym dowódcą Wojsk Północno-Zachodnich. W sierpniu wszedł w skład Rządu Północno-Zachodniego. 28 września wojska Judenicza przerwały front 7 Armii Czerwonej i zdobyły Jamburg, Krasnoje Sieło, Gatczinę, Dietskoje Sieło. Do Piotrogradu pozostawało 20 km. +Od 2 października do 28 listopada 1919 był naczelnym dowódcą Białej Armii Północno-Zachodniej. W końcu listopada, kiedy wojska Armii Czerwonej przeszły do natarcia, zmuszony był do odwrotu i wycofania się do Estonii, gdzie armia została rozbrojona. Główną bazą jego działalności był jeszcze za okupacji niemieckiej Psków. Jego priorytetowym celem było zdobycie Piotrogrodu, nigdy mu się to jednak nie udało, gdyż za każdym razem był powstrzymywany przez jednostki 6 i 7 Armii Czerwonej stacjonujących w okolicy miasta. W sumie miasto atakował parokrotnie, zawsze był odrzucany przez bolszewików do Estonii, która tolerowała obecność jego armii dopóty, dopóki istniały realne szanse na zwycięstwo białych w wojnie domowej. Kiedy jednak na początku roku 1920 było jasne, że czerwoni zwyciężą, Estonia chcąc uniknąć wkroczenia armii bolszewickiej na swoje terytorium i uniknąć otwartego opowiedzenia się po którejś ze stron, oznajmiła białym, że nie mogą dłużej stacjonować w Estonii i muszą się z niej ewakuować, w przeciwnym razie zostaną przez armię estońską rozbrojeni i wydani bolszewikom. W takiej sytuacji Judenicz postawił wszystko na jedną kartę i pośpiesznie zorganizował atak na Piotrogród i Psków. Dzięki czynnikowi zaskoczenia prawie udało mu się zdobyć oba miasta, jednak na skutek olbrzymiej przewagi liczebnej czerwonych, biali zostali odrzuceni i przygwożdżeni do granicy estońskiej. Od masakry uratowała ich brytyjska flota, która część armii przewiozła w bezpieczne miejsce. W styczniu 1920 został aresztowany przez gen. majora Stanisława Bułak-Bułachowicza. Zwolniony, udał się na emigrację do Francji, w której mieszkał do końca życia. Zmarł w 1933 roku. Możliwe, że został otruty przez GRU. Odznaczony Orderem Świętego Jerzego. +Odo I Burgundzki + +Eudoksjusz I, fran. "Eudes I Borel de Bourgogne" (ur. ok. 1058, zm. 23 marca 1103 w Tars) – książę Burgundii w latach 1078-1103. Panował jako książę po abdykacji brata, który został benedyktyńskim mnichem. +W 1078 walczył po stronie Filipa I, króla Francji, podczas jego konfliktu z Hugonem I du Puiset. W 1087 walczył z Maurami w Hiszpanii i brał udział w podbiciu Toledo. Nie brał udziału w I krucjacie, ale za to uczestniczył w nieudanej wyprawie do Ziemi Świętej w 1101. Kronikarze opisywali go jako człowieka okrutnego i brutalnego, który nakładał okup na podróżujących przez jego ziemie. Został pochowany jest w Cîteaux. +Piotr Cywiński (historyk) + +Piotr Mateusz A. Cywiński (ur. 16 kwietnia 1972 w Warszawie) – historyk mediewista, zaangażowany w dialog międzykulturowy, dyrektor Państwowego Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau, współtwórca i prezes Fundacji Auschwitz-Birkenau; w latach 2000–2010 prezes Klubu Inteligencji Katolickiej w Warszawie. +Życiorys. +Syn Bohdana Cywińskiego i Marii-Małgorzaty, córki Zbigniewa Łoskota. W latach 1982–1993 mieszkał w Szwajcarii i we Francji wskutek emigracji politycznej ojca. +Historyk mediewista, absolwent Uniwersytetu Humanistycznego w Strasburgu (1993) i Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego (1995). Doktor w Instytucie Historii PAN (2001). +W latach 1996–2000 był wiceprezesem, a w latach 2000–2010 prezesem Klubu Inteligencji Katolickiej w Warszawie. W 2002 współtworzył Forum Świętego Wojciecha, organizującego międzynarodowe Zjazdy Gnieźnieńskie, przewodniczył Forum do stycznia 2009. W latach 2004–2008 był prezesem na Europę światowej federacji intelektualistów katolickich Pax Romana. Ekumenista, od maja 2002 członek Zespołu Episkopatu Polski do rozmów z Kościołem greckokatolickim na Ukrainie. Uczestnik także dialogu polsko-żydowskiego, chrześcijańsko-żydowskiego oraz rozmów między kulturami pogranicza. +W latach 2000–2002 w ramach Instytutu Adama Mickiewicza współkierował Festiwalem "Europalia 2001 Polska", następnie stworzył serwis internetowy Diapozytyw.pl, w którym dostępne były informacje o historii i kulturze żydowskiej w Polsce. W okresie 2001–2004 członek Rady Konsultacyjnej Organizacji Pozarządowych przy Polskiej Radzie Integracji Europejskiej. +Od 2000 członek, a w latach 2000–2006 Sekretarz Międzynarodowej Rady Oświęcimskiej. Od 1 września 2006 Dyrektor Państwowego Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau. Współtwórca Międzynarodowego Centrum Edukacji o Auschwitz i Holokauście i wiceprezes Rady tego Centrum. W 2009, współtwórca i prezes Fundacji Auschwitz-Birkenau. +Od 2009 roku jest członkiem Rady Muzeów przy Ministrze Kultury (kadencja IV i V), a w 2010 roku został powołany na 4-letnią kadencję jako członek Rady Ochrony Pamięci Walk i Męczeństwa. Ponadto jest wiceprzewodniczącym Rady Muzeum Tradycji Niepodległościowych w Łodzi, członkiem pierwszej kadencji Rady, a od 2012 roku Rady Powierniczej Muzeum II Wojny Światowej w Gdańsku. Członek Rady Fundacji na rzecz Maximilian-Kolbe-Werk, założonej przez Konferencję Episkopatu Niemiec. Od 2011 r. członek zarządu stowarzyszenia Pamięci Maison d'Izieu we Francji. +W 2008 był ambasadorem Europejskiego Roku Dialogu Międzykulturowego. W wyborach w 2004 kandydował do Parlamentu Europejskiego z ramienia Unii Wolności. +W latach 2005–2007 Piotr Cywiński był wiceprezesem Stowarzyszenia Wikimedia Polska, a w latach 2007-2012 - członkiem Komisji Rewizyjnej tego stowarzyszenia. +Odznaczenia i nagrody. +W 2006 roku został odznaczony przez prezydenta Lecha Kaczyńskiego Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi w 2006. 15 kwietnia 2008 został również przez niego odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, a 20 stycznia 2010 Krzyżem Oficerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. +W 2012 otrzymał Krzyż Kawalerski belgijskiego Orderu Korony, a także przyznawaną przez ministra spraw zewnętrznych odznakę honorową "Bene Merito". +Był nominowany do nagrody TOTUS (edycja 2008) w kategorii "Osiągnięcia w dziedzinie kultury chrześcijańskiej". +Michaił Fradkow + +Michaił Jefimowicz Fradkow, ros. "Михаил Ефимович Фрадков" (ur. 1 września 1950 we wsi Kurumocz k. Samary) – rosyjski ekonomista i polityk; przez wiele lat pracował w radzieckich instytucjach handlu zagranicznego; w latach 90. był szefem rosyjskich Ministerstw – Zagranicznych Stosunków Gospodarczych oraz Handlu; w latach 2001-2003 kierował policją podatkową; od 5 marca 2004 do 14 września 2007 Premier Federacji Rosyjskiej; od 9 października 2007 stoi na czele Służby Wywiadu Zagranicznego. +Wykształcenie. +W 1972 ukończył studia w zakresie inżynierii mechanicznej w Moskwie, a w 1981 studia ekonomiczne w Akademii Handlu Zagranicznego. Posiada stopień kandydata (odpowiednik stopnia doktora) nauk ekonomicznych. +Życiorys. +Po ukończeniu studiów przez wiele lat pracował w przedsiębiorstwach i instytucjach handlu zagranicznego. W latach 1973-1975 był pracownikiem biura radcy handlowego Ambasady ZSRR w Indiach. Od 1975 pracował w przedsiębiorstwie handlu zagranicznego "Tjażpromeksport", a od 1984 był zastępcą naczelnika głównego zarządu dostaw Państwowego Komitetu ds. Stosunków Gospodarczych. Od 1988 pełnił funkcję zastępcy naczelnika głównego zarządu koordynacji i regulacji zagranicznych operacji gospodarczych w Ministerstwie Zagranicznych Stosunków Gospodarczych ZSRR. +W latach 1991-1992 był zastępcą stałego przedstawiciela Rosji przy GATT w Genewie. W latach 1992-1998 pracował na kierowniczych stanowiskach rosyjskiego Ministerstwa Zagranicznych Stosunków Gospodarczych: od 19 października 1992 był wiceministrem, od 12 października 1993 pierwszym wiceministrem. 26 marca 1997 został czasowo pełniącym obowiązki ministra stosunków gospodarczych z zagranicą i handlu, a 16 kwietnia ministrem (w rządzie Wiktora Czernomyrdina). 30 kwietnia Ministerstwo zostało zlikwidowane, a Fradkow stanął na czele komisji likwidacyjnej. +14 maja 1998 zgromadzenie akcjonariuszy kompanii ubezpieczeniowej "Ingosstrach" wybrało go na stanowisko przewodniczącego rady dyrektorów, zaś 23 lutego 1999 Fradkow objął w tej firmie funkcję dyrektora generalnego. +25 maja 1999 powrócił do pracy w rządzie, obejmując stanowisko ministra handlu, tym razem w gabinecie kierowanym przez Siergieja Stiepaszyna. Stanowisko to zachował także w rządzie Władimira Putina, działającym od sierpnia do maja 2000. Nie wszedł natomiast w skład rządu Michaiła Kasjanowa, powołanego 7 maja 2000. +Jako członek kierownictwa ministerstw odpowiedzialnych za kontakty gospodarcze z zagranicą wchodził w skład różnych międzyresortowych oraz międzyrządowych komisji ds. międzynarodowej współpracy ekonomicznej z krajami WNP, Stanami Zjednoczonymi i państwami europejskimi. +31 maja 2000 został pierwszym zastępcą sekretarza Rady Bezpieczeństwa Federacji Rosyjskiej odpowiedzialnym za bezpieczeństwo gospodarcze, a 28 marca 2001 stanął na czele Federalnej Służby Policji Podatkowej, odpowiedzialnej za ściganie przestępstw podatkowych i kierował nią do jej rozwiązania w marcu 2003. W maju tego samego roku został pełnomocnym przedstawicielem Rosji przy Unii Europejskiej w randze ministra z siedzibą w Brukseli. Dodatkowo, w czerwcu został także mianowany specjalnym przedstawicielem prezydenta Rosji ds. rozwoju stosunków z Unią Europejską. +1 marca 2004 prezydent Putin zgłosił Dumie Państwowej kandydaturę Fradkowa do objęcia funkcji premiera Federacji Rosyjskiej. 5 marca Duma udzieliła mu wotum zaufania. Na stanowisku szefa rządu zastąpił Wiktora Christienkę, który był pełniącym obowiązki premiera od czasu dymisji Michaiła Kasjanowa (24 lutego). 7 maja 2004, zgodnie z Konstytucją, Fradkow złożył pełnomocnictwa swego rządu na ręce nowo zaprzysiężonego (na drugą kadencję) prezydenta Putina. Tego samego dnia Putin po raz kolejny zaproponował Fradkowa jako kandydata na premiera. 12 maja 2004 Duma zatwierdziła jego kandydaturę. +Fradkow w swojej polityce zapowiadał skupienie się na dążeniu do wzrostu gospodarczego, walce z ubóstwem, reformie sił zbrojnych oraz zwiększeniu bezpieczeństwa. Jako premier Fradkow ograniczany był przepisami Konstytucji oraz specyfiką rosyjskiego systemu politycznego, w którym szef rządu staje się w praktyce wykonawcą woli prezydenta. W istocie Fradkow w niewielkim stopniu prowadził samodzielną politykę, pozostając "premierem technicznym" w znaczący sposób podporządkowanym decyzjom prezydenta Władimira Putina. +12 września 2007 Fradkow podał się do dymisji, podając jako powód "zbliżające się ważne wydarzenia polityczne". Prezydent Władimir Putin przyjął jego rezygnację, jednocześnie powierzając mu tymczasowe kierowanie gabinetem do czasu uzyskania przez jego następcę wotum zaufania w Dumie Państwowej. 9 października 2007 został powołany na stanowisko szefa Służby Wywiadu Zagranicznego. +Został odznaczony m.in. Orderem Zasług dla Ojczyzny I i II klasy (2007, 2005) oraz Orderem Honoru. +Mikstat + +Mikstat (niem. "Mixtadt", "Mixstadt", "Mixtad") – miasto w woj. wielkopolskim, w powiecie ostrzeszowskim. Siedziba gminy miejsko-wiejskiej Mikstat. +Mikstat położony jest na Wzgórzach Ostrzeszowskich, na wysokości 215-220 m nad poziomem morza. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2009 miasto liczyło 1832 mieszkańców. +Położenie. +Mikstat leży w odległości około 10 km od Ostrzeszowa i około 25 km od Ostrowa Wielkopolskiego. Przez miasto przechodzi droga wojewódzka nr 447: Antonin-Grabów nad Prosną. +Historia. +Początki miejscowości sięgają X wieku. Pierwotnie Mikstat nosił nazwę Mixstadt (niem. "Mücke" – komar, "Stadt" – miasto). Nazwa wywodzi się od pobliskiej wsi Komorów. Prawa miejskie otrzymał około roku 1366. Wydano wówczas przywilej, w którym Janko – syn Mikołaja Zaremby, pan i dziedzic na Komorowie – sprzedaje wójtostwo w mieście Mixtad. Po pożarze (1479) odbudowane w roku 1528 otrzymało od Zygmunta Starego powtórny akt lokacyjny co przyczyniło się do ożywienia gospodarczego w mieście. W 1590 Zygmunt III Waza nadaje miastu przywilej na cztery jarmarki w roku. Od czasów zaborów stopniowo tracił na znaczeniu. W 1942 roku landrat ostrowski podjął decyzję o przesiedleniu w okolicę miasta ok. 2000 Polaków (tzw. Polenreservat) – robotników przymusowych. W 1943 akcję zarzucono. Obecnie związany z powiatem ostrzeszowskim, w przeszłości także z powiatem ostrowskim (1934-1955) i kępińskim (przed 1934 – przejściowo należał do niego Ostrzeszów wraz z okolicami). W latach 1975-1998 miasto administracyjnie należało do woj. kaliskiego. Z Mikstatem związani są także poseł Andrzej Grzyb i pedagog i budowniczy Bogdan Toboła, w Mikstacie urodził się także Rafał Dutkiewicz – prezydent Wrocławia. +Herb miasta. +Herbem miasta są dwie białe lilie ze złotą przepaską na czerwonym tle. +Lapsang souchong + +Lapsang souchong (正山小种, pinyin "zhèngshān xiǎozhǒng") – rodzaj chińskiej czarnej herbaty. +Jedynie "Souchong" oznacza tu nazwę gatunku herbaty, która jest fermentowana dopóki nie osiągnie wyraziście czarnego koloru. "Lapsang souchong" jest natomiast wynikiem dodatkowego „wędzenia” liści herbacianych nad ogniskiem z drzewa sosnowego lub cedrowego. +Lapsang souchong jest uważany za „męską herbatę”. Wynika to z jego bardzo silnego i bardzo wyrazistego smaku i aromatu – bywa czasami porównywany do smaku szkockiej whisky lub cygar. +Henryk de Bourgogne + +Henryk, książę de Bourgogne (ur. ok. 1035 - zm. 1066/74) - był drugim synem księcia Burgundii, Roberta I. +The Dance (album Within Temptation) + +The Dance (EP) – wydany w 1998 roku mini-album holenderskiej kapeli metalowej Within Temptation. Zawarto na nim trzy nowe kompozycje, a także dwa ponownie zmiksowane utwory z debiutanckiej płyty "Enter". W odróżnieniu od późniejszych albumów grupy brzmienie "The Dance" jest bardziej gotyckie i melancholijne. Płyta wraz z albumem "Enter" została wydana 18 września 2007 roku w Stanach Zjednoczonych przez wytwórnię płytową Season of Mist. +Nerka (ujednoznacznienie) + +Inne +Portishead (grupa muzyczna) + +Portishead (IPA: [pɔːtɪsˈhɛd]) – brytyjski triphopowy zespół muzyczny utworzony w 1991 w Bristolu w Wielkiej Brytanii. +Nazwa zespołu pochodzi od nazwy małego miasteczka oddalonego 12 mil od Bristolu, w którym urodził się założyciel zespołu Geoff Barrow. +Historia zespołu. +Zespół został założony w roku 1991 przez klawiszowca Geoffa Barrowa (artystę związanego wcześniej z takimi trip-hopowymi zespołami jak Massive Attack, czy Tricky) oraz wokalistkę Beth Gibbons. Nazwa zespołu to jednocześnie nazwa miasta, w którym urodził się Geoff Barrow. +Kariera Portishead zaczęła się dość nietypowo, bo od nakręcenia ścieżki dźwiękowej do filmu "To Kill a Dead Man", która to ścieżka wzbudziła duże zainteresowanie kilku wytwórni płytowych. Z jedną z nich, GO!Beat, zespół wkrótce podpisał kontrakt. +Pierwszy album, "Dummy" został nagrany w roku 1994 przy dużym wkładzie gitarzysty Adriana Ulteya. Album okazał się być ogromnym sukcesem w Europie oraz Stanach Zjednoczonych. Dwa najbardziej rozpoznawalne utwory z tej płyty to "Sour Times" i "Glory Box". Rok po wydaniu płyty, Portishead zostało uhonorowane nagrodą Mercury Music Prize. +Drugą płytę, zatytułowaną po prostu "Portishead", zespół nagrał trzy lata później, w roku 1997. Choć bardziej dopracowany i przez wielu uważany za bardzo dobry, album nie odniósł tak dużego sukcesu, jak "Dummy". +Po ośmiu latach przerwy, w 2005 roku zespół reaktywował się i rozpoczął nagrywanie nowej płyty. 23 stycznia 2008 na oficjalnej stronie zespołu pojawiła się oficjalna informacja o tym, że nowy album grupy będzie nosił tytuł "Third". Ukazał się on 28 kwietnia 2008 roku. +Skład zespołu. +oraz +Klatka bezpieczeństwa + +Klatka bezpieczeństwa to konstrukcja przestrzenna, która ma za zadanie przeciwdziałać poważnym odkształceniom nadwozia w razie wypadku lub wywrócenia samochodu. Używana w sportach samochodowych. +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 1968 + +XIX Igrzyska Olimpijskie odbyły się w 1968 roku w Meksyku. +Meksykańskie igrzyska przeszły do historii jako jedne z bardziej upolitycznionych. Dziesięć dni przed uroczystym otwarciem imprezy studenci, protestujący przeciwko finansowaniu przez państwo tak wielkiego przedsięwzięcia (biorąc pod uwagę ubóstwo społeczeństwa), starli się z armią rządową. W wyniku walk śmierć poniosło 250 protestujących, a ponad tysiąc trafiło do szpitali. +Po raz kolejny nie dopuszczono do udziału w igrzyskach państw prowadzących politykę rasistowską (RPA i Rodezja). Natomiast po raz pierwszy reprezentacje Zachodnich i Wschodnich Niemiec występowały oddzielnie. Nowością było przeprowadzenie testów antydopingowych oraz testów płci. +Michał Kleofas Ogiński + +Michał Kleofas Ogiński, z Retowa, książę, (ur. 7 października 1765 w Guzowie, zm. 15 października 1833 we Florencji) – polski kompozytor, podskarbi wielki litewski (1793–1796), miecznik wielki litewski od 1789 roku, senator rosyjski, członek konfederacji targowickiej, członek konfederacji grodzieńskiej 1793 roku, uczestnik insurekcji kościuszkowskiej (na Litwie w 1794), konspirator niepodległościowy (po 1795), działacz emigracyjny, mason, kawaler maltański. +Biografia. +Urodził się w Guzowie niedaleko Sochaczewa. W 1788 został kawalerem Orderu Świętego Stanisława. W 1789 został kawalerem Orderu Orła Białego. Nadzwyczajny poseł koronny w Holandii (1790–1791). Na sejmie grodzieńskim w 1793 roku został mianowany przez króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego członkiem deputacji do traktowania z posłem rosyjskim Jakobem Sieversem. +Sejm grodzieński (1793) nominował go do Rady Nieustającej. +Brał udział w powstaniu 1794 na Litwie. Później był agentem polskim w Konstantynopolu i w Paryżu. W 1802 r. po rozwodzie z Izabelą Lasocką, ożenił się z włoską śpiewaczką Marią de Neri. W 1810 r. wycofał się z działalności emigracyjnej i został senatorem rosyjskim. Odziedziczył po swoim stryju Franciszku Ksawerym Ogińskim (1742–1814) piękną posiadłość Zalesie – położone w połowie drogi między Wilnem a Mińskiem. W 1822 r. przeniósł się na stałe do Włoch i w 1823 zamieszkał we Florencji. +Pochowany w Panteonie wielkich osobowości w kościele Santa Croce obok Galileusza, Michała Anioła, Rossiniego, Machiavellego, Księżnych Czartoryskich. +Komponował polonezy fortepianowe, romanse, pieśni, kadryle, menueta, walce oraz jedną operę pod tytułem „Zélis et Valcour ou Bonaparte au Caire” ("Zelis i Valcour czyli Napoleon w Egipcie") w jednym akcie. Jednakże opera ta nigdy nie doczekała się wystawienia. Jest autorem "Listów o muzyce" oraz pamiętników „O Polsce i Polakach: od roku 1788 aż do końca roku 1815” wydanych po francusku jako „Mémoires de Michel Oginski sur la Pologne et les Polonais, deputs 1788 jusqu’a la fin de 1815.” w Paryżu w 1827 roku. Najbardziej rozpoznawany z poloneza a-moll "Pożegnanie Ojczyzny", który został napisany przez jego stryja, Michała Kazimierza Ogińskiego. +Dotychczas uważano, że melodia hymnu narodowego Polski do słów Wybickiego była wzięta z pieśni ludowej z Podlasia, a autorstwo melodii Ogińskiego wynika z nieporozumienia, bowiem Ogiński w 1797 r. posłał generałowi Dąbrowskiemu podobnie nazwany utwór "Marsz dla Legionów". Jednakże ostatnio prowadzone badania historyczne przez jednego z potomków księcia Ogińskiego (Andrzeja Załuskiego) próbują wykazać, że to Ogiński był autorem melodii hymnu. +Od 2008 roku w Iwoniczu-Zdroju odbywa się Festiwal im. Księcia Michała Kleofasa Ogińskiego, podczas którego wykonywane są zarówno utwory Ogińskiego, jak i współczesnych mu kompozytorów polskich. Inicjatorem i dyrektorem artystycznym Festiwalu jest prof. Andrzej Pikul z Akademii Muzycznej w Krakowie. +Henryk Zieliński + +[[Plik:Henryk Zielinski IDphoto July1970.jpg|thumb|180px|prof. Henryk Zieliński, 1970 ]] +Henryk Zieliński (ur. 22 września 1920 r. w Szembruczku koło Grudziądza, zm. 6 marca 1981 we Wrocławiu) – historyk, profesor zwyczajny Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. Syn nauczyciela języka polskiego na pograniczu polsko-niemieckim na Pomorzu, żołnierz kampanii wrześniowej w 1939, ranny w bitwie nad Bzurą, jeniec oflagów i stalagów. Po zwolnieniu z obozu i przybyciu do Krakowa w 1944 student tajnego Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, a po zakończeniu wojny absolwent tej uczelni. Wieloletni pracownik naukowy Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego (w latach 1970-1972 – profesor Uniwersytetu Śląskiego w Katowicach). Odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Polonia Restituta i Medalem Komisji Edukacji Narodowej. +Życie. +Młodość. +Henryk Zieliński był synem Juliusza Zielińskiego, nauczyciela w szkole polskiej w Zakrzewie (pow. złotowski), siostrzeńcem prezesa Związku Polaków w Niemczech, księdza Bolesława Domańskiego. Jako gimnazjalista przeszedł (od września 1935 do czerwca 1937) letni kurs II stopnia "szkoły starszych przysposobienia wojskowego" organizowany przez 64 Grudziądzki Pułk Piechoty. Maturę zdał w Grudziądzu (w Państwowym Gimnazjum Klasycznym im. Króla Jana III Sobieskiego) i tam też podjął służbę w podchorążówce 65 Starogardzkiego Pułku Piechoty (wchodzącego w skład tej samej 16 Pomorskiej Dywizji Piechoty, co Pułk Grudziądzki), w którym w lipcu 1939 otrzymał stopień tytularnego kaprala z cenzusem i tytuł podchorążego rezerwy. +W sierpniu 1939 otrzymał przydział do 64 Pomorski Pułk Strzelców Murmańskich; oddział ten skierowany został na nadgraniczne stanowisko wyczekiwania w okolicach Łasina. Po wybuchu II wojny światowej, podczas kampanii wrześniowej walczył w stopniu plutonowego podchorążego. W bitwie nad Bzurą został ranny w rękę. Szpital polowy w Sannikach, w którym go opatrzono, wkrótce przejęli Niemcy i w ten sposób trafił do niewoli. Niemieccy lekarze wyleczyli jego rany w szpitalu w Łodzi, skąd skierowano go do oflagu, a później do innych obozów jenieckich. Usiłował z nich uciec dwukrotnie, aż dopiero wiosną roku 1944 udało mu się oszukać obozowego lekarza i 15 kwietnia 1944 został z obozu zwolniony. +Studia i praca. +Z obozu przyjechał do siostry do Krakowa i podjął studia na tajnym Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Kontynuował je po wojnie pod kierunkiem prof. Józefa Feldmana i prof. Kazimierza Piwarskiego. Przez pewien czas mieszkał w domu akademickim, działał w Bratniej Pomocy (przez pewien czas był wiceprezesem i prezesem tej organizacji); potem przez rok mieszkał u Jerzego Turowicza przy ul. Krupniczej, utrzymując się z pracy w gazecie jako korektor, a także w Państwowym Liceum Administracji Handlowej jako nauczyciel. +W lutym 1948 otrzymał dyplom magistra historii. Działając w Bratniej Pomocy poznał swą przyszłą żonę Hannę, studiującą na UJ farmację. Prof. Karol Maleczyński zaproponował Henrykowi Zielińskiemu etat starszego asystenta na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim, gdzie podjął pracę 15 lutego 1949. Od tego dnia, z paroletnią przerwą na początku lat 70., Henryk Zieliński aż do śmierci związany był z tą uczelnią. Niemal przez wszystkie te lata również mieszkał (wraz z rodziną) we Wrocławiu. Na UWr. podjął też studia na drugim fakultecie (prawo), jednak po dwóch latach (w 1951) z nich zrezygnował. +W 1950 obronił doktorat z historii, w 1955 powołano go na stanowisko docenta. Tytuł profesora nadzwyczajnego otrzymał w 1962. W latach 1965-1966 był dziekanem Wydziału Filozoficzno-Historycznego UWr. Tytuł profesora zwyczajnego otrzymał w 1971 – w okresie, kiedy od 1970 do 1972 roku mieszkał w Katowicach i pracował na Uniwersytecie Śląskim; piastował tam funkcję dziekana Wydziału Humanistycznego i dyrektora Instytutu Historii. Po powrocie do Wrocławia objął na Uniwersytecie Wrocławskim kierownictwo Zakładu Historii Polski i Powszechnej XX wieku; funkcję tę pełnił do śmierci. +Zainteresowania naukowe. +Zainteresowania Henryka Zielińskiego początkowo kierowały się ku problematyce związanej z dziejami Polaków zamieszkujących od pokoleń na obszarach podlegających germanizacji, a które w wyniku traktatu wersalskiego nadal przypadać miały Niemcom. Niemały udział w tym ukierunkowaniu się jego zainteresowań miały losy jego własne i jego rodziny na ziemi złotowskiej. +Późniejsze jego prace coraz częściej zmierzały ku ogólniejszemu spojrzeniu na historię Polski 2. poł. XIX i 1. poł. XX wieku. +Pod koniec życia prof. Zieliński zainteresował się polską myślą polityczną XIX i XX wieku. Był inicjatorem podjęcia gruntownych badań w tym zakresie, zmierzających do wydania serii prac "Polska myśl polityczna XIX i XX w.", z których pierwsza ukazała się w 1975. +Równocześnie pracował nad podręcznikiem "Historia Polski 1914 – 1939". Nie dożył wydania książkowego; nagła śmierć w marcu 1981 przerwała autokorektę tej książki. Opóźnienie, które w ten sposób powstało, spowodowało, że podręcznika nie udało się wydać przed wprowadzeniem w Polsce stanu wojennego, a obowiązująca cenzura nie dopuściła, mimo starań rodziny i współpracowników profesora, do umieszczenia w książce całego szeregu niewygodnych dla ówczesnej władzy informacji, które prof. Zieliński zamieścił w wersji do korekty. Nie było też wiadomo, jakie dalsze uzupełnienia zamierzał autor wprowadzić w książce na fali krótkotrwałej – i również ograniczonej – jawności okresu pierwszej „Solidarności”. Książka wydana została dopiero w roku 1983 okrojona przez cenzurę. Wycięto z niej fragment o tajnym protokole paktu Ribbentrop-Mołotow, z tekstu o wkroczeniu do Polski Sowietów 17 września 1939 pozostawiono tylko enigmatyczny akapit o "przesunięciu granic" oraz usunięto fotografię wspólnej defilady sowiecko-niemieckiej w Brześciu. Książka ukazała się w lipcu 1983 w 100 tys. egzemplarzy i wkrótce wydawca dodrukował kolejne 100 tysięcy egzemplarzy, ponieważ cały nakład został wyczerpany. Cztery spośród ingerencji cenzury udało się współpracownikom profesora zidentyfikować i odtworzyć związane z nimi wcześniejsze zamiary autora. Te cztery uzupełniające fragmenty zostały zamieszczone na wydrukowanej dodatkowo ulotce (na ilustracji obok), którą sieć kolporterów wydawnictw podziemnych rozprowadziła wśród czytelników książki. +W kontekście problematyki daty 17 września 1939 i okrojonej przez Główny Urząd Kontroli Publikacji i Widowisk wersji wspomnianej książki, w wydanym wiele lat po śmierci prof. Zielińskiego, w r. 2004, podręczniku szkolnym Matusika i Kochanowskiego dla liceów, użyto dwóch fragmentów książek autorstwa H. Zielińskiego do zilustrowania problemów, z jakimi borykać się musieli historycy w PRL, żeby przemycić do wiadomości publicznej informacje, które były niewygodne obowiązującej wówczas doktrynie politycznej. Jeden z fragmentów pochodził ze wspomnianej publikacji z 1983, a drugi, obszerniejszy (mniej ocenzurowany), z wydanej w 1971 ""Historii Polski 1864-1939"". Ten ze starszej publikacji, wydanej w okresie gierkowskiej "odwilży", zawierał skreślone przez cenzurę Jaruzelskiego akapity opisujące pakt Ribbentrop-Mołotow wraz z jego tajnymi protokołami i postanowieniami w nich zawartymi. +Działalność społeczno-polityczna. +Jako student Henryk Zieliński w manifestacji trzeciomajowej w Krakowie w r. 1946 głośno wykrzykiwał patriotyczne hasła, zaszczepione mu jeszcze w rodzinnej ziemi złotowskiej przed wojną, za co trafił na krótko do aresztu. +W roku 1949 Henryk Zieliński zapisał się do PZPR. Po latach, na publicznym spotkaniu w uniwersyteckiej Auli Leopoldina, kilka dni przed jego śmiercią, zarówno ten krok, jak i swoją działalność w pierwszej połowie lat pięćdziesiątych określił słowami: ""dałem się zmanipulować..."" +Później prof. H. Zieliński wciąż wierzył, że możliwe są korekty panującego systemu, że da się pogodzić prawość i uczciwość ludzi z ideologią realnego socjalizmu. Wiara ta ulegała ciągłej destrukcji, najpierw po "odwilży" roku 1956, później po wydarzeniach marcowych w 1968, po inwazji na Czechosłowację w sierpniu tego samego roku, po wydarzeniach grudniowych w 1970, wreszcie po strajkach sierpniowych 1980. +Jego postawa w 1968 roku – zdecydowany sprzeciw wobec sterowanej przez władze PRL nagonki antysemickiej, wyrażony także na forum Senatu Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego i udział w spotkaniach z protestującymi studentami – została oczywiście dostrzeżona przez SB i poskutkowała wkrótce przylepieniem mu, w zamierzeniu dyskredytującej, etykiety prosyjonisty, syjonisty albo "Żyda". Wkrótce został zmuszony do opuszczenia Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego i wyjazdu do Katowic, gdzie właśnie tworzył się Uniwersytet Śląski. Wrócił stamtąd jednak do Wrocławia po trzech latach, kiedy profesor Kazimierz Popiołek, który go poprosił o pomoc przy tworzeniu UŚ, został zastąpiony na stanowisku rektora przez wysłannika Edwarda Gierka, a równocześnie doszło do konfliktów na tle niedostatecznie proletariackich programów badawczych prof. H. Zielińskiego, i gdy otwarcie sprzeciwiał się on próbom przyjmowania na studia (bez zdawania egzaminów wstępnych) dzieci lokalnych partyjnych bonzów. +Po powstaniu Solidarności, we wrześniu 1980, czynnie włączył się w uniwersytecki ruch związkowy. Równocześnie próbował aktywizować w środowisku wrocławskich uczelni tzw. "struktury poziome" PZPR, które wydawały się wówczas dającą się zaakceptować alternatywą dla zhierarchizowanych i sztywnych oficjalnych pionowych struktur tej partii. Próby te, jak się później okazało, skazane były na niepowodzenie. W tym samym okresie był członkiem prezydium Społecznego Komitetu Odbudowy Panoramy Racławickiej i w jego strukturach aktywnie działał w kierunku doprowadzenia do dokończenia budowy rotundy i wystawienia w niej malowidła "Panoramy Racławickiej"; zabiegi te powiodły się cztery lata po śmierci prof. Zielińskiego. +Śmierć. +Późnym wieczorem, w nocy z 5 na 6 marca 1981 prof. Henryk Zieliński wyszedł na swój ostatni spacer z psem. Wkrótce ktoś powiadomił Milicję Obywatelską, że na chodniku leży człowiek, a obok siedzi pies. Podjęte pierwotnie czynności śledcze w ciągu kilkunastu godzin zostały nagle zahamowane. Tylko wrocławska popołudniówka napisała o "zbrodni" tak, jak mówili o tym zdarzeniu obecni na miejscu zdarzenia śledczy i prokuratorzy. Wszystkie późniejsze doniesienia przekazywały już wersję oficjalną o śmierci naturalnej. Śledztwo w końcu umorzono odrzucając wszystkie te spośród przesłanek, które nie pasowały do wersji oficjalnej, i nie podejmując tych tropów, które mogłyby doprowadzić do sprawców. +Spuścizna. +Henryk Zieliński brał udział w pracach działającej w latach 70. dwustronnej Polsko-Niemieckiej Komisji Podręcznikowej (działającej pod auspicjami UNESCO), której zadaniem było usunięcie z programów nauczania szkół polskich i niemieckich bardzo licznych niegdyś przekłamań i stereotypów. +Był również jednym z twórców planu badawczego – i zrębów realizującego ten plan zespołu historyków – dotyczącego dziejów dziewiętnasto- i dwudziestowiecznej polskiej myśli politycznej. +Oprócz licznych artykułów i recenzji w periodykach naukowych i innych czasopismach, książek i pozostałych pozycji bibliograficznych Henryk Zieliński pozostawił grupę uczniów, których część kontynuuje pracę naukową w uniwersyteckich bibliotekach i pracowniach, niektórzy nadto pełnią lub pełnili funkcje publiczne. +Henryk Zieliński otrzymał, obok licznych nagród i odznaczeń lokalnych (wrocławskich i górnośląskich), resortowych, uczelnianych oraz naukowych także odznaczenia państwowe, wśród nich Krzyż Kawalerski Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (25.9.1973) i Krzyż Zasługi (srebrny 22.7.1954 i złoty 12.11.1966). +W osiemdziesiąt dni dookoła świata + +W osiemdziesiąt dni dookoła świata (inne wersje tytułów wydań po polsku: Podróż na około świata w ośmdziesięciu dniach, Podróż naokoło świata w 80-ciu dniach, Podróż naokoło świata w ośmdziesiąt dni, W 80 dni dookoła świata) +(fr. "Le tour du monde en quatre-vingt jours") – najpopularniejsza jednotomowa powieść francuskiego pisarza Juliusza Verne'a, która została opublikowana po raz pierwszy w 1872 roku. Należy do cyklu powieściowego Niezwykłe podróże. +Pierwszy polski przekład, dokonany przez Józefa Grajnerta, został wydany w 1873 roku. Tłumaczenie Zbigniewa Florczaka osiągnęło udokumentowany nakład 788620 egzemplarzy. +Treść. +Głównym bohaterem opowieści jest angielski dżentelmen – Fileas Fogg, znany jako stateczny, bogaty acz skromny samotnik. Zaskoczeniem dla wszystkich jest zdarzenie, podczas którego zakłada się o 20.000 funtów szterlingów ze swoimi znajomymi z gry w wista, że objedzie świat wokoło w ciągu 80 dni. W podróż rusza z nowo najętym, francuskim służącym – Passepartout (w przekładach polskich – Obieżyświat). Po piętach depcze im angielski policjant – Fix, który jest przekonany, że to Fileas Fogg jest sprawcą kradzieży znacznej kwoty pieniędzy z londyńskiego banku. +Podróż, odbywana za pomocą wielu środków lokomocji (pociągi, statki parowe, wierzchem na słoniu czy za pomocą bojera) urozmaicona jest przygodami, które przeszkadzają w punktualnym dotarciu do celu. Spośród licznych przypadków można wspomnieć jak Fogg ratuje Audę, wdowę po hinduskim maharadży od rytuału sati, przeżywa napad Indian na pociąg w czasie podróży przez Stany Zjednoczone, radzi sobie z brakiem paliwa na statku. Również Fix wielokrotnie utrudnia Foggowi podróż, m.in. rozdzielając go na pewien czas ze swoim asystentem. +Punktem kulminacyjnym książki jest paradoks czasowy, związany z przekroczeniem międzynarodowej linii zmiany daty. Pewien zwycięstwa Fogg, już na angielskiej ziemi, zostaje zatrzymany przez Fixa i spędza ostatnią, kluczową dla wygrania zakładu noc w areszcie. Następnego ranka okazuje się, że prawdziwi złodzieje zostali zatrzymani. Fogg, pewien że przegrał, zostaje zaskoczony informacją, że wskutek podróży dookoła świata zyskał jeden dzień, dzięki któremu zjawia się w klubie Reforma dokładnie na oznaczoną godzinę i wygrywa zakład. Książka kończy się małżeństwem Fogga i Audy. +Pochodzenie książki i adaptacje. +Bezpośrednim bodźcem, który skłonił autora do napisania powieści, było otwarcie w 1869 Kanału Sueskiego. Połączył on Morze Śródziemne z Morzem Czerwonym i wyeliminował potrzebę opływania Afryki. +Za życia Verne'a niezwykle popularna (a dla autora dochodowa) była sztuka teatralna na motywach powieści, wystawiana w Paryżu z niezwykłym rozmachem i z udziałem żywych zwierząt (m.in. słonia). +Wraz z wynalezieniem filmu pojawiły się liczne adaptacje filmowe, zazwyczaj istotnie różniące się fabułą od literackiego pierwowzoru (np. w filmie Coracci'ego z 2004 r. głównym bohaterem jest Passepartout, grany przez Jackie Chana.) +Piramidy w Güímarze + +W wiosce Güímar, na wschodnim wybrzeżu Teneryfy, jednej z Wysp Kanaryjskich, znajduje się sześć piramid schodkowych o prostokątnej podstawie. Są one zagadką dla archeologów ze względu na wyraźne podobieństwo do piramid budowanych w Meksyku przez Majów i Azteków. +Odrzucone kamienie. +Przez dłuższy czas uważano, że piramidy to jedynie kupy kamieni ułożone przez miejscowych rolników, którzy znajdowali je podczas orania pól i składali je na skrajach swoich pól. Była to niegdyś częsta praktyka na Wyspach Kanaryjskich. Według miejscowych i starych rysunków oraz zdjęć w wielu miejscach na wyspie istniały takie piramidki, jednak zostały one rozebrane i użyte jako tani materiał budowlany. W samym Güímarze było dziewięć takich piramid, z których zostało jedynie sześć. +Prawdziwe piramidy. +W 1991 słynny odkrywca Thor Heyerdahl zbadał piramidy i odkrył, że nie mogą to być przypadkowe kupy kamieni. Na przykład, kamienie na rogach piramid noszą wyraźne ślady obróbki, a także przed ich budową ziemia została wyrównana. Piramidy zbudowane zostały nie z okolicznych kamieni, lecz ze skał wulkanicznych. Heyerdahl odkrył również, że piramidy zostały ustawione w szczególny sposób ze względów astronomicznych. Podczas przesilenia letniego z platformy na najwyższej z piramid ujrzeć można podwójny zachód słońca; słońce zachodzi za wysokim szczytem górskim, pojawia się ponownie i zachodzi jeszcze raz za kolejną górą. Wszystkie piramidy mają schody po zachodniej stronie, co pozwala wchodzącym na nie rankiem w przesilenie zimowe obserwować wschód słońca. +Mimo tych odkryć, Heyerdahlowi nie udało się ustalić wieku piramid ani odpowiedzieć na pytanie kto je zbudował. Wiadomo jednak, że Guanczowie mieszkali w jaskini pod jedną z piramid. Przed hiszpańskim podbojem Güímar był siedzibą jednego z dziesięciu królów Teneryfy. +W 1998 obszar o wielkości 65 000 m², na którym znajdują się piramidy został udostępniony do zwiedzania jako park etnologiczny. Heyerdahla wsparł finansowo norweski przewoźnik morski Fred Olsen, mieszkający na Teneryfie. Centrum informacyjne zapoznaje zwiedzających z ekspedycjami Heyerdahla i jego teoriami na temat piramid. Dwa pawilony zawierają wystawy poświęcone Heyerdahlowi i modele jego statków, w tym reprodukcję "Ra II" oryginalnych rozmiarów. +Wyniki najnowszych badań archeologicznych wskazują na młody wiek piramid z Wysp Kanaryjskich. Zostały one bowiem zbudowane bezpośrednio na warstwach, zawierających XIX-wieczną ceramikę, z czego wnioskować należy, że również same piramidy zostały zbudowane najwcześniej w tym okresie. Wyklucza to związki obiektów z Guanczami, którzy zamieszkiwali położoną pod piramidami jaskinię w znacznie wcześniejszym okresie. +Literatura. +Maria Cruz Jiménez Gómez/Juan Francisco Navarro Mederos, El complejo de las morras de Chacona (Güímar, Tenerife): resultados del proyecto de investigación, XII Coloquio de Historia Canario-Americana (1996), Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1998, vol. 1. +Benito Juárez + +Benito Juárez (ur. 21 marca 1806, zm. 18 lipca 1872) - meksykański polityk, prezydent Meksyku. +Biografia. +Benito Pablo Juárez García urodził się w wiosce San Pablo Guelatao w stanie Oaxaca. Jego rodzice byli indiańskimi chłopami z ludu Zapoteków i zmarli, gdy Benito miał cztery lata. Pracował przy zbiorach kukurydzy oraz jako pasterz do czasu, gdy ukończył 12 lat, wtedy bowiem 17 grudnia 1818 udał się do miasta Oaxaca w celu zdobycia edukacji i szansy na lepsze życie. W tym czasie był analfabetą i nie znał hiszpańskiego, tylko język zapotecki. +Pracująca jako kucharka siostra pomogła mu znaleźć pracę służącego, a franciszkanin Antonio Salanueva pomógł mu w dostaniu się do seminarium w Oaxaca. Po ukończeniu seminarium w 1827 Benito rozpoczął studia prawnicze. +Adwokatem został w 1834, a sędzią w 1842. Był także gubernatorem stanu Oaxaca w latach 1847-1853. Zmuszony udać się na wygnanie z powodu sprzeciwu wobec rządów wojskowego dyktatora Santa Anny, dwa lata spędził w USA w Nowym Orleanie pracując w fabryce cygar. W 1854 brał udział w tworzeniu tzw. "Planu z Ayutla", który miał się stać podstawą nowej liberalnej rewolucji w Meksyku. W 1856 Juárez ogłosił doktrynę o wzajemnym poszanowaniu praw narodów i swobodzie samodzielnego i suwerennego wyboru ustroju społecznego. +W 1855 liberałom udało doprowadzić do dymisji Santa Anny. W 1857 ogłosili nową federalistyczną konstytucję i utworzyli rząd, w którym Juarez został przewodniczącym Sądu Najwyższego (prezydentem był wówczas Ignacio Comonfort) i prezesem Sądu Najwyższego. Jednak w grudniu 1857 konserwatyści pod dowództwem generała Felixa Zuloagi wszczęli bunt z poparciem wojska i kleru. Juárez został przez nich aresztowany, ale z niewoli uciekł, przewodząc zwolennikom reform najpierw w stanie Queretaro, a następnie w Veracruz. W 1859 podjął radykalną decyzję o konfiskacie majątków kościelnych. Liberałowie ponownie opanowali stolicę kraju w styczniu 1861, a w marcu Juárez został wybrany prezydentem na czteroletnią kadencję. +W tym okresie sytuacja kraju była jednak tragiczna. Bankructwo rządu i zniszczona wojną gospodarka zmusiły Juareza do wstrzymania spłaty długów zagranicznych. Hiszpania, Francja i Anglia zareagowały na to zajęciem Veracruz w grudniu 1861. Hiszpania i Anglia wycofały się wkrótce z interwencji, jednak Napoleon III marzący o wielkim imperium postanowił opanować cały Meksyk. Długi miały stanowić pretekst do interwencji i ustanowienia marionetkowej monarchii z poparciem Francji. Meksykanie wygrali z Francuzami pierwszą bitwę pod Pueblą 5 maja 1862, jednak nie byli w stanie zatrzymać potężnej ekspedycji francuskiej. W 1863 zmusiło to Juáreza i jego rząd do odwrotu na pustynne tereny północnego Meksyku. +W 1864 zostało powołane do życia cesarstwo Meksyku z pochodzącym z rodu Habsburgów cesarzem Maksymilianem. Liberalny Maksymilian zaoferował Juárezowi amnestię i stanowisko premiera, ten jednak odmówił współpracy z najeźdźcami. Wkrótce w związku z rosnącym zagrożeniem ze strony Prus i możliwością interwencji USA francuskie siły okupacyjne zaczęły się wycofywać. W 1867 r. ostatnie siły cesarza Maksymiliana zostały pokonane, a on sam mimo protestów z zagranicy został skazany przez sąd wojskowy na śmierć. Juárez odmówił prawa łaski, a wyrok został wykonany przez rozstrzelanie. +Juárez został jeszcze dwukrotnie wybrany na urząd prezydenta w 1867 i w 1871, jednocześnie umacniał swoją popularność, ale z biegiem czasu jego rządy stawały się coraz bardziej autorytarne (co wyrażało się m.in. w oszustwach wyborczych czy prześladowaniu opozycji – w tym Porfirio Díaza – późniejszego dyktatora Meksyku). Umarł w 1872 na atak serca podczas pracy w swoim gabinecie przy biurku w pałacu prezydenckim w mieście Meksyk. Jego następcą został dotychczasowy minister spraw zagranicznych Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. W niestabilnej po śmierci Juáreza sytuacji do władzy doszły ponownie siły konserwatywne i autokratyczne. +Dzisiaj Benito Juárez jest pamiętany jako wybitny przywódca meksykański, reformator i demokrata. Był zwolennikiem równych praw dla Indian, zmniejszenia wpływów Kościoła, obrońcą niepodległości Meksyku i bohaterem narodowym. Okres jego rządów jest znany jako "wielka reforma" ("La Reforma") obejmująca likwidację majątku kościelnego, poddanie armii kontroli cywilnej, likwidację komun chłopskich i wprowadzenie w życie konstytucji federalistycznej. Był to okres triumfu Meksyku liberalnego, federalistycznego, antyklerykalnego, prokapitalistycznego nad Meksykiem konserwatywnym, centralistycznym i korporacyjnym. +Zamieszki w Belize (2005) + +W Belmopan, stolicy Belize w styczniu 2005 wybuchły zamieszki sprowokowane przez ogłoszenie nowego budżetu, w którym znacznie podniesiono podatki oraz przez niezadowolenie z rządów Zjednoczonej Partii Ludowej, podczas których pogorszyła się sytuacja finansowa kraju. +13 stycznia 2005, rząd Saida Musy ogłosił budżet na rok 2005-2006. Budżet określał między innymi duży wzrost różnego rodzaju podatków, w tym jedenastoprocentową podwyżkę podatku od nieruchomości, pięcioprocentową podwyżkę podatku od instytucji finansowych, ośmioprocentową podatku od papierosów i stuprocentową podatku od rumu. Choć według rządu podatki te są porównywalne do tych z 1998 pod rządami Zjednoczonej Partii Demokratycznej, spowodowały one, w połączeniu z częstymi zarzutami o korupcję, protesty pod budynkiem Zgromadzenia Narodowego, które zaczęły się 15 stycznia. Demonstracje oraz walki z policją trwały przez następny tydzień. +20 stycznia, przedsiębiorcy i związki zawodowe w całym kraju ogłosiły dwudniowy strajk. Jako że pracownicy nie przyszli do pracy, wodociągi w dużej części Belize zostały wyłączone. 21 stycznia, demonstranci rozproszeni byli po całej stolicy. Niektórzy podpalali budynki rządowe i blokowali drogi. Gdy do budynków wchodzili ministrowie, demonstranci rzucali w nich kamieniami i butelkami, co spowodowało interwencję policji. Według doniesień, na niektórych budynkach rządowych zainstalowano kamery, zaś wokół nich wzniesiono barykady. Pod budynkiem Zgromadzenia Narodowego odbyły się masowe protesty, które skończyły się walką między policją a demonstrantami, Rzucali oni kamieniami w policjantów, którzy w odpowiedzi strzelali gumowymi kulami i gazem. Kilku z demonstrantów aresztowano. Zezwolenie na demonstracje skończyło się o godzinie 15, jednak przedłużyły się one jeszcze o godzinę. Po tej godzinie tłumy zostały rozproszone przez policję przy użyciu gazu łzawiącego i gumowych kul. Część działaczy związkowych odciągnięto siłą. +Są to trzecie w historii zamieszki o takiej skali w Belize. Pierwszy raz zdarzył się w latach 50., zaś drugi w latach 80., gdy zaproponowano oddanie części kraju Gwatemali. +Enter (album) + +Enter – debiutancki album studyjny holenderskiej formacji metalowej Within Temptation, wydany 7 kwietnia 1997 roku przez wytwórnię DSFA Records. 18 września 2007 roku płyta została wydana w Stanach Zjednoczonych nakładem wytwórni Season of Mist. Album w porównaniu z późniejszymi studyjnymi wydawnictwami grupy posiada bardziej rozbudowane sekcje instrumentalne i mniejsze partie wokalne. Oprócz mezzosopranu Sharon den Adel na krążku można usłyszeć także deathmetalowy growling Roberta Westerholta. Teksty piosenek poruszają zagadnienia związane z ciemnością, śmiercią, pustką i duchami. +Navassa + +Navassa "(Navassa Island)" – niewielka wyspa na Morzu Karaibskim, w Kanale Jamajskim, w ¼ drogi pomiędzy Haiti i Jamajką, terytorium nieinkorporowane Stanów Zjednoczonych. Pretensje do niej rości sobie również Haiti. +Wyspa została odkryta przez członków wyprawy Krzysztofa Kolumba w 1504. W XVII i XVIII w. była schronieniem piratów. W połowie XIX w. stała się terenem eksploatacji guano. Uznana za terytorium amerykańskie w 1857. Po zakończeniu wydobycia została opuszczona (koniec XIX w.). W związku z powstaniem Kanału Panamskiego wyspa znalazła się w centrum szlaków żeglugowych, dla poprawienia bezpieczeństwa wzniesiono na niej latarnię morską (czynna do 1996). +W 1998 grupa naukowców prowadziła badania wyspy w celu zdobyciu podstawowych informacji o jej środowisku przyrodniczym. W 1999 uznano ją za ścisły rezerwat przyrody. Wyspa ma również znaczenie militarne, dzięki położeniu w pobliżu amerykańskiej bazy wojskowej Guantánamo na Kubie (170 km na południe od Guantanamo) . +Parveen Babi + +Parveen Babi (4 kwietnia 1949 w Junagadh, zm. 20 stycznia 2005 w Bombaju), indyjska aktorka. +Pochodziła z rodziny panującej w księstwie Junagadh w okresie zwierzchności brytyjskiej w Indiach. W połowie lat 70. stała się jedną z najpopularniejszych aktorek Bollywood, kreując w wielu filmach role silnych kobiet, obojętnych na sztywne normy obyczajowe. W najsłynniejszych filmach partnerował jej aktor Amitabh Bachchan. +Utraciwszy dużą popularność, zawiesiła karierę filmową i wyjechała na kilka lat do USA. Po powrocie cierpiała na obsesyjną obawę morderstwa, oskarżając o spisek na jej życie zarówno dawnego partnera filmowego Bachchana, jak i znanych polityków ze świata, m.in. Ala Gore'a. +Zmarła w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach; sąsiedzi zaniepokojeni kilkudniowym brakiem znaku życia wezwali policję, a aktorka została znaleziona martwa w swojej rezydencji. Prawdopodobnie zmarła jednak śmiercią naturalną. +Władysław I Święty + +Władysław I Święty, węg. "I. (Szent) László" (ur. ok. 1040-1048 w Krakowie, zm. 29 lipca 1095 w Nitrze na Węgrzech, obecnie Słowacja) – król Węgier z dynastii Arpadów, stronnik papieża Grzegorza VII podczas jego konfliktu z cesarzem Henrykiem IV, święty Kościoła katolickiego i patron Węgier.__NOTOC__ +W czasie swego panowania wypędziła Pieczyngów z Siedmiogrodu i osadził tam kolonistów węgierskich. Aktywnie też działa na polu chrystianizacji Węgier. W 1092 podczas synodu w Szabolcs nakazał odbudować zniszczone kościoły jednocześnie zabraniając kultywowania wszelkich obyczajów pogańskich. +Kult. +Król Władysław został kanonizowany przez papieża Celestyna III w 1192 roku. W ikonografii św. Władysław przedstawiany jest z insygniami królewskimi. Jego atrybutami są: anioł podający włócznię, chorągiew, krzyż, turban turecki. Wspomnienie liturgiczne w Kościele katolickim obchodzone jest 30 czerwca. +Efekt okopowy + +Efekt okopowy (ang. "trench effect") albo efekt rynny - nazwa zaproponowana do opisu zjawiska, zaobserwowanego i zidentyfikowanego po raz pierwszy podczas pożaru schodów ruchomych na stacji metra Kings Cross w Londynie 18 listopada 1987. Polega na tym, że płomienie pożaru rozprzestrzeniające się wzdłuż nachylonego względem poziomu rowu ("okopu"), jakim jest eskalator ruchomych schodów wraz z poręczami, mają skłonność do "przyklejania się" do palnego dna i poręczy i pełzania w górę zamiast unosić się pionowo, jak mogłoby wynikać ze zwykłych obserwacji ruchu gorących gazów. Efekt ten, w związku z tym, że schody i poręcze na Kings Cross były wykonane z m.in. drewna i innych łatwopalnych materiałów, spowodował niezwykle silne nagrzanie się tych materiałów do temperatury samozapłonu i następnie do gwałtownego wybuchu. Zjawisko to przed rokiem 1987 nie było w ogóle znane, a i w czasie śledztwa w sprawie pożaru na Kings Cross nie od razu zostało rozpoznane. Dzięki odtworzeniu drogą symulacji komputerowej sytuacji zaistniałej w londyńskim metrze skonstatowano nieoczekiwane pełzanie płomieni po dnie rowu (kanału, "okopu"). Nie do końca dowierzając wynikom obliczeń zbudowano model sytuacyjny w skali 1:3, który następnie podpalono i w ten sposób ostatecznie potwierdzono istnienie tego zjawiska. +Fenomen ten jest nałożeniem się dwóch wcześniej już znanych zjawisk: efektu Coandy (nazwanego od nazwiska rumuńskiego naukowca, badacza aerodynamiki Henri Marie Coandă) oraz efektu "rozgorzenia" (ang. "flashover") - gwałtownego zapłonu gazów pożarowych. +Pożar na stacji metra Kings Cross w Londynie + +Pożar na stacji metra Kings Cross w Londynie – stacja londyńskiego metra Kings Cross została zniszczona przez pożar, który wybuchł 18 listopada 1987. +Pożar, zaprószony na schodach ruchomych, najprawdopodobniej od niedogaszonej zapałki, najpierw rozprzestrzeniał się pod tymi schodami po śmieciach, po smarze smarującym cięgła schodów, po drewnianych, plastikowych i gumowych elementach konstrukcji schodów, a następnie w ciągu kilku minut objął całe schody i poręcze, po czym gwałtowną ścianą ognia przeniósł się do znajdującego się nad schodami hallu kasowego zabijając 31 osób spośród pasażerów i personelu metra, nie dając im szans na ucieczkę. +W rezultacie dochodzenia przyczyn pożaru stwierdzono, że odpowiedzialnym za przebieg i skutki pożaru było nieznane dotąd zjawisko fizyczne – efekt okopowy. Po opublikowaniu wyników dochodzenia wprowadzono nowe regulacje w londyńskim metrze (m.in. zaostrzono zakaz palenia), przebudowano schody likwidując drewniane elementy konstrukcji, zainstalowano czujniki dymu, przeciwpożarowe instalacje zraszające. +Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej + +Kluby Inteligencji Katolickiej (KIK) – stowarzyszenia skupiające osoby, które pragną w sposób świadomy przeżywać swoje powołanie katolików świeckich. +Pierwsze kluby (w Warszawie, Krakowie, Poznaniu, Wrocławiu i Toruniu) powstały na fali odwilży październikowej w 1956. W latach 1957-1976 przedstawiciele tych klubów tworzyli w Sejmie rodzaj umiarkowanie opozycyjnego wobec władz przedstawicielstwa środowisk ludzi wierzących. Po 1976 wielu działaczy KIK przeszło do działalności mniej lub bardziej jawnie opozycyjnej, współpracując ze środowiskiem KOR-u, a następnie współtworzyło NSZZ Solidarność. W 1989 środowisko KIK odegrało rolę pomostu między obozem władzy i opozycji solidarnościowej, współtworząc okrągły stół. Po 1989 wielu działaczy KIK-ów (m.in. Tadeusz Mazowiecki) włączyło się aktywnie w dokonujące się przemiany ustrojowe w Polsce. +Struktura i działalność. +Wszystkie KIK-i są stowarzyszeniami niezależnymi względem siebie, posiadają własne statuty, własne władze oraz kapelanów bądź asystentów kościelnych. Dla zapewnienia współpracy między nimi, powołały w 1989 "Porozumienie Klubów", którego asystentem kościelnym jest bp Bronisław Dembowski. Porozumienie Klubów i KIK warszawski uczestniczą w pracach Ogólnopolskiej Rady Ruchów Katolickich. +Pięć najstarszych Klubów przez lata tworzyło unikalną jak na warunki PRL płaszczyznę wymiany myśli, debaty obywatelskiej oraz dialogu różnych środowisk w Polsce. Kluby były bardzo zaangażowane w recepcję idei soborowych, w rozwój ekumenii, w obronę praw człowieka, w powstawianie i rozwój Solidarności, w pomoc internowanym, w przywracanie demokracji i wolności w Polsce w 1989 oraz w proces integracji europejskiej. +Kluby Inteligencji Katolickiej skupiają osoby pragnące w sposób świadomy przeżywać swoje powołanie ludzi świeckich. Do najważniejszych zadań Klubu należy praca formacyjna wśród członków i ich rodzin, praca wychowawcza wśród dzieci i młodzieży, poznawanie i proponowanie rozwiązań ważnych problemów społecznych oraz włączaniu świeckich w pracę duszpasterską Kościoła w Polsce. W ramach pracy Klubów organizowane są spotkania o charakterze formacyjnym, intelektualnym, modlitewnym, kulturalnym. W największym, warszawskim KIKu istnieją również od lat sześćdziesiątych zintegrowane grupy studenckie (Sekcja Kultury, obecnie Drum Bun) oraz Sekcja Rodzin (największa sekcja Klubu) zajmująca się ciągłą formacją dzieci i młodzieży. +Czerpiąc z doświadczeń różnych środowisk katolickich, Kluby starały się zawsze być miejscem przyjaznym ludziom poszukującym drogi swego powołania, środowiskiem otwartym na dialog ekumeniczny i międzyreligijny. Jan Paweł II w swym liście do KIK-ów w 1997 napisał: "doświadczenia, jakie ruch Klubów Inteligencji Katolickiej już posiada, mogą okazać się bardzo przydatne w prawdziwym dialogu z ludźmi poszukującymi sensu życia, czy też pomocne w dążeniu do zmiany nastawień wobec religii i Kościoła u tych, którzy posiadają zbyt uproszczone wizje chrześcijaństwa". +W środowisku Klubowym rodziły się różne ruchy i stowarzyszenia chrześcijańskie i katolickie oraz wiele organizacji i działań obywatelskich. Przykładowo, to Sekcja Rodzin warszawskiego KIK była zaczynem Przymierza Rodzin. Również w warszawskim Klubie powstało Forum Świętego Wojciecha. W wielu miastach KIK-i organizowały Dni Kultury Chrześcijańskiej. Od kilku lat w wielu diecezjach Kluby angażują się w organizację Dni Papieskich. W 2005 grupa młodych działaczy KIKu założyła Inicjatywę Wolna Ukraina wspierającą demokratyczne wybory na Ukrainie (okres "Pomarańczowej Rewolucji"), a w 2006 ze środowiska KIK wyłoniła się Inicjatywa Wolna Białoruś. W roku 2007 wyszedł pierwszy numer czasopisma "Kontakt", redagowanego przez studentów i doktorantów związanych z KIK. +KIK w Warszawie. +Warszawski Klub od 1971 jest członkiem Międzynarodowego Ruchu Intelektualistów Katolickich "Pax Romana". Przez lata 70. i 80. kontakty Pax Romana pozwalały środowisku Klubowemu na utrzymywanie stosunków z wieloma ruchami i organizacjami katolickimi poza żelazną kurtyną. W 2004 w Warszawie, w Senacie RP, odbył się światowy kongres Pax Romana, podczas którego prezes warszawskiego KIK-u – Piotr Cywiński – został prezesem na Europę Pax Romana na kadencję 2004-2008. Podczas kongresu w 2008, Julia Koszewska - członek Prezydium warszawskiego KIK - została wybrana do europejskiego zarządu Pax Romana ICMICA/MIIC. +Sekcja studencka Drum Bun jest także członkiem międzynarodowej organizacji studentów katolickich IMCS oraz jej regionalnej koordynacji: JECI-MIEC European Coordination. W latach w skład zarządu JECI-MIEC weszła reprezentantka Drum Buna: Julia Stysiak, a w latach (w tym w roku 2007 jako Koordynator Europejski): Julia Koszewska- obecnie viceprezes warszawskiego KIK. Jako reprezentantka JECI-MIEC'u Julia Koszewska weszła w skład FBEG (Faith-Based Expert Group) - grupy eksperckiej ds. dialogu międzyreligijnego i międzykulturowego Europejskiego Forum Młodzieżowego przez 2 kadencje grupy: 2007, oraz 2008. +Obecnie funkcję prezesa warszawskiego KIK pełni Joanna Święcicka. Przez poprzednie 10 lat funkcję tę pełnił Piotr Cywiński. +Z warszawskim Klubem związanych jest wiele nazwisk chrześcijańskiego laikatu, m.in. Wojciech Arkuszewski, Maria Krzysztof Byrski, Bohdan Cywiński, Piotr Cywiński, Ludwik Dembiński, Iza Dzieduszycka, Juliusz Eska, Andrzej Friszke, Piotr Kapela, Stefan Kisielewski, Jerzy Kłoczowski, Julia Koszewska, Zofia Kozłowska, Zygmunt Kubiak, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Jacek Michałowski, Zbigniew Nosowski, Andrzej Paszewski, Hanna Przeciszewska, Andrzej Strzelecki, Feliks Sawicki, Zygmunt Skórzyński, Adam Stanowski, Andrzej Stelmachowski, Stanisław Stomma, Krzysztof Śliwiński, Andrzej Święcicki, Stefan Swieżawski, Jan Turnau, Jerzy Turowicz, Aniela Urbanowicz, Andrzej Wielowieyski, Stefan Wilkanowicz, Henryk Wujec, Jerzy Zawieyski i inni. +KIK w Lublinie. +Swoistym wyjątkiem na tle ruchu KIK-ów jest Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej w Lublinie. Został założony przez Ryszarda Bendera w 1976. Jako jedyny Klub, nigdy nie należał do „Porozumienia KIKów”. +Historia. +Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej (początkowo pod nazwą Ogólnopolski Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej) powstał w Warszawie jesienią 1956, dzięki liberalizacji, jaka dokonała się w Polsce na skutek "październikowego" przełomu. Wiosną 1957 utworzono dalsze cztery lokalne KIK-i, którym władze pozwoliły na działalność w Krakowie, Poznaniu, Toruniu i Wrocławiu. Rejestracji dalszych odmówiła ówczesna władza. Kolejne Kluby mogły powstać dopiero w 1980. Dziś w Polsce jest ich ponad sześćdziesiąt. +Ten nowy ruch inteligencji katolickiej uzyskał w styczniu 1957 pozwolenie na wyłonienie swej reprezentacji parlamentarnej w postaci 5. osobowego koła poselskiego "Znak". Na jego czele stanął pisarz katolicki Jerzy Zawieyski, pełniący także funkcję prezesa KIK w Warszawie. +W 1958 środowisko warszawskiego KIK-u rozpoczęło wydawanie miesięcznika "Więź", którego redaktorem naczelnym został Tadeusz Mazowiecki. W tym samym roku koło poselskie "Znak" - w sytuacji zacieśniania się systemu Gomułki i stopniowego odchodzenia warunków względnej swobody okresu tzw. października - wystosowało do ówczesnych władz PRL memoriał, w którym po raz pierwszy stanowczo opowiedziało się za respektowaniem praw ludzi wierzących w życiu publicznym. Odtąd środowisko KIK-ów odnosiło się do władz z wyraźnym dystansem. +W trakcie słynnych "zajść marcowych" 1968, koło poselskie "Znak" weszło w otwarty konflikt z władzami PRL, bowiem Jerzy Zawieyski odważył się otwarcie je skrytykować z trybuny sejmowej za brutalne pobicie manifestujących studentów. W kilkanaście miesięcy później Zawieyski zmarł w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach. +W 1972 doszło do podziału wewnątrz KIK pomiędzy frakcję Tadeusza Mazowieckiego i Janusza Zabłockiego. Na skutek tego konfliktu powstała nowa organizacja Polski Klub Inteligencji Katolickiej na czele z Konstantym Łubieńskim i Januszem Zabłockim, przekształcona później w Polski Związek Katolicko-Społeczny (z tygodnikiem "Ład" jako organem). +W 1976, kiedy w trakcie sejmowej debaty nad wpisaniem przewodniej roli PZPR do Konstytucji PRL, poseł "Znak" Stanisław Stomma wstrzymał się od głosowania, w kole poselskim "Znak" pozostawiono wyłącznie zwolenników Janusza Zabłockiego. +W tym samym okresie działacze Klubów Inteligencji Katolickiej brali coraz bardziej aktywny udział w formowaniu opozycji demokratycznej w Polsce. Wojciech Ostrowski i Wojciech Onyszkiewicz zostali członkami KOR, wielu członków współpracowało z KOR, Andrzej Wielowieyski członkiem grupy "Doświadczenie i Przyszłość", a Bohdan Cywiński wykładowcą TKN. W sierpniu 1980 5 członków KIK z Tadeuszem Mazowieckim, Andrzejem Wielowieyskim i Bohdanem Cywińskim zostało ekspertami gdańskiego Międzyzakładowego Komitetu Strajkowego, biorąc udział w negocjacjach z rządem, czego efektem było podpisanie porozumienia z "Solidarnością". +W okresie stanu wojennego, kiedy KIK został oficjalnie zawieszony, wielu jego działaczy było internowanych bądź działało w podziemnych strukturach NSZZ "Solidarność". +Przed 1989 istnienie Klubów było nieustannie zagrożone przez rozmaite decyzje Urzędu do spraw wyznań. Swoje przetrwanie zawdzięczają przede wszystkim regularnej i zdecydowanej obronie, którą otaczał Kluby kard. Stefan Wyszyński. Działalność Klubów Inteligencji Katolickiej spotkała się z uznaniem polskiego Episkopatu, aczkolwiek pewne obawy biskupów budziła zbytnia otwartość tego środowiska na nowe kierunki poszukiwań teologicznych w zachodniej Europie i jego wyraźna niechęć wobec tradycyjnego katolicyzmu ludowego. +Od 1989. Środowisko KIK-u w końcu lat 80. odegrało rolę pomostu, który umożliwił negocjacje rządu z opozycją przy okrągłym stole. W lutym 1989 przy okrągłym stole w Warszawie, w ramach reprezentacji "Solidarności" zasiadło 20 członków KIK. +Działacze KIK odegrali też dużą rolę w stworzeniu Komitetu Obywatelskiego u boku przewodniczącego NSZZ "Solidarność", Lecha Wałęsy. Później wielu z nich znalazło się na listach wyborczych do tzw. sejmu kontraktowego, wybranego 4 czerwca 1989. Tadeusz Mazowiecki w sierpniu 1989 został pierwszym po wojnie niekomunistycznym premierem rządu polskiego. +Bernard Rieux + +Doktor Bernard Rieux – główny bohater powieści Alberta Camusa pt. "Dżuma". +Rieux jest lekarzem w dotkniętym dżumą mieście Oran. Gdy wybucha epidemia, doktor Rieux postanawia z nią walczyć i trwa w swym postanowieniu mimo beznadziejności sytuacji i pozornego bezsensu tej walki. Camus w osobie Bernarda Rieux umieszcza archetyp człowieka nie godzącego się na bezsensowną śmierć, który mimo beznadziejności swej walki, mimo wyczerpania i powszechnego zobojętnienia, walczy do końca. Postać doktora Rieux udowadnia tezę, że brak wiary w Boga nie neguje chęci pomocy innym i może być motywacją do podjęcia prób ratowania chorych. +Bernard Rieux jest przykładem osoby walczącej do końca, nie poddającej się, co ukazuje m.in jego walka o bycie lekarzem. Wywodzi się on z rodziny klasy robotniczej, bardzo biednej. Postanowił zostać lekarzem, bo dla kogoś jego pokroju to było bardzo trudne do osiągnięcia. +Rieux jako pierwszy zauważa w Oranie martwe szczury i jako pierwszy wraz z doktorem Castelem rozpoznaje chorobę rozprzestrzeniającą się w mieście. Z początku jest postrzegany przez mieszkańców jak bohater, z czasem zostaje znienawidzony - często przychodził z policją do domów ludzi, by zabierać chorych do szpitala, co dla rodzin oznaczało, że zarażonego krewnego już nie zobaczą. +Bernard przechodzi zmianę w trakcie epidemii - uodparnia się na widok śmierci ludzi, co pozwala mu znieść stratę żony, która zmarła w trakcie leczenia w sanatorium oddalonym setki kilometrów od Oranu. Poza tym z rodziny Bernarda żyje jeszcze jego matka. +Struktury poziome + +Struktury poziome - w latach 1980 - 1981 ruch społeczny inspirowany przez „Solidarność” zmierzający do zastąpienia hierarchicznego, scentralizowanego zarządzania państwem - w tym także strukturami PZPR - porozumieniami na szczeblach najniższych, lokalnych. +Genmaicha + +Ze względu na zawartość prażonego ryżu, nazywana bywa również "popcorn tea", zwłaszcza że część ziaren ryżu podczas prażenia pęka. Pierwotnie herbata ta była spożywana przez ubogie warstwy społeczeństwa, a ryż stanowił składnik dodawany w celu obniżenia ceny herbaty. Obecnie "genmaicha" stanowi jeden z rodzajów japońskiej herbaty spożywanej przez wszystkich. +Przyrządzanie "genmaicha" odbywa się, podobnie jak innych japońskich zielonych herbat, poprzez zalanie wodą o temperaturze ok. 80-85 °C i parzeniu ok. 3-5 minut. +"Genmaicha" spotykana jest również z dodatkiem sproszkowanej zielonej herbaty matcha. +Letnie Igrzyska Olimpijskie 1972 + +XX Igrzyska Olimpijskie odbyły się w 1972 roku w Monachium (Niemcy Zachodnie). O organizację tych igrzysk starały się również miasta: Detroit (USA), Madryt (Hiszpania) i Montreal (Kanada). +Otwarcie. +Uroczystość otwarcia odbyła się 26 sierpnia 1972 roku na Stadionie Olimpijskim w Monachium. Uroczystego otwarcia dokonał Gustav Heinemann, prezydent RFN. Znicz olimpijski został zapalony przez niemieckiego lekkoatletę Günthera Zahna. +Zamach terrorystyczny. +Głównym wydarzeniem igrzysk był zamach terrorystyczny. 5 września grupa Palestyńczyków z organizacji "Czarny Wrzesień" wdarła się przez mur do wioski olimpijskiej około godziny 4:00, zostali zauważeni przez pracowników poczty. Pracownicy ci widząc grupę ubraną w dresy, pomyśleli, że są to sportowcy wracający z nocnej zabawy, dlatego nie włączali alarmu. Palestyńczycy weszli do budynku zamieszkiwanego przez izraelskich sportowców, których wzięli za zakładników, zabijając przy tym dwóch, którzy stawili opór. Terroryści domagali się uwolnienia Palestyńczyków, przetrzymywanych w Izraelu. Po nieudanej akcji policjantów zostało zabitych kolejnych 9 sportowców izraelskich, 5 terrorystów oraz jeden niemiecki policjant. Spodziewano się, że igrzyska zostaną zamknięte, co jednak nie nastąpiło (Avery Brundage wyraził swoje stanowisko słowami "The games must go on" (Zawody muszą trwać dalej). +Maskotka. +Po raz pierwszy na Letnich Igrzyskach Olimpijskich została zaprezentowana maskotka igrzysk, był nim jamnik Waldi w kolorach: niebieski, pomarańczowy i zielony. Od tej pory na każdych kolejnych igrzyskach była prezentowana maskotka igrzysk. +Klasyfikacja medalowa. +
+Zamknięcie. +W Monachium na zakończenie wszyscy zawodnicy trzymali się za ręce w symbolicznym geście zbratania się wobec tragedii, jaka miała miejsce w trakcie igrzysk. +Nóż dłutowniczy + +Nóż dłutowniczy - narzędzie skrawające wykonujące ruch posuwisto-zwrotny, używane w dłutownicach do strugania pionowego. Głównym zastosowaniem jest wykonywanie obróbki kształtowej wewnątrz otworów (rowki, uzębienie itp.) oraz w przypadku braku swobodnego wybiegu narzędzia. +Część robocza noża dłutowniczego jest nieco inaczej ukształtowana niż w nożu strugarskim ze względu na inny sposób pracy. Różnią się bowiem wartością kąta natarcia ścinu, przyłożenia oraz pochylenia głównej krawędzi skrawającej. +Stefan Zbigniew Różycki + +Stefan Zbigniew Różycki (ur. 8 stycznia 1906 w Konstantynówce koło Doniecka, zm. 16 września 1988 w Warszawie) – polski geolog i geograf, najbardziej znany ze swoich badań z zakresu geologii okresów jury i czwartorzędu. +Życiorys. +Okres przedwojenny. +W dzieciństwie podróżował z rodzicami po Wołyniu, Krymie i Kaukazie. Uczęszczał do szkół średnich w Charkowie, Dniepropietrowsku (ówczesnym Jekaterynosławiu), Gimnazjum i Liceum im. Stefana Batorego w Warszawie i im. Henryka Sienkiewicza w Częstochowie, gdzie uzyskał maturę w 1925. W tym samym roku rozpoczął studia na Wydziale Filozoficznym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, gdzie wybrał geologię i geografię pod kierunkiem profesorów Jana Lewińskiego i Romana Kozłowskiego. Od 1927 asystent w Zakładzie Geologii i Paleontologii UW. W 1931 uzyskał stopień doktora filozofii w zakresie geologii i geografii fizycznej na podstawie pracy "Interglacjał Żoliborski" o pierwszym na Niżu Środkowoeuropejskim rozpoznanym stanowisku osadów interglacjalnych nie przykrytych glinami zwałowymi młodszych zlodowaceń. Już w czasie studiów podjął współpracę z Państwowym Instytutem Geologicznym. Wykonywał tam mapę geologiczną w skali 1: 100 000, arkusz Żarki. Jako asystent prof.J.Lewińskiego uczestniczył w pracach związanych z kanalizacją Warszawy. +Obowiązkową służbę wojskową odbył w Szkole Podchorążych Saperów w Modlinie w latach 1932-1933, po czym powrócił do Zakładu Geologii UW. W 1934 r. uczestniczył w polskiej wyprawie polarnej na Spitsbergen. Na pamiątkę jego udziału w ekspedycji jeden ze szpicbergeńskich lodowców nazwany został Lodowcem Różyckiego (współrzędne geograficzne ). Od 1937 zatrudniony w Państwowym Instytucie Geologicznym) jako starszy geolog. Poszukiwał rud żelaza w Radomskiem i badał północne obrzeżenie Gór Świętokrzyskich. +Lata wojenne. +We wrześniu 1939 brał udział w obronie Modlina. W czasie okupacji zaangażowany w działalność podziemną w AK. +Na polecenie władz konspiracyjnych pracował w byłym Państwowym Instytucie Geologicznym w Warszawie. Opracowywał mapy do celów wojskowych. Od 1943 kierował komórką przy "Szefostwie Służby Geograficznej" Komendy Głównej AK (kryptonim "Schronisko") i awansował do stopnia porucznika. Współpracował też konspiracyjnie z grupą architektów i urbanistów i z nimi przygotowywał plany rozwoju i rozbudowy Warszawy. W okresie powstania warszawskiego uczestniczył w skutecznym zabezpieczeniu zbiorów naukowych Państwowego Instytutu Geologicznego. Po powstaniu ucieka z transportu do Pruszkowa i przez Piaseczno wraca do Warszawy. +Okres powojenny. +Jako jeden z pierwszych przybyłych do stolicy po jej opuszczeniu przez wojska niemieckie przystępuje do zabezpieczenia majątku Państwowego Instytutu Geologicznego na stanowisku jego tymczasowego kierownika. Od 1 lutego 1945 do 1946 był kierownikiem Pracowni Fizjografii Urbanistycznej przy Wydziale Urbanistycznym w Biurze Odbudowy Stolicy. W 1945 otrzymał Brązowy Krzyż Zasługi za udział w szybkim uruchomieniu wodociągów warszawskich. +Habilitował się w 1945 na Wydziale Matematyczno-Przyrodniczym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego pracą "Baton, kelowej i oksford Jury Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej", a w 1946 został profesorem nadzwyczajnym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego i objął Katedrę Geografii Fizycznej na UW. W latach 1948-1951 pełnił obowiązki prodziekana Wydziału Matematyczno-Przyrodniczego UW, a w okresie 1949-1950 był zastępcą dziekana tego wydziału. +Od 1951 sprawował funkcję organizatora Ośrodka Szkolenia Geologów, którego prace doprowadziły do utworzenia Wydziału Geologii na UW w 1952. W tym roku objął pierwszą na świecie Katedrę Geologii Czwartorzędu i kierował nią do jej likwidacji w 1962 r. Następnie objął kierownictwo Zakładu Geologii Czwartorzędu na Wydziale Geologii UW. W 1952 otrzymał Nagrodę Państwową II Stopnia za pracę "Górny dogger i dolny malm Jury Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej". Od października 1953 przez dwa lata sprawował funkcję dyrektora Instytutu Geologicznego Centralnego Urzędu Geologii (poprzednio Państwowego Instytutu Geologicznego), nie przerywając pracy na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Przeprowadził jego reorganizację i opracował nowy program prac badawczo-poszukiwawczych, zwłaszcza dla Niżu Polskiego. +W 1954 objął kierownictwo stworzonej przez siebie Pracowni Geologii Czwartorzędu w Instytucie Nauk Geologicznych PAN i uzyskał nominację na profesora zwyczajnego. W 1964 został przewodniczącym powołanego z jego inicjatywy Komitetu Badań Czwartorzędu PAN. +Uczestnik licznych wypraw naukowych, m.in. do Chin i Wietnamu (1957, 1965) i Indii (1967). W 1958 brał udział w pierwszej powojennej polskiej wyprawie na Spitsbergen a w latach 1958/1959 stanął na czele polskiej grupy w czasie ekspedycji radzieckiej na Antarktykę. Brał udział w przejęciu przez Polskę byłej radzieckiej stacji badawczej "Oazis" w Oazie Bungera i nadaniu jej imienia Antoniego Bolesława Dobrowolskiego. W szczególności przypadł mu w udziale zaszczyt podniesienia polskiej flagi nad stacją. W 1970 został zaproszony do francuskiej ekspedycji na Saharę w poszukiwaniu śladów staropaleozoicznego zlodowacenia kontynentalnego. +W okresie 1971-1975 kierował utworzonym przy Wydziale Geologii UW Zespołem Naukowym Centralnej Magistrali Kolejowej (CMK), który przygotował w szczególności dokumentację linii dla odcinka Zawiercie-Grodzisk Mazowiecki oraz nie zrealizowanej części na północ od Warszawy. +Po przejściu na emeryturę w 1977 pracował nad historią geologii w Warszawie oraz nad występowaniem i genezą utworów lessowych na świecie. +Był autorem wielu opracowań popularnonaukowych. W szczególności wydał w 1979 książkę pt. ""Geolog detektywem - Na tropie ludzi, kultur i sztuki"", w której przedstawił swoją hipotezę dotyczącą losów Atlantydy. Opierając się na wynikach badań archeologicznych, sugerował istnienie zniszczonego przez trzęsienie Ziemi wielkiego "mocarstwa kamiennego", rozciągającego się od Wysp Brytyjskich po Maroko i Algerię. +Był promotorem blisko 200 prac magisterskich oraz 26 rozpraw doktorskich oraz redaktorem naczelnym czasopism ""Quaternary Studies in Poland"" i ""Studia Geologica Polonica"". +Został pochowany na Cmentarzu Powązkowskim w Warszawie (kwatera 15, rząd 2 k. Bramy św. Honoraty). +Członkostwo w organizacjach naukowych i wyróżnienia. +Od 1952 członek korespondent Polskiej Akademii Nauk, po wchłonięciu przez nią Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, którego był wieloletnim członkiem. Od 1965 r. członek rzeczywisty PAN. W latach 1954-1957 był członkiem ówczesnej Centralnej Komisji Kwalifikacyjnej do spraw rozwoju kadr naukowych. +Aktywnie działał w wielu organizacjach naukowych, w szczególności INQUA ("International Association on Quaternary Research") w kongresach której w Madrycie (1957), Warszawie (1961), Denver (1965) i Paryżu (1969) odgrywał ważną rolą organizacyjną i naukową. Działał także w TUP (Towarzystwie Urbanistów Polskich) i PTG (Polskim Towarzystwie Geologicznym). W latach 1961-1964 był prezesem Polskiego Stowarzyszenia Filmu Naukowego. +Wyróżniony wieloma odznaczeniami krajowymi i zagranicznymi w tym Krzyżem Komandorskim z Gwiazdą Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (za zasługi dla rozwoju nauki w 1988), Krzyżem Komandorskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski (za organizację wypraw naukowych Międzynarodowego Roku Geofizycznego w 1962), Orderem Sztandaru Pracy II klasy, brązowym Krzyżem Zasługi (1945), Wietnamskim Orderem Pracy I klasy oraz Medalem Mikołaja Kopernika Polskiej Akademii Nauk. Laureat Nagrody Państwowej I i II stopnia oraz nagrody Fundacji Alfreda Jurzykowskiego. Za prace w zespole naukowym CMK wyróżniony Medalem Budowniczego Centralnej Magistrali Kolejowej. +Życie prywatne. +Syn Romana i Reginy z domu Rogozińskiej, ciotecznej siostry podróżnika Stefana Szolc-Rogozińskiego. Żona Wiesława Różycka, córka Barbara. +Dzieci kapitana Granta + +Dzieci kapitana Granta (W 1910 i 1925 powieść została wydana pod tytułem Między niebem i ziemią .) (fr. "Les Enfants du capitaine Grant" 1868) – trzytomowa powieść przygodowa Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu literackiego "Niezwykłe podróże". Pierwsza część tzw. dużej trylogii vernowskiej ("Dzieci kapitana Granta", "Dwadzieścia tysięcy mil podmorskiej żeglugi", "Tajemnicza wyspa"). +Powieść, na język polski, była tłumaczona wielokrotnie. Pierwszy polski anonimowy przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1868, a w postaci książkowej w 1876. Jednak najwięcej wydań miał przekład autorstwa Izabeli Rogozińskiej pochodzący z lat 1950-52 - do tej pory wydawany był już 19 razy. +Fabuła. +Lord Glenarvan podczas rejsu przez Kanał Północny na swoim statku "Duncan" znajduje w wnętrznościach upolowanego rekina butelkę z ledwie czytelnym wołaniem o pomoc. Lord, jego żona Helena, ich kuzyn major Mac Nabbs oraz kapitan statku John Mangles starają się rozszyfrować list. Niestety, został on napisany w trzech językach, a że zachowały się pojedyncze słowa, interpretacja tekstu jest tylko zgadywanką. Przede wszystkim przyjaciele odkrywają, że przesłanie wysłał kapitan Grant, zaginiony kilka lat wcześniej, podczas rejsu z Ameryki Południowej. Kiedy do państwa Glenarvan przybywają dzieci kapitana, Robert i Mary, z prośbą o pomoc, zacny i hojny lord postanawia pomóc im odnaleźć ojca. Znając tylko szerokość geograficzną, i prowdopodobne miejsce - Patagonię - płyną tam jachtem lorda, a następnie przemierzają wszerz Amerykę wzdłuż równoleżnika. Pomaga im roztargniony naukowiec - doktor Jakub Paganel, szczodrze dzieląc się swoją wiedzą geograficzną. +Niestety, mimo wielkich poświęceń i przeżycia niezliczonych przygód, podróżnicy niczego w Ameryce nie odnajdują. Paganel stawia wtedy nową hipotezę - miejscem katastrofy kapitana Granta nie była Patagonia, lecz Australia. Przebywszy pół świata podróżnicy docierają do wybrzeży szóstego kontynentu. Traf chce, że w pierwszym odwiedzonym domostwie, u Paddy'ego O'Moore'a, znajdują ocalonego rozbitka z załogi Granta, bosmana Toma Ayrtona. Ten ofiarowuje się poprowadzić wyprawę do miejsca katastrofy. W tym czasie statek lorda Glenarvana musi popłynąć w celu dokonania poważnej naprawy. Domniemany rozbitek prowadzi poszukiwaczy dziwnymi szlakami, stopniowo tracąc ich zaufanie. W końcu wychodzi na jaw, że jest on w rzeczywistości Benem Joycem, hersztem groźnej bandy, grasującej po bezdrożach Australii. Złoczyńca zostawia podróżników na łasce losu, a sam ucieka, chcąc zawładnąć statkiem lorda. +Zrezygnowani i pozbawieni środków podróżnicy muszą wrócić do domu, okrętują się więc na statek płynący do Nowej Zelandii. Statek podczas sztormu osiada na mieliźnie, a podróżnicy trafiają w ręce krwiożerczych Maorysów. Uciekając z niewoli, wypływają na morze na znalezionej łodzi. Ścigani przez tubylców cudem zostają ocaleni przez "Duncana", statek lorda, którego nie udało się przejąć Ayrtonowi. Co więcej, herszt bandytów został pojmany przez załogę i czeka go sąd. Nie mając nic do stracenia Ayrton proponuje lordovi Glenarvanowi układ - w zamian za prawdziwą historię kapitana Granta zostanie on wysadzony na najbliższej bezludnej wyspie, jednocześnie unikając więzienia i ponosząc karę. Złoczyńca opowiada co wie o Grancie. Ayrton był rzeczywiście bosmanem na jego statku, ale za próbę buntu został wysadzony na brzeg australijski. Tam przystał do bandy zbójców, a z czasem został ich hersztem, przyjmując imię Ben Joyce. Wieści o katastrofie Granta były z jego strony kłamstwem, mającym na celu ograbienie członków wyprawy. "Duncan", dotrzymując słowa, przybija do napotkanej bezludnej wyspy, chcąc tam wysadzić Ayrtona, a podróżnicy znajdują tam niespodziewanie właśnie kapitana Granta i dwóch ocalonych członków jego załogi. +Ostrze (broń) + +Ostrze – część składowa głowni, jej ostra krawędź, broń obosieczna posiada dwa ostrza: przednie i tylne. Potocznie – typowe narzędzie do cięcia, składające się z trzonka i klingi. +Pięć tygodni w balonie + +Pięć tygodni w balonie (inne wersje tytułów polskich przekładów: Podróż powietrzna po Afryce, Pięciotygodniowa podróż balonem nad Afryką, Podróż balonem, Pięć tygodni na balonie, Balonem ponad Afryką, czyli podróż z przygodami trzech Anglików według notatek d-ra Fergussona) (fr. "Cinq semaines en ballon" 1863) +Popularna jednotomowa powieść Juliusza Verne'a z cyklu "Niezwykłe podróże" złożona z 44 rozdziałów. +Pierwszy polski przekład pojawił się w odcinkach w 1863, a w postaci książkowej w 1873. +Pierwsza powieść Verne'a z gatunku SF napisana w 1862. Wydawcy, do których zwrócił się z rękopisem, odmówili druku tej powieści nowego typu. Wreszcie książka ukazała się w wydawnictwie Pierre-Jules Hetzel'a, a Verne podpisawszy z wydawcą pierwszy z wieloletnich kontraktów stanął u progu sławy. +Trzech Brytyjczyków: Anglik – doktor Samuel Fergusson, Szkot – Dick Kennedy oraz służący doktora, Joe odbywają przelot nad Afryką w skonstruowanym przez doktora balonie. Trasa podróży, tak bardzo niezwykła w czasach publikacji oryginału, wiedzie ze wschodu na zachód kontynentu, a fabuła (jak zwykle u Verne'a) oparta jest na faktach (geograficznych, historycznych, technicznych). W powieści nie brak elementów humoru. +Steve Ballmer + +Steven Anthony Ballmer (ur. 24 marca 1956 w Detroit) dyrektor generalny (Chief Executive Officer) firmy Microsoft. Kawaler Legii Honorowej. Według rankingu miesięcznika Forbes jest 46 spośród najbogatszych ludzi na świecie, z całkowitym majątkiem szacowanym na 14,5 miliarda dolarów. +Życiorys. +Steve Ballmer urodził się w Detroit (USA, Michigan) w rodzinie żydowskiej jako syn szwajcarskiego imigranta i Amerykanki z białoruskimi korzeniami. Tam też z wyróżnieniem ukończył Detroit County Day School. Zdobycie maksymalnej liczby punktów z testu SAT (ang. Scholastic Assessment Test – odpowiednik polskiej matury) otworzyło mu drogę na Harvard. Podczas studiów z zakresu matematyki i ekonomii zaprzyjaźnił się z Billem Gatesem, co miało znaczący wpływ na rozwój jego dalszej kariery. Poza poszerzaniem wiedzy, na Harvardzie udzielał się w gazecie Harvard Crimson oraz zarządzał drużyną futbolową. +Studia zakończył w roku 1977. Po ich ukończeniu przez dwa lata pracował w Procter & Gamble jako asystent menedżera produktu, gdzie dzielił biuro z Jeffreyem Immeltem – późniejszym prezesem GE. Mimo dobrych wyników w pracy postanowił kontynuować naukę na Stanford Graduate School of Business. Jednak kiedy w 1980 roku dostał propozycję współpracy od Gatesa w rozwijającym się dopiero Microsofcie, porzucił studia. Na początku miał pracować tylko przez okres letnich wakacji, jednak po długich namowach zgodził się przyjąć propozycję pracy na stałe. Został zatrudniony jako 24 pracownik Microsoftu z pensją w wysokości 50000 USD rocznie. Otrzymał także 8% udziałów w przedsiębiorstwie, które w 1981 zostało przemianowane na spółkę. Ballmer zajmował się budową struktury finansowej firmy, później pracował między innymi w dziale sprzedaży oraz dziale systemów operacyjnych. W 1998 uzyskał awans na stanowisko głównego dyrektora, a po dwóch latach, 13 stycznia 2000 roku, zastąpił Gatesa na stanowisku CEO. Uzyskał dzięki temu pełną kontrolę nad finansami firmy, jednak to Gates nadal kierował technologiczną wizją spółki i przez to często dochodziło między nimi do spięć. W 2003 sprzedał 2/3 swoich udziałów w Microsofcie, pozostawiając sobie jedynie 4%. +Kontrowersje. +Publiczne wystąpienia Ballmera są bardzo dynamiczne i kontrowersyjne - jego opinia na temat systemu Linux, o którym powiedział, że jest jak rak, który sprzeciwia się ochronie własności intelektualnej, spowodowała burzę w środowisku Open Source, a jednym ze skutków było obrzucenie Ballmera jajkami przez studenta w Budapeszcie w maju 2008. +Krwiodawstwo + +Krwiodawstwo – akcja społeczna mająca na celu pozyskiwanie krwi od osób zdrowych na rzecz osób wymagających transfuzji krwi (np. podczas operacji chirurgicznej) lub do produkcji preparatów krwiopochodnych. +Krew pobiera się od dawców krwi w stacjach krwiodawstwa (stacjonarnych lub mobilnych – w specjalnych autobusach). W Polsce krew oficjalnie oddaje się tylko honorowo, czyli bezpłatnie. +Zabieg trwa od kilku do kilkunastu minut. Jednorazowo pobiera się 450 ml krwi. Ubytek ten u większości ludzi nie powoduje żadnych odczuć. Bardzo mały procent może doświadczać chwilowych zawrotów głowy, lecz po krótkim wypoczynku wszystko wraca do normy. Następnie preparaty przechowywane są w wyspecjalizowanych bankach tkanek zwanych bankami krwi. +"Krew pełna może być pobierana nie częściej niż 6 razy w roku od mężczyzn i nie częściej niż 4 razy w roku od kobiet, z tym że przerwa pomiędzy pobraniami nie może być krótsza niż 8 tygodni." +Kryteria. +Na kilka godzin przed zabiegiem należy spożyć lekki posiłek i napić się. Nie należy spożywać ciężkostrawnych posiłków, pić alkoholu. +Kryteria są nieustannie weryfikowane i publikowane. +Organizacja publicznej służby krwi. +Naczelną instytucją kierującą krwiodawstwem w Polsce jest Narodowe Centrum Krwi. Podlega mu organizacyjnie 21 regionalnych centrów krwiodawstwa i krwiolecznictwa, a także 2 centra resortowe (MON oraz MSWiA). Instytucje te jako jedyne mają prawo pobierania krwi od dawców. Nadzór merytoryczny nad centrami krwiodawstwa sprawuje Instytut Hematologii i Transfuzjologii. +Honorowy Dawca Krwi. +Honorowym Dawcą Krwi zostaje każda osoba, która chociaż raz oddała honorowo krew. Honorowemu dawcy przysługuje +Zasłużony Honorowy Dawca Krwi. +Tytuł i odznaka "Zasłużony Honorowy Dawca Krwi" nadawane są przez Polski Czerwony Krzyż. +Wzór oraz szczegółowe zasady i tryb przyznawania odznaki reguluje rozporządzenie Ministra Zdrowia z dnia 21 sierpnia 2006 r. +Honorowy Dawca Krwi - Zasłużony dla Zdrowia Narodu. +Zasłużonemu honorowemu dawcy krwi, który oddał co najmniej 20 litrów krwi lub odpowiadającą tej objętości ilość innych jej składników, mogą być nadawane ordery i odznaczenia oraz odznaka "Honorowy Dawca Krwi – Zasłużony dla Zdrowia Narodu". +Odznaka "Honorowy Dawca Krwi – Zasłużony dla Zdrowia Narodu" jest nadawana zasłużonym honorowym dawcom krwi w uznaniu wybitnych zasług na rzecz ratowania ludzkiego życia i zdrowia oraz aktywnej działalności w ruchu honorowego krwiodawstwa. +Karol Olgierd Borchardt + +Karol Olgierd Borchardt (ur. 25 marca 1905 w Moskwie, zm. 20 maja 1986 w Gdyni) – polski pisarz i marynarz, kapitan żeglugi wielkiej. +Życiorys. +Karol Olgierd Borchardt był synem lekarza i urzędniczki. W dzieciństwie wraz z matką wyjechał do Paryża. Po powrocie do kraju mieszkał w Wilnie, gdzie uczęszczał do szkoły podstawowej, a potem do Gimnazjum Humanistycznego im. Adama Mickiewicza. W 1924 roku zdał maturę i wstąpił na Wydział Prawa Uniwersytetu Stefana Batorego w Wilnie. Rok później rozpoczął naukę w Szkole Morskiej w Tczewie, którą ukończył w roku 1928. Następnie pływał na pasażerskich transatlantykach armatora Gdynia-Ameryka Linie Żeglugowe SA, pełniąc kolejno funkcje oficerskie. W 1936 roku otrzymał dyplom kapitana żeglugi wielkiej. W 1938 r. rozpoczął pracę w Państwowej Szkole Morskiej w Gdyni, obejmując stanowisko zastępcy komendanta żaglowca szkolnego "Dar Pomorza". +Wybuch drugiej wojny światowej zastał go na "Darze Pomorza" w czasie rejsu szkolnego. Na polecenie władz udał się do Sztokholmu, a potem do Szkocji. Następnie wrócił do GAL-u i pływał na statkach pasażerskich przekształconych w transportowce. Został starszym oficerem polskiego flagowego statku pasażerskiego "MS Piłsudski" i w listopadzie 1939 r., przeżył jego zatopienie, podczas którego został poważnie ranny w głowę. Po wyleczeniu został starszym oficerem kolejnego transatlantyka, "MS Chrobry" i w 1940 r. przeżył jego zbombardowanie i zatopienie w kampanii norweskiej. Został ponownie ranny, odnowił mu się ciężki uraz z poprzedniego wydarzenia i wskutek tego stan zdrowia utrudniał mu potem służbę na morzu. +W czasie pobytu w Wielkiej Brytanii, nie mogąc pływać, zaczął pisać opowiadania marynistyczne, które stały się istotą jego twórczości (wszystkie jego książki to zbiory opowiadań). Niemały wpływ na to miał fakt, że doznany uraz głowy spowodował u niego wielomiesięczną, całkowitą bezsenność, z której z trudem go wyprowadzono. Początkowo jednak nie publikował swoich tekstów. Po wyleczeniu w latach 1942–1945 pracował w różnych instytucjach brytyjskich. Po wojnie był organizatorem, a potem dyrektorem polskiego gimnazjum i liceum morskiego w Landywood w Anglii. +Po odejściu ze szkoły pływał w angielskiej linii żeglugowej. W 1949 roku wrócił do kraju na pokładzie statku MS Batory, pełniąc funkcję starszego oficera. +W Polsce, uznany ostatecznie za niezdolnego do pływania na statkach z przyczyn zdrowotnych, rozpoczął pracę dydaktyczną w Państwowym Centrum Wychowania Morskiego, następnie uczył w Technikum Rybołówstwa Morskiego w Gdyni (1951–1954) i w gdyńskiej Szkole Rybołówstwa Morskiego (1954–1968). 1 września 1968 roku, po połączeniu Szkoły Rybołówstwa Morskiego z Państwową Szkołą Morską, powstała Wyższa Szkoła Morska w Gdyni, w której wykładał aż do przejścia na emeryturę w listopadzie 1970. +W Gdyni dostał przydział mieszkania w składającej się z dwu pomieszczeń "nadbudówce" (nazwanej przez Borchardta "Siódme niebo"), umieszczonej na dachu odebranej przedwojennym właścicielom willi w Kamiennej Górze. Obecny właściciel rozbudował willę tworząc na miejscu tej nadbudówki dodatkowe piętro, tak że obecnie tylko odtworzony z pietyzmem w Muzeum Obrony Wybrzeża gabinet kpt. Borchardta przypomina minione czasy. +Od 1958 roku publikował artykuły w czasopismach "Morze", "Tygodnik Morski", "Litery". W 1960 roku wydał książkę "Znaczy Kapitan", która cieszyła się dużą popularnością i przyniosła autorowi wiele nagród i wyróżnień. Pozycja ta była wielokrotnie wznawiana i przekładana na języki obce. +Do innych jego zainteresowań należały plastyka, malarstwo akwarelowe i rzeźba. Brał udział w programach telewizyjnych "Gawędy wilków morskich" i "Latający Holender". +Zmarł w 1986 roku i został pochowany na Cmentarzu Witomińskim w Gdyni. +Upamiętnienie. +Będąca przez 8 ostatnich lat życia kpt. Borchardta jego osobistą sekretarką Ewa Wanda Ostrowska napisała dwie książki biograficzno-wspomnieniowe "Pod białą różą" i "Kapitan własnej duszy. Borchardt znany i nieznany". Dzięki jej pomocy Muzeum Obrony Wybrzeża w Helu otworzyło w 2008 roku stałą wystawę poświęconą Borchardtowi. +Na cześć Karola Olgierda Borchardta nazwany został żaglowiec. +Notatnik (program) + +Notatnik (ang. "Notepad") to prosty edytor tekstu dołączany do systemu Microsoft Windows od czasu wersji 1.0 wydanej w 1985. +Format zapisu. +Notatnik nie umożliwia stosowania formatowania tekstu, a pliki w nim tworzone są domyślnie zapisywane z rozszerzeniem *.txt. Dzięki temu, że Notatnik nie dodaje specjalnych znaków formatujących nadaje się edycji wielu rodzajów plików. Może jednak dodawać znacznik BOM, więc nie nadaje się zarówno do edycji plików binarnych jak i niektórych skryptów (np. PHP). Ponadto Notatnik nie potrafi poprawnie wyświetlić plików z innymi znakami końca linii (np. w formacie Unix lub Macintosh). +Funkcjonalność. +Pierwsze edycje Notatnika oferowały jedynie najprostsze funkcje, takie jak wyszukiwanie tekstu. Nowsze wersje systemu Windows zawierają zaktualizowaną wersję programu umożliwiającą wyszukiwanie oraz zamianę tekstu oraz dostęp do funkcji za pomocą skrótów klawiaturowych. W starszych wersjach programu (które dostępne były w systemach Windows 95, 98, ME oraz 3.1) istnieje 64-kilobajtowy limit wielkości edytowanego pliku. +Początkowo jedyną czcionką dostępną dla Notatnika był Fixedsys. W systemach Windows NT 4.0 i 98 dodano możliwość zmiany czcionki, natomiast w Windows 2000 czcionkę Fixedsys zastąpiono czcionką Lucida Console. +W systemach opartych na Windows NT, Notatnik może edytować tradycyjne 8-bitowe pliki tekstowe oraz pliki tekstowe w formacie Unicode (zarówno UTF-8 jak i UTF-16, a w przypadku UTF-16: little endian i big endian; zobacz kolejność bajtów). +Zamienniki. +Do wielu zadań Notatnik zastępowany jest WordPadem lub innym procesorem tekstu, jak Microsoft Word. Jednakże Notatnik nie wymaga blokowania dostępu do pliku, więc plik może zostać uruchomiony przez inne procesy, użytkowników lub komputery, co nie byłoby możliwe przy użyciu WordPada. Dodatkowo Notatnik jest szybszy i łatwiejszy w obsłudze niż WordPad lub Microsoft Word, co jest związane z brakiem możliwości jakiegokolwiek formatowania tekstu. +Notatnik był do niedawna aplikacją dostępną jedynie na system Windows, lecz teraz można go uruchomić także na wolnodostępnym systemie operacyjnym ReactOS. Program dołączony do ReactOS został stworzony dzięki pomocy zespołu WINE i jest udostępniany na licencji GNU Lesser General Public License (GNU LGPL). +Istnieje wiele zamienników Notatnika zawierających większą liczbę funkcji, w tym takie które wzięły nazwę od angielskiej nazwy (np. Notepad++ i Notepad2). +Ciekawostki. +Błąd rozpoznawania plików Unicode. +Notatnik dołączony do systemów Windows 2000 i Windows XP rozpoznaje pliki wykorzystujące Unicode nawet w przypadku braku znacznika kolejności bajtów. Funkcja odpowiedzialna za ten proces jest jednak niedoskonała, skutkiem czego Notatnik rozpoznaje niektóre zapisane małymi literami w kodowaniu ASCII teksty jako UTF-16. W rezultacie aplikacja odczytuje i wyświetla plik o treści np. "xxxx xxx xxx xxxxx" jako zapisany w Unikodzie (istotne jest tutaj użycie małych liter oraz pogrupowanie znaków w 4 wyrazy o odpowiedniej długości tj. 4, 3, 3 i 5 znaków; przy czym działają tylko niektóre kombinacje). Jeśli w systemie zainstalowana jest odpowiednia czcionka, Notatnik wyświetli ciąg znaków pisma chińskiego. +W sieci pojawiały się różnego rodzaju mistyfikacje wykorzystujące ten fakt i interpretujące go jako easter egg. Podawane były różne teksty, pasujące do schematu tekstu, m.in. "bush hid the facts" (ang. "Bush ukrył fakty") czy "this app can break" (ang. "ten program może się zepsuć"). +W wersji Notatnika dołączonej do Windows Vista błąd został usunięty. +Data w plikach LOG. +Jeśli chcemy stworzyć plik, w którym będą zapisywane logi, to możemy w pierwszej linii napisać ".LOG" (nie dodając żadnych spacji po tym ciągu) i zapisać plik. Od tej pory przy każdy następny otwarciu pliku, na końcu tekstu pojawi się aktualna data. Podobną funkcjonalność posiada m.in. Programmer's Notepad. +Ukrywanie paska stanu. +Warto wiedzieć, iż zaznaczenie opcji "Format → Zawijanie wierszy" dezaktywuje opcje "Widok → Pasek stanu". Tym samym nie można sprawdzić, w której linii (i kolumnie) znajduje się kursor po włączeniu zawijania wierszy. +Azalityzm + +Azalityzm (nazwa własna: Bayani) - ruch religijny w łonie babizmu (zwany również babizmem, bądź azalityzmem-babizmem) powstały na gruncie sporu o sukcesję po założycielu, skupiony wokół Mirzy Yahya Nuri (Subh-i-Azal, co po persku znaczy "Poranek Wieczności") (1831 - 1912). +Do rozłamu doszło po trzynastu latach kierowania grupą przez Yahyę, kiedy to ponad połowa wiernych opowiedziała się za Bahaullahem (1863) i stworzyła konkurencyjny bahaizm (1866). Tuż po podziale wielu czołowych azalitów zostało skrytobójczo zabitych, o co do dnia dzisiejszego posądzają bahaitów; znane są również przypadki zabójstw bahaitów przez azalitów - bahaici do dziś oskarżają Subh-i-Azala o próbę zabójstwa Bahaullaha. Azalici znani są z częstego stosowania takijji. Wielu azalitów takich jak: Mirza Aga Khan Kirmani, szejk Ahmad Ruhi Kirmani, Mirza Dżahangir Chan Szirazi, było irańskimi politykami, którzy przyczyniali się do reformowania państwa. Liczą obecnie poniżej 10 000 wyznawców, w większości w Iranie oraz wśród Turków mieszkających w Północnym Cyprze. Azalityzm jest obecnie znacznie mniej rozpowszechniony niż bahaizm. +Jędrzej Moraczewski (historyk) + +Jędrzej Moraczewski, pseud. "Gospodarz Jędrzej" (ur. 2 lub 4 lutego 1802 w Dusinie, pow. gostyński, zm. 20 lutego 1855 w Poznaniu) – historyk (przedstawiciel lelewelowskiej szkoły historycznej), publicysta, działacz społeczny. +Biografia. +Pochodził z rodziny ziemiańskiej, studiował prawo na uniwersytetach w Lipsku i Heidelbergu oraz na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. +Brał czynny udział w powstaniu listopadowym, uczestniczył w konspiracji wielkopolskiej 1846 r. (Centralizacja Poznańska), był członkiem Komitetu Narodowego w powstaniu wielkopolskim 1848 r. +Założyciel Towarzystwa Zbieraczów Starożytności Krajowych w Szamotułach działającego w latach 1840-46, prowadzącego badania archeologiczne na terenie Wielkopolski, ewidencjonującego i kolekcjonującego zabytki przeszłości. +W latach 1841-1843 brał udział w cyklu wykładów - odczytów publicznych, zorganizowanych z inicjatywy Tytusa Działyńskiego w Sali Czerwonej Pałacu Działyńskich w Poznaniu, gdzie prowadził wykłady z zakresu historii Polski i Słowiańszczyzny. Karol Libelt wykładał estetykę, Teodor Teofil Matecki – fizyki i chemii, Jakub Krotowski-Krauthofer – metodologię prawa, I. Lipski – agronomię, a Fabian Sarnecki uczył malarstwa. +Dzwon nurkowy + +Dzwon nurkowy – opuszczana do zbiornika wodnego komora z wyrównywanym przez tłoczenie powietrza ciśnieniem, otwarta od dołu (lub z hermetycznym włazem, zamykanym w razie potrzeby), służąca do transportu nurków na różne głębokości. +Rodzajem dzwonu nurkowego jest dzwon ratowniczy, umożliwiający ewakuację załogi zanurzonego okrętu podwodnego. +Według legendy pierwowzorem dzwonu nurkowego było urządzenie, dzięki któremu Aleksander Wielki opuścił się na dno morza. +SLI + +SLI ("Scan Line Interleave" - Przeplot Skanowania Linii bądź "Scalable Link Interface" - Interfejs Skalowalnego Łącza) - technologia pozwalająca na skorelowanie pracy dwóch, trzech lub czterech kart graficznych celem szybszego renderowania obrazu. SLI pozwala również na wyświetlanie obrazu na więcej niż dwóch monitorach. +Scan Line Interleave. +SLI po raz pierwszy zastosowana została przez nieistniejącą już firmę 3dfx w 1998 roku. Dwie karty Voodoo 2 połączone mostkiem pracowały w trybie przeplatania linii obrazu. Pierwsza karta generowała obraz składający się tylko z linii nieparzystych, druga zaś - z linii parzystych. Tak wygenerowane półobrazy łączone były w jedną klatkę. Metoda została nazwana skrótem "SLI" - od "Scan-Line Interleave" - przeplot linii skanujących. +W grudniu 2000 r. NVIDIA Corporation wykupiła 3dfx włączając patenty oraz własność intelektualną. +Scalable Link Interface. +2-Way SLI. +Technologia SLI wróciła w 2004 roku jako Scalable Link Interface. Dwie karty graficzne NVIDIA GeForce włożone w złącza PCI-Express 16x lub 8x wspólnie generują obraz. Obraz dzielony jest na dwie części, górną i dolną. Za rendering górnej połowy odpowiada pierwsza karta, dolnej - karta druga. Obie części obrazu nie są jednak sobie równe. Na początku obraz dzielony jest na dwie połowy. Następnie przeprowadzana jest analiza każdej z nich. Jeśli górna wymaga mniej obliczeń niż dolna, linia podziału przesuwana jest ku dołowi, analogicznie jeżeli dolna połowa wymaga mniej obliczeń linia podziału przesuwa się w górę tak, by wyrównać poziom obliczeń. +Technologię tę wspierają tylko karty serii 6xxx, 7xxx, 8xxx, 9xxx, 2xx oraz 4xx 5xx a dzięki nowym sterownikom można używać kart bez mostka SLI, co jednak zmniejsza wydajność. W tej chwili oficjalnie technologie SLI wspierają tylko płyty główne z chipsetem NVIDII i na chipie Intel X58, P55 i H57 pod procesory core i3, i5 i i7 . Tutaj chipsety które posiadają obsługe SLi: nForce4 SLi, nForce 4 SLi x16, nForce 570, nForce 590, nForce 650, nForce 680, nForce 750, nForce 780i, nForce 790i, Intel P55, Intel H57 i Intel X58 w wersjach dla platformy AMD i Intel. Modyfikując sterowniki można uruchomić SLi także na Intel i965 i 975X, a także na wszystkich innych zawierających gniazda fizycznie PCI-Express x16 (elektronicznie mogą być 8x i 4x). Ostatnio do grona czipów z SLI dołączył bardzo ciekawy ULI1695 posiadający obsługę SLI PCI-E oraz AGP. Z powodu ogromnego zapotrzebowania na prąd, zaleca się używanie minimum 500 watowych zasilaczy. +3-Way SLI. +Firma nVidia wprowadzając chipsety 780i, 780a i 790i udostępniła technologię 3-way SLI pozwalająca łączenie trzech kart graficznych. Z technologii 3-way SLI można korzystać też nieoficjalnie na płytach z nForce 680i. Karty które można łączyć w 3-Way SLI to: 8800 GTX, 9800 GTX/GTX+, GTX 260/260 Core 216, GTX 280, GTX 285. Powstała też karta Asus 9800 GT która miała wspierać 3-way SLI. +4-Way SLI. +W 2009 roku firma EVGA przygotowała płytę główną X58 Classified 4-way SLI (na dzień dzisiejszy zamontowanie 4 kart graficznych umożliwia tylko kilka płyt głównych z chipsetem X58), na której można połączyć ze sobą 4 karty graficzne. Firma EVGA wydała specjalną kartę graficzną do tego celu - GTX 285 Classified. Aby je połaczyć potrzebny jest specjalny mostek 4 way SLI. Karta posiada aż 3 wejścia zasilające PCI-E 6 pin. Karty które można łaczyć w 4-Way SLI to seria 88xx, 98xx, 2xx, 4xx i 5xx. +Quad SLI. +W październiku 2005 r. pojawiło się rozwinięcie technologii SLI o nazwie Quad SLI, pozwalające na korzystanie z dwóch kart graficznych posiadających łącznie cztery procesory (po dwa GPU na każdej z kart). Korzystanie z tej technologii umożliwiają Wszystkie układ GeForce posiadające 2 złącza SLI oraz z podwójnym GPU: 7900GX2, 7950GX2, 9800GX2, GTX295. Technologia ta ma znaczne wady, takie jak duży rozmiar kart posiadających dwa procesory (mieszczą się tylko do dużych obudów), bardzo duży pobór prądu wymuszający w niektórych przypadkach zamontowanie dwóch zasilaczy i duża ilość generowanego ciepła wewnątrz komputera. +SLI, na innych chipsetach niż nForce czy Intel X58. +27 maja 2010 pojawił się obszerny poradnik dotyczący uruchomienia trybu SLI, na płytach głównych, które wstępnie go nie obsługują. +Poradnik pojawił się na łamach serwisu technologicznego Benchmark.pl, link bezpośredni [http://www.benchmark.pl/mini-recenzje/SLI_pod_Intelem%2C_czyli_jak_ominac_ograniczenia_nalozone_przez_producentow.-2980.html]. +Nintendo 64 + +Nintendo 64, N64 – domowa konsola gier telewizyjnych stworzona przez firmę Nintendo. Premiera konsoli w Japonii miała miejsce 23 czerwca 1996 roku, w Ameryce Północnej – 29 września 1996, a w Europie – 1 marca 1997 roku. Oficjalnie prace nad konsolą rozpoczęły się 23 sierpnia 1993. W tym dniu bowiem poinformowano o podpisaniu umowy między firmami Nintendo i Silicon Graphics, w której była mowa o projekcie "Reality", mającym na celu stworzenie nowej konsoli do gier. Początkowo konsola miała się nazywać Ultra 64 i miała kosztować około 300 dolarów. Trudno było w to uwierzyć ze względu na niedawną premierę 32-bitowej konsoli 3DO Interactive Multiplayer, która kosztowała aż 699 dolarów i z tego powodu pojawiały się złośliwe uwagi aby zmienić nazwę projektu na "Unreality" (nierealny). Dzięki tej współpracy powstała pierwsza 64-bitowa konsola o możliwościach przewyższających dostępne wtedy na rynku konsole w tym jej głównego rywala Sony PlayStation. +Konsola obsługuje grafikę trójwymiarową. Zostało na nią wydane 396 gier. Sprzedano ponad 32 mln. egzemplarzy tej konsoli. Pad do N64 posiada gałkę analogową. +Zbigniew Lew-Starowicz + +Zbigniew Lew-Starowicz (ur. 25 października 1943 w Sieradzu) – polski lekarz psychiatra i psychoterapeuta, ekspert z zakresu seksuologii i konsultant krajowy w tej dziedzinie. +Działalność. +W 1966 ukończył Wydział Lekarski Wojskowej Akademii Medycznej w Łodzi, a także filozofię na KUL. W 1981 doktoryzował się z tematu związanego z seksuologią, a w 1986 uzyskał tytuł doktora habilitowanego nauk medycznych (psychiatria). Od 1995 jest profesorem nadzwyczajnym Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie. Pełnił funkcję dziekana Wydziału Rehabilitacji (od 1999), jest kierownikiem Katedry Psychospołecznych Podstaw Rehabilitacji na Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego Józefa Piłsudskiego w Warszawie i wykładowcą na Wydziale Psychologii Wyższej Szkoły Finansów i Zarządzania w Warszawie. +Pełnił funkcję dyrektora Instytutu Seksuologii Polskiego Towarzystwa Seksuologicznego w Warszawie. +Jest prezesem Polskiego Towarzystwa Seksuologicznego i Polskiego Towarzystwa Medycyny Seksualnej. W latach 1995-1996 był ekspertem Ministerstwa Edukacji Narodowej w zakresie edukacji seksualnej, a w latach 1996-1998 liderem programu edukacji seksualnej ONZ. Od 1994 piastuje stanowisko krajowego specjalisty z zakresu seksuologii. +Jest biegłym sądowym. +Zbigniew Lew-Starowicz jest autorem wielu prac z zakresu psychiatrii, a zwłaszcza seksuologii. +Opublikował też wiele pozycji popularnonaukowych. +Współpracował z (nieistniejącą już) telewizją TVN Med, w której był prowadzącym programów nt. seksuologii. +Wydawał publikacje pod pseudonimem "Leo Oldwitch". +Życie prywatne. +Żonaty, czworo dzieci, w tym troje z pierwszego małżeństwa. +Ciekawostki. +Wystąpił (jako urzędnik Stanu Cywilnego) w teledysku "Black and White" grupy Kombi. +Francuski ruch oporu + +Francuski ruch oporu 1940-1944 (fr. "Résistance") – walka społeczeństwa francuskiego przeciwko okupantom niemieckim oraz władzom kolaboracyjnym podczas II wojny światowej. +We Francji cały Ruch Oporu stopniowo podporządkował się Komitetowi Wolnej Francji w Londynie, kierowanemu przez Charles'a de Gaulle'a i odgrywającego rolę francuskiego rządu emigracyjnego. Działacze tego ruchu organizowali pomoc jeńcom wojennym, propagandę, sabotaż i dywersję oraz akcje zbrojne przy wsparciu państw alianckich oraz SOE i OSS. Ponadto działania zbrojne prowadziła partyzantka, początkowo głównie komunistyczna. Francuscy badacze historii ruchu oporu wyróżniają podstawowe dwa rodzaje typów organizacji - "ruchy" ("mouvements" - bardziej masowe, o rozległej działalności, było dziewięć znaczniejszych, z mniejszymi łącznie 21) i "siatki" ("réseaux" - niewielkie, koncentrujące się na wybranej sferze działania, było ich ponad 200). Partyzantka skupiała jesienią 1943 roku kilkanaście tysięcy osób zaś masowego charakteru nabrała po rozpoczęciu inwazji alianckiej. +Akcje ruchu oporu. +W roku 1940 w Paryżu rozpoczęły się pierwsze manifestacje studentów i uczniów skierowane przeciwko okupacji niemieckiej i rządowi w Vichy, który został utworzony w celu kolaboracji z nazistowskim rządem Niemiec i na którego czele stanął polityk francuski marszałek Philippe Pétain. Ruch oporu rozwinął się silniej w strefie nieokupowanej przez Niemcy a słabiej w strefie okupowanej. W Armii Rozejmowej utworzonej po kapitulacji Francji rozwinęła działalność Organizacja Ruchu Oporu Armii. W listopadzie 1942 Niemcy wkroczyli do strefy dotychczas nieokupowanej-tym samym prawie całe terytorium Francji znalazło się pod okupacją. +W roku 1942 gaulliści z Londynu i działacze Ruchu Oporu skoordynowali swe poczynania wobec wzmagających się represji Niemców oraz reżimu Vichy. Poważne wzmocnienie dla podziemia przyniosło zjednoczenie politycznych sił Ruchu Oporu: delegat de Gaulle'a Jean Moulin (członek partii radykalnej, wybitny organizator) został pierwszym przewodniczącym "Krajowej Rady Ruchu Oporu", w której skład weszły główne siły polityczne Resistance: komuniści, socjaliści, radykałowie, chrześcijańscy demokraci. Po aresztowaniu Moulina na czele CNR zastąpił Georges Bidault. W marcu 1944 r. w ślad za zjednoczeniem politycznym nastąpiło zjednoczenie wojskowe podziemia. Poprzez scalenie kilku organizacji zbrojnych głównie gaullistów z AS i komunistów z FTFP oraz wojskowych zawodowych z ORA powstały "Francuskie Siły Wewnętrzne" - FFI. Ich dowódcą został generał Marie Pierre Koenig. W ostatnim roku okupacji nastąpił znaczny wzrost liczby akcji bojowych, aktów sabotażu oraz dywersji. Największe natężenie osiągnęły one po rozpoczęciu operacji wyzwalania Europy Zachodniej 6 czerwca 1944 roku rozwinęła się wówczas masowa partyzantka. W Paryżu i Marsylii wybuchły powstania zbrojne. Resistance samodzielnie oswobodziła szereg departamentów francuskich opuszczanych przez wycofujący się Wehrmacht. Po wyzwoleniu Francji znaczna część członków oddziałów Resistance wstąpiła do oddziałów regularnych armii francuskiej. +We francuskiej Resistance aktywnie działało około 40 tysięcy Polaków głównie spośród Polonii francuskiej i polskich uchodźców i wojskowych. W wyniku tych działań zginęło około 5 tysięcy Polaków, w tym ks. Wojciech Rogaczewski. Najsilniejszymi polskimi organizacjami podziemnymi we Francji były będące częścią składową Resistance POWN i lewicowa Milicja Patriotyczna. +W strukturach Resistance ulokowana była łączniczka Komendy Głównej AK. +Program Krajowej Rady Ruchu Oporu. +W roku 1944 uchwalony został program Krajowej Rady Ruchu Oporu, w którym założono, że po zwycięstwie utrzymana zostanie jedność sił Oporu w imię przeobrażenia oblicza Francji. Sformułowano także ideę nowej Republiki, w której nie będzie istnieć zdrada i korupcja, lecz sprawny rząd połączony ze skuteczną kontrolą przedstawicielstwa narodowego. Podkreślono konieczność przeprowadzenia reform ekonomicznych oraz ukarania kolaborantów. Najważniejszym punktem programu było przygotowanie powstania narodowego. Mimo że program nie został do końca zrealizowany odegrał ważną rolę w tworzeniu nowej świadomości społecznej i politycznej. +Wihara + +Wihara (sanskr. lub pali vihara: विहार) – klasztor (buddyjski rzadziej dżinijski). Dosłownie można je tłumaczyć jako "schronienie" albo "azyl", jak to w którym chronili się wędrujący mnisi podczas pory deszczowej. +Pierwotnie słowo wihara było używane wyłącznie na określenie tylko części klasztoru, a mianowicie kwater mnisich. Prawidłowym określeniem klasztoru buddyjskiego była bowiem lena (od słowa layana - prywatne pomieszczenie, mieszkanie). Stopniowo jednak słowo wihara poszerzało swoje znaczenie i w końcu zaczęło oznaczać jeden z pięciu typów leny (klasztoru). Po zaniku czterech jego form konstrukcyjnych (adddhajoga, pasada, hammija i guha) pozostała sama wihara i wyparła nawet prawidłowe określenie klasztoru buddyjskiego. +We wczesnych dekadach buddyzmu wędrujący mnisi tworzący sanghę nie mieli określonego miejsca schronienia. Podczas pory deszczowej (pali. vassa) chronili się w tymczasowych szałasach zbudowanych z drewna, krytych liśćmi. Czasami mogły to być budynki kapliczek (rzadko murowane a częściej drewniane). Aktem szczodrości było nie tylko nakarmienie mnicha ale także ofiarowanie mu schronienia. (Mitra 1971) +Pierwsze klasztory powstawały spontanicznie dzięki hojnym, bogatym świeckim wyznawcom Buddy. Budowano je w parkach (jak np. Park Gazeli w Varanasi) – wystarczająco blisko ludzkich siedzib aby mnisi mogli prosić o jałmużnę ale wystarczająco daleko by mieli pod dostatkiem spokoju do medytacji. +Szlaki handlowe były zatem najlepszą lokacją dla wihary. Datki od możnych kupców znacznie wspierały lokalne społeczności mnichów. Od I wieku wihary zaczęły przekształcać się w instytucje edukacyjne, wraz z rozwojem misji buddyjskich (Chakrabarti 1995). +Wraz z utworzeniem stałych klasztorów tradycja wędrowania zanikła, jednak nazwa "wihara" pozostała. Niektóre z nich stały się niezwykle ważnymi instytucjami religijnymi, inne przeobraziły się w główne uniwersytety buddyjskie, jak np. Nalanda. +Jedną z bardziej znanych wihar była Maha Vihara na Cejlonie. Był to potężny ośrodek buddyjski – zarówno badawczy, jak i misyjny. +Wygląd wihary był różny w zależności od regionu w którym rozwijał się buddyzm. Jednak cechą wspólną jest zawsze sala do medytacji, często mieszcząca główny posąg Buddy. +Życie w wiharach zostało skodyfikowane i zawarte jest w Winaja-pitace ("Koszu Dyscypliny Zakonnej") – pierwszym zbiorze Tipitaki. +Północnoindyjski rejon Bihar wywodzi swą nazwę prawdopodobnie od słowa "wihara" – być może od dużej liczby klasztorów, które się tam kiedyś znajdowały. Podobnie uzbeckie miasto Buchara. +W Tajlandii słowo "wihara" (wymowa w języku tajskim "wihan") ma węższe znaczenie i oznacza budynek zgromadzeń na terenie kompleksu świątynnego. +Linki zewnętrzne. +theravada.int.pl - opis części składowych świątyni +Wyzwoleniec + +Wyzwoleniec – człowiek, który został podniesiony ze stanu niewoli i otrzymał pełne lub częściowe prawa obywatelskie. +Prawo do wyzwalania miał najczęściej właściciel niewolnika. W starożytnym Rzymie wyzwolenie było aktem wdzięczności właściciela dla lojalnej służby. Prawo rzymskie chroniło niewolników przed wyzwoleniem w przypadku choroby, starości czy po prostu w sytuacji, kiedy nie mógł pracować. +W średniowieczu w procesie feudalizacji wyzwoleńcy zasilili głównie warstwę chłopstwa. +Bobrek + +2 miejscowości +Formalizm (matematyka) + +Formalizm to kierunek w filozofii matematyki, będący formą rozwojową logicyzmu, który postuluje, że matematyka jest systemem formalnym, który zawiera aksjomaty (współcześnie rolę tę pełnią aksjomaty teorii mnogości), pewien zespół definicji oraz wyprowadza swoje wnioski w oparciu o te pojęcia korzystając z rachunku logicznego zdań. +Pogląd taki implikuje w szczególności kształt teorii dowodu matematycznego, wedle której prawdziwość twierdzenia matematycznego może być określona przez wyprowadzenie go w procesie rachunku logicznego zdań z przyjętych aksjomatów. W szczególności filozoficznym aspektem formalizmu w matematyce jest twierdzenie, że twierdzenia matematyczne nie niosą w sobie żadnej treści poza tą związaną z wykonanym w taki "mechaniczny" sposób kalkulacją. Innymi słowy prawdziwość twierdzeń matematycznych jest wedle tych poglądów oceniana z pominięciem ich treści (z pominięciem semantyki, a wyłącznie przy użyciu mechanicznej kalkulacji). Dowolne twierdzenie matematyki możliwe jest do wyprodukowania w procesie mechanicznej generacji zdań systemu formalnego. +Program formalizacji matematyki zapostulował David Hilbert, zaś w jego realizacji wzięło udział wielu wybitnych matematyków jak Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, matematycy z grupy Bourbaki i inni. Takim rozumieniu podstaw matematyki zachwiał Kurt Gödel dowodząc twierdzenia o niezupełności systemów formalnych zawierających arytmetykę liczb naturalnych. Wynika z niego, że w każdym systemie formalnym, który zawiera arytmetykę liczb naturalnych i jest niesprzeczny istnieją zdania, których nie uda się na gruncie tego systemu dowieść ani obalić. Rezultat Gödla został wzmocniony pod koniec lat siedemdziesiątych XX wieku przez podanie zdań nierozstrzygalnych w sformalizowanym systemie arytmetyki liczb naturalnych. +Współcześnie formalizm to głównie technika budowania teorii matematycznych, choć można także uważać go za formę paradygmatu matematyki o ile będziemy pamiętali o znanych już współcześnie jego ograniczeniach. +Przeciwieństwem formalizmu jest platonizm, wedle którego obiekty matematyczne istnieją niezależnie od uprawiającego matematykę umysłu. +Cukrzyca typu 1 + +Cukrzyca typu 1 (łac. "diabetes mellitus typi 1", ang. Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, IDDM), nazywana też cukrzycą insulinozależną jest jedną z etiopatogenetycznych postaci cukrzycy. U jej podłoża leży przewlekły, autoimmunologiczny proces chorobowy prowadzący do powolnego zniszczenia, produkujących insulinę, komórek β wysp trzustkowych i w następstwie tego do utraty zdolności jej wydzielania. +Pełnoobjawowa cukrzyca typu 1, jeśli nie jest leczona za pomocą iniekcji insuliny, jest chorobą śmiertelną. Kompleksowo leczona nie ma wpływu na długość życia osoby chorej. Alternatywą dla leczenia za pomocą stałego uzupełniania niedoboru insuliny może w przyszłości stać się zastosowanie transplantacji trzustki, bądź wysp trzustkowych. +Przestarzała, nieużywana obecnie nazwa cukrzycy typu 1 to "cukrzyca młodzieńcza". +Epidemiologia. +Cukrzyca typu 1 stanowi około 8% wszystkich przypadków zachorowań na cukrzycę. Najczęściej dotyczy dzieci, młodzieży i osób przed 30. rokiem życia (w 85–90%), chociaż w 10–15% może wystąpić u osób powyżej 30. roku życia. Początek choroby ma najczęściej miejsce między 12-15. rokiem życia. +Patofizjologia. +Jedynie komórki B (β) znajdujące się w wyspach trzustkowych (wyspach Langerhansa) mają zdolność do produkcji insuliny. Ich uszkodzenie przez proces autoimmunologiczny prowadzi do bezwzględnego niedoboru insuliny. Insulina jest głównym hormonem anabolicznym, który jest niezbędny do prawidłowego metabolizmu węglowodanów, tłuszczów i białek. +Gdy insulina nie działa na komórki, dochodzi do sytuacji, którą można nazwać "głodem w obfitości". We krwi jest zbyt wysokie stężenie glukozy (hiperglikemia), ale nie pobudzone insuliną komórki nie pobierają jej wydajnie. Ponieważ wątroba otrzymuje od organizmu informację, że komórki nie dostają należnej im dawki glukozy, uwalnia do krwi zmagazynowaną glukozę. Stężenie glukozy rośnie dalej. +Brak insuliny wzmaga też przekształcanie aminokwasów w glukozę. Komórki, nie mogąc korzystać z energii zawartej w glukozie, przestawiają się na alternatywne źródła energii – zaczynają intensywnie rozkładać białka i tłuszcze. W wyniku rozpadu tłuszczów powstają ciała ketonowe. Dochodzi do zakwaszenia krwi (kwasica ketonowa, acydoza, ketoza). +Całkowity brak insuliny prowadzi do ciężkich zaburzeń metabolicznych pod postacią kwasicy ketonowej i śpiączki ketonowej. Nieleczone to zaburzenie prawie zawsze kończy się śmiercią. +Leczenie. +W celu zapobieżenia tym powikłaniom konieczne jest wprowadzenie leczenia substytucyjnego insuliną, podawaną do organizmu z zewnątrz. To leczenie konieczne jest do końca życia. +Insulinę podaje się podskórnie, za pomocą strzykawek, penów (piór) insulinowych lub pompy insulinowej. Aby jak najlepiej naśladować wydzielanie insuliny przez trzustkę, przy penach preparatów insuliny, o różnym tempie uwalniania do krwi, najczęściej analog insuliny ludzkiej długodziałającej i analog insuliny ludzkiej o przyspieszonym działaniu. Przy pompie insulinowej stosuje się jedynie insulinę krótkodziałającą. Większość preparatów insuliny wytwarza się w organizmach modyfikowanych genetycznie – drożdżach i bakteriach "Escherichia coli". +Zapotrzebowanie na insulinę zależy od bardzo wielu czynników i zmienia się w krótkim czasie. Pacjenci z cukrzycą typu 1 narażeni są na występowanie incydentów hipoglikemicznych. +Reakcja upozorowana + +Reakcja upozorowana ("formacja reaktywna") to jeden z neurotycznych mechanizmów obronnych, polegający na radzeniu sobie z nieakceptowanymi impulsami przez wyrażanie przeciwstawnych im impulsów. +Np.: nie lubimy szefa, lecz do niego mówimy "zrobić Panu herbatki". +Logicyzm + +Logicyzm to kierunek w filozofii matematyki, zakładający, że można oprzeć jej podstawy na bazie rachunku logicznego zdań (porównaj logika). W szczególności sprowadza to matematykę jako naukę do szczególnego rodzaju formalnej teorii logicznej implementującej pewien zestaw aksjomatów i wyprowadzającej z nich wnioski w oparciu o pewien zespół definicji (porównaj: formalizm (matematyka)). +Logicyzm odegrał znaczącą rolę w tworzeniu podstaw matematyki współczesnej. Swój sukces zawdzięcza stworzeniu przez Giuseppe Peano spójnej aksjomatyki liczb naturalnych oraz stworzeniu przez Russella i Alfreda Whiteheada spójnej teorii rachunku logicznego zdań opartego na teorii typów eliminującej antynomię klas samozwrotnych oraz inne problemy nękające podstawy matematyki na początku XX wieku. Dalszy rozwój matematyki potoczył się jednak w kierunku budowania podstaw matematyki w oparciu o teorię mnogości i jej zespolenie z logiką. +Różnica pomiędzy logicyzmem a formalizmem polega na tym, że logicyzm nie wypowiada się na temat znaczenia pojęć pozalogicznych używanych do konstrukcji matematyki. Zarówno Hilbert jak i twórca koncepcji Russell mieli na te kwestie zdanie znacząco odbiegające od współczesnych poglądów formalistów. Akcentowali oni znaczenie pojęć matematycznych a nie jedynie ich wzajemne relacje. Formalizm stoi na zupełnie innej pozycji dzieląc jawnie aksjomaty na logiczne i pozalogiczne i dodatkowo uważając, że są one wszystkie całkiem dowolne. +Współcześnie logicyzm został wchłonięty w warstwie technicznej przez formalizm który stanowi wraz z aksjomatyką teorii mnogości paradygmat rozwojowy podstaw matematyki, przynajmniej w zakresie przedstawiania wiedzy i edukacji. Należy powątpiewać czy matematycy tworząc nowe teorie stosują rzeczywiście metodę aksjomatyczną. Zwykłym obyczajem w matematyce jest jednak aksjomatyczne formułowanie wyników już dokonanej pracy. +Ereszkigal + +Ereszkigal – sumeryjska bogini rządząca światem podziemnym. +Imię jej może być tłumaczone jako "Królowa Wielkiego Poniżej". W języku akadyjskim znana była jako Allatu. +Siostra bogini Isztar oraz matka Nungal. Przez związek z Enlilem jest matką Ninszubura, który był jej posłańcem. Pierwszym mężem Ereszkigal był Gugal-ana (może być utożsamiany z bogiem Ennugi), z którym miała syna imieniem Ninazu. W poemacie "Nergal i Ereszkigal" bogini poślubiła boga Nergala. Jej posłańcem był Namtar, uważany za demona plag. +Bogini mieszkała w pałacu (według Babilończyków nazywał się Egalgina) znajdującym się w Kur, do którego wchodziło się przez Ganzir. Początkowo była ona mieszkanką niebios, ale porwał ja potwór Kur. Bóg Enki starał się uwolnić boginię, lecz nie udało się i została ona na zawsze w podziemnej krainie, nie mogąc opuścić jej nawet na chwilę. +Ereszkigal była boginią groźną i nieprzychylną, a największą zawiścią pałała do swej młodszej siostry Isztar. Wywoływała obawy i uczucie lęku nie tylko u ludzi, ale i u bogów. +Rozszczepienie (psychologia) + +Rozszczepienie ("splitting") to jeden z mechanizmów obronnych, polegający na podzieleniu zewnętrznych obiektów na całkiem dobre i całkiem złe. Osoba pozostająca w kontakcie z osobą stosującą rozszczepienie może nagle zostać zaklasyfikowana do jednej z kategorii i deprecjonowana lub idealizowana. Podobnie oscyluje obraz samego siebie, obraz świata, moralność itp. +Humor (psychologia) + +Humor jako jeden z dojrzałych mechanizmów obronnych polega na otwartej ekspresji uczuć bez osobistego dyskomfortu i nieprzyjemnych efektów dla innych. +Szach (szachy) + +Szach – sytuacja w partii szachów, w której król jest zagrożony zabiciem w następnym posunięciu. Inaczej mówiąc, szach jest wtedy, gdy król znajdzie się w zasięgu działania (bicia) bierki przeciwnika. Jeśli przeciwnik wykonał ruch, który spowodował taką sytuację, mówi się, że król jest w "szachu" lub jest "szachowany". W szachowej notacji algebraicznej szacha oznacza się znakiem +. +Króla nigdy nie można pozostawiać w szachu. Niedozwolone jest również wykonanie posunięcia, które doprowadzi do szacha własnego króla. +Pozycja, w której król jest w szachu i nie ma żadnego dozwolonego ruchu, aby się przed szachem obronić lub od niego uciec, nazywa się matem i kończy partię wygraną strony matującej. +Zmuszając ciągłym szachowaniem do powtarzania pozycji można zakończyć partię poprzez wiecznego szacha. +W towarzyskich rozgrywkach o szachu informuje się przeciwnika ustnie, mówiąc "szach" lub "szach królowi". W oficjalnych rozgrywkach ten zwyczaj nie jest akceptowany i może być potraktowany jako próba rozpraszania przeciwnika. +Podwójny szach. +Najprostszym i najczęściej wykonywanym sposobem szachowania jest przesunięcie własnej bierki na pole, w którym wrogi król znajdzie się w jej polu rażenia. Innym sposobem jest "odkryty szach": bierka którą wykonujemy posunięcie nie szachuje króla, lecz opuszczając pole na którym stała odsłania drogę do ataku innej bierce. Odkryty szach jest szczególną formą odkrytego ataku. Połączenie tych sposobów doprowadza do "podwójnego szacha", kiedy bierka odsłaniana i wykonująca ruch razem atakują króla. +W wyjątkowym przypadku przy podwójnym szachu bierka wykonująca ruch nie daje szacha. W klasycznych szachach jedyną możliwością powstania tej sytuacji jest bicie w przelocie piona. W pozycji po prawej czarne zagrały właśnie g5. Po ruchu białych h:g6+ powstanie podwójny szach, ale pion nie będzie szachował. Podwójnego szacha stworzą wieża i hetman: wieża odsłonięta ruchem piona, hetman przez zabitego piona. Taki podwójny szach jest niezwykle rzadki w praktycznej rozgrywce, ale spotykany czasem w problemach szachowych. +Podwójny szach jest bardzo groźnym posunięciem, gdyż jedyną obroną przed nim jest przesunięcie króla, bo nie sposób ani zbić ani zasłonić się przed dwiema bierkami jednocześnie. Wymienione powyżej zagrywki często stanowią część szachowej kombinacji. +Hipokamp + +Hipokamp (łac. "hippocampus", dawna nazwa: Róg Amona "Cornu Ammonis") – element układu limbicznego odpowiedzialny głównie za pamięć; drobna struktura nerwowa, umieszczona w płacie skroniowym kory mózgowej kresomózgowia. Hipokamp odgrywa ważną rolę w przenoszeniu (konsolidacji) informacji z pamięci krótkotrwałej do pamięci długotrwałej oraz orientacji przestrzennej. Stwierdzono doświadczalnie, że uszkodzenie hipokampu w znacznym stopniu upośledza u zwierząt zdolności uczenia się. Człowiek i inne ssaki posiadają dwa hipokampy, po jednym na każdą połowę mózgu. +Składa się ze stopy, koryta i strzępka. Formacja hipokampa (albo hipokampalna) jest terminem szerszym i oprócz samego hipokampa obejmuje również zakręt zębaty i korę śródwęchową. +Patofizjologia. +Badania dowiodły, że hipokamp może ulec uszkodzeniu pod wpływem dużego stresu. Zbyt silny stres, którego następstwem jest zespół stresu pourazowego, doprowadza do wzrostu aktywności osi podwzgórze-przysadka-nadnercza, powodujący do wydzielania m.in. kortyzolu, uszkadzającego hipokamp. Podobne działanie mogą mieć także inne glikokortykosteroidy, w tym stosowane leczniczo: stwierdzano zmniejszenie objętości i upośledzenie funkcji tej struktury mózgowia, także poprzez zwiększenie stresu oksydacyjnego oraz wpływ na układ dopaminergiczny i neurotensynergiczny +SNK Playmore + +SNK Playmore – założona w 1978 roku pod nazwą SNK japońska firma zajmująca się produkcją i dystrybucją gier arcade i gier wideo. Nazwa SNK pochodzi od japońskich słów "Shin Nihon Kikaku" co znaczy "Nowy Japoński Projekt". W 2002 roku firma połączyła się z firmą Playmore a w sierpniu 2003 roku nazwa firmy została zmieniona na SNK Playmore. +Powiat bytowski + +Powiat bytowski (kasz. "Bëtowsczi kréz") – powiat w Polsce (województwo pomorskie), utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Bytów. +Położenie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2011 r. powierzchnia powiatu wynosiła 2192,07 km². Powiat bytowski jest powiatem o największej powierzchni w woj. pomorskim. +Demografia. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. powiat miał 76 168 mieszkańców. +Stopa bezrobocia (do aktywnych zawodowo) - 21,6% (czerwiec 2011) +Awesta + +Awesta, Avesta, Apastak, Awistak (z irańskiego "apartak"=prawo) – to święta natchniona księga zawierająca teksty religijne wyznawców mazdaizmu i zaratusztrianizmu (zoroastryzmu), czyli fragmenty starych irańskich przekazów datowanych na VII wiek p.n.e. lub na okres jeszcze wcześniejszy: II tysiąclecie p.n.e. +Język awesty. +Zredagowana w staroirańskim języku awestyjskim: najstarsza część w języku Gath, reprezentującym stan językowy z VI wieku p.n.e, reszta w języku awestyjskim młodszym. +Historia powstania. +Tekst pierwotny powstał prawdopodobnie w VI wieku p.n.e., według podania został zniszczony w IV wieku p.n.e., podczas podboju imperium perskiego przez Aleksandra Macedońskiego, następnie odtworzony, ponownie zredagowany i uzupełniony w czasach sasanidzkich. Nową redakcję sporządzono na rozkaz króla Partów, Wologazesa. Z polecenia założyciela dynastii Sasanidów, Ardaszira I (226-241) uzupełnił ją w III wieku kapłan Tansar; ostatecznej redakcji dokonano za panowania Szapura II (309-379). +Komentarze: Zend. +Do awesty istnieją komentarze (Zend), najobszerniejsze do Vendidad, zredagowane w większości za panowania dynastii Sasanidów w średnioirańskim języku pahlawi. Najmłodsze pochodzą z IX wieku. +Przekłady i publikacje. +Najstarszego przekładu europejskiego Awesty – na język francuski – dokonał Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron w 1771 roku. Tytuł Zend-Avesta, którym został opatrzony, jest nieprawidłowy. Właściwa nazwa zbioru obejmującego Awestę i komentarze brzmi Apastak wazand. +Na język polski Awestę (przekład Wendidadu, Wisperadu i Jasny, czyli tzw. Wielką Awestę) tłumaczył prof. Ignacy Pietraszewski pt. "Miano słowiańskie w ręku jednej familji od trzech tysięcy lat zostające, czyli nie Zendawesta a Zędaszta, to jest życiodawcza książeczka Zoroastra" (Berlin, 1857). Dzieło to zostało wznowione pod nieco zmienionym tytułem: "Miano Słowiańskie czyli nie ZENDAWESTA a ZĘDASZTA to jest Życiodawcza książeczka Zoroastra albo AWESTA WIELKA", Wydawnictwo Armoryka, Sandomierz 2011, ISBN 978-83-62661-19-0. Tekst przygotowali do druku, zredagowali i wstępem opatrzyli: Julian Edgar Kassner oraz Andrzej Sarwa. +Kolejny – pełny – przekład świętej księgi na język polski: "Awesta. Wendidad" (cz.1), tłum. Piotr Żyra i Andrzej Sarwa, wstępem opatrzył Andrzej Sarwa, Wydawnictwo Armoryka, Sandomierz 2010, ISBN 978-83-62661-09-1; "Awesta. Sîrôzahy, Yasty, Nyâyisy" (cz. 2), tłum. Piotr Żyra, Wydawnictwo Armoryka, Sandomierz 2011, ISBN 978-83-62661-26-8; "Awesta Yasna, Visparad, Âfrînagân, Gâhs i pozostałe fragmenty" (cz. 3) tłum. Piotr Żyra, Wydawnictwo Armoryka, Sandomierz 2011, ISBN 978-83-62661-16-9. Nie jest to jednak przekład z języków oryginalnych. +Powiat kwidzyński + +Powiat kwidzyński – powiat w Polsce (województwo pomorskie) utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kwidzyn. +Geografia. +Położenie i granice. +Według regionalizacji fizycznogeograficznej J. Kondrackiego powiat kwidzyński znajduje się w całości na obszarze podprowincji Pojezierza Południowobałtyckie (314.), wchodzącej w skład prowincji Niż Środkowoeuropejski (31). Terytorium powiatu obejmuje wschodni fragment mezoregionu Dolina Kwidzyńska (314.81), będącego częścią makroregionu Dolina Dolnej Wisły (314.8), oraz zachodni fragment makroregionu Pojezierze Iławskie (314.9). +Na północy powiat kwidzyński sąsiaduje z powiatem sztumskim, na zachodzie wzdłuż głównego nurtu Wisły – z powiatem tczewskim oraz należącym do województwa kujawsko – pomorskiego powiatem świeckim, na południu – z powiatem grudziądzkim (województwo kujawsko – pomorskie), zaś na wschodzie z powiatem iławskim (warmińsko – mazurskie). +DVD±RW + +DVD±RW - oznaczenie używane dla hybrydowych nagrywarek płyt kompaktowych potrafiących zapisywać wszystkie cztery uznane obecnie na świecie standardy w zakresie zapisywalnych płyt DVD, czyli: DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD+R, DVD+RW, oraz CD czyli: CD-R i CD-RW +Szopki krakowskie + +Szopki krakowskie – bogato zdobione, wielowieżowe sceny o architekturze nawiązującej do zabytków Krakowa, przedstawiające misterium Bożego Narodzenia. +Historia. +Zwyczaj inscenizowania figuralnych przedstawień ukazujących wydarzenia związane z narodzeniem Chrystusa wywodzi się z kultu żłóbka betlejemskiego, który sięga wczesnego średniowiecza. Upowszechnienie się takich widowisk w całej Europie nastąpiło w XIII wieku, za sprawą świętego Franciszka, który w 1223 roku, wykorzystując naturalną scenerię i zwierzęta, ukazał w „żywych obrazach” historię narodzin Chrystusa. Przedstawienia te – zwane w Polsce jasełkami – organizowane były w kościołach i klasztorach (zwłaszcza tych opartych na regule franciszkańskiej). Na tle dekoracji ze skałami i grotami ustawiano żłóbek oraz rzeźbione w drewnie figurki Dzieciątka, Matki Boskiej, św. Józefa, pastuszków, zwierząt, Trzech Królów i inne. Poszczególne zakony rywalizowały ze sobą, starając się uatrakcyjnić przedstawiane misterium m.in. przez rozbudowę dekoracji i wprawianie w ruch poszczególnych figurek, zwiększanie ich liczby, a także przez wprowadzanie do przedstawień postaci świeckich, niezwiązanych z tradycją ewangeliczną. Pojawiła się cała galeria egzotycznych postaci: Arabowie, Persowie, Murzyni, karawany, wielbłądy itd. Dekorację tworzyły orientalne ruiny i południowa roślinność. +W XVI wieku pojawiła się w Polsce wędrowna forma przedstawień jasełkowych (lalkowych lub aktorskich), a w kolejnym stuleciu do uniwersalnych dotąd widowisk zaczęto wprowadzać akcenty specyficznie polskie, o patriotycznej wymowie. Pojawiły się postaci bohaterów narodowych: króla Jana III Sobieskiego, hetmana Czarneckiego, a także przeora Kordeckiego i husarzy, a tekst przedstawienia coraz bardziej przesycał się świeckimi intermediami. +W 1736 roku władze kościelne w osobie biskupa Teodora Czartoryskiego zakazały wystawiania szopek w kościołach, głównie wskutek ich zbyt rozrywkowego i świeckiego charakteru, który nie przystawał do miejsca, a także na skutek tumultów, jakie widowiska te prowokowały. Zezwolono jedynie na wystawianie samego żłobka ze statycznymi figurkami. Zabronione w kościołach, przedstawienia nie tylko przetrwały na ulicach, organizowane przez służbę kościelną, żaków czy młodzież rzemieślniczą, ale bujnie się rozwinęły. Na przełomie XVIII i XIX wieku upowszechniła się przenośna forma przedstawień, odgrywanych na scence będącej drewnianym budynkiem z szerokim wysuniętym do przodu "proscenium". Sam budynek w swej architekturze nawiązywał do pałaców, ratuszy lub dworków. Zwyczaj chodzenia z takimi szopkami w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku poświadcza w swych pamiętnikach Ambroży Grabowski. Architektura obnoszonych szopek, zapewne na skutek rywalizacji poszczególnych zespołów, stopniowo się udoskonalała. O procesie tym świadczy rysunek zamieszczony w Tygodniku Ilustrowanym z roku 1862. Szopka na nim prezentowana ma postać piętrowego budynku nakrytego kopułą z dwiema wieżami zegarowymi po bokach. Między parterowymi przybudówkami ulokowane jest częściowo obudowane "proscenium", na którym znajdują się kukiełki. O popularności grup kolędniczych obnoszących szopki po domach przesądzała jednak nie tylko architektura budynku czy artyzm kukiełek, ale także atrakcyjność tekstów. Teksty te, choć oparte na dramacie liturgicznym, uzupełniane były o wątki i postaci związane z bieżącymi wydarzeniami. +Szopka krakowska. +W II połowie XIX wieku wykształciły się cechy architektoniczne wyraźnie odróżniające szopki wykonywane w Krakowie od innych. Wpłynęły na to wzorce zabytkowych krakowskich budowli: głównie kościołów. Stylowa różnorodność krakowskich zabytków dostarczała twórcom bogatego źródła inspiracji. Wykształciła się szopka w formie smukłej budowli z dominującymi wieżami. Twórcami tej oryginalnej formy byli murarze i pracownicy budowlani z przedmieść Krakowa: Krowodrzy, Zwierzyńca, Czarnej Wsi, Grzegórzek, Ludwinowa. Sezonowość ich zawodu, sprzyjała szukaniu dodatkowych źródeł zarobku w okresie jesienno-zimowym, kiedy prace murarskie nie są prowadzone. +Twórcą najbardziej dojrzałej architektonicznie formy był Michał Ezenekier – murarz i kaflarz z Krowodrzy. Stworzona przez niego szopka stanowi do dziś wzór i swoisty kanon. W zbiorach muzealnych zachowała się jedna szopka Ezenekiera, pochodząca z lat 80. XIX wieku. O dziele tym, uznawanym za wzór kunsztu, proporcji i funkcjonalności, mówi się czasem „szopka matka”. Michał Ezenekier, wraz ze swym zespołem kolędniczym, w skład którego wchodził też jego syn Leon, specjalizujący się w rzeźbieniu figurek, obnosił swe szopki od 1864 roku, aż do I wojny światowej, która zakończyła złoty okres szopki krakowskiej. Podczas wojny władze austriackie zakazały kolędowania z szopkami. Mistrzowie powymierali lub rozproszyli się po świecie. +W okresie dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, miłośnicy tradycji szopkarskich zaczęli podejmować próby ożywienia szopkarskiej tradycji. Z uwagi na nowy kontekst kulturowy i społeczny, m.in. konkurencję kina i nowych form rozrywki, nie było to zadanie łatwe. W roku 1923, z inicjatywy dyrektora Archiwum Akt Dawnych miasta Krakowa, Ludwika Strojka w Muzeum Przemysłowym w Krakowie zaczęto odgrywać tradycyjne przedstawienia wykorzystując jako scenę specjalnie wykonaną szopkę wzorowaną na szopce Ezenekiera. Widowiska te urządzano przez sześć lat, co przyczyniło się do wskrzeszenia tradycji. Na przedmieściach Krakowa znów pojawiły się zespoły obnoszące szopki po domach. Jednakże w latach trzydziestych XX wieku poziom wykonywanych szopek bardzo się obniżył, a przede wszystkim zaczęły one tracić swój tradycyjny styl. Wykonywano prawie wyłącznie małe szopki, przeznaczone na sprzedaż. Spadek zainteresowania miał związek z kryzysem gospodarczym i konkurencją innych form rozrywki. +Konkurs. +By nie dopuścić do zaniku szopkarskiej tradycji, w 1937 roku z inicjatywy Jerzego Dobrzyckiego – wielkiego miłośnika krakowskich tradycji i zwyczajów – zorganizowano u stóp pomnika Adama Mickiewicza konkurs na najpiękniejszą szopkę krakowską. Rok później odbyła się druga edycja konkursu. W okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej konkursów nie organizowano, dopiero w grudniu 1945 roku przy zburzonym przez Niemców pomniku po raz trzeci pojawili się szopkarze. Od 1946 roku organizacją konkursu zajmuje się Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Krakowa. W 2008 roku odbyła się 66. edycja konkursu. +Konkurs wykreował nowy rodzaj szopki krakowskiej, umownie nazwany "szopką konkursową". Poza nielicznymi wyjątkami, szopki te nie pełnią już swej pierwotnej funkcji – nie są scenkami dla odgrywania przedstawień, lecz przeznaczone są wyłącznie do kontemplacji estetycznej. Stąd też wysiłek twórców koncentruje się na doskonaleniu walorów architektonicznych, dekoracyjnych szopki, natomiast miejsce kukiełek zajęły figurki nieruchome, lub – od lat 60. wprawiane w ruch mechanizmami elektrycznymi. +Szopki konkursowe. +Materiał. +Podstawowy materiał, z którego wykonany jest szkielet samej konstrukcji to drewno lub sklejka. Wieże i mniejsze elementy architektoniczne wykonane są z tektury. Te dwa podstawowe tworzywa wyklejane są na zewnątrz barwną folią aluminiową – staniolem. Niektórzy szopkarze używają również barwnych blaszek. Z kolei ornamenty wykonane są najczęściej z wałeczków staniolu o różnych barwach. W ostatnich latach niektórzy szopkarze stosują staniol samoprzylepny. +Witraże dawniej wykonywano z papieru wyklejanego barwnym celofanem, w latach pięćdziesiątych stosowano szklane malowane szybki, a obecnie wykorzystuje się przezroczyste tworzywa sztuczne. +Oświetlenie elektryczne pojawiło się w szopkach w połowie lat sześćdziesiątych. W ostatnich dziesięcioleciach nasila się proces mechanizacji szopek, a obok elektrycznych mechanizmów pojawiają się też pozytywki grające kolędy. +Architektura. +Ponieważ szopka w żadnym wypadku nie jest modelem jednej budowli, lecz kompozycją elementów z kilku obiektów, zwykle dominują w niej formy z różnych epok stylowych. Elementem najbardziej charakterystycznym są strzeliste gotyckie wieże, renesansowe arkady i attyki oraz barokowe kopuły. Typowa szopka jest bryłą symetryczną o nieparzystej liczbie wież (3 lub 5 rzadziej 7) i dwóch lub trzech kondygnacjach. Iglice wież zwieńczone są albo wizerunkiem orła z godła Rzeczypospolitej, albo chorągwiami w barwach narodowych lub krakowskich biało-niebieskich. Kondygnacja parterowa najczęściej nawiązuje do fortyfikacji miejskich Krakowa: murów miejskich, Bramy Floriańskiej lub Barbakanu. Centralną część tej kondygnacji wypełnia nisza z figurkami świeckimi. Z kolei w środku pierwszej kondygnacji, która nawiązuje na ogół do Sukiennic, umiejscowiona jest nisza, w której przedstawiona jest scena Bożego Narodzenia. +Inne często spotykane motywy, to wieże Kościoła Mariackiego i kopuły kaplicy Zygmuntowskiej na Wawelu, Wieża ratuszowa i różne krakowskie kościoły (m.in. św. Andrzeja). Pojawiają się również nawiązania do Teatru Słowackiego. +Szopkarze tacy jak Witold Głuch i Bronisław Pięcik odtwarzali w swych dziełach gotyckie ołtarze z kościołów Dominikanów, Franciszkanów i Bożego Ciała. +Współcześni szopkarze. +Przed laty wykonawcami szopek byli głównie robotnicy budowlani. Obecnie szopkarskie tradycje kontynuują ludzie różnych zawodów, są wśród nich architekci, inżynierowie, a nawet lekarze. +W trakcie pierwszych konkursów w latach powojennych wyłoniła się grupa utalentowanych szopkarzy. Należeli do niej m.in. Franciszek Tarnowski, Zdzisław Dudzik, Antoni Wojciechowski, Antoni Ruta, Stefan Mitka, Jan Jędrszczyk, Władysław Turski, Wacław Morys, Ferdynand Solowski, Władysław Wiatr, Stanisław Guńkiewicz, Tadeusz Ruta. W latach 60. XX wieku pojawiły się nowe talenty specjalizujące się w szopkach dużych: Witold Głuch (zm. 2002), Stanisław Paczyński, Zygmunt Grabarski, Bronisław Pięcik i Tadeusz Gillert. Do czołówki w kategorii szopek średnich weszli Ferdynand Sadowski i Roman Sochacki, a małych: Maciej Moszew, Jan Kirsz, Marian Dłużniewski, Antoni Wołek i Kazimierz Stopiński. Nagrody zdobywali również Włodzimierz Malik, Ryszard Kijak i Włodzimierz Łesyk. +W latach 70. i 80. nagrody zdobywali m.in. Jan Malik, Zygmunt Grabarski, Kazimierz Wiatr i Tadeusz Żmirek. +W ostatnich latach sukcesy odnoszą Bronisław Pięcik, Leszek Zarzycki (ur. 1954) i Maciej Moszew (uczestnik 49 konkursów), a także Andrzej Morański, Andrzej Nowicki (?-2004), Kazimierz Stopiński, Roman Sochacki, Zbigniew Gillert (syn Tadeusza), Stanisław Malik (ur. 1956), Wiesław Barczewski, Andrzej Borucki, Marian Dłużniewski, Lucyna Szopa, Paweł Nawała, Dariusz Czyż, Piotr Michalczyk, Marek Głuch. Młode pokolenie reprezentują, uznawani za niezwykle utalentowanych, Marzena Krawczyk (ur. 1983), Przemysław Kwieciński (ur. 1984) i Katarzyna Racka (ur. 1990). +Sukcesy krajowe i zagraniczne. +Opiekę nad krakowskimi tradycjami szopkarskimi sprawuje Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Krakowa, które od 1946 roku organizuje doroczne konkursy, a od 1953 także pokonkursowe wystawy. Muzeum posiada największą na świecie kolekcję szopek (ponad 200 eksponatów), którą od wielu lat prezentuje na licznych wystawach krajowych i zagranicznych. Dużą kolekcję szopek krakowskich posiada również Muzeum Etnograficzne w Krakowie. +Dzięki konkursom szopkami krakowskimi zainteresowały się liczne instytucje i prywatni kolekcjonerzy. Jako prezenty otrzymali je m.in. marszałek Związku Radzieckiego Kliment Woroszyłow, premier Indii Jawaharlal Nehru, prezydent Włoch Giuseppe Saragat, prezydent Francji Charles de Gaulle i prezydent Czechosłowacji generał Ludvik Svoboda. Jedna z krakowskich szopek pływała po morzach i oceanach na statku „Kraków”. +Skandynawskie Centrum Biznesu i Kultury Nordic House w Krakowie + +Skandynawskie Centrum Biznesu i Kultury Nordic House w Krakowie przy ul. św. Anny 5 to ośrodek promujący firmy i kulturę krajów skandynawskich powiązany z działalnością konsulatu honorowego Królestwa Danii. +Nordic House patronuje wielu imprezom kulturalnym, sesjom naukowym związanym ze Skandynawią, a przede wszystkim organizowanym corocznie od 2003 roku festiwalom poświęconym twórczości duńskiego baśniopisarza Hansa Christiana Andersena "Na ziarnku grochu". +Mieszczący się w XVI-wiecznej kamienicy jest obiektem wyjątkowym w skali polskiej: jako jedyny obiekt zabytkowy ma na dachu 24 m² paneli słonecznych, co w praktyce oznacza, że przy sprzyjających warunkach pogodowych już od marca cała energia potrzebna do ogrzewania obiektu jest czerpana ze słońca. Tylko w tym budynku w Polsce znajduje się unikatowa instalacja wykorzystująca najnowsze technologie: grzejniki w pomieszczeniach mają indywidualne sterowanie, a w kawiarni i piwiarni na parterze kamienicy ogrzewanie podłogowe sterowane jest za pomocą fal radiowych. +TSMC + +TSMC, Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Ltd. - tajwańska firma specjalizująca się w produkcji układów scalonych, w tym procesorów. Założona w 1987 roku, na początku XXI w. uzyskała status największego na świecie niezależnego producenta dedykowanych układów scalonych. Wytwarza m.in. układy dla firm NVIDIA, AMD i VIA. Spółka w 2008 r. zatrudniała ponad 20 tys. pracowników, a 1 stycznia 2009 jej giełdowa wartość wynosiła 40,4 miliarda dolarów. +Kalka (językoznawstwo) + +Kalka językowa lub odbitka językowa – bezpośrednie przetłumaczenie wyrazu lub całego zwrotu z języka obcego na język ojczysty, bez uwzględnienia istniejących ojczystych wyrazów opisujących to samo pojęcie, rzecz. +Góry Flindersa + +Góry Flindersa (ang. "Flinders Ranges") – pasmo górskie znajdujące się na terenie Australii Południowej. Łańcuch górski ma długość prawie 500 km, zaczyna się na północnym końcu zatoki St. Vincet i biegnie w kierunku północnym, najwyższym szczytem jest Saint Mary's Peak (1190 m n.p.m.). +Góry zbudowane są głównie ze skał osadowych, w których znajduje się bardzo dużo skamielin z okresu prekambryjskiego (fauna ediakarańska ze wzgórz Ediacara leżących w północnej części Gór Flindersa), uformowane zostały w czasie powstania geosynkliny adelajdzkiej. Porasta je skrub i eukaliptusy. Wczesną wiosną góry pokryte są wielokolorowym dywanem kwiatów. +W górach znajduje się wiele pamiątek po aborygeńskich plemionach zamieszkujących kiedyś ten teren, w Yourambulla i Arkaroo znajdują się malowidła w jaskiniach, a w Sacred Canyon i Chambers Gorge są rzeźby naskalne. Znajduje się tam kopalnia odkrywkowa węgla brunatnego (Leigh Creek), dawniej wydobywano tam srebro oraz rudy ołowiu i miedzi. +Góry Flindersa to jedna z najpopularniejszych atrakcji turystycznych w Australii, część gór obejmuje park narodowy, znakomicie rozwinięta jest sieć obsługi turystów. +HAART + +HAART (ang. "highly active antiretroviral therapy") – terapia antyretrowirusowa stosowana w przypadku zakażenia HIV, w której podstawową zasadą jest stosowanie mieszanki co najmniej trzech leków przeciwretrowirusowych w kombinacji zalecanej przez światowych ekspertów (schemat podstawowy: dwa nukleozydowe inhibitory odwrotnej transkryptazy plus jeden nienukleozydowy inhibitor odwrotnej transkryptazy albo dwa nukleozydowe inhibitory odwrotnej transkryptazy plus jeden inhibitor proteazy). Celem terapii jest długofalowe zahamowanie replikacji wirusa HIV. Wirusa HIV cechuje zdolność do szybkiego wytwarzania mutacji, prowadzących do oporności na stosowane leki antyretrowirusowe. Wobec czego monoterapia szybko staje się nieskuteczna – bardzo szybko zostają wyselekcjonowane zmutowane wirusy, które wskutek mutacji są oporne na stosowany lek. W przypadku pierwszego, skutecznego leku, zydowudyny, po około roku stosowania obserwowano pojawienie się populacji wirusa HIV opornego na ten lek i utratę skuteczności terapeutycznej tego preparatu. Stosując równocześnie trzy leki antyretrowirusowe zmniejsza się szansę, że w wyniku mutacji powstanie rodzina wirusów równocześnie oporna na trzy jednocześnie stosowane leki. Podobne podejście współcześnie stosuje się w terapii gruźlicy. Tu też obowiązuje terapia wielolekowa. +Zmiana schematu leczenia następuje na skutek: objawów niepożądanych, pojawienia się odporności wirusa na leki oraz w przypadku braku współpracy z pacjentem. +W Polsce leki antyretrowirusowe są dostępne bezpłatnie w Poradniach Nabytych Niedoborów Immunologicznych. Terapia jest refundowana w Polsce i innych państwach Unii Europejskiej. +Leki stosowane w terapii antyretrowirusowej. +Istnieją (dostępne terapeutycznie; są zarejestrowane jako leki) cztery rodzaje leków antyretrowirusowych: Inhibitory proteazy , nukleozydowe inhibitory odwrotnej transkryptazy i nienukleozydowe inhibitory odwrotnej transkryptazy oraz inhibitory wejścia. Trzy pierwsze grupy leków działają po wniknięciu wirusa HIV do komórki. Natomiast inhibitory wejścia uniemożliwiają wniknięcie wirusa HIV do komórki limfocytu CD4. +Inhibitory integrazy. +Część leków przeciw-HIV wykazuje działanie przeciwko wirusowi HBV. +Powikłania terapii, skutki uboczne. +Terapia HAART niesie za sobą ryzyko wielu powikłań, w rzadkich przypadkach są na tyle poważne, że uniemożliwiają kontynuację leczenia. Mogą być zwalczane poprzez zastosowanie specyficznej dla danego pacjenta kombinacji leków. +Ich pojawienie się spowodowane jest dostosowaniem się organizmu pacjenta do nowych leków. Zwykle ustępują po kilku tygodniach. Istnieją także długoterminowe skutki, znacznie rzadsze, spowodowane gł. interakcją leków i układu immunologicznego. +Mimo wysokich kosztów leczenia i powikłań z nim związanych, terapia HAART jest najlepszą znaną obecnie metodą walki z HIV. Poprzez zahamowanie progresji choroby oraz umożliwienie odbudowy układu immunologicznego ogranicza ona ilość powikłań związanych z naturalnym przebiegiem choroby. Zmniejsza przez to ilość hospitalizacji chorych oraz wydłuża czas ich życia, poprawiając równocześnie jego komfort. Zgodnie z wyliczeniami ekspertów, terapia HAART jest tańsza niż koszt leczenia chorób spowodowanych przez HIV/AIDS. +Najnowsze leki pozwalają na przeżycie ok. 45 lat od momentu rozpoczęcia terapii. +Prymitywna idealizacja + +Prymitywna idealizacja to jeden z narcystycznych mechanizmów obronnych, skutkujący tym, że zewnętrzne obiekty są spostrzegane jako wyposażone w nierealistycznie wielką moc i albo jako całkowicie dobre, albo całkiem złe. +Jest to mechanizm funkcjonujący w zaburzeniu osobowości typu borderline. +GameCube + +GameCube – konsola gier wideo szóstej generacji, wyprodukowana i wydana w 2001 przez japońskie przedsiębiorstwo Nintendo. Konsola, zgodnie z nazwą, ma kształt kostki, do której podłączane są kontrolery. +Pierwsze pogłoski o konsoli, początkowo znanej pod nazwą roboczą Dolphin, ukazały się w 1999 roku. Po raz pierwszy konsola została pokazana na targach SpaceWorld w 2000 roku. Po wydaniu konsola, według oficjalnych danych Nintendo do końca marca 2008, została sprzedana w liczbie około 21,7 mln sztuk. +Maczki + +Maczki – wschodnia, niewielka i otoczona zewsząd lasami dzielnica Sosnowca, na skraju Wyżyny Krakowsko-Wieluńskiej, posiadająca głębokie tradycje kolejarskie a wynikające z historycznie strategicznego położenia na mapie Europy, na granicy dwóch rozbiorów (końcowa stacja Granica Kolei Warszawsko-Wiedeńskiej). Maczki to zielone płuca Sosnowca oraz ulubione miejsce weekendowych wycieczek rowerowych. +Maczki graniczą od północy z Ostrowami Górniczymi, od wschodu ze Sławkowem, od południa z Jaworznem a od zachodu z Porąbką. +Dzielnica poprzecinana torowiskami kolejowymi, rzadko już używanymi, w tym Kolei Warszawsko-Wiedeńskiej (1848) oraz łączącą się z nią tutaj odnogą Kolei Iwangorodzko-Dąbrowskiej (1887), na których istniejąca tutaj stacja "Granica" (właściwie dwie odrębne, połączone zadaszonym przejściem) była ostatnią przed wjazdem do zaboru austriackiego, co ówcześnie nadawało zawsze gotowej na przyjęcie carskiej rodziny miejscowości niezwykle ważny wymiar. Południowym skrajem przepływa rzeka Biała Przemsza. +Na terenie dzielnicy działa Osiedlowy Klub Maczki, który jest alternatywą dla tamtejszych dzieci i młodzieży oraz miejscem spotkań z ciekawymi i znanymi ludźmi. Klub Miejski "Maczki" współorganizuje również coroczny festyn z cyklu ""No to jadziem na Maczki…"". +W Maczkach działa Szkoła Podstawowa oraz Gimnazjum. +Z Maczkami związane są stare osiedla (przysiółki): +Nazwa. +Maczki, osada kolejowa o historycznej nazwie Granica, powstała w połowie XIX wieku. Dziś dzielnica miasta Sosnowca. Pierwsza nazwa osady - Macki, pochodzi od osiadłej tutaj w XVIII w. rodziny Macków. +Po 1918 r. przestaje obowiązywać dotychczasowa nazwa osady; przejściowo używa się nazwy Uroczysko, a od 1925 r. obowiązuje nazwa Maczki. +Instytucja wyznaniowa. +Kościół wybudowany został w stylu neogotyckim według projektu inż. Artura Goebla i wzniesiony został u schyłku XIX wieku. Powstał on z inicjatywy mieszkańców Granicy. +Pod wezwanie Świętych Apostołów +Piotra i Pawła +Historia Maczek. +W XVIII wieku miejscowość ta znana już była jako przysiółek Macki. Historycznie był to przysiółek należący do wsi biskupiej Porąbka (klucz sławkowski), choć oddalony od niej dość znacznie i początkowo odgrodzony kompleksem leśnym dawnej Puszczy Pakoszyckiej. Nazwa przysiółka według opisu najstarszych mieszkańców pochodziła od rodziny Macków, którzy w XVIII w. osadzili się na terenie dóbr biskupich. Rodziny te żyły głównie z wyrębu lasów, prowadząc niewielkie gospodarstwa domowe. +Osiedle Maczki zawdzięcza swoje istnienie pierwszej w Królestwie Polskim kolei o nazwie Droga Żelazna Warszawsko-Wiedeńska. Jak sama nazwa wskazuje, przebiegała tu granica wzdłuż rzeki Biała Przemsza pomiędzy zaborami rosyjskim i austriackim. Był to największy węzeł graniczny imperium Romanowów. Rozwój gospodarczy na przełomie XIX i XX wieku zmienił w dużej mierze wygląd ówczesnej osada kolejowej Granica, lecz w większości zachowało się budownictwo z XIX wieku. +Maczki są pomnikiem sławnego zagłębiowskiego okresu "wielkiego skoku" cywilizacyjnego, który wprowadził region na karty historii. +Szach + +Szach - nawzwisko +Powiat kościerski + +Powiat kościerski (kasz. "Kòscérsczi kréz") – powiat w Polsce (województwo pomorskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kościerzyna. +Historia. +Przed I rozbiorem I Rzeczypospolitej w 1772 istniało starostwo niegrodowe kościerskie. +W okresie zaboru pruskiego w latach 1818 - 1919 istniał pruski powiat "Landkreis Berent". W latach 1920-1939 (II Rzeczpospolita) i 1945-1975 (PRL) istniał powiat ziemski kościerski. W okresie wrzesień 1939 luty/marzec 1945 obszar powiatu znajdował się pod okupacją niemiecką. +Lesistość. +Na terenie powiatu szczególnie w jej zachodniej części znajduje się sporo lasów lesistość wynosi od 0,4% w Kościerzynie do 76% w gminie Lipusz. +Maskotka powiatu. +Od czerwca 2009 powiat kościerski ma swoją maskotkę. Została ona wykonana według projektu Natalii Żywickiej z Gimnazjum w Wielkim Podlesiu. Maskotkę Powiatu Kościerskiego nazwano "Pokoś". +Pong + +Pong – jedna z pierwszych konsoli do gier elektronicznych. Pong to też nazwa pierwszej komercyjnej gry elektronicznej, którą wzorowano na tenisie. +Gra toczyła się na czarnym tle podzielonym na pół białą, pionową linią. Na obu końcach ekranu znajdowały się poruszające się w pionie kreski imitujące rakiety tenisowe. Gra polegała na odbijaniu białego piksela za pomocą tych kresek i niedopuszczeniu, aby opuścił on ekran. +Pong powstał 29 listopada 1972 roku. Na przestrzeni lat wydawano wersje tej gry na komputery i inne konsole. Między innymi na Gwiazdkę 1975 (w niektórych źródłach jest podawany rok 1974) firma Atari stworzyła domową wersję gry Pong (początkowo pod szyldem Sears Tele-Games). +Mecenas sztuki + +Mecenas sztuki (od nazwiska Gajusza Cilniusza Mecenasa, rzymskiego polityka, doradcy i przyjaciela Oktawiana Augusta, poety i patrona poetów, między innymi Wergiliusza, Horacego i Propercjusza. Jego nazwisko stało się synonimem protektora sztuki i nauki) – osoba lub instytucja, popierająca rozwój literatury i sztuki, która udziela wsparcia finansowego artystom, instytucjom kulturalnym lub naukowym bez żadnych zobowiązań ze strony obdarowywanej. Opiekun artystów. +Bobrek (dopływ Białej Przemszy) + +Bobrek – potok na Wyżynie Śląskiej o długości 14 km, prawy dopływ Białej Przemszy w lewobrzeżnym dorzeczu Wisły. +Źródła w Sławkowie Grońcu, ujście w Sosnowcu, na granicy jego dzielnic: Jęzora i Niwki. +Przepływa przez: Strzemieszyce Wielkie, Kazimierz Górniczy, Porąbkę, Ostrowy Górnicze. +ClassBuilder + +ClassBuilder – prosty program typu CASE przeznaczony dla języka programowania C++. +Pozwala na generowanie kodu i reengineering. +Sejm konwokacyjny + +Sejm konwokacyjny – w I Rzeczypospolitej pierwszy sejm odbywający się w momencie nastania bezkrólewia. Był sejmem poprzedzającym wolną elekcję, gdzie ustalani byli kandydaci do władzy. Ustalał także czas i miejsce elekcji oraz określał "pacta conventa" obowiązujące przyszłego króla. +Jego celem było ustalenie zasad obrad przyszłego sejmu elekcyjnego. +Co ważne, sejm ten miał możliwość uchwalania konstytucji większością głosów. Dzięki temu nie można było go zerwać. +Pierwszy sejm konwokacyjny odbył się w 1573 roku po śmierci Zygmunta II Augusta, ostatni miał miejsce w roku 1764 przed obiorem na króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. Sejmy konwokacyjne odbywały się w Warszawie. +Advanced Power Management + +APM (ang. "Advanced Power Management"), zaawansowane zarządzanie energią – technologia pozwalająca na automatyczne wyłączanie w razie potrzeby nieużywanych urządzeń komputera (np. karty graficznej, monitora, dysku) lub całego komputera – wyłączenie całkowite lub przejście w tzw. stan wstrzymania, w którym podtrzymywane jest tylko napięcie płyty głównej i pamięci RAM. Obsługa APM realizowana jest przez BIOS. Technologia obecnie wyparta przez standard ACPI. +Per Borten + +Per Borten (ur. 3 kwietnia 1913 we Flå, zm. 20 stycznia 2005 w Trondheim) – norweski polityk, działacz Partii Centrum. +Studiował nauki rolnicze na Norweskim Uniwersytecie Rolniczym (ukończył w 1939). W latach 1945-1955 był burmistrzem rodzinnego miasta Flå. W 1949 został wybrany do parlamentu, gdzie zasiadał do końca kariery politycznej w 1977. +W latach 1965-1971 był premierem (zastąpił Einara Gerhardsena), kierował koalicją czterech partii centroprawicowych. W późniejszym okresie pełnił m.in. funkcję szefa frakcji parlamentarnej Partii Centrum oraz przewodniczącego niższej izby parlamentu (Odelstingu). Jako przewodniczący partii (1955-1967) zreformował ją, m.in. w tym okresie nastąpiła zmiana nazwy z Partii Rolniczej (Bondepartiet) na Partia Centrum. +Po odejściu z czynnego życia parlamentarnego, mając opinię polityka nieco kontrowersyjnego, wielokrotnie wypowiadał się publicznie; znany był jako przeciwnik wejścia Norwegii do Unii Europejskiej. +Odległość Levenshteina + +Odległość Levenshteina (edycyjna) – miara odmienności napisów (skończonych ciągów znaków), zaproponowana w 1965 roku przez Vladimira Levenshteina. +Definicja. +Miara ta znajduje zastosowanie w przetwarzaniu informacji, danych w postaci ciągów symboli: w maszynowym rozpoznawaniu mowy, analizie DNA, rozpoznawaniu plagiatów, korekcie pisowni (np. wyszukiwanie w spisie telefonicznym błędnie podanego nazwiska), itp. +Przykłady. +Odległość Levenshteina pomiędzy napisami identycznymi, np. +jest zerowa – skoro są identyczne, to potrzeba zero działań, by jeden z nich przeprowadzić na drugi. +wynosi 1, ponieważ do przeprowadzenia pierwszego na drugi wystarcza jedno działanie: zamiana litery a na i. +równa jest 3, ponieważ do przeprowadzenia pierwszego napisu na drugi potrzeba trzech działań: usunięcia liter y i k oraz wstawienia litery a. +wynosi 4, ponieważ potrzeba co najmniej czterech działań, np.: usunięcia litery m, zamiany k na i oraz dodania d i a. +Uogólnienia i przypadki szczególne. +Odległość Levenshteina jest uogólnieniem odległości Hamminga; sama też ma swoje uogólnienia, oparte na rozszerzaniu zestawu działań uważanych za proste. +Podstawowym rozszerzeniem jest uznanie za działanie proste zamiany miejscami dwu sąsiednich znaków - odległość Damerau-Levenshteina. Innym spotykanym jest dopuszczenie wstawiania, usuwania i zastępowania spójnych ciągów znaków (bloków, nieprzerwanych fragmentów napisu). Jest to szczególnie pożyteczne przy przetwarzaniu ciągów danych o wyróżnionych mniejszych fragmentach, jak wyrazy w zdaniu. +Tak zdefiniowane miary nazywa się odległością transformacyjną, jednak czasem są również nazywane odległościami edycyjnymi. Z tego powodu użycie określenia odległość edycyjna należy zawsze uściślić, podając na jakim zestawie działań opiera się używana miara. +Kanał Palemona + +Kanał Palemona (niem. "Grosser Wasssergang") – ciek w północnej Polsce w Dolinie Dolnej Wisły. +Największy dopływ rzeki Liwy odwadniający część Doliny Dolnej Wisły, zwaną Kwidzyńską Doliną Wisły w jej południowej części. Pomimo faktu, iż kanał jest tworem antropogenicznym, prawdopodobnie jego bieg powiela w znacznej części znaną już ze średniowiecza odnogę Wisły, zwaną Stary Nogat. Nazwa stworzona przez powojenną Komisję Ustalania Nazw Miejscowych KUNM. Nieznana jest geneza nazwy (istnieją teorie o aspiracji litewskim bohaterem narodowym Palemonem lub bajką Jana Brzechwy o piracie Palemonie). +Hipochondryzacja + +Hipochondryzacja to jeden z niedojrzałych mechanizmów obronnych, polegający na przekształcaniu w kierunku do siebie zarzutów kierowanych do innych ludzi, a wynikających z utraty bliskich, osamotnienia oraz nieakceptowanych agresywnych impulsów, koncentracji na doznaniach płynących z ciała, przywiązywaniu nadmiernej wagi do najmniejszych nawet zaburzeń funkcjonalnych, zwłaszcza bólowych, wyolbrzymianiu objawów istniejących schorzeń somatycznych. +Chaoit + +Chaoit ("biały węgiel") – rzadki biało-szary minerał odkryty w przeobrażonym graficie w kraterze Nördlinger Ries w Bawarii. Na podstawie badania dyfrakcji elektronowej zasugerowano, że chaoit może mieć strukturę karbinu (alotropowej odmiany węgla o strukturze polialkinu -(C:::C)n-). Potwierdzeniem tych wniosków mogą być doniesienia o uzyskaniu identycznych struktur poprzez sublimację grafitu w temperaturze 2400 – 2700 °C lub poprzez naświetlanie grafitu laserem w wysokiej próżni (otrzymane w ten sposób substancje nazwano cerafitem). Jednak późniejsza publikacja zakwestionowała karbinową budowę chaoitu, przypisując uzyskane wyniki dyfrakcji zanieczyszczeniu minerału gliną; nie udało się też ww. eksperymentów otrzymywania cerafitu i istnienie "białego grafitu" uznane zostało za wysoce nieprawdopodobne. +Nazwa minerału nadana została na cześć Edwarda C. T. Chao (1919-2008), amerykańskiego mineraloga pochodzenia chińskiego, w uznaniu jego zasług w badaniach skał przeobrażonych. +Porąbka (Sosnowiec) + +Porąbka to wschodnia, duża dzielnica Sosnowca. Miejsce w którym urodził się Edward Gierek. W latach 1967 - 1973 samodzielne miasto w powiecie będzińskim, na następne dwa lata wcielona w granice Kazimierza Górniczego jako jego dzielnica. +Graniczy od północnego zachodu z Zagórzem, od północnego wschodu z Kazimierzem Górniczym i Ostrowami Górniczymi, od południowego zachodu z Klimontowem a od południowego wschodu z Maczkami. +Przecięta torowiskiem historycznej Kolei Iwangorodzko-Dąbrowskiej posiadającym tutaj stację, jednak rzadko już używanym na tym odcinku, a w części zachodniej drogą ekspresową S1 posiadającą tutaj węzeł o charakterze miejskim. +Współcześnie do "Porąbki" zalicza się historycznie odrębne Zawodzie (określane czasem jako "Porąbka - Zawodzie"), wzajemnie oddzielone przepływającą tutaj rzeką Bobrek. W przeszłości w Zawodziu łączyły się ważne szlaki komunikacyjne: będzińsko-krakowski i sławkowsko-modrzejowski. Złączony szlak szedł na północ, a po przecięciu brodu na Bobrku rozchodził się w trzy strony: do Strzemieszyc Wielkich (na północny wschód, przez wieś Porąbka), Będzina i Modrzejowa. +W dzielnicy wyodrębnia się: +Blokowanie + +Blokowanie to jeden z niedojrzałych mechanizmów obronnych, polegający na wstrzymywaniu impulsów, myśli i uczuć, wyrażający się napięciem. +Kazimierz Górniczy + +Kazimierz Górniczy – wschodnia dzielnica Sosnowca z ostatnią w całym Zagłębiu Dąbrowskim czynną Kopalnią Węgla Kamiennego "Kazimierz-Juliusz". W latach 1967-1975 samodzielne miasto w powiecie będzińskim, w granice którego w 1973 wcielono sąsiednią Porąbkę. +Graniczy od północnego zachodu z Zagórzem, od północy i wschodu ze Strzemieszycami Wielkimi, od południowego wschodu z Ostrowami Górniczymi, a od południa i zachodu z Porąbką. +Przecięta torowiskiem historycznej Kolei Iwangorodzko-Dąbrowskiej, posiadającym tutaj stację Sosnowiec Kazimierz, jednak rzadko już używanym na tym odcinku. Południowym obrzeżem przepływa rzeka Bobrek. +Pochodzenie nazwy. +Nazwa miejscowości pochodzi od nazwy kopalni "Kazimierz", utworzonej tutaj w 1884. +Henryk Schmitt + +Henryk Schmitt (ur. 5 lipca 1817 we Lwowie, zm. 16 października 1883 we Lwowie) – polski historyk, przedstawiciel lelewelowskiej szkoły historycznej, bibliotekarz. +Syn rzeźnika, studiował filologię na Uniwersytecie Lwowskim. Działacz konspiracyjnych związków demokratyczno-niepodległościowych w Galicji. W 1846 roku za działalność spiskową skazany na karę śmierci, ułaskawiony zamieszkał we Lwowie i podjął prace w Bibliotece Pawlikowskich. Zagrożony ponownym aresztowaniem w 1846 udał się do Francji, po ogłoszeniu amnestii w 1865 roku wraca. Od 1870 roku członek rady szkolnej krajowej. W latach 1860-1883 był członkiem honorowym Poznańskego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk. +Żywioły + +Żywioły, elementy, pierwiastki – redukcjonistyczna koncepcja filozoficzna, według której świat materialny (wszechświat) składa się z kilku podstawowych pierwiastków. Różne proporcje w jakich występują one w różnych obiektach i substancjach ma odpowiadać za złożoność świata materialnego, a sposoby, w jaki reagują one ze sobą, mają wyjaśniać przemiany w tym świecie. Teorie elementów były popularne w wielu starożytnych kulturach. +Żywioły w kulturze europejskiej. +Europejskie pojęcie żywiołu (elementu, pierwiastka) powstało bardzo wcześnie, w wyniku dokonanej przez Empedoklesa pluralizacji pojęcia arche. Mimo że przekształcone przez późniejszych filozofów, nie przestało odgrywać ważnej roli, szczególnie w rozważaniach przyrodniczych. Wraz z rozwojem nauki odrzucone, przetrwało w rozmaitych koncepcjach ezoterycznych. +Spośród czterech żywiołów ogień i powietrze to aktywne zasady męskie, a ziemia i woda to pasywne zasady żeńskie. Z czterema żywiołami kojarzone są cztery fazy życia człowieka: dzieciństwo, młodość, wiek dojrzały, starość. +Według wolnomularzy żywioły symbolicznie wiążą się także z etapami rozwoju duchowego: człowiek rodzi się z ziemi i stopniowo jest oczyszczany przechodząc przez wodę, powietrze i ogień. +Żywioły wiązano również z temperamentami ("humorami"): powietrze z sangwinicznością, ogień z cholerycznością, wodę z flegmatycznością, ziemię z melancholicznością. +Według niektórych poglądów odrębnym, piątym żywiołem był eter kosmiczny/kwintesencja, a szóstym metal. +Powietrze. +przysłowia +Ogień. +dobroczynny, a zarazem niebezpieczny +Ziemia. +przysłowia +Żywioły w kulturze chińskiej. +Chińczycy już w II tysiącleciu p.n.e. wyróżniali pięć żywiołów: wodę, ogień, drewno, metal i ziemię. Powiązane są one szeregiem cykli, takich jak cykl tworzenia, nierównowagi, zwyciężania, zniewagi. +Żywioły w kulturze japońskiej. +(*) Nazwy podane w rōmaji. Nazwy w sylabariuszu katakana podane są na górze strony. +(**) Nazwy podane w rōmaji oraz sylabariuszu katakana w nawiasie kwadratowym. Nazwy w kanji umieszczone są w tabelce na górze strony. +Żywioły w hinduizmie. +Hinduistyczne podania o żywiołach ukształtowały się w okresie okol 500 p.n.e.. +Ich badaniami zajmowały się szczególnie joga i tantra, wraz z adeptami praktykującymi oczyszczanie ćakr. +Byśki + +Byśki (stworzunka) to pieczywo obrzędowe noworoczne, wypiekane w kształcie zwierząt (czasami miały też kształt laleczek, pierścieni itp.). +Pieczone były w Święto Godowe (wigilię Nowego Roku), a także na późniejszych tzw. "Trzech Króli". Według tradycji miały przynosić pomyślność w hodowli oraz zapewniać zdrowie, powodzenie i pomyślność w nowym roku. Nazywane też "nowymi latkami" (ale wtedy o dowolnym kształcie) lub "szczodrakami" (w formie małych, pszennych chlebków) były podarunkami dla wędrujących po wsi kolędników. +Źródło: R.Hryń-Kuśmierek, Z.Śliwa, Encyklopedia tradycji polskich, Wydawnictwo Podsiedlik-Raniowski i spółka, Poznań +Powiat człuchowski + +Powiat człuchowski (kasz. "Człëchòwsczi kréz") – powiat w Polsce (województwo pomorskie), utworzony w 1999 roku w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Człuchów. +Powiat gdański + +Powiat gdański (kasz. "Gduńsczi kréz") ziemski położony jest w północno-wschodniej części województwa pomorskiego. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Pruszcz Gdański. +Geografia. +Powiat gdański zajmuje powierzchnię 793 km², z czego ponad 67% areału zajmują użytki rolne, a 17,5% lasy. +Powiat jest bardzo zróżnicowany pod względem warunków naturalnych. Wyraźnie zaznacza się podział powiatu na tzw. część wyżynną (zachodnia część powiatu), ze wzgórzami morenowymi, jeziorami oraz głębokimi korytami rzecznymi; oraz nizinną (obejmującą równinne Żuławy Gdańskie z intensywną produkcją rolną). Podział ten znajdował swoje odzwierciedlenie w podziale administracyjnym przed rokiem 1939, kiedy to obszar dzisiejszego powiatu był podzielony między powiaty Danziger Höhe (pol. Gdańskie Wyżyny; z Pruszczem) oraz Danziger Niederung (pol. Gdańskie Niziny; powiat ten obejmował również pas wybrzeża bałtyckiego na prawym brzegu Wisły, z Mikoszewem, Stegną i Sztutowem). Siedziba obydwu powiatów mieściła się w Gdańsku. +Powiat lęborski + +Powiat lęborski (kaszb. "Lãbòrsczi kréz") – powiat w Polsce (województwo pomorskie), utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Lębork. +Linki zewnętrzne. +Serwis internetowy Starostwa Powiatowego w Lęborku +Samarytanie + +Samarytanie (Szomronim, Szamerim; hebr. שומרונים, arab. سامريون, sami często określają się mianem Bene Israel, Żydzi nadali im miano Kutim) – niewielka semicka grupa etniczno-religijna, której religia – samarytanizm zbliżona jest do judaizmu i przez niektórych religioznawców wraz z judaizmem i karaimami zaliczana do hipotetycznego mozaizmu (pierwotnej religii Mojżesza). Są potomkami mieszkańców starożytnej Samarii oraz imigrantów z Mezopotamii. +Samarytanie żyją obecnie w Izraelu oraz w Autonomii Palestyńskiej i liczą niewiele ponad 700 osób. Grupa wychodzi obecnie z poważnego kryzysu demograficznego, którego pozostałością jest znacznie większa częstość rzadkich chorób genetycznych w ich populacji. Są silnie zintegrowani wokół swych wierzeń, góry Gerazim i osoby Wielkiego Kapłana (hebr. "kohen ha-gadol"). +Historia Samarytan. +Wersja naukowa I. +Starożytność. +Nazwa ich pochodzi od miasta Samaria. Było ono drugą (lub trzecią) stolicą północnego królestwa Izrael po podziale pierwotnego państwa żydowskiego (około 928 p.n.e.). Nazwę Samaria przejęło później również całe państwo. Tożsamość narodowa Samarytan zaczęła się kształtować w wyniku najazdu (w 732 p.n.e.) i ostatecznego unicestwienia w 722 p.n.e. królestwa Izrael/Samarii przez króla Asyrii Sargona II. Znaczna część mieszkających w nim Żydów została wysiedlona w głąb Asyrii, na ich miejsce sprowadzono zaś innych mieszkańców imperium, co przeprowadzono w czterech kolejnych przesiedleniach w latach: 721 p.n.e., 715 p.n.e., 680 p.n.e. i w połowie VII w. p.n.e. W czasie pierwszego przesiedlenia sprowadzono do Samarii ludność z pięciu północnomezopotamskich prowincji, w tym również z prowincji Kuteh (Kutim). Z tego powodu Żydzi w przeszłości używali wobec Samarytan określenia Kutim, co miało sugerować, że nie są Żydami, lecz Kutejczykami (nazywali ich również Sydończykami, Szachemitami i Amha’aretami, czyli cudzoziemcami). Ze względu na większą otwartość tutejszej ludności niż mieszkańców królestwa południowego – Judy, dochodziło do licznych małżeństw mieszanych i pewnego synkretyzmu religijnego. Samarytanie nie chcieli również burzyć lokalnych świątyń Jahwe i przenosić całego kultu do Jerozolimy, co było jedną z głównych reform religijnych z IX-VII w. p.n.e. +Po pokonaniu i zniszczeniu Judy przez króla Babilonii Nabuchodonozora II w 586 p.n.e. – na jeszcze surowsze wygnanie skazano również ludność tego państwa (pierwsze mniejsze wysiedlenie miało miejsce już w 597 p.n.e.). Po powrocie judzkich Żydów jesienią 538 p.n.e. z niewoli babilońskiej większość z nich nie chciała uznać Samarytan za współwyznawców. Część z powracających była skłonna do tego pod warunkiem, że Samarytanie porzucą nieżydowskie małżonki, zrezygnują z własnych zwyczajów i zwrócą dawne żydowskie majątki nadane im przez Babilończyków. Samarytanie odmówili, lecz – choć ich główny ośrodek religijny znajdował się na górze Gerazim – zamierzali wesprzeć odbudowę Świątyni Salomona. Tę propozycję Żydzi odrzucili, uznając Samarytan za nieczystych rytualnie. Do dzisiaj z punktu widzenia ortodoksyjnego judaizmu nie jest jasne, czy Samarytanie są Żydami, którzy wyłączyli się ze wspólnoty, czy też nie-Żydami. +W IV w. p.n.e. Samarytanie sami ogłosili się odrębną wspólnotą religijną, a Żydów uznali za apostatów. Najprawdopodobniej w latach 350-330 p.n.e. wybudowali własną świątynię na górze Gerazim. Używali też własnego, innego niż żydowski kalendarza. Wrogość między oboma grupami stale się nasilała, co zwykle niekorzystniej odbijało się na Samarytanach, gdyż Żydzi mieli większe wpływy na dworze władców Persji, do której wówczas należała Palestyna. Wielokrotnie w tych czasach (lecz zwykle na krótko) Samarytanie tworzyli autonomiczne państwo ze stolicą w Sychem (obecnie Nablus). +Po powstaniu Machabeuszy w połowie II w. p.n.e., w którym Samarytanie popierali Seleucydów, Żydzi zaczęli ich prześladować i w 129 p.n.e. zniszczyli ich świątynię na wzgórzu Gerazim. W okresie rzymskim obie strony konfliktu oskarżały się wzajemnie wobec cesarzy o nielojalność i dążenia niepodległościowe. Kilkakrotnie wybuchały małe powstania samarytańskie, ale gdy w 66 r. n.e. Żydzi powstali przeciwko Rzymianom, Samarytanie nie przyłączyli się do rebelii. Po powstaniu żydowskim Szymona Bar-Kochby Rzymianie sami odbudowali świątynię na Gerazim (Hadrian wybudował tu wcześniej świątynię Zeusa) i umożliwili Samarytanom sprawowanie tam Paschy. Od tego momentu aż do końca ery rzymskiej Samarytanie cierpieli poważne prześladowania jedynie za cesarza Kommodusa. Kwitły liczne kolonie samarytańskie, z których największe istniały w Damaszku, Kairze i Gaza. Kolonie te przestały istnieć dopiero pod koniec XVI wieku (część badaczy twierdzi, opierając się na zapiskach karaimskich, że upadek kolonii egipskiej miał miejsce pod koniec XVIII wieku). +Średniowiecze i później. +W okresie chrześcijańskim pojawiły się prześladowania religijne, choć wielu Samarytan dobrowolnie przyjęło chrześcijaństwo. W pierwszej połowie IV wieku Rzym przyjął surowe prawa antysamarytańskie (znacznie bardziej represyjne niż dla Żydów). Za czasów wschodniorzymskiego cesarza Zenona pod koniec V w. Samarytanie zostali zdziesiątkowani po nieudanym powstaniu w roku 484. W roku 529 doszło do zniesienia autonomii Samarii. To wydarzenie oraz budowa kościoła na szczycie Gerazim z jednoczesnym zakazem odprawiania kultu na świętej górze Samarytan przyczyniły się do wybuchu wielkiego powstania. Trwało ono w latach 529–531, a jego przywódcą był Julianus ben Sabar. Zdławił je cesarz Justynian I Wielki, mordując większą część narodu. +W trakcie najazdu Arabów w latach 30. VII w. część Samarytan uciekła z Palestyny. Dwie największe fale emigracji miały miejsce w 634 r. (po bitwie pod Rabbath Moab) i w roku 636 (po bitwie nad rzeką Jarmuk). Uchodźcy zasilili, a być może ustanowili na nowo kolonie w Egipcie i w Syrii. Na początku IX w. na fali fanatyzmu islamskiego niszczono świątynie żydowskie i samarytańskie, lecz później sytuacja religijna znacznie się poprawiła. +Trudny okres to XIV w., gdy Palestynę podbili Mamelucy, którzy przerobili świątynie Samarytan na meczety i zmusili wielu z nich do zmiany religii albo emigracji. W tym okresie jednak ponownie rozkwita ich literatura religijna, zwłaszcza liturgiczna. Nowy najazd osmańskich Turków w roku 1516 to kolejne prześladowania. W roku 1624 zmarł ostatni kapłan z rodu syna Aarona – Eleazara/Pinchasa – kapłanami zostali potomkowie jego brata – Itamara. +Gdy w czasie wojny egipsko-tureckiej w 1832 roku wojska egipskie pod dowództwem Ibrahima Paszy zajęły tereny Palestyny, Samarytanie uzyskali niemal równy z muzułmanami status. Otrzymali również kilka nadań. Kiedy jednak władza nad tymi terenami wróciła w 1840/1 do Turcji, wprowadzono – tłumacząc to reformami Tanzimatu (a w rzeczywistości jako „karę” za zbyt dobre stosunki z Egipcjanami) – prawo głoszące, że Samarytanie są poganami. Wprowadził je ulem Nablusu, nie zważając na to, że Samarytanie od początku islamu byli uważani za „lud Księgi". Wyznawcom dano do wyboru – nawrócenie na islam albo śmierć. Od unicestwienia uratował grupę Naczelny Rabin Jerozolimy, który reprezentował przed sułtanem całą palestyńską gminą żydowską. Na prośbę Samarytanina Jakoba esz-Szelaby’ego doręczył on ulemowi dokument, w którym potwierdzał, że Samarytanie są również „Ludem Izraela” i uznają Torę. Od tej pory wielu Samarytan jest wdzięcznych Żydom za tamten ratunek. Wydarzenie to w tradycji samarytańskiej nosi nazwę „"kryzysu roku 1841"”. W latach 20. XX w. liczba Samarytan spadła do 150. W czasach niepodległego Izraela byli oni i są wspierani przez rząd, a szczególnie prezydenta Icchaka Ben-Zwi oraz w nieco mniejszym stopniu przez premiera Davida Ben Guriona. Dzięki poszukiwaniom małżonków wśród żydowskiej społeczności w ZSRR i w Izraelu znacznie zwiększyła się ich liczba. +Wersja naukowa II. +Zdaniem niektórych badaczy Samarytanie jako naród i religia powstali dopiero w czasach Aleksandra Macedońskiego i wywodzą się z wyższych warstw społecznych ówczesnej Palestyny, zarówno spośród Żydów współpracujących z Grekami, jak i społeczności nieżydowskiej. Wersja ta jest jednak odrzucana przez zdecydowaną większość historyków. Jest ona również sprzeczna (a przynajmniej niepełna) z badaniami mitochondrialnego DNA Samarytan, które potwierdzają domieszkę asyryjską w ich materiale genetycznym. +Wersja samarytańska. +Według Samarytan ich nazwa oznacza w najstarszej wersji hebrajskiego – wiernych lub czcicieli, a oni sami są potomkami 10 plemion Izraela (zamieszkiwały one terytorium Samarii) – głównie pokolenia Efraima – i jako odrębna grupa istnieli już w czasach Mojżesza. Samarytanie twierdzą, iż nigdy nie stanowili z Żydami jednego narodu i nie świętowali w Jerozolimie. Wersję tę popierają muzułmańscy historycy (tzw. „kwestia Szamerim – Szomronim”), co w dość oczywisty sposób tłumaczy pojawienie się Samarytan w Koranie razem z Mojżeszem (jako jego przeciwników). Wersja ta jest zwalczana przynajmniej od XVIII wieku przez chrześcijańskich historyków, a protestanccy misjonarze posługiwali się (i często nadal to robią) podkreślaniem nieścisłości tej wersji w czasie misji w krajach muzułmańskich. +Wersja biblijna (żydowska). +Według 2 Krl 17,24 i Ezd 4,2 król Asyrii Asarhaddon sprowadził na centralne tereny dawnego Królestwa Izraela (Państwa Północnego) osadników z Babilonii (Babilon, Kuta), Elamu lub Fenicji (Awwa) oraz Syrii (Chamat i Sefarwaim) (680 p.n.e.). Osadnicy ci czcili swoich bogów, za co Jahwe zesłał na nich plagę lwów. Wtedy poprosili króla o przysłanie im jednego z kapłanów izraelskich, uprowadzonych do niewoli, aby nauczał ich Prawa Mojżeszowego. Sprowadzony z Asyrii kapłan, zamieszkał w synkretycznej świątyni Jahwe w Betel i rozpoczął nawracanie Samarytan, którzy jednak po przyjęciu prawdziwej wiary nie przestali „na boku” czcić swoich bożków (2 Krl 17,25-41). W r. 622 p.n.e., król Judy Jozjasz zburzył świątynię w Betel, przez co Samarytanie zaczęli uczęszczać do Świątyni Jerozolimskiej (2 Krl 23, 15-20). Czynili to także (udając się już jednak do ruin Świątyni) po likwidacji Królestwa Judy (Jr 41,5) (586 p.n.e.). +Po powrocie Żydów z niewoli babilońskiej (537 p.n.e. lub 536 p.n.e.) Samarytanie chcieli pomóc im w odbudowie Świątyni, lecz ich pomoc została kategorycznie odrzucona. Od tej pory Samarytanie robili wszystko, aby utrudnić Żydom odbudowę (Ezd 4,1-24; 5,2-18). Mimo tej zawziętości, część Samarytan z pogórza efraimskiego i okolic Betel w dalszym ciągu była zwolennikami odprawiania kultu w Jerozolimie (Ne 7,32). Kiedy Ezdrasz i Nehemiasz zakazali Żydom zawierania małżeństw mieszanych, uderzyło to także w Samarytan, ponieważ tym samym zostali uznani za pogan (Ezd 9-10; Ne 13; szczególnie Ne 13,28). Ostatecznie Samarytanie zostali uznani za wyłączonych ze wspólnoty judaizmu przez namiestnika Judy Nehemiasza w roku 440 p.n.e. (Ne 2,19.20). Od tej pory zaczęli się rozglądać za innym miejscem kultu niż Świątynia Jerozolimska. Nie mogli odbudować przybytku w Betel, bo ten leżał w granicach ówczesnej Judy. Jak doniósł nam historyk żydowski Józef Flawiusz, namiestnik Samarii Sanballat I ok. r. 430 p.n.e. lub Sanballat II w r. 332 p.n.e. zbudował świątynię samarytańską na górze Garizim. Pierwszym arcykapłanem w tej świątyni został Manasses, zięć Sanballata I i syn żydowskiego arcykapłana Jojady (Ne 13,28) lub Manasses, zięć Sanballata II i syn żydowskiego arcykapłana Jaddui. +Samarytanie w Nowym Testamencie. +Samarytanie są kilkakrotnie wspominani w Nowym Testamencie (inaczej niż w późnych księgach starotestamentowych i powstającej wówczas ustnej tradycji żydowskiej), wbrew opinii ówczesnych Żydów, jako ludzie dobrzy i uczynni, a Jezus nie stroni od nich. W pewnym momencie prosi nawet samarytańską kobietę z Sychem (dzisiejszy Nablus) o wodę (rozmowy między oboma wspólnotami były niemal zakazane). Szczególnie istotny jest tu jednak fragment o "Miłosiernym Samarytaninie" w Ewangelii Łukasza (10:25-41). W przypowieści tej Jezus zderzył miłosierne postępowanie Samarytanina z obojętnością na los pobitego Żyda ze strony żydowskiego kapłana oraz jego pomocnika – przedstawicieli bardzo szanowanych przez Żydów grup zawodowych. Dzięki tej przypowieści Samarytanin stał się w wielu językach synonimem dobroczyńcy i wszedł na trwałe do kultury masowej. Również wiele organizacji charytatywnych i fundacji chrześcijańskich nosi nazwy pochodzące od Samarytan (zob. Samarytanie (organizacja)). Mimo to pod rządami chrześcijan Samarytanie doznawali prześladowań religijnych. +Wierzenia. +Samarytanie mają własne prawo religijne – dużo surowsze niż żydowscy ortodoksi. Oparte jest ono w całości na Torze i uchodzi za najbardziej dyskryminujące kobiety spośród wszystkich współczesnych systemów religijnych. Dotyczy to zwłaszcza skrupulatnego przestrzegania czasu (a także zakresu) rytualnej nieczystości kobiety po menstruacji i porodzie oraz sposobów rytualnego oczyszczenia. Charakterystyczny jest brak prawa ustnego i religijnych ustnych podań, co odróżnia ich od Żydów. Grupie przewodzi dziedziczny kapłan (rezydujący na Gerazim) z linii Aarona, choć Żydzi twierdzą, że z rodu pewnego kapłana z "domu Sadoka" wypędzonego z Jerozolimy za czasów Ezdrasza. Według Samarytan obie linie kapłańskie (samarytańska i żydowska) oddzieliły się od siebie na początku XI w. p.n.e., a ich linia miała być główną. Od 1624 r. stosowana jest zasada starszeństwa w rodzinie kapłańskiej przy obsadzaniu stanowiska. Kapłan ten odprawia ceremonię na Górze Gerazim z okazji każdego większego święta. Poza Wielkim Kapłanem jest jeszcze kilku kapłanów, jednak ich pozycja we wspólnocie jest znacznie niższa. Nie występuje (inaczej niż u Żydów) grupa osób świeckich, gdyż wszyscy Samarytanie zobowiązani są do pełnienia funkcji religijnych ("„kapłańskich”"). +Góra ta (określana jako błogosławiona – Tura berikha lub dobra – Tura Taba) jest uważana za jedyne, dane przez Boga (nazywanego zwykle Szema) święte miejsce – tam zjeżdża się cała wspólnota. Szczególnie uroczyście obchodzona jest Pascha, która odbywa się według starych zwyczajów – łącznie z całopaleniem owcy w specjalnym piecu na Gerazim. Owca ta jest wybierana i obserwowana przez 14 dni przed Paschą z godnie z zaleceniem z Księgi Wyjścia 12,6. Dni te noszą hebrajską nazwę "arba asar yumi amnasmaret". Osoba przewodząca modłom w trakcie świąt zwana jest Hazzan. Może nim być zarówno kapłan, jak i inny mężczyzna pochodzący ze starszyzny. Jedynym prorokiem samarytanizmu jest Mojżesz – uznawany ponadto (odmiennie niż w judaizmie) za postać nadnaturalną. Mają własny zestaw Dziesięciu Przykazań, co ciekawe X przykazanie mówi, iż świętym miejscem jest Gerazim. Dopuszczalne są tylko małżeństwa z innymi Samarytanami, a w ostatnim czasie z możliwości konwersji i małżeństwa z Samarytaninem skorzystało kilkanaście Żydówek głównie z Izraela i byłego ZSRR. Kobiety te po konwersji (która formalnie nie jest odejściem od judaizmu, a jedynie przyjęciem samarytańskich zasad i obyczajów religijnych) zostały usunięte ze wspólnoty żydowskiej. Samarytanie ubierają się na świąteczne okazje zawsze w charakterystyczny sposób – na biało z wysokimi czerwonymi nakryciami głowy. Najbardziej szanowanym członkom społeczności przysługuje zielony, niebieski oraz purpurowo-brązowy ubiór. +Literatura religijna. +Jedyna święta księga Samarytan – Pięcioksiąg (podobny do żydowskiego, a nazywany przez nich Zwojem Abisza) jest spisana w języku samarytańskim hebrajskim w alfabecie samarytańskim. Jego najstarsza wersja ma mieć podobno znacznie ponad 3000 lat i została spisana 12 lat po zawładnięciu ziemią Kanaan przez Żydów. W liturgii Samarytanie używają sporadycznie również języka samarytańskiego aramejskiego oraz hebrajskiego standardowego i arabskiego (te dwa ostatnie nie są uznawane za „języki święte”). Co ciekawe najbardziej wyraźne różnice w wymowie samarytańskiej i hebrajskiej dotyczą imion i określeń Boga. Za jednego z głównych twórców liturgii samarytańskiej uznawany jest żyjący na przełomie III i IV wieku rabin Baba Rabba. +Święta Samarytan. +Warto zauważyć, że daty niemal wszystkich świąt pokrywają się z tymi u Żydów. Jedynym wyjątkiem jest Rosz ha-Szana, które Żydzi obchodzą 1 tiszrei. Uwarunkowane jest to różnicami w Torach obu religii (prawdopodobnie w wersji judaistycznej data została przeniesiona w czasie niewoli babilońskiej z powodu innych warunków klimatycznych). +Samarytanie 3 razy do roku pielgrzymują na Gerazim – w czasie świąt Massot, Szawuot i Sukkot. Te trzy pielgrzymki nazywane są po arabsku Haggim. Odbywają się wtedy uroczyste festiwale religijne, które w ostatnich latach stały się dużą atrakcją turystyczną (zwykle turystów jest kilka razy więcej niż świętujących). W trakcie tych pielgrzymek spotyka się cała wspólnota. Są one pamiątką „wyjścia z Egiptu” i czterdziestoletniej wędrówki do Ziemi Obiecanej. +Zobacz też: święta żydowskie. +Samarytanie dzisiaj. +Kiedyś Samarytanie byli grupą dość liczną (ponad milionową), obecnie żyją 654 osoby (2003) z czego 346 w Izraelu – w osiedlu Holon (w pobliżu Tel Awiwu, w okolicy zwanej Neveh Marqeh) i 308 w Palestynie – w osiedlu Kiryat Luza (Neve-Kedem) w pobliżu góry Gerazim (na południe od Nablusu). Większość społeczności posługuje się językiem arabskim. Część mieszkająca w Izraelu mówi również po hebrajsku i określana jest z hebrajska Sekhunat Hashomronim. +W 2004 r. kapłanem został Elazar ben Tsedaka, zastąpił on Shaloma ben Amrama, który był deputowanym Autonomii Palestyńskiej oraz współpracownikiem i protegowanym Jasera Arafata (Arafat bardzo silnie agitował za jego wyborem w okręgu nabluskim). Wielu Palestyńczyków krytykowało ben Amrama za kierowanie się jedynie wolą prezydenta w trakcie głosowań w parlamencie. +Palestyńscy Samarytanie przyjęli żydowskie paszporty, ale mają również dowody palestyńskie. Rząd Autonomii oraz wszystkie partie polityczne (również islamscy fundamentaliści) uważają ich za „Palestyńskich Żydów”, co daje im pełne prawa polityczne i obywatelskie w Palestynie w odróżnieniu od większości Żydów, którzy osiedlili się na tych terenach w ostatnim wieku. Część Palestyńczyków uważa ich jednak za zdrajców, gdyż przenieśli się w 1954 z Nablusu do specjalnie dla nich wybudowanego (na wniosek Icchaka Ben-Zwi) przez Izrael osiedla – Kiryat Luza. Wiadomo również, że w razie izraelskich akcji wojskowych w okolicach Nablusu, żołnierze mają rozkaz nie wyrządzać Samarytanom jakichkolwiek szkód. +Obie grupy Samarytan – palestyńska i izraelska – aktywnie uczestniczą w życiu politycznym swoich krajów, choć w grupie palestyńskiej widać wyraźny lęk przed rosnącym fundamentalizmem islamskim i obawę przed wycofaniem wojsk izraelskich. W ostatnich latach Samarytanie starali się pokazać Arabom, że są lojalnymi Palestyńczykami bojkotując (na prośbę OWP) w czasie pierwszej intifady izraelskie urzędy, w których pracowali. Domy czterech Samarytan, którzy pozostali w pracy zostały spalone jesienią 1989 roku przez arabskich demonstrantów. Od działań tych szybko odżegnał się Jaser Arafat, który przez radio z Bagdadu zakazał ataków na nich i zapowiedział rekompensaty. Po pewnym czasie pojawił się także w okolicy Kiryat Luza, gdzie spotkał się z przywódcami wspólnoty. +Ostatni duży konflikt z Arabami ciągnie się od kilku lat z powodu wybudowania przez Autonomię olbrzymiej anteny satelitarnej na Gerazim, która utrudnia celebrowanie świąt. Problem jest wciąż nierozwiązany, a w 2001 pojawił się kolejny – Izrael umieścił baterię artylerii na górze. +We współczesnym Izraelu Samarytanie podlegają w kwestiach cywilnoprawnych zmodyfikowanemu prawu żydowskiemu, nie przysługują im jednak wszystkie prawa Żydów –, tzn. Prawo Powrotu (choć jest to wyłącznie teoretyczna kwestia). Sprawami dotyczącymi ich wspólnoty w pierwszych latach istnienia państwa zajmował się Departament Muzułmański w Ministerstwie Religii, ale pod wpływem protestów stworzono po kilku latach odrębny departament dla karaimów i Samarytan. Gdy w 1997 roku rząd pod wpływem partii religijnych usiłował przywrócić poprzedni stan, Samarytanie zaskarżyli wprowadzany właśnie dekret do Sądu Najwyższego Izraela, który wydał korzystny dla nich werdykt. +W grupie z Kiryat Luza istnieje ruch pragnący stworzyć całkowicie samowystarczalne osiedle na Gerazim. Obecnie Samarytanie zajmują się głównie handlem – przewożą towary między Izraelem a Autonomią, co ułatwiają im specjalne przepustki i izraelskie paszporty. Wspólnota boryka się z jednym z najwyższych na świecie odsetkiem wad genetycznych, co wywołane jest zawieraniem od 2400 lat małżeństw wyłącznie wewnątrz niewielkiej wspólnoty. Zapobieganiu tym chorobom służy specjalne prawo małżeńskie, które nakazuje każdej samarytańskiej młodej parze otrzymanie zgody genetyka ze "Szpitala Tel HaShomer" przed rozpoczęciem pierwszego etapu procedury ślubnej – propozycji (hebr. Kidduszin). Religia i tradycja nakazują spisanie specjalnego kontraktu (hebr. ketuba) przed zawarciem małżeństwa i podpisanie go przez narzeczonych. Rozwód następuje wraz z wręczeniem przez męża żonie listu (dokumentu) rozwodowego (hebr. Sefer krytet). +Rodziny/Domy Samarytańskie (stan na 2003 r.). +W XX wieku zakończyły się męskie linie rodowe w trzech rodzinach. Dwie są obecnie na wymarciu. +Robert Kiyosaki + +Robert Toru Kiyosaki (ur. 8 kwietnia 1947), amerykański inwestor, biznesmen, autor poczytnych książek motywacyjnych. +Urodził się i wychował na Hawajach, uczęszczał do Amerykańskiej Akademii Morskiej i służył w oddziałach marines jako pilot śmigłowca podczas wojny wietnamskiej. Po opuszczeniu oddziałów marines pracował jako sprzedawca kopiarek dla firmy Xerox, zanim rozpoczął karierę jako inwestor i nauczyciel. +Kiyosaki jest najlepiej znany jako autor książek o inwestowaniu pieniędzy. Jego pierwszy bestseller nosił tytuł "Bogaty Ojciec, Biedny Ojciec" i był próbą zmiany nastawienia przeciętnego pracownika. Kiyosaki mówi o swoim rzeczywistym, "biednym ojcu", który pomimo iż był kierownikiem Stanowego Wydziału Edukacji na Hawajach, posiadał niewielką edukację finansową. Kiyosaki pisze również o "bogatym ojcu", ojcu przyjaciela, który stał się bardzo zasobny poprzez inwestycje swoich niewielkich zarobków w przynoszące dochody przedsięwzięcia, stając się ostatecznie bardzo bogatym człowiekiem. +Kiyosaki używa porównania "bogaty ojciec, biedny ojciec", aby zilustrować swój pogląd, iż większość ludzi utknęła w czymś, co nazywa "wyścigiem szczurów" - żyją od wypłaty do wypłaty i spędzają cały swój czas pracując na zapłacenie rachunków. W swoich książkach Kiyosaki staje po stronie mechanizmów inwestowania przyjaznych dla podatków, jak na przykład nieruchomości lub zakładania firm (działających czasami w branży MLM). Opisuje coś, co nazywa kwadrantem przepływu pieniędzy i stanowi próbę rozróżnienia pomiędzy pracownikiem, samozatrudnionym lub właścicielem małej firmy, ludźmi biznesu i inwestorami. +Kiyosaki stworzył szereg gier promujących teorie opisywane w jego książkach. Gry Cashflow 101 oraz Cashflow 202 uczą jak wyrwać się z "wyścigu szczurów" poprzez budowę wpływów przekraczających wydatki (dochód pasywny). W swojej ofercie ma też grę Cashflow dla dzieci oraz książkę "Mądre bogate dziecko". +Krytycy twierdzą, że źródłem sukcesu Kiyosakiego nie jest jego umiejętność inwestowania, o której tak dużo pisze, lecz sprzedaż książek na ten temat. Podaje się również w wątpliwość istnienie "bogatego ojca" opisywanego jako jeden z najbogatszych mieszkańców Hawajów, ale którego tożsamość nie została nigdy ujawniona. Wieloletni inwestor na rynkach nieruchomości, :en:John T. Reed określił książkę "Bogaty Ojciec, Biedny Ojciec" jako pełną błędów merytorycznych i zawierającą wiele złych porad. W odpowiedzi Reedowi Kiyosaki podkreślił, że książka jest prosta i upraszcza skomplikowane sprawy. Trent Hamm, autor popularnego finansowego bloga, The Simple Dollar podkreśla, że rady Kiyosakiego na poziomie ogólnym są bardzo sensowne, jednak proponowane ścieżki nie są łatwe lub możliwe do naśladowania dla każdego. Hamm podkreśla również, Kiyosaki obraża w swoich książkach ludzi, z którymi się nie zgadza (określając ich np. jako głupich), co jest tanią zagrywką sprzedażową.. +Tympanometria + +Tympanometria jest rodzajem nieinwazyjnej metody badania słuchu. Polega na mierzeniu odbicia fali dźwiękowej od błony bębenkowej podczas zmiany ciśnienia w przewodzie słuchowym zewnętrznym. +Jej wynikiem jest powstanie krzywej, tympanogramu, za pomocą której można zdiagnozować m.in. pęknięcie błony bębenkowej, infekcje ucha środkowego, niedrożność trąbki Eustachiusza i nieprawidłowość zanikania odruchu strzemiączkowego. +Widzew + +Widzew – do 31 grudnia 1992 dzielnica miasta Łodzi, obecnie obszar podległy delegaturze Urzędu Miasta Łodzi Łódź-Widzew. Największa obszarem dawna dzielnica miasta, licząca 90,8 km², ale jednocześnie o najmniejszej gęstości zaludnienia (ok. 140 tys. mieszkańców na 775,2 tys. w całej Łodzi). +Zabudowa. +Dzielnica ta oprócz części środkowo-zachodniej, położonej mniej więcej na obszarze dawnej wsi Widzew (zwanej obecnie popularnie starym Widzewem) nie posiada zwartej, miejskiej zabudowy. Północno-wschodnia część dzielnicy jest zajmowana przez pola, nieużytki, lasy i niewielkie osady, południowo-wschodni róg zajmują obszerne rejony terminalu kolejowego Łódź-Olechów. Reszta obszaru zdominowana jest zabudową przemysłową i wielkimi osiedlami mieszkaniowymi. +Historia. +Najstarsze dzieje osady Widzew. +Pierwsza historyczna wzmianka dotycząca Widzewa pojawiła się w 1327, następna wzmianka pochodzi z 1387 – dokumentu wydanego przez biskupa kujawskiego Jana Kropidło, księcia z opolskiej linii Piastów. Z zapisu tego wynika, że duchowny utworzył sołectwo łódzkie złożone ze wsi Łodzia i sąsiedniej wioski "Widzewnicy" (nazwa osady zapisana jest w tekście niejednolicie). Ustalenie daty założenia Widzewa jest jednak niemożliwe. +Przez długi czas obraz Widzewa podobnie jak i samej Łodzi przedstawiał się w sposób nader monotonny i nieszczególny. Wzmianki źródłowe ów pogląd potwierdzają – "na dużej polanie otoczona ze wszystkich stron lasami znajdowała się maleńka wieś". "Miasteczko zaś Łódź samemi borami jest obległe tak ze wschodu, z południa, z północy y z zachodu". +Kolejne informacje o wsi Widzew pochodzą z XVI-wiecznych spisów inwentarzowych dóbr biskupich. Jeden z nich, sporządzony z polecenia biskupa Jana Karnkowskiego w 1534, informuje, że wioska Widzew "posiada 5 łanów, nowo wybudowany młyn, z którego płaci kopę groszy, a wieśniacy są następujący: Wojciech Gralka – 1 łan, Stanisław Kierszcz – 1 łan, Pędziwiatr – 1 łan, Salomonowa – 1 łan, Pietruch – 1 łan. Razem oddając 6 złotych należnych podatków." +Wiek XVIII to czas daleko posuniętej dewastacji i dosłownej wegetacji osady. Zamieszkiwało ją wówczas w dwóch gospodarstwach na 3 łanach raptem czternaście osób. W 1792 zajmował gospodarstwo zaledwie jeden kmieć, a grunty orne słabej jakości, na ogół piaszczyste, nadawały się jedynie pod siew żyta i uprawę ziemniaków. +Widzew w sferze oddziaływania Łodzi. +Lepsze czasy dla wsi przyszły paradoksalnie wraz z upadkiem państwa polskiego i okresem zaborów. Już podczas krótkiego pruskiego epizodu liczba mieszkańców wzrosła do 22 osób, ale dopiero w momencie powstania Królestwa Polskiego pod berłem cara Rosji sytuacja całego obszaru Łodzi i okolicznych wsi zmieniła się diametralnie. Historyczne konsekwencje podjętej przez Rajmunda Rembielińskiego i Stanisława Staszica w 1823 decyzji o ulokowaniu na południe od Łodzi, w oparciu o trakt Piotrkowski, nowej osady sukienniczej spowodowała, że Widzew znalazł się w polu oddziaływania Łodzi. +To w wyniku prac regulacyjnych pod wytyczanie nowych ulic i działek dla przybyłych tkaczy przesiedlono do Widzewa część mieszkańców wsi Wólka. Tym sposobem wzrosła liczba mieszkańców i powierzchnia gruntów rolnych. Rosnące potrzeby dynamicznie rozwijającej się Łodzi sprzyjały analogicznie również okolicy. Karczowano lasy Puszczy Łódzkiej. Naturalna leśna granica oddzielająca Widzew od Łodzi tym sposobem kurczyła się coraz bardziej. Podejmowano się przewozu rozmaitych towarów i pracy w mieście. W latach 60. XIX wieku uregulowano stosunki własnościowe i uwłaszczono chłopów widzewskich. W tym czasie liczba mieszkańców wsi liczyła już 338 osób ludności stałej i 36 czasowo zamieszkałej. Widzew podobnie jak inne okoliczne podłódzkie osady stanowił zaplecze rąk do pracy, służył jako baza surowcowa i miejsce taniego noclegu dla coraz liczniejszej rzeszy niesionych nadzieją lepszego życia chłopów. Taki obraz Widzewa, podobnie zresztą jak i innych okolicznych podłódzkich miejscowości, uległ już w latach 70. XIX w. dość poważnym zmianom. +Budowa przemysłu na Widzewie. +Do lat 70. XIX w. Widzew stanowił względem Łodzi głównie zaplecze surowcowe i żywnościowe oraz miejsce, w którym pomieszkiwali nieraz po kilka lat wiejscy przybysze – pracownicy łódzkich fabryk. Ten stan rzeczy zmienił się za sprawą Juliusza Kunitzera. Szukając terenów pod budowę zakładów bawełnianych trafił on do Widzewa. Miejsce to okazało się wprost idealne dla inwestorów. Doskonała lokalizacja tuż przy Szosie Rokicińskiej zapewniała, podobnie jak linia kolejowa fabrycznołódzka, swobodny dowóz surowców i wywóz produkcji. Ponadto przez wieś przepływała rzeczka Jasień, mogąca zaopatrzyć fabryki w wodę wykorzystywaną w procesie produkcji włókienniczej, zaś w okolicy było mnóstwo taniej siły roboczej. W 1879 Kunitzer odkupił od Ludwika Meyera, zakupione przez tego drugiego rok wcześniej od chłopów Widzewa, grunty położone pomiędzy dzisiejszymi ulicami Niską i Szpitalną. W stosunkowo szybkim czasie J. Kunitzer wespół z J. Heinzlem zbudowali sporych rozmiarów kompleks fabryczny, nazwany później Widzewską Manufakturą. W cieniu fabrycznych murów fabrykant pobudował domy robotnicze przy widzewskiej fabryce tzw. "Domki Kunitzerowskie". Parterowe, drewniane, tandetnie wykonane, przypominały budynki rzemieślnicze wznoszone w 1. połowie XIX wieku. Osiedle powstawało stopniowo w ostatnich latach XIX w. W 1900 liczyło 158 domów drewnianych i 8 murowanych, ulokowanych w kilku długich szeregach, głównie przy ulicach: Niciarnianej, Kunitzera, Józefa, i po obu stronach Szosy Rokicińskiej. Był to jedyny, unikatowy przykład tego typu zabudowy w Łodzi. Tzw. "Domki Kunitzerowskie" zostały rozebrane w większości po 1945, kilkanaście z nich przetrwało do lat 60. a nawet 70. XX w. +Rozwojowi przemysłowemu Widzewa towarzyszył wzrost liczby mieszkańców. Podczas gdy w 1880 zamieszkiwało ten obszar niespełna 500 osób, to w 1901 już ponad 4 tysiące. +Rolnictwo wraz z rozwojem przemysłowym Widzewa traciło na znaczeniu. Chłopi-właściciele wysprzedawszy swoją ziemię przechodzili do pracy w fabrykach. W końcu XIX wieku wykształciły się trzy zasadnicze grupy mieszkańców Widzewa: dawni chłopi trudniący się furażem, zajęciami dorywczymi i wynajmem lokali, doświadczeni robotnicy i nowo przybyli bez doświadczenia. +Fabryki włókiennicze nadawały ton kierunkowi zmian i przyczyniały się do przekształceń wsi w fabryczną osadę – przedmieście Łodzi. Tow. Akc. bawełnianej fabryki "Heinzel i Kunitzer", zwiększając rozmiar kompleksu przemysłowego, nabywało kolejne grunty od chłopów, a ci z kolei przechodzili do pracy pozarolniczej. Na ponad cztery tysiące mieszkańców Widzewa w 1902 75% utrzymywało się z pracy w przemyśle co stanowi wymowny przykład tempa zachodzących przemian w tej miejscowości. +Powyższe proporcje szybko ulegały podobnie jak krajobraz Widzewa dalszym zmianom. Formalnie nadal traktowany jako wieś zatracał swój wiejski charakter za sprawą kolejnych inwestycji. Zbudowano południowa linię kolei obwodowej, powstała Stacja Widzew. Juliusz Kunitzer wszedł do spółki, która podjęła się budowy kolejnego przedsiębiorstwa – Łódzkiej Fabryki Nici zwanej popularnie "Niciarnią", a obecnie Ariadną. Rozrastała się również sama kolonia mieszkalna. Wzniesiono następne "Domki Kunitzerowskie" oraz kolonię parterowych baraków dla robotników "Niciarni". Na potrzeby mieszkańców urządzono przyfabryczne szpitale, szkoły oraz kościół pw. św. Kazimierza. Wzdłuż ul. Rokicińskiej poprowadzono linie tramwajową kończącą się przy ul. Szpitalnej. +Widzew zatracał swój typowo wiejski charakter, a w cieniu rozrastających się kompleksów miejscowych fabryk wyrosła osada fabryczna, zamieszkana w przeważającej części przez robotników. Zapisali oni piękną kartę w historii podczas Buntu Łódzkiego w 1892, a zwłaszcza w czasie rewolucji 1905 roku. Od tego momentu zaczęto określać przedmieście mianem "Czerwonego Widzewa", a częste przypadki strajków i akcji protestacyjnych w okresie II Rzeczypospolitej na trwałe wyryją to określenie w świadomości łodzian. +Przyłączenie Widzewa do Łodzi. +Przeobrażeniom urbanizacyjnym Widzewa oraz innych podmiejskich miejscowości nie towarzyszyły jednak żadne zmiany administracyjne. Łódź dynamicznie się rozrastała i potrzebowała nowych terenów pod zabudowę, natomiast przedmieścia trwale związane z miastem mimo przemysłowego oblicza formalnie nadal pozostawały osadami wiejskimi. Istniejący problem rozwiązano dwukrotnie. Pierwszy raz w 1906, kiedy w granice Łodzi włączono (razem z innymi fragmentami przedmieść) zachodnią, przemysłową część Widzewa. Nowa granica Łodzi biegła wzdłuż dzisiejszej ulicy Widzewskiej. Kolejne włączenia miały miejsce w 1915, podczas I wojny światowej (tereny do trasy kolei obwodowej). +Konsekwencją tak przeprowadzonej regulacji obszar Widzewa został "de facto" podzielony na część zachodnią – stanowiącą już teren Łodzi oraz część wschodnią (wieś Widzew – obecnie Widzew Wschód), która w przeciwieństwie do robotniczo-przemysłowego charakteru dzielnicy pozostała nadal tradycyjnym rolniczo-chłopskim zapleczem miasta. Miało to o tyle negatywne skutki, gdyż to zachodnia część Widzewa korzystała najpełniej z dobrodziejstw miejskich inwestycji. Elektryfikacja, budowa kanalizacji i brukowania ulic dotyczyła praktycznie tylko tego obszaru. Tutaj również skupiało się życie religijne (oddano w 1936 do użytku kościół parafialny), kulturalne (powstawały nowe szkoły oraz stowarzyszenia) i sportowe (RTS "Widzew", KS "Wi-Ma" i TS "Podgórze"). +Taki stan rzeczy trwał jeszcze przez ponad 30 lat. Nie potrafiły go zmienić mimo podejmowanych prób ani władze miasta w odrodzonej Rzeczypospolitej, ani nawet niemieccy okupanci podczas II wojny światowej. Kolejną inkorporację, tym razem już o wiejskie tereny Widzewa, przeprowadził dopiero po wyzwoleniu, w 1946, łódzki samorząd. I to dopiero od tego momentu możemy mówić o całkowitym włączeniu w granice miasta tego obszaru i otwarciu nowego rozdziału w historii już widzewskiej dzielnicy. +Dzielnica Widzew. +Dzielnica administracyjna Widzew została utworzona z dniem 1 stycznia 1954 jako jedna z 7 wówczas powstałych dzielnic Łodzi. +Była wtedy najmniej zurbanizowaną i najsłabiej zaludnioną dzielnicą Łodzi, jedyną, która nie otrzymała przy podziale żadnej części ścisłego centrum miasta. +Najdalej na zachód wysunięty fragment granicy dzielnicy administracyjnej Widzew przebiegał po linii dzisiejszych ulic Wydawniczej i Rydza-Śmigłego na odcinku od ul. Tuwima do Milionowej. +Z dniem 1 stycznia 1993 dzielnica została zlikwidowana, wchodząc w skład jednolitej gminy miejskiej Łódź. Zadania administracyjnej obsługi mieszkańców byłej dzielnicy przejęła Delegatura Urzędu Miasta Łodzi. +Godło Libii + +Godło Libii - Od 2011 roku pełni tą rolę symbol Narodowej Rady Tymczasowej Libii. Emblemat ten, ma postać dwóch współśrodkowych okręgów. W środkowym znajdują się trzy półksiężyce, symbole islamu, w barwach zielonej, czarnej oraz czerwonej, reprezentujących trzy historyczne krainy Libii - Trypolitanię, Fazzan i Cyrenajkę. Są to też barwy flagi Libii i barwy narodowe tego kraju. Obok nich mieszczą się trzy czarne fale, symbolizujące pustynne piaski oraz gwiazda na znak bezchmurnego nocnego libijskiego nieba. Pomiędzy okręgami umieszczono na obwodzie napis w języku arabskim i angielskim - "Libia. Narodowa Rada Tymczasowa". +Ucieczka z Alcatraz + +Ucieczka z Alcatraz (tytuł oryginalny "Escape from Alcatraz"), amerykański film fabularny z 1979 roku w reżyserii Dona Siegela na podstawie książki J. Campbella Bruce'a. +Oprócz Clinta Eastwooda w rolach głównych grają Jack Thibeau (Clarence Anglin) oraz Fred Ward (John Anglin). +Opis fabuły. +Fabuła filmu jest oparta na faktach. +Akcja filmu rozgrywa się w roku 1962. Film opowiada historię trzech więźniów, którzy ze szczegółami zaplanowali udaną ucieczkę z więzienia Alcatraz. Frank Morris (Clint Eastwood), który wiele razy uciekał z innych więzień, zostaje przeniesiony do Alcatraz. Stamtąd również postanawia uciec. Razem z nim uciekają dwaj bracia Anglin. +Domicyl + +Domicyl (łac. "domicilium" - miejsce zamieszkania) – stałe miejsce zamieszkania osoby fizycznej lub siedziba osoby prawnej. Może oznaczać również stałe miejsce dopełniania zobowiązań finansowych. W prawie międzynarodowym prywatnym jeden z łączników wskazujących, jakie prawo należy zastosować dla oceny spornego stosunku. Pojęcie domicylu jest również obecne w prawie konstytucyjnym wielu państw. Przykładem może być wymóg domicylu (minimum 14 lat) w stosunku do kandydata na urząd Prezydenta USA. W polskim prawie wekslowym oznacza miejsce (miejscowość), w którym weksel jest płatny (art. 37 ustawy z dnia 28 kwietnia 1936 r. Prawo wekslowe). +Jezioro endoreiczne + +Jezioro endoreiczne (z greckiego "endo" - "wewnątrz" i "rhein" - "płynąć") – jezioro bezodpływowe, w którym dopływ wody równoważony jest przez parowanie, przykładem takiego jeziora jest jezioro Eyre w Australii. +Teoretycznie systemy endoreiczne mogą powstać w każdym klimacie, występują one najczęściej w gorących klimatach pustynnych. W miejscach, w których występuje dużo deszczu następuje z reguły erozja brzegu spowodowana ciągłym napływem nowych zasobów wodnych doprowadzając do stworzenia naturalnego odpływu wody. Przykładem takiego systemu jest Morze Czarne, które powstało jako niezależne jezioro i dopiero Morze Śródziemne przełamało bariery pomiędzy tymi dwoma zbiornikami wody. +Na gorących pustyniach, gdzie dopływ wody jest stosunkowo niski, a straty wody poprzez parowanie bardzo wysokie najczęściej nie dochodzi do utworzenia systemu odpływowego. Zamknięta natura obiegu wodnego często doprowadza do wysokiej koncentracji soli i innych minerałów ściągniętych z obszaru zlewni bezodpływowej i osadzonych na dnie jeziora po odparowaniu wody. Osady zazwyczaj stanowią bardzo płaską powierzchnię, która jest zazwyczaj bardzo twarda. Takie obszary są czasami używane jako pasy startowe dla samolotów lub naturalne tory wykorzystywane na przykład do prób ustanowienia rekordów szybkości pojazdów mechanicznych np. jezioro Bonneville w USA. +Systemy endoreiczne mogą być stałe lub sezonowe. Z powodu zmiany klimatu niektóre jeziora bezodpływowe są praktycznie martwe, nie ma już żadnego źródła dopływu wody i jezioro istnieje tylko z nazwy. Nawet stałe systemy z czasem mogą w dramatyczny sposób zmieniać rozmiar i kształt w czasie suchego sezonu. Wpływ na ich wielkość może mieć także działalność człowieka poprzez budowę zapór czy akweduktów zmniejszających dopływ wody. W wielu krajach rozwijających się niektóre systemy endoreiczne znacznie zmniejszyły się z tych powodów, a to często doprowadza do zwiększenia zasolenia wody, większej koncentracji zanieczyszczeń i konsekwentnego zaburzenia ekosystemu jeziora. +Słowackie Powstanie Narodowe + +Słowackie Powstanie Narodowe (słow. "Slovenské národné povstanie") – skierowane przeciw III Rzeszy powstanie na terenie Pierwszej Republiki Słowackiej, trwające od 29 sierpnia 1944 do 28 października 1944. +Przebieg powstania. +Z inicjatywy Rady Narodowej w obliczu ofensywy Armii Czerwonej i wkroczenia do Słowacji Wehrmachtu, który chciał rozbroić Armię słowacką, 29 sierpnia o godzinie 20 podpułkownik Ján Golian (szef sztabu generalnego wojsk lądowych armii słowackiej, a jednocześnie dowódca konspiracyjnego Centrum Wojskowego na Słowacji) wydał wszystkim jednostkom armii słowackiej umówiony sygnał do rozpoczęcia antynazistowskiego powstania "zaczynajcie wypędzanie". +Dowódcą wojskowym powstania został podpułkownik (5 września mianowany generałem) Golian, a od 6 października przerzucony z Londynu via ZSRR generał dywizji Rudolf Viest. Najwyższą władzą w powstaniu była Słowacka Rada Narodowa na czele, której stanęli we wrześniu 1944, jako współprzewodniczący profesor Vavro Šrobár i Karol Šmidke. Powstańczą stolicą – siedzibą władz politycznych i sztabu wojskowego powstania została opanowana 30 sierpnia Bańska Bystrzyca. Walki toczyły się głównie we wschodniej części kraju i na obszarach górskich - wbrew zamierzeniom dowódców powstanie nie objęło całej Słowacji i Bratysławy. Powstanie objęło obszar około 20 tysięcy km², zamieszkany przez 1,7 miliona ludzi. Powstańcom nie udało połączyć się z Armią Czerwoną i Czechosłowackim Korpusem Armijnym, powstrzymanymi na Przełęczy Dukielskiej, zaś Niemcy rozbroili trzon armii słowackiej – 2 dywizje piechoty, które miały obsadzić Przełęcz Dukielską kluczową dla połączenia się z Armią Czerwoną. +Oddziały partyzanckie liczyły około 18 tysięcy osób, zaś armia słowacka po mobilizacji około 46 tysięcy żołnierzy. Oddziały te utworzyły 1 Armię Czechosłowacką. Powstańcy uzyskali wsparcie z ZSRR – na tereny opanowane przez powstańców przerzucona została 2 Czechosłowacka Samodzielna Brygada Desantowa, zrzuty broni oraz czechosłowacki pułk lotnictwa, który wylądował na zajętym przez nich lotnisku. Dysponowali 46 tysiącami karabinów, 4 tysiącami pistoletów maszynowych, 2700 karabinami maszynowymi, 200 działami i moździerzami, 24 czołgami, 4 działami pancernymi, 3 improwizowanymi pociągami pancernymi i pułkiem lotnictwa liczącym 34 samoloty – 1/4 żołnierzy 1 Armii Czechosłowackiej nie miała broni. Siły powstańcze podzielone były na 6 grup taktycznych. +Oddziały niemieckie pacyfikujące powstanie (2 dywizje grenadierów ludowych, 14 i 18 dywizje Waffen-SS, 36 Dywizja Grenadierów SS Dirlewanger i inne mniejsze oddziały) dowodzone przez SS-Obergruppenführera Hermanna Höfle liczyły około 48 tysięcy żołnierzy, w walkach po stronie hitlerowskiej brały także udział oddziały słowackiej Gwardii Hlinkowej, SS-Jagdgruppe 232 Slowakei, Abwehrgruppe 218. Dzięki dużej przewadze w uzbrojeniu i wyszkoleniu siły hitlerowskie zdobyły Bańską Bystrzycę 27 października. Dowódcy powstania wydali rozkaz przejścia do działań partyzanckich, a walki regularnej armii ostatecznie ustały 1 listopada. Oddziały partyzanckie wycofały się w góry, zaś żołnierze armii słowackiej w większości poszli do niewoli lub rozproszyli się. Dowódcy powstania, generałowie Golian i Viest, zostali zamordowani przez hitlerowców po wzięciu do niewoli. Niemieckie akcje odwetowe i walki partyzanckie trwały aż do wyzwolenia terenów Słowacji przez Armię Czerwoną i I Czechosłowacki Korpus Armijny. +30 października 1944 w zdobytej przez nazistów powstańczej stolicy Bańskiej Bystrzycy prezydent Jozef Tiso odprawił mszę dziękczynną z okazji zdławienia Słowackiego Powstania Narodowego. +W powstaniu (oprócz Słowaków) brali udział przedstawiciele 27 narodowości m.in. 4 tysiące obywateli ZSRR, 3 tysiące Czechów, 800 Węgrów, 250 Polaków, a także Francuzi, Jugosłowianie, Bułgarzy. +Galeria. +Plik:SNP map11.png|Sytuacja polityczna pierwszych dni Słowackiego Powstania Narodowego +Plik:SNP pomnik.JPG|Pomnik bohaterów Słowackiego Powstania Narodowego nad Szczyrbskim Jeziorem + +Avia B-534 + +Avia B-534 – czechosłowacki samolot myśliwski, zaprojektowany i zbudowany w 1933 roku w wytwórni lotniczej Avia +Historia. +Pierwowzorem samolotu "Avia B-534", skonstruowanego przez inż. Františka Novotnego, był zbudowany w 1932 roku prototyp dwupłatowego samolotu myśliwskiego "Avia B-234". Samolot B-234 był jednak nieudany, ze względu na zastosowanie słabego silnika gwiazdowego R-29. Ponieważ samolot ten nie spełniał wymagań, konstruktor przystosował prototyp do francuskiego silnika rzędowego "Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs" o mocy 830 KM (611 kW). Powstał w ten sposób pierwszy prototyp nowego samolotu myśliwskiego, który oznaczono jako "Avia B-534I". Oblatał go w sierpniu 1933 roku pilot fabryczny wytwórni Avia – Václav Koči. Podczas prób w locie samolot był łatwy w pilotażu, zwrotny, prawidłowo wykonywał figury wyższego pilotażu oraz łatwo wychodził z korkociągu i lotu nurkowego. Po zakończeniu prób 12 czerwca 1934 roku pierwszy prototyp uległ uszkodzeniu. W związku z tym wszystkie zmiany i udoskonalenia prowadzono więc na drugim prototypie "Avia B-534II". Wyposażono go w zakrytą kabinę pilota, koła podwozia osłonięto owiewkami. W próbach osiągał on prędkość maksymalną około 360 km/h, charakteryzował się dobrym wznoszeniem oraz krótkim rozbiegiem i dobiegiem. +Po wykonaniu tych prób w dniu 7 lipca 1934 roku wytwórnia Avia otrzymała zamówienie na produkcję seryjną 147 samolotów oznaczonych jako "Avia B-534". Później zamówienie to zwiększano, z uwagi na to że samolot ten stał się podstawowym samolotem myśliwskim lotnictwa Czechosłowacji. +Pierwszą serię produkcyjną uruchomiono w połowie 1935 roku, wyprodukowano w tej serii 99 samolotów w oparciu o drugi prototyp. Samoloty tej serii miały jednak odkrytą kabinę pilota, koła podwozia bez owiewek, a ich uzbrojenie składało się z 4 karabinów maszynowych – 2 umieszczonych z przodu na burtach kadłuba i 2 w dolnym płacie. W trakcie eksploatacji tych samolotów stwierdzono jednak, że przy dużej prędkości lotu i nagłych przeciążeniach trwałej deformacji ulegała blacha krawędzi natarcia. Powodowało to zmianę właściwości pilotażowych i prowadziło do częstych katastrof. +W związku z tym w wyprodukowanych samolotach w wytwórni usunięto wadliwe pokrycie, karabiny przesunięto z dolnego płata na boki kadłuba i przykryto je oprofilowanymi osłonami. W ten sposób powstała druga seria produkcyjna samolotów, których wyprodukowano 45 sztuk. +Trzecia seria produkcyjna została wyprodukowana w drugiej połowie 1936 roku i liczyła ona 35 samolotów. Samoloty tej serii miały lepsze opracowanie aerodynamiczne, owiewki na kołach podwozia i nieco lepsze osiągi. +W czwartej serii zbudowano w latach 1936 – 1937 271 samolotów "Avia B-534", w serii tej samoloty posiadały zakrytą kabinę pilota oraz metalowe śmigła. +Po zajęciu w 1939 roku Czechosłowacji przez Niemców zbudowano jeszcze 21 samolotów "Avia B-534" oraz 66 samolotów w ulepszonej wersji oznaczonej jako "Avia Bk-534". Wersja Bk-534 miała silniejsze uzbrojenie, składające się z 1 działka Oerlikon kal. 20 mm między cylindrami silnika i 2 karabinów maszynowych po bokach kadłuba. +Ogółem w latach 1934 – 1939 zbudowano łącznie 537 samolotów myśliwskich "Avia B-534" i "Avia Bk-534". +Użycie w lotnictwie. +Samolot myśliwski "Avia B-534" od roku 1935 był systematycznie wprowadzany do lotnictwa czechosłowackiego i stał się podstawowym myśliwcem. W lotnictwie tym było 424 samoloty tego typu. +W sierpniu 1936 grecki przemysłowiec G. Koutarellis kupił 2 samoloty "Avia B-534.2" i podarował je siłom powietrznym Grecji. +Samoloty "Avia B-534" lotnictwa czechosłowackiego nie zostały użyte bojowo. Część tych samolotów zostało przejęte przez powstałe w 1939 roku państwo słowackie. W marcu 1939 roku lotnictwo słowackie użyło 50 samolotów tego typu w trakcie konfliktu granicznego z Węgrami. We wrześniu 1939 samoloty słowackie wzięły udział w agresji na Polskę, uzyskując jedno zestrzelenie (Lublin R.XIIID z 56 Eskadry Obserwacyjnej) i tracąc jeden samolot. W latach 1941 – 1943 lotnictwo słowackie używało je w walkach na Ukrainie przeciwko lotnictwu ZSRR. +Pod koniec sierpnia 1944 roku dwa samoloty "B-534" i 1 samolot "Bk-534" znalazły się w lotnictwie Słowackiego Powstania Narodowego, gdzie wykonywały loty rozpoznawcze i zwalczały cele naziemne. +Ciekawostki. +W nakręconym w 1940 roku niemieckim filmie propagandowym Kampfgeschwader Lützow o kampanii wrześniowej samoloty "Avia B-534" odtwarzały polskie samoloty myśliwskie, latając z polskimi znakami rozpoznawczymi. +Mecenat + +Mecenat - opieka wpływowych i bogatych miłośników i amatorów literatury i sztuki nad twórcami. Na ogół wiąże się to z finansowym wspieraniem tych artystów i ich poczynań. +Samo określenie wywodzi się od nazwiska Gajusza Cilniusza Mecenasa. Dawny mecenat dworski, królewski, magnacki, kościelny (szczególnie papieski) zastąpiły w czasach współczesnych formy opieki sprawowanej przez wyspecjalizowane instytucje społeczne, np. fundacje państwowe i prywatne. +Wielkim mecenasem sztuki w Polsce był Stanisław August Poniatowski. Finansował liczne przedsięwzięcia artystyczne, wielokrotnie zaciągając w tym celu pożyczki. Wiele osób zarzucało mu (jako królowi) trwonienie pieniędzy na sztukę, gdy brakowało funduszy na wojsko oraz inne potrzeby państwa. +Powiat chojnicki + +Powiat chojnicki (kasz. "Chònicczi kréz") – powiat w Polsce (województwo pomorskie), utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Chojnice. +Powiat malborski + +Powiat malborski – powiat w Polsce (województwo pomorskie), utworzony w 1999 w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Malbork. W 2002 z części obszaru powiatu malborskiego utworzono powiat sztumski. +Położenie. +Według danych z 1 stycznia 2011 r. powierzchnia powiatu wynosiła 494,23 km². Powiat malborski jest powiatem o najmniejszej powierzchni w woj. pomorskim (nie dotyczy miast na prawach powiatu). +Demografia. +Według danych z 31 grudnia 2010 r. powiat miał 62 948 mieszkańców. +Typ widmowy + +Z powyższych czynników największy wpływ na postać widma gwiazdowego ma temperatura. +Widma gwiazd o niskiej temperaturze powierzchni świadczą o obecności tam prostych związków chemicznych. Wraz ze wzrostem temperatury spada liczba cząstek, a atomy ulegają jonizacji. +Temperatura fotosfery określa również barwę emitowanego światła, stąd wyraźny związek pomiędzy poszczególnymi typami widmowymi a barwą gwiazdy. +Różne typy widmowe. +Uogólnieniem tych dodatkowych podziałów jest klasyfikacja MKK, która oprócz typu widmowego wprowadza pojęcie klasy jasności. +Niektóre białe karły oznacza się symbolem "D" poprzedzającym odpowiednią literę, oznaczającą widzialne pasma pierwiastka +Niektóre białe karły mogą posiadać mieszane oznaczenia, np. DAB lub DAO. Oznacza to, że występują pasma różnych typów. Jeśli za oznaczeniem np. DA występuje litera V, oznacza to pulsującego białego karła. +Istnieją też gwiazdy o tak osobliwym widmie, że trudno je zaliczyć do jakiegokolwiek typu widmowego i takie oznaczamy symbolem "pec" (pekularne). +Zdarza się czasami, że gwiazda jest bardziej czerwona, niż wynikałoby to z jej typu widmowego. Typ widmowy wskazuje na przykład na temperaturę, przy której kolor gwiazdy powinien być biało-niebieskawy, a gwiazda jest wyraźnie żółtawa itp. Tego rodzaju efekt nazywa się nadwyżką (ekscesem) barwy. Świadczy on jednak nie o osobliwościach fizycznych samej gwiazdy, lecz o ekstynkcji międzygwiazdowej wywołanej obecnością pyłu kosmicznego między gwiazdą a obserwatorem. +Gwiazdy standardowe. +Są to gwiazdy o widmie charakterystycznym dla danego typu. +Cechy typów widmowych. +Teoria atomowa wyjaśnia, dlaczego widma gorących niebieskich gwiazd (typ O) wyglądają zupełnie inaczej niż widma czerwonych, zimnych gwiazd (typ M, T, Y), mimo iż wszystkie gwiazdy są zbudowane w istocie z tych samych składników. +Dla każdego pierwiastka istnieją charakterystyczne poziomy temperatury i gęstości, przy których wytwarzanie widzialnych linii absorpcyjnych jest najbardziej efektywne. W krańcowo wysokich temperaturach, jak w gwiazdach typu O, atomy gazu ulegają jonizacji, czyli tracą elektrony. Ponieważ w takich warunkach mogą przetrwać tylko atomy o najsilniejszym wiązaniu między jądrem a elektronami, takie jak pojedynczo zjonizowany hel, w widmie dominują linie atomów zjonizowanych. Przy temperaturze około 5800 K, jak w gwiazdach typu G, np. na Słońcu, atomy takich metali jak żelazo i nikiel nie ulegają rozerwaniu i pozostają neutralne. W temperaturach poniżej 3500 K, w gwiazdach typu M, mogą istnieć nawet cząsteczki, jak np. tlenek tytanu. +Klasa jasności gwiazdy. +Klasa jasności gwiazd, zwana także klasyfikacją widmową Yerkes została stworzona w 1943 roku przez Williama W. Morgana, Phillipa C. Keenana oraz Edith Kellman z obserwatorium Yerkes (stąd również skrót MKK od inicjałów autorów). Klasyfikacja ta jest rozszerzeniem do klasycznej klasyfikacji widmowej, sformułowanej przez Henryego Drapera i opiera się na odkrytej przez Morgana korelacji pomiędzy szerokością linii widmowych a mocą promieniowania gwiazdy. W ramach gwiazd o tym samym typie widmowym, im gwiazda jaśniejsza tym węższe linie obserwuje się w jej widmie. Oryginalna klasyfikacja MKK wprowadziła siedem klas jasności, tę listę współcześnie uzupełnia dodatkowa klasa. +Spadek szerokości linii widmowych wraz z rosnącą jasnością gwiazdy jest efektem ubocznym, związanym ze zjawiskiem wzrostu szerokości linii widmowych przy rosnącym ciśnieniu emitującego gazu. Jeżeli ograniczymy się do gwiazd o tym samym typie widmowym, czyli podobnych temperaturach fotosfer, wtedy wzrost jasności gwiazdy jest związany ze wzrostem jej rozmiarów. Wzrost rozmiarów oznacza również spadek natężenia pola grawitacyjnego, a co za tym idzie, spadek ciśnienia gazu w fotosferze, co daje efekt węższych linii widmowych. +Klasa jasności jest określana na podstawie cech widmowych, dlatego nie należy jej mylić z samą jasnością gwiazdy. Najgorętsze gwiazdy klasy jasności V (ciąg główny) są jaśniejsze od gwiazd klasy jasności III (olbrzymy), zaś wiele białych karłów (klasa VII) jest jaśniejszych od najchłodniejszych gwiazd ciągu głównego (klasa V). +Inne klasyfikacje gwiazd. +Istnieją katalogi gwiazd, zawierające klasyfikacje wykonane w systemie MK, ale klasyfikacje te niekoniecznie są jednorodne. Duży zbiór takich danych i analiz jest przechowywany w Centrum Danych o Gwiazdach w obserwatorium w Strasburgu. Na uniwersytecie w Michigan, N. Houck i A. P. Cowley podjęli się sklasyfikowania najważniejszych gwiazd z katalogu Drapera w systemie MK, uwzględniając dwa parametry. Dziewięćdziesiąt procent gwiazd może zostać w ten sposób sklasyfikowanych. Widma pozostałych dziesięciu procent gwiazd nie da się porównać z widmem gwiazd sklasyfikowanych według systemu MK. +Na początku dwudziestego wieku klasyfikacja harwardzka została poszerzona przez wprowadzenie trzech dodatkowych klas widmowych po klasie M: R, N i S. +Klasy R i N zawierają gwiazdy o temperaturach efektywnych bliskich tym z klas G, K i M, ale ich widma pokazują bardzo dużą zawartość molekuł węgla. Obecnie te dwie klasy są połączone w jedną klasę C, właśnie z powodu linii węgla w widmie. Teraz wiemy, że w ponad 3000 gwiazd, zawierających olbrzymie zespoły molekularne CN, C2 i CH, obfitość węgla w odniesieniu do zawartości tlenu, jest cztery albo pięć razy większa niż w gwiazdach o takiej samej temperaturze efektywnej. Czynione są próby wyjaśnienia pochodzenia tych obiektów, w oparciu o ewolucję gwiazd. Istnieje możliwość, że to duże obiekty, o masie równej kilku masom Słońca, w których spalanie helu dało początek produkcji węgla, który osadzał się w pobliżu jądra gwiazdy. Ruchy spowodowane różnicami temperatur mogłyby przenosić produkty reakcji jądrowych, głównie węgiel, w pobliże powierzchni gwiazdy, dlatego jest on dostrzegalny w składzie widma. Ten mechanizm mógłby wyjaśnić jakościowy skład (wygląd) widma, ale nie odnosi się on do pomiarów ilościowych. +Gwiazdy typu S są olbrzymami, których temperatury efektywne są bliskie tym z klasy M, ale ich widmo zawiera silne linie tlenków cyrkonu, itru i baru. Ich pochodzenie jest prawdopodobnie takie samo jak pochodzenie węgla w gwiazdach z poprzedniego typu. Powodem powstania tych pierwiastków jest synteza nukleonów. Te ciężkie pierwiastki zostały wyprodukowane w masywnych gwiazdach – o masie kilku mas Słońca – przez dołączenie neutronu w miejsce spalania helu, wokół jądra gwiazdy. +Duża rozbieżność w typach widmowych gwiazd pomiędzy B5 a F5 zmusza do wprowadzenia dodatkowych klas Ap i Am dla tych obiektów. Gwiazdy typu Ap to ciała niebieskie, których typy widmowe lokują się od B5 do A5, ale w ich widmach występują silne linie metalu, należące zwykle do związków manganu, rtęci, krzemu, chromu, strontu i europu. Normalnie, w gwiazdach typu od B5 do A5 jest tych związków mniej. Cechą charakterystyczną tej grupy jest obecność intensywnego pola magnetycznego w fotosferze. Natężenie światła płynącego od tych gwiazd jest zmienne. Zmiany te interpretowane są nierównomiernym rozłożeniem i transportem pierwiastków wewnątrz gwiazdy. +Gwiazda, obracając się, ukazuje obserwatorowi obszary o różnym składzie chemicznym, a co za tym idzie o różnym natężeniu emitowanego światła. Pewne pierwiastki gromadzą się na powierzchni gwiazdy w większe skupiska, przypominające plamy słoneczne. Wpływ na powstawanie tych obszarów ma pole magnetyczne gwiazdy. Cześć składników atmosfery gwiazd tego typu może stać się niewidoczna dla obserwatora, gdy duże nagromadzenie danego pierwiastka zostaje wepchnięte do wnętrza atmosfery gwiazdy. Gwiazdy typu Am to gwiazdy, których widmo plasuje się pomiędzy typem A0 a F5, ale występują w nim słabe linie wapnia i skandu oraz mocne linie żelaza i innych pierwiastków, występujących bardzo rzadko na Ziemi. Gwiazdy z tej grupy rotują wolniej niż inne o podobnej temperaturze. Prawdopodobnie wpływa to na powstawanie wielu anomalii w atmosferach tych obiektów. +Widma niektórych gwiazd typu O i B mogą posiadać również linie emisyjne. Wówczas do nazwy typu widmowego dodaje się przyrostek V (np. OV, BV). Szacuje się, że ponad 15 procent gwiazd z tych gorący typów posiada takie widmo. Linie te wywołane są obecnością delikatnej otoczki gazowej wokół gwiazdy. Obiekty te wykazują duże zmiany w występowaniu linii emisyjnych, łącznie z ich czasowym zanikiem. Jest to spowodowane zmianami w strukturze gazowej otoczki. +Gwiazdy, które na diagramie H – R umiejscowione są poniżej ciągu głównego, nazywane są podkarłami. Obiekty te wydają się podobne do tych z ciągu głównego, jednak całkowicie się różnią pod względem składu chemicznego. Charakteryzują się obfitością pierwiastków metali. Podkarły nazwane są gwiazdami drugiej populacji. +Termin „gwiazda symbiotyczna” określa obiekt, w którego widmie obecne są jednocześnie, i w podobnych ilościach, linie emisyjne i absorpcyjne. Układ linii absorpcji przypomina zwykle widmo chłodnych olbrzymów, np. typu M. Natomiast powstanie linii emisyjnych wymaga istnienia warunków fizycznych prowadzących do silnego wzbudzenia atomów emitujących te linie. Pewne linie emisyjne zostały zauważone w widmie korony słonecznej. Fakt ten może ułatwić wyjaśnienie mechanizmów ich powstawania. +Znamy około stu gwiazd należących do grupy symbiotycznych. Zostały one do niej zakwalifikowane na podstawie kryterium widmowego. Nie jest ono tak dokładne, jak klasyfikacja Morgana – Keenana, dlatego istnieje wiele rozbieżności w widmach gwiazd tej samej grupy. Jednak ważne jest zrozumienie mechanizmów prowadzących do powstania tych różnic, ponieważ mówią one dużo o ewolucji gwiazd. +Gwiazdy nietypowe dostarczają znacznie więcej informacji niż normalne, pojedyncze obiekty. Przez poznanie różnic w budowie atmosfer wielu gwiazd, można łatwiej zrozumieć ich strukturę. +Mnemotechnika. +W wolnym przekładzie "Och, Bądź Aniołem Fajnego Gatunku, Kochaj Mnie" (za : Bronisław Kuchowicz, Jadwiga Teresa Szymczak "Dzieje materii przez fizyków odczytane" Wiedza Powszechna 1978 W-wa) +Dla zapamiętania typów R, N oraz S +po "Kiss" "Me" można dodać ""Right" "Now" "Sweetheart" !" +Innym zdaniem ułatwiającym zapamiętanie typów widmowych jest: +Och, Bycie AstroFizykiem Grozi Kalectwem Mózgu Raz Na Sto Lat. +Jego zaletą jest zapamiętanie także typu L, choć jest on rzadko używany. +Ganzir + +Ganzir – w mitologii sumeryjskiej wejście do świata podziemnego, chronione przez siedem bram, z których każda była strzeżona przez odźwiernego. +Bartnictwo + +Bartnictwo – dawna forma pszczelarstwa leśnego, polegająca na chowie pszczół (głównie pszczół leśnych, tzw. "borówek") w specjalnie w tym celu wydrążonych dziuplach drzew, czyli barciach. Szczytowy rozwój tej profesji przypada w Polsce na wiek XVI i XVII, zanikła w wieku XIX. Zbieraniem miodu zajmowali się bartnicy, zwani również bartodziejami. Był to zawód dziedziczny. W Polsce piastowskiej jedynie bartodzieje mieli przywilej dostarczania miodu na dwór książęcy. Posiadali własne cechy, regulujące zwyczaje, rozsądzające spory. Barcie lokowano przeważnie na dębach i sosnach, rzadziej grabach, bukach czy lipach. Barcie wykonywano w miejscach, gdzie pień osiągał metr średnicy lub więcej. Najwięcej barci dziano w sosnach, które musiały rosnąć ok. 120 lat, aby osiągnąć odpowiedni do tego rozmiar. +Bartnicy wspinali się do barci przy pomocy powrozów, tzw. "leziw", później drabin. Przed wyjęciem plastrów miodu pszczoły podkurzano przy użyciu fajek bartniczych, naczyń dymnych czy pochodni. Praca bartnika różniła się od pracy pszczelarza, wysoko ustawiona barć jest naturalnym miejscem dla pszczół i bartnik nie musiał troszczyć się o to, by pszczoły nie uciekły. +Barcie leśne przewyższały wydajnością ule, ponieważ pszczoły leśne miały więcej pokarmu w najbliższej okolicy. Ponadto pszczoły wylatujące z pewnej wysokości miały większy zasięg lotu niż pszczoły wylatujące z ula ustawionego na ziemi. Banaszak twierdził, że wydajność ta była większa nawet dwudziestokrotnie. +Najważniejsze rośliny miododajne tamtych czasów to wrzosy i lipy. W późniejszym okresie ważną rolę odgrywały rośliny uprawne i pastewne jak rzepak, łubin czy koniczyna. +Historia. +Wcześniej istniejące, a nie spisane, prawa dla bartników zostały uznane przez króla Kazimierza Wielkiego i umieszczone w statutach wiślickich w 1347 roku - najstarszej kodyfikacji polskiego prawa. W latach 1750-1800 notowano 20 tys. zajętych przez pszczoły barci na Pomorzu Zachodnim. W Królestwie Kongresowym w 1827 r. było ich 70 tys. Na początku XX wieku Blank-Weissberg odnalazł już tylko nieliczne używane barcie w Puszczy Białowieskiej. +Od czasów średniowiecznych bartnicy polscy zrzeszali się w osobnych bractwach bartnych. +W XXI wieku rozpoczęto w Polsce próby reaktywacji bartnictwa przy pomocy bartników sprowadzonych z Baszkirii w Nadleśnictwie Spała, w Puszczy Pilickiej koło Tomaszowa Mazowieckiego. +Polskie Towarzystwo Juliusza Verne'a + +Polskie Towarzystwo Juliusza Verne'a (PTJV) - społeczna organizacja założona w 2000 roku dla popularyzowania dorobku dziewiętnastowiecznego pisarza i poety Juliusza Verne'a. Siedzibą stowarzyszenia jest Warszawa. Obecnie PTJV zrzesza ponad stu członków mieszkających w Polsce oraz w Europie i Australii. +Organem PTJV jest biuletyn "Nautilus" (ISSN 1642-1833). Towarzystwo wydaje "Prace Verneologiczne" (ISSN 1642-1841) oraz na bieżąco aktualizuje elektroniczną "Bibliografię polskich wydań utworów Juliusza Verne'a". Współpracuje m.in. z bibliotekami - publicznymi i szkolnymi, z krajowymi wydawnictwami, z portalami internetowymi. +Publikuje (głównie w języku polskim) mniej znane oraz jeszcze niedrukowane utwory pozostawione przez Verne'a (bibliofilska, niskonakładowa "Biblioteka Andrzeja", w której do listopada 2012 r. wydrukowano 28 tomów). W kraju organizuje wystawy książkowe i filatelistyczne poświęcone „dziadkowi” literatury science-fiction. +Na przełomie 2009 i 2010 r. przy współpracy PTJV ukazała się w Wydawnictwie Zielona Sowa seria "Podróże z Verne'em", składająca się z 14 powieści Juliusza Verne'a w 17 tomach, w nowych tłumaczeniach, z kompletem XIX-wiecznych ilustracji i wnikliwymi przypisami. +Na świecie istnieje wiele odpowiedników tego towarzystwa, m.in. w: +Klimontów (Sosnowiec) + +Klimontów to wschodnia, duża dzielnica Sosnowca. W latach 1967 - 1975 samodzielne miasto w powiecie będzińskim. +Graniczy od północy z Zagórzem (rozbudowanym o tereny "Klimontowa"), od wschodu z Porąbką, od południa z Dańdówką a od zachodu z Sielcem. +Wschodnim obrzeżem przebiega droga ekspresowa S1 nie posiadająca tutaj węzła. +W dzielnicy wyodrębnia się: +Nazwa. +Nazwa miejscowości pochodzi od założyciela "Klimunta" czyli staropolskiej wersji imienia Klemens. Franciszek Piekosiński wymienia jako zasadźcę osady Klimunta z rodu Lisów żyjącego w XII w. +W latach (1470-1480) Jan Długosz w księdze "Liber beneficiorum dioecesis Cracoviensis" wymienia "Klimontów" jako osobną wieś w formach "Clymonthow" oraz "Clymuntow". +Nowa Polityka Ekonomiczna + +Nowa Polityka Ekonomiczna (ros. Новая экономическая политика, "Nowaja ekonomiczeskaja politika" w skrócie NEP) – określenie doktryny polityki gospodarczej Rosji Radzieckiej i później ZSRR w latach 1921-1929. +NEP oznaczał zmianę polityki gospodarczej rządu radzieckiego z komunizmu wojennego i wprowadzenie bardziej rynkowych mechanizmów gospodarczych. W tym czasie zezwolono na podjęcie małych prywatnych przedsięwzięć (szczególnie w rolnictwie oraz usługach), przy pozostawieniu monopolu państwowego w dziedzinach dużych gałęzi przemysłu (głównie przemysł ciężki), handlu (szczególnie handel zagraniczny), bankowości i instytucjach finansowych, zezwalając także na koncesjonowaną działalność gospodarczą międzynarodowych przedsiębiorstw. +Oficjalnie został przedstawiony przez Lenina i zatwierdzony na X Zjeździe Rosyjskiej Partii Komunistycznej (bolszewików). 21 marca 1921 roku został podjęty dekret w sprawie zastąpienia prodrazwerstki przez prodnalog wydanego przez Ogólnorosyjski Komitet Wykonawczy Rad, który zastąpił obowiązkowe kontyngenty w rolnictwie, podatkiem żywnościowym. Oficjalnie wprowadzenie NEP-u było wymuszone odbudową gospodarki narodowej oraz małym uprzemysłowieniem Rosji, gdzie w rolnictwie było zatrudnionych 80% społeczeństwa, co uniemożliwiało budowę socjalizmu. Przyczynami wprowadzenia tej polityki było także narastające niezadowolenie społeczne z powodu tragicznej sytuacji gospodarczej. +NEP odegrał istotną rolę w odbudowie gospodarki narodowej ze zniszczeń I wojny światowej oraz wojny domowej w Rosji. Jednocześnie należy wspomnieć, że po 1925 roku można zauważyć próby obalenia założeń NEP-u przez jego przeciwników wśród samych bolszewików. W końcu 1929 roku odrzucono całkowicie NEP przez kolektywizację rolnictwa. Stalin zastąpił tę doktrynę gospodarczą systemem gospodarki nakazowo-rozdzielczej, powracając do wielu założeń komunizmu wojennego. +Przyczyny wprowadzenia NEP-u. +Sytuacja Rosji w przededniu rewolucji październikowej. +Gdy rozpoczęła się I wojna światowa, Rosja nie była przygotowana do wojny. Jej gospodarka potrzebowała kapitału, w dużym stopniu pochodzącego z zagranicznych źródeł. Przemysł zbrojeniowy zaczął się szybko rozwijać, a mobilizacja wojsk pogarszała sytuację zacofanej gospodarki, szczególnie w rolnictwie, gdzie najbardziej odczuwano brak rąk do pracy. W efekcie spowodowało to wzrost cen i zaostrzenie konfliktów społecznych w tak już nie najspokojniejszej sytuacji politycznej. Przyniosło to anarchizację gospodarki i coraz częstsze powstania przeciwko władz. Doprowadzono do rewolucji lutowej i w efekcie powołania pierwszej rosyjskiej republiki z Rządem Tymczasowym na czele. Jednak i nowe władze nie potrafiły poradzić sobie z ciągle pogarszającą się sytuacją, głównie z powodu niewyprowadzenia Rosji z wojny. Taka sytuacja sprzyjała Rosyjskiej Socjal-Demokratycznej Partii Robotniczej (bolszewików), która jeszcze przed rozpoczęciem wojny głosiła hasła pacyfistyczne i roztaczała przed społeczeństwem wizję państwa nowego typu. W końcu bolszewicy postanowili zbrojnie obalić władzę, co rozpoczęło rewolucję październikową. +Sytuacja po przewrocie. +Założenia NEP-u były zgodne z tym, co głosił Lenin i realizował w pierwszych miesiącach po rewolucji (dekret z dnia 8 listopada 1917 o ziemi, dekret z dnia 27 grudnia 1917 roku o nacjonalizacji banków, dekret z dnia 27 kwietnia 1918 roku o nacjonalizacji handlu zagranicznego, dekret z dnia 2 maja o nacjonalizacji przemysłu cukierniczego, dekret z dnia 28 czerwca o nacjonalizacji dużego przemysłu oraz transportu kolejowego). Jednocześnie dekretem z dnia 15 grudnia 1917 roku powołano do życia Najwyższą Radę Gospodarczą, która odegra kluczową rolę od czerwca 1918 roku, kiedy to zrezygnowano z państwowego kapitalizmu na rzecz komunizmu wojennego. Komunizm wojenny był konsekwencją zawarcia przez rząd traktatu pokojowego w Brześciu. Wtedy to tzw. lewicowi komuniści z Nikołajem Bucharinem i Osinskim na czele postanowili w kwietniu 1918 roku przegłosować Lenina i zmienić politykę gospodarczą. +Komunizm wojenny okazał się jednak porażką i po niespełna 30 miesiącach jego trwania radziecka gospodarka uległa zupełnemu załamaniu. W Rosji panował głód, nie udało się zapobiec dalszemu spadkowi produkcji przemysłowej i rolnej, wprowadzenie centralnego planowania nie zapobiegło pogłębieniu się chaosu gospodarczemu. Coraz częściej dochodziło do buntów, ponad 200% inflacja (hiperinflacja) spowodowała odrzucenie pieniądza jaka środka płatniczego. +W 1921 roku gospodarka była w ruinie. Emigracja, epidemie i zbrodnie wojenne zdziesiątkowały społeczeństwo, a w czasie działań wojennych szczególnie dotknięty został Donbas, region Baku, gdzie wydobywano ropę naftową, Ural, Syberia, gdzie zniszczono wiele kopalń. Ze względu na brak surowców przemysł upadł, nie były modernizowane linie produkcyjne. Całkowita produkcja przemysłowa spadła aż 5-krotnie, a wielkość produkcji metali była porównywalna z czasami Piotra I. Nie lepiej sytuacja wyglądała w rolnictwie, gdzie spadek produkcji wyniósł 40%, głównie z braku towarów przemysłowych. Wykształceni Rosjanie masowo emigrowali, co spowodowało zmniejszenie potencjału intelektualnego i kadr zdolnych do kierowania scentralizowanym systemem gospodarki. +Chłopi sprzeciwiali się coraz bardziej obowiązkowym kontyngentom, nie tylko odmawiali ich przekazywania, ale wystąpili do walki zbrojnej na Ukrainie, Kubaniu, rejonie Wołgi i Donu, domagając się nie tylko zmian w polityce rolnej, ale zniesienia dyktatury RPK(b). Bunty zostały spacyfikowane przez Armię Czerwoną. Niezadowolenie przeniosło się także do armii. 1 marca 1921 roku wybuchło powstanie garnizonu w Kronsztadzie, gdzie powołano Tymczasowy Komitet Rewolucyjny, który domagał się „rad bez komunistów”, uwolnienia z więzień eserów i mienszewików, przywrócenia wolności słowa, zgromadzeń, zrzeszeń, przywrócenia wolności gospodarczej i zniesienia kontyngentów oraz zezwolenia na posiadanie ziemi przez rolników. Ostatecznie także w Kronsztadzie sytuację opanowano do 18 marca 1921 roku, zdobywając garnizon szturmem. +Wprowadzenie NEP-u. +W związku z utratą przez bolszewików poparcia społecznego potrzebna była zmiana polityki wewnętrznej państwa radzieckiego i realizacje przynajmniej niektórych obietnic. Już od 1920 roku Lew Trocki domagał się zniesienia kontyngentów w rolnictwie. Ostatecznie w 1921 roku, chcąc uniknąć obalenia rządu i utrwalić swą władzę, na X Zjeździe Rosyjskiej Partii Komunistycznej (bolszewików) uchwalono przedstawioną przez Lenina nową doktrynę polityki gospodarczej – NEP. +Na X Zjeździe Partii (8-16 marca 1921) Lenin przed 1 1343 delegatami powiedział, że Rosja jest krajem głęboko rolniczym i nie posiada odpowiedniej bazy przemysłowej, a tym samym nie spełnia kryteriów, by móc zbudować socjalizm. Wyjaśniając NEP, mówił, że duże zakłady produkujące energię elektryczną, węgiel, żelazo itd. zostaną pod zarządem i kontrolą państwa. +Ostatecznie na podstawie decyzji podjętej przez X Zjazd Partii Ogólnorosyjski Centralny Komitet Wykonawczy Rad przyjął dekret z dnia 23 marca 1921 roku, który znosił kontyngenty w rolnictwie i wprowadzał podatek żywnościowy. Dekret zapoczątkował NEP, który wprowadzał elementy rynku do scentralizowanej gospodarki planowanej. Nowa Polityka Ekonomiczna była traktowana od początku przez bolszewików jako doktryna tymczasowa, mającą na celu stworzenie warunków dla socjalizmu. Choć Lenin podkreślał: „NEP – poważnie i na długo”. I choć uznano, że Rosja nie była gotowa do budowy socjalizmu, to jednak sprzeciwiono się wysuniętej przez mienszewików koncepcji oddania władzy burżuazji. +Założenia NEP-u. +NEP był częściowym powrotem do gospodarki rynkowej, jednak podstawowe dziedziny przemysłu pozostały nadal własnością państwa. Odwołano zasady komunizmu wojennego: zniesiono system państwowego rozdzielania towarów i przywrócono rynek towarowo-pieniężny, obowiązkowe dostawy towarów rolnych zastąpiono podatkiem żywnościowym, zezwolono na własność prywatną w tych gałęziach, które znajdowały się poza państwowym monopolem, w przemyśle państwowym wprowadzono zasady racjonalnej polityki gospodarczej. +NEP w rolnictwie. +Zapoczątkowanie zmian. +Zmianę polityki gospodarczej rozpoczęto od rolnictwa. Pierwszą decyzją, jaką przewidywał NEP, było zniesienie kontyngentów i zastąpienie ich podatkiem żywnościowym, początkowo płaconym w naturze, później jednak w pieniądzu w wysokości 20, a później 10% wartości produkcji (opodatkowanie było progresywne). Był on niższy, poza tym jego pobór rozpoczynał się przed wiosną, co miało ułatwić rolnikom oszacowanie, ile pozostanie do ich własnej dyspozycji. Także nadwyżki nie zostały opodatkowane i pozostawały do pełnej dyspozycji chłopstwa. Wolno je było sprzedawać na wolnym rynku. +Jednocześnie 30 października 1922 roku wszedł w życie Kodeks Rolny Rosyjskiej Federacyjnej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej, który uchylił dekret o ziemi, co ułatwiło użytkowanie ziemi przez chłopów – kolektywnie, indywidualnie, społecznie. Jednocześnie należy zauważyć, iż mogli ją tylko użytkować, ponieważ Kodeks nie uchylił zasady unarodowienia ziemi, co wprowadzał dekret o ziemi. Zniósł jednak zakaz korzystania z pracy najemnej na roli. +Skutki i dalsza polityka władz w rolnictwie. +Wszytko to razem poprawiło funkcjonowanie rolnictwa w Rosji. Zwiększyła się liczba średniaków kosztem najbogatszych i najbiedniejszych rolników, także zaopatrzenie w żywność się poprawiło. Ogólnie rzecz biorąc NEP wywarł bardzo pozytywny skutek na stan wsi, szczególnie uwzględniając fakt, że pojawiły się zachęty motywujące rolników do pracy. +Jednocześnie potrzebowano pieniędzy na odbudowę przemysłu, utrzymanie armii i wsparcie rewolucji w innych częściach świata. Środki z podatku żywnościowego (a 80% mieszkańców było zatrudnionych w rolnictwie) nie wystarczały, ponieważ i chłopstwo nie było najbogatsze, progresja też niewiele dawała. Dlatego od połowy lat 20 aktywnie pozyskiwano środki z innych źródeł, czyli kredytów i zaniżania cen produktów rolnych, przy zawyżaniu cen produktów przemysłowych (pochodzących głównie z sektora państwowego), mimo gorszej jakości, co wywołało efekt tzw. nożyc cen. Rolnicy mając to na uwadze często nie sprzedawali własnych wyrobów ponad to, co potrzebne było do zapłacenia podatków. Jesienią 1923 roku wywołało to kryzys sprzedaży wyrobów przemysłowych, ponieważ odmówili kupna za zawyżone ceny. Kolejny kryzys przyszedł jesienią 1924-wiosną 1925 roku. Określono go jako kryzys zbioru, ponieważ zebrano około 2/3 zaplanowanej produkcji rolnej. Ostatni kryzys miał miejsce w roku 1927-1928, który okazał się gorszy od tego z lat 1924-1925, ponieważ zebrano jeszcze mniejsze zbiory. +Było jasne, że gospodarka doszła do sprzeczności, czynniki ideologiczne nie pozwalały na szybszy rozwój rolnictwa niż przemysłu, jednocześnie o powrocie do komunizmu wojennego już nie mogło być mowy, aby nie dochodziło do powstań chłopskich, opanowanych z taką trudnością w początkach lat 20. W konsekwencji doprowadzało to do tego, że w kierownictwie partyjnym już od 1925 roku pojawiały się pomysły poradzenia sobie z nepmanami na wsi i rozkułaczenia wsi, czyli jej kolektywizacji. +NEP w przemyśle. +Rozpoczęcie wprowadzania nowej polityki gospodarczej w przemyśle rozpoczęto uchwałą XII Zjazdu RKP(b), odbytego w kwietniu 1923 roku, która stwierdzała: „Utworzenie państwa przemysłowego – to pytanie o los władzy radzieckiej, który jest losem proletariatu”. Dlatego w przemyśle zaszła dużo radykalniejsza transformacja niż w rolnictwie. +Na początku zniesiono gławki (główne zarządy przedsiębiorstw państwowych), będące filarem komunizmu wojennego, a przedsiębiorstwa łączono w trusty. Przedsiębiorstwa państwowe zyskały także pełną niezależność finansową i gospodarczą, a nawet prawo do wydawania własnych długoterminowych obligacji. Do końca 1922 roku około 90% wszystkich przedsiębiorstw zostało połączone w 421 trustów. Zmieniła się też forma własności, 40% z nich pozostało pod kontrolą i zarządem władz centralnych, a 60% skomunalizowano (usamorządowiono). Trusty same decydowały, co i ile produkować. Zmieniła się także organizacja logistyki, trusty już nie były ograniczone tylko do realizacji publicznych zamówień, ale także mogły realizować zamówienia rynkowe. Jednocześnie w trakcie realizacji uniezależnienia się od państwa publicznych przedsiębiorstw uchwalono zasadę, że za długi państwowych przedsiębiorstw Skarb Państwa nie jest odpowiedzialny. +Także władze Najwyższej Rady Gospodarki Narodowej straciły część swoich uprawnień, Rada straciła prawo do ingerencji w bieżące sprawy przedsiębiorstw i trustów, stała się centralnym organem koordynacyjnym oraz zmniejszono ilość jej członków. +Wszystkie te zmiany dążyły do powrotu działalności gospodarczej przedsiębiorstw państwowych opartej na kalkulacjach ekonomicznych. Przedsiębiorstwa (po wypłaceniu obowiązkowych składek do budżetu państwa), uzyskały prawo do określania celów gospodarczych, określania sprzedaży, dysponowania zyskiem i pokrywania strat. Przedsiębiorstwa stały się odpowiedzialne za wyniki własnej działalności. +Nie mniej niż 20% zysku (później bariera ta zostanie obniżona do 10%) zostało obowiązkowo skierowane do tworzenia kapitału rezerwowego (zobacz też: kapitały własne), dopóki nie osiągnie on połowy wartości kapitału autoryzowanego (później postanowiono, że bariera to zostanie zmniejszona do 1/3 kapitału autoryzowanego). Kapitał rezerwowy był tworzony na finansowanie inwestycji przedsiębiorstwa oraz na pokrywanie ewentualnych strat z wyniku finansowego. Wielkość premii, którą można było przyznać kierownikowi, była uzależniona od uzyskanego zysku przedsiębiorstwa. +Ciągle powstawały także syndykaty, czyli dobrowolne zrzeszenia trustów, oparte na współpracy z zakresu zbytu, dostaw, kredytowania i operacji handlu zagranicznego. Do końca 1923 roku 80% trustów zsyndykalizowano, a na początku 1928 roku było 23 syndykatów, które działały w prawie we wszystkich branżach, skupiając w swoich rękach większość handlu hurtowego. Zarząd syndykatu był powoływany na spotkaniu przedstawicieli trustów, a każdy z członków syndykatu, na zasadach umowy, sam określał, w jakiej części jego działalność zostanie zintegrowana z działalnością syndykatu. +Trzeba podkreślić że produkcja wyrobów gotowych, zakupu surowców, materiałów, sprzętu i handlu została oparta na zasadach rynkowych, dlatego NEP określano także mianem socjalistycznego rynku. Rozwinęła się także szeroka sieć giełd towarowych, targów, przedsiębiorstw handlowych. +Zostały przywrócone pieniężne płace, zniesiono wiele ograniczeń i zwiększono przychody przedsiębiorstw. Zostały zniesione „armie pracy”. Zmieniła się także organizacja pracy, związki budowano w oparciu o bodźce materialne, przy faktycznej likwidacji przymusu pracy (co było podstawą komunizmu wojennego). Między rokiem 1924 a 1929 bezwzględna liczba bezrobotnych wzrosła z 1,2 do 1,7 milionów ludzi, lecz stopa bezrobocia w tym okresie spadła z 20 do 12% (jest to efektem wzrostu ogólnej liczby pracowników w danym okresie z 5,8 do 12,4 miliona osób). +W okresie realizacji NEP-u można także zauważyć duży przepływ kapitału ludzkiego z całego świata. Na przykład w 1922 roku została utworzona amerykańsko-rosyjska korporacja o nazwie Rosyjsko-Amerykańska Korporacja Przemysłowa (Русско-американская индустриальная корпорация – РАИК), która zatrudniała robotników amerykańskich, posiadała sześć zakładów włókienniczo-odzieżowych w Petersburgu i cztery w Moskwie. +Spółdzielczość. +NEP wiązał się także ze wzrostem współpracy we wszystkich formach. Na wsi powstawały spółdzielnie, które w 1927 zrzeszały tylko 2% rolników i produkowały 7% ogólnej produkcji rolnej, a pod koniec lat 20. stanowiły ponad połowę wszystkich gospodarstw. Pod koniec 1928 roku w spółdzielniach było zrzeszonych 28 milionów chłopów (to 13 razy więcej niż w 1913 roku we wszystkich formach współpracy). +Nie tylko w rolnictwie preferowano spółdzielczość, także handel detaliczny w 60-80% był zorganizowany w formie spółdzielczej i tylko 20-40% własności w tej dziedzinie gospodarki to własność państwowa. Jednocześnie tylko 13% produkcji przemysłowej było wytworzone przez spółdzielnie przemysłowe (1928). Ustawodawstwo kredytowe, ubezpieczeniowe ułatwiało działalność spółdzielnią. +Kapitał zagraniczny w okresie NEP-u. +W okresie NEP-u umożliwiono także działalność przedsiębiorstw międzynarodowych. Opierała się ona na dzierżawieniu zakładów w formie koncesji. W latach 1926-1927 zawarto 117 umów tego rodzaju, objęte były nimi przedsiębiorstwa zatrudniające łącznie 18 tysięcy osób, produkujących niespełna 1% całkowitej produkcji przemysłowej ZSRR. Jednak w niektórych branżach udział zagranicznego kapitału był znaczny (przedsiębiorstwa dzierżawione w formie koncesji i spółki akcyjne, gdzie część kapitału należała do cudzoziemców), między innymi: w produkcji ołowiu i srebra – 60%, rudy manganu – 85%, złota – 30%, w produkcji odzieży i przedmiotów sanitarnych – 22%. +Nie zawsze jednak przyznawano koncesje w dobrej wierze, niektórym zagranicznym inwestorom oferowano je na bardzo korzystnych warunkach. Koncesjonariusz przywoził zagraniczny sprzęt i nowe technologie do zakładu. Oczywiście wszystkich warunków umowy przestrzegano, ale po pewnym czasie władze stosowały różnego rodzaju sztuczki, które uniemożliwiały wykonanie koncesji. Jako że nie wykonywano umowy, zostawała ona rozwiązywana, a sprowadzone nowe maszyny oraz siedziba przedsiębiorstwa stawały się własnością państwa radzieckiego. Tak twierdził w swoich pamiętnikach Borys Bażanow, ówczesny sekretarz Biura Politycznego RKP(b). +Reforma monetarna. +Powrót do regulacji rynkowych w okresie Nowej Ekonomicznej Polityki (NEP) wymagał odbudowy pieniądza i bankowości. Pieniądz odbudowano drogą trzech kolejnych denominacji. W 1922 r. wprowadzono rubla „wzór 1922”, na który wymieniono dotychczasowe (carskie, kierenki i sowznaki (ale nie ruble emitowane przez Białych Rosjan w czasie wojny domowej) w relacji 1:10 tys. W 1923 r. wprowadzono rubla „wzór 1923”, na który wymieniono wcześniejsze znaki pieniężne w relacji 1:100 rubli „wzór 1922” lub 1:1 mln rubli wcześniejszych. +Jednocześnie poczynając od końca 1922 r., wprowadzono do obiegu czerwońce. Były to banknoty o nominale 10 złotych, przedrewolucyjnych rubli o parytecie złota (1 czerwoniec = 7,74 g. czystego złota). Stopniowo ich udział w obiegu wzrastał. W 1924 r. wymieniono na czerwońce wszystkie dotychczasowe znaki pieniężne w relacji 1 rubel złoty „wzór 1924” = 50 tys. rubli „wzór 1923” = 5 mln rubli „wzór 1922” = 50 mld rubli sprzed roku 1922, przy czym uchwalono także zakaz pokrywania deficytu budżetowego przez emisję pieniądza. Odtąd banknot o nominale 1 czerwońca stanowił równowartość 10 rubli. +W odróżnieniu od zwykłych rubli był jednak na żądanie zagranicy wymieniany na złoto i na inne waluty (1 dolar USA = 1,92 rubla). Rozwiązanie takie podyktowane było rozwojem handlu zagranicznego w tym okresie i koniecznością posiadania waluty skoordynowanej z ówczesnym międzynarodowym systemem walutowym. Wymienialność pozostawała jednak wyłącznie zewnętrzna, ponieważ obywatelom radzieckim nie wolno było bowiem posiadać obcych walut. +System bankowy. +Centralnym bankiem był Bank Państwowy (Gosbank), utworzony w 1921 r. rozpoczął udzielania kredytów na zasadach komercyjnych, dla przemysłu i handlu. W latach 1922-1925 powstało kilka wyspecjalizowanych banków, których większościowym właścicielem był Gosbank, a pozostałe akcje należały do syndykatów, spółdzielni, prywatnych przedsiębiorstw krajowych i zagranicznych. +Bankom przypisywano konkretne sektory gospodarki i regiony kraju, między innymi istniały banki zajmujące się handlem i przemysłem prywatnym, spółdzielniami, a także powstały kasy oszczędnościowe dla obywateli. Dzięki temu wyspecjalizowaniu odsetek kredytowych w ogólnej inwestycji w całym systemie wynosił 2/3 1 października 1923 roku, a tego samego czasu w 1926 już 48%. +Powstało wiele banków, już w 1923 roku istniało ich 17, a w październiku 1926 roku było już 61 niezależnych banków. Między innymi jesienią 1922 r. powstały: Bank Przemysłowy, Bank Handlu Zagranicznego i Bank Spółdzielni i w 1925 r. Bank Budownictwa Mieszkaniowego. +Polityka cenowa. diff --git a/TaskB02/simple.exp b/TaskB02/simple.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b3620b --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB02/simple.exp @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +Pies ma Alę +Kot i pies to zwierzęta +pies diff --git a/TaskB02/simple.in b/TaskB02/simple.in new file mode 100644 index 0000000..99827b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB02/simple.in @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +Pies ma Alę +Ala ma psa +tu nic nie ma +Kot i pies to zwierzęta +pies diff --git a/TaskB03/description.txt b/TaskB03/description.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ba69367 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB03/description.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +Write a program to find lines containing date from 1900 to 1999 in format '19XX r.' no matter what on the left or right of the expression. +Note that part ' r.' is obligatory. +Make use of regular expressions. + +POINTS: 2 +DEADLINE: 08-12-2024 23:59:59 diff --git a/TaskB03/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp b/TaskB03/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..301fd6d --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB03/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp @@ -0,0 +1,951 @@ +Firma powstała w 1992 r., z połączenia Authorware, Inc. (twórców pakietu Authorware) i MacroMind-Paracomp (producenta Macromind Director). W 1999 r. Macromedia zakupiła firmę Allaire i jej biznesowe oprogramowanie sieciowe, w tym edytor HomeSite. W 2003 zakupiono eHelp Corporation, produkującą oprogramowanie do tworzenia systemów pomocy, jak RoboHelp, RoboDemo (obecnie Captivate) i RoboInfo. +Authorware - firma powstała w 1987 r., założona przez Michaela Allena, jak również projekt multimedialny opracowany przez tę firmę. Allen był współtwórcą PLATO Learning Management System (PLM) - systemu nauczania rozwijanego w latach 70. Firma Authorware połączyła się w 1992 r. MacroMind-Paracomp, tworząc firmę Macromedia. Macromedia została w roku 2005 zakupiona przez Adobe Systems. +27 stycznia 1945 Trzciankę zajęły wojska radzieckie i po 173 latach powróciła ona w granice państwa polskiego. Ludność miasta została wysiedlona do Niemiec i zastąpiona polskimi osadnikami. Na początku 1945 r., w związku z działaniami Pełnomocnika Rządu na Obwód Trzcianecki, przywrócono również przedrozbiorową nazwę miasta – Trzcianka. +34 Pułk Piechoty powstał 7 grudnia 1918 z 2 Pułku Piechoty PSZ ("Polnische Wehrmacht") oraz członków POW i ochotników z Podlasia. Już 1 listopada 1918 r. na rozkaz władz wojskowych polskich do Dęblina przybył na czele niewielkiego oddziału mjr Aleksander Jerzy Narbutt-Łuczyński. Zażądał i wyegzekwował on tego samego dnia od komendanta twierdzy – austriackiego mjr. Nemansky'ego wydanie twierdzy w ręce polskie. Wycofujący się w popłochu Austriacy przekazali twierdzę Dęblin ze wszystkimi magazynami i składami wojskowymi. Początkowo Pułk przyjął nazwę "4 Pułk Piechoty" (powstał tylko 1 batalion kpt. Ludwika Bittnera). Z rozkazu Sztabu Generalnego z dnia 7 grudnia 1918 4 Pułk Piechoty został przemianowany na 34 Pułk Piechoty. Mjr Aleksander Łuczyński został zatwierdzony na stanowisku dowódcy pułku. Nowo tworzący się pułk otrzymał jako kadrę oficerską od Dowództwa Okręgu Generalnego – Lublin 36 oficerów z kursów oficerskich dla oficerów z byłej armii carskiej w Zajezierzu k. Dęblina. Inni oficerowie i podoficerowie rekrutowali się spośród Legionów oraz z armii austriackiej. Mjr Aleksander Łuczyński aby ułatwić trud organizacyjny stworzył 15 grudnia baon etapowy nr 34 przeznaczony do służby garnizonowej i wartowniczej w twierdzy Dęblin. Jednocześnie stworzył 3 półbataliony o pełnej kadrze oficerskiej (zamierzał je w przyszłości rozwinąć do pełnych etatów). W końcu grudnia DOG – Lublin zażądało bezzwłocznego wystawienia przynajmniej jednego pełnego batalionu na potrzeby frontu lwowskiego. Z kadry oficerskiej III półbaonu oraz z szeregowych pozostałych półbatalionów został zorganizowany naprędce III batalion pod dowództwem kpt. Bębenkowskiego. 31 grudnia III batalion został przetransportowany z Dęblina do Białej Podlaskiej, opuszczonej dopiero przez Niemców. Po kilku dniach pobytu w Białej Podlaskiej został na rozkaz DOG – Lublin zawrócony do Dęblina. W międzyczasie I i II półbataliony zostały już uzupełnione przez napływających ochotników. W dniach 7-14 stycznia 1919 r. cały pułk stopniowo przetransportowano do Białej Podlaskiej, gdzie został włączony do Grupy gen. Listowskiego. W tym okresie pułk czerpał uzbrojenie i umundurowanie z dęblińskiej twierdzy. Bataliony pułku zostały wyposażone w karabiny włoskie i austriackie zaś umundurowanie i ekwipunek były poniemieckie. +Obsada personalna pułku w 1924 r. +Obsada personalna pułku w 1928 r. +Obrona Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku – jedno z pierwszych starć zbrojnych II wojny światowej, obrona gmachu Poczty Polskiej w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku przez zorganizowaną grupę polskich pocztowców. Trwała od rana do wieczora 1 września 1939 r. +W 1995 r. Sąd Krajowy w Lubece przeprowadził rewizję procesu pocztowców, stwierdzając m.in. pogwałcenie reguł postępowania sądowego i naruszenia postanowień IV konwencji haskiej (1907). W jej wyniku zostali oni przez sąd uniewinnieni. Do rozpoczęcia procesu przyczyniła się wydana w tym samym roku książka Dietera Schenka ""Polska Poczta w Gdańsku - historia pewnego niemieckiego morderstwa sądowego"". Wyrok oprócz znaczenia moralnego pozwolił na wystąpienie do rządu niemieckiego o odszkodowanie (zostało ono wypłacone w roku 2001). +Po wojnie dawny Plac Heweliusza otrzymał nazwę Placu Obrońców Poczty Polskiej. Z okazji 40. rocznicy bohaterskiej obrony, 1 września 1979 r. na placu odsłonięto Pomnik Obrońców Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku. W tym samym dniu, w bronionym w 1939 budynku, uruchomiono Urząd Pocztowy Gdańsk 1 oraz Muzeum Poczty i Telekomunikacji. To ostatnie stanowiło przez długi czas oddział Muzeum Poczty i Telekomunikacji we Wrocławiu, a od 1 stycznia 2003 r. włączono je w struktury Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Gdańska pod nazwą Muzeum Poczty Polskiej w Gdańsku. +Do 28 sierpnia 1991 r. nie było znane miejsce egzekucji obrońców Poczty Polskiej. Na zbiorowy grób 38 pocztowców natrafili przypadkowo robotnicy prowadzący prace ziemne przy budowie garaży banku na osiedlu Zaspa (między ulicą Burzyńskiego a aleją Jana Pawła II). Ekshumowane szczątki zostały ponownie pochowane na znajdującym się w pobliżu Cmentarzu Ofiar Hitleryzmu w Gdańsku, gdzie spoczywają także pomordowani kolejarze i celnicy z Szymankowa oraz działacze polscy Wolnego Miasta Gdańska zamordowani w Wielki Piątek 22 marca 1940 r. w Stutthofie. +Na Cmentarzu Centralnym w Sanoku znajduje się Pomnik Golgota Wschodu upamiętnia pochodzące z Sanoka i Ziemi Sanockiej ofiary zbrodni katyńskiej, powstały z inicjatywy ks. Zdzisława Peszkowskiego. Głównym jego elementem jest Krzyż Pamięci Ofiar Polskiej Golgoty Wschodu, poświęcony 10 listopada 2008 roku. Stanowi go krzyż brzozowy z tabliczką o treści: "Ofiarom polskiej Golgoty Wschodu". U podstawy krzyża umieszczono kamienie, na których widnieją trzy tabliczki. Pierwsza zawiera inskrypcję "Krzyż wzniesiono z inicjatywy Ks. Prałata Zdzisława J. Peszkowskiego staraniem Hufca ZHP Ziemi Sanockiej. A.D. 2008.", druga – "W 40-stym nas Matko na Sybir zesłali. Sanok, 04.2009.", ufundowana przez Związek Sybiraków, zaś trzecia, upamiętniająca por. Zbigniewa Czekańskiego zawiera cytat ks. Zdzisława Peszkowskiego i informację pamiątkową "Sercem i modlitwą otaczam postać dh Z. Czekańskiego, umiłowanego harcerza, konspiratora, bohatera i męczennika, ks. Z. Peszkowski / por. Zbigniew Czekański ur. 4.VII.1907 zginął 30.VI.1941. Z-ca komendanta hufca harcerzy w Sanoku. Dowóca Harcerskiej Kompanii Obrony Lwowa w 1939 r. Instruktor Chorągwi Lwowskiej Szarych Szeregów. Sanok, 18.04.2009". 18 kwietnia 2009 roku, w ramach akcji „Katyń... pamiętamy” / „Katyń... Ocalić od zapomnienia”, w tzw. Alei Katyńskiej wokoło krzyża zostało zasadzonych 21 Dębów Pamięci. W drugą rocznicę śmierci księdza, 8 października 2009 roku, posadzono trzy następne Dęby Pamięci, a w piątą rocznicę w 2012 roku dwa kolejne. Jeden z nich upamiętnia krewnego Zdzisława Peszkowskiego, płk Edwarda Zygmunta Peszkowskiego (1891-1940). +Najbardziej znany śmiertelny wypadek miał miejsce jeszcze przed walką. Brat wielokrotnego mistrza świata Breta Harta, Owen, podczas gali Over the Edge w 1999 r. zjeżdżał na ring przyczepiony liną do sufitu. Mechanizm zatrzaskowy otworzył się, gdy był na wysokości 22 metrów. Uderzył głową w narożnik, po czym z dużą siłą runął plecami na matę. Zmarł w drodze do szpitala. +Armeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Armenia (ros. "Армянская Советская Социалистическая Республика", orm. Հայկական Սովետական Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն) była jedną z 15 republik ZSRR w latach 1936-1991, od 1922 do 1936 r. wchodziła w skład Zakaukaskiej FSRR łącznie z Gruzińską SRR i Azerbejdżańską SRR. W 1991 r. odzyskała niepodległość jako Armenia. +W kwietniu 1945 r. Okinawa stała się celem ostatniego, amerykańskiego desantu morskiego II wojny światowej. Japończycy nie mieli szans się obronić. Marsz amerykański, chociaż spowolniony zaciekłym oporem Azjatów, postępował. +Okręty wypłynęły 6 kwietnia 1945 r. o godzinie 16.00. Celem zespołu było obezwładnienie amerykańskich okrętów, zniszczenie floty desantowej i zaopatrzenia oraz wsparcie artyleryjskie działań na lądzie. Ponadto, zaokrętowano oddziały piechoty, które po osadzeniu okrętów na plaży miały być wysadzone na brzeg dla zaatakowania amerykańskich oddziałów lądowych od tyłu. Dlatego jednostki zabrały zapas paliwa na rejs jedynie w jedną stronę. Dowództwo japońskie żywiło przekonanie, że grupa okrętów dysponuje wystarczającą siłą ognia artyleryjskiego i mobilnością aby obronić się przed atakami lotniczymi. Podobnie w przypadku konfrontacji z okrętami liniowymi przeciwnika działa artylerii głównej "Yamato" miały z bezpiecznie dużej odległości umożliwić ich zniszczenie. +Rano 7 kwietnia 1945 r. z lotniskowców amerykańskiej 58. Grupy Taktycznej wysłano samoloty rozpoznawcze, mające za zadanie wykrycie japońskich jednostek. Udało się tego dokonać około godziny 10.00, w odległości około 450 km od Okinawy. Następnie dowódca 58. Grupy Taktycznej, wiceadmirał Mitscher, wysłał przeciwko zespołowi japońskiemu grupę samolotów bombowych i torpedowych pod eskortą myśliwców w łącznej liczbie 386 maszyn. +Pierwsze obozy koncentracyjne zostały zorganizowane w III Rzeszy w 1933 r., a więc przed II wojną światową, na mocy „rozporządzenia wyjątkowego o ochronie narodu i państwa” z dnia 28 lutego 1933 r. Rozporządzenie to umożliwiało m.in. zawieszenie wolności osobistej obywateli posiadających niemieckie obywatelstwo i zezwalało na aresztowanie i osadzanie bez wyroku sądowego na czas nieograniczony wszystkich osób uznawanych za wrogów państwa i narodu niemieckiego. W pewnym sensie sankcjonowało ono praktykę bojówek nazistowskich SA i SS (jeszcze sprzed zdobycia władzy w wyborach w 1933 r.) – tworzenia „prywatnych odosobnień”, w których przetrzymywano siłą osoby niechętne rodzącemu się reżimowi, zwłaszcza działaczy partii opozycyjnych. +Po zdobyciu władzy służyły one przede wszystkim wyniszczeniu opozycji antyhitlerowskiej oraz odizolowaniu ludzi uznanych za groźnych bądź „nieprzydatnych”. 20 marca 1933 r., na podstawie zarządzenia Heinricha Himmlera, zorganizowano pierwszy obóz koncentracyjny w Dachau (niektóre źródła wskazują, że pierwszym niewielkim obozem, założonym 12 marca 1933 r. był obóz Dürrgoy (Tarnogaj, obecnie dzielnica Wrocławia). Jeszcze w roku 1933 SA i SS oraz policja zorganizowały kolejne obozy, m.in. w Oranienburgu, Berlinie (tzw. Columbia-Haus), Królewcu (Quednau), Papenburgu, Esterwegen, Kemna bei Wuppertal, Sonnenburgu, Sachsenburgu, Lichtenburgu. W 1934 r. obozy koncentracyjne podporządkowano SS, a obóz w Dachau stał się obozem wzorcowym. Sztab tych obozów od 1936 (do końca wojny) mieścił się w Oranienburgu. W następnych latach założono obozy w: Sachsenhausen (1936), Buchenwaldzie (1937), Mauthausen (1938), Flossenbürgu (1938) oraz obóz dla kobiet w Ravensbrück (1939). Szacuje się, że jeszcze przed wojną przez obozy niemieckie przeszło 165-170 tysięcy więźniów. +Podczas wojny niemieccy naziści wprowadzili nowe typy obozów, zgodnie z rozszerzeniem ich roli w przeprowadzaniu założeń polityki nazistowskiej oraz konkretnych celów natury ekonomiczno-militarnej. Obozy zaczęły służyć jako miejsca przetrzymywania inteligencji krajów podbitych (w szczególności polskiej), kleru (w szczególności katolickiego), osób związanych z ruchem oporu i podziemiem, ofiar łapanek ulicznych oraz jeńców wojennych. W obozach masowo wykorzystywano więźniów do niewolniczej i wyczerpującej pracy na rzecz niemieckich firm, w tym przede wszystkim koncernów przemysłu wojennego. Eliminacja elit polskich, jak również masowe mordy na zwykłej ludności miały miejsce w ramach przygotowanego projektu Generalnego Planu Wschodniego, mającego na celu kolonizację ziem słowiańskich. Po 1939 r. znacznie rozbudowano dotychczas istniejące obozy koncentracyjne na terenie przedwojennej III Rzeszy, a w miarę zdobyczy terytorialnych w okupowanych krajach organizowano nowe obozy i ośrodki zagłady. Największymi nowo powstałymi tego typu obozami były (w kolejności ich powstawania): Stutthof (sierpień 1939), Auschwitz (wiosna 1940), Neuengamme (czerwiec 1940), Natzweiler-Struthof (lipiec 1940), Gross-Rosen (1940), Bergen-Belsen (październik 1940), Majdanek (październik 1941), Hertogenbosch (styczeń 1942), Ryga-Kaiserwald (Salaspils – maj 1943), Mittelbau-Dora (koniec 1943). Przy lokalizacji obozów brano m.in. pod uwagę położenie dogodne ze względów komunikacyjnych, sąsiedztwo wielkich zakładów produkcyjnych lub kamieniołomów w celu wykorzystania pracy niewolniczej więźniów (np. Mittelbau-Dora, Gross-Rosen). +Osobnym torem potoczyła się historia obozów przeznaczonych dla wymordowania milionów Żydów z całej Europy. Wraz z atakiem Niemiec na ZSRR specjalne szwadrony rozpoczęły akcję masowych mordów na Żydach, najpierw mężczyznach i chłopcach, potem również kobietach i dzieciach. W obliczu problemów organizacyjnych, wysokich kosztów oraz trudności psychologicznych dla katów, związanych z tak licznymi egzekucjami, już w 1941, a szerzej od 1942 r., wybrane placówki zaczęto przygotowywać pod kątem nowej metody masowej eksterminacji. Instalowano całe systemy komór gazowych i krematoriów, które miały służyć mordowaniu i paleniu tysięcy zwłok dziennie – głównie Żydów. Zgodnie z planem zagłady Żydów (tzw. "Endlösung", pl. "ostateczne rozwiązanie"), którego techniczne szczegóły przyjęto na Konferencji w Wansee, 20 stycznia 1942, w wyselekcjonowanych obozach prowadzono masową zagładę podbitej ludności żydowskiej. W obozach Niemcy mordowali również masowo Romów oraz Sinti. +Południowe skrawki Wisły Wielkiej zostały w 1955 r. zalane wodami Jeziora Goczałkowickiego. +Z 1802 r. pochodzi sygnaturka odlana przez J. G. Knoblocha z Bańskiej Bystrzycy. Z pracowni tego samego rzemieślnika pochodził odlany w 1807 r. dzwon ufundowany przez Teresę Wielopolską, ale został on zarekwirowany przez okupanta niemieckiego w 1942 r. Nowe dzwony umieszczono w dzwonnicy zbudowanej obok kościoła. +Potencjał biotyczny - podstawową charakterystykę gatunku, zdefiniował Chapman (1925) jako "nieodłączną moc organizmów do reprodukcji i przetrwania". W 1931 r. Chapman rozwinął tę myśl: "Jest to rodzaj sumy algebraicznej liczby młodych rodzących się podczas każdej reprodukcji, liczba reprodukcji w danym okresie, stosunek płci gatunków i ich ogólna zdolność do przetrwania w danych warunkach fizycznych". +W trakcie II wojny światowej w pobliżu wsi toczyły się ciężkie walki pomiędzy wojskami rosyjskimi i niemieckimi. 12 sierpnia 1944 r. miała miejsce ofensywa niemieckiej 16. Dywizji Pancernej na Staszów, zakończona druzgocącą klęską i zniszczeniem łącznie 14 sztuk najnowszych czołgów PzKpfw VI B Königstiger. Przez ewakuowane z ludności cywilnej Niemścice (oznaczane na wojskowych mapach jako "Nemetsine") przeszła 53. Brygada Pancerna Gwardii płk. Wasyla Archipowa, należąca do 6. Korpusu Pancernego Gwardii, złożona z 2. oraz 3. Batalionu Czołgów. Na rozdrożu prowadzącym do przyczółka Zaraś st. por. Gwardii Kimenkow z 71. Samodzielnego Pułku Czołgów Ciężkich Gwardii unieruchomił jeden z niemieckich czołgów Königstiger. +Lej mołdawski został wprowadzony jako oficjalna waluta Mołdawii 29 listopada 1993, dwa lata po uzyskaniu przez ten kraj niepodległości. Nazwa waluty nawiązuje do przeszłości kraju i do okresu sprzed włączenia do ZSRR w 1940 r., kiedy w użyciu były rumuńskie leje. +Rubel naddniestrzański - oficjalna jednostka płatnicza w nieuznawanej Republice Naddniestrzańskiej. Wprowadzona jako oficjalna waluta republiki w sierpniu 1994 r. W związku ze statusem Naddniestrza, waluta nie posiada kodu ISO 4217 dla waluty, choć niektóre instytucje naddniestrzańskie (Agroprombank i Gazprombank) używają kodu PRB, a Bank Republiki Naddniestrzańskiej niekiedy określa go jako RUP. +W 1918 r., część a w 1922 r. wszystkie zabudowania przekazano Państwowemu Muzeum Ermitaż. Obecnie Pałac Zimowy i Plac Pałacowy stanowi rdzeń współczesnego miasta i jest jednym z głównych obiektów rosyjskiej i międzynarodowej turystyki. +W latach 30. XX wieku rozpoczęto budowę linii średnicowej. Wymagało to odsunięcia przyszłego dworca na zachód oraz zburzenia skrzydła zachodniego dworca „wiedeńskiego”, aby zmieścić przed nim głowice torową wschodnią wychodzącą spod Al. Jerozolimskich. Wyłączono go z eksploatacji, a na czas do wybudowania nowego dworca wybudowano prowizoryczny dworzec czołowy (przejął on funkcje dworca Warszawa Główna) przy ulicy Chmielnej. Częściowo na miejscu zburzonego skrzydła zachodniego (z wieżą telegrafu) rozpoczęto budowę nowoczesnego Dworca Głównego nad torami linii średnicowej. Pozostała część budynku została spalona we wrześniu 1939, a ruiny rozebrano przed 1944. W czasie budowy placu Defilad w 1955 r. niedaleko miejsca wieży wschodniej (znajdowała się tam, gdzie znajduje się jezdnia poszerzonej ul. Marszałkowskiej) pojawiła się tablica pamiątkowa. Tekst brzmiał: tu stała wieża zegarowa dworca Kolei Warszawsko-Wiedeńskiej. Zaginęła ona przy budowie stacji metra. Dziś w tym miejscu znajduje się zagłębiony plac przed stacją metra „Centrum”. Istnieje propozycja nazwania placu narożnego po zabudowie „pl. Warszawsko-Wiedeński”. +Przed II wojną światową do miejscowości jeździł z Opola autobus miejski linii nr 4. 8 czerwca 1936 r. w miejsce nazwy Luboschütz wprowadzono niemiecką nazwę Liebtal. 15 marca 1947 r. nadano miejscowości nazwę Luboszyce. W latach 1954–1972 Luboszyce były siedzibą Gromadzkiej Rady Narodowej. W skład gromady wchodziły oprócz Luboszyc pobliskie miejscowości: Zawada, Gosławice i Biadacz. W tym czasie w Luboszycach funkcjonowała dwuletnia Szkoła Przysposobienia Rolniczego. +Z wykształcenia prawnik. Działał w ruchu niepodległościowym, w 1942 r. był krótko więziony. Wieloletni członek Indyjskiej Partii Kongresowej, przez siedem kadencji deputowany do zgromadzenia stanowego Radżastanu, minister w kilku gabinetach stanowych. W 1985 r. (luty-marzec) był premierem rządu stanowego Radżastanu. +Król Alfred zmarł 26 października 899 r. Data podana w "Kronice anglosaskiej", rok 901, jest uważana za mało prawdopodobną. Przyczyna jego śmierci jest nieznana. Początkowo został pochowany w Old Minster w Winchesterze. Później jego ciało zostało przeniesione do New Minster, a stamtąd w 1110 r. do opactwa Hyde. Grób został zniszczony w 1788 r., kiedy budowano tam więzienie. W latach 60. XIX w. odkryto tam ludzkie kości, które uznano za szczątki Alfreda. Zostały one pogrzebane w Hyde. W 1999 r. odsłonięto pozostałości grobu Alfreda. +W 1999 r. badacze z "Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory" ogłosili odkrycie pierwiastków 116 i 118 w publikacji w czasopiśmie "Physical Review Letters". Rok później ukazała się publikacja, w której autorzy opisywali niemożność powtórzenia otrzymania tych pierwiastków. Po przeprowadzonym dochodzeniu, w lipcu 2002 r. dyrektor laboratorium w Berkeley przyznał, że rzekome odkrycie zostało sfabrykowane przez Wiktora Ninowa, głównego autora publikacji z 1999 roku. +Lisa okazała się największą porażką finansową firmy Apple od czasu niepowodzeń Apple III z roku 1980. Za sprawą wysokiej ceny przegrywała konkurencję z tańszymi komputerami IBM PC, które już wtedy zaczynały dominować na rynku komputerów biurowych. Lisa postrzegana była jako komputer powolny, co było związane z interfejsem użytkownika. Apple Lisa z racji tego interfejsu wymagała układu generującego grafikę kolorową w stosunkowo wysokiej (jak na owe czasy) rozdzielczości. Okazało się jednak, że nie udało się opracować układu wystarczająco szybkiego i jego współdziałanie z procesorem powodowało częste konflikty o pamięć obrazu (procesor próbował zapisywać do niej nowe dane zanim układ graficzny zdążył pobrać dane zapisane wcześniej) — konstruktorzy Lisy byli zmuszeni po pierwsze użyć procesora o niskiej częstotliwości zegara (5 MHz, a w 1982 r. były już dostępne procesory o częstotliwości 12,5 MHz), a po drugie wprowadzić do kodu systemu programowe pętle opóźniające, aby procesor za często nie próbował odwoływać się do pamięci obrazu. Ostatnim gwoździem do trumny Lisy był Apple Macintosh, zaprezentowany w 1984 roku, który także miał graficzny interfejs użytkownika (wybrano tutaj grafikę monochromatyczną, co umożliwiło skonstruowanie układu generującego obraz wystarczająco szybkiego, aby nie spowalniać pracy procesora) i mysz, a który był znacznie tańszy. Wyprodukowano jeszcze dwa modele Lisy (Lisa 2 i Macintosh XL), po czym w roku 1986 zaprzestano produkcji tej linii komputerów. +Pomysłodawcą krzyżówki jest Amerykanin Arthur Wynne, pracownik "działu sztuczek i kawałów" gazety New York World. Pierwszą krzyżówkę zamieścił w niedzielnym dodatku "Fun" ("Zabawa") do "New York World" z dnia 21 grudnia 1913 r. Była ona wzorowana na grze towarzyskiej, w którą grywał jego dziadek - "Magiczny kwadrat albo podwójny akrostych". "Original crossword puzzle" zawierała 32 hasła. Rubryki oddzielone były czarnymi odstępami. Pomysł spotkał się z tak dużym entuzjazmem ze strony czytelników, że w 1924 r. ukazała się książka "Crossworld puzzle". Zawierała wybór 50 krzyżówek publikowanych dotychczas w "Fun". Okazała się bestsellerem. W ciągu miesiąca rozeszła się w nakładzie przeszło pół miliona egzemplarzy. Wynalazek nie został opatentowany. W kilka miesięcy potem nowinka trafiła do Brytyjczyków, którzy rozprzestrzenili ją na inne kraje Europy. +W "Kurierze Warszawskim" z 31 stycznia 1925 r. w dziale zadań redagowanym przez autora licznych szarad, Karola Hoffmana, opublikowana została anonimowo "łamigłówka krzyżowa". Redakcja ufundowała 5 nagród dla osób, które nadeślą poprawne rozwiązanie. W tydzień po tym krzyżówkę autorstwa Kazimierza Makarczyka załączono do warszawskiego tygodnika "Ilustracja". To ten szachista właśnie jako pierwszy podał nazwę "krzyżówka" będącą tłumaczeniem angielskiego wyrażenia "cross word puzzle". Wkrótce krzyżówki zaczęły publikować kolejne polskie gazety. +Według retrospektywnego systemu Chessmetrics, najwyższy ranking osiągnął w styczniu 1935 r., z wynikiem 2677 punktów zajmował wówczas 8. miejsce na świecie. +W 1950 r. otrzymał tytuł mistrza międzynarodowego, a w 1981 r. Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa nadała mu honorowy tytuł arcymistrza. Występował nadal w turniejach, ale bez większych sukcesów. Był znanym działaczem FIDE, organizował m.in. młodzieżowy turniej "Arnold Denker Tournament of High School Champions". Był współautorem (z Larry Parrem) książki "The Bobby Fischer I Knew, and other stories", a także innych publikacji o tematyce szachowej. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej StG.44 znajdował się na wyposażeniu niektórych oddziałów podziemia antykomunistycznego w Polsce, był również używany przez milicję Niemieckiej Republiki Demokratycznej oraz jugosłowiańskich spadochroniarzy. Broń trafiła także w ręce członków rozmaitych organizacji zbrojnych w krajach trzeciego świata. Zakończenie w 1961 r. produkcji amunicji 7,92 mm x 33 Kurz w NRD (milicja enerdowska zastąpiła StG.44 karabinkiem AK) spowodowało spadek użyteczności tego pierwszego jako konstrukcji wojskowej. Nadal był używany m.in. w Afryce i jest cenioną bronią kolekcjonerską w USA. Przez lata amunicję produkowano w Jugosławii w zakładach Prvi Partizan, zaś liczba w pełni sprawnych egzemplarzy StG.44 okazała się tak duża, że w 2004 r. niemiecka firma SM Chemnitzer Sportwaffen und Munitionfabrik GmbH ponownie uruchomiła produkcję amunicji 7,92 x 33 mm. +Wchodziła w skład Hali Jaworzyna Rusinowa, która od dawna była miejscem wypasu owiec i krów. Nazwę hali i polany wywodzi się od nazwiska Rusinów, sołtysów z Gronia, którym została nadana przez króla Zygmunta III Wazę w roku 1628. Na Rusinowej Polanie zlokalizowana była osada pasterska, licząca w połowie XX wieku 20 obiektów drewnianych – szałasów i szop. Według zachowanych informacji wypasano tam nawet do 400 owiec, choć bliższa wydaje się liczba 200. Osada ta zamieszkiwana była w części przez cały rok. Po utworzeniu Tatrzańskiego Parku Narodowego uznano, że wypas bydła i owiec na terenie parku stanowi zagrożenie dla roślinności i stopniowo wprowadzono zakaz wypasu (ostatnie owce wypasał Jan Murzański nielegalnie w 1973 r.). Zabudowania osady pasterskiej zostały uznane za obiekty zabytkowe, co nie uchroniło ich od zniszczenia, dewastacji lub pożaru. Obecnie zachowało się w różnym stanie około 6 obiektów. W 1981 r. przywrócono ponownie wypas owiec – do 200 sztuk. +W czasie I wojny światowej ziemie te były pod okupacją cesarskich Niemiec i powiat kolski został włączony do gubernatorstwa we Włocławku. Ustawą sejmową z 2 sierpnia 1919 r. utworzono województwo łódzkie, w skład którego wszedł powiat kolski. W 1921 r. powiat ogółem zamieszkiwało 112 280 osób, z czego Polacy stanowili 86,5%, Żydzi 7,71% i Niemcy 5,75%. Stan taki utrzymywał się do 1 kwietnia 1938 r., kiedy powiat kolski – pomniejszony o gminy Koźmin i Brudzew – włączono do województwa poznańskiego. W okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej powiat kolski znalazł się w Kraju Warty. +Po wyzwoleniu spod panowania niemieckiego przywrócono stan sprzed 1 września 1939 r. W okresie II wojny światowej i w pierwszych latach po wyzwoleniu nastąpiły ogromne zmiany demograficzne, tak pod względem liczby mieszkańców, jak i składu narodowo-wyznaniowego. Ludność żydowska w znacznej większości zginęła w obozie zagłady w Chełmnie nad Nerem. Według spisu z 1 lutego 1945 r. powiat zamieszkiwało ogółem 89 220 osób, w tym 90% Polaków i 9,5% Niemców. W tym czasie nie odnotowano żadnego mieszkańca obywatelstwa żydowskiego. Pod względem wyznaniowym znaczną większość stanowili rzymscy katolicy. Powierzchnia wynosiła 1097 km². Powiat kolski w niezmienionym kształcie (od 1938 r.) funkcjonował do 28 maja 1975 r., kiedy to wprowadzono nowy podział administracyjny, likwidując powiaty i tworząc nowe 49 województw. Wówczas większa część obszaru dawnego powiatu kolskiego znalazła się w województwie konińskim, jedynie okolice Izbicy Kujawskiej weszły w skład województwa włocławskiego. +Powiat kolski ponownie utworzono 1 stycznia 1999 r. Obecnie administracyjnie jest częścią województwa wielkopolskiego. Zamieszkuje go ponad 88 tys. mieszkańców. Obejmuje powierzchnię 1011 km². W skład powiatu wchodzi 11 gmin (7 wiejskich: Babiak, Chodów, Grzegorzew, Koło, Kościelec, Olszówka i Osiek Mały; 3 miejsko-wiejskie: Dąbie, Kłodawa i Przedecz; 1 miejska: miasto Koło). +Głównymi stacjami kolejowymi powiatu są Koło i Kłodawa, które powstały w 1922 r. Położone są przy linii kolejowej nr 3: Frankfurt nad Odrą-Warszawa. Oprócz nich, na tej linii znajdują się jeszcze stacje: Budki Nowe, Barłogi i Turzynów. +W 1971 r. zostało przeprowadzono spotkanie miejscowego społeczenstwa z władzą lokalną, powiatową i wojewódzką. Podjęto szereg decyzji dotyczących życia gospodarczego i społecznego, jednak nie wydzielono miasta z terytorium powiatu, co było jednym z postulatów. W 1972 r., do pracy i do szkół w Poznaniu dojeżdżało ponad 1200 osób. Stopniowe wychodzenie z 30-letniego marazmu nastąpiło dopiero po likwidacji powiatów w 1975 r. +W 1981 wyjechała do Stanów Zjednoczonych. W 1982 r. poślubiła gitarzystę Toma Logana i osiadła w Chicago. W USA mieszkała do 1993 r. jednocześnie kontynuując karierę w Polsce. W 1987 zdobyła na koncercie premier Festiwalu w Opolu I nagrodę, śpiewając w trio z Krystyną Prońko i Piotrem Szulcem piosenkę "Czekamy na wyrok". W 1988 ponownie zdobyła I nagrodę na koncercie premier w Opolu, tym razem za solowe wykonanie piosenki "Edek". +Ashton-Tate - amerykańskie przedsiębiorstwo software'owe założone w 1980 r. przez Hala Lashlee i George'a Tate'a, którego głównym produktem był system obsługi baz danych dBASE II, opracowany przez C. Wayne'a Ratliffa. Przedsiębiorstwo rozwijało też inne produkty, m.in. pierwszy pakiet biurowy dla MS-DOS Framework, MultiMate i dBASE dla Macintosha. W połowie lat 80 Ashton-Tate był jednym z czołowych producentów oprogramowania dla maszyn PC, jednak w 1991 r. przedsiębiorstwo wykupił Borland, który zrezygnował z wszystkich produktów z wyjątkiem dBASE i InterBase. +8 września 1939 r. w rejonie Brzezin miała miejsce bitwa oddziałów Armii Łódź z niemiecką 10. Dywizją Piechoty. Wówczas, podobnie jak pod koniec wojny, Brzeziny zostały zbombardowane. Niemcy włączyli miasto w granice Rzeszy, przemianowali je na "Löwenstadt" i rozpoczęli brutalne prześladowania ludności żydowskiej. Likwidacja utworzonego przez Niemców brzezińskiego getta nastąpiła w maju 1942 roku – jego mieszkańców wywieziono do obozów zagłady w Chełmnie i Oświęcimiu. W dniach 18 i 19 stycznia 1945 roku wojska radzieckie wyparły Niemców. W toczonych wówczas walkach zginęło około 200 żołnierzy radzieckich, których podobnie jak polskich żołnierzy „września”, pochowano na cmentarzu przy ul. Łódzkiej. W czasie wojny zniszczeniu lub poważnemu uszkodzeniu uległo prawie 60% budynków, a liczba ludności zmalała do ok. 6000. Obecnie Brzeziny liczą ok. 13 tys. mieszkańców. +dBASE nie został nigdy w pełni przyjęty w środowisku Windows, gdzie został szybko wyparty przez nowe produkty, jak Paradox, Clipper i FoxPro. Ashton-Tate została w 1991 r. sprzedana firmie Borland, która z kolei w 1999 r. sprzedała prawa do bazy nowo utworzonej firmie dBASE Inc. +W 1978 r. C. Wayne Ratliff, inny programista z JPL i przyjaciel Jeba Longa, napisał w asemblerze program bazodanowy dla systemu operacyjnego CP/M, który został nazwany Vulcan (nazwa pochodząca z filmu Star Trek). Program miał początkowo pomagać w obstawianiu zakładów piłkarskich w biurze, potem został wykorzystany w obliczaniu podatków, aż autor uznał, że program mógłby być użyty w innych, komercyjnych zastosowaniach. +W październiku 1979 r. i przez kilka kolejnych miesięcy w magazynie BYTE ukazywały się reklamy Vulcana, który był sprzedawany po 50 USD za kopię. Odzew nie był bardzo duży, ale i tak większy niż spodziewał się autor, który zaczął mieć kłopoty z obsługą sprzedaży – reklamy zostały wycofane i Ratliff ograniczył się do obsługi już istniejących klientów. +Pierwotne wersje dBASE były pisane bezpośrednio w asemblerze, ale wkrótce program tak się rozrósł, że konieczne stało się przejście na język wysokiego poziomu C. Skutek tego był fatalny – dBASE III, opublikowany w czerwcu 1984, był wystarczająco szybki na nowych maszynach, ale zbyt wolny na starszych komputerach PC, więc większość użytkowników zignorowała go. Ukazały się więc jeszcze poprawki dla wersji dBASE II, natomiast firma pracowała nad wydajnością wersji III, co zakończyło się sukcesem dopiero pod koniec 1985 r. +W 1986 r. Ashton-Tate poddała się panującej wówczas "macowej gorączce" i rozpoczęła prace nad aplikacjami dla Macintosha. W tym celu wykupiła niewielką firmę Ann Arbor Softworks projektującą aplikacje biznesowe, w tym arkusz kalkulacyjny Full Impact, procesor tekstu FullWrite Professional, a po przejęciu przez Ashton-tate także system bazodanowy dBASE Mac. +dBASE IV ukazał się w październiku 1988 r., zawierając mnóstwo błędów. Sprzedaż zaczęła się załamywać, m.in. wskutek pojawienia się na rynku klonów dBASE'a, jak FoxBase i Clipper. Ashton-Tate zdecydował się nawet wnieść pozew przeciwko FoxBase, ale proces szybko się zakończył niepowodzeniem. +W 1991 r. Ashton-Tate został wykupiony przez firmę Borland. Błędy dBASE IV zostały w końcu poprawione, a sam produkt przeniesiony na inne platformy, jak Sun SPARC, IBM-owski AIX i DEC VMS. dBASE IV pozostał głównym produktem aż do 1993 r. +dBASE 5.0 powrócił do swoich korzeni, jako produkt wyłącznie dla komputerów PC, zarówno w DOS, jak i Windows. Sprzedaż programu jednak sukcesywnie malała i ostatecznie w 1999 r. Borland zdecydował się sprzedać prawa do programu powstałej firmie dBASE Inc., która podtrzymuje go przy życiu na platformie Windows (zorientowana obiektowo aktualizacja dBASE Plus), ale dBASE jest już produktem marginalnym, nie stanowiącym konkurencji dla współczesnych programów zgodnych ze standardem SQL. +W mieście działa klub piłkarski o nazwie OKS "OLSZA" OLSZYNA obecnie występujący w Jeleniogórskiej Klasie Okręgowej Klub powstał w 1946 r. (Barwy klubu Biały-Niebieski-Zielony). Drużyna popularnie nazywana jest Olszą. Klub posiada trzy zespoły młodzieżowe i jeden seniorów. +JDBC (ang. "Java DataBase Connectivity" - łącze do baz danych w języku Java) - interfejs programowania opracowany w 1996 r. przez Sun Microsystems, umożliwiający niezależnym od platformy aplikacjom napisanym w języku Java porozumiewać się z bazami danych za pomocą języka SQL. Interfejs ten jest odpowiednikiem standardu ODBC opracowanego przez SQL Access Group. +W Polsce rozwojem tej dziedziny zajmuje się między innymi Polskie Towarzystwo Psychoonkologiczne oraz czasopismo naukowe "Psychoonkologia" wydawane od 1997 r. przez to towarzystwo. +Uzyskał maturę w gimnazjum im. Ziemi Mazowieckiej w 1933 r. W 1934 r. ukończył Szkołę Podchorążych Rezerwy Lotnictwa w Dęblinie. W 1935 r. podjął studia na warszawskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, na kierunku grafika użytkowa. Ponadto odbywał loty w 1 pułku lotniczym w Warszawie i w ciągu kolejnych lat korzystał z tej możliwości, latając na Potezach XV i XXVII. W 1936 r. awansowany został na podporucznika pilota. +Jako podporucznik we wrześniu 1939 został zmobilizowany do służby w lotnictwie. Dowodził Plutonem Łącznikowym nr 10 przydzielonym Armii "Łódź". 6 września został pilotem łącznikowym Naczelnego Wodza i w tej służbie został zestrzelony 10 września. Poprzez Rumunię przedostał się do Francji. Od marca 1940 r. przebywał w Algierze, zaś po kapitulacji Francji (22 czerwca 1940 r.) przedostał się do Casablanki, skąd drogą morską trafił do Wielkiej Brytanii. +Po przeszkoleniu na samolotach brytyjskich latał jako tzw. "ferry pilot", dostarczając samoloty do walczących jednostek, zaś w październiku 1941 r. został przydzielony do 306 Dywizjonu Myśliwskiego "Toruńskiego". W dywizjonie tym służył do lutego 1943 r. Następnie wszedł w skład Polskiego Zespołu Myśliwskiego. W Afryce zestrzelił pierwszy samolot niemiecki (20 kwietnia – 1 Bf-109) oraz zaliczono mu 1 zestrzelenie prawdopodobne i dwa samoloty uszkodzone. +W lipcu 1943 r. powrócił do Dywizjonu 306 w Wielkiej Brytanii. 11 sierpnia został dowódcą eskadry B w Dywizjonie 303. 17 sierpnia uzyskał kolejne zestrzelenie – tym razem FW-190. +31 stycznia 1944 r. został przydzielony do Dowództwa Obrony Powietrznej Wielkiej Brytanii ("Air Defence of Great Britain"). +Obejmując dowództwo nad 316 Dywizjonem Myśliwskim (26 czerwca 1944 r.) został pierwszym oficerem rezerwy w polskim lotnictwie na takim stanowisku. Trzecie zestrzelenie uzyskał 14 sierpnia 1944 r. (Bf-109), lecz już 6 września po awarii silnika skakał nad terytorium Holandii i dostał się do niemieckiej niewoli, gdzie przebywał do końca wojny. +Fasolki – dziecięcy zespół wokalno-taneczny z Warszawy, który powstał dla potrzeb Telewizji Polskiej w 1983 r., a działa i nagrywa do dzisiaj. Ich twórczość cieszy się dużą popularnością. Występowali regularnie w programach dziecięcych, takich jak: "Fasola", "Tik-Tak", "Ciuchcia", "teleferiach" i "Jedyneczka", a obecnie w programie TVP1 w programie Budzik". +We wrześniu 1939 r. bronił rejonu Dęblina. Poprzez Rumunię i Francję przedostał się do Wielkiej Brytanii. Od 6 sierpnia 1940 służył w 501 Dywizjonie Myśliwskim RAF (razem ze Stanisławem Skalskim), w którym walczył w okresie Bitwy o Anglię uzyskując 4 i ½ zestrzelenia pewne oraz uszkadzając dwa samoloty . +"Lewiatan" to także tytuł powieści detektywistycznej autorstwa Borisa Akunina z 1998 r., będącej trzecią częścią cyklu o Eraście Fandorinie. +Wieś powstała w I połowie XIX wieku. Na północ od dzisiejszej wsi funkcjonowały dwa folwarki: Zimna Woda Stara (do XX wieku) i Zimna Woda Nowa. W 1933 r. wieś liczyła 771 mieszkańców. +Pierwsze kronikarskie wzmianki o Trzebieży pochodzą z ok. 1280 r., kiedy to ks. pomorski Bogusław IV nadał wieś mieszczaninowi ze Szczecina. Osada poniosła duże straty w czasie wojen trzydziestoletniej i siedmioletniej. W następnych wiekach Trzebież rozwijała się jako typowa osada nad Zalewem Szczecińskim. W XVIII w. wieś uzyskała własny samorząd. W końcu XIX w. powstał tu port żeglugi pasażerskiej, tranzytowy oraz stocznia. Po roku 1898 Trzebież uzyskała połączenie kolejowe z Policami a w 1910 r. uruchomiono regularne połączenie pasażerskie. Do 1930 r. wody zalewu odsłoniły plażę o czystym piasku. Zapoczątkowało to rozwój ruchu turystycznego. +W czasie II wojny światowej osada ucierpiała w ok. 40% w zabudowie (głównie port oraz tartak). Istniał tu także przejściowy obóz dla polskich robotników przymusowych. Trzebież została zajęta 27 kwietnia 1945 r. przez wojska radzieckie (2 Front Białoruski – 2 Armia Uderzeniowa) i polskie a została oddana pod administrację polską we wrześniu 1946 r. po likwidacji tzw. Enklawy Polickiej. +Przez kilka powojennych miesięcy miejscowość była nazywana przez pierwszych polskich osadników "Zatoką". W 1946 powstał tu Zarząd Lasów Zaodrzańskich, przekształcony później w Nadleśnictwo Trzebież. Do 1948 r. uruchomiono ponownie port, stocznie, tartak, powstała spółdzielnia rybacka. Osada zaczęła się rozwijać dynamicznie. Największy rozkwit Trzebieży przypada na lata 70. XX wieku. +W Trzebieży na terenie portu jachtowego Zarząd Główny Polskiego Związku Żeglarskiego powołał 1 stycznia 1959 r. do istnienia Centralny Ośrodek Żeglarstwa Polskiego Związku Żeglarskiego im. Andrzeja Benesza. Obecnie dwa baseny portowe ośrodka mogą pomieścić ok. 90 jachtów. COŻ dysponuje też własnymi jednostkami (jachtami) morskimi (min. SY Kapitan Głowacki, SY Boliński i inne). +W 1962 r. wstąpił do seminarium "de Saint-Sulpice" w Issy-les-Moulineaux. Ukończył studia w zakresie teologii moralnej w Institut Catholique w Paryżu. 28 czerwca 1969 r. przyjął święcenia kapłańskie z rąk kardynała François Marty (arcybiskupa Paryża) i został inkardynowany do archidiecezji paryskiej. +25 czerwca 1988 r. został mianowany przez papieża Jana Pawła II biskupem pomocniczym w Paryżu z biskupią stolicą tytularną Tibili. Święcenia biskupie przyjął 14 października z rąk kolejnego arcybiskupa paryskiego, kardynała Jeana-Marie Lustigera. 21 kwietnia 1999 r. został mianowany metropolitą Tours. Jego ingres odbył się 16 maja. +Stare Czarnowo uzyskało połączenie kolejowe w 1898 r. po wybudowaniu linii ze stacji Szczecin Lotnisko. W 1905 r. linia została przedłużona do Sobieradza położonego na linii Gryfino - Pyrzyce. W ten sposób cała Puszcza Bukowa otoczona została torami. Po 1966 r. linia została zamknięta, a ok. 1992 r. część od Płonii do Sobieradza rozebrana. +W trakcie II wojny światowej wieś nie ucierpiała. Ostatecznie miejscowość została zajęta w 1945 r. przez Armie Czerwoną i została przekazana administracji polskiej. +Studiowała na Uniwersytetach Stanowych University of Massachusetts i University of Kansas, studia ukończyła w 1975 r. Zadebiutowała opowiadaniem "Death from Exposure" na łamach czasopisma "Shayol", który współredagowała (jako współredaktorka pisma otrzymała World Fantasy Award w 1981 r.). Po raz pierwszy jej prace zostały opublikowane w 1981. W 1996 przeniosła się do Anglii. +Była jedyną kobietą, której utwór znalazł się klasycznej antologii Bruce’a Sterlinga "Mirrorshades: The Cyberpunk Anthology" (1986). Zdobyła dwukrotnie Nagrodę Arthura C. Clarke'a, w 1992 za powieść "Synners" ("Wgrzesznicy") oraz w 1995 za powieść "Fools", także dwukrotnie Nagrodę Locusa za zbiór "Wzory" w 1990 r. i krótkie opowiadanie "Anioł" ("Angel", wyd. pol. w: "Don Wollheim proponuje 1988", Alfa 1989). Była także wielokrotnie nominowana do innych nagród. +Jan Radtke (ur. 10 lutego 1872 r. w Dębogórzu na Kępie Oksywskiej, zm. 22 grudnia 1958 r. w Gdyni) – pierwszy polski wójt Gdyni. +„ABC” (od 1935 r. „ABC – Nowiny Codzienne”) – dziennik związany z polskim ruchem narodowym, wydawany w Warszawie w latach 1926–1939, programowo antysemicki. +Renée Kathleen Zellweger (ur. 25 kwietnia 1969 r. w Katy w Teksasie) – aktorka amerykańska pochodzenia szwajcarsko-norweskiego. Laureatka Oscara za drugoplanową rolę w filmie "Wzgórze nadziei". +Rejestr zbiorów danych osobowych - ogólnokrajowy, jawny rejestr zbiorów danych osobowych zgłoszonych przez administratorów danych, prowadzony przez Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych na podstawie art. 42 ustawy z dnia 22 stycznia 1997 r. o ochronie danych osobowych. +"Rejestr" prowadzony jest w formie ksiąg rejestrowych według wzoru ustalonego w Zarządzeniu nr 11 Generalnego Inspektora Ochrony Danych Osobowych z dnia 8 grudnia 1998 r. w sprawie rejestru zbiorów danych osobowych. Księga rejestrowa prowadzona jest osobno dla każdego zarejestrowanego zbioru i zawiera numer porządkowy, nazwę zbioru danych oraz datę jej założenia. Z każdą księgą rejestrową związane są osobne akta rejestrowe zawierające wszelkie dokumenty stanowiące podstawę wpisów do "rejestru". +Przykłady: Ustawa z 26.01.1982 r. – Karta Nauczyciela ( z późn. zm.) modyfikuje znaczenie terminu "nauczyciel". W myśl tej ustawy, "nauczycielami" są także osoby, które nie zajmują się bezpośrednio przekazywaniem wiedzy (np. bibliotekarze lub logopedzi zatrudniani w szkołach), a równocześnie nie są nimi dla ustawodawcy np. prywatni korepetytorzy. +W tym samym roku poszedł za Albertem Einsteinem na Uniwersytet Karola w Pradze, a następnie w 1913 – na Politechnikę w Zurychu. W Szwajcarii zawarł znajomość z takimi wybitnymi fizykami jak Ehrenfest i Laue. W tym czasie jego finansowa niezależność pozwoliła mu obrać miejsce pracy bez oglądania się na osiąganie większych korzyści materialnych. W 1913 r. otrzymał w Wyższej Szkole Technicznej w Zurychu "venia legendi", czyli prawo prowadzenia własnych odczytów. Stał się tym samym tzw. "Privatdozent", co uprawniało go do prowadzenia wykładów na uniwersytetach jednak bez prawa do wynagrodzenia za przeprowadzane wykłady. W latach pierwszej wojny światowej od sierpnia 1914 r. do zakończenia, służył w armii pruskiej jako żołnierz szeregowy w różnych jednostkach technicznych. Po klęsce Prus powrócił do Frankfurtu, gdzie nadal poświęcał się pracy naukowej. Habilitował się we Frankfurcie w 1915. Od 1919 współpracował z Maxem Bornem. +W 1921 r. Stern otrzymał stanowisko profesora fizyki teoretycznej na Uniwersytecie w Rostocku. Tutaj dołączył do swego przyjaciela Maxa Volmera. Pobyt w Rostocku pozwolił mu na poszerzenie swych horyzontów myślowych i na zawarcie nowych znajomości. Nie trwał on jednak długo. W 1923 objął stanowisko dyrektora w nowo powstałym Instytucie Chemii Fizycznej na Uniwersytecie w Hamburgu. Z powodu swojego częściowego pochodzenia żydowskiego po dojściu Hitlera do władzy w 1933 wyemigrował do USA. Do 1945 roku był profesorem na Carnegie Institute of Technology w Pittsburghu. Tam też przystąpił do budowy laboratorium molekularnego, choć ze względu na trudności gospodarcze nie był w stanie rozbudować swej pracowni do tego poziomu jaką posiadał w Hamburgu. Następnie już jako "professor emeritus" osiadł na Uniwersytecie Kalifornijskim w Berkeley. Sporadycznie utrzymywał kontakty z miejscowymi fizykami, lecz unikał już publicznych wystąpień. Do końca swego życia Otto Stern pozostał kawalerem. +Zmarł na zawał serca 17 sierpnia 1969 r. w czasie przedstawienia teatralnego i pochowany został w Berkeley. +18 września 1997 r. podczas sesji wyjazdowej 34. Zjazdu Fizyków Polskich została odsłonięta tablica pamiątkowa, poświęcona Ottonowi Sternowi. Tablicę odsłonili zagraniczni goście – nobliści: Herbert A. Hauptman (Nagroda Nobla z chemii 1985 r.) i Rudolf Mössbauer (Nagroda Nobla z fizyki 1961 r.), a także polski fizyk prof. dr hab. Jerzy Warczewski oraz przedstawiciele miasta Żory Zygmunt Łukaszczyk i Ryszard Ostrowski. Tablica odlana z mosiądzu według projektu Stanisława Szwarca wisi na ścianie frontowej budynku Urzędu Miasta Żory. +Przed II wojną światową istniała linia kolejowa prowadząca z Gumieniec przez Stobno, Dołuje, Dobrą, Buk (dziś w Polsce), Glashütte, Hintersee i Rieth w Niemczech do Nowego Warpna. Została ona w 1945 r. rozebrana na odcinku Dobra – Nowe Warpno, wskutek przecięcia jej przez nowowytyczoną granicę państwową. +Na koniec sezonu kierowcy mogli przesłać kupony do biura organizatorów; ten z nich, który zgromadził kupony na największą ilość kilometrów wygrywał i otrzymywał jakąś cenną nagrodę, inne nagrody rozlosowywano pomiędzy pozostałymi uczestnikami akcji. "Akcja Autostop" w tej zinstytucjonalizowanej formie cieszyła się w Polsce dużym powodzeniem do końca lat siedemdziesiątych. Później popularność tej formy gwałtownie spadła, ale książeczki można było nabywać do 1995 r. +19 października 1993 r. Kongregacja do spraw kultu Bożego przy stolicy Apostolskiej nadała miastu Chorzów patrona św. Floriana, gdzie otaczany jest szczególnym kultem. +Samolot "Mitsubishi G4M" (amerykańskie oznaczenie kodowe "Betty") został zaprojektowany w 1937 r. dla dowództwa cesarskiej marynarki wojennej jako następca bombowca G3M. +W kwietniu 1941 r. uruchomiono produkcję seryjną wersji "G4M1 Model 11", która przenosiła ładunek bomb do 800 kg lub jedną torpedę. Do grudnia 1941 r. wyprodukowano 200 samolotów tej wersji. W 1942 r. zbudowano 370 samolotów wersji "G4M1 Model 12" z silnikami "Kasei 15" o mocy 1280 KM (942 kW) i z samouszczelniającymi się po przestrzeleniu zbiornikami paliwa. Kolejne wersje samolotu "Mitsubishi G4M" różniły się w zasadzie mocą silników i uzbrojeniem. W 1942 r. wyprodukowano wersję "G4M2" i jej odmiany w 1943 r.: "G4M2a", "G4M2b", "G4M2c", "G4M2d". W 1944 r. wyprodukowano wersję "G4M2e", przystosowaną do przenoszenia pod kadłubem bomby latającej "MXY-7 Ohka" – pilotowanej przez pilotów – samobójców (kamikaze). W 1945 r. wyprodukowano wersję "G4M3" z opancerzonymi stanowiskami załogi i silnikami wyposażonymi w turbosprężarki. +Samolot "Mitsubishi G4M" był podstawowym samolotem bombowo-torpedowym japońskiej marynarki wojennej startującym z baz lądowych w latach 1941 – 1945. Po raz pierwszy został użyty w dniu 8 grudnia 1941 r., gdy 27 samolotów G4M zbombardowało amerykańską bazę lotniczą Clark Field na Filipinach. W dniu 10 grudnia 1941 r. wzięły udział w ataku na eskadrę floty brytyjskiej na Malajach, zatapiając m.in. pancernik „Repulse”. W 1942 r. brały udział w licznych atakach na lotniskowce amerykańskiej. Od kwietnia 1942 brały udział w nalotach na Port Moresby na Nowej Gwinei. Następnie uczestniczyły w walkach w rejonie Wysp Salomona, a w szczególności w atakach na wojska amerykańskie na wyspie Guadalcanal. Po wprowadzeniu przez lotnictwo amerykańskie do akcji w 1943 r. samolotów myśliwskich "F6F Hellcat" i "P-38 Lighting", znacznie zmalała skuteczność działania samolotów "Mitsubishi G4M". +Do czasu wprowadzenia samouszczelniających się zbiorników paliwa w 1942 r., bombowiec ten był określany przez pilotów amerykańskich jako "jednostrzałowa zapalniczka" lub "latające cygaro" ze względu na delikatność konstrukcji i podatność na zapalenie, bez względu na miejsce trafienia. +18 kwietnia 1943 r. na pokładzie samolotu "G4M1" zginął japoński admirał Isoroku Yamamoto, głównodowodzący japońską marynarką wojenną, zestrzelony w rejonie wyspy Bougainville przez samoloty myśliwskie "P 38 Lighting". W listopadzie 1944 r. samolot "G4M2e" przystosowano do transportowania bomb latających MXY-7 Ohka, pilotowanych przez kamikaze (pilotów – samobójców). Pierwszy atak kamikaze przy użyciu bomb "MXY 7 Ohka" nastąpił w dniu 20 marca 1945 r. Po początkowych sukcesach ta forma ataku na okręty przeciwnika nie przynosiła później spodziewanych efektów. +W dniu 19 sierpnia 1945 r. na pokładzie samolotu "Mitsubishi G4M2" przybyła na Iwo-Jimę japońska delegacja w celu podpisania aktu kapitulacji. +World Brain – książka z esejami i przemówieniami opublikowana w 1938 r. przez angielskiego pisarza Herberta George'a Wellsa. +Jeden z esejów, zatytułowany "The Idea of a Permanent World Encyclopaedia" (Idea stałej światowej encyklopedii), był szczególnie godny uwagi ze względu na zaprezentowanie wizji podobnej do dzisiejszych Wikipedii. Esej ukazał się pierwotnie w sierpniu 1937 r. w Encyclopédie Française. +Zasada "pacta sunt servanda" miała pierwotnie zastosowanie w stosunkach cywilistycznych, ale ze względu na swoje kluczowe znaczenie oraz obecność w każdym niemal systemie prawnym stanowi także podstawową zasadę prawa międzynarodowego oraz prawa konstytucyjnego, gdzie wypływa z zasady państwa prawa (art. 2 Konstytucji RP z 1997 r.). Jedna z podstawowych norm w stosunkach międzynarodowych, potwierdzana w wielu aktach prawa międzynarodowego publicznego, począwszy od deklaracji londyńskiej z 1871, Paktu Ligi Narodów, do Karty Narodów Zjednoczonych z 1945 i Deklaracji zasad prawa międzynarodowego z 1970. Zasada uregulowana w prawie międzynarodowym publicznym w Konwencji wiedeńskiej o prawie traktatów. +Powiat wałbrzyski – powiat w południowo-zachodniej Polsce, w województwie dolnośląskim, utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Wałbrzych. +Obszar powiatu obejmuje centralną część Niziny Śląskiej, a dokładniej jej trzy mezoregiony fizyczno-geograficzne: Dolinę Odry, Wysoczyznę Średzką i Równinę Kostomłotów. Takie usytuowanie sprawia, że znajduje się w dwóch krajobrazowo odmiennych obszarach. Wysoczyzna Średzka leżąca w centrum regionu jest lekko pagórkowata i bezleśna. Wzniesienia na niej występujące są typowymi wzgórzami morenowymi, pokrytymi cienką warstwą lessu. Zbliżony charakter krajobrazowy ma przylegający do niej płaskowyż, noszący nazwę Równina Kostomłotów. Położona w północnej części regionu Dolina Odry składa się przede wszystkim z piaszczystych wzgórz i równin poprzecinanych głębokimi dolinami dawnych rzek, gdzie utworzyły się zatorfione obniżenia porośnięte liściastymi lasami łęgowymi i trzcinami. Duży stopień naturalności lasów sprawił, że w 1959 r. utworzono tu rezerwat przyrody "Zabór". +Powiat Średzki należy do obszarów o najstarszym osadnictwie na Śląsku. Najdawniejsze ślady odkryto w Głosce i szacuje się, że pochodzą z końcowego okresu paleolitu, czyli 8-13 tys. lat temu. Naukowcy twierdzą, że Słowianie przybyli na tereny Powiatu Średzkiego w VI w., zaś do państwa Polan przyłączono je pod koniec X w., za panowania Bolesława Chrobrego. W XII w. na szlaku handlowym pojawiła się osada targowa - Środa Śląska, przemianowana sto lat później na miasto. Lokacja Środy Śląskiej nastąpiła na prawie niemieckim, które po dostosowaniu do miejscowych potrzeb i warunków zaczęto nazywać "prawem średzkim". W 1335 r. region Średzki został włączony do Czech, a w latach 1526 - 1740 z całym Śląskiem, przeszedł pod panowanie Habsburgów. W 1740 r. powiat został przyłączony do Prus. Przechodzenie kolejno pod panowanie czeskie, austriackie i pruskie skutkowało wieloma wojnami wyniszczającymi okolice, ale również wieloma wpływami kulturowymi i religijnymi. Pierwszym starostą średzkim był w latach 1742-1749 Karl Friedrich von Poser - właściciel dóbr w Radkowicach i Zakrzycach. W okresie wojen napoleońskich Środę Śląską odwiedził sam cesarz Napoleon Bonaparte, który w czerwcu 1813 r. oczekiwał tu na zawarcie rozejmu. Pod koniec II wojny światowej region został zajęty przez wojska radzieckie, stając się ich zapleczem w walkach o Wrocław. Po wojnie na mocy postanowień konferencji w Jałcie i Poczdamie, Śląsk - a wraz z nim powiat średzki, powrócił do Polski, kończąc siedmiowiekowe, obce panowanie. Pierwszym starostą po wojnie został Romuald Czapliński, a przewodniczącym Powiatowej Rady Narodowej utworzonej w 1946 r. - Szczepan Koralewicz.. +Rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych uregulowana jest w ustawie z dnia 6 lipca 1982 r. o księgach wieczystych i hipotece (jedn. tekst ze zm.) +Poza wypadkami przewidzianymi wprost w ustawie z dnia 6 lipca 1982 r. o księgach wieczystych i hipotece (jedn. tekst ze zm.) rękojmia wiary publicznej ksiąg wieczystych jest wyłączona w sytuacji, gdy w chwili zbycia dla nieruchomości prowadzone są dwie księgi wieczyste, w których wpisani są różni właściciele (uchwała Sądu Najwyższego z dnia 24 października 2003 r., III CZP 70/03). +Obecnie powierzchnia wszystkich stawów przekracza 8 tys. ha. Zasilane są woda z Baryczy i jej dopływów. Unikatowa flora i fauna tego obszaru, bogactwo krajobrazowe i historyczne były powodem, dla którego utworzono tu Park Krajobrazowy Dolina Baryczy. Milicka Dolina Baryczy jest największym parkiem krajobrazowym w Polsce. Jego powierzchnia wynosi 87 tys. ha. Powstał w 1996 r. Składają się nań wielkie kompleksy leśne i wodne. Samych ptaków rozpoznano tu 270 gatunków. Spośród najrzadszych warto wymienić: czaplę purpurową, bąka, bociana czarnego, perkoza rdzawoszyjego, zausznika, żurawia i orła bielika. W 2000 roku "Stawy Milickie" znalazły się wśród 13 obszarów wodnych, objętych światowym programem ochrony jezior Living Lakes, obok takich miejsc jak Jezioro Bodeńskie, jezioro Bajkał czy Morze Martwe. +Naomi Klein (ur. 5 maja 1970 r. w Montrealu) − kanadyjska dziennikarka, pisarka i aktywistka społeczna. +Seagate Technology () – firma produkująca nośniki danych, głównie dyski twarde, założona w 1979 r. w Kalifornii przez Alana Shugarta i Finisa Connera. Spółka notowana na NYSE. +W wyniku I wojny światowej ród utracił panowanie w księstwie. Książę Bernhard spędził młode lata w pruskiej Prowincji Poznańskiej, później Marchii Granicznej Poznańsko-Zachodniopruskiej, w dobrach rodzinnych Reckenwalde w Nowej Marchii, obecnie Wojnowo koło Sulechowa ("Züllichau") w Polsce. Tam też zdobył podstawowe wykształcenie; gimnazjum ukończył w Berlinie w 1929 r. Studiował prawo na uniwersytetach w Lozannie (Szwajcaria) i Berlinie. Prowadził rozrywkowy tryb życia, był znany jako miłośnik szybkich samochodów, jazdy konnej i wypraw myśliwskich safari. +Po powstaniu styczniowym władze carskie pozbawiły praw miejskich Piaseczno w 1869 r., a Górę Kalwarię w 1883 r. Ponownie zostały podniesienie do rzędu miast przez okupacyjną administrację niemiecką w 1916 r. Na mocy ukazu carskiego z 1864 r. zniesiono pańszczyznę, a włościanie otrzymali ziemię na własność, dlatego obszar majątków ziemskich uległ okrojeniu. +Na przełomie XIX i XX w. zbudowano linie wąskotorowych kolejek dojazdowych z Warszawy m.in. do Góry Kalwarii, z których do dziś pozostała, wpisana do rejestru zabytków, linia z Piaseczna przez Grójec do Nowego Miasta nad Pilicą w powiecie grójeckim o długości 72 km. (regularny ruch osobowy zawieszono na niej w 1991, a towarowy w 1996 r.). +W XX w. teren dzisiejszego powiatu piaseczyńskiego przecięły dwie linie kolejowe Warszawa – Radom – Kraków w 1934 r. i Skierniewice – Łuków (z mostem na Wiśle w Górze Kalwarii) w 1953 r. +Ciężkie walki na tych terenach toczyły się też w czasie I wojny światowej. Po starciach rosyjsko-niemieckich jesienią 1914 i ponownie w lecie 1915 r. pozostały liczne cmentarze wojskowe rozproszone na obszarze całego powiatu. +Okres drugiej wojny światowej ponownie odcisnął się bolesnym piętnem na terenach obecnego powiatu. Przetoczyły się tędy wojska polskie i niemieckie w czasie kampanii wrześniowej. Jesienią 1940 r. miejscowych Żydów uwięziono w gettach w Piasecznie i Górze Kalwarii. W lutym 1941 wszyscy zostali przesiedleni do getta warszawskiego. Na ich miejsce władze okupacyjne przesiedliły rodziny polskie z Pomorza wcielonego do Rzeszy. Lasy Chojnowskie stały się schronieniem dla oddziałów partyzanckich, a podczas powstania warszawskiego jego zapleczem. Tragiczne epizody wojny upamiętniają liczne pomniki i tablice. +Terytorium dzisiejszego powiatu należało do rozbiorów do województwa mazowieckiego, w latach 1796-1806 do departamentu warszawskiego w prowincji Prusy Południowe, w okresie Księstwa Warszawskiego od 1807 do 1814 r. nadal pozostawało w departamencie warszawskim. W latach 1815-1837 znajdowało się w województwie mazowieckim w Królestwie Polskim, w latach 1837-1845 w guberni mazowieckiej, a w latach 1845-1915 w guberni warszawskiej. W okresie okupacji niemieckiej podczas I wojny światowej (1915-1918) należało do Generał-Gubernatorstwa Warszawskiego. W odrodzonej Polsce znajdowało się w granicach województwa warszawskiego, a w latach II wojny światowej w dystrykcie warszawskim Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Od 1945 do 1975 r. stanowiło część województwa warszawskiego, w latach 1975-1998 województwa stołecznego warszawskiego, a od początku 1999 r. znajduje się w województwie mazowieckim. +Powiat Piaseczyński utworzony został z dniem 1 lipca 1952 r. jako jeden z czterech powstałych po zniesieniu powiatu warszawskiego. W jego skład weszły miasta: Piaseczno i Skolimów-Konstancin (który otrzymało prawa miejskie w 1952 roku) oraz gminy: Falenty, Jeziorna (otrzymała prawa miejskie w 1962 roku, od 1969 roku jako miasto Konstancin-Jeziorna) i Lesznowola z dawnego powiatu warszawskiego. Włączono też Górę Kalwarię z gminami: Czersk, Głosków, Jazgarzew, Kąty, Sobików i Wola Wągrodzka, które należały dotąd do powiatu grójeckiego oraz gminę Mroków z powiatu grodzisko-mazowieckiego (dawnego błońskiego). Powiat zlikwidowano w wyniku reformy administracyjnej 31 maja 1975 r., a reaktywowano w dawnych granicach bez gminy Raszyn z dniem 1 stycznia 1999 r. +Wbrew panującej powszechnie opinii, autorem pojęcia "grindcore" nie był Mick Harris – ex-perkusista Napalm Death, lecz nieżyjący już Jesse Pintado – gitarzysta Napalm Death w latach 1989–2004. Jesse Pintado użył po raz pierwszy terminu "grindcore" ok. 1983 r. na określenie uprawianej przez niego wówczas muzyki (mieszanki "chaosu i hałasu" wg jego własnych słów), ale na szerszą skalę grindcore, jako odmiana ekstremalnego metalu, został spopularyzowany dopiero przez Micka Harrisa. Pierwszym grindcore'owym albumem był nagrywany w latach 1986–87 "Scum" Napalm Death. Od początku zaczęto wyróżniać dwa nurty w stylu grind: "polityczny" (mincecore), poruszający problemy współczesnego świata, muzycznie jest w miarę lekki i ma podobieństwa z crustpunkiem, reprezentowany m.in. przez zespoły Brutal Truth, Napalm Death i Agathocles, Cauterized i tzw. "gore'owy" (Goregrind), opisujacy krwawe i odrażające historie, niekiedy prawdziwe, reprezentowany m.in. przez wczesny Carcass, Repulsion, Impetigo i Meat Shits. +Open eBook - jest to inicjatywa wspierana przez kilkadziesiąt firm komputerowych, której celem jest rozwinięcie standardu publikowania materiałów elektronicznych w oparciu o ustalenia języka XML, uniwersalnego standardu wymiany danych w Internecie. Pierwsza specyfikacja, Open eBook Publication Structure, została opublikowana w 1999 r. +Marceli Motty spoczywa w Cmentarzu Zasłużonych Wielkopolan na stoku Wzgórza Św. Wojciecha. W 1920 r. jedna z ulic na poznańskim Łazarzu otrzymała imię Marcelego Mottego. +Jezioro powstało w 1943 r. poprzez spiętrzenie wód Bogdanki. Do wykonania prac ziemnych związanych z utworzeniem zbiornika zostali zmuszeni Żydzi osadzeni w hitlerowskich obozach pracy przymusowej na terenie Poznania. +Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski w RP był spadkobiercą Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Królestwie Polskim, który działał na terenie zaboru rosyjskiego. Po odrodzeniu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej objął swym zasięgiem również parafie z innych regionów kraju. Trudnego dzieła złączenia i budowy struktur Kościoła podjął się pierwszy superintendent generalny, ks. Juliusz Bursche. W 1936 roku, na mocy Dekretu Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z 25 listopada 1936 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, wprowadzono nową Ustawę Kościelną. Zgodnie z jej zapisami na czele Kościoła stał Biskup Kościoła, władzę administracyjną sprawował Konsystorz, władze ustawodawczą Synod. Kościół został podzielony na 10 diecezji, na których czele stali seniorowie. Ustawa gwarantowała również wewnętrzną niezależność Kościoła oraz dała prawną podstawę do jego rozwoju. W okresie międzywojennym powstał diakonat „Eben Ezer” w Dzięgielowie. Utworzono Wydział Teologii Ewangelickiej na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Istniało 5 szpitali ewangelickich, kilka domów opieki, rozwijał się diakonat „Tabita”. +Na mocy ustawy z 13 maja 1994 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego uregulowano funkcjonowanie Kościoła w Polsce. Na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych Kościół Ewangelicko-Augsburski liczył 90 000 wiernych. Nowa regulacja prawna doprowadziła do powstania różnych nowych form działania Kościoła. Powołano do życia Diakonię Kościoła, zajmującą się udzielaniem pomocy osobom potrzebującym. Kościół prowadzi domy opieki dla dorosłych w Dzięgielowie, Konstancinie-Jeziornie, w Bytomiu-Miechowicach, w Mikołajkach, Zagórowie, Węgrowie i Bielsku-Białej. Działają przyparafialne świetlice środowiskowe, wypożyczalnie sprzętu rehabilitacyjnego. Powrotem do przedwojennej tradycji było powołanie w 1995 roku Ewangelickiego Duszpasterstwa Wojskowego. Dzięki inicjatywie ewangelickich towarzystw edukacyjnych, powołano do życia szkoły podstawowe, gimnazja, licea oraz szkoły policealne we Wrocławiu, Krakowie, Bielsku-Białej, Cieszynie, Olsztynie i Gliwicach. Nie zapomniano również o środowiskach polonijnych za granicą, szczególnie w Niemczech i Wielkiej Brytanii. +Wewnętrzną strukturę Kościoła reguluje Zasadnicze Prawo Wewnętrzne Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z 26 października 1996 r., uchwalone przez Synod Kościoła. W 1992 roku powołano do życia Ośrodek Wydawniczy Augustana w Bielsku-Białej, który wydaje literaturę ewangelicką. W 2010 w wyniku tajnego głosowania Synod Kościoła opowiedział się przeciwko ordynacji kobiet na księży. +Przenosiny Arsenalu, który pierwotnie grał w południowym Londynie, nastąpiły w roku 1913. Klub wydzierżawił od St. John's College of Divinity nowy teren za 20 tys. funtów na 21 lat pod dodatkowymi warunkami – mecze nie mogły być rozgrywane w Wielki Piątek i Wigilię Bożego Narodzenia. Te ograniczenia zniesiono dopiero w 1925 r., po ostatecznym wykupieniu gruntów za kwotę 64 tys. funtów. Budowa rozpoczęła się w 1914 r. Do najważniejszych zadań należało przede wszystkim wyrównanie terenu, co wymagało wyniesienia północnej części boiska o ponad trzy metry i obniżenia południowej o półtora. Wybudowanie trybuny i bram wejściowych kosztowało 80 tys. funtów – klub był jednak w tak fatalnej kondycji, że nie mógł zapłacić za roboty i dopuścił wykonawcę do udziału w zyskach ze sprzedaży biletów. +W 1932 r. powstała "West Stand", czyli zachodnia trybuna stadionu. Kosztowała 45 tys. funtów, a jej otwarcie 10 grudnia uświetnił następca tronu, Książę Walii. Pierwszy raz na trybunę wpuszczono kibiców dwa dni później, podczas meczu przeciwko Chelsea Londyn, wygranym przez Arsenal 1:0. Była to wówczas największa konstrukcja w całej lidze angielskiej, w której mogło pomieścić się ponad 24 tys. widzów (w tym 4100 na miejscach siedzących na wyższym poziomie, do którego dojeżdżała winda). +W 1945 wszyscy biskupi ukraińskiej Cerkwi greckokatolickiej zostali aresztowani i skazani na długie wyroki więzienia. Na początku 1946 we Lwowie odbył się pseudosynod, w którym udział wzięło 214 z 1270 duchownych greckokatolickich, a który pod nadzorem tajnej policji politycznej zjednoczył grekokatolików z Rosyjskim Kościołem Prawosławnym. W 1949 podobny pseudosynod miał miejsce na Zakarpaciu. W komunistycznej Polsce kres działalności ukraińskiej Cerkwi greckokatolickiej jako zorganizowanej całości przyniosła Akcja „Wisła” w 1947. Po wysiedleniu do ZSRR w 1946 r. biskupów i kurii przemyskiej Stolica Apostolska wyposażyła w nadzwyczajne uprawnienia kardynałów Hlonda i Sapiehę, a następnie papież Pius XII mianował kard. A.Hlonda delegatem specjalnym dla obrządków wschodnich w Polsce, po jego śmierci analogiczne uprawnienia uzyskał kardynał Stefan Wyszyński. Prymas Stefan Wyszyński umożliwił funkcjonowanie Cerkwi greckokatolickiej w ramach struktury administracyjnej Kościoła rzymskokatolickiego w Polsce, w 1967 ustanowił on funkcję Wikariusza Generalnego Prymasa Polski dla wiernych obrządku greckokatolickiego. Jednak cenzura nakazywała „eliminować wszelkie informacje o istnieniu – aktualnie w Polsce – obrządku greckokatolickiego, jego podporządkowaniu ks. Wyszyńskiemu oraz jakiejkolwiek działalności unitów w naszym kraju”. W 1981 delegatem apostolskim dla wiernych obrządków wschodnich w Polsce z prawami ordynariusza miejsca został Prymas Polski, kardynał Józef Glemp, który następnie powołał dwu Wikariuszy Generalnych dla wiernych obrządku greckokatolickiego – dla Polski północnej i Polski południowej. W 1989 Prymas Polski kardynał Józef Glemp ponownie ustanowił jednego Wikariusza Generalnego dla całego obszaru Polski. +Udział w wojnie obronnej 1939 r.. +Z chwilą wybuchu wojny obronnej 1939 r. 26 DP wchodziła w skład Armii "Poznań" pod dowództwem gen. Tadeusza Kutrzeby. Początkowo zajmowała ona pozycje na płd. brzegu Noteci, następnie została wycofana pod Inowrocław. 6 września przeszła do Armii "Pomorze" gen. Władysława Bortnowskiego jako jej odwód. Żołnierze 26 DP, a wśród nich mjr Krzyżanowski, uczestniczyli w bitwie nad Bzurą, m.in. w uderzeniu na Łowicz. Po rozbiciu polskich jednostek przez Niemców mjr Krzyżanowski zebrał grupę ocalałych żołnierzy, przedostał się z nią w Góry Świętokrzyskie i tam ponownie podjął walkę z wojskami niemieckimi. Jego oddział został jednak rozbity w połowie października w rejonie Świętej Katarzyny. +Z ważniejszych znajdujących się tu obiektów wymienić można murowany kościół parafialny wybudowany w 1949 r., w którym część wyposażenia (m.in. chrzcielnica) pochodzi z XVII-wiecznego drewnianego kościoła pw. św. Bartłomieja, przeniesionego stąd do pobliskich Kaczyc w 1972 (kościół Podwyższenia Krzyża Świętego w Kaczycach), budynek szkoły z 1885 r. oraz dwa kościoły ewangelickie – z 1912 r. i nowszy, zbudowany w latach 1988-1994. +Zduństwo – dział rzemiosła zajmujący się budową i naprawą pieców (pokojowych, kuchennych, chlebowych, pieco-kominków, ostatnio (po 1990 r.) także kominków). Rzemieślnik uprawiający to rzemiosło to zdun. +Michalina Anna Wisłocka (ur. 1 lipca 1921 r. w Łodzi, zm. 5 lutego 2005 r. w Warszawie) — polska lekarka, ginekolog, cytolog i seksuolog. +Dyplom lekarza uzyskała 1 września 1952 r., natomiast tytuł naukowy doktora n. med. uzyskała 24.04.1969 r. +Urodzona w rodzinie inteligenckiej. Ojciec – Jan Tymoteusz Braun, był nauczycielem w szkole powszechnej przy ul. Klonowej 11, a następnie (od XII 1926 do IX 1939 r.) kierownikiem Szkoły Powszechnej Nr 30, przy ul. Wspólnej 5/7 w Łodzi; matka – Anna z Żylińskich herbu Ciołek, zajmowała się domem oraz udzielała lekcji języka polskiego. Rodzeństwo – dwóch młodszych braci: Andrzej, znany pisarz i Jan. Jej bratanicą jest Ewa Braun, scenograf i kostiumolog, laureatka Oscara. +Narodową drużynę USA reprezentował trzykrotnie: na olimpiadach: Seul 88' (brąz), Barcelona 92' (złoto) i Atlanta 96' (złoto). Był także członkiem drużyny, która zdobyła tytuł mistrza świata na mistrzostwach w Hiszpanii w 1986 r. +Jest jednym z czterech koszykarzy w historii NBA którzy uzyskali Quadruple-double notując 34 pkt., 10 zb., 10 as., 10 bl. Wydarzenie to miało miejsce 17 lutego 1994 r. w meczu San Antonio Spurs vs. Detroit Pistons. W 1996 r. został wybrany w poczet 50 najwybitniejszych koszykarzy w historii NBA. +Centrum Chrześcijańskie "Miecz Ducha" w Kaliszu - wspólnota początkowo należąca do Kościoła katolickiego (Ruch Odnowy w Duchu Świętym), a od 1997 r. niezależna, zarejestrowała się 14 stycznia 1998 r. Jako kościół odrzuciła nieomylność papieża, doktrynę czyśćca i kult świętych oraz przyjęła charakter neo-zielonoświątkowy/charyzmatyczny. Jest to jedna z liczniejszych grup katolików w Polsce które wystąpiły z tego Kościoła od 1980 r. W 2005 r. podawała swą liczebność w wysokości 360 osób. Wcześniej wspólnota nosiła nazwę Kościół Chrześcijański "Miecz Ducha". +Treningi rozpoczął w Dynamie Lwów. W 1990 wyszukał go trener polskiej kadry narodowej Ryszard Szewczyk i sprowadził do Polski. W Polsce reprezentował barwy Budowlanych Opole. Dzięki polskim korzeniom (dziadek był Polakiem) w 1992 r. otrzymał polskie obywatelstwo. +Jaskinia udostępniona jest do zwiedzania. Prowadzi do niej niewielka ścieżka z drabiną i łańcuchami. W samej jaskini przejście jest również ubezpieczone łańcuchem. Smocza Jama jest kręta i ciemna, do zwiedzania potrzebna jest latarka. Zimą szlak bywa oblodzony, co znacznie utrudnia przejście. Istnieje możliwość obejścia fragmentu szlaku prowadzącego jaskinią – ubezpieczone łańcuchami wejście po skale, w której się ona znajduje. Wariant ten został wytyczony w 1967 r. +Smocza Jama od dawna jest znana i użytkowana turystycznie. Pierwsza pisana wzmianka pochodzi z przewodnika Karla Kolbenhayera z 1876 r. Początkowo była zwiedzana w odwrotną stronę, co zwiększało efektowność przejścia. Pierwotnie szlak był ubezpieczony drewnianymi konstrukcjami, w 1949 r. zmieniono je na stalowe. +Metoda Sainte-Laguë jest stosowana m.in. w systemach wyborczych w Nowej Zelandii, Norwegii, Szwecji, Danii, Bośni i Hercegowinie, Łotwie oraz Kosowie, a od 2009 roku również w Niemczech. Jest stosowana, także w Niemczech w wyborach do Landtagów: Badenii-Wirtembergii, Hamburga, Bremy, Nadrenii Północnej-Westfalii oraz Nadrenii-Palatynatu. Użyto jej również w wyborach w Boliwii w 1993 roku, wyborach do Rady Legislacyjnej Autonomii Palestyńskiej w 2006 roku i w wyborach parlamentarnych w Nepalu w 2008 roku. Zastosowano ją także (w wersji zmodyfikowanej) w Polsce podczas wyborów parlamentarnych w 2001 roku oraz w wyborach do rad gmin (w gminach liczących powyżej 20 tys. mieszkańców) w 1990 i 1994 r. +Większość skamieniałych szczątków nie zachowało się dobrze. Wiele kości było zniekształconych i potrzeba było żmudnej pracy paleontologów aby właściwie je poskładać. Najlepiej zachowane kości są znajdywane od 1974 r. w Araripe Plateau, w Brazylii. +Syn Teresy Janette i Petera Williamsa, dorastał w Stoke-On-Trent. Bardzo szybko ujawniły się jego zdolności sceniczne. W 1991 roku zgłosił się na przesłuchanie do Take That. Była to jedna z najsłynniejszych brytyjskich grup popowych na początku lat dziewięćdziesiątych, gdyż aż osiem singli Take That dotarło na szczyt brytyjskiej listy przebojów. Jednak Robbiemu coraz mniej odpowiadały oczekiwania i ograniczenia, które mu narzucano. W czerwcu 1995 roku odszedł z zespołu, a Take That rozpadło się niecały rok później, na początku 1996 r. +Republika Raguzy (czasami Republika Dubrownicka) – wolna republika kupiecka istniejąca w latach 1204-1809, o ustroju arystokratycznym, pod zwierzchnością kolejno: Wenecji (do 1358), Węgier i Turcji. Rozciągała się od Kleku na północnym zachodzie do Zatoki Kotorskiej na południu, ze stolicą w Raguzie (w 1909 r. nazwa miasta została zmieniona na Dubrownik). +Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn (ur. 19 stycznia 1851 r. w Barneveld, zm. 18 czerwca 1922 r. w Amsterdamie) był holenderskim astronomem, najbardziej znanym z dogłębnych badań Drogi Mlecznej, które doprowadziły do odkrycia jej ruchu obrotowego. +Od roku 1868 Kapteyn studiował matematykę i fizykę na uniwersytecie w Utrechcie. Po ukończeniu w 1875 r. pracy dyplomowej na temat drgań membrany przez trzy lata pracował w obserwatorium w Lejdzie, nim został pierwszym profesorem astronomii i mechaniki teoretycznej na Uniwersytecie w Groningen, gdzie pozostawał do przejścia na emeryturę w 1921 r. +W 1902 r. otrzymał Złoty Medal Królewskiego Towarzystwa Astronomicznego. +W 1904 r., badając ruchy własne gwiazd, Kapteyn zauważył, że nie są one przypadkowe, jak wówczas sądzono. Spostrzegł, że wszystkie gwiazdy można podzielić na dwie grupy, poruszające się w niemal przeciwnych kierunkach. Zebrane przez niego dane okazały się pierwszym świadectwem rotacji Galaktyki i pozwoliły na późniejsze udowodnienie przez Bertila Lindblada i Jana Oorta ruchu obrotowego wszystkich galaktyk. +W 1906 r. Kapteyn zainicjował zakrojony na szeroką skalę program badań rozmieszczenia gwiazd w Galaktyce. Plan zakładał pomiar jasności, typu widmowego, prędkości radialnej, ruchów własnych i paralaks gwiazd w 206 polach, równomiernie rozmieszczonych na sferze niebieskiej (tzw. polach kapteynowskich) oraz 46 fragmentach nieba w pobliżu płaszczyzny Galaktyki. Ten nietypowy, jak na tamte czasy, projekt zaangażował ponad 40 obserwatoriów w różnych krajach i był pierwszą analizą statystyczną w astronomii. Opublikowane w 1920 (artykuł w "Astrophysical Journal") i 1922 ("Pierwsza próba teorii położenia i ruchu systemu gwiezdnego") roku wyniki prac pozwoliły na stworzenie modelu soczewkowatego wszechświata (na początku XX stulecia nie wiedziano, czym w istocie jest Galaktyka) o średnicy 40 tys. lat świetlnych, którego gęstość maleje z dala od centrum. Słońce ulokowano 2000 lat świetlnych od środka. Teoria częściowo sprawdzała się, lecz zafałszowywała rzeczywiste rozmiary Drogi Mlecznej i położenie w niej Słońca. +W Polsce „Dziennik” ukazał się w wyborze w dwóch tomach (prawie 1000 stron tekstu) w tłumaczeniu Marii Dąbrowskiej, nakładem wydawnictwa PIW w 1952 r.; II wydanie w1954 r.; III wydanie w 1966 r. ostatnie IV wydanie, pochodzi z 1978 r. +Take That – nagrodzony nagrodami BRIT's brytyjski boysband, który powstał w 1990 r. w Manchesterze. Członkami grupy są Mark Owen, Jason Orange, Howard Donald, Gary Barlow i Robbie Williams. Do roku 1996 grupa wydała cztery płyty, po czym zespół zawiesił swoją działalność, a jego członkowie rozpoczęli solowe kariery. Niepełne 10 lat później, bo w roku 2005 zespół reaktywował się (już bez Robbiego Williamsa). W listopadzie 2006 r. wydał nową studyjną płytę "Beautiful World", która okazała się sukcesem. Single z tej płyty – "Patience" oraz "Shine" przez długi czas utrzymywały się na 1. miejscach list przebojów. W grudniu 2008 pojawiła się ich najnowsza płyta "The Circus". Singlem, który poprzedził wydanie płyty był utwór "Greatest Day".Jego premiera miała +Nigel Martin – Smith postanowił założyć angielski odpowiednik amerykańskiego zespołu New Kids On The Block. Jedna z ciotek Gary'ego Barlowa doradziła mu, by zgłosił się do agencji Nigela. W agencji pojawił się następnego dnia z kasetami demo, zaprezentował umiejętności swoje i swojego kolegi – Marka Owena, z którym w przeszłości tworzyli duet Cutest Ruch. Obaj spodobali się Nigelowi. Tymczasem Jason Orange i Howard Donald założyli grupę breakdance o nazwie Street Beat. Jason w 1988 r. został zaangażowany jako tancerz w telewizyjnym show, gdzie poznał Nigela. Przez dwa lata jednak nic z tego nie wynikło. W marcu 1990 r. Jason przyszedł z Howardem do Nigela Martin – Smitha i zapytał czy ten nie mógłby im pomóc w zrobieniu kariery. Nigel Martin – Smith poznał ich z Markiem i Garym. Do kompletu brakowało jeszcze jednej osoby. Nigel dał ogłoszenie w gazecie. Babcia szesnastoletniego Robbiego Williamsa wysłała go na casting. Robbie zaśpiewał piosenkę Jasona Donovana. "Pamiętam jak otworzyłem okno i krzyknąłem do ludzi w sąsiednim pubie: będę sławny" – wspomina. I tak oto, we wrześniu 1990 r., powstała grupa Take That. +PageMaker dla komputerów Macintosh został pokazany w lipcu 1985 r. – opierał się na języku opisu stron Adobe PostScript, a do wydruku używał postscriptowych drukarek laserowych Apple LaserWriter. Rok później ukazała się wersja dla komputerów PC. Innym produktem Aldusa był FreeHand (licencjonowany od przedsiębiorstwa Altsys, znanego z edytora fontów Fontographer), przejęty potem przez Macromedia. +W latach 90. rynek został zdominowany przez konkurencyjny program DTP, QuarkXPress firmy Quark. Przedsiębiorstwo Adobe Systems, twórca PostScriptu, zdecydowało się przejąć Aldusa, co nastąpiło we wrześniu 1994 r. +Na początku pojemność stadionu wynosiła 35,500 miejsc. Pierwszy mecz odbył się 3 września 1900 r., gdy WBA zremisowało z Derby County. Na meczy zjawiło się 20,104 ludzi. Pierwsza bramka została zapisana na konto Steve'a Bloomera z Derby a pierwszą dla West Brom ustrzelił Chippy Simmons. +Codex Iuris Canonici, Pii X Pontificis Maximi iussu digestus, Benedicti Papae XV auctoritate promulgatus (pol. kodeks prawa kanonicznego) to pierwsza nowoczesna kodyfikacja prawa kanonicznego Kościoła katolickiego obrządku łacińskiego promulgowana 27 maja 1917 r. przez Benedykta XV bullą "Providentissima Mater Ecclesia". Kodeks wszedł w życie 19 maja 1918. +Specyfiką spotkań kabaretowych "Zielonego Balonika" było połączenie słowa i rysunku – wiele programów konstruowano kojarząc świadomie prezentację satyrycznych grafik i pisanych do nich tekstów. Rysunki powstawały w pierwszej kolejności, a teksty były nimi inspirowane, stanowiąc słowny komentarz. Grafiki tworzone były w większości przez karykaturzystów współpracujących z czasopismem „Liberum Veto”. Rysunki te służyły również do zdobienia ścian lokalu. Główny litograf tego grona, Zenon Pruszyński, wydał w 1930 r. broszurę-przewodnik po Jamie pt. "Jama Michalika. Lokal Zielonego Balonika". Publikacja zawiera inwentarz lokalu wraz z informacjami dotyczącymi sensu i genezy większości obrazów i rysunków. +Mimo ataków krytyki na łamach prasy (zgorszenie, unikanie konfrontacji z zaborcą w repertuarze, autocenzura) popularność "Zielonego Balonika" była ogromna – odczuwano bowiem wielką potrzebę tego typu rozrywki. Dowodzi tego masowe zakładanie nowych kabaretów: "Figlików" (Kraków) czy kabaretu "Momus" (Warszawa, 1909 r.), których inicjatorem był Arnold Szyfman, a także setek innych kabaretów zakładanych na prowincji, które jednak niewiele miały wspólnego z ideą "Zielonego Balonika". Zjawisko to jest łudząco podobne do mody na kabarety we Francji po sukcesie paryskiego "Chat Noir". I tam, i na ziemiach polskich wszystkie naśladownicze instytucje nie prezentowały swoim programem wysokiego poziomu, a ich komercyjny charakter był sprzeczny z intencjami założycieli "Zielonego Balonika". +Ojciec Czubińskiego był działaczem przedwojennej Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej, z zawodu szewcem. W Koninie Antoni Czubiński rozpoczął edukację szkolną, przerwaną przez wybuch wojny. W marcu 1942 r., wieku niespełna 14 lat, został wywieziony na roboty przymusowe do III Rzeszy, gdzie pozostał i pracował w gospodarstwie rolnym w Westerstede do końca wojny. Następnie uczęszczał do szkoły powszechnej w Brual-Rhede, rozpoczynając naukę od klasy piątej. +Po powrocie do Polski w 1946 r. kontynuował naukę. Już maju 1950 uzyskał maturę w Liceum Pedagogicznym w Morzysławiu koło Konina, po czym podjął studia historyczne na Uniwersytecie im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. Ukończył je w 1955 magisterium pod kierunkiem prof. Kazimierza Piwarskiego. Następnie przez dwa lata przebywał na aspiranturze na Uniwersytecie Państwowym im. Łomonosowa w Moskwie, doktoryzował się jednak w Poznaniu w 1959 u prof. Janusza Pajewskiego. Dysertację habilitacyjną obronił w 1963, uzyskując stopień naukowy doktora habilitowanego. W 1968 otrzymał tytuł naukowy profesora nadzwyczajnego, a w 1976 – profesora zwyczajnego. +Przynależność do PZPR nie przeszkodziła mu w opublikowaniu w 1973 roku pracy "Kraj Rad. Lata zmagań i zwycięstw", w której zakwestionował fragment dotyczący kolektywizacji rolnictwa, co stało się powodem usunięcia A. Czubińskiego z Wyższej Szkoły Nauk Społecznych przy KC PZPR w Warszawie na wniosek władz Związku Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich z inspiracji prof. Janusza Gołębiowskiego. Praca ta miała zresztą pierwotnie podtytuł "lata klęsk i zwycięstw" ("klęski" na "zmagania" Czubiński musiał zmienić na skutek ingerencji cenzury prewencyjnej już w wydawnictwie). W 1973 r. z kolei przeforsował zatrudnienie w swoim Zakładzie Historii Powszechnej XIX i XX wieku UAM dra Edmunda Makowskiego, zwolnionego z Wydawnictwa Poznańskiego za dopuszczenie kontrowersyjnej pod względem politycznym książki. +W 1971 wystąpił, jako kierownik Zakładu Historii Niemiec, z inicjatywą wydawania czasopisma naukowego poświęconego dziejom Niemiec i szeroko rozumianym stosunkom słowiańsko-germańskim. Pierwszy zeszyt Studiów Historica Slavo-Germanica ukazał się w 1972, a jego komitet redakcyjny tworzyli: Antoni Czubiński, Hubert Orłowski, Bernard Piotrowski, Jerzy Strzelczyk. W 1973 r. przeforsował zatrudnienie w Instytucie Historii Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza wyrzuconego z Wydawnictwa Poznańskiego Edmunda Makowskiego i przyjął go do swojego Zakładu Historii Niemiec. +W III RP zachował silnie lewicowe poglądy i sympatię dla PRL (jednakże złagodzoną). Na konferencjach, w publikacjach i polemikach konsekwentnie bronił dorobku PRL. Według jego historiozofii, w latach 1944-1989 Polska stopniowo uniezależniała się od ZSRR, przechodząc od pełnej zależności do daleko posuniętej autonomii, jej sytuacja była lepsza aniżeli innych "demoludów", a zasługę w tym oprócz nieokiełznanego narodu ma również wielu ówczesnych przywódców. Pozytywnie o stosunkach wytworzonych w Polsce w latach 1944-1989 miał świadczyć też przebieg historii po 1989 r. - to dzięki nim według Czubińskiego możliwe było przejście "ze stanu demokracji ludowej do stanu demokracji parlamentarnej" i "od stanu pseudosocjalizmu do stanu gospodarki rynkowej". Podkreślał też zasługi krajowej lewicy dla utrzymania państwowości polskiej (która w myśl porozumienia Hitlera i Stalina miała zniknąć całkowicie), chwalił podjęcie odbudowy państwa polskiego w ramach kurateli radzieckiej ("innej alernatywy wówczas nie było"). Przekonywał też, że ogólny bilans rozwoju ekonomiczno-społecznego PRL jest pozytywny i prognozował, że teza ta z czasem będzie zyskiwać coraz więcej zwolenników. Jego wypowiedzi w tym zakresie spotykały się z dezaprobatą wielu innych historyków epoki. +Mąż Barbary z domu Sikorskiej, z którą miał dwójkę dzieci: syna Piotra i córkę Annę. Powracając wraz synem w 1974 r. do Poznania, rozstał się z żoną (która wraz z córką pozostała w Warszawie) i w 1975 r. poślubił Barbarę Szulc, zatrudnioną od 1968 r. na stanowisku administracyjnym w Instytucie Historii UAM (w latach 1972-1989 jako wicedyrektor instytutu ds. administracyjnych). W 1993 r. owdowiał. +W 1960 r. założyła ze swymi przyjaciółkami Leną Johansson i Elisabeth Strub trio muzyczne The Chambers, które występowało w lokalnych klubach. +Izoterma DR, czyli izoterma Dubinina i Raduszkiewicza (1947 r.) opisuje adsorpcję w niewielkich porach, tzw. mikroporach, o średnicach porównywalnych z rozmiarami cząsteczki adsorbatu (< 2nm wg IUPAC). Adsorpcja w małych porach jest znacznie silniejsza niż na takiej samej chemicznie powierzchni płaskiej (większa ilość atomów adsorbatu oddziałuje z bliska z adsorbatem) i najczęściej jest opisywana za pomocą równania Dubinina-Raduszkiewicza, izotermy Dubinina-Astachowa (DA) – uogólnienia izotermy DR i Freundlicha – lub równań pochodnych. +Adobe PageMaker (dawniej "Aldus Pagemaker") – pierwszy program typu DTP, zaprojektowany w 1985 r. przez Aldus Corporation, pierwotnie dla komputerów Macintosh, ale wkrótce także dla komputerów PC na procesorach Intela. +W 1994 r. Aldus Corporation została kupiona przez Adobe Systems, która rozwija program jako Adobe PageMaker, obecnie w wersji 7 istniejącej od 9 lipca 2001, ale kilkakrotnie aktualizowanej - użytkownicy programu mogą dokonać aktualizacji do Adobe InDesign. PageMaker jest kierowany do małego biznesu, natomiast InDesign do korporacji. Program jest przeznaczony przede wszystkim do tworzenia broszur i ulotek, chociaż zawiera narzędzia do tworzenia złożonych czasopism - wiele polskich tytułów czasopism było składanych w latach 90. XX wieku właśnie za pomocą PageMakera. +Podstawowym utworem literackim nawiązującym do "polskiego piekła", i poniekąd je definiującym, jest opublikowany w 1926 r. w "Cyruliku Warszawskim" (nr 18 z 1926 r.), wiersz Konstantego Ildefonsa Gałczyńskiego pt. "Piekło polskie". Autor poruszał kwestie narodowych przesądów, zawiści i uprzedzeń (Żydzi, masoni, cykliści), pisząc: "a ja nad Piekłem z masonem latałem". +Władysław Kopaliński podaje, że wyrażenie "polskie piekło" spopularyzowane zostało przemówieniem Tadeusza Mazowieckiego, który 31 marca 1990 r. w przemówieniu na posiedzeniu Komitetu Obywatelskiego powiedział: "Abyśmy tej zaczynającej się polskiej demokracji nie zamienili w polskie piekło (...) swarów, podgryzań i walk." +Józef Marian Franciszek Czapski herbu Leliwa (właśc. hrabia Hutten-Czapski, przydomka i tytułu nie używał, pseud. "Marek Sienny", "J. Cz.", "jcz", ur. 3 kwietnia 1896 r. w Pradze, zm. 12 stycznia 1993 r. w Maisons-Laffitte) – polski artysta malarz i pisarz. +Rozpoczął studia prawnicze w Petersburgu. We wrześniu 1917 r. na krótko w 1 Pułku Ułanów Krechowieckich, formowanym w Mińsku. W październiku 1918 r. zapisał się do warszawskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, ale wkrótce potem wyjechał do Petersburga, z misją poszukiwania zaginionych ułanów 1 Pułku Ułanów Krechowieckich. Walczył w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej 1919-1921 i otrzymał Order Virtuti Militari. W latach 1921-1924 kontynuował naukę w krakowskiej Akademii Sztuk Pięknych, m.in. u Józefa Pankiewicza. Od 1924 do 1931 r. przebywał z grupą kapistów (m.in. z Janem Cybisem i Zygmuntem Waliszewskim) w Paryżu. W latach 30. w Warszawie, współpracował m.in. z "Głosem Plastyków" i "Wiadomościami Literackimi". +We wrześniu 1939 r. zmobilizowany, 27 września wzięty do niewoli w miejscowości Chmielek. W czasie II wojny światowej więziony w obozach jenieckich ZSRR – internowany w Starobielsku, Pawliszczew Borze i Griazowcu pod Wołogdą. Zwolniony w 1941 r. na mocy układu Sikorski-Majski, wstąpił do tworzonych w Tockoje Polskich Sił Zbrojnych w ZSRR (Armia Andersa), gdzie zajmował się (do kwietnia 1942 r.) bezskutecznym poszukiwaniem "zaginionych" oficerów polskich w ZSRR, jak się okazało w kwietniu 1943 – ofiar zbrodni katyńskiej. Następnie szef przysztabowego Wydziału Propagandy i Informacji, odpowiedzialny za sprawy kulturalno-oświatowe w armii. Współredagował pierwsze numery "Orła Białego". Przewędrował szlakiem 2. Korpusu przez Bliski Wschód do Włoch, gdzie brał udział w kampanii włoskiej. Uczestniczył, jako delegat rządu RP na emigracji, w międzynarodowej komisji badającej zbrodnię katyńską. Przeżycia z pobytu w Sowietach opisał w książkach "Wspomnienia starobielskie" i "Na nieludzkiej ziemi". Od 1946 r. w Paryżu, współtworzył paryską "Kulturę" (od 1947 r. do śmierci mieszkał w domu – redakcji "Kultury" w Maisons-Laffitte przy Avenue de Poissy 91). Swoje artykuły i eseje umieszczał ponadto w pismach francuskich, m.in. "Le Figaro Littéraire", "Preuves", "Gavroche", "Nova et Vettera", "Carrefour". Współorganizował Kongres Wolności Kultury w Berlinie (1950). +Swoje obrazy pokazywał na wystawach we Francji, Szwajcarii, Wielkiej Brytanii, Brazylii, Belgii. W Polsce jego twórczość była praktycznie niedostępna – po przełomie października 1956, w 1957 r. odbyły się wystawy w Muzeum Narodowym w Poznaniu i TPSP w Krakowie, ale zorganizowanie kolejnej było możliwe dopiero w 1986 r. w Muzeum Archidiecezjalnym w Warszawie. Jego twórczość malarska i pisarska została upowszechniona w Polsce dopiero po 1989 r. +Pochowany 15 stycznia 1993 r. na cmentarzu w sąsiadującej z Maisons-Laffitte miejscowości Le Mesnil-le-Roi, obok zmarłej w 1981 r. siostry Marii. +Na obrazie, na stole leży list z datą 1514 r. donoszący o utracie Smoleńska przez Rzeczpospolitą. Smoleńsk został odbity Polsce przez Rosję. Twarz błazna to autoportret samego Matejki. Stańczyka Matejko przedstawił jeszcze kilkakrotnie w swojej twórczości m.in. w obrazach "Hołd pruski" i "Zawieszenie dzwonu Zygmunta" i na wszystkich tych obrazach, konsekwentnie twarz Stańczyka to autoportret artysty. Obraz "Stańczyk" został w 1944 r wywieziony do ZSRR i odzyskany przez Polskę dopiero w 1956 r. +W 1906 r. bojówka PPS dokonała udanego ataku na kwatery rosyjskich żandarmów w Suchedniowie. Żandarmów rozbrojono. +W mieście ma swoją siedzibę Dziwnowski Klub Sportowy "Jantar" Dziwnów, który został założony w 1977 r. i ma barwy klubowe niebiesko-żółte. W sezonie 2009/2010 zespół piłkarski grał A-klasie, w grupie szczecińskiej I. +W roku 1968 obronił pracę doktorską z analitycznej teorii prawa ("Filozofia lingwistyczna a jurysprudencja analityczna") na Wydziale Prawa UJ, zaś w 1972 r. przeprowadził przewód habilitacyjny z teorii prawa ("Logiczne problemy wykładni prawa") na tej samej uczelni. +Jan Woleński był członkiem PZPR od 1965 r. Opuścił szeregi tej partii po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego w 1981 r. W latach 1980-1990 był członkiem NSZZ „Solidarność”. +Wina w polskim Kodeksie karnym z 1997 r.. +Obecnie obowiązujący polski Kodeks karny z 1997 r. nie definiuje pojęcia winy. Ustawodawca w uzasadnieniu projektu stwierdził, że nie jest w powołany do przecięcia sporów doktrynalnych i pozostawił pojęcie winy do zdefiniowania doktrynie. +Polskie przedstawicielstwo firmy Léčiva powstało w 1996 r. +Spółka SLOVAKOFARMA-POLSKA powstała w 1996 r. +6 września 1948 r. członkowie SED zajęli Ratusz Miejski, nie dopuszczając do zebrania się dotychczasowej Rady Miejskiej. Wtedy to większość radnych zadecydowała o przeniesieniu jej siedziby z sektora radzieckiego do amerykańskiego (Ratusz Schöneberg). 30 listopada 1948 zgromadzenie radnych pozostających w starej siedzibie, zdominowane przez członków SED wybrało nowy zarząd miejski, na którego czele stanął Friedrich Ebert jr., który objął stanowisko tzw. nadburmistrza Berlina Wschodniego. +5 grudnia 1948 r. władze radzieckie nie dopuściły do wyborów miejskich na terenie swojego sektora. Natomiast w tym samym czasie w sektorach zachodnich SPD odniosła zwycięstwo a Ernst Reuter objął stanowisko tzw. burmistrza Berlina Zachodniego. Od tego czasu Berlin faktycznie został podzielony na dwa niezależne miasta. +3 października 1990 r. RFN i NRD zjednoczyły się. Ten dzień uznawany jest za formalny koniec istnienia Berlina Wschodniego. +Największa liczba mieszkańców zamieszkiwała Berlin Wschodni w 1988 roku tj. ok. 1 280 000 os., natomiast najniższa była w 1961 r. tj. ok. 1 060 000 os. w okresie budowy muru berlińskiego. +Polska Partia Socjalistyczna - Lewica — partia socjalistów polskich powstała w 1906 r. po IX zjeździe PPS w Wiedniu. Jej działacze odrzucili program natychmiastowego odzyskania niepodległości Polski, stawiając na drogę rewolucji robotniczej w sojuszu z organizacjami rosyjskimi na rzecz obalenia caratu rosyjskiego, zbudowania republiki demokratycznej z uzyskaniem autonomii. +Na IX Zjeździe PPS w Wiedniu w listopadzie 1906 r. doszło do rozłamu pomiędzy częścią działaczy PPS a przedstawicielami Wydziału Bojowego PPS na tle strategii i taktyki PPS. Przedstawiciele Wydziału Bojowego usunięci z PPS utworzyli PPS Frakcję Rewolucyjną. Pozostali na IX Zjeździe delegaci wydali specjalną odezwę, w której wyjaśniając przyczyny rozłamu stwierdził:. +W grudniu 1917 r. na konferencji w Warszawie doszło do ujawnienia się podziałów w PPS-Lewicy odnośnie postulatu niepodległości Polski. +W grudniu 1918 r. po XII Zjeździe, połączyła się z SDKPiL w Komunistyczną Partię Robotniczą Polski. +Royal York – historyczny budynek na Front Street w Toronto, zbudowany w 1929 r. W budynku mieści się luksusowy hotel o nazwie Fairmont Royal York (dawniej Royal York Hotel). +Polki od początku należały do ścisłej czołówki światowej tej konkurencji. Ustanawiały rekordy świata (po trzy razy Teresa Sukniewicz i Grażyna Rabsztyn), wygrywały wiele międzynarodowych zawodów z mistrzostwami Europy (Lucyna Langer-Kałek w 1982 r.). Aż trudno uwierzyć, że plonem olimpijskich zmagań Polek na tym dystansie jest tylko jeden brązowy medal ostatniej z wymienionych zawodniczek, wywalczony podczas igrzysk w Moskwie (1980). +Był zwolennikiem PPS i Józefa Piłsudskiego oraz gorącym orędownikiem współpracy polsko-francuskiej. Uczestnik wojny polsko-bolszewickiej w latach 1919–1920, po wojnie pełnił funkcję rzeczoznawcy strony polskiej podczas rewindykacji dóbr polskich z ZSRR. W latach późniejszych krytykował proces brzeski, naruszanie przez władze autonomii szkół wyższych oraz wprowadzenie getta ławkowego. Za swe przekonania i żydowskie pochodzenie w 1934 r. został pobity przez antysemicko nastawionych studentów. +"25 grudnia 1940 r. sprowadzili się do nas p. Jadwiga i prof. Marceli Handelsman. Profesora znaliśmy od jego studenckich czasów, kiedy był sekretarzem Stanisława Posnera, przyjaciela mego Ojca. Profesor prowadził w Podkowie seminarium ze swymi dawnymi słuchaczami, którzy do Niego przyjeżdżali. Profesorostwo zwracali nam za swoje utrzymanie, ale mieszkali zaledwie z 1,5 roku. Profesorowa mówiła mi już po wojnie, że wyprowadzili się ze względu na mnie, krępowało ich to bowiem, że gotowałam wówczas sama na 12 osób. Zamieszkali u naszej przyjaciółki Janiny Futasewiczowej, również w Podkowie, a na koniec w Milanówku. Niestety, profesora nie udało się uratować, mimo że nasz szwagier Tadeusz Sokołowski, uczeń profesora, przypadkiem widział jego nazwisko na liście osób przeznaczonych do aresztowania. Natychmiast zawiadomił Podkowę i siostra moja dr Wanda Walcowa, która pracowała w Warszawie, a jedynie urlop spędzała w Podkowie, pojechała uprzedzić i proponowała powrót do nas. Profesor jednak nie chciał się zgodzić. Przewidywał rychły koniec okupantów i nie chciał się już tułać. Było to może zaledwie na tydzień przed Powstaniem. Gdyby mój brat nie był wówczas bardzo ciężko chory, na pewno zabrałby Go siłą, ale siostra nie miała tej energii. W parę dni później Profesor został aresztowany i wywieziony do obozu koncentracyjnego w Niemczech. Zginął w obozie od bomby alianckiej. Śmierć Jego była dla mnie bardzo bolesna, bo Profesor bardzo serdecznie zajmował się moim synem i uczył go historii." +W czasie I wojny światowej znajdował się tam obóz dla internowanych żołnierzy Legionów Polskich, w którym polscy jeńcy grali szmacianą piłką w grę, która obecnie znana jest jako piłka ręczna. Właśnie tą drogą ta dyscyplina sportowa została spopularyzowana w Polsce i stąd jej potoczna nazwa "szczypiorniak". W 1918 w Szczypiornie stacjonował kaliski Batalion Pograniczny, który w czasie powstania wielkopolskiego odegrał znaczącą rolę w wyzwoleniu południowo zachodniej części Kaliskiego. Po I wojnie w 1918 r. w Szczypiornie powstał obóz dla więźniów niemieckich. +Restytucja od 1986 r.. +Przez Dolinę Żabią poprowadzony jest znakowany szlak turystyczny na Rysy. Jego trasa prowadzi obok Wielkiego Żabiego Stawu, przez Kotlinkę pod Wagą, w której znajduje się położone najwyżej w Tatrach niewielkie schronisko pod Rysami ("chata pod Rysmi"), nieczynne po sezonowym zamknięciu szlaku. Schronisko oddano do użytku w 1933 r. Wielokrotnie było naprawiane i odbudowywane po zniszczeniach spowodowanych lawinami (m.in. w 2000 r.). +Towarzystwo Oświaty Niepodległościowej (TON) – konspiracyjna organizacja Związku Nauczycielstwa Polskiego powstała w październiku 1939 r. w Warszawie (założyciele: Zygmunt Nowicki, Kazimierz Maj, Wacław Tułodziecki, Teofil Wojeński i Czesław Wycech). +W dniu 22 października 2012 r. zmarł w wieku 108 lat najstarszy więzień KL Auschwitz. Członek Tajnej Organizacji Nauczycielskiej. Aresztowany w 1942 r. w Rzeszowie, za nielegalne nauczanie polskich dzieci. Osadzony najpierw w KL Auschwitz, następnie stąd wywieziony do KL Gross Rosen, po jakimś czasie wywieziony do KL Sachsenhausen i tu doczekał wyzwolenia w maju 1945 roku. +Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (Frakcja Rewolucyjna) – partia socjalistów polskich utworzona w 1906 w wyniku rozłamu w PPS podczas IX Zjazdu PPS w Wiedniu 19–25 listopada 1906 r. Od sierpnia 1909 r. ponownie pod nazwą Polska Partia Socjalistyczna. +Według danych na Zjazd po stronie Frakcji Rewolucyjnej opowiedziało się ok. 19,5 tys. członków PPS (z 46 tys. przed rozłamem). Najsilniejsze okręgi pozostające we Frakcji to Łódź, Zagłębie, Częstochowa i częściowo Warszawa. Doszło również do podziałów w Komitecie Zagranicznym PPS. Za Frakcją Rewolucyjną opowiedziały się sekcje w Galicji oraz Lozannie i Fryburgu, pozostałe zaś za PPS (Lewica). Pomimo propozycji federacyjnego zjazdu PPS (Lewica) w styczniu 1907 r. odmówiła domagając się rozwiązania Frakcji Rewolucyjnej. +W okresie I wojny światowej w Warszawie działalność PPS początkowo zamarła. Po stronie austriackiej dotychczasowe kierownictwo włączyło się w działania wojskowe. Niebawem powstał Tymczasowy Komitet Robotniczy w składzie: Artur Śliwiński, Konstancja Jaworowska, oraz od 1915 r. Bolesław Czarkowski. Komitet był podporządkowany kierownictwu (CKR) na obszarze okupacji austriackiej (z dotychczasowej PPS Opozycji w składzie: Feliks Perl, Tomasz Arciszewski "Stanisław", Marian Malinowski "Wojtek". +Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich (RPO) – jednoosobowy organ władzy państwowej, pełniący funkcję ombudsmana. Urząd ten powstał w Polsce z dniem 1 stycznia 1988 roku. Pierwszym rzecznikiem została prof. Ewa Łętowska, obecnie urząd ten pełni prof. Irena Lipowicz. Działalność Rzecznika reguluje Konstytucja RP i "Ustawa z dnia 15 lipca 1987 r. o Rzeczniku Praw Obywatelskich". +II dywizjon 12 Kresowego Pułku Artylerii Polowej (m.p. Gaje Wielkie k. Tarnowa). Dywizjon trzybateryjny, baterie czterodziałowe wyposażone w armaty francuskie 75 mm. Przybył do Polski w lipcu 1919 r. wraz z 6 Dywizją „Błękitnej Armii” gen. Hallera. Oba dywizjony zapisały się chwalebnie w czasie działań wojennych 1920 r. III dywizjon zakończył swój szlak bojowy pod Chmielnikiem, a II dywizjon pod Zbarażem. +Kalevi Nikolai Hämäläinen (ur. 13 grudnia 1932 r. - zm. 10 stycznia 2005 r.) - fiński biegacz narciarski, złoty medalista olimpijski oraz trzykrotny medalista mistrzostw świata. +Reprezentował klub Evon Metsäpojat. Jego olimpijskim debiutem były igrzyska w Cortina d'Ampezzo w 1956 roku, gdzie zajął 20 miejsce w biegu na 30 km. Cztery lata później, podczas igrzysk olimpijskich w Squaw Valley osiągnął swój największy sukces olimpijski zdobywając złoty medal w biegu na 50 km techniką klasyczną. Na tych samych igrzyskach zajął także 12 miejsce w biegu na 30 km. Startował także na igrzyskach olimpijskich w Grenoble w 1968 r. zajmując 16 miejsce w biegu na 50 km stylem klasycznym. +Jest zawodnikiem leworęcznym. Przeszedł na zawodowstwo w 1991 r., jeszcze jako Kanadyjczyk odniósł pierwsze zwycięstwo turniejowe (na kortach trawiastych w Newport w 1993, w finale z Javierem Franą). W 1995 r. przyjął obywatelstwo brytyjskie. Najlepszym jego osiągnięciem jest awans do finału US Open w 1997 r., gdzie przegrał z Patrickiem Rafterem oraz wygranie turnieju o Puchar Wielkiego Szlema dwa lata później. Triumfował również w halowym turnieju w Paryżu w 1998 r. (w finale pokonał Pete Samprasa), a w roku 1997 osiągnął ćwierćfinał Wimbledonu. Reprezentował Wielką Brytanię w Pucharze Davisa. +Przez Dolinkę Spadową nie prowadzi żaden znakowany szlak turystyczny. Korzystają z niej natomiast często polscy taternicy, przez nią prowadzi bowiem najkrótsze połączeniem między Morskim Okiem a Doliną Ciężką. Nazwę doliny wprowadzono dopiero ok. 1930 r., jej autorami są taternicy. Pochodzi od progu oddzielającego ją od Doliny Ciężkiej, zwanego „spadami”. Widoki z dolinki są stosunkowo ograniczone. +Pierwszymi turystami w Dolince Spadowej byli Janusz Chmielowski, Károly Jordán, Adam Kroebl, Stanisław Krygowski i Tadeusz Łopuszański z przewodnikami Jakubem Bachledą, Klemensem Bachledą, Janem Karpielem, Jędrzejem Marusarzem Jarząbkiem i Janem Stopką Ceberniakiem młodszym. Zimą pierwsze były tu Zofia Wysocka i Stefania Bernadzikiewicz 1 stycznia 1935 r. +Syn Jana Damazego (nauczyciela, dyrektora gimnazjum) i Michaliny Franciszki z domu Wodzinowskiej, nauczycielki. Świadectwo maturalne uzyskał w 1926 w gimnazjum Michała Kreczmara i podjął studia prawnicze na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Równocześnie w latach 1928-1932 studiował w Wyższej Szkole Dziennikarskiej. W 1931 r. odbył praktykę konsularną w Paryżu. +Od stycznia 1940 należał do ZWZ-AK. Od sierpnia 1942 r. pracował w Wydziale Informacji Biura Informacji i Propagandy (BIP) Komendy Głównej AK, używając pseudonimu "Rafał". Od stycznia 1944 r. równocześnie kierował działem dochodzeniowo-śledczym w Okręgowym Kierownictwie Walki Podziemnej Warszawy, używając pseudonimu "Maurycy". Oprócz tego bezpośrednio uczestniczył w kilku akcjach bojowych m.in. w uwolnieniu więźniów ze Szpitala Jana Bożego przy ulicy Bonifraterskiej 11 czerwca 1944. +W trakcie powstania warszawskiego kierował działalnością stacji informacyjno-radiowej, redagował dziennik AK "Wiadomości Powstańcze", a od kwietnia 1945 r. był szefem BIP. Jeszcze w trakcie trwania powstania został odznaczony Złotym Krzyżem Zasługi z Mieczami. Po upadku powstania próbował wznowić działalności BIP AK w Częstochowie i Krakowie. +Bielsko (śl. "Biylsko", czes. "Bílsko", niem. "Bielitz") – dawne miasto na Śląsku Cieszyńskim, które 1 stycznia 1951 r. zostało połączone z małopolską Białą Krakowską w jeden organizm pod nazwą Bielsko-Biała. +Już od średniowiecza Bielsko i okoliczne wsie tworzyły niemiecką wyspę językową. Według niemieckich danych z 1910 r. dla 81,5% mieszkańców językiem domowym był niemiecki. W dobie kontrreformacji miasto zachowało wyraźnie protestancki charakter i pozostało ważnym ośrodkiem Kościoła ewangelickiego także po wydaniu patentu tolerancyjnego. Liczna tu była również społeczność żydowska (około 16%). +Po podziale Śląska Cieszyńskiego w 1920 r. Trzyniec znalazł się w granicach Czechosłowacji, chociaż 69% mieszkańców stanowiła ludność polskojęzyczna. (potem liczba ta szybko zaczęła się zmniejszać). 1 stycznia 1931 r. miejscowość otrzymała prawa miejskie. W październiku 1938 r. na skutek aneksji Zaolzia Trzyniec został włączony w skład Polski, jednak już rok później ponownie zmienił przynależność państwową, stając się częścią III Rzeszy. +W 1945 r. Trzyniec ponownie znalazł się granicach Czechosłowacji. W latach 50. w południowej części miasta zbudowano monumentalną socrealistyczną dzielnicę, która przejęła funkcję śródmieścia. Późniejszy rozwój przestrzenny to przede wszystkim budowa kilku osiedli bloków mieszkalnych, głównie w części południowo-zachodniej, a także rozbudowa huty (która stała się największą w kraju, co doprowadziło do zniszczenia historycznego centrum Końskiej, stanowiącej przed 1949 r. osobną gminę. +Z uwagi na niezgodne z prawem międzynarodowym stwierdzenie przez Niemcy i ZSRR zaprzestania istnienia państwa polskiego w z 28 września 1939 zarówno żołnierze polscy wzięci do niewoli przez Armię Czerwoną podczas najazdu sowieckiego na Polskę od 17 września 1939 r. jak i żołnierze Armii Krajowej w czasie całych działań wojennych w tym zwłaszcza powstania warszawskiego nie byli uznawani zarówno przez Wehrmacht i inne oddziały niemieckie jak i Armię Czerwoną za stronę wojującą. Dopiero po otwartej deklaracji brytyjskiej z 30 sierpnia 1944 r. uznającej Armię Krajową za stronę wojującą, otwarte naruszanie przez Niemców zasad konwencji haskiej wobec powstańców warszawskich zostało ograniczone – czego konsekwencją były postanowienia układu kapitulacyjnego pomiędzy gen. Tadeuszem "Bór"- Komorowskim a Obergruppenführerem Erichem von dem Bach w przedmiocie kapitulacji garnizonu warszawskiego AK i statusu żołnierzy AK jako jeńców wojennych. +Początkowo Leunis postawił na niezależność w wyborze kierownictwa stowarzyszenia. Jednakże generał Klaudiusz Aquaviva ("Reguły wspólne", 1587) wypracował model bardziej scentralizowany Sodalicji. Po kasacie jezuitów kongregacje były pod opieką biskupów. Nowe Reguły Sodalicji (1910) przewidywały funkcję dyrektora, co przekreślało ich dawną autonomię. W celu koordynacji działań poszczególnych stowarzyszeń generał Włodzimierz Ledóchowski w 1922 r. utworzył w Rzymie Centralny Sekretariat Kongregacji Mariańskich. Podobnie Pius XII chciał zunifikować cały ruch. W tym celu powołano Światową Federację Kongregacji Mariańskich (1953), której przewodził abp Józef Gawlina. Po II Soborze Watykańskim Sodalicje Mariańskie przeobrażały się stopniowo głównie we Wspólnoty Życia Chrześcijańskiego. +Od sierpnia 1919 toczyły się w Warszawie poufne rokowania polsko-ukraińskie, początkowo wojskowe (o zawarcie rozejmu, który zaczął obowiązywać 1 września 1919 - w dzień po zajęciu Kijowa przez armię Denikina), a następnie polityczne - w sprawie rozgraniczenia terytorialnego pomiędzy Ukraińską Republiką Ludową a Polską i wzajemnej współpracy skierowanej przeciw Armii Czerwonej i Rosji Sowieckiej. 2 grudnia 1919 delegacja URL pod przewodnictwem Andrija Liwickiego zawarła porozumienie terytorialne i graniczne z Polską, w formie deklaracji, które 7 grudnia 1919 zaaprobował przybyły do Warszawy Petlura. 21 kwietnia 1920 roku Petlura zawarł układ sojuszniczy z Polską i od polsko-ukraińskiej ofensywy na Kijów do zawieszenia broni w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej (12 października 1920 r.) był jedyną uznawaną międzynarodowo głową państwa Ukrainy. +Rezerwat został założony 15 września 1967 r. na powierzchni 12683,76 ha, w powiatach ówczesnego województwa bydgoskiego: inowrocławskim, radziejowskim, mogieleńskim oraz w powiecie konińskim woj. poznańskiego. +14 sierpnia 1919 r. na mocy ustawy tymczasowej o organizacji władz administracyjnych II instancji powołano do życia województwo warszawskie. Na obszarze tego województwa utworzono powiat makowski. +8 października 1939 r. Adolf Hitler wydał dekret o organizacji i administracji wschodnich terytoriów włączonych do Rzeszy. Zgodnie z tym dekretem 1 listopada 1939 r. (w rzeczywistości stało się to już 26 października) wcielono do III Rzeszy obszar o powierzchni 91 974 km². Wśród dawnych ziem II RP na terenie Rzeszy znalazła się m.in. północna część województwa warszawskiego. Powiat makowski (niem. Landkreis Mackeim) znalazł się w Rejencji ciechanowskiej (niem. Regierungsbezirk Zichenau), która weszła w skład prowincji Prusy Wschodnie (niem. Ostpreußen). +22 sierpnia 1944 r. na mocy dekretu Polskiego Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodowego przywrócono przedwojenny podział administracyjny Polski, natomiast samorząd terytorialny zorganizowano dekretem Polskiego Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodowego z dnia 23 listopada 1944 r. o organizacji i zakresie działania samorządu terytorialnego. Powiat makowski, jako jeden z powiatów województwa warszawskiego reaktywowano po wyzwoleniu ziem północnego Mazowsza w zimie 1945 r. Ze względu na zniszczenia wojenne Makowa Mazowieckiego władze powiatu zmuszone były tymczasowo urzędować w Krasnosielcu. +Ustawą z dnia 20 marca 1950 r. o terenowych organach jednolitej władzy państwowej zniesiono samorząd terytorialny w Polsce. Powiaty jako jednostki administracyjne funkcjonowały nadal, lecz organizacja władz powiatowych uległa daleko posuniętym zmianom. Na terenie powiatu makowskiego powołano do życia powiatową radę narodową. Jej organem wykonawczym stało się prezydium powiatowej rady narodowej. Na czele prezydium stał przewodniczący, będący odpowiednikiem wcześniejszego starosty. Ustawą z dnia 22 listopada 1973 r. o zmianie ustawy o radach narodowych wprowadzono instytucję naczelnika powiatu. Powiat makowski istniał do momentu wejścia w życie ustawy z dnia 28 maja 1975 r. o dwustopniowym podziale administracyjnym Państwa oraz o zmianie ustawy o radach narodowych. W wyniku przeprowadzenia wspomnianej reformy administracyjnej z dniem 1 czerwca 1975 r. powstało 49 województw, które zastąpiły 17 dotychczasowych, podzielonych na powiaty. Prawie całe terytorium powiatu makowskiego znalazło się na obszarze województwa ostrołęckiego, jedynie gmina Karniewo znalazła się w województwie ciechanowskim. +Ustawą z dnia 24 lipca 1998 r. o wprowadzeniu zasadniczego trójstopniowego podziału terytorialnego państwa przeprowadzono reformę administracyjną w Polsce. Z dniem 1 stycznia 1999 r. powstało 16 województw, które zastąpiły 49 dotychczasowych. Na obszarze województwa mazowieckiego zorganizowano 37 powiatów ziemskich, w tym powiat makowski składający się z 10 gmin. Pierwszym starostą makowskim został Kazimierz Adam Białobrzeski, a przewodniczącym rady powiatu I kadencji Józef Andrzej Stopa. +Andrzej Tymowski herbu Sas – Socjolog, profesor Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Pracownik Ośrodka Badań nad Tradycją Antyczną w Polsce i Europie Środkowowschodniej UW, Dyrektor Programów Międzynarodowych. Urodzony 22 grudnia 1922 r. w Łodzi, zm. 15 października 2002 r. +W maju 1919 Ukraińska Armia Galicyjska wspólnie z oddziałami URL wyruszyły, aby wesprzeć antybolszewickie powstanie na Naddnieprzu. Równolegle na Ukrainę uderzyły wojska Białych Rosjan (Armia Ochotnicza) Denikina, które walczyły zarówno z bolszewikami, jak i z wojskami ukraińskimi (Armia Czynna URL). Po załamaniu się w październiku 1919 r. ofensywy Denikina na Moskwę pod Orłem nastąpił rozpad armii białych Rosjan i ich szybki odwrót na południe. W konsekwencji w grudniu 1919 r. Armia Czerwona ponownie zajęła Kijów, przejmując go z rąk Białych. Oddziały URL tworzyły wówczas enklawę państwowości ukraińskiej w rejonie Kamieńca Podolskiego, zaś UHA najpierw połączyła się z wojskami Denikina (listopad 1919,), a następnie została wcielona do Armii Czerwonej jako tzw. CzUHA. +ZURL zakończyła istnienie 16 lipca 1919, kiedy ostatnie oddziały Ukraińskiej Armii Galicyjskiej zostały wyparte po ciężkich walkach (Jazłowiec) przez ofensywę Wojska Polskiego za Zbrucz. Emigracyjny rząd ZURL działał w Wiedniu do 1923 roku, kiedy stało się jasne, że starania o korzystną dla Ukraińców decyzję Ententy są bezskuteczne. Warto dodać, że przywódcy ZURL nie wykazywali chęci znalezienia rozwiązania kompromisowego z rządem polskim, odrzucając wszystkie proponowane linie podziału Galicji Wschodniej, pozostawiające Lwów po stronie polskiej, nawet gdy pozostawiały jednocześnie większość terytorium spornego (i ludności) po stronie ukraińskiej. Propozycja misji gen. Barthelemy z lutego 1919 r. pośredniczącej w rozmowach o polsko-ukraińskie zawieszenie broni została odrzucona z tego względu przez ZURL, pomimo że jej konsekwencją byłoby uznanie przez mocarstwa Ententy (w trakcie trwającej wówczas paryskiej konferencji pokojowej) ZURL jako niepodległego państwa. +Przywódcy ZURL prezentowali postawę bezkompromisową, której podstawą była granica na Sanie (hasło "Lachy za San"), nie do przyjęcia dla strony polskiej. Lekceważyli też niebezpieczeństwo ze strony czerwonej Rosji, mimo że Symon Petlura nalegał na rozejm z Polakami, a delegaci Ukraińców galicyjskich brali udział w negocjacjach Andrija Liwickiego prowadzonych jesienią 1919 r. w Warszawie i zakończonych sojuszem polsko-ukraińskim z kwietnia 1920 r. Delegaci rządu ZURL upełnomocnieni przez Jewhena Petruszewycza ze Stepanem Wytwyckim na czele wycofali się z rozmów w grudniu 1919 r. po zgodzie Petlury na cesje terytorialne na rzecz Polski w Galicji, pomimo deklaracji strony polskiej o autonomicznym statusie Galicji i wzajemnych gwarancjach dla ochrony praw Polaków i Ukraińców w obu państwach. +Odmowa ukraińskich działaczy państwowych i wojskowych ZURL zawarcia w roku 1919 kompromisu terytorialnego z Polską i wsparcia organizacyjnego i kadrowego Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej w czasie wyprawy kijowskiej 1920 r była jedną z najistotniejszych przyczyn tego, że niepodległe demokratyczne państwo ukraińskie (URL) po 1920 r. nie przetrwało. +Wydarzenia te znalazły także odbicie w późniejszej literaturze. Pisali o nich m.in. Kornel Makuszyński w "Radosnych i smutnych" (Warszawa 1922) oraz Jan Brzoza w "Polskim Roku 1919" (Londyn 1988), wydawano także publikacje upamiętniające wydarzenia z roku 1919 np. "Z krwawych dni Złoczowa 1919 r." wydaną przez Komitet Budowy Pomnika-Grobowca dla Ofiar Mordów Ukraińskich. +Znany był ze swojego niepokornego charakteru i natury showmana. Podczas dekoracji medalowej na igrzyskach w Los Angeles gwizdał pod nosem brytyjski hymn. Na Igrzyskach Wspólnoty Narodów w 1982 r. odmówił niesienia flagi podczas ceremonii otwarcia, tłumacząc, że zmniejszyłoby to jego szanse na zdobycie złota. Mimo to w 1983 został udekorowany Orderem Imperium Brytyjskiego. +Po powrocie do Londynu Chciukowi powierzono funkcję kierownika kurierów w MSW. Równocześnie został członkiem zespołu redakcyjnego tajnej Rozgłośni Polskiej Świt z siedzibą w Anglii. W kwietniu 1944 wziął udział w kolejnej akcji spadochronowej i został zrzucony w kraju, tym razem jako osobisty emisariusz premiera Stanisława Mikołajczyka, a zarazem jako oficjalny przedstawiciel Naczelnego Komitetu Harcerskiego. Jednym z zadań Chciuka podczas tej operacji była opieka nad innym cichociemnym wysłannikiem rządu RP – dr Józefem Retingerem. Chciuk powrócił do Londynu w lipcu tego samego roku tzw. „Trzecim Mostem”. Jego podwójny skok cichociemnego, za każdym razem zakończony szczęśliwym powrotem do centrali w Londynie, był jedynym takim przypadkiem w dziejach tej formacji. Operację „Trzeci Most” opisał w nieukończonej książce o tym tytule. Po powrocie do Londynu w grudniu 1944 r. został dopuszczony do próby na stopień harcmistrza przez hm. RP Olgę Małkowską, Przewodniczącą Komitetu Naczelnego ZHP na czas wojny. +Po ucieczce z kraju przebywał przez kilka lat we Francji, gdzie m.in. wstąpił do PSL na Uchodźstwie. Zajmował się redagowaniem Biuletynu informacyjnego PSL. Powierzono mu także funkcję prezesa PSL w Okręgu Paryż. Jako przedstawiciel Rady Naczelnej PSL wyjeżdżał kilkakrotnie w sprawach organizacyjnych do Belgii, Szwajcarii i Niemiec. Ponadto udzielał się w harcerstwie jako instruktor oraz jako naczelnik „Sokoła” w Paryżu. W 1966 mianowany harcmistrzem rozkazem L7/66 Naczelnika Harcerzy hm. Jerzego Wittinga z dn. 21 lipca 1966 r. +W wyniku działań wojskowych, zniszczeniu uległo szereg urządzeń miejskich i fabrycznych. Wszystkie większe fabryki zaprzestały produkcji, co pogarszało sytuację materialną mieszkańców. W miarę przedłużania się wojny społeczeństwo Radomska coraz dotkliwiej odczuwało brak żywności i opału. Pogarszał się stan sanitarny miasta. W 1917 r. wybuchła epidemia tyfusu. +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości, przez całe dwudziestolecie międzywojenne, Radomsko wchodziło w skład województwa łódzkiego. Według spisu z 1912 miasto liczyło 18 732 mieszkańców, 10 lat później ich liczba wzrosła do 23 tys. i osiągnęła 25 tys. w 1937 r. +Radomsko nabrało charakteru przemysłowego. W 1927 r. czynnych było 59 większych i mniejszych zakładów przemysłowych zatrudniających 3,5 tys. osób. Pod koniec lat 30. zatrudnienie w przemyśle przekroczyło 4,5 tys. Ponad 50% mieszkańców utrzymywało się z przemysłu i rzemiosła, ok. 18% z handlu, 25% z pozostałych zajęć jak: rolnictwo, administracja, wolne zawody, służba dozoru itd. Zdecydowaną przewagę miał przemysł meblarski, po nim metalurgiczny i szklarski. Pomimo rozwijającej się gospodarki nie dla wszystkich wystarczało pracy. W okresie przednówków liczba bezrobotnych sięgała 2,5 tys. Niskie zarobki, częste redukcje robotników stwarzały sytuacje konfliktowe, w wyniku których dochodziło do strajków. Przybierały one różne formy: od pojedynczych do grupowych i powszechnych, od zwykłych do okupacyjnych. Podczas kryzysu gospodarczego w 1923 r. w ramach ogólnopolskiego strajku powszechnego doszło w mieście do przerwania pracy we wszystkich zakładach. Niskie płace i galopująca inflacja sprawiły, że dzienna przeciętna płaca wynosiła 8-10 tysięcy marek, gdy bochenek chleba kosztował 11-14 tysięcy marek. +Listy wyborcze wystawiały poszczególne ugrupowania polityczne samodzielnie lub w zjednoczonym bloku wyborczym. Polska Partia Socjalistyczna z reguły przystępowała do wyborów samorządowych razem z klasowymi związkami zawodowymi. Ugrupowania narodowe (ND, NPR i inne) łączyły się w tzw. Blok Narodowy. Komunistyczna Partia Polski jako nielegalna ( zdelegalizowana za to że: w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej 1920 r. popierała bolszewików a nie Polaków oraz posiadała siedzibę poza granicami Polski co było niezgodne z konstytucją ) nie mogła oficjalnie wystawić swych list wyborczych toteż zbojkotowała wybory samorządowe w 1919 r. Ugrupowania narodowe stanowiły siłę we wspólnym bloku wyborczym. W wyborach 1919 i 1922 zdobyły po 6 mandatów, w 1927 – 5 mandatów, natomiast w 1939 samej endecji przypadły tylko 2 mandaty (na 24 miejsca w Radzie Miejskiej). Także Chrześcijańska Demokracja przystępując do wyborów jako samodzielna siła polityczna w 1922 i 1927 r. uzyskała po 2 mandaty. Tymczasem z pięciokrotnie przeprowadzonych wyborów pięć razy zwycięstwo jako samodzielna partia odnosiła Polska Partia Socjalistyczna (1919 r. – 9 mandatów; 1922 r. – 3; 1927 r. – 9; 1934 r. – 9; 1939 r. – 12 mandatów). Dwukrotnie utworzyła socjalistyczny magistrat w latach 1919-1922 i 1927-1931. Pod naciskiem kół prawicowych tzw. "czerwone magistraty" zostały rozwiązane na mocy decyzji administracyjnych. +Rada Miejska składała się z 24 członków. Pierwsza jej uchwała dotyczyła przywrócenia miastu dawnej, historycznej nazwy Radomsko. Przeciwko temu wystąpiły władze miasta Radomia argumentując możliwością omyłek. Sprawa przywrócenia byłej nazwy trwała ponad 3 lata (1919-1922). O wiele dłużej kształtowała się nazwa powiatu: przez pierwsze lata radomski, potem radomskowski, dopiero w połowie lat trzydziestych radomszczański. Samorząd miejski ograniczony był przez samorządowe władze powiatowe, stąd też czyniono kilkakrotnie starania, aby Radomsko stało się miastem wydzielonym. Kiedy spełniało już wszystkie wymogi, m.in. przekroczyło 25 tys. mieszkańców, nadszedł wrzesień 1939 r. Z działalności Rady Miejskiej na uwagę zasługuje budowa robotniczego osiedla na Kowalowcu oraz budownictwo komunalne: cegielnia, rzeźnia, łaźnia, elektrownia, tabor miejski itp. Na kilka lat przed wojną opracowany został i przyjęty perspektywiczny plan rozwoju miasta do 1970 r. Wielkość inwestycji komunalnych uzależniona była od możliwości finansowych miasta. Tymczasem budżet z roku na rok był mniejszy. Gdy w 1928 r. sięgał prawie milion złotych to w 1934 mniej niż połowę tej sumy. Wzrastało natomiast zadłużenie Radomska, co było typowym zjawiskiem dla wszystkich miast w Polsce. W 1928 r. dług wynosił 230 tys. zł, tymczasem w 1934 r. już 625 tys. Z tych względów nie powiodły się próby rozwiązania najważniejszych spraw dla mieszkańców miasta, jak chociażby przeprowadzenie kanalizacji. +Ważnym problemem dla władz miejskich było szkolnictwo. W 1920 r. czynnych było 7 szkół powszechnych, ale ani jednej siedmioklasowej; w 1924 r. 9 szkół, w tym 4 o siedmiu oddziałach. W 1927 r. w wyniku połączenia małych szkół powstało 5 szkół siedmiooddziałowych. Radomszczańskie szkoły przyjmowały imiona znanych Polaków: Królowej Jadwigi, M. Konopnickiej, T. Kościuszki, St. Jachowicza, E. Plater, A. Mickiewicza, E. Orzeszkowej, Wł. Reymonta. Dla pracujących zorganizowano szkołę popołudniową. Warunki lokalowe szkół nie były najlepsze. Podjęto decyzję o wybudowaniu kosztem miasta szkoły im. J. Piłsudskiego. Ostatni etap budowy przerwała wojna. Pomimo czynionych wysiłków nie udało się osiągnąć pełnej powszechności nauczania. Główną przeszkodę stanowiły warunki bytowe rodzin robotniczych i bezrobotnych. Doraźna pomoc udzielana przez Magistrat i instytucje opieki społecznej chwilowo łagodziły problem, ale go nie rozwiązywały. Przez okres dwudziestolecia międzywojennego, w poszczególnych jego latach czynne były następujące szkoły średnie: gimnazjum męskie St. Niemca, gimnazjum żeńskie J. Chomiczówny, gimnazjum koedukacyjne L. Weitraubówny oraz gimnazjum męskie im. F. Fabianiego prowadzone przez Towarzystwo im. F. Fabianiego. Ponadto czynna była koedukacyjna szkoła handlowa prowadzona przez Polską Macierz Szkolną. Rada Miejska finansowała działalność dokształcającej szkoły zawodowej. Trudu uporania się z analfabetyzmem, obejmującym po 1918 r. 35% dorosłej ludności Radomska, podjęły się takie organizacje i instytucje jak: czytelnie Polskiej Macierzy Szkolnej, Związek Chrześcijańsko-Młodzieżowy, Uniwersytet Ludowy, Towarzystwo Uniwersytetu Robotniczego, a także Klub Robotniczy prowadzony przez Polską Partię Socjalistyczną. +Wśród 25-tysięcznej ludności przedwojennego Radomska można było wyodrębnić trzy podstawowe grupy wyznaniowe: rzymskokatolicką, ewangelicką i żydowską. Katolicy posiadali jedną parafię, do której obok mieszkańców Radomska należała ludność ze Stobiecka Miejskiego, Bartodziejów, Bogwidzów, Wymysłówka, Zakrzówka, Folwarków, Suchej Wsi, Sanik, Szczepocic, Borowa. Ewangelicy także posiadali rozległą parafię przynależną do kościoła wybudowanego w 1925 r. w stylu neogotyckim przy ul. Reymonta (po wojnie kościół został rozebrany). Do Żydów należała synagoga wybudowana w 1908 r. (zburzona podczas II wojny światowej). W początkach lat 20. rozebrana została cerkiew prawosławna zniszczona podczas I wojny. +Od 1937 r. w życiu miasta zaczęła pojawiać się problematyka związana z przygotowaniem do nadchodzącej wojny. Powołany został komitet obrony przeciwlotniczej i przeciwgazowej. Organizowano drużyny sanitarne i przeciwpożarowe. Na murach budynków i słupach ogłoszeniowych coraz częściej widniały plakaty zawierające instrukcje i zarządzenia powszechnej samoobrony. Odbywały się także wiece protestacyjne, jako odpowiedź na żądania niemieckie pod adresem Polski. +Każdy dzień okupacji naznaczony był terrorem i gwałtem. Już 4 września 1939 r. hitlerowcy rozstrzelali kilkanaście osób na Folwarkach, Bartodziejach, w Stobiecku Miejskim. W 1941 r. aresztowanych zostało w Radomsku 151 osób. Egzekucje były dokonywane na tzw. kopcu oraz w pobliskich miejscowościach jak: na Wygodzie, w Dmeninie, Pławnie, Strzałkowie. Dla zastraszenia ludności stosowano publiczne egzekucje. Barbarzyńskiemu wyniszczeniu uległa przede wszystkim ludność żydowska. Między 10 a 12 października 1942 wywieziono do obozu zagłady w Treblince ok. 7 tys. Żydów – mieszkańców radomszczańskiego getta, a miejscowy kirkut stał się miejscem masowych zbrodni. +Równocześnie z walką zbrojną prowadzona była walka o polska oświatę i kulturę oraz o utrzymywanie i wzbogacanie narodowych wartości. Bohaterami tej walki byli przede wszystkim nauczyciele. Władze okupacyjne pozamykały szkoły średnie, a w szkołach podstawowych zabroniły nauczania historii i geografii Polski. Niszczyły polskie księgozbiory. Tylko w jednej ze szkół radomszczańskich zdewastowano 580 tomów z biblioteki uczniowskiej i 200 z nauczycielskiej. W marcu 1940 r., w ramach tzw. akcji AB, wymierzonej przeciwko inteligencji, aresztowano i wywieziono z Radomska do obozów koncentracyjnych 53 osoby. Nie zahamowało to jednak konspiracyjnej pracy oświatowej. Już pod koniec 1939 r. w mieście i powiecie rozpoczęto tajne nauczanie. Powstało ono samorzutnie – narodziło się z inicjatywy nauczycieli, szczególnie działaczy Związku Nauczycielstwa Polskiego oraz rodziców. Na początku 1940 r. powstała Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska, obejmująca swą działalnością szkolnictwo podstawowe, średnie ogólnokształcące i zawodowe oraz oświatę dorosłych. Efektem pracy kompletów tajnego nauczania było otrzymanie w 1943 r. świadectwa dojrzałości przez 30 maturzystów. W tajnym nauczaniu pracowało w Radomsku i powiecie ponad 190 nauczycieli, w tym ponad 80 na szczeblu szkolnictwa średniego. +Chlubnie zapisała się młodzież harcerska Szarych Szeregów – organizacji, którą powołano w Radomsku na przełomie 1939/1940 r. Miejscowy hufiec ("Rój") przyjął nazwę "Metal". W 1944 r. liczył on 187 osób, w tym 19 instruktorów, 32 członków "Grup Szturmowych" (od 18 lat), 66 członków "Bojowych Szkół" (od 14 do 17 lat) oraz 70 "Zawiszaków" – najmłodszych wiekiem harcerzy (od 12 do 14 lat). Członkowie Szarych Szeregów brali udział w małym sabotażu, w obserwacji okupanta i dostarczaniu informacji wywiadowi AK, czynni byli w akcji "N". Ogromną wagę przykładano do pracy wychowawczej w duchu patriotycznym. Najstarsi wiekiem przechodzili szkolenie wojskowe. +Armia Czerwona wkroczyła do Radomska 16 stycznia 1945. W raporcie o sytuacji miasta na dzień 22 stycznia 1945 r. napisanym przez szefa Zarządu Politycznego I Frontu Ukraińskiego można przeczytać m.in.: "Miasto nie ucierpiało od strzału, paniczna ucieczka Niemców uniemożliwiła im zburzenie budynków i przedsiębiorstw nawet gdzie były miny (fabryka "Metalurgii", budynek żandarmerii). Nie udało się również wywieźć do Niemiec urządzeń fabryk i przedsiębiorstw". +Po przejściu przez Radomsko Armii Radzieckiej bolszewicy z NKWD rozpoczęli liczne aresztowania żołnierzy Narodowych Sił Zbrojnych i Armii Krajowej, podobnie jak robili to w całej Polsce. Nie godząc się z komunistyczną zależnością od ZSRR i sowieckim terrorem, wspieranym przez Armię Ludową, milicję, ORMO i działaczy PPR a później PZPR, Stanisław Sojczyński i jego podkomendni wcześniej walczący z hitlerowcami teraz ponownie musieli powrócić do konspiracji. Na bazie 27 batalionu pp Armii Krajowej Sojczyński zorganizował największą podziemną organizację o nazwie Konspiracyjne Wojsko Polskie. KWP działało na terenie woj. łódzkiego, kieleckiego, śląskiego i poznańskiego walcząc komunistycznym bezprawiem. Kapitan Sojczyński wydał rozkaz określający zadania KWP w zakresie walki z przestępczą działalnością władz komunistycznych i ochrony społeczeństwa oraz żołnierzy podziemia niepodległościowego przed terrorem organów bezpieczeństwa. Pierwszą osobą, która zginęła z jego rozkazu, był Jankiel Jakub Cukierman, szef sekcji śledczej Państwowego Urzędu Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego w Radomsku. Zastrzelono go na ulicy w sierpniu 1945 r. W 1946 r. Sojczyński Pod pseud. „Warszyc” z wiernymi mu żołnierzami z AK KWP, ponownie wsławia się brawurową akcją na to samo więzienie w Radomsku ale już nie pod panowaniem Gestapo a Urzędu Bezpieczeństwa i uwalnia z niego 57 ludzi, w tym wielu kolegów z AK i żołnierzy z NSZ. Rozwścieczone UB wzorując się na hitlerowskim SS i gestapo, po licznych aresztowaniach oraz torturach na żołnierzach z KWP i wykonanych wyrokach śmierci, schwytało dzięki swoim agentom niestety także bohaterskiego „Warszyca”, oraz wielu jego dowódców. Ludowa władza z zemsty poddaje schwytanego kapitana Sojczyńskiego i jego sztabowców ciężkim torturom a w 1947 r wykonuje na nich wyrok śmierci, śpiesząc się z jego wykonaniem przed mającą wejść amnestią. Podobnie postąpiono w przypadku innych antykomunistycznych żołnierzy z podziemia niepodległościowego w całym PRL-u, a także wobec licznych katolickich kapłanów oraz wielu harcerzy z Szarych Szeregów i innych organizacji młodzieżowych. Ich nieustraszoną wiarę w Boga, prawość, patriotyzm oraz umiejętności i doświadczenie konspiracyjne z okupacji, komuniści uznawali za niebezpieczeństwo dla "władzy ludowej". Ostatni żołnierze z KWP schwytani zostali przez komunistów w 1951 r i wielu z nich równie bestialsko zamordowano. Tych co przeżyli z całymi rodzinami inwigilowało i prześladowało UB/SB do końca PRL-u, podobnie jak wszystkich kapłanów czy ludzi z opozycji antykomunistycznej. „Warszyc” i jego koledzy z KWP w PRL-u byli „żołnierzami wyklętymi”. Dopiero po 1989r wywalczona niepodległość Polski przez miliony Polaków z „Solidarności”, w której szeregach nie brakowało byłych żołnierzy z AK, KWP, WiN, NSZ, SzSz a także kapłanów czy innych org. niepodległościowych, przynosi „Warszycowi” i jego żołnierzom pełną rehabilitację. Jednak miejsce grobu legendarnego dowódcy KWP AK kap. Sojczyńskiego do dziś jest nieznane. +Smith, który często posługiwał się przydomkami "the incredible" (niewiarygodny) lub "the amazing" (cudowny), spopularyzował w jazzie brzmienie organów Hammonda (po raz pierwszy zagrał na organach w 1951 r.). +W 1963 r. Smith przeniósł się do wytwórni Verve Records i stał się jej faworyzowanym artystą. Dla firmy Normana Granza nagrał takie standardy jak "Walk On The Wild Side", "Hobo Flats" czy "Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf". Jazzowe przeboje Smitha zwracały uwagę świetnymi aranżacjami orkiestrowymi autorstwa Olivera Nelsona (które w pewnym stopniu tłumiły brzmienie Smitha). Kolejne szlagiery to "The Cat", "The Organ Grinder's Swing" i "Got My Mojo Working" z chrapliwym głosem Smitha. +Nie tylko single sprzedawały się znakomicie: w latach 1963-66 muzyk umieścił na listach bestsellerów dwanaście albumów, z których wiele dotarło do pierwszej dwudziestki, co jak na jazzmana było sukcesem niewiarygodnym. Popularność Smitha miała ścisły związek z ogromnym zainteresowaniem w latach 60. stylistyką rhythm and bluesa. W 1966 r. sporą popularnością cieszyły się dwa albumy nagrane wraz z Wesem Montgomerym ("Jimmy & Wes The Dynamic Duo" oraz "Further Adventures Of Jimmy And Wes"). Z końcem lat 60. Smith coraz częściej tworzy muzykę środka, w latach 70. zaś skłonił się ku mieszance soulu i funky (sporadycznie używał wtedy elektronicznego syntezatora). Przez wiele lat organowy jazz pozostawał w stagnacji i chociaż Smith był jego czołowym przedstawicielem, to stał się z czasem liderem niemodnego stylu. +Po serii mało znaczących nagrań, w 1982 r. na rynku ukazała się udana płyta "Off The Top". Ponownie wzrosło zainteresowanie muzyką genialnego organisty, a organy Hammonda znów stały się modnym instrumentem jazzu. +Turkmeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Turkmenia (ros. "Туркменская Советская Социалистическая Республика", turkm. "Түркменистан Совет Социалистик Республикасы") – jedna z byłych republik nieistniejącego dziś Związku Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich. 7 sierpnia 1921 została włączona do ZSRR jako obwód turkmeński w Turkiestańskiej ASRR, 13 maja 1925 została jedną z republik jako Turkmeńska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka. 27 października 1991 r. uzyskała niepodległość jako Turkmenistan. Stolicą był Aszchabad. +3 stycznia 1919 r. Armia Czerwona zajęła Charków, który stał się pierwszą siedzibą rządu i stolicą Ukraińskiej SRR. 25 stycznia 1919 Rząd Tymczasowy uchwalił połączenie Ukrainy z Rosją na zasadach "radzieckiej federacji", a 29 stycznia został przemianowany na Radę Komisarzy Ludowych USRR. 10 marca 1919 roku uchwalono konstytucję USRR. Jej stolicą został Charków. USRR brała udział w negocjacjach pokojowych z Polską prowadzonych w Mińsku i Rydze w 1920 roku. W wyniku traktatu ryskiego rząd Polski uznał USRR za jedynego reprezentanta ludności ukraińskiej, tym samym przekreślając wcześniejsze sojusznicze zobowiązania wobec URL, mimo iż nie zostały one faktycznie nigdy ratyfikowane przez parlament polski. Żołnierze armii URL zostali internowani, nadal natomiast istniał i funkcjonował rząd Ukraińskiej Republiki Ludowej na emigracji. +Foucault wrócił do Francji, by ukończyć pracę doktorską pisaną poza krajem. Od 1960 roku pracował jako docent psychologii na uniwersytecie w Clermont-Ferrand. W sobotę 20 Maja 1961 r. 35-letni Foucault stanął przed szczelnie wypełnionym amfiteatrem Sorbony i komisją egzaminacyjną. Błyskotliwa obrona rozprawy doktorskiej składającej się z dwóch części (głównej – "Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique" i pomocniczej – tłumaczenie i opracowanie Antropologii Kanta) stanowiło punkt zwrotny w karierze Foucaulta. W roku 1962 Foucault otrzymał nominację profesorską – objął katedrę w Clermont-Ferrand – tam również poznał swego towarzysza życia, Daniela Deferta. W latach 1966-1968 był profesorem filozofii w Tunisie – był tam świadkiem buntu studentów, z którym sympatyzował, ściągając na siebie niechęć władz. W 1968 roku objął stanowisko organizatora Wydziału Filozoficznego na powołanym właśnie do życia w wyniku wydarzeń majowych Uniwersytecie w Vincennes. +Foucault zaangażował się w ruch praw dla więźniów. W 1971 roku powołał nieformalną organizację zajmującą się obserwacją warunków w więzieniach. W 1978 roku Foucault wybrał się do Iranu – w cyklu reportaży z podróży pisanych na zamówienie "Corriere della Sera" (nie kryjąc entuzjazmu) opisywał upadek reżimu szacha Rezy Pahlaviego i ostatnie przygotowania do rewolucji islamskiej (jej losami i wypaczeniami miał się później wielokrotnie zajmować podczas rozmów m.in. z najważniejszymi politykami irańskimi goszczącymi w Paryżu). Na początku lat 80. Foucault aktywnie zaangażował się w pomoc dla Polski. Po wprowadzeniu stanu wojennego opublikował wraz z Pierre'em Bourdieu list protestacyjny "Les randez-vous manqués" w "Liberation", a następnie brał udział w wielu inicjatywach, mających na celu wspieranie polskiej opozycji. W 1982 r. Foucault przyjechał do Polski z konwojem żywności i pomocą medyczną zorganizowanym przez Lekarzy Świata, wyrażając poparcie dla ruchu społecznego Solidarność. +Powstał też czwarty tom "Les aveux de la chair" – owoc studiów nad literaturą wczesnego chrześcijaństwa dotyczący seksualności w chrześcijaństwie. Tom był prawie kompletny przed śmiercią autora, ale nie został nigdy opublikowany z uwagi na zastrzeżenie w testamencie Foucaulta; obecnie przechowywany jest w jego archiwum. Ostatecznie dwa kolejne tomy "Historii seksualności": "L usage des plaisirs" ("Użytek z przyjemności") i "Le souci de soi" ("Troska o siebie") zostały opublikowane przed śmiercią Foucaulta w 1984 r. To ostatnie dzieło Foucaulta, dzieło będące przesłaniem (bądź swoim panem a nie niewolnikiem, zostań swoim własnym dziełem). Tak traktowane było i przez samego autora, który redagując ostatnie tomy zdawał sobie sprawę, że niebawem umrze. +Utworzono ją w 1920 roku jako Kirgiską ASRR. W 1925 przemianowano ją na Kazachską ASRR, a w 1936 r. zmieniono jej status i jako Kazachską SRR włączono bezpośrednio w skład ZSRR. +W 1991 r. uzyskała niepodległość jako Kazachstan. Stolica Kazachskiej SRR, Ałma-Ata, była do 1998 r. stolicą niepodległego Kazachstanu. Później przeniesiono stolicę do Astany. +Wdecki Park Krajobrazowy – jeden z młodszych polskich parków. Został utworzony na mocy "Rozporządzenia Nr 52/93 Wojewody Bydgoskiego" z dnia 16 lutego 1993 r. Położony na Pojezierzu Południowopomorskim, w środkowo-wschodniej części Borów Tucholskich, w dorzeczu rzeki Wdy i jej dopływów Prusiny, Ryszki i Sobińskiej Strugi. Pod względem administracyjnym Wdecki Park Krajobrazowy znajduje się w całości na obszarze województwa kujawsko-pomorskiego. Swoim zasięgiem obejmuje dwa powiaty: świecki, w tym gminy Drzycim, Jeżewo, Lniano, Osie i Warlubie oraz powiat tucholski, w tym gminy Cekcyn i Śliwice (łącznie 7 gmin). Ok. 70% powierzchni parku leży na terenie Gminy Osie. Siedziba Zarządu Wdeckiego Parku Krajobrazowego znajduje się w Osiu. +Po wybudowaniu elektrowni wodnej w Żurze w 1930 r. w wyniku spiętrzenia Wdy i zalania ujściowych odcinków jej dopływów powstał Zbiornik Żurski o powierzchni 440 ha. Spowodowało to podniesienie poziomu wody i połączenie rzeki Wdy z dwoma zalanymi obniżeniami terenu, tj. obecnymi jeziorami Wierzchy i Mukrza. W ten sposób na Zalewie Żurskim powstały liczne, malownicze wyspy. Najbardziej znana z nich to Madera. +Park został utworzony dnia 16 lutego 1993 na podstawie "Rozporządzenia Nr 52/93 Wojewody Bydgoskiego z dnia 16.02.1993 r. w sprawie powołania Wdeckiego Parku Krajobrazowego" +Kirgiska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Kirgizja (ros. "Киргизская Советская Социалистическая Республика", kirg. "Кыргыз Советтик Социалисттик Республикасы") – była republiką ZSRR w latach 1936-1991. Powstała z przekształcenia istniejącej od 1926 r. Kirgiskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej, która z kolei została utworzona z powstałego w 1924 r. Kara-Kirgiskiego Obwodu Autonomicznego. +W 1991 r. Kirgiska SRR zyskała niepodległość jako Kirgistan, a nazwa stolicy kraju, Frunze została przemianowana na Biszkek. Prezydent Kirgiskiej SRR (od 1990 r.), Askar Akajew był także prezydentem niepodległego Kirgistanu do 2005 r. +W roku 1838 Isambard Kingdom Brunel zbudował dla specjalnie utworzonej firmy "Great Western Steamship Company" statek "Great Western", którego dwie maszyny parowe o łącznej mocy 750 KM dawały prędkość do 10 w. Ten pierwszy prawdziwy transatlantyk miał kabiny dla 120 pasażerów w klasie I, 20 w klasie II, a mógł przewieźć jeszcze dodatkowo 100 osób. Załoga liczyła 60 ludzi. "Great Western" miał być pierwszym statkiem, który przepłynie Atlantyk bez użycia żagli - tylko przy pomocy silnika parowego. Konkurencyjna firma "British and American Steam Navigation Company" zamówiła w tym samym celu statek "British Queen", ale jego budowa się przedłużyła. Wyczarterowała więc mały bocznokołowiec "Sirius" i wysłała go do Nowego Jorku 4 kwietnia 1838 r., cztery dni przed rozpoczęciem podróży przez "Great Western", którego zatrzymał na Tamizie pożar maszynowni. 22 kwietnia 1938 r. "Sirius", którego załoga paliła już pod kotłami drewnianym wyposażeniem statku, ponieważ zabrakło węgla, wszedł do portu w Nowym Jorku jako pierwszy w historii statek, który pokonał Atlantyk samą siłą maszyn. Powitany został salwami honorowymi okrętów. Dużo szybszy "Great Western" wszedł do portu kilka godzin po nim, tracąc prestiż pierwszego transatlantyku, chociaż oczywiście od razu pobił oceaniczny rekord prędkości. +Cunard Line odzyskała "wstęgę" dopiero w 1907, kiedy to na atlantycki szlak ruszyła "Lusitania". Statek ten, podobnie jak bliźniacza "Mauretania" napędzany był już jednak turbinami parowymi, co dawało większe możliwości osiągania dużych prędkości. Te dwa statki doprowadziły rekord prędkości na Atlantyku do 30 węzłów. Konkurencyjna White Star Line zamówiła zaś większe o połowę statki "Olympic" i "Titanic", które miały napęd mieszany (dwie śruby napędzane silnikami parowymi, jedna - środkowa, pracująca tylko przy biegu naprzód - turbiną). Były więc wolniejsze, a słynna katastrofa "Titanica" w 1912 r. dowiodła słabej manewrowości mieszanego napędu, przy którym trudno było uzyskać bieg wstecz. +Katastrofa "Titanica" 14 kwietnia 1912 r. była najtragiczniejsza w historii żeglugi transatlantyckiej (ponad 1500 ofiar), jednakże już dwa lata później miała miejsce podobna "Empress of Ireland" zatonął 29 maja 1914 r. z ponad 1000 ofiar wskutek zderzenia na rzece Świętego Wawrzyńca w rejsie do Europy. +Wojnę przetrwał też jedyny francuski czterokominowiec "France", któremu po wojnie jako partnera wybudowano nowszy statek "Ile de France" - pierwszy transatlantyk, który miał stałą kaplicę. Ten drugi pływał przez wiele lat i jeszcze w 1956 r. zasłynął w czasie ratowania rozbitków ze statku "Andrea Doria". +Kolejnymi rekordowymi statkami były wybudowane w połowie lat trzydziestych XX w. "Queen Mary" i "Normandie". Były największymi statkami świata, o wyporności około 80.000 ton. "Queen Mary" zbudowana została dzięki brytyjskiej subwencji rządowej, której warunkiem było połączenie Cunard Line i White Star Line w linię "Cunard White Star" - potocznie jednak używano nadal nazwy Cunard. "Normandie" była statkiem francuskiego Companie Generale Transatlantique. Oba statki odbierały sobie kilkakrotnie rekord prędkości. Trzeci olbrzym, "Queen Elizabeth" ukończony został już w 1940 r., podczas II wojny światowej. +14 października 1924 r. powstała Tadżycka Autonomiczna Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, znajdująca się w obrębie Uzbeckiej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej. +5 grudnia 1929 r. zmieniono status Tadżyckiej ASRR i ogłoszono powstanie Tadżyckiej SRR - pełnoprawnej republiki ZSRR. Pozostała ona w składzie Związku Radzieckiego do 26 grudnia 1991 r., kiedy to uzyskała niepodległość jako Republika Tadżykistanu. +Zgodnie z Art. 98c. pkt. 3) Ustawy z dnia 21 listopada 1967 r. o powszechnym obowiązku obrony Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej tytuł elewa otrzymywali (z dniem rozpoczęcia pełnienia służby przygotowawczej) żołnierze służby przygotowawczej kształcący się na szeregowego. Tytuł wojskowy elewa został zniesiony Rozporządzeniem Ministra Obrony Narodowej z dnia 23 lutego 2011 r. w sprawie tytułów wojskowych żołnierzy w czynnej służbie wojskowej (Dz. U. 2011 r. Nr 50, poz. 257). +Od 13 maja 1925 r. Uzbecka SRR jako pełnoprawna republika ZSRR, pozostała w jego składzie do 26 grudnia 1991 r., kiedy to uzyskała niepodległość jako Republika Uzbekistanu. +14 października 1924 r. na części terytorium Uzbeckiej SRR utworzono Tadżycką Autonomiczną Socjalistyczną Republikę Radziecką, która w 1929 została ostatecznie odłączona od Uzbeckiej SRR i weszła skład ZSRR jako Tadżycka Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka. +W 1936 r. do Uzbeckiej SRR przyłączono powstałą w 1932 r. w ramach Rosyjskiej FSRR +Powiat pszczyński – powiat w Polsce (województwo śląskie), utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Pszczyna. +Po zagarnięciu Śląska przez Prusy dawna ziemia pszczyńska, a później wolne państwo stanowe przekształcone zostało w 1742 r. w powiat, do którego włączono również ziemię wodzisławską. Powiat ten obejmował rozległy teren od Mysłowic na północnym wschodzie po rzekę Olzę, Wodzisław i przedmieścia Bogumina na południowym zachodzie. W wyniku reformy administracyjnej w latach 1916 – 1917 odłączono od powiatu pszczyńskiego okręg mysłowicki i ziemię wodzisławską. Kolejne zmniejszenia powierzchni powiatu miały miejsce w 1954 r., kiedy powstał nowy powiat tyski, a następnie w 1957 r., w którym pd.-zach. kraniec powiatu pszczyńskiego Bzie włączono do powiatu wodzisławskiego. +Gruzińska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Gruzja (ros. "Грузинская Советская Социалистическая Республика", "Грузия", gruz. საქართველოს საბჭოთა სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკა, საქართველო) - była jedną z 15 republik ZSRR w latach 1936-1991, od 1922 do 1936 r. wchodziła w skład Zakaukaskiej FSRR łącznie z Azerbejdżańską SRR i Armeńską SRR. W 1991 r. odzyskała niepodległość jako Gruzja. +Powiat lidzbarski - powiat w Polsce (województwo warmińsko-mazurskie), utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego stolicą jest miasto Lidzbark Warmiński. +Fundusze inwestycyjne otwarte są jedną z trzech podstawowych kategorii funduszy, których działalność reguluje ustawa o funduszach inwestycyjnych z 2004 r. Otwarte fundusze inwestycyjne są kontynuatorami prawnymi funduszy powierniczych, których działalność regulowała ustawa o publicznym obrocie papierami wartościowymi z 1991 r., i które działają w Polsce od 1992 r. Pod względem liczebności i wartości zgromadzonych aktywów fundusze otwarte są zdecydowanie najbardziej popularnym typem funduszy inwestycyjnych w Polsce. Fundusze otwarte mogą zbywać nieograniczoną liczbę jednostek uczestnictwa i są zobowiązane do ich odkupienia na każde żądanie uczestnika. Gotowość do odkupienia jednostek uczestnictwa oznacza, że fundusz otwarty musi być w stanie dokonać szybkiej zamiany posiadanych lokat na gotówkę. Lokaty funduszy otwartych charakteryzują się więc znacznie większą płynnością niż w przypadku funduszy zamkniętych. Fundusz otwarty jest również zobowiązany do prowadzenia rejestru uczestników. Czynność ta jest najczęściej powierzana wyspecjalizowanej firmie zwanej agentem transferowym. Do zadań agenta transferowego należy też ewidencjonowanie w rejestrach wszelkich zmian, które wynikają ze zleceń składanych przez uczestników funduszu. +W niektórych krajach wykształciło się specyficzne ustawodawstwo dotyczące "cybersquattingu", uzupełniające prawo o znaku handlowym. Na przykład w USA funkcjonuje U.S. Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act (ACPA) z 29 listopada 1999 r. +Aktualny podział administracyjny Czech obejmuje 13 krajów samorządowych + miasto wydzielone Praga (czes. "Samosprávné kraje"), które są jednostkami samorządu terytorialnego z własną administracją (odpowiednik polskiego województwa) oraz 7 okręgów terytorialnych (+ Praga) (czes. "Územní kraje") z 1960 r. dla licznych instytucji państwowych (sądy, státní zastupitelství i niektóre inne urzędy państwowe). Czeskie "kraje" (czes. "kraj" - odpowiednik województw) są do języka polskiego tłumaczone też jak "kraje" lub "województwa" lub "okręgi" lub "regiony". +Początki partii sięgają 1904 roku, kiedy utworzono grupę na łonie eserów. W czasie I Zjazdu Związku Socjalistów-Rewolucjonistów w styczniu 1906 r. doszło do wystąpienia maksymalistów z partii. +Ataki bolszewickie doprowadziły w 1919 r. do rozpadu partii, część członków wstąpiła do RKP(b), część na stanowiska antybolszewickie, reszta starała się legalną drogą ograniczać rolę leninowców. +Wiesław Tupaczewski (ur. 7 czerwca 1963 r. w Ostrowi Mazowieckiej), satyryk polski, założyciel Kabaretu OT.TO, absolwent Wydziału Elektroniki Politechniki Warszawskiej, basista. +Operacja, która ostatecznie stała się dziesięciomiesięczną wojną na wyniszczenie, rozpoczęła się o 7.30 rano, 19 lutego 1915 r. Dwa niszczyciele zostały wysłane na zwiady, w ich kierunku otworzyła ogień bateria dział 24 cm z baterii Kum Kale o godzinie 7.58. Dwa pancerniki podeszły bliżej baterii i rozpoczęły z nią pojedynek ogniowy, pierwsze brytyjskie strzały padły o 9.51 z okrętu HMS „Cornwallis”. Dzień ten nie przyniósł jednak tak spektakularnego rezultatu jak test z 3 listopada. +Sobór trydencki obradujący w latach 1545-1563, uporządkował prawo kanoniczne. Obowiązywało ono do wydania kodeksu z 1917 r.. Nowa wersja, w duchu Soboru watykańskiego II, została opracowana na polecenie Jana Pawła II w 1983 r. +W 1995 r. został utworzony Skierbieszowski Park Krajobrazowy. Skierbieszów leży w centralnej części parku. Celem utworzenia parku było zachowanie unikatowych walorów przyrodniczych, historycznych, kulturowych i krajobrazowych Działów Grabowieckich. Powierzchnia parku wynosi 35 488 ha. +W 1915 r. zbudowano z Skierbieszowa do Zamościa drogę z inicjatywy Ignacego Mościckiego. +W 1924 r. z inicjatywy lekarza Kapuścińskiego i aptekarza mgr Tadeusza Bortnowskiego powstała w Skierbieszowie mleczarnia. +W 1927 r., 19 czerwca był dla Skierbieszowa dniem bardzo pamiętnym. Tego dnia przyjechał Prezydent Ignacy Mościcki +W 1939 roku Zamojszczyzna była miejscem walk z wojskami niemieckimi, które zakończyły się dzień przed kapitulacją Warszawy. Po zakończeniu wojny obronnej 1939 r. Zamojszczyzna została podzielona pomiędzy Niemcy (większość regionu) a Związek Radziecki (południowo-wschodnia część). W południowo-wschodniej części regionu do dziś pozostały resztki umocnień zwanych Linią Mołotowa. +Akcja wysiedleńcza rozpoczęła się w nocy z 27 na 28 listopada 1942 r. Wysiedleniem Skierbieszowa oraz okolicznych wsi: Lipina Nowa, Suchodębie, Sady i Zawoda. Trwała ona do marca 1943 r. Objęła powiaty: biłgorajski, hrubieszowski, tomaszowski i zamojski. +Wysiedloną ludność kierowano do obozów przejściowych (pozbawionych najbardziej elementarnych warunków do życia) w Zamościu, Zwierzyńcu, Budzyniu. Nędzy obozowej towarzyszył terror ze strony SS-manów. Szczucie psami, bicie za zbliżanie się do drutów, strzelanie do ludzi w celu zabicia wszy masowo występujących na więźniach – należało do zjawisk powszechnych. W miejscu wysiedlonych i wywiezionych mieszkańców gminy Skierbieszów hitlerowcy sprowadzili w ramach akcji kolonizacyjnej Heim ins Reich niemieckich osadników ze Śląska, Serbii, Chorwacji, Rosji i rumuńskiej Besarabii. Po wysiedleniu ludności Skierbieszowa w 1942 r. Niemcy urządzili w kościele Wniebowzięcia NMP magazyn zbożowy. +Od 1997 r. we wsi znajduje się 14 gospodarstw agroturystycznych. Na ul. Wąskiej mieści się punkt informacji turystycznej. W 2006 roku została otwarta „Skierbieszowska Trasa Rowerowa” o długości 42km. +Jedyny w miejscowości działający klub sportowy to Gminny Klub Sportowy Ostoja Skierbieszów. Został założony w 1962 r. Stadion Ostoi mieści się przy ulicy Nadrzecznej. W sezonie 2009/2010 klub występuje w Klasie okręgowej w grupie Zamość. Trenerem zespołu jest Dariusz Kmiecik. +Rezerwat znajduje się w miejscowości Złoty Potok, gmina Janów, powiat częstochowski, województwo śląskie. Ma charakter leśno-krajobrazowy. Zarządzany jest przez Nadleśnictwo Złoty Potok. Został utworzony 3 września 1957 r. dla zachowania wzgórz wraz z fragmentami doliny Wiercicy, a także form skalnych i starodrzewia. Powierzchnia 155,22 ha. +Po przegranym przez Polskę plebiscycie w Ełku w 1920 r. udzielał pomocy i pomagał ukrywać się polskim aktywistom plebiscytowym z powiatu ełckiego zagrożonym represjami oraz deportacją do Polski. W okresie II wojny światowej pomagał polskim robotnikom zbiegłym z robót przymusowych i niemieckim dezerterom. Kontaktował się z nim wywiad AK. +28 września 1918 r. poświęcony został uroczyście pierwszy gmach szkolny przy ul. Kapucyńskiej 21 w Warszawie. Pierwszym dyrektorem szkoły został wybitny pedagog Zdzisław Rudzki, rekomendowany przez ministra Ponikowskiego. Warunki lokalowe nie pozwalały na efektywne prowadzenie wielu zajęć, np. nauk matematyczno-przyrodniczych, dlatego też, już w 1922 rozpoczęto budowę nowego, znacznie większego gmachu przy ul. Myśliwieckiej 6. Projektantem obiektu był wybitny architekt prof. Tadeusz Tołwiński. Przez cztery lata po rozpoczęciu nauki w nowym budynku (15 września 1924), porządkowano i zagospodarowywano teren wokół niego (stworzono m.in. ogród botaniczny). W tym samym czasie laboratoria szkoły zostały wyposażone w bardzo nowoczesny, jak na tamte czasy, sprzęt. Unikatowe było obserwatorium astronomiczne, umieszczone w wieżyczce w północnym skrzydle budynku (obecnie zamknięte). W podziemiach szkoły znajdował się również dostępny dla uczniów basen, przez wiele lat pozostający jedyną w Polsce wewnętrzną pływalnią szkoły średniej. +W stanie wojennym, w lutym 1982 r. uczniowie szkoły zasłynęli ze zorganizowania protestu oficjalnie potępiającego pacyfikację strajku w kopalni "Wujek". Trzynastego każdego miesiąca uczniowie przychodzili ubrani na czarno i na dużych przerwach milczeli. W 1982 ówczesna dyrektor szkoły Teresa Garncarzyk wezwała do szkoły funkcjonariuszy Służby Bezpieczeństwa, którzy na oczach kolegów wyprowadzili skutego w kajdanki ucznia Piotra Cichockiego. Wraz z nim zatrzymano również jego koleżankę Ewę Bogaczyk. Cichocki był następnie sądzony za dystrybucję ulotek "Solidarności". W sądzie bronił go wybitny adwokat Edward Wende, któremu udało się doprowadzić do uniewinnienia chłopca pomimo obciążających zeznań składanych przez dyrektorkę Liceum. +Wychowywała ją guwernantka w rodzinnej rezydencji Digbych, Minterne Magna w Dorset. Jako 17-latka spędziła pół roku szkole z internatem w Monachium. Podobno została przedstawiona Hitlerowi. Po powrocie do Anglii pracowała w służbie zagranicznej jako tłumaczka z języka francuskiego. Poznała tam Randolpha Churchilla (syna Winstona), z którym 4 października 1939 r., po zaledwie kilkunastodniowej znajomości, wzięła ślub. Z tego związku urodził się syn Winston (10 października 1940). Pamela pracowała później w ministerstwie zaopatrzenia. Małżeństwo zakończyło się w 1946 rozwodem, z powodu licznych romansów Pameli. +Jeszcze przed rozpoczęciem działań wojennych w połowie lipca 1939 r. samolot eskadry z załogą – płk. pil. Bolesław Stachoń ( ówczesny dowódca 4 Pułku Lotniczego w skład którego wchodziła eskadra), por.obs. Czesław Malinowski oraz pchor. obs. Jan Klocek – z rozkazu dowódcy Armii "Pomorze" dokonali rozpoznania wojsk niemieckich w okolicach Królewca i Olsztyna (Prusy Wschodnie) oraz nad granicą z Wolnym Miastem Gdańskiem. +Stary Cmentarz próbowano zlikwidować kilkakrotnie, między innymi w 1820 r. (Prusacy), w latach II wojny światowej, oraz w 1962 r. (komuniści). Ta ostatnia decyzja o likwidacji została formalnie anulowana dopiero w 1982 r. +Monograficzną pracą o Starym Cmentarzu jest ilustrowana zdjęcia autora publikacja "Stary cmentarz w Ostrowie Wielkopolskim" (Marian Kostrzewski Ostrów Wlkp. 1982 r., wyd. O.T.K.). +W latach międzywojennych znowu znalazła się w Polsce. Od września 1939 r. Huculszczyzna przestała należeć do Polski. Osiedli tam Polacy i inne nieruskie mniejszości narodowe zostali stamtąd wysiedleni. Między innymi to właśnie było powodem spadku zainteresowania tym obszarem ze strony polskich etnografów. +Jednak nieprzerażeni tymi proroctwami młodzi monarchiści z księciem Feliksem Jusupowem na czele zawiązali spisek na życie przyjaciela carskiej rodziny. Plan był prosty: 30 grudnia 1916 r. Rasputin został potajemnie zwabiony do pałacu Jusupowa pod pretekstem poznania słynącej z urody Iriny Aleksandrowny. Tam poczęstowano go zatrutym winem i ciastem. Ku zaskoczeniu zamachowców trucizna jedynie osłabiła starika (prawdopodobnie użyty cyjanek potasu, przez złe przechowywanie, uległ hydrolizie, przez co w użytej truciźnie nie było wystarczającej ilości jonów cyjankowych). Wtedy Jusupow zdecydował się zastrzelić Rasputina. Pierwszy strzał ranił ofiarę w pierś. Jeszcze po 50 latach książę Jusupow wspominał, jak to Rasputin - otruty i z przestrzeloną piersią - próbował go udusić. Gwałtownie odepchnięty przez księcia wybiegł na dziedziniec i dopiero kiedy deputowany Władimir Puryszkiewicz oddał w niego kolejne strzały, upadł. Dla pewności książę zmiażdżył mu pałką czaszkę. Następnie spiskowcy związali Rasputina i zawieźli nad Newę, gdzie wielki książę Dimitr Pawłowicz osobiście go utopił. Późniejsza sekcja wykazała wodę w jego płucach - oznacza to, że Rasputin jeszcze żył gdy wrzucano go do wody. Przypadkowy świadek zameldował policji o wydarzeniach. Początkowo nikt nie chciał uwierzyć w zeznania, jednak wkrótce rozpoczęto śledztwo. Wyłowione z Newy zwłoki Rasputina nosiły ślady świadczące, że w momencie wrzucenia do rzeki nadal żył - prawa ręka była uwolniona z więzów, a w płucach znajdowała się woda. +W 1968 jego czterej synowie wzięli udział w "protestach marca 1968" na UAM. Wezwany do ministerstwa w celu wyjaśnienia tej sprawy odparł, że jego (jako "dawnego rektora") synowie stanęli w marcu 1968 roku po właściwej stronie. W rezultacie działań komisji wiceministra Mistewicza, z dniem 1 września 1970 r., w ramach "polityki jednoetatowości", zaprzestał pracy na UAM, pozostając w Instytucie Historii PAN. Dzięki wsparciu ze strony ministra szkolnictwa wyższego Henryka Jabłońskiego uzyskał jednak bezterminowy urlop bezpłatny, co umożliwiło mu formalnie zachowanie stanowiska na UAM. Dzięki temu mógł (choć już bez wynagrodzenia) nadal kierować do emerytury w 1986 roku pracami Zakładu Historii Powszechnej i Polski do XV w. Instytutu Historii Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza, a okresowo prowadzić również wykład kursowy. Nieudane próby przerwania owego urlopu w celu przywrócenia pełnego etatu profesorskiego podjęte zostały w latach 1974-1975 przez ówczesnego rektora UAM Benona Miśkiewicza. +Jednostka sformowana została w dniu 31 sierpnia 1939 r. na podstawie rozkazu L.dz. 143/Mob/S/Lot Sztabu Głównego WP. Dowództwo brygady zorganizowano w oparciu o dowództwo Zgrupowania Bombowego 1 Pułku Lotniczego. 31 sierpnia 1939 r. dowódca brygady zmienił numerację pododdziałów. Dowództwo brygady stacjonowało w Warszawie, a wysunięty rzut sztabu skierowany został do Dęblina. +Był synem Henryka Raabego, zoologa i Julii z Wyleżyńskich. Studiował na Wydziale Prawa i Nauk Społecznych Uniwersytetu Wileńskiego. Od 1928 r. działał w młodzieżowych stowarzyszeniach socjalistycznych, jak Związek Niezależnej Młodzieży Socjalistycznej (przewodniczący Związku w Warszawie), Organizacja Młodzieży Towarzystwa Uniwersytetu Robotniczego, Czerwone Harcerstwo TUR. Był też członkiem Polskiej Partii Socjalistycznej. Publikował artykuły w piśmie „Akademik Socjalista”. +Brał udział w wojnie obronnej 1939 r. Od końca 1939 r. przewodził grupie konspiracyjnej Gwardia skupionej wokół pisma o tej samej nazwie. Reprezentował ideę zjednoczenia różnych grup socjalistycznych, aby zyskać odpowiednią bazę dla swojej koncepcji prowadzenia czynnej walki z Niemcami. +We wrześniu 1941 r. na podziemnej konferencji w Warszawie był współzałożycielem Polskich Socjalistów (członek Komitetu Centralnego), pełnił też funkcję komendanta Formacji Bojowo-Milicyjnych Polskich Socjalistów. +Jako członek Komitetu Centralnego Polskich Socjalistów opowiadał się za współpracą z PPS-WRN. Kiedy jednak nie doszło do porozumienia wraz z częścią PS przeszedł do PPS-WRN i powołał w marcu 1943 r. Socjalistyczną Organizację Bojową, zostając jej komendantem. Podporządkował ją pod względem wojskowym AK. W kwietniu tego roku uczestniczył w akcjach niesienia pomocy Żydom walczącym w getcie warszawskim. +We wsi miały miejsce walki w czasie starć z wojskimi czeskimi w 1919 r. w trakcie których zginął kpt. Cezary Haller (brat generała Józefa Hallera). +Przy rondzie współczesny kościół parafialny pw. św. Maksymiliana Maria Kolbe (projektował Jerzy Okniński, 1981-82) oraz pomnik (odsłonięty w 1975 r.) poświęcony żołnierzom polskim 2 Dywizji Piechoty I Armii WP walczącym podczas II wojny światowej. +Początki Międzynarodowego Dnia Kobiet wywodzą się z ruchów robotniczych w Ameryce Północnej i Europie. Pierwsze obchody Narodowego Dnia Kobiet odbyły się 28 lutego 1909 r. w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Zapoczątkowane zostały one przez Socjalistyczną Partię Ameryki. +Mur berliński upadł po 28 latach istnienia, w czasie pokojowej rewolucji w Niemczech, tzw. Wendy, będącej częścią Jesieni Ludów w 1989 r. Wraz z upadkiem muru, 22 grudnia 1989 roku odbyło się uroczyste otwarcie Bramy Brandenburskiej, w którym uczestniczyło ponad 100 tys. osób. Krótko po tym usunięto całkowicie także pozostałe umocnienia graniczne. +W 1995 r. na terenie miasta i gminy odbyło się referendum na podstawie którego Rada Miejska wystapiła do Szefa Urzędu Rady Ministów z prośbą o zmianę nazwy. Zarządzenie Rady Ministrów wydano w 1996, dzięki czemu przymiotnik "Wielkopolski" został dodany do nazwy miejscowosci 1 stycznia 1997. +Ustawa "zmieniająca i uzupełniająca Konstytucję Rzeczypospolitej z 17 marca 1921 r." została uchwalona 2 sierpnia 1926 roku głosami parlamentarzystów od prawicy do Stronnictwa Chłopskiego i PSL „Wyzwolenie”. Przeciwko była PPS, lewica rewolucyjna i mniejszości narodowe. +Zdaniem Antoniego Czubińskiego, zamach majowy miał czysto antydemokratyczne oblicze: "Otwierając możliwości rozwoju faszyzmu w Polsce, wyrażającego się w autokratyzowaniu państwa, elitarnym podziale społeczeństwa, likwidacji zdobyczy socjalnych – przewrót majowy jednocześnie zahamował rozwój sił demokratycznych i rewolucyjnych w Polsce". Zupełnie inny pogląd prezentował Leszek Moczulski. Jego zdaniem zamach był wymierzony przeciwko zarówno siłom skrajnie lewicowym, jak i prawicowym, których działania zagrażały istnieniu Polski. Jak pisał, "Tylko stanowcze działanie mogło zapobiec najgorszemu. [Piłsudski] ratował Rzeczpospolitą przed śmiertelnym konfliktem, może wojną domową i upadkiem państwa. Ratował też demokrację. Gdyby zwyciężyła prawica – musiałaby okiełznać lewicę; gdyby zwyciężyła lewica – doszłoby do rewolucji społecznej. Każdy z tych przypadków oznaczał koniec demokracji". Jak wskazywał natomiast Czubiński, "Przewrót majowy oznaczał więc klęskę polityczną tak głównej partii prawicy społecznej, tj. Związku Ludowo-Narodowego, jak i ugrupowań lewicy sejmowej. Miejsce ZLN zajęli piłsudczycy, tworzący od maja 1926 r. szeroki obóz sanacji, w której ramach obok dawnych piłsudczyków skupiali się przedstawiciele klas posiadających oraz prawicy w ogóle. Nastąpiła swego rodzaju nowa konsolidacja tych sił i grup wokół Piłsudskiego". +Był żonaty z Danutą Will, z którą miał syna Macieja. Palił fajkę. W 1992 r. otrzymał tytuł "Fajczarza Roku" od Rady Polskich Klubów Fajki. Był autorem znaku graficznego Pipe Club Warszawa. +W skład Towarzystwa wchodzi Komitet opieki nad kopcem Józefa Piłsudskiego. Komitet powstał w czerwcu 1980 w skład TMHiZK znalazł się formalnie w wyniku uchwały Wydziału z dnia 9 stycznia 1981 r. +Po niemieckiej inwazji na Polskę Seyss-Inquart został zarządcą południowych terenów Polski, a od utworzenia Generalnego Gubernatorstwa do 1941 r. pełnił funkcję jego szefa rządu. +Istotną część mieszkańców Czerska stanowili Niemcy - w 1910 r. 30% ogółu ludności, w 1934 r. około 12%. Zajmowali oni w mieście silną pozycję ekonomiczną, będąc w posiadaniu około połowy jego zakładów przemysłowych. Sytuacja ta, szczególnie w kontekście złych stosunków polsko-niemieckich i bliskości granicy, powodowała poważne napięcia społeczne. +Założone przez kupców indyjskich na początku XVIII w. Dynamiczny rozwój nastąpił po 1947 r., kiedy miasto stało się stolicą Pakistanu (do 1966 roku, straciło ten status na rzecz Islamabadu). W Karaczi często wybuchają zamieszki etniczne i religijne między hindusami i muzułmanami (w 1994 r. w ich wyniku zginęło ok. 1000 osób) oraz między sunnitami i szyitami (w tym wypadku jednak najczęściej ma miejsce podkładanie bomb w meczetach). +Proponowanym następcą bombowca Łoś miał być PZL-49 Miś. Projekt opracował Jerzy Dąbrowski przy wydatnej współpracy inż. Piotra Kubickiego. Podstawowym kierunkiem rozwoju było poprawienie osiągów, zwłaszcza prędkości lotu przez zwiększenie mocy zespołu napędowego oraz poprawienie aerodynamiki płatowca. Wzmocnieniu uległo uzbrojenie obronne. Normalny ładunek bomb 2200 kg mógł być zwiększony do 3000 kg, w zamian za zmniejszenie zapasu paliwa. Zasięg normalny wynosił 2000 km, a maksymalny z dodatkowymi zbiornikami paliwa 3000 km. W konstrukcji płatowca wykorzystano około połowy elementów pochodzących z PZL.37. Kadłub został troszkę wydłużony. Aby poprawić opływ, linię grzbietową kadłuba zastosowano bez uskoku dla tylnego górnego stanowiska k.m. Wieża grzbietowa oraz kołyska podkadłubowa były wysuwane tylko na czas akcji bojowej. Kółko ogonowe było również chowane w locie. Zrezygnowano przy tym z wydatnego, ale mało skutecznego przejścia aerodynamicznego skrzydło-kadłub, sięgającego w Łosiu od części spływowej płata aż do połowy tylnej części kadłuba. Podwozie główne jednogoleniowe było konstrukcji inż. Piotra Kubickiego (patent 29 090), wielodźwigniowe dla cięższych samolotów. Napęd stanowiłyby zapewne silniki Bristol Hercules II 14-cylindrowe, w układzie podwójnej gwiazdy, o mocy startowej 949 kW (1290 KM) i maksymalnej na wysokości 1500 m 810-846 kW (1100-1150 KM). Osłonę stanowił pierścień NACA. Licencję na te silniki zakupiła PZL-WS w 1939 r. Grzbietowa wieża obrotowa konstrukcji Jerzego Dąbrowskiego miała być uzbrojona w prototypie Misia w działko Hispano-Suiza typ 404 kal. 20 mm, zakupione jeszcze w 1937 r., dla którego zamówiono w 1938 r. obrotnicę Hispano z terminem dostawy na czerwiec 1939 r. Stanowisko dolne w gondoli wysuwanej pod wpływem masy strzelca, było wzorowane na modelu wypróbowanym w samolotach PZL.42 i PZL.46. +Według memoriału gen. bryg. dr. Józefa Zająca z 28 XI 1938 r., PZL-49 Miś znajdował się w studiach, to znaczy w fazie opracowania projektu, przy czym rysunki samolotu były ukończone. Prace nad projektem przebiegały powoli, bowiem biuro konstrukcyjne PZL jako priorytet traktowało wówczas projekty samolotów myśliwskich. Latem 1939 r. Komisja Dowództwa Lotnictwa, ITL przy udziale przedstawicieli PZL akceptowała makietę użytkową PZL-49. Umożliwiło to ukończenie projektu konstrukcyjnego. Wobec przewidywanego zaangażowania Jerzego Dąbrowskiego przy projekcie myśliwca PZL.62 kierownictwo zespołu Misia miał objąć inż. Piotr Kubicki. Przewidywano przy tym, że produkcja seryjna podjęta będzie przez PZL WP-2 w Mielcu, gdzie miało powstać również biuro konstrukcyjne. Dalsze prace przerwała wojna. Znaczną część dokumentacji przewieziono na początku września 1939 r. do mieszkania Jerzego Dąbrowskiego przy ul. Kazimierzowskiej, a następnie z obawy przed dostaniem się w ręce wroga, spalono w pobliskiej piekarni. Po wojnie do kraju napłynęły od Jerzego Dąbrowskiego skąpe informacje o tym projekcie, jak również szkic koncepcyjny rzutu bocznego projektowanego bombowca. +W 1999 r. Miejskie wieże strażnicze beffroi w północnej Francji wspólnie z Belgią we Flandrii, i Walonii – zostało wpisane na listę światowego dziedzictwa UNESCO. +Jako jednostki napędowe użyto silników Allison V-1710 wyposażonych w sprężarki. Zespół projektowy kierowany przez Clarence’a Johnsona opracował unikatowy sposób rozmieszczenia silników w dwóch długich belkach i umieszczenia kabiny pilota oraz uzbrojenia pośrodku pomiędzy nimi. W późniejszych wersjach maszyny śmigła samolotu kręciły się w przeciwnych kierunkach, co eliminowało momenty reakcyjne i żyroskopowe od śmigieł. Zastosowano też nowatorski pomysł trzypunktowego wciąganego podwozia. Zwrotność miały zapewniać wysuwane podczas walki klapy Fowlera. Zamówiony w 1937 roku prototyp ukończono w grudniu 1938, a oblatano 27 stycznia 1939. Początkowe oznaczenie fabryczne „Model 22” zmieniono na XP-38. Niestety podczas próbnego przelotu z Kalifornii do Nowego Jorku prototyp został zniszczony, zanim przeprowadzono wszystkie próby. Pomimo tego dowództwo lotnictwa złożyło zamówienie na 13 przedprodukcyjnych YP-38. Pierwszy samolot tej serii ukończono dopiero we wrześniu 1940 r. a ostatni w czerwcu 1941. W YP-38 zastosowano silniki Allison V-1710-27 i V-1710-29 o mocy 1150 KM (858 kW) każdy. W dziobowej części samolotu planowano umieszczenie działko Oldsmobile kalibru 37 mm, 2 karabiny maszynowe 12,7 mm i 2 karabiny maszynowe 7,62 mm. +W maju 1940 misje wojskowe Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii zamówiły odpowiednio 417 i 250 tych myśliwców, jednak w obawie przed dużymi opóźnieniami zarówno Francuzi, jak i Brytyjczycy postanowili, wbrew zaleceniom inżynierów Lockheeda, zamówić do swoich samolotów silniki bez sprężarek. W związku z kapitulacją Francji w 1940 r. cały kontrakt przejęła Wielka Brytania. Po dostarczeniu pierwszych 3 egzemplarzy oznaczonych Lightning Mk I wobec niezadowalających osiągów realizację dalszej części zamówienia odwołano, a przeznaczone do Europy samoloty skierowano do jednostek szkolnych jako RP-322. +Wersję P-38J zaczęto wprowadzać w sierpniu 1943 r. W wersji tej przekonstruowano i powiększono wloty powietrza, co pozwala ją łatwo odróżnić od wcześniejszych wersji („brody” pod silnikami). Dotychczasowy układ chłodzenia, złożony z chłodnic umieszczonych w skrzydłach i skomplikowanego układu rur powodował, że silniki, kiedy osiągały moc ponad 1000 KM, przegrzewały się. Piloci nie mogli więc podczas lotów bojowych korzystać z pełnej mocy silnika, co ograniczało osiągi samolotu. Powiększono też zbiorniki paliwa, wykorzystując wolne miejsce wewnątrz skrzydeł. Wprowadzono też kilka zmian w aerodynamice, likwidując problem blokowania sterów podczas nurkowania w dużej prędkości. Pilotując tę wersję, pilot mógł w razie niebezpieczeństwa zwiększyć na krótko moc silnika do 1600 KM. Pierwszą odmianą była P-38J-1, zbudowana w liczbie 10 sztuk. W następnej P-38J-5 w zwolnione w skrzydłach miejsca po chłodnicach zamontowano dodatkowe zbiorniki paliwa. Zbudowano 210 sztuk. Odmiana P-38J-10 (790 sztuk) miała płaski wiatrochron ze zintegrowaną szybą kuloodporną. W P-38J-15 (1400 sztuk) zmodyfikowano system elektryczny i opancerzenie kabiny pilota. W P-38J-20 (350 sztuk) poprawiono system sterowania turbosprężarką. W odmianie P-38J-25 (210 sztuk) dokonano zmian w aerodynamice samolotu, m.in. sterowanie lotkami było hydrauliczne, dodano małe klapki pod skrzydłami sterowane elektrycznie, które pomagały wyjść z nurkowania. Maszyny te potrafiły osiągnąć podczas lotu nurkowego nawet 970 km/h. Zmiany te ogólnie poprawiły zwrotność maszyny. +Pod koniec I wojny światowej, gdy rozpadała się monarchia Habsburgów, dowództwo wojsk austriackich we Lwowie sprzyjało dążeniom kół ukraińskich do przejęcia władzy w mieście. Skutkiem tego w październiku 1918 w mieście stacjonowało kilka tysięcyW książce Macieja Krotofila pt. Ukraińska Armia Halicka 1918-1919 podano: "Większość tych jednostek jesienią 1918 r. znajdowała się na frontach: włoskim i serbskim. Niektóre były na Ukrainie Naddnieprzańskiej. W Galicji nie było w tym czasie oddziałów bojowych składających się w znaczącej mierze z Ukraińców. Stacjonowały tu tylko jednostki zapasowe (kadry), oraz pododdziały asystencyjne, wartownicze i gospodarcze." strona 29. 2. We Lwowie stacjonowało ok. 1500 żołnierzy narodowości ukraińskiej przed wybuchem wojny polsko-ukraińskiej. Kolejny fragment z pracy M. Krotofila, strona 40: "Przejęcia władzy we Lwowie dokonali ukraińscy żołnierze z batalionów zapasowych 15 Pułku Piechoty (ok. 500 ludzi) i 19 Pułku Piechoty Lenwehry (ok. 400 ludzi), 30 Batalionu Strzelców Polowych (ok. 90 ludzi), Batalionu Asystencyjnego 41 Pułku Piechoty (ok. 350 ludzi) oraz pododdziałów wartowniczych i pomocniczych. W sumie na początku walk ukraińskie dowództwo dysponowało ok. 1500 żołnierzy. żołnierzy narodowości ukraińskiej, przy braku we Lwowie żołnierzy narodowości polskiej wysłanych na inne, odległe od Lwowa odcinki frontu. +Katakumby leżą poniżej kaplicy i schodzi się do nich szerokimi, kamiennymi schodami. W ośmiu ich kryptach spoczywa 72 bohaterów, których ekshumowano z różnych odcinków frontu polsko-ukraińskiego. Spoczęli w nich wybrani przez specjalną komisję, którą stanowili: bryg. Mączyński, prezydium Związku Obrońców Lwowa z listopada 1918, prezydium Straży Mogił Polskich Bohaterów i przedstawiciel władz wojskowych. Komisja ta orzekła, że w katakumbach mają spocząć zwłoki obrońców Lwowa poległych w pierwszych dniach listopada 1918 r., i że mają to być kobiety i mężczyźni, różnego wieku, różnych stanów, rodzajów broni, odcinków obrony Lwowa, dzielnic Polski i odsieczy. +Po bokach kamiennej figury znajdują się nazwiska 16 Francuzów. Pomnik przedstawia wykutego w kamieniu piechura francuskiego, opartego o karabin, z gałązką wawrzynu. Sąd konkursowy, zebrany 18 XI 1936 r. uznał jednomyślnie za najpiękniejszy i najbardziej odpowiadający celowi, projekt prof. J.Różyskiego i według tego projektu, pod kierownictwem autora, przy pomocy rzeźbiarza Kazimierza Sokolskiego, został wzniesiony pomnik. +Zwłoki tego Nieznanego Żołnierza po uroczystościach we Lwowie przewieziono uroczyście koleją do Warszawy. W miejscu, gdzie spoczywał we Lwowie, położono płytę projektu Kazimierza Sokalskiego z napisem: "Zwłoki zabrano dnia 29 października 1925 r. i uroczyście przewieziono w dniach 30–31 października i 1 listopada do Warszawy, gdzie pochowano w mogile na placu Marsz. Józefa Piłsudskiego, dawniej Saskim, jako zwłoki Nieznanego Żołnierza". +Mandrakesoft został założony w 1998 r. i ma biura w USA i Francji. +W okresie od 27 stycznia 2003 do 30 marca 2004 Mandrakesoft działał pod ochroną ustawy o bankructwie - pomimo wysiłków zmierzających do likwidacji strat i osiągnięcia zysków firma została zmuszona, wskutek serii kwartalnych strat, do wystąpienia o ochronę pod reżimem francuskiego prawa "déclaration de cessation de paiement" (podobnego do amerykańskiego "Chapter 11"), co dało jej ochronę przed wierzycielami. Pierwsze zyski od 1999 r. pojawiły się ponownie w kwartale X-XII 2003. Akcje Mandrakesoft są ponownie notowane na francuskiej giełdzie Euronext Marché Libre i amerykańskiej OTC. +Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) - amerykańska firma informatyczna założona w 1957 r. przez Kena Olsena. Nazwa handlowa - Digital. +Zgodnie z zarządzeniem premiera z 24 czerwca 1965 roku Korpus Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego do końca 1965 r. uległ rozwiązaniu, a jego jednostki, przemianowane na oddziały Wojsk Obrony Wewnętrznej weszły w skład tworzącego się systemu Obrony Terytorium Kraju. Część jednostek weszła natomiast w skład Nadwiślańskich Jednostek Wojskowych MSW. +Stan na 29 września 1961 r. +Stan osobowy wojsk KBW na 1.01.1962 r.: etatowo – 26 314 faktycznie – 25 470 +Do 1933 r. w dolinie były wypasane owce przez górali z Jurgowa. Przy górnej granicy lasu stał prymitywny szałas pasterski. W dolinie znajdują się dwie koleby skalne: jedna za północny zachód od Wyżniego Żabiego Stawu, druga na wschód od północnego brzegu Niżniego Żabiego Stawu. Jako pierwsi zimą dolinę odwiedzili Józef Lesiecki i Józef Oppenheim 4 lutego 1914 r. Obecnie Dolina Żabich Stawów Białczańskich jest położona na obszarze ochrony ścisłej. Nie ma w niej wytyczonych szlaków turystycznych i wstęp do niej jest zabroniony. +Imię Łomonosowa nosi od 1940 r. Uniwersytet Moskiewski. Na jego cześć został nazwany także podwodny grzbiet Łomonosowa na Oceanie Arktycznym oraz kratery uderzeniowe na Księżycu i Marsie. +Projekt został zaproponowany w 1999 r. przez Richarda Stallmana i oficjalnie uruchomiony w styczniu 2001. +Powiat kłodzki – powiat w Polsce, w województwie dolnośląskim, utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Kłodzko. Ma on kształt czworokąta, wcinającego się w obszar Czech. Pod względem liczby ludności (ok. 166 tys. osób) zajmuje drugie miejsce wśród powiatów Dolnego Śląska. Gęstość zaludnienia wynosi 100 mieszkańców na 1 km². +Przemysł na ziemi kłodzkiej został dotknięty przez kryzys w końcu lat 70. XX wieku, który pogłębił się znacznie wraz z transformacją gospodarczą kraju po 1989 r. W jego wyniku zlikwidowano większość tutejszych fabryk i zakładów pracy, które niedoinwestowane w okresie PRL nie mogły sprostać wymogom gospodarki wolnorynkowej. W końcu lat 90. XX wieku całkowitemu załamaniu uległ przemysł wydobywczy, co było efektem zamknięcia deficytowych kopalń w dzielnicy Nowej Rudy – Słupcu, ponadto: włókienniczy, elektromaszynowy i przetwórczy. Likwidacja wielu wielkich zakładów pracy wytworzyła zjawisko masowego zakładania własnej działalności gospodarczej, głównie w dziedzinie handlu, który prowadzony był nie tylko w powstających sklepach, ale także na targowiskach sezonowych jak i stałych, których obecnie w powiecie kłodzkim jest 16, a zajmują one łączną powierzchnię 30 835 m². Na przełomie XX i XXI wieku ziemia kłodzka jako region przygraniczny była chętnie odwiedzana przez turystów z Czech, którzy przyjeżdżali w te strony na zakupy, co wpłynęło znacznie na rozwój handlu w powiecie. Początek XXI wieku i rozwój turystyki doprowadził do doprowadził dalej do rozbudowy bazy handlowej i gastronomicznej oraz innych usług związanych z branżą turystyczną. +Powiat kłodzki ze względu na swoje strategiczne położenie ma długą tradycję wojskową. Po zakonczeniu II wojny światowej w jego stolicy stacjonowały dwie jednostki wojskowe: Sudecka Brygada Wojsk Ochrony Pogranicza i pułk pancerny. W 1992 r. zostały one zastąpione odpowiednio przez straż graniczną i 22 Brygadę Piechoty Górskiej Obrony Terytorialnej, przekształconą następnie w 2008 r. w 22 Batalion Piechoty Górskiej. Jej koszary zajmują spore tereny we wschodniej części Kłodzka. +Kazimierz Tarnowski (ur. 1915, zm. 1986) – hodowca psów myśliwskich: wyżłów niemieckich i pointerów. W 1936 r. w Tarnowie założył istniejącą do dzisiaj hodowlę psów myśliwskich "Brutar". W latach siedemdziesiątych podjął próbę stworzenia polskiej rasy wyżła, jednak choroba pokrzyżowała te plany. Od 1988 r. co dwa lata w Tarnowie odbywają się Field Trialsy im. Kazimierza Tarnowskiego. Amatorsko zajmował się malarstwem. +W czasie studiów zaczęła występować w małych klubach i kawiarniach. Wkrótce podpisała kontrakt z wytwórnią płytową Elektra Records. Swój pierwszy album zatytułowany po prostu "Tracy Chapman" wydała w 1988 r., zdobywając popularność wśród publiczności, ale także uznanie wśród krytyków. +Wkrótce po jej występie na koncercie z okazji siedemdziesiątych urodzin Nelsona Mandeli w czerwcu 1988 r., singel "Fast Car" zaczął szybko piąć się do góry na amerykańskich listach przebojów. Jej pierwszy album zdobył status platynowej płyty i 4 nagrody Grammy, w tym dla najlepszego nowego artysty (Best New Artist). +Jej drugi album "Crossroads" z 1989 r. nie zdobył już takiej popularności, a jej trzecia płyta "Matters of the Heart" (1992) przeszła prawie bez echa wśród szerokiej publiczności. Niemniej Chapman osiągnęła status kultowej wśród małej, ale oddanej grupy słuchaczy. +W okresie radzieckim przesiedlono na tereny Estonii, Łotwy i Litwy bardzo wielu Rosjan oraz przedstawicieli innych grup etnicznych. Po uzyskaniu niepodległości przez kraje bałtyckie w 1991 r., rządy tych państw podjęły decyzję o przyznaniu obywatelstwa tylko tym mieszkańcom, którzy lub których przodkowie, byli obywatelami tych państw przed ich włączeniem do ZSRR. Działania te wynikały z obaw przed utratą większości przez etnicznych Łotyszy i Estończyków w swoich republikach. Wszyscy mieszkańcy osiedleni w okresie radzieckim oraz ich potomkowie nie otrzymali obywatelstwa Estonii i Łotwy i muszą się o nie ubiegać jak obcokrajowcy. W praktyce oznacza to, że większość Rosjan mieszkających w krajach bałtyckich została pozbawiona praw obywatelskich. Ze względu na brak znajomości języków estońskiego i łotewskiego znaczna liczba Rosjan nie może absolwować egzaminu decydującego o przyznaniu obywatelstwa. Po wejściu Litwy, Łotwy i Estonii do Unii Europejskiej nastąpił pewien paradoks. Wielu z tamtejszych Rosjan, którym nie przyznano obywatelstwa stało się obywatelami Unii Europejskiej, jednak wielu z nich wciąż nie jest obywatelami żadnego z krajów Unii Europejskiej. +Tron bawarski Wittelsbachowie utracili w 1918 r. w wyniku rewolucji listopadowej. Byli zdecydowanymi przeciwnikami narodowego socjalizmu, za co więziono ich w obozach koncentracyjnych. Od 1996 roku spadkobiercą tytułu króla Bawarii jest książę Franciszek von Bayern (ur. 1933 r.), przez współczesnych jakobitów uznawany także za króla Anglii, Szkocji i Irlandii. +Samolot został skonstruowany zgodnie z wytycznymi Ministerstwa Lotnictwa Rzeszy ("Reichsluftfahrtministeriums"), jako propozycja konkurencyjna wobec konstrukcji Arado Ar 76 i Heinkel He 74. Miała to być konstrukcja łącząca zastosowania lekkiego pomocniczego myśliwca obrony powietrznej i samolotu treningowego dla pilotów myśliwskich. W praktyce używany był jedynie jako samolot treningowy. W listopadzie 1933 r. odbyły się pierwsze loty prototypu, po których samolot został oddany do wytwórni dla wniesienia niezbędnych poprawek. Latem 1935, po serii lotów, w trakcie których porównywano zgłoszone do konkursu projekty, podjęto decyzję o skierowaniu samolotu do produkcji seryjnej. +W zespole Niebiesko-Czarni od początku 1964 r. do 30 czerwca 1976 r. (czyli do chwili rozwiązania). Następnie występował w duecie z Adą Rusowicz (prywatnie żoną Kordy) w zespole ADA-KORDA i HORDA. W latach 80. i 90. występował w klubach krajów skandynawskich i USA. Po powrocie kontynuował występy wraz z Tomaszem Dziubińskim (z którym współpracuje z przerwami od 1959 roku) i jego zespołem. +Jest laureatem "Złotej Dziesiątki" Festiwalu Muzycznych Talentów w Szczecinie (1962 r.), Festiwalu Polskiej Piosenki w Opolu (1965 r.) oraz "Złotego Kamertonu" w 1991 r., nagrody ustanowionej przez redakcję "Music News". +NSDAP w kolejnych wyborach od 1930 zdobywała od 30 do 37% głosów, stając się w 1932 najliczebniejszą frakcją parlamentarną w Reichstagu. Tak znaczne poparcie sugerowało konieczność sformowania rządu z udziałem NSDAP. Adolf Hitler konsekwentnie zaś domagał się funkcji kanclerza Rzeszy, na co nie zgadzał się przez długi czas prezydent Paul von Hindenburg. W grudniu 1932 r. Schleicher doprowadził do odwołania Papena ze stanowiska kanclerza, twierdząc na forum Reichstagu, że dalsze jego rządy doprowadzą do wojny domowej w Niemczech, a Reichswehra straciła zaufanie do kanclerza i nie stanie po jego stronie. +Na początku lat osiemdziesiątych w Biurze Programowania i Projektowania Rozwoju Łodzi zrodziła się koncepcja ochrony obszaru w dorzeczu Moszczenicy, na terenie gminy Nowosolna, pod roboczą nazwą „Park Krajobrazowy Górnej Moszczenicy”. Wkrótce opracowana została nowa koncepcja ochrony większego obszaru obejmującego także część dorzecza Mrożycy. W końcu 1993 roku została opracowana dokumentacja projektowa PKWŁ zawierająca pełną argumentację naukową. Projekt ten uzyskał pozytywną opinię Państwowej Rady Ochrony Przyrody oraz Ministerstwa Środowiska. Ostateczny kształt granic Parku ustalony został w 1994 r., kiedy to pod patronatem Wojewódzkiej Komisji Ochrony Przyrody doszło do uzgodnień pomiędzy grupą projektantów oraz przedstawicielami samorządów gminnych i władz wojewódzkich. Uzgodniono, że Park obejmie ochroną najcenniejszy pod względem przyrodniczym i krajobrazowym fragment strefy krawędziowej Wzniesień Łódzkich na terenie ówczesnego województwa łódzkiego i skierniewickiego. W procesie delimitacji granic Parku bardzo istotne znaczenie miało rozwiązanie problemu związanego z projektowanym przebiegiem przyszłej autostrady, której wstępna lokalizacja biegła nieomal dnem doliny Moszczenicy. Na wniosek WKOP w Łodzi dokonano korekty przebiegu autostrady przez teren projektowanego parku krajobrazowego, w celu zminimalizowania negatywnych oddziaływań na przyrodę i krajobraz. Usunięta została w ten sposób ostatnia przeszkoda na drodze formalnego uzgodnienia decyzji o powołaniu Parku. +O tamtym okresie przypomina również płaskorzeźba przedstawiająca Rosalie von Bonin, będąca dziełem Jenny von Barry-Pousin z 1913 r. umieszczona na wschodniej elewacji miejskiego ratusza. Ukazuje ona wydarzenia z 10 lutego 1807 r., kiedy to dzielna 26-letnia bolesławianka wraz z kilkoma kawalerzystami pojmała stacjonującego w mieście napoleońskiego generała le Brun i przejęła kasę wojskową o wartości 70 tys. talarów. +Zbudowana w 1920 r. według projektu Georga Wolffa, wyposażona jest w dwie turbiny o mocy 0,48 MW. W celu spiętrzenia wody wybudowano jaz i kanał doprowadzający wodę do elektrowni. Do 1945 r. równolegle z elektrownią działał młyn. +Zamek wybudowany przez Mikołaja von Bibran w latach 1564-1567, powiększony przez rodzinę Rittbergów w roku 1767. Od 1945 r. pozostaje w ruinie. Obok zamku zachowały się fragmenty zabudowy dworskiej i pozostałości po parku krajobrazowym. Przy pobliskim kościele pw. Matki Boskiej Różańcowej znajduje się mauzoleum rodu Rittberg – największy obiekt tego typu na terenie powiatu. +Klasztor został ufundowany w 1217 r. przez św. Jadwigę Śląską, a w 1247 r. przekazany zakonowi magdalenek, które przebywały w nim aż do 1810 r. W 1495 r. zakon stał się właścicielem miasta Nowogrodziec. Klasztor był wielokrotnie przebudowywany i rozbudowywany, m.in. w latach 1726-1729 i 1788-1794. Częściowo uszkodzony w 1813 r. oraz w czasie działań II wojny światowej. Od 1945 r. pozostaje w trwałej ruinie. +Od momentu odzyskania przez Polskę niepodległości w 1918 r. do połowy roku 1924 absolutny monopol na korzystanie z urządzeń radiowych w kraju miało wojsko oraz Ministerstwo Poczt i Telegrafów. Nieliczni pasjonaci spoza kręgów wojskowych i pocztowych mieli możność legalnie zobaczyć z bliska urządzenia radiowe w ramach klubów, tworzonych pod patronatem wojska przez harcerzy i studentów uczelni technicznych. +Przełomowym wydarzeniem dla radioamatorów było ogłoszenie w dniu 3 czerwca 1924 r. ustawy sejmowej o poczcie, telegrafie i telefonie. Na jej podstawie minister przemysłu i handlu w porozumieniu z ministrami spraw wewnętrznych i spraw wojskowych wydał w dniu 10 października 1924 r. rozporządzenie, omawiające warunki udzielania zezwoleń na posiadanie i używanie urządzeń radiotechnicznych. Od tego czasu pełnoletni obywatel mógł uzyskać ""upoważnienie do zakupu i założenia radiostacji odbiorczej i korzystania z niej"". Upoważnienie takie uzyskiwało się po złożeniu pisemnego wniosku i wniesieniu opłaty a warunki używania "stacji odbiorczej" - czyli dzisiejszego odbiornika radiowego, zajmowały kilka stron drobnego druku. +Mała dostępność odbiorników fabrycznych i ich wysokie ceny spowodowały duże zainteresowanie samodzielną budowa odbiorników. Od końca 1923 r. zaczęły się pojawiać się w Polsce pierwsze książki, przeznaczone dla radioamatorów. Wydawnictwa dotyczące techniki radiowej w języku polskim spotykane były wprawdzie już w roku 1917, czyli przed odzyskaniem niepodległości, były to jednak materiały, pisane przez polskich specjalistów wojskowych dla polskich żołnierzy, wcielonych do służby radiotelegraficznej w armiach zaborców. Polska literatura radiotechniczna z lat 1918 - 1923 dotyczyła również niemal wyłącznie radiotelegrafii wojskowej. +25 września 1924 r. ukazuje się pierwszy numer dwutygodnika popularnonaukowego "Radjo-Amator", w latach późniejszych liczne, podobne tytuły wydawane są nieprzerwanie do wybuchu II wojny światowej. Po wojnie prasa radiotechniczna zaczyna się ukazywać bardzo szybko, pierwszy numer miesięcznika "Radio" ukazuje się już w marcu 1946 r. i jest wydawany do roku 1950 włącznie. W 1950 r. pojawia się miesięcznik "Radioamator", którego tytuł zostaje w 1961 r. zmieniony na "Radioamator i Krótkofalowiec" i jest wydawany do roku 1978 (później kontynuowany jako "Radioelektronik"). Wymienione czasopisma są cennymi źródłami informacji o najnowszych osiągnięciach radiotechniki, a także o organizacji radiofonii i ruchu radioamatorskiego w Polsce i na świecie. +Od 1816 roku powiat znajdował się w prowincji Śląsk w rejencji dzierżoniowskiej, z którą w 1820 roku, został włączony do rejencji legnickiej (niem. "Regierungsbezirk Liegnitz"), powiat jeleniogórski znajdował się w jej granicach aż do 1945 roku. W czasach pruskich, nosił on nazwy "Kreis Hirschberg" (pol. "powiat Jelenia Góra"), a od 1927 r. "Landkreis Hirschberg im Riesengebirge" (pol. "powiat ziemski Jelenia Góra w Karkonoszach"). W latach 1919-1938 i 1941-1945 obecny powiat jeleniogórski należał do prowincji Dolny Śląsk, która dwukrotnie tworzona była poprzez podział prowincji Śląsk na dwie prowincje: Dolny i Górny Śląsk. +Kiedy na samolocie Spitfire zamontowano silnik Griffon, stało się jasne, że aby wykorzystać w pełni jego możliwości należy zmienić konstrukcję samolotu, i to zasadniczo. Stało się to w wersji Mk 21. W 1942 roku drugą z maszyn prototypowych Mk IV z silnikiem Griffon, DP851, potem oznaczonych jako Mk XX, wyposażono w silnik Griffon 61 zamiast Griffon IIB i oznaczono w grudniu 1942 roku jako Mk 21. Miała ona jeszcze zwykłe skrzydło, ale o zmienionej, wzmocnionej konstrukcji i grubszym poszyciem. Zmieniono dalej wiatrochron i ster kierunku, na taki jak w Mk XIV. Początkowo maszyna ta miała śmigło czterołopatowe, ale po pewnym czasie zastąpiono je pięciołopatowym. Masa startowa tej maszyny wynosiła 4080 kg. Rozwijał prędkość maksymalną 732 km/h na wysokości 7800m. Prędkość wznoszenia na wysokości 2350 m wynosiła 24,5 m/s a czas wznoszenia na 9000 m - 7 min 51 sekund. Pułap wynosił 13000 m. Maszyna ta została złomowana w maju 1943 r. 24 lipca 1943 r. został oblatany właściwy prototyp wersji Mk 21, PP139. Powiększono w nim lotki o 5% i były one dłuższe. Skrzydła się wydłużyły i ich powierzchnia wzrosła. Spowodowało to zdecydowaną zmianę obrysu skrzydła w stosunku do pozostałych wersji Spitfire. Zwiększono pojemność zbiorników paliwa w skrzydłach do 153 litrów. Rozsunięto podwozie o 39 cm i jego golenie wydłużono o 11,5 cm oraz było całkowicie osłonięte osłonami, oraz wprowadzono mechanizm jego skracania o 20 cm, tak aby mieściło się we wnękach w skrzydle. Zastosowano dzięki temu śmigło 5-łopatowe Rotol o większej średnicy, 3,35 m. Uzbrojenie stanowiły 4 działka 20 mm, usunięto karabiny maszynowe. Początkowo maszyna ta miała usterzenie jak w prototypach wersji Mk XIV, ale potem zamontowano na niej powiększone usterzenie jak w seryjnych Mk XIV. Samolot przechodził próby jesienią 1943 r., ale z uwagi na problemy z silnikiem nie udało się ich ukończyć. Pierwszą seryjną maszynę tej wersji (LA187) oblatano w 15 marca 1944 roku. Miała ona ostro zakończone końcówki skrzydeł i usterzenie jak w wersji Mk XIV. Wszystkie powyższe zmiany spowodowały jednak pogorszenie właściwości lotnych samolotu. Próby maszyny LA201 przeprowadzono pod koniec 1944 i wykazały jeszcze gorsze właściwości niż maszyna PP139. Kolejne badania potwierdziły złe charakterystyki samolotu i nie dopuszczono wersji Mk 21 do lotów bojowych do czasu rozwiązania tych problemów. Wywołało to zamieszanie w wytwórni, ponieważ była już gotowa linia produkcyjna tej wersji na 3000 sztuk. Aby to wyeliminować, wprowadzono zmiany w konstrukcji usterzenia, poprzez zmianę trymera na usterzeniu pionowym oraz wzmocnienie konstrukcji usterzenia poziomego. Próby przeprowadzone w marcu 1945 roku na maszynie LA215, wykazały zdecydowaną poprawę właściwości samolotu i uznano go z tymi zmianami za zdatny do służby. Zbudowano 120 sztuk tej wersji, resztę zamówienia z uwagi na koniec wojny anulowano. Kilka egzemplarzy miało silnik Griffon 85 z przeciwbieżnymi trójłopatowymi śmigłami. Loty na nich wykazały zdecydowaną poprawę stateczności maszyny, tak iż nie trzeba było używać w ogóle trymera na usterzeniu pionowym. Silnik z tymi śmigłami jednak nie nadawał się jeszcze do produkcji seryjnej, dochodziło bowiem często do awarii śmigła. +Znany od 1444 roku. Znajdował się wówczas w granicach parafii ostrowskiej (utworzonej w 1434). Początkowo wieś rycerska. W latach międzywojennych majątek, należący do Radziwiłłów rozparcelowano. W 1934 r. włączono do Ostrowa część wschodnią Zacharzewa, dalsze tereny wsi miasto wchłonęło w roku 1979. Obecnie poza granicami Ostrowa znajduje się tylko licząca ok. 400 mieszkańców część zachodnia. +Podczas II wojny światowej Breda było pod niemiecką okupacją. Została zajęta przez niemiecką 9 Dywizję Pancerną 13 maja 1940 r. Zostało wyzwolone 29 października 1944 roku przez 1 Dywizję Pancerną (1 DPanc.) dowodzoną przez generała Stanisława Maczka w ramach natarcia kanadyjskiej 1 Armii w kierunku ujścia Mozy. W czasie walk o miasto przed frontem 1 DPanc broniły się niemieckie 256, 711, 719 DP. oddziały 1 DPanc. opanowały 28 października Molenschot, Lijndonk, Raaleind, Bavel, w nocy 28/29 października rejon Dorst. rankiem 29 października ruszyły do natarcia główne siły dywizji: 3 Brygada Strzelców (3 BS) wzmocniona czołgami zdobyła Ginneken, wdarła się na przedmieścia miasta i uchwyciła nie uszkodzony most; 10 Brygada Kawalerii Pancernej (10 BKPanc), działając patrolami w rejonie Dorst, oczyszczała teren na północ od toru kolejowego Breda - Tilburg. Pododdziały 3 BS opanowały południowo-zachodnią część Bredy i przeprawy w rejonie Oranienboom. 1 ppanc. zajął północno-wschodnią część Bredy oraz prowadził rozpoznanie stacji kolejowej. 30 października dywizja oczyściła rejon miasta i prowadziła walki o przyczółek na kanale. Po zdobyciu miasta toczono walki o Moerdijk i ujście Mozy. +Ministerstwo ds. Współpracy z Organizacjami Politycznymi i Stowarzyszeniami - resort zajmujący się dialogiem politycznym między organizacjami i stowarzyszeniami politycznymi, zlikwidowany w 1993 r. +Po wybuchu I wojny światowej i upadku Albanii, Włosi przejęli jej północne tereny, a Grecja zyskała południową część tego kraju, tzw. Północny Epir. Wewnętrzne podziały wśród Greków spowodowały, że siły greckie zostały wycofane z tego regionu w 1916 r. i zajęte przez Włochów. Konferencja Pokojowa w Paryżu w 1919 r. przyznała te tereny Grecji, ale przegrana tego kraju z wojnie grecko-tureckiej w latach 1919-1922 spowodowała, że Grecja nie mogła ich utrzymać i przeszły pod władanie Albanii. +W 1939 Albanię wraz z północnym Epirem zajęli Włosi, którzy rok później zaatakowali Grecję. W wyniku kontrataku Grecy ponownie zajęli północny Epir, ale niemiecka inwazja w 1941 zakończyła się kapitulacją Grecji i Epir znalazł się pod włoską okupacją do 1943 r., kiedy został przejęty przez Niemców. Górskie wyżyny Epiru stanowiły świetny teren dla działań partyzanckich i wkrótce powstało tam wiele oddziałów greckich, aktywnie stawiających opór okupantowi. Epir był wtedy jedyną prowincją Grecji, zdominowaną przez partyzantów rojalistycznego ugrupowania EDES, dowodzonego przez Napoleona Zerwasa, a nie lewicowo-republikańskiego ELAS. +Jeszcze w 1993 r. Albania deportowała wysokiego dostojnika kościoła greckiego za "działania wywrotowe", co spowodowało krótkotrwały konflikt polityczny. Aktualnie sytuacja ludności greckiej uległa poprawie, zarówno w zakresie szkolnictwa, jak i ekonomicznej, wobec emigracji zarobkowej większej części tej ludności do Grecji (co dotyczy także ok. 800 tysięcy rdzennych Albańczyków). Grecy dysponują już w Albanii prawami mniejszości, niemniej nie we wszystkich miejscowościach, zamieszkałych przez nich oraz wciąż dochodzi do lokalnych zadrażnień, a w mieszanych szkołach do tolerowanych, jeśli nie inspirowanych rękoczynów, np. w dni greckich świąt narodowych. Policja często nie reaguje na zgłoszenia. Sporadycznie dochodzi do mordów na tle czysto narodowościowym., ostro i publicznie potępianych następnie przez albańskie władze państwa. Grecja, kierując się danymi Greckiego Kościoła Prawosławnego, ocenia liczebność swej mniejszości w Albanii na ok. 12% ludności kraju. Albańskie władze uznają, że jest to 3%. Grecki Komitet Helsiński wskazuje na liczącą 300-400 tysięcy osób mniejszość prawosławną, składającą się głównie z Greków i Arumunów. Co potwierdza dane strony greckiej, ponieważ Arumuni w Grecji od co najmniej stuleci, w większej części identyfikują się także jako Grecy. Kwestia Epiru i zamieszkujących ją mniejszości, wciąż kontrowersyjna dla obu krajów, wydaje się zmierzać w stronę dobrosąsiedztwa. Jednocześnie widoczne są szybka modernizacja i zdecydowany wzrost poziomu życia, także w albańskiej części tej prowincji. +Gatunek był początkowo chroniony w USA i Kanadzie przez Ustawę o ptakach wędrownych z 1918 r., która zabraniała ścigania, polowania, łapania, trzymania w niewoli, zabijania lub sprzedawania tego gatunku (i około 800 innych). Od 1936 r. został objęty ochroną w Meksyku, przez co był odtąd chroniony w całej Ameryce Północnej. W 1940 r. w USA weszła w życie Ustawa o ochronie bielika amerykańskiego, która chroni przed łapaniem w pułapki, posiadaniem oraz handlem dwa gatunki ptaków – bielika amerykańskiego i orła przedniego. Bielika amerykańskiego ogłoszono w USA gatunkiem zagrożonym w 1967 r., a między 1962 i 1972 r. wprowadzono dalsze ograniczenia w wykorzystaniu tego ptaka w handlu. W 1972 r. w Stanach Zjednoczonych zabronione zostało stosowanie DDT. Używanie DDT zostało całkowicie zakazane w Kanadzie w 1989, choć jego wykorzystywanie było ograniczone już od 1970. +Kiedy przepisy dotyczące stosowania DDT zmieniły się, populacja orła wróciła do normy. Bielik amerykański jest dziś spotykany w znacznej części Stanów Zjednoczonych i w Kanadzie, szczególnie blisko dużych zbiorników wodnych. Na początku roku 1980 szacowana ogólna liczba osobników wynosiła 100 tys. ptaków, natomiast w 1992 r. od 110 do 115 tysięcy. W USA stanem z największą stałą populacją jest Alaska, gdzie występuje około 40-50 tys. ptaków. Druga pod względem wielkości populacja znajduje się w kanadyjskiej prowincji Kolumbii Brytyjskiej – 20-30 tys. ptaków w 1992 r.. +Bielik amerykański został oficjalnie zdjęty z listy gatunków zagrożonych rządu federalnego USA 12 lipca 1995 r. przez U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, gdy gatunek przeklasyfikowano z rangi „Endangered” (zagrożony wyginięciem) na „Threatened” (narażony na wyginięcie). 6 lipca 1999 r. zapoczątkowana została inicjatywa, by usunąć bielika amerykańskiego z listy gatunków zagrożonych na terenie 48 stanów USA. Ptak został ostatecznie zdjęty z tej listy 28 czerwca 2007 r. Został również zmieniony poziom ryzyka jego wyginięcia w Czerwonej Księdze Gatunków Zagrożonych – na „gatunek najmniejszej troski”. Orłan jest także chroniony przez „Konwencję o międzynarodowym handlu dzikimi zwierzętami i roślinami gatunków zagrożonych wyginięciem” (ang. "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora", CITES). +Historiografia tematu jest bardzo rozwinięta. Tadeusz Wojciechowski w swojej pracy z 1904 r. "Szkice historyczne jedenastego wieku" wysuwa tezę, iż św. Stanisław został skazany za zdradę narodu. Twierdzenie to opiera się na "Kronice Galla Anonima", gdzie sam autor nazywa go "traditor episcopus" – zdrajca. Słowo "traditor" jest wieloznaczne. Sam Gall używał go w kilku znaczeniach. W Kronice zastosował je w sumie 13 razy, ale tylko trzykrotnie na określenie zdrady polegającej na konszachtach z nieprzyjacielem zewnętrznym. W średniowiecznej łacinie zdrajców określano częściej słowem "proditor". Według tej tezy przedmiotem sporu pomiędzy Bolesławem Szczodrym a św. Stanisławem były nie "niewierne żony", lecz władza w młodym państwie polskim. Wojciechowski stwierdził, że Stanisław reprezentował inną frakcję polityczną – przeciwną królowi, a pochlebną interesom Cesarstwa i być może frakcjom wspierającym Władysława Hermana. Spisek został odkryty, a Stanisław, na mocy sądu arcybiskupiego, został za zdradę króla skazany na śmierć przez poćwiartowanie członków. +Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w obecnej formie powstał w wyniku rozwiązania federacji wspólnot chrześcijańskich o nazwie Zjednoczony Kościół Ewangeliczny, która w okresie Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej zrzeszała większość ewangelicznych społeczności protestanckich, zarówno zielonoświątkowych, jak i niezielonoświątkowych. Rozpad federacji w 1988 r. spowodował usamodzielnienie się Kościołów, w tym Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego, który stał się największą wspólnotą pentekostalną. +Początki ruchu zielonoświątkowego na ziemiach polskich sięgają początków XX wieku. Pośród wyznawców Kościoła Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego na Śląsku Cieszyńskim działających w ramach ruchu neopietystycznego, tzw. Społeczności Chrześcijańskiej, powstało przebudzenie religijne o charakterze zielonoświątkowym. Wykluczenie tych osób z macierzystej wspólnoty luterańskiej owocowało zawiązaniem się Związku Stanowczych Chrześcijan – pierwszej niezależnej społeczności zielonoświątkowców na ziemiach polskich. Związek zarejestrowany został w Cieszynie dn. 15 lipca 1910 r. przez władze austriackie. W konsekwencji podziału Śląska Cieszyńskiego w 1920 r. między Polskę a Czechosłowację zwierzchnikiem zielonoświątkowców na ziemiach czeskich został Karol Kaleta. W Polsce ruchowi pentekostalnemu przewodzili: Karol Śniegoń (do 1929 r. i po 1937 r.), Karol Kupka (1927–1931) oraz Adolf Małysz (1931–1935). Przed II wojną światową Związek liczył 2 tysiące wiernych. W momencie wkroczenia wojsk niemieckich nabożeństwa zielonoświątkowe zostały zakazane, zaś od 1947 r. wspólnoty pentekostalne ziemi cieszyńskiej zostały włączone do Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego. +Drugi nurt polskiego ruchu zielonoświątkowego, tzw. chrześcijanie wiary ewangelicznej, powstał w maju 1929 r. w Starej Czołnicy, niedaleko Łucka. Kościół ten zrzeszał zbory pentekostalne z Polski centralnej, wschodniej oraz kresów. Przed II wojną światową ruch chrześcijan wiary ewangelicznej był największą wspólnotą zielonoświątkowców w Polsce, zrzeszając 20 tysięcy wiernych w ok. 500 zborach (parafiach) i placówkach. Działał prężnie prowadząc m.in. Dom Sierot, Gdański Instytut Biblijny, którego otwarcie nastąpiło w 2 marca 1930 r., a także organizując konferencje. Nocą 20 września 1950 r. aresztowano wszystkich duchownych zielonoświątkowych przez władze PRL. W roku 1953 nastąpiło ich zwolnienie oraz włączenie chrześcijan wiary ewangelicznej do Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego pod naciskiem władz. +Po włączeniu zarówno stanowczych chrześcijan, jak i chrześcijan wiary ewangelicznej w struktury Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego, polscy zielonoświątkowcy nie stanowili odrębnego wyznania w okresie Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej. Zjednoczony Kościół Ewangeliczny zrzeszał ewangelicznych protestantów, zarówno o orientacji zielonoświątkowej, jak i niezielonoświątkowej. Jednym z pierwszych autonomicznych wyznań zielonoświątkowych była Protestancka Wspólnota Regionu Bieszczadzkiego (rejestracja: styczeń 1981), obecna Ewangeliczna Wspólnota Zielonoświątkowa. Rozpad federacji nastąpił w 1988 r. przez co Kościół Zielonoświątkowy odzyskał samodzielność. +Sytuacja po 1988 r. (Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w RP). +Uchwałą XII Synodu Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego podjętą dn. 22 maja 1987 r. zdecydowano rozwiązać powołaną po II wojnie światowej federację kościołów ewangelicznych (Zjednoczony Kościół Ewangeliczny). Decyzję tę zatwierdzono 1 lutego 1988 r. w Urzędzie do Spraw Wyznań. Jednocześnie powołano samodzielny Kościół Zielonoświątkowy, w skład którego weszły zbory zielonoświątkowe na Śląsku Cieszyńskim, dawne społeczności stanowczych chrześcijan oraz zbory przedwojennego Kościoła Chrześcijan Wiary Ewangelicznej (oprócz tzw. grupy lubelskiej, która zachowała poprzednią nazwę i stanowi odrębną wspólnotę). Kościół Zielonoświątkowy po usamodzielnieniu się liczył 82 zbory. Do 2010 r. Kościół Zielonoświątkowy był członkiem Aliansu Ewangelicznego w RP. +Kościół Szatana (ang. "Church of Satan") – satanistyczna grupa wyznaniowa, założona w nocy z 30 kwietnia na 1 maja 1966 r. (data symboliczna - naprawdę Kościół Szatana zaczął formować się pod koniec roku) w USA przez Antona Szandora LaVeya. +W Kościele Szatana dwukrotnie doszło do schizmy: w 1975 r., kiedy powstała Świątynia Seta i w październiku 1997 r. - powstanie Pierwszego Kościoła Satanistycznego. +W filmie zadebiutował w 1963 r. w komedii romantycznej "Tom Jones". W 1965 zagrał króla Henryka VI w produkcji BBC "Wojny róż". +W 1967 r. był nominowany do nagrody Brytyjskiej Akademii Filmowej dla najlepszego aktora brytyjskiego za główną rolę w filmie "Morgan: przypadek do leczenia". +Historyczny powiat ełcki (Landkreis Lyck) istniał na tym terenie jeszcze w granicach Niemiec, a następnie po II wojnie światowej do 1975 roku. Współczesny powiat ełcki powstał w 1999 r. w wyniku reformy administracyjnej kraju. Położony jest we wschodniej części województwa warmińsko-mazurskiego. Graniczy od północy z powiatem oleckim i suwalskim, od zachodu z giżyckim i piskim, od wschodu z augustowskim i od południa z grajewskim. Zajmuje obszar 1111,9 km2, który zamieszkuje 86 tys. mieszkańców. W skład powiatu ełckiego wchodzą Miasto Ełk oraz gminy Ełk, Kalinowo, Prostki i Stare Juchy. +Na podstawie art. 55 ustawy "ustawy z dnia 18 grudnia 1998 r. o Instytucie Pamięci Narodowej Komisji Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu" zaprzeczanie publicznie i wbrew faktom zbrodniom, o których mowa w art. 1 pkt 1 powyższej ustawy jest przestępstwem ściganym z urzędu zagrożonym grzywną lub karą pozbawienia wolności do lat 3. Wyrok podawany jest do publicznej wiadomości. +Po raz pierwszy zabłysnęła w świecie aktorstwa, grając od 1976 do 1981 r. w operze mydlanej "The Edge of Night". Jej kariera aktorska załamała się w latach 80. Dopiero rola jako Lucille Ball w filmie "" z 1991 r. pozwoliła jej powrócić do świata aktorskiego z pozytywnymi recenzjami. +Zagrała wiele ról w telewizji amerykańskiej, włączając w to serię "Strange Luck", "Becker" oraz "Titus". Zagrała także kluczową rolę w ostatnim telewizyjnym dramacie "The Lyon's Den". Jednak jej najbardziej znaną kreacją aktorską okazała się postać Ruth DeWitt Bukater, matki Rose, w filmie "Titanic" Jamesa Camerona z 1997 r. W serialu Eureka zagrała rolę 107-letniej, nie starzejącej się fizycznie naukowiec o wyglądzie 50-latki. +W dniu 7 września 1954 ZSRR założył tutaj swój poligon nuklearny. Pierwszą bombę zdetonowano w 1955, 30 października 1961 zdetonowano tam największy jak do tej pory ładunek nuklearny na świecie – "Car Bombę" (ros. "Царь-бомба") o mocy 58 megaton. Od 1963, kiedy to zawarto porozumienie ze Stanami Zjednoczonymi o ograniczeniu prób nuklearnych, przeprowadzano tutaj tylko wybuchy podziemne, o znacznie mniejszej mocy ładunków. W sumie od 21 września 1955 r. do 24 października 1990 na poligonie tym przeprowadzono 135 prób atomowych, z czego nad powierzchnią ziemi 87, 1 – naziemny, 2 – nadwodne, 3 – podwodne i 42 podziemne. +Przez role w powyższych produkcjach Bernard Hill stał się jedynym w historii aktorem grającym w dwóch głośnych filmach, które zdobyły rekordową liczbę 11 Nagród Amerykańskiej Akademii Filmowej ("Titanic" w 1997 r., "Władca Pierścieni: Powrót Króla" w 2003 r.). +Religijni Żydzi twierdzą, że w przyszłości Trzecia Świątynia zostanie wybudowana na tym wzgórzu. Dla laickich Żydów Wzgórze Świątynne jest znaczącym symbolem narodowym. Przejęcie w 1967 r. Ściany Płaczu było wielkim narodowym osiągnięciem nawet dla niereligijnych mieszkańców Izraela. +Działająca do dziś stadnina krajowa w Dillenburgu powstała w 1770 r. jako stadnina dworska. Początkowo hodowano tu ciężkie konie robocze, wprowadzając często krew oldenburską i wschodniofryzyjską. W 1962 r. rozpoczęto hodowlę ukierunkowaną na uzyskanie nowoczesnych koni do sportu jeździeckiego, zwłaszcza do ujeżdżenia i skoków przez przeszkody. W tym celu krzyżowano je nie tylko z pełną krwią angielską, ale także z rasą hanowerską i westfalską. Wywarły one duży wpływ na konie heskie. Następnie powrócono do używania ogierów holsztyńskich, oldenburskich, co powiększyło kaliber tych koni. Dzisiejsze konie z Dillenburga są rozpowszechnione w prywatnej hodowli na wsi. +Kosta Chetagurow (oset. Къоста Хетæгкаты, ur. 15 października 1859 r., zm. 1 kwietnia 1906 r.) – osetyjski pisarz, poeta, malarz, publicysta i działacz społeczny, uznawany za najwybitniejszego pisarza, tworzącego w języku osetyjskim. +Od 1927 r. Ormianie wydawali we Lwowie, po polsku, swoje czasopismo noszące tytuł "Posłaniec św. Grzegorza". Tytuł nawiązywał do postaci pierwszego ormiańskiego świętego, chrystianizatora Armenii z przełomu III i IV wieku. +W 1980 r. w Krakowie powstało Koło Zainteresowań Kulturą Ormian przy oddziale Polskiego Towarzystwa Ludoznawczego. Podobne koła zawiązały się także w Warszawie i Gdańsku. Obecnie w Krakowie działa również Ormiańskie Towarzystwo Kulturalne. Zebrania krakowskich i warszawskich organizacji odbywają się w lokalnych Muzeach Etnograficznych. +18 maja 1937 r. wojska generała Franco poniosły porażkę w bitwie z republikanami pod Guadalajarą. +Do grudnia 1940 roku na cmentarzu pochowano ponad 117 tysięcy zmarłych. Znaczny przyrost pochówków nastąpił w czasie II wojny światowej wskutek nalotów bombowych na miasto. Po 1945 roku Polaków chowano początkowo na wolnych kwaterach, a następnie w miejscu starych likwidowanych grobów. W teren cmentarza włączono też cmentarz garnizonowy oraz teren wojskowy. Od 1945 r. do końca 2000 r. pochowano 139 tys. osób. +Do odbudowy bramy przystąpiono w 1959 r., przy czym nie odtworzono kopuły z krzyżem wieńczącej pierwotnie bramę. Drugą zmianą w stosunku do stanu sprzed wojny było wyburzenie do poziomu gruntu skrzydła wschodniego i wzniesienie na jego miejscu kaplicy cmentarnej (zwanej w ówczesnej nomenklaturze "domem przedpogrzebowym"). Odbudowę zakończono w 1963 r. W roku 2008 brama przeszła gruntowny remont (koszt: 3 mln PLN). +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej kaplica nie była użytkowana. Dopiero w 1981 przystąpiono do jej odbudowy. W trakcie prac remontowych (w maju 1981 r.) wybuchł pożar, który strawił znaczną część budowli – całkowitemu spaleniu uległa m.in. centralna kopuła. Odbudowa trwała 13 lat. Pierwsza ceremonia pogrzebowa odbyła się w kaplicy w marcu 1994. W 2005 przy kaplicy rozpoczęło pracę krematorium. +Spoczywa tu łącznie 3379 żołnierzy: 367 żołnierzy polskich (w tym 203 nieznanych) i 3012 żołnierzy radzieckich (2586 nieznanych). Kwatera powstawała sukcesywnie w latach 1946-54, gdy chowano tu żołnierzy ekshumowanych z tymczasowych miejsc pochówku z terenu Pomorza Szczecińskiego (zwłaszcza z okolic Szczecina, Dobrej, Gryfina, Kołbaskowa, Nowogardu, Łobza, Płot). Złożono tu również szczątki żołnierzy poległych na Ziemi Meklemburskiej w czasie operacji berlińskiej. Ostatni pochówek na kwaterze wojennej miał miejsce w 1983 r. +Nagrobek urnowy (zdjęcie) z ok. 1910 r. ozdobiony płaskorzeźbionymi figurami mężczyzny i kobiety z dzieckiem. Forma pomnika nawiązuje do sztuki staroegipskiej. W pobliżu znajdują się nagrobki aktorki Stanisławy Engelówny i zasłużonych dla życia muzycznego Szczecina Czesławy i Wacława Piotrowskich. +Stacja 18. Grupa nagrobków przy Alei Okólnej, ok. 1920 r. +Nagrobek rodziny Kissling (zdjęcie) składa się z ustawionych półkoliście filarów podpierających poziomą belkę z napisem (w tłumaczeniu) "Działaj, dopóki trwa dzień, gdy nadejdzie noc, nikt nie jest w stanie działać". Oba nagrobki powstały ok. 1910 r. +Pomniki powstałe przed 1945 r. +Do zapisu języka osetyjskiego wykorzystywane mogą być alfabety oparte na alfabecie gruzińskim albo łacińskim. Od 1937 r. oficjalnie używany jest alfabet, oparty na rosyjskiej grażdance: +Realizując projekt Trawers Gaszerbrumów od I do III, zdobył Gaszerbrum I (25 czerwca 2008) i Gaszerbrum II (6 lipca 2008). Peter Hámor i Piotr Morawski zdobyli szczyt Gaszerbrum I (8068 m) o 13:30 lokalnego czasu, z sukcesem dokonali trawersu Gaszerbrum I, zdobywając szczyt w stylu alpejskim, pokonując w dolnej części tzw. drogę hiszpańską (prawa grań południowo-zachodniej ściany), a wyżej – drogą pierwszych zdobywców (Amerykanie w 1958 r.) Piotr Morawski i Peter Hámor 6 lipca o godz. 9:15 czasu lokalnego zdobyli Gaszerbrum II (8035 m), wspinając się na wierzchołek w stylu alpejskim normalną drogą. +Zdaniem Bogumiła Grotta tezy "Nacjonalizmu", które autor ten interpretuje jako bliskie nazizmowi o charakterze faszystowskim wprowadziła w życie w 1929 r. powstająca Organizacja Ukraińskich Nacjonalistów, co poskutkowało w latach II wojny światowej ludobójstwem Polaków i Żydów. +Po trzecim rozbiorze Polski i Litwy teren powiatu należał do Prus. W 1807 roku (traktat tylżycki) przeszedł pod jurysdykcję Rosji. Po 1918 roku obszar dzisiejszego powiatu siemiatyckiego znalazł się w województwie białostockim, w obrębie powiatu bielskiego. Powiat siemiatycki powstał po II wojnie światowej. Przestał istnieć w 1975 roku, w związku z ówczesną reformą administracyjną. 1 stycznia 1999 r. nastąpiła jego reaktywacja. W stosunku do obszaru sprzed 1975 roku, powiat został zmniejszony o teren gminy Ciechanowiec. +Dolina od dawna była odwiedzana przez mieszkańców Szczyrby, którzy wypasali w niej bydło. Także myśliwi i turyści docierali do Doliny Młynickiej wcześnie. Zimą jako pierwsi w dolinie byli E. Baur, Alfred Martin i H. Schäfer 4 stycznia 1906 r. +Kamianna liczy ok. 200 mieszkańców. W centrum wsi znajduje się drewniany kościół pw. Narodzenia NMP, dawna cerkiew prawosławna pw. świętyh Kosmy i Damiana z 1892 r. Zaś dawna drewniana cerkiew greckokatolicka z 1805 r. pod wezwaniem św. Paraskiewy została w 1949 r. przeniesiona do Bukowca na Pogórzu Rożnowskim, gdzie po znacznej przebudowie służy jako kościół rzymskokatolicki. +Najwyższym aktem prawnym regulującym istnienie stowarzyszeń w Polsce jest Konstytucja z 2 kwietnia 1997 r., która w artykule dwunastym stanowi, iż „"Rzeczpospolita Polska zapewnia wolność tworzenia i działania związków zawodowych, organizacji społeczno-zawodowych rolników, stowarzyszeń, ruchów obywatelskich, innych dobrowolnych zrzeszeń oraz fundacji"”. +Podstawowym aktem prawnym regulującym problematykę stowarzyszeń, ich zakładania i funkcjonowania jest ustawa z dnia 7 kwietnia 1989 r. – Prawo o stowarzyszeniach (UPS), tekst jednolity: (). +Ustawa z 1989 r. wyodrębnia dwa główne rodzaje stowarzyszeń: stowarzyszenia oraz stowarzyszenia zwykłe. Stowarzyszenia, które podlegają rejestracji w KRS nazywa się czasami stowarzyszeniami rejestrowymi. +Ze względu na niesubordynacje organizacja została rozwiązana na przełomie 1939 i 1940 r. Po rozwiązaniu Selbstschutzu Hans Frank utworzył na bazie jego członków tzw. Sonderdienst (zwany "prywatną policją Hansa Franka"), działającą do końca wojny na terenie Generalnego Gubernatorstwa. Używana ona była m.in. do ściągania kontyngentów, zwalczania partyzantów, a także brała czynny udział w akcjach represyjnych i eksterminacyjnych. Większość członków Selbstschutzu nie poniosła kary za popełnione w Polsce zbrodnie. Po wojnie wielu byłych działaczy tej organizacji zrobiło w Niemczech kariery w lokalnych władzach CDU lub CSU albo w Ziomkostwach i Związku Wypędzonych. +W ciągu następnych dwóch dziesięcioleci stała się ona jednym z najważniejszych portów Wysp Japońskich i w 1889 r. osiągnęła 122 tys. mieszkańców. Znaczącymi krokami w rozwoju infrastruktury miejskiej była budowa sieci wodociągowej (1887) i elektryfikacja miasta (1890). Jednym z najdramatyczniejszych zdarzeń, jakie dotknęły miasto, było potężne trzęsienie ziemi w 1923 r., podczas którego śmierć poniosło około 20 tys. osób, a w gruzach legło bądź spłonęło 60 tys. budynków. Dzięki wielkiemu wysiłkowi władz i mieszkańców miasto odbudowano do końca 1929 r. +W 1931 r. prowadzone u ujścia rzeki Tsurumi prace doprowadziły do osuszenia znacznych terenów, na których zbudowano potem wiele obiektów przemysłowych. Kolejne dramatyczne chwile miasto przeżyło podczas amerykańskich bombardowań w 1945 r. Do najtragiczniejszego nalotu doszło 29 V, kiedy zginęło ponad 14 tys. osób, a zniszczeniu uległo prawie 80 tys. budynków. +Dawniej Dolina Hlińska była ulubionym przez kłusowników miejscem polowań na kozice. W 1887 r. poeta Franciszek Henryk Nowicki w czasie wycieczki z przewodnikiem Klimkiem Bachledą naliczył ich 80. Obecnie również często tutaj przebywają. Pochodzenie nazwy doliny nie jest znane. Przez turystów odwiedzana jest rzadko, nawet w szczycie sezonu ruch turystyczny jest tutaj niewielki. Pierwszymi znanymi z nazwiskami osobami w dolinie byli Edward Homolacs, Stanisław Homolacs, Władysław Koziebrodzki, Ernst Schauer, Józef Stolarczyk, Stanisław Władzicki i przewodnicy Krzeptowscy, Samek, Maciej Sieczka i Jędrzej Wala (starszy) z pięcioma tragarzami. Zimą pierwsi byli w dolinie E. Baur i Alfred Martin 18 marca 1906 r. +Getto w Andrychowie – Getto utworzone 26 września 1941 r. przez Niemców w Andrychowie. Getto miało charakter rotacyjny – było miejscem gdzie zwożono Żydów przed wywiezieniem ich do Auschwitz. Przebywali tu Żydzi m.in. z Andrychowa, Białej, Czańca, Inwałdu, Kęt, Nidku i Żywca. +Borynia (ukr. "Бориня") - osiedle typu miejskiego w zachodniej Ukrainie, w obwodzie lwowskim, w rejonie turczańskim. Status osiedla typu miejskiego uzyskała w 1981 r. Liczy około 1627 mieszkańców. Pierwsze wzmianki o miejscowości pochodzą z 1552 r. +W 1921 r. liczyła około 1791 mieszkańców z czego 318 (17,7% ogółu mieszkańców) stanowili Żydzi, którzy mieli tu swoją synagogę. W latach 1919-1939 miejscowość należała do Polski i wchodziła w skład powiatu turczańskiego województwa lwowskiego. 28 września 1944 miejscowość została zajęta przez wojska radzieckie. +W 1934 r. był oficerem rezerwy 9 Pułku Piechoty Legionów w Zamościu, w stopniu podporucznika ze starszeństwem z 1 stycznia 1931 r. i 124. lokatą w korpusie oficerów rezerwowych piechoty oraz pozostawał na ewidencji Powiatowej Komendy Uzupełnień Lwów Miasto. +Gdy w Niemczech w 1919 r. zniesiono tytuły arystokratyczne (art. 109 konstytucji weimarskiej i ustawa z 23 czerwca 1920 o zniesieniu przywilejów stanowych szlachty) stały się one częścią nazwiska rodowego, natomiast w Austrii znikły zupełnie (ustawa z 3 kwietnia 1919 o uchyleniu szlachectwa) i tak zamiast "Freiherr Werner von Braun" stosuje się "Werner Freiherr von Braun" (Werner baron von Braun) czy też zamiast "Graf Anton von Magnis" pisze się "Anton Graf von Magnis" (Antoni hrabia Magnis). Również w Polsce konstytucja marcowa w 1921 zniosła tytuły arystokratyczne. W Polsce szyk "imię-tytuł-nazwisko" był zwyczajem jeszcze przedrozbiorowym, jednak ograniczonym do ceremonialnych uroczystości i podpisów itp. Wskutek snobizmu czy też mody konstrukcję tę zaczęto naśladować i stosować szerzej także w języku polskim; stąd czasem zamiast mówić "hrabia Wojciech Dzieduszycki" używa się dość pretensjonalnej w codziennych sytuacjach lub w zwykłym tekście formy "Wojciech hr. Dzieduszycki" czy też "Adam Karol książę Czartoryski". +Gmina Kołobrzeg została utworzona w 1972 r. +Robert Cray (ur. 1 sierpnia 1953 r. w Columbus, USA) — wokalista i gitarzysta, w 1974 roku stworzył grupę The Robert Cray Band. Towarzyszył w nagraniach m.in. Albertowi Collinsowi, Ericowi Claptonowi, Tinie Turner, B.B. Kingowi, Chuckowi Berry'emu. +W 1909 r. w Trzanowicach odbywały się już regularne nabożeństwa, niedługo potem powstaje zbór w Boguminie. Po 1921 r. powstają dzięki szeroko zakrojonej akcji misyjnej nowe zbory w Krakowie, Tarnowie, Nowym Sączu, Lublinie, Piotrkowie Trybunalskim, Kozakowicach-Nierodzimiu, czy Chorzowie. W czasie II wojny światowej część zborów zaprzestała swej działalności, a część współpracowała z tymi kierunkami, które w Rzeszy Niemieckiej połączyły się w jeden związek pod nazwą Bund Evangelisch Freikirchlicher Gemeinden (Związek Wolno Kościelnych Zborów Ewangelicznych). 3 maja 1947 r. Kościół Wolnych Chrześcijan wszedł w skład "Zjednoczenia Wolnych Chrześcijan". 24 maja 1947 r. "Zjednoczenie Wolnych Chrześcijan" weszło w skład "Zjednoczonego Kościoła Ewangelicznego". W roku 1981 wolni chrześcijanie w Polsce ponownie tworzą związek wyznaniowy pod nazwą: Kościół Wolnych Chrześcijan. +Bałuty - niegdyś dzielnica Łodzi (do 31 grudnia 1992 r.), obecnie obszar podległy delegaturze Urzędu Miasta Łodzi Łódź-Bałuty. Bałuty były drugą co do wielkości dzielnicą: obejmują pow. 78,9 km², a jednocześnie zamieszkane są przez największą liczbę ludności (ok. 223 tys. mieszkańców na 775,2 tys. w całej Łodzi). +Od 1 stycznia 1993 r. podział Łodzi na dzielnice został formalnie zniesiony, jednak w świadomości mieszkańców utrzymał się on do dnia dzisiejszego. +Jego ojciec był urzędnikiem kolejowym, a on sam ukończył z wyróżnieniem Gimnazjum św. Jacka w Krakowie. W latach 1883-1888 studiował historię na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, tytuł doktora uzyskał za pracę: „Najdawniejsze stosunki Inflant z Polską do r. 1393”. W latach 1889-1890 prowadził badania w archiwach watykańskich. Po powrocie pracował naukowo w Archiwum Akademii Umiejętności. Następnie pracował w bibliotekach Akademii Umiejętności i Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, jednocześnie działał m.in. w Klubie Słowiańskim, Towarzystwie Szkoły Ludowej i Uniwersytecie Ludowym. W tym czasie publikował liczne artykuły w czasopismach: „Czas”, „Przegląd Polski”, „Przegląd Powszechny”, „Głos Narodu” i miesięczniku „Świat Słowiański”, którego był redaktorem. Od 1919 r. pracował na Uniwersytecie Stefana Batorego w Wilnie jako zastępca profesora, gdzie habilitował się w 1920 r. pracą "Dzieje Rosji do r. 1449". W 1922 r. uzyskał tytuł profesora. W latach 1922-1929 kierował katedrą historii Europy Wschodniej. Został zmuszony do udania się na przedwczesną emeryturę z powodu nieprzychylnego nastawienia sanacji do jego dzieł. Filister honoris causa korporacji akademickiej Conradia Po wojnie zatrudniony na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim, lecz odsunięty od działalności dydaktycznej, w latach 1946-1948 publikował liczne artykuły poświęcone głównie kwestiom samorządu i historii gospodarczej w „Niedzieli”. +Zmarł 10 lutego 1949 r. w Krakowie, pochowany w dwa dni później w grobowcu rodzinnym na Cmentarzu Salwatorskim. +Początkiem rozważań cywilizacyjnych Konecznego była refleksja nad stosunkiem Polski do Europy, naszej wartości cywilizacyjnej w ogóle, prowadzona w 1917 roku. Zaowocowała ona artykułem „Polska w kulturze powszechnej” w dwutomowym dziele pod redakcją Feliksa Konecznego (1917 lub 1918). Był to jednocześnie początek prac nad książką „O wielości cywilizacyj”. Pierwszą obszerniejszą pracą historiozoficzną Konecznego było opublikowane w 1921 r. „Polskie Logos a Ethos. Roztrząsanie o znaczeniu i celu Polski”. Są to rozważania o celu Polski jako państwa i Polaków jako narodu. Cel taki pojmował on nie jako coś danego z góry, ale jako wybraną w sposób wolny ideę przewodnią, wokół której koncentrują się wysiłki narodu w danym okresie historycznym. Idea taka miałaby wynikać z okazanych w toku rozwoju danego narodu predyspozycji i uwzględniać potrzeby całej ludzkości. Koneczny twierdził, że miano narodu przysługuje tylko tym wspólnotom, które posiadają właśnie taki cel, inny niż własne przetrwanie. Celem Polski, zdaniem Konecznego, było (czy też powinno być) głoszenie i dowodzenie nadrzędności prawa moralnego nad dążeniem za wszelką cenę do skuteczności w polityce, a także rozpowszechnianie idei dobrowolnej unii między narodami, której najdoskonalszy przykład widział w Uniach polsko-litewskich. W roku akademickim 1926/27 Koneczny prowadził na Uniwersytecie Stefana Batorego całoroczne wykłady, w wymiarze 3 godzin tygodniowo, z przedmiotu „Wstęp do nauki o cywilizacji”. W tym czasie publikuje szereg artykułów i broszur historiozoficznych, m.in.: „Różnolitość cywilizacyjna Słowiańszczyzny” (1925), „Bizantynizm niemiecki” (1927), „Kościół w Polsce wobec cywilizacji” (1928), „Zawisłość ekonomii od etyki” (1932), w których kształtował własne rozumienie podstawowych dla swojej historiozofii pojęć takich jak: cywilizacja, trójprawo, pięciomian bytu (Quincunx), personalizm, indywidualizm, gromadność. +Utworzenie Rosyjskiej Armii Wyzwoleńczej wiąże się nierozerwalnie z osobą generała lejtnanta Armii Czerwonej Andrieja A. Własowa. Podczas wojny z Niemcami był dowódcą kolejno IV Korpusu Zmechanizowanego, 37 Armii, 20 Armii, a ostatecznie 2 Armii Uderzeniowej i jednocześnie zastępcą dowódcy Frontu Wołchowskiego. Po rozbiciu jego armii 11 lub 12 lipca 1942 r. dostał się do niewoli niemieckiej. Podjął kolaborację z Niemcami, wydając 27 grudnia tego roku tzw. Deklarację Smoleńską. Głosiła ona konieczność zbudowania nowej Rosji poprzez obalenie reżimu stalinowskiego. W tym celu miała powstać Rosyjska Armia Wyzwoleńcza podporządkowana komitetowi rosyjskiemu z gen. A. A. Własowem na czele. Początkowo niemieccy wojskowi popierali jego działania. Pozwolili mu na odbycie dwóch podróży na okupowane obszary ZSRR, gdzie wygłaszał przemówienia propagandowo-agitacyjne, cieszące się dużą popularnością miejscowej ludności. +W kwietniu i maju 1943 r. niemieckie Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH) wydało rozkazy wprowadzające odznaki ROA na mundurach żołnierzy wszystkich rosyjskich formacji wojskowych walczących po stronie wojsk niemieckich. Mieli je nosić także Hiwi. Odznaka mogła być noszona na lewym lub prawym rękawie munduru powyżej łokcia. Miało to służyć wywołaniu wrażenia masowości ROA, gdyż na stronę Niemców przeszło kilkaset tysięcy obywateli ZSRR. Ocenia się, że naszywki ROA mogło nosić nawet 800 tys. Rosjan i przedstawicieli innych narodowości (głównie Kozaków, ale też Ukraińców, czy przedstawicieli narodów Azji Środkowej) w służbie armii niemieckiej. OKH wprowadziło również stopnie wojskowe ROA. W rzeczywistości jednostki wojskowe ROA nigdy nie powstały, zaś sama formacja miała charakter głównie propagandowy. Wynikało to ze zdecydowanego sprzeciwu Adolfa Hitlera, który nie wierzył w lojalność rosyjskich żołnierzy i samego gen. A. A. Własowa, zamkniętego na rozkaz führera w lipcu 1943 r. w areszcie domowym. Jedynym wyjątkiem był gwardyjski batalion ROA, sformowany od maja 1943 r. we Wrocławiu, a następnie przeniesiony pod Psków. +W ramach ROA funkcjonowała ponadto szkoła propagandystów ROA w Dabendorfie pod Berlinem. Szkoliła ona oficerów propagandowych, przydzielanych następnie do sztabów niemieckich jednostek wojskowych. Wiosną 1944 r. powstała filia szkoły w Rydze. W ramach ośrodka w Dabendorfie istniały też redakcje pism ROA "Заря" i "Доброволец", przeznaczonych dla jeńców wojennych z Armii Czerwonej, robotników i osób cywilnych pochodzących z ZSRR. W kwietniu 1943 r. w szkole odbyła się 1 Antybolszewicka Konferencja Jeńców Dowódców i Żołnierzy Armii Czerwonej, którzy wstąpili w Szeregi Rosyjskiego Ruchu Wyzwoleńczego. +Od połowy 1943 r. w Berlinie istniała kancelaria gen. A. A. Własowa, pełniąca jednocześnie funkcję Kwatery Głównej, której komendantem został mjr M. A. Kaługin, zaś od września tego roku – płk Konstantin G. Kromiadi. Wszystkie wschodnie formacje zbrojne, których żołnierze nosili naszywki ROA, faktycznie podlegały Generałowi Formacji Wschodnich gen. Ernstowi Köstringowi, zaś wpływ gen. A. A. Własowa był zerowy. Generałowi A. A. Własowowi udało się w końcu doprowadzić do utworzenia własnych sił zbrojnych dopiero pod koniec 1944 r. w formie Sił Zbrojnych Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodów Rosji. Pomimo tego nazwa Rosyjska Armia Wyzwoleńcza nadal funkcjonowała. Przykładowo w ramach Sił Zbrojnych KONR działała szkoła oficerska ROA, zaś żołnierze nosili stopnie wojskowe ROA (np. generał ROA). Do wysokich oficerów ROA, a następnie Sił Zbrojnych KONR należeli m.in. gen. Fiodor I. Truchin, gen. Iwan A. Błagowieszczeński, płk Grigorij A. Zwieriew, płk Siergiej K. Buniaczenko, płk Michaił A. Meandrow. +Po raz pierwszy pojawiła się w handlu w 1973 r. Na dobre opanowała rynek jubilerski w 1976 r., kiedy to otrzymano ją przy wykorzystaniu metody stapiania czaszowego. +Wraz z upływem czasu rośliny przestawały się mieścić w szklarniach. Zdecydowano więc w 1955 r. o adaptacji budynku dawnej stołówki w parku Źródliska. Podwyższono o kilka metrów dach, a donice z najwyższymi roślinami zagłębiono w grunt. Po remoncie 1 września 1956 roku palmiarnia została udostępniona publiczności. +Ma syna Alexandra Petera Daltona (ur. 7 sierpnia 1997 r.), którego matką jest Oksana Grigorieva. +Vandalícia - Reinhardt Dozy (1820-1883), holenderski autor znanej "Historii Muzułmańskiej Hiszpanii" (wydanej w czterech tomach w 1984 r.) przedstawił teorię, według której "Al-Andalus" jest arabskim tłumaczeniem "Vandalicia" lub "Vandalucia", twierdząc tym samym, że te tereny mogły otrzymać tę nazwę nie w Iberii, ale wśród Arabów z Maghrebu. +Pierwszego wejścia na szczyt dokonał Fritz Jäger w 1904 r. +Ostatni z Branickich, hr. Władysław Branicki, zmarł w 1914 r., pozostawiając majątek w rękach żony, Julii z Potockich i córki Anny, zamężnej za Juliuszem Tarnowskim z Końskich. I wojna światowa, której fronty wprawdzie nie dotarły do Suchej, przyniosła jednak kilkuletni okres dość rabunkowej gospodarki i w rezultacie upadek gospodarczy majątku. Najcenniejsze zbiory i dokumenty rodzinne Branickich wywieziono do Wiednia, a w samym zamku (zgodnie z życzeniem właścicieli) urządzono wielki szpital wojskowy. W międzyczasie (1917) zmarł Juliusz Tarnowski. Po odzyskaniu niepodległości Anna z Branickich Tarnowska wróciła do Suchej z Końskich, gdzie spędzała wojnę w rodowym majątku Tarnowskich. Z czasem suskim majątkiem zaczął zarządzać syn Anny i Juliusza, Juliusz Tarnowski, który władał nimi fizycznie do września 1939 r., kiedy to wyemigrował do Francji. Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej nieruchomości wchodzące w skład suskiego majątku Tarnowskich (ziemie uprawne, lasy, obiekty gospodarcze, kompleks zamkowy w Suchej i in.) zostały upaństwowione. +Dzień Edukacji Narodowej – polskie święto oświaty i szkolnictwa wyższego ustanowione 27 kwietnia 1972 r. określone ustawą – "Karta praw i obowiązków nauczyciela" jako Dzień Nauczyciela. Od 1982, na mocy ustawy – "Karta Nauczyciela" obchodzone jako Dzień Edukacji Narodowej. +Historia Dnia Nauczyciela w Polsce ma swoje początki w 1957 r. Podczas Światowej Konferencji Nauczycielskiej w Warszawie ustalono, że 20 listopada będzie Międzynarodowym Dniem "Karty Nauczyciela" i świętem nauczycieli. Konferencja została zorganizowana przez Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego (ZNP). Ustawa z dnia 27 kwietnia 1972 r. zwana "Kartą praw i obowiązków nauczyciela", wprowadziła Dzień Nauczyciela, obchodzony w rocznicę powołania Komisji Edukacji Narodowej. W 1982 r. "Kartę praw i obowiązków nauczyciela" zastępuje "Karta Nauczyciela" zmieniając nazwę święta na Dzień Edukacji Narodowej oraz wprowadzając zapis o treści - "Dzień ten uznaje się za święto wszystkich pracowników oświaty" (...). +Światowy Dzień Nauczyciela (ang. "World Teacher's Day") pod patronatem UNESCO obchodzony jest w dniu 5 października. Dzień ten proklamowany został w 1994 r., na pamiątkę podpisania w 1966 r. „Rekomendacji w sprawie statusu nauczyciela”, opracowanej przez UNESCO i Międzynarodową Organizację Pracy. Jest okazją do podkreślenia wiodącej roli nauczycieli, w zapewnieniu najwyższej jakości edukacji na wszystkich poziomach nauczania. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 r. eskadra walczyła w składzie Brygady Bombowej, operując z lotnisk: Podlodów. +Wiosną 1925 r. jednostka przemianowana została na 121 Eskadrę Myśliwską, a 2 sierpnia 1928 r. na 111 Eskadrę Myśliwską. Razem ze 112 Eskadrę Myśliwską tworzyła III Dywizjon Myśliwski 1 Pułku Lotniczego (III/1 dm). +W połowie czerwca 1939 r. do eskadry przydzielono 4 podchorążych ze Szkoły Podchorążych Lotnictwa w Dęblinie i 4 elewów ze Szkoły Podoficerów Lotnictwa dla Małoletnich z Krosna. +W kampanii wrześniowej 1939 r. walczyła w składzie Brygady Pościgowej, operując z lotniska Zielonka. Na uzbrojeniu eskadry znajdowało się 10 samolotów PZL P.11c. +W czasie II wojny światowej z 20 pilotów eskadry zginęło 11, w tym wszyscy podchorążowie XII promocji SPL (awansowani na podporuczników ze starszeństwem z 15 sierpnia 1939 r.). Pięciu pilotów zostało asami myśliwskimi. +Obsada etatowa we wrześniu 1939 r. +Jednak od XIX wieku zainteresowanie pieszą wędrówką znacznie zmalało. Mimo, że zalicza się do sportów olimpijskich, nie wzbudza już porównywalnych emocji. Niemniej jednak piesi nadal uczestniczą w takich popularnych wędrówkach z Land's End do John o' Groats w Wielkiej Brytanii, czy przemierzają Amerykę Północną od morza do morza. Pierwszą osobą, która obeszła kulę ziemską był Dave Kunst. 20 czerwca 1970 r. rozpoczął swą wędrówkę z miasteczka Waseca w stanie Minnesota na wschód. 5 października 1974 r. zakończył wyprawę, wchodząc do miasta od strony zachodniej. Tego typu pokazy wytrzymałości są często powiązane z akcjami charytatywnymi czy zbiórką pieniędzy. Biorą w nich udział zarówno takie sławy, jak Sir Jimmy Savile czy Ian Botham jak i zwyczajni obywatele, którzy inaczej nie znaleźliby się w centrum uwagi opinii publicznej. +Typową zabudową jest zabudowa jedno lub wielorodzinna poniemiecka. Ciekawym obiektem jest szkoła założona przez Niemców w 1931 r. Szkoła polska powstała w 1946 r. +W tym samym dniu Sejm powołał na stanowisko prezesa Rady Ministrów Józefa Cyrankiewicza i powierzył mu zadanie skompletowania składu rządu. Sejm na wniosek Cyrankiewicza powołał Radę Ministrów w dniu 25 czerwca 1965 r. +Rząd istniał do 27 czerwca 1969 r., kiedy złożył dymisję. +18 maja 1961 r. Sejm powołał rząd w składzie zaproponowanym przez Cyrankiewicza. W jego skład weszły 33 osoby: premier, 5 wicepremierów, 23 ministrów oraz 4 przewodniczących komitetów i komisji. Jedno stanowisko nie zostało obsadzone. +Rząd istniał do 24 czerwca 1965 r., kiedy podał się do dymisji i Sejm IV kadencji ją przyjął. +Komsomoł był młodzieżowym zapleczem KPZR, a jego celem była indoktrynacja młodzieży w Związku Radzieckim ideałami komunistycznymi. Mówią o tym słowa Lenina wygłoszone na III Zjeździe Komsomołu (2-10 X 1920 r.) aby młodzież "uczyła się z komunizmu". Mieli to być budowniczowie społeczeństwa Socjalistycznego ("Młodzież – Budowniczym Socjalizmu" L. Breżniew). Utworzona została na I Ogólnozwiązkowym Zjeździe Związków Młodzieży Robotniczej i Chłopskiej w dniach 29 X-4 XI 1918. Pod nazwą Rosyjski Komunistyczny Związek Młodzieży. Organizacja miała wpływ na władze. Konstytucja ZSRR z 1977 r. dała jej nawet prawo występowania z inicjatywą ustawodawczą, wysuwania kandydatów na radnych i ta sama Konstytucja ZSRR stawiała tę organizację zaraz po Partii i Związkach Zawodowych. W 1977 r. 32,4% składu rad terenowych stanowiła młodzież do lat 30, z czego większość stawała się później członkami elity partyjnej w ZSRR. +Najzimniejszym miesiącem jest styczeń z temperaturami około 1,5 °C na północno-wschodnim wybrzeżu do mniej niż -2 °C na wyżynach. Bardzo niskie temperatury zazwyczaj występują w styczniu i lutym (np. najniższa zanotowana temperatura na Wyspach Brytyjskich: -27,2 °C w Braemar, 10 stycznia 1982 r.). Występuje tu także zjawisko zwane wiatrem Foehn. Najcieplejszym miesiącem jest lipiec, ze średnią dzienną temperaturą wynoszącą ok. 20 °C, najwyższą w Szkocji. Dla porównania w innych wschodnich rejonach Szkocji średnie temperatury w tym okresie wynoszą najwyżej 16 °C. +W 1992 r. został wydany studyjny album Tourism, na którym znalazło się kilka koncertowych nagrań, przez co mylnie uważany był za album koncertowy. Album promował wielki hit How Do You Do!. Płytę zakupiło już dwa razy mniej fanów i był to początek końca amerykańskiej kariery, gdzie zaczęła królować muzyka grunge. Mimo to w pozostałych krajach na świecie zespół wciąż należał do pierwszej ligi. +W 1993 r. Roxette nagrali koncert w popularnym cyklu MTV Unplugged. +Sławno było dawniej stacją węzłową, wkrótce po zakończeniu II wojny światowej rozebrane zostały tory w kierunku Polanowa i Ustki, a w 1997 r. do Korzybia. W 1991 r. zamknięto połączenie kolejowe z Darłowem. Uruchomiono je ponownie w czerwcu 2005 roku. Dzisiaj czynne linie kolejowe ze Sławna prowadzą do Stargardu Szczecińskiego i Gdańska Głównego (linia kolejowa nr 202) oraz do Darłowa (linia kolejowa nr 418). +Traktat Wersalski przywrócił w 1920 r. Sulmierzyce Polsce, ponownie wytyczając granicę wzdłuż zachodnich przedmieści. W konsekwencji jedyne połączenie kolejowe miasta uległo zawieszeniu aż do 1945 r. W 1932 miasto włączono, razem z całym powiatem odolanowskim do powiatu ostrowskiego, a w 1934 roku, wraz z wsią Chwaliszew, do powiatu krotoszyńskiego. Podczas II wojny światowej hitlerowcy zniszczyli pomnik Sebastiana Klonowica. Nowy odsłonięto w roku 1957. Przejęcie Śląska przez Polskę i utrata pozycji miasta granicznego po 1945 roku przyczyniła się do znacznego ograniczenia roli Sulmierzyc do tego stopnia, że 1 stycznia 1973 straciły prawa miejskie, przywrócone 9 grudnia 1973 (a więc już po jedenastu miesiącach) dzięki staraniom mieszkańców. W 1984 roku Sulmierzyce uzyskały w konkursie "Mistrz Gospodarności" drugie miejsce, a w latach 1985 i 1986 miejsce pierwsze. W 1988 roku miasto zostało odznaczone, "w uznaniu zasług położonych dla rozwoju gospodarczego i kulturalnego kraju", Krzyżem Kawalerskim Orderu Odrodzenia Polski. W 1991 r. połączenie kolejowe z Miliczem zostało ponownie zawieszone; tory zostały ostatecznie rozebrane ok. 2000 r. +Płomyczek – popularne czasopismo dla starszych dzieci i (obecnie) młodzieży młodszej, ukazujące się od 1917 roku. Początkowo ukazywał się jako „młodszy brat” nieistniejącego już „Płomyka”, który zlikwidowany został w 75. roku swego istnienia, w 1991 roku. Od 1 września 1927 r. wydawany jako samodzielne czasopismo. W latach 1917-1952 ukazywał się jako tygodnik, dalej do 1989 jako dwutygodnik, od 1990 jest to miesięcznik. Nie był drukowany w czasie wojny. Z dniem 1 marca 2013 roku wydawca zawiesił wydawanie "Płomyczka". +Pierwsza wzmianka o Myśliborzu występuje w dokumencie z 1238 r., w którym mowa jest o nadaniu przez Władysława Odonica templariuszom 1000 łanów ziemi nad rzeką Myślą. Myślibórz prawa miejskie otrzymał w latach 1262-1270 (jako miasto brandenburskie). Pod koniec XIII i na początku XIV wieku nastąpił intensywny rozwój miasta, które w latach 1298–1537 było stolicą Nowej Marchii i wiodącym centrum gospodarczym regionu. Stołeczny charakter sprawił, że miasto wznosiło liczne reprezentacyjne budowle oraz zostało ufortyfikowane silnymi murami miejskimi. W 1433 r. miasto spalili husyci. W tym czasie Myślibórz znajdował się w rękach Krzyżaków 1402–1455. W 1473 r. zdobycia i zniszczenia miasta dokonał książę zachodniopomorski Bogusław X. W XVI wieku dwukrotnie Myślibórz padał pastwą ogromnego pożaru 1539 r. i 1590 r. Wojny toczone w XVII i XVIII wieku (zwłaszcza tzydziestoletnia i siedmioletnia) spowodowały ogromne zniszczenia miasta, przez co nastąpiło osłabienie w rozwoju gospodarczym Myśliborza i regionu. Nadzieję na poprawę przyniosło dopiero uruchomienie połączeń kolejowych z Kostrzynem nad Odrą i Stargardem Szczecińskim w 1882 r., Barlinkiem w 1883 r. i Gorzowem Wielkopolskim w 1912 r. W wyniku działań zbrojnych w końcowym okresie II wojny światowej miasto zostało zniszczone w ok. 40%. Zdobyte przez wojska radzieckie 2 lutego 1945 r., a następnie 23 maja 1945 r. przekazane zostało administracji polskiej. +- w 1991 r.: Myślibórz-Gorzów, +- w 1991 r.: Głazów-Barlinek, +- w 1999 r.: Myślibórz-Kostrzyn, +W pierwszej połowie XX w. paradygmatem chemii "zatrzęsło" odkrycie subtelnej struktury budowy atomu - w szczególności odkrycie istnienia jądra atomu przez Ernesta Rutherforda w 1911 r. oraz odkrycie zależności między liczbą atomową a strukturą powłok elektronowych przez Henryego Moseleya w 1913 r., które to dokonania ostatecznie wyjaśniły dlaczego własności chemiczne pierwiastków zależą od miejsca zajmowanego w układzie okresowym. Częściowo na bazie tych dokonań, a także zastosowania teorii kwantów Maxa Plancka, w 1914 r. Niels Bohr zaproponował pierwszy model orbitalnej struktury atomu wodoru. +W 1953 r. Francis Crick, James Watson i Rosalind Franklin odkryli strukturę i ogólną zasadę działania DNA, które to odkrycie otworzyło drogę do współczesnych dokonań biochemii, inżynierii genetycznej i biotechnologii. Obecnie wszystkie dziedziny badań z przedrostkiem "bio-" należą do najszybciej rozwijającego się obszaru badań chemicznych, gdyż stanowią podstawę przyszłego rozwoju rolnictwa i medycyny. +Innym tego rodzaju kierunkiem są badania nad otrzymaniem nowych materiałów, w ramach których współpracują chemicy i fizycy ciała stałego. Największą grupę materiałów o niespotykanych w naturze własnościach stanową syntetyczne polimery. Pierwszy tego rodzaju materiał, który znalazł praktyczne zastosowane na większą skalę, był bakelit, otrzymany przez Leo Baekelanda w 1907 r. Chemia polimerów rozwinęła się jednak na dobre dopiero po II wojnie światowej. Odkryciem, które otworzyło drogę do masowego zastosowania tworzyw sztucznych opartych na polimerach, było opracowanie przez Karla Zieglera i Giulio Nattę w 1951 r. (Nagroda Nobla w 1963 r.) katalizatorów Zieglera-Natty, które umożliwiły masową i tanią produkcję polietylenu i polipropylenu z pochodnych ropy naftowej. +Odgrywają one ogromną rolę jako katalizatory wielu reakcji chemicznych prowadzonych na wielką skalę, których produkty stanowią podstawę całego przemysłu chemicznego. Pierwszy katalizator tego typu został na masową skalę zastosowany przez Otto Roelena w 1938 r. w reakcji hydroformylowania, prowadzącej do otrzymania aldehydu octowego z gazu syntezowego i etylenu. Dopiero jednak badania Ernsta Fischera i Geoffreya Wilkinsona (Nagroda Nobla w roku 1973) doprowadziły do pełnego zrozumienia działania tych katalizatorów i otworzyły drogę do projektowania ich struktury do konkretnych celów. +Kolejnym bardzo ważnym kierunkiem badań jest stereochemia i powiązana z nią synteza asymetryczna. Mimo że początków stereochemii można dopatrywać się już w połowie XIX w. (odkrycie dwóch form enancjomerycznych kwasu winowego przez Pasteura w 1850), to jednak faktyczny rozwój tej dziedziny, umożliwiający przemysłową produkcję czystych enancjomerycznie leków i innych biologicznie aktywnych związków chemicznych, rozpoczął się w latach 60. XX w. Do największych dokonań można tu zaliczyć opracowanie teoretycznych podstaw asymetrycznej katalizy enzymatycznej, za co John Warcup Cornforth i Vladimir Prelog otrzymali Nagrodę Nobla w 1975 r. +Pierwszą znaną osobą w Dolinie Ciemnosmreczyńskiej był Georg Pongrátz, który około 1750 r. mierzył głębokość Niżniego Ciemnosmreczyńskiego Stawu. 26 sierpnia 1751 r. był nad tym stawem także Jakob Buchholtz z dwoma pomocnikami. Zimą jako pierwsi pojawili się w dolinie W. Skórczewski i Stanisław Gąsienica Byrcyn 7 lutego 1914 r. +Wittgenstein – brytyjski biograficzny film fabularny z 1993 r., w reżyserii Dereka Jarmana. +Antti Autti (ur. 15 marca 1985 r.) - snowboardzista fiński, dwukrotny mistrz świata. Był jednym z największych bohaterów mistrzostw świata w Whistler, zdobywając złote medale w konkurencji halfpipe i big air. Dwa lata wcześniej, na mistrzostwach świata w Kreichsbergu, był 3. w big air i 4. w halfpipe. W Pucharze Świata, w sezonie 2003/2004 był drugi w klasyfikacji halfpipe'a, a w sezonie 2001/2002 był trzeci. +Po ukończeniu studiów Derek opracował scenografię do kilku oper i baletów ("Don Giovvani", "Jazz Calendar"), w tym dla English National Opera i dla The Royal Ballet, co jednak nie dawało mu wystarczającej satysfakcji artystycznej. Chciał wrócić do malarstwa, które było jego prawdziwą pasją. Odnosił na tym polu pewne sukcesy, a jego prace, m.in. pejzaże, były kilkukrotnie wystawiane. W maju 1961 r. obraz Jarmana "We Are Waitnig and Waiting" ("Czekamy i czekamy") wygrał w kategorii najlepszego obrazu amatorskiego wystawę "Daily Express". +Jako źródło pierwszych fascynacji filmem Jarman podawał w biografii film "La Dolce Vita" Federico Felliniego, który obejrzał mając 18 lat. Podczas studiów w Slade poznał niezależne, undergroundowe kino, a duże wrażenie zrobiły na nim wtedy takie filmy jak "Scorpio Rising" Kennetha Angera i nieco później filmy Andy’ego Warhola. Z filmem na gruncie profesjonalnym po raz pierwszy spotkał się na planie "Diabłów" Kena Russella, gdzie zajmował się scenografią. W 1970 r. przypadek zetknął go z tym reżyserem: w pociągu z Paryża poznał przyjaciółkę Russela, która skojarzyła ze sobą obydwu artystów. Z tym samym reżyserem Jarman pracował jeszcze przy realizacji scenografii do "Dzikiego Mesjasza". Przyznawał później, że ta współpraca wiele go nauczyła, a Russell był najlepszym nauczycielem filmu, na jakiego mógł trafić. +Już w trakcie rozpoczęcia prac nad scenografią dla Russela, Jarman zachwycił się możliwościami kamery "Super 8". Niewielka, mobilna i tania w eksploatacji, stała się dla niego synonimem niezależnej twórczości. Pierwszym obrazem jaki nakręcił na taśmie 8 mm był 6-minutowy obraz "Studio Bankside" nakręcony w 1971 r., później kolejno powstały "A Journey to Avebury" (składający się z zatrzymanych w kadrze plenerów z okolic Avebury), "Ogród Luksoru" (z wątkami typowymi dla New Age) i "Andrew Logan Kisses the Glitterati". Jarman notował na taśmie wspomnienia z podróży, rejestrował kameralne zdarzenia i sentymentalne miejsca. Powstawały z tego krótkometrażowe filmy poetyckie i manierystyczne impresje, często o bliskiej malarstwu estetyce. Eksperymentował z możliwościami kamery: nadawał obrazowi "chropowatości", zmieniał tempo filmowania, nakładał różne plany. Powstawały też filmy zupełnie pozbawione tradycyjnej filmowej narracji lub bez dialogów. +Pierwszym pełnometrażowym filmem Jarmana był "Sebastian" z 1975 r. Wciąż jednak był człowiekiem awangardowego undergroundu i postmodernistą "". Wśród brytyjskiej bohemy artystycznej zdobył status postaci kultowej już w latach 70. W kulturze masowej zaistniał jednak dopiero pod koniec lat 80., w czasach szerszej akceptacji kultury queer i estetyki postmodernistycznej. Momentem akceptacji Jarmana przez świat oficjalnego kina była premiera filmu "Caravaggio" w 1986 roku – najbardziej konwencjonalnego w formie filmu Jarmana. Mimo że zawarł w nim wszystkie główne wątki swej twórczości: motywy homoerotyczne, punkowy bunt, apoteozę bezkompromisowego artysty i outsidera, to jednak forma filmu była bardziej przystępna i efektowna od większości jego pozostałych produkcji. +Kolejnymi dziełami z cyklu filmowych biografii były "Edward II" (1991) i "Wittgenstein" (1993). Równolegle z nimi powstawały filmy zajmujące się sprawami społecznymi i zajmujące stanowisko w kwestiach politycznych: "Jubileusz" (1977) i "The Last of England" (1987). Ten ostatni określany jest jako pierwszy film kontrkultury punk. W 1987 r. Jarman wyreżyserował etiudę filmową pt. "Aria", który weszła do pełnometrażowego filmu o tym samym tytule, składającego się z dziesięciu krótkich form różnych reżyserów (m.in. Jean-Luc Godard, Ken Russel, Robert Altman). +W grudniu 1986 r. po ukończeniu filmu "Caravaggio" rozpoznano u niego zakażenie wirusem HIV. Mimo to wciąż pracował i tworzył, nawet gdy w ostatnich latach postępująca choroba odbierała mu wzrok. Filmy nabierały jednak stopniowo wymowy gorzkiego pesymizmu i radykalizmu w kwestiach społeczno-politycznych. Wielokrotnie wypowiadał się publicznie na temat swojej choroby. +W okresie władzy sowieckiej 1941-90 wielokrotnie próbowano zmusić mieszkańców do zaprzestania pielgrzymowania w to miejsce, a w 1961 r. podjęto próbę całkowitej jego likwidacji przy pomocy pił, siekier i buldożerów. Mimo to krzyże wciąż stawiano. Liczba krzyży nie jest dokładnie oszacowana. Oceania się, że samych krzyży stojących jest ok. 50 tysięcy, natomiast licząc z położonymi i podwieszonymi ich liczba może wynosić ponad 150 tys. +Papież Jan Paweł II podczas swojej pielgrzymki na Litwę w 1993 r. celebrował na Górze Krzyży mszę świętą. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął 1 lipca 1998 r., z wynikiem 2595 punktów dzielił wówczas 88-95. miejsce na światowej liście FIDE, jednocześnie zajmując 1. miejsce wśród polskich szachistów. Po raz ostatni na liście rankingowej notowany był 1 lipca 2006 r., posiadał wówczas 2562 punkty, co dawało mu 18. miejsce wśród szachistów Stanów Zjednoczonych +Następne płyty nie zdobywały już takiej popularności, jak debiut. Druga płyta ""Nie wierzcie elektrykom"" (1991), niosła proroczą wizję nieudanej prezydentury Lecha Wałęsy. Następna, ""Miłość, muzyka, mordobicie"" (1992), ironicznie traktowała branżę muzyczną – Festiwal w Jarocinie, czy twórczość zespołu Republika. Czwarty album, ""Wojna plemników"" (1993), został potępiony przez działaczy katolickiej partii ZChN za śmiałość obyczajową i prowokującą okładkę. Kolejna płyta, ""Golonka, flaki i inne przysmaki"" (1995) to m.in. drwina z fali pseudogrunge'u i kultury reklam telewizyjnych ("Dramat fryzjerski"). ""Nie zapomnisz nigdy"" z 1994 r., była mieszanką największych hitów grupy oraz nowych piosenek, z których "To dla ciebie miły bracie" można chyba uznać za hymn ideowy grupy. +Dokumenty wspominają tę dolinę od 1670 r. Miała tradycje pasterskie i górnicze. W jej dolnej części znajduje się duża Polana pod Jaworem, która dawniej była ośrodkiem gospodarczym Hali Tomanowej Liptowskiej. W znajdujących się na niej szałasach w czasie II wojny światowej odpoczywali kurierzy wędrujący na trasie Zakopane–Budapeszt. Powyżej tej polany w kwietniu 1940 r. w trakcie ucieczki na Węgry w czasie śnieżnej zawieruchy zmarł z wycieńczenia polski naukowiec i taternik Włodzimierz Gosławski wraz z towarzyszącą mu Adą Kopczyńską. Polscy naukowcy mieli udział w badaniu tej doliny. Antoni Rehman w 1893 r. opisał jej moreny, Jerzy Młodziejowski w latach 1932–1934 zbadał jej stawki. Ludwik Zejszner w latach 1839–1840 badał źródło pod Tomanową Przełęczą. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął 1 stycznia 1997 r., z wynikiem 2540 punktów zajmował wówczas trzecie miejsce (za Michałem Krasenkowem i Aleksandrem Wojtkiewiczem) wśród polskich szachistów. +W 1987 r. zdobył w we wsi Miętne brązowy medal mistrzostw Polski juniorów do 19 lat, natomiast w 1989 r. zdobył w Leszczynach tytuł młodzieżowego wicemistrza Polski. W latach 1991–2003 dwunastokrotnie awansował do finałów indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski. W bardzo udanym debiucie w 1991 roku zdobył tytuł wicemistrza, w 1996 roku - tytuł mistrza kraju. Uczestniczył w trzech olimpiadach szachowych (w 1992, 1996 i 1998 roku) na pozycji drugiego rezerwowego, będąc za każdym razem silnym punktem drużyny. Ogółem na olimpiadach rozegrał 26 partii (wynik procentowy 67,3%). Dwukrotnie reprezentował Polskę w drużynowych mistrzostwach Europy (w 1992 i 1997 roku). Jest również dwukrotnym medalistą mistrzostw Polski w szachach błyskawicznych: srebrnym (Żnin 2000) oraz brązowym (Łuków 1996). +Z zabytków zachował się późnorenesansowy dwór obronny z początku XVII w., przebudowywany w późniejszych latach, częściowo spalony w 1945 r., po wojnie odbudowany. Obok dworu pozostałości po parku dworskim z pomnikowymi dębami. Ponadto zachowały się średniowieczne rzeźby z nieistniejącego drewnianego kościoła – eksponowane obecnie w Muzeum Archidiecezjalnym w Katowicach. +Płomyk. Tygodnik ilustrowany dla dzieci i młodzieży – czasopismo wydawane od 1917 do 1991 roku. Pierwszym wydawcą był Związek Polskiego Nauczycielstwa Szkół Powszechnych, a od 1930 r. Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego. W ostatnich dziesięcioleciach działalności dwutygodnik; ukazywały się 24 numery w roku, lecz wydania wakacyjne było łączone jako numery 11/12 i 13/14. +Założycielką pisma była Janina Porazińska. W okresie dwudziestolecia międzywojennego z czasopismem współpracowali m.in. Józef Czechowicz , Aleksander Kamiński, Franciszka Themerson czy Wanda Wasilewska. "Płomyk" już w 1915 roku zaczął się ukazywać jako dodatek do "Zorzy" Pauliny Krakowowej, potem w 1918 roku wydawany był już jako samodzielne czasopismo. Było to czasopismo bardzo nowoczesne, miało charakter różnotematyczny. Poszczególne numery nawiązywały do pór roku, jakichś szczególnych wydarzeń. Stopniowo, od lat 30. "Płomyk" nabrał charakteru monotematycznego i stał się tygodnikiem. Wprowadził bogaty dział korespondencji - były listy do redakcji pisane przez dzieci i listy od redakcji. Czasopismo to było bardzo cenne, gdyż podobnie jak "Szkółka dla dzieci" było skorelowane z programem szkolnym. Od 1929 roku wychodził jako dodatek do "Płomyka", "Płomyczek" (od 1930 r. jako samodzielne czasopismo). W 1936 ukazał się specjalny numer "Płomyka" idealizujący ZSRR, co spowodowało reakcję polskich władz i strajk nauczycielski w 1937. +Znajduje się tu kościół drewniany z XVII w. przeniesiony z Wodzisławia Śląskiego – Jedłownika w 1974 r., osiedle mieszkaniowe, dawny budynek pierwszego przedszkola w Jastrzębiu, Kopalnia Węgla Kamiennego Jas-Mos (dawniej KWK "Jastrzębie") oddana do użytku w 1962 r. oraz wzniesienie Boża Góra – prawdopodobne miejsce pierwszego osadnictwa w okolicy oraz punkt oporu podczas kampanii wrześniowej (bronione przez III Szwadron Pułku 3 Ułanów Śląskich), obecnie miejsce pochówku żołnierzy Armii Czerwonej z pomnikiem. +W roku 1924 Gracie otworzył komercyjną akademię sztuk walki, na początku w Belém a potem w Rio de Janeiro, a do jego uczniów należał młodszy brat Hélio, który od 1932 r. do połowy lat pięćdziesiątych był znanym brazylijskim zapaśnikiem zawodowym (inni bracia Carlosa to: Osvaldo, Gastao Jr., Jorge). Synowie Hélio: Royce, Rorion i Rickson, kontynuowali pracę ojca i w latach dziewięćdziesiątych opracowali znane na całym świecie Gracie Jiu-Jitsu. Natomiast w tym samym czasie siostrzeńcy Carlosa Gracie wprowadzili w Stanach Zjednoczonych pokrewny styl zwany Machado Jiu-Jitsu. +W Sycynie znajduje się cmentarz prawosławny, dawniej unicki, dzwonnica dębowa z XIX wieku, dawniej kryta gontem (teraz blachą) oraz fundamenty dawnej cerkwi unickiej spalonej w 1928 r. przez Ukraińców. Przed pożarem cerkwi nieznana osoba potajemnie wykradła dwie figury świętych apostołów św. Piotra i św. Pawła. Figury te znajdują się obecnie w kościele w Sworach. +W 1915 r. ksiądz prawosławny i prawie cała wieś (zostały tylko cztery rodziny wyznania katolickiego), uciekając przed Niemcami, wyjechała na wschód do Rosji. +W czasie powstania styczniowego dnia 24 lutego 1863 r. jeden z dowódców powstańczych Lewandowski dowiedział się że dwie roty wojska carskiego, pod dowództwem Aleksiejewa, przybyłe z Radzynia Podlaskiego mają udać się do Białej Podlaskiej. Lewandowski wraz z Aleksandrem Szaniawskim, naczelnikiem wojskowym powiatu bialskiego, urządził zasadzkę w lesie pod Sycyną, koło posterunku poczty. Zasadzka jednak się nie udała, ponieważ wartownicy posnęli i zasadzka została za wcześnie wykryta. Powstańcy licząc 100 żołnierzy nie mieli szans z oddziałem 500 osób. Dowódca poległ 24 lutego około godz. 13:00, miał 43 lata, ciało Szaniawskiego zabrała jego żona, na miejscu potyczki powstańców stoi kamienny pomnik z 1934 r. sponsorowany przez księżnę Izabelę Mirską. Kamienny pomnik został odnowiony w 2006 r. W Sycynie istniała karczma, zajazd, browar i cegielnia. Karczmę z zajazdem wybudowano w 1825 r. była własnością Leopopda Brzóski, znajdowała się przy szosie E-30. +W pierwszej poł. XX w. we wsi znajdowały się tylko dwie studnie z kamienia. Jedna wykopana była na początku wsi a druga była koło kapliczki na końcu wioski. W sierpniu 1916 roku zatrzymał się w Sycynie w przemarszu z pierwszą Brygadą Legionów Józef Piłsudski. W okresie miedzy-wojennym planowano postawić pomnik Piłsudskiemu. Sycyna w tym czasie należała do gminy Swory. Obszar wsi i leżących wokół pól wynosił 302 ha, wieś zamieszkiwało w 1938 r. 128 osób. Prawie wszyscy byli wyznania prawosławnego i należeli do parafii Nosów gdyż cerkiew w Sycynie była zamknięta i nieczynna. Prawosławni z Sycyny w czasie okupacji hitlerowskiej należeli do parafii Dołha, po wojnie cerkiew była w starym sądzie w Białej Podlaskiej. W lesie blisko wsi znajduje się mogiła około 120 Żydów, którzy zostali tutaj rozstrzelani. Żydów Niemcy wieźli jesienią na wykopki furmankami z getta z Białej. Przy drodze do Sycyny furmanki skierowano na pole, gdzie następnie Żydom dano łopaty na wykopanie dołu. Po egzekucji zamordowanych ludzi zakopali chłopi z Sycyny. +Traktat ryski (lub inaczej pokój ryski), "Traktat pokoju między Polską a Rosją i Ukrainą, podpisany w Rydze dnia 18 marca 1921 r." (Dz.U. Nr 49, poz. 300) – traktat pokojowy zawarty przez Polskę i RFSRR oraz USRR, ratyfikowany przez Naczelnika Państwa 16 kwietnia 1921; obowiązywał od 30 kwietnia 1921, tj. wymiany dokumentów ratyfikacyjnych przez strony. +Urodził się w Szkocji, ale w wieku 6 lat wyemigrował wraz z rodziną do Australii. W wieku 15 lat rzucił szkołę. Pierwszy zespół Scotta to The Spektors, do którego przyłączył się w 1964 r. Po występach z innymi zespołami (m.in. Fraternity) w 1974 nawiązał współpracę z AC/DC (zastąpił usuniętego z zespołu Dave'a Evansa). Wspólnie z zespołem nagrał 6 albumów studyjnych i jeden koncertowy. Przed wstąpieniem do AC/DC był wokalistą między innymi The Valentines, The Spektors oraz Fraternity. +Powierzchnia powiatów według stanu na 1939 r., w przypadku wcześniejszego zniesienia lub zmiany przynależności wojewódzkiej powiatu na ostatni rok istnienia w ramach danego województwa. Liczba ludności na podstawie spisu powszechnego z 1931 r., w przypadku powiatów zniesionych lub przeniesionych przed tą datą, dane ze spisu powszechnego z 1921 r. +Pierwszy numer ukazał się 4 kwietnia 1926 r. z podtytułem "Tygodnik dla ludu katolickiego Diecezji Częstochowskiej. Ilustrowany tygodnik katolicki Diecezji Częstochowskiej". Redaktorem naczelnym był ks. Wojciech Mondry. W 1937 roku redaktorem został ks. Stanisław Gałązka. W latach 1928-1937 wydawany był jako "Kalendarz Jasnogórski". +W drugiej połowie lat 80. XX wieku był czołowym polskim juniorem. W 1986 r. zdobył brązowy medal mistrzostw Europy i tytuł mistrza Polski w kategorii do 20 lat. W 1989 r. został wicemistrzem świata juniorów w tej samej kategorii. Jego trenerami byli m.in. Henryk Dobosz, Zbigniew Doda, Zbigniew Szymczak, Włodzimierz Schmidt. +W latach 1990–2010 wielokrotnie awansował do finałów indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski. W 1992 r. w Częstochowie zdobył tytuł mistrza kraju. Wygrał turniej finałowy w 1997 r. w Sopocie, wspólnie z Robertem Kempińskim i Michałem Krasenkowem, jednak w dogrywce zajął trzecie miejsce. Kolejny medal zdobył w 2010 r. w Warszawie, zajmując trzecie miejsce za Mateuszem Bartlem i Radosławem Wojtaszkiem. Dwukrotnie był mistrzem Polski w szachach szybkich (1995 i 2000) oraz błyskawicznych (1998 i 2000). Uczestniczył w trzech olimpiadach szachowych: w Nowym Sadzie (1990), Manili (1992) i Moskwie (1994). Łącznie w 20 partiach rozegranych na olimpiadach uzyskał rezultat +13 -5 =14 (62,5%). Dwukrotnie reprezentował Polskę w drużynowych mistrzostwach Europy. W 1997 r. Międzynarodowa Federacja Szachowa FIDE przyznała mu tytuł arcymistrza. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął 1 lipca 1992 r., z wynikiem 2525 punktów zajmował wówczas 2. miejsce (za Aleksandrem Wojtkiewiczem) wśród polskich szachistów. +Przy powierzchni ok. 7,8 km² należy do większych odnóg Doliny Cichej. Nieznane jest pochodzenie nazwy doliny. Prawdopodobnie jednak pochodzi po prostu od słowackiego słowa "hlina", czyli glina. Dawniej dolinę odwiedzali kłusownicy i była ona wypasana. Na Rówience pod Hlinikiem, na wysokości ok. 1350 m (w miejscu, gdzie dolina rozgałęzia się na Zawrat Kokawski i Szeroki Żleb) stał dawniej szałas należący do mieszkańców Wychodnej. Używany był przez nich do 1953 r. W czasie II wojny światowej bazowali w nim partyzanci z oddziału "Vysoké Tatry". +Miasto zostało ponownie zajęte przez Armię Czerwoną 6 lipca 1944 r. Po opanowaniu Nowogródczyzny, Sowieci wznowili wywózki do Kazachstanu i na Syberię. W wyniku polsko-sowieckiej umowy z 16 sierpnia 1945 r. całe województwo nowogródzkie przeszło pod władanie Białoruskiej SRR. +W latach 1971–1990 dwunastokrotnie awansował do finałów indywidualnych mistrzostw Polski. W 1985 r. w Gdyni podzielił I-III miejsce, a następnie wygrał w Warszawie miniturniej dogrywkowy zdobywając tytuł mistrza kraju. Reprezentował klub Pocztowiec Poznań, w barwach którego dwukrotnie zdobył (w latach 1985 i 1988) złote medale drużynowych mistrzostw Polski. +Najwyższy ranking w karierze osiągnął w lipca 1985 r., z wynikiem 2435 punktów dzielił wówczas 4-5. miejsce wśród polskich szachistów. Od 1999 r. nie występuje w turniejach klasyfikowanych przez Międzynarodową Federację Szachową. +Jako pierwsi zimą dotarli do Doliny Walentkowej Jerzy Bistram, Adam Karpiński i Kazimierz Szczepański 28 marca 1923 r. oraz tego samego dnia krótko później Marian Maurizio z towarzyszami. +Doktryna obronna Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, przyjęta przez Komitet Obrony Kraju 21 lutego 1990 r., jest dokumentem państwowym, którego celem było zarysowanie nowej polityki obronnej Polski w świetle przemian regionu Europy Środkowej w 1989 r. Była to pierwsza powojenna jawna próba określenia i deklaracji publicznej podstawowych elementów narodowej strategii obronności. Dokument stanowi kontynuację tajnego dokumentu "Węzłowe założenia obronne Polskiej Rzeczypospolitej Ludowej", którego ostatnia edycja była przyjęta w 1987 r. +Ponadto, dokument oceniał możliwe zagrożenia bezpieczeństwa Polski oraz określał zadania, które należałoby podjąć w celu ich zwalczenia. Największe zagrożenie postrzegano w konflikcie międzykoalicyjnym między Układem Warszawskim a NATO. Głównym obszarem takiego starcia miał być Europa Środkowa, w tym Polska. Dokument miał charakter wybitnie obronny, pozostając w zgodzie z koalicyjną doktryną obronną, przyjętą przez Doradczy Komitet Polityczny Układu Warszawskiego w Berlinie w 1987 r. +W 1976 r. ukończyła Liceum Pielęgniarskie w Giżycku, a następnie warszawską PWST. Debiut w 1982 roku w czasie studiów w filmie Tadeusza Konwickiego "Dolina Issy". Była aktorką w Teatrze Dramatycznym w Słupsku następnie w warszawskich teatrach: Współczesnym (1981-1987), Dramatycznym (od 1987) a obecnie Ateneum. Jej mężem był aktor i reżyser Krzysztof Zaleski. Ma jednego syna. +Kolarstwo górskie powstało w USA, gdzie pod koniec lat 70. XX w. pojawiła się moda na jazdę rowerami w trudnym terenie, poza normalnymi drogami. Za twórcę tego sportu uważa się najczęściej Gary'ego Fishera, który w 1979 r. jako pierwszy wpadł na pomysł produkcji rowerów opartych generalnie na konstrukcji roweru miejskiego, ale o wzmocnionej i skróconej ramie, pozbawionych osłon, błotników i innych tego rodzaju zbędnych „ozdób” oraz zaopatrzonych w koła o średnicy 26 cali na szerokich oponach z grubym bieżnikiem zamiast dotychczas stosowanych gładkich i cienkich kół 28-calowych. +Jego prawdziwe imię to Əbülfəz Qədirqulu oğlu Əliyev, lecz zmienił je rozpoczynając działalność antykomunistyczną. Był pierwszym niekomunistycznym prezydentem Azerbejdżanu, od objęcia władzy w 1992 aż do upadku w czerwcu 1993 r. W swej polityce zorientowany był prozachodnio, próbując zacieśniać kontakty z Turcją oraz atakując w licznych wystąpieniach rządzony przez ajatollahów Iran. Nastawiony antyrosyjsko Elçibəy pragnąc uniezależnić kraj od wpływów Rosji dążył do zacieśniania kontaktów z Zachodem, dopuszczając m.in. zachodnie koncerny do poszukiwań i wydobycia azerskiej ropy. +W takiej sytuacji w czerwcu 1993 r. z inspiracji Rosji zorganizowano spisek, mający na celu odsunięcie Elçibəya od władzy. Przewrotem kierował wojskowy, pułkownik Surət Hüseynov. Elçibəy zwrócił się o pomoc do przewodniczącego parlamentu, Heydəra Əliyeva, jednak ten korzystając z sytuacji sam przejął władzę. Elçibəy został zmuszony do odejścia z polityki. Osiadł wówczas w swojej rodzinnej wiosce w Nachiczewanie. +Syn Karola, Władysław Szajnocha (1857-1928) był znanym geologiem, twórcą monumentalnego "Atlasu geologicznego Galicji", a w 1920 r. jednym z założycieli Polskiego Towarzystwa Geologicznego i jego pierwszym przewodniczącym. W latach 1911-1912 i 1916-1917 był rektorem Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. +Ludność: 10 151 806 w 1989 r. (1969: 8 897 000) +Urodził się we Floß w Górnym Palatynacie (Bawaria). Został wychowywany w katolickiej rodzinie. Z zawodu był cukiernikiem. Po utracie pracy w 1930 r. został bezrobotnym. W lutym 1931 wstąpił do NSDAP (nr legitymacji partyjnej 454991), a w lipcu 1932 do SS (nr identyfikacyjny 44225). W 1933 rozpoczął służbę jako wartownik w obozie Dachau, gdzie pozostał do 1939. W 1939 Baer został przydzielony do dywizji SS Trupie Główki ("SS-Totenkopf") i brał udział w walkach frontowych. W 1942 został ranny i, jako niezdolny do służby na froncie, skierowany do Neuengamme, gdzie sprawował stanowisko adiutanta komendanta obozu. Od listopada 1943 kierował Urzędem DI w ramach WVHA oraz pełnił funkcję adiutanta Oswalda Pohla. 11 maja 1944 Baer został komendantem Auschwitz i stanowisko to pełnił aż do ewakuacji obozu pod koniec stycznia 1945. Był odpowiedzialny za zbrodnie popełniane na więźniach podczas marszu śmierci z Auschwitz i jego podobozów. Następnie mianowano go komendantem obozu Mittelbau-Dora (Nordhausen), gdzie między innymi kierował masowymi egzekucjami jeńców radzieckich. Z powodu kontuzji nogi Baer wyjechał przed kapitulacją III Rzeszy do Styrii w Austrii. +Po wojnie do grudnia 1960 r. ukrywał się w okolicach Hamburga pod nazwiskiem Karl Neumann i pracował jako robotnik leśny. Zdemaskowany – został aresztowany i osadzony w więzieniu śledczym we Frankfurcie nad Menem. Baer miał być głównym oskarżonym w drugim procesie oświęcimskim, ale zmarł niespodziewanie w areszcie 17 czerwca 1963. +Od 1902 r. Szczepanik był związany z Tarnowem. Posiadał swoje pracownie m.in. w Wiedniu, Berlinie i w Dreźnie. Zmarł 18 kwietnia 1926 r. w Tarnowie. Pochowany na Cmentarzu Starym. +Płk Jan Mazurkiewicz tuż przed wybuchem wojny obronnej 1939 r. przeniesiony został do Grupy Operacyjnej Dywersji - tzw. Grupy "Zygmunt", której zadaniem było przygotowanie akcji dywersyjnych na zapleczu wroga. W połowie września 1939 r. w Stanisławowie założył TOW. +Po zakończeniu działań wojennych, Komenda TOW znalazła się w Budapeszcie, skąd koordynowano tworzenie struktur w okupowanej Polsce oraz opiekowano się szlakami przerzutowymi kraj - Budapeszt - Paryż. Zadania TOW uzgadniane były bezpośrednio z Wodzem Naczelnym gen. Władysławem Sikorskim. Od czerwca 1940 r. Komenda TOW przeniosła się do kraju. W marcu 1943 r. nastąpiło scalenie TOW z Armią Krajową, w ramach której struktury TOW przeszły do Kedywu. +W projekcie Xanadu Teda Nelsona oryginalna propozycja hipertekstu, naszkicowana w książce "Literary Machines" z 1982 r., mówi, że od czytelnika pobierane byłyby automatycznie mikropłatności honorujące wkład pochodzący z rozmaitych źródeł. +Pierwsze badania, które przyczyniły się do jej powstania zapoczątkowano w 1980 r. na "Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam". Były one czynione przy współudziale "Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica" w Amsterdamie. Amoeba ujrzała światło dzienne w 1987 r. W jej rozwój zaangażowała się finansowo Wspólnota Europejska oraz, naukowo, partnerzy z Anglii i Norwegii. Rozwój Amoeby zatrzymał się w 1998 r. na wersji 5.3. W tym też czasie stała się ona wolnym oprogramowaniem. +Interpedia została zaproponowana przez Ricka Gatesa, który 22 października 1993 r. opublikował w grupie dyskusyjnej alt.internet.services wiadomość, w której stwierdzał, że takie repozytorium wiedzy, zawierające ogólną, encyklopedyczną wiedzę dla zwykłego laika, byłoby ważnym narzędziem zarówno dla niektórych badań naukowych, jak i dla całej społeczności Internetu (Net.Citizenry), i że trzeba by nawiązać kontakt z najróżniejszymi grupami ludzi, którzy zajmą się pisaniem artykułów. Sam termin "Interpedia" został ukuty przez R. L. Samuella, uczestnika dyskusji w grupie. +W listopadzie 1993 r. utworzono specjalną grupę usenetową comp.infosystems.interpedia (zobacz +Osiedle Płonia od 1939 do 1945 r. wchodziło w skład tzw. Wielkiego Szczecina, po zakończeniu II wojny światowej włączone zostało w granice ówczesnego powiatu gryfińskiego, w 1972 r. ponownie przyłączone do Szczecina. +W okresie 1918-1922 pułk używał nazwy 22 Siedlecki Pułk Piechoty. W 1922 r. dowódca pułku ppłk Henryk Krok-Paszkowski w myśl uchwały korpusu oficerskiego 22 pp zabiegał w MSWojsk. o nadanie tej nazwy jednostce, co jednak nie zostało uskutecznione. Latem 1922 r. ten sam dowódca zwrócił się także do przeprowadzającego inspekcję Szefa Sztabu Generalnego gen. Władysława Sikorskiego z prośbą o przyjęcie szefostwa pułku. Gen. Władysław Sikorski przyjął prośbę, uzależniając definitywną zgodę od zezwolenia MSWojsk., co również nie zostało uskutecznione. +22 Pułk Piechoty powstał jako Siedlecki Okręgowy Pułk Piechoty 25 listopada 1918 roku w Siedlcach z Polaków z byłej armii rosyjskiej, nowozwerbowanych, batalionu Polskiej Siły Zbrojnej oraz członków Okręgu III Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej obejmującego obwody: Siedlce, Łuków, Garwolin, Mińsk Mazowiecki, Jadów, Węgrów, Sokołów, jak również pewien obszar za Bugiem. Obwód siedlecki wystawił trzy komp. (1 kp -pchor. Antoni Głuchowski, 2 kp -pchor. Henryk Picheta, 3 kp- pchor. Władysław Kamiński), obwód łukowski wystawił dwie kompanie (pchor. Stefan Zdanowski sformował dwie komp., z których jedna jako 4 kp weszła w skład I batalionu 22 pp zaś druga pod komendą pchor. Stanisława Zdanowskiego, późniejszego wiceprezydenta i burmistrza Siedlec została wcielona do utworzonego później batalionu zapasowego). Z obwodu garwolińskiego ppor. Bolesław Studziński pokierował do Siedlec 6 kp. Obwód węgrowski dał 7 kp z plut. z Sokołowa, a obwody Mińsk Mazowiecki i Jadów stworzyły 8 kp pchor. Wiktor Drymmer zza Bugu przyprowadził silną komp., stacjonującą dotychczas w Siemiatyczach pod dowództwem por. Lucjana Janiszewskiego, tocząc drobne potyczki z patrolami 12 Armii Niemieckiej. Kompania ta została ściągnięta do pułku dopiero w lutym 1919 roku do Brześcia n. Bugiem i została włączona do I batalionu. Na początku nosiła nr 8., lecz przemianowano ją na 1. Po przeprowadzonej mobilizacji mniejsze oddziały pozostały w miastach powiatowych, zaś reszta odeszła do Siedlec. Dowódca III Okręgu POW w Siedlcach – ppor. Władysław Horyd "Przerwic" rozpoczął formowanie batalionów z luźnych kompanii. Na terenie miasta rozpoczął również formowanie jednego batalionu piechoty. "Urząd Zaciągowy Polskiej Siły Zbrojnej", którego kadrę stanowił plut. ppor. Albina Nowotnego. Pluton ten stawił się w Siedlcach w przeddzień rozbrojenia. Oddziały POW i PSZ odczuwały ogromny brak oficerów. W tym celu Ministerstwo Spraw Wojskowych przydzieliło do Siedlec kilku oficerów oraz kilkunastu podchorążych, absolwentów ze szkoły podchorążych w Warszawie i Ostrowi Mazowieckiej. W dniu 25 listopada 1918 r. przybył do Siedlec płk Wacław Pażuś, mianowany dowódcą Siedleckiego Okr. Wojsk. Płk Wacław Pażuś brał czynny udział w pracach powstawania pułku. 6 grudnia nastąpiła likwidacja III Okręgu POW i jej oddziały zostały podporządkowane dowódcy Siedl. Okr. Wojsk. W ten sposób powstały dwa 4-komp. bataliony – I batalion pod dowództwem ppor. Włodzimierza Kwiatkowskiego i II batalion pod dowództwem por. Stanisława Kobylińskiego oraz dwie komp. stanowiące zalążek III batalionu. W połowie grudnia poszczególne komp. połączyły się tworząc bardzo silny 4/I bp. II batalion pod dowództwem kpt. Fryderyka Stanka stanowiły dwie komp. (5. i 6.) w Siedlcach oraz dwie komp. (7. – pozostała na obszarze pow. węgrowskiego i sokołowskiego i 8. – na odcinku siemiatyckim). III batalion pod dowództwem por. Stanisława Kobylińskiego posiadał dawną 1. komp., która została przemianowana na szkołę podoficerską oraz komp. pozostawioną w charakterze garnizonu Łukowa. Organizację 22 pp w zasadniczy sposób oparto na wzorach pułków PSZ. Pod koniec grudnia MSWojsk. oddzieliło funkcję dowódcy Okr. Siedl. od dowódcy Siedleckiego Okręgowego Pułku Piechoty i dowództwo nad pułkiem otrzymał płk Kazimierz Chromiński (faktyczny pierwszy dca 22 pp). 4 stycznia 1919 r. do pułku przybył z 5 pp Legionów mjr Henryk Krok-Paszkowski (były dowódca Okr. Siedl. POW, późniejszy gen. bryg.) i objął dowództwo nad I batalionem. W tym samym miesiącu w Białej Podlaskiej pułk uzupełniono częścią rozwiązanej "Grupy płk-a Eugeniusza Pogorzelskiego", której żołnierze utworzyli 3. komp. II batalionu. W tym czasie stan 22 pp wynosił już 11 oficerów, 18 podchorążych i ok. 700 szeregowych. Ekwipunek i uzbrojenie początkowo przedstawiało się fatalnie. Brakowało mundurów, płaszczy i chlebaków, więc z tego powodu wielu żołnierzy posiadało nadal cywilne ubrania, podarte buty oraz różnego rodzaju walizki i tobołki. Uzbrojenie stanowiły wysłużone poniemieckie karabiny Mauser (przeważnie wz. 88 i wz. 98, w większości bez bagnetów). Na stanach komp. brakowało kuchni polowych. +4 stycznia 1919 r. Pułk został wcielony do Grupy operacyjnej "Podlasie" gen. dyw. Antoniego Listowskiego (w skład Grupy Podlaskiej wchodziły: 22 pp, 34 pp, szwadron 2 p.uł oraz bateria 6 pal). W tym czasie Grupa Podlaska liczyła: 102 oficerów, 205 podoficerów, 2164 szeregowych, 4 działa, 19 cekaemów oraz pociąg pancerny "Kaniów" (później także "Generał Antoni Listowski"). Grupa ta obsadzała fragment odcinka linii demarkacyjnej z wojskiem niemieckim, okupującym teren tzw. "Ober-Ostu" (tereny za Bugiem). Pod dowództwem płk. Kazimierza Chromińskiego pułk w sile I batalionu oraz dwóch komp. II batalionu przyjechał z Siedlec do Białej Podlaskiej. W dniach 9-19 stycznia I batalion 22 pp obsadził linię demarkacyjną polsko-niemiecką na odcinku Janów Podlaski-Sławatycze, po czym powrócił na postój do Białej Podlaskiej. Ten okres pułk wykorzystał na szkolenie i dalszą organizację. Po zdobyciu ciężkich karabinów maszynowych (były, to poniemieckie cekaemy Maxim MG 08 7,92 mm oraz zdobyczne rosyjskie Maximy wz. 10 kal. 7,62 mm) zorganizowano i przeszkolono 1. i 2. komp. karabinów maszynowych. Miesiąc później oddziały 22 pułku brały udział w zajęciu Brześcia n. Bugiem (9 lutego żołnierze 22 pp zajęli forty Terespola i Brześcia tłumiąc pożary wzniecane przez uciekających Niemców; wcześniej w nocy z 5 na 6 lutego brali udział w nieudanym ataku (dowodził dca 34. pp mjr Aleksander Narbutt-Łuczyński) na forty Terespola, gdzie dostali się razem z 34. pp pod krzyżowy ogień niemieckich karabinów maszynowych – płk Kazimierz Chromiński miał pokierować odwrotem oddziałów polskich spod Kobylan). 17 lutego 1919 r. Komendantem garnizonu w Brześciu został płk Kazimierz Chromiński. W swoim pierwszym boju przeciw Rosjanom opanowali (3. komp. w składzie kolumny mjr.Władysława Dąbrowskiego) w dniu 24 lutego 1919 r. stację kolejową w Pińsku (zdobyto 1 parowóz i 200 wagonów). 9 marca 1919 r. II batalion (uzupełniony do stanu czterech komp. przez 1. komp. I batalionu) został przerzucony z rozkazu Naczelnego Dowództwa do walk w Małopolsce Wschodniej. 11 marca II batalion walczył jako odwód 12 pp z Ukraińcami pod Przemyślem (okolice fortów Jaksmanice i Mogiłki) – stracił 6 zabitych (w tym pchor. Teodora Wierzbickiego) i 3 wziętych do niewoli. Następnie batalion od 24 marca w grupie płk. Józefa Beckera bronił Dołhomościsk i walczył w Grupie płk. Władysława Sikorskiego pod Dębową Doliną i folwarkiem Karolówką. 22 kwietnia, na skutek zatargu pomiędzy płk. Kazimierzem Chromińskim, a gen. Antonim Listowskim (ten drugi wystawił kłamliwą i krzywdzącą opinię o dcy 22 pp w meldunku do Naczelnego Dowództwa; płk Kazimierz Chromiński wyrokiem Sądu Wojskowego z dn. 5 sierpnia 1919 r. z postawionych zarzutów został oczyszczony) dowództwo pułku objął młody i doskonale wykształcony ppłk hr. Władysław Grabowski (były oficer Gwardii Petersburskiej). II batalion w dniach 31 maja - 1 czerwca 1919 r. zwyciężył pod Horodyszczem i pod Poczapińcami (zagarnął, wtedy 4 działa i 18 karabinów maszynowych). Po walce z piechotą i kawalerią przeciwnika zajął Tarnopol, gdzie zdobył wielkie składy materiałów i sprzętu wojennego. Po uderzeniu Ukraińców II batalion wycofał się do Gołogór. Wziął udział w pierwszej fazie polskiej kontrofensywy czerwcowej. Po tym wydarzeniu II batalion został przetransportowany na Wołyń, gdzie 20 lipca opanował szturmem Strzelsk, odparł nieprzyjacielskie przeciwuderzenie i zajął Sarny. W tym okresie I batalion 22 pp wyruszył na front poleski. W maju 1919 r. batalion wyróżnił się w działaniach obronnych nad Jasiołdą oraz w walkach na południe od Prypeci. W dniach 2 - 11 lipca 1919 r. współdziałał z innymi oddziałami piechoty, kawalerii oraz z Flotyllą Pińską w ataku na Łuniniec. Batalion odniósł szczególne sukcesy pod Płotnicą, Łachwą i Turowem. W czasie obrony Łunińca I batalion bronił się nieustępliwie przed trzykrotną przewagą bolszewików. 2 sierpnia na linii Olszany – Remel – Moczule odparł aż 8 ataków przeciwnika. W drugiej połowie sierpnia na Polesiu doszło do połączenia dowództwa oraz wszystkich trzech btalionów 22 pp – pułk wszedł w skład XVIII Bryg. 9 DP. 22 pp stoczył szereg walecznych bojów jesienią i zimą 1919 r., zwłaszcza nad Ptyczą i Uborcią. Oddziały pułku okryły się chwałą i niepowszednim męstwem bijąc się w styczniu i lutym 1920 r. w śmiałych wypadach pod Pawłówką, Remiesami, Łuczenkami i Kazimierówką. W okresie 4-6 marca oddziały 22 pp brały udział w operacji na Mozyrz. Opór nieprzyjaciela został złamany, Mozyrz, Barbarów i Jelsk zostały opanowane – w ręce Polaków wpadły 22 statki rzeczne. W walkach o Kalenkowicze 22 pp uczestniczył poszczególnymi batalionami – I batalion bił się pod Jełaniem (razem z II batalionem) i Strakowiczami, a III batalion w rejonie Sławeczna. Wskutek wysiłków oddziałów polskich bolszewikom nie udała się próba odbicia Kalenkowicz. Pod koniec kwietnia 1920 r. Naczelny Wódz – Marszałek Józef Piłsudski zainicjował operacje zaczepne na Ukrainie. Głównym zadaniem 9 DP było osiągnięcie Dniepru pomiędzy Berezyną, a Prypecią. 22 pp działając w tej akcji w dwóch grupach złamał z łatwością opór wroga i doszedł w rejon Rzeczycy. Najwspanialszego czynu bojowego pułk dokonał 12 czerwca 1920 r. W tym dniu oddziały siedleckiego pułku broniły przedmieścia Rzeczycy na Dnieprze (pod Unożną i Ozierszczyzną) potężnymi i pełnymi poświęcenia przeciwuderzeniami. Nieprzyjaciel poniósł ciężkie straty w żołnierzach i sprzęcie – ogień Polaków zniszczył oddziały czterech pułków wroga. Dzień bitwy pod Rzeczycą był obchodzony uroczyście jako święto pułkowe. Podczas postoju w Rzeczycy nastąpiły zasadnicze zmiany w obsadzie oficerskiej stanowisk w 22 pp: ppłk hr. Władysław Grabowski odszedł do 4 Armii (objął dowództwo w detaszowanym 59 Pułku Piechoty Wielkopolskiej), a nowym dowódcą pułku został odważny w boju mjr Henryk Krok-Paszkowski. Dowódcą I batalionu został ppor. Mieczysław Janowski, dcą II batalionu por. Stanisław Małek, a dowódcą III batalionu kpt. Aleksander Gembal. W tym samym okresie pozostałe jednostki 22 pp gromiły nieprzyjaciela, który wdarł się do stanowisk polskich pod Karpiłówką i Kopaczami nad Uszą. W czasie odwrotu armii polskich pułk cofając się przez Polesie wykazał w toczonych ciągle walkach wysokie morale i tężyznę fizyczną. Pomimo krwawych strat 22 i 23 lipca pułk szturmem wyparł bolszewików poza Styr. Następnie Siedlczanie odznaczyli się w obronie linii Bugu. Pułk dotarł do Łukowa, skąd został przetransportowany do Modlina, gdzie wszedł w skład 5 Armii. Podczas Bitwy warszawskiej 1920 22. pp najchlubniej zapisał się udziałem w zdobyciu Nasielska, Pułtuska, Ciechanowa i Mławy. Swój ostatni wielki bój pułk stoczył 5 września 1920 r. w rejonie Hrubieszowa z konnicą Siemiona Budionnego. 4 szarże kawalerii rosyjskiej rozbiły się o nieustępliwą zaporę pułku pod Teratynem, Mojsławicami i Jankami. Następnie po tym wydarzeniu 22 pp walczył z bolszewikami na Wileńszczyźnie, a na końcu z Litwinami (w wojsku Litwy Środkowej). Po przerwaniu działań wojennych z Litwą pułk wchodzący w skład 9 DP został przerzucony w rejon Mołodeczna. Zakwaterowany po wsiach w fatalnych warunkach mieszkaniowych i zaopatrzeniowych pełnił straż na kresach Rzeczypospolitej w tzw. "korytarzu łotewskim". Pomimo tych ciężkich warunków pułk został zorganizowany na etat pokojowy, stworzono kadrę zawodową, przeszkoloną wg nowych polskich regulaminów, a także wyszkolono kilka roczników żołnierzy rezerwy i rekrutów. We wrześniu 1922 r. nastąpił powrót 22 pp do Siedlec, z których, to przed czterema laty pułk wyruszył na wojnę. +Na piersiach żołnierzy pułku (3 września 1920 r. pod Chełmem Naczelny Wódz osobiście udekorował dowódcę oraz kilku żołnierzy 22 pp) zabłysło 56 srebrnych krzyży Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari V klasy (tym samym odznaczeniem 4 grudnia 1920 r. w Łazdunach k. Lidy Marszałek Józef Piłsudski udekorował sztandar Pułku) i 484 Krzyże Walecznych (w tym 68 zdobyli oficerowie). +W lutym 1919 r. rozkazem Dowództwa Siedleckiego Okręgu Wojskowego powstał w Siedlcach batalion zapasowy 22 pp. Pierwszym dowódcą batalionu został kpt. Wacław Kostek-Biernacki. Pełnił on tę funkcję w okresie 06.02.1919-08.10.1920. Zadaniem batalionu zapas. oprócz pełnienia służby garnizonowej było szkolenie rekrutów i uzupełnianie nimi stanu 22 pp na froncie. W okresie najtrudniejszych walk z bolszewikami (lipiec-sierpień 1920 r.) batalion zapas. 22 pp wraz z siedleckim Komitetem Obrony Narodowej zorganizował w Siedlcach ochotniczy 222 pp, którego dowództwo objął kpt. Wacław Kostek-Biernacki. 222 pp nie osiągnął stanu większego niż 3 komp. Pod koniec lipca 1. komp. 222 och. pp pod dowództwem ppor. Wacława Hankiewicza wysłano nad Bug do obrony odcinka koło Niemirowa i została ona wcielona do 18 pp. 4 sierpnia pozostałe 2 komp. pułku (d-cą 3. komp. był ppor. Otton Pawłowicz) wraz z całym siedleckim garnizonem zostały ewakuowane w kierunku na Dęblin, gdzie przekroczyły Wisłę. Po dotarciu do Radomia żołnierze zostali załadowani do wagonów towarowych i wyruszyli na Śląsk Cieszyński w celu zabezpieczenia granicy z Czechosłowacją. 222 och. pp zakwaterowany został w budynku szkolnym w Skoczowie, po czym po miesiącu powrócił do garnizonu w Siedlcach. Od września do grudnia 1920 r. pułk pełnił służbę kordonową oczyszczając teren Podlasia z bolszewickich niedobitków oraz pełnił służbę wartowniczą w siedleckiej Stacji Koncentracyjnej dla jeńców i dezerterów. W grudniu 222 och. pp został rozwiązany, a jego żołnierze zostali wysłani jako uzupełnienie dla 22 pp. Żołnierzem 222 pp był m. in. znany aktor Jacek Woszczerowicz i Zygmunt Michałowski. Pod komendą kpt. Biernackiego żołnierze batalionu zapas. 22 pp oraz 222. och pp z polecenia "lotnych wojskowych sądów doraźnych" wykonywali na terenie Siedlec wyroki śmierci na dezerterach z Wojska Polskiego oraz ludności sprzyjającej bolszewikom. Kolejnym dowódcą batalionu zapas. został kpt. Jerzy Józef „Oskierka” Kramarczyk i pełnił tę funkcję w okresie 23.10.1920 - 13.01.1922. W tym czasie batalion zapas. przygotowywał siedleckie koszary na powrót 22 pp ze wschodu oraz pełnił służbę garnizonową. Ostatnim dowódcą batalionu zapasowego był mjr Ludwik Stankiewicz, który objął dowództwo batalionu 21 stycznia 1922 aż do czasu rozwiązania i likwidacji batalionu do stanu kadry na jesieni 1922 r., kiedy to do Siedlec powrócił na stałe 22 pp. +We wrześniu 1922 r. powstał Wojskowy Klub Sportowy 22 Pułku Piechoty. +Jesienią 1923 r. II batalion powrócił do Siedlec na stałe. +12 stycznia 1926 r. pułk ustalił swą nową odznakę pułkową, którą w pułku przyjął marszałek Józef Piłsudski. +4 czerwca 1926 r. na Zamku Królewskim w Warszawie kompania honorowa 22 pp wraz ze szwadronem 1 Pułku Szwoleżerów wzięła udział w uroczystości zaprzysiężenia prof. Ignacego Mościckiego na urząd Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (22 pp "obstawiał" w tym dniu cały zamek). Prezydent oraz towarzyszący mu marszałek Józef Piłsudski odebrał raport od dcy 1 kp – kpt. Jerzego Albina de Tramecourt. Bataliony 22 pp przebywały w stolicy w charakterze wzmocnienia warszawskiego garnizonu do 1 lipca 1926 r. +1 września na odcinek obrony 22 pp uderzył niemiecki II Korpus Armijny (3 i 32 DP) z 4 Armii i po walkach w dniu 1 i 2 września 1939 r. 22 pp ponosząc ciężkie straty (rozbity III batalion i batalion ON "Koronowo") został odrzucony w rejon Bydgoszczy, gdzie został podporządkowany 15 Dywizji Piechoty i obsadził odcinek przedmościa Bydgoszczy. Następnie w dniach od 4 - 6 września prowadził walki obronne w rejonie Solca Kujawskiego, a następnie w dniu 7 września bronił rejonu Aleksandrowa Kujawskiego. +Od 8 września był podporządkowany 27 Dywizji Piechoty, w składzie której toczył walki obronne w rejonie Włocławka w okolicy miejscowości Wieniec z niemiecką brygadą "Netze". W walkach wyróżnił się II batalion 22 pp dowodzony przez mjr. Stanisława Allingera. W dniach 14 - 15 września 22 pp znajdujący się w rejonie Gąbina osłaniał tyły polskiego zgrupowania biorącego udział w walkach o likwidację niemieckiego przyczółka na południe od Płocka. W rejonie Gąbina planowano odtworzyć 9 DP złożoną z 22 i 35 pp, jej dowództwo. miał objąć płk Feliks Jędrychowski, dowódca 22 pp. W dniu 17 września 1939 r. znajdujące się w odwrocie za Bzurę bataliony 22 pp zostały zdziesiątkowane i rozproszone przez lotnictwo niemieckie w rejonie Iłowa; w tym dniu pułk przestał istnieć jako zwarta formacja. W walkach wrześniowych dwukrotnie ranny został dowódca 7. komp. (późniejszy gen. broni) ppor. Roman Paszkowski. +Dzięki staraniom mieszkańców Siedlec pułk otrzymał pierwszy sztandar w marcu 1919. Nie odpowiadał on jednak przepisom Ministerstwa Spraw Wojskowych, na skutek czego społeczeństwo Podlasia (sejmiki powiatów: siedleckiego, łukowskiego i janowskiego) ufundowały drugi, wykonany artystycznie z pięknego materiału, który przyniósł zaszczyt zarówno ofiarodawcom jak i jego wykonawcom. Pierwszy sztandar przedstawiał wizerunek orła a na drugiej stronie obraz Matki Boskiej Częstochowskiej. Drugi sztandar, zgodny z regulaminem, pułk otrzymał w 1921 r. +Po wojnie przeciw bolszewikom, w końcu 1920 r., Korpus Oficerski postanowił stworzyć pułkową odznakę pamiątkową dla oficerów i szeregowych 22 pp. Odznaka ta została wykonana wg projektu prof. Ferdynanda Ruszczyca i przedstawiała podłużny srebrny krzyż nałożony na wieniec z liści laurowych. Na środku krzyża znajdował się orzeł jagielloński a pod nim dwa (obnażone) złote skrzyżowane (ostrzami do góry) miecze. Na górnym ramieniu krzyża była umieszczona cyfra "22", na prawym ramieniu pierwsza połowa roku w którym Pułk powstał – "19", na lewym ramieniu druga część roku – "18" a na dolnym ramieniu litery "P.P.". Surowy statut Pułku postanawiał iż odznaka pułkowa należy się tylko tym żołnierzom którzy spędzili co najmniej pół roku na froncie. +12 stycznia 1926 r. pułk przyjął nowy wzór odznaki pamiątkowej. Przedstawiała ona krzyż (w barwach orderu Virtuti Militari niebiesko-granatowej w wersji oficerskiej) na który nałożony był złoty wieniec z liści laurowych. Na górze wieńca znajdowała się cyfra „22” a na jego dole litery „P.P.”. W środku wieńca znajdował się wizerunek sztandaru 22 pp na tle bagnetów. Zmieniono również zasady przyznawania pułkowej odznaki pamiątkowej. +Książę Henryk urodził się 15 września 1984 r. w St Mary's Hospital w Paddington w Londynie. Jego pełny tytuł brzmi Jego Królewska Wysokość Książę Henryk z Walii ("His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Wales"), choć popularnie nazywany jest "księciem Harrym". +Został ochrzczony 21 grudnia 1984 r. w St George's Chapel w Windsorze przez arcybiskupa Canterbury dr Roberta Runciego. Jego rodzicami chrzestnymi byli: Andrzej Mountbatten-Windsor, książę Yorku, lady Sarah Chatto, lady Vestey, lady Bartholomew, Bryan Organ i Gerald Ward. +Pojawiały się spekulacje, że biologicznym ojcem księcia Henryka jest major James Hewitt, instruktor jeździectwa i kochanek księżnej Walii. Major i księżna poznali się w 1981 r. Wprawdzie Diana twierdziła, że ich romans rozpoczął się w 1987 r., jednak niektórzy twierdzą, że zaczął się niedługo po spotkaniu. Hewitt pewnego razu powiedział, że "rude włosy księcia są podobne do moich, a ludzie twierdzą, że wyglądamy podobnie". +Podobnie jak książę Wilhelm, Henryk rozpoczął edukację w przedszkolu Jane Mynors. Później uczęszczał do Wetherby School i Ludgrove School. Od 1998 r. uczęszczał do Eton College. Edukację zakończył w czerwcu 2003 r. zdając dwa egzaminy na poziomie zaawansowanym. Z geografii uzyskał stopień D (dostateczny), zaś ze sztuki stopień B (bardzo dobry). W czasie nauki brał aktywny udział w zajęciach sportowych, głównie w polo i rugby. Okazywał też zainteresowanie żeglarstwem i narciarstwem. +Mistrz olimpijski z Monachium (1972) - wystąpił we wszystkich meczach reprezentacji Polski na igrzyskach. Na mistrzostwach świata w Niemczech (1974 r.) też zagrał w każdym spotkaniu i zajął wraz z drużyną 3. miejsce. Nie zdobył bramki, ale zaliczył siedem asyst. Znalazł się w "jedenastce gwiazd" mundialu na pozycji lewoskrzydłowego. Wziął udział w 62 meczach reprezentacji i zdobył 16 goli. +5 listopada 1938 r. na wniosek Polskiej Akademii Literatury "za wybitną twórczość naukową związaną z literaturą piękną" został odznaczony Złotym Wawrzynem Akademickim. +Pierwsi turyści, którzy byli w Dolinie Suchej Ważeckiej, to Karol Englisch i przewodnik Paul Spitzkopf senior (18 lipca 1903 r.). Zimą jako pierwszy do doliny dotarł Peter Havas w styczniu 1906 r. +Memex - teoretyczny komputer analogowy, opisany w 1945 r. przez naukowca i inżyniera Vannevara Busha w zamieszczonym w "The Atlantic Monthly" artykule "As We May Think". Memex jest skrótem od angielskich wyrazów Memory Extender. +W pewnym sensie pulpit memeksu był czymś więcej niż tylko maszyną hipertekstową. Byłby to oparty na mikrofilmach prekursor komputera osobistego. Numer magazynu "Life" z listopada 1945 r. pokazywał pierwsze ilustracje, jak wyglądałby pulpit memeksu, a także kamerę, którą umieszczałby na głowie naukowiec wykonujący eksperymenty i maszynę do pisania zdolną do rozpoznawania głosu i odtwarzania go za pomocą syntezy. Maszyna memex była prawdopodobnie pierwszym praktycznym opisem tego, co dziś nazywamy biurem przyszłości. +Piechowice (do 1945 r. niem. "Petersdorf") – miasto i gmina leżące na Śląsku (Dolnym Śląsku), w województwie dolnośląskim, w powiecie jeleniogórskim. +Do Piechowic należą części miejscowości (niektóre mają status osiedla): Górzyniec, Michałowice, Pakoszów, Piastów. W latach 1976-1997 dzielnicą Piechowic był także Jagniątków, przyłączone 1 stycznia 1998 r. do graniczącej z nim Jeleniej Góry. Miasto położone jest na wysokości 360–480 m n.p.m., a granica administracyjna sięga aż do wysokości 1509 m n.p.m., gdzie znajduje się drugi co do wielkości szczyt Karkonoszy - Wielki Szyszak. Gmina graniczy z gminami: Jelenia Góra, Stara Kamienica, Szklarska Poręba oraz z Czechami (przez szczyty Karkonoszy). +Założone na przełomie XIII i XIV wieku, prawa miejskie uzyskało dopiero w 1967 r.(przy czym sąsiednie wsie jako osiedla znalazły się w obrębie nowopowstałego miasta). Geneza miasta wiąże się z Hansem Paterem, który zbudował młyn na terenie dzisiejszych Piechowic na początku XIV w. - stąd też nasiębierne koło młyńskie we współczesnym herbie miasta. Późniejsze wieki przyniosły rozwój tradycji szklarskich, podobnie jak w sąsiedniej Szklarskiej Porębie. Nowoczesny przemysł pojawił się w Piechowicach w XX w., co wynika z doprowadzenia kolei (w grudniu 1891 r., przedłużona do Szklarskiej Poręby i Korzenova w czerwcu 1902 r.) i budowy zakładów. Z uwagi na brak działań wojennych w czasie II wojny światowej przeniesiono do Piechowic produkcję z niektórych zakładów Berlina. Pozostały z tego okresu instalacje obronne (np. bunkry w Cichej Dolinie - obecnie znane w Polsce siedlisko nietoperzy). +Andriej Andriejewicz Własow, ros. Андрей Андреевич Власов (ur. 14 września 1901 r. we wsi Łomakinie w guberni niżnonowogrodzkiej w Rosji, zm. 2 sierpnia 1946 r. w Moskwie) – generał lejtnant Armii Czerwonej, dowódca Rosyjskiej Armii Wyzwoleńczej (ROA), a następnie Sił Zbrojnych Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodów Rosji podczas II wojny światowej. +W 1915 r. ukończył szkołę kościelną, zaś w 1917 r. – 2 lata seminarium duchownego w Niżnym Nowogrodzie. W 1919 r. zakończył naukę w XI niżnonowogrodzkiej szkole robotniczej 2 klasy, po czym rozpoczął studia na wydziale rolniczym uniwersytetu państwowego w Niżnym Nowogrodzie. Na pocz. maja 1920 r. został zmobilizowany do Armii Czerwonej. W październiku tego roku zakończył kurs piechoty dla kadry dowódczej, po czym został skierowany na front. Uczestniczył w walkach z wojskami gen. Piotra N. Wrangla. Następnie tłumił bunty chłopskie. Udział w wojnie domowej zakończył w lipcu 1922 r., jako dowódca kompanii. +W 1930 r. wstąpił do Wszechzwiązkowej Partii Radzieckiej (bolszewików). Od lutego 1933 r. służył w sztabie Leningradzkiego Okręgu Wojskowego jako zastępca naczelnika 1 sektora 2 oddziału. W 1935 r. objął funkcję zastępcy naczelnika oddziału przygotowania wojskowego, zaś w 1936 r. – naczelnika szkoleniowego oddziału kursów tłumaczy wojskowych. Od lipca 1937 r. dowodził 215 pułkiem strzeleckim, zaś od listopada tego roku – 133 pułkiem strzeleckim. W maju 1938 r. został odkomenderowany do sztabu Kijowskiego Samodzielnego Okręgu Wojskowego, w którym objął funkcję naczelnika 2 oddziału. We wrześniu tego roku został dowódcą 72 Dywizji Strzelców. Jednocześnie w latach 1937-1938 jako członek trybunału wojskowego najpierw Leningradzkiego Okręgu Wojskowego, a potem Kijowskiego Samodzielnego Okręgu Wojskowego wydał kilkaset wyroków śmierci w sfabrykowanych procesach stalinowskich kadry oficerskiej Armii Czerwonej. +Pod koniec 1938 r. został wysłany wraz z kilkoma innymi oficerami do Chin jako doradca wojskowy. W grudniu 1939 r. powrócił do ZSRR. W styczniu 1940 r. objął dowództwo 99 Dywizji Strzelców stacjonującej w Przemyślu. 4 czerwca tego roku awansował do stopnia generała majora. Pod koniec września dywizja była inspekcjonowana przez ludowego komisarza obrony marszałka Siemiona K. Timoszenkę, uzyskując dobre oceny. 3 października w gazecie "Krasnoje znamia" został opublikowany artykuł gen. A. A. Własowa pt. "Nowyje mietody uczeby". Od 17 stycznia 1941 r. dowodził on 4 Korpusem Zmechanizowanym. 6 lutego tego roku odznaczono go Orderem Lenina. +Od ataku wojsk niemieckich na ZSRR 22 czerwca 1941 r. 4 Korpus Zmechanizowany toczył ciężkie walki, broniąc Lwowa. 17 lipca gen. A. A. Własow został wezwany przez marszałka Siemiona M. Budionnego do Kijowa, gdzie stanął na czele 37 Armii, broniącej miasta. Po odwrocie wojsk spod Kijowa i jego zajęciu przez Niemców udał się do Woroneża. 10 listopada w Moskwie odbył spotkanie z Józefem Stalinem. W jego wyniku 20 listopada został dowódcą 20 Armii, która broniła przedpola stolicy ZSRR. 6 stycznia 1942 r. awansował na generała lejtnanta, zaś 22 lutego tego roku został drugi raz odznaczony Orderem Lenina. Dowodząc 20 Armią, wykazał wybitne zdolności dowódcze. 10 marca mianowano go zastępcą dowódcy Frontu Wołchowskiego. 15 kwietnia gen. A. A. Własow przejął dowództwo 2 Armii Uderzeniowej, aby wydostać ją z okrążenia, w jakim znajdowała się od 19 marca. 30 kwietnia Niemcy przystąpili do likwidacji armii. Próby wyrwania się z okrążenia, podejmowane przez gen. A. A. Własowa, nie dały jednak żadnych rezultatów, on sam zaś, po 2-tygodniowej samotnej tułaczce, 12 lipca dostał się do niewoli we wsi Tuchowieci. +Początkowo trafił do sztabu dowódcy niemieckiej 18 Armii, następnie do Twierdzy Boyen w Giżycku, zaś ostatecznie przewieziono go 20 lipca do Winnicy, gdzie został osadzony w obozie jenieckim dla generałów i oficerów sztabu generalnego Armii Czerwonej. 3 sierpnia wraz z płk. Władimirem I. Bojarskim opracował memorandum skierowane do władz III Rzeszy, w którym wystąpił o utworzenie rosyjskiej armii narodowej do walki ze Stalinem. 10 września napisał tzw. "List Otwarty" do oddziału propagandy Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW). W odpowiedzi 17 września został przewieziony do Berlina, gdzie trafił do rosyjskiego sztabu oddziału propagandy OKW. Zetknął się tam z Mieletijem A. Zykowem, który stał się jego jednym z najbliższych współpracowników, a także innymi wysokimi oficerami Armii Czerwonej, którzy znajdowali się w niewoli niemieckiej. 27 grudnia w Dabendorfie pod Berlin podpisał tzw. "Deklarację Smoleńską", głoszącą konieczność walki ze stalinizmem w celu zbudowania nowej Rosji. W tym celu miała powstać rosyjska armia wyzwoleńcza podporządkowana komitetowi rosyjskiemu z gen. A. A. Własowem na czele. Deklaracja została ogłoszona 13 stycznia 1943 r. w okupowanym Smoleńsku. Sygnatariusze deklaracji stworzyli Rosyjski Ruch Wyzwoleńczy. +Początkowo niemieccy wojskowi popierali działania gen. A. A. Własowa. Pozwolili mu na odbycie 2 podróży na okupowane obszary sowieckie. W tym celu w lutym 1943 r. gen. A. A. Własow został przewieziony na front do sztabu Grupy Armii "Mitte". Miał on przekonywać lokalną ludność do swoich idei i współpracy z Niemcami. 25 lutego wystąpił publicznie w Smoleńsku, 29 kwietnia w Rydze, zaś 1 maja w Pskowie. Jego przemówienia cieszyły się dużą popularnością. 3 marca w piśmie "Zaria" ukazał się jego artykuł pt. "Poczemu ja stał na put' bor'by s bolszewizmom". 8 czerwca w kwaterze Adolfa Hitlera miało miejsce spotkanie poświęcone osobie gen. A. A. Własowa i utworzeniu Rosyjskiej Armii Wyzwoleńczej (ROA). Jednakże latem A. Hitler wystąpił przeciwko działalności gen. A. A. Własowa, w wyniku czego znalazł się on w areszcie domowym. W Berlinie istniała jego kancelaria, pełniąca jednocześnie funkcję Kwatery Głównej. Wszystkie wschodnie formacje zbrojne, których żołnierze nosili naszywki ROA, faktycznie podlegały Generałowi Formacji Wschodnich, zaś wpływ gen. A. A. Własowa był zerowy. +Znajdował się on w stanie bezczynności do 16 września 1944 r., kiedy doszło do jego spotkania z Reichsführerem SS Heinrichem Himmlerem. W jego wyniku doszło do wyrażenia zgody na powołanie Komitetu Wyzwolenia Narodów Rosji (KONR) jako organu politycznego, opublikowanie manifestu politycznego i utworzenie Sił Zbrojnych KONR jako formacji sojuszniczej w stosunku do armii niemieckiej. 14 listopada w okupowanej Pradze został przez gen. A. A. Własowa podpisany i przedstawiony Manifest KONR. Dopiero pod koniec stycznia 1945 r. został on przez Niemców mianowany głównodowodzącym Sił Zbrojnych KONR, w skład których ostatecznie weszły jedynie trzy dywizje piechoty, w tym do końca wojny tylko jedna osiągnęła gotowość bojową i wzięła udział w walkach oraz jednostki tyłowe i zapasowe, nie stanowiące na dodatek jednego związku operacyjnego. 16 lutego gen. A. A. Własow wraz z gen. Ernstem Köstringiem przyjął paradę 1 Dywizji Sił Zbrojnych KONR gen. Siergieja K. Buniaczenki. 26 marca uczestniczył w ostatnim zebraniu KONR w Karlovych Varach. W II poł. kwietnia, próbując ratować żołnierzy Sił Zbrojnych KONR, wysłał do Amerykanów jako parlamentariusza gen. Wasilija F. Małyszkina. Rozmowy ze stroną amerykańską prowadziło też kilku innych wysokich oficerów Sił Zbrojnych KONR. 6 maja 1 Dywizja gen. S. K. Buniaczenki wspomogła powstańców praskich. Być może nastąpiło to na rozkaz gen. A. A. Własowa. +On sam 11 maja przedostał się do miejsca przebywania żołnierzy 1 Dywizji, gdzie oddał się w ręce Amerykanów. Jednakże już 12 maja został w niejasnych okolicznościach przejęty przez Sowietów, po czym natychmiast przewieziony do Moskwy. Został osadzony w więzieniu na Łubiance, gdzie przeszedł przesłuchania. 30 lipca 1946 r. rozpoczął się proces gen. A. A. Własowa i 11 innych wyższych oficerów ROA przed kolegium wojskowym Najwyższego Sądu ZSRR. 31 lipca został ogłoszony wyrok śmierci dla głównodowodzącego ROA, wykonany 2 sierpnia przez powieszenie na strunie fortepianowej (dokładnie w ten sam sposób Niemcy dokonywali egzekucji na przeciwnikach reżimu hitlerowskiego pod koniec wojny). Dodatkowo w podstawę czaszki kat wbił mu żelazny hak. +Obecnie poprzez stację w Janowicach Wielkich odbywają się regularnie połączenia regionalne w granicach województwa dolnośląskiego oraz regularne bezpośrednie połączenia ze Świnoujściem, Gdynią, Warszawą, Przemyślem i stacjami pośrednimi. Trasa została zelektryfikowana już w 1928 r. Przez Bóbr na terenie Janowic przechodzą dwa kamienne wiadukty i żelazno-stalowo-kamienny most kolejowy. +W latach 1608-1609 wzniesiono nad rzeką Bóbr rezydencję, dla Daniela Schaffgotscha (według tradycji – na miejscu starszego zamku, jednak ani zachowane detale architektoniczne, ani dokumenty tego nie potwierdzają). Został on spalony przez Szwedów w 1642 r. i w 2 poł. stulecia odbudowany przez wdowę po Danielu – Jadwigę. Gruntowna przebudowa miała miejsce w 1775 r., następne w latach 1830-1840 (wówczas dla Wilhelma Stolberga) założono piękny, dobrze zachowany do dziś park krajobrazowy z widokiem na Janowice, Rudawy Janowickie i pobliskie Góry Sokole. Do dziś w parku zachowało się blisko siedemset drzew. W 1910 r. powstały stylowe, drewniane, przysłupowo-ryglowe budynki gospodarcze. Z renesansowego detalu zachował się kominek w dawnej sali balowej. Dziś dwór funkcjonuje jako Dom Pomocy Społecznej i należy do jednych z najlepiej utrzymanych obiektów z tego okresu. Pałac wchodzi w skład Parku Kulturowego Kotliny Jeleniogórskiej. +De Vries krótki czas pracował jako asystent w bibliotece publicznej w Hilversum, gdzie mieszkał od 1928. W 1932 ożenił się z Aafje Vernes, z którą miał jedno dziecko. W latach 30. de Vries pracował w bibliotece publicznej w Sneek. W 1936 r. wstąpił do Holenderskiej Partii Komunistycznej (HPK), a rok później przeniósł się do Amsterdamu i wrócił do dziennikarstwa. Pracował w redakcji pism „De Tribune” (później przemianowanego na „De Waarheid”) i „De Vrije Katheder”'. Rozwiódł się 17 marca 1938. +De Vries jako członek HPK uczestniczył w obradach amsterdamskiej Rady Miasta. W 1946 r. był wystawionym przez HPK kandydatem do izby niższej parlamentu holenderskiego, lecz mandatu nie uzyskał. Pozostał członkiem partii komunistycznej w czasach zimnej wojny, co było przez kolegów pisarzy bardzo źle przyjmowane. Bronił zamachu stanu, w wyniku którego komuniści objęli w 1948 r. władzę w Czechosłowacji, w pozytywnym tonie pisał o rosyjskiej interwencję na Węgrzech (1956), a w 1953 roku napisał pean na cześć Stalina. Był członkiem PEN-Clubu. +Razem ze Steve'em Harrisem są jedynymi członkami Iron Maiden, których nagrania znajdują się na każdym albumie zespołu od założenia w 1975 r. Iron Maiden. +Mimo przedrewolucyjnej przyjaźni z Leninem rewolucję październikową przyjął z niechęcią, publikował antybolszewickie felietony, próbował ratować aresztowanych pisarzy. W 1920 roku jego druga żona, Maria Fiodorowna Andrejewa, aktorka, została komisarzem politycznym do spraw teatru i ministrem sztuki. Skonfliktowany z władzami i chory na gruźlicę na polecenie Lenina wyjechał 6 października 1921 r. na leczenie za granicę. W latach 1921-1924 mieszkał na emigracji w Niemczech, w Berlinie, Bad Saarow i Heringsdorfie (gdzie leczył gruźlicę), później do 1927 we Włoszech (Sorrento). +W dniach 1-3 września 1939 r. dywizja broniła pozycji pod Mławą przed przeważającymi siłami niemieckiego I Korpusu Armijnego z 3 Armii w składzie: 11 DP i 61 DP oraz Dywizji Pancernej "Kempf", nacierającymi z terenu Prus Wschodnich w kierunku na Warszawę (Patrz: bitwa pod Mławą). Pierwsze natarcia niemieckie 1 września zostały odparte mimo współdziałania piechoty z czołgami (strata ok. 25 czołgów). Nie mogąc zdobyć pozycji mławskiej od czoła, Niemcy wykonali w godzinach popołudniowych natarcie na pozycję pod Rzęgnowem; po dwugodzinnym przygotowaniu artyleryjskim przełamali ją i zaczęli wychodzić na tyły 20 DP. Próby ich zatrzymania kontratakiem 79 pp nie powiodły się, wobec czego dowództwo Armii "Modlin" nakazało zorganizowanie obrony wschodniego skrzydła 20 DP na odcinku Dębsk-stacja Nosarzewo oraz przygotowanie kontrataku odwodowej 8 DP w kierunku północno-wschodnim. Ponowne próby niemieckie ataków na Mławę od czoła, przy wsparciu czołgów i lotnictwa, przeprowadzone 2 września, Niemcy okupili dużymi stratami. Udało im się jedynie opanować Żaboklik i Górę Kamieńską bronione przez 79 pp. +Powstanie leskie – masowe wystąpienia ludności chłopskiej bieszczadzkiej przeciwko władzy sanacyjnej w okresie między 21 czerwca a 9 lipca 1932 r. Rebelia wywołana była ciężkim losem chłopów i kryzysem gospodarczym początku lat 30. (wielki kryzys) w II RP. +Inaczej było jednak na terenie Bieszczadów. Tu ideę tę chciał wprowadzać starosta leski. W tym celu zaprosił hr. Potockiego na spotkanie 19 czerwca 1932 r. w Ustrzykach Dolnych. Na spotkaniu tym powołano Komitet Organizacyjny, w skład którego weszli aktywiści – agitatorzy (w tym Polacy, Ukraińcy i Niemcy). +Następnym etapem miały być zebrania wiejskie – z których pierwsze miało się odbyć w Berehach Dolnych 21 czerwca 1932 r. +W wyniku starć śmierć poniosło kilkanaście osób, a kilkaset odniosło poważne rany. Łącznie aresztowano około od 260 do 800 osób z prawie wszystkich wsi powiatu leskiego. Powstanie objęło ok. 5 tys. osób z 19 wsi. W 1964 r. w Bóbrce postawiono pomnik upamiętniający te tragiczne wydarzenia. +Radio założył 1 czerwca 1992 roku Tomasz Stachaczyk przy współpracy Wojciecha Dąbrowskiego oraz Janusza Surmy. Początkowo nadawano na amatorskim sprzęcie, na częstotliwości 70,1 MHz. W 1993 roku zmieniono częstotliwość na 69,9 MHz. 31 marca 1994 r. Radio Piotrków znalazło się wśród wśród 16 stacji lokalnych, które jako pierwsze otrzymały koncesję na nadawanie.W drugą rocznicę swojego powstania, rozgłośnia zorganizowała trzydniowe święto (koncerty, pokazy pirotechniczne, imprezy sportowe). Uroczystości te dały początek oficjalnym Dniom Piotrkowa, które organizowane są odtąd co roku na początku czerwca. Od 1 stycznia 2000 r. stacja nadawała tylko w górnym paśmie UKF, na częstotliwości 98,2 MHz. Wiosną 2006 r. Radio Piotrków wystąpiło do KRRiTV o zmianę nazwy programu. +W latach 1402-1454 należało do państwa krzyżackiego, by ostatecznie powrócić do Brandenburgii. Od tego czasu miasto nieprzerwanie pozostawało pod władzą dynastii Hohenzollernów aż do 1918 r., wchodząc od 1701 r. w skład Prus, a od r. 1871 – Niemiec. +31 stycznia 1945 r. miasto zdobyte zostało przez oddziały radzieckie (XII Korpus Pancerny Armii Czerwonej); w wyniku walk oraz umyślnych podpaleń zniszczeniu uległo wówczas ponad 50% zabudowy. W następstwie II wojny światowej miasto znalazło się w granicach Polski. Miejscową ludność która pozostała w mieście przesiedlono za Odrę, a do Barlinka sprowadzono polskich osadników. W rezultacie częściowej, powojennej odbudowy Barlinek stał się uprzemysłowionym miasteczkiem Pomorza Zachodniego. +1 kwietnia 1973 r. zlikwidowano ostatnie połączenie kolejowe miasta (z Myszyńcem). Wraz z likwidacją powiatów w 1975 Kolno utraciło status miasta powiatowego, odzyskując go wskutek reformy administracyjnej w 1999 r. +Kolno nie posiada połączenia kolejowego (W dniu 1.04.1973 r. zamknięto Ostrołęcka Kolej wąskotorową łączącą miasto z Myszyńcem). +Biblioteka w Szkole. Czasopismo nauczycieli bibliotekarzy – miesięcznik instrukcyjno-metodyczny dla nauczycieli, wydawany od 1991 r. +W 1918 r. w odrodzonym państwie polskim, w tworzonym właśnie Wojsku Polskim powołano pułki ułańskie, zachowując rogatywkę oraz lance. Podobne jednostki istniały też w armii Hallera oraz armii powstania wielkopolskiego. Oprócz pułków ułańskich, wywodzących się z jednostek polskich utworzonych w Rosji, kawalerii wielkopolskiej lub nowo formowanych już w Polsce, utworzono trzy pułki szwoleżerów, wywodzące się z jazdy Legionów Polskich oraz 10 pułków strzelców konnych, nazywanych początkowo też dragonami, utworzonych głównie z jednostek armii polskiej we Francji. Te trzy formacje kawalerii różniły się jedynie tradycjami i elementami umundurowania; najliczniejsze były pułki ułanów, którym to mianem mylnie i w uproszczeniu określa się czasami całą polską kawalerię przedwojenną. Wszystkie te formacje kawalerii używały karabinków, szabel i lanc. Pułki kawalerii polskiej walczyły o odradzające się państwo polskie w latach 1918-1921. Ułani 14 pułku kawalerii rozstrzygnęły trzydniową bitwę z armią ukraińską pod Jazłowcem 13 lipca 1919. Ułani oraz szwoleżerowie drugiej dywizji jazdy płk. Juliusza Rómmla byli głównymi aktorami ostatniej wielkiej bitwy kawalerii w historii wojskowości pod Komarowem, gdzie pokonali 2 dywizje słynnej z dzielności oraz okrucieństw „Konarmi” (1 Armia Konna) Siemiona Budionnego 31 sierpnia 1920. +Po zakończeniu drugiej wojny światowej, rząd komunistyczny Bieruta nakazał rozwiązanie wszystkich pułków kawalerii Ludowego Wojska Polskiego w 1949 r., przerywając tym samym polską tradycję ułańską oraz kawaleryjską. +Zlecenie na opracowanie pistoletu kalibru 9x19 mm ogłosił MON na początku 1992 roku. Zadaniem zajął się zespół składający się z Wiesława Starka, który był kierownikiem zespołu, oraz Stefana Tkaczyka. Dołączyli do nich Wiesław Stępniak oraz Aleksander Wójtowicz - wszyscy z WITU. Praca pod kryptonimem "Piryt" zaowocowały dwoma prototypami (patent nr 171870), niestety kłopoty finansowe spowodowały przerwanie badań. Dzięki pomocy łódzkiej firmy "Prexer" prace mogły być kontynuowane i wreszcie w 1994 r. opracowany został WIST. Konkurentem WISTa był MAG-95. W 1997 r. przeprowadzono badania eksploatacyjno-wojskowe. WIST okazał się konstrukcją na tyle udaną, że od 1998 r. jest wprowadzany do uzbrojenia Wojska Polskiego. Szef Sztabu Generalnego WP rozkazem nr 68 z dnia 23 marca 1999 r. wprowadził na wyposażenie Sił Zbrojnych RP pistolet WIST. +Pierwszy komiks o Luckym Luke’u ukazał się w 1946 r. w tygodniku "Spirou", zaś w Polsce w 1962 r. w harcerskiej gazecie "Na przełaj". Według stanu na połowę 2012 r. nakładem francuskich wydawnictw Dupuis i Dargaud ukazało się 78 albumów, zaś w Polsce - 31 albumów opublikowanych przez różnych wydawców (ostatnio przez Egmont Polska). W 1971 r., wskutek zainteresowania ze strony Amerykanów, powstał pierwszy film animowany. Współpraca z USA dała razem dwadzieścia sześć dwudziestopięciominutowych filmów animowanych, czerpiących pomysły z dwudziestu sześciu wybranych albumów. +Bucharin wstąpił do partii w 1906 roku, w 1911 został relegowany z Uniwersytetu za działalność rewolucyjną i zesłany. Po ucieczce z zesłania na emigracji został najbliższym współpracownikiem Lenina, współpracował także z Lwem Trockim. W maju 1917 r. wrócił do Rosji. Na polecenie Lenina przygotowywał dekrety o nacjonalizacji przemysłu. W 1917-1918 roku był przywódcą frakcji "lewicowych komunistów". Sprzeciwiał się zawarciu pokoju brzeskiego, uważał, że Rosja - nawet kosztem kolejnych tysięcy ofiar - powinna kontynuować wojnę z krajami kapitalistycznymi. Do niego należy sławny cytat: "Przymus proletariacki we wszystkich swoich formach, poczynając od rozstrzeliwania, a kończąc na obowiązku pracy jest metodą tworzenia komunistycznego człowieka". Później jednak wsparł wprowadzenie rynkowej gospodarki NEPu, kierując do chłopów sławne wezwanie "Bogaćcie się!". W latach 1918-1929 był redaktorem naczelnym "Prawdy". +Po śmierci Lenina członek Biura Politycznego i główny ideolog partii. Był autorem licznych prac filozoficznych i ekonomicznych, wieszczących nieuchronny upadek kapitalizmu, a także tekstu Konstytucji, która weszła w życie w 1936 roku. Popierał Stalina przeciwko Trockiemu, a następnie Zinowjewowi i Kamieniewowi. W 1928 r. wystąpił przeciwko przymusowej kolektywizacji, proponując ewolucyjne, stopniowe uspółdzielczanie. W efekcie jego poglądy, podzielane przez premiera Rykowa i lidera związków zawodowych Tomskiego zostały nazwane "odchyleniem prawicowym". W listopadzie 1929 r. usunięty z Biura Politycznego. +W XIX i XX wieku na ziemię pyrzycką przyjeżdżały tysiące Polaków. Pracowali w tutejszych gospodarstwach rolnych. W 1909 r. z ich składek powstała polska kaplica katolicka przy dzisiejszej ulicy Lipiańskiej, obecnie nieistniejąca. +W pierwszych dziesięcioleciach XX wieku oddawano do użytku sieci kanalizacyjną, wodociągową i gazową. Od 1921 r. powstawały osiedla przy obecnych ulicach Wojska Polskiego, Ogrodowej i Jana Pawła II (wcześniej Klonowa). Zbudowano też obiekty sportowe, m.in. odkryty basen o wymiarach olimpijskich. +Zimą 1945 r. zostały ustanowione przez Niemców twierdzą broniącą dostępu do Szczecina. Po trwających ponad miesiąc działaniach wojennych twierdza została zdobyta przez oddziały 47 Armii Radzieckiej gen. F. Pierchorowicza. 2 marca 1945 r. to data zajęcia Pyrzyc przez Sowietów i symboliczny początek administracji polskiej w mieście. W wyniku walk zostało ono zniszczone w 90%. Znaczna część zabytków jednak przetrwała. +Zniszczenia powojenne były powodem przeniesienia latem 1945 r. siedziby powiatu do Lipian. Po pięciu latach, naznaczonych odgruzowywaniem miasta i początkami jego odbudowy, Pyrzyce znów stały się siedzibą powiatu. +W 1958 r. zaczęto odbudowę gotyckiego kościoła pod wezwaniem Najświętszej Marii Panny. Wśród ocalałych budowli znalazła się też kaplica Świętego Ducha, która po renowacji została zaadaptowana w 1969 r. na bibliotekę miejską. Odrestaurowano ratusz miejski, który stał się jak dawniej siedzibą władz. Dokonano również konserwacji i odrestaurowania zniszczonych odcinków murów miejskich (głównie w części północnej). W 1991 r. zakończono remont kościoła poaugustiańskiego Najświętszej Marii Panny Bolesnej, który znajduje się w historycznie najstarszej części miasta (ul. Staromiejska). +1 stycznia 1973 r. na podstawie uchwały Wojewódzkiej Rady Narodowej Pyrzyce stały się siedzibą gminy. W mieście znajdowała się Gminna Rada Narodowa licząca 68 radnych. W skład rady wchodziły cztery komisje: Planu, Budżetu i Finansów oraz Spraw Komunalnych i Zaopatrzenia; Rolnictwa; Oświaty, Kultury i Spraw Socjalnych; Ładu i Porządku Publicznego. Powołano wspólny dla miasta i gminy Urząd Stanu Cywilnego oraz Społeczną Komisję Pojednawczą. 9 grudnia 1973 r. w miejsce Urzędu Gminy oraz Prezydium Miejskiej Rady Narodowej powołano Urząd Miasta i Gminy. +W 1989 r. rozpoczęła działalność nowa oczyszczalnia ścieków, a od 1997 r. Pyrzyce, jako pierwsze miasto w Polsce, mogły się pochwalić posiadaniem ciepłowni geotermalnej. +W 1987 r. zlikwidowany został odcinek kolei do Płońska, a w następnych latach zamknięto kolejne połączenia pasażerskie. W 2004 r. wyłączono z ruchu ostatnie połączenie, z Pyrzyc do Stargardu Szczecińskiego. Obecnie trasa kolejowa jest wykorzystywana tylko do przewozów towarowych. W 2009 rozebrano linię kolejową do Gryfina i odcinek Głazów - Myślibórz, w 2012 rozmontowano linię do Godkowa. Obecnie przez Pyrzyce przechodzi jedynie linia kolejowa Stargard Szczeciński - Pyrzyce - Głazów +Od 1 stycznia 1999 r. (wejście w życie reformy administracyjnej) miasto jest siedzibą powiatu, wchodzącego w skład województwa zachodniopomorskiego. Powiat pyrzycki obejmuje gminy: Pyrzyce, Lipiany, Bielice, Przelewice, Kozielice oraz Warnice. +Po wojnie, od 1952 do 1954 organem władz był "Głos Ziemi Pyrzyckiej". Od końca lat 80. do 1995 roku Podregion Pyrzycki NSZZ Solidarność wydawał gazetę "Baszta", której tytuł i winieta nawiązywały do Baszty Sowiej – jednej z najbardziej rozpoznawalnych budowli Pyrzyc. W 1991 r. opublikowano trzy numery "Wiadomości Pyrzyckich", które później przez krótki czas były pyrzyckim dodatkiem do "Gazety Wyborczej". W latach 90. ukazywała się "Agropanorama na Pomorzu" – miesięcznik o tematyce rolno-gospodarczej, a w latach 1999-2000 tygodnik "7 Dni Pyrzyc", który później został połączony z bliźniaczym "7 dni Stargardu" i tym sposobem nastąpiło zamknięcie gazety. W tym samym czasie docierał do Pyrzyc miesięcznik "Gazeta Nasza" wzbogacany później o dodatek "Kolumna pyrzycka". W lipcu i sierpniu w formacie dwutygodniowym wyszły cztery numery czasopisma "Głos Pyrzycki". +Od 1991 r. do dziś wydawany jest miesięcznik "Gazeta Ziemi Pyrzyckiej", od 2002 ukazuje się także dwutygodnik "Puls Powiatu". Początkowo w dwóch mutacjach - pyrzyckiej i myśliborskiej (podtytuły odpowiednio: dwutygodnik powiatu pyrzyckiego i myśliborskiego), od 2004 przez trzy lata numerowany od nowa jako gazeta dla obu powiatów, bez podtytułu, natomiast od września 2007 wydawany wyłącznie w powiecie pyrzyckim z podtytułem "Dwutygodnik powiatu pyrzyckiego" i zachowaną numeracją od 2004 roku. Redakcja mieści się w Lipianach. +Gdy w XVI wieku Pomorze stało się krajem protestanckim katolicyzm nie posiadał własnych świątyń, ani kapłanów. Katolicy zaczęli się pojawiać na początku XVIII wieku w garnizonach, w których obecnych było wielu Polaków. W 1783 roku komendant garnizonu szczecińskiego prosił władze kościelne o zezwolenie na odprawianie nabożeństw w kaplicy św. Ducha. W 1812 roku w liczących 2855 mieszkańców Pyrzycach katolicy stanowili 0,63% (18 osób), w roku 1831 było ro 0,7% (31 wyznawców), a w 1834 42 osoby natomiast w 1840 r. 37 osób. Od lat 60. XIX wieku Pyrzyce obsługiwała nowo powstała parafia katolicka pw. św. Jana w Stargardzie należąca do diecezji wrocławskiej. Msze Święte były odprawiane osiem razy w roku w sali ratuszowej. Na przełomie XIX i XX wieku zaczęli przyjeżdżać robotnicy sezonowi, których większość stanowili Polacy. Wówczas brakowało duchownych potrafiących mówić w języku polskim. Wiernych od kościoła odstraszały niemieckie kazania i modlitwy, a około roku 1906 zaczęli oni bojkotować kościoły. Wymuszali strajkami obsługę duszpasterską przez polskich duchownych. W 1910 r. katolików było już 103 i stanowili oni 1,2% ogółu mieszkańców Pyrzyc, natomiast w okolicach szacowano ich liczbę na 1800. Powstały wówczas warunki do organizacji parafii, która powinna mieś 100 katolików lokalnych i 200 sezonowych. Wobec naporu Polaków magistrat w 1909 roku wypowiedział używanie sali ratuszowej. Wobec tego robotnicy z uzbieranych składek zaadaptowali na kaplicę stodołę przy ulicy Myśliborskiej (ob. Lipiańskiej). +Międzyzdroje uzyskały połączenie kolejowe w 1899 r. po wybudowaniu odcinka z Wolina Pomorskiego, rok później linię przedłużono do Świnoujścia. W 1979 r. zelektryfikowano odcinek Szczecin Gł.- Goleniów, a rok później pozostałą część. Obecnie w gminie czynne są 2 stacje: Międzyzdroje i Lubiewo. +Obecna wersja herbu to poprawiony wzór herbu przyjętego 1 czerwca 1937 r. autorstwa profesora Mariana Friedberga. Zmieniony został wzór Orła Białego; dotychczasowa wersja oparta była na wizerunku identycznym, jak w godle państwowym, które nie jest zgodne z zasadami heraldycznymi (np. posiada cieniowane pióra). Nowy Orzeł został opracowany wg kanonu heraldycznego z uwzględnieniem historycznych przedstawień herbowych. Dokonano również małych zmian w wyglądzie korony, murów oraz bramy. +Kielecki Teatr Tańca (KTT) – teatr założony w 1995 r. przez Elżbietę Szlufik-Pańtak, choreografa, reżysera i pedagoga. Debiut teatru miał miejsce na deskach Teatru Dramatycznego im. Stefana Jaracza w Olsztynie. Wystawiono wówczas spektakl "Uczucia". +IKEA – prywatna, międzynarodowa firma specjalizująca się głównie sprzedażą detaliczną oraz produkcją mebli, a także artykułów dekoracyjnych. Została założona przez Ingvara Kamprada w 1943 r. Jej nazwa powstała jako akronim od wyrazów: Ingvar Kamprad (imię i nazwisko założyciela) oraz Elmtaryd i Agunnaryd (farma i miejscowość (parafia), w której się wychował). +Ingvar Kamprad, założyciel IKEA, jako nastolatek był związany z nazistowskim ugrupowaniem Nysvenska Rörelsen. W 1994 r. w liście do pracowników swojej sieci nazwał ten incydent "największą pomyłką swojego życia". +Stanisław Marusarz (ur. 18 czerwca 1913 w Zakopanem, zm. 29 października 1993 tamże) – polski skoczek narciarski, dwuboista i alpejczyk (w biegu zjazdowym i kombinacji alpejskiej), czterokrotny olimpijczyk, podporucznik AK, trener. Wicemistrz świata w skokach 1938 z Lahti. Kawaler Krzyża Wielkiego, Krzyża Komandorskiego i Krzyża Kawalerskiego Orderu Odrodzenia Polski, oraz Krzyża Srebrnego Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari. Najlepszy Sportowiec Polski w roku 1938 w Plebiscycie Przeglądu Sportowego. Zasłużony Mistrz Sportu z 1951 r. +Stanisław Marusarz zajął w kombinacji siódme miejsce, ex aequo z fińskim zawodnikiem Timo Muramą, z notą 393,3 punktu. W konkursie skoków był 5., po skokach na 73 m i 75,5 m. Łączna nota wyniosła 221,6 pkt. Były to pierwsze punkty olimpijskie zdobyte przez Polaka na zimowych igrzyskach. Następne uzyskał Franciszek Gąsienica Groń w 1956 r. Marusarz w 1936 wywalczył jeszcze kolejny tytuł mistrza Polski w skokach, w kombinacji klasycznej i w sztafecie 4 razy 10 km, a w Plebiscycie Przeglądu Sportowego zajął 7. miejsce, otrzymując od czytelników 14 274 głosów. +Swój ostatni skok w życiu oddał w Zakopanem w 1979 r., w wieku 66 lat, na potrzeby filmu "Dziadek" Janusza Zielonackiego. +Oddany został do użytku na otwarcie mistrzostw świata w piłce nożnej w 1950 r. Po 1950 r. wykorzystywany był głównie do rozgrywania meczów piłkarskich pomiędzy największymi klubami Rio de Janeiro: Flamengo, Botafogo, Fluminense i Vasco da Gama. Stadion bywał również gospodarzem innych wydarzeń sportowych oraz wielu koncertów. +Stadion Maracanã uważany jest w Brazylii za największy cud architektury sportowej, a także największą świątynię drugiej brazylijskiej religii – futbolu. Jest stadionem narodowym, według konwencji haskiej z 14 maja 1954 r. jest dobrem narodowym, a tym samym posiada status zabytku. +Na pierwszym posiedzeniu FIFA po wojnie, jakim był kongres w Luksemburgu 1 lipca 1946 r. przyznano organizację najbliższych MŚ jedynemu wówczas kandydatowi, Brazylii (w efekcie wojennych rozstrzygnięć wcześniejsza kandydatura Niemiec stała się nieaktualna) +Podczas Kongresu dokonano istotnej zmiany w nazwie imprezy. Postanowiono, że zamiast nazwy Puchar Świata (Coupe de Monde), rozgrywki przyjmą nazwę Piłkarskie mistrzostwa świata (Coupe du monde de football) z podtytułem Puchar Rimeta. Uhonorowano w ten sposób zasługi Jules'a Rimeta – w 1946 r. wypadało 25-lecie jego prezydentury. +28 września 1947 r. w Paryżu Komitet Organizacyjny zaakceptował rok 1950 na finały MŚ. Była to propozycja Brazylijczyka Sotero Gomesa z 29 czerwca tego roku. +30 kwietnia 1950 r. w Londynie Komitet Organizacyjny uchwalił kilka postanowień technicznych: słupki i poprzeczki bramki muszą mieć przekrój kwadratowy, boiska nie mogą przekraczać wymiarów: 108 m długości i 72 m szerokości, zakazano gry przy sztucznym świetle, wszyscy piłkarze muszą grać w butach. +Oficjalną nazwę, "Estádio Jornalista Mário Filho" stadion przyjął w 1966 r., w którym to roku Mario Filho, brazylijski dziennikarz i felietonista sportowy zgodził się na to, aby stadion nosił jego imię i upoważnił administratora do przeprowadzenia odpowiednich procedur w tym kierunku. Mário Filho od samego początku popierał projekt budowy stadionu, a dzięki swemu dużemu zaangażowaniu w jego budowę, pozyskał nawet przydomek "Maracanã". +Decyzja o przyznaniu organizacji finałów stała się powodem do wielkiej radości w całej Brazylii. 11 listopada 1947 r. gubernator Rio de Janeiro, Angelo Mendes de Morais, podpisał dekret zezwalający na budowę reprezentacyjnego, największego na świecie stadionu. 22 maja 1948 r. rząd stanu Rio de Janeiro podjął ostateczną decyzję o jego budowie. +Projekt zatwierdził Prezydent Republiki Eurico Gaspar Dutra. Stadion początkowo został nazwany "Obligacją pożyczki komunalnej".Kamień węgielny pod przyszłą budowlę położono 2 sierpnia 1948 r. +Pierwszy mecz zaplanowano na 24 czerwca 1950 r., więc czasu do zakończenia budowy było niewiele, niespełna dwa lata i chociaż prace posuwały się szybko, ich harmonogram zaczął się chwiać. Wówczas to FIFA nakłoniła Ottorino Barassiego, przewodniczącego Włoskiej Federacji Piłkarskiej, mającego doświadczenie nabyte podczas organizacji Mistrzostw Świata w Piłce Nożnej w 1934. we Włoszech, aby udzielił on pomocy Rio de Janeiro, co też się stało. +Stadion został poświęcony dopiero w 1964 r., w roku natomiast 1965, po wielu pracach modernizacyjnych, oficjalnie uznano, że jego budowa ostatecznie się zakończyła. +Inauguracyjny mecz na nowym stadionie rozegrany został 16 czerwca 1950 r. pomiędzy juniorami São Paulo i Rio de Janeiro (3:1). Napastnik gości Didi został piłkarzem, który jako pierwszy wpisał się na listę strzelców stadionu. +Mistrzostwa świata w 1950 r.. +W "meczu otwarcia" 24 czerwca 1950 r. o godz. 15, na którym honory pełnił prezydent kraju, gen. Enrico Gaspar Dutra, gospodarze pokonali Meksyk 4:0. Mecz poprzedziła uroczystość otwarcia. Brazylijski piłkarz Ademir zdobył w 31 min. pierwszą bramkę, zostając później królem strzelców tych mistrzostw z liczbą 7 strzelonych goli. Mecz oglądało ok. 85 tysięcy widzów. +Po pokonaniu 9 lipca Szwecji (ok. 150 tysięcy widzów) i 13 lipca Hiszpanii (ok. 165 tysięcy widzów), Brazylia awansowała do finału. Powstała końcowa grupa: Brazylia, Hiszpania, Szwecja i Urugwaj. Po meczach Brazylii ze Szwecją (7:1) i Hiszpanią (6:1) oraz Urugwaju z Hiszpanią (2:2) i Szwecją (3:2), 16 lipca 1950 r. doszło w ostatnim meczu turnieju, do spotkania Brazylii z Urugwajem. Ten ostatni pojedynek decydował jednocześnie o tytule mistrza. +Pierwszym potwierdzonym turystą w Dolinie Złomisk był B. Łoś z przewodnikiem Jędrzejem Walą starszym w 1860 r. Częściej turyści zaczęli się tu pojawiać po 1874 r., kiedy to odkryto przejście przez Żelazne Wrota. Zimą jako pierwsi dolinę odwiedzili Harry Berceli, Károly Jordán, Johann Franz senior i Paul Spitzkopf senior 11 kwietnia 1903 r. w drodze na Wysoką. +Utworzono natomiast, odpowiadające potrzebom gospodarki rynkowej Ministerstwo Gospodarki, Skarbu Państwa, Spraw Wewnętrznych i Administracji, Komitet Integracji Europejskiej, Urząd Mieszkalnictwa i Rozwoju Miast oraz Rządowe Centrum Studiów Strategicznych. Ugruntowano, występującą od 1990 r., tendencję przekazywania bardziej technicznych części zadań ministerstw centralnym organom administracji, podległym Prezesowi Rady Ministrów bądź odpowiednim ministrom. +Po I rozbiorze Huta Komorowska przeszła na własność skarbu Austrii. Początkowo dobra kasztelanii sandomierskiej dzierżawił hrabia Józef Kajetan Ossoliński. Na początku XIX wieku Huta wraz z innymi miejscowościami stała się własnością Kulczyckich. W roku 1835 byłe królewszczyzny, czyli tzw. dobra kameralne, sprzedane zostały podczas licytacji. Hutę Komorowską wraz z Majdanem, Komorowem i Brzostową Górą zakupił Jan Dolański z Baranowa, a po nim dobra te przejął Stefan Dolański. Ostatecznie drogą rodzinnych koligacji Hutę Komorowską i Majdan z Porębami odziedziczył wnuk Szczepana Dolańskiego, Czesław Kozłowiecki, który żeniąc się z Marią z Kaczkowskich otrzymał Komorów. Wybudował we wsi Huta Komorowska okazały dwór wraz z zabudowaniami folwarcznymi, a wokół niego założył park - arboretum. Po nim właścicielem Huty został jego syn Adam z żoną Marią z domu Janocha. Mieli oni troje dzieci: Czesława rozstrzelanego w 1940 r. przez hitlerowców; Jerzego, który po działaniach wojennych w czasie II wojny światowej wyemigrował do Kanady oraz Adama - późniejszego arcybiskupa i kardynała. Adam Kozłowiecki senior przy dworze wybudował tartak, cegielnię, zakład wyrobu dachówek i kręgów betonowych, a nieopodal na rzece Korzeń młyn wodny. Wraz z żoną powołał Fundację Naukowo-Wychowawczą, której celem miało być wybudowanie w Hucie Komorowskiej obiektów szkolnych służących kształceniu młodzieży z zakresu leśnictwa, rolnictwa i prawa. Wybuch II wojny światowej przerwał ich plany. +Plebiscyt na Górnym Śląsku (niem. "Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien") – jeden z dwóch1) na Górnym Śląsku2) na Warmii, Mazurach i Powiślu3) na Śląsku Cieszyńskim, Spiszu i Orawie.Od tego ostatniego, na skutek nacisków premiera Czechosłowacji Edwarda Benesza, Polska odstąpiła w lecie 1920 r., w związku z fatalną sytuacją w wojnie polsko-bolszewickiej. plebiscytów dotyczących etnicznego pogranicza polsko-niemieckiego, które wyznaczono w 1919 w wersalskim traktacie pokojowym kończącym I wojnę światową. Plebiscyt był przeprowadzony 20 marca 1921 i poprzedzony dwoma powstaniami ludności Śląska domagającej się przyłączenia regionu do Polski (powstania śląskie). +W sierpniu 1920 r. niemieckie władze plebiscytowe zaostrzyły działalność antypolską, a Polacy antyniemiecką. 17 sierpnia 1920 rząd niemiecki zażądał od Międzysojuszniczej Komisji Plebiscytowej ogłoszenia neutralności Górnego Śląska w związku z toczącą się wojną polsko-bolszewicką, które to żądanie zostało spełnione. Wiadomości o zbliżaniu się wojsk bolszewickich pod Warszawę jeszcze bardziej ośmieliły Niemców. Bojówki niemieckie zaatakowały siedzibę powiatowego inspektora Międzysojuszniczej Komisji – pułkownika Blancharda, przy ul. Warszawskiej w Katowicach. Żołnierze francuscy użyli broni, zabijając 10 napastników. W odwecie Niemcy w bestialski sposób zamordowali działacza polskiego, doktora Andrzeja Mielęckiego, który niósł pomoc rannym. +W dniu 30 grudnia 1920 r. Międzysojusznicza Komisja Rządząca i Plebiscytowa na Górnym Śląsku postanowiła, że uprawnionym do głosowania zastaną osoby, które dnia 1 stycznia 1921 r. miały ukończony 20 rok życia i +Flotylla Wiślana – polska flotylla rzeczna, część Polskiej Marynarki Wojennej działająca w dorzeczu Wisły od listopada 1918 (pierwsze okręty) do rozwiązania 1 października 1925 r. +Oficerem, a potem komendantem niewymienionego wyżej "statku wojennego" (nomenklatura ówczesna) Flotylli Wiślanej "Wisła" był od kwietnia 1919 r. do do końca 1920 r. Heliodor Laskowski. +W 1330 r. było już przy ul. Floriańskiej co najmniej 10 domów, zaś pod koniec XV w. większość jej zabudowy była już murowana. Początkowo zabudowa ulicy miała charakter w przeważającej części mieszkalny. Tutejsze domy należały zazwyczaj do zamożnych warstw mieszczaństwa, a także szlachty. Od końca XVIII wieku powstawały przy ul. Floriańskiej liczne domy zajezdne i hotele, restauracje i muzea, stopniowo wypierające tradycyjną funkcję mieszkalną. W 1882 r. uruchomiono na ul. Floriańskiej linię tramwaju konnego przekształconą następnie (w 1901 r.) w linię elektryczną (dziś już nieistniejącą). +Nr 15. Kamienica "Pod Wiewiórką" – mieściła się tu drukarnia Piotrkowczyków, która rozpoczęła działalność w roku 1578 i przetrwała do 1674 r., kiedy została darowana Akademii Krakowskiej z przeznaczeniem na drukarnię akademicką. W kamienicy tej mieszkał również Rafał Józef Czerwiakowski – lekarz, profesor uniwersytetu. W 1989 r. na fasadzie budynku umieszczono tablicę z napisem: ""Tu żył i zmarł Rafał Józef Czerwiakowski 1743–1816, ojciec chirurgii polskiej"". +Ogólne równanie całkowe opisuje w ogólny sposób adsorpcję na energetycznie niejednorodnych (heterogenicznych) powierzchniach ciał stałych. Po raz pierwszy zostało podane (w postaci dyskretnej a nie ciągłej) przez Langmuira w 1918 r. +W latach 1896-1900 prowadził badania flory wyspy Jawy. Prowadził tam badania nad paprociami jawajskimi i pasożytami trzciny cukrowej, które przyniosły mu międzynarodowe uznanie. Jego pobyt na Jawie doczekał się literackiego opisu w powieści biograficznej Bolesława Mrówczyńskiego pt. "Dutur z Rajskiego Ogrodu" (wyd. 1958 r.). Po powrocie do kraju w latach 1900-1909 był kierownikiem katedry Akademii Rolniczej w Dublanach. Od 1909 r. profesor botaniki Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, organizator Instytutu Biologiczno-Botaniczego uniwersytetu. Od 1912 r. profesor botaniki na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim. Od 1900 r. członek korespondent, od 1913 (zatwierdzony w 1914 r.) członek czynny Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności; od 1886 r. współpracownik (od 1900 członek) – Komisji Fizjograficznej AU, a wlatach 1915-1917 – jej przewodniczący. W 1912 został dyrektorem Ogrodu Botanicznego w Krakowie, szybko podnosząc tę instytucję z upadku. W 1913 utworzył Instytut Botaniczny. W 1914 zaangażował się w działalność polityczną, popierając czyn zbrojny Józefa Piłsudskiego. +Po jego śmierci rodzina przekazała bibliotekę i materiały naukowe Instytutowi Botaniki UJ. Od 1983 r. jego imię nosi Górski Ogród Botaniczny koło Muzeum Tatrzańskiego w Zakopanem. +Dane te pochodzą z opisu przypadku śmierci jednej z ofiar tego związku Karen Wetterhahn, profesor toksykologii z "Dartmouth College" w stanie New Hampshire, w USA. Karen Wetterhahn jako doświadczony toksykolog miała świadomość, że pracuje z trucizną, ale nie wiedziano jeszcze wtedy, że związek ten potrafi przeniknąć przez typowe rękawice laboratoryjne. Jak wynika z jej zeszytu laboratoryjnego 14 sierpnia 1996 wykonywała ona eksperymenty z dimetylortęcią, w trakcie których pękła jej fiolka z tym związkiem o pojemności 0,5 ml. Jako doświadczony toksykolog pracowała z tym związkiem pod wyciągiem, w odpowiednim stroju i rękawicach gumowych. Po wykonaniu eksperymentu zdjęła ona prawidłowo rękawice i umieściła je w specjalnym koszu na toksyczne odpady. Na początku stycznia 1997 pojawiły się u niej pierwsze symptomy zatrucia dimetylortęcią. 28 stycznia 1997 r. zbadano stężenie dimetylortęci w jej krwi i stwierdzono, że przekracza 4 mg/l – co 80-krotnie przekracza graniczne stężenie śmiertelne tego związku i było już w tym momencie wiadomo, że nic nie jest w stanie uratować już jej życia. Zmarła 8 lipca 1997, w wieku 48 lat. +Michelangelo, który pojawił się w 1992 r., aktywizuje się 6 marca (w rocznicę urodzin włoskiego artysty doby Renesansu, Michała Anioła), zarażając sektory startowe dysku i nadpisując krytyczne dane systemowe, w tym FAT, co niszczy dysk. Odtworzenie danych z dysku uszkodzonego przez wirusa jest technicznie trudnym zadaniem. +Wskutek podjętej natychmiast akcji prewencyjnej, w 1992 r., skutki działania wirusa zostały zminimalizowane - ocenia się, że zdołał zarazić jedynie kilka tysięcy maszyn, choć spodziewano się wtedy znacznie gorszych skutków. Na fali powszechnego zainteresowania i wskutek powstałej paniki na rynku wypromowało się kilka firm produkujących oprogramowanie antywirusowe. +Izoterma Langmuira to podstawowa izoterma adsorpcji wprowadzona w 1916 r. przez Irvinga Langmuira, laureata nagrody Nobla w 1932 r. +Po zakończeniu wojny pojawiły się spory w kwestii przyszłości Palestyny. Francja opierała się na realizacji postanowień tajnej umowy Sykes-Picot (z 1916 r.), na mocy której miało powstać wielkie państwo arabsko-muzułmańskie pod nazwą Wielka Syria. Emir Mekki Said Husajn również opowiadał się za utworzeniem jednego państwa arabskiego. Natomiast stosunek brytyjski do Palestyny i syjonizmu był co najmniej dwuznaczny. Wobec tego powstały dwa protektoraty: (1) Protektorat Francuski (obejmujący obszar dzisiejszej Syrii i Libanu) oraz (2) Protektorat Brytyjski (obejmujący obszar Palestyny, Jordanii i Iraku). +W 1764 r. odnaleziono w Tivoli inskrypcję, przechowywaną dziś w Muzeum Laterańskim, z której zdaje się wynikać, że Kwiryniusz dwa razy był legatem Syrii. Autor Encyklopedii (loc.cit. str.570) uważa, że po raz pierwszy w latach oznaczonych na liście cyfrą cztery, zaś sir William Ramsay (podręczna Encyklopedia Biblijna Poznań 1960 t. I str.232) na podstawie inskrypcji na dwóch kamieniach pochodzących z Antiochii Pizydyjskiej (odkrytych w 1912 i 1913 r.) że w 10–8 p.n.e. +Antyproton został odkryty w 1955 r. przez O. Chamberlaina, E. Segrègo, C. Wieganda i Th. Ypsilantisa. +W 1920 r. do budynków sprowadzono benedyktynki, które z powodu I wojny światowej musiały opuścić klasztor w Ypres. Uszkodzone w pożarze w 1959 r. zabudowania zostały odbudowane, lecz kilka dziesięcioleci zaniedbań spowodowało silną ich erozję. Budynki z szarego wapienia są restaurowane począwszy od lat 90. XX w. i mieszczą obecnie ekskluzywną międzynarodową szkołę żeńską prowadzoną przez siostry zakonne. +Od samego początku do roku 1962, skoczkowie rozgrywali tylko jeden konkurs indywidualny i to na dużo mniejszych niż obecnie obiektach (najwyższa skocznia o punkcie konstrukcyjnym K-70). Od 1962 do 1989 r. skoczkowie skakali na dwóch rodzajach skoczni: K-70 i K-90, gdzie wyłaniano dwóch mistrzów świata. W roku 1991 po raz pierwszy skakano na skoczniach K-120. Od 1982 roku w skład mistrzostw świata weszły konkursy drużynowe – do roku 2001 tylko jeden konkurs, a dopiero w 2001 – pod naciskiem gospodarzy – zorganizowano w Lahti aż dwa konkursy drużynowe: na skoczni K-90 i K-120. Od 2009 roku rozgrywany jest również konkurs pań na skoczni normalnej. +Od połowy XVIII w. datuje się w Miastku gwałtowny rozwój przemysłu – głównie włókienniczego (będącego kontynuacją miasteckich tradycji sukienniczych) i drzewnego. W 1840 r. otworzono pierwszy w mieście młyn parowy. W 1878 r. przez miasto przebiegła pierwsza linia kolejowa, a w 1909 r. – druga. Do wybuchu II wojny światowej w Miastku funkcjonowały cztery zakłady włókiennicze i jeden zakład drzewny. +26 sierpnia 1939 r. ogłoszono w Miastku stan wojenny. Miastko przetrwało wojnę bez większych zniszczeń, ale zdobyte 3 marca 1945 r. przez żołnierzy radzieckich doznało z ich ręki zniszczeń sięgających 70% istniejących w mieście budowli. Już 14 marca 1945 r. utworzono powiat miastecki. Reforma z 1946 r. umieściła Miastko w województwie szczecińskim, z kolei w 1950 r. powiat miastecki znalazł się województwie koszalińskim. Następna reforma administracyjna w 1975 r. zniosła podział na powiaty i umieściła Miastko w województwie słupskim. Rok 1998 przyniósł w Miastku powstanie Społecznego Komitetu Obrony Powiatu Miasteckiego i wielkie protesty, mimo których po kolejnej reformie w 1999 r. Miastko pozostało jedynie gminą i znalazło się w powiecie bytowskim. +Na przestrzeni wieków herb ulegał częstym zmianom. W XVII w. miasto wprowadziło w pieczęci pruskiego orła. W końcu XIX w. nowe pieczęcie miejskie mają raz tarczę z poprzecznym strumieniem, raz z rosnącym gryfem. Zarząd miasta Rummelsburg posiadał do wybuchu II wojny światowej owalną pieczęć z rosnącym gryfem nad tarczą. Herb powiatu Rummelsburg został zaprojektowany przez prof. Otto Huppa z Monachium i zatwierdzony dekretem pruskiego ministra państwowego w dniu 5 marca 1932 r. W obrazie tym na srebrnym tle czerwony gryf trzyma w szponach niebieską kosę osadzoną w żółtej rękojeści. +Według planów z 1941 r. w okolicach Miastka miała przebiegać autostrada (tzw. berlinka) – miała mijać Miastko od południowego zachodu (w okolicach Miłocic do dziś są widoczne pozostałości prac ziemnych przy przecięciu planowanego szlaku autostrady z rzeką Czernicą) w kierunku północnego wschodu, gdzie w okolicach Brzeźna Szlacheckiego miała przecinać ówczesną granicę niemiecko-polską. +W połowie czerwca 1942 r. na pewien czas przerwano przyjmowanie transportów. Stało się to ze względu na oczekiwane duże transporty z Krakowa, które wymagały przygotowania nowych, większych komóry gazowych. Pierwszy etap działania Bełżca zakończył się. Podczas tego etapu – od połowy marca do połowy czerwca zabito w Bełżcu około 93 tysiące Żydów. Stary drewniany budynek z trzema komorami gazowymi został rozebrany, a na tym samym miejscu postawiono większy, solidniejszy budynek, 24 metry długi i 10 metrów szeroki. Miał on sześć komór gazowych, każda z nich 4x8 m (niektóre źródła podają 4x5). Nowe komory gazowe uruchomiono pod koniec lipca. Z maszynowni dochodził gaz spalinowy, którego używano do mordowania. Nie jest wykluczone, że może i inne zabudowania mogły być przysposobione do gazowania ludzi. Infrastruktura obozowa była w stanie mordować i kremować do 4-5 tysięcy osób dziennie. Jednorazowe gazowanie trwało 15-20 minut. +W połowie grudnia 1942 transporty do Bełżca wstrzymano. Zarzucono pomysł deportacji 200 tysięcy Żydów rumuńskich. Liczba Żydów deportowanych i zamordowanych w Bełżcu, którą można ustalić, wynosi około 414 tysięcy. Jednakże są setki maleńkich miejscowości, skąd deportowano tysiące ludzi, ale nie pozostały po nich żadne ślady. Tysiące Żydów z Niemiec, Austrii, Czechosłowacji i innych krajów deportowano najpierw do gett w dystrykcie lubelskim, a potem wysłano ich do Bełżca. Ich liczbę można szacować na 100 tysięcy. Jeżeli dodamy 93 tysiące Żydów zabitych w Bełżcu pomiędzy marcem i czerwcem 1942 r., otrzymamy liczbę ok. 600 tysięcy. Taką liczbę oszacował polski Komitet ds. Niemieckich Zbrodni Wojennych w Okupowanej Polsce. W procesie załogi Bełżca SS-Scharfuehrer Heinrich Gley i Robert Juhrs szacowali, że pomiędzy listopadem 1942, a marcem 1943 spalono w Bełżcu około pół miliona ciał (pomimo zakończenia działalności obozu akcja spalania zwłok i zacierania śladów trwała do wiosny 1943 roku). Liczba 600 tysięcy została zaakceptowana przez Landgericht Munchen w RFN, gdzie odbył się proces Bełżec-Oberhauser. Państwowe Muzeum na Majdanku określa ostateczną liczbę zamordowanych na 500 tysięcy. +Jan Ślęk (ur. w 1929 r.) – wrocławski dyrygent i pedagog. +Swoje zainteresowania twórcze skupia na formie walca, zwłaszcza wiedeńskiego. Jest założycielem i kierownikiem artystycznym odbywającego się od 1993 r. "Międzynarodowego Festiwalu Muzyki Wiedeńskiej od Josepha Lannera do Roberta Stolza" we Wrocławiu, popularyzującego muzykę wiedeńską. Jego program wypełnia muzyka taneczna, operetkowa oraz symfoniczna. Jako propagator kultury austriackiej w Polsce w roku 2009 otrzymał Austriacki Krzyż Honorowy Nauki i Sztuki I klasy za wybitne osiągnięcia w dziedzinie sztuki i nauki przyznawany przez prezydenta Republiki Austrii. W 2008 r. otrzymał także Nagrodę Wrocławia. +Zespół roboczy ds. ochrony osób fizycznych w zakresie przetwarzania danych osobowych (ang. Working Party on the Protection of Indyviduals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data) - niezależny podmiot o charakterze doradczym, powołany na mocy art. 29 Dyrektywy 95/46/WE Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 24 października 1995 r. w sprawie ochrony osób fizycznych w zakresie przetwarzania danych osobowych i swobodnego przepływu tych danych. +Do tworzenia oddziałów przystąpiono przed inwazją niemiecką na Związek Radziecki w maju 1941 r. w szkole policyjnej w Pretzsch (Elbe) w Saksonii. Sformowano cztery "Einsatzgruppen", oznaczone literami A, B, C i D, które podzielone zostały na "Einsatzkommanda" i "Sonderkommanda". "Einsatzgruppen" liczyła od 600 do 1000 SS-manów, SD-manów, członków Gestapo, Kripo, policjantów z 9 rezerwowego batalionu policyjnego i elitarnej jednostki tajnej policji Leitende Dienst. W literaturze przedmiotu podaje się informację, że dwie trzecie członków "Einsatzgruppen" miało wyższe wykształcenie prawnicze lub ekonomiczne, a jedna trzecia doktoraty. Jeden z dowódców "Einsatzkommando 6" z "Einsatzgruppen C", Ernst Biberstein, był pastorem i teologiem, inny z kolei z Sonderkomamando 7a, Einsatzgruppe B, Eugen Steimle, nauczycielem, a osądzony w Norymberdze Otto Ohlendorf był doktorem prawa, który skończył trzy fakultety uniwersyteckie. Oprócz wspomnianego Ohlendorfa tytuł doktora posiadali między innymi Franz Six (filozofia), Otto Rasch (prawo i ekonomia polityczna), Walter Blume (prawo), Martin Sandberger (prawo), Werner Braune (prawo), Eduard Strauch (prawo). +Podczas zdobywania Elbląga przez Armię Czerwoną (26.01–10.02.1945) katedra została w dniu święta Matki Boskiej Gromnicznej, 2 lutego 1945, doszczętnie wypalona. Pierwszym polskim księdzem, który przyjechał do Elbląga, był ks. Jan Ostrowski, były powstaniec warszawski. W lipcu 1945 r. Ministerstwo Administracji Publicznej skierowało do Elbląga ks. Hilarego Pracz-Praczyńskiego, franciszkanina, który starał się doprowadzić do porządku byłą kaplicę baptystów, gdyż wypalona świątynia nie rokowała nadziei na rychłą odbudowę. 2 kwietnia 1946 r. administrator apostolski diecezji warmińskiej Teodor Bensch skierował do parafii św. Mikołaja ks. Ludwika Białka, ten rozpoczął prace nad szybką odbudową kaplicy. +Latem 1940 roku grupa należąca organizacyjnie do Komendy Obrońców Polski pod dowództwem dr Koperskiego "Szymka" zaatakowała pod Janowcem oddział niemieckiej żandarmerii. Akcja miała zapobiec wykryciu przez Niemców tajnego magazynu broni. W 1941 r. miejscowość została spacyfikowana przez hitlerowców, zginęło wtedy 210 mieszkańców. Po wojnie została odbudowana. +W 1998 roku powstał Gdański Terminal Kontenerowy, a w Porcie Północnym powstał terminal LPG. W 1998 r. zostały zmienione granice portu morskiego. +Zadanie sformowania i dowodzenia nim powierzono Mariuszowi Zaruskiemu. W skład 11 Pułku wszedł m.in. dywizjon kawalerii dowodzony przez rotmistrza Antoniego Jabłońskiego "Zdzisława", który pierwszym rozkazem nowo utworzonego 11 Pułku z dnia 16 marca 1919 r. objął funkcję zastępcy dowódcy pułku. +W 1939 r. miasto zostało zniszczone przez oddziały niemieckie. Podczas II wojny światowej rejon Pińczowa był miejscem aktywnej działalności partyzanckiej. Od lipca do sierpnia 1944 r. miasto było przejściowo wyzwolone przez partyzantów z AK, AL i Batalionów Chłopskich. Obszar o powierzchni 1000 km², wyzwolony spod okupacji hitlerowskiej, który obejmował tereny od Pińczowa po Działoszyce i od Nowego Korczyna po Nowe Brzesko, nosił nazwę Republiki Pińczowskiej. +W północnej ścianie dzwonnicy wmurowane są dwie tablice pamiątkowe. Starsza, wmurowana w 1933 r. w 250. rocznicę zwycięstwa Jana III Sobieskiego pod Wiedniem, młodsza, z r. 1998, upamiętnia osobę Józefa Piłsudskiego i jego pobyt w Pińczowie w 1914 r. +Vermeer Technologies Inc. – firma produkująca oprogramowanie z siedzibą w Cambridge w Massachusetts, USA, która w 1995 r. była twórcą pierwszej wersji graficznego edytora stron internetowych, FrontPage. +16 stycznia 1996 r. firma został zakupiona przez Microsoft, a FrontPage stał się kluczowym komponentem nowej strategii Microsoftu polegającej na budowie pełnego systemu narzędzi do publikowania dokumentów HTML w Internecie i w firmowych intranetach. +Wg świadectwa śmierci wydanego na zasadzie ksiąg metrykalnych z 30 sierpnia 1941 w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie w Legionowie (nr akt 105, rok 1941): "Karol Szwedowski mając 52 lata, s. Jacentego i Józefy umarł w Legionowie na Bukowcu z wycieńczenia po przebytych obozach, dnia 30 sierpnia 1941 r." +Powstał ruseński komitet rewolucyjny, który w 1874 r. stał się centralnym komitetem krajowym. Działalność miała na celu wyzwolenie Bułgarii spod zaboru tureckiego – stało się to w lutym 1878 r., kiedy rosyjskie wojska pod dowództwem gen. Totlebena wkroczyły do miasta. Przed i po wyzwoleniu powstało wiele fabryk (stocznia, garbarnia, browar i inne). W 1890 r. było już 14 fabryk, a w 1907 r. powstała największa w Bułgarii fabryka produkująca maszyny. W okresie międzywojennym miasto dotknął ogólnoświatowy kryzys gospodarczy – wiele firm i banków upadło lub wycofało się. +Po II wojnie światowej Bułgarii został narzucony sowiecki model ekonomiczny – rozpoczęła się nacjonalizacja i industrializacja. W ciągu kilku dziesięcioleci miasto stało się jednym z większych ośrodków przemysłowych w kraju. W 1954 r. został wybudowany most na Dunaju łączący Bułgarię i Rumunię (miasto Giurgiu) (most "Przyjaźni"), a potem 2 stacje kolejowe, lotnisko. W 1949 powstała opera, w 1959 filharmonia. Miasto gości na stałe wiele międzynarodowych festiwali muzycznych. Od 1946 istnieje wyższa uczelnia – obecnie Ruseński Uniwersytet. W 1976 wybudowano najwyższą na Bałkanach wieżę telewizyjną (201 m). +12 listopada 1946 r. nadano miejscowości polską nazwę Siedlęcin. +Najbardziej jednak ekscytującym sposobem poznania wodospadu, jest przejście wąskim podestem niedaleko niego nad rzeką, sięgającym aż po jego odległy kraniec. Podest, od czasu do czasu, zmywa woda, gwałtownie przybierająca w rzece. Z bliska zaś niemal na własnej skórze można odczuć potęgę wód grzmiących w przepaści poniżej. Wodospad wygląda, co prawda, najefektowniej w porze deszczowej, od listopada do marca, ale zazwyczaj jest malowniczy przez cały rok, choć zdarza się, że zamiera. W maju i czerwcu 1978 r. w okresie szczególnie uporczywej suszy, nurt osłabł tak bardzo, że przez 28 dni przez krawędź urwiska nie przepłynęła ani kropla wody. Był to pierwszy przypadek wyschnięcia wodospadu od 1934 r. Wodospad Iguaçu leży na granicy argentyńsko-brazylijskiej, ok. 320 km na wschód od Asunción w Paragwaju. Z lotniska w Asunción, główna autostrada prowadzi przez Paragwaj do brazylijskiej strony wodospadu, zjazd z autostrady zaś prowadzi przez most na jego argentyńską stronę. +Conciergerie pozostało więzieniem jeszcze przez cały XIX i nadal w pierwszej kolejności przeznaczone było dla skazanych na karę śmierci lub długoletniego odosobnienia. Wśród znanych osadzonych z tego okresu są marszałek Michel Ney i późniejszy cesarz Napoleon III. W celi Marii Antoniny znajdowała się kaplica. Dopiero w 1914 r. obiekt zamieniono na muzeum; obecnie jego część jest dostępna dla zwiedzających. Reszta obiektu mieści Pałac Sprawiedliwości. +Matematyk John von Neumann zaproponował model ALU w 1945 roku, kiedy to sporządził spis założeń dla nowego komputera EDVAC (z ang. "Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer", czyli elektroniczny komputer maszynowy o zmiennych nieciągłych). Później w 1946 r. pracował ze swoimi kolegami nad stworzeniem komputera dla Princeton Institute of Advanced Studies (IAS). Komputer IAS stał się prototypem dla wielu późniejszych komputerów. W swoim projekcie von Neumann nakreślił, co według niego będzie niezbędne w komputerze uwzględniając ALU. +25 lipca 1994 roku sąd gospodarczy w Warszawie ogłosił upadłość Zakładów Kasprzaka, na wniosek jednego z wierzycieli ZRK . Z wnioskiem o upadłość wystąpił Tadeusz Koherewicz syndyk masy upadłości Naukowo-Produkcyjnego Centrum Półprzewodników CEMI, któremu Zakłady Kasprzaka były winne 4 mld starych złotych (czyli 400 tys PLN). Syndyk CEMI tłumaczył że kierownictwo Kasprzaka zaczęło negocjować z Bankiem Handlowym (jednym z jej głównych wierzycieli) spłatę długów poza porozumieniem z pozostałymi wierzycielami, przez co syndyk CEMI uznał to za działanie na szkodę wszystkich wierzycieli i wystąpił do sądu o ogłoszenie upadłości "Kasprzaka". Sędzią komisarzem w postępowaniu CEMI był Dariusz Czajka, prowadzący jednocześnie rozprawę upadłości Kasprzaka. Na syndyka upadłych Zakładów Kasprzaka wyznaczono Tomasza Palaszka, który kilka miesięcy później najatrakcyjniejszą część nieruchomości po ZRK sprzedał Kredyt Bankowi za 175 mld starych złotych (17,5 mln zł). Były szef ZRK ostatni dyrektor naczelny Marek Łotocki zaskarżył postanowienie sądu o ogłoszeniu upadłości przedsiębiorstwa. Postanowieniem z dnia 2 lutego 1995 r. Sąd Wojewódzki w Warszawie oddalił rewizję dłużnika, natomiast postanowieniem z dnia 7 października 1999 r. sąd ukończył postępowanie upadłościowe Przedsiębiorstwa Państwowego Zakłady Radiowe im. Marcina Kasprzaka w Warszawie. +Kartki na artykuły codziennego użytku w Polsce ostatecznie wycofał rząd Mieczysława Rakowskiego. Ostatnim towarem reglamentowanym było mięso – kartki obowiązywały do końca lipca 1989 r., jednakże w ostatnich miesiącach legalnie dostępne było tzw. mięso z uboju gospodarczego, w praktyce nieznacznie tylko droższe od mięsa reglamentowanego. +Ruud van Nistelrooy w reprezentacji Holandii zadebiutował 18 listopada 1998 r., w meczu przeciwko Reprezentacji Niemiec. Kontuzja Holendra praktycznie przekreśliła mu udział na Euro 2000 w swej ojczyźnie. Van Nistelrooy odbudował się jednak i na Euro 2004 był już gotowy. Reprezentacja Holandii zajęła na portugalskim turnieju 3.-4. miejsce, a Ruud (wraz z Wayne’em Rooneyem) zdobył 4 bramki, zostając wicekrólem strzelców. +Po powrocie do Rosji został docentem Uniwersytetu Technicznego w Tomsku. Nie pozostał jednak długo na uczelni, by poświęcić się karierze naukowej; jego pasją były podróże. W 1905 roku, po wybuchu wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej, został wysłany do Mandżurii, gdzie prowadził badania geologiczne w poszukiwaniu surowców niezbędnych dla armii. Za organizowanie w Harbinie protestów przeciw rosyjskim represjom w Królestwie Kongresowym został aresztowany i skazany na karę śmierci. Dzięki wyjątkowemu szczęściu uniknął wykonania wyroku i uzyskał jego nadzwyczajne złagodzenie. Wkrótce potem został wybrany przewodniczącym Rewolucyjnego Komitetu Naczelnego, który przez pewien czas sprawował władzę w Mandżurii. W wyniku procesu, który potem wytoczono jego członkom, Ossendowski został skazany na półtora roku twierdzy. Odzyskał wolność w 1908 roku. Wydana w 1911 r. książka pt. "W Ludskoj Pyli" ("W ludzkim pyle"), poświęcona więziennym doświadczeniom Ossendowskiego, zyskała przychylną ocenę m.in. Lwa Tołstoja. W tym czasie nawiązał współpracę z wieloma rosyjskimi gazetami. Gdy w 1909 r. zaczął wychodzić w Petersburgu polskojęzyczny "Dziennik Petersburski", został jego korespondentem, a następnie redaktorem. +W 1918 r. opuścił zrewolucjonizowany Petersburg i wyjechał do Omska. W czasie wojny domowej w Rosji czynnie współpracował z dowództwem "Białych"; był m.in. doradcą admirała Kołczaka. Przekazał na Zachód tzw. dokumenty Sissona, które wykazywały, że Lenin był agentem wywiadu niemieckiego, a działalność partii bolszewickiej finansowana była za niemieckie pieniądze. Choć niektóre źródła uważają te dokumenty za sfałszowane, to fakt pomocy udzielonej Leninowi przez Niemieckie Naczelne Dowództwo jest pewny. +Ossendowskiemu światową sławę przyniosła książka: „Zwierzęta, ludzie, bogowie”, która na przełomie 1920 i 1921 r. ukazała się w Nowym Jorku, w 1922 r. w Londynie a w 1923 r. w Warszawie. Łącznie osiągnęła ona rekordową liczbę dziewiętnastu tłumaczeń na języki obce. Ossendowski opisał w niej wspomnienia z ucieczki z Rosji ogarniętej chaosem rewolucji. Opis obejmuje ucieczkę z Krasnojarska opanowanego przez bolszewików, zimę w tajdze, przeprawę do Mongolii i pobyt w niej u boku barona Ungerna. +Prawo bankowe reguluje ustawa z dnia 29 sierpnia 1997 r. – Prawo bankowe (tekst jednolity ). +Dolina była wypasana od XVI wieku przez mieszkańców wsi: Jurgów, Czarna Góra i Lendak, przetrząsali ją też poszukiwacze skarbów. Były tutaj również kopalnie rud miedzi i srebra istniejące jeszcze do połowy XIX wieku. W 1751 r. dolina była zwiedzana przez cesarską komisję badającą Tatry (był w niej Jakob Buchholtz), od połowy XIX wieku zaczęli (rzadko) odwiedzać dolinę turyści podążający tędy na Jagnięcy Szczyt i Kołową Przełęcz. W zimie jako pierwszy w Dolinie Kołowej był Stanisław Hiszpański 2 kwietnia 1928 r. Całą dolinę wraz z Bździochowym Koryciskiem przeszedł Stanisław Krystyn Zaremba 9 kwietnia 1934 r. +Do lat 70. XX wieku maronici mieszkali głównie na terenie Libanu i stanowili około 30% ludności tego kraju. Zamieszkiwali północne i centralne regiony w paśmie górskim Libanu i we wschodniej części Bejrutu. Od 1926 r. maronicka nacja odgrywa ważną rolę w życiu politycznym Republiki Libanu. Na mocy niepisanej umowy pomiędzy libańskimi grupami religijnymi z tej społeczności wybierany jest prezydent państwa. +Kuna – waluta Chorwacji. Obowiązywała w Niezależnym Państwie Chorwackim w czasie II wojny światowej (1941-1945). Została ponownie wprowadzona w 1994 r. jako waluta Republiki Chorwackiej. Dzieli się na 100 lip. +Powyżej Hawraniego Działu dno doliny i jej zbocza zajmują dwie duże hale, które dawniej były jednym z większych ośrodków pasterskich. Wypasała tutaj miejscowość Biała Spiska. Gleba jest tutaj bardzo żyzna, jak na tatrzańskie warunki, a porost trawy bardzo dobry. Początkowo wypasano tylko woły (ok. 1900 r. 400 sztuk), później również owce (w 1926 r. 2600 sztuk). Feliks Berdau w 1855 r. pisał: ""Wegetacja na tych ogromnych łąkach tak bujna, że trawa prawie po pas, a tysiące wołów węgierskich wypasa się corocznie tamże"". Sąsiedzi zazdrościli mieszkańcom Białej Spiskiej tych hal, zachowały się informacje o napadach na ich trzody i szałasy w latach 1562, 1578 i 1596 przez poddanych zamku w Niedzicy (do niego należały tereny poniżej własności bielskich) i mieszkańców Frankowej. Po zniesieniu pasterstwa hale te zarastają stopniowo lasem. +W 1981 r. Ministerstwo Kultury i Sztuki kupiło dla zamku w Galerii Heim w Londynie kilka portretów Potockich, a istniejąca od kilku lat Fundacja na rzecz Muzeum-Zamku w Łańcucie nabyła portret Alfreda I Potockiego pędzla Jana Tabińskiego. Na terenie zamku powstała też kolekcja sztuki cerkiewnej oraz izba pamięci 10 Pułku Strzelców Konnych. Do obiektów objętych oddziaływaniem muzeum włączono również ufundowaną przez jednego z Lubomirskich synagogę ze zbiorami judaików. +Jak wynika z dekretu z dnia 25 października 1786 r. władza duchowna połączyła parafię Konarzewo z parafią w Dopiewie - postanowiono wówczas, że kościołem parafialnym będzie świątynia konarzewska. Dlatego też w 1803 roku rozebrano kościół dopiewski. w 1938 r. kardynał August Hlond ponownie z parafii konarzewskiej wydzielił nową parafię dopiewską. +Oryginalny, "pałaco-zamek", udający warowną rezydencję, neogotycki, jednak ze zdobieniami secesyjnymi. Powstał w 1900 r. dla ówczesnego właściciela wsi, Hansa von Treskowa, o czym świadczy herb umieszczony nad głównym wejściem. Złożony z wielu przylegających do siebie brył, nad którymi góruje umieszczona centralnie masywna wieża. Remontowany w 2004 r., leży nad brzegiem jeziora i jest otoczony parkiem. Obecnie w rękach prywatnych - restauracja i hotel. +Szkoła powstała 3 kwietnia 1876 r. Od 1972 r. mieści się w dwóch budynkach. W tym oddanym do użytku w 1972 r. znajduje się obecne Gimnazjum (dawniej Szkoła Podstawowa). Od 31 maja 1986 r. szkoła nosi imię Janusza Korczaka, a od 1997 r. posiada swój sztandar. +Był twórcą terminu wyobraźnia socjologiczna, który rozwinął w książce z 1959 r. pod tym samym tytułem, uznawanej za jedną z najbardziej wpływowych publikacji w socjologii XX wieku. Za pomocą tego pojęcia chciał poszerzyć spojrzenie jednostek na rzeczywistość, zazwyczaj ograniczone do najbliższego kręgu społecznego. Twierdził, że socjologia powinna skoncentrować się na analizie związków ludzkich biografii z historią społeczeństw w celu zrozumienia istoty oddziałujących na jednostki struktur społecznych w danym miejscu i czasie. Wyobraźnia socjologiczna to perspektywa poznawcza umożliwiająca przekroczenie ograniczonego, indywidualnego doświadczenia biograficznego ("osobiste troski") i ujęcie go w kategoriach procesów społeczno-historycznych o ponadindywidualnym charakterze ("publiczne problemy"). +W XIX w. przez Petrykozy poprowadzono linię kolejową (odcinek Opoczno – Końskie). Po I wojnie światowej w 1919 r. zbudowano tartak istniejący do dziś (obecnie ma status zakładu pracy chronionej). W czasie okupacji hitlerowskiej działali tu partyzanci Armii Krajowej, m.in. Witold Kucharski ps. Wicher i Ludwik Lucjan Zieliński ps. Brzeszczot. +Ahimsa to polska grupa sceny niezależnej powstała w 1989 r. w Warszawie, nazwa pochodzi od odmiany filozofii hinduistycznej. Założycielami zespołu byli Tomek Grewiński (instrumenty perkusyjne) i Tomek Sierajewski (gitara), wkrótce do zespołu dołączył brat Grewińskiego, Mirosław Grewiński (gitara basowa). Przez dłuższy okres zespół poszukiwał wokalisty, jeden z przejściowych nabytków Paweł Krawczyk został następnym gitarzystą grupy. Dopiero w 1993 r. do zespołu przyłączył się na stałe wokalista Andrzej Mazurowski. Zespół wziął udział w Przystanku Woodstock i często koncertował za granicą. Autorką niektórych tekstów grupy jest Kayah, była życiowa partnerka Tomka "Tomika" Grewińskiego. Obecnie jest on jej managerem. Z kolei, Paweł Krawczyk gra obecnie w zespole Hey, a Tomek Sierajewski w zespołach Elvis Deluxe i The Black Tapes. Andrzej Mazurowski w latach 1997-2008 był dziennikarzem TVP. Pracował m.in. dla Panoramy, Teleexpressu i Monitora Wiadomości. +W styczniu 1923 został skierowany do Wyższej Szkoły Kawalerii (Advanced Cavalery School) w Ford Riley, którą ukończył w czerwcu. We wrześniu zaczął uczęszczać na kurs w Szkole Dowództwa i Sztabu Generalnego w Leavenworth, który ukończył w czerwcu 1924 z wyróżnieniem. Po ukończeniu edukacji trafił do I Korpusu w Bostonie. W marcu 1925 został przeniesiony na Hawaje, gdzie poznał Omara N. Bradleya. W trakcie tej służby napisał do Departamentu Stanu o zagrożeniu, jakie może stanowić Japonia, ostrzegając, że Pearl Harbor jest narażone na nagły atak bez wypowiedzenia wojny, który może być przeprowadzony przez samoloty startujące z lotniskowców. W lipcu 1934 został przeniesiony do 5. Pułku Kawalerii w Forcie Clark w Teksasie i awansował do stopnia pułkownika. W listopadzie 1937 r. kolejny raz trafił do 3. Pułku Kawalerii w Forcie Myer, tym razem już jako jego dowódca. Po ataku Niemiec hitlerowskich na Polskę przekonał Kongres o potrzebie stworzenia nowoczesnych oddziałów pancernych. Otrzymał promocję na generała i został dowódcą brygady zmechanizowanej, która wkrótce powiększyła się do rozmiarów dywizji i otrzymała nazwę 2. Amerykańskiej Dywizji Pancernej. +Największą miejscowością, będącą zarazem siedzibą organów gminy (burmistrza i rady gminy), jest miasto Stęszew. Największą wsią w gminie jest Strykowo (ponad 1000 mieszkańców). Miejscowością, która niegdyś posiadała prawa miejskie jest wieś Modrze. Po wybudowaniu linii kolejowej z Poznania do Grodziska Wielkopolskiego w 1905 r. Modrze utraciło znaczenie na rzecz Strykowa. +Ukończył gimnazjum w Krzeszowicach, liceum w Katowicach a w 1953 r. PWST w Krakowie. Aktor Teatru Wybrzeże w Gdańsku (1953–1955 i 1958–1960), teatrzyku studenckiego Bim-Bom wraz ze Zbigniewem Cybulskim (1955–1958), Teatru Ateneum w Warszawie (1960–1963), kabaretów Dudek i Wagabunda (1963–1966), Teatru Komedia (1966–1969). Często występował w Telewizji Polskiej w programach estradowych, satyrycznych, a także w Teatrze Telewizji. +W 1649 r. powstało tu "Bractwo Kurkowe", w II poł. XIX w. – gniazdo Towarzystwa Gimnastycznego "Sokół", a w 1922 r. – Szamotulski Klub Sportowy, który pod nazwą Sparta Szamotuły działa do dziś z sekcją piłki nożnej. Klub "Sparta" wykorzystuje obiekty Szamotulskiego Ośrodka Sportu i Rekreacji (m.in. 2 boiska piłkarskie, płyta treningowa, hala "Wacław", basen kąpielowy, kryta pływalnia i korty tenisowe). W Szamotułach ma swą siedzibę szkółka piłkarska MSP Szamotuły. W lipcu 2006 w mieście odbywały się mecze fazy grupowej Mistrzostw Europy U-19 w piłce nożnej. W Szamotułach działają też dziecięcy klub sportowy MKS Szamotuły oraz drużyna seniorów Sparta Szamotuły, które niedawno się połączyły i stanowią jedną całość. +Posiadłość często zmieniała właścicieli. Przez kilka lat po wojnie mieścił się tu PGR, a w 1955 r. majątek przekazano Akademii Rolniczej w Szczecinie, która utworzyła tu Rolniczy Zakład Doświadczalny. Od 2005 r. w pałacu (zwanym oficjalnie dworem) znajduje się, należący do ZUT, Ośrodek Szkoleniowo-Badawczy w Zakresie Energii Odnawialnej. +Dolina Batyżowiecka oraz pobliskie Dolina Stwolska i Dolina Wielkiej Huczawy zostały przekazane przez króla w 1264 r. "comesowi" Botyzowi, od którego to wzięła się nazwa miejscowości Batyżowce i licznych obiektów w Tatrach. Jako tzw. państwo batyżowieckie tereny te należały później do rodziny Máriássych – aż do roku 1897, kiedy to prawie całe zostały wykupione przez Christiana Hohenlohego. Wyjątkiem była górna część Doliny Batyżowieckiej, przejęta w 1901 r. przez państwo węgierskie. Wszystkie dobra Hohenlohego po południowej stronie Tatr zakupiło państwo czechosłowackie w roku 1928. Dziś cały ten obszar należy do TANAP-u, a tereny pomiędzy Magistralą Tatrzańską a Drogą Wolności stanowią rezerwat ścisły. +Rząd Bolesława Bieruta – rząd pod kierownictwem premiera Bolesława Bieruta (dotychczasowego Prezydenta RP i przewodniczącego KC PZPR), desygnowanego na Prezesa Rady Ministrów 20 listopada 1952 r. przez Sejm PRL I kadencji, po ustąpieniu dotychczasowego rządu Józefa Cyrankiewicza. 21 listopada 1952 r. Sejm powołał rząd w składzie zaproponowanym przez Bieruta. W skład Rady Ministrów weszło 39 członków: premier, 8 wicepremierów i 30 ministrów. Cztery ministerstwa pozostały nieobsadzone. +Rząd istniał do 20 lutego 1957 r., kiedy premier Cyrankiewicz złożył dymisję gabinetu Sejmowi II kadencji. W składzie Rady Ministrów następowały duże zmiany: spowodowane odwołaniem Bieruta w 1954 r. oraz wydarzeniami Października 1956 r. +Dolina Stwolska od dawna była znana myśliwym ze Stwoły i innych miejscowości. Pierwszymi znanymi turystami, którzy przebyli górną część doliny, byli Alexander Münnich i jego towarzysze w 1874 r. Zimą prawdopodobnie pierwsi byli tu Ernst Dubke oraz przewodnicy Johann Breuer i Johann Franz senior 14 lutego 1906 r. +W latach 1979 - 1981 studiował prawo na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim, a po studiach rozpoczętych w roku 1982 ukończył w 1987 ekonomię na Uniwersytecie Kilońskim (Niemcy). W roku 1981 wraz z czterema studentami z Niemiec (RFN), Austrii oraz Węgier założył Europejskie Stowarzyszenie Studentów Prawa (ELSA), które obecnie zrzesza około 30 tys. studentów prawa i młodych prawników z 220 uniwersytetów z 41 krajów Europy. W latach 1988-1991 pracownik naukowy w Institut fuer Weltwirtschaft w Kilonii. Był doradcą Leszka Balcerowicza od grudnia 1989 do grudnia 1991. W 1990 roku w wieku 30 lat został powołany na stanowisko prezesa Polskiego Banku Rozwoju SA. W listopadzie 1995 r. odszedł z PBR i objął posadę w Banku Rozwoju Eksportu SA. BRE Bankiem kierował od maja 1998 roku do listopada 2004 roku. Wcześniej był wiceprezesem (od lutego 1996 roku) i pierwszym wiceprezesem (od maja 1997 roku) tego banku. Od stycznia 2002 do listopada 2004 członek Zarządu Regionalnego Commerzbank AG (Frankfurt) odpowiedzialny za całość operacji w Europie Centralnej i Wschodniej. Od 1999 roku związany z Grupą ITI jako członek Rady Dyrektorów, od stycznia 2005 pełni funkcję jej Prezesa i Dyrektora Generalnego. Aktywny uczestnik World Economic Forum. W latach 2004 - 2007 Prezes Polsko-Niemieckiej Izby Przemysłowo-Handlowej. Od 2007 Wiceprezydent PKPP "Lewiatan". Członek Polskiej Rady Biznesu. Od 2005 roku zasiada w Radzie Nadzorczej TVN SA, a od 2007 roku pełni funkcję jej Przewodniczącego. W czerwcu 2012 został powołany do Rady Nadzorczej (Verwaltungsrat) szwajcarskiej Grupy Stadler Rail, europejskiego producenta pojazdów szynowych. Członek rad nadzorczych firm krajowych i zagranicznych. +Dolina jest otwarta w kierunku południowym, o dość wąskiej i zalesionej części dolnej, wyżej krajobraz zmienia się na alpejski. W 1906 r. Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski pisał o niej: "„...dolina ta wybija się na czoło, należy w ogóle do najbardziej tatrzańskich, jeśli tak powiemy, zjawisk w Tatrach”." +Od najdawniejszych czasów właścicielami doliny był ród Máriássych z Batyżowiec. W latach 1897-98 część doliny kupił Christian Hohenlohe i dołączył do swojego rezerwatu myśliwskiego. W 1928 r. teren doliny wykupił rząd Czechosłowacji i przeznaczył na zalążek TANAP-u. Niegdyś dolina była wypasana, w XIX w. wypasano tutaj głównie woły. W 1879 r. Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski pisał o ścieżkach wydeptanych ku Żabim Stawom przez woły. Penetrowali ją poszukiwacze skarbów, a Ludwik Zejszner w 1855 r., pisząc o płatach śniegu w Dolinie Hińczowej, dodał: „"pod którymi lud prawi, że leżą bogate żyły złota”". Prowadzono też w niektórych miejscach prace górnicze (m.in. w Grani Baszt). +20 stycznia 1974 r. o godz. 10.40 w Dolinie Mięguszowieckiej wydarzyła się największa jak do owej pory katastrofa lawinowa w Tatrach. Żlebem spod Przełęczy nad Skokiem w Grani Baszt zeszła potężna lawina, która przewaliła się przez Mięguszowiecki Potok i wdarła 140 m na przeciwległy stok, wspinając się na niego z rozpędu aż 44 m w górę. Na stoku tym, na śnieżnym pólku trenowali z instruktorem uczestnicy kursu narciarskiego ze słowackiego Technikum Budowlanego. Lawina przysypała 24 z nich. Dzięki błyskawicznej akcji ratunkowej (było to tylko 400 m od schroniska nad Popradzkim Stawem) udało się odgrzebać spod śniegu 11 płycej przywalonych. W ciągu następnych godzin i kilku dni liczne zespoły ratunkowe (z pomocą przyszło również wojsko) odgrzebały ciała 10 uczestników kursu; wśród nich nauczyciela z 12-letnim synem. Pies wskazał miejsce, gdzie po 5 godzinach od zejścia lawiny wydobyto żywego 18-latka przywalonego metrową warstwą śniegu. Ciała dwóch uczniów udało się znaleźć dopiero wiosną po stopieniu się śniegu. +Papież Paweł VI wydał w 1967 r. konstytucję apostolską "Indulgentiarum Doctrina", w następnym roku uzupełniony przez zawierający szczegółowy wykaz odpustów "Enchiridion Induldentiarum". Zniesiono miary czasu odpustów cząstkowych: „Co do odpustu cząstkowego pominięto dawne określenie dni i lat, a wyszukano nową formę czyli miarę, wedle której bierze się pod uwagę samą czynność wiernego, spełniającego dzieło ubogacone odpustem.” Uzasadnieniem jest fakt, iż czas jest właściwością rzeczywistości ziemskiej i trudno o nim mówić w przypadku czyśćca. Konstytucja mówi natomiast o wielkości odpustu cząstkowego, „tym większej, im większa jest miłość działającego i wartość dzieła.” +Jest to komiksowa opowieść oparta na prawdziwych wydarzeniach z życia mieszkających w Nowym Jorku Arta Spiegelmana oraz jego ojca – Władka Szpigelmana, polskiego Żyda, który ocalał z Holocaustu, ale okupił to znacznymi zmianami w swoim charakterze. Trudna osobowość Władka zawsze powodowała liczne komplikacje pomiędzy nim a jego synem Artiem – młodym rysownikiem, mającym za sobą pobyt w zakładzie psychiatrycznym. Poprzez realizację komiksu i wywiady z ojcem młody Art stara się zrozumieć historię swojego ojca oraz jego życiowe postępowanie, które doprowadziło do tak wielu konfliktów w przeszłości. Samobójstwo żony Władka i matki Artiego – Andzi w USA w 1968 roku na skutek powracających w jej głowie koszmarów wojny przeżytej w Polsce, utrata całej licznej rodziny podczas II wojny światowej (w tym starszego syna – Rysia), lata (od marca 1944 r. do stycznia 1945 r.) spędzone w obozie koncentracyjnym w Auschwitz uczyniły z Władka człowieka nieufnego wobec świata i ludzi, oszczędnego do granic chorobliwego skąpstwa, nieprzyjemnego dla bliskich i stale doszukującego się spisku w działaniach drugiej żony – Mali. Wspólne rozmowy ojca z synem stają się jednak podstawą do uporządkowania skomplikowanych relacji między nimi oraz próbą przedstawienia czasów Holocaustu z punktu widzenia jednostki. +ż kilka lat po otwarciu nowego obiektu, podczas meczu Szkocja – Anglia, rozgrywanego 5 kwietnia 1902 r. w ramach British Home Championship miała miejsce pierwsza wielka tragedia ("First Ibrox disaster"), w wyniku której śmierć poniosło 25 osób, a 517 zostało rannych. Jak wykazało dochodzenie, zawalenie się drewnianej konstrukcji Trybuny Zachodniej spowodowane było jej uszkodzeniem wskutek obfitych opadów deszczu w noc poprzedzającą mecz. +W pierwszych trzech sezonach działalności w nowej roli (1899–1902) Wilton za każdym razem prowadził swój zespół do końcowego triumfu w rozgrywkach ligowych. Kolejne lata upłynęły jednak pod znakiem wyraźnej dominacji lokalnego rywala, który sześciokrotnie zdobywał najważniejsze krajowe trofeum, w związku z czym „The Gers” na kolejny tytuł musieli czekać aż do roku 1911. Niepowodzenia w walce o mistrzostwo zostały częściowo zrekompensowane zdobytym w 1903 r. czwartym w historii klubu Pucharem Szkocji, po pokonaniu Hearts (1:1, 0:0, 2:0). +Mistrzostwo Szkocji z 1911 roku zapoczątkowało okres trzyletniej dominacji Rangers na froncie ligowym, a kolejne triumfy przypadły na sezony 1917/1918 i 1919/1920, w którym „The Gers” rekordowo, 106 razy wpisywali się na listę strzelców. Jak się później okazało, sukces z tamtego roku był ostatnim, ósmym pod wodzą Wiltona. 2 maja 1920 r. menadżer Rangers, w wieku 54 lat uległ śmiertelnemu wypadkowi, tonąc podczas żeglugi u zachodnich wybrzeży Szkocji, niedaleko Gourock. +Wskutek wybuchu II wojny światowej rozgrywki piłkarskie w całym kraju zostały zawieszone 2 września 1939 r. Przez sześć lat odbywały się jedynie lokalne zawody piłkarskie, które choć niezaliczane do oficjalnych klubowych osiągnięć, zakończyły się sukcesem Rangers, którzy triumfowali w 1940 r. w Emergency War League i Emergency War Cup, a także sześciokrotnie triumfowali w Southern League i czterokrotnie w Southern League Cup. +Wznowienie oficjalnych rozgrywek w Szkocji w 1946 r. było zarazem inauguracją nowego turnieju – Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej, który odtąd regularnie pojawiał się w kalendarzu szkockich zespołów i był okazją do wywalczenia potrójnej korony, czyli tzw. Treble. Pierwsze tego typu osiągnięcie Rangers zanotowali w sezonie 1948/1949, gdy w Scottish League Division A jednym punktem okazali się lepsi od Dundee, a w finałach krajowych pucharów pokonali Clyde (4:1) i Raith Rovers (2:0). +Latem 1947 r. doszło natomiast do sporych zmian organizacyjnych w klubie. Amatorskiemu wówczas zarządowi, w skład którego wchodzili głównie byli piłkarze Rangers, przewodniczył James Bowie. Zasugerował on wtedy 71-letniemu już Struthowi, by opuścił stanowisko menadżera, dając tym samym szansę młodszym. Po tych szokujących dla wielu słowach Bowie został usunięty ze struktur zarządczych i nigdy więcej nie pojawił się już na Ibrox. +Wcześniej, bo już w premierowym powojennym sezonie, „The Gers” skutecznie obronili wywalczony w 1939 r. mistrzowski tytuł i łącznie w pierwszych siedmiu latach po przymusowej przerwie cztery razy sięgali po najwyższe ligowe laury, również czterokrotnie zdobyli Puchar Szkocji i dwukrotnie Puchar Ligi. Szczególnie wyjątkowym było zdobycie mistrzostwa w roku 1953, kiedy to wyrównanie na kwadrans przed końcem ostatniego w sezonie pojedynku dało punkt, który pozwolił na zrównanie się z ekipą Hibernianu i wyprzedzenie jej stosunkiem bramkowym (wówczas przy równej liczbie zdobytych punktów decydowała nie różnica w zdobytych i straconych golach, ale ich iloraz). +Sezon 1953/1954, który Rangers zakończyli bez sukcesu, zajmując dopiero czwarte miejsce w rozgrywkach ligowych, okazał się ostatnim w roli menadżera dla Strutha. Ze swojego stanowiska zrezygnował 15 czerwca 1954 r. 34 lata jakie spędził na ławce trenerskiej uczyniły go najdłużej pracującym i najbardziej utytułowanym szkoleniowcem w historii klubu, z którym wywalczył kilkadziesiąt różnych trofeów, wśród nich 18 krajowych mistrzostw i 10 Pucharów Szkocji. Struth wsławił się również swoim ogromnym przywiązaniem do dyscypliny u zawodników, od których wymagał określonych standardów zachowań, również poza boiskiem czy też odświętnego ubioru, których nieodzownym elementem było nakrycie głowy – melonik. +W kolejnych sezonach Rangers spisywali się znacznie lepiej na arenie międzynarodowej, docierając do fazy półfinałowej (1959/1960, rekordowa porażka w dwumeczu z Eintrachtem Frankfurt 4:12) i ćwierćfinałowej (1961/1962 i 1964/1965) najbardziej prestiżowych rozgrywek klubowych na świecie, a także dwukrotnie wystąpili w decydujących meczach Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów – w 1961 r. (porażka z Fiorentiną 0:2 i 1:2) i 1967 r. (0:1, po dogrywce z Bayernem Monachium). +Udane reprezentowanie kraju na europejskich stadionach nie przełożyło się jednak na dalsze sukcesy w rodzimych rozgrywkach. Od czasu wspomnianej potrójnej korony „The Gers” zapisali na swoje konto tylko dwa trofea – Puchar Ligi z 1965 r. i Puchar Szkocji wywalczony rok później. Dopiero piąta pozycja w lidze, poprzedzająca dwa tytuły wicemistrzowskie, połączona z początkiem wyraźnej dominacji na krajowym podwórku ekipy Celticu sprawiły, że gdy lokalny rywal rozgrywał jesienią 1967 roku w Ameryce Południowej mecze o miano najlepszej drużyny świata władze klubu zaoferowały 58-letniemu Symonowi stanowisko menadżera generalnego i tym samym odsunięcie go od bezpośredniego kierowania zespołem. 1 listopada tego samego roku propozycja ta została przez niego odrzucona, co poskutkowało jego natychmiastowym zwolnieniem i mianowaniem nowym szkoleniowcem Rangers Davida White'a, dotychczasowego asystenta Symona. +Na arenie europejskiej w latach 1967–1969 „The Gers” występowali w mającym niższą rangę Pucharze Miast Targowych i docierali do fazy ćwierćfinałowej oraz półfinałowej, za każdym razem ulegając późniejszemu triumfatorowi – odpowiednio Leeds United i Newcastle United. Jako finaliści Pucharu Szkocji z 1969 r. Rangers wystartowali w kolejnym sezonie w Pucharze Zdobywców Pucharów, ale zostali wyeliminowani przez drużynę Górnika Zabrze, dwukrotnie przegrywając 1:3. 27 listopada 1969 r., dzień po rewanżowym starciu, White otrzymał wypowiedzenie, a tymczasowym menadżerem mianowano Williego Thorntona. +Wszelkie osiągnięcia sportowe z tego sezonu zostały jednak zepchnięte na dalszy plan z powodu wydarzeń, jakie miały miejsce 2 stycznia 1971 r. Tego dnia na Ibrox rozgrywano tradycyjne, noworoczne Old Firm Derby. Gdy w 90. minucie meczu Celtic za sprawą Jimmy'ego Johnstone'a objął prowadzenie część fanów „The Gers” zaczęła opuszczać trybuny Ibrox. Wówczas, na sekundy przed końcowym gwizdkiem, Colin Stein doprowadził do wyrównania, ustalając wynik spotkania na 1:1. W tym czasie upadek dziecka pośród tłumu wychodzącego ze stadionu schodami nr 13 spowodował, że ludzie zaczęli się wzajemnie tratować. Naporu nie wytrzymały barierki i ogromny ścisk przyczynił się do zablokowania dróg oddechowych, a w konsekwencji śmierci 66 kibiców. Wydarzenia z tamtego popołudnia, znane pod nazwą Ibrox disaster, zapoczątkowały szereg zmian na stadionie Rangers, a podczas jego gruntownej modernizacji wzorowano się na obiekcie Borussi Dortmund – Westfalenstadion. +Tydzień po zdobyciu Pucharu Zdobywców Pucharów z funkcji menadżera niespodziewanie zrezygnował Waddell i postanowił zająć miejsce w zarządzie, a dotychczasowe stanowisko przekazał swojemu doradcy – Jockowi Wallace'owi, który oficjalnie nowym szkoleniowcem został 31 maja 1972 r. +Mimo że w kolejnym sezonie „The Gers” nie zanotowali większych sukcesów, a w rozgrywkach ligowych uplasowali się na najniższym stopniu podium, to rok później piłkarze prowadzeni przez Wallace'a przerwali trwającą blisko dekadę dominację „The Bhoys” i po jedenastu latach zdobyli Mistrzostwo Szkocji, zdecydowanie wyprzedzając ekipy Hibernianu i Celticu. Sezon 1974/1975 był zarazem ostatnim, w którym szkocka ekstraklasa liczyła osiemnaście zespołów. Od 1975 r. nosiła ona miano Scottish Premier Division i uczestniczyła w niej już tylko dziesiątka najlepszych drużyn w kraju. W pierwszych zawodach rozgrywanych w nowej formule ponownie bezkonkurencyjni okazali się zawodnicy z Ibrox, którzy dodatkowo wywalczyli Puchar Szkocji (3:1 z Hearts) i Puchar Ligi (1:0 z Celtikiem), kompletując tym samym trzecią w historii potrójną koronę. +W wyniku zamieszek na Heysel z maja 1985 r. i zawieszenia jakie nałożyła UEFA na kluby Football League First Division, nowy menadżer miał ułatwione zadanie w realizacji swojego celu, jakim było zbudowanie swojego zespołu w oparciu o angielskich, a nie jak dotychczas, jedynie szkockich zawodników. Już pierwszego lata pod wodzą Sounessa na Ibrox trafiło kilku graczy zza południowej granicy, na czele z reprezentantami kraju Chrisem Woodsem (pomiędzy 29 listopada 1986 r. a 31 stycznia 1987 r. nowo pozyskany bramkarz ustanowił brytyjski rekord 1196 minut bez straconej bramki ) i Terrym Butcherem, a premierowy dla nich sezon 1986/1987 zakończył się zdobyciem pierwszego od dziewięciu lat Mistrzostwa Szkocji oraz Pucharu Ligi Szkockiej, po finałowej wygranej 2:1 nad Celtikiem. +Pomimo kolejnych głośnych transferów z 1987 r. (m.in. Richard Gough, Ray Wilkins, Trevor Francis czy Mark Walters) i stale słabnącej siły New Firm „The Gers” rozczarowali w rozgrywkach ligowych, nie zdołali obronić tytułu i ostatecznie zajęli trzecią pozycją, przegrywając nie tylko z Celtikiem, ale i z Hearts. W Pucharze Mistrzów drużyna z Ibrox zanotowała najlepszy od dziewięciu lat wynik, dochodząc do fazy ćwierćfinałowej (porażka w dwumeczu 2:3 ze Steauą Bukareszt), a ponownym sukcesem zakończył się start w League Cup, gdzie Rangers zwyciężyli w decydującym pojedynku Aberdeen (3:3, 5:3 w rzutach karnych). +23 listopada 1988 r. nowym właścicielem Rangers został David Murray, kupując od Lawrence'a Marlborough za 6 milionów funtów większościowe udziały, a w czerwcu następnego roku mianował się prezesem, zastępując na tym stanowisku Holmesa. Od początku swojego panowania na Ibrox Murray zaskakiwał wielu kibiców i obserwatorów swoimi działaniami, a jednym z najbardziej szokujących posunięć było pozyskanie już po kilku tygodniach Mo Johnstona – byłego gracza Celticu i pierwszego od kilkudziesięciu lat otwartego wyznawcy religii rzymskokatolickiej do mającego protestanckie tradycje Rangers. Tylko w pierwszym dziesięcioleciu władania szkockim klubem nowy właściciel przeznaczył na wzmocnienia składu i rozwój infrastruktury przeszło 140 milionów funtów i to właśnie w tych działaniach eksperci doszukują się genezy kryzysu finansowego Rangers. +W sezonie 1990/1991 głównym rywalem Rangers w walce o mistrzostwo Szkocji był Aberdeen. 16 kwietnia 1991 r., gdy liga wkraczała w decydującą fazę, rezygnację złożył Souness, który postanowił pomóc swojemu byłemu klubowi – Liverpoolowi. Murray, w podziękowaniu za pracę jaką Szkot wykonał dla Rangers, pozwolił mu odejść do Anglii, a trzy dni później nowym menadżerem ogłosił Waltera Smitha, asystującemu do tej pory byłemu szkoleniowcowi. Ostatnim trofeum wywalczonym za kadencji Sounessa był Puchar Ligi zdobyty w listopadzie 1990 r. po finałowej wygranej 2:1 nad Celtikiem. +Choć w sezonie 1997/1998 nowo pozyskany Włoch Marco Negri strzelał gole w każdym z pierwszych dziesięciu meczów (zdobywając wówczas 23 bramki), to ogłoszona w lutym decyzja Waltera Smitha o planowanym opuszczeniu klubu po zakończeniu rozgrywek oraz marcowe odejście Gascoigne'a miały znaczący wpływ na obniżkę formy zespołu. Pomimo wygranej nad Celtikiem na cztery kolejki przed końcem sezonu, co pozwoliło objąć pozycję lidera, w trzech następnych spotkaniach „The Gers” dwukrotnie przegrywali, w tym z Kilmarnock po bramce z 90. minuty, która pozwoliła lokalnemu rywalowi na przypieczętowanie tydzień później mistrzowskiego tytułu. W Pucharze Szkocji klub przegrał 1:2 z Hearts, przez co był to pierwszy od dwunastu lat sezon bez zdobytego trofeum (z Pucharu Ligi piłkarzy z Ibrox wyeliminowało w ćwierćfinale Dundee United). Zapowiedziane wcześniej odejście Smitha ostatecznie nastąpiło 31 maja 1998 r. Dzień później jego następcą mianowano pierwszego w historii klubu zagranicznego menadżera – Holendra Dicka Advocaata. +Rangers naprzemiennie używają obecnie dwóch herbów. Pierwszy z nich, przedstawiający splecione ze sobą litery R, F i C (pochodzące od pełnej nazwy klubu), pojawił się już w 1872 r., a po zakończeniu sezonu 2002/2003, w którym „The Gers” wywalczyli swoje 50. Mistrzostwo Szkocji, nad herbem umieszczono pięć złotych gwiazdek, z których każda miała symbolizować dziesięć tytułów. Począwszy od 1968 r. widnieje on na klubowych strojach. +Rangers posiada jedno z najsilniejszych na świecie zaplecze kibicowskie, a średnia frekwencja na ligowych spotkaniach rozgrywanych na własnym stadionie (w sezonie 2011/2012: 46 324) regularnie mieści się w pierwszej dwudziestce na liście europejskich klubów z najwyższą liczbą widzów. Kibice „The Gers”, zwani niekiedy Bluenoses bądź Bears, są autorami wielu rekordów, między innymi najwyższej frekwencji na brytyjskim meczu ligowym (118 567 z Celtikiem, 2 stycznia 1939 roku), spotkaniu towarzyskim (104 679 z Eintrachtem Frankfurt, 17 października 1961 r.), meczu pucharowym niebędącym finałem (143 470 z Hibernianem, 27 marca 1948 r.) czy też ligowym pojedynku na czwartym poziomie rozgrywek (49 913 ze Stirling Albion, 8 grudnia 2012 r.). +Już po niespełna trzech latach na stadionie doszło do pierwszej katastrofy, w której zginęło 26 osób, a 517 doznało uszczerbku na zdrowiu. Druga tragedia, ze stycznia 1971 r., pochłonęła 66 ofiar i raniła ponad 200 kibiców. Wydarzenia te, które przeszły do historii jako Ibrox Disasters, doprowadziły do gruntownej modernizacji stadionu, nadzorowanej przez Williama Waddella. Po wielu latach przebudowy obecny wygląd obiektu Rangers uzyskano w 1997 roku, kiedy oficjalnie zmieniono jego nazwę na Ibrox Stadium. Efekt tych prac doceniła UEFA, przyznając mu maksymalną notę "pięciu gwiazdek", która następnie została zastąpiona przez Kategorię Elite. Po kolejnych modyfikacjach w ocenie stadionów Ibrox zajmuje obecnie miejsce na liście obiektów najwyższej, Kategorii 4. +25 października 2012 z koryta starorzecza Warty (niedaleko miejscowości Warta, woj. łódzkie) wydobyto czołg Valentine Mk IX z czasów II wojny światowej. Okoliczni mieszkańcy od dawna opowiadali historię o zatopionym w starym korycie rzeki Warty czołgu. W styczniu 1945 r. pod pojazdem załamał się lód i maszyna, należąca do Armii Czerwonej, utknęła w rzece na dziesięciolecia. Akcja wydobycia trwała dwa dni. Wrak był zatopiony w mule i dzięki prawie beztlenowemu środowisku czołg zachował się w idealnym stanie. Po wydobyciu obracały się koła i gąsienice. Do czasów obecnych zachowało się kilkanaście egzemplarzy czołgu Valentine różnych wersji, z czego zachowane są prawdopodobnie tylko 3 lub 4 egzemplarze tego czołgu które brały udział w działaniach bojowych podczas II wojny światowej, pozostałe to egzemplarze używane wyłącznie do szkoleń lub w celach doświadczalnych. +Nadrenia-Palatynat (niem. "Rheinland-Pfalz") – kraj związkowy w południowo-zachodnich Niemczech. Założony został w 1947 r. Stolicą kraju związkowego jest Moguncja. +Kraj związkowy został sformowany 30 sierpnia 1946 r. zarządzeniem francuskiego rządu wojskowego z krainy Palatynat i części Nadrenii. Powstanie nowego kraju związkowego zostało zatwierdzone podczas referendum 18 maja 1947 roku. +W końcu października 1939 r. w Warszawie zostaje powołana Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska (TON) – jednocząca największy Związek Nauczycielstwa Polskiego oraz pięć innych organizacji nauczycielskich. Należało stworzyć konspiracyjny system nauczania oparty na całym społeczeństwie. Była to jedna z form walki z okupantem. TON początkowo objęła szkolnictwo powszechne, wkrótce powstały jednak komplety o programie szkoły średniej. Szybko ustalono zasady organizacyjne kompletu (liczbę uczniów i godzin nauki, stworzono tajne programy nauczania oraz zasady korzystania z lokali). Na podstawie tajnych programów uczono przede wszystkim zakazanych przedmiotów: języka polskiego, geografii i historii. Tajnym nauczaniem w zakresie szkoły podstawowej objęto w całej Polsce 1,5 miliona dzieci. Tajne komplety prowadzili profesorowie wyższych uczelni w Warszawie i Krakowie. Otwieranie nowych szkół zawodowych (za zgodą władz niemieckich), pomagało w zorganizowaniu tajnego nauczania na poziomie uniwersyteckim. Mogło się ono odbywać w lokalach tych szkół i korzystać z pomocy naukowych. Nauczanie w tajnych kompletach przynosiło wymierne efekty. Tysiące licealistów i studentów kontynuowało naukę i studia, zdawało maturę oraz uczyło się mowy ojczystej i historii. +Gdy te terytoria trafiły po 1941 r. pod władzę niemiecką – okupant niemiecki zlikwidował również i te szkoły. Po roku 1941 tajne nauczanie podjęły uniwersytety we Lwowie (Uniwersytet Lwowski) i w Wilnie (Uniwersytet Wileński). We Lwowie niemieccy okupanci pozwolili z czasem na częściowe reaktywowanie szkolnictwa wyższego, jednak na zasadzie wyższych szkół zawodowych ("Fachkurse"). Dzięki temu prowadzono wyższe kursy medyczne na dawnym Wydziale Lekarskim UJK [http://www.lwow.home.pl/lek/albert1.html] i kursy zawodowe na niektórych wydziałach Politechniki Lwowskiej. Zajęcia prowadzone w większości przez przedwojenną polską kadrę naukową stały na wysokim poziomie i z reguły absolwenci tych kursów uzyskiwali po wojnie nostryfikację swych dyplomów na polskich uczelniach. +Pod koniec XIX wieku Dolinka Smocza była odwiedzana częściej niż obecnie – wchodzono nią na Wysoką. Pierwszymi osobami znanymi z nazwiska, które odwiedziły to miejsce, byli Tytus Chałubiński i uczestnicy zorganizowanej przez niego 10 sierpnia 1876 r. wycieczki na Wysoką. Zimą dotarli do doliny jako pierwsi Ernst Dubke, Aladár Polnisch senior, Johann Breuer i Johann Franz senior 6 marca 1905 r. +Po przybyciu Carnapa, uważanego często za najwybitniejszego w tym gronie filozofa, Koło Wiedeńskie zostało skompletowane. W opublikowanym w 1929 r. manifeście podano nazwiska jego czternastu członków. Oprócz już wymienionych Carnapa, Feigla, Franka, Gödla, Hahna, Krafta, Mengera, Neuratha, Schlicka i Waismanna, należeli doń filozofowie Gustav Bergmann, Marcel Natkin, Theodor Radković i matematyk - siostra Hahna i druga żona Neuratha - Olga Hahn-Neurath. Po wyjeździe Bergmanna i Feigla do Stanów Zjednoczonych ich miejsca zajęli Bela von Juhos i Edgar Zilsel. +Członkowie Koła nawiązali współpracę z założonym w Berlinie w 1928 r. Towarzystwem Filozofii Empirycznej. Jego przywódcą był Hans Reichenbach (1891-1953), który - aby podkreślić pewne różnice poglądów - określał siebie mianem logicznego empirysty, Carnapa i jego kolegów nazywając logicznymi pozytywistami. Wśród berlińskich empirystów znajdował się Carl Gustav Hempel (ur. 1905), który odebrał wykształcenie z matematyki i fizyki. Do grupy należeli też logik Kurt Grelling i rozwijający teorii prawdopodobieństwa Richard von Mises. +W 1929 r. przyjechał do Warszawy Karl Menger, którego poruszyły osiągnięcia założonej na przełomie wieków przez Kazimierza Twardowskiego (1866-1938) szkoły lwowsko-warszawskiej w zakresie logiki i metodologii. Wkrótce potem do Wiednia pojechał Alfred Tarski, by w ramach prowadzonego przez Mengera kolokwium matematycznego przedstawić najważniejsze osiągnięcia logiczne własne i swych kolegów. Wkrótce potem Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz, Leon Chwistek, Kazimierz Leśniewski, Jan Łukasiewicz, Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Alfred Tarski i inni nawiązali z wiedeńskimi empirystami logicznymi stałą współpracę. +W 1895 r. Ernst Mach (1838-1916) objął na Uniwersytecie Wiedeńskim nowo utworzoną Katedrę Historii i Teorii Nauk Indukcyjnych. Gdy po wylewie krwi do mózgu zrezygnował z pracy na uczelni, jego miejsce zajął w 1902 r. fizyk i filozof Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906), który zmienił jednak nazwę katedry aby nie wygłaszać wykładu inauguracyjnego na cześć swojego poprzednika, a filozoficznego wroga. +W 1907 r. w czwartkowe wieczory w jednej z wiedeńskich kawiarni zaczęła odbywać regularne spotkania grupa młodych naukowców i filozofów, wśród których na plan pierwszy wysunęli się fizyk Philipp Frank (1884-1966), znany matematyk Hans Hahn (1879-1934) i ekonomista Otto Neurath (1882-1945). Przejęci byli kryzysową sytuacją, w jakiej na początku dwudziestego wieku znalazła się fizyka, a jeszcze bardziej znaczeniem rewolucji w fizyce zapoczątkowanej ogłoszeniem przez Einsteina szczególnej teorii względności. Załamanie się mechanicystycznego obrazu świata, stanowiącego od dwóch stuleci wzorzec naukowości, wielu uznało za klęskę nauki w ogóle: okazała się ona użytecznym technicznie narzędziem, ale nie prawdziwą wiedzą o świecie. Wspomniani młodzi myśliciele usiłowali w tej sytuacji sformułować zasady nowej filozofii nauki, w której świetle fizyka zachowałaby prawo do miana wiedzy, a osiągnięcia Einsteina jawiłyby się jako postęp poznawczy w stosunku do fizyki klasycznej. Źródła inspiracji znaleźli w pismach Macha (krytyka wyjaśniania jako redukcji do procesów mechanicznych, radykalny empiryzm) i Poincarégo ("Był on dla nas niczym Kant uwolniony od pozostałości średniowiecznej scholastyki i naoliwiony współczesną nauką" (Frank 1950, Wstęp, § 4)), a także Duhema ("W fizyce niemożliwe jest experimentum crucis"), Hilberta (ujęcie aksjomatów jako "ukrytych definicji") oraz w filozoficznych i metodologicznych uwagach Einsteina. Żywo dyskutowali też zagadnienia moralne, religijne i polityczne. +Dało to początek nieformalnej grupie, która w 1922 r. zaprosiła do Wiednia Moritza Schlicka (1882-1936) aby objął na uniwersytecie wspomnianą katedrę po Machu i Boltzmannie, przemianowaną tym razem na Katedrę Filozofii i Historii Nauk Indukcyjnych. Wkrótce po przybyciu Schlick zaczął w czwartkowe wieczory prowadzić seminarium, wokół którego w ciągu następnych kilku lat uformowała się grupa określana mianem Koła Wiedeńskiego. Wielu jej członków nie było profesjonalnymi filozofami, zaś filozofowie w większości mieli pozafilozoficzne wykształcenie. Do najaktywniejszych należeli początkowo, obok wspomnianych już Hahna, Neuratha i Schlicka, historyk Victor Kraft, prawnik Felix Kaufmann, matematyk Kurt Reidemeister i dwóch studentów, Friedrich Waismann (1896-1959) i Herbert Feigl (1902-19..). Często przyjeżdżał do Wiednia pracujący na Uniwersytecie Karola w Pradze wspomniany już Frank, luźniej z Kołem związany był matematyk Karl Menger, a także słynny później logik Kurt Gödel (1906-1978). +Moritz Schlick pochodził z bogatej pruskiej rodziny o nacjonalistycznych tradycjach. Studiował fizykę, doktorat na podstawie pracy o odbiciu światła w ośrodkach niejednorodnych, pisanej pod kierunkiem Maxa Plancka, uzyskał w Berlinie w 1906 r. Choć jego pracę o czasie i przestrzeni w fizyce współczesnej pochwalił sam Einstein, zdecydował się porzucić fizykę dla filozofii, którą wykładał na uniwersytetach w Rostocku i Kiel. Jego pierwsza książka filozoficzna była poświęcona poszukiwaniu szczęścia, rozgłos przyniosła mu natomiast ogłoszona w 1918 r. Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre (Ogólna teoria poznania). +W 1926 r. przybył do Wiednia Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970). Przyszedł na świat w rodzinie niemieckich tkaczy. Pracę nad doktoratem z fizyki przerwał mu wybuch wojny, którą spędził jako oficer na froncie. Doktorat z filozofii otrzymał w Jenie w 1921 r. na podstawie pracy o przestrzeni we współczesnej fizyce; był w tym czasie głęboko poruszony filozoficznym znaczeniem teorii względności. Jeszcze przed wojną uczęszczał na wykłady Gottloba Fregego z logiki, studiował też logiczne i epistemologiczne prace Bertranda Russella. Przed przybyciem do Wiednia oprócz kilku artykułów o czasie, przestrzeni i przyczynowości, napisał ogłoszony parę lat później Abriss der Logistik (Zarys logiki matematycznej, 1929). Wkrótce potem ukończył swoje pierwsze ważne dzieło filozoficzne, Der logische Aufbau der Welt (Logiczna budowa świata, 1928). +Po przybyciu Carnapa, uważanego często za najwybitniejszego w tym gronie filozofa, Koło Wiedeńskie zostało skompletowane. W opublikowanym w 1929 r. manifeście podano nazwiska jego czternastu członków; oprócz już wymienionych Carnapa, Feigla, Franka, Gödla, Hahna, Krafta, Mengera, Neuratha, Schlicka i Waismanna, należeli doń filozofowie Gustav Bergmann, Marcel Natkin, Theodor Radković i matematyk - siostra Hahna i druga żona Neuratha - Olga Hahn-Neurath. Gdy Bergmann i Feigl wyjechali do Stanów Zjednoczonych ich miejsca zajęli Bela von Juhos i Edgar Zilsel. +Rychło nawiązano współpracę z założonym w Berlinie w 1928 r. Towarzystwem Filozofii Empirycznej. Jego przywódcą był Hans Reichenbach (1891-1953), który - aby podkreślić pewne różnice poglądów - określał siebie mianem logicznego empirysty, Carnapa i jego kolegów nazywając logicznymi pozytywistami. Najwybitniejszą wśród berlińskich empirystów postacią okazał się Carl Gustav Hempel (ur. 1905), który odebrał wykształcenie z matematyki i fizyki. Do grupy należeli też logik Kurt Grelling i zasłużony dla rozwoju teorii prawdopodobieństwa Richard von Mises. +W 1929 r. przyjechał do Warszawy Karl Menger, którego bardzo poruszyły osiągnięcia założonej na przełomie wieków przez Kazimierza Twardowskiego (1866-1938) szkoły lwowsko-warszawskiej w zakresie logiki i metodologii. Wkrótce potem do Wiednia pojechał Alfred Tarski, by w ramach prowadzonego przez Mengera kolokwium matematycznego przedstawić najważniejsze osiągnięcia logiczne własne i swych kolegów. Wkrótce potem Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz, Leon Chwistek, Kazimierz Leśniewski, Jan Łukasiewicz, Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Alfred Tarski i inni nawiązali z wiedeńskimi empirystami logicznymi stałą współpracę. +Obok Macha decydujący wpływ na kształtowanie się filozoficznego programu Koła Wiedeńskiego wywarł Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), którego młodzieńcza praca Logisch-philosophische Abhandlung ukazała się w 1921 r., w rok później wydano ją wraz z równoległym przekładem angielskim jako Tractatus logico-philosophicus. Wkrótce członkowie kształtującego się Koła uznali, że w książce tej sformułowane zostały podstawowe zasady filozofii, jakiej poszukiwali. Ponoć prowadzone w roku 1926 studia nad tekstem przypominały w nastroju egzegezę pism objawionych. Tymczasem Wittgenstein porzucił uprawianie filozofii i przez parę lat pracował jako nauczyciel wiejski w Dolnej Austrii. Gdy przeniósł się do Wiednia Schlickowi udało się w 1927 r. nawiązać z nim kontakt. Przez kilka lat Schlick i Waismann spotykali się, początkowo w towarzystwie Carnapa i Feigla, z Wittgensteinem - nie były to spotkania dyskusyjne, raczej ich uczestnicy wysłuchiwali improwizowanych uwag autora Traktatu niczym, by użyć określeń ze wspomnień Carnapa, dzieła sztuki bądź boskiego objawienia. +W 1929 r. na cześć powracającego do Wiednia Moritza Schlicka (który po wykładach w Stanach Zjednoczonych odrzucił oferty pracy na tamtejszych uniwersytetach) wydano filozoficzny manifest: Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung: Der Wiener Kreis (Naukowy światopogląd: Koło Wiedeńskie). Napisany przez Neuratha, przy pomocy Carnapa i Hahna, ten dwudziestostronicowy tekst poglądy samego Schlicka przedstawiał w dość krzywym zwierciadle; część członków Koła odniosła się do niego z dezaprobatą. Nigdy więcej podobnego manifestu nie sporządzono. (Ogólnie rzecz biorąc, zasadniczy podział w Kole Wiedeńskim przebiegał między jego "lewym skrzydłem" Neuratha i Hahna, podkreślającym intersubiektywny charakter wiedzy i społeczną rolę nauki, a "prawym skrzydłem" Schlicka i Waismanna, znajdującym się pod przemożnym wpływem Wittgensteina i nastawionym indywidualistycznie. Carnap usiłował czas jakiś godzić oba stanowiska, w końcu skierował się w lewo.) +W 1930 r. Koło Wiedeńskie rozpoczęło intensywną działalność wydawniczą i propagandową. Przejęty kwartalnik filozoficzny przemianowano na "Erkenntnis"; pismo to, redagowane przez Carnapa i Reichenbacha, stało się główną trybuną nowej filozofii. W latach 1928-1937 wydano dziesięć książek w serii "Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung", m. in. Schlicka Zagadnienia etyki (1930), Neuratha Empirische Soziologie (1931), Carnapa Logiczną składnię języka (1934), a także Logikę odkrycia naukowego (1934) Karla Poppera (który nie należał do Koła i ani razu nie uczestniczył w czwartkowym seminarium Schlicka). Opublikowano też w latach 1933-1939 dziewięć broszur w redagowanej przez Neuratha serii "Einheitswissenschaft". Zaczęto organizować kongresy nowej filozofii; pierwszy w Pradze w 1929 r., drugi rok później w Królewcu. Począwszy od kongresu w Pradze w 1934 r. poczęli w nich uczestniczyć, oprócz Austriaków i Niemców, Polacy, Skandynawowie, Amerykanie i inni. Jeśli chodzi o Amerykanów, to współpracę z Kołem nawiązali Charles Morris (1901-1979), Ernest Nagel (1901-1985) i Willard van Orman Quine (1908-2000). W Anglii empiryzm logiczny miał tylko jednego wybitnego przedstawiciela, Alfreda J. Ayera (1910-1989), który po pobycie w Wiedniu przedstawił - we własnym ujęciu - podstawowe założenia tej filozofii w książce Language, Truth and Logic (Język, prawda i logika, 1936). Bliscy nowej filozofii byli Skandynawowie Jørgen Jørgensen, Eino Kaila, Arne Naess, Åke Petzäll. Kolejne kongresy odbyły się w Paryżu (1935), Kopenhadze (1936), znów w Paryżu (w ramach Dziewiątego Międzynarodowego Kongresu Filozofii, 1937), w Cambridge (1938), a we wrześniu 1939 r. w Harvardzie. +Kres działalności empirystów logicznych w Europie położyła ekspansja niemieckiego faszyzmu. Feigl, Neurath, Reichenbach i Waismann byli bezpośrednio zagrożeni jako Żydzi, dla pozostałych (inaczej niż dla Heideggera) faszyzm był nieakceptowalny. W 1934 r. niespodziewanie umarł Hahn. W 1936 r. Schlick został zastrzelony przez umysłowo chorego studenta, co położyło kres regularnym spotkaniom Koła (jego zabójca po włączeniu Austrii do Niemiec został wypuszczony z więzienia jako członek partii faszystowskiej, ponownie uwięziony przez Rosjan wyszedł rychło na wolność jako świeżo nawrócony komunista). W tym samym roku Carnap, który jeszcze w 1931 r. przeniósł się z Wiednia do Pragi, wyemigrował do Stanów Zjednoczonych (pracował kolejno na uniwersytetach w Chicago i w Los Angeles), gdzie od paru lat przebywał już Feigl; dołączyli do nich Gödel, Kaufmann, Menger i Zilsel. Neurath przeniósł się do Holandii, skąd w 1940 r. zdołał przeprawić się do Anglii. Wyemigrował tam też Waismann. Reichenbach w 1933 r. opuścił Niemcy i przez pięć lat wykładał na Uniwersytecie w Stambule, później pracował w Uniwersytecie Kalifornijskim w Los Angeles. Od 1937 r. w Yale, a potem w Princeton wykładał Hempel. W 1938 r., gdy zakazano rozpowszechniania publikacji empirystów logicznych w krajach niemieckojęzycznych, Neurath przeniósł "Erkenntnis" do Hagi; wydawał to pismo do 1940 r. pod tytułem zmienionym na "Journal of Unified Science". +Ostatnim wielkim przedsięwzięciem Koła Wiedeńskiego i jego współpracowników miała być International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (Międzynarodowa Encyklopedia Nauki Zjednoczonej). Otto Neurath, autor projektu, żywił nadzieję, że odegra ona podobną rolę jak niegdyś Wielka Encyklopedia Francuska. Całość miała składać się z 26 tomów, poświęconych kolejno zagadnieniom podstaw nauki zjednoczonej, problemom metodologicznym, przeglądowi aktualnego stanu poszczególnych dyscyplin, a wreszcie omówieniu praktycznych zastosowań wiedzy naukowej. Każdy tom zawierałby 10 monografii napisanych przez naukowców i filozofów zarówno zachodnich, jak i azjatyckich, publikowano by je równolegle w językach angielskim, francuskim i niemieckim; dziesięciotomowy suplement składałby się z map i wykresów. Byłaby to wielka synteza nauk ujętych z perspektywy logicznego empiryzmu. Projekt został zaaprobowany podczas Pierwszego Międzynarodowego Kongresu Jedności Nauki w Paryżu w 1935 r., w trzy lata później ukazały się, pod redakcją Neuratha, Carnapa i Morrisa, dwa zbiory artykułów o charakterze programowym. Ostatecznie seria przeobraziła się jednak w zbiór odrębnych prac filozoficznych coraz bardziej odległych od ideału jedności nauki. Ostatni, VI Międzynarodowy Kongres Jedności Nauki, odbył się w 1941 r. w Chicago. W ramach "Encyklopedii" ukazała się - jako jedyna książka w serii broszur - w 1962 r. Struktura rewolucji naukowych Thomasa S. Kuhna (zob. rozdz. 4), uważana powszechnie za gwóźdź do trumny logicznego empiryzmu. +Jak powiedziano, po II wojnie światowej dawni członkowie i współpracownicy Koła Wiedeńskiego przestali określać siebie mianem empirystów czy pozytywistów logicznych. Prawie wszyscy, wraz ze swymi uczniami, prowadzili działalność na terenie Stanów Zjednoczonych, ale nie powstał tam żaden jednolity ruch filozoficzny. Z drugiej strony między ich poglądami zachodziły liczne podobieństwa: łączyły ich zarówno idee przejęte (w złagodzonej postaci) po Kole Wiedeńskim, jak i nieustanne oddziaływanie wzajemne, co w sumie pozwala określić ich dokonania mianem standardowej koncepcji teorii naukowych. Podstawową trybuną tej filozofii nauki stał się założony w 1934 r. kwartalnik "The Philosophy of Science", a także tomy wydawane od 1956 r. w serii "Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science". +Debiutancki koncert Niebiesko-Czarnych odbył się 24 marca 1962 w klubie "Żak" w Gdańsku. Tego samego roku, w czerwcu, zajęli pierwsze miejsce na Pierwszym Festiwalu Młodych Talentów. Pierwszych nagrań radiowych dokonali we wrześniu, a nagrań płytowych w listopadzie tego samego roku. W 1962 i 1963 byli gospodarzami sopockiego Non-Stopu. W styczniu 1963 powołanego do wojska Jerzego Kosselę zastąpił Janusz Popławski, a w lipcu i sierpniu podczas Non-Stopu opuścili zespół: Daniel Danielowski, Henryk Zomerski i Jerzy Kowalski. Ich miejsce zajęli: Zbigniew Bernolak, Zbigniew Podgajny i Andrzej Nebeski. Również od Non-Stopu w 1963 r. rozpoczął występy z Niebiesko-Czarnymi Michaj Burano. W grudniu 1963 roku wspólnie z Michajem Burano, Czesławem Niemenem i Heleną Majdaniec wystąpili w paryskiej Olimpii i nagrali pierwszą płytę na zachodzie Europy (DECCA 460.811 M). +Od lipca 1965 r. w miejsce Włodzimierza Wandera, Andrzeja Nebeskiego i Zbigniewa Bernolaka, którzy założyli grupę Polanie, przyszli: Krzysztof Wiśniarowski i Tadeusz Głuchowski z zespołu Tony. W listopadzie 1966, opuścił zespół Czesław Niemen, który założył własny zespół Akwarele. W roku 1966 wspólnie z Michajem Burano zdobyli Grand Prix Festiwalu Piosenki w Rennes, a w Paryżu zajęli 1. miejsce w turnieju zespołów rockowych w klubie Golf Drout. W 1967 zespół opuścili: Krzysztof Wiśniarowski (którego zastąpił Krzysztof Potocki), Helena Majdaniec i Piotr Janczerski. W nocy z 31 października na 1 listopada 1967 Niebiesko-Czarni wystąpili w Radiu Luksemburg. +Awansowany do stopnia podporucznika rezerwy artylerii ze starszeństwem z 1 stycznia 1929 r. Następnie pełnił służbę w Straży Granicznej. +1 stycznia 1945 otrzymał stopień kapitana i został wcielony do 1 Brygady Zaporowej w Majdanku. Następnie w po kilku miesiącach pracy jako komendant Szkoły Podoficerskiej Kawalerii awansował na majora i został skierowany do zorganizowania Zakładu Tresury Psów Służbowych Korpusu Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego w Michalinie (od 1946 r. w Sułkowicach). Jednocześnie pełnił też obowiązki instruktora szkolenia szwadronów kawalerii. W 1959 r. mianowany został komendantem Zakładu Tresury Psów Służbowych Korpusu Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego i Milicji Obywatelskiej w Sułkowicach. Od 1 kwietnia 1956 r. do 1 września 1958 r. kierował Zakładem Tresury Psów Służbowych Milicji Obywatelskiej w Sułkowicach. Awansował do stopnia pułkownika i w 1959 przeszedł na zasłużoną emeryturę. +Po wojnie aktywnie działał w związku kynologicznym i oddał nieocenione zasługi w hodowli rasy Gończy polski. Jest autorem książki "Na dnie jeziora", która została wydana już po jego śmierci w Polsce w 1981 r. oraz w Czechach w 1989 r. Jest to biografia, która stanowi ważną pozycję w historii polskich Bieszczadów. +"Krążyły plotki, że Starewicz nie jest Polakiem. On zawsze był Polakiem. Tylko wybuch wojny w 1939 r. uniemożliwił mu powrót do kraju, do Warszawy. Kilka miesięcy przed wybuchem wojny, producent pan Stefan Katelbach podpisał z nim kontrakt na realizację filmu pt. "Pani Twardowska", na podstawie poematu A. Mickiewicza." - Charles Ford bliski przyjaciel Starewicza +Wieś została wyzwolona 21 lipca 1944 r. przez oddziały AK Obwodu tomaszowskiego, przed nadejściem wojsk sowieckich. +Scopus powstał w 2002 r. jako odpowiedź wydawnictwa Elsevier na wzrastającą popularność i oddziaływanie analogicznego serwisu Instytutu Filadelefijskiego ("ISI Web of Science"). Według twórców, baza Scopus obejmuje 16 000 czasopism (w porównaniu z 16 725 w ISI – dane na koniec listopada 2008), łatwiejsza i przyjemniejsza w obsłudze i lepiej zintegrowana z elektronicznymi bazami danych wydawców poszczególnych czasopism. Posiada ona podobny system indeksowania cytowań jak baza ISI, który obejmuje także cytowania patentowe, podobnie jak w bazie ISI. ISI posiada jednak indeks cytowań od 1900 r., podczas gdy Scopus dopiero od 1996. Baza Scopus reklamuje się także jako mniej "amerykocentryczna". W bazie ISI ponad 70% indeksowanych czasopism jest wydawana w USA, podczas gdy w Scopus jest to 60%. +Telewizja Polska, finansująca serial zdecydowała o zakończeniu realizacji I części serialu w 1979 r. W tym czasie w studio przygotowano produkcję czterech kolejnych odcinków. Zostały one ukończone w 1980 roku pod ogólnym tytułem "Nowe przygody Misia Uszatka" z przeznaczeniem do kin na seanse "porankowe" dla dzieci. W filmach tych Miś nie żegnał dzieci w piżamce i nie było końcowej, dobranockowej piosenki. Produkcja została sfinansowana z pieniędzy otrzymanych przez Studio z Ministerstwa Kultury. Później kontynuowano produkcję serialu telewizyjnego do roku 1987. +7 października 1944 roku nastąpił słynny "bunt Sonderkommando" w Krematorium IV. Był to ostatni z trzech wielkich buntów w dziejach hitlerowskich obozów (po buncie w Sobiborze i Treblince). Wzięło w nim udział prawie całe Sonderkommando (poza obsadą Krematorium III). Po zgromadzeniu przemyconych z obozu w Monowicach materiałów wybuchowych więźniowie częściowo zniszczyli krematorium nr IV i razem z więźniami osadzonymi w krematorium nr II podjęli próbę masowej ucieczki - zakończyła się ona niepowodzeniem. Większość z nich (451 osób) zginęła na miejscu. Straty były też po stronie załogi obozu. Buntem kierowali polscy Żydzi: Jankiel Handelsman, Josef Deresiński, Załmen Gradowski, Josef Darębus. Podjęte po buncie śledztwo ujawniło, że materiały wybuchowe dostarczyły cztery więźniarki, Żydówki – Roza Robota, Ala Gertner, Regina Safirsztain i Estera Wajcblum, pracujące przy demontażu starych samolotów. Zostały ujęte i publicznie powieszone w styczniu 1945 r., na 21 dni przed wyzwoleniem obozu. +Red Bull pojawił się poza granicami Austrii w roku 1992 roku na Węgrzech i w Słowenii, w 1994 r. rozpoczęto sprzedaż w Niemczech, w roku 1995 w Polsce, a w roku 1997 w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Dziś Red Bull sprzedawany jest w ponad 150 krajach na całym świecie. +Devon (znana również jako Devin lub Devin Striker, ur. 28 marca 1977 r. w Allentown w Pensylwanii) – to aktorka filmów porno. "Bomis Babe Report" uznał Devon za jedną z najbardziej pociągających kobiet w przemyśle filmów pornograficznych. +Pierwsze zetknięcie Devon z przemysłem erotycznym i pornograficznym nastąpiło w "New Breed" (1998). Po krótkim czasie podpisała kontrakt z firmą Vivid Video. W 1999 r. Devon wystąpiła w "E! Entertainments"' programie Howarda Sterna. Zaczęła również pozować dla kilku męskich magazynów (jej zdjęcie opublikowano na okładce "Club Magazine", została również "Penthouse Pet" w styczniu 2001). W styczniu 2002 dostała pierwszą nagrodę w swojej karierze w kategorii "Best interactive DVD" za "Virtual Sex with Devon" ("Virtual Sex with Devon" zostało również później nagrodzone przez "Empire" i "AFW"). Firma Digital Playground podpisała z Devon kontrakt na wyłączność. W maju 2002 r. była na rozkładówce magazynu "Stuff". +Do 1954 roku miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Chełmno. W latach 1975–1998 miejscowość należała administracyjnie do województwa konińskiego. Miejsce utworzenia w 1941 r. pierwszego na ziemiach polskich niemieckiego obozu zagłady. +Wzmiankowana w języku polskim po raz pierwszy w 1136 r. pośród innych miejscowości w tzw. Bulli gnieźnieńskiej jednym z najcenniejszych zabytków polskiej historiografii. Już wówczas była własnością arcybiskupów gnieźnieńskich. Od połowy XVI wieku stanowiła centrum klucza składającego się z sześciu wsi. Istniał tutaj także folwark arcybiskupi. W 1837 r. generał lejtnant Karol Bystram otrzymuje jako darowiznę majątek, którego centrum stanowi dawny pałac arcybiskupi. Jest to nagroda za zasługi wojenne i tłumienie powstania listopadowego. Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości majątek przechodzi na własność Skarbu Państwa. W dniu 7 października 1863 r. doszło w pobliżu wsi do potyczki pomiędzy kilkudziesięcioosobowym oddziałem jazdy powstańczej a kozakami. W połowie listopada 1914 r. w okolicach Chełmna i Rzuchowa dochodzi do bitwy pomiędzy wojskami rosyjskimi i niemieckimi. Świadectwem tamtych wydarzeń jest cmentarz wojenny, na którym spoczywają polegli w bitwie żołnierze. W czasach drugiej wojny światowej istniał tutaj niemiecki obóz zagłady Kulmhof. W okresie okupacji Niemcy zmienili nazwę wsi na niem. "Kulmhof an der Nehr" (1939–1945). 31 stycznia 1942 naziści za próbę poinformowania opinii publicznej o istnieniu obozu, dokonują aresztowania sekretarza gminy, Stanisława Kaszyńskiego. Wkrótce potem zostaje aresztowana również jego żona Karolina Kaszyńska. Kaszyński zginął rozstrzelany trzy dni później. 7 kwietnia 1943 r. pałacyk został zburzony przez Niemców. W 1973 r. otwarto nowo wybudowaną szkołę podstawową, która od 1999 r. nosi imię Adama Mickiewicza. +Początkowo zwłoki zakopywano we wspólnych mogiłach. Od lata 1942 r. podjęto akcję ich wydobycia i palenia w ogromnych ogniskach. W tym celu wybudowano także dwa prowizoryczne piece krematoryjne. +Ośrodek funkcjonował od 8 grudnia 1941 do kwietnia 1943 oraz krótko w połowie 1944 r., kiedy to podjęto akcję ostatecznej likwidacji łódzkiego getta. Do Kulmhof wywieziono wówczas ofiary pierwszego etapu, w czerwcu. Potem kierowano je już tylko do komór gazowych Auschwitz-Birkenau. +Obecnie na miejscu obozu mieści się muzeum i oraz monumentalny pomnik, wzniesiony 27 września 1964 r. Potężna betonowa płyta o wymiarach 35 i 36 m i wysokości 6-7 m, wsparta jest na pięciu piramidach. Na jej przedniej ścianie znajduje się olbrzymia płaskorzeźba, przedstawiająca sceny męczeństwa więźniów. Obok widniej napis - "Pamiętamy". Na tylnej ścianie pomnika wyryto fragment wstrząsającego listu napisanego przez jedną z ofiar: +Po południowej stronie pomnika utworzono lapidarium nagrobków ze zniszczonego w latach 1941–1943 cmentarza żydowskiego w Turku. W głębi lasu - obok zrekonstruowanych fragmentów krematorium i zbiorowych mogił - ustawiono w 1990 r. Ścianę Pamięci. Przy niej znajdują się liczne tablice i pomniki upamiętniające ofiary Holocaustu. +Historię regionu ze stolicą w Garwolinie wywodzi się do 25 lutego 1539 r., kiedy to król Zygmunt I Stary nakazał przeniesienie roków ziemskich dla prawobrzeżnej części powiatu czerskiego (z wyłączeniem Karczewa i Radwankowa) do Garwolina. Do okresu zaborów region obejmował jednak tylko obszar na Mazowszu. Dopiero w XIX w. włączono weń większą część ziemi stężyckiej. W podobnej postaci powiat przetrwał do 1975 r., kiedy to zlikwidowano powiaty. Po przywróceniu tych jednostek podziału administracyjnego w 1999 r. południowa część dawnego powiatu znalazła się w powiecie ryckim w woj. lubelskim. +Pierwsza sesja została oficjalnie zapoczątkowana nabożeństwem ekumenicznym, sprawowanym 22 sierpnia 1948 r. w Nieuwe Kerk w Amsterdamie. Uczestniczyło w niej 351 delegatów, reprezentujących 147 wspólnot kościelnych, głównie protestanckich i mniejszych starożytnych Kościołów wschodnich z 44 krajów. Była też niewielka delegacja prawosławnych z Konstantynopola i Grecji. Delegatom towarzyszyły setki zmienników, akredytowanych obserwatorów, delegatów młodzieży oraz dziennikarze. +Dichlorodifenylotrichloroetan (łac. "Clofenotanum"; DDT, "Azotox") – organiczny związek chemiczny z grupy chlorowanych węglowodorów. Stosowany jako środek owadobójczy. Syntezę DDT przeprowadził po raz pierwszy w 1874 austriacki chemik Othmar Zeidler. Właściwości owadobójcze tego związku odkrył Szwajcar Paul Müller, za co otrzymał Nagrodę Nobla w 1948 r. +Po dwuletnim pobycie w Płocku Krzywicki w 1888 r. zamieszkał w Warszawie. Od chwili powstania Związku Robotników Polskich stał się obok Juliana Marchlewskiego aktywnym jego działaczem i czołowym teoretykiem. Po aresztowaniach niektórych członków ZRP wyjechał do Berlina, w 1893 r. odwiedził Stany Zjednoczone, później często wyjeżdżał na krótko z Warszawy do bibliotek w Berlinie, Petersburgu i Londynie. Do 1916 r. współpracował z PPS-Lewicą. Powszechnie znany i ceniony jako teoretyk marksistowski ma wielkie zasługi w wykształceniu kilku pokoleń młodzieży socjalistycznej poprzez wykłady (od 1888 r. wykładał na tajnym Uniwersytecie Latającym w Warszawie, od 1904 tamże w Towarzystwie Kursów Naukowych, oraz na Wolnej Wszechnicy Polskiej), dorobek publicystyczny i naukowy. Dwukrotnie więziony był X Pawilonie Cytadeli Warszawskiej: w latach 1899-1900 (za „organizowanie bezpłatnych czytelni”) oraz w 1905 r. za udział w rewolucji. +Po odzyskaniu przez Polskę niepodległości w 1918 r. pracował w kilku placówkach naukowo-badawczych i uczelniach. Kierował katedrą historii ustrojów społecznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego i Instytutem Gospodarstwa Społecznego. W 1938 r. Instytut Gospodarstwa Społecznego wydał jubileuszową księgę pamiątkową na jego cześć. Za swe osiągnięcia na polu nauki powołany został w skład Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności. Jednogłośnie wybrano go też na przewodniczącego nowo powstającego Polskiego Towarzystwa Socjologicznego. +Za swoją działalność Ludwik Krzywicki został uhonorowany m.in. nagrodą im. Natansona, Kasy im. Mianowskiego oraz w 1934 r. Nagrodą Miasta Stołecznego Warszawy za całokształt działalności. W 1940 roku Uniwersytet w Kownie przyznał mu doktorat honoris causa, chcąc w ten sposób wyrazić uznanie za prowadzone przez Krzywickiego niemal od początku wieku badania nad litewskimi grodziskami. Wiele jego prac poświęconych temu tematowi zostało przetłumaczonych na język litewski. +Zmarł na atak serca 10 czerwca 1941 r. w Warszawie. +Microsoft Works pojawił się na rynku w 1987 r. (w wersji dla MS-DOS). +We wrześniu 1939 w mieście nie były prowadzone żadne poważniejsze działania wojenne. Zajęcie Świętochłowic nastąpiło w nocy z 2 na 3 września. Na terenie miasta powstało filie obozów koncentracyjnych. Najbardziej znany był utworzony w 1943 r. obóz Eintrachthütte w dzielnicy Zgoda. Był on filią obozu KL Auschwitz, na terenie którego zginęło kilkaset więźniów. 27 stycznia 1945 miasto zostało zajęte przez Armię Czerwoną. Natychmiast po zajęciu miasta przez Armię Czerwoną ponownie otwarto Obóz Zgoda. Komendantemi zostali Aleksy Krut i Salomon Morel. W ciągu 300 dni istnienia obozu zmarło lub zostało zamęczonych do 2500 przetrzymywanych osób. Obóz zlikwidowano 16 listopada 1945. +Obszar ziem dawnej Rzeczypospolitej pod władzą cesarza rosyjskiego zmieniał się na przestrzeni lat, tj. od I rozbioru w 1772 r. do chwili odzyskania niepodległości przez Polskę w 1918 r. +Po I wojnie światowej i pokoju ryskim (w 1921 r.), kończącym wojnę polsko-bolszewicką, znaczna część ziem dawnego zaboru rosyjskiego pozostała przy ZSRR bądź znalazła się w granicach Litwy i Łotwy. +Program, rozwijany od 1987 r. do 2008 r., był oferowany na rynku w wielu wersjach językowych. Od początku 2005 r. na rynku dostępna m.in. polskojęzyczna wersja Works 8 oraz anglojęzyczna wersja Works Suite 2005, różniące się znacznie zakresem oferowanych narzędzi. Dodatkowo wersja 9 jest darmowa, ale na licencji zbliżonej do adware (z reklamami, których wyłączenie kosztuje ok. $39). +Powiat nowosądecki – powiat w Polsce (województwo małopolskie), utworzony w 1999 r. w ramach reformy administracyjnej. Jego siedzibą jest miasto Nowy Sącz. +Po wojnie ziemię sądecką włączono do województwa krakowskiego, a Nowy Sącz stał się siedzibą powiatu. W wyniku reformy administracyjnej w 1975 r. powstało województwo nowosądeckie, zniesione w 1999 r. Nowy Sącz znów stał się siedzibą powiatu. +W 1910 r. Zygmunt Freud założył Międzynarodowe Towarzystwo Psychoanalityczne (IPA), które wydaje certyfikaty uprawniające do wykonywania zawodu psychoanalityka. Warunkiem uzyskania takiego certyfikatu są wieloletnie studia w Towarzystwie, składające się m.in. z własnej psychoanalizy, pracy klinicznej przebiegającej pod ścisłym nadzorem superwizorskim i szkoleń teoretycznych. W Polsce działa Polskie Towarzystwo Psychoanalityczne (zarejestrowane w 1997 r.). W 2004 r. zrzeszało ono 24 członków posiadających kwalifikacje uznawane przez Międzynarodowe Towarzystwo Psychoanalityczne. +Wydawnictwo założył w 1826 roku Louis Hachette (ur. 1800, zm. 1864). Po 38 latach działalności wydawnictwo stało się światowym liderem na rynku wydawniczym książek. Dynamiczny rozwój firmy pozwolił na przekroczenie granic Francji już w 1947 r. Pod koniec XX w. firma otrzymała aktualną nazwę Groupe Hachette Livre. +Pierwszymi znanymi osobami w Dolinie Koprowej byli Georg Pongrátz ok. 1750 r. oraz Jakob Buchholtz 26 sierpnia 1751 r. Zimą jako pierwsi dolinę odwiedzili E. Baur i Alfred Martin 18 marca 1906 r. +Dolina była od dawna wypasana, jeszcze do 1954 r. wypasano na Garajowej Polanie. Lasy były silnie eksploatowane. Jak podaje Maria Steczkowska, w 1858 r. były one bardzo przerzedzone, a w wielu miejscach całkiem wycięte. Skutkiem tego były ogromne lawiny schodzące z Liptowskich Kop. Lasy niszczył też pożar: w 1943 r. w ogromnym, kilkudniowym pożarze spłonęło 240 ha lasu na prawych zboczach doliny. Jednak w trudno dostępnych miejscach, jak np. w dolinie Niewcyrce, w Ciemnych Smreczynach czy na Krywaniu, przetrwały duże partie pierwotnych lasów i niezmienionego przez człowieka krajobrazu. Górale z Zakopanego od dawna w Dolinie Koprowej polowali na kozice i niedźwiedzie, a dolina była często opisywana w polskiej literaturze. Tutaj toczyły się akcje powieści Kazimierza Przerwy-Tetmajera, Tadeusza Malickiego, Jadwigi Roguskiej-Cybulskiej i Adama Bahdaja. W latach 1944–1945 w zakątkach Doliny Koprowej chroniły się duże oddziały partyzantki słowackiej i radzieckiej. +BAE Systems - wielonarodowy koncern przemysłu zbrojeniowego i lotniczego, powstały 30 listopada 1999 r. z połączenia British Aerospace (BAe) i Marconi Electronic Systems (MES) (część zbrojeniowa General Electric). Do swoich rynków macierzystych (domowych) koncern zalicza: Australię, Arabię Saudyjską, Republikę Południowej Afryki, Szwecję, Wielką Brytanię oraz Stany Zjednoczone, gdzie powstaje większość technologii koncernu. Dwoma największymi spółkami koncernu są zarejestrowana w Anglii i Walii BAE Systems plc oraz zależna od niej BAE Systems Inc. z siedzibą w Rockville w stanie Maryland, USA, jednakże koncern posiada swoje placówki w wielu krajach na wszystkich kontynentach, w tym w Polsce. +Początkowo folwark i osada należąca do gminy Okuniew. Legenda o pochodzeniu nazwy głosi, iż jej właścicielem był starosta warszawski – Grzybowski. Co najmniej od początku XX wieku własność księcia Emanuela Bułhaka. Według spisu z 1931 r. na terenie Woli Grzybowskiej były 52 domy. W czasach II wojny światowej poważnie zniszczona, odbudowana, w 1968 r. włączona do miasta Wesoła. +Tereny obecnego osiedla Wesoła-Centrum należały ok. 500 lat temu do dóbr wsi Długa, a w XVII w. – do gminy Okuniew. Początki osadnictwa są związane z budową Kolei Terespolskiej. W Wesołej powstała wówczas platforma przeładunkowa dla wojska rosyjskiego, która z czasem stała się przystankiem kolejowym. Wokół niego powstawały domy urzędników, kolejarzy, tramwajarzy, a także letnisko. W 1918 r. osiedle przybrało nazwę "Wesoła". Dalszy rozwój wiązał się ściśle z Warszawą. Według danych z 1931 r. w Wesołej było 70 budynków mieszkalnych. Pod koniec lat trzydziestych nastąpił burzliwy rozwój budownictwa willowego, czemu sprzyjał klimat i walory krajobrazowe osiedla. +W 1895 r. Zielona była wsią w powiecie warszawskim, w gminie Okuniew, o powierzchni 245 mórg z 68 mieszkańcami. W 1795 r. Austriacy wystawili tu komorę celną. Był to murowany, klasycystyczny budynek, zburzony w 1944 r. Grzybowa i Zielona od lat 30. z biednych osad przekształciły się w pokaźne osady letniskowe, wchodzące w skład gminy Wawer. Dzisiaj są to piękne osiedla położone wśród lasów między dwiema wydmami parabolicznymi. Na jednej z nich znajduje się "Kamień Piłsudskiego", upamiętniający ćwiczenia polowe Polskiej Organizacji Wojskowej 29 kwietnia 1917, w których uczestniczył brygadier Józef Piłsudski. +Podczas I wojny światowej w 1915 r. wojska niemieckie przejęły rosyjską linię obrony, przebiegającą przez pasmo wydm Starej Miłosny, tworząc linię obronną zwaną Brückenkopf Warschau (Przedmoście Warszawy). W latach międzywojennych Stara Miłosna staje się prosperującą miejscowością letniskową z uzdrowiskiem borowinowym dla dzieci "Nasza Chata" i lotniskiem szybowcowym. Duże zniszczenia spowodowała II wojna światowa. W latach 1952-1957 miejscowość była siedzibą gminy Wesoła (tzw. "dzielnicy powiatu"). +W 1957 r. Wesoła weszła w skład nowo powstałego powiatu otwockiego. 17 grudnia 1968 dotychczasowe osiedla połączono i utworzono miasto Wesoła w województwie warszawskim. W 1971 r. liczyło ono 8367 mieszkańców i obejmowało obszar 23 km². +W 1946 r. wprowadzono urzędowo nazwę "Drawsko", zastępując poprzednią niemiecką nazwę "Dramburg". W 1948 r. zmieniono nazwę na "Drawsko Pomorskie". +W 1945 r. miasto zostało dotkliwie zniszczone. Łobez został wyzwolony 3 marca 1945 r. po ostrzale artyleryjskim z Suliszewic i nocnych walkach z fanatykami z Hitlerjugend (HJ – przybudówka Oddziałów Szturmowych SA, kompanie bojowe „Jagdkommandos” – uzbrojenie: granatnik pancerfaust) przez żołnierzy Armii Czerwonej (1 Armia Pancerna 1 Frontu Białoruskiego, 44 Brygada Pancerna Gwardii (Dowódca: płk Ivan Josif Gussakowski-później generał, II-krotny „Bohater Związku Radzieckiego”), 108 Gwardyjski Pułk Czołgów Ciężkich (Dowódca: płk Władimir D. Reutow(?)) i oddział łobeskich partyzantów (Polacy i (prawdopodobnie) osoby innej narodowości (Rosjanie, Francuzi lub Serbowie), którzy zbiegli z okolicznych jenieckich obozów pracy, gdzie było ich wiele w powiecie, a w Łobzie istniały w czasie wojny dwa obozy pracy). Następnie do Łobza weszli żołnierze polscy LWP z 43 Pułku Artylerii Lekkiej (Dowódca: mjr Ilia Sadowski), którzy stoczyli potyczkę 6.03.1945 r. w Świętoborcu z oddziałami XX Korpusu SS (Dowódca: gen.porucznik Günther Krappe (ur. 1893, †1981). +W mieście znajduje się stacja kolejowa, przez którą przechodzi linia kolejowa nr 202 (trasa Stargard – Gdańsk Gł.), kursują autobusy PKS i prywatne busy osobowe. Do 1991 r. czynna była linia wąskotorowa ze Stargardu Szczecińskiego (ruch towarowy do 1995 r. ruch osobowy do do 1991 r.). +Utworzony w XIV wieku powstał na obszarze historycznej ziemi rudzkiej (wieluńskiej), istniejącej już od XIV w. Terytorialne ukształtowanie się powiatów zależało wówczas od miejsca odbywania się sądów, te zaś odbywały się w miejscach bardziej zaludnionych. Na przestrzeni wieków granice powiatu ulegały zmianom. W czasie okupacji został wcielony do Rzeszy Niemieckiej. Po wyzwoleniu odbudowano administrację powiatową wedle stanu z 1939 r. Kolejne zmiany, a zarazem duży cios ukształtowanej przez stulecia wspólnocie kulturalnej, ekonomicznej i społecznej, jaką na przestrzeni blisko ośmiu wieków była ziemia wieluńska, zadała reforma podziału administracyjnego państwa z 1 czerwca 1975 r. Powiat wieluński przestał istnieć, a jego obszar znalazł się w granicach dwóch województw: sieradzkiego i częstochowskiego. +Mołdawska Socjalistyczna Republika Radziecka, Mołdawia (ros. "Молдавская Советская Социалистическая Республика", mołd., "Република Советикэ Сочиалистэ Молдовеняскэ") powstała 2 sierpnia 1940 r. W jej skład weszła większość ziem przyłączonych w 1940 r. do ZSRR kosztem Rumunii, oraz około połowy obszaru istniejącej od 1924 r. na wschodnim, należącym do ZSRR, brzegu Dniestru Mołdawskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej (w składzie Ukraińskiej SRR). +Mołdawska SRR niepodległość jako Republika Mołdawii ogłosiła 23 maja 1991 r., zaś wkrótce potem jej leżące na wschodnim brzegu Dniestru ziemie, stanowiące tereny dawnej Mołdawskiej Autonomicznej Socjalistycznej Republiki Radzieckiej ogłosiły niepodległość jako Naddniestrzańska Republika Mołdawska. +W czasach I Rzeczypospolitej pow. sieradzki od poł. XIV w. do 1793 r. należał do województwa sieradzkiego, a po II rozbiorze Polski został włączony do zaboru pruskiego. Po utworzeniu Królestwa Polskiego był częścią składową guberni kaliskiej, w l. 1845-1867 należał do guberni warszawskiej, potem znowu do kaliskiej - aż do 1914 r. W okresie międzywojennym powiat został włączony do nowo utworzonego woj. łódzkiego. W czasach okupacji niemieckiej w niezmienionych granicach został włączony do rejencji kaliskiej w tzw. Kraju Warty. Po II wojnie światowej jego powierzchnia wynosiła 1422 km kw., a zamieszkiwało w nim 130 tys. ludności. W 1955 r. jego część pn. włączono do nowego pow. poddębickiego, zatem liczba ludności zmniejszyła się do 120 tys., a powierzchnia do 1316 km kw. W l. 1975-1999 powiat nie istniał bowiem wtedy w miejsce powiatów utworzono w Polsce tzw. rejony. +Pierwszy publiczny kontakt z piosenką Maryla Rodowicz miała w 1962 r., kiedy wzięła udział w eliminacjach do I Festiwalu Młodych Talentów w Szczecinie. Chociaż została zakwalifikowana do finału, nie wystąpiła w nim, ponieważ termin finału zbiegł się z Lekkoatletycznymi Mistrzostwami Polski Młodzików, w których zdobyła mistrzowski tytuł w sztafecie 4x100 m. +W czasie studiów na AWF w Warszawie od sierpnia 1965 r. Rodowicz występowała w składzie bigbitowego zespołu "Szejtany", działającego w studenckim klubie "Relax". +W 1965 r. wokalistka zdobyła z zespołem 1. miejsce na warszawskim przeglądzie zespołów bigbeatowych w klubie "Finka". +W 1966 r. związała się ze studenckim kabaretem "Gag", który działał pod przewodnictwem kompozytora Jerzego Andrzeja Marka i poety Adama Kreczmara. +Pierwszym jej poważniejszym sukcesem był występ w 1967 r. na Przeglądzie Piosenki Studenckiej w Lublinie i na Giełdzie Piosenki w Częstochowie z piosenką "Jak cię miły zatrzymać" (muz. Jerzy Andrzej Marek, sł. Adam Kreczmar, utwór z repertuaru Teresy Tutinas), gdzie zdobyła główną nagrodę. +Występ na odbywającym się w Krakowie w dniach 24-26 listopada 1967 r. VI Studenckim Festiwalu Piosenki zaowocował zdobyciem 1. nagrody za piosenki "Jak cię miły zatrzymać" i "Pytania" (słowa Jonasz Kofta). +Na początku 1968 r. Maryla Rodowicz (obok Skaldów, Niebiesko-Czarnych i Alibabek) wzięła udział w filmie TV "Kulig", w reżyserii Stanisława Kokesza. Zaśpiewała w nim piosenki "Jeszcze zima", "Trzy, może nawet cztery dni" i "Walc na trzy pas". Główną rolę grał Bogumił Kobiela. +W 1968 r. zadebiutowała na VI Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu w koncercie Debiutów z zainspirowanymi amerykańskim folkiem utworami "Zabierz moje sukienki" i "Co ludzie powiedzą". W tym samym roku dokonała pierwszych nagrań dla Radiowego Studia Piosenki III programu PR. Od listopada Maryli Rodowicz towarzyszą gitarzyści (Tomasz Myśków, Grzegorz Pietrzyk). +Na VII KFPP w Opolu w 1969 r. zdobyła nagrodę Przewodniczącego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Opola za piosenkę "Mówiły mu" (muz. Stefan Rembowski, sł. Andrzej Bianusz). W tym roku występowała także na: Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie ("Mówiły mu"), Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki Politycznej w Soczi (III nagroda i nagroda dziennikarzy za piosenki "Żyj mój świecie", "Za duże buty" i "Ech, drogi") oraz Festiwalu FAMA w Świnoujściu. +W 1970 r. występowała także w wielu innych festiwalach: Piosenki Żołnierskiej w Kołobrzegu, w Sopocie (III nagroda za "Jadą wozy kolorowe"), w Palermo i kubańskim kurorcie Varadero. +W roku 1971 na IX Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Rodowicz zdobyła główną nagrodę za wykonanie piosenki "Z tobą w górach" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Jerzy Kleyny). W tym roku występowała także w wielu innych festiwalach: Piosenki Żołnierskiej w Kołobrzegu. W 1971 r. wydany został drugi album wokalistki „Wyznanie” (Pronit (1972)LP XL / SXL 0806). Po raz trzeci artystka otrzymała Srebrny Gwóźdź Sezonu Plebiscytu Popularności Czytelników "Kuriera Polskiego". W tym roku Maryla Rodowicz wyjechała również w swoją pierwszą trasę koncertową po ZSRR oraz w Czechosłowacji. +W 1972 r. na X Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu zdobyła nagrodę Państwowego Wydawnictwa Muzycznego za "Kochaniem, pragnieniem", oraz Tytuł Miss Obiektywu – Nagroda Fotoreporterów. Maryla wystąpiła także na Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie. Wokalistka wydała też kolejny singel na rynek czechosłowacki. W tym roku też wydała album „Maryla Rodovićzova”. +W 1973 r. na XI Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Maryla Rodowicz otrzymała wyróżnienie za "Diabeł raj" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Agnieszka Osiecka). Uczestniczyła także w Festiwalu „Bratysława Lira” w Bratysławie (Czechosłowacja) gdzie zdobywa Grand Prix du Disque, w Festiwalu „Złoty Orfeusz” w Słonecznym Brzegu (Bułgaria), Festiwalu Piosenki w Splicie (Jugosławia), Międzynarodowy Festiwal Piosenki w Sopocie gdzie zdobyła Grand Prix du Disque, Nagrodę Publiczności oraz Nagrodę Czytelników „Wieczoru Wybrzeża” za utwory "A gdzie to siódme morze" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Jerzy Kleyny), "Diabeł i raj" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Agnieszka Osiecka) i "Małgośka" (muz. Katarzyna Gärtner, sł. Agnieszka Osiecka). Artystka wzięła też udział w Światowym Festiwalu Młodzieży i Studentów w Berlinie. Nagrała album „Maryla Rodowicz” oraz pierwsze single na rynek NRD. Artystka otrzymała Nagrodę Ministra Kultury NRD, uczestniczyła w filmie TV „Nareszcie razem” wraz z Urszulą Sipińską. Koncertowała w NRD oraz Czechosłowacji. +W 1974 r. XII Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Maryla Rodowicz otrzymała wyróżnienie za "Urodzajny rok", wydała album „Rok”, trzeci album piosenkarki na polskim rynku. Uczestniczyła w ceremonii otwarcia Mistrzostw Świata w Piłce Nożnej w Monachium gdzie wykonała piosenkę "Futbol" (muz. Leszek Bogdanowicz, sł. Jonasz Kofta). Nawiązała współpracę z kompozytorem Jackiem Mikułą. Otrzymała po raz czwarty nagrodę Srebrnego Gwoździa Sezonu Plebiscytu Popularności Czytelników "Kuriera Polskiego", a piosenka "Małgośka" zajęła II miejsce w plebiscycie "Non Stopu" za 1973 r. +W 1976 r. Rodowicz uczestniczyła w XIV Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu Koncert Przebojów, Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie, Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Stambule. Został wydany czwarty album na polskim rynku „Sing-Sing”. Artystka została nagrodzona Gwoździem Sezonu 76, Złotym Medalem Estrady, Star of Year (tytuł przyznawany przez brytyjski "Music Week", Nagrodę „Kukułki” przyznawana przez "Radiokurier", tytułem Wokalistki Roku w plebiscycie miesięcznika "Non Stop". Rodowicz koncertowała w NRD i wzięła udział w 20 programach TV, w tym „Maryla 2000” w Sali Kongresowej. +W 1977 r. na XV Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu wzięła udział w koncercie „Nastroje, nas troje”, a dwie jej piosenki "Krąży, krąży złoty pieniądz" i "Bossanova do poduszki" znalazły się w dziesiątce najlepszych piosenek festiwalu. W Sopocie wzięła udział w Festiwalu Interwizji z piosenkami "Nie ma jak pompa" i "Kolorowe jarmarki", gdzie otrzymała Nagrodę Główną Publiczności Interwizji i Nagrodę Publiczności. Maryla Rodowicz wzięła również udział w filmie muzycznym „Hak” oraz w spektaklu Teatru STU w Krakowie „Szalona lokomotywa” (rola Hildy, występowała razem z Markiem Grechutą, spektakl reżyserował Krzysztof Jasiński). Otrzymała nagrodę „Złota Ręka” "Przekroju" za najwybitniejsze osiągnięcia roku w dziedzinie mody i kostiumologii. +W 1978 r. wzięła udział w XVI Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu, gdzie zdobyła I nagrodę za "Remedium". Uczestniczyła w telewizyjnym filmie muzycznym „Dziewczyna z zapałkami”. Koncertowała w Bułgarii USA i Kanadzie oraz wzięła udział w Festiwalu Młodzieży i Studentów w Hawanie (Kuba), gdzie poznała Fidela Castro. Na Sopockim Festiwalu Interwizji zaśpiewała w duecie z Heleną Vondráčkovą piosenkę "Laska nebeska". Wydała album „Wsiąść do pociągu”. +W 1986 r. uczestniczyła w XXIII KFPP w Opolu, Festiwalu Muzyki Country Mrągowo’86, XXII Festiwalu Piosenki Radzieckiej Zielona Góra – koncert Przyjaźni. Została uhonorowana Dyplomem Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych za wybitne zasługi w upowszechnianiu kultury polskiej za granicą. Wydała longplay zatytułowany „Gejsza nocy”. Maryla Rodowicz odbyła także trasę koncertową po ZSRR. +W latach 1988-1990 wzięła udział w kolejnych dwóch festiwalach w Opolu (XXV KFPP i XXVII KFPP). Uczestniczyła też w Międzynarodowym festiwalu Radiowym (1989), w San Remo w Jubileuszowym 40. Festiwalu Piosenki Włoskiej oraz w 1988 w pierwszym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Witebsku. Koncertowała w Izraelu i Chinach. W 1990 r. wydała longplay pt. „Absolutnie nic”, który był jej jedenastym albumem na polskim rynku. Na tej płycie wziął udział gościnnie w piosence „To już było” jako gitarzysta Wojciech Waglewski, w piosence „Gonią wilki za owcami” na trąbce zagrał Tomasz Stańko. +W 1991 r. Maryla Rodowicz wydała pierwszą w swojej dyskografii płytę kompaktową „Full”, która zawierała zupełnie nowe wersje jej największych przebojów. Na tej płycie też wystąpił Wojciech Waglewski. +W 1992 r. koncertuje w Kanadzie i Szwajcarii. W tym roku ukazała się również autobiograficzna książka piosenkarki pt. "Niech żyje bal", w której opisała nie tylko przebieg swojej kariery, ale też życie uczuciowe, ujawniając ponadto wiele opowieści zza kulis ówczesnego show-biznesu. Rodowicz uczestniczyła również w międzynarodowym Pikniku Muzyki Country Sopot ’92, XXX Krajowym Festiwalu Piosenki Polskiej w Opolu, gdzie otrzymała nagrodę Grand Prix za całokształt twórczości, w Międzynarodowym Festiwalu Piosenki w Sopocie, gdzie zostaje nagrodzona Bursztynowym Słowikiem za twórczość estradową. +W 1993 r. wzięła udział w XXXI KFPP w Opolu oraz w nagraniach telewizyjnych: „Kabaretowa Lista Przebojów”, „Piosenki z butiku” i „Szansa na sukces”. +W 1994 r. wzięła udział w XXXII KFPP w Opolu. Nagrała album „Marysia biesiadna” z piosenkami biesiadnymi, który okazał się jej największym komercyjnym sukcesem w Polsce. Płyta uzyskała status podwójnie "Platynowej Płyty" i rozeszła się w ćwierćmilionowym nakładzie. Artystka promowała bestsellerowy album grając koncert pt. „Marysia biesiadna” dla TV Kraków oraz cykl koncertów pod hasłem „Gala Piosenki Biesiadnej”. W tym samym roku Rodowicz trzymała Nagrodę Artystyczną Polskiej Estrady „Prometeusz ’94”. +W 1995 r. Rodowicz zagrała epizod w filmie „Dzieje Mistrza Twardowskiego” obok Daniela Olbrychskiego, gdzie wcieliła się w rolę Pani Twardowskiej. Nagrała też album „Złota Maryla”, promowany przebojem „Dworzec”, który rozszedł się w nakładzie ponad 60 tysięcy sztuk. Uczestniczyła ponadto w programie TV niemieckiej oraz otrzymała muzyczną nagrodę programu „Teleexpress”. +W 1996 r. Rodowicz postanowiła podsumować swoją karierę trzypłytowym wydawnictwem „Antologia”, zawierającym jej największe przeboje – poszczególne części były dostępne także osobno. Wszystkie części łącznie osiągnęły status "Złotej Płyty", przekraczając nakład 50 tysięcy sztuk. Wokalistka uczestniczyła w XXXIII KFPP w Opolu w koncercie „Kwiaty we włosach” poświęconym twórczości Krzysztofa Klenczona. Na XXXV Jubileuszowym Festiwalu w Sopocie otrzymała Nagrodę Specjalną Prezesa TVP S.A. za całokształt twórczości. +W 1997 roku otrzymała nagrodę „Mateusz” dla Wybitnej Osobowości Rozrywkowej przyznaną przez Program III Polskiego Radia. Wydała dwupłytową kompilację „Tribute to Agnieszka Osiecka – Łatwopalni” zawierającą mniej znane piosenki Osieckiej nagrane przez Rodowicz w ciągu jej całej kariery oraz premierową piosenkę "Łatwopalni" napisaną ku pamięci zmarłej poetki przez Jacka Cygana i skomponowaną przez najpopularniejszego wówczas kompozytora, Roberta Jansona. Utwór ten okazał się tak wielkim przebojem, że po raz pierwszy doprowadził artystkę na sam szczyt prestiżowej radiowej "Listy Przebojów Programu Trzeciego". W 1997 r. Rodowicz uczestniczyła także w XXXIV KFPP w Opolu w koncercie „Zielono mi” poświęconym Agnieszce Osieckiej. Otrzymała też „Super Wiktora” za całokształt twórczości telewizyjnej. +W 1999 r. Maryla Rodowicz wzięła udział w trasie koncertowej w cyrkach obejmującej 10 miast. Uczestniczyła także w koncercie na Placu Czerwonym w Moskwie z okazji 750-lecia miasta. Zdobyła I miejsce wśród wokalistek w plebiscycie „Polityki” – „Piosenkarze, piosenkarki i zespoły XX wieku”, otrzymała nagrodę „Grubej Ryby” od Radia Kolor „za najbardziej zmysłowy głos”, tytuł Najpopularniejszej Piosenkarki rankingu OBOP-u, „Telekamerę ’99” przyznaną przez czytelników „TeleTygodnia” dla najpopularniejszej osobowości telewizyjnej w kategorii „Najpopularniejsza Wokalistka”. W tym roku został także wydany album „Karnawał 2000” z polskojęzycznymi wersjami największych latynoskich standardów, promowany singlem „Czadu Maryla” z melodią hitu „Maria” Ricky'ego Martina. +Bitwa pod Megiddo – 19-21 września 1918 r. +Po śmierci Burdzińskiego dyrektorem ogrodu został Jan Żabiński, człowiek wielkiej wiedzy, miłośnik zwierząt i popularyzator przyrody. W ogrodzie działo się dobrze. Na przykład, w 1937 r. przyszło na świat słoniątko, co było osiągnięciem na skalę światową, bowiem azjatycka słonica Tuzinka, córka Kasi i Jasia, była jednym z nielicznych, a konkretnie dwunastym słoniem urodzonym w warunkach ogrodu zoologicznego. Słoniątko bardzo szybko stało się ulubieńcem warszawiaków. +W 1978 r. zoo liczyło ok. 2000 okazów zwierząt reprezentujących 380 gatunków. W latach 1970-1978 frekwencja wynosiła ok. 900 000 zwiedzających rocznie. W latach 80. XX wieku zoo znalazło się w planie inwestycyjnym miasta i nastąpiła poprawa - powstały nowe budynki i poprawiły się warunki bytowe zwierząt. +W 1997 r. został otwarty wówczas bardzo nowoczesny pawilon dla gadów (herpetarium). Pod koniec roku 1998 otwarto ptaszarnię wraz z azylem dla ptaków krajowych. 2 maja 2003r. zakończyła się budowa słoniarni oraz budynków dla nosorożców. 14 stycznia 2006 r. otwarto pawilon dla bezkręgowców. 12 lipca 2006 r. wybieg dla jaguarów. +Ogród Zoologiczny wpisany jest do rejestru zabytków wraz z Parkiem Praskim, nr rej.: 1434-A z dnia 3 lipca 1990 r. +27 grudnia 1918 wielu polskich mieszkańców Skalmierzyc przystąpiło do Powstania wielkopolskiego. 29 grudnia 1918 siły polskie ostatecznie przejęły kontrolę nad osadą. Formalnie Nowe Skalmierzyce zostały włączone do Polski wraz z większością historycznej Wielkopolski na mocy Traktatu Wersalskiego z 1919 r. W rezultacie miejscowość utraciła graniczną lokalizację, co wpłynęło na spowolnienie tempa życia i rozwoju gospodarczego. W kolejnych latach okresu międzywojennego rozwój ten powoli zaczął się odnawiać. +Skalmierzyce Nowe miały status osiedla przemysłowego w latach 1956–1962. W 1962 r. Skalmierzyce Nowe uzyskały status miasta, a także zmieniono nazwę na "Nowe Skalmierzyce". +Żółwie czerwonolice były masowo sprowadzane na teren Unii Europejskiej, a następnie sprzedawane w sklepach zoologicznych jako tzw. "żywe zabawki". Bardzo często zdarzało się, że żółwie były wyrzucane przez nieodpowiedzialnych hodowców. Bardzo szybko zadomawiają się w obcym środowisku, przez co stanowią zagrożenie dla rodzimych gatunków flory i fauny. Rozporządzenie Rady UE nr 338/97/EC z dnia 9 grudnia 1996 r. wymienia ten gatunek żółwi w załączniku B, oznacza to że na przewóz żółwi tego gatunku przez granicę Unii Europejskiej wymagane jest zezwolenie Ministra Środowiska. W Polsce na podstawie ustawy o ochronie przyrody (Dz. U. Nr 92, poz. 880) posiadanie tego gatunku żółwia wymaga rejestracji w Wydziale Ochrony Środowiska miejscowego starostwa powiatowego, w ciągu 14 dni od daty jego nabycia. Podczas rejestracji należy udowodnić legalne pochodzenie żółwia, przez przedstawienie dowodu zakupu żółwia lub zaświadczenia lekarza weterynarii, że zwierzę zostało urodzone w hodowli. +W architekturze włoskiej tego okresu panuje zastój. Powielane są wzory architektury wczesnego chrześcijaństwa. Największą uwagę przywiązuje się do wystroju wewnętrznego i wyglądu elewacji, która często naśladuje osiągnięcia minionych epok. Nowe kościoły budowane są jako bazyliki z dachem opartym na więźbach dachowych, które niekiedy przesłaniają pułapy. Sklepienia na szerszą skalę zaczęto ponownie stosować dopiero w XII wieku. Do podziału wnętrza na nawy stosowane są zazwyczaj kolumny, wieloboczne filary spotykane są niezmiernie rzadko. Podobnie nieczęsto spotyka się wydłużone nawy poprzeczne i jeszcze rzadziej obejścia (wyjątkiem są kościoły Św. Zofii w Padwie i Św. Stefana w Weronie). Kościoły mają zazwyczaj absydy w osi głównej oraz, zwłaszcza na północy, dodatkowo dwie mniejsze absydy na przedłużeniu naw bocznych. Do pierwszych dzieł z okresu romańskiego należy przebudowa opactwa na Monte Cassino przeprowadzona w latach 1066 – 1071. Na miejscu istniejącego wcześniej kościoła zbudowano od podstaw nowy klasztor wzorowany na zbudowanej w Rzymie bazylice św. Piotra. Romańskie założenia, mimo licznych ingerencji poczynionych zwłaszcza w okresie baroku, zostały zachowane aż do 1944 r. +Samolot ten zakupiła 9 kwietnia 1936 r. Bułgaria w ilości 12 sztuk. Zostały one dostarczone do Bułgarii w kwietniu i maju 1937 roku. Samoloty te zyskały sobie dobrą opinię wśród bułgarskich pilotów. Następnie 31 marca 1938 r. rząd Bułgarii zakupił 42 samoloty, z tym, że miały to być samoloty z mocniejszym silnikiem Gnôme-Rhône 14N01. Samoloty te otrzymały oznaczenie PZL.43A. Maszyny miały być dostarczone do Bułgarii do początków sierpnia 1939 roku. Nastąpiło jednak opóźnienie dostawy i do końca sierpnia 1939 roku wysłano do Bułgarii 36 samolotów, natomiast ostatnie 6 sztuk było niemal przygotowane do wysyłki, lecz wybuch wojny spowodował, że nie zostały wysłane. +W lotnictwie bułgarskim samoloty PZL.43 pozostawały do początków 1945 r. Ostatnie egzemplarze skasowano i złomowano latem 1946. +Indeks Represjonowanych to program badawczy Ośrodka KARTA (realizowany od 1988 r.), w ramach którego prowadzona jest całościowa imienna dokumentacja losów obywateli polskich prześladowanych w ZSRR w latach 1939-1959. Od 2002 r. program realizowany jest pod patronatem Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej, przy wsparciu Ministerstwa Nauki i Informatyzacji i Fundacji na rzecz Nauki Polskiej. +Badawczo-opiniotwórczy program Wspólne Miejsce – Europa Wschodnia, polegający na wspólnym dokumentowaniu przeszłości, zainicjowany został w 1992 r. podczas Tygodnia Sumienia w Polsce – spotkania w Warszawie kilku tysięcy Sybiraków z członkami Stowarzyszenia Memoriał z Rosji i Ukrainy. Ośrodek od tej pory koordynował działania partnerskie mające na celu udokumentowanie szczególnie zaniedbanych poznawczo obszarów wspólnej historii XX wieku. W pracach programu uczestniczą partnerzy m.in. z Rosji, Białorusi, Litwy, Ukrainy, Bułgarii, Czech i Słowacji. +Marian Jachimowicz (ur. 12 maja 1906 w Schodnicy (pow. drohobycki) - zm. 12 listopada 1999 r. w Wałbrzychu) - polski poeta, tłumacz i malarz. +Początki Nowego Tomyśla sięgają XIII w., choć pierwsze ślady osadnictwa na tych obszarach pochodzą sprzed 11 tys. lat (m.in. pozostałości grobów skrzynkowych koło Wytomyśla i smolarni pod Jastrzębskiem Starym). Od średniowiecza znana była wieś Tomyśl, położona pośród wielkich kompleksów leśnych. W XVIII w. okolice Tomyśla zaczęli zagospodarowywać osadnicy olęderscy, sprowadzani przez właścicieli tych ziem, rodzinę Szołdrskich. Wśród nowych mieszkańców dominowali protestanccy Niemcy z Brandenburgii, Śląska i Pomorza, toteż wkrótce koniecznością stała się budowa zboru ewangelickiego. Świątynia powstała w osadzie "nova colonia Glinki" w 1780 r., a kilka lat później Feliks Szołdrski postanowił lokować koło kościoła nowe miasto. Ostatecznie osadzie nadano prawa miejskie i nazwę Nowy Tomyśl 8 kwietnia 1786 r. przywilejem wydanym przez króla Stanisława Augusta Poniatowskiego. Wieś dla odróżnienia nazwano Starym Tomyślem. Pod koniec XIX wieku było to jedyne miasto w Wielkopolsce bez kościoła katolickiego, a wszyscy katolicy należeli do parafii w odległym o 8 km Wytomyślu. W 1905 r. Nowy Tomyśl liczył 1985 mieszkańców, z czego 86,1% stanowili Niemcy, 8,2% – Polacy, zaś Żydzi – 5,7%. Ludność niemiecka dominowała w mieście aż do lat 20. XX w. +Powstańcy wielkopolscy opanowali Nowy Tomyśl 3 stycznia 1919. Powrót miasta do Polski usankcjonował traktat wersalski z 28 czerwca 1919 r. Podczas II wojny światowej obszar ten był terenem silnej akcji germanizacyjnej, a mieszkańców polskiego pochodzenia wywożono na roboty do Niemiec. Walki o miasto zakończyły się 27 stycznia 1945 roku. +W całym kraju Nowy Tomyśl słynie też jako miasto wikliniarzy. Tradycje te sięgają XIX w., kiedy w te okolice sprowadzono z Ameryki Północnej specjalne odmiany wikliny. W mieście co roku w ostatni weekend wakacji organizowany jest Jarmark Chmielo-Wikliniarski. W 1985 r. założono tutaj Muzeum Wikliniarstwa i Chmielarstwa (oddział Muzeum Narodowego Rolnictwa i Przemysłu Rolno-Spożywczego w Szreniawie). +Do 1963 roku medale nadawano w zwykłym trybie, z wyjątkiem lat 1867 i 1886 kiedy przyznano dwa odznaczenia oraz kilku lat gdy nie przyznano ich wcale. Od 1964 r. Królewskie Towarzystwo Astronomiczne nadaje corocznie dwa złote medale, jeden za osiągnięcia z dziedziny astronomii, drugi – z geofizyki. +""W 1989 r. zmarł dyrektor Andrzej Osadziński - człowiek oddany Bogusławicom bez reszty, będący jednocześnie wiceprezesem Polskiego Związku Jeździeckiego i sędzią międzynarodowym w skokach przez przeszkody i WKKW, działał czynnie przez długie lata w polskiej hodowli koni. Dla uczczenia pamięci dyrektora Andrzeja Osadzińskiego przed budynkiem dyrekcji ustawiono kamień z tablicą pamiątkową, a corocznie w maju organizowane są Ogólnopolskie Zawody w Skokach przez Przeszkody o Memoriał Barbary i Andrzeja Osadzińskich."" +W sierpniu 1964 r. Stanleyville było miejscem rzezi przeprowadzonej przez Ludową Armię Wyzwolenia, która 5 sierpnia po zajęciu miasta, rozpoczęła mordowanie czarnych mieszkańców miasta i wzięła jako zakładników 1600 obcokrajowców (Belgów, Brytyjczyków, Francuzów, Włochów, Austriaków, Greków, Portugalczyków, Pakistańczyków, Indusów i Amerykanów). W wyniku trwającej od 24 listopada operacji "Czerwony Smok" (Dragon Rouge) miasto zostało wyzwolone przez białych najemników majora Mike Hoare wspieranych przez oddziały belgijskie i amerykańskie. Podczas komunistycznej rebelii wymordowanych zostało 8 tys. czarnych mieszkańców Stanleyville i 185 białych zakładników. +Ferdinand Foch otrzymał 13 kwietnia 1923 r. dekretem prezydenta RP stopień Marszałka Polski, na wniosek ministra Spraw Wojskowych gen. dyw. Kazimierza Sosnkowskiego i premiera rządu gen. dyw. Władysława Sikorskiego. 15 kwietnia 1923 r. wręczenia nominacji dokonał w imieniu prezydenta RP gen. K. Sosnkowski. Również 15 kwietnia został odznaczony Krzyżem Wielkim Orderu Wojennego Virtuti Militari i Orderem Orła Białego, ale Order Virtuti Militari został wręczony marszałkowi 4 maja podczas uroczystości w Belwederze. +11 maja 1922 r. odbyła się w auli Politechniki Lwowskiej uroczystość nadania doktoratu honoris causa marszałkowi Francji Ferdinandowi Fochowi. Wydarzeniu temu nadano szczególnie uroczysty charakter, całe grono wystąpiło we frakach, u wrót uczelni witali Focha rektor Julian Fabiański i prorektor Maksymilian Tytus Huber, oni też w auli wygłosili odpowiednie przemówienia. W imieniu młodzieży przemawiał, w mundurze kapitana Wojska Polskiego, były prezes Bratniej Pomocy, Jan Nawrocki. Kiedy marszałek opuszczał gmach, rozentuzjazmowana młodzież studencka wyprzęgła konie i pociągnęła karetę przy pomocy lin ulicami Sapiehy i Kopernika, wśród wiwatujących gęstych szpalerów ludności do ratusza, gdzie dostojnemu gościowi nadano obywatelstwo honorowe Lwowa. +Na wniosek francuskiego personelu kopalni Knurów w dniu 17 września 1922 r. szyb IV nazwano imieniem marszałka. Kopalnie tę po 2000 roku połączono z sąsiednią Kopalnią Węgla Kamiennego Szczygłowice. Obecnie jako Knurów-Sczygłowice, wchodzi w skład Kompanii Węglowej S.A. +Syn Stanisława Centkiewicza i Stanisławy Bresteczer. Ukończył Gimnazjum św. Kazimierza w Warszawie (1924), następnie Institut Superieur w Liege (Belgia). W 1920 r. jako żołnierz Armii Ochotniczej brał udział w wojnie przeciw bolszewikom. Z zawodu inżynier elektryk. Był autorem prac naukowych z zakresu radiometeorologii i elektrotechniki. W 1932/1933 r. kierował pierwszą polską wyprawą polarną na Wyspę Niedźwiedzią. W latach 1934-1939 pracował w Obserwatorium Aerologicznym Państwowego Instytutu Meteorologicznego w Legionowie. +Po powstaniu warszawskim trafił do obozu koncentracyjnego Neuengamme koło Hamburga. Pracował po wojnie jako dyrektor techniczny Zjednoczenia Energetycznego Okręgu Dolnośląskiego w Jeleniej Górze oraz w Państwowym Instytucie Hydrologiczno-Meteorologicznym. W 1950 r. osiadł w Legionowie, gdzie podjął pracę w Obserwatorium Meteorologicznym PIHM. W drugiej połowie 1955 r. przeprowadził się wraz z żoną na Saską Kępę w Warszawie. Działał w Związku Literatów Polskich, pełnił m.in. funkcję jego wiceprezesa. Był autorem szeregu powieści młodzieżowych i reportażowych poświęconych terenom podbiegunowym; większość z utworów napisał wspólnie z żoną Aliną (1907–1993). Otrzymał wiele nagród literackich – nagrodę Prezesa Rady Ministrów (1955), nagrodę marynistyczną im. Zaruskiego (1963), nagrodę I stopnia Ministra Kultury i Sztuki (1969). +Ustawa z dnia 25 czerwca 1999 r. o świadczeniach pieniężnych z ubezpieczenia społecznego w razie choroby i macierzyństwa określa zasady ustalania prawa do zasiłków osób podlegających ubezpieczeniu chorobowemu ujętemu w ustawie z dnia 13 października 1998 r. o systemie ubezpieczeń społecznych. +Już w 1890 r. na IV Kongresie Międzynarodowym Karnym i Penitencjarnym w Petersburgu stwierdzono, że zbyt swobodne posługiwanie się rejestrem karnym stanowi rzeczywistą przeszkodę pomocy więźniom, utrudnia znalezienie im pracy i jest niekiedy powodem recydywy zwolnionych więźniów. Problematyka ta była także przedmiotem dyskusji na późniejszych kongresach. W okresie powojennym szeroko dyskutowano nad tym zagadnieniem na XII Kongresie Karnym i penitencjarnym w Hadze w 1950 r. +Instytucja zatarcia skazania powoduje uznanie skazania za niebyłe. Oznacza to, że osoba, co do której nastąpiło skazanie, jest uważana za niekaraną, a z zatartego skazania nie można wyciągnąć żadnych skutków prawnych (jest to przykład fikcji prawnej). Z Krajowego Rejestru Karnego jest usuwana karta karna. Tak więc osoba, wobec której zastosowano zatarcie skazania może w stosunkach prawnych występować jako niekarana. Z socjologicznego punktu widzenia zatarcie skazania ma pełnić funkcję ułatwiającą integrację skazanego ze społeczeństwem. Zatarcie skazania w polskim Kodeksie karnym z 1997 r. następuje z mocy prawa lub na wniosek skazanego. +1 sierpnia 1936 r. Hindenburg był obecny podczas ceremonii otwarcia igrzysk olimpijskich w Berlinie. +Po wystartowaniu z Frankfurtu z 97 osobami na pokładzie (36 pasażerów i 61 osób załogi) i trzydniowej podróży przez Atlantyk, sterowiec spłonął 6 maja 1937 r. podczas cumowania na lotnisku w Lakehurst w stanie New Jersey (USA). Zginęło 13 pasażerów i 22 członków załogi oraz główny członek załogi naziemnej, kapitan Ernst Lehmann. Odpowiadał on m.in. za starty Hindenburga. Niektórzy uważają, że stał on na czele sabotażu i kazał zniszczyć Hindenburga. Wiele ofiar nie zginęło w płomieniach, ale zostało przygniecione przez innych, skaczących ze statku pasażerów. Katastrofę przeżył też kapitan sterowca Max Pruss. Z ciężkimi oparzeniami trafił do szpitala. +Resztki aluminiowej konstrukcji statku zostały przewiezione do Niemiec i użyte do produkcji samolotów wojskowych dla Luftwaffe, podobnie jak szkielety LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin i LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II zezłomowanych w 1940 r. we Frankfurcie nad Menem. +Decyzja o budowie samolotu bojowego opartego na demonstratorze Have Blue została podjęta 16 listopada 1978 roku. Pierwszy testowy egzemplarz F-117 został oblatany 18 czerwca 1981 r. Pierwszy egzemplarz produkcyjny został oblatany 15 stycznia 1982 r, w tym samym roku pierwszy egzemplarz F-117A został dostarczony USAF. Gotowość bojową osiągnięto w październiku 1983. W 1990 roku zakończono produkcję F-117A. Łącznie wyprodukowano 59 sztuk tego samolotu. +Przyszły premier urodził się w 1943 r. w St Helier Hospital w Carshalton. Jest synem Toma Pscala Huberta Majora-Balla. Ochrzczono go pod imionami John Roy, ale w akcie urodzenia pozostało tylko pierwsze imię. Jednakże młody Major aż do początku lat 80. używał imienia Roy. Wykształcenie odebrał w szkole podstawowej w Cheam Common oraz w Rutlish Grammar School w Merton (po 1954 r.). W latach 50. upadła działalność ojca związana z dekoracjami ogrodowymi, co zmusiło rodzinę do przeprowadzenia się do Brixton w 1955 r. W 1956 r. zobaczył po raz pierwszy debatę w Izbie Gmin. +Major opuścił szkołę w 1959 r. Starał się o posadę konduktora w autobusach, ale jego podanie zostało odrzucone. Dostał dopiero pracę urzędnika w biurze maklerskim "Pratt & Sons". Szybko jednak zwolnił się z tej pracy i razem z bratem Terrym pomogał ojcu w jego interesach. W tym czasie wstąpił do Młodych Konserwatystów. +Po kilku latach bez zatrudnienia rozpoczął w 1963 r. pracę w London Electicity Board. Rozpoczął również korespondencyjny kurs bankowości. W maju 1965 r. rozpoczął pracę w Standard Chartered Bank. +W 1964 r. Major wystartował w wyborach do rady Lambeth Borough i wybory te niespodziewanie wygrał. W radzie był przewodniczącym komisji budownictwa, odpowiadajac za budowę sieci osiedli mieszkaniowych. W maju 1971 r. przegrał wybory i utracił miejsce w radzie. W 1974 r. podjął próbę dostania się do Izby Gmin w okręgu St Pancras North. Okręg ten był jednak tradycyjnie laburzystowski i Major wybory te przegrał. W listopadzie 1976 r. został wybrany przez lokalny oddział Partii Konserwatywnej w Huntingdonshire jako kandydat w tym okręgu w najbliższych wyborach. Wybory te odbyły się w 1979 r. i zapewniły Majorowi miejsce w parlamencie. +Okręg Majora został zlikwidowany w 1983 r. Major wystartował wówczas w okręgu Huntingdon i ponownie wygrał wybory. Wygrywał także w latach 1987, 1992 i 1997. Wybory 1992 r. wygrał z rekordową przewagą 36 230 głosów. +W 1981 r. został parlamentarnym prywatnym sekretarzem, a w 1983 r. asystentem whipa. W 1985 r. został podsekretarzem stanu w ministerstwie zabezpieczenia socjalnego. W 1986 r. został ministrem stanu w tym departamencie. Po wyborach 1987 r. został członkiem gabinetu jako naczelny sekretarz skarbu. 24 lipca 1989 r. został ministrem spraw zagranicznych. Na tym stanowisku pozostał tylko przez 3 miesiące, obejmując następnie stanowisko Kanclerza Skarbu. Major przedstawił projekt tylko jednego budżetu (była to jednocześnie pierwsza transmisja telewizyjna tego wydarzenia). +Po rezygnacji urzędującej premier Margaret Thatcher w wyborach na lidera konserwatystów w 1990 r. Major został jednym z kandydatów w drugiej turze głosowań. Jego kontrkandydatami byli Michael Heseltine i Douglas Hurd. 27 listopada obyło się głosowanie, które wygrał Major uzyskując 185 głosów. Następnego dnia nowy lider Partii Konserwatywnej udał się do Pałacu Buckingham, gdzie królowa Elżbieta II powołała go na premiera Wielkiej Brytanii. +Podczas pierwszego roku rządów Majora nastąpił zastój gospodarczy Wielkiej Brytanii. W nadchodzących wyborach 1992 r. partii rządzącej nie dawano wielkich szans na reelekcję. Pewnym kandydatem na przyszłego premiera był Lider Opozycji Neil Kinnock. Major prowadził kampanię wyborczą na ulicach, wielokrotnie przemawiając z przenośnych platform (tzw. "soapbox"). Te działania zyskały dla konserwatystów sporo poparcia i przyczyniły się do nieoczekiwanego zwycięstwa Partii Konserwatywnej, chociaż przewaga w parlamencie stopniała do 21 głosów. +Niedługo po wyborach, 16 września 1992 r., doszło do tzw. Czarnej Środy, kiedy to w wyniku ataków spekulanckich i podwyższeniu stóp procentowych rząd Majora zmuszony był wycofać funta szterlinga z systemu ERM. Spowodowało to kryzys ekonomiczny, upadek wielu przedsiębiorstw oraz załamanie się rynku mieszkaniowego. W tej sytuacji Major rozważał swoją dymisję, do której ostatecznie nie doszło. +Po kilku miesiącach sytuacja gospodarcza poprawiła się, ale wówczas uwagę opinii publicznej przyciągnął spór jaki rozgorzał wewnątrz Partii Konserwatywnej na temat integracji europejskiej. Aminozje wystąpiły na tle sporu o ratyfikację traktatu z Maastricht z 1992 r. Wywołał on krytykę w partii oraz w rządzie. Ratyfikację poparła laburzystowska opozycja, ale krytykowała poszczególne fragmenty traktatu. "Zbuntowało" się również 23 konserwatywnych deputowanych (tzw. "Maastricht Rebels"), co spowodowało, że rząd utracił większość w Izbie Gmin i traktat nie został ratyfikowany. 23 lipca 1993 r. Major zażądał głosowania nad wotum zaufania dla swojego gabinetu. Uzyskał je większością 40 głosów. 2 sierpnia ostatecznie Wielka Brytania ratyfikowała traktat. +Lata 1992–1993 były okresem licznych skandali obyczajowych w Partii Konserwatywnej, które były od razu nagłaśniane przez tabloidy. David Mellor, Dvid Ashby, lord Caithness, Alan Amos, Tim Yeo oraz Michael Brown byli zamieszani w skandale seksualne. Graham Riddick, David Tredinnick, Tim Smith oraz Neil Hamilton byli oskarżeni o przyjęcie łapówek od biznesmena Mohameda Al Fayeda. Spowodowało to, że na konferencji Partii Konserwatywnej w 1993 r. Major zainicjował politykę "Powrotu do korzeni" ("Back to Basics"), czyli do tradycyjnych rodzinnych wartości. Kampania ta nie przyniosła jednak żadnych rezultatów i została zaniechana. +Niedługo po objęciu urzędu premiera Major nawiązał rozmowy z Tymczasową IRA. We wrześniu 1994 r. IRA ogłosiła zawieszenie broni, które przetrwało do lutego 1996 r. +22 lipca 1995 r. spory w Partii Konserwatywnej osiągnęły taki stopień, że Major podał się do dymisji i zapowiedział swój start w wyborach na lidera. Przeciwko niemu wystartował minister ds. Walii John Redwood. Major wygrał te wybory uzyskują 218 głosów wobec 89 oddanych na Redwooda. Wygrane wybory nie poprawiły jednak pozycji Majora w Partii Konserwatywnej. W grudniu 1996 r. rząd utracił większość w Izbie Gmin. 17 marca 1997 r. zarządził wybory do Izby Gmin. Miał nadzieję, że wzrost gospodarczy poprawi notowania jego partii. +Wybory 1997 r. zakończyły się największą klęską konserwatystów po 1832 r. W nowym parlamencie Partia Konserwatywna uzyskała 165 miejsc. Przewaga zwycięskiej Partii Pracy wynosiła 179 głosów. Major wygrał w swoim okręgu wyborczym przewagą 18 140 głosów. 2 maja oficjalnie przekazał pieczęcie premiera królowej Elżbiecie. Królowa powołała na premiera lidera laburzystów, Tony'ego Blaira. +Po wyborach Major na krótko pozostał Liderem Opozycji. Nowe wybory na lidera partii w czerwcu 1997 r. wygrał William Hague. Major pozostał deputowanym do 2001 r., kiedy zrezygnował z ubiegania się o reelekcję. W 1999 został odznaczony Order Kawalerów Honoru. 23 kwietnia 2005 r. został kawalerem Orderu Podwiązki. Odmówił przyjęcia dożywotniego tytułu parowskiego. +Major był zawsze zapalonym krykiecistą i na emeryturze poświęcił wiele uwagi swojej pasji. Do 2002 r. był prezydentem Surrey County Cricket Club. Od 1998 r. jest członkiem Carlyle Group's European Advisory Board, w maju 2001 r. został przewodniczącym Carlyle Europe. Z tego stanowiska zrezygnował w sierpniu 2004 r. W marcu 2001 r. wygłosił mowę pogrzebową w opactwie westminsterskim dla słynnego krykiecisty, lorda Cowdreya. W 2005 r. został wybrany do komitetu Marylebone Cricket Club. +Po śmierci księżnej Diany w 1997 r. został specjalnym opiekunem książąt Williama i Harry’ego, odpowiedzialnym za sprawy prawne i administracyjne. +3 października 1970 r. poślubił Normę Johnson (ur. 12 lutego 1942), córkę Normana Wagstaffa i Edith Johnson. Norma była nauczycielką i członkinią Młodych Konserwatystów. Mają razem dwoje dzieci – syna Jamesa (ur. 1975) i córkę Elizabeth. Małżonkowie mieszkają niedaleko Weybourne w północnym Norfolk. +C-HTML został opracowany w 1998 r. przez japońską firmę ACCESS, jako alternatywa dla WML (w przeciwieństwie do niego nie zawiera "kartowej" struktury) i XHTML Basic. Strony zapisany w tym języku mogą być oglądane w przeglądarce internetowej i tworzone w edytorze HTML. +2 sierpnia 1914 r. został wyświęcony w Lipsku istniejący do dziś neogotycki kościół parafii katolickiej. Jego budowę rozpoczęto w 1906 r. W czasie I wojny światowej miasto zostało zniszczone w znacznej części. Wyzwolenie Lipska nastąpiło ok. 22 sierpnia 1919 r. +W 1939 r. z tego terenu wyrusza oddział majora Henryka Dobrzańskiego – Hubala. W mieście znajduje się tablica upamiętniająca te wydarzenie. Od 1940 r. w okolicy Lipska jest budowany system umocnień radzieckich. We wrześniu 1941 r. hitlerowcy wywieźli 99 osób pochodzenia żydowskiego do getta w Grodnie. Tragiczną datą w historii Lipska jest 13 lipca 1943 r., kiedy to wojska hitlerowskie rozstrzelały 50 mieszkańców Lipska na fortach w Naumowiczach koło Grodna. W wyniku działań wojennych miejscowość została mocno zniszczona. +Lipsk odzyskuje prawa miejskie w 1983 r. Ważną rolę w tym fakcie przypisuje się pochodzącemu z Lipska gen. Mirosławowi Milewskiemu, od 1981 r. ministrowi spraw wewnętrznych PRL, a także Towarzystwu Przyjaciół Lipska – organizacji zrzeszającej byłych i obecnych mieszkańców. W latach 80. w Lipsku rozwija się przemysł lekki (produkcja podzespołów indukcyjnych oraz maszyn rolniczych). +Dolina ta znana jest z katastrofalnych lawin. W marcu 1956 r. zeszła z niej lawina o objętości 288 tys. metrów sześciennych. +CAS powstała w 1907 r. w Columbus w stanie Ohio w USA, z inicjatywy kilkunastu członków ACS. Obecnie zatrudnia ona ok. 1000 pracowników oraz korzysta z usług kilkudziesięciu tysięcy współpracowników na całym świecie. Instytucja ta jest formalnie biorąc przedsiębiorstwem, które jest w 100% własnością ACS. +W odróżnieniu od innych tego rodzaju serwisów (ISI, Scopus, Beilstein) "Chemical Abstracts" nie stosują selekcji źródeł, lecz starają się gromadzić wszelkie dostępne dane. Drukowana wersja "Chemical Abstracts" jest nadal wydawana. Ukazuje się w formie zeszytów, które są wydawane raz na tydzień. W co czwartym numerze znajduje się indeks miesięczny, zaś raz do roku wydawany jest indeks roczny. Pojedynczy rocznik "Chemical Abstracts" zawiera ok. 800 000 streszczeń z ok. 9 500 czasopism naukowych i ok. 50 biur patentowych. Indeks roczny jest sam w sobie opasłym tomem liczącym obecnie ok. 1000 stron. Jeden rocznik "Chemical Abstracts" zajmuje obecnie ok. 1 metra bieżącego półki bibliotecznej. "Chemical Abstracts" w formie drukowanej były przez lata dostępne w niemal wszystkich szanujących się naukowych bibliotekach chemicznych, zajmując w nich całe jedno pomieszczenie. Na koniec 2004 r. liczba wszystkich zgromadzonych od 1907 r. streszczeń przekroczyła 24 miliony. +Radosław Ostrowski, "Radasłaŭ Astroŭski", biał. "Радаслаў Астроўскі" (ur. 6 listopada 1887, według kalendarza juliańskiego 25 października, w Zapolu w powiecie słuckim w Imperium Rosyjskim, zm. 17 października 1976 r. w Benton Harbor w USA) – białoruski publicysta i działacz narodowo-społeczny. +Uczył się w gimnazjum w Słucku, ale w 1907 r. został z niego wydalony za udział w działalności rewolucyjnej. W 1908 r. wstąpił na uniwersytet w Sankt Petersburgu na studia matematyczno-fizyczne. Przed ich ukończeniem został jednak w lutym 1911 r. aresztowany ponownie za działalność rewolucyjną. Przebywał w więzieniu w Petersburgu i Pskowie, po czym władze carskie nakazały mu osiedlenie się w Prużanie pod nadzorem policji. W 1913 r. uzyskał zgodę na dokończenie studiów na uniwersytecie w estońskim Tartu (Dorpat). Następnie pracował jako nauczyciel w szkołach w Częstochowie i Mińsku. Okres I wojny światowej spędził w Rosji. Od 1915 r. wykładał w mińskim instytucie pedagogicznym, gdzie uzyskał tytuł profesora. +Po rewolucji lutowej 1917 r. wyjechał na ziemie białoruskie, zostając w Słucku komisarzem powiatowym Rządu Tymczasowego. W marcu tego roku wziął udział w Konferencji Organizacji i Partii Białorusi. We wrześniu był organizatorem gimnazjum białoruskiego w Słucku, gdzie nauczał i został pierwszym jego dyrektorem. Należał do Białoruskiej Socjalistycznej Hramady. Wydawał też pismo ""Рoдны Край"". W grudniu 1917 r. uczestniczył w Kongresie Wszechbiałoruskim w Mińsku, opowiadając się za niezależnym państwem białoruskim. W obliczu zbliżającej się armii bolszewickiej wyjechał na Ukrainę Naddnieprzańską, gdzie wstąpił do białej Armii Ochotniczej gen. Antona I. Denikina. +Po zakończeniu wojny polsko-bolszewickiej jesienią 1920 r., powrócił na ziemie białoruskie. W listopadzie-grudniu tego roku brał udział w antybolszewickim powstaniu słuckim. Po niepowodzeniu walk przeszedł wraz z resztkami wojsk białoruskich na terytorium Polski. Wznowił swoją aktywność polityczną wśród Białorusinów mieszkających we wschodniej Polsce. Został administratorem pomocy amerykańskiej. W latach 1924-1936 był dyrektorem gimnazjum białoruskiego w Wilnie. W lutym 1924 r. zainicjował powstanie pro-polskiego Polsko-Białoruskiego Towarzystwa, ale po jego rozpadzie jeszcze w tym samym roku nawiązał współpracę z nielegalną Komunistyczną Partią Zachodniej Białorusi, wstępując w 1926 r. w jej szeregi. Założył i stanął na czele nielegalnego komsomołu w swoim gimnazjum. W 1925 r. został zastępcą przewodniczącego Białoruskiej Włościańsko-Robotniczej Hromady. Należał też do kierownictwa Towarzystwa Szkoły Białoruskiej, Białoruskiego Towarzystwa Dobroczynności, Białoruskiego Towarzystwa Naukowego i był dyrektorem banku spółdzielczego w Wilnie, przez który przechodziły pieniądze na finansowanie Hromady. Po rozpoczęciu działań przeciw Hromadzie na pocz. 1927 r., Ostrowskiego aresztowano, a następnie wydalono do centralnej Polski. +W 1928 r. powrócił do działalności politycznej, reprezentując postawę lojalną wobec władz państwowych, dbając przy tym o interesy ludności białoruskiej. W 1929 r. był współzałożycielem Białoruskiego Zawodowego Związku Nauczycielskiego. W 1930 r. wszedł w skład prezydium Centralnego Związku Białoruskich Kulturalno-Oświatowych oraz Gospodarczych Organizacji i Instytucji (Centrasajuzu). W II poł. lat 30. publikował pod pseudonimem "Эра" liczne artykuły w białoruskich pismach, w tym w gazecie ""Родны край"". W 1936 r. został zmuszony do opuszczenia Wilna i zamieszkał w Łodzi. +Po ataku wojsk niemieckich na ZSRR 22 czerwca 1941 r., podjął współpracę z okupantami. Na pocz. września roku przyjechał do okupowanego Mińska, rozpoczynając organizowanie administracji białoruskiej. Stanął na czele tzw. Nebenbureau, które było lokalnym odpowiednikiem generalnego komisariatu. Już w październiku został jednak zdymisjonowany przez gauleitera Wilhelma Kube z powodu współpracy w okresie międzywojennym z komunistami, a następnie władzami polskimi. Później pełnił funkcje burmistrza w Briańsku, Smoleńsku i Mohylewie. Pod koniec grudnia 1943 r. został przewodniczącym Białoruskiej Centralnej Rady (BCR), która miała się stać zalążkiem zależnego od Niemiec rządu Białorusi. W lutym 1944 r. podpisał odezwę w sprawie utworzenia i mobilizacji do Białoruskiej Obrony Krajowej. Pod koniec czerwca tego roku współorganizował w Mińsku II kongres wszechbiałoruski, a po zakończeniu jego obrad wraz z kierownictwem BCR ewakuował się do Rzeszy. +Po zakończeniu II wojny światowej zamieszkał w zachodnich Niemczech. Rozpuścił Białoruską Centralną Radę. Na pocz. czerwca 1945 r. w obozie dla przesiedleńców w Ratyzbonie został członkiem Białoruskiego Komitetu Narodowego. 31 grudnia 1947 r. wydał odezwę w sprawie utworzenia Centralnego Przedstawicielstwa Białoruskiego. Działał jako reprezentant Białorusinów w kierownictwie Antybolszewickiego Bloku Narodów. W 1956 r. wyjechał do USA, gdzie kontynuował emigracyjną działalność polityczno-społeczną. +W wigilijną noc 1998 r. w Elektrowni Turów doszło do jednej z największych awarii w polskiej energetyce zawodowej. Prawie całkowitemu zniszczeniu uległ blok energetyczny o mocy 200 MW, uszkodzonych zostało wiele urządzeń sąsiednich jednostek wytwórczych, wyłączono większość generatorów a w maszynowni wybuchł groźny pożar. +24 grudnia 1998 r. w Elektrowni Turów prowadzono planowe wyłączenie z pracy bloku nr 5. Po obniżeniu mocy turbogeneratora przez zamknięcie dopływu pary do turbiny, obsługa bloku wysłała z elektrowni rozkaz wyłączenia wyłącznika blokowego w stacji wysokiego napięcia Mikułowa. Niestety, wskutek uszkodzenia hydraulicznego układu sterowania tego wyłącznika otworzyły się jedynie styki biegunów dwóch faz, natomiast biegun trzeciej fazy pozostał zamknięty. Mimo niecałkowitego otwarcia wyłącznika do układów automatyki bloku został wysłany błędny sygnał o pełnym, trzyfazowym wyłączeniu. W wyniku połączenia generatora z siecią tylko jedną fazą doszło do jego wypadnięcia z synchronizmu, po czym przeszedł do pracy silnika asynchronicznego zasilanego niepełnofazowo. +W 1944 r. odznaczony przez gen. Tadeusza Bora-Komorowskiego Srebrnym Krzyżem Orderu Virtuti Militari +Dolina ma powierzchnię nieco ponad 5 km² i wyrzeźbiona jest w skałach krystalicznych. Jest w większości zalesiona (w wyższych partiach rosną limby) i porośnięta kosówką, ale w jej górnych partiach są jeszcze spore trawiaste obszary. Płynie przez nią potok Koprowica ("Kôprovnica"), dopływ Cichej Wody Liptowskiej ("Tichý potok"). Dolina jest niedostępna dla turystów, od 1948 r. stanowi obszar ochrony ścisłej TANAP-u. +W 1945 świątynia został ponownie przejęta przez karmelitów bosych, którzy w 1950 ukończyli odbudowę zniszczonej podczas walk o Cytadelę świątynię przywracając jej barokowy wygląd. Odbudowa trwała przez ponad 20 lat. W latach 1952-1993 klasztor był siedzibą Kolegium Filozoficznego dawnej Prowincji Polskiej. Od roku 1984 trwały tu prace nad całkowitą renowacją kościoła, którego poświęcenie odbyło się 19 marca 1990 r. Dnia 15 października 1990 r. przy klasztorze rozpoczął działalność Instytut Duchowości Carmelitanum. Od września 1993 roku w klasztorze poznańskim mieści się Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Prowincji Warszawskiej. Od kwietnia 2006 r. kościół został podświetlony. Przy klasztorze ma także obecnie siedzibę Wydawnictwo Warszawskiej Prowincji Karmelitów Bosych "Flos Carmeli". +Są długowiecznymi zwierzętami, gdyż w sprzyjających warunkach mogą dożyć nawet 300 lat. Dobrym przykładem może być żółw o imieniu Tu'i Malila, podarowany przez kapitana J. Cooka królowi Tonga ok. 1777 r. Jeszcze w 1949 r. był w dobrej formie, a umarł w 1965 roku w wieku ok. 188 lat. +Wyspy Galápagos są parkiem narodowym od 1959, chroniącym 97.5% obszaru archipelagu. UNESCO uznało wyspy jak Miejsce Światowego Dziedzictwa w 1978 r. Fundacja Karola Darwina została powołana do ochrony wysp w Belgii w 1959 r. +Żółwie z Galapagos nie są jeszcze wolne od zagrożeń. Domowe zwierzęta przywiezione na wyspy przez osadników zdziczały i żyją w Parku Narodowym powodując poważne problemy w ochronie populacji żółwi. Szczury, psy i świnie pożerają jaja i młode żółwie. Kozy i osły wyjadają szatę roślinną, bydło i konie tratują grunt zgniatając żółwie gniazda. Zdarzają się wypadki kłusownictwa, szczególnie na wyspie Isabela - w ten sposób zabito ok. 120 żółwi od 1990 r. +Dzięki utworzeniu na Galapagos Parku Narodowego zaczęto ratować zagrożone podgatunki żółwia słoniowego. W 1969 r. założono Stację Biologiczną Charles Darwin aby ratować 11 istniejących jeszcze podgatunków żółwia słoniowego. Jednym z najważniejszych zadań było ustabilizowanie środowiska życiowego dla żółwi. To wymagało wyrugowania z wysp wprowadzonych zwierząt. Jednocześnie zabierano złożone jaja, aby nie padły łupem zdziczałych zwierząt, a następnie poddawano procesowi inkubacji w stacji. Kiedy żółwie podrosły na tyle, by nie zagrażały im psy i szczury wypuszczano je na ich rodzimych wyspach. Te metody odniosły duży sukces i ochroniły populację żółwia na kilku wyspach takich jak Espaňola. W tym samym czasie usuwano wprowadzone zdziczałe zwierzęta. Chociaż kilka podgatunków żółwia słoniowego zostało uratowanych to wiele pracy jeszcze pozostaje do wykonania. +Rejon doliny zbudowany jest z łupków krystalicznych i gnejsów. Przez porośniętą lasem i kosodrzewiną dolinę płynie Krzyżny Potok ("Krížny potok"), zasilający Cichą Wodę Liptowską ("Tichý potok"). Dolina jest niedostępna dla turystów, od 1948 r. stanowi obszar ochrony ścisłej TANAP-u. +Pod koniec II wojny światowej w dolinie mieściła się baza oddziału partyzanckiego „Vysoké Tatry”. W listopadzie partyzanci zostali zaatakowani przez oddziały niemieckie i stoczyli z nimi potyczkę. Przypomina o tym ustawiony w 1968 r. pamiątkowy kamień w Dolinie Cichej na Niżniej Polanie Cichej, nieco powyżej wylotu Doliny Krzyżnej. +System wymagał 4 MB pamięci operacyjnej i 80 MB miejsca na dysku. Był też ściśle związany z mało popularnym klonem Uniksa, uruchamianym na maszynach Macintosh - był więc nieprzenośny. W 1991 r., po zmianach dokonanych w AU/X i wskutek braku funduszy, projekt Intermedia został zakończony. +Kanpur (hindi: कानपुर, do 1948 r. znany jako "Cawnpore") – największe miasto stanu Uttar Pradesh w północnych Indiach. +W 1909 r. Ulrich Salchow wykonał podczas zawodów skok wykonywany w jeździe tyłem z wewnętrznej krawędzi łyżwy, po którym wylądował na zewnętrznej krawędzi drugiej łyżwy – skok ten nosi nazwę salchow. +Xerox Star - oficjalnie znany jako 8010, był rewolucyjną stacją roboczą wypuszczona na rynek jako komercyjny produkt w 1981 r.; stację nazywano też Dandelion lub Dlion. Star został opracowany przez Xerox Systems Development Division, a nie przez Xerox PARC, jak się powszechnie sądzi. Niemniej wiele idei zostało zaczerpniętych z prac Xerox PARC, jak WYSIWYG, Ethernet i usługi sieciowe. Komputer zawierał maszynę wirtualną dla języka programowania Mesa, bezpośredniego prekursora Modula-2 i Modula-3. +W 1909 został profesorem i kierownikiem laboratorium w Szkole Mechaniczno-Technicznej H. Wawelberga i S. Rotwanda w Warszawie. Lata międzywojenne spędził jako docent i profesor w Szkole Głównej Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego, gdzie organizował nauczanie fizyki. W 1926 r. na Wydziale Przyrodniczym Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego obronił doktorat, a w 1931 na Wydziale Elektrycznym Politechniki Warszawskiej przeprowadził habilitację. +Urodził się w Kłodnicy k. Bełżyc. Gimnazjum lubelskie ukończył w 1860 r. Powstanie styczniowe przerwało mu rozpoczęte studia w Warszawie. Walczył w oddziale gen. Langiewicza, biorąc udział w bitwach pod Wąchockiem, na Świętym Krzyżu i w Staszowie. Pod Małogoszczem dostał się do niewoli i przebywał w więzieniach do stycznia 1864 r, kiedy to został zesłany na Sybir. Po powrocie do domu w Niezabitowie zajął się gospodarowaniem. Zrujnowany, osiedlił się w 1880 r. w Nałęczowie, prowadząc działalność naukowo-publicystyczną. W 1915 r. przeniósł się do Lublina. Położył duże zasługi w obronie polskości Chełmszczyzny, gromadząc i publikując materiały dotyczące tego regionu. W czasie I wojny światowej zorganizował Biuro Statystyczne, które rejestrowało straty wojenne w 27 powiatach będących pod okupacją austro-węgierską. Autor "Opisu statystycznego guberni lubelskiej" i "Pamiętników". W Lublinie jedna z ulic (boczna ul. Głębokiej, biegnąca wzdłuż cmentarza) nosi jego imię. +Requiem Records - niezależne polskie wydawnictwo undergroundowe funkcjonujące nieprzerwanie od 1995 r. +Do XVIII w. tereny na południe od linii kolejowej nie były zamieszkane, dopiero w XIX w. wraz z uprzemysłowieniem miasta zaczęto je zabudowywać. Część ta została włączona do Szczecina wraz z utworzeniem powiatu grodzkiego w 1857 r., natomiast część północna osiedla została kupiona w 1911 r. przez ówczesnego nadburmistrza Szczecina, Friedricha Ackermanna, od powiatu Randow. W międzyczasie w 1898 r. Niebuszewo zostało połączone "obwodową linią kolejową" (ob. linia kolejowa nr 406) prowadzącą wówczas do Jasienicy, przedłużoną 12 lat później do Trzebieży. Nalot aliancki w nocy z 29 na 30 sierpnia 1944 zniszczył wiele zabudowań os. Bolinko. Na Niebuszewie istniała również fabryka samochodów Stoewer, na ulicy Naruszewicza, oraz Browary Elysium i Tivoli (Niemcewicza). Na ówczesnym osiedlu Rollberg (dzisiaj północna część ulicy Krasińskiego) znajdowała się również strzelnica. Po wojnie część wschodnia dzielnicy, na której dziś znajduje się Osiedle Piastowskie, była pustkowiem pełnym ruin. Natomiast ocalała część stała się ośrodkiem społeczności żydowskiej, która jednak do końca lat sześćdziesiątych w większości wyemigrowała (do dziś na ul. Niemcewicza mieści się siedziba miejscowego oddziału TSKŻ oraz Gminy Wyznaniowej Żydowskiej). +Innym komunikacyjnym obiektem jest otwarta w 1907 r. zajezdnia tramwajowa Niemierzyn, jedyna czynna tuż po zakończeniu II wojny światowej. 1 października 2004 została ona wyłączona z eksploatacji z powodu braku pieniędzy na jej remont (ostatnio remontowana była w latach 20. XX w.). W hali byłej zajezdni z dniem 1 stycznia 2006 powstało Muzeum Techniki i Komunikacji - Zajezdnia Sztuki w Szczecinie. +Tolar (kod ISO 4217: SIT) był od października 1991 r. do 31 grudnia 2006 r. oficjalną walutą Słowenii. Dzielił się na 100 stotinów, przy czym wobec faktu, że jednostka podwielokrotna miała bardzo niską siłę nabywczą (przelicznik wynosił w przybliżeniu 1 SIT = 0,00417 EUR), stotiny nie były w praktycznym użyciu. +Powiat brzeski istniał również w latach 1945-1975. Bezpośrednio po II wojnie światowej należał do II okręgu administracyjnego "Dolny Śląsk" Ziem Odzyskanych. 28 czerwca 1946 r. wszedł w skład nowo utworzonego woj. wrocławskiego. W skład woj. opolskiego należał od 6 lipca 1950 r. aż do 1 czerwca 1975 r., kiedy w ramach ogólnopolskiej reformy zlikwidowano powiaty. +Jako uczeń siedmioklasowej Szkoły Handlowej Zgromadzenia Kupców m. Lublina uczestniczył od 1904 r. w pracach kółek samokształcących, był wiceprzewodniczącym Związku Młodzieży Narodowej w Lublinie. Jako jednemu z organizatorów strajku szkolnego w 1905 r. uniemożliwiono mu kontynuowanie nauki w szkołach lubelskich. Edukację uzupełnił w Warszawie, gdzie w 1910 r. ukończył prywatną Szkołę Przemysłowo-Techniczną (bez matury). Jesienią powołano go do armii carskiej celem odbycia trzyletniej służby wojskowej. +Tuż po wybuchu I wojny światowej został ponownie zmobilizowany i wysłany na front rosyjsko-austriacki. W bitwie pod Kraśnikiem, w sierpniu 1914 r., dostał się do niewoli austriackiej. W 1916 r. zaciągnął się do Legionów, otrzymując przydział do 6 Pułku Piechoty Legionów. Wziął udział w jesiennych bojach nad Stochodem. Następnie wraz z pułkiem udał się do Nałęczowa i Dęblina na odpoczynek Po odmowie złożenia przysięgi na wierność cesarzom Niemiec i Austro-Węgier został internowany w obozie w Szczypiornie, a następnie Łomży. W obozie łomżyńskim pełnił funkcję dowódcy internowanych legionistów z 6 pp Leg. Zwolniony przez Niemców w lipcu 1918 r. powrócił do domu. Wkrótce, na rozkaz przełożonych, wyjechał do Siedlec, obejmując obowiązki komendanta III Okręgu Podlaskiego POW. +W niepodległej już Polsce kontynuował karierę wojskową, służąc w 22 Pułku Piechoty (zwanym powszechnie siedleckim). W okresie wojny polsko-bolszewickiej dowodził kompanią techniczną i przeszedł z nią cały szlak bojowy. Wyróżnił się zwłaszcza w bitwie pod Jełaniem-Strakomiczami (7 kwietnia 1920) oraz w walkach w obronie Warszawy. Po ustaniu działań zbrojnych pułk stacjonował w okolicach Mołodeczna, skąd powrócił do Siedlec dopiero we wrześniu 1922 r. +Po przewrocie majowym de Tramecourt otrzymał awans i w stopniu majora został oddelegowany do Wilna, gdzie w Dowództwie Obozu Warownego pełnił służbę jako oficer sztabowy. Jesienią 1928 r. opuścił szeregi WP i podjął pracę w administracji państwowej. W czerwcu 1929 r. został mianowany starostą w Mołodecznie. Następnie piastował urząd starosty dziśnieńskiego w Głębokiem (wrzesień 1931 – kwiecień 1932), wileńsko-trockiego (kwiecień 1932 – wrzesień 1935) i radomskiego (wrzesień 1935 – luty 1937). +17 lutego 1937 r. premier Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski mianował go wicewojewodą poleskim i powierzył pełnienie obowiązków wojewody na czas niedyspozycji Wacława Kostka-Biernackiego. Funkcję tę pełnił do 10 września 1937 r., gdy rozpoczął urzędowanie jako wojewoda lubelski (z datą nominacji 8 września 1937). Największym jego osiągnięciem okazało się włączenie w skład COP południowej części woj. lubelskiego. W Lublinie pełnił wiele funkcji dodatkowych. Był m.in. przewodniczącym Prezydium Honorowego Wojewódzkiego Obywatelskiego Komitetu Zimowej Pomocy Bezrobotnym, przewodniczącym Rady Wojewódzkiej, przewodniczącym Rady Fundacji Szpitala św. Wincentego a Paulo, prezesem Zarządu Aeroklubu Lubelskiego, przewodniczącym Wojewódzkiej Rady Funduszu Pracy, prezesem Okręgu Lubelskiego LOPP, a także członkiem honorowym Automobilklubu Lubelskiego. +Po wybuchu II wojny światowej pozostał w Lublinie, nadzorując poczynania zarówno instytucji państwowych, jak i społecznych. Przyczynił się do uratowania m.in. obrazów Jana Matejki "Bitwa pod Grunwaldem" i "Kazanie Skargi", ewakuowanych galerami do Kazimierza Dolnego. Funkcję sprawował do 14 września 1939 r. Po zajęciu Lublina przez wojska niemieckie został 20 października 1939 r. aresztowany i rozstrzelany w listopadzie w niewyjaśnionych okolicznościach. Data i miejsce pochówku pozostają do dziś nieznane. +Kyzył założony został w 1914 r. pod nazwą Biełocarsk, w 1918 przemianowano go na Chem-Bełdyr. Dzisiejszą nazwę – oznaczającą po tuwińsku ""czerwony"" – nadano miastu w 1926 r. +Hurghada powstała nad Zatoką Sueską z brytyjskiej osady poszukiwaczy ropy naftowej (od ok. 1913 r.) i początkowo odgrywała rolę osady rybackiej. Miasto zostało założone na początku XX w. W roku 1930 powstała osada mieszkaniowa pracowników "Narodowego Instytutu Oceanografii i Rybołówstwa". Od wczesnych lat 80. XX w. po pokoju egipsko-izraelskim podpisanym w Camp David zaczęła się rozwijać jako wielki międzynarodowy ośrodek turystyczny dzięki arabskim i zagranicznym inwestorom. +Pod koniec 1940 "Zo" przeniesiono do Warszawy – dostała przydział do Wydziału Łączności Zagranicznej Komendy Głównej Armii Krajowej "Zagroda". Od połowy 1941 r. jeździła między Warszawą a Berlinem przewożąc w obie strony pocztę, która kursowała przez Szwecję do Londynu i z powrotem. Dodatkowym zadaniem Zawackiej było zorganizowanie szlaków kurierów podążających do Londynu przez Niemcy. W latach 1939–1945 korzystając z fałszywych dokumentów przekraczała granice Rzeszy ponad sto razy przenosząc meldunki i informacje, zaś w przerwach między wyprawami uczyła się na tajnych kompletach. +Jeszcze w latach sześćdziesiątych Elżbieta Zawacka zajęła się gromadzeniem materiałów historycznych dokumentujących działalność Armii Krajowej w czasie wojny, jako emerytka powróciła do tej pracy. Działała w ruchu kombatanckim „Solidarności”, w 1986 współzakładała w Toruniu Klub Historyczny AK (działający następnie jako Klub Historyczny im. Antoniego Antczaka). Dzięki jej zaangażowaniu grono kilku osób w Toruniu zainicjowało, w końcu 1988 r., powstanie ogólnopolskiego stowarzyszenia byłych żołnierzy Armii Krajowej (obecnie Światowy Związek Żołnierzy Armii Krajowej). W pierwszym zarządzie głównym tej organizacji, który kładł podwaliny pod jej dalszy rozwój, pełniła funkcję wiceprezesa Zarządu Głównego. W 1990 współtworzyła Fundację "Archiwum Pomorskie Armii Krajowej" – była jej honorowym przewodniczącym. +W myśl Przepisu Ubioru Polowego Wojsk Polskich z 1919 r.: na naramiennikach kurtki i płaszcza w odległości 1 cm od wszycia, w poprzek naramiennika, naszyte równolegle prosto w odległości 1,5 cm jeden od drugiego dwa płaskie sznureczki srebrne oksydowane szerokości 5 mm. Na środku naramiennika wzdłuż jedna gwiazdka haftowana oksydowanymi nićmi lub wytłaczana pięciopromienna, o ostrych promieniach. +W 1910 r. Swarzędz liczył 3 459 mieszkańców, tym: 1 927 Polaków (55,7%), 1 371 Niemców (39,6%) i 161 Żydów (4,7%). +W czasie wojny amerykańsko-hiszpańskiej Pershing odznaczył się w bitwach pod Kettle i na wzgórzach San Juan na Kubie. Wziął także udział w kilku wyprawach przeciwko powstańcom w czasie wojny filipińsko-amerykańskiej. W 1905 r. został wysłany do Tokio jako wojskowy attaché, był obserwatorem po stronie japońskiej w czasie wojny rosyjsko-japońskiej. Po powrocie z Japonii został gubernatorem prowincji Moro na Filipinach. +Po wybuchu I wojny światowej prezydent Woodrow Wilson mianował Pershinga głównodowodzącym Amerykańskich Sił Ekspedycyjnych (AEF) w 1917 r. Pershing był odpowiedzialny za organizację, wyszkolenie i zaopatrzenie młodej i niedoświadczonej armii amerykańskiej, która do końca wojny rozrosła się do ponad 2 mln żołnierzy. W czasie pobytu w Europie Pershing był pod nieustannym naciskiem politycznym ze strony Francji i Wielkiej Brytanii, aby AEF zostały rozbite na mniejsze oddziały służące przy armiach francuskiej i angielskiej. Pershing był przeciwny takiemu rozwiązaniu i tylko dzięki jego uporowi AEF był jednolitą organizacją wyłącznie pod dowództwem amerykańskim. W tym czasie George Marshall był jednym z jego asystentów, a Patton został oddelegowany do stworzenia pierwszej amerykańskiej brygady czołgów. +W czasie II wojny światowej powstała potrzeba utworzenia dodatkowego stopnia generalskiego i admiralskiego, ponieważ w sojuszniczych armiach było coraz więcej marszałków. Utworzono więc w 1944 r. stopnie "pięciogwiazdkowego" admirała ("Fleet Admiral") i generała ("General of the Army") oznaczane 5 srebrnymi gwiazdkami – uznano nieoficjalnie, że będą one równoważne z honorowymi stopniami Pershinga i Deweya, ale inaczej oznaczane i nazywane. W przypadku admirała Deweya nie istniały problemy związane ze starszeństwem, bo zmarł w 1917 r., natomiast co do generała Pershinga i 5-gwiazdkowych generałów uznano, że obowiązuje tutaj zasada starszeństwa (w przypadku dwóch oficerów równym stopniem za ważniejszego uznaje się tego, który dłużej nosi dany stopień) stawiająca wyżej Pershinga. W 1945 pojawiły się propozycje, aby utworzyć przed inwazją na Japonię "sześciogwiazdkowe" (6 srebrnych gwiazdek) stopnie generalskie i admiralskie ("Flag Admiral" i "Flag General"), które zamierzano nadać MacArthurowi i Nimitzowi – równocześnie zamierzano zrównać z nimi stopnie nadane Pershingowi i Deweyowi. Jednakże z powodu kapitulacji Japonii do tego nie doszło – stało się to jednak źródłem problemów z określeniem rzeczywistej rangi stopni Pershinga i Deweya. Generał Pershing odmawiał konsekwentnie noszenia innych oznak stopnia niż przyznane mu 4 złote gwiazdki. +"Black Jack" Pershing został szefem sztabu wojsk amerykańskich w 1921 i służył na tym stanowisku do 1924 r. +Za swoje wspomnienia "My Experience in the World War" otrzymał nagrodę Pulitzera w 1932 r. +W 1940 r., jeszcze przed przystąpieniem Ameryki do wojny, był zwolennikiem udzielenia jak najdalej idącej pomocy dla Wielkiej Brytanii. Jego podobizna zdobi "Army of Occupation of Germany Medal". +W 1940 r. około 100 Łemków emigrowało z Powroźnika na Ukrainę, pod naciskiem Niemców. Następnie w ramach Akcji Wisła w 1947 r. wysiedlono z Powroźnika kolejne 451 osób. Na wyludnione tereny napłynęła ludność polska z Kresów Wschodnich i z innych wiosek Podkarpacia. W 1951 r. decyzją biskupa tarnowskiego, zlikwidowano parafię greckokatolicką w Powroźniku i erygowano parafię rzymsko-katolicką. +Przed 1990 rokiem Akajew był niezaangażowanym politycznie naukowcem (profesorem fizyki) i prezesem Kirgiskiej Akademii Nauk, raczej nieprzychylnie nastawionym do partii komunistycznej, aczkolwiek prowadził potem promoskiewską politykę – był też autorem pomysłu Wspólnoty Niepodległych Państw. W 1991 roku został przewodniczącym Rady Najwyższej Kirgistanu, prowadząc swój kraj do ogłoszenia niepodległości 31 sierpnia 1991 roku. Nie mając żadnych kontrkandydatów zwyciężył w wyborach prezydenckich w 1991 r., zdobywając 95% głosów. Był powtórnie wybierany w latach 1995 i 2000, choć wskazywano wtedy na naruszenia procedury wyborczej. +Pierwszym Polakiem na szczycie McKinley był Marek Głogoczowski, który zdobył górę w 1970 r. +Męska linia Romanowów wygasła wraz ze śmiercią Piotra II w 1730 roku. W 1762 r. wnuk Piotra I Wielkiego, książę Holsztynu Karol Piotr Ulryk z dynastii Oldenburgów zasiadł na tronie imperatorów Rosji jako Piotr III Holstein-Gottorp-Romanow. Po okresie panowania jego żony Katarzyny II (1762-1796), jego potomkowie zasiadali na tronie rosyjskim do 1917 r. Od panowania Piotra III Holstein-Gottorp-Romanow niektórzy mówią o dynastii Holstein-Gottorp-Romanow (porównaj: Habsburgowie/Dom Habsbursko-Lotaryński) pomimo, że Piotr III wraz ze swymi potomkami przyjął nazwisko Romanow rezygnując z nazwiska rodowego. +Ustawa z dnia 23 kwietnia 1964 r. Przepisy wprowadzające kodeks cywilny (, z późn. zm.), która zawiera w głównej mierze przepisy derogacyjne, kolizyjne i intertemporalne przygotowała polski system prawa do wejścia w życie kodeksu cywilnego. Akty prawne wymienione wyżej zostały w całości lub w części uchylone przez niniejszą ustawę. +Pierwsza nowelizacja nastąpiła w 1971 r. W okresie PRL-u kodeks cywilny znowelizowano ośmiokrotnie. +Bardzo obszerna nowelizacja nastąpiła w 1990 r. w związku z transformacją ustrojową w Polsce. Przejście z gospodarki centralnie sterowanej na gospodarkę kapitalistyczną wywołało potrzebę dokonania głębokich zmian w kodeksie cywilnym, głównie w zakresie własności oraz umów (wprowadzono do kodeksu cywilnego np. zasadę swobody umów, która jest jednym z fundamentów gospodarki wolnorynkowej – mówi o niej art. 3531 kodeksu cywilnego). +W latach 50. zaczął występować już zawodowo w programach radiowych i klubach nocnych, a jego zachrypły głos stawał się coraz szerzej znany. Jednak dopiero w 1969 r. wydał pierwszy singel sygnowany własnym nazwiskiem. W 1975 udało mu się wydać kompletną płytę "O Rei do Coco" "("Król Coco")" utrzymaną w tradycyjnych tanecznych rytmach północnej Brazylii. W sumie wydał 27 albumów. +Pierwszym turystą w dolinie, którego nazwisko się zachowało, był Eugeniusz Janota z towarzyszami i przewodnikiem Maciejem Sieczką 9 września 1867 r. W zimie pierwsi byli tu Józef Lesiecki i Józef Oppenheim 14 kwietnia 1914 r. +Według rzymskiej Kongregacji Nauki Wiary, fakt konieczności posiadania mandatu kościelnego nie odbiera teologowi prawa do postawy krytycznej, krytycyzm nie jest jednak według tejże Kongregacji tożsamy z "duchem krytycznym", który naznaczony jest zwykle subiektywnymi emocjami i uprzedzeniami. Zgłębienie Objawienia wymaga sięgania do właściwego rodzaju filozofii i innych nauk, które harmonijnie ujmują prawdę o człowieku, świecie i Bogu. Kryterium oceny tych nauk i ich narzędzi pojęciowych stanowi sama "nauka objawiona". W zastosowaniu tego kryterium pomaga "nadprzyrodzony zmysł wiary" obecny w Kościele. Razem z szacunkiem do chrześcijańskiego depozytu nauczania wiary teolog w swej refleksji ma być krytyczny, ma prowadzić swe badania racjonalnie, rzetelnie spełniając jej wymogi epistemologiczne - ponieważ teologia w ciągu swego istnienia stworzyła własny system wiedzy naukowej. Przykładem teologów, którzy w XX w. utracili prawo do uprawiania teologii katolickiej z powodu zbyt wielkich rozbieżności ich poglądów z Tradycją Apostolską, byli m.in. niemieccy teolodzy Hans Küng oraz Uta Ranke-Heinemann. Historycznie, od początków drugiego tysiąclecia chrześcijaństwa ortodoksją teologów w Kościele katolickim zajmowała się inkwizycja, która później została przekształcona w Święte Oficjum, by w 1965 r. trakcie Soboru watykańskiego II otrzymać nazwę Kongregacja Nauki Wiary. +Henryk Zieliński (ur. 22 września 1920 r. w Szembruczku koło Grudziądza, zm. 6 marca 1981 we Wrocławiu) – historyk, profesor zwyczajny Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. Syn nauczyciela języka polskiego na pograniczu polsko-niemieckim na Pomorzu, żołnierz kampanii wrześniowej w 1939, ranny w bitwie nad Bzurą, jeniec oflagów i stalagów. Po zwolnieniu z obozu i przybyciu do Krakowa w 1944 student tajnego Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, a po zakończeniu wojny absolwent tej uczelni. Wieloletni pracownik naukowy Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego (w latach 1970-1972 – profesor Uniwersytetu Śląskiego w Katowicach). Odznaczony Krzyżem Kawalerskim Polonia Restituta i Medalem Komisji Edukacji Narodowej. +Obowiązkową służbę wojskową odbył w Szkole Podchorążych Saperów w Modlinie w latach 1932-1933, po czym powrócił do Zakładu Geologii UW. W 1934 r. uczestniczył w polskiej wyprawie polarnej na Spitsbergen. Na pamiątkę jego udziału w ekspedycji jeden ze szpicbergeńskich lodowców nazwany został Lodowcem Różyckiego (współrzędne geograficzne ). Od 1937 zatrudniony w Państwowym Instytucie Geologicznym) jako starszy geolog. Poszukiwał rud żelaza w Radomskiem i badał północne obrzeżenie Gór Świętokrzyskich. +Od 1951 sprawował funkcję organizatora Ośrodka Szkolenia Geologów, którego prace doprowadziły do utworzenia Wydziału Geologii na UW w 1952. W tym roku objął pierwszą na świecie Katedrę Geologii Czwartorzędu i kierował nią do jej likwidacji w 1962 r. Następnie objął kierownictwo Zakładu Geologii Czwartorzędu na Wydziale Geologii UW. W 1952 otrzymał Nagrodę Państwową II Stopnia za pracę "Górny dogger i dolny malm Jury Krakowsko-Częstochowskiej". Od października 1953 przez dwa lata sprawował funkcję dyrektora Instytutu Geologicznego Centralnego Urzędu Geologii (poprzednio Państwowego Instytutu Geologicznego), nie przerywając pracy na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Przeprowadził jego reorganizację i opracował nowy program prac badawczo-poszukiwawczych, zwłaszcza dla Niżu Polskiego. +Od 1952 członek korespondent Polskiej Akademii Nauk, po wchłonięciu przez nią Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, którego był wieloletnim członkiem. Od 1965 r. członek rzeczywisty PAN. W latach 1954-1957 był członkiem ówczesnej Centralnej Komisji Kwalifikacyjnej do spraw rozwoju kadr naukowych. +Karol Olgierd Borchardt był synem lekarza i urzędniczki. W dzieciństwie wraz z matką wyjechał do Paryża. Po powrocie do kraju mieszkał w Wilnie, gdzie uczęszczał do szkoły podstawowej, a potem do Gimnazjum Humanistycznego im. Adama Mickiewicza. W 1924 roku zdał maturę i wstąpił na Wydział Prawa Uniwersytetu Stefana Batorego w Wilnie. Rok później rozpoczął naukę w Szkole Morskiej w Tczewie, którą ukończył w roku 1928. Następnie pływał na pasażerskich transatlantykach armatora Gdynia-Ameryka Linie Żeglugowe SA, pełniąc kolejno funkcje oficerskie. W 1936 roku otrzymał dyplom kapitana żeglugi wielkiej. W 1938 r. rozpoczął pracę w Państwowej Szkole Morskiej w Gdyni, obejmując stanowisko zastępcy komendanta żaglowca szkolnego "Dar Pomorza". +Wybuch drugiej wojny światowej zastał go na "Darze Pomorza" w czasie rejsu szkolnego. Na polecenie władz udał się do Sztokholmu, a potem do Szkocji. Następnie wrócił do GAL-u i pływał na statkach pasażerskich przekształconych w transportowce. Został starszym oficerem polskiego flagowego statku pasażerskiego "MS Piłsudski" i w listopadzie 1939 r., przeżył jego zatopienie, podczas którego został poważnie ranny w głowę. Po wyleczeniu został starszym oficerem kolejnego transatlantyka, "MS Chrobry" i w 1940 r. przeżył jego zbombardowanie i zatopienie w kampanii norweskiej. Został ponownie ranny, odnowił mu się ciężki uraz z poprzedniego wydarzenia i wskutek tego stan zdrowia utrudniał mu potem służbę na morzu. +W roku 1942 gaulliści z Londynu i działacze Ruchu Oporu skoordynowali swe poczynania wobec wzmagających się represji Niemców oraz reżimu Vichy. Poważne wzmocnienie dla podziemia przyniosło zjednoczenie politycznych sił Ruchu Oporu: delegat de Gaulle'a Jean Moulin (członek partii radykalnej, wybitny organizator) został pierwszym przewodniczącym "Krajowej Rady Ruchu Oporu", w której skład weszły główne siły polityczne Resistance: komuniści, socjaliści, radykałowie, chrześcijańscy demokraci. Po aresztowaniu Moulina na czele CNR zastąpił Georges Bidault. W marcu 1944 r. w ślad za zjednoczeniem politycznym nastąpiło zjednoczenie wojskowe podziemia. Poprzez scalenie kilku organizacji zbrojnych głównie gaullistów z AS i komunistów z FTFP oraz wojskowych zawodowych z ORA powstały "Francuskie Siły Wewnętrzne" - FFI. Ich dowódcą został generał Marie Pierre Koenig. W ostatnim roku okupacji nastąpił znaczny wzrost liczby akcji bojowych, aktów sabotażu oraz dywersji. Największe natężenie osiągnęły one po rozpoczęciu operacji wyzwalania Europy Zachodniej 6 czerwca 1944 roku rozwinęła się wówczas masowa partyzantka. W Paryżu i Marsylii wybuchły powstania zbrojne. Resistance samodzielnie oswobodziła szereg departamentów francuskich opuszczanych przez wycofujący się Wehrmacht. Po wyzwoleniu Francji znaczna część członków oddziałów Resistance wstąpiła do oddziałów regularnych armii francuskiej. +Po 1918 r. przestaje obowiązywać dotychczasowa nazwa osady; przejściowo używa się nazwy Uroczysko, a od 1925 r. obowiązuje nazwa Maczki. +Domicyl (łac. "domicilium" - miejsce zamieszkania) – stałe miejsce zamieszkania osoby fizycznej lub siedziba osoby prawnej. Może oznaczać również stałe miejsce dopełniania zobowiązań finansowych. W prawie międzynarodowym prywatnym jeden z łączników wskazujących, jakie prawo należy zastosować dla oceny spornego stosunku. Pojęcie domicylu jest również obecne w prawie konstytucyjnym wielu państw. Przykładem może być wymóg domicylu (minimum 14 lat) w stosunku do kandydata na urząd Prezydenta USA. W polskim prawie wekslowym oznacza miejsce (miejscowość), w którym weksel jest płatny (art. 37 ustawy z dnia 28 kwietnia 1936 r. Prawo wekslowe). +Powrót do regulacji rynkowych w okresie Nowej Ekonomicznej Polityki (NEP) wymagał odbudowy pieniądza i bankowości. Pieniądz odbudowano drogą trzech kolejnych denominacji. W 1922 r. wprowadzono rubla „wzór 1922”, na który wymieniono dotychczasowe (carskie, kierenki i sowznaki (ale nie ruble emitowane przez Białych Rosjan w czasie wojny domowej) w relacji 1:10 tys. W 1923 r. wprowadzono rubla „wzór 1923”, na który wymieniono wcześniejsze znaki pieniężne w relacji 1:100 rubli „wzór 1922” lub 1:1 mln rubli wcześniejszych. +Jednocześnie poczynając od końca 1922 r., wprowadzono do obiegu czerwońce. Były to banknoty o nominale 10 złotych, przedrewolucyjnych rubli o parytecie złota (1 czerwoniec = 7,74 g. czystego złota). Stopniowo ich udział w obiegu wzrastał. W 1924 r. wymieniono na czerwońce wszystkie dotychczasowe znaki pieniężne w relacji 1 rubel złoty „wzór 1924” = 50 tys. rubli „wzór 1923” = 5 mln rubli „wzór 1922” = 50 mld rubli sprzed roku 1922, przy czym uchwalono także zakaz pokrywania deficytu budżetowego przez emisję pieniądza. Odtąd banknot o nominale 1 czerwońca stanowił równowartość 10 rubli. +Centralnym bankiem był Bank Państwowy (Gosbank), utworzony w 1921 r. rozpoczął udzielania kredytów na zasadach komercyjnych, dla przemysłu i handlu. W latach 1922-1925 powstało kilka wyspecjalizowanych banków, których większościowym właścicielem był Gosbank, a pozostałe akcje należały do syndykatów, spółdzielni, prywatnych przedsiębiorstw krajowych i zagranicznych. +Powstało wiele banków, już w 1923 roku istniało ich 17, a w październiku 1926 roku było już 61 niezależnych banków. Między innymi jesienią 1922 r. powstały: Bank Przemysłowy, Bank Handlu Zagranicznego i Bank Spółdzielni i w 1925 r. Bank Budownictwa Mieszkaniowego. diff --git a/TaskB03/polish_wiki_excerpt.in b/TaskB03/polish_wiki_excerpt.in new file mode 120000 index 0000000..4017184 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB03/polish_wiki_excerpt.in @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../TaskA02/polish_wiki_excerpt.in \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/TaskB03/simple.exp b/TaskB03/simple.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7134c32 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB03/simple.exp @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +Kiedyś był 1934 r. +Kiedyś był 1934 r.fsdfsdfsdf +1934 r. to jakaś data diff --git a/TaskB03/simple.in b/TaskB03/simple.in new file mode 100644 index 0000000..66d0858 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB03/simple.in @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +Kiedyś był 1934 r. +Kiedyś był 1934 r.fsdfsdfsdf +Kiedyś był 1935 rok +1934 r. to jakaś data +1934 to też jakaś data diff --git a/TaskB04/description.txt b/TaskB04/description.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8fd5453 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB04/description.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ +Write a program to find all maximum substrings of digits. +Return only these substrings separated by spaces in their order. +Make use of regular expressions. + +POINTS: 2 +DEADLINE: 08-12-2024 23:59:59 diff --git a/TaskB04/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp b/TaskB04/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7cde7ed --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB04/polish_wiki_excerpt.exp @@ -0,0 +1,19939 @@ +1998 +1992 1999 2003 +2005 +23 1947 29 2005 +1976 1999 1972 1990 1994 +1993 1997 2001 2004 +1974 +1974 +1986 1990 1994 2003 2006 +18 +1974 +1957 +70 7 5 +1986 1994 1986 2 3 2003 2006 2003 +28 1974 13 +26 2009 +7 +23 1976 2001 +1996 +16 1901 31 1989 +1936 21 1937 +1935 +1935 +1935 1938 1937 +1937 40 50 100 +3 1949 +1972 +1976 5 6 1980 +4 3 1 1977 +94 340 +1987 70 1992 2005 +1911 1935 +20 1910 45 324 269 22 +1911 +1916 +1913 +1915 +103 12 1918 +1920 1934 15 117 7 11 4 3 +1935 2000 +27 1958 +1977 +1990 1991 1993 1997 2001 1993 1997 2001 2004 +2005 2007 +26 1897 +1897 1898 +120 80 +1831 1859 1895 1898 +701 705 +2011 17 230 +50 +1975 1998 +1 2010 18 30 4 89 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1921 1 1343 +23 1921 +20 10 +30 1922 +80 20 1923 1924 1925 2 3 1927 1928 1924 1925 +20 1925 +1923 +1922 90 421 40 60 +20 10 1 3 +1923 80 1928 23 +1924 1929 1 2 1 7 20 12 5 8 12 4 +1922 +1927 2 7 20 1928 28 13 1913 +60 80 20 40 13 1928 +1926 1927 117 18 1 60 85 30 22 +1922 1922 1 10 1923 1923 1 100 1922 1 1 +1922 10 1 7 74 1924 1 1924 50 1923 5 1922 50 1922 1 10 +1 1 92 +1921 1922 1925 +2 3 1 1923 1926 48 +1923 17 1926 61 1922 1925 diff --git a/TaskB04/polish_wiki_excerpt.in b/TaskB04/polish_wiki_excerpt.in new file mode 120000 index 0000000..4017184 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB04/polish_wiki_excerpt.in @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +../TaskA02/polish_wiki_excerpt.in \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/TaskB04/simple.exp b/TaskB04/simple.exp new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c661a47 --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB04/simple.exp @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +34234 34 5 +34535 +34 +1992 1999 diff --git a/TaskB04/simple.in b/TaskB04/simple.in new file mode 100644 index 0000000..25d660c --- /dev/null +++ b/TaskB04/simple.in @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +34234 34 dfd gfd 5 +34535 +fsdflskfjsdflk +fsdkfj sdf34fdfd +Firma powstała w 1992 r., z połączenia Authorware, Inc. (twórców pakietu Authorware) i MacroMind-Paracomp (producenta Macromind Director). W 1999 r. Macromedia zakupiła firmę Allaire i jej bi diff --git a/lab-02.ipynb b/lab-02.ipynb new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b14713 --- /dev/null +++ b/lab-02.ipynb @@ -0,0 +1,602 @@ +{ + "cells": [ + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "# Języki formalne i złożoność obliczeniowa\n", + "## Część 1: Wprowadzenie do biblioteki re\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "f5376d249e31d5aa" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "Wyrażenia regularne będziemy robić na podstawie języka python3. Dokumentacja: https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/re.html\n", + "\n", + "Użyteczna strona do testowania wyrażeń regularnych: https://regex101.com/\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "ce091d4ec144df32" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "# Podstawowe funkcje" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "35428280eb1f704" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## Match\n", + "match - zwraca dopasowanie od początku stringa" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "9674be284007455d" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "import re\n", + "wynik = re.match(r'Ala', 'Ala ma kota. Kot ma Alę.')\n", + "print(wynik)\n", + "print(f\"Dopasowano: '{wynik.group()}', początek: {wynik.start()}, koniec: {wynik.end()}\")\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "fa7637b60ae679b5" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## Search\n", + "search - zwraca pierwsze dopasowanie w napisie\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "626c591ab52a086" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# search\n", + "wynik = re.search(r'ni', 'Może nie najtaniej, ale jako tako.')\n", + "\n", + "if wynik:\n", + " print(f\"Dopasowano: '{wynik.group()}', początek: {wynik.start()}, koniec: {wynik.end()}\")\n", + "else:\n", + " print('Nie znaleziono szukanego ciągu znaków.')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "4f5d7077a85b7108" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "tekst = \"Kto zakłóca ciszę nocną musi ponieść karę: 100 batów!\"\n", + "\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile('ci')\n", + "\n", + "wynik = wzorzec.search(tekst)\n", + "\n", + "if wynik:\n", + " print(f\"Dopasowano: '{wynik.group()}', początek: {wynik.start()}, koniec: {wynik.end()}\")\n", + "else:\n", + " print('Nie znaleziono szukanego ciągu znaków.')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "b9da286f8d6936fb" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## findall\n", + "findall - zwraca listę wszystkich dopasowań\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "600b87dd6af48c04" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# findall\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile('o')\n", + "\n", + "wynik = wzorzec.findall(tekst)\n", + "\n", + "if len(wynik) > 0:\n", + " print(type(wynik))\n", + " print(f'Dopasowano: {wynik}')\n", + "else:\n", + " print(f'{wynik} Nie znaleziono szukanego ciągu znaków.')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "37a93d9d61c6178d" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "wzorzec = re.compile('o')\n", + "\n", + "wynik = wzorzec.finditer(tekst)\n", + "for w in wynik:\n", + " print(type(w))\n", + " print(f'Dopasowano: \"{w.group()}\", początek: {w.start()}, koniec: {w.end()}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "3232906632de2fe1" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "*Uwaga*: pobierając z iteratora elementy, usuwamy je, nie można zatem ponownie się do nich odwołać." + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "62e8a0370ee58827" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## Użycie przedrostka 'r' w wyrażeniach regularnych w Pythonie\n", + "\n", + "W Pythonie przedrostek `r` przed łańcuchem znaków oznacza \"surowy\" łańcuch znaków (ang. *raw string*). Dlaczego jest to przydatne w kontekście wyrażeń regularnych?\n", + "\n", + "Wyrażenia regularne często używają znaków specjalnych, takich jak `\\d`, `\\w`, `\\b` itp. W standardowych łańcuchach znaków w Pythonie, znaki te mają specjalne znaczenie. Na przykład, `\\t` oznacza tabulację, a `\\n` oznacza nową linię.\n", + "\n", + "Jeśli chcemy użyć takiego wyrażenia regularnego w Pythonie, musielibyśmy podwajać znaki ukośnika, aby uniknąć konfliktu z wbudowanymi sekwencjami ucieczki w łańcuchach znaków, np. `\\\\d`, `\\\\w`." + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "6342ff85cd5fc35a" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# Bez użycia surowego łańcucha znaków\n", + "result1 = re.findall(\"\\\\d+\", \"123 abc 456\")\n", + "print(result1)\n", + "\n", + "# Używając surowego łańcucha znaków\n", + "result2 = re.findall(r\"\\d+\", \"123 abc 456\")\n", + "print(result2)\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "b09fa3103ec18719" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## sub\n", + "Kolejną użyteczną metodą jest sub(), która pozwala na zmianę wzorca na inny ciąg znaków:" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "e9e3f41e90bbd746" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'ni')\n", + "\n", + "zmieniony = wzorzec.sub('Ni!', tekst)\n", + "print(zmieniony)" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "af633211d7faca67" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## split\n", + "split - dzieli napis na podstawie wzorca" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "ea9205aa03ed7476" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "wzorzec = re.compile(r' ')\n", + "\n", + "wynik = wzorzec.split(tekst)\n", + "print(f'Uzyskano {len(wynik)} wyniki/ów.')\n", + "for w in wynik:\n", + " print(w)" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "71dc3b254a93f31c" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "# Metaznaki\n", + "[] - zbiór znaków\n", + "\n", + ". - jakikolwiek znak\n", + "\n", + "^ - początek napisu\n", + "\n", + "$ - koniec napisu\n", + "\n", + "? - znak występuje lub nie występuje\n", + "\n", + "\\* - zero albo więcej pojawień się\n", + "\n", + "\\+ - jeden albo więcej pojawień się\n", + "\n", + "{} - dokładnie tyle pojawień się\n", + "\n", + "| - lub\n", + "\n", + "() - grupa\n", + "\n", + "\\ - znak ucieczki\n", + "\n", + "\\d digit\n", + "\n", + "\\D nie digit\n", + "\n", + "\\s whitespace\n", + "\n", + "\\S niewhitespace" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "4b16abb6848f09ae" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'.')\n", + "print(wzorzec.findall(tekst))" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "ac6669cac4f52d27" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# jeden lub wiecej / zero lub wiecej\n", + "\n", + "tekst = \"BCAAABGTAABBBCCTTSAGG4324242\"\n", + "print(f'Łańcuch: {tekst}')\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'X+')\n", + "print(f'Jeden lub więcej X: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'X*')\n", + "print(f'Zero lub więcej X: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "634e4b66a5081f97" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# zero lub jeden\n", + "\n", + "print(f'Łańcuch: {tekst}')\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'.?')\n", + "print(wzorzec.findall(tekst))\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'.?T')\n", + "print(wzorzec.findall(tekst))" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "44195e00a81b23fb" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "print(f'Łańcuch: {tekst}')\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'A+')\n", + "print(f'Dopasowanie zachłanne: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'A+?')\n", + "print(f'Dopasowanie leniwe: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "ea861a33e942d42a" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "print(f'Łańcuch: {tekst}')\n", + "\n", + "# dokladnie 3 dopasowania\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'A{3}')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "# pomiedzy 2 i 3 dopasowania\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'A{2,3}')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "# 2 lub wiecej dopasowan\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'A{2,}')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "# 3 lub mniej dopasowan\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'A{,3}')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "751272b81731af36" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# poczatek lub koniec lancucha\n", + "\n", + "tekst = \"Ale pięknie pachnie! Maciek, co gotujesz?\"\n", + "\n", + "# poczatek lancucha\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'^Ale')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "# poczatek lancucha\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'^ale')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "# koniec lancucha\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'Ale$')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "# koniec lancucha + znak ucieczki\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'gotujesz\\?$')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "97bcd3ff7cc3913" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# grupy znakow\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'[A-Z]')\n", + "print(f'Duże litery: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'[a-z]')\n", + "print(f'Małe litery: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'[A-z]')\n", + "print(f'Małe i duże litery: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n", + "\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'[aeiou]')\n", + "print(f'Samogłoski: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "ee099e6e1e5e2f80" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "# wzorzec(?=X) - dopasowanie, jeśli po nim występuje X\n", + "\n", + "tekst = \"ACABADAHSAIIIQIIINSAODIANSAAGAGAGGGGPAAG\"\n", + "\n", + "print(f'Łańcuch: {tekst}')\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'G+(?=A)')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "dd6351952639ef42" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "tekst = \"Ale się zrobiła świąteczna atmosfera.\"\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'Ale|świąteczna|zrobiła')\n", + "print(f'{wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "c7f3e1b9d16c91db" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## Znaki specjalne\n", + "\n", + "\\s\t- biały znak\n", + "\n", + "\\S\t- nie-biały znak\n", + "\n", + "\\d\t- cyfra\n", + "\n", + "\\D\t- nie-cyfra\n", + "\n", + "\\w\t- znaki alfanumeryczne (litery i cyfry) oraz\n", + " \n", + "\\W\t- znaki nie-alfanumeryczne i nie\n", + " \n", + "\\b\t- początek lub koniec ,,słowa’’\n", + " \n", + "\\B\t- nie początek lub koniec ,,słowa''\n", + "\n", + "[a-z]\t- małe litery\n", + "\n", + "[A-Z]\t- wielkie litery\n", + "\n", + "[0-9]\t- cyfry\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "c1a7435b7887f5c2" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "wzorzec = re.compile(r'\\w+')\n", + "print(f'Wyrazy: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "3b1b1f147233455d" + }, + { + "cell_type": "markdown", + "source": [ + "## Część II: Zadania praktyczne\n", + "\n", + "### Zadanie 1: Wyszukiwanie numerów telefonu\n", + "\n", + "Napisz wyrażenie regularne, które znajdzie wszystkie numery telefonu w tekście. Zakładamy, że numer telefonu ma format `xxx-xxx-xxx` lub `xxx xxx xxx`.\n" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "e0670d19927add2b" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "tekst = \"\"\"\n", + "Jan: 123-456-789\n", + "Anna: 987 654 321\n", + "Karol: 456-789-123\n", + "Zbyszek: 53252525342252\n", + "Tytus: aaaa666432\n", + "\"\"\"\n", + "\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r\"\")\n", + "print(f'Numery: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "aecbbf61477429ac" + }, + { + "cell_type": "code", + "execution_count": null, + "outputs": [], + "source": [ + "tekst = \"\"\"\n", + "jan.kowalski@gmail.com\n", + "anna.zielinska@amu.edu.pl\n", + "karol.nowak@interia.pl\n", + "hello world\n", + "@test.pl\n", + "x@x\n", + "fff22@gmail.com\n", + "\"\"\"\n", + "\n", + "wzorzec = re.compile(r\"\")\n", + "print(f'Adresy: {wzorzec.findall(tekst)}')" + ], + "metadata": { + "collapsed": false + }, + "id": "1dcf9585d7b78073" + } + ], + "metadata": { + "kernelspec": { + "display_name": "Python 3", + "language": "python", + "name": "python3" + }, + "language_info": { + "codemirror_mode": { + "name": "ipython", + "version": 2 + }, + "file_extension": ".py", + "mimetype": "text/x-python", + "name": "python", + "nbconvert_exporter": "python", + "pygments_lexer": "ipython2", + "version": "2.7.6" + } + }, + "nbformat": 4, + "nbformat_minor": 5 +}